From 7aa2ba60dd9045409e737c65afa5b033349473db Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Charles Holbrow Date: Fri, 18 Jan 2013 14:08:25 -0500 Subject: [PATCH] Adding scripts and json dumps to import previous db --- bin/__init__.py | 0 bin/import_json/__init__.py | 0 bin/import_json/courses.json | 14 +++++ bin/import_json/notes.json | 1 + bin/import_json/run.py | 117 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ bin/import_json/schools.json | 1 + 6 files changed, 133 insertions(+) create mode 100644 bin/__init__.py create mode 100644 bin/import_json/__init__.py create mode 100644 bin/import_json/courses.json create mode 100644 bin/import_json/notes.json create mode 100644 bin/import_json/run.py create mode 100644 bin/import_json/schools.json diff --git a/bin/__init__.py b/bin/__init__.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e69de29 diff --git a/bin/import_json/__init__.py b/bin/import_json/__init__.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e69de29 diff --git a/bin/import_json/courses.json b/bin/import_json/courses.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a59e8b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/bin/import_json/courses.json @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +[{ +"academic_year": 2013, +"instructor_email": "", +"name": "Aesthetics and Interpretive Understanding 17 - Soundscapes", +"url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-2093", +"updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", +"slug": "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding-17-soundscapes", +"id": 3, +"instructor_name": "Professor Shelemay", +"school_id": 1, +"desc": null}, + + +{"academic_year": 2013, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Aesthetics and Interpretive Understanding 20 - Poems, Poets, Poetry", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-5808", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding-20-poems-poets-poetry", "id": 4, "instructor_name": "Professor Vendler", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Aesthetics and Interpretive Understanding 24 - First Nights", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-0144", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding-24-first-nights", "id": 37, "instructor_name": "Professor Kelly", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Aesthetics and Interpretive Understanding 31 - American Musicals", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-2449", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding-31-american-musicals", "id": 2, "instructor_name": "Professor Oja", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "African American Studies 10", "url": "http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k80740", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "african-american-studies-10", "id": 5, "instructor_name": "Professor Gates", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "American Protest Literature from Tom Paine to Tupac", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45+00:00", "slug": "american-protest-literature-from-tom-paine-to-tupac", "id": 69, "instructor_name": "John Stauffer", "school_id": 1, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Animal Cognition", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46+00:00", "slug": "animal-cognition", "id": 75, "instructor_name": "Irene Pepperberg", "school_id": 1, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "An Integrated Introduction to the Life Sciences: Chemistry, Molecular Biology, and Cell Biology", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.115420+00:00", "slug": "an-integrated-introduction-to-the-life-sciences-chemistry-molecular-biology-and-cell-biology", "id": 68, "instructor_name": "Erin K. O’Shea, Daniel E. Kahne, and Robert A. Lue", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "An Integrated Introduction to the Life Sciences: Genetics, Genomics, and Evolution", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.313510+00:00", "slug": "an-integrated-introduction-to-the-life-sciences-genetics-genomics-and-evolution", "id": 93, "instructor_name": "Daniel L. Hartl, Maryellen Ruvolo, and John R. Wakeley", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Anthropology 1165 - Digging the Glyphs", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-9906", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "anthropology-1165-digging-the-glyphs", "id": 6, "instructor_name": "Professor Tokovinine", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Anthropology 1995", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-3940", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "anthropology-1995", "id": 56, "instructor_name": "Professor Bestor", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Athenian Democracy and its Critics: Seminar - (New Course)", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.525607+00:00", "slug": "athenian-democracy-and-its-critics-seminar-new-course", "id": 80, "instructor_name": "Cheryl Welch and members of the Department", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Calculus 1A", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "calculus-1a", "id": 64, "instructor_name": "", "school_id": 19, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Cell Biology", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.765450+00:00", "slug": "cell-biology", "id": 83, "instructor_name": "Robert A. Lue and Alexander F. Schier", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Chemical Bonding, Energy, and Reactivity: An Introduction to the Physical Sciences", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.184254+00:00", "slug": "chemical-bonding-energy-and-reactivity-an-introduction-to-the-physical-sciences", "id": 108, "instructor_name": "James G. Anderson and Efthimios Kaxiras", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Childhood: Its History, Philosophy, and Literature", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.210977+00:00", "slug": "childhood-its-history-philosophy-and-literature", "id": 107, "instructor_name": "Maria Tatar", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Chinese 130a", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-6724", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "chinese-130a", "id": 7, "instructor_name": "Professor Yan", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Chinese Bb", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-8714", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "chinese-bb", "id": 8, "instructor_name": "Professor Wang", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Civil Procedure", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "slug": "civil-procedure", "id": 94, "instructor_name": "Christine Desan", "school_id": 24, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2007, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Classical Studies 110 - The Literature of the Age of Augustus", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-88864", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "classical-studies-110-the-literature-of-the-age-of-augustus", "id": 50, "instructor_name": "Professor Stover", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Cognition, Brain, and Behavior: Proseminar", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.129783+00:00", "slug": "cognition-brain-and-behavior-proseminar", "id": 102, "instructor_name": "Alfonso Caramazza and members of the Department", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Comparative Politics in Latin America", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.030749+00:00", "slug": "comparative-politics-in-latin-america", "id": 76, "instructor_name": "Steven R. Levitsky", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Computer Architecture - CS305", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "computer-architecture-cs305", "id": 65, "instructor_name": "", "school_id": 19, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Computer Science 105", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01+00:00", "slug": "computer-science-105", "id": 66, "instructor_name": "", "school_id": 1, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Crime and Horror in Victorian Literature and Culture", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.905125+00:00", "slug": "crime-and-horror-in-victorian-literature-and-culture", "id": 99, "instructor_name": "Matthew Kaiser", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Culture and Belief 17 - The Roman Games", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-2603", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "culture-and-belief-17-the-roman-games", "id": 9, "instructor_name": "Professor Coleman", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Culture and Belief 19 - Understanding Islam and Contemporary Muslim Societies", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-1065", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "culture-and-belief-19-understanding-islam-and-contemporary-muslim-societies", "id": 15, "instructor_name": "Professor Asani", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Culture and Belief 22 - Concept of the Hero in Greek Civilization", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-3915", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "culture-and-belief-22-concept-of-the-hero-in-greek-civilization", "id": 48, "instructor_name": "Professor Nagy", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Culture and Belief 39 - The Hebrew Bible", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-9783", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "culture-and-belief-39-the-hebrew-bible", "id": 36, "instructor_name": "Professor Cohen", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Cyberspace in Court: Law of the Internet", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.426842+00:00", "slug": "cyberspace-in-court-law-of-the-internet", "id": 81, "instructor_name": "Phillip Robert Malone", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Czech Aa", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-14 22:04:36.878994+00:00", "slug": "czech-aa", "id": 114, "instructor_name": "", "school_id": 25, "desc": "Introductory Czech language and literature."}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Democratic Citizenship Public Opinion and Participation in the US", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.691423+00:00", "slug": "democratic-citizenship-public-opinion-and-participation-in-the-us", "id": 96, "instructor_name": "Claudine Gay", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Digging the Glyphs: Adventures in Decipherment", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.138918+00:00", "slug": "digging-the-glyphs-adventures-in-decipherment", "id": 106, "instructor_name": "Marc U. Zender", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Dilemmas in Bio-Medical Ethics: Playing God or Doing Good?", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "dilemmas-in-bio-medical-ethics-playing-god-or-doing-good", "id": 58, "instructor_name": "", "school_id": 2, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Dramatic Literature from the Greeks to Ibsen", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.689723+00:00", "slug": "dramatic-literature-from-the-greeks-to-ibsen", "id": 82, "instructor_name": "Robert Scanlan", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "East European Identities: Russia and Ukraine", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.599108+00:00", "slug": "east-european-identities-russia-and-ukraine", "id": 87, "instructor_name": "Serhii Plokhii", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Economics 10", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-3660", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "economics-10", "id": 10, "instructor_name": "Professor Mankiw", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2013, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Economics 1017 - A Libertarian Perspective on Economic and Social Policy", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-1197", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "economics-1017-a-libertarian-perspective-on-economic-and-social-policy", "id": 11, "instructor_name": "Professor Miron", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Economics 1030 - Psychology and Economics", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4709", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "economics-1030-psychology-and-economics", "id": 12, "instructor_name": "Professor Laibson", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "E&M Reasoning 15 - Medical Detectives", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-5707", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "em-reasoning-15-medical-detectives", "id": 41, "instructor_name": "Professor Michels", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Environmental Policy", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.576767+00:00", "slug": "environmental-policy", "id": 95, "instructor_name": "William C. Clark (Kennedy School)", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Ethical Reasoning 18 - Classical Chinese Ethical and Political Theory", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-9742", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "ethical-reasoning-18-classical-chinese-ethical-and-political-theory", "id": 38, "instructor_name": "Professor Puett", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Ethical Reasoning 21 - Moral Reasoning about Social Protest", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-7778", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "ethical-reasoning-21-moral-reasoning-about-social-protest", "id": 13, "instructor_name": "Professor Siegel", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Ethical Reasoning 22 - Justice", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-3753", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "ethical-reasoning-22-justice", "id": 14, "instructor_name": "Michael Sandel", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Evidence", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "slug": "evidence", "id": 98, "instructor_name": "Charles Nesson", "school_id": 24, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Evolution of Human Nature", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.180744+00:00", "slug": "evolution-of-human-nature", "id": 103, "instructor_name": "Richard W. Wrangham, Marc D. Hauser, and Karen L. Kramer", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Folklore and Mythology 90i - Fairy Tales and Fantasy Lit", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4852", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "folklore-and-mythology-90i-fairy-tales-and-fantasy-lit", "id": 33, "instructor_name": "Professor Tatar", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Food and Culture", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.809545+00:00", "slug": "food-and-culture", "id": 104, "instructor_name": "Theodore C. Bestor", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Government 1295 - Comparative Politics in Latin America", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4241", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "government-1295-comparative-politics-in-latin-america", "id": 19, "instructor_name": "Professor Levitsky", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Government 1359 - The Road to the White House", "url": "http://courses.cs50.org/", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "government-1359-the-road-to-the-white-house", "id": 47, "instructor_name": "Carlos Enrique Diaz Rosillo", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Government 1510 - American Constitutional Law", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-0383", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "government-1510-american-constitutional-law", "id": 16, "instructor_name": "Professor Fallon", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Government 1540 - The American Presidency", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4925", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "government-1540-the-american-presidency", "id": 17, "instructor_name": "Professor Porter", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Government 1790 - American Foreign Policy", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-8017", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "government-1790-american-foreign-policy", "id": 18, "instructor_name": "Professor Ramirez", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "HAA 10 - The Western Tradition", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4988", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "haa-10-the-western-tradition", "id": 21, "instructor_name": "Professor Zerner", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "HAA 172w", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-2227", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "haa-172w", "id": 23, "instructor_name": "Professor Roberts", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "HAA 174s - Body Image in French Visual Culture", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-9158", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "haa-174s-body-image-in-french-visual-culture", "id": 20, "instructor_name": "Professor Lajer-Burcharth", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "HEB 1322 - Evolution of Human Nature", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-72429", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "heb-1322-evolution-of-human-nature", "id": 54, "instructor_name": "Professor Kramer", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "History 1330 - Social Thought in Modern America", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-8440", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01+00:00", "slug": "history-1330-social-thought-in-modern-america", "id": 25, "instructor_name": "Professor Kloppenberg", "school_id": 1, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "History 1441 - History of the US West", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-3887", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "history-1441-history-of-the-us-west", "id": 24, "instructor_name": "Professor John", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2013, "instructor_email": "", "name": "History 1457 - American Capitalism", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-2264", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "history-1457-american-capitalism", "id": 28, "instructor_name": "Professor Beckert", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "History 1496 - The US in the 1960s", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-5900", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "history-1496-the-us-in-the-1960s", "id": 26, "instructor_name": "Professor McGirr", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "History 1963 - America and Vietnam", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-3447", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "history-1963-america-and-vietnam", "id": 29, "instructor_name": "Professor Tai", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Introduction to Quantitative Methods for Economics", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.421110+00:00", "slug": "introduction-to-quantitative-methods-for-economics", "id": 109, "instructor_name": "Kenneth E. Stanley (FAS, Public Health)", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Introduction to Western Music from Beethoven to the Present", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.231314+00:00", "slug": "introduction-to-western-music-from-beethoven-to-the-present", "id": 71, "instructor_name": "Sean Gallagher", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Jambalaya For Novices", "url": "", "updated_at": "2013-01-10 18:39:40.647642+00:00", "slug": "jambalaya-for-novices", "id": 116, "instructor_name": "", "school_id": null, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2005, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Justice", "url": "http://www.justiceharvard.org/", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01+00:00", "slug": "justice", "id": 1, "instructor_name": "Michael Sandel", "school_id": 1, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Landmarks of World Art & Architecture", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.758869+00:00", "slug": "landmarks-of-world-art-architecture", "id": 97, "instructor_name": "Neil Levine and members of the Department", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2005, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Literature and Arts C42 - Constructing the Samurai", "url": "http://courses.cs50.net/", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "literature-and-arts-c42-constructing-the-samurai", "id": 49, "instructor_name": "N/A", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Major British Writers II", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.085494+00:00", "slug": "major-british-writers-ii", "id": 77, "instructor_name": "Stephen Louis Burt", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Management of Industrial and Nonprofit Organizations", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48+00:00", "slug": "management-of-industrial-and-nonprofit-organizations", "id": 84, "instructor_name": "Barrett Hazeltine", "school_id": 23, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Media and the American Mind", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.306463+00:00", "slug": "media-and-the-american-mind", "id": 73, "instructor_name": "Jason Kaufman", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Medicine and Society in America", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.582772+00:00", "slug": "medicine-and-society-in-america", "id": 110, "instructor_name": "Jeremy Alan Greene", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2005, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Metaphysical Poetry", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "metaphysical-poetry", "id": 31, "instructor_name": "Gordon Teskey", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Metaphysical Poetry - (New Course)", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.267106+00:00", "slug": "metaphysical-poetry-new-course", "id": 72, "instructor_name": "Gordon Teskey", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Nazi Cinema: Fantasy Production in the Third Reich", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.347247+00:00", "slug": "nazi-cinema-fantasy-production-in-the-third-reich", "id": 79, "instructor_name": "Eric Rentschler", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2010, "instructor_email": "", "name": "OEB 114 - Vertebrate Viviparity", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4953", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "oeb-114-vertebrate-viviparity", "id": 51, "instructor_name": "Professor Haig", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "OEB 139 - Evolution of Vertebrates", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-8562", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "oeb-139-evolution-of-vertebrates", "id": 39, "instructor_name": "Jenkins", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Operating Systems", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.968254+00:00", "slug": "operating-systems", "id": 111, "instructor_name": "Margo I. Seltzer", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Political Thought of Michael Oakshott - (New Course)", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.008993+00:00", "slug": "political-thought-of-michael-oakshott-new-course", "id": 100, "instructor_name": "Patrick T. Riley", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Positive Psychology", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.816194+00:00", "slug": "positive-psychology", "id": 70, "instructor_name": "Tal D. Ben-Shahar", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Psychology 13 - Cognitive Psychology", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-8706", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "psychology-13-cognitive-psychology", "id": 40, "instructor_name": "Professor Wagner", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2001, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Psychology 1504 - Positive Psychology", "url": "http://courses.cs50.net/", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "psychology-1504-positive-psychology", "id": 52, "instructor_name": "Unknown", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2006, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Psychology 1603 - Adolescent Development", "url": "http://courses.cs50.edu/", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "psychology-1603-adolescent-development", "id": 53, "instructor_name": "Unkown", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Race, Religion, and Law - (New Course)", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.292178+00:00", "slug": "race-religion-and-law-new-course", "id": 92, "instructor_name": "Noah R. Feldman and John L. Jackson", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Reason and Faith in the West", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.870746+00:00", "slug": "reason-and-faith-in-the-west", "id": 91, "instructor_name": "Ann M. Blair", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2010, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Science of Living Systems 20 - Psychological Science", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-16308", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "science-of-living-systems-20-psychological-science", "id": 55, "instructor_name": "Professor Pinker", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "SCI LIV Systems 11 - Molecules of Life", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-9478", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "sci-liv-systems-11-molecules-of-life", "id": 43, "instructor_name": "Professor Clardy", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "SCI PHYS Universe - How to Build a Habitable Planet", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-7621", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "sci-phys-universe-how-to-build-a-habitable-planet", "id": 42, "instructor_name": "Professor Langmuir", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Social Psychology", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.935839+00:00", "slug": "social-psychology", "id": 105, "instructor_name": "Joshua D. Greene", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Social Thought in Modern America", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47+00:00", "slug": "social-thought-in-modern-america", "id": 78, "instructor_name": "James T. Kloppenberg", "school_id": 1, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2010, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Societies of the World 34 - The Caribbean: Globalization, Socio-Economic Development & Cultural Adaptation", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-6357", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "societies-of-the-world-34-the-caribbean-globalization-socio-economic-development-cultural-adaptation", "id": 57, "instructor_name": "Professor Patterson", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2013, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Societies of the World 39 - Slavery and Slave Trade", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-3834", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "societies-of-the-world-39-slavery-and-slave-trade", "id": 30, "instructor_name": "Professor Akyeampong", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Sociology 10 - Introduction to Sociology", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4814", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "sociology-10-introduction-to-sociology", "id": 44, "instructor_name": "Professor Brinton", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Soundscapes: Exploring Music in a Changing World", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:55.040275+00:00", "slug": "soundscapes-exploring-music-in-a-changing-world", "id": 113, "instructor_name": "Kay Kaufman Shelemay", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2011, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Statistics 104 ", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-4582", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "statistics-104", "id": 45, "instructor_name": "Professor Parzen", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Supervised Reading and Research", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.865550+00:00", "slug": "supervised-reading-and-research", "id": 112, "instructor_name": "Jason Beckfield and members of the Department", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "The African City", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.658559+00:00", "slug": "the-african-city", "id": 88, "instructor_name": "Suzanne P. Blier", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Theatre", "url": "", "updated_at": "2013-01-10 15:57:35.532950+00:00", "slug": "theatre", "id": 115, "instructor_name": "", "school_id": null, "desc": "This is a fake class that I'm using to test KarmaNotes."}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "The Book: From Gutenberg to the Internet", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.081730+00:00", "slug": "the-book-from-gutenberg-to-the-internet", "id": 67, "instructor_name": "Robert Darnton", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "The Burden of Disease in Developing Countries", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.816762+00:00", "slug": "the-burden-of-disease-in-developing-countries", "id": 85, "instructor_name": "Stephen McGarvey", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "The Energetic Universe", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.099589+00:00", "slug": "the-energetic-universe", "id": 101, "instructor_name": "Robert P. Kirshner", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "The History of Modern Political Philosophy", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.746205+00:00", "slug": "the-history-of-modern-political-philosophy", "id": 89, "instructor_name": "Nancy Lipton Rosenblum", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "The Human Mind: An Introduction to Mind, Brain, and Behavior", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46+00:00", "slug": "the-human-mind-an-introduction-to-mind-brain-and-behavior", "id": 74, "instructor_name": "Steven Pinker", "school_id": 1, "desc": ""}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "The Politics of Congress", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.784430+00:00", "slug": "the-politics-of-congress", "id": 90, "instructor_name": "David C. King (Kennedy School)", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2009, "instructor_email": "", "name": "Understanding Islam and Contemporary Muslim Societies", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.480187+00:00", "slug": "understanding-islam-and-contemporary-muslim-societies", "id": 86, "instructor_name": "Ali S. Asani", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "US and the World 12 - American Encounters", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-8937", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "us-and-the-world-12-american-encounters", "id": 22, "instructor_name": "Professor Roberts", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "US and the World 13 - Medicine and Society in America", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-1552", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "us-and-the-world-13-medicine-and-society-in-america", "id": 32, "instructor_name": "Professor Greene", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "US and the World 14 - Pursuits of Happiness", "url": "http://my.harvard.edu/course/colgsas-2264", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "us-and-the-world-14-pursuits-of-happiness", "id": 27, "instructor_name": "Professor Ulrich", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}, {"academic_year": 2012, "instructor_email": "", "name": "WGS 1168", "url": "", "updated_at": "2012-12-05 20:15:01.503134+00:00", "slug": "wgs-1168", "id": 46, "instructor_name": "Chiwen Bao ", "school_id": 1, "desc": null}] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/bin/import_json/notes.json b/bin/import_json/notes.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c96206b --- /dev/null +++ b/bin/import_json/notes.json @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +[{"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Bb - Class Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "chinese", "bb"], "text": null, "id": 12, "html": null, "course_id": 8, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/ChineseBb_-_Class_Notes_1_1.doc", "desc": "General Class Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Culture and Belief 19 - Passages", "tags": ["harvard", "culture-and-belief-19", "understanding-islam", "muslim-societies"], "text": null, "id": 26, "html": "\\\\\\FC70\\_Passages\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{max\\-width\\:496\\.8pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c25\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c21\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Part\\ Two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Passage\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;The\\ prayer\\ was\\ in\\ two\\ halves\\ like\\ a\\ kola\\-nut\\;\\ the\\ first\\,\\ a\\ plea\\ for\\ salvation\\,\\ was\\ recited\\ in\\ Arabic\\,\\ the\\ language\\ consecrated\\ by\\ God\\.\\ The\\ second\\ was\\ spoken\\ in\\ Malinke\\,\\ because\\ it\\ dealt\\ with\\ material\\ things\\:\\ giving\\ thanks\\ for\\ sustenance\\,\\ for\\ health\\,\\ for\\ having\\ eluded\\ the\\ bad\\ luck\\ and\\ evil\\ spells\\ that\\ scorch\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ blacker\\ under\\ the\\ suns\\ of\\ Independence\\;\\ asking\\ for\\ a\\ mind\\ and\\ heart\\ free\\ of\\ cares\\ and\\ temptations\\,\\ and\\ filled\\ with\\ peace\\ today\\,\\ tomorrow\\ and\\ always\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ahmadou\\ Kourouma\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Suns\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;highlights\\ the\\ primary\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\:\\ the\\ blending\\ of\\ Islam\\ and\\ local\\ fetish\\-worship\\ in\\ the\\ local\\ West\\ African\\ \\(Malinke\\)\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ specifically\\,\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ prayer\\ having\\ two\\ halves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ in\\ Arabic\\ and\\ one\\ in\\ Malinke\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ highlights\\ the\\ syncretism\\ between\\ Islam\\ and\\ fetishism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ half\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ notions\\ of\\ salvation\\ and\\ spoken\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\,\\ represents\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ while\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\ half\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ spoken\\ in\\ the\\ local\\ tongue\\ and\\ giving\\ attention\\ to\\ superstitions\\ and\\ the\\ temporal\\,\\ reflects\\ the\\ pervasiveness\\ of\\ local\\ West\\ African\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Within\\ this\\ West\\ African\\ context\\,\\ a\\ more\\ orthodox\\ Islam\\ interacts\\ with\\ native\\ religion\\,\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ localized\\ hybrid\\ of\\ religious\\ faith\\ and\\ practice\\,\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ fetish\\-worship\\,\\ local\\ rituals\\,\\ and\\ traditions\\ exist\\ alongside\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\,\\ Shari\\&rsquo\\;ah\\,\\ and\\ other\\ common\\ devotional\\ aspects\\ and\\ beliefs\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ there\\ also\\ exists\\ a\\ competition\\ for\\ hierarchy\\ between\\ Islam\\ and\\ fetishism\\.\\ \\ \\;Islam\\ in\\ name\\ is\\ given\\ a\\ privileged\\ status\\ over\\ fetishism\\,\\ but\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ daily\\ influence\\,\\ fetishism\\ often\\ prevails\\.\\ \\ \\;Formal\\ duties\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ daily\\ prayers\\)\\ are\\ governed\\ by\\ Islam\\,\\ but\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;everyone\\ publicly\\ proclaims\\ himself\\ a\\ devout\\ Muslim\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ inward\\ and\\ more\\ experiential\\ or\\ salient\\ aspect\\ of\\ faith\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ fetishism\\,\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;everyone\\ privately\\ fears\\ the\\ fetish\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(72\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\While\\ Salimata\\ exhibits\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ a\\ devout\\ Muslim\\ such\\ as\\ alms\\ giving\\,\\ her\\ prayers\\ for\\ pregnancy\\ come\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ local\\ practices\\ such\\ as\\ sacrifices\\,\\ special\\ potions\\ all\\ towards\\ worshipping\\ fetishes\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ Koran\\ was\\ seen\\ to\\ have\\ more\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ more\\ abstract\\ concepts\\ such\\ as\\ ultimate\\ salvation\\ and\\ judgment\\,\\ while\\ as\\ the\\ quote\\ states\\,\\ the\\ fetish\\ worship\\ had\\ more\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ practical\\ and\\ material\\ things\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\For\\ example\\,\\ though\\ Balla\\ \\(the\\ local\\ fetish\\ priest\\)\\ is\\ labeled\\ as\\ a\\ heathen\\,\\ fetish\\-worshipper\\,\\ and\\ enemy\\ of\\ God\\ \\(p\\.\\ 76\\)\\,\\ he\\ holds\\ much\\ more\\ daily\\ influence\\ over\\ the\\ villagers\\ than\\ Jimuru\\,\\ the\\ Muslim\\ praise\\-singer\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ the\\ villagers\\ are\\ often\\ less\\ concerned\\ with\\ their\\ daily\\ prayers\\,\\ and\\ more\\ about\\ what\\ sacrifices\\ should\\ be\\ offered\\ to\\ appease\\ the\\ fetishes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ theme\\ also\\ plays\\ out\\ in\\ Talib\\ Salih\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Wedding\\ of\\ Zein\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ the\\ village\\ Imam\\ is\\ overshadowed\\ and\\ out\\-influenced\\ by\\ the\\ mystic\\ saint\\,\\ Haneen\\,\\ who\\ is\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ integrate\\ local\\ customs\\ in\\ his\\ philosophy\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ distinctive\\ Bosnian\\ Muslim\\ culture\\ took\\ form\\,\\ with\\ its\\ own\\ architecture\\,\\ literature\\,\\ social\\ customs\\ and\\ folklore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\African\\ societies\\ were\\ more\\ receptive\\ to\\ Sufi\\ Islam\\ which\\ was\\ more\\ adaptive\\ to\\ the\\ local\\ contexts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;The\\ Western\\ materialists\\ hate\\ us\\,\\&\\#39\\;\\ Ali\\ said\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;Papa\\,\\ how\\ could\\ you\\ love\\ something\\ which\\ hates\\ you\\?\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#39\\;What\\ is\\ the\\ answer\\ then\\?\\&\\#39\\;\\ Parvez\\ said\\ miserably\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;According\\ to\\ you\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ali\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ think\\.\\ He\\ addressed\\ his\\ father\\ fluently\\,\\ as\\ if\\ Parvez\\ were\\ a\\ rowdy\\ crowd\\ that\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ quelled\\ and\\ convinced\\.\\ The\\ Law\\ of\\ Islam\\ would\\ rule\\ the\\ world\\:\\ the\\ skin\\ of\\ the\\ infidel\\ would\\ burn\\ off\\ again\\ and\\ again\\;\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christers\\ would\\ be\\ routed\\.\\ The\\ West\\ was\\ a\\ sink\\ of\\ hypocrites\\,\\ adulterers\\,\\ homosexuals\\,\\ drug\\-takers\\ and\\ prostitutes\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Hanif\\ Kureishi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Son\\ the\\ Fanatic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ story\\ about\\ an\\ immigrant\\ Islamic\\ family\\ in\\ England\\ which\\ raises\\ questions\\ concerning\\ Islam\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ in\\ non\\-Muslim\\-majority\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Context\\:\\ Argument\\ between\\ Parvez\\,\\ a\\ taxi\\ driver\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adopted\\ Western\\ ways\\ such\\ as\\ eating\\ bacon\\,\\ clean\\-shaveness\\,\\ and\\ alcohol\\,\\ and\\ his\\ son\\ Ali\\,\\ a\\ once\\ quintessential\\ English\\ boy\\ who\\ has\\ begun\\ acting\\ strangely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conflict\\:\\ Ali\\ accuses\\ his\\ father\\ of\\ being\\ \\&lsquo\\;implicated\\ in\\ Western\\ civilization\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\ he\\ condemns\\ his\\ association\\ with\\ Bettina\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ wear\\ a\\ beard\\ \\(as\\ \\&lsquo\\;dictated\\&rsquo\\;\\ by\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religion\\)\\;\\ drinks\\ alcohol\\,\\ eats\\ pork\\ etc\\.\\ His\\ father\\ cannot\\ stand\\ being\\ condemned\\ and\\ chastised\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ son\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ is\\ frustrated\\ by\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ narrow\\ mindedness\\.\\ In\\ this\\ scene\\ Ali\\ has\\ just\\ explained\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ that\\ he\\ \\(Parvez\\)\\ had\\ in\\ fact\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ lived\\ a\\ good\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ had\\ broken\\ countless\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ Koran\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Central\\ question\\:\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ Islam\\ should\\/can\\ be\\ reinterpreted\\ within\\ a\\ European\\/western\\ context\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Must\\ Islam\\ and\\ piety\\ rest\\ in\\ the\\ historical\\ jurisprudential\\ framework\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sharia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ can\\ they\\ be\\ reinterpreted\\ within\\ a\\ European\\ context\\?\\ \\ \\;Proponents\\ of\\ the\\ former\\ view\\ argue\\ that\\ one\\ cannot\\ be\\ truly\\ Muslim\\ will\\ also\\ participating\\ in\\ Western\\/European\\ culture\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Ali\\ claims\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Western\\ education\\ cultivates\\ an\\ anti\\-religious\\ attitude\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Tariq\\ Ramadan\\)\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ historical\\ context\\ of\\ early\\ Islam\\ must\\ be\\ recognized\\,\\ and\\ that\\ early\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sharia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\were\\ conditioned\\ on\\ local\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ factors\\.\\ \\ \\;Islam\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ spiritual\\ attitude\\ toward\\ God\\,\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ particular\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ integration\\ of\\ Islam\\ into\\ traditionally\\ non\\-Muslim\\ cultures\\ is\\ particularly\\ relevant\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ because\\ \\(1\\)\\ Europe\\ has\\ historically\\ not\\ integrated\\ different\\ ethnic\\/religious\\ groups\\ into\\ national\\ identity\\;\\ hence\\ \\(2\\)\\ Muslims\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ Muslims\\ to\\ wrestle\\ with\\ and\\ articulate\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ their\\ identity\\ as\\ Muslims\\ and\\ as\\ European\\ citizens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;fanaticism\\&rdquo\\;\\ also\\ recalls\\ the\\ different\\ reform\\ movements\\ within\\ Islam\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ short\\ essay\\ question\\ 2\\ in\\ part\\ III\\ about\\ Esposito\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enumeration\\ of\\ orientations\\ toward\\ change\\ within\\ contemporary\\ Muslim\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ is\\ perhaps\\ closest\\ to\\ the\\ conservative\\ position\\;\\ for\\ him\\,\\ the\\ classical\\ formulation\\ of\\ Islam\\ is\\ completely\\ adequate\\,\\ and\\ Muslims\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ adapt\\ to\\ modern\\/western\\ society\\,\\ but\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ established\\ norms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conflict\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;western\\ materialism\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;islamic\\ radicalism\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ two\\ extreme\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stereotypes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ operating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&lsquo\\;depraved\\ western\\ materialist\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamentalist\\,\\ intolerant\\,\\ antagonistic\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;jihadist\\&rsquo\\;\\ Islam\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ stereotypes\\;\\ neither\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ Islam\\ or\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ West\\,\\ but\\ are\\ stereotypes\\ that\\ are\\ often\\ used\\ in\\ association\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ is\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;things\\&rsquo\\;\\ his\\ father\\ is\\ doing\\ wrong\\.\\ He\\ accuses\\ his\\ father\\ of\\ breaking\\ countless\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ Koran\\,\\ yet\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ points\\ to\\ when\\ condemning\\ his\\ father\\ are\\ ideological\\,\\ traditional\\ conventions\\/constructions\\/corruptions\\:\\ not\\ praying\\,\\ not\\ growing\\ a\\ beard\\,\\ eating\\ bacon\\,\\ befriending\\ a\\ prostitute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ traditions\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;rules\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Islam\\ he\\ follows\\;\\ he\\ goes\\ through\\ all\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;good\\&rsquo\\;\\ muslim\\:\\ praying\\,\\ abstaining\\,\\ being\\ charitable\\;\\ but\\ his\\ other\\ actions\\:\\ his\\ aggression\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;pitiless\\-ness\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ sarcasm\\,\\ condemnation\\ towards\\ his\\ father\\ and\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\ Bettina\\ are\\ a\\ stark\\ contrast\\ from\\ the\\ love\\ and\\ peace\\ that\\ the\\ Islamic\\ religion\\ espouses\\ in\\ the\\ Koran\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ antagonizes\\ \\&lsquo\\;western\\ things\\&rsquo\\;\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ constructive\\ ways\\;\\ his\\ response\\ is\\ reactionary\\ and\\ drives\\ his\\ father\\ to\\ violence\\.\\ While\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ true\\ that\\ his\\ father\\ abandoned\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;sold\\-out\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;fit\\-in\\&rsquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ England\\,\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stoic\\ rejection\\ of\\ all\\ things\\ \\&ldquo\\;western\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ extreme\\,\\ reactionary\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ argued\\ to\\ be\\ irrational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Islam\\ is\\ institution\\,\\ not\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ lives\\ an\\ Islam\\ that\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ ideology\\;\\ his\\ adherence\\ to\\ his\\ Islam\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\his\\ extreme\\ rejection\\ of\\ the\\ west\\;\\ while\\ he\\ practices\\ charity\\ and\\ mentions\\ \\ \\;\\&lsquo\\;purity\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;jihad\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;Koran\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ his\\ Islam\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ an\\ Islam\\ that\\ has\\ an\\ agenda\\ and\\ that\\ uses\\ the\\ faith\\ to\\ fuel\\ the\\ ideology\\/agenda\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;My\\ people\\ have\\ taken\\ enough\\.\\ If\\ the\\ persecution\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ jihad\\.\\ I\\ and\\ millions\\ of\\ others\\ will\\ faldly\\ give\\ our\\ lives\\ from\\ the\\ cause\\&hellip\\;\\.for\\ us\\ the\\ reward\\ will\\ be\\ paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Islam\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ Islamist\\ \\(political\\)\\ movements\\ that\\ have\\ arisen\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ colonialism\\,\\ globalization\\,\\ westernization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ culture\\ has\\ evolved\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ to\\ hold\\ onto\\ Islamic\\ identity\\ and\\ tradition\\,\\ but\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ has\\ become\\ perverted\\ into\\ regimes\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ violence\\ that\\ take\\ extremist\\ measures\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ globalization\\,\\ westernization\\ that\\ it\\ sees\\ threatening\\ to\\ its\\ \\&lsquo\\;faith\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ Islam\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ strict\\ laws\\ and\\ rituals\\,\\ orthopraxis\\,\\ and\\ has\\ sometimes\\ strayed\\ from\\ the\\ doctrine\\ that\\ Islam\\ is\\ founded\\ upon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contrast\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Islam\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ presented\\ in\\ class\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islam\\ that\\ means\\ \\&lsquo\\;submission\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islam\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;peace\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religion\\ of\\ Islam\\ that\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ having\\ faith\\ and\\ having\\ meaning\\:\\ a\\ faith\\ that\\ is\\ beyond\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Quran\\:\\ scripture\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ never\\ defines\\ Islam\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ orthopraxis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ quran\\ of\\ a\\ muslim\\ is\\ general\\ and\\ inclusive\\:\\ one\\ who\\ submits\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Though\\ Islam\\ should\\ reject\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;depravity\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ Ali\\ names\\ as\\ integral\\ in\\ Western\\ culture\\;\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ contradict\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ views\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;finding\\ beauty\\ and\\ enjoying\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;a\\ statement\\ that\\ Ali\\ scorns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ tensions\\ between\\ the\\ pragmatic\\ and\\ ethical\\ perspectives\\,\\ both\\ forming\\ part\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ can\\ be\\ detected\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ Quran\\,\\ and\\ both\\ perspectives\\ have\\ left\\ their\\ mark\\ on\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ formal\\ rulings\\ on\\ women\\ and\\ marriage\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ ensuing\\ period\\.\\ Thus\\ some\\ Quranic\\ verses\\ regarding\\ marriage\\ and\\ women\\ appear\\ to\\ qualify\\ and\\ undercut\\ others\\ that\\ seemingly\\ establish\\ marriage\\ as\\ a\\ hierarchical\\ institution\\ unequivocally\\ privileging\\ men\\.\\ Among\\ the\\ former\\ are\\ the\\ verses\\ that\\ read\\:\\ \\&\\#39\\;Wives\\ have\\ rights\\ corresponding\\ to\\ those\\ which\\ husband\\ have\\,\\ in\\ equitable\\ reciprocity\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\(Sura\\ 2\\:229\\)\\.\\ Similarly\\,\\ verses\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ that\\ admonish\\ men\\,\\ if\\ polygamous\\,\\ to\\ treat\\ their\\ wives\\ equally\\ and\\ that\\ go\\ on\\ to\\ declare\\ that\\ husbands\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ so\\-\\-using\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ Arabic\\ negative\\ connoting\\ permanent\\ impossibility\\-\\-are\\ open\\ to\\ being\\ read\\ to\\ mean\\ that\\ men\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ polygamous\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ situation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ahmed\\ is\\ discussing\\ how\\ certain\\ verses\\ in\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ actually\\ appear\\ to\\ give\\ women\\ rights\\ rather\\ than\\ restrict\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historically\\ women\\ in\\ Muslim\\ societies\\ have\\ had\\ many\\ less\\ freedoms\\ than\\ men\\,\\ not\\ having\\ many\\ rights\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ marriage\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ lot\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ blamed\\ on\\ the\\ patriarchal\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ self\\ interest\\ of\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;modern\\&rdquo\\;\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ actually\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\liberates\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ more\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\ with\\ men\\ than\\ what\\ they\\ experienced\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ Muhammad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ahmed\\ sees\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ as\\ having\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\egalitarian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;message\\,\\ and\\ uses\\ it\\ to\\ justify\\ interpretations\\ that\\ denounce\\ polygamy\\,\\ support\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ hardest\\ part\\ of\\ interpretation\\ is\\ contradiction\\ within\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\-\\ there\\ are\\ parts\\ that\\ seem\\ to\\ support\\ traditional\\ interpretations\\ and\\ others\\ that\\ support\\ modern\\ ideas\\ of\\ liberation\\-\\-\\-\\-brings\\ up\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ when\\ the\\ isolated\\ passages\\ conflict\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\ critique\\ by\\ authors\\ who\\ say\\ it\\ liberates\\ is\\ that\\ former\\ interpretations\\ have\\ been\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ reactionary\\,\\ male\\ dominated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ de\\-contextualized\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;essence\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\,\\ which\\ they\\ see\\ as\\ promoting\\ justice\\,\\ harmony\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ good\\ will\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;again\\,\\ the\\ liberating\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amina\\ Waddud\\ writes\\ that\\ interpretations\\ of\\ texts\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ three\\ factors\\:\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ written\\,\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ grammatical\\ composition\\ of\\ the\\ text\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ the\\ whole\\ text\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Weltanschauung\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ argues\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;differences\\ in\\ opinion\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ to\\ variations\\ in\\ emphasis\\ between\\ these\\ three\\ aspects\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ View\\ Quran\\ holistically\\ rather\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;atomistically\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Abduh\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ FATHER\\ OF\\ ISLAMIC\\ MODERNISM\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Egyptian\\ who\\ provided\\ a\\ progressive\\ reinterpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Shariah\\ based\\ on\\ reason\\ and\\ intellect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrast\\ Madinan\\ Suras\\ of\\ Mohammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ later\\ life\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ establishing\\ a\\ state\\ with\\ the\\ Meccan\\ Suras\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ theoretical\\ and\\ more\\ egalitarian\\.\\ One\\ could\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ former\\ were\\ meant\\ for\\ the\\ specific\\ contexts\\ in\\ which\\ Mohammad\\ was\\ ruling\\,\\ while\\ the\\ latter\\ were\\ universal\\ pronouncements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Waddud\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Overall\\,\\ my\\ analysis\\ tends\\ to\\ restrict\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ many\\ passages\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ subject\\,\\ event\\,\\ or\\ context\\&hellip\\;restrictions\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ verses\\ or\\ on\\ application\\ of\\ general\\ qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ conepts\\ of\\ justice\\ towards\\ humankind\\,\\ human\\ dignity\\,\\ equal\\ rights\\ before\\ the\\ law\\ and\\ before\\ Allah\\,\\ mutual\\ responsibility\\,\\ and\\ equitable\\ relations\\ between\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ \\"\\;When\\ God\\ commanded\\ Satan\\:\\ Bow\\ down\\ before\\ Adam\\,\\ Satan\\ answered\\:\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ bow\\ down\\ before\\ any\\ other\\ than\\ Thee\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ all\\ the\\ dwellers\\ in\\ Heaven\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\champion\\ of\\ God\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Unity\\ so\\ strict\\ as\\ Satan\\.\\ Moses\\ met\\ Satan\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ Sinai\\,\\ and\\ asked\\ of\\ him\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Satan\\,\\ why\\ wouldst\\ thou\\ not\\ bow\\ down\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Because\\ I\\ believed\\ that\\ only\\ One\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ adored\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ said\\ Satan\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Disregarding\\ God\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Command\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;That\\ was\\ Trial\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Satan\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ not\\ Command\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ comes\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Kitab\\ al\\ Tawasin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ al\\-Hallaj\\.\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ Hallaj\\ rejects\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ veneration\\,\\ so\\ does\\ Satan\\ reject\\ the\\ veneration\\ of\\ Adam\\.\\ \\ \\;Satan\\ honors\\ and\\ obeys\\ only\\ God\\,\\ just\\ as\\ Hallaj\\ honors\\ and\\ obeys\\ only\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ passage\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ strict\\ backlash\\ against\\ the\\ near\\-worship\\ of\\ Muhammad\\.\\ \\ \\;Hallaj\\ strongly\\ desired\\ to\\ been\\ killed\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sufis\\ wished\\ to\\ disturb\\ conventional\\ attitudes\\ and\\ to\\ startle\\ people\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ complacency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ they\\ were\\ fond\\ of\\ using\\ symbols\\ connected\\ with\\ forbidden\\ practices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ Iblis\\ \\(Satan\\)\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ lovers\\;\\ his\\ devotion\\ to\\ G\\-d\\ was\\ so\\ great\\ that\\ he\\ refused\\ to\\ bow\\ down\\ before\\ ayone\\ besides\\ Him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ as\\ earthly\\ love\\ come\\ to\\ represent\\ divine\\ love\\,\\ drunkenness\\ symbolized\\ the\\ mystical\\ intoxication\\ and\\ forgetfulness\\ of\\ self\\ to\\ which\\ Sufis\\ aspired\\.\\ Wine\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stories\\ and\\ objects\\ acquire\\ new\\ meanings\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ lose\\ old\\ ones\\&mdash\\;both\\ wine\\ and\\ fire\\ represent\\ divine\\ love\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ wine\\ and\\ fire\\;\\ likewise\\,\\ Iblis\\,\\ even\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ selfless\\ lover\\,\\ retains\\ some\\ quality\\ of\\ evil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ evidence\\ in\\ Rumi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Mathnawi\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Al\\-Hallaj\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ Persian\\ mystic\\,\\ writer\\ \\&\\;\\ teacher\\ of\\ Sufism\\.\\ Lived\\ from\\ 858\\ until\\ he\\ was\\ crucified\\ and\\ tortured\\ to\\ death\\ in\\ 922\\ \\(specifically\\,\\ officially\\,\\ for\\ advocating\\ a\\ symbolic\\ substitution\\ for\\ the\\ pilgrimate\\ to\\ Mecca\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extremely\\ controversial\\.\\ Claimed\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ Truth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\ana\\ al\\-haqq\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ and\\ \\"\\;There\\ is\\ nothing\\ inside\\/underneath\\ the\\ cloak\\ except\\ God\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rumi\\,\\ and\\ other\\ Sufi\\ interpreters\\,\\ later\\ defended\\ this\\ claim\\ as\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ humility\\,\\ as\\ it\\ presumes\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ beings\\ but\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrote\\ Kitab\\ al\\ Tawasin\\,\\ which\\ describes\\ a\\ dialogue\\ between\\ Satan\\ and\\ G\\-d\\;\\ in\\ it\\,\\ Satan\\ refuses\\ to\\ bow\\ to\\ Adam\\ in\\ G\\-d\\&rsquo\\;s\\ command\\,\\ but\\ claims\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ out\\ of\\ love\\ for\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sufism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Followers\\ can\\ be\\ Sunni\\ or\\ Shi\\&rsquo\\;a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Commonly\\ defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Islamic\\ mysticism\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mystical\\ dimension\\ of\\ Islam\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ political\\,\\ social\\,\\ economic\\,\\ literary\\ and\\ artistic\\ dimensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Origins\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ Sufi\\:\\ mostly\\ commonly\\ accepted\\ one\\ derives\\ the\\ word\\ from\\ the\\ Arabic\\ \\&ldquo\\;suf\\&rdquo\\;\\ meaning\\ \\&ldquo\\;wool\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sufi\\ one\\ who\\ wears\\ a\\ woolen\\ garment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refers\\ to\\ those\\ Muslims\\,\\ Sunni\\ or\\ Shia\\,\\ who\\ believe\\ in\\ or\\ seek\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ direct\\ personal\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ Divine\\.\\ Believe\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\.\\ \\(cf\\.\\ the\\ Prophet\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;ss\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ mi\\&rsquo\\;raj\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tariqah\\ \\&ldquo\\;path\\,\\ method\\,\\ procedure\\,\\ Sufi\\ order\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Must\\ let\\ go\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ ego\\ to\\ reach\\ \\&ldquo\\;fana\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(oneness\\ with\\ God\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shaykhs\\ serve\\ as\\ teachers\\ \\(guides\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ spiritual\\ development\\)\\ and\\ mediators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;At\\ last\\ his\\ mother\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ talk\\.\\ Invoking\\ God\\&\\#39\\;s\\ help\\ she\\ said\\:\\ \\&\\#39\\;May\\ God\\ protect\\ you\\,\\ my\\ son\\!\\ May\\ he\\ keep\\ you\\ sane\\!\\ This\\ is\\ something\\ other\\ than\\ medicine\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ blessing\\ of\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\ Like\\ an\\ angry\\ bull\\ before\\ which\\ a\\ red\\ cloth\\ was\\ being\\ waved\\,\\ Ismail\\ thundered\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ your\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\ here\\ who\\ will\\ rob\\ the\\ girl\\ of\\ her\\ sight\\.\\ You\\ will\\ see\\ how\\ I\\ shall\\ treat\\ her\\,\\ and\\ how\\ at\\ my\\ hands\\ she\\ will\\ get\\ the\\ cure\\ she\\ sought\\ in\\ vain\\ from\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\[She\\ replied\\]\\ \\&\\#39\\;There\\ is\\ many\\ a\\ person\\,\\ my\\ son\\,\\ who\\ believes\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ blessing\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ of\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\,\\ the\\ protecteress\\ of\\ the\\ weak\\ and\\ the\\ disabled\\.\\ They\\ tried\\ it\\ and\\ God\\ cured\\ them\\.\\ We\\ have\\ all\\ our\\ life\\ relied\\ upon\\ God\\ and\\ her\\.\\ We\\ have\\ always\\ believed\\ in\\ her\\ miracles\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Source\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Saint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lamp\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Yayha\\ Haqqi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Ismail\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ educated\\ as\\ a\\ Western\\ doctor\\ rejects\\ the\\ traditional\\ village\\ cure\\ for\\ poor\\ eyesight\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Sheikh\\ Dardiri\\&rsquo\\;\\ oil\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lamp\\ of\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Saint\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ismail\\ is\\ claiming\\ that\\ only\\ western\\ medicine\\,\\ and\\ not\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ traditional\\ treatment\\ or\\ blessings\\,\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ cure\\ for\\ poor\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ mother\\,\\ instead\\,\\ claims\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ rely\\ upon\\ God\\ and\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\,\\ not\\ Western\\ medicine\\,\\ to\\ cure\\ Fatima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\:\\ only\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ miracles\\ can\\ save\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Medicine\\ ends\\ up\\ not\\ working\\,\\ lamp\\ works\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Islam\\ as\\ submission\\:\\ Ismail\\ discovers\\ that\\ Western\\ medicine\\ can\\ only\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;fortified\\ by\\ faith\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;definition\\ of\\ Islam\\ as\\ submission\\ and\\ as\\ maintaining\\ faith\\ that\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ and\\ that\\ things\\ will\\ turn\\ out\\ ok\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ if\\ you\\ just\\ have\\ faith\\ in\\ and\\ submission\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conflict\\ between\\ modernity\\ and\\ tradition\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ story\\ illustrates\\ how\\ you\\ can\\ integrate\\ modernity\\ with\\ Islamic\\ beliefs\\,\\ but\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ story\\,\\ the\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ Islamic\\ beliefs\\ must\\ always\\ be\\ primary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fits\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ 4\\/16\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;Muslim\\ responses\\ to\\ European\\ colonialism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colonialism\\ basically\\ turned\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ upside\\-down\\:\\ brought\\ new\\ rulers\\,\\ secular\\ philosophies\\,\\ western\\-style\\ education\\,\\ new\\ scientific\\ theories\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ideal\\ of\\ popular\\ sovereignty\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ had\\ different\\ responses\\ to\\ this\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ story\\ shows\\ how\\ Ismail\\ originally\\ turned\\ completely\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ rejected\\ Islam\\,\\ but\\ then\\ turned\\ back\\ to\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ reformers\\ start\\ \\&ldquo\\;back\\ to\\ fundamentals\\&rdquo\\;\\ reform\\ movements\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ reinterpret\\ the\\ faith\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ challenged\\ the\\ Ulama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\E\\.g\\.\\ Muhammad\\ Abdah\\ in\\ Egypt\\ responded\\ to\\ the\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ West\\ by\\ founding\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Islamic\\ modernist\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\ and\\ promoting\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;supremacy\\ of\\ rationality\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ this\\ story\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ supremacy\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ passage\\ raises\\ similar\\ issues\\ as\\ those\\ discussed\\ in\\ Passage\\ 3\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Son\\ the\\ Fanatic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ particular\\,\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ Islamic\\ tradition\\ and\\ modernity\\ is\\ the\\ backdrop\\ for\\ Muslim\\ reform\\ movements\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 15, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FC70_Passages.doc", "desc": "Understanding Islam Passages"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese 130a - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "chinese", "130a"], "text": null, "id": 10, "html": "\\\\\\Chinese\\_130a\\_\\-\\_Final\\_Grammar\\_Patterns\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c17\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:15pt\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c9\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c18\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\sb\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\ \\+\\ times\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ order\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\ \\+\\ times\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#22987\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Beginning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\time\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#22987\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#20313\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21021\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26411\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32479\\;\\&\\#35745\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;according\\ to\\ the\\ statistics\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32479\\;\\&\\#35745\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#30334\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24038\\;\\&\\#21491\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21516\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20080\\;\\/\\&\\#36127\\;\\&\\#25285\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ can\\ Sb\\ afford\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#36149\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#26465\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#24237\\;\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#36127\\;\\&\\#25285\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\/VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ be\\ picky\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#38431\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\+\\ \\(\\&\\#21543\\;\\)\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\ \\+\\ S\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb\\ has\\ to\\ \\(at\\ least\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ right\\?\\ \\ \\;Otherwise\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\S\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20080\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#22871\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#29260\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#35013\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#21516\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#25260\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#12290\\;VP1\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#32431\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ VP2\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ can\\ a\\ prestigious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\ VP1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ simply\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP2\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#31471\\;\\&\\#30424\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32431\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#31967\\;\\&\\#36341\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sth\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\ Sb\\ \\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ time\\ period\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ V\\ \\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ popular\\ among\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\V\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;out\\ in\\ less\\ than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\time\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21334\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35841\\;\\&\\#19981\\;VP\\&\\#21834\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20439\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#25220\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35841\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#25220\\;\\&\\#21834\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ comment\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ S1\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indeed\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#36186\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#34385\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#35835\\;\\&\\#32773\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38656\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\&\\#21040\\;\\ place\\ V\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#30340\\;NP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\V\\ NP\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\where\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\V\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\place\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#65288\\;NP\\&\\#65289\\;\\#\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24038\\;\\&\\#21491\\;\\ \\(NP\\)\\ \\=\\ approximately\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#24038\\;\\&\\#21491\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31649\\;\\ \\=\\ To\\ get\\ involved\\ and\\ take\\ control\\ of\\ something\\/somebody\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31649\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#31649\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#35841\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ my\\ parents\\ control\\ who\\ I\\ make\\ friends\\ with\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\=\\ make\\ sure\\ \\(not\\)\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ positive\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21035\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ negative\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32431\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\(\\+\\&\\#26159\\;\\)\\+VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32431\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\&\\#28010\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ this\\ is\\ purely\\ a\\ waste\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#21322\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ he\\ only\\ took\\ half\\ an\\ hour\\ to\\ finish\\ the\\ test\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21463\\;SB\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35266\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ also\\ say\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#21040\\;SB\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\/respect\\/criticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\ \\=\\ must\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ must\\ see\\ mom\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\+\\ MW\\ \\+\\ N\\ \\+\\ Predicate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ There\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ person\\ I\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\ \\=\\ impression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\ sth\\/sb\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\+\\ adj\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;impression\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sth\\/sb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adj\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\B\\ \\&\\#32473\\;\\ A\\ adj\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30041\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#28145\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65289\\;Sb\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26790\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\/\\&\\#30446\\;\\&\\#26631\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ regard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dream\\/goal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30041\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26790\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\/\\&\\#30446\\;\\&\\#26631\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\&\\#25226\\;B\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ considers\\ B\\ as\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#24182\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ Sb\\ \\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;adj\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ not\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adj\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imagined\\ it\\ to\\ be\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#24182\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ 1\\ \\&\\#22312\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\ Topic\\ 2\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ aspect\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ topic\\ 1\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ topic\\ 2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26446\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#25480\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32032\\;\\&\\#36136\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#26174\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\&\\#23384\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#35768\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\/\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#23569\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;many\\/a\\ few\\ problems\\ exist\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26446\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#25480\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#38454\\;\\&\\#27573\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#23384\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#35768\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fact\\ 1\\,\\ Fact\\ 2\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fact\\ 1\\,\\ Fact\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ short\\/conclusion\\,\\ S\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#36873\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#36873\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36873\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#33041\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#32842\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20855\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fact\\,\\ \\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fact\\.\\ \\ \\;Following\\ this\\ trend\\ \\/\\ if\\ things\\ continue\\ like\\ this\\,\\ S\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#20122\\;\\&\\#27954\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#27431\\;\\&\\#27954\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20445\\;\\&\\#25345\\;\\&\\#39046\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;NP\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#20445\\;\\&\\#25345\\;\\/\\&\\#22788\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#39046\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;keep\\/play\\ a\\ leading\\ role\\ in\\ NP\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#20122\\;\\&\\#27954\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#27431\\;\\&\\#27954\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20445\\;\\&\\#25345\\;\\&\\#39046\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35859\\;NP1\\,\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26159\\;NP2\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;so\\-called\\ NP1\\,\\ it\\ actually\\ refers\\ to\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35859\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#30127\\;\\&\\#29378\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#26376\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31726\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#36187\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explanation\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35859\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\+Expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#35201\\;S1\\,\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#65289\\;S2\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S2\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ S1\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25307\\;\\&\\#25910\\;\\&\\#65288\\;zhao1shou1\\ \\=\\ to\\ enroll\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#31726\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20248\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\(you1xian1\\ \\=\\ favorably\\,\\ with\\ priority\\)\\&\\#24405\\;\\&\\#21462\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35753\\;\\/\\&\\#20196\\;\\ Sb\\ adj\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ makes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\S\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20196\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24778\\;\\&\\#35766\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#31726\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32451\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#36164\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#25480\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#36164\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#32570\\;\\&\\#20047\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ lack\\ understanding\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#32570\\;\\&\\#20047\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#30721\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\ S1\\,\\ S2\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Since\\ S1\\,\\ S2\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38656\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\&\\#23545\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#24863\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24778\\;\\&\\#35766\\;\\/\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30740\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#24863\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#24778\\;\\&\\#35766\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#21644\\;\\ B\\ \\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#40092\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ from\\ a\\ sharp\\ contrast\\ between\\ A\\ and\\ B\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22826\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#35270\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#31181\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#28909\\;\\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#40092\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Sb\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Topic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ worth\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ learning\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26446\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#25480\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24744\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ the\\ trip\\ to\\ see\\ you\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\/v\\ \\~\\ V\\/S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#26426\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ afraid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ afraid\\ that\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ B\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#32874\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#38761\\;\\&\\#21629\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#27969\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;B\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ relates\\ to\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#31995\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#38463\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#21834\\;\\ \\=\\ How\\ did\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ China\\ \\(a\\ way\\ of\\ saying\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ China\\)\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\+\\ NP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\S\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\ Adj\\/NP\\ \\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adj\\/NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;function\\/effect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#28872\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25913\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#27665\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;VP\\!\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;still\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ an\\ era\\ like\\ this\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#38761\\;\\&\\#21629\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\ QW\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;already\\&rdquo\\;\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#26202\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#23621\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\&\\#24815\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\V\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#24815\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#38761\\;\\&\\#21629\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#34987\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#31181\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\ Comment\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Topic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\comment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;immediately\\/in\\ one\\ fell\\ swoop\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65288\\;NP1\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65288\\;NP2\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ most\\ representative\\ \\(NP1\\)\\ is\\ \\(NP2\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NP2\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ NP1\\.\\ \\ \\;NP1\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ omitted\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ mentioned\\ in\\ previous\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ say\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23828\\;\\&\\#20581\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25671\\;\\&\\#28378\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23828\\;\\&\\#20581\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ phrase\\ used\\ 4tangible\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22885\\;\\&\\#36816\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ao4yun4hui4\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ The\\ olympics\\ will\\ unite\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21160\\;\\&\\#37327\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frequency\\ of\\ the\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27425\\;\\ \\=\\ times\\ MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\ \\=\\ bian4\\ \\=\\ times\\ MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ bw\\ these\\ 2\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ object\\ after\\ \\&\\#36941\\;\\ is\\ very\\ specific\\,\\ usually\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ clear\\ beginning\\ and\\ ending\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36255\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ trips\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duration\\ of\\ the\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;brief\\ n\\ casual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\=\\ a\\ while\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38453\\;\\ \\=\\ zhen4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;something\\ that\\ appears\\,\\ lasts\\ shortly\\,\\ then\\ ends\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(a\\ pop\\ song\\ that\\ was\\ hugely\\ popular\\,\\ then\\ flamed\\ out\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#39039\\;\\ \\=\\ dun4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;used\\ for\\ meals\\ and\\ beatings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quantity\\ of\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30524\\;\\ \\=\\ yan3\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24072\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21475\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33050\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ for\\ kicks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36386\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ti2\\ \\=\\ to\\ kick\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33050\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ gave\\ him\\ a\\ kick\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ kicked\\ him\\ once\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&\\#19979\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#22330\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ Pronoun\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&\\#27425\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#21475\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36386\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\ \\=\\ ti1qiu2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ YES\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27425\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ YES\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ NO\\,\\ NOT\\ SPECIFIC\\ EVENT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ YEA\\,\\ THIS\\ \\=\\ SPECIFIC\\ ACTION\\.\\ \\ \\;START\\ THE\\ CHARACTER\\ FROM\\ THE\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\ST\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;STROKE\\ 2THE\\ SECOND\\ STROKE\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36255\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#39039\\;\\ \\=\\ for\\ giving\\ beatings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chi1yi1dun4fan4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\ \\=\\ have\\ a\\ bite\\ of\\ food\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ mouthful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22330\\;\\ \\=\\ MW\\ for\\ concerts\\ and\\ movies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25913\\;\\&\\#38761\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\ \\=\\ gai3ge2kai1fang4\\ \\=\\ opening\\ to\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#38470\\;\\ \\=\\ da4lu4\\ \\=\\ Chinese\\ mainland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\&\\#34987\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#34987\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ really\\ attracted\\ to\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NP\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ Sb\\ \\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ she\\ enchants\\ me\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\+\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ never\\ thought\\ you\\ spoke\\ Chinese\\ so\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\/\\&\\#30495\\;\\+\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#24796\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#24796\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24537\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24449\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#65288\\;qi3shi4\\ \\=\\ public\\ notice\\/\\ ad\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sth\\/Sb\\ \\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\ place\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;sth\\/sb\\ is\\ everywhere\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\place\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24449\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23569\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24449\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#31181\\;\\&\\#25253\\;\\&\\#21002\\;\\&\\#26434\\;\\&\\#24535\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;compared\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\S\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#38052\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24449\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\(xiang1dang1\\ \\=\\<\\/span\\>\\equivalent\\ to\\;\\ appropriate\\;\\ considerably\\;\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\;\\ fairly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19982\\;\\&\\#65288\\;yu3\\&\\#65289\\;\\/\\&\\#26681\\;\\/\\&\\#21644\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ match\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\/\\ to\\ be\\ suitable\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#21407\\;\\&\\#23547\\;\\&\\#19982\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#19982\\;\\/\\&\\#36319\\;\\/\\&\\#21644\\;\\ NP2\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP1\\ matches\\ with\\ NP2\\ \\/\\ NP1\\ and\\ NP2\\ are\\ suitable\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#29233\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\,\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;clause1\\,\\ \\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;clause2\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\,\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ clause1\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ clause\\ 2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#36208\\;\\&\\#21521\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#26497\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#28010\\;\\&\\#28459\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#24189\\;\\&\\#40664\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#20855\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\&\\#38469\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\&\\#21363\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ji2jiang1\\&\\#65289\\;VP\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\ will\\ VP\\ soon\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#26376\\;\\&\\#21363\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ \\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\ comment\\ 1\\ \\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\ comment2\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Topic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;neither\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\comment\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;nor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\comment\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#35980\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25551\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#27714\\;\\&\\#65288\\;yao1qiu2\\ \\=\\ requirements\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP\\ is\\ not\\ required\\ \\/\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30333\\;\\&\\#29642\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Bai2shan1\\ \\=\\ name\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#19982\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#65288\\;jiang3\\ \\=\\ to\\ talk\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#23621\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#31821\\;\\&\\#65288\\;guo2ji2\\ \\=\\ nationality\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#21490\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\ \\=\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ girl\\ or\\ guy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fact\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25552\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fact\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ worth\\ mentioning\\ is\\ that\\,\\ S\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#27880\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#30740\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#24449\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#35780\\;\\&\\#20215\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ping2jia4\\ \\=\\ to\\ evaluate\\/assess\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#22522\\;\\&\\#30784\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ji1chu3\\ \\=\\ basis\\/foundation\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32780\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#24449\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21017\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#35843\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#35980\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#28201\\;\\&\\#26580\\;\\&\\#65288\\;wen1rou2\\ \\=\\ soft\\ and\\ gentle\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#26684\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25552\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#21490\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26465\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\ N\\,\\ \\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#31867\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#31867\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ most\\ Chinese\\ universities\\ are\\ Beijing\\ university\\ and\\ qinghua\\.\\ \\ \\;Former\\ emphasizes\\ humanities\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\.\\ \\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Strictly\\ speaking\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20005\\;\\&\\#26684\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20855\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ concretely\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#31616\\;\\&\\#21333\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ simply\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22374\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ frankly\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ generally\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meaning\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Written\\ only\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Formal\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Casual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Willing\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#24895\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#24895\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#24895\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ for\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#23547\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#23547\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friend\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\/\\&\\#26379\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ become\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ possess\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25317\\;\\&\\#65288\\;yong1\\&\\#65289\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25317\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Together\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#20849\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\+adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\ \\=\\ avg\\.\\,\\ ordinary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#20917\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\ \\=\\ under\\ normal\\ circumstances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\ \\=\\ my\\ grades\\ are\\ ordinary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#35752\\;\\&\\#35770\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\/\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\/\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#38477\\;\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\&\\#65288\\;qu1shi4\\&\\#65289\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP\\ has\\ a\\ rising\\/falling\\ tendency\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26029\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24133\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\/\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\/\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#38477\\;\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24133\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\/\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23569\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ scale\\/extent\\ of\\ rising\\/falling\\ is\\ huge\\/not\\ huge\\/small\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;NP\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;topic\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#23545\\;adj\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Compared\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\topic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ still\\ relatively\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adj\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#36798\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20302\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\(\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\/\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\)\\ \\&\\#23545\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(often\\ likes\\ to\\)\\ make\\ excessive\\ reports\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23186\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#30528\\;NP\\,\\ S1\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Along\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ S1\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ noun\\ in\\ this\\ phrase\\ must\\ be\\ 2\\-character\\,\\ and\\ it\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ long\\ modifier\\ before\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#31934\\;\\&\\#31070\\;\\&\\#65288\\;jing1shen2\\ \\=\\ vitality\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20016\\;\\&\\#23500\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#22971\\;\\&\\#65288\\;fu1qi1\\ \\=\\ mother\\ and\\ father\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#36861\\;\\&\\#27714\\;\\&\\#65288\\;zhui1qiu2\\ \\=\\ pursuit\\;\\ to\\ pursue\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;NP2\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP1\\ causes\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ future\\ tense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ past\\ tense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#22971\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29233\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#32416\\;\\&\\#32439\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#23548\\;\\&\\#33268\\;NP2\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP1\\ leads\\ to\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#22971\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#24503\\;\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#22885\\;\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#23548\\;\\&\\#33268\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#26159\\;NP2\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP1\\ is\\ the\\ performance\\/reflection\\/demonstration\\ of\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#29579\\;\\&\\#20255\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36827\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25353\\;\\&\\#29031\\;Sb\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36923\\;\\&\\#36753\\;\\&\\#65288\\;luo2ji\\ \\=\\ logic\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Following\\/Based\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ logic\\,\\ S\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb1\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#20102\\;Sb2\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb1\\ was\\ influenced\\ by\\ Sb2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33391\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#33609\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#65288\\;cao3shuai4\\ \\=\\ rash\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#32467\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#33609\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ VP1\\ \\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;\\ VP2\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ even\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30001\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#38477\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;\\&\\#36208\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#29359\\;\\&\\#32618\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\&\\#65288\\;wei4mian3\\ \\=\\ a\\ bit\\ too\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#29255\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ viewpoint\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\ unbalanced\\/fragmentary\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\&\\#29255\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\,\\ topic\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ comment\\ \\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#22971\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#21557\\;\\&\\#26550\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ \\=\\ Parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ divorces\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\ for\\ children\\,\\ but\\ fighting\\ every\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ for\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;S\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;could\\ it\\ be\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sub\\+\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\+vp\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#39532\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\ \\+\\ subj\\ \\+\\ vp\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#21453\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ \\=\\ Why\\ should\\ we\\ be\\ against\\ their\\ divorce\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neg\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20877\\;V\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ V\\ anymore\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ disturb\\ my\\ study\\ anymore\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\(\\&\\#36807\\;\\)\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ him\\ anymore\\ after\\ graduation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27668\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#31967\\;\\&\\#31957\\;\\&\\#65288\\;zao1gao1\\ \\=\\ awful\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ weather\\ is\\ very\\ awful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36319\\;sb\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ divorce\\ someone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\ \\=\\ in\\ between\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#26435\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32416\\;\\&\\#32439\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ pollution\\ causes\\ fights\\ between\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#31995\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#23569\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#31995\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36827\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\ \\=\\ social\\ progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ count\\ as\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#27773\\;\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ In\\ America\\,\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ buy\\ a\\ car\\ means\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ rich\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;Vp\\&\\#23601\\;VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ not\\ go\\ to\\ class\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;adv\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ bit\\ too\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\ softens\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ what\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ saying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\&\\#22826\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ time\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;must\\/should\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.Object\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ acted\\ upon\\ vs\\.\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#38738\\;\\&\\#23569\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;increase\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#24503\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#33041\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29992\\;NP1\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;NP2\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Replace\\ NP2\\ with\\ NP1\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#32773\\;\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#25340\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;NP1\\&\\#26159\\;NP2\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ of\\ the\\ NP1s\\ is\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#32773\\;\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#25340\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#30001\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#26377\\;quantitative\\ description\\ \\[\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65289\\;adj\\]\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP\\ is\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adj\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\quantitative\\ description\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#25110\\;\\&\\#32773\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26392\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26377\\;14\\&\\#23681\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#26377\\;1\\.9m\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21488\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#26426\\;\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#31649\\;S1\\,\\ S2\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;No\\ matter\\ S1\\,\\ S2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#31649\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#32476\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21807\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#38469\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Sb\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23545\\;NP\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ express\\ Sb\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ on\\ NP\\ \\/\\ Sb\\ expresses\\ his\\ views\\ on\\ NP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#34411\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#21644\\;NP2\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36739\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\ \\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#25509\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\ \\=\\ NP1\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ NP2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#38395\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36739\\;\\&\\#25509\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#20165\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#20110\\;NP2\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP1\\ is\\ second\\ only\\ to\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#32476\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#27010\\;\\&\\#20165\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20196\\;Sb\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#30140\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;give\\ Sb\\ a\\ headache\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#33041\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31616\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#32321\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#25442\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20196\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#30140\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21807\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\ \\(adj\\)\\ \\=\\ only\\,\\ sole\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21807\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#34385\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\=\\ kao3lv4\\ \\=\\ considering\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#34385\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ become\\ \\(for\\ adjectives\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ become\\ \\(for\\ nouns\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;well\\-known\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MIT\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20165\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31105\\;\\&\\#27490\\;VP\\ \\(to\\ prohibit\\ \\=\\ jin4zhi3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#22270\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31105\\;\\&\\#27490\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#26426\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sth\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26032\\;V\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ newly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\V\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-ed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22799\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29256\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19971\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#24039\\;\\&\\#36935\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\&\\#21644\\;Sb\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP\\ is\\ \\(totally\\)\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imagines\\ it\\ to\\ be\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#33756\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sb\\/sth\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\/\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ sb\\ \\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\+\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\+\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22270\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#33298\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb1\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Sb2\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb1\\ recognized\\ Sb2\\ at\\ a\\ glance\\ \\/\\ at\\ first\\ sight\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26469\\;\\ or\\ Sb2\\ is\\ optional\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ neither\\,\\ though\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#34429\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb1\\&\\#27604\\;Sb2\\&\\#39640\\;\\/\\&\\#20302\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23626\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb1\\ is\\ a\\ school\\ year\\ ahead\\/behind\\ Sb2\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23626\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\&\\#26366\\;\\&\\#32463\\;VP\\(\\&\\#36807\\;\\)\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb\\ once\\/ever\\ VP\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#35768\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20208\\;\\&\\#24917\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#26366\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#23553\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&ldquo\\;Np\\ is\\ everywhere\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26087\\;\\&\\#37329\\;\\&\\#23665\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#39184\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\/\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\ \\&\\#21385\\;\\&\\#23475\\;\\ \\=\\ V\\ extremely\\/excessively\\/seriously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26087\\;\\&\\#37329\\;\\&\\#23665\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#39184\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#31454\\;\\&\\#20105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21385\\;\\&\\#23475\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32536\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\ \\(yuan2fen4\\)\\ \\=\\ predestined\\,\\ affinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meaning\\ comes\\ from\\ Buddhism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32536\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32536\\;\\&\\#20221\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Again\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#65288\\;past\\&\\#65289\\;\\=\\ \\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#65288\\;future\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ blink\\ of\\ an\\ eye\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#22478\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#22478\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\ MW\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\ comment\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Topic\\ comment\\ one\\ MW\\ after\\ another\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#22478\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ great\\ difficulty\\ \\/\\ Sb\\ manage\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#38599\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36742\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21147\\;\\&\\#36710\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24184\\;\\&\\#20111\\;S1\\,\\ \\&\\#21542\\;\\&\\#21017\\;S2\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fortunately\\ S1\\,\\ otherwise\\ S2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24184\\;\\&\\#20111\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#36710\\;\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#26089\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20572\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21542\\;\\&\\#21017\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36300\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#30772\\;\\&\\#34880\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;to2po4xue3chu1\\ \\=\\ head\\ broken\\ and\\ bleeding\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#24930\\;\\&\\#24930\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#22320\\;V\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sb\\ \\(slowly\\)\\ V\\ MW\\ by\\ MW\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36710\\;\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#25206\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#21521\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#36208\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;VP1\\&\\#25165\\;VP2\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\ not\\ VP1\\ until\\ VP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22352\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21160\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#24033\\;\\&\\#35686\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#36710\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21193\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ the\\ subject\\ is\\ somebody\\,\\ both\\ mean\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ great\\ difficulty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ \\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ means\\ someone\\ has\\ been\\ trying\\ hard\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ he\\/she\\ really\\ wants\\ to\\ do\\,\\ whereas\\ \\&\\#21193\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\ means\\ someone\\ does\\ something\\ reluctantly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ already\\ this\\ much\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26376\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20351\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#35753\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20196\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\=\\ make\\ somebody\\ do\\ something\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\ adj\\/v\\ \\=\\ hardly\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#25285\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\ \\=\\ hardly\\ worry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\ NP\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#22256\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\ \\=\\ no\\ difficulty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ VP\\/NP\\ \\&\\#25165\\;\\ VP2\\ \\=\\ \\(Sb\\ \\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ VP1\\ \\&\\#25165\\;\\ VP2\\)\\ \\=\\ \\(Sb\\ not\\ VP2\\ until\\ VP\\/NP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\/v\\ \\=\\ without\\ adj\\/v\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#29369\\;\\&\\#35947\\;\\ \\=\\ you2yu4\\ \\=\\ hesitation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ without\\ hestitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22855\\;\\&\\#24618\\;\\ \\=\\ qi2guai4\\ \\=\\ without\\ strangeness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\+NP\\ \\=\\ without\\ np\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\ \\=\\ without\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#31726\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#20041\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20652\\;sb\\ \\+\\ vp\\ \\=\\ to\\ urge\\/to\\ nag\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#38047\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24072\\;\\&\\#20652\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20061\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#29233\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\ have\\ never\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\V\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#34429\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21364\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#25307\\;\\&\\#21628\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35831\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\ is\\ always\\ plural\\ with\\ \\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#34429\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#36208\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26257\\;\\&\\#20551\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#22238\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ pass\\ \\/\\ to\\ pass\\ through\\ \\/\\ through\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\+\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23487\\;\\&\\#33293\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#23460\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#22270\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\+\\ time\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26376\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#35760\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\+\\ event\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#24778\\;\\&\\#38505\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#39118\\;\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#26356\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\ \\=\\ to\\ look\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20687\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36214\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Catch\\ up\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ have\\ been\\ behind\\,\\ then\\ catch\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#21162\\;\\&\\#21147\\;\\&\\#36214\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ I\\ will\\ ardently\\ catch\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Run\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\ \\+\\ MW\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;quite\\ a\\ few\\ NP\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26597\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#39063\\;\\&\\#23433\\;\\&\\#30496\\;\\&\\#33647\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\ \\=\\ 30\\ or\\ so\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\ \\=\\ several\\ thousand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\ VP\\ \\&\\#23545\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ the\\ time\\ is\\ bad\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27611\\;\\&\\#27901\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#23433\\;\\&\\#30496\\;\\&\\#33647\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;positive\\/negative\\ connotations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;connotation\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\+\\ abstract\\ noun\\ \\=\\ adjective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#39564\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21016\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#39564\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;VP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sb\\ VP\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\through\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#33292\\;\\&\\#33492\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#33033\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26159\\;S1\\&\\#65292\\;S\\&\\#23601\\;\\ VP\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ S1\\,\\ then\\ S\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#34913\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20581\\;\\&\\#24247\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\ NP2\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65289\\;adj\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP1\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adj\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21016\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#33647\\;\\&\\#25216\\;\\&\\#26415\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#33647\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#20256\\;\\&\\#32479\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#33647\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25928\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\/\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ B\\ \\(\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ Adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20687\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ke1xue2\\ \\=\\ scientific\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\ only\\ takes\\ positive\\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ takes\\ negative\\ and\\ positive\\ qualities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;NP2\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;NP1\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ NP2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22826\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\&\\#22826\\;\\&\\#32039\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#29992\\;B\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ is\\ produced\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ \\(B\\)\\ method\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23427\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;set\\ groups\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ unlimited\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#32905\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&\\#12297\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ \\=\\ adv\\ \\(when\\ not\\ combined\\ with\\ an\\ adjective\\ \\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ needs\\ another\\ verb\\ 2complete\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4actions\\ that\\ r\\ already\\ completed\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ 4hypothetical\\ or\\ future\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ endure\\ a\\ painful\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ endure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\ \\=\\ VP\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&\\#12297\\;for\\ when\\ you\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sleep\\ last\\ night\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ time\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ endured\\ that\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\&\\#19978\\;\\ \\+\\ Quantity\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;V\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ Quantity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ have\\ to\\ reach\\ a\\ certain\\ quantity\\ with\\ this\\ complement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;eat\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ two\\ weeks\\&rsquo\\;\\ worth\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ final\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ sleep\\ for\\ three\\ whole\\ days\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#26411\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ye4\\ \\=\\ night\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&ldquo\\;V\\ into\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ change\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ regard\\ something\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ misperceive\\ something\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ mis\\-hear\\ something\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\=\\ I\\ thought\\ today\\ was\\ Saturday\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\ \\;successful\\/into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Successful\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#20511\\;\\&\\#65288\\;jie4\\ \\=\\ to\\ borrow\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20511\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Into\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\ \\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 7, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Chinese_130a_-_Final_Grammar_Patterns_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Poems, Poets, Poetry Study Guide ", "tags": ["harvard", "poems", "poets", "poetry", "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding"], "text": null, "id": 6, "html": "\\\\\\Study\\_Guide\\_Draft\\_2\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c29\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-indent\\:4\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c19\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c10\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-72pt\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c4\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c11\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-right\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{color\\:\\#00051f\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Easter\\ Morning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1981\\)\\&ndash\\;\\ A\\.\\ R\\.\\ Ammons\\ \\(1926\\-2001\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 361\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\.\\ \\ \\;Paired\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Jewish\\ Cemetery\\ at\\ Newport\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Elegy\\ Written\\ in\\ a\\ Country\\ Churchyard\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ \\&lsquo\\;same\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ rewritten\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\,\\ nature\\,\\ god\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\,\\ Elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\ \\(no\\ discernable\\ pattern\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ lots\\ of\\ repetition\\ of\\ single\\ words\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ a\\ child\\ unable\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ new\\ words\\ for\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ could\\ represent\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ stuck\\ on\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Lots\\ of\\ religious\\ imagery\\ \\(death\\,\\ rebirth\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;end\\ of\\ poem\\ focuses\\ on\\ birds\\ \\(him\\ \\&\\;\\ his\\ bro\\?\\ resurrection\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ little\\ brother\\ died\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ young\\.\\ \\ \\;Poem\\ is\\ largely\\ about\\ that\\ relationship\\,\\ what\\ it\\ did\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ poem\\ opening\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ have\\ a\\ life\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ become\\,\\ \\/\\ that\\ turned\\ aside\\ and\\ stopped\\,\\ \\/astonished\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;And\\ then\\ about\\ halfway\\ through\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ child\\ in\\ me\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ become\\ \\/\\ was\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ go\\,\\ \\/\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ into\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Towards\\ the\\ resolution\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;still\\ it\\/\\ is\\ a\\ picture\\-book\\,\\ letter\\-perfect\\ \\/\\ Easter\\ morning\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quoted\\ online\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ called\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ classic\\ poem\\&hellip\\;\\ a\\ revelation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ revelation\\ is\\ revealed\\ in\\ the\\ title\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Easter\\ Morning\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ represents\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotional\\ resurrection\\,\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ overcome\\ his\\ younger\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ by\\ finding\\ beauty\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ Ammons\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ has\\ carried\\ his\\ feelings\\ about\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ around\\ with\\ him\\ for\\ his\\ whole\\ life\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hold\\ it\\ in\\ me\\ like\\ a\\ pregnancy\\&hellip\\;\\ not\\ to\\ grow\\ or\\ grow\\ old\\ but\\ dwell\\ on\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ goes\\ on\\,\\ discusses\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ graveyard\\ with\\ his\\ extended\\ family\\,\\ eventually\\ discussing\\ his\\ own\\ emotions\\ and\\ his\\ helplessness\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;crying\\ out\\ \\/\\ for\\ help\\,\\ come\\ and\\ fix\\ this\\ or\\ we\\ \\/\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ by\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ Ammons\\ finds\\ solace\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ the\\ death\\,\\ he\\ finds\\ the\\ resurrection\\ of\\ Easter\\ morning\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ watches\\ two\\ birds\\ who\\ are\\ separated\\,\\ then\\ circle\\ and\\ reunite\\ and\\ continue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ birds\\ could\\ possibly\\ be\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ brother\\,\\ or\\ it\\ could\\ just\\ be\\ a\\ beautiful\\ image\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mother\\-in\\-Law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 214\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 6\\.\\ \\ \\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\,\\ identity\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ Domestic\\ \\(polished\\ table\\,\\ meal\\ prep\\)\\,\\ medical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ lesbian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daughter\\-in\\-law\\,\\ strange\\ as\\ you\\ are\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tell\\ me\\ something\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ tackles\\ a\\ rarely\\ \\(poetically\\)\\ discussed\\ subject\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ a\\ daughter\\-in\\-law\\ remembers\\ how\\ her\\ mother\\-in\\-law\\ attempted\\ to\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ her\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ initiate\\ a\\ dialogue\\,\\ sharing\\ cooking\\ advice\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ younger\\ woman\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ difficult\\ time\\ opening\\ up\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\ the\\ truths\\ revealed\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ are\\ serious\\ matters\\;\\ her\\ husband\\ is\\ dead\\,\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ lesbian\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ question\\ posed\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ intimacy\\ can\\ truly\\ be\\ achieved\\ between\\ these\\ women\\ of\\ different\\ generations\\ and\\ identities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Necessities\\ of\\ Life\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1966\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 108\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ Describing\\ Poems\\,\\ Poetry\\ about\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Motherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Confessional\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\ most\\ often\\,\\ but\\ line\\ length\\ varies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 21\\ unrhymed\\ couplets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ birth\\,\\ adolescence\\,\\ motherhood\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\ was\\ married\\ with\\ children\\ then\\ experienced\\ an\\ alienation\\ from\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ After\\ this\\,\\ she\\ became\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ feminist\\ and\\ pride\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ small\\,\\ fixed\\ dot\\,\\ still\\ see\\ \\/\\ that\\ old\\ myself\\,\\ a\\ dark\\-blue\\ thumbtack\\ \\/\\ pushed\\ into\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ \\/\\ a\\ hard\\ little\\ head\\ protruding\\&rdquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ spoken\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ has\\ emerged\\ from\\ the\\ exhaustions\\ of\\ motherhood\\ and\\ is\\ thinking\\ that\\ she\\ will\\ at\\ last\\ have\\ a\\ private\\ life\\ again\\.\\ She\\ retraces\\ her\\ own\\ birth\\ and\\ ambitious\\ adolescence\\,\\ then\\ shows\\ her\\ inner\\ deprivation\\ as\\ her\\ life\\ \\(once\\ she\\ becomes\\ a\\ mother\\)\\ was\\ handed\\ over\\ to\\ others\\ in\\ what\\ sometimes\\ seemed\\ to\\ her\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\;\\ she\\ concludes\\ with\\ her\\ present\\ anticipation\\ of\\ a\\ new\\,\\ but\\ aging\\,\\ self\\.\\ \\(From\\ PPP\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ important\\ progression\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ through\\ time\\.\\ The\\ narrator\\ brings\\ three\\ distinct\\ times\\ in\\ her\\ past\\ into\\ her\\ present\\ thinking\\:\\ first\\ birth\\,\\ then\\ her\\ adolescence\\ and\\ finally\\ motherhood\\.\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ specifically\\ points\\ to\\ Rich\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ verb\\ tenses\\ to\\ unfold\\ the\\ narrative\\ and\\ watch\\ the\\ past\\ become\\ momentarily\\ present\\ in\\ memory\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ future\\ becomes\\ tenseless\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ an\\ infinitive\\.\\ Although\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ feels\\ her\\ future\\ is\\ open\\ and\\ limitless\\,\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ women\\ knitting\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ points\\ to\\ her\\ aging\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poems\\ structure\\ is\\ consistently\\ divided\\ into\\ couplets\\,\\ but\\ the\\ poem\\ progresses\\ through\\ the\\ couplets\\.\\ Only\\ twice\\ do\\ individual\\ couplets\\ contain\\ full\\ sentences\\.\\ Every\\ other\\ instance\\,\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ flow\\ between\\ the\\ couplets\\ continuing\\ across\\ the\\ blank\\ space\\ on\\ the\\ page\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ smooth\\ transition\\ from\\ stanza\\ to\\ stanza\\.\\ This\\ reflects\\ how\\ the\\ narrator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ is\\ also\\ ever\\ continuing\\ even\\ as\\ she\\ grows\\ and\\ her\\ perspective\\ changes\\ sharply\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prospective\\ Immigrants\\ Please\\ Note\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1963\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\-Pg\\ 218\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ under\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ social\\ identity\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ spiritual\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ 2\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\,\\ short\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 7\\ stanzas\\ of\\ three\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ no\\ rhyming\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ door\\,\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ both\\ a\\ physical\\ immigration\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ spiritual\\ journey\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ door\\ itself\\/\\ makes\\ no\\ promises\\/\\ It\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ door\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Vendler\\ writes\\ about\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ another\\ of\\ her\\ poems\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mother\\-in\\-Law\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ that\\ other\\ poem\\,\\ Rich\\ gives\\ no\\ specifics\\ of\\ her\\ social\\ identity\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ by\\ addressing\\ prospective\\ immigrants\\ she\\ identifies\\ herself\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\ was\\ once\\ in\\ that\\ position\\,\\ and\\ is\\ thus\\ an\\ immigrant\\ herself\\.\\ Rich\\ presents\\ the\\ choice\\ to\\ immigrate\\ or\\ not\\,\\ offering\\ the\\ possible\\ outcomes\\ of\\ either\\ decision\\.\\ If\\ one\\ chooses\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ door\\,\\ she\\ warns\\ of\\ the\\ risks\\;\\ having\\ a\\ double\\-consciousness\\,\\ or\\ forgoing\\ your\\ own\\ last\\ name\\ to\\ forge\\ a\\ new\\ identity\\.\\ Rich\\ confirms\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ still\\ lead\\ an\\ honorable\\ life\\ if\\ they\\ choose\\ not\\ to\\ enter\\ through\\ the\\ door\\.\\ You\\ can\\ hold\\ on\\ to\\ your\\ name\\,\\ your\\ family\\,\\ your\\ hometown\\ and\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;live\\ worthily\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;die\\ bravely\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ she\\ warns\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ blind\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\,\\ and\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ greater\\ cost\\ than\\ those\\ incurred\\ by\\ entering\\ through\\ the\\ door\\.\\ You\\ get\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ despite\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ hardships\\ of\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ door\\,\\ she\\ is\\ still\\ happy\\ with\\ her\\ decision\\.\\ Vendler\\ writes\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ actual\\ physical\\ immigration\\ but\\ instead\\ one\\ of\\ a\\ spiritual\\ journey\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;immemorial\\ promise\\ of\\ a\\ better\\ spiritual\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Most\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Rich\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;argument\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ states\\ the\\ two\\ choices\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ consequences\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ choices\\.\\ She\\ guarantees\\ nothing\\,\\ however\\,\\ warning\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ The\\ door\\ itself\\/\\ makes\\ no\\ promises\\/\\ It\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ door\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ leaves\\ the\\ reader\\ at\\ the\\ door\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ decision\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ embark\\ on\\ the\\ journey\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Middle\\-Aged\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 567\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\.20\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ class\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Traditional\\ genres\\ of\\ life\\-stages\\:\\ The\\ childhood\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ of\\ adolescence\\,\\ the\\ coming\\-out\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ love\\-poem\\,\\ the\\ marriage\\ poem\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adolescence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inexperience\\/experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ exclusion\\,\\ of\\ relationship\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ 26\\ lines\\,\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ six\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Light\\/the\\ sun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ tranquility\\ of\\ the\\ house\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fruit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(perhaps\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ tree\\ of\\ knowledge\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\ of\\ Eden\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fruit\\ is\\ what\\ her\\ parents\\ possess\\,\\ it\\ is\\ presented\\ twice\\)\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\house\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ her\\ elders\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\ is\\ still\\ alive\\ today\\ and\\ is\\ an\\ active\\ teacher\\,\\ feminist\\,\\ poet\\,\\ and\\ writer\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ been\\ active\\ in\\ sociopolitical\\ movements\\ since\\ the\\ late\\ sixties\\;\\ perhaps\\ most\\ notable\\ has\\ been\\ her\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liberation\\ movement\\,\\ especially\\ after\\ her\\ estrangement\\ from\\ her\\ husband\\ in\\ 1969\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ declared\\ herself\\ a\\ lesbian\\ in\\ 1976\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;For\\ to\\ be\\ young\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Was\\ always\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ other\\ peoples\\&rsquo\\;\\ houses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Whose\\ peace\\,\\ if\\ we\\ sought\\ it\\,\\ had\\ been\\ made\\ by\\ others\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Was\\ our\\ at\\ second\\-hand\\ and\\ not\\ for\\ long\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Middle\\-Aged\\&rdquo\\;\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ referred\\ to\\ by\\ the\\ title\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ is\\ shown\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ faces\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ voices\\&rsquo\\;\\ measure\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ finally\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ figures\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;All\\ three\\ elements\\ are\\ followed\\ by\\ language\\ of\\ peace\\,\\ tranquility\\,\\ and\\ domestic\\ harmony\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ house\\ of\\ these\\ older\\ people\\ works\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ them\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ sees\\ their\\ faces\\ compared\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Holland\\ tiles\\ and\\ Oriental\\ carpet\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ their\\ figures\\ moving\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Sunday\\ garden\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ this\\ opening\\ sentence\\ introduces\\ the\\ conflict\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ alienation\\ from\\ these\\ people\\,\\ who\\ she\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;afflicted\\,\\ haunted\\ us\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ shifts\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ subject\\ becomes\\ the\\ author\\ in\\ her\\ youth\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ elucidates\\ the\\ strange\\ sense\\ of\\ isolation\\ she\\ introduces\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ sentence\\,\\ describing\\ how\\ she\\ felt\\ alien\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ her\\ parents\\ \\(\\?\\)\\,\\ even\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ distances\\ herself\\ from\\ the\\ calmness\\ of\\ her\\ elders\\,\\ which\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;made\\ by\\ others\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\-hand\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alienation\\ more\\ fully\\,\\ transforming\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ active\\ feeling\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;envy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ introduces\\ her\\ subject\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;we\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\ and\\ links\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ strange\\ verb\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;tasted\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ as\\ though\\,\\ in\\ her\\ adolescence\\,\\ she\\ samples\\ the\\ future\\,\\ has\\ tantalizing\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ possible\\ while\\ also\\ having\\ it\\ held\\ beyond\\ her\\ reach\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ fourth\\ sentence\\,\\ Rich\\ further\\ defines\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ her\\ desire\\,\\ describing\\ all\\ her\\ elders\\ provided\\ for\\ her\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ food\\ and\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ stay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ revealing\\ the\\ one\\ thing\\ she\\ yearned\\ for\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;twenty\\ years\\ of\\ living\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ experience\\ and\\ knowledge\\ of\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fifth\\ sentence\\ takes\\ a\\ darker\\ turn\\,\\ outlining\\ the\\ things\\ her\\ parents\\ hid\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ peace\\ and\\ tranquility\\ is\\ perforated\\ by\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;k\\&rdquo\\;\\ sounds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\oarse\\ stain\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\ra\\<\\/span\\>\\ck\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ letters\\ \\&ldquo\\;lo\\<\\/span\\>\\ck\\<\\/span\\>\\ed\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ dresser\\ drawer\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sixth\\ sentence\\ finally\\ brings\\ Rich\\ to\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ these\\ things\\;\\ she\\ sees\\ the\\ sacrifices\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ peace\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ she\\ admired\\ and\\ envied\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;terms\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ things\\ left\\ \\&ldquo\\;unsaid\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ulysses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(written\\ 1833\\,\\ revised\\ for\\ publication\\ 1842\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Tennyson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 1\\;\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\,\\ The\\ invented\\ persona\\ and\\ its\\ uses\\-\\-satiric\\,\\ literary\\,\\ mythological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Death\\,\\ Hero\\,\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Elegy\\,\\ Dramatic\\ Monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ unrhymed\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Many\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\ are\\ enjambed\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ a\\ thought\\ does\\ not\\ end\\ with\\ the\\ line\\-break\\;\\ the\\ sentences\\ often\\ end\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ end\\,\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ enjambment\\ is\\ appropriate\\ in\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ pushing\\ forward\\ \\"\\;beyond\\ the\\ utmost\\ bound\\ of\\ human\\ thought\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ myth\\,\\ exploration\\/quest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Victorian\\ age\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ written\\ in\\ 1833\\ and\\ revised\\ for\\ publication\\ in\\ 1842\\,\\ Tennyson\\ reworks\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ Ulysses\\ by\\ drawing\\ on\\ the\\ ancient\\ hero\\ of\\ Homer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Odyssey\\ \\(\\"\\;Ulysses\\"\\;\\ is\\ the\\ Roman\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ \\"\\;Odysseus\\"\\;\\)\\ and\\ the\\ medieval\\ hero\\ of\\ Dante\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Inferno\\.\\ Homer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Ulysses\\,\\ as\\ described\\ in\\ Scroll\\ XI\\ of\\ the\\ Odyssey\\,\\ learns\\ from\\ a\\ prophecy\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ take\\ a\\ final\\ sea\\ voyage\\ after\\ killing\\ the\\ suitors\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\ Penelope\\.\\ The\\ details\\ of\\ this\\ sea\\ voyage\\ are\\ described\\ by\\ Dante\\ in\\ Canto\\ XXVI\\ of\\ the\\ Inferno\\:\\ Ulysses\\ finds\\ himself\\ restless\\ in\\ Ithaca\\ and\\ driven\\ by\\ \\"\\;the\\ longing\\ I\\ had\\ to\\ gain\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\"\\;\\ Dante\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Ulysses\\ is\\ a\\ tragic\\ figure\\ who\\ dies\\ while\\ sailing\\ too\\ far\\ in\\ an\\ insatiable\\ thirst\\ for\\ knowledge\\.\\ Tennyson\\ combines\\ these\\ two\\ accounts\\ by\\ having\\ Ulysses\\ make\\ his\\ speech\\ shortly\\ after\\ returning\\ to\\ Ithaca\\ and\\ resuming\\ his\\ administrative\\ responsibilities\\,\\ and\\ shortly\\ before\\ embarking\\ on\\ his\\ final\\ voyage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ also\\ concerns\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ personal\\ journey\\,\\ for\\ it\\ was\\ composed\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ weeks\\ after\\ Tennyson\\ learned\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ dear\\ college\\ friend\\ Arthur\\ Henry\\ Hallam\\ in\\ 1833\\.\\ Like\\ In\\ Memoriam\\,\\ then\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ elegy\\ for\\ a\\ deeply\\ cherished\\ friend\\.\\ Ulysses\\,\\ who\\ symbolizes\\ the\\ grieving\\ poet\\,\\ proclaims\\ his\\ resolution\\ to\\ push\\ onward\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ the\\ awareness\\ that\\ \\"\\;death\\ closes\\ all\\"\\;\\ \\(line\\ 51\\)\\.\\ As\\ Tennyson\\ himself\\ stated\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ expresses\\ his\\ own\\ \\"\\;need\\ of\\ going\\ forward\\ and\\ braving\\ the\\ struggle\\ of\\ life\\"\\;\\ after\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\ Hallam\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ final\\ line\\,\\ \\"\\;to\\ strive\\,\\ to\\ seek\\,\\ to\\ find\\,\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ yield\\,\\"\\;\\ came\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ motto\\ for\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Victorian\\ contemporaries\\:\\ the\\ poem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ hero\\ longs\\ to\\ flee\\ the\\ tedium\\ of\\ daily\\ life\\ \\"\\;among\\ these\\ barren\\ crags\\"\\;\\ \\(line\\ 2\\)\\ and\\ to\\ enter\\ a\\ mythical\\ dimension\\ \\"\\;beyond\\ the\\ sunset\\,\\ and\\ the\\ baths\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ western\\ stars\\"\\;\\ \\(lines\\ 60\\-61\\)\\;\\ as\\ such\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ individual\\ self\\-assertion\\ and\\ the\\ Romantic\\ rebellion\\ against\\ bourgeois\\ conformity\\.\\ Thus\\ for\\ Tennyson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ immediate\\ audience\\,\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ Ulysses\\ held\\ not\\ only\\ mythological\\ meaning\\,\\ but\\ stood\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ contemporary\\ cultural\\ icon\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Ulysses\\,\\"\\;\\ like\\ many\\ of\\ Tennyson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ other\\ poems\\,\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ reach\\ beyond\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ field\\ of\\ vision\\ and\\ the\\ mundane\\ details\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Ulysses\\ is\\ the\\ antithesis\\ of\\ the\\ mariners\\ in\\ \\"\\;The\\ Lotos\\-Eaters\\,\\"\\;\\ who\\ proclaim\\ \\"\\;we\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ roam\\"\\;\\ and\\ desire\\ only\\ to\\ relax\\ amidst\\ the\\ Lotos\\ fields\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ Ulysses\\ \\"\\;cannot\\ rest\\ from\\ travel\\"\\;\\ and\\ longs\\ to\\ roam\\ the\\ globe\\ \\(line\\ 6\\)\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ Lady\\ of\\ Shallot\\,\\ who\\ longs\\ for\\ the\\ worldly\\ experiences\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ denied\\,\\ Ulysses\\ hungers\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ untraveled\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ in\\ all\\ dramatic\\ monologues\\,\\ here\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ emerges\\ almost\\ unintentionally\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ words\\.\\ Ulysses\\&\\#39\\;\\ incompetence\\ as\\ a\\ ruler\\ is\\ evidenced\\ by\\ his\\ preference\\ for\\ potential\\ quests\\ rather\\ than\\ his\\ present\\ responsibilities\\.\\ He\\ devotes\\ a\\ full\\ 26\\ lines\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ egotistical\\ proclamation\\ of\\ his\\ zeal\\ for\\ the\\ wandering\\ life\\,\\ and\\ another\\ 26\\ lines\\ to\\ the\\ exhortation\\ of\\ his\\ mariners\\ to\\ roam\\ the\\ seas\\ with\\ him\\.\\ However\\,\\ he\\ offers\\ only\\ 11\\ lines\\ of\\ lukewarm\\ praise\\ to\\ his\\ son\\ concerning\\ the\\ governance\\ of\\ the\\ kingdom\\ in\\ his\\ absence\\,\\ and\\ a\\ mere\\ two\\ words\\ about\\ his\\ \\"\\;aged\\ wife\\"\\;\\ Penelope\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ words\\ betray\\ his\\ abdication\\ of\\ responsibility\\ and\\ his\\ specificity\\ of\\ purpose\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sunflower\\ Sutra\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 302\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Allen\\ Ginsberg\\ \\(1926\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1997\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Not\\ specifically\\ listed\\,\\ but\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgements\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ lament\\ poem\\,\\ protest\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ partially\\ an\\ ode\\ \\(second\\ half\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ written\\ in\\ free\\ verse\\ of\\ sorts\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ lacks\\ any\\ sort\\ of\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ and\\ has\\ uneven\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ 2\\ full\\ pages\\,\\ but\\ only\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ one\\ stanza\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;split\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ that\\ some\\ lines\\ are\\ indented\\,\\ others\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ elements\\:\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ when\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ looks\\ like\\ an\\ unstructured\\ mess\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ perhaps\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ structure\\ reflects\\ the\\ authors\\ ranting\\ feeling\\ about\\ sitting\\ in\\ a\\ disorderly\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;gnarled\\ steel\\ roots\\ of\\ trees\\ of\\ machinery\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ gray\\ Sunflower\\ poised\\ against\\ the\\ sunset\\,\\ crackly\\ bleak\\ and\\ dusty\\ with\\ smut\\ and\\ smog\\ and\\ smoke\\ of\\ olden\\ locomotives\\ in\\ its\\ eye\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ lots\\ more\\ imagery\\,\\ in\\ almost\\ every\\ line\\ \\(lots\\ of\\ personification\\ of\\ the\\ sunflower\\,\\ too\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ this\\ poet\\ was\\ revered\\ as\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ counter\\-culture\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ spoke\\ out\\ against\\ the\\ war\\,\\ trashed\\ the\\ authorities\\ any\\ chance\\ had\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrote\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ protest\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ perfect\\ beauty\\ of\\ a\\ sunflower\\!\\ A\\ perfect\\ excellent\\ lovely\\ sunflower\\ existence\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ basically\\ Ginsberg\\ lamenting\\ about\\ how\\ technology\\ has\\ destroyed\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ souls\\,\\ and\\ he\\ uses\\ a\\ sunflower\\ to\\ represent\\ his\\ soul\\ and\\ a\\ railroad\\ locomotive\\ to\\ represent\\ technology\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sunflower\\ Sutra\\&rdquo\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ Buddhist\\ religious\\ text\\,\\ raising\\ the\\ sunflower\\ to\\ even\\ holier\\ heights\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ makes\\ constant\\ reference\\ to\\ WIliam\\ Blake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ah\\!\\ Sun\\-flower\\&rdquo\\;\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ three\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ establish\\ Ginsberg\\ and\\ Jack\\ Kerouac\\ as\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ his\\ companion\\,\\ and\\ introduce\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ locomotive\\,\\ which\\ comes\\ to\\ personify\\ the\\ artificial\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ are\\ further\\ alerted\\ to\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ the\\ metropolitan\\ setting\\ when\\ the\\ narrator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ initial\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ sunflower\\ recalls\\:\\ \\"\\;Hells\\ of\\ the\\ Eastern\\ rivers\\,\\ bridges\\ clanking\\ Joes\\ Greasy\\ Sandwiches\\,\\ dead\\ baby\\ carriages\\,\\ black\\ treadless\\ tires\\ forgotten\\ and\\ unretreaded\\.\\.\\.\\ condoms\\ \\&\\;\\ pots\\,\\ steel\\ knives\\,\\ nothing\\ stainless\\,\\ only\\ the\\ dank\\ muck\\ and\\ the\\ razor\\-sharp\\ artifacts\\ passing\\ into\\ the\\ past\\&mdash\\;\\"\\;\\ The\\ filth\\ of\\ humanity\\&\\#39\\;s\\ discarded\\ by\\-products\\ are\\ illustrated\\ in\\ this\\ line\\ and\\ many\\ others\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ \\"\\;rusty\\ iron\\ pole\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;oily\\ water\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ initial\\ setting\\.\\ It\\ recurs\\ as\\ the\\ locomotive\\,\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ sunflower\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grayness\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;artificial\\ worse\\-than\\-dirt\\"\\;\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ the\\ very\\ bane\\ of\\ all\\ existence\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ major\\ shift\\ in\\ tone\\ occurs\\ about\\ halfway\\ through\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ when\\ the\\ narrator\\ suddenly\\ addresses\\ the\\ sunflower\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Unholy\\,\\ battered\\ old\\ thing\\ you\\ were\\,\\ my\\ sunflower\\ O\\ my\\ soul\\,\\ I\\ \\/\\ loved\\ you\\ then\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ Ginsberg\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ not\\ only\\ claims\\ the\\ sunflower\\ as\\ his\\ own\\,\\ but\\ bares\\ his\\ soul\\ to\\ it\\,\\ concluding\\ with\\ the\\ exultant\\ declaration\\ of\\ his\\ love\\.\\ Also\\,\\ he\\ speaks\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ person\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ addressing\\ the\\ sunflower\\ directly\\ \\(then\\ addressing\\ \\&ldquo\\;anyone\\ who\\ will\\ listen\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ complete\\ the\\ nightmarish\\ vision\\ of\\ a\\ machine\\-world\\ inhabited\\ by\\ soulless\\ beings\\ whose\\ bodies\\ are\\ no\\ better\\ than\\ refuse\\,\\ and\\ whose\\ humanity\\ is\\ reduced\\ to\\ the\\ crudeness\\ of\\ obscene\\ four\\-letter\\ words\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;cunts\\ of\\ wheelbarrows\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;milky\\ breasts\\ of\\ cars\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;wornout\\ asses\\ out\\ of\\ chairs\\ and\\ sphincters\\ of\\ dynamos\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ Ginsberg\\ giving\\ a\\ sermon\\ of\\ sorts\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;anyone\\ who\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ listen\\,\\ explaining\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ our\\ skin\\ of\\ grime\\&hellip\\;we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ beautiful\\ golden\\ sunflowers\\ inside\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ sunflower\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ collective\\ soul\\ is\\ tainted\\ by\\ its\\ cover\\ of\\ the\\ grime\\ of\\ modern\\ existence\\,\\ Ginsberg\\&\\#39\\;s\\ final\\ glorious\\ vision\\ reveals\\ his\\ optimistic\\ hope\\ for\\ the\\ enlightenment\\ and\\ salvation\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ \\(FYI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ plagiarized\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ this\\ because\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ confusing\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Procession\\ at\\ Candlemas\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(sorry\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ it\\-I\\ think\\ the\\ 1940\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Amy\\ Clampitt\\-Pgs\\.\\ 417\\-421\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ choices\\ for\\ the\\ third\\ paper\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ mourning\\,\\ feminist\\,\\ returning\\ home\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ an\\ elegy\\ and\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 48\\ stanzas\\ are\\ 3\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ childbirth\\,\\ life\\,\\ death\\.\\ Route\\ 80\\ serves\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;drive\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ through\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ religious\\ imagery\\ and\\ the\\ sacred\\ female\\ of\\ ancient\\ Greece\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ mosaic\\ insult\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ stillness\\ and\\ sorrow\\/\\ of\\ things\\ moving\\ back\\ to\\ where\\ they\\ came\\ from\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ this\\ was\\ under\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ stuff\\ to\\ consider\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ Clampitt\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ bus\\ ride\\ home\\ to\\ visit\\ her\\ mother\\ on\\ her\\ death\\ bed\\ and\\ her\\ thoughts\\ wander\\ throughout\\ the\\ journey\\.\\ She\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ general\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ people\\ traveling\\ home\\-usually\\ because\\ of\\ bad\\ news\\.\\ Clampitt\\ uses\\ travel\\ imagery\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;driving\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ keeping\\ a\\ common\\ theme\\ throughout\\.\\ The\\ female\\ plays\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(remember\\ she\\ is\\ mourning\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ mother\\)\\.\\ Candlemas\\ is\\ the\\ ritual\\ purification\\ of\\ females\\ after\\ they\\ have\\ given\\ birth\\-after\\ 40\\ days\\ they\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ considered\\ impure\\ and\\ can\\ re\\-enter\\ the\\ temple\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ female\\ as\\ bearer\\ of\\ children\\ has\\ been\\ used\\ to\\ oppress\\ women\\ throughout\\ history\\.\\ She\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ ritual\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mosaic\\ insult\\-such\\ a\\ loathing\\/\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ origin\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ However\\,\\ she\\ also\\ brings\\ up\\ ancient\\ Greek\\ goddesses\\ who\\ were\\ worshipped\\ before\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ Christianity\\.\\ Important\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ that\\ Clampitt\\ gives\\ very\\ little\\ information\\ about\\ her\\ own\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ simply\\ describing\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mother\\/\\ curtained\\ in\\ Intensive\\ Care\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ the\\ quality\\ that\\ makes\\ this\\ poem\\ deserving\\ of\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ genre\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ she\\ views\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ life\\-enmeshing\\,\\ birth\\,\\ death\\ and\\ life\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ Most\\ poignantly\\ this\\ is\\ stated\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rest\\-in\\-peace\\ of\\ the\\ placental\\ cord\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ underscored\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanzas\\,\\ when\\ images\\ of\\ death\\ \\(her\\ mother\\ in\\ intensive\\ care\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;bereavement\\ altering\\ the\\ moving\\ lights\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ interrupted\\ by\\ a\\ lively\\ image\\ of\\ Kurdish\\ women\\ \\(the\\ description\\ appeals\\ to\\ several\\ senses\\,\\ making\\ the\\ scene\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;alive\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ covers\\ a\\ large\\ scope\\:\\ it\\ traverses\\ history\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ women\\,\\ it\\ mourns\\ the\\ injustices\\ placed\\ on\\ women\\,\\ but\\ also\\ touches\\ on\\ other\\ injustices\\ faced\\ by\\ other\\ people\\ throughout\\ time\\,\\ and\\ it\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ life\\ experience\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ Despite\\ expanding\\ to\\ such\\ a\\ large\\ scope\\,\\ however\\,\\ Clampitt\\ brings\\ the\\ reader\\ back\\ to\\ her\\ present\\ place\\ and\\ time\\-on\\ a\\ bus\\ in\\ Chicago\\ in\\ the\\ winter\\.\\ She\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ her\\ situation\\-driving\\ home\\ along\\ Route\\ 80\\ to\\ visit\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ intensive\\ care\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Garden\\ \\(1681\\:\\ published\\ posthumously\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Andrew\\ Marvell\\ p\\.\\ 137\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Lecture\\ Oct\\.\\ 16\\ \\-\\ Antecedent\\ Scenario\\,\\ Genre\\,\\ Structural\\ Parts\\,\\ Climax\\ and\\ Closure\\,\\ Speech\\-Acts\\,\\ Grammar\\,\\ Agency\\,\\ Imagination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ Garden\\ poem\\,\\ nature\\,\\ solitude\\,\\ contemplation\\,\\ self\\-discovery\\,\\ body\\-mind\\-soul\\,\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\ form\\:\\ no\\ clear\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ Composed\\ of\\ nine\\,\\ 8\\-line\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ stanza\\ rhymes\\ aabbccdd\\ \\(four\\ couplets\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ greenery\\/plants\\,\\ fruits\\,\\ garden\\ of\\ Eden\\ \\(paradise\\)\\,\\ Apollo\\ \\&\\;\\ Daphne\\,\\ Pan\\ \\&\\;\\ Syrinx\\,\\ body\\,\\ mind\\,\\ soul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Marvell\\ is\\ an\\ English\\ Metaphysical\\ poet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ vainly\\ men\\ themselves\\ amaze\\ \\/\\ To\\ win\\ the\\ palm\\,\\ the\\ oak\\,\\ or\\ bays\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Society\\ is\\ all\\ but\\ Rude\\ \\/\\ To\\ this\\ delicious\\ solitude\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Marvell\\ praises\\ the\\ garden\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ of\\ solitude\\ and\\ spiritual\\ renewal\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ society\\ and\\ public\\ life\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Society\\ is\\ all\\ but\\ Rude\\ \\/\\ To\\ this\\ delicious\\ solitude\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Marvell\\ attests\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ foolish\\ to\\ labor\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ trophies\\ of\\ achievement\\ that\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ parts\\ of\\ trees\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ palm\\,\\ the\\ oak\\,\\ or\\ bays\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ better\\ off\\ having\\ the\\ entire\\ tree\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ Marvell\\ describes\\ how\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;Insnared\\ in\\ flowers\\,\\ I\\ fall\\ on\\ grass\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mind\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;that\\ ocean\\&rdquo\\;\\ capable\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Annihilating\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ power\\ belonging\\ only\\ properly\\ to\\ God\\,\\ but\\ also\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ mind\\ by\\ Marvell\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\soul\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;like\\ a\\ bird\\,\\ it\\ sits\\ and\\ sings\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ are\\ all\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ no\\ only\\ are\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ senses\\ satisfied\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ but\\ so\\ are\\ his\\ mind\\ and\\ soul\\.\\ \\ \\;Parts\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ however\\,\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ Marvell\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ isolate\\ himself\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ wounded\\ soul\\,\\ perhaps\\ afflicted\\ by\\ lost\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ nature\\ as\\ far\\ more\\ beautiful\\ than\\ women\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;No\\ white\\ nor\\ red\\ was\\ ever\\ seen\\ \\/\\ So\\ amorous\\ as\\ this\\ lovely\\ green\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ where\\ white\\ and\\ red\\ typically\\ associated\\ with\\ feminine\\ beauty\\ and\\ green\\ signifies\\ the\\ garden\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ Marvell\\ scorns\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ lovers\\ carving\\ their\\ name\\ into\\ a\\ tree\\ and\\ rewrites\\ genesis\\ without\\ a\\ woman\\ \\(he\\ imagines\\ the\\ garden\\ of\\ Eden\\ without\\ Eve\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ completely\\ satisfied\\ in\\ the\\ solitude\\ of\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ with\\ no\\ women\\ around\\,\\ but\\ dwelling\\ on\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\ perhaps\\ reveals\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ prompted\\ him\\ to\\ isolate\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ His\\ Coy\\ Mistress\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ after\\ his\\ death\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Andrew\\ Marvell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1621\\-78\\)\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ 529\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ First\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ carpe\\ diem\\,\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhymed\\ couplets\\,\\ three\\ stanzas\\ set\\ apart\\ by\\ indents\\ not\\ line\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ creative\\ love\\ imagery\\,\\ decay\\ imagery\\,\\ then\\ love\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ us\\ roll\\ all\\ our\\ strength\\ and\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ sweetness\\ up\\ into\\ one\\ ball\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ tear\\ our\\ pleasures\\ with\\ rough\\ strife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thorough\\ the\\ iron\\ gates\\ of\\ life\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ though\\ we\\ cannot\\ make\\ our\\ sun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stand\\ still\\,\\ yet\\ we\\ will\\ make\\ him\\ run\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanzas\\ are\\ 20\\ lines\\,\\ 12\\ lines\\,\\ 14\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ \\ \\;\\(20\\ lines\\)\\ is\\ exclusively\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ poet\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ treat\\ his\\ mistress\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ most\\ notable\\ image\\ is\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ vegetable\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ vegetable\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ reproductive\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ how\\ long\\ he\\ would\\ adore\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ her\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ all\\ about\\ decay\\ and\\ life\\ ending\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ she\\ waits\\ too\\ long\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;worms\\ shall\\ try\\ \\/\\ That\\ long\\-preserved\\ virginity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ mostly\\ an\\ exhortation\\ and\\ conclusion\\ to\\ the\\ claims\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ carpe\\ diem\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Motivation\\:\\ Get\\ his\\ mistress\\ to\\ sleep\\ with\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Noted\\ for\\ its\\ creative\\ imagery\\ and\\ fine\\ logical\\ persuasive\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ My\\ Dear\\ and\\ Loving\\ Husband\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(mid\\-1600\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anne\\ Bradstreet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ 140\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ just\\ a\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ 6\\ rhymed\\ couplets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ first\\ female\\ American\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Then\\ while\\ we\\ live\\,\\ in\\ love\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ so\\ persever\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ That\\ when\\ we\\ live\\ no\\ more\\ we\\ may\\ live\\ ever\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ trite\\ silly\\ love\\ poem\\ that\\ Shakespeare\\ mocks\\ in\\ his\\ sonnet\\ about\\ his\\ lover\\&rsquo\\;s\\ looks\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ says\\ her\\ love\\ is\\ worth\\ more\\ than\\ gold\\ mines\\ and\\ rivers\\ cannot\\ quench\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ makes\\ no\\ original\\ contribution\\ to\\ its\\ genre\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ really\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ image\\ a\\ question\\ about\\ this\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Her\\ Kind\\ \\(page\\ 209\\)\\ Anne\\ Sexton\\ \\(1928\\-1974\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ostracism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ Extended\\ metaphor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ each\\ containing\\ seven\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ meter\\ varies\\ with\\ some\\ lines\\ in\\ tetramer\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ pentameter\\.\\ The\\ stress\\ layout\\ also\\ varies\\,\\ with\\ stresses\\ other\\ than\\ iambs\\ and\\ trochees\\ found\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ does\\ rhyme\\ however\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ a\\-b\\-a\\-b\\-c\\-b\\-c\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ in\\ all\\ three\\ stanzas\\ is\\ the\\ same\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Hideous\\ Witch\\,\\ Witches\\ environment\\,\\ torture\\ scenes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Came\\ from\\ middle\\ class\\ background\\.\\ Contemporary\\ of\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\.\\ Entered\\ therapy\\ numerous\\ times\\ for\\ difficult\\ behavior\\,\\ infidelity\\,\\ depression\\ and\\ attempted\\ suicide\\.\\ Pulitzer\\ prize\\ winner\\.\\ Became\\ estranged\\ as\\ she\\ grew\\ older\\,\\ separating\\ herself\\ from\\ friends\\ until\\ she\\ committed\\ suicide\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Her\\ Kind\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ extended\\ metaphor\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ excluded\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ non\\-conforming\\ behaviors\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ is\\ identifying\\ with\\ witches\\,\\ which\\ are\\ misunderstood\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ branded\\ to\\ be\\ evil\\ and\\ are\\ treated\\ as\\ such\\.\\ In\\ American\\ history\\ the\\ Salem\\ witch\\ trials\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ mistreatment\\,\\ where\\ hysteria\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ torture\\ and\\ death\\ of\\ many\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ england\\ town\\.\\ This\\ torture\\ is\\ referenced\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ as\\ well\\,\\ through\\ the\\ incorporation\\ of\\ images\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ rack\\,\\ which\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ pull\\ people\\ apart\\,\\ and\\ burning\\ people\\ at\\ the\\ stake\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ gender\\ specific\\,\\ referencing\\ only\\ females\\.\\ Sexton\\ says\\ of\\ a\\ witch\\:\\ \\"\\;\\ A\\ woman\\ like\\ that\\ is\\ misunderstood\\"\\;\\ The\\ title\\ also\\ makes\\ this\\ clear\\ \\"\\;Her\\ Kind\\"\\;\\ stressing\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ roles\\ are\\ often\\ very\\ clearly\\ defined\\ and\\ any\\ deviation\\ from\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ automatic\\ finger\\-pointing\\ The\\ speaker\\,\\ likely\\ referring\\ to\\ Sexton\\ herself\\,\\ really\\ drives\\ home\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ \\"\\;witch\\,\\"\\;\\ by\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ \\"\\;I\\ have\\ been\\ her\\ kind\\"\\;\\ in\\ every\\ stanza\\.\\ Note\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ disgust\\ and\\ sarcasm\\ used\\ in\\ describing\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;witch\\"\\;\\:\\ \\"\\;lonely\\ thing\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;twelve\\-fingered\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lord\\ Randal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Traditional\\ Ballad\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anonymous\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ p\\.\\ 62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ arranged\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ question\\ and\\ response\\,\\ love\\/being\\ killed\\ by\\ your\\ lover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ but\\ pick\\ the\\ dominant\\ meter\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 10\\ \\ \\;four\\ line\\ verses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ vernal\\,\\ death\\,\\ decay\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;O\\ where\\ ha\\&rsquo\\;\\ you\\ been\\,\\ Lord\\ Randal\\,\\ my\\ son\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ And\\ where\\ ha\\&rsquo\\;\\ you\\ been\\,\\ my\\ handsome\\ young\\ man\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ each\\ verse\\ are\\ the\\ mother\\ asking\\ a\\ question\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ two\\ are\\ the\\ son\\ responding\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ each\\ line\\ is\\ always\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mother\\ asks\\ the\\ same\\ question\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ son\\ responds\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fourth\\ line\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ 5\\ verses\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ five\\ verses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ questions\\ and\\ answers\\ reveal\\ that\\ the\\ son\\ has\\ met\\ with\\ his\\ true\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ forest\\,\\ she\\ made\\ him\\ eels\\ and\\ he\\ returns\\ home\\ because\\ his\\ hawks\\ and\\ hounds\\ die\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ realizes\\ he\\ is\\ poisoned\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;verse\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ fourth\\ line\\ changes\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ wearied\\ wi\\&rsquo\\;\\ huntin\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;For\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sick\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ verses\\ describe\\ what\\ he\\ will\\ leave\\ to\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ vengeful\\ note\\;\\ he\\ leaves\\ his\\ true\\ love\\ \\&ldquo\\;hell\\ and\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cuckoo\\ Song\\ by\\ Anonymous\\ P\\.\\ 11\\Genre\\:\\ Nature\\,\\ Spring\\Prosody\\:\\ None\\ whatsoever\\!\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ 12\\ lines\\ in\\ one\\ stanza\\.\\ Most\\ words\\ rhyme\\ with\\ \\"\\;cu\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;nu\\,\\"\\;\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Natural\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ cuckoo\\ bird\\ singing\\.\\Author\\:\\ Anonymous\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ The\\ cuckoo\\ bird\\&\\#39\\;s\\ song\\ is\\ symbolic\\ of\\ the\\commencement\\ of\\ nature\\.\\Also\\,\\ this\\ author\\,\\ like\\ E\\.\\ E\\.\\ Cummings\\,\\ detracts\\ from\\ normal\\structures\\ and\\ recreates\\ words\\ such\\ as\\ through\\ as\\ \\"\\;thru\\.\\"\\;\\ He\\ purposely\\uses\\ the\\ vowel\\ \\"\\;u\\"\\;\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\ to\\ echoed\\ the\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\\\(\\"\\;cucuu\\,\\ cucuu\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ in\\ old\\ old\\ English\\.\\ This\\ poem\\shows\\ spring\\ coming\\ to\\ life\\ through\\ the\\ cuckoo\\ bird\\&\\#39\\;s\\ song\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ My\\ First\\ Son\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1616\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ben\\ Johnson\\ \\(16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ tragedy\\,\\ death\\ of\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\,\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabb\\/\\ \\#1\\ stanza\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ parental\\,\\ world\\ vs\\.\\ heaven\\,\\ grave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ dramatist\\;\\ son\\ of\\ a\\ clergyman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Farwell\\,\\ thou\\ child\\ of\\ my\\ right\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ My\\ First\\ Son\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ father\\ about\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;Jonson\\ is\\ extremely\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ son\\ and\\ this\\ sadness\\ is\\ depicted\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Jonson\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;farewell\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ his\\ son\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ his\\ joy\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ son\\ also\\ means\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;Jonson\\ admits\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ placed\\ too\\ much\\ hope\\ and\\ happiness\\ in\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ his\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ that\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ dead\\,\\ Jonson\\ explains\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;pay\\[ing\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(or\\ suffering\\)\\ for\\ putting\\ his\\ hope\\ and\\ happiness\\ in\\ his\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ how\\ Jonson\\ considers\\ his\\ time\\ with\\ his\\ son\\ a\\ gift\\,\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;seven\\ year\\ thou\\ wert\\ lent\\ to\\ me\\,\\ and\\ I\\ thee\\ pay\\/\\ Exacted\\ by\\ thy\\ fate\\,\\ on\\ the\\ just\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 4\\-5\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;lent\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ both\\ show\\ that\\ he\\ knew\\ he\\ would\\ only\\ have\\ his\\ son\\ for\\ a\\ limited\\ time\\,\\ but\\ also\\ suggests\\ a\\ detachment\\ from\\ his\\ son\\-\\ perhaps\\ Jonson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ pain\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ someone\\ lends\\ something\\ to\\ a\\ person\\,\\ it\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ belonging\\ to\\ the\\ lender\\,\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ Jonson\\ in\\ this\\ case\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\,\\ Jonson\\ does\\ not\\ sounds\\ grateful\\ for\\ the\\ years\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ spend\\ with\\ his\\ son\\ nor\\ does\\ he\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ comforted\\ by\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ tone\\ is\\ desperate\\,\\ disillusioned\\ and\\ depressed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\ Jonson\\ changes\\ his\\ attitude\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ questions\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ death\\,\\ when\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ jealous\\ of\\ his\\ son\\ for\\ being\\ able\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ have\\ so\\ soon\\ \\&lsquo\\;scaped\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ flesh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ shows\\ Jonson\\ discontent\\ with\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Jonson\\ recognizes\\ that\\ his\\ grief\\ for\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ son\\,\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ is\\ in\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ interest\\,\\ because\\ his\\ death\\ has\\ allowed\\ him\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ perils\\ of\\ earth\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ grief\\ is\\,\\ instead\\,\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ a\\ father\\ who\\ has\\ suffered\\ loss\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ Jonson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotions\\ change\\ and\\ he\\ becomes\\ a\\ proud\\ father\\,\\ sharing\\ how\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ best\\ piece\\ of\\ poetry\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 10\\)\\&mdash\\;his\\ greatest\\ accomplishment\\&mdash\\;and\\ hoping\\ that\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ in\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ Jonson\\ creates\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ loving\\ his\\ son\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lik\\[ing\\]\\ him\\ too\\ much\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Loving\\ his\\ son\\ means\\ wanting\\ the\\ best\\ for\\ his\\ son\\,\\ while\\ liking\\ his\\ son\\ too\\ much\\ might\\ cloud\\ his\\ judgment\\ for\\ what\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ the\\ son\\&mdash\\;to\\ be\\ in\\ heaven\\&mdash\\;despite\\ how\\ sad\\ it\\ makes\\ him\\ feel\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Still\\ to\\ be\\ Neat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 299\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ben\\ Johnson\\ \\(1572\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1637\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ not\\ listed\\ specifically\\,\\ but\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 9\\,\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ love\\ poem\\;\\ speech\\ acts\\ include\\ lamentation\\ and\\ commands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ \\&ndash\\;dramatic\\ change\\ between\\ stanza\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stuctural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ AABB\\,\\ marches\\ along\\ steadily\\,\\ split\\ into\\ 2\\ identical\\ stanzas\\;\\ a\\ very\\ \\&ldquo\\;neat\\&rdquo\\;\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ the\\ poets\\ praise\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;simplicity\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ structural\\ elements\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ reflect\\ the\\ simplicity\\ the\\ author\\ so\\ loves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Still\\ to\\ be\\ powdered\\,\\ still\\ perfumed\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ versus\\ \\&ldquo\\;Robes\\ loosely\\ flowing\\,\\ hair\\ as\\ free\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Ben\\ Johnson\\ was\\ a\\ playwright\\ and\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Give\\ me\\ a\\ look\\,\\ give\\ me\\ a\\ face\\ \\/\\ That\\ makes\\ simplicity\\ a\\ grace\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ generally\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ author\\ prefers\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ natural\\ and\\ simple\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ it\\ when\\ women\\ are\\ dressed\\ up\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;powdered\\,\\ and\\ perfumed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ two\\ identical\\ stanzas\\:\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ describes\\ a\\ woman\\ \\&ldquo\\;Still\\ to\\ be\\ neat\\,\\ still\\ to\\ be\\ dressed\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ is\\ gets\\ all\\ dolled\\ up\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;going\\ to\\ a\\ feast\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Note\\ that\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;still\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;always\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;constantly\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ leaves\\ the\\ reader\\ hanging\\,\\ as\\ the\\ author\\ expresses\\ his\\ ambivalence\\ toward\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;neat\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ the\\ time\\,\\ ending\\ the\\ stanza\\ with\\ the\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ is\\ not\\ sweet\\,\\ all\\ is\\ not\\ sound\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ implores\\ the\\ Lady\\ he\\ addresses\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Give\\ me\\ a\\ look\\,\\ give\\ me\\ a\\ face\\ \\/\\ That\\ makes\\ simplicity\\ a\\ grace\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ encouraging\\ her\\ to\\ wear\\ a\\ loose\\ robe\\ and\\ to\\ let\\ her\\ hair\\ be\\ natural\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ this\\ more\\ simply\\ physical\\ appearance\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweet\\ neglect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ such\\ sweet\\ neglect\\ intrigues\\ him\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ th\\&rsquo\\;adulteries\\ of\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(by\\ art\\,\\ I\\ think\\ he\\ means\\ make\\-up\\,\\ dress\\-up\\,\\ hair\\-up\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ ending\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\important\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ \\[meaning\\ all\\ th\\&rsquo\\;adulteries\\ of\\ art\\,\\ or\\ the\\ lady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ appearance\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ paragraph\\]\\ strike\\ mine\\ eyes\\,\\ but\\ not\\ my\\ heart\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ though\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;done\\-up\\&rdquo\\;\\ lady\\ may\\ be\\ aesthetically\\ pleasing\\,\\ he\\ loves\\ beyond\\ the\\ shallow\\ world\\ of\\ clothes\\ and\\ make\\-up\\,\\ and\\ he\\ prefers\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ben\\ Jonson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1616\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ On\\ Gut\\ \\(p\\.\\ 80\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 4\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ satire\\,\\ allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ short\\ satirical\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Venus\\ and\\ Adonis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(after\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ narrative\\ poem\\ of\\ that\\ name\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ababcc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ gluttony\\/sin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Ben\\ Jonson\\ \\(1572\\&ndash\\;1637\\)\\,\\ English\\ Renaissance\\ playwright\\ and\\ poet\\,\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ in\\ his\\ belly\\ can\\ he\\ change\\ a\\ sin\\:\\/\\ Lust\\ it\\ comes\\ out\\,\\ that\\ gluttony\\ went\\ in\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ one\\-stanza\\ satirical\\ and\\ epigrammatic\\ poem\\ describing\\ a\\ lustful\\ glutton\\.\\ Uses\\ a\\ proper\\ stanza\\-form\\ in\\ an\\ ironic\\ manner\\.\\ Somewhat\\ grotesque\\ and\\ raunchy\\ imagery\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;eats\\ all\\ day\\ and\\ lechers\\ all\\ the\\ night\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Africa\\ Says\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Carl\\ Phillips\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ unrequited\\ love\\,\\ morning\\,\\ winter\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ not\\ uniform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ divided\\ into\\ paragraph\\ like\\ parts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ pain\\,\\ decay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poems\\ starts\\ of\\ by\\ telling\\ the\\ reader\\ what\\ not\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ when\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ region\\ of\\ Africa\\.\\ He\\ lists\\ of\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ things\\ and\\ then\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ three\\ stanzas\\ the\\ voice\\ proceeds\\ to\\ describe\\ this\\ old\\ woman\\ who\\ he\\ has\\ probably\\ come\\ across\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ physical\\ appearance\\ lack\\ of\\ finger\\ etc\\.\\.\\ and\\ then\\ connects\\ her\\ physical\\ appearance\\ to\\ the\\ way\\ Africa\\ really\\ is\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ much\\ pain\\ and\\ poverty\\ among\\ other\\ things\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ like\\ the\\ voice\\ is\\ calling\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Africa\\ and\\ help\\ make\\ it\\ better\\ because\\ he\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ urging\\ them\\ to\\ stay\\ ad\\ help\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grass\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1878\\-1967\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Karl\\ Sandburg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ war\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ command\\ poem\\,\\ self\\ definition\\ and\\ narration\\ \\(contains\\ elements\\ of\\ all\\ three\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ there\\ is\\ none\\,\\ but\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ this\\ matters\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ form\\ of\\ poem\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ \\,\\ the\\ physical\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ on\\ the\\ page\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;the\\ stanzas\\ are\\ all\\ very\\ small\\ and\\ short\\ maybe\\ resembling\\ blades\\ of\\ grass\\ themselves\\.\\ No\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ burial\\,\\ war\\,\\ repetitiveness\\,\\ unimportance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ original\\ by\\ giving\\ commands\\ using\\ something\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ usually\\ speak\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ uses\\ grass\\ to\\ survey\\ the\\ sites\\ of\\ the\\ famous\\ battles\\ during\\ the\\ Napoleonic\\ war\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ and\\ world\\ war\\ one\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ basically\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ which\\ past\\ battles\\ are\\ soon\\ and\\ easily\\ forgotten\\.\\ However\\ it\\ is\\ memorable\\ because\\ the\\ poet\\ puts\\ the\\ grass\\ blade\\ in\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ reason\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ command\\ poem\\ should\\ defiantly\\ be\\ mentioned\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ grass\\ blade\\ repeats\\ certain\\ commands\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ like\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;pile\\,\\ and\\ let\\ me\\ work\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ repetition\\ of\\ pile\\ here\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ a\\)\\ it\\ reasserts\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ command\\ poem\\ and\\ b\\)\\ it\\ shows\\ repetitiveness\\ which\\ the\\ author\\ has\\ intended\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ repetitive\\ and\\ never\\ changing\\ \\(\\ war\\ always\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ ending\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ death\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ Couple\\-\\ Charles\\ Simic\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1938\\)\\ p\\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\:\\ The\\ Public\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Protest\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;N\\/A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\No\\ rhyme\\.\\ Uneven\\ lines\\.\\ Four\\ lines\\ per\\ stanza\\,\\ four\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;decline\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ age\\,\\ inevitability\\ of\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ their\\ window\\ stays\\ dark\\,\\/\\ I\\ know\\ that\\ his\\ hand\\ has\\ reached\\ hers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ first\\ hand\\ description\\ of\\ an\\ old\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ and\\ their\\ potential\\ future\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ someone\\ who\\ sits\\ and\\ watches\\ them\\.\\ Each\\ stanza\\ consist\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ subject\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ couple\\.\\ Stanza\\ 1\\:\\ Three\\ potential\\ futures\\ for\\ the\\ old\\ couple\\:\\ Murder\\,\\ eviction\\ or\\ starvation\\.\\ Stanza\\ 2\\:\\ A\\ fourth\\ potential\\ future\\:\\ terminal\\ illness\\.\\ Stanza\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ present\\ time\\ until\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ futures\\ happens\\.\\ Stanza\\ 4\\:\\ What\\ the\\ speaker\\ believes\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\.\\ So\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ change\\ from\\ the\\ potential\\ horrors\\ of\\ the\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ future\\ to\\ a\\ peaceful\\ interim\\ period\\.\\ This\\ decline\\ from\\ the\\ terrible\\ future\\ to\\ the\\ relatively\\ peaceful\\ interim\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ one\\ overall\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ part\\ the\\ speaker\\ plays\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ It\\ is\\ through\\ his\\ eyes\\ that\\ everything\\ I\\ seen\\ yet\\ we\\ know\\ nothing\\ of\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ couple\\.\\ He\\ seems\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ the\\ couple\\ do\\ and\\ think\\,\\ and\\ he\\ knows\\ what\\ their\\ future\\ is\\.\\ We\\ must\\ see\\ the\\ speaker\\/watcher\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;principle\\ consciousness\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Helen\\ Vendler\\ from\\ her\\ book\\)\\ and\\ then\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ protest\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ poem\\ protests\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neglect\\ of\\ its\\ most\\ helpless\\ members\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ modern\\ urban\\ life\\.\\ The\\ act\\ of\\ watching\\ a\\ case\\ like\\ this\\ can\\ happen\\ to\\ anyone\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ it\\ impacts\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ \\(like\\ the\\ watcher\\ who\\ becomes\\ almost\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ old\\ couple\\ as\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ citation\\)\\ we\\ all\\ therefore\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ horror\\ and\\ guilt\\.\\ Now\\ the\\ two\\ \\&ldquo\\;interlocking\\ shapes\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ couple\\ \\(heading\\ for\\ disaster\\)\\ and\\ the\\ watcher\\ \\(speculating\\)\\ makes\\ up\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ We\\ see\\ other\\ poems\\ which\\ also\\ have\\ interlocking\\ shapes\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;Infant\\ Sorrow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(with\\ the\\ baby\\ as\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spatially\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;there\\ are\\ two\\ rooms\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\temporally\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ potential\\ outcomes\\ are\\ exhausted\\,\\ the\\ couple\\ will\\ die\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ or\\ will\\ save\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tichborne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Elegy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1586\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Chidiock\\ Tichborne\\ \\(p\\.\\ 64\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 27\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ As\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ Venus\\ and\\ Adonis\\ stanzas\\ \\(six\\ lines\\ of\\ rhymed\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ababcc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\ in\\ nature\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;leaves\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;corn\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ emptiness\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;spent\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ lack\\ of\\ fulfillment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Chidiock\\ Tichborne\\ \\(1558\\&ndash\\;1586\\)\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ conspirator\\ executed\\ for\\ attempting\\ to\\ assassinate\\ Queen\\ Elizabeth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ refrain\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ now\\ I\\ live\\,\\ and\\ now\\ my\\ life\\ is\\ done\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tichborne\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ on\\ the\\ eve\\ of\\ his\\ execution\\ for\\ conspiracy\\ to\\ kill\\ Queen\\ Elizabeth\\.\\ He\\ did\\ in\\ fact\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ a\\ plot\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ queen\\,\\ which\\ was\\ foiled\\ by\\ Sir\\ Walsingham\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ moving\\ for\\ its\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ cut\\ short\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ centers\\ around\\ emptiness\\,\\ darkness\\,\\ and\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ winter\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;frost\\ of\\ cares\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;saw\\ no\\ sun\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ is\\ fallen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;youth\\ is\\ spent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ explicitly\\ uses\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ having\\ his\\ life\\ \\&ldquo\\;cut\\ short\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ calling\\ up\\ the\\ Greek\\ mythology\\ of\\ the\\ Fates\\,\\ who\\ spin\\ our\\ lives\\ and\\ then\\ cut\\ them\\ off\\.\\ He\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ thread\\ is\\ cut\\ and\\ yet\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ spun\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ also\\ uses\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ an\\ hourglass\\ to\\ symbolize\\ his\\ time\\ running\\ out\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ glass\\ is\\ full\\,\\ and\\ now\\ my\\ glass\\ is\\ run\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ present\\ tense\\ and\\ frequent\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;now\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ refrain\\,\\ makes\\ death\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ immanent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Passionate\\ Shepherd\\ to\\ His\\ Love\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1599\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Christopher\\ Marlowe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ N\\/A\\ \\(from\\ the\\ book\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ pastoral\\ love\\-earthly\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ arguments\\ \\(if\\ read\\ along\\ with\\ Sir\\ Walter\\ Ralegh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Reply\\ to\\ the\\ Shepherd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Six\\ quatrains\\ rhyming\\ aabb\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ pastoral\\ images\\ \\(groves\\,\\ hills\\,\\ fields\\,\\ roses\\,\\ sheep\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Christopher\\ Marlowe\\ is\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ England\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ important\\ dramaturges\\ before\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(Marlowe\\ was\\ an\\ early\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\)\\.\\ He\\ was\\ educated\\ at\\ Cambridge\\,\\ and\\ never\\ married\\.\\ Little\\ is\\ know\\ of\\ his\\ personal\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Come\\ live\\ with\\ me\\ and\\ by\\ my\\ love\\ \\/\\ And\\ we\\ will\\ all\\ the\\ pleasures\\ prove\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\experience\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ belt\\ of\\ straw\\ and\\ ivy\\ buds\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;With\\ coral\\ clasps\\ and\\ amber\\ studs\\:\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;And\\ if\\ these\\ pleasures\\ may\\ thee\\ move\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Come\\ live\\ with\\ me\\,\\ and\\ be\\ my\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marlow\\ introduces\\ his\\ theme\\ using\\ a\\ pastoral\\ setting\\:\\ the\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\,\\ and\\ it\\ narrates\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;speech\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ a\\ Passionate\\ Shepherd\\ \\(a\\ courtier\\ in\\ pastoral\\ disguise\\)\\ tries\\ to\\ persuade\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;nymph\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(an\\ aristocratic\\ young\\ woman\\ playing\\ at\\ being\\ a\\ rustic\\ shepherdess\\)\\.\\ He\\ starts\\ the\\ poem\\ entreating\\ her\\ to\\ go\\ live\\ with\\ him\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ experience\\ all\\ the\\ possible\\ earthly\\ pleasures\\.\\ He\\ then\\ continues\\ with\\ a\\ litany\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ can\\ offer\\ her\\ \\(roses\\,\\ flowers\\,\\ beautiful\\ clothing\\,\\ and\\ what\\ not\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;everything\\ a\\ maiden\\ could\\ have\\ wanted\\ in\\ his\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ author\\ concludes\\ both\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ stanzas\\ with\\ a\\ slight\\ variation\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ these\\ delights\\ thy\\ mind\\ my\\ move\\,\\ \\/\\ Then\\ live\\ with\\ me\\ and\\ be\\ my\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ gains\\ more\\ significance\\ if\\ is\\ read\\ along\\ Sir\\ Walter\\ Raleigh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Reply\\ to\\ the\\ Shepherd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ Ralegh\\ answers\\ that\\ all\\ what\\ Marlow\\ offers\\ the\\ maiden\\ is\\ superficial\\ pleasure\\ and\\ not\\ real\\ love\\,\\ and\\ that\\ time\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;Soon\\ break\\,\\ soon\\ wither\\,\\ soon\\ for\\[get\\]\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\/\\ In\\ folly\\ ripe\\,\\ in\\ reason\\ rotten\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ the\\ earthly\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ offered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jubilate\\ Agno\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 587\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Christopher\\ Smart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 23\\.\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Anaphore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ religious\\,\\ mundane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ he\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poor\\ and\\ so\\ indeed\\ is\\ he\\ called\\ by\\ benevolence\\ perpetually\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Poor\\ Jeoffry\\!\\ poor\\ Jeoffry\\!\\ the\\ rat\\ has\\ bit\\ thy\\ throat\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ I\\ bless\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ Jesus\\ that\\ Jeoffry\\ is\\ better\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ Prof\\.\\ V\\ calls\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;parody\\ of\\ religion\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;analogy\\ of\\ human\\ worship\\ of\\ God\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ presents\\ small\\ details\\ of\\ feline\\ habits\\ and\\ actions\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ considered\\ blessings\\ and\\ elevates\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ social\\ relationships\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;tribe\\ of\\ Tiger\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ service\\ of\\ God\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;keeps\\ the\\ Lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ watch\\ in\\ the\\ night\\ against\\ the\\ adversary\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ cat\\ has\\ principles\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ hygeine\\,\\ mercy\\ towards\\ prey\\)\\,\\ demonstrates\\ obedience\\,\\ and\\ leads\\ a\\ generally\\ content\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\,\\ we\\ can\\ realize\\ that\\ our\\ own\\ blessings\\ are\\ even\\ more\\ elegant\\ and\\ wide\\-ranged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Incident\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1927\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Countee\\ Cullen\\ \\(453\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Political\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ prejudice\\,\\ loss\\ of\\ innocence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcb\\/\\ 3\\ quatrains\\ \\/\\ every\\ other\\ line\\ in\\ indented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ child\\ behavior\\,\\ Baltimore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\ poet\\ during\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Of\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ happened\\ there\\/\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ that\\ I\\ remember\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ an\\ adult\\ looking\\ back\\ on\\ a\\ traumatic\\ event\\ that\\ happened\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ takes\\ us\\ through\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;incident\\&rdquo\\;\\ chronologically\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ events\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ child\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ child\\ is\\ taking\\ a\\ trip\\ to\\ Baltimore\\ and\\ begins\\ by\\ describing\\ how\\ excited\\ he\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ coming\\ to\\ the\\ city\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;heart\\-filled\\,\\ head\\-filled\\ with\\ glee\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 2\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\ arrives\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ he\\ sees\\ a\\ Baltimorean\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ starring\\ at\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ boy\\ smiles\\ at\\ the\\ Baltimorean\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Baltimorean\\ child\\ sticks\\ out\\ his\\ tongue\\ and\\ calls\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nigger\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\ how\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ lived\\ in\\ Baltimore\\ for\\ several\\ months\\ after\\ that\\,\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;incident\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ all\\ that\\ he\\ remembers\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ child\\-like\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ simple\\ diction\\,\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ song\\-like\\ and\\ the\\ innocence\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ being\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nigger\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ complete\\ shock\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\ because\\ nothing\\ that\\ happens\\ previously\\ foreshadows\\ the\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ neutral\\ word\\,\\ does\\ not\\ reflect\\ the\\ horrible\\ nature\\ of\\ what\\ occurs\\ to\\ the\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ song\\-like\\ rhyme\\ and\\ the\\ childish\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ child\\ \\(who\\ smile\\ and\\ stick\\ their\\ tongues\\ out\\,\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ typical\\ childlike\\ behavior\\)\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ expect\\ what\\ ultimately\\ happens\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ rhyme\\-scheme\\ places\\ a\\ further\\ emphasis\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nigger\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ rhyming\\ pairs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ the\\ shock\\ of\\ what\\ happens\\ all\\ make\\ the\\ event\\ stand\\ out\\ more\\ and\\ show\\ the\\ trauma\\ that\\ this\\ caused\\ the\\ boy\\ even\\ years\\ later\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heritage\\ \\(page\\ 206\\)\\ Countee\\ Cullen\\ \\(1903\\-1946\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Understanding\\ Roots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lyric\\/Modern\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ five\\ stanzas\\ of\\ different\\ lengths\\.\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ are\\ the\\ shortest\\,\\ having\\ 10\\ and\\ 8\\ lines\\ respectively\\.\\ Within\\ the\\ stanzas\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ substanzas\\ defined\\ by\\ italics\\,\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ being\\ of\\ 4\\ lines\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ being\\ 12\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ primarily\\ in\\ trimeter\\,\\ with\\ most\\ lines\\ having\\ 7\\ syllables\\.\\ Many\\ lines\\ begin\\ with\\ a\\ dactyl\\ and\\ end\\ with\\ two\\ trochees\\,\\ thus\\ each\\ line\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ a\\ three\\ syllable\\ and\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ two\\ syllable\\ stress\\ markers\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ of\\ couplets\\,\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ a\\-a\\-b\\-b\\-c\\-c\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Natural\\ scenes\\ of\\ beauty\\ \\(Sunset\\,\\ jungle\\)\\,\\ Wild\\ and\\ feral\\ behavior\\ \\(dances\\,\\ wet\\ bodies\\)\\,\\ Fire\\ and\\ heat\\ \\(especially\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Black\\.\\ Adopted\\ by\\ a\\ black\\ minister\\.\\ An\\ important\\ figure\\ in\\ 1920\\&\\#39\\;s\\ New\\ York\\,\\ the\\ black\\ cultural\\ revival\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\.\\ Married\\ and\\ divorced\\ the\\ daughter\\ of\\ WEB\\ Du\\ Bois\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ life\\ was\\ a\\ teacher\\ at\\ local\\ high\\ school\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ the\\ speaker\\ to\\ examine\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ roots\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ was\\ being\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ lifetime\\ of\\ Cullen\\,\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ examining\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ black\\ American\\ with\\ little\\ cultural\\ connection\\ to\\ Africa\\ yet\\ be\\ called\\ by\\ that\\ name\\.\\ The\\ ambiguous\\ connection\\ with\\ an\\ African\\ experience\\ is\\ clearly\\ identified\\ early\\ on\\,\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ italicized\\ portion\\,\\ questioning\\ \\"\\;What\\ is\\ Africa\\ to\\ me\\?\\"\\;\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ speaker\\ shows\\ that\\ he\\ his\\ distant\\ from\\ this\\ concept\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ even\\ though\\ that\\ his\\ ancestry\\ is\\ located\\ there\\.\\ While\\ his\\ \\"\\;dark\\ blood\\"\\;\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ he\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ \\"\\;Great\\ drums\\"\\;\\ are\\ distant\\.\\ He\\ presents\\ Africa\\ as\\ a\\ wild\\ and\\ savage\\ place\\,\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ jungle\\.\\ While\\ he\\ senses\\ the\\ urge\\ for\\ some\\ of\\ those\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ urge\\ to\\ \\"\\;strip\\"\\;\\ or\\ to\\ do\\ \\"\\;the\\ \\"\\;the\\ Lovers\\ dance\\,\\"\\;\\ he\\ feels\\ he\\ should\\ not\\ do\\ so\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ wild\\ ways\\.\\ This\\ is\\ then\\ taken\\ to\\ a\\ religious\\ level\\,\\ whereby\\ he\\ distinguishes\\ himself\\ from\\ his\\ African\\ roots\\ by\\ his\\ realization\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ its\\ higher\\ calling\\.\\ But\\ even\\ within\\ these\\ Christian\\ roots\\ he\\ professes\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ ambivalence\\ is\\ cemented\\ into\\ the\\ speakers\\ thoughts\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ far\\ from\\ his\\ roots\\,\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ feel\\ a\\ calling\\,\\ and\\ can\\ still\\ call\\ them\\ \\"\\;civilized\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Spring\\ Poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dave\\ Smith\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(3\\-26\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ spring\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\ \\;sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\/\\ \\#1\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ auto\\ junkyard\\/car\\,\\ spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ contemporary\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ then\\ is\\ a\\ Spring\\ poem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Spring\\ Poem\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Smith\\ creates\\ a\\ pun\\ on\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;spring\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;instead\\ of\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ weather\\ as\\ a\\ traditional\\ spring\\ poem\\ would\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ a\\ spring\\ in\\ a\\ car\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ auto\\ junkyard\\,\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ atypical\\ scene\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ would\\ expect\\ a\\ spring\\ poem\\ to\\ be\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ an\\ epigraph\\ by\\ Louise\\ Gluck\\,\\ which\\ states\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Every\\ poet\\ should\\ write\\ a\\ Spring\\ poem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Smith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ is\\ an\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\ obligation\\ set\\ forth\\ by\\ Gluck\\,\\ but\\ with\\ a\\ creative\\ adaptation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smith\\ use\\ of\\ heavy\\ enjambment\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ literal\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ between\\ winter\\ and\\ spring\\ that\\ he\\ describes\\&mdash\\;just\\ like\\ the\\ seasons\\ bleed\\ together\\ during\\ the\\ transition\\,\\ so\\ too\\ do\\ his\\ thoughts\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ use\\ of\\ enjambment\\ also\\ furthers\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ conversational\\ or\\ modeling\\ his\\ flow\\-of\\-thought\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ beginning\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ though\\ Smith\\ was\\ addressing\\ Gluck\\ and\\ her\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ Spring\\ poem\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ thoughts\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ poets\\ are\\ for\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 3\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poet\\ describes\\ a\\ rusted\\ car\\ which\\ sits\\ in\\ a\\ junkyard\\,\\ but\\ how\\ despite\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dying\\ \\(rusting\\)\\,\\ it\\ still\\ brings\\ life\\ through\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ sit\\ inside\\ the\\ car\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ imagine\\ couples\\ in\\ the\\ backseat\\ of\\ the\\ car\\ by\\ Smith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ phrases\\ about\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;damp\\ rumps\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ fog\\ and\\ sweat\\ that\\ their\\ actions\\ create\\ on\\ the\\ windows\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ time\\ period\\ is\\ late\\ March\\ and\\ early\\ April\\,\\ which\\ marks\\ the\\ ending\\ of\\ winter\\ and\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ spring\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;weeds\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ make\\ their\\ way\\ up\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ car\\,\\ add\\ to\\ the\\ literal\\ movement\\ and\\ progression\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\&mdash\\;the\\ growing\\ weeds\\ representing\\ growing\\/emerging\\ life\\ characteristic\\ of\\ spring\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ how\\ the\\ spring\\ is\\ still\\ in\\ motion\\ as\\ it\\ shoots\\ out\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;brilliant\\ tooth\\ uncoiling\\ from\\ Winter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tension\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-11\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Together\\ these\\ images\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ spring\\ has\\ come\\&mdash\\;something\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ prevented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Argument\\:\\ On\\ 1942\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1990s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ Mura\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ p\\.\\ 235\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ family\\ and\\ remembrance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 5\\ stanzas\\:\\ 5\\,4\\,4\\,4\\,1\\ lines\\,\\ abcbb\\ deff\\ gghh\\ iiji\\ j\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Japanese\\ internment\\ camps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;generation\\ Asian\\-American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;And\\ she\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ die\\ then\\&hellip\\;after\\ the\\ war\\,\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Paul\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ you\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;Oh\\ I\\ know\\,\\ I\\ know\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ part\\ of\\ your\\ job\\,\\ your\\ way\\,\\ but\\ why\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ you\\ glean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ how\\ far\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ come\\,\\ how\\ much\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recall\\ \\-\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ an\\ argument\\ \\(I\\ believe\\)\\ between\\ the\\ author\\ and\\ his\\ mother\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\ \\(her\\ mother\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ entirely\\ the\\ mother\\ speaking\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ words\\ and\\ attitude\\ of\\ the\\ author\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ inferred\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ tell\\ that\\ the\\ mother\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ bothered\\ by\\ her\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\ while\\ the\\ son\\ is\\ still\\ outraged\\ at\\ the\\ treatment\\ received\\ by\\ his\\ older\\ relatives\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ even\\ tries\\ to\\ blame\\ unrelated\\ events\\ \\(such\\ as\\ his\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\)\\ on\\ the\\ camps\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ starts\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ with\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ towards\\ the\\ camps\\ and\\ her\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ stanzas\\ travel\\ back\\ in\\ time\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ camps\\:\\ in\\ general\\ at\\ first\\ and\\ then\\ what\\ the\\ grandmother\\ did\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ moves\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ camps\\ and\\ goes\\ back\\ towards\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ towards\\ her\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ could\\ stand\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ are\\ symmetric\\ \\(first\\ stanza\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ dash\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ dash\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ ends\\ with\\ an\\ ellipsis\\ \\(to\\ move\\ into\\ the\\ camps\\)\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ begins\\ with\\ an\\ ellipsis\\ \\(leaving\\ the\\ camps\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ \\(one\\ line\\)\\ stanza\\ uses\\ both\\ a\\ dash\\ and\\ an\\ ellipsis\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mother\\ is\\ almost\\ pleading\\ with\\ her\\ son\\ to\\ leave\\ it\\ alone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ recollection\\ seems\\ to\\ put\\ her\\ arguments\\ in\\ a\\ weak\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ seems\\ to\\ imply\\ that\\ the\\ camps\\ and\\ the\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cancer\\ were\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wants\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\,\\ while\\ his\\ mother\\ wants\\ to\\ move\\ on\\,\\ she\\ has\\ let\\ go\\ of\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ the\\ mistreatment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Gulf\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1969\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Derek\\ Walcott\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 272\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\section\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ week\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\.27\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ a\\ section\\ entitled\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ the\\ indictment\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ and\\ a\\ culture\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ also\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Airplane\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\poem\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\race\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Four\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 15\\ stanzas\\ in\\ the\\ first\\,\\ 7\\ in\\ the\\ second\\,\\ 5\\ in\\ the\\ third\\,\\ 2\\ plus\\ one\\ line\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tercets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\terza\\ rima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(aba\\,\\ bcb\\,\\ cdc\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\(perhaps\\ because\\ Walcott\\ sees\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ affairs\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ purgatory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\airplane\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cauldron\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ Gulf\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fire\\/burning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flowers\\/rose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Derek\\ Alton\\ Walcott\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 1930\\ in\\ Castries\\,\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\ \\(an\\ island\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;West\\-Indian\\ poet\\,\\ playwright\\,\\ writer\\ and\\ visual\\ artist\\ who\\ writes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\English\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Wikipedia\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ He\\ won\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ for\\ literature\\ in\\ 1992\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;His\\ work\\,\\ which\\ developed\\ independently\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\schools\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\magic\\ realism\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emerging\\ in\\ both\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\South\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Europe\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ around\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ his\\ birth\\,\\ is\\ intensely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ symbolism\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\myth\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\culture\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;I\\ have\\ no\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;as\\ long\\ as\\ summer\\ bubbling\\ to\\ its\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;boils\\ for\\ that\\ day\\ when\\ in\\ the\\ Lord\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ coals\\ of\\ fire\\ are\\ headed\\ upon\\ the\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;of\\ all\\ whose\\ gospel\\ is\\ the\\ whip\\ and\\ flame\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;age\\ after\\ age\\,\\ the\\ uninstructing\\ dead\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Gulf\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ Derek\\ Walcott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ comprehensive\\ indictment\\ of\\ US\\ culture\\ and\\ racism\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ sixties\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ opens\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ describing\\ the\\ takeoff\\ of\\ his\\ airplane\\ from\\ Texas\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ erects\\ a\\ strange\\ parallel\\ between\\ his\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ airplane\\;\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;fuelled\\ by\\ liquor\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ airplane\\ is\\ fuelled\\ by\\ gasoline\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ liftoff\\ is\\ also\\ related\\ to\\ death\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;divine\\ union\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ proceeds\\ to\\ describe\\ all\\ the\\ material\\ belongings\\ left\\ behind\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ soul\\ detaches\\ itself\\ from\\ created\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ identifies\\ matches\\ \\(the\\ first\\ instance\\ of\\ fire\\ imagery\\)\\,\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ fables\\ by\\ Borges\\ \\(important\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ writer\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ rose\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ remind\\ him\\ of\\ himself\\,\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ his\\ return\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ island\\ suburb\\,\\ forest\\,\\ mountain\\ water\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(St\\.\\ Lucia\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ section\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ also\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ instance\\ of\\ corruption\\/decay\\;\\ upon\\ his\\ death\\,\\ Walcott\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ objects\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ shall\\ \\&ldquo\\;burn\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ shall\\ be\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ petal\\ shriveling\\ from\\ its\\ core\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ close\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ also\\ brings\\ Walcott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ his\\ mind\\,\\ they\\ offer\\ no\\ advice\\ for\\ the\\ living\\,\\ they\\ embody\\ \\&ldquo\\;detachment\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Walcott\\ turns\\ to\\ the\\ turmoil\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ below\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ the\\ land\\ beneath\\ him\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ cauldron\\ boiling\\ with\\ its\\ wars\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ says\\ that\\,\\ from\\ above\\,\\ the\\ earth\\ \\&ldquo\\;again\\ looks\\ new\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ rebirth\\;\\ nature\\ holds\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ healing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ close\\ of\\ this\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ however\\,\\ brings\\ a\\ clearer\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cauldron\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;detached\\,\\ divided\\ states\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;slaughter\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;darkens\\ every\\ summer\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;smoke\\ of\\ bursting\\ ghettos\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sickens\\ the\\ state\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ then\\ relates\\ his\\ own\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ \\(he\\ stayed\\ in\\ Texas\\ for\\ a\\ time\\ but\\ then\\ returned\\ to\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\,\\ his\\ home\\)\\,\\ where\\ he\\ says\\ he\\ initially\\ felt\\ at\\ home\\ because\\ of\\ superficial\\ similarities\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrought\\ balconies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;tropic\\ air\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ legendary\\ jazz\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\ then\\ reveals\\ the\\ discrimination\\ he\\ met\\,\\ his\\ relegation\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;status\\ as\\ a\\ second\\ soul\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ conflict\\ between\\ cultures\\,\\ he\\ says\\,\\ like\\ the\\ gulf\\,\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;daily\\ widening\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ rose\\ and\\ fire\\ arises\\,\\ this\\ time\\ a\\ signal\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ embodied\\ by\\ the\\ Black\\ Panthers\\ \\(he\\ calls\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;stalking\\,\\ moonless\\ panthers\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ hearkens\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;stalking\\,\\ moonlit\\ tiger\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Borges\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\)\\ who\\ turn\\ from\\ God\\ and\\ instead\\ use\\ violence\\ \\(the\\ \\&ldquo\\;X\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ only\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ Passover\\ but\\ also\\ Malcolm\\ X\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ last\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ shortest\\ part\\,\\ Walcott\\ again\\ embraces\\ a\\ wider\\ scope\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ looks\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ gulf\\ from\\ the\\ airplane\\,\\ and\\ see\\ the\\ entire\\ body\\ of\\ water\\ as\\ a\\ massive\\ cauldron\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;the\\ coast\\ of\\ Texas\\ is\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;metal\\ rim\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ a\\ situation\\ of\\ fire\\ fighting\\ fire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;coals\\ of\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\ being\\ used\\ against\\ those\\ \\&ldquo\\;whose\\ gospel\\ is\\ the\\ whip\\ and\\ flame\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ he\\ must\\ flee\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ he\\ censures\\,\\ ultimately\\,\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ discriminatory\\ nature\\ of\\ white\\ society\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ violent\\ response\\ of\\ black\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;age\\ after\\ age\\,\\ the\\ uninstructing\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\ seems\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ lament\\,\\ a\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ human\\ society\\ to\\ evolve\\ and\\ escape\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Season\\ of\\ Phantasmal\\ Peace\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1981\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Derek\\ Walcott\\ \\(105\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ the\\ pleasure\\ of\\ fantasy\\ and\\ allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ birds\\,\\ light\\/dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Caribbean\\ poet\\ who\\ has\\ studied\\ postcolonial\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Only\\ this\\ passage\\ of\\ phantasmal\\ light\\/\\ that\\ not\\ the\\ narrowest\\ shadow\\ dared\\ to\\ sever\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-11\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Walcott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ he\\ uses\\ imagery\\ of\\ several\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ birds\\ to\\ display\\ the\\ coming\\ together\\ of\\ many\\ diverse\\ types\\ of\\ people\\ \\(or\\ species\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ birds\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&mdash\\;geese\\,\\ ospreys\\,\\ starlings\\,\\ and\\ killdeer\\&mdash\\;are\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ migratory\\ birds\\ that\\ nest\\ in\\ colonies\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ these\\ birds\\ are\\ coming\\ together\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ weather\\ must\\ be\\ warmer\\ here\\ than\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ originally\\ from\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ illusion\\ present\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;phantansmal\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ means\\ delusion\\ or\\ imaginary\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ word\\,\\ which\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ and\\ made\\ reference\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;phantasmal\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;shows\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ light\\ that\\ is\\ mentioned\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ exist\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadows\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ are\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ summary\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ suggests\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ everything\\ has\\ been\\ phantasmal\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ they\\ have\\ last\\ longer\\&mdash\\;thus\\ time\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ relative\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ pattern\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ soundlessness\\ of\\ the\\ birds\\.\\ \\ \\;Ironically\\,\\ though\\ the\\ birds\\ \\&ldquo\\;screech\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;caw\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;cry\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;soundless\\&rdquo\\;\\ repeatedly\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ barrier\\ that\\ exists\\ between\\ those\\ trying\\ to\\ hear\\/understand\\ the\\ birds\\ and\\ the\\ birds\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Perhaps\\ because\\ the\\ birds\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ familiar\\ presence\\&mdash\\;they\\ only\\ pass\\ through\\ for\\ the\\ warm\\ season\\&mdash\\;they\\ are\\ not\\ understood\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ superiority\\ present\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ the\\ birds\\ hover\\ over\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[lift\\]\\ up\\ the\\ shadows\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Walcott\\ refers\\ to\\ those\\ below\\ the\\ birds\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wingless\\ ones\\/\\ below\\ them\\ who\\ shared\\ dark\\ holes\\ in\\ windows\\ and\\ in\\ houses\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 29\\-30\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;pity\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;wingless\\ ones\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ that\\ they\\ wish\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ the\\ flying\\ birds\\ ahead\\,\\ but\\ are\\ plagued\\ by\\ suppression\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ language\\ is\\ very\\ dark\\ and\\ dreary\\,\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ long\\ length\\ of\\ each\\ line\\,\\ creates\\ a\\ heavy\\ and\\ depression\\ atmosphere\\ for\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ is\\ described\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ possible\\ interpretation\\:\\ Keeping\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ Walcott\\ was\\ from\\ Caribbean\\ and\\ studied\\ post\\-colonialism\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ imperialism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ birds\\ coming\\ together\\ from\\ various\\ nations\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;multitudinous\\ dialects\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ colonizers\\ who\\ came\\ from\\ many\\ different\\ nations\\ which\\ all\\ have\\ different\\ languages\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ birds\\ are\\ soundless\\ though\\ they\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;twittering\\ tongues\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ be\\ because\\ the\\ natives\\ might\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ colonizers\\,\\ so\\ to\\ them\\ their\\ words\\ are\\ meaningless\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Snake\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1920\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ D\\.H\\.\\ Lawrence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 101\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/4\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Personal\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ No\\ consistent\\ rhythm\\,\\ however\\,\\ within\\ stanzas\\ there\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;hypnotic\\ repeated\\ rhythms\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(PPP\\)\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Was\\ it\\ cowardice\\,\\ that\\ I\\ dared\\ not\\ kill\\ him\\?\\ \\/\\ Was\\ it\\ perversity\\,\\ that\\ I\\ longed\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ him\\?\\ \\/\\ Was\\ it\\ humility\\,\\ to\\ feel\\ so\\ honoured\\?\\ \\/\\ I\\ felt\\ so\\ honoured\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ No\\ consistent\\ structure\\.\\ The\\ stanzas\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ narration\\ of\\ events\\ such\\ as\\ how\\ the\\ snake\\ drinks\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ snake\\ moves\\ to\\ leave\\ are\\ longer\\ than\\ the\\ stanzas\\ written\\ about\\ Lawrence\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feelings\\ and\\ thoughts\\ about\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ blackness\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ snake\\ escapes\\,\\ the\\ snake\\ as\\ threatening\\ versus\\ divine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ author\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ after\\ a\\ similar\\ encounter\\ with\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\ when\\ the\\ author\\ began\\ using\\ free\\ verse\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ break\\ the\\ stereotypes\\ of\\ old\\ poetry\\,\\ at\\ times\\ taking\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ extreme\\ of\\ no\\ rhyme\\ or\\ meter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ deep\\,\\ strange\\-scented\\ shade\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ dark\\ carob\\ tree\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;I\\ came\\ down\\ the\\ steps\\ with\\ my\\ pitcher\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;And\\ must\\ wait\\,\\ must\\ stand\\ and\\ wait\\,\\ for\\ there\\ he\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ trough\\ before\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ author\\ uses\\ his\\ encounter\\ with\\ a\\ snake\\ to\\ explore\\ his\\,\\ or\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ relation\\ to\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ lacks\\ consistent\\ rhyme\\ or\\ rhythm\\ and\\ is\\ structurally\\ scattered\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ moves\\ from\\ only\\ the\\ literal\\ events\\ \\(how\\ the\\ author\\ walks\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ trough\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ snake\\ is\\ drinking\\,\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ snake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ color\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ to\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ voice\\ of\\ his\\ education\\&rdquo\\;\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ For\\ the\\ next\\ few\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ deals\\ with\\ his\\ inner\\ thoughts\\ on\\ why\\ or\\ why\\ not\\ he\\ would\\ kill\\ the\\ snake\\,\\ only\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ as\\ the\\ author\\ describes\\ the\\ snake\\ continuing\\ to\\ drink\\ and\\ then\\ finally\\ move\\ to\\ leave\\.\\ After\\ the\\ author\\ feebly\\ attempts\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\,\\ he\\ returns\\ to\\ his\\ inner\\ emotions\\ about\\ the\\ snake\\ and\\ his\\ actions\\ towards\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ This\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ movement\\ between\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ and\\ his\\ inside\\ world\\ mimics\\ how\\ he\\ moves\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ between\\ his\\ feelings\\ towards\\ to\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ author\\ wavers\\ between\\ fearing\\ the\\ snake\\ and\\ feeling\\ honored\\ by\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ He\\ compares\\ the\\ snake\\ drinking\\ to\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ cattle\\ drinking\\ \\(not\\ so\\ threatening\\)\\ and\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ snake\\ with\\ the\\ personal\\ pronoun\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;someone\\ was\\ before\\ me\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ snake\\ is\\ a\\ person\\.\\ Later\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ common\\ belief\\ in\\ Sicily\\ is\\ that\\ golden\\ snakes\\ are\\ venomous\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ author\\ blames\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ education\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ more\\ generally\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\,\\ for\\ his\\ urge\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ snake\\ that\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;peaceful\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;pacified\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;quiet\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ drinking\\ the\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ as\\ a\\ Second\\ Language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 281\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dionisio\\ Martinez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 8\\,\\ 13\\,\\ 15\\.\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ irregular\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Cuban\\,\\ b\\.\\ 1956\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ thought\\ I\\ heard\\ a\\ murder\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\room\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ radio\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ discusses\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ memory\\ of\\ his\\ childhood\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ father\\ and\\ his\\ friends\\ tried\\ to\\ overthrow\\ the\\ Communist\\ regime\\ \\(and\\ failed\\)\\,\\ and\\ their\\ life\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ secrecy\\,\\ fear\\,\\ and\\ deception\\.\\ \\ \\;Key\\ phrases\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ next\\ room\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ plots\\ were\\ made\\,\\ where\\ the\\ whores\\ made\\ a\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ next\\ room\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ later\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ room\\ next\\ door\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ secrecy\\ in\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;exile\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Do\\ Not\\ Go\\ Gentle\\ into\\ That\\ Good\\ Night\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(194X\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dylan\\ Thomas\\ p\\.20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ additional\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Valediction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Villanelle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aba\\ aba\\ aba\\ aba\\ aba\\ abaa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Death\\,\\ rage\\,\\ father\\,\\ night\\,\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rage\\,\\ rage\\ against\\ the\\ dying\\ of\\ the\\ light\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ Do\\ not\\ go\\ gentle\\ into\\ that\\ good\\ night\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ villanelle\\ is\\ a\\ French\\ poetic\\ form\\ that\\ originally\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ pastoral\\,\\ simple\\,\\ and\\ light\\ verse\\.\\ That\\ Thomas\\ would\\ employ\\ that\\ form\\ for\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ death\\ enhances\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overall\\ irony\\ of\\ beseeching\\ a\\ dying\\ person\\ to\\ rage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ Thomas\\&rsquo\\;\\ call\\ to\\ his\\ father\\,\\ who\\ is\\ in\\ his\\ eighties\\ and\\ has\\ started\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;go\\ gentle\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ to\\ regain\\ his\\ ferocity\\ that\\ Dylan\\ had\\ always\\ seen\\ in\\ him\\ earlier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ part\\ form\\:\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ which\\ introduces\\ Dylan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ refrain\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ villanelle\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ middle\\ four\\ stanzas\\ are\\ a\\ progression\\ through\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;wise\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;grave\\&rdquo\\;\\ men\\ do\\ to\\ still\\ express\\ their\\ liveliness\\ even\\ though\\ death\\ approaches\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ stanza\\ then\\ turns\\ this\\ idea\\ to\\ Dylan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\,\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ fight\\ in\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ ways\\ the\\ four\\ other\\ examples\\ did\\,\\ even\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;fierce\\ tears\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ fairly\\ unilateral\\ thematically\\;\\ it\\ introduces\\ a\\ thought\\,\\ develops\\ the\\ idea\\ and\\ then\\ directs\\ it\\ toward\\ a\\ person\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ main\\ imagery\\ focuses\\ on\\ a\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ brightness\\ and\\ darkness\\,\\ which\\ translates\\ in\\ our\\ minds\\ to\\ life\\ and\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ alternating\\ quickly\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;night\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;day\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ helps\\ center\\ our\\ mind\\ on\\ the\\ transition\\ that\\ Dylan\\ is\\ so\\ concerned\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ villanelle\\ form\\ helps\\ especially\\ well\\ in\\ this\\ matter\\,\\ with\\ only\\ two\\ rhyme\\-sounds\\ that\\ alternate\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\r\\-p\\-o\\-p\\-h\\-e\\-s\\-s\\-a\\-g\\-r\\ \\(page\\ 173\\)\\ EE\\ Cummings\\ \\(1894\\-1962\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Natural\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Concrete\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ concrete\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ prevents\\ it\\ from\\ having\\ any\\ particular\\ prosody\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ discernible\\ meter\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ not\\ divided\\ into\\ stanzas\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ 15\\ lines\\ long\\ and\\ each\\ line\\ has\\ a\\ variable\\ number\\ of\\ syllables\\,\\ some\\ even\\ having\\ one\\.\\ Punctuation\\ is\\ commonly\\ used\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ dash\\ and\\ the\\ paranthesis\\.\\ Capitalization\\ of\\ letters\\ within\\ words\\ is\\ common\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ mispelled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ one\\ image\\,\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ grasshopper\\ hopping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Harvard\\ graduate\\.\\ Held\\ a\\ steady\\ job\\ for\\ only\\ a\\ short\\ period\\ after\\ graduation\\ before\\ going\\ to\\ france\\ and\\ being\\ imprisoned\\.\\ Traveled\\ throughout\\ Europe\\ and\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ authors\\ such\\ as\\ Gertrude\\ Stein\\ and\\ Ezra\\ Pound\\.\\ Believed\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ Romantic\\ that\\ incorporated\\ modernist\\ styles\\ of\\ expression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ purpose\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ more\\ to\\ convey\\ a\\ specific\\ idea\\ or\\ theme\\,\\ is\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ an\\ image\\ through\\ words\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ effective\\ space\\,\\ punctuation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ scrambling\\ and\\ capitalization\\ of\\ words\\,\\ cummings\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ characterize\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ a\\ grasshopper\\ in\\ its\\ natural\\ habitat\\,\\ jumping\\ from\\ one\\ plant\\ to\\ another\\.\\ For\\ example\\ the\\ full\\ capitalization\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ indicates\\ a\\ zooming\\ in\\ of\\ the\\ imagery\\,\\ whereby\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ jumping\\ towards\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ contains\\ the\\ one\\ exclamation\\ point\\,\\ used\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ jump\\ of\\ the\\ grasshopper\\,\\ or\\ as\\ cummings\\ shows\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\l\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;eA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\!p\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ parallels\\ the\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ jumps\\.\\ The\\ speed\\ of\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ exhibited\\ by\\ the\\ scrambling\\ of\\ the\\ letters\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\,\\ with\\ \\"\\;S\\"\\;\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ page\\ and\\ \\"\\;a\\"\\;\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ word\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ spelled\\ differently\\ every\\ time\\.\\ This\\ is\\ done\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ each\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ in\\ its\\ jump\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ different\\.\\ Only\\ the\\ final\\ word\\ is\\ spelled\\ correctly\\,\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ finally\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ stop\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ viewed\\ in\\ a\\ stereotypic\\ fashion\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ properly\\ spelled\\ word\\ should\\ be\\ incorporated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Pleasant\\ to\\ Know\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\-\\ Edward\\ Lear\\ \\(1812\\-1888\\)\\ p\\.232\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ description\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Tetrameter\\/\\ Pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ abab\\ etc\\,\\ 8\\ stanzas\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;indented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ Himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ has\\ many\\ friends\\,\\ laymen\\ and\\ clerical\\;\\/\\ Old\\ Foss\\ is\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ his\\ cat\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ the\\ speaker\\ describes\\ himself\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ emotional\\ or\\ psychological\\ descriptions\\ of\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ only\\ things\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ perceived\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\.\\ So\\ rather\\ then\\ say\\ he\\ is\\ sad\\ he\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ weeps\\ by\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ is\\ interesting\\ in\\ that\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ describing\\ an\\ individual\\ not\\ from\\ an\\ abstract\\ or\\ all\\-knowing\\ standpoint\\ but\\ from\\ another\\ individual\\ in\\ society\\.\\ More\\ interesting\\ though\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ would\\ know\\ everything\\ about\\ himself\\,\\ yet\\ he\\ decides\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ himself\\ from\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ ignorance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ imagery\\ and\\ tone\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ changes\\ from\\ serious\\ descriptions\\ of\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ to\\ ridiculous\\ and\\ amusing\\ descriptions\\ like\\ the\\ citation\\ above\\.\\ So\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ constantly\\ changing\\ from\\ serious\\ to\\ funny\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ ballad\\ form\\ also\\ aids\\ in\\ making\\ the\\ poem\\ seem\\ for\\ light\\ hearted\\.\\ However\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ the\\ tone\\ becomes\\ sad\\ when\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ penultimate\\ stanza\\ where\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ is\\ weeping\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ ending\\ by\\ the\\ describing\\ the\\ immanent\\ death\\ of\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ whose\\ \\&ldquo\\;days\\ of\\ his\\ pilgrimage\\ vanish\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ the\\ opening\\ line\\ and\\ closing\\ line\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ create\\ this\\ image\\ that\\ Lear\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ himself\\ and\\ thinking\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ who\\ he\\ is\\ because\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ society\\ sees\\ of\\ him\\.\\ He\\ is\\ not\\ taking\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ individual\\,\\ but\\ just\\ looking\\ at\\ his\\ social\\ identity\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ creating\\ this\\ image\\ that\\ our\\ personal\\ selves\\ and\\ our\\ social\\ selves\\ are\\ two\\ different\\ entities\\ and\\ here\\ the\\ personal\\ self\\ is\\ looking\\ fondly\\ at\\ the\\ social\\ self\\ who\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ die\\ soon\\,\\ while\\ the\\ personal\\ self\\ lives\\ on\\.\\ Perhaps\\ his\\ age\\ compelled\\ him\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ his\\ worldly\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\anyone\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ pretty\\ how\\ town\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\1940\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ E\\.E\\.\\ Cummings\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 453\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Section\\ week\\ of\\ October\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\&ndash\\;children\\,\\ death\\ and\\ dying\\,\\ nature\\,\\ time\\,\\ human\\ worth\\,\\ love\\,\\ ordinary\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ modified\\ ballad\\ with\\ rearranging\\ refrain\\,\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ trochaic\\ \\(approximately\\)\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\-\\-repetition\\ of\\ lines\\ \\&ldquo\\;sun\\ moon\\ stars\\ rain\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;autumn\\ winter\\ spring\\ summer\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ varying\\ order\\ \\&ndash\\;the\\ lack\\ of\\ capitalization\\ throughout\\ and\\ parenthetical\\ phrases\\ missing\\ spaces\\ \\[ex\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Women\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\men\\(both\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ seasons\\,\\ heavenly\\ bodies\\ \\(stars\\,\\ moon\\,\\ sun\\)\\,\\ lovers\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ name\\ noted\\ on\\ syllabus\\ as\\ Edward\\ Estlin\\,\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ unorthodox\\ usage\\ of\\ capitalization\\ \\(ie\\:\\ extensive\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ case\\)\\,\\ layout\\,\\ punctuation\\,\\ and\\ syntax\\.\\ When\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ correct\\ fashion\\,\\ his\\ poems\\ often\\ paint\\ a\\ syntactical\\ picture\\ as\\ vital\\ to\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ the\\ words\\ themselves\\.\\ Cummings\\&\\#39\\;\\ poetry\\ often\\ deals\\ with\\ themes\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\love\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ nature\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\(also\\,\\ Harvard\\ class\\ of\\ 1916\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\(last\\ stanza\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;Women\\ and\\ men\\(both\\ dong\\ and\\ ding\\)\\ \\/\\ summer\\ autumn\\ winter\\ spring\\ \\/\\ reaped\\ their\\ sowing\\ and\\ went\\ their\\ came\\ \\/\\ sun\\ moon\\ stars\\ rain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ life\\ cycle\\ of\\ a\\ townspeople\\ and\\ of\\ one\\ ignored\\ couple\\.\\ Cummings\\ employs\\ reversed\\ word\\ order\\,\\ almost\\-but\\-not\\-quite\\-nonsense\\ sentences\\,\\ play\\ on\\ words\\,\\ and\\ repetition\\.\\ We\\ get\\ the\\ coming\\ and\\ going\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\;\\ the\\ leading\\ of\\ lives\\,\\ circumscribed\\,\\ sometimes\\ small\\-minded\\,\\ monotonous\\.\\ But\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ yearning\\ and\\ dreaming\\,\\ marriage\\,\\ children\\,\\ joy\\ and\\ hope\\.\\ Woven\\ into\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ townsfolk\\ is\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ \\"\\;anyone\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;noone\\"\\;\\,\\ ignored\\ or\\ even\\ reviled\\ by\\ everyone\\ else\\.\\ Only\\ \\"\\;children\\ guessed\\"\\;\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ falling\\ in\\ love\\-\\-that\\ \\"\\;anyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ any\\ was\\ all\\ to\\ her\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\"\\;\\ Time\\ passes\\,\\ they\\ die\\,\\ they\\ are\\ buried\\ next\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ they\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\,\\ \\"\\;all\\ by\\ all\\ and\\ deep\\ by\\ deep\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ Wish\\ by\\ spirit\\ and\\ if\\ by\\ yes\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structurally\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;anyone\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ pretty\\ how\\ town\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ set\\ out\\ in\\ quatrains\\ with\\ irregular\\ rhyme\\ and\\ internal\\ rhyme\\.\\ The\\ conventional\\ stanzaic\\ pattern\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ conflict\\ between\\ the\\ traditional\\ mode\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ with\\ its\\ traditional\\ conservative\\ values\\,\\ with\\ the\\ the\\ inverted\\ syntax\\ and\\ ungrammatical\\ structures\\ that\\ appear\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(\\&\\#39\\;laughed\\ their\\ cryings\\ and\\ did\\ their\\ dance\\&\\#39\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ reflects\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ themes\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ intuitive\\ spontaneity\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ can\\ experience\\ within\\ the\\ regimented\\ views\\ of\\ mainstream\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ types\\ of\\ lines\\ also\\ alternate\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\;\\ short\\ lines\\ have\\ four\\ syllables\\ and\\ four\\ beats\\,\\ long\\ lines\\ have\\ twelve\\ syllables\\ and\\ four\\ beats\\.\\ \\ \\;Short\\ lines\\ march\\ steady\\ and\\ purposefully\\,\\ while\\ long\\ lines\\ dance\\ a\\ waltz\\ \\(one\\ emphasis\\ every\\ 3\\ syllables\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ contrast\\ is\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ where\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ facts\\ of\\ life\\,\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ nature\\ we\\ all\\ live\\ by\\,\\ repeat\\ and\\ constrain\\ life\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;star\\ rain\\ sun\\ moon\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(6\\,1\\)\\)\\ and\\ the\\ love\\ between\\ noone\\ and\\ anyone\\ enlivens\\,\\ and\\ brings\\ joy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Refrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summer\\,\\ autumn\\,\\ winter\\,\\ spring\\:\\ represents\\ both\\ change\\ and\\ constancy\\ \\(constancy\\ because\\ of\\ repetition\\ of\\ refrain\\,\\ change\\ because\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sun\\,\\ moon\\,\\ stars\\,\\ rain\\:\\ represents\\ daily\\ cycle\\;\\ in\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ suggests\\ possibility\\ of\\ life\\ even\\ after\\ \\&ldquo\\;noone\\&rdquo\\;\\ dies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nineteen\\ by\\ Elizabeth\\ Alexander\\ P\\.106\\Genre\\:\\ Love\\ poem\\,\\ Sex\\ poem\\,\\ War\\ poems\\Prosody\\:\\ Loose\\ hexameter\\Structural\\ Detail\\ No\\ rhymes\\,\\ three\\ stanzas\\.\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Consistent\\ images\\ of\\ marijuana\\ and\\ the\\ 70\\&\\#39\\;s\\.\\Author\\:\\ Lived\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ were\\ 8\\ years\\ old\\ during\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ Alexander\\&\\#39\\;s\\ disturbing\\ memories\\ of\\ summer\\ camp\\ as\\ a\\young\\ child\\,\\ until\\ she\\ turns\\ nineteen\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ her\\ \\"\\;first\\ summer\\away\\ from\\ home\\.\\"\\;\\ However\\,\\ Alexander\\ continues\\ to\\ see\\ this\\ strange\\Vietnam\\ veteran\\ who\\ was\\ her\\ camp\\ counselor\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ Also\\,\\ the\\author\\ uses\\ white\\ imagery\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ beginning\\ and\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\;\\this\\ is\\ interesting\\ because\\ white\\ is\\ a\\ color\\ which\\ symbolizes\\ peace\\even\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ her\\ relationship\\ with\\ a\\ Vietnam\\ veteran\\.\\She\\ also\\ uses\\ foreboding\\ and\\ disturbing\\ images\\ and\\ diction\\ such\\ as\\\\"\\;poison\\-ivied\\ fields\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;musty\\.\\"\\;\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ blatant\\ indications\\ of\\sex\\ when\\ she\\ states\\,\\ \\"\\;he\\&hellip\\;\\ grabbed\\ between\\ my\\ legs\\.\\"\\;\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ only\\indications\\ we\\ have\\ of\\ what\\ war\\ was\\ like\\ at\\ Vietnam\\ was\\ the\\ rain\\;\\ this\\undertones\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ this\\ tragic\\,\\ dramatic\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Do\\ I\\ Love\\ Thee\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1850\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Elizabeth\\ Barrett\\ Browning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 300\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\ \\(Chapter\\ 9\\)\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ mostly\\ of\\ an\\ Italian\\ sonnet\\:\\ abba\\,\\ abba\\,\\ cdcdcd\\ \\(\\?\\ \\-\\ the\\ sestet\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rhyme\\ perfectly\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\ \\;Mostly\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ love\\ thee\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ various\\ realms\\-\\ everyday\\,\\ spiritual\\,\\ idealistic\\ references\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Victorian\\ woman\\,\\ raised\\ in\\ England\\,\\ moved\\ to\\ Italy\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ \\(against\\ her\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wishes\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ was\\ presented\\ in\\ collection\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sonnets\\ from\\ the\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ while\\ she\\ was\\ in\\ Italy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ do\\ I\\ love\\ thee\\?\\ Let\\ me\\ count\\ the\\ ways\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\,\\ section\\ or\\ within\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sonnet\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ discusses\\ her\\ love\\ for\\ him\\ in\\ spiritual\\ terms\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;to\\ the\\ depth\\ and\\ breadth\\ and\\ height\\/\\ My\\ soul\\ can\\ reach\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;everyday\\&rsquo\\;s\\/\\ Most\\ quiet\\ need\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ over\\ time\\,\\ from\\ the\\ love\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;childhood\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faith\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ thee\\ better\\ after\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ hidden\\ or\\ complex\\ to\\ this\\ poem\\ than\\ being\\ a\\ poem\\ of\\ true\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ Fishhouses\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1947\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Elizabeth\\ Bishop\\-Pgs\\.\\ 386\\-388\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 11\\-Poems\\ as\\ pleasures\\-complex\\ pleasures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ personal\\ grief\\,\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ place\\ from\\ which\\ you\\ came\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ changes\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ There\\ are\\ 3\\ stanzas\\-the\\ first\\ and\\ last\\ are\\ very\\ long\\,\\ the\\ second\\ is\\ only\\ 6\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ The\\ fishhouses\\,\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ religious\\ imagery\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Bishop\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ died\\ at\\ an\\ early\\ age\\ and\\ her\\ mother\\ was\\ committed\\ to\\ a\\ sanitarium\\.\\ Bishop\\ was\\ raised\\ by\\ her\\ grandparents\\ in\\ Nova\\ Scotia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ is\\ silver\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ was\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ my\\ grandfather\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ returning\\ to\\ your\\ home\\ after\\ being\\ gone\\ for\\ a\\ while\\.\\ Bishop\\ was\\ raised\\ by\\ her\\ grandparents\\ in\\ Nova\\ Scotia\\.\\ She\\ encounters\\ and\\ old\\ man\\ on\\ the\\ dock\\,\\ despite\\ how\\ cold\\ it\\ is\\ he\\ is\\ sitting\\ outside\\,\\ netting\\,\\ waiting\\ for\\ his\\ boat\\.\\ Her\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ shows\\ her\\ fondness\\ for\\ the\\ place\\ as\\ she\\ describes\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ is\\ silver\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ otherwise\\ impersonal\\ subject\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ positive\\,\\ silver\\ imagery\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ scene\\ shows\\ her\\ affection\\ for\\ the\\ place\\:\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ lobster\\ pots\\,\\ scales\\ of\\ the\\ herring\\,\\ even\\ \\&ldquo\\;iridescent\\ flies\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Bishop\\ breaks\\ the\\ impersonal\\ description\\ when\\ she\\ realizes\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ was\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ her\\ late\\ grandfathers\\-immediately\\ giving\\ her\\ a\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ man\\ while\\ zoning\\ in\\ on\\ a\\ personal\\ grief\\.\\ The\\ break\\ in\\ impersonalized\\ tone\\ is\\ underscored\\ when\\ she\\ offers\\ him\\ the\\ specific\\ brand\\ of\\ Lucky\\ Strike\\ cigarettes\\.\\ Despite\\ her\\ fondness\\ for\\ the\\ place\\,\\ you\\ sense\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;done\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ way\\-all\\ is\\ worn\\ and\\ old\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ date\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ very\\ short\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\.\\ It\\ is\\ Bishop\\&rsquo\\;s\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ ramp\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ ocean\\.\\ This\\ stanza\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ ramp\\,\\ bridging\\ the\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ land\\ and\\ the\\ ocean\\-and\\ allowing\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ travel\\ between\\ to\\ the\\ spaces\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ describes\\ the\\ ocean\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ tongue\\-and\\-cheek\\ exchange\\ between\\ Bishop\\ and\\ a\\ seal\\ about\\ religion\\;\\ despite\\ this\\ cheekiness\\,\\ however\\,\\ it\\ shows\\ Bishop\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loneliness\\ as\\ she\\ walks\\ alone\\ and\\ has\\ no\\ one\\ else\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\.\\ The\\ water\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\ is\\ also\\ used\\ for\\ Baptism\\ imagery\\.\\ Also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ that\\ midway\\ through\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ what\\ was\\ before\\ described\\ as\\ silver\\ is\\ now\\ given\\ the\\ more\\ dismal\\ description\\ of\\ gray\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ clear\\ gray\\ icy\\ water\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rounded\\ gray\\ and\\ blue\\-gray\\ stones\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Bishop\\ also\\ changes\\ her\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\ three\\ times\\,\\ seemingly\\ unsatisfied\\ with\\ each\\ version\\.\\ She\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ more\\ philosophical\\ note\\,\\ using\\ the\\ ocean\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ gaining\\ knowledge\\;\\ something\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ difficult\\ and\\ even\\ painful\\-but\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ to\\ reap\\ the\\ benefits\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ ocean\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\:\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ historical\\ it\\ flows\\-again\\ underlining\\ the\\ water\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sestina\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Elizabeth\\ Bishop\\ \\(pg\\ 392\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ assigned\\ for\\ section\\ 10\\/11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ family\\,\\ love\\,\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ sestina\\ \\=\\ 6\\ six\\-line\\ stanzas\\ and\\ a\\ three\\ line\\ envoy\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ same\\ six\\ end\\ words\\ in\\ each\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ all\\ six\\ words\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ envoy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ six\\ repeated\\ words\\ \\=\\ grandmother\\,\\ child\\,\\ house\\,\\ stove\\,\\ almanac\\,\\ tears\\.\\ Other\\ images\\ are\\ rain\\,\\ flowers\\,\\ tea\\ \\(lexicon\\ of\\ domestic\\ items\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ autobiographical\\;\\ she\\ was\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ her\\ grandparents\\ in\\ novia\\ scotia\\ after\\ dad\\ dies\\ and\\ mom\\ goes\\ permanently\\ insane\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ final\\ envoy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Time\\ to\\ plant\\ tears\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;says\\ the\\ almanac\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ grandmother\\ sings\\ to\\ the\\ marvelous\\ stove\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ the\\ child\\ draws\\ another\\ inscrutable\\ house\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ explores\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ child\\ and\\ a\\ grandmother\\ living\\ together\\,\\ and\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ allows\\ Bishop\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ aspects\\ of\\ their\\ life\\ in\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ combinations\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ Bishop\\ presents\\ the\\ house\\ using\\ the\\ traditional\\ domestic\\ lexicon\\,\\ filled\\ with\\ the\\ grandmother\\,\\ the\\ child\\,\\ the\\ stove\\ and\\ the\\ almanac\\.\\ The\\ last\\ word\\ on\\ the\\ sixth\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;tears\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ contrastive\\ because\\ it\\ implies\\ an\\ emotional\\ state\\ of\\ sadness\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ just\\ being\\ a\\ domestic\\ object\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Following\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;tears\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ grandmother\\ tries\\ to\\ hide\\ her\\ tears\\,\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ poem\\ continues\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ very\\ house\\ itself\\ is\\ exposing\\ her\\ sadness\\ because\\ the\\ condensation\\ on\\ the\\ tea\\ kettle\\ and\\ the\\ drops\\ in\\ the\\ tea\\ are\\ also\\ tear\\-like\\.\\ The\\ child\\ also\\ cannot\\ escape\\ the\\ sadness\\,\\ because\\ as\\ she\\ tries\\ to\\ imagine\\ a\\ perfect\\ house\\ with\\ a\\ father\\ figure\\ to\\ replace\\ her\\ lost\\ father\\,\\ the\\ buttons\\ are\\ his\\ coat\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ tears\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ sadness\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;tears\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ combined\\ with\\ uncanny\\ imagery\\,\\ such\\ as\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ almanac\\ hovers\\ half\\ open\\ above\\ the\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ a\\ terrible\\ fate\\ were\\ about\\ to\\ befall\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fundamentally\\,\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ life\\-implications\\ because\\ like\\ the\\ repeating\\ words\\,\\ life\\ has\\ a\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ aspects\\ and\\ they\\ recombine\\ until\\ they\\ are\\ used\\-up\\ and\\ hardened\\ into\\ your\\ soul\\ as\\ a\\ habit\\.\\ Thus\\ Bishop\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ patterns\\ of\\ loss\\ and\\ sadness\\ that\\ are\\ folded\\ into\\ the\\ house\\ will\\ haunt\\ the\\ grandmother\\ and\\ the\\ child\\ their\\ whole\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remembrance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Bronte\\ 401\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/8\\ Paper\\ topic\\ on\\ patterning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ mourning\\,\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ quatrains\\ rhyming\\ abab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ nature\\,\\ sorrow\\,\\ lost\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ devoutly\\ Catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Once\\ drinking\\ deep\\ of\\ that\\ divinest\\ anguish\\,\\ How\\ could\\ I\\ seek\\ the\\ empty\\ world\\ again\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ mourning\\ her\\ lost\\ love\\ and\\ toiling\\ on\\ his\\ grave\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ all\\ along\\,\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ since\\ his\\ death\\ \\(years\\ ago\\)\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ haunted\\ by\\ thoughts\\ of\\ missing\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ then\\ learn\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ point\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ so\\ hopeless\\ she\\ was\\ suicidal\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ she\\ did\\ not\\ kill\\ herself\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;even\\ Despair\\ was\\ powerless\\ to\\ destroy\\&mdash\\;perhaps\\ due\\ to\\ her\\ religious\\ beliefs\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ she\\ learned\\ to\\ continue\\ living\\ \\(out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;without\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ joy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ she\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ resigned\\ herself\\ to\\ a\\ joyless\\ life\\,\\ for\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ ending\\ the\\ misery\\ through\\ suicide\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ next\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ methodically\\ details\\ how\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ persevered\\ and\\ denied\\ her\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;burning\\ wish\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ die\\,\\ so\\ that\\ she\\ may\\ be\\ reunited\\ with\\ her\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ conflicting\\ desires\\:\\ a\\ childish\\ wish\\ to\\ kill\\ herself\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ her\\ love\\ again\\,\\ and\\ a\\ mature\\,\\ pious\\ voice\\ that\\ denies\\ this\\ wish\\ and\\ controls\\ the\\ suicidal\\ urges\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ learn\\ that\\ the\\ battle\\ between\\ these\\ wishes\\ is\\ not\\ completely\\ won\\ by\\ the\\ mature\\ voice\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ just\\ thinking\\ about\\ her\\ lost\\ love\\ makes\\ her\\ think\\ about\\ killing\\ herself\\ again\\ \\(see\\ citation\\ above\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ narrow\\ Fellow\\ in\\ the\\ Grass\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\~1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\ \\(p\\.\\ 18\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Riddle\\ Poem\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;could\\ also\\ be\\ read\\ as\\ an\\ erotic\\ poem\\ \\(I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ not\\ sure\\ if\\ Vendler\\ interpreted\\ it\\ in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ check\\ your\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimesters\\ and\\ heptameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Six\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ composed\\ of\\ mostly\\ iambic\\ trimesters\\ and\\ iambic\\ hexameters\\ \\(4\\-3\\-4\\-3\\)\\ with\\ minor\\ departures\\ \\(third\\ stanza\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ trimesters\\ only\\,\\ and\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ are\\ trimesters\\ as\\ well\\)\\,\\ the\\ rhyming\\ structure\\ is\\ very\\ subtle\\:\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ fourth\\ have\\ a\\ secondary\\ rhyme\\ \\(weak\\ rhyme\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Narrowness\\,\\ whip\\,\\ Grass\\,\\ boggy\\ acre\\,\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ an\\ implied\\ sense\\ of\\ fear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Born\\ in\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ along\\ with\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ American\\ poets\\.\\ Lived\\ most\\ of\\ her\\ life\\ secluded\\ in\\ her\\ home\\ in\\ Amherst\\ Massachusetts\\.\\ Very\\ prolific\\,\\ wrote\\ more\\ than\\ 1700\\ poems\\ in\\ her\\ lifetime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ never\\ met\\ this\\ Fellow\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Attended\\,\\ or\\ alone\\ \\/\\ Without\\ a\\ tighter\\ breathing\\ \\/\\ And\\ Zero\\ at\\ the\\ Bone\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ Dickinson\\ writes\\ a\\ riddle\\ about\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ She\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ snake\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;narrow\\ Fellow\\ in\\ the\\ Grass\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Grass\\ divis\\ as\\ with\\ a\\ Comb\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ she\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ snake\\ includes\\ a\\ shaft\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Whip\\ lash\\ \\/\\ Unbraiding\\ in\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ also\\ refers\\ to\\ herself\\ as\\ a\\ barefoot\\ boy\\ \\(which\\ \\ \\;might\\ be\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ gender\\ pressures\\ of\\ her\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;not\\ sure\\ about\\ this\\ though\\)\\.\\ The\\ author\\ also\\ finishes\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ the\\ verses\\ with\\ a\\ long\\ dash\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\-\\-\\-\\&ldquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ leaves\\ the\\ author\\ in\\ suspense\\,\\ and\\ since\\ the\\ main\\ topic\\ is\\ a\\ Snake\\,\\ it\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ wants\\ to\\ convey\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ concludes\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ never\\ met\\ this\\ Fellow\\ \\/\\ Attended\\,\\ or\\ alone\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Without\\ a\\ tighter\\ breathing\\ \\/\\ And\\ Zero\\ at\\ the\\ Bone\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ finally\\ unveils\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ Snake\\.\\ The\\ one\\ thing\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ is\\ that\\ Vendler\\ included\\ this\\ poem\\ within\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\ segment\\,\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ sense\\ if\\ what\\ Dickinson\\ does\\ in\\ her\\ poem\\ is\\ write\\ a\\ riddle\\ about\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ However\\ the\\ allusions\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Boy\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ mean\\ that\\ she\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ such\\ themes\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ ascribed\\ to\\ the\\ male\\ gender\\,\\ since\\ women\\ were\\ to\\ stay\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ never\\ go\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ fields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ great\\ pain\\,\\ a\\ formal\\ feeling\\ comes\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 349\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Tombs\\,\\ snow\\,\\ Hour\\ of\\ Lead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Here\\,\\ Dickinson\\ reflects\\ upon\\ what\\ she\\ experiences\\ when\\ a\\ crisis\\ is\\ already\\ passed\\.\\ The\\ only\\ reference\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ that\\ crisis\\ is\\ the\\ phrase\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;After\\ great\\ pain\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ notes\\ that\\ following\\ great\\ pain\\,\\ \\"\\;a\\ formal\\ feeling\\"\\;\\ often\\ sets\\ in\\,\\ during\\ which\\ the\\ \\"\\;Nerves\\"\\;\\ are\\ solemn\\ and\\ \\"\\;ceremonious\\,\\ like\\ Tombs\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ heart\\ questions\\ whether\\ it\\ ever\\ really\\ endured\\ such\\ pain\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ really\\ so\\ recent\\ \\(\\"\\;The\\ stiff\\ Heart\\ questions\\ was\\ it\\ He\\,\\ that\\ bore\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ Yesterday\\,\\ or\\ Centuries\\ before\\?\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ Dickinson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ descriptive\\ words\\ lend\\ a\\ funereal\\ feel\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ The\\ emotion\\ following\\ pain\\ is\\ \\"\\;formal\\,\\"\\;\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ nerves\\ feel\\ like\\ \\"\\;Tombs\\,\\"\\;\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ heart\\ is\\ stiff\\ and\\ disbelieving\\.\\ The\\ feet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Wooden\\ way\\"\\;\\ evokes\\ a\\ wooden\\ casket\\,\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ \\"\\;like\\ a\\ stone\\"\\;\\ recalls\\ a\\ headstone\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ fragile\\ state\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ experiencing\\ the\\ \\"\\;formal\\ feeling\\"\\;\\ by\\ never\\ referring\\ to\\ such\\ people\\ as\\ whole\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ detailing\\ their\\ bodies\\ in\\ objectified\\ fragments\\ \\(\\"\\;The\\ stiff\\ Heart\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;The\\ Feet\\,\\ mechanical\\,\\"\\;\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\"\\;After\\ great\\ pain\\"\\;\\ is\\ structurally\\ looser\\ than\\ most\\ Dickinson\\ poems\\:\\ The\\ iambic\\ meter\\ fades\\ in\\ places\\;\\ line\\-length\\ ranges\\ from\\ dimeter\\ to\\ pentameter\\;\\ the\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ haphazard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ I\\ could\\ not\\ stop\\ for\\ Death\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 345\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ gentlemen\\ suitor\\,\\ schoolchildren\\,\\ Setting\\ Sun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ calmly\\ accepts\\ death\\.\\ She\\ personifies\\ Death\\ as\\ a\\ suitor\\ who\\ takes\\ her\\ on\\ a\\ carriage\\ ride\\ toward\\ eternity\\.\\ This\\ sinister\\ carriage\\ ride\\ marks\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ death\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ taking\\ her\\ by\\ surprise\\,\\ Death\\ and\\ her\\ carriage\\ ride\\ move\\ at\\ a\\ slow\\ controlled\\ pace\\.\\ In\\ stanza\\ three\\ she\\ passes\\ through\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ life\\.\\ The\\ children\\ at\\ recess\\ represent\\ her\\ childhood\\,\\ the\\ Fields\\ of\\ Gazing\\ Grain\\ represent\\ maturity\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Setting\\ Sun\\ marks\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ her\\ life\\.\\ She\\ feels\\ at\\ home\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ death\\,\\ calling\\ her\\ grave\\ a\\ House\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ an\\ interesting\\ observation\\ on\\ Time\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ centuries\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ dead\\ feel\\ shorter\\ than\\ a\\ day\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ comforting\\ portrayal\\ of\\ eternity\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ death\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ endless\\ cycle\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ six\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ or\\ quatrains\\.\\ The\\ first\\ and\\ third\\ lines\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\ are\\ in\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ fourth\\ lines\\ are\\ in\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ felt\\ a\\ Cleaving\\ in\\ my\\ Mind\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 348\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ felt\\ a\\ Cleaving\\ in\\ my\\ Mind\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 348\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sewing\\ imagery\\,\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ describes\\ the\\ disorientation\\ felt\\ as\\ she\\ attempts\\ unsuccessfully\\ to\\ organize\\ her\\ thoughts\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ interesting\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ knitting\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ brain\\ and\\ the\\ trouble\\ she\\ is\\ having\\ thinking\\ clearly\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ images\\ of\\ splitting\\ seams\\ and\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ her\\ mind\\ is\\ not\\ working\\ properly\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;sequence\\ \\[of\\ thoughts\\]\\ ravelled\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\ \\/\\ Like\\ balls\\ upon\\ a\\ floor\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ poem\\ fits\\ into\\ the\\ poems\\ on\\ time\\,\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ how\\ suffering\\ and\\ inability\\ to\\ think\\ clearly\\ has\\ clouded\\ all\\ perception\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ heard\\ a\\ Fly\\ buzz\\&mdash\\;when\\ I\\ died\\&mdash\\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ 189\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/30\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimesters\\ and\\ tetrameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ quatrains\\ rhymed\\ ABCB\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ stillness\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ recluse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncertain\\ stumbling\\ Buzz\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[some\\ FROM\\ PPP\\]\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ showing\\ imagination\\ by\\ speaking\\ posthumously\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ her\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Dickinson\\ is\\ perfectly\\ aware\\ that\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ a\\ Christina\\ out\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ when\\ God\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;King\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ soul\\ to\\ heaven\\,\\ and\\ she\\ shows\\ the\\ mourners\\ waiting\\ precisely\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ last\\ onset\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ instead\\ of\\ God\\ coming\\ to\\ take\\ her\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ reports\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blue\\&mdash\\;uncertain\\ stumbling\\ Buzz\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ inventing\\ this\\ sacrilegious\\ rendering\\ of\\ the\\ conventional\\ \\&ldquo\\;happy\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Christan\\ believer\\,\\ Dickinson\\ re\\-imagines\\ death\\ in\\ a\\ wholly\\ bodily\\ and\\ nihilistic\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ thus\\ incredibly\\ blasphemous\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ themes\\ include\\ loneliness\\&mdash\\;she\\ is\\ accompanied\\ at\\ her\\ deathbed\\ but\\ only\\ really\\ describes\\ the\\ fly\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ rhymes\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 3\\ quatrains\\ are\\ all\\ only\\ half\\-rhymes\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ true\\ rhymes\\ until\\ the\\ final\\ quatrain\\,\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ true\\ completion\\ is\\ only\\ completed\\ with\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ like\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ Lap\\ the\\ Miles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 344\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ eating\\,\\ horse\\,\\ domesticated\\ animal\\,\\ train\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Dickinson\\ makes\\ observations\\ on\\ a\\ train\\ passing\\ through\\ the\\ countryside\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ the\\ train\\ to\\ set\\ out\\ a\\ linear\\,\\ predictable\\ idea\\ of\\ time\\ with\\ a\\ clear\\ beginning\\ and\\ end\\.\\ The\\ most\\ striking\\ thing\\ to\\ notice\\ while\\ reading\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ how\\ Dickinson\\ personifies\\ the\\ train\\ as\\ an\\ animal\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ she\\ uses\\ words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;lap\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;lick\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;feed\\ itself\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ train\\ is\\ an\\ animal\\ feeding\\ on\\ the\\ passing\\ countryside\\.\\ The\\ train\\ continues\\ its\\ journey\\ around\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pile\\ of\\ Mountains\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ through\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Shanties\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ wedged\\ between\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ a\\ Quarry\\.\\ Before\\ going\\ down\\ the\\ hill\\,\\ the\\ extra\\ force\\ the\\ train\\ must\\ exert\\ to\\ climb\\ the\\ mountains\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;complaining\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;hooting\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ train\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\ continues\\ into\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ as\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;neighs\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ a\\ horse\\ as\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;chases\\ itself\\ down\\ Hill\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ lines\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ swift\\ transition\\ when\\ the\\ train\\ abruptly\\ stops\\.\\ Like\\ a\\ well\\-trained\\ animal\\ it\\ has\\ stopped\\ at\\ its\\ stable\\ door\\ and\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;docile\\&rdquo\\;\\ again\\.\\ The\\ journey\\ has\\ ended\\ where\\ it\\ began\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ line\\,\\ Dickinson\\ makes\\ an\\ unusual\\ word\\ choice\\ with\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;omnipotent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ Nobody\\!\\ \\ \\;Who\\ are\\ you\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ posthumously\\ in\\ 1890\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\p\\.\\ 198\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ but\\ pick\\ the\\ dominant\\ meter\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ two\\ quatrains\\,\\ aabc\\ defe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Kind\\ of\\ a\\ shut\\-in\\,\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ poems\\ were\\ published\\ posthumously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ dreary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Somebody\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ How\\ public\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ a\\ Frog\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ To\\ tell\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ livelong\\ June\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ To\\ an\\ admiring\\ Bog\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Very\\ simple\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ she\\ asks\\ questions\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\ and\\ discovers\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ a\\ nobody\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ fears\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ will\\ tell\\ someone\\ else\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ advertise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ know\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ stanza\\ explains\\ why\\ she\\ is\\ happy\\ being\\ nobody\\ \\(the\\ notable\\ citation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ feels\\ that\\ being\\ somebody\\ means\\ you\\ are\\ obligated\\ to\\ everyone\\ else\\ \\(the\\ bog\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ negative\\ view\\ of\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ expands\\ the\\ Time\\ \\-\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 352\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ coiling\\ within\\,\\ contracting\\,\\ Gamuts\\ of\\ Eternities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Dickinson\\ presents\\ us\\ with\\ a\\ paradox\\:\\ that\\ pain\\ expands\\ time\\ and\\ pain\\ contracts\\ time\\.\\ Within\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Circumference\\ of\\ a\\ Single\\ Brain\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ ages\\ drag\\ on\\ as\\ the\\ pain\\ continues\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ medical\\ terminology\\ describe\\ how\\ someone\\ experiences\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Brain\\ \\-\\-\\ is\\ wider\\ than\\ the\\ Sky\\ \\-\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-1886\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 455\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 13\\:\\ Poems\\ speaking\\ about\\ poetry\\ as\\ process\\ and\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generic\\ ballad\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\,\\ trimeter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(4\\-3\\-4\\-3\\ \\=\\ 8\\-6\\-8\\-6\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ generic\\ ballad\\:\\ 3\\ tercets\\,\\ abcb\\;\\ also\\ lots\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&mdash\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ compares\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ sky\\ \\(in\\ width\\)\\,\\ sea\\ \\(in\\ depth\\)\\,\\ finally\\ god\\ \\(in\\ weight\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Single\\ woman\\,\\ largely\\ unpublished\\ during\\ her\\ lifetime\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ title\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ one\\ the\\ other\\ will\\ contain\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ one\\ the\\ other\\ will\\ absorb\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ w\\/\\ god\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ they\\ will\\ differ\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ \\-\\-\\/As\\ Syllable\\ from\\ Sound\\ \\-\\-\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ jist\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ too\\ much\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ further\\ things\\ to\\ think\\ about\\,\\ however\\,\\ include\\ the\\ brain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ transform\\ itself\\,\\ as\\ the\\ brain\\ turns\\ itself\\ blue\\:\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blue\\ to\\ Blue\\&rdquo\\;\\ comparison\\ of\\ brain\\ \\&\\;\\ sea\\ in\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Dickinson\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sponges\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Buckets\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ we\\ are\\ surprised\\ by\\ the\\ simple\\ domesticity\\,\\ and\\ also\\ by\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ sponge\\ and\\ bucket\\ of\\ absorbing\\ slowly\\,\\ perhaps\\ even\\ squeezing\\ into\\ the\\ bucket\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ gives\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ only\\ think\\ and\\ keep\\ thinking\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ absorb\\ it\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ hefting\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ and\\ God\\:\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ strange\\ physical\\ feeling\\ of\\ lifting\\ either\\ the\\ brain\\ or\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;Syllable\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sound\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\ \\;From\\ the\\ ordering\\,\\ Syllable\\ \\=\\ brain\\ and\\ Sound\\ \\=\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ theories\\ suggest\\ that\\ a\\ syllable\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ sounds\\,\\ therefore\\ God\\>\\;brain\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ suggest\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ brain\\ that\\ allows\\ sound\\ to\\ be\\ articulated\\ into\\ syllables\\,\\ therefore\\ brain\\>\\;God\\.\\ \\ \\;Or\\ perhaps\\ they\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ infinitely\\ close\\ in\\ meaning\\,\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ only\\ differ\\ in\\ a\\ tiny\\ amount\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ Day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Night\\ had\\ come\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 349\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Soul\\ as\\ instrument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Dickinson\\ describes\\ the\\ inner\\ torment\\ she\\ experiences\\ from\\ getting\\ over\\ a\\ catastrophe\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ Day\\.\\ The\\ day\\ after\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;thing\\ so\\ terrible\\&rdquo\\;\\ happened\\,\\ Dickinson\\ hopes\\ that\\ she\\ will\\ experience\\ relief\\ and\\ gratefulness\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ survived\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ she\\ tells\\ her\\ soul\\ to\\ sing\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ stanza\\ one\\.\\ Her\\ soul\\ is\\ too\\ damaged\\ by\\ the\\ catastrophe\\,\\ however\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\.\\ She\\ hopes\\ she\\ can\\ mend\\ it\\,\\ yet\\,\\ as\\ the\\ days\\ go\\ on\\,\\ the\\ catastrophe\\ is\\ recurring\\ in\\ her\\ mind\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;tis\\ Years\\ ago\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ Day\\ \\-\\ \\/\\ My\\ Brain\\ keeps\\ giggling\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ still\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ she\\ says\\.\\ No\\ matter\\ how\\ much\\ time\\ has\\ passed\\,\\ she\\ cannot\\ recover\\ from\\ the\\ experience\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\,\\ she\\ thinks\\ she\\ is\\ going\\ mad\\ because\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ this\\ experience\\ is\\ internally\\ tormenting\\ her\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Heart\\ asks\\ Pleasure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ First\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 347\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ Inquisitor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Dickinson\\ divides\\ time\\,\\ here\\,\\ by\\ subjective\\ criteria\\ into\\ different\\ states\\ of\\ life\\.\\ She\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Heart\\ asks\\ Pleasure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ phrases\\ that\\ the\\ heart\\ asks\\ for\\ as\\ life\\ progresses\\.\\ She\\ transitions\\ to\\ each\\ state\\ by\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ then\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ outlining\\ a\\ clear\\,\\ simple\\ progression\\ of\\ time\\.\\ Life\\ begins\\ with\\ Pleasure\\,\\ then\\ excuse\\ from\\ Pain\\,\\ then\\ the\\ easing\\ of\\ suffering\\,\\ then\\ sleep\\,\\ then\\ death\\.\\ She\\ calls\\ death\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;privilege\\&rdquo\\;\\ only\\ granted\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;will\\ of\\ the\\ Inquisitor\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ personifies\\ the\\ Heart\\ into\\ a\\ universal\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ experience\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ simple\\,\\ humble\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ cycle\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Heart\\ Asks\\ Pleasure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ First\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ in\\ 1890\\,\\ date\\ of\\ writing\\ unknown\\)\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-16\\-06\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ prayer\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\,\\ some\\ lines\\ have\\ an\\ extra\\ beat\\,\\ no\\ end\\ rhymes\\ \\(some\\ lines\\ sort\\ of\\ have\\ slant\\ rhymes\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sleep\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;be\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ perhaps\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ stretch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ quatrains\\,\\ note\\ the\\ frequent\\ use\\ of\\ dashes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\,\\ death\\ and\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ female\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Heart\\ asks\\ Pleasure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ \\-\\ \\/\\ And\\ then\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Excuse\\ from\\ Pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Most\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ is\\ paraphrased\\ from\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ analysis\\,\\ pgs\\ 112\\-113\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\PPP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ prayer\\-poem\\ lists\\,\\ in\\ order\\,\\ the\\ five\\ things\\ that\\ the\\ heart\\ requests\\:\\ pleasure\\,\\ excuse\\ from\\ pain\\,\\ anodynes\\ \\(painkillers\\)\\,\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ privilege\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ praying\\ Heart\\ shifts\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;someone\\ demanding\\ pleasure\\ to\\ an\\ abject\\ prisoner\\ craving\\ from\\ God\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ privilege\\ to\\ die\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(112\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ then\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ lines\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ frequent\\ use\\ of\\ dashes\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ Dickinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;blasphemous\\&rdquo\\;\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;inquisitor\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ describe\\ God\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ apparently\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ torturers\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ Inquisition\\ who\\ were\\ called\\ inquisitors\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ stanzas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\,\\ the\\ Heart\\ still\\ seems\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ God\\ might\\ answer\\ its\\ prayers\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ second\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ lost\\ hope\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ certain\\ Slant\\ of\\ light\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(185X\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ p\\.351\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 23\\:\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Depression\\,\\ Death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Alternating\\ trochaic\\ tetrameter\\ \\/\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcb\\ cded\\ etc\\.\\ \\/\\ 4\\ stanzas\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\ ech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Death\\,\\ light\\,\\ shadows\\,\\ winter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ rural\\ New\\ England\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ it\\ comes\\,\\ the\\ Landscape\\ listens\\ \\-\\-\\ \\/\\ Shadows\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hold\\ their\\ breath\\ \\-\\-\\ \\/\\ When\\ it\\ goes\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;tis\\ like\\ the\\ Distance\\ \\/\\ On\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ Death\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dickinson\\ plays\\ with\\ time\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ first\\ three\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ light\\ is\\ frozen\\;\\ we\\ are\\ observing\\ its\\ slant\\,\\ its\\ oppressiveness\\,\\ its\\ emotionality\\&mdash\\;which\\ Dickinson\\ paints\\ bleakly\\.\\ \\ \\;Light\\ is\\ usually\\ a\\ positive\\ symbol\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ reversed\\ entirely\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ divine\\,\\ heavenly\\ qualities\\ other\\ poets\\ usually\\ associate\\ with\\ it\\ are\\ turned\\:\\ now\\ it\\ gives\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heavenly\\ Hurt\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;imperial\\ Affliction\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ slanted\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ winter\\ afternoon\\,\\ but\\ that\\ very\\ slant\\ conveys\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ crookedness\\,\\ imperfection\\,\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\ \\ \\;Contextualized\\ in\\ the\\ season\\ of\\ death\\,\\ these\\ feelings\\ bear\\ down\\ upon\\ Dickinson\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heft\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ in\\ conjunction\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cathedral\\ Tunes\\&rdquo\\;\\ both\\ conjures\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ huge\\ bells\\ and\\ the\\ somber\\ disquietude\\ often\\ created\\ by\\ great\\,\\ solemn\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ redemption\\,\\ and\\ humans\\ cannot\\ overcome\\ it\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;None\\ may\\ teach\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Any\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suddenly\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ the\\ light\\ is\\ unfrozen\\ and\\ we\\ see\\ where\\ it\\ has\\ come\\ from\\,\\ and\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ going\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ shift\\ in\\ time\\ is\\ dramatic\\ and\\ unexpected\\,\\ because\\ we\\ normally\\ do\\ not\\ perceive\\ light\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ scene\\ now\\ eerily\\ resembles\\ the\\ room\\ of\\ a\\ dying\\ man\\,\\ surrounded\\ by\\ his\\ kin\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;hold\\ their\\ breath\\&rdquo\\;\\ waiting\\ for\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ passage\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ light\\ going\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Distance\\ \\/\\ On\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ Death\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ light\\ disappearing\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ dying\\ man\\,\\ fading\\ away\\ as\\ he\\ passes\\ into\\ another\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ define\\ exactly\\ what\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ meaning\\,\\ like\\ any\\ other\\ Dickinson\\ poem\\,\\ but\\ it\\ paints\\ a\\ pessimistic\\ picture\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ finitude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ certain\\ Slant\\ of\\ light\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 351\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ winter\\ afternoons\\,\\ cathedral\\ tunes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\As\\ Dickinson\\ observes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;certain\\ slant\\ of\\ light\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ time\\ is\\ at\\ a\\ standstill\\.\\ The\\ slant\\ of\\ light\\ seems\\ to\\ represent\\ some\\ momentary\\ glimpse\\ at\\ Death\\ or\\ eternity\\.\\ Her\\ use\\ of\\ religious\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphors\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Cathedral\\ Tunes\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heavenly\\ Hurt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Seal\\ Despair\\)\\ evoke\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ this\\ light\\ comes\\ from\\ an\\ unearthly\\ place\\.\\ She\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ light\\ \\&ldquo\\;oppresses\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ giving\\ it\\ important\\ emotional\\ significance\\.\\ The\\ light\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ look\\ at\\ time\\ becomes\\ it\\ cuts\\ into\\ the\\ normal\\ progression\\ of\\ time\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ Dickinson\\ a\\ glimpse\\ into\\ Death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Poem\\ for\\ Myself\\ \\(page\\ 508\\)\\ Etheridge\\ Knight\\ \\(1931\\-1991\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Anthology\\,\\ \\"\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Racial\\ issues\\,\\ Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Song\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Poem\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ one\\ long\\ stanza\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ rhyme\\ structures\\ but\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ lyric\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ repetitions\\ found\\ in\\ quatrains\\ within\\ the\\ stanza\\,\\ of\\ the\\ form\\ abab\\ \\(such\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ lines\\)\\.\\ The\\ meter\\ is\\ generally\\ undefined\\ although\\ it\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ trimeter\\ and\\ incorporates\\ numerous\\ trochees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Mud\\,\\ rural\\ farmyard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\ Black\\ author\\ of\\ the\\ mid\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ Knight\\ served\\ prison\\-time\\ after\\ resulting\\ to\\ crime\\ to\\ preserve\\ addiction\\ to\\ drugs\\ and\\ alcohol\\.\\ He\\ started\\ writing\\ in\\ prison\\ after\\ being\\ visited\\ by\\ Gwendolyn\\ Brooks\\.\\ Was\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ striking\\ elements\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ title\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ two\\ different\\ titles\\ reflect\\ the\\ two\\ different\\ roles\\ the\\ speaker\\ experiences\\ as\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ as\\ left\\ his\\ rural\\ Mississipi\\ home\\.\\ The\\ non\\-parenthesized\\ title\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ speakers\\ own\\ view\\ of\\ his\\ song\\,\\ while\\ the\\ parenthesized\\ title\\ serves\\ as\\ how\\ someone\\ else\\ would\\ view\\ his\\ work\\,\\ especially\\ someone\\ white\\ and\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ the\\ life\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ has\\ lived\\.\\ This\\ title\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ parallelism\\ where\\ the\\ speaker\\ can\\ convey\\ two\\ viewpoints\\.\\ Knight\\ also\\ takes\\ advantage\\ of\\ symbolism\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ true\\ depth\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;Blues\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ \\"\\;mud\\"\\;\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ poverty\\,\\ particularly\\ rural\\ poverty\\,\\ and\\ also\\ for\\ how\\ many\\ black\\ poor\\ go\\ through\\ life\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ and\\ unpleasant\\ to\\ walk\\ through\\ thick\\ mud\\,\\ this\\ man\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ difficult\\ time\\ going\\ through\\ his\\ life\\ events\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ repetition\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ also\\ key\\.\\ The\\ constant\\ usage\\ of\\ certain\\ words\\ provides\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ how\\ the\\ speaker\\ judges\\ his\\ experiences\\,\\ the\\ focal\\ points\\ of\\ his\\ views\\ on\\ things\\.\\ The\\ repetition\\ of\\ the\\ cities\\ and\\ states\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Mississipi\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ City\\,\\ provide\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ contrasts\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ uses\\ to\\ show\\ both\\ his\\ initial\\ ambivalence\\ and\\ his\\ final\\ decision\\ to\\ return\\ back\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ River\\-Merchant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Wife\\:\\ A\\ Letter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(around\\ 1912\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ezra\\ Pound\\-Pg\\.\\ 145\\-146\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 16\\,\\ under\\ describing\\ poems\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ a\\ love\\ poem\\,\\ a\\ letter\\,\\ life\\-stage\\ poem\\ on\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ love\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Trochaic\\,\\ each\\ line\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ downbeat\\.\\ The\\ lengths\\ vary\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 5\\ stanzas\\.\\ The\\ last\\ stanza\\ is\\ the\\ longest\\,\\ telling\\ of\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ present\\ situation\\ missing\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Love\\ and\\ its\\ development\\,\\ loneliness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ desired\\ my\\ dust\\ to\\ be\\ mingled\\ with\\ yours\\/\\ Forever\\ and\\ forever\\ and\\ forever\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ short\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ girl\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ marriage\\ arranged\\ for\\ her\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ fourteen\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ track\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ developing\\ feelings\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\ from\\ childhood\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;adulthood\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ author\\ is\\ sixteen\\ as\\ the\\ letter\\ is\\ being\\ written\\)\\.\\ Her\\ letter\\ is\\ composed\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ river\\-merchant\\ and\\ has\\ been\\ away\\ from\\ home\\ for\\ some\\ time\\,\\ and\\ who\\ she\\ dearly\\ misses\\ and\\ anticipates\\ his\\ return\\.\\ The\\ opening\\ stanza\\ has\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ young\\ girl\\,\\ with\\ hair\\ cut\\ straight\\ across\\ her\\ forehead\\.\\ It\\ has\\ images\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ girl\\ and\\ boy\\ playing\\ in\\ the\\ village\\ \\&ldquo\\;Two\\ small\\ people\\,\\ without\\ dislike\\ or\\ suspicion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ arranged\\ marriage\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\ when\\ she\\ is\\ fourteen\\,\\ she\\ is\\ so\\ shy\\ she\\ cannot\\ even\\ look\\ at\\ her\\ husband\\ during\\ the\\ ceremony\\.\\ By\\ fifteen\\ her\\ love\\ and\\ attachment\\ for\\ him\\ has\\ grown\\.\\ At\\ sixteen\\ he\\ must\\ leave\\ for\\ his\\ job\\ and\\ her\\ love\\ for\\ him\\ is\\ so\\ great\\ that\\ she\\ cannot\\ stand\\ his\\ absence\\ for\\ such\\ a\\ long\\ time\\.\\ She\\ longs\\ to\\ hear\\ from\\ him\\ and\\ find\\ where\\ he\\ is\\ and\\ when\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ home\\,\\ offering\\ to\\ walk\\ hundreds\\ of\\ miles\\ to\\ meet\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ major\\ image\\/theme\\ is\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ love\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ she\\ is\\ an\\ innocent\\,\\ unsuspecting\\ child\\ playing\\.\\ When\\ she\\ is\\ to\\ marry\\ she\\ is\\ shy\\,\\ lowering\\ her\\ head\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ never\\ laughed\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Also\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ she\\ refers\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\-to\\-be\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ Lord\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ At\\ fifteen\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ stopped\\ scowling\\&rdquo\\;\\ shows\\ her\\ softening\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ The\\ quote\\ above\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ desired\\ my\\ dust\\ to\\ be\\ mingled\\ with\\ yours\\/\\ Forever\\ and\\ forever\\ and\\ forever\\&rdquo\\;\\ shows\\ not\\ only\\ her\\ growing\\ attachment\\ but\\ the\\ repetition\\ echoes\\ and\\ emphasizes\\ her\\ previous\\ marriage\\ vows\\,\\ underscoring\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ her\\ feelings\\.\\ The\\ last\\ two\\ stanzas\\ describe\\ her\\ loneliness\\ at\\ his\\ absence\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ monkeys\\ make\\ sorrowful\\ noise\\ overhead\\&rdquo\\;\\-this\\ image\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ display\\ her\\ loneliness\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ monkey\\ noise\\ is\\ generally\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ chipper\\ shows\\ how\\ she\\ is\\ taking\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ this\\ lens\\ of\\ loneliness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1977\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gary\\ Soto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\.08\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ chapter\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ examined\\ in\\ class\\/section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grandma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ poem\\ about\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\limited\\ knowledge\\ of\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mexican\\-American\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ first\\ with\\ 11\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ 3\\ sentences\\)\\,\\ the\\ second\\ with\\ 22\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ 2\\ sentences\\)\\,\\ the\\ third\\ with\\ 29\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ 5\\ sentences\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ domestic\\ images\\,\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ an\\ agricultural\\ worker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Gary\\ Soto\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 1952\\ in\\ Fresno\\,\\ California\\ to\\ working\\-class\\ Mexican\\-American\\ parents\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ father\\ was\\ killed\\ in\\ a\\ factory\\ incident\\ \\(which\\ may\\ be\\ what\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ when\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ his\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\ son\\ \\/\\ dropped\\ from\\ a\\ ladder\\ \\/\\ and\\ was\\ dust\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ when\\ Soto\\ was\\ 11\\ years\\ old\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ of\\ his\\ works\\ describe\\ the\\ harsh\\ conditions\\ of\\ life\\ for\\ Mexican\\ Americans\\ in\\ Central\\ Valley\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ remember\\ her\\ insides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Were\\ washed\\ of\\ tapeworm\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Her\\ arms\\ swelled\\ into\\ knobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Of\\ small\\ growths\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ relatively\\ simple\\ language\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ language\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ story\\&rsquo\\;s\\ of\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;history\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ related\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ stories\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ her\\ fifties\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ fifties\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ her\\ going\\ about\\ simple\\ domestic\\ tasks\\;\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Grandma\\ lit\\ the\\ stove\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ can\\ tell\\ she\\ is\\ probably\\ a\\ recent\\ immigrant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ uses\\ a\\ stone\\ \\&ldquo\\;brought\\ from\\ Guadalajara\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ and\\,\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ counts\\ her\\ money\\ in\\ both\\ Spanish\\ and\\ English\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ struggling\\ economic\\ status\\ becomes\\ clear\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ when\\ Soto\\ describes\\ how\\ she\\ hides\\ her\\ money\\ and\\ steals\\ goods\\ from\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ Soto\\ begins\\ to\\ more\\ actively\\ reflect\\ upon\\ what\\ he\\ knows\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ reveals\\ she\\ was\\ probably\\ a\\ migrant\\ worker\\ \\(she\\ cut\\ grapes\\ and\\ boxed\\ plums\\)\\ and\\ also\\ describes\\ what\\ he\\ remembers\\ of\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ her\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ physical\\ pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;arms\\ swelled\\ into\\ knobs\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ insides\\ \\&ldquo\\;washed\\ of\\ tapeworm\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ emotional\\ pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ son\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;dropped\\ from\\ a\\ ladder\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ write\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ know\\,\\ first\\ sad\\,\\ dark\\ things\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;sorrows\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tear\\&rdquo\\;\\ falling\\ down\\ her\\ cheek\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ unknown\\ he\\ mentions\\,\\ her\\ shining\\ face\\,\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ positive\\ image\\,\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ strength\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ her\\ hardship\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soto\\ closes\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ the\\ admission\\ that\\ all\\ he\\ knows\\ are\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ stories\\ he\\ hears\\ are\\ stories\\ of\\ triumph\\,\\ stories\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pulled\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ grandmother\\ from\\ Mexico\\ to\\ her\\ new\\ life\\ in\\ California\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ stories\\,\\ he\\ announces\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ are\\ stories\\ of\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ all\\ begin\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\ and\\ her\\ past\\ to\\ his\\ joint\\ identity\\ as\\ a\\ Mexican\\ and\\ US\\ citizen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Easter\\ Wings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ George\\ Herbert\\ \\(136\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Date\\ unsure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Module\\ \\(Describing\\ Poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Prayer\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shaped\\ poem\\ \\(its\\ physically\\ resembles\\ its\\ subject\\ matter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Varying\\ line\\ lengths\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ meter\\ varies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Two\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 10\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ They\\ are\\ shaped\\ like\\ hourglasses\\ with\\ the\\ smallest\\ lines\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ stanza\\ and\\ the\\ longest\\ lines\\ being\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ the\\ last\\.\\ Form\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ to\\ understand\\ \\(pg\\ 136\\-37\\)\\ how\\ the\\ author\\ utilizes\\ structure\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Wings\\,\\ God\\,\\ flight\\,\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ dichotomy\\,\\ sickness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\,\\ if\\ I\\ imp\\ my\\ wing\\ on\\ thine\\ \\/\\ Affliction\\ shall\\ advance\\ the\\ flight\\ in\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ shaped\\ poem\\ its\\ interpretation\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ its\\ structure\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\ Herbert\\ addresses\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creation\\ of\\ man\\ and\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subsequent\\ fall\\ from\\ grace\\ and\\ distancing\\ from\\ God\\.\\ As\\ man\\ distanced\\ himself\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ becomes\\ thinner\\ and\\ thinner\\ culminating\\ in\\ the\\ lines\\ \\&ldquo\\;Most\\ poor\\:\\ \\/With\\ thee\\&rdquo\\;\\ until\\ Herbert\\ remarks\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ let\\ me\\ rise\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ as\\ he\\ asks\\ to\\ be\\ closer\\ to\\ God\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ too\\ expands\\.\\ The\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ poems\\ stanzas\\ are\\ two\\ large\\ wings\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ ultimately\\ what\\ Herbert\\ is\\ asking\\ for\\ \\(the\\ ability\\ to\\ ascend\\ and\\ be\\ closer\\ with\\ god\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ Herbert\\ stops\\ speaking\\ generally\\ about\\ mankind\\ and\\ focuses\\ on\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ own\\ deteriorating\\ relationship\\ with\\ God\\ but\\ just\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ asks\\ if\\ he\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;imp\\ my\\ wing\\ on\\ thine\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ improve\\ his\\ own\\ flight\\ toward\\ redemption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Love\\ \\(III\\)\\ by\\ George\\ Herbert\\ P\\.66\\Genre\\:\\ Love\\ poems\\Prosody\\:\\ Fluctuations\\ between\\ pentameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ Three\\ Stanzas\\,\\ six\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ Rhyme\\ scheme\\ ababcc\\.\\Every\\ line\\ of\\ trimeter\\ is\\ dramatically\\ indented\\.\\ Also\\,\\ dialogue\\between\\ \\"\\;I\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Love\\.\\"\\;\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Religious\\ imagery\\,\\ we\\ discover\\ Love\\ \\=\\ Lord\\.\\Author\\:\\ Herbert\\ is\\ very\\ resistant\\ toward\\ love\\.\\ Discusses\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\a\\ playful\\ way\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ Herbert\\ consistently\\ spatially\\ orients\\ himself\\ away\\from\\ love\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ He\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ comically\\ through\\saying\\,\\ \\"\\;taste\\ my\\ meat\\.\\"\\;\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ playful\\ and\\ lighthearted\\ poem\\ that\\ exposes\\ Herbert\\&\\#39\\;s\\resistance\\ towards\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ love\\.\\ His\\ diction\\ could\\ be\\ described\\ as\\simplistic\\ as\\ he\\ uses\\ many\\ monosyllabic\\ and\\ basic\\ words\\;\\ these\\ basic\\words\\ reflect\\ Herbert\\&\\#39\\;s\\ simple\\ hesitant\\ attitude\\ toward\\ love\\.\\ He\\ also\\uses\\ religious\\ diction\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;spirit\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;sin\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Lord\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ is\\directly\\ related\\ to\\ his\\ perception\\ of\\ love\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ he\\consistently\\ capitalizes\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Love\\"\\;\\ and\\ personifies\\ Love\\ through\\dialogue\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Herbert\\ addresses\\ Love\\ as\\ \\"\\;Lord\\;\\"\\;\\this\\ explicitly\\ reveals\\ that\\ he\\ believes\\ Love\\ to\\ be\\ directly\\ tied\\ to\\the\\ Lord\\.\\ Also\\,\\ this\\ is\\ further\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ choice\\ of\\ the\\ word\\Lord\\ instead\\ of\\ God\\ or\\ Savior\\ \\(because\\ Lord\\ sounds\\ like\\ Love\\)\\.\\ Herbert\\also\\ utilizes\\ structure\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\;\\ every\\ ending\\ rhyming\\ couplet\\ of\\each\\ stanza\\ marks\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ stanza\\ content\\ \\(each\\ ending\\ couplet\\expresses\\ Love\\&\\#39\\;s\\ persistence\\ in\\ making\\ Herbert\\ feel\\ love\\)\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prayer\\ \\(I\\)\\-\\ George\\ Herbert\\ \\(1593\\-1633\\)\\ p\\.158\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\;\\ The\\ Ordering\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Meditation\\ on\\ Prayer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Dactylic\\ Tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ effghh\\,\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ first\\ two\\ 4\\ lines\\,\\ last\\ one\\ 6\\ lines\\.\\ In\\ stanza\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\ the\\ two\\ middle\\ lines\\ are\\ indented\\,\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\ lines\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 5\\ and\\ 6\\ are\\ also\\ indented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ Religious\\ imagery\\;\\ angels\\,\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ heaven\\ and\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Church\\ bells\\ beyond\\ the\\ stars\\ heard\\,\\ the\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\,\\/\\ The\\ land\\ of\\ spices\\;\\ something\\ understood\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ sonnet\\ by\\ Herbert\\ we\\ are\\ shown\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ definitions\\ all\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ concept\\,\\ the\\ prayer\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ section\\ on\\ ordering\\ of\\ language\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ one\\ must\\ look\\ at\\ why\\ he\\ ordered\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\.\\ Initially\\ it\\ may\\ seem\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ list\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ equal\\ definitions\\ of\\ a\\ prayer\\ like\\ the\\ radii\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ circle\\ \\(look\\ at\\ image\\ o\\ page\\ 158\\)\\.\\ However\\ one\\ must\\ look\\ at\\ whether\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ radial\\ ordering\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ temporal\\ ordering\\.\\ Does\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ prayer\\ change\\ throughout\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ There\\ is\\ arguably\\ a\\ significant\\ different\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;thunder\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;softness\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ are\\ both\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ prayer\\.\\ There\\ is\\ arguably\\ both\\ a\\ radial\\ shape\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;dynamic\\ temporal\\ unfolding\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Vendler\\)\\.\\ We\\ see\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concept\\ of\\ Prayer\\ change\\ yet\\ still\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguably\\ this\\ reflects\\ the\\ complicated\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ prayer\\,\\ which\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Religion\\ has\\ played\\ some\\ many\\ important\\ and\\ different\\ parts\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ complications\\ that\\ arise\\ when\\ trying\\ to\\ define\\ prayer\\.\\ If\\ one\\ tries\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ one\\ faces\\ many\\ paradoxes\\.\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\ this\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ God\\ as\\ well\\ where\\ he\\ has\\ moved\\ from\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Justice\\ and\\ Wrath\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ to\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Love\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\.\\ In\\ both\\ cases\\ one\\ faces\\ this\\ issue\\ of\\ a\\ concept\\ having\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ and\\ contradicting\\ definitions\\.\\ So\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ poet\\ decides\\ that\\ all\\ he\\ can\\ truly\\ say\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;something\\ understood\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ describe\\ prayer\\.\\ Metaphors\\ only\\ confuse\\ and\\ complicate\\ the\\ idea\\.\\ It\\ is\\ merely\\ something\\ that\\ people\\ understand\\ yet\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ describe\\,\\ like\\ God\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Collar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 497\\)\\(1633\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ George\\ Herbert\\ \\(1593\\-1633\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\10\\/2\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dialogue\\ \\(with\\ himself\\)\\,\\ like\\ a\\ soliloquy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;religious\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ dominant\\ pattern\\ is\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\(4\\ beats\\)\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ irregular\\ line\\ lengths\\ and\\ an\\ occasional\\ anapest\\ interjected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;no\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ and\\ irregular\\ line\\ length\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ collar\\&mdash\\;bound\\,\\ enslaved\\ by\\ religion\\,\\ nature\\/harvest\\ \\(one\\ of\\ the\\ responsibilities\\ of\\ clergy\\ of\\ his\\ time\\&mdash\\;which\\ he\\ feels\\ he\\ fails\\ at\\)\\,\\ \\ \\;animal\\ imagery\\ \\(symbolizing\\ rebellion\\,\\ wildness\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;forsaking\\ the\\ cage\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Herbert\\ was\\ a\\ priest\\ who\\ died\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ of\\ TB\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ life\\ and\\ writing\\ is\\ constantly\\ marked\\ by\\ failed\\ endeavors\\.\\ His\\ poetry\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ feelings\\ of\\ self\\-deprecation\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ unworthiness\\.\\ Another\\ poem\\ by\\ Herbert\\ from\\ our\\ syllabus\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ \\(III\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ denotes\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ same\\ themes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;But\\ as\\ I\\ raved\\ an\\ grew\\ more\\ fierce\\ and\\ wild\\/\\ at\\ every\\ word\\,\\/\\ Methought\\ I\\ heard\\ once\\ calling\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Child\\!\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ I\\ replied\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Lord\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ main\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ spends\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ rebelling\\ against\\ convention\\ and\\ the\\ Lord\\ but\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ comes\\ back\\ to\\ God\\,\\ revealing\\ that\\ He\\ has\\ been\\ with\\ him\\ the\\ entire\\ time\\.\\ His\\ rebellion\\ in\\ speech\\ is\\ reflected\\ through\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ \\(and\\ structure\\)throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ until\\ it\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ end\\,\\ when\\ he\\ comes\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ four\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ uses\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\)\\,\\ showing\\ his\\ reconciliation\\ with\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ These\\ final\\ lines\\ also\\ stand\\ out\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ pattern\\ of\\ speech\\ changes\\:\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ monologue\\ speaking\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ tense\\,\\ but\\ the\\ final\\ lines\\ are\\ seemingly\\ narrative\\ using\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\,\\ recalling\\ his\\ experience\\ of\\ when\\ he\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ tone\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ begins\\ as\\ confrontational\\,\\ frustrated\\,\\ and\\ rebellious\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ evident\\ through\\ his\\ repetition\\ of\\ aggressive\\,\\ rhetorical\\ questions\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Shall\\ I\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ questions\\.\\ It\\ then\\ shifts\\ to\\ more\\ resolute\\,\\ commanding\\,\\ determined\\ tone\\.\\ His\\ thought\\ process\\ also\\ seems\\ impulsive\\ and\\ passionate\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ thought\\ out\\ and\\ calculating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ seemingly\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\:\\ this\\ first\\ being\\ his\\ aggressive\\ rebellion\\,\\ despair\\,\\ and\\ self\\-deprecation\\.\\ The\\ second\\ part\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ line\\ 19\\ and\\ the\\ commanding\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Recover\\&rdquo\\;\\ signifies\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;recovery\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ stops\\ questioning\\ and\\ begins\\ to\\ command\\ \\(himself\\)\\ on\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ revealing\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ resolution\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;While\\ the\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ technically\\ irregular\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ contains\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ irregular\\ or\\ phonetic\\ rhyme\\ \\(both\\ assonance\\ and\\ consonance\\)\\ which\\ keeps\\ the\\ poem\\ in\\ the\\ category\\ of\\ traditional\\ poetry\\ and\\ brings\\ it\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ connectedness\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ also\\ conveys\\ imagery\\ through\\ similes\\ and\\ hyperboles\\,\\ which\\ convey\\ the\\ ridiculousness\\ of\\ his\\ rebellious\\ outbreak\\,\\ particularly\\ considering\\ that\\ he\\ knows\\ his\\ ending\\&mdash\\;that\\ he\\ will\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ God\\/remains\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Felix\\ Randal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(late\\ 1870s\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gerard\\ Manley\\ Hopkins\\ \\(pg\\ 233\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ seven\\ or\\ eight\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ quatrains\\ followed\\ by\\ 2\\ tercets\\,\\ abba\\ cddc\\ efg\\ efg\\ \\(in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ a\\ Petrarchan\\ sonnet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ sickness\\,\\ decay\\,\\ large\\ objects\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Christian\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ seeing\\ the\\ sick\\ endears\\ them\\ to\\ us\\,\\ us\\ too\\ it\\ endears\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Felix\\ Randal\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ pretty\\ typical\\ of\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lyrical\\ style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lots\\ of\\ alliteration\\,\\ assonance\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ describes\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reaction\\ upon\\ learning\\ that\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ parishioners\\,\\ Felix\\ Randal\\,\\ was\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tone\\ seems\\ almost\\ flip\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ is\\ he\\ dead\\ then\\?\\ \\/\\ my\\ duty\\ all\\ ended\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ as\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ Randal\\,\\ Hopkins\\ seems\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ sympathetic\\ and\\ mournful\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ tercet\\ Hopkins\\ points\\ out\\ the\\ fragility\\ and\\ ephemerality\\ of\\ life\\,\\ noting\\ \\(basically\\)\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ would\\ have\\ predicted\\ such\\ a\\ strong\\ man\\ to\\ die\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Hopkins\\ ends\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ large\\ and\\ powerful\\ Felix\\ had\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ gray\\ drayhorse\\ his\\ bright\\ and\\ battering\\ sandal\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;For\\ me\\,\\ this\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ god\\ Hephaestus\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ blacksmith\\ like\\ Felix\\,\\ and\\ was\\ physically\\ very\\ strong\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ clear\\ what\\ Felix\\ died\\ of\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seemed\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ on\\ suddenly\\,\\ and\\ prompted\\ Felix\\ to\\ seek\\ religious\\ counsel\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ seems\\ to\\ me\\ that\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ message\\ is\\:\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ when\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ die\\,\\ so\\ come\\ and\\ get\\ saved\\ before\\ you\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spring\\ and\\ Fall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gerard\\ Manley\\ Hopkins\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ an\\ adults\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ child\\ \\(to\\ child\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\(an\\ inner\\ meditation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ the\\ lines\\ alternate\\ between\\ 7\\ syllables\\ and\\ 8\\ syllables\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ suffering\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ tone\\ is\\ very\\ critical\\ to\\ understanding\\ this\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Throughout\\ this\\ entire\\ poem\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ adult\\ who\\ knows\\ suffering\\ well\\ \\.\\ This\\ adult\\ comes\\ across\\ a\\ young\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ crying\\ because\\ some\\ leaves\\ have\\ fallen\\ ff\\ a\\ tree\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;golden\\ grove\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ adult\\ in\\ turn\\ can\\ not\\ really\\ tell\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ instead\\ tells\\ that\\ child\\ to\\ save\\ her\\ tears\\ because\\ life\\ will\\ later\\ give\\ her\\ more\\ serious\\ things\\ to\\ cry\\ about\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ really\\ appease\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ continues\\ to\\ pose\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\&rdquo\\;\\ these\\ leaves\\ have\\ to\\ fall\\ etc\\.\\.\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ finally\\ turns\\ into\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ tone\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ It\\ starts\\ of\\ in\\ disbelief\\ as\\ the\\ adult\\ can\\ not\\ believe\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sadness\\.\\ And\\ it\\ ultimately\\ ends\\ in\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ grief\\ as\\ the\\ adult\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ grief\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ mourning\\ after\\ a\\ loved\\ and\\ lost\\ one\\ \\(Margaret\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ adult\\ stars\\ off\\ as\\ being\\ patronizing\\ and\\ impatient\\ belittling\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sadness\\ and\\ her\\ grief\\.\\ However\\ he\\ ends\\ with\\ realizing\\ the\\ true\\ weight\\ of\\ her\\ grief\\ and\\ therefore\\ gives\\ it\\ the\\ importance\\ that\\ is\\ deserves\\ ultimately\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ grief\\ that\\ he\\ tries\\ to\\ illustrate\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ young\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grief\\ \\(progression\\ through\\ time\\ \\=\\ changes\\ in\\ tone\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pied\\ Beauty\\ by\\ Gerard\\ Manly\\ Hopkins\\ P\\.99\\Genre\\:\\ Beauty\\ poems\\,\\ lyrical\\ poems\\.\\Prosody\\:\\ Loose\\ \\ \\;pentameter\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ One\\ stanza\\ with\\ ten\\ lines\\;\\ every\\ set\\ of\\ three\\ lines\\has\\ increasing\\ indents\\.\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Colorful\\ bright\\ detailed\\ nature\\/\\ natural\\ images\\.\\Author\\:\\ Lived\\ in\\ 1800\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ has\\ appreciation\\ for\\ \\"\\;ugly\\"\\;\\ things\\ in\\ life\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ The\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ have\\dappled\\ things\\ to\\ understand\\ beauty\\.\\\\Hopkins\\ begins\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ classification\\ and\\ a\\ definition\\of\\ \\"\\;pied\\ beauty\\:\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;dappled\\ things\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ word\\ \\"\\;dappled\\"\\;\\ is\\ an\\ odd\\ word\\and\\ goes\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ eccentric\\ diction\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;spare\\,\\"\\;\\\\"\\;counter\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;adazzle\\.\\"\\;\\ Hopkins\\ purposely\\ chooses\\ these\\ unusually\\words\\ to\\ accentuate\\ and\\ help\\ reflect\\ what\\ is\\ \\"\\;pied\\ beauty\\.\\"\\;\\ It\\ is\\ also\\interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ he\\ begins\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ nouns\\ such\\ as\\\\"\\;chestnut\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;finches\\"\\;\\ and\\ progresses\\ to\\ adjectives\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;fickle\\"\\;\\or\\ \\"\\;freckled\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ actual\\ life\\ itself\\ \\(the\\chestnuts\\ or\\ finches\\)\\ are\\ more\\ important\\ and\\ significant\\ than\\ the\\descriptions\\ of\\ it\\ \\(this\\ is\\ unusually\\ because\\ in\\ English\\ adjectives\\ go\\before\\ nouns\\,\\-\\ the\\ red\\ dog\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ Herbert\\ states\\ \\"\\;beauty\\is\\ past\\ change\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ reveals\\ that\\ beauty\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\ without\\ these\\\\"\\;dappled\\ things\\.\\"\\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ Real\\ Cool\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1960\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gwendolyn\\ Brooks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ \\ \\;85\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ kids\\ playing\\ pool\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Prosody\\:\\ mostly\\ 3\\ syllables\\ per\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ two\\ line\\ stanzas\\,\\ 8\\ three\\ word\\ sentences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\ american\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jazz\\ June\\.\\ We\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Die\\ soon\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ seven\\ kids\\ the\\ author\\ sees\\ playing\\ pool\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ seven\\ lines\\ ends\\ with\\ We\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pause\\ between\\ lines\\ gives\\ each\\ short\\ sentence\\ a\\ jazz\\ feel\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ how\\ they\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ feel\\ like\\ they\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ margins\\:\\ better\\ than\\ society\\ \\(cool\\)\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ in\\ more\\ danger\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ sentence\\ lays\\ out\\ another\\ way\\ they\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jazz\\ June\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ time\\ but\\ they\\ will\\ also\\ die\\ soon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oread\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1915\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ H\\.\\ D\\.\\ \\(p\\.\\ 172\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 18\\/23\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\/tempest\\/myth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ short\\ lyric\\,\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ trochaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ six\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ short\\ but\\ full\\ of\\ punch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ tempestuous\\,\\ sea\\ mixed\\ with\\ forest\\ imagery\\,\\ natural\\ forces\\ of\\ destruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Hilda\\ Doolittle\\ \\(1886\\&ndash\\;1961\\)\\,\\ generally\\ known\\ only\\ by\\ her\\ initials\\ H\\.D\\.\\,\\ was\\ an\\ American\\ poet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;She\\ is\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ her\\ association\\ with\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\ avant\\-garde\\ Imagist\\ poets\\,\\ modernists\\ who\\ strived\\ for\\ precision\\ and\\ clarity\\ of\\ imagery\\ while\\ rejecting\\ Romantic\\ sentiment\\.\\ Her\\ later\\ writing\\ trended\\ towards\\ a\\ more\\ distinctly\\ feminist\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ short\\ and\\ perhaps\\ worth\\ memorizing\\,\\ but\\ if\\ not\\,\\ then\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Whirl\\ up\\,\\ sea\\&mdash\\;\\/\\ whirl\\ your\\ pointed\\ pines\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;hurl\\ your\\ green\\ over\\ us\\,\\/\\ cover\\ us\\ with\\ your\\ pools\\ of\\ fir\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[I\\ was\\ a\\ bit\\ stumped\\ on\\ this\\;\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ ideas\\ for\\ a\\ deeper\\ meaning\\,\\ go\\ for\\ it\\.\\]\\ A\\ very\\ short\\ poem\\ full\\ of\\ tempestuous\\ almost\\ violent\\ movement\\.\\ H\\.\\ D\\.\\ mixes\\ sea\\ turmoil\\&mdash\\;words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;whirl\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;splash\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;hurl\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;pools\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;with\\ forest\\ images\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;pointed\\ pines\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ pines\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fir\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oread\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ a\\ mountain\\ nymph\\,\\ which\\ evokes\\ a\\ general\\ mythical\\ connotation\\.\\ It\\ sounds\\ as\\ if\\ this\\ nymph\\ or\\ some\\ narrator\\ is\\ commanding\\ the\\ sea\\ gods\\ or\\ sea\\ forces\\ to\\ wreck\\ havoc\\ on\\ the\\ hillside\\.\\ There\\ is\\ definitely\\ a\\ certain\\ delight\\ in\\ violence\\ here\\.\\ On\\ a\\ more\\ meta\\-level\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ language\\ to\\ succinctly\\ evoke\\ vivid\\ and\\ striking\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Knife\\-Sharpener\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Song\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1969\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Heidy\\ Steidlmayer\\ pg\\.\\ 307\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\&mdash\\;unassigned\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ adultery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\,\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 15\\ lines\\&mdash\\;use\\ of\\ dash\\&mdash\\;italics\\,\\ repetition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;oh\\ yes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ accuses\\ her\\ husband\\ of\\ infidelity\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;knife\\&rdquo\\;\\ diction\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;sliding\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sharpened\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;edge\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;cutthroat\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;is\\ important\\ for\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ his\\ mistress\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ metaphorical\\ sharpening\\ of\\ knives\\.\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ characters\\:\\ her\\ \\(she\\)\\,\\ him\\ \\(he\\)\\,\\ and\\ me\\ \\(I\\)\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ pronouns\\ is\\ important\\.\\ Her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adulterous\\ actions\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;flashy\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ cutthroat\\&mdash\\;but\\ without\\ a\\ flaw\\,\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;carefully\\&rdquo\\;\\ undresses\\ \\&ldquo\\;her\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ speaker\\ repeats\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\oh\\ yes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;five\\ times\\,\\ seemingly\\ breathing\\ herself\\ into\\ the\\ curt\\ poem\\,\\ also\\ serves\\ to\\ underscore\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ repeatedly\\ sharpening\\ a\\ knife\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ presence\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ line\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;us\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;but\\ he\\ said\\ no\\ word\\ of\\ her\\ to\\ me\\/nor\\ I\\ to\\ him\\ of\\ us\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\oh\\ yes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Naming\\ of\\ Parts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1942\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Henry\\ Reed\\ 170\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/28\\ section\\ on\\ diction\\ and\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ language\\-play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ war\\ poem\\,\\ protest\\ poem\\,\\ parody\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ mixed\\,\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ six\\ sestets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ military\\ imagery\\ juxtaposed\\ with\\ natural\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ served\\ in\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;which\\ in\\ your\\ case\\ you\\ have\\ not\\ got\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ one\\ level\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ parody\\ of\\ basic\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ recruits\\ are\\ being\\ instructed\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ a\\ gun\\,\\ but\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ parts\\ are\\ missing\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ not\\ enough\\ weapons\\ to\\ go\\ around\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ training\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ silly\\ and\\ futile\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ also\\ operates\\ on\\ a\\ deeper\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constant\\ jamming\\ together\\ of\\ nature\\ images\\ and\\ military\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ military\\ language\\ is\\ utilitarian\\,\\ mechanical\\ and\\ formal\\,\\ while\\ the\\ natural\\ language\\ is\\ gentle\\ and\\ fertile\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ weapons\\ automatic\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ young\\ recruits\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ about\\ it\\,\\ they\\ just\\ follow\\ orders\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soldier\\ at\\ first\\ tries\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rhetoric\\ by\\ co\\-opting\\ and\\ perverting\\ the\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ branches\\ hold\\ in\\ the\\ gardens\\ their\\ silent\\,\\ eloquent\\ gestures\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ in\\ our\\ case\\ we\\ have\\ not\\ got\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Then\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ shift\\ toward\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soldier\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ perverting\\ the\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ military\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ he\\ is\\ projecting\\ the\\ military\\ mentality\\ onto\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ bees\\ are\\ assaulting\\ and\\ fumbling\\ the\\ flowers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Nature\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ innocent\\,\\ but\\ militant\\,\\ at\\ least\\ through\\ the\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ despite\\ the\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resistance\\,\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ converted\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ signifies\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ succumbing\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ mentality\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ message\\ is\\ revealed\\ through\\ examining\\ the\\ interplay\\ of\\ military\\ and\\ natural\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jewish\\ Cemetery\\ at\\ Newport\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1854\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Henry\\ Wadsworth\\ Longfellow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 518\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyrics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;same\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Easter\\ Morning\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Elegy\\ Written\\ in\\ a\\ Country\\ Churchyard\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ historical\\,\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Comprehensive\\ lyric\\,\\ Elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ quatrains\\ of\\ ABAB\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ exile\\ \\(references\\ to\\ many\\ biblical\\ stories\\:\\ Exodus\\,\\ Purim\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ New\\ Englander\\,\\ not\\ Jewish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;something\\ easy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hopefully\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ chronicles\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ on\\ the\\ Jewish\\ people\\ as\\ he\\ wanders\\ among\\ gravestones\\ at\\ the\\ Jewish\\ cemetery\\ in\\ Newport\\,\\ RI\\.\\ \\ \\;RI\\ was\\ established\\ with\\ religious\\ freedom\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ principal\\ draws\\ for\\ Jews\\,\\ to\\ which\\ Longfellow\\ refers\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ came\\ they\\ here\\?\\ What\\ burst\\ of\\ Christian\\ hate\\,\\ \\/\\ What\\ persecution\\,\\ merciless\\ and\\ blind\\,\\ \\/\\ Drove\\ o\\&rsquo\\;er\\ the\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ observes\\ the\\ names\\ on\\ the\\ graves\\,\\ both\\ stereotypical\\ Jewish\\ names\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Spanish\\-sounding\\ ones\\,\\ likely\\ from\\ Jews\\ descended\\ from\\ the\\ inquisition\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ their\\ persecution\\,\\ mixing\\ description\\ with\\ allusions\\ to\\ Jewish\\ texts\\ and\\ history\\ \\(eg\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Trampled\\ and\\ beaten\\ were\\ they\\ as\\ the\\ sand\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ God\\ promised\\ Abraham\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ would\\ be\\ as\\ numerous\\ as\\ the\\ sand\\ on\\ the\\ beach\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ portrays\\ the\\ Jews\\ as\\ a\\ backwards\\-looking\\ \\(\\&\\;\\ therefore\\ backwards\\-thinking\\ maybe\\ too\\)\\ culture\\ that\\ was\\ once\\ great\\ but\\ will\\ never\\ rise\\ again\\ \\(as\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ the\\ empty\\ Synagogue\\ and\\ cemetery\\ in\\ Newport\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monody\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1864\\&ndash\\;5\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Herman\\ Melville\\ \\(p\\.\\ 532\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 18\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Introduction\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(elegy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\,\\ winter\\/death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ monody\\/elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ iambic\\ \\(some\\ anapests\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ two\\ stanzas\\,\\ six\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abcbdb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ winter\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Herman\\ Melville\\ \\(1819\\&ndash\\;1891\\)\\ was\\ an\\ American\\ author\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ novel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moby\\-Dick\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ was\\ close\\ friends\\ with\\ Nathaniel\\ Hawthorne\\,\\ for\\ whom\\ this\\ elegy\\ was\\ likely\\ written\\,\\ but\\ the\\ two\\ were\\ estranged\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ Hawthorne\\ died\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ease\\ me\\,\\ a\\ little\\ ease\\,\\ my\\ song\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ monody\\ was\\ likely\\ written\\ for\\ Nathaniel\\ Hawthorne\\,\\ Melville\\&rsquo\\;s\\ one\\-time\\ friend\\.\\ \\(Hawthorne\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vine\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Melville\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epic\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Clarel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ here\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cloistral\\ vine\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;glazed\\ with\\ ice\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ Melville\\ laments\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ dear\\ friend\\,\\ first\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ estranged\\,\\ and\\ now\\ because\\ of\\ death\\.\\ The\\ tone\\ progresses\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ adoration\\,\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ resignation\\.\\ He\\ accepts\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;neither\\ \\[was\\]\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ neither\\ of\\ them\\ was\\ at\\ fault\\ for\\ the\\ estrangement\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ their\\ differences\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ progresses\\ to\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ utter\\ grief\\ and\\ regret\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ death\\ to\\ set\\ his\\ seal\\&mdash\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ so\\ overwhelming\\ that\\ the\\ voice\\ is\\ cut\\ off\\.\\ Melville\\ then\\ asks\\ that\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;song\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ he\\ is\\ writing\\,\\ give\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;ease\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ little\\ ease\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ repetition\\ reinforces\\ the\\ pleading\\ nature\\ of\\ his\\ verse\\.\\ He\\ is\\ bereaved\\ and\\ helpless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ break\\ and\\ a\\ refocusing\\ between\\ stanzas\\ one\\ and\\ two\\.\\ In\\ classic\\ elegy\\ style\\,\\ Melville\\ shifts\\ from\\ a\\ lament\\ for\\/praise\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\ to\\ a\\ scene\\ of\\ some\\ \\(though\\ little\\)\\ consolation\\.\\ Melville\\ uses\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ winter\\ and\\ the\\ falling\\ of\\ snow\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ human\\ death\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ an\\ imagined\\ \\(or\\ perhaps\\ literal\\)\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ countryside\\ around\\ Hawthorne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grave\\.\\ Melville\\ describes\\ the\\ isolation\\ Hawthorne\\ continues\\ to\\ have\\,\\ even\\ after\\ death\\.\\ \\(I\\ believe\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ said\\ that\\ Melville\\ may\\ have\\ scared\\ off\\ Hawthorne\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ overly\\ admiring\\,\\ and\\ Hawthorne\\ preferred\\ more\\ personal\\ space\\.\\)\\ The\\ grave\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hermit\\-mound\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ vine\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ once\\ \\&ldquo\\;hid\\ the\\ shyest\\ grape\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ I\\ suppose\\ consolation\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\ of\\ natural\\ beauty\\ and\\ serenity\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ scene\\ of\\ quiet\\ grief\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Berg\\-\\ Herman\\ Melville\\ \\(1819\\-1891\\)\\ p\\.531\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\ Dates\\:\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Paper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Dream\\ description\\,\\ warning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ No\\ uniform\\ rhyme\\.\\ 4\\ stanza\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\ lines\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 6\\ lines\\,\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 12\\ lines\\,\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 10\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ destruction\\,\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Though\\ lumpish\\ thou\\,\\ a\\ lumbering\\ one\\-\\/\\ A\\ lumbering\\ lubbard\\ loitering\\ slow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(example\\ of\\ alliteration\\ being\\ used\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ slow\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Iceberg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ about\\ a\\ dream\\ the\\ speaker\\ had\\ we\\ are\\ told\\ about\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ a\\ ship\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\.\\ The\\ next\\ two\\ stanza\\ describe\\ the\\ iceberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ indestructible\\ nature\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ ship\\ which\\ after\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;infatuate\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;stunned\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ bafflement\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ iceberg\\ \\&ldquo\\;went\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Went\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ repeated\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ three\\ stanza\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;go\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\.\\ This\\ is\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ iceberg\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ whatever\\ gets\\ in\\ its\\ way\\ will\\ be\\ destroyed\\.\\ The\\ final\\ stanza\\ changes\\ slightly\\ though\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ the\\ Iceberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mortality\\,\\ slowness\\ and\\ indifference\\.\\ We\\ perhaps\\ the\\ iceberg\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ this\\ poem\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ warning\\ against\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempted\\ domination\\ over\\ nature\\.\\ If\\ man\\ tries\\ to\\ control\\ nature\\ \\(represented\\ by\\ the\\ Iceberg\\)\\ he\\ will\\ go\\ down\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ uses\\ lots\\ of\\ alliteration\\ to\\ parallel\\ and\\ emphasize\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ iceberg\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ language\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ iceberg\\ consists\\ mainly\\ of\\ words\\ that\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ nature\\ or\\ things\\ in\\ nature\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;gorges\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;beaches\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ varying\\ stanza\\ length\\ may\\ be\\ reflective\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ dreams\\,\\ because\\ the\\ mind\\ tends\\ to\\ jump\\ from\\ image\\ to\\ image\\ randomly\\.\\ Arguably\\ the\\ author\\ was\\ compelled\\ to\\ speak\\ as\\ reaction\\ to\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ attempt\\ to\\ control\\ nature\\ during\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Broken\\ Home\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1966\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ James\\ Merrill\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\;\\ Paper\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Divorce\\,\\ Time\\,\\ \\ \\;Sunset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\ Sequence\\,\\ Comprehensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Mostly\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ with\\ many\\ deviations\\ in\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Seven\\ fourteen\\ line\\ sonnets\\ with\\ varying\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ mythology\\,\\ politics\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Homosexual\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Charles\\ Merrill\\ \\(founder\\ of\\ Merrill\\ Lynch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ seven\\ sonnets\\ that\\ are\\ connected\\ by\\ imagery\\ and\\ themes\\,\\ yet\\ each\\ is\\ formally\\ and\\ narratively\\ self\\-contained\\.\\ The\\ title\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autobiographical\\ subjects\\&mdash\\;the\\ divorce\\ of\\ James\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\ and\\ his\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ brokenness\\ or\\ incompleteness\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ childlessness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ sonnet\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ poet\\ outside\\,\\ watching\\ parents\\ and\\ a\\ child\\ framed\\ by\\ a\\ window\\&mdash\\;a\\ tableau\\ he\\ contrasts\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sunless\\,\\ cooler\\&rdquo\\;\\ room\\ below\\.\\ Thoughts\\ of\\ his\\ childless\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Sunless\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ existence\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\ for\\ whom\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ flame\\ quickens\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ word\\ stirs\\&rdquo\\;\\ prompt\\ him\\ to\\ ask\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;tongue\\ of\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(either\\ his\\ muse\\ or\\ his\\ homosexual\\ lover\\)\\ whether\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ and\\ I\\ are\\ as\\ real\\/\\ At\\ least\\ as\\ the\\ people\\ upstairs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ sonnet\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ life\\ of\\ his\\ father\\,\\ Charles\\ Merrill\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ brokerage\\ firm\\ Merrill\\ Lynch\\,\\ Pierce\\,\\ Fenner\\ and\\ Smith\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ quatrains\\,\\ Merrill\\ discovers\\ in\\ his\\ father\\ the\\ soul\\ of\\ a\\ visionary\\ \\&ldquo\\;eclipsed\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ a\\ desire\\ for\\ business\\ and\\ sex\\ that\\ drove\\ him\\ to\\ warm\\ \\&ldquo\\;up\\ for\\ a\\ green\\ bride\\&rdquo\\;\\ every\\ thirteen\\ years\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Too\\ late\\ now\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ poet\\ realizes\\ that\\,\\ as\\ he\\ did\\,\\ his\\ father\\ could\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;invested\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;cloud\\ banks\\ well\\ above\\ Wall\\ Street\\ and\\ wife\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ sonnet\\ provides\\ a\\ historical\\ backdrop\\ for\\ the\\ particular\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ marriage\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\.\\ Merrill\\ describes\\ a\\ set\\ scene\\ from\\ the\\ 1920\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ veiled\\ suffragette\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;hobble\\ skirt\\&rdquo\\;\\ attacks\\ a\\ famous\\ man\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ place\\ with\\ insults\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\War\\ mongerer\\!\\ Pig\\!\\ Give\\ us\\ the\\ vote\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ fourth\\ and\\ fifth\\ sonnets\\,\\ Merrill\\ moves\\ from\\ outside\\,\\ where\\ at\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beginning\\ he\\ watched\\ the\\ idealized\\ family\\ \\&ldquo\\;gleaming\\ like\\ fruit\\/\\ With\\ evening\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mild\\ gold\\ leaf\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ inside\\ the\\ window\\ to\\ probe\\ the\\ harsh\\ realities\\ of\\ two\\ particular\\ memories\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ childhood\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ sonnet\\ presents\\ an\\ oedipal\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ young\\ boy\\ is\\ led\\ by\\ his\\ Irish\\ setter\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ bedroom\\ of\\ a\\ sleeping\\ woman\\&mdash\\;apparently\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;clad\\ in\\ taboos\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;who\\ awakens\\ from\\ a\\ deathlike\\ sleep\\ to\\ terrify\\ dog\\ and\\ boy\\.\\ Thinly\\ veiled\\ sexual\\ images\\ allow\\ Merrill\\ to\\ explore\\ troubling\\ aspects\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ sexuality\\.\\ In\\ describing\\ the\\ bedroom\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;throbbed\\ like\\ a\\ bruise\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Merrill\\ creates\\ an\\ oedipal\\ pun\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blinds\\ that\\ beat\\ sun\\ from\\ the\\ bed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ phallic\\ Irish\\ setter\\ Michael\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;satyr\\-thighed\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;head\\/\\ Passionately\\ lowered\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ penetrates\\ the\\ closed\\ door\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;slumps\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ the\\ floor\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ a\\ heterosexual\\ encounter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ fifth\\ sonnet\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Merrill\\ remembers\\ overhearing\\ his\\ parents\\ \\(who\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ each\\ other\\ still\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ discussing\\ their\\ frenzied\\ lifestyle\\ outside\\ his\\ window\\ after\\ a\\ party\\.\\ The\\ lead\\ soldier\\ guarding\\ the\\ boy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ windowsill\\ in\\ the\\ octave\\ introduces\\ a\\ cluster\\ of\\ images\\ the\\ poet\\ uses\\ in\\ the\\ sestet\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ gradual\\ cooling\\ of\\ his\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ feelings\\,\\ which\\ were\\ once\\ intense\\ \\&ldquo\\;Like\\ metal\\ poured\\ at\\ the\\ close\\ of\\ a\\ proletarian\\ novel\\,\\/\\ Refined\\ and\\ glowing\\ from\\ the\\ crucible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ sixth\\ sonnet\\ again\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ present\\ status\\ of\\ Merrill\\ as\\ childless\\ poet\\ with\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\&rdquo\\;\\ begins\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ defending\\ his\\ childlessness\\,\\ this\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ introduces\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ justification\\ for\\ breaking\\ with\\ the\\ examples\\ of\\ his\\ parents\\ by\\ refusing\\ to\\ be\\ political\\ and\\ rejecting\\ a\\ traditional\\ family\\ for\\ himself\\.\\ This\\ sonnet\\ also\\ provides\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rationale\\ for\\ his\\ particular\\ poetics\\ by\\ asserting\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ the\\ artifice\\ of\\ his\\ apolitical\\ poems\\&mdash\\;those\\ rare\\ avocados\\ \\&ldquo\\;gemmed\\ with\\ air\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;small\\ gilt\\ leaves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ octave\\ of\\ the\\ final\\ sonnet\\ presents\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ memories\\ as\\ a\\ house\\ in\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ child\\,\\ a\\ red\\ dog\\ roam\\ the\\ corridors\\,\\/\\ Still\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ sestet\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ occupied\\,\\ which\\ is\\ now\\ converted\\ into\\ a\\ boarding\\ school\\ from\\ which\\ another\\ child\\ can\\ watch\\ a\\ setting\\ sun\\ without\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;stiflement\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ nightmares\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\&rdquo\\;\\ describes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Otherwise\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1995\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jane\\ Kenyon\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 210\\-211\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-30\\-06\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ life\\ and\\ death\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ oppositional\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ lots\\ of\\ lines\\ have\\ two\\ beats\\,\\ but\\ the\\ rhythm\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ enough\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ dimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 1\\ 12\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ 1\\ 14\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ no\\ rhyme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ otherwise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ continually\\ wondering\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ death\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ was\\ dying\\ of\\ leukemia\\ when\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;but\\ one\\ day\\,\\ I\\ know\\,\\ \\/\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ otherwise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kenyon\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ while\\ dying\\ of\\ leukemia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ prefaced\\ by\\ the\\ epigraph\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ live\\ with\\ cancer\\;\\ I\\ know\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ otherwise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Kenyon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ living\\ with\\ cancer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ walks\\ the\\ reader\\ a\\ typical\\ day\\ in\\ her\\ life\\ with\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ continually\\ reminds\\ the\\ reader\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ otherwise\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ letting\\ us\\ know\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ constantly\\ thinking\\ about\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ her\\ telling\\ us\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ day\\,\\ I\\ know\\,\\ \\/\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ otherwise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\&rdquo\\;\\ haunting\\ her\\ \\(which\\ represents\\ death\\)\\ will\\ one\\ day\\ be\\ realized\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\ Kenyon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ short\\,\\ generally\\ terse\\ sentences\\,\\ which\\ perhaps\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ brevity\\ of\\ life\\,\\ and\\ lend\\ the\\ poem\\ a\\ very\\ honest\\,\\ forthright\\,\\ matter\\-of\\-fact\\ tone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paradoxes\\ and\\ Oxymorons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1981\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Ashbery\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 368\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/18\\ Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Poem\\ about\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Conversation\\ between\\ Poet\\ and\\ Reader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ hexameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ quatrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ longing\\,\\ existence\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ashbery\\ wanted\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ common\\ reader\\,\\ who\\ thinks\\ poems\\ are\\ constructed\\ on\\ many\\ interpretive\\ levels\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Quote\\ from\\ a\\ book\\ on\\ Ashbery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poetry\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ sad\\ because\\ it\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ yours\\,\\ and\\ cannot\\.\\ \\/\\ What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ plain\\ level\\?\\ It\\ is\\ that\\ and\\ other\\ things\\,\\ \\/\\ Bringing\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ them\\ into\\ play\\.\\ Play\\?\\ \\/\\ Well\\,\\ actually\\,\\ yes\\,\\ but\\ I\\ consider\\ play\\ to\\ be\\ \\/\\ A\\ deeper\\ outside\\ thing\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ main\\ paradox\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ poet\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;concerned\\ with\\ language\\ on\\ a\\ very\\ plain\\ level\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ reader\\ still\\ does\\ not\\ understand\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ when\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ talking\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ looks\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ and\\ pretends\\ to\\ fidget\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ reader\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ it\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ readers\\ lack\\ of\\ comprehension\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ incomprehension\\ is\\ more\\ obvious\\ as\\ the\\ reader\\ interrupts\\ the\\ poet\\ with\\ questions\\ about\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ the\\ meaning\\ \\(see\\ notation\\ above\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ paradoxes\\ show\\ the\\ difficulty\\ in\\ doing\\ what\\ Ashbery\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ do\\.\\ The\\ reader\\ \\&ldquo\\;plays\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ leads\\ Ashbery\\ to\\ believe\\ he\\ has\\ accomplished\\ his\\ goal\\,\\ writing\\ the\\ poem\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ but\\ the\\ reader\\ changes\\ or\\ simply\\ teased\\ him\\.\\ As\\ he\\ stated\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ \\(the\\ reader\\)\\ miss\\ it\\,\\ it\\ \\(the\\ poem\\)\\ misses\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ final\\ paradox\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ sentence\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Now\\,\\ Ashbery\\ has\\ conceded\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ What\\ is\\ read\\ by\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ not\\ what\\ he\\ intends\\ to\\ write\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ Trees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1956\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Ashbery\\ \\(Poem\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ book\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ are\\ amazing\\:\\ each\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joining\\ a\\ neighbor\\,\\ as\\ though\\ speech\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Were\\ a\\ still\\ performance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arranging\\ by\\ chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ meet\\ as\\ far\\ this\\ morning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ agreeing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ it\\,\\ you\\ and\\ I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ suddenly\\ what\\ the\\ trees\\ try\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ tell\\ us\\ we\\ are\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ their\\ merely\\ being\\ there\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Means\\ something\\;\\ that\\ soon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ may\\ touch\\,\\ love\\,\\ explain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ glad\\ not\\ to\\ have\\ invented\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ comeliness\\,\\ we\\ are\\ surrounded\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ silence\\ already\\ filled\\ with\\ noises\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ canvas\\ on\\ which\\ emerges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ chorus\\ of\\ smiles\\,\\ a\\ winter\\ morning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Place\\ in\\ a\\ puzzling\\ light\\,\\ and\\ moving\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ days\\ put\\ on\\ such\\ reticence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ accents\\ seem\\ their\\ own\\ defense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sep\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Poems\\ as\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ no\\ particular\\ form\\,\\ marriage\\ poem\\ \\(he\\ is\\ rumored\\ to\\ be\\ homosexual\\,\\ so\\ this\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ coming\\ out\\ poem\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ First\\ two\\ stanzas\\ composed\\ mainly\\ of\\ short\\ verses\\ \\(trochaic\\ trimeters\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ iambic\\ tetrameters\\)\\,\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ mainly\\ composed\\ by\\ long\\ verses\\ \\(tetrameters\\ and\\ pentameters\\ \\&ndash\\;both\\ iambic\\ and\\ trochaic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Composed\\ of\\ five\\ stanzas\\ each\\ containing\\ two\\ heroic\\ couplets\\ \\(the\\ only\\ couplet\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rhyme\\ is\\ the\\ sixth\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ trees\\,\\ stillness\\,\\ morning\\ to\\ latter\\ evoke\\ sound\\,\\ choir\\,\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ later\\ conclude\\ with\\ stillness\\ and\\ reticence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Contemporary\\ poet\\,\\ has\\ won\\ a\\ numerous\\ amount\\ of\\ accolades\\,\\ starting\\ with\\ the\\ Yale\\ Younger\\ Poets\\ Prize\\ he\\ then\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ Pulitzer\\ Prize\\,\\ the\\ National\\ Books\\ award\\,\\ etc\\.\\ He\\ graduated\\ from\\ Harvard\\ in\\ 1949\\,\\ and\\ during\\ the\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ he\\ lived\\ in\\ France\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ surrealists\\.\\ He\\ is\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ writers\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;New\\ York\\ School\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\(whole\\ poem\\ cited\\ above\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ starts\\ with\\ an\\ analogy\\ between\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ trees\\ and\\ a\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\;\\ how\\ the\\ stillness\\ of\\ the\\ trees\\ is\\ in\\ harmony\\ with\\ the\\ world\\,\\ which\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ is\\ telling\\ the\\ lovers\\ that\\ their\\ being\\ in\\ that\\ state\\ means\\ something\\.\\ The\\ author\\ then\\ introduces\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ antithetical\\ dyads\\ \\&lsquo\\;silence\\ already\\ filled\\ with\\ noises\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;a\\ puzzling\\ light\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ ultimately\\ contrast\\ with\\ the\\ firmness\\ of\\ the\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reticent\\ love\\ \\(such\\ love\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ some\\ \\&lsquo\\;invented\\ comeliness\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ nor\\ does\\ it\\ need\\ such\\ \\&lsquo\\;accents\\&rsquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ real\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*Note\\:\\ Double\\ check\\ the\\ above\\ analysis\\ with\\ your\\ notes\\.\\ I\\ was\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ what\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ said\\ about\\ the\\ above\\ poem\\,\\ so\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ my\\ analysis\\ may\\ be\\ flawed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dream\\ Song\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Berryman\\ \\(pg\\ 374\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/23\\,\\ assigned\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ dreams\\,\\ desire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ self\\-reflexive\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ three\\ sestets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ culinary\\,\\ femininity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ possibly\\ a\\ pervert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sir\\ Bones\\:\\ is\\ stuffed\\,\\ de\\ world\\,\\ wif\\ feeding\\ girls\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ narrates\\ the\\ dream\\ character\\ \\&ldquo\\;Henry\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ encounter\\ with\\ an\\ attractive\\ but\\ married\\ woman\\ at\\ a\\ diner\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ his\\ sexual\\ attraction\\ to\\ her\\ in\\ an\\ absurdist\\ fashion\\ by\\ equating\\ her\\ with\\ culinary\\ delights\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;paprika\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;spumoni\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ Italian\\ ice\\ cream\\.\\)\\ Berryman\\ also\\ tries\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ poem\\ more\\ entertaining\\ by\\ having\\ Henry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alter\\-ego\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mr\\.\\ Bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ mock\\ him\\ by\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ stuffed\\,\\ de\\ world\\,\\ wif\\ feeding\\ girls\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ a\\ deeper\\ level\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ explores\\ societal\\ rules\\ against\\ passion\\.\\ Henry\\ wants\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;spring\\ on\\ her\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ held\\ back\\ by\\ the\\ societal\\ pressure\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ diner\\ and\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ Also\\,\\ his\\ conscience\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mr\\.\\ Bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ rules\\ against\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Badger\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1793\\-1864\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Clare\\ pg\\.\\ 422\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 27\\&mdash\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\ \\(usefulness\\ of\\ symbols\\ in\\ poems\\ of\\ moral\\ judgment\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ three\\ sonnets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\ \\(aabbccddeeffgg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Clare\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ an\\ angry\\ and\\ barbaric\\ mob\\ of\\ men\\ who\\ recklessly\\ and\\ mindlessly\\ track\\ and\\ kill\\ a\\ badger\\.\\ He\\ condemns\\ the\\ terrible\\ mob\\ for\\ their\\ noisiness\\ and\\ drunkenness\\ and\\ admires\\ the\\ bravery\\ of\\ the\\ stoic\\ old\\ badger\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\ leaves\\ his\\ hold\\&rdquo\\;\\ until\\ the\\ end\\ when\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;leaves\\ his\\ hold\\ and\\ crackles\\,\\ groans\\,\\ and\\ dies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ mob\\ is\\ a\\ collective\\ beast\\&mdash\\;whereas\\ the\\ badger\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ a\\ noble\\ and\\ humanly\\ creature\\.\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\ grunting\\&rdquo\\;\\ badger\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;demure\\ and\\ small\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ initially\\ drives\\ the\\ dogs\\ and\\ crowd\\ away\\.\\ The\\ pentameter\\ and\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\ create\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ steady\\ panic\\ and\\ the\\ quick\\ pace\\ of\\ the\\ crowd\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ dignified\\ awkwardness\\ of\\ the\\ badger\\ and\\ his\\ death\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ abrupt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Love\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Clare\\ \\(page\\ 423\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Introduction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Lyric\\ poetry\\ defined\\ by\\ contrast\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ unrequited\\ love\\,\\ pain\\ and\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcdcd\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\ stanzas\\ each\\ with\\ 8\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ love\\,\\ human\\ body\\,\\ nature\\,\\ flowers\\,\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\,\\ seasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ Romantic\\ poet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wrote\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ love\\ ballads\\ and\\ rural\\/nature\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ ne\\&rsquo\\;er\\ was\\ struck\\ before\\ that\\ hour\\/\\ With\\ love\\ so\\ sudden\\ and\\ so\\ sweet\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ starts\\ with\\ the\\ sudden\\ feeling\\ of\\ love\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ woman\\ and\\ compares\\ her\\ face\\ to\\ a\\ flower\\,\\ once\\ he\\ sees\\ her\\ face\\ he\\ turns\\ pale\\ and\\ immobile\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ uses\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ crating\\ a\\ personal\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ poet\\ and\\ his\\ experience\\.\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ captures\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ love\\ at\\ first\\ sight\\.\\ Then\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ moves\\ to\\ the\\ personal\\ transformation\\ within\\ the\\ narrator\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blood\\ rushes\\ to\\ his\\ face\\ and\\ his\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ anything\\ nor\\ can\\ he\\ speak\\.\\ The\\ final\\ stanza\\ questions\\ love\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ captures\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ unrequited\\ love\\ stating\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ never\\ seen\\ such\\ a\\ face\\ \\(or\\ had\\ such\\ an\\ experience\\ and\\ his\\ heart\\ is\\ left\\ dwelling\\ \\(alone\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Valediction\\:\\ Forbidding\\ Mourning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Donne\\ \\(1572\\-1631\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Poems\\ as\\ arranged\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ valediction\\-love\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ballad\\,\\ lyric\\ about\\ the\\ sublime\\ character\\ of\\ real\\ love\\-marriage\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ballad\\ stanza\\,\\ nine\\ stanzas\\ in\\ total\\.\\ The\\ one\\ variation\\ Donne\\ introduces\\ to\\ the\\ ballad\\ stanza\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ four\\ verses\\ are\\ tetrameters\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ an\\ iteration\\ between\\ trimesters\\ and\\ tetrameters\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ \\(second\\ and\\ fourth\\ lines\\)\\ is\\ congruent\\ with\\ the\\ ballad\\ stanza\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ celestial\\ bodies\\ \\(spheres\\,\\ references\\ to\\ sublunar\\ lovers\\)\\,\\ love\\,\\ death\\ \\(but\\ seen\\ from\\ a\\ positive\\ vantage\\ point\\,\\ hence\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Forbidding\\ \\[of\\ the\\]\\ Mourning\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ a\\ compass\\ and\\ its\\ legs\\ \\(image\\ used\\ as\\ an\\ analogy\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ bond\\ between\\ Donne\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\ \\;Jacobean\\ poet\\ and\\ preacher\\,\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ metaphysical\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ period\\.\\ His\\ works\\,\\ notable\\ for\\ their\\ realistic\\ and\\ sensual\\ style\\,\\ include\\ sonnets\\,\\ love\\ poetry\\,\\ religious\\ poems\\,\\ Latin\\ translations\\,\\ epigrams\\,\\ elegies\\,\\ songs\\,\\ satires\\ and\\ sermons\\.\\ His\\ poetry\\ is\\ noted\\ for\\ its\\ vibrancy\\ of\\ language\\ and\\ immediacy\\ of\\ metaphor\\,\\ compared\\ with\\ that\\ of\\ his\\ contemporaries\\.\\ He\\ married\\ the\\ niece\\ of\\ Thomas\\ Egerton\\ \\(daughter\\ of\\ Thomas\\ Moore\\)\\ against\\ their\\ wills\\.\\ This\\ earned\\ him\\ the\\ ruin\\ of\\ his\\ career\\.\\ John\\ Donne\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ master\\ of\\ the\\ conceit\\,\\ an\\ extended\\ metaphor\\ that\\ combines\\ two\\ vastly\\ unlike\\ ideas\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ idea\\,\\ often\\ using\\ imagery\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ conceits\\ found\\ in\\ other\\ Elizabethan\\ poetry\\,\\ most\\ notably\\ Petrarchan\\ conceits\\,\\ which\\ formed\\ clich\\é\\;d\\ comparisons\\ between\\ more\\ closely\\ related\\ objects\\ \\(such\\ as\\ a\\ rose\\ and\\ love\\)\\,\\ Metaphysical\\ conceits\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ greater\\ depth\\ in\\ comparing\\ two\\ completely\\ unlike\\ objects\\.\\ \\(Wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ Donne\\ compares\\ his\\ love\\,\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ to\\ a\\ compass\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ though\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ sit\\,\\ \\/\\ Yet\\ when\\ the\\ other\\ far\\ doth\\ roam\\,\\ \\/\\ It\\ leans\\ and\\ hearkens\\ after\\ it\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ grows\\ erect\\,\\ as\\ that\\ comes\\ home\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Donne\\ starts\\ by\\ entreating\\ his\\ audience\\ to\\ refrain\\ from\\ mourning\\ virtuous\\ man\\,\\ and\\ let\\ them\\ \\&lsquo\\;melt\\,\\ and\\ make\\ no\\ noise\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;No\\ tear\\-floods\\,\\ nor\\ sigh\\-tempests\\ move\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ profanation\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;laity\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ their\\ love\\ \\(the\\ poet\\ assumes\\ that\\ all\\ virtuous\\ men\\ are\\ married\\ and\\ they\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ special\\ unearthly\\ affection\\ for\\ their\\ wives\\)\\.\\ He\\ then\\ continues\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ love\\ that\\ binds\\ him\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ and\\ compares\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ celestial\\ bodies\\ which\\ are\\ eternal\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocent\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ love\\ of\\ earthly\\ \\&ldquo\\;sublunar\\&rdquo\\;\\ creatures\\ is\\ superficial\\ \\&ldquo\\;Whose\\ soul\\ is\\ sense\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ deep\\ and\\ entrenched\\.\\ Subsequently\\,\\ the\\ author\\ continues\\ to\\ reaffirm\\ his\\ rejection\\ for\\ mourning\\ because\\ when\\ one\\ loves\\ as\\ he\\ loves\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ one\\ could\\ \\&ldquo\\;Care\\ less\\,\\ eyes\\,\\ lips\\,\\ and\\ hands\\ to\\ miss\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ last\\ three\\ stanzas\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ show\\ an\\ interesting\\ twist\\ in\\ his\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphors\\,\\ Donne\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ compare\\ his\\ love\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ with\\ a\\ compass\\.\\ His\\ wife\\ remains\\ as\\ the\\ center\\,\\ and\\ tilts\\ towards\\ his\\ direction\\ when\\ he\\ goes\\ far\\ \\(imagine\\ the\\ compass\\ opening\\)\\,\\ and\\ when\\ he\\ returns\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;grows\\ erect\\,\\ as\\ that\\ comes\\ home\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(imagine\\ the\\ compasss\\ closing\\)\\.\\ Regarding\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motives\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ marriage\\ ruined\\ his\\ political\\ career\\ \\(he\\ married\\ against\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\)\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ that\\ might\\ have\\ induced\\ to\\ value\\ their\\ marital\\ love\\ above\\ anything\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sylvia\\ the\\ Fair\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(sorry\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ a\\ year\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Dryden\\ \\(p\\.\\ 197\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 30\\/Nov\\.\\ 1\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ A\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\/lust\\/satire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\ song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ anapestic\\ and\\ iambic\\;\\ always\\ iambic\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ refrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ cantos\\,\\ each\\ 11\\ lines\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;aabbccddeec\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ last\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ccddeec\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ a\\ refrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sexual\\,\\ lustful\\,\\ somewhat\\ pastoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Dryden\\ \\(1631\\&ndash\\;1700\\)\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ Restoration\\ poet\\ known\\ best\\ for\\ his\\ satiric\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ they\\ meant\\ by\\ their\\ sighing\\,\\ and\\ kissing\\ so\\ close\\!\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ And\\ sighing\\ and\\ kissing\\,\\/\\ And\\ sighing\\ and\\ kissing\\ so\\ close\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ rather\\ risqu\\é\\;\\ love\\ song\\ reveals\\ Dryden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lustful\\ nature\\ and\\ his\\ attitude\\ that\\ sex\\ is\\ not\\ sacred\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ be\\ had\\ and\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ all\\ curious\\ young\\ women\\ \\(and\\ men\\)\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ also\\ somewhat\\ satirical\\,\\ as\\ it\\ makes\\ fun\\ of\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ sex\\ was\\ like\\,\\ or\\ that\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ pure\\ to\\ have\\ such\\ thoughts\\,\\ and\\ would\\ only\\ find\\ out\\ from\\ a\\ man\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ progresses\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ young\\ girl\\ lying\\ in\\ a\\ field\\ wonders\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ men\\.\\.\\.meant\\ by\\ their\\ their\\ sighing\\,\\ and\\ kissing\\ so\\ close\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ second\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ prays\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;aid\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ someone\\ who\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;instruct\\ a\\ young\\ virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ ways\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ sex\\,\\ to\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ is\\ finally\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ at\\ a\\ loss\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ has\\ lost\\ her\\ virginity\\.\\ The\\ maiden\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ seem\\ innocent\\ at\\ first\\,\\ but\\ we\\ learn\\ that\\ she\\ in\\ fact\\ knows\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ is\\ meant\\ by\\ their\\ sighing\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ desires\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\.\\ In\\ the\\ refrain\\,\\ Dryden\\ uses\\ anaphora\\ \\(repeating\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\.\\.\\.\\ And\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ clasping\\ and\\ twining\\,\\/\\ And\\ panting\\ and\\ wishing\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ the\\ iambic\\ rhythm\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ sensation\\ of\\ escalating\\ lovemaking\\ and\\ desire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\La\\ Belle\\ Dame\\ Sans\\ Merci\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1819\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(pg\\.506\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 2\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\-\\-\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\,\\ love\\,\\ death\\,\\ fantasy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ literary\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Twelve\\ stanzas\\ of\\ four\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ abab\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanzas\\ I\\-III\\ describe\\ an\\ anonymous\\ speaker\\ coming\\ upon\\ the\\ knight\\,\\ asking\\ him\\ a\\ question\\ and\\ then\\ describing\\ his\\ physical\\ appearance\\ and\\ mental\\ state\\.\\ The\\ knight\\&\\#39\\;s\\ subsequent\\ narrative\\ consists\\ of\\ three\\ units\\:\\ stanzas\\ IV\\-VII\\ describe\\ the\\ knight\\&\\#39\\;s\\ meeting\\ and\\ involvement\\ with\\ the\\ lady\\;\\ stanza\\ VIII\\ presents\\ the\\ climax\\ \\(he\\ goes\\ with\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ \\"\\;elfin\\ grot\\"\\;\\)\\;\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ describe\\ his\\ sleep\\ and\\ expulsion\\ from\\ the\\ grotto\\.\\ The\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ \\(IV\\-VII\\)\\ are\\ balanced\\ by\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ \\(IX\\-XII\\)\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ returns\\ to\\ where\\ it\\ started\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ a\\ circular\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\ \\=\\ lily\\ \\(symbol\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ Western\\ cultures\\)\\,\\ paleness\\,\\ fading\\,\\ withering\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;sexual\\ references\\ \\=\\ her\\ eyes\\ were\\ wild\\,\\ elfin\\ grot\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;femme\\ fatale\\-\\-\\ She\\ seduces\\ him\\ with\\ her\\ beauty\\,\\ with\\ her\\ accomplishments\\,\\ with\\ her\\ avowal\\ of\\ love\\,\\ and\\ with\\ sensuality\\ \\(\\"\\;roots\\ of\\ relish\\ sweet\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ honey\\ wild\\,\\ and\\ manna\\ dew\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ pale\\ men\\ suggests\\ she\\ is\\ deliberately\\ destructive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ poetry\\ is\\ often\\ characterized\\ by\\ elaborate\\ word\\ choice\\ and\\ sensual\\ imagery\\.\\ \\(This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ sensual\\ imagery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ met\\ a\\ lady\\ in\\ the\\ meads\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;Full\\ beautiful\\&mdash\\;a\\ faery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ child\\,\\ Her\\ hair\\ was\\ long\\,\\ her\\ foot\\ was\\ light\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ her\\ eyes\\ were\\ wild\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ sure\\ in\\ language\\ strange\\ she\\ said\\&mdash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\&lsquo\\;I\\ love\\ thee\\ true\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ encounter\\ between\\ an\\ unnamed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\knight\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ a\\ mysterious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\fairy\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ knight\\ in\\ a\\ barren\\ landscape\\,\\ \\"\\;haggard\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;woe\\-begone\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ tells\\ the\\ reader\\ how\\ he\\ met\\ a\\ beautiful\\ lady\\ whose\\ \\"\\;eyes\\ were\\ wild\\"\\;\\;\\ he\\ set\\ her\\ on\\ his\\ horse\\ and\\ they\\ went\\ together\\ to\\ her\\ \\"\\;elfin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\grot\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\,\\ where\\ they\\ began\\ to\\ make\\ love\\.\\ Falling\\ asleep\\,\\ the\\ knight\\ had\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ \\"\\;pale\\ kings\\ and\\ princes\\"\\;\\,\\ who\\ warn\\ him\\ that\\ \\"\\;La\\ Belle\\ Dame\\ sans\\ Merci\\ hath\\ thee\\ in\\ thrall\\!\\"\\;\\ \\(\\ The\\ Lady\\ without\\ pity\\ has\\ you\\ in\\ her\\ charm\\ \\;\\!\\)\\.\\ He\\ awoke\\ to\\ find\\ himself\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ \\"\\;cold\\ hill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ side\\"\\;\\ where\\ he\\ is\\ now\\ \\"\\;palely\\ loitering\\"\\;\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ knight\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ death\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\lily\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(a\\ symbol\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ Western\\ culture\\)\\,\\ paleness\\,\\ \\"\\;fading\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;wither\\[ing\\]\\"\\;\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ he\\ may\\ well\\ be\\ dead\\ himself\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ He\\ is\\ clearly\\ doomed\\ to\\ remain\\ on\\ the\\ hillside\\,\\ but\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ this\\ fate\\ is\\ unknown\\.\\ A\\ straightforward\\ reading\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ Belle\\ Dame\\ entraps\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\A\\ few\\ important\\ points\\ to\\ note\\:\\ \\\\-As\\ a\\ human\\ being\\,\\ the\\ knight\\ cannot\\ fully\\ understand\\ the\\ non\\-\\ mortal\\;\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ \\"\\;faery\\&\\#39\\;s\\ child\\,\\"\\;\\ sings\\ a\\ \\"\\;faery\\&\\#39\\;s\\ song\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ takes\\ him\\ to\\ an\\ \\"\\;elfin\\ grot\\.\\"\\;\\ She\\ speaks\\ \\"\\;in\\ language\\ strange\\"\\;\\ \\(VII\\)\\.\\ Whether\\ she\\ speaks\\ a\\ language\\ unknown\\ to\\ the\\ knight\\ or\\ merely\\ had\\ an\\ unfamiliar\\ pronunciation\\,\\ the\\ phrase\\ suggests\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ failure\\ of\\ communication\\.\\ They\\ are\\ incompatible\\ by\\ nature\\.\\\\-The\\ anonymous\\ speaker\\ at\\ face\\ value\\ is\\ a\\ concerned\\ passerby\\ who\\ comes\\ upon\\ the\\ knight\\ accidentally\\ and\\ who\\ describes\\ accurately\\ and\\ factually\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ knight\\ and\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ they\\ meet\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ knight\\&\\#39\\;s\\ pitiful\\ condition\\ exists\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ or\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ anonymous\\ speaker\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\ to\\ a\\ Nightingale\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1819\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 245\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\section\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ week\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\10\\.16\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ chapter\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Describing\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ section\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Discussion\\ of\\ patterns\\:\\ rhetorical\\ \\(who\\ speaks\\?\\ who\\ is\\ addressed\\?\\ tonal\\ echoing\\?\\)\\,\\ structural\\,\\ syntactic\\,\\ metaphorical\\,\\ stanzaic\\,\\ rhythmical\\,\\ phonetic\\,\\ etc\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nocturne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ about\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bird\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ with\\ the\\ eighth\\ line\\ of\\ every\\ stanza\\ in\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ eight\\ stanzas\\,\\ each\\ ten\\ lines\\ rhyming\\ ababcdecde\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ a\\ sonnet\\ but\\ without\\ the\\ second\\ abab\\)\\;\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ enjambment\\ between\\ stanzas\\ two\\ and\\ three\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decay\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nightingale\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Greek\\/classical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;gods\\ and\\ themes\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Biblical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;figures\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\song\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ bird\\,\\ drugs\\ causing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\intoxication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ Romantic\\ poet\\ who\\ lived\\ from\\ 1795\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1821\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ Keats\\ became\\ ill\\ with\\ tuberculosis\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ killed\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ his\\ later\\ writings\\ \\(such\\ as\\ this\\ poem\\)\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ his\\ disease\\ and\\ exhibit\\ a\\ pervasive\\ fear\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ was\\ published\\ right\\ after\\ both\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ brother\\ \\(from\\ TB\\)\\ and\\ his\\ secret\\ engagement\\ to\\ Fanny\\ Browne\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Away\\!\\ away\\!\\ for\\ I\\ will\\ fly\\ to\\ thee\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Not\\ charioted\\ by\\ Bacchus\\ and\\ his\\ pards\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;But\\ on\\ the\\ viewless\\ wings\\ of\\ Poesy\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Though\\ the\\ dull\\ brain\\ perplexes\\ and\\ retards\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Already\\ with\\ thee\\!\\ tender\\ is\\ the\\ night\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;And\\ haply\\ the\\ Queen\\-Moon\\ is\\ on\\ her\\ throne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cluster\\&\\#39\\;d\\ around\\ by\\ all\\ her\\ starry\\ Fays\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\ opens\\ his\\ poem\\ by\\ describing\\ his\\ sorrow\\ and\\ says\\ he\\ is\\ intoxicated\\ in\\ \\(as\\ if\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;hemlock\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;some\\ dull\\ opiate\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ his\\ happiness\\ at\\ the\\ flight\\ of\\ the\\ nightingale\\,\\ which\\ he\\ calls\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;light\\-winged\\ Dryad\\ of\\ the\\ trees\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;There\\ immediately\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ his\\ inner\\ conflict\\,\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;heart\\ aches\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;being\\ too\\ happy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ for\\ intoxicants\\ to\\ leave\\ his\\ mortal\\ state\\ of\\ being\\,\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ bird\\ in\\ flight\\ in\\ joy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ stanza\\ then\\ brings\\ his\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ life\\ he\\ would\\ leave\\ behind\\;\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ a\\ mortal\\ plagued\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\weariness\\,\\ the\\ fever\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fret\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ stanza\\ brings\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ deeper\\ darkness\\ and\\ despair\\ at\\ the\\ human\\ plight\\;\\ even\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ negated\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ mortal\\ sickness\\ and\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ brings\\ a\\ shift\\;\\ Keats\\ abandons\\ the\\ false\\ promise\\ of\\ intoxicants\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Bacchus\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ mentioned\\ here\\,\\ is\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ wine\\ in\\ classical\\ mythology\\)\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ instead\\ join\\ the\\ bird\\ through\\ his\\ poetry\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Posey\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ archaic\\ term\\ for\\ poetry\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ a\\ moment\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ rising\\ hopefulness\\;\\ Keats\\ is\\ among\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Queen\\-Moon\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;starry\\ Fays\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;But\\ then\\ he\\ drops\\ abruptly\\,\\ realizing\\ that\\,\\ in\\ his\\ mortal\\ state\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ light\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ far\\ beneath\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ forest\\ he\\ describes\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\ more\\ explicitly\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ sees\\ Keats\\ standing\\ a\\ natural\\ setting\\,\\ but\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;cannot\\ see\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ flowers\\ at\\ his\\ feet\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ decay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ darkness\\ is\\ strangely\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;embalmed\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ flowers\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;covered\\ up\\ in\\ leaves\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ rotting\\,\\ and\\ flies\\ surround\\ the\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ sixth\\ stanza\\,\\ Keats\\ describes\\,\\ in\\ detail\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ his\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ continues\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ bird\\,\\ and\\ considers\\ how\\ its\\ song\\ would\\ continue\\,\\ even\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;become\\ a\\ sod\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ seems\\ resigned\\,\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ succumbs\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ low\\-point\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ seventh\\ stanza\\ then\\ considers\\ the\\ immortality\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\ \\(which\\ he\\ so\\ admires\\)\\,\\ who\\ can\\ transcend\\ history\\ \\(we\\ see\\ a\\ reference\\ here\\ to\\ Ruth\\,\\ a\\ Biblical\\ figure\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ eighth\\ stanza\\,\\ Keats\\ bids\\ farewell\\ to\\ the\\ bird\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fancy\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ mind\\ previously\\ engaged\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ calls\\ the\\ bird\\ \\&ldquo\\;deceiving\\ elf\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ displaying\\ his\\ refusal\\ to\\ continue\\ to\\ continue\\ to\\ pointlessly\\ entertain\\ the\\ imaginative\\ course\\ of\\ his\\ mind\\.\\ The\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\ \\(which\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ repeating\\ element\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ until\\ this\\ point\\)\\ finally\\ fades\\ away\\,\\ and\\ Keats\\ is\\ left\\ confused\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ vision\\ or\\ perhaps\\ only\\ dreamed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ close\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ brings\\ a\\ question\\,\\ which\\ introduces\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ and\\ no\\ real\\ consolation\\ for\\ the\\ despair\\ of\\ the\\ mortal\\ condition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ First\\ Looking\\ into\\ Chapman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Homer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1816\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(p\\.\\ 125\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 16\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sonnets\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ discovery\\/revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\,\\ hero\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ a\\ Petrarchan\\ sonnet\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abba\\ abba\\ cdcdcd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ discovery\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ sea\\;\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(1795\\&ndash\\;1821\\)\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ principal\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Romantic\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yet\\ never\\ did\\ I\\ breathe\\ its\\ pure\\ serene\\/\\ Till\\ I\\ heard\\ Chapman\\ speak\\ out\\ loud\\ and\\ bold\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ Keats\\ describes\\ his\\ sense\\ of\\ wonder\\ and\\ humbling\\ discovery\\ upon\\ reading\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Odyssey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ The\\ progression\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ experience\\ and\\ knowledge\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ inexperience\\ and\\ ignorance\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ by\\ describing\\ his\\ travels\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;many\\ goodly\\ states\\ and\\ kingdoms\\ seen\\;\\/\\ Round\\ many\\ western\\ islands\\ have\\ I\\ been\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ then\\,\\ though\\ he\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;oft\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;been\\ told\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epic\\,\\ he\\ actually\\ breathes\\ the\\ air\\ of\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ landscape\\.\\ First\\ he\\ describes\\ this\\ experience\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;watcher\\ of\\ the\\ skies\\/\\ When\\ a\\ new\\ plant\\ swims\\ into\\ his\\ ken\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ of\\ an\\ astronomer\\ discovering\\ a\\ planet\\.\\ But\\ then\\ he\\ decides\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ just\\ analogy\\,\\ because\\ the\\ planet\\ is\\ a\\ distant\\ removed\\ object\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epic\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ new\\ place\\ on\\ earth\\ to\\ be\\ discovered\\ and\\ explored\\.\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ first\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Homerian\\ landscape\\ is\\ like\\ Cortez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Pacific\\.\\ Here\\ he\\ reaches\\ the\\ climax\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ using\\ words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;peak\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ heightened\\ sensation\\ and\\ elation\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;silent\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ breathless\\ excitement\\ of\\ the\\ men\\.\\ This\\ is\\ somewhat\\ of\\ a\\ riddle\\-poem\\,\\ asking\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ is\\ it\\ like\\ to\\ discover\\ Homer\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ giving\\ us\\ a\\ final\\ answer\\ until\\ the\\ end\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ heroic\\,\\ but\\ also\\ communal\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ Cortez\\ who\\ discovers\\ uncharted\\ territory\\,\\ but\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ men\\ as\\ well\\.\\ We\\ understand\\ that\\ Keats\\ regards\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ reader\\ among\\ other\\ readers\\,\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\ among\\ poets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ Sitting\\ Down\\ to\\ Read\\ King\\ Lear\\ Once\\ Again\\ \\(1818\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\-\\ 507\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Lecture\\,\\ Dec\\.\\ 18\\.\\ \\-\\ Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ Poem\\ about\\ reading\\ and\\ writing\\ poetry\\,\\ personal\\ struggle\\,\\ romance\\,\\ tragedy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\ Form\\:\\ Sonnet\\ \\(hybrid\\ of\\ Petrarchan\\ and\\ Shakespearean\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Pentameter\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ last\\ line\\ is\\ iambic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hexameter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ The\\ sonnet\\ follows\\ a\\ Petrarchan\\ \\(Italian\\)\\ pattern\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 8\\ lines\\ \\(abbaabba\\ \\=\\ embraced\\ quatrains\\)\\,\\ but\\ a\\ Shakespearean\\ \\(English\\)\\ pattern\\ in\\ the\\ sestet\\,\\ the\\ last\\ 6\\ lines\\ \\(cdcdee\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ music\\/sound\\,\\ fairyland\\,\\ fire\\,\\ wings\\/feathers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Keats\\ is\\ a\\ poet\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Romantic\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ highly\\ sensory\\ imagery\\ \\(engaging\\ all\\ five\\ senses\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Adieu\\!\\ for\\ once\\ again\\ the\\ fierce\\ dispute\\ \\/\\ Betwixt\\ damnation\\ and\\ impassioned\\ clay\\ \\/\\ Must\\ I\\ burn\\ through\\;\\ once\\ more\\ humbly\\ assay\\ \\/\\ The\\ bitter\\-sweet\\ of\\ this\\ Shakespearean\\ fruit\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Keats\\ describes\\ his\\ shift\\ from\\ literature\\ of\\ romance\\ \\(using\\ Spenser\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Faerie\\ Queen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ his\\ model\\)\\,\\ to\\ literature\\ of\\ tragedy\\ \\(using\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ Lear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ his\\ model\\)\\,\\ a\\ shift\\ prompted\\ after\\ Keats\\ reads\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ Lear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ the\\ second\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Keats\\ addresses\\ the\\ siren\\ song\\ of\\ romance\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;O\\ golden\\-tongued\\ Romance\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ bids\\ it\\ a\\ formal\\ farewell\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Adieu\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ deciding\\ instead\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ tragedy\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ presents\\ two\\ metaphors\\ for\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ read\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ Lear\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ reader\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;Burn\\ through\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ tragedy\\ whose\\ main\\ dispute\\ is\\ between\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ evil\\,\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;impassioned\\ clay\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(reaching\\ toward\\ happiness\\,\\ success\\,\\ fame\\)\\ and\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;damnation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\[The\\ dispute\\ in\\ tragedy\\ is\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ medieval\\ tragedies\\ of\\ heaven\\ vs\\.\\ hell\\ and\\ the\\ struggle\\ between\\ your\\ own\\ will\\ to\\ live\\ and\\ evil\\ forces\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ reader\\ can\\ experience\\ the\\ play\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;bitter\\-sweet\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ metaphor\\ of\\ taste\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Tragedy\\ can\\ be\\ sweet\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ work\\ of\\ art\\,\\ as\\ creation\\ causes\\ aesthetic\\ ecstasy\\ despite\\ the\\ horrible\\ themes\\ of\\ tragedy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ Keats\\ challenges\\ himself\\ to\\ pursue\\ the\\ genre\\ of\\ tragedy\\,\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ literature\\ with\\ no\\ redeeming\\ end\\ but\\ with\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ encompass\\ themes\\ of\\ moral\\ substance\\ \\(metaphor\\ 1\\)\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ aesthetically\\ grand\\ \\(metaphor\\ 2\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sonnet\\ is\\ a\\ hybrid\\ of\\ Petrarchan\\ \\(European\\ romance\\)\\ and\\ Shakespearean\\ forms\\,\\ thus\\ enacting\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shift\\ from\\ romance\\ to\\ tragedy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ sonnet\\ is\\ NOT\\ in\\ Shakespearean\\ pentameter\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ the\\ hexameter\\ of\\ Spenser\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Faerie\\ Queen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\ is\\ therefore\\ a\\ last\\ farewell\\ to\\ Spenser\\,\\ a\\ casting\\ of\\ the\\ eyes\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ romance\\ Keats\\ has\\ forsaken\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ tragedy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Human\\ Seasons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1818\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(p\\.\\ 13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 20\\/25\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ As\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(poems\\ about\\ nature\\ and\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\ and\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\ababcdcdefefgg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ changing\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\,\\ natural\\/pastoral\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(1795\\&ndash\\;1821\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Four\\ seasons\\ fill\\ the\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ year\\;\\/\\ Four\\ seasons\\ are\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\ likens\\ the\\ aging\\ of\\ humans\\ to\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\,\\ a\\ well\\-worn\\ analogy\\,\\ but\\ one\\ that\\ he\\ gives\\ life\\ through\\ vivid\\ imagery\\.\\ He\\ progresses\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;lusty\\ spring\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;summer\\,\\ when\\ luxuriously\\/\\ He\\ chews\\ the\\ honied\\ cud\\ of\\ fair\\ spring\\ thoughts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ There\\ is\\ something\\ both\\ pleasurable\\ in\\ the\\ luxurious\\,\\ sweet\\ relaxation\\ of\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;summer\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ also\\ something\\ old\\ and\\ stale\\&mdash\\;fresh\\ thoughts\\ have\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;cud\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Then\\ Keats\\ moves\\ on\\ to\\ autumn\\,\\ in\\ which\\ man\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;tired\\ wings\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ turns\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;idleness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ couplet\\ gives\\ us\\ \\&ldquo\\;winter\\ too\\ of\\ pale\\ misfeature\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ ugliness\\ of\\ old\\ age\\ and\\ death\\.\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ final\\ line\\ is\\ a\\ philosophical\\ warning\\ to\\ us\\ all\\:\\ one\\ can\\ never\\ \\&ldquo\\;forget\\ his\\ mortal\\ nature\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sewing\\ imagery\\,\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ describes\\ the\\ disorientation\\ felt\\ as\\ she\\ attempts\\ unsuccessfully\\ to\\ organize\\ her\\ thoughts\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ interesting\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ knitting\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ brain\\ and\\ the\\ trouble\\ she\\ is\\ having\\ thinking\\ clearly\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ images\\ of\\ splitting\\ seams\\ and\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ her\\ mind\\ is\\ not\\ working\\ properly\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;sequence\\ \\[of\\ thoughts\\]\\ ravelled\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\ \\/\\ Like\\ balls\\ upon\\ a\\ floor\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ poem\\ fits\\ into\\ the\\ poems\\ on\\ time\\,\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ how\\ suffering\\ and\\ inability\\ to\\ think\\ clearly\\ has\\ clouded\\ all\\ perception\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ Autumn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1819\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 167\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 18\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ seasons\\,\\ autumn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ irregular\\ \\(often\\ iambic\\)\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ 11\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ Lots\\ of\\ hyphenated\\ adjectives\\:\\ bosom\\-friend\\,\\ cottage\\-trees\\,\\ soft\\-lifted\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ 3\\ lines\\:\\ full\\-grown\\,\\ hedge\\-crickets\\,\\ red\\-breast\\,\\ garden\\-croft\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ swelling\\,\\ plump\\,\\ engorged\\ fruits\\,\\ animals\\,\\ harvest\\,\\ autumn\\,\\ twittering\\ birds\\,\\ Autumn\\ as\\ a\\ goddess\\,\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ poetry\\ is\\ often\\ characterized\\ by\\ elaborate\\ word\\ choice\\ and\\ sensual\\ imagery\\.\\ Keats\\ died\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1821\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tuberculosis\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ just\\ 17\\ months\\ after\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;With\\ fruit\\ the\\ vines\\ that\\ round\\ the\\ thatch\\-eves\\ run\\;\\ \\\\ \\ \\;To\\ bend\\ with\\ apples\\ the\\ moss\\&\\#39\\;d\\ cottage\\-trees\\,\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;And\\ fill\\ all\\ fruit\\ with\\ ripeness\\ to\\ the\\ core\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\ \\;To\\ swell\\ the\\ gourd\\,\\ and\\ plump\\ the\\ hazel\\ shells\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Where\\ are\\ the\\ songs\\ of\\ spring\\?\\ \\;\\ Ay\\,\\ where\\ are\\ they\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\&\\#39\\;s\\ speaker\\ opens\\ his\\ first\\ stanza\\ by\\ addressing\\ Autumn\\,\\ describing\\ its\\ abundance\\ and\\ its\\ intimacy\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ with\\ whom\\ Autumn\\ ripens\\ fruits\\ and\\ causes\\ the\\ late\\ flowers\\ to\\ bloom\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ describes\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ Autumn\\ as\\ a\\ female\\ goddess\\,\\ often\\ seen\\ sitting\\ on\\ the\\ granary\\ floor\\,\\ her\\ hair\\ \\"\\;soft\\-lifted\\"\\;\\ by\\ the\\ wind\\,\\ and\\ often\\ seen\\ sleeping\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\ or\\ watching\\ a\\ cider\\-press\\ squeezing\\ the\\ juice\\ from\\ apples\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ tells\\ Autumn\\ not\\ to\\ wonder\\ where\\ the\\ songs\\ of\\ spring\\ have\\ gone\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ her\\ own\\ music\\.\\ At\\ twilight\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;small\\ gnats\\"\\;\\ hum\\ above\\ the\\ shallows\\ of\\ the\\ river\\,\\ lifted\\ and\\ dropped\\ by\\ the\\ wind\\,\\ and\\ \\"\\;full\\-grown\\ lambs\\"\\;\\ bleat\\ from\\ the\\ hills\\,\\ crickets\\ sing\\,\\ robins\\ whistle\\ from\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ and\\ swallows\\,\\ gathering\\ for\\ their\\ coming\\ migration\\,\\ sing\\ from\\ the\\ skies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\-by\\-line\\ analysis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Stanza\\ 1\\:\\ Keats\\ describes\\ autumn\\ with\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ specific\\,\\ concrete\\,\\ vivid\\ visual\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 1\\:\\ Mist\\ put\\ before\\ fruitfulness\\ \\(which\\ is\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ normal\\ perception\\ of\\ autumn\\,\\ where\\ the\\ first\\ thought\\ is\\ of\\ fruits\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ sun\\ provides\\ warmth\\ and\\ the\\ earth\\ provides\\ moisture\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 5\\:TO\\ BEND\\;\\ image\\ of\\ over\\-full\\ trees\\,\\ so\\ many\\ apples\\ that\\ the\\ branches\\ bend\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 6\\:\\ TO\\ FILL\\;\\ ripeness\\ added\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ in\\ \\(the\\ sun\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 7\\:\\ TO\\ SWELL\\,\\ TO\\ PLUMP\\;\\ more\\ images\\ of\\ ripened\\,\\ engorged\\ fruit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 8\\-9\\:\\ TO\\ SET\\;\\ full\\ fruit\\ and\\ late\\ flowers\\,\\ connection\\ to\\ everlasting\\ summer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 11\\:\\ summer\\ has\\ been\\ plentiful\\,\\ image\\ of\\ honey\\ running\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ honeycomb\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;clammy\\&rdquo\\;\\ description\\ represents\\ acceptance\\ of\\ unpleasant\\ connotation\\ as\\ natural\\-\\ without\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanza\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ season\\,\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ Goddess\\ of\\ Autumn\\ among\\ the\\ harvest\\,\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 12\\:\\ He\\ addresses\\ the\\ season\\ directly\\,\\ as\\ if\\ autumn\\ \\(the\\ goddess\\)\\ was\\ the\\ overseer\\ of\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ season\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 15\\-16\\:\\ Image\\ of\\ the\\ goddess\\,\\ half\\-reaped\\ furrow\\ shows\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ season\\.\\ She\\ \\(the\\ goddess\\)\\ is\\ never\\ acting\\,\\ she\\ is\\ always\\ about\\ to\\ act\\.\\ The\\ word\\ reap\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ grim\\ reaper\\,\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ death\\/winter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 17\\-18\\:\\ poppies\\ in\\ wheat\\ fields\\ \\(poppies\\=opium\\)\\,\\ they\\ are\\ cut\\ down\\ with\\ the\\ wheat\\=collateral\\ damage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 21\\-22\\:\\ Wheat\\ and\\ Cider\\=Food\\ and\\ Drink\\.\\ Patient\\=Suffering\\.\\ Deathbed\\ scene\\=Last\\ harvest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanza\\ 3\\:\\ He\\ describes\\ the\\ song\\ of\\ autumn\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ season\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 23\\-24\\:\\ Autumn\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ music\\,\\ different\\ from\\ spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 25\\-26\\:\\ The\\ harvest\\ is\\ over\\,\\ it\\ is\\ cloudy\\ \\(covering\\ the\\ sun\\)\\ and\\ at\\ sunset\\ \\(rosy\\ hue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 27\\-28\\:\\ Wailful\\ choir\\=Song\\ of\\ Autumn\\.\\ Mourn\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ autumn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 30\\-33\\:\\ Full\\-grown\\ lambs\\ \\(not\\ the\\ babies\\ of\\ spring\\)\\ bleat\\ \\(SONG\\)\\,\\ hedge\\ crickets\\ sing\\ \\(SONG\\)\\,\\ redbreast\\ whistles\\ \\(SONG\\)\\ and\\ gathering\\ swallows\\ twitter\\ \\(SONG\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ season\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\Keats\\ blends\\ living\\ and\\ dying\\,\\ the\\ pleasant\\ and\\ the\\ unpleasant\\,\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ inextricably\\ one\\;\\ he\\ accepts\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ the\\ mixed\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Have\\ Fears\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Reflection\\ on\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\,\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ in\\ organization\\ \\(3\\ quatrains\\ and\\ a\\ couplet\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ shore\\ of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ Romantic\\ poets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;then\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\ Of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\ I\\ stand\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ think\\ Till\\ Love\\ and\\ Fame\\ to\\ nothingness\\ do\\ sink\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ like\\ to\\ die\\ before\\ completing\\ your\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ and\\ also\\ how\\ miserable\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ die\\ without\\ seeing\\ his\\ beloved\\ once\\ more\\.\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ finish\\ is\\ dreadful\\,\\ and\\ also\\ speaks\\ to\\ his\\ feeling\\ of\\ isolation\\ in\\ his\\ mortality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thought\\ is\\ organized\\ in\\ 8\\+6\\ Petrarchan\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fame\\ discussed\\ in\\ quatrain\\ 1\\ and\\ Love\\ in\\ quatrain\\ 2\\,\\ but\\ names\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ order\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ and\\ Fame\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ couplet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ explains\\ itself\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ lines\\,\\ and\\ also\\ expands\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ wider\\ world\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ line\\ unexpectedly\\ \\&ldquo\\;Of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Zooming\\ out\\ effect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arranged\\ using\\ time\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;when\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Diction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Harvest\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ completing\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ \\(a\\ desk\\ piled\\ high\\ with\\ books\\ is\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ field\\ full\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;full\\-ripened\\ grain\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;nothingness\\&rdquo\\;\\ ties\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;able\\ to\\ link\\ the\\ wider\\ world\\ to\\ personal\\ experience\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;before\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;are\\ replaced\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\(that\\ is\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ after\\ or\\ corrects\\ \\&ldquo\\;before\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;darker\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;may\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;May\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggests\\ possibility\\,\\ whereas\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ simple\\ future\\,\\ which\\ suggests\\ inevitability\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ after\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ knows\\ that\\ his\\ death\\ is\\ inevitable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Love\\ and\\ Fame\\ are\\ like\\ sinking\\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ have\\ Fears\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1818\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\.25\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ class\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Traditional\\ genres\\ of\\ life\\-stages\\,\\ cont\\.\\:\\ Parenthood\\ poem\\;\\ vocation\\ poem\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ poem\\;\\ elegy\\;\\ posthumous\\ poem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ also\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lament\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shakespearean\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efefgg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Harvest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ \\(the\\ pen\\ \\&ldquo\\;glean\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ books\\ hold\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ rich\\ garners\\ the\\ full\\ ripen\\&\\#39\\;d\\ grain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Shadows\\ of\\ Clouds\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ Keats\\ fears\\ he\\ will\\ miss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ Romantic\\ poet\\ who\\ lived\\ from\\ 1795\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1821\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ Keats\\ became\\ ill\\ with\\ tuberculosis\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ killed\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ his\\ later\\ writings\\ \\(such\\ as\\ this\\ poem\\)\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ his\\ disease\\ and\\ exhibit\\ a\\ pervasive\\ fear\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Keats\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ secret\\ romance\\ with\\ his\\ neighbor\\ Fanny\\ Browne\\ \\(who\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ person\\ addressed\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ Keat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\)\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ when\\ I\\ feel\\,\\ fair\\ creature\\ of\\ an\\ hour\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ look\\ upon\\ thee\\ more\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Never\\ have\\ relish\\ in\\ the\\ faery\\ power\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ unreflecting\\ love\\;\\-\\-then\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\ I\\ stand\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ think\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Till\\ love\\ and\\ fame\\ to\\ nothingness\\ do\\ sink\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;When\\ I\\ have\\ Fears\\&rdquo\\;\\ expresses\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ fear\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ quatrain\\,\\ Keats\\ hypothesizes\\ with\\ horror\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ dying\\ before\\ he\\ writes\\ all\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;teeming\\ brain\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ producing\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ quatrain\\,\\ he\\ continues\\ in\\ this\\ vein\\ but\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ wider\\ scope\\,\\ wondering\\ at\\ the\\ wonders\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\(the\\ \\&ldquo\\;huge\\ cloudy\\ symbols\\ of\\ a\\ high\\ romance\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ he\\ may\\ fail\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ experience\\ and\\ transform\\ into\\ poetry\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ third\\ quatrain\\,\\ he\\ shifts\\ his\\ focus\\ and\\ considers\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\ never\\ look\\ upon\\ \\[her\\]\\ more\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ however\\,\\ in\\ the\\ epigrammatic\\ couplet\\ \\(in\\ which\\ he\\ maintains\\ a\\ wide\\ scope\\;\\ he\\ stands\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ wide\\ world\\)\\ which\\ closes\\ his\\ poem\\,\\ Keats\\ realizes\\ that\\,\\ at\\ his\\ moment\\ of\\ death\\,\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ enjoys\\ in\\ life\\ will\\ matter\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ and\\ fame\\&rdquo\\;\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;sink\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ nothingness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Notable\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ repeated\\ use\\ of\\ adverbs\\ and\\ nouns\\ of\\ complete\\ negation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;nothingness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ emphasize\\ the\\ finality\\ of\\ the\\ oblivion\\ he\\ fears\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ remarkable\\ is\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ simple\\ future\\ tense\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;shall\\ never\\ look\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ example\\)\\ which\\ brings\\ his\\ reader\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ Keats\\ sees\\ death\\ not\\ simply\\ as\\ a\\ possibility\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ unavoidable\\ fact\\ of\\ his\\ existence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ Late\\ Massacre\\ in\\ Piedmont\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ in\\ 1673\\ but\\ written\\ earlier\\ c\\.\\ 1655\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ religious\\ \\(maybe\\ political\\ as\\ well\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abbacddcefefef\\,\\ Stanzas\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ line\\ breaks\\ but\\ only\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lines\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ indented\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ends\\ of\\ lines\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ complete\\ thoughts\\ or\\ sentences\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ enjambment\\,\\ even\\ between\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ martyrdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ protestant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Avenge\\,\\ O\\ Lord\\,\\ thy\\ slaughtered\\ saints\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Protestants\\ in\\ Italy\\ were\\ massacred\\ because\\ they\\ refused\\ to\\ convert\\ to\\ Catholicism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ essentially\\ commands\\ to\\ God\\ to\\ first\\ \\&ldquo\\;Avenge\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;Forget\\ not\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ commands\\ which\\ begin\\ the\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ followed\\ by\\ positive\\ theological\\ descriptions\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\ are\\ more\\ about\\ effects\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ moans\\ of\\ the\\ massacred\\ are\\ sent\\ to\\ the\\ hills\\ and\\ then\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ which\\ goes\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ \\ \\;references\\ a\\ quote\\ by\\ Tertullian\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ martyrs\\ is\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ the\\ church\\ and\\ a\\ line\\ from\\ the\\ bible\\ which\\ says\\ that\\ seeds\\ spread\\ on\\ good\\ ground\\ multiply\\ a\\ hundred\\-fold\\.\\ \\ \\;Milton\\ hopes\\ that\\ the\\ protestants\\ who\\ died\\ will\\ inspire\\ others\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ \\(represented\\ by\\ the\\ pope\\ as\\ the\\ triple\\ tyrant\\ and\\ by\\ Babylon\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Milton\\ could\\ be\\ compelled\\ to\\ speak\\ in\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ his\\ poem\\ will\\ reinforce\\ the\\ faith\\ of\\ those\\ around\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ completely\\ regular\\ sonnet\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ rhythm\\ and\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ arrangement\\ of\\ sentences\\ is\\ unusual\\.\\ \\ \\;Sentences\\ are\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ lines\\ and\\ ideas\\ are\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ Milton\\,\\ an\\ Englishman\\,\\ uses\\ an\\ Italian\\ sonnet\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ Italy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Consider\\ How\\ My\\ Light\\ is\\ Spent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\(139\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Describing\\ Poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Prayer\\/Self\\ Reflexive\\/Disability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ but\\ pick\\ the\\ dominant\\ meter\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ sonnet\\ that\\ has\\ no\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ but\\ that\\ is\\ roughly\\ organized\\ into\\ 4\\ left\\ indented\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 4\\,4\\,3\\ and\\ 3\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ follows\\ the\\ following\\ pattern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abba\\,\\ abba\\,\\ abc\\,\\ abc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Light\\ and\\ Darkness\\,\\ God\\,\\ faith\\,\\ death\\,\\ disability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Milton\\ was\\ nearly\\ completely\\ blind\\ when\\ he\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ title\\ indicates\\ he\\ is\\ speaking\\ about\\ losing\\ his\\ eyesight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ I\\ consider\\ hoe\\ my\\ light\\ is\\ spent\\,\\ \\/\\ Ere\\ half\\ my\\ days\\ in\\ this\\ dark\\ world\\ and\\ wide\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ sonnet\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ sonnet\\ 16\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ meditates\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ become\\ blind\\.\\ He\\ expresses\\ his\\ frustration\\ at\\ being\\ prevented\\ by\\ his\\ disability\\ from\\ serving\\ God\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ he\\ desires\\ to\\.\\ He\\ is\\ answered\\ by\\ \\"\\;Patience\\,\\"\\;\\ who\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ many\\ who\\ hurry\\ to\\ do\\ his\\ bidding\\,\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ really\\ need\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ what\\ is\\ valued\\ is\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ bear\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\"\\;mild\\ yoke\\,\\"\\;\\ to\\ tolerate\\ whatever\\ God\\ asks\\ for\\ w\\/o\\ complaint\\.\\ As\\ the\\ famous\\ last\\ line\\ sums\\ it\\ up\\,\\ \\"\\;They\\ also\\ serve\\ who\\ only\\ stand\\ and\\ wait\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ presents\\ a\\ carefully\\ reasoned\\ argument\\,\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ for\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ physical\\ impairment\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ learns\\ that\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ being\\ an\\ obstacle\\ to\\ his\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ for\\ him\\,\\ his\\ blindness\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ that\\ work\\,\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ achievement\\ lies\\ in\\ living\\ patiently\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\(Milton\\ himself\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ write\\ his\\ twelve\\-book\\ epic\\ poem\\,\\ \\"\\;Paradise\\ Lost\\,\\"\\;\\ after\\ becoming\\ blind\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Allegro\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.537\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1645\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\(1608\\-1674\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;10\\/30\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ the\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pastoral\\ poem\\,\\ part\\ of\\ debate\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\(except\\ for\\ first\\ ten\\ lines\\,\\ see\\ below\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ first\\ 10\\ lines\\ alternate\\ between\\ trimeter\\ and\\ pentameter\\,\\ with\\ the\\ pentameter\\ lines\\ indented\\ and\\ a\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ of\\ abbacddeec\\.\\ Then\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ tetrameter\\ \\(or\\ close\\ to\\ it\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ no\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\ 152\\ line\\ poem\\.\\ Rhyming\\ pairs\\ of\\ lines\\.\\ \\(aabbccddeeff\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;joyful\\ days\\,\\ distinction\\ between\\ aristocracy\\ and\\ peasantry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Milton\\ has\\ a\\ very\\ allegorical\\,\\ philosophical\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;These\\ delights\\ if\\ though\\ canst\\ give\\,\\/\\ Mirth\\,\\ with\\ thee\\ I\\ mean\\ to\\ live\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ centered\\ on\\ Milton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primary\\ question\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ makes\\ contentment\\ in\\ philosophical\\ life\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ L\\&rsquo\\;Allegro\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;happy\\/cheerful\\ person\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ spends\\ an\\ idealized\\ day\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ night\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ apparently\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ compliment\\ to\\ another\\ Milton\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Il\\ Penseroso\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\meaning\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ thoughtful\\ person\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ parallel\\ portrays\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;active\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pensive\\,\\ inward\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(perhaps\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ theme\\ is\\ evident\\ through\\ the\\ opening\\ lines\\ in\\ which\\ Milton\\ banishes\\ \\&ldquo\\;Melancholy\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;loathed\\ melancholy\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ ten\\ lines\\.\\ This\\ beginning\\ section\\ establishes\\ the\\ melancholic\\ state\\ as\\ the\\ lowest\\,\\ worst\\ place\\ of\\ existence\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ poem\\ turns\\ towards\\ a\\ portrayal\\ of\\ mirth\\,\\ of\\ a\\ happy\\,\\ active\\ experience\\.\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ this\\ state\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ treat\\ the\\ melancholic\\ state\\.\\ The\\ ending\\ section\\ supposedly\\ presents\\ the\\ state\\ when\\ melancholy\\ is\\ completely\\ eliminated\\,\\ a\\ necessity\\ for\\ higher\\ education\\ and\\ understanding\\ and\\ moral\\ enlightening\\ to\\ exist\\.\\ Different\\ critics\\ have\\ varying\\ opinions\\ on\\ Milton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conclusion\\ about\\ this\\ dichotomy\\,\\ many\\ suggesting\\ that\\ he\\ portrays\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Il\\ Penseroso\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;higher\\&rdquo\\;\\ end\\,\\ a\\ better\\ way\\ to\\ live\\ over\\ the\\ carefree\\,\\ happy\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ allusions\\,\\ makes\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ follow\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ reader\\ because\\ the\\ allusions\\ are\\ to\\ references\\ of\\ characters\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ descriptions\\ of\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ for\\ aristocracy\\ and\\ for\\ peasantry\\.\\ The\\ challenge\\ for\\ the\\ aristocracy\\ is\\ to\\ find\\ meaningful\\ things\\ to\\ fill\\ up\\ their\\ day\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ prayer\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ an\\ imagination\\ of\\ a\\ sea\\ in\\ hell\\,\\ with\\ the\\ allusion\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Orpheus\\&rsquo\\;\\ journey\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\ to\\ retrieve\\ his\\ wife\\ but\\ he\\ looks\\ back\\ \\(breaking\\ deal\\)\\ and\\ condemns\\ wife\\ to\\ Hates\\ forever\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ convinced\\ of\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ a\\ happy\\,\\ pleasure\\-filled\\ life\\;\\ perhaps\\ he\\ has\\ exhausted\\ all\\ possible\\ pleasures\\ for\\ both\\ aristocrats\\ and\\ peasants\\.\\ Yet\\ his\\ final\\ line\\ \\(see\\ quote\\ above\\)\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ possibility\\/attempt\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;mirth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lycidas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 294\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1638\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\11\\/8\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pastoral\\ elegy\\.\\ Also\\ monody\\ \\(a\\ funeral\\ song\\ sung\\ by\\ a\\ single\\ voice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ lyric\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\.\\ Irregular\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ with\\ no\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ irregular\\ stanza\\ structure\\ \\(no\\ white\\ space\\)\\ but\\ different\\ length\\ stanzas\\ are\\ distinguished\\ through\\ indentation\\ of\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ new\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;death\\,\\ decaying\\ corpse\\,\\ pastoral\\ imagery\\,\\ shepherds\\ lots\\ of\\ allegorical\\ allusions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Milton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Bitter\\ constraint\\,\\ and\\ sad\\ occasion\\ dear\\,\\ \\/Compels\\ me\\ to\\ disturb\\ your\\ season\\ due\\;\\ \\/For\\ Lycidas\\ is\\ dead\\,\\ dead\\ ere\\ his\\ prime\\,\\/\\ Young\\ Lycidas\\,\\ and\\ hat\\ no\\ left\\ his\\ peer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ an\\ elegy\\ about\\ his\\ friend\\ who\\ drowned\\ in\\ the\\ Irish\\ seas\\ and\\ he\\ simultaneously\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ ruin\\ of\\ the\\ corrupted\\ clergy\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ laments\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ someone\\ young\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;dead\\ ere\\ his\\ prime\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ seems\\ especially\\ tragic\\ and\\ unjust\\&mdash\\;why\\ must\\ we\\ mourn\\ the\\ young\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ represents\\ a\\ paradigmatic\\ \\(model\\)\\ elegy\\ that\\ employs\\ syncretism\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ he\\ uses\\ allusions\\ from\\ multiple\\ eras\\,\\ realms\\,\\ specifically\\ referencing\\ different\\ conceptions\\ of\\ time\\,\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ path\\,\\ and\\ space\\ \\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ Milton\\ alludes\\ to\\ Greek\\ history\\ \\(Apollo\\)\\ and\\ to\\ Christianity\\ \\(St\\.\\ Peter\\,\\ the\\ patron\\ saint\\ of\\ mourners\\)\\.\\ He\\ conveys\\ both\\ the\\ Christian\\ scheme\\ of\\ life\\ that\\ is\\ linear\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ creation\\,\\ original\\ sin\\,\\ incarnation\\ \\(in\\ which\\ God\\ becomes\\ man\\)\\,\\ and\\ ending\\ with\\ the\\ Apocalypse\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Classical\\ age\\,\\ time\\ is\\ a\\ circular\\ conception\\ that\\ revolves\\ from\\ the\\ Golden\\ age\\ \\(state\\ of\\ perfection\\)\\,\\ to\\ a\\ silver\\ age\\,\\ to\\ bronze\\,\\ age\\,\\ to\\ an\\ iron\\ age\\,\\ and\\ back\\ to\\ Golden\\ age\\.\\ This\\ circular\\ conception\\ allows\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ to\\ be\\ meted\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ spacing\\ pattern\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ realms\\ differ\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ Christian\\ conception\\ of\\ space\\ includes\\ heaven\\ on\\ top\\,\\ earth\\ \\(bounded\\ by\\ time\\)\\ underneath\\,\\ and\\ hell\\ \\(eternal\\)\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ The\\ Classic\\ conception\\ consists\\ of\\ Mt\\.\\ Olympus\\/Gods\\ at\\ the\\ top\\,\\ Men\\ underneath\\ that\\,\\ Hates\\ underneath\\ that\\ \\(dark\\,\\ firey\\)\\,\\ the\\ Elysian\\ fields\\ \\(pastoral\\ ending\\ place\\ for\\ heroes\\ and\\ philosophers\\ that\\ is\\ separate\\ from\\ Hates\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ uses\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ classic\\ \\&ldquo\\;requirements\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ an\\ elegy\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ the\\ showing\\ of\\ the\\ corpse\\,\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ must\\ not\\ float\\ upon\\ his\\ watery\\ bier\\/\\ Unwept\\,\\ and\\ welter\\ to\\ the\\ parching\\ wind\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ln\\.12\\-13\\)\\.\\ This\\ represents\\ the\\ confrontation\\ with\\ death\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ the\\ most\\ difficult\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ presents\\ the\\ second\\ corpse\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;destined\\&rdquo\\;\\ dead\\ body\\,\\ as\\ he\\ hopes\\ that\\ someone\\ will\\ elegize\\ him\\ when\\ he\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ might\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ his\\ regrets\\ in\\ life\\,\\ or\\ perhaps\\ the\\ trivial\\ pursuit\\ of\\ fame\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ pastoral\\ memory\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ again\\ laments\\ his\\ death\\ and\\ his\\ absence\\ from\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Several\\ references\\ to\\ a\\ Shepard\\,\\ flock\\,\\ and\\ nature\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fifth\\ stanza\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ why\\ did\\ Lycidas\\ have\\ to\\ die\\?\\ Where\\ were\\ the\\ nymphs\\ to\\ save\\ him\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ tragic\\ moment\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ comes\\ in\\ line\\ 129\\ when\\ Milton\\ describes\\ the\\ sheep\\ dying\\,\\ first\\ from\\ starvation\\ with\\ gruesome\\ imagery\\ of\\ rotting\\ inside\\,\\ and\\ secondly\\ from\\ a\\ wolf\\.\\ The\\ tragedy\\ comes\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daily\\ devours\\ apace\\,\\ and\\ nothing\\ said\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ tragic\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ response\\ to\\ death\\&hellip\\;perhaps\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ writing\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ hope\\ that\\ someone\\ writes\\ about\\ him\\?\\ To\\ at\\ least\\ respond\\ and\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ tragedy\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ending\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ provides\\ some\\ comfort\\ or\\ resolution\\ as\\ Milton\\ discusses\\ Lycidas\\&rsquo\\;\\ passage\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ place\\ \\(afterlife\\)\\,\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ heaven\\.\\ This\\ part\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ imagery\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;highness\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ saints\\ or\\ angels\\ or\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ characters\\ in\\ heaven\\,\\ eternity\\.\\ The\\ final\\ stanza\\ presents\\ both\\ a\\ Classic\\ and\\ a\\ Christian\\ apocalypse\\ that\\ signifies\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\ of\\ mourning\\.\\ Imagery\\ of\\ the\\ setting\\ sun\\ and\\ reference\\ to\\ what\\ will\\ come\\ \\&ldquo\\;tomorrow\\&rdquo\\;\\ conveys\\ this\\ sentiment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\San\\ Sepulco\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jorie\\ Graham\\ \\(pg\\ 147\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ Chapter\\ 4\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ metaphysical\\ exploration\\,\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ ekphrasis\\ \\(poem\\ on\\ an\\ art\\ object\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ sestets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ unrhymed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ graves\\,\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ last\\ line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;each\\ breath\\ is\\ a\\ button\\/\\ coming\\ undone\\,\\ something\\ terribly\\/\\ nimble\\-fingered\\/\\ finding\\ all\\ the\\ stops\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ begins\\ banally\\ enough\\,\\ with\\ the\\ narrator\\ describing\\ her\\ home\\ in\\ Italy\\.\\ It\\ has\\ a\\ confessional\\ tone\\,\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ admits\\ that\\ like\\ a\\ body\\ stripped\\ of\\ all\\ veils\\,\\ one\\ can\\ see\\ through\\ to\\ her\\ bones\\.\\ The\\ landscape\\ is\\ described\\ in\\ mysterious\\ and\\ mystical\\ ways\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ milk\\ on\\ the\\ air\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;ice\\ on\\ the\\ oil\\ lemonskins\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ she\\ describes\\ a\\ fresco\\ in\\ a\\ grave\\,\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ is\\ metaphysically\\ exploring\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ existence\\ \\&ldquo\\;before\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ god\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ picture\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ pregnant\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\ getting\\ ready\\ to\\ give\\ birth\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ expands\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ birthing\\ and\\ concludes\\ that\\ every\\ moment\\ is\\ a\\ birth\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ mystical\\ imagery\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ sinister\\ about\\ the\\ birthing\\ process\\.\\ Every\\ moment\\ is\\ not\\ pregnant\\ with\\ possibility\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ pregnant\\ with\\ death\\ because\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;stillborn\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ exploration\\ itself\\ is\\ not\\ positive\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ conducted\\ by\\ something\\ \\&ldquo\\;terrible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Graham\\ seems\\ to\\ see\\ life\\ as\\ fundamentally\\ tragic\\:\\ even\\ as\\ one\\ lives\\ and\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;go\\ in\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ every\\ moment\\ is\\ wrapped\\ in\\ tragedy\\ and\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soul\\ Says\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1991\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jorie\\ Graham\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 482\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/30\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Self\\-Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ The\\ rhythm\\ is\\ rising\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;\\ in\\ hunger\\,\\ in\\ boredom\\,\\ the\\ spindrift\\,\\ the\\ ticket\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Otherwise\\,\\ completely\\ free\\ verse\\ in\\ stanza\\ form\\ with\\ no\\ consistent\\ rhyme\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ No\\ pattern\\ or\\ consistent\\ form\\.\\ Some\\ lines\\ end\\ italicized\\.\\ There\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ spacing\\ and\\ phrases\\ and\\ lines\\ in\\ parentheses\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ and\\ a\\ bracketed\\ description\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ doing\\ below\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ pastoral\\,\\ water\\,\\ breaking\\ waves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Born\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ City\\.\\ Grew\\ up\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ where\\ she\\ went\\ to\\ a\\ French\\ school\\.\\ Known\\ for\\ writing\\ about\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ big\\ questions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Now\\ then\\,\\ I\\ said\\,\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ meet\\ that\\ which\\ I\\ liken\\ to\\ \\/\\ \\(even\\ though\\ the\\ wave\\ break\\ and\\ drown\\ me\\ in\\ laughter\\)\\ \\/\\ the\\ wave\\ breaking\\,\\ the\\ wave\\ drowning\\ me\\ in\\ a\\ laughter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ hints\\ to\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ a\\ conversation\\ between\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ her\\ soul\\.\\ The\\ italics\\ and\\ the\\ parentheses\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ are\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ author\\ to\\ emphasis\\ the\\ duality\\ between\\ the\\ person\\ and\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ line\\ 5\\ reads\\ \\&ldquo\\;Distilled\\ in\\ you\\ \\(can\\ you\\ hear\\ me\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Also\\,\\ as\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ cited\\ above\\,\\ the\\ last\\ line\\ is\\ a\\ close\\ repetition\\ of\\ the\\ penultimate\\ line\\ which\\ was\\ set\\ off\\ in\\ parentheses\\.\\ This\\ repetition\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ the\\ union\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ parts\\ that\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sure\\ of\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ confusion\\ begins\\ when\\ the\\ poem\\ opens\\ with\\ the\\ line\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ To\\ be\\ so\\ held\\ by\\ brittleness\\,\\ shapeliness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ two\\ very\\ opposing\\ words\\.\\ It\\ is\\ then\\ emphasized\\ with\\ italics\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ where\\ you\\ go\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\have\\ to\\ touch\\ what\\ you\\ must\\ touch\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ soul\\ and\\ person\\ are\\ one\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ on\\ a\\ similar\\ level\\,\\ one\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ the\\ other\\.\\ But\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ much\\ softer\\ and\\ understanding\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\ \\(So\\ listen\\,\\ listen\\,\\ this\\ will\\ soothe\\ you\\)\\ \\(if\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ want\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ transformation\\ then\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ agreement\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ sides\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ End\\ is\\ For\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1950\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jorie\\ Graham\\ pg\\.\\ 276\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 15\\&mdash\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ war\\,\\ marriage\\,\\ murder\\ \\(juxtaposition\\ of\\ the\\ public\\,\\ the\\ private\\,\\ and\\ the\\ mythological\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\,\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ very\\ unconventional\\&mdash\\;use\\ of\\ italics\\,\\ one\\-word\\ lines\\,\\ ellipses\\,\\ indention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ bomber\\ engines\\/barbed\\ wire\\ \\(war\\)\\,\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\ Orpheus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Graham\\ establishes\\ the\\ public\\ and\\ militaristic\\ scene\\ of\\ a\\ barbed\\-wire\\ enclosed\\ field\\ full\\ of\\ B\\-52\\ bombers\\ on\\ perpetual\\ alert\\,\\ kept\\ running\\ always\\ in\\ case\\ they\\ must\\ respond\\ immediately\\ to\\ an\\ enemy\\ threat\\.\\ She\\ then\\ internalizes\\ the\\ anxiety\\,\\ restlessness\\,\\ and\\ fear\\ of\\ this\\ public\\ setting\\,\\ intertwining\\ it\\ chaotically\\ with\\ her\\ private\\ experiences\\ in\\ marriage\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ transcendent\\ mythology\\ of\\ Orpheus\\.\\ Her\\ use\\ of\\ personal\\ emotions\\ and\\ anecdotes\\ to\\ illuminate\\ history\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ lends\\ a\\ certain\\ texture\\ to\\ the\\ copiousness\\ and\\ remoteness\\ of\\ history\\.\\ By\\ interweaving\\ various\\ \\(and\\ strikingly\\ unglamorous\\)\\ emotional\\ experiences\\ with\\ the\\ seemingly\\ distant\\ nature\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ myth\\,\\ she\\ uses\\ a\\ spiritual\\ sense\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ familiarity\\ to\\ enliven\\ the\\ profound\\ pathos\\ of\\ the\\ pervasive\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;eternity\\ of\\ engines\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(line\\ 53\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\ is\\ powerful\\ because\\ it\\&mdash\\;through\\ diction\\ and\\ tone\\&mdash\\;integrates\\ the\\ various\\ realms\\ of\\ myth\\,\\ private\\,\\ and\\ public\\.\\ She\\ compares\\ the\\ engines\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;sickness\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\ ear\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(6\\)\\ and\\ constant\\ screams\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ bombers\\ will\\ respond\\ immediately\\ and\\ unconsciously\\ to\\ enemy\\ threat\\,\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ to\\ stop\\,\\ prevent\\,\\ or\\ end\\ war\\.\\ The\\ deafening\\ bombers\\ \\&ldquo\\;wholly\\ possess\\&rdquo\\;\\ everything\\ \\(66\\)\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ the\\ diction\\ of\\ the\\ bombers\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;metal\\ braces\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;extinguished\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ an\\ encounter\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ The\\ bombers\\ are\\ prepared\\ and\\ definitely\\ kinetic\\,\\ but\\ are\\ simultaneously\\ arrested\\ and\\ static\\,\\ waiting\\ to\\ forcefully\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ another\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ the\\ loudness\\ and\\ permanence\\ of\\ this\\ scene\\ to\\ portray\\ an\\ experience\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ when\\ they\\ stood\\ for\\ hours\\ \\&ldquo\\;unwilling\\ to\\ move\\,\\ irreconcilable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(5\\)\\.\\ She\\ asks\\ him\\ to\\ hold\\ her\\ and\\ he\\ refuses\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;Until\\ we\\ were\\ what\\ we\\ must\\ have\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\:\\ shapes\\ the\\ shapelessness\\ was\\ taking\\ back\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(95\\)\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ mythological\\ story\\ of\\ Orpheus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\&mdash\\;his\\ severed\\ head\\ floated\\ down\\ the\\ river\\ Hebrus\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ Lesbos\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ home\\ of\\ lyric\\ poetry\\.\\ Here\\,\\ the\\ myth\\ is\\ perpetual\\ and\\ present\\ \\(use\\ of\\ present\\ tense\\ vs\\.\\ past\\ tense\\ of\\ history\\)\\.\\ The\\ brokenness\\ of\\ her\\ marriage\\,\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ war\\ \\(even\\ in\\ the\\ waiting\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ pangs\\ of\\ brutal\\ murder\\ are\\ incorporated\\ by\\ an\\ enveloping\\ and\\ emotional\\ voice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Song\\ for\\ the\\ Deer\\ and\\ Myself\\ to\\ Return\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1990\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Joy\\ Harjo\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\p\\.\\ 174\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:longing\\ for\\ nature\\ and\\ home\\,\\ variation\\ on\\ a\\ nature\\ poem\\,\\ fantasy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ 15\\ line\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ night\\ and\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Native\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Now\\ the\\ deer\\ and\\ I\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ a\\ song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ to\\ get\\ them\\ back\\,\\ to\\ get\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ back\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ because\\ if\\ it\\ works\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ going\\ with\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ And\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ call\\ Louis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ and\\ nearly\\ too\\ late\\ to\\ go\\ home\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ primarily\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ beginning\\ describes\\ the\\ night\\ just\\ before\\ dawn\\ \\(just\\ before\\ a\\ transition\\,\\ as\\ the\\ author\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ then\\ sings\\ a\\ Creek\\ Indian\\ song\\ which\\ calls\\ the\\ deer\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ plays\\ on\\ the\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expectations\\ by\\ saying\\ of\\ the\\ song\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ works\\,\\ of\\ course\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ compares\\ the\\ magic\\ of\\ the\\ deer\\ song\\ to\\ her\\ search\\ for\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ appreciate\\ the\\ deer\\ coming\\ to\\ her\\ home\\ in\\ Denver\\,\\ she\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ their\\ natural\\ habitat\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ reflects\\ the\\ in\\ between\\ situation\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ Louis\\ \\(probably\\ someone\\ with\\ a\\ greater\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ community\\ and\\/or\\ nature\\)\\ but\\ she\\ feels\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ almost\\ become\\ too\\ detached\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ her\\ roots\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ really\\ only\\ two\\ images\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ uniqueness\\ stands\\ them\\ apart\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ fragile\\ weft\\ of\\ ebony\\ night\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ city\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ hammock\\ of\\ my\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belly\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homecoming\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1996\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Julia\\ Alvarez\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1950\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;9\\/20\\.\\ Poems\\ as\\ Life\\ module\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;narrative\\ \\(tells\\ story\\ of\\ wedding\\ memory\\)\\,\\ culture\\ comparisons\\,\\ self\\ realization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ narrative\\ form\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;culture\\/ethnicity\\,\\ class\\,\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Julia\\ \\Á\\;lvarez\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\poet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\novelist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\essayist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Born\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\New\\ York\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ her\\ parents\\ returned\\ with\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Dominican\\ Republic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;when\\ she\\ was\\ three\\ months\\ of\\ age\\ and\\ raised\\ her\\ there\\ until\\ she\\ was\\ ten\\.\\ In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1960\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ family\\ fled\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ after\\ her\\ father\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ underground\\ against\\ the\\ military\\ dictator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ would\\ be\\ years\\/\\ before\\ I\\ took\\ the\\ courses\\ that\\ would\\ change\\ my\\ mind\\/\\ in\\ schools\\ paid\\ for\\ by\\ sugar\\ from\\ the\\ fields\\ around\\ us\\/\\ years\\ before\\ I\\ could\\ comprehend\\ how\\ one\\ does\\ not\\ see\\ the\\ maids\\ when\\ they\\ pass\\ by\\ with\\ trays\\ of\\ deviled\\ eggs\\ arranged\\ in\\ daisy\\ wheels\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ literally\\ describes\\ attending\\ a\\ South\\ American\\ wedding\\ reception\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ 17\\ year\\-old\\ college\\ student\\ where\\ the\\ bride\\ is\\ her\\ cousin\\ and\\ the\\ groom\\ is\\ a\\ man\\ from\\ Minnesota\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ uses\\ the\\ poem\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ particular\\ life\\ aspects\\ of\\ her\\ relatives\\&rsquo\\;\\ lives\\ and\\ flaws\\ in\\ society\\ as\\ she\\ now\\ sees\\ them\\,\\ as\\ an\\ outsider\\ looking\\ in\\ \\(Vendler\\,\\ 16\\)\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ sparked\\ by\\ a\\ realization\\ she\\ experiences\\ in\\ reflection\\ as\\ an\\ older\\ person\\ looking\\ back\\ on\\ the\\ memory\\.\\ \\ \\;Specifically\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ realization\\ about\\ class\\,\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ gender\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ realization\\ is\\ clearly\\ stated\\ when\\ she\\ alludes\\ to\\ the\\ courses\\ she\\ will\\ take\\ that\\ open\\ up\\ her\\ consciousness\\,\\ marking\\ a\\ climax\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(see\\ quote\\ above\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Within\\ this\\ climax\\,\\ she\\ maintains\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ cultures\\ and\\ experiences\\,\\ between\\ her\\ classes\\ and\\ the\\ sugar\\ fields\\ that\\ paid\\ for\\ them\\.\\ She\\ seemingly\\ looks\\ back\\ with\\ disgust\\ at\\ the\\ fakeness\\,\\ materialism\\,\\ ignorance\\ of\\ this\\ intermix\\ between\\ her\\ Latino\\ family\\ and\\ the\\ All\\-American\\ Minnesotans\\,\\ where\\ her\\ family\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ impress\\ the\\ others\\ and\\ each\\ are\\ wary\\ to\\ trust\\ and\\ accept\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ also\\ conveys\\ the\\ distant\\,\\ mistrusting\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ wedding\\ guests\\ and\\ the\\ maids\\ and\\ workmen\\ \\(showed\\ through\\ the\\ blonde\\,\\ freckled\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ touches\\ of\\ the\\ maids\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ portrays\\ the\\ thematic\\ mix\\/contrast\\ between\\ American\\ and\\ Latino\\ culture\\ that\\ is\\ portrayed\\ through\\ imagery\\,\\ language\\,\\ and\\ tone\\.\\ The\\ most\\ obvious\\ is\\ the\\ interjection\\ of\\ Spanish\\ words\\ \\(finca\\,\\ tio\\,\\ gringos\\)\\.\\ Another\\ is\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ dance\\ associated\\ with\\ each\\ culture\\:\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ meringue\\ versus\\ the\\ Minnesota\\ Charleston\\ versus\\ the\\ workman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ jig\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ both\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ life\\ because\\ it\\ describes\\ her\\ disgust\\ with\\ her\\ personal\\ experience\\ of\\ her\\ uncle\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ treats\\ her\\ \\(a\\ sexual\\,\\ creepy\\ way\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ greater\\ societal\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ mixing\\ cultures\\ and\\ the\\ forgotten\\ lower\\ class\\ characters\\ \\(the\\ maids\\ and\\ the\\ workmen\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ gender\\ contrasts\\,\\ depicted\\ through\\ the\\ different\\ language\\ and\\ treatment\\ of\\ genders\\.\\ Specifically\\,\\ she\\ distinguishes\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;dark\\-skinned\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ women\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ describing\\ the\\ wedding\\ guests\\,\\ her\\ uncle\\ showing\\ that\\ her\\ cousin\\ \\&ldquo\\;was\\ valued\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(note\\ the\\ passive\\ tense\\,\\ making\\ her\\ cousin\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ sexual\\ imagery\\ surrounding\\ the\\ way\\ her\\ uncle\\ treats\\ her\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;fondling\\ my\\ shoulder\\ blades\\ beneath\\ my\\ bridesmaid\\ gown\\/\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ breasts\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Other\\ notable\\ images\\:\\ the\\ wedding\\ cake\\&mdash\\;symbolizing\\ the\\ constructed\\,\\ fake\\,\\ confectionary\\ society\\ life\\ that\\ required\\ upkeep\\/touch\\ ups\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ workers\\ could\\ only\\ steal\\ glances\\ of\\ \\(as\\ something\\ unobtainable\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genius\\ Child\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(19XX\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ p\\.220\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Political\\,\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ occasional\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabb\\ a\\ ca\\ ded\\ aa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ genius\\ child\\,\\ lynching\\,\\ eagle\\,\\ monster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ civil\\ rights\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Nobody\\ loves\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\.\\/Kill\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ let\\ his\\ soul\\ run\\ wild\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hughes\\ frequently\\ brings\\ a\\ voice\\ to\\ the\\ marginalized\\&mdash\\;here\\ he\\ addresses\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;genius\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ may\\ come\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ experiences\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ great\\ intelligence\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ child\\ this\\ probably\\ isolated\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ \\&ldquo\\;monster\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ stylized\\ like\\ a\\ childhood\\ song\\,\\ with\\ very\\ simple\\ rhyme\\ and\\ meter\\,\\ and\\ phrases\\ that\\ demarcate\\ chants\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ a\\ song\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ with\\ a\\ chant\\,\\ the\\ song\\ treats\\ the\\ genius\\ child\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ very\\ dangerous\\;\\ mention\\ his\\ name\\ softly\\,\\ or\\ the\\ song\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;get\\ out\\ of\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ main\\ tonal\\ turn\\ however\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ italicized\\ line\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nobody\\ loves\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ Hughes\\ imagines\\ the\\ feelings\\ of\\ his\\ chanting\\ tribe\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ you\\ love\\ someone\\ so\\ different\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ monster\\ \\/\\ Of\\ frightening\\ name\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;which\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ child\\ appears\\ to\\ its\\ people\\,\\ a\\ little\\ person\\ with\\ so\\ much\\ power\\ and\\ a\\ different\\ way\\ of\\ thought\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ refrain\\ gets\\ ugly\\ and\\ absolute\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nobody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;loves\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\,\\ not\\ even\\ his\\ parents\\,\\ teachers\\,\\ siblings\\,\\ peers\\&hellip\\;\\ To\\ offer\\ the\\ solution\\ of\\ killing\\ the\\ monster\\ to\\ spare\\ society\\,\\ Langston\\ takes\\ the\\ most\\ unsparing\\ view\\ possible\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ societal\\ critique\\ that\\ jolts\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ room\\ in\\ society\\ for\\ the\\ uniquely\\ different\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\ or\\ tame\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\ who\\ may\\ have\\ unbridled\\ potential\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ Hughes\\,\\ society\\ kills\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ those\\ distinguished\\ by\\ exceptional\\ talent\\ or\\ intelligence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\High\\ to\\ Low\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(1902\\-1967\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 233\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 6\\:\\ Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ black\\ social\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ short\\ lines\\,\\ some\\ rhyme\\ \\(no\\ pattern\\)\\,\\ no\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ loud\\?\\ Unkempt\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ male\\,\\ well\\-educated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ trouble\\ is\\ you\\ \\:\\ \\/\\ you\\ talk\\ too\\ loud\\,\\ \\/\\ look\\ to\\ black\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ confronts\\ the\\ divisions\\ within\\ black\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ written\\ from\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ an\\ upper\\-class\\ black\\ to\\ a\\ lower\\-class\\ black\\,\\ annoyed\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ lumped\\ together\\,\\ when\\ one\\ sees\\ the\\ other\\ so\\ negatively\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ writes\\ in\\ the\\ chapter\\,\\ the\\ opinions\\ are\\ also\\ layered\\ upon\\ how\\ the\\ non\\-black\\ \\(white\\)\\ population\\ views\\ blacks\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ layering\\ of\\ judgments\\ and\\ perceptions\\ is\\ what\\ compels\\ the\\ high\\-class\\ speaker\\ \\(presumably\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\)\\ to\\ speak\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ presents\\ examples\\ of\\ what\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ acceptable\\ when\\ he\\ uses\\ parentheses\\ to\\ suggest\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ethical\\ Culture\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;St\\.\\ Phillips\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ fancy\\ school\\ and\\ church\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Me\\ and\\ the\\ Mule\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(pg\\ 222\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/6\\ Reading\\ for\\ Chapter\\ 7\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ race\\,\\ social\\ commentary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\/structural\\ detail\\:\\ ballad\\ form\\:\\ quatrains\\,\\ where\\ lines\\ 2\\ and\\ 4\\ rhyme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ mules\\,\\ the\\ color\\ black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\ artist\\ who\\ wrote\\ during\\ the\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\.\\ Poetry\\ and\\ writings\\ emphasize\\ pride\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ culture\\ despite\\ discrimination\\ and\\ prejudice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ a\\ mule\\ so\\ long\\/\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forgot\\ about\\ his\\ race\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;you\\ got\\ to\\ take\\ me\\/\\ like\\ I\\ am\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Hughes\\ discusses\\ a\\ mule\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;identity\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ an\\ analogy\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ search\\ for\\ self\\.\\ The\\ mule\\ is\\ old\\,\\ probably\\ overworked\\,\\ and\\ of\\ mixed\\ racial\\ descent\\ \\(mules\\ are\\ a\\ cross\\ between\\ horses\\ and\\ mules\\.\\)\\ Despite\\ these\\ negative\\ facts\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ mule\\ \\&ldquo\\;grins\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Hughes\\ concludes\\ that\\ the\\ mule\\ must\\ not\\ care\\ about\\ his\\ unsavory\\ genealogy\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ so\\ long\\ that\\ he\\ just\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ Hughes\\ equates\\ his\\ black\\ heritage\\ with\\ the\\ mule\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mixed\\ heritage\\,\\ and\\ decides\\ that\\ like\\ the\\ mule\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ a\\ damn\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ As\\ Vendler\\ notes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;live\\ long\\ enough\\ and\\ you\\ become\\ just\\ yourself\\,\\ not\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ Hughes\\ because\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ he\\ can\\ accept\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ is\\ impervious\\ to\\ external\\ threats\\ to\\ his\\ identity\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ being\\ hurt\\ by\\ social\\ prejudices\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ he\\ confidently\\ states\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ got\\ to\\ take\\ me\\/\\ like\\ I\\ am\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\ the\\ poem\\ arrives\\ at\\ a\\ cathartic\\ ending\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Hughes\\ like\\ the\\ mule\\ accepts\\ his\\ heritage\\ and\\ grins\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ since\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ revert\\ to\\ the\\ simplest\\ early\\ song\\ form\\,\\ we\\ expect\\ poems\\ in\\ this\\ form\\ to\\ contain\\ a\\ narrative\\ and\\ some\\ folk\\ wisdom\\.\\ Hughes\\ thus\\ subtly\\ uses\\ the\\ structural\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ to\\ suggest\\ to\\ his\\ readers\\ that\\ they\\ all\\ might\\ learn\\ something\\ from\\ accepting\\ their\\ identity\\ instead\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ conform\\ to\\ societal\\ constructions\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theme\\ for\\ English\\ B\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(19\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 20\\,\\ 25\\.\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Race\\ relations\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Free\\ verse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Cities\\,\\ streets\\,\\ dialogues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;But\\ I\\ guess\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ what\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ feel\\ and\\ see\\ and\\ hear\\,\\ Harlem\\,\\ I\\ hear\\ you\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hear\\ you\\,\\ hear\\ me\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ two\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\,\\ me\\,\\ talk\\ on\\ this\\ page\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ an\\ introduction\\,\\ presenting\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biographical\\ background\\ \\(22\\ years\\ old\\,\\ colored\\,\\ now\\ a\\ college\\ student\\ in\\ Harlem\\)\\,\\ the\\ writing\\ prompt\\ for\\ the\\ piece\\ we\\ are\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ his\\ urban\\ environs\\ at\\ time\\ of\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ has\\ two\\ trains\\ of\\ thought\\.\\ \\ \\;Firstly\\,\\ he\\ considers\\ himself\\ defined\\ by\\ how\\ he\\ responds\\ to\\ his\\ city\\ and\\ engages\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ dialogue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ consideration\\ of\\ race\\ relations\\,\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ microcosm\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relation\\ to\\ his\\ teacher\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sees\\ that\\ his\\ likes\\ do\\ not\\ differ\\ greatly\\ from\\ those\\ of\\ white\\ people\\ like\\ his\\ instructor\\.\\ \\ \\;Certainly\\,\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ races\\ have\\ different\\ experiences\\ to\\ relate\\,\\ but\\ as\\ Americans\\ they\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ each\\ other\\ whether\\ they\\ like\\ it\\ or\\ not\\ and\\ can\\ learn\\ from\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ dialogue\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ exchange\\ between\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ his\\ city\\ or\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ teacher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\World\\ War\\ II\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(late\\ 1940s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(p\\.\\ 247\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 13\\/15\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(subset\\:\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ historical\\;\\ also\\ political\\/protest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ song\\-and\\-echo\\;\\ also\\ epigrammatic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ iambic\\ in\\ the\\ chorus\\ part\\ \\(before\\ the\\ echo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ The\\ first\\ half\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ chorus\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ puts\\ it\\,\\ which\\ is\\ rhymed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ababccab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ with\\ the\\ refrain\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\,\\ my\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyme\\)\\ indented\\ to\\ connote\\ its\\ exclamatory\\/responsory\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ second\\/final\\ stanza\\ is\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;Echo\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ each\\ word\\&mdash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Did\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Somebody\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Die\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ set\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ line\\,\\ capitalized\\ and\\ italicized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ first\\ half\\ has\\ little\\ imagery\\,\\ just\\ vagaries\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;grand\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ echo\\ introduces\\ images\\ of\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(1902\\&ndash\\;1967\\)\\ was\\ a\\ black\\ American\\ poet\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ 1920s\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\ movement\\ during\\ which\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ black\\ artists\\/writers\\ proliferated\\ and\\ became\\ more\\ prominent\\.\\ Though\\ mostly\\ silent\\ about\\ his\\ leftist\\ views\\ during\\ WWII\\,\\ he\\ became\\ more\\ outspoken\\ about\\ his\\ objections\\ to\\ the\\ war\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 40s\\ into\\ 50s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ a\\ grand\\ time\\ was\\ the\\ war\\,\\/\\ My\\,\\ my\\!\\/\\/\\ Echo\\:\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Did\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Somebody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Die\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hughes\\ gives\\ us\\ two\\ views\\ of\\ WWII\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ voiced\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ chorus\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ cries\\ of\\ joy\\ at\\ the\\ economic\\ boom\\ \\(new\\ jobs\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ provided\\ by\\ the\\ war\\.\\ The\\ other\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Echo\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;\\ comes\\ from\\ some\\ unknown\\ speaker\\ \\(the\\ poet\\?\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ history\\?\\)\\ and\\ is\\ formatted\\ to\\ emphasize\\ its\\ sacred\\ nature\\.\\ On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ WWII\\ brought\\ prosperity\\ to\\ many\\ poor\\ families\\;\\ on\\ the\\ other\\,\\ it\\ brought\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ sons\\ and\\ husbands\\ to\\ many\\.\\ This\\ short\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ neat\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ form\\ many\\ historical\\ poems\\ take\\:\\ it\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ problematic\\ dual\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ it\\ uses\\ an\\ epigrammatic\\ twist\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ and\\ it\\ provides\\ a\\ philosophic\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ events\\ that\\ encompasses\\ both\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poema\\ para\\ los\\ Californios\\ Muertos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1954\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Lorna\\ Dee\\ Cervantes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 174\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ October\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Resentment\\,\\ Anger\\,\\ Compunction\\ for\\ the\\ dead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Macaronic\\ Poem\\,\\ Lyric\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Free\\ Verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 4\\ Stanzas\\ of\\ unequal\\ lengths\\ \\(line\\ count\\ of\\ stanzas\\ in\\ order\\:\\ 10\\,\\ 8\\,\\ 10\\,\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ White\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;white\\,\\ high\\-class\\ houses\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;fantasmas\\ blancas\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Family\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ \\(Mother\\ Earth\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\,\\ ancestors\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;soy\\ la\\ hija\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Mother\\ Earth\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;belly\\ valleys\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;fertile\\ dust\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;tierra\\ la\\ madre\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Lorna\\ Dee\\ Cervantes\\ is\\ a\\ famous\\ Chicana\\ poet\\.\\ A\\ Chicana\\ is\\ a\\ cultural\\ identity\\ for\\ persons\\ who\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ connection\\ to\\ their\\ Mexican\\-American\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ and\\ often\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ accompanying\\ political\\ consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ blue\\ jay\\ shrieks\\ \\/\\ above\\ the\\ pungent\\ odor\\ of\\ crushed\\ \\/\\ eucalyptus\\ and\\ the\\ pure\\ scent\\ \\/\\ of\\ rage\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ the\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ prefaced\\ by\\ a\\ caption\\ from\\ a\\ plaque\\ outside\\ a\\ restaurant\\ in\\ California\\ that\\ reads\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Once\\ a\\ refuge\\ for\\ Mexican\\ Californios\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ caption\\ leads\\ the\\ speaker\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ her\\ own\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ plaque\\,\\ bringing\\ back\\ images\\ of\\ her\\ dead\\ ancestors\\.\\ She\\ writes\\ of\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ whites\\ and\\ the\\ Hispanics\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;silver\\ buckles\\ and\\ spent\\ bullets\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;embroidered\\ shawls\\ and\\ dark\\ rebozos\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ author\\ speaks\\ to\\ her\\ dead\\ ancestors\\,\\ wondering\\ both\\ about\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ was\\ it\\ like\\ here\\ \\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ refuge\\ did\\ you\\ find\\ here\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ it\\ true\\ that\\ you\\ still\\ live\\ here\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ then\\ communicates\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ her\\ native\\ Spanish\\,\\ telling\\ that\\ that\\ she\\ can\\ rid\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ ghosts\\,\\ that\\ only\\ her\\ ancestors\\ ghosts\\ have\\ to\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ there\\.\\ This\\ statement\\ heightens\\ the\\ tensions\\ between\\ the\\ whites\\ and\\ her\\ ancestors\\,\\ suggestive\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ of\\ white\\ wrongdoings\\ to\\ the\\ Hispanics\\.\\ As\\ we\\ move\\ into\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ feels\\ out\\ of\\ place\\.\\ She\\ is\\ surrounded\\ by\\ strangers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ plaque\\,\\ there\\ is\\ remnants\\ of\\ the\\ Californios\\ left\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ enraged\\,\\ and\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ using\\ harsh\\ words\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;crushed\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rage\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ Spanish\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ We\\ begin\\ the\\ poem\\ in\\ English\\,\\ with\\ only\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ Spanish\\.\\ However\\,\\ as\\ the\\ speaker\\ connects\\ with\\ her\\ past\\ and\\ with\\ her\\ ancestors\\,\\ we\\ see\\ an\\ increasing\\ amount\\ of\\ Spanish\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ speaker\\ was\\ forcing\\ it\\ onto\\ the\\ English\\-speaking\\ reader\\.\\ By\\ using\\ Spanish\\,\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ both\\ allowing\\ herself\\ to\\ connect\\ with\\ her\\ ancestors\\ \\(who\\ most\\ likely\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ very\\ much\\ English\\)\\ and\\ insisting\\ that\\ she\\ will\\ never\\ lose\\ her\\ native\\ tongue\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ her\\ use\\ of\\ Spanish\\ separates\\ her\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;strangers\\&rdquo\\;\\ around\\ her\\ and\\ connects\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ Californios\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mock\\ Orange\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1985\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Louise\\ Gluck\\-Pg\\ 304\\-305\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 20\\ and\\ the\\ lyric\\ demarcating\\ life\\-stages\\.\\ Also\\ included\\ on\\ November\\ 30\\ under\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ marriage\\ poem\\,\\ life\\-cycle\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Trochaic\\,\\ each\\ line\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ downbeat\\,\\ adding\\ to\\ the\\ intensity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 6\\ stanzas\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ rhyming\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\/stanzas\\ are\\ enjambed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hate\\ them\\.\\ I\\ hate\\ them\\ as\\ I\\ hate\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Should\\ be\\ easy\\ to\\ remember\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ Gluck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disillusionment\\ with\\ her\\ marriage\\ and\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ marriage\\ throughout\\ history\\.\\ The\\ act\\ of\\ sex\\ and\\ the\\ mock\\ orange\\ bush\\ represent\\ this\\ disillusionment\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ starts\\ off\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ angry\\ tone\\,\\ as\\ Gluck\\ addresses\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ What\\ has\\ spurred\\ her\\ to\\ speak\\ is\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suggestion\\ that\\ her\\ bad\\ mood\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ interest\\ in\\ sex\\ might\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ menstruating\\.\\ Gluck\\ opens\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ angrily\\ retorting\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ I\\ tell\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ then\\ shocks\\ the\\ reader\\ again\\ by\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ flowers\\ in\\ the\\ yard\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hate\\ them\\/\\ I\\ hate\\ them\\ as\\ I\\ hate\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Gluck\\ then\\ describes\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ sex\\ in\\ violent\\ terms\\;\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mouth\\ is\\ sealing\\ hers\\,\\ his\\ body\\ is\\ paralyzing\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ hers\\.\\ Still\\,\\ she\\ \\&ldquo\\;enjoys\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ sex\\ because\\ she\\ always\\ orgasms\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ cry\\ that\\ always\\ escapes\\&rdquo\\;\\-yet\\ she\\ describes\\ it\\ as\\ low\\ and\\ humiliating\\.\\ She\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;low\\,\\ humiliating\\/\\ premise\\ of\\ union\\&rdquo\\;\\-union\\ here\\ represents\\ the\\ physical\\ union\\ of\\ their\\ two\\ bodies\\ but\\ also\\ echoes\\ the\\ union\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ Despite\\ her\\ distaste\\ for\\ sex\\ and\\ the\\ humiliation\\ it\\ brings\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ that\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ answered\\ positively\\.\\ The\\ tone\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\;\\ she\\ goes\\ from\\ angrily\\ addresses\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ person\\ to\\ plural\\ first\\ person\\-\\&ldquo\\;Do\\ you\\ see\\?\\ We\\ were\\ made\\ fools\\ of\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ softening\\ then\\ becomes\\ more\\ introspective\\ as\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ alone\\ with\\ Gluck\\ wondering\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ can\\ I\\ be\\ content\\/\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ still\\/\\ that\\ odor\\ in\\ the\\ world\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ pronoun\\ change\\ coincides\\ with\\ the\\ softening\\ of\\ the\\ tone\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sham\\&rdquo\\;\\-as\\ Gluck\\ sees\\ it\\-of\\ marriage\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ continue\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ we\\ marry\\ and\\ have\\ children\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ think\\ it\\ is\\-as\\ she\\ states\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ were\\ made\\ fools\\ of\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ change\\ in\\ emotion\\ can\\ be\\ tracked\\ through\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ orange\\ bushes\\ outside\\ her\\ window\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ they\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;flowers\\/lighting\\ the\\ yard\\&rdquo\\;\\-giving\\ positive\\ imagery\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\ it\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ second\\ of\\ mock\\ orange\\/drifts\\ through\\ the\\ window\\&rdquo\\;\\-the\\ change\\ in\\ description\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ two\\ were\\ deceived\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ Gluck\\ is\\ wondering\\ how\\ she\\ can\\ be\\ content\\ with\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;odor\\&rdquo\\;\\ still\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ word\\ odor\\ has\\ a\\ negative\\ connotation\\,\\ leaving\\ a\\ bad\\ taste\\ in\\ the\\ mouth\\ of\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ School\\ Children\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Louise\\ Gluck\\ \\(pg\\ 4\\,\\ 33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/27\\ Chapter\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ page\\ 4\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ ones\\ she\\ analyzes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ private\\ lives\\,\\ maternity\\,\\ authority\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-forms\\:\\ lyric\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ three\\ quatrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ unrhymed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ apples\\ and\\ apple\\ orchards\\,\\ teachers\\ behind\\ desks\\,\\ coat\\ hooks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ morning\\ the\\ mothers\\ have\\ labored\\ to\\ gather\\ the\\ late\\ apples\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ gray\\ limbs\\ of\\ the\\ fruit\\ trees\\ bearing\\ so\\ little\\ ammunition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ day\\ of\\ school\\,\\ using\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ clich\\é\\;\\ images\\ that\\ are\\ typically\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ event\\.\\ The\\ description\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ begins\\ innocently\\ enough\\,\\ with\\ the\\ children\\ carrying\\ \\&ldquo\\;little\\ satchels\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ mothers\\ collecting\\ bright\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\ and\\ gold\\&rdquo\\;\\ apples\\ to\\ give\\ them\\ to\\ take\\ to\\ their\\ teachers\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ Mothers\\ are\\ working\\ hard\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;labored\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ an\\ optimistic\\ and\\ productive\\ tone\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ preparing\\ and\\ gathering\\ apples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ next\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ traditional\\ imagery\\ takes\\ a\\ sinister\\ turn\\.\\ The\\ teachers\\ are\\ not\\ approachable\\;\\ they\\ are\\ spatially\\ separated\\ across\\ an\\ ocean\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ like\\ malevolent\\ deities\\ who\\ demand\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;offering\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Coat\\ hooks\\ are\\ also\\ starkly\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;nails\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ conjuring\\ images\\ of\\ torture\\ and\\ hangings\\.\\ Gluck\\ also\\ reveals\\ the\\ mothers\\ internal\\ conflict\\ and\\ distress\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ protect\\ and\\ provide\\ for\\ their\\ children\\,\\ but\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ reach\\ the\\ teachers\\.\\ The\\ apples\\ were\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;words\\ of\\ another\\ language\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ teachers\\ are\\ impenetrable\\ through\\ a\\ language\\ barrier\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ are\\ in\\ vain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ last\\ stanza\\ solidifies\\ the\\ unraveling\\ of\\ a\\ happy\\ first\\ day\\ of\\ school\\.\\ Gluck\\ uses\\ battle\\ imagery\\,\\ calling\\ the\\ apples\\ \\&ldquo\\;ammunition\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ mothers\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;way\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ a\\ defeated\\ army\\ while\\ the\\ teachers\\ are\\ impenetrably\\ silent\\ while\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;teach\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Even\\ the\\ colors\\ are\\ lost\\ and\\ only\\ gray\\ is\\ left\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ apples\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ repeats\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;they\\ become\\ more\\ pathetic\\ as\\ the\\ poem\\ goes\\ on\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(33\\)\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ described\\ in\\ a\\ series\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;words\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;these\\ offerings\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ finally\\ \\&ldquo\\;ammunition\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ Gluck\\ progressively\\ shows\\ the\\ Mothers\\ losing\\ control\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ children\\ from\\ the\\ sinister\\ authority\\ figures\\ of\\ the\\ school\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Footnote\\ to\\ the\\ Amnesty\\ Report\\ on\\ Torture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Margaret\\ Atwood\\ \\(pg\\ 69\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/29\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ reading\\ other\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ social\\ commentary\\,\\ fear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-forms\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ torture\\ instruments\\,\\ walls\\,\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ first\\ line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ torture\\ chamber\\ is\\ not\\ like\\ anything\\ you\\ would\\ have\\ expected\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ man\\ who\\ cleans\\ the\\ floors\\ is\\ glad\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;sometimes\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ hard\\ he\\ tries\\,\\ his\\ children\\ are\\ not\\ there\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ plays\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conceptions\\ about\\ torture\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ levels\\.\\ In\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Atwood\\ forces\\ readers\\ to\\ rethink\\ their\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\ reality\\ of\\ torture\\,\\ and\\ strips\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ temptation\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ glamorous\\ and\\ Hollywood\\-esque\\.\\ Thus\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;sexy\\ chains\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ futuristic\\ \\&ldquo\\;cold\\-lighted\\ chrome\\&rdquo\\;\\ technologies\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ horrifyingly\\ bodily\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ smell\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;vomit\\,\\ the\\ same\\ shed\\ teeth\\,\\ the\\ same\\ piss\\ and\\ liquid\\ shit\\,\\ the\\ same\\ panic\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ shifts\\ focus\\ and\\ examines\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ one\\ step\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ bodily\\ refuse\\:\\ the\\ cleaner\\.\\ Traditional\\ examinations\\ of\\ torture\\ usually\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ actually\\ doing\\ the\\ torturing\\;\\ this\\ poem\\ asks\\ us\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ tacitly\\ support\\ the\\ atrocity\\.\\ As\\ Atwood\\ notes\\,\\ the\\ cleaner\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ glad\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ hide\\ what\\ he\\ does\\ from\\ his\\ family\\.\\ This\\ is\\ almost\\ more\\ horrifying\\,\\ because\\ the\\ reader\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ normal\\ loving\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ involved\\ with\\ torture\\ on\\ a\\ seemingly\\ innocent\\ level\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ is\\ afraid\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ might\\ do\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ he\\ often\\ fears\\ for\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ children\\.\\ Atwood\\ cleverly\\ makes\\ the\\ reader\\ sympathize\\ and\\ maybe\\ even\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ cleaner\\,\\ and\\ by\\ doing\\ show\\ she\\ forces\\ the\\ readers\\ to\\ approach\\ the\\ atrocity\\ of\\ torture\\ and\\ consider\\ what\\ they\\ themselves\\ would\\ do\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ condition\\.\\ Ultimately\\ she\\ thus\\ asks\\ every\\ person\\ to\\ examine\\ how\\ complicit\\ they\\ are\\ with\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Courtship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(196X\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mark\\ Strand\\ p\\.146\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Describing\\ Poems\\:\\ additional\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Courtship\\,\\ parody\\,\\ satire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\,\\ 5\\ lines\\ each\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Penis\\,\\ vagina\\,\\ womb\\,\\ masculinity\\,\\ sexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Canadian\\ modernist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ reach\\ for\\ her\\ panties\\ and\\ beg\\ forgiveness\\ as\\ you\\ do\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ tongue\\-in\\-cheek\\ parody\\ of\\ relationships\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ a\\ humorous\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ boy\\ trying\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ a\\ certain\\ girl\\ he\\ likes\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ boy\\ however\\,\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ klutz\\ in\\ what\\ he\\ says\\,\\ and\\ the\\ usual\\ awkwardness\\ of\\ opposing\\ agendas\\ during\\ the\\ dating\\ process\\ is\\ exaggerated\\ to\\ the\\ extreme\\ by\\ Strand\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ protagonist\\ is\\ exceedingly\\,\\ awkwardly\\ honest\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ male\\ reader\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ feel\\ for\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ center\\ around\\ some\\ period\\ during\\ puberty\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ boy\\,\\ which\\ Strand\\ refers\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ person\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ in\\ his\\ shoes\\,\\ has\\ a\\ uncontrolled\\ spout\\ of\\ honesty\\ when\\ he\\ tells\\ a\\ girl\\ whom\\ he\\ likes\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ big\\ penis\\,\\ but\\ then\\ confesses\\ \\&ldquo\\;its\\ demands\\ are\\ ridiculous\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ as\\ of\\ yet\\ unsatisfied\\;\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ frequently\\ resort\\ to\\ masturbation\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ course\\ this\\ horrifies\\ the\\ girl\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ becomes\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ funny\\ as\\ the\\ boy\\ tries\\ to\\ correct\\ this\\ grievous\\ error\\ of\\ admission\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ renounces\\ his\\ masculinity\\ in\\ his\\ shame\\;\\ suddenly\\ he\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ penis\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ actually\\ \\&ldquo\\;want\\[s\\]\\ to\\ bear\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ was\\ the\\ reason\\ for\\ his\\ confusion\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ course\\ this\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ stupid\\ a\\ thing\\ to\\ say\\,\\ so\\ in\\ frustration\\ he\\ curses\\ the\\ day\\ he\\ was\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;Sexual\\ desire\\ overtakes\\ him\\ and\\ he\\ makes\\ an\\ advance\\ on\\ the\\ girl\\,\\ which\\ is\\ rejected\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ ironic\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Taken\\ by\\ storm\\,\\ she\\ is\\ the\\ girl\\ you\\ will\\ marry\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strand\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ fixated\\ on\\ how\\ men\\ have\\ to\\ repress\\ their\\ sexuality\\ during\\ \\&ldquo\\;courtship\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ main\\ concern\\ during\\ the\\ entire\\ process\\&mdash\\;in\\ fact\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ with\\ his\\ last\\ line\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ they\\ bother\\ to\\ marry\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ girl\\,\\ representing\\ the\\ sensibilities\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ womanhood\\ in\\ general\\,\\ is\\ above\\ the\\ cravings\\ of\\ sexuality\\&mdash\\;a\\ state\\ the\\ men\\ unconsciously\\ wish\\ they\\ could\\ achieve\\,\\ hence\\ the\\ entire\\ regression\\ from\\ masculinity\\ attempted\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ stanzas\\&mdash\\;but\\ alas\\,\\ they\\ cannot\\ actually\\ do\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\,\\ for\\ that\\ would\\ void\\ their\\ very\\ nature\\,\\ their\\ manhood\\ and\\ their\\ purpose\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ paradox\\ of\\ masculinity\\,\\ expressed\\ in\\ a\\ comedy\\ about\\ pubescent\\ dating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dover\\ Beach\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1867\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Matthew\\ Arnold\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ life\\ critic\\-political\\ critic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ no\\ uniformity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ first\\ is\\ the\\ longest\\ \\(14\\ lines\\)\\,\\ the\\ last\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ longest\\ \\(9\\)\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ third\\ \\(8\\)\\ and\\ second\\ \\(6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ English\\ Channel\\,\\ Aegean\\,\\ Religious\\ Faith\\ \\(portrayed\\ as\\ a\\ sea\\)\\,\\ images\\ of\\ evils\\ of\\ the\\ Victorian\\ era\\ \\(war\\,\\ struggle\\,\\ flight\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Considered\\ along\\ with\\ Tennyson\\,\\ and\\ Browning\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ Victorian\\ era\\.\\ He\\ is\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ Romanticism\\ and\\ Modernism\\ \\(the\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\ are\\ Romantic\\)\\ and\\ the\\ pessimistic\\ perspective\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ Modern\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ we\\ are\\ here\\ as\\ on\\ a\\ darkling\\ plain\\ \\/\\ Swept\\ with\\ confused\\ alarms\\ of\\ struggle\\ and\\ flight\\ \\/\\ Where\\ ignorant\\ armies\\ clash\\ by\\ night\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arnold\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Channel\\ and\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ France\\,\\ where\\ everything\\ is\\ tranquil\\.\\ However\\,\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ stanza\\ 1\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ transition\\ in\\ his\\ description\\ and\\ he\\ starts\\ portraying\\ the\\ waves\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ sadness\\ \\&ldquo\\;tremulous\\ cadence\\ slow\\,\\ and\\ bring\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;The\\ eternal\\ note\\ of\\ sadness\\ in\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ supports\\ his\\ transition\\ in\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ the\\ description\\ when\\ he\\ quotes\\ that\\ Sophocles\\ saw\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ in\\ the\\ Aegean\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ same\\ scene\\ evoked\\ in\\ his\\ mind\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;turbid\\ ebb\\ and\\ flow\\ \\/\\ Of\\ human\\ misery\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ continues\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Sea\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ this\\ time\\ Arnold\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ different\\ connotation\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ Religious\\ Faith\\ as\\ a\\ sea\\ that\\ once\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ the\\ full\\,\\ and\\ round\\ earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shore\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ now\\ he\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;hear\\[s\\]\\ \\/\\ Its\\ melancholy\\,\\ long\\,\\ withdrawing\\ roar\\,\\ \\/\\ Retreating\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ probably\\ is\\ a\\ critic\\ on\\ the\\ Church\\ as\\ it\\ starts\\ loosing\\ its\\ credibility\\ during\\ the\\ XIX\\ Century\\.\\ Finally\\ he\\ addresses\\ his\\ lover\\ \\(he\\ does\\ not\\ specify\\ the\\ gender\\ of\\ his\\ lover\\)\\ and\\ asks\\ to\\ truly\\ love\\ each\\ other\\,\\ for\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ beautiful\\ things\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ but\\ sadness\\ in\\ it\\,\\ leaving\\ their\\ love\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ they\\ can\\ cling\\ to\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scince\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ help\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Michel\\ Drayton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ unrequited\\ love\\,\\ morning\\,\\ winter\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\ \\;iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(strict\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ shakespearen\\ sonnet\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ loss\\ of\\ love\\,\\ separation\\ \\,death\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ irrelevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Like\\ most\\ other\\ sonnet\\ this\\ one\\ talks\\ about\\ lost\\ love\\ and\\ the\\ speaker\\ letting\\ go\\ of\\ his\\ lover\\.\\ The\\ first\\ octave\\ basically\\ talks\\ about\\ farewells\\ and\\ concealing\\ the\\ vows\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ possibly\\ divorce\\ or\\ possibly\\ more\\ symbolic\\ vows\\ that\\ two\\ people\\ silently\\ make\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ love\\/are\\ in\\ a\\ relationship\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ should\\ note\\ the\\ different\\ changes\\ of\\ pronouns\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ Theses\\ rapid\\ changes\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;us\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ I\\ to\\ you\\ to\\ me\\ to\\ it\\ highlight\\ the\\ confused\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ thus\\ also\\ pinpointing\\ towards\\ his\\ anxiety\\ and\\ sadness\\ after\\ this\\ separation\\ which\\ occurred\\.\\ Moreover\\ this\\ helps\\ create\\ a\\ move\\ of\\ sadness\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ mirrors\\ the\\ voice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ sestet\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ voice\\ wants\\ the\\ woman\\ to\\ rescue\\ passion\\.\\ Similarly\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ sestet\\ the\\ voice\\ is\\ avoiding\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ first\\ person\\ as\\ he\\ turns\\ to\\ third\\ person\\ instead\\.\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\ we\\ see\\ hw\\ the\\ voice\\ himself\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ rescued\\ and\\ wants\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ lover\\ and\\ yet\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ his\\ dignity\\ is\\ preventing\\ him\\ from\\ pleading\\ it\\ and\\ asking\\ for\\ it\\ himself\\ but\\ instead\\ indirectly\\ using\\ the\\ third\\ person\\ to\\ ask\\ for\\ it\\ \\(making\\ it\\ impersonal\\)\\.\\ Also\\ he\\ creates\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;theatrical\\ tableau\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(I\\ feel\\ like\\ this\\ term\\ should\\ be\\ used\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ arouse\\ his\\ lovers\\ pity\\ towards\\ him\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ deathbed\\ scene\\;\\ almost\\ attempting\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ die\\ without\\ her\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Wind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1820\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ Ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\,\\ \\"\\;Ode\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Wind\\"\\;\\ \\(582\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lamentation\\ of\\ human\\ earthly\\ condition\\,\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ read\\ as\\ a\\ Praise\\-Poem\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ supra\\-human\\ powers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Terza\\ Rima\\,\\ five\\ cantos\\ \\(ABA\\,\\ BCB\\,\\ CDC\\,\\ DED\\,\\ FF\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ wind\\ as\\ agent\\ of\\ death\\ and\\ destruction\\ \\(also\\ in\\ canto\\ one\\,\\ as\\ an\\ agent\\ of\\ life\\)\\,\\ storm\\,\\ rain\\,\\ earth\\ submitted\\ to\\ wind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ whims\\.\\ Last\\ two\\ cantos\\ portray\\ wind\\ as\\ the\\ agent\\ that\\ will\\ immortalize\\ Shelley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\ was\\ a\\ Romantic\\.\\ During\\ his\\ life\\ he\\ made\\ some\\ trips\\ to\\ Italy\\ \\(there\\ are\\ references\\ to\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\ and\\ to\\ an\\ island\\ in\\ Baiae\\ Bay\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\)\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ husband\\ of\\ Mary\\ Shelley\\,\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ Frankenstein\\.\\ Percy\\ Shelley\\ was\\ a\\ radical\\ atheist\\ and\\ was\\ expulsed\\ from\\ Oxford\\ for\\ having\\ published\\ a\\ pamphlet\\ on\\ this\\ topic\\.\\ He\\ led\\ a\\ tragic\\ life\\,\\ his\\ first\\ wife\\ drowned\\,\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ followed\\ the\\ same\\ fate\\ after\\ his\\ trip\\ to\\ the\\ Italian\\ peninsula\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Drive\\ my\\ dead\\ thoughts\\ over\\ the\\ universe\\ \\/\\ Like\\ withered\\ leaves\\ to\\ quicken\\ a\\ new\\ birth\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(he\\ is\\ imploring\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ and\\ sort\\ of\\ elevate\\ him\\ along\\ with\\ his\\ legacy\\,\\ kind\\ of\\ weird\\ though\\,\\ but\\ then\\ again\\ Shelley\\ was\\ a\\ Romantic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ things\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ useful\\ to\\ remind\\:\\ Phoebe\\ draw\\ a\\ very\\ complicated\\ diagram\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ section\\,\\ illustrating\\ the\\ second\\ canto\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ sort\\ of\\ portrayed\\ the\\ sea\\ and\\ the\\ sky\\ as\\ two\\ symmetrically\\ opposed\\ bows\\,\\ and\\ the\\ wind\\ surging\\ the\\ clouds\\,\\ and\\ water\\ in\\ a\\ ebb\\-like\\ fashion\\.\\ Also\\,\\ semi\\-quoting\\ her\\ last\\ words\\ \\&lsquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Wind\\ describes\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ that\\ Shelly\\ believed\\ poetry\\ had\\,\\ that\\ of\\ dispersing\\ solidity\\,\\ power\\ of\\ vaporization\\,\\ winds\\ ability\\ to\\ stir\\-up\\ levels\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literal\\ sequence\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 1\\:\\ Talks\\ about\\ the\\ wind\\ shaking\\ dead\\ leaves\\ and\\ liberating\\ \\&lsquo\\;pestilence\\-stricken\\ multitudes\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ then\\ he\\ switches\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ life\\-giving\\ qualities\\ of\\ the\\ Spring\\ wind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 2\\:\\ \\[Phoebe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ diagram\\]\\ He\\ describes\\ the\\ wind\\ shaking\\ both\\ the\\ sky\\ \\(rain\\,\\ lightning\\ and\\ clouds\\)\\ and\\ the\\ sea\\ in\\ ecstasy\\.\\ He\\ then\\ equates\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ a\\ dirge\\ \\(funeral\\ chant\\)\\ that\\ will\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ dome\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;vast\\ sepulcher\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ the\\ wind\\ itself\\ has\\ created\\ by\\ generating\\ all\\ the\\ turmoil\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 3\\:\\ Shelley\\ describes\\ a\\ quaint\\ Mediterranean\\ scene\\ that\\ is\\ suddenly\\ destroyed\\ and\\ uprooted\\ by\\ the\\ might\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\ and\\ an\\ enraged\\ ocean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ transition\\ in\\ the\\ general\\ theme\\ between\\ Canto\\ 3\\ and\\ Canto\\ 4\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ continuing\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ Wind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ destructive\\ agency\\,\\ Shelley\\ takes\\ on\\ an\\ imploration\\ to\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ \\(Shelley\\)\\ and\\ immortalize\\ him\\ by\\ elevating\\ him\\ above\\ the\\ mortal\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 4\\:\\ He\\ implores\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ leaf\\ and\\ empower\\ him\\ \\(although\\ to\\ a\\ lesser\\ degree\\ than\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\)\\ because\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;falls\\ upon\\ the\\ thorns\\ of\\ life\\!\\ I\\ bleed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 5\\:\\ He\\ implores\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ his\\ \\&lsquo\\;lyre\\,\\ even\\ as\\ the\\ forest\\ is\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ \\&lsquo\\;thoughts\\&rsquo\\;\\ immortal\\ through\\ dispersing\\ them\\ \\&lsquo\\;among\\ mankind\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ last\\ couplet\\,\\ however\\ retracts\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ from\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ immortalizing\\ \\(through\\ destruction\\ and\\ apparently\\ renewal\\)\\ agency\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\,\\ and\\ asks\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ The\\ trumpet\\ of\\ a\\ prophecy\\!\\ O\\ Wind\\,\\ \\/\\ If\\ Winter\\ comes\\,\\ can\\ Spring\\ be\\ far\\ behind\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ ponder\\ whether\\ if\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ life\\-generating\\ qualities\\ of\\ wind\\ are\\ worthier\\ than\\ its\\ destructive\\ qualities\\ \\(after\\ all\\,\\ Spring\\ comes\\ immediately\\ after\\ the\\ Winter\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ it\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;far\\ behind\\&rsquo\\;\\ but\\ also\\ immediately\\ proceeding\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shelley\\ finishes\\ his\\ first\\ three\\ Cantos\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;oh\\,\\ hear\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ all\\ the\\ destruction\\ he\\ has\\ portrayed\\ caused\\ him\\ pleasure\\.\\ What\\ might\\ have\\ compelled\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ speak\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ desire\\ \\(sooo\\ Romantic\\)\\ to\\ be\\ immortal\\,\\ and\\ transcendental\\ \\(destruction\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ force\\ that\\ renews\\ by\\ renovating\\ what\\ is\\ foul\\ and\\ corrupt\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reasons\\ for\\ Attendance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Phillip\\ Larkin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Inrospective\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ both\\ iambic\\ and\\ trochaic\\ pentamters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ stanzas\\ of\\ five\\ verses\\ each\\,\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ rhyme\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sex\\,\\ human\\ warmth\\,\\ pleasure\\,\\ inside\\/outside\\ dichotomy\\,\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Poet\\ and\\ Jazz\\ Musician\\,\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ Wrote\\ mostly\\ popular\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ calls\\ me\\ is\\ that\\ lifted\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;rough\\-tongued\\ bell\\ \\/\\ \\(Art\\,\\ if\\ you\\ like\\)\\ whose\\ individual\\ sound\\ \\/\\ Insists\\ I\\ too\\ am\\ individual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Larkin\\ introduces\\ his\\ poem\\ Reasons\\ for\\ Attendance\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ party\\,\\ and\\ its\\ mix\\ of\\ music\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\ and\\ human\\ warmth\\ immediately\\ grasp\\ his\\ attention\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 1\\-3\\)\\.\\ The\\ author\\ situates\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ outside\\ observer\\,\\ even\\ when\\ he\\ implies\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ invited\\ to\\ attend\\ such\\ event\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ speculate\\ on\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ his\\ reluctance\\ to\\ participate\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ as\\ Larkin\\ continues\\ to\\ specify\\ the\\ mixed\\ feelings\\ that\\ the\\ scene\\ evokes\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ scrutinize\\ further\\ on\\ the\\ real\\ inner\\ motivations\\ and\\ tensions\\ that\\ led\\ the\\ author\\ to\\ portray\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ does\\ an\\ otherwise\\ commonplace\\ social\\ activity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ very\\ outset\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ interplay\\ between\\ the\\ speech\\ acts\\ and\\ imagery\\ Larking\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ his\\ first\\ impressions\\ \\-namely\\ worldly\\ and\\ human\\ feelings\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 4\\-9\\)\\-\\ clues\\ in\\ the\\ reader\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ his\\ real\\ standing\\ on\\ the\\ sentimental\\ worth\\ of\\ such\\ initial\\ perceptions\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ portrayal\\ of\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;trumpet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ brings\\ him\\ to\\ appreciate\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ inside\\ the\\ building\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ party\\ is\\ taking\\ place\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 2\\-5\\)\\.\\ The\\ description\\ takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ monologue\\,\\ however\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ the\\ poet\\ shifts\\ his\\ speech\\ and\\ immerses\\ in\\ a\\ soliloquy\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 6\\-10\\)\\ trying\\ to\\ explain\\ and\\ comprehend\\ \\(supposedly\\ for\\ himself\\ only\\,\\ for\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ encased\\ between\\ two\\ long\\ dashes\\)\\ the\\ impressions\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ scene\\ has\\ caused\\ on\\ him\\.\\ The\\ first\\ tension\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ exposes\\ in\\ such\\ introspection\\ is\\ a\\ desire\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 7\\)\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;sex\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 8\\)\\,\\ and\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ imagery\\ to\\ accentuate\\ his\\ sense\\ of\\ desire\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;smoke\\ and\\ sweat\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 6\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;wonderful\\ feel\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ share\\ \\/\\ \\[of\\]\\ happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 9\\-10\\)\\ also\\ contributes\\ to\\ underline\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ observer\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ participant\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ wonder\\ why\\ is\\ he\\ outside\\ if\\ he\\ clearly\\ feels\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ company\\.\\ Nonetheless\\,\\ the\\ proceeding\\ shift\\ from\\ soliloquy\\ to\\ a\\ monologue\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-11\\)\\ clarifies\\ that\\ such\\ feelings\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ motive\\ that\\ led\\ the\\ author\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ the\\ impressions\\ that\\ the\\ scene\\ evoked\\ on\\ him\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ motives\\,\\ namely\\ evoked\\ by\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;lifted\\,\\ rough\\-tongued\\ bell\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\ trumpet\\,\\ individual\\ sound\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\ and\\ art\\ \\(l\\.\\ 13\\)\\ that\\ lead\\ him\\ to\\ reconsider\\ his\\ participation\\ on\\ the\\ event\\.\\ The\\ iteration\\ monologue\\-soliloquy\\-monologue\\ and\\ the\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ imagery\\ that\\ Laking\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ what\\ draws\\ his\\ attention\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ human\\ warmth\\ and\\ interaction\\ imagery\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ individualism\\)\\ reveals\\ the\\ true\\ ambivalence\\ that\\ operates\\ in\\ his\\ soul\\:\\ the\\ choice\\ he\\ faces\\ of\\ whether\\ to\\ attain\\ self\\ realization\\ in\\ life\\ with\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ a\\ significant\\ other\\ and\\ ultimately\\ gain\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ lion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ share\\/\\ \\[o\\]f\\ happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ or\\ whether\\ to\\ attain\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ that\\ can\\ derive\\ pleasure\\ from\\ solitary\\ activities\\ such\\ as\\ music\\ \\&ldquo\\;whose\\ individual\\ sound\\ \\/\\ \\[i\\]nsists\\ \\[he\\]\\ too\\ \\[is\\ an\\]\\ individual\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 14\\-15\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parallel\\ to\\ the\\ imagery\\ and\\ the\\ speech\\ acts\\ Larking\\ uses\\ to\\ portray\\ his\\ inner\\ feelings\\,\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ counterpart\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ structure\\ that\\ reflects\\ his\\ feeling\\ of\\ insecurity\\ and\\ doubt\\.\\ His\\ iteration\\ between\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ trochaic\\ pentameters\\ in\\ stanzas\\ 1\\ and\\ 3\\,\\ and\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ iambic\\ pentameters\\ in\\ stanzas\\ 2\\ and\\ 5\\ reflect\\ the\\ momentous\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ statements\\ he\\ has\\ previously\\ made\\ by\\ showing\\ Larkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ human\\ side\\,\\ and\\ reflecting\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ even\\ then\\,\\ he\\ still\\ feels\\ a\\ little\\ reluctance\\ to\\ shed\\ aside\\ his\\ human\\ affective\\ disposition\\ altogether\\.\\ Nonetheless\\,\\ this\\ sentimental\\ doubt\\ is\\ resolved\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ where\\ his\\ last\\ monologue\\ carefully\\ explains\\ his\\ ultimate\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ his\\ unwillingness\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ party\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ being\\ inside\\ or\\ outside\\ the\\ event\\,\\ or\\ about\\ interacting\\ with\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ opposite\\ sex\\ \\(interactions\\ that\\ eventually\\ turn\\ in\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;mauls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 18\\)\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\)\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ about\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ living\\ a\\ life\\ filled\\ with\\ happiness\\ \\(l\\.\\ 17\\)\\,\\ without\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 17\\-19\\)\\.\\ In\\ his\\ case\\,\\ it\\ is\\ music\\ what\\ has\\ spoken\\ to\\ him\\ \\(l\\.\\ 15\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ others\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ still\\ be\\ happy\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 16\\-17\\)\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ Larkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ leaves\\ his\\ last\\ verse\\ as\\ an\\ invitation\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ also\\ reconsider\\ his\\ true\\ standing\\ his\\ life\\,\\ for\\ if\\ the\\ reader\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;misjudged\\ himself\\.\\ Or\\ lied\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 20\\)\\,\\ he\\ will\\ ultimately\\ be\\ unable\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ fulfilling\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Talking\\ in\\ Bed\\-\\ Philip\\ Larkin\\ \\(1922\\-1985\\)\\ p\\.110\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Describing\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Meditation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Dactylic\\ tetrameter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aba\\ cac\\ dcd\\ eee\\,\\ 4\\ stanzas\\,\\ 3\\ lines\\ per\\ stanza\\.\\ Last\\ two\\ lines\\ are\\ shorter\\ and\\ whole\\ last\\ stanza\\ rhymes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ time\\,\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ isolation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ becomes\\ still\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ find\\/\\ Words\\ at\\ once\\ true\\ and\\ kind\\/\\ Or\\ not\\ untrue\\ and\\ not\\ unkind\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ meditation\\ on\\ the\\ estrangement\\ between\\ two\\ lovers\\ after\\ many\\ years\\.\\ After\\ the\\ initial\\ general\\ opening\\ statement\\ the\\ poem\\ moves\\ into\\ the\\ present\\ tense\\ and\\ describes\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ this\\ couple\\ lying\\ in\\ bed\\ together\\ in\\ utter\\ silence\\,\\ with\\ the\\ world\\ going\\ on\\ around\\ them\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ nothing\\ actually\\ happens\\ the\\ couple\\ is\\ still\\ lying\\ there\\ in\\ silence\\ no\\ closer\\ to\\ understanding\\ or\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ isolation\\ they\\ are\\ feeling\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ appears\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ in\\ the\\ opening\\ stanza\\ how\\ talking\\ should\\ be\\ easy\\ because\\ the\\ couple\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ history\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ very\\ honest\\ in\\ bed\\ before\\.\\ He\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ meditate\\ on\\ this\\ state\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ how\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ is\\ no\\ help\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ essentially\\ no\\ explanation\\ for\\ why\\ this\\ problem\\,\\ which\\ is\\ he\\ redefines\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\ is\\ happening\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essentially\\ what\\ makes\\ this\\ poem\\ interesting\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ narrative\\,\\ because\\ nothing\\ actually\\ happens\\,\\ but\\ Larkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ method\\ of\\ meditating\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ The\\ pattern\\ is\\ how\\ it\\ used\\ to\\ be\\,\\ what\\ is\\ wrong\\ now\\,\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ finally\\ a\\ redefinition\\ after\\ meditating\\ about\\ the\\ problem\\ from\\ different\\ perspectives\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ moves\\ away\\ from\\ classical\\ narrative\\ poems\\ in\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ resolution\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ only\\ a\\ redefinition\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ he\\ started\\ with\\.\\ What\\ compelled\\ Larkin\\ to\\ write\\ such\\ a\\ poem\\ might\\ have\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ impotency\\ that\\ so\\ many\\ feel\\ when\\ trying\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ emotional\\ or\\ relationship\\ issues\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ knows\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ but\\ has\\ no\\ control\\ or\\ ability\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ Being\\ Brought\\ from\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 300\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Phillis\\ Wheatley\\ \\(1753\\ \\-\\ 1784\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ not\\ specifically\\ assigned\\,\\ but\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 9\\,\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ lyric\\:\\ religious\\ poem\\ \\(heavily\\ religious\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mention\\ of\\ Jesus\\/redemption\\/etc\\ in\\ every\\ line\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ elements\\:\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ simple\\ AABB\\,\\ perhaps\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ simplicity\\ and\\ clarity\\ of\\ the\\ message\\ she\\ is\\ sending\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negroes\\ black\\ as\\ Cain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wheatley\\ was\\ brought\\ to\\ America\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ 7\\ or\\ 8\\,\\ in\\ 1761\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ learned\\ the\\ English\\ language\\ very\\ quickly\\ \\(she\\ is\\ remembered\\ as\\ a\\ genius\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ view\\ our\\ race\\ with\\ scornful\\ eye\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Their\\ color\\ is\\ a\\ diabolic\\ dye\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\/\\ Remember\\ Christians\\,\\ Negros\\,\\ black\\ as\\ Cain\\,\\ \\/\\ May\\ be\\ refined\\,\\ and\\ join\\ th\\&rsquo\\;angelic\\ train\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ short\\,\\ one\\-stanza\\,\\ 8\\-line\\ poem\\,\\ effectively\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ Wheatley\\,\\ brought\\ over\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\ from\\ Africa\\,\\ feels\\ lucky\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;saved\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(religiously\\-speaking\\)\\,\\ but\\ reminds\\ white\\ people\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ essentially\\ there\\ equals\\ since\\ they\\,\\ too\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;May\\ be\\ refined\\,\\ and\\ join\\ th\\&rsquo\\;angelic\\ train\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ four\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ discuss\\ what\\ she\\ learned\\ after\\ coming\\ from\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;pagan\\ land\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ America\\ \\(ie\\.\\ she\\ learned\\ tha\\ tthere\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ God\\ and\\ a\\ Savior\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ she\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ known\\ before\\ arriving\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ four\\ lines\\,\\ however\\,\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ different\\ tone\\,\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ suddenly\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ directed\\ at\\ white\\ Christians\\:\\ she\\ says\\ that\\,\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ view\\ our\\ sable\\ \\[referring\\ to\\ skin\\ color\\]\\ race\\ with\\ scornful\\ eye\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Christians\\ need\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ even\\ Negros\\ who\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ as\\ Cain\\ \\/\\ May\\ be\\ refined\\,\\ and\\ join\\ th\\&rsquo\\;angelic\\ train\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Referencing\\ the\\ biblical\\ figure\\ Cain\\,\\ the\\ evil\\ twin\\ that\\ murders\\ his\\ brother\\ Abel\\,\\ and\\ using\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;refined\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggest\\ to\\ me\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ being\\ sarcastic\\/ironic\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ pointing\\ out\\ the\\ utter\\ irony\\ that\\,\\ if\\ blacks\\ are\\ equal\\ before\\ God\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ angelic\\ train\\,\\ then\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\ for\\ their\\ to\\ be\\ such\\ grave\\ inequality\\ in\\ the\\ worldly\\ realm\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ the\\ Ball\\ Turret\\ Gunner\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1945\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Randall\\ Jarrell\\ 122\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\ on\\ agency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\,\\ war\\,\\ death\\-bed\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(mostly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcdb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ humans\\ as\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ Airforce\\ in\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;when\\ I\\ died\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\they\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\washed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\me\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\out\\ of\\ the\\ turret\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ change\\ of\\ agency\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ main\\ verbs\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;the\\ speaker\\ has\\ the\\ agency\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ killed\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ and\\ final\\ line\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ agency\\ changes\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;they\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ actor\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ object\\ which\\ is\\ acted\\ upon\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ sentences\\ are\\ each\\ two\\ lines\\ long\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ sentence\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ line\\ long\\,\\ which\\ echoes\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ abbreviated\\ life\\ and\\ premature\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ line\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ vulnerability\\ and\\ dehumanization\\ of\\ soldiers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ says\\ that\\,\\ while\\ his\\ mother\\ was\\ sleeping\\,\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;fell\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ her\\ into\\ the\\ war\\&mdash\\;an\\ almost\\ accidental\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ get\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ had\\ the\\ mother\\ only\\ been\\ awake\\,\\ she\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ prevent\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ next\\ line\\ he\\ talks\\ about\\ having\\ wet\\ fur\\&mdash\\;as\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ an\\ animal\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ gives\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ both\\ vulnerable\\ and\\ dehumanized\\.\\ \\ \\;Jarrell\\ notes\\ that\\ when\\ a\\ soldier\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ ball\\ turret\\,\\ he\\ looked\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;foetus\\ in\\ the\\ womb\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ appearance\\ of\\ being\\ dependent\\ and\\ vulnerable\\ echoes\\ with\\ Jarrell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sentiments\\ on\\ battle\\,\\ where\\ he\\ seemed\\ to\\ just\\ be\\ waiting\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;nightmare\\ fighters\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ Lucasta\\,\\ Going\\ to\\ the\\ Wars\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Richard\\ Lovelace\\ \\(1618\\-1658\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 300\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\ \\(Chapter\\ 9\\)\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\,\\ war\\:\\ leaving\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\,\\ except\\ lines\\ 1\\ and\\ 3\\ DO\\ rhyme\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ the\\ typical\\ ballad\\ stanza\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ alternating\\ tetrameter\\ \\&\\;\\ trimeter\\ 4\\-3\\-4\\-3\\ within\\ each\\ quatrain\\ \\(\\=\\ 8\\-6\\-8\\-6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\.\\ \\ \\;Poem\\ is\\ three\\ 4\\-line\\ stanzas\\ \\(quatrains\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ could\\ not\\ love\\ thee\\,\\ dear\\,\\ so\\ much\\,\\ \\/\\ Loved\\ I\\ not\\ honor\\ more\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\,\\ section\\ or\\ within\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;Author\\ leaves\\ his\\ mistress\\ for\\ the\\ war\\,\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ war\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ new\\ mistress\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Progression\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ Stanza\\ 1\\:\\ describes\\ mistress\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;chaste\\ breast\\ and\\ quiet\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\:\\ going\\ to\\ war\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ with\\ a\\ stronger\\ faith\\ embrace\\ \\/\\ A\\ sword\\,\\ a\\ horse\\,\\ a\\ shield\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;3\\:\\ you\\ should\\ love\\ me\\ for\\ my\\ love\\ of\\ honor\\ \\(which\\ is\\ why\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ going\\ to\\ war\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ poet\\ is\\ compelled\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ explain\\ to\\ Lucasta\\ \\(a\\ nickname\\ for\\ his\\ mistress\\,\\ Lucy\\)\\ why\\ he\\ must\\ leave\\ her\\ to\\ fight\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ emerges\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ an\\ argument\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ having\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ opens\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tell\\ me\\ not\\,\\ sweet\\,\\ I\\ am\\ unkind\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ pleads\\ with\\ her\\ to\\ understand\\ his\\ motivation\\ and\\ to\\ love\\ him\\ for\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flash\\ Cards\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1989\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rita\\ Dove\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1952\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;class\\,\\ introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ childhood\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ unrhymed\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Two\\ four\\ line\\ stanzas\\ followed\\ by\\ two\\ three\\ line\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ signs\\ of\\ youth\\ and\\ implied\\ powerlessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\-American\\,\\ appointed\\ Poet\\ Laureate\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ 1993\\ for\\ 2\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ten\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ kept\\ saying\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ only\\ ten\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ reveals\\ the\\ significant\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ child\\ is\\ intelligent\\,\\ the\\ father\\ is\\ demanding\\,\\ the\\ child\\ is\\ overwhelmed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ three\\ stanzas\\ recount\\ what\\ happens\\ after\\ school\\ lets\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ there\\ are\\ images\\ of\\ youth\\ beginning\\ to\\ blossom\\ \\(a\\ bud\\ on\\ a\\ geranium\\,\\ tulip\\ trees\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ bee\\ and\\ the\\ tulip\\ trees\\ are\\ both\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ rain\\,\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ walking\\ home\\ from\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ stanza\\ shows\\ the\\ father\\ relaxing\\ after\\ work\\ \\(as\\ a\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ child\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ supper\\,\\ they\\ work\\ on\\ schoolwork\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;we\\ drilled\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ stanza\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ stress\\ of\\ this\\ has\\ invaded\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subconscious\\ and\\ comes\\ out\\ in\\ her\\ dreams\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ culminates\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ \\(Notable\\ citation\\ above\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apparently\\,\\ her\\ father\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ black\\ research\\ chemist\\ ever\\ and\\ broke\\ many\\ color\\ barriers\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ he\\ took\\ his\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ education\\ very\\ seriously\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parsley\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1983\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rita\\ Dove\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 305\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\ \\(Chapter\\ 9\\)\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ inequality\\,\\ racism\\,\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ part\\ 1\\:\\ song\\,\\ part\\ 2\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ pentameter\\,\\ mostly\\ iambic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ sections\\ of\\ varying\\ length\\:\\ 1\\.\\ The\\ Cane\\ Fields\\,\\ is\\ a\\ villanelle\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ The\\ Palace\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ 7\\-\\ and\\ 8\\-line\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ notable\\ exception\\ \\ \\;being\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ \\(1\\ line\\ by\\ itself\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\spring\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\general\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parrot\\,\\ general\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boots\\,\\ sugar\\ cane\\ fields\\,\\ arrowhead\\ teeth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ female\\,\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ parrot\\ imitating\\ spring\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Out\\ of\\ the\\ swamp\\ \\(\\,\\)\\ \\(\\.\\)\\ the\\ cane\\ appears\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(phrased\\ several\\ ways\\,\\ 4\\ times\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Katalina\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(meant\\ to\\ be\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;Katarina\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ an\\ R\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ historical\\ event\\ where\\ General\\ Trujillo\\,\\ dictator\\ of\\ the\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\,\\ ordered\\ 20K\\ blacks\\ killed\\ for\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ roll\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;R\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\perejil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ parsley\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ focuses\\ first\\ on\\ the\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ sugar\\ cane\\ fields\\,\\ their\\ powerlessness\\ and\\ maybe\\ also\\ the\\ senselessness\\ of\\ the\\ massacre\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ two\\ lines\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ citations\\-\\ first\\ about\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;parrot\\ imitating\\ spring\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;out\\ of\\ the\\ swamp\\ the\\ cane\\ appears\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ each\\ repeated\\ four\\ times\\,\\ as\\ is\\ traditional\\ of\\ a\\ villanelle\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ section\\ exposes\\ the\\ victimization\\ of\\ the\\ workers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\,\\ longer\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ General\\,\\ his\\ parrot\\,\\ and\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ his\\ dead\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Condensed\\ from\\ an\\ article\\ by\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ that\\ I\\ found\\ on\\ JSTOR\\:\\ \\)\\ This\\ section\\ gets\\ into\\ the\\ General\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ about\\ the\\ justification\\ of\\ the\\ killing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ parrot\\ belonged\\ to\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ and\\ reminds\\ the\\ General\\ unbearably\\ of\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ General\\ associates\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ the\\ Creole\\ workers\\ to\\ roll\\ their\\ R\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ disrespect\\ for\\ his\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\,\\ Spanish\\ with\\ a\\ rolled\\ R\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ designs\\ the\\ test\\ of\\ \\ \\;saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;perejil\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ kills\\ the\\ workers\\ supposedly\\ to\\ uphold\\ his\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ honor\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ release\\ from\\ his\\ misery\\ of\\ having\\ lost\\ his\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wingfoot\\ Lake\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg235\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rita\\ Dove\\ \\(1952\\-\\ \\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ November\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\:\\ Africa\\ and\\ the\\ African\\-American\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ assigned\\ for\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;week\\ of\\ section\\ meeting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ race\\ poem\\,\\ protest\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\(focuses\\ on\\ the\\ feelings\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ plot\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ no\\ dominant\\ meter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ no\\ rhynme\\ scheme\\,\\ split\\ into\\ 5\\ stanzas\\,\\ unusual\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sentences\\ begin\\ in\\ one\\ stanza\\ and\\ end\\ in\\ the\\ next\\,\\ reflecting\\ old\\ woman\\ being\\ at\\ loose\\ ends\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ swimming\\ pool\\,\\ waxy\\ beef\\ patties\\,\\ Africa\\ \\(Nile\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ swimmers\\&rsquo\\;\\ white\\ arms\\ jutting\\ into\\ the\\ chevrons\\ of\\ high\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ black\\ female\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ she\\ watched\\ the\\ TV\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ crow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wing\\ moved\\ slowly\\ through\\ the\\ white\\ streets\\ of\\ government\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ describes\\ an\\ old\\ black\\ woman\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ describing\\ her\\ ambivalence\\ about\\ desegregation\\ and\\ racism\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ Thomas\\ \\(presumably\\ her\\ husband\\)\\ drives\\ her\\ past\\ a\\ swimming\\ pool\\ in\\ which\\ white\\ people\\ are\\ swimming\\ \\(note\\ the\\ spatial\\ distance\\ between\\ them\\ and\\ the\\ pool\\ of\\ whites\\)\\,\\ and\\ she\\ reacted\\ by\\ rolling\\ up\\ her\\ window\\ and\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;drive\\ on\\ fast\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ giving\\ the\\ reader\\ the\\ impression\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ angry\\/upset\\ by\\ the\\ sight\\,\\ or\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ her\\ husband\\ is\\ so\\ intrigued\\ by\\ the\\ pool\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ ten\\ years\\ later\\,\\ on\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ July\\,\\ and\\ the\\ old\\ lady\\ is\\ with\\ her\\ daughters\\ at\\ their\\ husbands\\&rsquo\\;\\ family\\ picnic\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ desegregation\\ had\\ already\\ occurred\\,\\ the\\ white\\ and\\ black\\ families\\ were\\ still\\ separated\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ eating\\ the\\ same\\ things\\ \\(Heinz\\,\\ waxy\\ beef\\ patties\\,\\ Salem\\ potato\\ chip\\ bags\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ stanza\\ goes\\ back\\ in\\ time\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;ten\\ years\\ ago\\ had\\ been\\ harder\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ describing\\ a\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\ watched\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ a\\ crow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wing\\ moved\\ slowly\\ through\\ the\\ white\\ streets\\ of\\ government\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ making\\ both\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ Jim\\ Crowe\\ laws\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ March\\ on\\ Washington\\.\\ \\ \\;Win\\ the\\ next\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ learn\\ that\\ watching\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;brave\\ swimming\\&rdquo\\;\\ scared\\ her\\,\\ which\\ perhaps\\ explains\\ her\\ behavior\\ when\\ she\\ saw\\ the\\ swimming\\ pool\\ of\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ daughter\\ also\\ scares\\ her\\ by\\ telling\\ her\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;afro\\-Americans\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ neither\\ of\\ them\\ really\\ knew\\ anything\\ about\\ Africa\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ about\\ Africa\\:\\ she\\ had\\ never\\ been\\ there\\,\\ and\\ wonders\\ whether\\ the\\ Nile\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ Mississippi\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ Dove\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ rather\\ cryptically\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\ \\[the\\ old\\ lady\\]\\ came\\ from\\ was\\ the\\ past\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ Goodyear\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;begun\\ to\\ dream\\ of\\ a\\ park\\ under\\ the\\ company\\ symbol\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(presumably\\ the\\ park\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ for\\ the\\ picnic\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ white\\ foot\\ sprouting\\ two\\ small\\ wings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(last\\ line\\ invokes\\ angelic\\ theme\\;\\ ironic\\ that\\,\\ even\\ after\\ desegregation\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;angel\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ still\\ white\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ Last\\ Duchess\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1842\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Browning\\ 168\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/18\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ power\\,\\ arrogance\\,\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ dramatic\\ monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\,\\ one\\ long\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ art\\,\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ visited\\ Italy\\,\\ became\\ interested\\ in\\ its\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ gift\\ of\\ a\\ nine\\-hundred\\-years\\-old\\ name\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ is\\ a\\ duke\\ who\\ has\\ just\\ revealed\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ his\\ previous\\ wife\\ to\\ a\\ listener\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ listener\\,\\ we\\ learn\\,\\ is\\ an\\ envoy\\ from\\ the\\ Count\\,\\ whose\\ daughter\\ the\\ Duke\\ wants\\ to\\ marry\\ next\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ his\\ monologue\\,\\ the\\ Duke\\ reveals\\ himself\\ as\\ arrogant\\,\\ misogynistic\\ and\\ controlling\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ learn\\ that\\ he\\ got\\ rid\\ of\\ her\\ life\\ \\(perhaps\\ had\\ her\\ killed\\)\\ because\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ control\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ interesting\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ painting\\ of\\ his\\ previous\\ wife\\ in\\ a\\ proud\\,\\ boastful\\ manner\\,\\ yet\\ talks\\ about\\ his\\ actual\\ previous\\ wife\\ in\\ an\\ angry\\,\\ disgusted\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ something\\ he\\ can\\ control\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ never\\ could\\ his\\ actual\\ wife\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Duke\\ also\\ values\\ art\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ his\\ status\\;\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ name\\-dropping\\ as\\ he\\ discusses\\ all\\ his\\ paintings\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ quote\\ above\\ refers\\ to\\ his\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ long\\ legacy\\ of\\ royalty\\&mdash\\;he\\ clearly\\ feels\\ superior\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ background\\.\\ \\ \\;Toward\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ Duke\\ turns\\ toward\\ the\\ matter\\ at\\ hand\\&mdash\\;negotiating\\ a\\ dowry\\ for\\ the\\ Count\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ whom\\ the\\ Duke\\ hopes\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ next\\ wife\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ diction\\ shifts\\ markedly\\ from\\ art\\ to\\ business\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ left\\ with\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ the\\ Count\\&rsquo\\;s\\ envoy\\ has\\ been\\ so\\ turned\\ off\\ by\\ the\\ Duke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arrogance\\ that\\ a\\ dowry\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ negotiated\\ after\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ rhymed\\ couplets\\,\\ Browning\\ makes\\ the\\ rhymes\\ subtle\\ by\\ including\\ lots\\ of\\ enjambments\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ sentences\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rhyme\\,\\ only\\ the\\ end\\-words\\ of\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mending\\ Wall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 144\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 16\\.\\ \\ \\;Describing\\ Poems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ long\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ gaps\\,\\ Faerieland\\,\\ fauna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ New\\ Englander\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Something\\ there\\ is\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ love\\ a\\ wall\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ sends\\ the\\ frozen\\-ground\\-swell\\ under\\ it\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ spills\\ the\\ upper\\ boulders\\ in\\ the\\ sun\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ makes\\ gaps\\ even\\ two\\ can\\ pass\\ abreast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ speaker\\ wonders\\ why\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ neighbor\\ should\\ mend\\ the\\ stone\\ wall\\ between\\ their\\ properties\\ every\\ year\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ it\\,\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ unnatural\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Gift\\ Outright\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 302\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ \\(1874\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ December\\ 20\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\:\\ Deducing\\ morals\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\detecting\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ judging\\ the\\ implied\\ author\\ and\\ implied\\ reader\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Reminiscent\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ written\\ in\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ but\\ lacks\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 16\\ lines\\ long\\,\\ all\\ one\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ wrote\\ lots\\ of\\ poetry\\ about\\ rural\\ life\\ in\\ New\\ England\\:\\ won\\ some\\ Pulitzer\\ prizes\\ for\\ his\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citation\\:\\ about\\ the\\ land\\ in\\ early\\ America\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Such\\ as\\ we\\ were\\ we\\ gave\\ ourselves\\ outright\\&hellip\\;To\\ the\\ land\\ vaguely\\ realizing\\ westward\\,\\ \\/\\ But\\ still\\ unstoried\\,\\ artless\\,\\ unenhanced\\,\\ \\/\\ Such\\ as\\ she\\ was\\,\\ such\\ as\\ she\\ would\\ become\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ transition\\ that\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forefathers\\ underwent\\ from\\ when\\ they\\ originally\\ settled\\,\\ to\\ when\\ they\\ became\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ how\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ relationship\\ with\\ their\\ mother\\ country\\ \\(England\\)\\ changes\\ as\\ settlers\\ came\\ to\\ USA\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ split\\ into\\ three\\ parts\\,\\ though\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ short\\,\\ one\\-stanza\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ thy\\ first\\ arrived\\ in\\ MA\\ and\\ VA\\,\\ the\\ land\\ belonged\\ to\\ the\\ settlers\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ land\\ \\(because\\ they\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;belonged\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ England\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ interim\\ between\\ feeling\\ devotion\\ to\\ mother\\ country\\ and\\ new\\ country\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Something\\ we\\ were\\ withholding\\ made\\ us\\ weak\\ \\/\\ Until\\ we\\ found\\ it\\ was\\ ourselves\\ \\/\\ We\\ were\\ withholiding\\ from\\ our\\ land\\ of\\ living\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ forthwith\\ found\\ salvation\\ in\\ surrender\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ colonists\\ have\\ surrendered\\ to\\ the\\ land\\,\\ and\\ are\\ now\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;possessed\\ by\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;possess\\&rdquo\\;\\ this\\ new\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ then\\ moves\\ toward\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ bringing\\ up\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;unstoried\\,\\ artless\\,\\ unenhanced\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(especially\\ because\\ Puritans\\ were\\ anti\\-art\\)\\ western\\ plains\\ of\\ America\\ that\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ been\\ explored\\.\\ \\ \\;Vendler\\ said\\ in\\ class\\ that\\ his\\ poem\\ was\\ really\\ controversial\\ with\\ American\\ Indians\\ because\\ the\\ land\\ was\\,\\ clearly\\,\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;unstoried\\,\\ artless\\ and\\ unenhanced\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Road\\ Not\\ Taken\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1916\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ p\\.69\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\:\\ additional\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Individualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abaab\\ cdccd\\ efeef\\ ghggh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ two\\ roads\\,\\ forest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ American\\ poet\\ from\\ rural\\ New\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Two\\ roads\\ diverged\\ in\\ a\\ wood\\,\\ and\\ I\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\/\\ I\\ took\\ the\\ one\\ less\\ traveled\\ by\\,\\ \\/\\ and\\ that\\ has\\ made\\ all\\ the\\ difference\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ was\\ inspired\\ by\\ a\\ meeting\\ with\\ Edward\\ Thomas\\ during\\ a\\ brief\\ period\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ World\\ War\\ I\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ they\\ walked\\ around\\ some\\ woods\\ in\\ England\\ that\\ were\\ carpeted\\ in\\ daffodils\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;yellow\\ wood\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ usual\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ advises\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ forge\\ his\\ own\\ path\\ through\\ life\\ and\\ not\\ follow\\ the\\ route\\ others\\ have\\ taken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ contradictions\\ in\\ this\\ explanation\\&mdash\\;the\\ speaker\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ roads\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;worn\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ really\\ about\\ the\\ same\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ morning\\ he\\ made\\ this\\ decision\\ they\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;equally\\ lay\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ covered\\ in\\ leaves\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ returns\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ when\\ he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ took\\ the\\ one\\ less\\ traveled\\ by\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ that\\ has\\ made\\ all\\ the\\ difference\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ line\\ can\\ either\\ be\\ taken\\ with\\ sarcasm\\,\\ irony\\,\\ or\\ bare\\ truthfulness\\,\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ been\\ read\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ then\\,\\ why\\ would\\ the\\ speaker\\ be\\ saying\\ all\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ a\\ sigh\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ suggest\\ both\\ that\\ the\\ poet\\ now\\ wishes\\ he\\ took\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ road\\ not\\ taken\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ or\\ perhaps\\ it\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ road\\ before\\ he\\ made\\ the\\ decision\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ road\\ less\\ traveled\\ and\\ the\\ road\\ he\\ did\\ choose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ divided\\ in\\ two\\ parts\\,\\ which\\ split\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ at\\ the\\ height\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oh\\,\\ I\\ kept\\ the\\ first\\ for\\ another\\ day\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ interpreted\\ either\\ positively\\ or\\ negatively\\,\\ as\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ allows\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ final\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ how\\ we\\ interpret\\ our\\ past\\ decisions\\&mdash\\;that\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ our\\ past\\ actions\\ is\\ entirely\\ added\\ by\\ our\\ minds\\,\\ whenever\\ we\\ look\\ back\\ upon\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unharvested\\ \\(page\\ 101\\)\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ \\(1874\\-1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Nature\\ as\\ a\\ Lesson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ two\\ stanzas\\,\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ as\\ a\\ decamer\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ a\\ tetramer\\.\\ The\\ poems\\ are\\ written\\ in\\ pentameter\\ although\\ variations\\ are\\ present\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\ a\\-b\\-a\\-c\\-b\\-c\\-d\\-a\\-d\\-e\\ \\/\\ e\\-d\\-f\\-f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Empty\\ apple\\ tree\\,\\ fruit\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Frost\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ and\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ eastern\\ Massachusetts\\ on\\ a\\ farm\\,\\ predisposing\\ him\\ to\\ rural\\ themes\\.\\ He\\ won\\ 4\\ Pulitzer\\ prizes\\.\\ Read\\ at\\ the\\ inauguration\\ of\\ JFK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\"\\;Unharvested\\"\\;\\ uses\\ the\\ natural\\ setting\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ conveying\\ a\\ lesson\\ to\\ humanity\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ speaker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ examination\\ of\\ an\\ apple\\ tree\\ having\\ been\\ overlooked\\ by\\ the\\ harvest\\ season\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ explores\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ leaving\\ things\\ behind\\,\\ and\\ questions\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ okay\\ to\\ let\\ people\\ waste\\ and\\ forget\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ apple\\ tree\\.\\ The\\ apple\\ tree\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ for\\ biblical\\ reference\\,\\ and\\ Frost\\ directly\\ references\\ Adam\\ and\\ Evee\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ to\\ last\\ and\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ parallel\\ between\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ the\\ red\\ apples\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ and\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ original\\ sin\\ into\\ humanity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ apples\\,\\ and\\ Frost\\ makes\\ this\\ point\\ even\\ stronger\\ by\\ the\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ line\\,\\ discussing\\ \\"\\;apples\\ or\\ something\\.\\"\\;\\ One\\ asks\\ oneself\\,\\ what\\ is\\ this\\ \\"\\;something\\?\\"\\;\\ and\\ it\\ clearly\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ condition\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ has\\ no\\ rhyme\\ and\\ is\\ particularly\\ straightforward\\,\\ a\\ departure\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ a\\ strong\\,\\ almost\\ bleak\\ set\\ of\\ images\\,\\ that\\ is\\ less\\ developed\\ earlier\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Apple\\-Picking\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 100\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1914\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ \\(1874\\-1963\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;10\\/4\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;could\\ be\\ a\\ nature\\ or\\ rustic\\ lyric\\,\\ a\\ seasonal\\ lyric\\,\\ a\\ self\\-reflexive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ but\\ with\\ many\\ lines\\ of\\ different\\ lengths\\,\\ which\\ breaks\\ up\\ the\\ droning\\ pattern\\ of\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(creating\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ speaker\\ drifting\\ off\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reader\\&mdash\\;who\\ should\\ be\\ paying\\ attention\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ with\\ no\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;apple\\-picking\\ \\(harvesting\\,\\ life\\ activity\\)\\,\\ pane\\ of\\ glass\\ \\(reflective\\ on\\ life\\)\\,\\ sleep\\,\\ winter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Frost\\ spent\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ New\\ England\\,\\ and\\ his\\ to\\-the\\-point\\ language\\ and\\ emphasis\\ on\\ individualism\\ in\\ his\\ poetry\\ reflect\\ this\\ background\\.\\ He\\ usually\\ uses\\ traditional\\ patterns\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ experimenting\\ with\\ form\\ like\\ many\\ poets\\ of\\ his\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;For\\ I\\ have\\ had\\ too\\ much\\/\\ Of\\ apple\\-picking\\:\\ I\\ am\\ overtired\\/\\ Of\\ the\\ great\\ harvest\\ I\\ myself\\ desired\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;As\\ with\\ many\\ Frost\\ poems\\,\\ he\\ transforms\\ a\\ regular\\ experience\\ \\(involving\\ nature\\)\\ and\\ transcends\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ contemplative\\ moment\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ death\\ on\\ the\\ horizon\\ \\(symbolized\\ by\\ the\\ approaching\\ winter\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ apple\\-picking\\,\\ harvesting\\ fruit\\,\\ represents\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activity\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ experienced\\ fully\\,\\ the\\ regrets\\,\\ mistakes\\,\\ and\\ short\\ comings\\ in\\ life\\.\\ The\\ wonderment\\ of\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ sleep\\ suggests\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ a\\ regular\\ night\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sleep\\,\\ endless\\ sleep\\,\\ or\\ sleep\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ new\\-awakening\\ \\(the\\ woodchuck\\ coming\\ out\\ of\\ hibernation\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;As\\ stated\\ above\\,\\ the\\ irregularity\\ of\\ rhyme\\ and\\ line\\ length\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ opposing\\ force\\ to\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(drifting\\ off\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ board\\ of\\ day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activities\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ imagery\\ of\\ sleep\\ and\\ winter\\ suggest\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ the\\ ladder\\ pointing\\ towards\\ heaven\\ continue\\ this\\ theme\\ of\\ contemplating\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ long\\ sleep\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ is\\ constant\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ completion\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;barrel\\ that\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fill\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ regrets\\ of\\ things\\ not\\ done\\ in\\ life\\.\\ Yet\\ this\\ is\\ simultaneously\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ten\\ thousand\\ thousand\\ fruit\\ to\\ touch\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ the\\ endless\\ opportunities\\ in\\ life\\,\\ which\\ cannot\\ all\\ be\\ realized\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ potential\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ through\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ Fall\\ of\\ Man\\,\\ with\\ the\\ apple\\ as\\ the\\ catalyst\\ which\\ condemned\\ man\\ to\\ sin\\ and\\ a\\ lower\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Frost\\ moves\\ between\\ present\\ and\\ past\\ tense\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ making\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ discern\\ the\\ sequence\\ of\\ events\\,\\ which\\ enhances\\ the\\ movement\\ between\\ dream\\ and\\ reality\\,\\ sleep\\ and\\ awake\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Vendler\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ three\\ parts\\,\\ the\\ first\\ consisting\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;realistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ images\\,\\ the\\ second\\ filled\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;dream\\-images\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ returns\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;realistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ images\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Night\\,\\ Death\\,\\ Mississippi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1913\\-1980\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Hayden\\ pg\\.\\ 270\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Section\\ assignment\\ week\\ of\\ November\\ 13\\&mdash\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&mdash\\;Political\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ monologue\\&mdash\\;political\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Poem\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\ \\(the\\ first\\ part\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ simple\\ quatrains\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Crucifixion\\ allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\-American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\O\\ night\\ betrayed\\ by\\ darkness\\ not\\ its\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Grown\\ too\\ old\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ lynching\\ rituals\\,\\ the\\ old\\ white\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ excitedly\\ listens\\ for\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ town\\ lynching\\ as\\ he\\ lives\\ vicariously\\ and\\ blissfully\\ through\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ participation\\ in\\ it\\.\\ Feeling\\ the\\ close\\ bond\\ of\\ the\\ shared\\ ritual\\,\\ the\\ old\\ man\\ imagines\\ meeting\\ his\\ son\\ after\\ the\\ rite\\ and\\ takes\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ bond\\ between\\ father\\ and\\ son\\ now\\ revived\\ by\\ the\\ monstrous\\ excitement\\ of\\ the\\ lynching\\.\\ The\\ lynching\\ is\\ never\\ directly\\ \\&ldquo\\;shown\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ imagined\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christ\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ used\\ in\\ vain\\,\\ but\\ the\\ vision\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\ burning\\ on\\ the\\ lily\\ cross\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ parallel\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ lynching\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ man\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ part\\,\\ the\\ stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christ\\,\\ it\\ was\\ better\\/than\\ hunting\\ bear\\/which\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ why\\/you\\ want\\ him\\ dead\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ reflective\\ of\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complex\\ and\\ unconventional\\ approach\\ to\\ racist\\ sentiments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Hayden\\ portrays\\ a\\ deeply\\-entrenched\\ and\\ almost\\ visceral\\ racism\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ simply\\ threatening\\ love\\ or\\ the\\ bonds\\ of\\ society\\,\\ racial\\ hatred\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ secures\\ and\\ perpetuates\\ the\\ bonds\\ between\\ father\\ and\\ son\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ message\\ is\\ the\\ human\\ and\\ violent\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\ are\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ monstrous\\ tendencies\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\.\\ Racism\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ \\&ldquo\\;monsters\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ it\\ is\\ deeply\\ steeped\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\ consciousness\\ and\\ most\\ basic\\ familial\\ bonds\\,\\ where\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ kids\\ obediently\\ and\\ almost\\ perfunctorily\\ fetch\\ their\\ father\\ water\\ so\\ he\\ can\\ wash\\ the\\ black\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\ off\\ after\\ a\\ disgustingly\\ exhilarating\\ lynching\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Those\\ Winter\\ Sundays\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1962\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Hayden\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 20\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 9\\-25\\-06\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ father\\-son\\ relationship\\,\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Not\\ uniform\\,\\ but\\ seems\\ to\\ alternate\\ fairly\\ regularly\\ between\\ iambic\\ and\\ trochaic\\ line\\ beginnings\\,\\ most\\ lines\\ in\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ stanzas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 5\\ lines\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\,\\ 5\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ cold\\,\\ cracks\\/splinters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\-American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ did\\ I\\ know\\,\\ what\\ did\\ I\\ know\\ \\/\\ of\\ love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ austere\\ and\\ lonely\\ offices\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ describes\\ Sunday\\ mornings\\ in\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ childhood\\ home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ his\\ father\\ would\\ rise\\ early\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;make\\ banked\\ fires\\ blaze\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ his\\ unappreciative\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Hayden\\ seems\\ to\\ regret\\ his\\ own\\ indifference\\ to\\ his\\ father\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ last\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ note\\ the\\ alliterated\\ \\&ldquo\\;b\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;k\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;ck\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;c\\&rdquo\\;\\ sounds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ also\\ connected\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wake\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;splintering\\,\\ breaking\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\ the\\ alliterated\\ \\&ldquo\\;w\\&rdquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ the\\ alliterated\\ \\&ldquo\\;d\\&rdquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Those\\ Winter\\ Sundays\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1962\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Hayden\\,\\ Pg\\ 20\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ September\\ 25\\,\\ under\\ traditional\\ genres\\ of\\ life\\-stages\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ life\\-stage\\ poem\\,\\ a\\ father\\-son\\ poem\\,\\ a\\ lyric\\ about\\ regret\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ 5\\ lines\\-4\\ lines\\-5\\ lines\\.\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ enjambed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ The\\ sacrifices\\ made\\ by\\ his\\ father\\ are\\ represented\\ by\\ Sunday\\ mornings\\,\\ when\\ his\\ father\\ went\\ above\\ and\\ beyond\\ by\\ starting\\ the\\ fire\\ for\\ the\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ warmth\\ and\\ polishing\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shoes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ I\\ suppose\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ working\\ class\\ family\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ home\\ life\\ was\\ less\\ than\\ ideal\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ did\\ I\\ know\\ of\\ love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ austere\\ and\\ lonely\\ offices\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Vendler\\ seemed\\ to\\ like\\ that\\ line\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ talks\\ about\\ Hayden\\ looking\\ back\\ on\\ his\\ childhood\\ as\\ an\\ adult\\,\\ more\\ specifically\\ at\\ the\\ relationship\\ he\\ had\\ with\\ his\\ father\\.\\ As\\ an\\ adult\\,\\ he\\ regrets\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ treated\\ his\\ father\\,\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ being\\ unaware\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ sacrifices\\ his\\ father\\ made\\ for\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ family\\.\\ As\\ an\\ adult\\ he\\ is\\ now\\ apologizing\\ to\\ his\\ dead\\ father\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ took\\ for\\ granted\\.\\ Hayden\\ chooses\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ Sunday\\ mornings\\ to\\ most\\ aptly\\ represent\\ all\\ that\\ his\\ father\\ did\\ for\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sundays\\ too\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ father\\ woke\\ early\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ fire\\,\\ only\\ waking\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ once\\ the\\ house\\ had\\ been\\ warmed\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ did\\ he\\ do\\ this\\ for\\ the\\ family\\ on\\ his\\ one\\ day\\ of\\ rest\\,\\ but\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;polished\\ my\\ good\\ shoes\\ as\\ well\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Vendler\\ notes\\ the\\ superfluity\\ of\\ language\\ in\\ those\\ statements\\ shows\\ the\\ superfluity\\ of\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ his\\ family\\.\\ The\\ harsh\\ \\&ldquo\\;c\\&rdquo\\;\\ sound\\ throughout\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;blueblack\\ cold\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;cracked\\ hands\\ that\\ ached\\&rdquo\\;\\ show\\ the\\ fathers\\ blue\\ collar\\ laboring\\ throughout\\ the\\ week\\.\\ Still\\,\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ the\\ morning\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ moment\\ of\\ peace\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ comes\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ as\\ Hayden\\ feared\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ chronic\\ angers\\ of\\ that\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ lyric\\ comes\\ softer\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ ending\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ did\\ I\\ know\\,\\ what\\ did\\ I\\ know\\/\\ of\\ love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ austere\\ and\\ lonely\\ offices\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ not\\ only\\ his\\ self\\-doubt\\ and\\ regret\\,\\ but\\ also\\ makes\\ the\\ reader\\ ask\\ the\\ same\\ question\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ herself\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ lyric\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ out\\ loud\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Argument\\ of\\ His\\ Book\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1648\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Herrick\\ p120\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ salvation\\,\\ self\\-reflective\\ poem\\,\\ religious\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ nature\\ \\(seasons\\,\\ plants\\,\\ daily\\ cycles\\)\\ and\\ love\\ \\(weddings\\,\\ love\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ a\\ Cavalier\\ poet\\ and\\ a\\ vicar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ write\\ of\\ hell\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ contains\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ declarations\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ poet\\ writes\\ and\\ sings\\ about\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ sing\\ of\\ brooks\\,\\ of\\ blossoms\\,\\ birds\\,\\ and\\ bowers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ catalogues\\ these\\ things\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ six\\ couplets\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ lists\\ as\\ subject\\ matters\\ are\\ all\\ generally\\ positive\\:\\ nature\\ and\\ seasons\\ and\\ weddings\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ rhetorical\\ devices\\ include\\ alliteration\\ and\\ cataloguing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ shift\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ couplet\\,\\ which\\ begins\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ write\\ of\\ hell\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ the\\ poet\\ mentions\\ something\\ negative\\,\\ and\\,\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ extremely\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ climax\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ resolves\\ this\\ extreme\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ subject\\ matter\\ by\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ positive\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ last\\ lines\\,\\ he\\ writes\\ that\\ he\\ dreams\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ salvation\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ first\\ six\\ couplets\\ acknowledge\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ good\\ in\\ an\\ earthly\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ couplet\\ acknowledges\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ hell\\,\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ lines\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ hope\\ for\\ salvation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ the\\ Virgins\\,\\ to\\ Make\\ Much\\ of\\ Time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Herrick\\ \\(pg\\ 98\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/6\\ Chapter\\ 3\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ reading\\ other\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ romance\\,\\ societal\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ heroic\\ quatrain\\ \\(mostly\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ rhyming\\ abab\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ flowers\\,\\ the\\ sun\\ \\(cycle\\ of\\ day\\ and\\ night\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\,\\ having\\ lost\\ but\\ once\\ your\\ prime\\,\\ you\\ may\\ forever\\ tarry\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ considers\\ a\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ maiden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ societal\\ role\\ of\\ marrying\\ well\\.\\ Herrick\\ objectifies\\ the\\ girls\\ by\\ comparing\\ them\\ to\\ flowers\\ that\\ bloom\\ beautifully\\ once\\ and\\ then\\ die\\,\\ and\\ must\\ therefore\\ marry\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ desirable\\.\\ He\\ places\\ this\\ transient\\ feminine\\ imagery\\ in\\ juxtaposition\\ to\\ the\\ male\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ which\\ rises\\ and\\ then\\ sets\\ only\\ to\\ rise\\ again\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ from\\ the\\ poem\\ that\\ in\\ his\\ society\\,\\ men\\ hold\\ the\\ dominant\\ position\\ and\\ the\\ women\\ are\\ secondary\\ and\\ doomed\\ to\\ spinsterhood\\ if\\ they\\ cannot\\ attract\\ a\\ husband\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Upon\\ Julia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Clothes\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Robert\\ Herrick\\ \\(66\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Poems\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Love\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\ \\/\\ Dramatic\\ monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Two\\ tercets\\ rhyming\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\aaa\\ bbb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Julia\\ clothed\\ \\(sweetly\\ flows\\)\\ vs\\.\\ Julia\\ naked\\ \\(brave\\ vibration\\,\\ glittering\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Then\\,\\ then\\,\\ methinks\\,\\ how\\ sweetly\\ flows\\ That\\ liquefaction\\ of\\ her\\ clothes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ contemplates\\ how\\ pleasant\\ his\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;s\\ silk\\ clothes\\ flow\\ about\\ her\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ further\\ admires\\ how\\ the\\ clothes\\ fit\\ around\\ her\\ body\\,\\ but\\ this\\ time\\ he\\ is\\ more\\ captivated\\ and\\ aroused\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ energy\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descriptive\\ words\\ increases\\ with\\ each\\ line\\,\\ from\\ flowing\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;vibration\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;glittering\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ her\\ interaction\\ with\\ her\\ clothes\\ is\\ brilliant\\,\\ electric\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ Union\\ Dead\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1917\\-1977\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ pg\\.\\ 268\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 15\\&mdash\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ American\\ history\\,\\ childhood\\,\\ race\\,\\ degeneration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 17\\ stanzas\\ of\\ four\\ lines\\ of\\ various\\ lengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ fish\\,\\ dryness\\ vs\\.\\ rebirth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Member\\ of\\ the\\ prominent\\ Lowell\\ family\\,\\ Bostonian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ rejoices\\ in\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lovely\\,\\ peculiar\\ power\\ to\\ choose\\ life\\ and\\ die\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(38\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ about\\ a\\ bronze\\ monument\\ in\\ Boston\\ that\\ commemorates\\ Colonel\\ Shaw\\,\\ who\\ commanded\\ the\\ first\\ all\\-Negro\\ regiment\\ in\\ the\\ North\\.\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ is\\ immediately\\ personal\\ as\\ he\\ integrates\\ the\\ history\\ and\\ connectedness\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ his\\ city\\ with\\ the\\ larger\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\,\\ New\\ England\\,\\ race\\ relations\\,\\ and\\ ultimately\\,\\ what\\ time\\ has\\ done\\&mdash\\;or\\ failed\\ to\\ do\\&mdash\\;for\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ America\\.\\ The\\ title\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ ironically\\ reverses\\ the\\ standard\\ historical\\ view\\ about\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ which\\ is\\ reinforced\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\ South\\&hellip\\;stands\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ line\\ one\\.\\ The\\ enemy\\ has\\ survived\\ in\\ racism\\,\\ which\\ was\\ not\\ defeated\\ by\\ Shaw\\ and\\ is\\ evident\\ still\\ in\\ forced\\ school\\ integration\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Ultimately\\,\\ Lowell\\ indicts\\ his\\ own\\ class\\ and\\ ethnicity\\&mdash\\;he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;savagely\\ servile\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;crouches\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ his\\ television\\ set\\ like\\ everyone\\ else\\ and\\ passively\\ watches\\ the\\ news\\ \\(59\\)\\.\\ He\\ is\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ wretchedness\\ of\\ the\\ parking\\ garage\\ that\\ has\\ greedily\\ overtaken\\ Boston\\ Common\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ of\\ dryness\\ is\\ pervasive\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sahara\\ of\\ snow\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ dry\\ airy\\ tanks\\,\\ parking\\ spaces\\ are\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;civic\\ sand\\-piles\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ juxtaposed\\ against\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;vegetating\\ kingdom\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ fish\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ illuminates\\ the\\ glaring\\ omnipresence\\ of\\ the\\ past\\&mdash\\;in\\ physical\\ monuments\\ and\\ visible\\ decay\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ failure\\ to\\ progress\\ or\\ even\\ adhere\\ to\\ transcendent\\ and\\ sincere\\ ideals\\.\\ In\\ the\\ opening\\ quote\\ \\&ldquo\\;servare\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ Latin\\ for\\ to\\ save\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ leave\\ everything\\ behind\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ Republic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(even\\ their\\ ideals\\)\\.\\ And\\ so\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ men\\ destroying\\ their\\ world\\ with\\ the\\ intention\\ of\\ saving\\ it\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;service\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Civil\\ War\\,\\ Hiroshima\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ March\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 245\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\.06\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ class\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ self\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ others\\:\\ the\\ enslaved\\ self\\,\\ the\\ filial\\ self\\,\\ the\\ collective\\ self\\,\\ the\\ aged\\ self\\,\\ etc\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\protest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\history\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inexperience\\/experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ 16\\ lines\\,\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ one\\ sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ historically\\ significant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\monuments\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Washington\\ DC\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Lincoln\\ Memorial\\,\\ the\\ Washington\\ Obelisk\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\army\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;marching\\;\\ the\\ color\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\green\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ was\\ born\\ into\\ the\\ Lowell\\ family\\ which\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ families\\ of\\ Boston\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Wikipedia\\)\\ and\\ which\\ has\\ played\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ roles\\ throughout\\ American\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Lowell\\ lived\\ from\\ 1917\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1977\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ \\(which\\ affected\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ writings\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ apparent\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ note\\ for\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ conscientious\\ objector\\ in\\ WWII\\ and\\ served\\ several\\ months\\ at\\ a\\ federal\\ prison\\ \\(as\\ a\\ result\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ suffered\\ from\\ bipolar\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;lovely\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lock\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;arms\\,\\ to\\ march\\ absurdly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\locked\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(un\\<\\/span\\>\\lock\\<\\/span\\>\\ing\\ to\\ keep\\ my\\ wet\\ glasses\\ from\\ slipping\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;to\\ see\\ the\\ cigarette\\ match\\ quaking\\ in\\ my\\ fingers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;then\\ to\\ step\\ off\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\green\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Union\\ Army\\ recruits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;for\\ the\\ first\\ Bull\\ Run\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ March\\&rdquo\\;\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alienation\\ from\\ the\\ ideology\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ architecture\\ of\\ Washington\\ DC\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ sees\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ state\\-associated\\ structures\\ which\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ white\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ tall\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ long\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ poem\\ then\\ focuses\\ in\\ on\\ Lowell\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ position\\ in\\ a\\ protest\\ \\(the\\ poem\\ is\\ actually\\ about\\ a\\ Vietnam\\ protest\\ march\\ on\\ the\\ Pentagon\\ which\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ 1967\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ again\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ presented\\ with\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ his\\ discomfort\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ cries\\ of\\ the\\ protestors\\ are\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;harangues\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Lowell\\ says\\ his\\ arms\\ are\\ locked\\ with\\ his\\ fellows\\ \\&ldquo\\;absurdly\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ his\\ fear\\ is\\ clear\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ glasses\\ slip\\ from\\ his\\ face\\ and\\ his\\ hands\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;quaking\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ fear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lowell\\ then\\ references\\ Melville\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\ Union\\ Army\\ recruits\\ \\/\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ Bull\\ Run\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ works\\ this\\ well\\-known\\ image\\ of\\ inexperience\\ becoming\\ experience\\ into\\ his\\ own\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ is\\ shown\\ the\\ driving\\ forces\\ behind\\ the\\ protest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;photographer\\,\\ the\\ notables\\,\\ the\\ girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ then\\ is\\ presented\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ emblematic\\ series\\ of\\ nouns\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(as\\ Helen\\ says\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ describing\\ this\\ poem\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fear\\,\\ glory\\,\\ chaos\\,\\ rout\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ represent\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ both\\ political\\ protest\\ and\\ warfare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ final\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ brings\\ the\\ collision\\ of\\ Lowell\\ and\\ his\\ fellow\\ protestors\\ with\\ the\\ soldiers\\ who\\ come\\ to\\ drive\\ them\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ forces\\ are\\ described\\ by\\ the\\ adjective\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ suggests\\ linkage\\ or\\ commonality\\ \\(and\\ also\\ brings\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ finality\\ and\\ closure\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confused\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ army\\ soldiers\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sees\\ the\\ soldiers\\ both\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Martian\\,\\ the\\ ape\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ hero\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ he\\ presents\\ protest\\ in\\ a\\ unique\\ light\\,\\ a\\ light\\ that\\ shows\\ both\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ alienation\\ from\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ government\\ and\\ a\\ hesitation\\/fear\\ to\\ truly\\ stand\\ up\\ in\\ protest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*also\\ of\\ note\\:\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Dwight\\ Macdonald\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ active\\ opponent\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Skunk\\ Hour\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1957\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ \\(pgs\\.\\ 10\\-11\\,\\ 51\\-52\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 9\\-20\\-06\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\;\\ assigned\\ 9\\-27\\-06\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\,\\ private\\/public\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ confessional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Not\\ uniform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ sestets\\,\\ each\\ sestet\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ internal\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ slant\\ rhyme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ The\\ sea\\,\\ New\\ England\\,\\ skunks\\,\\ nature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Boston\\ Brahmin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ myself\\ am\\ hell\\;\\ \\/\\ nobody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ here\\ \\-\\ \\/\\ \\/\\ only\\ skunks\\,\\ that\\ search\\ \\/\\ in\\ the\\ moonlight\\ for\\ a\\ bite\\ to\\ eat\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(The\\ following\\ is\\ mostly\\ paraphrased\\ from\\ Professor\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ pgs\\.\\ 52\\-53\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\PPP\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ has\\ three\\ parts\\:\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ describe\\ \\&ldquo\\;grotesque\\ inhabitants\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ town\\;\\ the\\ next\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\describe\\ Lowell\\ himself\\;\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ describe\\ skunks\\ taking\\ over\\ the\\ town\\ \\(52\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;grotesque\\ inhabitants\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\actually\\ represent\\ Lowell\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Lowell\\ describes\\ his\\ self\\-decay\\ into\\ madness\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\voyeurism\\,\\ as\\ he\\ watches\\ lovers\\ in\\ their\\ cars\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ decay\\ becomes\\ complete\\ as\\ the\\ skunks\\ \\&ldquo\\;march\\&rdquo\\;\\ into\\ town\\,\\ taking\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\over\\.\\ \\ \\;Professor\\ Vendler\\ writes\\ that\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ was\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ revenge\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ heritage\\,\\ which\\ he\\ always\\ regarded\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mixed\\ admiration\\ and\\ contempt\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ it\\ shows\\ his\\ heritage\\ gradually\\ disappearing\\ back\\ into\\ nature\\,\\ as\\ all\\ cultures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\eventually\\ do\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Elizabeth\\ Bishop\\,\\ and\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ her\\ poem\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Armadillo\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epilogue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 288\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1975\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ \\(1917\\-1977\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\/20\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;epilogue\\,\\ reflective\\ lyric\\,\\ artistic\\ \\(on\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ writing\\)\\ poetry\\,\\ poem\\ about\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ rhyme\\ and\\ meter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ line\\ length\\,\\ no\\ division\\ in\\ stanzas\\.\\ Several\\ short\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ grace\\ of\\ accuracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Robert\\ Lowell\\ comes\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ oldest\\ Boston\\ families\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ activist\\ in\\ WWII\\ and\\ against\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ war\\.\\ His\\ personal\\ life\\ was\\ filled\\ with\\ psychological\\ and\\ marital\\ problems\\,\\ including\\ hospitalization\\ for\\ manic\\ depression\\.\\ He\\ originally\\ wrote\\ in\\ very\\ formal\\ style\\,\\ but\\ started\\ to\\ write\\ from\\ personal\\ experience\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ loose\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ are\\ poor\\ passing\\ facts\\,\\/\\ warned\\ by\\ that\\ to\\ give\\/\\ each\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ photograph\\/\\ his\\ living\\ name\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ formal\\ definition\\ of\\ an\\ epilogue\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ concluding\\ part\\ added\\ to\\ literary\\ work\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ writing\\,\\ its\\ creativity\\ and\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ its\\ purpose\\ or\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ artistic\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ his\\ despair\\ over\\ his\\ writing\\,\\ wishing\\ he\\ could\\ make\\ something\\ as\\ beautiful\\ and\\ creative\\ as\\ Vermeer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(a\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Dutch\\ artist\\)\\ paining\\ of\\ \\ \\;a\\ girl\\ reading\\ a\\ letter\\,\\ yearning\\ for\\ its\\ absent\\ writer\\,\\ with\\ illuminating\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\ behind\\ her\\ \\(an\\ image\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ creativity\\)\\.\\ He\\ feels\\ that\\ his\\ writing\\ creates\\ a\\ simple\\ \\&ldquo\\;snapshot\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ an\\ abrupt\\ and\\ harsh\\ word\\,\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ life\\ and\\ is\\ limited\\/suppressed\\ \\&ldquo\\;by\\ fact\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Yet\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ he\\ realizes\\ that\\ accuracy\\ in\\ representing\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ grace\\ of\\ accuracy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ true\\ mission\\,\\ which\\ he\\ does\\ indeed\\ complete\\.\\ This\\ part\\ is\\ marked\\ by\\ the\\ defensive\\ question\\ and\\ self\\-realization\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yet\\ why\\ not\\ say\\ what\\ happened\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ recognizes\\ his\\ duty\\ or\\ calling\\ as\\ poet\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ existence\\ before\\ it\\ disappears\\ into\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;photograph\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;grace\\ of\\ accuracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ symbolized\\ the\\ grace\\ of\\ art\\ and\\ aesthetic\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ he\\ sees\\ human\\ existence\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;poor\\ passing\\ facts\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ he\\ has\\ restored\\ faith\\ in\\ his\\ duty\\ to\\ capture\\ this\\ in\\ a\\ beautiful\\ way\\,\\ into\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;photograph\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;snapshot\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ seemingly\\ more\\ artistic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ realization\\ process\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ worth\\ and\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ emphasizing\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ read\\ poetry\\ as\\ the\\ writer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ continuing\\ experience\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ his\\ set\\ judgments\\ of\\ reality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Burning\\ Babe\\ \\(page\\ 229\\)\\ Robert\\ Southwell\\ \\(1561\\-1595\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Anecdote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ found\\ as\\ one\\ stanza\\ 16\\ lines\\ long\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ iambic\\ heptameter\\,\\ with\\ each\\ line\\ containing\\ approximately\\ 14\\ syllables\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ 8\\ couplets\\ put\\ together\\,\\ a\\-a\\-b\\-b\\-c\\-c\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Angelic\\ imagery\\ \\(baby\\ on\\ fire\\)\\,\\ Crucifixion\\,\\ snow\\/fire\\ contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;English\\ Catholic\\ and\\ Jesuit\\ priest\\.\\ Stayed\\ in\\ england\\ during\\ time\\ Catholic\\ were\\ persecuted\\.\\ Was\\ assumed\\ to\\ be\\ plotting\\ against\\ the\\ Queen\\,\\ and\\ was\\ captured\\ in\\ england\\ while\\ supporting\\ catholic\\ families\\.\\ Southwell\\ was\\ tried\\ for\\ treason\\ and\\ hanged\\,\\ having\\ spent\\ a\\ large\\ portion\\ of\\ time\\ in\\ prison\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Southwell\\&\\#39\\;s\\ poem\\ is\\ an\\ unorthdox\\ method\\ of\\ examining\\ religious\\ themes\\.\\ His\\ use\\ of\\ imagery\\ departs\\ from\\ the\\ standard\\ nativity\\ motif\\ in\\ highlighting\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ Jesus\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ a\\ epiphany\\-like\\ anecdote\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ and\\ his\\ role\\ as\\ savior\\.\\ In\\ describing\\ the\\ conflagrated\\ baby\\,\\ Southwell\\ creates\\ an\\ aura\\ of\\ passion\\ and\\ power\\.\\ Fire\\ is\\ often\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ intense\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ intense\\ \\ \\;emotion\\ that\\ Southwell\\ wants\\ to\\ convey\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;shame\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;justice\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;mercy\\"\\;\\ are\\ not\\ at\\ a\\ human\\ level\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ something\\ grander\\,\\ at\\ a\\ level\\ where\\ only\\ harsh\\ fires\\ can\\ describe\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\.\\ This\\ fire\\ has\\ dual\\ properties\\ however\\,\\ while\\ showing\\ strong\\ emotional\\ intensity\\ in\\ the\\ baby\\ Jesus\\,\\ it\\ also\\ conveys\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ giving\\,\\ \\"\\;Love\\ is\\ the\\ fire\\.\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;warming\\ their\\ hearts\\"\\;\\ are\\ two\\ examples\\.\\ Another\\ contrast\\ is\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ Jesus\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ winter\\ night\\ the\\ speaker\\ stands\\ in\\,\\ which\\ is\\ symbolic\\ for\\ a\\ life\\ without\\ Christian\\ principles\\ and\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ Jesus\\ for\\ humanity\\.\\ Also\\ note\\ the\\ anthropomorphism\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\,\\ as\\ it\\ can\\ speak\\ just\\ as\\ an\\ adult\\ and\\ yet\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ child\\,\\ showing\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ held\\ by\\ human\\ physical\\ limitations\\.\\ A\\ baby\\ Jesus\\ is\\ first\\ Jesus\\ before\\ being\\ a\\ baby\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dejection\\:\\ An\\ Ode\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1802\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Samuel\\ Taylor\\ Coleridge\\ \\(425\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ depression\\ over\\ unattainable\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ode\\,\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ meter\\ which\\ generally\\ varies\\ between\\ trimeter\\ and\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyme\\ alternates\\ between\\ bracketed\\ rhymes\\ \\(abba\\)\\ and\\ couplets\\ \\(cc\\)\\/\\ \\#8\\ cantos\\/\\ structure\\ differs\\ in\\ each\\ canto\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ natural\\-\\ heaven\\/earth\\,\\ weather\\-wind\\,\\ storm\\,\\ rain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Coleridge\\ was\\ severely\\ depressed\\ when\\ he\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\-\\ faced\\ with\\ a\\ severe\\ illness\\,\\ a\\ marriage\\ that\\ was\\ falling\\ apart\\ and\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ write\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Might\\ startle\\ this\\ dull\\ pain\\,\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ move\\ and\\ live\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 20\\)\\ \\ \\;OR\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ may\\ not\\ hope\\ from\\ outward\\ forms\\ to\\ win\\/\\ The\\ passion\\ and\\ the\\ life\\,\\ whose\\ fountains\\ are\\ within\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 45\\-46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Dejection\\:\\ An\\ Ode\\&rdquo\\;\\ describes\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ extreme\\ depression\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ an\\ unfulfilling\\ marriage\\ and\\ his\\ loss\\ of\\ creativity\\&mdash\\;something\\ that\\ was\\ extremely\\ important\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\ because\\ it\\ fully\\ exhausts\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ his\\ depression\\&mdash\\;it\\ details\\ his\\ emotions\\,\\ causes\\,\\ results\\ and\\ solutions\\ to\\ his\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ an\\ epigraph\\ which\\ serves\\ to\\ foreshadow\\ the\\ events\\ that\\ are\\ to\\ come\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ballad\\ of\\ Sir\\ Patrick\\ Spence\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ calmness\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;deadly\\ storm\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Coleridge\\ describes\\ how\\ the\\ weather\\ around\\ him\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;tranquil\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ believes\\ means\\ that\\ a\\ storm\\ is\\ soon\\ coming\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ storm\\ represents\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ whereby\\ he\\ foresees\\ that\\ though\\ things\\ in\\ his\\ relationship\\ are\\ fine\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ he\\ realizes\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ soon\\ take\\ a\\ downturn\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ exploring\\ his\\ emotions\\,\\ Coleridge\\ comes\\ to\\ many\\ new\\ realizations\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ he\\ realizes\\ that\\ he\\ cannot\\ look\\ to\\ other\\ people\\ or\\ to\\ his\\ surrounding\\ to\\ bring\\ him\\ happiness\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ has\\ to\\ find\\ fulfillment\\ within\\ himself\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ may\\ not\\ hope\\ from\\ outward\\ forms\\ to\\ win\\/\\ The\\ passion\\ and\\ the\\ life\\,\\ whose\\ fountains\\ are\\ within\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 45\\-46\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ epiphany\\ shows\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reflection\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ necessary\\ step\\ in\\ his\\ escaping\\ his\\ own\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\,\\ Coleridge\\ realizes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ receive\\ but\\ what\\ we\\ give\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 47\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ separated\\ into\\ 8\\ cantos\\,\\ and\\ characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ ode\\,\\ each\\ canto\\ represents\\ a\\ differing\\ structure\\,\\ imagery\\,\\ and\\ tone\\&mdash\\;the\\ irregular\\ stanzaic\\ structure\\ allows\\ each\\ strophe\\ to\\ set\\ alone\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ mindset\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\,\\ which\\ shows\\ the\\ reflective\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ particular\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ depression\\ he\\ feels\\ in\\ cantos\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\&mdash\\;where\\ the\\ language\\ is\\ dark\\,\\ violent\\ and\\ exaggerated\\ through\\ use\\ of\\ exclamation\\ points\\&mdash\\;and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ remember\\ and\\ describe\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cantos\\&mdash\\;where\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ calm\\,\\ jovial\\ and\\ optimistic\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ canto\\ 7\\,\\ the\\ imagination\\ that\\ Coleridge\\ is\\ most\\ upset\\ about\\ losing\\ appears\\ to\\ return\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ full\\ with\\ wild\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphors\\ of\\ witches\\,\\ mad\\ lutanists\\,\\ devils\\,\\ actors\\,\\ poets\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ imagination\\ comes\\ back\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;noise\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ plagues\\ him\\ \\(noise\\ \\=\\ his\\ depression\\)\\ silences\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ Coleridge\\ has\\ found\\ some\\ hope\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ canto\\ is\\ a\\ benediction\\ for\\ his\\ beloved\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ the\\ final\\ canto\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ about\\ his\\ feelings\\ or\\ his\\ depression\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ about\\ a\\ person\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ his\\ depression\\ cannot\\ be\\ so\\ bad\\ as\\ to\\ consume\\ his\\ thoughts\\ like\\ previously\\&mdash\\;now\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ think\\ and\\ wish\\ a\\ loved\\ one\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Other\\ thoughts\\:\\ Note\\ the\\ continued\\ use\\ of\\ music\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\&mdash\\;references\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\ and\\ storm\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ lute\\.\\ \\ \\;Track\\ the\\ progression\\ of\\ sound\\ throughout\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ natural\\ imagery\\ to\\ reflect\\ his\\ emotions\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ Romantic\\ poets\\&mdash\\;he\\ was\\ a\\ pioneer\\ in\\ Romanticism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kubla\\ Khan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Samuel\\ Taylor\\ Coleridge\\ \\(page\\ 258\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ dream\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ a\\ vision\\ in\\ a\\ dream\\ \\-\\ fragment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ important\\ as\\ it\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ whimsical\\/dream\\ like\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ chant\\-like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ somewhat\\ free\\ verse\\&hellip\\;but\\ found\\ this\\ online\\&hellip\\;\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ tetrameter\\ with\\ a\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ of\\ ABAABCCDEDE\\,\\ alternating\\ between\\ staggered\\ rhymes\\ and\\ couplets\\.\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ expands\\ into\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ follows\\ roughly\\ the\\ same\\ rhyming\\ pattern\\,\\ also\\ expanded\\-\\-\\ ABAABCCDDFFGGHIIHJJ\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ tightens\\ into\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ rhymes\\ ABABCC\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ continues\\ the\\ tetrameter\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ rhymes\\ ABCCBDEDEFGFFFGHHG\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ creation\\,\\ recreation\\ and\\ social\\ reactions\\ to\\ places\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ poet\\ known\\ for\\ longer\\ more\\ romantic\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ short\\ it\\ includes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ detail\\ and\\ uses\\ many\\ exclamations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meaning\\ is\\ widely\\ disputed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Coleridge\\ imagines\\ space\\ of\\ Kubla\\ Khan\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ In\\ the\\ notes\\ it\\ is\\ stated\\ that\\ Kubla\\ Khan\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruler\\ of\\ the\\ Mongol\\ dynasty\\ in\\ the\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ in\\ China\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Coleridge\\ had\\ used\\ poetic\\ license\\ to\\ invent\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;topography\\ and\\ place\\ names\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ opening\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Coleridge\\ describes\\ a\\ detailed\\ place\\ in\\ Xanadu\\ with\\ the\\ sacred\\ river\\ Alph\\ and\\ the\\ mountains\\/surrounding\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ image\\ portrayed\\ in\\ nearly\\ sublime\\ and\\ places\\ the\\ reader\\ within\\ the\\ vision\\.\\ The\\ first\\ 30\\ lines\\ are\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ Kubbla\\ Khan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Coleridge\\ describes\\ a\\ peaceful\\ domain\\ and\\ natural\\ forces\\ with\\ a\\ varying\\ rhyme\\ to\\ mimic\\ the\\ river\\ that\\ runs\\ through\\ the\\ land\\.\\ Once\\ Kubbla\\ Khan\\ hear\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ancestral\\ voices\\ of\\ prophesying\\ war\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(30\\)\\ the\\ poem\\ takes\\ \\ \\;a\\ turn\\ where\\ the\\ setting\\ becomes\\ overshadowed\\ and\\ beings\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;float\\ midway\\ on\\ the\\ waves\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(32\\)\\.\\ The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ hope\\ to\\ revive\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;symphony\\ and\\ sing\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ damsel\\ the\\ narrator\\ hears\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ he\\ could\\ he\\ would\\ rebuilt\\ the\\ dome\\ and\\ also\\ those\\ who\\ heard\\ him\\ would\\ shout\\ \\&ldquo\\;beware\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ confusing\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ spatial\\ and\\ temporal\\ placements\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ moves\\ through\\ a\\ whimsical\\ scene\\ using\\ the\\ rhyme\\ to\\ reflect\\ the\\ authors\\ dream\\ like\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ Frontier\\ of\\ Writing\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Seamus\\ Heaney\\ \\-\\ \\(1987\\)\\ \\-\\ 146\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Political\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ suppression\\,\\ subjugation\\,\\ judgment\\,\\ poetry\\,\\ writing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyrical\\ ballad\\,\\ modified\\ terza\\-rima\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 3\\ lines\\;\\ aba\\ cdc\\ efe\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ guns\\,\\ military\\ \\(soldiers\\,\\ armour\\,\\ sergeant\\)\\,\\ ocular\\ \\(seeing\\,\\ training\\,\\ eyeing\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Heaney\\ is\\ a\\ native\\ of\\ Ireland\\,\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ suddenly\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ through\\,\\ arraigned\\ yet\\ freed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ current\\ of\\ a\\ tarmac\\ road\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ fairly\\ cryptic\\ poem\\ about\\ the\\ nerve\\-racking\\ experience\\ of\\ crossing\\ a\\ heavily\\ guarded\\ border\\ \\(unnamed\\,\\ but\\ likely\\ Ireland\\/N\\.\\ Ireland\\)\\ and\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ control\\/freedom\\ while\\ being\\ judged\\ by\\ the\\ armed\\ border\\ guards\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ action\\ of\\ being\\ halted\\ at\\ the\\ border\\,\\ gun\\-sighted\\ by\\ border\\ guards\\,\\ checked\\ out\\ and\\ cleared\\ for\\ passage\\,\\ then\\ carefully\\ driving\\ away\\ occurs\\ twice\\,\\ taking\\ 4\\ stanzas\\ each\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ are\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ unnamed\\ physical\\ border\\,\\ while\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ recount\\ a\\ similar\\ experience\\ at\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;frontier\\ of\\ writing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ physical\\ setting\\,\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ verbs\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ simple\\ present\\ tense\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;stops\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;hold\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ whereas\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ present\\ progressive\\ tense\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;training\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;flowing\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Clearly\\,\\ Heaney\\ draws\\ the\\ parallel\\,\\ with\\ the\\ equal\\ literary\\ weight\\ of\\ four\\ stanzas\\,\\ between\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ intellectual\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ former\\ culminates\\ with\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;guarded\\ unconcerned\\ acceleration\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ the\\ latter\\ leaves\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;arraigned\\ yet\\ freed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Both\\ occurrences\\ of\\ interrogation\\ and\\ intimidation\\ are\\ clearly\\ off\\-putting\\,\\ but\\ the\\ verb\\ and\\ diction\\ differences\\ highlight\\ the\\ finite\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ experience\\ at\\ the\\ physical\\ border\\ and\\ the\\ non\\-definite\\ nature\\ of\\ his\\ passage\\ through\\ writing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boundary\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ previous\\ citation\\ may\\ make\\ it\\ seem\\ as\\ though\\ the\\ never\\-ending\\ intellectual\\ experience\\ is\\ more\\ negative\\ than\\ the\\ physical\\,\\ an\\ opposite\\ interpretation\\ is\\ possible\\ as\\ Heaney\\ ends\\ the\\ physical\\ experience\\ \\&ldquo\\;subjugated\\,\\ yes\\,\\ and\\ obedient\\&rdquo\\;\\ whereas\\ the\\ intellectual\\ experience\\ sees\\ him\\ moving\\ beyond\\ the\\ threatening\\ \\&ldquo\\;armour\\-plated\\ vehicles\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;soldiers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ explicit\\ resolution\\ of\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ one\\ experience\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ the\\ other\\,\\ but\\ clearly\\ experiencing\\ both\\ negative\\ occurrences\\ of\\ oppression\\ and\\ judgment\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ lyric\\ facet\\ of\\ this\\ lyrical\\-ballad\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ terza\\ rima\\ form\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ hint\\ that\\ either\\ form\\ is\\ eqully\\ hellish\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ border\\ crossing\\ that\\ happens\\ as\\ if\\ across\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ current\\ of\\ a\\ tarmac\\ road\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(think\\ the\\ River\\ Styx\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mid\\-Term\\ Break\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1963\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Seamus\\ Heaney\\ \\(pgs\\.\\ 180\\-181\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-30\\-06\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ childhood\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ pentameter\\,\\ sometimes\\ iambic\\ and\\ sometimes\\ trochaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Seven\\ tercets\\,\\ plus\\ one\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ tears\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ four\\ foot\\ box\\,\\ a\\ foot\\ for\\ every\\ year\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ tells\\ about\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trip\\ home\\ from\\ school\\ for\\ his\\ younger\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ funeral\\,\\ moving\\ from\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ one\\ day\\ until\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ the\\ next\\,\\ perhaps\\ to\\ emphasize\\ that\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;morning\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ at\\ four\\ years\\ old\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ noting\\ that\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ not\\ confronted\\ with\\ the\\ corpse\\ until\\ the\\ last\\ few\\ stanzas\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ one\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ tell\\ who\\ died\\ until\\ the\\ very\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ worth\\ noting\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ deals\\ with\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\ very\\ indirectly\\,\\ without\\ giving\\ his\\ name\\ or\\ many\\ descriptive\\ details\\.\\ \\ \\;Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tone\\ is\\ also\\ somewhat\\ detached\\,\\ until\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ final\\,\\ emotional\\ line\\,\\ when\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ Heaney\\ begins\\ to\\ break\\ down\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ reader\\ can\\ finally\\ really\\ understand\\ what\\ has\\ happened\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terminus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1987\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Seamus\\ Heaney\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 224\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 6\\:\\ Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ conflict\\ between\\ past\\ and\\ present\\,\\ secular\\/religious\\ values\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ identity\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ rhyming\\,\\ 3\\ sections\\,\\ couplet\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(4\\-3\\-4\\ couplets\\/section\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ borders\\,\\ contrasts\\ between\\ modernity\\ \\&\\;\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ it\\ any\\ wonder\\ when\\ I\\ thought\\/\\ I\\ would\\ have\\ second\\ thoughts\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ the\\ march\\ drain\\ and\\ the\\ march\\ drain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banks\\ \\/\\ Suffering\\ the\\ limit\\ of\\ each\\ claim\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ between\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heaney\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ confusing\\ nature\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\ not\\ only\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ change\\,\\ but\\ on\\ a\\ physical\\ border\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ the\\ march\\ drain\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ division\\ between\\ two\\ parishes\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ discusses\\ his\\ confusion\\ and\\ second\\-guesses\\ when\\ his\\ parents\\ used\\ Biblical\\ stories\\ to\\ apply\\ to\\ modern\\ morals\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ contrasts\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prudent\\ squirrel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hoard\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mammon\\ of\\ iniquity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ should\\ save\\,\\ but\\ not\\ be\\ greedy\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ industrialization\\ by\\ hearing\\ both\\ an\\ engine\\ and\\ a\\ horse\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ being\\ an\\ Irishman\\ imposes\\ another\\ conflict\\ between\\ Irish\\ identity\\ and\\ British\\ rule\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ challenges\\ of\\ having\\ multiple\\ identities\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ \\(or\\ inability\\)\\ to\\ balance\\ and\\ integrate\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 129\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.136\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\-1616\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\10\\/16\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lust\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;three\\ quatrains\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\)\\ and\\ a\\ couplet\\ \\(gg\\)\\.\\ The\\ couplet\\ is\\ indented\\ in\\ this\\ version\\,\\ further\\ highlighting\\ the\\ concluding\\,\\ distinctness\\ of\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\ \\(already\\ distinguished\\ for\\ its\\ change\\ in\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ different\\ phases\\ of\\ lust\\&mdash\\;the\\ painful\\ longing\\,\\ the\\ blissful\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ the\\ shameful\\ aftermath\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ constant\\ \\&ldquo\\;madness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ lust\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;All\\ this\\ the\\ world\\ well\\ knows\\;\\ yet\\ none\\ knows\\ well\\/\\ To\\ shun\\ the\\ heaven\\ that\\ leads\\ men\\ to\\ this\\ hell\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ post\\-lust\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ destructive\\ powers\\ and\\ painful\\,\\ detrimental\\ experience\\ of\\ lust\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ lust\\ as\\ a\\ temptation\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ pursued\\,\\ and\\ once\\ obtained\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ swallowed\\ bait\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ ultimately\\ leads\\ men\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;hell\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ While\\ man\\ is\\ aware\\ of\\ this\\ fate\\,\\ none\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ resist\\ this\\ temptation\\ and\\ avoid\\ the\\ shame\\ that\\ comes\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ the\\ different\\ points\\ in\\ time\\ surrounding\\ lust\\:\\ the\\ longing\\ for\\ it\\ \\(before\\ lust\\)\\,\\ the\\ present\\ act\\ \\(consummation\\ of\\ lust\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ memory\\/aftermath\\ \\(that\\ brings\\ the\\ shame\\)\\.\\ The\\ first\\ quatrain\\ depicts\\ the\\ longing\\ for\\ lust\\ and\\ presents\\ a\\ long\\ list\\ of\\ painful\\,\\ destructive\\ adjectives\\ that\\ describe\\ this\\ state\\.\\ The\\ second\\ quatrain\\ presents\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ phases\\:\\ how\\ lust\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;despised\\&rdquo\\;\\ once\\ it\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;enjoyed\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ change\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;past\\ reason\\ hunted\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ seeking\\ of\\ lust\\)\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;past\\ reason\\ hated\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(after\\ lust\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;had\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ repetition\\ of\\ this\\ phase\\ highlights\\ the\\ change\\ through\\ the\\ word\\ that\\ follows\\ the\\ repeated\\ phrase\\ \\(hunted\\ to\\ hated\\)\\.\\ The\\ third\\ quatrain\\ depicts\\ how\\ lust\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;mad\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ all\\ three\\ forms\\ \\&ldquo\\;Had\\,\\ having\\&hellip\\;to\\ have\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ continual\\ fleeting\\ change\\ between\\ time\\ and\\ verb\\ tense\\ convey\\ almost\\ the\\ uncontrollable\\ whirlwind\\ of\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ lust\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ patterning\\ of\\ time\\ depicts\\ the\\ author\\ as\\ one\\ who\\ has\\ experience\\ lust\\ and\\ the\\ shameful\\ aftermath\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ is\\ both\\ despair\\ over\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inability\\ to\\ resist\\ this\\ cycle\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ try\\ to\\ awaken\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ awareness\\ to\\ avoid\\ this\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ \\(though\\ perhaps\\ knowingly\\ in\\ vain\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;One\\ unusual\\ feature\\ of\\ this\\ sonnet\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ contain\\ any\\ personal\\ reference\\ or\\ experience\\.\\ Shakespeare\\ presents\\ this\\ experience\\ of\\ lust\\ in\\ a\\ completely\\ impersonal\\ tone\\,\\ referencing\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ experiences\\ that\\ come\\ with\\ lust\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ specific\\ encounter\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ the\\ description\\ ensure\\ that\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ personal\\ experience\\ that\\ has\\ clearly\\ affected\\ the\\ author\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Way\\ Back\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sheila\\ Ortiz\\ Taylor\\ 237\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/6\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ identity\\,\\ self\\-perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ stanzas\\ and\\ lines\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ domesticity\\,\\ photography\\,\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ way\\ back\\ is\\ a\\ land\\ more\\ innocent\\ than\\ this\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Using\\ old\\ family\\ photographs\\ as\\ reference\\ points\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ tells\\ of\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ brother\\ and\\ sister\\ and\\ their\\ struggles\\ to\\ navigate\\ between\\ two\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ there\\ is\\ their\\ heritage\\,\\ embodied\\ by\\ their\\ appearance\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Indian\\ bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;eyes\\&hellip\\;\\ holding\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ careless\\ loss\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ their\\ family\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;eight\\ brothers\\ lost\\ fingers\\,\\ toes\\,\\ knees\\ and\\ elbows\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ the\\ brother\\ and\\ the\\ sister\\ try\\ to\\ identify\\ themselves\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ culture\\ that\\ is\\ destroying\\ that\\ heritage\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ both\\ marry\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ adopt\\ American\\ lifestyles\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ becomes\\ a\\ hairdresser\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ his\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;wounds\\ ache\\ more\\ than\\ seemed\\ possible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ fought\\ so\\ hard\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ only\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ youngest\\ disregard\\ it\\ anyway\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ brother\\ and\\ the\\ sister\\ celebrate\\ American\\ holidays\\&mdash\\;Christmas\\ and\\ Halloween\\&mdash\\;with\\ the\\ utmost\\ devotion\\ and\\ enthusiasm\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ try\\ as\\ they\\ might\\ to\\ fit\\ into\\ American\\ culture\\,\\ the\\ brother\\ and\\ sister\\ are\\ outsiders\\ there\\ too\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ neighbors\\,\\ who\\ see\\ the\\ Indian\\ brother\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;would\\ not\\ let\\ their\\ children\\ trick\\ or\\ treat\\ where\\ a\\ grown\\ man\\ put\\ costumes\\ on\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ exactly\\ the\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eagerness\\ to\\ fit\\ into\\ American\\ society\\ that\\ marks\\ him\\ as\\ an\\ outsider\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ brother\\ is\\ in\\ limbo\\ between\\ two\\ social\\ identities\\&mdash\\;having\\ betrayed\\ his\\ native\\ heritage\\ and\\ unwelcome\\ by\\ Westerners\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ stanza\\ shows\\ him\\ alone\\,\\ drinking\\ in\\ his\\ car\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ photographs\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ poet\\ conveys\\ though\\,\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ back\\ is\\ a\\ land\\ more\\ innocent\\ than\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ much\\ has\\ been\\ betrayed\\ on\\ this\\ land\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ really\\ no\\ way\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Phrases\\ that\\ best\\ exemplify\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ identity\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;artists\\ of\\ the\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ of\\ all\\ in\\ costume\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;both\\ refer\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ brother\\ and\\ sister\\ were\\ presenting\\ themselves\\ as\\ non\\-native\\,\\ but\\ would\\ never\\ truly\\ be\\ non\\-native\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sherman\\ Alexie\\ \\(pg\\ 149\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ Chapter\\ 4\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ exploitation\\,\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ five\\ tercets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ unrhymed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ pawn\\ shops\\,\\ Indian\\ artifacts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ when\\ the\\ last\\ Indian\\ has\\ pawned\\ everything\\/\\ but\\ his\\ heart\\,\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\ takes\\ that\\ for\\ 20\\ bucks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ exploitation\\ of\\ Indians\\.\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\ was\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Wild\\ Wild\\ West\\ Show\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ Indians\\ were\\ paid\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ parody\\ of\\ their\\ existence\\ when\\ they\\ still\\ had\\ freedom\\ and\\ were\\ fighting\\ off\\ the\\ intrusion\\ of\\ the\\ colonizers\\.\\ In\\ a\\ slight\\ departure\\ from\\ the\\ historical\\ facts\\,\\ Alexie\\ uses\\ a\\ pawn\\ shop\\ as\\ a\\ convenient\\ vehicle\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ economically\\ destitute\\ plight\\ of\\ Indians\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ Indians\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ live\\ off\\ the\\ land\\,\\ they\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ belongings\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ Indians\\ maintain\\ certain\\ elements\\ of\\ their\\ heritage\\ because\\ they\\ still\\ have\\ the\\ beaded\\ outfit\\,\\ they\\ are\\ clearly\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanized\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ VCRs\\ and\\ televisions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ act\\ of\\ pawning\\ off\\ their\\ things\\ seems\\ matter\\ of\\ fact\\,\\ but\\ the\\ poem\\ emotionally\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ in\\ which\\ Alexie\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Indians\\ are\\ figuratively\\ selling\\ off\\ even\\ their\\ bodies\\,\\ and\\ then\\ even\\ worse\\,\\ their\\ hearts\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ completely\\ \\&ldquo\\;sold\\-out\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ eaten\\ alive\\ by\\ American\\ capitalism\\,\\ and\\ they\\ pay\\ to\\ gawk\\ over\\ their\\ own\\ possessions\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ name\\ \\&ldquo\\;Native\\ American\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ his\\ sign\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ completely\\ ironic\\,\\ as\\ it\\ shows\\ that\\ these\\ days\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ sinister\\ exploitations\\ of\\ people\\ is\\ covered\\ by\\ a\\ veneer\\ of\\ political\\ correctness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ Amtrak\\ from\\ Boston\\ to\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sherman\\ Alexie\\ \\(page\\ 251\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ cultural\\ estrangement\\,\\ group\\ identification\\,\\ nationalism\\,\\ American\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Nine\\ four\\ line\\ stanzas\\ and\\ one\\ sentence\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ American\\ landscape\\/culture\\,\\ Walden\\ Pond\\,\\ train\\ \\(obviously\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Native\\ American\\ poet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ important\\ to\\ recreating\\ the\\ space\\ of\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ barriers\\ and\\ extinction\\ of\\ oral\\ literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ recalls\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ American\\ history\\,\\ American\\ landscape\\ and\\ American\\ literature\\ with\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ with\\ Thoreau\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ woman\\ pointing\\ to\\ a\\ house\\ that\\ is\\ over\\ 200\\ years\\ old\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ opens\\ the\\ poem\\ to\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ a\\ long\\ history\\ particularly\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ history\\.\\ The\\ woman\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;taught\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ this\\ house\\ that\\ she\\ points\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ narrator\\ who\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ learn\\ American\\ history\\ rather\\ than\\ what\\ she\\ should\\ know\\ of\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;tribal\\ stories\\ whose\\ architecture\\ is\\ 15\\,00\\ years\\ older\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ narrator\\ is\\ then\\ confronted\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ \\&ldquo\\;Did\\ you\\ see\\ Walden\\ Pond\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ conveys\\ her\\ uneasiness\\ by\\ stating\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ Walden\\ Ponds\\ especially\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ from\\.\\ This\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ that\\ American\\ culture\\ is\\ forced\\ upon\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ denies\\ her\\ of\\ her\\ rich\\ Native\\ American\\ history\\ prior\\.\\ In\\ the\\ sixth\\ stanza\\ the\\ narrator\\ mentions\\ Don\\ Henley\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ popular\\ musician\\ who\\ organized\\ concerts\\ to\\ save\\ Walden\\ Pond\\ from\\ real\\ estate\\ developers\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ her\\ lack\\ of\\ appreciation\\ for\\ what\\ everyone\\ thinks\\ he\\ did\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ expressing\\ her\\ frustration\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ naivety\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ simply\\ listened\\ to\\ the\\ woman\\ babble\\ about\\ American\\ history\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ narrators\\ broader\\ relation\\ and\\ identification\\ with\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Indians\\ \\(the\\ narrator\\ explains\\)\\ only\\ listen\\ to\\ facts\\ about\\ what\\ they\\ call\\/pretend\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;home\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ they\\ struggle\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ culture\\ alive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Balsero\\ Singing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pg\\.\\ 280\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Silvia\\ Curbelo\\ \\(1955\\ \\-\\ \\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ November\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ appear\\ on\\ syllabus\\,\\ but\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Sea\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\(same\\ location\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ open\\ sea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ thing\\ changing\\ is\\ the\\ thoughts\\/dreams\\ of\\ the\\ balsero\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ poem\\ is\\ split\\ into\\ 9\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ identical\\ \\(three\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ alternating\\ between\\ dimeter\\ and\\ trimeter\\)\\,\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ which\\ has\\ only\\ two\\ beats\\ and\\ is\\ one\\ line\\ long\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ but\\ the\\ poem\\ flows\\ like\\ a\\ dream\\ might\\,\\ with\\ long\\ sentences\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ immigrant\\ singing\\ is\\ reflected\\ by\\ the\\ dream\\-like\\ state\\ felt\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ child\\,\\ lover\\/wife\\,\\ harbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Silvia\\ Curbelo\\ is\\ a\\ female\\ Cuban\\ immigrant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Each\\ new\\ breath\\ \\/\\ is\\ a\\ harbor\\,\\ then\\ a\\ wave\\ \\/\\ closes\\ over\\ it\\ \\/\\/\\ like\\ a\\ book\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ Firstly\\,\\ a\\ balsero\\ is\\ a\\ refugee\\ from\\ Cuba\\ in\\ a\\ raft\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ hidden\\ history\\ behind\\ migration\\,\\ as\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cuban\\ boat\\-person\\&rdquo\\;\\ encodes\\ his\\ past\\ life\\ through\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ music\\ summons\\ up\\ three\\ episodes\\ from\\ his\\ previous\\ life\\:\\ first\\,\\ he\\ remembers\\ a\\ child\\ leaning\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ \\(presumably\\ his\\)\\,\\ then\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ another\\ dream\\ \\/\\/\\ he\\ is\\ dancing\\ in\\ a\\ cottage\\ by\\ the\\ sea\\ and\\ music\\ is\\ a\\ language\\ he\\ has\\ just\\ learned\\ to\\ speak\\,\\/the\\ cool\\ yes\\ of\\ her\\ throat\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ that\\ his\\ second\\ memory\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ a\\ past\\ wife\\/\\.over\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ entire\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ hallucination\\ of\\ an\\ immigrant\\ on\\ a\\ raft\\ who\\ is\\ lost\\/dehydrated\\/going\\ crazy\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ sky\\ goes\\ on\\/for\\ days\\ with\\ its\\ one\\ cloud\\ waving\\,\\ the\\ song\\ lifting\\ him\\ like\\ a\\ sail\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ then\\ explains\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ real\\ boat\\ is\\ lost\\/at\\ sea\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ implying\\ that\\ this\\ raft\\ is\\ make\\-shift\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ guy\\ is\\ barely\\ surviving\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ image\\ he\\ sees\\ is\\ a\\ harbor\\,\\ but\\ even\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;Each\\ new\\ breath\\ is\\ a\\ harbor\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ wave\\ closes\\ over\\ it\\ \\/\\/\\ like\\ a\\ book\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ hopeful\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ soon\\ reach\\ his\\ destination\\ \\(America\\)\\,\\ but\\ his\\ dream\\ is\\ constantly\\ squelched\\ by\\ each\\ passing\\ wave\\.\\ \\ \\;Strangely\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ ends\\ in\\ a\\ one\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ a\\ book\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ closing\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ suggests\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ story\\;\\ perhaps\\ this\\ final\\ line\\ was\\ added\\ to\\ provide\\ closure\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ or\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ Balsero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ would\\ soon\\ be\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\ that\\ the\\ poems\\ progression\\ goes\\ from\\ a\\ memory\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ back\\ in\\ Cuba\\,\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ mention\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ destination\\,\\ providing\\ some\\ degree\\ of\\ linear\\ progression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bend\\ in\\ the\\ River\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1941\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Simon\\ J\\.\\ Ortiz\\ pg\\.\\ 275\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\,\\ quest\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structure\\:\\ 3\\ 5\\-line\\ stanzas\\,\\ one\\ four\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ one\\ eight\\-line\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Native\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ quest\\-poem\\,\\ as\\ the\\ speaker\\ ventures\\ along\\ a\\ river\\ towards\\ the\\ mountains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ cold\\ strong\\ shelter\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ There\\ are\\ different\\ spatial\\ and\\ temporal\\ coordinates\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ moves\\ from\\ large\\ scale\\ to\\ small\\-scale\\ visions\\ of\\ nature\\:\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;flicker\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ flies\\ by\\ to\\ the\\ mountains\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Arkansas\\ River\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;glacial\\ stone\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ small\\ pebbles\\ the\\ river\\ quietly\\ \\&ldquo\\;ripples\\ over\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ speaker\\ is\\ also\\ asserting\\ and\\ contemplating\\ his\\ own\\ place\\ along\\ the\\ river\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ are\\ tracks\\/at\\ river\\&rsquo\\;s\\ edge\\,\\ raccoon\\,\\/coyote\\,\\ deer\\,\\ crow\\,\\/and\\ now\\ my\\ own\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ a\\ simple\\ and\\ solemn\\ tone\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ presence\\ of\\ natural\\ spirituality\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;prayer\\ sticks\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;pray\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ shall\\ arrive\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Reply\\ to\\ the\\ Shepherd\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 90\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sir\\ Walter\\ Raleigh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 4\\,\\ 11\\.\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 6\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ \\(aabb\\ ccdd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Negated\\ pastoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ could\\ youth\\ last\\ and\\ love\\ still\\ breed\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Had\\ joys\\ no\\ date\\ nor\\ age\\ no\\ need\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\ these\\ delights\\ my\\ mind\\ might\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ live\\ with\\ thee\\ and\\ be\\ thy\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ Christopher\\ Marlowe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Passionate\\ Shepherd\\ to\\ His\\ Love\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ pastoral\\ ballad\\.\\ \\ \\;Raleigh\\ nullifies\\ all\\ idealized\\ imagery\\ in\\ its\\ analog\\ poem\\,\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ ephemeral\\ nature\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ love\\ as\\ reasons\\ for\\ rejecting\\ the\\ shepherd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daddy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\(pg\\ 21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/27\\ Chapter\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ page\\ 21\\,\\ reading\\ other\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ private\\ life\\,\\ paternal\\ relationship\\,\\ death\\ and\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-forms\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ quintains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ no\\ particular\\ rhyme\\ pattern\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ continuous\\ return\\ of\\ words\\ that\\ rhyme\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ Jew\\,\\ shoe\\,\\ blue\\,\\ two\\,\\ true\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ holocaust\\,\\ death\\,\\ vampires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Plath\\ had\\ clinical\\ depression\\ and\\ bipolar\\ disorder\\,\\ and\\ frequently\\ attempted\\ suicide\\ and\\ finally\\ killed\\ herself\\ at\\ age\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ last\\ line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;daddy\\,\\ daddy\\,\\ you\\ bastard\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ through\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Plath\\ unfolds\\ her\\ opinions\\ on\\ her\\ relationship\\ with\\ her\\ father\\.\\ In\\ the\\ beginning\\ she\\ notes\\ that\\ she\\ felt\\ smothered\\ and\\ rotting\\,\\ just\\ like\\ his\\ gangrenous\\ foot\\ in\\ his\\ shoe\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ healthy\\ relationship\\,\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ sense\\ of\\ closeness\\ given\\ her\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;ach\\ du\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ uses\\ a\\ German\\ pronoun\\ reserved\\ for\\ intimates\\.\\ She\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ used\\ to\\ pray\\ to\\ recover\\ you\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ showing\\ that\\ she\\ thought\\ there\\ was\\ something\\ salvageable\\ in\\ their\\ relationship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ emotional\\ and\\ psychological\\ shift\\ when\\ she\\ equates\\ herself\\ with\\ a\\ Jew\\ during\\ the\\ Holocaust\\.\\ Plath\\ no\\ longer\\ sees\\ herself\\ as\\ the\\ passive\\ victim\\ of\\ a\\ bad\\ situation\\;\\ she\\ sees\\ herself\\ as\\ the\\ victim\\ of\\ direct\\ violence\\ and\\ oppression\\.\\ She\\ describes\\ her\\ father\\ as\\ a\\ Nazi\\ whom\\ she\\ fears\\,\\ and\\ discusses\\ how\\ even\\ after\\ he\\ died\\ she\\ was\\ still\\ affected\\ by\\ him\\ because\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;bit\\ my\\ pretty\\ red\\ heart\\ in\\ two\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ also\\ blames\\ him\\ for\\ her\\ attempted\\ suicide\\,\\ and\\ her\\ accusatory\\ tone\\ is\\ compounded\\ by\\ the\\ repeated\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Plath\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ passive\\ and\\ rotting\\ or\\ a\\ victim\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ after\\ her\\ suicide\\ she\\ is\\ reborn\\ as\\ a\\ avenging\\ angel\\ of\\ sorts\\.\\ She\\ finally\\ kills\\ him\\ off\\ like\\ a\\ vampire\\,\\ and\\ notes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ through\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ is\\ unclear\\,\\ however\\,\\ whether\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;through\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ finally\\ purged\\ herself\\ of\\ him\\,\\ or\\ whether\\ by\\ destroying\\ him\\ she\\ has\\ also\\ destroyed\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ herself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lady\\ Lazarus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1966\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ 555\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/1\\ Consturcting\\ a\\ self\\&mdash\\;the\\ invented\\ mythological\\ persona\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\,\\ despair\\,\\ voyeurism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ address\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\-verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ tercets\\,\\ no\\ consistent\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ decay\\,\\ injury\\,\\ Naxi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ severely\\ depressed\\ and\\ suicidal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dying\\ is\\ an\\ art\\,\\ live\\ everything\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ do\\ it\\ exceptionally\\ well\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sylvia\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ had\\ diabetes\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ treatable\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ he\\ simply\\ gave\\ up\\ on\\ life\\ and\\ willed\\ himself\\ to\\ die\\,\\ which\\ he\\ did\\ when\\ Plath\\ was\\ very\\ young\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ response\\,\\ Plath\\ herself\\ became\\ suicidal\\.\\ \\ \\;Plath\\ is\\ a\\ confessional\\ poet\\ and\\ spoke\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ voice\\ of\\ her\\ experiences\\ of\\ pity\\ and\\ despair\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ felt\\ that\\ her\\ readers\\ were\\ voyeurs\\&mdash\\;they\\ just\\ wanted\\ to\\ know\\ her\\ dark\\,\\ twisted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\story\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ for\\ the\\ underlying\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ censure\\ of\\ these\\ voyeuristic\\ readers\\.\\ \\ \\;Plath\\ takes\\ on\\ the\\ persona\\ of\\ Lady\\ Lazarus\\ so\\ that\\ her\\ readers\\ can\\ peer\\ under\\ her\\ bandages\\ and\\ see\\ her\\ wounds\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;then\\ unwrap\\ me\\ hand\\ and\\ foot\\&mdash\\;the\\ big\\ strip\\ tease\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;She\\ makes\\ herself\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ freak\\-show\\ and\\ mocks\\ both\\ the\\ voyeuristic\\ audience\\ and\\ her\\ own\\ exhibitionist\\ tendencies\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ your\\ opus\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ valuable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;She\\ fluxuates\\ between\\ a\\ decaying\\ corpse\\ and\\ a\\ live\\ person\\&mdash\\;representative\\ of\\ her\\ multiple\\ suicide\\ attempts\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ she\\ imagines\\ people\\ plucking\\ off\\ pieces\\ of\\ her\\ dead\\ body\\ to\\ use\\ as\\ relics\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ demonstration\\ of\\ perverse\\ voyeurism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1959\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\(124\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(107\\-149\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ pregnancy\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\/\\ 9\\ lines\\/\\ 9\\ syllables\\ per\\ line\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ fruit\\-\\ melon\\,\\ apples\\;\\ animals\\-\\ elephant\\,\\ cow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ credited\\ with\\ advancing\\ the\\ genre\\ of\\ confessional\\ poetry\\;\\ severely\\ depressed\\ and\\ eventually\\ committed\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ a\\ riddle\\ in\\ nine\\ syllabus\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\ OR\\ \\&ldquo\\;Boarded\\ the\\ train\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ getting\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ her\\ pregnancy\\ ties\\ the\\ poem\\ together\\&mdash\\;we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ 9\\ lines\\ each\\ with\\ 9\\ syllables\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ pregnancy\\ last\\ 9\\ months\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ metaphors\\ that\\ Plath\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ pregnancy\\ all\\ show\\ a\\ different\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ pregnancy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ metaphors\\ describe\\ parallel\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Unaware\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ baby\\ will\\ be\\ like\\,\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;riddle\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Her\\ pregnancy\\ has\\ also\\ caused\\ her\\ to\\ gain\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ weight\\,\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ move\\ around\\ and\\ thus\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;elephant\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;ponderous\\ house\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Because\\ her\\ stomach\\ is\\ so\\ big\\ compared\\ to\\ her\\ legs\\,\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;melon\\ strolling\\ on\\ two\\ tendrils\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 3\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Several\\ more\\ metaphors\\ continue\\,\\ but\\ then\\ in\\ line\\ 7\\,\\ Plath\\ switches\\ from\\ using\\ images\\ to\\ using\\ abstractions\\ to\\ describe\\ how\\ she\\ feels\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ means\\,\\ a\\ stage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\&mdash\\;so\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\,\\ and\\ like\\ a\\ stage\\ of\\ a\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ in\\ this\\ same\\ line\\ Plath\\ changes\\ back\\ to\\ using\\ concrete\\ images\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ pregnancy\\-\\ as\\ she\\ describes\\ how\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ cow\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feeling\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ stuck\\ in\\ her\\ pregnancy\\ and\\ cannot\\ escape\\ it\\&mdash\\;she\\ uses\\ the\\ metaphor\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;boarded\\ the\\ train\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ getting\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ train\\ as\\ the\\ final\\ image\\ for\\ how\\ she\\ feels\\,\\ suggests\\ the\\ further\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ pregnancy\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ imagine\\ a\\ train\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ and\\ travels\\ for\\ awhile\\-\\ which\\ is\\ just\\ like\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feeling\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ after\\ nine\\ months\\,\\ though\\ the\\ pregnancy\\ will\\ be\\ over\\,\\ she\\ would\\ still\\ have\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ child\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morning\\ Song\\ \\(page\\ 558\\)\\-Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\(1932\\-1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Anthology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Motherhood\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Announcement\\ \\(two\\ characters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ free\\ verse\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ discernible\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ meter\\ averages\\ around\\ pentameter\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ sizeable\\ variation\\ with\\ some\\ lines\\ having\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ 6\\ syllables\\,\\ thus\\ is\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ a\\ single\\ meter\\.\\ It\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ 6\\ stanzas\\,\\ with\\ each\\ stanza\\ containing\\ three\\ lines\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\.\\ Enjambed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fat\\-gold\\ watch\\,\\ moth\\-breath\\ and\\ pink\\ roses\\,\\ baby\\ as\\ cat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;At\\ an\\ early\\ age\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ attempted\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\ and\\ was\\ unsuccessful\\.\\ She\\ attempted\\ again\\ in\\ her\\ twenties\\ and\\ again\\ was\\ unsuccessful\\.\\ After\\ marriage\\ \\(she\\ was\\ wed\\ to\\ another\\ author\\)\\ and\\ birth\\ of\\ her\\ children\\,\\ she\\ again\\ attempted\\ suicide\\ in\\ her\\ thirties\\ and\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ She\\ wrote\\ The\\ Bell\\ Jar\\,\\ a\\ famous\\ novel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ uses\\ varied\\ imagery\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ speakers\\ feelings\\ toward\\ her\\ newborn\\ child\\,\\ providing\\ contrasts\\ that\\ describe\\ both\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ interepreted\\ by\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ Plath\\ begins\\ the\\ description\\ through\\ unflattering\\ imagery\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;bald\\ cry\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;fat\\ gold\\ watch\\,\\"\\;\\ indcating\\ her\\ annoyance\\ at\\ the\\ harsh\\ sound\\ of\\ a\\ babies\\ cry\\.\\ This\\ imagery\\ transforms\\ however\\,\\ and\\ her\\ tone\\ becomes\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ affectionate\\ with\\ each\\ stanza\\.\\ She\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ sound\\ as\\ \\"\\;clear\\ vowels\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;handful\\ of\\ notes\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ that\\ while\\ it\\ is\\ unpleasant\\ physically\\,\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ crying\\ is\\ something\\ dear\\ to\\ her\\ heart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ applicant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1960s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ unrequited\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ \\(I\\ think\\)it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ seem\\ to\\ fit\\ into\\ anything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ some\\ random\\ rhyme\\ also\\ uniform\\ form\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\(sadness\\,\\ sorrow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ author\\ had\\ problems\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ Ted\\ Hughes\\ and\\ he\\ cheated\\ on\\ her\\ and\\ she\\ killed\\ herself\\.\\.\\ feminist\\ \\(went\\ to\\ smith\\)\\ etc\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Applicant\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ another\\ depth\\ of\\ emotion\\,\\ seemingly\\ incongruous\\ to\\ torment\\,\\ called\\ humor\\.\\ More\\ precisely\\,\\ her\\ particular\\ style\\ is\\ intermingled\\ with\\ sarcasm\\ and\\ acerbic\\ commentaries\\ on\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ By\\ exemplifying\\ stereotypical\\ roles\\,\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ embody\\ a\\ caustic\\ irony\\.\\ This\\,\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ reflects\\ the\\ decade\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\,\\ a\\ momentous\\ era\\ of\\ awakening\\ of\\ repressed\\ feminism\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ Marriage\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ an\\ absurdly\\ narrow\\ existence\\ perpetrated\\ by\\ weak\\ men\\ and\\ obliviously\\ tolerant\\ women\\ within\\ cultural\\ paradigms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Plath\\ makes\\ a\\ statement\\ against\\ the\\ ideals\\ society\\ imposes\\ on\\ what\\ true\\ functions\\ a\\ wife\\ and\\ husband\\ serve\\.\\ Mockingly\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ suggests\\ that\\ such\\ women\\ eventually\\ become\\ automated\\,\\ mechanical\\ versions\\ of\\ a\\ person\\.\\ Men\\,\\ similarly\\,\\ are\\ then\\ portrayed\\ to\\ desire\\ and\\ accept\\ these\\ qualities\\ as\\ inherent\\ or\\ necessary\\ to\\ being\\ good\\ women\\.\\ Plath\\ also\\ calls\\ marriage\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;last\\ resort\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ implying\\ the\\ impotence\\ or\\ incompleteness\\ for\\ which\\ the\\ woman\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ compensate\\.\\ To\\ her\\ it\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ practical\\ rather\\ than\\ emotional\\ bond\\;\\ it\\ has\\ entered\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;applicant\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ partner\\ or\\ spouse\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ dialog\\ format\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ the\\ questioning\\ tone\\,\\ Plath\\ points\\ accusingly\\ at\\ apathy\\ and\\ conformity\\ as\\ the\\ culprits\\.\\ The\\ presentation\\ may\\ be\\ facetious\\,\\ but\\ the\\ reader\\ comes\\ away\\ with\\ the\\ disturbing\\ realization\\ that\\ this\\ situation\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ laughably\\ uncommon\\.\\ With\\ bittersweet\\ words\\ and\\ ironic\\ humor\\,\\ Plath\\ reminds\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ living\\ for\\ someone\\ instead\\ of\\ with\\ someone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Love\\ Song\\ of\\ J\\.\\ Alfred\\ Prufrock\\ \\ \\;\\-T\\.S\\.\\ Eliot\\ \\(1888\\-1965\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ page\\ 200\\,\\ covered\\ Nov\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ lecture\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\ con\\.\\ The\\ invented\\ persona\\ and\\ its\\ uses\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ a\\ personal\\ reflection\\ of\\ oneself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ A\\ long\\ poem\\,\\ with\\ 20\\ actual\\ stanzas\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\,\\ including\\ many\\ 12\\ line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ several\\ unusual\\ line\\ breaks\\.\\ Though\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ rigid\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ couplets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ meter\\ most\\ closely\\ resembles\\ iambic\\,\\ though\\ the\\ writing\\ flows\\ rather\\ freely\\ like\\ a\\ train\\ of\\ thought\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyric\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imageries\\:\\ The\\ poem\\ has\\ many\\,\\ many\\ images\\ and\\ vivid\\,\\ unusual\\ descriptions\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ many\\ action\\ verbs\\ despite\\ the\\ reflective\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tense\\ shifts\\ slowly\\ from\\ present\\ to\\ past\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\T\\.S\\.\\ Eliot\\ was\\ very\\ religious\\,\\ having\\ graduated\\ from\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Divinity\\ School\\,\\ and\\ he\\ founded\\ a\\ Unitarian\\ church\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Many\\ believe\\ the\\ narrator\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Prufrock\\,\\ to\\ be\\ either\\ crippled\\ or\\ somehow\\ impaired\\ or\\ impotent\\.\\ Though\\ he\\ describes\\ many\\ actions\\,\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ his\\ conscience\\ is\\ journeying\\ but\\ he\\ physically\\ does\\ not\\ leave\\ his\\ room\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ addresses\\ a\\ major\\ personal\\ conflict\\ for\\ this\\ man\\.\\ As\\ one\\ critic\\,\\ Roger\\ Mitchell\\,\\ notes\\,\\ \\[J\\.\\ Alfred\\ Prufrock\\]\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ speaker\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ Eliot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poems\\.\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ Representative\\ Man\\ of\\ early\\ Modernism\\.\\ Shy\\,\\ cultivated\\,\\ oversensitive\\,\\ sexually\\ retarded\\ \\(many\\ have\\ said\\ impotent\\)\\,\\ ruminative\\,\\ isolated\\,\\ self\\-aware\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ He\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ speakers\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ Eliot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ early\\ poems\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ trapped\\ inside\\ their\\ own\\ excessive\\ alertness\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Stanza\\ four\\ supports\\ this\\ claims\\ and\\ brings\\ about\\ Prufrock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ indecisiveness\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ confidence\\.\\ He\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;Time\\ for\\ you\\ and\\ time\\ for\\ me\\,\\/\\ And\\ time\\ yet\\ for\\ a\\ hundred\\ indecisions\\,\\/\\ And\\ for\\ a\\ hundred\\ visions\\ and\\ revisions\\,\\/\\ Before\\ the\\ taking\\ of\\ a\\ toast\\ and\\ tea\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 201\\,\\ 31\\-34\\)\\ The\\ speaker\\ delays\\,\\ puts\\ off\\ confronting\\ his\\ love\\.\\ He\\ lives\\ in\\ visions\\,\\ imagining\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ like\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ the\\ strength\\ to\\ force\\ the\\ moment\\ to\\ its\\ crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(line\\ 80\\)\\ but\\ ultimately\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;wept\\ and\\ prayed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(81\\)\\.\\ One\\ ironic\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ rumination\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ problem\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ solution\\.\\ Whereas\\ one\\ might\\ expect\\ some\\ progress\\ to\\ be\\ gained\\ from\\ such\\ intense\\ thought\\,\\ this\\ man\\ seems\\ crippled\\ by\\ his\\ self\\-doubt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ dreamy\\,\\ disconnected\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ thoughts\\ and\\ actions\\ seem\\ rather\\ random\\ and\\ unrelated\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ tries\\ to\\ equate\\ himself\\ to\\ objects\\ through\\ confused\\ similies\\.\\ The\\ questions\\ on\\ page\\ 2\\,\\ including\\ \\&ldquo\\;Do\\ I\\ dare\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ should\\ I\\ presume\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ are\\ both\\ repeated\\,\\ really\\ strike\\ home\\ the\\ internal\\ struggle\\ which\\ Prufrock\\ faces\\.\\ Whereas\\ we\\ expect\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ Song\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ bold\\ and\\ pointed\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ Shakespearian\\ sonnet\\,\\ this\\ love\\ poem\\ falls\\ more\\ into\\ the\\ category\\ of\\ self\\-reflection\\ and\\ fails\\ in\\ achieving\\ any\\ romantic\\ effect\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ Papa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Waltz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1948\\)\\,\\ Theodore\\ Roethke\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 104\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-4\\-06\\,\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ perhaps\\ an\\ elegy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\,\\ mostly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ quatrains\\,\\ rhyming\\ abab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ whiskey\\,\\ parent\\ with\\ child\\,\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Such\\ waltzing\\ was\\ not\\ easy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rhythm\\ \\(the\\ trimeter\\)\\ mirrors\\ the\\ beat\\ of\\ the\\ waltz\\ \\(1\\-2\\-3\\,\\ 1\\-2\\-3\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Roethke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\,\\ though\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ lack\\ the\\ elegance\\ and\\ grace\\ of\\ the\\ typical\\ waltzer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;such\\ waltzing\\ was\\ not\\ easy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Roethke\\ mentions\\ the\\ whiskey\\ on\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breath\\ and\\ the\\ dirt\\ on\\ his\\ hands\\ as\\ two\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ violent\\ about\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dancing\\,\\ prompting\\ Roethke\\ to\\ remark\\ that\\ he\\ held\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ like\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ seems\\ a\\ very\\ strange\\ way\\ to\\ describe\\ dancing\\ with\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ Roethke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ \\&ldquo\\;could\\ not\\ unfrown\\&rdquo\\;\\ herself\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ is\\ somehow\\ displeased\\ with\\ Roethke\\ and\\ his\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ probably\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ comes\\ full\\ circle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ mentions\\ Roethke\\ \\&ldquo\\;hanging\\ on\\ like\\ death\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ mentions\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;still\\ clinging\\ to\\ your\\ shirt\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ important\\,\\ I\\ think\\,\\ that\\ Roethke\\ is\\ addressing\\ his\\ father\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;your\\ breath\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;your\\ shirt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\:\\ each\\ stanza\\ is\\ very\\ regularly\\ punctuated\\,\\ with\\ the\\ second\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ ending\\ with\\ a\\ comma\\ or\\ semi\\-colon\\,\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ ending\\ with\\ a\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elegy\\ Written\\ in\\ a\\ Country\\ Churchyard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1716\\-1771\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Gray\\ pg\\.\\ 483\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 1\\&mdash\\;Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ class\\,\\ mortality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\,\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;long\\ o\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ important\\ and\\ pervasive\\&mdash\\;slowly\\,\\ plowman\\,\\ drowsy\\,\\ tower\\,\\ owl\\,\\ bower\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 32\\ stanzas\\ of\\ four\\ lines\\ \\(rhyming\\ abab\\)\\&mdash\\;including\\ three\\-stanza\\ epitaph\\ at\\ the\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ imagery\\ of\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;ivy\\-mantled\\ tower\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;unlettered\\ muse\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ short\\ and\\ simple\\ annals\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ uses\\ the\\ sad\\ anonymity\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ poor\\ men\\ to\\ deliver\\ a\\ commentary\\ on\\ social\\ injustices\\ and\\ class\\.\\ He\\ illuminates\\ the\\ poor\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dignified\\ modesty\\ by\\ enumerating\\ his\\ simple\\ joys\\ and\\ rebukes\\ the\\ proud\\ and\\ the\\ rich\\,\\ addressing\\ the\\ aristocracy\\ directly\\.\\ He\\ is\\ especially\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ terribleness\\ of\\ an\\ unhonored\\ dead\\,\\ speculating\\ that\\ their\\ lives\\ were\\ also\\ unhonored\\,\\ their\\ potential\\ unrealized\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Perhaps\\ in\\ this\\ neglected\\ spot\\ is\\ lad\\/Some\\ heart\\ once\\ pregnant\\ with\\ celestial\\ fire\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\.\\ He\\ addresses\\ the\\ contempt\\ that\\ the\\ rich\\ may\\ have\\ for\\ the\\ simple\\ funeral\\ ceremonies\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncouth\\ rhymes\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;frail\\&rdquo\\;\\ memorials\\ \\(78\\)\\.\\ He\\ praises\\ the\\ poor\\ or\\ unknown\\ for\\ their\\ sincerity\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ corrupting\\ and\\ misguided\\ ambition\\.\\ Gray\\ uses\\ the\\ proper\\ elegy\\ form\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ conspicuous\\ failure\\ of\\ society\\ to\\ remember\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ especially\\ amidst\\ the\\ wealth\\,\\ heraldry\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ pomp\\ of\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ worldly\\ honor\\ \\(33\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ the\\ rich\\ ultimately\\ share\\ the\\ same\\ mortal\\ fate\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ paths\\ of\\ glory\\ lead\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ grave\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(36\\)\\.\\ Rich\\ men\\ cannot\\ flatter\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;dull\\ cold\\ ear\\ of\\ Death\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(44\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Convergence\\ of\\ the\\ Twain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1912\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Hardy\\,\\ Pg\\.\\ 67\\-68\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Paper\\ \\#1\\ assigned\\ October\\ 4th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Remembrance\\,\\ a\\ recollection\\.\\ Under\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ arranged\\ life\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ sinking\\ of\\ the\\ Titanic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ The\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\ are\\ written\\ in\\ an\\ iambic\\ trimester\\ or\\ tetrameter\\.\\ The\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\ is\\ trochaic\\ and\\ is\\ longer\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ two\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 11\\ stanzas\\(numbered\\)\\,\\ each\\ of\\ 3\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ are\\ short\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ is\\ longer\\ then\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ falling\\ rhythm\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ There\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ ship\\ beneath\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ representing\\ undesirable\\ human\\ traits\\,\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ God\\ who\\ is\\ orchestrating\\ the\\ events\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ consummation\\ comes\\,\\ and\\ jars\\ two\\ hemispheres\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ sinking\\ of\\ the\\ titanic\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ serene\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ ship\\ beneath\\ the\\ sea\\ and\\ grows\\ in\\ intensity\\ and\\ anticipation\\ until\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ when\\ the\\ crash\\ finally\\ occurs\\.\\ The\\ first\\ five\\ stanzas\\ are\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ last\\ six\\ in\\ several\\ ways\\;\\ each\\ stanza\\ ends\\ with\\ punctuation\\,\\ giving\\ it\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ finality\\,\\ the\\ scene\\ is\\ underwater\\ after\\ the\\ crash\\ has\\ occurred\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ stagnant\\ feel\\,\\ all\\ occurring\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ tense\\.\\ These\\ first\\ stanzas\\ talk\\ about\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ downfalls\\ of\\ the\\ ship\\,\\ the\\ undesirable\\ traits\\ of\\ its\\ builders\\ and\\ passengers\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ its\\ demise\\.\\ These\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ vanity\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pride\\ of\\ Life\\ that\\ planner\\ her\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;opulent\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;sensuous\\ mind\\{s\\}\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ fish\\ query\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ does\\ this\\ vaingloriousness\\ down\\ here\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ pride\\,\\ wealth\\,\\ and\\ vanity\\ are\\ stated\\ in\\ conjunction\\ with\\ gross\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\ \\&ldquo\\;sea\\-worm\\ crawls\\-grotesque\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ sparkles\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;bleared\\ and\\ black\\ and\\ blind\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;domm\\ moon\\-eyes\\ fishes\\&rdquo\\;\\ gaze\\.\\ The\\ pace\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ stanzas\\ as\\ Hardy\\ talks\\ about\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;Immanent\\ Will\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Spinner\\ of\\ the\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ stanzas\\ are\\ enjambed\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ quickening\\ pace\\ as\\ the\\ ship\\ and\\ the\\ iceberg\\ grow\\.\\ The\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ human\\ pride\\ and\\ vanity\\ causing\\ the\\ crash\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ God\\ created\\ its\\ fate\\ gives\\ the\\ poem\\ an\\ ironic\\ tone\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ after\\ 10\\ stanzas\\ of\\ build\\ up\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;consummation\\ comes\\,\\ and\\ jars\\ to\\ hemispheres\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ making\\ the\\ crash\\ of\\ utmost\\ importance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ruined\\ Maid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 199\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Hardy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 30\\,\\ Nov\\ 1\\.\\ \\ \\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 6\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ \\(aabb\\ ccbb\\ ddbb\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ rustic\\ vs\\.\\ refined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;My\\ dear\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ raw\\ country\\ girl\\,\\ such\\ as\\ you\\ be\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cannot\\ quite\\ expect\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ruined\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ said\\ she\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ ballad\\ presents\\ a\\ dialogue\\ between\\ two\\ young\\ women\\,\\ perhaps\\ sisters\\,\\ who\\ used\\ to\\ live\\ and\\ work\\ together\\ on\\ a\\ farm\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ continues\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ difficult\\ life\\,\\ the\\ other\\,\\ who\\ says\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ risen\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ title\\,\\ which\\ contains\\ a\\ singular\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\ maid\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ begs\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ which\\ woman\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ farm\\ girl\\,\\ while\\ poor\\,\\ has\\ not\\ fallen\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ girl\\ who\\ has\\ risen\\ may\\ have\\ fallen\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\ a\\ fall\\ from\\ innocence\\ or\\ a\\ fall\\ in\\ manner\\ in\\ that\\ she\\ calls\\ the\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ raw\\ country\\ girl\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Still\\,\\ while\\ the\\ supposed\\ lady\\ ends\\ with\\ rustic\\ diction\\,\\ using\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ indicates\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ indeed\\ the\\ socially\\ elevated\\ woman\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ term\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ ironically\\ in\\ previous\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Litany\\ in\\ Time\\ of\\ Plague\\-\\ Thomas\\ Nashe\\ \\(1567\\-\\?1601\\)\\ p\\.\\ 229\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Litany\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabbccd\\ \\(ccd\\ is\\ repeated\\ in\\ each\\ stanza\\)\\ 6\\ stanzas\\,\\ 7\\ lines\\ the\\ two\\ last\\ lines\\ are\\ a\\ refrain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ Religion\\,\\ death\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Lived\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ plague\\ was\\ still\\ around\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ sick\\,\\ I\\ must\\ die\\.\\/\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Lord\\,\\ have\\ mercy\\ on\\ us\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(example\\ of\\ chorus\\ in\\ a\\ poem\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ spoken\\ by\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ dying\\ from\\ the\\ plague\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\ he\\ goes\\ through\\ certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ attributes\\ of\\ the\\ living\\.\\ However\\,\\ each\\ stanza\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ acceptance\\ that\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ in\\ life\\ you\\ will\\ die\\.\\ In\\ stanza\\ one\\ he\\ discusses\\ the\\ natural\\ acts\\ of\\ life\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lustful\\ joys\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ Stanza\\ two\\ he\\ discusses\\ wealth\\ and\\ scientific\\ knowledge\\,\\ in\\ three\\ physical\\ beauty\\,\\ in\\ four\\ physical\\ strength\\,\\ in\\ five\\ he\\ discusses\\ wit\\ and\\ artistic\\ ability\\ and\\ finally\\ in\\ 6\\ he\\ concludes\\ that\\ because\\ death\\ is\\ inevitable\\ all\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ accept\\ it\\ and\\ look\\ forward\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ for\\ society\\ because\\ it\\ concludes\\ that\\ everyone\\ will\\ die\\ regardless\\ of\\ what\\ great\\ attributes\\ they\\ may\\ have\\ in\\ life\\.\\ The\\ repetition\\ of\\ the\\ Notable\\ Citation\\ is\\ what\\ makes\\ this\\ poem\\ a\\ religious\\ litany\\.\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ that\\ he\\ writes\\ this\\ poem\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ dying\\ of\\ the\\ plague\\ \\(he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\am\\ sick\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ however\\ he\\ then\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lord\\ have\\ mercy\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\us\\<\\/span\\>\\\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ arguably\\ because\\ the\\ plague\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ bubonic\\ plague\\ or\\ any\\ other\\ time\\ specific\\ plague\\,\\ but\\ death\\ itself\\.\\ All\\ mankind\\ is\\ affected\\ by\\ the\\ plague\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ therefore\\ God\\ must\\ have\\ mercy\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ us\\.\\ Therefore\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ plague\\ becomes\\ all\\ times\\ and\\ places\\.\\ It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ that\\ the\\ person\\ reading\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ not\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ plague\\ or\\ is\\ dying\\ from\\ the\\ plague\\ because\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ one\\ we\\ all\\ share\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ Flee\\ From\\ Me\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 16\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Wyatt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 20\\,\\ Poems\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Unrequited\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rime\\ royal\\ \\(ababbcc\\)\\,\\ 3\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ bird\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ have\\ seen\\ them\\,\\ gentle\\,\\ tame\\,\\ and\\ meek\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ now\\ are\\ wild\\,\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ remember\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ sometime\\ they\\ put\\ themselves\\ in\\ danger\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ take\\ bread\\ at\\ my\\ hand\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Continual\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ is\\ turned\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ key\\ phrases\\ that\\ characterize\\ the\\ content\\ and\\ structure\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ addresses\\ the\\ changed\\ behavior\\ of\\ female\\ love\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ him\\,\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;range\\,\\ busily\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\ love\\ elsewhere\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ two\\ stanzas\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ special\\ woman\\ to\\ whom\\ he\\ was\\ seriously\\ attached\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ presents\\ the\\ couple\\ at\\ their\\ most\\ intimate\\,\\ while\\ the\\ third\\ contrasts\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ current\\ distance\\ between\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Specifically\\,\\ his\\ lover\\ takes\\ him\\ in\\ during\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;leave\\ to\\ go\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ third\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Among\\ School\\ Children\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1865\\-1939\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ W\\.B\\.\\ Yeats\\ pg\\.\\ 651\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 11\\&mdash\\;The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;philosophical\\ poem\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;how\\ should\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ by\\ 8\\ \\(eight\\ eight\\-line\\ stanzas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ children\\,\\ nuns\\,\\ mothers\\,\\ scarecrow\\,\\ mythological\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Written\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ after\\ his\\ 60\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;birthday\\&hellip\\;ending\\ was\\ edited\\ to\\ emphasize\\ importance\\ of\\ living\\ life\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ \\(original\\ ending\\ revisited\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ lovers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;How\\ can\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ dancer\\ from\\ the\\ dance\\?\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ \\"\\;square\\"\\;\\ poem\\-\\-8\\ stanzas\\,\\ 8\\ lines\\,\\ reflecting\\ its\\ conclusion\\ about\\ the\\ perfect\\ life\\-\\-where\\ the\\ dance\\ is\\ indistinguishable\\ from\\ the\\ dancer\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ Yeats\\ juxtaposes\\ the\\ extremities\\ of\\ youth\\ \\(blooming\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ the\\ Ledean\\ body\\,\\ madonna\\-like\\ mother\\)\\ with\\ old\\ age\\ \\(ugliness\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ your\\ mother\\ even\\ regrets\\ having\\ you\\)\\.\\.\\.man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enterprises\\ and\\ labors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(even\\ in\\ scholarship\\ and\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ wisdom\\)\\ mock\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ \\(part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ repudiation\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ labor\\)\\.\\ When\\ he\\ visits\\ a\\ school\\ as\\ a\\ public\\ figure\\,\\ the\\ children\\ remind\\ him\\ of\\ what\\ his\\ wife\\ was\\ perhaps\\ like\\ as\\ a\\ child\\ when\\ she\\ endured\\ a\\ tragedy\\ \\(which\\ she\\ later\\ recounted\\ to\\ him\\&mdash\\;and\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ they\\ became\\ so\\ close\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;into\\ the\\ yolk\\ and\\ white\\ of\\ the\\ one\\ shell\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ He\\ speaks\\ about\\ lovers\\,\\ nuns\\,\\ and\\ mothers\\ and\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;passion\\,\\ piety\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ affection\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ he\\ concludes\\ that\\ perhaps\\ the\\ tree\\ has\\ the\\ ideal\\ way\\ of\\ life\\&mdash\\;constantly\\ producing\\ and\\ being\\ reborn\\.\\ But\\ it\\ does\\ not\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ unaware\\,\\ unconscious\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\,\\ Yeats\\ concludes\\ that\\ life\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ time\\ between\\ and\\ during\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ blooming\\ and\\ then\\ becoming\\ a\\ scarecrow\\.\\.\\.life\\ should\\ be\\ danced\\ with\\ an\\ unchoreographed\\ dance\\ in\\ a\\ realm\\ beyond\\ enterprise\\-\\-our\\ bodies\\ sway\\ to\\ music\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ brightening\\ \\(progressive\\ adjective\\)\\ glance\\-\\-we\\ dance\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ we\\ create\\ and\\ invent\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ music\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Asians\\ Dying\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1967\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ W\\.\\ S\\.\\ Merwin\\ \\(p\\.\\ 271\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 16\\ Section\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Political\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ political\\/protest\\ poetry\\;\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ often\\ trochaic\\ or\\ dactylic\\ \\(falling\\ rhythms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ stanzas\\ decreasing\\ in\\ length\\:\\ 9\\ lines\\,\\ 6\\ lines\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 5\\;\\ unrhymed\\ but\\ uses\\ alliteration\\/assonance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ fire\\ imagery\\ \\(ash\\,\\ smoke\\,\\ flames\\)\\;\\ death\\/destruction\\;\\ ghostly\\/ephemeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ W\\.\\ S\\.\\ Merwin\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1927\\)\\ is\\ an\\ American\\ poet\\ who\\ became\\ well\\-known\\ as\\ an\\ anti\\-war\\ poet\\ during\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ nights\\ disappear\\ like\\ bruises\\ but\\ nothing\\ is\\ healed\\/\\ The\\ dead\\ go\\ away\\ like\\ bruises\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ with\\ no\\ past\\/\\ And\\ fire\\ their\\ only\\ future\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ anti\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ poem\\ that\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ birds\\-eye\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ landscape\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ napalm\\.\\ Everything\\ is\\ viewed\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ napalm\\ and\\ fire\\.\\ Merwin\\ uses\\ words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;everything\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;nothing\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ stress\\ the\\ all\\-encompassing\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ destruction\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ is\\ very\\ ghostly\\ and\\ ephemeral\\,\\ with\\ descriptions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;ash\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;ghosts\\.\\.\\.trail\\[ing\\]\\ in\\ the\\ sky\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;paper\\ bells\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;smoke\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadows\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ fleeting\\ imagery\\ reinforces\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ destruction\\ will\\ disappear\\ and\\ be\\ forgotten\\.\\ Merwin\\ imagines\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ dead\\ corpses\\ and\\ burnt\\ fields\\ will\\ eventually\\ fade\\ like\\ bruises\\&mdash\\;painful\\ at\\ first\\ but\\ eventually\\ hidden\\ from\\ sight\\.\\ He\\ also\\ depicts\\ the\\ soldiers\\ who\\ do\\ the\\ napalming\\ as\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;possessors\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(of\\ napalm\\)\\ who\\ are\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;columns\\ of\\ smoke\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;thin\\ flames\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;fire\\ their\\ only\\ future\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ men\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ napalm\\ they\\ use\\;\\ they\\ become\\ like\\ elements\\ of\\ fire\\ themselves\\.\\ The\\ overall\\ tone\\ is\\ detached\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ experience\\ his\\ own\\ horror\\ at\\ this\\ war\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sunday\\ Morning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1917\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\-Pgs\\ 609\\-612\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 6\\,\\ the\\ Comprehensive\\ Sequence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ spirituality\\,\\ mortality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 15\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ images\\ of\\ nature\\ are\\ used\\ heavily\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ holy\\ hush\\ of\\ ancient\\ sacrifice\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Divinity\\ must\\ live\\ within\\ herself\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ traces\\ \\;a\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ on\\ spirituality\\.\\ It\\ opens\\ with\\ her\\ sitting\\ in\\ her\\ peignoir\\,\\ drinking\\ coffee\\,\\ eating\\ oranges\\,\\ and\\ enjoying\\ her\\ pet\\ cockatoo\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ attending\\ church\\,\\ as\\ she\\ \\&ldquo\\;should\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ speaks\\ of\\ institutionalized\\ religion\\ in\\ dark\\ terms\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ holy\\ hush\\ of\\ ancient\\ sacrifice\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;dominion\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\ and\\ sepulchre\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Stevens\\ proposes\\ that\\ she\\ must\\ find\\ religion\\ within\\ herself\\-examining\\ her\\ visceral\\ emotions\\ as\\ relating\\ to\\ natural\\ occurrences\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Passions\\ of\\ rain\\,\\ or\\ moods\\ in\\ falling\\ snow\\/\\&hellip\\;Elations\\ when\\ the\\ forest\\ blooms\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ sentiments\\ towards\\ institutionalized\\ religion\\ are\\ stated\\ again\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ which\\ describes\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;dividing\\ and\\ indifferent\\ blue\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nature\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ religion\\ for\\ the\\ woman\\ \\(interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ Stevens\\ felt\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ own\\ views\\ in\\ a\\ female\\ voice\\)\\.\\ Still\\,\\ she\\ ponders\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ time\\,\\ the\\ mortality\\ of\\ all\\ things\\,\\ and\\ the\\ incessant\\ changing\\ of\\ seasons\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ she\\ decides\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ all\\ living\\ things\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ their\\ mortality\\.\\ The\\ fleeting\\ moments\\,\\ seasons\\,\\ etc\\ will\\ inevitably\\ end\\,\\ yet\\ that\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ recognize\\ their\\ beauty\\.\\ Stevens\\ writes\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;Death\\ is\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ her\\ worship\\ of\\ nature\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ substitute\\ for\\ religion\\.\\ She\\ is\\ aware\\ the\\ she\\,\\ too\\,\\ will\\ die\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ arouse\\ questions\\ in\\ her\\ about\\ the\\ afterlife\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ there\\ no\\ change\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ paradise\\?\\/\\ Does\\ ripe\\ fruit\\ never\\ fall\\?\\.\\.\\.\\.Alas\\,\\ they\\ should\\ wear\\ our\\ colors\\ there\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Still\\ she\\ seems\\ more\\ satisfied\\ with\\ her\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ the\\ here\\ and\\ now\\,\\ and\\ though\\ all\\ will\\ inevitably\\ die\\,\\ it\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ spending\\ our\\ short\\ time\\ on\\ earth\\ worrying\\ about\\ the\\ afterlife\\ instead\\ of\\ enjoying\\ what\\ earth\\ has\\ to\\ offer\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Emperor\\ of\\ Ice\\-Cream\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1922\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(172\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(151\\-175\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ funeral\\ poem\\,\\ appearance\\ vs\\.\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ meter\\ varies\\ throughout\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\/\\ \\#2\\ stanzas\\/\\ refrain\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ vanity\\,\\ bedroom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ regularly\\ traveled\\ to\\ Florida\\ and\\ Cuba\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ be\\ be\\ finale\\ of\\ seem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\ OR\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ only\\ emperor\\ is\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ during\\ a\\ wake\\ and\\ juxtaposes\\ the\\ two\\ spaces\\ that\\ those\\ attending\\ the\\ funeral\\ can\\ go\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ space\\ is\\ the\\ kitchen\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ making\\ ice\\ cream\\ for\\ the\\ wake\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ space\\ is\\ the\\ bedroom\\ where\\ the\\ dead\\ woman\\ is\\ waiting\\ to\\ be\\ properly\\ covered\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ two\\ spaces\\ are\\ represented\\ in\\ two\\ different\\ stanzas\\ but\\ of\\ equal\\ length\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ stanzas\\ have\\ parallel\\ endings\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ only\\ emperor\\ is\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ line\\ is\\ more\\ heavily\\ weighted\\ than\\ the\\ others\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ repeated\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ has\\ many\\ more\\ syllables\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ lines\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ higher\\ force\\-\\ he\\ orders\\ everyone\\ around\\,\\ which\\ is\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ numerous\\ commands\\ that\\ he\\ gives\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ attendance\\ at\\ the\\ funeral\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;call\\ the\\ roller\\ of\\ big\\ cigars\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;take\\ from\\ the\\ dresser\\ of\\ deal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ first\\ space\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ introduces\\ is\\ the\\ kitchen\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ we\\ see\\ much\\ vain\\ imagery\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ man\\ who\\ stirs\\ the\\ ice\\ cream\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;muscular\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ women\\ are\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;wenches\\ \\[who\\]\\ dawdle\\ in\\ such\\ dress\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 4\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ the\\ women\\ are\\ standing\\ around\\ in\\ their\\ normal\\ clothing\\,\\ not\\ even\\ trying\\ to\\ go\\ visit\\ the\\ old\\ lady\\ in\\ the\\ bedroom\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;concupiscent\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ suggests\\ the\\ ulterior\\ motives\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ lustful\\ and\\ full\\ of\\ desire\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ attendance\\ at\\ the\\ wake\\,\\ who\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ focused\\ on\\ themselves\\ and\\ eating\\ ice\\ cream\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\ who\\ has\\ died\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ space\\ is\\ the\\ bedroom\\ where\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\ is\\ lying\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lifestyle\\ cannot\\ be\\ hidden\\ any\\ longer\\&mdash\\;her\\ dresser\\ is\\ missing\\ three\\ knobs\\,\\ which\\ shows\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ well\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ sheet\\ cannot\\ cover\\ her\\ entire\\ body\\,\\ which\\ exposes\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;horny\\ feet\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;show\\[s\\]\\ how\\ cold\\ she\\ is\\,\\ and\\ dumb\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 14\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ images\\ shed\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ line\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ be\\ be\\ finale\\ of\\ seem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ these\\ lines\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ revealing\\ reality\\ and\\ ending\\ appearances\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ We\\ notice\\ how\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\,\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ even\\ mentioned\\ until\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ though\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ woman\\,\\ it\\ still\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ line\\ about\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\ begins\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ also\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ human\\ desire\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Idea\\ of\\ Order\\ at\\ Key\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1879\\-1955\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ pg\\.\\ 606\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 13\\&mdash\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\ as\\ Process\\ and\\ Product\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ nature\\ through\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ an\\ apology\\ for\\ \\(or\\ defense\\ of\\)\\ poetry\\,\\ Stevens\\ uses\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;sang\\ beyond\\ the\\ genius\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ enter\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ poetry\\ or\\ art\\ as\\ the\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ sounds\\ of\\ nature\\ into\\ human\\ sounds\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ the\\ land\\,\\ the\\ air\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sea\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ view\\ of\\ nature\\ as\\ inherently\\ meaningless\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ meaningless\\ plunges\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ the\\ wind\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\&mdash\\;it\\ only\\ makes\\ noise\\.\\ The\\ human\\ makes\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ inhuman\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ world\\ intelligible\\ by\\ organizing\\ nature\\ in\\ poetry\\,\\ in\\ song\\,\\ etc\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;arranging\\,\\ deepening\\,\\ enchanting\\ night\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ rage\\ or\\ furor\\ to\\ write\\ or\\ compose\\&mdash\\;to\\ do\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ done\\ before\\ and\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ possible\\.\\ Poetry\\ serves\\ to\\ order\\ planes\\ of\\ existence\\ in\\ finer\\ lines\\&mdash\\;to\\ locate\\ ourselves\\ more\\ precisely\\ on\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ diction\\ of\\ a\\ map\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;emblazoned\\ zones\\ and\\ fiery\\ poles\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ express\\ poetry\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ navigation\\,\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ the\\ geographer\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ depends\\ the\\ universe\\&mdash\\;and\\ renders\\ it\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ forgotten\\&mdash\\;by\\ inserting\\ himself\\.\\ The\\ mastery\\ of\\ language\\ is\\ comparable\\ to\\ the\\ geographic\\ mastery\\ of\\ space\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Idea\\ of\\ Order\\ at\\ Key\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 606\\ \\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(1879\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ December\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\ as\\ Process\\ and\\ Product\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ nocturne\\,\\ religious\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ quite\\ comprehensive\\ because\\ it\\ leaves\\ the\\ reader\\ wondering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ irregular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ and\\ stanza\\ length\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ one\\ line\\ is\\ structurally\\ out\\ of\\ place\\ \\(appears\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ page\\ rather\\ than\\ aligned\\ to\\ the\\ left\\-hand\\ margin\\)\\,\\ which\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ was\\ her\\ voice\\ that\\ made\\ \\/\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ ever\\-hooded\\,\\ tragic\\-gestured\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(perhaps\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ limited\\ capacity\\ to\\ only\\ make\\ noise\\ rather\\ than\\ communicate\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Secondly\\,\\ Key\\ West\\ is\\ the\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ land\\,\\ sky\\,\\ and\\ sea\\ all\\ meet\\.\\ \\ \\;Thirdly\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;glassy\\ lights\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ fishing\\ boats\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mastered\\ the\\ night\\ and\\ portioned\\ out\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ \\/\\ Fixing\\ emblazoned\\ zones\\ and\\ fiery\\ poles\\,\\ \\/\\ Arranging\\,\\ deepening\\,\\ enchanting\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(equating\\ mastery\\ of\\ language\\ to\\ mastery\\ of\\ space\\ \\(latitude\\ and\\ longitude\\)\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ wrote\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ his\\ \\(famous\\)\\ poetry\\ from\\ age\\ 60\\ forward\\;\\ common\\ themes\\ often\\ included\\ \\&ldquo\\;poems\\ about\\ poetry\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ old\\ age\\,\\ poetry\\ about\\ growing\\ old\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ The\\ recurring\\ theme\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ girl\\ is\\ singing\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ sea\\ is\\ making\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ sounds\\,\\ yet\\ these\\ sounds\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;meaningless\\ plungings\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ the\\ wind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\ is\\ we\\ who\\ assign\\ meaning\\ to\\ these\\ sounds\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ when\\ she\\ sang\\,\\ the\\ sea\\ \\,\\ \\/\\ Whatever\\ self\\ it\\ had\\,\\ became\\ the\\ self\\ \\/\\ That\\ was\\ her\\ song\\,\\ for\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ maker\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ surprising\\,\\ because\\ it\\ paints\\ humans\\ as\\ somehow\\ superior\\ to\\ nature\\;\\ human\\ beings\\ have\\ a\\ capacity\\ that\\ nature\\ does\\ not\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ assign\\ meaning\\ to\\ mere\\ sounds\\,\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ communicate\\ with\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ this\\ theme\\ again\\ when\\ the\\ poet\\ compares\\ the\\ singing\\ woman\\ to\\ the\\ sea\\ by\\ explaining\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ it\\ was\\ she\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ sea\\ we\\ hear\\.\\ \\/\\ For\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ maker\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ she\\ sang\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ her\\ voice\\,\\ controlled\\ primarily\\ by\\ her\\ own\\ voice\\ box\\,\\ the\\ sea\\ was\\ controlled\\ by\\ a\\ different\\ force\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;maker\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(presumably\\ God\\)\\ who\\ appears\\ again\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ maker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rage\\ to\\ order\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ maker\\&rdquo\\;\\ wants\\ to\\ order\\ words\\ and\\ the\\ entire\\ world\\ in\\ an\\ even\\ more\\ specific\\ and\\ detailed\\ way\\ \\(more\\ than\\ the\\ latitude\\/longitude\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ light\\ from\\ the\\ boats\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ maker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rage\\ to\\ order\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\&hellip\\;In\\ ghostlier\\ demarcations\\,\\ keener\\ sounds\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Plain\\ Sense\\ of\\ Things\\ \\(page\\ 7\\)\\ \\-\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(1879\\-1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lyric\\ Extended\\ Metaphor\\,\\ Seasons\\,\\ Old\\ Age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ blank\\ verse\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ definite\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ There\\ are\\ 5\\ stanzas\\.\\ Each\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ quatrain\\ with\\ each\\ line\\ containing\\ approximately\\ 10\\ syllables\\.\\ This\\ would\\ put\\ it\\ at\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ although\\ there\\ are\\ significant\\ deviations\\ from\\ this\\ standard\\,\\ with\\ some\\ lines\\ containing\\ less\\ and\\ some\\ containing\\ up\\ to\\ 14\\ syllables\\.\\ Enjambed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Winter\\,\\ coldness\\,\\ delapidated\\ structures\\,\\ silent\\ pond\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wallace\\ Steven\\&\\#39\\;s\\ was\\ by\\ profession\\ a\\ lawyer\\ who\\ worked\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ White\\ male\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ an\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\ wealthy\\ urban\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ reflective\\ style\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ extended\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphor\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ indicate\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ ruminating\\ over\\ the\\ difficulties\\ of\\ coping\\ with\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ aging\\.\\ This\\ process\\ involves\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ dreams\\ and\\ hopes\\ that\\ accompany\\ youth\\,\\ and\\ through\\ the\\ cold\\ and\\ silent\\ imagery\\ Stevens\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ indicate\\ the\\ speakers\\ sense\\ of\\ calm\\ suffering\\ that\\ involves\\ this\\ loss\\ of\\ sentiment\\.\\ The\\ turning\\ point\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ 4th\\ stanza\\,\\ whereby\\ the\\ author\\ realizes\\ that\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ change\\ also\\ produces\\ something\\ valuable\\.\\ This\\ process\\ of\\ change\\ is\\ presented\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ pond\\,\\ whereby\\ a\\ pond\\ without\\ reflections\\ symbolizes\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ life\\ lacking\\ the\\ youthful\\ notions\\.\\ This\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ dilapidated\\ house\\,\\ which\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ these\\ youthful\\ notions\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ in\\ these\\ two\\ symbols\\ is\\ there\\ strength\\.\\ The\\ dilapidated\\ house\\ is\\ clearly\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ something\\ lost\\,\\ while\\ the\\ the\\ unexpressive\\ pond\\ is\\ a\\ subtle\\ indication\\ of\\ seeing\\ the\\ underlying\\ elements\\ once\\ the\\ fluff\\ is\\ gone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Planet\\ on\\ the\\ Table\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 608\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(1879\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\ \\(cont\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ December\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ alternates\\ between\\ trimeter\\ and\\ tetrameter\\,\\ but\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;beat\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ heard\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ on\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ poem\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ flow\\ easily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Poem\\ split\\ into\\ 5\\ stanzas\\,\\ all\\ tercets\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ rhyme\\ is\\ in\\ middle\\ stanza\\:\\ rhymes\\ \\&ldquo\\;sun\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ comparing\\ self\\ to\\ sun\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Planet\\ on\\ the\\ Table\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ lying\\ before\\ him\\ on\\ a\\ table\\ that\\ contained\\ his\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ wrote\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ his\\ \\(famous\\)\\ poetry\\ from\\ age\\ 60\\ forward\\;\\ common\\ themes\\ often\\ included\\ \\&ldquo\\;poems\\ about\\ poetry\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ old\\ age\\,\\ poetry\\ about\\ growing\\ old\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ self\\ and\\ the\\ sun\\ were\\ one\\ \\/\\ And\\ his\\ poems\\,\\ although\\ makings\\ of\\ his\\ self\\,\\ \\/\\ Were\\ no\\ less\\ makings\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\&ldquo\\;sees\\ his\\ life\\ work\\ contained\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ object\\,\\ the\\ potential\\ book\\ lying\\ before\\ him\\ on\\ a\\ table\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Vendler\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ begins\\ with\\ Ariel\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ tree\\ spirit\\ in\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Tempest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ poet\\ who\\ writes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ remembered\\ time\\ \\/\\ Or\\ of\\ something\\ seen\\ that\\ he\\ liked\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Other\\ poets\\ works\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;waste\\ and\\ welter\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ his\\ poems\\ were\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;makings\\ of\\ his\\ self\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;makings\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(by\\ comparing\\ himself\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ Stevens\\ is\\ attributing\\ greatness\\ to\\ his\\ poetry\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ explains\\ that\\ the\\ primary\\ purpose\\ for\\ writing\\ poetry\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ survives\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ mattered\\ was\\ that\\ \\[the\\ poems\\]\\ should\\ bear\\ \\/\\ Some\\ lineament\\ or\\ character\\,\\&hellip\\;Of\\ the\\ planet\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ part\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ his\\ poetry\\ was\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ those\\ who\\ read\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ here\\-and\\-now\\;\\ the\\ future\\ was\\ irrelevant\\ \\(which\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ contrast\\ to\\ other\\ poets\\ we\\ have\\ read\\,\\ who\\ lament\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ forgotten\\ when\\ they\\ die\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Keats\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ I\\ Have\\ Fears\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ he\\ wished\\ for\\ was\\ that\\ his\\ poetry\\ would\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ lineament\\ or\\ character\\,\\ \\/\\ Some\\ affluence\\,\\ if\\ only\\ half\\-perceived\\,\\ \\/\\ In\\ the\\ poverty\\ of\\ their\\ words\\,\\ \\/\\ Off\\ the\\ planet\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ part\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Note\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ is\\ in\\ past\\ tense\\,\\ perhaps\\ suggesting\\ that\\ much\\ change\\ had\\ occurred\\ from\\ when\\ he\\ first\\ began\\ writing\\ his\\ poetry\\,\\ or\\ that\\ poems\\ lose\\ importance\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Hand\\ Mirror\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(631\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Introduction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Decay\\/Self\\ Reflexive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dramatic\\ Monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ one\\ stanza\\ of\\ 14\\ lines\\ with\\ no\\ rhyming\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lines\\ are\\ indented\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ necessarily\\ break\\ up\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Decay\\/rot\\/\\ loss\\ of\\ vanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Famous\\ Romantic\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lungs\\ rotting\\ away\\ piecemeal\\,\\ stomach\\ sour\\ and\\ cankerous\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-portrait\\ based\\ on\\ holding\\ up\\ a\\ hand\\ mirror\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Professor\\ Vendler\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ hand\\ mirror\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ women\\ and\\ vanity\\,\\ but\\ Whitman\\ uses\\ the\\ hand\\ mirror\\ to\\ rebuke\\ vanity\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\,\\ however\\,\\ traces\\ of\\ vanity\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ destroyed\\.\\ \\;\\ Whitman\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ looking\\ at\\ himself\\ in\\ a\\ mirror\\ and\\ remarking\\ how\\ hideously\\ ugly\\ and\\ decayed\\ he\\ has\\ become\\,\\ and\\ how\\ remarkable\\ this\\ is\\ given\\ that\\ he\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ attractive\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ writes\\,\\ \\"\\;No\\ more\\ a\\ flashing\\ eye\\,\\ no\\ more\\ a\\ sonorous\\ voice\\ or\\ springy\\ step\\,\\"\\;\\ implying\\ that\\ he\\ once\\ had\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ then\\ describes\\ himself\\ in\\ really\\ vile\\ detail\\,\\ including\\ \\"\\;Lungs\\ rotting\\ away\\ piecemeal\\,\\ stomach\\ sour\\ and\\ cankerous\\,\\/\\ Joints\\ rheumatic\\,\\ bowels\\ clogged\\ with\\ abomination\\"\\;\\ etc\\.\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ line\\ is\\,\\ \\"\\;Such\\ from\\ one\\ look\\ in\\ this\\ looking\\-glass\\ ere\\ you\\ go\\ hence\\,\\"\\;\\ suggesting\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ forever\\ remain\\ in\\ this\\ state\\ of\\ decay\\ revealed\\ to\\ him\\ by\\ the\\ looking\\ glass\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ last\\ line\\ again\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ indeed\\ decay\\ from\\ something\\ much\\ better\\ looking\\ than\\ what\\ now\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ looking\\ glass\\.\\ \\;\\ Whitman\\ writes\\,\\ \\"\\;Such\\ a\\ result\\ so\\ soon\\ \\-\\ and\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ beginning\\!\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ If\\ we\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ the\\ beginning\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ worth\\ mentioning\\ Whitman\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ surprised\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ grown\\ this\\ ugly\\,\\ which\\ appears\\ bracketed\\ by\\ parentheses\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ \\-\\ when\\ he\\ looks\\ at\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ mirror\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ \\"\\;who\\ is\\ it\\?\\ \\;\\ is\\ it\\ you\\?\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ So\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ rebuke\\ of\\ vanity\\,\\ like\\ Professor\\ Vendler\\ said\\,\\ but\\ the\\ speaker\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ entirely\\ estranged\\ from\\ vanity\\,\\ he\\ just\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ bring\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ vain\\ any\\ more\\.\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Also\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ really\\ strong\\,\\ forceful\\ meter\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ which\\ works\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ vile\\ things\\ Whitman\\ describes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Noiseless\\ Patient\\ Spider\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1891\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 67\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/27\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Analogy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ two\\ 5\\-line\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ empty\\ space\\,\\ attachment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ O\\ my\\ soul\\ where\\ you\\ stand\\,\\ \\/\\ Surrounded\\,\\ detached\\,\\ in\\ measureless\\ oceans\\ of\\ space\\,\\ \\/\\ ceaselessly\\ musing\\,\\ venturing\\ throwing\\,\\ seeking\\ the\\ spheres\\ to\\ connect\\ them\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ exemplify\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;small\\ in\\ theme\\ yet\\ has\\ it\\ the\\ sweep\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ uses\\ the\\ analogy\\ of\\ a\\ spider\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ spin\\ its\\ web\\ to\\ address\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ find\\ his\\/her\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ begins\\ on\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;little\\ promontory\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ spider\\ is\\ exploring\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;vacant\\ vast\\ surrounding\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ spider\\ launches\\ \\&ldquo\\;filament\\,\\ filament\\,\\ filament\\,\\ out\\ of\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ repetition\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ work\\ going\\ into\\ building\\ the\\ web\\ as\\ he\\ spider\\ \\&ldquo\\;ever\\ tirelessly\\ speeding\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ second\\ verse\\ then\\ switches\\ to\\ an\\ examination\\ of\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soul\\ stands\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;measureless\\ space\\&rdquo\\;\\ surrounding\\ him\\.\\ He\\ too\\ is\\ seeking\\ lasting\\ connection\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ world\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ friendship\\ with\\ others\\ or\\ a\\ connection\\ with\\ his\\ creator\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ filament\\ 3\\ times\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ uses\\ three\\ phrases\\ for\\ his\\ connections\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ form\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Till\\ the\\ bridge\\ you\\ will\\ need\\ be\\ form\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ till\\ the\\ ductile\\ anchor\\ hold\\,\\ \\/\\ Till\\ the\\ gossamer\\ thread\\ you\\ fling\\ catch\\ somewhere\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ From\\ his\\ small\\ observation\\ of\\ the\\ spider\\,\\ Whitman\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ examination\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ soul\\ and\\ its\\ place\\ it\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hush\\&\\#39\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\ To\\-day\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 330\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\.\\ Quatrain\\ and\\ 3\\ tercets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ mourning\\,\\ military\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ first\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Lincoln\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ sing\\ poet\\ in\\ our\\ name\\,\\ \\/\\ Sing\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ we\\ bore\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\because\\ you\\,\\ dweller\\ in\\ camps\\,\\ know\\ it\\ truly\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ his\\ first\\ poem\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ Whitman\\ chooses\\ to\\ speak\\ in\\ the\\ collective\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Union\\ army\\,\\ as\\ soldiers\\ call\\ on\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sing\\&hellip\\;in\\ our\\ name\\&hellip\\;one\\ verse\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ reads\\ as\\ quasi\\-military\\ orders\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ command\\ that\\ a\\ silence\\ be\\ maintained\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\ during\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ funeral\\ service\\ in\\ Washington\\.\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ describes\\ the\\ liturgy\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ commander\\ in\\ chief\\.\\ After\\ they\\ have\\ performed\\ the\\ collective\\ ritual\\ of\\ silence\\ and\\ draped\\ guns\\ to\\ show\\ respect\\ for\\ Lincoln\\,\\ however\\,\\ they\\ realize\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ something\\ necessary\\ to\\ their\\ ceremony\\,\\ a\\ sung\\ utterance\\ in\\ their\\ name\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ soldiers\\ can\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ ritual\\ and\\ consolation\\,\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ perform\\ the\\ song\\.\\ It\\ requires\\ a\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ help\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;dweller\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ particular\\ heaviness\\ of\\ the\\ soldiers\\ heart\\.\\ In\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ soldiers\\ imagine\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ invaulted\\,\\ but\\ Lincoln\\ was\\ not\\ actually\\ buried\\ in\\ Washington\\ like\\ Whitman\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ true\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ Saw\\ in\\ Louisiana\\ a\\ Live\\-Oak\\ Growing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(198\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Emblem\\ poem\\/\\ Nature\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Identity\\ poem\\ \\(lyric\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Poem\\ has\\ only\\ 13\\ lines\\ and\\ is\\ without\\ any\\ rhythmic\\ or\\ formal\\ stanzaic\\ pattern\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Oak\\ tree\\,\\ companionship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uttering\\ joyous\\ leaves\\ all\\ its\\ life\\ without\\ a\\ friend\\ or\\ a\\ lover\\ near\\,\\ \\/\\ I\\ know\\ very\\ well\\ I\\ could\\ not\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poet\\ observed\\ an\\ oak\\ tree\\ in\\ Louisiana\\ which\\ stood\\ alone\\ and\\ whose\\ dark\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;were\\ delightful\\.\\ The\\ oak\\ was\\ rough\\,\\ unyielding\\,\\ and\\ lusty\\&mdash\\;it\\ reminded\\ the\\ poet\\ of\\ himself\\,\\ though\\ he\\ wondered\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ it\\ could\\ utter\\ joyous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ alone\\,\\ without\\ a\\ friend\\&mdash\\;he\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ broke\\ off\\ a\\ twig\\ and\\ carried\\ it\\ to\\ his\\ room\\.\\ To\\ him\\ it\\ seemed\\ a\\ strange\\ \\&ldquo\\;token\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ of\\ manly\\ love\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ And\\ still\\ he\\ wonders\\ how\\ it\\ could\\ utter\\ joyous\\ messages\\ through\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;without\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ a\\ lover\\ near\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ twig\\ is\\ a\\ phallic\\ symbol\\.\\ Even\\ the\\ live\\ oak\\ itself\\ approximates\\ the\\ phallic\\ and\\ thus\\ suggests\\ manly\\ love\\.\\ Physical\\ love\\ is\\ as\\ elementary\\ as\\ the\\ oak\\ tree\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ its\\ luxuriant\\ growth\\ is\\ an\\ organic\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ manly\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ spirit\\.\\ Whitman\\ is\\ surprised\\ that\\ the\\ tree\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ express\\ itself\\ so\\ luxuriantly\\ alone\\&mdash\\;he\\ could\\ not\\ write\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ poems\\,\\ without\\ companionship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 331\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\ measure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Stanzas\\ consist\\ of\\ 4\\ seven\\ beat\\ ballad\\ lines\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ tetrameter\\ \\+\\ trimeter\\.\\ Followed\\ by\\ 2\\ trimeter\\ lines\\ and\\ then\\ another\\ tetrameter\\ \\+\\ trimeter\\,\\ but\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ rhyming\\ pattern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabbcded\\ aabbcded\\ aabbcded\\.\\ It\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ noted\\ that\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ stanzas\\ appear\\ like\\ a\\ ship\\ approaching\\ its\\ destination\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ It\\ is\\ conjectured\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ poem\\ written\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ ballad\\ measure\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hush\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(first\\ poem\\)\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ troops\\ ask\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sing\\ the\\ love\\ we\\ bore\\ him\\ \\(Lincoln\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ O\\ heart\\!\\ Heart\\!\\ Heart\\!\\ \\/\\ O\\ the\\ bleeding\\ drops\\ of\\ red\\ \\/\\ Where\\ on\\ the\\ deck\\ my\\ Captain\\ lies\\,\\ \\/\\ Fallen\\ cold\\ and\\ dead\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ sung\\ in\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ Union\\ recruit\\ who\\ has\\ sailed\\ on\\ the\\ ship\\ with\\ his\\ captain\\.\\ The\\ tide\\ of\\ war\\ has\\ changed\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ victory\\ is\\ in\\ sight\\,\\ as\\ cheering\\ crowds\\ are\\ welcoming\\ the\\ ship\\ into\\ the\\ port\\.\\ But\\ at\\ that\\ moment\\,\\ the\\ captain\\ is\\ shot\\ and\\ dies\\ \\(end\\ of\\ first\\ stanza\\ cited\\ above\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ boy\\ continues\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ captain\\ as\\ someone\\ still\\ living\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\,\\ cradled\\ in\\ the\\ boys\\ arms\\,\\ can\\ hear\\ the\\ words\\ spoken\\ to\\ him\\.\\ The\\ turning\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ when\\ the\\ young\\ sailor\\ resigns\\ himself\\ to\\ the\\ captain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ and\\ begins\\ referring\\ to\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ person\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Another\\ important\\ reference\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ when\\ the\\ boy\\ calls\\ the\\ captain\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ father\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ brings\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ captain\\ down\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ personal\\ level\\ of\\ father\\-son\\ instead\\ of\\ captain\\-sailor\\.\\ In\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Whitman\\ had\\ already\\ made\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ more\\ intimate\\ than\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hush\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ bringing\\ the\\ relationship\\ down\\ from\\ Commander\\-Soldier\\ to\\ the\\ closer\\ relationship\\ between\\ Captain\\-Sailor\\.\\ By\\ making\\ the\\ relationship\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ personal\\,\\ Whitman\\ makes\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relation\\ to\\ others\\ more\\ democratic\\ and\\ intimate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ regularly\\ rhyming\\ stanzas\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ also\\ contribute\\ to\\ its\\ personal\\ feeling\\.\\ The\\ ballad\\ measures\\ were\\ of\\ the\\ sort\\ that\\ were\\ popular\\ in\\ folk\\ poetry\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;song\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ the\\ soldiers\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hush\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ sailors\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ be\\ familiar\\ with\\ and\\ the\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ of\\ victory\\ and\\ celebration\\ are\\ expected\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ young\\ sailor\\.\\ \\(Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ you\\ the\\ flag\\ is\\ flung\\,\\ for\\ you\\ the\\ bugle\\ trills\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ Dust\\ Was\\ Once\\ the\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1871\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 339\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ epitaph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ One\\ quatrain\\ because\\ an\\ epitaph\\ should\\ be\\ short\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ inscribed\\ on\\ a\\ tombstone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ last\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\ pieces\\ on\\ Lincoln\\ written\\ by\\ Whitman\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ dust\\ was\\ once\\ the\\ man\\,\\ \\/\\ Gentle\\,\\ plain\\,\\ just\\ and\\ resolute\\,\\ under\\ whose\\ cautious\\ hand\\,\\ \\/\\ Against\\ the\\ foulest\\ crime\\ in\\ history\\ known\\ in\\ any\\ land\\ or\\ age\\,\\ \\/\\ Was\\ saved\\ the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ such\\ a\\ short\\ poem\\,\\ it\\ contains\\ quite\\ depth\\ in\\ relating\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ dust\\ to\\ saving\\ the\\ Nation\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ turmoil\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ line\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ grasps\\ the\\ dust\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ close\\ to\\ himself\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ dust\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ pointing\\ outward\\ or\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ grave\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ dust\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ such\\ outward\\ perspective\\ was\\ present\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ Lilacs\\ Last\\ in\\ the\\ Dooryard\\ Bloom\\&rsquo\\;d\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ second\\ line\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adjectives\\ each\\ describe\\ a\\ different\\ aspect\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ in\\ a\\ succinct\\ way\\.\\ His\\ initial\\ gentleness\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ his\\ final\\ resoluteness\\.\\ Plain\\ describes\\ his\\ simple\\ past\\,\\ and\\ just\\ describes\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legal\\ career\\.\\ The\\ last\\ adjective\\ in\\ the\\ line\\ is\\ not\\ applied\\ to\\ Lincoln\\ himself\\ but\\ to\\ his\\ guiding\\ hand\\,\\ speaking\\ to\\ his\\ wisdom\\ as\\ a\\ leader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ epitaph\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ active\\ verb\\ to\\ its\\ subject\\.\\ Lincoln\\ is\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ man\\&hellip\\;Who\\ saved\\ the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ was\\ those\\ under\\ his\\ guidance\\,\\ the\\ soldiers\\ in\\ the\\ army\\,\\ that\\ saved\\ the\\ Union\\,\\ although\\ they\\ get\\ no\\ mention\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ line\\,\\ Whitman\\ uses\\ the\\ euphemism\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ foulest\\ crime\\ in\\ history\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ Placing\\ slavery\\ between\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ guidance\\ and\\ the\\ eventual\\ salvation\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ Notably\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ line\\,\\ Whitman\\ chooses\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ epitaph\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ syntactically\\ normal\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\ was\\ saved\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ placing\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ more\\ significance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Heard\\ the\\ Learn\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Astronomer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/20\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ valediction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ varied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ mixed\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ vernal\\,\\ death\\,\\ decay\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;look\\&rsquo\\;d\\ up\\ in\\ perfect\\ silence\\ at\\ the\\ stars\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ broken\\ into\\ two\\ halves\\,\\ each\\ with\\ four\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ half\\,\\ all\\ anaphora\\,\\ details\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ of\\ listening\\ to\\ an\\ astronomer\\ detail\\ how\\ the\\ universe\\ works\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lecturer\\,\\ with\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;charts\\ and\\ diagrams\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ reduced\\ the\\ sky\\ to\\ a\\ science\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ entire\\ audience\\ is\\ awed\\ by\\ this\\,\\ and\\ they\\ applaud\\ the\\ lecturer\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;tired\\ and\\ sick\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ revelation\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ secrets\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ half\\,\\ he\\ leaves\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;wander\\&rdquo\\;\\ amongst\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mystical\\ night\\-air\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;After\\ being\\ instructed\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ wishes\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ his\\ ignorance\\ back\\,\\ for\\ then\\ the\\ stars\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ mystical\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ bittersweet\\ sentiment\\ is\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ line\\,\\ quoted\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Lilacs\\ Last\\ in\\ the\\ Dooryard\\ Bloom\\&\\#39\\;d\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 332\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ elegy\\,\\ personal\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 16\\ cantos\\ ranging\\ from\\ 5\\ to\\ 53\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ vernal\\,\\ death\\,\\ grief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ third\\ poem\\ written\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Lincoln\\.\\ Considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ finest\\ poems\\ Whitman\\ ever\\ wrote\\.\\ It\\ is\\ grander\\ and\\ more\\ poignant\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ elegies\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ by\\ Whitman\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ lilacs\\ in\\ the\\ dooryard\\ bloom\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ the\\ great\\ star\\ early\\ droop\\&rsquo\\;d\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ sky\\ in\\ the\\ night\\,\\ \\/\\ I\\ mourn\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ shall\\ mourn\\ with\\ ever\\-returning\\ spring\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ written\\ in\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ personal\\ lyric\\ voice\\.\\ In\\ it\\,\\ Lincoln\\ is\\ not\\ placed\\ in\\ a\\ vertical\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ as\\ president\\,\\ commander\\-in\\-chief\\,\\ captain\\,\\ or\\ even\\ father\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ rather\\ placed\\ horizontally\\ as\\ a\\ fellow\\ man\\ of\\ great\\ wisdom\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ follows\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coffin\\ train\\ as\\ it\\ makes\\ its\\ long\\ and\\ mournful\\ journey\\.\\ However\\,\\ nothing\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ depends\\ on\\ historical\\ fact\\ about\\ the\\ assassination\\ or\\ any\\ of\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ acts\\ as\\ presidency\\.\\ Even\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ reburied\\ with\\ him\\ is\\ omitted\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Whitman\\ relies\\ on\\ 3\\ symbols\\:\\ the\\ lilac\\ of\\ this\\ earth\\,\\ the\\ star\\ of\\ the\\ evening\\ sky\\,\\ and\\ the\\ hermit\\-thrush\\ of\\ the\\ dark\\ swamp\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ within\\ the\\ realms\\ represented\\ by\\ these\\ symbols\\ the\\ upper\\ world\\,\\ middle\\-world\\,\\ and\\ underworld\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ cantos\\ can\\ be\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ 4\\ cycles\\.\\ The\\ first\\ comprises\\ cantos\\ 1\\-4\\ which\\ present\\ the\\ setting\\ in\\ clear\\ perspective\\.\\ Spring\\ returns\\,\\ the\\ lilacs\\ blossom\\,\\ the\\ star\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ sky\\ is\\ covered\\ in\\ the\\ night\\,\\ and\\ a\\ shy\\,\\ solitary\\ thrush\\ sings\\ a\\ song\\ expressing\\ its\\ inmost\\ grief\\.\\ The\\ recurrence\\ of\\ spring\\ is\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ rebirth\\,\\ the\\ star\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grief\\ for\\ Lincoln\\,\\ and\\ the\\ bird\\ symbolizes\\ a\\ reconciliation\\ with\\ death\\ and\\ it\\ song\\ is\\ the\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\.\\ The\\ second\\ canto\\ describes\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intense\\ grief\\ for\\ the\\ dead\\ and\\ each\\ line\\ begins\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ an\\ exclamation\\ which\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ mouth\\ open\\ in\\ woe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ second\\ cycle\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ comprises\\ cantos\\ 5\\-9\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ the\\ journey\\ of\\ the\\ coffin\\ through\\ the\\ natural\\ scenary\\ and\\ industrial\\ cities\\.\\ Somber\\ face\\,\\ solemn\\ voices\\,\\ and\\ mournful\\ dirges\\ mark\\ the\\ journey\\ across\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ offers\\ the\\ dead\\ man\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ sprig\\ of\\ lilac\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ bringing\\ fresh\\ blossoms\\ not\\ for\\ Lincoln\\ alone\\ but\\ for\\ all\\ dead\\ men\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ association\\ of\\ death\\ with\\ a\\ living\\ object\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ then\\ address\\ the\\ star\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ sky\\,\\ imagining\\ it\\ full\\ of\\ woe\\,\\ and\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ bird\\ to\\ continue\\ singing\\ its\\ song\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ third\\ cycle\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ cantos\\ 10\\-13\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ wonders\\ how\\ he\\ shall\\ sing\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ the\\ large\\ sweet\\ soul\\ that\\ has\\ gone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Whitman\\ references\\ various\\ cities\\ and\\ areas\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;varied\\ and\\ ample\\ land\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ bird\\ continues\\ singing\\ from\\ the\\ swamps\\.\\ The\\ song\\ has\\ a\\ liberating\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soul\\,\\ although\\ the\\ star\\ still\\ holds\\ him\\,\\ as\\ does\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mastering\\ odor\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ lilac\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ fourth\\ cycle\\ of\\ cantos\\ 14\\-16\\ restate\\ the\\ earlier\\ themes\\ and\\ symbols\\ but\\ from\\ a\\ perspective\\ of\\ immortality\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ meditates\\ on\\ one\\ day\\ sitting\\ in\\ the\\ peaceful\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;unconscious\\ scenery\\ of\\ my\\ land\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ suddenly\\ realizing\\ that\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;knew\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\ follows\\ the\\ poet\\ in\\ this\\ passage\\.\\ It\\ becomes\\ a\\ spiritual\\ ally\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\.\\ As\\ the\\ bird\\ sings\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ sees\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;battle\\-corpses\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;debris\\ of\\ slain\\ soldiers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ soldiers\\ are\\ happy\\ in\\ their\\ resting\\ place\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ relatives\\ that\\ continue\\ to\\ suffer\\.\\ The\\ coffin\\ reaches\\ its\\ journey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ end\\.\\ As\\ the\\ coffin\\ passes\\ him\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ salutes\\ it\\,\\ reminding\\ himself\\ that\\ the\\ lilac\\ blooming\\ in\\ the\\ dooryard\\ will\\ return\\ each\\ spring\\.\\ All\\ three\\ symbols\\ join\\ the\\ poet\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ goodbye\\ to\\ Lincoln\\.\\ The\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ final\\ realization\\ of\\ immortality\\ through\\ the\\ emotional\\ conflict\\ of\\ personal\\ loss\\ is\\ the\\ principal\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hours\\ Continuing\\ Long\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.6\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(1819\\-1892\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 9\\/20\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poem\\ as\\ Life\\:\\ The\\ Private\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ module\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;love\\ poem\\ \\(but\\ also\\ loss\\,\\ desertion\\,\\ longing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\ poem\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ free\\ verse\\ \\(typical\\ of\\ Whitman\\)\\,\\ though\\ highly\\ rhythmic\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ dactyls\\ \\(DAdada\\)\\,\\ mimicking\\ speech\\ patterns\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;no\\ regular\\ form\\ or\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ \\(typical\\ of\\ Whitman\\)\\ but\\ structural\\ patterns\\ exist\\.\\ Except\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ line\\,\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ broken\\ up\\ into\\ a\\ string\\ of\\ independent\\ clauses\\ \\(connected\\ with\\ semi\\-colons\\)\\,\\ each\\ beginning\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;hours\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(except\\ for\\ line\\ 12\\ which\\ breaks\\ the\\ pattern\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sullen\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ lines\\ indented\\.\\ The\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(lines\\ 15\\-26\\)\\ follow\\ this\\ same\\ visual\\ structure\\ but\\ are\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ questions\\,\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Does\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ second\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ question\\ indented\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ a\\ visual\\ pattern\\ that\\ highlights\\ the\\ words\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hours\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sullen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Does\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;desertion\\,\\ longing\\,\\ loneliness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Whitman\\ is\\ a\\ humanist\\,\\ modernist\\ writer\\ during\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ unconventional\\ \\(un\\-traditional\\ European\\)\\ style\\ and\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ homosexual\\,\\ which\\ is\\ evident\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ several\\ others\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ portrays\\ \\&ldquo\\;male\\ friendship\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ even\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ male\\ body\\ \\(Wikipedia\\)\\.\\ He\\ tends\\ to\\ use\\ vernacular\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tends\\ to\\ blend\\ between\\ the\\ self\\ and\\ world\\,\\ the\\ private\\ and\\ the\\ public\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Whitman\\ feels\\ strong\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ thus\\ physical\\ contact\\ becomes\\ important\\ to\\ spiritual\\ communion\\ \\(Sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ often\\ employs\\ lists\\ or\\ anecdotes\\ as\\ poetic\\ features\\ to\\ convey\\ his\\ story\\ and\\ meaning\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ sympathetic\\ experience\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Sullen\\ and\\ suffering\\ hours\\!\\ \\(I\\ am\\ ashamed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ useless\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\/\\ am\\ what\\ I\\ am\\)\\;\\ \\/\\ Hours\\ of\\ my\\ torment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ other\\ men\\ ever\\ have\\ the\\/\\ like\\,\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ feelings\\?\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ expresses\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ loss\\ after\\ a\\ lover\\ has\\ deserted\\ him\\.\\ The\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ of\\ loss\\,\\ how\\ slow\\ \\(long\\ hours\\)\\ and\\ empty\\ the\\ world\\ feels\\ without\\ the\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ then\\ transitions\\ in\\ the\\ line\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hours\\ of\\ my\\ torment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ other\\ men\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ connect\\ with\\ humanity\\,\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ others\\ have\\ had\\ a\\ similar\\ experience\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ find\\ comfort\\ in\\ shared\\ experience\\ and\\ emotion\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Does\\ he\\ see\\ himself\\ reflected\\ in\\ me\\?\\)\\.\\ This\\ second\\ half\\ combines\\ hope\\ of\\ connecting\\ with\\ others\\ through\\ loss\\ with\\ the\\ despondency\\ of\\ being\\ deserted\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ convey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ mix\\ the\\ self\\ and\\ the\\ world\\,\\ the\\ private\\ and\\ the\\ public\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ grammar\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ reflects\\ these\\ two\\ separate\\ parts\\:\\ the\\ first\\ consisting\\ of\\ phrases\\ divided\\ by\\ semicolons\\,\\ the\\ second\\ consisting\\ of\\ questions\\.\\ This\\ portrays\\ the\\ longing\\,\\ hoping\\,\\ attempts\\ to\\ engage\\ and\\ relate\\ to\\ others\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ language\\ and\\ imagery\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ convey\\ the\\ emptiness\\,\\ endlessness\\,\\ slowness\\ of\\ time\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ rejection\\ and\\ loss\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ line\\ 6\\ he\\ mentions\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ country\\ roads\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ city\\ streets\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ two\\ contrasting\\ images\\ that\\ can\\ both\\ be\\ lonely\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ in\\ line\\ 18\\-19\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ his\\ desertion\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ morning\\,\\ dejected\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ night\\&hellip\\;thinking\\/\\ who\\ is\\ lost\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ this\\ reflects\\ the\\ totality\\,\\ continuity\\,\\ and\\ inescapability\\ of\\ his\\ emotional\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ I\\ Walked\\ out\\ One\\ Evening\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1937\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ W\\.H\\.\\ Auden\\ p\\.372\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Section\\,\\ week\\ of\\ October\\ 9\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Love\\ lyric\\,\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcb\\ etc\\.\\ \\/\\ 15\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 4\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ River\\,\\ clocks\\ chiming\\,\\ two\\ lovers\\,\\ time\\,\\ seasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ English\\ poet\\,\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ glacier\\ knocks\\ in\\ the\\ cupboard\\,\\ \\/\\ The\\ desert\\ sighs\\ in\\ the\\ bed\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ the\\ crack\\ in\\ the\\ teacup\\ opens\\ \\/\\ A\\ lane\\ to\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thematically\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ mortality\\ and\\ Time\\ conquering\\ all\\ things\\,\\ even\\ Love\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ with\\ an\\ evening\\ walk\\,\\ the\\ initial\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ crowd\\ like\\ a\\ field\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;harvest\\ wheat\\&rdquo\\;\\ foreshadows\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ to\\ eventually\\ be\\ cut\\ down\\ \\(by\\ Time\\,\\ we\\ will\\ find\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Stanza\\ 2\\ the\\ speaker\\ hears\\ one\\ lover\\ speaking\\ to\\ another\\,\\ and\\ stanzas\\ 3\\-5\\ are\\ the\\ sweet\\ verses\\ of\\ hyperbole\\ we\\ find\\ in\\ all\\ love\\ poems\\:\\ that\\ I\\ will\\ love\\ you\\ forever\\,\\ till\\ the\\ sky\\ falls\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ tonal\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ when\\ Time\\ interrupts\\.\\ \\ \\;Auden\\ uses\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clocks\\,\\ which\\ remind\\ everyone\\ of\\ Time\\,\\ speaking\\ directly\\ to\\ our\\ two\\ imaginary\\ lovers\\.\\ \\ \\;Time\\ announces\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ undefeatable\\&mdash\\;that\\ the\\ lover\\&rsquo\\;s\\ verses\\ are\\ meaningless\\ because\\ in\\ reality\\ nothing\\ goes\\ on\\ forever\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ interrupts\\ all\\ good\\ things\\ eventually\\;\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;coughs\\ when\\ you\\ would\\ kiss\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ way\\ someone\\ might\\ demurely\\ intrude\\ on\\ a\\ private\\ conversation\\ by\\ coughing\\ to\\ announce\\ their\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Time\\ then\\ speaks\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ eight\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ emotional\\ height\\ increasing\\ with\\ each\\ one\\ to\\ the\\ climax\\ in\\ the\\ last\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ there\\ are\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\:\\ snow\\ drifting\\ into\\ the\\ green\\ valleys\\ of\\ summer\\,\\ then\\ to\\ age\\ weakening\\ those\\ who\\ dance\\ and\\ dive\\,\\ then\\ an\\ allusion\\ to\\ suicide\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;plunge\\ \\[your\\ hands\\]\\ in\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ wrist\\;\\ \\/\\ Stare\\,\\ stare\\ in\\ the\\ basin\\ \\/\\ And\\ wonder\\ what\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ missed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ images\\ become\\ increasing\\ bizarre\\:\\ we\\ have\\ great\\ forces\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;glaciers\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;deserts\\&rdquo\\;\\ pouring\\ into\\ and\\ crushing\\ our\\ houses\\,\\ and\\ the\\ crack\\ in\\ the\\ teacup\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ mortality\\ and\\ imperfection\\ of\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;Stanza\\ twelve\\ uses\\ nursery\\ rhymes\\,\\ but\\ twists\\ them\\ all\\ around\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ Time\\ can\\ eventually\\ change\\ everything\\:\\ Jack\\ is\\ gay\\ for\\ the\\ Giant\\,\\ Jill\\ is\\ having\\ sex\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ climax\\ that\\ punches\\ the\\ last\\ hole\\ in\\ the\\ lovers\\&rsquo\\;\\ dream\\ is\\ a\\ paradox\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ stanza\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ love\\ your\\ crooked\\ neighbor\\ \\/\\ With\\ your\\ crooked\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;which\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\ because\\ a\\ crooked\\ heart\\ cannot\\ love\\;\\ but\\ as\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ Time\\ makes\\ everything\\ imperfect\\,\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ we\\ will\\ ever\\ be\\&mdash\\;imperfect\\ and\\ human\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ then\\,\\ we\\ realizes\\,\\ only\\ a\\ crooked\\ heart\\ could\\ love\\ a\\ crooked\\ neighbor\\,\\ so\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ we\\ will\\ ever\\ do\\,\\ deluding\\ ourselves\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ actually\\ participate\\ in\\ anything\\ as\\ ideal\\ as\\ Love\\.\\ The\\ last\\ stanza\\ returns\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ speaker\\ by\\ the\\ river\\,\\ with\\ the\\ great\\ running\\ river\\ connecting\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ clocks\\ and\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ Time\\ as\\ an\\ unstoppable\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ of\\ disillusionment\\,\\ which\\ really\\ bears\\ down\\ on\\ and\\ dismisses\\ the\\ idealized\\,\\ eternal\\ romance\\ of\\ earlier\\ poets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dulce\\ et\\ Decorum\\ Est\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wilfred\\ Owen\\ \\(249\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\ taken\\ from\\ quotation\\ by\\ Roman\\ poet\\ Horace\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dulce\\ et\\ decorum\\ est\\ pro\\ patria\\ mori\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ sweet\\ and\\ fitting\\ to\\ die\\ for\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(History\\ and\\ Regionality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ War\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ WWI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Revisionary\\ History\\ poem\\ \\(changing\\ the\\ heroic\\ way\\ war\\ was\\ perceived\\ classically\\ or\\ the\\ idealized\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ remember\\ events\\ like\\ WW1\\ to\\ expose\\ the\\ horror\\ of\\ new\\ military\\ tactics\\ i\\.e\\.\\ gas\\ attacks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ loosely\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 8\\,\\ 6\\,\\ 8\\,\\ and\\ 4\\ lines\\.\\ An\\ unrhyming\\ couplet\\ that\\ fits\\ the\\ alternating\\ rhyme\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ hangs\\ in\\ between\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanzas\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ is\\ alternate\\ throughout\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Blood\\,\\ death\\,\\ Gas\\,\\ devil\\,\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wilfred\\ Owen\\ died\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ in\\ 1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ friend\\,\\ you\\ would\\ not\\ tell\\ with\\ such\\ high\\ zest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ children\\ ardent\\ for\\ some\\ desperate\\ glory\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ old\\ Lie\\:\\ Dulce\\ et\\ decorum\\ est\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pro\\ patria\\ mori\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ war\\-weary\\ soldiers\\ marching\\ \\"\\;through\\ sludge\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;blood\\-shod\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;drunk\\ with\\ fatigue\\"\\;\\.\\ As\\ gas\\ shells\\ begin\\ to\\ fall\\,\\ the\\ soldiers\\ scramble\\ to\\ put\\ their\\ gas\\ masks\\ on\\.\\ In\\ the\\ rush\\,\\ one\\ man\\ clumsily\\ drops\\ his\\ mask\\,\\ and\\ the\\ narrator\\ sees\\ the\\ man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;yelling\\ out\\ and\\ stumbling\\ \\/\\ and\\ flound\\&\\#39\\;ring\\ like\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ fire\\ or\\ lime\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;guttering\\,\\ choking\\,\\ drowning\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;permeates\\ his\\ thoughts\\ and\\ dreams\\,\\ forcing\\ him\\ to\\ live\\ this\\ grotesque\\ nightmare\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ Owen\\ writes\\ that\\ if\\ readers\\ could\\ see\\ the\\ body\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\"\\;eyes\\ writhing\\"\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;face\\ hanging\\"\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;vile\\,\\ incurable\\ sores\\ on\\ innocent\\ tongues\\"\\;\\&mdash\\;they\\ would\\ cease\\ to\\ send\\ young\\ men\\ to\\ war\\ while\\ instilling\\ visions\\ of\\ glory\\ in\\ their\\ heads\\.\\ No\\ longer\\ would\\ they\\ tell\\ their\\ children\\ the\\ \\"\\;Old\\ lie\\,\\"\\;\\ so\\ long\\ ago\\ told\\ by\\ the\\ Roman\\ poet\\ Horace\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dulce\\ et\\ decorum\\ est\\/\\ Pro\\ patria\\ mori\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(literally\\,\\ \\"\\;Sweet\\ and\\ honorable\\ it\\ is\\,\\ to\\ die\\ for\\ the\\ fatherland\\"\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disabled\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(date\\ not\\ given\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wilfred\\ Owens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 550\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ Section\\ 1\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Protest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ poems\\ spoken\\ by\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\disabled\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Dramatic\\ lyric\\,\\ free\\ indirect\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Irregular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 7\\ stanzas\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cold\\ \\&\\;\\ dank\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;shivered\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ cold\\&hellip\\;it\\ is\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Absence\\ of\\ Color\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;dark\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;ghastly\\ suit\\ of\\ grey\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ lost\\ his\\ colour\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Wilfred\\ Owen\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ soldier\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ renowned\\ World\\ War\\ I\\ poet\\,\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;shocking\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;realistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ poetry\\ on\\ the\\ horrors\\ of\\ war\\.\\ Ironically\\,\\ Owens\\ himself\\ died\\ was\\ killed\\ in\\ action\\ just\\ a\\ week\\ before\\ the\\ war\\ ended\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ cold\\ and\\ late\\ it\\ is\\!\\ Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ they\\ come\\ \\/\\ And\\ put\\ him\\ into\\ bed\\?\\ Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ they\\ come\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ the\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ are\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\ disabled\\ figure\\ \\(he\\ is\\ sitting\\ in\\ a\\ wheel\\ chair\\,\\ he\\ is\\ legless\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ There\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ children\\ playing\\ in\\ the\\ park\\ and\\ the\\ figure\\ inside\\ gives\\ the\\ reader\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ alienation\\ and\\ of\\ abandonment\\ about\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ For\\ the\\ next\\ few\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ writer\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\.\\ He\\ writes\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;Town\\ used\\ to\\ swing\\ so\\ gay\\&rdquo\\;\\ before\\ the\\ young\\ man\\ went\\ to\\ war\\.\\ The\\ young\\ man\\ reminisces\\ about\\ why\\ it\\ was\\ that\\ he\\ joined\\ the\\ regiment\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;someone\\ had\\ said\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ look\\ a\\ god\\ in\\ kilts\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ please\\ his\\ Meg\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ retrospect\\,\\ all\\ childish\\ reasons\\ \\(after\\ all\\,\\ the\\ subject\\ was\\ not\\ even\\ nineteen\\ when\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Smiling\\ they\\ wrote\\ his\\ lie\\:\\ aged\\ nineteen\\ years\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ When\\ he\\ came\\ home\\,\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;some\\ cheered\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ cared\\ as\\ he\\ had\\ thought\\ they\\ would\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ young\\ man\\ alone\\ in\\ an\\ institute\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stripped\\ of\\ everything\\ that\\ makes\\ life\\ worth\\ living\\ such\\ as\\ companionship\\,\\ independence\\ \\(he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ make\\ his\\ own\\ choices\\ anymore\\)\\.\\ It\\ also\\ dehumanizing\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ pass\\ from\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ strong\\ eyes\\ that\\ were\\ whole\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ absolutely\\ no\\ redemption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ when\\ we\\ analyze\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ disabled\\ person\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ the\\ speaker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ cannot\\ write\\ the\\ poem\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ is\\ trapped\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ helplessness\\ abandonment\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ syntax\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ works\\ hard\\ to\\ speak\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ using\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ man\\,\\ giving\\ the\\ reader\\ a\\ much\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ language\\ used\\ is\\ so\\ simple\\ and\\ youthful\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ much\\ sadder\\ about\\ the\\ damage\\ war\\ has\\ done\\ to\\ such\\ a\\ young\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Infant\\ Joy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1789\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ p\\.28\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Birth\\,\\ Childhood\\,\\ Joy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ dimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcaac\\ dbceec\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Infant\\,\\ sweet\\ joy\\,\\ naming\\ the\\ baby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\,\\ spiritualist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ happy\\ am\\,\\/\\ Joy\\ is\\ my\\ name\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\&rdquo\\;Sweet\\ joy\\ befall\\ thee\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Blake\\,\\ every\\ moment\\ in\\ life\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ either\\ of\\ two\\ ways\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ innocently\\ or\\ with\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ from\\ his\\ Songs\\ of\\ Innocence\\;\\ it\\ radiates\\ with\\ unbridled\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ centers\\ around\\ the\\ naming\\ of\\ a\\ baby\\,\\ although\\ Blake\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ baby\\ in\\ this\\ dialog\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ a\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fantasy\\ of\\ what\\ she\\ would\\ want\\ the\\ baby\\ to\\ say\\ as\\ she\\ chooses\\ a\\ name\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ innocence\\ of\\ a\\ baby\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;both\\ a\\ clich\\é\\;\\ and\\ a\\ truth\\:\\ a\\ baby\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;beautiful\\,\\ guileless\\,\\ smiling\\,\\ appealing\\,\\ the\\ joy\\ of\\ its\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ days\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ simple\\,\\ and\\ the\\ almost\\ perfect\\ dimeter\\ evokes\\ baby\\-talk\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ mostly\\ the\\ baby\\ speaking\\,\\ then\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ turn\\,\\ expounding\\ on\\ how\\ fitting\\ the\\ baby\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chosen\\ name\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Sweet\\ joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ spondee\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ and\\ emphasized\\ four\\ times\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ each\\ time\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ line\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ happy\\ poem\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Infant\\ Sorrow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1794\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ p\\.29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\ \\(second\\ week\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Birth\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabb\\ ccdd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Birth\\,\\ fiend\\,\\ struggling\\,\\ sulking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\,\\ spiritualist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bound\\ and\\ weary\\,\\ I\\ thought\\ best\\/To\\ sulk\\ upon\\ my\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breast\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blake\\ divides\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\ two\\,\\ and\\ a\\ closer\\ look\\ shows\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ principal\\ division\\ between\\ the\\ physical\\ body\\ \\(first\\ stanza\\)\\ and\\ the\\ mental\\ operations\\ \\(second\\ stanza\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ main\\ verb\\ of\\ stanza\\ one\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;leapt\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ stanza\\ two\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;thought\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;First\\ the\\ baby\\ leaps\\ into\\ this\\ world\\,\\ then\\ thinks\\ about\\ its\\ condition\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ chooses\\ to\\ sulk\\,\\ after\\ fruitlessly\\ struggling\\ and\\ striving\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multiple\\ other\\ shapes\\ appear\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Within\\ each\\ stanza\\ appear\\ each\\ parent\\,\\ so\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;parents\\/baby\\,\\ parents\\/baby\\&rdquo\\;\\ alternation\\ is\\ superimposed\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ shape\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;physical\\/mental\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ showing\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constant\\ dependency\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ on\\ its\\ parents\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ shape\\ is\\ the\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ spiritual\\ that\\ stands\\ out\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ a\\ fiend\\ hid\\ in\\ a\\ cloud\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ baby\\ has\\ come\\ down\\ from\\ a\\ supernatural\\ world\\ and\\ finds\\ himself\\ less\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ cherubs\\ from\\ heaven\\ than\\ to\\ the\\ devils\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ present\\ participial\\ adjectives\\ and\\ non\\-\\&ldquo\\;ing\\&rdquo\\;\\ adjectives\\;\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\doing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feeling\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ struggling\\ performed\\ and\\ the\\ suffering\\ experienced\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ active\\ verbial\\ adjectives\\ follow\\ a\\ downward\\ course\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\&mdash\\;from\\ the\\ initial\\ \\&ldquo\\;leaping\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ is\\ a\\ inversion\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ expected\\,\\ passive\\ \\&ldquo\\;being\\ born\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\&mdash\\;to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;piping\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ where\\ the\\ baby\\ tries\\ expressing\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;struggling\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;striving\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;bound\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ adjectives\\ becoming\\ less\\ active\\ as\\ the\\ baby\\ resigns\\ itself\\ to\\ its\\ imprisonment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ all\\ these\\ shapes\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ elevated\\ from\\ mere\\ description\\ to\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ baby\\&rsquo\\;s\\ condition\\,\\ the\\ overlapping\\ and\\ interlocking\\ patterns\\ giving\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ a\\ dynamic\\ and\\ engaging\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\London\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 88\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ October\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\:\\ Images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Scorning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Rhyme\\ Scheme\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\#\\ of\\ Stanzas\\:\\ 4\\ quatrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Regular\\ spacing\\ and\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Death\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Runs\\ in\\ blood\\ down\\ Palace\\ walls\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Marriage\\ hearse\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Crying\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;every\\ cry\\ of\\ every\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ Infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cry\\ of\\ fear\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Chimney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sweeper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cry\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ new\\-born\\ Infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tear\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Black\\ \\/\\ Dark\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Chimney\\-sweeper\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;blackning\\ Church\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;midnight\\ streets\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;William\\ Blake\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ artist\\.\\ Specifically\\,\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ visual\\ imagery\\ in\\ his\\ poetry\\ has\\ been\\ praised\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ the\\ youthful\\ Harlot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ \\/\\ Blasts\\ the\\ new\\-born\\ Infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tear\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ blights\\ with\\ plagues\\ the\\ Marriage\\ hearse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ the\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ author\\ walks\\ through\\ streets\\ by\\ the\\ Thames\\ River\\ in\\ London\\.\\ This\\ setting\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ city\\,\\ and\\,\\ as\\ the\\ poem\\ progresses\\,\\ we\\ find\\ that\\ Blake\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ critique\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ a\\ modern\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\city\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-based\\ life\\.\\ We\\ walks\\ through\\ crowds\\,\\ and\\ finds\\ \\&ldquo\\;marks\\ of\\ weakness\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;woe\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\every\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ everyone\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ being\\ affected\\ by\\ some\\ evil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ Blake\\ reiterates\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ everybody\\ is\\ suffering\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ cry\\ of\\ every\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cry\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ voice\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ ban\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ penetrates\\ everyone\\.\\ Then\\,\\ Blake\\ finally\\ provides\\ the\\ readers\\ with\\ an\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ anguish\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mind\\ forg\\&rsquo\\;d\\ manacles\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;manacles\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ as\\ it\\ conveys\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ something\\ chaining\\ down\\ everyone\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ stanza\\ three\\,\\ Blake\\ moves\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ bigger\\ picture\\.\\ He\\ now\\ addresses\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ these\\ imposed\\ false\\ beliefs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ Church\\ that\\ takes\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ forcing\\ them\\ to\\ believe\\ false\\ things\\.\\ But\\,\\ as\\ he\\ did\\ before\\,\\ Blake\\ now\\,\\ again\\,\\ moves\\ us\\ up\\ the\\ ladder\\ of\\ evils\\.\\ There\\ is\\ something\\ worse\\ than\\ an\\ institution\\ aving\\ powers\\ over\\ your\\ thoughts\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ them\\ having\\ power\\ over\\ your\\ life\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ hapless\\ Soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sigh\\ \\/\\ Runs\\ in\\ blood\\ down\\ Palace\\ walls\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ Blake\\ decides\\ on\\ an\\ evil\\ that\\ is\\ even\\ more\\ wicked\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sexual\\ dishonesty\\ and\\ corruption\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ with\\ this\\ last\\ image\\ of\\ modern\\ evils\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sexual\\ dishonesty\\ that\\ leads\\ both\\ to\\ literal\\ disease\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ syphilis\\ causes\\ a\\ newborn\\ child\\ to\\ become\\ blind\\)\\,\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ which\\ reach\\ forward\\ into\\ the\\ future\\ generations\\,\\ and\\ figurative\\ disease\\,\\ the\\ disruption\\ and\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ realize\\ the\\ way\\ Blake\\ uses\\ imagery\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ image\\ after\\ image\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ increasingly\\ worse\\ evils\\.\\ Each\\ image\\ both\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ previous\\ ones\\ and\\ replaces\\ it\\ \\(as\\ the\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;worst\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ building\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ climatic\\ manner\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ Blake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ repetition\\ to\\ stress\\ major\\ themes\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ he\\ repeats\\ the\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\&rdquo\\;\\ again\\ and\\ again\\ to\\ stress\\ the\\ extreme\\ penetration\\ and\\ power\\ of\\ these\\ evils\\ on\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ London\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Little\\ Black\\ Boy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ \\(231\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Identity\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\ \\;7\\ quatrains\\ with\\ alternate\\ rhyme\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abab\\ abab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ arranged\\ in\\ heroic\\ quatrains\\ \\(broad\\ pentameter\\ alternately\\ rhyming\\ quatrains\\)\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ often\\ used\\ poetically\\ with\\ philosophic\\ and\\ noble\\ subjects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ God\\,\\ lambs\\ \\(people\\)\\,\\ shady\\ grove\\ \\(metaphor\\ for\\ earth\\)\\,\\ white\\ and\\ black\\,\\ heaven\\ vs\\.\\ earth\\,\\ body\\ vs\\.\\ soul\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Poem\\ dates\\ from\\ 1788\\ around\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ anti\\-slavery\\ movement\\ which\\ William\\ Blake\\ was\\ a\\ supporter\\ of\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ these\\ black\\ bodies\\ and\\ this\\ sun\\-burnt\\ face\\/\\ Is\\ but\\ a\\ cloud\\,\\ and\\ like\\ a\\ shady\\ grove\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ little\\ boy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ explains\\ to\\ him\\ that\\ their\\ earthly\\ bodies\\ are\\ but\\ a\\ shell\\ of\\ their\\ souls\\,\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ heaven\\ nothing\\ of\\ our\\ earthly\\ concerns\\ or\\ position\\ will\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ narrator\\ is\\ a\\ young\\ black\\ child\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ hardship\\ of\\ his\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ relative\\ to\\ a\\ young\\ white\\ child\\ who\\ neither\\ likes\\ him\\ nor\\ seems\\ to\\ endure\\ as\\ much\\.\\ He\\ insists\\ in\\ a\\ childlike\\ manner\\ that\\ that\\ though\\ his\\ exterior\\ is\\ black\\,\\ inside\\ his\\ soul\\ is\\ as\\ white\\ \\(pure\\)\\ as\\ the\\ angelic\\-looking\\ English\\ child\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reader\\ realizes\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ parroting\\ what\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ taught\\ \\(souls\\ are\\ white\\,\\ angels\\ are\\ white\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\)\\.\\ His\\ mother\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ force\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ she\\ brings\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ comfort\\ and\\ explains\\ that\\ this\\ life\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ trial\\ and\\ preparation\\.\\ In\\ Heaven\\,\\ however\\,\\ he\\ and\\ the\\ white\\ boy\\ will\\ play\\ around\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ tent\\ of\\ God\\ like\\ lambs\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ which\\ point\\ both\\ boys\\ will\\ attain\\ equality\\ before\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ white\\ child\\ will\\ then\\ love\\ his\\ black\\ counterpart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Sick\\ Rose\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1789\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 98\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\-4\\-06\\ \\(Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ emblem\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ mostly\\ iambic\\ dimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ heroic\\ quatrains\\,\\ \\(abcb\\,\\ abcb\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ decay\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\,\\ sexual\\ undertones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Christian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ Rose\\,\\ thou\\ art\\ sick\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ speaker\\,\\ addressing\\ a\\ rose\\,\\ informs\\ it\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ sick\\.\\ An\\ \\"\\;invisible\\"\\;\\ worm\\ has\\ stolen\\ into\\ its\\ bed\\ in\\ a\\ \\"\\;howling\\ storm\\"\\;\\ and\\ under\\ the\\ cover\\ of\\ night\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;dark\\ secret\\ love\\"\\;\\ of\\ this\\ worm\\ is\\ destroying\\ the\\ rose\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ two\\ quatrains\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ rhyme\\ ABCB\\.\\ The\\ ominous\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ short\\,\\ two\\-beat\\ lines\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ foreboding\\ or\\ dread\\ and\\ complements\\ the\\ unflinching\\ directness\\ with\\ which\\ the\\ speaker\\ tells\\ the\\ rose\\ she\\ is\\ dying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ rose\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ beautiful\\ natural\\ object\\ that\\ has\\ become\\ infected\\ by\\ a\\ worm\\,\\ it\\ also\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ literary\\ rose\\,\\ the\\ conventional\\ symbol\\ of\\ love\\.\\ The\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ worm\\ resonates\\ with\\ the\\ Biblical\\ serpent\\ and\\ also\\ suggests\\ a\\ phallus\\.\\ Worms\\ are\\ quintessentially\\ earthbound\\,\\ and\\ symbolize\\ death\\ and\\ decay\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;bed\\"\\;\\ into\\ which\\ the\\ worm\\ creeps\\ denotes\\ both\\ the\\ natural\\ flowerbed\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ lovers\\&\\#39\\;\\ bed\\.\\ The\\ rose\\ is\\ sick\\,\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ implies\\ that\\ love\\ is\\ sick\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ rose\\ is\\ unaware\\ of\\ its\\ sickness\\.\\ Of\\ course\\,\\ an\\ actual\\ rose\\ could\\ not\\ know\\ anything\\ about\\ its\\ own\\ condition\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ emphasis\\ falls\\ on\\ the\\ allegorical\\ suggestion\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ love\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ recognize\\ its\\ own\\ ailing\\ state\\.\\ This\\ results\\ partly\\ from\\ the\\ insidious\\ secrecy\\ with\\ which\\ the\\ \\"\\;worm\\"\\;\\ performs\\ its\\ work\\ of\\ corruption\\-\\-not\\ only\\ is\\ it\\ invisible\\,\\ it\\ enters\\ the\\ bed\\ at\\ night\\.\\ This\\ secrecy\\ indeed\\ constitutes\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ infection\\ itself\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;crimson\\ joy\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ rose\\ connotes\\ both\\ sexual\\ pleasure\\ and\\ shame\\,\\ thus\\ joining\\ the\\ two\\ concepts\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ Blake\\ thought\\ was\\ perverted\\ and\\ unhealthy\\.\\ The\\ rose\\&\\#39\\;s\\ joyful\\ attitude\\ toward\\ love\\ is\\ tainted\\ by\\ the\\ aura\\ of\\ shame\\ and\\ secrecy\\ that\\ our\\ culture\\ attaches\\ to\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Wild\\ Swans\\ at\\ Coole\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1917\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ paper\\ options\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lamentation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ roughly\\ iambic\\,\\ each\\ stanza\\ has\\ six\\ verses\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ number\\ of\\ beats\\:\\ 434353\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ five\\ sestets\\ rhyming\\ ababcc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ autumn\\,\\ swans\\,\\ twilight\\,\\ ground\\/air\\/water\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\ poet\\,\\ dramaturge\\ and\\ public\\ figure\\.\\ In\\ 1923\\ he\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ in\\ Literature\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ always\\ inspired\\ poetry\\,\\ which\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\ artistic\\ form\\ gives\\ expression\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ a\\ whole\\ nation\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ was\\ concerned\\ with\\ Irish\\ Nationalist\\ motives\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ need\\ of\\ creating\\ an\\ Irish\\ aesthetic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Among\\ what\\ rushes\\ will\\ they\\ build\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;By\\ what\\ lakes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ edge\\ or\\ pool\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Delight\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ when\\ I\\ awake\\ some\\ day\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;To\\ find\\ they\\ have\\ flown\\ away\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yeats\\ starts\\ his\\ poem\\ describing\\ a\\ still\\ lake\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;nine\\-and\\-fifty\\&rdquo\\;\\ swans\\ are\\ swimming\\.\\ He\\ continues\\ to\\ narrate\\ how\\ nineteen\\ years\\ \\&ldquo\\;autumns\\&rdquo\\;\\ have\\ passed\\ since\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ park\\ at\\ Coole\\ the\\ last\\ time\\.\\ He\\ continues\\ on\\ to\\ lament\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ now\\ my\\ heart\\ is\\ sore\\&rdquo\\;\\ how\\ he\\ has\\ grown\\ older\\,\\ and\\ things\\ have\\ changed\\ \\(world\\ has\\ seen\\ the\\ first\\ world\\ war\\)\\ since\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ he\\ saw\\ those\\ \\&ldquo\\;brillian\\ creatures\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ penultimate\\ stanza\\ evidences\\ how\\ much\\ he\\ admires\\ the\\ seemingly\\ eternal\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Swans\\ \\&ldquo\\;Unwearied\\ still\\,\\ lover\\ by\\ lover\\&hellip\\;their\\ hearts\\ have\\ not\\ grown\\ old\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ Yeats\\ laments\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ Swans\\ will\\ someday\\ fly\\ away\\.\\ One\\ can\\ notice\\ from\\ the\\ way\\ Yeats\\ portrays\\ the\\ swans\\ that\\ he\\ regards\\ them\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ changed\\ since\\ he\\ came\\ back\\,\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ to\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ cling\\ to\\ remember\\ his\\ past\\.\\ Regarding\\ the\\ motives\\,\\ it\\ is\\ obvious\\ from\\ the\\ historical\\ context\\ during\\ which\\ the\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\ that\\ Yeats\\ is\\ reacting\\ to\\ a\\ world\\ that\\ has\\ changed\\ abruptly\\ and\\ violently\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crazy\\ Jane\\ Talks\\ with\\ the\\ Bishop\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ 192\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/30\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lost\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ adaptation\\ of\\ an\\ old\\ folk\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ sestets\\ rhymed\\ abcbdb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ aging\\,\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ educated\\,\\ philosophical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;fair\\ needs\\ foul\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Yeats\\ adopts\\ the\\ persona\\ of\\ Crazy\\ Jane\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ back\\ story\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ Jane\\ and\\ her\\ lover\\ Jack\\ used\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ parish\\,\\ but\\ Jack\\ was\\ banned\\ from\\ the\\ parish\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;religious\\ reasons\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ real\\ reason\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ priest\\ was\\ jealous\\ of\\ Jack\\.\\ \\ \\;Crazy\\ Jane\\,\\ years\\ later\\,\\ runs\\ into\\ the\\ priest\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Priest\\ begins\\ by\\ noticing\\ Jane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breasts\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;flat\\ and\\ fallen\\ now\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ means\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ once\\ noticed\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;unflat\\ and\\ unfallen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ inappropriate\\ for\\ a\\ priest\\ and\\ gives\\ away\\ the\\ true\\ reason\\ for\\ Jack\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banishment\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ priest\\ also\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ encouraging\\ Jane\\ to\\ forget\\ earthly\\ things\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;some\\ foul\\ sty\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ instead\\ devote\\ herself\\ to\\ God\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;live\\ in\\ a\\ heavenly\\ mansion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ Jane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reply\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ remarks\\ on\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ her\\ friends\\,\\ the\\ inevitable\\ outcome\\ of\\ aging\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ she\\ also\\ believes\\ that\\ love\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ fulfilled\\ without\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;Jane\\ knows\\ this\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;learned\\ in\\ bodily\\ lowliness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ Jane\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ women\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;proud\\ and\\ stiff\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;thus\\ denying\\ sexual\\ activity\\,\\ but\\ then\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;whole\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ persona\\ Crazy\\ Jane\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ justify\\ these\\ assertions\\,\\ because\\ the\\ reader\\ understands\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ poor\\,\\ uneducated\\ peasant\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ Yeats\\&rsquo\\;\\ reason\\ for\\ adopting\\ persona\\:\\ he\\ can\\ make\\ claims\\ using\\ the\\ persona\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\ that\\ he\\ himself\\ would\\ never\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ without\\ further\\ justification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meru\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ \\(1865\\-1939\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 301\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\:\\ Deducing\\ morals\\,\\ detecting\\ means\\,\\ judging\\ the\\ implied\\ author\\ and\\ implied\\ reader\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ The\\ fall\\ of\\ civilization\\,\\ mortality\\ of\\ everything\\:\\ life\\/death\\ cycles\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shakespearian\\ Sonnet\\,\\ Elegy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ almost\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\.\\ \\ \\;Gets\\ more\\ regular\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\,\\ cdcd\\,\\ efef\\,\\ gg\\ \\(typical\\ Shakespearian\\ sonnet\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ spacing\\/indents\\.\\ All\\ one\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ 1\\.\\ civilization\\ like\\ a\\ barrel\\-\\ if\\ remove\\ hoops\\,\\ staves\\ fall\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Sages\\ go\\ up\\ to\\ Mt\\ Meru\\ to\\ experience\\ cold\\-\\ end\\ of\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ them\\ experiencing\\ the\\ extremes\\ and\\ then\\ knowing\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ cycles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ the\\ cycles\\:\\ life\\/death\\,\\ day\\/night\\,\\ culture\\ \\&\\;\\ civilization\\ thrive\\/fall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\,\\ v\\ famous\\,\\ known\\ also\\ for\\ being\\ a\\ great\\ poet\\ of\\ the\\ later\\ life\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ themes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Egypt\\ and\\ Greece\\,\\ good\\-bye\\,\\ and\\ good\\-bye\\,\\ Rome\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Or\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ day\\ brings\\ round\\ the\\ night\\,\\ that\\ before\\ dawn\\/\\ His\\ glory\\ and\\ his\\ monuments\\ are\\ gone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mostly\\ about\\ the\\ downfall\\ of\\ civilizations\\:\\ The\\ beginning\\ suggests\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ fragility\\ of\\ a\\ hoped\\ barrel\\ \\(easy\\ to\\ take\\ apart\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sums\\ up\\ thousands\\ of\\ years\\ when\\ says\\ goodbye\\ to\\ Egypt\\,\\ Greece\\ and\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tears\\ apart\\ these\\ cultures\\ with\\ the\\ harsh\\ R\\ sounds\\ he\\ uses\\ in\\ lines\\ 4\\-7\\ \\(teRRoR\\,\\ Ravening\\,\\ centuRy\\ afteR\\ centuRy\\,\\ Raging\\,\\ upRooting\\,\\ Reality\\&hellip\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ couplet\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ also\\ reflects\\ the\\ downfall\\ imagery\\ with\\ the\\ day\\/night\\ cycle\\ representing\\ life\\/death\\ cycles\\ of\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hermits\\ upon\\ Mount\\ Meru\\&rdquo\\;\\ travel\\ there\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ extremes\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ 100\\%\\ sure\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ the\\ parallel\\ is\\ the\\ hermits\\ understanding\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ cold\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ man\\ understanding\\ that\\ one\\ day\\ he\\ and\\ everything\\ he\\ knows\\ will\\ be\\ gone\\ \\&\\;\\ forgotten\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sailing\\ to\\ Byzantium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1928\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ the\\ aged\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ ottava\\-rima\\ stanzas\\ \\(eight\\ verses\\ each\\,\\ rhyming\\ abababcc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ gold\\,\\ eternity\\,\\ youth\\/old\\ age\\,\\ Byzantium\\ as\\ a\\ holy\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\ poet\\,\\ dramaturge\\ and\\ public\\ figure\\.\\ In\\ 1923\\ he\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ in\\ Literature\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ always\\ inspired\\ poetry\\,\\ which\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\ artistic\\ form\\ gives\\ expression\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ a\\ whole\\ nation\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ was\\ concerned\\ with\\ Irish\\ Nationalist\\ motives\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ need\\ of\\ creating\\ an\\ Irish\\ aesthetic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ is\\ no\\ country\\ for\\ old\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;An\\ aged\\ man\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ paltry\\ thing\\,\\ \\/\\ A\\ tattered\\ coat\\ upon\\ a\\ stick\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yeats\\ introduces\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ the\\ striking\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ no\\ country\\ for\\ old\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ His\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ images\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ \\(birds\\,\\ fish\\,\\ and\\ mackerel\\-crowded\\ seas\\)\\ that\\ remind\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ youth\\,\\ when\\ contrasted\\ with\\ such\\ striking\\ introductory\\ phrase\\.\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ continues\\ and\\ laments\\ that\\ aged\\ man\\ are\\ considered\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;paltry\\ thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tattered\\ coat\\ upon\\ a\\ stick\\&rdquo\\;\\ unless\\ they\\ are\\ full\\ of\\ energies\\,\\ and\\ for\\ that\\ reason\\ Yeats\\ states\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ sailed\\ away\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;holy\\ city\\ of\\ Bizantium\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ There\\ he\\ evokes\\ the\\ Saints\\ in\\ the\\ gold\\ mosaics\\ of\\ a\\ wall\\ \\(Remember\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ diagram\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ saints\\ with\\ a\\ golden\\ background\\,\\ and\\ remember\\ what\\ she\\ said\\ about\\ it\\:\\ namely\\ that\\ golden\\ backgrounds\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ inform\\ the\\ spectator\\ of\\ the\\ divine\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ representation\\)\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ plea\\ to\\ the\\ saints\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ and\\ take\\ him\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ artifice\\ of\\ eternity\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ for\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;fastened\\ to\\ a\\ dying\\ animal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(his\\ body\\)\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ states\\ the\\ forms\\ he\\ will\\ take\\ if\\ they\\ make\\ him\\ eternal\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ golden\\ tree\\ with\\ mechanical\\ birds\\ that\\ sing\\ \\(apparently\\ he\\ took\\ this\\ image\\ because\\ he\\ read\\ somewhere\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ Emperor\\ in\\ Byzantium\\ that\\ had\\ one\\ of\\ such\\ trees\\ build\\ for\\ him\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sing\\ \\/\\ To\\ lords\\ and\\ ladies\\ of\\ Byzantium\\ \\/\\ Of\\ what\\ is\\ past\\,\\ or\\ passing\\,\\ or\\ to\\ come\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Carlos\\ Williams\\ \\(83\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ cat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\climbed\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ top\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ jamcloset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\first\\ the\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\forefoot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\carefully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\then\\ the\\ hind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stepped\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\into\\ the\\ pit\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ empty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\flowerpot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Introduction\\ \\(Poetic\\ Structure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\(perhaps\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ brief\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 3\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ Very\\ structure\\ oriented\\.\\ See\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ full\\ page\\ write\\-up\\ on\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ pgs\\ 84\\-85\\ in\\ PPP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ cat\\,\\ jamcloset\\,\\ flowerpot\\,\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ about\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ its\\ structure\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ utilizes\\ its\\ visual\\ spacing\\ and\\ major\\ pauses\\ \\(stanza\\ breaks\\)\\ to\\ mimic\\ the\\ cat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motion\\.\\ As\\ Vendler\\ notes\\ in\\ PPP\\ this\\ entire\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ written\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ sentence\\ but\\ the\\ pauses\\ are\\ included\\ to\\ separate\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ cat\\ stopping\\ before\\ the\\ descent\\ to\\ an\\ unknown\\ region\\ 2\\)\\ The\\ second\\ pause\\ comes\\ after\\ the\\ right\\ forefoot\\ has\\ found\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ poise\\ 3\\)\\ The\\ third\\ comes\\ after\\ the\\ hind\\ leg\\ successfully\\ moves\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ forefoot\\ 4\\)\\ Then\\ comes\\ the\\ farcical\\ end\\ when\\ the\\ cat\\ finds\\ itself\\ trapped\\ inside\\ a\\ deep\\ flowerpot\\ instead\\ of\\ on\\ a\\ flat\\ surface\\ \\(taken\\ from\\ PPP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Dance\\-\\ William\\ Carlos\\ Williams\\ \\(1883\\-1963\\)\\ p\\.104\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ A\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Dactylic\\ trimeter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ 12\\ lines\\,\\ no\\ rhyme\\,\\ enjambment\\ throughout\\ the\\ whole\\ poem\\.\\ First\\ and\\ final\\ line\\ are\\ identical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ \\ \\;dancing\\ people\\ at\\ a\\ fairground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ dancers\\ go\\ round\\,\\ they\\ go\\ round\\ and\\/\\ around\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ arguably\\ Williams\\ attempt\\ of\\ writing\\ a\\ poem\\ that\\ is\\ as\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ painting\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ Like\\ a\\ painting\\ Williams\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ is\\ framed\\ with\\ the\\ lines\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ Breughel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ great\\ picture\\,\\ The\\ Kermess\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ opening\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ closing\\ line\\.\\ Then\\ like\\ a\\ painting\\ Williams\\ attempts\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ images\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ space\\.\\ By\\ using\\ enjambment\\ throughout\\ the\\ whole\\ poem\\ he\\ creates\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ lots\\ of\\ activity\\ and\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ which\\ portrays\\ a\\ fair\\ where\\ many\\ people\\ are\\ dancing\\ and\\ swinging\\.\\ Williams\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ describe\\ a\\ painting\\ in\\ a\\ twelve\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ given\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ consensus\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ a\\ picture\\ is\\ worth\\ a\\ thousand\\ words\\.\\ So\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ a\\ painting\\ does\\ and\\ create\\ lots\\ of\\ images\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ space\\ Williams\\ lists\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ images\\ he\\ sees\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ attempts\\ to\\ compact\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\ into\\ each\\ sentence\\,\\ by\\ writing\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ squeal\\,\\ and\\ the\\ blare\\ and\\ the\\/\\ tweedle\\ of\\ bagpipes\\,\\ a\\ bugle\\ and\\ fiddles\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ However\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ meant\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ the\\ painting\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ actually\\ event\\ of\\ a\\ fair\\ in\\ real\\ life\\ where\\ so\\ much\\ is\\ happening\\ before\\ you\\ that\\ only\\ get\\ briefly\\ reflect\\ on\\ each\\ image\\.\\ The\\ only\\ image\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ is\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ dancing\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ because\\ they\\ dominate\\ the\\ painting\\ and\\ a\\ fairground\\ and\\ therefore\\ they\\ dominate\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ words\\ go\\ round\\ is\\ repeated\\ when\\ describing\\ there\\ movements\\ as\\ are\\ kicking\\,\\ rolling\\,\\ swinging\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ description\\ reflects\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\.\\ On\\ top\\ the\\ frame\\ then\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ then\\ the\\ instruments\\ around\\ them\\,\\ then\\ the\\ shanks\\ of\\ the\\ fairground\\ and\\ finally\\ the\\ bottom\\ frame\\.\\ So\\ the\\ oddity\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ its\\ adaptation\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ artistic\\ practice\\ with\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epitaph\\ on\\ a\\ Hare\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 449\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Cowper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 11\\.\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegiac\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\/trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 11\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Though\\ duly\\ from\\ my\\ hand\\ he\\ took\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ His\\ pittance\\ every\\ night\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ jealous\\ look\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;And\\,\\ when\\ he\\ could\\,\\ would\\ bite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ ballad\\ stanza\\ is\\ usually\\ reserved\\ for\\ serious\\ subjects\\,\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ firstly\\ humorous\\ for\\ being\\ an\\ elegy\\ for\\ a\\ hare\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ person\\ and\\ secondly\\ in\\ the\\ comical\\ details\\ of\\ Tiney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavior\\ and\\ habits\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ short\\,\\ hare\\ was\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ amusement\\ for\\ a\\ speaker\\,\\ who\\ appreciated\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ his\\ pet\\ especially\\ during\\ times\\ of\\ melancholy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 29\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(64\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(27\\-72\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\,\\ tragedy\\,\\ power\\ of\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\/\\ 1\\ stanza\\/\\ couplet\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ indented\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ earth\\,\\ fate\\/fortune\\/heaven\\,\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sonnets\\ are\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ 154\\ poems\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ themes\\ including\\,\\ love\\,\\ beauty\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ featured\\ in\\ the\\ sonnets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ thy\\ sweet\\ love\\ remembered\\ such\\ wealth\\ brings\\/\\ That\\ then\\ I\\ scorn\\ to\\ change\\ my\\ state\\ with\\ kings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 13\\-14\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sonnet\\ 29\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ large\\ set\\ of\\ sonnets\\ written\\ by\\ Shakespeare\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ begins\\ by\\ explaining\\ how\\ depressed\\ he\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ status\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ neither\\ wealthy\\ nor\\ popular\\ and\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ social\\ outcast\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ he\\ weeps\\,\\ prays\\ to\\ heaven\\ \\(though\\ his\\ prayers\\ are\\ unanswered\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;deaf\\ haven\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 3\\)\\)\\ and\\ wishes\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ be\\ someone\\ with\\ more\\ hope\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ jealous\\ of\\ those\\ around\\ him\\ who\\ have\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;desiring\\ this\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\,\\ and\\ that\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scope\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 6\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ \\(described\\ above\\)\\,\\ which\\ focus\\ on\\ his\\ negative\\ emotional\\ state\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ a\\ separation\\ between\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ six\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ sonnet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Yet\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\ reflects\\ this\\ turning\\ point\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ Shakespeare\\ describes\\ how\\ while\\ he\\ is\\ thinking\\ all\\ these\\ negative\\ thoughts\\ about\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ happens\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ someone\\ he\\ loves\\,\\ which\\ completely\\ changes\\ his\\ sentiments\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\/\\&hellip\\;sings\\ hymns\\ at\\ heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gate\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-12\\)\\ and\\ we\\ see\\ how\\ thinking\\ about\\ this\\ love\\ takes\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ depression\\ and\\ brings\\ him\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ ends\\ by\\ saying\\ how\\ much\\ just\\ remembering\\ this\\ love\\ means\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ enough\\ to\\ cause\\ him\\ to\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ change\\ his\\ status\\ after\\ all\\-\\ socially\\ or\\ economically\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ depressed\\,\\ dreary\\,\\ and\\ hopeless\\ tone\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ once\\ the\\ poet\\ realizes\\ that\\ he\\ finds\\ happiness\\ in\\ being\\ loved\\,\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ very\\ pleasant\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ also\\ notice\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ repeated\\ three\\ times\\ and\\ serves\\ to\\ connect\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;outcast\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 2\\)\\,\\ then\\ to\\ his\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\ \\(l\\.\\ 10\\)\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ to\\ his\\ state\\ of\\ life\\ \\(l\\.\\ 14\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ three\\ uses\\ serve\\ to\\ connect\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 60\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(13\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ ravages\\ of\\ Time\\,\\ life\\ stages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\/\\ 1\\ stanza\\/\\ couplet\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ indented\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sea\\/waves\\,\\ birth\\/light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sonnets\\ are\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ 154\\ poems\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ themes\\ including\\,\\ love\\,\\ beauty\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ featured\\ in\\ the\\ sonnets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ nothing\\ stands\\ but\\ for\\ his\\ scythe\\ to\\ mow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sonnet\\ 60\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ traditional\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ which\\ is\\ organized\\ into\\ three\\ quatrains\\ and\\ a\\ couplet\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ quatrain\\ represents\\ a\\ different\\ metaphor\\ describing\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ Time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ quatrain\\ describes\\ Time\\ like\\ the\\ tide\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ as\\ the\\ waves\\ cycle\\ forward\\,\\ with\\ Time\\ each\\ new\\ minute\\ replaces\\ the\\ previous\\ one\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ continuous\\ pattern\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;toil\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 4\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ this\\ process\\ suggests\\ a\\ harshness\\ of\\ the\\ journey\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ quatrain\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ during\\ a\\ day\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ Time\\ in\\ human\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ man\\ is\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ rising\\ sun\\,\\ which\\ is\\ eventually\\ overshadowed\\ by\\ the\\ eclipse\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ human\\ life\\ we\\ grow\\ older\\ and\\ older\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ this\\ maturity\\ leads\\ to\\ our\\ decline\\ \\(death\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ quatrain\\ describes\\ Time\\ as\\ a\\ monster\\ that\\ destroys\\ the\\ blossoming\\ youth\\,\\ creates\\ wrinkles\\ on\\ the\\ forehead\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\ grows\\ older\\ and\\ plows\\ over\\ all\\ that\\ stands\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ quatrains\\ show\\ how\\ the\\ speaker\\ believes\\ that\\ Time\\ creates\\ beautiful\\ things\\,\\ but\\ then\\ quickly\\ destroys\\ through\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ poem\\ progresses\\,\\ we\\ notice\\ how\\ the\\ destructions\\ of\\ Time\\ take\\ place\\ more\\ quickly\\ in\\ the\\ metaphors\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ however\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ speaker\\ believes\\ that\\ Time\\ is\\ destructive\\,\\ he\\ still\\ expresses\\ hope\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ that\\ his\\ words\\ may\\ counteract\\ this\\ seemingly\\ inevitable\\ destruction\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ yet\\ to\\ times\\ in\\ hope\\ my\\ verse\\ shall\\ stand\\/\\ Praising\\ thy\\ worth\\,\\ despite\\ his\\ cruel\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 13\\-14\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ his\\ words\\ live\\ on\\ and\\ tell\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ beloved\\,\\ then\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ escaped\\ from\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ Time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ thoughts\\:\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ this\\ sonnet\\ is\\ \\#60\\,\\ which\\ could\\ also\\ represent\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ 60\\ minutes\\ in\\ an\\ hour\\-\\ thus\\ broadening\\ the\\ Time\\ theme\\ to\\ even\\ the\\ title\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ note\\ how\\ each\\ metaphor\\ \\(and\\ quatrain\\)\\ is\\ a\\ sentence\\-\\ further\\ showing\\ the\\ division\\ between\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ Time\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ the\\ upward\\ and\\ downward\\ movement\\/shape\\ that\\ each\\ metaphor\\ creates\\ \\(see\\ pg\\.\\ 58\\-59\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\,\\ Poets\\ and\\ Poetry\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ more\\ detail\\ on\\ this\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 66\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(pgs\\.\\ 159\\-160\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\-18\\-06\\,\\ the\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complaint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcdcdefefgg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ decay\\,\\ dishonor\\,\\ decadence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tired\\ with\\ all\\ these\\,\\ from\\ these\\ would\\ I\\ be\\ gone\\,\\ \\/\\ Save\\ that\\ to\\ die\\,\\ I\\ leave\\ my\\ love\\ alone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shakespeare\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Sonnet\\ 66\\ is\\ a\\ world\\-weary\\,\\ desperate\\ list\\ of\\ grievances\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ society\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ criticizes\\ three\\ things\\:\\ general\\ unfairness\\ of\\ life\\,\\ societal\\ immorality\\,\\ and\\ oppressive\\ government\\.\\ Lines\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\ illustrate\\ the\\ economic\\ unfairness\\ caused\\ by\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ station\\ or\\ nobility\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\,\\ to\\ behold\\ desert\\ a\\ beggar\\ born\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ needy\\ nothing\\ trimm\\&\\#39\\;d\\ in\\ jollity\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 4\\-7\\ to\\ portray\\ disgraced\\ trust\\ and\\ loyalty\\,\\ unfairly\\ given\\ authority\\,\\ as\\ by\\ an\\ unworthy\\ king\\ \\"\\;Gilden\\ honour\\ shamefully\\ misplaced\\"\\;\\,\\ and\\ female\\ innocence\\ corrupted\\ \\"\\;Maiden\\ virtue\\ rudely\\ strumpeted\\"\\;\\.\\ Lines\\ 8\\,\\ 10\\,\\ and\\ 12\\,\\ as\\ in\\ lines\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\,\\ characterize\\ reversals\\ of\\ what\\ one\\ deserves\\,\\ and\\ what\\ one\\ actually\\ receives\\ in\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ opposed\\ to\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ sonnets\\,\\ which\\ have\\ a\\ \\"\\;turn\\"\\;\\ in\\ mood\\ or\\ thought\\ at\\ line\\ 9\\,\\ \\(the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ quatrain\\ the\\ mood\\ of\\ Sonnet\\ 66\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ until\\ the\\ last\\ line\\,\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ declares\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ keeping\\ him\\ alive\\ is\\ his\\ lover\\.\\ This\\ stresses\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ lover\\ is\\ helping\\ him\\ merely\\ survive\\,\\ whereas\\ sonnets\\ 29\\ and\\ 30\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ positive\\ and\\ have\\ 6\\ lines\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ affirm\\ that\\ the\\ lover\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 76\\ \\(Why\\ is\\ my\\ verse\\ so\\ barren\\ of\\ new\\ pride\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 285\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\ \\-1616\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ not\\ specifically\\ assigned\\,\\ but\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ poetry\\,\\ answer\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\ form\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ fits\\ perfect\\ sonnet\\ form\\:\\ 12\\ lines\\ of\\ ABAB\\,\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\ are\\ CC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ compares\\ his\\ poetry\\ to\\ the\\ sun\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ as\\ the\\ sun\\ is\\ daily\\ new\\ and\\ old\\,\\ \\/\\ So\\ is\\ my\\ love\\,\\ still\\ telling\\ what\\ is\\ told\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Shakespeare\\ was\\ often\\ criticized\\ for\\ writing\\ poems\\ only\\ about\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;So\\ all\\ my\\ best\\ is\\ dressing\\ old\\ worlds\\ new\\,\\ \\/\\ Spending\\ again\\ what\\ is\\ already\\ spent\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ originally\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ Shakespeare\\ lamenting\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;same\\-old\\&rdquo\\;\\-ness\\ of\\ his\\ poetry\\,\\ asking\\ questions\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Why\\ is\\ my\\ verse\\ so\\ barren\\ of\\ new\\ pride\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ laments\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ word\\ doth\\ almost\\ tell\\ my\\ name\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ his\\ poetry\\ is\\ so\\ repetitive\\ that\\ anyone\\ can\\ tell\\ who\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ simply\\ by\\ reading\\ a\\ word\\ or\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ sonnet\\ turns\\ into\\ an\\ answer\\ poem\\,\\ however\\,\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ six\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ learn\\ that\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ patron\\ had\\ criticized\\ him\\ for\\ always\\ writing\\ in\\ sonnet\\ form\\ \\(about\\ love\\,\\ and\\ also\\ an\\ old\\-fashioned\\ style\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ final\\ six\\ lines\\ are\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ to\\ his\\ patron\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ \\(which\\ was\\ asked\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ answers\\ that\\ he\\ always\\ writes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweet\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ my\\ best\\ is\\ dressing\\ old\\ words\\ new\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Shakespeare\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ love\\ deserves\\ to\\ be\\ addressed\\ and\\ talked\\ about\\ all\\ the\\ time\\,\\ comparing\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ which\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;daily\\ new\\ and\\ old\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ are\\ things\\ so\\ precious\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ sun\\ and\\ love\\ being\\ among\\ them\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ we\\ never\\ have\\ enough\\ of\\ tehm\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ poetry\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ never\\ has\\ new\\ words\\&hellip\\;The\\ only\\ thing\\ any\\ poet\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;dress\\ \\[that\\ is\\,\\ arrange\\]\\ old\\ words\\ new\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(287\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 130\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ p\\.97\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 4\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ pleasure\\ of\\ parody\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Parody\\,\\ love\\,\\ love\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Eyes\\,\\ lips\\,\\ breasts\\,\\ hair\\,\\ cheeks\\,\\ breath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ the\\ Shakespeare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ are\\ nothing\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\;\\/\\ Coral\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ red\\ than\\ her\\ lips\\&rsquo\\;\\ red\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shakespeare\\ does\\ a\\ parody\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ love\\ sonnet\\ \\(of\\ which\\ he\\ wrote\\ many\\ himself\\,\\ but\\ was\\ preceded\\ primarily\\ by\\ Petrarch\\)\\ and\\ turns\\ it\\ on\\ its\\ head\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ love\\ sonnets\\ describe\\ the\\ beloved\\ in\\ superlatives\\ and\\ hyperbole\\,\\ but\\ Shakespeare\\ basically\\ brings\\ us\\ down\\ to\\ earth\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\your\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mistress\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\has\\ no\\ such\\ powers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ typical\\ grandiose\\ metaphors\\ and\\ allusions\\ are\\ reversed\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ opening\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ shine\\ brightly\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\;\\ \\/\\ Coral\\ is\\ not\\ more\\ red\\ than\\ her\\ lips\\&rsquo\\;\\ red\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ opposite\\ \\(see\\ the\\ notable\\ citation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ordinary\\ beauty\\ and\\ humanity\\ of\\ his\\ mistress\\ is\\ what\\ Shakespeare\\ loves\\ in\\ this\\ sonnet\\,\\ and\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ jest\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ twelve\\ lines\\ the\\ couplet\\ returns\\ us\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ sonnet\\:\\ total\\ and\\ consuming\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ structured\\ simply\\,\\ addressing\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ lady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ qualities\\ one\\ by\\ one\\ as\\ a\\ sonneteer\\ would\\ customarily\\ do\\,\\ except\\ with\\ this\\ parody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wry\\ twist\\:\\ in\\ order\\,\\ we\\ examine\\ the\\ eyes\\,\\ breasts\\,\\ hair\\,\\ cheeks\\,\\ breath\\,\\ speech\\,\\ and\\ then\\ her\\ walk\\.\\ A\\ note\\ of\\ clarification\\:\\ the\\ wires\\ referred\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ actually\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ finely\\ spun\\ golden\\ threads\\ in\\ hair\\ nets\\ \\(which\\ are\\ actually\\ a\\ sight\\ of\\ beauty\\)\\,\\ not\\ our\\ metal\\ threads\\ of\\ today\\;\\ Shakespeare\\ simply\\ means\\ that\\ her\\ hair\\ is\\ black\\ and\\ not\\ golden\\,\\ nothing\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 30\\-\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\-1616\\)\\ p\\.178\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ mourning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Sonnet\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\,\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ sadness\\,\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ if\\ the\\ while\\ I\\ think\\ on\\ thee\\ \\(dear\\ friend\\)\\/\\ All\\ losses\\ are\\ restored\\ and\\ sorrows\\ end\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ actions\\ that\\ he\\ habitually\\ partakes\\ in\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ remembering\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ friends\\ whom\\ he\\ mourned\\ for\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ still\\ brings\\ back\\ these\\ memories\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ bring\\ back\\ the\\ feelings\\ of\\ mourning\\.\\ Perhaps\\ he\\ does\\ this\\ to\\ pay\\ back\\ his\\ debt\\ of\\ grief\\ and\\ honor\\ is\\ dead\\ friends\\.\\ However\\ what\\ happens\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ he\\ does\\ this\\ he\\ is\\ brought\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ exact\\ feelings\\ he\\ had\\ before\\.\\ It\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ feeling\\ them\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ this\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ new\\ pay\\ as\\ if\\ not\\ paid\\ before\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ So\\ he\\ is\\ overcome\\ by\\ the\\ feelings\\ every\\ time\\ he\\ recalls\\ his\\ dead\\ friends\\.\\ So\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ time\\ is\\ he\\ was\\ without\\ friends\\,\\ found\\ friends\\,\\ lost\\ his\\ friends\\,\\ mourned\\ his\\ friends\\,\\ stopped\\ mourning\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ recalls\\ the\\ feelings\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ mourn\\ them\\ again\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ great\\ grief\\ that\\ he\\ feels\\ when\\ thinking\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ old\\ friends\\ that\\ ends\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweet\\ silent\\ thought\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ makes\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ painful\\ recollection\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ this\\ the\\ speaker\\ decides\\ to\\ find\\ consolation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ friend\\ he\\ still\\ has\\ whom\\ is\\ mentioned\\ to\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\ and\\ helps\\ him\\ end\\ the\\ sorrow\\ of\\ remembering\\ his\\ dead\\ friends\\.\\ By\\ doing\\ this\\ Shakespeare\\ creates\\ a\\ self\\ in\\ the\\ speaker\\ who\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ alive\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ future\\.\\ Also\\ not\\ only\\ does\\ he\\ have\\ a\\ past\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ multi\\-phased\\ past\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ brought\\ to\\ life\\ by\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descriptions\\.\\ The\\ tone\\ changes\\ from\\ sweet\\ remembrance\\ to\\ grief\\ to\\ reconciliation\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ significant\\ departure\\ from\\ mourning\\ poem\\ in\\ that\\ its\\ shows\\ remembrance\\ has\\ being\\ bad\\ for\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ that\\ forgetting\\ his\\ dead\\ friends\\ and\\ remembering\\ his\\ new\\ friend\\ makes\\ him\\ feel\\ better\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 130\\-\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\-1616\\)\\ p\\.97\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Love\\ poem\\,\\ mocking\\ reply\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Sonnet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Pentameter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcdcdefefgg\\ Shakespearean\\ Sonnet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ Mocking\\ a\\ clich\\é\\;\\ love\\ sonnet\\;\\ Beauty\\,\\ Roses\\,\\ goddesses\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ yet\\ by\\ heaven\\ I\\ think\\ my\\ love\\ as\\ rare\\/\\ As\\ any\\ she\\ belied\\ with\\ false\\ compare\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Example\\ of\\ Shakespearean\\ Couplet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ sonnet\\ is\\ a\\ mocking\\ reply\\ to\\ a\\ love\\ sonnet\\ that\\ Shakespeare\\ has\\ read\\.\\ In\\ the\\ sonnet\\ he\\ read\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ about\\ how\\ beautiful\\ the\\ poets\\ mistress\\ is\\.\\ Shakespeare\\ in\\ this\\ sonnet\\ goes\\ through\\ each\\ clich\\é\\;\\ and\\ undermines\\ it\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ mistress\\.\\ For\\ example\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ My\\ Mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ are\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\ Shakespeare\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ are\\ nothing\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ His\\ pattern\\ of\\ each\\ line\\ acting\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ line\\ in\\ another\\ poem\\ continues\\ throughout\\ the\\ sonnet\\ until\\ the\\ ninth\\ line\\ where\\ Shakespeare\\ gives\\ his\\ mistress\\ the\\ greatest\\ compliment\\ a\\ poet\\ can\\ give\\ which\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ love\\ to\\ hear\\ her\\ speak\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ However\\ after\\ this\\ he\\ continues\\ until\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\ undermining\\ the\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ of\\ other\\ love\\ poems\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\ he\\ turns\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ positives\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ these\\ comparison\\ that\\ are\\ obviously\\ untrue\\ are\\ actually\\ insulting\\ to\\ put\\ upon\\ a\\ love\\ as\\ true\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ he\\ has\\ for\\ his\\ mistress\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ poem\\ Shakespeare\\ mocks\\ the\\ common\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ and\\ emblems\\ of\\ describing\\ women\\ as\\ Goddesses\\,\\ Roses\\ and\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\ So\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ see\\ Shakespeare\\ take\\ a\\ common\\ genre\\ \\(the\\ love\\ poem\\)\\ and\\ depart\\ from\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ way\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ though\\ seems\\ to\\ portray\\ an\\ even\\ deeper\\ and\\ stronger\\ love\\ by\\ denying\\ these\\ fantastical\\ descriptions\\ and\\ stating\\ that\\ his\\ love\\ is\\ beyond\\ these\\ obvious\\ lies\\.\\ So\\ although\\ the\\ poem\\ begins\\ in\\ a\\ humorous\\ manner\\ the\\ tone\\ eventually\\ changes\\ at\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\.\\ Here\\ Shakespeare\\ finally\\ stops\\ joking\\ and\\ states\\ the\\ true\\ nature\\ of\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ his\\ mistress\\,\\ a\\ love\\ that\\ is\\ greater\\ then\\ any\\ lie\\ or\\ clich\\é\\;\\ he\\ could\\ write\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ slumber\\ did\\ my\\ spirit\\ steal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1800\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\-Pg\\ 92\\ \\(also\\ appears\\ on\\ pgs\\.\\ 123\\ and\\ 241\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Mourning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ alternates\\ between\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ stanzas\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;She\\ seemed\\ a\\ thing\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ feel\\/\\ The\\ touch\\ of\\ earthly\\ years\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ lyric\\ is\\ a\\ mournful\\ poem\\ for\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ a\\ lost\\ lover\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ a\\ slumber\\ did\\ he\\ spirit\\ \\(mind\\)\\ seal\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ he\\ shut\\ his\\ mind\\ off\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ even\\ his\\ lover\\ was\\ a\\ mortal\\ being\\;\\ he\\ never\\ could\\ have\\ imagined\\ her\\ death\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;seemed\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;She\\ seemed\\ a\\ thing\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ feel\\/the\\ touch\\ of\\ earthly\\ years\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ alludes\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ she\\ does\\ in\\ fact\\ die\\.\\ In\\ the\\ break\\ between\\ stanzas\\ his\\ lover\\ dies\\,\\ bringing\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ in\\ here\\ grave\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ tenses\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ shows\\ the\\ change\\,\\ from\\ past\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lack\\ of\\ narration\\ surrounding\\ the\\ events\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ experience\\ is\\ too\\ painful\\ for\\ Wordsworth\\ to\\ discuss\\.\\ She\\ goes\\ from\\ being\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ mortal\\ to\\ a\\ thing\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ among\\ the\\ rocks\\,\\ stones\\,\\ and\\ trees\\.\\ The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recognize\\ her\\ death\\,\\ only\\ negating\\ features\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ human\\,\\ until\\ she\\ becomes\\ part\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ as\\ described\\ as\\ poignant\\,\\ as\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ tensions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Composed\\ upon\\ Westminster\\ Bridge\\ \\(254\\)\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Nature\\/\\ Urban\\ Contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lyric\\/Romantic\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ one\\ stanza\\ containing\\ 14\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ pentameter\\,\\ with\\ almost\\ all\\ lines\\ having\\ ten\\ syllables\\ and\\ the\\ stress\\ is\\ usually\\ iambic\\ in\\ character\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ a\\-b\\-b\\-a\\-a\\-b\\-b\\-a\\-c\\-d\\-c\\-d\\-c\\-d\\.\\ Note\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ multiple\\ colons\\ and\\ semicolons\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Sunrise\\,\\ jewelry\\,\\ a\\ serene\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\English\\ poet\\ who\\ started\\ the\\ Romantic\\ Age\\ for\\ english\\ poetry\\.\\ Lived\\ primarily\\ in\\ England\\ but\\ traveled\\ extensively\\ in\\ France\\.\\ Was\\ friends\\ with\\ Samuel\\ Taylor\\ Coleridge\\.\\ Became\\ poet\\ laureate\\ of\\ Britain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ composition\\ serves\\ to\\ characterize\\ something\\ in\\ a\\ means\\ totally\\ different\\ than\\ its\\ normal\\ way\\.\\ Westminster\\ bridge\\ is\\ a\\ bridge\\ that\\ overlooks\\ much\\ of\\ London\\,\\ which\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ was\\ a\\ bustling\\ city\\,\\ that\\ was\\ often\\ dirty\\ and\\ polluted\\.\\ The\\ growing\\ industrialization\\ gave\\ the\\ city\\ its\\ harsh\\,\\ unattractive\\ looks\\.\\ In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Wordsworth\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ city\\ literally\\ through\\ a\\ different\\ light\\.\\ In\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ city\\ during\\ sunrise\\,\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ beauty\\ in\\ a\\ sight\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ rarely\\ described\\ so\\.\\ He\\ expresses\\ this\\ astonishment\\ through\\ numerous\\ exclamations\\,\\ notably\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Dear\\ God\\!\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;\\.\\.lying\\ still\\!\\"\\;\\ He\\ makes\\ a\\ direct\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ calm\\ and\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ the\\ \\"\\;splendour\\"\\;\\ is\\ partly\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ \\"\\;mighty\\ heart\\"\\;\\ lying\\ still\\.\\ This\\ coexistence\\ of\\ calm\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ comparing\\ the\\ \\"\\;towers\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;domes\\"\\;\\ to\\ \\"\\;valley\\,\\ rock\\ or\\ hill\\.\\"\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ shows\\ that\\ while\\ these\\ two\\ realms\\ are\\ inherently\\ different\\,\\ under\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ dawn\\ both\\ can\\ be\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ beauty\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ separate\\ ways\\.\\ While\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ temporary\\,\\ as\\ a\\ \\"\\;garment\\,\\"\\;\\ its\\ majesty\\,\\ \\ \\;has\\ some\\ merit\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ Wandered\\ Lonely\\ as\\ a\\ Cloud\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(page\\ 314\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Chapter\\ 2\\,\\ Poems\\ ass\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\,\\ self\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Mostly\\ tetrameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ four\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcc\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quatrain\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ couplet\\ \\/\\ \\#4\\ stanzas\\ \\/\\ the\\ sixth\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ from\\ the\\ pattern\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ flowers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ daffodils\\,\\ nature\\,\\ clouds\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ poet\\ who\\ focused\\ a\\ lot\\ on\\ nature\\,\\ can\\ assume\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ narrator\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;dance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ alliteration\\ belongs\\ to\\ daffodils\\ thus\\ they\\ belong\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ There\\ are\\ families\\ of\\ words\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;glee\\,\\ gay\\ and\\ jocund\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(family\\ of\\ being\\ happy\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;glance\\,\\ glee\\,\\ gay\\ and\\ gaze\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(connected\\ by\\ alliteration\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;saw\\ glance\\,\\ gaze\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(family\\ of\\ looking\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;float\\,\\ flutter\\,\\ dance\\,\\ shine\\,\\ twinkle\\,\\ toss\\,\\ flash\\,\\ fill\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(family\\ of\\ motion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Balance\\ of\\ words\\ from\\ the\\ German\\ side\\ of\\ English\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anglo\\ Saxon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ words\\ coming\\ from\\ the\\ Latin\\-French\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Antiphonal\\ structure\\ of\\ alternation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\/B\\/A\\/B\\ where\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\ and\\ the\\ flowers\\ are\\ the\\ objects\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ daffodils\\ are\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ sentences\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ they\\ engage\\ in\\ syntactic\\ dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Sentences\\ complete\\ stanzas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ sentences\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ sentence\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\&hellip\\;but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hinge\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ stanza\\ three\\ and\\ four\\ thus\\ bears\\ twice\\ the\\ weight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Poem\\ moves\\ from\\ the\\ opening\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ lonely\\ and\\ feels\\ unconnected\\ akin\\ to\\ a\\ cloud\\ and\\ then\\ eventually\\ ends\\ at\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ still\\ alone\\ but\\ not\\ lonely\\ \\(stanza\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\ is\\ outside\\ and\\ stanza\\ 4\\ is\\ inside\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ feels\\ the\\ bliss\\ of\\ solitude\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ involuntary\\ experiences\\ of\\ delight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Three\\ glances\\ at\\ the\\ daffodils\\ moves\\ the\\ poem\\ spatially\\ and\\ temporally\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ order\\ the\\ poet\\ sees\\,\\ glances\\ and\\ gazes\\ at\\ the\\ flowers\\ in\\ the\\ landscape\\ all\\ in\\ motion\\ and\\ all\\ together\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ End\\ comes\\ to\\ a\\ final\\ resolution\\ with\\ the\\ lasting\\ impression\\ of\\ the\\ daffodils\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 4, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Study_Guide_Draft_2_1.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Comparative Politics of Latin America - Guide 2", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "comparative-politics", "latin-america"], "text": null, "id": 40, "html": "\\\\\\Gov1295\\_Comp\\_Govt\\_L\\.\\_America\\_\\-\\_Final\\_2nd\\_Packet\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-9\\.4pt\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\FOCO\\ theory\\:\\ mimicking\\ of\\ Cuba\\;\\ small\\ groups\\ of\\ university\\ students\\ would\\ go\\ to\\ \\the\\ countryside\\ to\\ build\\ support\\ and\\ mobilize\\ peasants\\.\\ FOCO\\ strategy\\ failed\\ \\because\\ university\\ students\\ did\\ not\\ understand\\ peasant\\ life\\;\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ \\mobilize\\ the\\ peasants\\ because\\ peasants\\ wanted\\ above\\ all\\ stability\\.\\ And\\ many\\ of\\ \\the\\ conditions\\ of\\ having\\ an\\ instable\\ government\\ to\\ go\\ against\\ were\\ not\\ there\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juan\\ Velasco\\:\\ 1910\\&ndash\\;77\\,\\ president\\ of\\ Peru\\ \\(1968\\&ndash\\;75\\)\\.\\ As\\ army\\ commander\\ in\\ chief\\,\\ \\he\\ led\\ \\(1968\\)\\ the\\ junta\\ that\\ deposed\\ President\\ Bela\\ú\\;nde\\ Terry\\ after\\ his\\ failure\\ \\to\\ expropriate\\ U\\.S\\.\\-owned\\ oil\\ operations\\.\\ Velasco\\ appointed\\ an\\ all\\-military\\ \\cabinet\\,\\ and\\ immediately\\ seized\\ the\\ disputed\\ oil\\ fields\\.\\ He\\ restricted\\ the\\ \\press\\,\\ launched\\ a\\ sweeping\\ agrarian\\ reform\\ aimed\\ at\\ breaking\\ up\\ the\\ country\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\large\\ estates\\,\\ and\\ worked\\ toward\\ the\\ nationalization\\ of\\ selected\\ industries\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SINAMOS\\:\\ In\\ 1971\\ Velasco\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\ launched\\ the\\ Sistema\\ Nacional\\ de\\ \\Movilizacion\\ Social\\ \\(SINAMOS\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ its\\ own\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ \\base\\.\\ Political\\ rights\\ were\\ oppressed\\ and\\ social\\ mobilization\\ was\\ attenuated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\It\\ was\\ aimed\\ at\\ supporting\\ the\\ policies\\ adopted\\ by\\ public\\ agencies\\ and\\ to\\ \\cooperate\\ with\\ government\\ programs\\ which\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ economic\\,\\ social\\ and\\ \\cultural\\ development\\.\\ SINAMOS\\ encouraged\\ active\\,\\ but\\ controlled\\ particpation\\ of\\ \\mass\\ organizations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caudillos\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dictators\\ that\\ ruled\\ during\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\ They\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ following\\ independence\\ from\\ Europe\\.\\ They\\ govern\\ under\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;strong\\ man\\ rule\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clientelism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ system\\ where\\ peasants\\ depend\\ on\\ landowners\\ and\\ landowners\\ use\\ that\\ control\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ votes\\.\\ A\\ system\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;democracy\\ for\\ the\\ few\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ popular\\ sector\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ group\\ is\\ broader\\ than\\ labor\\ or\\ working\\ class\\.\\ It\\ also\\ includes\\ urban\\,\\ informal\\ groups\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ unemployed\\ or\\ those\\ employed\\ outside\\ the\\ main\\ market\\ such\\ as\\ taxi\\ drivers\\ and\\ housecleaners\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Salvador\\ Allende\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Popular\\ Front\\ movement\\ in\\ Chile\\,\\ a\\ Marxist\\,\\ elected\\ president\\ of\\ Chile\\ in\\ 1970\\ \\(the\\ first\\ democratically\\ elected\\ Marxist\\ president\\ in\\ the\\ world\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ won\\ the\\ election\\ thanks\\ to\\ increasing\\ polarization\\ between\\ the\\ oligarchic\\ right\\ and\\ the\\ radicalized\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Attempted\\ to\\ transform\\ Chile\\ into\\ a\\ socialist\\ society\\ within\\ the\\ constraints\\ of\\ the\\ existing\\ constitution\\,\\ while\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ congress\\ that\\ had\\ an\\ opposition\\ majority\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ to\\ maintain\\ a\\ balance\\ between\\ moderate\\ and\\ radical\\ wings\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ coalition\\;\\ he\\ himself\\ was\\ relatively\\ moderate\\ although\\ he\\ did\\ pursue\\ a\\ redistribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ socialist\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ increased\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\;\\ after\\ a\\ brief\\ period\\ of\\ economic\\ success\\ there\\ was\\ massive\\ inflation\\.\\ \\ \\;Popular\\ mobilization\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ increased\\ and\\ turned\\ violent\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\ Allende\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ failed\\:\\ he\\ had\\ threatened\\ business\\ leaders\\,\\ conservatives\\,\\ the\\ army\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ September\\ 1973\\ he\\ was\\ overthrown\\ and\\ killed\\ in\\ a\\ military\\ coup\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Montoneros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Along\\ with\\ the\\ Uruguayan\\ Tupamarus\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ most\\ important\\ urban\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\.\\ \\ \\;Created\\ in\\ Argentina\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ nationalist\\ and\\ Catholic\\ university\\ students\\ \\(Peronist\\,\\ middle\\ class\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\,\\ they\\ created\\ a\\ more\\ radical\\ form\\ of\\ Peronism\\,\\ redefining\\ the\\ movement\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ambiguous\\ ideology\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ equated\\ it\\ with\\ revolution\\ and\\ were\\ supported\\ by\\ Peron\\ himself\\ \\(because\\ he\\ sought\\ any\\ means\\ possible\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ power\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Montoneros\\ initially\\ enjoyed\\ widespread\\ support\\;\\ their\\ mobilization\\ helped\\ to\\ spark\\ a\\ massive\\ protest\\ movement\\ that\\ did\\ in\\ fact\\ defeat\\ the\\ dictatorship\\ and\\ install\\ Peron\\ in\\ the\\ presidency\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ they\\ triggered\\ a\\ cycle\\ of\\ violence\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ wave\\ of\\ brutal\\ repression\\ by\\ provoking\\ a\\ harsh\\ conservative\\ reaction\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ military\\ coup\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bureaucratic\\-authoritarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ type\\ of\\ right\\-wing\\ military\\ dictatorship\\ that\\ took\\ power\\ in\\ Brazil\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ and\\ Argentina\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;Studied\\ extensively\\ by\\ Guillermo\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\,\\ who\\ argued\\ that\\ economic\\ development\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ led\\ to\\ authoritarianism\\ rather\\ than\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ BA\\ coups\\ were\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ advanced\\ stages\\ \\(exhaustion\\)\\ of\\ ISI\\,\\ which\\ created\\ a\\ growing\\ need\\ for\\ austerity\\ policies\\,\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ increasing\\ mobilization\\ of\\ the\\ popular\\ sectors\\,\\ which\\ threatened\\ economic\\ elites\\.\\ \\ \\;BA\\ governments\\ were\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ technocrats\\,\\ who\\ viewed\\ problems\\ in\\ technical\\ rather\\ than\\ political\\ terms\\ \\(disliked\\ politics\\ in\\ general\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Guillermo\\ O\\&\\#39\\;Donnell\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Toward\\ an\\ Alternative\\ Conceptualization\\ of\\ South\\ American\\ Politics\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Peter\\ Klar\\é\\;n\\ and\\ Thomas\\ J\\.\\ Bossert\\,\\ eds\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Promise\\ of\\ Development\\:\\ Theories\\ of\\ Change\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Boulder\\:\\ Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 239\\-275\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ asks\\ the\\ question\\:\\ is\\ government\\ action\\ geared\\ to\\ exclude\\ the\\ already\\ activated\\ urban\\ popular\\ section\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ is\\ done\\ through\\ denying\\ leaders\\ access\\ to\\ political\\ power\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-an\\ \\&ldquo\\;incorporating\\ political\\ system\\&rdquo\\;\\ tries\\ to\\ activate\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ explores\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Argentina\\,\\ two\\ regimes\\ he\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;excluding\\&rdquo\\;\\ during\\ the\\ 1970s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Period\\ of\\ populism\\ and\\ horizontal\\ industrialization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Before\\:\\ 1930s\\ created\\ an\\ urban\\ working\\ class\\ that\\ made\\ a\\ populist\\ coalition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-populist\\ coalitions\\ used\\ populist\\ leaders\\ \\(P\\é\\;ron\\ in\\ Argentina\\ and\\ Vargas\\ in\\ Brazil\\)\\ and\\ these\\ leaders\\ exerted\\ control\\ over\\ coalitions\\.\\ When\\ populist\\ leaders\\ were\\ ousted\\,\\ coalitions\\ still\\ had\\ an\\ organizational\\ base\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\End\\ of\\ Argentine\\ and\\ Brazilian\\ Expansion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-socioeconomic\\ changes\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ ISI\\ deepening\\)\\ have\\ had\\ important\\ political\\ outcomes\\:\\ Argentina\\ and\\ Brazil\\ experienced\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ horizontal\\ industrial\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\,\\ but\\ growth\\ was\\ short\\ and\\ limited\\-it\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ populist\\ coalitions\\,\\ a\\ new\\ social\\ order\\,\\ and\\ new\\ policy\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ end\\ of\\ horizontal\\ growth\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ visible\\ \\&ldquo\\;enemies\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ ended\\ uniformity\\ of\\ populist\\ goals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Post\\ Populist\\ Actors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-high\\ modernization\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ equated\\ with\\ socio\\-economic\\ \\&ldquo\\;development\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ high\\ modernization\\ has\\ generated\\ popular\\ political\\ activation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cuban\\ revolution\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ role\\:\\ led\\ to\\ fear\\ of\\ popular\\ sector\\ and\\ increased\\ military\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ periods\\ of\\ modernization\\,\\ new\\ social\\ groups\\ emerge\\,\\ which\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ not\\ always\\ adequately\\ address\\:\\ old\\ power\\ strategies\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ as\\ well\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ demands\\-performance\\ gap\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technocratic\\ Roles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-technocrats\\ were\\ executives\\ attending\\ business\\ schools\\ modeled\\ after\\ US\\ schools\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ number\\ of\\ technocrats\\ increased\\ in\\ countries\\ with\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ modernization\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ deeply\\ penetrate\\ society\\:\\ they\\ often\\ advocated\\ more\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bureaucratic\\-Authoritarian\\ Political\\ Systems\\ in\\ South\\ America\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-exclusion\\ of\\ an\\ activated\\ popular\\ sector\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ through\\ psychological\\ or\\ economic\\ payoffs\\,\\ otherwise\\ it\\ requires\\ systematic\\ coercive\\ measures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-potential\\ steps\\ to\\ exclusion\\:\\ 1\\)\\ eliminating\\ parties\\ 2\\)\\ bribing\\ leaders\\ to\\ side\\ with\\ the\\ government\\ 3\\)\\ bureaucratically\\ \\&ldquo\\;encapsulate\\&rdquo\\;\\ most\\ social\\ sectors\\ by\\ having\\ them\\ represented\\ through\\ the\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ labels\\ Brazil\\ in\\ 1964\\ and\\ Argentina\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;66\\ as\\ bureaucratic\\-authoritarian\\:\\ coercion\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ these\\ regimes\\,\\ but\\ coercion\\ can\\ appear\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Brazil\\ deactivated\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\,\\ Argentina\\ allowed\\ the\\ pop\\.\\ sector\\ to\\ exist\\,\\ but\\ limited\\ its\\ channels\\ to\\ political\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ resulted\\ because\\ the\\ systems\\ these\\ BA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emerged\\ from\\ were\\ different\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-allowing\\ popular\\ sectors\\ to\\ remain\\ in\\ tact\\ has\\ important\\ implications\\ for\\ post\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\:\\ must\\ deal\\ with\\ an\\ activated\\ popular\\ sector\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ international\\ system\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\:\\ because\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ are\\ modernizing\\ behind\\ other\\ countries\\,\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;pull\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ catch\\ up\\-this\\ accelerates\\ modernization\\,\\ which\\ creates\\ \\&ldquo\\;demand\\-performance\\&rdquo\\;\\ gap\\ discussed\\ earlier\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Proposed\\ Classification\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ has\\ a\\ chart\\ \\(page\\ 282\\ of\\ the\\ sourcebook\\)\\ that\\ compares\\ level\\ of\\ modernization\\ w\\/political\\ system\\ \\(this\\ is\\ useful\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-his\\ final\\ notes\\:\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ modernization\\ are\\ not\\ associated\\ w\\/democracies\\.\\ Also\\,\\ there\\ is\\ reason\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ other\\ countries\\ undergoing\\ modernization\\ could\\ end\\ up\\ authoritarian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Collier\\,\\ \\"\\;Overview\\ of\\ the\\ Bureaucratic\\-Authoritarian\\ Model\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ David\\ Collier\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ New\\ Authoritarianism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Princeton\\:\\ Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1979\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 19\\-32\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Collier\\ summarizes\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ above\\ reading\\.\\ He\\ challenges\\ prior\\ assumptions\\ that\\ high\\ modernization\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ stresses\\ economic\\ and\\ social\\ factors\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ studying\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ BA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-he\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ national\\ political\\ regime\\,\\ the\\ class\\ and\\ sectoral\\ composition\\ of\\ political\\ coalitions\\,\\ and\\ crucial\\ public\\ policies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ sees\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ political\\ systems\\:\\ 1\\)\\ oligarchic\\:\\ political\\ competition\\ is\\ limited\\,\\ elite\\ dominate\\ state\\ 2\\)\\ populist\\:\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\incorporating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\system\\:\\ multi\\-class\\ coalition\\ of\\ urban\\-industrial\\ interests\\ 3\\)\\ bureaucratic\\-authoritarian\\:\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\excluding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\system\\,\\ where\\ high\\ level\\ technocrats\\ \\(military\\ and\\ civilian\\)\\ control\\ the\\ state\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-political\\ change\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ tensions\\ produced\\ by\\ industrialization\\.\\ He\\ lists\\ three\\ crucial\\ aspects\\ of\\ modernization\\:\\ 1\\)\\ industrialization\\:\\ alters\\ economic\\ payoffs\\ to\\ different\\ groups\\.\\ Attempts\\ are\\ made\\ at\\ vertical\\ integration\\ \\(ISI\\ deepening\\)\\,\\ but\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ need\\ an\\ efficient\\,\\ large\\,\\ system\\.\\ 2\\)\\ popular\\ sector\\ activation\\:\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ shift\\ to\\ more\\ orthodox\\ policy\\,\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ demands\\-performance\\ gap\\ 3\\)\\ technocratic\\ roles\\:\\ increased\\ communication\\ among\\ military\\ and\\ civilian\\ technocrats\\,\\ form\\ a\\ coup\\ coalition\\ to\\ solve\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-bureaucratic\\-authoritarian\\ regimes\\ emerge\\ under\\ slightly\\ different\\ circumstances\\,\\ which\\ will\\ affect\\ their\\ appearance\\:\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Argentina\\ the\\ pre\\-coup\\ crisis\\ was\\ less\\ severe\\ than\\ in\\ Brazil\\,\\ so\\ the\\ BA\\ collapsed\\ faster\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ New\\ Professionalism\\ of\\ Internal\\ Warfare\\ and\\ Military\\ Role\\ Expansion\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Authoritarian\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ Haven\\:\\ Yale\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1973\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 47\\-59\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Focuses\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ changing\\ military\\ ideology\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ coup\\ in\\ Brazil\\ in\\ 1964\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ the\\ bureaucratic\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ what\\ happened\\ in\\ Brazil\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ wider\\ phenomenon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ According\\ to\\ old\\ concepts\\ of\\ the\\ military\\,\\ as\\ became\\ more\\ professionalized\\ and\\ organized\\,\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ removed\\ from\\ political\\ sphere\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ in\\ Brazil\\ professional\\ standards\\ coexisted\\ with\\ increasing\\ politicization\\,\\ because\\ military\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ domestic\\ war\\ rather\\ than\\ interstate\\ conflict\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thanks\\ in\\ large\\ part\\ to\\ US\\ anti\\-communism\\ efforts\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ professionalism\\&rdquo\\;\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ military\\ should\\ play\\ a\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ interpreting\\ and\\ dealing\\ with\\ domestic\\ political\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ Brazil\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ professionalism\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ national\\ security\\ was\\ developed\\ at\\ Superior\\ War\\ College\\ \\(ESG\\)\\,\\ which\\ taught\\ officer\\ not\\ only\\ military\\ matters\\ but\\ also\\ emphasized\\ politics\\ and\\ economics\\.\\ \\ \\;Emphasized\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;modern\\ warfare\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ involved\\ the\\ unity\\,\\ will\\ and\\ productive\\ capacity\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ nation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Development\\ and\\ security\\ issues\\ were\\ inseparable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Thus\\,\\ when\\ in\\ 1964\\,\\ rising\\ strike\\ levels\\,\\ high\\ inflation\\ and\\ increased\\ demands\\ from\\ the\\ Left\\ began\\ to\\ hit\\ Brazil\\,\\ military\\ officers\\ began\\ to\\ see\\ signs\\ that\\ Brazil\\ was\\ entering\\ a\\ stage\\ of\\ subversive\\ warfare\\,\\ which\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ countered\\ by\\ a\\ military\\ takeover\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Valenzuela\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Breakdown\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Regimes\\:\\ Chile\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 81\\-110\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-political\\ tensions\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ resolved\\ w\\/political\\ actors\\,\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;neutral\\&rdquo\\;\\ powers\\ were\\ brought\\ in\\:\\ the\\ Contraloria\\,\\ the\\ courts\\,\\ the\\ Constitutional\\ Tribunal\\,\\ and\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ came\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-w\\/their\\ involvement\\,\\ these\\ forces\\ became\\ increasingly\\ politicized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ military\\ became\\ an\\ increasingly\\ important\\ player\\ and\\ the\\ commanding\\ general\\ of\\ the\\ army\\ was\\ named\\ minister\\ of\\ the\\ interior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-tensions\\ between\\ the\\ disputing\\ parties\\ increased\\,\\ and\\ the\\ March\\ 1973\\ congressional\\ elections\\ illustrated\\ the\\ high\\ level\\ of\\ polarization\\ between\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Allende\\ had\\ 3\\ options\\:\\ 1\\)\\ continue\\ w\\/military\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ cabinet\\ 2\\)\\ make\\ a\\ truce\\ w\\/Christian\\ democrats\\ 3\\)\\ have\\ the\\ government\\ push\\ on\\ w\\/its\\ original\\ policies\\ and\\ use\\ working\\ class\\ support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Allende\\ appointed\\ a\\ civilian\\ cabinet\\ drawn\\ from\\ moderates\\ in\\ the\\ Popular\\ Unity\\ coalition\\:\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democrats\\ continued\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ oppositional\\ stance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Allende\\ developed\\ the\\ Escuela\\ National\\ Unificada\\ \\(ENU\\)\\ proposal\\ do\\ develop\\ a\\ national\\ schools\\ system\\:\\ this\\ was\\ highly\\ controversial\\ and\\ the\\ gov\\.\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ abandon\\ it\\,\\ which\\ was\\ detrimental\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-May\\:\\ state\\ of\\ emergency\\ was\\ declared\\ in\\ Santiago\\ as\\ protestors\\ took\\ to\\ the\\ streets\\:\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ criticized\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ regime\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-some\\ weak\\ efforts\\ were\\ made\\ to\\ compromise\\ w\\/Christian\\ Democrats\\:\\ but\\ throughout\\ the\\ process\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democrats\\ were\\ skeptical\\-they\\ thought\\ Allende\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ divide\\ their\\ party\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ still\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Christian\\ Democrats\\ demanded\\ that\\ the\\ military\\ be\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ government\\:\\ Allende\\ had\\ no\\ choice\\ and\\ agreed\\,\\ which\\ angered\\ the\\ left\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-6\\/19\\/73\\:\\ coup\\ attempt\\ occurs\\.\\ Event\\ was\\ not\\ highly\\ organized\\,\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ gradual\\ and\\ haphazard\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-following\\ this\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ air\\ force\\ and\\ navy\\ led\\ raids\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ weapons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-by\\ August\\,\\ the\\ government\\ was\\ not\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ military\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Allende\\ tried\\ to\\ gain\\ control\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ military\\ cabinet\\,\\ but\\ was\\ criticized\\ from\\ many\\ sides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-8\\/22\\:\\ General\\ Prat\\ resigned\\-entire\\ political\\ system\\ came\\ down\\ to\\ president\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ colleagues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-9\\/11\\/73\\:\\ Pinochet\\ and\\ his\\ army\\ overthrow\\ the\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONCLUSIONS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ important\\ elements\\ in\\ coup\\ were\\ not\\ those\\ disloyal\\ to\\ democracy\\,\\ but\\ came\\ from\\ tensions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-corruption\\ and\\ disorder\\ in\\ political\\ system\\ combined\\ with\\ economic\\ crisis\\ exacerbated\\ the\\ problem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Popular\\ Unity\\&rsquo\\;s\\ leftist\\ policy\\ also\\ left\\ many\\ skeptical\\ of\\ the\\ regime\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ shows\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;neutral\\&rdquo\\;\\ actor\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ military\\ to\\ become\\ involved\\ in\\ politics\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ \\"\\;Political\\ Leadership\\ and\\ Regime\\ Breakdown\\:\\ Brazil\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Juan\\ J\\.\\ Linz\\ and\\ Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Breakdown\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Regimes\\:\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Baltimore\\:\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1978\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 110\\-137\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ First\\,\\ Stepan\\ considers\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;macro\\-political\\&rdquo\\;\\ strains\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ regime\\ breakdown\\ in\\ Brazil\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ population\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ increasing\\ social\\ mobilization\\ helped\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ collapse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ But\\ primarily\\,\\ he\\ considers\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ democracy\\ in\\ Brazil\\ from\\ a\\ voluntarist\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ analysis\\ focuses\\ on\\ two\\ particular\\ mistakes\\ that\\ Goulart\\ made\\ during\\ the\\ final\\ months\\ of\\ his\\ presidency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ first\\ critical\\ mistake\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Stepan\\,\\ was\\ the\\ decision\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ public\\ rally\\ on\\ March\\ 13\\,\\ 1964\\.\\ \\ \\;Goulart\\ hoped\\ to\\ mobilize\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ political\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ demand\\ reforms\\ from\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ March\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rally\\,\\ he\\ announced\\ what\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Basic\\ Reforms\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ changes\\ that\\ included\\ a\\ demand\\ that\\ the\\ Constitution\\ be\\ amended\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ composition\\ of\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Goulart\\ had\\ overestimated\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ and\\ in\\ trying\\ to\\ rally\\ him\\,\\ he\\ had\\ merely\\ \\&ldquo\\;galvanized\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ opposition\\,\\ who\\ now\\ felt\\ even\\ more\\ threatened\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Goulart\\&rsquo\\;s\\ second\\ major\\ mistake\\ eroded\\ his\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ institution\\ where\\ he\\ most\\ needed\\ it\\:\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ thousand\\ sailors\\ and\\ marines\\ mutinied\\ on\\ March\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Goulart\\ was\\ put\\ in\\ a\\ particularly\\ delicate\\ position\\.\\ His\\ decision\\ to\\ grant\\ amnesty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ in\\ effect\\ sanction\\ \\&ldquo\\;indiscipline\\ and\\ disorder\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ fateful\\ one\\,\\ as\\ even\\ the\\ officers\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ faithful\\ to\\ him\\ withdrew\\ their\\ support\\.\\ When\\ the\\ opposition\\ finally\\ mounted\\ an\\ attack\\ soon\\ afterwards\\,\\ there\\ were\\ none\\ left\\ to\\ defend\\ Goulart\\,\\ and\\ democracy\\ quickly\\ fell\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abraham\\ F\\.\\ Lowenthal\\,\\ \\"\\;Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ambiguous\\ Revolution\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Lowenthal\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Peruvian\\ Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Princeton\\:\\ Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1975\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\-43\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overview\\ of\\ Peruvian\\ military\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-took\\ power\\ in\\ 1968\\ coup\\ led\\ by\\ General\\ Velasco\\,\\ who\\ became\\ president\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ relatively\\ unrepressive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ promoted\\ substantial\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ looked\\ upon\\ favorably\\ by\\ both\\ the\\ International\\ left\\ and\\ business\\,\\ but\\ within\\ the\\ country\\ less\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;Left\\ regards\\ the\\ military\\ rule\\ as\\ far\\ from\\ revolutionary\\,\\ while\\ business\\ looks\\ upon\\ it\\ with\\ distrust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Characterizing\\ the\\ Peruvian\\ Regime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Regime\\ has\\ strengthened\\ the\\ state\\ through\\ such\\ actions\\ as\\ nationalizing\\ the\\ fishmeal\\ industry\\,\\ but\\ asserts\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ intend\\ to\\ end\\ private\\ economic\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ sought\\ to\\ destroy\\ traditional\\ political\\ system\\,\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ very\\ corporatist\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;full\\ participation\\&rdquo\\;\\ seems\\ somewhat\\ plausible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Generally\\ portrayed\\ as\\ having\\ reduced\\ dependence\\ on\\ other\\ countries\\,\\ but\\ economy\\ still\\ based\\ in\\ and\\ open\\ to\\ foreign\\ investment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Various\\ structural\\ reforms\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ agrarian\\,\\ industrial\\ and\\ educational\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ are\\ extensive\\,\\ but\\ ultimately\\ \\&ldquo\\;seem\\ unlikely\\ to\\ affect\\ significantly\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ rewards\\ in\\ Peruvian\\ society\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Military\\ regime\\ distributes\\ resources\\ more\\ equitably\\ only\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ could\\ already\\ make\\ their\\ voices\\ heard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-For\\ these\\ reasons\\,\\ many\\ had\\ assumed\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ had\\ run\\ its\\ course\\,\\ but\\ Lowenthal\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ trend\\ may\\ be\\ toward\\ more\\ profound\\ reform\\.\\ \\ \\;Reforms\\ already\\ decreed\\ have\\ been\\ carried\\ further\\ than\\ at\\ first\\ seemed\\ likely\\,\\ become\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;radical\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\ and\\ Context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ Peruvian\\ military\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policies\\,\\ one\\ must\\ understand\\ pre\\-1968\\ Peru\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ civilian\\ context\\ \\(and\\ not\\ just\\ transformations\\ that\\ were\\ occurring\\ within\\ the\\ military\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Peru\\ was\\ extremely\\ poor\\ and\\ income\\ distributions\\ were\\ very\\ unequal\\.\\ \\ \\;Land\\-holding\\ oligarchy\\ continued\\ to\\ dominate\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ But\\ as\\ society\\ began\\ to\\ change\\ \\(increasingly\\ urbanized\\ and\\ literate\\)\\ its\\ political\\ system\\ did\\ not\\ keep\\ pace\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ evidenced\\ by\\ its\\ failure\\ to\\ produce\\ any\\ significant\\ agrarian\\ reform\\,\\ which\\ was\\ much\\ needed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Basically\\,\\ Lowenthal\\ argues\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ considerable\\ and\\ obvious\\ policy\\ vacuum\\ was\\ waiting\\ to\\ be\\ filled\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ military\\,\\ given\\ their\\ desire\\ to\\ break\\ the\\ oligarchy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hold\\,\\ stepped\\ into\\ that\\ vacuum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Revolution\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Most\\ analysts\\ of\\ Peru\\ have\\ treated\\ the\\ regime\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ were\\ a\\ cohesive\\ unit\\ implementing\\ cohesive\\ plan\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ actually\\ no\\ real\\ detailed\\ course\\ of\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Peruvian\\ regime\\ reflects\\ the\\ predominant\\ influence\\ of\\ a\\ minority\\ army\\ faction\\ within\\ the\\ considerable\\ constraints\\ imposed\\ by\\ the\\ perceived\\ need\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Why\\ has\\ the\\ regime\\ tended\\ to\\ move\\ beyond\\ its\\ originally\\ announced\\ programs\\ to\\ more\\ extensive\\ reforms\\?\\ \\ \\;First\\ reason\\ is\\ the\\ leadership\\ of\\ Velasco\\,\\ who\\ effectively\\ pushes\\ for\\ more\\ extensive\\ reform\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\ reason\\ is\\ COAP\\,\\ segment\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ influential\\ and\\ somewhat\\ leftist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Karl\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Petroleum\\ and\\ Political\\ Pacts\\:\\ The\\ Transition\\ to\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Venezuela\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Explains\\ Venezuelan\\ transition\\ through\\ relationship\\ of\\ socioeconomic\\/political\\ structures\\ and\\ political\\ action\\ \\(mix\\ of\\ structuralism\\ and\\ voluntarism\\)\\;\\ focuses\\ on\\ links\\ between\\ petroleum\\-led\\ development\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;pacted\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Petroleum\\ is\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ factor\\ shaping\\ structural\\ conditions\\ for\\ breakdown\\ of\\ military\\ authoritarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ mode\\ of\\ development\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ commodities\\ for\\ export\\ yields\\ distinctive\\ social\\ configurations\\ and\\ political\\ instrests\\ that\\ affect\\ the\\ propensity\\ for\\ various\\ regime\\ types\\ to\\ emerge\\ \\(by\\ affecting\\ patterns\\ of\\ class\\ formation\\,\\ rise\\/decline\\ of\\ economic\\ actors\\,\\ formation\\ and\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ state\\,\\ importance\\ of\\ political\\ actors\\,\\ and\\ types\\ of\\ sociopolitical\\ alliances\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ forged\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Export\\-oriented\\ development\\ supposedly\\ promotes\\ democratization\\ through\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ an\\ independent\\ urban\\ middle\\ class\\ \\(new\\ political\\ actors\\)\\ and\\ the\\ transformation\\ of\\ the\\ peasantry\\ into\\ some\\ other\\ kind\\ of\\ social\\ formation\\ \\(thus\\ relieving\\ dominant\\ classes\\ from\\ having\\ to\\ use\\ antidemocratic\\ means\\ to\\ hold\\ down\\ a\\ labor\\ force\\ on\\ the\\ land\\)\\-\\ change\\ in\\ social\\ structure\\ that\\ weakened\\ traditional\\ agrarian\\ elites\\ representing\\ the\\ political\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Industrialization\\ also\\ provided\\ material\\ base\\ for\\ new\\ alliance\\ between\\ local\\ capital\\ and\\ foreign\\ investment\\;\\ this\\ created\\ international\\ interests\\ that\\ could\\ defend\\ regime\\ changes\\ that\\ might\\ occur\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Once\\ these\\ structural\\ conditions\\ have\\ been\\ established\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;statecraft\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ crucial\\ in\\ instigating\\ regime\\ changes\\-\\ individual\\ leadership\\ and\\ choices\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ of\\ Betancourt\\ who\\ through\\ AD\\ convinced\\ Venezuelans\\ that\\ classes\\ could\\ work\\ together\\ for\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Political\\ pacts\\ \\(Punto\\ Fijo\\)\\ played\\ a\\ dual\\ role\\:\\ provided\\ stability\\ and\\ predictability\\ that\\ is\\ reassuring\\ to\\ threatened\\ traditional\\ elites\\ by\\ establishing\\ certain\\ rules\\,\\ but\\ also\\ had\\ consequences\\ on\\ nature\\ of\\ subsequent\\ democracy\\ because\\ institutionalized\\ a\\ conservative\\ bias\\ by\\ relying\\ upon\\ negotations\\ to\\ reconcile\\ wishes\\ of\\ established\\ interests\\ with\\ those\\ of\\ challengers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Pacted\\ democracy\\ was\\ possible\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ structural\\ opportunity\\ created\\ by\\ oil\\ that\\ provided\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ space\\ for\\ eventually\\ accommodating\\ divergent\\ interests\\ \\(change\\ in\\ social\\ class\\ formation\\,\\ petrodollars\\ smoothed\\ social\\ conflict\\ during\\ transition\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remmer\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Military\\ Rule\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Explores\\ variations\\ among\\ military\\ regimes\\;\\ any\\ similarities\\ that\\ exist\\ are\\ basically\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;built\\ into\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ military\\ rule\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ military\\ regimes\\ limit\\ political\\ liberties\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Inclusionary\\ vs\\.\\ Exclusionary\\ Authoritarianism\\:\\ inclusionary\\ regimes\\ attempt\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ popular\\ base\\ of\\ support\\ for\\ military\\ rule\\ by\\ mobilizing\\ new\\ sets\\ of\\ political\\ actors\\ around\\ nationalist\\ projects\\ \\(Peron\\ in\\ Arg\\.\\)\\.\\ Exclusionary\\ regimes\\ attempt\\ to\\ limit\\ popular\\ participation\\ and\\ repress\\ vehicles\\ for\\ lower\\ class\\ political\\ activity\\,\\ built\\ on\\ foundation\\ of\\ middle\\-\\ and\\ upper\\-class\\ support\\;\\ reactionary\\ policies\\;\\ internaly\\ oriented\\ economic\\ interests\\ dominate\\ governing\\ coalition\\ \\(Pinochet\\ in\\ Chile\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Extent\\ to\\ which\\ regime\\ is\\ inclusionary\\/exclusionary\\ depends\\ on\\ social\\ class\\ coalition\\ supporting\\ military\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Regimes\\ can\\ be\\ classified\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ 2\\ theoretical\\ dimensions\\:\\ competitiveness\\ \\(democracy\\ vs\\.\\ dictatorship\\)\\ and\\ inclusiveness\\.\\ \\ \\;Classifying\\ regimes\\ along\\ these\\ two\\ dimensions\\ produces\\ four\\ extreme\\ \\(polar\\)\\ types\\:\\ exclusionary\\ and\\ inclusionary\\ democracy\\ and\\ exclusionary\\ and\\ inclusionary\\ authoritarianism\\ \\(most\\ regimes\\ fall\\ somewhere\\ in\\ between\\ in\\ practice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-None\\ of\\ the\\ types\\ can\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ single\\ level\\ of\\ socioeconomic\\ development\\,\\ yet\\ this\\ still\\ plays\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ shaping\\ rules\\ of\\ political\\ game\\;\\ some\\ relationships\\ can\\ be\\ observed\\ with\\ relative\\ confidence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Socioeconomic\\ modernization\\ neither\\ increases\\ nor\\ decreases\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ competitive\\ or\\ democratic\\ rule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-As\\ socioeconomic\\ modernization\\ produces\\ a\\ society\\ that\\ is\\ increasingly\\ urbanized\\,\\ industrialized\\,\\ and\\ literate\\,\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ a\\ competitive\\ regime\\ will\\ assume\\ an\\ exclusionary\\ or\\ oligarchical\\ form\\ declines\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ inclusionary\\ democracy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ relationship\\ between\\ socioeconomic\\ modernization\\ and\\ exclusionary\\ authoritarianism\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ exclusionary\\ regimes\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ emerge\\ at\\ low\\ and\\ advanced\\ levels\\ of\\ industrialization\\,\\ urbanization\\,\\ and\\ educational\\ attainment\\.\\ \\ \\;Inclusionary\\ military\\ regimes\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ emerge\\ at\\ middle\\ levels\\ of\\ socioeconomic\\ modernization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ probability\\ that\\ a\\ democratic\\ or\\ authoritarian\\ mode\\ of\\ political\\ domination\\ will\\ prevail\\ at\\ a\\ given\\ level\\ of\\ modernization\\/industrialization\\ is\\ condition\\ by\\ 4\\ sets\\ of\\ factors\\:\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ social\\ inequality\\,\\ mode\\ of\\ international\\ economic\\ integration\\,\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ political\\ conjectures\\,\\ and\\ dynamics\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ process\\ established\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ central\\ dilemma\\ of\\ military\\ regimes\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ alter\\ the\\ conditions\\ favoring\\ their\\ emergence\\ and\\ thereby\\ risk\\ undermining\\ their\\ own\\ viability\\.\\ \\(inclusionary\\ regimes\\ threaten\\ privileged\\ groups\\ and\\ strengthen\\ popular\\ sector\\ forces\\;\\ exclusionary\\ regimes\\ reduce\\ social\\ polarization\\,\\ narrowing\\ regime\\&rsquo\\;s\\ base\\ of\\ political\\ support\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Exclusionary\\ regimes\\ more\\ durable\\/common\\ due\\ to\\ socioeconomic\\ structure\\ of\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schamis\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reconceptualizing\\ Latin\\ American\\ Authoritarianism\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Military\\ regimes\\ of\\ the\\ 1970s\\ were\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ 1960s\\ and\\ cannot\\ be\\ interpreted\\ using\\ the\\ bureaucratic\\-authoritarian\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Characteristics\\ that\\ make\\ bureaucratic\\ authoritarianism\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ authoritarian\\/totalitarian\\ regimes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Development\\ model\\ based\\ on\\ deepening\\ production\\ \\(last\\ phase\\ of\\ ISI\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Increase\\ in\\ bureaucratization\\;\\ intensified\\ state\\ role\\ in\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ order\\ to\\ achieve\\ political\\ order\\ necessary\\ to\\ promote\\ investment\\,\\ popular\\ sector\\ excluded\\ from\\ politics\\ \\(through\\ incorporation\\ or\\ outright\\ coercion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-End\\ of\\ distributionist\\ \\(populist\\)\\ economic\\ policies\\ \\(at\\ end\\ of\\ easy\\ ISI\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Depoliticization\\,\\ by\\ turning\\ political\\ issues\\ into\\ technical\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Armed\\ forces\\ rule\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\ to\\ guarantee\\ stability\\ of\\ state\\/capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ impossible\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ 70s\\ southern\\ cone\\ regimes\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ this\\ model\\;\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ not\\ just\\ linear\\ progressions\\ or\\ deepenings\\ of\\ the\\ features\\ of\\ the\\ BAs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Explanatory\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ regimes\\ in\\ 70s\\ weakened\\ by\\ reversal\\ of\\ deepening\\ of\\ the\\ productive\\ structure\\ and\\ the\\ rejection\\ of\\ corporatist\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ control\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ coercion\\ and\\ repression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ the\\ 70s\\ the\\ BA\\ model\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ rapidly\\ changing\\ phases\\ of\\ development\\ in\\ world\\ economy\\;\\ in\\ new\\ model\\,\\ growth\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ efficiency\\ and\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ \\(resulting\\ in\\ homogenization\\ of\\ productive\\ structure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-ISI\\ replaced\\ by\\ laissez\\-faire\\ doctrines\\ \\(market\\ forces\\,\\ balance\\ of\\ payments\\)\\-\\ political\\ device\\ to\\ establish\\ minimal\\ state\\ \\(change\\ in\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ historic\\ role\\)\\-\\ neoconservative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-International\\ conditions\\ also\\ different\\ in\\ 70s\\ from\\ 60s\\ \\(inflation\\,\\ no\\ expansion\\,\\ deterior\\-ation\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ trade\\,\\ growing\\ competition\\)\\-\\ impossible\\ to\\ sustain\\ Keynesianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Dramatic\\ alteration\\ of\\ balance\\ b\\/w\\ public\\/private\\ sectors\\,\\ definition\\ of\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fagen\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Repression\\ and\\ State\\ Security\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Military\\ regimes\\ in\\ southern\\ cone\\ different\\ from\\ European\\ fascist\\ regimes\\ because\\ purpose\\ of\\ state\\ terror\\ was\\ to\\ discourage\\ people\\ from\\ organizing\\ for\\ any\\ political\\ motive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Similar\\ chain\\ of\\ events\\ led\\ to\\ military\\ rule\\ in\\ these\\ countries\\:\\ military\\ expanded\\ powers\\ prior\\ to\\ assuming\\ political\\ authority\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ defeating\\ revolutionary\\ movements\\;\\ progressive\\ polarization\\ inspired\\ fear\\ and\\ public\\ support\\ for\\ strong\\ security\\ measures\\ \\(widespread\\ doubts\\ re\\:\\ capacity\\ of\\ civilian\\ govts\\ to\\ restore\\ econ\\ confidence\\/end\\ violence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Military\\ govts\\ monopolized\\ state\\ power\\,\\ economically\\ deferred\\ to\\ technocrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Political\\ objective\\ was\\ to\\ preside\\ over\\ state\\ w\\/few\\ channels\\ for\\ popular\\ protest\\ and\\ no\\ commitment\\ to\\ accommodate\\ the\\ material\\/social\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ middle\\ sectors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Emphasis\\ on\\ national\\ security\\ through\\ counterinsurgency\\ doctrines\\ \\(U\\.S\\.\\-influenced\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Use\\ of\\ illness\\ theme\\ to\\ fight\\ \\&ldquo\\;subversive\\ mentalities\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;infected\\&rdquo\\;\\/weakened\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Total\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ military\\/police\\ and\\ leftist\\ groups\\-\\ wanted\\ to\\ eradicate\\ each\\ other\\;\\ this\\ gave\\ military\\ leaders\\ vehicle\\ through\\ which\\ to\\ establish\\ absolute\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Judicial\\ protection\\,\\ due\\ process\\,\\ executive\\ accountability\\ undermined\\ in\\ all\\ 4\\ countries\\ \\(through\\ laws\\ of\\ national\\ security\\ and\\ permanent\\ \\&ldquo\\;states\\ of\\ emergency\\/exception\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-New\\ legal\\ order\\ \\(generals\\ granted\\ themselves\\ frull\\ ruling\\ powers\\)\\ facilitated\\ repression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Brazil\\,\\ the\\ most\\ \\&ldquo\\;open\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\ authoritarian\\ systems\\,\\ saw\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\ civil\\ opposition\\ despite\\ repression\\;\\ maintained\\ the\\ most\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ \\(Congress\\ and\\ political\\ parties\\ which\\ became\\ increasingly\\ independent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Argentina\\ sustained\\ a\\ vast\\ system\\ of\\ secret\\ terror\\ masked\\ by\\ a\\ seemingly\\ functional\\ judicial\\ system\\ \\(Supreme\\ Court\\ had\\ no\\ authority\\ to\\ enforce\\ the\\ few\\ rulings\\ it\\ did\\ make\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Security\\ forces\\ reorganized\\;\\ armed\\ forces\\ mobilized\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ new\\ functions\\,\\ wage\\ war\\ against\\ citizens\\ within\\ the\\ country\\ for\\ ideological\\/political\\ reasons\\;\\ used\\ various\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Corruption\\:\\ military\\/police\\ professional\\ standards\\ deteriorated\\,\\ as\\ did\\ definition\\ of\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Transformation\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\:\\ citizens\\ abandoned\\ political\\ activity\\,\\ wary\\ of\\ interaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Neoliberal\\ economic\\ policies\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ imposed\\ by\\ force\\/repression\\ b\\/c\\ harmful\\ to\\ poor\\;\\ military\\ govts\\ gained\\ legitimacy\\ through\\ economic\\ growth\\ these\\ policies\\ caused\\,\\ but\\ this\\ growth\\ was\\ not\\ too\\ enduring\\ and\\ govts\\ still\\ have\\ economic\\ troubles\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constable\\/Valenzuela\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Nation\\ of\\ Enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Chilean\\ military\\ \\(under\\ Pinochet\\)\\ took\\ over\\ govt\\ in\\ 1973\\ with\\ very\\ little\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Military\\ junta\\ pledged\\ to\\ respect\\ constitution\\,\\ described\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ duty\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;salvage\\ the\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ yet\\ declared\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ and\\ restricted\\ civilian\\ rights\\ \\(banning\\ parties\\,\\ closing\\ down\\ Congress\\,\\ declaring\\ news\\ subject\\ to\\ censorship\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Chile\\ had\\ had\\ a\\ 150\\-year\\ period\\ of\\ strong\\ civilian\\ constitutional\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Backbone\\ of\\ Chilean\\ democracy\\ was\\ large\\ centrist\\ middle\\ class\\ \\(represented\\ by\\ Radical\\ party\\)\\ which\\ compromised\\ with\\ leftists\\ and\\ conservatives\\,\\ but\\ economic\\ exhaustion\\ and\\ working\\ class\\ politicization\\ undermined\\ this\\ culture\\ of\\ compromise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Frei\\ \\(president\\ 1964\\-70\\)\\ alienated\\ right\\,\\ so\\ Allende\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ win\\ \\&lsquo\\;70\\ pres\\.\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Allende\\&rsquo\\;s\\ socialist\\ policies\\ threatened\\ upper\\ classes\\,\\ sent\\ economy\\ out\\ of\\ control\\;\\ U\\.S\\.\\ also\\ against\\ his\\ government\\;\\ different\\ political\\ parties\\ trusted\\ each\\ other\\ less\\ and\\ less\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Military\\ grew\\ restless\\ and\\ frustrated\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ civilians\\ started\\ calling\\ for\\ coup\\-\\ believed\\ that\\ govt\\ had\\ behaved\\ unconstitutionally\\,\\ and\\ a\\ military\\ dictatorship\\ was\\ better\\ than\\ a\\ Marxist\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Chileans\\ welcomed\\ coup\\ because\\ thought\\ it\\ would\\ bring\\ peace\\ and\\ order\\;\\ the\\ repression\\ that\\ followed\\ came\\ as\\ a\\ shock\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ previous\\ experience\\ w\\/military\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Punitive\\ behavior\\ of\\ military\\ regime\\ against\\ the\\ left\\ sprang\\ from\\ combination\\ of\\ fear\\,\\ heavy\\ ideological\\ indoctrination\\,\\ and\\ an\\ institutional\\ need\\ to\\ justify\\ military\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Chileans\\ thought\\ military\\ would\\ relinquish\\ power\\ to\\ civilian\\ authorities\\ once\\ order\\ restored\\,\\ did\\ not\\ expect\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ambitions\\ or\\ resentment\\ against\\ political\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Within\\ weeks\\ of\\ coup\\,\\ secret\\ war\\ launched\\ against\\ Marxist\\ \\&ldquo\\;subversion\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-DINA\\ \\(National\\ Directorate\\ of\\ Intelligence\\)\\ created\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;74\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chilean\\ gestapo\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(intelligence\\ agency\\ that\\ could\\ also\\ arrest\\ suspects\\ and\\ demand\\ cooperation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Mission\\ was\\ to\\ eliminate\\ Marxist\\ leaders\\ and\\ uproot\\ leftist\\ thought\\ from\\ society\\,\\ used\\ torture\\ and\\ made\\ people\\ disappear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Secret\\ police\\ represented\\ psychotic\\ edge\\ of\\ society\\ whose\\ democratic\\ values\\ had\\ collapsed\\,\\ acted\\ out\\ of\\ rage\\ and\\ fear\\ that\\ Marxist\\ left\\ had\\ generated\\ in\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Catholic\\ church\\ divided\\:\\ praised\\ Pinochet\\ for\\ liberating\\ nation\\,\\ but\\ aided\\ victims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Even\\ as\\ mandate\\ faded\\,\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadow\\ warriors\\&rdquo\\;\\ believed\\ cause\\ was\\ righteous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Technocrats\\,\\ group\\ of\\ conservative\\ intellectuals\\ \\(Chicago\\ Boys\\)\\,\\ created\\ new\\ economic\\ plan\\ for\\ Chile\\ under\\ the\\ dictatorship\\,\\ based\\ on\\ market\\ forces\\,\\ control\\ of\\ money\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Wanted\\ to\\ replace\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ welfare\\ state\\ with\\ free\\ market\\ model\\ \\(anti\\-Marxist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-These\\ economists\\ were\\ appointed\\ to\\ government\\ posts\\ soon\\ after\\ the\\ coup\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ was\\ hoped\\ they\\ could\\ win\\ financial\\ assistance\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\ who\\ had\\ condemned\\/isolated\\ Chile\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Shock\\ treatment\\ was\\ instituted\\ w\\/\\ dramatic\\ effects\\-\\ spending\\ and\\ public\\ investment\\ cut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Technocrats\\ hated\\ politics\\;\\ military\\ rule\\ was\\ opportunity\\ to\\ solve\\ problems\\ and\\ apply\\ unpopular\\ policies\\ for\\ long\\-term\\ public\\ benefit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-On\\ the\\ surface\\ Chile\\ experienced\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;economic\\ miracle\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ consumer\\ boom\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ built\\ on\\ unrealistic\\ assumptions\\ and\\ relied\\ too\\ much\\ on\\ foreign\\ loans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Eventually\\ economic\\ crisis\\ forced\\ Pinochet\\ to\\ abandon\\ free\\ market\\ policy\\/Chicago\\ Boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cotler\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ New\\ Mode\\ of\\ Political\\ Domination\\ in\\ Peru\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Revolutionary\\ Govt\\.\\ of\\ Armed\\ Forces\\ \\(which\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;68\\)\\ has\\ transformed\\ economic\\/political\\/social\\ life\\ of\\ Peru\\ by\\ eliminating\\ what\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ center\\ of\\ economic\\/political\\ power\\ in\\ society\\:\\ the\\ export\\ oligarchy\\ and\\ the\\ foreign\\ economic\\ interests\\ with\\ which\\ it\\ had\\ been\\ associated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ place\\ of\\ dependent\\-oligarchic\\ mode\\ of\\ economic\\ organization\\,\\ military\\ govt\\ is\\ moving\\ toward\\ full\\ development\\ of\\ modern\\ capitalism\\ \\(linked\\ to\\ MNCs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Program\\ of\\ govt\\ has\\ 3\\ major\\ components\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ antioligarchic\\ reforms\\,\\ \\(2\\)\\ expanded\\ role\\ of\\ state\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ \\(3\\)\\ corporatist\\-style\\ ordering\\ of\\ political\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ political\\/economic\\ strategy\\ is\\ response\\ to\\ growing\\ pressures\\ from\\ sectors\\ of\\ society\\ which\\ have\\ been\\ seeking\\ redistribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ \\&\\;\\ power\\ in\\ Peru\\ \\(producing\\ crisis\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ crisis\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ export\\ oligarchy\\:\\ new\\ modes\\ of\\ production\\ formed\\,\\ but\\ without\\ eliminating\\ political\\ presence\\ of\\ oligarchy\\;\\ church\\ and\\ army\\ became\\ concerned\\ that\\ survival\\ of\\ oligarchy\\ would\\ strengthen\\ revolutionary\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Military\\ govt\\ tried\\ to\\ resolve\\ crisis\\ by\\ suppressing\\ all\\ mass\\-based\\ movements\\ while\\ eliminating\\ traditional\\ structures\\ from\\ Peruvian\\ economy\\/society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Tried\\ to\\ exclude\\ forms\\ of\\ popular\\ political\\ participation\\,\\ homogenize\\ social\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Major\\ reform\\ goals\\ include\\:\\ agrarian\\ reform\\,\\ industrialization\\,\\ control\\ of\\ financial\\ institutions\\;\\ their\\ aim\\ is\\ to\\ promote\\ capitalist\\ production\\ in\\ assoc\\ w\\/\\ foreign\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Focus\\ on\\ structural\\ conditions\\ that\\ brought\\ this\\ government\\ about\\ \\(transformed\\ society\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-SINAMOS\\ is\\ govt\\ agency\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ organizing\\ popular\\ masses\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ they\\ conform\\ to\\ the\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ govt\\ \\(corporatist\\ control\\ mechanism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Irony\\ of\\ the\\ Peruvian\\ case\\:\\ the\\ govt\\ carrying\\ out\\ antioligarchic\\ reforms\\ is\\ facing\\ a\\ confrontation\\ with\\ the\\ working\\-class\\/middle\\-class\\ sectors\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ beneficiaries\\ of\\ the\\ reforms\\;\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ given\\ the\\ present\\ level\\ of\\ development\\ of\\ capitalism\\ in\\ Peru\\,\\ the\\ reforms\\ are\\ insufficient\\ to\\ provide\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ a\\ fundamental\\ redistribution\\ of\\ resources\\ that\\ will\\ include\\ the\\ dominated\\ class\\ entirely\\;\\ also\\,\\ refusal\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ popular\\ mobilization\\ to\\ support\\ reforms\\ increases\\ need\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ corporative\\ tactics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NUNCA\\ MAS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ majority\\ of\\ this\\ reading\\ consists\\ of\\ gruesome\\ and\\ horrifying\\ descriptions\\ of\\ the\\ tortures\\ and\\ kidnappings\\ that\\ occurred\\ during\\ Argentina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ g\\<\\/span\\>\\uerra\\ sucia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ the\\ late\\ 1970s\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ report\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ National\\ Commission\\ on\\ Disappeared\\ People\\,\\ which\\ Ra\\ú\\;l\\ Alfons\\í\\;n\\,\\ president\\ following\\ the\\ military\\ junta\\,\\ set\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ report\\ was\\ mostly\\ formed\\ from\\ thousands\\ of\\ interviews\\ with\\ the\\ families\\ and\\ friends\\ of\\ victims\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ surviving\\ victims\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ knowing\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ these\\ individual\\ cases\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ most\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ overarching\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guerra\\ sucia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ historical\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ occurred\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guerra\\ sucia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\emerged\\ following\\ Per\\ó\\;n\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ \\(and\\ his\\ final\\ departure\\ from\\ office\\)\\ in\\ 1974\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ foundations\\ were\\ sown\\ as\\ the\\ two\\ main\\ factions\\ of\\ Peronism\\ \\(the\\ left\\-wing\\ Montoneros\\ and\\ the\\ right\\-wing\\ labor\\ bosses\\)\\ fought\\ over\\ who\\ represented\\ Per\\ó\\;n\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ message\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ radical\\ split\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ the\\ underground\\ terrorism\\ that\\ characterized\\ their\\ battle\\,\\ created\\ a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ subversive\\ elements\\ constituted\\ a\\ serious\\ threat\\ to\\ order\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ Videla\\ junta\\ took\\ over\\ in\\ the\\ military\\ coup\\ of\\ March\\ 1976\\,\\ it\\ decided\\ to\\ completely\\ eliminate\\ any\\ trace\\ of\\ this\\ ideological\\ battle\\ and\\ the\\ anti\\-government\\ activity\\ that\\ it\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ junta\\ essentially\\ outlawed\\ all\\ political\\ activity\\ and\\ got\\ rid\\ of\\ all\\ civil\\ rights\\;\\ furthermore\\,\\ it\\ initiated\\ an\\ active\\ campaign\\ against\\ any\\ and\\ all\\ threats\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ term\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guerra\\ sucia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;describes\\ this\\ active\\ campaign\\ to\\ root\\ out\\ and\\ eradicate\\ anyone\\ who\\ was\\ possibly\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ intended\\ to\\ target\\ not\\ only\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ actively\\ engaged\\ in\\ subversive\\ activities\\,\\ but\\ also\\ anyone\\ who\\ even\\ sympathized\\ with\\ the\\ movements\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ main\\ strategy\\ was\\ to\\ kidnap\\,\\ torture\\,\\ and\\,\\ often\\,\\ kill\\ anyone\\ who\\ the\\ government\\ decided\\ was\\ a\\ threat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guerra\\ sucia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\occurred\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ systematic\\,\\ top\\-down\\ planning\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guerra\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ intricately\\ coordinated\\ and\\ implemented\\ from\\ the\\ very\\ top\\ levels\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ did\\ not\\ happen\\ due\\ to\\ individual\\ excesses\\;\\ it\\ was\\ all\\ planned\\ in\\ advance\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ there\\ were\\ complicit\\ people\\ that\\ allowed\\ it\\ to\\ happen\\ at\\ all\\ levels\\ and\\ in\\ all\\ different\\ branches\\ of\\ authority\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ in\\ particular\\ is\\ how\\ police\\ stations\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ person\\ being\\ kidnapped\\ were\\ notified\\ in\\ advance\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ give\\ the\\ green\\ light\\,\\ or\\ so\\-called\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\ zone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;After\\ a\\ kidnapping\\ occurred\\,\\ the\\ government\\ would\\ thoroughly\\ deny\\ involvement\\ and\\ erase\\ from\\ the\\ public\\ records\\ any\\ and\\ all\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ existence\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ no\\ remedy\\ at\\ all\\ for\\ neither\\ the\\ victims\\ themselves\\ nor\\ the\\ victims\\&rsquo\\;\\ friends\\ and\\ relatives\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ authority\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ complicit\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guerra\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ publicized\\ or\\ acknowledged\\ because\\ of\\ strict\\ censorship\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allowed\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ cover\\ up\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ when\\ kidnappings\\ occurred\\,\\ it\\ was\\ often\\ a\\ large\\ production\\ involving\\ excessive\\ force\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ let\\ everyone\\ around\\ know\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ strategy\\,\\ combined\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ anyone\\ and\\ everyone\\ could\\ be\\ targeted\\ at\\ any\\ time\\,\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ instill\\ widespread\\ fear\\ and\\ vulnerability\\ across\\ the\\ entire\\ Argentinean\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ a\\ victim\\ was\\ abducted\\ \\(sometimes\\ victims\\ were\\ interrogated\\ or\\ tortured\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ their\\ families\\ before\\ they\\ were\\ taken\\ away\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ even\\ family\\ members\\ were\\ taken\\ as\\ hostages\\)\\,\\ usually\\ by\\ a\\ large\\ group\\ and\\ while\\ blindfolded\\,\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ often\\ spent\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ in\\ a\\ secret\\ detention\\ center\\ being\\ constantly\\ tortured\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ victim\\ returned\\ at\\ all\\,\\ it\\ was\\ badly\\ disfigured\\ and\\ scarred\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ victims\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ return\\ were\\ often\\ shot\\ and\\ buried\\ in\\ mass\\ graves\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DEMOCRACY\\ BY\\ UNDEMOCRATIC\\ MEANS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ central\\ theme\\ of\\ Hagopian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\ is\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\ civilian\\ rule\\ was\\ consolidated\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Brazilian\\ case\\,\\ hindered\\ democratization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;That\\ is\\,\\ in\\ Brazil\\,\\ the\\ pacts\\ that\\ were\\ necessary\\ to\\ institute\\ democracy\\ compromised\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Hagopian\\ has\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ pacts\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ their\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ bargaining\\ tool\\ among\\ elites\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ making\\ the\\ transition\\ to\\ democracy\\,\\ pacts\\ developed\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ elites\\ distort\\ democracy\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;restricting\\ the\\ policy\\ agenda\\,\\ dividing\\ the\\ spoils\\ of\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pork\\ barrel\\,\\ and\\ conceding\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ parties\\ that\\ serve\\ as\\ vehicles\\ to\\ allocate\\ these\\ spoils\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Hagopian\\ argues\\ not\\ only\\ that\\ pacts\\ restrict\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ possible\\ issues\\ that\\ a\\ new\\ democratic\\ government\\ can\\ deal\\ with\\;\\ they\\ also\\ are\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ very\\ structure\\ or\\ integrity\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ democracy\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ democracy\\ is\\ contingent\\ on\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;programmatic\\&rdquo\\;\\ political\\ parties\\:\\ parties\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;frame\\ political\\ issues\\,\\ provide\\ a\\ forum\\ for\\ public\\ debate\\,\\ and\\ afford\\ citizens\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ express\\ their\\ preferences\\ by\\ voting\\ for\\ a\\ platform\\ that\\ details\\ party\\ positions\\ and\\ future\\ government\\ action\\ on\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ issues\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ form\\ of\\ party\\ is\\ undermined\\ by\\ a\\ pact\\ because\\ the\\ pact\\ removes\\ issues\\ from\\ the\\ agenda\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ issues\\ that\\ citizens\\ want\\ to\\ voice\\ their\\ opinions\\ on\\,\\ issues\\ that\\ citizens\\ want\\ to\\ cast\\ their\\ votes\\ about\\,\\ and\\ issues\\ that\\ political\\ parties\\ can\\ form\\ themselves\\ around\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Brazil\\,\\ this\\ problem\\ manifested\\ itself\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ most\\ appropriate\\ political\\ strategy\\ to\\ consolidate\\ civilian\\ rule\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ building\\ the\\ broadest\\ possible\\ coalition\\ for\\ keeping\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ its\\ barracks\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ conflicted\\ with\\ the\\ best\\ suited\\ to\\ advance\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ democratization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ necessity\\ of\\ this\\ broad\\ coalition\\ is\\ what\\ in\\ turn\\ made\\ the\\ pacts\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ pacts\\ \\&ldquo\\;failed\\ to\\ resolve\\ major\\ differences\\ dividing\\ the\\ proponents\\ of\\ democracy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ however\\,\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ geared\\ towards\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\ bargainers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pacts\\ failed\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ power\\ that\\ one\\ party\\ could\\ win\\ in\\ an\\ election\\,\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;contributed\\ to\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ a\\ presidential\\ system\\ of\\ government\\ that\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ endure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Hagopian\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;if\\ democracy\\ does\\ eventually\\ evolve\\ in\\ Brazil\\,\\ it\\ will\\ do\\ so\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\despite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ political\\ pacts\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ civilian\\ regime\\ was\\ born\\,\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\because\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LAWSON\\:\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Unfinished\\ Transition\\:\\ Democratization\\ and\\ Authoritarian\\ Enclaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OVERVIEW\\:\\ discusses\\ how\\ while\\ Mexico\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ fairly\\ successful\\ democracy\\,\\ there\\ are\\ certain\\ key\\ areas\\ that\\ remain\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ PRI\\,\\ including\\ the\\ judiciary\\,\\ federal\\ bureaucracies\\ and\\ certain\\ sectors\\ of\\ the\\ media\\,\\ and\\ certain\\ states\\ are\\ still\\ unfairly\\ dominated\\ by\\ the\\ PRI\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Previous\\ Regime\\:\\ PRI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nearly\\ 70\\ years\\ of\\ one\\-party\\ domination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spoils\\ system\\,\\ where\\ PRI\\ supporters\\ were\\ awarded\\ financial\\ support\\ \\&ldquo\\;gigantic\\,\\ pork\\-barreling\\ political\\ machine\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Perfect\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ it\\ seemed\\ democratic\\,\\ it\\ concentrated\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ executive\\ and\\ institutionalized\\ the\\ mechanism\\ for\\ transfer\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\elite\\ compromise\\ brought\\ reform\\,\\ democratization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mexican\\ \\&ldquo\\;democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ makes\\ true\\ democracy\\:\\ free\\ fair\\ elections\\,\\ institutions\\ like\\ parties\\,\\ media\\,\\ etc\\,\\ that\\ ensure\\ accountability\\ of\\ politicians\\ to\\ citizens\\,\\ informal\\ norms\\ and\\ practices\\ to\\ allow\\ successful\\ functioning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexico\\ has\\ the\\ bare\\ minimum\\ of\\ free\\ elections\\,\\ some\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Authoritarian\\ enclaves\\ persisted\\ \\&ldquo\\;patchwork\\ pattern\\ of\\ democratization\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ components\\ of\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ democracy\\/problems\\ with\\ the\\ setup\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Independent\\ electoral\\ board\\,\\ new\\ electoral\\ regulations\\ to\\ ensure\\ free\\,\\ fair\\ elections\\ \\(NOTE\\ only\\ controls\\ national\\ elections\\,\\ so\\ certain\\ regions\\ may\\ be\\ less\\ than\\ democratic\\ for\\ local\\ elections\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Closed\\ party\\ lists\\ to\\ determine\\ proportional\\ representation\\ that\\ empower\\ party\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Campaign\\ finance\\ is\\ largely\\ unregulated\\,\\ opaque\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexicans\\ living\\ abroad\\ cannot\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Party\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parties\\ are\\ important\\ in\\ formulating\\ policy\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ legislative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Undemocratic\\ practices\\ within\\ parties\\ result\\ in\\ democratic\\ deficits\\ in\\ their\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ironically\\,\\ PRI\\ has\\ made\\ the\\ most\\ in\\-party\\ reforms\\ to\\ increase\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Predominance\\ of\\ the\\ executive\\ over\\ legislature\\?\\ Relatively\\ mild\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\President\\ cannot\\ rule\\ by\\ decree\\ if\\ legislature\\ drags\\ its\\ feet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\President\\ does\\ have\\ advantage\\ in\\ staff\\ resources\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ legislators\\ serve\\ one\\ term\\,\\ cannot\\ amass\\ a\\ staff\\ with\\ expertise\\ and\\ experience\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difficult\\ for\\ legislative\\ to\\ enforce\\ policies\\ on\\ bureaucrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Federal\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Low\\-level\\ bureaucrats\\ remain\\ holdovers\\ from\\ earlier\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Police\\ force\\ is\\ especially\\ corrupt\\,\\ huge\\ bribe\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Judiciary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Previous\\ system\\ \\&ldquo\\;guilty\\ until\\ proven\\ rich\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reforms\\ to\\ stem\\ corruption\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;career\\ track\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ provide\\ qualified\\ judges\\,\\ judicial\\ council\\ to\\ monitor\\ judges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mass\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Radio\\ and\\ newspapers\\ are\\ more\\ independent\\,\\ watchdog\\ for\\ politics\\ and\\ provide\\ equal\\ coverage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TV\\ still\\ dominated\\ by\\ PRI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ two\\ major\\ stations\\ have\\ PRI\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ censorship\\ like\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ getting\\ better\\,\\ but\\ free\\ elections\\ do\\ not\\ equal\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LINZ\\ \\&\\;\\ STEPAN\\:\\ Problems\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Transition\\ and\\ Consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OVERVIEW\\:\\ discusses\\ what\\ qualifies\\ as\\ a\\ true\\,\\ consolidated\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\distinguish\\ between\\ liberalization\\ and\\ democratization\\:\\ democratization\\ requires\\ liberalization\\,\\ BUT\\ you\\ can\\ have\\ liberalization\\,\\ like\\ more\\ freedoms\\ or\\ less\\ censorship\\,\\ but\\ not\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;electoral\\ fallacy\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ while\\ free\\,\\ fair\\ elections\\ are\\ necessary\\ to\\ democracy\\,\\ they\\ alone\\ do\\ not\\ constitute\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\needs\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ defined\\ means\\ of\\ democratic\\ government\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ parliamentary\\,\\ federal\\ system\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ must\\ have\\ agreement\\ on\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ the\\ specific\\ institutions\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\danger\\ of\\ complacency\\ after\\ initial\\ transition\\ from\\ authoritarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\democracy\\ must\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ only\\ game\\ in\\ town\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ only\\ viable\\ means\\ to\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CAVEATS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consolidated\\ democracies\\ can\\ still\\ break\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ many\\ types\\ of\\ consolidated\\ democracies\\,\\ and\\ none\\ fulfill\\ all\\ criteria\\ or\\ exist\\ free\\ of\\ shortcomings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VALENZUELA\\:\\ Democratic\\ Consolidation\\ in\\ Post\\-Transitional\\ Settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OVERVIEW\\:\\ again\\,\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ democratic\\ consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\democratic\\ transitions\\ often\\ require\\ two\\ phases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\initial\\ phase\\ of\\ installation\\ after\\ fall\\ or\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\consolidation\\ into\\ an\\ effective\\ democratic\\ regime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sometimes\\ initial\\ must\\ be\\ destroyed\\/radically\\ altered\\ to\\ achieve\\ true\\ democratic\\ consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\what\\ makes\\ a\\ consolidated\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\stability\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ equal\\ consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\often\\ presence\\ of\\ destabilizing\\ factors\\ is\\ a\\ necessary\\ outcome\\ of\\ true\\ democracy\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ opposition\\ groups\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\separation\\ of\\ powers\\ is\\ key\\ to\\ maintain\\ accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\difficult\\ to\\ list\\ prerequisite\\ conditions\\,\\ instead\\ consider\\ what\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ for\\ consolidated\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\many\\ consolidated\\ democracies\\ might\\ not\\ meet\\ criteria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cannot\\ have\\ tutelary\\ institutions\\,\\ like\\ military\\,\\ which\\ have\\ broad\\ oversight\\ over\\ government\\ \\(often\\ established\\ by\\ outgoing\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\ to\\ retain\\ some\\ power\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cannot\\ have\\ reserved\\ domains\\ that\\ prevent\\ elected\\ officials\\ from\\ addressing\\ certain\\ issues\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ determined\\ to\\ be\\ beyond\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ their\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cannot\\ have\\ discriminatory\\ electoral\\ procedures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cannot\\ have\\ any\\ other\\ means\\ to\\ power\\ except\\ for\\ through\\ the\\ free\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 19, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1295_Comp_Govt_L._America_-_Final_2nd_Packet.doc", "desc": "Study Guide Part 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Comparative Politics of Latin America - Guide 4", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "comparative-politics", "latin-america"], "text": null, "id": 42, "html": "\\\\\\Gov1295\\_Comp\\_Govt\\_L\\.\\_America\\_\\-\\_Final\\_4th\\_Packet\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-right\\:\\-7\\.2pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c33\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c10\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c24\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c32\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c8\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c17\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-13\\.2pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c31\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-7\\.2pt\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\KEY\\ TERMS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hugo\\ Chavez\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Currently\\ the\\ president\\ of\\ Venezuela\\,\\ Chavez\\ came\\ to\\ prominence\\ as\\ a\\ nationalist\\-leftist\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\ \\;Along\\ with\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ military\\ rebels\\ he\\ launched\\ two\\ coup\\ attempts\\ in\\ 1992\\ against\\ president\\ Carlos\\ Andres\\ Perez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neoliberal\\ reform\\ program\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ coup\\ attempts\\ failed\\ but\\ had\\ wide\\ popular\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;Chavez\\ emerged\\ into\\ politics\\ in\\ 1982\\ with\\ the\\ Bolivarian\\ Revolutionary\\ Movement\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1994\\ he\\ was\\ released\\ from\\ prison\\ \\(for\\ the\\ coup\\ attempts\\)\\ and\\ in\\ 1998\\ he\\ ran\\ in\\ the\\ presidential\\ election\\.\\ \\ \\;Chavez\\ was\\ openly\\ radical\\ and\\ he\\ accused\\ political\\ elites\\ of\\ corruption\\;\\ he\\ won\\ and\\ called\\ for\\ a\\ referendum\\ to\\ dissolve\\ the\\ Constitution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ referendum\\ was\\ widely\\ approved\\ and\\ Chavez\\ easily\\ dominated\\ the\\ constitution\\-writing\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ reelected\\ in\\ 2000\\,\\ but\\ Venezuela\\ polarized\\ because\\ business\\,\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ political\\ parties\\ all\\ rallied\\ against\\ Chavez\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ temporary\\ military\\ coup\\ removed\\ Chavez\\ from\\ power\\ but\\ then\\ returned\\ him\\ to\\ office\\,\\ and\\ in\\ 2002\\ the\\ economy\\ fell\\ into\\ a\\ depression\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ near\\ shutting\\ down\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ industry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neopluralism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Philip\\ Oxhorn\\,\\ neopluralism\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ mode\\ of\\ interest\\ intermediation\\ within\\ a\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ corporatism\\,\\ which\\ has\\ a\\ state\\-centered\\ pattern\\ of\\ incorporating\\ lower\\ classes\\ and\\ controlling\\ their\\ inclusion\\,\\ neopluralism\\ has\\ a\\ market\\-centered\\ pattern\\ of\\ lower\\-class\\ inclusion\\.\\ \\ \\;Neopluralism\\ allows\\ many\\ competing\\ organizations\\ to\\ exist\\,\\ without\\ any\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ state\\-\\-this\\ autonomy\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ its\\ big\\ pros\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ many\\ groups\\ lose\\ state\\ subsidies\\ and\\ some\\ like\\ organized\\ labor\\ weaken\\-\\-they\\ become\\ just\\ one\\ of\\ many\\ actors\\ in\\ society\\,\\ with\\ fewer\\ privileges\\ and\\ less\\ unified\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ some\\ believe\\ that\\ organizations\\ will\\ mobilize\\ better\\ without\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ control\\ and\\ cooptation\\,\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ the\\ danger\\ that\\ large\\ segments\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ will\\ be\\ marginalized\\;\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ representation\\ as\\ it\\ did\\ before\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Associative\\ Networks\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\These\\ are\\ networks\\ that\\ form\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ represent\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interests\\.\\ \\ \\;Associative\\ networks\\ are\\ generally\\ localized\\ and\\ decentralized\\,\\ but\\ effective\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ their\\ goal\\ is\\ fostering\\ popular\\ participation\\,\\ associative\\ networks\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ organize\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ behind\\ one\\ cause\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ would\\ leave\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ \\(most\\ likely\\ the\\ poor\\)\\ unrepresented\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ touch\\ with\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ possible\\ return\\ to\\ clientelism\\ might\\ occur\\,\\ as\\ the\\ poor\\ give\\ their\\ support\\ to\\ elites\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ small\\ benefits\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Raul\\ Alfonsin\\:\\ The\\ first\\ Argentine\\ democratically\\-elected\\ president\\ after\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ Argentina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ authoritarian\\ military\\ rule\\.\\ His\\ campaign\\ focused\\ on\\ denouncing\\ the\\ pact\\ made\\ between\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ the\\ Peronists\\,\\ allowing\\ him\\,\\ as\\ candidate\\ of\\ the\\ Radical\\ party\\,\\ to\\ win\\ over\\ the\\ presidency\\ in\\ 1983\\.\\ His\\ presidential\\ campaign\\ had\\ also\\ been\\ full\\ of\\ promises\\ to\\ bring\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ armed\\ services\\ to\\ trial\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\,\\ a\\ first\\ for\\ any\\ LA\\ leader\\.\\ Upon\\ entering\\ the\\ presidency\\,\\ Alfonsin\\ launched\\ an\\ assault\\ on\\ military\\ power\\:\\ civilians\\ were\\ now\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ the\\ defense\\ ministry\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ redefined\\ as\\ limited\\ to\\ national\\ defense\\,\\ and\\ he\\ prohibited\\ the\\ military\\ from\\ taking\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ international\\ affairs\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Annulling\\ the\\ amnesty\\ law\\,\\ he\\ opened\\ the\\ door\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ trials\\ and\\ ordered\\ the\\ arrest\\ of\\ top\\ military\\ officers\\ in\\ April\\ 1985\\ with\\ their\\ life\\ sentences\\ declared\\ in\\ December\\.\\ However\\,\\ civil\\ military\\ relations\\ soon\\ came\\ to\\ a\\ breakdown\\ as\\ the\\ courts\\ were\\ flooded\\ with\\ complaints\\ and\\ even\\ junior\\ officers\\ were\\ investigated\\.\\ The\\ Alfonsin\\ government\\ had\\ wanted\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ the\\ trials\\ so\\ as\\ not\\ to\\ trigger\\ a\\ backlash\\ from\\ the\\ military\\.\\ The\\ Punto\\ Final\\ Law\\ was\\ passed\\ in\\ Feb\\.\\ 1987\\,\\ the\\ endpoint\\ for\\ the\\ initiation\\ of\\ new\\ cases\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ trials\\.\\ The\\ law\\ proved\\ to\\ back\\-fire\\ as\\ the\\ Courts\\ picked\\ up\\ their\\ pace\\ leading\\ to\\ a\\ military\\ uprising\\ led\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ junior\\ officers\\ nicknamed\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Carapintadas\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Law\\ of\\ Due\\ Obedience\\ followed\\,\\ stating\\ that\\ all\\ military\\ officers\\ under\\ the\\ rank\\ of\\ colonel\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ processed\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ this\\ breakdown\\ in\\ civil\\-military\\ relations\\,\\ Alfonsin\\ also\\ faced\\ economic\\ instability\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ debt\\ crisis\\,\\ making\\ Argentina\\ ungovernable\\.\\ Alfonsin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opposition\\ to\\ neoliberal\\ policies\\ was\\ not\\ just\\ ideologically\\ but\\ pragmatically\\ as\\ well\\.\\ His\\ heterodox\\ program\\,\\ called\\ the\\ Austral\\ Plan\\,\\ cut\\ spending\\,\\ imposed\\ strict\\ controls\\ of\\ monetary\\ policy\\ and\\ exercised\\ price\\ and\\ wage\\ controls\\.\\ However\\,\\ he\\ needed\\ the\\ cooperation\\ of\\ labor\\ and\\ the\\ business\\ sectors\\ to\\ be\\ fully\\ successful\\ in\\ controlling\\ prices\\ and\\ wages\\.\\ Both\\ refused\\ to\\ consent\\,\\ and\\ between\\ 1984\\ and\\ 1988\\,\\ 13\\ general\\ strikes\\ were\\ launched\\ against\\ the\\ Alfonsin\\ govt\\.\\ bringing\\ about\\ two\\ important\\ effects\\.\\ First\\,\\ they\\ blocked\\ the\\ austerity\\ programs\\,\\ making\\ inflation\\ creep\\ upward\\.\\ Secondly\\,\\ it\\ created\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ chaos\\ and\\ ungovernability\\.\\ In\\ 1989\\,\\ the\\ Argentine\\ economy\\ collapsed\\ into\\ hyperinflation\\ with\\ the\\ Alfonsin\\ government\\ losing\\ control\\.\\ Argentina\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ brink\\ of\\ chaos\\ and\\ Alfonsin\\ resigned\\ early\\ for\\ fear\\ of\\ a\\ coup\\ that\\ never\\ came\\ about\\.\\ Carlos\\ Menem\\ would\\ become\\ the\\ second\\ democratically\\ elected\\ president\\ of\\ Argentina\\ in\\ 1989\\.\\ The\\ military\\ trials\\ in\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ Alfonsin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ promises\\ and\\ the\\ full\\ democratization\\ of\\ Argentina\\ under\\ Alfonsin\\ are\\ his\\ most\\ important\\ legacies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ Law\\ of\\ Due\\ Obedience\\:\\ As\\ the\\ trials\\ against\\ military\\ officers\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ violation\\ spun\\ out\\ of\\ hand\\ during\\ Argentine\\ President\\ Raul\\ Alfonsin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ term\\,\\ the\\ government\\ needed\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ civil\\-military\\ relations\\.\\ The\\ failure\\ of\\ the\\ Punto\\ Fijo\\ pact\\ in\\ not\\ putting\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ the\\ trials\\ but\\ actually\\ resulting\\ in\\ a\\ last\\-minute\\ panic\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ some\\ federal\\ courts\\ to\\ comply\\ with\\ the\\ edict\\ brought\\ about\\ a\\ rebellion\\ of\\ junior\\ officers\\ on\\ April\\ 1987\\,\\ called\\ the\\ Easter\\ Week\\ Rebellion\\.\\ A\\ month\\ after\\ the\\ rebellion\\ was\\ quieted\\,\\ the\\ president\\ submitted\\ a\\ bill\\ to\\ Congress\\,\\ called\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Due\\ Obedience\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ officers\\ at\\ the\\ rank\\ of\\ lieutenant\\ colonel\\ or\\ lower\\ charged\\ with\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\ would\\ be\\ exonerated\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ the\\ trials\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ measure\\ itself\\ was\\ controversial\\.\\ Was\\ the\\ exoneration\\ of\\ guilty\\ military\\ officers\\ moral\\?\\ Did\\ it\\ damage\\ the\\ credibility\\ of\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\ and\\ of\\ democracy\\?\\ Some\\ thought\\ so\\.\\ Coming\\ as\\ it\\ did\\ on\\ the\\ heel\\ of\\ a\\ major\\ military\\ rebellion\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ could\\ not\\ subdue\\ by\\ force\\,\\ the\\ law\\ only\\ strengthened\\ the\\ perception\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ had\\ conceded\\ under\\ the\\ duress\\ of\\ military\\ recalcitrance\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ the\\ due\\ obedience\\ law\\ lay\\ not\\ in\\ its\\ logic\\ but\\ in\\ its\\ delay\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alan\\ Garcia\\:\\ President\\ of\\ Peru\\ from\\ 1985\\ to\\ 1990\\.\\ Member\\ of\\ the\\ APRA\\ party\\.\\ Peru\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ Latin\\ American\\ country\\ to\\ reject\\ conservative\\ economic\\ reform\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ populism\\.\\ Following\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ ISI\\,\\ Peru\\ responded\\ to\\ falling\\ wages\\ by\\ turning\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ right\\.\\ The\\ Belaunde\\ government\\,\\ before\\ Garcia\\,\\ had\\ followed\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ orthodox\\ economic\\ policies\\ whose\\ unpopularity\\ turned\\ Peru\\ to\\ the\\ left\\.\\ Charismatic\\ Garcia\\ realized\\ that\\ APRA\\ needed\\ to\\ reshape\\ its\\ image\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ pushed\\ APRA\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ left\\.\\ A\\ strong\\ critic\\ of\\ the\\ IMF\\ and\\ neoliberalism\\,\\ Garcia\\ championed\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ debtor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cartel\\ and\\ promised\\ he\\ would\\ cease\\ debt\\ payments\\.\\ This\\ allowed\\ APRA\\ and\\ him\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ presidency\\ in\\ 1985\\.\\ In\\ his\\ inaugural\\ address\\,\\ Garcia\\ announced\\ to\\ limit\\ debt\\ payments\\ to\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ its\\ export\\ earnings\\.\\ Peru\\,\\ standing\\ alone\\,\\ challenged\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;unjust\\&rdquo\\;\\ international\\ financial\\ system\\.\\ Garcia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ public\\ support\\ soon\\ rose\\ to\\ 90\\%\\.\\ Among\\ the\\ populist\\ policies\\ he\\ pursued\\ were\\:\\ increased\\ wages\\ and\\ social\\ spending\\,\\ new\\ social\\ programs\\,\\ etc\\.\\ These\\ were\\ not\\ just\\ heterodox\\ measures\\ but\\ populist\\ policies\\.\\ Initially\\,\\ they\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ success\\.\\ Soon\\ after\\,\\ in\\ 1986\\,\\ the\\ IMF\\ declared\\ Peru\\ a\\ negligible\\ borrower\\ drying\\ up\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ external\\ finance\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ government\\ responded\\ by\\ printing\\ more\\ money\\ to\\ decrease\\ its\\ fiscal\\ deficit\\,\\ inevitably\\ leading\\ to\\ full\\-fledged\\ inflation\\.\\ With\\ capitalists\\ moving\\ their\\ money\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ Garcia\\ responded\\ by\\ nationalizing\\ the\\ bank\\ sector\\;\\ the\\ final\\ straw\\ for\\ the\\ business\\ and\\ the\\ international\\ sectors\\.\\ In\\ 1988\\,\\ Peru\\ was\\ experiencing\\ 7\\,000\\%\\ of\\ inflation\\ and\\ the\\ worst\\ economic\\ crisis\\ in\\ its\\ history\\.\\ Garcia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ challenge\\ to\\ the\\ IMF\\ had\\ failed\\ and\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ populist\\ experiment\\ emerged\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ to\\ follow\\&rdquo\\;\\ model\\.\\ The\\ economic\\ crisis\\ brought\\ about\\ under\\ Garcia\\ would\\ push\\ Peruvians\\ to\\ reject\\ all\\ past\\ political\\ parties\\ and\\ look\\ for\\ alternatives\\ in\\ political\\ outsiders\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ Alberto\\ Fujimori\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ Nonetheless\\,\\ Garcia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ importance\\ as\\ president\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ under\\ him\\,\\ Peru\\ was\\ a\\ delegative\\ democracy\\.\\ He\\ became\\ the\\ first\\ politician\\ in\\ Peru\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ the\\ urban\\ poor\\ whose\\ campaign\\ combined\\ populism\\ and\\ personalism\\.\\ As\\ a\\ delegative\\ democracy\\,\\ Garcia\\ often\\ bypassed\\ Congress\\ and\\ political\\ parties\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ direct\\ appeals\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\ \\(balconazos\\)\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ he\\ left\\ power\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ unpopular\\ presidents\\ because\\ of\\ hyperinflation\\,\\ today\\ he\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ contenders\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ presidential\\ elections\\,\\ possibly\\ showing\\ that\\ his\\ charisma\\ and\\ personalistic\\ appeal\\ still\\ prevails\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\David\\ Pion\\-Berlin\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Settling\\ Scores\\:\\ Human\\ Rights\\ Gains\\ and\\ Setbacks\\ under\\ Alfonsin\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dec\\.\\ 10\\,\\ 1983\\,\\ Pres\\.\\ Raul\\ Alfonsin\\ embarked\\ on\\ a\\ historic\\ mission\\:\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Latin\\ American\\ head\\ of\\ state\\ to\\ bring\\ members\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ armed\\ services\\ to\\ trial\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ president\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ political\\ actor\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ his\\ say\\,\\ so\\ would\\ civilian\\ courts\\,\\ military\\ tribunals\\,\\ the\\ Congress\\,\\ human\\ rights\\ organizations\\,\\ and\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\.\\ During\\ his\\ presidential\\ campaign\\,\\ Alfonsin\\ had\\ made\\ clear\\ that\\ if\\ there\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ trials\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ limited\\ in\\ scope\\ and\\ duration\\;\\ the\\ entire\\ military\\ institution\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ dragged\\ into\\ court\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ phase\\ of\\ the\\ trials\\ involved\\ the\\ military\\ tribunals\\ where\\ the\\ formal\\ decision\\ was\\ made\\ to\\ prosecute\\ nine\\ of\\ the\\ ex\\-leaders\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ dictatorship\\ on\\ charges\\ of\\ murder\\,\\ torture\\,\\ and\\ illegal\\ detention\\.\\ Alfonsin\\ decided\\ to\\ give\\ them\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;cleanse\\ their\\ own\\ house\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ By\\ June\\ 1984\\ no\\ decision\\ had\\ been\\ made\\;\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Council\\ had\\ never\\ intended\\ to\\ prosecute\\ their\\ fellow\\ officers\\.\\ Phase\\ 2\\ came\\ into\\ place\\ when\\ the\\ Federal\\ Court\\ of\\ Appeals\\ assumed\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ the\\ proceedings\\ in\\ October\\ 1984\\.\\ On\\ Dec\\.\\ 9\\,\\ 1984\\,\\ 5\\ of\\ the\\ ex\\-commandants\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ junta\\ were\\ found\\ guilty\\ of\\ human\\ rights\\ violations\\,\\ sentenced\\ to\\ long\\ prison\\ terms\\ and\\ stripped\\ of\\ their\\ military\\ status\\.\\ Never\\ before\\ had\\ a\\ govt\\.\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ successfully\\ prosecuted\\ its\\ military\\ predecessors\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\ rendering\\ a\\ blow\\ to\\ impunity\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ court\\ also\\ ruled\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ pardon\\ subordinates\\ who\\ were\\ fully\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ unlawfulness\\ of\\ the\\ commands\\ and\\ carried\\ them\\ out\\ nonetheless\\.\\ The\\ prospect\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ wave\\ of\\ trials\\ loomed\\ large\\ at\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ bad\\ timing\\ when\\ the\\ army\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;licking\\ its\\ wounds\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Judicial\\ autonomy\\ now\\ became\\ a\\ problem\\ for\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\.\\ Allegations\\ could\\ arise\\ claiming\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ was\\ bringing\\ the\\ institution\\ itself\\ to\\ trial\\.\\ Secondly\\,\\ the\\ undue\\ prolongation\\ of\\ the\\ judicial\\ process\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ The\\ president\\ then\\ decided\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ in\\ Dec\\.\\ 1986\\.\\ \\ \\;Congress\\ passed\\ the\\ Punto\\ Final\\ bill\\,\\ allowing\\ charges\\ already\\ filed\\ against\\ human\\ rights\\ offenders\\ to\\ remain\\,\\ but\\ placed\\ a\\ 60\\ day\\ time\\-limit\\ on\\ new\\ indictments\\.\\ But\\ this\\ only\\ created\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ last\\-minute\\ panic\\ to\\ comply\\ with\\ the\\ edict\\ as\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ junior\\ military\\ officers\\ led\\ a\\ rebellion\\.\\ In\\ June\\ 1987\\,\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Due\\ Obedience\\ was\\ passed\\ that\\ would\\ exonerate\\ all\\ officers\\ at\\ the\\ rank\\ of\\ lieutenant\\ colonel\\ or\\ lower\\ charged\\ with\\ human\\ rights\\ offenses\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ the\\ law\\ laid\\ in\\ its\\ delay\\,\\ not\\ its\\ logic\\ since\\ it\\ followed\\ a\\ military\\ rebellion\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ suppress\\ and\\ sparked\\ rumors\\ that\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ had\\ conceded\\ to\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Despite\\ all\\ this\\,\\ Alfonsin\\ had\\ made\\ clear\\ the\\ democratic\\ regime\\&rsquo\\;s\\ refusal\\ to\\ allow\\ military\\,\\ political\\ aggression\\ to\\ go\\ unchecked\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ Rethinking\\ Military\\ Politics\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 68\\-145\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wendy\\ Hunter\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Politicians\\ Against\\ Soldiers\\:\\ Contesting\\ the\\ Military\\ in\\ Postauthoritarian\\ Brazil\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\LA\\ countries\\ returned\\ to\\ civilian\\ rule\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\ and\\ 1990s\\.\\ The\\ economic\\ successes\\ associated\\ with\\ Brazil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ military\\ governments\\,\\ the\\ relatively\\ low\\ incidence\\ of\\ human\\ rights\\ violations\\,\\ and\\ their\\ degree\\ of\\ public\\ support\\ they\\ managed\\ to\\ orchestrate\\ allowed\\ Gen\\.\\ Geisel\\ and\\ Figuereido\\ to\\ exercise\\ significant\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ transition\\.\\ If\\ the\\ military\\ could\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ remain\\ powerful\\ anywhere\\,\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ Brazil\\.\\ The\\ erosion\\ of\\ military\\ influence\\ in\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;least\\ likely\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\ casts\\ doubt\\ on\\ the\\ military\\&rsquo\\;s\\ capacity\\ to\\ remain\\ a\\ preponderant\\ actor\\ in\\ the\\ everyday\\ politics\\ of\\ LA\\.\\ Analysts\\ like\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\,\\ Hagopian\\,\\ and\\ Karl\\,\\ all\\ claimed\\ that\\ the\\ military\\ govt\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ firm\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ transition\\ to\\ democracy\\ endowed\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ with\\ a\\ strong\\ foundation\\ for\\ exercising\\ political\\ leverage\\.\\ Hunter\\ argues\\ that\\ electoral\\ competition\\ creates\\ incentives\\ for\\ politicians\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ interference\\ of\\ a\\ politically\\ powerful\\ and\\ active\\ military\\ and\\ that\\ electoral\\ victory\\ enhances\\ their\\ capacity\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ politicians\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ political\\ survival\\ and\\ the\\ broad\\ institutional\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ operate\\ structures\\ their\\ behavior\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ creating\\ a\\ static\\ framework\\,\\ as\\ other\\ critics\\ believe\\,\\ democracy\\ unleashes\\ a\\ competitive\\ dynamic\\ conducive\\ to\\ change\\.\\ Democratization\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ incentives\\:\\ programmatic\\ and\\ particularistic\\.\\ Particularistic\\ incentives\\ concern\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ resources\\ to\\ fuel\\ politicians\\&rsquo\\;\\ personal\\ support\\ networks\\.\\ Programmatic\\ incentives\\ involve\\ the\\ credit\\ given\\ to\\ politicians\\ for\\ advances\\ in\\ public\\ policy\\.\\ Both\\ generate\\ strong\\ and\\ specific\\ pressures\\ against\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ the\\ military\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ involvement\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ popular\\ support\\ that\\ electoral\\ victory\\ certifies\\ enhances\\ the\\ capacity\\ of\\ politicians\\ to\\ reduce\\ military\\ influence\\.\\ A\\ military\\ organization\\ would\\ incur\\ great\\ risk\\ and\\ cost\\ in\\ taking\\ forceful\\ measures\\ against\\ a\\ government\\ with\\ solid\\ popular\\ backing\\.\\ Civilians\\ have\\ contested\\ the\\ military\\ over\\ several\\ issues\\.\\ First\\,\\ labor\\ law\\.\\ For\\ a\\ politician\\,\\ labor\\ represents\\ a\\ sectoral\\ group\\ of\\ increasing\\ electoral\\ importance\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ military\\ labor\\ constitutes\\ a\\ potential\\ threat\\ to\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ stability\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ controlled\\.\\ Over\\ enduring\\ military\\ opposition\\,\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\ made\\ significant\\ legal\\ gains\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ post\\ authoritarian\\ govt\\.\\ and\\ has\\ managed\\ to\\ maintain\\ them\\ until\\ the\\ present\\.\\ Secondly\\,\\ military\\ spending\\.\\ To\\ a\\ politician\\,\\ the\\ federal\\ budget\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ deliver\\ goods\\ and\\ gain\\ constituents\\.\\ To\\ the\\ military\\,\\ large\\ defense\\ allocations\\ are\\ necessary\\ to\\ ensure\\ decent\\ salaries\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ modernization\\ of\\ training\\ and\\ equipment\\.\\ The\\ armed\\ forces\\ have\\ seen\\ their\\ budget\\ shares\\ diminish\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ democracy\\.\\ Hunter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ findings\\ indicate\\ the\\ superiority\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;rational\\ choice\\ approach\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ emphasizes\\ human\\ action\\ and\\ its\\ potential\\ for\\ change\\,\\ over\\ the\\ emphasis\\ by\\ historical\\ institutionalists\\ on\\ the\\ enduring\\ weight\\ of\\ institutional\\ constraints\\.\\ The\\ power\\ structures\\ and\\ institutional\\ mechanisms\\ during\\ a\\ regime\\ transition\\ can\\ be\\ challenged\\ and\\ modified\\ by\\ actors\\ pursuing\\ their\\ own\\ goals\\ in\\ the\\ competitive\\ setting\\ of\\ a\\ democracy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sebastian\\ Brett\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Impunity\\ on\\ Trial\\ in\\ Chile\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brett\\ explains\\ that\\ the\\ arrest\\ in\\ London\\ and\\ committal\\ for\\ extradition\\ of\\ Pinochet\\ gives\\ new\\ hope\\ to\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ embattled\\ human\\ rights\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ to\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ victims\\.\\ He\\ believes\\ that\\ if\\ all\\ goes\\ well\\,\\ Chilean\\ democracy\\ will\\ be\\ stronger\\ because\\ the\\ issues\\ will\\ have\\ been\\ properly\\ aired\\ in\\ a\\ free\\ judicial\\ process\\.\\ On\\ June\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 2000\\ the\\ Court\\ voted\\ 13\\ to\\ 9\\ for\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ parliamentary\\ impunity\\ on\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behalf\\.\\ The\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ makes\\ the\\ last\\ decision\\.\\ Human\\ rights\\ observers\\ believed\\ for\\ some\\ time\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ better\\ for\\ Pinochet\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ judged\\ in\\ Madrid\\ rather\\ than\\ Chile\\,\\ where\\ the\\ chance\\ of\\ Pinochet\\ being\\ prosecuted\\ by\\ a\\ Chilean\\ court\\ was\\ not\\ high\\.\\ Things\\ have\\ changed\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Brett\\ because\\ world\\ attention\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ atrocities\\ committed\\ in\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coup\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ longer\\ possible\\ for\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conservative\\ elite\\ to\\ shrug\\ off\\ the\\ facts\\.\\ Although\\ Chileans\\ continue\\ to\\ disagree\\ about\\ the\\ military\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\,\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ at\\ least\\ owe\\ the\\ country\\ an\\ explanation\\ about\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ disappeared\\ is\\ now\\ almost\\ universal\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ persuading\\ international\\ authorities\\ to\\ send\\ Pinochet\\ home\\,\\ the\\ government\\ was\\ assuring\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ Chilean\\ courts\\ possessed\\ the\\ independence\\ necessary\\ to\\ try\\ him\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ judges\\ who\\ broke\\ new\\ ground\\ was\\ Juan\\ Guzman\\ Tapia\\ who\\ was\\ assigned\\ to\\ investigate\\ all\\ the\\ accusations\\ against\\ Pinochet\\.\\ Since\\ 19\\ victims\\ were\\ still\\ unaccounted\\ for\\,\\ Guzman\\ held\\ that\\ their\\ deaths\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ deduced\\ from\\ their\\ abductions\\.\\ And\\ since\\ the\\ kidnappings\\ had\\ not\\ been\\ solved\\,\\ whoever\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ them\\ could\\ not\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ 1978\\ amnesty\\ law\\.\\ This\\ interpretation\\ kept\\ the\\ cases\\ of\\ the\\ missing\\ from\\ being\\ closed\\.\\ The\\ Chilean\\ armed\\ forces\\ have\\ been\\ searching\\ for\\ a\\ pact\\ to\\ stem\\ the\\ floodtide\\ of\\ human\\ rights\\ cases\\ in\\ the\\ courts\\ and\\ close\\ the\\ chapter\\ on\\ the\\ military\\ government\\ for\\ good\\.\\ The\\ human\\ rights\\ community\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ the\\ relatives\\ of\\ the\\ disappeared\\ objected\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ trading\\ justice\\ for\\ meager\\ quotas\\ of\\ truth\\.\\ The\\ legal\\ battle\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Brett\\,\\ against\\ impunity\\ continues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sebastian\\ Edwards\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Crisis\\ and\\ Reform\\ in\\ LA\\:\\ From\\ Despair\\ to\\ Hope\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ Latin\\ American\\ consensus\\ came\\ about\\ with\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ economic\\ thinking\\ of\\ the\\ 80s\\ and\\ 90s\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ state\\ interventionism\\,\\ inward\\ orientation\\ the\\ LA\\ countries\\ turned\\ towards\\ competition\\,\\ market\\ orientation\\,\\ and\\ openness\\.\\ This\\ transformation\\ in\\ economic\\ views\\ was\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ factors\\,\\ including\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ heterodox\\ programs\\ in\\ Argentina\\,\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Peru\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 1980s\\;\\ East\\ Asia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recovery\\;\\ the\\ advisory\\ role\\ played\\ by\\ multilateral\\ institutions\\;\\ large\\ group\\ pf\\ professional\\ economists\\;\\ the\\ successful\\ Chilean\\ experience\\;\\ and\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ USSR\\.\\ An\\ overview\\ of\\ traditional\\ economic\\ thinking\\ in\\ LA\\ is\\ then\\ presented\\ by\\ Edwards\\.\\ With\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ of\\ the\\ 1930\\,\\ terms\\ of\\ trade\\ plummeted\\,\\ and\\ most\\ LA\\ countries\\ reacted\\ by\\ abandoning\\ convertibility\\ and\\ imposing\\ trade\\ barriers\\.\\ By\\ late\\ 1940s\\ and\\ 50s\\,\\ important\\ substitution\\ was\\ well\\ entrenched\\ in\\ LA\\ and\\ supported\\ by\\ CEPAL\\ and\\ the\\ writings\\ of\\ Raul\\ Prebisch\\ and\\ Hans\\ Singer\\.\\ Both\\ support\\ ISI\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ that\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;secular\\ deterioration\\ in\\ the\\ international\\ price\\ of\\ raw\\ materials\\ and\\ commodities\\ would\\ result\\,\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ industrialization\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ in\\ a\\ ever\\-widening\\ gap\\ between\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\ countries\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ order\\ to\\ industrialize\\,\\ the\\ smaller\\ countries\\ required\\ assistance\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ protection\\ for\\ the\\ newly\\ emerging\\ manufacturing\\ sector\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ By\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\,\\ the\\ easy\\ phase\\ of\\ import\\ substitution\\ had\\ ended\\,\\ inflation\\ was\\ an\\ obstacle\\ for\\ growth\\,\\ and\\ unequal\\ distribution\\ of\\ income\\ and\\ unemployment\\ posed\\ challenges\\.\\ The\\ ISI\\ policies\\ came\\ under\\ attack\\ from\\ the\\ monetarist\\ position\\ which\\ called\\ for\\ orthodox\\ stabilization\\ programs\\ and\\ the\\ structuralists\\ whom\\ advocated\\ heterodox\\ measures\\.\\ The\\ debt\\ crisis\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ and\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ heterodox\\ measures\\ prompted\\ LA\\ leaders\\ to\\ turn\\ toward\\ macroeconomic\\ stability\\,\\ trade\\ openness\\,\\ poverty\\ alleviation\\,\\ and\\ a\\ reduced\\ role\\ of\\ government\\.\\ Edwards\\ continues\\ by\\ explaining\\ in\\ further\\ detail\\ 3\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ behind\\ the\\ emerging\\ consensus\\.\\ 1\\)\\ East\\ Asian\\ Experience\\:\\ East\\ Asia\\ achieved\\ better\\ growth\\ than\\ LA\\ because\\ East\\ Asia\\ avoided\\ excessive\\ and\\ variable\\ protectionist\\ policies\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ East\\ Asia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ export\\-promotion\\ policies\\ were\\ strictly\\ oriented\\ towards\\ results\\.\\ Those\\ firms\\ with\\ the\\ strongest\\ export\\ record\\ were\\ rewarded\\ with\\ access\\ to\\ preferential\\ credit\\ and\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ special\\ treatment\\.\\ 2\\)\\ Chile\\ as\\ a\\ Role\\ Model\\:\\ The\\ new\\ democratic\\ government\\ of\\ Patricio\\ Aylwin\\ embraced\\ the\\ main\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ market\\ reforms\\ first\\ implemented\\ during\\ the\\ military\\ regime\\.\\ The\\ Chilean\\ government\\ made\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ increase\\ social\\ spending\\ without\\ generating\\ unsustainable\\ macroeconomic\\ pressures\\ was\\ to\\ find\\ solid\\ sources\\ of\\ govt\\.\\ revenues\\.\\ Two\\ critical\\ economic\\ reforms\\ were\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;year\\ of\\ the\\ govt\\.\\;\\ a\\ tax\\ package\\ aimed\\ at\\ funding\\ the\\ new\\ social\\ programs\\ and\\ a\\ labor\\ law\\ reform\\.\\ 3\\)\\ The\\ Role\\ of\\ Multilateral\\ Institutions\\:\\ even\\ though\\ some\\ authors\\ claimed\\ development\\ policy\\ in\\ LA\\ was\\ imposed\\ by\\ the\\ Washington\\ Consensus\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ deserve\\ central\\ billing\\ for\\ the\\ process\\.\\ Multilateral\\ institutions\\ did\\,\\ however\\,\\ influence\\ the\\ new\\ convergence\\ of\\ doctrinal\\ views\\ in\\ LA\\ through\\ empirical\\ research\\,\\ economic\\ and\\ sector\\ analysis\\,\\ lending\\ practices\\,\\ policy\\ dialogue\\,\\ and\\ conditionality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\John\\ Williamson\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ Washington\\ Means\\ by\\ Policy\\ Reform\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ paper\\ aims\\ to\\ set\\ out\\ what\\ would\\ be\\ regarded\\ in\\ Washington\\ as\\ constituting\\ a\\ desirable\\ set\\ of\\ economic\\ policy\\ reforms\\.\\ The\\ Washington\\ of\\ the\\ paper\\ is\\ both\\ political\\ Washington\\ of\\ Congress\\ and\\ senior\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ administration\\ and\\ the\\ technocratic\\ Washington\\ of\\ the\\ international\\ financial\\ institutions\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ agencies\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ govt\\.\\,\\ The\\ Federal\\ Reserve\\ Board\\,\\ and\\ the\\ think\\ tanks\\.\\ 1\\)\\ Fiscal\\ Deficits\\:\\ sustained\\ fiscal\\ deficits\\ are\\ a\\ primary\\ source\\ of\\ macroeconomic\\ dislocation\\ in\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ inflation\\,\\ payment\\ deficits\\,\\ and\\ capital\\ flight\\.\\ 2\\)\\ Public\\ Expenditure\\ Priorities\\:\\ when\\ a\\ fiscal\\ deficit\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ cut\\,\\ a\\ choice\\ arises\\ as\\ to\\ whether\\ this\\ should\\ be\\ accomplished\\ by\\ increasing\\ revenues\\ or\\ reducing\\ expenditures\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ preference\\ in\\ Washington\\ for\\ reducing\\ expenditures\\.\\ Indiscriminate\\ subsidies\\ are\\ regarded\\ as\\ prime\\ candidates\\ for\\ reduction\\ or\\ preferably\\ elimination\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ just\\ a\\ drain\\ on\\ the\\ budget\\ but\\ also\\ much\\ waste\\ and\\ resource\\ misallocation\\.\\ Education\\,\\ health\\,\\ and\\ public\\ infrastructure\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ are\\ viewed\\ as\\ proper\\ objects\\ of\\ govt\\.\\ expenditure\\.\\ 3\\)\\ Tax\\ Reform\\:\\ Tax\\ bases\\ should\\ be\\ broad\\ and\\ marginal\\ tax\\ rates\\ should\\ be\\ moderate\\.\\ 4\\)\\ Interest\\ rates\\:\\ should\\ be\\ market\\-determined\\ to\\ avoid\\ resources\\ misallocation\\ and\\ interest\\ rates\\ should\\ be\\ positive\\ to\\ discourage\\ capital\\ flight\\ and\\ to\\ increase\\ savings\\.5\\)\\ Exchange\\ Rate\\:\\ May\\ be\\ determined\\ by\\ market\\ forces\\ or\\ their\\ appropriateness\\ may\\ be\\ judged\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ whether\\ their\\ level\\ seems\\ consistent\\ with\\ macroeconomic\\ objectives\\.\\ \\ \\;Achieving\\ a\\ competitive\\ exchange\\ rat\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ how\\ the\\ rate\\ is\\ determined\\.\\ 6\\)\\ Trade\\ policy\\:\\ \\ \\;import\\ liberalization\\ is\\ preferred\\.\\ Keep\\ distortions\\ to\\ a\\ min\\ by\\ limiting\\ tariff\\ dispersion\\ and\\ exempting\\ from\\ tariffs\\ impost\\ of\\ intermediate\\ goods\\ needed\\ to\\ produce\\ exports\\.\\ Infant\\ industries\\ may\\ merit\\ substantial\\ but\\ temporary\\ protection\\.\\ A\\ highly\\ protected\\ economy\\ is\\ not\\ expected\\ to\\ dismantle\\ all\\ protection\\ overnight\\.\\ \\ \\;7\\)\\ Foreign\\ Direct\\ Investment\\ \\(FDI\\)\\:\\ A\\ restrictive\\ attitude\\ limiting\\ the\\ entry\\ of\\ FDI\\ is\\ regarded\\ as\\ foolish\\.\\ 8\\)\\ Privatization\\:\\ it\\ might\\ help\\ relieve\\ the\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ budget\\,\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ by\\ the\\ revenue\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ the\\ enterprise\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ inasmuch\\ as\\ investment\\ need\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ financed\\ by\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ Private\\ industry\\ is\\ better\\ managed\\ than\\ state\\ enterprises\\.\\ 9\\)\\ Deregulation\\:\\ another\\ way\\ of\\ promoting\\ competition\\ and\\ reducing\\ corruption\\.\\ 10\\)\\ Property\\ rights\\:\\ property\\ rights\\ are\\ highly\\ insecure\\ in\\ LA\\ and\\ they\\ do\\ matter\\.\\ \\*\\*\\*Washington\\ does\\ not\\ always\\ practice\\ what\\ it\\ preaches\\.\\ The\\ list\\ of\\ policies\\ on\\ which\\ Washington\\ does\\ have\\ a\\ collective\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ all\\ stem\\ from\\ classical\\ mainstream\\ economic\\ theory\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Skidmore\\ and\\ Smith\\,\\ chapter\\ 3\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 68\\-106\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ARGENTINA\\:\\ Prosperity\\,\\ Deadlock\\,\\ and\\ Change\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ achieved\\ independence\\ in\\ 1820s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ growing\\ gap\\ between\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ and\\ the\\ interior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ conflict\\ over\\ direction\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;unitarians\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ province\\ of\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ want\\ to\\ nationalize\\ the\\ city\\ and\\ open\\ the\\ entire\\ country\\ to\\ international\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;federalists\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ interior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ want\\ to\\ nationalize\\ the\\ city\\ but\\ maintain\\ provincial\\ autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;federalists\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ province\\ of\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ opposed\\ nationalization\\ of\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ and\\ wanted\\ free\\ trade\\ \\[status\\ quo\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Juan\\ Manuel\\ de\\ Rosas\\ was\\ the\\ third\\ type\\,\\ governor\\ of\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ who\\ took\\ control\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ Argentina\\,\\ repressive\\ and\\ authoritarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ defeated\\ and\\ exiled\\ by\\ General\\ Justo\\ Jose\\ de\\ Urquiza\\ in\\ 1852\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ constitution\\ created\\ in\\ 1853\\,\\ federal\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ refused\\ to\\ consent\\,\\ was\\ subdued\\ and\\ then\\ revolted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ three\\ liberal\\ presidents\\ followed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ elite\\ felt\\ it\\ was\\ natural\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ power\\ and\\ the\\ Indian\\ and\\ the\\ gaucho\\ should\\ be\\ subdued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ had\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ meat\\ and\\ grain\\ but\\ lacked\\ capital\\ and\\ labour\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ that\\ capital\\ was\\ provided\\ by\\ England\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ urbanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ problems\\ associated\\ with\\ economic\\ dependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ of\\ note\\:\\ never\\ developed\\ a\\ peasantry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ implications\\:\\ land\\ reform\\ less\\ of\\ an\\ issue\\,\\ no\\ peasantry\\ to\\ forma\\ power\\ base\\ for\\ political\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ organized\\ labor\\ emerges\\ as\\ key\\ player\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ opposition\\ of\\ liberal\\ ruling\\ elite\\ \\[Generation\\ of\\ 1880\\]\\ by\\ Radical\\ party\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ upper\\ and\\ middle\\ class\\ opponents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ response\\ by\\ government\\:\\ universal\\ male\\ suffrage\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;electoral\\ base\\ now\\ wider\\,\\ political\\ parties\\ more\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Radical\\ president\\ elected\\,\\ pro\\-labor\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ huge\\ strike\\ waves\\ provoked\\ repression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ radical\\ president\\ overthrown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ meritocracy\\,\\ military\\ officials\\ were\\ extremely\\ loyal\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ suspicious\\ of\\ outsiders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ problem\\ \\=\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ General\\ Justo\\ tried\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ broad\\ coalition\\ government\\ but\\ failed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ GOU\\ \\[military\\ group\\]\\ seized\\ power\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ rid\\ Argentina\\ of\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ labor\\ has\\ no\\ representation\\ at\\ this\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ Minister\\ of\\ Labor\\,\\ Juan\\ Peron\\ courts\\ labor\\,\\ becomes\\ President\\ in\\ 1946\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ corporatist\\ principles\\,\\ state\\ direction\\ of\\ economy\\,\\ decrease\\ of\\ foreign\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economic\\ problems\\:\\ trade\\ deficits\\,\\ inflation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;orthodox\\ stabilization\\ measures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ lost\\ control\\ of\\ country\\,\\ military\\ forces\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ military\\ purges\\ Peronism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Frondizi\\ wins\\ 1957\\ elections\\,\\ but\\ his\\ economic\\ policies\\ alienated\\ his\\ support\\ base\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ succeeded\\ by\\ a\\ Peronist\\,\\ Guido\\;\\ but\\ military\\ annulled\\ the\\ elections\\ and\\ held\\ new\\ ones\\ a\\ year\\ later\\,\\ which\\ were\\ won\\ by\\ a\\ radical\\,\\ Illia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Illia\\ has\\ similar\\ luck\\ to\\ Frondizi\\,\\ military\\ kicks\\ him\\ out\\ in\\ 1966\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BAs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ General\\ Juan\\ Carlos\\ Ongania\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ goal\\:\\ to\\ attack\\ root\\ causes\\ of\\ problems\\ \\[shut\\ down\\ congress\\,\\ quieted\\ opponents\\,\\ ousted\\ politicians\\,\\ suppressed\\ labor\\ movement\\,\\ economic\\ stabilization\\ program\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ huge\\ labor\\ protests\\,\\ revolutionary\\ left\\;\\ extreme\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1973\\:\\ Peron\\ finally\\ allowed\\ to\\ return\\,\\ supports\\ Campora\\ in\\ bid\\ for\\ presidency\\,\\ wins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Social\\ contract\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ coalition\\ of\\ almost\\ all\\ interest\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Peron\\ takes\\ over\\,\\ repressed\\ revolutionary\\ left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ conflict\\ between\\ groups\\,\\ Peron\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1976\\:\\ military\\ takes\\ over\\ from\\ Isabelle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ General\\ Videla\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;dirty\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ against\\ the\\ opposition\\,\\ disappeared\\ persons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economic\\ troubles\\,\\ Falkland\\ War\\ defeat\\ \\[General\\ Galtieri\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1983\\:\\ presidential\\ election\\ won\\ by\\ Radical\\ Party\\ leader\\ Raul\\ Alfonsin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ faced\\ problems\\ with\\ how\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\ and\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ viable\\ political\\ base\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;trouble\\ paying\\ debt\\ repayments\\,\\ had\\ to\\ use\\ IMF\\ austerity\\ measures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;they\\ backfire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Carlos\\ Menem\\,\\ a\\ Peronist\\,\\ wins\\ next\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ program\\ of\\ austerity\\ measures\\,\\ privatization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ succeeded\\ by\\ Alliance\\ candidate\\,\\ de\\ la\\ Rua\\,\\ who\\ stressed\\ stability\\ and\\ continuation\\ of\\ Menem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ policies\\ but\\ with\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peter\\ Siavelis\\:\\ Executive\\-Legislative\\ Relations\\ in\\ Post\\-Pinochet\\ Chile\\ \\(1997\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Chilean\\ Presidency\\ under\\ the\\ 1980\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\power\\ to\\ declare\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\executive\\ urgencies\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ power\\ has\\ become\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ standard\\ operating\\ procedure\\ for\\ the\\ president\\ to\\ expedite\\ the\\ consideration\\ and\\ approval\\ of\\ his\\ proposals\\ \\(\\ used\\ extensively\\ by\\ Aylwin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\power\\ to\\ call\\ the\\ legislature\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\extraordinary\\ session\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wherein\\ which\\ the\\ Congress\\ can\\ consider\\ proposals\\ introduced\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ executive\\ \\(Aylwin\\ called\\ Congress\\ into\\ extraordinary\\ session\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ congressional\\ periods\\ of\\ his\\ administration\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\exclusive\\ initiation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ constitution\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;President\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\ holds\\ the\\ exclusive\\ initiative\\ for\\ proposals\\ of\\ law\\ related\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ or\\ administrative\\ division\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ financial\\ or\\ budgetary\\ administration\\ of\\ the\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;establishing\\,\\ amending\\,\\ granting\\,\\ or\\ increasing\\ remunerations\\,\\ retirement\\ payments\\,\\ pensions\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;widows\\ and\\ orphans\\&rsquo\\;\\ allowances\\&hellip\\;establishing\\ the\\ norms\\ and\\ procedures\\ applicable\\ to\\ collective\\ bargaining\\ and\\ determining\\ the\\ cases\\ where\\ bargaining\\ is\\ not\\ permitted\\&hellip\\;and\\ establishing\\ or\\ amending\\ the\\ norms\\ on\\ or\\ regarding\\ social\\ security\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ public\\ and\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ limitations\\ on\\ Congress\\&rsquo\\;\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ budgetary\\ process\\ were\\ designed\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ proliferation\\ of\\ clientalistic\\ and\\ individualistic\\ legislations\\ and\\ spending\\ excesses\\,\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ made\\ the\\ president\\ have\\ almost\\ exclusive\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ budgetary\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ sources\\ of\\ Presidential\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Though\\ the\\ executive\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ what\\ is\\ normally\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ line\\-item\\ veto\\,\\ he\\ can\\ make\\ specific\\ comments\\ or\\ changes\\ to\\ legislation\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ these\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;related\\ to\\ the\\ central\\ or\\ fundamental\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ bill\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ Congress\\&rsquo\\;\\ power\\ to\\ override\\ presidential\\ vetoes\\,\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ annual\\ legislative\\ sessions\\,\\ in\\ no\\ case\\ has\\ a\\ bill\\ become\\ law\\ without\\ the\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ signature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ president\\ designates\\ a\\ portion\\ o\\ the\\ assembly\\ and\\ other\\ authorities\\ which\\ expand\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ execute\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ president\\ himself\\ appoints\\ 2\\ senators\\ \\(\\ one\\ a\\ former\\ university\\ president\\ and\\ one\\ a\\ former\\ minister\\ of\\ state\\)\\,\\ the\\ National\\ Security\\ Council\\ appoints\\ 4\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ appoints\\ 3\\,\\ but\\ these\\ two\\ groups\\ \\(the\\ NSC\\ and\\ the\\ SC\\)\\ can\\ both\\ be\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ president\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ visibility\\ of\\ the\\ president\\,\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ presidential\\ government\\,\\ and\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ president\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ all\\ grant\\ the\\ president\\ authority\\ and\\ esteem\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ contrasts\\ sharply\\ with\\ the\\ publics\\ view\\ of\\ assembly\\ members\\,\\ who\\ are\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ corrupt\\,\\ overpaid\\,\\ or\\ self\\-interested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unequal\\ balance\\ of\\ staff\\ and\\ access\\ to\\ information\\:\\ The\\ executive\\ can\\ rely\\ on\\ a\\ vast\\ network\\ of\\ experts\\,\\ attorneys\\,\\ and\\ advisors\\ which\\ enables\\ it\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ proposals\\ of\\ a\\ much\\ higher\\ quality\\ than\\ possible\\ for\\ the\\ legislative\\ branch\\ which\\ must\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ broad\\ range\\ of\\ legislative\\ activity\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ concerning\\ themselves\\ with\\ the\\ demands\\ of\\ their\\ constituency\\ and\\ reelection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Aylwin\\ Administration\\:\\ A\\ Preliminary\\ Assessment\\ of\\ the\\ Chilean\\ Presidential\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Aylwin\\ left\\ with\\ extremely\\ high\\ approval\\ ratings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Aylwin\\ government\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ Ministry\\ of\\ Finance\\ under\\ Alejandro\\ Foxley\\,\\ performed\\ exceedingly\\ well\\ in\\ maintaining\\ macroeconomic\\ stability\\ and\\ continuity\\ in\\ policy\\-making\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Aylwin\\ government\\ was\\ successful\\ in\\ passing\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ major\\,\\ complex\\,\\ and\\ often\\ controversial\\ measures\\ into\\ law\\,\\ but\\ this\\ success\\ can\\ be\\ attributed\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ unique\\ circumstances\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ itself\\,\\ especially\\ fiscal\\ health\\ and\\ party\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ moderating\\ features\\ of\\ the\\ Chilean\\ democratic\\ transition\\ was\\ the\\ way\\ its\\ contextual\\ and\\ legal\\ framework\\ encouraged\\ competition\\ between\\ center\\-left\\ \\(\\ Concertaci\\ó\\;n\\)\\ and\\ center\\-right\\ coalitions\\ and\\ granted\\ the\\ president\\ the\\ partisan\\ powers\\ necessary\\ to\\ accomplish\\ his\\ legislative\\ goals\\ successfully\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Party\\ System\\,\\ Multipartism\\,\\ and\\ Exaggerated\\ Presidentialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ electoral\\ system\\ adopted\\ 60\\ legislative\\ districts\\ with\\ a\\ magnitude\\ of\\ 2\\,\\ but\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ a\\ party\\ or\\ coalition\\ to\\ win\\ both\\ of\\ the\\ seats\\ in\\ a\\ district\\,\\ it\\ must\\ double\\ the\\ vote\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ highest\\ polling\\ party\\.\\ \\ \\;Consequently\\,\\ the\\ cut\\-off\\ point\\ that\\ a\\ party\\ must\\ reach\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ obtain\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ seat\\ becomes\\ 33\\.4\\%\\ of\\ the\\ votes\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ larges\\ parties\\ or\\ coalitions\\,\\ assuming\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ lists\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ the\\ largest\\ party\\ electoral\\ support\\ in\\ excess\\ of\\ 33\\.4\\%\\ is\\ superfluous\\ until\\ its\\ level\\ of\\ support\\ approaches\\ 66\\.7\\%\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Chile\\,\\ this\\ enabled\\ the\\ center\\-right\\ to\\ receive\\ a\\ disproportionate\\ number\\ of\\ legislative\\ seats\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ Concertaci\\ó\\;n\\ alliance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ are\\ two\\ major\\ coalitions\\ \\(Concertaci\\ó\\;n\\ and\\ the\\ center\\-right\\)\\,\\ there\\ still\\ remains\\ five\\ relevant\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ there\\ is\\ certainly\\ less\\ ideological\\ distance\\ between\\ the\\ relevant\\ parties\\,\\ as\\ platforms\\ have\\ become\\ more\\ similar\\ across\\ the\\ political\\ spectrum\\,\\ this\\ should\\ not\\ lead\\ one\\ to\\ assume\\ that\\ the\\ multiparty\\ system\\ has\\ disappeared\\.\\ \\ \\;Further\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ encouraging\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ party\\ platforms\\ and\\ the\\ integration\\ of\\ party\\ organizations\\ as\\ military\\ reformers\\ envisioned\\,\\ the\\ electoral\\ system\\ has\\ in\\ practice\\ encouraged\\ divisiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\doble\\ minor\\î\\;a\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;presidents\\ because\\ presidents\\ are\\ elected\\ with\\ a\\ second\\-round\\ run\\-off\\ vote\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;manufactures\\ a\\ majority\\ where\\ one\\ might\\ not\\ exist\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ often\\ creates\\ presidents\\ without\\ significant\\ legislative\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Success\\ under\\ Aylwin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Much\\ of\\ the\\ coordination\\ within\\ the\\ executive\\ and\\ between\\ Congress\\ is\\ centered\\ within\\ the\\ Ministry\\ of\\ the\\ General\\ Secretary\\ of\\ the\\ Presidency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ president\\ and\\ the\\ representatives\\ of\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\ have\\ often\\ entered\\ into\\ negotiations\\ directly\\ with\\ the\\ center\\-right\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ solutions\\ to\\ controversial\\ legislative\\ issues\\;\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ executive\\ behavior\\ has\\ moderated\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ Concertaci\\ó\\;n\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proposals\\,\\ making\\ them\\ more\\ acceptable\\ to\\ a\\ broader\\ range\\ of\\ political\\ parties\\ and\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ pass\\ in\\ Congress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ executive\\ branch\\ often\\ will\\ avoid\\ proposing\\ legislation\\ that\\ challenges\\ the\\ fundamental\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ military\\,\\ including\\ prosecution\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ violation\\ and\\ major\\ constitutional\\ reforms\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ was\\ forced\\ into\\ assuming\\ such\\ a\\ stance\\ because\\ it\\ lacked\\ a\\ majority\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aylwin\\ was\\ flexible\\ with\\ rescinding\\ urgencies\\ and\\ allowing\\ debate\\ and\\ study\\ of\\ bills\\ presented\\ by\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Chamber\\ and\\ Senate\\ during\\ extraordinary\\ sessions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recommendations\\ for\\ Chile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Presidential\\ strength\\ is\\ situational\\ and\\ subject\\ to\\ majorities\\ in\\ Congress\\,\\ social\\ and\\ party\\ system\\ contextual\\ factors\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ timing\\ and\\ sequencing\\ of\\ legislative\\ and\\ presidential\\ elections\\.\\ \\ \\;Changes\\ in\\ these\\ dynamics\\ may\\ see\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ exaggerated\\ presidentialism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chile\\ is\\ characterized\\,\\ and\\ most\\ likely\\ will\\ remain\\ characterized\\,\\ as\\ a\\ country\\ of\\ strong\\ multiple\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Electoral\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shortening\\ the\\ presidential\\ germ\\ and\\ making\\ all\\ legislative\\ elections\\ concurrent\\ with\\ presidential\\ elections\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ president\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ own\\ party\\ or\\ coalition\\ of\\ parties\\ or\\,\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ least\\,\\ a\\ larger\\ legislative\\ contingent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elilmination\\ of\\ second\\-round\\ elections\\ would\\ also\\ decrease\\ the\\ changes\\ of\\ a\\ president\\ serving\\ with\\ a\\ legislative\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ more\\ proportional\\ system\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ increasing\\ the\\ district\\ magnitude\\ to\\ 4\\ or\\ 5\\)\\ would\\ avoid\\ the\\ dramatic\\ shifts\\ in\\ legislative\\ representation\\ and\\ the\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ current\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Electoral\\ reform\\ should\\ abolish\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ appointed\\ senators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legislative\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ opposition\\ forces\\ are\\ continually\\ denied\\ a\\ voice\\ in\\ the\\ national\\ political\\ dialogue\\ and\\ limited\\ in\\ their\\ influence\\ over\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ executive\\,\\ achieving\\ party\\ goals\\ through\\ democratic\\ means\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ less\\ attractive\\ option\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ a\\ strong\\ Congress\\ reduces\\ the\\ majoritarian\\ tendencies\\ of\\ presidential\\ governments\\ that\\ have\\ often\\ precipitated\\ executive\\-assembly\\ conflict\\ and\\ in\\ many\\ cases\\ led\\ to\\ democratic\\ breakdown\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ability\\ to\\ set\\ legislative\\ urgencies\\ in\\ collaboration\\ with\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\ should\\ be\\ returned\\ to\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Presidential\\ urgency\\ should\\ be\\ contingent\\ on\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ the\\ traditional\\ division\\ between\\ ordinary\\ and\\ extraordinary\\ legislative\\ sessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ the\\ limitations\\ on\\ the\\ origination\\ of\\ bills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eliminate\\ the\\ imbalance\\ of\\ information\\ between\\ the\\ executive\\ and\\ the\\ legislature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Theses\\ inadequacies\\ of\\ the\\ Chilean\\ government\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ remedied\\ because\\ the\\ countries\\ positive\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ contest\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ so\\ important\\ in\\ encouraging\\ governmental\\ success\\,\\ is\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ a\\ permanent\\ condition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Timothy\\ J\\.\\ Power\\:\\ The\\ Pen\\ is\\ Mightier\\ Than\\ the\\ Congress\\:\\ Presidential\\ Decree\\ Power\\ in\\ Brazil\\ \\(1998\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overview\\ of\\ decree\\ power\\ in\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ the\\ 1937\\ coup\\,\\ Getulio\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vargas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;granted\\ himself\\ executive\\,\\ legislative\\,\\ and\\ judicial\\ powers\\ and\\ the\\ Estado\\ Novo\\ administration\\ was\\ conduction\\ entirely\\ by\\ decree\\,\\ totaling\\ more\\ than\\ 8000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ overthrow\\ of\\ Vargas\\ in\\ 1946\\,\\ the\\ framers\\ of\\ the\\ 1946\\ Constitution\\ were\\ wary\\ of\\ this\\ decree\\ power\\ and\\ both\\ constitutional\\ \\(presidential\\)\\ decree\\ authority\\ \\(CDA\\)\\ and\\ delegated\\ decree\\ authority\\ \\(DDA\\)\\ were\\ absent\\ from\\ the\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ 1964\\ military\\ coup\\,\\ the\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\ did\\ not\\ close\\ down\\ Congress\\ but\\ instead\\ issued\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Institutional\\ Acts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;\\ a\\ euphemism\\ for\\ decrees\\ originating\\ in\\ the\\ military\\ hierarch\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 1967\\ constitution\\ permitted\\ the\\ president\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ urgency\\ or\\ relevant\\ public\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ issue\\ decree\\-laws\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ national\\ security\\ and\\ public\\ finances\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ allowed\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;pocket\\-approval\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ meant\\ that\\ if\\ Congress\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ action\\ within\\ the\\ specified\\ period\\ of\\ sixty\\ days\\,\\ the\\ decree\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;approved\\&rdquo\\;\\ automatically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\medida\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\provis\\ó\\;ria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(decree\\ power\\)\\ is\\ a\\ permanent\\ focus\\ of\\ tension\\ in\\ the\\ relations\\ of\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\ with\\ the\\ legislative\\ and\\ judicial\\ branches\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ relations\\ of\\ he\\ executive\\ with\\ society\\ more\\ generally\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ instrument\\ of\\ governability\\ which\\ the\\ President\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\ possesses\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ Fernando\\ Collor\\ de\\ Mello\\ \\(1993\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Article\\ 62\\ of\\ the\\ 1998\\ Constitution\\ which\\ permits\\ this\\ presidential\\ decree\\ authority\\ is\\ ambiguously\\ worded\\,\\ places\\ no\\ restriction\\ on\\ which\\ policy\\ areas\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ presidential\\ decree\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ discuss\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ president\\ may\\ renew\\ an\\ expired\\ MP\\ \\(medida\\ provis\\ó\\;ria\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ The\\ wording\\ of\\ Article\\ 62\\ derives\\ from\\ a\\ 1987\\ Italian\\ document\\,\\ though\\ Italy\\ is\\ a\\ parliamentarian\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ pure\\ parliamentary\\ system\\,\\ a\\ provisional\\ measure\\ or\\ decree\\ does\\ nothing\\ more\\ than\\ speed\\ up\\ what\\ is\\ usually\\ a\\ more\\ predictable\\ legislative\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ a\\ prime\\ minister\\,\\ when\\ signing\\ an\\ emergency\\ decree\\ that\\ invoked\\ dramatic\\ constitutional\\ language\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;urgency\\ and\\ relevance\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ then\\ to\\ have\\ such\\ a\\ decree\\ rejected\\ by\\ the\\ assembly\\,\\ there\\ is\\ high\\ probability\\ that\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ would\\ lose\\ the\\ confidence\\ of\\ parliament\\-and\\ with\\ it\\,\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ job\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ would\\ they\\ adopt\\ decree\\-power\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\attractive\\ option\\ in\\ a\\ generally\\ slow\\ legislative\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\majority\\ of\\ presidential\\ decrees\\ in\\ Brazil\\ are\\ on\\ macroeconomic\\ policy\\ with\\ which\\ the\\ understaffed\\ National\\ Congress\\ is\\ notoriously\\ under\\ informed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1988\\ Constitution\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ inflation\\,\\ foreign\\ debt\\,\\ collapse\\ or\\ public\\ sector\\,\\ high\\ poverty\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ failed\\ economic\\ stabilization\\ plans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dynamics\\ of\\ decree\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ very\\ strong\\ president\\ with\\ a\\ popular\\ mandate\\ can\\ implement\\ entire\\ programs\\ through\\ decree\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Collor\\ did\\ in\\ his\\ first\\ two\\ months\\ in\\ office\\ \\(Collor\\ Plan\\ in\\ 1990\\ which\\ seized\\ control\\ of\\ practically\\ every\\ banking\\ account\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ stop\\ capital\\ flight\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ weak\\ president\\ with\\ little\\ support\\ in\\ legislature\\ can\\ attempt\\ to\\ legislate\\ using\\ the\\ MP\\ by\\ placing\\ Congress\\ on\\ the\\ defensive\\ through\\ the\\ renewal\\ of\\ expired\\ decrees\\ \\(like\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ Sarnay\\ period\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ decrees\\ were\\ not\\ renewable\\,\\ weak\\ presidents\\ would\\ be\\ less\\ inclined\\ to\\ use\\ them\\ because\\ failure\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ decree\\ ratified\\ would\\ reflect\\ and\\ be\\ costly\\ for\\ the\\ president\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ and\\ abuse\\ of\\ decree\\ power\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sarney\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1988\\-90\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Collor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1990\\-92\\)\\ has\\ established\\ precedent\\ for\\ the\\ continued\\ use\\ and\\ abuse\\ by\\ their\\ successors\\ Itamar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Franco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1992\\-93\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cardoso\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1995\\-\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legislature\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ reactive\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ proactive\\ body\\&hellip\\;under\\ democracy\\,\\ the\\ Brazilian\\ National\\ Congress\\ has\\ made\\ no\\ progress\\ at\\ becoming\\ an\\ initiator\\ of\\ legislation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decrees\\ detract\\ from\\ the\\ legislature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ advance\\ its\\ own\\ reforms\\ and\\ then\\ legislative\\ disorganization\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ perceived\\ need\\ for\\ more\\ decrees\\ and\\ the\\ cycle\\ continues\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ legislature\\ needs\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ clean\\-up\\ costs\\ because\\ the\\ 1988\\ Constitution\\ grants\\ the\\ National\\ Congress\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ invalidate\\ MPs\\ and\\ it\\ then\\ commits\\ then\\ to\\ correct\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ legal\\,\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ ramifications\\ of\\ a\\ rejected\\ decree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Maxwell\\ Cameron\\:\\ Political\\ and\\ Economic\\ Origins\\ of\\ Regime\\ Change\\ in\\ Peru\\;\\ The\\ Eighteenth\\ Brumaire\\ of\\ Alberto\\ Fujimori\\ \\(1997\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Fujimori\\ \\(FJ\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Right\\-wing\\ and\\ Left\\-wing\\ parties\\ failed\\ to\\ adapt\\ to\\ a\\ changing\\ electorate\\ and\\ so\\ Alberto\\ Fujimori\\,\\ a\\ political\\ outsider\\,\\ declared\\ himself\\ a\\ moderate\\,\\ independent\\ candidate\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ occupying\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ spectrum\\,\\ FJ\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ win\\ enough\\ support\\ fplace\\ in\\ a\\ runoff\\ election\\ against\\ frontrunner\\ Mario\\ Vargas\\ Llosas\\ Right\\-Wing\\ Democratic\\ Front\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ political\\ base\\,\\ Cambio\\ 90\\,\\ was\\ unorganized\\ and\\ unstable\\ and\\ lacked\\ a\\ majority\\ in\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ follow\\ his\\ previous\\ movement\\ once\\ elected\\,\\ placing\\ no\\ member\\ of\\ Cambio\\ 90\\ in\\ his\\ electorate\\,\\ being\\ uncooperative\\ with\\ the\\ legislature\\,\\ and\\ forging\\ a\\ close\\ alliance\\ with\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ NIS\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Between\\ 1990\\ and\\ April\\ 1992\\ Peru\\ was\\ a\\ model\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ delegative\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FJ\\ first\\ ruled\\ by\\ decree\\,\\ but\\ when\\ the\\ legislature\\ began\\ to\\ assert\\ itself\\ and\\ challenge\\ FJ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ style\\ of\\ rule\\,\\ it\\ was\\ closed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autogolpe\\:\\ April\\ 5\\,\\ 1992\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conditions\\ for\\ the\\ autogolpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\economic\\ decline\\ \\+\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\collapse\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ the\\ Right\\ with\\ Vargas\\ Llosa\\ remained\\ an\\ elite\\ organization\\ without\\ a\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ grass\\ roots\\ of\\ Lima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rural\\ areas\\ and\\ the\\ United\\ Left\\ failing\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ centrist\\ voters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\military\\ perception\\ of\\ threat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Plan\\ Verde\\-\\ \\(1989\\)\\ outlined\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ possible\\ scenarios\\ for\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ a\\ military\\ coup\\,\\ one\\ involving\\ negotiating\\ an\\ accord\\ with\\ Fujimori\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ civil\\-military\\ governing\\ coalition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ Shining\\ Path\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ stopped\\ if\\ the\\ governments\\ hands\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tied\\ by\\ Congress\\ and\\ the\\ courts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hype\\ by\\ Montesinos\\ and\\ General\\ Hermoza\\ Rios\\ about\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ an\\ autogolpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capture\\ of\\ Shining\\ Path\\ leader\\ Abimeal\\ Guzm\\à\\;n\\ in\\ September\\ 1992\\ used\\ as\\ proof\\ of\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ the\\ autogolpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\opposition\\ to\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dislike\\ of\\ Alan\\ Garc\\í\\;a\\ and\\ his\\ personification\\ of\\ inflation\\ and\\ bad\\ economic\\ policy\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ glue\\ that\\ held\\ the\\ coup\\ coalition\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\legislative\\-executive\\ tensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ November\\ 1992\\ election\\ for\\ a\\ Democratic\\ Constitutent\\ Congress\\ \\(CCD\\)\\ gave\\ FJ\\ a\\ majority\\ in\\ Congress\\ and\\ the\\ CCD\\ was\\ charged\\ with\\ drafting\\ a\\ new\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FJ\\ was\\ re\\-elected\\ in\\ 1995\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ militarization\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ regime\\ and\\ the\\ centralization\\ of\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\,\\ because\\ his\\ autogolpe\\ decision\\ was\\ supported\\ by\\ a\\ broad\\,\\ multi\\-class\\ consensus\\ on\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ exceptional\\ measures\\ to\\ confront\\ terrorism\\ and\\ restore\\ economic\\ discipline\\.\\ \\ \\;FJ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ repeated\\ attacks\\ on\\ parties\\ and\\ politics\\ resonated\\ with\\ an\\ electorate\\ that\\ associated\\ partisan\\ politics\\ with\\ corruption\\,\\ excess\\,\\ and\\ irresponsibility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Barbara\\ Stallings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stallings\\ main\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ international\\ factors\\ played\\ a\\ crucial\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ economic\\ reforms\\ of\\ the\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rise\\ and\\ Demise\\ of\\ Dependency\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\-structural\\ dependency\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focused\\ on\\ groups\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ who\\ shared\\ interests\\ with\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stresses\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ core\\ and\\ periphery\\ during\\ different\\ stages\\ of\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Criticisms\\ of\\ dependency\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fuzzy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\overemphasizzed\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ not\\ focusing\\ on\\ domestic\\ factors\\ like\\ class\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asian\\ NICs\\ proved\\ that\\ relations\\ with\\ int\\&rsquo\\;t\\ community\\ could\\ be\\ beneficial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mechanisms\\ of\\ International\\ Influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Short\\-term\\ fluctuations\\ and\\ long\\-term\\ trends\\ in\\ intl\\ markets\\ determine\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ external\\ resources\\ that\\ governments\\ need\\ for\\ economic\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ Lat\\.\\ Am\\.\\ Nations\\ depend\\ on\\ exports\\ to\\ industrialized\\ nations\\ and\\ when\\ demand\\ for\\ their\\ goods\\ fall\\,\\ so\\ do\\ their\\ economies\\ \\(remember\\ Great\\ Depression\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Financial\\ markets\\ can\\ provide\\ governments\\ with\\ loans\\ that\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ invest\\ heavily\\ in\\ their\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ intl\\ markets\\ no\\ longer\\ want\\ exports\\ and\\ loans\\ dry\\ up\\,\\ countries\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ re\\-structure\\ their\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linkage\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Certain\\ groups\\ within\\ Lat\\.\\ Am\\.\\ countries\\ identify\\ themselves\\ with\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ intl\\ actors\\ and\\ tend\\ to\\ support\\ government\\ coalitions\\ and\\ policies\\ that\\ promote\\ those\\ interests\\ \\(the\\ more\\ open\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ the\\ more\\ dense\\ the\\ international\\ linkages\\ and\\ linkage\\ networks\\ are\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\examples\\:\\ externally\\-oriented\\ businesses\\,\\ technocrats\\ who\\ have\\ studied\\ abroad\\,\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ who\\ have\\ studied\\ abroad\\,\\ sectors\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ who\\ have\\ gone\\ abroad\\ or\\ who\\ consume\\ foreign\\ imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ an\\ intl\\ coalition\\ is\\ in\\ power\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ economically\\ constrained\\,\\ technocrats\\ can\\ step\\ in\\ and\\ promote\\ orthodox\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\leverage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\international\\ financial\\ institutions\\ can\\ directly\\ use\\ their\\ power\\ by\\ promising\\ rewards\\ or\\ threatening\\ governments\\ with\\ economic\\ sanctions\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ reform\\ their\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\bilateral\\ agencies\\ and\\ private\\ provide\\ governments\\ conditional\\ loans\\ which\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ economic\\ reform\\ a\\ govt\\ promises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\multi\\-national\\ corporation\\ invest\\ in\\ countries\\ with\\ open\\ markets\\ and\\ little\\ government\\ regulations\\ prompting\\ govts\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ policies\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ draw\\ more\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vs\\.\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\ was\\ a\\ borrowers\\ market\\ and\\ cheap\\ loans\\ were\\ made\\ widely\\ available\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\after\\ Mexico\\ announced\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ not\\ pay\\ loans\\,\\ loans\\ to\\ other\\ countries\\ dried\\ up\\ and\\ foreign\\ investment\\ fled\\ the\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\during\\ the\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creditors\\ used\\ carrot\\ and\\ stick\\ approach\\ to\\ force\\ debtors\\ to\\ reform\\ their\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\debtor\\ nations\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ debtor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cartel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\creditors\\ offered\\ favorable\\ packages\\ to\\ key\\ nations\\ before\\ meetings\\ on\\ joint\\ action\\ could\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\governments\\ with\\ intl\\ linkages\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ debtors\\ cartel\\ because\\ they\\ felt\\ it\\ would\\ damage\\ their\\ reputation\\ and\\ intl\\ standing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\stabilization\\ efforts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\agreed\\ to\\ stabilization\\ package\\ with\\ IMF\\ in\\ 1982\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\violated\\ this\\ agreement\\ when\\ it\\ tried\\ to\\ nationalize\\ the\\ banking\\ system\\ in\\ 1983\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\political\\ pressure\\ forced\\ Chile\\ to\\ run\\ expansionary\\ policies\\ until\\ 1985\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\,\\ despite\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strong\\ history\\ of\\ neo\\-liberal\\ policies\\,\\ it\\ deviated\\ towards\\ less\\ fiscally\\ restrained\\ policies\\ during\\ its\\ recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sophisticated\\ technocratic\\ teams\\ provided\\ domestic\\ push\\ towards\\ macro\\-economic\\ stabilization\\ during\\ the\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\loans\\ from\\ international\\ financial\\ institutions\\ depended\\ on\\ structural\\ reforms\\,\\ privatization\\,\\ and\\ liberalization\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\some\\ countries\\ were\\ in\\ such\\ deep\\ economic\\ troubles\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ choice\\ but\\ to\\ liberalize\\ their\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Castells\\ and\\ Portes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ Informal\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ survival\\ activities\\ by\\ destitute\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ informal\\ entrepreneurs\\ actually\\ make\\ a\\ high\\ level\\ of\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ cuts\\ across\\ the\\ whole\\ social\\ structure\\ though\\ many\\ workers\\ are\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ characteristic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ unregulated\\ by\\ the\\ institutions\\ of\\ society\\ in\\ a\\ legal\\ and\\ social\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ similar\\ activities\\ are\\ regulated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disguised\\ form\\ of\\ wage\\ labor\\ which\\ deprives\\ workers\\ of\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ proletarian\\ work\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ criminal\\ because\\ goods\\ produced\\ are\\ not\\ defined\\ as\\ illicit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ formal\\ because\\ manner\\ of\\ production\\ of\\ these\\ goods\\ are\\ not\\ regulated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affects\\ on\\ elements\\ of\\ work\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\May\\ lack\\ social\\ benefits\\ that\\ regulated\\ work\\ has\\ like\\ minimum\\ wage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditions\\ of\\ work\\ may\\ more\\ hazardous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Reality\\ of\\ the\\ Informal\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ universal\\,\\ occurring\\ in\\ countries\\ with\\ varying\\ socio\\-economic\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ heterogeneous\\ since\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ production\\ and\\ distribution\\ vary\\ widely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informal\\ economic\\ activity\\ has\\ increased\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ several\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informal\\ sector\\ occupied\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ the\\ economically\\ active\\ urban\\ pop\\ in\\ 1950\\ and\\ same\\ in\\ 1980\\ so\\ it\\ remained\\ constant\\ where\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ the\\ \\#\\ decreased\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mexico\\ and\\ Venezuela\\ decreased\\ the\\ most\\ during\\ that\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ one\\ looks\\ at\\ very\\ small\\ establishments\\ which\\ could\\ more\\ easily\\ become\\ informalized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ has\\ not\\ changed\\ much\\ since\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ immigrant\\ communities\\ have\\ provided\\ the\\ requisite\\ labor\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ informality\\ In\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Informal\\ activity\\ is\\ usually\\ associated\\ with\\ high\\ immigrant\\ concentration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informalization\\ process\\ can\\ be\\ reversed\\ by\\ tightening\\ immigration\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Italy\\ and\\ Spain\\ show\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ a\\ large\\ and\\ sustained\\ informal\\ sector\\ can\\ be\\ maintained\\ without\\ a\\ large\\ immigrant\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structure\\ of\\ Informal\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ common\\ structural\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Informal\\ economies\\ are\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ national\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ large\\ forms\\ decentralize\\ into\\ semiautonomous\\ informal\\ units\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ flexible\\ than\\ the\\ firm\\ would\\ be\\ under\\ govt\\ regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Workers\\ in\\ informal\\ economies\\ are\\ classified\\ as\\ downgraded\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\however\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ case\\ just\\ for\\ informal\\ sector\\ because\\ in\\ areas\\ of\\ high\\ unemployment\\ the\\ pay\\ and\\ conditions\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ that\\ great\\ either\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\governments\\ tend\\ to\\ tolerate\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ stimulate\\ informal\\ economic\\ activities\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ resolve\\ potential\\ social\\ conflict\\ and\\ stimulate\\ political\\ patronage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genesis\\ of\\ Informal\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Causes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Undermining\\ of\\ organized\\ labor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ control\\ over\\ work\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ taxes\\ and\\ regulations\\ forced\\ companies\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ evade\\ govt\\ reach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intl\\ competition\\ forced\\ companies\\ to\\ move\\ their\\ operations\\ underground\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reduce\\ labor\\ costs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industrialization\\ has\\ forced\\ countries\\ to\\ informalize\\ themselves\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ obtain\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ crisis\\ of\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forced\\ people\\ to\\ find\\ alternative\\ sources\\ of\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effects\\ of\\ informalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Informalization\\ contributes\\ to\\ a\\ decentralized\\ model\\ of\\ economic\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lowes\\ labor\\ productivity\\ and\\ hinders\\ process\\ towards\\ full\\ automation\\ and\\ rationalization\\ of\\ labor\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reduces\\ cost\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Undermines\\ power\\ of\\ organized\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increases\\ the\\ heterogeneity\\ of\\ work\\ situations\\ and\\ social\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Class\\ structure\\ becomes\\ blurred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Denise\\ Dresser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mexico\\ has\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ far\\ reaching\\ economic\\ reforms\\ without\\ causing\\ massive\\ social\\ unrest\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ autocratic\\ nature\\ of\\ its\\ govt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ reforms\\ have\\ had\\ far\\ reaching\\ implications\\ on\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ the\\ Mexican\\ state\\,\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ the\\ PRI\\,\\ the\\ composition\\ of\\ the\\ ruling\\ elite\\,\\ and\\ the\\ organizational\\ abilities\\ of\\ different\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Its\\ caused\\ the\\ state\\ elite\\ to\\ restructure\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ terms\\ of\\ its\\ domination\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Under\\ Salinas\\ Mexico\\ trimmed\\ the\\ state\\,\\ but\\ continued\\ its\\ distributive\\ commitments\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;National\\ Solidarity\\ Program\\&rdquo\\;\\ PRONASOL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PRONASOL\\ provided\\ the\\ political\\ conditions\\ for\\ sustained\\ neoliberal\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PRONASOL\\ redefined\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ corporatist\\ coalition\\ helping\\ to\\ rebuild\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ constituencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ enhanced\\ the\\ representativeness\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ elite\\ by\\ incorporating\\ social\\ reformers\\ into\\ its\\ ranks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ strengthened\\ the\\ powers\\ of\\ the\\ president\\ and\\ allowed\\ the\\ govt\\ to\\ establish\\ centralized\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pronasol\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ construction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\During\\ ISI\\ PRI\\ established\\ broad\\-based\\ \\&ldquo\\;distributive\\ coalition\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ private\\ enterprise\\,\\ working\\ class\\ and\\ intelligentsia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PRI\\ used\\ state\\ apparatus\\ to\\ protect\\ different\\ group\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ alliance\\ began\\ to\\ crumble\\ under\\ the\\ de\\ la\\ Madrid\\ govt\\ which\\ had\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ an\\ economic\\ crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Salinas\\ constructed\\ a\\ new\\ coalition\\ with\\ business\\,\\ informal\\ sector\\,\\ consumers\\,\\ and\\ market\\ oriented\\ farmers\\ \\(members\\ of\\ old\\ coalition\\ were\\ hit\\ hard\\ by\\ new\\ policies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PRONASOL\\ was\\ the\\ backbone\\ of\\ this\\ coalition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\it\\ was\\ a\\ discretionary\\ fund\\ designed\\ to\\ construct\\ new\\ patronage\\ networks\\ with\\ low\\-income\\ groups\\ across\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ its\\ major\\ tenets\\ was\\ to\\ deny\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ class\\ as\\ an\\ organizational\\ factor\\ of\\ political\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\program\\ aimed\\ at\\ transcending\\ class\\,\\ it\\ simply\\ defined\\ people\\ as\\ consumers\\ not\\ campesinos\\,\\ capitalists\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\helps\\ bring\\ otherwise\\ marginalized\\ groups\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\its\\ sought\\ to\\ provide\\ risk\\ capital\\ to\\ segments\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ sector\\ and\\ to\\ improve\\ infrastructure\\ in\\ lower\\ income\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Marriage\\ of\\ Technocrats\\ and\\ Social\\ Reformers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unlike\\ other\\ Lat\\.\\ Am\\ countries\\ Mexico\\ has\\ a\\ marriage\\ of\\ convenience\\ between\\ social\\ reformers\\ and\\ technocrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Technocrats\\ created\\ the\\ improved\\ economic\\ conditions\\ which\\ allowed\\ social\\ reformers\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ job\\ and\\ look\\ good\\ doing\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ reformers\\ helped\\ make\\ deals\\ with\\ diff\\ social\\ groups\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ assured\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ the\\ govt\\ allowing\\ the\\ technocrats\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salinas\\ formed\\ relationships\\ with\\ leaders\\ of\\ social\\ organizations\\ early\\ on\\ in\\ his\\ career\\ and\\ he\\ chose\\ a\\ social\\ reformer\\ \\(Carlos\\ Tello\\)\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ coordinator\\ of\\ PRONASOL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PRONASOL\\ was\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ Ministry\\ of\\ Social\\ Development\\ \\(SEDESOL\\)\\ which\\ gave\\ PRONASOL\\ its\\ social\\ welfare\\ element\\ while\\ providing\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ full\\ fledged\\ institutional\\ sponsor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PRI\\ and\\ PRONASOL\\:\\ Allies\\ or\\ Contenders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PRONASOL\\ helped\\ realign\\ the\\ PRI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coalition\\ helping\\ to\\ regain\\ electoral\\ support\\ from\\ leftists\\ for\\ the\\ PRI\\ helping\\ the\\ PRI\\ rebound\\ from\\ its\\ electoral\\ scare\\ in\\ 1988\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ also\\ replaced\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ PRI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ old\\ corporatist\\ networks\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ has\\ marginalized\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ PRI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ traditional\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PRI\\ leaders\\ argue\\ that\\ PRONASOL\\ alone\\ could\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ PRI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ electoral\\ rebound\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ PRI\\ was\\ strengthened\\ institutionally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ feel\\ threatened\\ because\\ PRONASOL\\ functions\\ as\\ a\\ parallel\\ political\\ party\\ to\\ the\\ PRI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ the\\ PRONASOL\\ has\\ nonetheless\\ helped\\ the\\ PRI\\ in\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Presidentialism\\ and\\ Symbolic\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PRONASOL\\ became\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ reasserting\\ Presidential\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Salinas\\ bypassed\\ the\\ govt\\ and\\ the\\ PRI\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ legitimize\\ the\\ regime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\President\\ toured\\ country\\ providing\\ a\\ face\\ to\\ the\\ PRONASOL\\ project\\ \\(his\\ PRONASOL\\ activities\\ were\\ highly\\ publicized\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hard\\ to\\ sustain\\ economic\\ reform\\ and\\ political\\ control\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vigorous\\ presidentialism\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ both\\ the\\ key\\ and\\ Achilles\\ heel\\ of\\ PRONASOL\\ because\\ it\\ reinforces\\ personalistic\\ politics\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ institution\\ building\\,\\ but\\ centralization\\ allowed\\ efficient\\ distribution\\ of\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ to\\ maintain\\ old\\ coalitions\\ and\\ create\\ new\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ reform\\ in\\ Mexico\\ had\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ balancing\\ these\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Haggard\\ and\\ Kaufman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Haggard\\ and\\ Kaufman\\ note\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ a\\ new\\ democracy\\ will\\ implement\\ economic\\ reforms\\,\\ we\\ must\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ economic\\ issues\\ faced\\ by\\ that\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ had\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ economic\\ crises\\ and\\ with\\ a\\ populous\\ that\\ sought\\ short\\-term\\ economic\\ relief\\ had\\ a\\ harder\\ time\\ implementing\\ reform\\ than\\ other\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defining\\ the\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ focus\\ on\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Macroeconomic\\ policies\\ designed\\ to\\ stabilize\\ the\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reforms\\ of\\ trade\\ and\\ exchange\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ Barriers\\ to\\ Economic\\ Reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Collective\\ action\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distributive\\ pressures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opposition\\ from\\ import\\-competing\\ interests\\ and\\ non\\-traded\\ goods\\ sector\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opposition\\ from\\ low\\ income\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Electoral\\ fears\\ of\\ politicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ Implications\\ of\\ Economic\\ Inheritance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ severity\\ of\\ the\\ problems\\ stated\\ above\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ initial\\ economic\\ conditions\\ facing\\ new\\ democratic\\ governments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Under\\ extreme\\ crisis\\ people\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ give\\ governments\\ greater\\ leeway\\ in\\ economic\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ crises\\ also\\ escalate\\ the\\ demands\\ on\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ these\\ demands\\ can\\ in\\ turn\\ hinder\\ the\\ policies\\ the\\ government\\ may\\ take\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ political\\ rewards\\ for\\ fixing\\ the\\ economy\\ were\\ great\\,\\ but\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ distributive\\ demands\\ many\\ nations\\ engaged\\ in\\ heterodox\\ economic\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ economic\\ conditions\\ were\\ not\\ severe\\,\\ govts\\ had\\ no\\ incentive\\ to\\ change\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Executive\\ Power\\ and\\ Party\\ Systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Centralized\\ executive\\ authority\\ plays\\ a\\ central\\ role\\ in\\ overcoming\\ collective\\ action\\ and\\ allocation\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leaders\\ of\\ new\\ democracies\\ may\\ have\\ political\\ \\&ldquo\\;honeymoons\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ give\\ them\\ considerable\\ power\\ over\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ effective\\ promotion\\,\\ initiation\\,\\ and\\ maintenance\\ of\\ reform\\ strategy\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ executive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ environments\\ of\\ crisis\\ the\\ executive\\ may\\ be\\ given\\ far\\ ranging\\ powers\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ economic\\ problems\\,\\ however\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ crisis\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ power\\ may\\ be\\ limited\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structure\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ system\\:\\ fragmentation\\ and\\ polarization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fragmentation\\ \\(many\\ small\\ parties\\ competing\\ with\\ one\\ another\\ for\\ power\\)\\ creates\\ impediments\\ to\\ the\\ coordination\\ required\\ to\\ both\\ initiate\\ and\\ sustain\\ policy\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ reform\\ is\\ difficult\\ in\\ countries\\ with\\ a\\ polarized\\ political\\ system\\ and\\ strong\\ left\\ wing\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rest\\ deals\\ with\\ historical\\ facts\\ and\\ different\\ cases\\ which\\ were\\ covered\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\:\\ Delegative\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ democracies\\ are\\ democracies\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ polyarchies\\ as\\ defined\\ by\\ Dahl\\,\\ but\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ on\\ path\\ towards\\ a\\ representative\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delegative\\ democracies\\ are\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ interaction\\ between\\ social\\ crises\\ and\\ economic\\ crises\\ which\\ require\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ political\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Considerations\\ underlying\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ democracy\\ is\\ instituted\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ second\\ transition\\ toward\\ consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nothing\\ guarantees\\ that\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;transition\\ will\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ success\\ need\\ broad\\-based\\ political\\ support\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ build\\ institutions\\ and\\ must\\ deal\\ with\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cases\\ of\\ delegative\\ democracy\\ have\\ achieved\\ neither\\ institutionalization\\ nor\\ dealt\\ with\\ crises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ success\\,\\ need\\ functioning\\ institutional\\ setting\\ which\\ includes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Institutions\\ that\\ can\\ both\\ incorporate\\ and\\ exclude\\ segments\\ of\\ the\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\determine\\ who\\ participates\\ and\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ shape\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\determine\\ which\\ actors\\ get\\ what\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tend\\ to\\ aggregate\\ the\\ action\\ and\\ organization\\ of\\ agents\\ that\\ interact\\ with\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ like\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ few\\ agents\\ so\\ prefer\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ large\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ induce\\ patterns\\ of\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ determine\\ who\\ is\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ stabilize\\ agents\\/representatives\\ and\\ their\\ expectations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ help\\ produce\\ expected\\ patterns\\ of\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ help\\ limit\\ unexpected\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ lengthen\\ the\\ time\\-horizons\\ of\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\allows\\ people\\ to\\ plan\\ for\\ future\\ and\\ bargain\\ and\\ make\\ tradeoffs\\ so\\ that\\ be\\ they\\ can\\ obtain\\ benefits\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Characterizing\\ a\\ delegative\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Delegative\\ democracy\\ rests\\ on\\ premise\\ that\\ whoever\\ wins\\ presidency\\ gets\\ to\\ rule\\ as\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ sees\\ fit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\President\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ and\\ main\\ custodian\\ and\\ definer\\ of\\ its\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\other\\ institutions\\ like\\ legislature\\ and\\ judiciary\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ nuisances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\it\\ is\\ strongly\\ majoritarian\\ and\\ individualistic\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ less\\ liberal\\ than\\ a\\ representative\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\elections\\ are\\ emotional\\ and\\ high\\ stakes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\leader\\ heals\\ nation\\ by\\ uniting\\ dispersed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\President\\ shields\\ technocrats\\ from\\ political\\ scrutiny\\ because\\ only\\ they\\ can\\ solve\\ the\\ crises\\ affecting\\ the\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Press\\,\\ congress\\,\\ and\\ courts\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ voice\\ criticisms\\ but\\ are\\ often\\ sidestepped\\ or\\ ignored\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Representative\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ vertical\\ accountability\\ \\(elected\\ officials\\ accountable\\ to\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\ \\(one\\ institution\\ accountable\\ to\\ others\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ is\\ weak\\ or\\ non\\-existent\\ in\\ a\\ delegative\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\allows\\ for\\ swift\\ policy\\ making\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\presidents\\ suffer\\ wild\\ popularity\\ swings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\policy\\ making\\ is\\ slow\\ and\\ incremental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\because\\ requires\\ coordination\\ of\\ diff\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comparisons\\ with\\ the\\ Past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uruguay\\ and\\ Chile\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ economic\\ problems\\ early\\ on\\ in\\ redemocratization\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uruguay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ congress\\ immediately\\ reasserted\\ its\\ influence\\ on\\ legislative\\ process\\ preventing\\ president\\ from\\ becoming\\ too\\ strong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plus\\ strong\\ embedded\\ practices\\ prevented\\ president\\ from\\ usurping\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cycle\\ of\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ democracies\\ inherit\\ weak\\ institutions\\ and\\ uncoordinated\\ bureaucracies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ immediately\\ face\\ crises\\ which\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ solve\\ given\\ the\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Presidents\\ promise\\ to\\ save\\ country\\ when\\ campaigning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weak\\ institutions\\ also\\ allow\\ corruption\\ and\\ cause\\ prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dilemma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\everyone\\ needs\\ to\\ act\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ initiates\\ anything\\ and\\ instead\\ scramble\\ for\\ narrow\\ short\\-term\\ advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ lose\\ faith\\ in\\ govt\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ stem\\ economic\\ crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ Omnipotence\\ to\\ Impotence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ a\\ representative\\ democracy\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ legislation\\ process\\ is\\ slow\\,\\ when\\ things\\ are\\ legislated\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ implemented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ DD\\ the\\ president\\ has\\ a\\ popular\\ mandate\\ and\\ begins\\ by\\ initiating\\ \\ \\;large\\ initial\\ policy\\ packages\\ and\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ complementing\\ packages\\ to\\ correct\\ unwanted\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mostly\\ via\\ decrees\\ and\\ executive\\ orders\\ which\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ offend\\ important\\ and\\ politically\\ mobilized\\ interests\\ and\\ which\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ be\\ implemented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lack\\ of\\ progress\\ because\\ policy\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ implemented\\ causes\\ the\\ president\\ to\\ lose\\ popular\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\then\\ other\\ institutions\\ start\\ attacking\\ the\\ president\\ making\\ him\\ impotent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\making\\ regime\\ more\\ prone\\ to\\ breakdowns\\ and\\ interruptions\\ than\\ a\\ representative\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Weyland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dependency\\ theorists\\ believe\\ that\\ neo\\-populism\\ is\\ incomptatible\\ with\\ neo\\-liberalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ austerity\\ measures\\ would\\ be\\ tough\\ on\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;bait\\ and\\ switch\\&rdquo\\;\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Politicians\\ use\\ populist\\ electoral\\ tactics\\ to\\ get\\ in\\ power\\ and\\ gather\\ mass\\ support\\ then\\ pressure\\ from\\ elites\\ and\\ intl\\ forces\\ cause\\ them\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ neo\\-liberal\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weyland\\ is\\ not\\ convinced\\ by\\ this\\,\\ because\\ people\\ would\\ punish\\ this\\ betrayal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Proposes\\ reformulation\\ of\\ common\\ conceptions\\ of\\ populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concept\\ of\\ Populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ strategy\\ with\\ three\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Personal\\ leader\\ appeals\\ to\\ a\\ heterogeneous\\ mass\\ many\\ of\\ whom\\ have\\ been\\ excluded\\ from\\ mainstream\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leader\\ uses\\ seemingly\\ direct\\,\\ quasi\\-personal\\ tactics\\ that\\ bypass\\ intermediary\\ organizations\\ like\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ leader\\ uses\\ organizations\\,\\ they\\ become\\ personal\\ vehicles\\ with\\ low\\ levels\\ of\\ institutionalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\during\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neo\\-populists\\ focused\\ on\\ poor\\ and\\ informal\\ sector\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\though\\ many\\ used\\ neoliberal\\ policies\\,\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ leaders\\ also\\ had\\ heterodox\\ measures\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ aim\\ at\\ the\\ complete\\ elimination\\ of\\ state\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Main\\ Argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ only\\ are\\ neo\\-liberalism\\ and\\ neo\\-populism\\ compatible\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ certain\\ affinities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ guaranteeing\\ economic\\ stability\\ during\\ times\\ of\\ hyperinflation\\ and\\ extreme\\ economic\\ crisis\\,\\ neopopulists\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ neoliberal\\ policies\\ to\\ gain\\ widespread\\ popular\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\ emergence\\ of\\ neoliberal\\ neopopulism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Collapse\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\ left\\ an\\ uncommitted\\ mass\\ of\\ voters\\ and\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ weak\\ political\\ organizations\\ unable\\ to\\ mobilize\\ those\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\allowing\\ huge\\ numbers\\ of\\ voters\\ to\\ become\\ available\\ for\\ populist\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ie\\.\\ Garcia\\ in\\ Peru\\,\\ Sarney\\ in\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Alfonsin\\ in\\ Argentina\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sarney\\ and\\ Alfonsin\\ failed\\ to\\ curb\\ inflation\\ and\\ economic\\ depression\\ because\\ they\\ used\\ classic\\ populist\\ economic\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\,\\ Collor\\,\\ and\\ Menem\\ fixed\\ this\\ problem\\ by\\ using\\ neoliberal\\ economic\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inherent\\ Affinities\\ of\\ Neopopulism\\ and\\ neoliberalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ are\\ antiorganizational\\ and\\ have\\ an\\ individualistic\\ bent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ reject\\ established\\ order\\ and\\ try\\ disaffected\\ sectors\\ like\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ and\\ rural\\ poor\\ which\\ were\\ victims\\ of\\ ISI\\ and\\ military\\ regimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ rely\\ on\\ strong\\ top\\-down\\ approach\\ of\\ strengthening\\ state\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ produce\\ profound\\ economic\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ produce\\ high\\ costs\\ on\\ organized\\ groups\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\ and\\ benefit\\ poorer\\ sectors\\ by\\ ending\\ hyperinflation\\ and\\ creating\\ targeted\\ anti\\-poverty\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ both\\ take\\ an\\ adversarial\\ stance\\ against\\ organized\\ groups\\ and\\ attack\\ them\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ established\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hard\\ for\\ neo\\-populists\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ these\\ groups\\ who\\ make\\ different\\ sectors\\ less\\ susceptible\\ to\\ populist\\ appeals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ groups\\,\\ however\\,\\ end\\ up\\ favoring\\ neo\\-populists\\ in\\ second\\ rounds\\ of\\ elections\\ after\\ opposing\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ round\\ because\\ neo\\-populists\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ better\\ alternative\\ than\\ leftist\\ or\\ rightist\\ candidates\\ \\(ie\\.\\ Fujimori\\ in\\ Peru\\ gained\\ support\\ because\\ civil\\ groups\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ Vargas\\ Llosa\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ Class\\ as\\ the\\ Enemy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Populists\\ used\\ international\\ financial\\ institutions\\ and\\ the\\ economic\\ elite\\ as\\ common\\ enemies\\ to\\ unite\\ their\\ followers\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\but\\ during\\ the\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ these\\ were\\ strong\\ allies\\ of\\ neopopulists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\new\\ target\\ for\\ neopopulists\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;political\\ class\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ headed\\ established\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\attacks\\ helped\\ delegitimate\\ the\\ opposition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\blamed\\ them\\ for\\ economic\\ downturn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similarities\\ in\\ Policy\\ Strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neopopulists\\ and\\ neoliberals\\ display\\ surprising\\ similarities\\ in\\ their\\ efforts\\ to\\ centralize\\ power\\ and\\ enact\\ policy\\ in\\ an\\ autocratic\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ try\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ affect\\ change\\ in\\ a\\ top\\-down\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affinities\\ in\\ Distribution\\ of\\ Costs\\ and\\ Benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ neo\\-liberalism\\ and\\ neo\\-populism\\ distribute\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\ among\\ different\\ strata\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\costs\\ of\\ neoliberalism\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ costs\\ of\\ hyperinflation\\ which\\ neoliberal\\ policies\\ help\\ avert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\poorer\\ sections\\ of\\ society\\ benefit\\ from\\ less\\ inflation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\formal\\ workers\\ and\\ government\\ employees\\ suffer\\ most\\ from\\ neoliberalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\neoliberalism\\ provides\\ resources\\ for\\ anti\\-poverty\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smith\\ Chapters\\ 4\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Levitsky\\ only\\ suggested\\ skimming\\ these\\ chapters\\,\\ but\\ they\\ give\\ good\\ histories\\ of\\ Chile\\,\\ Brazil\\,\\ Peru\\,\\ and\\ Mexico\\,\\ so\\ I\\ took\\ pretty\\ comprehensive\\ notes\\ on\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 4\\:\\ \\ \\;CHILE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ SOCIALISM\\,\\ REPRESSION\\,\\ and\\ DEMOCRACY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Strongmen\\ and\\ democracy\\ proponents\\ competed\\ for\\ power\\ throughout\\ the\\ 1800s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ Argentina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1895\\ population\\ was\\ 25\\%\\ foreign\\-born\\,\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ population\\ was\\ only\\ 3\\%\\ foreign\\-born\\.\\ \\ \\;Due\\ to\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ foreigners\\,\\ the\\ working\\ class\\,\\ which\\ was\\ native\\-born\\ throughout\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ gained\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ scene\\ much\\ earlier\\ than\\ workers\\ in\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ copper\\ industry\\,\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ profitable\\,\\ was\\ mostly\\ American\\-owned\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ US\\ copper\\ companies\\ gave\\ little\\ stimulus\\ to\\ the\\ Chilean\\ economy\\,\\ sparking\\ anti\\-US\\ resentment\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ companies\\ relied\\ heavily\\ on\\ capital\\ and\\ technology\\ and\\ much\\ less\\ on\\ manpower\\,\\ so\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ employ\\ many\\ Chileans\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ imported\\ equipment\\ and\\ parts\\,\\ giving\\ little\\ business\\ to\\ Chilean\\ manufacturers\\.\\ \\ \\;Huge\\ profits\\ were\\ returned\\ to\\ parent\\ companies\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ invested\\ in\\ Chile\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\ grew\\ during\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ bourgeois\\ politicians\\ relied\\ increasingly\\ on\\ working\\-class\\ voters\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ vote\\ mattered\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ because\\ the\\ Chilean\\ electorate\\ was\\ so\\ deeply\\ divided\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ elections\\ were\\ so\\ competitive\\,\\ with\\ so\\ many\\ participating\\ parties\\,\\ that\\ winners\\ rarely\\ won\\ more\\ than\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ the\\ vote\\.\\ \\ \\;Parties\\ relied\\ on\\ coalitions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ political\\ system\\ around\\ that\\ time\\ was\\ highly\\ democratic\\,\\ electoral\\ participation\\ was\\ high\\ \\(80\\%\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ USA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 50\\-60\\%\\ at\\ the\\ time\\)\\,\\ and\\ election\\ results\\ were\\ accepted\\ by\\ almost\\ all\\ Chileans\\ as\\ binding\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\General\\ Carlos\\ Ibanez\\ ruled\\ Chile\\ both\\ right\\ before\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ and\\ from\\ 1952\\-1958\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1931\\,\\ his\\ widespread\\ building\\ of\\ roads\\,\\ railroads\\,\\ and\\ power\\ facilities\\ ended\\ when\\ the\\ electorate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ frustration\\ with\\ the\\ economic\\ problems\\ during\\ the\\ Depression\\ pushed\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\caudillo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;returned\\ in\\ 1952\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ Ibanez\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ apolitical\\ man\\ able\\ to\\ solve\\ all\\ political\\ problems\\,\\ he\\ found\\ himself\\ caught\\ in\\ the\\ typical\\ policy\\ dilemma\\ produced\\ by\\ inflation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ government\\ was\\ running\\ out\\ of\\ foreign\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ order\\ to\\ receive\\ an\\ IMF\\ loan\\,\\ Ibanez\\ had\\ to\\ let\\ the\\ IMF\\ oversee\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ policies\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ meant\\ giving\\ into\\ foreign\\ interests\\,\\ a\\ deeply\\ resented\\ act\\ in\\ the\\ nationalist\\ Chile\\.\\ \\ \\;Ibanez\\ eventually\\ gave\\ into\\ the\\ IMF\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ loan\\,\\ but\\ his\\ austerity\\ policies\\ sparked\\ riots\\ that\\ prevented\\ his\\ reelection\\ in\\ 1958\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ electorate\\ grew\\ enormously\\ over\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ from\\ 500\\,000\\ in\\ 1938\\ to\\ 1\\.5\\ million\\ in\\ 1963\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inflation\\ returned\\ to\\ cause\\ problems\\ for\\ democratically\\-elected\\ socialist\\ president\\ Salvador\\ Allende\\,\\ whose\\ wage\\ increases\\ sparked\\ inflation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ inflation\\ by\\ simply\\ printing\\ enough\\ money\\ to\\ cover\\ its\\ losses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ backing\\ of\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ elite\\ and\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ and\\ even\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\,\\ General\\ Augosto\\ Pinochet\\ led\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Allende\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pinochet\\ repressed\\ all\\ political\\ opposition\\ and\\ carried\\ out\\ harsh\\ anti\\-inflation\\ policies\\ that\\ reduced\\ inflation\\ from\\ 500\\%\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ coup\\ to\\ 10\\%\\ by\\ 1982\\.\\ \\ \\;Growth\\ averaged\\ 7\\%\\ 1976\\-1981\\.\\ \\ \\;Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ technocrats\\ were\\ fired\\ in\\ 1982\\ when\\ a\\ financial\\ crash\\ hit\\ Chile\\,\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ de\\ facto\\ default\\ on\\ its\\ foreign\\ debt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ economy\\ improved\\,\\ the\\ disparity\\ between\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\ grew\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ unequal\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aywlin\\ took\\ power\\ in\\ 1990\\ and\\ was\\ committed\\ to\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ democratic\\ institutions\\,\\ investigation\\ of\\ past\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\,\\ and\\ rapid\\ improvement\\ in\\ the\\ living\\ conditions\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ uncharismatic\\ Eduardo\\ Frei\\ took\\ over\\ in\\ 1993\\ and\\ oversaw\\ continued\\ noninflationary\\ growth\\ until\\ 1998\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\ was\\ not\\ perfect\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\ \\;Chileans\\ demonstrated\\ striking\\ voter\\ absenteeism\\ and\\ voided\\ ballots\\ in\\ the\\ 1997\\ elections\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ stepping\\ down\\ from\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ to\\ a\\ lifetime\\ Senate\\ seat\\ in\\ 1998\\,\\ Pinochet\\ was\\ arrested\\ but\\ ruled\\ unfit\\ for\\ trial\\ for\\ his\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Socialist\\ Richard\\ Lagos\\ won\\ the\\ 2000\\ presidential\\ election\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 5\\:\\ \\ \\;BRAZIL\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ DEVELOPMENT\\ for\\ WHOM\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brazil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mostly\\ nonviolent\\ 1822\\ acquisition\\ of\\ independence\\ from\\ Portugal\\ gave\\ it\\ an\\ favorable\\ start\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ country\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ face\\ the\\ same\\ instability\\ that\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ faced\\ at\\ the\\ outset\\ of\\ independence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ economy\\ was\\ agricultural\\,\\ with\\ sugar\\ easily\\ the\\ largest\\ crop\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ 1890\\-1930\\,\\ coffee\\ \\&ldquo\\;marched\\&rdquo\\;\\ southwest\\ across\\ Brazil\\ as\\ planters\\ found\\ it\\ cheaper\\ to\\ break\\ new\\ ground\\ than\\ to\\ recycle\\ the\\ plantation\\ soils\\ whose\\ yields\\ were\\ dropping\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ produced\\ stretches\\ of\\ abandoned\\ plantations\\ that\\ reached\\ from\\ Rio\\ de\\ Janiero\\ down\\ to\\ Sao\\ Paolo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Racism\\ in\\ Brazil\\:\\ \\ \\;most\\ elites\\ are\\ white\\,\\ and\\ most\\ blacks\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ society\\,\\ yet\\ racism\\ has\\ been\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ Brazil\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ USA\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ one\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ totally\\ black\\,\\ whereas\\ in\\ the\\ USA\\,\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ amount\\ of\\ black\\ heritage\\ makes\\ someone\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\President\\ Jetulio\\ Vargas\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ Constitutent\\ Assembly\\ in\\ 1933\\ that\\ reduced\\ state\\ autonomy\\,\\ forbid\\ states\\ from\\ taxing\\ each\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ directly\\-elected\\ bicameral\\ legislature\\ and\\ president\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazil\\ backed\\ the\\ Allies\\ in\\ WWII\\,\\ furnishing\\ quartz\\,\\ natural\\ rubber\\,\\ and\\ critical\\ air\\ and\\ naval\\ bases\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ return\\,\\ Vargas\\ received\\ vast\\ funding\\ from\\ the\\ USA\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elected\\ in\\ 1956\\,\\ president\\ Juscelino\\ Kubitschek\\ moved\\ the\\ capital\\ to\\ the\\ futuristic\\ city\\ of\\ Brasilia\\,\\ built\\ from\\ scratch\\ in\\ four\\ years\\ on\\ an\\ undeveloped\\ plateau\\ 600\\ miles\\ from\\ the\\ old\\ capital\\ of\\ Rio\\ de\\ Janeiro\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kubitschek\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ plan\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;fifty\\ years\\ of\\ progress\\ in\\ five\\&rdquo\\;\\ produced\\ impressive\\ results\\ initially\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ his\\ stubbornness\\ in\\ refusing\\ to\\ give\\ into\\ the\\ IMF\\,\\ whose\\ austerity\\ measures\\ conflicted\\ with\\ his\\ economic\\ goals\\,\\ caused\\ problems\\ for\\ Janio\\ Quadros\\,\\ Kubitschek\\&rsquo\\;s\\ successor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ charismatic\\ and\\ talented\\ as\\ any\\ politician\\,\\ Quadros\\ failed\\ expectations\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ resigned\\ in\\ 1961\\ with\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ Congress\\ would\\ reinstate\\ him\\ and\\ grant\\ the\\ presidency\\ more\\ power\\,\\ but\\ Congress\\ accepted\\ his\\ resignation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Joao\\ Goulart\\ succeeded\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Goulart\\ acted\\ indecisively\\,\\ at\\ times\\ promoting\\ IMF\\ austerity\\ measures\\,\\ at\\ other\\ times\\ pushing\\ popular\\ sector\\ demands\\,\\ gained\\ him\\ many\\ enemies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\General\\ Castello\\ Branco\\,\\ a\\ staunch\\ legalist\\ who\\ put\\ down\\ military\\ officers\\&rsquo\\;\\ attempts\\ to\\ commit\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Goulart\\ when\\ the\\ president\\ first\\ entered\\ office\\,\\ finally\\ changed\\ course\\ and\\ agreed\\ to\\ enact\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ the\\ constitution\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rules\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ military\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ a\\ very\\ powerful\\ actor\\ in\\ Brazilian\\ society\\,\\ and\\ a\\ frightened\\ Goulart\\ did\\ not\\ fight\\ the\\ coup\\,\\ fleeing\\ to\\ Uruguay\\ instead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leftist\\ guerrillas\\ sparked\\ violence\\ through\\ 1969\\-1973\\ before\\ using\\ up\\ resources\\ and\\ being\\ put\\ down\\ by\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1974\\,\\ General\\ Ernesto\\ Geisel\\ assumed\\ the\\ presidency\\ and\\ held\\ relatively\\ free\\ elections\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ elections\\ revealed\\ the\\ military\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chief\\ problem\\:\\ \\ \\;its\\ inability\\ to\\ win\\ a\\ free\\ popular\\ election\\.\\ \\ \\;Opposition\\ leaders\\ won\\ the\\ 1974\\ congressional\\ elections\\ in\\ a\\ landslide\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ given\\ choice\\,\\ the\\ public\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ back\\ the\\ military\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Brazilian\\ Miracle\\&rdquo\\;\\ took\\ place\\ 1968\\-1974\\ when\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deepening\\ of\\ ISI\\ \\(manufacturing\\ of\\ steel\\ goods\\ and\\ automobiles\\)\\ averaged\\ 10\\%\\ annual\\ growth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Miracle\\&rdquo\\;\\ faded\\ in\\ 1980\\ when\\ inflation\\ reached\\ 100\\%\\,\\ foreign\\ debt\\ mounted\\,\\ and\\ industrial\\ production\\ sagged\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ major\\ strikes\\ from\\ 1978\\-1980\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1982\\,\\ Brazil\\ gained\\ the\\ dubious\\ honor\\ of\\ having\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ largest\\ foreign\\ debt\\ \\(\\$87\\ billion\\)\\,\\ forcing\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ an\\ IMF\\ economic\\ plan\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ receive\\ \\&ldquo\\;bridging\\ loans\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ their\\ debt\\ payments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ last\\ General\\-President\\ Joao\\ Figueiredo\\ holds\\ direct\\ elections\\ in\\ 1982\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fernando\\ Collor\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ in\\ 1990\\,\\ campaigning\\ against\\ political\\ elites\\ and\\ their\\ corruption\\.\\ \\ \\;Failed\\ economic\\ policies\\ produced\\ 1585\\%\\ inflation\\,\\ and\\,\\ ironically\\,\\ his\\ own\\ corruption\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ impeachment\\ in\\ 1982\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vice\\ President\\ Itmar\\ Franco\\ took\\ office\\ and\\ hired\\ Fernando\\ Cardoso\\ as\\ his\\ finance\\ minister\\.\\ \\ \\;Cardoso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Real\\ Plan\\&rdquo\\;\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ currency\\,\\ pegged\\ the\\ Real\\ to\\ the\\ dollar\\,\\ and\\ lowered\\ inflation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cardoso\\ used\\ his\\ economic\\ success\\ to\\ launch\\ him\\ into\\ the\\ presidency\\ in\\ 1994\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ financial\\ crisis\\ in\\ Asia\\ extended\\ to\\ Brazil\\ and\\ caused\\ massive\\ capital\\ flight\\,\\ with\\ the\\ government\\ losing\\ \\$1\\.6\\ billion\\ in\\ foreign\\ exchange\\ reserves\\ per\\ day\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ 2\\ weeks\\ of\\ September\\,\\ 1997\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taking\\ \\$41\\.5\\ billion\\ in\\ credits\\ from\\ international\\ help\\,\\ Brazil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ capital\\ flight\\ slowed\\,\\ but\\ economic\\ growth\\ slowed\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ 2\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 6\\:\\ \\ \\;PERU\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ SOLDIERS\\,\\ OLIGARCHS\\,\\ and\\ INDIANS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ many\\ ways\\ Peru\\ has\\ stood\\ out\\ as\\ a\\ bizarre\\ case\\ in\\ Latin\\ American\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ independence\\ movements\\ spread\\ throughout\\ the\\ region\\ during\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ Peru\\ remained\\ a\\ loyalist\\ stronghold\\ of\\ the\\ crown\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peru\\ has\\ a\\ had\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ major\\,\\ highly\\ valuable\\ exports\\ over\\ its\\ history\\:\\ \\ \\;guano\\ \\(bird\\ crap\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ great\\ fertilizer\\ and\\ that\\ dominated\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ export\\ economy\\ during\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\)\\,\\ sugar\\,\\ fishmeal\\,\\ cotton\\,\\ coffee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peru\\ has\\ always\\ remained\\ highly\\ dependent\\ on\\ exports\\ as\\ its\\ stimulus\\ to\\ growth\\.\\ \\ \\;Policymakers\\ have\\ almost\\ always\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ international\\ market\\,\\ not\\ domestic\\ demand\\.\\ \\ \\;Peru\\ has\\ therefore\\ been\\ extremely\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ price\\ swings\\ in\\ the\\ international\\ market\\ and\\ thus\\ to\\ forces\\ beyond\\ its\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ the\\ harm\\ that\\ the\\ depression\\ and\\ WWII\\,\\ Peru\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ try\\ ISI\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ continued\\ to\\ pursue\\ export\\-led\\ growth\\,\\ with\\ ample\\ room\\ for\\ foreign\\ investment\\ and\\ integration\\ of\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\ with\\ the\\ international\\ economy\\,\\ above\\ all\\ the\\ US\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ at\\ least\\ 164\\ major\\ foreign\\ corporations\\ entered\\ Peru\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ military\\ committed\\ a\\ coup\\ in\\ 1914\\ against\\ populist\\ president\\ Guillermo\\ \\&ldquo\\;Big\\ Bread\\&rdquo\\;\\ Billinghurst\\,\\ who\\ promised\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ a\\ 5\\-cent\\ loaf\\ of\\ bread\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1924\\,\\ Victor\\ Raul\\ Haya\\ de\\ la\\ Torre\\ founded\\ APRA\\ \\(American\\ Revolutionary\\ Popular\\ Alliance\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;APRA\\ had\\ plans\\ for\\ Peru\\ and\\ beyond\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Peru\\,\\ Haya\\ de\\ la\\ Torre\\ wanted\\ state\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ long\\-run\\ nationalization\\ of\\ key\\ sectors\\,\\ and\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ political\\ freedoms\\ and\\ human\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;Universally\\,\\ APRAP\\ proclaimed\\ a\\ 5\\-point\\ program\\ for\\ the\\ redemption\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indo\\-America\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ included\\ resisting\\ Yankee\\ imperialism\\,\\ political\\ unity\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\ nationalization\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ industry\\,\\ internationalization\\ of\\ the\\ Panama\\ Canal\\,\\ and\\ solidarity\\ with\\ the\\ oppressed\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\APRA\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ into\\ power\\ until\\ \\^\\%\\&\\;\\$\\%\\&\\;\\^\\$\\^\\$\\%\\^\\&\\;\\^\\^\\$\\%\\&\\;\\^\\$\\$\\%\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\ adopted\\ APRA\\-like\\ policies\\ of\\ state\\ intervention\\ in\\ economic\\ life\\,\\ Peru\\ marched\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ direction\\ under\\ the\\ command\\ of\\ General\\ Manuel\\ Odria\\.\\ \\ \\;Odria\\ implemented\\ orthodox\\ economists\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ planters\\&rsquo\\;\\ dream\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ freed\\ the\\ exchange\\ rate\\,\\ lifted\\ import\\ restrictions\\,\\ encouraged\\ foreign\\ investment\\ in\\ mining\\ and\\ oil\\,\\ and\\ sought\\ advice\\ from\\ US\\ experts\\ on\\ currency\\ stabilization\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Odria\\ jailed\\ opponents\\,\\ and\\ his\\ repression\\ forced\\ Haya\\ de\\ la\\ Torre\\ to\\ take\\ refuge\\ for\\ five\\ straight\\ years\\ inside\\ the\\ Colombian\\ embassy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Odria\\ consented\\ to\\ free\\ elections\\ in\\ 1956\\ after\\ export\\ earnings\\ declined\\,\\ inflation\\ increased\\,\\ and\\ workers\\ went\\ on\\ strike\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ an\\ economic\\ decline\\ that\\ followed\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Korean\\ War\\ in\\ 1953\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\APRA\\ and\\ Haya\\ de\\ la\\ Torre\\ won\\ the\\ presidential\\ election\\ in\\ 1962\\,\\ but\\ the\\ military\\ refused\\ to\\ let\\ him\\ take\\ office\\ as\\ punishment\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Apristas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;\\ 1933\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\assassination\\ of\\ Peruvian\\ military\\ president\\ Luis\\ Sanchez\\ Cerro\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ Cuban\\-style\\ guerrilla\\ movement\\ bent\\ on\\ establishing\\ a\\ rural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\foco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ nucleus\\,\\ emerged\\ during\\ President\\ Fernando\\ Belaunde\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rule\\.\\ \\ \\;Che\\ Guevara\\ and\\ the\\ young\\ French\\ intellectual\\ Regis\\ Debray\\ had\\ argued\\ that\\ a\\ successful\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\foco\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\could\\ be\\ the\\ spark\\ to\\ set\\ off\\ a\\ country\\-wide\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ decline\\ provoked\\ the\\ military\\ to\\ commit\\ a\\ 1967\\ coup\\ against\\ Belaunde\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ time\\ the\\ military\\ held\\ onto\\ power\\,\\ establishing\\ one\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ ambitious\\ military\\ governments\\.\\ \\ \\;3\\ factors\\ set\\ this\\ military\\ regime\\ apart\\ from\\ earlier\\ governments\\ in\\ both\\ Peru\\ and\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\it\\ had\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ autonomy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ middle\\-class\\ military\\ acted\\ alone\\,\\ without\\ collusion\\ with\\ civilian\\ power\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ beholden\\ only\\ to\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ leaders\\ believed\\ deeply\\ in\\ dependency\\ theory\\,\\ so\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ principal\\ purposes\\ was\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ Peruvian\\ economy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subordination\\ to\\ foreign\\ centers\\ of\\ decision\\ and\\ to\\ establish\\ autonomous\\ development\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ antiguerrilla\\ campaign\\ that\\ Belaunde\\ ordered\\ against\\ the\\ sierra\\ peasants\\ \\(8\\,000\\ killed\\,\\ 19\\,000\\ homeless\\,\\ 3\\,500\\ jailed\\,\\ 14\\,000\\ hectares\\ of\\ land\\ destroyed\\ by\\ fire\\ and\\ napalm\\)\\,\\ the\\ Peruvian\\ military\\ had\\ genuine\\ sympathy\\ with\\ the\\ plight\\ of\\ the\\ long\\-oppressed\\ peasantry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ result\\ was\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ military\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;Peruvian\\ military\\ rule\\ was\\ ironic\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\,\\ as\\ Fidel\\ Castro\\ explained\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ if\\ a\\ fire\\ had\\ started\\ in\\ a\\ firehouse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ military\\ expropriated\\ all\\ large\\ estates\\,\\ putting\\ \\¾\\;\\ of\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ productive\\ land\\ under\\ the\\ cooperative\\ management\\ of\\ villagers\\ and\\ former\\ hacienda\\ peons\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ agrarian\\ elite\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ vanished\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SINAMOS\\ was\\ the\\ regime\\&rsquo\\;s\\ integrating\\ institution\\ for\\ peasants\\ and\\ working\\-class\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ aimed\\ to\\ link\\ the\\ regime\\ with\\ masses\\,\\ identifying\\ the\\ government\\ with\\ its\\ constituent\\ groups\\ and\\ promoting\\ a\\ harmonious\\ stet\\ of\\ leader\\-follower\\ relationships\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ military\\ government\\ enlisted\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ the\\ church\\ to\\ help\\ organize\\ sprawling\\ shantytowns\\ outside\\ Lima\\ and\\ other\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ military\\ regime\\ was\\ TOP\\-down\\ in\\ organization\\ and\\ mobilization\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ constructing\\ a\\ socialist\\ society\\,\\ as\\ Allende\\ in\\ Chile\\ and\\ Castro\\ in\\ Cuba\\ tried\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ also\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ trying\\ to\\ exclude\\ and\\ repress\\ the\\ already\\-organized\\ working\\-class\\ movements\\,\\ as\\ did\\ military\\ governments\\ in\\ Chile\\,\\ Brazil\\,\\ and\\ Argentina\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ the\\ Peruvian\\ regime\\ was\\ intent\\ on\\ integrating\\ marginal\\ urban\\ and\\ rural\\ masses\\ into\\ the\\ national\\ society\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ lay\\ the\\ groundwork\\ for\\ industrialization\\ and\\ autonomous\\ development\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ chief\\ strategy\\ to\\ achieving\\ this\\ end\\ was\\ incorporating\\ these\\ groups\\ under\\ the\\ guidance\\ and\\ tutelage\\ of\\ the\\ state\\,\\ which\\ would\\ in\\ turn\\ regulate\\ civil\\ disputes\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ would\\ achieve\\ a\\ goal\\ that\\ frequently\\ appears\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ the\\ reduction\\ of\\ class\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Peruvian\\ regime\\ was\\ a\\ typical\\ corporatist\\ state\\,\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ organization\\ and\\ integration\\ of\\ lower\\-class\\ groups\\,\\ like\\ Cardenas\\ in\\ Mexico\\ \\(1934\\-40\\)\\ and\\ Peron\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ ruling\\ period\\ in\\ Argentina\\ \\(1946\\-1950\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ manufacturing\\ sector\\,\\ the\\ government\\ promulgated\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;industrial\\ community\\&rdquo\\;\\ law\\,\\ which\\ pushed\\ every\\ firm\\ with\\ 6\\+\\ employers\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ workers\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ stock\\ in\\ each\\ company\\ and\\ representation\\ on\\ the\\ board\\ of\\ directors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ took\\ over\\ many\\ prominent\\ firms\\,\\ like\\ Chase\\ Manhattan\\ Bank\\,\\ ITT\\,\\ and\\ Marcona\\ Mining\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ regime\\ harassed\\,\\ intimidated\\,\\ exiled\\,\\ and\\ jailed\\,\\ but\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ engage\\ in\\ campaigns\\ of\\ systematic\\ terror\\ that\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ southern\\ cone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Widespread\\ strikes\\,\\ peasant\\ dissatisfaction\\ with\\ the\\ unresponsiveness\\ of\\ SINAMOS\\,\\ the\\ disappearance\\ of\\ the\\ fishmeal\\ industry\\,\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ world\\ prices\\ for\\ sugar\\ and\\ copper\\,\\ the\\ deterioration\\ of\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ payments\\,\\ the\\ swelling\\ of\\ the\\ foreign\\ debt\\,\\ and\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ inflation\\ brought\\ the\\ regime\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\General\\ Juan\\ Velasco\\ stepped\\ down\\,\\ General\\ Francisco\\ Morales\\ Bermudez\\ replaced\\ him\\,\\ and\\ Bermudez\\ worked\\ to\\ dismantle\\ the\\ 1968\\-75\\ experiment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SINAMOS\\ was\\ permitted\\ to\\ wither\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;Morales\\ Bermudez\\ acceded\\ to\\ IMF\\ pressure\\,\\ adopting\\ an\\ economic\\ austerity\\ program\\ that\\ reduced\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ adults\\ with\\ adequate\\ employment\\ to\\ 42\\%\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ decentralized\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ encouraged\\ foreign\\ investment\\,\\ and\\ privatized\\ the\\ state\\-controlled\\ press\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morales\\ Bermudez\\ announced\\ elections\\ for\\ 1980\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ regime\\ lacked\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ gain\\ solid\\ support\\ from\\ any\\ social\\ class\\ or\\ grouping\\,\\ so\\ it\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ establish\\ institutional\\ foundations\\ for\\ its\\ authority\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ By\\ reaching\\ into\\ so\\ many\\ areas\\ of\\ Peruvian\\ society\\,\\ the\\ military\\ government\\ succeeded\\ in\\ touching\\,\\ and\\ alienating\\,\\ almost\\ everyone\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ group\\ felt\\ safe\\ from\\ intervention\\ or\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autonomy\\,\\ which\\ gave\\ it\\ so\\ much\\ freedom\\ to\\ act\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ dream\\ for\\ Peru\\,\\ also\\ led\\ to\\ its\\ demise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Belaunde\\ became\\ president\\ again\\ after\\ the\\ military\\ regime\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ embraced\\ an\\ IMF\\ stabilization\\ program\\,\\ reduced\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ strengthened\\ private\\ enterprise\\,\\ encouraged\\ new\\ private\\ investment\\,\\ and\\ renegotiated\\ the\\ foreign\\ debt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Belaunde\\ hit\\ 3\\ insurmountable\\ problems\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1982\\,\\ a\\ debt\\ crisis\\ hit\\ Latin\\ America\\ when\\ Mexico\\ nearly\\ defaulted\\ on\\ its\\ international\\ loans\\.\\ \\ \\;Recession\\ hit\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\ from\\ 1981\\-83\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guerrilla\\ activity\\ and\\ political\\ violence\\ reemerged\\ with\\ the\\ Shining\\ Path\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cocain\\ trafficking\\ rose\\ sharply\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Shining\\ Path\\ combined\\ ideological\\ indoctrination\\ with\\ physical\\ intimidation\\,\\ murdering\\ poor\\ village\\ leaders\\ who\\ resisted\\ their\\ call\\ to\\ smash\\ state\\ authority\\ and\\ establish\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ utopia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ eloquent\\,\\ forceful\\ Alan\\ Garcia\\ took\\ the\\ presidency\\ after\\ Belaunde\\ and\\ became\\ APRA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ president\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Garcia\\ obliterated\\ the\\ economy\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ increased\\ real\\ wages\\,\\ cut\\ payroll\\ and\\ sales\\ taxes\\,\\ reduced\\ interest\\ rates\\,\\ froze\\ prices\\,\\ and\\ devalued\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sol\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ sparking\\ demand\\ initially\\.\\ \\ \\;Garcia\\ proclaimed\\ a\\ default\\ on\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ external\\ debt\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ \\&ldquo\\;heterodox\\&rdquo\\;\\ economic\\ policies\\ produced\\ a\\ short\\-lived\\ economic\\ boom\\ that\\ was\\ soon\\ followed\\ by\\ collapse\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ mushrooming\\ trade\\ deficit\\ fueled\\ by\\ consumer\\ boom\\ rapidly\\ exhausted\\ foreign\\ exchange\\ reserves\\.\\ \\ \\;International\\ credit\\ and\\ investment\\ withdrew\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ debt\\ default\\.\\ \\ \\;Violent\\ strikes\\ paralyzed\\ economic\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Garcia\\ responded\\ with\\ an\\ economic\\ \\&ldquo\\;shock\\&rdquo\\;\\ program\\ that\\ caused\\ massive\\ unemployment\\,\\ plunged\\ the\\ GDP\\ 30\\%\\ in\\ 3\\ years\\,\\ and\\ produced\\ 7\\,500\\%\\ inflation\\.\\ \\ \\;Guerrilla\\ violence\\ escaled\\ throught\\ the\\ country\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alberto\\ Fujimori\\ surprised\\ Peru\\ by\\ winning\\ the\\ presidency\\ over\\ the\\ internationally\\ acclaimed\\ novelist\\ Mario\\ Vargas\\ Llosa\\,\\ whose\\ campaign\\ told\\ Peruvians\\ \\(bad\\ idea\\)\\ to\\ prepare\\ for\\ painful\\ neoliberal\\ economic\\ policies\\ that\\ would\\ shrink\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ promote\\ private\\ enterprise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ took\\ office\\ in\\ 1990\\ and\\,\\ taking\\ advantage\\ of\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ weak\\ institutions\\,\\ announced\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\auto\\-golpe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ self\\-coup\\,\\ building\\ a\\ power\\ base\\ on\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ and\\ intelligence\\ services\\,\\ filling\\ a\\ power\\ void\\ in\\ Peruvian\\ politics\\ left\\ by\\ party\\ weakness\\ \\(caused\\ by\\ corruption\\)\\,\\ labor\\ union\\ weakness\\ \\(caused\\ by\\ economic\\ problems\\)\\,\\ and\\ university\\ weakness\\ \\(declining\\ budgets\\ caused\\ them\\ to\\ lose\\ vigor\\ and\\ vitality\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Peru\\ was\\ textbook\\ \\&ldquo\\;electoral\\ authoritarianism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ combining\\ free\\ elections\\ for\\ political\\ office\\ with\\ systematic\\ disrespect\\ for\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ human\\ rights\\ of\\ citizens\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ his\\ repression\\,\\ Fujimori\\ stopped\\ the\\ shining\\ Path\\ by\\ capturing\\ its\\ leader\\ Abimael\\ Guzman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ re\\-wrote\\ the\\ constitution\\ to\\ allow\\ himself\\ to\\ run\\ for\\ reelection\\,\\ and\\ he\\ won\\ in\\ 1995\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ December\\ 1996\\,\\ 14\\ MRTA\\ guerrillas\\ took\\ 72\\ hostages\\ at\\ a\\ gala\\ reception\\ at\\ the\\ residence\\ of\\ Japan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ambassador\\ in\\ Lima\\.\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ refused\\ for\\ months\\ to\\ release\\ MRTA\\ comrades\\ from\\ jail\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ 127\\ days\\,\\ Peruvian\\ commandos\\ stormed\\ the\\ Japanese\\ ambassador\\&rsquo\\;s\\ residence\\,\\ killed\\ the\\ guerrillas\\ and\\ one\\ hostage\\,\\ and\\ freed\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ 71\\ hostages\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Peruvian\\ public\\ loved\\ its\\ daring\\,\\ controversial\\,\\ ruthless\\,\\ and\\ decisive\\ president\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ won\\ a\\ contested\\ 2000\\ election\\ over\\ US\\-educated\\ business\\ professor\\ Alejandro\\ Toledo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 7\\:\\ \\ \\;MEXICO\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ THE\\ TAMING\\ of\\ a\\ REVOLUTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mexico\\ during\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ was\\ deeply\\ weak\\ and\\ divided\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ 1821\\-1860\\,\\ it\\ had\\ 50\\ separate\\ presidencies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porfirio\\ Diaz\\ ruled\\ from\\ 1876\\-1911\\ before\\ Francisco\\ Madera\\ sparked\\ a\\ resistance\\ that\\ pushed\\ Diaz\\ out\\ of\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\ \\;Madera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rule\\ did\\ not\\ last\\ long\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emiliano\\ Zapta\\ led\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ peasant\\ movement\\ from\\ southwest\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pancho\\ Villa\\ created\\ a\\ powerful\\ military\\ juggernaut\\ in\\ the\\ north\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Venustiano\\ Carranza\\ mounted\\ a\\ strong\\ resistance\\ movement\\ from\\ mid\\-Mexico\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carranza\\ emerged\\ the\\ victor\\ and\\ assumed\\ the\\ presidency\\ in\\ 1917\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ Mexican\\ revolution\\,\\ Carranza\\ and\\ his\\ successors\\ Alvaro\\ Obregon\\,\\ Plutarco\\ Calles\\,\\ and\\ three\\ of\\ Calles\\&rsquo\\;\\ puppets\\ that\\ he\\ dominated\\,\\ failed\\ to\\ fulfill\\ peasants\\&rsquo\\;\\ expectations\\ of\\ land\\ reform\\ that\\ they\\ hoped\\ the\\ revolution\\ would\\ bring\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lazaro\\ Cardenas\\ fulfilled\\ 800\\,000\\ peasants\\&rsquo\\;\\ lifelong\\ dreams\\ during\\ his\\ 1934\\-40\\ term\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ 44\\ million\\ acres\\ of\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Cardenas\\ restarted\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ejido\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;system\\ in\\ which\\ hundreds\\,\\ sometimes\\ thousands\\ of\\ families\\ cultivated\\ land\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;Cardenas\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ejido\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;plan\\ also\\ called\\ for\\ schools\\,\\ hospitals\\,\\ and\\ financing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1938\\,\\ Cardenas\\ reorganized\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ official\\ party\\ \\(founded\\ by\\ Calles\\ in\\ 1924\\,\\ it\\ would\\ eventually\\ become\\ the\\ PRI\\)\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ contained\\ four\\ separate\\ groups\\:\\ peasants\\,\\ workers\\,\\ the\\ military\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;popular\\ sector\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ was\\ mostly\\ middle\\ class\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ corporatist\\ policy\\ brought\\ these\\ sectors\\ under\\ Cardenas\\&rsquo\\;\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ keeping\\ workers\\ and\\ peasants\\ separate\\,\\ Cardenas\\ strengthened\\ his\\ own\\ grip\\ on\\ power\\ by\\ precluding\\ a\\ worker\\-peasant\\ coalition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\President\\ Miguel\\ Aleman\\ reorganized\\ the\\ official\\ party\\ again\\ during\\ his\\ 1946\\-52\\ term\\,\\ naming\\ it\\ PRI\\ and\\ composing\\ it\\ of\\ three\\ sectors\\:\\ \\ \\;peasant\\,\\ worker\\,\\ and\\ popular\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ PRI\\ was\\ utterly\\ dominant\\,\\ unlike\\ any\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adolfo\\ Ruiz\\ Cortines\\ succeeded\\ Aleman\\ and\\ established\\ a\\ Mexican\\ economic\\ policy\\ that\\ the\\ PRI\\ would\\ hold\\ onto\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Ruiz\\ Cortines\\ opted\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hard\\-money\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ low\\-inflation\\ strategy\\,\\ which\\ meant\\ setting\\ an\\ exchange\\ rate\\ between\\ the\\ peso\\ and\\ dollar\\ and\\ then\\ managing\\ the\\ economy\\ through\\ conservative\\ fiscal\\ and\\ monetary\\ policy\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ maintain\\ that\\ exchange\\ rate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1954\\,\\ Ruiz\\ Cortines\\ set\\ the\\ exchange\\ rate\\ at\\ 12\\.5\\ pesos\\ to\\ the\\ dollar\\,\\ up\\ from\\ 8\\.65\\,\\ and\\ he\\ immediately\\ stimulated\\ exports\\ \\(now\\ hceaper\\ in\\ US\\ dollars\\)\\,\\ made\\ Mexico\\ cheaper\\ for\\ foreign\\ tourists\\,\\ and\\ made\\ Mexico\\ a\\ promising\\ target\\ for\\ international\\ investors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ PRI\\ handled\\ its\\ dealings\\ with\\ workers\\ by\\ coming\\ down\\ hard\\ on\\ strikes\\ and\\,\\ every\\ once\\ in\\ a\\ while\\,\\ giving\\ social\\ benefits\\ that\\ were\\ acts\\ of\\ benevolence\\ from\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ not\\ conceded\\ under\\ worker\\ pressure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexico\\ has\\ always\\ held\\ a\\ resentment\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rsquo\\;\\ power\\ and\\ a\\ desire\\ to\\ maintain\\ independence\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ evidence\\:\\ \\ \\;Mexico\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ Latin\\ American\\ country\\ to\\ never\\ break\\ relations\\ with\\ Cuba\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1968\\,\\ Mexico\\ hosted\\ the\\ summer\\ Olympic\\ games\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ went\\ all\\ out\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sell\\&rdquo\\;\\ Mexico\\ to\\ the\\ world\\,\\ something\\ that\\ enraged\\ the\\ nationalist\\ Mexican\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Confrontations\\ between\\ students\\ and\\ troops\\ continued\\ throughout\\ the\\ year\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Mexico\\ City\\ during\\ October\\,\\ students\\ rallied\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ military\\ shot\\ dead\\ hundreds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexican\\ leaders\\ have\\ mostly\\ been\\ professional\\ politicians\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ do\\ not\\ come\\ from\\ wealthy\\ families\\,\\ and\\ they\\ usually\\ moved\\ directly\\ into\\ political\\ careers\\ after\\ high\\ school\\ or\\ college\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ very\\ litte\\ crossover\\ of\\ personnel\\ between\\ private\\ corporations\\ and\\ public\\ office\\,\\ so\\ the\\ Mexican\\ state\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ captive\\ to\\ any\\ social\\ group\\ or\\ interest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throughout\\ its\\ history\\,\\ Mexico\\ has\\ had\\ much\\ lower\\ inflation\\ than\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ a\\ fact\\ due\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ PRI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belief\\ in\\ maintaining\\ steady\\ inflation\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ 12\\.5\\ peso\\/dollar\\ exchange\\ rate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Around\\ 1976\\,\\ Mexico\\ discovered\\ vast\\ quantities\\ of\\ oil\\.\\ \\ \\;Government\\ officials\\ declared\\ their\\ intentions\\ to\\ increase\\ production\\ gradually\\,\\ not\\ rapidly\\,\\ to\\ aovid\\ the\\ sad\\ experiences\\ of\\ Venezuela\\ and\\ Iran\\,\\ where\\ the\\ influx\\ of\\ petrodollars\\ spurred\\ inflation\\ and\\ exacerbated\\ social\\ inequities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oil\\ prices\\ slumped\\ in\\ 1981\\,causing\\ the\\ president\\ Jose\\ Lopez\\ Portillo\\ to\\ borrow\\ heavily\\ from\\ abroad\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1982\\,\\ the\\ debt\\ hit\\ \\$80\\ billion\\.\\ \\ \\;Mexico\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ repay\\ debts\\ because\\ oil\\ prices\\ fell\\,\\ interest\\ rates\\ jumped\\,\\ and\\ rich\\ Mexicans\\ moved\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexico\\ adopted\\ an\\ IMF\\ austerity\\ plan\\ whose\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ inflationary\\ public\\ deficit\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ IMF\\ prescription\\ caused\\ a\\ deep\\ recession\\,\\ with\\ real\\ wages\\ falling\\ by\\ 40\\%\\ in\\ 1985\\ from\\ their\\ 1982\\ level\\,\\ living\\ standards\\ falling\\,\\ and\\ busidies\\ for\\ stabples\\ like\\ corn\\ tortillas\\ were\\ ended\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ September\\ 1985\\ earthquake\\ in\\ Mexico\\ City\\ compounded\\ the\\ economic\\ disaster\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ \\&rsquo\\;86\\,\\ oil\\ prices\\ fell\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\President\\ de\\ la\\ Madrid\\ set\\ two\\ economic\\ goals\\ in\\ 1986\\:\\ \\ \\;to\\ reduce\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ by\\ privatizing\\ state\\-owned\\ companies\\ and\\ reducing\\ spending\\,\\ and\\ to\\ open\\ the\\ economy\\ to\\ foreign\\ interests\\ by\\ phasing\\ out\\ tariffs\\.\\ \\ \\;de\\ la\\ Madrid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\ was\\ the\\ anti\\-ISI\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ 1988\\ brought\\ deep\\ economic\\ problems\\,\\ inflation\\ hitting\\ 143\\%\\,\\ a\\ 75\\%\\ drop\\ in\\ the\\ stock\\ market\\,\\ Mexico\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ resort\\ to\\ pervasive\\,\\ large\\-scale\\ authoritarian\\ repression\\ like\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ single\\-party\\ system\\ that\\ restricted\\ competition\\,\\ controlled\\ working\\-class\\ movements\\,\\ was\\ autonomous\\ from\\ private\\ interests\\,\\ and\\ tactically\\ flexible\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ did\\ accede\\ to\\ opposition\\ requests\\ from\\ time\\ to\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carlos\\ Salinas\\ took\\ office\\ in\\ 1988\\.\\ \\ \\;Author\\ of\\ the\\ unpopular\\ austerity\\ policies\\ of\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ he\\ carried\\ out\\ assassinations\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;disappearances\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ at\\ least\\ 60\\ political\\ opponents\\ in\\ 1990\\ alone\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ continued\\ the\\ austere\\ economic\\ policies\\ that\\ de\\ la\\ Madrid\\ had\\ enforced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salinas\\&rsquo\\;\\ crowning\\ achievement\\ was\\ the\\ North\\ American\\ Free\\ Trade\\ Agreement\\ \\(NAFTA\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;NAFTA\\ created\\ a\\ 3\\-nation\\ parternship\\ b\\/w\\ Canada\\,\\ Mexico\\,\\ and\\ the\\ USA\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ promoted\\ the\\ free\\ lfow\\ of\\ goods\\ among\\ the\\ 3\\ countries\\ by\\ eliminating\\ duties\\,\\ tariffs\\,\\ and\\ trade\\ barriers\\ over\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ 15\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NAFTA\\ was\\ primarily\\ concerned\\ with\\ investment\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ aimed\\ to\\ attract\\ sizable\\ flows\\ of\\ direct\\ foreign\\ investment\\ form\\ Candada\\ and\\ the\\ USA\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ from\\ JAapan\\ and\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ sought\\ several\\ goals\\:\\ \\ \\;stimulation\\ of\\ economic\\ growth\\ in\\ NAFTA\\ which\\ would\\ ease\\ social\\ pressure\\ in\\ Mexico\\ and\\ sustain\\ the\\ political\\ regime\\,\\ assurance\\ of\\ increased\\ USA\\ access\\ to\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ petroleum\\,\\ and\\ an\\ additional\\ diplomatic\\ source\\ of\\ support\\ on\\ foreign\\ policy\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexico\\ sought\\:\\ \\ \\;investment\\ which\\ would\\ stimulate\\ employment\\ which\\ would\\ reduce\\ social\\ tension\\,\\ international\\ blessing\\ for\\ its\\ not\\-quite\\-democratic\\ political\\ regime\\,\\ a\\ direct\\ link\\ to\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ superpower\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NAFTA\\ increased\\ 2\\-way\\ trade\\ b\\/w\\ Mexico\\ and\\ the\\ USA\\ from\\ \\$83\\ billion\\ in\\ 1993\\ to\\ \\$157\\ billion\\ in\\ 1997\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexico\\ confronts\\ 3\\ problems\\ upon\\ entering\\ the\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\economy\\:\\ \\ \\;investment\\ and\\ growth\\ must\\ revitalize\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ alleviate\\ poverty\\ and\\ inequality\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Mexico\\,\\ the\\ richest\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ controls\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ income\\ \\(compared\\ to\\ 25\\%\\ in\\ USA\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ and\\ order\\ must\\ strengthen\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ hugely\\ powerful\\ drug\\ cartels\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ \\$7\\ billion\\ in\\ annual\\ profits\\,\\ Mexican\\ drug\\ cartels\\ have\\ \\$500\\ million\\ per\\ year\\ to\\ spend\\ on\\ bribery\\,\\ over\\ twice\\ the\\ total\\ budget\\ of\\ the\\ attorney\\ general\\&rsquo\\;s\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\political\\ transition\\ must\\ be\\ figured\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ longer\\ does\\ the\\ PRI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ president\\ hand\\-choose\\ the\\ next\\ election\\&rsquo\\;s\\ candidate\\ \\(who\\ was\\ always\\ sure\\ to\\ win\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ no\\ new\\ system\\ has\\ emerged\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ Mexico\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ multi\\-party\\ democratic\\ system\\ or\\ an\\ authoritarian\\ backlash\\,\\ or\\ some\\ delicate\\ combination\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 19, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1295_Comp_Govt_L._America_-_Final_4th_Packet.doc", "desc": "Study Guide Part 4"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Economics 1030 - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "economics", "1030"], "text": null, "id": 19, "html": "\\\\\\1030FinalmidtermSG\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0pt\\ 5\\.4pt\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c41\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c33\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c14\\{color\\:\\#ff6400\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c29\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c0\\{color\\:\\#6500ce\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c4\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c1\\{color\\:\\#9c3266\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c24\\{color\\:\\#ff6400\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c38\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c25\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c35\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c40\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c31\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c21\\{color\\:\\#00ffff\\}\\.c42\\{color\\:\\#0000ce\\}\\.c39\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-bottom\\:12pt\\}\\.c37\\{color\\:\\#820081\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c20\\{color\\:\\#ff00ff\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c16\\{color\\:\\#00ff00\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c32\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c23\\{vertical\\-align\\:sub\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ In\\ the\\ 1030\\ Midterm\\ Study\\ Group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nikolus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rose\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Ifedayo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dan\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carmen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Erin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\=\\ 8\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PLEASE\\ see\\ your\\ assignments\\ below\\.\\ Outlines\\ of\\ Readings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\DUE\\ Monday\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ we\\ can\\ start\\ studying\\ for\\ Thursday\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Exam\\.\\ Email\\ me\\ \\@\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ygudish\\@gmail\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\gudish\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\ THANKS\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ even\\ color\\-coded\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ nothing\\ gets\\ confusing\\.\\ Everyone\\ should\\ have\\ one\\ day\\ completely\\ assigned\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ also\\ one\\ extra\\ reading\\ \\(Nik\\ and\\ Dan\\ lucked\\ out\\ for\\ the\\ extra\\ one\\)\\.\\ I\\ tried\\ my\\ best\\ to\\ make\\ everything\\ fair\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ feel\\ you\\ are\\ overloaded\\,\\ let\\ me\\ know\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Introduction\\ \\(Jan\\ 31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ROSE\\ YAN\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Beshears\\,\\ John\\,\\ James\\ Choi\\,\\ David\\ Laibson\\,\\ Brigitte\\ Madrian\\ \\(2007\\)\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\How\\ are\\ preferences\\ revealed\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\?\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Gabaix\\,\\ Xavier\\ and\\ David\\ Laibson\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Shrouded\\ Attributes\\,\\ Consumer\\ Myopia\\,\\ and\\ Information\\ Suppression\\ in\\ Competitive\\ Markets\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quarterly\\ Journal\\ of\\ Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;121\\ \\(2\\)\\,\\ May\\ 2006\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 505\\-540\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Introduction\\ is\\ required\\.\\ Rest\\ of\\ paper\\ is\\ optional\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Gabaix\\,\\ Xavier\\ and\\ David\\ Laibson\\ \\(forthcoming\\)\\ \\"\\;The\\ Seven\\ Properties\\ of\\ Good\\ Models\\"\\;\\ in\\ eds\\ Andrew\\ Caplin\\ and\\ Andrew\\ Schotter\\ The\\ Methodologies\\ of\\ Modern\\ Economics\\:\\ Foundations\\ of\\ Positive\\ and\\ Normative\\ Economics\\ \\,\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\.\\ \\(LINK\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;Introduction\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\&ndash\\;5\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Bounded\\ rationality\\ \\(Feb\\.\\ 5\\,\\ 7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ERIN\\ MILES\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Camerer\\,\\ Colin\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\"\\;\\ Behavioral\\ game\\ theory\\:\\ Experiments\\ on\\ Behavioral\\ Interaction\\,\\ forthcoming\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Dennett\\,\\ Daniel\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ Wheels\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ of\\ AI\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ W\\.\\ Pylyshyn\\ \\(Ed\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Robot\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Dilemma\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ in\\ Artificial\\ Intelligence\\,\\ Ablex\\ Publishing\\ Corporation\\:\\ Norwood\\ \\,\\ N\\.J\\.\\ \\,\\ 1987\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 41\\&ndash\\;64\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Nagel\\,\\ Rosemarie\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Unraveling\\ in\\ Guessing\\ Games\\:\\ An\\ Experimental\\ Study\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Economic\\ Review\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;85\\(5\\)\\,\\ December\\ 1995\\,\\ 1313\\&ndash\\;26\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;Mental\\ Accounting\\ Matters\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 241\\&ndash\\;268\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 50\\&ndash\\;62\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Camerer\\,\\ Colin\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ \\"\\;\\ Introduction\\ \\.\\"\\;\\ Behavioral\\ game\\ theory\\:\\ Experiments\\ on\\ Behavioral\\ Interaction\\,\\ forthcoming\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\:\\ The\\ introduction\\ is\\ pretty\\ simple\\ stuff\\ \\(general\\ background\\ about\\ game\\ theory\\ not\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ course\\)\\;\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ made\\ note\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ important\\ definitions\\ and\\ points\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nash\\ Equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ all\\ players\\ choosing\\ strategies\\ that\\ are\\ best\\ responses\\ to\\ all\\ other\\ players\\&rsquo\\;\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Behavioral\\ Game\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ what\\ people\\ actually\\ do\\ in\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-game\\ theory\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ predict\\ what\\ people\\ do\\,\\ give\\ advice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ simply\\ meant\\ to\\ describe\\ what\\ rational\\ players\\ would\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-hard\\ to\\ use\\ field\\ data\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ often\\ too\\ many\\ variables\\,\\ hard\\ to\\ fully\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\-Price\\/Vickrey\\ Auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ high\\ bidder\\ pays\\ the\\ price\\ offered\\ by\\ the\\ second\\-highest\\ bidder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\-Value\\ Auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ most\\ optimistic\\ bidder\\ wins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ problematic\\,\\ you\\ probably\\ paid\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ object\\ was\\ worth\\ \\(empirics\\ show\\ that\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ consider\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*game\\ theory\\ not\\ always\\ perfect\\,\\ but\\ descriptive\\ failure\\ is\\ prescriptive\\ opportunity\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ Examples\\:\\ The\\ majority\\ of\\ this\\ chapter\\ centers\\ on\\ going\\ through\\ 3\\ main\\ experiments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-all\\ examples\\ show\\ how\\ behavioral\\ game\\ theory\\ can\\ explain\\ what\\ people\\ do\\ more\\ accurately\\ by\\ extending\\ analytic\\ game\\ theory\\ to\\ include\\ how\\ plays\\ feel\\,\\ limited\\ strategic\\ thinking\\,\\ and\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ games\\ are\\ simple\\ with\\ real\\ money\\ rewards\\ \\(to\\ simulate\\ real\\ financial\\ incentives\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Ultimatum\\ Bargaining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ simplest\\ kind\\ of\\ bargaining\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ realistic\\ for\\ most\\ bargaining\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-useful\\ for\\ measuring\\ how\\ people\\ feel\\ about\\ allocations\\ of\\ money\\ between\\ themselves\\ and\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ is\\ a\\ possibility\\ for\\ gain\\ from\\ exchange\\,\\ one\\ player\\ makes\\ a\\ take\\-it\\-or\\-leave\\-it\\ offer\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ divide\\ that\\ gain\\ \\(between\\ reservation\\ price\\ and\\ seller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cost\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ experiments\\:\\ Player\\ 1\\ has\\ \\$10\\,\\ can\\ offer\\ Player\\ 2\\ any\\ amount\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Player\\ 2\\ can\\ accept\\ \\(the\\ trade\\ occurs\\)\\ OR\\ reject\\ \\(both\\ receive\\ nothing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assumptions\\:\\ players\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-interested\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-says\\ that\\ Player\\ 1\\ should\\ offer\\ lowest\\ possible\\ amount\\,\\ Player\\ 2\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;should\\ accept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ reality\\,\\ people\\ also\\ feel\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ unfairness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ typically\\ offer\\ between\\ 4\\ and\\ 5\\ dollars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-offers\\ much\\ less\\ than\\ half\\ will\\ be\\ rejected\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reciprocal\\ unfairness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ survival\\ \\(pays\\ to\\ get\\ angry\\ in\\ the\\ LR\\)\\,\\ culture\\ \\(more\\ family\\ close\\ by\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-data\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\ shows\\ different\\ sharing\\ tendencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Path\\-dependent\\ coordination\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Continental\\ divide\\&rdquo\\;\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-players\\ pick\\ numbers\\ between\\ 1\\-14\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ represents\\ their\\ location\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-higher\\ payoff\\ if\\ others\\ pick\\ numbers\\ close\\ to\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-payoffs\\ such\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ equilibria\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 12\\ and\\ 3\\ \\(otherwise\\,\\ would\\ get\\ a\\ higher\\ payoff\\ by\\ bidding\\ above\\/below\\ the\\ median\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-medians\\ below\\ 7\\ \\=\\ basin\\ of\\ attraction\\ for\\ equilibrium\\ of\\ 3\\,\\ medians\\ above\\ 7\\ \\=\\ basin\\ of\\ attraction\\ for\\ equilibrium\\ of\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-12\\ equilibrium\\ pays\\ more\\ to\\ players\\ than\\ the\\ 3\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ end\\ up\\ at\\ higher\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*may\\ be\\ impossible\\ to\\ solve\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ multiple\\ equilbria\\ by\\ pure\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Beauty\\ games\\ and\\ iterated\\ dominance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-N\\ players\\ simultaneously\\ choose\\ a\\ number\\ x\\ in\\ the\\ interval\\ \\[0\\,\\ 100\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-then\\ take\\ the\\ average\\ number\\,\\ multiple\\ by\\ p\\ \\(p\\<\\;1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-player\\ closest\\ to\\ this\\ target\\ wins\\ a\\ prize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-analytical\\ game\\ theory\\:\\ people\\ should\\ not\\ stop\\ interating\\ degrees\\ of\\ reasoning\\ until\\ their\\ reach\\ a\\ best\\-response\\ point\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ mean\\ \\=\\ 50\\,\\ thus\\ choose\\ 35\\&hellip\\;but\\ if\\ everyone\\ chooses\\ 35\\,\\ then\\ optimal\\ value\\ closer\\ to\\ 25\\&hellip\\;but\\ if\\ everyone\\ chooses\\ 25\\,\\ then\\ optimal\\ value\\ closer\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-would\\ lead\\ to\\ everyone\\ choosing\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\dominance\\ solvable\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ be\\ solved\\ by\\ iterated\\ application\\ of\\ dominance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\dominated\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ one\\ that\\ yields\\ lower\\ payoff\\ than\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-e\\.g\\.\\,\\ choosing\\ a\\ number\\ above\\ p100\\ always\\ dominated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-results\\ show\\ that\\ players\\ use\\ 0\\-3\\ steps\\ of\\ reasoning\\;\\ few\\ chose\\ the\\ Nash\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*similar\\ reasoning\\ before\\ crashes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ foresee\\ the\\ fall\\,\\ you\\ often\\ do\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;backward\\ induct\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ people\\ actually\\ play\\ according\\ to\\ game\\ theory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ ultimatum\\ game\\,\\ can\\ explain\\ by\\ combining\\ social\\ utility\\ with\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;analytical\\ game\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ continental\\ divide\\ and\\ beauty\\ contest\\,\\ people\\ converge\\ to\\ equilibrium\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;in\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*goal\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ disprove\\ game\\ theory\\,\\ but\\ to\\ IMPROVE\\ it\\ by\\ finding\\ regularity\\ that\\ inspires\\ new\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-need\\ to\\ combine\\ controlled\\ experiments\\,\\ field\\ observation\\,\\ and\\ theorizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-sometimes\\,\\ it\\ takes\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ for\\ a\\ game\\ theory\\ equilibrium\\ to\\ be\\ reach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-possible\\ explanation\\ for\\ deviation\\ from\\ expectations\\:\\ people\\ not\\ playing\\ the\\ game\\ the\\ experimenter\\ intended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Dennett\\,\\ Daniel\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Cognitive\\ Wheels\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ of\\ AI\\ \\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ W\\.\\ Pylyshyn\\ \\(Ed\\.\\)\\ \\,\\ The\\ Robot\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Dilemma\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ in\\ Artificial\\ Intelligence\\,\\ Ablex\\ Publishing\\ Corporation\\:\\ Norwood\\ \\,\\ N\\.J\\.\\ \\,\\ 1987\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 41\\&ndash\\;64\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ investigates\\ current\\ research\\ being\\ undertaken\\ to\\ model\\ human\\ thought\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ humans\\,\\ we\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;phenomenological\\ level\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ our\\ thoughts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ conscious\\ thoughts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ understand\\ what\\ makes\\ our\\ thoughts\\ what\\ they\\ are\\.\\ \\ \\;Use\\ of\\ AI\\ has\\,\\ to\\ date\\,\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ proxy\\ for\\ this\\ underlying\\ form\\ of\\ human\\ intelligence\\.\\ \\ \\;Dennett\\ writes\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ frustrations\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ truly\\ \\&ldquo\\;intelligent\\&rdquo\\;\\ AI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ namely\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ robots\\ currently\\ are\\ incapable\\ of\\ tackling\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;framing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Framing\\ refers\\ to\\ assessing\\ a\\ situation\\,\\ pulling\\ relevant\\ details\\ from\\ the\\ infinite\\ pieces\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ surround\\ us\\,\\ performing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\caritas\\ paribus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reasoning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robots\\ \\(and\\ humans\\)\\ must\\ store\\ information\\ systematically\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ synthesized\\ and\\ accessed\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ short\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ intelligent\\ agent\\ must\\ engage\\ in\\ swift\\ information\\-sensitive\\ planning\\ which\\ produces\\ reliable\\ but\\ flexible\\ expectations\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ its\\ actions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;We\\ know\\ that\\ these\\ expectations\\ exist\\ because\\ we\\ can\\ observe\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;startled\\ reaction\\&rdquo\\;\\ exhibited\\ when\\ expectations\\ are\\ not\\ met\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robotic\\ systems\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;cognitive\\ wheels\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ may\\ yield\\ emergent\\ systems\\ that\\ model\\ the\\ intermediate\\ levels\\ of\\ human\\ thought\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\ level\\ of\\ conscious\\ thought\\ but\\ above\\ the\\ molecular\\ level\\)\\.\\ Dennet\\ believes\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ robots\\ may\\ not\\ truly\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ model\\ the\\ way\\ a\\ human\\ mind\\ works\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ may\\ just\\ be\\ linking\\ cognitive\\ wheels\\ with\\ the\\ phenomenological\\ level\\,\\ missing\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ middle\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ this\\ fact\\,\\ however\\,\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ AI\\ has\\ led\\ researchers\\ to\\ uncover\\ many\\ questions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ framing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ prove\\ relevant\\ to\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Nagel\\,\\ Rosemarie\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Unraveling\\ in\\ Guessing\\ Games\\:\\ An\\ Experimental\\ Study\\ \\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ American\\ Economic\\ Review\\,\\ 85\\(5\\)\\,\\ December\\ 1995\\,\\ 1313\\&ndash\\;26\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-an\\ article\\ describing\\ the\\ p\\-beauty\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Game\\ Set\\-Up\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-players\\ simultaneously\\ state\\ a\\ number\\ in\\ the\\ closed\\ interval\\ \\[0\\,\\ 100\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ mean\\ of\\ these\\ numbers\\ is\\ multiplied\\ by\\ a\\ parameter\\ p\\ \\(known\\ to\\ all\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-winner\\ \\=\\ player\\ closest\\ to\\ mean\\*p\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ receives\\ a\\ fixed\\ sum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-four\\ rounds\\ of\\ the\\ game\\,\\ same\\ players\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*only\\ one\\ Nash\\ equilibrium\\ for\\ p\\<\\;1\\:\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*for\\ p\\=1\\:\\ infinite\\ Nash\\ equilibria\\ with\\ all\\ choosing\\ the\\ same\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ p\\>\\;1\\,\\ \\<\\;0\\:\\ two\\ equilibria\\,\\ 0\\ and\\ 100\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Definitions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zero\\-order\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ players\\ selects\\ a\\ strategy\\ at\\ random\\ without\\ forming\\ beliefs\\ \\ \\;or\\ picks\\ a\\ salient\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ this\\ game\\,\\ a\\ zero\\-order\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ round\\ is\\ 50\\ \\(mean\\ random\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;answer\\)\\,\\ in\\ later\\ rounds\\:\\ mean\\ of\\ previous\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\order\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ player\\ thinks\\ others\\ choose\\ a\\ strategy\\ at\\ random\\,\\ then\\ chooses\\ his\\ best\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ this\\ game\\,\\ for\\ period\\ 1\\:\\ 50p\\,\\ in\\ later\\ periods\\:\\ previous\\ mean\\*p\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\order\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ player\\ thinks\\ others\\ form\\ first\\-order\\ beliefs\\,\\ then\\ chooses\\ his\\ best\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ this\\ game\\,\\ for\\ period\\ 1\\:\\ 50p\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ later\\ periods\\:\\ previous\\ mean\\*p\\*p\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-modal\\ depth\\ of\\ reasoning\\ does\\ not\\ increase\\ over\\ time\\,\\ though\\ the\\ median\\ choice\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-0\\ was\\ chosen\\ very\\ infrequently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-data\\ corresponded\\ relatively\\ highly\\ to\\ clumping\\ of\\ choices\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;neighborhood\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ iteration\\ steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-many\\ players\\ performed\\ \\~2\\ iteration\\ steps\\,\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ playing\\ optimally\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ later\\ rounds\\,\\ behavior\\ moved\\ toward\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rate\\ of\\ decrease\\ toward\\ equilibrium\\ dependant\\ on\\ p\\ \\(smaller\\ p\\ \\=\\ faster\\ convergence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-learning\\ theory\\:\\ people\\ who\\ lose\\ tend\\ to\\ adjust\\ their\\ guesses\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ winners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-subjects\\ increase\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;adjustment\\ factor\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ optimal\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;adjustment\\ factor\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\adjustment\\ factor\\ \\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ guess\\ divided\\ by\\ the\\ mean\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;from\\ the\\ previous\\ period\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mental\\ Accounting\\ Matters\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 241\\&ndash\\;268\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mental\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ cognitive\\ operations\\ used\\ by\\ individuals\\ and\\ households\\ to\\ organize\\,\\ evaluate\\,\\ and\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ financial\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ main\\ factors\\ addressed\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ how\\ outcomes\\ are\\ perceived\\/experienced\\,\\ how\\ decisions\\ are\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;made\\/evaluated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ the\\ assignment\\ of\\ activities\\ to\\ specific\\ accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ the\\ frequency\\ with\\ which\\ accounts\\ are\\ evaluated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Framing\\ of\\ Losses\\ and\\ Gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-assumption\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ function\\ of\\ prospect\\ theory\\ \\(concave\\ gain\\ fct\\,\\ convex\\ loss\\ fct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\mental\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ elementary\\ outcomes\\ that\\ are\\ evaluated\\ jointly\\ and\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ combined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ are\\ multiple\\ ways\\ to\\ frame\\ decisions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\minimal\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(just\\ look\\ at\\ differences\\ between\\ choices\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\topical\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(just\\ look\\ at\\ consequences\\ of\\ choices\\ relative\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ reference\\ level\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\comprehensive\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(incorporate\\ all\\ factors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-people\\ generally\\ perform\\ piecemeal\\,\\ topical\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\hedonic\\ framing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ people\\ code\\ combinations\\ of\\ events\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ as\\ happy\\ as\\ possible\\ \\(according\\ to\\ value\\ fct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-segregate\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-integrate\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-integrate\\ smaller\\ losses\\ with\\ larger\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-segregate\\ small\\ gains\\ from\\ larger\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\*very\\ useful\\ in\\ marketing\\ \\(EX\\:\\ rebate\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ price\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;reduction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\*not\\ always\\ consistent\\ with\\ data\\ \\(EX\\:\\ people\\ unable\\ to\\ combine\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;losses\\,\\ seem\\ to\\ feel\\ them\\ one\\ at\\ a\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mental\\ Accounting\\ Decision\\ Making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Transaction\\ Utility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-when\\ people\\ make\\ a\\ purchase\\,\\ they\\ get\\ both\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\acquisition\\ utility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(measure\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ relative\\ to\\ its\\ price\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\transaction\\ utility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(the\\ perceived\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;deal\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Opening\\ and\\ Closing\\ Accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ see\\ paper\\ losses\\ as\\ more\\ serious\\ than\\ realized\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-firms\\ cash\\ in\\ on\\ this\\ to\\ manipulate\\ data\\ to\\ maximize\\ utility\\ over\\ the\\ value\\ fct\\:\\ report\\ small\\ gains\\,\\ trim\\ down\\ large\\ gains\\,\\ exaggerate\\ losses\\ \\(people\\ will\\ only\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ these\\ final\\ reports\\ of\\ loss\\/gain\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advance\\ Purchases\\,\\ Sunk\\ Costs\\,\\ and\\ Payment\\ Depreciation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ want\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;balance\\ the\\ books\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ mental\\ account\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ make\\ up\\ for\\ sunk\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-often\\,\\ initial\\ purchases\\ seen\\ as\\ investments\\,\\ then\\ actual\\ consumption\\ seen\\ as\\ free\\ \\(consumption\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ timeshare\\ vacation\\ homes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ ignore\\ sunk\\ costs\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ over\\ time\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ gym\\ a\\ lot\\ in\\ the\\ month\\ of\\ a\\ payment\\,\\ then\\ attendance\\ decreases\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Payment\\ Decoupling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-consumers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ the\\ meter\\ running\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flat\\ rate\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-best\\ example\\:\\ the\\ credit\\ card\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ separation\\ of\\ payment\\ and\\ purchase\\ makes\\ the\\ payment\\ less\\ salient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Budgeting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-three\\ levels\\ of\\ money\\:\\ expenditures\\,\\ wealth\\,\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-expenditures\\ grouped\\ in\\ budgets\\ \\(food\\,\\ housing\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ wealth\\ into\\ accounts\\ \\(checking\\,\\ pension\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;rainy\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ income\\ into\\ categories\\ \\(windfall\\,\\ regular\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consumption\\ Categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-households\\ with\\ tighter\\ budgets\\ have\\ more\\ explicit\\ budgeting\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-small\\,\\ routine\\ expenses\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;booked\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(thus\\ the\\ appeal\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;penny\\ a\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\ donations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implications\\ of\\ Violations\\ of\\ Fungibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-one\\ budget\\ may\\ be\\ spent\\ up\\ to\\ its\\ limit\\ while\\ other\\ accounts\\ have\\ unspent\\ funds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-EX\\:\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ just\\ paid\\ \\$50\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ play\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ a\\ parking\\ ticket\\)\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ pay\\ \\$50\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ basketball\\ game\\ \\(funds\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;fun\\&rdquo\\;\\ account\\ already\\ exhausted\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-Control\\ and\\ Gift\\ Giving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-some\\ budgets\\ set\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ low\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ control\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-might\\ not\\ spend\\ money\\ on\\ items\\ even\\ if\\ valued\\ about\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-thus\\,\\ gifts\\ of\\ items\\ slightly\\ more\\ luxurious\\ than\\ a\\ consumer\\ buys\\ are\\ highly\\ valued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-often\\,\\ self\\-control\\ leads\\ to\\ people\\ paying\\ premiums\\ for\\ smaller\\ quantities\\ of\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wealth\\ Accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-can\\ deal\\ with\\ self\\-control\\ by\\ placing\\ funds\\ in\\ accounts\\ that\\ are\\ off\\-limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-households\\ that\\ put\\ more\\ money\\ in\\ retirement\\ savings\\ accounts\\ do\\ not\\ reduce\\ funds\\ in\\ other\\ accounts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ save\\ more\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Income\\ Accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ tend\\ to\\ match\\ the\\ seriousness\\ of\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ money\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ put\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\:\\ dividends\\ \\(after\\ taxes\\)\\ worth\\ less\\ than\\ share\\ repurchases\\,\\ but\\ firms\\ still\\ pay\\ dividends\\ b\\/c\\ people\\ spend\\ dividends\\,\\ not\\ shares\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Choice\\ Bracketing\\ and\\ Dynamic\\ Mental\\ Accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-how\\ boundaries\\ are\\ set\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ decisions\\/outcomes\\ are\\ grouped\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prior\\ Outcomes\\ and\\ Risky\\ Choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-more\\ likely\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ risky\\ bet\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ losses\\ b\\/c\\ desperate\\ to\\ break\\ even\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ prior\\ gain\\ can\\ also\\ stimulate\\ risk\\ taking\\ \\(money\\ gained\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ winnings\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ amount\\ wagered\\,\\ but\\ yesterday\\&rsquo\\;s\\ do\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narrow\\ Framing\\ and\\ Myopic\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-loss\\-averse\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ willing\\ to\\ take\\ risks\\ if\\ they\\ combine\\ many\\ bets\\ together\\ than\\ if\\ they\\ consider\\ one\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-over\\ the\\ long\\ horizon\\,\\ taking\\ risks\\ with\\ \\+\\ expected\\ value\\ a\\ good\\ strategy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ people\\ cannot\\ think\\ beyond\\ the\\ bet\\ at\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\:\\ taxi\\ cab\\ drivers\\ should\\ drive\\ more\\ on\\ good\\ days\\,\\ actually\\ drive\\ more\\ on\\ bad\\ days\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shows\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ hit\\ a\\ target\\ earnings\\ level\\ per\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Diversification\\ Heuristic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-diversification\\ bias\\:\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ varied\\ choices\\,\\ even\\ if\\ making\\ the\\ same\\ choice\\ again\\ and\\ again\\ would\\ make\\ them\\ better\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-mental\\ accounting\\ procedures\\ economize\\ on\\ time\\ and\\ deal\\ with\\ self\\-control\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-should\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ modify\\ mental\\ accounting\\ rules\\ to\\ achieve\\ certain\\ goals\\,\\ not\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ mental\\ accounting\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrong\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 50\\&ndash\\;62\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ couple\\ definitions\\ for\\ review\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\common\\ value\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ good\\ being\\ auctioned\\ off\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ to\\ all\\ bidders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\low\\ price\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ bidder\\ with\\ the\\ lowest\\ bid\\ wins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\second\\ price\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ item\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ highest\\ bidder\\ at\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ highest\\ bid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ reading\\ opens\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ applies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ man\\ brings\\ a\\ jar\\ filled\\ with\\ coins\\ to\\ a\\ bar\\ and\\ auctions\\ it\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ most\\ cases\\,\\ the\\ average\\ bid\\ will\\ be\\ below\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ coins\\ \\(due\\ to\\ risk\\ aversion\\)\\,\\ but\\ the\\ winning\\ bid\\ will\\ exceed\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ coins\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ reading\\ introduces\\ readers\\ to\\ the\\ curse\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ occurs\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ winning\\ bid\\ might\\ exceed\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ for\\ sale\\ or\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ expert\\&rsquo\\;s\\ estimate\\ so\\ winning\\ is\\ disappoint\\ \\(even\\ if\\ the\\ winning\\ bid\\ is\\ below\\ the\\ value\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\.\\ \\ \\;Rational\\ bidders\\ must\\ distinguish\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ expected\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ for\\ sale\\,\\ conditioned\\ on\\ prior\\ information\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ expected\\ value\\ conditioned\\ on\\ winning\\ the\\ auction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ more\\ people\\ bid\\,\\ one\\ must\\ bid\\ more\\ aggressively\\ to\\ win\\,\\ and\\ one\\ is\\ also\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ overestimate\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ for\\ sale\\ if\\ one\\ wins\\ \\(contradictory\\ pressures\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\,\\ Thaler\\ runs\\ through\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ experimental\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ curse\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ The\\ jar\\ of\\ coins\\ example\\ \\(run\\ in\\ class\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ You\\ are\\ company\\ A\\,\\ making\\ an\\ offer\\ to\\ acquire\\ company\\ T\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ value\\ of\\ T\\ depends\\ on\\ an\\ oil\\ exploration\\ program\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ between\\ 0\\ and\\ \\$100\\ per\\ share\\.\\ \\ \\;Company\\ T\\,\\ once\\ under\\ the\\ management\\ of\\ Company\\ A\\,\\ will\\ be\\ worth\\ 50\\%\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;Company\\ T\\ knows\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ exploration\\ program\\ but\\ you\\ do\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ price\\ do\\ you\\ offer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-asymmetric\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-must\\ consider\\ what\\ your\\ bid\\ being\\ accepted\\ means\\ about\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Company\\ T\\&rsquo\\;s\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-if\\ you\\ do\\ this\\ calculation\\,\\ you\\ expect\\ to\\ lose\\ \\.25B\\ for\\ every\\ value\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;of\\ your\\ bid\\ that\\ is\\ accepted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-learning\\ for\\ this\\ problem\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ slow\\ and\\ rare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Students\\ given\\ a\\ signal\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ range\\ around\\ the\\ real\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ good\\,\\ then\\ bid\\ in\\ a\\ sealed\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-bidders\\ more\\ close\\ to\\ rationality\\ when\\ in\\ a\\ smaller\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Low\\ price\\ auction\\ with\\ construction\\ managers\\ \\(experts\\ in\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ bidding\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-same\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-probably\\ learn\\ a\\ rule\\ of\\ thumb\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ transferable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thaler\\ next\\ provides\\ field\\ data\\ for\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ book\\ publishing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ books\\ auctioned\\ do\\ not\\ earn\\ their\\ advances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ baseball\\ free\\ agents\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ solved\\ by\\ collusion\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ teamrs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ off\\-shore\\ oil\\ and\\ gas\\ leases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ winning\\ bidders\\ outbid\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;price\\ bidders\\ often\\ by\\ factors\\ of\\ 4\\ or\\ more\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ 100\\ difference\\ between\\ highest\\ and\\ lowest\\ bidders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ firms\\ making\\ losses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ excessive\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ oil\\ to\\ be\\ found\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-researchers\\ looked\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ factor\\ that\\ winners\\ could\\ have\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;multiplied\\ their\\ bid\\ by\\ and\\ still\\ won\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ Texaco\\,\\ it\\ was\\ \\.15\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ corporate\\ takeovers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ firms\\ pay\\ substantial\\ premiums\\ above\\ market\\ price\\ to\\ acquire\\ another\\ firm\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ gain\\ to\\ the\\ buyer\\ v\\.\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-researchers\\ believe\\ that\\ firms\\ are\\ over\\-confident\\ and\\ weight\\ their\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;valuation\\ of\\ a\\ firm\\ more\\ highly\\ than\\ the\\ market\\&rsquo\\;s\\ valuation\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\hubris\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;hypothesis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-given\\ EMH\\,\\ often\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ mistaken\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-another\\ answer\\:\\ strong\\-form\\ market\\ inefficiencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-data\\ from\\ markets\\ support\\ the\\ hubris\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ concludes\\ with\\ closing\\ commentary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-bidders\\ act\\ irrationality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ flaw\\ in\\ the\\ efficient\\ market\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-scientific\\ analysis\\ often\\ imputes\\ scientific\\ behavior\\ in\\ its\\ subjects\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ realize\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\,\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ exploit\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ your\\ competitors\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-share\\ new\\ knowledge\\ with\\ competitors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ profitable\\ for\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-variations\\ of\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ seen\\ in\\ other\\ situations\\:\\ hiring\\ people\\ \\(interview\\ more\\,\\ expect\\ a\\ better\\ employee\\,\\ often\\ disappointed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-key\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\:\\ a\\ cognitive\\ illusion\\,\\ majority\\ of\\ players\\ make\\ a\\ systematic\\ mistake\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ market\\ outcomes\\ then\\ diverge\\ from\\ predictions\\ of\\ economic\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ biases\\ \\(Feb\\ 12\\)\\ JULIA\\ GUDISH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Tversky\\,\\ Amos\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kahneman\\.\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;Introduction\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Judgment\\ under\\ Uncertainty\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ Biases\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\&ndash\\;22\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Tversky\\,\\ Amos\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kahneman\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Belief\\ in\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Small\\ Numbers\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Judgment\\ under\\ Uncertainty\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ Biases\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 2\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 23\\&ndash\\;31\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tversky\\,\\ Amos\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kahneman\\,\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;Evidential\\ Impact\\ of\\ Base\\ Rates\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Judgment\\ under\\ Uncertainty\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ Biases\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 10\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 153\\&ndash\\;162\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Belief\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amos\\ Tversky\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kehneman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ psychologists\\ have\\ an\\ exaggerated\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ successfully\\ replicating\\ an\\ obtained\\ finding\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ people\\ have\\ strong\\ intuitions\\ about\\ random\\ samplings\\;\\ that\\ these\\ intuitions\\ are\\ wrong\\ in\\ fundamental\\ respects\\;\\ that\\ these\\ intuitions\\ are\\ shared\\ by\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ subjects\\ and\\ by\\ trained\\ scientists\\;\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ applied\\ with\\ unfortunate\\ consequences\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ scientific\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ view\\ a\\ sample\\ randomly\\ drawn\\ from\\ a\\ population\\ as\\ highly\\ representative\\ AND\\ expect\\ any\\ two\\ sample\\ drawn\\ from\\ a\\ particular\\ population\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ similar\\ to\\ one\\ about\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ population\\ than\\ sampling\\ theory\\ predicts\\ \\(aka\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fairness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ coin\\ flip\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ estimate\\ HTHT\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subjects\\ act\\ as\\ if\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\every\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;segment\\ of\\ a\\ random\\ sequence\\ must\\ reflect\\ the\\ true\\ population\\ \\(Gambler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fallacy\\)\\.\\ Misconception\\ of\\ the\\ fairness\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ chance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Belief\\ that\\ a\\ random\\ process\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-correcting\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;errors\\ will\\ cancel\\ each\\ other\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ But\\,\\ laws\\ of\\ chance\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ that\\ way\\.\\ Deviations\\ are\\ not\\ canceled\\ as\\ sampling\\ proceeds\\,\\ they\\ are\\ merely\\ diluted\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Representative\\ hypothesis\\ and\\ self\\-correcting\\ processes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\*Law\\ of\\ Large\\ Numbers\\ guarantees\\ that\\ very\\ large\\ samples\\ will\\ indeed\\ be\\ highly\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ from\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ drawn\\.\\ But\\,\\ people\\ have\\ exaggerated\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ conclusions\\ based\\ on\\ small\\ samples\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Statistical\\ tests\\ protect\\ the\\ scientific\\ community\\ against\\ overly\\ hasty\\ rejections\\ of\\ the\\ null\\ hypothesis\\ \\(Type\\ I\\ error\\)\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ comparable\\ safeguards\\ against\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ failing\\ to\\ confirm\\ a\\ valid\\ research\\ hypothesis\\ \\(Type\\ II\\ error\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ representation\\ hypothesis\\ were\\ true\\,\\ we\\ would\\ expect\\ all\\ samples\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ almost\\ all\\ replications\\ of\\ a\\ valid\\ hypothesis\\ should\\ be\\ statistically\\ significant\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrary\\ to\\ widespread\\ belief\\,\\ a\\ case\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ that\\ a\\ replication\\ sample\\ should\\ often\\ be\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ original\\-\\-\\-because\\ by\\ regression\\ effects\\,\\ the\\ initially\\ significant\\ coefficients\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ reduced\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ review\\,\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ that\\ the\\ believer\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\ practices\\ science\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ gambles\\ his\\ research\\ hypothesis\\ on\\ small\\ samples\\ without\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ odds\\ against\\ him\\ are\\ unreasonably\\ high\\.\\ He\\ overestimates\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ undue\\ confidence\\ in\\ early\\ trends\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ stability\\ of\\ observed\\ patterns\\.\\ He\\ overestimates\\ significance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ evaluating\\ replications\\,\\ he\\ has\\ unreasonably\\ high\\ expectations\\ about\\ the\\ replicability\\ of\\ significant\\ results\\.\\ He\\ underestimates\\ the\\ breadth\\ of\\ confidence\\ intervals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ rarely\\ attributes\\ a\\ deviation\\ of\\ results\\ from\\ expectations\\ to\\ sampling\\ variability\\,\\ because\\ he\\ find\\ a\\ causal\\ \\&ldquo\\;explanation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;for\\ any\\ discrepancy\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ he\\ has\\ little\\ opportunity\\ to\\ recognize\\ sampling\\ variation\\ in\\ action\\.\\ His\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ will\\ forever\\ remain\\ intact\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ number\\ be\\ abolished\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ controlled\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ try\\ to\\ correct\\ for\\ it\\ in\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ learn\\ to\\ recognize\\ its\\ existence\\ and\\ take\\ the\\ necessary\\ precautions\\.\\ Obvious\\ precaution\\ is\\ computation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ estimated\\ significance\\ level\\ in\\ a\\ replication\\ depends\\ critically\\ on\\ sample\\ size\\.\\ Unrealistic\\ expectations\\ concerning\\ the\\ replicability\\ of\\ significance\\ levels\\ may\\ be\\ corrected\\ if\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ size\\ and\\ significant\\ is\\ clarifies\\,\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ computed\\ size\\ of\\ observed\\ effects\\ is\\ routinely\\ reported\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recognize\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\ is\\ a\\ cognitive\\ or\\ perceptual\\ bias\\ \\&ndash\\;intuitive\\ expectations\\ governed\\ by\\ a\\ consistent\\ misperception\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ rather\\ than\\ by\\ opportunistic\\ wishful\\ thinking\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Regard\\ statistical\\ intuitions\\ with\\ proper\\ suspicious\\ and\\ replace\\ impression\\ formation\\ by\\ computation\\ whenever\\ possible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Prospect\\ Theory\\ \\(Feb\\ 14\\)\\ IFEDAYO\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Benartzi\\,\\ Shlomo\\ and\\ Richard\\ Thaler\\.\\ \\"\\;Myopic\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\ and\\ the\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 17\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 301\\&ndash\\;316\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Kahneman\\,\\ Daniel\\ and\\ Amos\\ Tversky\\.\\ \\"\\;Choices\\,\\ Values\\,\\ and\\ Frames\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\&ndash\\;16\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Endowment\\ Effect\\,\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\,\\ and\\ Status\\ Quo\\ Bias\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 6\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 63\\&ndash\\;78\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Myopic\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\ and\\ the\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ S\\.\\ Benartzi\\ and\\ R\\.\\ Thaler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Summary\\:\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ secure\\ long\\-run\\ advantage\\ in\\ investment\\ in\\ stocks\\ \\(7\\%\\ real\\ return\\)\\ instead\\ of\\ bonds\\ \\(1\\%\\)\\,\\ yet\\ individuals\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ it\\ \\(equity\\ premium\\ puzzle\\)\\.\\ Myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\ means\\ despite\\ long\\-run\\ net\\ gains\\,\\ short\\-run\\ losses\\ trouble\\ us\\.\\ It\\ implies\\ that\\ we\\ evaluate\\ the\\ relative\\ gains\\ between\\ stocks\\ and\\ bonds\\ too\\ frequently\\,\\ making\\ us\\ too\\ risk\\-averse\\.\\ They\\ estimate\\ that\\ the\\ time\\ horizon\\ for\\ re\\-evaluating\\ a\\ portfolio\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ year\\,\\ making\\ sense\\ as\\ reports\\,\\ meetings\\ with\\ advisors\\ and\\ taxes\\ are\\ generally\\ annual\\.\\ Given\\ the\\ 1\\-year\\ evaluation\\ period\\ \\(despite\\ an\\ investment\\ you\\ might\\ plan\\ to\\ hold\\ for\\ 25\\ years\\)\\ and\\ loss\\-aversion\\ of\\ 2\\.77\\,\\ the\\ optimal\\ stock\\-bond\\ ratio\\ is\\ 1\\:1\\ or\\ 50\\%\\ in\\ stocks\\,\\ 50\\%\\ in\\ bonds\\.\\ If\\ the\\ public\\ extended\\ their\\ evaluation\\ period\\ the\\ premium\\ \\(net\\ difference\\ in\\ return\\ between\\ stocks\\ and\\ bonds\\)\\ would\\ diminish\\ rapidly\\.\\ Organizations\\ face\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ as\\ individuals\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ principal\\-agent\\ problem\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ short\\-run\\ gains\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\/\\ Concepts\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ equity\\ premium\\ puzzle\\:\\ Stocks\\ consistently\\ outperform\\ bonds\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ hundred\\ years\\ \\(by\\ about\\ 7\\%\\ annually\\)\\,\\ yet\\ individuals\\ are\\ averse\\ to\\ investment\\ in\\ stocks\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ aversion\\:\\ Individuals\\ are\\ more\\ sensitive\\ to\\ losses\\ than\\ gains\\ \\(article\\ estimates\\ a\\ ratio\\ of\\ 2\\:1\\ and\\ uses\\ a\\ value\\ of\\ 2\\.77\\)\\.\\ The\\ marginal\\ disutility\\ of\\ a\\ loss\\ is\\ greater\\ in\\ absolute\\ value\\ than\\ the\\ marginal\\ utility\\ of\\ a\\ gain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mental\\ accounting\\:\\ How\\ individuals\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ financial\\ outcomes\\ \\(transactions\\,\\ investments\\)\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ completely\\ rational\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Samuelson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bet\\:\\ 50\\-50\\ odds\\ of\\ winning\\ \\$200\\ and\\ losing\\ \\$100\\.\\ Respondent\\ rejects\\ the\\ one\\-time\\ game\\ but\\ agrees\\ to\\ playing\\ the\\ game\\ 100\\ times\\.\\ Samuelson\\ proved\\ a\\ theorem\\ that\\ his\\ friend\\ was\\ irrational\\,\\ that\\ the\\ expected\\ payoff\\ was\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ each\\ step\\ \\(0\\.5\\*200\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 0\\.5\\*100\\ \\=\\ \\+\\$50\\)\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ here\\ argue\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ framing\\ of\\ one\\ time\\ period\\ versus\\ an\\ infrequent\\ evaluation\\ over\\ 100\\ rounds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evaluation\\ period\\:\\ The\\ interval\\ at\\ which\\ an\\ investor\\ reassesses\\ his\\ portfolio\\;\\ generally\\ about\\ 1\\ year\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Planning\\ horizon\\:\\ The\\ length\\ of\\ time\\ an\\ investor\\ plans\\ to\\ save\\ income\\.\\ For\\ retirement\\ 30\\ years\\ away\\,\\ the\\ planning\\ horizon\\ is\\ 30\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myopia\\:\\ short\\-sightedness\\;\\ not\\ looking\\ out\\ for\\ the\\ long\\-term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\:\\ too\\-frequent\\ evaluations\\ of\\ losses\\ leads\\ to\\ suboptimal\\ allocations\\ of\\ risky\\ assets\\.\\ Risk\\ and\\ loss\\ aversion\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ lead\\ individuals\\ to\\ assess\\ their\\ balance\\ sheets\\ too\\ often\\.\\ By\\ checking\\ their\\ balance\\ sheets\\ too\\ often\\ they\\ limit\\ the\\ amount\\ they\\ risk\\ losing\\ from\\ period\\ to\\ period\\ by\\ hedging\\ their\\ risk\\ with\\ bonds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Is\\ the\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\ Real\\:\\ In\\ short\\,\\ yes\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ look\\ at\\ all\\-bond\\ and\\ all\\-stock\\ portfolios\\ and\\ conclude\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ 25\\ year\\ careers\\ since\\ 1942\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ better\\ off\\ in\\ all\\ stocks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Weil\\ turns\\ the\\ question\\ around\\ and\\ asks\\ not\\ why\\ are\\ stock\\ returns\\ so\\ high\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\ are\\ T\\-bill\\ \\(bond\\)\\ rates\\ so\\ low\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Why\\ do\\ organizations\\ face\\ myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\:\\ Principal\\-agent\\ problem\\.\\ Pension\\ funds\\ outlive\\ the\\ job\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ funds\\ manager\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ funds\\ manager\\ seeks\\ short\\ run\\ gains\\ \\(in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ his\\ job\\,\\ appear\\ shrewd\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ investors\\ who\\ must\\ account\\ for\\ near\\ term\\ losses\\,\\ these\\ long\\-run\\ results\\ may\\ have\\ little\\ significance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Secondly\\,\\ university\\ endowments\\ have\\ finite\\ planning\\ horizons\\ \\(of\\ the\\ board\\ members\\ and\\ the\\ agents\\)\\.\\ Universities\\ have\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ year\\-to\\-year\\ spending\\ which\\ shortens\\ the\\ evaluation\\ horizon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\:\\ Prospect\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Prospect\\ Theory\\ \\(Kahneman\\ and\\ Tversky\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ theory\\ that\\ describes\\ actions\\;\\ is\\ not\\ normative\\ \\(prescriptive\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weighted\\ value\\ function\\ to\\ measure\\ risk\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ changes\\ not\\ levels\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consider\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61552\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\)\\ as\\ a\\ subjective\\ weight\\ on\\ event\\ with\\ probability\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\p\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ is\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\change\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ magnitude\\ x\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ gamble\\ \\(60\\%\\ \\+\\$10\\,\\ 40\\%\\ \\-\\$10\\)\\ would\\ be\\ valued\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#61552\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(0\\.6\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61655\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;v\\(10\\)\\ \\ \\;\\+\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61552\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(0\\.4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61655\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;v\\(\\-10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ that\\ the\\ prospect\\ theoretic\\ value\\ is\\ dependent\\ upon\\ two\\ functions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ valuation\\ of\\ probability\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61552\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ valuation\\ of\\ a\\ change\\ \\=\\ v\\(x\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Look\\ at\\ page\\ six\\ in\\ lecture\\ 5\\ for\\ a\\ piecewise\\ linear\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loss\\ Aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ loss\\ of\\ size\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61508\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ about\\ twice\\ as\\ important\\ \\(think\\ utility\\)\\ as\\ a\\ gain\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61508\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ indifferent\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\:\\ \\(100\\%\\ \\+\\$0\\)\\ and\\ B\\:\\ \\(50\\%\\ \\+\\$20\\,\\ \\ \\;50\\%\\ \\+\\$10\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loss\\ aversion\\ discourages\\ trade\\;\\ people\\ weight\\ more\\ heavily\\ what\\ is\\ lost\\ compared\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ gained\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ harder\\ to\\ make\\ all\\ parties\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;better\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mugs\\ experiments\\ \\(Kahneman\\,\\ Knetch\\ and\\ Thaler\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\½\\;\\ the\\ class\\ is\\ given\\ mugs\\,\\ asked\\ to\\ write\\ their\\ willingness\\ to\\ sell\\,\\ or\\ willingness\\ to\\ accept\\ \\(WTA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\½\\;\\ the\\ class\\ without\\ mugs\\,\\ asked\\ to\\ write\\ willingness\\ to\\ buy\\,\\ or\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ \\(WTP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Without\\ loss\\ aversion\\;\\ \\½\\;\\ the\\ mugs\\ should\\ be\\ traded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Median\\ WTP\\ \\=\\ \\$2\\.50\\ and\\ median\\ WTA\\ \\=\\ \\$5\\.25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ mugs\\ are\\ traded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supressing\\ loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assume\\ a\\ game\\ where\\ the\\ expected\\ payoff\\ is\\ positive\\,\\ but\\ loss\\ aversion\\ means\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ the\\ bet\\ in\\ just\\ one\\ round\\ of\\ play\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ gambles\\ \\(N\\)\\ rises\\,\\ the\\ mean\\ gain\\ rises\\ proportionally\\ to\\ N\\ while\\ the\\ standard\\ deviation\\ rises\\ with\\ the\\ square\\ root\\ of\\ N\\ \\(\\&radic\\;N\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Risk\\ Aversion\\ in\\ the\\ Gain\\ Domain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disease\\ framing\\ scenario\\.\\ Two\\ cases\\ where\\ disease\\ is\\ perceived\\ differently\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ wording\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ Case\\ \\(I\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Program\\ A\\:\\ 200\\ are\\ saved\\.\\ \\(67\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Program\\ B\\:\\ 600\\ are\\ saved\\ with\\ probability\\ 1\\/3\\.\\ 0\\ saved\\ with\\ probability\\ 2\\/3\\.\\ \\(33\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ Case\\.\\ \\(II\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Program\\ A\\:\\ 400\\ will\\ die\\.\\ \\(33\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Program\\ B\\:\\ 0\\ die\\ with\\ probability\\ 1\\/3\\ and\\ 600\\ die\\ with\\ probability\\ 2\\/3\\.\\ \\(67\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ \\(I\\)\\ the\\ valuation\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ gain\\ domain\\,\\ that\\ is\\ we\\ were\\ dealing\\ with\\ probabilites\\ of\\ two\\ possible\\ gains\\ \\(saves\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\v\\(200\\)\\ \\>\\;\\ \\(2\\/3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61655\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;v\\(0\\)\\ \\ \\;\\+\\ \\ \\;1\\/3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61655\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;v\\(600\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ \\(II\\)\\ the\\ value\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ loss\\ domain\\.\\ We\\ faced\\ two\\ negative\\ outcomes\\ and\\ prospect\\ theory\\ says\\ we\\ value\\ this\\ much\\ differently\\.\\ Recall\\,\\ losses\\ hurt\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ gains\\ are\\ enjoyed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\v\\(\\-400\\)\\ \\<\\;\\ \\(2\\/3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61655\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;v\\(\\-600\\)\\ \\+\\ \\(1\\/3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61655\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;v\\(0\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Properties\\ of\\ v\\(x\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ deals\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\changes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ has\\ a\\ kink\\ at\\ zero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slope\\ for\\ positive\\ changes\\ is\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slope\\ for\\ negative\\ changes\\ is\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ is\\ concave\\ \\(risk\\ averse\\)\\ in\\ gain\\ \\(positive\\ values\\ of\\ x\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ is\\ convex\\ \\(risk\\ seeking\\)\\ in\\ loss\\ \\(negative\\ values\\ of\\ x\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Properties\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61552\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ is\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;bonus\\&rdquo\\;\\ utility\\ to\\ certainty\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;bonus\\&rdquo\\;\\ utility\\ to\\ some\\ small\\ chance\\ instead\\ of\\ zero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Applications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Equity\\ premium\\:\\ stocks\\ are\\ unattractive\\ unless\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ return\\ \\(see\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Target\\ earnings\\:\\ cab\\ drivers\\ adjust\\ their\\ hours\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ target\\ level\\ of\\ earnings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asymmetric\\ price\\ elasticities\\:\\ price\\ increases\\ cut\\ spending\\ more\\ than\\ price\\ decreases\\ induce\\ spending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Status\\ quo\\ bias\\:\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ change\\ investments\\ or\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\-shot\\ effects\\:\\ people\\ overvalue\\ long\\-shot\\ gambles\\,\\ like\\ a\\ lottery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Over\\-insurance\\ effect\\:\\ people\\ buy\\ too\\ much\\ insurance\\ for\\ events\\ that\\ are\\ very\\ unlikely\\ to\\ happen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kahneman\\,\\ Daniel\\ and\\ Amos\\ Tversky\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Choices\\,\\ Values\\,\\ and\\ Frames\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-16\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Abstract\\ \\&\\;\\ Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cognitive\\ and\\ psychophysical\\ determinants\\ of\\ choice\\ in\\ both\\ risky\\ and\\ riskless\\ contexts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\psychophysics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;examines\\ relationships\\ btwn\\ physical\\ stimuli\\ and\\ mental\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Psychophysics\\ of\\ value\\ induce\\ risk\\ aversion\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ risk\\ seeking\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ losses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Psychophysics\\ of\\ chance\\ induce\\ overweighting\\ of\\ sure\\ things\\ and\\ of\\ improbable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;events\\,\\ relevant\\ to\\ events\\ of\\ moderate\\ probability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Decision\\ problems\\ can\\ be\\ framed\\ in\\ multiple\\ ways\\ that\\ induce\\ different\\ preferences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ runs\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ invariance\\ criterion\\ of\\ rational\\ choice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Mental\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(process\\ by\\ which\\ ppl\\ organize\\ transaction\\ outcomes\\)\\ explains\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;some\\ anomalies\\ of\\ consumer\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Acceptability\\ of\\ an\\ option\\ can\\ depend\\ on\\ whether\\ a\\ negative\\ outcome\\ is\\ evaluated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;as\\ a\\ cost\\ or\\ as\\ an\\ uncompensated\\ loss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ study\\ of\\ decisions\\ addresses\\ both\\ normative\\ and\\ descriptive\\ questions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Normative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;analysis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nature\\ of\\ rationality\\ and\\ logic\\ of\\ decision\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Descriptive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;analysis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beliefs\\ and\\ preferences\\ as\\ they\\ are\\,\\ not\\ as\\ they\\ should\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Analyses\\ commonly\\ distinguish\\ risky\\ and\\ riskless\\ choices\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;risky\\:\\ gamble\\ that\\ yields\\ monetary\\ outcomes\\ with\\ specified\\ probabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;riskless\\:\\ transaction\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ good\\/service\\ is\\ exchanged\\ for\\ money\\/labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Risky\\ Choice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ generally\\ made\\ without\\ advance\\ knowledge\\ of\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Daniel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bernoulli\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1738\\)\\:\\ Why\\ are\\ ppl\\ generally\\ risk\\ averse\\?\\ \\ \\;Why\\ does\\ risk\\ aversion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;decrease\\ with\\ increasing\\ wealth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Ppl\\ do\\ not\\ evaluate\\ prospects\\ by\\ the\\ expectation\\ of\\ their\\ monetary\\ outcomes\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;rather\\ by\\ the\\ expectation\\ of\\ the\\ subjective\\ value\\ of\\ these\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Subjective\\ value\\,\\ or\\ utility\\,\\ is\\ a\\ concave\\ function\\ of\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Customary\\ to\\ describe\\ decision\\ outcomes\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ total\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Appears\\ psychologically\\ unrealistic\\;\\ ppl\\ do\\ not\\ normally\\ think\\ of\\ relatively\\ small\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;outcomes\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ states\\ of\\ wealth\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ gains\\,\\ losses\\,\\ and\\ neutral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;outcomes\\ \\(status\\ quo\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assumption\\ that\\ psychophysical\\ analysis\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ \\(rather\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;than\\ to\\ total\\ assets\\)\\ is\\ ventral\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prospect\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Obtain\\ S\\-shaped\\ subjective\\ value\\ function\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;defined\\ on\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ total\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;concave\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ gains\\ and\\ convex\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;considerably\\ steeper\\ for\\ losses\\ than\\ for\\ gains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ \\$X\\ is\\ more\\ aversive\\ than\\ a\\ gain\\ of\\ \\$X\\ is\\ attractive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assumption\\ of\\ risk\\ aversion\\ plays\\ a\\ central\\ role\\ in\\ economic\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Convexity\\ of\\ value\\ of\\ losses\\ entails\\ risk\\ seeking\\ in\\ this\\ domain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ confirmed\\ by\\ many\\ studies\\;\\ also\\ applicable\\ to\\ nonmonetary\\ outcomes\\ \\(hrs\\ of\\ pain\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;S\\-shaped\\ value\\ function\\ has\\ implications\\ that\\ are\\ normatively\\ unacceptable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Neumann\\ and\\ Morgenstern\\ \\(1947\\)\\:\\ rational\\ decision\\ axioms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\transitivity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ if\\ A\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ B\\ and\\ B\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ C\\,\\ then\\ A\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\substitution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ if\\ A\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ B\\,\\ then\\ an\\ even\\ chance\\ to\\ get\\ A\\ or\\ C\\ is\\ preferred\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;to\\ an\\ even\\ chance\\ to\\ get\\ B\\ or\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Convincing\\ evidence\\ that\\ ppl\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ obey\\ the\\ substitution\\ axiom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;All\\ analyses\\ of\\ rational\\ choice\\ employ\\ principles\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dominance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\invariance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Framing\\ of\\ Outcomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Possible\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ gamble\\ can\\ be\\ framed\\ as\\ either\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;status\\ quo\\ or\\ as\\ asset\\ positions\\ that\\ incorporate\\ initial\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Invariance\\ requires\\ that\\ framing\\ should\\ not\\ alter\\ the\\ preference\\ order\\ \\(but\\ it\\ does\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Failure\\ of\\ invariance\\ if\\ both\\ pervasive\\ and\\ robust\\:\\ common\\ among\\ both\\ sophisticated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ respondents\\;\\ not\\ eliminated\\ when\\ same\\ respondents\\ answer\\ two\\ equivalent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;but\\ differently\\ framed\\ questions\\ within\\ a\\ few\\ minutes\\.\\ \\ \\;Framing\\ effects\\ resemble\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;perceptual\\ illusions\\ more\\ than\\ computational\\ errors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Dominance\\ requirement\\ of\\ rational\\ choice\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ violated\\ via\\ framing\\ \\(pp\\.\\ 5\\-6\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Invariance\\ is\\ normatively\\ essential\\,\\ intuitively\\ compelling\\,\\ and\\ psychologically\\ unfeasible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Only\\ two\\ ways\\ to\\ guarantee\\ invariance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Adopt\\ a\\ procedure\\ that\\ transforms\\ equivalent\\ versions\\ of\\ any\\ problem\\ into\\ the\\ same\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;canonical\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Evaluate\\ oppositions\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ their\\ actuarial\\ rather\\ than\\ their\\ psychological\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;consequences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Conclusion\\:\\ frame\\ invariance\\ cannot\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ hold\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ practice\\ to\\ test\\ robustness\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;preferences\\ by\\ deliberate\\ attempts\\ to\\ frame\\ decision\\ problem\\ in\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Psychophysics\\ of\\ Chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assumed\\ so\\ far\\:\\ Bernoullian\\ expectation\\ rule\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ value\\/utility\\ of\\ an\\ uncertain\\ prospect\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;obtained\\ by\\ adding\\ utilities\\ of\\ possible\\ outcomes\\,\\ each\\ weighted\\ by\\ its\\ own\\ probability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\category\\-boundary\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ change\\ from\\ impossib\\.\\ to\\ possib\\.\\ or\\ from\\ possib\\.\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;certainty\\ has\\ a\\ bigger\\ impact\\ than\\ a\\ comparable\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ scale\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Graphically\\,\\ decision\\ weights\\ are\\ regressive\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ stated\\ probabilities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Underweighting\\ of\\ moderate\\ and\\ high\\ probabilities\\ relative\\ to\\ sure\\ things\\ contributes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;to\\ risk\\ aversion\\ in\\ gains\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ attractiveness\\ of\\ positive\\ gambles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ also\\,\\ risk\\ seeking\\ in\\ losses\\ by\\ attenuating\\ the\\ aversiveness\\ of\\ negative\\ gambles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Low\\ probabilities\\ are\\ overweighted\\,\\ and\\ very\\ low\\ probabilities\\ are\\ either\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;overweighted\\ quite\\ grossly\\ or\\ neglected\\ altogether\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;highly\\ unstable\\ decision\\ weights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;reverses\\ pattern\\;\\ enhances\\ value\\ of\\ long\\ shots\\ and\\ amplifies\\ aversiveness\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;small\\ chance\\ of\\ severe\\ loss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Nonlinearity\\ of\\ decision\\ weights\\ inevitably\\ leads\\ to\\ violations\\ of\\ invariance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Pseudo\\-certainty\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ event\\ that\\ is\\ actually\\ uncertain\\ is\\ weighted\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ certain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Aversion\\ to\\ probabilistic\\ insurance\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ half\\ the\\ premium\\ to\\ be\\ covered\\ on\\ odd\\ days\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;of\\ month\\)\\ is\\ significant\\ for\\ three\\ reasons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Undermines\\ classical\\ explanation\\ of\\ insurance\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ concave\\ utility\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Probabilistic\\ insurance\\ represents\\ many\\ forms\\ of\\ protective\\ action\\,\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;typically\\ reduce\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ some\\ hazard\\ without\\ eliminating\\ it\\ altogether\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Acceptability\\ of\\ insurance\\ can\\ be\\ manipulated\\ by\\ framing\\ of\\ the\\ contingencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Formulation\\ Effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Subjects\\ adopt\\ descriptions\\ of\\ outcomes\\ as\\ given\\ in\\ the\\ question\\ and\\ evaluated\\ outcomes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;accordingly\\ as\\ gains\\ or\\ losses\\.\\ \\ \\;Statistics\\ of\\ treatment\\ outcomes\\ described\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;mortality\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ survival\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;surgery\\ was\\ relatively\\ less\\ attractive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Formulation\\ effects\\ can\\ occur\\ fortuitously\\,\\ without\\ anyone\\ being\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ frame\\ on\\ the\\ ultimate\\ decision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Evaluation\\ of\\ outcomes\\ is\\ susceptible\\ to\\ formulation\\ effects\\ because\\ of\\ nonlinearity\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;value\\ function\\ and\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ evaluate\\ options\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ reference\\ point\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;that\\ is\\ suggested\\ or\\ implied\\ by\\ the\\ statement\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Transactions\\ and\\ Trades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;An\\ option\\ is\\ acceptable\\ if\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ its\\ advantages\\ exceeds\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;disadvantages\\;\\ this\\ analysis\\ assumes\\ psychological\\,\\ but\\ not\\ physical\\,\\ separability\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\.\\ \\(see\\ example\\,\\ p\\.\\ 11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Minimal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;account\\ includes\\ only\\ differences\\ btwn\\ the\\ two\\ options\\ and\\ disregards\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;features\\ that\\ they\\ share\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Topical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;account\\ relates\\ consequences\\ of\\ possible\\ choices\\ to\\ reference\\ level\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;determined\\ by\\ context\\ within\\ which\\ decision\\ arises\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Comprehensive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;account\\ evaluates\\ option\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\,\\ say\\,\\ monthly\\ expenses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ consumers\\ tend\\ to\\ exercise\\ a\\ topical\\ organization\\ of\\ accounts\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ Topical\\ organization\\ of\\ mental\\ accounts\\ leads\\ ppl\\ to\\ evaluate\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;relative\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ absolute\\ terms\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ large\\ variations\\ in\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;money\\ is\\ exchanged\\ for\\ other\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ observations\\ run\\ counter\\ to\\ the\\ standard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;rational\\ theory\\ of\\ consumer\\ behavior\\,\\ which\\ assumes\\ invariance\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;recognize\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ mental\\ accounting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ normative\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ mental\\ accounting\\ is\\ questionable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ Proposal\\:\\ Systematic\\ examination\\ of\\ alternative\\ framings\\ offers\\ a\\ useful\\ reflective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;device\\ that\\ can\\ help\\ decision\\ makers\\ assess\\ the\\ values\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ consequences\\ of\\ their\\ choices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Losses\\ and\\ Costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assume\\ that\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ defines\\ the\\ reference\\ level\\ for\\ all\\ attributes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Advantages\\ of\\ alternative\\ options\\ evaluated\\ as\\ gains\\;\\ disadvantages\\ as\\ losses\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Losses\\ loom\\ larger\\ than\\ gains\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bias\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ retaining\\ status\\ quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Thaler\\ \\(1980\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\endowment\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;describes\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reluctance\\ to\\ part\\ from\\ assets\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;in\\ their\\ endowment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Buying\\ prices\\ significantly\\ lower\\ than\\ selling\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Contrast\\ with\\ standard\\ economic\\ theory\\:\\ buying\\ and\\ selling\\ prices\\ coincide\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;except\\ for\\ transaction\\ costs\\ and\\ effects\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Generally\\,\\ loss\\ aversion\\ favors\\ stability\\ over\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Combination\\ of\\ adaptation\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;loss\\ aversion\\ provides\\ limited\\ protection\\ against\\ regret\\ and\\ envy\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;attractiveness\\ of\\ foregone\\ alternatives\\ and\\ of\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ endowments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Loss\\ aversion\\ and\\ consequent\\ endowment\\ effect\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;in\\ routine\\ economic\\ exchanges\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ certain\\ cases\\,\\ a\\ disadvantage\\ can\\ be\\ framed\\ as\\ either\\ a\\ cost\\ of\\ a\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\cost\\-loss\\ discrepancy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ lead\\ to\\ failures\\ of\\ invariance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\dead\\-loss\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subjective\\ state\\ can\\ be\\ improved\\ by\\ framing\\ negative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\outcomes\\ as\\ costs\\ rather\\ than\\ as\\ losses\\ \\(see\\ p\\.\\ 15\\ for\\ example\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\ Concluding\\ Remarks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Concepts\\ of\\ utility\\ and\\ value\\ are\\ commonly\\ used\\ in\\ two\\ distinct\\ senses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\experience\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ pleasure\\ or\\ pain\\,\\ satisfaction\\ or\\ anguish\\ in\\ the\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;actual\\ experience\\ of\\ an\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\decision\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ contribution\\ of\\ an\\ anticipated\\ outcome\\ to\\ the\\ overall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\attractiveness\\ or\\ aversiveness\\ of\\ an\\ option\\ in\\ a\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Distinction\\ btwn\\ the\\ two\\ is\\ rarely\\ explicit\\ in\\ decision\\ theory\\;\\ assumed\\ that\\ they\\ coincide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;idealized\\ decision\\ maker\\ able\\ to\\ predict\\ future\\ experiences\\ with\\ perfect\\ accuracy\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;evaluate\\ options\\ accordingly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;hedonic\\ psychophysics\\:\\ most\\ basic\\ problem\\ is\\ determination\\ of\\ level\\ of\\ adaptation\\ or\\ aspiration\\ that\\ separates\\ positive\\ from\\ negative\\ outcomes\\.\\ \\ \\;Hedonic\\ reference\\ point\\ is\\ largely\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ objective\\ status\\ quo\\ and\\ affected\\ by\\ expectations\\ and\\ social\\ comparisons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ Complexity\\ and\\ subtlety\\ of\\ hedonic\\ experience\\ make\\ it\\ difficult\\ for\\ decision\\ maker\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;anticipate\\ the\\ actual\\ experience\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;D\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ common\\ mismatch\\ of\\ decision\\ values\\ and\\ experience\\ values\\ introduces\\ an\\ additional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;element\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ in\\ many\\ decision\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Endowment\\ Effect\\,\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\,\\ Status\\ Quo\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Circle\\,\\ Ch6\\,\\ pp\\ 63\\-78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Opening\\ scenario\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ an\\ economist\\ bought\\ wine\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ ago\\ at\\ very\\ low\\ prices\\.\\ Now\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ wine\\ has\\ greatly\\ appreciated\\ \\(\\$200\\ at\\ auction\\)\\.\\ The\\ economist\\ drinks\\ his\\ wine\\ ever\\ so\\ often\\,\\ however\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ willing\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ wine\\ at\\ the\\ auction\\ price\\ nor\\ is\\ he\\ willing\\ to\\ buy\\ additional\\ wine\\ at\\ that\\ price\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ definitions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Endowment\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ fact\\ that\\ people\\ often\\ demand\\ much\\ more\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ an\\ object\\ than\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ to\\ acquire\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Status\\ quo\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ preference\\ for\\ the\\ current\\ state\\ that\\ biases\\ someone\\ against\\ from\\ both\\ buying\\ and\\ selling\\ an\\ item\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ disutility\\ of\\ giving\\ up\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ greater\\ tan\\ the\\ utility\\ associated\\ with\\ acquiring\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Endowment\\ Effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Example\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Experiment\\ by\\ Knetsch\\ \\&\\;\\ Sinden\\ \\(1984\\)\\.\\ Subjects\\ were\\ given\\ either\\ a\\ lottery\\ ticket\\ or\\ \\$2\\,\\ and\\ given\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ trade\\ later\\.\\ Few\\ people\\ choose\\ to\\ trade\\.\\ Economists\\ questioned\\ whether\\ this\\ effect\\ would\\ still\\ occur\\ if\\ subjects\\ were\\ exposed\\ to\\ a\\ market\\ environment\\ with\\ learning\\ opportunities\\ \\(not\\ true\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Example\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Some\\ subjects\\ are\\ designated\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sellers\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ mugs\\.\\ They\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ mug\\ and\\ then\\ were\\ asked\\ if\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ sell\\ at\\ different\\ prices\\,\\ from\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ \\$\\.25\\ to\\ \\$9\\.25\\.\\ Subjects\\ designated\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;buyers\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ asked\\ if\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ buy\\ at\\ those\\ same\\ prices\\.\\ Subjects\\ designated\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;choosers\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ choose\\ between\\ selecting\\ a\\ mug\\ or\\ selecting\\ money\\ at\\ the\\ different\\ prices\\.\\ The\\ scenario\\ of\\ the\\ choosers\\ is\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ sellers\\ \\(keep\\ your\\ mug\\ or\\ sell\\ it\\ to\\ get\\ money\\)\\,\\ however\\ the\\ choosers\\ behaved\\ like\\ buyers\\.\\ The\\ median\\ reservation\\ prices\\ were\\:\\ Sellers\\-\\$7\\.12\\;\\ Choosers\\-\\$3\\.12\\;\\ Buyers\\-\\ \\$2\\.87\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ economy\\,\\ indifference\\ curves\\ do\\ not\\ cross\\.\\ People\\ should\\ be\\ indifferent\\ to\\ keeping\\ an\\ item\\ and\\ trading\\ an\\ item\\ at\\ specific\\ prices\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ true\\ if\\ loss\\ aversion\\ is\\ present\\.\\ In\\ an\\ example\\ with\\ pens\\ and\\ money\\,\\ pens\\ were\\ worth\\ more\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ started\\ with\\ the\\ pens\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ started\\ with\\ money\\.\\ They\\ should\\ be\\ equally\\ valued\\ by\\ both\\ groups\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ indifference\\ curves\\ cross\\.\\ The\\ main\\ effect\\ of\\ endowment\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ enhance\\ the\\ appeal\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ one\\ owns\\,\\ only\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ giving\\ it\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Status\\ Quo\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ implication\\ of\\ loss\\ aversion\\ is\\ that\\ individuals\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ tendency\\ to\\ remain\\ at\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ because\\ the\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ leaving\\ it\\ loom\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ advantages\\ \\(known\\ as\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ bias\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\An\\ experiment\\ has\\ two\\ groups\\.\\ In\\ one\\ group\\,\\ the\\ subjects\\ have\\ hypothetically\\ inherited\\ a\\ large\\ sum\\ of\\ money\\ and\\ are\\ considering\\ investing\\ in\\:\\ a\\ moderate\\ risk\\ company\\,\\ a\\ high\\-risk\\ company\\,\\ treasury\\ bills\\,\\ or\\ municipal\\ bonds\\.\\ This\\ group\\ is\\ the\\ neutral\\ group\\ with\\ no\\ defined\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ The\\ second\\ group\\ is\\ presented\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\,\\ except\\ they\\ have\\ inherited\\ a\\ portfolio\\ of\\ cash\\ and\\ securities\\ that\\ is\\ significantly\\ invested\\ in\\ a\\ moderate\\-risk\\ company\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ inheriting\\ just\\ cash\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\,\\ with\\ a\\ defined\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ Other\\ scenarios\\ like\\ this\\ were\\ investigated\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Results\\ imply\\ that\\ the\\ alternative\\ becomes\\ significantly\\ more\\ popular\\ when\\ designated\\ as\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ \\(if\\ given\\ a\\ portfolio\\ invested\\ in\\ moderate\\-risk\\ company\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ popular\\ to\\ keep\\ this\\ instead\\ of\\ choosing\\ another\\ portfolio\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ New\\ Jersey\\ and\\ Pennsylvania\\,\\ two\\ automobile\\ insurances\\ are\\ offered\\:\\ a\\ cheaper\\ one\\ without\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ sue\\ and\\ a\\ more\\ expensive\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ sue\\.\\ New\\ Jersey\\ offers\\ the\\ cheaper\\ policy\\ as\\ the\\ default\\,\\ with\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ switch\\.\\ 83\\%\\ of\\ the\\ drivers\\ have\\ elected\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ the\\ default\\.\\ In\\ PA\\,\\ the\\ new\\ law\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ default\\ is\\ the\\ expensive\\ policy\\,\\ with\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ opt\\ for\\ the\\ cheaper\\ one\\.\\ While\\ it\\ is\\ unknown\\ still\\ how\\ PA\\ has\\ responded\\ to\\ this\\ new\\ policy\\,\\ it\\ is\\ predicted\\ that\\ more\\ Pennsylvanians\\ will\\ elect\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ more\\ expensive\\ one\\ \\(the\\ default\\ option\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ Aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ a\\ given\\ difference\\ between\\ two\\ options\\ will\\ have\\ greater\\ impact\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ two\\ disadvantages\\ than\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ two\\ advantages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ One\\ group\\ of\\ subjects\\ are\\ told\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ exposed\\ to\\ a\\ rare\\ fatal\\ disease\\ and\\ face\\ a\\ \\.001\\ chance\\ of\\ a\\ painless\\ death\\ within\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ weeks\\.\\ They\\ are\\ then\\ asked\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ \\(WTP\\)\\ for\\ a\\ vaccine\\,\\ to\\ be\\ purchased\\ immediately\\.\\ Another\\ group\\ is\\ asked\\ how\\ much\\ compensation\\ they\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ accept\\ \\(WTA\\)\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ a\\ medical\\ experiment\\ where\\ they\\ faced\\ a\\ \\.001\\ chance\\ of\\ a\\ quick\\ painless\\ death\\.\\ The\\ price\\ for\\ the\\ second\\ group\\ was\\ drastically\\ higher\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Comparing\\ WTA\\ scenarios\\ to\\ WTP\\ scenarios\\,\\ WTA\\ responses\\ greatly\\ exceed\\ WTP\\ responses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Judgments\\ of\\ Fairness\\ and\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\foregone\\ gains\\ are\\ less\\ painful\\ than\\ perceived\\ losses\\ \\(an\\ implication\\ of\\ endowment\\ effect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Neuroeconomics\\ \\(Feb\\ 19\\)\\ SAM\\ TELLER\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Berns\\,\\ Gregory\\,\\ David\\ Laibson\\,\\ and\\ George\\ Loewenstein\\ \\(2007\\)\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Intertemporal\\ choice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ toward\\ an\\ integrative\\ framework\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ Trends\\ in\\ Cognitive\\ Sciences\\ \\,\\ 11\\(11\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 482\\-8\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Kahneman\\,\\ D\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Maps\\ of\\ Bounded\\ Rationality\\:\\ Psychology\\ for\\ Behavioral\\ Economics\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Economic\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ December\\ 2003\\,\\ 1449\\-1475\\.\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ McClure\\,\\ Sam\\,\\ David\\ Laibson\\,\\ George\\ Loewenstein\\,\\ and\\ Jonathan\\ D\\.\\ Cohen\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Separate\\ Neural\\ Systems\\ Value\\ Immediate\\ and\\ Delayed\\ Monetary\\ Rewards\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;306\\,\\ October\\ 15\\ 2004\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Sanfey\\ AG\\ et\\ al\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Neural\\ Basis\\ of\\ Economic\\ Decision\\-Making\\,\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ Science\\ \\(300\\)\\ 1755\\-57\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\6\\.\\ \\;\\ Social\\ Preferences\\ and\\ Self\\-serving\\ Biases\\ \\(February\\ 21\\)\\ NIKOLUS\\ RAY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ De\\ Quervain\\ DJ\\-F\\,\\ Fischbacher\\ U\\,\\ Treyer\\ V\\,\\ Schellhammer\\ M\\,\\ Schnyder\\ U\\,\\ Buck\\ A\\,\\ Fehr\\ E\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ neural\\ basis\\ of\\ altruistic\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ 2004\\,\\ Vol\\.\\ 305\\,\\ 1254\\-1258\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;Cooperation\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\ Ch\\.\\ 2\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 6\\&ndash\\;20\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Ultimatum\\ Game\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 21\\&ndash\\;35\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Weinstein\\,\\ Neil\\ D\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Unrealistic\\ Optimism\\ About\\ Future\\ Life\\ Events\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Personality\\ and\\ Social\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ 39\\ \\(1980\\)\\,\\ 806\\&ndash\\;820\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Behavioral\\ Finance\\ \\(February\\ 26\\,\\ 28\\,\\ March\\ 4\\,\\ 6\\,\\ 11\\,\\ 13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\.\\ Theory\\ of\\ Efficient\\ Markets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\*\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\CARMEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Limited\\ Arbitrage\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\JULIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mitchell\\,\\ Mark\\,\\ Lasse\\ Heje\\ Pedersen\\,\\ and\\ Todd\\ Pulvino\\,\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Slow\\ Moving\\ Capital\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Economic\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ERIN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\ Chapter\\ 4\\,\\ Andrei\\ Shleifer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ Performance\\-Based\\ Arbitrage\\ \\(PBA\\)\\:\\ Recall\\ the\\ principal\\-agent\\ problem\\.\\ We\\ consider\\ the\\ principal\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ investors\\ \\(the\\ owners\\ of\\ funds\\)\\ and\\ the\\ agents\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ arbitrageurs\\ \\(allocators\\ of\\ funds\\)\\.\\ We\\ are\\ given\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\ Periods\\:\\ t\\ \\=\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\,\\ and\\ 3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ Single\\ Asset\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;M\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ payout\\ of\\ exactly\\ V\\ in\\ period\\ t\\ \\=\\ 3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Owners\\ of\\ funds\\ to\\ be\\ allocated\\ by\\ arbitrageurs\\.\\ We\\ assume\\ all\\ principal\\ to\\ be\\ trying\\ to\\ maximize\\ their\\ earnings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assumed\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ understanding\\ of\\ what\\ an\\ arbitrageur\\ is\\ doing\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ explained\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ possibility\\ to\\ be\\ lied\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ only\\ assess\\ arbitrageurs\\ on\\ past\\-performance\\ and\\ allocates\\ money\\ accordingly\\.\\ Uses\\ Bayesian\\ updating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;T\\&rdquo\\;\\ investors\\ in\\ a\\ subset\\ of\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Arbitrageurs\\.\\ Principal\\ knows\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ arbitrageurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constant\\ marginal\\ costs\\ which\\ are\\ equal\\ amongst\\ all\\ investors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bertrand\\ competition\\ over\\ price\\ means\\ that\\ price\\ equals\\ marginal\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assumed\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ one\\ asset\\ \\(M\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\(t\\)\\ is\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ M\\ held\\ by\\ arbitrageurs\\ at\\ time\\ t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\R\\(t\\)\\ is\\ the\\ amount\\ invested\\ in\\ M\\;\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ the\\ funds\\ available\\ at\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ discretion\\.\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ M\\ at\\ time\\ t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ price\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ value\\ then\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\ buys\\ all\\ of\\ M\\ he\\ can\\ \\(thus\\ dividing\\ his\\ wealth\\ \\(F\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ by\\ the\\ asset\\ price\\ \\(P\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\)\\.\\ If\\ price\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ value\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ buy\\ any\\ of\\ M\\.\\ In\\ real\\ life\\,\\ however\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ prudent\\ to\\ short\\ sell\\ the\\ stock\\ \\(or\\ buy\\ a\\ put\\ option\\)\\;\\ good\\ practice\\ to\\ try\\.\\ Ignore\\ borrowing\\ rate\\ \\(r\\ \\=\\ 0\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\ might\\ be\\ aware\\ that\\ the\\ irrational\\ investors\\ might\\ continue\\ their\\ mispricing\\.\\ Therefore\\ there\\ is\\ incentive\\ to\\ wait\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ mispricing\\ deepens\\ in\\ period\\ two\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amount\\ of\\ funds\\ in\\ period\\ t\\=2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ performance\\-based\\ arbitrage\\ factor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ part\\ F\\(1\\+R\\)\\ is\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ investment\\ made\\ in\\ period\\ 1\\,\\ independent\\ of\\ actions\\ by\\ the\\ investors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ part\\ F\\(a\\-1\\)R\\ is\\ the\\ adjustment\\ investors\\ make\\ in\\ period\\ 2\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ performance\\ in\\ period\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ \\=\\ 1\\ then\\ investors\\ are\\ neutral\\,\\ do\\ not\\ change\\ investments\\ in\\ period\\ two\\ regardless\\ of\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ \\>\\;\\ 1\\,\\ then\\ if\\ the\\ return\\ is\\ negative\\,\\ so\\ is\\ this\\ entire\\ term\\,\\ thus\\ funds\\ are\\ taken\\ away\\ proportionally\\ with\\ the\\ amount\\ lost\\.\\ Likewise\\,\\ if\\ the\\ return\\ is\\ positive\\,\\ then\\ the\\ whole\\ term\\ is\\ positive\\ and\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\ is\\ trusted\\ with\\ even\\ more\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Noise\\ Traders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Generator\\ of\\ small\\ fluctuations\\ in\\ price\\.\\ These\\ deviations\\ can\\ drive\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ M\\ away\\ from\\ fundamentals\\ \\(true\\ value\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\N\\(t\\)\\ is\\ the\\ quantity\\ held\\ by\\ noise\\ traders\\ in\\ period\\ t\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;shock\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;sentiment\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ noise\\ traders\\ \\(in\\ our\\ example\\ below\\,\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ pessimism\\)\\;\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ M\\ at\\ time\\ t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constraints\\ on\\ S\\.\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ge\\;\\ 0\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Either\\ F\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ funds\\ available\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ correct\\ the\\ mispricing\\ or\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ equal\\ to\\ zero\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ asset\\ is\\ correctly\\ valued\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ example\\,\\ given\\ these\\ equations\\.\\ We\\ assume\\ M\\ \\=\\ 1\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ 1\\ \\=\\ N\\(t\\)\\ \\+\\ A\\(t\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intuitively\\,\\ the\\ price\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ value\\ \\(V\\)\\ minus\\ S\\ \\(the\\ amount\\ of\\ pessimism\\ that\\ drives\\ the\\ price\\ down\\)\\ plus\\ the\\ buying\\ that\\ drives\\ the\\ price\\ upwards\\ \\(F\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\,\\ however\\,\\ we\\ solve\\ for\\ the\\ price\\ in\\ period\\ two\\,\\ given\\ period\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ fully\\ invested\\ equilibrium\\,\\ dP\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/dS\\ \\<\\;\\-1\\ and\\ d\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(dS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\;0\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ arbitrageurs\\ are\\ fully\\ invested\\,\\ prices\\ fall\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ for\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ noise\\ trader\\ shock\\ at\\ time\\ 2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rises\\ \\(PBA\\ is\\ more\\ intense\\)\\,\\ price\\ movement\\ is\\ higher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ derivative\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ resiliency\\ of\\ a\\ market\\.\\ As\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ PBA\\,\\ the\\ market\\ becomes\\ weaker\\ at\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ move\\ prices\\ to\\ fundamentals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ cases\\ involving\\ period\\ two\\.\\ Recall\\ that\\ period\\ three\\ value\\ is\\ set\\ at\\ V\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Case\\ 1\\,\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Case\\ 2\\,\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Case\\ 3\\,\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ any\\ negative\\ sentiment\\,\\ price\\ moves\\ back\\ to\\ its\\ fundamental\\ value\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\No\\ change\\ in\\ sentiment\\ means\\ that\\ no\\ additional\\ trades\\ are\\ made\\;\\ arbitrageurs\\ wait\\ for\\ period\\ three\\ where\\ they\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Pessimism\\ deepens\\ and\\ rational\\ arbitrageurs\\ lose\\ money\\ as\\ performance\\-minded\\ investors\\ are\\ disappointed\\ with\\ the\\ results\\.\\ Recall\\ that\\ the\\ arbitrageurs\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ convince\\ the\\ investors\\ that\\ the\\ asset\\ is\\ worth\\ V\\ at\\ t\\ \\=\\ 3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Arbitrageurs\\ are\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Arbitrageurs\\ are\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Arbitrageurs\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\Because\\ markets\\ have\\ noise\\ \\(modeled\\ here\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sentiment\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;pessimism\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ arbitrageurs\\ who\\ can\\ normally\\ \\&ldquo\\;fix\\&rdquo\\;\\ markets\\ by\\ returning\\ the\\ price\\ to\\ its\\ fundamental\\ value\\ cannot\\.\\ They\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ because\\ the\\ short\\-run\\ reasoning\\ of\\ the\\ investors\\ actually\\ pulls\\ funds\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ arbitrageurs\\ who\\ would\\ otherwise\\ buy\\ up\\ the\\ undervalued\\ asset\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ despite\\ being\\ rational\\ and\\ sharp\\ about\\ fundamental\\ values\\ of\\ assets\\,\\ performance\\-based\\ arbitrage\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ inefficient\\ market\\ that\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ return\\ prices\\ to\\ their\\ true\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consider\\ the\\ stock\\ market\\ bubble\\:\\ could\\ any\\ one\\ rational\\ arbitrageur\\ have\\ held\\ his\\ job\\ very\\ long\\ if\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ move\\ against\\ investor\\ sentiment\\ and\\ short\\-sell\\ or\\ buy\\ put\\ options\\ early\\ in\\ the\\ bubble\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Closed\\ End\\ Mutual\\ Funds\\ and\\ Other\\ Pricing\\ Puzzles\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;DAN\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Lamont\\,\\ Owen\\ and\\ Richard\\ Thaler\\,\\ 2003\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ market\\ add\\ and\\ subtract\\?\\ Mispricing\\ in\\ tech\\ stock\\ carve\\-outs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Political\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;2003\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Shleifer\\,\\ Andrei\\,\\ 1986\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Do\\ Demand\\ Curves\\ for\\ Stocks\\ Slope\\ Down\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;41\\,\\ p\\.\\ 579\\&ndash\\;590\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Rashes\\,\\ Michael\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Massively\\ Confused\\ Investors\\ Making\\ Conspicuously\\ Ignorant\\ Choices\\ \\(MCI\\&ndash\\;MCIC\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;56\\(5\\)\\,\\ p\\.\\ 1911\\-1927\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Huberman\\,\\ Gur\\ and\\ Tomer\\ Regev\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Contagious\\ Speculation\\ and\\ a\\ Cure\\ for\\ Cancer\\:\\ A\\ Non\\-Event\\ that\\ Made\\ Stock\\ Prices\\ Soar\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;56\\(1\\)\\,\\ p\\.\\ 387\\-396\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Cooper\\,\\ Michael\\ J\\.\\,\\ Orlin\\ Dimitrov\\,\\ and\\ P\\.\\ Raghaendra\\ Rau\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\A\\ rose\\.com\\ by\\ any\\ other\\ name\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;56\\(6\\)\\,\\ p\\.\\ 2371\\-2388\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Return\\ Predictability\\ CARMEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ A\\ Mean\\ Reverting\\ Walk\\ Down\\ Wall\\ Street\\ \\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 12\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 151\\&ndash\\;167\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Lakonishok\\,\\ Josef\\,\\ Andrei\\ Shleifer\\,\\ and\\ Robert\\ Vishny\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Contrarian\\ investment\\,\\ extrapolation\\,\\ and\\ risk\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;49\\:5\\ \\(1994\\)\\,\\ 1541\\&ndash\\;1578\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Hong\\,\\ Harrison\\ and\\ Jeremy\\ C\\.\\ Stein\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Disagreement\\ and\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Economic\\ Perspectives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ \\;21\\:2\\ \\(2007\\)\\,\\ 109\\-128\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Baker\\,\\ Malcolm\\ and\\ Jeffrey\\ Wurgler\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Investor\\ Sentiment\\ in\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Economic\\ Perspectives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ 21\\:2\\ \\(2007\\)\\,\\ 129\\-151\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\ \\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Efficient\\ Markets\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ concept\\ has\\ been\\ central\\ to\\ world\\ of\\ finance\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ 30\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Implies\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Investors\\ are\\ fully\\ rational\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;market\\ prices\\ fully\\ reflect\\ all\\ available\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Average\\ investors\\ cannot\\ hope\\ to\\ beat\\ the\\ market\\,\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ passive\\ portfolio\\ than\\ an\\ actively\\ managed\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ versions\\ of\\ EMH\\ \\(strong\\ implies\\ semi\\-strong\\,\\ semi\\-strong\\ implies\\ weak\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Weak\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ investors\\ cannot\\ make\\ money\\ off\\ of\\ predictions\\ from\\ old\\ news\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Semi\\-strong\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ investors\\ cannot\\ profit\\ from\\ any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\public\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;information\\,\\ since\\ this\\ news\\ is\\ immediately\\ incorporated\\ into\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ investors\\ cannot\\ profit\\ from\\ any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\public\\ or\\ private\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;information\\,\\ because\\ private\\ information\\ quickly\\ leaks\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theoretical\\ foundations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assume\\ investors\\ are\\ rational\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ price\\ securities\\ rationally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ investors\\ are\\ not\\ rational\\,\\ their\\ aggregate\\ price\\ valuations\\ of\\ stocks\\ cancel\\ out\\ \\(they\\ are\\ irrational\\ but\\ uncorrelated\\,\\ these\\ mistakes\\ cancel\\ each\\ other\\ out\\;\\ if\\ some\\ people\\ overprice\\ a\\ stock\\,\\ others\\ will\\ undervalue\\ it\\,\\ and\\ the\\ overall\\ price\\ is\\ still\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fundamental\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ net\\ present\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ firm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ future\\ cash\\ flows\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ when\\ investor\\ irrationality\\ is\\ correlated\\,\\ arbitrageurs\\ invade\\ the\\ market\\ and\\ push\\ price\\ to\\ fundamentals\\,\\ irrational\\ investors\\ are\\ pushed\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ market\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Empirical\\ foundations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ news\\ hits\\ the\\ market\\,\\ its\\ price\\ reacts\\ quickly\\ and\\ correctly\\ to\\ incorporate\\ the\\ news\\,\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ price\\ trends\\/reversals\\ following\\ initial\\ impact\\ of\\ news\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prices\\ should\\ not\\ change\\ if\\ information\\ about\\ asset\\&rsquo\\;s\\ value\\ does\\ not\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Data\\ supports\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Weak\\ version\\:\\ Fama\\ \\(1965\\)\\ found\\ that\\ stock\\ prices\\ follow\\ a\\ random\\ walk\\,\\ that\\ the\\ price\\ on\\ any\\ given\\ day\\ is\\ equally\\ as\\ likely\\ to\\ rise\\ or\\ fall\\ given\\ its\\ performance\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Semi\\-strong\\:\\ in\\ event\\ study\\ methodology\\,\\ Fama\\ \\(1969\\)\\ found\\ that\\ prices\\ initially\\ begin\\ to\\ rise\\ as\\ private\\ information\\ is\\ slowly\\ leaked\\,\\ then\\ on\\ day\\ of\\ news\\ event\\ the\\ price\\ jumps\\ as\\ information\\ is\\ publicly\\ revealed\\,\\ and\\ the\\ event\\ is\\ not\\ followed\\ by\\ price\\ trends\\ up\\ or\\ down\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;indicates\\ that\\ public\\ news\\ is\\ incorporated\\ accurately\\ and\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theoretical\\ challenges\\ to\\ EMH\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Investors\\ are\\ fully\\ rational\\:\\ wrong\\!\\ They\\ are\\ not\\ fully\\ rational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ have\\ faulty\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ risk\\:\\ people\\ care\\ more\\ about\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ rather\\ than\\ overall\\ wealth\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\prospect\\ theory\\,\\ loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ do\\ not\\ follow\\ Bayes\\ rule\\ when\\ updating\\ expectations\\:\\ people\\ take\\ a\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recent\\ history\\ as\\ representative\\ of\\ future\\ returns\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\representativeness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ decisions\\ are\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ framing\\ of\\ a\\ problem\\ \\(see\\ lecture\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Framing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Irrational\\ investors\\ have\\ uncorrelated\\ behaviors\\:\\ wrong\\!\\ Irrational\\ investors\\ often\\ behave\\ the\\ same\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Investor\\ sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Price\\ deviations\\ caused\\ by\\ irrational\\ investors\\ should\\ be\\ equalized\\ by\\ rational\\ arbitrageurs\\:\\ wrong\\!\\ Most\\ arbitrage\\ is\\ not\\ successful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Success\\ of\\ arbitrage\\ relies\\ on\\ availability\\ of\\ close\\ substitutes\\ in\\ assets\\,\\ this\\ is\\ scarcely\\ the\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Empirical\\ challenges\\ to\\ EMH\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Challenge\\ to\\ weak\\ form\\ hypothesis\\:\\ according\\ to\\ DeBondt\\ and\\ Thaler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\winner\\ and\\ loser\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;portfolios\\,\\ investors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\achieve\\ better\\ returns\\ using\\ past\\ company\\ information\\ \\(namely\\,\\ the\\ returns\\ of\\ growth\\/value\\ stocks\\ in\\ the\\ preceding\\ 5\\ years\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Challenge\\ to\\ semi\\-strong\\ form\\ hypothesis\\:\\ small\\ stocks\\ earn\\ higher\\ returns\\ than\\ large\\ stocks\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ January\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\January\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ challenge\\:\\ 22\\%\\ drop\\ in\\ stock\\ prices\\ 10\\/19\\/1987\\ even\\ though\\ no\\ special\\ news\\ was\\ announced\\,\\ this\\ implies\\ that\\ something\\ \\(investor\\ sentiment\\ perhaps\\)\\ besides\\ news\\ drives\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Mean\\ Reverting\\ Walk\\ Down\\ Wall\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mean\\ Reversion\\:\\ in\\ games\\ of\\ chance\\,\\ extremes\\ are\\ followed\\ by\\ less\\ extreme\\ outcomes\\ \\(bring\\ outcomes\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ mean\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ EMH\\,\\ because\\ one\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ predict\\ future\\ returns\\ based\\ on\\ past\\ returns\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ mean\\ reversion\\ idea\\ is\\ more\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ investor\\ sentiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supporting\\ Evidence\\:\\ winner\\ and\\ loser\\ portfolios\\,\\ value\\ and\\ growth\\ stocks\\,\\ psychological\\ evidence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Short\\ term\\ mean\\ reversion\\:\\ if\\ prices\\ change\\ drastically\\ within\\ a\\ short\\ period\\,\\ neither\\ risk\\ nor\\ size\\ has\\ changed\\ significantly\\,\\ investor\\ sentiment\\ must\\ be\\ at\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ winner\\ portfolios\\ experience\\ less\\ change\\ in\\ abnormal\\ returns\\ than\\ loser\\ portfolios\\?\\ Perhaps\\ because\\ for\\ losers\\,\\ the\\ overreaction\\ effect\\ and\\ the\\ excess\\ premium\\ effect\\ push\\ prices\\ down\\.\\ For\\ winner\\ portfolios\\,\\ these\\ effects\\ work\\ in\\ opposite\\ directions\\.\\ Excess\\ price\\ premium\\:\\ for\\ losers\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ high\\ risk\\ of\\ bankruptcy\\ \\(pushing\\ prices\\ down\\)\\,\\ for\\ winners\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ high\\ \\&ldquo\\;down\\-side\\ potential\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ prices\\ to\\ fall\\ eventually\\ \\(pushes\\ stock\\ prices\\ down\\ too\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrarian\\ investment\\,\\ extrapolation\\,\\ and\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\:\\ value\\ strategies\\ yield\\ higher\\ return\\ than\\ growth\\ strategies\\,\\ not\\ because\\ value\\ stocks\\ are\\ riskier\\,\\ but\\ because\\ the\\ strategy\\ exploits\\ the\\ suboptimal\\ behavior\\ of\\ typical\\ investors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Na\\ï\\;ve\\ investors\\ are\\ too\\ optimistic\\ about\\ companies\\ that\\ have\\ done\\ well\\ recently\\ \\(and\\ thus\\ overprice\\ them\\)\\ and\\ are\\ too\\ pessimistic\\ about\\ companies\\ that\\ have\\ done\\ poorly\\ recently\\ \\(and\\ thus\\ underprice\\ them\\)\\.\\ Contrarian\\ investors\\ bet\\ against\\ these\\ naive\\ investors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\:\\ do\\ value\\ stocks\\ outperform\\ growth\\ stocks\\?\\ Yes\\,\\ according\\ to\\ data\\ comparing\\ past\\ performance\\,\\ current\\ and\\ extrapolated\\ future\\ performance\\ of\\ companies\\ according\\ to\\ investors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\:\\ are\\ value\\ stocks\\ fundamentally\\ riskier\\ than\\ growth\\ stocks\\?\\ No\\,\\ based\\ on\\ examinations\\ of\\ standard\\ deviations\\ of\\ returns\\ of\\ stocks\\ and\\ frequency\\ of\\ superior\\ performance\\ of\\ value\\ stocks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ classify\\ a\\ value\\ stock\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Book\\ to\\ market\\ ratio\\:\\ high\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Price\\ to\\ earnings\\ ratio\\:\\ low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cash\\ flow\\ to\\ price\\:\\ high\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Past\\ growth\\ in\\ sales\\:\\ low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ past\\ returns\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ multiples\\ to\\ choose\\ value\\ stocks\\,\\ value\\ strategies\\ have\\ consistently\\ beat\\ growth\\ strategies\\ by\\ 10\\-11\\%\\ per\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disagreement\\ and\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trading\\ Volume\\:\\ high\\ volume\\ of\\ trading\\ is\\ correlated\\ with\\ higher\\ prices\\,\\ overtrading\\ can\\ \\(and\\ has\\)\\ be\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ market\\ bubbles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mechanisms\\ that\\ can\\ generate\\ investor\\ disagreement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gradual\\ Information\\ flow\\:\\ some\\ investors\\ receive\\ information\\ before\\ others\\,\\ and\\ this\\ causes\\ disagreement\\ regarding\\ valuation\\ of\\ the\\ stock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Limited\\ Attention\\:\\ due\\ to\\ cognitive\\ overload\\,\\ most\\ investors\\ make\\ decisions\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ small\\ set\\ of\\ publicly\\ available\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heterogeneous\\ Priors\\:\\ even\\ when\\ news\\ is\\ made\\ public\\,\\ investors\\ can\\ disagree\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ update\\ their\\ valuations\\ of\\ stock\\,\\ because\\ they\\ might\\ have\\ different\\ models\\/intuitions\\/expectations\\ guiding\\ their\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Investor\\ Sentiment\\ in\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\:\\ stocks\\ that\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ arbitrage\\ or\\ difficult\\ to\\ value\\ are\\ most\\ subject\\ to\\ investor\\ sentiment\\ mis\\-pricing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Model\\ Investor\\ Sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Under\\-reaction\\:\\ security\\ prices\\ under\\-react\\ to\\ news\\ such\\ as\\ earnings\\ announcements\\,\\ momentum\\ evidence\\ for\\ short\\ term\\ \\(positive\\ news\\ contributes\\ to\\ price\\ trend\\ upwards\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overreaction\\:\\ in\\ longer\\ term\\,\\ prices\\ overreact\\ to\\ consistent\\ news\\ that\\ points\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ direction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ psychological\\ concepts\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representativeness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(investors\\ view\\ recent\\ good\\ news\\ as\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overall\\ value\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conservatism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(slow\\ update\\ of\\ models\\ as\\ new\\ information\\ is\\ revealed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conservatism\\:\\ psychological\\ experiments\\ reveal\\ that\\ given\\ new\\ information\\,\\ subjects\\ tend\\ to\\ not\\ update\\ their\\ expectations\\ about\\ the\\ future\\ enough\\.\\ This\\ supports\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ underreaction\\:\\ conservative\\ individuals\\ do\\ not\\ react\\ enough\\ in\\ face\\ of\\ new\\ information\\ of\\ company\\ earnings\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ announcement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Representativeness\\:\\ this\\ heuristic\\ says\\ predicts\\ that\\ investors\\ see\\ patterns\\ in\\ truly\\ random\\ sequences\\.\\ Given\\ consistent\\,\\ long\\ term\\,\\ positive\\ information\\ about\\ a\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ earning\\,\\ an\\ investor\\ might\\ attribute\\ these\\ \\(actually\\ random\\)\\ findings\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ company\\,\\ the\\ amazing\\ CEO\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Key\\ equations\\ to\\ know\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\F\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1\\ \\+\\ a\\(p\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/p\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ V\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ V\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ S\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dp\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\/dS\\ \\=\\ p\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(p\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ aF\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ Bubbles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ROSE\\ YAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Garber\\,\\ Peter\\,\\ M\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Famous\\ First\\ Bubbles\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Economic\\ Perspectives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;4\\ \\(1990\\)\\,\\ 35\\&ndash\\;54\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\SAM\\ TELLER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Asness\\,\\ Clifford\\,\\ 2000\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bubble\\ Logic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ AQR\\ Capital\\ Management\\,\\ mimeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\IFEDAYO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Positive\\ Feedback\\ Investment\\ Strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ feedback\\ trading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ when\\ investors\\ buy\\ securities\\ after\\ price\\ rise\\ and\\ sell\\ after\\ price\\ fall\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ arbitrageurs\\ can\\ anticipate\\ noise\\ trader\\ demand\\,\\ they\\ can\\ pursue\\ strategy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ they\\ receive\\ goods\\ news\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ anticipation\\ noise\\ traders\\,\\ they\\ will\\ buy\\ more\\ today\\ and\\ drive\\ prices\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tomorrow\\,\\ while\\ noise\\ traders\\ are\\ driving\\ prices\\ higher\\,\\ they\\ can\\ sell\\ and\\ stabilize\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ combination\\ of\\ positive\\ feedback\\ and\\ reversion\\ to\\ mean\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ review\\ of\\ a\\ price\\ bubble\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ bubbles\\ start\\ with\\ initial\\ good\\ news\\,\\ called\\ displacement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rare\\ tulips\\ are\\ valuable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ response\\,\\ smart\\ money\\ seeks\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ the\\ asset\\ and\\ claim\\ them\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ positive\\ feedback\\ trading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ done\\ through\\ financial\\ instruments\\ or\\ other\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;E\\.g\\.\\ producing\\ more\\ tulips\\ or\\ allowing\\ people\\ to\\ speculate\\ on\\ tulip\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;There\\ is\\ generally\\ authoritative\\ blessing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ further\\ propagates\\ the\\ bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eventually\\,\\ the\\ bubbles\\ crashes\\,\\ could\\ result\\ in\\ an\\ adverse\\ political\\ reaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Famous\\ First\\ Bubbles\\ by\\ Peter\\ Garber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\He\\ wants\\ to\\ explain\\:\\ the\\ Dutch\\ tulipmania\\,\\ the\\ Mississippi\\ Bubble\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Sea\\ Bubble\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ not\\ bubbles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tulipmania\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ true\\ bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Standard\\ discussions\\ of\\ tulipmania\\ neglect\\ discussions\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ market\\ fundamental\\ prices\\ of\\ the\\ bulbs\\ should\\ have\\ been\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ tulip\\ market\\ involved\\ in\\ tulipmania\\ was\\ a\\ rare\\ breed\\ of\\ bulbs\\ that\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ a\\ mosaic\\ virus\\,\\ which\\ created\\ beautiful\\,\\ feathered\\ patterns\\ in\\ the\\ flower\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ led\\ the\\ bulb\\ to\\ initially\\ sell\\ for\\ a\\ high\\ price\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ high\\ fundamental\\ value\\,\\ because\\ the\\ bulbs\\ were\\ rare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ as\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ rare\\ bulbs\\ increased\\,\\ the\\ prices\\ fell\\ and\\ bulbs\\ sold\\ at\\ their\\ reproduction\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ bulbs\\ now\\ had\\ a\\ low\\ fundamental\\ value\\,\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ rare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ price\\ decline\\ was\\ large\\,\\ but\\ not\\ as\\ legendary\\ as\\ people\\ have\\ made\\ it\\ out\\ to\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\South\\ Sea\\ Bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ South\\ Sea\\ Company\\ entered\\ into\\ an\\ agreement\\ to\\ refinance\\ all\\ the\\ outstanding\\ debt\\ of\\ Parliament\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ companies\\&rsquo\\;\\ strategy\\ involved\\ inviting\\ debtors\\ to\\ convert\\ their\\ debt\\ into\\ shares\\ of\\ the\\ company\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ bubble\\ companies\\,\\ who\\ began\\ to\\ speculate\\ on\\ the\\ debt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parliament\\ passed\\ a\\ law\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bubble\\ Act\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ ban\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ these\\ corporations\\.\\ Led\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\ sale\\ of\\ the\\ stock\\ of\\ these\\ companies\\ and\\ the\\ stock\\ of\\ South\\ Seas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ collapse\\ of\\ share\\ price\\,\\ which\\ upset\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ converted\\ their\\ debt\\ into\\ shares\\.\\ \\ \\;Parliament\\ turned\\ against\\ the\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Share\\ prices\\ fell\\ even\\ further\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ bubble\\,\\ because\\ the\\ share\\ prices\\ never\\ rose\\ above\\ fundamental\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Mississippi\\ Bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ a\\ real\\ bubble\\,\\ because\\ reduction\\ in\\ price\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ radical\\ shift\\ in\\ monetary\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 12, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/1030FinalmidtermSG.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Comparative Politics of Latin America - Guide 1", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "comparative-politics", "latin-america"], "text": null, "id": 39, "html": "\\\\\\Gov1295\\_Comp\\_Govt\\_L\\.\\_America\\_\\-\\_Final\\_1st\\_Packet\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c11\\{color\\:\\#00008b\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c14\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c5\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Gov\\ 1295\\:\\ Terms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NORTH\\ AMERICA\\ FREE\\ TRADE\\ AGREEMENT\\ \\(NAFTA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ it\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ put\\ into\\ effect\\ January\\ 1\\,\\ 1994\\,\\ NAFTA\\ created\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ second\\ largest\\ free\\ trade\\ zone\\ \\(after\\ the\\ European\\ Economic\\ Area\\)\\ between\\ Mexico\\,\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Canada\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ it\\ is\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ regarding\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ NAFTA\\ gave\\ Mexico\\ better\\ access\\ to\\ US\\ markets\\,\\ but\\ locked\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ neoliberal\\ economic\\ policy\\.\\ In\\ theory\\,\\ NAFTA\\ would\\ have\\ greatly\\ improved\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\ by\\ giving\\ it\\ access\\ to\\ American\\ markets\\.\\ In\\ practice\\,\\ it\\ was\\ less\\ successful\\ at\\ aiding\\ the\\ economic\\ growth\\ of\\ Mexico\\,\\ due\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ residual\\ corruption\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ that\\ was\\ under\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ PRI\\ during\\ NAFTA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inauguration\\.\\ NAFTA\\ marked\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ Mexican\\ economic\\ policy\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ old\\ nationalist\\ development\\ model\\ to\\ a\\ new\\,\\ liberal\\ one\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NIXON\\-TO\\-CHINA\\ SYNDROME\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ it\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;an\\ expression\\ derived\\ from\\ US\\ President\\ Richard\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ visit\\ to\\ communist\\ China\\ during\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\ Only\\ someone\\ as\\ conservative\\,\\ far\\ right\\ and\\ anti\\-communist\\ as\\ Nixon\\ could\\ go\\ to\\ China\\ without\\ arousing\\ suspicion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ it\\ is\\ important\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ Nixon\\-to\\-China\\ is\\ significant\\ in\\ this\\ course\\ because\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ has\\ occurred\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ in\\ particular\\ during\\ the\\ economic\\ reforms\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ 90\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ Presidents\\ with\\ strong\\ poor\\/working\\ class\\ support\\ could\\ more\\ easily\\ implement\\ tough\\ neoliberal\\ economic\\ reforms\\.\\ Others\\ might\\ risk\\ alienating\\ the\\ poor\\ with\\ these\\ policies\\,\\ but\\ presidents\\ gained\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ doubt\\ from\\ their\\ groups\\ of\\ loyal\\ supporters\\.\\ Example\\:\\ Menem\\ introducing\\ liberalizing\\ reforms\\ that\\ hurt\\ the\\ poor\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ INFORMAL\\ SECTOR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ it\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;unregulated\\ industry\\,\\ ie\\ street\\ vendors\\,\\ maids\\,\\ or\\ workers\\ in\\ a\\ legitimate\\ company\\ who\\ work\\ under\\ the\\ table\\,\\ who\\ work\\ without\\ benefits\\ or\\ protections\\ normally\\ afforded\\ workers\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ formal\\,\\ unionized\\ workers\\ with\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ it\\ is\\ important\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ great\\ impact\\ upon\\ the\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ organization\\ of\\ a\\ country\\.\\ It\\ contributes\\ to\\ economic\\ decentralization\\,\\ political\\ fragmentation\\ \\(no\\ unions\\ with\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ organize\\)\\,\\ reduces\\ labor\\ costs\\,\\ increases\\ heterogeneity\\ of\\ socio\\-economic\\ situations\\ within\\ a\\ country\\,\\ less\\ stratification\\ \\(for\\ more\\ detailed\\ analysis\\,\\ look\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Manuel\\ Castells\\ and\\ Alejandro\\ Portes\\,\\ \\"\\;World\\ Underneath\\:\\ The\\ Origins\\,\\ Dynamics\\,\\ and\\ Effects\\ of\\ the\\ Informal\\ Economy\\,\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ people\\,\\ occupations\\ and\\ socio\\-economic\\ levels\\ that\\ are\\ encompassed\\ in\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ make\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ unite\\ under\\ one\\ political\\ banner\\,\\ reducing\\ political\\ unity\\ and\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Punto\\ Fijo\\ Pact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Country\\:\\ Venezuela\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Year\\:\\ 1958\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ The\\ Punto\\ Fijo\\ pact\\ was\\ an\\ agreement\\ negotiated\\ after\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ Jimenez\\ dictatorship\\ in\\ 1958\\ that\\ in\\ effect\\ created\\ an\\ integrative\\ party\\ system\\ in\\ Venezuela\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ of\\ one\\ party\\ like\\ the\\ PRI\\ in\\ Mexico\\,\\ the\\ PF\\ pact\\ was\\ a\\ coalition\\ between\\ two\\ parties\\,\\ AD\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ COPEI\\ on\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pact\\ mandated\\ that\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ trials\\ for\\ human\\ rights\\ violations\\,\\ and\\ the\\ military\\ would\\ in\\ fact\\ get\\ higher\\ wages\\,\\ but\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ pact\\ was\\ an\\ intricate\\ power\\-sharing\\ agreement\\,\\ whereby\\ AD\\ and\\ COPEI\\ would\\ split\\ important\\ political\\ positions\\ within\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ also\\ an\\ economic\\ compromise\\,\\ private\\ property\\ rights\\ would\\ be\\ respected\\,\\ but\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ an\\ expanded\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ some\\ small\\-scale\\ agrarian\\ reform\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ after\\ many\\ years\\ of\\ basic\\ stability\\ and\\ democracy\\,\\ the\\ Punto\\ Fijo\\ pact\\ began\\ to\\ fall\\ apart\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Hugo\\ Chavez\\ and\\ now\\ has\\ been\\ all\\ but\\ obliterated\\.\\ \\ \\;Venezuela\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ coast\\ through\\ the\\ 70s\\ because\\ of\\ oil\\ revenues\\,\\ but\\ AD\\ and\\ COPEI\\ leaders\\ failed\\ to\\ anticipate\\ an\\ oil\\ shock\\ that\\ would\\ send\\ the\\ economy\\ into\\ a\\ precipitous\\ decline\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Victor\\ Ra\\ú\\;l\\ Haya\\ de\\ la\\ Torre\\/APRA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Country\\:\\ Peru\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Time\\ Period\\:\\ late\\ 1920s\\/early\\ 1930s\\ to\\ today\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ Haya\\ de\\ la\\ Torre\\ formed\\ APRA\\,\\ a\\ populist\\ party\\,\\ but\\ unlike\\ the\\ Peronist\\ party\\,\\ APRA\\ could\\ not\\ get\\ into\\ power\\ on\\ its\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;Levitsky\\ attributed\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Peru\\ was\\ much\\ less\\ industrialized\\ than\\ Argentina\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ had\\ much\\ less\\ mobilized\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ each\\ time\\ APRA\\ backed\\ an\\ opposition\\ candidate\\ and\\ was\\ given\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ control\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ serious\\ backlash\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ oligarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;Haya\\ de\\ la\\ Torre\\ actually\\ had\\ to\\ spend\\ 5\\ years\\ inside\\ the\\ Colombian\\ embassy\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ banned\\ \\(like\\ Per\\ó\\;n\\)\\ from\\ being\\ in\\ Peru\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\,\\ APRA\\ got\\ tired\\ of\\ being\\ excluded\\ and\\ sold\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ oligarchy\\ and\\ abandoned\\ populism\\ \\(mid\\-50s\\)\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ leftist\\ coup\\ in\\ 1968\\.\\ \\ \\;APRA\\ was\\ still\\ around\\ during\\ the\\ transition\\ to\\ democracy\\,\\ and\\ actually\\ oversaw\\ the\\ Constituent\\ Assembly\\ of\\ 1979\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ new\\ Constitution\\ was\\ written\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ still\\ denied\\ power\\ as\\ Belaunde\\ won\\ the\\ 1980\\ elections\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ in\\ 1985\\,\\ APRA\\ candidate\\ Alan\\ Garcia\\ was\\ elected\\ to\\ the\\ presidency\\,\\ but\\ his\\ term\\ in\\ office\\ was\\ a\\ complete\\ disaster\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ first\\ things\\ were\\ looking\\ up\\ but\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ Shining\\ Path\\ and\\ the\\ strains\\ of\\ neoliberal\\ reform\\ doomed\\ the\\ Garcia\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ the\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\ of\\ Alberto\\ Fujimori\\,\\ APRA\\ still\\ exists\\ and\\ still\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ popular\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Integrative\\ party\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ \\ \\;We\\ talked\\ about\\ this\\ mostly\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ Mexico\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ idea\\ in\\ practice\\.\\ \\ \\;Professor\\ Levitsky\\ identified\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ radical\\ populism\\,\\ in\\ which\\ land\\ reform\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ short\\ term\\,\\ this\\ causes\\ severe\\ polarization\\ \\(conservatives\\ are\\ pretty\\ pissed\\ off\\)\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ it\\ allows\\ the\\ populists\\ to\\ reconcile\\ with\\ the\\ conservative\\ elite\\ while\\ still\\ maintaining\\ support\\ from\\ peasants\\ \\(they\\ now\\ have\\ land\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allows\\ the\\ party\\ to\\ move\\ to\\ the\\ center\\ while\\ keeping\\ support\\ from\\ both\\ sides\\ AND\\ giving\\ everyone\\ a\\ stake\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ system\\,\\ which\\,\\ as\\ we\\ all\\ know\\,\\ makes\\ both\\ sides\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;upset\\ the\\ chessboard\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Venezuela\\ post\\-Punto\\ Fijo\\ pact\\ is\\ also\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neopopulism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Term\\ which\\ describes\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ leadership\\ embodied\\ by\\ such\\ prominent\\ figures\\ in\\ 1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\-era\\ Latin\\ American\\ politics\\ as\\ Alberto\\ Fujimori\\ and\\ Carlos\\ Menem\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ style\\ of\\ leadership\\ paradoxically\\ combines\\ personalistic\\ governance\\ with\\ a\\ broad\\ base\\ of\\ support\\ \\(reminiscent\\ of\\ traditional\\ populist\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ past\\)\\ with\\ neoliberal\\ prescriptions\\ for\\ economic\\ austerity\\ and\\ market\\-oriented\\ structural\\ adjustments\\.\\ \\ \\;Kenneth\\ Roberts\\ associates\\ neopopulism\\ with\\ the\\ personalistic\\ outsider\\ presidential\\ candidates\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\ \\(Fujimori\\ in\\ particular\\)\\ during\\ the\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ 1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\ who\\ ran\\ for\\ office\\ on\\ an\\ anti\\-establishment\\ platform\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Delegative\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Delegative\\ democracies\\,\\ as\\ Guillermo\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ defines\\ them\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;rest\\ on\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ whoever\\ wins\\ election\\ to\\ the\\ presidency\\ is\\ thereby\\ entitled\\ to\\ govern\\ as\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ sees\\ fit\\,\\ constrained\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ hard\\ facts\\ of\\ existing\\ power\\ relations\\ and\\ by\\ a\\ constitutionally\\ limited\\ term\\ of\\ office\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Delegative\\ democracies\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ regular\\ elections\\ \\(as\\ other\\ democracies\\)\\,\\ but\\ they\\ cannot\\ effectively\\ be\\ characterized\\ as\\ full\\ representative\\ democracies\\ because\\ the\\ president\\ governs\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\ personalistic\\ manner\\,\\ thus\\ resulting\\ in\\ weaker\\ democratic\\ institutions\\,\\ and\\ usually\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ cooperation\\ between\\ the\\ executive\\ office\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ branches\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horizontal\\ Accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Horizontal\\ accountability\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\ imposed\\ on\\ a\\ government\\ by\\ its\\ own\\ democratic\\ institutions\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ in\\ the\\ ideal\\ democracy\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ remain\\ in\\ power\\,\\ a\\ particular\\ government\\ must\\ hold\\ itself\\ accountable\\ to\\ standards\\ set\\ by\\ other\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ within\\ the\\ governing\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ president\\ is\\ horizontally\\ accountable\\ to\\ congress\\ and\\ the\\ judiciary\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ counterpart\\ to\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\ is\\ vertical\\ accountability\\,\\ which\\ involves\\ the\\ responsibility\\ a\\ government\\ \\(and\\ most\\ specifically\\,\\ an\\ executive\\)\\ bears\\ to\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ constituents\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ both\\ forms\\ of\\ accountability\\ should\\ co\\-exist\\ in\\ the\\ ideal\\ democratic\\ system\\,\\ and\\ should\\ complement\\ and\\ reinforce\\ each\\ other\\,\\ oftentimes\\ a\\ particular\\ governing\\ system\\ \\(again\\,\\ most\\ specifically\\ the\\ executive\\ office\\)\\ holds\\ itself\\ accountable\\ in\\ one\\ way\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ points\\ out\\,\\ in\\ delegative\\ democracies\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ presidents\\ ostensibly\\ answer\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ people\\&mdash\\;their\\ constituents\\&mdash\\;but\\ do\\ not\\ hold\\ themselves\\ accountable\\ horizontally\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ reason\\ why\\ delegative\\ democracy\\ often\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ weakening\\ of\\ democratic\\ institutions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\38\\.\\ \\ \\;Horizontal\\ accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ accountability\\ of\\ elected\\ leaders\\ to\\ other\\ branches\\ of\\ \\ \\;government\\ like\\ the\\ legislature\\ and\\ the\\ courts\\.\\ \\ \\;Representative\\ democracies\\ with\\ strong\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\ of\\ power\\ within\\ their\\ government\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ examples\\ are\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ most\\ of\\ Western\\ Europe\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ and\\ some\\ Central\\ American\\ countries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ high\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ delegative\\ democracies\\ have\\ high\\ vertical\\ accountability\\ \\(accountability\\ of\\ elected\\ leaders\\ to\\ the\\ electorate\\)\\ and\\ weak\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ few\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\.\\ \\ \\;Elections\\ are\\ free\\,\\ but\\ afterwards\\,\\ presidents\\ rule\\ like\\ dictators\\,\\ viewing\\ congress\\ and\\ the\\ courts\\ as\\ obstacles\\ to\\ be\\ avoid\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ circumvent\\ Congress\\ by\\ ruling\\ by\\ decree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horizontal\\ accountability\\ suffered\\ during\\ Latin\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ crises\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;90s\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ region\\&rsquo\\;s\\ people\\ looked\\ to\\ strong\\ politicians\\ to\\ lead\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ financial\\ difficulty\\,\\ encouraging\\ leaders\\ to\\ stack\\ courts\\,\\ bribe\\ congressmen\\,\\ and\\ make\\ other\\ efforts\\ to\\ exert\\ executive\\ dominance\\ over\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alan\\ Garcia\\ and\\ Alberto\\ Fujimori\\ in\\ Peru\\,\\ Carlos\\ Menem\\ in\\ Argentina\\,\\ and\\ Hugo\\ Chavez\\ in\\ Venezuela\\ all\\ lead\\ delegative\\ democracies\\ with\\ weak\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ leaders\\&rsquo\\;\\ delegative\\ democracies\\ fell\\ apart\\ once\\ the\\ politicians\\&rsquo\\;\\ initial\\ popularity\\ wore\\ off\\ and\\ they\\ found\\ themselves\\ without\\ political\\ allies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Argentina\\,\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\ rose\\ during\\ Menem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ second\\ term\\ in\\ office\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ strengthening\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ press\\,\\ the\\ proliferation\\ of\\ human\\ rights\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ the\\ consolidation\\ of\\ Menem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ opposition\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ threats\\ to\\ rule\\ by\\ decree\\ if\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ his\\ way\\ no\\ longer\\ carried\\ weight\\,\\ and\\ he\\ found\\ his\\ power\\ being\\ held\\ increasingly\\ accountable\\ to\\ the\\ legislature\\ and\\ the\\ courts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\39\\.\\ \\ \\;Plurality\\ versus\\ proportional\\ representation\\ electoral\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plurality\\-based\\ electoral\\ systems\\ give\\ elected\\ positions\\ to\\ whichever\\ party\\ receives\\ the\\ most\\ votes\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ system\\ tends\\ to\\ produce\\ only\\ two\\,\\ strong\\,\\ parties\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Proportional\\-based\\ electoral\\ systems\\ give\\ elected\\ positions\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ votes\\ each\\ party\\ receives\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ even\\ if\\ your\\ party\\ comes\\ in\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;place\\ in\\ the\\ election\\,\\ if\\ it\\ got\\ 15\\%\\ of\\ the\\ vote\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ 15\\ seats\\ in\\ a\\ 100\\-seat\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ election\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ office\\,\\ so\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ lower\\ barrier\\ to\\ entry\\ to\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;Peru\\ and\\ Brazil\\ have\\ parties\\ in\\ Congress\\ who\\ only\\ won\\ 2\\%\\ of\\ the\\ vote\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ United\\ States\\ has\\ a\\ plurality\\-based\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Mexico\\ uses\\ both\\ plurality\\-based\\ and\\ proportional\\-based\\ electoral\\ systems\\.\\ \\ \\;Argentina\\ and\\ Brazil\\ are\\ purely\\ proportional\\-based\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pros\\ to\\ Plurality\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Plurality\\-based\\ nations\\ like\\ the\\ USA\\ benefit\\ from\\ their\\ system\\ because\\ with\\ only\\ 2\\ parties\\,\\ they\\ endure\\ less\\ legislative\\ conflict\\.\\ \\ \\;Voters\\ can\\ also\\ hold\\ elected\\ officials\\ more\\ accountable\\ than\\ in\\ proportional\\ systems\\,\\ where\\ voters\\ elect\\ a\\ party\\ to\\ office\\,\\ and\\ the\\ party\\ chooses\\ which\\ politicians\\ take\\ the\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ plurality\\ systems\\,\\ you\\ can\\ blame\\ Hilary\\ Clinton\\,\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ bigger\\ and\\ vaguer\\ Democratic\\ Party\\,\\ if\\ she\\ screws\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cons\\ to\\ Plurality\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Minority\\ parties\\ are\\ largely\\ excluded\\ from\\ the\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ only\\ one\\ winner\\ in\\ each\\ election\\,\\ you\\ have\\ lots\\ of\\ losers\\.\\ \\ \\;Frustrated\\,\\ losing\\ politicians\\ may\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ tip\\ over\\ the\\ chessboard\\ in\\ a\\ weak\\ democracy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pros\\ to\\ Proportionality\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\It\\ helps\\ to\\ grow\\ democracy\\ because\\ you\\ have\\ more\\ political\\ winners\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ people\\ benefit\\ from\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ accept\\,\\ the\\ political\\ game\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ legislation\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ principles\\,\\ not\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Parties\\ take\\ strong\\ stands\\ on\\ issues\\,\\ and\\ you\\ have\\ fewer\\ instances\\ of\\ politicians\\ taking\\ fickle\\ stances\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ alienating\\ voters\\.\\ \\ \\;Proportionality\\ tends\\ to\\ produce\\ higher\\ voter\\ turnout\\,\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cons\\ to\\ Proportionality\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;If\\ nations\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ parties\\ to\\ receive\\ minimum\\ percentage\\ of\\ the\\ vote\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ enter\\ Congress\\,\\ they\\ have\\ too\\ many\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;Israel\\ has\\ no\\ minimum\\,\\ and\\ it\\ has\\ 15\\-20\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ legislative\\ deadlock\\ as\\ the\\ different\\ parties\\ spend\\ time\\ compromising\\ and\\ aligning\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ things\\ done\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\.\\ \\ \\;Inchoate\\ party\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inchoate\\ parties\\ lack\\ organization\\ and\\ clear\\ programs\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ highly\\ personalistic\\,\\ created\\ for\\ and\\ by\\ single\\ candidates\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ usually\\ created\\ for\\ one\\ election\\ and\\ then\\ thrown\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Brazil\\,\\ Ecuador\\,\\ and\\ Peru\\ have\\ inchoate\\ party\\ systems\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ top\\ 5\\ finishers\\ in\\ Peru\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2000\\ presidential\\ election\\ came\\ from\\ parties\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ 10\\ years\\ earlier\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ in\\ Peru\\,\\ Alberto\\ Fujimori\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ inchoate\\ party\\ for\\ each\\ election\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Brazil\\,\\ 21\\ parties\\ had\\ candidates\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ half\\ of\\ those\\ existed\\ 4\\ years\\ earlier\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ the\\ workers\\&rsquo\\;\\ party\\ PT\\ had\\ strong\\ grass\\-roots\\ organization\\,\\ coherent\\ platform\\,\\ and\\ a\\ relatively\\ stable\\ base\\ of\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ many\\ parties\\ were\\ inchoate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\41\\.\\ \\ \\;Fernando\\ Collor\\ and\\ Fernando\\ Henrique\\ Cardoso\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ omnipotence\\ to\\ impotence\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Fernando\\ Collor\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ inchoate\\ National\\ Reconstruction\\ party\\,\\ which\\ was\\ so\\ weak\\ that\\ it\\ only\\ had\\ a\\ few\\ offices\\ throughout\\ all\\ of\\ Brazil\\.\\ \\ \\;Named\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 50\\ Most\\ Beautiful\\ People\\ in\\ 1990\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\People\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\magazine\\,\\ a\\ campaign\\ appearance\\ on\\ TV\\ doubled\\ his\\ following\\ and\\ propelled\\ him\\ to\\ victory\\ over\\ Lula\\ in\\ the\\ 1990\\ presidential\\ election\\.\\ \\ \\;Collor\\ was\\ a\\ neopopulist\\,\\ anti\\-establishment\\,\\ political\\ outsider\\ who\\ carried\\ a\\ broom\\ to\\ remind\\ Brazil\\ of\\ his\\ plan\\ to\\ sweep\\ away\\ old\\ political\\ parties\\ and\\ elites\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ in\\ office\\,\\ he\\ ruled\\ by\\ decree\\ because\\ his\\ anti\\-party\\ rhetoric\\ alienated\\ himself\\ from\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ politicians\\ and\\ prevented\\ collaboration\\ with\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Immediately\\ after\\ entering\\ office\\,\\ he\\ issued\\ 22\\ decrees\\ that\\ made\\ up\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;emergency\\ shock\\ program\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ shock\\ program\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ currency\\,\\ froze\\ bank\\ accounts\\,\\ and\\ deregulated\\ key\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;Buoyed\\ by\\ popular\\ support\\,\\ Collor\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ average\\ 14\\ decrees\\ a\\ month\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ shock\\ treatment\\ failed\\ to\\ improve\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ his\\ popularity\\ subsided\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ Fujimori\\ who\\ blocked\\ the\\ courts\\ and\\ Menem\\ who\\ stacked\\ the\\ courts\\,\\ Collor\\ could\\ not\\ control\\ his\\ judiciary\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ deemed\\ unconstitutional\\ his\\ habit\\ of\\ reissuing\\ decrees\\ already\\ blocked\\ by\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ legislature\\ teamed\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ Courts\\ to\\ limit\\ Collor\\,\\ and\\ in\\ 1992\\,\\ personal\\ corruption\\ \\(spending\\ \\$2\\.5\\ million\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ funds\\ on\\ landscaping\\ at\\ his\\ mansion\\)\\ prompted\\ his\\ impeachment\\ in\\ 1992\\.\\ \\ \\;Vice\\ President\\ Itamar\\ Franco\\ ruled\\ for\\ two\\ years\\ before\\ Cardoso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ election\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scandal\\ strengthened\\ Congress\\ and\\ enhanced\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ failure\\ taught\\ politicians\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ impossible\\ to\\ govern\\ without\\ legislative\\ coalitions\\,\\ and\\ Cardoso\\ took\\ that\\ lesson\\ to\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cardoso\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Muddling\\ through\\ gridlock\\,\\ strengthening\\ democracy\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cardoso\\ narrowly\\ defeated\\ Lula\\ for\\ the\\ presidency\\,\\ a\\ victory\\ sparked\\ by\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Real\\ Plan\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ Argentina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ convertibility\\ program\\,\\ the\\ Real\\ Plan\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ currency\\,\\ pegged\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ dollar\\,\\ and\\ reduced\\ inflation\\ from\\ 50\\%\\/month\\ in\\ early\\ 1994\\ to\\ 2\\%\\/month\\ by\\ October\\ 1994\\)\\,\\ which\\ he\\ installed\\ while\\ working\\ as\\ interim\\ president\\ Itmar\\ Franco\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Finance\\ Minister\\.\\ \\ \\;Cardoso\\ began\\ his\\ term\\ by\\ building\\ a\\ legislative\\ coalition\\ between\\ the\\ Centrist\\ PMDB\\ and\\ the\\ conservative\\ PLF\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Center\\-Right\\ coalition\\ gave\\ Cardoso\\ a\\ stable\\ majority\\ in\\ Congress\\,\\ but\\ it\\ required\\ lots\\ of\\ work\\ to\\ maintain\\:\\ \\ \\;constant\\ negotiation\\ and\\ lots\\ of\\ pork\\ barreling\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cardoso\\ had\\ many\\ failures\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reform\\ the\\ pension\\ system\\,\\ government\\ spending\\,\\ or\\ tax\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ privatization\\ bills\\ remained\\ stuck\\ in\\ Congress\\ for\\ years\\,\\ keeping\\ Brazil\\ stuck\\ in\\ traffic\\ of\\ the\\ road\\ to\\ neoliberal\\ reform\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ he\\ also\\ had\\ successes\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ gradually\\ liberalized\\ trade\\ and\\ opened\\ Brazil\\ to\\ foreign\\ investment\\,\\ he\\ privatized\\ mining\\,\\ and\\ he\\ reformed\\ the\\ state\\ bureaucracy\\ by\\ eliminating\\ what\\ was\\ once\\ lifetime\\ security\\ for\\ civil\\ servants\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ Brazil\\ lost\\ through\\ Cardoso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slow\\ policymaking\\,\\ it\\ gained\\ in\\ democratic\\ institutional\\ strength\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ longer\\ could\\ a\\ Collor\\-type\\ president\\ think\\ himself\\ above\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ game\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ executive\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ legislative\\ coalition\\ behind\\ his\\ reforms\\,\\ something\\ Cardoso\\ maintained\\ throughout\\ his\\ presidency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\.\\ \\ \\;Partyarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Partyarchy\\ occurs\\ when\\ a\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ predominant\\ parties\\ collude\\ with\\ one\\ another\\ to\\ mute\\ political\\ parties\\/voices\\ that\\ differ\\ from\\ their\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ occurred\\ most\\ obviously\\ in\\ Venezuela\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ oil\\ money\\ has\\ significantly\\ strengthened\\ Venezuela\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Center\\-Left\\ AD\\ and\\ Center\\-Right\\ COPEI\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ state\\ increased\\ over\\ time\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ that\\ 1\\ in\\ every\\ 4\\ Venezuelans\\ worked\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ at\\ some\\ points\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\ \\ \\;AD\\ and\\ COPEI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ signing\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Punto\\ Fijo\\ Pact\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 1959\\ had\\ bound\\ the\\ parties\\ to\\ work\\ together\\ to\\ democratically\\ solve\\ problems\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ parties\\ grew\\ so\\ close\\ with\\ each\\ other\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ they\\ eventually\\ formed\\ a\\ cartel\\ that\\ maintained\\ their\\ own\\ power\\ while\\ silencing\\ outside\\ political\\ influences\\ \\(parties\\,\\ politicians\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ parties\\ grew\\ so\\ large\\ and\\ spread\\ out\\ that\\ they\\ controlled\\ most\\ of\\ society\\,\\ from\\ soccer\\ leagues\\ to\\ beauty\\ pageants\\.\\ \\ \\;Supposedly\\ you\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ win\\ a\\ beauty\\ pageant\\ if\\ you\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ party\\ member\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Few\\ people\\ had\\ channels\\ to\\ express\\ their\\ independent\\ views\\,\\ and\\ Venezuelans\\ found\\ the\\ parties\\ increasingly\\ unresponsive\\ to\\ their\\ needs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ electorate\\ also\\ grew\\ frustrated\\ by\\ economic\\ stagnation\\ \\(real\\ GDP\\ declined\\ 8\\ straight\\ years\\ 1978\\-1785\\)\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ boom\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ parties\\ refused\\ to\\ reveal\\ their\\ own\\ financial\\ records\\,\\ Venezuelans\\ started\\ to\\ believe\\ the\\ politicians\\ were\\ stealing\\ oil\\ money\\ from\\ the\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ frustrations\\ sparked\\ the\\ overwhelming\\ 1998\\ presidential\\ election\\ of\\ Hugo\\ Chavez\\,\\ a\\ political\\ outsider\\ determined\\ to\\ remove\\ Venezuela\\&rsquo\\;s\\ partyarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\43\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Caracazo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ massive\\,\\ spontaneous\\ urban\\ rebellion\\ in\\ Venezuela\\&rsquo\\;s\\ capital\\ of\\ Caracas\\ in\\ 1989\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ uncoordinated\\,\\ unplanned\\ protests\\ among\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ against\\ the\\ doubling\\ in\\ price\\ of\\ bus\\ fares\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ part\\ of\\ President\\ Carlos\\ Perez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neoliberal\\ economic\\ reform\\ package\\.\\ \\ \\;Rioters\\ tore\\ through\\ affluent\\ neighborhoods\\ and\\ looted\\ expensive\\ stores\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ military\\ trounced\\ the\\ uprising\\,\\ killing\\ anywhere\\ from\\ 350\\-1\\,000\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Caracazo\\ inspired\\ Hugo\\ Chavez\\,\\ a\\ military\\ paratrooper\\ frustrated\\ with\\ partyarchy\\,\\ to\\ enact\\ a\\ failed\\ coup\\ against\\ Carlos\\ Perez\\ in\\ 1992\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ condition\\ for\\ surrendering\\,\\ Chavez\\ demanded\\ airtime\\ on\\ state\\ TV\\ to\\ explain\\ himself\\ to\\ Venezuelans\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ captivating\\ the\\ national\\ audience\\ with\\ his\\ honesty\\ and\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ improving\\ Venezuelan\\ politics\\,\\ he\\ sowed\\ the\\ seeds\\ for\\ his\\ eventual\\ election\\ to\\ the\\ presidency\\ in\\ 1998\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ took\\ responsibility\\ for\\ the\\ failed\\ coup\\ \\(notable\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ where\\ the\\ elite\\ never\\ took\\ personal\\ responsibility\\ for\\ their\\ actions\\)\\ and\\ promised\\ that\\ his\\ campaign\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ political\\ system\\ was\\ only\\ lost\\ for\\ that\\ moment\\ in\\ 1992\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ would\\ try\\ again\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\44\\.\\ \\ \\;Hugo\\ Chavez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Released\\ from\\ prison\\ by\\ Rafael\\ Caldera\\ in\\ 1995\\,\\ the\\ neopopulist\\ Chavez\\ trounced\\ former\\ Miss\\ Universe\\ Irene\\ Saez\\ and\\ businessman\\ Henrique\\ Salas\\ Romer\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ presidency\\ in\\ 1998\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ buried\\ the\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ set\\ up\\ by\\ partyarhcy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Autogolpe\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\His\\ popular\\ support\\ soaring\\ over\\ 90\\%\\,\\ Chavez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ allies\\ won\\ 122\\/131\\ Congressional\\ seats\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ strongly\\ backed\\,\\ Chavez\\ re\\-wrote\\ the\\ constitution\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ term\\ from\\ 5\\ to\\ 6\\ years\\ and\\ allow\\ for\\ presidential\\ reelection\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ military\\,\\ and\\ he\\ received\\ a\\ 72\\%\\ vote\\ of\\ approval\\ for\\ his\\ autogolpe\\,\\ which\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ dissolution\\ of\\ Congress\\ and\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ legitimize\\ his\\ changes\\,\\ he\\ called\\ for\\ 2000\\ elections\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ won\\ the\\ 2000\\ vote\\ and\\ a\\ majority\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ Fujimori\\ in\\ Peru\\,\\ he\\ wiped\\ out\\ old\\ institutions\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ democracy\\ and\\ enjoyed\\ massive\\ popular\\ support\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ Fujimori\\,\\ his\\ autogolpe\\ had\\ been\\ done\\ through\\ elections\\,\\ not\\ military\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ of\\ 2000\\,\\ Venezuela\\ still\\ qualified\\ as\\ a\\ democracy\\:\\ \\ \\;free\\ press\\,\\ government\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ violate\\ civil\\ liberties\\,\\ opposition\\ parties\\ free\\ to\\ organize\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chavez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ successes\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Chavez\\ reduced\\ the\\ budget\\ deficit\\ by\\ following\\ tight\\ monetary\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;Inflation\\ dropped\\ and\\ the\\ economy\\ grew\\ 3\\%\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ targeted\\ the\\ informal\\ poor\\ with\\ social\\ policies\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ redistributed\\ wealth\\ not\\ through\\ wage\\ increases\\ \\(which\\ cause\\ inflation\\)\\ but\\ through\\ other\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ housewives\\ were\\ given\\ social\\ security\\.\\ \\ \\;Clean\\ water\\ reached\\ more\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poor\\ were\\ encouraged\\ to\\ overtake\\ unused\\ property\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ Bolivar\\ Plan\\ 2000\\ deployed\\ 70\\,000\\ soldiers\\ in\\ poor\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ where\\ they\\ built\\ roads\\,\\ vaccinated\\ children\\,\\ and\\ gave\\ food\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ their\\ farmland\\ received\\ heavy\\ taxes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chavez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ failures\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Chavez\\ threatened\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ so\\ much\\ that\\ \\$4\\.6\\ billion\\ fled\\ Venezuela\\ during\\ his\\ term\\ in\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ made\\ alliances\\ with\\ notorious\\ human\\-rights\\ abusers\\ like\\ Fidel\\ Castro\\ and\\ Saddam\\ Hussein\\,\\ along\\ with\\ leaders\\ in\\ Iran\\ and\\ Libya\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ employed\\ troops\\ to\\ spy\\ on\\ and\\ attack\\ his\\ opposition\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ increased\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ engaged\\ in\\ threatening\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ spoke\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;apocalyptic\\ times\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ warned\\ against\\ \\&ldquo\\;traitors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ invested\\ energy\\ into\\ school\\ textbooks\\ that\\ taught\\ his\\ own\\ ideology\\.\\ \\ \\;Dark\\-skinned\\ and\\ from\\ a\\ modest\\ background\\,\\ he\\ has\\ easily\\ attracted\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ while\\ alienating\\ a\\ racist\\ elite\\ that\\ also\\ dislikes\\ his\\ economic\\ policies\\,\\ forcing\\ the\\ country\\ into\\ a\\ near\\ Civil\\ War\\ between\\ Chavistas\\ and\\ anti\\-Chavistas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\45\\.\\ \\ \\;Neopluarlism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ condition\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ where\\ a\\ multiplicity\\ of\\ competing\\ organizations\\ exists\\,\\ and\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Neopluralism\\ has\\ emerged\\ recently\\ with\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ corporatism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Under\\ corporatism\\,\\ peasants\\&rsquo\\;\\ interests\\ were\\ heard\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ through\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ labor\\ unions\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ unions\\ weakened\\,\\ however\\,\\ corporatism\\ eroded\\ and\\ labor\\ became\\ only\\ one\\,\\ smaller\\,\\ interest\\ group\\ among\\ many\\.\\ \\ \\;Severing\\ ties\\ with\\ the\\ states\\ has\\ both\\ helped\\ and\\ hurt\\ groups\\ that\\ represent\\ the\\ working\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pros\\ to\\ Neopluralism\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\groups\\ are\\ autonomous\\.\\ \\ \\;Free\\ from\\ a\\ dependent\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ state\\,\\ they\\ have\\ total\\ authority\\ over\\ their\\ own\\ decisions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cons\\ to\\ Neopluralism\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\no\\ more\\ state\\ subsidies\\.\\ \\ \\;Groups\\ have\\ a\\ harder\\ time\\ raising\\ funds\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ laws\\ cannot\\ require\\ people\\ to\\ join\\ unions\\ and\\ remain\\ in\\ them\\ as\\ they\\ did\\ during\\ corporatist\\ times\\,\\ so\\ the\\ groups\\ have\\ a\\ harder\\ time\\ maintaining\\ ties\\ to\\ their\\ membership\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critics\\ have\\ two\\ points\\ of\\ view\\ on\\ neopluralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Optimistic\\ View\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Popular\\ Sector\\ Revitalization\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Some\\ view\\ neopluralism\\ as\\ a\\ positive\\,\\ because\\ they\\ believe\\ grass\\ roots\\ organizations\\ will\\ fill\\ the\\ void\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ countries\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ corporatism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ state\\ mobilization\\ and\\ cooptation\\,\\ they\\ have\\ higher\\ mobilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pessimistic\\ View\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Popular\\ Sector\\ Demobilization\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Critics\\ of\\ neopluralism\\ lament\\ that\\ grass\\ roots\\ organizations\\ of\\ poor\\ people\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ emerge\\ because\\ the\\ poor\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ time\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ corporatism\\ will\\ leave\\ a\\ void\\ in\\ popular\\ sector\\ representation\\ that\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ filled\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ foresee\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ old\\ days\\ of\\ exploitation\\ and\\ popular\\ sector\\ marginalization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\46\\.\\ \\ \\;Associative\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;networks\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ form\\ with\\ the\\ intention\\ to\\ represent\\ peoples\\&rsquo\\;\\ interests\\ in\\ issues\\ that\\ they\\ naturally\\ associate\\ with\\.\\ \\ \\;Political\\ scientists\\ have\\ varying\\ opinions\\ about\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ associative\\ networks\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ optimists\\ view\\ associative\\ networks\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\associative\\ networks\\ entail\\ a\\ more\\ localized\\ and\\ decentralized\\ political\\ participation\\ that\\ is\\ more\\ fluid\\,\\ more\\ participatory\\,\\ and\\ more\\ democratic\\.\\ \\ \\;Associative\\ networks\\ will\\ emerge\\ among\\ people\\ surrounding\\ various\\ issues\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policy\\ goals\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ groups\\ will\\ not\\ have\\ stable\\ centralized\\ organization\\,\\ they\\ will\\ appear\\ less\\ powerful\\ and\\ influential\\,\\ but\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ effective\\ and\\ fluid\\,\\ like\\ NGOs\\.\\ \\ \\;Optimists\\ see\\ associative\\ networks\\ as\\ better\\ suited\\ to\\ the\\ contemporary\\ world\\ of\\ decentralized\\ politics\\ and\\ economics\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ say\\ the\\ good\\ old\\ days\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ so\\ good\\,\\ that\\ unions\\ and\\ populist\\ parties\\ coopted\\ parties\\ and\\ closed\\ channels\\ of\\ participation\\,\\ and\\ tomorrow\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ it\\ seems\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ popular\\ participation\\ can\\ emerge\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ corporatism\\ prevented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ pessimists\\ view\\ associative\\ networks\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\pessimists\\ believe\\ associative\\ networks\\ fail\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ poor\\ today\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ corporatism\\ once\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ poor\\ tend\\ to\\ exert\\ their\\ power\\ through\\ numbers\\,\\ but\\ exerting\\ that\\ power\\ requires\\ mass\\ mobilization\\,\\ widespread\\ strikes\\,\\ and\\ mass\\ protests\\.\\ \\ \\;Parties\\ and\\ unions\\ can\\ enact\\ these\\ activities\\,\\ but\\ localized\\,\\ decentralized\\ associative\\ networks\\ have\\ a\\ much\\ harder\\ time\\ organizing\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ behind\\ one\\ cause\\.\\ \\ \\;Pessimists\\ fear\\ a\\ future\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ erosion\\ of\\ mass\\ movements\\ leaves\\ them\\ unrepresented\\,\\ poorer\\,\\ and\\ more\\ lonely\\,\\ conditions\\ that\\ will\\ cause\\ them\\ to\\ lose\\ hope\\ and\\ contact\\ with\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;Perhaps\\ the\\ poor\\ will\\ revert\\ to\\ times\\ before\\ corporatism\\,\\ when\\ they\\ lacked\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ voted\\ as\\ clients\\,\\ not\\ workers\\,\\ giving\\ their\\ votes\\ to\\ conservative\\ elites\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ small\\ benefits\\.\\ \\ \\;Will\\ they\\ fall\\ back\\ into\\ clientalist\\ relationships\\ with\\ the\\ elite\\ that\\ will\\ cause\\ a\\ shift\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\47\\.\\ \\ \\;Transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;boomerang\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ devote\\ themselves\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ cause\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ abolition\\ of\\ sweatshops\\,\\ and\\ enact\\ reform\\ on\\ that\\ issue\\ by\\ raising\\ awareness\\ among\\ groups\\ who\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ influence\\ those\\ issues\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;children\\ of\\ globalization\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ built\\ upon\\ the\\ internet\\,\\ fax\\ machines\\,\\ and\\ other\\ global\\ communications\\ systems\\.\\ \\ \\;Using\\ communication\\ technology\\,\\ they\\ link\\ diverse\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ like\\ government\\ officials\\,\\ international\\ organizations\\,\\ international\\ Non\\-Governmental\\ Organizations\\,\\ and\\ local\\ organizations\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ build\\ relationships\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ media\\,\\ Congress\\,\\ and\\ State\\ Department\\,\\ bridging\\ what\\ happens\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ with\\ DC\\ policy\\ circles\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ world\\ barely\\ knew\\ about\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Soccer\\ Stadium\\ massacre\\ in\\ 1973\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ however\\,\\ transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ help\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ impossible\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ such\\ massive\\ human\\ rights\\ violations\\ without\\ triggering\\ a\\ worldwide\\ response\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ alter\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\,\\ allowing\\ weak\\ and\\ disempowered\\ groups\\ to\\ find\\ an\\ influential\\ audience\\ and\\ to\\ put\\ their\\ needs\\ on\\ the\\ policy\\ agenda\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Boomerang\\ Effect\\ Works\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Latin\\ American\\ government\\ ignores\\,\\ threatens\\,\\ or\\ represses\\ a\\ weak\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ group\\ turns\\ to\\ the\\ international\\ media\\ and\\ its\\ allies\\ in\\ the\\ transnational\\ advocacy\\ network\\.\\ \\ \\;Soon\\,\\ politicians\\ in\\ Washington\\ D\\.C\\.\\ and\\ Brussels\\ are\\ compelled\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ against\\ the\\ offending\\ Latin\\ American\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;International\\ sanction\\ punishes\\ offending\\ governments\\ to\\ an\\ extent\\ that\\ the\\ groups\\ themselves\\ could\\ never\\ dream\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mothers\\ of\\ the\\ Plaza\\ de\\ Mayo\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Mothers\\ of\\ the\\ Plaza\\ de\\ Mayo\\ received\\ worldwide\\ attention\\ starting\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1970s\\,\\ revealing\\ the\\ brutality\\ of\\ the\\ Argentina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ military\\ regime\\ and\\ sowing\\ the\\ seeds\\ for\\ its\\ downfall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Zapatista\\ Rebellion\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Mexican\\ government\\ had\\ to\\ resist\\ oppressing\\ the\\ indigenous\\ Zapatista\\ rebellion\\ because\\ transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ had\\ made\\ sure\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ story\\ in\\ the\\ news\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ internet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brazil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rubber\\ Tappers\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Brazilian\\ rubber\\ tappers\\ who\\ make\\ their\\ living\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ Amazon\\ rainforest\\ were\\ losing\\ their\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ as\\ industrialists\\ cut\\ down\\ the\\ rain\\ forest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\International\\ pressure\\ forced\\ the\\ Brazilian\\ government\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ against\\ rain\\ forest\\ destruction\\ and\\ to\\ back\\ the\\ rubber\\ tappers\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ rubber\\ tappers\\&rsquo\\;\\ leader\\ Chico\\ Mendes\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ Brazilian\\ landowners\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;covered\\ the\\ story\\ on\\ its\\ front\\ page\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ never\\ would\\ have\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ old\\ days\\,\\ the\\ poor\\ needed\\ a\\ massive\\,\\ widespread\\ movement\\ to\\ enact\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ enable\\ small\\ groups\\ to\\ achieve\\ specific\\ gains\\ by\\ making\\ their\\ cause\\ heard\\ \\&lsquo\\;round\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\48\\.\\ \\ \\;CONAIE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ Ecuadorian\\ indigenous\\ movement\\ formed\\ in\\ 1986\\ after\\ the\\ indigenous\\ peoples\\ decided\\ to\\ break\\ away\\ from\\ Leftist\\ movements\\ that\\ they\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ unresponsive\\ to\\ their\\ needs\\.\\ \\ \\;CONAIE\\ sought\\ a\\ bilingual\\ education\\ that\\ included\\ teaching\\ of\\ its\\ native\\ quechua\\ language\\,\\ and\\ it\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ its\\ own\\ decision\\ making\\ at\\ the\\ local\\ community\\ level\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ more\\ grass\\ roots\\ organization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONAIE\\ took\\ care\\ of\\ its\\ own\\ resources\\ and\\ refused\\ to\\ be\\ coopted\\ by\\ its\\ opposition\\ or\\ the\\ government\\,\\ gradually\\ strengthening\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ group\\ acted\\ militantly\\ when\\ it\\ found\\ its\\ desires\\ ignored\\,\\ and\\ it\\ rose\\ up\\ in\\ 1990\\ to\\ block\\ roads\\ and\\ halt\\ its\\ sending\\ of\\ indigenous\\ goods\\ to\\ markets\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ call\\ attention\\ to\\ their\\ causes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rebellion\\ mobilized\\ Ecuadorians\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ scale\\,\\ and\\ CONAIE\\ became\\ a\\ major\\ force\\ in\\ politics\\.\\ In\\ 1992\\,\\ the\\ state\\ responded\\ to\\ CONAIE\\,\\ giving\\ different\\ indigenous\\ groups\\ large\\ chunks\\ of\\ land\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONAIE\\ triumphs\\ over\\ Sixto\\ Duran\\ Ballen\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ Ecaudorian\\ president\\ Sixto\\ Duran\\ Ballen\\ came\\ into\\ office\\,\\ he\\ aimed\\ to\\ reverse\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friendly\\ stance\\ toward\\ the\\ indigenous\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tried\\ to\\ dismantle\\ the\\ bilingual\\ program\\ and\\ eliminate\\ credits\\ and\\ subsidies\\ benefiting\\ the\\ indigenous\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1994\\,\\ he\\ pushed\\ through\\ Congress\\ a\\ law\\ that\\ legalized\\ buying\\ all\\ agrarian\\ land\\ in\\ Ecuador\\,\\ removing\\ the\\ indigenous\\&rsquo\\;\\ sense\\ of\\ security\\ that\\ their\\ protected\\ lands\\ gave\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;CONAIE\\ mobilized\\ massive\\ protests\\,\\ the\\ government\\ sent\\ the\\ military\\ to\\ put\\ down\\ the\\ riots\\,\\ but\\ CONAIE\\ won\\ enough\\ support\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ the\\ full\\-scale\\ commercialization\\ of\\ their\\ protected\\ lands\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ through\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONAIE\\ emerged\\ as\\ the\\ leading\\ challenger\\ of\\ neoliberalism\\ in\\ Ecuador\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ enjoyed\\ widespread\\ support\\:\\ \\ \\;70\\%\\ Ecuadorians\\ supported\\ CONAIE\\,\\ while\\ only\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ was\\ indigenous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONAIE\\ forms\\ Pachakutik\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\CONAIE\\ used\\ to\\ refuse\\ participation\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\,\\ they\\ changed\\ that\\ decision\\ and\\ formed\\ the\\ political\\ party\\ Pachakutik\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 2002\\,\\ Pachakutik\\ backed\\ Lucio\\ Gutierrez\\,\\ a\\ military\\ man\\ who\\ led\\ a\\ 3\\-hour\\ coup\\ against\\ President\\ Jamil\\ Mahuad\\ \\(who\\,\\ like\\ Sixto\\ Duran\\ Ballen\\,\\ did\\ not\\ relate\\ well\\ to\\ CONAIE\\)\\ in\\ 2000\\ that\\ was\\ quickly\\ overturned\\,\\ and\\ Gutierrez\\ won\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ PAchakutik\\&rsquo\\;s\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gutierrez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\-face\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Gutierrez\\ initially\\ rewarded\\ CONAIE\\ for\\ Pachakutik\\&rsquo\\;s\\ support\\ by\\ giving\\ them\\ two\\ key\\ positions\\ in\\ the\\ foreign\\ ministry\\ and\\ the\\ agricultural\\ ministry\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ month\\ into\\ his\\ presidency\\,\\ however\\,\\ he\\ became\\ Centrist\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ agreed\\ with\\ the\\ IMF\\ to\\ cut\\ wages\\ and\\ forge\\ other\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\,\\ even\\ making\\ diplomatic\\ visits\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\ \\;Guterrez\\ drew\\ the\\ ire\\ of\\ CONAIE\\ for\\ these\\ actions\\,\\ and\\ he\\ responded\\ by\\ kicking\\ Pachakutik\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ cabinet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONAIE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ future\\ in\\ politics\\ is\\ uncertain\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ central\\ party\\ organizational\\ muscle\\ for\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\.\\ \\ \\;Among\\ its\\ many\\ successes\\,\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ecuadorian\\ constitution\\ guarantees\\ bilingual\\ education\\ and\\ recognizes\\ Ecuador\\ as\\ a\\ plural\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\49\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Ejido\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ taking\\ land\\ from\\ private\\ hands\\ and\\ using\\ it\\ as\\ communal\\ land\\ shared\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ The\\ Aztecs\\ used\\ the\\ Ejido\\ System\\,\\ and\\ it\\ persisted\\ in\\ Mexico\\ until\\ the\\ Spanish\\ colonized\\ Mexico\\ and\\ replaced\\ it\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\encomienda\\ system\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ encomienda\\ system\\ had\\ been\\ abolished\\ by\\ the\\ constitution\\ of\\ 1917\\ with\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ restoring\\ the\\ ejido\\ system\\,\\ this\\ did\\ not\\ happen\\ until\\ populist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Lazaro\\ Cardenas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;became\\ president\\ in\\ 1934\\.\\ \\ \\;Restoring\\ the\\ ejido\\ system\\ gives\\ land\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ provide\\ more\\ food\\ for\\ the\\ community\\.\\ Under\\ the\\ ejido\\ system\\,\\ the\\ land\\ is\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ a\\ national\\ bank\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ bank\\ pays\\ for\\ the\\ equipment\\ and\\ goods\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ upkeep\\ of\\ the\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ essence\\,\\ the\\ bank\\ just\\ replaces\\ the\\ encomendero\\ \\(the\\ Spaniard\\ who\\ taxed\\ the\\ laborers\\ and\\ summoned\\ them\\ for\\ slave\\-like\\ labor\\)\\;\\ however\\,\\ the\\ community\\ member\\ who\\ works\\ on\\ the\\ land\\ gets\\ paid\\ for\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\50\\.\\ \\ \\;Brown\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Poor\\ areas\\ where\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ too\\ weak\\ to\\ protect\\ freedom\\ and\\ enforce\\ justice\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ movie\\ \\&ldquo\\;City\\ of\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\ depicts\\ life\\ in\\ a\\ brown\\ area\\ outside\\ Rio\\ De\\ Janiero\\,\\ an\\ impoverished\\ housing\\ project\\ built\\ by\\ the\\ Brazilian\\ government\\ to\\ clear\\ away\\ shanty\\-towns\\ and\\ allow\\ for\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ wealthy\\ urban\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ brown\\ areas\\,\\ the\\ state\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mafia\\,\\ drug\\ traffickers\\,\\ and\\/or\\ guerrillas\\ govern\\ society\\,\\ oftentimes\\ in\\ brutal\\,\\ violent\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;Brown\\ areas\\ abound\\ throughout\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ highest\\ amount\\ of\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Brown\\ areas\\ prove\\ that\\ without\\ a\\ strong\\ state\\,\\ a\\ country\\ cannot\\ achieve\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Impossible\\ Game\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ The\\ impossible\\ game\\ was\\ a\\ situation\\ created\\ by\\ Peronism\\ in\\ Argentina\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ govern\\ Argentina\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;better\\&rdquo\\;\\ democracy\\,\\ the\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ Liberating\\ Revolution\\ in\\ 1955\\ outlawed\\ the\\ Peronist\\ party\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ the\\ illegal\\ party\\ still\\ claimed\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ electorate\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ temptation\\ for\\ upcoming\\ candidates\\ to\\ make\\ deals\\ with\\ Peron\\ to\\ legalize\\ his\\ party\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ obtain\\ votes\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ way\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ lose\\-lose\\ situation\\ for\\ the\\ candidate\\:\\ if\\ they\\ followed\\ through\\ on\\ their\\ promise\\ to\\ legalize\\ the\\ party\\,\\ Peronism\\ would\\ easily\\ overthrow\\ their\\ own\\ government\\,\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ negated\\ on\\ their\\ promise\\,\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\&rsquo\\;s\\ protest\\ would\\ make\\ Argentina\\ ungovernable\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ impossible\\ game\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ISI\\ \\&ldquo\\;exhaustion\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Part\\ of\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ bureaucratic\\ authoritarianism\\ is\\ the\\ exhaustion\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;easy\\&rdquo\\;\\ stage\\ of\\ ISI\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;easy\\&rdquo\\;\\ stage\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ light\\ domestic\\ goods\\ and\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ domestic\\ market\\,\\ which\\ creates\\ a\\ positive\\ sum\\ game\\ between\\ labor\\ and\\ business\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ as\\ domestic\\ markets\\ become\\ saturated\\ and\\ balance\\ of\\ payment\\ problems\\ lead\\ to\\ inflation\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;easy\\&rdquo\\;\\ stage\\ becomes\\ exhausted\\,\\ making\\ ISI\\ deepening\\ \\(requiring\\ technology\\ and\\ investment\\)\\ necessary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augusto\\ Pinochet\\ and\\ the\\ Chicago\\ Boys\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ On\\ September\\ 11\\,\\ 1973\\,\\ Augusto\\ Pinochet\\ took\\ command\\ of\\ the\\ Chilean\\ military\\ and\\ its\\ coup\\ against\\ the\\ Allende\\ government\\,\\ putting\\ himself\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ an\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ mess\\ as\\ inflation\\ grew\\ over\\ 500\\%\\ and\\ popular\\ mobilization\\ led\\ to\\ increasingly\\ violent\\ conflicts\\ and\\ paralyzing\\ strikes\\.\\ \\ \\;Pinochet\\ proceeded\\ to\\ declare\\ a\\ war\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ engage\\ in\\ massive\\ repression\\ from\\ 1973\\-1975\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ restructure\\ and\\ depoliticize\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Using\\ foreign\\-trained\\ economists\\ from\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Chicago\\,\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Chicago\\ Boys\\,\\ Pinochet\\ created\\ a\\ radical\\ free\\ market\\ experiment\\ of\\ orthodox\\ stabilization\\ that\\ decreased\\ public\\ spending\\ by\\ 40\\%\\ and\\ wages\\ by\\ 50\\%\\ and\\ created\\ a\\ monetarist\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;Chile\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ free\\ markets\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ annual\\ GDP\\ growth\\ of\\ 7\\%\\ from\\ 1976\\-1981\\,\\ although\\ at\\ a\\ cost\\ of\\ high\\ unemployment\\ \\(22\\%\\)\\ and\\ poverty\\ \\(40\\%\\ of\\ households\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ banking\\ system\\ in\\ 1982\\,\\ however\\,\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ GDP\\ plummeted\\ by\\ 14\\%\\ and\\ the\\ left\\ rose\\ up\\ in\\ protest\\.\\ \\ \\;Pinochet\\ fired\\ the\\ Chicago\\ Boys\\ but\\ kept\\ the\\ neoliberal\\ model\\ they\\ had\\ helped\\ create\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ economy\\ recovered\\ after\\ 1983\\ with\\ modest\\ GDP\\ growth\\ of\\ 4\\%\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chilean\\ miracle\\&rdquo\\;\\ became\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ other\\ countries\\ as\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regime\\ remained\\ unchallenged\\ for\\ 16\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Readings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\J\\.\\ Samuel\\ Valenzuela\\ and\\ Arturo\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ \\"\\;Modernization\\ and\\ Dependency\\:\\ Alternative\\ Perspectives\\ in\\ the\\ Study\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Underdevelopment\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ essay\\ covers\\ the\\ basic\\ tenets\\ of\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ major\\ developmental\\ theories\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ \\(modernization\\,\\ dependency\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ theories\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ review\\,\\ modernization\\ theory\\ operates\\ on\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ with\\ industrialization\\ and\\ economic\\ growth\\ will\\ eventually\\ come\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ well\\-to\\-do\\ a\\ country\\ is\\,\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ democracy\\ is\\ to\\ emerge\\ as\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ model\\ for\\ this\\ theory\\ was\\ England\\,\\ which\\ went\\ from\\ feudalism\\ to\\ capitalism\\ and\\ eventually\\ democracy\\ through\\ industrialization\\.\\ \\ \\;Industrialization\\ is\\ the\\ major\\ vehicle\\ for\\ modernization\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ 5\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ makes\\ a\\ society\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ democratic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ urbanization\\:\\ brings\\ people\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ central\\ location\\ where\\ they\\ come\\ into\\ contact\\ with\\ modern\\ ideas\\ and\\ new\\ people\\,\\ increases\\ political\\ awareness\\ and\\ activism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ education\\:\\ generates\\ democratic\\ values\\,\\ and\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ proven\\ that\\ the\\ higher\\ the\\ education\\ rate\\,\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ democracy\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ increased\\ transportation\\ and\\ communication\\:\\ helps\\ people\\ to\\ organize\\ \\(think\\ protest\\)\\ and\\ makes\\ them\\ less\\ isolated\\ \\(easy\\ for\\ many\\ people\\ to\\ come\\ together\\ for\\ a\\ common\\ good\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ wealth\\:\\ reduces\\ class\\ conflict\\,\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ divide\\ up\\ a\\ bigger\\ pie\\ and\\ give\\ people\\ a\\ stake\\ in\\ the\\ system\\,\\ show\\ them\\ its\\ worth\\ preserving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ strengthens\\ civil\\ society\\:\\ activities\\ that\\ are\\ autonomous\\ of\\ government\\ are\\ more\\ popular\\,\\ people\\ feel\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ voice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ problems\\ with\\ modernization\\ theory\\ are\\ twofold\\:\\ 1\\)\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ ethnocentric\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ modern\\ is\\ a\\ western\\ one\\,\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ it\\ simply\\ did\\ not\\ pan\\ out\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ there\\ were\\ wealthy\\ countries\\ without\\ democracy\\ and\\ poor\\ countries\\ that\\ had\\ it\\ \\(and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ forget\\ all\\ those\\ coups\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ and\\ 70s\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dependency\\ theory\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ did\\ not\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ but\\ out\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ was\\ rooted\\ in\\ Marxism\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ duality\\ among\\ countries\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ the\\ haves\\ and\\ the\\ have\\-nots\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ haves\\ are\\ the\\ industrialized\\ countries\\ \\(or\\ \\&ldquo\\;core\\ states\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ world\\ who\\ exploited\\ the\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ peripheral\\ states\\ and\\ created\\ the\\ economic\\ duality\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ economic\\ development\\ of\\ poor\\ countries\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ wealthy\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ two\\ schools\\ of\\ dependency\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Crude\\ dependency\\:\\ asserts\\ that\\ the\\ periphery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reliance\\ on\\ developed\\ countries\\ is\\ a\\ zero\\-sum\\ game\\ because\\ even\\ after\\ decolonization\\ the\\ rich\\ countries\\ manage\\ to\\ keep\\ poor\\ countries\\ from\\ reaching\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ keeping\\ sweatshops\\ running\\ and\\ prohibiting\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ not\\ to\\ mention\\ the\\ US\\&rsquo\\;s\\ efforts\\ to\\ undermine\\ leftist\\ movements\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ solution\\ is\\ a\\ radical\\ break\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Sophisticated\\ dependency\\:\\ similar\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ such\\ a\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ as\\ crude\\ dependency\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ dependent\\ countries\\ may\\ develop\\,\\ but\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ an\\ uneven\\ development\\ across\\ countries\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ scarcity\\ of\\ capital\\ and\\ technology\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ critical\\ observation\\ of\\ dependency\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ cannot\\ treat\\ Latin\\ America\\ like\\ its\\ in\\ a\\ bubble\\,\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ goes\\ on\\ politically\\ or\\ economically\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ international\\ conditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Sheahan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Patterns\\ of\\ Development\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Poverty\\,\\ Repression\\,\\ and\\ Economic\\ Strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ transitions\\ that\\ most\\ Latin\\ American\\ economies\\ faced\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ growth\\ led\\ by\\ primary\\ exports\\ to\\ one\\ driven\\ by\\ the\\ protectionist\\ policy\\ of\\ Import\\-Substituting\\ Industrialization\\ \\(better\\ known\\ to\\ us\\ as\\ ISI\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ the\\ story\\ goes\\ like\\ this\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ most\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ made\\ their\\ money\\ from\\ exports\\,\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ controlled\\ the\\ export\\ goods\\ were\\ big\\ landowners\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ when\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ came\\ around\\ \\(1930s\\)\\,\\ Latin\\ American\\ economies\\ crashed\\,\\ and\\ crashed\\ hard\\,\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ total\\ reliance\\ on\\ world\\ demand\\,\\ which\\ evaporated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ adoption\\ of\\ ISI\\,\\ which\\ artificially\\ creates\\ a\\ domestic\\ market\\ by\\ instituting\\ severe\\ protectionist\\ measures\\,\\ namely\\ high\\ tariffs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ state\\ also\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ much\\ larger\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ pushing\\ the\\ domestic\\ market\\ as\\ the\\ vehicle\\ for\\ growth\\.\\ \\ \\;ISI\\ entails\\ the\\ industrialization\\ of\\ so\\-called\\ \\&ldquo\\;soft\\&rdquo\\;\\ goods\\,\\ shoes\\,\\ toothpaste\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\(not\\ cars\\,\\ airplanes\\,\\ or\\ other\\ capital\\ goods\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ problems\\ with\\ this\\ model\\,\\ most\\ notably\\ those\\ which\\ arise\\ when\\ its\\ initial\\ phase\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;exhausted\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ happened\\ around\\ the\\ late\\ 50s\\ and\\ early\\ 60s\\ and\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ causes\\ for\\ the\\ coups\\ \\(saturation\\ of\\ the\\ domestic\\ market\\,\\ austerity\\ measures\\ needed\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;deepen\\ ISI\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ erases\\ any\\ need\\ to\\ keep\\ wages\\ down\\,\\ as\\ it\\ increases\\ unionization\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ eager\\ to\\ give\\ people\\ money\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ economy\\ running\\,\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ healthy\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ term\\ but\\ is\\ most\\ certainly\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Malloy\\,\\ \\"\\;Authoritarianism\\ and\\ Corporatism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ The\\ Modal\\ Pattern\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ one\\ where\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;corporatism\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ Malloy\\ identifies\\ as\\ just\\ one\\ variant\\ of\\ the\\ increasing\\ authoritarianism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\ \\(others\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;populist\\ authoritarianism\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ well\\-known\\ bureaucratic\\ authoritarianism\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;According\\ to\\ Malloy\\,\\ corporatism\\ is\\ a\\ vertical\\ organization\\ of\\ society\\,\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ only\\ a\\ select\\ few\\ recognized\\ groups\\,\\ who\\ can\\ only\\ get\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ through\\ a\\ few\\ designated\\ officials\\ \\(think\\ masses\\ to\\ unions\\ to\\ union\\ leaders\\ to\\ labor\\ ministers\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ higher\\-ups\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Corporatist\\ authoritarianism\\ in\\ general\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Malloy\\,\\ results\\ from\\ two\\ phenomena\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;delayed\\ dependent\\ development\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ populism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\,\\ delayed\\ development\\,\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ dependency\\ theory\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ dependent\\ development\\,\\ authoritarianism\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ government\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ accelerate\\ modernization\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ without\\ interference\\ \\(or\\ with\\ stability\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Corporatism\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ masses\\ with\\ one\\ hand\\ while\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ force\\ along\\ development\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\,\\ populism\\,\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ mobilization\\ of\\ a\\ huge\\ percentage\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ that\\ had\\ never\\ had\\ any\\ kind\\ of\\ political\\ voice\\ before\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ this\\ was\\ good\\ because\\ it\\ meant\\ potential\\ leverage\\ for\\ those\\ at\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ populist\\ movements\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ useless\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ which\\ is\\ where\\ corporatism\\ comes\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;Populist\\ ideology\\ gave\\ leaders\\ the\\ mass\\ support\\ they\\ needed\\,\\ and\\ corporatism\\ gave\\ them\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ control\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Torcuato\\ Di\\ Tella\\,\\ \\"\\;Populism\\ and\\ Reform\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Di\\ Tella\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ various\\ types\\ of\\ populism\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ worth\\ mentioning\\ the\\ 6\\ general\\ characteristics\\ of\\ populism\\ here\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ a\\ mass\\-based\\ movement\\ with\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ urban\\ popular\\ sector\\,\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ the\\ peasantry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ mobilized\\ against\\ the\\ elite\\,\\ and\\ the\\ status\\-quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ mass\\ mobilization\\ is\\ done\\ from\\ above\\,\\ NOT\\ below\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\)\\ leaders\\ are\\ generally\\ personalistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\)\\ populist\\ movements\\ are\\ after\\ reform\\,\\ not\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;6\\)\\ its\\ mostly\\ a\\ pragmatic\\ movement\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ an\\ ideological\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ then\\,\\ Di\\ Tella\\ writes\\ about\\ the\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ populism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Radical\\ populism\\:\\ mobilizes\\ both\\ workers\\ AND\\ peasants\\,\\ includes\\ land\\ reform\\ and\\ the\\ weakening\\ or\\ total\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ oligarchy\\,\\ results\\ in\\ extreme\\ short\\-term\\ polarization\\ but\\ long\\-run\\ stability\\ \\(MEXICO\\,\\ VENEZUELA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Conservative\\ populism\\:\\ more\\ limited\\ mobilization\\ that\\ is\\ controlled\\ from\\ above\\,\\ the\\ oligarchy\\ is\\ not\\ challenged\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ land\\ reform\\,\\ marked\\ by\\ short\\-term\\ stability\\ but\\ long\\-term\\ dissatisfaction\\ between\\ peasants\\ and\\ elites\\ \\(BRAZIL\\,\\ CHILE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Labor\\ populism\\:\\ the\\ powerful\\ populist\\ parties\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ urban\\ labor\\,\\ not\\ peasants\\,\\ no\\ land\\ reform\\ \\(because\\ urban\\ workers\\ have\\ no\\ land\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ coexistence\\ of\\ an\\ urban\\ party\\ and\\ the\\ oligarchy\\ results\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ stalemate\\ \\(ARGENTINA\\,\\ PERU\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ruth\\ Berins\\ Collier\\ and\\ David\\ Collier\\,\\ \\"\\;Inducements\\ versus\\ Constraints\\:\\ Disaggregating\\ \\&\\#39\\;Corporatism\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collier\\ and\\ Collier\\ seek\\ to\\ further\\ elaborate\\ on\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ corporatism\\ by\\ framing\\ it\\ within\\ the\\ two\\ ideas\\ from\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ article\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;inducements\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;constraints\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Theirs\\ is\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ corporatism\\ works\\ through\\ the\\ state\\ to\\ control\\ labor\\ movements\\ in\\ populist\\ governments\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ saying\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ labor\\ here\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ bargaining\\ process\\,\\ even\\ though\\ labor\\ may\\ not\\ always\\ be\\ an\\ active\\ participant\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ state\\ has\\ to\\ bargain\\ with\\ itself\\ \\(decide\\ when\\ to\\ offer\\ inducements\\ and\\ when\\ to\\ constrain\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ things\\ running\\ smoothly\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ that\\,\\ but\\ this\\ framework\\ is\\ useful\\ for\\ explaining\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ Latin\\ American\\ politics\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ authors\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ bureaucratic\\-authoritarian\\ regimes\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 70s\\ with\\ the\\ mandate\\ of\\ controlling\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\ are\\ just\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ serious\\ constraint\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ article\\ is\\ the\\ framework\\ of\\ inducements\\ and\\ constraints\\ in\\ state\\-society\\ relations\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ apply\\ over\\ time\\,\\ to\\ situations\\ other\\ than\\ populism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kenneth\\ Paul\\ Erickson\\,\\ \\"\\;Populism\\ and\\ Political\\ Control\\ of\\ the\\ Working\\ Class\\ in\\ Brazil\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ is\\ a\\ specific\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Brazil\\ and\\ working\\-class\\ mobilization\\,\\ but\\ addresses\\ a\\ more\\ general\\ problem\\ \\ \\;that\\ plagued\\ populist\\ movements\\ all\\ over\\ Latin\\ America\\&mdash\\;namely\\ that\\ although\\ populist\\ parties\\ and\\ leaders\\ enjoyed\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ they\\ themselves\\ were\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\ and\\ through\\ corporatism\\,\\ actually\\ succeeded\\ in\\ co\\-opting\\ labor\\ movements\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ essence\\,\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ populism\\ created\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;inclusionary\\&rdquo\\;\\ politics\\,\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ masses\\ were\\ in\\ no\\ position\\ to\\ make\\ demands\\ and\\ promote\\ their\\ own\\ agenda\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ demonstrated\\ in\\ the\\ article\\ in\\ the\\ specific\\ case\\ of\\ Brazil\\,\\ where\\ conditions\\ indicated\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ social\\ revolution\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ what\\ happened\\ was\\ a\\ military\\ coup\\ and\\ the\\ installation\\ of\\ a\\ BA\\-style\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ was\\ there\\ no\\ active\\ resistance\\ by\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ government\\,\\ in\\ fact\\ there\\ was\\ some\\ implicit\\ support\\,\\ and\\ Erickson\\ demonstrates\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ because\\ although\\ a\\ populist\\ government\\ was\\ in\\ power\\,\\ the\\ masses\\ simply\\ could\\ not\\ mount\\ an\\ effective\\ resistance\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ say\\ in\\ the\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jorge\\ G\\.\\ Casteaneda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utopia\\ Unarmed\\:\\ The\\ Latin\\ American\\ Left\\ After\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Grass\\ Roots\\ Explosion\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ new\\ component\\ of\\ the\\ Latin\\ American\\ left\\ is\\ grass\\ roots\\ organizations\\,\\ which\\ organize\\ around\\ lines\\ of\\ issue\\ instead\\ of\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ecclesial\\ base\\ communities\\ \\(CEB\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ small\\,\\ local\\ religious\\ groups\\ formed\\ by\\ priests\\ in\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ originally\\ devoted\\ to\\ Bible\\ study\\ but\\ growing\\ into\\ a\\ greater\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ force\\ from\\ liberation\\ theology\\,\\ as\\ the\\ Church\\ moved\\ from\\ its\\ traditional\\ role\\ of\\ protector\\ of\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ to\\ a\\ channel\\ for\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ discontent\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ championing\\ lower\\ class\\ organization\\,\\ and\\ by\\ establishing\\ ties\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\&rdquo\\;\\ labor\\ movement\\,\\ CEBs\\ allowed\\ the\\ poor\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ than\\ cannon\\ fodder\\ for\\ traditional\\ local\\ bosses\\ by\\ helping\\ them\\ organize\\ into\\ larger\\ voting\\ sectors\\ \\(although\\ CEBs\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ substitute\\ for\\ political\\ parties\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ level\\ of\\ influence\\ was\\ different\\ in\\ each\\ country\\ depending\\ on\\ history\\ of\\ Church\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ Mexico\\,\\ the\\ conservative\\ stance\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ ambiguous\\ status\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ separate\\,\\ unequal\\,\\ but\\ acknowledged\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ made\\ its\\ transformation\\ problematic\\.\\ Yet\\ their\\ importance\\ is\\ often\\ idealized\\ and\\ exaggerated\\:\\ there\\ are\\ drawbacks\\ of\\ having\\ the\\ Church\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ motivator\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ inherently\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ political\\ struggle\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\urban\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;arose\\ from\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ address\\ local\\ issues\\ for\\ the\\ poorer\\ classes\\ such\\ as\\ housing\\,\\ water\\,\\ electricity\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ these\\ issues\\ were\\ prevalent\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\,\\ they\\ gained\\ force\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\ when\\ exploding\\ demographic\\ rates\\ and\\ a\\ rural\\ exodus\\/urban\\ sprawl\\ was\\ occurring\\ in\\ conjunction\\ with\\ contractionary\\ state\\ policy\\ and\\ economic\\ crisis\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ 1982\\ debt\\ crisis\\)\\,\\ limiting\\ the\\ resources\\ originally\\ available\\ under\\ a\\ more\\ corporatist\\ state\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emerged\\ from\\ an\\ unfavorable\\ background\\:\\ societies\\ characterized\\ by\\ centuries\\ of\\ male\\ domination\\,\\ Church\\ influence\\,\\ and\\ gender\\ exclusion\\,\\ and\\ was\\ awakened\\ by\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ industrialized\\ countries\\ coupled\\ with\\ the\\ injustices\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ their\\ success\\ ironically\\ drew\\ on\\ the\\ gender\\ bias\\ feminists\\ were\\ fighting\\,\\ as\\ military\\ regimes\\ focused\\ repression\\ on\\ men\\,\\ leaving\\ women\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Madres\\ de\\ la\\ Plaza\\ de\\ Mayo\\ in\\ Argentina\\ to\\ act\\ freely\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Human\\ rights\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(many\\ advocating\\ nonviolence\\ in\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;liberation\\ struggle\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ Popular\\ Economic\\ Organizations\\ \\(focusing\\ on\\ elements\\ of\\ survival\\)\\ were\\ the\\ most\\ prevalent\\ female\\-led\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ were\\ often\\ though\\ not\\ always\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ left\\,\\ which\\ frequently\\ did\\ not\\ quite\\ know\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ them\\ politically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Environmental\\ associations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\indigenous\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;often\\ joined\\ together\\,\\ as\\ many\\ of\\ their\\ causes\\ were\\ connected\\,\\ like\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ the\\ rubber\\ workers\\ and\\ the\\ rainforest\\ in\\ the\\ Amazon\\.\\ \\ \\;Indigenous\\ movements\\ served\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ a\\ homogenous\\ nation\\ and\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ discrimination\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-governmental\\ organizations\\ \\(NGOs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;helped\\ extend\\ beyond\\ all\\ these\\ different\\ groups\\ through\\ their\\ international\\ links\\,\\ often\\ derived\\ from\\ foreign\\ financing\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ conversion\\ to\\ electoral\\ bodies\\ has\\ become\\ both\\ a\\ fixture\\ of\\ these\\ movements\\ and\\ a\\ problem\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Without\\ participating\\,\\ they\\ run\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ being\\ rendered\\ marginal\\,\\ but\\ by\\ participating\\,\\ they\\ are\\ immediately\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ contradictions\\ of\\ any\\ electoral\\ process\\ \\(whom\\ to\\ vote\\ for\\,\\ whom\\ to\\ run\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ organizations\\ also\\ provide\\ a\\ theoretical\\ paradox\\ for\\ the\\ left\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Marxist\\ origins\\ accentuate\\ class\\ but\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ current\\ movement\\ places\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\people\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ prevalence\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ movements\\ caused\\ a\\ profusion\\ of\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ left\\-wing\\ candidates\\,\\ most\\ of\\ whom\\ ended\\ up\\ governing\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ left\\ out\\ of\\ touch\\,\\ out\\ of\\ power\\,\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ tune\\ at\\ a\\ national\\ level\\ yet\\ locally\\ strong\\,\\ popular\\,\\ and\\ increasingly\\ mainstream\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Douglas\\ Chalmers\\,\\ Scott\\ Martin\\,\\ and\\ Kerianne\\ Piester\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ New\\ Politics\\ of\\ Inequality\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Associative\\ Networks\\:\\ New\\ Structure\\ of\\ Representation\\ for\\ the\\ Popular\\ Sectors\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ question\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ returned\\ to\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ but\\ without\\ popular\\ mobilization\\,\\ due\\ to\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ representation\\ which\\ are\\ different\\ in\\ \\(1\\)\\ being\\ less\\ tired\\ to\\ a\\ single\\ national\\ structure\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ placing\\ more\\ emphasis\\ on\\ ties\\ resulting\\ from\\ decisions\\ to\\ associate\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ changes\\ in\\ global\\ and\\ domestic\\ conditions\\ and\\ related\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ strategies\\ of\\ elites\\ and\\ popular\\ actors\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ dispersion\\ of\\ decision\\-making\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Popular\\ sector\\ incorporation\\ during\\ the\\ populist\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rested\\ on\\ two\\ essential\\ conditions\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ expanding\\ economy\\ led\\ by\\ an\\ interventionist\\ state\\ following\\ a\\ basic\\ doctrine\\ of\\ national\\ development\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ a\\ relatively\\ harmonious\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ albeit\\ temporary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fit\\ between\\ the\\ political\\ goals\\ and\\ strategies\\ of\\ elite\\ actors\\,\\ on\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ those\\ of\\ popular\\-sector\\ and\\ left\\ leaders\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poor\\ were\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ potentially\\ powerful\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ base\\ for\\ industrialization\\,\\ requiring\\ measures\\ to\\ mobilize\\ and\\ co\\-opt\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ occurred\\ through\\ four\\ types\\ of\\ structures\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\populism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ an\\ overarching\\ framework\\ for\\ appeals\\ to\\ a\\ broad\\ entity\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ personalistic\\ relationship\\ between\\ leader\\ and\\ masses\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\corporatism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ tying\\ functionally\\ organized\\ groups\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\ to\\ the\\ state\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ latter\\ sanctions\\,\\ oversees\\,\\ and\\ regulates\\ group\\ formation\\ and\\ activities\\ in\\ the\\ former\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\clientelism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ based\\ on\\ direct\\ encounters\\ between\\ individual\\ elites\\ and\\ poor\\ people\\ to\\ mobilize\\ electoral\\ support\\;\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\political\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ often\\ lacked\\ the\\ ideological\\ and\\ programmatic\\ character\\ of\\ their\\ European\\ counterparts\\ and\\ tending\\ to\\ be\\ personalistic\\,\\ pragmatic\\,\\ and\\ opportunistic\\,\\ more\\ an\\ instrument\\ for\\ winning\\ power\\ than\\ mediating\\ popular\\ demands\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ era\\,\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ organizational\\ autonomy\\ and\\ grassroots\\ participation\\ had\\ negative\\ long\\-term\\ consequences\\ for\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ immediate\\ material\\ gains\\.\\ \\ \\;Nonetheless\\,\\ they\\ acquired\\ an\\ important\\ organizational\\ presence\\,\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ political\\ recognition\\,\\ and\\ a\\ subjective\\ sense\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ identity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ of\\ possessing\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ 1960s\\-1980s\\ saw\\ the\\ decomposition\\ of\\ these\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ongoing\\ strains\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ growing\\ intra\\-elite\\ rivalry\\ and\\ division\\ over\\ the\\ political\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ popular\\ sectors\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\(2\\)\\ rising\\ popular\\ sector\\ and\\ left\\ challenges\\ to\\ traditional\\ institutions\\ of\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ were\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ economic\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ region\\,\\ as\\ pressures\\ from\\ below\\ increased\\ while\\ economic\\ conditions\\ became\\ more\\ volatile\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ elite\\ backlash\\ against\\ populism\\ that\\ in\\ turn\\ narrowed\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ maneuver\\ for\\ distributive\\ policies\\ and\\ economic\\ nationalism\\,\\ restricting\\ popular\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Economic\\ conditions\\ were\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\global\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ including\\ the\\ oil\\ shocks\\ of\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ the\\ 1982\\ debt\\ crisis\\,\\ inflation\\,\\ globalization\\,\\ and\\ changes\\ in\\ capitalist\\ production\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;While\\ representation\\ declined\\,\\ participation\\ increased\\,\\ due\\ to\\ an\\ unprecedented\\ importance\\ on\\ grassroots\\ organizing\\ and\\ traditionally\\ ignored\\ issues\\ and\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ recomposition\\ of\\ state\\-popular\\ sector\\ links\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ reshaping\\ of\\ popular\\ representation\\ began\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dispersion\\ of\\ political\\ decision\\-making\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ a\\ shift\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ executive\\-centered\\ political\\ coterie\\ at\\ the\\ apex\\ of\\ the\\ authority\\ pyramid\\,\\ often\\ to\\ subnational\\ units\\,\\ fostering\\ the\\ autonomy\\ of\\ local\\ arenas\\ of\\ decision\\-making\\ away\\ from\\ national\\ control\\ and\\ allowing\\ relatively\\ distinct\\ policy\\ domains\\ within\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ example\\ is\\ privatization\\ or\\ the\\ shift\\ outwards\\ to\\ secondary\\ arenas\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ US\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ dispersion\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ democracy\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ transfers\\ of\\ policy\\-making\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ shift\\ from\\ one\\ elite\\ group\\ to\\ another\\ and\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ monopolized\\ local\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\ are\\ important\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Expanded\\ means\\ of\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ their\\ lowered\\ costs\\ have\\ greatly\\ increased\\ access\\ to\\ knowledge\\ and\\ allowed\\ political\\ actors\\ to\\ coordinate\\ along\\ similar\\ interests\\,\\ propose\\ solutions\\,\\ and\\ seek\\ resources\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\An\\ emerging\\ set\\ of\\ beliefs\\ in\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ complex\\ social\\ coordination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ replaced\\ the\\ traditional\\ elite\\ attitude\\ of\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ appropriateness\\ of\\ clientelism\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ important\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\internationalization\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ multinational\\ capital\\ and\\ international\\ solidarity\\ movements\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ model\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ASSOCIATIVE\\ NETWORKS\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ link\\ state\\ and\\ societal\\ actors\\ in\\ a\\ non\\-hierarchical\\ structure\\ through\\ interpersonal\\,\\ media\\,\\ and\\ interorganizational\\ ties\\,\\ reshaping\\ political\\ claims\\ through\\ problem\\-focused\\ interactions\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ distinct\\ in\\ that\\ \\(1\\)\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ any\\ single\\ associative\\ network\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ diversity\\ of\\ organizations\\ and\\ individuals\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ any\\ network\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ reconfigured\\ over\\ time\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ emphasis\\ on\\ cognitive\\ politics\\,\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ more\\ conventional\\ bargaining\\ over\\ demands\\ and\\ interests\\;\\ and\\ \\(4\\)\\ while\\ they\\ can\\ involved\\ unequal\\ actors\\,\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ shift\\ the\\ ground\\ to\\ avoid\\ a\\ direct\\ test\\ of\\ strength\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Popular\\ actors\\ in\\ associative\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ focused\\ around\\ the\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ workers\\,\\ ethnic\\ identities\\,\\ environmental\\ causes\\,\\ gender\\-based\\ groups\\,\\ neighborhood\\ organizations\\,\\ and\\ grassroots\\ organizations\\,\\ connecting\\ these\\ segments\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\ with\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ take\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ NGOs\\,\\ groups\\ of\\ professionals\\ who\\ help\\ organize\\ projects\\,\\ develop\\ policy\\,\\ aid\\ in\\ mobilization\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ political\\ service\\ sector\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ pushed\\ away\\ from\\ direct\\ politics\\ given\\ the\\ specialized\\ skills\\ and\\ non\\-citizen\\ status\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Linkages\\ in\\ associative\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ both\\ public\\ and\\ private\\.\\ \\ \\;Communication\\ between\\ computers\\ represents\\ a\\ mixture\\ of\\ the\\ two\\:\\ private\\ correspondence\\ via\\ e\\-mail\\ and\\ a\\ public\\ medium\\ through\\ the\\ world\\ wide\\ web\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ diffuse\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ linking\\ process\\ allows\\ fluidity\\ and\\ therefore\\ flexibility\\ and\\ room\\ for\\ innovation\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ seems\\ easily\\ manipulated\\,\\ making\\ accountability\\ difficult\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ are\\ three\\ sets\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\requirements\\ for\\ more\\ effective\\ popular\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ organizations\\ and\\ procedures\\ that\\ coordinate\\ the\\ multiple\\-decision\\ centers\\ and\\ constantly\\ changing\\ networks\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ a\\ framework\\ of\\ rights\\ that\\ makes\\ participants\\ in\\ associative\\ networks\\ possible\\;\\ and\\ \\(3\\)\\ popular\\ sector\\ strategies\\ \\(ex\\.\\ violence\\)\\ that\\ make\\ the\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ opportunities\\ and\\ avoid\\ the\\ pitfalls\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monique\\ Segarra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ New\\ Politics\\ of\\ Inequality\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Redefining\\ the\\ Public\\/Private\\ Mix\\:\\ NGOs\\ and\\ the\\ Emergency\\ Social\\ Investment\\ Fund\\ in\\ Ecuador\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Civil\\-society\\-focused\\ international\\ aid\\ models\\ are\\ changing\\ traditional\\ patterns\\ of\\ representation\\ through\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ welfare\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Welfare\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;include\\ the\\ participation\\ of\\ NGOs\\,\\ various\\ state\\ agencies\\,\\ and\\ international\\ development\\ actors\\ in\\ all\\ stages\\ of\\ social\\ services\\:\\ planning\\,\\ implementation\\,\\ and\\ administration\\ of\\ programs\\ and\\ projects\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ purposeful\\ attempts\\,\\ either\\ from\\ NGOs\\ or\\ the\\ state\\,\\ to\\ coordinate\\,\\ partner\\,\\ or\\ create\\ regular\\ patterns\\ of\\ information\\ sharing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\NGOs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ not\\ sanctioned\\ by\\ elections\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ deliberations\\ about\\ social\\ policy\\ and\\ state\\ reform\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ do\\ \\&ldquo\\;re\\-present\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ inserting\\ their\\ interpretation\\ of\\ popular\\ needs\\,\\ social\\ problems\\,\\ and\\ methods\\ of\\ addressing\\ those\\ problems\\ into\\ traditionally\\ circumscribed\\ arenas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Construction\\ of\\ a\\ welfare\\ network\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ rooted\\ in\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ developmentalist\\ state\\ paradigm\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1980s\\ after\\ the\\ debt\\ crisis\\,\\ when\\ international\\ funders\\ limited\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ external\\ resources\\,\\ forcing\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ economic\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Social\\ Investment\\ Funds\\ \\(SIFs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ compensatory\\ programs\\ funded\\ by\\ the\\ World\\ Bank\\ and\\ other\\ multilateral\\ and\\ bilateral\\ donors\\ to\\ mitigate\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ structural\\ adjustment\\ on\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\ \\;NGOs\\ involvement\\ often\\ causes\\ tensions\\ between\\ the\\ NGO\\ community\\ and\\ the\\ state\\ over\\ their\\ respective\\ roles\\ in\\ leading\\ development\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\NGO\\ conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ By\\ 1995\\,\\ significant\\ segments\\ of\\ the\\ NGO\\ community\\ belonged\\ to\\ sectoral\\ umbrella\\ organizations\\ with\\ the\\ goals\\ of\\ advancing\\ the\\ organizational\\ capacity\\ of\\ member\\ NGOs\\ and\\ producing\\ consensus\\ within\\ that\\ membership\\ and\\ the\\ larger\\ NGO\\ community\\ over\\ policy\\ positions\\ vis\\-\\à\\;\\-vis\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ international\\ funders\\.\\ \\ \\;NGOs\\ have\\ become\\ new\\ political\\ actors\\ in\\ social\\ policy\\ because\\ they\\ view\\ themselves\\ as\\ more\\ than\\ organizational\\ vehicles\\ to\\ which\\ public\\ services\\ are\\ contracted\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ proactive\\ stance\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ authority\\ and\\ legitimacy\\ that\\ social\\ programs\\ traditionally\\ gave\\ to\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ welfare\\ state\\ has\\ expanded\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ actors\\ who\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ influence\\ social\\ policy\\,\\ but\\ NGOs\\ can\\ crowd\\ out\\ such\\ participation\\ and\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ popular\\ sectors\\ if\\ they\\ claim\\ to\\ speak\\ directly\\ for\\ those\\ sectors\\ or\\ assume\\ that\\ their\\ technical\\ expertise\\ overrides\\ popular\\ sector\\ perceptions\\ of\\ their\\ needs\\ and\\ wants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Margaret\\ E\\.\\ Keck\\ and\\ Kathryn\\ Sikkink\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Activists\\ Beyond\\ Borders\\:\\ Advocacy\\ Networks\\ in\\ International\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ a\\ transnational\\ advocacy\\ network\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Advocacy\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stress\\ fluid\\ and\\ open\\ relations\\ among\\ committed\\ and\\ knowledgeable\\ actors\\ working\\ in\\ specialized\\ issue\\ areas\\ advocating\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ others\\ or\\ defending\\ their\\ own\\ cause\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Major\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;include\\ \\(1\\)\\ international\\ and\\ domestic\\ nongovernmental\\ research\\ and\\ advocacy\\ organizations\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ local\\ social\\ movements\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ foundations\\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ the\\ media\\;\\ \\(5\\)\\ churches\\,\\ trade\\ unions\\,\\ consumer\\ organizations\\,\\ and\\ intellectuals\\;\\ \\(6\\)\\ parts\\ of\\ regional\\ and\\ international\\ intergovernmental\\ organizations\\;\\ and\\ \\(7\\)\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ executive\\ and\\/or\\ parliamentary\\ branches\\ of\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ and\\ how\\ have\\ transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ emerged\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ They\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ emerge\\ around\\ those\\ issues\\ where\\ \\(1\\)\\ channels\\ between\\ domestic\\ groups\\ and\\ their\\ governments\\ are\\ blocked\\ and\\ ineffective\\ for\\ resolving\\ conflict\\,\\ setting\\ in\\ motion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ boomerang\\ pattern\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ a\\ domestic\\ recourse\\ for\\ violations\\ is\\ lacking\\,\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ bypassed\\ and\\ a\\ direct\\ appeal\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ international\\ community\\,\\ which\\ then\\ puts\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ state\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ activists\\ believe\\ that\\ networking\\ will\\ further\\ their\\ missions\\ and\\ therefore\\ actively\\ promote\\ networks\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ conferences\\ and\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ international\\ contact\\ create\\ arenas\\ for\\ forming\\ and\\ strengthening\\ networks\\.\\ \\ \\;Cheaper\\ air\\ travel\\ and\\ better\\ communications\\ technology\\ make\\ the\\ sharing\\ of\\ information\\ easier\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ those\\ seeking\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;make\\ a\\ difference\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ NGOs\\ or\\ grassroots\\ organizations\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ option\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ transnational\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ work\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ They\\ use\\ their\\ power\\ of\\ information\\,\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ strategies\\ to\\ alter\\ the\\ information\\ and\\ value\\ contexts\\ within\\ which\\ states\\ make\\ policies\\.\\ \\ \\;Tactics\\ include\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\information\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ quickly\\ and\\ credibly\\ generate\\ politically\\ usable\\ information\\ and\\ move\\ it\\ to\\ where\\ it\\ will\\ have\\ the\\ most\\ impact\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Framing\\ a\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ right\\ way\\ can\\ be\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ success\\ and\\ failure\\,\\ and\\ an\\ effective\\ frame\\ must\\ show\\ that\\ a\\ given\\ state\\ of\\ affairs\\ is\\ neither\\ natural\\ nor\\ accidental\\,\\ identify\\ the\\ responsible\\ party\\ or\\ parties\\ \\(with\\ a\\ short\\ chain\\ of\\ responsibility\\)\\,\\ and\\ propose\\ credible\\ solutions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Dramatic\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(such\\ as\\ calling\\ clitoridectomy\\ \\&ldquo\\;genital\\ mutilation\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ turning\\ facts\\ into\\ human\\ stories\\ moves\\ people\\ to\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\symbolic\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ call\\ upon\\ symbols\\,\\ actions\\,\\ or\\ stories\\ that\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ a\\ situation\\ for\\ an\\ audience\\ that\\ is\\ frequently\\ far\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\leverage\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ call\\ upon\\ powerful\\ actors\\ to\\ affect\\ a\\ situation\\ where\\ weaker\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ network\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ have\\ influence\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Material\\ leverage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;links\\ the\\ issue\\ to\\ money\\ or\\ goods\\,\\ such\\ as\\ linking\\ human\\ rights\\ practices\\ to\\ military\\ aid\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Moral\\ leverage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;involves\\ shaming\\ a\\ country\\ and\\ jeopardizing\\ its\\ credit\\ enough\\ to\\ motivate\\ a\\ policy\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\accountability\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ hold\\ powerful\\ actors\\ to\\ their\\ previously\\ stated\\ policies\\ or\\ principles\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Under\\ what\\ conditions\\ do\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ have\\ influence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ stages\\ of\\ influence\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ issue\\ creation\\ and\\ agenda\\ setting\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ influence\\ on\\ discursive\\ positions\\ of\\ states\\ and\\ international\\ organizations\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ influence\\ on\\ institutional\\ procedures\\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ influence\\ on\\ policy\\ change\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;target\\ actors\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ states\\,\\ international\\ organizations\\ like\\ the\\ World\\ Bank\\,\\ or\\ private\\ actors\\ like\\ Nestle\\ Corporation\\;\\ and\\ \\(5\\)\\ influence\\ on\\ state\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\issue\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ organize\\ most\\ effectively\\ are\\ those\\ \\(1\\)\\ issues\\ involving\\ bodily\\ harm\\ to\\ vulnerable\\ individuals\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ short\\,\\ clear\\ causal\\ chain\\ of\\ responsibility\\;\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ issues\\ involving\\ legal\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deborah\\ J\\.\\ Yashar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constructing\\ Democratic\\ Governance\\:\\ Latin\\ America\\ and\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Indigenous\\ Protest\\ and\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;These\\ movements\\ emerge\\ during\\ a\\ new\\ stage\\ of\\ political\\ disenfranchisement\\ as\\ states\\ fail\\ to\\ uphold\\ the\\ individual\\ rights\\ associated\\ with\\ liberal\\ democracy\\ just\\ as\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\ dismantle\\ state\\ institutions\\ that\\ had\\ previously\\ extended\\ legal\\ corporate\\ class\\ rights\\,\\ representation\\,\\ and\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\history\\ of\\ ethnic\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Latin\\ America\\ has\\ been\\ one\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ subordination\\,\\ denial\\,\\ and\\ assimilation\\.\\ \\ \\;Indigenous\\ people\\ were\\ treated\\ as\\ heathens\\ and\\ told\\ to\\ assimilate\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ homogenous\\ mestizo\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ when\\ they\\ did\\ so\\,\\ they\\ rarely\\ advanced\\ beyond\\ a\\ low\\ ceiling\\ of\\ economic\\ and\\ social\\ success\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ often\\ share\\ a\\ common\\ opposition\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ dominate\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\four\\ inter\\-related\\ demands\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ indigenous\\ people\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\land\\ or\\ property\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ state\\ had\\ previously\\ alienated\\ land\\ from\\ the\\ indigenous\\ population\\ and\\ coerced\\ them\\ into\\ provided\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ encroachment\\ on\\ Indian\\ lands\\ is\\ threatening\\ the\\ population\\ because\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ environmental\\ destruction\\,\\ and\\ new\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\human\\ and\\ civil\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\political\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Legislation\\ has\\ often\\ treated\\ Indians\\ as\\ wards\\ of\\ the\\ state\\,\\ and\\ their\\ recent\\ inclusion\\ in\\ politics\\ marks\\ a\\ significant\\ advance\\,\\ although\\ it\\ has\\ highlighted\\ conflicting\\ agendas\\ among\\ sectors\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\autonomy\\ and\\ self\\-determination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ reaction\\ against\\ assimilation\\ policies\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ challenging\\ for\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ especially\\ for\\ fear\\ that\\ recognition\\ of\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ people\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ towards\\ their\\ secession\\ or\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ national\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ increase\\ in\\ indigenous\\ movements\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ democratic\\ and\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ changed\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Democratization\\ created\\ legal\\ space\\ for\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ new\\ identities\\,\\ but\\ the\\ dismantling\\ of\\ many\\ social\\ programs\\ have\\ taken\\ away\\ corporate\\ benefits\\ and\\ representation\\ that\\ had\\ previously\\ defined\\ state\\ relations\\ with\\ indigenous\\ communities\\.\\ \\ \\;Indigenous\\ people\\ see\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\ as\\ an\\ assault\\ on\\ physical\\,\\ mental\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ well\\-being\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ downsizing\\ of\\ the\\ large\\ state\\ without\\ strengthening\\ necessary\\ parts\\ of\\ that\\ state\\ have\\ left\\ individuals\\ with\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ enforce\\ their\\ state\\-sanctioned\\ civil\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ institutions\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ redesigned\\ to\\ allow\\ for\\ greater\\ and\\ more\\ effective\\ representation\\ and\\ allow\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ heterogeneous\\ and\\ changing\\ vision\\ of\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ also\\ needs\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ poverty\\ of\\ its\\ people\\ and\\ provide\\ them\\ with\\ a\\ functioning\\ legal\\ channel\\ to\\ influence\\ policy\\ and\\ grievances\\ so\\ that\\ indigenous\\ movements\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ to\\ the\\ street\\ in\\ protest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Perils\\ of\\ Presidentialism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juan\\ Linz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\The\\ author\\ argues\\ in\\ this\\ 1990\\ article\\ that\\ Latin\\ America\\ would\\ have\\ fared\\ \\ \\;better\\ under\\ a\\ parliamentary\\ system\\,\\ whereby\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ authority\\ is\\ completely\\ dependent\\ upon\\ parliamentary\\ confidence\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Linz\\ 1990\\:\\ 52\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ maybe\\ most\\ worthwhile\\ to\\ reference\\ Linz\\ largely\\ because\\ his\\ critique\\ of\\ presidentialism\\ is\\ particularly\\ valuable\\ to\\ an\\ evaluation\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ politics\\.\\ All\\ Latin\\ American\\ democracies\\ remain\\ presidentialist\\,\\ with\\ varying\\ degrees\\ of\\ constitutional\\ authority\\ delegated\\ to\\ presidents\\.\\ \\ \\;Namely\\,\\ presidents\\ of\\ most\\ Latin\\ American\\ democracies\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ law\\ through\\ decree\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ in\\ place\\,\\ these\\ laws\\ are\\ quite\\ difficult\\ to\\ roll\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ president\\ can\\ initiate\\ legislation\\;\\ in\\ Chile\\,\\ he\\ can\\ do\\ so\\ exclusively\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Chile\\ and\\ elsewhere\\,\\ presidents\\ can\\ initiate\\ the\\ budget\\,\\ which\\ affords\\ tremendous\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ national\\ agenda\\,\\ and\\ they\\ can\\ suspend\\ constitutional\\ rights\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Levitsky\\ 4\\/12\\/04\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ powers\\ are\\ far\\ more\\ expansive\\ than\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ temporarily\\ suspend\\ habeas\\ corpus\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ civil\\ unrest\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ as\\ Levitsky\\ points\\ out\\,\\ Latin\\ America\\ often\\ has\\ an\\ especially\\ prevalent\\ congressional\\ and\\ judicial\\ spoils\\ system\\,\\ further\\ undermining\\ the\\ credibility\\ of\\ these\\ institutions\\ \\(4\\/12\\/04\\)\\.\\ Essentially\\,\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ these\\ features\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ institutionalized\\ mechanism\\ of\\ executive\\ power\\ that\\ sometimes\\ mirrors\\ the\\ propensities\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\.\\ \\In\\ sum\\,\\ while\\ \\&ldquo\\;parliamentarism\\ imparts\\ flexibility\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ process\\,\\ presidentialism\\ makes\\ it\\ rather\\ rigid\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Linz\\ 55\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ course\\,\\ Linz\\ argues\\,\\ any\\ plausible\\ switch\\ to\\ parliamentarism\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ tailored\\ to\\ the\\ particular\\ institutional\\ and\\ cultural\\ constraints\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Presidentialism\\,\\ Multipartism\\,\\ and\\ Democracy\\:\\ the\\ Difficult\\ Combination\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scott\\ Mainwaring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\In\\ \\&ldquo\\;Presidentialism\\ and\\ Multipartism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Scott\\ Mainwaring\\ contends\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ perceived\\ weaknesses\\ of\\ presidentialism\\ are\\ more\\ precisely\\ weaknesses\\ of\\ multiparty\\ presidentialism\\,\\ a\\ combination\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;makes\\ stable\\ democracy\\ difficult\\ to\\ sustain\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Mainwaring\\ 199\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\,\\ these\\ governments\\ are\\ plagued\\ by\\ legislative\\/executive\\ gridlock\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ multiparty\\ presidentialist\\ democracies\\ have\\ had\\ a\\ poor\\ track\\ record\\ by\\ almost\\ all\\ standards\\,\\ with\\ the\\ Chilean\\ regime\\ from\\ 1933\\ to\\ 1973\\ being\\ the\\ only\\ case\\ of\\ real\\ success\\.\\ Accordingly\\,\\ Mainwaring\\ offers\\ two\\ potential\\ suggestions\\ for\\ reforming\\ the\\ broken\\ system\\,\\ thereby\\ stabilizing\\ democracy\\:\\ either\\ \\&ldquo\\;switching\\ from\\ a\\ presidential\\ system\\ to\\ a\\ semi\\-presidential\\ or\\ a\\ parliamentary\\ system\\,\\ or\\ taking\\ measures\\ to\\ reduce\\ party\\-system\\ fragmentation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Mainwaring\\ 224\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Neither\\ step\\ is\\ easy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ instructs\\ us\\ to\\ first\\ consider\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ parliamentary\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Assuming\\ Latin\\ American\\ nations\\ pursued\\ this\\ option\\,\\ they\\ would\\,\\ Mainwaring\\ argues\\,\\ require\\ very\\ strong\\ party\\ discipline\\,\\ which\\ most\\ Latin\\ American\\ nations\\ clearly\\ do\\ not\\ have\\.\\ \\ \\;Secondly\\,\\ within\\ the\\ presidentialist\\ framework\\,\\ nations\\ could\\ take\\ institutional\\ steps\\ to\\ counter\\ party\\ fragmentation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;reducing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ parties\\ that\\ attain\\ legislative\\ \\seats\\ by\\ introducing\\ a\\ higher\\ threshold\\&hellip\\;reducing\\ district\\ magnitude\\ in\\ proportional\\ systems\\&hellip\\;having\\ concurrent\\ congressional\\ and\\ presidential\\ elections\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Mainwaring\\ 225\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Presidentialism\\ and\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Rethinking\\ the\\ Terms\\ of\\ the\\ Debate\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\Scott\\ Mainwaring\\ and\\ Matthew\\ Soberg\\ Shugart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ authors\\ stand\\ somewhat\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ Linz\\,\\ insisting\\ that\\ presidentialism\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ more\\ promising\\ system\\ than\\ Linz\\ suggests\\.\\ \\ \\;Presidentialism\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ argue\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;has\\ some\\ advantages\\ that\\ partially\\ offset\\ its\\ liabilities\\,\\ and\\&hellip\\;through\\ careful\\ attention\\ to\\ constitutional\\ and\\ institutional\\ design\\,\\ the\\ advantages\\ can\\ be\\ maximized\\ and\\ the\\ liabilities\\ reduced\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(M\\&\\;S\\ 53\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ authors\\ recognize\\ that\\ presidentialism\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ \\terribly\\ effective\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ but\\ they\\ believe\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ due\\ much\\ less\\ to\\ institutions\\ than\\ underdevelopment\\ and\\ antidemocratic\\ cultural\\ artifacts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ article\\ starts\\ to\\ mirror\\ the\\ other\\ Mainwaring\\ article\\ in\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ respects\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ authors\\,\\ though\\ critical\\ of\\ presidentialism\\,\\ are\\ definitely\\ not\\ comfortable\\ with\\ a\\ categorical\\ shift\\ to\\ parliamentarism\\.\\ \\ \\;Any\\ such\\ move\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ accompanied\\ by\\ strict\\ party\\ discipline\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ meantime\\,\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ presidentialist\\/parliamentarist\\ dichotomy\\ is\\ an\\ oversimplification\\&mdash\\;that\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ nuances\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ systems\\,\\ of\\ which\\ there\\ are\\ many\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Presidential\\ Crises\\ and\\ Democratic\\ Accountability\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ 1990\\-1999\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\í\\;bal\\ P\\é\\;rez\\ Li\\ñ\\;\\á\\;n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ 1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ political\\ instability\\ within\\ the\\ recently\\ emerged\\ democracies\\ which\\ resulted\\ from\\ confrontations\\ between\\ the\\ executive\\ and\\ legislative\\ branches\\ of\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ tool\\ wielded\\ by\\ the\\ legislative\\ branch\\ against\\ presidential\\ authority\\ was\\ impeachment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Suffered\\ high\\ inflation\\ in\\ early\\ 90\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ President\\ Collor\\ responded\\ with\\ Collor\\,\\ and\\ Collor\\ II\\ plan\\ \\(to\\ reform\\ currency\\)\\ which\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ term\\ cut\\ short\\ by\\ a\\ corruption\\ scandal\\ involving\\ the\\ funneling\\ of\\ money\\ from\\ his\\ campaign\\ manager\\ to\\ illegal\\ bank\\ accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collor\\ lacked\\ congressional\\ support\\ so\\ he\\ was\\ easily\\ impeached\\ in\\ 1992\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collor\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ as\\ an\\ anti\\-establishment\\ candidate\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ electorate\\ decided\\ \\(and\\ empowered\\ the\\ legislature\\ to\\ act\\)\\ that\\ the\\ president\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ above\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Venezuela\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\President\\ Perez\\ in\\ his\\ first\\ term\\ advocated\\ nationalizing\\ initiatives\\,\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ populist\\ platform\\ that\\ called\\ for\\ huge\\ public\\ spending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1989\\,\\ during\\ his\\ second\\ term\\,\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ implement\\ economic\\ reform\\ to\\ counter\\ previous\\ term\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ strategy\\ by\\ calling\\ for\\ more\\ orthodox\\ economic\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ resulted\\ in\\ mass\\ protests\\,\\ and\\ two\\ failed\\ coup\\ attempts\\,\\ but\\ Perez\\ was\\ finally\\ removed\\ from\\ office\\ in\\ 1992\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ presidential\\ crisis\\ resulted\\ from\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ prosperity\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;petro\\-state\\&rdquo\\;\\ due\\ to\\ severe\\ economic\\ mismanagement\\,\\ and\\ Venezuela\\&rsquo\\;s\\ well\\-established\\ \\&ldquo\\;partyarchy\\&rdquo\\;\\ system\\ could\\ not\\ adapt\\ to\\ changing\\ economic\\ conditions\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ instability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Commonalities\\ of\\ impeachment\\ crises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Media\\ scandals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pressures\\ of\\ economic\\ adjustment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Presidents\\ striving\\ to\\ control\\ hostile\\ legislatures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Elements\\ of\\ impeachment\\ crises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Press\\ questions\\ moral\\ authority\\ of\\ president\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ coalition\\ of\\ elites\\ and\\ masses\\ makes\\ charges\\ against\\ the\\ president\\,\\ eroding\\ his\\ capacity\\ to\\ survive\\ the\\ crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ the\\ president\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ hostile\\ legislative\\ coalition\\ that\\ eventually\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ impeach\\ him\\/her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Necessary\\ element\\ to\\ impeachment\\ crisis\\:\\ political\\ scandal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Scandal\\ starts\\ with\\ media\\ publicizing\\ \\&ldquo\\;rumor\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ corruption\\,\\ which\\ gives\\ congress\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ begin\\ an\\ investigation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ results\\ in\\ public\\ outrage\\ and\\ popular\\ mobilization\\ against\\ the\\ president\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nevertheless\\,\\ the\\ president\\ still\\ may\\ survive\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ media\\-initiated\\ scandal\\ if\\ he\\/she\\ has\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ congress\\ or\\ if\\ certain\\ members\\ of\\ congress\\ can\\ potentially\\ be\\ implicated\\ in\\ investigation\\&mdash\\;thus\\ the\\ president\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ block\\ within\\ congress\\ that\\ can\\ vote\\ to\\ suspend\\ corruption\\ investigations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\8\\.\\ One\\ reason\\ why\\ impeachment\\ has\\ been\\ easier\\ to\\ initiate\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ reforms\\ of\\ the\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ allowed\\ for\\ more\\ freedom\\ of\\ the\\ press\\,\\ and\\ since\\ the\\ press\\ has\\ been\\ emboldened\\ by\\ this\\ freedom\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ more\\ aggressively\\ to\\ expose\\ scandal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Impeachment\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ entirely\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;bad\\&rdquo\\;\\ thing\\&mdash\\;it\\ involves\\ a\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ greater\\ executive\\ accountability\\ and\\ government\\ instability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 18, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1295_Comp_Govt_L._America_-_Final_1st_Packet.doc", "desc": "Study Guide Part 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "ETH-REASON 21 - Study Guide", "tags": ["moral-reasoning", "ethical-reasoning", "21", "social-protest"], "text": null, "id": 20, "html": "\\\\\\MR\\_Study\\_Guide2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=m0tazYRimFnV1hoGKbgtnw\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c38\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c34\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c35\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c43\\{max\\-width\\:482\\.4pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:57\\.6pt\\ 64\\.8pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 64\\.8pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{color\\:\\#292425\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c42\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-right\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c39\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c40\\{text\\-indent\\:9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:63pt\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c25\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c2\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c48\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c14\\{height\\:12pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c46\\{margin\\-right\\:31\\.5pt\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c49\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c31\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c20\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c44\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c17\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c41\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c50\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c47\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c45\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\}\\.c32\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#365f91\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\MR66\\ Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\/21\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Table\\ Of\\ Contents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 1\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 1\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 3\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 3\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 4\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 5\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 5\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 6\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 6\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 7\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 7\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 9\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 10\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Quotes\\ from\\ Leviathan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ pride\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Hobbes\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pride\\ is\\ an\\ irrational\\ passion\\ rooted\\ in\\ a\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ superiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;If\\ nature\\ therefore\\ have\\ made\\ men\\ equal\\,\\ that\\ equality\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ acknowledged\\:\\ or\\ if\\ nature\\ have\\ made\\ men\\ unequal\\,\\ yet\\ because\\ men\\ that\\ think\\ themselves\\ equal\\ will\\ not\\ enter\\ into\\ conditions\\ of\\ peace\\,\\ but\\ upon\\ equal\\ terms\\,\\ such\\ equality\\ must\\ be\\ admitted\\.\\ And\\ therefore\\ for\\ the\\ ninth\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ I\\ put\\ this\\:\\ that\\ every\\ man\\ acknowledge\\ another\\ for\\ his\\ equal\\ by\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ breach\\ of\\ this\\ precept\\ is\\ pride\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Joy\\ arising\\ from\\ imagination\\ of\\ a\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ power\\ and\\ ability\\ is\\ that\\ exultation\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ which\\ is\\ called\\ glorying\\:\\ which\\,\\ if\\ grounded\\ upon\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ former\\ actions\\,\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ with\\ confidence\\:\\ but\\ if\\ grounded\\ on\\ the\\ flattery\\ of\\ others\\,\\ or\\ only\\ supposed\\ by\\ himself\\,\\ for\\ delight\\ in\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ it\\,\\ is\\ called\\ vainglory\\:\\ which\\ name\\ is\\ properly\\ given\\;\\ because\\ a\\ well\\-grounded\\ confidence\\ begetteth\\ attempt\\;\\ whereas\\ the\\ supposing\\ of\\ power\\ does\\ not\\,\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ rightly\\ called\\ vain\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ The\\ passion\\ whose\\ violence\\ or\\ continuance\\ maketh\\ madness\\ is\\ either\\ great\\ vainglory\\,\\ which\\ is\\ commonly\\ called\\ pride\\ and\\ self\\-conceit\\,\\ or\\ great\\ dejection\\ of\\ mind\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ does\\ he\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ vice\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hobbes\\ claims\\ that\\ pride\\ leads\\ to\\ anger\\,\\ vengeance\\,\\ and\\ violence\\ over\\ goods\\ and\\ honor\\.\\ \\ \\;Pride\\ is\\ primary\\ contributor\\ to\\ making\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Pride\\ subjecteth\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ anger\\,\\ the\\ excess\\ whereof\\ is\\ the\\ madness\\ called\\ rage\\,\\ and\\ fury\\.\\ And\\ thus\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ pass\\ that\\ excessive\\ desire\\ of\\ revenge\\,\\ when\\ it\\ becomes\\ habitual\\,\\ hurteth\\ the\\ organs\\,\\ and\\ becomes\\ rage\\:\\ that\\ excessive\\ love\\,\\ with\\ jealousy\\,\\ becomes\\ also\\ rage\\:\\ excessive\\ opinion\\ of\\ a\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ self\\,\\ for\\ divine\\ inspiration\\,\\ for\\ wisdom\\,\\ learning\\,\\ form\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\,\\ becomes\\ distraction\\ and\\ giddiness\\:\\ the\\ same\\,\\ joined\\ with\\ envy\\,\\ rage\\:\\ vehement\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ anything\\,\\ contradicted\\ by\\ others\\,\\ rage\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ founding\\ rally\\ of\\ the\\ Organization\\ for\\ African\\-American\\ Unity\\,\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ writes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Afro\\-Americans\\ must\\ unite\\ and\\ work\\ together\\.\\ We\\ must\\ take\\ pride\\ in\\ the\\ Afro\\-American\\ community\\,\\ for\\ it\\ is\\ our\\ home\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ our\\ power\\.\\&hellip\\;if\\ white\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ help\\,\\ they\\ can\\ help\\.\\ But\\ they\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ join\\.\\&hellip\\;They\\ can\\ form\\ the\\ White\\ Friends\\ of\\ the\\ OAAU\\ and\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ community\\ on\\ white\\ people\\ and\\ change\\ their\\ attitude\\ toward\\ us\\&hellip\\;We\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ had\\ enough\\ of\\ them\\ working\\ around\\ us\\ to\\ change\\ our\\ attitude\\.\\ That\\&\\#39\\;s\\ what\\ got\\ us\\ all\\ messed\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explain\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ feeling\\ and\\ attitude\\ you\\ think\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ pride\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ pride\\ that\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ describes\\ is\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ self\\-worth\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ encourages\\ his\\ Afro\\-American\\ followers\\ to\\ value\\ their\\ race\\ and\\ solidify\\ the\\ power\\ it\\ provides\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ suggests\\ that\\ whites\\ working\\ side\\-by\\-side\\ them\\ would\\ dilute\\ this\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;Race\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ all\\ Afro\\-Americans\\ share\\,\\ and\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ celebrated\\ as\\ a\\ positive\\ and\\ unifying\\ feature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ it\\ differ\\ from\\ the\\ psychological\\ tendency\\ that\\ Hobbes\\ describes\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yes\\:\\ \\ \\;Hobbes\\ speaks\\ of\\ pride\\ as\\ an\\ irrational\\ feeling\\ of\\ superiority\\ over\\ other\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;Malcolm\\ X\\ does\\ not\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ Afro\\-American\\ community\\ is\\ superior\\ to\\ the\\ white\\ community\\,\\ only\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pride\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ speaks\\ of\\ is\\ the\\ rational\\ joy\\ and\\ confidence\\ Hobbes\\ mentions\\,\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ successes\\ and\\ abilities\\ of\\ Afro\\-Americans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ two\\ thinkers\\ are\\ discussing\\ different\\ notions\\ of\\ pride\\,\\ how\\ exactly\\ do\\ they\\ differ\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hobbes\\ defines\\ pride\\ as\\ joy\\ based\\ on\\ flattery\\ or\\ self\\-conceit\\.\\ \\ \\;Malcolm\\ X\\ is\\ pressing\\ Afro\\-Americans\\ to\\ glory\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ self\\-worth\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ climate\\ of\\ presumed\\ white\\ superiority\\,\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ is\\ right\\ to\\ encourage\\ blacks\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ their\\ innate\\ value\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ does\\ not\\ suggest\\ that\\ this\\ value\\ is\\ superior\\;\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ equalize\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\,\\ as\\ they\\ each\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ unique\\ power\\ which\\ is\\ valuable\\ and\\ worth\\ solidifying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\:\\ \\ \\;Hobbes\\ speaks\\ of\\ pride\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ makes\\ a\\ person\\ consider\\ himself\\ unequal\\ to\\ other\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ describes\\ race\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ makes\\ Afro\\-Americans\\ different\\ from\\ whites\\,\\ something\\ that\\ gives\\ them\\ a\\ unique\\ power\\ and\\ a\\ separate\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ flatters\\ his\\ Afro\\-American\\ followers\\ into\\ believing\\ in\\ an\\ innate\\ power\\ derived\\ from\\ race\\,\\ not\\ their\\ former\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;If\\ not\\,\\ is\\ Hobbes\\ right\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ vice\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Hobbes\\ says\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ supposing\\ of\\ power\\"\\;\\ is\\ vain\\ and\\ fosters\\ violence\\.\\ \\ \\;Malcolm\\ X\\ has\\ advertised\\ a\\ black\\ power\\ derived\\ solely\\ from\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ supposition\\ is\\ both\\ vain\\ \\(because\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ factor\\-\\-race\\-\\-rather\\ than\\ actions\\)\\ and\\ dangerous\\ \\(because\\ it\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ anger\\ and\\ violence\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Assuming\\ that\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ possess\\ different\\ powers\\ and\\ suggesting\\ that\\ applying\\ white\\ power\\ to\\ blacks\\ has\\ \\"\\;messed\\ up\\"\\;\\ the\\ Afro\\-American\\ community\\ is\\ a\\ divisive\\ sentiment\\ that\\ invites\\ conflict\\,\\ anger\\,\\ and\\ violence\\-\\-exactly\\ the\\ consequences\\ Hobbes\\ predicts\\ will\\ rise\\ from\\ pride\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ pride\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Hobbes\\,\\ and\\ why\\ does\\ he\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ vice\\?\\ In\\ the\\ founding\\ rally\\ of\\ the\\ Organization\\ for\\ African\\-American\\ Unity\\,\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ writes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Afro\\-Americans\\ must\\ unite\\ and\\ work\\ together\\.\\ We\\ must\\ take\\ pride\\ in\\ the\\ Afro\\-American\\ community\\,\\ for\\ it\\ is\\ our\\ home\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ our\\ power\\.\\&hellip\\;if\\ white\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ help\\,\\ they\\ can\\ help\\.\\ But\\ they\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ join\\.\\&hellip\\;They\\ can\\ form\\ the\\ White\\ Friends\\ of\\ the\\ OAAU\\ and\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ community\\ on\\ white\\ people\\ and\\ change\\ their\\ attitude\\ toward\\ us\\&hellip\\;We\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ had\\ enough\\ of\\ them\\ working\\ around\\ us\\ to\\ change\\ our\\ attitude\\.\\ That\\&\\#39\\;s\\ what\\ got\\ us\\ all\\ messed\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explain\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ feeling\\ and\\ attitude\\ you\\ think\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ pride\\.\\ Does\\ it\\ differ\\ from\\ the\\ psychological\\ tendency\\ that\\ Hobbes\\ describes\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ is\\ Hobbes\\ right\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ vice\\?\\ If\\ the\\ two\\ thinkers\\ are\\ discussing\\ different\\ notions\\ of\\ pride\\,\\ how\\ exactly\\ do\\ they\\ differ\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ pride\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Definition\\ of\\ pride\\,\\ otherwise\\ known\\ as\\ vainglory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;vainglory\\,\\ or\\ a\\ foolish\\ overrating\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ worth\\;\\ as\\ if\\ difference\\ of\\ worth\\ were\\ an\\ effect\\ of\\ their\\ wit\\,\\ or\\ riches\\,\\ or\\ blood\\,\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ natural\\ quality\\,\\ not\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ those\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ sovereign\\ authority\\.\\ From\\ whence\\ proceedeth\\ a\\ presumption\\ that\\ the\\ punishments\\ ordained\\ by\\ the\\ laws\\,\\ and\\ extended\\ generally\\ to\\ all\\ subjects\\,\\ ought\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ inflicted\\ on\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ rigor\\ they\\ are\\ inflicted\\ on\\ poor\\,\\ obscure\\,\\ and\\ simple\\ men\\,\\ comprehended\\ under\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ vulgar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ pride\\ is\\ a\\ vice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hobbes\\ asserts\\ that\\ pride\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ passions\\ that\\ most\\ frequently\\ are\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ crime\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Pride\\ subjecteth\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ anger\\,\\ the\\ excess\\ whereof\\ is\\ the\\ madness\\ called\\ rage\\,\\ and\\ fury\\.\\ And\\ thus\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ pass\\ that\\ excessive\\ desire\\ of\\ revenge\\,\\ when\\ it\\ becomes\\ habitual\\,\\ hurteth\\ the\\ organs\\,\\ and\\ becomes\\ rage\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Besides\\,\\ revenge\\ without\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ example\\ and\\ profit\\ to\\ come\\ is\\ a\\ triumph\\,\\ or\\ glorying\\ in\\ the\\ hurt\\ of\\ another\\,\\ tending\\ to\\ no\\ end\\ \\(for\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ always\\ somewhat\\ to\\ come\\)\\;\\ and\\ glorying\\ to\\ no\\ end\\ is\\ vain\\-glory\\,\\ and\\ contrary\\ to\\ reason\\;\\ and\\ to\\ hurt\\ without\\ reason\\ tendeth\\ to\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ war\\,\\ which\\ is\\ against\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ is\\ commonly\\ styled\\ by\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ cruelty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basically\\,\\ pride\\ leads\\ to\\ unreasonable\\ anger\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ war\\.\\ And\\ war\\ \\(or\\ a\\ general\\ lack\\ of\\ safety\\)\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ the\\ force\\ that\\ drives\\ men\\ to\\ accept\\ absolute\\ governance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ pride\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\ believed\\ that\\ American\\ culture\\ was\\ inherently\\ racist\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ racism\\ blacks\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ separate\\ identity\\ and\\ culture\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ interpretations\\ of\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stance\\ on\\ racial\\ equality\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ separatist\\ leanings\\.\\ Either\\ X\\ believes\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Black\\ pride\\ should\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ are\\ racial\\ equals\\.\\ Blacks\\ need\\ a\\ separate\\ community\\ to\\ avoid\\ inherent\\ racisms\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ X\\ is\\ arguing\\ that\\ blacks\\ should\\ recognize\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\equal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;standing\\ and\\ abilities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\OR\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Blacks\\ pride\\ should\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ racially\\ superior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Whether\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ definitions\\ differ\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ notion\\ of\\ confidence\\ vs\\.\\ pride\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Joy\\ arising\\ from\\ imagination\\ of\\ a\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ power\\ and\\ ability\\ is\\ that\\ exultation\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ which\\ is\\ called\\ glorying\\:\\ which\\,\\ if\\ grounded\\ upon\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ former\\ actions\\,\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ with\\ confidence\\:\\ but\\ if\\ grounded\\ on\\ the\\ flattery\\ of\\ others\\,\\ or\\ only\\ supposed\\ by\\ himself\\,\\ for\\ delight\\ in\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ it\\,\\ is\\ called\\ vainglory\\:\\ which\\ name\\ is\\ properly\\ given\\;\\ because\\ a\\ well\\-grounded\\ confidence\\ begetteth\\ attempt\\;\\ whereas\\ the\\ supposing\\ of\\ power\\ does\\ not\\,\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ rightly\\ called\\ vain\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\confident\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;if\\ you\\ are\\ proud\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\&rdquo\\;\\ achievements\\ or\\ qualities\\.\\ You\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prideful\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;if\\ you\\ are\\ proud\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;false\\&rdquo\\;\\ ones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Then\\,\\ is\\ Malcolm\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;pride\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ confidence\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ Interpretation\\ \\(Blacks\\ as\\ racially\\ equal\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ make\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ see\\ whether\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ racial\\ equality\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;truth\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ belief\\ in\\ natural\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ for\\ the\\ ninth\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ I\\ put\\ this\\:\\ that\\ every\\ man\\ acknowledge\\ another\\ for\\ his\\ equal\\ by\\ nature\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ breach\\ of\\ this\\ precept\\ is\\ pride\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\,\\ Hobbes\\ believes\\ in\\ absolute\\ political\\ authority\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ sovereign\\ becomes\\ the\\ determining\\ factor\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;truths\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ concern\\ self\\-preservation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Of\\ the\\ passions\\ that\\ most\\ frequently\\ are\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ crime\\,\\ one\\ is\\ vainglory\\,\\ or\\ a\\ foolish\\ overrating\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ worth\\&hellip\\;\\ not\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ those\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ sovereign\\ authority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ American\\ government\\ \\&ldquo\\;clearly\\&rdquo\\;\\ supports\\ equality\\,\\ racial\\ and\\ otherwise\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ hold\\ these\\ truths\\ to\\ be\\ self\\-evident\\:\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ created\\ equal\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\ requires\\ that\\ no\\ state\\ \\&ldquo\\;deny\\ to\\ any\\ person\\ within\\ its\\ jurisdiction\\ the\\ equal\\ protection\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\,\\ Hobbes\\ would\\ consider\\ Malcolm\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;pride\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ confidence\\ rather\\ than\\ pride\\,\\ and\\ would\\ not\\ consider\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;pride\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ vice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ Interpretation\\ \\(Blacks\\ as\\ racially\\ superior\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neither\\ the\\ sovereign\\ nor\\ natural\\ laws\\ support\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ racial\\ superiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\,\\ Hobbes\\ would\\ consider\\ this\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Malcolm\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;pride\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ Hobbesian\\ pride\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ a\\ vice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Note\\:\\ If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ argument\\,\\ Hobbes\\ believes\\ in\\ absolute\\ political\\ obligation\\,\\ so\\ regardless\\ of\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;pride\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ vice\\,\\ X\\&rsquo\\;s\\ civil\\ disobediance\\,\\ in\\ calling\\ for\\ separation\\,\\ is\\ unjustified\\,\\ given\\ that\\ X\\ was\\ not\\ acting\\ out\\ of\\ self\\-preservation\\,\\ the\\ one\\ exception\\ to\\ absolute\\ political\\ obligation\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MR\\ 66\\ Final\\ \\-\\ Question\\ \\#2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ Notes\\ from\\ the\\ Reading\\ \\(Marx\\-Engels\\ Reader\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\MER\\ 204\\:\\ \\-Labour\\ power\\ is\\ a\\ commodity\\ \\(measured\\ by\\ the\\ clock\\)\\,\\ neither\\ more\\ nor\\ less\\ than\\ sugar\\ \\(measure\\ by\\ the\\ scales\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labour\\ power\\ is\\ a\\ commodity\\ which\\ its\\ possessor\\,\\ the\\ wage\\-worker\\,\\ sells\\ to\\ capital\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MER\\ 206\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ cost\\ of\\ production\\ of\\ labour\\ power\\ is\\ the\\ cost\\ required\\ for\\ maintaining\\ the\\ worker\\ as\\ a\\ worker\\ and\\ of\\ developing\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ worker\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ price\\ of\\ his\\ labour\\ will\\ be\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ necessary\\ means\\ of\\ subsistence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MER\\ 209\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ worker\\ receives\\ means\\ of\\ subsistence\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ his\\ labour\\ power\\,\\ but\\ the\\ capitalist\\ receives\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ his\\ means\\ of\\ subsistence\\ labour\\,\\ the\\ productive\\ activity\\ of\\ the\\ worker\\,\\ the\\ creative\\ power\\ whereby\\ the\\ worker\\ not\\ only\\ replaces\\ what\\ he\\ consumes\\ but\\ gives\\ to\\ the\\ accumulated\\ labour\\ a\\ greater\\ value\\ than\\ it\\ previously\\ possessed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MER\\ 307\\ \\&ndash\\;As\\ values\\,\\ all\\ commodities\\ are\\ only\\ definite\\ masses\\ of\\ congealed\\ labour\\-time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MER\\ 336\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Chapter\\ 6\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Buying\\ and\\ Selling\\ of\\ Labour\\-Power\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MER\\ 340\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ contradistinction\\ therefore\\ to\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ other\\ commodities\\,\\ there\\ enters\\ into\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ labour\\-power\\ a\\ historical\\ and\\ moral\\ element\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Nevertheless\\,\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ country\\,\\ at\\ a\\ given\\ period\\,\\ the\\ average\\ quantity\\ of\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ subsistence\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ labourer\\ is\\ practically\\ known\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;His\\ natural\\ wants\\,\\ such\\ as\\ food\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ fuel\\,\\ and\\ housing\\,\\ vary\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ climatic\\ and\\ other\\ physical\\ conditions\\ of\\ his\\ country\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ the\\ number\\ and\\ extent\\ of\\ his\\ so\\-called\\ necessary\\ wants\\,\\ as\\ also\\ the\\ modes\\ of\\ satisfying\\ them\\,\\ are\\ themselves\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ historical\\ development\\,\\ and\\ depend\\ therefore\\ to\\ a\\ great\\ extent\\ on\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ civilisation\\ of\\ a\\ country\\,\\ more\\ particularly\\ on\\ the\\ conditions\\ under\\ which\\,\\ and\\ consequently\\ on\\ the\\ habits\\ and\\ degree\\ of\\ comfort\\ in\\ which\\,\\ the\\ class\\ of\\ free\\ labourers\\ has\\ been\\ formed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Addressing\\ Question\\ \\#2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Moral\\ element\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ subsistence\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ the\\ worker\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ low\\ the\\ worker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wage\\ can\\ be\\ and\\ how\\ long\\ his\\ hours\\ can\\ be\\ \\(Marx\\ was\\ writing\\ before\\ the\\ 8\\ hour\\ work\\ day\\ was\\ instituted\\)\\ while\\ still\\ providing\\ him\\ with\\ the\\ means\\ and\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ sustain\\ an\\ acceptable\\ living\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ moral\\ question\\ because\\ deciding\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ living\\ situation\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;acceptable\\&rdquo\\;\\ requires\\ moral\\ judgements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ vary\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ living\\ standards\\ of\\ the\\ country\\;\\ the\\ physical\\ climate\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ \\(heating\\ and\\ more\\ clothing\\ are\\ more\\ necessary\\ in\\ colder\\ climates\\)\\;\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ labour\\ and\\ how\\ taxing\\ it\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ worker\\;\\ social\\ habits\\ that\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ necessary\\ \\(ex\\.\\ having\\ a\\ television\\)\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ examples\\ of\\ factors\\ that\\ affect\\ the\\ wage\\ required\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ worker\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ many\\ children\\ the\\ worker\\ is\\ supporting\\ \\(Marx\\:\\ having\\ children\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ reproduction\\ of\\ the\\ wage\\-labourer\\ class\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ much\\ education\\ the\\ worker\\ requires\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ job\\ \\(ie\\ how\\ much\\ educational\\ debt\\ the\\ worker\\ is\\ paying\\ off\\,\\ which\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ his\\ maintenance\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ Chapter\\ 6\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Capital\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Marx\\ contrasts\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ determine\\ the\\ exchange\\-value\\ of\\ labor\\-power\\ with\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ determine\\ the\\ exchange\\-value\\ of\\ other\\ commodities\\.\\ He\\ writes\\:\\ \\"\\;In\\ contrast\\&hellip\\;with\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ other\\ commodities\\,\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ labor\\-power\\ contains\\ an\\ historical\\ and\\ moral\\ element\\.\\"\\;\\ What\\ \\"\\;moral\\ element\\"\\;\\ does\\ Marx\\ think\\ is\\ specific\\ to\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ labor\\-power\\?\\ Through\\ what\\ sorts\\ of\\ activities\\ can\\ this\\ value\\ be\\ changed\\?\\ Give\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Background\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\it\\ is\\ within\\ labor\\ that\\ profit\\ is\\ found\\ for\\ capitalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ commodity\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ labor\\-time\\ necessary\\ for\\ production\\ and\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\with\\ labor\\-power\\ specifically\\,\\ the\\ value\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ reproduction\\ of\\ the\\ laborer\\ himself\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ his\\ subsistence\\.\\ He\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ back\\ the\\ next\\ day\\ and\\ work\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ element\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ laborer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\/survival\\ is\\ inherent\\ in\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ labor\\-power\\ as\\ a\\ commodity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ determine\\ the\\ value\\ one\\ has\\ to\\ determine\\ what\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ survive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ basic\\ needs\\ such\\ as\\ food\\,\\ housing\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ the\\ capitalist\\ to\\ determine\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\subsistence\\ of\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ laborer\\ but\\ his\\ offspring\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ want\\ to\\ insure\\ future\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\moral\\ issue\\ b\\/c\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ decide\\ what\\ really\\ is\\ the\\ right\\ level\\ of\\ subsistence\\ for\\ someone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Activities\\ to\\ change\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\level\\ of\\ training\\:\\ becoming\\ a\\ doctor\\ requires\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ therefore\\ their\\ labor\\ is\\ more\\ valuable\\ and\\ specialized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ paid\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ varies\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;degree\\ of\\ civilization\\ of\\ a\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ certain\\ places\\ have\\ a\\ higher\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\ so\\ subsistence\\ levels\\ can\\ vary\\ from\\ place\\ to\\ place\\ depending\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ norm\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 3\\:\\ Bus\\ Riders\\&rsquo\\;\\ Union\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Do\\ bus\\ riders\\ face\\ in\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ face\\ systematic\\ injustice\\ in\\ the\\ operation\\ of\\ the\\ transportation\\ system\\?\\ Their\\ movement\\ includes\\ a\\ \\"\\;No\\ Seat\\,\\ No\\ Fare\\"\\;\\ campaign\\,\\ in\\ which\\ under\\ some\\ circumstances\\ they\\ encourage\\ all\\ riders\\ to\\ refuse\\ to\\ pay\\ the\\ bus\\ fare\\,\\ thus\\ breaking\\ the\\ rule\\ that\\ says\\ that\\ passengers\\ must\\ pay\\ to\\ ride\\ the\\ bus\\.\\ Is\\ this\\ action\\ justifiable\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ on\\ what\\ grounds\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ why\\ not\\?\\ \\(You\\ can\\ find\\ much\\ background\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ BRU\\ on\\ their\\ website\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\www\\.busridersunion\\.org\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ linked\\ from\\ the\\ course\\ web\\ site\\.\\ The\\ BRU\\ movie\\ is\\ on\\ reserve\\ in\\ Lamont\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ was\\ the\\ \\(perceived\\)\\ injustice\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;although\\ inner\\-city\\ bus\\ riders\\ provided\\ the\\ metropolitan\\ transit\\ system\\ with\\ its\\ largest\\ profits\\,\\ they\\ received\\ the\\ worst\\ schedule\\&hellip\\;\\.suburban\\ riders\\ provided\\ the\\ district\\ with\\ constant\\ deficits\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ illusion\\.\\ Public\\ transit\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\state\\ subsidized\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ fares\\ are\\ only\\ part\\ of\\ its\\ revenue\\.\\ The\\ rest\\ comes\\ from\\ taxpayer\\ money\\.\\ The\\ wealthy\\ \\(suburban\\)\\ pay\\ far\\ more\\ in\\ taxes\\ than\\ the\\ poor\\;\\ they\\ are\\ probably\\ paying\\ more\\ for\\ what\\ they\\ get\\ anyway\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thought\\ experiment\\:\\ imagine\\ that\\ LA\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ administrative\\ regions\\:\\ the\\ rich\\ region\\ and\\ the\\ poor\\ region\\.\\ The\\ residents\\ of\\ each\\ region\\ were\\ taxed\\,\\ and\\ public\\ services\\ were\\ funded\\.\\ Obviously\\,\\ because\\ of\\ higher\\ incomes\\,\\ the\\ rich\\ region\\ would\\ get\\ better\\ service\\.\\ Would\\ this\\ still\\ be\\ injustice\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ exactly\\ what\\ happens\\ with\\ public\\ schools\\,\\ which\\ are\\ funded\\ by\\ property\\ taxes\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ Newton\\,\\ MA\\ has\\ amazing\\ public\\ schools\\,\\ whereas\\ Lowell\\,\\ MA\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ Is\\ that\\ systematic\\ injustice\\?\\ Do\\ people\\ not\\ deserve\\ better\\ services\\ when\\ they\\ pay\\ more\\ for\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imagine\\ if\\ they\\ just\\ got\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ transit\\ system\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\where\\ would\\ there\\ be\\ the\\ biggest\\ outcry\\:\\ the\\ suburbs\\,\\ or\\ the\\ city\\ \\(where\\ the\\ BRU\\ is\\ active\\)\\?\\ Most\\ likely\\ the\\ BRU\\ people\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ they\\ benefit\\ more\\ from\\ public\\ transit\\ than\\ the\\ rich\\,\\ who\\ are\\ supposedly\\ getting\\ a\\ better\\ deal\\ than\\ they\\ are\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ this\\ boils\\ down\\ to\\ wealth\\ redistribution\\.\\ Is\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ refusal\\ to\\ redistribute\\ X\\ amount\\ of\\ wealth\\ from\\ the\\ suburbs\\ to\\ the\\ inner\\ city\\ racist\\?\\ How\\ is\\ X\\ determined\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Argued\\ that\\ a\\ particular\\ population\\ of\\ transit\\-dependent\\ bus\\-riders\\ were\\ being\\ discriminated\\ against\\ by\\ the\\ policies\\ and\\ investment\\ patterns\\ of\\ the\\ MTA\\,\\ which\\ clearly\\ favored\\ wealthy\\,\\ white\\,\\ and\\ predominantly\\ male\\ suburban\\ users\\ of\\ expensive\\ new\\ fixed\\-rail\\ system\\ being\\ constructed\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ every\\ policy\\ that\\ affects\\ one\\ race\\ more\\ than\\ another\\ \\&ldquo\\;racist\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pretty\\ much\\ impossible\\ to\\ find\\ one\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ because\\ race\\ is\\ intertwined\\ with\\ economic\\ status\\,\\ income\\,\\ etc\\.\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ reality\\ of\\ society\\.\\ If\\ the\\ police\\ arrest\\ more\\ blacks\\ than\\ whites\\ proportional\\ to\\ population\\ \\(they\\ do\\)\\,\\ can\\ one\\ conclude\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ are\\ racist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ because\\ it\\ affects\\ one\\ race\\ more\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ racist\\.\\ This\\ same\\ inequality\\ \\(with\\ public\\ transit\\)\\ happens\\ in\\ places\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ significant\\ minorities\\.\\ How\\ do\\ these\\ guys\\ conclude\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ racially\\ motivated\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Holding\\ the\\ MTA\\ to\\ its\\ statutory\\ obligation\\ to\\ patrons\\ \\&ldquo\\;without\\ regard\\ to\\ race\\,\\ color\\,\\ or\\ national\\ origin\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ the\\ BRU\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policy\\ more\\ color\\-blind\\?\\ It\\ is\\ asking\\ for\\ better\\ services\\ and\\ redistribution\\ of\\ money\\ to\\ minorities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ even\\ know\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ discrepancy\\ in\\ service\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ necessarily\\ true\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ easy\\ to\\ assess\\ whether\\ a\\ public\\ transportation\\ system\\ is\\ serving\\ one\\ population\\ better\\ than\\ another\\;\\ it\\ goes\\ beyond\\ seeing\\ which\\ buses\\ are\\ more\\ crowded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bus\\ crowding\\ is\\ economically\\ feasible\\ in\\ highly\\ populated\\ areas\\ \\(inner\\ city\\)\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ low\\-populated\\ areas\\ \\(suburbs\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suburban\\ workers\\ commute\\ longer\\ distances\\;\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ bike\\ or\\ walk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ BRU\\&rsquo\\;s\\ methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\under\\ some\\ circumstances\\ they\\ encourage\\ all\\ riders\\ to\\ refuse\\ to\\ pay\\ the\\ bus\\ fare\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;no\\ seat\\,\\ no\\ fare\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disruptive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constitutes\\ harassment\\ of\\ bus\\ drivers\\,\\ disrupts\\ commute\\ of\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Delegitimizes\\ the\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Others\\ with\\ less\\ legitimate\\ causes\\ will\\ feel\\ justified\\ in\\ breaking\\ the\\ rules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everybody\\ encounters\\ injustice\\ all\\ the\\ time\\;\\ if\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ T\\,\\ and\\ I\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ fare\\ is\\ 10\\ cents\\ too\\ high\\,\\ should\\ I\\ refuse\\ to\\ pay\\ the\\ extra\\ 10\\ cents\\?\\ What\\ if\\ everybody\\ acted\\ this\\ way\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clearly\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ cost\\ built\\ into\\ breaking\\ the\\ laws\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pretty\\ significant\\,\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ have\\ to\\ stand\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ on\\ the\\ T\\.\\ Should\\ I\\ refuse\\ to\\ pay\\ my\\ fare\\ as\\ well\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Law\\ and\\ order\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ value\\;\\ often\\ supersede\\ a\\ perfectly\\ good\\ solution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ have\\ an\\ avenue\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ courts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ we\\ redress\\ injustice\\ in\\ this\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ bus\\ overcrowding\\ really\\ worth\\ fixing\\,\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ other\\ causes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ public\\ health\\ measures\\,\\ healthcare\\ research\\,\\ improved\\ schools\\,\\ etc\\.\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguing\\ FOR\\ the\\ BRU\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ general\\,\\ complaints\\ of\\ the\\ BRU\\ that\\ fit\\ in\\ almost\\ any\\ paragraph\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ bad\\ service\\:\\ slow\\,\\ overcrowded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ ending\\ \\&ldquo\\;night\\ owl\\&rdquo\\;\\ service\\,\\ which\\ many\\ people\\ take\\ to\\/from\\ their\\ odd\\-hour\\ jobs\\ \\(the\\ people\\ working\\ these\\ jobs\\ are\\ poor\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ working\\ so\\ late\\/relying\\ on\\ the\\ bus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ fare\\ hikes\\,\\ elimination\\ of\\ the\\ bus\\ pass\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ systematic\\ injustice\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ general\\ cutting\\ of\\ bus\\ services\\ \\(see\\ list\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ the\\ population\\ that\\ takes\\ the\\ bus\\ is\\ mostly\\ poor\\ people\\,\\ specifically\\ minorities\\:\\ from\\ the\\ website\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;88\\%\\ of\\ whom\\ are\\ Latino\\,\\ Black\\,\\ Asian\\/Pacific\\ Islander\\,\\ and\\ Native\\ American\\,\\ more\\ than\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ whom\\ have\\ annual\\ family\\ incomes\\ under\\ \\$12\\,000\\ and\\ 57\\%\\ of\\ whom\\ are\\ women\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ huge\\ amounts\\ of\\ money\\ have\\ been\\ reallocated\\ to\\ 5\\ miles\\ \\(\\=tiny\\)\\ of\\ rail\\ service\\ in\\ rich\\ areas\\.\\ \\ \\;Rail\\ is\\ hardly\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ the\\ bus\\ \\&\\;\\ rail\\ populations\\ are\\ mutually\\ exclusive\\:\\ rich\\ rail\\/poor\\ bus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ because\\ of\\ this\\ systematic\\ injustice\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ political\\ obligation\\ \\(Lyons\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\[although\\ the\\ bus\\ system\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ governing\\ body\\,\\ it\\ does\\ try\\ to\\ enforce\\ rules\\ such\\ as\\ paying\\ bus\\ fares\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ Metropolitan\\ Transportation\\ Authority\\ \\(MTA\\)\\ is\\ a\\ government\\ agency\\,\\ and\\ the\\ BRU\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;target\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ political\\ obligation\\ could\\ come\\ from\\ consent\\ to\\ something\\ or\\ gaining\\ benefit\\ from\\ sthg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ however\\,\\ if\\ the\\ organization\\ is\\ immoral\\,\\ it\\ is\\ morally\\ impermissible\\ to\\ uphold\\ any\\ political\\ obligation\\ based\\ on\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ moral\\ obligation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ since\\ the\\ MTA\\ is\\ acting\\ in\\ a\\ classist\\,\\ racist\\ manner\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ political\\ obligation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ without\\ political\\ ob\\,\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ justify\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ \\(not\\ paying\\ the\\ bus\\ fare\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Potential\\ objection\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ MTA\\:\\ the\\ reallocation\\ of\\ money\\ to\\ the\\ rail\\ is\\ progress\\ towards\\ more\\ advanced\\ public\\ transportation\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ it\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ cut\\ down\\ on\\ traffic\\ and\\ emissions\\ \\(incidentally\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ BRU\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ affluent\\ population\\ accounts\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ drivers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Counterargument\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Even\\ so\\,\\ the\\ rail\\ was\\ a\\ gross\\ overallocation\\ of\\ funds\\ to\\ a\\ tiny\\ project\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Such\\ progress\\ should\\ not\\ come\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ the\\ already\\ overcrowded\\ \\&\\;\\ unreliable\\ bus\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Middle\\-class\\ train\\ riders\\ receive\\ subsidies\\ to\\ ride\\ the\\ train\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparatively\\ speaking\\,\\ the\\ rail\\ costs\\ \\~500million\\/mile\\,\\ whereas\\ than\\ the\\ demands\\ by\\ the\\ BRU\\ would\\ cost\\ \\~1\\ billion\\ to\\ fulfill\\,\\ but\\ for\\ hundreds\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ daily\\ bus\\ riders\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ is\\ obligated\\ to\\ provide\\ equal\\ services\\ for\\ all\\ \\(1964\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\)\\;\\ adequate\\ access\\ to\\ transportation\\ to\\ work\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ ensure\\ a\\ minimum\\ standing\\ of\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ conclusion\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;No\\ seat\\,\\ no\\ fare\\&rdquo\\;\\ campaign\\ is\\ both\\ justified\\ and\\ applicable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ busses\\ is\\ overcrowding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ the\\ MTA\\ complies\\ with\\ neither\\ the\\ max\\ \\#\\ nor\\ the\\ avg\\ \\#\\ of\\ standing\\ people\\ on\\ the\\ busses\\:\\ urgent\\ need\\ for\\ more\\ busses\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ MTA\\ continues\\ to\\ ignore\\ these\\ problems\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ seat\\,\\ no\\ fare\\&rdquo\\;\\ policy\\ directly\\ addresses\\ this\\ issue\\ directly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ the\\ protest\\ \\&\\;\\ action\\ is\\ justified\\ given\\ the\\ socioeconomic\\ and\\ racial\\ inequalities\\ in\\ public\\ transportation\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ MTA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disregard\\ for\\ overcrowding\\ standards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ \\"\\;The\\ Structure\\ of\\ Proletarian\\ Unfreedom\\"\\;\\,\\ G\\.A\\.\\ Cohen\\ offers\\ an\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Marx\\&\\#39\\;s\\ claim\\ that\\ under\\ capitalism\\,\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\-power\\.\\ What\\ is\\ Cohen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ claim\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ plausible\\?\\ Why\\ or\\ why\\ not\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cohen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interpretation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Workers\\ are\\ collectively\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\-power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ workers\\ must\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\-power\\ since\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ acceptable\\ or\\ reasonable\\ other\\ alternative\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ other\\ alternative\\ is\\ to\\ starve\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ say\\,\\ but\\ workers\\ can\\ exit\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ and\\ so\\ not\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ labor\\-power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cohen\\ says\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ capitalist\\ system\\ requires\\ a\\ large\\ labor\\ force\\ and\\ so\\ not\\ everyone\\ can\\ escape\\ from\\ the\\ worker\\ class\\ since\\ then\\ there\\ would\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ a\\ large\\ labor\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ workers\\ are\\ collectively\\ unfree\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ plausible\\?\\ \\ \\;Yes\\,\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ plausible\\ that\\ the\\ workers\\ are\\ collectively\\ unfree\\ and\\ thus\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\-power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ if\\ all\\ workers\\ did\\ leave\\ working\\ class\\,\\ then\\ would\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ correct\\ class\\ structure\\ for\\ a\\ capitalist\\ society\\ to\\ function\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ if\\ one\\ person\\ leaves\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ members\\ have\\ an\\ even\\ smaller\\ chance\\ of\\ escaping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ in\\ all\\,\\ Cohen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ seems\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ and\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ dispute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ might\\ say\\ that\\ workers\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ collectively\\ resist\\ selling\\ their\\ labor\\-power\\ and\\ do\\ in\\ fact\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ bargaining\\ power\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\ power\\ as\\ they\\ see\\ fit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ organize\\ such\\ a\\ large\\ mass\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ during\\ the\\ dispute\\ and\\ bargaining\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ laborers\\ will\\ have\\ nothing\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ subsist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ so\\ again\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ fully\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ this\\ power\\ and\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ 4\\:\\ Counterargument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ Cohen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arguments\\ are\\ pretty\\ strong\\,\\ but\\ here\\ are\\ some\\ possible\\ counterarguments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\(Nozick\\)\\ A\\ distribution\\ is\\ just\\ if\\ it\\ arises\\ from\\ another\\ just\\ distribution\\ by\\ legitimate\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cohen\\ would\\ counter\\ that\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;property\\ distributions\\ reflecting\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ acquisition\\ and\\ exchange\\ may\\ leave\\ the\\ worker\\ with\\ no\\ other\\ acceptable\\ option\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Nozick\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ construe\\ the\\ position\\ we\\ discuss\\ too\\ narrowly\\ by\\ speaking\\ of\\ current\\ time\\-slice\\ principles\\&hellip\\;in\\ contrast\\ to\\ end\\-result\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ historical\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ hold\\ that\\ past\\ circumstances\\ or\\ actions\\ of\\ people\\ can\\ create\\ differential\\ entitlements\\ or\\ differential\\ deserts\\ to\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ he\\ is\\ arguing\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ practical\\ interpretation\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ operating\\ within\\ the\\ framework\\ of\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lifetime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\and\\ takes\\ history\\ as\\ given\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cohen\\ would\\ probably\\ argue\\ that\\ just\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ bound\\ by\\ historical\\ limitations\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ accept\\ them\\ as\\ just\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ history\\ itself\\ can\\ generate\\ injustice\\;\\ historical\\ injustice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ identical\\ to\\ proletarians\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cohen\\:\\ \\ \\;proletarians\\ are\\ not\\ forced\\ to\\ remain\\ proletarians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ very\\ few\\ amount\\ of\\ proletarians\\ can\\ exercise\\ the\\ option\\ of\\ upward\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ capitalism\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;each\\ is\\ free\\ only\\ on\\ condition\\ that\\ the\\ others\\ do\\ not\\ exercise\\ their\\ similarly\\ conditional\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ freedom\\ of\\ each\\ is\\ contingent\\ on\\ the\\ others\\ not\\ exercising\\ their\\ similarly\\ contingent\\ freedom\\,\\ we\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ unfreedom\\ in\\ their\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ have\\ broken\\ the\\ question\\ into\\ 3\\ parts\\ and\\ answered\\ each\\ one\\ below\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Possible\\ alternative\\ explanations\\ for\\ the\\ State\\&rsquo\\;s\\ violent\\ response\\ \\(I\\ list\\ several\\ in\\ order\\ of\\ their\\ strength\\,\\ and\\ flesh\\ out\\ \\#1\\ because\\ I\\ believe\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ strongest\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ precedent\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ set\\:\\ if\\ Rockefeller\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ yielding\\ to\\ inmates\\,\\ revolts\\ would\\ break\\ out\\ at\\ other\\ state\\ prisons\\,\\ with\\ potentially\\ more\\ hostages\\ been\\ \\ \\;taken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Attica\\ revolt\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ George\\ Jackson\\,\\ a\\ Black\\ Panther\\ and\\ inspiration\\ to\\ many\\ prisoners\\.\\ \\ \\;Across\\ the\\ country\\,\\ revolutionary\\ activities\\ had\\ been\\ occurring\\ in\\ and\\ outside\\ of\\ prisons\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ tensions\\ in\\ prisons\\ had\\ been\\ higher\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ the\\ stakes\\ were\\ high\\ on\\ this\\ decision\\,\\ and\\ any\\ sign\\ of\\ weakness\\ on\\ Rockefeller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ played\\ upon\\ by\\ other\\ prisoners\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ increasing\\ crime\\ rates\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ President\\ Nixon\\ had\\ supported\\ a\\ strict\\ criminal\\ justice\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ there\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ pressure\\ on\\ Rockefeller\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ consistent\\ with\\ this\\ general\\ political\\ climate\\,\\ or\\ else\\ risk\\ undermining\\ the\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ and\\ contributing\\ to\\ criminal\\ uprisings\\ across\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ simple\\ act\\ of\\ a\\ drawn\\ out\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;fair\\&rdquo\\;\\ negotiation\\ process\\ may\\ have\\ empowered\\ the\\ weak\\ and\\ inspired\\ other\\ prisoners\\ to\\ revolt\\ and\\ adopt\\ similar\\ tactics\\ i\\.e\\.\\ take\\ guards\\ hostage\\ and\\ potentially\\ cause\\ further\\ bloodshed\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ send\\ a\\ message\\ to\\ quash\\ those\\ possibilities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nixon\\ had\\ emphasized\\ an\\ age\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Law\\ \\&lsquo\\;n\\&rsquo\\;\\ order\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ thus\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ important\\ for\\ Rockefeller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ political\\ ambitious\\ that\\ he\\ show\\ strength\\ and\\ toughness\\ with\\ criminals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Negotiations\\ had\\ reached\\ a\\ sticking\\ point\\.\\ \\ \\;Prisoners\\ wanted\\ amnesty\\ but\\ Oswald\\ had\\ tried\\ asking\\ a\\ judge\\ and\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ possible\\.\\ Since\\ negotiations\\ were\\ at\\ an\\ impasse\\,\\ force\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ prisoners\\ had\\ already\\ led\\ to\\ one\\ death\\ \\(Corrections\\ Officer\\ Quinn\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Rockefeller\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ better\\ to\\ ensure\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ the\\ remaining\\ hostages\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ meant\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ prisoners\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Federal\\ authorities\\ were\\ concerned\\ about\\ militant\\ minority\\ groups\\ like\\ the\\ Black\\ Panthers\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ also\\ send\\ a\\ message\\ to\\ them\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ among\\ the\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ prison\\ revolt\\,\\ and\\ the\\ prison\\ was\\ majority\\ Black\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Which\\ explanation\\ \\(Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ or\\ the\\ alternative\\ explanation\\ \\#1\\)\\ is\\ more\\ plausible\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\ \\;Let\\ us\\ flesh\\ out\\ Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\ \\;First\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ personal\\ component\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ D\\-Yard\\ inmates\\ profoundly\\ offended\\ him\\ ideologically\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;Rockefeller\\ was\\ wealthy\\ and\\ political\\ powerful\\,\\ and\\ shared\\ very\\ little\\ with\\ these\\ inmates\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ therefore\\ had\\ very\\ little\\ respect\\ for\\ them\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ and\\ had\\ no\\ qualms\\ ordering\\ the\\ state\\ to\\ violently\\ attack\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\ \\;Second\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ philosophical\\ component\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ believed\\ it\\ his\\ responsibility\\ to\\ society\\ to\\ silence\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ implies\\ that\\ prisoners\\,\\ having\\ violated\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ society\\,\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ real\\ members\\ of\\ that\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ explanation\\ continues\\,\\ Rockefeller\\ believed\\ the\\ inmates\\ were\\ societal\\ outcasts\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ past\\ misdeeds\\,\\ and\\ so\\ their\\ opinions\\ and\\ beliefs\\ did\\ not\\ matter\\ to\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ problem\\ terminating\\ negotiations\\ and\\ ending\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;trivial\\&rdquo\\;\\ revolt\\ forcefully\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Which\\ is\\ more\\ plausible\\?\\ \\ \\;I\\ believe\\ the\\ alternative\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ While\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ Rockefeller\\ may\\ have\\ personally\\ had\\ very\\ little\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ inmates\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ unlikely\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ allowed\\ his\\ personal\\ convictions\\ to\\ supersede\\ his\\ duty\\ as\\ governor\\ of\\ New\\ York\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ the\\ best\\ manner\\ possible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ also\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ plausible\\ that\\ society\\ wanted\\ to\\ hear\\ these\\ inmates\\ \\&ldquo\\;silenced\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ clear\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ much\\ press\\ coverage\\ during\\ the\\ revolt\\,\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ clearly\\ no\\ consensus\\ behind\\ Rockefeller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;silence\\&rdquo\\;\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ years\\ afterwards\\ many\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ questioned\\ his\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ does\\ seem\\ plausible\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ had\\ there\\ been\\ a\\ drawn\\ out\\ negotiation\\ process\\ ending\\ in\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ benefits\\ for\\ the\\ prisoners\\,\\ there\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ copycat\\ revolts\\ across\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Prison\\ conditions\\ were\\ already\\ quite\\ poor\\ and\\ understaffed\\,\\ it\\ would\\ likely\\ have\\ been\\ very\\ easy\\ for\\ other\\ prisoners\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ organized\\ and\\ stage\\ such\\ revolts\\ had\\ there\\ been\\ motivation\\ among\\ the\\ inmates\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ the\\ alternative\\ explanation\\ does\\ seem\\ likely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;Assuming\\ Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ explanation\\ is\\ correct\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ implications\\ for\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ would\\ this\\ weaken\\ or\\ strengthen\\)\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\ of\\ the\\ Attica\\ protest\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ discursive\\ defense\\ states\\ that\\ an\\ illegal\\ protest\\ is\\ justified\\ when\\ two\\ conditions\\ are\\ met\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Let\\ us\\ show\\ how\\ these\\ two\\ conditions\\ were\\ met\\ by\\ Attica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Discussion\\ of\\ the\\ principles\\ at\\ issue\\ in\\ the\\ protest\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ shut\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ principles\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ were\\ better\\ food\\,\\ living\\ conditions\\,\\ and\\ treatment\\ by\\ guards\\ for\\ the\\ inmates\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ quite\\ clear\\ that\\ discussing\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;should\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ be\\ shut\\ out\\ i\\.e\\.\\ doing\\ so\\ would\\ not\\ cause\\ harm\\ to\\ society\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ issues\\ of\\ substance\\,\\ because\\ prisoners\\ are\\ still\\ living\\,\\ breathing\\ members\\ of\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ they\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ owed\\ the\\ same\\ civil\\ liberties\\ and\\ freedom\\ that\\ non\\-prisoners\\ have\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ they\\ should\\ still\\ deserve\\ some\\ standards\\ of\\ human\\ decency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ principles\\ will\\ not\\ enter\\ political\\ discussion\\ without\\ illegality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\,\\ Clark\\ remarks\\ that\\ Prison\\ commissioner\\ Oswald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pledges\\ for\\ prison\\ change\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ same\\ words\\ people\\ had\\ been\\ saying\\ for\\ years\\ without\\ anything\\ happening\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;An\\ Attica\\ Liberation\\ Faction\\ had\\ been\\ formed\\ and\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ discussion\\ with\\ Oswald\\ since\\ July\\,\\ yet\\ by\\ September\\,\\ all\\ he\\ could\\ say\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ assure\\ you\\ that\\ changes\\ will\\ be\\ made\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ one\\ could\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ inmates\\ had\\ tried\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ prison\\ reform\\ for\\ quite\\ some\\ time\\ to\\ no\\ avail\\ through\\ legal\\ channels\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ illegal\\ action\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ generate\\ effective\\ discussion\\ about\\ the\\ issue\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\ strengthened\\/weakened\\ if\\ we\\ assume\\ Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ to\\ be\\ true\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ held\\ that\\ Rockefeller\\ considered\\ inmates\\ \\&ldquo\\;dregs\\ of\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ deserved\\ to\\ be\\ silenced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ this\\ is\\ true\\,\\ then\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\ is\\ severely\\ weakened\\ because\\ condition\\ \\#1\\ is\\ undermined\\.\\ \\ \\;Namely\\,\\ if\\ society\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ hear\\ the\\ voices\\ of\\ inmates\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ inconsequential\\,\\ then\\ any\\ protest\\ the\\ inmates\\ may\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;should\\ not\\&rdquo\\;\\ be\\ heard\\ or\\ considered\\ by\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;In\\ discussing\\ Rockefeller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ retake\\ Attica\\ Correctional\\ Facility\\ after\\ the\\ uprising\\,\\ Tom\\ Wicker\\ writes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;I\\ doubt\\ that\\ political\\ calculation\\ alone\\ would\\ have\\ moved\\ Rockefeller\\ to\\ act\\ so\\ compulsively\\,\\ had\\ it\\ not\\ been\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ powerful\\ personal\\ compulsion\\.\\ The\\ inmates\\,\\ any\\ inmates\\,\\ were\\ the\\ dregs\\ of\\ society\\;\\ and\\ the\\ broadcast\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ these\\ particular\\ inmates\\ was\\ loudly\\ Marxist\\ and\\ revolutionary\\,\\ condemning\\ the\\ very\\ society\\ of\\ which\\ Nelson\\ Rockefeller\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ wealthiest\\ beneficiaries\\ and\\ most\\ powerful\\ defenders\\.\\ I\\ believe\\ the\\ D\\-Yard\\ inmates\\ profoundly\\ offended\\ him\\ ideologically\\;\\ and\\ he\\ believed\\ it\\ his\\ responsibility\\ to\\ silence\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Time\\ to\\ Die\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\xii\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;What\\ is\\ an\\ alternative\\ explanation\\ of\\ Rockefeller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ retake\\ the\\ prison\\ in\\ the\\ manner\\ her\\ did\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ by\\ shooting\\ straight\\ into\\ the\\ yard\\ with\\ bullets\\ and\\ tear\\-gas\\?\\ Which\\ explanation\\ is\\ more\\ plausible\\,\\ and\\ why\\?\\ Supposing\\ that\\ Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ explanation\\ is\\ correct\\,\\ discuss\\ the\\ implications\\ for\\ what\\ was\\ called\\ in\\ lecture\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\discursive\\ defense\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ illegal\\ protest\\,\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ Attica\\ inmates\\&rsquo\\;\\ uprising\\.\\ Be\\ sure\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ that\\ defense\\ is\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Thomas\\ Wicker\\ proposes\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Time\\ to\\ Die\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ Governor\\ Rockefeller\\ ordered\\ the\\ police\\ to\\ retake\\ the\\ prison\\ in\\ the\\ violent\\ manner\\ that\\ they\\ did\\ because\\ he\\ secretly\\ harbored\\ contempt\\ for\\ the\\ Attica\\ inmates\\ and\\ the\\ ideal\\ they\\ upheld\\.\\ An\\ alternative\\ explanation\\ of\\ Rockefeller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ retake\\ the\\ prison\\ may\\ be\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ applying\\ Rawlsian\\ theory\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\ and\\ decided\\ that\\ the\\ prisoners\\&rsquo\\;\\ behavior\\ did\\ not\\ meet\\ the\\ appropriate\\ criteria\\ for\\ the\\ justification\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;In\\ particular\\,\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ third\\ requirement\\ for\\ the\\ justification\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ is\\ that\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ should\\ be\\ restricted\\ to\\ those\\ cases\\ where\\ the\\ dissenter\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ affirm\\ that\\ everyone\\ else\\ similarly\\ subjected\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ degree\\ of\\ injustice\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ protest\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ way\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\,\\ had\\ Rockefeller\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;retaken\\ the\\ prison\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ did\\,\\ then\\ he\\ must\\ accept\\ that\\ he\\ must\\ authorize\\ others\\ to\\ dissent\\ in\\ similar\\ situations\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ and\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ their\\ doing\\ so\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ if\\ Rockefeller\\ had\\ not\\ taken\\ action\\ against\\ the\\ prisoners\\,\\ then\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ effectively\\ encouraging\\ all\\ other\\ disgruntled\\ prisoners\\ across\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ to\\ wreak\\ havoc\\ on\\ their\\ prisons\\ and\\ take\\ their\\ guards\\ hostage\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ perhaps\\ Rockefeller\\ felt\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ example\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Attica\\ inmates\\ by\\ stopping\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ he\\ knew\\:\\ firing\\ into\\ the\\ prison\\ yard\\ and\\ hoping\\ to\\ hit\\ with\\ gunfire\\ as\\ many\\ inmates\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ believe\\ that\\ Wickers\\&rsquo\\;\\ explanation\\ that\\ Rockefeller\\ acted\\ compulsively\\ out\\ of\\ personal\\ compulsion\\ is\\ more\\ plausible\\ than\\ my\\ explanation\\ that\\ the\\ governor\\ acted\\ based\\ on\\ Rawlsian\\ theory\\ that\\ if\\ he\\ let\\ the\\ Attica\\ inmates\\ protest\\ in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ encouraging\\ others\\ to\\ also\\ overtake\\ their\\ prisons\\.\\ I\\ say\\ this\\ because\\ if\\ Rockefeller\\ really\\ believed\\ that\\ actions\\ set\\ a\\ precedence\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\,\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ never\\ ordered\\ the\\ police\\ to\\ fire\\ indiscriminately\\ into\\ the\\ yard\\,\\ haphazardly\\ killing\\ both\\ guards\\ and\\ inmates\\ alike\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ Rockefeller\\ would\\ then\\ be\\ sending\\ the\\ message\\ to\\ police\\ force\\ all\\ over\\ America\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ okay\\ to\\ kill\\ guards\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ quest\\ to\\ quiet\\ protesting\\ prisoners\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ more\\ likely\\ that\\ Rockefeller\\ believed\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ responsibility\\ to\\ uphold\\ his\\ own\\ personal\\ ideologies\\ and\\ silence\\ the\\ prisoners\\ in\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ he\\ knew\\ how\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Supposing\\ that\\ Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ is\\ indeed\\ correct\\ has\\ implication\\ for\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\ theory\\ that\\ was\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\.\\ The\\ discursive\\ defense\\ theory\\ represents\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ illegality\\ under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ refrain\\ from\\ protest\\ if\\ the\\ issue\\ at\\ hand\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\should\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;be\\ discussed\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\will\\ not\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;discussed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unless\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;there\\ is\\ illegal\\ activity\\.\\ It\\ says\\ that\\ discussion\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;condition\\ for\\ the\\ rectification\\ of\\ injustice\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ injustice\\ that\\ is\\ happening\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ brought\\ into\\ discussion\\ before\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ fixed\\.\\ Two\\ factors\\ directly\\ determine\\ how\\ justified\\ one\\ is\\ in\\ resorting\\ to\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ last\\ resort\\,\\ when\\ people\\ have\\ exhausted\\ all\\ other\\ legal\\ means\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ solve\\ their\\ problem\\.\\ Second\\,\\ the\\ gravity\\ of\\ the\\ injustice\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ such\\ that\\ it\\ merits\\ doing\\ something\\ illegal\\ to\\ fix\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Wicker\\,\\ Rockefeller\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ Attica\\ inmates\\;\\ he\\ has\\ contempt\\ for\\ them\\.\\ Rawlsian\\ theory\\,\\ though\\,\\ maintains\\ that\\ people\\ who\\ reason\\ from\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ will\\ adhere\\ to\\ both\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ equality\\ and\\ the\\ maximum\\ principle\\,\\ and\\ will\\ therefore\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ nearly\\ just\\ society\\.\\ The\\ principle\\ of\\ equality\\ is\\ the\\ Rawlsian\\ notion\\ that\\ each\\ person\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ has\\ the\\ most\\ extensive\\ liberty\\ compatible\\ with\\ liberty\\.\\ The\\ maximin\\ principle\\ says\\ that\\ socio\\-economic\\ inequality\\ is\\ arranged\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ worst\\-off\\ citizen\\ is\\ the\\ best\\-off\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ Rawls\\ says\\ the\\ state\\ has\\ ultimate\\ authority\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ respect\\ for\\ all\\ other\\ citizens\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ argument\\ about\\ a\\ nearly\\-just\\ society\\ is\\ incompatible\\ with\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\ theory\\ because\\ even\\ if\\ discussion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\were\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ between\\ Rockefeller\\ and\\ the\\ Attica\\ inmates\\,\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ help\\ justice\\ to\\ be\\ served\\ because\\,\\ ultimately\\,\\ Rockefeller\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ the\\ Attica\\ inmates\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ rights\\ for\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ agitating\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Wicker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ requires\\ the\\ discursive\\ theory\\ because\\ it\\ helps\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ his\\ argument\\ is\\ correct\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\(Common\\ Sense\\ of\\)\\ Justice\\ according\\ to\\ Rawls\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ principles\\ which\\ we\\ would\\ agree\\ are\\ just\\ under\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ \\(\\ i\\.e\\.\\ without\\ knowing\\ our\\ own\\ social\\ position\\/status\\ or\\ how\\ any\\ inequalities\\ might\\ benefit\\ or\\ hurt\\ our\\ position\\/status\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\&rdquo\\;\\ situation\\ merely\\ hypothetical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Content\\ of\\ those\\ principles\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ person\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ equal\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ extensive\\ liberty\\ compatible\\ with\\ like\\ liberty\\ for\\ all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ and\\ economic\\ inequalities\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ arranged\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ attached\\ to\\ positions\\ and\\ offices\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maximin\\ \\(make\\ the\\ worst\\ off\\ as\\ good\\ off\\ as\\ possible\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ other\\ words\\:\\ everyone\\ has\\ equal\\ rights\\,\\ but\\ not\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ equal\\ socially\\ or\\ economically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Refusal\\ to\\ grant\\ justice\\,\\ treating\\ someone\\ unfairly\\ \\(in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ What\\ is\\ injustice\\?\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Denial\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ as\\ an\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Willingness\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ at\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ thinks\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ actively\\ given\\ or\\ denied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Objection\\:\\ Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ refusal\\ to\\ grant\\ justice\\ seem\\ to\\ imply\\ that\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\?\\ \\[Rawls\\ anticipates\\ this\\ objection\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Siegel\\ also\\ raised\\ it\\ in\\ class\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ these\\ cases\\ of\\ injustice\\ be\\ as\\ insulting\\ to\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ of\\ the\\ perpetrator\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ Response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ principles\\ that\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ would\\ agree\\ to\\ IF\\ they\\ were\\ under\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ in\\ a\\ nearly\\-just\\ society\\ people\\ will\\ \\(or\\ at\\ least\\ will\\ be\\ tempted\\ to\\)\\ refuse\\ justice\\ to\\ another\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maximize\\ their\\ own\\ benefit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\ these\\ principles\\ are\\ codified\\ in\\ the\\ constitution\\ of\\ a\\ nearly\\-just\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ protest\\ which\\ addresses\\ the\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ therefore\\ asks\\ for\\ a\\ majority\\ opinion\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;addresses\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ urge\\ reconsideration\\ of\\ the\\ measures\\ protested\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ majority\\ should\\ then\\ re\\-evaluate\\ the\\ situation\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ under\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ and\\ make\\ their\\ ruling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rawls\\ is\\ confident\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ majority\\ imagine\\ themselves\\ as\\ under\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ then\\ they\\ will\\ certainly\\ agree\\ to\\ these\\ 2\\ principles\\ \\(at\\ least\\?\\)\\ which\\ together\\ constitute\\ the\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Evaluation\\ of\\ this\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\ also\\ says\\ that\\ everyone\\ \\&ldquo\\;tries\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ best\\ he\\ can\\ for\\ himself\\ by\\ insisting\\ on\\ principles\\ calculated\\ to\\ protect\\ and\\ advance\\ his\\ system\\ of\\ ends\\,\\ whatever\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ to\\ be\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ principles\\ were\\ only\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hypothetically\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;calculated\\,\\ in\\ actuality\\ people\\ try\\ to\\ advance\\ their\\ position\\ whenever\\ possible\\,\\ sometimes\\ even\\ at\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expense\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ think\\ about\\ these\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ unless\\ some\\ one\\ asks\\ them\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ about\\ cases\\ of\\ systematic\\ injustice\\ like\\ the\\ ones\\ Lyons\\ brings\\ up\\?\\ In\\ those\\ cases\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ are\\ either\\ involved\\ or\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ least\\ complicit\\ in\\ large\\ scale\\ injustices\\.\\ \\(think\\ lynch\\ mobs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ people\\ will\\ agree\\ on\\ some\\ theoretical\\ level\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ under\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\)\\ to\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\,\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ put\\ them\\ into\\ practice\\,\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ meaningful\\ unless\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ put\\ into\\ practice\\.\\ When\\ there\\ is\\ large\\ scale\\ injustice\\,\\ why\\ should\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ bother\\ to\\ address\\ a\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ when\\ it\\ has\\ already\\ so\\ clearly\\ failed\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ system\\ which\\ is\\ just\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ we\\ be\\ sure\\ everyone\\ would\\ agree\\ to\\ these\\ principles\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ actually\\ under\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ \\"\\;The\\ Justification\\ of\\ Civil\\ Disobedience\\,\\"\\;\\ John\\ Rawls\\ characterizes\\ the\\ sort\\ of\\ injustice\\ to\\ which\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ is\\ properly\\ addressed\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;since\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ are\\ principles\\ which\\ we\\ would\\ agree\\ to\\ in\\ an\\ original\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\position\\ of\\ equality\\ when\\ we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ our\\ social\\ position\\ and\\ the\\ like\\,\\ the\\ refusal\\ to\\ grant\\ justice\\ is\\ either\\ the\\ denial\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ as\\ an\\ equal\\ \\(as\\ one\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ whom\\ we\\ are\\ prepared\\ to\\ constrain\\ our\\ actions\\ by\\ principles\\ which\\ we\\ would\\ consent\\ to\\)\\ or\\ the\\ manifestation\\ of\\ a\\ willingness\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ natural\\ contingencies\\ and\\ social\\ fortune\\ at\\ his\\ expense\\ \\(185\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ Rawls\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ in\\ a\\ nearly\\-just\\ society\\ addresses\\ a\\ \\"\\;common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\"\\;\\.\\ Why\\ might\\ someone\\ worry\\ that\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\incompatible\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ the\\ refusal\\ to\\ grant\\ justice\\ described\\ by\\ Rawls\\ in\\ the\\ passage\\ above\\?\\ How\\ might\\ Rawls\\ best\\ reply\\ to\\ this\\ worry\\?\\ Evaluate\\ the\\ reply\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-2\\ chief\\ virtues\\ of\\ democratic\\ social\\ institutions\\-\\ justice\\,\\ and\\ efficiency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ conditions\\ should\\ end\\ in\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ need\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-because\\ we\\ as\\ individuals\\ have\\ accepted\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ democratic\\ institution\\,\\ we\\ expect\\ others\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\,\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\ share\\ this\\ obligation\\ with\\ everyone\\ else\\ \\(as\\ long\\ as\\ we\\ continue\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ morality\\,\\ and\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ institution\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-To\\ Rawls\\,\\ social\\ contract\\ theory\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ political\\ obligation\\,\\ for\\ it\\ leads\\ our\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ principals\\ to\\ which\\ social\\ arrangements\\ must\\ conform\\ \\&hellip\\;are\\ those\\ that\\ free\\ and\\ rational\\ men\\ would\\ agree\\ to\\ in\\ an\\ original\\ position\\ of\\ liberty\\ and\\ similarly\\ the\\ principals\\ that\\ govern\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relations\\ to\\ institutions\\ and\\ define\\ their\\ natural\\ duties\\ and\\ obligations\\ \\ \\;are\\ the\\ principals\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ would\\ consent\\ when\\ so\\ situated\\.\\ It\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ in\\ this\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\ theory\\,\\ the\\ principals\\ of\\ justice\\ are\\ understood\\ as\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ agreement\\.\\ They\\ are\\ the\\ principals\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ agreed\\ to\\ if\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ position\\ were\\ to\\ arise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Additionally\\,\\ to\\ Rawls\\,\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\ doctrine\\ that\\ people\\ abide\\ to\\ once\\ accepting\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ said\\ institution\\ says\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ equal\\ rights\\ and\\ powers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ points\\ to\\ this\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ the\\ parties\\ are\\ deciding\\ on\\ the\\ laws\\/rules\\ that\\ are\\ to\\ govern\\ the\\ society\\,\\ they\\ must\\ hold\\ over\\ themselves\\ a\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\.\\ A\\ veil\\ that\\ keeps\\ them\\ from\\ promoting\\ their\\ own\\ fortune\\,\\ or\\ from\\ being\\ disadvantaged\\.\\ The\\ people\\ making\\ the\\ legislature\\ must\\ strip\\ themselves\\ of\\ their\\ societal\\ position\\,\\ and\\ must\\ be\\ unaware\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ talents\\ and\\ abilities\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ unbiased\\ societal\\ structure\\ that\\ will\\ benefit\\ the\\ greater\\ society\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ themselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ they\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ create\\ such\\ a\\ system\\,\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\ accept\\ whatever\\ societal\\ position\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ granted\\ within\\ the\\ system\\,\\ then\\ they\\ will\\ have\\ fulfilled\\ their\\ mission\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ just\\ institution\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WHY\\ MIGHT\\ THIS\\ BE\\ INCOMPATIBLE\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ our\\ eyes\\,\\ refusing\\ to\\ grant\\ justice\\ is\\ incompatible\\ with\\ the\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ because\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ represent\\ to\\ completely\\ opposing\\ views\\.\\ If\\ one\\ civilly\\ disobeys\\,\\ it\\ has\\ the\\ potential\\ cause\\ chaos\\ because\\ one\\ is\\ protesting\\ against\\ society\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ \\ \\;one\\ should\\ be\\ trying\\ to\\ uphold\\ equality\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ Civil\\ disobedience\\ fundamentally\\ opposes\\ the\\ desire\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ and\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ good\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ refusal\\ to\\ grant\\ justice\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ \\(purposefully\\ putting\\ them\\ at\\ a\\ disadvantage\\)\\ is\\ what\\ instigates\\ civil\\ disobedience\\.\\ Under\\ this\\ situation\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ justification\\ for\\ civilly\\ disobeying\\ to\\ promote\\ your\\ own\\ interests\\.\\ However\\,\\ without\\ this\\ refusal\\ to\\ grant\\ justice\\,\\ everyone\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ an\\ equal\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reasonable\\ justification\\ for\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ \\(going\\ against\\ the\\ majority\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ we\\ are\\ assuming\\ that\\ acts\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ go\\ against\\ the\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ because\\ the\\ dissenters\\ are\\ promoting\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ minority\\,\\ and\\ opposing\\ the\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ In\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ opinion\\,\\ this\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ completely\\ undermines\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ general\\ good\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Additionally\\,\\ if\\ one\\ person\\ disobeys\\,\\ and\\ others\\ follow\\ him\\,\\ this\\ turns\\ into\\ chaos\\.\\ Civil\\ disobedience\\,\\ if\\ not\\ timed\\ correctly\\,\\ if\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ a\\ minority\\,\\ and\\ if\\ performed\\ without\\ thought\\,\\ completely\\ goes\\ against\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ a\\ just\\ society\\ \\(acting\\ in\\ the\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\)\\ \\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ threat\\ of\\ anarchy\\ when\\ the\\ minority\\ dissents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HOWEVER\\ HIS\\ RESPONSE\\ WOULD\\ BE\\ THAT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ may\\ cause\\ chaos\\,\\ if\\ performed\\ under\\ conditions\\ that\\ sincerely\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ moral\\ principles\\ under\\ which\\ the\\ constitution\\ was\\ originally\\ established\\,\\ then\\ it\\ in\\ fact\\ is\\ upholding\\ the\\ common\\ good\\.\\ As\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ dissenter\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ when\\ dissenting\\,\\ then\\ the\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ still\\ being\\ fulfilled\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Rawls\\ assumes\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ a\\ constitutional\\ regime\\ that\\ is\\ around\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ constitution\\ and\\ guide\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\>\\;sometimes\\ one\\ particular\\ person\\ may\\ want\\ to\\ disobey\\,\\ but\\ overall\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ common\\ good\\ keeps\\ them\\ from\\ disobeying\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ of\\ justice\\ important\\ b\\/c\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ established\\ injustices\\ indefensible\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ rawls\\ emphasizes\\,\\ that\\ while\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ certain\\ principles\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ society\\ must\\ run\\,\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ decide\\ for\\ himself\\.\\ Each\\ individual\\ must\\ have\\ his\\ own\\ understanding\\ of\\ these\\ principles\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ morally\\ binding\\ legal\\ interpretation\\ of\\ these\\ principles\\.\\ There\\ will\\ be\\ no\\ danger\\ of\\ anarchy\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ agreement\\ in\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ political\\ justice\\ and\\ what\\ it\\ requires\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 7\\\\<\\/span\\>\\David\\ Lyons\\ and\\ Political\\ Obligation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ condition\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Deeply\\ entrenched\\,\\ significant\\,\\ systematic\\ injustice\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ violation\\ of\\ this\\ condition\\ incompatible\\ with\\ political\\ obligation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Benefits\\ argument\\:\\ no\\ political\\ obligation\\ based\\ on\\ state\\ benefits\\ because\\ systematically\\ unjust\\ state\\ awards\\ you\\ unfairly\\ less\\ benefits\\ or\\ forces\\ you\\ to\\ pay\\ unfairly\\ high\\ burden\\ to\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fairness\\/equality\\ argument\\:\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ breaching\\ equality\\ and\\ fairness\\;\\ your\\ political\\ obligation\\ to\\ them\\ ceases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consent\\ argument\\:\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ consent\\ to\\ morally\\ impermissible\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ consent\\ to\\ enslave\\ yourself\\)\\;\\ also\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ open\\-ended\\ consent\\ to\\ society\\ that\\ requires\\ you\\ to\\ later\\ obey\\ immoral\\ orders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lyons\\&rsquo\\;\\ specific\\ arguments\\ with\\ his\\ three\\ examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ political\\ obligation\\ to\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\ laws\\ that\\ enforce\\ your\\ subjugation\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ chattel\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ political\\ obligation\\ to\\ regime\\ guilty\\ of\\ significant\\ \\&ldquo\\;racist\\,\\ degrading\\,\\ violent\\,\\ and\\ brutal\\&rdquo\\;\\ actions\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ colonial\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ political\\ obligation\\ to\\ government\\ that\\ systematically\\ excludes\\ you\\ from\\ political\\ process\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Jim\\ Crow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refutations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hobbes\\ objection\\:\\ Political\\ obligation\\ once\\ consented\\ to\\ must\\ be\\ obeyed\\,\\ unless\\ life\\ threatened\\;\\ otherwise\\,\\ recipe\\ for\\ anarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rawls\\ objection\\:\\ In\\ \\&ldquo\\;nearly\\ just\\&rdquo\\;\\ society\\,\\ bound\\ to\\ follow\\ even\\ unjust\\ laws\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\;\\ political\\ obligation\\ should\\ only\\ be\\ breached\\ as\\ last\\ resort\\,\\ appeal\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ only\\ be\\ practiced\\ when\\ equal\\ liberties\\ at\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Terms\\ objection\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;deeply\\ entrenched\\,\\ significant\\,\\ systematic\\ injustice\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ mean\\ anything\\;\\ Rawls\\ presents\\ historical\\ cases\\ but\\ no\\ specific\\ rules\\ for\\ deciding\\ when\\ breached\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\ maker\\ objection\\:\\ Which\\ brings\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ key\\ objection\\,\\ who\\ decides\\?\\ Rawls\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tell\\ us\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ the\\ victim\\?\\ But\\ anyone\\ could\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ victim\\ of\\ all\\ three\\ conditions\\ and\\ justify\\ their\\ own\\ law\\ breaking\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ the\\ oppressor\\?\\ But\\ no\\ oppressor\\ supports\\ protest\\ against\\ himself\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ society\\ at\\ large\\?\\ But\\ society\\ is\\ often\\ the\\ oppressor\\,\\ and\\ even\\ where\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\,\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ bigoted\\ in\\ their\\ beliefs\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ an\\ impartial\\,\\ moral\\ third\\ person\\?\\ But\\ who\\ is\\ this\\ person\\,\\ and\\ what\\ makes\\ them\\ impartial\\ or\\ moral\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Practical\\ objection\\:\\ What\\ can\\ protest\\ achieve\\ in\\ a\\ fundamentally\\ unjust\\ society\\?\\ That\\ is\\,\\ if\\ a\\ society\\ systemically\\ discriminates\\,\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ protest\\ just\\ bring\\ repression\\ and\\ no\\ improvements\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lyons\\&rsquo\\;\\ possible\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ Hobbes\\:\\ moral\\ limits\\ to\\ consent\\ e\\.g\\.\\ consent\\ void\\ if\\ state\\ practices\\ genocide\\;\\ therefore\\ political\\ obligation\\ void\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ Rawls\\:\\ in\\ unjust\\ society\\,\\ basic\\ assumption\\ of\\ political\\ obligation\\ is\\ invalid\\;\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ meet\\ any\\ conditions\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ last\\ resort\\)\\ to\\ breach\\ the\\ law\\ in\\ such\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ decision\\ maker\\ objection\\:\\ Lyons\\ in\\ lecture\\ argued\\ that\\ we\\ must\\ each\\ individually\\ make\\ this\\ decision\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rely\\ on\\ independent\\ moral\\ arbiters\\;\\ instead\\,\\ make\\ personal\\ moral\\ call\\ as\\ we\\ would\\ in\\ all\\ personal\\ ethics\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ Practical\\ objection\\:\\ history\\ suggests\\ protest\\ is\\ effective\\;\\ unjust\\ white\\ society\\ of\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ era\\ was\\ persuaded\\ to\\ pass\\ civil\\ rights\\ legislation\\;\\ slavery\\-era\\ Britain\\ finally\\ supported\\ abolition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ultimately\\,\\ is\\ Lyons\\&rsquo\\;\\ claim\\ plausible\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insert\\ your\\ own\\ opinion\\ here\\,\\ suggestions\\ below\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ yes\\:\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ political\\ obligation\\ to\\ oppressive\\ state\\;\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ highlight\\ injustice\\ and\\ force\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ no\\:\\ lack\\ of\\ clear\\ objective\\ grounds\\ for\\ when\\ political\\ obligation\\ is\\ void\\ risks\\ a\\ free\\ for\\ all\\ and\\ complete\\ anarchy\\;\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ should\\ follow\\ set\\ conditions\\ \\(Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ argument\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ \\&ldquo\\;Moral\\ Judgement\\,\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ David\\ Lyons\\ adopts\\ the\\ following\\ strategy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;propose\\ a\\ moral\\ condition\\ for\\ political\\ obligation\\,\\ and\\&hellip\\;argue\\ that\\ this\\ condition\\ is\\ clearly\\ violated\\ in\\ paradigmatic\\ cases\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\ 32\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ condition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Political\\ obligation\\ cannot\\ coexist\\ with\\ significant\\,\\ systematic\\ injustice\\ that\\ is\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ political\\ obligation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\can\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;exist\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ systematic\\ and\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\ injustice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\(from\\ handouts\\)\\ Under\\ circumstances\\ of\\ systematic\\ injustice\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ an\\ act\\ is\\ illegal\\ is\\ not\\ even\\ a\\ prima\\-facie\\ sufficient\\ reason\\ to\\ refrain\\ from\\ doing\\ it\\,\\ and\\ illegality\\ of\\ principled\\ protest\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ any\\ special\\ justification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-not\\ sure\\ if\\ the\\ question\\ is\\ asking\\ for\\ Lyons\\&rsquo\\;\\ stance\\ or\\ his\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;theorists\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ stance\\;\\ if\\ the\\ latter\\,\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ belief\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;civil\\ disobedience\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ disobedients\\ \\&ldquo\\;consider\\ the\\ prevailing\\ system\\ as\\ \\&lsquo\\;reasonably\\ just\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ accordingly\\ seek\\ limited\\ reform\\,\\ not\\ radical\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ reasons\\ you\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ for\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ violation\\ of\\ this\\ condition\\ is\\ incompatible\\ with\\ political\\ obligation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Violation\\ of\\ this\\ condition\\:\\ political\\ obligation\\ can\\ exist\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\ systematic\\ injustice\\;\\ civil\\ disobedients\\ in\\ paradigmatic\\ cases\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ the\\ prevailing\\ system\\ as\\ reasonably\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyons\\&rsquo\\;\\ examples\\:\\ Chattel\\ slavery\\,\\ Colonial\\ rule\\,\\ Jim\\ Crow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ these\\ paradigmatic\\ cases\\ of\\ CD\\,\\ the\\ systems\\ clearly\\ exhibited\\ systematic\\,\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\ injustice\\ and\\ therefore\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ political\\ obligation\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Lyons\\ says\\ in\\ section\\ II\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ that\\ even\\ under\\ these\\ systems\\ there\\ still\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ laws\\ that\\ were\\ worthy\\ of\\ respect\\ and\\ would\\ have\\ had\\ moral\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ obeyed\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ this\\ is\\ incompatible\\ with\\ the\\ moral\\ condition\\ for\\ political\\ obligation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ might\\ someone\\ say\\ against\\ these\\ reasons\\,\\ and\\ how\\ might\\ Lyons\\ reply\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyons\\ describes\\ the\\ systems\\ as\\ clearly\\ having\\ systematic\\,\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\ injustices\\,\\ but\\ then\\ sort\\ of\\ disconnectedly\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oh\\,\\ but\\ there\\ were\\ still\\ laws\\ under\\ these\\ systems\\ that\\ were\\ just\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ elaborate\\,\\ or\\ give\\ specific\\ examples\\,\\ which\\ detracts\\ from\\ his\\ argument\\.\\ \\ \\;Without\\ this\\ key\\ component\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ above\\ argument\\ where\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ incompatibility\\ between\\ unjust\\ systems\\ and\\ political\\ obligation\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ what\\ about\\ examples\\ where\\ systems\\ are\\ unjust\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ just\\ rules\\&mdash\\;should\\ people\\ be\\ obligated\\ to\\ obey\\ all\\ rules\\ of\\ a\\ systematic\\ governance\\ or\\ only\\ some\\ rules\\ that\\ are\\ just\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyons\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Even\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ treated\\ unjustly\\ can\\ have\\ moral\\ reason\\ to\\ comply\\ with\\ the\\ culpable\\ laws\\&mdash\\;when\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ disobedience\\ would\\ expose\\ innocent\\ persons\\ to\\ risks\\ they\\ have\\ not\\ agreed\\ to\\ assume\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ moral\\ reason\\ to\\ support\\ a\\ regime\\ that\\ is\\ profoundly\\ unjust\\&mdash\\;when\\ it\\ is\\ endangered\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ by\\ forces\\ that\\ threaten\\ to\\ impose\\ much\\ worse\\ injustice\\&hellip\\;Obedience\\ is\\ neither\\ central\\ nor\\ essential\\.\\ \\ \\;Whether\\ our\\ political\\ responsibilities\\ involve\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ obey\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ characters\\ of\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ the\\ circumstances\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(36\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ultimately\\,\\ is\\ Lyons\\&rsquo\\;\\ claim\\ plausible\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ argument\\ against\\ Lyons\\ is\\ so\\ what\\?\\ \\ \\;His\\ theory\\ cannot\\ really\\ be\\ practically\\ applied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Lyons\\ claims\\ that\\ some\\ theorists\\ assume\\ that\\ civil\\ disobedients\\ see\\ the\\ existing\\ system\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;reasonably\\ just\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ thus\\ seek\\ only\\ limited\\ reform\\,\\ not\\ radical\\ change\\.\\ This\\ could\\ then\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ disobedients\\ accept\\ punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ because\\ their\\ submission\\ signifies\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ prevailing\\ system\\.\\ However\\,\\ Lyons\\ argues\\ that\\ prevailing\\ systems\\ like\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ prevented\\ U\\.S\\.\\ society\\ from\\ actually\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;basically\\ just\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ resisters\\,\\ including\\ MLK\\,\\ thought\\ of\\ the\\ system\\ as\\ just\\ when\\ they\\ decided\\ to\\ protest\\ against\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\ of\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ abolishment\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ the\\ Constitution\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ give\\ basic\\ rights\\ to\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\ However\\,\\ in\\ 1877\\ efforts\\ to\\ enforce\\ those\\ rights\\ were\\ aborted\\ by\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\,\\ and\\ white\\ supremacy\\ was\\ reestablished\\ in\\ many\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ enacted\\ by\\ state\\ and\\ local\\ laws\\ were\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ keeping\\ African\\ Americans\\ excluded\\ from\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ political\\ process\\,\\ protection\\ against\\ crime\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ systematic\\ denial\\ of\\ equality\\ and\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ to\\ African\\ Americans\\ showed\\ that\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\ had\\ significant\\,\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\,\\ systematic\\ injustice\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Lyons\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ disobedient\\ acts\\ of\\ King\\ did\\ not\\ show\\ that\\ he\\ accepted\\ the\\ system\\ as\\ basically\\ just\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ while\\ he\\ did\\ have\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;highest\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ law\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ King\\ made\\ a\\ clear\\ distinction\\ between\\ just\\ and\\ unjust\\ laws\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\,\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ merited\\ respect\\ as\\ just\\ democratic\\ products\\,\\ by\\ King\\ or\\ other\\ protestors\\,\\ since\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ they\\ came\\ about\\ was\\ entirely\\ undemocratic\\.\\ So\\ in\\ this\\ respect\\,\\ King\\ also\\ refuted\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ civil\\ disobedients\\ had\\ to\\ accept\\ their\\ obligation\\ to\\ obey\\ the\\ law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyons\\ concludes\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ theorists\\ who\\ believe\\ that\\ moral\\ justification\\ was\\ required\\ to\\ disobey\\ laws\\ under\\ systems\\ like\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ are\\ themselves\\ showing\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ racism\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ moral\\ frameworks\\ in\\ which\\ these\\ theories\\ are\\ based\\ are\\ tainted\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;tolerance\\ of\\ racist\\ conduct\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ theories\\&rsquo\\;\\ failure\\ to\\ attach\\ importance\\ to\\ the\\ facts\\ that\\ reflect\\ injustice\\ against\\ other\\ races\\.\\ In\\ Lyons\\&rsquo\\;\\ view\\,\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ obvious\\ that\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ shows\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\ systematic\\ injustice\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\ to\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ society\\ under\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ basically\\ just\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ prevented\\ US\\ society\\ from\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;basically\\ just\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;the\\ federal\\ government\\ aborted\\ efforts\\ to\\ enforce\\ basic\\ rights\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\ that\\ were\\ introduced\\ into\\ the\\ Constitution\\ after\\ abolition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\State\\ laws\\ and\\ constitutions\\ were\\ modified\\ to\\ exclude\\ African\\ Americans\\ from\\ the\\ political\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Violence\\ and\\ fraud\\ eliminated\\ the\\ remnants\\ of\\ Reconstruction\\ and\\ reestablished\\ White\\ supremacy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protection\\ against\\ rape\\,\\ kidnapping\\,\\ harassment\\,\\ and\\ murder\\ were\\ denied\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ sanctioned\\ brutal\\,\\ systematic\\ denial\\ of\\ due\\ process\\,\\ equal\\ protection\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Local\\ officials\\ violently\\ prosecuted\\ African\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ did\\ not\\ interfere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Given\\ that\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\ was\\ an\\ instance\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;deeply\\ entrenched\\,\\ systematic\\ injustice\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Lyons\\ contends\\ that\\ it\\ is\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;implausible\\ to\\ hold\\ that\\ a\\ sound\\ moral\\ presumption\\ favored\\ obedience\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ land\\,\\ including\\ those\\ that\\ supported\\ Jim\\ Crow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Lyons\\ 39\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ Lyons\\&\\#39\\;s\\ explain\\ what\\ he\\ takes\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ theorists\\&\\#39\\;\\ mistake\\ in\\ regarding\\ U\\.S\\.\\ society\\ under\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ as\\ basically\\ just\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theorists\\ suppose\\ that\\ true\\ civil\\ disobedients\\ consider\\ the\\ systems\\ under\\ which\\ they\\ live\\ to\\ be\\ morally\\ flawed\\,\\ but\\ generally\\ just\\;\\ as\\ such\\,\\ the\\ disobedients\\ call\\ for\\ modest\\ reform\\,\\ not\\ fundamental\\ change\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ support\\ of\\ this\\ assumption\\,\\ theorists\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ disobedients\\&rsquo\\;\\ nonviolent\\ methods\\ and\\ use\\ of\\ moral\\ suasion\\ rather\\ than\\ violence\\.\\ Their\\ submission\\ to\\ arrest\\ and\\ punishment\\ is\\ further\\ evidence\\ of\\ their\\ respect\\ for\\ legal\\ authority\\ and\\ recognition\\ of\\ a\\ moral\\ authority\\ to\\ obey\\ \\(39\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyons\\ argues\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ MLK\\ did\\ not\\ regard\\ himself\\ as\\ morally\\ bound\\ to\\ obey\\ unjust\\ laws\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ his\\ acceptance\\ of\\ legal\\ sanctions\\ \\&ldquo\\;signified\\ a\\ strategic\\,\\ not\\ a\\ moral\\,\\ judgment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(40\\)\\.\\ Violence\\ was\\ no\\ a\\ promising\\ means\\ of\\ effecting\\ the\\ sort\\ of\\ social\\ change\\ he\\ desired\\,\\ especially\\ since\\ the\\ movement\\ required\\ support\\ from\\ non\\-African\\ Americans\\.\\ Lyons\\ points\\ to\\ 6\\ areas\\ where\\ this\\ is\\ evident\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ limited\\ aims\\ of\\ King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resistance\\ activities\\ were\\ necessary\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Blacks\\ lacked\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ system\\;\\ change\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ gradual\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ mobilize\\ participants\\,\\ the\\ campaigns\\ needed\\ to\\ have\\ realizable\\ goals\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ maintain\\ participation\\,\\ small\\ victories\\ fueled\\ morale\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ commitment\\ to\\ nonviolence\\ reflected\\ negatively\\ on\\ the\\ system\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acceptance\\ of\\ punishment\\ was\\ strategic\\.\\ It\\ showed\\ the\\ brutality\\ of\\ a\\ system\\ willing\\ to\\ brutally\\ hurt\\ individuals\\ acting\\ peacefully\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ called\\ the\\ system\\ not\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;unjust\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;evil\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ claimed\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ thin\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ system\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(quoted\\ on\\ p44\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ distinguished\\ between\\ just\\ and\\ unjust\\ law\\;\\ only\\ just\\ law\\ merited\\ respect\\.\\ King\\ condemned\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ as\\ unjust\\ \\(thus\\ implying\\ that\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ merit\\ respect\\)\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ wronged\\ the\\ individual\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ imposed\\ by\\ a\\ majority\\ on\\ a\\ minority\\ that\\ is\\ excluded\\ from\\ the\\ political\\ process\\ \\(he\\ invokes\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ democracy\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ he\\ contemplated\\ CD\\,\\ King\\ never\\ faced\\ a\\ moral\\ dilemma\\ that\\ included\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ obey\\ the\\ law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lyons\\ cites\\ two\\ dilemmas\\ that\\ King\\ faced\\.\\ Both\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ considerations\\ and\\ practical\\ uncertainties\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ NOT\\ moral\\ presumptions\\ favoring\\ obedience\\ to\\ law\\ \\(45\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fear\\ that\\ defying\\ a\\ court\\ order\\ banning\\ a\\ protest\\ would\\ seem\\ unprincipled\\ to\\ financial\\ supporters\\ whose\\ money\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ bail\\ out\\ arrested\\ supporters\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deciding\\ to\\ march\\ despite\\ knowing\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ insufficient\\ money\\ for\\ bail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ I\\:\\ Why\\ are\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ Laws\\ make\\ U\\.S\\.\\ society\\ inherently\\ unjust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ institutionalized\\ White\\ supremacy\\,\\ an\\ inherently\\ unjust\\,\\ wrong\\ ideology\\,\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ African\\ Americans\\ were\\ entirely\\ excluded\\ from\\ political\\ process\\.\\ This\\ inherently\\ unjust\\ system\\ was\\ made\\ possible\\ through\\ the\\ unlawful\\ practices\\ of\\ officials\\,\\ the\\ acquiescence\\ of\\ some\\,\\ and\\ the\\ indifference\\ of\\ others\\.\\ The\\ United\\ States\\,\\ under\\ the\\ Constitution\\,\\ was\\ publicly\\ committed\\ to\\ equal\\ protection\\,\\ due\\ process\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\ completely\\ contradicted\\ this\\.\\ For\\ African\\ Americans\\ the\\ law\\ was\\ false\\.\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\ involved\\ entrenched\\,\\ systematic\\ injustice\\.\\ It\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Lyons\\,\\ to\\ have\\ political\\ obligation\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ prevalent\\ entrenched\\ injustice\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\ provides\\ a\\ refutation\\ of\\ how\\ ncivil\\ disobedience\\ can\\ be\\ assumed\\ to\\ require\\ moral\\ justification\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ moral\\ justification\\.\\ It\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ pure\\ moral\\ error\\.\\ This\\ error\\ is\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ II\\:\\ Proving\\ why\\ King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ peaceful\\ resistance\\ was\\ regarding\\ the\\ system\\ as\\ basically\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\King\\ claimed\\ that\\ his\\ campaign\\ expressed\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ highest\\ respect\\ for\\ law\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ King\\ used\\ modest\\ goals\\ in\\ his\\ campaign\\ not\\ because\\ he\\ respected\\ the\\ system\\ but\\ because\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\ was\\ so\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\.\\ Violence\\ also\\ seemed\\ impractical\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ entrenched\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\.\\ Violence\\ would\\ mean\\ destroying\\ the\\ entire\\ system\\.\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ cannot\\ merit\\ respect\\ as\\ products\\ of\\ a\\ just\\ system\\ because\\ the\\ system\\ that\\ generates\\ such\\ laws\\ is\\ inherently\\ unjust\\.\\ He\\ claimed\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ core\\ values\\ expressed\\ in\\ the\\ Constitution\\ were\\ not\\ adequately\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ system\\.\\ His\\ actions\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ refute\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ civil\\ disobedients\\ accept\\ an\\ obligation\\ of\\ obedience\\ to\\ the\\ law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discursive\\ Defense\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\certain\\ principles\\,\\ proposals\\ or\\ possibilities\\ should\\ be\\ discussed\\ and\\ cannot\\ enter\\ serious\\ political\\ discussion\\ without\\ illegality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ injustice\\ significant\\ enough\\ and\\ it\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ otherwise\\ be\\ discussed\\ adequately\\,\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ sufficient\\ reason\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ civil\\ disobedience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\:\\ BRU\\ used\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ defense\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ claims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\illegality\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ refrain\\ from\\ principled\\ social\\ protest\\ when\\ discussion\\ of\\ principles\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ shut\\ out\\ and\\ principles\\ would\\ not\\ enter\\ political\\ discussion\\ without\\ illegality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ this\\ all\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ even\\ if\\ social\\ protest\\ is\\ illegal\\,\\ it\\ is\\ justified\\ under\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\ if\\ the\\ issues\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ discussed\\ and\\ social\\ protest\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ their\\ discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marx\\ and\\ Capitalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ his\\ views\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\a\\ system\\ of\\ capitalism\\ would\\ be\\ ruptured\\ by\\ periodic\\ crises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ proletariat\\ \\(working\\ class\\)\\ needed\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ would\\ they\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ production\\ that\\ was\\ less\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ such\\ crises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\peaceful\\ negotiation\\ was\\ impossible\\ so\\ would\\ require\\ a\\ huge\\,\\ violent\\ and\\ well\\-organized\\ revolution\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ ruling\\ class\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ their\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\capitalism\\ is\\ revolutionary\\,\\ constantly\\ changing\\ patterns\\ of\\ work\\ and\\ social\\ relations\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ profit\\ and\\ thus\\ there\\ is\\ protest\\ against\\ those\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\,\\ for\\ Marx\\,\\ protest\\ is\\ an\\ intrinsic\\ part\\ of\\ capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ that\\ this\\ claim\\,\\ that\\ Marx\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ some\\ cases\\ of\\ social\\ protest\\ are\\ justified\\ by\\ the\\ discursive\\ defense\\,\\ is\\ false\\ because\\ even\\ though\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ main\\ points\\ is\\ that\\ just\\ appealing\\ to\\ a\\ common\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\,\\ I\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ Marx\\ felt\\ violent\\ social\\ protest\\ was\\ necessary\\ because\\ the\\ ruling\\ class\\ would\\ only\\ respond\\ to\\ active\\,\\ violent\\ protests\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ the\\ salience\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ were\\ necessarily\\ important\\ to\\ Marx\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ the\\ justice\\ of\\ protest\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ overthrow\\ an\\ unjust\\ system\\ relies\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ option\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ whether\\ the\\ issues\\ would\\ or\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ discussed\\ otherwise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ of\\ the\\ BRU\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;they\\ start\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ injustice\\ in\\ which\\ someone\\ is\\ hurt\\ for\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benefit\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ BRU\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ proletariat\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ ride\\ the\\ buses\\ and\\ the\\ capitalists\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ used\\,\\ shall\\ we\\ say\\,\\ nicer\\ modes\\ of\\ public\\ transportation\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ BRU\\ had\\ to\\ use\\ social\\ protest\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ heard\\ because\\,\\ like\\ in\\ capitalism\\,\\ the\\ system\\ was\\ in\\ essence\\ allowing\\ the\\ rich\\ to\\ get\\ richer\\ and\\ the\\ poor\\ to\\ get\\ poorer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ of\\ Attica\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ prisoners\\ could\\ argue\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ lawyers\\ do\\,\\ that\\ the\\ protest\\ was\\ necessary\\ because\\ the\\ issues\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ raise\\ were\\ not\\ being\\ discussed\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ it\\ raises\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ such\\ a\\ defense\\ is\\ applicable\\ to\\ prisoners\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Question\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Give\\ the\\ best\\ argument\\ you\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ that\\ Harvard\\ should\\ have\\ implemented\\ a\\ living\\ wage\\ policy\\ for\\ its\\ service\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ campaign\\ that\\ culminated\\ in\\ the\\ sit\\-in\\ in\\ 2001\\.\\ What\\ would\\ Nozick\\ say\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ argument\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Give\\ the\\ best\\ argument\\ you\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ that\\ Harvard\\ should\\ have\\ implemented\\ a\\ living\\ wage\\ policy\\ for\\ its\\ service\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ campaign\\ that\\ culminated\\ in\\ the\\ sit\\-in\\ of\\ 2001\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ potential\\ argument\\:\\ the\\ Cambridge\\ City\\ Council\\ was\\ getting\\ ready\\ to\\ pass\\ a\\ living\\ wage\\ ordinance\\ requiring\\ that\\ all\\ city\\ workers\\ and\\ employees\\ of\\ large\\ city\\ contractors\\ earn\\ at\\ least\\ \\$10\\ per\\ hour\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ private\\ institution\\,\\ Harvard\\ was\\/is\\ the\\ largest\\ employer\\ in\\ Cambridge\\ and\\ should\\ also\\ agree\\ to\\ maintain\\ a\\ living\\ wage\\.\\ \\ \\;Side\\ note\\:\\ After\\ all\\,\\ it\\ would\\ only\\ cost\\ \\~\\ \\$10M\\/year\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ immoral\\ for\\ institutions\\ to\\ pay\\ anything\\ below\\ a\\ living\\ wage\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ living\\ wage\\ has\\ such\\ a\\ name\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ generally\\ what\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ a\\ person\\/family\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ certain\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ an\\ employer\\ does\\ not\\ pay\\ a\\ living\\ wage\\,\\ but\\ the\\ employee\\ spends\\ most\\ of\\ his\\/her\\ waking\\ hours\\ working\\ for\\ that\\ employer\\,\\ he\\/she\\ certainly\\ cannot\\ maintain\\ that\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ immoral\\ act\\ from\\ the\\ institution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ either\\ argument\\ could\\ be\\ shattered\\ by\\ basic\\ economic\\ reasoning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ would\\ Nozick\\ say\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ argument\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taxation\\ is\\ form\\ of\\ coercion\\.\\ \\ \\;Forcing\\ people\\ to\\ pay\\ more\\ for\\ labor\\ is\\ similar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Personal\\ liberty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ liberty\\ to\\ exchange\\ goods\\ in\\ a\\ free\\,\\ capitalist\\ market\\ \\-\\ is\\ the\\ fundamental\\ political\\ value\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ morally\\ compelling\\ and\\ simply\\ wrong\\ not\\ to\\ have\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ should\\ have\\ a\\ life\\ with\\ meaning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ concept\\ of\\ self\\-ownership\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maximal\\ benefit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ everything\\ I\\ can\\ get\\ others\\ to\\ pay\\ me\\ for\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ my\\ talents\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ relate\\ to\\ Harvard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strengths\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exchanges\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ significant\\ inequalities\\,\\ but\\ addressing\\ these\\ would\\ be\\ paternalistic\\.\\ \\ \\;Nozick\\ basically\\ argues\\ that\\ demanding\\ a\\ patterned\\ distribution\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ your\\ earnings\\ are\\ tied\\ to\\ X\\)\\,\\ then\\ redistributive\\ activities\\ are\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ unlikely\\ that\\ the\\ pattern\\ will\\ remain\\ since\\ people\\ give\\/receive\\/exchange\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ example\\:\\ Assume\\ basketball\\ fans\\ pay\\ 25\\ cents\\ each\\ home\\ game\\ to\\ watch\\ Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ play\\ basketball\\.\\ \\ \\;Assuming\\ an\\ economically\\ equal\\ society\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ season\\,\\ the\\ same\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ true\\ since\\ after\\ this\\ exchange\\,\\ the\\ fans\\ all\\ become\\ financially\\ worse\\ off\\ and\\ Wilt\\ financially\\ better\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ in\\ paying\\ Chamberlain\\ money\\ to\\ watch\\ him\\ play\\ basketball\\,\\ the\\ basketball\\ fans\\ have\\ raised\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ level\\ of\\ income\\ inequality\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ while\\ income\\ inequality\\ is\\ something\\ we\\ generally\\ dislike\\,\\ Nozick\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ basketball\\ fans\\ chose\\ to\\ buy\\ these\\ tickets\\ instead\\ of\\ movie\\ passes\\ or\\ candy\\ bars\\ and\\ ultimately\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ injustice\\ in\\ this\\ new\\ distribution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ extra\\ inequality\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ two\\ parties\\ consenting\\ to\\ a\\ transaction\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ bought\\ the\\ tickets\\,\\ the\\ joy\\ from\\ watching\\ Wilt\\ is\\ worth\\ at\\ least\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\ draw\\ this\\ back\\ to\\ Nozick\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\ of\\ someone\\ liking\\ the\\ sunset\\ more\\ than\\ money\\ and\\ not\\ having\\ to\\ pay\\ a\\ tax\\ on\\ that\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ Nozick\\ says\\ is\\ unfair\\.\\ \\ \\;Analogous\\ to\\ the\\ Wilt\\ argument\\,\\ when\\ Harvard\\ refuses\\ to\\ pay\\ its\\ workers\\ a\\ living\\ wage\\ and\\ rather\\ increases\\ executive\\ compensation\\,\\ it\\ raises\\ the\\ inequality\\ of\\ income\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ Harvard\\ should\\ be\\ barred\\ from\\ enacting\\ things\\ that\\ yield\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ consequence\\.\\ \\ \\;Tie\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ fundamental\\ right\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 13, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/MR_Study_Guide2.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice - Study Guide", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "ethical-reasoning-22"], "text": null, "id": 21, "html": "\\\\\\THE\\_SIMPLEST\\_AND\\_BEST\\_JUSTICE\\_REVIEW\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c35\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:21pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-355\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:355\\.5pt\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-319\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:319\\.5pt\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:3pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:128\\.2pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c25\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c19\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c14\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c33\\{color\\:\\#008000\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c34\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\THE\\ SIMPLEST\\ AND\\ BEST\\ JUSTICE\\ REVIEW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Look\\ at\\ Study\\ Guide\\ \\&ldquo\\;Review\\_Sheets\\_Composite\\&rdquo\\;\\ For\\ more\\ help\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\UTILITARIANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Utilitarianism\\ is\\ teleological\\,\\ as\\ it\\ measures\\ the\\ moral\\ quality\\ of\\ actions\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ the\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ deontological\\ ethical\\ theories\\ that\\ measure\\ moral\\ quality\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ motives\\ of\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ acts\\ \\(Kant\\/Rawls\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ measure\\ of\\ judgment\\ of\\ moral\\ actions\\ is\\ utility\\,\\ defined\\ as\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ pleasure\\ minus\\ pain\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ moral\\ worth\\ of\\ an\\ act\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ utility\\ associated\\ with\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morally\\ right\\ actions\\ are\\ those\\ that\\ produce\\ the\\ most\\ happiness\\ to\\ humanity\\ at\\ large\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ greatest\\ happiness\\ principle\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Bentham\\)\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utilitarianism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ exponents\\ are\\ two\\ English\\ philosophers\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\,\\ Introduction\\ to\\ the\\ Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\ \\(1780\\/89\\)\\ and\\ John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\,\\ Utilitarianism\\,\\ 1863\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ balance\\ of\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\ is\\ the\\ criterion\\ of\\ moral\\ rightness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defined\\ utility\\ as\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ things\\ or\\ actions\\ promote\\ the\\ general\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ morally\\ obligatory\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ produces\\ the\\ greatest\\ amount\\ of\\ happiness\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ of\\ people\\,\\ happiness\\ being\\ determined\\ by\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ pleasure\\ and\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basis\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Every\\ action\\ taken\\ is\\ only\\ for\\ some\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Addresses\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\:\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ \\(such\\ as\\ those\\ that\\ enhance\\ knowledge\\ and\\ learning\\)\\ should\\ be\\ valued\\ and\\ chosen\\ more\\ highly\\ than\\ baser\\ pleasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ quite\\ compatible\\ with\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ utility\\ to\\ recognize\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ some\\ kinds\\ of\\ pleasures\\ are\\ more\\ desirable\\ and\\ more\\ valuable\\ than\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Of\\ two\\ pleasures\\,\\ if\\ there\\ be\\ one\\ to\\ which\\ all\\ or\\ almost\\ all\\ who\\ have\\ experience\\ of\\ both\\ give\\ a\\ decided\\ preference\\,\\ irrespective\\ of\\ any\\ feeling\\ or\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ prefer\\ it\\,\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ desirable\\ pleasure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Mill\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;Actions\\ are\\ right\\ in\\ proportion\\ as\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ promote\\ happiness\\,\\ wrong\\ as\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ reverse\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Mill\\,\\ 7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ morality\\ and\\ that\\ people\\ only\\ desire\\ happiness\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ utility\\ and\\ that\\ individual\\ rights\\ exist\\ only\\ because\\ they\\ produce\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Preference\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ you\\ weigh\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;higher\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;lower\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ places\\ no\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ Rights\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ must\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ distinct\\ persons\\&hellip\\;\\ individual\\ preference\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\LIBERTARIANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Basic\\ principles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fundamental\\ categorical\\ rights\\:\\ liberty\\ and\\ self\\-possession\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ right\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-utilitarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liberty\\ and\\ freedom\\ trump\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Redistribution\\ through\\ taxation\\ is\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ forced\\ labor\\,\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ objective\\ means\\ of\\ assessing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\merit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ point\\ in\\ deliberating\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ redistribute\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ to\\ discuss\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ each\\ according\\ to\\ his\\ \\_\\_\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ inherently\\ unjust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ distribution\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;fairness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ useful\\ traits\\,\\ is\\ arbitrary\\;\\ however\\,\\ because\\ no\\ person\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ judge\\ the\\ correct\\ distribution\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ people\\ deserve\\/are\\ entitled\\ to\\ what\\ they\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ just\\ society\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ structured\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ preferred\\ end\\ result\\ \\(of\\ equality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Therefore\\ the\\ state\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cannot\\ pass\\ laws\\ to\\ protect\\ people\\ against\\ themselves\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ paternalistic\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ seat\\ belt\\ law\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ enact\\ moral\\ legislation\\ or\\ impose\\ virtues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ tax\\ for\\ redistributive\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedman\\ \\&ldquo\\;Free\\ to\\ Choose\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ is\\ in\\ clear\\ conflict\\ with\\ liberty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;No\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\arbitrary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;obstacles\\ should\\ prevent\\ people\\ from\\ achieving\\&hellip\\;\\ not\\ birth\\,\\ nationality\\,\\ color\\,\\ sex\\,\\ religion\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Personal\\ equality\\,\\ equality\\ before\\ God\\ and\\ before\\ the\\ law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;compatible\\ with\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Majority\\ cannot\\ rule\\ for\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nozick\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anarchy\\,\\ State\\ and\\ Utopia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Entitlement\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ and\\ transfer\\ will\\ ensure\\ justice\\ of\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historical\\ principles\\ of\\ distribution\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ entitlement\\ theory\\)\\ are\\ preferred\\ over\\ patterned\\,\\ or\\ structured\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taxation\\ is\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ forced\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\View\\ on\\ Locke\\:\\ Nozick\\ asks\\ what\\ the\\ limits\\ are\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ mixing\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\ to\\ gain\\ property\\.\\ Does\\ just\\ the\\ added\\ value\\ become\\ property\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lockean\\ proviso\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ for\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hayek\\ \\&ldquo\\;Equality\\,\\ Value\\ and\\ Merit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Equality\\ before\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ justifiable\\ equality\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ supremacy\\ of\\ individual\\ liberty\\;\\ men\\ are\\ not\\ created\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ inequality\\ is\\ ok\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ grounds\\ for\\ taxation\\ for\\ redistribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inequality\\ is\\ arbitrary\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ central\\ regulator\\ to\\ decide\\ how\\ to\\ redistribute\\ because\\ no\\ human\\ group\\ would\\ be\\ capable\\ of\\ doing\\ so\\ according\\ to\\ merit\\ \\(since\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ quantified\\)\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ moral\\ argument\\ for\\ redistribution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\LOCKE\\&rsquo\\;S\\ THEORIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-different\\ types\\ of\\ power\\:\\ for\\ example\\,\\ paternal\\,\\ master\\ over\\ slave\\,\\ political\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-political\\ power\\:\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ and\\ execute\\ laws\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ commonwealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 2\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\State\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\ of\\ perfect\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ equality\\ in\\ which\\ men\\ may\\ do\\ as\\ they\\ please\\;\\ however\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ license\\:\\ not\\ acceptable\\ to\\ abuse\\ others\\ or\\ self\\,\\ because\\ all\\ are\\ property\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ sovereign\\ master\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-right\\ of\\ self\\-preservation\\:\\ everyone\\ has\\ right\\ to\\ seek\\ punishment\\ for\\ transgressors\\ of\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-government\\ needed\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;restrain\\ the\\ partiality\\ and\\ violence\\ of\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(absolute\\ monarchy\\ do\\ not\\ qualify\\ as\\ civil\\ government\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 3\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\State\\ of\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\ of\\ enmity\\ and\\ destruction\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-different\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ that\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ lacks\\ an\\ authority\\ figure\\,\\ and\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ involves\\ unwarranted\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ consent\\ to\\ society\\ and\\ thus\\ leave\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ usually\\ to\\ avoid\\ state\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 4\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-natural\\ liberty\\:\\ right\\ to\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-social\\ liberty\\:\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ government\\ by\\ laws\\ made\\ by\\ legislative\\ power\\ \\(with\\ consent\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\\\-because\\ cannot\\ give\\ consent\\ to\\ enslave\\ oneself\\,\\ slavery\\ is\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 5\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Property\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ for\\ common\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-individual\\ property\\ consists\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ body\\ and\\ that\\ which\\ he\\/she\\ mixes\\ labor\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-cannot\\ take\\ property\\ if\\ you\\ will\\ waste\\ it\\ or\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\,\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ left\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;labour\\ \\&hellip\\;puts\\ the\\ greatest\\ part\\ of\\ value\\ upon\\ land\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-existence\\ of\\ money\\:\\ excess\\ property\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\ for\\ money\\ \\(won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spoil\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 7\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-conjugal\\ society\\:\\ first\\ \\&ldquo\\;society\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-separate\\ from\\ political\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-civil\\ society\\:\\ gives\\ legislative\\ body\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ and\\ enforce\\ laws\\,\\ with\\ public\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-absolute\\ monarchy\\ is\\ inconsistent\\:\\ no\\ one\\ authoritative\\ body\\ above\\ all\\ as\\ equals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 8\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-beginning\\ a\\ political\\ society\\:\\ united\\ group\\ of\\ men\\ that\\ consent\\ to\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ in\\ their\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-counterargument\\:\\ no\\ precedence\\?\\ \\ \\;origins\\ of\\ governments\\ \\(even\\ absolute\\ monarchies\\)\\ began\\ this\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-counterargument\\:\\ if\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ society\\,\\ not\\ free\\ to\\ begin\\ new\\ one\\?\\ children\\ may\\ choose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 9\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-state\\ of\\ nature\\ lacks\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;established\\,\\ settled\\,\\ known\\ law\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ known\\ and\\ indifferent\\ judge\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;power\\ to\\ back\\ and\\ support\\ the\\ sentence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-upon\\ entering\\ a\\ society\\,\\ give\\ up\\ \\&ldquo\\;doing\\ whatsoever\\ he\\ though\\ for\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ himself\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;power\\ to\\ punish\\ crimes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 10\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-commonwealth\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;any\\ independent\\ community\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-choose\\ form\\ of\\ government\\:\\ democracy\\,\\ oligarchy\\,\\ or\\ monarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 11\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-legislative\\ power\\:\\ preservation\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\;\\ laws\\ apply\\ equally\\ to\\ everyone\\;\\ cannot\\ take\\ property\\ away\\ from\\ anyone\\ without\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-taxes\\ okay\\ with\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ consent\\;\\ only\\ legislators\\ have\\ consent\\ to\\ make\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 18\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-tyranny\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;exercise\\ of\\ power\\ beyond\\ right\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ allowed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 19\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-dissolution\\ of\\ government\\:\\ legislative\\ is\\ changed\\ without\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-people\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ judge\\ for\\ whether\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ is\\ protecting\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Additional\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ differences\\ with\\ Libertarians\\:\\ \\ \\;Locke\\ wrote\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ monarchy\\,\\ while\\ Libertarians\\ wrote\\ in\\ opposition\\ Communism\\;\\ Libertarians\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ overall\\ consent\\ to\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ for\\ Libertarians\\,\\ a\\ poor\\ majority\\ cannot\\ tax\\ a\\ rich\\ minority\\)\\;\\ Locke\\ does\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ complete\\ self\\-possessions\\ \\(talks\\ of\\ God\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\KANT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Groundwork\\ of\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ An\\ action\\ has\\ moral\\ worth\\ only\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ done\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\duty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ For\\ Kant\\,\\ the\\ highest\\ form\\ of\\ moral\\ excellence\\ is\\ an\\ action\\ done\\ out\\ of\\ duty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ action\\ done\\ from\\ duty\\ has\\ its\\ moral\\ worth\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ purpose\\ to\\ be\\ attained\\ by\\ it\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ maxim\\ according\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ determined\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Actual\\ effects\\,\\ and\\ even\\ intended\\ effects\\,\\ do\\ not\\ confer\\ moral\\ worth\\.\\ Ends\\ should\\ be\\ totally\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ an\\ action\\,\\ motive\\ is\\ what\\ matters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Duty\\ is\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ done\\ out\\ of\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Kant\\ attempts\\ to\\ call\\ attention\\ to\\ that\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\capacity\\ to\\ influence\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ without\\ calling\\ on\\ inclinations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Acting\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ frees\\ the\\ individual\\ from\\ responsibility\\ over\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ his\\ actions\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ murderer\\ at\\ the\\ door\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hypothetical\\ imperatives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ conditional\\ on\\ the\\ agent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ having\\ certain\\ contingent\\ ends\\ \\(If\\ X\\,\\ then\\ Y\\)\\.\\ Kant\\ believes\\ that\\ moral\\ imperatives\\ do\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ conditional\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\ Imperative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ independent\\ of\\ any\\ end\\,\\ it\\ is\\ purely\\ formal\\,\\ telling\\ us\\ to\\ conform\\ our\\ actions\\ to\\ some\\ law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ There\\ is\\ thus\\ only\\ one\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\:\\ Act\\ only\\ according\\ to\\ that\\ maxim\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ will\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\.\\ Ask\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ if\\ everyone\\ did\\ that\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ Certain\\ maxims\\ cannot\\ be\\ universal\\ laws\\.\\ We\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ two\\ distinct\\ cases\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Contradictions\\ in\\ conception\\.\\ If\\ it\\ were\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ permissible\\ to\\ act\\ on\\ the\\ maxim\\,\\ then\\ the\\ action\\ would\\ fail\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ its\\ intended\\ end\\ \\(such\\ as\\ lying\\ promises\\&mdash\\;as\\ making\\ promises\\ depends\\ on\\ a\\ norm\\ of\\ trust\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Contradictions\\ in\\ the\\ will\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ maxim\\ cannot\\ be\\ willed\\ to\\ be\\ universal\\ law\\.\\ We\\ cannot\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ will\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ be\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ realization\\ of\\ our\\ ends\\ is\\ put\\ in\\ doubt\\ by\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ the\\ means\\ we\\ commonly\\ need\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Perfect\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;command\\ and\\ forbid\\ specific\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ To\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\:\\ do\\ not\\ commit\\ suicide\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ To\\ others\\:\\ do\\ not\\ lie\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VIII\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Imperfect\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;assign\\ us\\ ends\\,\\ but\\ leave\\ us\\ latitude\\ in\\ deciding\\ how\\ to\\ pursue\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ To\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\:\\ cultivate\\ your\\ talents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ To\\ others\\:\\ be\\ beneficent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IX\\.\\ Humanity\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ Each\\ person\\ regards\\ his\\ own\\ rational\\ nature\\&mdash\\;his\\ power\\ to\\ set\\ ends\\ for\\ himself\\&mdash\\;as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ we\\ should\\ consider\\ ourselves\\ as\\ belonging\\ to\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ each\\ individual\\ is\\ both\\ lawgiver\\ and\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ One\\ should\\ not\\ treat\\ another\\ individual\\ merely\\ as\\ a\\ means\\,\\ as\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\ only\\ as\\ required\\ by\\ other\\ ends\\.\\ A\\ person\\ is\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ treated\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ possibly\\ consent\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\X\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ give\\ law\\ to\\ oneself\\,\\ practical\\ self\\-government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Linked\\ to\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\ implicitly\\,\\ which\\ tells\\ you\\ to\\ act\\ only\\ on\\ laws\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ give\\ to\\ yourself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XI\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Heteronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ allowing\\ things\\ outside\\ of\\ myself\\ to\\ guide\\ my\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;According\\ to\\ Kant\\,\\ heteronomy\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ all\\ spurious\\ principles\\ of\\ action\\.\\ Starting\\ from\\ a\\ distinct\\,\\ external\\ value\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ imperative\\ is\\ conditioned\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ cannot\\ command\\ morally\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XII\\.\\ A\\ free\\ will\\ is\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ level\\ practical\\ principle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Because\\ our\\ will\\ is\\ free\\ \\(not\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ so\\,\\ but\\ we\\ believe\\ it\\ be\\ so\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ making\\ moral\\ decisions\\)\\,\\ we\\ are\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Contrasts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Consequentialist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Kantian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morality\\ \\ \\;\\ \\[Motives\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Duty\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Inclination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Freedom\\ \\[Determination\\ of\\ will\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Autonomous\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Heteronomous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reason\\ \\[Imperatives\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Categorical\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hypothetical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\RAWLS\\ \\(Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Original\\ Position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothetical\\ contract\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ chose\\ moral\\ principles\\ by\\ which\\ everyone\\ should\\ live\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Veil\\ of\\ Ignorance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\everyone\\ under\\ this\\ veil\\,\\ so\\ no\\ one\\ has\\ special\\ interests\\,\\ strengths\\,\\ weaknesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ one\\ knows\\ what\\ their\\ position\\ in\\ society\\ or\\ talents\\ will\\ be\\ when\\ veil\\ is\\ lifted\\ so\\ principles\\ agreed\\ to\\ would\\ be\\ fair\\ for\\ everyone\\ because\\ people\\ would\\ fear\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ poor\\,\\ minority\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Purer\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ purer\\ procedural\\ justice\\,\\ more\\ pure\\ than\\ any\\ actual\\ contract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ maxims\\ chosen\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\each\\ person\\ should\\ have\\ an\\ equal\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ extensive\\ scheme\\ of\\ equal\\ basic\\ liberties\\ compatible\\ with\\ a\\ similar\\ scheme\\ of\\ liberties\\ for\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\~\\ rights\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ limited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\equality\\ between\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ preferred\\;\\ inequality\\ must\\ be\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ Difference\\ Principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\ as\\ a\\ race\\ metaphor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MERITOCRATIC\\ \\(NO\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ enough\\ because\\ even\\ if\\ everyone\\ starts\\ race\\ at\\ same\\ point\\ those\\ with\\ natural\\ talent\\ will\\ win\\,\\ this\\ system\\ gets\\ rid\\ of\\ social\\ contingencies\\ but\\ not\\ natural\\ ones\\ which\\ are\\ equally\\ arbitrary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\EGALITARIAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ necessarily\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\let\\ the\\ race\\ take\\ place\\ without\\ interference\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hold\\ back\\ the\\ most\\ talented\\,\\ let\\ the\\ fastest\\ runner\\ win\\)\\ BUT\\ winnings\\ must\\ be\\ shared\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ so\\ that\\ inequalities\\ help\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ disadvantaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ object\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ deserves\\ greater\\ natural\\ capacity\\ or\\ social\\ advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ incentives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\most\\ talented\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ incentive\\ to\\ cultivate\\ talents\\ if\\ winnings\\ are\\ shared\\ equally\\ among\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\winners\\ get\\ rewards\\ so\\ incentives\\ remain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\BUT\\ must\\ recognize\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ winnings\\ are\\ just\\ incentives\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ winners\\ are\\ not\\ morally\\ deserving\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\ REDISTRIBUTIVE\\ TAXES\\ cannot\\ be\\ disputed\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ deserves\\ the\\ money\\ they\\ make\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ effort\\ one\\ puts\\ into\\ cultivating\\ talents\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\effort\\ is\\ arbitrary\\,\\ based\\ on\\ upbringing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\ ex\\:\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ students\\ in\\ Justice\\ are\\ first\\ born\\ child\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rejects\\ desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\qualities\\ that\\ a\\ society\\ values\\ are\\ arbitrary\\ \\(a\\ matter\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ possess\\ talent\\ that\\ society\\ values\\,\\ then\\ entitled\\ to\\ more\\ but\\ NOT\\ deserving\\ of\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Objections\\ to\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ egalitarian\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\risk\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ room\\ for\\ freedom\\;\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ others\\.\\ Lib\\ argument\\ of\\ society\\ taking\\ away\\ something\\ you\\ have\\ earned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ motivation\\ for\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ egalitarianism\\ give\\ no\\ regard\\ to\\ effort\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ say\\ even\\ work\\ ethic\\ is\\ arbitrary\\ \\(I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ reset\\ the\\ system\\ each\\ generation\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ some\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ advantages\\ of\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ someone\\ is\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ wealthy\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Are\\ you\\ going\\ to\\ trace\\ back\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ money\\ was\\ acquired\\ morally\\?\\ \\ \\;Do\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ do\\ so\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ someone\\ is\\ a\\ virtuoso\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ born\\ with\\ zero\\ talent\\ but\\ their\\ parents\\ taught\\ them\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ worked\\ extremely\\ hard\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ kids\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ it\\ wrong\\ to\\ allow\\ that\\ child\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ his\\ instrument\\ playing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ARISTOTLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Central\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JUSTICE\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ FIT\\,\\ TELOS\\,\\ and\\ HONOR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ propriety\\,\\ a\\ pre\\-established\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ good\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Every\\ possession\\ has\\ a\\ double\\ use\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ the\\ one\\ being\\ proper\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ not\\ proper\\ to\\ the\\ thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 46\\ \\/\\ 1257a5\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Telos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ inherent\\ purpose\\ of\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ matter\\ of\\ moral\\ desert\\;\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ due\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flute\\-player\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;equality\\ in\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ things\\ and\\ inequality\\ in\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ overlooked\\&hellip\\;aggrandizement\\ in\\ flutes\\ is\\ not\\ granted\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ better\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ will\\ not\\ play\\ the\\ flute\\ better\\ \\[on\\ this\\ account\\]\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ one\\ who\\ is\\ preeminent\\ in\\ the\\ work\\ that\\ preeminence\\ in\\ the\\ instruments\\ should\\ be\\ granted\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 104\\ \\/\\ 1282b130\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inequality\\ is\\ natural\\,\\ and\\ must\\ be\\ accounted\\ for\\ upon\\ considering\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ flutes\\ should\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-players\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ those\\ who\\ can\\ best\\ satisfy\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ considerations\\ not\\ directly\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ specific\\ good\\ being\\ distributed\\ should\\ be\\ disregarded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ City\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Priority\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ \\(Bk\\.\\ 1\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ man\\ cannot\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ without\\ the\\ city\\;\\ man\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ city\\ is\\ thus\\ prior\\ by\\ nature\\ to\\ the\\ household\\ and\\ to\\ each\\ of\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ whole\\ must\\ of\\ necessity\\ be\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ part\\;\\ for\\ if\\ the\\ whole\\ \\[body\\]\\ is\\ destroyed\\ there\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ foot\\ or\\ a\\ hand\\&hellip\\;\\ Everything\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ task\\ and\\ power\\,\\ and\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ these\\ respects\\ it\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ spoken\\ of\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 37\\ \\/\\ 1253a20\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;one\\ ought\\ not\\ even\\ consider\\ that\\ a\\ citizen\\ belongs\\ to\\ himself\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ all\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ city\\;\\ for\\ each\\ individual\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 228\\ \\/\\ 1337a25\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ city\\ and\\ the\\ regime\\ \\(Bk\\.\\ 3\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ equality\\ for\\ equals\\;\\ political\\ office\\ distributed\\ to\\ the\\ politically\\ virtuous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;those\\ regimes\\ which\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ advantage\\ are\\ correct\\ regimes\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ unqualifiedly\\ just\\&hellip\\;the\\ city\\ is\\ a\\ partnership\\ of\\ free\\ persons\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 95\\ \\/\\ 1279a15\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;justice\\ is\\ held\\ to\\ be\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\,\\ but\\ for\\ equals\\ and\\ not\\ for\\ all\\;\\ and\\ inequality\\ is\\ held\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ and\\ is\\ indeed\\,\\ but\\ for\\ unequals\\ and\\ not\\ for\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 97\\ \\/\\ 1280a10\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;those\\ who\\ contribute\\ most\\ to\\ a\\ partnership\\ of\\ this\\ sort\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\ or\\ greater\\ in\\ freedom\\ and\\ family\\ but\\ unequal\\ in\\ political\\ virtue\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 99\\ \\/\\ 1281a1\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ regime\\ \\(Bk\\.\\ 7\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ best\\ regime\\ supports\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ both\\ separately\\ for\\ each\\ individual\\ and\\ in\\ common\\ for\\ cities\\ is\\ that\\ accompanied\\ by\\ virtue\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 198\\ \\/\\ 1323b40\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relative\\ Significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Teleology\\ v\\.\\ Deontology\\ \\(consequences\\ v\\.\\ will\\/motive\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ posteriori\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\v\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ priori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Teleology\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Moral\\ judgment\\ derived\\ from\\ purpose\\/ends\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Mill\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deontology\\ abstracts\\ from\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ just\\ act\\ implies\\ a\\ just\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Kant\\,\\ Rawls\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distinction\\ from\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ good\\ person\\ is\\ the\\ happy\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Living\\ the\\ good\\ life\\,\\ however\\,\\ implies\\ having\\ learned\\ to\\ find\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ sorts\\ of\\ things\\,\\ and\\ to\\ find\\ painful\\ those\\ things\\ that\\ properly\\ pain\\ the\\ good\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unlike\\ utilitarianism\\,\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teleology\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ de\\ facto\\ judgment\\ of\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ objections\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ something\\ is\\ not\\ always\\ clear\\ and\\ its\\ perception\\ is\\ subjective\\.\\ \\ \\;Asserted\\ purposes\\ may\\ be\\ inconsistent\\ and\\ incompatible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/THE_SIMPLEST_AND_BEST_JUSTICE_REVIEW_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice - Study Guide", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "ethical-reasoning-22"], "text": null, "id": 24, "html": "\\\\\\List\\_of\\_Concepts\\_\\-\\_Justice\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c9\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c2\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c8\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c11\\{color\\:\\#000099\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ Review\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Martin\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Neill\\,\\ December\\ 2002\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ reviewing\\ the\\ material\\ before\\ the\\ Final\\ Examination\\,\\ you\\ should\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ ideas\\ and\\ concepts\\.\\ \\This\\ is\\ not\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ exhaustive\\ list\\,\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ helpful\\ in\\ structuring\\ your\\ thoughts\\ about\\ the\\ material\\.\\ \\Naturally\\,\\ the\\ very\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ coming\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ possible\\ understanding\\ of\\ this\\ material\\ is\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ texts\\ themselves\\.\\ \\Bear\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ probably\\ pay\\ special\\ attention\\ to\\ our\\ 5\\ major\\ thinkers\\:\\that\\ is\\,\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Locke\\,\\ Kant\\,\\ Mill\\ and\\ Rawls\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Political\\ Liberalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ where\\ you\\ feel\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ write\\ a\\ few\\ sentences\\ on\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ topics\\,\\ you\\ should\\ be\\ well\\ on\\ your\\ way\\ to\\ mastery\\ of\\ this\\ material\\.\\ \\My\\ single\\ biggest\\ piece\\ of\\ advice\\,\\ at\\ this\\ stage\\,\\ and\\ now\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\ all\\ the\\ material\\ for\\ the\\ course\\,\\ is\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ connections\\ between\\ all\\ the\\ theories\\.\\ \\By\\ seeing\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ argue\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ where\\ they\\ might\\ agree\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THEORY\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Bentham\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ general\\ utilitarian\\ principle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ social\\ decision\\-making\\ under\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ His\\ idea\\ of\\ man\\ being\\ under\\ the\\ soverignty\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;two\\ sovereign\\ masters\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Pleasure\\ as\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ The\\ issue\\ of\\ commensurability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ With\\ regards\\ to\\ Mill\\ \\&\\;\\ Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(A\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ families\\ of\\ objections\\ to\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Incommensurability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Higher\\/Lower\\ Pleasures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(B\\)\\ Remember\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ as\\ involving\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Consequentialism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ right\\ as\\ determined\\ by\\ bringing\\ about\\ good\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Welfarism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ utility\\/happiness\\ as\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Sum\\-maximization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ deliberately\\ ignores\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ separateness\\ of\\ persons\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Mill\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Utilitarianism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ where\\ Mill\\ departs\\ from\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;commensurability\\&rsquo\\;\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utilitarian\\ justification\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ Act\\-utilitarianism\\ vs\\ Rule\\-utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Nozick\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Anarchy\\,\\ State\\ and\\ Utopia\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;patterned\\&rsquo\\;\\ distributions\\ and\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ just\\ acquisitions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Different\\ assumptions\\ about\\ the\\ individual\\ made\\ by\\ utilitarians\\ and\\ libertarians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ argument\\ for\\ why\\ taxation\\ amounts\\ to\\ forced\\ labour\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\(Michael\\ Jordan\\)\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ self\\-ownership\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;Lockean\\ proviso\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(5\\)\\ Locke\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Differences\\ from\\ libertarianism\\.\\ Why\\ Locke\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ libertarian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ to\\ civil\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;State\\ of\\ War\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Property\\ rights\\,\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ property\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\ law\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;tacit\\ consent\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ provisos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ much\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ left\\ for\\ others\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ and\\ function\\ of\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ His\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ and\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(6\\)\\ Markets\\ and\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ money\\ is\\ a\\ suitable\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ all\\ commodities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Are\\ markets\\ suitable\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ of\\ distribution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Limits\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ property\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ consent\\,\\ and\\ of\\ contracts\\.\\ Conditions\\ under\\ which\\ a\\ contract\\ is\\ enforceable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Anderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ market\\ transactions\\ as\\ undermining\\ social\\ understandings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Kimbrell\\:\\ organ\\-selling\\ as\\ violating\\ bodily\\ integrity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ notion\\ that\\ some\\ contracts\\ might\\ be\\ exploitative\\,\\ even\\ if\\ consensual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(7\\)\\ Kant\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\.\\ Its\\ various\\ formulations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ hypothetical\\ imperatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ consequentialist\\ moral\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ duty\\ vs\\ mere\\ inclination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ concept\\ of\\ freedom\\ as\\ autonomy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ How\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;categorical\\ imperative\\ test\\&rsquo\\;\\ functions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ following\\ Kantian\\ concepts\\ should\\ all\\ make\\ some\\ sense\\ to\\ you\\:\\ prudence\\;\\ autonomy\\;\\ inclination\\;\\ heteronomy\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\ Imperative\\;\\ respect\\;\\ law\\;\\ will\\;\\ hypothetical\\ imperative\\;\\ freedom\\;\\ happiness\\;\\ action\\;\\ The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\;\\ maxim\\;\\ Reason\\;\\ duty\\;\\ right\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ maxim\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ as\\ the\\ action\\ \\+\\ the\\ purpose\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ performed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ Good\\ Will\\ as\\ the\\ highest\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dualisms\\ \\(autonomy\\ vs\\ heteronomy\\,\\ categorical\\ vs\\ hypothetical\\,\\ sensible\\ vs\\ intelligible\\,\\ duty\\ vs\\ inclination\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ line\\ up\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(8\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ contractarian\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ Original\\ Position\\ and\\ the\\ Veil\\ of\\ Ignorance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ Two\\ Principles\\ of\\ Justice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Equal\\ Basic\\ Liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2a\\.\\ Fair\\ Equality\\ of\\ Opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2b\\.\\ The\\ Difference\\ Principle\\ \\(maximin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;reflective\\ equilibrium\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Some\\ things\\ being\\ \\&lsquo\\;arbitrary\\ from\\ a\\ moral\\ point\\ of\\ view\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ \\(the\\ self\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ Right\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ contrast\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;entitlements\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\&rsquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&lsquo\\;moral\\ desert\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Natural\\ talents\\ as\\ collective\\ assets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ 5\\-stage\\ diagram\\ discussed\\ in\\ section\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(1\\)\\ Feudal\\ Aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ Natural\\ Liberty\\ \\(libertarianism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ Liberal\\ Equality\\ \\(meritocracy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ \\(with\\ rewards\\ for\\ effort\\,\\ due\\ to\\ desert\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(5\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ without\\ Desert\\ \\(Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;social\\ primary\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xii\\)\\ The\\ restriction\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(9\\)\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Dworkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ merit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Dworkin\\,\\ and\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ self\\-understanding\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ using\\ people\\ as\\ means\\ instead\\ of\\ ends\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ embodying\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ attitude\\,\\ or\\ as\\ failing\\ to\\ treat\\ people\\ as\\ equals\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Dworkin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ equal\\ treatment\\ vs\\.\\ equal\\ outcomes\\.\\ Rejection\\ of\\ desert\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&lsquo\\;acceptance\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;rejection\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\:\\ the\\ relation\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Aristotle\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Politics\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ deontological\\ and\\ teleological\\ theories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ Man\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ state\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ citizenship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\&rsquo\\;\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ Good\\ Life\\,\\ and\\ of\\ Happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;telos\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ a\\ person\\,\\ activity\\ or\\ institution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ Aristotle\\.\\ The\\ specificity\\ of\\ virtue\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ particular\\ kinds\\ of\\ person\\ or\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ to\\ promote\\ \\&lsquo\\;living\\ well\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ Determinations\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ involving\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(11\\)\\ Communitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Obligations\\ of\\ Community\\ or\\ Solidarity\\ \\(Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ type\\-3\\ obligations\\,\\ where\\ type\\-1\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;General\\ Obligations\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ type\\-2\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;Contractual\\ or\\ Consensual\\ or\\ Voluntarist\\&rsquo\\;\\ obligations\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ liberal\\ \\(voluntarist\\)\\ self\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ communitarian\\ \\(narrative\\,\\ embedded\\)\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\ and\\ its\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\ in\\ liberalism\\ and\\ in\\ communitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(12\\)\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;After\\ Virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ narrative\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;teleological\\ unity\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ communal\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ MacIntyre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Aristotelianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(13\\)\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ self\\ as\\ partly\\ constituted\\ by\\ its\\ attachments\\ and\\ commitments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Moral\\ and\\ political\\ obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ these\\ \\&lsquo\\;constitutive\\&rsquo\\;\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Arguments\\ against\\ the\\ Rawlsian\\/Kantian\\ \\&lsquo\\;unencumbered\\ self\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(14\\)\\ Walzer\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ methodology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ interpreting\\ \\&lsquo\\;shared\\ understandings\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ welfare\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(15\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Political\\ Liberalism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Justice\\ as\\ fairness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;fact\\ of\\ reasonable\\ pluralism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;idea\\ of\\ an\\ overlapping\\ consensus\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ neutrality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Between\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\(in\\ TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Between\\ comprehensive\\ religious\\,\\ moral\\ or\\ philosophical\\ doctrines\\ \\(PL\\ only\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;public\\ reason\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ fair\\ system\\ of\\ co\\-operation\\ between\\ people\\ regarded\\ as\\ reasonable\\ and\\ rational\\,\\ free\\ and\\ equal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ three\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;political\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Limited\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\ \\(TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Independent\\ of\\ any\\ comprehensive\\ doctrine\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ Reliant\\ on\\ ideas\\ which\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;implicit\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ political\\ culture\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Rawls\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ bracketing\\ grave\\ moral\\ questions\\ \\(Lincoln\\-Douglas\\,\\ Abortion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Reasonable\\ Pluralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Liberal\\ Public\\ Reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ last\\ word\\ of\\ advice\\:\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ unhelpful\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ notions\\ \\(some\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ abstract\\)\\ just\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ theory\\.\\ \\Thus\\,\\ thinking\\ about\\ specific\\ examples\\ is\\ of\\ immense\\ value\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ seeing\\ how\\ these\\ different\\ theories\\ work\\,\\ and\\ in\\ rendering\\ them\\ vivid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ do\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ discussing\\ this\\ semester\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXAMPLES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Queen\\ vs\\.\\ Dudley\\ \\&\\;\\ Stephens\\ \\(the\\ lifeboat\\ case\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Trolley\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Enthusiastic\\ Transplant\\ Doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Simpsons\\ vs\\ Shakespeare\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\/\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Civil\\ War\\ military\\ draft\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Baby\\ M\\ \\&\\;\\ commercial\\ surrogacy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Organ\\-selling\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Nozick\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\&\\#39\\;Tale\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\&\\#39\\;\\Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Shopkeeper\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Lying\\ to\\ the\\ Murderer\\ at\\ the\\ Door\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Bill\\ Clinton\\ and\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Kant\\ on\\ Sex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bakke\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Hopwood\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;Proxy\\ War\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ University\\ Rejection\\ and\\ Acceptance\\ Letters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Casey\\ Martin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ golf\\ cart\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Callie\\ Smartt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cherleading\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Nazis\\ in\\ Skokie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\MLK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ march\\ from\\ Selma\\ to\\ Montgomery\\,\\ AL\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Gay\\ Marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/List_of_Concepts_-_Justice_2.doc", "desc": "List of Concepts"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Culture and Belief 19 - IDs", "tags": ["harvard", "culture-and-belief-19", "understanding-islam", "muslim-societies"], "text": null, "id": 27, "html": "\\\\\\Culture\\ and\\ Belief\\ 19\\ \\-\\ IDs\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c10\\{max\\-width\\:496\\.8pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c11\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ NIGERIAN\\ WRITER\\ \\&\\;\\ ISLAMIC\\ REVIVER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1754\\-1817\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ writer\\ \\&\\;\\ reformer\\,\\ ethnically\\ Fulani\\,\\ who\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ city\\-state\\ of\\ Gobir\\ in\\ modern\\ day\\ Nigeria\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Considered\\ an\\ Islamic\\ reviver\\,\\ dan\\ Fodio\\ clashed\\ with\\ local\\ rulers\\ who\\ tolerated\\ fetish\\ worshipping\\,\\ belief\\ in\\ spirits\\,\\ and\\ luxurious\\ lifestyles\\&mdash\\;paganism\\,\\ animism\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ led\\ jihads\\ against\\ several\\ West\\ African\\ governments\\,\\ including\\,\\ most\\ notably\\ against\\ the\\ Hausa\\ kingdoms\\ of\\ the\\ north\\ in\\ 1804\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ established\\ the\\ Sokoto\\ Caliphate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ which\\ he\\ drew\\ support\\ from\\ peasant\\ classes\\ for\\ his\\ promises\\ to\\ clean\\ up\\ religious\\ practices\\,\\ decrease\\ taxes\\,\\ and\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ liberator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ based\\ his\\ policies\\ on\\ the\\ Maliki\\ mahthab\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sir\\ Muhammad\\ Iqbal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ PHILOSOPHER\\-POET\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;VISIONARY\\&rsquo\\;\\ FATHER\\ of\\ PAKISTAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1877\\-1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ Indian\\ Muslim\\ philosopher\\-poet\\,\\ considered\\ the\\ spiritual\\ father\\ of\\ modern\\ Pakistan\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Educated\\ in\\ Lahore\\,\\ Cambridge\\,\\ London\\,\\ and\\ Munich\\,\\ Iqbal\\ was\\ heavily\\ influenced\\ by\\ European\\ thinkers\\,\\ especially\\ Niezsche\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 1930s\\ he\\ made\\ a\\ famous\\ speech\\ as\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ All\\ India\\ Muslim\\ League\\ advocating\\ for\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ a\\ state\\ for\\ Indian\\ Muslims\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ India\\ and\\ Pakistan\\&mdash\\;always\\ saw\\ Pakistan\\ as\\ being\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ Indian\\ state\\.\\ Never\\ saw\\ Pakistan\\ come\\ to\\ fruition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ sharp\\ critic\\ of\\ European\\ nationalism\\ and\\ materialism\\;\\ came\\ to\\ support\\ of\\ Pan\\-Islamism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Known\\ for\\ his\\ Persian\\ and\\ Urdu\\ poetry\\ which\\ called\\ on\\ Muslims\\ to\\ revive\\ and\\ renew\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ Islam\\ \\(he\\ saw\\ them\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;asleep\\ and\\ stagnant\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ lamented\\ the\\ current\\ sate\\ of\\ Muslims\\,\\ remembering\\ Islam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\ glories\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ criticized\\ status\\ quo\\ religious\\ ruling\\ classes\\ \\(ulama\\,\\ sufi\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developed\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ as\\ a\\ dynamic\\ creative\\ force\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;khudi\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;saw\\ humans\\ as\\ co\\-creators\\ with\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knighted\\ by\\ the\\ British\\ in\\ 1922\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mustafa\\ Kemal\\ Ataturk\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ FATHER\\ OF\\ TURKEY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1881\\-1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Founder\\ of\\ the\\ Turkish\\ Republic\\ and\\ first\\ President\\;\\ Ataturk\\,\\ literally\\ means\\ Father\\ of\\ Turkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Led\\ the\\ War\\ of\\ Independence\\ from\\ 919\\-1922\\ driving\\ out\\ foriegh\\ occupiers\\ and\\ the\\ Ottomoan\\ Sultan\\.\\ Est\\.\\ Turkish\\ Republic\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1923\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picked\\ up\\ reforms\\ from\\ the\\ thinking\\ of\\ Ziya\\ Gokalp\\,\\ emphasizing\\ in\\ his\\ 15\\ year\\ leadership\\,\\ the\\ 3\\ components\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\-state\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Turkification\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exultation\\ of\\ Turkish\\ culture\\ \\&\\;\\ ethnicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islamisization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ return\\ to\\ pristine\\ intellectual\\ freedom\\ of\\ early\\ Islam\\;\\ rejected\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\taqlid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(blindly\\ following\\ Ulamah\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wholesale\\ westernization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Saw\\ Islamic\\ institutions\\ as\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ backwardness\\,\\ and\\ completely\\ excluded\\ religion\\ from\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ life\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\changed\\ language\\ from\\ Arabic\\ script\\ to\\ Turkish\\ with\\ Roman\\ alphabets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Banned\\ religious\\ clothing\\,\\ including\\ the\\ hejjab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emancipation\\ of\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abolishes\\ caliphate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Replaces\\ Islamic\\ calendar\\ with\\ Gregorian\\ calendar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Ali\\ Jinnah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ FATHER\\ OF\\ PAKISTAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1876\\-1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Advocated\\ creation\\ of\\ a\\ Muslim\\ Pakistan\\ State\\ based\\ on\\ western\\,\\ secular\\ models\\ of\\ lib\\ democ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ his\\ identity\\ was\\ as\\ a\\ Muslim\\,\\ Jinnah\\ was\\ very\\ westernized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ drank\\ alcohol\\,\\ ate\\ ham\\ sandwiches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Jinnah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Pakistan\\ Demand\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wanted\\ a\\ federalist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dual\\-Indian\\ nation\\ system\\ to\\ ensure\\ protection\\ of\\ Muslim\\ minorities\\ in\\ India\\ and\\ Indian\\ minorities\\ in\\ Pakistan\\.\\ Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\.\\ Settled\\ for\\ a\\ seceding\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ his\\ death\\,\\ military\\ leaders\\ took\\ over\\ and\\ Islamicized\\ his\\ legacy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Few\\ \\ \\;individuals\\ significantly\\ alter\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ history\\.\\ Fewer\\ still\\ modify\\ the\\ map\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Hardly\\ anyone\\ can\\ be\\ credited\\ with\\ creating\\ a\\ nation\\.\\ Mohammad\\ Ali\\ Jinnah\\ did\\ all\\ three\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ ibn\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\THEOLOGIAN\\,\\ FUNDAMENDALIST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1703\\-1792\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ theologian\\ and\\ preacher\\ of\\ a\\ puritanical\\,\\ fundamentalist\\ form\\ of\\ Islam\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Wahhabi\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrote\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Kitab\\ at\\-tawhid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\&ldquo\\;Book\\ of\\ Monotheism\\,\\ 1736\\)\\,\\ which\\ touted\\ this\\ theology\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;purified\\&rdquo\\;\\ form\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ which\\ attempted\\ to\\ return\\ all\\ Muslims\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\&rdquo\\;\\ Islam\\,\\ as\\ typified\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\as\\-salaf\\ as\\-saliheen\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(the\\ earliest\\ converts\\ to\\ Islam\\)\\ and\\ rejected\\ corruptions\\ introduced\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bida\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(innovation\\,\\ reformation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Born\\ in\\ Najd\\;\\ educated\\ in\\ Medina\\,\\ both\\ part\\ of\\ modern\\ day\\ Saudia\\ Arabia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Denounced\\ Sufism\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ saints\\,\\ as\\ heretical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ Wahabbi\\ ideology\\ is\\ the\\ official\\ religion\\ of\\ Saudia\\ Arabia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ayatollah\\ Ruhollah\\ Khomeini\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ IRANIAN\\ REVOLUTION\\ LEADER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1900\\-1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Iranian\\ cleric\\ who\\ led\\ an\\ Islamic\\ revolution\\ in\\ Iran\\ in\\ 1979\\;\\ he\\ denounced\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ hailed\\ the\\ Islamic\\ revolution\\ has\\ an\\ avenging\\ of\\ half\\ a\\ century\\ of\\ humiliations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ overthrow\\ of\\ the\\ Shah\\ Mohammad\\ Reza\\ Pahlavi\\,\\ Khomeini\\ outmaneuvered\\ competing\\ factions\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ leftist\\ socialist\\ party\\ of\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ theocratic\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Khomeini\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticism\\ of\\ the\\ Shah\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ exiled\\ to\\ Iraq\\ in\\ 1964\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ again\\ exiled\\ in\\ 1978\\,\\ this\\ time\\ to\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1969\\,\\ he\\ wrote\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hukumat\\ al\\-Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;where\\ he\\ iterated\\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\velayat\\-I\\ faqih\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;rule\\ by\\ the\\ jurisprudent\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ absence\\ of\\ Imam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;political\\ rule\\ by\\ the\\ religious\\ scholars\\ \\(ulama\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ was\\ not\\ universally\\ accepted\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Ayatollah\\ Sistani\\ of\\ Iraq\\,\\ rejects\\ it\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rule\\ marked\\ by\\ the\\ Iran\\ hostage\\ crisis\\ and\\ the\\ Iran\\-Iraq\\ war\\,\\ which\\ lasted\\ from\\ 1980\\-1988\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Issued\\ a\\ fatwa\\ against\\ Salmon\\ Rushdie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ just\\ before\\ dying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Malcom\\ X\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ U\\.S\\.\\ MILITANT\\ BLACK\\ LEADER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1925\\-1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Born\\ as\\ Malcom\\ Little\\ in\\ Omaha\\,\\ Nebraska\\,\\ Malcom\\ X\\ became\\ a\\ Muslim\\ minister\\ after\\ being\\ released\\ from\\ prison\\ in\\ 1952\\ for\\ drug\\ dealing\\ and\\ burglary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ joined\\ Elijah\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\ and\\ gained\\ tremendous\\ popularity\\ as\\ he\\ championed\\ black\\ pride\\,\\ economic\\ self\\-reliance\\,\\ and\\ identity\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disenchanted\\ that\\ Elijah\\ Muhammad\\ was\\ having\\ affairs\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ the\\ NOI\\ were\\ stealing\\ money\\,\\ be\\ broke\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ organization\\ and\\ started\\ Moslem\\ Mosques\\,\\ Inc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ a\\ pilgramage\\ to\\ Mecca\\ in\\ 1964\\,\\ he\\ converted\\ to\\ orthodox\\ Islam\\ and\\ preached\\ a\\ more\\ accepting\\ and\\ inclusive\\ Islam\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ black\\ supremacy\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ assassinated\\ in\\ 1965\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ met\\ blonde\\-haired\\,\\ blue\\-eyed\\ men\\ I\\ could\\ call\\ my\\ brothers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elijah\\ Muhammad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ AMERICAN\\ BLACK\\ NATIONALIST\\ \\&\\;\\ RELIGIOUS\\ LEADER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1897\\-1975\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Led\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\ after\\ Wallace\\ D\\.\\ Fard\\ from\\ 1934\\ until\\ his\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Urged\\ blacks\\ to\\ develop\\ independence\\ in\\ economics\\,\\ religion\\,\\ and\\ nationhood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believed\\ black\\ people\\ were\\ the\\ fathers\\ and\\ mothers\\ of\\ civilization\\ and\\ thus\\ were\\ righteous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Built\\ schools\\,\\ started\\ businesses\\,\\ preached\\ self\\-sufficiency\\,\\ moral\\ discipline\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Abduh\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ FATHER\\ OF\\ ISLAMIC\\ MODERNISM\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1849\\-1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ Egyptian\\ who\\ provided\\ a\\ progressive\\ reinterpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Shariah\\ based\\ on\\ reason\\ and\\ intellect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ opposed\\ the\\ traditional\\ Ulama\\ and\\ nationalists\\;\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ Jamal\\ al\\-Din\\ al\\-Afghani\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salafistic\\ ideas\\;\\ studied\\ at\\ Al\\-Azhar\\ University\\ in\\ Cairo\\;\\ advocated\\ Pan\\-Islamism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamal\\ al\\-Din\\ al\\-Afghani\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ FATHER\\ OF\\ ISLAMIC\\ MODERNISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1839\\-1897\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\al\\ Afghani\\ was\\ a\\ modernist\\ Islamic\\ reformer\\ who\\ co\\-founded\\ the\\ Salafi\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ his\\ name\\,\\ he\\ is\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ born\\ in\\ Iran\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ staunch\\ critic\\ of\\ colonial\\ rule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believed\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pan\\-Islamism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ whereby\\ Arab\\ states\\ would\\ be\\ united\\ under\\ a\\ single\\ caliph\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ opposed\\ conservative\\ Ulama\\ who\\ stifled\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ science\\,\\ technology\\,\\ and\\ philosophy\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ constitutional\\-based\\ government\\ rather\\ than\\ absolute\\ monarchy\\ and\\ autocracy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Re\\ UK\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ saw\\ Islam\\ there\\,\\ but\\ no\\ Muslims\\;\\ In\\ Egypt\\,\\ I\\ saw\\ Muslims\\,\\ but\\ no\\ Islam\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aga\\ Khan\\ IV\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ LIVING\\ IMAM\\,\\ BRITISH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1963\\-present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ 49\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ current\\,\\ living\\ Imam\\ of\\ the\\ Nizari\\ branch\\ of\\ Shia\\ Ismali\\ Muslims\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ Fatimid\\ line\\,\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ direct\\ descendent\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ Muhammad\\ through\\ Ali\\ and\\ Fatima\\ \\(cousin\\ and\\ son\\-inlaw\\,\\ and\\ daughter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ Imam\\ has\\ absolute\\ authority\\ in\\ intrpretation\\ of\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Followed\\ in\\ his\\ grandfather\\,\\ Aga\\ Khan\\ III\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ progressive\\ mold\\ as\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ \\ \\;economic\\ development\\ and\\ tolerance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Founder\\ and\\ chairmen\\ of\\ the\\ Aga\\ Khan\\ Development\\ network\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sayyid\\ Ahmad\\ Khan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ MUSLIM\\ INDIAN\\ MODERNIST\\ THINKER\\ \\&\\;\\ EDUCATIONALIST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1817\\-1898\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Believed\\ that\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ Muslims\\ was\\ threatened\\ by\\ their\\ orthodox\\ outlook\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ modernize\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Promoted\\-western\\-style\\ scientific\\ education\\ through\\ creation\\ of\\ schools\\;\\ saw\\ Western\\ Science\\ and\\ Reason\\ as\\ compatible\\ with\\ Islam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Promoted\\ liberal\\,\\ rational\\ readings\\ of\\ Islamic\\ scripture\\ that\\ were\\ rejected\\ by\\ Islamic\\ clergy\\.\\ Rejected\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\taqlid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(blindly\\ following\\ traditional\\ interpretations\\ of\\ Ulamah\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Believed\\ people\\ should\\ follow\\ their\\ own\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\itjihad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(reasoning\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supported\\ the\\ British\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ practicality\\ \\(didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ independence\\ movements\\ as\\ alternatives\\)\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ replicate\\ Cambridge\\ in\\ India\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Promoted\\ adoption\\ of\\ Urdu\\ as\\ lingua\\ franca\\ for\\ Indian\\ Muslims\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sayyid\\ Qutb\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ EGYPTIAN\\ INTELLECTUAL\\ AUTHOR\\ in\\ MUSLIM\\ BROTHERHOOD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1903\\-1966\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ writer\\,\\ poet\\,\\ and\\ activist\\ of\\ the\\ Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advocated\\ violence\\ against\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ if\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ failed\\ to\\ rule\\ by\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reinterpreted\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;judge\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;rule\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ which\\ meant\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ had\\ to\\ rule\\ by\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believed\\ that\\ Western\\ leaders\\ and\\ their\\ supporters\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\jahiliyya\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(ignorance\\,\\ as\\ in\\ pre\\-Islamic\\ societies\\)\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ spiritually\\ bankrupt\\,\\ a\\ view\\ that\\ he\\ reaffirmed\\ by\\ visiting\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whether\\ he\\ esposed\\ dictatorship\\,\\ or\\ later\\ rule\\ by\\ Sharia\\ law\\ with\\ essentially\\ no\\ government\\ at\\ all\\,\\ Sayyid\\ Qutb\\&\\#39\\;s\\ mature\\ political\\ views\\ always\\ centered\\ on\\ Islam\\ \\-\\ Islam\\ as\\ a\\ complete\\ system\\ of\\ morality\\,\\ justice\\ and\\ governance\\,\\ whose\\ Sharia\\ laws\\ and\\ principles\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ sole\\ basis\\ of\\ governance\\ and\\ everything\\ else\\ in\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Best\\ known\\ work\\:\\ Ma\\&rsquo\\;alim\\ fi\\-I\\-Tariq\\ \\(Milestones\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amina\\ Wadud\\ Muhsin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ PROFESSOR\\ OF\\ ISLAMIC\\ STUDIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Challenges\\ male\\ patriarchal\\ readings\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\,\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ discriminate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argues\\ that\\ women\\ have\\ suffered\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ male\\ interpretations\\ of\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrote\\ landmark\\ book\\:\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ and\\ Woman\\:\\ Rereading\\ the\\ Sacred\\ Text\\ from\\ a\\ Woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ Quran\\ is\\ viewed\\ in\\ its\\ entirety\\ and\\ not\\ atomistically\\,\\ the\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ potential\\ she\\ has\\,\\ would\\ necessarily\\ be\\ broadened\\ from\\ the\\ demeaning\\ and\\ meaningless\\ existence\\ which\\ renderes\\ her\\ no\\ greater\\ than\\ a\\ procreating\\ animal\\ able\\ to\\ function\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ domestic\\ servant\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\She\\ strongly\\ discourages\\ the\\ decontexualizatino\\ of\\ specific\\ Arabic\\ words\\ when\\ reading\\ the\\ Quron\\;\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ read\\ holistically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 15, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FC70_IDs_Final_1.doc", "desc": "Understanding Islam IDs"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Culture and Belief 19 - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "culture-and-belief-19", "understanding-islam", "muslim-societies"], "text": null, "id": 28, "html": "\\\\\\FC70\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c34\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c35\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c31\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c16\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c37\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c36\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c38\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;FC\\ 70\\ Study\\ Guide\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Pg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\FC\\ 70\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ THURSDAY\\ 11\\-12\\ SECTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamal\\ al\\-Din\\ al\\-Afghani\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\1839\\-1897\\ \\(4\\/16\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\believed\\ Europe\\ was\\ the\\ enemy\\ and\\ conquer\\ of\\ Islam\\ but\\ a\\ model\\ to\\ follow\\ and\\ use\\ to\\ liberate\\ Muslims\\ from\\ colonial\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\God\\ only\\ makes\\ changes\\ when\\ people\\ take\\ the\\ initiative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(then\\ get\\ divine\\ support\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muslims\\ must\\ free\\ themselves\\ from\\ the\\ conservative\\ Ulama\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ restrict\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ science\\,\\ philosophy\\ and\\ technology\\&mdash\\;Ulama\\ the\\ real\\ enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\critical\\ of\\ growing\\ nationalism\\,\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ Western\\ tool\\ of\\ dividing\\ Muslim\\ from\\ Muslim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pan\\-Islamism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ unite\\ all\\ Muslims\\ under\\ one\\ caliph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\must\\ reform\\ religious\\ practice\\ and\\ counter\\ growing\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Abduh\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\1849\\-1905\\ \\(4\\/16\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Egyptian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\founder\\ of\\ Islamic\\ modernism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ thinking\\ had\\ a\\ huge\\ theological\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reinterpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Shariah\\ \\(reason\\ and\\ revelation\\ in\\ harmony\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\progressive\\ reinterpretation\\ need\\ reason\\ and\\ intellect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ not\\ approve\\ of\\ blind\\ acceptance\\ of\\ Islam\\ and\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ interpretations\\,\\ but\\ exert\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\against\\ Ulama\\ and\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(a\\ Western\\ poison\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;does\\ not\\ encourage\\ regionalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 1754\\-1817\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nigerian\\ writer\\ and\\ Islamic\\ reformer\\ directed\\ a\\ successful\\ Fulani\\ jihad\\ beginning\\ in\\ 1804\\ against\\ the\\ Hausa\\ kingdoms\\ of\\ the\\ north\\.\\ His\\ new\\ caliphate\\ was\\ established\\ at\\ Sokoto\\.\\ Prominent\\ among\\ these\\ radical\\ mallams\\ was\\ Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\,\\ who\\ with\\ his\\ brother\\ and\\ son\\,\\ attracted\\ a\\ following\\ among\\ the\\ clerical\\ class\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ his\\ supporters\\ were\\ Fulani\\,\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ ethnicity\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ all\\ Fulani\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ clan\\ leaders\\ and\\ wealthy\\ cattle\\ owners\\ whose\\ clients\\ and\\ dependents\\ provided\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ troops\\ in\\ the\\ jihad\\ that\\ began\\ in\\ Gobir\\ in\\ 1804\\.\\ The\\ new\\ state\\ that\\ arose\\ during\\ Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ jihad\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Sokoto\\ Caliphate\\,\\ named\\ after\\ his\\ capital\\ at\\ Sokoto\\,\\ founded\\ in\\ 1809\\.\\ The\\ caliphate\\ was\\ a\\ loose\\ confederation\\ of\\ emirates\\ that\\ recognized\\ the\\ suzerainty\\ of\\ the\\ commander\\ of\\ the\\ faithful\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ sultan\\.\\ When\\ Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\ died\\ in\\ 1817\\,\\ he\\ was\\ succeeded\\ by\\ his\\ son\\,\\ Muhammad\\ Bello\\.\\ A\\ dispute\\ between\\ Bello\\ and\\ his\\ uncle\\,\\ Abdullahi\\,\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ nominal\\ division\\ of\\ the\\ caliphate\\ into\\ eastern\\ and\\ western\\ divisions\\,\\ although\\ the\\ supreme\\ authority\\ of\\ Bello\\ as\\ caliph\\ was\\ upheld\\.\\ Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ jihad\\ created\\ the\\ largest\\ empire\\ in\\ Africa\\ since\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Songhai\\ in\\ 1591\\.\\ By\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ when\\ the\\ Sokoto\\ Caliphate\\ was\\ at\\ its\\ greatest\\ extent\\,\\ it\\ stretched\\ 1\\,500\\ kilometers\\ from\\ Dori\\ in\\ modern\\ Burkina\\ Faso\\ to\\ southern\\ Adamawa\\ in\\ Cameroon\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\included\\ Nupe\\ lands\\,\\ Ilorin\\ in\\ northern\\ Yorubaland\\,\\ and\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ Benue\\ River\\ valley\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ jihad\\ provided\\ the\\ inspiration\\ for\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ related\\ holy\\ wars\\ in\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ savanna\\ and\\ Sahel\\ far\\ beyond\\ Nigeria\\&\\#39\\;s\\ borders\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ Islamic\\ states\\ in\\ Senegal\\,\\ Mali\\,\\ Ivory\\ Coast\\,\\ Chad\\,\\ Central\\ African\\ Republic\\,\\ and\\ Sudan\\.\\ An\\ analogy\\ has\\ been\\ drawn\\ between\\ Usman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ jihad\\ and\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ its\\ widespread\\ impact\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\ affected\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ European\\ history\\ in\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ the\\ Sokoto\\ jihad\\ affected\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ history\\ throughout\\ the\\ savanna\\ from\\ Senegal\\ to\\ the\\ Red\\ Sea\\.\\ He\\ was\\ born\\ December\\ 1754\\,\\ Maratta\\,\\ Gobir\\,\\ Hausaland\\ died\\ 1817\\,\\ Sokoto\\,\\ Fulani\\ empire\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ a\\ Fulani\\ mystic\\,\\ philosopher\\,\\ and\\ revolutionary\\ reformer\\.In\\ a\\ jihad\\ \\(holy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\war\\)\\ between\\ 1804\\ and\\ 1808\\,\\ he\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ Muslim\\ state\\,\\ the\\ Fulani\\ empire\\,\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ now\\ northern\\ Nigeria\\.\\ He\\ stimulated\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ Islam\\ throughout\\ the\\ region\\ and\\ founded\\ the\\ important\\ Sokoto\\ caliphate\\.\\ He\\ also\\ produced\\ a\\ large\\ body\\ of\\ writings\\ in\\ Arabic\\ and\\ Fula\\ that\\ continue\\ to\\ enjoy\\ wide\\ circulation\\ and\\ influence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sir\\ Muhammad\\ Iqbal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1877\\-1938\\ \\(in\\ notes\\ from\\ 4\\/16\\ and\\ 4\\/28\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\educated\\ in\\ Lahore\\,\\ Cambridge\\,\\ London\\ and\\ Munich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\idea\\ of\\ separate\\ Muslim\\ majority\\,\\ believed\\ Muslims\\ of\\ northwestern\\ India\\ should\\ demand\\ a\\ separate\\ nation\\ for\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\known\\ as\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ Modern\\ Pakistan\\/\\ intellectual\\ founder\\ of\\ Pakistan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ poet\\ and\\ philosopher\\:\\ writings\\ were\\ devoted\\ to\\ a\\ revival\\ of\\ Islam\\ \\(expressed\\ reformist\\ ideas\\ through\\ poetry\\&mdash\\;could\\ reach\\ the\\ masses\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1922\\ knighted\\ by\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\believed\\ there\\ were\\ certain\\ Western\\ cultural\\ aspects\\ that\\ would\\ destroy\\ Islam\\ \\(through\\ Muslim\\ ideas\\ of\\ redistribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ were\\ better\\ as\\ Western\\ poverty\\ and\\ capitalism\\ were\\ not\\ in\\ keeping\\ with\\ the\\ Quran\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\felt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Muslims\\ were\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;asleep\\ and\\ stagnant\\&rdquo\\;\\ around\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\believed\\ that\\ change\\ was\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reinterpretation\\ of\\ humans\\ as\\ helpers\\/co\\-creators\\ with\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\stresses\\ human\\ beings\\ developing\\ their\\ intellectual\\ potentials\\ to\\ the\\ fullest\\,\\ frames\\ his\\ ideas\\ within\\ an\\ Islamic\\ context\\ as\\ all\\ new\\ thoughts\\ were\\ from\\ a\\ reinterpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Quran\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\critical\\ of\\ Ulama\\ and\\ narrow\\ minded\\ Sufi\\ sheikhs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Iqbal\\ \\(1875\\-\\ 1938\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Represented\\ the\\ next\\ phase\\ in\\ modern\\ Islam\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ combined\\ an\\ early\\ Islamic\\ education\\ with\\ advanced\\ degdrees\\ from\\ Cambridge\\ and\\ Munich\\ in\\ philosophy\\ and\\ law\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ sense\\ he\\ represented\\ the\\ best\\ fo\\ what\\ Sayyid\\ Ahmad\\ Khan\\ might\\ have\\ wished\\.\\ \\ \\;Muhammad\\ Iqbal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ profession\\ was\\ the\\ law\\;\\ his\\ passion\\,\\ writing\\ poetry\\ and\\ prose\\ \\,\\ his\\ lifelong\\ concern\\,\\ Muslim\\ religious\\ and\\ political\\ survival\\ and\\ reform\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ returned\\ from\\ his\\ doctoral\\ studies\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ he\\ devoted\\ himself\\ to\\ the\\ revival\\ of\\ Indian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Islam\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ did\\ this\\ both\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\-philosopher\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ politician\\.\\ \\ \\;Islam\\ and\\ the\\ Muslim\\ community\\ were\\ in\\ danger\\ and\\ he\\ thought\\ this\\ was\\ in\\ sharp\\ contrast\\ with\\ the\\ inner\\ dynamic\\ and\\ creative\\ nature\\ of\\ Islam\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;Drawing\\ on\\ his\\ Islamic\\ heritage\\ and\\ influenced\\ by\\ his\\ study\\ of\\ Western\\ Philosophy\\ he\\ developed\\ his\\ own\\ synthesis\\ and\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Islam\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ sociohistorical\\ conditions\\ and\\ events\\ of\\ his\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Iqbal\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ selfhood\\ that\\ embraces\\ all\\ reality\\;\\ individual\\ self\\ society\\ and\\ God\\.\\ Iqbal\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ relationship\\ to\\ God\\ to\\ Islamic\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ Muslim\\ to\\ society\\ incorporates\\ both\\ permeance\\ and\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;God\\ the\\ ultimate\\ or\\ absolute\\ self\\ has\\ a\\ creative\\ dynamic\\ life\\ that\\ is\\ both\\ permanent\\ and\\ changing\\ as\\ creation\\ is\\ the\\ infolding\\ of\\ the\\ inener\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\possibilities\\ of\\ God\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ and\\ yet\\ continuing\\ act\\.\\ The\\ individual\\ of\\ a\\ Muslim\\ society\\ must\\ carry\\ out\\ Gods\\ will\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ heart\\ of\\ Iqbals\\ vision\\ of\\ Islam\\ is\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ God\\ \\(tawhid\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ oneness\\ of\\ God\\ applies\\ to\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ Gdo\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ His\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;God\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ creator\\,\\ sustainer\\ and\\ judge\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ and\\ His\\ will\\ or\\ law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\governs\\ every\\ aspect\\ of\\ His\\ creation\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ realized\\ in\\ every\\ aspect\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Iqbal\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ a\\ religiopolitical\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ supremacy\\ of\\ Isalmic\\ law\\ in\\ Muslim\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;The\\ whole\\ of\\ this\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ mosque\\.\\ \\ \\;Iqbal\\,\\ Sir\\ Muhammad\\ \\(1873\\-1938\\)\\,\\ philosopher\\,\\ poet\\,\\ and\\ political\\ leader\\,\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ Sialkot\\.\\ In\\ 1927\\ he\\ was\\ elected\\ to\\ the\\ Punjab\\ provincial\\ legislature\\ and\\ in\\ 1930\\ became\\ president\\ of\\ the\\ Muslim\\ League\\.\\ Initially\\ a\\ supporter\\ of\\ Hindu\\-Muslim\\ unity\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ Indian\\ state\\,\\ Iqbal\\ later\\ became\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ Pakistani\\ independence\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ his\\ political\\ activism\\,\\ Iqbal\\ was\\ considered\\ the\\ foremost\\ Muslim\\ thinker\\ of\\ his\\ day\\.\\ His\\ poetry\\ and\\ philosophy\\,\\ written\\ in\\ Urdu\\ and\\ Persian\\,\\ stress\\ the\\ rebirth\\ of\\ Islamic\\ and\\ spiritual\\ redemption\\ through\\ self\\-development\\,\\ moral\\ integrity\\,\\ and\\ individual\\ freedom\\.His\\ many\\ works\\ includeThe\\ Secrets\\ of\\ the\\ Self\\ \\(1915\\)\\,\\ 23\\)\\;\\ a\\ long\\ poem\\;\\ A\\ Message\\ from\\ the\\ East\\ \\(19and\\ The\\ Reconstruction\\ of\\ Religious\\ Thought\\ in\\ Islam\\ \\(1934\\)\\.\\ Although\\ Iqbal\\ did\\ not\\ live\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ an\\ independent\\ Pakistan\\ in\\ 1947\\,\\ he\\ is\\ nevertheless\\ regarded\\ as\\ the\\ symbolic\\ father\\ of\\ that\\ nation\\ Allama\\ Muhammad\\ Iqbal\\ is\\ generally\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\ and\\ philosopher\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ jurist\\,\\ a\\ politician\\,\\ a\\ social\\ reformer\\,\\ and\\ a\\ great\\ Islamic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\scholar\\.\\ People\\ even\\ bestowed\\ on\\ him\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ \\"\\;Shaere\\-Mashriq\\"\\;\\ \\(Poet\\ of\\ the\\ East\\!\\)\\.\\ It\\ may\\ sound\\ strange\\ that\\ Iqbal\\ never\\ considered\\ himself\\ a\\ poet\\ as\\ is\\ evidenced\\ by\\ his\\ correspondence\\ with\\ Syed\\ Sulaiman\\ Nadvi\\ \\[1885\\-1953\\]\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;I\\ have\\ never\\ considered\\ myself\\ a\\ poet\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ I\\ am\\ not\\ a\\ rival\\ of\\ anyone\\,\\ and\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ consider\\ anybody\\ my\\ rival\\.\\ I\\ have\\ no\\ interest\\ in\\ poetic\\ artistry\\.\\ But\\,\\ yes\\,\\ I\\ have\\ a\\ special\\ goal\\ in\\ mind\\ for\\ whose\\ expression\\ I\\ use\\ the\\ medium\\ of\\ poetry\\ considering\\ the\\ condition\\ and\\ the\\ customs\\ of\\ this\\ country\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(translated\\ from\\ the\\ original\\ in\\ Urdu\\;\\ Maktoobat\\,\\ Volume\\ I\\,\\ page195\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iqbal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ thinkers\\ of\\ Islam\\ remains\\ unparalleled\\.\\ In\\ his\\ writings\\,\\ he\\ addressed\\ and\\ exhorted\\ people\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ youth\\,\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ and\\ boldly\\ face\\ life\\&\\#39\\;s\\ challenges\\.\\ The\\ central\\ theme\\ and\\ main\\ source\\ of\\ his\\ message\\ was\\ the\\ Qur\\&\\#39\\;an\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iqbal\\ considered\\ the\\ Qur\\&\\#39\\;an\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ religion\\ \\(in\\ the\\ traditional\\ sense\\)\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ foundational\\ principles\\ upon\\ which\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\ must\\ be\\ built\\ as\\ a\\ coherent\\ system\\ of\\ life\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Iqbal\\,\\ this\\ system\\ of\\ life\\ when\\ implemented\\ as\\ a\\ living\\ force\\ is\\ ISLAM\\.\\ Because\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ permanent\\ \\(absolute\\)\\ values\\ given\\ in\\ the\\ Qur\\&\\#39\\;an\\,\\ this\\ system\\ provides\\ perfect\\ harmony\\,\\ balance\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stability\\ in\\ the\\ society\\ from\\ within\\ and\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ security\\ and\\ a\\ shield\\ from\\ without\\.\\ It\\ also\\ provides\\ freedom\\ of\\ choice\\ and\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ personality\\ for\\ everyone\\ within\\ the\\ guidelines\\ of\\ Qur\\&\\#39\\;an\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ in\\ Iqbal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ opinion\\,\\ Islam\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ religion\\ in\\ which\\ individuals\\ strive\\ for\\ a\\ private\\ subjective\\ relationship\\ with\\ God\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ hope\\ of\\ personal\\ salvation\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ secular\\ systems\\.\\ Iqbal\\ firmly\\ opposed\\ theocracy\\ and\\ dictatorship\\ and\\ considered\\ them\\ against\\ the\\ free\\ spirit\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ Humanity\\,\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ has\\ never\\ faced\\ the\\ challenge\\ posed\\ by\\ the\\ enormity\\ and\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ human\\ problems\\,\\ such\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ facing\\ today\\.\\ The\\ problems\\ have\\ taken\\ on\\ a\\ global\\ dimension\\ now\\ and\\ transcend\\ the\\ barriers\\ of\\ race\\,\\ color\\,\\ language\\,\\ geography\\,\\ and\\ social\\,\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ ideologies\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ mankind\\ are\\ universal\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ require\\ a\\ universal\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ solution\\.\\ Iqbal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ universal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\message\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ address\\ this\\ challenge\\ faced\\ by\\ humanity\\.\\ Through\\ his\\ travels\\ and\\ personal\\ communications\\,\\ Allama\\ Iqbal\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ Muslims\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\ had\\ detached\\ themselves\\ from\\ the\\ Qur\\&\\#39\\;an\\ as\\ a\\ guiding\\ principle\\ and\\ a\\ living\\ force\\.\\ After\\ the\\ disaster\\ following\\ the\\ Balkan\\ War\\ of\\ 1912\\,\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ caliphate\\ in\\ Turkey\\,\\ and\\ many\\ anti\\-Muslim\\ incessant\\ provocations\\ and\\ actions\\ against\\ Muslims\\ in\\ India\\ \\(1924\\-27\\)\\ and\\ elsewhere\\ by\\ the\\ intellectuals\\ and\\ so\\ called\\ secular\\ minded\\ leaders\\,\\ Allama\\ Iqbal\\ suggested\\ that\\ a\\ separate\\ state\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ Muslims\\ of\\ the\\ Indian\\ subcontinent\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ express\\ the\\ vitality\\ of\\ Islam\\ to\\ its\\ fullest\\.\\ In\\ his\\ 1930\\ Presidential\\ speech\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\delivered\\ to\\ the\\ annual\\ session\\ of\\ Muslim\\ League\\ at\\ Allahabad\\,\\ Allama\\ Iqbal\\ stated\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;I\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ demand\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ consolidated\\ Muslim\\ state\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\best\\ interests\\ of\\ India\\ and\\ Islam\\.\\ For\\ India\\,\\ it\\ means\\ security\\ and\\ peace\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\resulting\\ from\\ an\\ internal\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\;\\ for\\ Islam\\,\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rid\\ itself\\ of\\ the\\ stamp\\ that\\ Arabian\\ imperialism\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ give\\ it\\,\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mobilize\\ its\\ laws\\,\\ its\\ education\\,\\ its\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ to\\ bring\\ them\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\closer\\ contact\\ with\\ its\\ own\\ original\\ spirit\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ modern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\times\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iqbal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Deeda\\-war\\"\\;\\ \\(visionary\\)\\,\\ is\\ like\\ Iqbal\\ himself\\.\\ He\\ could\\ foresee\\ what\\ others\\ could\\ not\\.\\ Whereas\\ others\\ only\\ have\\ a\\ short\\ term\\ view\\ of\\ things\\,\\ a\\ visionary\\ sees\\ the\\ problems\\ in\\ a\\ long\\ term\\ perspective\\ and\\ develops\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ cosmic\\ sense\\.\\ A\\ nation\\ is\\ indeed\\ fortunate\\ if\\ it\\ produces\\ a\\ few\\ such\\ individuals\\ in\\ centuries\\.\\ Such\\ individuals\\,\\ although\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\very\\ rare\\,\\ change\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ history\\ forever\\,\\ as\\ indeed\\ Iqbal\\ did\\.\\ Pakistan\\ owes\\ its\\ existence\\ to\\ Allama\\ Iqbal\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Pakistan\\ owe\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ gratitude\\ to\\ this\\ extraordinary\\ visionary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Ali\\ Jinnah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;d\\.\\ 1948\\ \\ \\;\\(in\\ notes\\ from\\ 4\\/28\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\proponent\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pakistan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ a\\ separate\\ nation\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ a\\ religious\\ leader\\/\\ scholar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;but\\ was\\ a\\ lawyer\\ trained\\ in\\ Britain\\ with\\ a\\ secular\\ upbringing\\ \\(wore\\ western\\ clothing\\,\\ drank\\,\\ smoked\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vision\\ of\\ Pakistan\\ was\\ a\\ liberal\\ democracy\\ based\\ on\\ Western\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\majority\\ constituted\\ Muslims\\ but\\ minorities\\&rsquo\\;\\ rights\\ respected\\ as\\ well\\ \\(they\\ should\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ practice\\ their\\ own\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;state\\ itself\\ should\\ be\\ religiously\\ neutral\\-acknowledges\\ the\\ religious\\ diversity\\ of\\ interpretation\\ but\\ also\\ acknowledges\\ the\\ common\\ cultural\\ ethos\\ of\\ Muslims\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ nation\\=\\ united\\ through\\ the\\ sharing\\ of\\ common\\ cultural\\ values\\;\\ thus\\ defined\\ Muslim\\ identity\\ as\\ sharing\\ a\\ common\\ cultural\\ ethos\\&mdash\\;need\\ a\\ separate\\ nation\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ vision\\ of\\ Pakistan\\ was\\ opposed\\ by\\ religious\\ scholars\\ and\\ Ulama\\.\\ because\\ his\\ idea\\ of\\ nation\\ state\\ defined\\ by\\ culture\\ divides\\ Muslims\\ of\\ different\\ areas\\.\\ \\(nationalism\\ divides\\ Muslims\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ asked\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ can\\ Jinnah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ secular\\ lifestyle\\ be\\ muslim\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\became\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ Pakistan\\ which\\ was\\ created\\ after\\ lots\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(died\\ a\\ year\\ after\\ its\\ creation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Ali\\ Jinnah\\ \\(d\\.\\ 1948\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Viewed\\ Pakistan\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Muslim\\&rdquo\\;\\ state\\ based\\ on\\ liberal\\,\\ secular\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ Islamic\\ identity\\ was\\ defined\\ in\\ cultural\\/\\ civilizational\\ terms\\;\\ Muslims\\ are\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;nation\\&rdquo\\;\\ united\\ through\\ the\\ sharing\\ of\\ common\\ cultural\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Ulama\\ and\\ religious\\ scholars\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ his\\ ideas\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ believed\\ the\\ nation\\ state\\ was\\ a\\ western\\ ideal\\ and\\ only\\ divided\\ Muslims\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ Ali\\ Jinnah\\ was\\ a\\ legitimate\\ leader\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ religious\\ scholar\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mustafa\\ Kemal\\ Ataturk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(d\\.\\ 1938\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Founder\\ of\\ the\\ Turkish\\ Republic\\ and\\ its\\ first\\ President\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Ataturk\\,\\ meaning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ father\\ of\\ Turks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ given\\ to\\ him\\ after\\ his\\ death\\.\\ Ataturk\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\led\\ the\\ War\\ of\\ Independence\\ on\\ from\\ 1919\\-1922\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ drove\\ out\\ foreign\\ occupiers\\ and\\ the\\ Ottoman\\ Sultan\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\established\\ the\\ Turkish\\ Republic\\ in\\ 1923\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ new\\ nation\\ state\\ picked\\ up\\ previous\\ reforms\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ thinking\\ of\\ Ziya\\ Gokalp\\ \\(d\\.\\ 1924\\)\\.\\ Ataturk\\ led\\ the\\ country\\ for\\ 15\\ years\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\emphasized\\ secularism\\,\\ nationalism\\,\\ westernization\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ in\\ his\\ reforms\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\saw\\ Islam\\ institutions\\ as\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ backwardness\\,\\ and\\ completely\\ excluded\\ religion\\ from\\ politics\\ and\\ social\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ changed\\ the\\ language\\ form\\ Arabic\\ script\\ to\\ Turkish\\ with\\ Roman\\ alphabets\\,\\ and\\ replaced\\ religious\\ law\\ with\\ modern\\ secular\\ system\\ of\\ jurisprudence\\.\\ He\\ is\\ still\\ celebrated\\ till\\ this\\ day\\ has\\ the\\ pioneer\\ of\\ national\\ liberation\\ and\\ a\\ great\\ leader\\ in\\ Turkey\\.\\ His\\ reforms\\ and\\ ideas\\ have\\ lasting\\ influence\\ on\\ the\\ modern\\ state\\ of\\ Turkey\\,\\ and\\ also\\ provided\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ reform\\ for\\ other\\ nation\\ states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ ibn\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1703\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\&\\#39\\;Uyyainah\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Najd\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Arabia\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ d\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1792\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\al\\-Dir\\&\\#39\\;yah\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ was\\ a\\ theologian\\ and\\ preacher\\ of\\ a\\ puritanical\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\fundamentalist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\form\\ of\\ Islam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;known\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Wahhabi\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\.\\ He\\ touted\\ this\\ theology\\ as\\ a\\ \\"\\;purified\\"\\;\\ form\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Islam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ attempted\\ to\\ return\\ all\\ Muslims\\ to\\ what\\ he\\ believed\\ were\\ the\\ \\"\\;true\\"\\;\\ principles\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ Ibn\\ Abd\\ Al\\-Wahhab\\ was\\ educated\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Medina\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(part\\ of\\ modern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Saudi\\ Arabia\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ and\\ travelled\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Iraq\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ later\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Iran\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ was\\ in\\ Iran\\ that\\ he\\ began\\ preaching\\ against\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sufi\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Muslims\\ then\\ predominant\\ in\\ the\\ region\\.\\ After\\ his\\ return\\ to\\ Medina\\ he\\ wrote\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Kitab\\ at\\-tawhid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Arabic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;Book\\ of\\ Monotheism\\"\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1736\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ which\\ became\\ a\\ reference\\ text\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Wahhabi\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sect\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ His\\ teachings\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ controversy\\ which\\ resulted\\ in\\ him\\ being\\ expelled\\;\\ he\\ moved\\ onto\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Ad\\-Dir\\&\\#39\\;iyah\\ \\(Saudi\\ Arabia\\)\\.\\ An\\ alliance\\ between\\ Ibn\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ bin\\ Saud\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;caused\\ Wahabbism\\ to\\ spread\\ in\\ areas\\ that\\ bin\\ Saud\\ conquered\\.\\ Ibn\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ reformer\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ follow\\ his\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Saudi\\ Arabia\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ official\\ religion\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Islam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;according\\ to\\ Ibn\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interpretation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ayatullah\\ Ruhollah\\ Khomeini\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ayatullah\\ Ruhollah\\ Khomeini\\,\\ the\\ dour\\ cleric\\ who\\ led\\ an\\ Islamic\\ revolution\\ in\\ Iran\\,\\ perceived\\ himself\\ above\\ all\\ as\\ an\\ avenger\\ of\\ the\\ humiliations\\ that\\ the\\ West\\ had\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ century\\ inflicted\\ on\\ the\\ Muslims\\ of\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\.\\ He\\ was\\ among\\ many\\ Muslim\\ autocrats\\ in\\ this\\ century\\ to\\ embrace\\ a\\ mission\\ designed\\ as\\ a\\ corrective\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\ Kemal\\ Ataturk\\,\\ the\\ most\\ daring\\ of\\ them\\,\\ introduced\\ Turkey\\,\\ after\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ Ottoman\\ Empire\\ in\\ World\\ War\\ I\\,\\ to\\ Western\\-style\\ secularism\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ toughen\\ his\\ society\\ against\\ Europe\\&\\#39\\;s\\ imperial\\ designs\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ Egypt\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Gamal\\ Abdel\\ Nasser\\,\\ more\\ intemperately\\,\\ initiated\\ a\\ fierce\\ campaign\\ of\\ Arab\\ nationalism\\ aimed\\ at\\ eradicating\\ the\\ vestiges\\ of\\ Western\\ colonialism\\ from\\ the\\ Arab\\ world\\.\\ Also\\ for\\ more\\ info\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.time\\.com\\/time\\/time100\\/leaders\\/profile\\/khomeini\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Born\\ as\\ Malcolm\\ Little\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Omaha\\,\\ Nebraska\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\May\\ 19\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1925\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ His\\ father\\ Earl\\,\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\murdered\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1931\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Malcolm\\ dropped\\ out\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\high\\ school\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ moved\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Boston\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ live\\ with\\ a\\ half\\-sister\\.\\ Then\\ \\ \\;he\\ moved\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Harlem\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\New\\ York\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ where\\ he\\ became\\ involved\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\drug\\ dealing\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\gambling\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\prostitution\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\racketeering\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\robbery\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(referred\\ to\\ collectively\\ by\\ Malcolm\\ as\\ \\"\\;hustling\\"\\;\\)\\;\\ he\\ also\\ faked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\insanity\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\World\\ War\\ II\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\draft\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Little\\ was\\ arrested\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\burglary\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1946\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ sentenced\\ to\\ ten\\ years\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\prison\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(he\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\paroled\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ seven\\)\\.\\ In\\ prison\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ educated\\ himself\\.\\ After\\ having\\ read\\ nothing\\ for\\ many\\ years\\,\\ he\\ copied\\ the\\ dictionary\\ by\\ hand\\ into\\ a\\ notebook\\.\\ He\\ read\\ the\\ entire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Harvard\\ Classics\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ well\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Will\\ and\\ Ariel\\ Durant\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Civilization\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ also\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ prison\\ debate\\ team\\.\\ After\\ his\\ release\\ from\\ prison\\ he\\ bought\\ a\\ suitcase\\,\\ eyeglasses\\ and\\ a\\ watch\\,\\ later\\ saying\\ that\\ these\\ were\\ the\\ items\\ he\\ used\\ most\\ in\\ his\\ later\\ life\\.\\ While\\ incarcerated\\,\\ he\\ became\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ religious\\ group\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ By\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ was\\ released\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1952\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Malcolm\\ was\\ a\\ devoted\\ follower\\.\\ In\\ keeping\\ with\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\ tradition\\ that\\ the\\ true\\ family\\ names\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\ had\\ been\\ lost\\ during\\ the\\ era\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\slavery\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ he\\ changed\\ his\\ surname\\ to\\ \\"\\;X\\"\\;\\ to\\ signify\\ his\\ lost\\ African\\ family\\ name\\.\\ Malcolm\\ rose\\ quickly\\ in\\ the\\ organization\\ and\\ was\\ soon\\ appointed\\ a\\ minister\\ and\\ spokesman\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Elijah\\ Muhammad\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ disciple\\ of\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ Malcolm\\ concentrated\\ on\\ the\\ black\\ urban\\ population\\ of\\ the\\ north\\ and\\ rejected\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ Jr\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ message\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\non\\-violence\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ favor\\ of\\ militant\\ Black\\ Nationalism\\.\\ He\\ was\\ largely\\ credited\\ with\\ increasing\\ membership\\ of\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\ from\\ 500\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1952\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ 30\\,000\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1963\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ married\\ Betty\\ X\\ \\(later\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Betty\\ Shabazz\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1958\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ media\\,\\ Malcolm\\ had\\ attracted\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\FBI\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Agents\\ infiltrated\\ the\\ organization\\ and\\ used\\ bugs\\,\\ wiretaps\\ and\\ other\\ surveillance\\ equipment\\ to\\ monitor\\ the\\ group\\&\\#39\\;s\\ activities\\.\\ In\\ the\\ early\\ sixties\\,\\ Malcolm\\ began\\ to\\ become\\ disillusioned\\ with\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\ amid\\ rumors\\ of\\ Elijah\\ Muhammad\\&\\#39\\;s\\ infidelity\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ Nation\\&\\#39\\;s\\ continuing\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ Nation\\ adopted\\ a\\ fiercely\\ anti\\-white\\ stance\\,\\ they\\ were\\ rarely\\ seen\\ on\\ the\\ front\\ lines\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ Malcolm\\ to\\ split\\ with\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\ in\\ March\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1964\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ to\\ found\\ his\\ own\\ organization\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Muslim\\ Mosque\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ spring\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1964\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Malcolm\\ made\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hajj\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(pilgrimage\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mecca\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ The\\ trip\\ proved\\ life\\-altering\\.\\ The\\ true\\ fellowship\\ between\\ Muslims\\ of\\ all\\ colors\\ that\\ he\\ encountered\\ shattered\\ his\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ separate\\ nation\\ for\\ blacks\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ whites\\ were\\ \\"\\;devils\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ as\\ a\\ convert\\ to\\ orthodox\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Islam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(and\\ with\\ a\\ new\\ name\\ \\-\\ El\\-Hajj\\ Malik\\ El\\-Shabazz\\)\\ and\\ founded\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Organization\\ of\\ Afro\\-American\\ Unity\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ a\\ new\\ message\\ on\\ integration\\,\\ preaching\\ to\\ all\\ races\\ but\\ still\\ with\\ a\\ strong\\ belief\\ in\\ black\\ nationalism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tensions\\ increased\\ between\\ Malcolm\\ and\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ Orders\\ were\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ Nation\\ members\\ to\\ kill\\ Malcolm\\.\\ On\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\February\\ 14\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1965\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;his\\ home\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ was\\ firebombed\\ by\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ but\\ Malcolm\\ and\\ his\\ family\\ survived\\.\\ A\\ week\\ later\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\February\\ 21\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Manhattan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Audubon\\ Ballroom\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Malcolm\\ had\\ just\\ begun\\ delivering\\ a\\ speech\\ when\\ a\\ disturbance\\ broke\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ crowd\\ of\\ 400\\.\\ A\\ man\\ yelled\\,\\ \\"\\;Get\\ your\\ hands\\ off\\ my\\ pockets\\!\\ Don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ be\\ messin\\&\\#39\\;\\ with\\ my\\ pockets\\!\\"\\;\\ As\\ Malcolm\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bodyguards\\ rushed\\ forward\\ to\\ attend\\ to\\ the\\ disturbance\\,\\ a\\ man\\ rushed\\ forward\\ and\\ shot\\ Malcolm\\ in\\ the\\ chest\\ with\\ a\\ sawed\\-off\\ shotgun\\.\\ Two\\ other\\ men\\ quickly\\ charged\\ towards\\ the\\ stage\\ and\\ fired\\ handguns\\ at\\ Malcolm\\.\\ Despite\\ his\\ change\\ of\\ view\\,\\ he\\ was\\ most\\ remembered\\ for\\ his\\ anti\\-racist\\ speeches\\,\\ which\\ were\\ emulated\\ by\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\black\\ nationalist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;organizations\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Black\\ Panthers\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elijah\\ Muhammad\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ 1897\\&mdash\\;1975\\,\\ American\\ black\\-nationalist\\ and\\ religious\\ leader\\,\\ born\\ near\\ Sandersville\\,\\ Ga\\.\\ Originally\\ named\\ Elijah\\ Poole\\,\\ he\\ left\\ home\\ at\\ 16\\ and\\ worked\\ at\\ various\\ jobs\\.\\ In\\ 1923\\ he\\ settled\\ in\\ Detroit\\ and\\ became\\ an\\ automobile\\ assembly\\-line\\ worker\\.\\ In\\ 1931\\ he\\ became\\ a\\ follower\\ of\\ Wali\\ Farad\\,\\ or\\ W\\.\\ D\\.\\ Fard\\,\\ who\\ had\\ established\\ a\\ Temple\\ of\\ Islam\\ in\\ Detroit\\.\\ When\\ Farad\\ disappeared\\ in\\ 1934\\,\\ Poole\\ \\(now\\ renamed\\ Muhammad\\)\\ assumed\\ leadership\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ that\\ was\\ to\\ become\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Black\\ Muslims\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ was\\ imprisoned\\ during\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ for\\ encouraging\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ draft\\.\\ Muhammad\\ called\\ himself\\ the\\ \\"\\;Messenger\\ of\\ Allah\\"\\;\\ and\\ preached\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ salvation\\ for\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ lay\\ in\\ withdrawal\\ into\\ an\\ autonomous\\ state\\.\\ He\\ retained\\ almost\\ autocratic\\ control\\ over\\ his\\ movement\\.\\ He\\ greatly\\ influenced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ although\\ Malcolm\\ later\\ left\\ the\\ Black\\ Muslims\\.\\ Muhammad\\ aroused\\ controversy\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ alleged\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ had\\ affairs\\ with\\ several\\ young\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ Nation\\,\\ a\\ charge\\ that\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ split\\ with\\ his\\ prot\\é\\;g\\é\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\jamiat\\ al\\-Ikhwan\\ al\\-muslimun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ literally\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Society\\ of\\ Muslim\\ Brothers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ is\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Islamic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;organization\\ with\\ a\\ political\\ approach\\ to\\ Islam\\.\\ It\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1928\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hassan\\ al\\ Banna\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Egypt\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ottoman\\ Empire\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\ opposes\\ secular\\ tendencies\\ of\\ Islamic\\ nations\\ and\\ wants\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ precepts\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Qur\\&\\#39\\;an\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ rejection\\ of\\ Western\\ influences\\.\\ They\\ also\\ reject\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sufi\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;influences\\.\\ They\\ organize\\ events\\ from\\ prayer\\ meetings\\ to\\ sport\\ clubs\\ for\\ socializing\\.\\ The\\ organization\\&\\#39\\;s\\ motto\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Allah\\ is\\ our\\ objective\\.\\ The\\ Prophet\\ is\\ our\\ leader\\.\\ Qur\\&\\#39\\;an\\ is\\ our\\ law\\.\\ Jihad\\ is\\ our\\ way\\.\\ Dying\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ Allah\\ is\\ our\\ highest\\ hope\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Brotherhood\\ has\\ branches\\ in\\ 70\\ countries\\.\\ They\\ claim\\ to\\ have\\ taken\\ part\\ in\\ most\\ pro\\-Islamic\\ conflicts\\,\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Arab\\-Israeli\\ Wars\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Algerian\\ War\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ recent\\ conflicts\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Afghanistan\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Kashmir\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Today\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\ is\\ viewed\\ a\\ a\\ far\\ more\\ moderate\\ group\\ than\\ other\\ Islamist\\ organizations\\ operation\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\al\\-Queda\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ countries\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ permited\\ to\\,\\ the\\ Brotherhood\\ has\\ competed\\ in\\ and\\ supported\\ free\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Source\\:\\ Ahmadou\\ Kourouma\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Suns\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\,\\ Fama\\ is\\ praying\\ in\\ the\\ mosque\\.\\ The\\ 2\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ prayer\\ reveal\\ the\\ dualism\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\ and\\ religion\\ of\\ the\\ Malinke\\.\\ While\\ they\\ praise\\ and\\ exalt\\ God\\ as\\ being\\ their\\ god\\,\\ they\\ also\\ fear\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ appease\\ the\\ fetish\\ so\\ as\\ not\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ victim\\ of\\ its\\ wrath\\.\\ They\\ set\\ God\\ on\\ a\\ pedestal\\ in\\ their\\ society\\ as\\ Muslims\\,\\ and\\ publicly\\ declare\\ their\\ obedience\\ to\\ him\\ for\\ God\\ is\\ lord\\ over\\ the\\ big\\ things\\,\\ like\\ salvation\\.\\ Yet\\ in\\ the\\ quietness\\ of\\ the\\ home\\,\\ or\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ mosque\\ \\(how\\ ironic\\)\\,\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ satisfy\\ the\\ fetish\\ through\\ ritual\\ because\\ they\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ sovereign\\ over\\ the\\ small\\ provisions\\ and\\ events\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ theme\\ exists\\ throughout\\ the\\ book\\.\\ From\\ Salimata\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ritual\\ fertility\\ dances\\ and\\ incantations\\ to\\ the\\ Togobala\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dual\\ religious\\ authority\\ in\\ Jamburu\\ and\\ Bala\\.\\ Malinke\\ all\\ over\\ this\\ book\\ declare\\ their\\ public\\ allegiance\\ to\\ God\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ get\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ personal\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ fetish\\.\\ They\\ must\\ keep\\ it\\ because\\ they\\ fear\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\ if\\ they\\ lose\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ reflects\\ broader\\ theme\\ that\\ we\\ studied\\ about\\ how\\ Islam\\ integrates\\ into\\ the\\ societies\\ it\\ penetrates\\.\\ Every\\ people\\ group\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ incorporate\\ the\\ religion\\ into\\ their\\ culture\\ differently\\.\\ The\\ difficulty\\ for\\ many\\ civilizations\\ is\\ figuring\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ bring\\ in\\ Islam\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ already\\ an\\ existing\\ religion\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\.\\ While\\ they\\ know\\ it\\ is\\ wrong\\,\\ many\\ times\\ Fama\\ repents\\ for\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ fetish\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ need\\ for\\ it\\.\\ Different\\ societies\\ adopt\\ the\\ religion\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ there\\ is\\ often\\ a\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ old\\ ways\\ and\\ Islam\\,\\ these\\ people\\ must\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ within\\ themselves\\ to\\ appease\\ this\\ tension\\.\\ For\\ the\\ Malinke\\,\\ they\\ turn\\ to\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ ways\\ of\\ Islam\\ for\\ public\\ worship\\ and\\ praise\\.\\ They\\ turn\\ to\\ Him\\ for\\ salvation\\ and\\ life\\.\\ However\\,\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ daily\\ struggles\\ and\\ fears\\,\\ they\\ turn\\ to\\ the\\ fetish\\,\\ not\\ wanting\\ to\\ ignore\\ it\\ lest\\ it\\ should\\ bring\\ about\\ curses\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\From\\ the\\ Suns\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ prayer\\ as\\ two\\ halves\\ of\\ the\\ kola\\-nut\\ is\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ symbiotic\\ and\\ coexistent\\ relationship\\ of\\ Islam\\ and\\ the\\ Indigenous\\ mystical\\ practices\\,\\ they\\ are\\ like\\ two\\ halves\\ of\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ The\\ two\\ kinds\\ of\\ prayer\\ compliment\\ each\\ other\\ nicely\\,\\ the\\ Islamic\\ prayers\\ focus\\ on\\ salvation\\ and\\ larger\\ issues\\.\\ They\\ are\\ spoken\\ in\\ Arabic\\,\\ an\\ unfamiliar\\ tongue\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ solve\\ day\\-to\\-day\\ problems\\.\\ The\\ Malinke\\ prayers\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ prayers\\ for\\ solutions\\ to\\ everyday\\ problems\\ dealing\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;material\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ They\\ are\\ mystical\\ and\\ often\\ involve\\ sacrifices\\ which\\ produce\\ immediate\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ omens\\.\\ Salimata\\&rsquo\\;s\\ infertility\\ is\\ especially\\ frustrating\\ for\\ her\\ as\\ she\\ sees\\ herself\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ muslim\\ woman\\ and\\ she\\ also\\ makes\\ sacrifices\\ in\\ the\\ fetish\\ worship\\.\\ Salimata\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ two\\ faiths\\ can\\ coexist\\,\\ she\\ believes\\ herself\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ model\\ muslim\\ women\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ see\\ any\\ contradiction\\ in\\ her\\ fetish\\ worship\\ as\\ well\\.\\ She\\ lives\\ in\\ a\\ superstitious\\ culture\\ and\\ thus\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ hybrid\\ or\\ fusion\\ or\\ Islam\\ with\\ the\\ traditional\\ fetish\\ worship\\,\\ in\\ such\\ as\\ already\\ defined\\ culture\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ issue\\ of\\ orthopraxy\\ v\\.\\ orthodoxy\\ \\&ndash\\;is\\ there\\ really\\ this\\ distinction\\ does\\ Islam\\ really\\ fulfill\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ a\\ the\\ culture\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ a\\ formal\\ practice\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ relate\\ to\\ African\\ post\\-colonial\\ life\\?\\ \\(Fama\\ is\\ the\\ male\\ character\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Source\\:\\ Hanif\\ Kureishi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ Son\\ the\\ Fanatic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ Punjabi\\ immigrant\\ family\\ lives\\ in\\ England\\.\\ The\\ interaction\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ is\\ mainly\\ between\\ the\\ father\\ and\\ the\\ son\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Father\\:\\ Parvez\\ is\\ a\\ taxi\\ driver\\ who\\ has\\ adapted\\ to\\ Western\\ ways\\:\\ eats\\ crispy\\ bacon\\,\\ is\\ clean\\-shaven\\,\\ holds\\ to\\ existentialist\\/hedonistic\\ values\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ his\\ view\\ this\\ life\\ was\\ all\\ there\\ was\\ and\\ when\\ you\\ died\\ you\\ rotted\\ in\\ the\\ earth\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(240\\)\\ and\\ making\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ it\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;enjoying\\ himself\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ Parvez\\ associates\\ with\\ a\\ prostitute\\ \\(Bettina\\)\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ very\\ much\\ attached\\ to\\ his\\ family\\ or\\ his\\ Punjabi\\ roots\\;\\ though\\ he\\ worries\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ his\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ali\\:\\ son\\;\\ lived\\ the\\ quintessential\\ English\\ life\\;\\ played\\ cricket\\,\\ dated\\ an\\ English\\ girl\\,\\ but\\ recently\\ began\\ acting\\ strangely\\.\\ His\\ father\\ suspected\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ doing\\ drugs\\ but\\ finally\\ discovered\\ that\\ Ali\\ was\\ becoming\\ increasingly\\ grounded\\ in\\ fundamentalist\\ Islam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conflict\\:\\ Ali\\ accuses\\ his\\ father\\ of\\ being\\ \\&lsquo\\;implicated\\ in\\ Western\\ civilization\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\ he\\ condemns\\ his\\ association\\ with\\ Bettina\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ wear\\ a\\ beard\\ \\(as\\ \\&lsquo\\;dictated\\&rsquo\\;\\ by\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religion\\)\\;\\ drinks\\ alcohol\\,\\ eats\\ pork\\ etc\\.\\ His\\ father\\ cannot\\ stand\\ being\\ condemned\\ and\\ chastised\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ son\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ is\\ frustrated\\ by\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ narrow\\ mindedness\\.\\ In\\ this\\ scene\\ Ali\\ has\\ just\\ explained\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ that\\ he\\ \\(Parvez\\)\\ had\\ in\\ fact\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ lived\\ a\\ good\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ had\\ broken\\ countless\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ Koran\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Things\\ to\\ note\\ about\\ the\\ passage\\ itself\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conflict\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;western\\ materialism\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;islamic\\ radicalism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ extreme\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stereotypes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ operating\\ here\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&lsquo\\;depraved\\ western\\ materialist\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ West\\ was\\ a\\ sink\\ of\\ hypocrites\\,\\ adulterers\\,\\ homosexuals\\,\\ drug\\-takers\\ and\\ prostitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamentalist\\,\\ intolerant\\,\\ antagonistic\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;jihadist\\&rsquo\\;\\ Islam\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Law\\ of\\ Islam\\ would\\ rule\\ the\\ world\\:\\ the\\ skin\\ of\\ the\\ infidel\\ would\\ burn\\ off\\ again\\ and\\ again\\;\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christers\\ would\\ be\\ routed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ stereotypes\\;\\ neither\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ Islam\\ or\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ West\\,\\ but\\ are\\ stereotypes\\ that\\ are\\ often\\ used\\ in\\ association\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ is\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;things\\&rsquo\\;\\ his\\ father\\ is\\ doing\\ wrong\\.\\ He\\ accuses\\ his\\ father\\ of\\ breaking\\ countless\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ Koran\\,\\ yet\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ points\\ to\\ when\\ condemning\\ his\\ father\\ are\\ ideological\\,\\ traditional\\ conventions\\/constructions\\/corruptions\\:\\ not\\ praying\\,\\ not\\ growing\\ a\\ beard\\,\\ eating\\ bacon\\,\\ befriending\\ a\\ prostitute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ traditions\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;rules\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Islam\\ he\\ follows\\;\\ he\\ goes\\ through\\ all\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;good\\&rsquo\\;\\ muslim\\:\\ praying\\,\\ abstaining\\,\\ being\\ charitable\\;\\ but\\ his\\ other\\ actions\\:\\ his\\ aggression\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;pitiless\\-ness\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ sarcasm\\,\\ condemnation\\ towards\\ his\\ father\\ and\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\ Bettina\\ are\\ a\\ stark\\ contrast\\ from\\ the\\ love\\ and\\ peace\\ that\\ the\\ Islamic\\ religion\\ espouses\\ in\\ the\\ Koran\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ antagonizes\\ \\&lsquo\\;western\\ things\\&rsquo\\;\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ constructive\\ ways\\;\\ his\\ response\\ is\\ reactionary\\ and\\ drives\\ his\\ father\\ to\\ violence\\.\\ While\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ true\\ that\\ his\\ father\\ abandoned\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;sold\\-out\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;fit\\-in\\&rsquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ England\\,\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stoic\\ rejection\\ of\\ all\\ things\\ \\&ldquo\\;western\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ extreme\\,\\ reactionary\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ argued\\ to\\ be\\ irrational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Islam\\ is\\ institution\\,\\ not\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\ lives\\ an\\ Islam\\ that\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ ideology\\;\\ his\\ adherence\\ to\\ his\\ Islam\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\his\\ extreme\\ rejection\\ of\\ the\\ west\\;\\ while\\ he\\ practices\\ charity\\ and\\ mentions\\ \\ \\;\\&lsquo\\;purity\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;jihad\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;Koran\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ his\\ Islam\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ an\\ Islam\\ that\\ has\\ an\\ agenda\\ and\\ that\\ uses\\ the\\ faith\\ to\\ fuel\\ the\\ ideology\\/agenda\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;My\\ people\\ have\\ taken\\ enough\\.\\ If\\ the\\ persecution\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ jihad\\.\\ I\\ and\\ millions\\ of\\ others\\ will\\ faldly\\ give\\ our\\ lives\\ from\\ the\\ cause\\&hellip\\;\\.for\\ us\\ the\\ reward\\ will\\ be\\ paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Islam\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ Islamist\\ \\(political\\)\\ movements\\ that\\ have\\ arisen\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ colonialism\\,\\ globalization\\,\\ westernization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ culture\\ has\\ evolved\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ to\\ hold\\ onto\\ Islamic\\ identity\\ and\\ tradition\\,\\ but\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ has\\ become\\ perverted\\ into\\ regimes\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ violence\\ that\\ take\\ extremist\\ measures\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ globalization\\,\\ westernization\\ that\\ it\\ sees\\ threatening\\ to\\ its\\ \\&lsquo\\;faith\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ Islam\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ strict\\ laws\\ and\\ rituals\\ and\\ has\\ sometimes\\ strayed\\ from\\ the\\ doctrine\\ that\\ Islam\\ is\\ founded\\ upon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orthopraxis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contrast\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Islam\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ presented\\ in\\ class\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islam\\ that\\ means\\ \\&lsquo\\;submission\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islam\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;peace\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religion\\ of\\ Islam\\ that\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ having\\ faith\\ and\\ having\\ meaning\\:\\ a\\ faith\\ that\\ is\\ beyond\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Quran\\:\\ scripture\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ never\\ defines\\ Islam\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ orthopraxis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ quran\\ of\\ a\\ muslim\\ is\\ general\\ and\\ inclusive\\:\\ one\\ who\\ submits\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Though\\ Islam\\ should\\ reject\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;depravity\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ Ali\\ names\\ as\\ integral\\ in\\ Western\\ culture\\;\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ contradict\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ views\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;finding\\ beauty\\ and\\ enjoying\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;a\\ statement\\ that\\ Ali\\ scorns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;Complaint\\ and\\ Answer\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Allama\\ Iqbal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ famous\\ Urdu\\ poem\\ published\\ in\\ 1912\\,\\ \\both\\ expresses\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aspirations\\ for\\ an\\ Islamic\\ state\\ and\\ laments\\ the\\ \\current\\ state\\ of\\ Islamic\\ practice\\ in\\ India\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ passage\\,\\ Iqbal\\ iterates\\ \\his\\ scorn\\ for\\ contemporary\\ Indian\\ culture\\ through\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Christian\\ is\\ your\\ mode\\ of\\ living\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ targets\\ the\\ Muslim\\ elites\\,\\ while\\ in\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;your\\ culture\\ is\\ Hindoo\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ common\\ worship\\ of\\ Muhammed\\ and\\ \\Ali\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ idolatry\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ comparing\\ the\\ Muslims\\ to\\ the\\ Jews\\,\\ Iqbal\\ \\points\\ to\\ a\\ religion\\ that\\ has\\ survived\\ the\\ diaspora\\ and\\ has\\ maintained\\ its\\ \\religion\\ in\\ various\\ countries\\ \\(note\\:\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ not\\ as\\ sure\\ about\\ this\\ last\\ \\interpretation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Complaint\\ section\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ questions\\ the\\ potency\\ of\\ Allah\\,\\ given\\ the\\ \\recent\\ colonization\\ by\\ the\\ British\\,\\ who\\ are\\ Christian\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;sluggardly\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Iqbal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Answer\\,\\ then\\,\\ defends\\ God\\ by\\ indicting\\ the\\ Indian\\ Muslims\\ for\\ not\\ practicing\\ \\their\\ religion\\ mindfully\\ enough\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Iqbal\\ employs\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ tactics\\ \\of\\ the\\ Islamic\\ Fundamentalist\\ movement\\:\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Golden\\ Age\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ \\indefinite\\ past\\ where\\ the\\ Muslim\\ race\\ was\\ strong\\ politically\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ \\good\\ Muslims\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\ \\;Source\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Saint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lamp\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Yayha\\ Haqqi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quote\\ interpretation\\:\\ Ismail\\,\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ educated\\ in\\ England\\ as\\ a\\ doctor\\ of\\ western\\ medicine\\,\\ returns\\ to\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ at\\ first\\ rejects\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ and\\ Islamic\\ traditions\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ Western\\ logic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ quote\\,\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ traditional\\ village\\ cure\\ for\\ poor\\ eyesight\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ having\\ Sheikh\\ Dardiri\\ apply\\ oil\\ from\\ the\\ Saint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lamp\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lamp\\ of\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ treat\\ bad\\ eyes\\)\\ would\\ actually\\ hurt\\ Fatima\\,\\ not\\ help\\ her\\ bad\\ eyes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ismail\\ is\\ claiming\\ that\\ only\\ western\\ medicine\\,\\ and\\ not\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ traditional\\ treatment\\ or\\ blessings\\,\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ cure\\ for\\ poor\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Umm\\ Hashim\\=granddaughter\\ of\\ Muhammad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ village\\ often\\ invoke\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\ for\\ blessings\\ and\\ pray\\ to\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\His\\ mother\\,\\ instead\\,\\ claims\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ rely\\ upon\\ God\\ and\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\,\\ not\\ Western\\ medicine\\,\\ to\\ cure\\ Fatima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\:\\ only\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ miracles\\ can\\ save\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Related\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ how\\ being\\ a\\ Muslim\\ requires\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\submitting\\ to\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ His\\ mom\\ maintains\\ the\\ traditional\\ belief\\ that\\ western\\ medicine\\ will\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ effect\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ that\\ matters\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ asking\\ for\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blessings\\ by\\ using\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;Later\\ in\\ the\\ story\\,\\ Ismail\\&rsquo\\;s\\ western\\ medicine\\ ends\\ up\\ not\\ doing\\ anything\\ good\\ for\\ Fatima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;Ismail\\ has\\ a\\ conversionary\\ experience\\ where\\ he\\ sees\\ the\\ lamp\\ and\\ realizes\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ science\\ without\\ faith\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ returns\\ and\\ uses\\ the\\ traditional\\ oil\\ to\\ cure\\ Fatima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ and\\ then\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ clinic\\ where\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;only\\ held\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ and\\ basis\\ of\\ his\\ science\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ And\\ relied\\ first\\ upon\\ God\\,\\ and\\ secondly\\ on\\ his\\ learning\\ and\\ the\\ skill\\ of\\ his\\ hands\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Big\\ themes\\ this\\ quote\\ is\\ related\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Islam\\ as\\ submission\\:\\ Ismail\\ discovers\\ that\\ Western\\ medicine\\ can\\ only\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;fortified\\ by\\ faith\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;definition\\ of\\ Islam\\ as\\ submission\\ and\\ as\\ maintaining\\ faith\\ that\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ and\\ that\\ things\\ will\\ turn\\ out\\ ok\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ if\\ you\\ just\\ have\\ faith\\ in\\ and\\ submission\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conflict\\ between\\ modernity\\ and\\ tradition\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ story\\ illustrates\\ how\\ you\\ can\\ integrate\\ modernity\\ with\\ Islamic\\ beliefs\\,\\ but\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ story\\,\\ the\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ Islamic\\ beliefs\\ must\\ always\\ be\\ primary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fits\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ 4\\/16\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;Muslim\\ responses\\ to\\ European\\ colonialism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colonialism\\ basically\\ turned\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ upside\\-down\\:\\ brought\\ new\\ rulers\\,\\ secular\\ philosophies\\,\\ western\\-style\\ education\\,\\ new\\ scientific\\ theories\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ideal\\ of\\ popular\\ sovereignty\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ had\\ different\\ responses\\ to\\ this\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ story\\ shows\\ how\\ Ismail\\ originally\\ turned\\ completely\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ rejected\\ Islam\\,\\ but\\ then\\ turned\\ back\\ to\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ reformers\\ start\\ \\&ldquo\\;back\\ to\\ fundamentals\\&rdquo\\;\\ reform\\ movements\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ reinterpret\\ the\\ faith\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ challenged\\ the\\ Ulama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\E\\.g\\.\\ Muhammad\\ Abdah\\ in\\ Egypt\\ responded\\ to\\ the\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ West\\ by\\ founding\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Islamic\\ modernist\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\ and\\ promoting\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;supremacy\\ of\\ rationality\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ this\\ story\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ supremacy\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ essay\\ on\\ the\\ Saint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lamp\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ From\\ the\\ Saint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lamp\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ represents\\ Ismail\\&rsquo\\;s\\ struggle\\ between\\ his\\ enslavement\\ in\\ Egypt\\ and\\ Europe\\.\\ It\\ presents\\ a\\ stereotypical\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ East\\ v\\.\\ West\\ dilemma\\ which\\ represents\\ the\\ trade\\ off\\ between\\ faith\\ and\\ science\\ respectively\\.\\ The\\ passage\\ is\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ after\\ Ismail\\ has\\ returned\\ to\\ Egypt\\ from\\ England\\ with\\ his\\ Western\\ medical\\ education\\.\\ He\\ and\\ his\\ mother\\ disagree\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ cure\\ his\\ fianc\\é\\;\\,\\ Fatima\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ eye\\ infection\\.\\ Ismail\\ believes\\ that\\ he\\ with\\ the\\ help\\ western\\ medicine\\ will\\ cure\\ Fatima\\ where\\ as\\ his\\ mother\\ hopes\\ to\\ treat\\ Fatima\\ with\\ oil\\ from\\ the\\ Mosque\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lamp\\ and\\ blessings\\ from\\ Umm\\ Hashim\\ the\\ Imam\\;\\ a\\ cure\\ which\\ has\\ healed\\ eye\\ infections\\ before\\.\\ Ismail\\ fails\\ in\\ curing\\ Fatima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ infection\\ and\\ she\\ becomes\\ blind\\.\\ He\\ has\\ no\\ faith\\ in\\ or\\ love\\ of\\ his\\ culture\\ and\\ is\\ only\\ disgusted\\ by\\ its\\ backwardness\\.\\ Ismail\\ comes\\ to\\ a\\ realization\\ during\\ Laylat\\ ul\\-Qadr\\,\\ a\\ night\\ of\\ Ramadan\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Quran\\ was\\ first\\ revealed\\ to\\ Muhammad\\,\\ and\\ redevelops\\ a\\ love\\ for\\ his\\ neighborhood\\ and\\ faith\\ in\\ God\\.\\ The\\ rediscovering\\ of\\ his\\ faith\\ parallels\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ revelation\\,\\ as\\ Muhammad\\ too\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ cave\\ and\\ brought\\ into\\ the\\ light\\ by\\ Islam\\.\\ Ismail\\ understands\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ possibility\\ of\\ uniting\\ faith\\ and\\ science\\,\\ and\\ sees\\ the\\ positive\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Egypt\\.\\ As\\ soon\\ as\\ Ismail\\ regains\\ his\\ faith\\,\\ Fatima\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ see\\ again\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ III\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ personality\\ of\\ Muhammad\\ is\\ essentially\\ irrelevant\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Accurate\\ or\\ Inaccurate\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ONE\\ PERSON\\&rsquo\\;S\\ ESSAY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shahaddah\\ \\(part\\ of\\ 5\\ pillar\\ definition\\ of\\ Islam\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;doctrine\\-\\ monotheism\\;\\ inclusive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ Muhammad\\ is\\ his\\ prophet\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ EXCLUSIVE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ distinguishes\\ Islam\\ from\\ other\\ monotheist\\ religions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ \\=\\ messenger\\,\\ bearer\\ of\\ the\\ Book\\,\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;shafa\\&rsquo\\;ah\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ intercessor\\ b\\/t\\ humans\\ and\\ Allah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Qu\\&\\#39\\;ran\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Kalaam\\ Allah\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ speech\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Revealed\\ through\\ Muhammad\\,\\ recited\\ over\\ 20\\ year\\ period\\,\\ but\\ is\\ actual\\ word\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recitation\\ important\\,\\ Qu\\&\\#39\\;ran\\ as\\ oral\\ and\\ aural\\ scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personal\\ experience\\ of\\ listening\\ crucial\\ to\\ development\\ of\\ Islam\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ illiterate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Could\\ M\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personality\\ and\\ style\\ of\\ recitation\\ influenced\\ early\\ Islam\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prophecy\\ and\\ prophet\\ key\\ to\\ Muslim\\ social\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Connection\\ with\\ the\\ prophet\\ important\\ \\(easier\\ to\\ identify\\ with\\ b\\/c\\ human\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\love\\ and\\ devotion\\ to\\ prophet\\ guarantees\\ he\\ will\\ intercede\\ on\\ your\\ behalf\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ often\\ included\\ in\\ prayers\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ love\\ of\\ Allah\\ be\\ with\\ the\\ prophet\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Uswatun\\ Hasana\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ beautiful\\ role\\ model\\,\\ paradigm\\ of\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\figure\\ internalized\\ in\\ psyche\\ of\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accredited\\ with\\ miracles\\,\\ things\\ ordinary\\ humans\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\,\\ even\\ though\\ Qu\\&\\#39\\;ran\\ affirms\\ and\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ ordinary\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mystic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\personal\\ private\\ relationship\\ with\\ God\\;\\ spiritual\\,\\ not\\ physical\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Mi\\&rsquo\\;raj\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ celestial\\ ascent\\;\\ journeys\\ from\\ Mecca\\ to\\ Jerusalem\\,\\ meets\\ other\\ prophets\\ as\\ he\\ ascends\\ into\\ highest\\ of\\ heavens\\,\\ then\\ returns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\perhaps\\ allegory\\ for\\ his\\ spiritual\\ journey\\?\\ Only\\ one\\ small\\ reference\\ in\\ the\\ Qu\\&\\#39\\;ran\\ \\(Sura\\ 17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Idea\\ that\\ if\\ M\\.\\ can\\ experience\\ it\\,\\ so\\ can\\ ordinary\\ humans\\;\\ ultimate\\ religious\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OR\\ only\\ distinction\\ with\\ prophet\\ is\\ his\\ bearer\\ of\\ revelation\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sunnah\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\legal\\ and\\ personal\\ norms\\-\\ M\\.\\ as\\ law\\-giver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\ do\\ you\\ follow\\ everything\\ he\\ did\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ principle\\ of\\ interpreting\\ Qu\\&\\#39\\;ran\\ and\\ lifestyle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;hadith\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ sayings\\ or\\ accounts\\ of\\ prophet\\ that\\ relate\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\put\\ together\\ in\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ based\\ on\\ classifications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\six\\ canonical\\ hadith\\ collections\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;authentic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;isnad\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ chains\\ of\\ transmission\\;\\ way\\ to\\ tell\\ if\\ things\\ came\\ from\\ Prophet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fear\\ of\\ idolatry\\-\\ Islam\\ against\\ image\\ worship\\;\\ concerns\\ of\\ giving\\ a\\ face\\ to\\ the\\ Prophet\\ in\\ different\\ art\\ and\\ literature\\;\\ often\\ depicted\\ in\\ calligraphy\\ instead\\ of\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\somewhat\\ erotic\\ symbolism\\ in\\ literature\\,\\ Bride\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Saudi\\ Arabia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ celebrate\\ prophets\\ birthday\\,\\ destroyed\\ tombs\\ of\\ M\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wives\\ and\\ daughter\\ b\\/c\\ fear\\ of\\ worship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\comparison\\ to\\ attitude\\ towards\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\ or\\ Saints\\ in\\ Catholicism\\ \\(intense\\ veneration\\)\\ vs\\.\\ Protestant\\ denominations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\songs\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ popular\\ with\\ women\\ than\\ with\\ men\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ISLAMIC\\ JURISPRUDENCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hadith\\ \\(sayings\\ of\\ prophet\\)\\ and\\ sunnah\\ \\(customs\\ of\\ prophet\\)\\ important\\ tools\\ for\\ determining\\ Islamic\\ legal\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ hadith\\ not\\ completely\\ infallible\\,\\ despite\\ isnad\\ \\(chain\\ of\\ interpretation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ pre\\-Islamic\\ Arabia\\,\\ tradition\\ valued\\ very\\ highly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SUNNI\\/SHI\\&rsquo\\;I\\ ISLAM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prophet\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ specify\\ a\\ leader\\ after\\ his\\ death\\,\\ distinction\\ b\\/t\\ caliphate\\ and\\ Imam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Division\\ over\\ issue\\ of\\ secession\\,\\ results\\ in\\ schism\\ and\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sunni\\-\\ separates\\ political\\ and\\ individual\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shii\\-\\ authority\\ from\\ God\\,\\ consensus\\ not\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ guidance\\,\\ PROPHET\\ AS\\ MODEL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ celebrate\\ day\\ of\\ Ghadir\\ Khum\\,\\ when\\ Prophet\\ declared\\ Ali\\ to\\ be\\ his\\ successor\\ supposedly\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ days\\ celebrating\\ saints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\POPULAR\\/FOLK\\ PRACTICES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poetry\\,\\ song\\,\\ literature\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ Prophet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Turkey\\-\\ Mevlud\\ song\\ celebrating\\ M\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birth\\ at\\ many\\ celebrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Prophet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ home\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ Muslim\\/His\\ very\\ name\\ is\\ our\\ glory\\&rdquo\\;\\ Iqbal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\love\\ and\\ devotion\\ as\\ cornerstones\\ of\\ Islamic\\ practice\\ and\\ uniqueness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\circumcision\\-\\ many\\ theologians\\ consider\\ prayer\\ performed\\ by\\ an\\ uncircumscised\\ man\\ invalid\\,\\ Prophet\\ born\\ circumscied\\,\\ circumscision\\ as\\ distinguishing\\ Muslim\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\perofmre\\ don\\ boys\\ b\\/t\\ 4\\-10\\,\\ day\\ of\\ undergoing\\ membership\\ in\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Female\\ circumscision\\ on\\ barely\\ known\\ hadith\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ souther\\ Egypt\\,\\ parts\\ of\\ India\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sacred\\ days\\/night\\ and\\ celebrations\\ based\\ in\\ TRADITION\\ not\\ QU\\&\\#39\\;RAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prophet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birthday\\-\\ Rabi\\ al\\-awwal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\often\\ public\\ holiday\\,\\ whole\\ month\\ devoted\\ to\\ recitations\\ of\\ religious\\ texts\\ and\\ sermons\\ on\\ TV\\ and\\ radio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\focus\\ on\\ his\\ role\\ as\\ true\\ model\\ of\\ ethical\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Prophet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ as\\ mourning\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Night\\ of\\ Hajj\\ celebrated\\ \\(ascent\\ into\\ heaven\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PERSONAL\\ PIETY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhamad\\ as\\ model\\ and\\ example\\,\\ way\\ to\\ interpret\\ and\\ figure\\ out\\ Qu\\&\\#39\\;ran\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Follow\\ the\\ prophet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exact\\ detail\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ position\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hands\\,\\ right\\ way\\ to\\ wind\\ a\\ turban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\COMMONALITY\\ AMONGS\\ MUSLIMS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Muhammad\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ things\\ common\\ to\\ all\\ m\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ANOTHER\\ PERSON\\&rsquo\\;S\\ ESSAY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ statement\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&lsquo\\;and\\ Muhammad\\ is\\ the\\ messenger\\ of\\ G\\-d\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ to\\ commit\\ oneself\\ to\\ a\\ belief\\,\\ not\\ about\\ the\\ person\\ of\\ Muhammad\\,\\ but\\ about\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ brought\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ personality\\ of\\ Muhammad\\ is\\ essentially\\ irrelevant\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ inaccurate\\ generalization\\ in\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ Muhammad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ important\\ prayer\\ in\\ Islam\\ is\\ the\\ Shahadah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;part\\ to\\ this\\ prayer\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Muhammad\\ is\\ G\\-d\\&rsquo\\;s\\ messenger\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ distinguishes\\ Islam\\ from\\ other\\ monotheistic\\ religions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muhammad\\,\\ as\\ the\\ final\\ Prophet\\ of\\ G\\-d\\ and\\ the\\ bearer\\ of\\ G\\-d\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Quran\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ plays\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ defining\\ Islam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ Muhammad\\ acted\\ as\\ the\\ vessel\\ of\\ G\\-d\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scripture\\ to\\ Muslims\\,\\ his\\ life\\ becomes\\ an\\ example\\ to\\ be\\ followed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ role\\ model\\,\\ he\\ comes\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ total\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ lessons\\ and\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\ and\\ the\\ true\\ representative\\ of\\ G\\-d\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ all\\ Muslims\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ this\\ elevated\\ role\\,\\ Muhummad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personality\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ message\\ he\\ brings\\,\\ plays\\ an\\ integral\\ role\\ in\\ Islamic\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sunnah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Islam\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ all\\ prophets\\ as\\ bearers\\ of\\ G\\-d\\&rsquo\\;s\\ message\\,\\ must\\ be\\ sinless\\ and\\ errorless\\ people\\ who\\ follow\\ G\\-d\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ the\\ Sunnah\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\,\\ his\\ customs\\ and\\ habits\\,\\ become\\ a\\ lens\\ through\\ which\\ one\\ learns\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\ in\\ a\\ practical\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ implication\\ is\\ that\\ Muhammad\\ through\\ his\\ personality\\ and\\ lifestyle\\ reflect\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ many\\ areas\\ that\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\&rsquo\\;s\\ text\\ does\\ not\\ explicitly\\ examine\\,\\ Muslim\\ scholars\\ look\\ to\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sunnah\\ to\\ give\\ clarification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ in\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ emulate\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ every\\ action\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ literal\\ sense\\ and\\ even\\ choose\\ to\\ chew\\ the\\ particular\\ leaf\\ Muhammad\\ used\\ to\\ chew\\ to\\ clean\\ his\\ teeth\\ because\\ they\\ believe\\ such\\ a\\ minor\\ and\\ specific\\ action\\ reflects\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Others\\ use\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\ as\\ a\\ more\\ figurative\\ role\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ Muhammad\\ lived\\ in\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Arabia\\ and\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ copying\\ his\\ every\\ habit\\,\\ but\\ they\\ do\\ believe\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ principles\\ he\\ stood\\ for\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sunnah\\ has\\ been\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ primary\\ source\\ in\\ establishing\\ legal\\,\\ personal\\,\\ and\\ pietistic\\ norms\\ for\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ entire\\ Muslim\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Certain\\ allusions\\ and\\ quotes\\ from\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\ that\\ were\\ only\\ vaguely\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\,\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ Muhammad\\ had\\ shown\\ by\\ his\\ words\\ and\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ his\\ personal\\ actions\\ in\\ themselves\\ became\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ interpreting\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Over\\ the\\ years\\,\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ and\\ actions\\ were\\ gathered\\ as\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ hadith\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;saying\\ or\\ tale\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ the\\ hadith\\ have\\ such\\ important\\ value\\,\\ an\\ entire\\ academic\\ science\\ developed\\ in\\ which\\ scholars\\ tried\\ to\\ investigate\\ and\\ determine\\ which\\ hadith\\ were\\ authentic\\ and\\ which\\ were\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ shows\\ the\\ great\\ importance\\ that\\ was\\ placed\\ on\\ following\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\ and\\ how\\ important\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ Sunnah\\ be\\ truthful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muhammad\\ and\\ Mysticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mystics\\ use\\ Muhammad\\ as\\ a\\ personal\\ role\\ model\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ human\\ beings\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ direct\\,\\ personal\\ relationship\\ with\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ use\\ Muhammad\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ in\\ Islam\\,\\ followers\\ can\\ meet\\ with\\ G\\-d\\ in\\ the\\ spiritual\\ sense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Mi\\&rsquo\\;raj\\ is\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ celestial\\ ascent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Prophet\\ was\\ asleep\\ and\\ the\\ angel\\ Gabriel\\ takes\\ him\\ to\\ Jerusalem\\,\\ the\\ dome\\ of\\ the\\ rock\\,\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ ascends\\ to\\ the\\ highest\\ heavens\\ where\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ face\\ to\\ face\\ meeting\\ with\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mystics\\ interpret\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ allegory\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ when\\ a\\ person\\ gives\\ up\\ his\\ ego\\ and\\ becomes\\ G\\-d\\ centered\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possibly\\ to\\ spiritually\\ meet\\ with\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hagiography\\-\\ biography\\ of\\ saints\\ or\\ venerated\\ persons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muhammad\\ plays\\ an\\ incredibly\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ Muslim\\ identity\\ because\\ while\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ other\\ Prophets\\ for\\ other\\ religions\\,\\ Muhammad\\ is\\ distinctively\\ theirs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Under\\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ Shafa\\&rsquo\\;ah\\,\\ Muslims\\ believe\\ that\\ prophets\\ can\\ intercede\\ for\\ their\\ communities\\ before\\ G\\-d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ this\\ idea\\ of\\ intercession\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ extracted\\ from\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\ through\\ exegesis\\ and\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ Mi\\&rsquo\\;raj\\ in\\ which\\ Muhammad\\ negotiates\\ with\\ G\\-d\\ over\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ Muslims\\ should\\ pray\\,\\ becomes\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ for\\ Muhammad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ of\\ his\\ role\\ as\\ intercessor\\,\\ Muslims\\ come\\ to\\ see\\ Muhammad\\ with\\ love\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ protector\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ popular\\ practice\\,\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ perception\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ show\\ love\\ for\\ the\\ Prophet\\,\\ he\\ will\\ intercede\\ for\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leads\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ using\\ song\\,\\ art\\,\\ poetry\\,\\ and\\ dance\\ to\\ show\\ devotion\\ to\\ the\\ Prophet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virahini\\ stories\\ and\\ imagery\\ show\\ their\\ intense\\ love\\ for\\ Muhammad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Salawat\\-\\ prayer\\ for\\ the\\ prophet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Celebration\\ of\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birthday\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ has\\ become\\ so\\ internalized\\ that\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ Prophet\\ has\\ become\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ Muslim\\ psyche\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ Muslim\\ scholars\\ even\\ concede\\ that\\ Muslims\\ \\&ldquo\\;will\\ allow\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ Allah\\ but\\ not\\ on\\ Muhammad\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Satanic\\ Verses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ published\\ which\\ said\\ that\\ Muhammad\\ had\\ been\\ possessed\\ by\\ the\\ devil\\,\\ Muslims\\ were\\ so\\ personally\\ hurt\\ that\\ they\\ publicly\\ expressed\\ outrage\\ and\\ sadness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muhammad\\ and\\ the\\ Modern\\ Nation\\-state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ modern\\ times\\,\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\ has\\ extended\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\-state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ deciding\\ how\\ to\\ design\\ their\\ own\\ countries\\,\\ many\\ Muslim\\ nations\\ have\\ looked\\ to\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ city\\-state\\ in\\ Medina\\ as\\ a\\ model\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ look\\ at\\ its\\ organization\\,\\ its\\ characteristics\\,\\ its\\ laws\\,\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ treats\\ its\\ minorities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ from\\ that\\ time\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ actions\\ echo\\ into\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ far\\-reaching\\ spheres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ It\\ is\\ incorrect\\ to\\ generalize\\ that\\ the\\ personality\\ of\\ Muhammad\\ is\\ essentially\\ irrelevant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ actions\\ and\\ personality\\ play\\ an\\ incredibly\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ Islamic\\ tradition\\ and\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ interpret\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\ and\\ are\\ followed\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ living\\ the\\ ideal\\ Muslim\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ looked\\ to\\ as\\ intercessor\\ and\\ protector\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ tension\\ though\\ between\\ official\\ doctrine\\ regarding\\ Muhammad\\ and\\ popular\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ theologians\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ veneration\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ goes\\ too\\ far\\ and\\ the\\ most\\ extreme\\ of\\ these\\ schools\\,\\ the\\ Wahabbis\\,\\ ban\\ the\\ any\\ form\\ of\\ veneration\\ of\\ Muhammad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Still\\,\\ while\\ there\\ are\\ debates\\ about\\ the\\ proper\\ approach\\ to\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\,\\ most\\ communities\\ of\\ interpretation\\ make\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ bearing\\ the\\ scripture\\ from\\ G\\-d\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ option\\ \\#2\\:\\ Esposito\\ Question\\-\\-\\-\\-First\\ Version\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ approaches\\ to\\ Islamic\\ reform\\:\\ the\\ wish\\ to\\ return\\ the\\ traditional\\ early\\ Islamic\\ idea\\ or\\ a\\ call\\ for\\ reconstruction\\ or\\ changes\\ in\\ Islamic\\ culture\\.\\ There\\ is\\ always\\ a\\ base\\ in\\ the\\ scripture\\,\\ the\\ Sunnah\\ and\\ the\\ Shariah\\ though\\ the\\ interpretations\\ of\\ these\\ Islamic\\ sources\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ different\\.\\ All\\ groups\\ seek\\ reform\\ but\\ the\\ degree\\,\\ direction\\,\\ Islam\\,\\ method\\ of\\ change\\ are\\ all\\ different\\ and\\ thus\\ can\\ be\\ rightly\\ defined\\ within\\ Esposito\\&rsquo\\;s\\ framework\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Secular\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\restriction\\ of\\ religion\\ to\\ private\\ affairs\\ and\\ their\\ exclusion\\ from\\ public\\ life\\.\\ to\\ mix\\ religion\\ and\\ politics\\ is\\ inappropriate\\ as\\ some\\ might\\ manipulate\\ Islam\\ for\\ political\\ rather\\ than\\ religious\\ purposes\\.\\ \\(prayer\\,\\ pilgrimage\\,\\ morality\\ and\\ fasting\\ should\\ all\\ be\\ left\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ realm\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ataturk\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ secular\\ reforms\\ in\\ Turkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conservative\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ulama\\ position\\:\\ Islam\\ expressed\\ adequately\\ and\\ fully\\ in\\ the\\ classical\\ formulation\\ of\\ Islam\\ developed\\ by\\ the\\ law\\ schools\\ in\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ijtihad\\ for\\ a\\ conservative\\ means\\ a\\ interpretation\\ or\\ application\\ of\\ traditional\\ Islamic\\ laws\\,\\ NOT\\ a\\ reinterpretation\\ that\\ is\\ open\\ to\\ change\\ in\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\see\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Quran\\ and\\ the\\ Sunnah\\,\\ as\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ Islamic\\ period\\ have\\ government\\ Muslim\\ throughout\\ time\\ and\\ thus\\ is\\ still\\ valid\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islam\\ is\\ a\\ closed\\ cultural\\ system\\,\\ fully\\ articulated\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\emphasis\\ on\\ following\\ past\\ traditions\\ \\(taqlid\\)\\&mdash\\;no\\ deviation\\ from\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islamic\\ law\\ is\\ the\\ divinely\\ revealed\\ path\\,\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ society\\ and\\ this\\ path\\,\\ society\\ must\\ be\\ conform\\ and\\ adapt\\ to\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ as\\ put\\ forth\\ in\\ the\\ Islamic\\ laws\\.\\ \\(remedy\\ for\\ diviation\\ is\\ not\\ adaptation\\ and\\ change\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ but\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ pre\\-established\\ norm\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reforms\\ manifested\\ as\\ the\\ imposition\\ of\\ Islamic\\ law\\ in\\ countries\\.\\ Ulama\\ are\\ not\\ activists\\ but\\ followers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\:\\ Iran\\ and\\ Usuman\\ dan\\ Fodio\\ in\\ Nigeria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neotraditionalists\\ \\(or\\ Neofundamentalists\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\very\\ similar\\ to\\ conservatives\\ but\\ while\\ they\\ respect\\ the\\ classical\\ formulations\\ of\\ Islamic\\ law\\,\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\claim\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ fundamental\\ sources\\ of\\ Islam\\ to\\ reinterpret\\ \\(Ijtihad\\)\\ and\\ reapply\\ them\\ to\\ contemporary\\ needs\\ and\\ conditions\\ \\(reinterpretation\\ solely\\ on\\ Islamic\\ sources\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\revitalize\\ the\\ community\\ through\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ sources\\ and\\ ridding\\ society\\ of\\ the\\ un\\-Islamic\\ laws\\ that\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ incorporated\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\have\\ in\\ fact\\ ideologies\\ Islam\\&mdash\\;interpret\\ Islam\\ as\\ an\\ alternate\\ system\\ for\\ politics\\,\\ law\\,\\ education\\ and\\ banking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\political\\ activists\\ who\\ challenge\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ establishments\\&mdash\\;but\\ many\\ different\\ human\\ interpretation\\ within\\ the\\ neotraditionalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\claims\\ Islamic\\ self\\-sufficiency\\ rather\\ than\\ compatibility\\ with\\ the\\ West\\ \\(emphasizes\\ those\\ aspects\\ of\\ Islam\\ which\\ distinguish\\ it\\ from\\ Western\\ culture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reject\\ Muslim\\ secularism\\ \\(regarded\\ as\\ agents\\ of\\ Western\\ imperialism\\)\\ and\\ Islamic\\ modernism\\ \\(well\\ intentioned\\ but\\ still\\ Westernized\\ Islam\\ and\\ thus\\ not\\ authentic\\ in\\ its\\ vision\\ and\\ voice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\select\\ science\\ and\\ technology\\ allowed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\example\\:\\ Egyptian\\ Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\ \\(Hasan\\ al\\-Banna\\,\\ Syyid\\ Qutb\\)\\ and\\ Jamaat\\-I\\-Islami\\ \\(Mawlana\\ Mawdudi\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reformist\\/\\ Neomodernist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\activists\\ that\\ too\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ early\\ Islamic\\ period\\ as\\ embodying\\ the\\ normative\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\see\\ that\\ the\\ principles\\ and\\ values\\ of\\ Islam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ immutable\\ revelation\\ and\\ the\\ historically\\ and\\ socially\\ conditioned\\ institutions\\ and\\ practices\\ can\\ be\\ changed\\ to\\ meet\\ contemporary\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ reformists\\ after\\ an\\ early\\ Islamic\\ education\\ receive\\ degrees\\ from\\ leading\\ Western\\ academic\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\have\\ learned\\ from\\ the\\ West\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ seek\\ to\\ Westernize\\ Muslim\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\do\\ not\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ but\\ seek\\ a\\ more\\ independent\\,\\ authentic\\ manner\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ changing\\ needs\\ of\\ their\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ as\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ as\\ many\\ neotraditionalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Islamization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\:\\ Islamic\\ principles\\ and\\ values\\ are\\ reapplied\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ social\\ context\\&mdash\\;seek\\ to\\ implement\\ Islam\\ into\\ both\\ public\\ and\\ private\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ conservative\\ Ulama\\ view\\ neomodernists\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ their\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\:\\ Muhammad\\ Abduh\\ \\(Egyptian\\,\\ did\\ not\\ approve\\ of\\ blind\\ acceptance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Esposito\\ is\\ very\\ careful\\ to\\ inform\\ the\\ reader\\ of\\ the\\ generality\\ and\\ vagueness\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ terms\\,\\ he\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ plurality\\ that\\ exists\\ within\\ each\\ reform\\ movement\\.\\ I\\ believe\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ diversity\\ of\\ reform\\ within\\ each\\ category\\ is\\ accounted\\ for\\,\\ Esposito\\&rsquo\\;s\\ typology\\ is\\ a\\ useful\\ tool\\ for\\ understanding\\ contemporary\\ Muslim\\ trends\\ of\\ thought\\ and\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ Option\\ \\#2\\-\\-\\-Esposito\\ Question\\-\\-\\-Second\\ Version\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ will\\ not\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ texts\\ during\\ the\\ exam\\,\\ but\\ I\\ am\\ sprinkling\\ my\\ response\\ with\\ quotations\\ from\\ the\\ suggested\\ reading\\;\\ Esposito\\ will\\ certainly\\ help\\ you\\ better\\ than\\ I\\ to\\ remember\\ how\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ this\\ essay\\ topic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ eighteenth\\ and\\ nineteenth\\ centuries\\ witnessed\\ the\\ vast\\ expansion\\ of\\ Western\\,\\ Christian\\ colonial\\ powers\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ including\\ over\\ Muslim\\ countries\\.\\ Islamic\\ countries\\ had\\ not\\ frequently\\ been\\ subject\\ to\\ conquest\\,\\ but\\ previously\\,\\ when\\ they\\ had\\,\\ their\\ conquerors\\ often\\ ended\\ up\\ converting\\ to\\ Islam\\.\\ The\\ growth\\ of\\ Christian\\ empires\\,\\ though\\,\\ and\\ ones\\ beginning\\ to\\ reap\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\,\\ presented\\ Muslims\\ living\\ under\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ dilemma\\ of\\ practicing\\ the\\ traditional\\ Islamic\\ faith\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ beset\\ by\\ foreign\\ ideas\\,\\ people\\ and\\ products\\.\\ The\\ responses\\ were\\ not\\ uniform\\.\\ As\\ John\\ Esposito\\ has\\ outlined\\ them\\,\\ however\\,\\ they\\ fall\\ into\\ four\\ broad\\ categories\\:\\ the\\ secularist\\ response\\,\\ the\\ conservative\\,\\ the\\ neotraditionalist\\ or\\ neofundamentalist\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reformist\\ or\\ neomodernist\\.\\ All\\ four\\,\\ broadly\\ construed\\,\\ continue\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ categorize\\ contemporary\\ Islamic\\ responses\\ to\\ encounters\\ with\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ any\\ religion\\ convinced\\ of\\ its\\ divine\\ mandate\\,\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ authority\\ can\\ provoke\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ questioning\\ and\\ even\\ self\\-doubt\\.\\ Centuries\\ of\\ growing\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ West\\,\\ both\\ through\\ trade\\ and\\,\\ later\\,\\ colonial\\ subjection\\,\\ brought\\ these\\ problems\\ to\\ the\\ fore\\ in\\ Islamic\\ societies\\.\\ By\\ the\\ late\\ nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ Esposito\\ explains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[c\\]olonial\\ rule\\ eclipsed\\ the\\ institutions\\ of\\ an\\ Islamic\\ state\\ and\\ society\\&mdash\\;the\\ sultan\\,\\ Islamic\\ law\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ulama\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;administration\\ of\\ education\\,\\ law\\,\\ and\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\ Muslim\\ subjugation\\ by\\ Christian\\ Europe\\ confirmed\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ Muslim\\ power\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ apparent\\ loss\\ of\\ divine\\ favor\\ and\\ guidance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Islam\\:\\ The\\ Straight\\ Path\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 126\\)\\.\\ How\\ the\\ Islamic\\ community\\ ought\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ these\\ concerns\\ occupied\\ Muslim\\ societies\\ as\\ much\\ a\\ century\\ ago\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ today\\.\\ The\\ Western\\ tradition\\ of\\ jurisprudence\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ offers\\ a\\ different\\ set\\ of\\ responses\\ to\\ basic\\ social\\ questions\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ and\\ family\\-related\\ law\\;\\ after\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ attitude\\ toward\\ things\\ like\\ divorce\\,\\ Muslims\\ under\\ colonial\\ rule\\ had\\ to\\ weigh\\ whether\\ to\\ adopt\\ Western\\ norms\\ or\\ cling\\ to\\ the\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ This\\ applied\\ to\\ other\\ fields\\,\\ as\\ well\\:\\ in\\ everything\\ from\\ technology\\,\\ to\\ economic\\ organization\\,\\ to\\ Western\\ liberal\\ concepts\\ of\\ human\\ rights\\ and\\ democracy\\,\\ Muslim\\ societies\\ faced\\,\\ and\\ face\\,\\ a\\ choice\\ among\\ conflicting\\ alternatives\\.\\ We\\ will\\ follow\\ Esposito\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lead\\ in\\ categorizing\\ the\\ historical\\ responses\\ to\\ these\\ dilemmas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Secularists\\,\\ in\\ Esposito\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;blamed\\ an\\ outmoded\\ tradition\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ Muslim\\ countries\\&rsquo\\;\\ woes\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ advocated\\ the\\ separation\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ modern\\ nation\\-states\\ modeled\\ on\\ the\\ West\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(126\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ secularist\\ understanding\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ separation\\ of\\ mosque\\ and\\ state\\ in\\ Islamic\\ countries\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ between\\ church\\ and\\ state\\ in\\ most\\ Western\\ countries\\.\\ Islam\\ would\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ the\\ rights\\,\\ as\\ a\\ religion\\,\\ to\\ exclusive\\ domination\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\,\\ or\\ preference\\ over\\ Christianity\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\ Secularism\\ dictates\\ the\\ relegation\\ of\\ religion\\ to\\ the\\ private\\ sphere\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ In\\ America\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ extend\\ to\\ a\\ restriction\\ on\\ public\\ expression\\ of\\ private\\ religious\\ beliefs\\,\\ but\\ relentless\\ secularism\\ may\\ sometimes\\ lead\\ in\\ that\\ direction\\.\\ We\\ recall\\ from\\ class\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ Kemal\\ Atat\\ü\\;rk\\ \\(president\\ of\\ Turkey\\ 1923\\&ndash\\;1938\\)\\ and\\ the\\ tight\\ restrictions\\ he\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ public\\ expression\\ of\\ Islamic\\ beliefs\\:\\ Sufi\\ shrines\\ became\\ museums\\,\\ the\\ fez\\ \\(flat\\-topped\\ conical\\ hat\\)\\ was\\ abolished\\,\\ women\\ were\\ discouraged\\ from\\ wearing\\ the\\ veil\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\hijab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ the\\ Koran\\ was\\ translated\\ into\\ Turkish\\,\\ Roman\\ script\\ was\\ adopted\\,\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ call\\ to\\ prayer\\ was\\ given\\ in\\ Turkish\\.\\ Ataturk\\ sought\\ the\\ full\\ laicization\\ of\\ the\\ state\\,\\ and\\ even\\ today\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hijab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ still\\ banned\\ in\\ public\\ places\\ such\\ as\\ state\\ schools\\.\\ Thus\\ the\\ secularists\\ implied\\ that\\ Islamic\\ countries\\ were\\ behind\\ the\\ West\\ both\\ technologically\\ and\\ politically\\.\\ To\\ catch\\ up\\ did\\ not\\ require\\ the\\ revitalization\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\ form\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ but\\ an\\ increased\\ adoption\\ of\\ Western\\ norms\\ in\\ place\\ of\\ Islamic\\ ones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ conservative\\ response\\ opposed\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ secularists\\ almost\\ to\\ the\\ letter\\.\\ They\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;including\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ulama\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ attributed\\ Muslim\\ impotence\\ to\\ divergence\\ from\\ Islam\\ and\\ deviation\\ from\\ tradition\\.\\ Many\\ advocated\\ withdrawal\\,\\ noncooperation\\,\\ or\\ rejection\\ of\\ the\\ West\\.\\ Western\\ \\(Christian\\)\\ ideas\\ and\\ values\\ were\\ as\\ dangerous\\ as\\ their\\ governments\\ and\\ armies\\,\\ for\\ they\\ threatened\\ faith\\ and\\ culture\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(126\\&ndash\\;27\\)\\.\\ The\\ conservative\\ position\\ was\\ not\\ immune\\ from\\ drastic\\ conclusions\\&mdash\\;that\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ Muslim\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ rebel\\ against\\ the\\ rulers\\ with\\ whom\\ they\\ were\\ \\(by\\ definition\\)\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ India\\,\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Shah\\ Wali\\ Allah\\,\\ Shah\\ Abdul\\ Aziz\\,\\ issued\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fatwa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;declaring\\ India\\ a\\ non\\-Islamic\\ country\\,\\ a\\ land\\ of\\ warfare\\ in\\ which\\ to\\ fight\\ or\\ to\\ flee\\ were\\ Islamically\\ appropriate\\ responses\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(127\\)\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ response\\ differs\\ from\\ what\\ Prof\\.\\ Asani\\ would\\ call\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;back\\ to\\ the\\ fundamentals\\&rdquo\\;\\ approach\\,\\ since\\ conservatives\\ embrace\\ the\\ \\(dominant\\)\\ traditional\\ interpretations\\ of\\ Islam\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ handed\\ down\\ through\\ the\\ centuries\\,\\ a\\ fact\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ ulama\\ for\\ the\\ conservatives\\.\\ The\\ traditions\\ embraced\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;classical\\&rdquo\\;\\ period\\ of\\ Islam\\&mdash\\;the\\ ninth\\ and\\ tenth\\ centuries\\ under\\ the\\ great\\ Sunni\\ ulama\\.\\ Though\\ Prof\\.\\ Asani\\ gave\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ Sokoto\\ Caliphate\\ \\(established\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ Nigerian\\ mixture\\ of\\ paganism\\&ndash\\;animism\\ with\\ Islam\\)\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;contemporary\\&rdquo\\;\\ one\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ contemporary\\ movements\\ lean\\ toward\\ the\\ neotraditionalist\\ or\\ neomodernist\\ categories\\,\\ which\\ we\\ will\\ address\\ next\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Neofundamentalist\\ and\\ neotraditionalist\\ responses\\ diverge\\ from\\ the\\ conservatives\\ in\\ wishing\\ for\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;purer\\&rdquo\\;\\ doctrines\\ of\\ the\\ Koran\\ and\\ Hadith\\ for\\ sources\\ to\\ apply\\ to\\ our\\ changed\\ contemporary\\ context\\.\\ Perhaps\\ a\\ better\\ term\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ Esposito\\ actually\\ uses\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\neorevivalist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(he\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;neofundamentalist\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;neotraditionalist\\&rdquo\\;\\ except\\ in\\ the\\ index\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ frankly\\ the\\ question\\ is\\ wrong\\ in\\ suggesting\\ he\\ makes\\ a\\ clear\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ four\\ groups\\)\\,\\ as\\ it\\ implies\\ the\\ specific\\ revival\\ of\\ early\\ Islamic\\ concepts\\ and\\ not\\ merely\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ medieval\\ Islamic\\ thought\\ under\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ the\\ ulama\\.\\ Among\\ the\\ conservative\\-leaning\\ neorevivalist\\ movements\\ were\\ Hasan\\ al\\-Banna\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\ in\\ Egypt\\ and\\ Mawlana\\ Mawdudi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jamaat\\-i\\-Islami\\ \\(the\\ Islamic\\ Society\\)\\ in\\ India\\.\\ In\\ their\\ eyes\\,\\ Islam\\ \\&ldquo\\;was\\ not\\ restricted\\ to\\ personal\\ piety\\ or\\ simply\\ a\\ component\\ in\\ social\\ or\\ political\\ life\\&mdash\\;it\\ was\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ ideology\\ for\\ personal\\ and\\ public\\ life\\,\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ Muslim\\ state\\ and\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(149\\)\\.\\ As\\ such\\ they\\ went\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ adopt\\ the\\ practices\\ of\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ followers\\&mdash\\;establishing\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ believers\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ society\\ whose\\ sole\\ purpose\\ was\\ the\\ conversion\\ of\\ society\\,\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ political\\ party\\&mdash\\;in\\ their\\ own\\ day\\.\\ To\\ the\\ neofundamentalists\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ conservatives\\,\\ the\\ Western\\ separation\\ of\\ church\\ and\\ state\\ stood\\ out\\ as\\ a\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ Western\\ errors\\:\\ the\\ West\\ had\\ disunited\\ two\\ integral\\ parts\\ of\\ each\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ \\(religion\\ and\\ politics\\)\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ let\\ to\\ the\\ dissociation\\ of\\ morality\\ from\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\,\\ and\\ a\\ stress\\ on\\ materialism\\ and\\ capitalism\\.\\ Thus\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;claimed\\ that\\ Muslims\\ could\\ adapt\\ to\\ the\\ demands\\ of\\ modernity\\ by\\ reference\\ to\\ Islam\\ alone\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ this\\ adaptation\\ was\\ not\\ to\\ come\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ any\\ Islamic\\ ideals\\ \\(153\\)\\.\\ Even\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ ulama\\,\\ whose\\ continued\\ advocacy\\ of\\ medieval\\ Islamic\\ ideas\\ struck\\ neofundamentalist\\ purists\\ the\\ wrong\\ way\\,\\ began\\ to\\ adopt\\ neofundamentalist\\ views\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Quite\\ simply\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Esposito\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ degree\\ of\\ change\\ advocated\\ by\\ neorevivalists\\ seemed\\ less\\ radical\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ modernists\\,\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ departure\\ from\\ tradition\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(154\\)\\.\\ In\\ practice\\,\\ groups\\ like\\ the\\ Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\ and\\ Jamaat\\,\\ which\\ asserted\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ practice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ijtihad\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(interpretation\\)\\,\\ chiefly\\ exercised\\ it\\ in\\ areas\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ yet\\ covered\\ in\\ Islamic\\ law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ reformists\\ and\\ neomodernists\\ refused\\ either\\ to\\ adopt\\ Western\\ secularism\\ wholesale\\ or\\ to\\ reject\\ it\\ without\\ discovering\\ any\\ possible\\ benefits\\.\\ It\\ was\\ not\\ Muslim\\ societies\\&rsquo\\;\\ failure\\ to\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ their\\ ancestors\\ that\\ was\\ \\(as\\ the\\ neofundamentalists\\ charged\\)\\ keeping\\ them\\ down\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;blind\\ and\\ unquestioned\\ clinging\\ to\\ the\\ past\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\taqlid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(127\\)\\.\\ Instead\\ hearkening\\ back\\ to\\ early\\ Islam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lively\\ spirit\\ of\\ change\\,\\ they\\ proposed\\ a\\ reinterpretation\\ of\\ certain\\ traditional\\ doctrines\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;selective\\ adaptation\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ of\\ Western\\ ideas\\ and\\ technology\\&rdquo\\;\\ into\\ Islam\\ \\(ibid\\.\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ late\\ nineteenth\\ and\\ early\\ twentieth\\ century\\,\\ reformists\\ argued\\ either\\ for\\ an\\ Islamic\\ emphasis\\ on\\ nature\\ and\\ reason\\ that\\ could\\ embrace\\ Western\\ scientific\\ knowledge\\,\\ or\\ that\\ Western\\ principles\\ were\\ latent\\ in\\ Islamic\\ history\\ and\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ periods\\ of\\ Islam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greatness\\.\\ However\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ organize\\ themselves\\ in\\ broad\\,\\ political\\ organizations\\ \\(like\\ the\\ Muslim\\ Brotherhood\\)\\;\\ intellectuals\\,\\ they\\ tried\\ to\\ sow\\ acceptance\\ of\\ some\\ modernization\\ in\\ the\\ hearts\\ of\\ contemporary\\ Muslims\\.\\ Asani\\ and\\ Esposito\\ name\\ four\\ prominent\\ figures\\ among\\ Islamic\\ modernists\\:\\ Jamal\\ al\\-Din\\ al\\-Afghani\\ \\(1839\\&ndash\\;1897\\)\\ lived\\ throughout\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ and\\ exemplified\\ the\\ modernist\\ tendency\\ to\\ critique\\ the\\ West\\&mdash\\;which\\ he\\ did\\ strongly\\&mdash\\;but\\ adopt\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ principles\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ future\\ Islamic\\ strength\\.\\ Closely\\ linked\\ with\\ Afghani\\ was\\ Muhammad\\ Abduh\\ \\(1849\\&ndash\\;1905\\)\\,\\ whose\\ progressive\\ vision\\ of\\ Islam\\ went\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ label\\ heretical\\ those\\ refusing\\ to\\ apply\\ \\&ldquo\\;rational\\ thought\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ social\\ and\\ religious\\ problems\\.\\ Both\\ advocated\\ pan\\-Islamic\\ unions\\.\\ Neither\\ Asani\\ nor\\ Esposito\\ describes\\ the\\ concrete\\ novelties\\ of\\ the\\ reformers\\ \\(who\\ also\\ include\\ Sayyid\\ Ahmad\\ Khan\\ of\\ India\\ and\\ Sir\\ Muhammad\\ Iqbal\\ of\\ Pakistan\\)\\,\\ except\\ to\\ note\\ their\\ general\\ affinity\\ for\\ being\\ open\\ to\\ Western\\ learning\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ revive\\ Islamic\\ faith\\.\\ A\\ particular\\ area\\ of\\ interest\\,\\ however\\,\\ was\\ the\\ modernization\\ of\\ family\\ law\\:\\ whereas\\ polygamy\\ and\\ easy\\,\\ male\\-initiated\\ divorce\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ appropriate\\ in\\ earlier\\ days\\,\\ social\\ conditions\\ had\\ changed\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ untenable\\.\\ Reformists\\ and\\ neomodernists\\ thus\\ sought\\,\\ and\\ often\\ acquired\\,\\ the\\ revision\\ of\\ family\\ laws\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ their\\ overall\\ program\\.\\ That\\ said\\,\\ Esposito\\ notes\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ careful\\ not\\ to\\ overstate\\ their\\ case\\:\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ neofundamentalists\\ did\\ not\\ revise\\ all\\ Islamic\\ law\\,\\ neither\\ did\\ the\\ neomodernists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;I\\ could\\ not\\ find\\ where\\ Esposito\\ discusses\\ the\\ usefulness\\ of\\ his\\ typology\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seems\\ reasonable\\ to\\ adopt\\ the\\ quadripartite\\ division\\,\\ even\\ today\\,\\ with\\ some\\ modification\\ for\\ changed\\ historical\\ circumstances\\.\\ It\\ is\\ reasonable\\ because\\ it\\ addresses\\ the\\ locus\\ of\\ change\\ in\\ Islamic\\ societies\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ several\\ hundred\\ years\\:\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\receptive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;encounter\\ with\\ Western\\ ideas\\ that\\ has\\ required\\ Muslims\\ to\\ decide\\ what\\,\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ must\\ be\\ adopted\\ and\\ what\\ rejected\\.\\ Categorizing\\ the\\ responses\\ of\\ Muslims\\ between\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ neofundamentalism\\ and\\ secularism\\ \\(with\\ conservatism\\ not\\ requiring\\ as\\ much\\ change\\ as\\ neofundamentalism\\)\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ where\\ modern\\ Islamic\\ states\\&mdash\\;and\\ their\\ peoples\\&mdash\\;stand\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\ The\\ interaction\\ between\\ what\\ remains\\ of\\ European\\&ndash\\;American\\ Christendom\\ and\\ the\\ thriving\\ countries\\ of\\ Islam\\ has\\ been\\,\\ needless\\ to\\ say\\,\\ a\\ major\\ determinant\\ of\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ politics\\ especially\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ five\\ years\\.\\ As\\ Westerners\\ attempt\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ grips\\ with\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ their\\ Muslim\\ counterparts\\,\\ it\\ behooves\\ them\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ possible\\ reactions\\ to\\ Western\\ ideas\\&mdash\\;and\\ where\\,\\ along\\ that\\ spectrum\\ of\\ emotion\\,\\ reason\\ and\\ action\\,\\ Islamic\\ countries\\ fall\\ today\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ Option\\ \\#3\\-\\-\\-Bosnian\\ Mosque\\ Question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h5\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ mosque\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ rebuild\\ in\\ a\\ village\\ in\\ Bosnia\\ and\\ a\\ well\\-funded\\ Saudi\\ charity\\ has\\ offered\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ renovations\\,\\ under\\ the\\ condition\\ that\\ the\\ local\\ residents\\ accept\\ a\\ Wahhabi\\ prayer\\ leader\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ curtail\\ local\\ customs\\ and\\ practices\\ deemed\\ \\&ldquo\\;un\\-Islamic\\&rdquo\\;\\ such\\ as\\ erecting\\ tombstones\\ in\\ cemeteries\\,\\ visiting\\ shrines\\ of\\ Sufi\\ masters\\ and\\ public\\ celebrations\\ of\\ the\\ birthday\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ Muhammad\\.\\ The\\ local\\ population\\ have\\ convened\\ in\\ a\\ town\\ hall\\ meeting\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ proposal\\.\\ The\\ following\\ groups\\ are\\ represented\\ at\\ the\\ meeting\\:\\ local\\ Sunni\\ \\(Hanafi\\)\\ ulama\\,\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ Sufi\\ order\\,\\ advocates\\ for\\ the\\ conservation\\/preservation\\ of\\ a\\ Bosnian\\ cultural\\ and\\ religious\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ supporters\\ of\\ the\\ Saudi\\ charity\\.\\ Put\\ yourself\\ in\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ groups\\ and\\ argue\\ their\\ respective\\ positions\\.\\ Pay\\ particular\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ sources\\ on\\ which\\ each\\ group\\ draws\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ its\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Supporters\\ of\\ the\\ Saudi\\ charity\\ \\(Wahhabis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ monotheists\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Likely\\ the\\ Saudi\\ High\\ Commission\\ for\\ Relief\\ of\\ Bosnia\\ and\\ Herzegovina\\,\\ which\\ claims\\ to\\ have\\ donated\\ \\$600\\ million\\ to\\ Bosnian\\ Muslims\\ since\\ 1993\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ run\\ by\\ Saudi\\ royal\\ family\\ with\\ oil\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rebuilding\\ of\\ mosque\\ is\\ good\\ opportunity\\ to\\ bring\\ pure\\ unadulterated\\ Islam\\ to\\ Bosnia\\,\\ as\\ rediscovered\\ by\\ Muhammad\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\return\\ to\\ Islam\\ of\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ and\\ the\\ early\\ community\\ \\(a\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ fundamentals\\ reform\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\belief\\ in\\ the\\ virtue\\ and\\ doctrinal\\ correctness\\ of\\ the\\ salaf\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;virtuous\\ ancestors\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ early\\ generation\\ of\\ Muslims\\ just\\ after\\ the\\ prophet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\custodians\\ of\\ holy\\ cities\\ Mecca\\ and\\ Medina\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ true\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\need\\ for\\ proper\\ gender\\ segregation\\,\\ women\\ must\\ wear\\ headscarves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\children\\ should\\ take\\ classes\\ on\\ the\\ true\\ \\(Wahhabi\\)\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\literal\\ reading\\ of\\ Quran\\ and\\ Sunnah\\,\\ the\\ true\\ sources\\ of\\ Islamic\\ identity\\,\\ are\\ corrupted\\ by\\ attempts\\ to\\ contextualize\\ revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ more\\ veneration\\ of\\ saints\\,\\ tombs\\,\\ or\\ public\\ celebrations\\ of\\ Prophet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birthday\\ \\ \\;because\\ pagan\\ superstitions\\ and\\ idolatry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ compromise\\ monotheism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ reverence\\ for\\ the\\ family\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\,\\ or\\ even\\ the\\ Prophet\\ himself\\ as\\ this\\ also\\ compromises\\ monotheism\\ and\\ strict\\ focus\\ on\\ worship\\ of\\ one\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ toleration\\ of\\ Sufi\\ practices\\ or\\ music\\/dancing\\ in\\ worship\\ because\\ the\\ salaf\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ spread\\ ideology\\ to\\ Christian\\ infidels\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ assume\\ correct\\ \\(disapproving\\)\\ stance\\ towards\\ the\\ Bosnia\\ Croats\\ \\(Catholic\\)\\ and\\ Bosnian\\ Serbs\\ \\(Orthodox\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\build\\ mosque\\ in\\ correct\\ \\(Arabian\\)\\ style\\ instead\\ of\\ centuries\\ old\\ Ottoman\\ style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ too\\ much\\ color\\ and\\ ornamentation\\,\\ some\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ idolatrous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Members\\ of\\ a\\ Sufi\\ Order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\do\\ not\\ accept\\ funding\\ under\\ these\\ conditions\\,\\ narrow\\ exclusive\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Islam\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ welcome\\ diversity\\ of\\ religious\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wahhabis\\ have\\ no\\ tolerance\\ for\\ Sufism\\,\\ have\\ destroyed\\ many\\ of\\ shrines\\ and\\ tombs\\ that\\ are\\ sacred\\ in\\ the\\ Sufi\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ even\\ destroyed\\ including\\ family\\ and\\ companions\\ of\\ Prophet\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ destroy\\ even\\ tomb\\ of\\ Prophet\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tombs\\ are\\ a\\ focal\\ point\\ of\\ Sufi\\ order\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ places\\ where\\ you\\ go\\ to\\ enlist\\ the\\ intercession\\ of\\ a\\ Sufi\\ saint\\,\\ and\\ capture\\ baraka\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ special\\ vital\\ force\\ inherited\\ from\\ Muhammad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shrines\\ \\(including\\ tomb\\ shrines\\)\\ are\\ typically\\ less\\ exclusive\\ and\\ elitist\\ than\\ mosques\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wahhabis\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ intercession\\,\\ but\\ Sufi\\ saints\\ are\\ important\\ \\&ldquo\\;spiritual\\ guides\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ intercessors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Sharia\\ provides\\ the\\ exterior\\ path\\ of\\ law\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Tariqa\\ is\\ an\\ interior\\ path\\ of\\ Sufi\\ mysticism\\ based\\ on\\ Quranic\\ wisdom\\,\\ but\\ lost\\ in\\ the\\ harsh\\,\\ literal\\ Wahhabi\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ sacred\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ accept\\ and\\ build\\ mosque\\,\\ will\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ follow\\ teachings\\ of\\ the\\ prayer\\ leader\\,\\ who\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ have\\ personal\\ experience\\ of\\ God\\ or\\ spiritual\\ engagement\\ with\\ inner\\ meaning\\ of\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Should\\ act\\ out\\ of\\ absolute\\ love\\ of\\ God\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ through\\ fear\\ of\\ hell\\ or\\ longing\\ for\\ paradise\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Saudis\\,\\ however\\,\\ are\\ coercive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tell\\ Bosnians\\ that\\ God\\ will\\ punish\\ them\\ unless\\ they\\ adopt\\ \\&ldquo\\;correct\\ practice\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Koran\\ says\\ nothing\\ about\\ music\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Wahhabis\\ want\\ to\\ eliminate\\ a\\ vital\\ part\\ of\\ Sufi\\ religious\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ reminds\\ the\\ soul\\ of\\ primordial\\ covenant\\ with\\ God\\,\\ allows\\ for\\ transcendence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Local\\ Sunni\\ \\(Hanafi\\)\\ ulama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Wahhabis\\ reject\\ our\\ religious\\ authority\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ true\\ heretics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\ infuriated\\ the\\ Sunni\\ ulama\\ when\\ he\\ taught\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ his\\ father\\ \\(an\\ alim\\)\\ lost\\ job\\ as\\ judge\\ because\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reinterpreted\\ the\\ Sunnah\\ and\\ Quran\\ using\\ tools\\ that\\ were\\ considered\\ heretical\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unacceptable\\ theological\\ innovation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bida\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\True\\ Islamic\\ doctrine\\ is\\ arrived\\ at\\ through\\ the\\ consensus\\ of\\ the\\ ulama\\ \\(Muhammad\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ consensus\\ of\\ his\\ community\\ could\\ never\\ be\\ wrong\\)\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ Wahhabi\\ try\\ and\\ keep\\ the\\ ulama\\ under\\ tight\\ rein\\ and\\ unduly\\ influence\\ their\\ religious\\ opinions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Literal\\ readings\\ of\\ the\\ Quran\\ are\\ foolish\\ and\\ inaccurate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ignore\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ revelation\\ and\\ detract\\ from\\ the\\ important\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ ulama\\ as\\ spiritual\\ guides\\ to\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Wahhabis\\ reject\\ intercession\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\ of\\ salvation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ ulama\\ themselves\\ as\\ intermediaries\\ of\\ a\\ sort\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Wahhabis\\ clearly\\ have\\ an\\ unhealthy\\ obsession\\ with\\ monotheism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ tried\\ to\\ destroy\\ the\\ tomb\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Wahhabis\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ permit\\ women\\ a\\ public\\ role\\,\\ and\\ insist\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ covered\\ in\\ an\\ extreme\\ way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\,\\ the\\ ulama\\,\\ do\\ not\\ think\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ proper\\ scriptural\\ interpretation\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ live\\ in\\ modern\\ times\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ulama\\ can\\ apply\\ the\\ wisdom\\ of\\ the\\ Quran\\ to\\ contemporary\\ situation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wahhabis\\ doctrine\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ account\\ for\\ modern\\ problems\\,\\ but\\ tries\\ to\\ recreate\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Islam\\ in\\ the\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ wrong\\ to\\ use\\ oil\\ money\\ to\\ spread\\ a\\ narrow\\,\\ heretical\\,\\ and\\ intolerant\\ brand\\ of\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Advocates\\ for\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ a\\ Bosnian\\ cultural\\ and\\ religious\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\do\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ accept\\ funding\\ on\\ these\\ terms\\ because\\ Wahhabis\\ equate\\ Muslim\\ with\\ Arab\\,\\ not\\ accepting\\ of\\ cultural\\ or\\ regional\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bosnians\\ live\\ in\\ harmony\\ with\\ Bosnian\\ Croats\\ \\(Catholics\\)\\ and\\ Bosnian\\ Serbs\\ \\(Orthodox\\ Christians\\)\\,\\ Wahhabis\\ would\\ have\\ us\\ dissociate\\ and\\ isolate\\ ourselves\\ from\\ our\\ neighbors\\;\\ no\\ longer\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ tolerate\\ these\\ communities\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ increased\\ violence\\ and\\ hatred\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diversity\\ of\\ degrees\\ of\\ religiousness\\ in\\ Bosnia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ those\\ that\\ simply\\ identify\\ with\\ Islam\\ ethnically\\,\\ to\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ devout\\ believers\\ with\\ deep\\ religious\\ convictions\\ who\\ follow\\ rituals\\ and\\ prayer\\ strictly\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wahhabis\\ influence\\ will\\ not\\ tolerate\\ anything\\ less\\ than\\ fundamentalist\\ observance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ of\\ our\\ traditions\\,\\ beliefs\\,\\ and\\ practices\\ have\\ developed\\ over\\ centuries\\ in\\ the\\ multi\\-religious\\ Ottoman\\ empire\\,\\ Wahhabi\\ beliefs\\ will\\ not\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ continue\\ these\\ practices\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\&rdquo\\;\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ abandon\\ our\\ traditional\\ colorfully\\ decorated\\ mosques\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ drab\\ Saudi\\ alternative\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ idolatrous\\ or\\ inappropriate\\ about\\ our\\ mosque\\ design\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ cultural\\ difference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\for\\ example\\,\\ music\\ is\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ religious\\ chant\\,\\ prayer\\,\\ and\\ practice\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ Sufi\\ sects\\ \\(adopted\\ from\\ Turkish\\ influence\\ in\\ Ottoman\\ empire\\)\\;\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ tolerated\\ if\\ we\\ accept\\ agreement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ the\\ exploitation\\ of\\ poverty\\ to\\ spread\\ a\\ religious\\ ideology\\ alien\\ to\\ the\\ Bosnian\\ Muslims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wahhabi\\ Islam\\ conforms\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ negative\\ stereotypes\\ and\\ will\\ bring\\ stigma\\ upon\\ Bosnia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wahhabi\\ Islam\\ is\\ intolerant\\ and\\ anti\\-western\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ seen\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;bad\\ Islam\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ America\\,\\ and\\ they\\ may\\ think\\ that\\ is\\ will\\ create\\ a\\ breading\\ ground\\ for\\ terrorism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ further\\ alienating\\ Bosnia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 15, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FC70_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Comparative Politics of Latin America - Guide 3", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "comparative-politics", "latin-america"], "text": null, "id": 43, "html": "\\\\\\Gov1295\\_Comp\\_Govt\\_L\\.\\_America\\_\\-\\_Final\\_3rd\\_Packet\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\}\\.c4\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-22pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c18\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Liberation\\ Theology\\ and\\ Ecclesial\\ Base\\ Communities\\ \\(CEBs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 6\\,\\ Lecture\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberation\\ Theology\\ was\\ a\\ movement\\ that\\ combined\\ Catholic\\ theology\\ with\\ Socialist\\ principles\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ achieve\\ political\\ liberation\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\ from\\ their\\ oppression\\ under\\ the\\ Bureaucratic\\-Authoritarian\\ regimes\\ of\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ \\ \\;Buttressed\\ by\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ adopt\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;preferential\\ option\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ the\\ Second\\ Vatican\\ Council\\ \\(1962\\-65\\)\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ Second\\ Latin\\ American\\ Bishops\\ Conference\\ \\(1968\\)\\,\\ Liberation\\ Theology\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ Ecclesial\\ Base\\ Communities\\ \\(CEBs\\)\\,\\ small\\ groups\\ of\\ laypersons\\ who\\ gathered\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ discuss\\ how\\ its\\ principles\\ could\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ issues\\ of\\ social\\ justice\\,\\ a\\ process\\ which\\ allowed\\ poor\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ openly\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ conditions\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ found\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;During\\ this\\ time\\,\\ the\\ Church\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ non\\-governmental\\ institution\\ allowed\\ to\\ operate\\ freely\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ CEBs\\ thus\\ often\\ became\\ politically\\ active\\,\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ speaking\\ out\\ against\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\ and\\ advocating\\ for\\ land\\ reform\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ Democratic\\ Concertation\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ Democratica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ Democratica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ broad\\ seventeen\\-party\\ coalition\\ founded\\ in\\ 1988\\ in\\ Chile\\ by\\ the\\ main\\ centrist\\ and\\ center\\-left\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ included\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democratic\\ Party\\,\\ the\\ Socialist\\ Party\\,\\ the\\ liberal\\ Party\\ for\\ Democracy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ center\\-left\\ Social\\-Democratic\\ Radical\\ Party\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ formed\\ as\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ present\\ a\\ united\\ front\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1988\\ plebiscite\\,\\ which\\,\\ had\\ it\\ been\\ successful\\,\\ would\\ have\\ kept\\ him\\ in\\ power\\ until\\ 1997\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ 1988\\ plebiscite\\ was\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reaction\\ to\\ international\\ pressure\\ to\\ liberalize\\ and\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ his\\ confidence\\ in\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recovering\\ economy\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ alliance\\ mounted\\ a\\ television\\ campaign\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\&rdquo\\;\\ vote\\,\\ which\\ triumphed\\ by\\ 55\\%\\ over\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;yes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 1989\\ presidential\\ election\\,\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democrats\\ furnished\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\candidate\\,\\ Patricio\\ Aylwin\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ power\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 1993\\ election\\,\\ the\\ last\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ still\\ together\\,\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democrats\\ again\\ provided\\ the\\ winning\\ presidential\\ candidate\\,\\ this\\ time\\ getting\\ Eduardo\\ Frei\\ elected\\ as\\ president\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ The\\ debt\\ crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ debt\\ crisis\\ was\\ the\\ widespread\\ inability\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\ of\\ many\\ Third\\ World\\ countries\\ to\\ repay\\ the\\ loans\\ they\\ were\\ liberally\\ given\\ by\\ Western\\ banks\\ in\\ the\\ 70s\\ to\\ fund\\ their\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\ \\ \\;During\\ the\\ 70s\\ these\\ banks\\ had\\ lent\\ out\\ money\\ freely\\ to\\ many\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ after\\ oil\\ price\\ hikes\\ in\\ 1973\\ and\\ 1979\\ had\\ led\\ the\\ OPEC\\ countries\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ Western\\ bank\\ accounts\\ the\\ extra\\ money\\ they\\ had\\ earned\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ developing\\ countries\\&rsquo\\;\\ debts\\ grew\\ rapidly\\ due\\ to\\ growing\\ real\\ interest\\ rates\\,\\ a\\ global\\ recession\\,\\ and\\ lower\\ commodity\\ rates\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ debt\\ crisis\\ was\\ triggered\\ by\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ declaration\\ in\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 1982\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ not\\ repay\\ its\\ external\\ debt\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ caught\\ in\\ a\\ squeeze\\ between\\ declining\\ exports\\ and\\ rising\\ debt\\-service\\ obligations\\,\\ many\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ followed\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ trend\\ caused\\ international\\ authorities\\ to\\ impose\\ strict\\ limits\\ on\\ Latin\\ American\\ borrowers\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ high\\-conditionality\\ loans\\ which\\ required\\ that\\ borrowers\\ implement\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ take\\ out\\ loans\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\ took\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ structural\\ adjustments\\ of\\ state\\ finances\\ that\\ amounted\\ to\\ an\\ almost\\ complete\\ repudiation\\ of\\ ISI\\ strategies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Corporatism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ordering\\ of\\ interest\\ politics\\ and\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\state\\-society\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;around\\ non\\-competing\\ groups\\ which\\ are\\ officially\\ sanctioned\\,\\ closely\\ supervised\\,\\ and\\ often\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subsidized\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ the\\ state\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\[Collier\\ \\&\\;\\ Collier\\,\\ 126\\]\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ corporatism\\ the\\ state\\ encourages\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\officially\\ recognized\\,\\ non\\-competing\\,\\ state\\-supervised\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\[C\\ \\&\\;\\ C\\,\\ 127\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inducements\\ vs\\ constraints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goal\\ \\=\\ state\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\:\\ PRI\\ government\\ in\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\gave\\ popular\\ sector\\,\\ labor\\ unions\\,\\ etc\\ seats\\ at\\ the\\ political\\ table\\,\\ but\\ in\\ return\\ they\\ were\\ closely\\ tied\\ to\\ and\\ heavily\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ PRI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\example\\:\\ the\\ Estado\\ Novo\\ in\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\only\\ one\\ labor\\ union\\ allowed\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ under\\ direct\\,\\ tight\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ Labor\\ Ministry\\,\\ social\\ welfare\\ benefits\\ are\\ provided\\ as\\ an\\ inducement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Import\\-Substituting\\ Industrialization\\ \\[ISI\\]\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\reasons\\ for\\ transition\\ from\\ export\\-led\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ Depression\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ collapse\\ in\\ demand\\ for\\ LA\\ exports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ nationalistic\\ voices\\ advocating\\ less\\ dependency\\ through\\ the\\ promotion\\ of\\ industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ Depression\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\boosts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;industrialization\\ because\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Post\\-Depression\\,\\ trade\\ picks\\ up\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\activist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protectionist\\ measures\\ used\\ to\\ promote\\ and\\ protect\\ domestic\\ industries\\ \\[subsidies\\,\\ tariffs\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Getulio\\ Vargas\\/\\ The\\ Estado\\ Novo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1930\\:\\ military\\ installs\\ Vargas\\ after\\ he\\ loses\\ a\\ disputed\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vargas\\ pledges\\ to\\ weaken\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ oligarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1937\\:\\ Vargas\\ carries\\ out\\ coup\\ and\\ establishes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Estado\\ Novo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[\\&ldquo\\;the\\ new\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bureaucratic\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\,\\ close\\ to\\ fascism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ extensive\\ corporatist\\ system\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[only\\ one\\ labor\\ union\\ allowed\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ under\\ the\\ direct\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ Labor\\ Ministry\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Promoted\\ industry\\,\\ public\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\expanded\\ social\\ security\\,\\ minimum\\ wage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Howard\\ Wiarda\\ cites\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;third\\ way\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ hierarchy\\ and\\ order\\ are\\ reconciled\\ with\\ change\\ and\\ modernization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ extensive\\ reform\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ affect\\ conservative\\ power\\ in\\ rural\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1945\\:\\ Estado\\ Novo\\ collapses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1950\\:\\ Vargas\\ is\\ elected\\ president\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ maintain\\ control\\ and\\ commits\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gary\\ Wynia\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Development\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\:\\ Cambridge\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 46\\-101\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Summary\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ political\\ players\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[a\\ lot\\ of\\ content\\,\\ but\\ incredibly\\ \\,\\ straightforward\\ and\\ fairly\\ common\\ sense\\,\\ if\\ you\\ went\\ to\\ class\\ you\\ already\\ know\\ this\\ stuff\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;part\\:\\ discussion\\ of\\ large\\ collective\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;part\\:\\ discussion\\ of\\ narrow\\,\\ more\\ highly\\ organized\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\ Questions\\ about\\ each\\ player\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Who\\ and\\ from\\ what\\ social\\ class\\,\\ regional\\,\\ or\\ ethnic\\ sector\\ do\\ they\\ come\\?\\ What\\ unites\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ What\\ do\\ they\\ want\\ from\\ politics\\,\\ if\\ anything\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ What\\ resources\\ are\\ at\\ their\\ disposal\\ and\\ how\\ are\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ influence\\ authorities\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Which\\ set\\ of\\ rules\\ do\\ players\\ prefer\\ and\\ how\\ successful\\ are\\ they\\ in\\ getting\\ their\\ rivals\\ to\\ live\\ by\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rural\\ Elites\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[oligarquia\\,\\ land\\ owners\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ strongest\\ at\\ local\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ homogenous\\ group\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;traditional\\ \\[latifundios\\]\\ vs\\ modern\\ farms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ traditional\\ relies\\ on\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ is\\ declining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ modern\\ is\\ more\\ capital\\ intensive\\ \\[relies\\ on\\ technology\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TRADITIONAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ little\\ from\\ politics\\,\\ mostly\\ concerned\\ with\\ defending\\ traditional\\ realm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ need\\ to\\ keep\\ cheap\\ labour\\ and\\ prevent\\ agrarian\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ rules\\ that\\ limit\\ \\&ldquo\\;reform\\-oriented\\,\\ mass\\-based\\ political\\ parties\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\MODERN\\ \\[plantations\\ and\\ large\\ family\\ farms\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ lack\\ the\\ social\\ status\\ \\[except\\ from\\ wealth\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ more\\ integrated\\ with\\ other\\ economic\\ sectors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ more\\ from\\ government\\,\\ economic\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ develop\\ organizations\\ to\\ represent\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ economy\\ dependent\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ government\\ to\\ be\\ stable\\ and\\ receptive\\ to\\ farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Business\\ Elites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ native\\ business\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ sometimes\\ conspire\\ with\\ rural\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ few\\ want\\ free\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ subordination\\ of\\ organized\\ labour\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ maintenance\\ of\\ status\\ quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ develop\\ organizations\\ to\\ represent\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ seek\\ out\\ public\\ officials\\ individually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ use\\ economic\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ disagree\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ of\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Middle\\ Sectors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ professionals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ use\\ politics\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ affluence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ little\\ economic\\ clout\\,\\ some\\ access\\ to\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ fickle\\:\\ economic\\ self\\-interest\\ above\\ political\\ ideals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ workers\\ and\\ peasants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;united\\,\\ homogenous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ORGANIZED\\ LABOUR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ populism\\/paternalism\\ defined\\ political\\ influence\\,\\ and\\ state\\ control\\ remains\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ represents\\ the\\ elite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\within\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ votes\\,\\ mobilization\\ of\\ supporters\\,\\ economic\\ influence\\,\\ \\[last\\ resort\\:\\ violent\\ protest\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ need\\ organization\\ and\\ unity\\,\\ without\\ being\\ overly\\-centralized\\ and\\ bureaucratic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ government\\ treatment\\ of\\ organized\\ labor\\ than\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\form\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CAMPESINOS\\ \\[rural\\ poor\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ mestizo\\,\\ indigenous\\ and\\ Negro\\ farmers\\ and\\ laborers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ barely\\ subsist\\,\\ little\\ hope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ differ\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ means\\ of\\ employment\\ \\[migrants\\,\\ plantation\\ workers\\,\\ small\\ land\\ owners\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ voice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ want\\ to\\ improve\\ life\\ chances\\ and\\ welfare\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ make\\ personal\\,\\ local\\,\\ specific\\ demands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-need\\ governments\\ help\\ to\\ break\\ out\\ of\\ cycle\\ of\\ subsistence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ resource\\ is\\ immense\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ should\\ be\\ influential\\ in\\ a\\ democracy\\ but\\ their\\ votes\\ are\\ often\\ controlled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;they\\ need\\ organization\\ \\[but\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ divisions\\ to\\ overcome\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ always\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;receiving\\ end\\ of\\ decisions\\ made\\ by\\ others\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ choice\\ between\\ being\\ ignored\\ or\\ being\\ coopted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ professional\\,\\ highly\\ trained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involvement\\ in\\ politics\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ organization\\ gives\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\capability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ background\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\determined\\ their\\ allegiance\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\motive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ military\\ education\\ defines\\ their\\ political\\ interests\\ and\\ preferences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-teaches\\ them\\ a\\ disciplined\\,\\ tightly\\ organized\\ way\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-isolated\\ from\\ civilian\\ way\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-fear\\ of\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-prominent\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ hard\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ few\\ civilian\\ bureaucrats\\ equipped\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ work\\ \\[ie\\.\\ in\\ the\\ defense\\ department\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\ Catholic\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ was\\ once\\ allied\\ with\\ rich\\,\\ now\\ champion\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ reforms\\ within\\ the\\ church\\ \\[2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Vatican\\ council\\,\\ etc\\]\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ produced\\ conflicts\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conservatives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ believed\\ clergy\\ should\\ restrict\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ pulpit\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reformers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ were\\ more\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ community\\ and\\ in\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ growth\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\communidades\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[parish\\ organizations\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ criticism\\ and\\ resistance\\ of\\ military\\ governments\\ \\[church\\ cannot\\ be\\ liquidated\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ despite\\ all\\ this\\,\\ church\\ cannot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\determine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ Bureaucrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ represent\\ interests\\ of\\ other\\ players\\,\\ therefore\\ often\\ overlooked\\ in\\ political\\ analysis\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\do\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;influence\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ serve\\ long\\ terms\\ \\[\\&ldquo\\;career\\ government\\ service\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ size\\ of\\ public\\ sector\\ is\\ increasing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ are\\ often\\ technocrats\\ and\\ therefore\\ possess\\ technical\\ rather\\ than\\ political\\ skill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-they\\ want\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ to\\ increase\\ their\\ influence\\ over\\ public\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ to\\ decrease\\ interference\\ by\\ political\\ authorities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ to\\ dominate\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ dependent\\ upon\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-increasingly\\,\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ dependent\\ upon\\ bureaucrats\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ their\\ objectives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foreign\\ Players\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GOVERNMENTS\\ \\[eg\\.\\ US\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ resources\\/tactics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ economic\\ pressure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ direct\\ intervention\\ through\\ covert\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ threat\\ of\\ direct\\ US\\ military\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-objective\\:\\ LA\\ collaboration\\ with\\ US\\ pursuit\\ of\\ its\\ strategic\\ and\\ economic\\ objectives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FOREIGN\\ CORPORATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-criticisms\\ of\\ their\\ effect\\ on\\ specific\\ LA\\ countries\\,\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ measures\\ by\\ those\\ countries\\ aimed\\ at\\ restricting\\ their\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ firms\\ want\\:\\ favorable\\ investment\\ climate\\ \\[freedom\\,\\ accessible\\ and\\ docile\\ labor\\ force\\,\\ low\\ costs\\,\\ predictable\\ and\\ stable\\ government\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-resources\\:\\ produce\\ products\\ that\\ governments\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FOREIGN\\ BANKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ LA\\ countries\\ racked\\ up\\ huge\\ foreign\\ debts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ now\\ must\\ follow\\ strict\\ IMF\\ guidelines\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ retain\\ their\\ assistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ E\\.\\ Skidmore\\ and\\ Peter\\ H\\.\\ Smith\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2001\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-10\\;\\ 13\\-66\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Page\\ 1\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ why\\ is\\ LA\\ relevant\\ to\\ US\\ \\[political\\ and\\ economic\\ ties\\,\\ existence\\ of\\ large\\ Hispanic\\ population\\ in\\ US\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ misconception\\ that\\ LA\\ is\\ an\\ easy\\ place\\ to\\ understand\\,\\ simplistic\\,\\ homogenous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ politically\\,\\ culturally\\,\\ linguistically\\,\\ racially\\,\\ geographically\\,\\ economically\\ diverse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ paradoxical\\:\\ young\\ and\\ old\\,\\ stable\\ and\\ tumultuous\\,\\ independent\\ and\\ dependent\\,\\ prosperous\\ and\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ explanations\\ of\\ non\\-democracy\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[racist\\ stereotypes\\,\\ modernizations\\ theory\\,\\ cultural\\,\\ dependency\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ rise\\ of\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;approached\\ with\\ intellectual\\ caution\\,\\ will\\ they\\ last\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Howard\\ Wiarda\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Politics\\ and\\ Social\\ Change\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Still\\ a\\ Distinct\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ \\(Third\\ Ed\\.\\)\\ \\(Boulder\\:\\ Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1992\\)\\.\\ Introduction\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-8\\;\\ Conclusion\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 315\\-346\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Cultural\\ Approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ To\\ understand\\ LA\\,\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ cultural\\ and\\ historical\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Western\\ model\\ is\\ irrelevant\\ \\[ie\\.\\ modernization\\ theory\\ is\\ wrong\\]\\ b\\/c\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ timing\\ and\\ context\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ sequences\\ of\\ development\\ are\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ international\\ settings\\ are\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ traditional\\ institutions\\ in\\ LA\\ have\\ remarkable\\ staying\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\[ie\\.\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ disappear\\ as\\ modernization\\ advances\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\economy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ mercantilist\\ and\\ state\\-directed\\ \\[not\\ capitalist\\ and\\ individually\\ directed\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ two\\-class\\ \\[not\\ multi\\-class\\ and\\ pluralistic\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\political\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ hierarchical\\ and\\ authoritarian\\ \\[not\\ democratic\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\culture\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ orthodox\\,\\ absolutist\\,\\ Catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-not\\ undeveloped\\,\\ just\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-has\\ advanced\\,\\ modernized\\,\\ changed\\;\\ but\\ traditional\\ institutions\\ are\\ adaptive\\ and\\ durable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 16\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-characteristics\\ listed\\ above\\ \\[hierarchical\\,\\ ordered\\,\\ etc\\]\\ persist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-changes\\ are\\ gradual\\,\\ controlled\\,\\ regulated\\,\\ etc\\;\\ so\\ that\\ systems\\ are\\ adapted\\ to\\ new\\ circumstances\\ without\\ undermining\\ traditional\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;third\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ reconcile\\ hierarchy\\ and\\ order\\ with\\ change\\ and\\ modernization\\ \\[corporatism\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ QUALIFICATION\\ OF\\ THESIS\\:\\ cultural\\ approach\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ explanation\\,\\ there\\ were\\ structural\\ factors\\ as\\ well\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ factors\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ uniform\\ effect\\ on\\ all\\ LA\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ corporatism\\ arises\\ from\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ order\\ and\\ hierarchy\\,\\ group\\ rights\\ over\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ CHALLENGE\\ TO\\ TRADITIONAL\\ SYSTEM\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ old\\ power\\ bases\\ declining\\,\\ new\\ power\\ bases\\ emerging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ presence\\ of\\ external\\ agencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ complex\\ networks\\ of\\ dependency\\ and\\ interdependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ politics\\ have\\ become\\ progressively\\ more\\ class\\-\\,\\ issue\\-\\,\\ and\\ interest\\-oriented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\breakdown\\ of\\ old\\ order\\,\\ but\\ no\\ new\\ one\\ to\\ take\\ its\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ can\\ only\\ maintain\\ old\\ order\\ and\\ stability\\ through\\ harsher\\ authoritarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ democracy\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ emerging\\ in\\ LA\\ countries\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ various\\ reasons\\ to\\ be\\ skeptical\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ not\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ lack\\ of\\ confidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ anti\\-democratic\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ only\\ partially\\ democratic\\,\\ authoritarian\\ structures\\ still\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ form\\ of\\ democracy\\ is\\ still\\ top\\-down\\,\\ corporatist\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Seymour\\ Martin\\ Lipset\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Political\\ Man\\:\\ The\\ Social\\ Bases\\ of\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Baltimore\\:\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1959\\/1981\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 27\\-63\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Modernization\\ Theorist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ specific\\ conditions\\ for\\ democracy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ value\\ system\\ to\\ give\\ legitimacy\\ \\[or\\ chaotic\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ one\\ set\\ of\\ political\\ leaders\\ in\\ office\\ \\[or\\ unstable\\,\\ irresponsible\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ competitive\\ environment\\ \\[or\\ leader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ authority\\ will\\ increase\\ and\\ popular\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;influence\\ will\\ decrease\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 2\\ characteristics\\ that\\ impact\\ stability\\ of\\ democracy\\:\\ economic\\ development\\ and\\ legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ correlation\\ between\\ industrialization\\/modernization\\ and\\ democracy\\,\\ but\\ democracy\\ can\\ arise\\ under\\ normally\\ adverse\\ conditions\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ hypothesis\\:\\ democracy\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ tests\\ this\\ using\\ indices\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\ \\[average\\ wealth\\,\\ degree\\ of\\ industrialization\\ and\\ urbanization\\,\\ level\\ of\\ education\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ these\\ are\\ higher\\ in\\ more\\ democratic\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ indices\\ are\\ all\\ correlated\\,\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ coordinated\\ changes\\ to\\ maintain\\ stability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\education\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ maybe\\ not\\ sufficient\\ condition\\,\\ but\\ almost\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ increased\\ wealth\\ and\\ education\\ reduces\\ isolation\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ makes\\ lower\\ class\\ better\\-off\\ and\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ radical\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ but\\ poverty\\ does\\ not\\ breed\\ radicalism\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ stable\\ \\[ie\\.\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ knowledge\\/exposure\\ to\\ the\\ possibilities\\ of\\ change\\]\\,\\ however\\ improved\\ communication\\ and\\ transportation\\ is\\ making\\ this\\ situation\\ increasingly\\ rare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ radicalism\\ in\\ poorer\\ countries\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ greater\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ many\\ feel\\ that\\ if\\ LA\\ countries\\ are\\ put\\ on\\ the\\ road\\ to\\ high\\ productivity\\ then\\ democracy\\ will\\ prevail\\;\\ however\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ political\\ extremism\\ exists\\ in\\ newly\\ industrializing\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ evidence\\ that\\ rapid\\ industrialization\\ actually\\ encourages\\ extremism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Andre\\ Gunder\\ Frank\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Development\\ of\\ Underdevelopment\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Peter\\ K\\.\\ Klar\\é\\;n\\ and\\ Thomas\\ J\\.\\ Bossert\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Promise\\ of\\ Development\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Boulder\\:\\ Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 111\\-123\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Dependency\\ Theorist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\false\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;assumptions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ past\\ and\\ present\\ of\\ underdeveloped\\ countries\\ resemble\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ now\\ developed\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ underdevelopment\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\own\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;characteristics\\,\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ can\\ bring\\ about\\ development\\ through\\ foreign\\ aid\\/intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ outside\\ world\\ has\\ only\\ affected\\ select\\ areas\\ of\\ underdeveloped\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ model\\:\\ metropolis\\-satellite\\ structure\\ \\[metropoles\\=developed\\ nations\\,\\ satellites\\=\\ underdeveloped\\ countries\\,\\ colonies\\,\\ etc\\]\\,\\ exploitative\\ relationship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ this\\ relationship\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ found\\ on\\ the\\ national\\ level\\,\\ between\\ urban\\ and\\ rural\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ capitalism\\ is\\ what\\ brought\\ about\\ underdevelopment\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;existence\\ of\\ archaic\\ institutions\\,\\ or\\ capital\\ shortage\\ in\\ isolated\\ regions\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 3\\ hypotheses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ development\\ of\\ national\\ and\\ other\\ subordinate\\ metropoles\\ is\\ limited\\ by\\ their\\ satellite\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ satellites\\ develop\\ the\\ most\\ when\\ their\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ metropolis\\ are\\ weakest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\[periods\\ of\\ relative\\ isolation\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ the\\ most\\ underdeveloped\\ satellites\\ are\\ those\\ that\\ had\\ the\\ closest\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ metropolis\\ in\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gov\\ 1295\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Turning\\ Weakness\\ into\\ Strength\\:\\ The\\ Internationalization\\ of\\ Indian\\ Rights\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Friendly\\ Liquidation\\ of\\ the\\ Past\\:\\ The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Diversity\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;On\\ the\\ State\\,\\ Democratization\\,\\ and\\ Some\\ Conceptual\\ Problems\\:\\ A\\ Latin\\ American\\ View\\ with\\ Some\\ Postcommunist\\ Countries\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;Democracy\\,\\ Law\\,\\ and\\ Violence\\:\\ Disjunctions\\ of\\ Brazilian\\ Citizenship\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;An\\ Alarm\\ Call\\ for\\ Latin\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Democrats\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Turning\\ Weakness\\ into\\ Strength\\:\\ The\\ Internationalization\\ of\\ Indian\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Act\\ locally\\-think\\ globally\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ slogan\\ used\\ by\\ activist\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ encourage\\ grass\\-roots\\ activity\\,\\ but\\ opposite\\ path\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Think\\ locally\\,\\ act\\ globally\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ in\\ path\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ inc\\ involvement\\ of\\ transnational\\ alliances\\ and\\ international\\ relations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnationalization\\ at\\ first\\ seemed\\ contradictory\\ but\\ ultimately\\ constructive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ rights\\ represent\\ a\\ least\\ likely\\ case\\ for\\ internationalization\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ movement\\ since\\ Indian\\ peoples\\ are\\ powerless\\ and\\ marginalized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Internationalization\\ occurred\\ b\\/c\\ indigenous\\ movements\\ weak\\ domestically\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domestic\\ weakness\\ facilitated\\ transnational\\ alliance\\ and\\ effectiveness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnational\\ success\\ of\\ weak\\ movement\\ b\\/c\\ use\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ images\\ to\\ create\\ project\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Movement\\ is\\ rich\\ in\\ identity\\ \\(international\\ power\\ of\\ ethnicity\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\About\\ 40\\ million\\ ethnically\\ indigenous\\ people\\ in\\ LA\\ \\(Latin\\ America\\/ans\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ LA\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ identify\\ their\\ indigenous\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LA\\ Indians\\ are\\ the\\ poorest\\,\\ sickest\\,\\ most\\ abused\\ \\ \\;and\\ most\\ defenseless\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indians\\ have\\ resisted\\ LA\\ domination\\ since\\ conquest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ social\\ movement\\ for\\ Ind\\ \\(Indian\\)\\ rts\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ arise\\ until\\ late\\ 60s\\ and\\ early\\ 70s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ late\\ 70s\\ many\\ actors\\ mobilized\\ seeking\\ improvements\\ in\\ rts\\(rights\\)\\ and\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\World\\ Council\\ of\\ Indigenous\\ Peoples\\ and\\ Cultural\\ Survival\\ were\\ founded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\International\\ Labor\\ Org\\ and\\ World\\ Council\\ of\\ Churches\\ \\(WCC\\)\\ brought\\ together\\ Indian\\ activist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Situational\\ goals\\ coalesced\\ around\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ self\\-determination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-determination\\=local\\ autonomy\\,\\ cultural\\ survival\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;ethnodevelopment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(empowered\\ and\\ informed\\ self\\-management\\ of\\ cultural\\ and\\ social\\ change\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ wanted\\ land\\ rts\\,\\ access\\ to\\ natural\\ resources\\,\\ and\\ relief\\ from\\ human\\ rts\\ abuses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ survival\\ of\\ low\\ technology\\ indigenous\\ culture\\ not\\ desired\\ or\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ indigenous\\ grps\\ already\\ encountered\\ and\\ influenced\\ by\\ Western\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ cultures\\ evolve\\ but\\ who\\ decides\\ at\\ what\\ pace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ participation\\ has\\ grown\\ from\\ peasant\\ federations\\ to\\ political\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ activism\\ internationally\\ effective\\/cohesive\\ b\\/c\\ diversity\\ of\\ people\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ there\\ is\\ reduce\\ role\\ of\\ class\\-based\\ activism\\ \\(land\\,\\ language\\ and\\ religion\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cause\\ problems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ network\\ supporting\\ Ind\\ rts\\ is\\ transnational\\ and\\ consequential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Draws\\ on\\ international\\ resources\\,\\ alliances\\ and\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gvmts\\ try\\ to\\ discredit\\ movements\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ international\\ involvement\\ but\\ gvmt\\ is\\ being\\ hypocritical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ indigenous\\ org\\&rsquo\\;s\\ receive\\ int\\ \\ \\;\\(international\\)\\ funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#\\ of\\ domestic\\ Ind\\ rts\\ grps\\ were\\ est\\ w\\/\\ significant\\ int\\ support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnational\\ network\\ has\\ developed\\ mode\\ of\\ operation\\ in\\ which\\ local\\ and\\ int\\ action\\ interpenetrate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Int\\ actors\\ have\\ taken\\ an\\ explicit\\ role\\ in\\ linking\\ local\\ groups\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ grps\\ have\\ est\\ their\\ own\\ transnational\\ orgs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ rts\\ network\\ has\\ reformed\\ int\\ orgs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnational\\ movement\\ mobilization\\ changed\\ domestic\\ state\\ policies\\,\\ esp\\ in\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Activism\\ continues\\ to\\ raise\\ int\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ goals\\ of\\ ind\\ rts\\ movement\\ still\\ not\\ met\\,\\ but\\ changes\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ transnational\\ network\\ can\\ achieve\\ social\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domestic\\ reform\\ has\\ been\\ strongest\\ where\\ int\\ actors\\ have\\ influenced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ people\\ turned\\ to\\ int\\ systems\\ out\\ of\\ domestic\\ powerless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characteristics\\ that\\ were\\ domestic\\ handicaps\\ became\\ int\\ strengths\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ LA\\ Ind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ appearance\\ made\\ them\\ seem\\ subhuman\\,\\ primitive\\,\\ but\\ to\\ Europeans\\ and\\ US\\ seemed\\ fascinating\\ and\\ exotic\\ which\\ attracted\\ them\\,\\ but\\ recognized\\ that\\ ethical\\ and\\ effective\\ advocacy\\ must\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ recognition\\ of\\ Ind\\ as\\ pragmatic\\ partners\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ general\\ less\\ accultured\\ lowland\\ grps\\ are\\ deomestically\\ weaker\\ but\\ more\\ internationalized\\ than\\ highland\\ Indians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Int\\ activist\\ liked\\ Brazilian\\ Indian\\ Leader\\ Paiakan\\ b\\/c\\ more\\ ethnic\\ and\\ less\\ politicized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Indian\\ grps\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ state\\ state\\ sponsored\\ coalitions\\ \\(Mexico\\)\\ the\\ Ind\\ movements\\ have\\ been\\ much\\ less\\ internationalized\\ and\\ less\\ effective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ Amer\\ Ind\\ are\\ less\\ international\\ due\\ to\\ historical\\ differences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ people\\ have\\ nothing\\ left\\ to\\ lose\\ except\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ nationalism\\ entered\\ in\\ 1980s\\ at\\ time\\ when\\ state\\ was\\ already\\ transforming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ Ind\\ rts\\ movements\\ not\\ much\\ political\\ participation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Activist\\ use\\ the\\ press\\ to\\ present\\ their\\ case\\ internationally\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ Indian\\ grps\\ have\\ high\\ tech\\ communications\\ but\\ no\\ basic\\ needs\\ such\\ health\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ representatives\\ drew\\ demands\\ and\\ representatives\\ from\\ their\\ own\\ culture\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ used\\ transnational\\ networks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Projection\\ of\\ information\\ provided\\ international\\ learning\\ and\\ Model\\ Indian\\ groups\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\,\\ but\\ also\\ provided\\ facts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turned\\ local\\ knowledge\\ into\\ global\\ power\\,\\ but\\ the\\ global\\ power\\ was\\ limited\\ and\\ self\\-contradictory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ movements\\ often\\ lack\\ authoritative\\ hierarchical\\ structures\\ of\\ representation\\,\\ hard\\ to\\ chose\\ leaders\\ that\\ are\\ both\\ representative\\ and\\ effective\\ in\\ political\\ arena\\ b\\/c\\ those\\ with\\ skills\\ to\\ lead\\ internationally\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ representative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ grps\\ within\\ tribes\\ hold\\ different\\ vies\\ on\\ proposed\\ developments\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ correspond\\ locally\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Membership\\ in\\ dif\\ org\\ brought\\ distinct\\ international\\ treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Movements\\ have\\ alienated\\ political\\ allies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Internationalization\\ of\\ Indian\\ rts\\ has\\ potential\\ for\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ dependency\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Friendly\\ Liquidation\\ of\\ the\\ Past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constitutional\\ treatment\\ of\\ indigenous\\ people\\ has\\ changed\\ a\\ lot\\ since\\ 1970s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Movements\\ fit\\ into\\ larger\\ democratic\\ project\\ to\\ decentralize\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ open\\ new\\ spheres\\ for\\ popular\\ participation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ecuador\\ has\\ strongest\\ regime\\ of\\ protection\\ for\\ indigenous\\ and\\ black\\ rts\\ in\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Venezuela\\ important\\ b\\/c\\ backwardness\\ of\\ its\\ constitution\\ in\\ respect\\ to\\ Ind\\ rts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ no\\ country\\ was\\ demand\\ for\\ Indian\\ rts\\ most\\ important\\ decision\\ to\\ radically\\ revise\\ constitution\\,\\ it\\ was\\ b\\/c\\ state\\ was\\ perceived\\ overly\\ centralized\\ and\\ inefficient\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ principle\\ of\\ national\\ laws\\ concerning\\ disadvantaged\\ grps\\ remained\\ equality\\,\\ legislation\\ intended\\ to\\ transform\\ Ind\\ into\\ undifferentiated\\ citizens\\,\\ to\\ not\\ recognize\\ a\\ distinctive\\ status\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ movement\\ org\\ most\\ consolidated\\ in\\ Ecuador\\,\\ Colombia\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ Bolivia\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ and\\ weaker\\ in\\ Peru\\ and\\ Venezuela\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ orgs\\ wanted\\ citizenship\\ that\\ incorporates\\ collective\\ rts\\ and\\ new\\ modes\\ of\\ indv\\ and\\ collective\\ participation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ orgs\\ wanted\\ laws\\ requiring\\ their\\ consent\\ to\\ policies\\ affecting\\ them\\ and\\ indigenous\\ control\\ over\\ natural\\ resources\\ on\\ their\\ land\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ UN\\ declaration\\ was\\ drafted\\ with\\ help\\ of\\ Indigenous\\ grps\\ and\\ it\\ gave\\ recognition\\ of\\ indigenous\\ rt\\ to\\ self\\-determination\\,\\ but\\ not\\ passed\\ after\\ 4yrs\\ b\\/c\\ some\\ states\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ it\\ \\(US\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ grps\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ success\\ w\\/\\ the\\ OAS\\&rsquo\\;s\\ American\\ Declaration\\ of\\ the\\ Rights\\ of\\ Indigenous\\ Peoples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\States\\ must\\ live\\ with\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ indigenous\\ secession\\ b\\/c\\ keeping\\ indigenous\\ people\\ oppressed\\ is\\ a\\ greater\\ risk\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ elements\\ shared\\ by\\ new\\ constitutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rhetorical\\ recognition\\ of\\ the\\ multicultural\\ nature\\ of\\ their\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\recognition\\ of\\ ind\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ customary\\ law\\ as\\ official\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\collective\\ property\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\recognition\\ of\\ ind\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guarantee\\ of\\ bilingual\\ edu\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prior\\ to\\ these\\ additions\\ official\\ constitutions\\ declared\\ homogeneous\\ nature\\ of\\ LA\\ based\\ on\\ assumption\\ that\\ everyone\\ had\\ assimilated\\ into\\ hybrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\States\\ that\\ allow\\ incorporation\\ of\\ ethnically\\ defined\\ social\\ and\\ territorial\\ units\\ rupture\\ the\\ uniformity\\ and\\ universality\\ of\\ public\\ admin\\ at\\ local\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Among\\ most\\ important\\ reforms\\ are\\ those\\ to\\ codes\\ of\\ criminal\\ procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\recognition\\ of\\ customary\\ law\\ protects\\ ind\\ people\\ from\\ power\\ inequalities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ scope\\ of\\ indigenous\\ jurisdiction\\ limited\\ by\\ constitution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\collective\\ property\\ rts\\ weakened\\ by\\ inability\\ to\\ exercise\\ control\\ over\\ exploitation\\ of\\ natural\\ resources\\ on\\ their\\ property\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\main\\ problem\\ of\\ implementing\\ bilingual\\ edu\\ is\\ lack\\ of\\ funding\\ and\\ of\\ teachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\constitution\\ makers\\ must\\ choose\\ btwn\\ conferring\\ autonomy\\ upon\\ territorial\\ entities\\ where\\ Ind\\ constitute\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ upon\\ population\\ grps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ difficult\\ in\\ cases\\ where\\ Ind\\ constitute\\ a\\ majority\\ b\\/c\\ how\\ can\\ state\\ have\\ power\\ in\\ this\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ gvmts\\ are\\ attempting\\ to\\ hold\\ autonomy\\ below\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ a\\ government\\ unit\\ with\\ meaningful\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shift\\ toward\\ greater\\ decentralization\\ in\\ LA\\ helps\\ Ind\\ demands\\ for\\ political\\ autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\ LA\\ has\\ been\\ disappointed\\ with\\ results\\ of\\ decentralization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ success\\ of\\ decentralization\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ ind\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ people\\ have\\ had\\ difficulty\\ inserting\\ provisions\\ relating\\ to\\ their\\ rts\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ avalanche\\ of\\ laws\\ w\\/\\ respect\\ to\\ democratization\\ and\\ economic\\ liberalization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ goal\\ of\\ constitutional\\ reform\\ is\\ the\\ est\\ and\\ protection\\ of\\ rts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ being\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ wider\\ political\\ community\\ is\\ worth\\ compromising\\ cultural\\ and\\ political\\ autonomy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ State\\,\\ Democratization\\,\\ and\\ Some\\ Conceptual\\ Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Breakdown\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ systems\\ led\\ to\\ emergence\\ of\\ number\\ of\\ democracies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ polyarchies\\ which\\ are\\ all\\ representative\\ and\\ institutionalized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ much\\ predicting\\ power\\ in\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\ after\\ first\\ elected\\ gvmt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argentina\\-transition\\ by\\ collapse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazil\\-transition\\ by\\ negotiation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peru\\-incorporating\\ military\\ authoritarian\\ populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\States\\ are\\ interwoven\\ in\\ complex\\ and\\ different\\ ways\\ in\\ their\\ respective\\ societies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characteristics\\ of\\ each\\ state\\ and\\ of\\ each\\ society\\ heavily\\ influence\\ whether\\ democracy\\ will\\ be\\ likely\\ to\\ consolidate\\ or\\ merely\\ endure\\ or\\ eventually\\ breakdown\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ social\\ relations\\ that\\ est\\ a\\ certain\\ order\\ or\\ a\\ given\\ territory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ relations\\ can\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ tradition\\,\\ fear\\ of\\ punishment\\,\\ pragmatic\\ calculation\\,\\ habituation\\,\\ legitimacy\\,\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equality\\ guaranteed\\ to\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ citizenship\\ is\\ crucial\\ for\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ rights\\ of\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Citizenship\\ does\\ not\\ stay\\ within\\ the\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argentina\\,\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Peru\\ are\\ going\\ through\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ crisis\\,\\ crisis\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ state\\ as\\ bureaucracies\\ capable\\ of\\ discharging\\ their\\ duties\\ with\\ reasonable\\ efficacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\States\\&rsquo\\;\\ claim\\ to\\ orient\\ its\\ decisions\\ for\\ the\\ public\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\-centered\\ and\\ inward\\-oriented\\ pattern\\ of\\ capital\\ accumulation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ most\\ newly\\ democratized\\ countries\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ too\\ big\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\neg\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ strong\\ state\\ irrespective\\ of\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ its\\ bureaucracies\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ effectively\\ est\\ legality\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ an\\ arena\\ for\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ particular\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Countries\\ of\\ relatively\\ high\\ homogeneity\\ are\\ ones\\ with\\ older\\ and\\ more\\ solid\\ democratic\\ tradition\\-Costa\\ Rica\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ Uruguay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ extends\\ very\\ irregularly\\ across\\ territory\\ and\\ functional\\ relations\\ it\\ regulates\\ then\\ the\\ state\\ becomes\\ ostensibly\\ unable\\ to\\ enact\\ effective\\ regulations\\ of\\ social\\ life\\ across\\ their\\ territories\\ and\\ their\\ stratification\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ state\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ implement\\ its\\ own\\ regulations\\,\\ so\\ inc\\ in\\ crime\\ results\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brown\\ regions\\ are\\ areas\\ of\\ low\\ or\\ nil\\ level\\ of\\ state\\ presence\\ both\\ functionally\\ and\\ territorially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ brown\\ areas\\ there\\ are\\ elections\\,\\ governors\\,\\ and\\ national\\ and\\ state\\ legislators\\ but\\ the\\ parties\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ personalistic\\ machines\\ functioning\\ under\\ familism\\,\\ prebendalism\\,\\ clientalsim\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interest\\ of\\ brown\\ legislators\\ quite\\ limited\\ and\\ usually\\ vote\\ conservative\\ and\\ opportunistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Operate\\ under\\ parties\\ that\\ have\\ low\\ ideological\\ content\\,\\ have\\ no\\ discipline\\ and\\ under\\ which\\ changing\\ parties\\ or\\ creating\\ a\\ new\\ one\\ is\\ easy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brown\\ areas\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ democracy\\ b\\/c\\ in\\ a\\ properly\\ democratic\\ order\\,\\ its\\ legality\\ is\\ universalistic\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ invoked\\ by\\ anyone\\ irrespective\\ of\\ class\\ position\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ countries\\ with\\ excessive\\ brown\\ areas\\ democracies\\ based\\ on\\ schizophrenic\\ state\\,\\ components\\ of\\ democratic\\ legality\\,\\ publicness\\ and\\ citizenship\\ fade\\ away\\ at\\ the\\ frontiers\\ of\\ various\\ regions\\,\\ class\\,\\ gender\\,\\ and\\ ethnic\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\ is\\ necessarily\\ connected\\ with\\ citizenship\\,\\ and\\ citizenship\\ can\\ only\\ exist\\ with\\ the\\ legality\\ of\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ state\\ that\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ enforce\\ its\\ legality\\ supports\\ a\\ democracy\\ of\\ low\\ intensity\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\countries\\ with\\ extensive\\ brown\\ areas\\ which\\ actually\\ meet\\ the\\ attributes\\ of\\ polyarchy\\ are\\ democracies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\various\\ forms\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ extensive\\ poverty\\,\\ extreme\\ disparity\\ go\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\ with\\ low\\ intensity\\ citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ extraordinarily\\ severe\\ socioeconomic\\ crisis\\ of\\ most\\ newly\\ democratized\\ countries\\ furthers\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ brown\\ areas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Efforts\\ made\\ to\\ reduce\\ fiscal\\ deficit\\ include\\ privatization\\ and\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ excess\\ personnel\\,\\ falling\\ salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\ in\\ inflation\\ and\\ protest\\ from\\ the\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corruption\\ is\\ present\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ money\\ economic\\ crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ corruption\\ scandals\\ become\\ public\\ they\\ undermine\\ trust\\ of\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Temporary\\ solution\\ to\\ econ\\ crisis\\ is\\ to\\ increase\\ indirect\\ taxes\\ and\\ the\\ prices\\ of\\ public\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ formally\\ employed\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ contributors\\ to\\ taxes\\ so\\ if\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ getting\\ anything\\ they\\ have\\ an\\ incentive\\ to\\ join\\ informal\\ sector\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ state\\ centered\\ import\\ substitution\\ model\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Democracy\\,\\ Law\\,\\ and\\ Violence\\:\\ Disjunction\\ of\\ Brazilian\\ Citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Civil\\ Component\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ political\\ institutions\\ democratize\\ the\\ civil\\ component\\ of\\ citizenship\\ remains\\ impaired\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ component\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ law\\,\\ and\\ citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ studies\\ focus\\ on\\ transformation\\ of\\ political\\ systems\\ but\\ not\\ on\\ civil\\ component\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ est\\ that\\ most\\ countries\\ in\\ region\\ are\\ indeed\\ democratic\\,\\ they\\ are\\ political\\ democracies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ political\\ democracy\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ ensure\\ meaningful\\ democratic\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democratic\\ politics\\ loses\\ its\\ legitimacy\\ and\\ efficacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ principles\\ of\\ liberty\\ and\\ justice\\ civil\\ component\\ relates\\ and\\ regulates\\ both\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ believes\\ that\\ political\\ democracy\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ extension\\ of\\ similarly\\ democratic\\&hellip\\;relations\\ into\\ other\\ spheres\\ of\\ social\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consolidation\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ does\\ not\\ monopolize\\ the\\ sources\\ of\\ democracy\\ or\\ of\\ citizenship\\ or\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contradiction\\:\\ As\\ Brazilians\\ succeed\\ in\\ institutionalizing\\ democratic\\ politics\\,\\ also\\ delegitimation\\ of\\ many\\ institutions\\ of\\ law\\,\\ privatization\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ violent\\ crime\\,\\ police\\ abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Democracy\\ and\\ Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cardoso\\ elected\\ in\\ 94\\,\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ exiled\\ and\\ he\\ opposed\\ the\\ military\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ opponent\\ was\\ Lula\\ from\\ the\\ PT\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ month\\ after\\ election\\ gvmt\\ called\\ into\\ Rio\\,\\ Operacao\\ Rio\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ control\\ violent\\ crimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ forces\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ order\\ in\\ Rio\\ are\\ cause\\ much\\ violence\\,\\ b\\/c\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incidents\\ of\\ violence\\ and\\ human\\ rts\\ abuses\\ throughout\\ Brazil\\ has\\ grown\\ dramatically\\ after\\ the\\ institutionalization\\ of\\ democratic\\ rule\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crime\\ has\\ become\\ organized\\ and\\ more\\ violent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Brazil\\ the\\ police\\ constitute\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ repression\\ of\\ crime\\ ahs\\ targeted\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\ and\\ has\\ frequently\\ merged\\ with\\ political\\ repression\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ poor\\ have\\ learned\\ to\\ fear\\ the\\ police\\ and\\ distrust\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1969\\ all\\ state\\ uniformed\\ police\\ are\\ now\\ state\\ military\\ police\\ \\(MP\\)\\ and\\ subordinated\\ to\\ the\\ army\\,\\ civil\\ police\\ continue\\ to\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ rts\\ grps\\ have\\ amassed\\ considerable\\ eveidence\\ that\\ the\\ military\\ justice\\ overwhelmingly\\ acquits\\ military\\ police\\ accused\\ of\\ crimes\\ against\\ civilians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Org\\ of\\ current\\ police\\ institutions\\ largely\\ maintains\\ that\\ of\\ military\\ regimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worsening\\ of\\ police\\ violence\\ in\\ Brazil\\ coincides\\ with\\ the\\ consolidation\\ of\\ political\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ROTA\\,\\ special\\ division\\ of\\ mil\\.\\ Police\\ commits\\ sig\\ \\#\\ of\\ killings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#\\ of\\ police\\ killed\\ has\\ not\\ increased\\ and\\ proportion\\ of\\ civilians\\ killed\\ to\\ those\\ wounded\\ is\\ abnormal\\,\\ they\\ shoot\\ to\\ kill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Massacre\\ of\\ prisoners\\ at\\ Casa\\ de\\ Detencao\\ 1992\\ by\\ police\\ officers\\,\\ most\\ not\\ punished\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ popular\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Policy\\ violence\\ caused\\ by\\ corruption\\ but\\ also\\ more\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ official\\ policy\\ and\\ popular\\ support\\,\\ even\\ from\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Resistance\\ to\\ reform\\ is\\ grounded\\ in\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ tough\\ police\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Population\\&rsquo\\;s\\ support\\ for\\ violence\\ indicates\\ existence\\ of\\ cultural\\ pattern\\ that\\ associates\\ order\\ and\\ authority\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Police\\ is\\ soft\\ with\\ real\\ criminals\\ that\\ can\\ bribe\\ and\\ hard\\ with\\ poor\\ workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ Democracy\\ and\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Judiciary\\ is\\ a\\ discredited\\,\\ justice\\ system\\ is\\ biased\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ offer\\ workers\\ possibility\\ of\\ justice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legislature\\ makes\\ laws\\ that\\ the\\ courts\\ cannot\\ or\\ will\\ not\\ enforce\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ racial\\ biases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazilian\\ courts\\ have\\ only\\ protected\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ property\\,\\ not\\ due\\ process\\ or\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ protection\\ and\\ immunities\\ of\\ civil\\ rts\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ elite\\ and\\ not\\ common\\ rts\\ or\\ citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ concept\\ of\\ civil\\ rts\\ is\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazilian\\ democracy\\ is\\ disjunctive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ take\\ justice\\ into\\ their\\ own\\ hands\\ but\\ some\\ think\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ too\\ risky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ support\\ the\\ org\\ such\\ as\\ ROTA\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ believe\\ that\\ they\\ kill\\ the\\ right\\ people\\,\\ they\\ admire\\ vigilantes\\,\\ justiceiros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Upperclass\\ has\\ the\\ option\\ of\\ choosing\\ to\\ disrespect\\ the\\ law\\,\\ esp\\ traffic\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disjunctive\\ democracy\\-conjunction\\ of\\ political\\ democracy\\,\\ injustice\\,\\ and\\ violence\\,\\ unbalanced\\ and\\ heterogeneous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ political\\ component\\ of\\ democratization\\ is\\ strong\\ but\\ the\\ civil\\ component\\ is\\ fragile\\ and\\ ineffective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\ and\\ citizenship\\ should\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ extending\\ beyond\\ the\\ political\\ to\\ encompass\\ the\\ social\\,\\ economic\\ and\\ cultural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ rts\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\ if\\ police\\ act\\ illegally\\ they\\ disable\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ alone\\ cannot\\ secure\\ conditions\\ for\\ democracy\\,\\ a\\ democracy\\ must\\ secure\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ or\\ itself\\ become\\ discredited\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fairness\\,\\ access\\,\\ universality\\ and\\ legitimacy\\ characterize\\ a\\ democratic\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ role\\ of\\ civil\\ component\\ of\\ citizenship\\ is\\ sustaining\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Authoritarian\\ culture\\ deeply\\ rooted\\ in\\ Brazil\\ hinders\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ studies\\ of\\ Brazil\\ analyze\\ the\\ legal\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ democracies\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ murderous\\ than\\ their\\ authoritarian\\ predecessor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ citizenship\\-membership\\ in\\ the\\ territorial\\ nation\\-state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Substantive\\ citizenship\\-array\\ of\\ political\\,\\ civil\\,\\ socioeconomic\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ rts\\ people\\ posses\\ and\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ turmoil\\ caused\\ by\\ disjunctive\\ relation\\ btwn\\ formal\\ and\\ substantive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alarm\\ Call\\ for\\ Latin\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ democrats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LA\\ are\\ wavering\\ in\\ support\\ for\\ democracy\\ but\\ still\\ support\\ free\\-trade\\ agreements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sharp\\ decline\\ in\\ support\\ for\\ democracy\\ modest\\ rise\\ in\\ dictatorship\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexico\\ only\\ country\\ were\\ support\\ has\\ inc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discontent\\ due\\ to\\ LA\\ renewed\\ economic\\ weakenss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ more\\ people\\ think\\ the\\ economy\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ democracy\\ the\\ more\\ dem\\ is\\ vulnerable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uruguay\\ and\\ Costa\\ Rica\\ are\\ showing\\ support\\ for\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Violence\\ and\\ drug\\ addictions\\ is\\ another\\ factor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mexico\\ in\\ Crisis\\-\\ Helman\\ \\Chapter\\ 1\\-\\ The\\ Revolution\\ \\\\-The\\ Mexican\\ Revolution\\ was\\ started\\ by\\ landowners\\ and\\ intellectuals\\ in\\ the\\ \\North\\ of\\ Mexico\\ in\\ 1910\\.\\ \\\\-It\\ was\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ elitism\\ that\\ entrenched\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ \\economic\\ spheres\\ in\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\\\-Dictator\\ Porfirio\\ Diaz\\ \\(who\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ thirty\\ years\\ ago\\ through\\ a\\ \\military\\ coup\\)\\ provided\\ only\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ opportunities\\ for\\ \\close\\ friends\\,\\ and\\ foreign\\ business\\ investors\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ Mexican\\ \\bourgeoisie\\ with\\ little\\ chance\\ of\\ advancement\\.\\ \\\\-Many\\ different\\ groups\\ were\\ interested\\ in\\ his\\ downfall\\,\\ including\\ middle\\ \\class\\ business\\ owners\\,\\ intellectuals\\,\\ \\\\-They\\ wanted\\ to\\ establish\\ liberal\\ democracy\\ \\\\-There\\ were\\ two\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ revolutions\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ \\\\-\\ The\\ Northern\\ movement\\ was\\ ideological\\ heterogeneous\\ \\(Separate\\ sets\\ of\\ \\demands\\ by\\ elite\\,\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ worker\\ classes\\)\\.\\ \\1\\)Middle\\ and\\ upper\\ class\\ liberals\\ were\\ calling\\ for\\ political\\ reforms\\ to\\ \\broaden\\ base\\ of\\ political\\ participation\\,\\ anticlerical\\ legislation\\ to\\ curb\\ \\the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\,\\ nationalistic\\ legislation\\ to\\ impose\\ \\state\\ control\\ over\\ foreign\\ investment\\ and\\ ownership\\.\\ They\\ called\\ for\\ the\\ \\elimination\\ of\\ forced\\ military\\ conscription\\,\\ and\\ the\\ suppression\\ of\\ press\\.\\ \\2\\)Peasant\\ and\\ workers\\ were\\ concerned\\ with\\ winning\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ organize\\,\\ \\guarantees\\ of\\ decent\\ work\\ conditions\\,\\ adequate\\ pay\\,\\ and\\ work\\ security\\ \\\\South\\ rallied\\ behind\\ revolution\\.\\ \\\\-Why\\?\\ Large\\ commercial\\ landowners\\ gained\\ control\\ over\\ village\\ lands\\,\\ \\deprived\\ peasants\\ of\\ their\\ livelihood\\,\\ made\\ them\\ serfs\\.\\ \\\\-In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ North\\,\\ the\\ South\\ was\\ a\\ unified\\ ideological\\ coherent\\ \\movement\\ of\\ landless\\ peasants\\ fighting\\ under\\ the\\ leadership\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ \\women\\ under\\ the\\ peasant\\ origin\\ \\\\-They\\ fought\\ for\\ archaic\\ demands\\-wanted\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ village\\ lands\\ \\and\\ \\the\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ tradition\\ order\\ of\\ communal\\ agriculture\\.\\ \\\\Emilio\\ Zapata\\-\\ General\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ \\\\-Everyone\\ had\\ different\\ goals\\,\\ but\\ loyalty\\ to\\ leader\\ bound\\ them\\ together\\ \\\\-Revolution\\ was\\ built\\ his\\ personal\\ charisma\\ \\\\-Limitation\\ of\\ Zapatismo\\ was\\ its\\ inability\\ to\\ broaden\\ its\\ following\\ to\\ \\non\\-peasants\\ \\Pancho\\ Villa\\-\\ General\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ \\\\-Pancho\\ Villa\\ led\\ the\\ \\"\\;Northern\\ Division\\"\\;\\ \\\\-Military\\ success\\ due\\ to\\ rapid\\ forced\\ marches\\ and\\ surprise\\ attacks\\ \\\\-No\\ clear\\ political\\ ideology\\&\\#39\\;\\ no\\ definite\\ class\\ interests\\ \\\\-Not\\ interested\\ for\\ full\\ scale\\ land\\ reform\\,\\ unorganized\\ \\\\Years\\ of\\ Conflict\\ and\\ Bloodshed\\ \\\\-Madero\\-\\ head\\ of\\ liberals\\,\\ took\\ office\\ as\\ the\\ Revolution\\&\\#39\\;s\\ first\\ President\\ \\\\-Incapable\\ of\\ controlling\\ the\\ many\\ different\\ revolutionary\\ movements\\ he\\ \\forces\\ he\\ had\\ unleashed\\ \\\\-Bad\\ leadership\\/\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ mediate\\ between\\ radical\\ Zapatistas\\ and\\ \\conservatives\\ like\\ Carranza\\ \\\\-US\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ support\\ Madero\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ protect\\ their\\ interests\\ \\\\-Fighting\\ between\\ all\\ the\\ different\\ revolutionary\\ groups\\ for\\ 6\\ years\\ \\\\-Economy\\ in\\ shambles\\,\\ starvation\\ \\\\-Although\\ workers\\ were\\ majority\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ combatants\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ \\gain\\ economic\\,\\ political\\,\\ social\\ status\\ they\\ had\\ hoped\\ for\\.\\ \\\\New\\ Ruling\\ Class\\ \\\\-Recently\\ landed\\ revolutionary\\ generals\\ \\\\-Industrialists\\ and\\ businessmen\\ \\\\-Members\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ land\\ owning\\ oligarchy\\ \\\\Workers\\ Legacy\\ \\\\-The\\ labor\\ legislation\\ that\\ came\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Mexican\\ revolution\\ was\\,\\ in\\ its\\ \\day\\,\\ the\\ most\\ progressive\\ body\\ of\\ labor\\ guarantees\\ on\\ record\\ anywhere\\ in\\ \\the\\ world\\ \\\\The\\ Peasants\\&\\#39\\;\\ Legacy\\ \\\\-Constitution\\ provided\\ the\\ legislative\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ widest\\ scale\\ land\\ \\reform\\ program\\ in\\ history\\.\\ \\\\Unfeasible\\ and\\ Unenforceable\\ Legislation\\ \\\\-Two\\ basic\\ problems\\ stood\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ realization\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ laws\\ \\1\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;nature\\ of\\ the\\ legislation\\ itself\\ \\2\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;conflicts\\ within\\ goals\\ of\\ different\\ articles\\ in\\ constitution\\ and\\ \\the\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ economic\\ interests\\ of\\ those\\ enforcing\\ the\\ laws\\ \\\\Obstacles\\ to\\ land\\ reform\\ \\\\-Carranza\\ won\\ over\\ the\\ peasantry\\ with\\ favorable\\ reforms\\,\\ but\\ then\\ betrayed\\ \\them\\ \\\\-Church\\ and\\ landowners\\ made\\ land\\ reform\\ impossible\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ 40\\%\\ \\of\\ Mexican\\ land\\ was\\ owned\\ by\\ foreign\\ investors\\ \\\\Chapter\\ 2\\.\\ A\\ Ruling\\ Party\\ is\\ Formed\\ \\\\-Calles\\:\\ founder\\ of\\ PRM\\ in\\ 1929\\ \\\\-Cardenas\\ comes\\ to\\ power\\ \\Labor\\ Sector\\ \\\\-liberalized\\ labor\\ legislation\\,\\ strengthen\\ labor\\ and\\ peasant\\ unions\\ \\\\-creation\\ of\\ CTM\\,\\ Mexican\\ Workers\\ Confederation\\ \\\\-worked\\ very\\ closely\\ with\\ government\\ and\\ big\\ business\\,\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ \\representative\\ of\\ workers\\ \\Peasant\\ Sector\\ \\\\-Decline\\ in\\ political\\ influence\\ \\\\-Formation\\ of\\ CNC\\ National\\ Peasants\\ Confederation\\,\\ but\\ it\\ never\\ took\\ on\\ \\the\\ role\\ of\\ political\\ importance\\ Cardenas\\ hoped\\ it\\ would\\ \\Military\\ Sector\\ \\\\-Cardenas\\ tried\\ to\\ reform\\ military\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ under\\ civilian\\ control\\ \\\\Populism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\-The\\ Heyday\\ of\\ Radical\\ Populism\\ in\\ Venezuela\\ and\\ \\its\\ Aftermath\\ Ellner\\ \\\\Romulo\\ Betancourt\\ founder\\ of\\ AD\\ swept\\ into\\ power\\ through\\ coup\\ in\\ \\1945\\-formed\\ Trienio\\ government\\ \\Wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ a\\ orthodox\\ communist\\:\\ Opted\\ for\\ multi\\-class\\ party\\ that\\ would\\ \\represent\\ workers\\,\\ peasants\\,\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ \\In\\ 1936\\,\\ Betancourt\\ creates\\ PDN\\ to\\ unite\\ communists\\ of\\ different\\ stripes\\ \\Drew\\ up\\ Plan\\ de\\ Barranquilla\\,\\ which\\ called\\ for\\ civilian\\ run\\ military\\ \\Ad\\ appealed\\ broadly\\,\\ but\\ had\\ poor\\ relations\\ with\\ other\\ parties\\ \\AD\\ used\\ new\\ media\\ to\\ propagate\\ party\\ \\AD\\ stood\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ of\\ most\\ Latin\\ American\\ populist\\ parties\\ \\Overthrow\\ of\\ AD\\ by\\ military\\ coup\\ in\\ 1948\\ \\\\Susan\\ Eva\\ Eckstein\\,\\ Back\\ From\\ the\\ Future\\:\\ Cuba\\ Under\\ Castro\\ \\Castro\\&\\#39\\;s\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;new\\ man\\:\\"\\;\\ egalitarian\\,\\ selfless\\,\\ cooperative\\,\\ \\nonmaterialistic\\,\\ \\Cuban\\ revolution\\-\\ by\\-product\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ \\Castro\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ able\\ to\\ extract\\ concessions\\ from\\ Moscow\\ \\States\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ ideologically\\ driven\\,\\ also\\ by\\ individual\\ and\\ \\institutional\\ forces\\ \\Castro\\ relied\\ on\\ charisma\\,\\ traditional\\ and\\ to\\ rational\\-legal\\ based\\ \\beaurocratic\\ forms\\ of\\ legitimization\\ \\Castro\\&\\#39\\;s\\ party\\ as\\ a\\ \\"\\;vanguard\\"\\;\\ interpretation\\ of\\ communism\\ \\State\\-society\\ relations\\:\\ Castro\\ organized\\ people\\ and\\ grouped\\ forces\\ in\\ \\civil\\ society\\ \\Castro\\&\\#39\\;s\\ government\\ operated\\ officially\\ under\\ party\\ guidance\\,\\ it\\ combined\\ \\controlling\\ with\\ decentralization\\ and\\ oligarchic\\ and\\ democratic\\ tendencies\\ \\Cuba\\&\\#39\\;s\\ main\\ problems\\ were\\ health\\,\\ land\\,\\ industrialization\\,\\ unemployment\\.\\ \\\\Push\\ for\\ communism\\ \\\\-set\\ out\\ to\\ diversify\\ economy\\ \\\\-agrarian\\ restructuring\\,\\ no\\ private\\ property\\ \\\\Impact\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;Push\\ for\\ Communism\\"\\;\\ \\Policies\\ failed\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ ideologically\\ driven\\ and\\ economically\\ \\irrational\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ unfavorable\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ external\\ sector\\ \\\\(relations\\ to\\ Moscow\\ deteriorated\\)\\ \\\\After\\ crisis\\ in\\ 70\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ Castro\\ took\\ new\\ approach\\:\\ a\\ \\"\\;retreat\\ to\\ socialism\\"\\;\\,\\ \\following\\ Soviet\\ example\\-b\\/c\\ complete\\ communism\\ was\\ unrealistic\\ \\Needed\\ an\\ improvement\\ in\\ production\\,\\ productivity\\,\\ fiscal\\ expenditures\\.\\ \\\\Encouraged\\ political\\ decentralization\\ \\Economic\\ diversification\\-sugar\\ received\\ less\\ emphasis\\ \\New\\ labor\\ union\\ movement\\ \\\\Opening\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ \\Relative\\ economic\\ recovery\\ \\Cuba\\-\\ welfare\\ type\\ state\\,\\ drew\\ on\\ Soviet\\ ideology\\,\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ built\\ \\on\\ Cuban\\ traditions\\ \\\\Utopia\\ Unarmed\\ \\Cuba\\ gave\\ hope\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ \\Discusses\\ differences\\ and\\ similarities\\ with\\ Soviet\\ model\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movements\\ emerged\\ throughout\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ Cuban\\ \\example\\ \\B\\/c\\ of\\ economic\\ dependence\\,\\ Cuba\\ has\\ to\\ adhere\\ to\\ Soviet\\ Unions\\ demands\\ \\Castro\\ provides\\ arms\\ for\\ groups\\ abroad\\ for\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ insurgent\\ \\groups\\ \\Ultimately\\ Cuba\\ failed\\ in\\ making\\ revolutions\\ happen\\ throughout\\ Latin\\ \\America\\ \\\\Timothy\\ Wickham\\-Crowley\\,\\ \\"\\;Winners\\,\\ Losers\\,\\ and\\ Also\\-Rans\\:\\ Toward\\ a\\ \\Comparative\\ Sociology\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Guerrilla\\ Movements\\,\\"\\;\\ \\Two\\ surges\\ of\\ guerrilla\\ movements\\:\\ one\\ in\\ mid\\ 1960s\\ one\\ in\\ mid\\ 1970s\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movements\\ reliant\\ on\\ peasant\\ support\\,\\ their\\ own\\ military\\ \\strength\\,\\ and\\ there\\ ability\\ to\\ undermine\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ government\\,\\ \\shifting\\ loyalty\\ to\\ them\\ \\Agrarian\\ structure\\ in\\ a\\ region\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ receptiveness\\ of\\ the\\ \\peasants\\ to\\ the\\ guerrilla\\ movement\\,\\ as\\ sharecroppers\\ and\\ squatters\\ are\\ \\more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ revolutionary\\ \\Agrarian\\ change\\,\\ aussault\\ on\\ their\\ security\\ by\\ the\\ state\\,\\ and\\ peasant\\ \\dislocation\\ radicalize\\ peasantry\\,\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ support\\ \\guerrilla\\ movement\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movements\\ took\\ root\\ in\\ areas\\ that\\ with\\ histories\\ of\\ popular\\ \\rebellion\\ against\\ federal\\ authority\\.\\ \\For\\ movements\\ to\\ work\\,\\ often\\ it\\ takes\\ an\\ outsider\\ to\\ come\\ in\\ to\\ mobilize\\ \\and\\ organize\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\The\\ military\\ strength\\ of\\ a\\ guerrilla\\ movement\\ and\\ the\\ loyalty\\ of\\ the\\ \\masses\\ to\\ the\\ cause\\ are\\ factors\\ imperative\\ for\\ their\\ success\\ \\Lack\\ of\\ loyalty\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ factor\\ in\\ the\\ \\rebels\\ success\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movementa\\ had\\ difficulties\\ appealing\\ to\\ the\\ rural\\ population\\ \\Success\\ in\\ Nicaragua\\ and\\ Cuba\\ b\\/c\\ \\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;strong\\ sustained\\ peasant\\ support\\ \\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;maintenance\\ of\\ sufficient\\ military\\ strength\\ to\\ endure\\ army\\ attacks\\ \\and\\ sustain\\ a\\ more\\ general\\ offensive\\ \\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;stripping\\ the\\ incumbent\\ government\\ of\\ legitimacy\\,\\ replacing\\ it\\ \\with\\ their\\ own\\ movement\\ as\\ legitimate\\,\\ revolutionary\\ alternative\\ in\\ the\\ \\eyes\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ E\\.\\ Skidmore\\ and\\ Peter\\ H\\.\\ Smith\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2001\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-10\\;\\ 13\\-66\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Page\\ 1\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ why\\ is\\ LA\\ relevant\\ to\\ US\\ \\[political\\ and\\ economic\\ ties\\,\\ existence\\ of\\ large\\ Hispanic\\ population\\ in\\ US\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ misconception\\ that\\ LA\\ is\\ an\\ easy\\ place\\ to\\ understand\\,\\ simplistic\\,\\ homogenous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ politically\\,\\ culturally\\,\\ linguistically\\,\\ racially\\,\\ geographically\\,\\ economically\\ diverse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ paradoxical\\:\\ young\\ and\\ old\\,\\ stable\\ and\\ tumultuous\\,\\ independent\\ and\\ dependent\\,\\ prosperous\\ and\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ explanations\\ of\\ non\\-democracy\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[racist\\ stereotypes\\,\\ modernizations\\ theory\\,\\ cultural\\,\\ dependency\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ rise\\ of\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;approached\\ with\\ intellectual\\ caution\\,\\ will\\ they\\ last\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 13\\-66\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ The\\ Colonial\\ Foundations\\ \\(1492\\-1880s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOTE\\:\\ This\\ is\\ all\\ background\\ info\\,\\ and\\ probably\\ not\\ overly\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ describes\\ Mayan\\,\\ Aztec\\,\\ Incan\\ civilizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ burst\\ of\\ European\\ expansion\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ technical\\ skill\\,\\ economic\\ base\\,\\ and\\ religious\\ motivation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ explorers\\ hoping\\ to\\ gain\\ wealth\\ and\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spain\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ how\\ did\\ Cortes\\ defeat\\ the\\ Aztecs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ superiority\\ of\\ military\\ technology\\/strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ b\\/c\\ Aztecs\\ initially\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ gods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Spanish\\ alliance\\ with\\ Aztec\\ enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ outbreak\\ of\\ smallpox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ similar\\ for\\ Pizarro\\ and\\ the\\ Incas\\,\\ except\\ easier\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ their\\ civil\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ lack\\ of\\ Spanish\\ women\\ led\\ to\\ racial\\ intermixing\\ \\[mestizos\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ creation\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\ by\\ Spanish\\ crown\\ to\\ keep\\ colonies\\ under\\ their\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ supremacy\\ of\\ Spanish\\ monarch\\,\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;divine\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ transferred\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ cheap\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indian\\&rdquo\\;\\ labor\\ is\\ foundation\\ of\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ huge\\ decrease\\ in\\ Indian\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ importation\\ of\\ black\\ slaves\\ from\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ complex\\ stratification\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ race\\ and\\ place\\ of\\ birth\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ fluidity\\/mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-changes\\ in\\ population\\ composition\\ increased\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ whites\\ and\\ mestizos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portugal\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Portugal\\ given\\ part\\ of\\ Brazil\\ in\\ a\\ treaty\\ with\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Brazil\\ is\\ different\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ less\\ Indians\\,\\ and\\ less\\ opportunity\\ for\\ instant\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ to\\ entice\\ settlers\\,\\ Portugese\\ crown\\ gave\\ huge\\ tracts\\ of\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ brought\\ over\\ black\\ slaves\\ from\\ Africa\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Brazilian\\ society\\ much\\ more\\ racially\\ stratified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roots\\ of\\ Independence\\ \\[Spanish\\ colonies\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ independence\\ movements\\ have\\ roots\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Spain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ to\\ tighten\\ its\\ hold\\ on\\ the\\ colonies\\ backfired\\ because\\ they\\ alienated\\ New\\ World\\-born\\ whites\\ \\[creoles\\]\\ and\\ pushed\\ them\\ toward\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Napolean\\ invaded\\ Spain\\ and\\ installed\\ his\\ brother\\ on\\ the\\ throne\\,\\ colonists\\ felt\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ leader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ old\\ Spanish\\ monarch\\ \\[Ferdinand\\ VII\\]\\ in\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\,\\ but\\ has\\ no\\ effective\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Ferdinand\\ returns\\ to\\ Spanish\\ throne\\,\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ death\\ of\\ independence\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ this\\ proves\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ violent\\ conflicts\\ ensue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Ferdinand\\ VII\\ gets\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ inquisition\\ and\\ endorses\\ the\\ liberal\\ constitution\\ \\[created\\ by\\ colonists\\]\\ this\\ alienates\\ his\\ supporters\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ who\\ now\\ view\\ independence\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ preserve\\ status\\ quo\\,\\ traditional\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ gradually\\ each\\ colony\\ achieves\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Independence\\ in\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Napoleon\\ ousts\\ Portuguese\\ monarchy\\,\\ they\\ flee\\ to\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ open\\ Brazilian\\ ports\\ to\\ trade\\ with\\ other\\ European\\ countries\\ in\\ order\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ to\\ continue\\ profiting\\ from\\ Brazilian\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ while\\ there\\,\\ monarchy\\ created\\ new\\ institutions\\,\\ infrastructure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ monarchy\\ returned\\ to\\ Portugal\\ they\\ attempted\\ to\\ regain\\ the\\ same\\ control\\ they\\ had\\ had\\ pre\\-Napoleon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ colonists\\ resisted\\ and\\ conflict\\ ensued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Portuguese\\ military\\ was\\ rather\\ weak\\ and\\ they\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ an\\ independent\\ Brazilian\\ monarchy\\ was\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aftermath\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ wars\\ wreaked\\ havoc\\ on\\ the\\ economies\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ Spanish\\ American\\ republics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ regional\\ conflict\\ exacerbated\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ free\\ trade\\ improved\\ the\\ economy\\ but\\ imports\\ displaced\\ domestic\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ social\\ conflict\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ trend\\ towards\\ consolidation\\ of\\ power\\ under\\ dictatorships\\ \\[\\&ldquo\\;strong\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pull\\ of\\ International\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ focus\\ on\\ effective\\ use\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ labor\\ to\\ improve\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ attempts\\ to\\ improve\\ transportation\\ within\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economy\\ had\\ success\\,\\ but\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ industrializing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ Modern\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ 1880s\\-1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economic\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;social\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;political\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1880\\-1900\\:\\ initiation\\ of\\ export\\-import\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ raw\\ materials\\ exported\\,\\ manufactured\\ goods\\ imported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ dependent\\ on\\ foreigners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economic\\ liberalism\\,\\ free\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ development\\ of\\ entrepreneurial\\ spirit\\,\\ service\\ sector\\,\\ interest\\ in\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ emphasis\\ on\\ stability\\ and\\ social\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1900\\-1930\\:\\ expansion\\ of\\ export\\-import\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ appearance\\/growth\\ of\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ surges\\ of\\ labor\\ mobilization\\,\\ but\\ still\\ no\\ political\\ voice\\/power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ urbanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ middle\\ sectors\\ given\\ increased\\ political\\ access\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ but\\,\\ conditions\\ were\\ not\\ there\\ for\\ liberalism\\ to\\ flourish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1930\\-1960s\\:\\ Import\\-Substituting\\ Industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Great\\ Depression\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;economic\\ collapse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ military\\ coups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ 2\\ possible\\ paths\\:\\ forge\\ even\\ closer\\ ties\\ with\\ industrialized\\ nations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\industrialize\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ independent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ started\\ producing\\ manufactured\\ goods\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ formerly\\ imported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ emergence\\ of\\ industrial\\ bourgeoisie\\,\\ working\\ class\\,\\ and\\ an\\ active\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ 2\\ political\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ democratic\\ co\\-optation\\ \\[Chile\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ multiclass\\ \\&ldquo\\;populist\\&rdquo\\;\\ alliances\\ \\[Argentina\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1960s\\-1980s\\:\\ Stagnation\\ in\\ Import\\-Substituting\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ industrialization\\ through\\ ISI\\ was\\ structurally\\ incomplete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ LA\\ countries\\ were\\ still\\ dependent\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ needed\\ foreign\\ capital\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ declining\\ terms\\ of\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ limited\\ domestic\\ market\\ for\\ manufactured\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ industries\\ were\\ capital\\-intensive\\ and\\ therefore\\ employed\\ few\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;repressive\\ regimes\\ \\[bureaucratic\\ authoritarian\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 4\\ characteristics\\:\\ public\\ office\\ given\\ to\\ bureaucrats\\,\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;exclusion\\ of\\ working\\ class\\,\\ reduction\\/elimination\\ of\\ political\\ activity\\,\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;forging\\/consolidating\\ ties\\ with\\ international\\ economic\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1980s\\-1990s\\:\\ Crisis\\,\\ Debt\\,\\ and\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ declining\\ export\\ earnings\\ and\\ increasing\\ debt\\-service\\ payments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ relief\\ offered\\ but\\ with\\ strict\\ terms\\:\\ opening\\ up\\ economy\\,\\ anti\\-inflationary\\ measures\\,\\ etc\\ \\[neo\\-liberal\\ policies\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ turn\\ toward\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ economic\\ turnaround\\ but\\ still\\ volatility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ structural\\ problems\\:\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\machismo\\/marianismo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ social\\ role\\ of\\ females\\ confined\\ to\\ private\\ sphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ twentieth\\ century\\ brought\\ vastly\\ increased\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ suffrage\\ came\\ late\\,\\ but\\ were\\ active\\ in\\ politics\\ in\\ other\\ ways\\ \\[eg\\.\\ Mothers\\ of\\ the\\ Plaza\\ de\\ Mayo\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ still\\ only\\ very\\ few\\ are\\ in\\ positions\\ of\\ political\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;feminist\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\ is\\ different\\ in\\ LA\\ than\\ in\\ US\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;they\\ work\\ more\\ close\\ to\\ home\\,\\ in\\ grass\\-roots\\ organizations\\ and\\ civic\\ associations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juan\\ Velasco\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Master\\ Will\\ No\\ Longer\\ Feed\\ off\\ Your\\ Poverty\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Orrin\\ Starn\\,\\ Carlos\\ Iv\\á\\;n\\ Degregori\\,\\ and\\ Robin\\ Kirk\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Peru\\ Reader\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Durham\\:\\ Duke\\ University\\ Press\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 264\\-69\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\speech\\ given\\ on\\ the\\ occasion\\ of\\ the\\ issuance\\ of\\ the\\ Agrarian\\ Reform\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peasant\\ Day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Revolutionary\\ Government\\ honors\\ the\\ peasants\\ by\\ recognizing\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ they\\ work\\ and\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ justice\\ where\\ they\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ second\\-class\\ citizens\\,\\ exploited\\ by\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Rev\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ also\\ promised\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ nat\\&rsquo\\;l\\ reconstruction\\ with\\ the\\ mission\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ of\\ nat\\&rsquo\\;l\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Armed\\ Forces\\ and\\ Renovation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rev\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ assumed\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ state\\ into\\ a\\ productive\\ instrument\\ for\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transformation\\,\\ not\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ continue\\ to\\ exploit\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ perpetuate\\ injustice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dedicated\\ to\\ cancelling\\ the\\ old\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ structures\\ that\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ valid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highest\\ priority\\ on\\ list\\ of\\ reforms\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ agrarian\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Law\\ considers\\ land\\ and\\ the\\ physical\\ plant\\ as\\ an\\ indivisible\\ whole\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ agrarian\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Law\\ establishes\\ new\\ cooperatives\\ that\\ guarantee\\ job\\ stability\\,\\ salaries\\,\\ and\\ the\\ social\\ rights\\ of\\ the\\ managers\\,\\ administrative\\,\\ and\\ technical\\ personnel\\ and\\ workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ agrarian\\ reform\\ will\\ produce\\ more\\ and\\ better\\ agricultural\\ owners\\ that\\ will\\ benefit\\ not\\ the\\ few\\ but\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ law\\ will\\ limit\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ own\\ land\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ guarantee\\ that\\ land\\ serves\\ its\\ social\\ function\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ system\\ of\\ justice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ land\\ must\\ be\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ work\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ see\\ their\\ property\\ reduced\\ by\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ law\\ will\\ receive\\ a\\ fair\\ price\\ from\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ government\\ must\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ majority\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ most\\ needy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\indigenous\\ communities\\ will\\ from\\ this\\ day\\ forward\\ be\\ called\\ Peasant\\ Communities\\ and\\ will\\ receive\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ credit\\ and\\ technical\\ assistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adversaries\\ and\\ Detractors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ expect\\ opposition\\ from\\ the\\ political\\ elites\\ and\\ economic\\ monopolies\\,\\ but\\ this\\ traditional\\ oligarchy\\ will\\ see\\ its\\ anti\\-patriotic\\ dominance\\ in\\ jeopardy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ new\\ law\\ will\\ also\\ have\\ friends\\ who\\ will\\ now\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ practice\\ their\\ ideals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ armed\\ forces\\ stand\\ at\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ authentic\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ motherland\\,\\ the\\ peasants\\,\\ workers\\,\\ students\\,\\ intellectuals\\,\\ priests\\,\\ industrialists\\,\\ and\\ professionals\\ who\\ support\\ the\\ agrarian\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Invocation\\ to\\ Youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fight\\ for\\ a\\ free\\ and\\ just\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ greatest\\ challenge\\ is\\ to\\ construct\\ for\\ our\\ people\\ and\\ our\\ youth\\ a\\ social\\ order\\ where\\ man\\ can\\ live\\ with\\ dignity\\,\\ knowing\\ that\\ he\\ lives\\ on\\ land\\ that\\ is\\ his\\ and\\ in\\ a\\ nation\\ that\\ owns\\ its\\ destiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Terry\\ Lynn\\ Karl\\,\\ \\"\\;Dilemmas\\ of\\ Democratization\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Comparative\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;23\\:\\ 1\\ \\(October\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-21\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ conditions\\ make\\ democracy\\ possible\\ and\\ what\\ conditions\\ make\\ it\\ thrive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\ theorists\\ of\\ comparative\\ politics\\ have\\ sought\\ to\\ understand\\ democracy\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\ has\\ changed\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ process\\-oriented\\ emphasis\\ on\\ contingent\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Theorists\\ should\\ now\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ structural\\ constraints\\ and\\ the\\ shaping\\ of\\ contingent\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ inadequate\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ transitions\\ using\\ the\\ general\\ categories\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ rule\\ to\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ analysis\\ should\\ be\\ complemented\\ by\\ the\\ identification\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ democracy\\ that\\ emerge\\ from\\ distinctive\\ modes\\ of\\ regime\\ transition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defining\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uses\\ a\\ middle\\-range\\ specification\\ of\\ democracy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ set\\ of\\ institutions\\ that\\ permits\\ the\\ entire\\ adult\\ population\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ citizens\\ by\\ choosing\\ their\\ leading\\ decision\\ makers\\ in\\ competitive\\,\\ fair\\,\\ and\\ regularly\\ scheduled\\ elections\\ which\\ are\\ held\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\,\\ guarantees\\ for\\ political\\ freedom\\,\\ and\\ limited\\ military\\ prerogatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ requirement\\ of\\ civilian\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ military\\ is\\ what\\ sets\\ his\\ definition\\ apart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Futile\\ Search\\ for\\ Democratic\\ Preconditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scholarship\\ before\\ the\\ democratization\\ wave\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ argued\\ that\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ preconditions\\ were\\ necessary\\ for\\ a\\ stable\\ democracy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ certain\\ degree\\ of\\ wealth\\ or\\ capitalist\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ certain\\ system\\ of\\ beliefs\\ and\\ values\\ in\\ which\\ political\\ action\\ is\\ embedded\\ and\\ given\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specific\\ domestic\\ historical\\ conditions\\ and\\ configurations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\External\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\.\\,\\ ISI\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ rise\\ and\\ decline\\ of\\ democracy\\ was\\ directly\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ and\\ decline\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ market\\ mechanisms\\ or\\ accumulation\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ LA\\ countries\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ challenged\\ all\\ these\\ assumptions\\ about\\ preconditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assumption\\ about\\ connection\\ bt\\ wealth\\ and\\ democracy\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ explain\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Peru\\ or\\ Argentina\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ no\\ direct\\ or\\ inevitable\\ correlation\\ bt\\ capital\\ deepening\\ and\\ authoritarian\\ rule\\ can\\ be\\ found\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ may\\ be\\ no\\ single\\ precondition\\ that\\ is\\ sufficient\\ to\\ produce\\ such\\ an\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ literature\\ ahs\\ considered\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ preconditions\\ of\\ democracy\\ may\\ be\\ better\\ conceived\\ as\\ the\\ outcomes\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ Contingent\\ Choice\\ to\\ Structured\\ Contingency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ and\\ Schmitter\\,\\ democratization\\ is\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ historical\\ process\\ with\\ analytically\\ distinct\\ stages\\ of\\ transition\\,\\ consolidation\\,\\ persistence\\,\\ and\\ eventual\\ deconsolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ differentiates\\ these\\ stages\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ which\\ prevails\\ at\\ each\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ absence\\ of\\ predictable\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\ during\\ a\\ regime\\ transition\\ expands\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ contingent\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\regime\\ consolidation\\ occurs\\ when\\ contending\\ social\\ classes\\ and\\ pol\\ groups\\ come\\ to\\ accept\\ some\\ set\\ of\\ formal\\ rules\\ or\\ informal\\ understandings\\ that\\ determine\\ who\\ gets\\ what\\ from\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ notion\\ of\\ contingency\\ stresses\\ collective\\ decisions\\ and\\ pol\\ interactions\\ that\\ have\\ largely\\ been\\ underemphasized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ democracy\\ must\\ be\\ placed\\ within\\ a\\ framework\\ of\\ structural\\-historical\\ constraints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Socioeconomic\\ structures\\ and\\ political\\ institutions\\ may\\ either\\ restrict\\ or\\ enhance\\ the\\ options\\ available\\ to\\ different\\ pol\\ actors\\,\\ making\\ democracy\\ either\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ likely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structural\\ and\\ institutional\\ constraints\\ determine\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ options\\ available\\ to\\ decision\\ makers\\ and\\ may\\ even\\ predispose\\ them\\ to\\ choose\\ a\\ specific\\ option\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modes\\ of\\ Transition\\ to\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ arrangements\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ key\\ pol\\ actors\\ during\\ a\\ regime\\ transition\\ establish\\ new\\ rules\\,\\ roles\\,\\ and\\ behavioral\\ patterns\\ which\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ represent\\ an\\ important\\ rupture\\ with\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\these\\ become\\ the\\ institutions\\ shaping\\ the\\ prospects\\ for\\ future\\ regime\\ consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possible\\ modes\\ of\\ transition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ differentiate\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ democracies\\ are\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ strategy\\ based\\ primarily\\ on\\ overt\\ force\\ from\\ those\\ in\\ which\\ democracies\\ arise\\ form\\ compromise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ distinguish\\ bt\\ transitions\\ in\\ which\\ incumbent\\ ruling\\ groups\\ are\\ still\\ ascendant\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ mass\\ actors\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ which\\ mass\\ actors\\ have\\ gained\\ the\\ upper\\ hand\\ vis\\-\\à\\;\\-vis\\ dominant\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ ideal\\ types\\:\\ reform\\,\\ revolution\\,\\ imposition\\,\\ and\\ pact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ frequent\\ type\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;transitions\\ from\\ above\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Least\\ common\\ is\\ democratization\\ by\\ imposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ democracies\\ that\\ have\\ endured\\ for\\ a\\ respectable\\ length\\ of\\ time\\ appear\\ to\\ cluster\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\ defined\\ by\\ relatively\\ strong\\ elite\\ actors\\ who\\ engage\\ in\\ strategies\\ of\\ compromise\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Venezuela\\,\\ Colombia\\,\\ Uruguay\\,\\ and\\ Chile\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foundational\\ pacts\\ are\\ well\\ exemplified\\ by\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Venezuela\\,\\ where\\ the\\ military\\,\\ pol\\ parties\\,\\ and\\ capitalists\\ all\\ cooperated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ foundational\\ pacts\\ underlying\\ some\\ new\\ democracies\\ have\\ several\\ essential\\ components\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ are\\ necessarily\\ comprehensive\\ and\\ inclusive\\ of\\ virtually\\ all\\ politically\\ significant\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ typical\\ foundational\\ pact\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ agreements\\ that\\ are\\ interlocking\\ and\\ dependent\\ upon\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ such\\ pacts\\ are\\ both\\ substantive\\ and\\ procedural\\,\\ they\\ initially\\ emphasize\\ rulemaking\\ bc\\ \\&ldquo\\;bargaining\\ about\\ bargaining\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ most\\ important\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ compromise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pacts\\ serve\\ to\\ ensure\\ survivability\\ bc\\,\\ although\\ they\\ are\\ inclusionary\\,\\ they\\ are\\ simultaneously\\ aimed\\ at\\ restricting\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ representation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reassure\\ traditional\\ dominant\\ classes\\ that\\ their\\ vital\\ interests\\ will\\ be\\ respected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Types\\ of\\ Democracies\\ and\\ Their\\ Prospects\\ in\\ the\\ Contemporary\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ concurrent\\ realities\\ of\\ democratization\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ newly\\ emergent\\ civilian\\ or\\ militarized\\ civilian\\ regimes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Argentina\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ Peru\\,\\ Ecuador\\,\\ Guatemala\\,\\ Honduras\\,\\ Nicaragua\\,\\ El\\ Salvador\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ face\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ sheer\\ survivability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ types\\ of\\ democracies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Venezuela\\,\\ Costa\\ Rica\\,\\ Brazil\\,\\ Uruguay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ are\\ relatively\\ consolidated\\ in\\ that\\ actors\\ are\\ not\\ so\\ preoccupied\\ by\\ the\\ overriding\\ concern\\ with\\ survivability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Current\\ concern\\ with\\ both\\ survivability\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;who\\ benefits\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\not\\-so\\-promising\\ scenarios\\ for\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ democracies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ democracy\\ in\\ LA\\ may\\ be\\ rooted\\ in\\ a\\ fundamental\\ paradox\\:\\ the\\ very\\ modes\\ of\\ transition\\ that\\ appear\\ to\\ enhance\\ initial\\ survivability\\ by\\ limiting\\ unpredictability\\ may\\ preclude\\ the\\ future\\ democratic\\ self\\-transformation\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ or\\ polity\\ further\\ down\\ the\\ road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ central\\ dilemma\\ of\\ elite\\-ascendant\\ processes\\ of\\ democratization\\,\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ important\\ differences\\ bt\\ countries\\ like\\ Uruguay\\,\\ a\\ pacted\\ transition\\,\\ and\\ Brazil\\,\\ a\\ unilaterally\\ imposed\\ transition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ hypothesis\\:\\ to\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ transitions\\ are\\ unilaterally\\ imposed\\ \\ \\;by\\ armed\\ forces\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ compromises\\,\\ they\\ threaten\\ to\\ evolve\\ into\\ civilian\\ governments\\ controlled\\ by\\ authoritarian\\ elements\\ who\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ push\\ for\\ greater\\ participation\\,\\ accountability\\,\\ or\\ equity\\ for\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ their\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ attempt\\ to\\ assess\\ possible\\ consequences\\ of\\ various\\ modes\\ of\\ transition\\ is\\ most\\ problematic\\ where\\ strong\\ elements\\ of\\ imposition\\,\\ compromise\\,\\ and\\ reform\\ are\\ simultaneously\\ present\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ where\\ neither\\ incumbent\\ elites\\ not\\ newly\\ ascendant\\ power\\ contenders\\ are\\ clearly\\ in\\ control\\ and\\ where\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ are\\ relatively\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ pol\\ democracies\\ generally\\ arise\\ from\\ a\\ compromise\\ bt\\ contending\\ organized\\ elites\\ that\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ impose\\ their\\ will\\ unilaterally\\ or\\ the\\ unilateral\\ action\\ of\\ one\\ dominant\\ group\\,\\ usually\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\,\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ bode\\ well\\ for\\ democratization\\ in\\ situations\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ are\\ inextricably\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ dominant\\ \\(and\\ antidemocratic\\)\\ agrarian\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ a\\ priori\\ reason\\ why\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ democracy\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ transformed\\ into\\ another\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ why\\ electoral\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ can\\ not\\ evolve\\ into\\ conservative\\ or\\ competitive\\ democracies\\,\\ or\\ corporatist\\ democracies\\ into\\ more\\ competitive\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gerardo\\ L\\.\\ Munck\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Authoritarianism\\ and\\ Democratization\\:\\ Soldiers\\ and\\ Workers\\ in\\ Argentina\\,\\ 1976\\-1983\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(University\\ Park\\:\\ Penn\\ State\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1998\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 133\\-161\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galtieri\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ through\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Viola\\ and\\ gave\\ more\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ hardliners\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ to\\ institutionalize\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ power\\,\\ but\\ its\\ hold\\ had\\ been\\ weakened\\ through\\ bad\\ governing\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ growing\\ protest\\ movement\\ organized\\ by\\ a\\ party\\ alliance\\,\\ and\\ a\\ labor\\ front\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ anti\\-inflation\\ economic\\ program\\.\\ They\\ held\\ a\\ mass\\ demonstration\\ with\\ support\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ opposition\\ groups\\,\\ which\\ the\\ military\\ broke\\ up\\.\\ The\\ military\\ decided\\ to\\ invade\\ the\\ Falklands\\/Malvinas\\ but\\ surrendered\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\ later\\.\\ This\\ defeat\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ resignation\\ of\\ the\\ cabinet\\ and\\ president\\,\\ and\\ the\\ junta\\ broke\\ up\\ on\\ disagreements\\ over\\ the\\ succession\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ plan\\ to\\ invade\\ had\\ originally\\ only\\ been\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ navy\\,\\ but\\ the\\ army\\ later\\ supported\\ it\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ supporting\\ the\\ coup\\.\\ It\\ could\\ be\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ transition\\ was\\ not\\ started\\ by\\ the\\ war\\,\\ but\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\ The\\ war\\ had\\ no\\ chance\\ of\\ success\\ and\\ although\\ it\\ created\\ a\\ nationalist\\ movement\\,\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ create\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ coup\\ of\\ Galtieri\\ against\\ Viola\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\,\\ because\\ the\\ military\\ broke\\ their\\ own\\ rules\\ for\\ managing\\ the\\ country\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ stop\\ the\\ outside\\ opposition\\ to\\ their\\ regime\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ militaries\\ mistakes\\,\\ they\\ lost\\ power\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ dictate\\ favorable\\ terms\\ for\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ transition\\.\\ The\\ transition\\ was\\ fast\\,\\ and\\ the\\ military\\ did\\ not\\ get\\ an\\ assurance\\ of\\ protection\\ for\\ their\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\.\\ The\\ military\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ Peronists\\,\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ won\\ every\\ free\\ election\\.\\ Lorenzo\\ Miguel\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ liason\\ between\\ the\\ hardliners\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ and\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ prominent\\ labor\\ leader\\.\\ The\\ main\\ opposition\\ was\\ Alfonsin\\ for\\ the\\ Radicales\\,\\ who\\ ran\\ on\\ a\\ pro\\-human\\ rights\\ platform\\ and\\ eventually\\ won\\ because\\ the\\ military\\ had\\ only\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ weak\\ pact\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ lack\\ of\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maria\\ D\\&rsquo\\;Alva\\ G\\.\\ Kinzo\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Transitions\\:\\ Brazil\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ Manuel\\ Antonio\\ Garret\\ó\\;n\\ and\\ Edward\\ Newman\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ \\(Re\\)constructing\\ Political\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Tokyo\\:\\ United\\ Nations\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2001\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brazil\\ was\\ ruled\\ by\\ a\\ military\\ regime\\ which\\ retained\\ some\\ political\\ positions\\ for\\ civilians\\ from\\ the\\ previous\\ civilian\\ regime\\ which\\ created\\ tensions\\.\\ It\\ had\\ alternating\\ periods\\ of\\ political\\ relaxation\\ which\\ created\\ crisis\\ and\\ led\\ to\\ waves\\ or\\ repression\\.\\ Economically\\,\\ the\\ regime\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ innovate\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ merely\\ deepened\\ ISI\\.\\ Its\\ transition\\ was\\ gradual\\,\\ a\\ negotiated\\ pact\\,\\ and\\ had\\ 3\\ periods\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1974\\-82\\ Geisel\\ \\-\\ With\\ freer\\ legislative\\ elections\\ and\\ internal\\ military\\ disagreements\\,\\ but\\ economic\\ stagnation\\ and\\ crisis\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ oil\\ shock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1982\\-85\\ The\\ PMDB\\ gained\\ some\\ power\\ through\\ elections\\,\\ and\\ attempted\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ constitution\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ president\\ directly\\ elected\\ but\\ failed\\.\\ It\\ nominated\\ Tancredo\\ Neves\\ for\\ P\\ and\\ Jose\\ Sarney\\ for\\ VP\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1985\\-90\\ Neves\\ died\\ and\\ Sarney\\ took\\ power\\ with\\ little\\ legitimacy\\.\\ 1988\\-\\ new\\ constitution\\ more\\ democratic\\ 89\\-\\ Fernando\\ Collor\\ was\\ elected\\ and\\ set\\ orthodox\\ stabilization\\ plans\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Changes\\ in\\ agriculture\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ growth\\ in\\ urbanization\\ and\\ homeless\\ people\\,\\ which\\ made\\ social\\ programs\\ very\\ important\\,\\ even\\ though\\ and\\ especially\\ because\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ in\\ an\\ economic\\ crisis\\.\\ Presidentialism\\ and\\ a\\ fragmented\\ party\\ system\\ have\\ further\\ complicated\\ policy\\ making\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constable\\ and\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Nation\\ of\\ Enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pinochet\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ candidate\\ in\\ a\\ yes\\/no\\ plebiscite\\.\\ The\\ regime\\ used\\ the\\ money\\ and\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ media\\ to\\ campaign\\.\\ Some\\ parties\\ supported\\ the\\ yes\\,\\ while\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ rightist\\ ones\\ opposed\\ it\\.\\ Parties\\ wondered\\ whether\\ to\\ fight\\ Pinochet\\ at\\ his\\ own\\ game\\,\\ or\\ fight\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ risk\\ being\\ excluded\\.\\ There\\ were\\ many\\ abuses\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Constitutional\\ Tribunal\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ separate\\ electoral\\ commission\\ with\\ fraud\\-proof\\ electoral\\ laws\\.\\ Several\\ parties\\ allied\\ to\\ campaign\\ for\\ the\\ no\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ support\\ from\\ Lagos\\ and\\ Aylwin\\.\\ As\\ the\\ plebiscite\\ approached\\,\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ violence\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ safety\\ increased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ votes\\ were\\ counted\\,\\ the\\ government\\ at\\ first\\ released\\ reports\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ winning\\,\\ but\\ they\\ eventually\\ accepted\\ that\\ the\\ No\\ was\\ winning\\,\\ and\\ No\\ supporters\\ began\\ celebrating\\.\\ Pinochet\\ had\\ misread\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ because\\ he\\ believed\\ his\\ advisors\\ and\\ official\\ publicity\\.\\ The\\ military\\ officers\\ would\\ remain\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ for\\ 8\\ years\\ and\\ they\\ would\\ set\\ the\\ rules\\ for\\ the\\ elections\\ and\\ govern\\ while\\ they\\ were\\ held\\.\\ The\\ Constitution\\ that\\ would\\ remain\\ was\\ one\\ that\\ gave\\ many\\ privileges\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ biased\\ the\\ government\\ towards\\ the\\ conservatives\\.\\ The\\ parties\\ united\\ and\\ forced\\ Pinochet\\ to\\ pass\\ reforms\\ on\\ his\\ constitution\\.\\ The\\ Concertacion\\ chose\\ Aylwin\\ as\\ their\\ candidate\\.\\ The\\ Right\\ chose\\ Buchi\\,\\ the\\ modern\\ and\\ young\\ finance\\ minister\\ who\\ had\\ managed\\ the\\ economy\\ well\\.\\ The\\ opposition\\ adopted\\ many\\ of\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ reforms\\,\\ and\\ won\\ by\\ a\\ wide\\ margin\\.\\ Pinochet\\ quickly\\ passed\\ laws\\ protecting\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ placing\\ loyalists\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ positions\\ and\\ promised\\ to\\ prevent\\ trials\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gov\\ 1295\\ Reading\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Steven\\ Levitsky\\ and\\ Maxwell\\ Cameron\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Democracy\\ without\\ Parties\\?\\ \\ \\;Political\\ Parties\\ and\\ Regime\\ Change\\ in\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Peru\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Latin\\ American\\ Politics\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;45\\,\\ No\\.\\ 3\\ \\(Fall\\ 2003\\)\\,\\ 1\\-34\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abstract\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ absence\\ of\\ political\\ parties\\ represents\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ many\\ cases\\,\\ parties\\ have\\ become\\ nothing\\ more\\ than\\ personalistic\\ vehicles\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ cause\\ for\\ concern\\,\\ because\\ parties\\ remain\\ critical\\ to\\ the\\ performance\\ and\\ stability\\ of\\ democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ Parties\\ Matter\\ in\\ A\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Parties\\ make\\ democracy\\ workable\\ by\\ allowing\\ voters\\ to\\ properly\\ evaluate\\ candidates\\ on\\ basis\\ of\\ past\\ performance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ have\\ longer\\ term\\ goals\\ than\\ individual\\ politicians\\,\\ who\\ are\\ self\\-centered\\ and\\ think\\ only\\ about\\ short\\ term\\ goals\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ next\\ election\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ that\\ support\\ elite\\ economic\\ interests\\ tend\\ to\\ produce\\ stable\\ democracies\\,\\ because\\ that\\ way\\ the\\ major\\ players\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ incentives\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;kick\\ over\\ the\\ chess\\ board\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Party\\ weakness\\ translates\\ into\\ legislative\\ inefficiency\\ since\\ the\\ executive\\-legislative\\ relations\\ are\\ not\\ smooth\\,\\ so\\ stable\\ parties\\ matter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Additionally\\,\\ if\\ parties\\ are\\ weak\\,\\ politicians\\ gain\\ power\\ by\\ sidestepping\\ the\\ institutional\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-they\\ opt\\ for\\ mass\\ appeals\\ and\\ governing\\ in\\ a\\ personalistic\\ manner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ check\\ executive\\ power\\ through\\ an\\ independent\\ legislature\\ because\\ they\\ prevent\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;overweening\\ executive\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-the\\ lack\\ of\\ a\\ stable\\ party\\ system\\ in\\ 1990s\\ Peru\\ helped\\ Fujimori\\ establish\\ strong\\ personalistic\\ rule\\ and\\ control\\ the\\ legislature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ also\\ limit\\ the\\ space\\ available\\ to\\ political\\ outsiders\\;\\ they\\ initiate\\ people\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ system\\ by\\ giving\\ them\\ training\\ and\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ making\\ people\\ more\\ dedicated\\ to\\ democratic\\ institutions\\,\\ negotiations\\ and\\ coalition\\ building\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ help\\ maintain\\ democracy\\ because\\ the\\ democratic\\ opposition\\ can\\ organize\\ collective\\ action\\ and\\ present\\ a\\ united\\ front\\ that\\ is\\ critical\\ to\\ their\\ success\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Breakdown\\ and\\ Party\\ System\\ Collapse\\ in\\ Peru\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;CAUSE\\ AND\\ EFFECT\\ DIAGRAM\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ weakness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\election\\ of\\ Fujimori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ politicians\\ rejecting\\ parties\\ and\\ running\\ as\\ independents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ Crisis\\,\\ Outsider\\ Politics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ 1992\\ Autogolpe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 1980s\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ party\\ system\\ in\\ Peru\\.\\ \\ \\;Among\\ the\\ causes\\ are\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ and\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ class\\ and\\ partisan\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ crisis\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Shining\\ Path\\,\\ parties\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ build\\ linkages\\ to\\ the\\ emerging\\ electorate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ was\\ elected\\ into\\ this\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ as\\ an\\ outsider\\,\\ he\\ was\\ ill\\-equipped\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ hyperinflation\\ and\\ the\\ rising\\ political\\ violence\\ in\\ a\\ democratic\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ he\\ also\\ had\\ little\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ legislature\\,\\ he\\ opted\\ for\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ the\\ 1992\\ autogolpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Authoritarian\\ Success\\ and\\ the\\ Rise\\ of\\ Political\\ \\&ldquo\\;Independents\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ success\\ in\\ the\\ autogolpe\\ proved\\ devastating\\ to\\ the\\ party\\ system\\ because\\ Peruvians\\ accepted\\ his\\ personalistic\\ rule\\ and\\ saw\\ established\\ parties\\ as\\ corrupt\\.\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ had\\ also\\ dealt\\ with\\ hyperinflation\\ and\\ the\\ Shining\\ Path\\,\\ which\\ bolstered\\ his\\ public\\ approval\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ anti\\-Fujimori\\ established\\ parties\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ opposition\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ derogatory\\ term\\ connoting\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-serving\\ opponents\\ of\\ the\\ government\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(9\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ public\\ support\\ for\\ political\\ parties\\ declined\\ a\\ lot\\-\\-politicians\\ saw\\ that\\ defending\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ viable\\ electoral\\ strategy\\,\\ so\\ many\\ distanced\\ themselves\\ from\\ parties\\ and\\ began\\ running\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;independents\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ refused\\ to\\ criticize\\ the\\ Fujimori\\ government\\ and\\ focused\\ on\\ establishing\\ themselves\\ as\\ effective\\ administrators\\.\\ \\ \\;Political\\ parties\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ seen\\ as\\ necessary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ also\\ had\\ no\\ established\\ party\\;\\ he\\ mainly\\ relied\\ on\\ TV\\ networks\\ to\\ spread\\ mass\\ appeals\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ created\\ what\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;disposable\\ parties\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-he\\ formed\\ and\\ discarded\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ four\\ parties\\ during\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ office\\,\\ all\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ purely\\ candidate\\-centered\\ vehicles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 1990s\\ electoral\\ politics\\ became\\ highly\\ fragmented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ Weakness\\,\\ Caesarism\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Failure\\ of\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Opposition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ opposition\\&rsquo\\;s\\ weakness\\ was\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ politicians\\&rsquo\\;\\ adaptation\\ to\\ the\\ existing\\ political\\ environment\\ where\\ party\\ building\\ and\\ defense\\ of\\ democracy\\ were\\ unfavorable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Destruction\\ of\\ Mechanisms\\ of\\ Horizontal\\ Accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1996\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Authentic\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\,\\ which\\ would\\ allow\\ him\\ to\\ run\\ for\\ reelection\\ in\\ 2000\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ Fujimori\\ blatantly\\ strengthening\\ his\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ legislature\\ was\\ ruled\\ by\\ Fujimori\\ and\\ the\\ courts\\ were\\ corrupt\\,\\ so\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ challenge\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ even\\ dismembered\\ the\\ Constitutional\\ Tribunal\\ \\(TC\\)\\ when\\ it\\ ruled\\ his\\ reelection\\ law\\ unconstitutional\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1999\\,\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ candidacy\\ was\\ officially\\ approved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ anti\\-Fujimori\\ opposition\\ was\\ decimated\\ because\\ of\\ loss\\ of\\ credibility\\ and\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ congressional\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ opposition\\ leaders\\ shied\\ away\\ from\\ confrontation\\ with\\ the\\ Fujimori\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ no\\ credible\\ alternative\\ to\\ Fujimori\\ emerged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ 2000\\ Transition\\:\\ Opposition\\,\\ Weakness\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Collapse\\ from\\ Within\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ regime\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ implosion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ needed\\ to\\ run\\ again\\ in\\ 2000\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ political\\ system\\ he\\ had\\ built\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ an\\ advantage\\ over\\ the\\ opposition\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ resources\\ and\\ TV\\ networks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ opposition\\ hurt\\ itself\\ by\\ not\\ uniting\\ behind\\ a\\ single\\ candidate\\-\\-it\\ remained\\ fragmented\\.\\ \\ \\;Toledo\\ emerged\\ as\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ opposition\\,\\ but\\ dropped\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ race\\ when\\ the\\ government\\ would\\ provide\\ a\\ level\\ playing\\ field\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ round\\ majority\\ runoff\\.\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ won\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ ensure\\ a\\ legislative\\ majority\\,\\ Montesinos\\ bribed\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ legislators\\ \\(aka\\ the\\ turncoats\\)\\ to\\ come\\ over\\ to\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ parties\\ were\\ so\\ weak\\,\\ these\\ legislators\\ were\\ basically\\ free\\ agents\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ ideological\\ or\\ other\\ incentives\\ to\\ remain\\ within\\ their\\ parties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ eventual\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ regime\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ its\\ internal\\ divisions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ massive\\ corruption\\ eroded\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ credibility\\ and\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ a\\ video\\ showing\\ Montesinos\\ bribing\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ turncoat\\ legislators\\ caused\\ a\\ scandal\\.\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ soon\\ resigned\\ and\\ the\\ regime\\ collapsed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Toledo\\ won\\ in\\ the\\ 2001\\ presidential\\ elections\\,\\ but\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ candidates\\ was\\ very\\ low\\.\\ \\ \\;Toledo\\ himself\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ outside\\ who\\ had\\ never\\ held\\ elected\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ return\\ to\\ democracy\\ did\\ not\\ see\\ a\\ rebirth\\ of\\ political\\ parties\\-\\-personalism\\ and\\ party\\ switching\\ remained\\ rampant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Prospects\\ for\\ Party\\ \\(Re\\)Building\\ in\\ Peru\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Optimistic\\ outlook\\:\\ if\\ we\\ reform\\ the\\ electoral\\ process\\ \\(introduce\\ a\\ multi\\-district\\ system\\ and\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ majority\\ runoffs\\)\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ higher\\ chances\\ of\\ rebuilding\\ political\\ parties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pessimistic\\ outlook\\:\\ stable\\ party\\ systems\\ are\\ products\\ of\\ historical\\ and\\ sociological\\ conditions\\,\\ not\\ electoral\\ engineering\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ rooted\\ in\\ deep\\ societal\\ cleavages\\ and\\ cannot\\ emerge\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ new\\ advances\\ in\\ technology\\,\\ the\\ decline\\ in\\ class\\ identities\\,\\ and\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ all\\ lead\\ to\\ weak\\ political\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;Practically\\ speaking\\,\\ it\\ costs\\ politicians\\ less\\ to\\ broadcast\\ TV\\ ads\\ than\\ to\\ build\\ wide\\ personal\\ networks\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ emergence\\ of\\ stable\\ political\\ parties\\ in\\ Peru\\ is\\ bleak\\,\\ although\\ it\\ could\\ occur\\.\\ \\ \\;Still\\,\\ parties\\ would\\ face\\ many\\ obstacles\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ being\\ very\\ loosely\\ structured\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\ Without\\ Parties\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Parties\\ are\\ among\\ the\\ least\\ credible\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ today\\,\\ yet\\ democracy\\ without\\ them\\ is\\ nearly\\ inconceivable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(27\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 19, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1295_Comp_Govt_L._America_-_Final_3rd_Packet_1.doc", "desc": "Study Guide Part 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 01:16:18.671745+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Constitutional Law - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "american", "constitutional-law"], "text": null, "id": 29, "html": "\\\\\\CLStudy\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c9\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c10\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Dred\\ Scott\\ v\\.\\ Sandford\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1857\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scott\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ VA\\,\\ held\\ there\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\traveled\\ with\\ his\\ master\\ through\\ IL\\ and\\ WI\\,\\ free\\ states\\ by\\ Missouri\\ Compromise\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\back\\ in\\ VA\\,\\ Scot\\ was\\ sold\\ to\\ owner\\ in\\ NY\\;\\ he\\ sued\\ for\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Questions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\is\\ Dred\\ Scot\\ as\\ citizen\\ of\\ the\\ US\\,\\ or\\ can\\ he\\ not\\ sue\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ Congress\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ enact\\ this\\ law\\ under\\ Article\\ IV\\,\\ Sect\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Cl\\.\\ 2\\ to\\ enact\\ this\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Should\\ Scot\\ be\\ a\\ free\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taney\\:\\ the\\ Congress\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ prohibit\\ slavery\\;\\ it\\ cannot\\ create\\ free\\/slave\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dred\\ Scot\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ citizen\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ is\\ only\\ 3\\/5\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ citizen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taney\\ states\\ that\\ clearly\\ the\\ founders\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ slaves\\ citizens\\ \\(unclear\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ divided\\ issue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ though\\ Art\\.\\ IV\\,\\ Sect\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Cl\\.\\ 2\\ seems\\ to\\ give\\ power\\ to\\ Congress\\ to\\ enact\\ the\\ Missouri\\ Compromise\\,\\ the\\ due\\ process\\ clause\\ gives\\ people\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ property\\ that\\ overrules\\ this\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Strauder\\ v\\.\\ West\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ race\\ discrimination\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\black\\ man\\ sued\\ over\\ murder\\ conviction\\ since\\ no\\ black\\ men\\ were\\ allowed\\ on\\ the\\ jury\\ \\(WV\\ law\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ wins\\:\\ Equal\\ Protection\\ clause\\ says\\ that\\ blacks\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ positive\\ immunity\\ or\\ right\\ against\\ unfriendly\\ discrimination\\ against\\ them\\ distinctly\\ as\\ colored\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Plessy\\ v\\.\\ Ferguson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ Plessy\\,\\ black\\,\\ arrested\\ for\\ sitting\\ in\\ white\\ car\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ against\\ him\\ 8\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plessy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ gov\\.\\ can\\ impose\\ no\\ racial\\ discrimination\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ divides\\ Social\\ and\\ Political\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\political\\ power\\ cannot\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;annoy\\ or\\ oppress\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ only\\ to\\ promote\\ a\\ public\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ legislate\\ social\\ equality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arguments\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strauder\\ mentions\\ only\\ the\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ of\\ all\\ citizens\\,\\ not\\ social\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\enforced\\ separation\\ is\\ not\\ inherently\\ demeaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Korematsu\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1944\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ ruled\\ that\\ internment\\ camps\\ were\\ ok\\,\\ even\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ legal\\ restrictions\\ which\\ curtail\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ racial\\ group\\ are\\ immediately\\ suspect\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ rigid\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ people\\ in\\ country\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ including\\ citizens\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ of\\ Japanese\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\essentially\\,\\ court\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ must\\ take\\ the\\ military\\&rsquo\\;s\\ word\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ of\\ compelling\\ interest\\ to\\ the\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Endo\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1944\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\loyal\\ citizen\\ to\\ US\\ was\\ released\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ longer\\ a\\ valid\\ security\\ reason\\,\\ says\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ argues\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;today\\,\\ education\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ function\\ of\\ state\\ and\\ local\\ governments\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\asks\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Does\\ segregation\\ of\\ children\\ in\\ public\\ schools\\.\\.\\.deprive\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ minority\\ group\\ of\\ equal\\ educational\\ opportunities\\?\\ We\\ believe\\ it\\ does\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\feeling\\ of\\ inferiority\\;\\ affects\\ motivation\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\substantive\\,\\ modern\\ argument\\;\\ away\\ from\\ historical\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\new\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ moral\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bolling\\ v\\.\\ Sharpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\federal\\ case\\ concerning\\ discrimination\\ in\\ public\\ school\\ education\\ in\\ the\\ District\\ of\\ Columbia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ due\\ process\\;\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reference\\ to\\ Korematsu\\,\\ most\\ amount\\ of\\ scrutiny\\ possible\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;proper\\ governmental\\ objective\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\segregation\\ does\\ not\\ pass\\ this\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fairness\\ doctrine\\ being\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\desegregation\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ all\\ deliberate\\ speed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compromise\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ court\\;\\ took\\ until\\ 1964\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\ for\\ desegregation\\ to\\ really\\ be\\ motivated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Loving\\ v\\.\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1967\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\miscegenation\\ law\\ in\\ VA\\ overruled\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ both\\ sides\\ are\\ equally\\ punished\\,\\ the\\ motivation\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ clearly\\ for\\ white\\ supremacy\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ fairly\\ applied\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\white\\ supremacy\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ proper\\ governmental\\ objective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Johnson\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ CA\\ prisons\\,\\ whites\\,\\ blacks\\,\\ Asians\\ sorted\\ out\\ in\\ different\\ cells\\ to\\ prevent\\ cross\\-racial\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ remands\\ case\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ a\\ sufficient\\ governmental\\ interest\\ case\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Marbury\\ v\\.\\ Madison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1803\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defining\\ case\\ in\\ issues\\ of\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Adams\\ named\\ John\\ Marshall\\,\\ his\\ secretary\\ of\\ state\\,\\ his\\ Chief\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federalist\\ Congress\\ created\\ 16\\ lower\\ federal\\ court\\ judgeships\\ \\(midnight\\ appointments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\42\\ \\&ldquo\\;justices\\ of\\ the\\ peace\\&rdquo\\;\\ created\\,\\ confirmed\\;\\ however\\,\\ 4\\ of\\ these\\ named\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ their\\ formal\\ commissions\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ now\\ president\\;\\ James\\ Madison\\ sec\\.\\ of\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Republicans\\ abolish\\ the\\ new\\ judgeships\\,\\ begin\\ to\\ impeach\\ the\\ federal\\ judges\\,\\ and\\ Marbury\\ files\\ suit\\ asking\\ court\\ to\\ make\\ Madison\\ give\\ him\\ his\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ 1803\\,\\ case\\ comes\\ to\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\problem\\:\\ if\\ Marshall\\ rules\\ for\\ Marbury\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ defied\\;\\ if\\ he\\ rules\\ for\\ Madison\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ weak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;brilliant\\ master\\ stroke\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ Marbury\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\ court\\:\\ S\\.C\\.\\ should\\ just\\ be\\ an\\ appellate\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Says\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marbury\\ has\\ legal\\ right\\ to\\ his\\ commission\\ since\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ signed\\ and\\ sealed\\:\\ for\\ every\\ right\\,\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ remedy\\,\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marbury\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ right\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ for\\ this\\ remedy\\:\\ only\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ a\\ Congressional\\ statute\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Court\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ issue\\ writs\\ of\\ mandamus\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(an\\ order\\ to\\ a\\ governmental\\ official\\)\\ can\\ he\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ mandamus\\ act\\,\\ says\\ Marshall\\,\\ is\\ repugnant\\ to\\ the\\ Constitution\\:\\ says\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ decide\\ when\\ to\\ expand\\ and\\ contract\\ powers\\ of\\ branches\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\,\\ the\\ mandamus\\ law\\ is\\ struck\\ down\\ \\(first\\ instance\\ of\\ judicial\\ review\\)\\;\\ Marbury\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ his\\ commission\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ has\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ court\\;\\ and\\ court\\ has\\ given\\ itself\\ power\\ of\\ judicial\\ review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\McCullough\\ v\\.\\ Maryland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1819\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maryland\\ is\\ taxing\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ in\\ its\\ efforts\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ national\\ bank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marshall\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ a\\ constitution\\ we\\ are\\ expounding\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Necessary\\ and\\ Proper\\ Clause\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ employed\\:\\ what\\ use\\ is\\ Congress\\&rsquo\\;\\ power\\ if\\ it\\ cannot\\ operate\\ reasonably\\ to\\ enforce\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Power\\ to\\ tax\\ naturally\\ leads\\ to\\ power\\ to\\ create\\ National\\ Bank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reading\\ the\\ Constitution\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ bank\\,\\ because\\ then\\ state\\ would\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ destroy\\ it\\;\\ state\\ cannot\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ destroy\\ something\\ created\\ by\\ Congress\\ \\(Marshall\\ does\\ not\\ get\\ this\\ from\\ Constitution\\ directly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Champion\\ v\\.\\ Ames\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1903\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lottery\\ Tickets\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ decided\\ that\\ Congress\\ did\\ have\\ power\\ under\\ the\\ Commerce\\ Clause\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ lottery\\ tickets\\,\\ since\\ those\\ tickets\\ were\\ articles\\ of\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;formal\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ essentially\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ lottery\\ tickets\\ are\\ being\\ carried\\ state\\ to\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shreveport\\ Case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ said\\ that\\ states\\ could\\ not\\ change\\ their\\ intrastate\\ railroad\\ rates\\ against\\ the\\ necessary\\ interstate\\ rates\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ Congress\\ to\\ regulate\\ commerce\\ exists\\,\\ it\\ dominates\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;All\\ matters\\ having\\ such\\ a\\ close\\ and\\ substantial\\ relation\\ to\\ interstate\\ traffic\\ that\\ the\\ control\\ is\\ essential\\ or\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ security\\ of\\ that\\ traffic\\,\\ to\\ the\\ efficiency\\ of\\ interstate\\ service\\,\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ conditions\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ has\\ right\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ matters\\ that\\ effect\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ substantially\\ and\\ closely\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ intrastate\\ matters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hammer\\ v\\.\\ Dagenhart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;reality\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ prohibit\\ interstate\\ transportation\\ of\\ products\\ from\\ factories\\ that\\ used\\ child\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ act\\ in\\ its\\ effect\\ does\\ not\\ regulate\\ transportation\\ among\\ the\\ states\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ rather\\ regulates\\ a\\ morality\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\,\\ says\\ the\\ court\\,\\ is\\ unconstitutionally\\ using\\ police\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\:\\ whenever\\ anything\\ goes\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ regulated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Schechter\\ Poultry\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1935\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ struck\\ down\\ act\\ that\\ regulated\\ conditions\\ of\\ businesses\\ that\\ affected\\ Schechter\\ Poultry\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ upon\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Carter\\ v\\.\\ Carter\\ Coal\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1936\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ ruled\\ that\\ Congress\\ could\\ not\\ pass\\ law\\ concerning\\ hours\\ and\\ wages\\ of\\ companies\\,\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ effects\\&rdquo\\;\\ concerning\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\degree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\proximity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\NLRB\\ v\\.\\ Jones\\ and\\ Laughlin\\ Steel\\ Corp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1937\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\after\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ shift\\ in\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ Labor\\ Relations\\ Act\\ controlled\\ conditions\\ in\\ factories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\overrules\\ Carter\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;question\\ is\\ necessarily\\ one\\ of\\ degree\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ something\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ large\\ effect\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ whether\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\,\\ Congress\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ regulate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Darby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1941\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Deal\\ act\\ said\\ that\\ companies\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ship\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ unless\\ their\\ workers\\ had\\ certain\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goal\\:\\ impose\\ local\\ minimum\\ wages\\.\\ approach\\:\\ regulate\\ shipping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\using\\ commerce\\ power\\ as\\ police\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Formal\\ Test\\ firmly\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;whatever\\ their\\ motive\\ and\\ purpose\\,\\ regulations\\ of\\ commerce\\ which\\ do\\ not\\ infringe\\ some\\ constitutional\\ prohibition\\ are\\ within\\ the\\ plenary\\ power\\ conferred\\ on\\ Congress\\ by\\ the\\ Commerce\\ Clause\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dagenhart\\ directly\\ overruled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wickard\\ v\\.\\ Filber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ New\\ Deal\\ Law\\ regulating\\ production\\ of\\ individual\\ wheat\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\239\\ extra\\ bushels\\ is\\ still\\ against\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reasoning\\:\\ cumulative\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lochner\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\substantive\\ due\\ process\\ rears\\ its\\ ugly\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ of\\ NY\\ passed\\ legislation\\ forbidding\\ 60\\-hour\\ workdays\\ for\\ bakers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\are\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ impugned\\ by\\ this\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ yes\\:\\ the\\ privileges\\ and\\ immunities\\ clause\\ in\\ Constitution\\ only\\ applied\\ to\\ national\\ citizens\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ state\\ interfering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ cannot\\ justify\\ its\\ infringement\\ of\\ economic\\ liberty\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ laws\\.\\ Court\\ says\\ it\\ cannot\\ take\\ sides\\ in\\ employer\\-employee\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Calder\\ v\\.\\ Bull\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Health\\ of\\ employees\\:\\ court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ legislation\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ tied\\ to\\ this\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ goal\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ menas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dissent\\:\\ Justice\\ Holmes\\ says\\ the\\ court\\ should\\ decide\\ legitimate\\ public\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Calder\\ v\\.\\ Bull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1798\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\.\\ Chase\\ said\\ court\\ should\\ shoot\\ down\\ any\\ law\\ in\\ violation\\ of\\ natural\\ rights\\ \\(taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ property\\ rights\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Fletcher\\ v\\.\\ Peck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1810\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ Georgia\\ take\\ back\\ land\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sold\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ no\\,\\ because\\ this\\ violates\\ the\\ contracts\\ clause\\,\\ taking\\ natural\\ rights\\ into\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wynehamer\\ v\\.\\ the\\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ NY\\ says\\ that\\ due\\ process\\ laws\\ can\\ be\\ violated\\ by\\ unfair\\ laws\\ \\(setting\\ up\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\ decisions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Nebbia\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1934\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ a\\ statute\\ forbidding\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ milk\\ under\\ a\\ certain\\ price\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ market\\ fair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\:\\ in\\ interconnected\\ economy\\,\\ legislation\\ that\\ helps\\ farmers\\ helps\\ the\\ whole\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ tell\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lochner\\ reasoning\\ being\\ abandoned\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ welfare\\&rdquo\\;\\ deemed\\ a\\ good\\ enough\\ purpose\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\West\\ Coast\\ Hotel\\ v\\.\\ Parrish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1937\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ minimum\\ wage\\ for\\ women\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;public\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\ passes\\;\\ freedom\\ of\\ contract\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ absolute\\ and\\ uncontrollable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Carolene\\ Products\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actual\\ case\\:\\ court\\ rules\\ that\\ federal\\ statute\\ prohibiting\\ sale\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;filled\\ milk\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ is\\ legitimate\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ test\\ \\(people\\ may\\ mistake\\ it\\ for\\ milk\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\real\\ reason\\:\\ powerful\\ milk\\ lobby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FOOTNOTE\\:\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minorities\\ deserve\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Williamson\\ v\\.\\ Lee\\ Optical\\ of\\ Oklahoma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unlawful\\ for\\ anyone\\ other\\ than\\ optometrist\\ to\\ make\\ new\\ glasses\\ without\\ a\\ prescription\\ is\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rational\\ basis\\ test\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;quality\\ of\\ glasses\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ jeopardy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Atlanta\\ Motel\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\,\\ under\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ banned\\ exclusion\\ of\\ blacks\\ from\\ Atlanta\\ motel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ is\\ affected\\:\\ blacks\\ kept\\ from\\ traveling\\,\\ spending\\ money\\.\\ Hurts\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ constitutional\\ in\\ this\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Katzenbach\\ v\\.\\ McClung\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ollie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Barbecue\\&rdquo\\;\\ kept\\ blacks\\ from\\ buying\\ foot\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;regardless\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ direct\\ evidence\\,\\ refusal\\ to\\ serve\\ Negroes\\.\\.\\.\\[has\\]\\ a\\ close\\ connection\\ to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\ applies\\:\\ if\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ rational\\ basis\\ to\\ tie\\ something\\ to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ Congress\\ can\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Lopez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1995\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ passes\\ statute\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ illegal\\ to\\ posses\\ a\\ gun\\ within\\ 3\\,000\\ feet\\ of\\ a\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruling\\:\\ law\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ overrule\\ all\\ commerce\\ clause\\ precedent\\ before\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ CHANNELS\\ of\\ Interstate\\ Commerce\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ movement\\ of\\ PEOPLE\\/GOODS\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ or\\ after\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ arrived\\ from\\ interstate\\ movement\\ \\(drugs\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ activities\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;substantial\\ effects\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ that\\ substantial\\ effect\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ too\\ attenuated\\,\\ unlike\\ Wickard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Morrison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\argument\\:\\ Violence\\ Against\\ Women\\ Act\\ has\\ huge\\ effects\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ previous\\ cases\\ involve\\ economic\\ activity\\;\\ Congress\\ can\\ only\\ appeal\\ to\\ substantial\\ effects\\ when\\ they\\ arise\\ from\\ economic\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\key\\ distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gonzales\\ v\\.\\ Raich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Controlled\\ Substances\\ Act\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ wants\\ to\\ legislate\\ private\\ drug\\ use\\ grown\\ privately\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ which\\ allows\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\difficult\\ spot\\ for\\ conservatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\remand\\ ordered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schenck\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1917\\ Espionage\\ Act\\ in\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-WWI\\ pamphlets\\ to\\ draftees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pamphlet\\ urges\\ \\&ldquo\\;assert\\ your\\ rights\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\:\\ b\\/c\\ these\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;ordinary\\ times\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fire\\ in\\ a\\ crowded\\ theater\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ takes\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Debs\\ v\\.\\ US\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-war\\ speech\\ at\\ Socialist\\ party\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decision\\:\\ though\\ speech\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ directly\\ about\\ hurting\\ US\\ or\\ military\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;intent\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ utterances\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ harmful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ tendency\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;reasonable\\ probable\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ to\\ hurt\\ US\\;\\ so\\ Debs\\ trial\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ lost\\,\\ was\\ upheld\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Masses\\ Publishing\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Patten\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ Supreme\\ Ct\\.\\ Case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Learned\\ Hand\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\said\\ that\\ revolutionary\\ journal\\ was\\ permissible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ speech\\ does\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;urge\\ upon\\ others\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ duty\\ or\\ interest\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ it\\ is\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\direct\\ counsel\\ to\\ advice\\ insubordination\\ is\\ forbidden\\;\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Masses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;did\\ not\\ do\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Abrams\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\:\\ Famous\\ Holmes\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\leaflets\\ printed\\ against\\ US\\ attempts\\ to\\ crush\\ Russian\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Convictions\\ upheld\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ plan\\ of\\ action\\ they\\ adopted\\ was\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;defeat\\ the\\ war\\ program\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ their\\ primary\\ purpose\\ per\\ se\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HOLMES\\ DISSENT\\:\\ Clear\\ and\\ Present\\ Danger\\ of\\ immediate\\ evil\\;\\ only\\ place\\ to\\ punish\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ should\\ not\\ punish\\ speech\\ unless\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;so\\ imminently\\ threatens\\ immediate\\ interference\\ with\\ the\\ lawful\\ and\\ pressing\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ that\\ an\\ immediate\\ check\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gitlow\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1925\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defendant\\ published\\ effect\\-less\\ \\&ldquo\\;Left\\ Wing\\ Manifesto\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decision\\:\\ utterances\\ as\\ those\\ published\\ by\\ Gitlow\\ present\\ \\&ldquo\\;sufficient\\ danger\\ of\\ substantive\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ single\\ revolutionary\\ spark\\&rdquo\\;\\ may\\ be\\ enough\\ to\\ cause\\ danger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\ by\\ Holmes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ idea\\ is\\ an\\ incitement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Whitney\\ v\\.\\ California\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defendant\\,\\ Ms\\.\\ Whitney\\,\\ joined\\ Communist\\ Labor\\ Party\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ says\\ she\\ had\\ no\\ idea\\ how\\ violent\\,\\ terrorism\\ minded\\ the\\ organization\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ she\\ is\\ guilty\\:\\ freedom\\ of\\ association\\ is\\ legitimately\\ banned\\ by\\ CA\\ since\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ partakes\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ criminal\\ conspiracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brandeis\\ concurrence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;only\\ an\\ emergency\\ can\\ justify\\ repression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dennis\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gov\\.\\ had\\ been\\ prosecuting\\ those\\ organizing\\ the\\ violent\\ overthrow\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ govt\\ using\\ the\\ Clear\\ and\\ Present\\ Danger\\ Test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1951\\:\\ Height\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\ fears\\ \\(pre\\-Warren\\ Ct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Gravity\\ of\\ the\\ threatened\\ evil\\ grounded\\ by\\ its\\ probability\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\probability\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ small\\,\\ but\\ the\\ gravity\\ was\\ huge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brandenburg\\ v\\.\\ Ohio\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1959\\:\\ KKK\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\political\\ speech\\ protected\\ unless\\ imminent\\ lawless\\ action\\ is\\ urged\\ and\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\extremely\\ difficult\\ test\\ to\\ satisfy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ part\\ test\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ speech\\ political\\?\\ Advocacy\\ is\\ stringently\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ danger\\ imminent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ danger\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\private\\ conspiracies\\ NOT\\ protected\\;\\ just\\ public\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hess\\ v\\.\\ Indiana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-war\\ protesters\\ yelled\\,\\ after\\ being\\ moved\\ by\\ police\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ take\\ this\\.\\.\\.street\\ later\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ overturned\\ conviction\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ specific\\,\\ imminent\\ time\\ given\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ Times\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Sullivan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\paid\\ ad\\ in\\ the\\ NYT\\ makes\\ false\\ claims\\ about\\ a\\ candidate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ things\\ come\\ from\\ this\\ case\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ NYT\\&rsquo\\;s\\ speech\\ is\\ political\\,\\ it\\ is\\ protected\\;\\ how\\ can\\ political\\ democracy\\ be\\ upheld\\ if\\ public\\ officials\\ are\\ over\\-protected\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Empirical\\ Calculators\\:\\ newspapers\\ around\\ the\\ country\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ scared\\ that\\ something\\ they\\ print\\ will\\ be\\ libelous\\;\\ again\\,\\ political\\ democracy\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ legal\\ standard\\ to\\ help\\ Editors\\ make\\ decision\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ publish\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\state\\ can\\ impose\\ damages\\ on\\ people\\ who\\ make\\ libelous\\ claims\\ about\\ public\\ officials\\ if\\ those\\ people\\ KNOW\\ the\\ speech\\ is\\ false\\ or\\ act\\ with\\ RECKLESS\\ DISREGARD\\ for\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Actual\\ Malice\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gertz\\ v\\.\\ Robert\\ Welch\\ Inc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gertz\\,\\ a\\ lawyer\\,\\ falsely\\ called\\ an\\ architect\\ of\\ a\\ communist\\ cover\\-up\\ of\\ a\\ police\\ murder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ held\\ NYT\\ rule\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ apply\\,\\ b\\/c\\ Gertz\\ was\\ a\\ private\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\private\\ citizens\\ would\\ be\\ left\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ recourse\\ for\\ injury\\ to\\ his\\ reputation\\ unless\\ he\\ can\\ satisfy\\ the\\ demanding\\ requirements\\ of\\ the\\ Times\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harder\\ for\\ private\\ citizens\\ to\\ defend\\ themselves\\;\\ and\\ public\\ officials\\ know\\ they\\ are\\ taking\\ a\\ risk\\ in\\ entering\\ public\\ sphere\\,\\ while\\ private\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ establishes\\ that\\ when\\ people\\ become\\ public\\ figures\\,\\ they\\ lose\\ that\\ private\\ citizen\\ protection\\ afforded\\ to\\ Gertz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Roth\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ Alberts\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Obscenity\\,\\ court\\ rules\\,\\ is\\ not\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;All\\ ideas\\ having\\ even\\ the\\ slightest\\ redeeming\\ social\\ importance\\.\\.\\.have\\ full\\ protection\\ of\\ guaranties\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obscenity\\ does\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sex\\ and\\ obscenity\\ are\\ not\\ synonymous\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Kingsley\\ Int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ Pictures\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\.\\ Regents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ of\\ NY\\ wanted\\ to\\ bar\\ showing\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lady\\ Chatterley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lover\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;b\\/c\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;advocates\\ an\\ idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ adultery\\ under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ may\\ be\\ proper\\ behavior\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\/c\\ it\\ advocates\\ an\\ idea\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ the\\ movie\\ is\\ protected\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Paris\\ Adult\\ Theatre\\ I\\ v\\.\\ Slaton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\an\\ adult\\ theater\\ that\\ says\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ 21\\,\\ does\\ not\\ solicit\\,\\ has\\ large\\ warning\\ sign\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Berger\\ court\\ holds\\ there\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ legitimate\\ state\\ interests\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ stemming\\ the\\ tide\\ of\\ commercialized\\ obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ though\\ assumptions\\ of\\ legislature\\ are\\ unprovable\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ not\\ a\\ sufficient\\ reason\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ statute\\ unconstitutional\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Miller\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obscenity\\ defined\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;appeals\\ to\\ a\\ prurient\\ interest\\ in\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;material\\ is\\ patently\\ offensive\\ because\\ it\\ offends\\ contemporary\\ community\\ standards\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ description\\ or\\ representation\\ of\\ sexual\\ matters\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;utterly\\ without\\ redeeming\\ social\\ value\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Miller\\ had\\ sent\\ unsolicited\\ pictorial\\ ads\\ featuring\\ pornographic\\ poses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\admits\\ standards\\ will\\ vary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\community\\,\\ not\\ national\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ remanded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\American\\ Booksellers\\ Association\\ v\\.\\ Hudnut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\MacKinnon\\/Dworkin\\ ordinances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\J\\.\\ Easterbrook\\ rejected\\ ordinance\\ banning\\ pornography\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ definitions\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ ordinance\\ made\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ censoring\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ if\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claims\\ are\\ right\\ and\\ pornography\\ has\\ serious\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ women\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ a\\ false\\ idea\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\obscenity\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ ideas\\,\\ but\\ sexual\\ explications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Brien\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Brien\\ burns\\ draft\\ card\\,\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expressive\\ conduct\\ protected\\ by\\ first\\ amendment\\;\\ draft\\ card\\ burning\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ illegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Test\\ Created\\ for\\ Expressive\\ Conduct\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\government\\ can\\ bar\\ it\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ governmental\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\that\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\ cannot\\ be\\ simply\\ to\\ suppress\\ certain\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ suppression\\ cannot\\ go\\ beyond\\ what\\ is\\ strictly\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ law\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;content\\ neutral\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ draft\\-card\\ burning\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\,\\ it\\ cares\\ about\\ the\\ damaging\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ decides\\ not\\ to\\ care\\ about\\ the\\ actual\\ motive\\ concerned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ Court\\ decides\\ that\\ the\\ statute\\ does\\ serve\\ an\\ important\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Texas\\ v\\.\\ Johnson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\over\\ flag\\-burning\\ at\\ 1984\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ acts\\ must\\ convey\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;particularized\\ message\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ get\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\ coverage\\;\\ this\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ concedes\\ that\\ the\\ governmental\\ interest\\ is\\ repressing\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\;\\ however\\,\\ they\\ apply\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ exacting\\ scrutiny\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\still\\,\\ they\\ cannot\\ excuse\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;means\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ protecting\\ the\\ flag\\,\\ since\\ it\\ attacks\\ an\\ idea\\ specifically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Clark\\ v\\.\\ Community\\ for\\ Creative\\ Non\\-Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1984\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ w\\/\\ CCNV\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ sleep\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ Mall\\ by\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protest\\ homelessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ expressive\\ conduct\\ with\\ a\\ particularized\\ message\\,\\ says\\ the\\ court\\;\\ BUT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ regulation\\ is\\ content\\-neutral\\;\\ no\\ camping\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ Mall\\ or\\ Lafayette\\ Park\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Govt\\.\\ has\\ legitimate\\ interest\\ in\\ ensuring\\ the\\ National\\ Parks\\ are\\ adequately\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ has\\ an\\ interest\\;\\ Gov\\.\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ law\\;\\ interest\\ is\\ unrelated\\ to\\ suppression\\ of\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DISSENT\\:\\ expression\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ protected\\ enough\\;\\ content\\-neutrality\\ can\\ still\\ unnecessarily\\ restrict\\ protected\\ expressive\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cohen\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ wore\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fuck\\ the\\ Draft\\&rdquo\\;\\ t\\-shirt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ obscenity\\ case\\;\\ these\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;fighting\\ words\\&rdquo\\;\\ directly\\ aimed\\ at\\ someone\\;\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ violently\\ aroused\\ by\\ the\\ t\\-shirt\\,\\ Cohen\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ violently\\ arouse\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ decision\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ side\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ broader\\ enduring\\ values\\ which\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ open\\ debate\\ permits\\ us\\ to\\ achieve\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ has\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ cleans\\ public\\ debate\\ to\\ point\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;grammatical\\ palatability\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;one\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vulgar\\ is\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lyric\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ language\\ conveys\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\ inexpressible\\ emotions\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;we\\ cannot\\ indulge\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ forbid\\ particular\\ words\\ without\\ also\\ running\\ a\\ substantial\\ risk\\ of\\ suppressing\\ ideas\\ in\\ the\\ process\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Miami\\ Herald\\ Publishing\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Tornillo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1974\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Florida\\ statute\\ said\\ newspapers\\ running\\ political\\ editorials\\ for\\ a\\ candidate\\ had\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ opposing\\ candidate\\ room\\ to\\ reply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ against\\ Florida\\ statue\\:\\ fear\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;under\\ the\\ operation\\ of\\ the\\ FL\\ statute\\,\\ political\\ and\\ electoral\\ coverage\\ would\\ be\\ blunted\\ or\\ reduced\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fear\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;chill\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Red\\ Lion\\ Broadcasting\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ FCC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ owns\\ frequencies\\;\\ FCC\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fairness\\ Doctrine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;personal\\ attack\\&rdquo\\;\\ rule\\,\\ under\\ which\\ people\\ running\\ attack\\ ads\\ had\\ to\\ notify\\ the\\ attacked\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ Lion\\ co\\.\\ lost\\ privilege\\ to\\ its\\ frequencies\\ for\\ failing\\ to\\ comply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ since\\ the\\ airways\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ govt\\,\\ Red\\ Lion\\ has\\ no\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rules\\ are\\ applied\\ content\\-neutrally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ELECTRONIC\\ MEDIA\\ NOT\\ AS\\ PROTECTED\\ AS\\ PRINT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\FCC\\ v\\.\\ Pacifica\\ Foundation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pacifica\\ radio\\ station\\ broadcasts\\ Carlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 7\\ Dirty\\ Words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Channeling\\&rdquo\\;\\ behavior\\,\\ not\\ prohibiting\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ could\\ hear\\ the\\ broadcast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ speech\\ is\\ more\\ like\\ obscenity\\ than\\ political\\ speech\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ words\\ offend\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ reasons\\ as\\ obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\speech\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;vulgar\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;offensive\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;shocking\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;Intrusive\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ accessible\\ to\\ children\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\therefore\\,\\ radio\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ too\\ much\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Turner\\ Broadcasting\\ System\\ v\\.\\ FCC\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1994\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\requirement\\ of\\ TBS\\ to\\ devote\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ their\\ programming\\ to\\ public\\ broadcast\\ is\\ upheld\\ with\\ certain\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stevens\\ argued\\ that\\ act\\ was\\ content\\ neutral\\;\\ BUT\\,\\ conceded\\ that\\ law\\ was\\ directed\\ at\\ cable\\ operators\\,\\ not\\ generally\\ applicable\\,\\ so\\ it\\ deserved\\ heightened\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\ upheld\\ in\\ 1997\\,\\ with\\ legislation\\ found\\ as\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\ and\\ fair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\US\\ v\\.\\ Playboy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Playboy\\ channel\\ is\\ bleeding\\ into\\ other\\ channels\\,\\ accessible\\ to\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ requiring\\ channel\\ to\\ install\\ fail\\-safe\\ technology\\ does\\ not\\ hold\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ is\\ content\\-based\\;\\ Playboy\\ channel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ not\\ obscene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cable\\ wins\\ over\\ other\\ concerns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\:\\ compelling\\ interest\\ to\\ protect\\ kids\\;\\ channel\\ advertises\\ itself\\ as\\ obscene\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obscene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reno\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1997\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;communication\\ decency\\ act\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ made\\ it\\ illegal\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ transmit\\ illicit\\ material\\ to\\ minors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ court\\ said\\ this\\ act\\ was\\ Content\\-based\\ regulation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ statute\\ is\\ too\\ vague\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\term\\ \\&ldquo\\;indecent\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ vague\\,\\ and\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ caveat\\ for\\ redeeming\\ social\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ that\\ though\\ protecting\\ kids\\ is\\ important\\,\\ the\\ government\\ cannot\\ disregard\\ freedom\\ of\\ adult\\-to\\-adult\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ginsberg\\ v\\.\\ NY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\statute\\ defined\\ category\\ of\\ speech\\ \\&ldquo\\;obscene\\ to\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\states\\ got\\ to\\ define\\ this\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ legit\\,\\ leaving\\ \\&ldquo\\;obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\ open\\ to\\ define\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Rust\\ v\\.\\ Sullivan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ to\\ speech\\ as\\ a\\ subsidizer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ subsidizing\\ family\\ planning\\ co\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ say\\ nothing\\ about\\ abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ gov\\.\\ can\\ selectively\\ fund\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gov\\ is\\ making\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ contain\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ the\\ program\\;\\ only\\ wants\\ to\\ fund\\ certain\\ things\\,\\ and\\ is\\ just\\ taking\\ steps\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ compares\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ selective\\ speech\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ to\\ its\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Endowment\\ for\\ Democracy\\ without\\ founding\\ Communist\\ or\\ Fascist\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ is\\ not\\ denying\\ anyone\\ benefits\\;\\ the\\ grantee\\ here\\ is\\ obtaining\\ funds\\ only\\ for\\ very\\ specific\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\outside\\ of\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ the\\ Title\\ X\\ co\\&rsquo\\;s\\ employees\\ can\\ give\\ any\\ advice\\ they\\ want\\,\\ since\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ outside\\ of\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ that\\ Title\\ X\\ \\&ldquo\\;does\\ not\\ significantly\\ impinge\\ upon\\ the\\ doctor\\ patient\\ relationship\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wooley\\ v\\.\\ Maynard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\man\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ \\&ldquo\\;Live\\ Free\\ or\\ Die\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ his\\ NH\\ license\\ plate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ his\\ rights\\ are\\ being\\ impinged\\ upon\\;\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ intellect\\ and\\ spirit\\ being\\ invaded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\quotes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\West\\ Virginia\\ Board\\ of\\ Ed\\.\\ v\\.\\ Barnette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1943\\)\\ which\\ said\\ schools\\ could\\ not\\ make\\ people\\ cite\\ pledge\\ of\\ allegiance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Connick\\ v\\.\\ Myers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1983\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myers\\,\\ and\\ ADA\\,\\ was\\ transferred\\,\\ sent\\ around\\ questionnaire\\ criticizing\\ Connick\\,\\ the\\ DA\\.\\ So\\ Connick\\ fired\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ criteria\\ laid\\ out\\ protecting\\ speech\\ by\\ government\\ employee\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\speech\\ must\\ deal\\ with\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ public\\ concern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\value\\ of\\ protecting\\ the\\ speech\\ must\\ outweigh\\ the\\ balancing\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ b\\/c\\ ADA\\ and\\ DA\\ need\\ close\\ working\\ relationship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ balancing\\ governmental\\ interest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Myers\\&rsquo\\;\\ speech\\ loses\\ out\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tinker\\ v\\.\\ Des\\ Moines\\ School\\ District\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\students\\ suspended\\ for\\ wearing\\ black\\ armbands\\ to\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ said\\:\\ this\\ speech\\ is\\ being\\ particularly\\ targeted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\unless\\ a\\ substantial\\ disruption\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ school\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ punish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hazelwood\\ School\\ District\\ v\\.\\ Kuhlmeier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1988\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\student\\ newspaper\\ published\\ stories\\ about\\ divorce\\,\\ teen\\ pregnancy\\;\\ school\\ censored\\ the\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ principal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ censorship\\ relates\\ to\\ a\\ legitimate\\ pedagogical\\ interest\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;reasonably\\ related\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ light\\ test\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Board\\ of\\ Education\\ v\\.\\ Pico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\board\\ tried\\ to\\ ban\\ 11\\ books\\ from\\ library\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ct\\.\\ ruled\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ suppress\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\optional\\ library\\ books\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ and\\ motives\\ are\\ partisan\\ and\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Olsen\\ v\\.\\ Nebraska\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\state\\ regulation\\ of\\ fees\\ for\\ employment\\ agencies\\ upheld\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lincoln\\ Fed\\.\\ Labor\\ Union\\ v\\.\\ Northwestern\\ Iron\\ and\\ Metal\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\state\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\-to\\-work\\&rdquo\\;\\ law\\ barring\\ preference\\ of\\ union\\ membership\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\again\\,\\ anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Williamson\\ v\\.\\ Lee\\ Optical\\ of\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\law\\ regulating\\ opticians\\ and\\ optometrists\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\once\\ again\\,\\ anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\ implied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ferguson\\ v\\.\\ Skupra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\court\\ rejected\\ due\\ process\\ claim\\ that\\ state\\ law\\ barring\\ all\\ but\\ lawyers\\ from\\ business\\ of\\ debt\\ adjustment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Railway\\ Express\\ Agency\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1949\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ law\\ regulating\\ street\\ advertisements\\ in\\ NY\\ upheld\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ local\\ authorities\\ may\\ wee\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ concluded\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ advertised\\ their\\ own\\ wares\\ on\\ their\\ trucks\\ do\\ not\\ present\\ the\\ same\\ traffic\\ problem\\ in\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ or\\ extent\\ of\\ the\\ advertising\\ which\\ they\\ use\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ Orleans\\ v\\.\\ Dukes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\.O\\.\\ law\\ said\\ that\\ only\\ people\\ who\\ operated\\ pushcarts\\ in\\ the\\ French\\ Quarter\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ 8\\ years\\ could\\ continue\\ to\\ do\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ statute\\ is\\ fine\\,\\ since\\ the\\ classification\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ legislature\\ \\&ldquo\\;rationally\\ furthers\\ the\\ purpose\\ which\\ the\\ city\\ had\\ identified\\ as\\ its\\ objective\\.\\.\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;to\\ preserve\\ the\\ appearance\\ and\\ custom\\ valued\\ by\\ the\\ Quarter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ residents\\ and\\ attractive\\ to\\ tourists\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ City\\ Transit\\ Authority\\ v\\.\\ Beazer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1979\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upheld\\ exclusion\\ of\\ methadone\\ users\\ from\\ any\\ Transit\\ Authority\\ Job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;no\\ drugs\\&rsquo\\;\\ policy\\ enforced\\ by\\ the\\ TA\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;legitimate\\ inference\\ that\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ treatment\\ program\\ continues\\,\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ persists\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DISSENT\\:\\ Poor\\ people\\ use\\ heroin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\US\\ Dept\\.\\ of\\ Agriculture\\ v\\.\\ Moreno\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ held\\ that\\ a\\ provision\\ of\\ the\\ Food\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ which\\ excluded\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ unrelated\\ to\\ any\\ other\\ \\ \\;member\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;wholly\\ without\\ any\\ rational\\ basis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transparent\\,\\ malicious\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;bare\\ desire\\ to\\ harm\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\purpose\\:\\ to\\ hurt\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\.\\ This\\ is\\ NOT\\ a\\ legitimate\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Washington\\ v\\.\\ Davies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ of\\ disparate\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\results\\ v\\.\\ intentions\\,\\ rationale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ statute\\ otherwise\\ neutral\\ on\\ its\\ face\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ applied\\ so\\ as\\ invidiously\\ to\\ discriminate\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ race\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ must\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ racially\\ neutral\\ selection\\ criteria\\ and\\ procedures\\ have\\ produced\\ the\\ monochromatic\\ result\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ neutral\\ law\\ is\\ not\\ invalid\\ for\\ causes\\ disproportionate\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\too\\ many\\ problems\\ would\\ result\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ different\\ policy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;tax\\,\\ welfare\\,\\ public\\ service\\,\\ regulatory\\,\\ and\\ licensing\\ statutes\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ examined\\,\\ redone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\University\\ of\\ California\\ v\\.\\ Bakke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1978\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\:\\ affirmative\\ action\\ does\\ merit\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\;\\ BUT\\ goal\\ of\\ diversity\\ passes\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Grutter\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michigan\\ Law\\ School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;law\\ school\\ has\\ a\\ compelling\\ interest\\ in\\ attaining\\ a\\ diverse\\ student\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\critical\\ mass\\ of\\ minority\\ students\\,\\ not\\ quotas\\,\\ are\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diversity\\ interest\\ lies\\ in\\ 2\\ places\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;cross\\-racial\\ understanding\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;livelier\\ classrooms\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ AND\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\ world\\ application\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\system\\ must\\ be\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\;\\ no\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ be\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\,\\ a\\ program\\ must\\ not\\ burden\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ favored\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ can\\ avoid\\ taking\\ race\\ into\\ account\\,\\ do\\;\\ but\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\,\\ says\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\,\\ you\\ must\\ exhaust\\ every\\ single\\ option\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\individualized\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gratz\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\point\\-scale\\ by\\ UMich\\ undergrad\\ program\\ ruled\\ unconstitutional\\;\\ too\\ un\\-individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reed\\ v\\.\\ Reed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ preferring\\ males\\ to\\ females\\ when\\ two\\ persons\\ otherwise\\ equally\\ entitled\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ administrator\\ of\\ an\\ estate\\ is\\ ruled\\ unconstitutional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ rational\\ basis\\,\\ but\\ only\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ basis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Frontiero\\ v\\.\\ Richardson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\military\\ had\\ given\\ men\\ dependency\\ allowance\\,\\ but\\ not\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\:\\ sex\\ classifications\\ \\&ldquo\\;inherently\\ suspect\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ deserve\\ \\&ldquo\\;close\\ judicial\\ scrutiny\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ quite\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\,\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ differences\\ that\\ need\\ acknowledges\\&rsquo\\;\\ nonetheless\\,\\ stricter\\ scrutiny\\ than\\ before\\ is\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\without\\ concrete\\ evidence\\,\\ government\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pass\\ its\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Craig\\ v\\.\\ Boren\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;near\\-beer\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ a\\ law\\ cannot\\ pursue\\ an\\ objective\\ by\\ targeting\\ a\\ gender\\;\\ law\\ must\\ be\\ generally\\ applicable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ statistical\\ data\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ not\\ substantial\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ law\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1996\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\question\\:\\ Can\\ Virginia\\ have\\ a\\ single\\-sex\\ public\\ college\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\VA\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ an\\ important\\ governmental\\ interest\\ in\\ educational\\ diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ginsburg\\ overrules\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;important\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;exceedingly\\ persuasive\\ justification\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Educational\\ diversity\\ argument\\ denied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ rules\\ that\\ this\\ case\\ is\\ preference\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dothard\\ v\\.\\ Rawlinson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ barred\\ from\\ being\\ prison\\ guards\\ b\\/c\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ the\\ proxy\\ of\\ gender\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ one\\ for\\ qualification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ women\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ handle\\ riots\\,\\ may\\ be\\ targeted\\ sexually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Geduldig\\ v\\.\\ Aiello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Court\\ says\\ CA\\ can\\ have\\ an\\ insurance\\ system\\ that\\ pays\\ all\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ bills\\ and\\ all\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ bills\\ except\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;pregnancy\\-related\\&rdquo\\;\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Michael\\ M\\.\\ v\\.\\ Superior\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1981\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ punishing\\ the\\ male\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ female\\,\\ party\\ to\\ intercourse\\ when\\ female\\ was\\ under\\ 18\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ the\\ male\\;\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ all\\ the\\ negative\\ effects\\ fall\\ on\\ the\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Califano\\ v\\.\\ Webster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ security\\ benefits\\ were\\ changed\\ to\\ compensate\\ women\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ paid\\ lower\\ wages\\ during\\ their\\ working\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;compensation\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ necessary\\ legitimate\\ shield\\ against\\ \\&ldquo\\;inquiry\\ into\\ actual\\ purposes\\ underlying\\ a\\ statutory\\ scheme\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\:\\ gender\\-based\\ classification\\;\\ intermediate\\ scrutiny\\;\\ law\\ is\\ ok\\ since\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ stereotype\\ about\\ women\\ needing\\ more\\ benefits\\ or\\ men\\ being\\ less\\ deserving\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ an\\ actual\\ economic\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Orr\\ v\\.\\ Orr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1979\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alabama\\ statue\\ provided\\ that\\ only\\ husbands\\ pay\\ alimony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ considered\\ whether\\ sex\\ was\\ a\\ legit\\ proxy\\ for\\ need\\ and\\ whether\\ this\\ was\\ legit\\ compensation\\ for\\ past\\ discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decides\\ that\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ pass\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Craig\\ v\\.\\ Boren\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mississippi\\ University\\ for\\ Women\\ v\\.\\ Hogan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1982\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nursing\\ school\\ denied\\ a\\ man\\ admittance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ providing\\ a\\ compensatory\\ service\\ for\\ women\\,\\ but\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ merely\\ reinforcing\\ stereotypes\\ that\\ only\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ nurses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ discriminated\\ in\\ field\\ of\\ nursing\\,\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ affirmative\\ action\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mathews\\ v\\.\\ Lucas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ of\\ illegitimates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ illegitimate\\ children\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\,\\ and\\ must\\ prove\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ illegitimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\practical\\ reason\\:\\ anyone\\ can\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ illegitimate\\,\\ can\\ claim\\ paternity\\ suit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cleburne\\ v\\.\\ Cleburne\\ Living\\ Center\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ mentally\\ retarded\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ deserve\\ \\&ldquo\\;quasi\\-suspect\\ classification\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\?\\ court\\ says\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\legitimate\\ differences\\ exist\\ that\\ allow\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ to\\ treat\\ them\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\since\\ state\\/fed\\.\\ government\\ is\\ fighting\\ for\\ the\\ mentally\\ retarded\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ really\\ prejudiced\\ against\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\laws\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ mentally\\ retarded\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ politically\\ powerless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hard\\ to\\ define\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ allows\\ for\\ an\\ ordinance\\ denying\\ special\\ permit\\ to\\ mentally\\-retarded\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Harper\\ v\\.\\ VA\\ Board\\ of\\ Elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1966\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\$1\\.50\\ charged\\ for\\ state\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ was\\ a\\ rational\\ basis\\:\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ care\\ to\\ vote\\,\\ \\$1\\.50\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ too\\ much\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\any\\ state\\ statute\\ that\\ allows\\ some\\ people\\ to\\ vote\\ while\\ denying\\ others\\ triggers\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\important\\ thing\\:\\ Fundamental\\ Rights\\ drawing\\ Strict\\ Scrutiny\\;\\ not\\ just\\ Discreet\\ and\\ Insular\\ minorities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ uses\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;structure\\ of\\ the\\ constitution\\&rdquo\\;\\ argument\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ fundamental\\ right\\ which\\ is\\ nowhere\\ in\\ the\\ actual\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Kramer\\ v\\.\\ Union\\ School\\ District\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ parents\\ of\\ school\\-age\\ children\\ and\\ property\\ owners\\ allowed\\ to\\ vote\\ in\\ school\\ board\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ applies\\,\\ and\\ wins\\,\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\ Court\\ worried\\ about\\ protecting\\ rights\\ of\\ POOR\\ PEOPLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reynolds\\ v\\.\\ Sims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alabama\\ districting\\ law\\ was\\ such\\ that\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ the\\ electorate\\ could\\ elect\\ the\\ state\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ votes\\ counting\\ more\\ than\\ others\\;\\ court\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constitutionally\\ protected\\ right\\ to\\ an\\ equally\\ weighted\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ person\\,\\ one\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\again\\,\\ court\\ not\\ pulling\\ this\\ from\\ the\\ actual\\ Constitution\\,\\ just\\ theory\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;structure\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frankfurter\\ dissent\\:\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ thicket\\,\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ districting\\ the\\ court\\ should\\ not\\ try\\ and\\ fix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Davis\\ v\\.\\ Bandemer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1986\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gerrimander\\ of\\ Indiana\\ legislature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\representatives\\ getting\\ 47\\%\\ of\\ vote\\,\\ but\\ 58\\%\\ of\\ seats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ splits\\ in\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ say\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ political\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ say\\ districting\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ by\\ neutral\\,\\ apolitical\\ reasoning\\;\\ no\\ scheming\\ for\\ partisan\\ advantage\\;\\ courts\\ can\\ force\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gerrymandering\\ cannot\\ go\\ too\\ far\\;\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ outrageous\\ and\\ effective\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ draw\\ fire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Vieth\\ v\\.\\ Jubeliver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2004\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\:\\ split\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deciding\\ vote\\ says\\ that\\ so\\ far\\,\\ every\\ case\\ of\\ gerrymandering\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ political\\ question\\,\\ and\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ too\\.\\ However\\,\\ that\\ may\\ well\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Skinner\\ v\\.\\ Oklahoma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sterilization\\ case\\ for\\ 3\\-time\\ chicken\\ thief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\today\\:\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\ would\\ cover\\ this\\,\\ but\\ not\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\;\\ chicken\\ thieves\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ and\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\,\\ court\\ says\\ right\\ to\\ procreate\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\;\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ should\\ apply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Griswold\\ v\\.\\ Connecticut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Penumbras\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connecticut\\ said\\ that\\ people\\ cannot\\ use\\ contraceptives\\ for\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ preventing\\ conception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;zones\\ of\\ privacy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ regulation\\ is\\ invading\\ a\\ zone\\ of\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\:\\ uncommonly\\ silly\\ law\\,\\ but\\ irreversible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Eisenstadt\\ v\\.\\ Baird\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MA\\ statute\\ forbade\\ distribution\\ of\\ contraceptives\\ to\\ unmarried\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ Brennan\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Right\\ of\\ privacy\\ is\\ the\\ freedom\\ from\\ government\\ intrusion\\ in\\ matters\\ so\\ personal\\ as\\ right\\ to\\ bear\\ or\\ beget\\ a\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Roe\\ v\\.\\ Wade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1974\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\ exists\\ somewhere\\ in\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trimesters\\ are\\ required\\,\\ since\\ at\\ some\\ point\\,\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ compelling\\ interest\\ in\\ protecting\\ innocent\\ life\\ is\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\before\\ third\\ trimester\\,\\ fetus\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ theory\\ of\\ life\\ cannot\\ impinge\\ upon\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Planned\\ Parenthood\\ v\\.\\ Casey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1992\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ restrictions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\ woman\\ can\\ have\\ an\\ abortion\\ without\\ having\\ been\\ subjected\\ to\\ persuasion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mandatory\\ 24\\-hour\\ waiting\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\spousal\\ notification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parental\\ consent\\ \\(with\\ opportunity\\ for\\ judicial\\ bypass\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\record\\-keeping\\ requirements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Souter\\,\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Conner\\,\\ Kenney\\ write\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\affirm\\ \\&ldquo\\;essential\\ holding\\ of\\ Roe\\&rdquo\\;\\ through\\ stare\\ decisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\said\\ state\\ can\\ impose\\ restrictions\\ unless\\ those\\ restrictions\\ put\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;undue\\ burden\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\an\\ \\&ldquo\\;undue\\ burden\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ substantial\\ obstacle\\ in\\ the\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ spousal\\ notification\\ is\\ overturned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ Roe\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ seriously\\ wrongly\\ decided\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ overturn\\ it\\ would\\ undermine\\ the\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;to\\ overrule\\ under\\ fire\\ would\\ bring\\ \\[the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\]\\ legitimacy\\ under\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scalia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dissent\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ imperial\\ judiciary\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ that\\ stare\\ decisis\\ is\\ a\\ dumb\\ rule\\ to\\ go\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stevens\\&rsquo\\;\\ dissent\\:\\ says\\ that\\ court\\ is\\ upholding\\ patronizing\\ state\\ efforts\\ which\\ imply\\ that\\ a\\ woman\\ is\\ not\\ capable\\ of\\ making\\ her\\ own\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Stenberg\\ v\\.\\ Carhart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\partial\\-birth\\ abortions\\ banned\\ by\\ Nebraska\\,\\ even\\ when\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ is\\ at\\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breyer\\,\\ for\\ majority\\,\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ since\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ is\\ left\\ unconsidered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ enough\\ options\\ for\\ women\\,\\ since\\ the\\ fetus\\ will\\ die\\ anyway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dissent\\ by\\ Kennedy\\:\\ this\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\infanticide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bowers\\ v\\.\\ Hardwick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1986\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Georgia\\ statute\\ banning\\ sodomy\\ \\(doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ differentiate\\ between\\ homosexual\\ and\\ heterosexual\\ sodomy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ White\\:\\ no\\ fundamental\\ right\\ to\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ rights\\,\\ according\\ to\\ previous\\ cases\\,\\ should\\ either\\ be\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\implicit\\ in\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ ordered\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rooted\\ in\\ traditions\\ \\&ldquo\\;deeply\\ rooted\\ in\\ this\\ Nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\ and\\ tradition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ qualify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\,\\ Lochner\\-esque\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ has\\ a\\ moral\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pure\\ bigotry\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ Burger\\ concurrence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stevens\\ points\\ out\\,\\ the\\ GA\\ law\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ single\\ out\\ homosexuals\\;\\ but\\ the\\ decision\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissenters\\:\\ precedent\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ have\\ sexual\\ autonomy\\ AND\\ constitution\\ presupposes\\ right\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ make\\ these\\ kinds\\ of\\ decisions\\ \\(4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\:\\ right\\ of\\ privacy\\ at\\ home\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lawrence\\ v\\.\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TX\\ law\\ prohibited\\ \\&ldquo\\;deviate\\ sexual\\ intercourse\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ persons\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\,\\ but\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ liberty\\ of\\ sexual\\ intimacy\\ crucial\\ to\\ leading\\ of\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\essentially\\ a\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\ case\\;\\ overrules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bowers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\respect\\ for\\ private\\ lives\\;\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;persons\\ in\\ every\\ generation\\ can\\ invoke\\ its\\ principles\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ search\\ for\\ greater\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Romer\\ v\\.\\ Evans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1996\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CO\\ state\\ constitution\\ says\\ that\\ homosexuals\\ should\\ not\\ get\\ protected\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ uses\\ rational\\ basis\\ review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ legislation\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ narrow\\ and\\ too\\ broad\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seizes\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ trait\\ \\(homosexuality\\)\\ and\\ broadly\\ subjects\\ those\\ people\\ to\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ legal\\ disabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ shows\\ special\\ concern\\ for\\ gays\\:\\ worried\\ about\\ animus\\,\\ prejudice\\,\\ discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shapiro\\ v\\.\\ Thompson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\ Court\\,\\ showing\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\statutes\\ in\\ CT\\,\\ PA\\,\\ and\\ D\\.C\\.\\ deny\\ welfare\\ to\\ residence\\ who\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ lived\\ their\\ for\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ these\\ states\\ are\\ penalizing\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ right\\ is\\ implicated\\;\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ is\\ used\\;\\ no\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concern\\:\\ this\\ decision\\ will\\ unincentivize\\ states\\ with\\ generous\\ welfare\\ plans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Saenz\\ v\\.\\ Roe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1999\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CA\\ statute\\ limited\\ welfare\\ benefits\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ lived\\ there\\ less\\ than\\ one\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ move\\ from\\ a\\ state\\ with\\ lower\\ benefits\\,\\ you\\ keep\\ those\\ lower\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\:\\ different\\ treatment\\ of\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Theory\\ of\\ Equal\\ Citizenship\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\formal\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dissent\\:\\ this\\ is\\ beyond\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ travel\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ once\\ you\\ move\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ traveling\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dandridge\\ v\\.\\ Williams\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\1970\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maryland\\ capped\\ the\\ total\\ amount\\ any\\ family\\ could\\ receive\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aid\\ to\\ Families\\ with\\ Dependent\\ Children\\ Program\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rational\\ basis\\ test\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ simply\\ trying\\ to\\ balance\\ families\\ on\\ welfare\\ and\\ those\\ supported\\ by\\ employed\\ breadwinner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\San\\ Antonio\\ v\\.\\ Rodriguez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symbolic\\ case\\:\\ protection\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ abandoned\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parents\\ in\\ San\\ Antonio\\ school\\ district\\ ague\\ that\\ their\\ kids\\ are\\ discriminated\\ against\\,\\ since\\ the\\ property\\ tax\\-planned\\ system\\ greatly\\ hurts\\ their\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rich\\ people\\ paying\\ less\\ for\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powell\\:\\ disproportionate\\ impact\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ unfair\\ intent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\courts\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ fundamental\\ to\\ education\\ unless\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ undeniable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\distinguishing\\ between\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\West\\ VA\\ State\\ Bd\\.\\ of\\ Education\\ v\\.\\ Barnette\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compelling\\ a\\ flag\\ salute\\ by\\ public\\ school\\ children\\ whose\\ religious\\ scruples\\ forbade\\ it\\ violated\\ first\\ amendment\\,\\ says\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hobbie\\ v\\.\\ Unemployment\\ Appeals\\ Commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1987\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hobbie\\ appealed\\ firing\\ after\\ she\\ refused\\ to\\ work\\ certain\\ scheduled\\ hours\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ interfered\\ with\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ruling\\:\\ government\\ must\\ recognize\\ exemptions\\ for\\ conscientious\\ religious\\ objectors\\ unless\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\free\\ exercise\\ clause\\ implicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Employment\\ Division\\ v\\.\\ Smith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1990\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smith\\,\\ member\\ of\\ Native\\ American\\ Church\\,\\ in\\ which\\ peyote\\-smoking\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ religious\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ in\\ question\\ was\\ generally\\ applied\\,\\ not\\ targeting\\ Native\\ American\\ Church\\ members\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ have\\ never\\ held\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ excuse\\ him\\ from\\ compliance\\ with\\ an\\ otherwise\\ valid\\ law\\ prohibiting\\ conduct\\ that\\ the\\ State\\ is\\ free\\ to\\ regulate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ other\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ neutrally\\ applied\\ laws\\ have\\ been\\ exempted\\ \\(such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Yoder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ other\\ rights\\,\\ such\\ as\\ freedom\\ to\\ raise\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\,\\ freedom\\ of\\ the\\ press\\,\\ have\\ been\\ implicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ Court\\ should\\ not\\ apply\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\ test\\ because\\ then\\ it\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ too\\ many\\ questions\\ with\\ too\\ much\\ uncertainty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wisconsin\\ v\\.\\ Yoder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amish\\ man\\ allowed\\ to\\ pull\\ his\\ child\\ from\\ school\\ before\\ age\\ 16\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ against\\ his\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ to\\ keep\\ her\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Church\\ of\\ Lukumi\\ Babalu\\ Aye\\ v\\.\\ Hialeah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ritual\\ sacrificing\\ of\\ small\\ animals\\ banned\\ in\\ this\\ FL\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ct\\ overrules\\ law\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ generally\\ applicable\\ law\\,\\ but\\ one\\ targeting\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Locke\\ v\\.\\ Davey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2004\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Washington\\ State\\ denies\\ scholarships\\ for\\ ministry\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ allows\\ the\\ state\\ to\\ do\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ can\\ decide\\ not\\ to\\ use\\ taxpayer\\ money\\ for\\ religious\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Everson\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1947\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ case\\ testing\\ the\\ Establishment\\ Clause\\ with\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;incorporation\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NJ\\ town\\ says\\ it\\ will\\ pay\\ transit\\ costs\\ for\\ kids\\ going\\ to\\ school\\,\\ including\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ Black\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;wall\\ of\\ separation\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ Church\\ and\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ neutrality\\:\\ govt\\.\\ can\\ make\\ no\\ law\\ or\\ policy\\ that\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ religion\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\decision\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Substantive\\ neutrality\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ government\\,\\ in\\ supporting\\ the\\ parochial\\ school\\,\\ encourages\\ people\\ to\\ go\\ there\\,\\ so\\ the\\ substantive\\ effect\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ religious\\ subsidy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Walz\\ v\\.\\ Tax\\ Commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1970\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ tax\\ exempt\\ status\\ for\\ church\\,\\ since\\ the\\ laws\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ place\\ for\\ so\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\result\\:\\ government\\ can\\ give\\ tax\\ breaks\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sending\\ checks\\ to\\ the\\ actual\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lemon\\ v\\.\\ Kurtzman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\states\\ were\\ supplementing\\ salaries\\ of\\ schoolteachers\\ in\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ strikes\\ down\\ these\\ statutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ no\\ statute\\ with\\ the\\ purpose\\,\\ principle\\,\\ or\\ primary\\ effect\\ of\\ religious\\ endorsement\\,\\ or\\,\\ which\\ overly\\ entangles\\ the\\ government\\ with\\ religion\\,\\ is\\ acceptable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zelman\\ v\\.\\ Simmons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2002\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\school\\ vouchers\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ split\\:\\ 4\\ conservative\\ judges\\ say\\ the\\ formal\\ neutrality\\ test\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\,\\ 4\\ liberal\\ judges\\ say\\ the\\ substantive\\ neutrality\\ test\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ formal\\ neutrality\\ matters\\,\\ but\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reasonable\\ Observer\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\ is\\ more\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ says\\ that\\ a\\ reasonable\\ observer\\ would\\ not\\ think\\ the\\ government\\ was\\ endorsing\\ parochial\\ education\\ through\\ vouchers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mitchell\\ v\\.\\ Helms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\government\\ paying\\ for\\ materials\\ for\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ this\\ is\\ ok\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ materials\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ used\\ for\\ theology\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Allegheny\\ Country\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creche\\ featured\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ a\\ grand\\ staircase\\ near\\ Allegheny\\ County\\ Courthouse\\,\\ menorah\\ nearby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ creche\\ violates\\ the\\ reasonable\\ viewer\\ test\\:\\ people\\ would\\ think\\,\\ says\\ Blackmun\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ occupies\\ this\\ location\\ with\\.\\.\\.support\\ and\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ which\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ celebrate\\ Christmas\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ endorsing\\ a\\ patently\\ Christian\\ message\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissenters\\ say\\ that\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ coercion\\,\\ the\\ Endorsement\\ Clause\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ violated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NO\\ ONE\\ says\\ that\\ they\\ think\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ symbolic\\ support\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\McCreary\\ County\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\ commandments\\ in\\ KT\\ courthouse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ 5\\-4\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\violates\\ the\\ Endorsement\\ Clause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Van\\ Orden\\ v\\.\\ Perry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\monument\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ up\\ since\\ 1960s\\ around\\ TX\\ State\\ Capitol\\ of\\ 10\\ commandments\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ stay\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breyer\\:\\ limits\\ of\\ public\\ acceptance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ one\\ has\\ complained\\ about\\ the\\ think\\ for\\ this\\ long\\,\\ so\\ it\\ has\\ historical\\ significance\\ to\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Katzenbach\\ v\\.\\ Morgan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ had\\ enacted\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ legislation\\ to\\ protect\\ minorities\\ \\(The\\ Voting\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ 1965\\,\\ Section\\ 4e\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lassiter\\ v\\.\\ Northampton\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1958\\)\\,\\ the\\ Equal\\ Protection\\ Clause\\,\\ said\\ the\\ court\\,\\ was\\ not\\ violated\\ when\\ voting\\ was\\ denied\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ failed\\ literacy\\ tests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\,\\ court\\ upheld\\ section\\ 4e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reasoning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ Congress\\ give\\ itself\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ nullify\\ a\\ state\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Court\\ uses\\ McCulloch\\ v\\.\\ Maryland\\ standard\\ of\\ Congress\\ passing\\ \\&ldquo\\;appropriate\\ legislation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ question\\:\\ is\\ this\\ legislation\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ was\\ appropriate\\,\\ says\\ Brennan\\,\\ in\\ its\\ reasoning\\ behind\\ passing\\ the\\ law\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ legitimate\\ exercise\\ of\\ its\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\City\\ of\\ Boerne\\ v\\.\\ Flores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1997\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Current\\ Doctrine\\ concerning\\ Congressional\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ in\\ TX\\ wanted\\ to\\ expand\\,\\ the\\ state\\ said\\ no\\ due\\ to\\ zoning\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ said\\ it\\ has\\ Congressional\\ right\\ to\\ expand\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ Religious\\ Freedom\\ Reformation\\ Act\\ \\(RFRA\\)\\,\\ wherein\\ if\\ a\\ state\\ or\\ local\\ govt\\.\\ is\\ burdening\\ religion\\,\\ they\\ must\\ relax\\ their\\ laws\\ without\\ a\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ a\\ state\\ can\\ compensate\\ for\\ Congressional\\ violations\\,\\ but\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ choose\\ to\\ make\\ substantive\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ the\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 16, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/CLStudy_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 01:16:18.671745+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Constitutional Law - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "american", "constitutional-law"], "text": null, "id": 30, "html": "\\\\\\CLStudy\\_Guide\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c10\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c5\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Dred\\ Scott\\ v\\.\\ Sandford\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1857\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scott\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ VA\\,\\ held\\ there\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\traveled\\ with\\ his\\ master\\ through\\ IL\\ and\\ WI\\,\\ free\\ states\\ by\\ Missouri\\ Compromise\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\back\\ in\\ VA\\,\\ Scot\\ was\\ sold\\ to\\ owner\\ in\\ NY\\;\\ he\\ sued\\ for\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Questions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\is\\ Dred\\ Scot\\ as\\ citizen\\ of\\ the\\ US\\,\\ or\\ can\\ he\\ not\\ sue\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ Congress\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ enact\\ this\\ law\\ under\\ Article\\ IV\\,\\ Sect\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Cl\\.\\ 2\\ to\\ enact\\ this\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Should\\ Scot\\ be\\ a\\ free\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taney\\:\\ the\\ Congress\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ prohibit\\ slavery\\;\\ it\\ cannot\\ create\\ free\\/slave\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dred\\ Scot\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ citizen\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ is\\ only\\ 3\\/5\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ citizen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taney\\ states\\ that\\ clearly\\ the\\ founders\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ slaves\\ citizens\\ \\(unclear\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ divided\\ issue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ though\\ Art\\.\\ IV\\,\\ Sect\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Cl\\.\\ 2\\ seems\\ to\\ give\\ power\\ to\\ Congress\\ to\\ enact\\ the\\ Missouri\\ Compromise\\,\\ the\\ due\\ process\\ clause\\ gives\\ people\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ property\\ that\\ overrules\\ this\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Strauder\\ v\\.\\ West\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ race\\ discrimination\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\black\\ man\\ sued\\ over\\ murder\\ conviction\\ since\\ no\\ black\\ men\\ were\\ allowed\\ on\\ the\\ jury\\ \\(WV\\ law\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ wins\\:\\ Equal\\ Protection\\ clause\\ says\\ that\\ blacks\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ positive\\ immunity\\ or\\ right\\ against\\ unfriendly\\ discrimination\\ against\\ them\\ distinctly\\ as\\ colored\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Plessy\\ v\\.\\ Ferguson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ Plessy\\,\\ black\\,\\ arrested\\ for\\ sitting\\ in\\ white\\ car\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ against\\ him\\ 8\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plessy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ gov\\.\\ can\\ impose\\ no\\ racial\\ discrimination\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ divides\\ Social\\ and\\ Political\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\political\\ power\\ cannot\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;annoy\\ or\\ oppress\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ only\\ to\\ promote\\ a\\ public\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ legislate\\ social\\ equality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arguments\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strauder\\ mentions\\ only\\ the\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ of\\ all\\ citizens\\,\\ not\\ social\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\enforced\\ separation\\ is\\ not\\ inherently\\ demeaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Korematsu\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1944\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ ruled\\ that\\ internment\\ camps\\ were\\ ok\\,\\ even\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ legal\\ restrictions\\ which\\ curtail\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ racial\\ group\\ are\\ immediately\\ suspect\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ rigid\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ people\\ in\\ country\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ including\\ citizens\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ of\\ Japanese\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\essentially\\,\\ court\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ must\\ take\\ the\\ military\\&rsquo\\;s\\ word\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ of\\ compelling\\ interest\\ to\\ the\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Endo\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1944\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\loyal\\ citizen\\ to\\ US\\ was\\ released\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ longer\\ a\\ valid\\ security\\ reason\\,\\ says\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ argues\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;today\\,\\ education\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ function\\ of\\ state\\ and\\ local\\ governments\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\asks\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Does\\ segregation\\ of\\ children\\ in\\ public\\ schools\\.\\.\\.deprive\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ minority\\ group\\ of\\ equal\\ educational\\ opportunities\\?\\ We\\ believe\\ it\\ does\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\feeling\\ of\\ inferiority\\;\\ affects\\ motivation\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\substantive\\,\\ modern\\ argument\\;\\ away\\ from\\ historical\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\new\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ moral\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bolling\\ v\\.\\ Sharpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\federal\\ case\\ concerning\\ discrimination\\ in\\ public\\ school\\ education\\ in\\ the\\ District\\ of\\ Columbia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ due\\ process\\;\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reference\\ to\\ Korematsu\\,\\ most\\ amount\\ of\\ scrutiny\\ possible\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;proper\\ governmental\\ objective\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\segregation\\ does\\ not\\ pass\\ this\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fairness\\ doctrine\\ being\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\desegregation\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ all\\ deliberate\\ speed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compromise\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ court\\;\\ took\\ until\\ 1964\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\ for\\ desegregation\\ to\\ really\\ be\\ motivated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Loving\\ v\\.\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1967\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\miscegenation\\ law\\ in\\ VA\\ overruled\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ both\\ sides\\ are\\ equally\\ punished\\,\\ the\\ motivation\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ clearly\\ for\\ white\\ supremacy\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ fairly\\ applied\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\white\\ supremacy\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ proper\\ governmental\\ objective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Johnson\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ CA\\ prisons\\,\\ whites\\,\\ blacks\\,\\ Asians\\ sorted\\ out\\ in\\ different\\ cells\\ to\\ prevent\\ cross\\-racial\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ remands\\ case\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ a\\ sufficient\\ governmental\\ interest\\ case\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Marbury\\ v\\.\\ Madison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1803\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defining\\ case\\ in\\ issues\\ of\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Adams\\ named\\ John\\ Marshall\\,\\ his\\ secretary\\ of\\ state\\,\\ his\\ Chief\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federalist\\ Congress\\ created\\ 16\\ lower\\ federal\\ court\\ judgeships\\ \\(midnight\\ appointments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\42\\ \\&ldquo\\;justices\\ of\\ the\\ peace\\&rdquo\\;\\ created\\,\\ confirmed\\;\\ however\\,\\ 4\\ of\\ these\\ named\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ their\\ formal\\ commissions\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ now\\ president\\;\\ James\\ Madison\\ sec\\.\\ of\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Republicans\\ abolish\\ the\\ new\\ judgeships\\,\\ begin\\ to\\ impeach\\ the\\ federal\\ judges\\,\\ and\\ Marbury\\ files\\ suit\\ asking\\ court\\ to\\ make\\ Madison\\ give\\ him\\ his\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ 1803\\,\\ case\\ comes\\ to\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\problem\\:\\ if\\ Marshall\\ rules\\ for\\ Marbury\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ defied\\;\\ if\\ he\\ rules\\ for\\ Madison\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ weak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;brilliant\\ master\\ stroke\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ Marbury\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\ court\\:\\ S\\.C\\.\\ should\\ just\\ be\\ an\\ appellate\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Says\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marbury\\ has\\ legal\\ right\\ to\\ his\\ commission\\ since\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ signed\\ and\\ sealed\\:\\ for\\ every\\ right\\,\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ remedy\\,\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marbury\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ right\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ for\\ this\\ remedy\\:\\ only\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ a\\ Congressional\\ statute\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Court\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ issue\\ writs\\ of\\ mandamus\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(an\\ order\\ to\\ a\\ governmental\\ official\\)\\ can\\ he\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ mandamus\\ act\\,\\ says\\ Marshall\\,\\ is\\ repugnant\\ to\\ the\\ Constitution\\:\\ says\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ decide\\ when\\ to\\ expand\\ and\\ contract\\ powers\\ of\\ branches\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\,\\ the\\ mandamus\\ law\\ is\\ struck\\ down\\ \\(first\\ instance\\ of\\ judicial\\ review\\)\\;\\ Marbury\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ his\\ commission\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ has\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ court\\;\\ and\\ court\\ has\\ given\\ itself\\ power\\ of\\ judicial\\ review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\McCullough\\ v\\.\\ Maryland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1819\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maryland\\ is\\ taxing\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ in\\ its\\ efforts\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ national\\ bank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marshall\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ a\\ constitution\\ we\\ are\\ expounding\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Necessary\\ and\\ Proper\\ Clause\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ employed\\:\\ what\\ use\\ is\\ Congress\\&rsquo\\;\\ power\\ if\\ it\\ cannot\\ operate\\ reasonably\\ to\\ enforce\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Power\\ to\\ tax\\ naturally\\ leads\\ to\\ power\\ to\\ create\\ National\\ Bank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reading\\ the\\ Constitution\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ bank\\,\\ because\\ then\\ state\\ would\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ destroy\\ it\\;\\ state\\ cannot\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ destroy\\ something\\ created\\ by\\ Congress\\ \\(Marshall\\ does\\ not\\ get\\ this\\ from\\ Constitution\\ directly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Champion\\ v\\.\\ Ames\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1903\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lottery\\ Tickets\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ decided\\ that\\ Congress\\ did\\ have\\ power\\ under\\ the\\ Commerce\\ Clause\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ lottery\\ tickets\\,\\ since\\ those\\ tickets\\ were\\ articles\\ of\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;formal\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ essentially\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ lottery\\ tickets\\ are\\ being\\ carried\\ state\\ to\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shreveport\\ Case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ said\\ that\\ states\\ could\\ not\\ change\\ their\\ intrastate\\ railroad\\ rates\\ against\\ the\\ necessary\\ interstate\\ rates\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ Congress\\ to\\ regulate\\ commerce\\ exists\\,\\ it\\ dominates\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;All\\ matters\\ having\\ such\\ a\\ close\\ and\\ substantial\\ relation\\ to\\ interstate\\ traffic\\ that\\ the\\ control\\ is\\ essential\\ or\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ security\\ of\\ that\\ traffic\\,\\ to\\ the\\ efficiency\\ of\\ interstate\\ service\\,\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ conditions\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ has\\ right\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ matters\\ that\\ effect\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ substantially\\ and\\ closely\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ intrastate\\ matters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hammer\\ v\\.\\ Dagenhart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;reality\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ prohibit\\ interstate\\ transportation\\ of\\ products\\ from\\ factories\\ that\\ used\\ child\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ act\\ in\\ its\\ effect\\ does\\ not\\ regulate\\ transportation\\ among\\ the\\ states\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ rather\\ regulates\\ a\\ morality\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\,\\ says\\ the\\ court\\,\\ is\\ unconstitutionally\\ using\\ police\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\:\\ whenever\\ anything\\ goes\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ regulated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Schechter\\ Poultry\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1935\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ struck\\ down\\ act\\ that\\ regulated\\ conditions\\ of\\ businesses\\ that\\ affected\\ Schechter\\ Poultry\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ upon\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Carter\\ v\\.\\ Carter\\ Coal\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1936\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ ruled\\ that\\ Congress\\ could\\ not\\ pass\\ law\\ concerning\\ hours\\ and\\ wages\\ of\\ companies\\,\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ effects\\&rdquo\\;\\ concerning\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\degree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\proximity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\NLRB\\ v\\.\\ Jones\\ and\\ Laughlin\\ Steel\\ Corp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1937\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\after\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ shift\\ in\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ Labor\\ Relations\\ Act\\ controlled\\ conditions\\ in\\ factories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\overrules\\ Carter\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;question\\ is\\ necessarily\\ one\\ of\\ degree\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ something\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ large\\ effect\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ whether\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\,\\ Congress\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ regulate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Darby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1941\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Deal\\ act\\ said\\ that\\ companies\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ship\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ unless\\ their\\ workers\\ had\\ certain\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goal\\:\\ impose\\ local\\ minimum\\ wages\\.\\ approach\\:\\ regulate\\ shipping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\using\\ commerce\\ power\\ as\\ police\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Formal\\ Test\\ firmly\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;whatever\\ their\\ motive\\ and\\ purpose\\,\\ regulations\\ of\\ commerce\\ which\\ do\\ not\\ infringe\\ some\\ constitutional\\ prohibition\\ are\\ within\\ the\\ plenary\\ power\\ conferred\\ on\\ Congress\\ by\\ the\\ Commerce\\ Clause\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dagenhart\\ directly\\ overruled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wickard\\ v\\.\\ Filber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ New\\ Deal\\ Law\\ regulating\\ production\\ of\\ individual\\ wheat\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\239\\ extra\\ bushels\\ is\\ still\\ against\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reasoning\\:\\ cumulative\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lochner\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\substantive\\ due\\ process\\ rears\\ its\\ ugly\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ of\\ NY\\ passed\\ legislation\\ forbidding\\ 60\\-hour\\ workdays\\ for\\ bakers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\are\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ impugned\\ by\\ this\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ yes\\:\\ the\\ privileges\\ and\\ immunities\\ clause\\ in\\ Constitution\\ only\\ applied\\ to\\ national\\ citizens\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ state\\ interfering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ cannot\\ justify\\ its\\ infringement\\ of\\ economic\\ liberty\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ laws\\.\\ Court\\ says\\ it\\ cannot\\ take\\ sides\\ in\\ employer\\-employee\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Calder\\ v\\.\\ Bull\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Health\\ of\\ employees\\:\\ court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ legislation\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ tied\\ to\\ this\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ goal\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ menas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dissent\\:\\ Justice\\ Holmes\\ says\\ the\\ court\\ should\\ decide\\ legitimate\\ public\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Calder\\ v\\.\\ Bull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1798\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\.\\ Chase\\ said\\ court\\ should\\ shoot\\ down\\ any\\ law\\ in\\ violation\\ of\\ natural\\ rights\\ \\(taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ property\\ rights\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Fletcher\\ v\\.\\ Peck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1810\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ Georgia\\ take\\ back\\ land\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sold\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ no\\,\\ because\\ this\\ violates\\ the\\ contracts\\ clause\\,\\ taking\\ natural\\ rights\\ into\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wynehamer\\ v\\.\\ the\\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ NY\\ says\\ that\\ due\\ process\\ laws\\ can\\ be\\ violated\\ by\\ unfair\\ laws\\ \\(setting\\ up\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\ decisions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Nebbia\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1934\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ a\\ statute\\ forbidding\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ milk\\ under\\ a\\ certain\\ price\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ market\\ fair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\:\\ in\\ interconnected\\ economy\\,\\ legislation\\ that\\ helps\\ farmers\\ helps\\ the\\ whole\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ tell\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lochner\\ reasoning\\ being\\ abandoned\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ welfare\\&rdquo\\;\\ deemed\\ a\\ good\\ enough\\ purpose\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\West\\ Coast\\ Hotel\\ v\\.\\ Parrish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1937\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ minimum\\ wage\\ for\\ women\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;public\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\ passes\\;\\ freedom\\ of\\ contract\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ absolute\\ and\\ uncontrollable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Carolene\\ Products\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actual\\ case\\:\\ court\\ rules\\ that\\ federal\\ statute\\ prohibiting\\ sale\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;filled\\ milk\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ is\\ legitimate\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ test\\ \\(people\\ may\\ mistake\\ it\\ for\\ milk\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\real\\ reason\\:\\ powerful\\ milk\\ lobby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FOOTNOTE\\:\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minorities\\ deserve\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Williamson\\ v\\.\\ Lee\\ Optical\\ of\\ Oklahoma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unlawful\\ for\\ anyone\\ other\\ than\\ optometrist\\ to\\ make\\ new\\ glasses\\ without\\ a\\ prescription\\ is\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rational\\ basis\\ test\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;quality\\ of\\ glasses\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ jeopardy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Atlanta\\ Motel\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\,\\ under\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ banned\\ exclusion\\ of\\ blacks\\ from\\ Atlanta\\ motel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ is\\ affected\\:\\ blacks\\ kept\\ from\\ traveling\\,\\ spending\\ money\\.\\ Hurts\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ constitutional\\ in\\ this\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Katzenbach\\ v\\.\\ McClung\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ollie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Barbecue\\&rdquo\\;\\ kept\\ blacks\\ from\\ buying\\ foot\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;regardless\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ direct\\ evidence\\,\\ refusal\\ to\\ serve\\ Negroes\\.\\.\\.\\[has\\]\\ a\\ close\\ connection\\ to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\ applies\\:\\ if\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ rational\\ basis\\ to\\ tie\\ something\\ to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ Congress\\ can\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Lopez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1995\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ passes\\ statute\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ illegal\\ to\\ posses\\ a\\ gun\\ within\\ 3\\,000\\ feet\\ of\\ a\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruling\\:\\ law\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ overrule\\ all\\ commerce\\ clause\\ precedent\\ before\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ CHANNELS\\ of\\ Interstate\\ Commerce\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ movement\\ of\\ PEOPLE\\/GOODS\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ or\\ after\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ arrived\\ from\\ interstate\\ movement\\ \\(drugs\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ activities\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;substantial\\ effects\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ that\\ substantial\\ effect\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ too\\ attenuated\\,\\ unlike\\ Wickard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Morrison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\argument\\:\\ Violence\\ Against\\ Women\\ Act\\ has\\ huge\\ effects\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ previous\\ cases\\ involve\\ economic\\ activity\\;\\ Congress\\ can\\ only\\ appeal\\ to\\ substantial\\ effects\\ when\\ they\\ arise\\ from\\ economic\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\key\\ distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gonzales\\ v\\.\\ Raich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Controlled\\ Substances\\ Act\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ wants\\ to\\ legislate\\ private\\ drug\\ use\\ grown\\ privately\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ which\\ allows\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\difficult\\ spot\\ for\\ conservatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\remand\\ ordered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schenck\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1917\\ Espionage\\ Act\\ in\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-WWI\\ pamphlets\\ to\\ draftees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pamphlet\\ urges\\ \\&ldquo\\;assert\\ your\\ rights\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\:\\ b\\/c\\ these\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;ordinary\\ times\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fire\\ in\\ a\\ crowded\\ theater\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ takes\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Debs\\ v\\.\\ US\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-war\\ speech\\ at\\ Socialist\\ party\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decision\\:\\ though\\ speech\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ directly\\ about\\ hurting\\ US\\ or\\ military\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;intent\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ utterances\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ harmful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ tendency\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;reasonable\\ probable\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ to\\ hurt\\ US\\;\\ so\\ Debs\\ trial\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ lost\\,\\ was\\ upheld\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Masses\\ Publishing\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Patten\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ Supreme\\ Ct\\.\\ Case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Learned\\ Hand\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\said\\ that\\ revolutionary\\ journal\\ was\\ permissible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ speech\\ does\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;urge\\ upon\\ others\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ duty\\ or\\ interest\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ it\\ is\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\direct\\ counsel\\ to\\ advice\\ insubordination\\ is\\ forbidden\\;\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Masses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;did\\ not\\ do\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Abrams\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\:\\ Famous\\ Holmes\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\leaflets\\ printed\\ against\\ US\\ attempts\\ to\\ crush\\ Russian\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Convictions\\ upheld\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ plan\\ of\\ action\\ they\\ adopted\\ was\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;defeat\\ the\\ war\\ program\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ their\\ primary\\ purpose\\ per\\ se\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HOLMES\\ DISSENT\\:\\ Clear\\ and\\ Present\\ Danger\\ of\\ immediate\\ evil\\;\\ only\\ place\\ to\\ punish\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ should\\ not\\ punish\\ speech\\ unless\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;so\\ imminently\\ threatens\\ immediate\\ interference\\ with\\ the\\ lawful\\ and\\ pressing\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ that\\ an\\ immediate\\ check\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gitlow\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1925\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defendant\\ published\\ effect\\-less\\ \\&ldquo\\;Left\\ Wing\\ Manifesto\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decision\\:\\ utterances\\ as\\ those\\ published\\ by\\ Gitlow\\ present\\ \\&ldquo\\;sufficient\\ danger\\ of\\ substantive\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ single\\ revolutionary\\ spark\\&rdquo\\;\\ may\\ be\\ enough\\ to\\ cause\\ danger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\ by\\ Holmes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ idea\\ is\\ an\\ incitement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Whitney\\ v\\.\\ California\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defendant\\,\\ Ms\\.\\ Whitney\\,\\ joined\\ Communist\\ Labor\\ Party\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ says\\ she\\ had\\ no\\ idea\\ how\\ violent\\,\\ terrorism\\ minded\\ the\\ organization\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ she\\ is\\ guilty\\:\\ freedom\\ of\\ association\\ is\\ legitimately\\ banned\\ by\\ CA\\ since\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ partakes\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ criminal\\ conspiracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brandeis\\ concurrence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;only\\ an\\ emergency\\ can\\ justify\\ repression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dennis\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gov\\.\\ had\\ been\\ prosecuting\\ those\\ organizing\\ the\\ violent\\ overthrow\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ govt\\ using\\ the\\ Clear\\ and\\ Present\\ Danger\\ Test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1951\\:\\ Height\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\ fears\\ \\(pre\\-Warren\\ Ct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Gravity\\ of\\ the\\ threatened\\ evil\\ grounded\\ by\\ its\\ probability\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\probability\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ small\\,\\ but\\ the\\ gravity\\ was\\ huge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brandenburg\\ v\\.\\ Ohio\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1959\\:\\ KKK\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\political\\ speech\\ protected\\ unless\\ imminent\\ lawless\\ action\\ is\\ urged\\ and\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\extremely\\ difficult\\ test\\ to\\ satisfy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ part\\ test\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ speech\\ political\\?\\ Advocacy\\ is\\ stringently\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ danger\\ imminent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ danger\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\private\\ conspiracies\\ NOT\\ protected\\;\\ just\\ public\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hess\\ v\\.\\ Indiana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-war\\ protesters\\ yelled\\,\\ after\\ being\\ moved\\ by\\ police\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ take\\ this\\.\\.\\.street\\ later\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ overturned\\ conviction\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ specific\\,\\ imminent\\ time\\ given\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ Times\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Sullivan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\paid\\ ad\\ in\\ the\\ NYT\\ makes\\ false\\ claims\\ about\\ a\\ candidate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ things\\ come\\ from\\ this\\ case\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ NYT\\&rsquo\\;s\\ speech\\ is\\ political\\,\\ it\\ is\\ protected\\;\\ how\\ can\\ political\\ democracy\\ be\\ upheld\\ if\\ public\\ officials\\ are\\ over\\-protected\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Empirical\\ Calculators\\:\\ newspapers\\ around\\ the\\ country\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ scared\\ that\\ something\\ they\\ print\\ will\\ be\\ libelous\\;\\ again\\,\\ political\\ democracy\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ legal\\ standard\\ to\\ help\\ Editors\\ make\\ decision\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ publish\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\state\\ can\\ impose\\ damages\\ on\\ people\\ who\\ make\\ libelous\\ claims\\ about\\ public\\ officials\\ if\\ those\\ people\\ KNOW\\ the\\ speech\\ is\\ false\\ or\\ act\\ with\\ RECKLESS\\ DISREGARD\\ for\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Actual\\ Malice\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gertz\\ v\\.\\ Robert\\ Welch\\ Inc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gertz\\,\\ a\\ lawyer\\,\\ falsely\\ called\\ an\\ architect\\ of\\ a\\ communist\\ cover\\-up\\ of\\ a\\ police\\ murder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ held\\ NYT\\ rule\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ apply\\,\\ b\\/c\\ Gertz\\ was\\ a\\ private\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\private\\ citizens\\ would\\ be\\ left\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ recourse\\ for\\ injury\\ to\\ his\\ reputation\\ unless\\ he\\ can\\ satisfy\\ the\\ demanding\\ requirements\\ of\\ the\\ Times\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harder\\ for\\ private\\ citizens\\ to\\ defend\\ themselves\\;\\ and\\ public\\ officials\\ know\\ they\\ are\\ taking\\ a\\ risk\\ in\\ entering\\ public\\ sphere\\,\\ while\\ private\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ establishes\\ that\\ when\\ people\\ become\\ public\\ figures\\,\\ they\\ lose\\ that\\ private\\ citizen\\ protection\\ afforded\\ to\\ Gertz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Roth\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ Alberts\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Obscenity\\,\\ court\\ rules\\,\\ is\\ not\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;All\\ ideas\\ having\\ even\\ the\\ slightest\\ redeeming\\ social\\ importance\\.\\.\\.have\\ full\\ protection\\ of\\ guaranties\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obscenity\\ does\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sex\\ and\\ obscenity\\ are\\ not\\ synonymous\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Kingsley\\ Int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ Pictures\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\.\\ Regents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ of\\ NY\\ wanted\\ to\\ bar\\ showing\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lady\\ Chatterley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lover\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;b\\/c\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;advocates\\ an\\ idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ adultery\\ under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ may\\ be\\ proper\\ behavior\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\/c\\ it\\ advocates\\ an\\ idea\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ the\\ movie\\ is\\ protected\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Paris\\ Adult\\ Theatre\\ I\\ v\\.\\ Slaton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\an\\ adult\\ theater\\ that\\ says\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ 21\\,\\ does\\ not\\ solicit\\,\\ has\\ large\\ warning\\ sign\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Berger\\ court\\ holds\\ there\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ legitimate\\ state\\ interests\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ stemming\\ the\\ tide\\ of\\ commercialized\\ obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ though\\ assumptions\\ of\\ legislature\\ are\\ unprovable\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ not\\ a\\ sufficient\\ reason\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ statute\\ unconstitutional\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Miller\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obscenity\\ defined\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;appeals\\ to\\ a\\ prurient\\ interest\\ in\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;material\\ is\\ patently\\ offensive\\ because\\ it\\ offends\\ contemporary\\ community\\ standards\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ description\\ or\\ representation\\ of\\ sexual\\ matters\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;utterly\\ without\\ redeeming\\ social\\ value\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Miller\\ had\\ sent\\ unsolicited\\ pictorial\\ ads\\ featuring\\ pornographic\\ poses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\admits\\ standards\\ will\\ vary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\community\\,\\ not\\ national\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ remanded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\American\\ Booksellers\\ Association\\ v\\.\\ Hudnut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\MacKinnon\\/Dworkin\\ ordinances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\J\\.\\ Easterbrook\\ rejected\\ ordinance\\ banning\\ pornography\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ definitions\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ ordinance\\ made\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ censoring\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ if\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claims\\ are\\ right\\ and\\ pornography\\ has\\ serious\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ women\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ a\\ false\\ idea\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\obscenity\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ ideas\\,\\ but\\ sexual\\ explications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Brien\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Brien\\ burns\\ draft\\ card\\,\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expressive\\ conduct\\ protected\\ by\\ first\\ amendment\\;\\ draft\\ card\\ burning\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ illegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Test\\ Created\\ for\\ Expressive\\ Conduct\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\government\\ can\\ bar\\ it\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ governmental\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\that\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\ cannot\\ be\\ simply\\ to\\ suppress\\ certain\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ suppression\\ cannot\\ go\\ beyond\\ what\\ is\\ strictly\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ law\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;content\\ neutral\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ draft\\-card\\ burning\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\,\\ it\\ cares\\ about\\ the\\ damaging\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ decides\\ not\\ to\\ care\\ about\\ the\\ actual\\ motive\\ concerned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ Court\\ decides\\ that\\ the\\ statute\\ does\\ serve\\ an\\ important\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Texas\\ v\\.\\ Johnson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\over\\ flag\\-burning\\ at\\ 1984\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ acts\\ must\\ convey\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;particularized\\ message\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ get\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\ coverage\\;\\ this\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ concedes\\ that\\ the\\ governmental\\ interest\\ is\\ repressing\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\;\\ however\\,\\ they\\ apply\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ exacting\\ scrutiny\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\still\\,\\ they\\ cannot\\ excuse\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;means\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ protecting\\ the\\ flag\\,\\ since\\ it\\ attacks\\ an\\ idea\\ specifically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Clark\\ v\\.\\ Community\\ for\\ Creative\\ Non\\-Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1984\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ w\\/\\ CCNV\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ sleep\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ Mall\\ by\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protest\\ homelessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ expressive\\ conduct\\ with\\ a\\ particularized\\ message\\,\\ says\\ the\\ court\\;\\ BUT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ regulation\\ is\\ content\\-neutral\\;\\ no\\ camping\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ Mall\\ or\\ Lafayette\\ Park\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Govt\\.\\ has\\ legitimate\\ interest\\ in\\ ensuring\\ the\\ National\\ Parks\\ are\\ adequately\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ has\\ an\\ interest\\;\\ Gov\\.\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ law\\;\\ interest\\ is\\ unrelated\\ to\\ suppression\\ of\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DISSENT\\:\\ expression\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ protected\\ enough\\;\\ content\\-neutrality\\ can\\ still\\ unnecessarily\\ restrict\\ protected\\ expressive\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cohen\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ wore\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fuck\\ the\\ Draft\\&rdquo\\;\\ t\\-shirt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ obscenity\\ case\\;\\ these\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;fighting\\ words\\&rdquo\\;\\ directly\\ aimed\\ at\\ someone\\;\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ violently\\ aroused\\ by\\ the\\ t\\-shirt\\,\\ Cohen\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ violently\\ arouse\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ decision\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ side\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ broader\\ enduring\\ values\\ which\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ open\\ debate\\ permits\\ us\\ to\\ achieve\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ has\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ cleans\\ public\\ debate\\ to\\ point\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;grammatical\\ palatability\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;one\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vulgar\\ is\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lyric\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ language\\ conveys\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\ inexpressible\\ emotions\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;we\\ cannot\\ indulge\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ forbid\\ particular\\ words\\ without\\ also\\ running\\ a\\ substantial\\ risk\\ of\\ suppressing\\ ideas\\ in\\ the\\ process\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Miami\\ Herald\\ Publishing\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Tornillo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1974\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Florida\\ statute\\ said\\ newspapers\\ running\\ political\\ editorials\\ for\\ a\\ candidate\\ had\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ opposing\\ candidate\\ room\\ to\\ reply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ against\\ Florida\\ statue\\:\\ fear\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;under\\ the\\ operation\\ of\\ the\\ FL\\ statute\\,\\ political\\ and\\ electoral\\ coverage\\ would\\ be\\ blunted\\ or\\ reduced\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fear\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;chill\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Red\\ Lion\\ Broadcasting\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ FCC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ owns\\ frequencies\\;\\ FCC\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fairness\\ Doctrine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;personal\\ attack\\&rdquo\\;\\ rule\\,\\ under\\ which\\ people\\ running\\ attack\\ ads\\ had\\ to\\ notify\\ the\\ attacked\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ Lion\\ co\\.\\ lost\\ privilege\\ to\\ its\\ frequencies\\ for\\ failing\\ to\\ comply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ since\\ the\\ airways\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ govt\\,\\ Red\\ Lion\\ has\\ no\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rules\\ are\\ applied\\ content\\-neutrally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ELECTRONIC\\ MEDIA\\ NOT\\ AS\\ PROTECTED\\ AS\\ PRINT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\FCC\\ v\\.\\ Pacifica\\ Foundation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pacifica\\ radio\\ station\\ broadcasts\\ Carlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 7\\ Dirty\\ Words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Channeling\\&rdquo\\;\\ behavior\\,\\ not\\ prohibiting\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ could\\ hear\\ the\\ broadcast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ speech\\ is\\ more\\ like\\ obscenity\\ than\\ political\\ speech\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ words\\ offend\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ reasons\\ as\\ obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\speech\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;vulgar\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;offensive\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;shocking\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;Intrusive\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ accessible\\ to\\ children\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\therefore\\,\\ radio\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ too\\ much\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Turner\\ Broadcasting\\ System\\ v\\.\\ FCC\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1994\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\requirement\\ of\\ TBS\\ to\\ devote\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ their\\ programming\\ to\\ public\\ broadcast\\ is\\ upheld\\ with\\ certain\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stevens\\ argued\\ that\\ act\\ was\\ content\\ neutral\\;\\ BUT\\,\\ conceded\\ that\\ law\\ was\\ directed\\ at\\ cable\\ operators\\,\\ not\\ generally\\ applicable\\,\\ so\\ it\\ deserved\\ heightened\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\ upheld\\ in\\ 1997\\,\\ with\\ legislation\\ found\\ as\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\ and\\ fair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\US\\ v\\.\\ Playboy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Playboy\\ channel\\ is\\ bleeding\\ into\\ other\\ channels\\,\\ accessible\\ to\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ requiring\\ channel\\ to\\ install\\ fail\\-safe\\ technology\\ does\\ not\\ hold\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ is\\ content\\-based\\;\\ Playboy\\ channel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ not\\ obscene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cable\\ wins\\ over\\ other\\ concerns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\:\\ compelling\\ interest\\ to\\ protect\\ kids\\;\\ channel\\ advertises\\ itself\\ as\\ obscene\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obscene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reno\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1997\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;communication\\ decency\\ act\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ made\\ it\\ illegal\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ transmit\\ illicit\\ material\\ to\\ minors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ court\\ said\\ this\\ act\\ was\\ Content\\-based\\ regulation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ statute\\ is\\ too\\ vague\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\term\\ \\&ldquo\\;indecent\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ vague\\,\\ and\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ caveat\\ for\\ redeeming\\ social\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ that\\ though\\ protecting\\ kids\\ is\\ important\\,\\ the\\ government\\ cannot\\ disregard\\ freedom\\ of\\ adult\\-to\\-adult\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ginsberg\\ v\\.\\ NY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\statute\\ defined\\ category\\ of\\ speech\\ \\&ldquo\\;obscene\\ to\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\states\\ got\\ to\\ define\\ this\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ legit\\,\\ leaving\\ \\&ldquo\\;obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\ open\\ to\\ define\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Rust\\ v\\.\\ Sullivan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ to\\ speech\\ as\\ a\\ subsidizer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ subsidizing\\ family\\ planning\\ co\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ say\\ nothing\\ about\\ abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ gov\\.\\ can\\ selectively\\ fund\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gov\\ is\\ making\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ contain\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ the\\ program\\;\\ only\\ wants\\ to\\ fund\\ certain\\ things\\,\\ and\\ is\\ just\\ taking\\ steps\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ compares\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ selective\\ speech\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ to\\ its\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Endowment\\ for\\ Democracy\\ without\\ founding\\ Communist\\ or\\ Fascist\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ is\\ not\\ denying\\ anyone\\ benefits\\;\\ the\\ grantee\\ here\\ is\\ obtaining\\ funds\\ only\\ for\\ very\\ specific\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\outside\\ of\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ the\\ Title\\ X\\ co\\&rsquo\\;s\\ employees\\ can\\ give\\ any\\ advice\\ they\\ want\\,\\ since\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ outside\\ of\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ that\\ Title\\ X\\ \\&ldquo\\;does\\ not\\ significantly\\ impinge\\ upon\\ the\\ doctor\\ patient\\ relationship\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wooley\\ v\\.\\ Maynard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\man\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ \\&ldquo\\;Live\\ Free\\ or\\ Die\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ his\\ NH\\ license\\ plate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ his\\ rights\\ are\\ being\\ impinged\\ upon\\;\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ intellect\\ and\\ spirit\\ being\\ invaded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\quotes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\West\\ Virginia\\ Board\\ of\\ Ed\\.\\ v\\.\\ Barnette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1943\\)\\ which\\ said\\ schools\\ could\\ not\\ make\\ people\\ cite\\ pledge\\ of\\ allegiance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Connick\\ v\\.\\ Myers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1983\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myers\\,\\ and\\ ADA\\,\\ was\\ transferred\\,\\ sent\\ around\\ questionnaire\\ criticizing\\ Connick\\,\\ the\\ DA\\.\\ So\\ Connick\\ fired\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ criteria\\ laid\\ out\\ protecting\\ speech\\ by\\ government\\ employee\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\speech\\ must\\ deal\\ with\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ public\\ concern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\value\\ of\\ protecting\\ the\\ speech\\ must\\ outweigh\\ the\\ balancing\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ b\\/c\\ ADA\\ and\\ DA\\ need\\ close\\ working\\ relationship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ balancing\\ governmental\\ interest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Myers\\&rsquo\\;\\ speech\\ loses\\ out\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tinker\\ v\\.\\ Des\\ Moines\\ School\\ District\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\students\\ suspended\\ for\\ wearing\\ black\\ armbands\\ to\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ said\\:\\ this\\ speech\\ is\\ being\\ particularly\\ targeted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\unless\\ a\\ substantial\\ disruption\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ school\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ punish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hazelwood\\ School\\ District\\ v\\.\\ Kuhlmeier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1988\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\student\\ newspaper\\ published\\ stories\\ about\\ divorce\\,\\ teen\\ pregnancy\\;\\ school\\ censored\\ the\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ principal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ censorship\\ relates\\ to\\ a\\ legitimate\\ pedagogical\\ interest\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;reasonably\\ related\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ light\\ test\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Board\\ of\\ Education\\ v\\.\\ Pico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\board\\ tried\\ to\\ ban\\ 11\\ books\\ from\\ library\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ct\\.\\ ruled\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ suppress\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\optional\\ library\\ books\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ and\\ motives\\ are\\ partisan\\ and\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Olsen\\ v\\.\\ Nebraska\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\state\\ regulation\\ of\\ fees\\ for\\ employment\\ agencies\\ upheld\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lincoln\\ Fed\\.\\ Labor\\ Union\\ v\\.\\ Northwestern\\ Iron\\ and\\ Metal\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\state\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\-to\\-work\\&rdquo\\;\\ law\\ barring\\ preference\\ of\\ union\\ membership\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\again\\,\\ anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Williamson\\ v\\.\\ Lee\\ Optical\\ of\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\law\\ regulating\\ opticians\\ and\\ optometrists\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\once\\ again\\,\\ anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\ implied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ferguson\\ v\\.\\ Skupra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\court\\ rejected\\ due\\ process\\ claim\\ that\\ state\\ law\\ barring\\ all\\ but\\ lawyers\\ from\\ business\\ of\\ debt\\ adjustment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Railway\\ Express\\ Agency\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1949\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ law\\ regulating\\ street\\ advertisements\\ in\\ NY\\ upheld\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ local\\ authorities\\ may\\ wee\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ concluded\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ advertised\\ their\\ own\\ wares\\ on\\ their\\ trucks\\ do\\ not\\ present\\ the\\ same\\ traffic\\ problem\\ in\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ or\\ extent\\ of\\ the\\ advertising\\ which\\ they\\ use\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ Orleans\\ v\\.\\ Dukes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\.O\\.\\ law\\ said\\ that\\ only\\ people\\ who\\ operated\\ pushcarts\\ in\\ the\\ French\\ Quarter\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ 8\\ years\\ could\\ continue\\ to\\ do\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ statute\\ is\\ fine\\,\\ since\\ the\\ classification\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ legislature\\ \\&ldquo\\;rationally\\ furthers\\ the\\ purpose\\ which\\ the\\ city\\ had\\ identified\\ as\\ its\\ objective\\.\\.\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;to\\ preserve\\ the\\ appearance\\ and\\ custom\\ valued\\ by\\ the\\ Quarter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ residents\\ and\\ attractive\\ to\\ tourists\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ City\\ Transit\\ Authority\\ v\\.\\ Beazer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1979\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upheld\\ exclusion\\ of\\ methadone\\ users\\ from\\ any\\ Transit\\ Authority\\ Job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;no\\ drugs\\&rsquo\\;\\ policy\\ enforced\\ by\\ the\\ TA\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;legitimate\\ inference\\ that\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ treatment\\ program\\ continues\\,\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ persists\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DISSENT\\:\\ Poor\\ people\\ use\\ heroin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\US\\ Dept\\.\\ of\\ Agriculture\\ v\\.\\ Moreno\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ held\\ that\\ a\\ provision\\ of\\ the\\ Food\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ which\\ excluded\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ unrelated\\ to\\ any\\ other\\ \\ \\;member\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;wholly\\ without\\ any\\ rational\\ basis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transparent\\,\\ malicious\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;bare\\ desire\\ to\\ harm\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\purpose\\:\\ to\\ hurt\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\.\\ This\\ is\\ NOT\\ a\\ legitimate\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Washington\\ v\\.\\ Davies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ of\\ disparate\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\results\\ v\\.\\ intentions\\,\\ rationale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ statute\\ otherwise\\ neutral\\ on\\ its\\ face\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ applied\\ so\\ as\\ invidiously\\ to\\ discriminate\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ race\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ must\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ racially\\ neutral\\ selection\\ criteria\\ and\\ procedures\\ have\\ produced\\ the\\ monochromatic\\ result\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ neutral\\ law\\ is\\ not\\ invalid\\ for\\ causes\\ disproportionate\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\too\\ many\\ problems\\ would\\ result\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ different\\ policy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;tax\\,\\ welfare\\,\\ public\\ service\\,\\ regulatory\\,\\ and\\ licensing\\ statutes\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ examined\\,\\ redone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\University\\ of\\ California\\ v\\.\\ Bakke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1978\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\:\\ affirmative\\ action\\ does\\ merit\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\;\\ BUT\\ goal\\ of\\ diversity\\ passes\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Grutter\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michigan\\ Law\\ School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;law\\ school\\ has\\ a\\ compelling\\ interest\\ in\\ attaining\\ a\\ diverse\\ student\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\critical\\ mass\\ of\\ minority\\ students\\,\\ not\\ quotas\\,\\ are\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diversity\\ interest\\ lies\\ in\\ 2\\ places\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;cross\\-racial\\ understanding\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;livelier\\ classrooms\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ AND\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\ world\\ application\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\system\\ must\\ be\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\;\\ no\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ be\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\,\\ a\\ program\\ must\\ not\\ burden\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ favored\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ can\\ avoid\\ taking\\ race\\ into\\ account\\,\\ do\\;\\ but\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\,\\ says\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\,\\ you\\ must\\ exhaust\\ every\\ single\\ option\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\individualized\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gratz\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\point\\-scale\\ by\\ UMich\\ undergrad\\ program\\ ruled\\ unconstitutional\\;\\ too\\ un\\-individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reed\\ v\\.\\ Reed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ preferring\\ males\\ to\\ females\\ when\\ two\\ persons\\ otherwise\\ equally\\ entitled\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ administrator\\ of\\ an\\ estate\\ is\\ ruled\\ unconstitutional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ rational\\ basis\\,\\ but\\ only\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ basis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Frontiero\\ v\\.\\ Richardson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\military\\ had\\ given\\ men\\ dependency\\ allowance\\,\\ but\\ not\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\:\\ sex\\ classifications\\ \\&ldquo\\;inherently\\ suspect\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ deserve\\ \\&ldquo\\;close\\ judicial\\ scrutiny\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ quite\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\,\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ differences\\ that\\ need\\ acknowledges\\&rsquo\\;\\ nonetheless\\,\\ stricter\\ scrutiny\\ than\\ before\\ is\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\without\\ concrete\\ evidence\\,\\ government\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pass\\ its\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Craig\\ v\\.\\ Boren\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;near\\-beer\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ a\\ law\\ cannot\\ pursue\\ an\\ objective\\ by\\ targeting\\ a\\ gender\\;\\ law\\ must\\ be\\ generally\\ applicable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ statistical\\ data\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ not\\ substantial\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ law\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1996\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\question\\:\\ Can\\ Virginia\\ have\\ a\\ single\\-sex\\ public\\ college\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\VA\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ an\\ important\\ governmental\\ interest\\ in\\ educational\\ diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ginsburg\\ overrules\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;important\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;exceedingly\\ persuasive\\ justification\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Educational\\ diversity\\ argument\\ denied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ rules\\ that\\ this\\ case\\ is\\ preference\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dothard\\ v\\.\\ Rawlinson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ barred\\ from\\ being\\ prison\\ guards\\ b\\/c\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ the\\ proxy\\ of\\ gender\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ one\\ for\\ qualification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ women\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ handle\\ riots\\,\\ may\\ be\\ targeted\\ sexually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Geduldig\\ v\\.\\ Aiello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Court\\ says\\ CA\\ can\\ have\\ an\\ insurance\\ system\\ that\\ pays\\ all\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ bills\\ and\\ all\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ bills\\ except\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;pregnancy\\-related\\&rdquo\\;\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Michael\\ M\\.\\ v\\.\\ Superior\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1981\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ punishing\\ the\\ male\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ female\\,\\ party\\ to\\ intercourse\\ when\\ female\\ was\\ under\\ 18\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ the\\ male\\;\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ all\\ the\\ negative\\ effects\\ fall\\ on\\ the\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Califano\\ v\\.\\ Webster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ security\\ benefits\\ were\\ changed\\ to\\ compensate\\ women\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ paid\\ lower\\ wages\\ during\\ their\\ working\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;compensation\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ necessary\\ legitimate\\ shield\\ against\\ \\&ldquo\\;inquiry\\ into\\ actual\\ purposes\\ underlying\\ a\\ statutory\\ scheme\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\:\\ gender\\-based\\ classification\\;\\ intermediate\\ scrutiny\\;\\ law\\ is\\ ok\\ since\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ stereotype\\ about\\ women\\ needing\\ more\\ benefits\\ or\\ men\\ being\\ less\\ deserving\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ an\\ actual\\ economic\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Orr\\ v\\.\\ Orr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1979\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alabama\\ statue\\ provided\\ that\\ only\\ husbands\\ pay\\ alimony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ considered\\ whether\\ sex\\ was\\ a\\ legit\\ proxy\\ for\\ need\\ and\\ whether\\ this\\ was\\ legit\\ compensation\\ for\\ past\\ discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decides\\ that\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ pass\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Craig\\ v\\.\\ Boren\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mississippi\\ University\\ for\\ Women\\ v\\.\\ Hogan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1982\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nursing\\ school\\ denied\\ a\\ man\\ admittance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ providing\\ a\\ compensatory\\ service\\ for\\ women\\,\\ but\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ merely\\ reinforcing\\ stereotypes\\ that\\ only\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ nurses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ discriminated\\ in\\ field\\ of\\ nursing\\,\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ affirmative\\ action\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mathews\\ v\\.\\ Lucas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ of\\ illegitimates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ illegitimate\\ children\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\,\\ and\\ must\\ prove\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ illegitimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\practical\\ reason\\:\\ anyone\\ can\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ illegitimate\\,\\ can\\ claim\\ paternity\\ suit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cleburne\\ v\\.\\ Cleburne\\ Living\\ Center\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ mentally\\ retarded\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ deserve\\ \\&ldquo\\;quasi\\-suspect\\ classification\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\?\\ court\\ says\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\legitimate\\ differences\\ exist\\ that\\ allow\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ to\\ treat\\ them\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\since\\ state\\/fed\\.\\ government\\ is\\ fighting\\ for\\ the\\ mentally\\ retarded\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ really\\ prejudiced\\ against\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\laws\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ mentally\\ retarded\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ politically\\ powerless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hard\\ to\\ define\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ allows\\ for\\ an\\ ordinance\\ denying\\ special\\ permit\\ to\\ mentally\\-retarded\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Harper\\ v\\.\\ VA\\ Board\\ of\\ Elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1966\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\$1\\.50\\ charged\\ for\\ state\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ was\\ a\\ rational\\ basis\\:\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ care\\ to\\ vote\\,\\ \\$1\\.50\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ too\\ much\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\any\\ state\\ statute\\ that\\ allows\\ some\\ people\\ to\\ vote\\ while\\ denying\\ others\\ triggers\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\important\\ thing\\:\\ Fundamental\\ Rights\\ drawing\\ Strict\\ Scrutiny\\;\\ not\\ just\\ Discreet\\ and\\ Insular\\ minorities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ uses\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;structure\\ of\\ the\\ constitution\\&rdquo\\;\\ argument\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ fundamental\\ right\\ which\\ is\\ nowhere\\ in\\ the\\ actual\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Kramer\\ v\\.\\ Union\\ School\\ District\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ parents\\ of\\ school\\-age\\ children\\ and\\ property\\ owners\\ allowed\\ to\\ vote\\ in\\ school\\ board\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ applies\\,\\ and\\ wins\\,\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\ Court\\ worried\\ about\\ protecting\\ rights\\ of\\ POOR\\ PEOPLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reynolds\\ v\\.\\ Sims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alabama\\ districting\\ law\\ was\\ such\\ that\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ the\\ electorate\\ could\\ elect\\ the\\ state\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ votes\\ counting\\ more\\ than\\ others\\;\\ court\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constitutionally\\ protected\\ right\\ to\\ an\\ equally\\ weighted\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ person\\,\\ one\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\again\\,\\ court\\ not\\ pulling\\ this\\ from\\ the\\ actual\\ Constitution\\,\\ just\\ theory\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;structure\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frankfurter\\ dissent\\:\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ thicket\\,\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ districting\\ the\\ court\\ should\\ not\\ try\\ and\\ fix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Davis\\ v\\.\\ Bandemer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1986\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gerrimander\\ of\\ Indiana\\ legislature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\representatives\\ getting\\ 47\\%\\ of\\ vote\\,\\ but\\ 58\\%\\ of\\ seats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ splits\\ in\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ say\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ political\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ say\\ districting\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ by\\ neutral\\,\\ apolitical\\ reasoning\\;\\ no\\ scheming\\ for\\ partisan\\ advantage\\;\\ courts\\ can\\ force\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gerrymandering\\ cannot\\ go\\ too\\ far\\;\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ outrageous\\ and\\ effective\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ draw\\ fire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Vieth\\ v\\.\\ Jubeliver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2004\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\:\\ split\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deciding\\ vote\\ says\\ that\\ so\\ far\\,\\ every\\ case\\ of\\ gerrymandering\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ political\\ question\\,\\ and\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ too\\.\\ However\\,\\ that\\ may\\ well\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Skinner\\ v\\.\\ Oklahoma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sterilization\\ case\\ for\\ 3\\-time\\ chicken\\ thief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\today\\:\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\ would\\ cover\\ this\\,\\ but\\ not\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\;\\ chicken\\ thieves\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ and\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\,\\ court\\ says\\ right\\ to\\ procreate\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\;\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ should\\ apply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Griswold\\ v\\.\\ Connecticut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Penumbras\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connecticut\\ said\\ that\\ people\\ cannot\\ use\\ contraceptives\\ for\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ preventing\\ conception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;zones\\ of\\ privacy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ regulation\\ is\\ invading\\ a\\ zone\\ of\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\:\\ uncommonly\\ silly\\ law\\,\\ but\\ irreversible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Eisenstadt\\ v\\.\\ Baird\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MA\\ statute\\ forbade\\ distribution\\ of\\ contraceptives\\ to\\ unmarried\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ Brennan\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Right\\ of\\ privacy\\ is\\ the\\ freedom\\ from\\ government\\ intrusion\\ in\\ matters\\ so\\ personal\\ as\\ right\\ to\\ bear\\ or\\ beget\\ a\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Roe\\ v\\.\\ Wade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1974\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\ exists\\ somewhere\\ in\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trimesters\\ are\\ required\\,\\ since\\ at\\ some\\ point\\,\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ compelling\\ interest\\ in\\ protecting\\ innocent\\ life\\ is\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\before\\ third\\ trimester\\,\\ fetus\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ theory\\ of\\ life\\ cannot\\ impinge\\ upon\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Planned\\ Parenthood\\ v\\.\\ Casey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1992\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ restrictions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\ woman\\ can\\ have\\ an\\ abortion\\ without\\ having\\ been\\ subjected\\ to\\ persuasion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mandatory\\ 24\\-hour\\ waiting\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\spousal\\ notification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parental\\ consent\\ \\(with\\ opportunity\\ for\\ judicial\\ bypass\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\record\\-keeping\\ requirements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Souter\\,\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Conner\\,\\ Kenney\\ write\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\affirm\\ \\&ldquo\\;essential\\ holding\\ of\\ Roe\\&rdquo\\;\\ through\\ stare\\ decisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\said\\ state\\ can\\ impose\\ restrictions\\ unless\\ those\\ restrictions\\ put\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;undue\\ burden\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\an\\ \\&ldquo\\;undue\\ burden\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ substantial\\ obstacle\\ in\\ the\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ spousal\\ notification\\ is\\ overturned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ Roe\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ seriously\\ wrongly\\ decided\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ overturn\\ it\\ would\\ undermine\\ the\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;to\\ overrule\\ under\\ fire\\ would\\ bring\\ \\[the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\]\\ legitimacy\\ under\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scalia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dissent\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ imperial\\ judiciary\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ that\\ stare\\ decisis\\ is\\ a\\ dumb\\ rule\\ to\\ go\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stevens\\&rsquo\\;\\ dissent\\:\\ says\\ that\\ court\\ is\\ upholding\\ patronizing\\ state\\ efforts\\ which\\ imply\\ that\\ a\\ woman\\ is\\ not\\ capable\\ of\\ making\\ her\\ own\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Stenberg\\ v\\.\\ Carhart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\partial\\-birth\\ abortions\\ banned\\ by\\ Nebraska\\,\\ even\\ when\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ is\\ at\\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breyer\\,\\ for\\ majority\\,\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ since\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ is\\ left\\ unconsidered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ enough\\ options\\ for\\ women\\,\\ since\\ the\\ fetus\\ will\\ die\\ anyway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dissent\\ by\\ Kennedy\\:\\ this\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\infanticide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bowers\\ v\\.\\ Hardwick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1986\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Georgia\\ statute\\ banning\\ sodomy\\ \\(doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ differentiate\\ between\\ homosexual\\ and\\ heterosexual\\ sodomy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ White\\:\\ no\\ fundamental\\ right\\ to\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ rights\\,\\ according\\ to\\ previous\\ cases\\,\\ should\\ either\\ be\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\implicit\\ in\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ ordered\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rooted\\ in\\ traditions\\ \\&ldquo\\;deeply\\ rooted\\ in\\ this\\ Nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\ and\\ tradition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ qualify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\,\\ Lochner\\-esque\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ has\\ a\\ moral\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pure\\ bigotry\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ Burger\\ concurrence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stevens\\ points\\ out\\,\\ the\\ GA\\ law\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ single\\ out\\ homosexuals\\;\\ but\\ the\\ decision\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissenters\\:\\ precedent\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ have\\ sexual\\ autonomy\\ AND\\ constitution\\ presupposes\\ right\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ make\\ these\\ kinds\\ of\\ decisions\\ \\(4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\:\\ right\\ of\\ privacy\\ at\\ home\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lawrence\\ v\\.\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TX\\ law\\ prohibited\\ \\&ldquo\\;deviate\\ sexual\\ intercourse\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ persons\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\,\\ but\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ liberty\\ of\\ sexual\\ intimacy\\ crucial\\ to\\ leading\\ of\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\essentially\\ a\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\ case\\;\\ overrules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bowers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\respect\\ for\\ private\\ lives\\;\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;persons\\ in\\ every\\ generation\\ can\\ invoke\\ its\\ principles\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ search\\ for\\ greater\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Romer\\ v\\.\\ Evans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1996\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CO\\ state\\ constitution\\ says\\ that\\ homosexuals\\ should\\ not\\ get\\ protected\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ uses\\ rational\\ basis\\ review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ legislation\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ narrow\\ and\\ too\\ broad\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seizes\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ trait\\ \\(homosexuality\\)\\ and\\ broadly\\ subjects\\ those\\ people\\ to\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ legal\\ disabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ shows\\ special\\ concern\\ for\\ gays\\:\\ worried\\ about\\ animus\\,\\ prejudice\\,\\ discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shapiro\\ v\\.\\ Thompson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\ Court\\,\\ showing\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\statutes\\ in\\ CT\\,\\ PA\\,\\ and\\ D\\.C\\.\\ deny\\ welfare\\ to\\ residence\\ who\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ lived\\ their\\ for\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ these\\ states\\ are\\ penalizing\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ right\\ is\\ implicated\\;\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ is\\ used\\;\\ no\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concern\\:\\ this\\ decision\\ will\\ unincentivize\\ states\\ with\\ generous\\ welfare\\ plans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Saenz\\ v\\.\\ Roe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1999\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CA\\ statute\\ limited\\ welfare\\ benefits\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ lived\\ there\\ less\\ than\\ one\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ move\\ from\\ a\\ state\\ with\\ lower\\ benefits\\,\\ you\\ keep\\ those\\ lower\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\:\\ different\\ treatment\\ of\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Theory\\ of\\ Equal\\ Citizenship\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\formal\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dissent\\:\\ this\\ is\\ beyond\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ travel\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ once\\ you\\ move\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ traveling\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dandridge\\ v\\.\\ Williams\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\1970\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maryland\\ capped\\ the\\ total\\ amount\\ any\\ family\\ could\\ receive\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aid\\ to\\ Families\\ with\\ Dependent\\ Children\\ Program\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rational\\ basis\\ test\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ simply\\ trying\\ to\\ balance\\ families\\ on\\ welfare\\ and\\ those\\ supported\\ by\\ employed\\ breadwinner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\San\\ Antonio\\ v\\.\\ Rodriguez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symbolic\\ case\\:\\ protection\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ abandoned\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parents\\ in\\ San\\ Antonio\\ school\\ district\\ ague\\ that\\ their\\ kids\\ are\\ discriminated\\ against\\,\\ since\\ the\\ property\\ tax\\-planned\\ system\\ greatly\\ hurts\\ their\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rich\\ people\\ paying\\ less\\ for\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powell\\:\\ disproportionate\\ impact\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ unfair\\ intent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\courts\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ fundamental\\ to\\ education\\ unless\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ undeniable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\distinguishing\\ between\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\West\\ VA\\ State\\ Bd\\.\\ of\\ Education\\ v\\.\\ Barnette\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compelling\\ a\\ flag\\ salute\\ by\\ public\\ school\\ children\\ whose\\ religious\\ scruples\\ forbade\\ it\\ violated\\ first\\ amendment\\,\\ says\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hobbie\\ v\\.\\ Unemployment\\ Appeals\\ Commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1987\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hobbie\\ appealed\\ firing\\ after\\ she\\ refused\\ to\\ work\\ certain\\ scheduled\\ hours\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ interfered\\ with\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ruling\\:\\ government\\ must\\ recognize\\ exemptions\\ for\\ conscientious\\ religious\\ objectors\\ unless\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\free\\ exercise\\ clause\\ implicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Employment\\ Division\\ v\\.\\ Smith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1990\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smith\\,\\ member\\ of\\ Native\\ American\\ Church\\,\\ in\\ which\\ peyote\\-smoking\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ religious\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ in\\ question\\ was\\ generally\\ applied\\,\\ not\\ targeting\\ Native\\ American\\ Church\\ members\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ have\\ never\\ held\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ excuse\\ him\\ from\\ compliance\\ with\\ an\\ otherwise\\ valid\\ law\\ prohibiting\\ conduct\\ that\\ the\\ State\\ is\\ free\\ to\\ regulate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ other\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ neutrally\\ applied\\ laws\\ have\\ been\\ exempted\\ \\(such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Yoder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ other\\ rights\\,\\ such\\ as\\ freedom\\ to\\ raise\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\,\\ freedom\\ of\\ the\\ press\\,\\ have\\ been\\ implicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ Court\\ should\\ not\\ apply\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\ test\\ because\\ then\\ it\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ too\\ many\\ questions\\ with\\ too\\ much\\ uncertainty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wisconsin\\ v\\.\\ Yoder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amish\\ man\\ allowed\\ to\\ pull\\ his\\ child\\ from\\ school\\ before\\ age\\ 16\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ against\\ his\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ to\\ keep\\ her\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Church\\ of\\ Lukumi\\ Babalu\\ Aye\\ v\\.\\ Hialeah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ritual\\ sacrificing\\ of\\ small\\ animals\\ banned\\ in\\ this\\ FL\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ct\\ overrules\\ law\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ generally\\ applicable\\ law\\,\\ but\\ one\\ targeting\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Locke\\ v\\.\\ Davey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2004\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Washington\\ State\\ denies\\ scholarships\\ for\\ ministry\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ allows\\ the\\ state\\ to\\ do\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ can\\ decide\\ not\\ to\\ use\\ taxpayer\\ money\\ for\\ religious\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Everson\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1947\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ case\\ testing\\ the\\ Establishment\\ Clause\\ with\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;incorporation\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NJ\\ town\\ says\\ it\\ will\\ pay\\ transit\\ costs\\ for\\ kids\\ going\\ to\\ school\\,\\ including\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ Black\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;wall\\ of\\ separation\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ Church\\ and\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ neutrality\\:\\ govt\\.\\ can\\ make\\ no\\ law\\ or\\ policy\\ that\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ religion\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\decision\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Substantive\\ neutrality\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ government\\,\\ in\\ supporting\\ the\\ parochial\\ school\\,\\ encourages\\ people\\ to\\ go\\ there\\,\\ so\\ the\\ substantive\\ effect\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ religious\\ subsidy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Walz\\ v\\.\\ Tax\\ Commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1970\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ tax\\ exempt\\ status\\ for\\ church\\,\\ since\\ the\\ laws\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ place\\ for\\ so\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\result\\:\\ government\\ can\\ give\\ tax\\ breaks\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sending\\ checks\\ to\\ the\\ actual\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lemon\\ v\\.\\ Kurtzman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\states\\ were\\ supplementing\\ salaries\\ of\\ schoolteachers\\ in\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ strikes\\ down\\ these\\ statutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ no\\ statute\\ with\\ the\\ purpose\\,\\ principle\\,\\ or\\ primary\\ effect\\ of\\ religious\\ endorsement\\,\\ or\\,\\ which\\ overly\\ entangles\\ the\\ government\\ with\\ religion\\,\\ is\\ acceptable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zelman\\ v\\.\\ Simmons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2002\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\school\\ vouchers\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ split\\:\\ 4\\ conservative\\ judges\\ say\\ the\\ formal\\ neutrality\\ test\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\,\\ 4\\ liberal\\ judges\\ say\\ the\\ substantive\\ neutrality\\ test\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ formal\\ neutrality\\ matters\\,\\ but\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reasonable\\ Observer\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\ is\\ more\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ says\\ that\\ a\\ reasonable\\ observer\\ would\\ not\\ think\\ the\\ government\\ was\\ endorsing\\ parochial\\ education\\ through\\ vouchers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mitchell\\ v\\.\\ Helms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\government\\ paying\\ for\\ materials\\ for\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ this\\ is\\ ok\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ materials\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ used\\ for\\ theology\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Allegheny\\ Country\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creche\\ featured\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ a\\ grand\\ staircase\\ near\\ Allegheny\\ County\\ Courthouse\\,\\ menorah\\ nearby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ creche\\ violates\\ the\\ reasonable\\ viewer\\ test\\:\\ people\\ would\\ think\\,\\ says\\ Blackmun\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ occupies\\ this\\ location\\ with\\.\\.\\.support\\ and\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ which\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ celebrate\\ Christmas\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ endorsing\\ a\\ patently\\ Christian\\ message\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissenters\\ say\\ that\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ coercion\\,\\ the\\ Endorsement\\ Clause\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ violated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NO\\ ONE\\ says\\ that\\ they\\ think\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ symbolic\\ support\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\McCreary\\ County\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\ commandments\\ in\\ KT\\ courthouse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ 5\\-4\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\violates\\ the\\ Endorsement\\ Clause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Van\\ Orden\\ v\\.\\ Perry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\monument\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ up\\ since\\ 1960s\\ around\\ TX\\ State\\ Capitol\\ of\\ 10\\ commandments\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ stay\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breyer\\:\\ limits\\ of\\ public\\ acceptance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ one\\ has\\ complained\\ about\\ the\\ think\\ for\\ this\\ long\\,\\ so\\ it\\ has\\ historical\\ significance\\ to\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Katzenbach\\ v\\.\\ Morgan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ had\\ enacted\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ legislation\\ to\\ protect\\ minorities\\ \\(The\\ Voting\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ 1965\\,\\ Section\\ 4e\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lassiter\\ v\\.\\ Northampton\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1958\\)\\,\\ the\\ Equal\\ Protection\\ Clause\\,\\ said\\ the\\ court\\,\\ was\\ not\\ violated\\ when\\ voting\\ was\\ denied\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ failed\\ literacy\\ tests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\,\\ court\\ upheld\\ section\\ 4e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reasoning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ Congress\\ give\\ itself\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ nullify\\ a\\ state\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Court\\ uses\\ McCulloch\\ v\\.\\ Maryland\\ standard\\ of\\ Congress\\ passing\\ \\&ldquo\\;appropriate\\ legislation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ question\\:\\ is\\ this\\ legislation\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ was\\ appropriate\\,\\ says\\ Brennan\\,\\ in\\ its\\ reasoning\\ behind\\ passing\\ the\\ law\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ legitimate\\ exercise\\ of\\ its\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\City\\ of\\ Boerne\\ v\\.\\ Flores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1997\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Current\\ Doctrine\\ concerning\\ Congressional\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ in\\ TX\\ wanted\\ to\\ expand\\,\\ the\\ state\\ said\\ no\\ due\\ to\\ zoning\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ said\\ it\\ has\\ Congressional\\ right\\ to\\ expand\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ Religious\\ Freedom\\ Reformation\\ Act\\ \\(RFRA\\)\\,\\ wherein\\ if\\ a\\ state\\ or\\ local\\ govt\\.\\ is\\ burdening\\ religion\\,\\ they\\ must\\ relax\\ their\\ laws\\ without\\ a\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ a\\ state\\ can\\ compensate\\ for\\ Congressional\\ violations\\,\\ but\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ choose\\ to\\ make\\ substantive\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ the\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 16, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/CLStudy_Guide_1.doc", "desc": "Final Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Comparative Politics of Latin America - Guide 3", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "comparative-politics", "latin-america"], "text": null, "id": 41, "html": "\\\\\\Gov1295\\_Comp\\_Govt\\_L\\.\\_America\\_\\-\\_Final\\_3rd\\_Packet\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-right\\:\\-22pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-right\\:\\-22pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c26\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-22pt\\}\\.c17\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c5\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Liberation\\ Theology\\ and\\ Ecclesial\\ Base\\ Communities\\ \\(CEBs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 6\\,\\ Lecture\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberation\\ Theology\\ was\\ a\\ movement\\ that\\ combined\\ Catholic\\ theology\\ with\\ Socialist\\ principles\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ achieve\\ political\\ liberation\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\ from\\ their\\ oppression\\ under\\ the\\ Bureaucratic\\-Authoritarian\\ regimes\\ of\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ \\ \\;Buttressed\\ by\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ adopt\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;preferential\\ option\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ the\\ Second\\ Vatican\\ Council\\ \\(1962\\-65\\)\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ Second\\ Latin\\ American\\ Bishops\\ Conference\\ \\(1968\\)\\,\\ Liberation\\ Theology\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ Ecclesial\\ Base\\ Communities\\ \\(CEBs\\)\\,\\ small\\ groups\\ of\\ laypersons\\ who\\ gathered\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ discuss\\ how\\ its\\ principles\\ could\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ issues\\ of\\ social\\ justice\\,\\ a\\ process\\ which\\ allowed\\ poor\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ openly\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ conditions\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ found\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;During\\ this\\ time\\,\\ the\\ Church\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ non\\-governmental\\ institution\\ allowed\\ to\\ operate\\ freely\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ CEBs\\ thus\\ often\\ became\\ politically\\ active\\,\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ speaking\\ out\\ against\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\ and\\ advocating\\ for\\ land\\ reform\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ Democratic\\ Concertation\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ Democratica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ Democratica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ broad\\ seventeen\\-party\\ coalition\\ founded\\ in\\ 1988\\ in\\ Chile\\ by\\ the\\ main\\ centrist\\ and\\ center\\-left\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ included\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democratic\\ Party\\,\\ the\\ Socialist\\ Party\\,\\ the\\ liberal\\ Party\\ for\\ Democracy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ center\\-left\\ Social\\-Democratic\\ Radical\\ Party\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ formed\\ as\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ present\\ a\\ united\\ front\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1988\\ plebiscite\\,\\ which\\,\\ had\\ it\\ been\\ successful\\,\\ would\\ have\\ kept\\ him\\ in\\ power\\ until\\ 1997\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ 1988\\ plebiscite\\ was\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reaction\\ to\\ international\\ pressure\\ to\\ liberalize\\ and\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ his\\ confidence\\ in\\ Chile\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recovering\\ economy\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ alliance\\ mounted\\ a\\ television\\ campaign\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\&rdquo\\;\\ vote\\,\\ which\\ triumphed\\ by\\ 55\\%\\ over\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;yes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 1989\\ presidential\\ election\\,\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democrats\\ furnished\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\candidate\\,\\ Patricio\\ Aylwin\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ power\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 1993\\ election\\,\\ the\\ last\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concertacion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ still\\ together\\,\\ the\\ Christian\\ Democrats\\ again\\ provided\\ the\\ winning\\ presidential\\ candidate\\,\\ this\\ time\\ getting\\ Eduardo\\ Frei\\ elected\\ as\\ president\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ The\\ debt\\ crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ debt\\ crisis\\ was\\ the\\ widespread\\ inability\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\ of\\ many\\ Third\\ World\\ countries\\ to\\ repay\\ the\\ loans\\ they\\ were\\ liberally\\ given\\ by\\ Western\\ banks\\ in\\ the\\ 70s\\ to\\ fund\\ their\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\ \\ \\;During\\ the\\ 70s\\ these\\ banks\\ had\\ lent\\ out\\ money\\ freely\\ to\\ many\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ after\\ oil\\ price\\ hikes\\ in\\ 1973\\ and\\ 1979\\ had\\ led\\ the\\ OPEC\\ countries\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ Western\\ bank\\ accounts\\ the\\ extra\\ money\\ they\\ had\\ earned\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ developing\\ countries\\&rsquo\\;\\ debts\\ grew\\ rapidly\\ due\\ to\\ growing\\ real\\ interest\\ rates\\,\\ a\\ global\\ recession\\,\\ and\\ lower\\ commodity\\ rates\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ debt\\ crisis\\ was\\ triggered\\ by\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ declaration\\ in\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 1982\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ not\\ repay\\ its\\ external\\ debt\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ caught\\ in\\ a\\ squeeze\\ between\\ declining\\ exports\\ and\\ rising\\ debt\\-service\\ obligations\\,\\ many\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ followed\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ trend\\ caused\\ international\\ authorities\\ to\\ impose\\ strict\\ limits\\ on\\ Latin\\ American\\ borrowers\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ high\\-conditionality\\ loans\\ which\\ required\\ that\\ borrowers\\ implement\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ take\\ out\\ loans\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\ took\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ structural\\ adjustments\\ of\\ state\\ finances\\ that\\ amounted\\ to\\ an\\ almost\\ complete\\ repudiation\\ of\\ ISI\\ strategies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Corporatism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ordering\\ of\\ interest\\ politics\\ and\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\state\\-society\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;around\\ non\\-competing\\ groups\\ which\\ are\\ officially\\ sanctioned\\,\\ closely\\ supervised\\,\\ and\\ often\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subsidized\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ the\\ state\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\[Collier\\ \\&\\;\\ Collier\\,\\ 126\\]\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ corporatism\\ the\\ state\\ encourages\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\officially\\ recognized\\,\\ non\\-competing\\,\\ state\\-supervised\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\[C\\ \\&\\;\\ C\\,\\ 127\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inducements\\ vs\\ constraints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goal\\ \\=\\ state\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\:\\ PRI\\ government\\ in\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\gave\\ popular\\ sector\\,\\ labor\\ unions\\,\\ etc\\ seats\\ at\\ the\\ political\\ table\\,\\ but\\ in\\ return\\ they\\ were\\ closely\\ tied\\ to\\ and\\ heavily\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ PRI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\example\\:\\ the\\ Estado\\ Novo\\ in\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\only\\ one\\ labor\\ union\\ allowed\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ under\\ direct\\,\\ tight\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ Labor\\ Ministry\\,\\ social\\ welfare\\ benefits\\ are\\ provided\\ as\\ an\\ inducement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Import\\-Substituting\\ Industrialization\\ \\[ISI\\]\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\reasons\\ for\\ transition\\ from\\ export\\-led\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ Depression\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ collapse\\ in\\ demand\\ for\\ LA\\ exports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ nationalistic\\ voices\\ advocating\\ less\\ dependency\\ through\\ the\\ promotion\\ of\\ industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ Depression\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\boosts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;industrialization\\ because\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Post\\-Depression\\,\\ trade\\ picks\\ up\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\activist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protectionist\\ measures\\ used\\ to\\ promote\\ and\\ protect\\ domestic\\ industries\\ \\[subsidies\\,\\ tariffs\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Getulio\\ Vargas\\/\\ The\\ Estado\\ Novo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1930\\:\\ military\\ installs\\ Vargas\\ after\\ he\\ loses\\ a\\ disputed\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vargas\\ pledges\\ to\\ weaken\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ oligarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1937\\:\\ Vargas\\ carries\\ out\\ coup\\ and\\ establishes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Estado\\ Novo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[\\&ldquo\\;the\\ new\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bureaucratic\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\,\\ close\\ to\\ fascism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ extensive\\ corporatist\\ system\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[only\\ one\\ labor\\ union\\ allowed\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ under\\ the\\ direct\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ Labor\\ Ministry\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Promoted\\ industry\\,\\ public\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\expanded\\ social\\ security\\,\\ minimum\\ wage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Howard\\ Wiarda\\ cites\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;third\\ way\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ hierarchy\\ and\\ order\\ are\\ reconciled\\ with\\ change\\ and\\ modernization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ extensive\\ reform\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ affect\\ conservative\\ power\\ in\\ rural\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1945\\:\\ Estado\\ Novo\\ collapses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1950\\:\\ Vargas\\ is\\ elected\\ president\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ maintain\\ control\\ and\\ commits\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gary\\ Wynia\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Development\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\:\\ Cambridge\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 46\\-101\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Summary\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ political\\ players\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[a\\ lot\\ of\\ content\\,\\ but\\ incredibly\\ \\,\\ straightforward\\ and\\ fairly\\ common\\ sense\\,\\ if\\ you\\ went\\ to\\ class\\ you\\ already\\ know\\ this\\ stuff\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;part\\:\\ discussion\\ of\\ large\\ collective\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;part\\:\\ discussion\\ of\\ narrow\\,\\ more\\ highly\\ organized\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\ Questions\\ about\\ each\\ player\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Who\\ and\\ from\\ what\\ social\\ class\\,\\ regional\\,\\ or\\ ethnic\\ sector\\ do\\ they\\ come\\?\\ What\\ unites\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ What\\ do\\ they\\ want\\ from\\ politics\\,\\ if\\ anything\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ What\\ resources\\ are\\ at\\ their\\ disposal\\ and\\ how\\ are\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ influence\\ authorities\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Which\\ set\\ of\\ rules\\ do\\ players\\ prefer\\ and\\ how\\ successful\\ are\\ they\\ in\\ getting\\ their\\ rivals\\ to\\ live\\ by\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rural\\ Elites\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[oligarquia\\,\\ land\\ owners\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ strongest\\ at\\ local\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ homogenous\\ group\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;traditional\\ \\[latifundios\\]\\ vs\\ modern\\ farms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ traditional\\ relies\\ on\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ is\\ declining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ modern\\ is\\ more\\ capital\\ intensive\\ \\[relies\\ on\\ technology\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TRADITIONAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ little\\ from\\ politics\\,\\ mostly\\ concerned\\ with\\ defending\\ traditional\\ realm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ need\\ to\\ keep\\ cheap\\ labour\\ and\\ prevent\\ agrarian\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ rules\\ that\\ limit\\ \\&ldquo\\;reform\\-oriented\\,\\ mass\\-based\\ political\\ parties\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\MODERN\\ \\[plantations\\ and\\ large\\ family\\ farms\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ lack\\ the\\ social\\ status\\ \\[except\\ from\\ wealth\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ more\\ integrated\\ with\\ other\\ economic\\ sectors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ more\\ from\\ government\\,\\ economic\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ develop\\ organizations\\ to\\ represent\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ economy\\ dependent\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ want\\ government\\ to\\ be\\ stable\\ and\\ receptive\\ to\\ farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Business\\ Elites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ native\\ business\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ sometimes\\ conspire\\ with\\ rural\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ few\\ want\\ free\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ subordination\\ of\\ organized\\ labour\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ maintenance\\ of\\ status\\ quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ develop\\ organizations\\ to\\ represent\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ seek\\ out\\ public\\ officials\\ individually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ use\\ economic\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ disagree\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ of\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Middle\\ Sectors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ professionals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ use\\ politics\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ affluence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ little\\ economic\\ clout\\,\\ some\\ access\\ to\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ fickle\\:\\ economic\\ self\\-interest\\ above\\ political\\ ideals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ workers\\ and\\ peasants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;united\\,\\ homogenous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ORGANIZED\\ LABOUR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ populism\\/paternalism\\ defined\\ political\\ influence\\,\\ and\\ state\\ control\\ remains\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ represents\\ the\\ elite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\within\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ votes\\,\\ mobilization\\ of\\ supporters\\,\\ economic\\ influence\\,\\ \\[last\\ resort\\:\\ violent\\ protest\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ need\\ organization\\ and\\ unity\\,\\ without\\ being\\ overly\\-centralized\\ and\\ bureaucratic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ government\\ treatment\\ of\\ organized\\ labor\\ than\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\form\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CAMPESINOS\\ \\[rural\\ poor\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ mestizo\\,\\ indigenous\\ and\\ Negro\\ farmers\\ and\\ laborers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ barely\\ subsist\\,\\ little\\ hope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ differ\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ means\\ of\\ employment\\ \\[migrants\\,\\ plantation\\ workers\\,\\ small\\ land\\ owners\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ voice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ want\\ to\\ improve\\ life\\ chances\\ and\\ welfare\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ make\\ personal\\,\\ local\\,\\ specific\\ demands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-need\\ governments\\ help\\ to\\ break\\ out\\ of\\ cycle\\ of\\ subsistence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ resource\\ is\\ immense\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ should\\ be\\ influential\\ in\\ a\\ democracy\\ but\\ their\\ votes\\ are\\ often\\ controlled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;they\\ need\\ organization\\ \\[but\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ divisions\\ to\\ overcome\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ always\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;receiving\\ end\\ of\\ decisions\\ made\\ by\\ others\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ choice\\ between\\ being\\ ignored\\ or\\ being\\ coopted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ professional\\,\\ highly\\ trained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involvement\\ in\\ politics\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ organization\\ gives\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\capability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ background\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\determined\\ their\\ allegiance\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\motive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ military\\ education\\ defines\\ their\\ political\\ interests\\ and\\ preferences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-teaches\\ them\\ a\\ disciplined\\,\\ tightly\\ organized\\ way\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-isolated\\ from\\ civilian\\ way\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-fear\\ of\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-prominent\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ hard\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ few\\ civilian\\ bureaucrats\\ equipped\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ work\\ \\[ie\\.\\ in\\ the\\ defense\\ department\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\ Catholic\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ was\\ once\\ allied\\ with\\ rich\\,\\ now\\ champion\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ reforms\\ within\\ the\\ church\\ \\[2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Vatican\\ council\\,\\ etc\\]\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ produced\\ conflicts\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conservatives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ believed\\ clergy\\ should\\ restrict\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ pulpit\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reformers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ were\\ more\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ community\\ and\\ in\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ growth\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\communidades\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[parish\\ organizations\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ criticism\\ and\\ resistance\\ of\\ military\\ governments\\ \\[church\\ cannot\\ be\\ liquidated\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ despite\\ all\\ this\\,\\ church\\ cannot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\determine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ Bureaucrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ represent\\ interests\\ of\\ other\\ players\\,\\ therefore\\ often\\ overlooked\\ in\\ political\\ analysis\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\do\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;influence\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ serve\\ long\\ terms\\ \\[\\&ldquo\\;career\\ government\\ service\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ size\\ of\\ public\\ sector\\ is\\ increasing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ are\\ often\\ technocrats\\ and\\ therefore\\ possess\\ technical\\ rather\\ than\\ political\\ skill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-they\\ want\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ to\\ increase\\ their\\ influence\\ over\\ public\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ to\\ decrease\\ interference\\ by\\ political\\ authorities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ to\\ dominate\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ dependent\\ upon\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-increasingly\\,\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ dependent\\ upon\\ bureaucrats\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ their\\ objectives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foreign\\ Players\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GOVERNMENTS\\ \\[eg\\.\\ US\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ resources\\/tactics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ economic\\ pressure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ direct\\ intervention\\ through\\ covert\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ threat\\ of\\ direct\\ US\\ military\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-objective\\:\\ LA\\ collaboration\\ with\\ US\\ pursuit\\ of\\ its\\ strategic\\ and\\ economic\\ objectives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FOREIGN\\ CORPORATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-criticisms\\ of\\ their\\ effect\\ on\\ specific\\ LA\\ countries\\,\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ measures\\ by\\ those\\ countries\\ aimed\\ at\\ restricting\\ their\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ firms\\ want\\:\\ favorable\\ investment\\ climate\\ \\[freedom\\,\\ accessible\\ and\\ docile\\ labor\\ force\\,\\ low\\ costs\\,\\ predictable\\ and\\ stable\\ government\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-resources\\:\\ produce\\ products\\ that\\ governments\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FOREIGN\\ BANKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ LA\\ countries\\ racked\\ up\\ huge\\ foreign\\ debts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ now\\ must\\ follow\\ strict\\ IMF\\ guidelines\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ retain\\ their\\ assistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ E\\.\\ Skidmore\\ and\\ Peter\\ H\\.\\ Smith\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2001\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-10\\;\\ 13\\-66\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Page\\ 1\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ why\\ is\\ LA\\ relevant\\ to\\ US\\ \\[political\\ and\\ economic\\ ties\\,\\ existence\\ of\\ large\\ Hispanic\\ population\\ in\\ US\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ misconception\\ that\\ LA\\ is\\ an\\ easy\\ place\\ to\\ understand\\,\\ simplistic\\,\\ homogenous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ politically\\,\\ culturally\\,\\ linguistically\\,\\ racially\\,\\ geographically\\,\\ economically\\ diverse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ paradoxical\\:\\ young\\ and\\ old\\,\\ stable\\ and\\ tumultuous\\,\\ independent\\ and\\ dependent\\,\\ prosperous\\ and\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ explanations\\ of\\ non\\-democracy\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[racist\\ stereotypes\\,\\ modernizations\\ theory\\,\\ cultural\\,\\ dependency\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ rise\\ of\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;approached\\ with\\ intellectual\\ caution\\,\\ will\\ they\\ last\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Howard\\ Wiarda\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Politics\\ and\\ Social\\ Change\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Still\\ a\\ Distinct\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ \\(Third\\ Ed\\.\\)\\ \\(Boulder\\:\\ Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1992\\)\\.\\ Introduction\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-8\\;\\ Conclusion\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 315\\-346\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Cultural\\ Approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ To\\ understand\\ LA\\,\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ cultural\\ and\\ historical\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Western\\ model\\ is\\ irrelevant\\ \\[ie\\.\\ modernization\\ theory\\ is\\ wrong\\]\\ b\\/c\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ timing\\ and\\ context\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ sequences\\ of\\ development\\ are\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ international\\ settings\\ are\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ traditional\\ institutions\\ in\\ LA\\ have\\ remarkable\\ staying\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\[ie\\.\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ disappear\\ as\\ modernization\\ advances\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\economy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ mercantilist\\ and\\ state\\-directed\\ \\[not\\ capitalist\\ and\\ individually\\ directed\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ two\\-class\\ \\[not\\ multi\\-class\\ and\\ pluralistic\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\political\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ hierarchical\\ and\\ authoritarian\\ \\[not\\ democratic\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\culture\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ orthodox\\,\\ absolutist\\,\\ Catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-not\\ undeveloped\\,\\ just\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-has\\ advanced\\,\\ modernized\\,\\ changed\\;\\ but\\ traditional\\ institutions\\ are\\ adaptive\\ and\\ durable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 16\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-characteristics\\ listed\\ above\\ \\[hierarchical\\,\\ ordered\\,\\ etc\\]\\ persist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-changes\\ are\\ gradual\\,\\ controlled\\,\\ regulated\\,\\ etc\\;\\ so\\ that\\ systems\\ are\\ adapted\\ to\\ new\\ circumstances\\ without\\ undermining\\ traditional\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;third\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ reconcile\\ hierarchy\\ and\\ order\\ with\\ change\\ and\\ modernization\\ \\[corporatism\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ QUALIFICATION\\ OF\\ THESIS\\:\\ cultural\\ approach\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ explanation\\,\\ there\\ were\\ structural\\ factors\\ as\\ well\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ factors\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ uniform\\ effect\\ on\\ all\\ LA\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ corporatism\\ arises\\ from\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ order\\ and\\ hierarchy\\,\\ group\\ rights\\ over\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ CHALLENGE\\ TO\\ TRADITIONAL\\ SYSTEM\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ old\\ power\\ bases\\ declining\\,\\ new\\ power\\ bases\\ emerging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ presence\\ of\\ external\\ agencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ complex\\ networks\\ of\\ dependency\\ and\\ interdependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ politics\\ have\\ become\\ progressively\\ more\\ class\\-\\,\\ issue\\-\\,\\ and\\ interest\\-oriented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\breakdown\\ of\\ old\\ order\\,\\ but\\ no\\ new\\ one\\ to\\ take\\ its\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ can\\ only\\ maintain\\ old\\ order\\ and\\ stability\\ through\\ harsher\\ authoritarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ democracy\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ emerging\\ in\\ LA\\ countries\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ various\\ reasons\\ to\\ be\\ skeptical\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ not\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ lack\\ of\\ confidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ anti\\-democratic\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ only\\ partially\\ democratic\\,\\ authoritarian\\ structures\\ still\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ form\\ of\\ democracy\\ is\\ still\\ top\\-down\\,\\ corporatist\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Seymour\\ Martin\\ Lipset\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Political\\ Man\\:\\ The\\ Social\\ Bases\\ of\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Baltimore\\:\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1959\\/1981\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 27\\-63\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Modernization\\ Theorist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ specific\\ conditions\\ for\\ democracy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ value\\ system\\ to\\ give\\ legitimacy\\ \\[or\\ chaotic\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ one\\ set\\ of\\ political\\ leaders\\ in\\ office\\ \\[or\\ unstable\\,\\ irresponsible\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ competitive\\ environment\\ \\[or\\ leader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ authority\\ will\\ increase\\ and\\ popular\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;influence\\ will\\ decrease\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 2\\ characteristics\\ that\\ impact\\ stability\\ of\\ democracy\\:\\ economic\\ development\\ and\\ legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ correlation\\ between\\ industrialization\\/modernization\\ and\\ democracy\\,\\ but\\ democracy\\ can\\ arise\\ under\\ normally\\ adverse\\ conditions\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ hypothesis\\:\\ democracy\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ tests\\ this\\ using\\ indices\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\ \\[average\\ wealth\\,\\ degree\\ of\\ industrialization\\ and\\ urbanization\\,\\ level\\ of\\ education\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ these\\ are\\ higher\\ in\\ more\\ democratic\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ indices\\ are\\ all\\ correlated\\,\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ coordinated\\ changes\\ to\\ maintain\\ stability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\education\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ maybe\\ not\\ sufficient\\ condition\\,\\ but\\ almost\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ increased\\ wealth\\ and\\ education\\ reduces\\ isolation\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ makes\\ lower\\ class\\ better\\-off\\ and\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ radical\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ but\\ poverty\\ does\\ not\\ breed\\ radicalism\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ stable\\ \\[ie\\.\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ knowledge\\/exposure\\ to\\ the\\ possibilities\\ of\\ change\\]\\,\\ however\\ improved\\ communication\\ and\\ transportation\\ is\\ making\\ this\\ situation\\ increasingly\\ rare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ radicalism\\ in\\ poorer\\ countries\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ greater\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ many\\ feel\\ that\\ if\\ LA\\ countries\\ are\\ put\\ on\\ the\\ road\\ to\\ high\\ productivity\\ then\\ democracy\\ will\\ prevail\\;\\ however\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ political\\ extremism\\ exists\\ in\\ newly\\ industrializing\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ evidence\\ that\\ rapid\\ industrialization\\ actually\\ encourages\\ extremism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Andre\\ Gunder\\ Frank\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Development\\ of\\ Underdevelopment\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Peter\\ K\\.\\ Klar\\é\\;n\\ and\\ Thomas\\ J\\.\\ Bossert\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Promise\\ of\\ Development\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Boulder\\:\\ Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 111\\-123\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Dependency\\ Theorist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\false\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;assumptions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ past\\ and\\ present\\ of\\ underdeveloped\\ countries\\ resemble\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ now\\ developed\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ underdevelopment\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\own\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;characteristics\\,\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ can\\ bring\\ about\\ development\\ through\\ foreign\\ aid\\/intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ outside\\ world\\ has\\ only\\ affected\\ select\\ areas\\ of\\ underdeveloped\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ model\\:\\ metropolis\\-satellite\\ structure\\ \\[metropoles\\=developed\\ nations\\,\\ satellites\\=\\ underdeveloped\\ countries\\,\\ colonies\\,\\ etc\\]\\,\\ exploitative\\ relationship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ this\\ relationship\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ found\\ on\\ the\\ national\\ level\\,\\ between\\ urban\\ and\\ rural\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ capitalism\\ is\\ what\\ brought\\ about\\ underdevelopment\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;existence\\ of\\ archaic\\ institutions\\,\\ or\\ capital\\ shortage\\ in\\ isolated\\ regions\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 3\\ hypotheses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ development\\ of\\ national\\ and\\ other\\ subordinate\\ metropoles\\ is\\ limited\\ by\\ their\\ satellite\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ satellites\\ develop\\ the\\ most\\ when\\ their\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ metropolis\\ are\\ weakest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\[periods\\ of\\ relative\\ isolation\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ the\\ most\\ underdeveloped\\ satellites\\ are\\ those\\ that\\ had\\ the\\ closest\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ metropolis\\ in\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gov\\ 1295\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Turning\\ Weakness\\ into\\ Strength\\:\\ The\\ Internationalization\\ of\\ Indian\\ Rights\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Friendly\\ Liquidation\\ of\\ the\\ Past\\:\\ The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Diversity\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;On\\ the\\ State\\,\\ Democratization\\,\\ and\\ Some\\ Conceptual\\ Problems\\:\\ A\\ Latin\\ American\\ View\\ with\\ Some\\ Postcommunist\\ Countries\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;Democracy\\,\\ Law\\,\\ and\\ Violence\\:\\ Disjunctions\\ of\\ Brazilian\\ Citizenship\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;An\\ Alarm\\ Call\\ for\\ Latin\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Democrats\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Turning\\ Weakness\\ into\\ Strength\\:\\ The\\ Internationalization\\ of\\ Indian\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Act\\ locally\\-think\\ globally\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ slogan\\ used\\ by\\ activist\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ encourage\\ grass\\-roots\\ activity\\,\\ but\\ opposite\\ path\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Think\\ locally\\,\\ act\\ globally\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ in\\ path\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ inc\\ involvement\\ of\\ transnational\\ alliances\\ and\\ international\\ relations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnationalization\\ at\\ first\\ seemed\\ contradictory\\ but\\ ultimately\\ constructive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ rights\\ represent\\ a\\ least\\ likely\\ case\\ for\\ internationalization\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ movement\\ since\\ Indian\\ peoples\\ are\\ powerless\\ and\\ marginalized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Internationalization\\ occurred\\ b\\/c\\ indigenous\\ movements\\ weak\\ domestically\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domestic\\ weakness\\ facilitated\\ transnational\\ alliance\\ and\\ effectiveness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnational\\ success\\ of\\ weak\\ movement\\ b\\/c\\ use\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ images\\ to\\ create\\ project\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Movement\\ is\\ rich\\ in\\ identity\\ \\(international\\ power\\ of\\ ethnicity\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\About\\ 40\\ million\\ ethnically\\ indigenous\\ people\\ in\\ LA\\ \\(Latin\\ America\\/ans\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ LA\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ identify\\ their\\ indigenous\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LA\\ Indians\\ are\\ the\\ poorest\\,\\ sickest\\,\\ most\\ abused\\ \\ \\;and\\ most\\ defenseless\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indians\\ have\\ resisted\\ LA\\ domination\\ since\\ conquest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ social\\ movement\\ for\\ Ind\\ \\(Indian\\)\\ rts\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ arise\\ until\\ late\\ 60s\\ and\\ early\\ 70s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ late\\ 70s\\ many\\ actors\\ mobilized\\ seeking\\ improvements\\ in\\ rts\\(rights\\)\\ and\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\World\\ Council\\ of\\ Indigenous\\ Peoples\\ and\\ Cultural\\ Survival\\ were\\ founded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\International\\ Labor\\ Org\\ and\\ World\\ Council\\ of\\ Churches\\ \\(WCC\\)\\ brought\\ together\\ Indian\\ activist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Situational\\ goals\\ coalesced\\ around\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ self\\-determination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-determination\\=local\\ autonomy\\,\\ cultural\\ survival\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;ethnodevelopment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(empowered\\ and\\ informed\\ self\\-management\\ of\\ cultural\\ and\\ social\\ change\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ wanted\\ land\\ rts\\,\\ access\\ to\\ natural\\ resources\\,\\ and\\ relief\\ from\\ human\\ rts\\ abuses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ survival\\ of\\ low\\ technology\\ indigenous\\ culture\\ not\\ desired\\ or\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ indigenous\\ grps\\ already\\ encountered\\ and\\ influenced\\ by\\ Western\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ cultures\\ evolve\\ but\\ who\\ decides\\ at\\ what\\ pace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ participation\\ has\\ grown\\ from\\ peasant\\ federations\\ to\\ political\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ activism\\ internationally\\ effective\\/cohesive\\ b\\/c\\ diversity\\ of\\ people\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ there\\ is\\ reduce\\ role\\ of\\ class\\-based\\ activism\\ \\(land\\,\\ language\\ and\\ religion\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cause\\ problems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ network\\ supporting\\ Ind\\ rts\\ is\\ transnational\\ and\\ consequential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Draws\\ on\\ international\\ resources\\,\\ alliances\\ and\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gvmts\\ try\\ to\\ discredit\\ movements\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ international\\ involvement\\ but\\ gvmt\\ is\\ being\\ hypocritical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ indigenous\\ org\\&rsquo\\;s\\ receive\\ int\\ \\ \\;\\(international\\)\\ funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#\\ of\\ domestic\\ Ind\\ rts\\ grps\\ were\\ est\\ w\\/\\ significant\\ int\\ support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnational\\ network\\ has\\ developed\\ mode\\ of\\ operation\\ in\\ which\\ local\\ and\\ int\\ action\\ interpenetrate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Int\\ actors\\ have\\ taken\\ an\\ explicit\\ role\\ in\\ linking\\ local\\ groups\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ grps\\ have\\ est\\ their\\ own\\ transnational\\ orgs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ rts\\ network\\ has\\ reformed\\ int\\ orgs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transnational\\ movement\\ mobilization\\ changed\\ domestic\\ state\\ policies\\,\\ esp\\ in\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Activism\\ continues\\ to\\ raise\\ int\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ goals\\ of\\ ind\\ rts\\ movement\\ still\\ not\\ met\\,\\ but\\ changes\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ transnational\\ network\\ can\\ achieve\\ social\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domestic\\ reform\\ has\\ been\\ strongest\\ where\\ int\\ actors\\ have\\ influenced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ people\\ turned\\ to\\ int\\ systems\\ out\\ of\\ domestic\\ powerless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characteristics\\ that\\ were\\ domestic\\ handicaps\\ became\\ int\\ strengths\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ LA\\ Ind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ appearance\\ made\\ them\\ seem\\ subhuman\\,\\ primitive\\,\\ but\\ to\\ Europeans\\ and\\ US\\ seemed\\ fascinating\\ and\\ exotic\\ which\\ attracted\\ them\\,\\ but\\ recognized\\ that\\ ethical\\ and\\ effective\\ advocacy\\ must\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ recognition\\ of\\ Ind\\ as\\ pragmatic\\ partners\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ general\\ less\\ accultured\\ lowland\\ grps\\ are\\ deomestically\\ weaker\\ but\\ more\\ internationalized\\ than\\ highland\\ Indians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Int\\ activist\\ liked\\ Brazilian\\ Indian\\ Leader\\ Paiakan\\ b\\/c\\ more\\ ethnic\\ and\\ less\\ politicized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Indian\\ grps\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ state\\ state\\ sponsored\\ coalitions\\ \\(Mexico\\)\\ the\\ Ind\\ movements\\ have\\ been\\ much\\ less\\ internationalized\\ and\\ less\\ effective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ Amer\\ Ind\\ are\\ less\\ international\\ due\\ to\\ historical\\ differences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ people\\ have\\ nothing\\ left\\ to\\ lose\\ except\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ nationalism\\ entered\\ in\\ 1980s\\ at\\ time\\ when\\ state\\ was\\ already\\ transforming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ Ind\\ rts\\ movements\\ not\\ much\\ political\\ participation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Activist\\ use\\ the\\ press\\ to\\ present\\ their\\ case\\ internationally\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ Indian\\ grps\\ have\\ high\\ tech\\ communications\\ but\\ no\\ basic\\ needs\\ such\\ health\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ representatives\\ drew\\ demands\\ and\\ representatives\\ from\\ their\\ own\\ culture\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ used\\ transnational\\ networks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Projection\\ of\\ information\\ provided\\ international\\ learning\\ and\\ Model\\ Indian\\ groups\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\,\\ but\\ also\\ provided\\ facts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turned\\ local\\ knowledge\\ into\\ global\\ power\\,\\ but\\ the\\ global\\ power\\ was\\ limited\\ and\\ self\\-contradictory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ movements\\ often\\ lack\\ authoritative\\ hierarchical\\ structures\\ of\\ representation\\,\\ hard\\ to\\ chose\\ leaders\\ that\\ are\\ both\\ representative\\ and\\ effective\\ in\\ political\\ arena\\ b\\/c\\ those\\ with\\ skills\\ to\\ lead\\ internationally\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ representative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ grps\\ within\\ tribes\\ hold\\ different\\ vies\\ on\\ proposed\\ developments\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ correspond\\ locally\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Membership\\ in\\ dif\\ org\\ brought\\ distinct\\ international\\ treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Movements\\ have\\ alienated\\ political\\ allies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Internationalization\\ of\\ Indian\\ rts\\ has\\ potential\\ for\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ dependency\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Friendly\\ Liquidation\\ of\\ the\\ Past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constitutional\\ treatment\\ of\\ indigenous\\ people\\ has\\ changed\\ a\\ lot\\ since\\ 1970s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Movements\\ fit\\ into\\ larger\\ democratic\\ project\\ to\\ decentralize\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ open\\ new\\ spheres\\ for\\ popular\\ participation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ecuador\\ has\\ strongest\\ regime\\ of\\ protection\\ for\\ indigenous\\ and\\ black\\ rts\\ in\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Venezuela\\ important\\ b\\/c\\ backwardness\\ of\\ its\\ constitution\\ in\\ respect\\ to\\ Ind\\ rts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ no\\ country\\ was\\ demand\\ for\\ Indian\\ rts\\ most\\ important\\ decision\\ to\\ radically\\ revise\\ constitution\\,\\ it\\ was\\ b\\/c\\ state\\ was\\ perceived\\ overly\\ centralized\\ and\\ inefficient\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ principle\\ of\\ national\\ laws\\ concerning\\ disadvantaged\\ grps\\ remained\\ equality\\,\\ legislation\\ intended\\ to\\ transform\\ Ind\\ into\\ undifferentiated\\ citizens\\,\\ to\\ not\\ recognize\\ a\\ distinctive\\ status\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ movement\\ org\\ most\\ consolidated\\ in\\ Ecuador\\,\\ Colombia\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ Bolivia\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ and\\ weaker\\ in\\ Peru\\ and\\ Venezuela\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ orgs\\ wanted\\ citizenship\\ that\\ incorporates\\ collective\\ rts\\ and\\ new\\ modes\\ of\\ indv\\ and\\ collective\\ participation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ orgs\\ wanted\\ laws\\ requiring\\ their\\ consent\\ to\\ policies\\ affecting\\ them\\ and\\ indigenous\\ control\\ over\\ natural\\ resources\\ on\\ their\\ land\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ UN\\ declaration\\ was\\ drafted\\ with\\ help\\ of\\ Indigenous\\ grps\\ and\\ it\\ gave\\ recognition\\ of\\ indigenous\\ rt\\ to\\ self\\-determination\\,\\ but\\ not\\ passed\\ after\\ 4yrs\\ b\\/c\\ some\\ states\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ it\\ \\(US\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ grps\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ success\\ w\\/\\ the\\ OAS\\&rsquo\\;s\\ American\\ Declaration\\ of\\ the\\ Rights\\ of\\ Indigenous\\ Peoples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\States\\ must\\ live\\ with\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ indigenous\\ secession\\ b\\/c\\ keeping\\ indigenous\\ people\\ oppressed\\ is\\ a\\ greater\\ risk\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ elements\\ shared\\ by\\ new\\ constitutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rhetorical\\ recognition\\ of\\ the\\ multicultural\\ nature\\ of\\ their\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\recognition\\ of\\ ind\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ customary\\ law\\ as\\ official\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\collective\\ property\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\recognition\\ of\\ ind\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guarantee\\ of\\ bilingual\\ edu\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prior\\ to\\ these\\ additions\\ official\\ constitutions\\ declared\\ homogeneous\\ nature\\ of\\ LA\\ based\\ on\\ assumption\\ that\\ everyone\\ had\\ assimilated\\ into\\ hybrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\States\\ that\\ allow\\ incorporation\\ of\\ ethnically\\ defined\\ social\\ and\\ territorial\\ units\\ rupture\\ the\\ uniformity\\ and\\ universality\\ of\\ public\\ admin\\ at\\ local\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Among\\ most\\ important\\ reforms\\ are\\ those\\ to\\ codes\\ of\\ criminal\\ procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\recognition\\ of\\ customary\\ law\\ protects\\ ind\\ people\\ from\\ power\\ inequalities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ scope\\ of\\ indigenous\\ jurisdiction\\ limited\\ by\\ constitution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\collective\\ property\\ rts\\ weakened\\ by\\ inability\\ to\\ exercise\\ control\\ over\\ exploitation\\ of\\ natural\\ resources\\ on\\ their\\ property\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\main\\ problem\\ of\\ implementing\\ bilingual\\ edu\\ is\\ lack\\ of\\ funding\\ and\\ of\\ teachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\constitution\\ makers\\ must\\ choose\\ btwn\\ conferring\\ autonomy\\ upon\\ territorial\\ entities\\ where\\ Ind\\ constitute\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ upon\\ population\\ grps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ difficult\\ in\\ cases\\ where\\ Ind\\ constitute\\ a\\ majority\\ b\\/c\\ how\\ can\\ state\\ have\\ power\\ in\\ this\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ gvmts\\ are\\ attempting\\ to\\ hold\\ autonomy\\ below\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ a\\ government\\ unit\\ with\\ meaningful\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shift\\ toward\\ greater\\ decentralization\\ in\\ LA\\ helps\\ Ind\\ demands\\ for\\ political\\ autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\ LA\\ has\\ been\\ disappointed\\ with\\ results\\ of\\ decentralization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ success\\ of\\ decentralization\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ ind\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ people\\ have\\ had\\ difficulty\\ inserting\\ provisions\\ relating\\ to\\ their\\ rts\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ avalanche\\ of\\ laws\\ w\\/\\ respect\\ to\\ democratization\\ and\\ economic\\ liberalization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ goal\\ of\\ constitutional\\ reform\\ is\\ the\\ est\\ and\\ protection\\ of\\ rts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ind\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ being\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ wider\\ political\\ community\\ is\\ worth\\ compromising\\ cultural\\ and\\ political\\ autonomy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ State\\,\\ Democratization\\,\\ and\\ Some\\ Conceptual\\ Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Breakdown\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ systems\\ led\\ to\\ emergence\\ of\\ number\\ of\\ democracies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ polyarchies\\ which\\ are\\ all\\ representative\\ and\\ institutionalized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ much\\ predicting\\ power\\ in\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\ after\\ first\\ elected\\ gvmt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argentina\\-transition\\ by\\ collapse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazil\\-transition\\ by\\ negotiation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peru\\-incorporating\\ military\\ authoritarian\\ populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\States\\ are\\ interwoven\\ in\\ complex\\ and\\ different\\ ways\\ in\\ their\\ respective\\ societies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characteristics\\ of\\ each\\ state\\ and\\ of\\ each\\ society\\ heavily\\ influence\\ whether\\ democracy\\ will\\ be\\ likely\\ to\\ consolidate\\ or\\ merely\\ endure\\ or\\ eventually\\ breakdown\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ social\\ relations\\ that\\ est\\ a\\ certain\\ order\\ or\\ a\\ given\\ territory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ relations\\ can\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ tradition\\,\\ fear\\ of\\ punishment\\,\\ pragmatic\\ calculation\\,\\ habituation\\,\\ legitimacy\\,\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equality\\ guaranteed\\ to\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ citizenship\\ is\\ crucial\\ for\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ rights\\ of\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Citizenship\\ does\\ not\\ stay\\ within\\ the\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argentina\\,\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Peru\\ are\\ going\\ through\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ crisis\\,\\ crisis\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ state\\ as\\ bureaucracies\\ capable\\ of\\ discharging\\ their\\ duties\\ with\\ reasonable\\ efficacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\States\\&rsquo\\;\\ claim\\ to\\ orient\\ its\\ decisions\\ for\\ the\\ public\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\-centered\\ and\\ inward\\-oriented\\ pattern\\ of\\ capital\\ accumulation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ most\\ newly\\ democratized\\ countries\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ too\\ big\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\neg\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ strong\\ state\\ irrespective\\ of\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ its\\ bureaucracies\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ effectively\\ est\\ legality\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ an\\ arena\\ for\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ particular\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Countries\\ of\\ relatively\\ high\\ homogeneity\\ are\\ ones\\ with\\ older\\ and\\ more\\ solid\\ democratic\\ tradition\\-Costa\\ Rica\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ Uruguay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ extends\\ very\\ irregularly\\ across\\ territory\\ and\\ functional\\ relations\\ it\\ regulates\\ then\\ the\\ state\\ becomes\\ ostensibly\\ unable\\ to\\ enact\\ effective\\ regulations\\ of\\ social\\ life\\ across\\ their\\ territories\\ and\\ their\\ stratification\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ state\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ implement\\ its\\ own\\ regulations\\,\\ so\\ inc\\ in\\ crime\\ results\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brown\\ regions\\ are\\ areas\\ of\\ low\\ or\\ nil\\ level\\ of\\ state\\ presence\\ both\\ functionally\\ and\\ territorially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ brown\\ areas\\ there\\ are\\ elections\\,\\ governors\\,\\ and\\ national\\ and\\ state\\ legislators\\ but\\ the\\ parties\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ personalistic\\ machines\\ functioning\\ under\\ familism\\,\\ prebendalism\\,\\ clientalsim\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interest\\ of\\ brown\\ legislators\\ quite\\ limited\\ and\\ usually\\ vote\\ conservative\\ and\\ opportunistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Operate\\ under\\ parties\\ that\\ have\\ low\\ ideological\\ content\\,\\ have\\ no\\ discipline\\ and\\ under\\ which\\ changing\\ parties\\ or\\ creating\\ a\\ new\\ one\\ is\\ easy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brown\\ areas\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ democracy\\ b\\/c\\ in\\ a\\ properly\\ democratic\\ order\\,\\ its\\ legality\\ is\\ universalistic\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ invoked\\ by\\ anyone\\ irrespective\\ of\\ class\\ position\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ countries\\ with\\ excessive\\ brown\\ areas\\ democracies\\ based\\ on\\ schizophrenic\\ state\\,\\ components\\ of\\ democratic\\ legality\\,\\ publicness\\ and\\ citizenship\\ fade\\ away\\ at\\ the\\ frontiers\\ of\\ various\\ regions\\,\\ class\\,\\ gender\\,\\ and\\ ethnic\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\ is\\ necessarily\\ connected\\ with\\ citizenship\\,\\ and\\ citizenship\\ can\\ only\\ exist\\ with\\ the\\ legality\\ of\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ state\\ that\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ enforce\\ its\\ legality\\ supports\\ a\\ democracy\\ of\\ low\\ intensity\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\countries\\ with\\ extensive\\ brown\\ areas\\ which\\ actually\\ meet\\ the\\ attributes\\ of\\ polyarchy\\ are\\ democracies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\various\\ forms\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ extensive\\ poverty\\,\\ extreme\\ disparity\\ go\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\ with\\ low\\ intensity\\ citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ extraordinarily\\ severe\\ socioeconomic\\ crisis\\ of\\ most\\ newly\\ democratized\\ countries\\ furthers\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ brown\\ areas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Efforts\\ made\\ to\\ reduce\\ fiscal\\ deficit\\ include\\ privatization\\ and\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ excess\\ personnel\\,\\ falling\\ salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\ in\\ inflation\\ and\\ protest\\ from\\ the\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corruption\\ is\\ present\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ money\\ economic\\ crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ corruption\\ scandals\\ become\\ public\\ they\\ undermine\\ trust\\ of\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Temporary\\ solution\\ to\\ econ\\ crisis\\ is\\ to\\ increase\\ indirect\\ taxes\\ and\\ the\\ prices\\ of\\ public\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ formally\\ employed\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ contributors\\ to\\ taxes\\ so\\ if\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ getting\\ anything\\ they\\ have\\ an\\ incentive\\ to\\ join\\ informal\\ sector\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ state\\ centered\\ import\\ substitution\\ model\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Democracy\\,\\ Law\\,\\ and\\ Violence\\:\\ Disjunction\\ of\\ Brazilian\\ Citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Civil\\ Component\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ political\\ institutions\\ democratize\\ the\\ civil\\ component\\ of\\ citizenship\\ remains\\ impaired\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ component\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ law\\,\\ and\\ citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ studies\\ focus\\ on\\ transformation\\ of\\ political\\ systems\\ but\\ not\\ on\\ civil\\ component\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ est\\ that\\ most\\ countries\\ in\\ region\\ are\\ indeed\\ democratic\\,\\ they\\ are\\ political\\ democracies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ political\\ democracy\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ ensure\\ meaningful\\ democratic\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democratic\\ politics\\ loses\\ its\\ legitimacy\\ and\\ efficacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ principles\\ of\\ liberty\\ and\\ justice\\ civil\\ component\\ relates\\ and\\ regulates\\ both\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ believes\\ that\\ political\\ democracy\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ extension\\ of\\ similarly\\ democratic\\&hellip\\;relations\\ into\\ other\\ spheres\\ of\\ social\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consolidation\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ does\\ not\\ monopolize\\ the\\ sources\\ of\\ democracy\\ or\\ of\\ citizenship\\ or\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contradiction\\:\\ As\\ Brazilians\\ succeed\\ in\\ institutionalizing\\ democratic\\ politics\\,\\ also\\ delegitimation\\ of\\ many\\ institutions\\ of\\ law\\,\\ privatization\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ violent\\ crime\\,\\ police\\ abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Democracy\\ and\\ Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cardoso\\ elected\\ in\\ 94\\,\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ exiled\\ and\\ he\\ opposed\\ the\\ military\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ opponent\\ was\\ Lula\\ from\\ the\\ PT\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ month\\ after\\ election\\ gvmt\\ called\\ into\\ Rio\\,\\ Operacao\\ Rio\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ control\\ violent\\ crimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ forces\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ order\\ in\\ Rio\\ are\\ cause\\ much\\ violence\\,\\ b\\/c\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incidents\\ of\\ violence\\ and\\ human\\ rts\\ abuses\\ throughout\\ Brazil\\ has\\ grown\\ dramatically\\ after\\ the\\ institutionalization\\ of\\ democratic\\ rule\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crime\\ has\\ become\\ organized\\ and\\ more\\ violent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Brazil\\ the\\ police\\ constitute\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ repression\\ of\\ crime\\ ahs\\ targeted\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\ and\\ has\\ frequently\\ merged\\ with\\ political\\ repression\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ poor\\ have\\ learned\\ to\\ fear\\ the\\ police\\ and\\ distrust\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1969\\ all\\ state\\ uniformed\\ police\\ are\\ now\\ state\\ military\\ police\\ \\(MP\\)\\ and\\ subordinated\\ to\\ the\\ army\\,\\ civil\\ police\\ continue\\ to\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ rts\\ grps\\ have\\ amassed\\ considerable\\ eveidence\\ that\\ the\\ military\\ justice\\ overwhelmingly\\ acquits\\ military\\ police\\ accused\\ of\\ crimes\\ against\\ civilians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Org\\ of\\ current\\ police\\ institutions\\ largely\\ maintains\\ that\\ of\\ military\\ regimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worsening\\ of\\ police\\ violence\\ in\\ Brazil\\ coincides\\ with\\ the\\ consolidation\\ of\\ political\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ROTA\\,\\ special\\ division\\ of\\ mil\\.\\ Police\\ commits\\ sig\\ \\#\\ of\\ killings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#\\ of\\ police\\ killed\\ has\\ not\\ increased\\ and\\ proportion\\ of\\ civilians\\ killed\\ to\\ those\\ wounded\\ is\\ abnormal\\,\\ they\\ shoot\\ to\\ kill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Massacre\\ of\\ prisoners\\ at\\ Casa\\ de\\ Detencao\\ 1992\\ by\\ police\\ officers\\,\\ most\\ not\\ punished\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ popular\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Policy\\ violence\\ caused\\ by\\ corruption\\ but\\ also\\ more\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ official\\ policy\\ and\\ popular\\ support\\,\\ even\\ from\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Resistance\\ to\\ reform\\ is\\ grounded\\ in\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ tough\\ police\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Population\\&rsquo\\;s\\ support\\ for\\ violence\\ indicates\\ existence\\ of\\ cultural\\ pattern\\ that\\ associates\\ order\\ and\\ authority\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Police\\ is\\ soft\\ with\\ real\\ criminals\\ that\\ can\\ bribe\\ and\\ hard\\ with\\ poor\\ workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ Democracy\\ and\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Judiciary\\ is\\ a\\ discredited\\,\\ justice\\ system\\ is\\ biased\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ offer\\ workers\\ possibility\\ of\\ justice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legislature\\ makes\\ laws\\ that\\ the\\ courts\\ cannot\\ or\\ will\\ not\\ enforce\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ racial\\ biases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazilian\\ courts\\ have\\ only\\ protected\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ property\\,\\ not\\ due\\ process\\ or\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ protection\\ and\\ immunities\\ of\\ civil\\ rts\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ elite\\ and\\ not\\ common\\ rts\\ or\\ citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ concept\\ of\\ civil\\ rts\\ is\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazilian\\ democracy\\ is\\ disjunctive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ take\\ justice\\ into\\ their\\ own\\ hands\\ but\\ some\\ think\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ too\\ risky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ support\\ the\\ org\\ such\\ as\\ ROTA\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ believe\\ that\\ they\\ kill\\ the\\ right\\ people\\,\\ they\\ admire\\ vigilantes\\,\\ justiceiros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Upperclass\\ has\\ the\\ option\\ of\\ choosing\\ to\\ disrespect\\ the\\ law\\,\\ esp\\ traffic\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disjunctive\\ democracy\\-conjunction\\ of\\ political\\ democracy\\,\\ injustice\\,\\ and\\ violence\\,\\ unbalanced\\ and\\ heterogeneous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ political\\ component\\ of\\ democratization\\ is\\ strong\\ but\\ the\\ civil\\ component\\ is\\ fragile\\ and\\ ineffective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\ and\\ citizenship\\ should\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ extending\\ beyond\\ the\\ political\\ to\\ encompass\\ the\\ social\\,\\ economic\\ and\\ cultural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ rts\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\ if\\ police\\ act\\ illegally\\ they\\ disable\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ alone\\ cannot\\ secure\\ conditions\\ for\\ democracy\\,\\ a\\ democracy\\ must\\ secure\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ or\\ itself\\ become\\ discredited\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fairness\\,\\ access\\,\\ universality\\ and\\ legitimacy\\ characterize\\ a\\ democratic\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ role\\ of\\ civil\\ component\\ of\\ citizenship\\ is\\ sustaining\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Authoritarian\\ culture\\ deeply\\ rooted\\ in\\ Brazil\\ hinders\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ studies\\ of\\ Brazil\\ analyze\\ the\\ legal\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ democracies\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ murderous\\ than\\ their\\ authoritarian\\ predecessor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ citizenship\\-membership\\ in\\ the\\ territorial\\ nation\\-state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Substantive\\ citizenship\\-array\\ of\\ political\\,\\ civil\\,\\ socioeconomic\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ rts\\ people\\ posses\\ and\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ turmoil\\ caused\\ by\\ disjunctive\\ relation\\ btwn\\ formal\\ and\\ substantive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alarm\\ Call\\ for\\ Latin\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ democrats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LA\\ are\\ wavering\\ in\\ support\\ for\\ democracy\\ but\\ still\\ support\\ free\\-trade\\ agreements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sharp\\ decline\\ in\\ support\\ for\\ democracy\\ modest\\ rise\\ in\\ dictatorship\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexico\\ only\\ country\\ were\\ support\\ has\\ inc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discontent\\ due\\ to\\ LA\\ renewed\\ economic\\ weakenss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ more\\ people\\ think\\ the\\ economy\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ democracy\\ the\\ more\\ dem\\ is\\ vulnerable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uruguay\\ and\\ Costa\\ Rica\\ are\\ showing\\ support\\ for\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Violence\\ and\\ drug\\ addictions\\ is\\ another\\ factor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mexico\\ in\\ Crisis\\-\\ Helman\\ \\Chapter\\ 1\\-\\ The\\ Revolution\\ \\\\-The\\ Mexican\\ Revolution\\ was\\ started\\ by\\ landowners\\ and\\ intellectuals\\ in\\ the\\ \\North\\ of\\ Mexico\\ in\\ 1910\\.\\ \\\\-It\\ was\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ elitism\\ that\\ entrenched\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ \\economic\\ spheres\\ in\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\\\-Dictator\\ Porfirio\\ Diaz\\ \\(who\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ thirty\\ years\\ ago\\ through\\ a\\ \\military\\ coup\\)\\ provided\\ only\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ opportunities\\ for\\ \\close\\ friends\\,\\ and\\ foreign\\ business\\ investors\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ Mexican\\ \\bourgeoisie\\ with\\ little\\ chance\\ of\\ advancement\\.\\ \\\\-Many\\ different\\ groups\\ were\\ interested\\ in\\ his\\ downfall\\,\\ including\\ middle\\ \\class\\ business\\ owners\\,\\ intellectuals\\,\\ \\\\-They\\ wanted\\ to\\ establish\\ liberal\\ democracy\\ \\\\-There\\ were\\ two\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ revolutions\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ \\\\-\\ The\\ Northern\\ movement\\ was\\ ideological\\ heterogeneous\\ \\(Separate\\ sets\\ of\\ \\demands\\ by\\ elite\\,\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ worker\\ classes\\)\\.\\ \\1\\)Middle\\ and\\ upper\\ class\\ liberals\\ were\\ calling\\ for\\ political\\ reforms\\ to\\ \\broaden\\ base\\ of\\ political\\ participation\\,\\ anticlerical\\ legislation\\ to\\ curb\\ \\the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\,\\ nationalistic\\ legislation\\ to\\ impose\\ \\state\\ control\\ over\\ foreign\\ investment\\ and\\ ownership\\.\\ They\\ called\\ for\\ the\\ \\elimination\\ of\\ forced\\ military\\ conscription\\,\\ and\\ the\\ suppression\\ of\\ press\\.\\ \\2\\)Peasant\\ and\\ workers\\ were\\ concerned\\ with\\ winning\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ organize\\,\\ \\guarantees\\ of\\ decent\\ work\\ conditions\\,\\ adequate\\ pay\\,\\ and\\ work\\ security\\ \\\\South\\ rallied\\ behind\\ revolution\\.\\ \\\\-Why\\?\\ Large\\ commercial\\ landowners\\ gained\\ control\\ over\\ village\\ lands\\,\\ \\deprived\\ peasants\\ of\\ their\\ livelihood\\,\\ made\\ them\\ serfs\\.\\ \\\\-In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ North\\,\\ the\\ South\\ was\\ a\\ unified\\ ideological\\ coherent\\ \\movement\\ of\\ landless\\ peasants\\ fighting\\ under\\ the\\ leadership\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ \\women\\ under\\ the\\ peasant\\ origin\\ \\\\-They\\ fought\\ for\\ archaic\\ demands\\-wanted\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ village\\ lands\\ \\and\\ \\the\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ tradition\\ order\\ of\\ communal\\ agriculture\\.\\ \\\\Emilio\\ Zapata\\-\\ General\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ \\\\-Everyone\\ had\\ different\\ goals\\,\\ but\\ loyalty\\ to\\ leader\\ bound\\ them\\ together\\ \\\\-Revolution\\ was\\ built\\ his\\ personal\\ charisma\\ \\\\-Limitation\\ of\\ Zapatismo\\ was\\ its\\ inability\\ to\\ broaden\\ its\\ following\\ to\\ \\non\\-peasants\\ \\Pancho\\ Villa\\-\\ General\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ \\\\-Pancho\\ Villa\\ led\\ the\\ \\"\\;Northern\\ Division\\"\\;\\ \\\\-Military\\ success\\ due\\ to\\ rapid\\ forced\\ marches\\ and\\ surprise\\ attacks\\ \\\\-No\\ clear\\ political\\ ideology\\&\\#39\\;\\ no\\ definite\\ class\\ interests\\ \\\\-Not\\ interested\\ for\\ full\\ scale\\ land\\ reform\\,\\ unorganized\\ \\\\Years\\ of\\ Conflict\\ and\\ Bloodshed\\ \\\\-Madero\\-\\ head\\ of\\ liberals\\,\\ took\\ office\\ as\\ the\\ Revolution\\&\\#39\\;s\\ first\\ President\\ \\\\-Incapable\\ of\\ controlling\\ the\\ many\\ different\\ revolutionary\\ movements\\ he\\ \\forces\\ he\\ had\\ unleashed\\ \\\\-Bad\\ leadership\\/\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ mediate\\ between\\ radical\\ Zapatistas\\ and\\ \\conservatives\\ like\\ Carranza\\ \\\\-US\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ support\\ Madero\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ protect\\ their\\ interests\\ \\\\-Fighting\\ between\\ all\\ the\\ different\\ revolutionary\\ groups\\ for\\ 6\\ years\\ \\\\-Economy\\ in\\ shambles\\,\\ starvation\\ \\\\-Although\\ workers\\ were\\ majority\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ combatants\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ \\gain\\ economic\\,\\ political\\,\\ social\\ status\\ they\\ had\\ hoped\\ for\\.\\ \\\\New\\ Ruling\\ Class\\ \\\\-Recently\\ landed\\ revolutionary\\ generals\\ \\\\-Industrialists\\ and\\ businessmen\\ \\\\-Members\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ land\\ owning\\ oligarchy\\ \\\\Workers\\ Legacy\\ \\\\-The\\ labor\\ legislation\\ that\\ came\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Mexican\\ revolution\\ was\\,\\ in\\ its\\ \\day\\,\\ the\\ most\\ progressive\\ body\\ of\\ labor\\ guarantees\\ on\\ record\\ anywhere\\ in\\ \\the\\ world\\ \\\\The\\ Peasants\\&\\#39\\;\\ Legacy\\ \\\\-Constitution\\ provided\\ the\\ legislative\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ widest\\ scale\\ land\\ \\reform\\ program\\ in\\ history\\.\\ \\\\Unfeasible\\ and\\ Unenforceable\\ Legislation\\ \\\\-Two\\ basic\\ problems\\ stood\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ realization\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ laws\\ \\1\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;nature\\ of\\ the\\ legislation\\ itself\\ \\2\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;conflicts\\ within\\ goals\\ of\\ different\\ articles\\ in\\ constitution\\ and\\ \\the\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ economic\\ interests\\ of\\ those\\ enforcing\\ the\\ laws\\ \\\\Obstacles\\ to\\ land\\ reform\\ \\\\-Carranza\\ won\\ over\\ the\\ peasantry\\ with\\ favorable\\ reforms\\,\\ but\\ then\\ betrayed\\ \\them\\ \\\\-Church\\ and\\ landowners\\ made\\ land\\ reform\\ impossible\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ 40\\%\\ \\of\\ Mexican\\ land\\ was\\ owned\\ by\\ foreign\\ investors\\ \\\\Chapter\\ 2\\.\\ A\\ Ruling\\ Party\\ is\\ Formed\\ \\\\-Calles\\:\\ founder\\ of\\ PRM\\ in\\ 1929\\ \\\\-Cardenas\\ comes\\ to\\ power\\ \\Labor\\ Sector\\ \\\\-liberalized\\ labor\\ legislation\\,\\ strengthen\\ labor\\ and\\ peasant\\ unions\\ \\\\-creation\\ of\\ CTM\\,\\ Mexican\\ Workers\\ Confederation\\ \\\\-worked\\ very\\ closely\\ with\\ government\\ and\\ big\\ business\\,\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ \\representative\\ of\\ workers\\ \\Peasant\\ Sector\\ \\\\-Decline\\ in\\ political\\ influence\\ \\\\-Formation\\ of\\ CNC\\ National\\ Peasants\\ Confederation\\,\\ but\\ it\\ never\\ took\\ on\\ \\the\\ role\\ of\\ political\\ importance\\ Cardenas\\ hoped\\ it\\ would\\ \\Military\\ Sector\\ \\\\-Cardenas\\ tried\\ to\\ reform\\ military\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ under\\ civilian\\ control\\ \\\\Populism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\-The\\ Heyday\\ of\\ Radical\\ Populism\\ in\\ Venezuela\\ and\\ \\its\\ Aftermath\\ Ellner\\ \\\\Romulo\\ Betancourt\\ founder\\ of\\ AD\\ swept\\ into\\ power\\ through\\ coup\\ in\\ \\1945\\-formed\\ Trienio\\ government\\ \\Wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ a\\ orthodox\\ communist\\:\\ Opted\\ for\\ multi\\-class\\ party\\ that\\ would\\ \\represent\\ workers\\,\\ peasants\\,\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ \\In\\ 1936\\,\\ Betancourt\\ creates\\ PDN\\ to\\ unite\\ communists\\ of\\ different\\ stripes\\ \\Drew\\ up\\ Plan\\ de\\ Barranquilla\\,\\ which\\ called\\ for\\ civilian\\ run\\ military\\ \\Ad\\ appealed\\ broadly\\,\\ but\\ had\\ poor\\ relations\\ with\\ other\\ parties\\ \\AD\\ used\\ new\\ media\\ to\\ propagate\\ party\\ \\AD\\ stood\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ of\\ most\\ Latin\\ American\\ populist\\ parties\\ \\Overthrow\\ of\\ AD\\ by\\ military\\ coup\\ in\\ 1948\\ \\\\Susan\\ Eva\\ Eckstein\\,\\ Back\\ From\\ the\\ Future\\:\\ Cuba\\ Under\\ Castro\\ \\Castro\\&\\#39\\;s\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;new\\ man\\:\\"\\;\\ egalitarian\\,\\ selfless\\,\\ cooperative\\,\\ \\nonmaterialistic\\,\\ \\Cuban\\ revolution\\-\\ by\\-product\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ \\Castro\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ able\\ to\\ extract\\ concessions\\ from\\ Moscow\\ \\States\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ ideologically\\ driven\\,\\ also\\ by\\ individual\\ and\\ \\institutional\\ forces\\ \\Castro\\ relied\\ on\\ charisma\\,\\ traditional\\ and\\ to\\ rational\\-legal\\ based\\ \\beaurocratic\\ forms\\ of\\ legitimization\\ \\Castro\\&\\#39\\;s\\ party\\ as\\ a\\ \\"\\;vanguard\\"\\;\\ interpretation\\ of\\ communism\\ \\State\\-society\\ relations\\:\\ Castro\\ organized\\ people\\ and\\ grouped\\ forces\\ in\\ \\civil\\ society\\ \\Castro\\&\\#39\\;s\\ government\\ operated\\ officially\\ under\\ party\\ guidance\\,\\ it\\ combined\\ \\controlling\\ with\\ decentralization\\ and\\ oligarchic\\ and\\ democratic\\ tendencies\\ \\Cuba\\&\\#39\\;s\\ main\\ problems\\ were\\ health\\,\\ land\\,\\ industrialization\\,\\ unemployment\\.\\ \\\\Push\\ for\\ communism\\ \\\\-set\\ out\\ to\\ diversify\\ economy\\ \\\\-agrarian\\ restructuring\\,\\ no\\ private\\ property\\ \\\\Impact\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;Push\\ for\\ Communism\\"\\;\\ \\Policies\\ failed\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ ideologically\\ driven\\ and\\ economically\\ \\irrational\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ unfavorable\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ external\\ sector\\ \\\\(relations\\ to\\ Moscow\\ deteriorated\\)\\ \\\\After\\ crisis\\ in\\ 70\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ Castro\\ took\\ new\\ approach\\:\\ a\\ \\"\\;retreat\\ to\\ socialism\\"\\;\\,\\ \\following\\ Soviet\\ example\\-b\\/c\\ complete\\ communism\\ was\\ unrealistic\\ \\Needed\\ an\\ improvement\\ in\\ production\\,\\ productivity\\,\\ fiscal\\ expenditures\\.\\ \\\\Encouraged\\ political\\ decentralization\\ \\Economic\\ diversification\\-sugar\\ received\\ less\\ emphasis\\ \\New\\ labor\\ union\\ movement\\ \\\\Opening\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ \\Relative\\ economic\\ recovery\\ \\Cuba\\-\\ welfare\\ type\\ state\\,\\ drew\\ on\\ Soviet\\ ideology\\,\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ built\\ \\on\\ Cuban\\ traditions\\ \\\\Utopia\\ Unarmed\\ \\Cuba\\ gave\\ hope\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ \\Discusses\\ differences\\ and\\ similarities\\ with\\ Soviet\\ model\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movements\\ emerged\\ throughout\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ Cuban\\ \\example\\ \\B\\/c\\ of\\ economic\\ dependence\\,\\ Cuba\\ has\\ to\\ adhere\\ to\\ Soviet\\ Unions\\ demands\\ \\Castro\\ provides\\ arms\\ for\\ groups\\ abroad\\ for\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ insurgent\\ \\groups\\ \\Ultimately\\ Cuba\\ failed\\ in\\ making\\ revolutions\\ happen\\ throughout\\ Latin\\ \\America\\ \\\\Timothy\\ Wickham\\-Crowley\\,\\ \\"\\;Winners\\,\\ Losers\\,\\ and\\ Also\\-Rans\\:\\ Toward\\ a\\ \\Comparative\\ Sociology\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Guerrilla\\ Movements\\,\\"\\;\\ \\Two\\ surges\\ of\\ guerrilla\\ movements\\:\\ one\\ in\\ mid\\ 1960s\\ one\\ in\\ mid\\ 1970s\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movements\\ reliant\\ on\\ peasant\\ support\\,\\ their\\ own\\ military\\ \\strength\\,\\ and\\ there\\ ability\\ to\\ undermine\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ government\\,\\ \\shifting\\ loyalty\\ to\\ them\\ \\Agrarian\\ structure\\ in\\ a\\ region\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ receptiveness\\ of\\ the\\ \\peasants\\ to\\ the\\ guerrilla\\ movement\\,\\ as\\ sharecroppers\\ and\\ squatters\\ are\\ \\more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ revolutionary\\ \\Agrarian\\ change\\,\\ aussault\\ on\\ their\\ security\\ by\\ the\\ state\\,\\ and\\ peasant\\ \\dislocation\\ radicalize\\ peasantry\\,\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ support\\ \\guerrilla\\ movement\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movements\\ took\\ root\\ in\\ areas\\ that\\ with\\ histories\\ of\\ popular\\ \\rebellion\\ against\\ federal\\ authority\\.\\ \\For\\ movements\\ to\\ work\\,\\ often\\ it\\ takes\\ an\\ outsider\\ to\\ come\\ in\\ to\\ mobilize\\ \\and\\ organize\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\The\\ military\\ strength\\ of\\ a\\ guerrilla\\ movement\\ and\\ the\\ loyalty\\ of\\ the\\ \\masses\\ to\\ the\\ cause\\ are\\ factors\\ imperative\\ for\\ their\\ success\\ \\Lack\\ of\\ loyalty\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ factor\\ in\\ the\\ \\rebels\\ success\\ \\Guerrilla\\ movementa\\ had\\ difficulties\\ appealing\\ to\\ the\\ rural\\ population\\ \\Success\\ in\\ Nicaragua\\ and\\ Cuba\\ b\\/c\\ \\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;strong\\ sustained\\ peasant\\ support\\ \\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;maintenance\\ of\\ sufficient\\ military\\ strength\\ to\\ endure\\ army\\ attacks\\ \\and\\ sustain\\ a\\ more\\ general\\ offensive\\ \\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;stripping\\ the\\ incumbent\\ government\\ of\\ legitimacy\\,\\ replacing\\ it\\ \\with\\ their\\ own\\ movement\\ as\\ legitimate\\,\\ revolutionary\\ alternative\\ in\\ the\\ \\eyes\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ E\\.\\ Skidmore\\ and\\ Peter\\ H\\.\\ Smith\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2001\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-10\\;\\ 13\\-66\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Page\\ 1\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ why\\ is\\ LA\\ relevant\\ to\\ US\\ \\[political\\ and\\ economic\\ ties\\,\\ existence\\ of\\ large\\ Hispanic\\ population\\ in\\ US\\,\\ etc\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ misconception\\ that\\ LA\\ is\\ an\\ easy\\ place\\ to\\ understand\\,\\ simplistic\\,\\ homogenous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ politically\\,\\ culturally\\,\\ linguistically\\,\\ racially\\,\\ geographically\\,\\ economically\\ diverse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ paradoxical\\:\\ young\\ and\\ old\\,\\ stable\\ and\\ tumultuous\\,\\ independent\\ and\\ dependent\\,\\ prosperous\\ and\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ explanations\\ of\\ non\\-democracy\\ in\\ LA\\ \\[racist\\ stereotypes\\,\\ modernizations\\ theory\\,\\ cultural\\,\\ dependency\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ rise\\ of\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;approached\\ with\\ intellectual\\ caution\\,\\ will\\ they\\ last\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 13\\-66\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ The\\ Colonial\\ Foundations\\ \\(1492\\-1880s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOTE\\:\\ This\\ is\\ all\\ background\\ info\\,\\ and\\ probably\\ not\\ overly\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ describes\\ Mayan\\,\\ Aztec\\,\\ Incan\\ civilizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ burst\\ of\\ European\\ expansion\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ technical\\ skill\\,\\ economic\\ base\\,\\ and\\ religious\\ motivation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ explorers\\ hoping\\ to\\ gain\\ wealth\\ and\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spain\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ how\\ did\\ Cortes\\ defeat\\ the\\ Aztecs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ superiority\\ of\\ military\\ technology\\/strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ b\\/c\\ Aztecs\\ initially\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ gods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Spanish\\ alliance\\ with\\ Aztec\\ enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ outbreak\\ of\\ smallpox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ similar\\ for\\ Pizarro\\ and\\ the\\ Incas\\,\\ except\\ easier\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ their\\ civil\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ lack\\ of\\ Spanish\\ women\\ led\\ to\\ racial\\ intermixing\\ \\[mestizos\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ creation\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\ by\\ Spanish\\ crown\\ to\\ keep\\ colonies\\ under\\ their\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ supremacy\\ of\\ Spanish\\ monarch\\,\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;divine\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ transferred\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ cheap\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indian\\&rdquo\\;\\ labor\\ is\\ foundation\\ of\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ huge\\ decrease\\ in\\ Indian\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ importation\\ of\\ black\\ slaves\\ from\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ complex\\ stratification\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ race\\ and\\ place\\ of\\ birth\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ fluidity\\/mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-changes\\ in\\ population\\ composition\\ increased\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ whites\\ and\\ mestizos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portugal\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Portugal\\ given\\ part\\ of\\ Brazil\\ in\\ a\\ treaty\\ with\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Brazil\\ is\\ different\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ less\\ Indians\\,\\ and\\ less\\ opportunity\\ for\\ instant\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ to\\ entice\\ settlers\\,\\ Portugese\\ crown\\ gave\\ huge\\ tracts\\ of\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ brought\\ over\\ black\\ slaves\\ from\\ Africa\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Brazilian\\ society\\ much\\ more\\ racially\\ stratified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roots\\ of\\ Independence\\ \\[Spanish\\ colonies\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ independence\\ movements\\ have\\ roots\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Spain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ to\\ tighten\\ its\\ hold\\ on\\ the\\ colonies\\ backfired\\ because\\ they\\ alienated\\ New\\ World\\-born\\ whites\\ \\[creoles\\]\\ and\\ pushed\\ them\\ toward\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Napolean\\ invaded\\ Spain\\ and\\ installed\\ his\\ brother\\ on\\ the\\ throne\\,\\ colonists\\ felt\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ leader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ old\\ Spanish\\ monarch\\ \\[Ferdinand\\ VII\\]\\ in\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\,\\ but\\ has\\ no\\ effective\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Ferdinand\\ returns\\ to\\ Spanish\\ throne\\,\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ death\\ of\\ independence\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ this\\ proves\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ violent\\ conflicts\\ ensue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Ferdinand\\ VII\\ gets\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ inquisition\\ and\\ endorses\\ the\\ liberal\\ constitution\\ \\[created\\ by\\ colonists\\]\\ this\\ alienates\\ his\\ supporters\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ who\\ now\\ view\\ independence\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ preserve\\ status\\ quo\\,\\ traditional\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ gradually\\ each\\ colony\\ achieves\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Independence\\ in\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ Napoleon\\ ousts\\ Portuguese\\ monarchy\\,\\ they\\ flee\\ to\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ open\\ Brazilian\\ ports\\ to\\ trade\\ with\\ other\\ European\\ countries\\ in\\ order\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ to\\ continue\\ profiting\\ from\\ Brazilian\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ while\\ there\\,\\ monarchy\\ created\\ new\\ institutions\\,\\ infrastructure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ when\\ monarchy\\ returned\\ to\\ Portugal\\ they\\ attempted\\ to\\ regain\\ the\\ same\\ control\\ they\\ had\\ had\\ pre\\-Napoleon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ colonists\\ resisted\\ and\\ conflict\\ ensued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Portuguese\\ military\\ was\\ rather\\ weak\\ and\\ they\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ an\\ independent\\ Brazilian\\ monarchy\\ was\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aftermath\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ wars\\ wreaked\\ havoc\\ on\\ the\\ economies\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ Spanish\\ American\\ republics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ regional\\ conflict\\ exacerbated\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ free\\ trade\\ improved\\ the\\ economy\\ but\\ imports\\ displaced\\ domestic\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ social\\ conflict\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ trend\\ towards\\ consolidation\\ of\\ power\\ under\\ dictatorships\\ \\[\\&ldquo\\;strong\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pull\\ of\\ International\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ focus\\ on\\ effective\\ use\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ labor\\ to\\ improve\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ attempts\\ to\\ improve\\ transportation\\ within\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economy\\ had\\ success\\,\\ but\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ industrializing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ Modern\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ 1880s\\-1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economic\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;social\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;political\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1880\\-1900\\:\\ initiation\\ of\\ export\\-import\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ raw\\ materials\\ exported\\,\\ manufactured\\ goods\\ imported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ dependent\\ on\\ foreigners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ economic\\ liberalism\\,\\ free\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ development\\ of\\ entrepreneurial\\ spirit\\,\\ service\\ sector\\,\\ interest\\ in\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ emphasis\\ on\\ stability\\ and\\ social\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1900\\-1930\\:\\ expansion\\ of\\ export\\-import\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ appearance\\/growth\\ of\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ surges\\ of\\ labor\\ mobilization\\,\\ but\\ still\\ no\\ political\\ voice\\/power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ urbanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ middle\\ sectors\\ given\\ increased\\ political\\ access\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ but\\,\\ conditions\\ were\\ not\\ there\\ for\\ liberalism\\ to\\ flourish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1930\\-1960s\\:\\ Import\\-Substituting\\ Industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Great\\ Depression\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;economic\\ collapse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ military\\ coups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ 2\\ possible\\ paths\\:\\ forge\\ even\\ closer\\ ties\\ with\\ industrialized\\ nations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\industrialize\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ independent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ started\\ producing\\ manufactured\\ goods\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ formerly\\ imported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ emergence\\ of\\ industrial\\ bourgeoisie\\,\\ working\\ class\\,\\ and\\ an\\ active\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ 2\\ political\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ democratic\\ co\\-optation\\ \\[Chile\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ multiclass\\ \\&ldquo\\;populist\\&rdquo\\;\\ alliances\\ \\[Argentina\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1960s\\-1980s\\:\\ Stagnation\\ in\\ Import\\-Substituting\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ industrialization\\ through\\ ISI\\ was\\ structurally\\ incomplete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ LA\\ countries\\ were\\ still\\ dependent\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ needed\\ foreign\\ capital\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ declining\\ terms\\ of\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ limited\\ domestic\\ market\\ for\\ manufactured\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ industries\\ were\\ capital\\-intensive\\ and\\ therefore\\ employed\\ few\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;repressive\\ regimes\\ \\[bureaucratic\\ authoritarian\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 4\\ characteristics\\:\\ public\\ office\\ given\\ to\\ bureaucrats\\,\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;exclusion\\ of\\ working\\ class\\,\\ reduction\\/elimination\\ of\\ political\\ activity\\,\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;forging\\/consolidating\\ ties\\ with\\ international\\ economic\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1980s\\-1990s\\:\\ Crisis\\,\\ Debt\\,\\ and\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ declining\\ export\\ earnings\\ and\\ increasing\\ debt\\-service\\ payments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ relief\\ offered\\ but\\ with\\ strict\\ terms\\:\\ opening\\ up\\ economy\\,\\ anti\\-inflationary\\ measures\\,\\ etc\\ \\[neo\\-liberal\\ policies\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ turn\\ toward\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ economic\\ turnaround\\ but\\ still\\ volatility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ structural\\ problems\\:\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\machismo\\/marianismo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ social\\ role\\ of\\ females\\ confined\\ to\\ private\\ sphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ twentieth\\ century\\ brought\\ vastly\\ increased\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ suffrage\\ came\\ late\\,\\ but\\ were\\ active\\ in\\ politics\\ in\\ other\\ ways\\ \\[eg\\.\\ Mothers\\ of\\ the\\ Plaza\\ de\\ Mayo\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ still\\ only\\ very\\ few\\ are\\ in\\ positions\\ of\\ political\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;feminist\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\ is\\ different\\ in\\ LA\\ than\\ in\\ US\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;they\\ work\\ more\\ close\\ to\\ home\\,\\ in\\ grass\\-roots\\ organizations\\ and\\ civic\\ associations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juan\\ Velasco\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Master\\ Will\\ No\\ Longer\\ Feed\\ off\\ Your\\ Poverty\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Orrin\\ Starn\\,\\ Carlos\\ Iv\\á\\;n\\ Degregori\\,\\ and\\ Robin\\ Kirk\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Peru\\ Reader\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Durham\\:\\ Duke\\ University\\ Press\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 264\\-69\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\speech\\ given\\ on\\ the\\ occasion\\ of\\ the\\ issuance\\ of\\ the\\ Agrarian\\ Reform\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peasant\\ Day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Revolutionary\\ Government\\ honors\\ the\\ peasants\\ by\\ recognizing\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ they\\ work\\ and\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ justice\\ where\\ they\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ second\\-class\\ citizens\\,\\ exploited\\ by\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Rev\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ also\\ promised\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ nat\\&rsquo\\;l\\ reconstruction\\ with\\ the\\ mission\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ of\\ nat\\&rsquo\\;l\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Armed\\ Forces\\ and\\ Renovation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rev\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ assumed\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ state\\ into\\ a\\ productive\\ instrument\\ for\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transformation\\,\\ not\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ continue\\ to\\ exploit\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ perpetuate\\ injustice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dedicated\\ to\\ cancelling\\ the\\ old\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ structures\\ that\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ valid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highest\\ priority\\ on\\ list\\ of\\ reforms\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ agrarian\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Law\\ considers\\ land\\ and\\ the\\ physical\\ plant\\ as\\ an\\ indivisible\\ whole\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ agrarian\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Law\\ establishes\\ new\\ cooperatives\\ that\\ guarantee\\ job\\ stability\\,\\ salaries\\,\\ and\\ the\\ social\\ rights\\ of\\ the\\ managers\\,\\ administrative\\,\\ and\\ technical\\ personnel\\ and\\ workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ agrarian\\ reform\\ will\\ produce\\ more\\ and\\ better\\ agricultural\\ owners\\ that\\ will\\ benefit\\ not\\ the\\ few\\ but\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ law\\ will\\ limit\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ own\\ land\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ guarantee\\ that\\ land\\ serves\\ its\\ social\\ function\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ system\\ of\\ justice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ land\\ must\\ be\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ work\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ see\\ their\\ property\\ reduced\\ by\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ law\\ will\\ receive\\ a\\ fair\\ price\\ from\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ government\\ must\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ majority\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ most\\ needy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\indigenous\\ communities\\ will\\ from\\ this\\ day\\ forward\\ be\\ called\\ Peasant\\ Communities\\ and\\ will\\ receive\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ credit\\ and\\ technical\\ assistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adversaries\\ and\\ Detractors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ expect\\ opposition\\ from\\ the\\ political\\ elites\\ and\\ economic\\ monopolies\\,\\ but\\ this\\ traditional\\ oligarchy\\ will\\ see\\ its\\ anti\\-patriotic\\ dominance\\ in\\ jeopardy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ new\\ law\\ will\\ also\\ have\\ friends\\ who\\ will\\ now\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ practice\\ their\\ ideals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ armed\\ forces\\ stand\\ at\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ authentic\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ motherland\\,\\ the\\ peasants\\,\\ workers\\,\\ students\\,\\ intellectuals\\,\\ priests\\,\\ industrialists\\,\\ and\\ professionals\\ who\\ support\\ the\\ agrarian\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Invocation\\ to\\ Youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fight\\ for\\ a\\ free\\ and\\ just\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ greatest\\ challenge\\ is\\ to\\ construct\\ for\\ our\\ people\\ and\\ our\\ youth\\ a\\ social\\ order\\ where\\ man\\ can\\ live\\ with\\ dignity\\,\\ knowing\\ that\\ he\\ lives\\ on\\ land\\ that\\ is\\ his\\ and\\ in\\ a\\ nation\\ that\\ owns\\ its\\ destiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Terry\\ Lynn\\ Karl\\,\\ \\"\\;Dilemmas\\ of\\ Democratization\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Comparative\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;23\\:\\ 1\\ \\(October\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-21\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ conditions\\ make\\ democracy\\ possible\\ and\\ what\\ conditions\\ make\\ it\\ thrive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\ theorists\\ of\\ comparative\\ politics\\ have\\ sought\\ to\\ understand\\ democracy\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\ has\\ changed\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ process\\-oriented\\ emphasis\\ on\\ contingent\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Theorists\\ should\\ now\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ structural\\ constraints\\ and\\ the\\ shaping\\ of\\ contingent\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ inadequate\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ transitions\\ using\\ the\\ general\\ categories\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ rule\\ to\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ analysis\\ should\\ be\\ complemented\\ by\\ the\\ identification\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ democracy\\ that\\ emerge\\ from\\ distinctive\\ modes\\ of\\ regime\\ transition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defining\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uses\\ a\\ middle\\-range\\ specification\\ of\\ democracy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ set\\ of\\ institutions\\ that\\ permits\\ the\\ entire\\ adult\\ population\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ citizens\\ by\\ choosing\\ their\\ leading\\ decision\\ makers\\ in\\ competitive\\,\\ fair\\,\\ and\\ regularly\\ scheduled\\ elections\\ which\\ are\\ held\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\,\\ guarantees\\ for\\ political\\ freedom\\,\\ and\\ limited\\ military\\ prerogatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ requirement\\ of\\ civilian\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ military\\ is\\ what\\ sets\\ his\\ definition\\ apart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Futile\\ Search\\ for\\ Democratic\\ Preconditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scholarship\\ before\\ the\\ democratization\\ wave\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ argued\\ that\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ preconditions\\ were\\ necessary\\ for\\ a\\ stable\\ democracy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ certain\\ degree\\ of\\ wealth\\ or\\ capitalist\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ certain\\ system\\ of\\ beliefs\\ and\\ values\\ in\\ which\\ political\\ action\\ is\\ embedded\\ and\\ given\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specific\\ domestic\\ historical\\ conditions\\ and\\ configurations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\External\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\.\\,\\ ISI\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ rise\\ and\\ decline\\ of\\ democracy\\ was\\ directly\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ and\\ decline\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ market\\ mechanisms\\ or\\ accumulation\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ LA\\ countries\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ challenged\\ all\\ these\\ assumptions\\ about\\ preconditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assumption\\ about\\ connection\\ bt\\ wealth\\ and\\ democracy\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ explain\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Peru\\ or\\ Argentina\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ no\\ direct\\ or\\ inevitable\\ correlation\\ bt\\ capital\\ deepening\\ and\\ authoritarian\\ rule\\ can\\ be\\ found\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ may\\ be\\ no\\ single\\ precondition\\ that\\ is\\ sufficient\\ to\\ produce\\ such\\ an\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ literature\\ ahs\\ considered\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ preconditions\\ of\\ democracy\\ may\\ be\\ better\\ conceived\\ as\\ the\\ outcomes\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ Contingent\\ Choice\\ to\\ Structured\\ Contingency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Donnell\\ and\\ Schmitter\\,\\ democratization\\ is\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ historical\\ process\\ with\\ analytically\\ distinct\\ stages\\ of\\ transition\\,\\ consolidation\\,\\ persistence\\,\\ and\\ eventual\\ deconsolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ differentiates\\ these\\ stages\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ which\\ prevails\\ at\\ each\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ absence\\ of\\ predictable\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\ during\\ a\\ regime\\ transition\\ expands\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ contingent\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\regime\\ consolidation\\ occurs\\ when\\ contending\\ social\\ classes\\ and\\ pol\\ groups\\ come\\ to\\ accept\\ some\\ set\\ of\\ formal\\ rules\\ or\\ informal\\ understandings\\ that\\ determine\\ who\\ gets\\ what\\ from\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ notion\\ of\\ contingency\\ stresses\\ collective\\ decisions\\ and\\ pol\\ interactions\\ that\\ have\\ largely\\ been\\ underemphasized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ democracy\\ must\\ be\\ placed\\ within\\ a\\ framework\\ of\\ structural\\-historical\\ constraints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Socioeconomic\\ structures\\ and\\ political\\ institutions\\ may\\ either\\ restrict\\ or\\ enhance\\ the\\ options\\ available\\ to\\ different\\ pol\\ actors\\,\\ making\\ democracy\\ either\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ likely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structural\\ and\\ institutional\\ constraints\\ determine\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ options\\ available\\ to\\ decision\\ makers\\ and\\ may\\ even\\ predispose\\ them\\ to\\ choose\\ a\\ specific\\ option\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modes\\ of\\ Transition\\ to\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ arrangements\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ key\\ pol\\ actors\\ during\\ a\\ regime\\ transition\\ establish\\ new\\ rules\\,\\ roles\\,\\ and\\ behavioral\\ patterns\\ which\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ represent\\ an\\ important\\ rupture\\ with\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\these\\ become\\ the\\ institutions\\ shaping\\ the\\ prospects\\ for\\ future\\ regime\\ consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possible\\ modes\\ of\\ transition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ differentiate\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ democracies\\ are\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ strategy\\ based\\ primarily\\ on\\ overt\\ force\\ from\\ those\\ in\\ which\\ democracies\\ arise\\ form\\ compromise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ distinguish\\ bt\\ transitions\\ in\\ which\\ incumbent\\ ruling\\ groups\\ are\\ still\\ ascendant\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ mass\\ actors\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ which\\ mass\\ actors\\ have\\ gained\\ the\\ upper\\ hand\\ vis\\-\\à\\;\\-vis\\ dominant\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ ideal\\ types\\:\\ reform\\,\\ revolution\\,\\ imposition\\,\\ and\\ pact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ frequent\\ type\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;transitions\\ from\\ above\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Least\\ common\\ is\\ democratization\\ by\\ imposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ democracies\\ that\\ have\\ endured\\ for\\ a\\ respectable\\ length\\ of\\ time\\ appear\\ to\\ cluster\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\ defined\\ by\\ relatively\\ strong\\ elite\\ actors\\ who\\ engage\\ in\\ strategies\\ of\\ compromise\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Venezuela\\,\\ Colombia\\,\\ Uruguay\\,\\ and\\ Chile\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foundational\\ pacts\\ are\\ well\\ exemplified\\ by\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Venezuela\\,\\ where\\ the\\ military\\,\\ pol\\ parties\\,\\ and\\ capitalists\\ all\\ cooperated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ foundational\\ pacts\\ underlying\\ some\\ new\\ democracies\\ have\\ several\\ essential\\ components\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ are\\ necessarily\\ comprehensive\\ and\\ inclusive\\ of\\ virtually\\ all\\ politically\\ significant\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ typical\\ foundational\\ pact\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ agreements\\ that\\ are\\ interlocking\\ and\\ dependent\\ upon\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ such\\ pacts\\ are\\ both\\ substantive\\ and\\ procedural\\,\\ they\\ initially\\ emphasize\\ rulemaking\\ bc\\ \\&ldquo\\;bargaining\\ about\\ bargaining\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ most\\ important\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ compromise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pacts\\ serve\\ to\\ ensure\\ survivability\\ bc\\,\\ although\\ they\\ are\\ inclusionary\\,\\ they\\ are\\ simultaneously\\ aimed\\ at\\ restricting\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ representation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reassure\\ traditional\\ dominant\\ classes\\ that\\ their\\ vital\\ interests\\ will\\ be\\ respected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Types\\ of\\ Democracies\\ and\\ Their\\ Prospects\\ in\\ the\\ Contemporary\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ concurrent\\ realities\\ of\\ democratization\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ newly\\ emergent\\ civilian\\ or\\ militarized\\ civilian\\ regimes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Argentina\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ Peru\\,\\ Ecuador\\,\\ Guatemala\\,\\ Honduras\\,\\ Nicaragua\\,\\ El\\ Salvador\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ face\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ sheer\\ survivability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ types\\ of\\ democracies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Venezuela\\,\\ Costa\\ Rica\\,\\ Brazil\\,\\ Uruguay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ are\\ relatively\\ consolidated\\ in\\ that\\ actors\\ are\\ not\\ so\\ preoccupied\\ by\\ the\\ overriding\\ concern\\ with\\ survivability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Current\\ concern\\ with\\ both\\ survivability\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;who\\ benefits\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\not\\-so\\-promising\\ scenarios\\ for\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ democracies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ democracy\\ in\\ LA\\ may\\ be\\ rooted\\ in\\ a\\ fundamental\\ paradox\\:\\ the\\ very\\ modes\\ of\\ transition\\ that\\ appear\\ to\\ enhance\\ initial\\ survivability\\ by\\ limiting\\ unpredictability\\ may\\ preclude\\ the\\ future\\ democratic\\ self\\-transformation\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ or\\ polity\\ further\\ down\\ the\\ road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ central\\ dilemma\\ of\\ elite\\-ascendant\\ processes\\ of\\ democratization\\,\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ important\\ differences\\ bt\\ countries\\ like\\ Uruguay\\,\\ a\\ pacted\\ transition\\,\\ and\\ Brazil\\,\\ a\\ unilaterally\\ imposed\\ transition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ hypothesis\\:\\ to\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ transitions\\ are\\ unilaterally\\ imposed\\ \\ \\;by\\ armed\\ forces\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ compromises\\,\\ they\\ threaten\\ to\\ evolve\\ into\\ civilian\\ governments\\ controlled\\ by\\ authoritarian\\ elements\\ who\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ push\\ for\\ greater\\ participation\\,\\ accountability\\,\\ or\\ equity\\ for\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ their\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ attempt\\ to\\ assess\\ possible\\ consequences\\ of\\ various\\ modes\\ of\\ transition\\ is\\ most\\ problematic\\ where\\ strong\\ elements\\ of\\ imposition\\,\\ compromise\\,\\ and\\ reform\\ are\\ simultaneously\\ present\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ where\\ neither\\ incumbent\\ elites\\ not\\ newly\\ ascendant\\ power\\ contenders\\ are\\ clearly\\ in\\ control\\ and\\ where\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ are\\ relatively\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ pol\\ democracies\\ generally\\ arise\\ from\\ a\\ compromise\\ bt\\ contending\\ organized\\ elites\\ that\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ impose\\ their\\ will\\ unilaterally\\ or\\ the\\ unilateral\\ action\\ of\\ one\\ dominant\\ group\\,\\ usually\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\,\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ bode\\ well\\ for\\ democratization\\ in\\ situations\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ are\\ inextricably\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ dominant\\ \\(and\\ antidemocratic\\)\\ agrarian\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ a\\ priori\\ reason\\ why\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ democracy\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ transformed\\ into\\ another\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ why\\ electoral\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ can\\ not\\ evolve\\ into\\ conservative\\ or\\ competitive\\ democracies\\,\\ or\\ corporatist\\ democracies\\ into\\ more\\ competitive\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gerardo\\ L\\.\\ Munck\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Authoritarianism\\ and\\ Democratization\\:\\ Soldiers\\ and\\ Workers\\ in\\ Argentina\\,\\ 1976\\-1983\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(University\\ Park\\:\\ Penn\\ State\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1998\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 133\\-161\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galtieri\\ came\\ to\\ power\\ through\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Viola\\ and\\ gave\\ more\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ hardliners\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ to\\ institutionalize\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ power\\,\\ but\\ its\\ hold\\ had\\ been\\ weakened\\ through\\ bad\\ governing\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ growing\\ protest\\ movement\\ organized\\ by\\ a\\ party\\ alliance\\,\\ and\\ a\\ labor\\ front\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ anti\\-inflation\\ economic\\ program\\.\\ They\\ held\\ a\\ mass\\ demonstration\\ with\\ support\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ opposition\\ groups\\,\\ which\\ the\\ military\\ broke\\ up\\.\\ The\\ military\\ decided\\ to\\ invade\\ the\\ Falklands\\/Malvinas\\ but\\ surrendered\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\ later\\.\\ This\\ defeat\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ resignation\\ of\\ the\\ cabinet\\ and\\ president\\,\\ and\\ the\\ junta\\ broke\\ up\\ on\\ disagreements\\ over\\ the\\ succession\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ plan\\ to\\ invade\\ had\\ originally\\ only\\ been\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ navy\\,\\ but\\ the\\ army\\ later\\ supported\\ it\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ supporting\\ the\\ coup\\.\\ It\\ could\\ be\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ transition\\ was\\ not\\ started\\ by\\ the\\ war\\,\\ but\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\ The\\ war\\ had\\ no\\ chance\\ of\\ success\\ and\\ although\\ it\\ created\\ a\\ nationalist\\ movement\\,\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ create\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ coup\\ of\\ Galtieri\\ against\\ Viola\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\,\\ because\\ the\\ military\\ broke\\ their\\ own\\ rules\\ for\\ managing\\ the\\ country\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ stop\\ the\\ outside\\ opposition\\ to\\ their\\ regime\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ militaries\\ mistakes\\,\\ they\\ lost\\ power\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ dictate\\ favorable\\ terms\\ for\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ transition\\.\\ The\\ transition\\ was\\ fast\\,\\ and\\ the\\ military\\ did\\ not\\ get\\ an\\ assurance\\ of\\ protection\\ for\\ their\\ human\\ rights\\ abuses\\.\\ The\\ military\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ Peronists\\,\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ won\\ every\\ free\\ election\\.\\ Lorenzo\\ Miguel\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ liason\\ between\\ the\\ hardliners\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ and\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ prominent\\ labor\\ leader\\.\\ The\\ main\\ opposition\\ was\\ Alfonsin\\ for\\ the\\ Radicales\\,\\ who\\ ran\\ on\\ a\\ pro\\-human\\ rights\\ platform\\ and\\ eventually\\ won\\ because\\ the\\ military\\ had\\ only\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ weak\\ pact\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ lack\\ of\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maria\\ D\\&rsquo\\;Alva\\ G\\.\\ Kinzo\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Transitions\\:\\ Brazil\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ Manuel\\ Antonio\\ Garret\\ó\\;n\\ and\\ Edward\\ Newman\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ \\(Re\\)constructing\\ Political\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Tokyo\\:\\ United\\ Nations\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2001\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brazil\\ was\\ ruled\\ by\\ a\\ military\\ regime\\ which\\ retained\\ some\\ political\\ positions\\ for\\ civilians\\ from\\ the\\ previous\\ civilian\\ regime\\ which\\ created\\ tensions\\.\\ It\\ had\\ alternating\\ periods\\ of\\ political\\ relaxation\\ which\\ created\\ crisis\\ and\\ led\\ to\\ waves\\ or\\ repression\\.\\ Economically\\,\\ the\\ regime\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ innovate\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ merely\\ deepened\\ ISI\\.\\ Its\\ transition\\ was\\ gradual\\,\\ a\\ negotiated\\ pact\\,\\ and\\ had\\ 3\\ periods\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1974\\-82\\ Geisel\\ \\-\\ With\\ freer\\ legislative\\ elections\\ and\\ internal\\ military\\ disagreements\\,\\ but\\ economic\\ stagnation\\ and\\ crisis\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ oil\\ shock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1982\\-85\\ The\\ PMDB\\ gained\\ some\\ power\\ through\\ elections\\,\\ and\\ attempted\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ constitution\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ president\\ directly\\ elected\\ but\\ failed\\.\\ It\\ nominated\\ Tancredo\\ Neves\\ for\\ P\\ and\\ Jose\\ Sarney\\ for\\ VP\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1985\\-90\\ Neves\\ died\\ and\\ Sarney\\ took\\ power\\ with\\ little\\ legitimacy\\.\\ 1988\\-\\ new\\ constitution\\ more\\ democratic\\ 89\\-\\ Fernando\\ Collor\\ was\\ elected\\ and\\ set\\ orthodox\\ stabilization\\ plans\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Changes\\ in\\ agriculture\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ growth\\ in\\ urbanization\\ and\\ homeless\\ people\\,\\ which\\ made\\ social\\ programs\\ very\\ important\\,\\ even\\ though\\ and\\ especially\\ because\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ in\\ an\\ economic\\ crisis\\.\\ Presidentialism\\ and\\ a\\ fragmented\\ party\\ system\\ have\\ further\\ complicated\\ policy\\ making\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constable\\ and\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Nation\\ of\\ Enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pinochet\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ candidate\\ in\\ a\\ yes\\/no\\ plebiscite\\.\\ The\\ regime\\ used\\ the\\ money\\ and\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ media\\ to\\ campaign\\.\\ Some\\ parties\\ supported\\ the\\ yes\\,\\ while\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ rightist\\ ones\\ opposed\\ it\\.\\ Parties\\ wondered\\ whether\\ to\\ fight\\ Pinochet\\ at\\ his\\ own\\ game\\,\\ or\\ fight\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ risk\\ being\\ excluded\\.\\ There\\ were\\ many\\ abuses\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Constitutional\\ Tribunal\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ separate\\ electoral\\ commission\\ with\\ fraud\\-proof\\ electoral\\ laws\\.\\ Several\\ parties\\ allied\\ to\\ campaign\\ for\\ the\\ no\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ support\\ from\\ Lagos\\ and\\ Aylwin\\.\\ As\\ the\\ plebiscite\\ approached\\,\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ violence\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ safety\\ increased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ votes\\ were\\ counted\\,\\ the\\ government\\ at\\ first\\ released\\ reports\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ winning\\,\\ but\\ they\\ eventually\\ accepted\\ that\\ the\\ No\\ was\\ winning\\,\\ and\\ No\\ supporters\\ began\\ celebrating\\.\\ Pinochet\\ had\\ misread\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ because\\ he\\ believed\\ his\\ advisors\\ and\\ official\\ publicity\\.\\ The\\ military\\ officers\\ would\\ remain\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ for\\ 8\\ years\\ and\\ they\\ would\\ set\\ the\\ rules\\ for\\ the\\ elections\\ and\\ govern\\ while\\ they\\ were\\ held\\.\\ The\\ Constitution\\ that\\ would\\ remain\\ was\\ one\\ that\\ gave\\ many\\ privileges\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ biased\\ the\\ government\\ towards\\ the\\ conservatives\\.\\ The\\ parties\\ united\\ and\\ forced\\ Pinochet\\ to\\ pass\\ reforms\\ on\\ his\\ constitution\\.\\ The\\ Concertacion\\ chose\\ Aylwin\\ as\\ their\\ candidate\\.\\ The\\ Right\\ chose\\ Buchi\\,\\ the\\ modern\\ and\\ young\\ finance\\ minister\\ who\\ had\\ managed\\ the\\ economy\\ well\\.\\ The\\ opposition\\ adopted\\ many\\ of\\ Pinochet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ reforms\\,\\ and\\ won\\ by\\ a\\ wide\\ margin\\.\\ Pinochet\\ quickly\\ passed\\ laws\\ protecting\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ placing\\ loyalists\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ positions\\ and\\ promised\\ to\\ prevent\\ trials\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gov\\ 1295\\ Reading\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Steven\\ Levitsky\\ and\\ Maxwell\\ Cameron\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Democracy\\ without\\ Parties\\?\\ \\ \\;Political\\ Parties\\ and\\ Regime\\ Change\\ in\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Peru\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Latin\\ American\\ Politics\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;45\\,\\ No\\.\\ 3\\ \\(Fall\\ 2003\\)\\,\\ 1\\-34\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abstract\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ absence\\ of\\ political\\ parties\\ represents\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ many\\ cases\\,\\ parties\\ have\\ become\\ nothing\\ more\\ than\\ personalistic\\ vehicles\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ cause\\ for\\ concern\\,\\ because\\ parties\\ remain\\ critical\\ to\\ the\\ performance\\ and\\ stability\\ of\\ democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ Parties\\ Matter\\ in\\ A\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Parties\\ make\\ democracy\\ workable\\ by\\ allowing\\ voters\\ to\\ properly\\ evaluate\\ candidates\\ on\\ basis\\ of\\ past\\ performance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ have\\ longer\\ term\\ goals\\ than\\ individual\\ politicians\\,\\ who\\ are\\ self\\-centered\\ and\\ think\\ only\\ about\\ short\\ term\\ goals\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ next\\ election\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ that\\ support\\ elite\\ economic\\ interests\\ tend\\ to\\ produce\\ stable\\ democracies\\,\\ because\\ that\\ way\\ the\\ major\\ players\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ incentives\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;kick\\ over\\ the\\ chess\\ board\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Party\\ weakness\\ translates\\ into\\ legislative\\ inefficiency\\ since\\ the\\ executive\\-legislative\\ relations\\ are\\ not\\ smooth\\,\\ so\\ stable\\ parties\\ matter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Additionally\\,\\ if\\ parties\\ are\\ weak\\,\\ politicians\\ gain\\ power\\ by\\ sidestepping\\ the\\ institutional\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-they\\ opt\\ for\\ mass\\ appeals\\ and\\ governing\\ in\\ a\\ personalistic\\ manner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ check\\ executive\\ power\\ through\\ an\\ independent\\ legislature\\ because\\ they\\ prevent\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;overweening\\ executive\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-the\\ lack\\ of\\ a\\ stable\\ party\\ system\\ in\\ 1990s\\ Peru\\ helped\\ Fujimori\\ establish\\ strong\\ personalistic\\ rule\\ and\\ control\\ the\\ legislature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ also\\ limit\\ the\\ space\\ available\\ to\\ political\\ outsiders\\;\\ they\\ initiate\\ people\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ system\\ by\\ giving\\ them\\ training\\ and\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ making\\ people\\ more\\ dedicated\\ to\\ democratic\\ institutions\\,\\ negotiations\\ and\\ coalition\\ building\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parties\\ help\\ maintain\\ democracy\\ because\\ the\\ democratic\\ opposition\\ can\\ organize\\ collective\\ action\\ and\\ present\\ a\\ united\\ front\\ that\\ is\\ critical\\ to\\ their\\ success\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Breakdown\\ and\\ Party\\ System\\ Collapse\\ in\\ Peru\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;CAUSE\\ AND\\ EFFECT\\ DIAGRAM\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ weakness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\election\\ of\\ Fujimori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61614\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ politicians\\ rejecting\\ parties\\ and\\ running\\ as\\ independents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ Crisis\\,\\ Outsider\\ Politics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ 1992\\ Autogolpe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 1980s\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ party\\ system\\ in\\ Peru\\.\\ \\ \\;Among\\ the\\ causes\\ are\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ and\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ class\\ and\\ partisan\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ crisis\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Shining\\ Path\\,\\ parties\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ build\\ linkages\\ to\\ the\\ emerging\\ electorate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ was\\ elected\\ into\\ this\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ as\\ an\\ outsider\\,\\ he\\ was\\ ill\\-equipped\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ hyperinflation\\ and\\ the\\ rising\\ political\\ violence\\ in\\ a\\ democratic\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ he\\ also\\ had\\ little\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ legislature\\,\\ he\\ opted\\ for\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ the\\ 1992\\ autogolpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Authoritarian\\ Success\\ and\\ the\\ Rise\\ of\\ Political\\ \\&ldquo\\;Independents\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ success\\ in\\ the\\ autogolpe\\ proved\\ devastating\\ to\\ the\\ party\\ system\\ because\\ Peruvians\\ accepted\\ his\\ personalistic\\ rule\\ and\\ saw\\ established\\ parties\\ as\\ corrupt\\.\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ had\\ also\\ dealt\\ with\\ hyperinflation\\ and\\ the\\ Shining\\ Path\\,\\ which\\ bolstered\\ his\\ public\\ approval\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ anti\\-Fujimori\\ established\\ parties\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ opposition\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ derogatory\\ term\\ connoting\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-serving\\ opponents\\ of\\ the\\ government\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(9\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ public\\ support\\ for\\ political\\ parties\\ declined\\ a\\ lot\\-\\-politicians\\ saw\\ that\\ defending\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ viable\\ electoral\\ strategy\\,\\ so\\ many\\ distanced\\ themselves\\ from\\ parties\\ and\\ began\\ running\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;independents\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ refused\\ to\\ criticize\\ the\\ Fujimori\\ government\\ and\\ focused\\ on\\ establishing\\ themselves\\ as\\ effective\\ administrators\\.\\ \\ \\;Political\\ parties\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ seen\\ as\\ necessary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ also\\ had\\ no\\ established\\ party\\;\\ he\\ mainly\\ relied\\ on\\ TV\\ networks\\ to\\ spread\\ mass\\ appeals\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ created\\ what\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;disposable\\ parties\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-he\\ formed\\ and\\ discarded\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ four\\ parties\\ during\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ office\\,\\ all\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ purely\\ candidate\\-centered\\ vehicles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 1990s\\ electoral\\ politics\\ became\\ highly\\ fragmented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ Weakness\\,\\ Caesarism\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Failure\\ of\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Opposition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ opposition\\&rsquo\\;s\\ weakness\\ was\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ politicians\\&rsquo\\;\\ adaptation\\ to\\ the\\ existing\\ political\\ environment\\ where\\ party\\ building\\ and\\ defense\\ of\\ democracy\\ were\\ unfavorable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Destruction\\ of\\ Mechanisms\\ of\\ Horizontal\\ Accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1996\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Authentic\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\,\\ which\\ would\\ allow\\ him\\ to\\ run\\ for\\ reelection\\ in\\ 2000\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ Fujimori\\ blatantly\\ strengthening\\ his\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ legislature\\ was\\ ruled\\ by\\ Fujimori\\ and\\ the\\ courts\\ were\\ corrupt\\,\\ so\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ challenge\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ even\\ dismembered\\ the\\ Constitutional\\ Tribunal\\ \\(TC\\)\\ when\\ it\\ ruled\\ his\\ reelection\\ law\\ unconstitutional\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1999\\,\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ candidacy\\ was\\ officially\\ approved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ anti\\-Fujimori\\ opposition\\ was\\ decimated\\ because\\ of\\ loss\\ of\\ credibility\\ and\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ congressional\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ opposition\\ leaders\\ shied\\ away\\ from\\ confrontation\\ with\\ the\\ Fujimori\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ no\\ credible\\ alternative\\ to\\ Fujimori\\ emerged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ 2000\\ Transition\\:\\ Opposition\\,\\ Weakness\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Collapse\\ from\\ Within\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ regime\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ implosion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fujimori\\ needed\\ to\\ run\\ again\\ in\\ 2000\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ political\\ system\\ he\\ had\\ built\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ an\\ advantage\\ over\\ the\\ opposition\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ resources\\ and\\ TV\\ networks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ opposition\\ hurt\\ itself\\ by\\ not\\ uniting\\ behind\\ a\\ single\\ candidate\\-\\-it\\ remained\\ fragmented\\.\\ \\ \\;Toledo\\ emerged\\ as\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ opposition\\,\\ but\\ dropped\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ race\\ when\\ the\\ government\\ would\\ provide\\ a\\ level\\ playing\\ field\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ round\\ majority\\ runoff\\.\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ won\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ ensure\\ a\\ legislative\\ majority\\,\\ Montesinos\\ bribed\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ legislators\\ \\(aka\\ the\\ turncoats\\)\\ to\\ come\\ over\\ to\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ parties\\ were\\ so\\ weak\\,\\ these\\ legislators\\ were\\ basically\\ free\\ agents\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ ideological\\ or\\ other\\ incentives\\ to\\ remain\\ within\\ their\\ parties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ eventual\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ regime\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ its\\ internal\\ divisions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ massive\\ corruption\\ eroded\\ Fujimori\\&rsquo\\;s\\ credibility\\ and\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ a\\ video\\ showing\\ Montesinos\\ bribing\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ turncoat\\ legislators\\ caused\\ a\\ scandal\\.\\ \\ \\;Fujimori\\ soon\\ resigned\\ and\\ the\\ regime\\ collapsed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Toledo\\ won\\ in\\ the\\ 2001\\ presidential\\ elections\\,\\ but\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ candidates\\ was\\ very\\ low\\.\\ \\ \\;Toledo\\ himself\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ outside\\ who\\ had\\ never\\ held\\ elected\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ return\\ to\\ democracy\\ did\\ not\\ see\\ a\\ rebirth\\ of\\ political\\ parties\\-\\-personalism\\ and\\ party\\ switching\\ remained\\ rampant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Prospects\\ for\\ Party\\ \\(Re\\)Building\\ in\\ Peru\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Optimistic\\ outlook\\:\\ if\\ we\\ reform\\ the\\ electoral\\ process\\ \\(introduce\\ a\\ multi\\-district\\ system\\ and\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ majority\\ runoffs\\)\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ higher\\ chances\\ of\\ rebuilding\\ political\\ parties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pessimistic\\ outlook\\:\\ stable\\ party\\ systems\\ are\\ products\\ of\\ historical\\ and\\ sociological\\ conditions\\,\\ not\\ electoral\\ engineering\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ rooted\\ in\\ deep\\ societal\\ cleavages\\ and\\ cannot\\ emerge\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ new\\ advances\\ in\\ technology\\,\\ the\\ decline\\ in\\ class\\ identities\\,\\ and\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ all\\ lead\\ to\\ weak\\ political\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;Practically\\ speaking\\,\\ it\\ costs\\ politicians\\ less\\ to\\ broadcast\\ TV\\ ads\\ than\\ to\\ build\\ wide\\ personal\\ networks\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ emergence\\ of\\ stable\\ political\\ parties\\ in\\ Peru\\ is\\ bleak\\,\\ although\\ it\\ could\\ occur\\.\\ \\ \\;Still\\,\\ parties\\ would\\ face\\ many\\ obstacles\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ being\\ very\\ loosely\\ structured\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\ Without\\ Parties\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Parties\\ are\\ among\\ the\\ least\\ credible\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ today\\,\\ yet\\ democracy\\ without\\ them\\ is\\ nearly\\ inconceivable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(27\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 19, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1295_Comp_Govt_L._America_-_Final_3rd_Packet.doc", "desc": "Study Guide Part 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "French Body Image - Note 1", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "architecture", "body-image"], "text": null, "id": 44, "html": "\\\\\\HAA174s\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:288pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c23\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c14\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c19\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\WEEK\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ September\\ 17\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Introduction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\understanding\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ emerges\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ due\\ to\\ economic\\ and\\ social\\ processes\\,\\,\\ but\\ chiefly\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ enlightenment\\ when\\ the\\ body\\ emerges\\ w\\ new\\ prominence\\ as\\ a\\ key\\ vehicle\\ 4exploring\\ n\\ conveying\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enlightening\\,\\ 2the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ stopping\\ at\\ end\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\:\\ \\ \\;visual\\ overview\\ o\\ the\\ course\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ begin\\ w\\ the\\ premodern\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ been\\ imptont\\,\\ at\\ least\\ since\\ renaissance\\,\\ when\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ beauty\\ was\\ being\\ explored\\ by\\ renaissance\\ artists\\ like\\ Michaelangelo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michelangelo\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\David\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1501\\-04\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marks\\ shift\\ toward\\ modernity\\:\\ \\ \\;emergence\\ \\(still\\ a\\ biblical\\ figure\\ though\\ and\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ religious\\ underpinning\\)\\ of\\ shift\\ in\\ bodily\\ something\\ which\\ differentiates\\ from\\ the\\ cloaked\\ body\\ o\\ Madonna\\ represnted\\ by\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jan\\ Van\\ Eyck\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Madonna\\ and\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ mid\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Oath\\ of\\ the\\ Horatii\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1784\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Body\\ gets\\ removed\\ from\\ religious\\ contexts\\,\\ thanks\\ 2the\\ enlightenment\\.\\ \\ \\;Introduced\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ has\\ 2b\\ considered\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ secular\\ contexts\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ materilast\\ philosophy\\ on\\ one\\ hand\\ and\\ scientific\\ something\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ understanding\\ o\\ human\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ art\\,\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ symptoms\\ o\\ the\\ new\\ development\\ linked\\ 2the\\ removal\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ from\\ religious\\ ocntexts\\ is\\ the\\ imptnce\\ o\\ secular\\ subjects\\.\\ \\ \\;Shift\\ toward\\ secular\\ subjects\\ illustrated\\ by\\ David\\.\\ \\ \\;Esp\\.\\ secular\\ subjects\\ from\\ antiquity\\,\\ used\\ 2represent\\ civil\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oath\\-taking\\ by\\ 3\\ sons\\ about\\ 2embark\\ on\\ fight\\ w\\ representatives\\ o\\ rival\\ tribe\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ battle\\ and\\ its\\ civic\\ resolve\\ is\\ an\\ ideal\\ 4contemporary\\ French\\ society\\,\\ not\\ just\\ antiquity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ represents\\ a\\ civic\\ virtue\\,\\ conveyed\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\ \\;Look\\ at\\ the\\ muscular\\ tension\\ conveyed\\ by\\ the\\ legs\\ o\\ the\\ son\\,\\ or\\ the\\ veins\\ on\\ the\\ legs\\ o\\ the\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ approach\\ that\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ knowledge\\ o\\ anatomy\\,\\ but\\ also\\ work\\ w\\ live\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;Secures\\ hallucinatory\\ presence\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;aspect\\:\\ \\ \\;release\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ from\\ religious\\ understanding\\.\\ \\ \\;Transformation\\ o\\ body\\ in2\\ an\\ object\\,\\ object\\ o\\ scientific\\ scrutiny\\,\\ materilaisticlaly\\ based\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\J\\.F\\.\\ Gautier\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Agoty\\,\\ Woman\\ seen\\ from\\ the\\ back\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Anatomical\\ Angel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1746\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustrates\\ 2\\ effects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stimulation\\ 2represent\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ all\\ its\\ anatomical\\ complexity\\.\\ \\ \\;Desire\\ 2undeerstand\\ anatomy\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ freedom\\ from\\ religious\\ framework\\ o\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ look\\ at\\ human\\ corpses\\ n\\ try\\ 2understand\\ the\\ fnctining\\ o\\ the\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ techniques\\ n\\ modes\\ o\\ representation\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ just\\ as\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mode\\ o\\ representation\\ that\\ secures\\ sense\\ o\\ presence\\ n\\ sense\\ o\\ compelling\\ visuality\\.\\ \\ \\;Compelling\\ visual\\ presence\\ o\\ the\\ obdy\\ which\\ differentiates\\ the\\ modern\\ anatomical\\ rrepresentaiton\\ from\\ its\\ premodern\\ examples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Estienne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dissection\\ of\\ Woman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\ 1545\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Live\\ body\\ opens\\ itself\\ up\\ 4inspection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dagoty\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ suggestive\\ bc\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ open\\ 2new\\ techniques\\ o\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;factor\\:\\ \\ \\;socioeconomic\\ n\\ political\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Changed\\ radically\\ the\\ French\\ society\\,\\ but\\ also\\ demolished\\ whole\\ structures\\ o\\ authority\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ social\\ fnctning\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Created\\ need\\ of\\ new\\ forms\\ o\\ representation\\,\\ n\\ bodied\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ example\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\J\\.L\\.\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Oath\\ of\\ the\\ Tennis\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1791\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unfinished\\ pntg\\,\\ which\\ speaks\\ 2the\\ fast\\ pace\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\ which\\ made\\ it\\ infunishable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moment\\ in\\ early\\ stages\\,\\ right\\ b4\\ the\\ eruption\\ o\\ the\\ French\\ revolution\\,\\ moment\\ coneceived\\ o\\ as\\ birth\\ o\\ new\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;Oath\\-taking\\ at\\ Versailles\\ tennis\\ court\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deputies\\ gathered\\ 2gether\\ n\\ sweared\\ not\\ 2disband\\ until\\ a\\ new\\ constitution\\ existed\\ for\\ Frnace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notion\\ o\\ use\\ o\\ body\\ 2represent\\ collective\\ experience\\,\\ one\\ one\\ level\\,\\ and\\ on\\ another\\,\\ a\\ new\\ collective\\ political\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2make\\ the\\ body\\ show\\ these\\ things\\,\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ new\\ ideal\\ poliemtiy\\,\\ democracy\\ based\\ on\\ suffrage\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ done\\ by\\ 2means\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;Representatives\\ shown\\ in\\ heroic\\ gestures\\,\\ pointing\\ toward\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ the\\ composition\\,\\ occupied\\ by\\ the\\ guy\\ taking\\ the\\ oath\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;structure\\ o\\ the\\ composition\\ which\\ orchestrates\\ the\\ bodies\\ in2\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ wholeness\\,\\ unity\\.\\ \\ \\;Preoccumpation\\ w\\ unity\\,\\ uniformity\\,\\ is\\ key\\ 2revolutionary\\ period\\ and\\ its\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Soon\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ aesthetic\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ wholeness\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ collapses\\.\\ \\ \\;Epitomized\\ by\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theodore\\ Gericault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Severed\\ limbs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1820\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntg\\ in\\ political\\ situation\\ in\\ wake\\ o\\ Mediterranean\\ defeats\\ o\\ Napoleon\\,\\ n\\ political\\ anticlimax\\ o\\ regime\\ o\\ restoration\\ that\\ issued\\ in\\ its\\ wake\\.\\ \\ \\;Scandals\\,\\ catastrophes\\ filled\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ situation\\ produces\\ the\\ condition\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ artist\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ faith\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ wholesomeness\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ itself\\ and\\ the\\ whole\\ idea\\ o\\ unity\\ n\\ totality\\ that\\ David\\ represented\\ in\\ his\\ project\\.\\ \\ \\;still\\-life\\ \\=\\ extreme\\ example\\ o\\ collapse\\ o\\ body\\ as\\ aesthetic\\ signifier\\ o\\ social\\ unity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ 3\\ major\\ aspects\\ that\\ contribute\\ 2emergence\\ o\\ modern\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ n\\ that\\ gives\\ u\\ sense\\ o\\ motivation\\ behind\\ this\\ course\\ starting\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ semester\\,\\ we\\ do\\ 2\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;understand\\ how\\ body\\ emerged\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ as\\ key\\ signifier\\,\\ how\\ it\\ emerged\\ as\\ key\\ element\\ in\\ conveying\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;Historian\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;they\\ need\\ 2b\\ embodied\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;How\\ body\\ in\\ its\\ luring\\ appearance\\ o\\ naturalness\\ allowed\\ 2construct\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ meanings\\,\\ some\\ o\\ them\\ entirely\\ arbitrary\\:\\ \\ \\;aesthetic\\ perfection\\,\\ social\\ unity\\,\\ psychosexual\\ unity\\,\\ normalcy\\,\\ madness\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;how\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ visual\\ signifier\\ introduced\\ crucial\\ distinctions\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ period\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ construction\\ o\\ self\\ n\\ other\\,\\ construction\\ o\\ race\\ n\\ differences\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ \\=\\ regulatory\\ mechanism\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ site\\ o\\ resistance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;on\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ understand\\ how\\ body\\ was\\ semioticized\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ allowed\\ it\\ 2mean\\ both\\ aesthetically\\ and\\ more\\ broadly\\ how\\,\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ period\\,\\ it\\ ceased\\ 2b\\ a\\ given\\,\\ how\\ other\\ discourses\\ allowed\\ 2establish\\ a\\ visual\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ body\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ \\=\\ pihlosohphy\\,\\ meidicine\\,\\ science\\ o\\ visual\\ perception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ 2overview\\ some\\ o\\ the\\ moments\\ o\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ w\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charles\\-Joseph\\ Natoire\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Drawing\\ Class\\ at\\ the\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1746\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ artists\\ trained\\ in\\ specific\\,\\ painstaking\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;learn\\ 2\\ draw\\,\\ from\\ plastic\\ casts\\,\\ then\\ from\\ works\\ o\\ arts\\ o\\ other\\ artists\\,\\ by\\ which\\ youngstudents\\ r\\ surrounded\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ then\\,\\ can\\ they\\ 3rdly\\ learn\\ 2draw\\ from\\ the\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ this\\ n\\ examine\\ the\\ longevity\\ o\\ this\\ model\\ o\\ training\\ that\\ lasted\\ throughout\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ gradually\\ came\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ aspects\\ o\\ the\\ training\\ which\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ obvious\\ 2\\ first\\ sight\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ these\\ issues\\ is\\ gender\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ males\\ could\\ study\\ there\\ until\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;1888\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ could\\ b\\ trained\\,\\ n\\ were\\,\\ in\\ private\\ studios\\,\\ as\\ were\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ trained\\ both\\ men\\ n\\ women\\,\\ but\\ they\\ had\\ 2b\\ trained\\ in\\ separate\\ rooms\\,\\ bc\\ looking\\ at\\ naked\\ male\\ models\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ indecent\\ threat\\ to\\ moral\\ integrity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ women\\ trained\\ w\\ other\\ women\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Antoine\\ Jean\\-Gros\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sappho\\ at\\ Leucadia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1801\\ \\ \\;\\ VS\\.\\ Berthe\\ Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ and\\ child\\ on\\ a\\ balcony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sappho\\ is\\ suffering\\,\\ w\\/o\\ knowing\\ the\\ exact\\ subject\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ we\\ still\\ know\\ the\\ pose\\ o\\ this\\ body\\ conveys\\ that\\ drama\\ n\\ despair\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compare\\ 2\\ Morisot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sketch\\ \\(Morisot\\ came\\ 2prominence\\ in\\ impressionism\\)\\,\\ which\\ also\\ shows\\ woman\\ at\\ the\\ edge\\,\\ but\\ whose\\ body\\ signifies\\ body\\ as\\ marker\\ o\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ she\\ does\\,\\ not\\ what\\ she\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ contingency\\ o\\ representation\\ as\\ mode\\ o\\ capturing\\ body\\ in\\ modern\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Tha\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ what\\ impressionism\\ \\=\\ all\\ about\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edouard\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Boating\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1874\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Body\\ caught\\ in\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ immedicacy\\ conveyed\\ by\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ image\\ is\\ cropped\\.\\ \\ \\;Arbitrary\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;Highly\\ arbitrary\\,\\ emphasizeing\\ artifice\\ of\\ represtnation\\.\\ \\ \\;Impressionism\\ is\\ both\\ naturalistic\\ n\\ artificial\\ mode\\ o\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ discuss\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ privelged\\ forms\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ nude\\.\\ \\ \\;Distinction\\ bw\\ male\\ n\\ female\\ bodies\\.\\ \\ \\;Male\\ nude\\ conveyed\\ heroic\\ ideals\\,\\ female\\ nude\\ conveyed\\ aesthetic\\,\\ sexual\\ ideals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tradition\\ o\\ the\\ use\\ o\\ the\\ female\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ 2renaiisance\\ represtnation\\ o\\ Titian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\-Honore\\ Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Removing\\ the\\ chemise\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1765\\ VS\\ Titian\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Venus\\ of\\ Urbino\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Venus\\ signifies\\ fidelity\\.\\ \\ \\;Beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;Anchored\\ in\\ social\\ institution\\ o\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ on\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ represents\\ sheer\\ physical\\ action\\ o\\ protosexual\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ removing\\ her\\ chemise\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ is\\ that\\ emphasis\\ on\\ sheer\\ physicality\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ o\\ sexuality\\ as\\ physical\\ process\\ based\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ marks\\ the\\ modernity\\ o\\ Fragonard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ also\\ consider\\ development\\ n\\ difference\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ use\\ o\\ the\\ female\\ nude\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Compare\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Waiting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\-80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Done\\ from\\ a\\ brothel\\,\\ showing\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ type\\ o\\ social\\ experience\\,\\ due\\ 2life\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Social\\ experience\\ linked\\ 2rpsotitution\\.\\ \\ \\;Represetntation\\ o\\ prosutties\\ were\\ most\\ frequent\\ in\\ this\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ read\\ literature\\ throughout\\ the\\ semester\\ \\(optional\\,\\ on\\ the\\ web\\)\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Zolar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ novel\\ about\\ prominent\\ courtesan\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ \\ \\;Nana\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ new\\ idea\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ o\\ prostitute\\,\\ devoid\\ o\\ grace\\.\\ \\ \\;Naked\\.\\ \\ \\;Degraded\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ representation\\ de\\-idealizing\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ it\\ cruel\\?\\ \\ \\;Misogynistic\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ discussion\\ surrounds\\ that\\ body\\ o\\ disturbing\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ n\\ race\\,\\ in\\ which\\ body\\ was\\ featured\\ prominently\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ 4producing\\ cultural\\/racial\\ differences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\-Auguste\\-Domineque\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Great\\ Odalisque\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1814\\ VS\\.\\ Leon\\ de\\ Wailly\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hottentot\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orientalism\\ harbored\\ fantasies\\ about\\ the\\ orient\\,\\ n\\ this\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ those\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ o\\ white\\ slave\\,\\ which\\ serves\\ 2fuel\\ that\\ notion\\ o\\ orient\\ as\\ something\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ right\\,\\ Wailly\\ has\\ image\\ that\\ may\\ seem\\ different\\,\\ ethnographic\\,\\ o\\ black\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Eager\\ 2convey\\ anatomy\\ o\\ body\\ w\\ utmost\\ detail\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\,\\ however\\,\\ like\\ Ingres\\:\\ \\ \\;fantasy\\,\\ construction\\,\\ exaggerating\\ body\\ parts\\ like\\ the\\ butt\\,\\ in\\ order\\ 2convey\\ difference\\ o\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ woman\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ was\\ borught\\ 2EU\\ n\\ displayed\\ like\\ an\\ animal\\,\\ a\\ rhino\\,\\ which\\ were\\ also\\ displayed\\ as\\ spectacles\\ o\\ otherness\\.\\ \\ \\;Coneyed\\ certain\\ idea\\ o\\ race\\ w\\/little\\ who\\ how\\ she\\ actually\\ looked\\ n\\ who\\ she\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looking\\ at\\ her\\ as\\ epitome\\ o\\ black\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Next\\ category\\:\\ \\ \\;body\\ as\\ vehicle\\ o\\ psychic\\ inner\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Conveying\\ psychology\\,\\ inner\\ funcitoniong\\ o\\ human\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ aspects\\ int\\ erst\\ us\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;use\\ o\\ illustrations\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ o\\ Esquirol\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maniac\\ during\\ attack\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1838\\.\\ \\ \\;development\\ o\\ what\\ Foucault\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ clinical\\ gaze\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ also\\ attend\\ 2different\\ project\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;aesthetic\\ project\\ o\\ represnting\\ madness\\.\\ \\ \\;Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ the\\ Insane\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Kleptomaniac\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1820\\.\\ \\ \\;Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ series\\ o\\ ppl\\ devoted\\ 2obsessions\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ that\\ differs\\ highly\\ from\\ Esquirol\\,\\ which\\ exaggerates\\ n\\ epmphasizes\\ certain\\ aspects\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ like\\ facial\\ expression\\,\\ or\\ bodily\\ convulsions\\,\\ which\\ the\\ robe\\ in\\ the\\ picture\\ restrains\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gericault\\ is\\ subtler\\,\\ conveying\\ slightly\\ askewed\\ gaze\\,\\ haphazard\\ clothing\\,\\ unkempt\\ hair\\,\\ signifying\\ slight\\ degree\\ of\\ derangement\\ and\\ asking\\ u\\ 2question\\ what\\ kind\\ o\\ life\\ is\\ housed\\ in\\ this\\ kidn\\ o\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trying\\ 2construct\\ the\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ psychological\\ disturbance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ central\\ aspect\\ o\\ modernity\\ was\\ also\\ appearance\\ o\\ the\\ viewer\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Emergence\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ vision\\ as\\ something\\ bodily\\ produced\\.\\ \\ \\;Until\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ vision\\ understood\\ as\\ something\\ ath\\ t\\ is\\ receied\\ by\\ the\\ body\\.\\ O\\ nly\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ did\\ u\\ see\\ body\\ as\\ mechanism\\ 4producing\\ vision\\,\\ which\\ raises\\ questions\\ about\\ the\\ subjectivity\\ o\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;in\\ psychological\\ sense\\,\\ and\\ in\\ physical\\ sense\\,\\ how\\ the\\ eye\\ perceives\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ this\\ borught\\ 2ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attn\\ in\\ different\\ discourses\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ termed\\ as\\ new\\ science\\ o\\ perception\\ that\\ emerged\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ devices\\ took\\ attn\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portable\\ diorama\\ VS\\ Brewster\\ stereoscope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Devices\\ that\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ new\\ entertainment\\ instruments\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\,\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ separate\\ from\\ our\\ computer\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ early\\ moment\\ in\\ this\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ may\\ provide\\ entertainment\\ n\\ knowledge\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ ALSO\\ helped\\ the\\ understanding\\ o\\ vision\\ as\\ something\\ quite\\ specific\\ n\\ constructed\\.\\ \\ \\;Stereoscope\\ as\\ something\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ 2different\\ visions\\ produced\\ by\\ 2\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ technological\\ devlopments\\ joined\\ broader\\ process\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;media\\ explosion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Development\\ o\\ photography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Celebrity\\ calling\\ card\\ VS\\.\\ pornographic\\ stereoscope\\:\\ \\ \\;rare\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allowed\\ the\\ stereoscope\\ 2create\\ sense\\ o\\ volume\\,\\ 3D\\,\\ enhancing\\ sense\\ o\\ body\\,\\ meaning\\ o\\ it\\ as\\ object\\ o\\ ocular\\ possession\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ in\\ more\\ general\\ sense\\,\\ one\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ introduces\\ whole\\ culture\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ these\\ photographs\\ as\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Development\\ o\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ vision\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ proliferation\\ o\\ new\\ devices\\ n\\ technology\\ also\\ caused\\ certain\\ effects\\ in\\ art\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Great\\ Bathers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1898\\-1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ how\\ vision\\ itself\\ becomes\\ the\\ subject\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Subject\\ is\\ women\\ bathing\\,\\ but\\ really\\ more\\ just\\ how\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ seen\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ gradual\\ process\\ o\\ looking\\ at\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ marker\\ o\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ unfinished\\ contour\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ openness\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ gender\\ indetermineancy\\ o\\ these\\ women\\,\\ suggesting\\ process\\ behind\\ it\\ n\\ which\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\,\\ not\\ the\\ finished\\ product\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Seurat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Chahut\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seurat\\ developed\\ pointilissm\\,\\ using\\ dots\\ o\\ color\\ that\\ connect\\ on\\ ur\\ retina\\ as\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ in\\ this\\ image\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ also\\ represtnation\\ o\\ popular\\ entertainment\\ in\\ modern\\ metropolis\\,\\ Paris\\ I\\ 1890s\\.\\ \\ \\;how\\ did\\ body\\ fnctn\\ in\\ modern\\ city\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\TravilIs\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Little\\ Grimaces\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1830s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ modes\\ o\\ objectification\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Illustrates\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ body\\ helped\\ construct\\ notion\\ o\\ hyman\\ typology\\,\\ o\\ all\\ inhabitants\\ o\\ city\\ divided\\ into\\ groups\\ n\\ social\\ types\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constructing\\ idea\\ o\\ social\\ type\\,\\ based\\ on\\ idea\\ o\\ physiognomy\\,\\ idea\\ that\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ appearance\\ conveys\\ his\\/her\\ character\\.\\ \\ \\;Matching\\ social\\ groups\\ n\\ professions\\ w\\ how\\ one\\ looks\\.\\ \\ \\;Smokers\\ in\\ oen\\ group\\,\\ potblelies\\ in\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ as\\ creating\\ human\\ typology\\ o\\ modern\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MAnet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bar\\ at\\ the\\ Folies\\-BergI\\&rsquo\\;Ire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\-82\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refusal\\.\\ \\ \\;Bar\\ maid\\ stares\\ at\\ you\\,\\ but\\ what\\ does\\ she\\ think\\/feel\\?\\ \\ \\;No\\ idea\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ face\\ as\\ window\\ 2the\\ soul\\ is\\ foreclosed\\ here\\ by\\ Manet\\.\\ \\ \\;Blankness\\ o\\ the\\ face\\ is\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Last\\ category\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Gogh\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sel\\-portrait\\ w\\/Yellow\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artists\\ who\\ used\\ their\\ bodies\\ in\\ order\\ 2escape\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;2escape\\ it\\ through\\ immersion\\ in\\ local\\ cultures\\,\\ like\\ the\\ Bretagne\\ culture\\,\\ or\\ the\\ culture\\ o\\ the\\ other\\ in\\ Martinique\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ their\\ own\\ bodies\\ 2create\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ aesthetic\\ partnership\\ bw\\ themselves\\ n\\ they\\ will\\ interest\\ us\\ in\\ that\\ regard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\And\\ now\\&hellip\\;hwo\\ the\\ course\\ will\\ be\\ run\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 1\\,\\ LECTURE\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ September\\ 19\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Academic\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jennifer\\ Montagu\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Le\\ Brun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Complete\\ Theory\\ of\\ Expression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ discuss\\ the\\ acadmic\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Artistic\\ training\\ in\\ France\\ was\\ shaped\\ by\\ the\\ academy\\.\\ \\ \\;Academy\\ founded\\ in\\ 1648\\ as\\ both\\ honorific\\ n\\ training\\ body\\,\\ in\\ opposition\\ 2older\\ forms\\ like\\ the\\ guilds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guilds\\ had\\ monarchy\\ on\\ artistic\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Non\\-guild\\ artists\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;illegal\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ receive\\ commissions\\.\\ \\ \\;Guild\\ designed\\ 2guard\\ the\\ privileges\\ of\\ its\\ members\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ King\\ wanted\\ non\\-guild\\ artists\\ 2pnt\\ something\\,\\ he\\ had\\ 2write\\ special\\ form\\ or\\ something\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acadmie\\ founded\\ 2protect\\ n\\ favor\\ group\\ o\\ artists\\ who\\ wrkd\\ 4king\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Martin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Meeting\\ of\\ the\\ Academy\\ of\\ the\\ Louvre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ after\\ 1721\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntgs\\ crammed\\.\\ \\ \\;Biggest\\ n\\ most\\ imptnt\\ pntgs\\ hanged\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ top\\.\\ \\ \\;Less\\ imptnt\\,\\ portraits\\ n\\ landscapes\\,\\ hung\\ lower\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ gives\\ u\\ sense\\ o\\ space\\ o\\ salon\\ as\\ space\\ o\\ conversation\\,\\ bodily\\ interaction\\,\\ where\\ aesthetic\\ opinion\\ was\\ forumulated\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ o\\ viewing\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ art\\ was\\ 2b\\ viewed\\ n\\ interacted\\ w\\ was\\ the\\ basic\\ assumption\\ o\\ artistic\\ practice\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ Jacques\\-Francois\\ Blondel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ plan\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ floor\\ of\\ the\\ Louvre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pier\\ Antonio\\ Martini\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\View\\ of\\ the\\ Salon\\ in\\ 1787\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Francois\\-Andre\\ Vincent\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Germanicus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1758\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whas\\ is\\ the\\ academic\\ pntg\\ like\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ should\\ it\\ depict\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ should\\ it\\ do\\ that\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\History\\ pntg\\ \\=\\ highest\\ acadmic\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Later\\ in\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ came\\ landscape\\ genres\\ \\(represntations\\ o\\ everyday\\ life\\)\\,\\ portraits\\,\\ n\\ then\\ still\\ lifes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ counted\\ most\\ was\\ big\\ size\\,\\ compositions\\,\\ which\\ were\\ telling\\ a\\ story\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2have\\ public\\ value\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2b\\ told\\ visually\\ in\\ a\\ specific\\ way\\,\\ illustrated\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;This\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ roman\\ emperor\\ Germanicus\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ excusing\\ his\\ opponents\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ see\\ who\\ Germanicus\\ is\\ w\\/o\\ mistake\\.\\ \\ \\;Light\\ is\\ on\\ him\\,\\ n\\ whole\\ composition\\ makes\\ him\\ the\\ apex\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Orchestration\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ a\\ pyramid\\ shape\\,\\ w\\ Germanicus\\ \\@the\\ top\\.\\ \\ \\;Balanced\\,\\ harmonious\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ unnecessary\\.\\ \\ \\;Unity\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ must\\ see\\ Germanicus\\ n\\ his\\ action\\ o\\ forgiveness\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ should\\ capture\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ pregnant\\ moment\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ o\\ utmost\\ mng\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ figure\\ \\=\\ highest\\ form\\ thru\\ which\\ one\\ had\\ 2express\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ beauty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ done\\ by\\ following\\ examples\\ from\\ the\\ past\\,\\ the\\ past\\ being\\ antique\\ art\\ or\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ renaissance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principle\\ o\\ decorum\\,\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;noble\\ expressions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Meant\\ both\\ facial\\ expressions\\ n\\ the\\ position\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ which\\ had\\ 2gesture\\ in\\ a\\ noble\\,\\ appropriate\\ way\\,\\ as\\ Germanicus\\.\\ \\ \\;Extending\\ his\\ arm\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ elegant\\,\\ meaningful\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;guarantee\\ o\\ human\\ body\\ conveying\\ absolute\\ beauty\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ drawing\\.\\ \\ \\;Sketches\\ o\\ the\\ composition\\ had\\ 2b\\ done\\ b4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\-Joseph\\ Natoire\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Drawing\\ Class\\ at\\ the\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1746\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ppl\\ drawing\\ from\\ casts\\,\\ wrs\\ o\\ art\\,\\ n\\ live\\ models\\.\\ \\ \\;Curriculum\\ o\\ training\\ was\\ highly\\ structured\\.\\ \\ \\;Students\\ first\\ drawing\\ after\\ the\\ drawings\\ o\\ other\\ artists\\,\\ then\\ graduated\\ 2drawing\\ from\\ casts\\,\\ n\\ then\\ humans\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawing\\ lesson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\ after\\ Lemaistre\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ casts\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Francois\\ Bouchot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ male\\ figure\\ standing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1821\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\N\\ then\\,\\ once\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ learned\\ thoroughly\\,\\ they\\ could\\ move\\ 2the\\ work\\ form\\ live\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ how\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ was\\ imptnt\\ 4this\\ kind\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ acadmemic\\ artists\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ 2pose\\ the\\ model\\,\\ n\\ only\\ they\\ did\\ bc\\ it\\ cost\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ situation\\,\\ shown\\ in\\ Lemaitre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drawing\\ class\\,\\ had\\ smething\\ similar\\ 2the\\ anatomical\\ theater\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pier\\ Leone\\ Ghezzi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ anatomical\\ theater\\:\\ \\ \\;dissection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1722\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Doctor\\ teaches\\ students\\ by\\ showing\\ different\\ parts\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ naming\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ in\\ the\\ drawing\\ classes\\,\\ seating\\ was\\ arranged\\ by\\ both\\ merit\\ n\\ connections\\.\\ \\ \\;Children\\ o\\ academicians\\ had\\ access\\ 2the\\ front\\ row\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ did\\ students\\ who\\ won\\ contests\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anatomy\\ \\=\\ o\\ relevance\\ bc\\ it\\ taught\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geometry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\History\\ n\\ literature\\ n\\ geography\\ sometimes\\ figured\\ in\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Francois\\ Salle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ anatomy\\ lecture\\ at\\ the\\ Ecole\\ des\\ Beaux\\-Arts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1886\\,\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Professor\\ showing\\ n\\ naming\\ muscles\\ on\\ anatomical\\ model\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ live\\ model\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ was\\ always\\ posed\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ professor\\ who\\ asked\\ the\\ model\\ 2assume\\ certain\\ \\&ldquo\\;meaningful\\&rdquo\\;\\ poses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\An\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Patrocles\\)\\,\\ c\\.1780\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ academy\\,\\ as\\ illustrated\\ by\\ David\\,\\ was\\ always\\ already\\ shaped\\ by\\ certain\\ assumptions\\ that\\ were\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ position\\ o\\ the\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;Invisible\\ network\\ o\\ values\\ n\\ assumptions\\ about\\ what\\ constitutes\\ value\\ n\\ beauty\\ in\\ art\\?\\ \\ \\;\\ Not\\ just\\ a\\ man\\ seated\\,\\ but\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ looks\\ like\\ the\\ following\\ famous\\ Roman\\ sculpture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Dying\\ Gaul\\,\\ Hellenistic\\ sculpture\\ \\(Roman\\ copy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Principle\\ o\\ decorum\\,\\ nobility\\ o\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Precisely\\ against\\ this\\ principle\\ ppl\\ like\\ academy\\ opponents\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ based\\ their\\ wrk\\,\\ like\\ w\\ Courbet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gustave\\ Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Funeral\\ at\\ Ornans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1849\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ based\\ on\\ meaningful\\ arrangement\\.\\ \\ \\;Scene\\ o\\ provincial\\ funeral\\ w\\ all\\ figures\\ arranged\\ in\\ a\\ frieze\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ concern\\ w\\ meaningful\\ gestures\\.\\ Ppl\\ stand\\ as\\ they\\ stand\\.\\ \\ \\;Poses\\ defined\\ by\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ r\\ deliberately\\ awkward\\.\\ \\ \\;Provocatively\\ realistic\\ representation\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ critical\\ o\\ academic\\ emphasis\\ on\\ idealization\\ n\\ decorum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mary\\ Cassatt\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ example\\ like\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;elevated\\ pnt\\ o\\ view\\ renders\\ body\\ in\\ way\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dictated\\ byviewing\\ position\\ itself\\,\\ n\\ by\\ what\\ body\\ is\\ doing\\&hellip\\;bathing\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ awkwardly\\ placed\\,\\ precisely\\ anti\\-academic\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ performing\\ a\\ meaningfult\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ highly\\ non\\-academic\\ approach\\ 2art\\ making\\ that\\ it\\ took\\ some\\ time\\ 4pntrs\\ 2give\\ it\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ travails\\ of\\ Prix\\ de\\ Rome\\,\\ series\\ of\\ engravings\\ aft\\.\\ Lemaistre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Training\\ was\\ controlled\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;ecole\\ de\\ Louvres\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Teachers\\ \\=\\ professors\\ from\\ academy\\.\\ \\ \\;Curriculum\\ o\\ the\\ school\\ had\\ series\\ o\\ contests\\ that\\ students\\ had\\ 2participate\\ in\\ in\\ order\\ 2\\ advance\\.\\ \\ \\;Single\\ most\\ imptnt\\ one\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prize\\ of\\ rome\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ competition\\ only\\ 4advanced\\ artists\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ finished\\ drawing\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;Winner\\ received\\ prize\\ o\\ generous\\ fellowship\\ funding\\ 4\\ yrs\\ o\\ stay\\ in\\ French\\ academy\\ in\\ Rome\\ \\(which\\ still\\ exists\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Highly\\ coveted\\.\\ \\ \\;2matter\\,\\ u\\ had\\ 2win\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\ tried\\ 4this\\ many\\ times\\ b4\\ succeeding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bodily\\ kind\\ o\\ excerise\\.\\ \\ \\;Master\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ taxing\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ follow\\ the\\ travails\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Begins\\ w\\ roll\\ call\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ 2arrive\\ as\\ artist\\ w\\ ur\\ own\\ easil\\.\\ \\ \\;Have\\ 2spend\\ a\\ day\\ doing\\ a\\ sketch\\ on\\ a\\ subject\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ out\\ about\\ until\\ u\\ show\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jury\\ arrives\\ in\\ top\\ hats\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ formal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ 2\\ wks\\,\\ in\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stage\\,\\ u\\ had\\ several\\ sessions\\ w\\ a\\ model\\,\\ which\\ lasts\\ a\\ week\\.\\ \\ \\;3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stage\\ afterwards\\ u\\ had\\ 2\\ compose\\ a\\ subject\\ given\\ 2u\\ by\\ a\\ jury\\,\\ which\\ u\\ had\\ 2do\\ in\\ specific\\ fconditions\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ had\\ 2b\\ inclosed\\ ina\\ cubicle\\ in\\ isolation\\ from\\ other\\ students\\,\\ where\\ u\\ spent\\ 72\\ days\\,\\ each\\ day\\ 12\\ hours\\ w\\/o\\ break\\,\\ except\\ 4necessary\\ things\\ very\\ shortly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ communication\\.\\ \\ \\;Could\\ go\\ back\\ home\\ in\\ the\\ evening\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ day\\ u\\ return\\ ur\\ art\\ 2the\\ professor\\,\\ who\\ stamps\\ n\\ signs\\ it\\ so\\ u\\ can\\ take\\ it\\ back\\ 2work\\ on\\ it\\ the\\ next\\ day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sketch\\ was\\ very\\ small\\.\\ \\ \\;Supervised\\ by\\ a\\ janitor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ u\\ compose\\ a\\ final\\ composition\\ that\\ was\\ varnished\\ n\\ delivered\\ n\\ judged\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ taxing\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ after\\ this\\ contest\\,\\ if\\ u\\ went\\ 2\\ Rome\\,\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ return\\ after\\ 4\\ yrs\\,\\ n\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ submit\\ 2pieces\\ o\\ wrk\\ in\\ order\\ 2become\\ a\\ member\\ o\\ the\\ academy\\.\\ \\ \\;Morceau\\ de\\ reception\\ \\=\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;work\\ u\\ had\\ 2\\ submit\\ \\(missed\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;one\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ addition\\ 2this\\ academic\\ curriculum\\,\\ it\\ was\\ customary\\ 4students\\ 2study\\ w\\ professors\\ in\\ their\\ private\\ studios\\,\\ where\\ the\\ models\\ were\\ posed\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ was\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ many\\ could\\ do\\ this\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Jean\\-Henri\\ Cless\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ studio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1800\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ usually\\ could\\ afford\\ it\\,\\ although\\ right\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\ he\\ was\\ in\\ dire\\ straits\\,\\ so\\ his\\ students\\ took\\ turns\\ modeling\\ for\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ men\\ r\\ included\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ who\\ studied\\ w\\ David\\ had\\ 2wrk\\ in\\ another\\ space\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ indecent\\ exposure\\ o\\ the\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ situation\\ o\\ homosocial\\ bonding\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ men\\,\\ posing\\ 4one\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;Closeness\\,\\ o\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ was\\ an\\ object\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ himself\\ participated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Adelaide\\ Labille\\-Guiard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ w\\/pupils\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1785\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ only\\ studied\\ w\\ eo\\,\\ in\\ separate\\ quartesr\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ excluded\\ from\\ the\\ academic\\ instruction\\ until\\ the\\ 1880s\\,\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;art\\ was\\ really\\ structured\\ by\\ gender\\,\\ academy\\ as\\ honorific\\ body\\ was\\ structured\\ by\\ gender\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ 4\\ members\\ allowed\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ 2become\\ a\\ member\\ o\\ the\\ academy\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ woman\\ artist\\ was\\ invented\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ existed\\ before\\,\\ but\\ now\\ they\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;women\\ artists\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ just\\ artists\\ who\\ happened\\ 2b\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\,\\ special\\ institutions\\ were\\ devoted\\ in\\ private\\ 2training\\ women\\,\\ like\\ Julien\\ Academy\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\ Photograph\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Julien\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ not\\ till\\ 1886\\ were\\ women\\ admitted\\ 2official\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ 2shift\\ gears\\ 2person\\ at\\ the\\ origins\\ o\\ academic\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ body\\:\\ \\ \\;Charles\\ Le\\ Brun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Nicolas\\ de\\ Largilliere\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Charles\\ Le\\ Brun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1686\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LB\\ \\=\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;director\\ o\\ the\\ academy\\,\\ premier\\ artist\\ o\\ the\\ king\\ n\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ bureaucrat\\ who\\ shaped\\ the\\ academy\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\ n\\ defined\\ its\\ theory\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ what\\ he\\ looked\\ like\\,\\ but\\ a\\ mdoel\\ o\\ representation\\ that\\ later\\ artists\\ used\\ 2show\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ model\\ identified\\ artist\\ as\\ man\\ o\\ distinction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ clothes\\,\\ n\\ his\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ only\\ gestures\\ 2his\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ distance\\ 2it\\ introduced\\ not\\ just\\ by\\ his\\ clothing\\,\\ but\\ by\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ pntg\\,\\ it\\,\\ but\\ only\\ gesturing\\ 2it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ notion\\ at\\ core\\ o\\ artist\\ identitythat\\ practice\\ is\\ intellectual\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ not\\ just\\ done\\ by\\ hand\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ introduced\\ public\\ lectures\\ at\\ the\\ academy\\.\\ \\ \\;Explained\\ his\\ theories\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\ ones\\ was\\ a\\ codification\\ o\\ human\\ expressions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ enough\\ 2obey\\ principle\\ o\\ decorum\\,\\ follow\\ certain\\ mode\\ o\\ training\\ n\\ composing\\ a\\ picture\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ had\\ 2also\\ master\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ 2develop\\ this\\ idea\\ o\\ representational\\ expression\\,\\ LB\\ drew\\ on\\ a\\ longe\\ tradition\\ o\\ physiognomy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Giacomo\\ della\\ Porta\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Physiognomies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ used\\ b4\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ 2reveal\\ hidden\\ resemblance\\ bw\\ animals\\ n\\ humans\\,\\ revealing\\ character\\ o\\ human\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ animal\\ they\\ looked\\ like\\.\\ \\ \\;Pigs\\ \\=\\ wicked\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Crow\\ ppl\\ r\\ audaiciuos\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Physiognomic\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(donkeys\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LB\\ used\\ this\\ tradition\\ 2convert\\ the\\ human\\ face\\ in2\\ a\\ sign\\,\\ but\\ developed\\ it\\ a\\ little\\ further\\.\\ \\ \\;Ths\\ \\=\\ donkeys\\,\\ animals\\ on\\ top\\,\\ humans\\ below\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ not\\ only\\ represnted\\ animals\\ n\\ man\\ more\\ naturalistically\\,\\ but\\ also\\ bcc\\ he\\ introduced\\ character\\ n\\ individuation\\.\\ \\ \\;Donkey\\ \\=\\ a\\ little\\ disoriented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ under\\ particular\\ pressure\\ 2find\\ solution\\ 2emotional\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ 2make\\ the\\ face\\ signify\\ certain\\ states\\ o\\ mind\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ involved\\ freezing\\ something\\ mobile\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ 2do\\ that\\?\\ \\ \\;Unknown\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ developed\\ mode\\ o\\ represtnenting\\ human\\ emotions\\,\\ basing\\ his\\ wrk\\ on\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ Descartes\\,\\ his\\ treatises\\ on\\ the\\ passions\\ o\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ understood\\ emotions\\ 2b\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ movement\\ o\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\ \\;Soul\\ conceived\\ by\\ him\\ as\\ actual\\ substance\\ that\\ travels\\ in\\ the\\ body\\,\\ its\\ movement\\ producing\\ major\\ changes\\ in\\ temperature\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ mood\\ makes\\ u\\ hotter\\.\\ \\ \\;Bad\\ mood\\ makes\\ u\\ cold\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ movement\\ concentrated\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\(lions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Anatomical\\ study\\ of\\ pineal\\ gland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\.LB\\ illustrates\\ his\\ concetion\\ 2Descartes\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\,\\ specifically\\ 2its\\ movement\\ o\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ located\\ in\\ one\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ mainly\\ the\\ pineal\\ gland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ pineal\\ gland\\ reflected\\ by\\ the\\ movement\\ o\\ the\\ brows\\,\\ eyes\\,\\ n\\ sort\\ o\\ the\\ nose\\ n\\ mouth\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ \\ \\;used\\ this\\ theory\\ 2develop\\ a\\ whole\\ system\\ o\\ facial\\ expressions\\.\\ \\ \\;Codification\\ o\\ different\\ states\\ o\\ mind\\,\\ from\\ most\\ extreme\\ in\\ negative\\ 2positive\\ extremes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Expressions\\ of\\ the\\ Passions\\:\\ \\ \\;Fright\\;\\ Joy\\;\\ Love\\;\\ Scorn\\ \\&\\;\\ Hatred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ idea\\ o\\ emotion\\ is\\ located\\ in\\ these\\ parts\\ o\\ the\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;Eyebrows\\ raising\\ up\\ when\\ body\\ temperature\\ is\\ heated\\,\\ being\\ inflected\\ by\\ certain\\ emotional\\ intensity\\.\\ \\ \\;Nostrils\\ can\\ get\\ expanded\\ w\\ emotion\\ n\\ shrink\\ w\\ calm\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mouth\\ lifting\\ or\\ sloping\\ down\\ depending\\ how\\ one\\ feels\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ this\\ connection\\ u\\ see\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happening\\ inside\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ LB\\ establishes\\ whole\\ system\\ o\\ human\\ expressions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disdain\\,\\ hatred\\,\\ simple\\ love\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ 2complicated\\ love\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ of\\ emoticons\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61516\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turning\\ the\\ face\\ in2\\ a\\ sign\\,\\ specific\\ signifier\\,\\ removing\\ its\\ ambiguity\\.\\ \\ \\;Unambiguous\\ sign\\ o\\ emotional\\ states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ one\\ means\\ in\\ which\\ body\\ performed\\ crucial\\ semantic\\ fnctn\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allowed\\ it\\ 2contribute\\ 2understanding\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Epitomized\\ his\\ pntg\\ o\\ the\\ king\\,\\ called\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Queen\\ of\\ Persia\\ at\\ the\\ feet\\ of\\ Alexander\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1662\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subject\\ is\\ historical\\.\\ \\ \\;Family\\ o\\ Darius\\ defeated\\ by\\ Alexander\\ is\\ prostrating\\ itself\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ Alexander\\ n\\ his\\ companion\\ Ephystion\\,\\ who\\ came\\ 2visit\\ the\\ queen\\ mother\\ n\\ wife\\ n\\ entourage\\ o\\ Darius\\ whom\\ they\\ just\\ conquered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Queen\\ mother\\ mistakes\\ his\\ companion\\ for\\ Alexander\\ himself\\,\\ the\\ napologizes\\ by\\ prostrating\\ herself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ not\\ \\=\\ realism\\ or\\ naturalism\\ o\\ the\\ rendition\\,\\ but\\ its\\ legibility\\,\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2emphasize\\.\\ \\ \\;Legilibity\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ gestures\\,\\ n\\ facial\\ expressions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Felibien\\ told\\ us\\ what\\ everything\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\ signifies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alexander\\:\\ \\ \\;gesture\\ shows\\ clemency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Companion\\:\\ \\ \\;compassion\\ in\\ his\\ face\\,\\ his\\ leg\\ shows\\ civility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bodies\\ o\\ conquered\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Queen\\:\\ \\ \\;face\\ looking\\ down\\ expresses\\ humiliation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Darius\\&rsquo\\;\\ wife\\:\\ \\ \\;expresses\\ satisfaction\\ mixed\\ w\\ hope\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Princess\\ behind\\ her\\:\\ \\ \\;grief\\ w\\ restraint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kneeling\\ figure\\:\\ \\ \\;wonder\\ \\+\\ surprise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whole\\ gamut\\ o\\ expsesion\\ that\\ ea\\ figure\\ must\\ convey\\ in\\ most\\ legible\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legibility\\ based\\ on\\ theory\\ o\\ resprestnation\\ o\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Palace\\ of\\ Versailles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ birds\\-eye\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legibility\\ had\\ something\\ 2do\\ w\\ thevery\\ structure\\ o\\ the\\ court\\ o\\ Louis\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ its\\ architectural\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highly\\ structured\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Axial\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ the\\ way\\ u\\ enter\\ the\\ palace\\ is\\ highly\\ organized\\.\\ \\ \\;Axial\\ arrangement\\ extends\\ in2\\ gardens\\,\\ focused\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ on\\ the\\ bedroom\\ o\\ the\\ king\\,\\ 2expres\\ the\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ king\\ over\\ his\\ domain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Architecture\\ o\\ this\\ palace\\ \\=\\ symbolic\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ just\\ 2make\\ things\\ look\\ splenderous\\,\\ but\\ built\\ 2display\\ power\\ o\\ its\\ dominion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Versailles\\,\\ the\\ King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bedroom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ court\\ ruled\\ by\\ a\\ bodily\\ discipline\\ which\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ etiquette\\ o\\ court\\ life\\,\\ submitted\\ 2very\\ strict\\ rules\\,\\ which\\ both\\ king\\ n\\ courtiers\\ had\\ 2obey\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nothing\\ spared\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sense\\ o\\ private\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moments\\ o\\ king\\ going\\ 2bed\\ n\\ waking\\ up\\ were\\ highly\\ organized\\ events\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Courtiers\\ present\\ at\\ waking\\ o\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;Script\\ about\\ whole\\ event\\ in\\ which\\ ea\\ person\\ held\\ different\\ clothing\\ item\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ person\\ held\\ one\\ sleeve\\ o\\ the\\ jacket\\,\\ another\\ asked\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;Public\\ performance\\ o\\ waking\\ n\\ sleeping\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ participated\\ in\\ it\\ in\\ highly\\ choreographed\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ at\\ large\\ \\=\\ theater\\ o\\ highly\\ structured\\ social\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2represent\\ certain\\ etiquette\\,\\ aim\\ o\\ which\\ was\\ 2show\\ absolute\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ king\\ over\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;Obsession\\ o\\ control\\ under\\ that\\ desire\\ 4legilbity\\,\\ both\\ in\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ real\\ body\\ at\\ court\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ king\\ n\\ his\\ courtiers\\ in\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ I\\ conveyed\\ by\\ the\\ likeness\\ o\\ Louis\\ XIV\\.\\ \\ \\;Shouldn\\&rsquo\\;st\\ say\\ liekenss\\ though\\.\\ \\ \\;its\\&rsquo\\;\\ a\\ portrait\\,\\ in\\ its\\ construction\\ o\\ the\\ king\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ public\\ body\\,\\ opening\\ his\\ body\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\ 4\\ everyone\\ 2see\\.\\ \\ \\;Every\\ aspect\\ o\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ meaningful\\,\\ beginning\\ w\\ the\\ enormous\\ ermine\\ court\\,\\ ending\\ w\\ the\\ red\\-heeled\\ hsoes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Literal\\ signs\\ o\\ his\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ scepter\\ n\\ the\\ crown\\.\\ \\ \\;Highly\\ theatrical\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ about\\ showing\\ what\\ the\\ king\\ looked\\ like\\,\\ but\\ rathe\\ what\\ his\\ body\\ meant\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ whole\\ ballet\\ like\\ pose\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ that\\ as\\ well\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Hyacinthe\\ Rigaud\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Louis\\ XIV\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1701\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Henri\\ de\\ Gissey\\,\\ Louis\\ XIV\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sun\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ballet\\ de\\ la\\ Nuit\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ 1653\\,\\ drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ reference\\.\\ \\ \\;Moreover\\,\\ ballet\\ \\=\\ popular\\ performance\\ at\\ court\\.\\ \\ \\;Louis\\ XIV\\ himself\\ liked\\ 2dance\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ played\\ the\\ sun\\ in\\ the\\ play\\.\\ \\ \\;Position\\ o\\ the\\ legis\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\,\\ which\\ helps\\ us\\ understand\\ the\\ discipline\\ o\\ the\\ highly\\ choreographed\\ court\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ reflects\\ not\\ only\\ how\\ things\\ r\\ but\\ WHY\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ so\\ choreographed\\:\\ \\ \\;2display\\ the\\ absolute\\ power\\ o\\ the\\ king\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chancellor\\ Seguer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1661\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seguer\\ \\=\\ major\\ patron\\ o\\ LB\\.\\ \\ \\;his\\ portrait\\ governed\\ by\\ similar\\ rules\\ as\\ Riguad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ o\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\ decked\\ ou\\ in\\ best\\ clothes\\,\\ presented\\ on\\ horse\\,\\ surrounded\\ in\\ highly\\ choreographed\\ manner\\ by\\ pages\\ who\\ look\\ like\\ clones\\,\\ similar\\ hair\\ n\\ body\\ poses\\.\\ \\ \\;Kind\\ o\\ prerestnation\\,\\ figuration\\,\\ that\\ reflects\\ legibility\\ o\\ the\\ likeness\\ as\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ power\\,\\ n\\ indicates\\ the\\ degree\\ 2which\\ all\\ the\\ courtiers\\ in\\ L14\\&rsquo\\;s\\ court\\ had\\ 2obey\\ certain\\ signifying\\ procedures\\,\\ be\\ able\\ 2manipulate\\ the\\ signs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ranche\\ Comte\\ conquered\\ fro\\ the\\ second\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Last\\ thing\\ 2say\\:\\ \\ \\;introduce\\ the\\ type\\ o\\ pntg\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ portrait\\,\\ but\\ was\\ also\\ tuned\\ in\\ 2this\\ project\\ o\\ conveying\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allegorical\\ pntg\\ used\\ predominantly\\ 2decorate\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\ rooms\\ in\\ the\\ palace\\ o\\ Versailles\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ gallery\\ o\\ mirrors\\ seen\\ on\\ the\\ right\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ series\\ o\\ pntgs\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ openings\\.\\ Room\\ filled\\ by\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;Roof\\ filled\\ w\\ represntations\\,\\ all\\ o\\ which\\ glorified\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ victories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ depicts\\ his\\ victory\\ over\\ the\\ provinces\\ o\\ ranche\\ Comte\\.\\ \\ \\;Southern\\ provinces\\ that\\ the\\ king\\ just\\ added\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ king\\ himself\\ featured\\ as\\ a\\ roman\\ emperor\\,\\ surrounded\\ by\\ array\\ o\\ humans\\ n\\ things\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stand4themselves\\,\\ but\\ something\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;Allegorical\\ representation\\,\\ using\\ one3\\ thing\\ 2represent\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aimed\\ at\\ conveying\\ unambiguously\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heroism\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ standing\\ atop\\ a\\ rock\\ convey\\ his\\ position\\ as\\ conquereor\\.\\ \\ \\;Supplicant\\ maidens\\ below\\ him\\ stand\\ 4the\\ 2provinces\\.\\ \\ \\;Hercules\\ above\\ him\\ represnts\\ his\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tree\\ branch\\ shows\\ vein\\ support\\ ovfered\\ 2hte\\ provinces\\ by\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enemy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ these\\ signs\\ have\\ 2b\\ conveyed\\ n\\ converted\\ in2\\ text\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ all\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ conveying\\ unamibuously\\ the\\ power\\ o\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ tradition\\ is\\ incredibly\\ imptnt\\ 4art\\ production\\ throughout\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;n\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\,\\ more\\ directly\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Joseph\\ Taillason\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hero\\ \\&\\;\\ Leander\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1798\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ last\\ images\\ 2express\\ long\\-lasting\\ effect\\ o\\ legiilbity\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ carrier\\ o\\ emotional\\ n\\ other\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reacting\\ 2death\\ o\\ her\\ lover\\ who\\ tried\\ 2swim\\ 2xxxx\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eugene\\ Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Greece\\ on\\ the\\ ruins\\ of\\ Missolonghi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1826\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eveni\\ n\\ a\\ romantic\\ pntg\\,\\ u\\ see\\ a\\ similar\\ approach\\ 2the\\ body\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ its\\ legibility\\,\\ its\\ quality\\ o\\ a\\ supplicant\\.\\ \\ \\;Greece\\ asking\\ 4help\\ after\\ being\\ defeated\\ by\\ her\\ enemies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ u\\ get\\ a\\ sens\\ o\\ LB\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnce\\ n\\ the\\ imptnce\\ o\\ the\\ academic\\ body\\ 4french\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;n\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ September\\ 24\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Private\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;discussing\\ academic\\ approach\\ 2body\\.\\ \\ \\;Reasons\\ y\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ privileged\\ signifier\\ o\\ history\\ pntg\\,\\ the\\ most\\ valued\\ type\\ o\\ pntg\\,\\ which\\ the\\ academie\\ promoted\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ imptnt\\ form\\ o\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Academic\\ body\\ was\\ a\\ LEGIBLE\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Legible\\ bc\\ it\\ had\\ 2perform\\ a\\ specific\\ task\\ n\\ convey\\ meanings\\ in\\ a\\ constructive\\,\\ clear\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2reflect\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\ the\\ power\\ o\\ the\\ French\\ king\\,\\ n\\ it\\ had\\ 2convey\\ socially\\ useful\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2b\\ didactic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ conveyed\\ by\\ gestures\\,\\ fraught\\ facial\\ expressions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ had\\ 2b\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ composition\\ that\\ made\\ clear\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ image\\,\\ n\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fraught\\ w\\ conveying\\ the\\ most\\ significant\\ message\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ this\\ legible\\ body\\ had2do\\ w\\ the\\ academic\\ doctrine\\ o\\ artistic\\ practice\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ w\\ the\\ structure\\ o\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ court\\ culture\\,\\ specifically\\ w\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ emphasized\\ by\\ Versailles\\ architecture\\ n\\ court\\ etiquette\\ that\\ governed\\ mode\\ o\\ behavior\\ in\\ the\\ palace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\,\\ we\\ move\\ 2\\ another\\ kind\\ o\\ body\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hyacinthe\\ Riguad\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Louis\\ XIV\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1701\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Antoine\\ Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gilles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1718\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ addressed\\ the\\ viewer\\ in\\ a\\ far\\ less\\ direct\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;Gilles\\ \\=\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ theatrical\\ performance\\ theatre\\ d\\&rsquo\\;arts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compare\\ this\\ 2\\ Riguad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ different\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ actor\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ a\\ king\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ different\\ in\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ still\\ interesting\\ 2compare\\ bc\\ they\\ exemplify\\ that\\ difference\\ in\\ approach\\ 2represntation\\ n\\ approach\\ 2the\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ o\\ visual\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Riguad\\ conveyed\\ unambiguously\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ power\\ n\\ nentitlement\\,\\ authority\\,\\ that\\ the\\ king\\ stood\\ 4\\.\\ \\ \\;commandingly\\ addressed\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;Choreographed\\ pose\\,\\ gesture\\,\\ slightly\\ raised\\ head\\ that\\ lets\\ the\\ king\\ look\\ at\\ u\\ from\\ above\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imposing\\ coat\\ n\\ rain\\ coat\\.\\ \\ \\;Scepter\\.\\ \\ \\;Crown\\ sitting\\ on\\ chair\\ next\\ 2him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monumental\\ architectural\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;Dramatically\\ arranged\\ curtain\\ emphasizes\\ sense\\ o\\ staging\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ signifier\\ o\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Gilles\\,\\ we\\ have\\ very\\ different\\,\\ more\\ ambiguous\\ mode\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Character\\ is\\ staged\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\ seems\\ uncomfortable\\ being\\ put\\ on\\ show\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ stands\\ there\\ monumental\\,\\ but\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ linked\\ 2any\\ idea\\ o\\ power\\ or\\ imposition\\.\\ \\ \\;Awkward\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Face\\ inexpressive\\.\\ \\ \\;Characters\\ below\\ seem\\ 2b\\ mocking\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ stock\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;Gilles\\ \\=\\ stock\\ figure\\ in\\ commite\\ d\\&rsquo\\;arts\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unclear\\ what\\ his\\ role\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ comedy\\,\\ but\\ he\\ seems\\ sad\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ articularing\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ mood\\,\\ slightly\\ melancholic\\,\\ slightly\\ pathetic\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ that\\&rsquo\\;sabout\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ elusiveness\\,\\ Gilles\\ represents\\ the\\ other\\ kidn\\ of\\ body\\,\\ n\\ pntg\\,\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ discuss\\ 2day\\:\\ \\ \\;genre\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genre\\ pntg\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Established\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Undergoes\\ imptnt\\ transformations\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ category\\ that\\ serves\\ like\\ a\\ grab\\ bag\\ 4everything\\ history\\ pntg\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;still\\-life\\,\\ portrait\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ it\\ comes\\ 2b\\ what\\ it\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ b\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ period\\:\\ \\ \\;domestic\\ life\\,\\ regardless\\ o\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genre\\ pntg\\ considered\\ inferior\\ 2history\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ even\\ conceived\\ o\\ as\\ socially\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ did\\ not\\ always\\ convey\\ instruction\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ didactically\\ useful\\.\\ \\ \\;Genre\\ pntrs\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;those\\ w\\ no\\ talent\\ 2b\\ history\\ pntrs\\,\\ abandoned\\ 2treat\\ minor\\ subjects\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ acc\\.\\ 2critic\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ completely\\ useless\\ citizens\\,\\ he\\ said\\,\\ detrimental\\ 2society\\ insofaras\\ they\\ are\\ wasting\\ their\\ time\\ on\\ things\\ that\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ valuable\\/constructive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\,\\ many\\ imptnt\\ pntrs\\,\\ n\\ even\\ history\\ pntrs\\,\\ like\\ Francois\\ Bouchet\\,\\ used\\ genre\\ in\\ their\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ reason\\ 4lack\\ o\\ appreciation\\ 4genre\\ pntgs\\ was\\ aesthetic\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ it\\ rendered\\ appearances\\ only\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ history\\ pntg\\,\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ speaking\\ 2the\\ mind\\,\\ but\\ only\\ 2the\\ eye\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subject\\ matter\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ elevating\\ enough\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ not\\ everyone\\ had\\ this\\ lack\\ o\\ appreciation\\.\\ \\ \\;Genre\\ had\\ an\\ ambivalent\\ status\\ 4many\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ thought\\ it\\ inferior\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ appreciated\\ it\\ n\\ sought\\ it\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\ represnted\\ one\\ o\\ those\\ very\\ sought\\-after\\ genre\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ considerable\\ support\\ among\\ private\\ patrons\\,\\ n\\ also\\ among\\ the\\ Academie\\,\\ who\\ accepted\\ his\\ pntgs\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ history\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2day\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ production\\,\\ then\\ move\\ on\\ 2overview\\ o\\ genre\\ pntg\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ w\\ 2issues\\ in\\ mind\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ was\\ the\\ dominant\\ subject\\ o\\ genre\\ pntg\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ were\\ they\\ about\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ was\\ the\\ fnctn\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;Body\\ featured\\ in\\ genre\\ pntg\\,\\ which\\ was\\ very\\ different\\ form\\ the\\ academic\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ private\\ body\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ featured\\ in\\ private\\ situations\\ but\\ also\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ elusive\\,\\ lack\\ o\\ description\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fete\\ galante\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1717\\-18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ illustrates\\ immediately\\ the\\ difference\\ o\\ French\\ genre\\ pntg\\ from\\ earlier\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ tradition\\,\\ represnted\\ by\\ Jan\\ Steen\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jan\\ Steen\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Card\\ Players\\ Brawling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ factthat\\ in\\ France\\,\\ unlike\\ Holland\\,\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ lowly\\ scenes\\,\\ the\\ scenes\\ o\\ frolicking\\ in\\ inns\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ scenes\\ o\\ low\\-lifes\\,\\ but\\ scenes\\ o\\ elegant\\ life\\ that\\ were\\ most\\ often\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;Watteau\\ epitomizes\\ this\\ in\\ his\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ 2look\\ at\\ bad\\ images\\,\\ bc\\ it\\ makes\\ u\\ realize\\ how\\ no\\ image\\,\\ even\\ the\\ best\\ one\\,\\ is\\ a\\ substitute\\ 4the\\ real\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ get\\ used\\ 2the\\ varied\\ quality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Bullshit\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Illustrates\\ the\\ type\\ o\\ pntg\\ that\\ Watteau\\ ivented\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ that\\ operates\\ w\\ this\\ kidn\\ o\\ ambiguous\\,\\ highly\\ stylized\\ body\\,\\ both\\ emphasizing\\ a\\ certain\\ ambiguity\\ n\\ artifice\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Gestures\\ n\\ tway\\ ppl\\ relate\\ 2eo\\,\\ whole\\ scene\\ woven\\ in2\\ a\\ frieze\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ would\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;Architectural\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ it\\ conveyed\\ was\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ mood\\,\\ pleasure\\,\\ ambivalence\\,\\ elusiveness\\,\\ which\\ was\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ indirectness\\ is\\ what\\ should\\ b\\ emphasized\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LeBrun\\ n\\ queens\\ o\\ Persia\\,\\ where\\ everyone\\ had\\ a\\ different\\ task\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ represnting\\ emotion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ only\\ do\\ we\\ not\\ see\\ faces\\ in\\ Watteau\\,\\ but\\ those\\ who\\ r\\ facing\\ us\\ r\\ wearing\\ ambivalent\\,\\ undescript\\,\\ hard2describe\\ expressions\\.\\ \\ \\;Light\\ smile\\,\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ face\\,\\ but\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ possible\\ 2understand\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\/talking\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ a\\ party\\,\\ a\\ gathering\\ that\\ obviously\\ is\\ giving\\ pleasure\\ 2its\\ participants\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ shown\\ w\\ fuzzy\\ contours\\,\\ contributing\\ 2lack\\ o\\ directness\\ n\\ sense\\ o\\ ambivalence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Studies\\ of\\ Female\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Admiration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ physiognomic\\ drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contrast\\ these\\ 2images\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Noticed\\ that\\ the\\ face\\,\\ so\\ crucial\\ 4LB\\,\\ map\\ o\\ soul\\,\\ is\\ something\\ Watteau\\ treats\\ very\\ differently\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ fleeting\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ never\\ directly\\ shows\\ the\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ interested\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ drawing\\ in\\ the\\ averted\\ gaze\\,\\ in\\ closed\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specializes\\ in\\ the\\ lost\\ profile\\.\\ \\ \\;View\\ o\\ the\\ face\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ last\\ one\\ b4\\ u\\ lose\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Damn\\ Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allows\\ the\\ body\\ 2fnctn\\ as\\ carrier\\ o\\ mng\\ in\\ much\\ different\\ way\\ than\\ academic\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Particular\\ approach\\ 2the\\ face\\,\\ n\\ also\\,\\ interst\\ in\\ disguise\\.\\ \\ \\;Literally\\ so\\,\\ as\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Shepherds\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1717\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ private\\ party\\,\\ amateur\\ theater\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Aristocratic\\ form\\ o\\ leisure\\ staged\\ in\\ a\\ rural\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;Urban\\ crowd\\ in\\ rural\\ setting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dressed\\ up\\ in\\ incongruous\\ manner\\,\\ such\\ as\\ in\\&hellip\\;Bagpipe\\ player\\.\\ \\ \\;Aristocrat\\ dressed\\ in\\ drag\\ wearing\\ blonde\\ wig\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\ loves\\ showing\\ the\\ peasant\\ girl\\ wearing\\ string\\ o\\ pearls\\ on\\ her\\ neck\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ o\\ masquerade\\ is\\ both\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ this\\ form\\ o\\ leisure\\ in\\ which\\ aristocrats\\ enjoyed\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ o\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ representation\\ that\\ Watteau\\ is\\ using\\ here\\ n\\ which\\ emphasized\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ disguise\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ playing\\ w\\ costumes\\,\\ but\\ also\\ codes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ form\\ o\\ leisure\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ other\\ cultural\\ manifestations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theater\\ performances\\,\\ entertainment\\ offered\\ in\\ fairs\\ like\\ St\\.\\ Germain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ fair\\ St\\.\\ Germain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ anonymous\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ trade\\ mixed\\ w\\ entertainment\\,\\ n\\ particular\\ form\\ o\\ theater\\,\\ popular\\ theater\\,\\ banned\\ in\\ other\\ places\\,\\ but\\ c\\ ould\\ b\\ performed\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commute\\ de\\ l\\&rsquo\\;artres\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ allowed\\ 2perform\\ elsewhere\\ n\\ speak\\ French\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ actors\\ belonging\\ 2acadmie\\ francaise\\,\\ troop\\ o\\ actors\\ employed\\ by\\ the\\ king\\,\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ legal\\ perfomers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ 2perform\\,\\ they\\ had\\ 2develop\\ a\\ different\\ mode\\ o\\ address\\,\\ very\\ often\\ based\\ on\\ body\\ movement\\ rather\\ than\\ text\\,\\ which\\ might\\ b\\ brought\\ in\\ on\\ little\\ posters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theater\\ o\\ the\\ play\\ was\\ often\\ interrupted\\ by\\ little\\ slapstick\\ parodies\\.\\ \\ \\;Consisted\\ o\\ acrobatics\\,\\ which\\ was\\ o\\ course\\ wordless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ which\\ constituted\\ a\\ particular\\ form\\ o\\ entertainment\\ that\\ not\\ only\\ lower\\ classes\\ looked\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ elites\\ did\\ too\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ it\\ was\\ this\\ form\\ o\\ parody\\,\\ entertainment\\,\\ that\\ aristocrats\\,\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ seen\\ in\\ Shepherds\\,\\ appropriated\\ 4their\\ own\\ leisure\\ n\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ did\\ this\\ bc\\ they\\ were\\ intersetd\\ in\\ the\\ illegibility\\ o\\ that\\ mode\\,\\ in\\ the\\ inarticulateness\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ allowed\\ them\\ 2cultivate\\ ambiguity\\,\\ secrecy\\,\\ that\\ separated\\ them\\ form\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ court\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ could\\ define\\ themselves\\ within\\ the\\ court\\ as\\ elites\\ unto\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ could\\ escape\\ the\\ absolute\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ crown\\ n\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ only\\ they\\ could\\ understand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ this\\ ambivalence\\ that\\ was\\ both\\ cultural\\ n\\ pictorial\\,\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ mode\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ pntd\\:\\ \\ \\;embracing\\ disguise\\,\\ gesture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ dacners\\ stand\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ n\\ have\\ sense\\ o\\ disruption\\,\\ lack\\ o\\ fit\\,\\ which\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ how\\ Watteau\\ made\\ these\\ pictures\\,\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ in\\ a\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ Watteau\\ is\\ against\\ the\\ official\\ dogma\\,\\ its\\ recipes\\ 4what\\ pntgs\\ should\\ b\\.\\ \\ \\;at\\ same\\ time\\,\\ it\\ was\\ appreciated\\ by\\ officials\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ piece\\ that\\ got\\ accepted\\ 2the\\ acadmie\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bernard\\ Picard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Theatre\\ of\\ the\\ Fair\\ \\(Le\\ theatre\\ de\\ la\\ faire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ 1730\\,\\ etching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pilgrimage\\ to\\ the\\ Island\\ of\\ Cythera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1717\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ fete\\ galante\\,\\ stylized\\ party\\,\\ which\\ depicts\\ a\\ gathering\\ o\\ ppl\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ setting\\ about\\ 2either\\ embark\\ on\\ a\\ boat\\ leaving\\ Cythera\\,\\ or\\ they\\ have\\ just\\ arrived\\ on\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Watteau\\ treats\\ the\\ human\\ figure\\,\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ weaves\\ ppl\\ in2\\ a\\ serpentine\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ makes\\ this\\ allegorical\\ figure\\ that\\ represents\\ the\\ erotic\\ dimension\\ o\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ it\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ Cythera\\ being\\ the\\ island\\ o\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\ wants\\ us\\ 2focus\\ on\\ this\\ particular\\ group\\ on\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\,\\ but\\ no\\ assignment\\ o\\ specific\\ meaning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nicolas\\,\\ Poussin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Great\\ Bacchanal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1627\\-28\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ couple\\ interacting\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ probably\\ whispering\\ endearing\\ thing\\ 2this\\ reticent\\,\\ resisitant\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Resistance\\ shows\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ resistance\\ o\\ the\\ figure\\ itself\\ 2speak\\ 2us\\ in\\ an\\ ambiguous\\ fashion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ helping\\ woman\\ get\\ up\\.\\ notice\\ the\\ thick\\ layers\\ o\\ pigment\\ here\\ that\\ r\\ typical\\ o\\ Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elegantly\\ posed\\ man\\ in\\ ballet\\ like\\ pose\\,\\ dressed\\ in\\ pink\\,\\ taking\\ brown\\ dressed\\ woman\\ away\\,\\ detail\\ that\\ illustrates\\ 2the\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\ in\\ very\\ thick\\ layers\\ o\\ opaque\\ pigment\\,\\ w\\ interest\\ in\\ colors\\,\\ which\\ is\\ interesting\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ separates\\ him\\ from\\ the\\ academie\\ n\\ its\\ emphasis\\ on\\ design\\ n\\ drawing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ embraced\\ pntgs\\ based\\ on\\ design\\ n\\ drawing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rubens\\ \\=\\ opposite\\.\\ \\ \\;Color\\ emphasizer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ had\\ 2\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;Poussinistes\\ who\\ embraced\\ drawing\\,\\ n\\ Rubeinistes\\ who\\ embraced\\ color\\ as\\ most\\ imptnt\\ aspect\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poussin\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ avoid\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ what\\ mattered\\ 4him\\ most\\ was\\ th\\ aarragnement\\ of\\ igures\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ contours\\ that\\ firmly\\ enclose\\ ea\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peter\\ Paul\\ Rubens\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Arrival\\ of\\ Marie\\ de\\ Medici\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1622\\-25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rubens\\,\\ though\\ interested\\ in\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ pnts\\ the\\ water\\ overlapping\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ nymphs\\,\\ or\\ the\\ swath\\ o\\ red\\ drapery\\ that\\ falls\\ dramatically\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\ \\=\\ Rubens\\ follower\\.\\ \\ \\;Copied\\ him\\.\\ I\\ nterested\\ in\\ color\\,\\ which\\ situated\\ him\\ in\\ anti\\-acadmic\\ trend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ cousins\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1717\\-18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ how\\ he\\ composes\\,\\ or\\ actually\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ compose\\,\\ his\\ pictures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ draw\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ live\\ models\\,\\ but\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pose\\ the\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ draw\\ from\\ situations\\ he\\ could\\ see\\,\\ n\\ compose\\ whole\\ album\\ o\\ sketches\\,\\ n\\ when\\ he\\ did\\ ap\\ ntg\\,\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ a\\ prep\\ sketch\\ as\\ academic\\ artists\\ did\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ look\\ in2\\ his\\ notebook\\ n\\ use\\ the\\ figures\\ he\\ already\\ did\\,\\ n\\ just\\ drop\\ it\\ on2\\ canvas\\,\\ surround\\ it\\ w\\ landscape\\,\\ w\\/o\\ the\\ meaningful\\ buildup\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Readymade\\ figure\\ would\\ b\\ dropped\\ in\\ like\\ this\\,\\ like\\ u\\ drop\\ a\\ slide\\ in2\\ a\\ powerpoint\\ presentation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Funny\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ figure\\ does\\ seem\\ connected\\ 2hte\\ landscape\\,\\ but\\ once\\ u\\ know\\ she\\ was\\ just\\ droped\\ in\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ separateness\\.\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ o\\ transition\\ that\\ stems\\ from\\ fact\\ she\\ was\\ just\\ lifed\\ from\\ sketchbook\\ n\\ pntd\\ in2\\ the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indiosyncratic\\ mode\\ o\\ making\\ pntgs\\ which\\ few\\ other\\ pntrs\\ used\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sheet\\ of\\ studies\\ w\\/two\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Jean\\-Francois\\ de\\ Troy\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reading\\ from\\ Moliere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1728\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ 2the\\ overview\\ o\\ genre\\ pntgs\\ by\\ other\\ artists\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ signifies\\ a\\ non\\-academic\\,\\ elusive\\,\\ amibugous\\ mode\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ privacy\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\,\\ but\\ NEW\\,\\ concern\\,\\ that\\ emerges\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ connected\\ w\\ new\\ value\\ attached\\ 2invidiuality\\,\\ comfort\\,\\ pleasure\\,\\ n\\ private\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\ in\\ interests\\ in\\ it\\ both\\ in\\ literature\\ n\\ in\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Signs\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ were\\ cropped\\.\\ \\ \\;View\\ is\\ one\\ o\\ a\\ close\\-up\\ that\\ gives\\ u\\ access\\ 2the\\ intimate\\ circle\\ o\\ ppl\\ who\\ r\\ listening\\ 2\\ a\\ man\\ reading\\ aloud\\,\\ probably\\ from\\ Moliere\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reading\\ aloud\\ \\=\\ popular\\ leisure\\ activity\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ mostly\\ among\\ elites\\ who\\ could\\ afford\\ leisure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sumptuous\\ staging\\ o\\ the\\ clothing\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ wearing\\ the\\ different\\ fabrics\\ that\\ met\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Satin\\,\\ velvet\\,\\ right\\ above\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ book\\,\\ connecting\\ leisure\\ n\\ elite\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ aspect\\ here\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;Faces\\ r\\ attentive\\ but\\ inexpressive\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ women\\ address\\ us\\ directly\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unclear\\ w\\ what\\ kind\\ o\\ message\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ on\\ right\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;do\\ you\\ belong\\ w\\ us\\,\\ or\\ not\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ do\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ offer\\ us\\ to\\ meet\\ my\\ boredom\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;u\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ match\\ it\\ 2text\\ like\\ u\\ can\\ w\\ LB\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*Michael\\-Barthelemy\\ Olivier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concert\\ in\\ the\\ Salon\\ of\\ the\\ Palais\\ du\\ Temple\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1766\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ us\\ the\\ whole\\ full\\-scale\\ interior\\ o\\ the\\ slaon\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exaggerated\\.\\ \\ \\;Scale\\ o\\ the\\ figures\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ 2small\\ 4that\\ building\\,\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ convey\\ the\\ infomarlity\\ w\\ which\\ the\\ salon\\ was\\ occupied\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\End\\ o\\ a\\ tea\\ party\\ here\\,\\ n\\ preparation\\ 4\\ a\\ concert\\,\\ thought\\ 2b\\ Mozart\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ relate\\ 2eo\\ emphasizing\\ comfort\\ n\\ informality\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scenes\\ o\\ private\\ life\\ that\\ emerged\\ at\\ that\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ meaningful\\ happens\\ here\\,\\ n\\ yet\\ u\\ have\\ a\\ picture\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ u\\ have\\ a\\ version\\ o\\ a\\ salon\\ gathering\\ o\\ a\\ concert\\ in\\ an\\ oriental\\ setting\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abraham\\ Bosse\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ladies\\ Dinner\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 17c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interest\\ in\\ Ottoman\\,\\ Chinese\\,\\ Japanese\\ culture\\,\\ which\\ is\\ pre\\-orientalist\\ insofar\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ fantasy\\ based\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ real\\ images\\,\\ but\\ they\\ r\\ full\\ o\\ respect\\ n\\ fascination\\.\\ \\ \\;Imagining\\ the\\ other\\ on\\ par\\ w\\ the\\ Parisian\\ subject\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ trying\\ 2position\\ the\\ other\\ as\\ something\\ inferior\\,\\ less\\ modern\\,\\ less\\ developed\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Charpentier\\,The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\family\\ of\\ the\\ Duc\\ de\\ Pentievres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\ scenes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drinking\\ hot\\ chocolate\\.\\ \\ \\;Popular\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Hot\\ chocolate\\ n\\ coffee\\ \\=\\ most\\ fashionable\\ commoditees\\ 2consume\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ was\\ something\\ u\\ did\\ in\\ private\\ rooms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portrait\\,\\ n\\ slight\\ weirdness\\ w\\ how\\ body\\ is\\ treated\\.\\ \\ \\;Grandma\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ 2big\\.\\ \\ \\;Stems\\ form\\ concern\\ o\\ artist\\ 2secure\\ likeness\\.\\ \\ \\;Pnts\\ a\\ face\\,\\ then\\ attaches\\ it\\ 2\\ a\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ language\\,\\ informality\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ decked\\ out\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ clothing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idea\\ o\\ pleasure\\ n\\ everydayness\\ is\\ what\\ tehse\\ images\\ convey\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ different\\ from\\ earlier\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ representations\\ o\\ similar\\ scenes\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abrhaham\\ Bosse\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Ladies\\ Dinner\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 17c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rectilenearity\\ o\\ the\\ inner\\ scene\\ is\\ organizing\\ principle\\ 4thi\\ gathering\\ o\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ boxed\\ in\\ around\\ the\\ table\\.\\ \\ \\;very\\ formal\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ u\\ idea\\ 4how\\ space\\ is\\ organized\\ at\\ time\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;table\\ n\\ bed\\ right\\ next\\ 2eo\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ changed\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ when\\ u\\ slept\\ in\\ one\\ room\\,\\ ate\\ in\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idea\\ o\\ fnctn\\ emerged\\ in\\ structure\\ o\\ interior\\ o\\ dividing\\ rooms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nicolas\\ Bernard\\ Lepicie\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carpenter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Family\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1775\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grandmother\\ teaching\\ younger\\ one\\ how\\ 2read\\,\\ 2great\\ satisfaction\\ o\\ parents\\.\\ \\ \\;Idealized\\,\\ saccharine\\ image\\,\\ lower\\ classes\\ as\\ aristocracy\\ would\\ like\\ them\\ 2b\\,\\ not\\ how\\ they\\ were\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Francois\\ Boucher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Breakfast\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1739\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ family\\ gathering\\ o\\ women\\ w\\ their\\ children\\,\\ drinking\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\.\\ \\ \\;Coffee\\/hot\\ chocolate\\,\\ being\\ served\\ by\\ the\\ butler\\,\\ n\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ inhabit\\ this\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Informality\\ o\\ the\\ gallery\\,\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ elite\\ ppl\\ would\\ dress\\,\\ not\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ clothing\\.\\ \\ \\;Dgree\\ o\\ morning\\ undress\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ relate\\ 2one\\ another\\,\\ which\\ is\\ informal\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ occupy\\ the\\ space\\ informally\\,\\ in\\ comfort\\,\\ lack\\ o\\ concern\\ w\\ appearances\\.\\ \\ \\;Way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ surrounded\\ by\\ all\\ kinds\\ o\\ objects\\ including\\ those\\ displayed\\ on\\ the\\ walls\\ like\\ the\\ small\\ knickknacks\\ found\\ in\\ fashionable\\ boutiques\\ n\\ which\\ define\\ them\\ as\\ consumers\\ deoted\\ 2fashionalbe\\ items\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;category\\:\\ \\ \\;scenes\\ o\\ toilette\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Boucher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Toilette\\(Lady\\ Fastening\\ her\\ Garder\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1742\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\-Simeone\\ Chardin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ morning\\ toilet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ matters\\ in\\ Boucher\\ is\\ the\\ pleasure\\ n\\ all\\ things\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ thigns\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ kinds\\ o\\ knickknacks\\ form\\ small\\ intexpensive\\ things\\ to\\ expensive\\ redvelvet\\,\\ fur\\-trimmed\\ coat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ woman\\ is\\ dressing\\ up\\ assisted\\ by\\ her\\ servant\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apssing\\ a\\ bonnet\\ 2her\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\&rsquo\\;ere\\ uncertain\\ o\\ her\\ status\\,\\ tho\\,\\ n\\ tha\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ hugely\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degree\\ o\\ uncertainty\\ about\\ the\\ identity\\ o\\ this\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ bonnet\\ handed\\ 2her\\ \\=\\ kind\\ o\\ bonnet\\ that\\ only\\ married\\ women\\ would\\ wear\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ ame\\ tim\\,eshe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ putting\\ on\\ her\\ garder\\ in\\ a\\ provocative\\ pose\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ pntg\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ us\\ 2solve\\ the\\ riddle\\ o\\ whether\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ courtesan\\/well\\-behaved\\ woman\\ o\\ upper\\ classes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ in\\ mood\\ n\\ meaning\\ is\\ Chardin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\ 2the\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ showing\\ life\\ immersed\\ in\\ commodities\\ n\\ possessions\\,\\ tho\\ some\\ r\\ there\\.\\ N\\ otice\\ the\\ incongruously\\ placed\\ coffee\\ pot\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Training\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Dressing\\ up\\ the\\ girl\\,\\ she\\ looks\\ at\\ mirror\\ 2check\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ sense\\ o\\ eroticism\\ like\\ in\\ Boucher\\.\\ \\ \\;Everyone\\ dressed\\ thoroughly\\ w\\ entire\\ body\\ covered\\ in\\ the\\ head\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Francois\\-Hubert\\ Drouais\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Family\\ portraiti\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1756\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ specific\\ day\\,\\ April\\ 1\\,\\ day\\ o\\ practical\\ jokes\\ but\\ also\\ receiving\\ presents\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ day\\ of\\ playful\\ deceit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mother\\ trying\\ a\\ new\\ headdress\\ on\\ the\\ daughter\\.\\ \\ \\;Father\\ looking\\ down\\ w\\ happiness\\ n\\ proprietary\\ pleasure\\ over\\ his\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aft\\.\\ Antonie\\ Baudoin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ toilette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ being\\ visited\\ not\\ by\\ family\\,\\ but\\ man\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ using\\ this\\ occasion\\ 2admire\\ her\\ intimate\\ charms\\,\\ displayed\\ as\\ she\\ dresses\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ one\\:\\ \\ \\;most\\ inimate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Francois\\ Garneray\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Intimate\\ toilet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ invention\\ is\\ the\\ boudet\\ that\\ she\\ uses\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ came\\ from\\ Italy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\&rsquo\\;re\\ given\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ act\\ o\\ most\\ intimate\\ hygiene\\,\\ which\\ points\\ 2concern\\ w\\ bodily\\ hygiene\\ at\\ time\\,\\ but\\ also\\ w\\ privacy\\,\\ even\\ utmost\\,\\ bodily\\,\\ privacy\\,\\ as\\ being\\ opened\\ up2represntation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Next\\ category\\:\\ \\ \\;solitary\\ scenes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ a\\ tradition\\ in\\ religious\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Moments\\ o\\ praying\\ n\\ penitence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ tho\\ has\\ ppl\\ taking\\ pleasure\\ in\\ solitude\\.\\ \\ \\;Reading\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Jean\\-Honore\\ Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Woman\\ Reader\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1775\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Jean\\-Etienne\\ Liotard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Servant\\ with\\ chocolate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1745\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ idealized\\,\\ but\\ all\\ she\\ does\\ is\\ hold\\ hot\\ chocolate\\.\\ \\ \\;Glass\\ o\\ water\\ which\\ u\\ might\\ feel\\ like\\ drinking\\ bc\\ o\\ richness\\ o\\ the\\ drink\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ images\\ share\\ temporal\\ arrest\\,\\ suspension\\,\\ kind\\ \\ \\;o\\ arrested\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ in\\ Fragonard\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ woman\\ reading\\ at\\ a\\ window\\,\\ which\\ we\\ stand\\ outside\\ o\\ n\\ look\\ at\\ her\\ through\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gaze\\ hits\\ the\\ side\\ o\\ her\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ defines\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\arrested\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ movement\\ o\\ the\\ brush\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ which\\ is\\ evident\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Liotard\\ pnts\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ breathes\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ avoids\\ demonstration\\ o\\ any\\ trace\\ w\\ his\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;Fragonard\\ celebrated\\ touch\\,\\ while\\ Liotard\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ what\\ u\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;Uncanny\\,\\ hallucinatory\\ presence\\ that\\ this\\ woman\\ obatians\\ by\\ the\\ mdoe\\ o\\ her\\ rendition\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ things\\ could\\ happen\\ during\\ reading\\&hellip\\;it\\ was\\ thought\\ reading\\ was\\ dangerous\\ 4women\\.\\ \\ \\;Unambiguously\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ pretext\\ 4an\\ autoerotic\\ situation\\,\\ umbrella\\ thrown\\ away\\,\\ hand\\ under\\ the\\ dkirt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chardin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Soap\\ bubbles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1734\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sometimes\\ solitude\\ was\\ innocent\\,\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Boy\\ thoroughly\\ absorbed\\ in\\ blowing\\ a\\ soap\\ bubble\\.\\ \\ \\;Milky\\ glass\\ w\\ soapy\\ water\\ next\\ 2him\\.\\ \\ \\;Younger\\ boy\\ looking\\ attentively\\ at\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ momentariness\\ is\\ imptnt\\ here\\,\\ n\\ attn\\ paid\\ 2\\ the\\ bubble\\ which\\ will\\ burst\\ any\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;Adds\\ 2the\\ momentary\\ temporarity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ types\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\absorption\\ in\\ solitary\\ acts\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Chardin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Young\\ Draughtsman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1733\\-38\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Copying\\ works\\ o\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ turned\\ away\\ from\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ convey\\ any\\ message\\,\\ but\\ sense\\ o\\ effeort\\ n\\ attn\\ young\\ man\\ is\\ paying\\ 2act\\ o\\ copying\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ coat\\ bears\\ the\\ races\\ o\\ his\\ poverty\\,\\ w\\ a\\ tear\\ in\\ te\\ back\\ prominently\\ displayed\\ like\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ womb\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ related\\ 2the\\ martyrdom\\ o\\ the\\ young\\ artist\\ who\\ ahd\\ 2go\\ through\\ tehse\\ endless\\ routines\\.\\ \\ \\;Chardin\\ was\\ privy\\ 2talking\\ about\\ how\\ tiresome\\ it\\ was\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;category\\:\\ \\ \\;body\\ as\\ presentation\\ o\\ senses\\,\\ states\\ o\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\-Baptisste\\ Greuze\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Simplicity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1759\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chardin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lady\\ with\\ a\\ Bird\\-organ\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1753\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interest\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ central\\ aggregate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greuze\\ showing\\ a\\ state\\ o\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;Linked\\ 2sensual\\ experience\\,\\ namely\\ that\\ o\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;Girl\\ is\\ in\\ love\\,\\ playing\\ w\\ Marrgherite\\,\\ playing\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ loves\\ me\\ he\\ loves\\ me\\ not\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Face\\ shows\\ emureness\\,\\ simple\\ love\\ as\\ LB\\ would\\ say\\ in\\ his\\ physiognomic\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chardin\\ shows\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ much\\ older\\ n\\ thoroughly\\ covered\\ in\\ clothes\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ playing\\ a\\ bird\\ organ\\ bc\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2\\ do\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;category\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ pastoral\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Faux\\-peasants\\.\\ \\ \\;Based\\ on\\ theater\\ performances\\,\\ entertainment\\ theater\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Boucher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Les\\ sabots\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Clogs\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1768\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interesting\\ how\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defined\\ acc\\.\\ 2false\\ shepherdesses\\.\\ \\ \\;Dressed\\ informally\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ wearing\\ shoes\\.\\ \\ \\;Engaged\\ in\\ playful\\ act\\ o\\ feeding\\ eo\\ cherries\\ w\\ obvious\\ erotic\\ connotation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ interchangeability\\.\\ \\ \\;Boy\\ could\\ easily\\ b\\ exchanged\\ w\\ girl\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ right\\,\\ echk\\ out\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interior\\ o\\ fthe\\ salon\\ in\\ the\\ Hotel\\ de\\ Vilette\\,\\ 1760s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Featuers\\ example\\ o\\ pntg\\ that\\ Boucher\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ doing\\.\\ \\ \\;Placed\\ over\\ doors\\.\\ \\ \\;Done\\ so\\ as\\ 2fit\\ a\\ specific\\ architectural\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Fnctn\\ was\\ 2decorate\\ n\\ provide\\ pleasure\\,\\ not\\ 2instruct\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Last\\ category\\ \\:\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Chardin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Kitchen\\ Maid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1740\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ associated\\ w\\ women\\ servants\\.\\ \\ \\;2xamples\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;downstairs\\&rdquo\\;\\ servants\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2upstairs\\ maid\\,\\ like\\ the\\ women\\ helping\\ the\\ dressing\\ woman\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\la\\ toilette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ pntg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\labor\\ performed\\ w\\ degree\\ o\\ stupor\\ that\\ makes\\ her\\ look\\ like\\ other\\ objects\\ in\\ that\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ absorption\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ accompanied\\ w\\ inner\\ movmene\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Makes\\ her\\ face\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ turnip\\ she\\ cuts\\ in\\ her\\ hand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Greuze\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Laundress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1761\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Erotic\\ come\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;Disheveled\\ clothing\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ sexual\\ availablilty\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ repesenation\\ o\\ servants\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ examples\\ here\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lepicie\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Franchon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ waking\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1773\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Servant\\ getting\\ up\\ in\\ morning\\ w\\ disheveled\\ state\\ o\\ things\\ around\\ her\\ indicating\\ activity\\ that\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ proper\\ in\\ both\\ moral\\ n\\ other\\ senses\\ o\\ the\\ word\\,\\ w\\ cat\\ sensuously\\ leaning\\ against\\ her\\ leg\\.\\ \\ \\;Exposed\\ body\\ confirming\\ our\\ suspicion\\ that\\ things\\ were\\ going\\ on\\ last\\ night\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Washerwomen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1759\\-60\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mode\\ o\\ pnt\\,g\\ the\\ steam\\ raising\\ fromteh\\ oht\\ water\\,\\ litearlized\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ part\\ by\\ the\\ couple\\ at\\ bottom\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ fantasy\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ was\\ shown\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ private\\ body\\,\\ this\\ genre\\,\\ that\\ eludes\\ the\\ didactic\\ hold\\ o\\ language\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ambiguous\\,\\ elusive\\,\\ open\\ 2infiltration\\ by\\ other\\ parasite\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;Labor\\ injected\\ w\\ eros\\,\\ which\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ belong\\ w\\ it\\,\\ which\\ gives\\ u\\ some\\ idea\\ o\\ why\\ acadmie\\ thought\\ this\\ pntg\\ was\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ \\;Socially\\,\\ this\\ pntg\\ was\\ not\\ didactic\\!\\ \\ \\;Too\\ much\\ sex\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ September\\ 26\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Lecture\\ 4\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Erotic\\ Body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\where\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ academic\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ primary\\ reason\\ o\\ its\\ existence\\ was\\ didactic\\,\\ 2convey\\ authority\\,\\ n\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ a\\ private\\ body\\&hellip\\;Germanicus\\,\\ n\\ the\\ portrait\\ o\\ Louis\\ XIV\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ elusive\\ body\\ was\\ shown\\ by\\ Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pilgrimmage\\ to\\ Cythera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ body\\ not\\ associated\\ w\\ sending\\ clear\\ cut\\ messages\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ intested\\ in\\ sending\\ everyday\\ interactions\\.\\ \\ \\;Addressing\\ the\\ viewer\\ in\\ indirect\\,\\ elusive\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elusiveness\\,\\ slipper\\ quality\\ o\\ genre\\ pntg\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ how\\ 1\\ thing\\ could\\ b\\ infiltrated\\ by\\ different\\ set\\ o\\ meanings\\,\\ as\\ is\\ case\\ w\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ n\\ its\\ representations\\,\\ n\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ woman\\ waking\\ n\\ idea\\ o\\ work\\ performed\\ by\\ female\\ servants\\ is\\ eroticized\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ privileging\\ o\\ female\\ wrkrs\\,\\ female\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ try\\ 2understand\\ that\\ pirvelege\\ as\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ a\\ broader\\ issue\\:\\ \\ \\;eros\\ in\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ more\\ broadly\\ in\\ culture\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ moment\\ when\\ sexuality\\ emerged\\ as\\ an\\ imptnt\\ cultural\\ concern\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;sex\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ was\\ invented\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ 4such\\ bold\\ declaraiotns\\ r\\ several\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\ set\\ o\\ reasons\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ socioeconomic\\ situations\\,\\ emergence\\ o\\ commercial\\ society\\ in\\ early\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ n\\ w\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Emergence\\ o\\ new\\ self\\ outside\\ Christian\\ ethics\\ n\\ its\\ morality\\,\\ n\\ therefore\\ a\\ self\\ also\\ consumed\\ w\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2ndly\\:\\ \\ \\;2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ of\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\&hellip\\;emergence\\ o\\ sexuality\\ as\\ imptnt\\ cultural\\ concern\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ enlightenment\\ n\\ new\\ accnt\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ was\\ produced\\ by\\ Enlightenemnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Medicine\\ n\\ anatomy\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ outlook\\ articulated\\ outside\\,\\ beyond\\ the\\ religious\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;Attempt\\ 2underatke\\ materialist\\ philosophy\\ that\\ understands\\ body\\ beyond\\ religion\\.\\ \\ \\;18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ showed\\ as\\ the\\ emergence\\ o\\ medicine\\ as\\ science\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ it\\,\\ attempt\\ at\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ human\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Change\\ in\\ human\\ anatomy\\ articulated\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Lacuer\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bold\\ thesis\\ was\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ we\\ see\\ shift\\ from\\ 1\\ way\\ o\\ imagining\\ human\\ anatomy\\ 2another\\.\\ \\ \\;Form\\ one\\-sex\\ model\\ 2\\ 2\\-sex\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ argument\\ has\\ been\\ demonstrated\\ 2b\\ partly\\ inaccurate\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ useful\\ 4us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lacuer\\ suggested\\ that\\ until\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ interesting\\ approach\\ 2anatomy\\ in\\ general\\,\\ n\\ sexual\\ anatomy\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ \\ \\;Manifested\\ itself\\ in\\ the\\ conception\\ that\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ a\\ negative\\ image\\ o\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Female\\ sexual\\ organs\\ r\\ an\\ inversion\\ o\\ male\\ organs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\Vagina\\ as\\ penis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ Vesalius\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fabrica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(late\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vagina\\ and\\ uterus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ Vidius\\ \\(1611\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ vagina\\ as\\ penis\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;Shaped\\ same\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Anatomical\\ drawings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Draws\\ uterus\\ w\\ ovaries\\ n\\ vagina\\,\\ n\\ penis\\ w\\ testes\\&hellip\\;likening\\ them\\ 2eo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laceur\\ insisted\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ mistake\\,\\ not\\ mistake\\ o\\ inaccurate\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ due2\\ outlook\\ that\\ insisted\\ in\\ belief\\ that\\ female\\ body\\ \\=\\ inversion\\ o\\ male\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ start\\ seeing\\ anatomy\\ differently\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;ppl\\ see\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ r\\ irreducibly\\ different\\ from\\ men\\,\\ beginning\\ w\\ sexual\\ organs\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ when\\ the\\ divergence\\ emerges\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ the\\ emergence\\ o\\ difference\\ come\\ sthe\\ problem\\ o\\ assigning\\ meaning\\ 2the\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;Visual\\ culture\\ contributes\\ 2this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Barhtolius\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Anatomy\\ of\\ clitoris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\so\\ u\\ gets\\ lot\\ o\\ attn\\ 2sexual\\ differences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ also\\ get\\ attempt\\ at\\ resexualization\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ body\\,\\ not\\ just\\ sexual\\ organs\\.\\ \\ \\;Approach\\ 2body\\ that\\ from\\ then\\ on\\ becomes\\ permeated\\ by\\ idea\\ o\\ sex\\.\\ \\ \\;Inquiries\\ in2\\ how\\ man\\ n\\ women\\ differ\\,\\ apart\\ from\\ genitalia\\,\\ beginning\\ w\\ the\\ basis\\ o\\ the\\ body\\&hellip\\;the\\ skeleton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bernard\\ Albinus\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tabluae\\ scelti\\ et\\ musculorm\\ corporis\\ humani\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1747\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawing\\ o\\ skeleton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ skeleton\\ always\\ used2b\\ shown\\ as\\ male\\.\\ \\ \\;Seen\\ as\\ universal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*John\\ Barclay\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masculine\\ skeleton\\ \\(with\\ horse\\ skeleton\\)\\ Feminine\\ skeleton\\ \\(with\\ ostrich\\ skeleton\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1759\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Then\\ u\\ get\\ introduction\\ o\\ sex\\ skeleton\\.\\ \\ \\;Skeleton\\ shown\\ 2b\\ different\\ from\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ produced\\.\\ \\ \\;Fact\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ constructed\\ rather\\ than\\ simply\\ registered\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ get\\ gender\\ asymmetry\\,\\ attempt\\ at\\ constructing\\ hierarchy\\ bw\\ the\\ sexes\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ was\\ this\\ done\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Skeletongs\\ were\\ composite\\ here\\,\\ put\\ 2gether\\,\\ not\\ all\\ from\\ one\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;Put\\ 2gether\\ from\\ different\\ fragments\\,\\ different\\ aspects\\ o\\ individual\\ skeletons\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informed\\ by\\ conviction\\ that\\ man\\ n\\ woman\\ had\\ different\\ parts\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ look\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Head\\ n\\ neck\\ were\\ longer\\ in\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Head\\ smaller\\ in\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Head\\ smaller\\ bc\\ their\\ rib\\ cage\\ rendered\\ as\\ smaller\\ n\\ narrower\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ broader\\ pelvis\\,\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ also\\ allowed\\ students\\ o\\ visual\\ representations\\ o\\ skeletons\\ 2represent\\ the\\ head\\ o\\ males\\ as\\ bigger\\,\\ n\\ thus\\ suggesting\\ that\\ men\\ r\\ intellectually\\ superior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yea\\,\\ women\\ tend\\ 2have\\ bigger\\ pelvises\\,\\ but\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ all\\ have\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ impose\\ that\\ on2\\ the\\ entire\\ sex\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ cultural\\ attempt\\ at\\ regulation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ presentation\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ the\\ attributes\\ w\\ which\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ endowed\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ Is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ skeleton\\ o\\ ostrich\\,\\ which\\ had\\ association\\ 2famously\\ big\\ eggs\\,\\ connecting\\ connection\\ bw\\ female\\ body\\ n\\ reproduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ associated\\ w\\ powerful\\ horse\\,\\ but\\ also\\ over\\ which\\ man\\ exercises\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;Masculinity\\ thus\\ conveyed\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacque\\-Fabien\\ Gautier\\-Dagoty\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ anatomical\\ angel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\color\\ mezzotint\\,\\ 1746\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ kinds\\ o\\ anatomical\\ representations\\ flourished\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;color\\ engraving\\ \\=\\ new\\ technique\\ taken\\ advantage\\ o\\ 2show\\ these\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ guy\\ is\\ called\\ Dagoty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ adopted\\ coloring\\ in\\ order\\ 2convey\\ exceptionally\\ vivid\\ images\\ o\\ human\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Us\\ see\\ it\\ w\\ impossibly\\ elongated\\ psine\\ n\\ bent\\ rib\\ cage\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ more\\ intersteing\\ combined\\ w\\ image\\ o\\ living\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ seemed\\ 2b\\ dissected\\ while\\ alive\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ incongruousness\\,\\ which\\,\\ interestingly\\,\\ was\\ aligned\\ w\\ asymmetrical\\ gender\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ were\\ showed\\ in\\ this\\ icongruous\\ way\\,\\ implying\\ subjectivity\\ n\\ also\\ sexual\\ appeal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ these\\ 2life\\ size\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ body\\.based\\ on\\ real\\ dissections\\ performed\\ by\\ another\\ surgeon\\ which\\ Dagoty\\ witnessed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Curiously\\,\\ tho\\,\\ only\\ the\\ woman\\ is\\ shown\\ 2have\\ flesh\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ a\\ face\\ that\\ smiles\\,\\ incongrusouly\\,\\ while\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ a\\ cadaver\\.\\ \\ \\;Degree\\ o\\ subjective\\ presence\\ w\\ the\\ woman\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ lackssexual\\ touch\\ in\\ which\\ breast\\ is\\ shown\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ ohh\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ breat\\ w\\ some\\ skin\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gautier\\-Dagoty\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dissections\\ of\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1750\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Felice\\ Fontana\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Male\\ anatomical\\ figure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Susini\\ \\&\\;\\ Ferroni\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Waxen\\ venus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1782\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wax\\ models\\ moved\\ the\\ project\\ 2a\\ 3D\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ aspect\\ o\\ these\\ models\\ which\\ became\\ very\\ popular\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\,\\ n\\ which\\ conveyed\\ anatomical\\ reality\\ even\\ more\\ than\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ were\\ not\\ as\\ often\\ as\\ man\\ shown\\ standing\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\&hellip\\;one\\ extraordinary\\ wax\\ model\\,\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Waxen\\ venus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ let\\ u\\ move\\ external\\ parts\\ in\\ order\\ 2get\\ deeper\\ n\\ deeper\\ in2\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ see\\ its\\ internal\\ organs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessary\\ 2present\\ her\\ in\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ was\\ presented\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ mode\\,\\ w\\ the\\ tilted\\ head\\ n\\ parted\\ legs\\ n\\ lips\\,\\ took\\ up\\ a\\ specific\\ rhetoric\\ o\\ erotic\\ ecstasy\\,\\ as\\ exemplified\\ by\\ Baroque\\ sculpture\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bernini\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ecstasy\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Teresa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1646\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ the\\ borrowing\\ o\\ this\\ pose\\ from\\ the\\ wax\\ venus\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ signifies\\ sexual\\ difference\\ n\\ sexuality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mode\\ o\\ presentation\\ o\\ female\\ body\\ in\\ Waxen\\ Venus\\ let\\ the\\ body\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ emphasizes\\ status\\ o\\ body\\ as\\ object\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Object\\ o\\ gaze\\,\\ n\\ object\\ o\\ pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;Acquisition\\ o\\ knowledge\\ linked\\ 2pleasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ It\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ instance\\ o\\ what\\ Foucault\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Clinical\\ gaze\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ linked\\ 2emergence\\ o\\ medicine\\ as\\ professional\\ discipline\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ linked\\ 2the\\ development\\ o\\ hospitals\\ n\\ institiutions\\ where\\ medicine\\ was\\ practiced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clinical\\ gaze\\ o\\ power\\,\\ control\\,\\ scienece\\,\\ knowledge\\,\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Illustrating\\ the\\ gender\\ dimension\\ as\\ the\\ gaze\\ o\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ witness\\ in\\ these\\ anatomical\\ models\\ the\\ emergence\\ o\\ gender\\ as\\ a\\ naturalized\\ category\\.\\ \\ \\;Gender\\ as\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ society\\ imagines\\ sexual\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;Set\\ o\\ beliefs\\ about\\ what\\ man\\ is\\ v\\.\\ what\\ woman\\ is\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anatomical\\ models\\ naturalizes\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ gender\\ through\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ sex\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ mode\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ obdy\\ is\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ sexualized\\ gender\\ can\\ also\\ b\\ witnessed\\ in\\ visual\\ culture\\ n\\ art\\ o\\ this\\ period\\ where\\ we\\ also\\ notice\\ eroticized\\ body\\ which\\ \\=\\ object\\ o\\ our\\ study\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Pilgrimage\\ to\\ Cythera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ n\\ late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ transition\\.\\ \\ \\;Watteau\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fragonard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ how\\ approach\\ 2eros\\ in\\ art\\ changed\\ from\\ 1720s\\ to\\ 1780s\\.\\ \\ \\;change\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ body\\ functioned\\,\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ through\\ the\\ body\\ certain\\ notinoss\\ about\\ sexuality\\ n\\ sexual\\ difference\\ were\\ conveyed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ pntgs\\ \\=\\ allegorical\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\ wrks\\ thru\\ codes\\ o\\ hints\\,\\ indirectness\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ bodily\\ act\\ evoked\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ any\\ body\\ exposed\\ in\\ this\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thru\\ interaction\\ bw\\ figures\\,\\ thur\\ arrangement\\ in\\ pntg\\ that\\ we\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fragonard\\ introduces\\ the\\ body\\ w\\ far\\ greater\\ degree\\ o\\ sexual\\ explicitness\\.\\ \\ \\;Moreover\\,\\ he\\ uses\\ it\\ 2represnet\\ notion\\ o\\ desire\\ as\\ physical\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coupel\\ shown\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rushing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;toward\\ fountain\\ o\\ love\\,\\ powerful\\ physical\\ force\\ that\\ overtakes\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Honore\\ Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fontain\\ of\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1785\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ sexual\\ explicitness\\ is\\ that\\ only\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sexual\\ body\\ is\\ exposed\\.\\ \\ \\;Breasts\\ there\\,\\ penis\\ hidden\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ how\\ fleshy\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bodies\\ r\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ such\\ explicit\\ erotic\\ represntations\\ served\\ the\\ imagination\\ o\\ sexual\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ the\\ obdy\\ was\\ made\\ erotic\\ in\\ the\\ image\\,\\ through\\ iconography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ approach\\ 2the\\ body\\,\\ thru\\ mode\\ o\\ rendering\\ pictorial\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ terms\\ o\\ themes\\,\\ there\\ r\\ lots\\ o\\ them\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ based\\ on\\ antiquity\\,\\ but\\ a\\ different\\ antiquity\\ from\\ what\\ we\\ saw\\ so\\ far\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ territory\\ o\\ reference\\,\\ examples\\ from\\ which\\ model\\ behavior\\ may\\ b\\ shown\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ 2let\\ u\\ experience\\ erotic\\ interactions\\ n\\ love\\ among\\ gods\\,\\ usually\\ based\\ on\\ Virgil\\ or\\ Ovid\\,\\ such\\ as\\ in\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boucher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Venus\\ requiesting\\ arms\\ for\\ Aeneas\\ from\\ Vulcan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1723\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treats\\ antiquity\\ as\\ nevernever\\ land\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ Pretext\\ 4showing\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Venus\\ uses\\ seduction\\,\\ seducing\\ her\\ own\\ husband\\ w\\ whom\\ she\\ was\\ rarely\\ erotic\\ w\\,\\ n\\ who\\ comes\\ 2seduce\\ him\\ bc\\ she\\ needs\\ something\\:\\ \\ \\;him\\ 2\\ make\\ armour\\ for\\ her\\ son\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ how\\ Boucher\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ bodies\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pulling\\ toward\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;Pushing\\ them\\ forward\\,\\ making\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ representation\\ rather\\ taut\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ differentiates\\,\\ using\\ the\\ interactions\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ 2differentiate\\ the\\ sexes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vulcan\\ \\=\\ dark\\,\\ sinewy\\.\\ \\ \\;Venus\\ \\=\\ white\\ n\\ plump\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behind\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ men\\ were\\ hotter\\,\\ n\\ thus\\ their\\ bodies\\ were\\ warmer\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ were\\ cold\\.\\ Nonetheless\\ it\\ was\\ women\\ who\\ were\\ believed\\ 2have\\ special\\ connection\\ 2eros\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boucher\\ makes\\ this\\ clear\\ by\\ focusing\\ on\\ Venus\\,\\ staging\\ her\\ body\\ as\\ one\\ above\\ Vulcan\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ on\\ top\\.\\ \\ \\;Light\\ focuses\\ our\\ attn\\ on\\ her\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rendition\\ o\\ space\\ \\=\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ o\\ the\\ elements\\ r\\ removed\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sense\\ o\\ actual\\ spatial\\ sutaiton\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ location\\.\\ \\ \\;Kind\\ o\\ cloud\\ which\\ acts\\ as\\ one\\ scholar\\ put\\ it\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;mysterious\\ filer\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ looks\\ like\\ clouds\\ but\\ acts\\ like\\ cushion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focuses\\ ur\\ attn\\ on\\ the\\ body\\ itself\\ as\\ source\\ o\\ eros\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Diana\\ \\&\\;\\ Endymion\\ or\\ the\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1755\\-6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ explicit\\ ineraction\\.\\ \\ \\;Looks\\ like\\ 2women\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jupiter\\ in\\ guise\\ o\\ Diana\\,\\ shown\\ seducing\\ Calisto\\,\\ Diana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ nymbh\\.\\ \\ \\;Diana\\ liked\\ women\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jupiter\\ decided\\ 2disguise\\ himself\\ as\\ her\\ lover\\ Diana\\,\\ n\\ he\\ succeeded\\,\\ then\\ impregnated\\ her\\,\\ n\\ caused\\ her\\ 2get\\ expelled\\ form\\ Diana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ playpen\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plot\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ imptnt\\,\\ but\\ the\\ amorous\\ interaction\\ bw\\ women\\ is\\ key\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Boucher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Diana\\ bathing\\ after\\ hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1742\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Jean\\-Marc\\ Nattier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Mme\\ Bouret\\ as\\ Diana\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1745\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ saw\\ themselves\\ as\\ objects\\ o\\ desire\\,\\ cultural\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ \\;Objectified\\ individuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ some\\ time\\ it\\ \\=\\ degree\\ o\\ liberty\\.\\ \\ \\;Willingness\\ 2construct\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ identity\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ can\\ choose\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ 2b\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Double\\ nature\\ o\\ these\\ kinds\\ o\\ portraits\\ is\\ interesting\\ 2notice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nattier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mademoiselle\\ de\\ Clermont\\ as\\ Sultana\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1733\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bathers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1775\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ o\\ most\\ popuilar\\ Rococo\\ scenes\\.\\ \\ \\;Genre\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\ here\\ is\\ 2construct\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ object\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ looked\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Object\\ looked\\ at\\ from\\ all\\ sides\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ cloning\\ one\\ figure\\,\\ showing\\ front\\ n\\ back\\ o\\ same\\ body\\ by\\ having\\ 2clones\\ face\\ opposite\\ directions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ objectification\\ may\\ b\\ noticed\\.\\ \\ \\;Contravened\\ by\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ composed\\ w\\ sense\\ o\\ dynamism\\ that\\ pushes\\ these\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bodies\\ forward\\ n\\ throws\\ them\\ at\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Boucher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Girl\\ on\\ a\\ couch\\ \\(Mlle\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Murphy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1752\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unofficial\\ lovers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ \\=\\ Irish\\ girl\\ wrkng\\ as\\ actress\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;Shown\\ here\\ in\\ uncomfortable\\ but\\ interesting\\ pose\\,\\ ready\\ 2receive\\ the\\ gaze\\ that\\ allows\\ one\\ 2see\\ the\\ back\\ o\\ her\\ body\\ in\\ its\\ full\\ splendor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ gift\\ wrapped\\ in\\ drapery\\,\\ w\\ various\\ elements\\ enhancing\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ sensual\\ pleasure\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ incense\\ or\\ perfume\\ burner\\,\\ or\\ the\\ rose\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Signaling\\ the\\ sensual\\ ideal\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looking\\ here\\ at\\ something\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ supposed\\ 2look\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ staged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ deliberateness\\.\\ \\ \\;Acknowledgement\\ o\\ looking\\ taing\\ place\\ in\\ pntg\\ is\\ manifest\\ by\\ these\\ 2pntgs\\ by\\ Fragonard\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Removing\\ the\\ chemise\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1765\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Format\\ o\\ oval\\ suggests\\ ocular\\ hape\\ that\\ speaks\\ 2peephole\\ viewing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Kiss\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1770\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ sexual\\ appeal\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ defined\\ in\\ bodily\\ terms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ interaction\\ as\\ physiologically\\ based\\ interaction\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ almost\\ har\\ the\\ suction\\ o\\ the\\ kiss\\ the\\ couple\\ is\\ performing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ aspect\\ o\\ pntg\\ o\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fragonard\\ \\=\\ someone\\ who\\ pnts\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ scenes\\,\\ scenes\\ directly\\ referring\\ 2sexual\\ activity\\ that\\ hae\\ nothing\\ 2do\\ w\\ mythology\\,\\ featuring\\ specific\\ characters\\ rendered\\ tho\\ in\\ quite\\ generic\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Fragonard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ The\\ Lock\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1778\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ n\\ woman\\ about\\ 2get\\ it\\ on\\,\\ as\\ unmade\\ bed\\ suggest\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ already\\ began\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grasping\\ woman\\ while\\ locking\\ blot\\ on\\ the\\ door\\.\\ \\ \\;Overturned\\ chair\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ happening\\ FAST\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Although\\ they\\ look\\ like\\ specific\\ individuals\\,\\ they\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ shown\\ socially\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ generic\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ far\\ from\\ LB\\&rsquo\\;s\\ project\\ o\\ physiognomy\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ nose\\,\\ mouth\\ n\\ eyes\\ says\\ this\\ \\=\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;Distinction\\ mose\\ interesting\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ \\=\\ generic\\ woman\\,\\ w\\ generic\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ intense\\ bodily\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;Sexuality\\ imageind\\ not\\ as\\ earlier\\,\\ as\\ matter\\ o\\ social\\ convention\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ o\\ these\\ feature\\ man\\ seducing\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Sex\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ air\\,\\ but\\ seduction\\ is\\ conveyed\\ here\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ o\\ convention\\,\\ gestures\\,\\ n\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ tho\\,\\ makes\\ it\\ a\\ question\\ o\\ bodily\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;Physical\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ is\\ linked\\ 2the\\ enlightenment\\ project\\ as\\ insisting\\ on\\ sexuality\\ as\\ physical\\ activity\\ that\\ needs\\ 2b\\ understood\\ outside\\ morals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Optional\\ novella\\ also\\ conveys\\ this\\ manifesting\\ the\\ cultural\\ concern\\ w\\ sexuality\\ but\\ also\\ shows\\ seduction\\ 2b\\ not\\ just\\ matter\\ o\\ words\\ but\\ also\\ sensuous\\ seduction\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ shortest\\ examples\\ o\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ literature\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ insistence\\ on\\ the\\ physicality\\ o\\ the\\ sexual\\ act\\ is\\ true\\ even\\ in\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ implicit\\ representations\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Love\\ Letter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1770\\-80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scene\\ o\\ woman\\ receiving\\ letter\\ from\\ maybe\\ a\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ looking\\ at\\ us\\ w\\ sense\\ o\\ complicity\\.\\ \\ \\;Form\\ o\\ representation\\ baed\\ on\\ the\\ logn\\ tradition\\ in\\ genre\\ pntg\\ o\\ showing\\ women\\ writing\\,\\ sending\\,\\ receiving\\ letters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jan\\ Vermeer\\ van\\ Delft\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Young\\ lady\\ writing\\ a\\ letter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1665\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Differencei\\ n\\ approach\\ 2letter\\.\\ \\ \\;Vermeer\\ has\\ somber\\ intimacy\\ that\\ owman\\ establishes\\ by\\ discreetly\\ engaging\\ the\\ viewer\\ in\\ her\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unaffected\\ by\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unclear\\ what\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concerned\\ w\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ in\\ Fragonard\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ whole\\ body\\ is\\ overtaken\\ w\\ willigness\\ o\\ contact\\.\\ Space\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ bent\\ like\\ porthole\\.\\ \\ \\;Whole\\ space\\ affected\\ physically\\ by\\ notion\\ o\\ desire\\,\\ which\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notion\\ o\\ physical\\ movement\\ o\\ body\\ affected\\ in\\ its\\ physiology\\,\\ in\\ its\\ mechanics\\,\\ by\\ force\\ o\\ desire\\,\\ is\\ conveyed\\ powerfully\\ incycle\\ o\\ pntg\\ called\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Fraongard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Progress\\ of\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Pursuit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1771\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Meeting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4\\ moments\\ referring\\ 2erotic\\ interaction\\,\\ not\\ performing\\ narrative\\ cycle\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ matter\\ 2see\\ all\\ o\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Fragonard\\ takes\\ up\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ gallant\\ pictures\\ from\\ Watteau\\ n\\ reinterprets\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Introduces\\ the\\ couple\\ on\\ whom\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ focusing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Girl\\ helped\\ by\\ companions\\ at\\ first\\,\\ then\\ later\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clearly\\ a\\ couple\\ engaged\\ in\\ something\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ meeting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coming\\ up\\ on\\ a\\ ladder\\ 2see\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ seem\\ 2b\\ interrupted\\ by\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pursuit\\ o\\ girl\\ by\\ a\\ boy\\.\\ \\ \\;Interesting\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ aligned\\ here\\ w\\ nature\\,\\ n\\ eros\\ 2some\\ degree\\ displaced\\ on2\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;Activity\\ o\\ bodies\\ is\\ quite\\ decent\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ explicit\\ sexually\\ in\\ any\\ o\\ the\\ panels\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ eh\\ nature\\ itself\\ w\\ which\\ these\\ humans\\ are\\ aligned\\ or\\ under\\ the\\ shadow\\ o\\ which\\ tye\\&rsquo\\;re\\ shown\\ is\\ really\\ itnersting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ boy\\ on\\ left\\ lifting\\ up\\ thorugh\\ the\\ air\\,\\ moving\\ w\\ pot\\ o\\ flowers\\ as\\ he\\ chases\\ the\\ girl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vegetation\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ boner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ right\\:\\ \\ \\;notice\\ how\\ sculpture\\ n\\ tree\\ seem2b\\ moving\\ foweward\\ w\\ tremendous\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alignment\\ o\\ sexual\\ force\\ w\\ nature\\,\\ n\\ therefore\\ naturalization\\ o\\ eros\\ as\\ activity\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ naturally\\ bodily\\,\\ human\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Swing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1768\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ enlisting\\ o\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Swing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ 2b\\ seen\\ in\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commissioned\\ by\\ patron\\ who\\ wanted\\ 2b\\ shown\\ in\\ this\\ pose\\,\\ w\\ his\\ mistress\\,\\ n\\ another\\ clergyman\\ involved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ pntr\\ turned\\ this\\ image\\ down\\.\\ \\ \\;Fraognard\\ made\\ interesting\\ image\\ in\\ which\\ woman\\ becomes\\ iconic\\ face\\ o\\ whole\\ natural\\ commotion\\ behind\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Agitated\\ space\\ o\\ nature\\ form\\ which\\ she\\ emerges\\.\\ Notice\\ her\\ shoe\\ falling\\ off\\ her\\ sfoot\\.\\ \\ \\;Fetish\\ for\\ standin\\ o\\ what\\ he\\ can\\ see\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ connects\\ us\\ 2notion\\ o\\ viewing\\ n\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ may\\ b\\ gendered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nicolas\\ de\\ Launay\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Indiscreet\\ Wife\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ after\\ Baudoin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interesting\\ image\\ bc\\ it\\ features\\ omwan\\,not\\ man\\,\\ positioned\\ as\\ voyeuse\\,\\ but\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ at\\ same\\ itme\\ defined\\ by\\ title\\ o\\ this\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ it\\ not\\ 4pleasure\\ but\\ out\\ o\\ jealousy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Female\\ voyeurism\\ cannot\\ be\\ pleasurable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Voyeurism\\ linked\\ 2kind\\ o\\ images\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ deployed\\ very\\ self\\-consciuosly\\ n\\ purposefully\\.\\ \\ \\;Namely\\:\\ \\ \\;pornography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Voyeur\\ \\(Histoire\\ de\\ Dom\\ Bougre\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1748\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Porno\\ illustration\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pornography\\ has\\ a\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Invented\\,\\ like\\ sex\\,\\ b\\/w\\ renaissance\\ n\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;that\\ invention\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ 2tings\\:\\ \\ \\;discourse\\ o\\ sexual\\ body\\,\\ but\\ also\\ flourishing\\ o\\ print\\ culture\\ in\\ late\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;hundreds\\ o\\ porn\\ books\\ getting\\ published\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ raised\\ the\\ need\\ o\\ regulation\\,\\ o\\ defining\\ how\\ these\\ books\\ should\\ circulate\\.\\ \\ \\;Who\\ can\\ buy\\,\\ n\\ when\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ moment\\ in\\ which\\ pornographic\\ image\\ emerges\\ as\\ social\\ problem\\,\\ problem\\ o\\ regulation\\ n\\ access\\,\\ that\\ pornography\\ is\\ born\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porn\\ \\=\\ modern\\ form\\ in\\ which\\ erotically\\ explicit\\ image\\ fnctns\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porn\\ was\\ there\\ since\\ antiquity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mild\\ renaissance\\ porn\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\ engr\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Venetian\\ courtesan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1590\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dress\\ flies\\ up\\,\\ n\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ man\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ difference\\ here\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ porn\\ becomes\\ separate\\ category\\,\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ 2b\\ a\\ separate\\ category\\ o\\ visual\\ representations\\,\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ 2b\\ regulated\\,\\ n\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ ifferentiates\\ it\\ form\\ renaissance\\ images\\,\\ which\\ fnctnd\\ as\\ images\\ 4elite\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democratization\\ o\\ print\\ culture\\,\\ included\\ porn\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ porn\\ became\\ quite\\ different\\ bc\\ o\\ need\\ 2regulate\\ access\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ fncntned\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ package\\ o\\ enlightenment\\ readings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porn\\ conceived\\ o\\ as\\ mode\\ o\\ social\\ n\\ political\\ critique\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\ it\\ was\\ used\\ b4\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Multiple\\ sex\\ in\\ which\\ monks\\ o\\ the\\ conveynt\\ r\\ involved\\,\\ serving\\ as\\ image\\ o\\ critique\\ n\\ anti\\-clerical\\ critique\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ critique\\ takes\\ on\\ political\\ aspects\\.\\ \\ \\;2portraits\\:\\ \\ \\;one\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pornographic\\ portrait\\ o\\ an\\ artisocratic\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1791\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pornographic\\ portrait\\ of\\ a\\ clergyman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1791\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dismisses\\ aristocratic\\ pron\\ n\\ attacks\\ clergy\\ corruption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porn\\ used\\ as\\ category\\ o\\ critical\\ thinking\\ not\\ about\\ politics\\ but\\ about\\ society\\ at\\ large\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marquis\\ de\\ Sade\\ was\\ writing\\ at\\ this\\ point\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustration\\ to\\ Marquis\\ de\\ Sade\\ Histoire\\ de\\ Juliette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1797\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Engages\\ in\\ expansion\\ o\\ titillating\\ images\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ represnting\\ that\\ which\\ society\\ wants\\ 2keep\\ at\\ bay\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ margins\\ o\\ social\\/bodily\\ interaction\\ which\\ society\\ tries\\ 2regulate\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ producing\\ his\\ writing\\ when\\ revolution\\ embraced\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ social\\ life\\,\\ subsumed\\ under\\ notion\\ o\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Against\\ family\\ Sade\\ writes\\ most\\ o\\ his\\ treatises\\,\\ which\\ r\\ illustrated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\ see\\ him\\ as\\ potentially\\ liberating\\ in\\ ciritcal\\ way\\ as\\ not\\ illsutraiton\\ o\\ a\\ model\\ o\\ behavior\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ illustration\\ o\\ what\\ cannot\\ b\\ seen\\,\\ what\\ society\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ itself\\ 2acknowledge\\,\\ that\\ forces\\ society\\ 2think\\ o\\ itself\\ in\\ more\\ provactive\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Next\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ see\\ its\\ opposite\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ moral\\ body\\,\\ function\\ o\\ corporeality\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ familial\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ moral\\ body\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;9\\/17\\/07\\ 10\\:25\\ AM\\\\Martini\\,\\ \\"\\;View\\ of\\ the\\ salon\\ of\\ 1787\\"\\;\\Introduces\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ public\\ in\\ relationship\\ to\\ art\\.\\ \\Mergence\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ criterion\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ in\\ the\\ shift\\ of\\ understanding\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ art\\.\\ \\Emergence\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ critic\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\ articulated\\ the\\ audience\\ \\(as\\ real\\ of\\ imaginary\\)\\ and\\ could\\ therefore\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ art\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ period\\.\\ Diderot\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ ones\\ of\\ the\\ period\\,\\ producing\\ arguments\\ about\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ art\\ within\\ the\\ public\\.\\ He\\ was\\ very\\ against\\ dissolute\\ erotic\\ themes\\,\\ and\\ rooted\\ for\\ new\\ didactic\\ and\\ legible\\ art\\,\\ which\\ would\\ offer\\ a\\ lesson\\ for\\ the\\ spectator\\.\\ This\\ is\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ academic\\ notion\\ of\\ art\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ it\\ is\\ not\\,\\ however\\,\\ supposed\\ to\\ articulate\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ monarch\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ teach\\ society\\.\\ \\\\Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Greuze\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ village\\ contract\\"\\;\\ \\(1761\\)\\Diderot\\ considered\\ him\\ a\\ success\\ in\\ the\\ didactic\\ area\\.\\ \\Female\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ bride\\&\\#39\\;s\\ feminine\\ express\\ joy\\ and\\ sadness\\.\\ \\Virtuous\\ subject\\ matter\\;\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ marriage\\ contract\\.\\ \\How\\ does\\ the\\ body\\ work\\ within\\ the\\ composition\\?\\ Meaningful\\ arrangement\\ of\\ figures\\ that\\ is\\ above\\ all\\ very\\ legible\\ \\(reminding\\ of\\ the\\ classic\\ academic\\ composition\\ that\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ which\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ arrangement\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ one\\,\\ ie\\.\\ Vincent\\ \\"\\;Germanicus\\"\\;\\,\\ which\\ epitomized\\ classical\\ composition\\)\\.\\ \\Very\\ natural\\ arrangement\\,\\ concatenation\\ in\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ arch\\ that\\ raises\\ from\\ the\\ father\\,\\ t\\ the\\ groom\\ and\\ bride\\,\\ to\\ the\\ mother\\&hellip\\;\\ compositional\\ arrangement\\ makes\\ the\\ whole\\ scene\\ legible\\,\\ the\\ gestures\\ are\\ very\\ clear\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ naturalized\\ through\\ this\\ compositional\\ device\\.\\ \\Compared\\ to\\ Watteau\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Fete\\ galante\\"\\;\\,\\ Greuze\\ has\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ story\\,\\ an\\ important\\ moment\\,\\ not\\ a\\ lose\\ composition\\ but\\ a\\ particular\\ moment\\.\\ \\Representation\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ life\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ entertainment\\ of\\ the\\ elites\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ lower\\ class\\ seen\\ through\\ an\\ utopian\\ lens\\,\\ though\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Utopian\\ harmony\\.\\ \\Notion\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ differs\\ from\\ its\\ earlier\\ understanding\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ compare\\ to\\ Antoine\\ le\\ Nain\\,\\ \\"\\;figures\\ in\\ an\\ interior\\"\\;\\ \\(1647\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ before\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\ the\\ family\\ was\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ line\\ that\\ depended\\ on\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ property\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ marriage\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ contract\\ that\\ married\\ children\\ as\\ property\\,\\ and\\ was\\ decided\\ by\\ the\\ heads\\ of\\ the\\ family\\.\\ The\\ poorest\\ people\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ marry\\ at\\ all\\,\\ and\\ usually\\ the\\ oldest\\ son\\ would\\ marry\\,\\ and\\ daughters\\ just\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ dowries\\.\\ Households\\ were\\ hence\\ much\\ bigger\\,\\ and\\ human\\ relations\\ within\\ it\\ were\\ organized\\ according\\ to\\ rank\\ and\\ status\\ within\\ the\\ family\\ rather\\ than\\ emotional\\ preferences\\.\\ Le\\ Nain\\ presents\\ this\\ situation\\,\\ the\\ family\\ is\\ very\\ stratified\\,\\ and\\ are\\ presented\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ but\\ as\\ separate\\ bodies\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ no\\ link\\ established\\ between\\ them\\,\\ everyone\\&\\#39\\;s\\ place\\ is\\ defined\\ within\\ the\\ rank\\ and\\ status\\ within\\ the\\ family\\.\\ In\\ Greuze\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ emotional\\ glue\\ that\\ somehow\\ connects\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ given\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ coveying\\ the\\ emotional\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ family\\.\\ In\\ Greuze\\,\\ family\\ is\\ established\\ by\\ a\\ purpose\\ that\\ joins\\ family\\ members\\ together\\,\\ connecting\\ them\\ to\\ one\\ another\\ in\\ a\\ naturalized\\ way\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ family\\ and\\ marriage\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ institution\\ but\\ also\\ one\\ that\\ implies\\ emotional\\ contact\\.\\ Th\\Gender\\ plays\\ a\\ huge\\ role\\ in\\ Greuze\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ image\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ split\\ in\\ half\\,\\ the\\ female\\ and\\ the\\ male\\ sections\\.\\ Gender\\ split\\ is\\ not\\ present\\ in\\ Le\\ Nain\\.\\ \\The\\ moral\\ body\\ represents\\ the\\ interactions\\ of\\ family\\ life\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ detailed\\ naturalism\\ in\\ the\\ rendition\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\\\Gauze\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ dead\\ bird\\"\\;\\ and\\ Chardin\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Diligent\\ mother\\"\\;\\ \\(1740\\)\\New\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ in\\ 18th\\ century\\ culture\\.\\ The\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\ changed\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ children\\ were\\ understood\\ as\\ essentially\\ different\\ from\\ adults\\,\\ having\\ no\\ access\\ to\\ reason\\ and\\ thus\\ requiring\\ instruction\\ rather\\ than\\ punishment\\.\\ \\Children\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sexuality\\ was\\ discovered\\,\\ generating\\ a\\ new\\ pedagogical\\ need\\.\\ This\\ was\\ considered\\ a\\ dangerous\\ social\\ aspect\\,\\ children\\ needing\\ to\\ be\\ controlled\\ in\\ their\\ sexuality\\.\\ One\\ way\\ of\\ doing\\ this\\ was\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ moralizing\\ images\\ that\\ approached\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ a\\ moral\\ icon\\,\\ an\\ unknowing\\ carrier\\ of\\ sexual\\ messages\\.\\ The\\ dead\\ bird\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ signals\\ other\\ kinds\\ of\\ dangers\\ and\\ losses\\ relating\\ to\\ her\\ sexuality\\ that\\ this\\ girl\\ might\\ be\\ submitted\\ to\\ \\(naked\\ arm\\,\\ etc\\ makes\\ her\\ body\\ sexually\\ appealing\\)\\.\\ This\\ didactic\\ function\\ is\\ ambivalently\\ conveyed\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ while\\ he\\ warns\\ about\\ the\\ sexual\\ potential\\ of\\ the\\ child\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\,\\ he\\ also\\ allows\\ the\\ viewer\\ to\\ enjoy\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\"\\;Young\\ mother\\"\\;\\ \\(1763\\)\\ and\\ Greuze\\,\\ \\"\\;Silence\\!\\"\\;\\(1759\\)\\New\\ body\\ image\\ emerges\\ with\\ the\\ enlightment\\,\\ as\\ a\\ wishful\\ thinking\\ about\\ what\\ society\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ mothering\\ and\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\Reinterpretation\\ of\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ motherhood\\ as\\ something\\ rewarding\\,\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ personal\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ social\\ pleasure\\.\\ New\\ iconography\\ of\\ the\\ family\\,\\ producing\\ a\\ unique\\ personal\\ bliss\\.\\ \\Emphasis\\ of\\ close\\ physical\\ emotional\\ contact\\ between\\ mother\\ and\\ child\\.\\ \\Interaction\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ mother\\ as\\ sexually\\ appealing\\.\\ In\\ Fragonard\\,\\ the\\ young\\ mother\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ an\\ entirely\\ carefree\\ person\\,\\ bathed\\ in\\ pastoral\\ light\\ with\\ the\\ mother\\ blaring\\ the\\ child\\ almost\\ as\\ a\\ monument\\,\\ a\\ trophy\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ radiating\\ happiness\\.\\ In\\ Greuze\\,\\ the\\ situation\\ is\\ somewhat\\ different\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ key\\ moment\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ of\\ breastfeeding\\,\\ a\\ situation\\ introduced\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ as\\ an\\ ideal\\ for\\ mothers\\,\\ both\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ class\\.\\ Rousseau\\ is\\ behind\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ motherhood\\ as\\ something\\ rewarding\\ and\\ meaningful\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ pleasures\\ of\\ family\\ put\\ above\\ erotic\\ gratification\\.\\ \\Campaign\\ to\\ encourage\\ breastfeeding\\,\\ didactic\\ function\\ of\\ images\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ widely\\ disseminated\\ in\\ prints\\ and\\ other\\ paintings\\.\\ \\\\Marguerite\\ Gerard\\,\\ \\"\\;Motherhood\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;The\\ first\\ step\\"\\;\\Pleasures\\ f\\ motherhood\\ for\\ the\\ elites\\,\\ who\\ were\\ not\\ used\\ to\\ breast\\ feed\\ and\\ often\\ sent\\ their\\ babies\\ away\\ with\\ nurses\\.\\ \\New\\ iconography\\ of\\ the\\ blissful\\ mother\\,\\ presenting\\ parenthood\\ as\\ rewarding\\ both\\ in\\ a\\ social\\ and\\ personal\\ area\\.\\ \\Dissemination\\ of\\ maternal\\ propaganda\\ across\\ different\\ media\\.\\ \\\\Martini\\,\\ \\"\\;Declaration\\ of\\ pregnancy\\"\\;\\ \\(1777\\)\\ and\\ Baquoy\\,\\ \\"\\;It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ son\\,\\ monsieur\\"\\;\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\Apearance\\ of\\ the\\ husband\\ as\\ a\\ portrait\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\,\\ assuring\\ the\\ virtuous\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ pregnancy\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ legal\\ mode\\ of\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\The\\ second\\ image\\ shows\\ the\\ reaction\\ of\\ the\\ father\\ on\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ a\\ son\\.\\ No\\ ambivalence\\,\\ only\\ joy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Helman\\ after\\ Moreau\\,\\ \\"\\;True\\ delights\\ of\\ motherhood\\"\\;\\Spread\\ of\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ childbearing\\ as\\ rewarding\\ to\\ the\\ entire\\ family\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ mother\\.\\ \\Visual\\ imagery\\ related\\ to\\ this\\ theme\\,\\ even\\ a\\ little\\ erotic\\.\\ Compare\\ with\\ Fragonard\\&\\#39\\;s\\ panel\\ for\\ \\"\\;The\\ progress\\ of\\ love\\"\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ similar\\ in\\ composition\\ and\\ spread\\ of\\ events\\,\\ only\\ in\\ Fragonard\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ the\\ lovers\\ who\\ meet\\,\\ whereas\\ in\\ Moreau\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ the\\ family\\.\\ Relationship\\ between\\ mother\\ and\\ child\\ echoes\\ the\\ amorous\\ meeting\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ setting\\.\\ \\Visual\\ fantasy\\ of\\ motherhood\\,\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ nuclear\\ family\\.\\ \\\\Fragonard\\,\\ \\"\\;Visit\\ to\\ the\\ nursery\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;The\\ lock\\"\\;\\Transformation\\ of\\ the\\ erotic\\ model\\ into\\ a\\ moral\\ body\\.\\ The\\ nursery\\ situation\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ laden\\ with\\ erotic\\ import\\,\\ but\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ about\\ that\\ at\\ all\\.\\ Fragonard\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ erotic\\ bonds\\ between\\ parents\\ also\\ relates\\ to\\ emotional\\ bonds\\ within\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\Composition\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ religious\\ family\\,\\ triangular\\ arrangement\\ where\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ Joseph\\ but\\ the\\ mother\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ dominant\\ \\(see\\ Raphael\\,\\ \\"\\;Holy\\ family\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ \\Eros\\ harnessed\\ into\\ the\\ social\\ purpose\\ of\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\\\Etienne\\ Aubry\\,\\ \\"\\;Farewell\\ to\\ the\\ nurse\\"\\;\\ \\(1777\\)\\Practice\\ of\\ giving\\ children\\ away\\ to\\ the\\ nurse\\.\\ Elite\\ family\\ comes\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ the\\ child\\ from\\ the\\ nurse\\.\\ Transition\\ of\\ one\\ cultural\\ ideal\\ into\\ another\\,\\ foster\\ parents\\ are\\ already\\ emotionally\\ invested\\ in\\ the\\ bringing\\ up\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\.\\ \\Father\\ figure\\ is\\ distant\\,\\ distant\\ and\\ unengaged\\,\\ contrast\\ with\\ emotional\\ foster\\ father\\.\\ \\\\Marguerite\\ Gerard\\,\\ \\"\\;Happy\\ household\\"\\;\\ \\(1795\\-1800\\)\\Elite\\,\\ transmission\\ of\\ emotion\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ being\\ reinserted\\ into\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ upper\\ classes\\ family\\ life\\.\\ \\Propaganda\\ ranting\\ against\\ the\\ intellectual\\ engagement\\ of\\ women\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ motherhood\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ exclude\\ any\\ other\\ position\\ in\\ life\\.\\ \\\\Prudhon\\,\\ \\"\\;Venus\\,\\ Hymen\\ and\\ cupid\\"\\;\\Breatfeeding\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ idea\\,\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ Venus\\ emphasized\\ in\\ its\\ reproductive\\ function\\.\\ \\\\Greuze\\,\\ \\"\\;Ungrateful\\ son\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Punished\\ son\\"\\;\\New\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ mother\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ father\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ figure\\ of\\ an\\ affective\\,\\ generous\\ and\\ kind\\ father\\.\\ \\Greuze\\ shows\\ moment\\ of\\ transition\\ between\\ both\\ figures\\.\\ \\Represent\\ crisis\\ of\\ paternity\\,\\ neurosis\\.\\ Son\\ is\\ eventually\\ punished\\ in\\ discovering\\ father\\ died\\.\\ \\Body\\ language\\,\\ intense\\ gestural\\ activity\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ figures\\ engage\\ with\\ their\\ faces\\,\\ expressing\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ grief\\.\\ Physiognomy\\ of\\ grief\\.\\ \\Degree\\ of\\ tension\\ emerging\\ around\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ family\\,\\ shown\\ here\\ to\\ be\\ absolutely\\ sealed\\ off\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\,\\ absolutely\\ nuclear\\ and\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ outside\\.\\ Exaggerated\\ facial\\ expressions\\ and\\ gestures\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ read\\ the\\ didactic\\ import\\ of\\ the\\ image\\ clearly\\.\\ \\Spells\\ out\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ father\\ as\\ ambivalent\\,\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ tyrannical\\ but\\ whose\\ death\\ causes\\ anxiety\\ and\\ sadness\\ within\\ the\\ family\\ unit\\.\\ \\Complexity\\ of\\ the\\ dual\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ fther\\.\\ \\\\David\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ oath\\ of\\ the\\ Horatii\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Horatius\\ victorious\\ reentering\\ Rome\\ \\Takes\\ up\\ antiquity\\ rather\\ than\\ contemporary\\ life\\ to\\ represent\\ ideals\\ of\\ society\\.\\ \\Representation\\ of\\ the\\ centrality\\ of\\ paternal\\ authority\\,\\ sons\\ take\\ a\\ moral\\ oath\\ from\\ him\\.\\ Father\\ is\\ not\\ represented\\ as\\ an\\ old\\ and\\ weak\\ figure\\,\\ but\\ as\\ someone\\ strong\\,\\ agile\\ and\\ vigorous\\.\\ His\\ body\\ is\\ well\\ groomed\\,\\ rendered\\ with\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ detail\\.\\ \\David\\ contrasts\\ language\\ of\\ male\\ virtue\\ with\\ the\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ who\\ represent\\ emotional\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ event\\.\\ Their\\ body\\ language\\ is\\ limp\\,\\ they\\ express\\ grief\\.\\ Interesting\\ degree\\ of\\ tension\\ introducing\\ element\\ of\\ female\\ grief\\.\\ \\\\David\\,\\ \\"\\;Brutus\\"\\;\\ \\(1789\\)\\Theme\\ from\\ antiquity\\ resonating\\ in\\ present\\ day\\.\\ Brutus\\ was\\ the\\ republican\\ ruler\\ who\\ killed\\ his\\ sons\\ when\\ discovering\\ they\\ revolted\\ against\\ the\\ republic\\.\\ The\\ lectors\\ are\\ bringing\\ the\\ bodies\\ into\\ the\\ house\\&hellip\\;\\ mother\\ expresses\\ grief\\ and\\ father\\ \\(Brutus\\)\\ sits\\ under\\ the\\ statue\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ In\\ his\\ sketch\\,\\ David\\ wanted\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ beheaded\\ heads\\,\\ but\\ gave\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ bloody\\ idea\\.\\ \\Act\\ of\\ the\\ father\\ against\\ own\\ sons\\,\\ breaking\\ lineage\\ of\\ the\\ family\\.\\ Conveys\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ paternity\\ and\\ republicanism\\ are\\ not\\ compatible\\.\\ \\Column\\ divides\\ the\\ painting\\ in\\ half\\,\\ female\\ side\\ of\\ grief\\ and\\ masculine\\ side\\ of\\ father\\ in\\ the\\ shadow\\ contemplating\\ his\\ act\\.\\ \\Challenge\\ of\\ idea\\ of\\ father\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ alignment\\ of\\ state\\ with\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\:\\ The\\ Moral\\ Body\\ \\(10\\/1\\/07\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Broader\\ cultural\\ reaction\\ against\\ aristocratic\\ cultural\\ trends\\ \\(ie\\ pornography\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reaction\\ part\\ of\\ Enlightenment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Salon\\ \\(regular\\ from\\ 1737\\ on\\)\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marked\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ art\\ into\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ of\\ attention\\ to\\ public\\ from\\ owner\\ of\\ the\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ criteria\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ was\\ important\\ to\\ understanding\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ critic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Articulated\\ the\\ public\\,\\ both\\ real\\ and\\ imaginary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diderot\\ was\\ among\\ most\\ important\\/consistent\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ critics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defended\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ public\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\ dissolute\\ erotic\\ themes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Called\\ for\\ new\\ didactic\\ and\\ legible\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Needs\\ to\\ provide\\ lesson\\ to\\ the\\ spectator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Virtuous\\ subject\\ matter\\:\\ love\\ within\\ the\\ confines\\ of\\ social\\ institution\\ of\\ marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Figures\\ very\\ legible\\,\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ classical\\ composition\\ \\(Vincent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Germanicus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\(3\\)\\ where\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clear\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ enlacement\\ of\\ figures\\ like\\ in\\ Watteau\\ \\(4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yet\\ here\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ culminating\\,\\ pregnant\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Composition\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ import\\ of\\ the\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Representation\\ of\\ idealized\\ lower\\ class\\ family\\ life\\ rather\\ than\\ aristocratic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ convey\\ emotional\\ connection\\ between\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institution\\ that\\ implies\\ physical\\ or\\ emotional\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Old\\:\\ chain\\ of\\ relations\\ defined\\ by\\ their\\ relations\\ to\\ property\\ \\(5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marriage\\ as\\ a\\ contract\\ negotiated\\ between\\ heads\\ of\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poorest\\ people\\ did\\ not\\ marry\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ were\\ recognized\\ as\\ radically\\ different\\ from\\ adults\\ \\(enlightenment\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ access\\ to\\ reason\\,\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ instructed\\ rather\\ than\\ punished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(7\\)\\ Diligent\\ mother\\ showing\\ child\\ embroidery\\ hoping\\ she\\ will\\ emulate\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discovery\\ of\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ recognized\\,\\ generated\\ need\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\/control\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moral\\ image\\ \\(6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Child\\ as\\ involuntary\\,\\ unknowing\\ carriers\\ of\\ sexual\\ vulnerability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disheveled\\ clothing\\,\\ exposed\\ arm\\ shows\\ sexual\\ potential\\ of\\ moral\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warning\\ against\\ moral\\ loss\\,\\ but\\ also\\ allows\\ viewer\\ to\\ enjoy\\ sexual\\ potential\\ of\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Status\\ of\\ mothers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ close\\ physical\\ and\\ emotional\\ connection\\ between\\ mother\\ and\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Erotic\\ appeal\\ of\\ mother\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(8\\)\\ radiating\\ happiness\\,\\ carefree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(9\\)\\ Mother\\ with\\ three\\ children\\,\\ scolding\\ the\\ oldest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Breastfeeding\\ introduced\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ as\\ ideal\\ for\\ the\\ mother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rousseau\\ published\\ support\\ for\\ breastfeeding\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ for\\ aristocratic\\ women\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Image\\ disseminated\\ in\\ print\\ \\(10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elegant\\ dress\\ of\\ mother\\ \\(11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delight\\ of\\ mother\\ at\\ her\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ steps\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(13\\)\\ show\\ lawful\\ announcement\\ of\\ pregnancy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(14\\)\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utmost\\ glee\\ at\\ having\\ had\\ a\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(15\\)\\ delight\\ in\\ family\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eroticisation\\ of\\ family\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parallels\\ composition\\ of\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Statue\\ of\\ Venus\\,\\ positioning\\ of\\ family\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ nuclear\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(17\\)\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Visit\\ to\\ the\\ Nursery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;parallels\\ \\(18\\)\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Lock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Here\\ parents\\ take\\ delight\\ in\\ watching\\ their\\ offspring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ dominates\\ the\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Father\\ almost\\ kneeling\\ before\\ her\\ and\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\ emphasizes\\ erotic\\ bond\\ between\\ the\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parallel\\ to\\ \\(19\\)\\ Raphael\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Holy\\ Family\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(20\\)\\ Aubry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Farewell\\ to\\ the\\ Nurse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;where\\ elite\\ family\\ comes\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ child\\ at\\ age\\ 4\\ from\\ foster\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moment\\ of\\ transition\\,\\ emotional\\ attachment\\ to\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\ reaction\\ of\\ foster\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\ to\\ stiff\\ figure\\ of\\ biological\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(21\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Happy\\ Household\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limits\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happiness\\ to\\ family\\ sphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rules\\ out\\ intellectual\\ engagement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(22\\)\\ Allegorical\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Venus\\ harnessing\\ her\\ breast\\ as\\ an\\ erotic\\ gesture\\,\\ also\\ supporting\\ breast\\ feeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Changing\\ view\\ of\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\:\\ generous\\,\\ kind\\,\\ thoughtful\\ father\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ tyrant\\ of\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(23\\)\\:\\ Father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ anger\\ at\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enlisting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\ members\\ show\\ dismay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Family\\ sealed\\ off\\ from\\ outside\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(24\\)\\ Upon\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ return\\,\\ he\\ learns\\ that\\ his\\ father\\ has\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ figures\\&rsquo\\;\\ faces\\ engaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Womens\\&rsquo\\;\\ physiognomy\\ of\\ grief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ LeBrun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ body\\,\\ seen\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Darius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degree\\ of\\ tension\\ in\\ the\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idea\\ of\\ father\\ as\\ an\\ ambivalent\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tyrannical\\,\\ yet\\ someone\\ whose\\ death\\ causes\\ suffering\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ tension\\ of\\ emergence\\ of\\ father\\ figure\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(25\\)\\ Horatii\\ giving\\ oath\\ to\\ their\\ father\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ engage\\ in\\ mortal\\ combat\\,\\ will\\ not\\ stop\\ until\\ they\\ are\\ victorious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Body\\ language\\ stands\\ for\\ moral\\ resolve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ rendered\\ powerful\\,\\ deliberate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ of\\ male\\ virtue\\ contrasted\\ with\\ women\\ expressing\\ grief\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ taking\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(26\\)\\ Brother\\ kills\\ woman\\ in\\ blue\\ dress\\ \\(25\\)\\ because\\ she\\ mourns\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ her\\ fianc\\é\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ celebrates\\ victory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(27\\)\\ Brutus\\ discovers\\ that\\ his\\ sons\\ are\\ betraying\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Here\\ lichtors\\ bring\\ back\\ bodies\\ into\\ the\\ household\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(28\\)\\ drawings\\ of\\ Brutus\\ as\\ burdened\\ by\\ act\\ vs\\.\\ contemplating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chooses\\ latter\\,\\ shows\\ moral\\ dilemma\\ of\\ republicanism\\ vs\\.\\ paternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Column\\ divides\\ emotional\\ reaction\\,\\ represented\\ by\\ women\\,\\ and\\ the\\ father\\,\\ contemplating\\ in\\ the\\ shadow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ conflicts\\ of\\ role\\ of\\ paternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(29\\)\\ shows\\ possibility\\ of\\ including\\ decapitated\\ heads\\,\\ dismissed\\ as\\ too\\ gruesome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 3\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Revolutionary\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ moral\\ body\\,\\ one\\ inscribed\\ in\\ a\\ family\\ circle\\,\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ position\\ in\\ it\\,\\ but\\ also\\ by\\ the\\ effective\\ connection\\ bw\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ Greuze\\ who\\ articulates\\ this\\ relation\\ compositionally\\ and\\ through\\ body\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ the\\ arcs\\ in\\ the\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ motherhood\\,\\ like\\ in\\ Chiraz\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Happy\\ Household\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ tension\\ around\\ the\\ figure\\ o\\ the\\ father\\,\\ father\\ as\\ embodiment\\ o\\ authority\\ \\(Brutus\\)\\,\\ happy\\ father\\ in\\ Gerard\\ turns\\ into\\ angst\\-ridden\\ father\\ in\\ Brutus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ arch\\ o\\ Greuze\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ ruptured\\ composition\\ o\\ Brutus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brutus\\ was\\ exhibited\\ at\\ the\\ Salon\\ in\\ summer\\ o\\ 1789\\,\\ which\\ convenes\\ in\\ particular\\ circumstances\\ amidst\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Bastille\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ print\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Started\\ 7\\/14\\ when\\ the\\ Bastille\\ was\\ stormed\\ by\\ an\\ angry\\ crowd\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ actually\\ filled\\ w\\ prisoners\\.\\ \\ \\;Few\\ prisoners\\ actually\\.\\ But\\ it\\ \\=\\ symbol\\ o\\ Austrian\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Director\\ n\\ his\\ entourage\\ o\\ prison\\ were\\ beheaded\\,\\ their\\ heads\\ paraded\\ through\\ the\\ streets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ general\\ problem\\ o\\ impact\\ o\\ revolution\\ on\\ art\\,\\ specifically\\ radical\\ change\\ it\\ produced\\ in\\ treatment\\ o\\ body\\ n\\ way\\ it\\ functioned\\ in\\ visual\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ major\\ problem\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ 2represent\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;How2show\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ never\\ happened\\ b4\\?\\ \\ \\;N\\ a\\ contemporary\\ event\\ 2boot\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ primitive\\ form\\ o\\ representation\\ meant\\ 4popular\\ dissemination\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ how\\ windows\\ in\\ house\\ r\\ aligned\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ human\\ figures\\ r\\ shown\\ like\\ matchsticks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ untrained\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Topicgraphical\\ view\\ that\\ packs\\ everything\\ in\\ order\\ 2convey\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ what\\ happened\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ 4aritsts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ 2fit\\ the\\ revolution\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ existing\\ genres\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2adopt\\ history\\ pntg\\ 2accomodate\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ event\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\History\\ pntg\\ as\\ type\\ o\\ rperesntation\\ was\\ hooked\\ w\\ notion\\ o\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ major\\ problem\\ o\\ how\\ body\\ should\\ b\\ defined\\ as\\ represenatiaon\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ the\\ artists\\ confronted\\ in\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ decade\\ 1789\\-1799\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Thevenin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ taking\\ of\\ the\\ Bastille\\ and\\ the\\ execution\\ of\\ Monsieur\\ de\\ Launay\\,\\ 14\\,\\ July\\ 1789\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1795\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\History\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Appraochaes\\ the\\ event\\ not\\ topographically\\,\\ but\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ body\\ representing\\ the\\ storming\\ o\\ the\\ bastille\\,\\ shown\\ ehre\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ fragment\\ o\\ the\\ fortress\\ it\\ was\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ it\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ bodily\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lower\\ class\\ men\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wear\\ aristocratic\\ breaches\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ dude\\ in\\ shorts\\ single\\-handedly\\ holds\\ back\\ the\\ fortress\\&rsquo\\;\\ ppl\\,\\ w\\ the\\ director\\ o\\ it\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confrontation\\ bw\\ director\\,\\ his\\ pale\\ face\\ n\\ wilted\\ body\\,\\ as\\ embodiment\\ o\\ ancient\\ regime\\,\\ w\\ the\\ heroic\\ new\\ rvolutionary\\ body\\ represnted\\ by\\ suncula\\ \\(lower\\ class\\ dude\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ problem\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ 2make\\ the\\ body\\ show\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ problem\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ 2represent\\ new\\ revolutionary\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-image\\ o\\ revolutionary\\ actor\\,\\ but\\ also\\ model\\ w\\ which\\ ppl\\ can\\ identify\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\,\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ these\\ 2\\ issues\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Body\\ as\\ representation\\ o\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ as\\ representation\\ o\\ new\\ ideas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ collectivity\\,\\ national\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ppl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1791\\,\\ drwg\\,\\ Versailles\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ o\\ body\\ as\\ key\\ means\\ 2show\\ notion\\ o\\ new\\ collectivity\\,\\ illustrated\\ by\\ the\\ work\\ o\\ Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrk\\ remains\\ unfinished\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ hugely\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ his\\ elaborate\\,\\ last\\-stage\\ prepatory\\ drawing\\ 4pntg\\ on\\ subject\\ o\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1791\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ was\\ 2represent\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ founding\\ moments\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\:\\ \\ \\;constitution\\ o\\ national\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ was\\ behind\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Spring\\ o\\ 1789\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ an\\ ongoing\\ financial\\ crisis\\,\\ the\\ King\\ convoked\\ the\\ Estate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ General\\,\\ meaning\\ representatives\\ o\\ 3\\ orders\\:\\ \\ \\;nobility\\,\\ clergy\\,\\ n\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;estate\\,\\ were\\ 2deliberate\\ on\\ fiscal\\ reforms\\ needing\\ 2b\\ addressed\\ in\\ order\\ 2reduce\\ crisis\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ issue\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ aristocracy\\ would\\ agree\\ 2get\\ taxed\\ n\\ thus\\ provide\\ income\\ 2the\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ 2b\\ discussed\\,\\ but\\ separately\\ by\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Estate\\,\\ the\\ most\\ numerous\\ estate\\,\\ wanted\\ 2discuss\\ this\\ w\\ the\\ other\\ 2orders\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ want\\ 2get\\ short\\-thrifted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Issue\\ o\\ representation\\,\\ o\\ negotiation\\,\\ issue\\ o\\ how\\ the\\ estates\\ r\\ 2represent\\ the\\ will\\ o\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ start\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ o\\ the\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Estate\\ argued\\ 4common\\ deliberations\\,\\ but\\ was\\ frustrated\\ by\\ king\\ not\\ letting\\ it\\ happened\\,\\ so\\ it\\ constituted\\ itself\\ as\\ a\\ National\\ Assembly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ joined\\ by\\ the\\ clergy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ agreed\\ 2this\\,\\ but\\ when\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Estate\\ deputies\\ arrived\\,\\ they\\ found\\ it\\ closed\\ n\\ occupied\\ by\\ troops\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ probably\\ ordered\\ redocration\\ o\\ the\\ roomn\\ in\\ order\\ 2accomdate\\ all\\ the\\ deputies\\,\\ but\\ deputies\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ informed\\ n\\ thus\\ assumed\\ king\\ reneged\\ on\\ his\\ promise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Estate\\ decides\\ 2govern\\ on\\ nearby\\ Tennis\\ Court\\ Hall\\,\\ where\\ 637\\ deputies\\ could\\ find\\ shelter\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ oath\\ took\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deputies\\ gathered\\ there\\ swore\\ not\\ 2disband\\ until\\ a\\ constitution\\ was\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ became\\ an\\ event\\ that\\ marked\\ the\\ origin\\ o\\ national\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\N\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ constituted\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ task\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ 2show\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ collectivity\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ a\\ commission\\ o\\ the\\ Jacobin\\ club\\,\\ proposed\\ 2him\\ in\\ 1790\\,\\ one\\ year\\ after\\ the\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ \\=\\ member\\ o\\ Jacobin\\ club\\ at\\ this\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Jacobin\\ faction\\ eventually\\ came\\ 2power\\ n\\ was\\ responsible\\ 4the\\ terror\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afterwards\\,\\ the\\ National\\ Assembly\\ picked\\ up\\ the\\ commsission\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;d\\ b\\ a\\ huge\\ pntg\\ 2decorate\\ the\\ hall\\ o\\ the\\ NA\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Project\\ was\\ vastly\\ expensive\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ o\\ the\\ participants\\ in\\ the\\ event\\ became\\ compromised\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ guy\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ was\\ guillotined\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ became\\ very\\ busy\\ w\\ other\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ became\\ THE\\ major\\ artist\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ so\\ the\\ pntg\\ was\\ never\\ completed\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ almost\\ finished\\ sketchgives\\ u\\ an\\ idea\\ o\\ what\\ the\\ pntg\\ was\\ 2look\\ like\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salon\\ o\\ 1791\\:\\ \\ \\;caused\\ sensation\\.\\ \\ \\;Never\\ b4\\ did\\ a\\ history\\ pntg\\ show\\ a\\ contemporary\\ event\\ w\\/o\\ allegory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lebrun\\ used\\ allegory\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ Conquest\\ o\\ the\\ King\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\,\\ u\\ see\\ event\\ as\\ it\\ happened\\!\\ \\ \\;Big\\ deal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ that\\ such\\ an\\ assignment\\ posed\\ 4David\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ 2make\\ this\\ event\\ n\\ its\\ meaning\\ legible\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2convey\\ the\\ newness\\ o\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2do\\ so\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ familiar\\ enough\\ 2make\\ it\\ understandable\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ question\\ that\\ concerned\\ the\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Major\\ actors\\ here\\ were\\ the\\ deputies\\,\\ n\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2develop\\ the\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ n\\ their\\ relation\\ 2eo\\ n\\ space\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Hall\\ of\\ Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ drwg\\.\\,\\ folio\\ from\\ Versailles\\ sketchbook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ how\\ he\\ arrived\\ at\\ his\\ final\\ drawing\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ oath\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Oath\\ of\\ the\\ Tennis\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ prep\\.\\ Drwg\\,\\ Fogg\\ Art\\ Museum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ his\\ thought\\ developed\\,\\ he\\ changed\\ the\\ space\\ in\\ a\\ radical\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trims\\ it\\ o\\ all\\ its\\ details\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turning\\ it\\ in2\\ a\\ perspectile\\ box\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ inscribed\\ the\\ bodies\\ o\\ the\\ deputies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ pupil\\ Moreaut\\ probably\\ drew\\ the\\ perspectile\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lines\\ serve\\ literally\\ as\\ the\\ string\\ that\\ bodies\\ o\\ the\\ deputies\\ hang\\ from\\,\\ like\\ puppets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Composition\\ centered\\ around\\ the\\ astronomer\\ Beii\\ who\\ took\\ the\\ oath\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Separation\\ o\\ the\\ participants\\ from\\ the\\ witnesse\\ o\\ it\\,\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ windows\\ above\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ whole\\ notion\\ o\\ turning\\ the\\ interior\\ o\\ this\\ space\\ where\\ one\\ plays\\ tennis\\ in2\\ a\\ symbolic\\ arena\\ where\\ an\\ imptnt\\ event\\ takes\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ theatricality\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ unity\\,\\ on\\ the\\ level\\ o\\ body\\ language\\ n\\ was\\ o\\ key\\ concern\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ o\\ conveying\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ deputies\\ united\\ by\\ a\\ single\\ idea\\ 2which\\ they\\ swore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behind\\ this\\ idea\\ was\\ a\\ single\\ person\\:\\ \\ \\;Sieyes\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TCO\\:\\ \\ \\;det\\.\\ \\(Sieyes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ guy\\ sat\\ right\\ next\\ to\\ Beii\\.\\ \\ \\;Moody\\,\\ tormented\\ individual\\ in\\ process\\ o\\ thinking\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\ does\\ he\\ look\\ like\\ this\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conveys\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ intellectual\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ thought\\ behind\\ this\\ scene\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sieyes\\ \\=\\ author\\ behind\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ is\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Estate\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Issue\\ o\\ national\\ representation\\ was\\ key\\ 2the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Estate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ began\\ his\\ pamphlet\\ w\\ 3\\ questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Estate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ its\\ role\\ so\\ far\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ it\\ want\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xxxxxxx\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transparency\\ n\\ unity\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ gathering\\ was\\ huge\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ 2do\\ we\\ Rousseau\\ n\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ common\\ will\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ event\\ had\\ 2b\\ transparent\\,\\ it\\ had\\ 2show\\ what\\ it\\ was\\ united\\ by\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ this\\ precisely\\ in\\ effort\\ o\\ David\\ 2pull\\ them\\ together\\ like\\ perspectile\\ strings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ strings\\ pull\\ everyone\\ 2gether\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ figure\\ was\\ imptnt\\,\\ he\\ was\\ at\\ center\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ theatricality\\ was\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;pushing\\ o\\ dputies\\ further\\ back\\,\\ sot\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ stage\\ conveyed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ lastly\\,\\ the\\ unison\\ o\\ gesture\\ o\\ everyone\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Versailles\\ sketchbook\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;page\\ with\\ nude\\ and\\ Antique\\-clad\\ lads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ terms\\ o\\ body\\ language\\,\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ clear\\ 2David\\ how\\ 2make\\ the\\ body\\ decorous\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ considered\\ 3options\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adopt\\ antique\\ costume\\,\\ giving\\ the\\ event\\ a\\ timeless\\ quality\\,\\ as\\ he\\ did\\ b4\\ w\\ the\\ oath\\ o\\ the\\ Horatii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Representing\\ the\\ deputies\\ in\\ the\\ nude\\.\\ \\ \\;Adopting\\ the\\ concept\\ o\\ heroic\\ nudity\\ in\\ order\\ 2signify\\ something\\ else\\ than\\ just\\ the\\ contingent\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ deputy\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contemporary\\ clothing\\:\\ \\ \\;for\\ which\\ we\\ think\\ he\\ opted\\,\\ at\\ least\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ prepatory\\ drawing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ repeat\\ the\\ same\\ gesture\\,\\ but\\ are\\ shown\\ not\\ all\\ exactly\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mirabeau\\,\\ Barnard\\,\\ others\\ in\\ this\\ image\\ later\\ became\\ compromised\\ from\\ this\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Oath\\ of\\ the\\ Horatii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ gesture\\ o\\ unison\\ was\\ developed\\ by\\ David\\ in\\ relation\\ 2history\\ pntg\\,\\ where\\ he\\ just\\ repeated\\ gestures\\ that\\ unified\\ the\\ sons\\ o\\ Horatio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ finds\\ structural\\ unity\\ in\\ unity\\ o\\ gesture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ were\\ charged\\ w\\ expressing\\ emotional\\ involvement\\,\\ but\\ no\\ women\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ we\\ get\\ Robespierre\\,\\ who\\ is\\ experiencing\\ some\\ kind\\ o\\ ecstasy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\:\\ \\ \\;2show\\ unity\\,\\ u\\ had\\ 2see\\ some\\ resistance\\ 2it\\ as\\ a\\ foil\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ deputy\\ refused\\ 2sign\\,\\ n\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ placed\\ at\\ edge\\ o\\ composition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lastly\\,\\ whole\\ scene\\ is\\ framed\\ w\\ the\\ uncommitted\\ n\\ the\\ overcommitted\\ deputy\\ on\\ the\\ left\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sick\\ deputy\\ asked\\ 2b\\ brought\\ in\\ on\\ a\\ chair\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ raises\\ his\\ hand\\ weakly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ detail\\ is\\ interesting\\ bc\\ it\\ introduces\\ the\\ imaginary\\ notion\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ the\\ sunculot\\ at\\ the\\ Bastille\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ dude\\ her\\ wears\\ the\\ shorts\\,\\ the\\ bonnet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ included\\ here\\ in\\ order\\ 2convey\\ the\\ inclusive\\ collectivity\\,\\ \\ \\;the\\ suncuolot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TCO\\:\\ \\ \\;det\\.\\:\\ \\ \\;\\(Robespierre\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TCO\\:\\ \\ \\;det\\.\\:\\ \\ \\;\\(Martin\\ Dauch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\L\\-P\\,\\ Merson\\ after\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TCO\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\i\\/c\\,\\ Versailles\\,\\ in\\ situ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ suggests\\ the\\ winds\\ o\\ history\\ r\\ blowing\\ through\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Upturned\\ umbrella\\.\\ \\ \\;Lighting\\ happens\\ 2strike\\ the\\ chapel\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ symbol\\ o\\ the\\ old\\ order\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ r\\ present\\ up\\ int\\ eh\\ windows\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Journalist\\,\\ Marat\\,\\ is\\ scribbling\\ up\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Ut\\ he\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ there\\ in\\ reality\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ symbolic\\ inclusionl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TCO\\:\\ \\ \\;ptd\\ sketch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1791\\-92\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interesting\\ pntd\\ sketch\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ a\\ fragment\\.\\ \\ \\;3\\ men\\ swearing\\ under\\ Beii\\.\\ \\ \\;Illustrates\\ several\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\That\\ David\\ asked\\ dputies\\ 2pass\\ through\\ his\\ studio\\ in\\ order\\ 2get\\ their\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ o\\ them\\ did\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ seemed\\ 2b\\ combining\\ these\\ prtriats\\ w\\ the\\ nude\\,\\ idealized\\ body\\,\\ w\\ which\\ these\\ individuals\\ had\\ nothing\\ 2do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ the\\ nude\\ gives\\ us\\ pause\\:\\ \\ \\;did\\ David\\ intend\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ 2dress\\ tehse\\ deputies\\ up\\,\\ or\\ was\\ he\\ considering\\ the\\ heroic\\ nudity\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Rigaud\\,\\ Louis\\ XIV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shift\\ in\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ the\\ obyd\\ in\\ political\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moved\\ authority\\ from\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ king\\,\\ established\\ formula\\ o\\ portraiture\\ through\\ which\\ body\\ o\\ king\\ \\=\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Rigaud\\ did\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ this\\ understanding\\ o\\ pulic\\ authority\\ has\\ been\\ relocated\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ specific\\ individual\\&hellip\\;as\\ shown\\ by\\ this\\ sketch\\ that\\ shows\\ 3\\ men\\ naked\\ who\\ r\\ individual\\,s\\ but\\ a\\ collective\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capacity\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ 2stand\\ 4the\\ nation\\,\\ metaphor\\ 4understanding\\ a\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ revolutionary\\ collectivity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ problem\\ inherent\\ in\\ this\\ transpotision\\ o\\ contemporary\\ body\\ was\\ the\\ fact\\ o\\ its\\ contingency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fact\\ that\\ some\\ o\\ these\\ ppl\\,\\ like\\ Mirabeau\\ who\\ conveniently\\ died\\ in\\ 1792\\,\\ were\\ compromised\\ by\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ later\\ 90s\\,\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2return\\ 2thsi\\ pntg\\,\\ but\\ 2do\\ so\\,\\ he\\ petitioned\\ the\\ govenrmetn\\ n\\ offered\\ 2change\\ the\\ actors\\ in\\ it\\,\\ bc\\ ucouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ retain\\ the\\ old\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\ at\\ His\\ Last\\ Breath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1793\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntg\\ o\\ Marat\\ at\\ his\\ last\\ breath\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ journalist\\,\\ n\\ now\\ a\\ martyr\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ \\=\\ major\\ political\\ ideal\\ o\\ the\\ ppl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2understand\\ this\\ image\\,\\ we\\ have\\ 2understand\\ its\\ context\\ form\\ which\\ it\\ emerged\\,\\ in\\ 2aspects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ o\\ king\\ in\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\J\\.S\\.\\ Duplessis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Louis\\ XVI\\ in\\ Ceremonial\\ Robes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Salon\\ 1777\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\King\\ reluctantly\\ supported\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ but\\ changed\\ his\\ mind\\ in\\ 1792\\,\\ tried\\ 2escape\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ caught\\,\\ put\\ on\\ trial\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ 2do\\ w\\ him\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dethrone\\ him\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Execute\\ him\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacobins\\ wante\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ won\\.\\ \\ \\;Popular\\ rare\\ print\\ o\\ this\\ event\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Execution\\ of\\ Louis\\ XVI\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\,\\ 1793\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ had\\ profound\\ symbolic\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ got\\ rid\\ o\\ that\\ body\\ that\\ stood\\ 4the\\ state\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Villeneuve\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\May\\ your\\ impure\\ blood\\ irrigate\\ our\\ fields\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1793\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustrates\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fragmentation\\.\\ \\ \\;Epitomized\\ by\\ this\\ hand\\ o\\ the\\ ppl\\,\\ hodling\\ the\\ ecapitated\\,\\ n\\ still\\ dripping\\ head\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subtitle\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;let\\ your\\ blood\\ fertilize\\ the\\ furrows\\ o\\ our\\ fields\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Seen\\ as\\ event\\ that\\ generates\\ something\\ new\\ n\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ a\\ symbolic\\ vacuum\\ from\\ which\\ body\\ o\\ king\\ that\\ stood\\ 4something\\ everyone\\ idetnfieid\\ w\\ moved\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ had\\ 2b\\ replaced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ Marat\\ comes\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assassinated\\ in\\ 7\\/93\\ by\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ commissioned\\ by\\ Jacobins\\ 2make\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2link\\ the\\ death\\ 2the\\ Jacobins\\&rsquo\\;\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ o\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ execution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Image\\ had\\ 2offer\\ a\\ victim\\,\\ ppl\\ as\\ victim\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2b\\ able\\ 2jsutify\\ the\\ JAcbonins\\&rsquo\\;\\ decision\\ 2execute\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;2show\\ tangible\\ ppl\\ on\\ the\\ ppl\\,\\ on\\ Marat\\,\\ n\\ had\\ 2counteract\\ the\\ negative\\ effect\\ o\\ having\\ murdered\\ the\\ King\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2fulfill\\ this\\ assignment\\,\\ David\\ had\\ 2focus\\ on\\ Marat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ n\\ turn\\ it\\ in2repsentaiton\\ o\\ political\\ ideal\\ o\\ the\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Tricky\\,\\ bc\\ even\\ though\\ body\\ was\\ always\\ mentioned\\ in\\ revolutionary\\ discourse\\,\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ clear\\ who\\ stood\\ 4the\\ ppl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\:\\ \\ \\;2embody\\ it\\,\\ 2give\\ it\\ an\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ drew\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ experience\\ as\\ a\\ history\\ pntr\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Death\\ of\\ the\\ Patriot\\ Jean\\-Paul\\ Marat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Andromache\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Grief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1783\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ on\\ Homeric\\ text\\ describing\\ Andromache\\ mourning\\ her\\ husband\\ Hector\\,\\ spread\\ out\\ as\\ heroic\\ body\\ o\\ a\\ warrior\\ who\\ was\\ killed\\ on\\ his\\ deathbed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ removes\\ Andromache\\ from\\ his\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ a\\ mediating\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ emotional\\ reaction\\ mediated\\ our\\ response\\ 2the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ include\\ the\\ woman\\ who\\ killed\\ Marat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ David\\ had\\ 2make\\ Marat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ itself\\ speak\\ 2us\\ while\\ it\\ displays\\ itself\\ 2us\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ o\\ virtue\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ had2\\ solicit\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotional\\ response\\ 2this\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ he\\ drew\\ on\\ representation\\ linked\\ 2Christ\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caravaggio\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Deposition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1602\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\God\\ this\\ is\\ beautiful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ probably\\ checked\\ this\\ out\\ 2see\\ Caravaggio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arm\\ hanging\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idealization\\ o\\ the\\ obdy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Francois\\ Garneray\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Marat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ ugly\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ David\\ makes\\ him\\ look\\ better\\.\\ \\ \\;Misaligned\\ eyes\\,\\ crooked\\ nose\\,\\ David\\ glosses\\ overthese\\ irregularities\\ by\\ shifting\\ his\\ head\\ n\\ smoothing\\ his\\ features\\,\\ which\\ will\\ help\\ him\\ circulate\\ his\\ image\\ in\\ public\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ Copia\\ after\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\,\\ the\\ Friend\\ of\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1793\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\ reduced\\ 2its\\ essentials\\.\\ \\ \\;Orange\\ box\\,\\ w\\ pen\\,\\ instrument\\ o\\ journalist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Piece\\ o\\ paper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knife\\ laying\\ on\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ this\\ 2\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ Roques\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ Marat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1793\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ spoile\\ dtho\\ by\\ moving\\ the\\ bathtub\\,\\ including\\ other\\ paraphernalia\\ which\\ David\\ strenuously\\ avoids\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pulling\\ the\\ body\\ towards\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ arranging\\ it\\,\\ n\\ using\\ here\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ suggestive\\ vacuum\\ which\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conveying\\ by\\ a\\ specific\\ technique\\.\\ \\ \\;Suggests\\ incoming\\ light\\ that\\ may\\ stand\\ 4something\\ else\\:\\ \\ \\;history\\&rsquo\\;s\\ posterity\\,\\ whatever\\ u\\ may\\ want\\ 2imagine\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ hand\\ holds\\ a\\ leter\\ from\\ someone\\ asking\\ 2b\\ admitted\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ table\\ is\\ form\\ o\\ ppaper\\ money\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ 2send\\ 2\\ a\\ widow\\ wh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ asking\\ 4money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inscription\\ on\\ box\\ signifies\\ Marat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ engagement\\ in\\ sending\\ the\\ money\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\General\\ aspecfts\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ it\\ put\\ art\\ 2political\\ use\\.\\ \\ \\;Art\\ not\\ only\\ \\=\\ representation\\ o\\ politcalyly\\ resonant\\ event\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ political\\ tool\\ 2shape\\ public\\ opinion\\,\\ 2help\\ retoraticavley\\ address\\ the\\ Terror\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2ndly\\:\\ \\ \\;more\\ impotnly\\ 4us\\,\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ fnctns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ see\\ instance\\ o\\ revolution\\&rsquo\\;s\\ effect\\ on\\ representation\\,\\ which\\ was\\ introduction\\ o\\ body\\ as\\ model\\ 4identification\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ collective\\ n\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marat\\ \\=\\ embodiment\\ o\\ certain\\ subjective\\ ideal\\ o\\ revolutionary\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;Autonomous\\,\\ impermeable\\,\\ controlled\\ even\\ in\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ male\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ is\\ very\\ imptnt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Which\\ brings\\ us\\ 2problem\\ o\\ gender\\ n\\ revolutionary\\ body\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Triumphant\\ Return\\ of\\ French\\ Heroines\\ from\\ Versailles\\,\\ October\\ 1789\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ did\\ women\\ participate\\ in\\ te\\ reovoutoin\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ marched\\ on\\ Versailles\\ 2demand\\ bread\\ n\\ help\\,\\ wanting\\ 2\\ bring\\ king\\ n\\ queen\\ back\\ from\\ Versailles\\ 2Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Such\\ pictures\\ showing\\ women\\ as\\ agents\\ o\\ revolution\\ were\\ rare\\ n\\ limited\\ 2popualr\\ prints\\,\\ not\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ persona\\ was\\ generally\\ expressed\\ as\\ male\\,\\ whereas\\ female\\ body\\ was\\ used\\ 2represetnat\\ abstract\\ ideals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ Peree\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Regenerated\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1795\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nanine\\ Vallain\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1793\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ stands\\ for\\ new\\ ideal\\:\\ \\ \\;liberty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ frigid\\ bonnet\\ in\\ one\\ hadn\\ \\=\\ suymbol\\ o\\ liberty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ we\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ ppl\\ thought\\ o\\ revolutionary\\ ideals\\ in\\ very\\ genderized\\,\\ polarized\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ these\\ terms\\ were\\ atlered\\ by\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolution\\ borught\\ shift\\ away\\ from\\ maleness\\ as\\ symobolic\\ o\\ virtue\\,\\ n\\ woman\\ emerges\\,\\ intervening\\ in\\ all\\-male\\ public\\ universe\\ o\\ Republican\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1799\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustrates\\ this\\ shift\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Story\\:\\ \\ \\;intervention\\ htat\\ happens\\ 3\\ yrs\\ after\\ Roman\\ tribe\\,\\ short\\ on\\ women\\,\\ abducted\\ omwen\\ o\\ Sabine\\ tribe\\.\\ \\ \\;Invited\\ them\\ 4\\ aparty\\,\\ then\\ stole\\ the\\ women\\ o\\ the\\ men\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ arms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ yrs\\ later\\,\\ Sabine\\ men\\ came\\ back\\ 3reclaim\\ sisters\\ n\\ daughters\\.\\ \\ \\;2late\\,\\ tho\\,\\ bc\\ the\\ women\\ had\\ already\\ had\\ children\\ w\\ the\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ urged\\ the\\ men\\ 2stop\\ fighting\\ bc\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ endanger\\ their\\ own\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ sotry\\ had\\ obvious\\ political\\ resonance\\ which\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ political\\ strife\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ also\\ marked\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ efforst\\ o\\ male\\ acricifice\\,\\ identified\\ w\\ earlier\\ stage\\ o\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ emerged\\ as\\ center\\ o\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ embodied\\ public\\ values\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ private\\ emotions\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ Brutus\\ or\\ Horatii\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ David\\ arrive\\ at\\ this\\ solution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ intervening\\ women\\ r\\ represented\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ w\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circular\\ arrangement\\ show\\ \\ \\;the\\ revolutionary\\ process\\ o\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ French\\ People\\ or\\ the\\ Regime\\ of\\ Robespierre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ etching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negative\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ Terror\\,\\ in\\ order\\ 2drive\\ this\\ pnt\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ Hersilia\\ is\\ both\\ a\\ Sabine\\ woman\\ and\\ an\\ allegorical\\ figure\\,\\ as\\ are\\ her\\ companions\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quevedro\\ afger\\ J\\.\\-F\\ Garneray\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ French\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1792\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ given\\ role\\ o\\ reperesentation\\ o\\ French\\ republic\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ \\;Last\\ pnt\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ bodies\\ interestingly\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ were\\ heroically\\ nude\\,\\ shown\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ pitomzied\\ here\\ that\\ marked\\ a\\ shift\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ male\\ body\\ as\\ embodiment\\ o\\ sacrifice\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ Horatii\\,\\ or\\ even\\ commitment\\ 2poiltical\\ cause\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ a\\ certain\\ ideal\\ o\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;Aesthetic\\ ideal\\,\\ underwritten\\ by\\ obvious\\ erotic\\ overtones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Check\\ out\\ his\\ butt\\.\\ \\ \\;Shining\\ legs\\.\\ \\ \\;Suggests\\ that\\ David\\ is\\ introducing\\ not\\ only\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ ideal\\,\\ but\\ a\\ certain\\ new\\ ideal\\ o\\ subjectivity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ subjectivity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ later\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ October\\ 09\\,\\ 2007\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ SECTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ moral\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ in\\ relation\\ 2the\\ legible\\ body\\,\\ the\\ academy\\ body\\ we\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;section\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moral\\ body\\ has\\ return\\ 2leigbility\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2the\\ erotic\\ body\\,\\ the\\ private\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ legibility\\ is\\ informed\\ by\\ new\\ domestic\\ ideals\\,\\ new\\ order\\ 4society\\.\\ Social\\ shift\\ is\\ palpable\\ in\\ the\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laccordee\\ de\\ Village\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1761\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moment\\ depicted\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ signing\\ o\\ the\\ contract\\,\\ but\\ the\\ father\\ handing\\ thehusband\\ the\\ dowry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ambiguity\\ of\\ Greuze\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;accordee\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;seen\\ as\\ a\\ legible\\ piece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Diderot\\ says\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ so\\ clear\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ the\\ girl\\ mourning\\ the\\ dead\\ bird\\ as\\ a\\ girl\\ mourning\\ the\\ dead\\ bird\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sees\\ it\\ as\\ something\\ else\\ being\\ the\\ cause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Greuze\\ illustrating\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ seeing\\ motherhood\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jurgen\\ HAbernas\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Structural\\ Transformation\\ of\\ the\\ Public\\ Sphere\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;translated\\ in2\\ English\\.\\ \\ \\;Historian\\/philosopher\\ who\\ conceptualizes\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\.\\ \\ \\;Important\\ 4the\\ public\\ opinion\\ n\\ the\\ Salon\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;this\\ is\\ the\\ kidn\\ o\\ place\\ where\\ public\\ opinion\\ emerged\\ n\\ had\\ impact\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ domain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Layer\\ o\\ sensibility\\ in\\ Diderot\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Julie\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\n\\ its\\ pntg\\ counterpart\\:\\ \\ \\;Greuze\\.\\ \\ \\;Sensibility\\:\\ \\ \\;ppl\\ have\\ emotions\\,\\ n\\ ethey\\ express\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ discovering\\ that\\ ppl\\ r\\ emotional\\.\\ \\ \\;Emotions\\ would\\ permeate\\ all\\ spheres\\,\\ not\\ just\\ domestic\\,\\ but\\ also\\ political\\.\\ \\ \\;French\\ Revolution\\ orators\\ giving\\ political\\ speeches\\ were\\ so\\ emotional\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 20, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA174s_-_Class_Notes_1.doc", "desc": "Note set 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "French Body Image - Note 2", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "architecture", "body-image"], "text": null, "id": 45, "html": "\\\\\\HAA174s\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c21\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c8\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c9\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c20\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c1\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 10\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;trying\\ 2understand\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ body\\ image\\ in\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ needs\\ 2b\\ presented\\ as\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Role\\ o\\ body\\ in\\ transformation\\ o\\ contemporary\\ events\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Oath\\ o\\ the\\ Tennis\\ court\\,\\ making\\ it\\ in2\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolutionary\\ ideals\\,\\ shown\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ David\\,\\ linked\\ 2desire\\ 4political\\ embodiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tension\\ bw\\ contingency\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ the\\ desire\\ 2immortalize\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ carrier\\ o\\ mng\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ n\\ the\\ gender\\ dimension\\ o\\ that\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subjectivity\\ imageind\\ in\\ male\\ tersm\\,\\ as\\ in\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ women\\ reenetered\\ Republican\\ language\\ o\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabines\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;women\\ stood\\ 4public\\ ideal\\,\\ that\\ o\\ the\\ Republic\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ shifts\\ that\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ rendition\\ n\\ approach\\ 2the\\ male\\ body\\.from\\ the\\ vehicole\\ o\\ male\\ sacrifice\\ in\\ Marat\\ 2the\\ idealization\\ o\\ beauty\\ in\\ Sabine\\ women\\,\\ Romulus\\&rsquo\\;\\ butt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romulus\\ \\=\\ self\\-representation\\,\\ as\\ an\\ ideal\\ n\\ new\\ type\\ o\\ academy\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ an\\ artist\\ who\\ emerges\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\ unto\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ links\\ 2our\\ topic\\ today\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ period\\ that\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ emerges\\ w\\ significance\\.\\ \\ \\;Has\\ 2do\\ we\\ many\\ factors\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ kidn\\ o\\ body\\ is\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ iconography\\ o\\ modern\\ artists\\,\\ self\\-portratis\\ o\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Portraits\\ by\\ other\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ the\\ body\\ defined\\ modern\\ artistic\\ ideals\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ intertwined\\ ways\\ why\\ n\\ 4which\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ came\\ 2matter\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;Mostly\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ transformation\\ o\\ framework\\ o\\ modern\\ art\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B4\\ revolution\\,\\ artist\\ concerned\\ w\\ notion\\ o\\ academic\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Mostly\\ 2convey\\ distance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Nicolas\\ de\\ Largillere\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ Charles\\ Le\\ Brun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1686\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Largilliere\\ shows\\ LB\\ pointg\\ to\\ his\\ works\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ surrounded\\ by\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sits\\ some\\ distance\\ from\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ not\\ in\\ process\\ o\\ producing\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Conveys\\ notion\\ o\\ him\\ being\\ learned\\ man\\ o\\ education\\,\\ books\\ n\\ globe\\ nearby\\,\\ n\\ man\\ o\\ distinction\\.\\ \\ \\;Dressed\\ in\\ elegant\\ clothes\\,\\ just\\ like\\ his\\ colleague\\ almost\\ a\\ century\\ later\\&hellip\\;Labille\\-Guiard\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ shows\\ herself\\ pntg\\,\\ sure\\,\\ but\\ in\\ very\\ elegant\\ attire\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ accompanied\\ by\\ different\\ kind\\ o\\ attribute\\:\\ \\ \\;her\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Adelaide\\ Labille\\-Guiard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ w\\/pupils\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1785\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ signals\\ its\\ own\\ distance\\ from\\ manual\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ tho\\,\\ the\\ academy\\ gets\\ abolished\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abolished\\ as\\ institution\\ o\\ royal\\ privilege\\ in\\ favor\\ o\\ more\\ democratic\\ forms\\ o\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soon\\ artists\\ outside\\ the\\ academy\\ could\\ show\\ their\\ work\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ 2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Academy\\ returns\\ in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ different\\ kind\\ o\\ institution\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ in\\ charge\\ o\\ training\\,\\ but\\ whose\\ fnctn\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ o\\ artistc\\ reference\\,\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ disappearance\\ o\\ academy\\,\\ u\\ get\\ disappearance\\ o\\ symbolic\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ used\\ 2b\\ a\\ collection\\ o\\ a\\ collective\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Martin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Meeting\\ of\\ the\\ Academy\\ at\\ the\\ Louvre\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\after\\ 1721\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ also\\ an\\ identity\\ base\\ 4the\\ artist\\ 2define\\ themselves\\ w\\ or\\ against\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-invention\\,\\ o\\ artist\\ as\\ independent\\,\\ autonomous\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Louis\\ Leopold\\ Boilly\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Atelier\\ of\\ Isabey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1798\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exhibited\\ in\\ the\\ Salon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;reunion\\ of\\ the\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ studio\\ of\\ Isabey\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ new\\ sense\\ o\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ as\\ one\\ o\\ a\\ collective\\ kind\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stage\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informal\\ gathering\\ o\\ fashionably\\ dressed\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ pntrs\\,\\ also\\ architects\\,\\ actors\\,\\ singers\\,\\ writers\\,\\ poets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ LB\\ n\\ Largilliere\\ were\\ featured\\ as\\ elegantly\\ dressed\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ attributes\\ that\\ situated\\ their\\ elegance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Boilly\\ we\\ witness\\ slight\\ but\\ significant\\ shift\\ 2body\\ itself\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ attribute\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ studio\\ space\\,\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ social\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ kind\\ o\\ body\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ carefully\\ constructed\\.\\ \\ \\;Fancy\\ studio\\ represnted\\ here\\ was\\ actually\\ unfinished\\,\\ so\\ this\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reality\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ imaginary\\ space\\ thru\\ which\\ Biolly\\ imposes\\ self\\-promotional\\ fantasy\\ on\\ behalf\\ o\\ himself\\ n\\ other\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ artistic\\ community\\ that\\ erects\\ itself\\ in\\ the\\ void\\ left\\ by\\ the\\ academies\\ n\\ the\\ artistic\\ basis\\ they\\ provided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ ideal\\ artist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ constructed\\ along\\ the\\ academnic\\ trope\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;men\\ o\\ intellect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gerrard\\ n\\ someone\\ else\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ pntg\\ n\\ looking\\ at\\ in\\ specific\\ way\\,\\ engaging\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;salon\\-esque\\&rdquo\\;\\ conversation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fashionable\\ sociability\\.\\ \\ \\;Chatting\\ about\\ their\\ wrk\\,\\ or\\ other\\ issues\\ related\\ 2their\\ profession\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studio\\ \\=\\ unofficial\\ drawing\\ room\\,\\ space\\ o\\ conversation\\.\\ \\ \\;Conversation\\ is\\ what\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ about\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;interesting\\ aspect\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ fantasy\\ suggests\\ distance\\ o\\ the\\ artistic\\ community\\ from\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;1798\\.\\ \\ \\;revolution\\ still\\ going\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ these\\ artists\\ seem\\ oblivious\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ elegant\\,\\ elite\\,\\ exclusive\\,\\ n\\ politics\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ 2enter\\ the\\ subject\\ o\\ their\\ conversation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ that\\ David\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ featured\\ among\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ main\\ artist\\,\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ the\\ teacher\\ o\\ Gerrard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;interesting\\ aspect\\:\\ \\ \\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ women\\ here\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ were\\ around\\ then\\.\\ \\ \\;Things\\ had\\ changed\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ r\\,\\ tho\\,\\ performing\\ symbolic\\ fnctn\\ in\\ defining\\ this\\ space\\ as\\ one\\ o\\ male\\ creativity\\ n\\ sociability\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minerva\\,\\ patroness\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ is\\ in\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Personifications\\ o\\ sculpture\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ n\\ pntg\\ on\\ the\\ left\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muses\\ o\\ the\\ medallions\\ r\\ up\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polarization\\ that\\ u\\ already\\ saw\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ where\\ women\\ stood\\ 4abstract\\ ideas\\,\\ n\\ men\\ embodied\\ new\\ notions\\ o\\ subjectivity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ fantasy\\,\\ tho\\ it\\ looks\\ self\\-confident\\,\\ is\\ produced\\ by\\,\\ or\\ related\\ 2\\,\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ destabilization\\ o\\ artistic\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ need\\ emerges\\ 2secure\\ identity\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ way\\,\\ due\\ 2this\\ destabilization\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ personal\\ identity\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ as\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Imptnt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ o\\ this\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ studio\\ filled\\ w\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ destabilization\\ n\\ the\\ need\\ o\\ self\\-construction\\ in\\ reassuring\\ tersms\\,\\ which\\ happened\\ 2b\\ exclusive\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;interesting\\ aspect\\:\\ \\ \\;Emphasis\\ on\\ artist\\ as\\ private\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;Emphasis\\ on\\ external\\ appearance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incredibly\\ elegant\\ dress\\,\\ elaborate\\ neckties\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ \\=\\ moment\\ o\\ invention\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ as\\ a\\ dandy\\.\\ \\ \\;Someone\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ only\\ part\\ o\\ an\\ elite\\,\\ but\\ who\\ specifically\\ defines\\ himself\\ thru\\ fashion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ definition\\ o\\ an\\ artist\\ as\\ a\\ dandy\\ comes\\ up\\ in\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Francois\\ Gerard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ Isabey\\ w\\/his\\ Daughter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1796\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ his\\ friend\\ Isabey\\ w\\ his\\ daughter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exhibited\\ at\\ the\\ salon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shown\\ at\\ staircase\\ o\\ the\\ Louvre\\.\\ \\ \\;Exiting\\ his\\ studio\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ his\\ dog\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ attribute\\ o\\ a\\ gentleman\\,\\ but\\ also\\ accompanied\\ by\\ his\\ daughter\\,\\ whose\\ hand\\ he\\ holds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ monumental\\ scale\\ n\\ the\\ formula\\ that\\ Gerrad\\ adopts\\ here\\ goes\\ back\\ 2\\ a\\ tradition\\ o\\ aristocratic\\ portraiture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aristocrats\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ man\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anthony\\ van\\ Dyck\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ w\\/his\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Progeny\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ dynstay\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gerrard\\ reformulates\\ this\\ tradition\\ in\\ the\\ dimension\\ o\\ privacy\\.\\ \\ \\;Definition\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ as\\ a\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ formula\\ that\\ was\\ produced\\ in\\ France\\ by\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Elisabeth\\ Vigee\\-Lebrun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ w\\/daughter\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1789\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suppers\\ described\\ at\\ length\\ in\\ her\\ memoirs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defines\\ her\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\ as\\ a\\ mother\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ art\\ making\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ daughter\\ is\\ her\\ defining\\ attribute\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ here\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ mother\\,\\ but\\ a\\ good\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Recalls\\ similar\\ iconography\\ o\\ the\\ good\\ mother\\ from\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ fantasy\\,\\ as\\ her\\ daughter\\ mentioned\\ in\\ her\\ memoirs\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ mom\\ was\\ only\\ a\\ good\\ mother\\ in\\ her\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ in\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Wow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ here\\ a\\ deliberate\\ self\\-construction\\,\\ one\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ similar\\ 2gerrard\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ features\\ this\\ new\\ element\\ that\\ focuses\\ on\\ self\\-definition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defines\\ the\\ artist\\ as\\ a\\ parent\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Vigee\\ Lebrun\\,\\ the\\ mother\\ is\\ defined\\ through\\ bodily\\ intimacy\\,\\ through\\ emotional\\ connection\\ 2her\\ progeny\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ father\\ is\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ function\\,\\ an\\ authority\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ wants\\ to\\ align\\ himself\\ to\\ show\\ his\\ authority\\ as\\ well\\ in\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ talking\\ about\\ Gerrard\\,\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ emerges\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ persona\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ which\\ is\\ linked\\ 2the\\ notion\\ o\\ maleness\\,\\ creativity\\,\\ masculinity\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ women\\ featured\\ in\\ the\\ artistic\\ mythology\\ until\\ impressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;Until\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Romanticism\\,\\ which\\ emerges\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ o\\ the\\ Revolution\\,\\ we\\ witness\\ a\\ further\\ individuation\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ not\\ only\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ but\\ also\\ o\\ the\\ soul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ his\\ portrait\\ we\\ long\\ thought\\ pntd\\ by\\ Gericault\\,\\ but\\ now\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ who\\ it\\ was\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unknown\\ artist\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ Young\\ Man\\ in\\ an\\ Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ studio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1819\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deeply\\ romantic\\,\\ psychological\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interior\\ resembles\\ a\\ hermit\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cell\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pensive\\,\\ brooding\\,\\ leaning\\ on\\ his\\ hand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ leg\\ is\\ casually\\ thrown\\ across\\ his\\ lap\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elegantly\\ dressed\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ his\\ mood\\,\\ not\\ his\\ dandyism\\,\\ that\\ permeates\\ his\\ pntg\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ different\\ from\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hubert\\ Robert\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Artist\\ in\\ His\\ Studio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1763\\-65\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\ in\\ brightly\\ lit\\ room\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sparse\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ haphazardness\\ that\\ is\\ emphasized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ sits\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ the\\ space\\,\\ representing\\ an\\ act\\ o\\ creation\\,\\ o\\ imitation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Unknown\\ artist\\ pntg\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ contemplation\\,\\ meditation\\ that\\ marks\\ this\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;Contemplation\\ that\\ says\\ this\\ man\\ has\\ a\\ psyche\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ a\\ talent\\,\\ but\\ a\\ mind\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Albrecht\\ Durer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Melancholia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1514\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Surrounded\\ by\\ attributes\\ o\\ science\\ n\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ Unknown\\ artist\\ lifts\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ reputation\\ o\\ melancholy\\ that\\ begins\\ w\\ Durer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ that\\ artists\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ creative\\ individuals\\,\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ also\\ associated\\ w\\ specific\\ temperament\\.\\ \\ \\;Melancholy\\ temperament\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ definition\\ o\\ artist\\ 2\\ a\\ psychic\\ entity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2ndly\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idea\\ o\\ interior\\ seems\\ natural\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ carefully\\ constructed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unkown\\ pntg\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ haphazard\\,\\ \\ \\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sparse\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ hermit\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ skull\\,\\ which\\ may\\ have\\ served\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ his\\ drawing\\,\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ instrument\\ o\\ meditation\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ notion\\ o\\ meditation\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2conversation\\ in\\ Boilly\\,\\ or\\ imitation\\ in\\ Robert\\ \\(\\?\\)\\,\\ is\\ key\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3rdly\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loneliness\\.\\ Not\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ dog\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Introspection\\,\\ empathy\\,\\ engaging\\ us\\ in\\ wordless\\ dialect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ addition\\ 2these\\ types\\ o\\ representations\\ that\\ emphasize\\ mood\\,\\ introspection\\,\\ loneliness\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ whole\\ iconography\\ wq\\ the\\ artist\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ past\\ masters\\.\\ \\ \\;Artists\\ from\\ the\\ pasts\\ often\\ represented\\ as\\ surrogates\\ o\\ contemporary\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Past\\ artists\\ like\\ Michaelangelo\\,\\ Rafael\\,\\ Leonardo\\,\\ begin\\ 2populate\\ romantic\\ salons\\ o\\ this\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ not\\ only\\ span\\ contemporary\\ artists\\,\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ a\\ certain\\ conception\\ o\\ romantic\\ artists\\ as\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ genius\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ iconography\\ allows\\ us\\ a\\ glimpse\\ in2\\ the\\ nature\\ o\\ the\\ creative\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3rdly\\,\\ it\\ suggests\\ a\\ new\\ relation\\ bw\\ the\\ artist\\ n\\ society\\,\\ which\\ is\\ no\\ logner\\ defined\\ thru\\ individual\\ relation\\ 2the\\ patron\\ or\\ the\\ king\\,\\ but\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;s\\ willingess\\ 2conceive\\ o\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ island\\ unto\\ himse\\.f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Eugene\\ Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Michelangelo\\ in\\ his\\ studio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1850\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michaelangelo\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ lat\\ renaissance\\ masters\\ that\\ pntrs\\ o\\ this\\ time\\ loved\\ 2represent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ melancholy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intense\\ meditation\\.\\ \\ \\;Perhaps\\ even\\ an\\ agony\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ chisel\\ is\\ laying\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ n\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ nothing\\.\\ \\ \\;Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ block\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ is\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ loneliness\\,\\ sense\\ o\\ meditation\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delacroix\\ was\\ strongly\\ identified\\ w\\ Michaelangelo\\,\\ n\\ this\\ might\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ his\\ own\\ self\\-representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delacroix\\ wrote\\ an\\ article\\ portraying\\ Michaelangelo\\ as\\ a\\ genius\\ misunderstood\\ by\\ his\\ contemporaries\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ projection\\.\\ \\ \\;Self\\-projection\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ go\\ my\\ lonely\\ way\\ on\\ paths\\ which\\ no\\ man\\ has\\ made\\ for\\ him\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Delacroix\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ allows\\ the\\ artist\\ 2show\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ genius\\,\\ w\\ melancholy\\ temperament\\,\\ slinked\\ 2creative\\ disposition\\,\\ isolation\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ n\\ estrangement\\ from\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tasso\\ in\\ the\\ madhouse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1839\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Image\\ o\\ the\\ famous\\ Italian\\ poet\\,\\ adopted\\ by\\ Delacroix\\ here\\,\\ 2convey\\ artist\\ as\\ the\\ social\\ outcast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ prisoner\\ here\\,\\ symptom\\ o\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ insane\\ were\\ treated\\ in\\ the\\ pre\\-modern\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ treated\\ in\\ an\\ asylum\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ imprisoned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ body\\ here\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ one\\ mocked\\ by\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ iconography\\ o\\ Christ\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ madman\\,\\ genius\\ misunderstood\\,\\ mocked\\ by\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ trope\\ o\\ otherness\\ is\\ what\\ prof\\ wants\\ 2emphasize\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Otherness\\ defined\\ I\\ psychological\\ terms\\.\\ \\ \\;Someone\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ psychologically\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ all\\ dramatic\\ artists\\ defined\\ themselves\\ in\\ such\\ tersm\\,\\ though\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Jean\\-Auguste\\-Dominique\\ Ingres\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Raphael\\ and\\ Fornarina\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1813\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Raphael\\ shown\\ here\\ w\\ a\\ model\\ on\\ his\\ lap\\.\\ \\ \\;Scene\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ popular\\ biography\\ by\\ Raphael\\,\\ which\\ presented\\ a\\ sentimental\\ accnt\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Widely\\ read\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ingres\\ uses\\ the\\ master\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ 2present\\ an\\ opposite\\ construction\\ 2hte\\ notion\\ o\\ melancholy\\ artist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ artist\\ is\\ well\\-to\\-do\\,\\ happy\\,\\ w\\ lover\\ in\\ his\\ lap\\,\\ pntgs\\ related\\ 2model\\ bc\\ she\\ was\\ in\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Raphael\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Madonna\\ della\\ Sedia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1516\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ she\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ as\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;Introduces\\ idea\\ o\\ erotic\\ act\\ as\\ related\\ 2creative\\ acts\\,\\ creative\\ process\\ being\\ likened\\ 2erotic\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pleasures\\ o\\ possession\\ o\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ is\\ here\\ an\\ object\\ o\\ mastery\\,\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\ by\\ which\\ Raphael\\ is\\ surrounded\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Choice\\ o\\ Raphael\\ 4Ingres\\ is\\ not\\ specific\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ shaded\\ line\\ was\\ adopted\\ by\\ Ingres\\,\\ n\\ pushed\\ further\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ingres\\ fetishizes\\ Rapheal\\,\\ pushing\\ things\\ 2an\\ extreme\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ the\\ jaw\\ o\\ Madonna\\ is\\ executed\\ very\\ subtly\\ by\\ Raphael\\,\\ but\\ Ingres\\ has\\ a\\ sculptural\\ interpretation\\ o\\ that\\ contour\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ a\\ woman\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ romantic\\ mythology\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ women\\ artists\\ in\\ France\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creative\\ individuals\\ who\\ r\\ women\\ therefore\\ have\\ 2adopt\\ male\\ disguise\\,\\ as\\ did\\ Georges\\ Sand\\,\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ prolific\\ writers\\ o\\ the\\ time\\&hellip\\;adopted\\ male\\ pseudonymn\\ n\\ attire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caricature\\ of\\ Georges\\ Sand\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miroir\\ drolatique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1842\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;genius\\ has\\ no\\ sex\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ aspect\\ o\\ romantic\\ self\\-definition\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ as\\ Hamlet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1821\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntd\\ in\\ sketchy\\ manner\\,\\ in\\ which\\ young\\ Delacroix\\ rehearses\\ his\\ identity\\ as\\ Shakespearean\\ hero\\,\\ giving\\ himself\\ seriousness\\,\\ darkness\\ \\,psychological\\ complexity\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ adopts\\ such\\ a\\ role\\,\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ play\\ w\\ disguise\\ differs\\ from\\ how\\ artists\\ o\\ the\\ later\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ would\\ use\\ disguistse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ example\\ is\\ Courbet\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gustave\\ Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\,\\ or\\ a\\ Desperate\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1843\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ loved\\ 2show\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Did\\ lots\\ o\\ self\\-portraits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ bold\\ red\\ signature\\ in\\ the\\ bottom\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ characteristic\\ o\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ these\\ self\\-portraits\\,\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2wrk\\ out\\ his\\ relation\\ 2the\\ romantic\\ heritage\\,\\ but\\ he\\ takes\\ a\\ different\\ approach\\ 2that\\ psychic\\ intensity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ in\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ disguise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idea\\ o\\ psychic\\ intensity\\ performed\\ here\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ role\\ that\\ Courbet\\ rehearses\\ in\\ the\\ mirror\\ here\\,\\ tearing\\ at\\ his\\ hear\\,\\ strearing\\ intensely\\ w\\ his\\ eyes\\,\\ involved\\ in\\ act\\ o\\ violent\\,\\ aggressive\\ introspection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ performance\\,\\ but\\ not\\ o\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ in\\ Delacroix\\,\\ where\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ matter\\ o\\ a\\ role\\ the\\ artist\\ assumed\\,\\ as\\ Hamlet\\ or\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ Ingres\\ imagining\\ himself\\ as\\ Raphael\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ performance\\ o\\ the\\ self\\ itself\\,\\ o\\ psyche\\,\\ o\\ body\\,\\ above\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ as\\ instrument\\ through\\ which\\ psychological\\ experimentation\\ can\\ b\\ conducted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ interesting\\ about\\ the\\ realist\\ self\\-presentation\\ o\\ Courbet\\.\\ \\ \\;Emphasis\\ on\\ performance\\ as\\ performance\\ o\\ the\\ self\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Performance\\ was\\ just\\ aprt\\ o\\ hist\\ creative\\ persona\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ w\\/black\\ dog\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1842\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ imptnt\\ as\\ his\\ attributes\\ as\\ the\\ setting\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recall\\ the\\ disguises\\ o\\ Rembrandt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rembrandt\\ dressed\\ himself\\ up\\ in\\ oriental\\ costume\\,\\ which\\ Courbet\\ is\\ harking\\ back\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ indirect\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ adopting\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ forumula\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ lifts\\ idea\\ o\\ disguise\\ from\\ Rembrandt\\,\\ n\\ he\\ uses\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ terrain\\ 4negotiating\\ his\\ identity\\,\\ coming\\ 2terms\\ w\\ the\\ heritage\\ o\\ masters\\ like\\ Rembrandt\\,\\ who\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ frequently\\ self\\-portraying\\ artists\\ o\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Courbet\\ was\\ eager\\ 2position\\ himself\\ in\\ relation\\ 2Rembrandt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ anxiety\\ o\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ notion\\ that\\ the\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sons\\ need\\ 2position\\ themselves\\ in\\ relation\\ 2their\\ artistic\\ fathers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rembrandt\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ in\\ oriental\\ costume\\ and\\ hat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1631\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ artist\\ as\\ modernist\\,\\ n\\ continuing\\ w\\ theme\\ o\\ disguise\\,\\ which\\ gets\\ transformed\\ in\\ later\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Edouard\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Absinthe\\ Drinker\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1859\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modernism\\ is\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ art\\ is\\ produced\\ in\\ relation\\ 2\\ n\\ in\\ subconsciousness\\ about\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\,\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ example\\ o\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Construction\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ as\\ an\\ urban\\,\\ city\\ dweller\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;image\\ that\\ Manet\\ wished\\ 2present\\ himself\\ in\\ public\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ 2show\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ Salon\\.\\ \\ \\;Rejected\\ by\\ the\\ Jury\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ gives\\ us\\ an\\ idea\\ o\\ how\\ Manet\\ understood\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ an\\ artist\\ committed\\ 2hte\\ depiction\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\,\\ 2a\\ specific\\ aspect\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Absinthe\\ drinker\\ is\\ a\\ rag\\ picker\\,\\ an\\ urban\\ vagabond\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ 2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ homeless\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ But\\ he\\ was\\ very\\ connected\\ 2the\\ urban\\ landscape\\ o\\ Paris\\ in\\ the\\ 1850s\\,\\ when\\ the\\ emperor\\ Napoleon\\ invited\\ an\\ architect\\ 2cmopletely\\ redesign\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ausman\\ restructured\\ the\\ city\\:\\ \\ \\;straight\\ boulevards\\,\\ crisp\\,\\ bureaucratic\\ architecture\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ausmanization\\&rdquo\\;\\ o\\ Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ modern\\ redefinition\\ o\\ the\\ city\\ was\\ comfortable\\ n\\ beautiful\\ 4some\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ deprived\\ a\\ whole\\ sector\\ o\\ ppl\\ o\\ living\\ quarters\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ suddenly\\ were\\ homeless\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ kidn\\ o\\ character\\ that\\ Manet\\ would\\ depict\\ later\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ 1859\\ portrait\\,\\ he\\ adopts\\ the\\ persona\\ o\\ rag\\-picker\\ as\\ a\\ self\\-represenation\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ socially\\,\\ he\\ defines\\ himself\\ not\\ as\\ elite\\ or\\ dandy\\,\\ but\\ jobless\\ drifter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instability\\ is\\ key\\ here\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ scavenger\\ living\\ off\\ o\\ urban\\ waste\\,\\ an\\ aspect\\ o\\ his\\ identity\\ that\\ has\\ 2do\\ not\\ only\\ w\\ positioning\\ himself\\ socially\\,\\ but\\ defining\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\ who\\ confronts\\ past\\ traditions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ scavenger\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3rdly\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ the\\ marionnet\\ quality\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ certain\\ identity\\,\\ which\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ragpicker\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ has\\ 2\\ left\\ legs\\.\\ \\ \\;Blurry\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ all\\ indicates\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ is\\ unstable\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ firmly\\ positioned\\ socially\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fnctns\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ empty\\ vehicle\\,\\ in2\\ which\\ all\\ types\\ o\\ identities\\ could\\ b\\ put\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notion\\ o\\ play\\ w\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ melancholic\\ pose\\,\\ so\\ dear\\ 2the\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ we\\ have\\ distance\\ from\\ that\\ pose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Repose\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\-70\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ puts\\ her\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ casual\\ pose\\,\\ but\\ its\\&rsquo\\;\\ a\\ little\\ uncomfortable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ elegance\\,\\ intense\\ meditation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Edgar\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mary\\ Cassat\\ at\\ the\\ Louvre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\-80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ attempt\\ 2invent\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cassat\\ was\\ an\\ American\\ expatriate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shes\\&rsquo\\;\\ w\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ sister\\.\\ \\ \\;Leaning\\ on\\ her\\ umbrella\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Berthe\\ Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ u\\ her\\ typical\\ brushstroke\\.\\ \\ \\;very\\ open\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ quick\\.\\ \\ \\;Type\\ o\\ brustroke\\ that\\ inspired\\ Manet\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Before\\ the\\ Mirror\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brushstroke\\ preserves\\ sense\\ o\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Auguste\\ Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monet\\ in\\ Argenteuil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ version\\ o\\ impressionist\\ self\\-representaiton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impressionist\\ artist\\ as\\ suburban\\ dweller\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ someone\\ committed\\ 2the\\ mdoenrity\\ o\\ the\\ city\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ pntg\\ in\\ calm\\ surroundings\\ o\\ suburbia\\ where\\ he\\ constructsh\\ is\\ own\\ garden\\,\\ then\\ pnts\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ aspect\\:\\ \\ \\;had\\ 2do\\ w\\ development\\ o\\ whole\\ new\\ area\\ o\\ modern\\ art\\ n\\ leisure\\,\\ 2which\\ impressionists\\ were\\ connected\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\ as\\ a\\ material\\ construction\\,\\ a\\ construction\\ literally\\ in\\ pigment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ represents\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ non\\-desperate\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ position\\ him\\ socially\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ coat\\ might\\ b\\ worn\\ by\\ a\\ rich\\ farmer\\,\\ or\\ a\\ solid\\ bourgeois\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ background\\,\\ u\\ have\\ landscape\\ o\\ friend\\ o\\ his\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ most\\ characteristic\\ o\\ this\\ image\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Cezanne\\ rendersh\\ is\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Patiently\\,\\ constructing\\ stroke\\ by\\ stroke\\,\\ the\\ physical\\ presence\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Took\\ so\\ many\\ sittings\\ 2make\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ image\\ is\\ compact\\,\\ dense\\,\\ materially\\ heavy\\,\\ enclosed\\ upon\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ form\\ Morisot\\,\\ shown\\ by\\ quickness\\ o\\ stroke\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ exemplifies\\ this\\ even\\ further\\.\\ \\ \\;Uses\\ palette\\ knife\\ 2show\\ pigment\\,\\ 2build\\ up\\ this\\ dense\\ materially\\ compact\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ same\\ time\\,\\ it\\ conveys\\ sense\\ o\\ transience\\,\\ but\\ in\\ different\\ way\\ than\\ Morisot\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ contingency\\ o\\ the\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ construction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ good\\ portrait\\ 2end\\ w\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 17\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ House\\ of\\ the\\ Soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\ we\\ examined\\ how\\ the\\ artists\\ embodied\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ the\\ body\\ emerged\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\ o\\ the\\ autonomous\\ artist\\,\\ n\\ how\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ site\\ on\\ investigation\\ o\\ artistic\\ identity\\ 4more\\ than\\ a\\ century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ lecture\\ was\\ synchronic\\,\\ spanning\\ late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ alte\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\,\\ beginning\\ w\\ Boilly\\&rsquo\\;s\\ artist\\ n\\ artist\\ as\\ sociable\\ dandy\\ \\,2\\ Cezann\\&rsquo\\;es\\ unfashionable\\,\\ awkward\\ body\\,\\ kind\\ of\\ solid\\ architecture\\ o\\ artistic\\ self\\,\\ which\\ is\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ its\\ own\\ process\\,\\ buildup\\,\\ o\\ face\\,\\ part\\ o\\ torso\\,\\ which\\ is\\ manifest\\ here\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ o\\ a\\ perceptual\\ process\\ o\\ observation\\,\\ density\\ o\\ form\\ which\\ speaks\\ about\\ closure\\,\\ or\\ enclosure\\,\\ n\\ openness\\ that\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2dsya\\ we\\ return\\ 2chronologically\\ narrow\\ frame\\.\\ \\ \\;Recognition\\ o\\ body\\ as\\ site\\ o\\ psychic\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ issue\\ had\\ 2\\ do\\ w\\ invention\\ o\\ psychology\\ n\\ psychiatry\\ as\\ new\\ disciplines\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ n\\ the\\ concomitant\\ submission\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ 2what\\ Michel\\ Foucault\\ called\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ o\\ Madness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ clinical\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B4\\ that\\ discussion\\ o\\ the\\ emergence\\ o\\ the\\ 2psychic\\ disciplines\\,\\ prof\\ will\\ give\\ us\\ earlier\\ examples\\ o\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ intuition\\ o\\ the\\ psyche\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jean\\ Honore\\ Fragonard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Psyche\\ showing\\ her\\ sisters\\ her\\ gifts\\ from\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1753\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Myth\\ o\\ psyche\\ n\\ its\\ illustrations\\ is\\ one\\ o\\ those\\ symptoms\\ o\\ intuition\\ about\\ the\\ body\\ being\\ a\\ house\\ o\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ story\\ behind\\ these\\ pntgs\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\ called\\ Psyche\\,\\ who\\ was\\ so\\ beautiful\\ as\\ to\\ arouse\\ the\\ envy\\ o\\ Venus\\,\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Love\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Venus\\ sent\\ Cupid\\,\\ god\\ o\\ love\\,\\ 2make\\ Psyche\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\ w\\ a\\ monster\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Cupid\\ felli\\ n\\ love\\ w\\ Psyche\\!\\ \\ \\;Took\\ her\\ 2a\\ bueatiful\\ palace\\,\\ gave\\ her\\ ltos\\ o\\ gifts\\,\\ and\\ made\\ love\\ 2her\\ every\\ night\\ on\\ condition\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ remain\\ invisible\\,\\ so\\ she\\&rsquo\\;d\\ never\\ know\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ monster\\ or\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psyche\\ invited\\ her\\ sister\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ Fragonard\\ represnted\\ here\\,\\ 2show\\ all\\ the\\ goodies\\/treasures\\ o\\ her\\ new\\ abode\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ sister\\ became\\ jealous\\ n\\ advised\\ her\\ spitefully\\ 2spy\\ on\\ her\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Hse\\ dropped\\ hot\\ oil\\ on\\ his\\ body\\,\\ he\\ woke\\ up\\,\\ escaped\\,\\ n\\ then\\ Psyche\\ lost\\ her\\ palace\\ and\\ was\\ naked\\ in\\ the\\ desert\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ Cupid\\ commiserated\\ w\\ Psyche\\ because\\ Venus\\ had\\ put\\ her\\ through\\ punishment\\ trials\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cupid\\ married\\ Psyche\\,\\ n\\ made\\ her\\ in2\\ a\\ god\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ story\\ was\\ traditionally\\ used\\,\\ in\\ platonic\\ n\\ Christian\\ versions\\,\\ as\\ a\\ parable\\ o\\ the\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ difficult\\ quest\\ 4immortality\\,\\ n\\ also\\ a\\ parable\\ about\\ the\\ redeeming\\ power\\ o\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gerard\\ does\\ something\\ more\\ interesting\\ n\\ pertinent\\ 2our\\ subject\\,\\ tho\\.\\.\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Francois\\ Gerard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Love\\ and\\ Psyche\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1797\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ makes\\ a\\ new\\ body\\ that\\ signifies\\ an\\ interiority\\,\\ a\\ psyche\\,\\ a\\ notion\\ o\\ inner\\ life\\ dependent\\ on\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ pnts\\ it\\ differently\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Detail\\ conveys\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ porcelain\\ smoothness\\ o\\ the\\ obyd\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ contour\\ o\\ the\\ thigh\\.\\ \\ \\;Ingres\\ would\\ fetishize\\ this\\ country\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porcelain\\ smoothness\\,\\ restrained\\ expressions\\,\\ all\\ o\\ this\\ directs\\ our\\ attn\\ 2the\\ fact\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ presentation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moment\\ o\\ awakening\\ o\\ inner\\ life\\,\\ due\\ 2the\\ touch\\ o\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Gerrard\\ is\\ pntg\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 90s\\,\\ toward\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ interesting\\ phenomenon\\ occurring\\ in\\ France\\:\\ \\ \\;emergence\\ o\\ psychology\\ n\\ psychiatry\\ as\\ new\\ scientific\\ disciplines\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ related\\ 2the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;FR\\ institutionalized\\ tehse\\ 2disciplines\\,\\ n\\ also\\ brought\\ about\\ radical\\ change\\ in\\ understanding\\ o\\ status\\ o\\ the\\ insane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Francisco\\ Goya\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Asylum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1794\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2pntgs\\ by\\ Goya\\,\\ not\\ a\\ French\\ pntr\\,\\ helps\\ u\\ understand\\ that\\ radical\\ shift\\ that\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ regarding\\ the\\ status\\ o\\ the\\ insane\\ as\\ a\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ focus\\ exclusively\\ on\\ France\\,\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ return\\ 2Gericault\\ later\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ man\\ subject\\ o\\ our\\ inquiry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mental\\ patients\\ considered\\ on\\ same\\ level\\ as\\ criminals\\,\\ n\\ held\\ in\\ prisons\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditions\\ in\\ prison\\ were\\ terrible\\.\\ \\ \\;6\\ inmates\\ 2\\ a\\ bed\\,\\ treated\\ as\\ animals\\,\\ beaten\\ 2disciplien\\ them\\,\\ or\\ to\\ treat\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goya\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2\\ dark\\ 1790s\\ pntgs\\ illustrate\\ this\\ condition\\ o\\ the\\ insane\\ kept\\ in\\ prison\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ interior\\ o\\ the\\ prison\\ shows\\ where\\ the\\ insane\\ r\\ held\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\ suffering\\ from\\ delusion\\ o\\ identity\\,\\ thinks\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ one\\ wears\\ a\\ miter\\,\\ n\\ a\\ medal\\,\\ thinking\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ high\\ Church\\ official\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ individuals\\ r\\ kept\\ in\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ spatial\\ unconscious\\,\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ which\\ marks\\ the\\ debasement\\,\\ the\\ debased\\ condition\\,\\ which\\ they\\ also\\ convey\\ through\\ body\\ language\\,\\ which\\ has\\ sense\\ o\\ deregulation\\,\\ lack\\ o\\ \\ \\;control\\ o\\ their\\ gestures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goya\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Courtyard\\ w\\/Lunatics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1793\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BEAUTIFUL\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prison\\ \\=\\ dark\\ chamber\\,\\ where\\ everything\\ humanity\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ 2know\\ about\\ itself\\ is\\ relegated\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ the\\ ungovernable\\,\\ dangerous\\ passions\\ r\\ contained\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inmates\\ r\\ fighting\\,\\ n\\ being\\ beaten\\ by\\ the\\ warden\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ status\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ reminds\\ one\\ o\\ animals\\,\\ not\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ ethel\\ ight\\ is\\ abundant\\ above\\,\\ but\\ It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reach\\ the\\ darkness\\ o\\ the\\ space\\ below\\,\\ where\\ everything\\ society\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;\\ want\\ 2deal\\ w\\ goes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reform\\ in\\ France\\ n\\ England\\ changed\\ this\\ condition\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ recognized\\ the\\ mentally\\ ill\\ needed\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ treatment\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ had\\ 2b\\ separated\\,\\ relegated\\ 2a\\ special\\ hospital\\ devoted\\ 2an\\ asylum\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ asylum\\ was\\ institutionalized\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ made\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ new\\ medical\\ establishment\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ penitentiary\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Efforts\\ were\\ made\\ 2understand\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perner\\ is\\ credited\\ w\\ freeing\\ the\\ insane\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ introduced\\ new\\ moral\\ treatment\\ o\\ the\\ insane\\ in\\ place\\ o\\ punishment\\.\\ \\ \\;Exercise\\,\\ detainment\\ \\,various\\ occupations\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ attitude\\ was\\ new\\ entirely\\,\\ but\\ he\\ systemitzed\\ this\\ moral\\ approach\\,\\ publishing\\ a\\ book\\ \\&ldquo\\;treatise\\ on\\ insanity\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ 1801\\.\\ \\ \\;one\\ ohte\\ most\\ read\\ n\\ sought\\-after\\ books\\,\\ read\\ not\\ just\\ by\\ scientists\\,but\\ also\\ by\\ writers\\ n\\ intellectuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ guy\\ who\\ did\\ our\\ reading\\ made\\ a\\ special\\ visit\\ 2the\\ library\\ 2read\\ this\\ book\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ psychiatry\\ paradigm\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ Perner\\,\\ new\\ treatment\\ meant\\ 2understand\\ n\\ cure\\ mental\\ illness\\ emerges\\.\\ \\ \\;Major\\ aspect\\ was\\ the\\ stress\\ on\\ humanity\\ o\\ the\\ patient\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ system\\ emerges\\ from\\ 2contexts\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ immediate\\ context\\ o\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ working\\ n\\ developing\\ his\\ theories\\ during\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ the\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ o\\ the\\ Terror\\ when\\ a\\ whole\\ debate\\ emerged\\ on\\ the\\ relation\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ v\\.\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ contained\\ particular\\ urgency\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ o\\ the\\ terror\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radical\\ fragmentation\\ o\\ the\\ social\\ body\\,\\ through\\ the\\ Terror\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\ engraving\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Robespierre\\ guillotining\\ the\\ executioner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robespierre\\ executes\\ the\\ executioner\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ one\\ else\\ was\\ left\\ 2b\\ killed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ does\\ the\\ soul\\ reside\\ when\\ decapitation\\ occurs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ head\\?\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ corpse\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ involuntary\\ movement\\ o\\ the\\ face\\ was\\ supposed\\ 2indicate\\ that\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ the\\ soul\\ resided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Physiognomies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\J\\.\\ Hogg\\ after\\ D\\.\\ Chodowiecki\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\ rom\\ Lavater\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ESsays\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lavater\\ v\\.\\ Lebrun\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Science\\ o\\ correspondence\\ bw\\ internal\\ n\\ external\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Insistence\\ on\\ characterology\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ that\\ face\\ expresses\\ not\\ only\\ emotions\\,\\ but\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ character\\.\\ \\ \\;Ethic\\ dimension\\ 2phsyiognomy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ tried\\ 2suggest\\ moral\\ judgment\\.\\ \\ \\;Lavater\\ believed\\ that\\ virtue\\ made\\ one\\ beautiful\\ n\\ vice\\ made\\ one\\ ugly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethical\\ \\=\\ one\\ distinguishing\\ feature\\ bw\\ LAvater\\ n\\ LB\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ likeness\\ to\\ ppl\\ 2show\\ that\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ silhouettes\\ n\\ appearance\\ suggested\\ their\\ personality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Holloway\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Machine\\ for\\ drawing\\ silhouettes\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\engraving\\ from\\ LAvater\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Essays\\ on\\ physiognomy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1792\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ his\\ belief\\ in\\ one\\ form\\ o\\ physiognomic\\ representation\\:\\ \\ \\;silhouette\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Name\\ o\\ silhouette\\ comes\\ from\\ Frenchman\\ who\\ invented\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Silhouettes\\ of\\ Mendelsohn\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ Lavater\\,\\ ibid\\,\\ 1792\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Profile\\ machine\\ invented\\ by\\ Sarah\\ Harrington\\,\\ who\\ received\\ a\\ patent\\ 4drawing\\ these\\ machines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LAvater\\ thought\\ silhouettes\\ were\\ facsimiles\\ o\\ the\\ inner\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shape\\ o\\ nose\\,\\ lips\\,\\ front\\,\\ size\\ o\\ it\\,\\ conveyed\\ not\\ just\\ physiognomic\\ features\\,\\ but\\ the\\ character\\ o\\ the\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ believed\\ the\\ silhouette\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ its\\ immobility\\ n\\ reduced\\,\\ abstract\\ character\\,\\ gives\\ u\\ an\\ essence\\ o\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*After\\ Henry\\ Fuseli\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lips\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\ form\\ Lavater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suggested\\ that\\ \\#4\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lips\\ belonged\\ 2\\ a\\ degenerate\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#6\\ woudltn\\&rsquo\\;\\ win\\ the\\ prize\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#7\\ had\\ the\\ greatest\\ affinity\\ 2genius\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Linking\\ formal\\ beauty\\ or\\ regularity\\ 2moral\\ superiority\\.\\ \\ \\;Dangerous\\ game\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lavater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ project\\ coincides\\ w\\ cultural\\ developments\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ emergence\\ o\\ the\\ popularity\\ o\\ portraiture\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ kinds\\ o\\ portraiture\\,\\ o\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ a\\ direct\\ source\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ mechanical\\ process\\ o\\ transcription\\ o\\ bodily\\ features\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ such\\ technique\\ o\\ portraiture\\ is\\ physiognotrace\\,\\ which\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ physiognomic\\ drawing\\,\\ but\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ get\\ outlines\\ o\\ the\\ profile\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ internal\\ featuers\\ o\\ the\\ face\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ used\\ 4portraiture\\,\\ but\\ also\\ different\\ kinds\\ o\\ panel\\ gaze\\,\\ in\\ which\\ u\\ susbsituted\\ different\\ parts\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ drawn\\ by\\ physiogotrace\\,\\ in\\ the\\ main\\ character\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ being\\ the\\ playful\\ notion\\ u\\ could\\ change\\ ur\\ face\\,\\ n\\ also\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ different\\ shapes\\ o\\ the\\ face\\ conveyed\\ different\\ kinds\\ o\\ character\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Physiognotrace\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ England\\,\\ watercolor\\ lithograph\\ on\\ cardboard\\ early\\.\\ 19thc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johann\\ Carl\\ Richter\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caroline\\ von\\ Eichendorff\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1800\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Richter\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Adolph\\ Theodor\\ Rudolph\\ von\\ Eichenforff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\James\\ Parsons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sneering\\ Woman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crounian\\ LEcutres\\ on\\ Msucular\\ Motions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1745\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interst\\ in\\ mobility\\ o\\ the\\ face\\ n\\ how\\ the\\ muscles\\ wrk\\ in\\ order\\ 2understand\\ how\\ bodily\\ energy\\ travels\\,\\ n\\ how\\ human\\ disposition\\ could\\ b\\ articulated\\ through\\ this\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parsons\\ developed\\ technology\\ based\\ on\\ facial\\ apperances\\ n\\ his\\ desire\\ 2understand\\ human\\ disposition\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ expression\\,\\ just\\ as\\ LB\\ n\\ LAvater\\ was\\,\\ but\\ he\\ thought\\ 4him\\ there\\ was\\ ethic\\ dimension\\,\\ but\\ also\\ facial\\ fraud\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Face\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ the\\ source\\ o\\ physiognomic\\ truth\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ 4LB\\ n\\ LAvater\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ brought\\ up\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ capacity\\ 2feign\\ their\\ emotions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ coneys\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ incongruity\\ in\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ claimed\\ in\\ the\\ description\\ o\\ this\\ illsutraiton\\ that\\ it\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ proof\\ o\\ the\\ possibility\\ 2distinguish\\ bw\\ a\\ truly\\ happy\\ expression\\ n\\ one\\ that\\ tries\\ 2smile\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ his\\ argument\\ 2well\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ so\\ schematic\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lack\\ o\\ talent\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ formulating\\ visually\\ compelling\\ arguments\\ is\\ key\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ useful\\ 2retain\\ is\\ that\\ Parsons\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ physiognomic\\ lie\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discrpencay\\ here\\ bw\\ eyes\\ n\\ mouth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ all\\ indicates\\ that\\ by\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ possible\\ 2look\\ at\\ the\\ face\\ normally\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ charged\\ a\\ tremendous\\ task\\ 2convey\\ meaning\\ about\\ hwat\\ happesn\\ inside\\ the\\ body\\,\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ interior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phrenology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ lithograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Developed\\ in\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ based\\ on\\ assumption\\ that\\ the\\ shape\\ o\\ human\\ skull\\ could\\ give\\ u\\ some\\ sense\\ o\\ where\\ mental\\ activity\\ was\\ occurring\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ skull\\ gets\\ shaped\\ during\\ life\\ acc\\.\\ 2ur\\ mental\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ incredibly\\ popular\\,\\ like\\ a\\ semi\\-science\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ became\\ so\\ popular\\ it\\ got\\ made\\ fun\\ o\\ in\\ charactures\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Cruikshank\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bumpology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ caricature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ bump\\ in\\ ur\\ head\\ can\\ show\\ if\\ ur\\ intelligent\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ridiculous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ go\\ over\\ this\\ 2raise\\ the\\ question\\ o\\ how\\ the\\ ese\\ different\\ physiognomic\\ n\\ bodily\\ based\\ projects\\ pertained\\ 2the\\ formation\\ o\\ psychiatry\\ as\\ a\\ knowledge\\ visually\\ based\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ n\\ physiognomy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ illustrated\\ in\\ France\\ by\\ the\\ work\\ o\\ Esquirol\\,\\ Georges\\,\\ both\\ o\\ whom\\ weer\\ pupils\\ o\\ Pernel\\,\\ n\\ wanted\\ 2understand\\ mental\\ illness\\ as\\ an\\ illness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Esquirol\\ thougt\\ minute\\ something\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ could\\ produce\\ diagnosis\\.\\ \\ \\;Thought\\ in\\ order\\ 2understand\\ disease\\,\\ u\\ had\\ produce\\ a\\ bodily\\ map\\ o\\ the\\ internal\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ studied\\ physiognomy\\,\\ n\\ commissioned\\ 200\\ phsyiognomic\\ drawings\\ 2assist\\ his\\ studies\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ambroise\\ Tardieu\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Manic\\ during\\ attack\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\ from\\ J\\.E\\.D\\.\\ Esquirol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Des\\ maladies\\ mentales\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1839\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maniac\\ after\\ cure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ibid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ 2images\\ show\\ the\\ key\\ role\\ o\\ visual\\ representation\\ 4understanding\\ the\\ development\\ o\\ psychic\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ produced\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ o\\ their\\ desire\\ 2externalize\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Esquirol\\ was\\ more\\ empirically\\ based\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wrk\\ 4the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ used\\ the\\ artist\\ 2understand\\ the\\ mentally\\ ill\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ far\\ more\\ rationalist\\ in\\ his\\ desire\\ 2use\\ illustration\\ in\\ order\\ reduce\\ insanity\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ its\\ elements\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ these\\ drawings\\ which\\ would\\ illustrate\\ different\\ types\\ o\\ manifestations\\ o\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ illustrators\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ 2LB\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ vehement\\ enthusiasm\\ o\\ the\\ manic\\ person\\,\\ n\\ the\\ complete\\ resigned\\ calm\\ after\\ the\\ cure\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tardieu\\ introduces\\ the\\ hwole\\ body\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ source\\ o\\ expression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ the\\ face\\,\\ he\\ departs\\ from\\ LB\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Georges\\ F\\.M\\.\\ Gabriel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Head\\ of\\ an\\ insane\\ person\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ drawing\\ for\\ Esquirol\\,\\ 1823\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Tardieu\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Insane\\ woman\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ Esquirol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Des\\ maladies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1828\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ bears\\ apparatus\\ o\\ expression\\ from\\ LB\\,\\ but\\ also\\ shows\\ greater\\ degree\\ o\\ personality\\ n\\ individuation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ brings\\ us\\ finally\\ 2the\\ object\\ o\\ our\\ enquiry\\:\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ enigmatic\\ portraits\\ produced\\ by\\ Gericault\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Theordore\\ Gericault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ insane\\ woman\\ \\[envy\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1818\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rdg\\ assigned\\ 4\\ 2day\\&hellip\\;we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ firm\\ documentation\\ 4origin\\ o\\ these\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;Myserious\\ group\\ o\\ unclear\\ fnctn\\ n\\ meang\\.\\ \\ \\;Probably\\ done\\ during\\ these\\ 4\\ yrs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Size\\ o\\ the\\ 5\\ portraits\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ retained\\ is\\ somewhat\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Presentation\\ formally\\ is\\ similar\\.\\ \\ \\;Features\\ individual\\ person\\,\\ half\\-torso\\ portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;Long\\-believed\\ these\\ r\\ illustrations\\ o\\ a\\ particular\\ form\\ o\\ insanity\\,\\ which\\ Esquirol\\ first\\ introduced\\ nunderstood\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;monomania\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ obsession\\ wht\\ a\\ single\\ kind\\ o\\ deviant\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ insane\\ woman\\ is\\ recognized\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;envy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Wanring\\:\\ \\ \\;these\\ titles\\ r\\ arbitray\\,\\ given\\ by\\ art\\ historians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ sources\\ say\\ these\\ wrks\\ were\\ done\\ as\\ medical\\ tools\\ 4doctor\\ Etienne\\ Georges\\,\\ disciple\\ o\\ Esquirol\\ at\\ the\\ asylum\\,\\ n\\ the\\ interiority\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ tradition\\ o\\ phsysiognomic\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gericault\\ inscribes\\ himself\\ in\\ this\\ tradition\\ by\\ providing\\ legible\\ external\\ signs\\ o\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ portraits\\ also\\ manifest\\ insistence\\ on\\ interior\\ life\\ that\\ seems\\ 2slip\\ away\\ from\\ firm\\ grip\\ o\\ diagnosis\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mad\\ about\\ this\\ woman\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ imptntly\\,\\ rendition\\ o\\ the\\ face\\ in\\ Gericault\\&hellip\\;knitted\\ borwn\\,\\ intense\\ stare\\,\\ clasped\\ lips\\,\\ muddled\\ complexion\\.\\ \\ \\;Refusal\\ o\\ idealization\\.\\ \\ \\;Insistence\\ on\\ documentation\\ o\\ external\\ sides\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oblique\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ \\;Seen\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ as\\ the\\ very\\ source\\ o\\ our\\ capacity\\ 2imagine\\ this\\ woman\\ as\\ an\\ object\\ o\\ our\\ gaze\\,\\ unknowing\\ recipient\\ o\\ our\\ gaze\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gericault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Insane\\ woman\\ \\[Gambling\\ addict\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leaning\\ forward\\,\\ not\\ done\\ 4any\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Really\\ unusual\\ pose\\ 4a\\ portrait\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ u\\ see\\ dispossessed\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ fnctn\\ o\\ portraiture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ woman\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ any\\ attributes\\,\\ unlike\\ Mme\\ Bouret\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Complete\\ disinterest\\ in\\ flattering\\ these\\ subjects\\.\\ \\ \\;Interest\\ in\\ documenting\\ the\\ external\\ signs\\ o\\ something\\ that\\ happens\\ inside\\ that\\ signifies\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Marc\\ Nattier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portr\\ o\\ Mme\\ Bouret\\ as\\ Diana\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1745\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Gericcault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Insane\\ man\\ \\[Man\\ with\\ military\\ mania\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1818\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medal\\ on\\ his\\ chest\\ mocks\\ military\\ insignia\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ a\\ \\#\\ in\\ the\\ asylum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\[\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ kidnapper\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1818\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Skewed\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ o\\ idealization\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ specific\\ attribute\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ anchoring\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ instance\\ on\\ the\\ reality\\ o\\ these\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ r\\ distinct\\ persons\\,\\ w\\ some\\ sort\\ o\\ inner\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*J\\.A\\.D\\.\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monsieur\\ Bertin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1832\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;normal\\&rdquo\\;\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;Press\\ magnate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruthless\\ capitalist\\,\\ symbolic\\ o\\ burgeoning\\ press\\ tade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ hands\\ r\\ like\\ paws\\,\\ clasped\\ on\\ his\\ knees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dressed\\ 2the\\ 9\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;white\\ starched\\ shirt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confident\\,\\ firm\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ looks\\ directly\\ at\\ us\\,\\ engaging\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ different\\ form\\ what\\ Gericault\\ offers\\ in\\ this\\ face\\ that\\ looks\\ elseqhere\\,\\ n\\ pntd\\ w\\ degree\\ o\\ movement\\,\\ openness\\,\\ motility\\ that\\ enhances\\ the\\ sense\\ \\ \\;dishevelement\\ that\\ this\\ man\\ conveys\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gericault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Insane\\ man\\ \\[Kleptomaniac\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1818\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tardieu\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Physiognomy\\ of\\ an\\ insane\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ Esquirol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Des\\ maladies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ insistence\\ on\\ external\\ features\\ n\\ how\\ they\\ show\\ illness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Gericault\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hav\\ the\\ same\\ exaggeration\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ never\\ shows\\ the\\ hwole\\ body\\ ina\\ violent\\,\\ contorted\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ subjects\\ seem\\ more\\ melancholic\\ than\\ monomaniac\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ brings\\ us\\ 2hte\\ major\\ pnt\\:\\ \\ \\;uncertainty\\ about\\ the\\ purpose\\ o\\ these\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ real\\ interpretation\\?\\ \\ \\;Pntd\\ 4Georges\\?\\ \\ \\;We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ know\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Are\\ they\\ really\\ images\\ o\\ monomania\\?\\ \\ \\;Ehhhhh\\.\\ \\ \\;Esquirol\\ wanted\\ intense\\ displays\\ o\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Gericault\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ giving\\ intense\\ displays\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intense\\ rumination\\ that\\ these\\ physiognomies\\ convey\\,\\ anguish\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Famous\\,\\ oblique\\ gaze\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ tool\\ o\\ resistance\\ 2this\\ clinical\\ gaze\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ gaze\\ positions\\ u\\ firmly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ could\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ o\\ resistance\\ o\\ the\\ gaze\\,\\ lack\\ o\\ acknowledgment\\,\\ that\\ none\\ o\\ the\\ Tardieu\\ subjects\\ manifested\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\,\\ in\\ foregrounding\\ this\\ invidiualtiy\\,\\ the\\ humanity\\ o\\ these\\ figures\\,\\ Gericault\\ can\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ inheritor\\ o\\ Perner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tradition\\.\\ \\ \\;Suggesting\\ their\\ interioriy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ perhaps\\ he\\ departs\\ from\\ it\\,\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;Pernel\\ freed\\ the\\ insane\\,\\ liberated\\ them\\ 2some\\ extent\\,\\ but\\ also\\ imprisoned\\ them\\ in\\ another\\ type\\ o\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;Prison\\ o\\ discourse\\,\\ language\\,\\ need\\ 2classify\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ discourse\\ o\\ power\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ objects\\,\\ not\\ subjects\\.\\ \\ \\;Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ refusal\\ 2position\\ these\\ images\\ in\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ antoher\\ may\\ b\\ a\\ sign\\ o\\ devience\\ from\\ Pernelian\\ discourse\\ o\\ psychiatry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ linked\\ 2a\\ larger\\ project\\ o\\ romanticism\\,\\ as\\ the\\ rdg\\ elaborates\\ on\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1824\\ critique\\ o\\ salon\\ evokes\\ necessity\\ o\\ viewer\\ 2mobilize\\ his\\ own\\ emotions\\,\\ search\\ his\\ soul\\,\\ n\\ on\\ basis\\ o\\ this\\ manner\\ judge\\ the\\ pntgs\\ exhibited\\ in\\ the\\ Salon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gericualt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ iddn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ the\\ Salon\\,\\ but\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ inviting\\ a\\ similar\\ invitation\\ 2an\\ idivnidauted\\ response\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ not\\ just\\ os\\ individuals\\,\\ but\\ that\\ require\\ individual\\ engagmenet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ pnt\\:\\ \\ \\;genre\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ r\\,\\ n\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gericault\\ is\\ someone\\ who\\ excels\\ in\\ challenging\\ the\\ boundaries\\ o\\ genre\\,\\ which\\ u\\ know\\ from\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ academic\\ art\\,\\ where\\ we\\ atlkted\\ about\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ genres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gericault\\ produces\\ images\\ like\\ this\\ which\\ share\\ w\\ portraits\\ o\\ the\\ insane\\ the\\ challenge\\ 2the\\ idea\\ o\\ still\\-life\\,\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ share\\ w\\ portraits\\ o\\ the\\ isnaen\\ a\\ defiance\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ legible\\ vehicle\\ o\\ communication\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\SEverd\\ limbs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1820\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Signifying\\ bodily\\ fragments\\&rsquo\\;\\ ability\\ 2convey\\ meaning\\,\\ n\\ also\\ lack\\ o\\ body\\ wholenss\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ tradtion\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ epitomized\\ by\\ David\\ in\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\J\\.L\\.\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Academy\\ \\(Patrocles\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Body\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ is\\ radically\\ challenged\\ by\\ Gericault\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whole\\ notion\\ o\\ academic\\ tradition\\ tah\\ believed\\ in\\ body\\ as\\ carrier\\ o\\ mng\\,\\ n\\ established\\ barriers\\ bw\\ genres\\,\\ suggesting\\ something\\ atht\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ a\\ still\\-life\\ n\\ yet\\ composed\\ o\\ human\\ limbs\\,\\ a\\ vechicle\\ o\\ history\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ this\\ could\\ b\\ seen\\ in\\ broader\\ historical\\ context\\ as\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ Napoleonic\\ period\\ that\\ followed\\ it\\,\\ n\\ that\\ was\\ marked\\ by\\ sense\\ o\\ triumph\\ n\\ defeat\\.\\ \\ \\;Defeat\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ stranslatedi\\ n2\\ a\\ loss\\ o\\ confidence\\ I\\ the\\ body\\ Gericaultconveys\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4our\\ purposes\\,\\ what\\ prof\\ wants\\ 2focus\\ on\\ is\\ body\\ as\\ vehicle\\ o\\ communication\\ which\\ is\\ obth\\ used\\ by\\ Gericault\\ n\\ challenged\\ in\\ this\\ function\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ October\\,\\ 22\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Race\\ and\\ the\\ Colonial\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/22\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ \\#9\\:\\ The\\ Colonial\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\treadway\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Review\\ from\\ last\\ time\\:\\ new\\ representation\\ of\\ body\\ as\\ view\\ of\\ interiority\\.\\ Screen\\ on\\ which\\ psychic\\ life\\ is\\ legible\\.\\ Emergence\\ of\\ body\\ as\\ form\\ of\\ visual\\ representation\\ serving\\ as\\ physiognomic\\ classification\\,\\ also\\ as\\ instrument\\ of\\ diagnosis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Today\\:\\ view\\ of\\ body\\ and\\ colonial\\ project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Notion\\ of\\ Race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ project\\ of\\ enlightenment\\ to\\ understand\\ human\\ beings\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ taxonomy\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\.\\ Linnaeus\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Systema\\ Naturae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ describe\\ races\\ according\\ to\\ geographic\\ location\\ and\\ external\\ appearance\\ and\\ attach\\ them\\ to\\ values\\ and\\ places\\ within\\ the\\ hierarchy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-In\\ work\\ of\\ Shadow\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Natural\\ Physiognomies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1835\\)\\ and\\ Virey\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Histoire\\ Naturelle\\ du\\ genre\\ Humain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1824\\)\\,\\ race\\ emerges\\ as\\ a\\ visual\\ trope\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ effort\\ has\\ roots\\ in\\ Le\\ Brun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physiognomies\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ was\\ to\\ lien\\ black\\ individuals\\ to\\ apes\\ like\\ Le\\ Brun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ animal\\/men\\.\\ By\\ doing\\ this\\ they\\ sought\\ to\\ identify\\ personal\\/moral\\ characteristics\\.\\ In\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ could\\ be\\ placed\\ earlier\\ on\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ continuum\\ as\\ inferior\\ beings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Virey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ based\\ on\\ Lavateur\\ who\\ thought\\ talent\\ and\\ genius\\ could\\ be\\ characterized\\ by\\ the\\ silhouette\\.\\ He\\ sought\\ to\\ explain\\ nature\\ of\\ African\\ features\\,\\ but\\ what\\ he\\ was\\ doing\\ was\\ producing\\ aesthetics\\ of\\ racism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Beauty\\ up\\ until\\ this\\ point\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ Greek\\ sculpture\\ of\\ men\\ who\\ were\\ not\\ only\\ white\\,\\ but\\ rendered\\ in\\ white\\ marble\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ black\\ people\\ increasingly\\ emerged\\ as\\ models\\.\\ At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ the\\ discourse\\ of\\ race\\ and\\ use\\ of\\ body\\ as\\ representation\\ got\\ complicated\\ because\\ of\\ French\\ Revolution\\ and\\ revolution\\ of\\ slavery\\ \\(slaves\\ start\\ to\\ be\\ emancipated\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Anne\\-Louis\\ Girodet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Belley\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1797\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-First\\ black\\ deputy\\ representative\\ of\\ Haiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Dressed\\ as\\ a\\ republican\\ official\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Matched\\ together\\ with\\ white\\ bust\\ of\\ Raynal\\ who\\ was\\ an\\ abolitionist\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ responsible\\ for\\ this\\ mans\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ is\\ an\\ exploitation\\ of\\ friction\\ in\\ the\\ contrast\\ of\\ white\\ and\\ black\\,\\ and\\ uniform\\ cannot\\ hide\\ bulging\\ genitals\\ which\\ portray\\ black\\ link\\ to\\ hyper\\-sexuality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Marie\\-Guilhelmine\\ Benoist\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ Negress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1800\\ salon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Student\\ of\\ David\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Throws\\ dispute\\ of\\ suitability\\ of\\ black\\ body\\ for\\ portraiture\\ in\\ critics\\ faces\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Overtly\\ exposed\\ breast\\ again\\ a\\ comment\\ on\\ sexuality\\ of\\ black\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Racist\\ reaction\\ that\\ only\\ a\\ white\\ hand\\ could\\ produce\\ such\\ cultured\\ blackness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Think\\ about\\ sexuality\\ of\\ women\\ as\\ expressed\\ through\\ character\\ of\\ Diana\\,\\ this\\ black\\ woman\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ a\\ disguise\\ to\\ expose\\ herself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ are\\ respectful\\ portrayals\\ of\\ Black\\ individuals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-After\\ Revolution\\,\\ racism\\ continues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Girodet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Revolt\\ of\\ Cairo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1810\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Regression\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ in\\ concept\\ of\\ race\\.\\ Napoleon\\ revoked\\ revolutionary\\ decree\\ freeing\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ preventing\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ from\\ moving\\ to\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Portrayal\\ of\\ those\\ of\\ color\\ as\\ extremely\\ violent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Part\\ of\\ a\\ larger\\ project\\ of\\ orientalism\\,\\ which\\ became\\ fanatic\\ iconography\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ exoticism\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ located\\ in\\ colonialism\\,\\ but\\ it\\ makes\\ the\\ oriental\\ cultures\\ the\\ other\\ to\\ be\\ fantasized\\ about\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Ideologies\\ were\\ constructed\\ around\\ Oriental\\ body\\:\\ pre\\-modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\)\\ G\\é\\;rome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Snake\\ Charmer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ late\\ 1860\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ Orient\\ as\\ stagnant\\ territory\\,\\ stereotype\\ of\\ idleness\\ as\\ typically\\ Muslim\\ vice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Stagnation\\ in\\ a\\ cultural\\ sense\\,\\ territory\\ frozen\\ in\\ eternal\\ rituals\\ and\\ customs\\ \\(snake\\ charming\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ land\\ untouched\\ by\\ Western\\ presence\\ and\\ civilization\\,\\ which\\ is\\ exactly\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ visible\\ in\\ paintings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\)\\ Eug\\è\\;ne\\ Delacroix\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Street\\ in\\ Meknez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1832\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Went\\ to\\ Morocco\\ with\\ a\\ French\\ mission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-First\\ hand\\ experience\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ guarantee\\ of\\ authenticity\\.\\ He\\ experienced\\ orient\\ through\\ cultural\\ filter\\,\\ sees\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ land\\ of\\ forgotten\\ antiquity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ produces\\ an\\ edited\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ orient\\:\\ motif\\ emphasizes\\ loitering\\.\\ Moroccan\\ subject\\ is\\ an\\ object\\ to\\ be\\ looked\\ at\\ like\\ Rococco\\ painting\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ certain\\ picturesque\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\)\\ Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moroccan\\ Scene\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Louvre\\ Sketchbook\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\)\\ Leon\\ Belly\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pilgrims\\ on\\ their\\ way\\ to\\ Mecca\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1861\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Characters\\ caught\\ in\\ a\\ slow\\ motion\\ stasis\\ traveling\\ through\\ the\\ desert\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\)\\ Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fanatics\\ of\\ Tangier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1833\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Dervishes\\ show\\ to\\ run\\ through\\ streets\\ in\\ fervent\\ procession\\.\\ It\\ is\\ very\\ colorfully\\ documented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Idea\\ of\\ religious\\ fervor\\ is\\ something\\ different\\ from\\ Western\\ religious\\ practices\\.\\ It\\ reinforces\\ otherness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Movement\\ of\\ procession\\ is\\ held\\ in\\ check\\ by\\ sand\\-washed\\ white\\ architecture\\ \\(white\\)\\ of\\ setting\\.\\ Observation\\ has\\ been\\ digested\\ and\\ processed\\ to\\ produce\\ otherness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ is\\ not\\ hiding\\ himself\\ from\\ the\\ stereotype\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\)\\ Alexandre\\-Georges\\-Henri\\ Regnault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Execution\\ without\\ judgment\\ under\\ the\\ caliphs\\ of\\ Granada\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1870\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Contrasting\\ passivity\\ and\\ stagnation\\ is\\ associate\\ with\\ violence\\.\\ This\\ emphasizes\\ arbitrary\\ practices\\ of\\ caliphs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-We\\ are\\ far\\ enough\\ away\\ to\\ remain\\ safe\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ enjoy\\ a\\ spectacle\\ of\\ violence\\.\\ The\\ blood\\ is\\ very\\ thick\\,\\ clearly\\ this\\ act\\ has\\ just\\ happened\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Of\\ course\\ we\\ can\\ think\\ back\\ to\\ Revolution\\ and\\ Western\\ willingness\\ to\\ be\\ arbitrary\\ with\\ violence\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ depiction\\ of\\ violence\\ not\\ associated\\ with\\ justice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\)\\ Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Lion\\ Hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1854\\-55\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Seeming\\ innocent\\ subject\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Muslims\\ more\\ instinctual\\ like\\ animals\\,\\ inclined\\ to\\ violence\\.\\ They\\ are\\ hunting\\ like\\ the\\ animals\\ they\\ are\\ hunting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ is\\ an\\ old\\ baroque\\ subject\\,\\ Delacroix\\ would\\ have\\ looked\\ at\\ Rubens\\ paintings\\ of\\ the\\ lion\\ hunt\\ and\\ his\\ familiarity\\ with\\ coloration\\ over\\ form\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ is\\ producing\\ a\\ different\\ image\\ however\\,\\ and\\ it\\ lies\\ in\\ composition\\ and\\ form\\,\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ interchangeability\\ between\\ human\\ and\\ animal\\.\\ Their\\ bodies\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ and\\ textural\\ animation\\ of\\ surface\\ \\ \\;\\(visible\\ brushstrokes\\)\\ merge\\ the\\ two\\ worlds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\)\\ Delacroix\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ women\\ of\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1834\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Notion\\ of\\ oriental\\ women\\ as\\ something\\ different\\ from\\ Western\\.\\ They\\ are\\ objects\\ to\\ be\\ coveted\\ and\\ observed\\.\\ They\\ lead\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ leisure\\,\\ pleasure\\,\\ etc\\.\\ and\\ they\\ themselves\\ are\\ pleasures\\ for\\ men\\ to\\ experience\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ Oriental\\ Erotic\\ Body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Subject\\ of\\ women\\ posed\\ problem\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ as\\ easily\\ accessed\\ as\\ men\\ in\\ Morocco\\ because\\ of\\ Muslim\\ religious\\ restrictions\\.\\ So\\ he\\ very\\ often\\ painted\\ Jewish\\ women\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ would\\ paint\\ water\\ colors\\ on\\ the\\ road\\ and\\ then\\ back\\ in\\ France\\ he\\ would\\ paint\\ the\\ final\\ product\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ became\\ private\\ possession\\,\\ like\\ a\\ rare\\ jewel\\ to\\ be\\ coveted\\.\\ No\\ men\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ shadow\\ that\\ is\\ cast\\ across\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ women\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Orientalism\\ meant\\ that\\ Westerners\\ thought\\ the\\ other\\ was\\ opposed\\ to\\ government\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\)\\ Jean\\-Auguste\\-Dominique\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Great\\ Odalisque\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1814\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Term\\ for\\ white\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-She\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ jewel\\.\\ Her\\ outlines\\ are\\ faintly\\ visible\\.\\ The\\ curtains\\ are\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ side\\ to\\ present\\ body\\ to\\ viewer\\.\\ It\\ is\\ turned\\ away\\ but\\ her\\ face\\ is\\ towards\\ viewer\\ enticing\\ us\\ to\\ look\\ on\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Execution\\ different\\ than\\ Delacroix\\,\\ the\\ technique\\ is\\ hidden\\ to\\ create\\ impossible\\ smoothness\\ of\\ skin\\ and\\ feet\\ that\\ have\\ never\\ stepped\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ also\\ hidden\\ signature\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ individual\\ portrayed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ painting\\ was\\ actually\\ commissioned\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\)\\ G\\é\\;rome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slave\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Idea\\ of\\ woman\\ as\\ literally\\ a\\ possession\\ of\\ man\\,\\ woman\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ naked\\ with\\ four\\ men\\ around\\ her\\.\\ She\\ is\\ being\\ checked\\ by\\ them\\ for\\ health\\ quality\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ rather\\ erotic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\)\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Turkish\\ Bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1859\\-63\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Commissioned\\ by\\ cousin\\ of\\ Napoleon\\ third\\ ho\\ found\\ it\\ much\\ to\\ risqu\\é\\;\\.\\ So\\ he\\ put\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ circular\\ frame\\ which\\ is\\ similar\\ of\\ keyhole\\ paintings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Bathing\\ scene\\ but\\ women\\ seem\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ viewers\\ presense\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ rather\\ bizarre\\ staging\\ creating\\ different\\ spheres\\ of\\ action\\.\\ Forever\\ undulating\\ white\\ hairless\\ flesh\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\)\\ G\\é\\;rome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moorish\\ Bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1870\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Possibly\\ indicative\\ of\\ lesbian\\ fantasy\\,\\ one\\ white\\ woman\\ being\\ washed\\ by\\ a\\ black\\ woman\\.\\ White\\ woman\\ is\\ turned\\ away\\ not\\ showing\\ body\\,\\ black\\ woman\\ is\\ freely\\ exposing\\ herself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 24\\,\\ 2007\\.\\ \\ \\;Lecture\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;Race\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Ethnographic\\ Gaze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thursday\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quills\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ about\\ Marquis\\ de\\ Sade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ wk\\:\\ \\ \\;race\\ as\\ a\\ visual\\ trope\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ rare\\ and\\ short\\-lived\\ these\\ respectful\\ representations\\ o\\ racial\\ minorities\\ were\\.\\ \\ \\;Tendency\\ 2use\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ race\\ in\\ order\\ 2hierarchically\\ position\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexualizaitno\\ o\\ the\\ male\\ n\\ female\\ black\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ we\\ moved\\ on\\ 2discuss\\ a\\ colonial\\ body\\ n\\ its\\ construction\\ in\\ the\\ stylistic\\ predilection\\ o\\ orientalism\\,\\ manifest\\ in\\ pntgs\\ from\\ romanticism\\ thru\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ selectiveness\\ o\\ the\\ orientalist\\ gaze\\,\\ n\\ the\\ construction\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ passive\\,\\ or\\ if\\ active\\,\\ as\\ extremely\\ violent\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ as\\ sexually\\ available\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ interior\\ in\\ Delacroix\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\women\\ o\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinction\\ bw\\ Gerome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ empirical\\ approach\\ n\\ Delacroix\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ open\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ focus\\ on\\ another\\ body\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ cultural\\ means\\ o\\ display\\ o\\ that\\ body\\,\\ n\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ display\\ in\\ the\\ colonioal\\ context\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ public\\ exhibition\\ o\\ a\\ black\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\,\\ the\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\,\\ n\\ then\\ we\\ move\\ on2\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;world\\ exhibitions\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\public\\ spectacle\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\ n\\ the\\ oriental\\ body\\ was\\ produced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ these\\ means\\,\\ the\\ French\\ not\\ only\\ came\\ in2\\ contact\\ directly\\ w\\ the\\ other\\,\\ but\\ the\\ French\\ body\\ was\\ produced\\ in\\ relation\\ 2the\\ other\\,\\ in\\ relation\\ 2these\\ spectacles\\ o\\ racial\\ n\\ ethnic\\ difference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ move\\ back\\ n\\ forth\\ bw\\ larger\\ cultural\\ phenomena\\ n\\ narrower\\ contexts\\ o\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Leon\\ de\\ Wailly\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Saartije\\ Baartman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\&rdquo\\;\\ watercolor\\ on\\ vellum\\ 1815\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ begin\\ w\\ Sarrije\\ Baartman\\,\\ who\\ was\\ brought\\ 2Paris\\ 2b\\ exhibited\\ as\\ the\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\.\\ \\ \\;Thought\\ 2b\\ her\\ countrymen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ female\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ was\\ put\\ on\\ display\\ like\\ an\\ exotic\\ animal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pietro\\ Longhi\\ \\(school\\ of\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rhinoceros\\ in\\ its\\ box\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1751\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ was\\ moved\\ in\\ a\\ box\\,\\ like\\ a\\ rhinoceros\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shown\\ as\\ an\\ exotic\\ creature\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ ppl\\ were\\ curious\\ about\\ this\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ were\\ deploring\\ her\\ condition\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ really\\ admired\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;special\\ beauty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Paris\\,\\ she\\ caught\\ the\\ attn\\ o\\ a\\ comparative\\ anatomist\\ Gerges\\ Le\\ Cuvier\\,\\ who\\ examined\\ her\\ physically\\ n\\ had\\ 3\\ artists\\ do\\ wrks\\ o\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ was\\ presented\\ in\\ these\\ drawings\\ as\\ a\\ racial\\ specimen\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ scientific\\ illustrations\\,\\ but\\ they\\ raised\\ an\\ interesting\\ problem\\ not\\ always\\ taken\\ in2\\ consideration\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ problem\\ o\\ scientific\\ objectivity\\ n\\ the\\ relation\\ bw\\ visual\\ repseentaiton\\ n\\ objectivity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ question\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;scientific\\&rdquo\\;\\ representations\\,\\ we\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ science\\,\\ forgetting\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ made\\ by\\ artists\\ n\\ therefore\\ infused\\ w\\ conventions\\ o\\ visual\\ representations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conventiosn\\ that\\ produce\\ different\\ kinds\\ o\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ constructions\\ o\\ her\\ body\\,\\ such\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ positioned\\ most\\ particularly\\ in\\ relation\\ 2the\\ white\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ thru\\ the\\ image\\ such\\ as\\ de\\ Wailly\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ Baartman\\ was\\ presented\\ as\\ a\\ putative\\ exemplar\\ o\\ the\\ African\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ medium\\ o\\ presentation\\ is\\ already\\ suggesting\\ the\\ work\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ n\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ conventions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ medium\\ n\\ the\\ support\\ on\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ presented\\ is\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ presented\\ on\\ vellum\\,\\ a\\ parchment\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ paper\\ or\\ skin\\ actually\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ o\\ using\\ this\\ paper\\ suggests\\ her\\ status\\ as\\ \\ \\;kind\\ o\\ specimen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shown\\ frontally\\ n\\ from\\ the\\ back\\ in\\ order\\ 2emphasize\\ her\\ status\\ as\\ the\\ object\\ o\\ the\\ look\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shown\\ in\\ a\\ geographical\\ representation\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ is\\ thought\\ 2exist\\ naturally\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ a\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ stands\\ 4this\\ territory\\ o\\ earth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ ethnographic\\ construction\\,\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ motif\\ a\\ curiosity\\,\\ but\\ which\\ also\\ is\\ quite\\ arbitrary\\ n\\ constructs\\ that\\ body\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baartman\\ is\\ taken\\ 2stand\\ 4the\\ entire\\ black\\ race\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Certain\\ characteristics\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ r\\ taken\\ as\\ proof\\ o\\ racial\\ difference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3rdly\\:\\ \\ \\;emphasis\\ on\\ anatomy\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;speaking\\ architecture\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ an\\ image\\ that\\ speaks\\ o\\ her\\ n\\ for\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ caricature\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ butt\\ is\\ flouted\\ as\\ most\\ imptnt\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exaggerated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cuvier\\,\\ after\\ her\\ death\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ o\\ 25\\,\\ not\\ only\\ commissioned\\ the\\ drawings\\ o\\ her\\ earlier\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ conducted\\ a\\ dissection\\ o\\ her\\ body\\ bc\\ he\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ proving\\ that\\ her\\ body\\ was\\ different\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ ended\\ up\\ coming\\ up\\ w\\ a\\ whole\\ set\\ o\\ inherently\\ differentiating\\ characteristics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nicolas\\ Huet\\ Le\\ Jenue\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hottentot\\ Venus\\:\\ \\ \\;profile\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johannes\\ Muller\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Thottento\\ Venus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Apron\\ \\(genitalia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1834\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cuvier\\ focused\\ on\\ how\\ her\\ genitals\\ looked\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ did\\ look\\ different\\ bc\\ o\\ African\\ tribes\\&rsquo\\;\\ custom\\ o\\ extending\\ n\\ enlraging\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ external\\ labia\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hottentot\\&rdquo\\;\\ apron\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ manipulation\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ a\\ product\\ o\\ culture\\,\\ was\\ converted\\ in2\\ an\\ essential\\,\\ inherent\\ difference\\ o\\ that\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ genitals\\ were\\ preserved\\ n\\ presented\\ 2the\\ academy\\ by\\ Cuvier\\,\\ as\\ a\\ specimen\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ difference\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ about\\ her\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ subject\\ o\\ discussion\\ o\\ the\\ inherent\\ sexual\\ proclivity\\ among\\ African\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ her\\ body\\,\\ n\\ its\\ visual\\ n\\ scientific\\ elaboration\\,\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ scientific\\ proof\\ o\\ the\\ unusually\\ primitive\\ n\\ intense\\ appetite\\ n\\ sexual\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ were\\ being\\ increasingly\\ considered\\ 2b\\ particularly\\ given\\ 2sex\\,\\ n\\ thus\\ in\\ that\\ sense\\ deviant\\ from\\ the\\ norm\\ established\\ by\\ men\\ as\\ more\\ constrained\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\?\\!\\?\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ black\\ woman\\ became\\ the\\ icon\\ o\\ this\\ sexual\\ deviancy\\ that\\ women\\ were\\ associated\\ w\\,\\ n\\ the\\ scientific\\ speak\\ about\\ her\\ proliferated\\ throughout\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ therefore\\ through\\ her\\ display\\ n\\ scientific\\ visual\\ elaboration\\ thata\\ certain\\ kidn\\ o\\ fantasy\\,\\ that\\ proved\\ 2b\\ long\\-lived\\,\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ black\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ was\\ taken\\ 2stand\\ 4deviant\\ female\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;Crazy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ satirical\\ engraving\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1850\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ perception\\ o\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ became\\ associated\\ w\\ the\\ perception\\ o\\ prostitutes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anatomically\\ different\\ from\\ normal\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Sexually\\ deviant\\ no\\ doubt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ visual\\ proof\\ o\\ this\\ conviction\\ that\\ the\\ prostitute\\ is\\ pathologically\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ visual\\ n\\ verbal\\ physiognomies\\ o\\ prostutes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alphonse\\ Bertillion\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Anthropometric\\ identification\\ \\(ear\\)\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;photograph\\,\\ 1893\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Here\\ du\\ Chateler\\ interests\\ us\\ in\\ a\\ later\\ development\\ o\\ interest\\ in\\ anthropomorphic\\ classicfication\\ o\\ the\\ criminal\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Presented\\ 4the\\ purpose\\ o\\ describing\\ the\\ criminals\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ prescriptive\\ devices\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prostitute\\ body\\ as\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ essay\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;criminal\\ woman\\,\\ the\\ prostitute\\,\\ n\\ the\\ normal\\ woman\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ book\\ introduced\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ prostitute\\ as\\ an\\ atavistic\\ sub\\-class\\,\\ a\\ special\\ kind\\ o\\ woman\\,\\ n\\ he\\ off\\-handedly\\ referred\\ 2hte\\ Hottentot\\ venus\\ 2establish\\ an\\ analogy\\ bw\\ her\\ n\\ the\\ prostitute\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ texts\\ such\\ as\\ this\\,\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ amalgamation\\ was\\ produced\\ bw\\ black\\ woman\\ n\\ the\\ prostitute\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ amalgamation\\ that\\ proved\\ quite\\ powerful\\ in\\ EU\\ visual\\ culture\\ n\\ French\\ visual\\ culture\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prostitute\\ accompanied\\ by\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ thing\\ is\\ that\\ MAnet\\ takes\\ up\\ the\\ steroetpical\\ amalgamation\\ o\\ black\\ woman\\ and\\ association\\ bw\\ her\\ n\\ prostitution\\.\\ \\ \\;Manet\\ doest\\ this\\ critically\\,\\ provocatively\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Olympia\\ stares\\ at\\ us\\ provactively\\,\\ interrogating\\ her\\ own\\ status\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ repeating\\ certain\\ clich\\é\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;Genius\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ Mante\\ n\\ Hottentot\\ venus\\ imagery\\ share\\ is\\ the\\ ethnographic\\ gaze\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ structure\\ o\\ understanding\\ the\\ body\\,\\ thru\\ which\\ a\\ certain\\ idea\\ o\\ otherness\\ may\\ b\\ conveyed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethnography\\ suggests\\ genuine\\ interest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ ethnographer\\ is\\ motivated\\ by\\ curiosity\\ about\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ alos\\ implies\\ a\\ particular\\ hierarchy\\ bw\\ the\\ object\\ n\\ the\\ subject\\,\\ wherein\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ something\\ under\\ the\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ knowing\\ subject\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethnographic\\ gaze\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ curious\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ a\\ certain\\ structure\\ o\\ belief\\ in\\ otherness\\,\\ which\\ is\\ produced\\ n\\ reproduced\\ in\\ images\\ about\\ the\\ display\\ o\\ the\\ obdy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\ distinctions\\ o\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ethnographic\\ gaze\\,\\ were\\ the\\ universal\\ exhibitions\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ took\\ palce\\ in\\ Paris\\ in\\ 1867\\,\\ 1878\\,\\ 1889\\,\\ n\\ 1900\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\View\\ of\\ the\\ Eiffel\\ Tower\\ w\\/Tunisian\\ Palace\\ \\(left\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Algerian\\ palace\\ \\(right\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\View\\ towards\\ Trocadero\\,\\ Exposition\\ Universelle\\,\\ 1900\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ photographs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ were\\ the\\ grounds\\ o\\ the\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ took\\ place\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ o\\ the\\ River\\ Seine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ these\\ exhibitions\\,\\ the\\ certain\\ orientalist\\ stereotypes\\ were\\ enacted\\ n\\ repreated\\,\\ not\\ only\\ visually\\ but\\ also\\ spatially\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ one\\ critic\\ put\\ it\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ exhibitions\\ brought\\ the\\ orient\\ 2Paris\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ a\\ selective\\ vision\\,\\ one\\ that\\ was\\ a\\ product\\ o\\ ethnographic\\ gaze\\,\\ which\\ it\\ enacted\\ n\\ ingrained\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ artist\\ was\\ shown\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ selective\\ way\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ orientalizing\\ scenario\\,\\ based\\ on\\ very\\ careful\\ selection\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ aspects\\ that\\ were\\ palatable\\,\\ pictureseque\\,\\ interesting\\,\\ and\\ unthreatening\\ 2the\\ Western\\ viewer\\ were\\ put\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ kind\\ o\\ presentation\\ that\\ allows\\ us\\ 2construct\\ the\\ orient\\ as\\ an\\ opposite\\ o\\ the\\ West\\,\\ not\\ as\\ its\\ own\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ hierarchy\\ was\\ thus\\ erected\\ by\\ these\\ seemingly\\ well\\-meaning\\ exhibitions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Filigree\\ Artisans\\ in\\ the\\ Egyptian\\ Bazaar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Paris\\,\\ Expo\\ Universelle\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasis\\ here\\ is\\ on\\ contrast\\ bw\\ local\\ traditions\\,\\ still\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ o\\ art\\ as\\ aristanship\\ \\(\\?\\)\\,\\ n\\ the\\ progress\\ o\\ the\\ West\\ within\\ the\\ Suez\\ pavilion\\.\\ \\ \\;Feats\\ o\\ Western\\ engineering\\,\\ which\\ combine\\ w\\ images\\ such\\ as\\ this\\,\\ w\\ the\\ woman\\ carrying\\ the\\ vessel\\ on\\ her\\ head\\,\\ constructing\\ the\\ orient\\ as\\ a\\ feudal\\ realm\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ progress\\ o\\ science\\ n\\ engineering\\ in\\ the\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ interesting\\ about\\ these\\ exhibitions\\ is\\ hwo\\ they\\ stage\\ the\\ orient\\ n\\ engage\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ spectator\\ in\\ this\\ spectacle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ logner\\ a\\ pntg\\ that\\ constructs\\ the\\ viewer\\ as\\ such\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ allows\\ 4immersion\\ in\\ this\\ realm\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\ has\\ an\\ interesting\\ tension\\ in\\ these\\ exhibtions\\ bw\\ the\\ desire\\ 4the\\ weterners\\ 2separate\\ thsmelves\\,\\ 2create\\ a\\ realm\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ Western\\ subject\\,\\ n\\ the\\ desire\\ 2immerse\\ oneself\\ in\\ this\\ world\\,\\ 2b\\ surrounded\\ by\\ it\\,\\ the\\ opposite\\ o\\ separation\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ exhibitions\\ offered\\ was\\ a\\ spatial\\ theater\\ o\\ the\\ other\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rue\\ du\\ Caire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Pari\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tim\\ Mitchell\\ underlies\\ this\\ exhibition\\ in\\ his\\ rdg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frenchman\\ who\\ lived\\ here\\ was\\ willing\\ 2pay\\ 4the\\ construction\\ o\\ 25\\ houses\\ reconstructed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ deal\\ was\\ recreated\\,\\ complete\\ w\\ donkeys\\,\\ which\\ as\\ u\\ know\\ form\\ the\\ rdg\\,\\ were\\ also\\ a\\ subject\\ o\\ complaint\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ a\\ spatial\\ condition\\ in\\ which\\ u\\ can\\ immerse\\ urself\\,\\ in\\ what\\ seems\\ 2b\\ an\\ authentic\\ recreation\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\,\\ which\\ only\\ helps\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ a\\ certain\\ selective\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\ 2b\\ absorbed\\ by\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ spectacle\\ in\\ which\\ u\\ were\\ the\\ immersed\\ participant\\ increased\\ gradually\\ w\\ these\\ exhibitions\\,\\ so\\ that\\ while\\ in\\ 1867\\ there\\ were\\ few\\ ppl\\ populating\\ these\\ sceneries\\,\\ by\\ 1878\\,\\ there\\ were\\ much\\ more\\ o\\ them\\,\\ n\\ there\\ were\\ theaters\\ introducded\\ in\\ which\\ entertainment\\ was\\ offered\\ in\\ music\\ was\\ offered\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tableaux\\ vivants\\:\\ \\ \\;live\\ reenacted\\ scenes\\ from\\ local\\ daily\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ scenery\\ 4\\ a\\ simulated\\ voyage\\ was\\ thus\\ being\\ presented\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ like\\ a\\ proto\\-Disney\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ similar\\ 2these\\ offerings\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ I\\ nttehse\\ spectacles\\ was\\ o\\ course\\ critically\\ important\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ argued\\ that\\ bc\\ they\\ were\\ performing\\ bodies\\,\\ n\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ spatial\\ nature\\ o\\ this\\ experience\\,\\ exhibitions\\ were\\ far\\ more\\ powerful\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ certain\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Markets\\ at\\ the\\ Esplanade\\ des\\ Invalides\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thru\\ this\\,\\ a\\ certain\\ vision\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\ was\\ authenticated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Through\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ other\\,\\ a\\ certain\\ construction\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\ oculd\\ b\\ composed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ constructions\\ in\\ the\\ exhibitions\\ were\\ parallel\\ 2the\\ continuing\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ orient\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ exhibition\\ n\\ the\\ pntg\\ were\\ a\\ product\\ o\\ this\\ ethnographic\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ were\\ wearing\\ theseelaborate\\ constumes\\ which\\ actually\\ were\\ long\\ out\\ o\\ use\\ in\\ the\\ oriental\\ lands\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minute\\ attn\\ 2ethnographic\\ detail\\,\\ suggesting\\ this\\ stuff\\ is\\ real\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Jean\\-Leon\\ Gerome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bashibazook\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ hint\\ is\\ presented\\ that\\ these\\ timeless\\ costumes\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ worn\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gerome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dance\\ of\\ Almeh\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Belly\\ dancing\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ o\\ these\\ performances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\~2\\,000\\ visitors\\ came\\ per\\ day\\ 2watch\\ Egyptian\\ bellydancing\\,\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ disappearing\\ form\\ the\\ Ottoman\\ empire\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ dances\\ for\\ the\\ BAshibazooks\\,\\ presenting\\ her\\ entire\\ body\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\/spectator\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Belly\\-dancing\\ \\=\\ illustration\\ o\\ laciviousness\\ o\\ sultans\\&rsquo\\;\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ East\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ dance\\ in\\ its\\ origins\\ had\\ a\\ very\\ diffeferent\\ function\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rarely\\ was\\ this\\ actually\\ ejoeyd\\ by\\ private\\ parties\\ o\\ men\\,\\ n\\ never\\ in\\ the\\ harem\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntgs\\ like\\ this\\ propsed\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ public\\ performance\\,\\ but\\ no\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ actually\\ prhobitied\\ ias\\ as\\ a\\ public\\ performance\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ in\\ 1830\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ huge\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ East\\ in\\ Weatern\\ ballet\\.\\ \\ \\;Western\\ ballets\\ r\\ visiting\\ the\\ East\\,\\ n\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ interesting\\ form\\ o\\ dance\\ than\\ belly\\ dancing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Germoe\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ exhibition\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ re\\-staged\\ as\\ the\\ epitome\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\,\\ n\\ an\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ erotic\\ spectacle\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ exposed\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ her\\ belly\\,\\ but\\ also\\ her\\ breast\\ n\\ rhythmic\\ dance\\/movement\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ Germoe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presented\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ ethnographic\\ specimen\\ 2b\\ looked\\ at\\,\\ not\\ unlike\\ the\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ belly\\-dance\\,\\ Parisian\\ popular\\ entertainment\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ something\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ jewish\\ Algerianwoman\\ became\\ famous\\ 4her\\ bellydancing\\,\\ performed\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ an\\ 1878\\ exhibtion\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ n\\ her\\ family\\ stayed\\ afterwards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1879\\,\\ she\\ stayed\\ in\\ the\\ exhibition\\ n\\ had\\ her\\ own\\ booth\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ wasa\\ 100\\-person\\ room\\ in\\ this\\ booth\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ rather\\ large\\ booth\\.\\ \\ \\;Okay\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ was\\ also\\ performing\\ beyond\\ exhibitions\\ in\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ commercial\\ backgrounds\\,\\ selling\\ her\\ dance\\ through\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\La\\ Belle\\ Feridjee\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ photograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ dancer\\ performed\\ in\\ an\\ amusement\\ park\\ in\\ a\\ so\\-called\\ \\&ldquo\\;alnd\\ o\\ fairies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ different\\ kidns\\ of\\ fairy\\ tales\\ were\\ being\\ illustrated\\ from\\ local\\ French\\ fairytales\\ 2\\ Alleybaba\\,\\ to\\ 1\\,001\\ nights\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Feridjee\\ danced\\ on\\ a\\ special\\ platform\\ set\\ up\\ inside\\ the\\ belly\\ o\\ an\\ elephant\\.\\ \\ \\;Mixing\\ childish\\ fantasy\\ w\\ adult\\ erotic\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Egyptian\\ Dancers\\ on\\ rue\\ du\\ Caire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Paris\\,\\ Expo\\ of\\ 1889\\,\\ photograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ illustration\\ o\\ the\\ increasing\\ presence\\ o\\ women\\ as\\ perfomers\\ in\\ this\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ this\\,\\ 2\\ things\\ were\\ achieved\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;vision\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\ was\\ increasingly\\ feminized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;idea\\ o\\ popular\\ entertainment\\ thru\\ the\\ infiltration\\ o\\ the\\ orientalized\\ idealized\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dance\\ w\\/the\\ narghile\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1900\\,\\ photograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ was\\ an\\ implication\\ happening\\ o\\ entertainment\\ w\\ the\\ visual\\ mdoes\\ o\\ looking\\,\\ that\\ were\\ prepared\\ by\\ orientalist\\ pntrs\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Delacroix\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ popularity\\ o\\ belly\\-dance\\ had\\ something\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ broader\\ phenomenon\\ o\\ the\\ rising\\ female\\ dancing\\ star\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ one\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ tenteratiners\\&hellip\\;La\\ Goulou\\ \\(glutton\\)\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\La\\ Goulou\\ \\(Louise\\ Weber\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1886\\ photograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wearing\\ a\\ bra\\,\\ her\\ breasts\\ r\\ exposed\\,\\ enhacing\\ the\\ sexual\\ appeal\\ o\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ dancer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ shift\\ towards\\ the\\ stock\\ performer\\ is\\ significant\\ in\\ itself\\ 4changes\\ in\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ towards\\ female\\ dancer\\ both\\ in\\ classical\\ ballet\\ n\\ in\\ popular\\ entertainment\\,\\ n\\ La\\ Goulou\\ \\=\\ prime\\ example\\ o\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LG\\ flirted\\ w\\ orientalism\\.\\ \\ \\;Created\\ her\\ own\\ private\\ enterprise\\ in\\ 1895\\ or\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ performed\\ \\&ldquo\\;Moorish\\ dance\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Henri\\ Toulouse\\-Lautrec\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moulin\\-Rouge\\-La\\ Goulou\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\,\\ lithograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Toulouse\\-LAturec\\ constructed\\ her\\ booth\\ for\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ these\\ star\\ performances\\ like\\ La\\ Goulou\\,\\ belly\\ dancing\\ was\\ integrated\\ in2\\ the\\ structure\\ o\\ Parisian\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ became\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ fantasy\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\ n\\ the\\ femnine\\ n\\ the\\ sexual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ last\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ lecture\\ looks\\ at\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ engagement\\ w\\ broader\\ ethnographic\\ displays\\,\\ n\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ through\\ Gauguin\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ just\\ one\\ aspect\\ o\\ his\\ wrk\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\his\\ construction\\ o\\ the\\ native\\ body\\,\\ a\\ new\\ ideal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Manao\\ tupapau\\ \\(The\\ Spriti\\ of\\ the\\ Dead\\ Watching\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\G\\ responsible\\ 4introducing\\ a\\ new\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ symbolism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ new\\ aesthetics\\ was\\ inseparable\\ from\\ a\\ certain\\ vision\\ o\\ the\\ female\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manao\\ Tupapau\\ shows\\ how\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ construction\\ was\\ based\\ in\\ n\\ differentiaed\\ form\\ the\\ earlier\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clearly\\ engaging\\ w\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Olympia\\,\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flipping\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ Olympia\\,\\ n\\ engaging\\ w\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ sexual\\ difference\\ illustrated\\ by\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ picture\\,\\ injecting\\ that\\ body\\ w\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ had\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ show\\ one\\ part\\ o\\ this\\ amalgamation\\ o\\ sexuality\\ in\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ G\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ woman\\ hersef\\ who\\ resperesents\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ the\\ residual\\ picture\\ o\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ here\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ spirit\\ o\\ the\\ dead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caricature\\ of\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ sketchbook\\,\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ sketch\\ o\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ shows\\ he\\ was\\ influenced\\ by\\ Mantet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ehre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ he\\ ses\\ te\\ image\\:\\ \\ \\;Olympia\\,\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\,\\ n\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ back\\,\\ who\\ \\=\\ signifier\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ he\\ also\\ differentiates\\ himself\\ from\\ Manet\\.\\ \\ \\;Manet\\ was\\ offering\\ Olympia\\,\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ braoder\\ project\\,\\ a\\ way\\ 2produce\\ a\\ new\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ would\\ reflect\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ sexuality\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ uses\\ that\\ body\\ 2construct\\ visually\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ another\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ introducing\\ a\\ new\\ aesthetics\\ in\\ that\\ regard\\,\\ one\\ that\\ illustrates\\ the\\ longevity\\ o\\ that\\ paradigm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\,\\ like\\ Delacroix\\,\\ travels\\ 2\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ other\\&rdquo\\;\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ goes\\ to\\ Tahitit\\,\\ not\\ Morocco\\,\\ n\\ instead\\ o\\ watching\\ the\\ culture\\,\\ becomes\\ a\\ part\\ o\\ it\\!\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ at\\ least\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thinks\\ he\\ can\\ find\\ peace\\,\\ harmony\\,\\ pleasure\\,\\ mysterious\\ beings\\ o\\ his\\ environmtn\\,\\ w\\/o\\ the\\ trouble\\ o\\ money\\,\\ able\\ to\\ love\\,s\\ ing\\,\\ n\\ die\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Primtiivsit\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\ \\;Uses\\ color\\,\\ unmodulated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ this\\ simplified\\ anatomical\\ structure\\,\\ this\\ faltness\\ o\\ color\\ contrast\\,\\ saturation\\ o\\ the\\ surface\\ w\\ color\\,\\ this\\ was\\ all\\ aimed\\ at\\ producing\\ a\\ quasi\\-musical\\ harmony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ in\\ this\\ image\\ a\\ component\\ o\\ amorous\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ still\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ recognizably\\ female\\ body\\,\\ made\\ sexually\\ available\\ by\\ her\\ position\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ serves\\ here\\ the\\ construction\\ o\\ the\\ native\\ ideal\\ o\\ erotic\\ availability\\.\\ \\ \\;Difference\\ constructed\\ as\\ submissiveness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\ prepares\\ himself\\ 4this\\ trip\\ by\\ visiting\\ some\\ oriental\\ exhibition\\ in\\ 1889\\ or\\ so\\ I\\ think\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\,\\ while\\ working\\ thru\\ Olympia\\ as\\ an\\ imptnt\\ icon\\ w\\ which\\ many\\ artists\\ later\\ have\\ 2come\\ 2terms\\,\\ is\\ hooking\\ up\\ w\\ the\\ earlier\\ tradition\\ o\\ someone\\ like\\ Ingres\\,\\ in\\ his\\ grand\\ Odalisque\\,\\ who\\ is\\ inviting\\ ppl\\ to\\ enter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ structure\\ o\\ the\\ look\\,\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\P\\.E\\.\\ Miot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ form\\ an\\ island\\ in\\ the\\ Marquesas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\-70\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ product\\ o\\ thte\\ ethnographic\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ \\;Defining\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ presentation\\ o\\ the\\ native\\ culture\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aslightly\\ available\\,\\ sexual\\ look\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ available\\,\\ sexualized\\,\\ n\\ rendered\\ in\\ Gauguin\\ in\\ submissive\\ mode\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ the\\ subject\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ looking\\ at\\ it\\,\\ n\\ for\\ whom\\ this\\ is\\ produced\\,\\ 2indulge\\ in\\ the\\ fantasy\\ o\\ control\\,\\ which\\ is\\ colonoial\\ in\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ approach\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ body\\,\\ that\\ native\\ land\\ is\\ defined\\ thru\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ men\\ appear\\ in\\ Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subjects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ available\\ to\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ infused\\ w\\ erotic\\ fantasy\\,\\ aprt\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ ethnographic\\ gaze\\,\\ illustrated\\ by\\ the\\ exhibition\\ n\\ earlier\\ by\\ the\\ display\\ o\\ the\\ black\\ body\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gauguin\\,\\ Tahitian\\ women\\ bathing\\,\\ 1891\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ womenr\\ stocky\\,\\ sharing\\ the\\ privilege\\ o\\ the\\ female\\ body\\ as\\ the\\ carrier\\ o\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ otherness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ October\\ 29\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Physiologies\\ \\&\\;\\ Typologies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;spectacle\\ o\\ other\\ cultures\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ other\\ visual\\ representations\\ in\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ helped\\ confirm\\ n\\ engrain\\ certain\\ notions\\ o\\ ethnic\\ n\\ racial\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;Lecture\\ spanned\\ the\\ whole\\ century\\.\\ \\ \\;Began\\ with\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\ and\\ ended\\ with\\ Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Women\\ Bathing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Talked\\ about\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ spectacle\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ n\\ its\\ architectural\\ n\\ visual\\ representation\\,\\ interacted\\ 2produce\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ other\\,\\ someone\\ irreducibly\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Western\\ Self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ main\\ issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ architecture\\,\\ space\\,\\ in\\ Wrold\\ Expedition\\,\\ produced\\ space\\ for\\ authenticating\\ the\\ Western\\ Self\\.\\ \\ \\;Produced\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Western\\ spectator\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Feminization\\ o\\ otherness\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ women\\,\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\,\\ but\\ also\\ increased\\ presence\\ o\\ women\\ entertainers\\ in\\ world\\ fairs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ emphasis\\ n\\ allure\\,\\ linked\\ 2feminization\\,\\ in\\ these\\ representations\\ that\\ emphasized\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sexual\\ characteristics\\,\\ or\\ sense\\ o\\ availability\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Allure\\ combined\\ w\\ availability\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ part\\ o\\ an\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ difference\\ that\\ Gauguin\\ was\\ inventing\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Now\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ that\\ produced\\ these\\ colonial\\ stereotypes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ French\\ society\\ imagine\\ itself\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ it\\ construct\\ that\\ self\\-image\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ stereotypes\\ that\\ French\\ society\\ saw\\ itself\\ through\\,\\ and\\ bodily\\ metaphors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Print\\ merchant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ etching\\,\\ late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Around\\ 1830\\,\\ 2\\ major\\ changes\\ were\\ occurring\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ images\\ participat\\&\\#20420\\;\\ in\\ giving\\ French\\ society\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ itself\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arrival\\ o\\ modern\\ city\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paris\\ \\=\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Due\\ 2drastically\\ incrased\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;Increase\\ created\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ migration\\ to\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Migration\\ caused\\ by\\ agricultural\\ crisis\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ of\\ people\\ went\\ rural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;urban\\ areas\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ also\\ compounded\\ earlier\\ migration\\ o\\ society\\ due\\ 2\\ 2\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Napoleonic\\ Wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreigners\\ moved\\ after\\ Napoleon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\ stretched\\ so\\ far\\ east\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ meant\\ more\\ people\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;Social\\ hierarchies\\ were\\ destabilized\\ in\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ all\\ this\\ people\\ movement\\ fluidity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Media\\ explosion\\.\\ \\ \\;Enabled\\ by\\ technological\\ developments\\.\\ \\ \\;Created\\ popular\\ mass\\ visual\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Printing\\ press\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\,\\ cheap\\ methods\\ of\\ reproduction\\,\\ like\\ lithography\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ different\\ dialects\\ spoken\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ France\\,\\ and\\ different\\ languages\\ thanks\\ 2foreigners\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ led\\ 2a\\ greater\\ confusion\\ about\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Task\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ became\\ moving\\ from\\ this\\ opaque\\ body\\ 2a\\ legible\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ creating\\ a\\ self\\-image\\,\\ society\\ developed\\ new\\ forms\\ o\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Journal\\,\\ popular\\ theater\\,\\ novels\\,\\ engravings\\&hellip\\;ppl\\ used\\ these\\ 2negotiate\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ themselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissemination\\ o\\ prints\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ Travies\\,\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\Aubert\\,\\ publishers\\]\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ admit\\,\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ looks\\ pretty\\ funny\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1831\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Print\\ sellers\\ were\\ one\\ venue\\ where\\ images\\ could\\ b\\ seen\\ n\\ bought\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ site\\,\\ far\\ more\\ important\\ perhaps\\,\\ was\\ the\\ press\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Earlier\\,\\ u\\ could\\ witness\\ in\\ newspapers\\ the\\ occasional\\ engraving\\ reproduced\\,\\ but\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 30s\\ did\\ a\\ much\\ greater\\ amount\\ o\\ images\\ accompany\\ the\\ text\\ in\\ the\\ press\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ due\\ 2the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\invention\\ o\\ lithography\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lithography\\ involved\\ drawing\\ on\\ stone\\,\\ instead\\ o\\ engraving\\ on\\ metal\\ plates\\.\\ One\\ journal\\ boasted\\ of\\ itself\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ Journal\\ that\\ publishes\\ a\\ new\\ illustration\\ every\\ day\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ image\\ o\\ society\\ emerged\\,\\ n\\ it\\ hoped\\ 2reestablish\\ some\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ o\\ all\\ this\\ flux\\ n\\ lack\\ o\\ comprehension\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2present\\ society\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ 2give\\ it\\ meaning\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ o\\ the\\ body\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ earlier\\ question\\ confronted\\ in\\ the\\ physiognomic\\ tradition\\ espoused\\ by\\ LebBrun\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Physiognomic\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ science\\ of\\ temporary\\ passion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lavater\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Silhouettes\\ of\\ famous\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ evoked\\ the\\ tradition\\ that\\ there\\ existed\\ a\\ direct\\ correspondence\\ bw\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inner\\ being\\ n\\ their\\ physical\\ appearance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ tradition\\ extended\\ into\\ race\\ issues\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virey\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Histoire\\ naturelle\\ du\\ genre\\ humain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\[1801\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\White\\ face\\ flat\\,\\ black\\ face\\ out\\,\\ monkey\\ face\\ very\\ far\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ direction\\ changes\\ away\\ from\\ model\\ n\\ characterological\\ emphasis\\ towards\\ the\\ depiction\\ o\\ social\\ diversity\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ society\\ itself\\ as\\ a\\ conglomeration\\ o\\ different\\ types\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ 2produce\\ this\\ image\\ o\\ social\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ body\\ that\\ could\\ b\\ understood\\ through\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ type\\,\\ u\\ get\\ images\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\[Jean\\-Isidorre\\ Gerard\\]\\ Grandville\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Heads\\ of\\ Men\\ and\\ Animals\\ Compared\\ \\(Apollo\\ to\\ frog\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1843\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grandville\\ hopes\\ 2find\\ a\\ certain\\ image\\ o\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marking\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ human\\ evolution\\ 2evergreater\\ perfection\\.\\ \\ \\;Fits\\ in2\\ the\\ Greek\\ ideal\\ o\\ Western\\ aesthetic\\ achievement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opposite\\ idea\\ o\\ perfection\\:\\ \\ \\;degeneracy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ image\\ shows\\ mankind\\ degenerating\\ in2\\ the\\ frog\\!\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ satirical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Heads\\ of\\ Men\\ and\\ Animals\\ Compared\\ \\(child\\ to\\ monkey\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Descent\\ o\\ the\\ child\\ towards\\ the\\ monkey\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ implication\\ being\\ that\\ the\\ human\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ perfectioning\\ himself\\ during\\ life\\,\\ becomes\\ more\\ n\\ more\\ degenerate\\.\\ Closer\\ n\\ closer\\ 2\\ a\\ monkey\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ just\\ racial\\ degeneration\\,\\ but\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ enslavement\\ o\\ habit\\,\\ brutalization\\ n\\ animalization\\ o\\ the\\ self\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ form\\ a\\ critique\\ o\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ also\\ poke\\ fun\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ tradition\\ o\\ physiognomic\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Different\\ cranial\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1836\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poking\\ fun\\ at\\ phrenology\\.\\ \\ \\;Funny\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ pseudo\\-science\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ belief\\ o\\ diagnosing\\ human\\ nature\\ on\\ the\\ base\\ o\\ the\\ skull\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shape\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ phrenological\\ codes\\ r\\ used\\ 2poke\\ fun\\ at\\ individuals\\,\\ n\\ at\\ the\\ discipline\\ o\\ phrenology\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ marks\\ a\\ great\\ spread\\ o\\ this\\ type\\ o\\ belief\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ author\\ o\\ the\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ true\\ sign\\ o\\ inner\\ character\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poking\\ fun\\ at\\ the\\ science\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ personality\\ diagnostic\\ tool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Travies\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Little\\ grimaces\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1836\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maybe\\ ppl\\ r\\ just\\ linked\\ by\\ habits\\ o\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Left\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;right\\:\\ \\ \\;satisfaction\\,\\ blubberers\\,\\ smokers\\,\\ caricature\\,\\ pot\\-bellys\\,\\ fear\\,\\ masks\\,\\ n\\ success\\.\\ \\ \\;Grouping\\ ppl\\ by\\ what\\ they\\ do\\,\\ or\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ seen\\ 2represent\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ accompanied\\ yb\\ related\\ effort\\ 2individualize\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ types\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ type\\,\\ though\\,\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ 2figure\\ out\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personality\\,\\ but\\ also\\ what\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ in\\ society\\ was\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Travies\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Titi\\,\\ the\\ plaster\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mate\\,\\ Physiognomic\\ Gallery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\#26\\ 1837\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ man\\ who\\ lives\\ by\\ his\\ wit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\#28\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Travies\\ deploying\\ codes\\ o\\ caricature\\.\\ \\ \\;Exaggeration\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ order\\ 2visualize\\ a\\ social\\ type\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physiognomy\\,\\ clothes\\,\\ occupation\\,\\ constitute\\ a\\ distinct\\ self\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ force\\ that\\ writes\\ itself\\ on\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ redefinition\\ o\\ the\\ human\\ being\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ being\\,\\ w\\ greater\\ acknowledgement\\ o\\ society\\ as\\ the\\ shaper\\ o\\ who\\ the\\ person\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ gets\\ used\\ 2send\\ these\\ messages\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ naturalizes\\ these\\ social\\ distinctions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ another\\ image\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ example\\ o\\ caricature\\ o\\ manners\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Grandville\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Varietes\\ of\\ snuff\\-sniffer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ppl\\ who\\ r\\ given\\ 2the\\ habit\\ o\\ sniffing\\ snuff\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ meant\\ carrying\\ little\\ boxes\\ o\\ tobacco\\,\\ which\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ sniff\\,\\ then\\ sneeze\\,\\ feeling\\ relief\\ n\\ pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\&rsquo\\;d\\ need\\ a\\ big\\ handkerchief\\ afterwards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ idiosyncratic\\ activity\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ seen\\ here\\,\\ n\\ mocked\\,\\ as\\ defining\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ interesting\\ what\\ these\\ mages\\ looked\\ like\\,\\ but\\ also\\ where\\ they\\ appeared\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Balzac\\ \\=\\ key\\ figure\\ who\\ mediates\\ bw\\ earlier\\ tradition\\ o\\ Lavater\\ n\\ physiognomy\\ n\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ concerns\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ is\\ the\\ author\\ o\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ shorter\\ vignettes\\ that\\ were\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;physiologies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ a\\ literary\\ form\\ that\\ was\\ illustrated\\.\\ \\ \\;Combination\\ o\\ panoramic\\ perspective\\,\\ n\\ physiognomy\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ physiologies\\ were\\ written\\ o\\ both\\ types\\,\\ n\\ institutions\\ o\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;B\\ it\\ the\\ institution\\ o\\ marriage\\,\\ or\\ the\\ institution\\ o\\ the\\ caf\\é\\;\\ n\\ its\\ employees\\.\\ \\ \\;Bureaucracy\\ related\\ 2selling\\ n\\ money\\ function\\ in\\ this\\ new\\ modern\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ type\\ o\\ physiognomy\\ links\\ not\\ just\\ w\\ Lavater\\,\\ but\\ also\\ w\\ books\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;cogs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ \\=\\ guides\\ 4travelers\\ that\\ helped\\ them\\ understand\\ the\\ habits\\ n\\ gestures\\ o\\ French\\ society\\ n\\ how\\ it\\ functioned\\ overall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ us\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ imptnt\\ about\\ these\\ forms\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ illustrated\\,\\ n\\ these\\ illustrations\\ were\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ artists\\ contributed\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Honore\\ Daumier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\French\\ Types\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ Banker\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Daumier\\ \\=\\ producer\\ o\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ physiologies\\ were\\ serialized\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;appeared\\ in\\ periodicals\\.\\ Then\\ they\\ were\\ produced\\ in\\ paperback\\ editions\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ extremely\\ popular\\,\\ making\\ Balzac\\ popular\\.\\ \\ \\;\\.5\\ millino\\ copies\\ sold\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ r\\ Daumier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ representations\\ o\\ professions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ here\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Daumier\\ uses\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ order\\ 2represent\\ the\\ type\\,\\ 2naturalize\\ this\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Banker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paunch\\ body\\,\\ walking\\ on\\ st\\.\\ while\\ he\\ ocutnsh\\ is\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;Full\\ o\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ public\\ scrivener\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Just\\ a\\ hack\\ writer\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ hire\\ him\\ 2write\\ a\\ petition\\ or\\ letter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ exaggeration\\,\\ n\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ marking\\ a\\ contrast\\ here\\ through\\ which\\ difference\\ in\\ social\\ typology\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ can\\ b\\ conveyed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Romulus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ det\\.\\ From\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Romulus\\:\\ \\ \\;aesthetic\\ body\\ functioned\\ as\\ normative\\,\\ subjective\\ ideal\\,\\ 2which\\ ppl\\ aspired\\ both\\ bc\\ o\\ its\\ virtue\\ n\\ its\\ beauty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2Daumier\\,\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ no\\ logner\\ beautiful\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ it\\ a\\ normative\\ ideal\\ 2aspire\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ category\\ o\\ social\\ distinction\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ kind\\ o\\ image\\ that\\ helps\\,\\ through\\ exaggeration\\,\\ satire\\,\\ produce\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ different\\ social\\ types\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ thus\\ produces\\ the\\ understanding\\ o\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ a\\ degree\\ o\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ that\\ by\\ giving\\ oneself\\ an\\ image\\ through\\ these\\ types\\,\\ society\\ produces\\ a\\ certain\\ understanding\\ o\\ itself\\ but\\ also\\ allows\\ itself\\ 2b\\ controlled\\ by\\ these\\ ideas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Success\\ o\\ these\\ paperback\\ physiologies\\ led\\ 2more\\ expensive\\ publicaitons\\,\\ \\ \\;grander\\ formats\\ 4different\\ kind\\ o\\ audience\\,\\ 2\\ o\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ mention\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ French\\ Painted\\ by\\ Themselves\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ published\\ in\\ 1840\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ cover\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Diable\\ a\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(The\\ Devil\\ in\\ Paris\\)\\,\\ 1845\\-6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notable\\ 4the\\ contribution\\ o\\ well\\-known\\,\\ established\\ liteary\\ figures\\ like\\ Balzac\\ n\\ others\\&hellip\\;also\\ very\\ well\\ known\\ engraver\\ n\\ characturist\\.\\ \\ \\;Whose\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ devil\\ straddling\\ the\\ River\\ Seine\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ bodily\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ panorama\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ o\\ distant\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ provides\\ sense\\ o\\ comprehensiveness\\,\\ but\\ also\\ degree\\ o\\ moral\\ judgment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ cover\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Les\\ Francais\\ peint\\ par\\ eux\\-memes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(The\\ French\\ painted\\ by\\ themselves\\)\\,\\ 1840\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Came\\ out\\ in\\ 8\\ volumes\\.\\ \\ \\;Included\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ habits\\,\\ cares\\,\\ n\\ tastes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ one\\ greets\\ in\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Diable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ had\\ documentations\\,\\ textual\\ n\\ visual\\,\\ o\\ different\\ banal\\ behaviors\\,\\ like\\ salutations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salutation\\ is\\ like\\ character\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ haughty\\,\\ simple\\,\\ offensive\\,\\ good\\-natured\\,\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\,\\ affected\\,\\ arrogant\\&hellip\\;they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ categorized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\Cross\\-section\\ of\\ a\\ Parisian\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1845\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\House\\ \\=\\ diagram\\ including\\ all\\ sociall\\ strata\\.\\ \\ \\;Concierge\\ n\\ her\\ husband\\ at\\ bottom\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Go\\ up\\ the\\ staircase\\,\\ tho\\,\\ n\\ u\\ see\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;floor\\,\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\,\\ w\\ the\\ highest\\ ceilings\\,\\ where\\ the\\ wealthy\\ family\\ is\\ given\\ 2\\ leisure\\ no\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ floor\\ up\\,decent\\ bourgeois\\ couple\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Higher\\ up\\:\\ \\ \\;young\\ professionals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ top\\:\\ \\ \\;Bohemians\\,\\ artists\\,\\ who\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\ anything\\ more\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cross\\-section\\ o\\ the\\ house\\ \\=\\ cross\\-section\\ o\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Function\\ o\\ these\\ visual\\ typologies\\ \\=\\ 3\\-fold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;Established\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ legible\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;bc\\ o\\ legibility\\,\\ it\\ provided\\ a\\ tool\\ o\\ comprehension\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ tool\\ o\\ control\\,\\ surveillance\\,\\ n\\ stereotypification\\ o\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\:\\ \\ \\;tool\\ o\\ social\\ critique\\.\\ \\ \\;Physiognomic\\ body\\ that\\ was\\ deployed\\ 2provide\\ social\\ n\\ political\\ commentary\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ distorting\\ mirror\\ 2society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Philipon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pears\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Caricature\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 17\\ Janurary\\ 1831\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ caricature\\ \\=\\ especially\\ richly\\ developed\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ examples\\ here\\ 2talk\\ about\\ 2imptnt\\ journals\\,\\ founded\\ by\\ Phillipon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Started\\ publishing\\ caricatures\\ as\\ prints\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Founded\\ 2\\ journals\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;La\\ caricature\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;le\\ charivari\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;loud\\ clatter\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ \\=\\ social\\ practice\\ that\\ involved\\ making\\ noises\\ w\\ pots\\ n\\ pans\\ underneath\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ window\\ when\\ you\\ wanted\\ 2mock\\ or\\ intimidate\\ someone\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ socially\\ critically\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ journals\\ were\\ cheaply\\ produced\\,\\ also\\ aiming\\ at\\ a\\ broad\\ audience\\ bc\\ o\\ their\\ relatively\\ low\\ price\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ launched\\ a\\ Repulbican\\ campaign\\ against\\ the\\ ruling\\ dynasty\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\La\\ caricature\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;began\\ in\\ 1830\\,\\ w\\ Balzac\\ writing\\ n\\ Grandpillon\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ illustrating\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\La\\ Charivari\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\founded\\ by\\ 2\\ guys\\ imprisoned\\,\\ conspiring\\ 2gether\\ 2produce\\ another\\ disturbing\\ journal\\ causing\\ the\\ government\\ trouble\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caricature\\ is\\ a\\ loaded\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Charged\\.\\ \\ \\;Recall\\ those\\ o\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;chargee\\ images\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ charged\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emerged\\ w\\ great\\ importance\\ during\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Picked\\ up\\ thru\\ different\\,\\ cheaper\\ means\\ o\\ reproduction\\ during\\ the\\ July\\ monarchy\\,\\ where\\ it\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ allowed\\ 2thrive\\ bc\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ censorship\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Louis\\-Philippe\\ came\\ 2power\\ as\\ someone\\ restoring\\ civil\\ liberties\\ violated\\ by\\ the\\ previous\\ regime\\ o\\ restoration\\:\\ the\\ Bourbon\\ regime\\ reinstalled\\ after\\ Napoleon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ soon\\,\\ censorship\\ crept\\ in\\,\\ then\\ became\\ official\\ in\\ 1835\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ attempted\\ assassination\\ o\\ the\\ king\\ was\\ the\\ excuse\\ for\\ the\\ reintroduction\\ o\\ caricature\\ \\(censorship\\?\\ \\ \\;I\\ think\\ she\\ meant\\ censorship\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1831\\,\\ Philipon\\ came\\ up\\ w\\ most\\ effective\\ emblem\\ o\\ a\\ pear\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ referenced\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paunchy\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ an\\ evolution\\ o\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ in2\\ a\\ pear\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Police\\ ordinance\\ pulibhsedi\\ n\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Charivari\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ a\\ shape\\ of\\ a\\ pear\\,\\ 1\\ May\\ 1835\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daumier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masks\\ of\\ 1831\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1832\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ was\\ the\\ major\\ contributer\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Charivari\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ masks\\ 2represent\\ the\\ entire\\ government\\ o\\ Louis\\-Philippe\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ himself\\ in\\ shape\\ o\\ a\\ pear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Daumier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Louis\\-Philippe\\ as\\ Gargantua\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1831\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ iamge\\ that\\ got\\ him\\ in\\ real\\ trouble\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inviting\\ satire\\ o\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ corruption\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ referred\\ 2teh\\ character\\ o\\ the\\ immoderate\\ blob\\ from\\ an\\ earlier\\ novel\\,\\ 2represent\\ the\\ king\\ who\\ was\\ eating\\ up\\ the\\ wealth\\ o\\ the\\ entire\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Ministers\\ n\\ senators\\ were\\ pushing\\ the\\ poor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ food\\ into\\ his\\ mouth\\,\\ n\\ it\\ was\\ being\\ excreted\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ forms\\ o\\ favors\\ 2individuals\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ \\=\\ explicit\\ criqitue\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;civil\\ list\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ list\\ o\\ state\\ nominees\\ that\\ were\\ being\\ privileged\\ by\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daumier\\,\\ who\\ produced\\ this\\ image\\,\\ was\\ fined\\ 500\\ francs\\ n\\ a\\ prison\\ sentence\\ that\\ was\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;suspended\\,\\ then\\ reinstated\\ when\\ he\\ kept\\ misbehaving\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ prison\\,\\ he\\ found\\ Philipon\\,\\ where\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ publish\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Charvari\\<\\/span\\>\\\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ satire\\ would\\ come\\ 2\\ a\\ halt\\ tho\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Louis\\ Philipe\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Past\\,\\ the\\ present\\,\\ and\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showing\\ the\\ hopelessness\\ o\\ this\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ what\\ it\\ is\\,\\ and\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ improve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Robert\\ Macaire\\:\\ \\ \\;Attorney\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1836\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artists\\ working\\ 4Philipon\\ shifted\\ 2a\\ new\\ kidn\\ o\\ satire\\,\\ social\\ satire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ his\\ strategies\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ broader\\ critique\\ not\\ only\\ o\\ the\\ regime\\ but\\ o\\ society\\ itself\\,\\ was\\ 2introduce\\ a\\ recurring\\ character\\,\\ usch\\ as\\ Robert\\ Macaire\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ these\\ characters\\ were\\ corrupt\\,\\ n\\ money\\ \\=\\ the\\ common\\ denominator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Macaire\\ came\\ 2life\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ o\\ feverish\\ speculation\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ \\=\\ figure\\ o\\ a\\ servant\\ o\\ the\\ monarchy\\,\\ corrupted\\ person\\ only\\ serving\\ his\\ own\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ spineless\\ n\\ greedy\\ lawyer\\.\\ \\ \\;Extracting\\ money\\ from\\ a\\ client\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ more\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;so\\ give\\ me\\ your\\ boots\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ says\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thin\\,\\ emaciated\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ victim\\,\\ n\\ the\\ lawyer\\ who\\ fattens\\ up\\ because\\ o\\ his\\ riches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Judge\\ interrupts\\ Macaire\\,\\ who\\ starts\\ talking\\ for\\ the\\ victim\\,\\ 2\\ say\\,\\ hey\\,\\ getback\\ on\\ our\\ side\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ Robert\\ Macaire\\:\\ \\ \\;Attorney\\,\\ 1837\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Legislative\\ belly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1834\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ idea\\ o\\ body\\ language\\ based\\ on\\ exaggeration\\,\\ serving\\ 2point\\ out\\ the\\ corruption\\ o\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ was\\ used\\ 2represent\\ all\\ o\\ society\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fat\\ \\=\\ potent\\ metaphor\\ 4corruption\\.\\ \\ \\;Bellies\\ suggested\\ by\\ distension\\ o\\ this\\ room\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ the\\ rounded\\ form\\ a\\ an\\ inner\\ organ\\ o\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ lawyers\\ here\\ who\\ came\\ 2power\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ the\\ focus\\ o\\ Daumier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ critique\\,\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ engravings\\,\\ but\\ also\\ his\\ pntgs\\ where\\ he\\ introduced\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ type\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ triumphant\\ lawyer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ shows\\ 2\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intimate\\ engagement\\ o\\ pntg\\ w\\ the\\ forms\\ o\\ popular\\ culture\\,\\ thru\\ the\\ engagmenet\\ o\\ the\\ type\\,\\ represnted\\ here\\ n\\ given\\ full\\ pictorial\\ attn\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ order\\ 2represent\\ the\\ type\\ in\\ negative\\ terms\\,\\ so\\ u\\ see\\ the\\ lawyer\\ here\\ being\\ mocked\\ 4his\\ triumphant\\ pride\\ 2which\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ entitled\\ once\\ we\\ know\\ what\\ he\\ was\\ doing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lawyers\\ \\=\\ bunch\\ o\\ sinister\\ characters\\,\\ testified\\ 2by\\ their\\ physiognomy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Lawyers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1860\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Heavy\\ Burden\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1855\\-56\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\idea\\ o\\ the\\ type\\ is\\ also\\ imptnt\\ 4the\\ new\\ style\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ Daumier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ realist\\ iconography\\ focused\\ on\\ drawing\\ these\\ social\\ types\\,\\ but\\ not\\ always\\ in\\ negative\\ terms\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\ in\\ terms\\ that\\ would\\ explore\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ under\\ represented\\ social\\ strata\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ wrkng\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Realism\\ \\=\\ question\\ o\\ new\\ themes\\:\\ \\ \\;images\\ o\\ labor\\,\\ professions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ romanticism\\.\\ \\ \\;Realists\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\ contemporary\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heroicism\\,\\ but\\ simply\\ its\\ facts\\,\\ 4which\\ they\\ develop\\ new\\ codes\\ o\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;es\\ running\\ at\\ the\\ early\\ hours\\ o\\ dawn\\ in\\ order\\ 2provide\\ clean\\ linen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ soup\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\-65\\,\\ drwg\\ \\+\\ watercolor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ way\\ o\\ looking\\.savage\\,\\ pitiless\\,\\ realist\\ eye\\ which\\ shows\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ seems\\ either\\ old\\ or\\ worn\\ out\\ by\\ work\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ devouring\\ her\\ evening\\ meal\\ while\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ giving\\ her\\ breast\\ 2her\\ child\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ accompniaed\\ by\\ a\\ man\\ inelegantly\\ slurping\\ his\\ soup\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Complete\\ self\\-conscious\\ refusal\\ 2idealize\\,\\ which\\ Daumier\\ presents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1739\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Breakfast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daumier\\ makes\\ clear\\ how\\ he\\ goes\\ about\\ creating\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 20, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA174s_-_Class_Notes_2.doc", "desc": "Note set 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 01:17:04.607422+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Slavery and Slave Trade - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "slavery", "slave-trade"], "text": null, "id": 73, "html": "\\\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ Slave\\ Trade\\ \\-\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c3\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c62\\{max\\-width\\:513pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:45pt\\ 54pt\\ 45pt\\ 45pt\\}\\.c17\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c38\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c43\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c37\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c31\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c52\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c61\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:234pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c42\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-10\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:37\\.8pt\\}\\.c56\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:135pt\\}\\.c35\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:24pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-24pt\\;margin\\-left\\:48pt\\}\\.c40\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c20\\{height\\:12pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c59\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:96pt\\}\\.c48\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:198pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c34\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-7\\.2pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c39\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c57\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c58\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c47\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:60pt\\}\\.c50\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-66pt\\;margin\\-left\\:66pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c53\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c64\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c29\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c6\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-bottom\\:12pt\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c55\\{margin\\-left\\:6pt\\}\\.c60\\{text\\-indent\\:48pt\\}\\.c45\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c24\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c33\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c54\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c32\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c63\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c51\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c44\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c49\\{padding\\-bottom\\:16pt\\}\\.c46\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\HISTORICAL\\ STUDIES\\ B\\-52\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIDTERM\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 1\\:\\ INTRODUCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 1\\ \\(skipped\\ b\\/c\\ not\\ hugely\\ important\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 20\\ \\-\\-\\ Terminology\\:\\ Forms\\ of\\ Servile\\ and\\ Unfree\\ Labor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Connection\\ between\\ Slavery\\ and\\ Slave\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inextricably\\ linked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ Slave\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ societies\\ seldom\\ reproduce\\ themselves\\ \\(U\\.S\\.\\ is\\ exception\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ societies\\ are\\ only\\ reproduced\\ artificially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ market\\ is\\ always\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;Threat\\ of\\ selling\\ off\\ children\\/dividing\\ family\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ is\\ always\\ from\\ outside\\;\\ foreign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Slave\\ Society\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Slave\\-Holding\\ Society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ society\\ is\\ when\\ elite\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ slave\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\-holding\\ is\\ not\\ entirely\\ dependent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Location\\ \\(who\\ owns\\ them\\;\\ elite\\ or\\ commoners\\)\\ and\\ function\\ of\\ slaves\\ are\\ operative\\ predictors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Value\\ of\\ a\\ comparative\\,\\ historical\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ why\\ we\\ study\\ Greek\\/Roman\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ laws\\/principles\\ show\\ up\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justinian\\ Code\\ in\\ next\\ lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forms\\ of\\ Servile\\ and\\ Unfree\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ \\(Free\\ person\\ is\\ antithesis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Outsider\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enslaved\\ via\\ coercion\\/force\\ via\\ capture\\,\\ war\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\(Roman\\ Law\\:\\ \\ \\;Slavery\\ is\\ substitute\\ for\\ death\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ownership\\/Property\\;\\ someone\\ else\\ owns\\ rights\\ of\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chatte\\ \\(ownership\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ end\\ with\\ person\\ or\\ lifetime\\ of\\ slave\\;\\ extends\\ to\\ offspring\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Person\\ bound\\ by\\ custom\\,\\ law\\,\\ or\\ agreement\\ to\\ lift\\ or\\ labor\\ on\\ land\\ of\\ another\\ and\\ to\\ render\\ services\\ for\\ reward\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;Serf\\ cannot\\ change\\ condition\\ or\\ leave\\ land\\.\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ land\\ sold\\ with\\ serfs\\;\\ package\\ deal\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Debt\\ Bondsman\\ \\(Pawn\\/Pawnship\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Status\\ or\\ condition\\ arising\\ from\\ pledge\\ by\\ debtor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;person\\ pledge\\ covers\\ principle\\;\\ otherwise\\,\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;party\\ pledge\\ \\(and\\ their\\ children\\)\\ only\\ covers\\ interest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debtor\\ can\\ pledge\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;party\\ \\(usually\\ female\\)\\ to\\ cover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ pawnship\\,\\ money\\ lenders\\ prefer\\ female\\ pawns\\ \\(children\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ interest\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indentured\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Originates\\ voluntarily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pledge\\ of\\ time\\/labor\\,\\ usually\\ for\\ transportation\\ overseas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defining\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Orlando\\ Patterson\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ and\\ Social\\ Death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ definition\\ of\\ slavery\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Permanent\\,\\ violent\\ domination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ as\\ outsider\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ non\\-person\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natal\\ alienation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ slave\\ as\\ genealogical\\ isolate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ has\\ ancestors\\,\\ offspring\\,\\ and\\ family\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ claim\\ them\\;\\ not\\ recognized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Honor\\.\\ \\ \\;Slave\\ has\\ no\\ honor\\,\\ lacks\\ social\\ worth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ is\\ extension\\ of\\ master\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Servitude\\ in\\ Pre\\-Colonial\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Suzanne\\ Miers\\ and\\ Igor\\ Kopytoff\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ edited\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Slavery\\ to\\ Kinship\\&rdquo\\;\\ continuum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Inikori\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ studies\\ misuse\\ of\\ categorization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ article\\ in\\ COURSE\\ PACK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparison\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparative\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ minimum\\ definition\\ of\\ slavery\\ \\(Frederick\\ Cooper\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Def\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ foreigner\\ brought\\ by\\ force\\ into\\ a\\ society\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Applicable\\ to\\ all\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Belonging\\ in\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Belonging\\ to\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ Dynamics\\ of\\ Dependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ case\\ of\\ Rosine\\ Opo\\,\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1832\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ in\\ Akropong\\,\\ capital\\ of\\ Akuapem\\ \\(a\\ matrilineal\\ town\\;\\ woman\\/uterus\\ defines\\ lineage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kwaw\\ Kantanka\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Big\\ Man\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ marries\\ 3\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosine\\ is\\ daughter\\ of\\ Kwaw\\ Kantanka\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosine\\ marries\\ Kwaku\\ Sae\\ \\(treasurer\\ of\\ the\\ King\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kwaku\\ Sae\\ converts\\ to\\ Christianity\\,\\ but\\ has\\ 2\\ wives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosine\\ has\\ temper\\;\\ hooks\\ up\\ with\\ Charles\\ \\(pawn\\ of\\ Kwaku\\ Sae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orlando\\ Patterson\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ and\\ Social\\ Death\\:\\ A\\ Comparative\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\ \\[MA\\]\\,\\ 1982\\)\\,\\ 1\\-14\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ Relation\\ \\(not\\ specific\\ to\\ slavery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Social\\:\\ the\\ use\\ or\\ threat\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychological\\:\\ persuasion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ means\\ of\\ transforming\\ force\\ into\\ right\\,\\ and\\ obedience\\ into\\ duty\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Rousseau\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marx\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grundrisse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slavery\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;relation\\ of\\ domination\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\violence\\ is\\ integral\\ to\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wealth\\ \\&\\;\\ slavery\\ in\\ Jamaica\\:\\ to\\ slaves\\,\\ capital\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\;\\ whether\\ labour\\ was\\ slavery\\ or\\ wage\\ labour\\,\\ it\\ was\\ forced\\ \\(directly\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ and\\ indirectly\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ wage\\ labour\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elisabeth\\ Welskopf\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\violence\\ necessary\\ in\\ slave\\ societies\\ for\\ two\\ reasons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\need\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ new\\ slaves\\ \\(slaves\\ die\\ out\\ or\\ are\\ manumitted\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\therefore\\,\\ the\\ society\\ must\\ continue\\ to\\ enslave\\ people\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\violently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Old\\ South\\ in\\ US\\ was\\ an\\ exception\\:\\ low\\ rate\\ of\\ manumission\\,\\ high\\ rate\\ of\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\according\\ to\\ Welskopf\\,\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ enslaving\\ a\\ free\\ person\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ past\\ of\\ all\\ stratified\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\need\\ violence\\ keep\\ slave\\ motivated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\must\\ reinforce\\ reward\\ with\\ threat\\ of\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\whipping\\ as\\ both\\ means\\ of\\ punishment\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ reminder\\ to\\ the\\ slave\\ of\\ his\\ degraded\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constituent\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ relation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\:\\ individualized\\ master\\-slave\\ relation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\complete\\ submission\\ of\\ slave\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ master\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slave\\ loses\\ his\\ power\\ TO\\ an\\ individual\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ extends\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ that\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slave\\&rsquo\\;s\\ powerlessness\\ as\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ \\(violent\\)\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultural\\:\\ natal\\ alienation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slave\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;socially\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ heritage\\ \\/\\ genealogical\\ links\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ recognized\\ social\\ relations\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ marriage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\threat\\ of\\ being\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\crucially\\,\\ the\\ master\\-slave\\ relation\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;perpetual\\ and\\ inheritable\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\due\\ to\\ loss\\ of\\ natal\\ ties\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ ties\\ to\\ pass\\ on\\ to\\ children\\,\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ automatically\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psychological\\:\\ slaves\\ are\\ disgraced\\ in\\ general\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\due\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\&rsquo\\;s\\ status\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\indignity\\ of\\ his\\ submission\\ to\\ his\\ master\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lack\\ of\\ any\\ social\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ slaves\\ could\\ feel\\ guilt\\,\\ self\\-hatred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;slavery\\ is\\ the\\ permanent\\,\\ violent\\ domination\\ of\\ natally\\ alienated\\ ad\\ generally\\ dishonored\\ persons\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Patterson\\,\\ p\\.\\ 13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Inikori\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ the\\ TransAtlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ Alusine\\ Jalloh\\ and\\ Stephen\\ E\\.\\ Maizlish\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ African\\ Diaspora\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Arlington\\ \\[TX\\]\\,\\ 1996\\)\\,\\ 39\\-72\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ the\\ Transatlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Joseph\\ E\\.\\ Inikori\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Historians\\ studying\\ slavery\\ on\\ other\\ continents\\ where\\ slave\\ population\\ comprised\\ people\\ of\\ African\\ descent\\ were\\ surprised\\ to\\ be\\ told\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ more\\ slaves\\ in\\ Africa\\ than\\ there\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ Americas\\ at\\ anytime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ have\\ described\\ the\\ slave\\ and\\ slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ comparable\\ to\\ the\\ slave\\ in\\ America\\ while\\ others\\ did\\ not\\ agree\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ terms\\ like\\ captives\\ or\\ serfs\\ were\\ used\\ instead\\ to\\ describe\\ African\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ contend\\ that\\ slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\ under\\ the\\ socioeconomic\\ conditions\\ of\\ medieval\\ Europe\\ provide\\ better\\ comparative\\ insights\\ for\\ a\\ precise\\ and\\ disciplined\\ study\\ of\\ servile\\ institutions\\ in\\ pre\\-colonial\\ Africa\\ than\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ comparisons\\ that\\ have\\ hitherto\\ been\\ conducted\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ was\\ first\\ brought\\ to\\ England\\ by\\ the\\ Romans\\,\\ but\\ their\\ departure\\ in\\ 407\\ A\\.D\\.\\ did\\ not\\ end\\ slavery\\ and\\ the\\ chaos\\ that\\ followed\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\ provoked\\ slave\\ raids\\ and\\ encouraged\\ slavery\\ in\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ remained\\ a\\ statistically\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ and\\ based\\ on\\ Domesday\\ enumeration\\ of\\ 1086\\ the\\ estimate\\ of\\ all\\ categories\\ of\\ free\\ peasants\\ taken\\ together\\ was\\ only\\ 14\\%\\ of\\ total\\ population\\ in\\ rural\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ several\\ hundred\\ years\\,\\ slavery\\ coexisted\\ with\\ other\\ servile\\ institutions\\ in\\ England\\ and\\ the\\ disappearance\\ of\\ slavery\\ was\\ a\\ long\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conversion\\ of\\ slaves\\ started\\ when\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ slaveholders\\ began\\ to\\ move\\ their\\ slaves\\ whether\\ manumitted\\ or\\ not\\ into\\ separate\\ landholdings\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ allowed\\ for\\ much\\ more\\ freedom\\ and\\ still\\ performed\\ work\\ for\\ slaveholders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ lords\\ continued\\ to\\ hold\\ slaves\\ directly\\ on\\ their\\ estates\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ housed\\,\\ fed\\,\\ and\\ clothed\\ by\\ lords\\ and\\ spent\\ most\\ of\\ their\\ time\\ working\\ in\\ estate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ contemporary\\ practice\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ separation\\ and\\ classification\\ adopted\\ by\\ medieval\\ historians\\,\\ there\\ were\\ several\\ categories\\ of\\ serfs\\ in\\ England\\ in\\ the\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ common\\ denominator\\ was\\ possession\\ of\\ land\\ which\\ they\\ cultivated\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\R\\.H\\.\\ Hilton\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;although\\ some\\ slaves\\ in\\ antiquity\\ were\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ completely\\ without\\ property\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\,\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\,\\ slaves\\ were\\ chattels\\ of\\ their\\ master\\,\\ employed\\ as\\ instruments\\ of\\ production\\ in\\ agriculture\\ or\\ industry\\,\\ receiving\\ food\\,\\ clothing\\ and\\ shelter\\ from\\ the\\ master\\ and\\ possessing\\ nothing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\England\\ slavery\\ died\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ and\\ serfdom\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Russia\\ slavery\\ remained\\ alive\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ early\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ and\\ serfdom\\ began\\ to\\ develop\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ and\\ abolished\\ by\\ state\\ law\\ in\\ the\\ 1860\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Russia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\ gradually\\ merged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\ Maquet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ feudal\\ system\\ deserves\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ type\\ of\\ political\\ organization\\ in\\ traditional\\ Africa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jack\\ Goody\\ disagreed\\ with\\ this\\ notion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michael\\ Mason\\ explains\\ how\\ he\\ used\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;slave\\&rdquo\\;\\ only\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ familiarity\\ and\\ its\\ currency\\ in\\ discussions\\ of\\ unfree\\ labor\\ in\\ African\\ Societies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;captive\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ appropriate\\ term\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ principally\\ the\\ mode\\ of\\ recruitment\\ which\\ the\\ West\\ African\\ \\&ldquo\\;slave\\&rdquo\\;\\ had\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ his\\ brother\\ in\\ Cuba\\ or\\ Brazil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ Polly\\ Hill\\ writes\\ about\\ how\\ unlike\\ genuine\\ chattel\\ slaves\\ in\\ ancient\\ Greece\\ and\\ Rome\\,\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ and\\ in\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Haiti\\ who\\ were\\ always\\ totally\\ devoid\\ of\\ rights\\,\\ farm\\-slaves\\ in\\ rural\\ Hausaland\\ normally\\ enjoyed\\ so\\ many\\ rights\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ reasonable\\ to\\ ask\\ whether\\ the\\ term\\ slave\\ is\\ the\\ appropriate\\ word\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ British\\ colonial\\ administration\\ ended\\ in\\ Northern\\ Nigeria\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ was\\ more\\ serfdom\\ than\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martin\\ A\\.\\ Klein\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sokoto\\ Caliphate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ newly\\ acquired\\ captives\\ and\\ some\\ others\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Western\\ Sudan\\ lived\\ and\\ worked\\ under\\ conditions\\ that\\ approximated\\ those\\ of\\ slaves\\ but\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ servile\\ population\\ did\\ not\\ belong\\ in\\ this\\ category\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Servile\\ cultivators\\ of\\ the\\ clove\\ plantations\\ and\\ in\\ mainland\\ Malindi\\ can\\ accurately\\ be\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ slaves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ had\\ some\\ small\\ plots\\ allotted\\ to\\ them\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ enough\\ time\\ to\\ produce\\ for\\ themselves\\ and\\ maintain\\ a\\ reasonable\\ level\\ of\\ socioeconomic\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inexcusable\\ terminology\\ looseness\\ to\\ lump\\ together\\ the\\ dependent\\ cultivators\\ of\\ the\\ Mombasa\\ area\\ and\\ the\\ servile\\ populations\\ of\\ Malindi\\,\\ Zanzibar\\,\\ and\\ Pemba\\ under\\ the\\ same\\ dependent\\ social\\ category\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ former\\ resembled\\ serfs\\ more\\ than\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Factually\\ correct\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ a\\ significant\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Africa\\ south\\ of\\ the\\ Sahara\\ labored\\ under\\ socioeconomic\\ conditions\\ approximating\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ correct\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ numbers\\ of\\ such\\ people\\ have\\ been\\ grossly\\ exaggerated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ find\\ true\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ societies\\ affected\\ by\\ the\\ trans\\-Saharan\\ trade\\ before\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ the\\ Europeans\\ and\\ even\\ harder\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ in\\ coastal\\ societies\\ of\\ Western\\ Africa\\ and\\ their\\ hinterlands\\,\\ which\\ were\\ not\\ directly\\ affected\\ by\\ the\\ trade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incorrect\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ preexistence\\ of\\ widespread\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ coastal\\ societies\\ of\\ Western\\ Africa\\ made\\ possible\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ transatlantic\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ while\\ there\\ were\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Africa\\,\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ hitherto\\ so\\ described\\ more\\ closely\\ resembled\\ serfs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apart\\ from\\ the\\ clove\\ plantations\\ of\\ East\\ Africa\\,\\ most\\ of\\ what\\ scholars\\ have\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;slave\\ plantations\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Africa\\ were\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ serf\\ villages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ no\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ coastal\\ societies\\ of\\ Western\\ Africa\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ provide\\ the\\ springboard\\ for\\ the\\ transatlantic\\ slave\\ trade\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ misleading\\ to\\ speak\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;transformations\\ in\\ slavery\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Africa\\ from\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bottom\\ line\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ need\\ to\\ find\\ ways\\ of\\ separating\\ slaves\\ from\\ other\\ dependent\\ social\\ categories\\ in\\ precolonial\\ Africa\\ and\\ reinterpret\\ the\\ evidence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanley\\ L\\.\\ Engerman\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Slavery\\ and\\ other\\ Forms\\ of\\ Coerced\\ Labour\\:\\ Similarities\\ and\\ Differences\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ Michael\\ Bush\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Serfdom\\ and\\ Slavery\\:\\ Studies\\ in\\ Legal\\ Bondage\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(London\\,\\ 1996\\)\\,\\ 18\\-41\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\:\\ similarities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\ have\\ generally\\ been\\ regarded\\ as\\ the\\ extreme\\ versions\\ of\\ coerced\\ labor\\,\\ one\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ spectrum\\,\\ at\\ the\\ other\\ end\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ would\\ be\\ called\\ free\\ labor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ rights\\ of\\ slaveowners\\ and\\ serfowners\\ was\\ their\\ ability\\ legally\\ to\\ buy\\ and\\ sell\\ laborers\\.\\ Although\\ there\\ were\\ different\\ degrees\\ to\\ which\\ this\\ practice\\ was\\ limited\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ exclusive\\ to\\ slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\ only\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ have\\ generally\\ been\\ hereditary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\ did\\ not\\ own\\ property\\ rights\\ in\\ themselves\\ and\\ thus\\ had\\ to\\ forego\\ certain\\ rights\\ in\\ law\\ \\(if\\ not\\ in\\ practice\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ opportunities\\ for\\ individual\\ negotiations\\ of\\ these\\ rights\\,\\ but\\ legal\\ rights\\ were\\ generally\\ with\\ the\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ forms\\ of\\ both\\ have\\ been\\ regarded\\ as\\ involuntary\\ institutions\\ \\(exceptions\\ to\\ this\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serfdom\\ in\\ Europe\\ has\\ been\\ regarded\\ either\\ as\\ coercive\\ in\\ its\\ origin\\ or\\ else\\ as\\ initially\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ an\\ implicit\\ contract\\ for\\ military\\ support\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Voluntary\\ slavery\\ generally\\ existed\\ where\\ income\\ levels\\ were\\ low\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\:\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ at\\ an\\ earlier\\ time\\ continued\\ control\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ achieved\\ by\\ combinations\\ of\\ large\\ or\\ small\\ lords\\ in\\ a\\ military\\ standoff\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ essential\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ direct\\ free\\ bidding\\ by\\ lords\\ to\\ attract\\ the\\ serfs\\ away\\ from\\ other\\ lords\\.\\ Under\\ slavery\\,\\ it\\ was\\ required\\ that\\ there\\ be\\ no\\ negotiations\\ directly\\ between\\ owners\\ and\\ slaves\\,\\ all\\ transfers\\ among\\ owners\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ only\\ by\\ transactions\\ in\\ the\\ markets\\,\\ with\\ payments\\ to\\ previous\\ owners\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serfs\\ generally\\ had\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ some\\ land\\,\\ and\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ in\\ most\\ cases\\ be\\ sold\\ apart\\ from\\ this\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serfs\\ paid\\ their\\ owners\\ in\\ cash\\,\\ kind\\,\\ or\\ labor\\,\\ to\\ fulfill\\ their\\ labor\\ obligations\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ to\\ obtain\\ the\\ permission\\ needed\\ for\\ various\\ personal\\ actions\\ such\\ as\\ marriage\\ and\\ mobility\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serfdom\\,\\ in\\ general\\,\\ did\\ not\\ involved\\ large\\-scale\\ geographic\\ movements\\,\\ since\\ most\\ were\\ enserfed\\ in\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ their\\ previous\\ residence\\,\\ often\\ on\\ land\\ they\\ had\\ previously\\ worked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Voluntary\\ slavery\\ may\\ have\\ occurred\\ without\\ such\\ relocations\\,\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ seldom\\ true\\ for\\ involuntary\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serfs\\ were\\ generally\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ lower\\-class\\,\\ often\\ rather\\ despicable\\ elements\\ of\\ society\\,\\ with\\ no\\ or\\ limited\\ abilities\\ and\\ few\\ chances\\ to\\ rise\\ socially\\ and\\ economically\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ almost\\ always\\ considered\\ outsiders\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ society\\ with\\ only\\ a\\ limited\\ sense\\ of\\ rights\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ whether\\ the\\ ultimate\\ rationale\\ for\\ slave\\ status\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ nationality\\,\\ religion\\,\\ ethnicity\\,\\ or\\ race\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ foten\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ warfare\\,\\ although\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ outsider\\ was\\ reflected\\ in\\ different\\ treatments\\ of\\ war\\ prisoners\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ foreign\\ prisoners\\ of\\ war\\ could\\ be\\ killed\\,\\ sold\\ as\\ captives\\,\\ ransomed\\,\\ or\\ freed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generally\\,\\ both\\ slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\ were\\ involved\\ in\\ some\\ production\\ for\\ markets\\:\\ slaves\\,\\ of\\ products\\ usually\\ for\\ sale\\ in\\ distant\\,\\ export\\ markets\\;\\ and\\ serfs\\,\\ either\\ for\\ distant\\ markets\\ or\\,\\ at\\ the\\ least\\,\\ for\\ sale\\ off\\ the\\ working\\ units\\;\\ while\\ both\\ slaves\\ and\\ serfs\\ often\\ produced\\ their\\ own\\ subsistence\\ foodstuffs\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Under\\ serfdom\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ general\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ as\\ a\\ residential\\ and\\ working\\ unit\\ and\\ of\\ family\\ farms\\,\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ for\\ free\\ peasants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ long\\ been\\ argues\\ that\\ slave\\ populations\\ were\\ not\\ capable\\ of\\ reproducing\\ themselves\\,\\ the\\ one\\ major\\ exception\\ being\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ population\\ of\\ mainland\\ North\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ labor\\ systems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ numerous\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ labor\\ organization\\ that\\ are\\ considered\\ coercive\\.\\ These\\ include\\ convict\\ labor\\,\\ indentured\\ labor\\,\\ debt\\ bondage\\,\\ and\\ related\\ systems\\ which\\ involve\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ worker\\ control\\ over\\ his\\ \\(or\\ her\\)\\ options\\ for\\ a\\ limited\\ period\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Acquiring\\ and\\ using\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ can\\ regard\\ the\\ landowners\\ and\\/or\\ capitalists\\ as\\ desiring\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ large\\ supply\\ of\\ labor\\ with\\ low\\ labor\\ costs\\,\\ where\\ and\\ when\\ they\\ want\\ it\\.\\ Low\\ labor\\ costs\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ lower\\ wages\\ or\\ payments\\ to\\ laborers\\,\\ since\\ productivity\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Among\\ free\\ populations\\,\\ labor\\ force\\ participation\\ is\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ consume\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ serfdom\\,\\ which\\ generally\\ drew\\ its\\ labor\\ force\\ from\\ people\\ already\\ resident\\,\\ utilized\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ lord\\ to\\ get\\ serfs\\ to\\ labor\\ for\\ the\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benefit\\,\\ most\\ frequently\\ in\\ agricultural\\ pursuits\\,\\ but\\ at\\ times\\ also\\ in\\ industrial\\ or\\ service\\ functions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ at\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ output\\ were\\ not\\ automatic\\ and\\ some\\ systems\\ of\\ incentive\\ were\\ needed\\ to\\ induce\\ the\\ desired\\ amount\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ important\\ concern\\ of\\ free\\ labor\\ was\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ leave\\ employment\\ whenever\\ desired\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ some\\ limits\\ on\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ even\\ free\\ workers\\ to\\ move\\ to\\ new\\ locations\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ new\\ jobs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Limitations\\ relating\\ to\\ nationality\\ or\\ ethnicity\\ have\\ long\\ existed\\ on\\ the\\ settlement\\ of\\ land\\,\\ favoring\\ other\\,\\ more\\ dominant\\ groups\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Different\\ forms\\ of\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ controls\\,\\ via\\ the\\ legal\\ system\\ or\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ governmental\\ power\\,\\ are\\ more\\ characteristic\\ of\\ situations\\ when\\ coercion\\ is\\ undertaken\\ not\\ by\\ private\\ individuals\\ but\\ by\\ governmental\\ authorities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ can\\ play\\ roles\\ other\\ than\\ by\\ directly\\ controlling\\ the\\ labor\\ it\\ uses\\.\\ Legislation\\ and\\ enforcement\\ were\\ necessary\\ for\\ systems\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\ to\\ persist\\,\\ since\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ property\\ transfers\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ their\\ success\\.\\ Similarly\\,\\ with\\ free\\ labor\\,\\ various\\ laws\\ have\\ influenced\\ the\\ amount\\ and\\ availability\\ of\\ labor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ scholars\\ drew\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ economics\\ and\\ the\\ market\\ against\\ that\\ of\\ other\\ political\\ forces\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ between\\ direct\\ coercion\\ and\\ coercion\\ via\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whether\\ labor\\ is\\ used\\ by\\ individuals\\ or\\ by\\ governments\\ has\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ influences\\ the\\ policies\\ of\\ coercion\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ selected\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ that\\ were\\ attempted\\ to\\ be\\ achieved\\.\\ If\\ private\\ individuals\\ are\\ involved\\,\\ the\\ end\\ purpose\\ will\\ more\\ frequently\\ be\\ financial\\ gain\\,\\ while\\ the\\ intent\\ of\\ government\\ action\\ will\\ more\\ frequently\\ be\\ a\\ non\\-financial\\ goal\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ending\\ slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\ had\\ generally\\ ended\\ in\\ Western\\ Europe\\ and\\ in\\ Scandinavia\\ by\\ the\\ fifteenth\\ century\\,\\ except\\ for\\ some\\ enslavement\\ of\\ non\\-Christians\\,\\ often\\ used\\ as\\ galley\\-slaves\\,\\ and\\ for\\ some\\ serfdom\\ in\\ Eastern\\ France\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ western\\ Germany\\,\\ which\\ persisted\\ until\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ era\\.\\ New\\ World\\ slavery\\,\\ as\\ practiced\\ by\\ the\\ European\\ powers\\,\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ sixteenth\\ century\\,\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ generally\\ restricted\\ to\\ overseas\\ areas\\ and\\ usually\\ applied\\ to\\ outsiders\\,\\ first\\ to\\ Indians\\ \\(whose\\ legal\\ slavery\\ in\\ Spanish\\ American\\ was\\ soon\\ ended\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ to\\ Africans\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ relatively\\ late\\ large\\-scale\\ expansion\\ of\\ African\\ slavery\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ its\\ basic\\ origin\\ is\\ dated\\,\\ and\\ this\\ accelerated\\ growth\\ might\\ be\\ attributed\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ both\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ transatlantic\\ slavery\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ European\\ measures\\ ending\\ the\\ transatlantic\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ in\\ ending\\ slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\ was\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ ideologies\\ in\\ Europe\\ that\\ for\\ both\\ religious\\ and\\ secular\\ reasons\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ made\\ the\\ arguments\\ concerning\\ the\\ evils\\ and\\ problems\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\ sound\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ quite\\ similar\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ending\\ of\\ serfdom\\ in\\ England\\ has\\ been\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ way\\ society\\ adjusted\\ to\\ the\\ sharp\\ decline\\ in\\ population\\ following\\ the\\ Black\\ Death\\,\\ although\\ elsewhere\\ the\\ Black\\ Death\\ has\\ been\\ considered\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ cause\\ of\\ serfdom\\.\\ What\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ ending\\ of\\ serfdom\\ in\\ England\\ was\\ a\\ breakdown\\ in\\ the\\ cartel\\ of\\ landowners\\,\\ who\\ were\\ now\\ willing\\ to\\ bid\\ directly\\ with\\ serfs\\ and\\ to\\ promise\\ them\\ higher\\ rewards\\,\\ including\\ freedom\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarly\\,\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ New\\ World\\ slavery\\ was\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ metropolitan\\ or\\ national\\ legislation\\,\\ although\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ was\\ a\\ necessary\\ precursor\\.\\ The\\ end\\ of\\ slavery\\ was\\ generally\\ against\\ the\\ perceived\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ slaveholders\\ who\\ fought\\ legislatively\\ and\\,\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ militarily\\ against\\ this\\ outcome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ end\\ of\\ serfdom\\ is\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ ruler\\-versus\\-nobility\\ dispute\\,\\ and\\ the\\ attempt\\ by\\ the\\ ruler\\ to\\ capture\\ tax\\ monies\\ from\\ the\\ enserfed\\ rather\\ than\\ let\\ them\\ go\\ to\\ their\\ lords\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legislation\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ abolition\\ did\\ not\\ compensate\\ the\\ slaves\\ or\\ serfs\\ for\\ their\\ past\\ exploitation\\,\\ economic\\ and\\ otherwise\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ emancipation\\ of\\ both\\ serfs\\ and\\ slaves\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ were\\ generally\\ attempts\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ work\\ and\\ behavior\\ of\\ those\\ freed\\,\\ via\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ vagrancy\\ laws\\,\\ apprenticeship\\ regulations\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ economic\\ adjustments\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ New\\ World\\ slavery\\ differed\\ sharply\\ from\\ those\\ of\\ European\\ serfdom\\.\\ While\\ some\\ declines\\ in\\ output\\ and\\ productivity\\ apparently\\ took\\ place\\ after\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ serfdom\\,\\ they\\ were\\ seldom\\ as\\ dramatic\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ areas\\,\\ particularly\\ where\\ sugar\\ was\\ the\\ primary\\ crop\\.\\ This\\ reflected\\ the\\ differe\\ scale\\ economies\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ crops\\,\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ unfavorable\\ working\\ and\\ living\\ conditions\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ colonial\\ staples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ those\\ areas\\ where\\ slavery\\ had\\ existed\\,\\ most\\ ex\\-slaves\\ remained\\ in\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ most\\ ex\\-slave\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ World\\,\\ the\\ relative\\ size\\ and\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ agricultural\\ secotr\\ was\\ maintained\\ for\\ many\\ decades\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ending\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\ similarly\\ led\\ to\\ few\\ dramatic\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\:\\ Europe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Legacy\\ to\\ New\\ World\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 25\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Greek\\ Thinkers\\,\\ Roman\\ Jurists\\ and\\ Slavery\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ Business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\ from\\ lecture\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Between\\ slavery\\ and\\ serfdom\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ and\\ distinct\\ shades\\.\\ There\\ are\\ not\\ just\\ 2\\ clear\\ categories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ slave\\ can\\ move\\ along\\ this\\ spectrum\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ lifetime\\;\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ permanent\\ state\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ IS\\ merit\\ in\\ comparative\\ study\\ between\\ different\\ time\\ and\\ geographic\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cooper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\:\\ an\\ outsider\\,\\ brought\\ by\\ force\\ or\\ coercion\\ into\\ a\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ societies\\ vary\\ by\\ their\\ use\\ for\\ slaves\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ natural\\ history\\ and\\ culture\\ of\\ an\\ area\\,\\ slave\\/master\\ relationship\\ \\(consider\\ the\\ relationship\\-aspect\\ and\\ how\\ each\\ party\\ seeks\\ to\\ influence\\ the\\ other\\)\\.\\ Orland\\ Patterson\\ described\\ extremes\\ of\\ these\\ conditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Western\\ Civilization\\:\\ descendant\\ of\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ \\(G\\/R\\)\\ cultures\\ and\\ the\\ legacy\\ of\\ G\\/R\\ civilizations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ancient\\ Athens\\ and\\ Roman\\ Republic\\ and\\ Empire\\ as\\ slave\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Location\\/function\\ determine\\ a\\ slave\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dealing\\ with\\ a\\ Greek\\ Athens\\ in\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\ BC\\ \\(550\\-350BC\\ was\\ the\\ Greek\\ Classical\\ Age\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roman\\ Monarchy\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\ BC\\ collapsed\\,\\ rise\\ of\\ Roman\\ Republic\\ 31BC\\-14AD\\ \\(Augustus\\)\\,\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\ AD\\ collapse\\ of\\ Empire\\ 476AD\\ West\\ \\(last\\ emperor\\)\\,\\ east\\ survives\\ \\(as\\ Byzantine\\ Empire\\)\\,\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\ AD\\ Justinian\\,\\ codifies\\ all\\ laws\\ \\(including\\ those\\ regulating\\ slavery\\)\\&mdash\\;such\\ laws\\ are\\ put\\ in\\ practice\\ in\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\ AD\\ Iberian\\ Peninsula\\&mdash\\;when\\ Sp\\/Portugal\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ Americas\\ they\\ bring\\ the\\ same\\ laws\\ with\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conceptualizing\\ slavery\\ in\\ Greece\\ and\\ Rome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greek\\ thinkers\\;\\ Roman\\ jurists\\ \\(preoccupied\\ with\\ how\\ to\\ define\\ a\\ slave\\&mdash\\;as\\ property\\ and\\ controlled\\ by\\ another\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justinian\\ Code\\.\\ Latin\\ as\\ official\\ language\\ and\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Roman\\ law\\ \\(language\\ of\\ scholarship\\,\\ government\\,\\ bureaucracy\\&mdash\\;language\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ memory\\ bank\\ of\\ a\\ culture\\/history\\&mdash\\;very\\ important\\ through\\ early\\ modern\\ period\\)\\,\\ Generally\\ have\\ same\\ conclusions\\ and\\ universal\\ phenomenon\\ but\\ with\\ different\\ approaches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Are\\ certain\\ people\\ mapped\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ slaves\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rome\\ in\\ early\\ centuries\\ AD\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ moralization\\ of\\ personhood\\ \\(slaves\\ were\\ justified\\ as\\ captures\\ in\\ war\\-frame\\ slavery\\&mdash\\;slave\\ is\\ no\\ different\\ as\\ a\\ person\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ captured\\&hellip\\;\\.and\\ a\\ slave\\ is\\ a\\ slave\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\C2\\ AD\\ Rome\\:\\ moralization\\ of\\ personhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Preached\\ no\\ pre\\ marital\\ sex\\ and\\ a\\ higher\\ plane\\ of\\ morals\\&hellip\\;led\\ to\\ gradual\\ decline\\ of\\ immoral\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\ Decline\\ in\\ Roman\\ slavery\\:\\ Christianity\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ same\\ century\\ when\\ Constantine\\ converted\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\ to\\ Christianity\\&mdash\\;Consider\\ a\\ correlation\\?\\ Drop\\ of\\ slavery\\ influenced\\ by\\ rise\\ of\\ Christianity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Greek\\ Philosophers\\ and\\ Political\\ Thinkers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Greek\\ civilization\\ and\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Moses\\ Finley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evaluated\\ \\&ldquo\\;beloved\\ Greek\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ based\\ on\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ conditions\\ for\\ slave\\ society\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\large\\ scale\\ private\\ ownership\\ of\\ land\\ \\(few\\ elite\\ people\\ controlled\\ production\\&mdash\\;implies\\ that\\ they\\ controlled\\ other\\ people\\)\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commodity\\ production\\ and\\ markets\\ \\(often\\ happens\\ in\\ the\\ larger\\ contexts\\ of\\ organization\\ or\\ towns\\ \\(have\\ non\\ agrarian\\ people\\ so\\ those\\ with\\ land\\ can\\ produce\\ commodities\\/food\\ for\\ people\\ in\\ burgeoning\\ towns\\)\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ internal\\ labor\\ supply\\ \\(peasants\\ usually\\ migrate\\ to\\ towns\\ so\\ rural\\ area\\ lack\\ slaves\\.\\ Slaves\\ are\\ brought\\ in\\ to\\ populate\\ this\\ area\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ landowning\\ producers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Athens\\ in\\ the\\ peak\\ periods\\ of\\ the\\ C5\\ and\\ C4\\ BC\\ \\(the\\ above\\ principles\\ hold\\ true\\)\\-\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ elite\\ and\\ intellectuals\\ are\\ landowners\\ and\\ slave\\ owners\\,\\ each\\ household\\ had\\ 3\\-4\\ slaves\\ \\(80\\-100K\\ in\\ total\\)\\,\\ even\\ commoners\\ had\\ a\\ house\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ slaves\\ were\\ outsiders\\ and\\ not\\ previously\\ members\\ of\\ Greek\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plato\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ universal\\ institution\\ and\\ was\\ OK\\ w\\/\\ it\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ limited\\ to\\ foreigners\\ and\\ Greeks\\ were\\ not\\ enslaved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Greek\\ political\\ elite\\ as\\ absentee\\ landholders\\ and\\ slave\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ allowed\\ the\\ leisure\\ time\\ to\\ expound\\ all\\ the\\ ideas\\ they\\ had\\ and\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ politics\\ instead\\ of\\ menial\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concludes\\ that\\ the\\ politics\\ in\\ Greece\\ were\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ freedom\\ was\\ so\\ far\\ advanced\\ yet\\ so\\ was\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;barbarians\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thracians\\,\\ Scythians\\,\\ Cappadocians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aristotle\\ and\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ Reason\\ vs\\ passion\\;\\ Passion\\ and\\ body\\;\\ reason\\ and\\ the\\ soul\\ \\(free\\ people\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ reason\\-\\-\\-they\\ think\\ rationally\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ enabled\\ by\\ soul\\)\\,\\ nature\\ predisposed\\ people\\ to\\ slavery\\ with\\ passion\\ and\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\-human\\ being\\ by\\ nature\\ does\\ not\\ belong\\ to\\ self\\ but\\ to\\ another\\ person\\ \\(his\\ natural\\ theory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ tool\\ to\\ use\\ for\\ livestock\\,\\ domestic\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\ Jurists\\ and\\ the\\ Codification\\ of\\ Roman\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ Rome\\ and\\ imperial\\ wars\\ from\\ C3\\ BC\\;\\ 1000s\\ of\\ slaves\\ brought\\ back\\.\\ Captives\\.\\ Transformation\\ of\\ Roman\\ slavery\\:\\ emergence\\ of\\ large\\ scale\\ landholders\\ and\\ dispossession\\ of\\ Italian\\ peasants\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\latifundia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\&mdash\\;grant\\ of\\ lands\\ or\\ help\\ from\\ state\\ furthered\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ more\\ laborers\\;\\ decline\\ in\\ local\\ labor\\ because\\ peasants\\ are\\ soldiers\\ or\\ move\\ to\\ cities\\&mdash\\;rural\\ area\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ large\\ pieces\\ of\\ land\\ controlled\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ men\\;\\ urbanization\\ and\\ market\\ for\\ agricultural\\ produce\\ grows\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Republic\\,\\ slaves\\ are\\ about\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 6\\ million\\.\\ Labor\\ need\\ justified\\ slaves\\ in\\ rural\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keith\\ Bradley\\ on\\ Early\\ Rome\\:\\ slavery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ impact\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ religion\\ and\\ law\\ \\(Matralia\\ festival\\ by\\ 400\\ BC\\&mdash\\;female\\ slaves\\,\\ matrons\\ honor\\ goddesses\\ and\\ Saturnalia\\ by\\ 497\\ BC\\&mdash\\;December\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ role\\ reversal\\,\\ slaves\\ are\\ served\\ by\\ masters\\&hellip\\;rituals\\ are\\ important\\ to\\ serve\\ to\\ solidify\\ social\\ relations\\,\\ maintain\\ order\\,\\ respect\\ deities\\.\\ This\\ \\&ldquo\\;holiday\\&rdquo\\;\\ illustrated\\ ritualistic\\ side\\ of\\ slave\\/master\\ relationship\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\20\\%\\ of\\ population\\ is\\ slaves\\ \\(typical\\ slave\\ society\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ are\\ other\\ ways\\ of\\ evaluating\\ impact\\ of\\ slavery\\ on\\ an\\ institution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\looks\\ for\\ qualitative\\ not\\ quantitative\\ data\\ so\\ a\\ society\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\ society\\ even\\ w\\/o\\ 20\\%\\ population\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\357\\ BC\\ Rome\\ introduces\\ a\\ manumission\\ tax\\ and\\ points\\ to\\ 2\\ holidays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ using\\ above\\ rituals\\,\\ in\\ religion\\ and\\ law\\ devices\\ were\\ put\\ in\\ place\\ to\\ keep\\ this\\ group\\ quiet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ Rome\\ became\\ a\\ slave\\ society\\ well\\ before\\ it\\ had\\ the\\ population\\ necessary\\ for\\ a\\ slave\\ society\\ through\\ structures\\ and\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Personal\\ nature\\ of\\ Roman\\ slavery\\:\\ e\\.g\\.\\ of\\ Pallas\\,\\ Arcadian\\ noble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Authority\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pater\\ familias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(head\\ of\\ household\\)\\ \\(father\\ lifts\\ son\\ up\\ to\\ accept\\ him\\ after\\ son\\ is\\ placed\\ on\\ earth\\ after\\ coming\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ womb\\.\\ It\\ was\\ about\\ deciding\\ how\\ many\\ heirs\\ you\\ wanted\\,\\ not\\ whether\\ you\\ wanted\\ the\\ child\\.\\ If\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ picked\\ up\\ he\\ was\\ exposed\\ in\\ public\\ for\\ any\\ one\\ to\\ take\\.\\ Son\\ never\\ had\\ autonomy\\ until\\ father\\ died\\-\\-\\ then\\ he\\ came\\ into\\ his\\ own\\ right\\ so\\ it\\ was\\ celebrated\\ when\\ father\\ died\\.\\ Father\\ could\\ disinherit\\ or\\ put\\ son\\ on\\ trial\\ and\\ determine\\ his\\ fate\\ \\(death\\)\\ at\\ will\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peculiar\\&mdash\\;PF\\ could\\ decide\\ to\\ put\\ son\\ in\\ whatever\\ field\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ business\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ sons\\ of\\ a\\ father\\ \\(master\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Florentius\\,\\ Strabo\\,\\ Varro\\ \\-\\-\\ In\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\potestas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ in\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hands\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\manus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ in\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ownership\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\mancipium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\&hellip\\;usually\\ slaves\\ got\\ the\\ same\\ name\\ as\\ master\\ \\+\\ \\&ldquo\\;boy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justinian\\ Code\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Codex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Roman\\ legislation\\)\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Institutes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(a\\ manual\\ guide\\ to\\ Jurisprudence\\)\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Digest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(laws\\ in\\ common\\ use\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ AD\\)\\;\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Novels\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(new\\ laws\\)\\.\\ Justinian\\,\\ 527\\-565\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Welfare\\ policy\\ would\\ collect\\ food\\ and\\ redistribute\\ for\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Moralization\\ of\\ Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Early\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ Rome\\ from\\ C2\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Begin\\ to\\ rethink\\ whole\\ idea\\ of\\ marriage\\ \\(not\\ just\\ sex\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\From\\ C2\\ AD\\.\\ Paul\\ Veyne\\,\\ Philips\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neither\\ stoicism\\ or\\ Christianity\\ was\\ responsible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\ changes\\ leading\\ to\\ important\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\End\\ of\\ warfare\\,\\ pax\\ Romana\\ led\\ to\\ rethinking\\ of\\ roman\\ citizenship\\&hellip\\;\\.how\\ do\\ you\\ conceptualize\\ citizenship\\ in\\ peace\\ time\\&mdash\\;shift\\ political\\ map\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Important\\ moral\\ systems\\ in\\ 2C\\ AD\\ Rome\\:\\ Stoicism\\ and\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critique\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ indulgence\\ from\\ C2\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ from\\ political\\ man\\ to\\ inner\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transformation\\ of\\ marriage\\,\\ emergence\\ of\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ couple\\ \\(not\\ just\\ sex\\ in\\ marriage\\ anymore\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recognition\\ of\\ slave\\ marriages\\,\\ families\\,\\ emotions\\ due\\ to\\ greater\\ focus\\ on\\ inner\\ person\\&hellip\\;slaves\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ akin\\ to\\ livestock\\&hellip\\;when\\ they\\ reproduced\\,\\ his\\ stock\\ grew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ growing\\ unwillingness\\ to\\ sell\\ separate\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ break\\ up\\ a\\ family\\ since\\ it\\ has\\ more\\ value\\ now\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Decline\\ of\\ Roman\\ Slavery\\:\\ Christianity\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Role\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GEM\\ de\\ Ste\\ Croix\\ \\(Marxist\\ scholar\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustine\\,\\ Ambrose\\ on\\ slavery\\,\\ neither\\ necessarily\\ condemned\\ slavery\\ but\\ they\\ instead\\ accepted\\ it\\.\\ Saw\\ it\\ as\\ reconstructive\\ for\\ Christians\\.\\ Was\\ a\\ blessing\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ Christians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Early\\ church\\ and\\ slavery\\&mdash\\;Pauline\\ teachings\\,\\ Romans\\ 1\\;\\ 1\\ Corinthians\\ 7\\;\\ Galatians\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ a\\ Christian\\ critique\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ in\\ fact\\ slaves\\ were\\ encourage\\ to\\ be\\ obedient\\ \\(above\\ texts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ could\\ even\\ be\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ instruction\\ of\\ people\\.\\ A\\ blessing\\ of\\ sorts\\ to\\ help\\ others\\ and\\ get\\ lost\\ souls\\ \\(slaves\\)\\ back\\ on\\ track\\.\\ No\\ evidence\\ when\\ Rome\\ became\\ Christian\\ and\\ that\\ slavery\\ declined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 4\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 27\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Slavic\\ Heartland\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ Business\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Previous\\ lecture\\-Greek\\ thinkers\\ and\\ Roman\\ jurists\\,\\ today\\ Slavics\\,\\ next\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Decline\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ Roman\\ empire\\ \\(4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ same\\ time\\ as\\ Christianity\\ became\\ official\\ in\\ empire\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ cause\\ behind\\ drop\\ in\\ slavery\\ so\\ why\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ important\\ things\\ that\\ were\\ reversed\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\accumulation\\ of\\ large\\ landholdings\\ in\\ towns\\ \\(developed\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ with\\ dispossession\\ of\\ servants\\&mdash\\;moved\\ into\\ cities\\ or\\ army\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\urbanization\\ and\\ large\\ pool\\ of\\ non\\ agrarian\\ people\\ opened\\ up\\ markets\\ for\\ commodity\\ production\\,\\ needed\\ food\\ \\(but\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ shortage\\ of\\ labor\\ in\\ peasants\\-army\\/towns\\,\\ so\\ slaves\\ who\\ came\\ from\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imperial\\ wars\\ came\\ into\\ play\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Series\\ of\\ epidemics\\ \\(parasites\\ love\\ cities\\&mdash\\;dense\\ concentration\\ of\\ people\\&mdash\\;drop\\ in\\ urban\\ population\\ \\(with\\ this\\ decline\\,\\ labor\\ surplus\\ arose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pax\\ Romana\\ changed\\ what\\ it\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\,\\ think\\ like\\ a\\ Roman\\.\\ Slaves\\ are\\ outsiders\\.\\ With\\ PR\\ you\\ could\\ not\\ enslave\\ Roman\\ subjects\\ within\\ empire\\&hellip\\;so\\ now\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\ or\\ use\\ children\\ of\\ slaves\\.\\ So\\ shortage\\ drops\\ as\\ price\\ rises\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\When\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ market\\ incentive\\,\\ what\\ do\\ you\\ do\\ with\\ a\\ huge\\ \\#\\ of\\ dependent\\ people\\ in\\ rural\\ area\\?\\ Elite\\ start\\ to\\ give\\ small\\ land\\ grants\\ to\\ ordinary\\ people\\&hellip\\;begins\\ transition\\ to\\ serfdom\\&hellip\\;labor\\ services\\ provided\\ for\\ elite\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slaves\\ become\\ serfs\\.\\ Ordinary\\ peasants\\ and\\ freedmen\\ move\\ up\\ and\\ form\\ own\\ establishments\\ \\(they\\ could\\ not\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ land\\ so\\ they\\ attached\\ to\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peasants\\/freedmen\\/slaves\\ merged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ transition\\ was\\ complete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ to\\ serfs\\;\\ persistence\\ of\\ domestic\\ urban\\ slavery\\ \\(people\\ need\\ slaves\\ for\\ domestic\\ needs\\ so\\ it\\ remains\\ important\\)\\ in\\ middle\\ and\\ late\\ medieval\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ death\\ \\(bubonic\\ plague\\)\\ in\\ mid\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ 1\\/4\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ European\\ population\\ had\\ died\\ out\\&mdash\\;labor\\ becomes\\ expensive\\ because\\ fewer\\ people\\ are\\ available\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ choices\\ about\\ where\\ to\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ AD\\,\\ Slavic\\ slaves\\ are\\ most\\ common\\ slaves\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ N\\ Africa\\ and\\ even\\ some\\ West\\ African\\ states\\.\\ The\\ Slavs\\ typified\\ \\&lsquo\\;slaves\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavic\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ medieval\\ period\\ \\(from\\ collapse\\ of\\ roman\\ empire\\&mdash\\;ended\\ in\\ W\\ in\\ 476\\ AD\\,\\ TIME\\ PERIODS\\:\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\early\\,\\ 9\\/10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-12\\/13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;middle\\,\\ 13\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;late\\,\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;early\\ modern\\,\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(enlightenment\\)\\-modern\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Middle\\ Ages\\=\\ \\&lsquo\\;dark\\ ages\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shift\\ away\\ from\\ cities\\ after\\ fall\\ of\\ Rome\\,\\ more\\ rural\\ look\\ \\(slavery\\ lingers\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ dominance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slavery\\ in\\ Christian\\ Europe\\ and\\ the\\ muslim\\ world\\ \\(Iberian\\ peninsula\\&mdash\\;\\ Muslims\\ take\\ Spain\\ and\\ Portugal\\)\\-\\ Venetian\\ \\(sell\\ people\\ from\\ East\\ and\\ Central\\ Europe\\ to\\ Muslims\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ consider\\ them\\ Christians\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ West\\ Europeans\\,\\ this\\ irritated\\ Pope\\)\\ and\\ Jewish\\ merchants\\ \\(9\\/10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\,\\ trafficked\\ slaves\\ from\\ E\\/C\\ Europe\\,\\ key\\ to\\ moving\\ slavs\\ to\\ Muslim\\ lands\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\-Roman\\ empire\\ developments\\:\\ progressive\\ ruralization\\ of\\ economy\\ and\\ society\\;\\ from\\ slavery\\ to\\ serfdom\\;\\ invention\\ of\\ labor\\ saving\\ devices\\ from\\ early\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ emergence\\ \\ \\;of\\ serfdom\\ complete\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\assisted\\ by\\ more\\ efficient\\ devices\\ that\\ enables\\ shift\\ from\\ labor\\ intensive\\,\\ better\\ animals\\/harnesses\\/plows\\/water\\ mills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\accumulation\\ of\\ these\\ machines\\ lessens\\ need\\ for\\ slave\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slavic\\ are\\ confirmed\\ slaves\\ by\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philips\\-etymology\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;slave\\&rsquo\\;\\-the\\ Slavic\\ root\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ elites\\ try\\ to\\ describe\\ serfs\\,\\ take\\ Latin\\ word\\ for\\ slaves\\ \\&lsquo\\;serves\\&rsquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.applied\\ to\\ serfdom\\&hellip\\;but\\ there\\ were\\ still\\ SLAVES\\&hellip\\;so\\ they\\ looked\\ at\\ dominant\\ ethnic\\ group\\ in\\ slavery\\ \\(slavs\\)\\ and\\ applied\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simply\\ used\\ Latin\\ word\\ to\\ indicate\\ lowest\\ class\\ of\\ middle\\ society\\.\\ To\\ describe\\ true\\ slaves\\ a\\ new\\ word\\ was\\ coined\\ from\\ the\\ most\\ numerous\\ ethnic\\ group\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ precedent\\ because\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=18th\\ century\\ this\\ was\\ done\\ to\\ Africans\\ in\\ using\\ most\\ numerous\\ group\\.\\ Racism\\ was\\ not\\ cause\\ for\\ slavery\\ but\\ justification\\ for\\ maintaining\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ to\\ serfs\\;\\ persistence\\ of\\ domestic\\ urban\\ slavery\\ in\\ middle\\ and\\ late\\ medieval\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Ottoman\\ Empire\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ Black\\ Sea\\ and\\ Caucasus\\ areas\\ \\(to\\ where\\ Slavs\\ came\\ from\\ so\\ you\\ cannot\\ enslave\\ your\\ own\\ anymore\\,\\ European\\ supply\\ got\\ cut\\ off\\ so\\ they\\ looked\\ to\\ Africa\\)\\.\\ Turks\\ take\\ Constantinople\\ in\\ 1453\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ragusa\\ \\(present\\ day\\ Debrovnik\\)\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ early\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\ AD\\ \\(look\\ at\\ what\\ typified\\ slavery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ in\\ Medieval\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ in\\ Christian\\ Europe\\ and\\ the\\ Muslim\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\East\\-West\\ split\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ from\\ 395\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collapse\\ of\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ 476\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Progressive\\ ruralization\\ of\\ economy\\ and\\ society\\ in\\ Western\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ slavery\\ to\\ serfdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Invention\\ of\\ labor\\ saving\\ devices\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ middle\\ ages\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ better\\ plows\\,\\ harnesses\\,\\ horseshoes\\,\\ water\\ mills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ C12\\ AD\\ emergence\\ of\\ serfdom\\ complete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavic\\ slaves\\ by\\ the\\ C10th\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philips\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\slave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(English\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\esclave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(French\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\esclavo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Spanish\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\escravo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Portuguese\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\schiavo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Italian\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sklave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(German\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Persistence\\ of\\ urban\\ domestic\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Urban\\ Domestic\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Ragusa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Present\\-day\\ Dubrovnik\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Well\\-documented\\ slave\\ system\\ from\\ C13th\\ AD\\ \\(Town\\ Council\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ slave\\ market\\ on\\ the\\ Adriatic\\ coast\\ north\\ of\\ Ragusa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Somehow\\ Italians\\ got\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ from\\ Bosnia\\/Herzegovina\\ were\\ good\\ slaves\\ \\(consumer\\ demand\\/tastes\\ drive\\ market\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mountainous\\ regions\\ of\\ Bosnia\\ and\\ Herzegovina\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ heretics\\ \\(not\\ Christians\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Italians\\,\\ so\\ it\\ justified\\ slavery\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ supposedly\\ against\\ the\\ church\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\90\\%\\ of\\ slaves\\ that\\ passed\\ through\\ Ragusa\\ were\\ women\\&mdash\\;based\\ on\\ region\\ the\\ women\\ were\\ strong\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ useful\\;\\ taught\\ etiquette\\ \\&mdash\\;Ragusa\\ had\\ inadvertently\\ become\\ a\\ finishing\\ school\\ for\\ women\\ slaves\\ \\(Italians\\ wanted\\ \\&lsquo\\;polished\\ slaves\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ physical\\ constraints\\ on\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ could\\ live\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ physical\\ and\\ environmental\\ limitations\\ of\\ Ragusa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Household\\ industries\\ in\\ textile\\,\\ silver\\ and\\ gold\\ smithing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\had\\ experienced\\ economic\\ boom\\ so\\ it\\ needed\\ labor\\.\\ But\\ had\\ physical\\ constraints\\ \\(couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ get\\ clean\\ water\\ due\\ to\\ systems\\/limewater\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bring\\ B\\/H\\ slaves\\ but\\ again\\,\\ small\\ town\\,\\ so\\ it\\ tells\\ households\\ to\\ determine\\ labor\\ needs\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\make\\ sure\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ overwhelm\\ your\\ own\\ physical\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\accurately\\ determines\\ your\\ food\\/water\\ needs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\outsourced\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ an\\ infrastructure\\ and\\ system\\ for\\ slaves\\ to\\ households\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bring\\ slaves\\ from\\ mountainside\\,\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ used\\/become\\ refined\\,\\ ragusa\\ elite\\ sells\\ their\\ slaves\\ to\\ Venetian\\ merchants\\,\\ price\\ spirals\\ up\\,\\ households\\ get\\ more\\ from\\ countryside\\,\\ town\\ council\\ reminds\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ careful\\ and\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\ 1\\.\\ Strict\\ immigration\\ policy\\&mdash\\;who\\ has\\ green\\ card\\/citizenship\\ \\(between\\ 1300\\-1315\\ only\\ 83\\ ppl\\ got\\ citizenship\\ in\\ Ragusa\\)\\ 1280\\-1284\\,\\ 286\\ changed\\ hands\\ in\\ ragusa\\ in\\ a\\ town\\ of\\ slightly\\ less\\ than\\ 3000\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utility\\ of\\ transient\\ slave\\ labor\\ \\(that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\ it\\ was\\ so\\ key\\ in\\ Ragusa\\.\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ risk\\ of\\ your\\ household\\ survival\\&mdash\\;determine\\ work\\,\\ food\\,\\ water\\ needs\\.\\ Sell\\ to\\ merchants\\ if\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ out\\)\\.\\ Household\\ control\\ is\\ in\\ your\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Then\\ everything\\ slowly\\ comes\\ apart\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decline\\ of\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Ragusa\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ C14th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Urban\\ and\\ commercial\\ prosperity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ expansion\\ in\\ artisan\\ class\\ \\(have\\ to\\ hire\\ slaves\\ to\\ bring\\ water\\ to\\ all\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ city\\)\\&mdash\\;artisans\\ begin\\ to\\ buy\\ slaves\\,\\ due\\ to\\ such\\ prosperity\\.\\ Nobility\\&hellip\\;\\ Venetians\\&hellip\\;\\ Everyone\\ is\\ buying\\.\\ Town\\ even\\ saw\\ houses\\ built\\ in\\ marshes\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ such\\ high\\ demand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ becomes\\ uneconomical\\,\\ prices\\ itself\\ out\\ of\\ market\\.\\ In\\ 1840\\ a\\ slave\\ was\\ more\\ expensive\\ than\\ a\\ house\\ built\\ by\\ a\\ skilled\\ artisan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ragusa\\ aristocrats\\ phase\\ out\\ slavery\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Rise\\ of\\ contract\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Still\\ bring\\ in\\ mountain\\ women\\,\\ conditions\\ of\\ work\\/life\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ change\\ much\\ but\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ sold\\ outside\\ anymore\\ and\\ tenure\\ limited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ Ragusa\\ a\\ slave\\ society\\?\\ Because\\ society\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ slave\\ labor\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ fluidity\\ in\\ slaves\\ \\(ragusa\\ were\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\ slaves\\ but\\ they\\ wanted\\ dependent\\ labor\\ that\\ was\\ flexible\\.\\.\\.and\\ they\\ make\\ transition\\ to\\ contract\\ labor\\ which\\ suggests\\ against\\ slave\\ society\\ idea\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Concluding\\ observations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Venetians\\ and\\ Jewish\\ merchants\\,\\ trade\\ to\\ Muslim\\ world\\,\\ Crusades\\,\\ Sugar\\,\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ crusading\\ armies\\ seized\\ lands\\&mdash\\;Italian\\ merchants\\ asked\\ to\\ be\\ paid\\ in\\ land\\ grants\\.\\ At\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ history\\,\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ was\\ leading\\ producer\\ of\\ sugar\\.\\ Europe\\ did\\ not\\ produce\\ sugar\\ only\\ but\\ small\\ amts\\,\\ hugely\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ the\\ Italians\\ who\\ sold\\ slavs\\ and\\ the\\ muslim\\ world\\ who\\ had\\ best\\ sense\\ of\\ how\\ sugar\\ existed\\ so\\ when\\ they\\ facilitated\\ the\\ crusades\\ and\\ were\\ given\\ lands\\&hellip\\;they\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ experiment\\ with\\ sugar\\ plantations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Places\\ like\\ Cyprus\\ and\\ other\\ areas\\ became\\ sugar\\ planting\\ with\\ Italian\\ capitalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Ottoman\\ empire\\ rose\\ in\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ and\\ cut\\ off\\ supply\\ of\\ Slavic\\ slaves\\ \\(you\\ cant\\ raid\\ slavic\\ slaves\\ since\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ empire\\)\\ the\\ new\\ house\\ focuses\\ on\\ sugar\\,\\ turn\\ elsewhere\\ for\\ labor\\-\\-\\-Africa\\.\\ Skills\\ moved\\ from\\ Muslims\\ to\\ Christians\\&hellip\\;Italians\\ were\\ facilitatorx\\ and\\ conduit\\ of\\ knowledge\\/sugar\\/production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Black\\ Death\\,\\ Africans\\ show\\ up\\ as\\ servants\\ in\\ England\\ domestically\\ \\(show\\ up\\ in\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\)\\ you\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ wealthy\\ to\\ afford\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ Africans\\?\\ There\\ had\\ been\\ knowledge\\ of\\ N\\ Africa\\ when\\ Portuguse\\ began\\ exploring\\ they\\ were\\ looking\\ for\\ gold\\ but\\ came\\ across\\ slaves\\.\\ Need\\ to\\ make\\ new\\ colonies\\ in\\ America\\ profitable\\ so\\ the\\ pioneers\\ in\\ maritime\\ exploration\\ in\\ Africa\\ found\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ through\\ African\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Wiedemann\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Baltimore\\,\\ 1981\\)\\,\\ 1\\-35\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ is\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ guide\\ because\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ culture\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moses\\ I\\.\\ Finley\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Was\\ Greek\\ Civilization\\ Based\\ on\\ Slave\\ Labor\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ M\\.\\ Finley\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ in\\ Classical\\ Antiquity\\:\\ Views\\ and\\ Controversies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\,\\ 1960\\)\\,\\ 53\\-72\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Finley\\ begins\\ his\\ article\\ with\\ two\\ generalizations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ all\\ times\\ and\\ in\\ all\\ places\\ the\\ Greek\\ world\\ relied\\ on\\ some\\ form\\ \\(or\\ forms\\)\\ of\\ dependent\\ labour\\ to\\ meet\\ its\\ needs\\,\\ both\\ public\\ and\\ private\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ this\\ I\\ mean\\ that\\ dependent\\ labour\\ was\\ essential\\,\\ in\\ a\\ significant\\ measure\\,\\ if\\ the\\ requirements\\ of\\ agriculture\\,\\ trade\\,\\ manufacture\\,\\ public\\ works\\,\\ and\\ war\\ production\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ fulfilled\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ by\\ dependent\\ labour\\ I\\ mean\\ work\\ performed\\ under\\ compulsions\\ other\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ kinship\\ of\\ communal\\ obligations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ the\\ rarest\\ of\\ exceptions\\,\\ there\\ were\\ always\\ substantial\\ numbers\\ of\\ free\\ men\\ engaged\\ in\\ productive\\ labour\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ within\\ the\\ framework\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ generalizations\\ that\\ finley\\ intends\\ to\\ locate\\ slavery\\ within\\ ancient\\ greek\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Finley\\ defines\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;roughly\\ the\\ status\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ man\\ is\\,\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ and\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\ and\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ all\\ other\\ parties\\,\\ a\\ possession\\,\\ a\\ chattel\\,\\ of\\ another\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-pg\\ 53\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Finley\\ points\\ out\\ that\\,\\ as\\ evident\\ from\\ greek\\ literature\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ a\\ taken\\-for\\-granted\\ fact\\ of\\ human\\ existence\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ words\\ for\\ slave\\ in\\ greek\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Finely\\ discusses\\ the\\ different\\ occupations\\ of\\ slaves\\ and\\ their\\ number\\ within\\ society\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;with\\ little\\ exception\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ activity\\,\\ productive\\ or\\ unproductive\\,\\ public\\ or\\ private\\,\\ pleasant\\ or\\ unpleasant\\,\\ which\\ was\\ not\\ performed\\ by\\ slaves\\ at\\ some\\ times\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ places\\ in\\ the\\ Greek\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pg\\.55\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Major\\ exceptions\\:\\ political\\,\\ judicial\\,\\ or\\ other\\ deliberative\\ bodies\\,\\ military\\ service\\ \\(unless\\ they\\ were\\ a\\ helot\\)\\,\\ and\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finely\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ occupations\\ that\\ were\\ strictly\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Main\\ economic\\ activity\\ of\\ ancient\\ Greece\\ was\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Majority\\ of\\ population\\ were\\ farmers\\ and\\ small\\ landholders\\ who\\ relied\\ on\\ the\\ labor\\ of\\ family\\ and\\ sometimes\\ on\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ small\\,\\ elite\\ group\\ of\\ farmers\\ were\\ large\\ landholders\\ \\ \\;and\\ dependent\\ labour\\ \\(in\\ general\\ outright\\ slaves\\)\\ worked\\ their\\ lands\\ as\\ a\\ basic\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analogy\\ b\\/t\\ ancient\\ greek\\ agriculture\\ and\\ southern\\ u\\.s\\.\\ plantation\\ agriculture\\:\\ though\\ most\\ southerners\\,\\ were\\ small\\ landholders\\ with\\ no\\ slaves\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ a\\ defining\\ aspect\\ of\\ southern\\ agriculture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ same\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ of\\ ancient\\ greek\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mining\\ and\\ Quarrying\\ was\\ dominated\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ by\\ slave\\ labour\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manufacturing\\ was\\ like\\ agriculture\\ \\-\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ small\\ manufacturers\\ who\\ relied\\ on\\ familial\\ labor\\ and\\ fewer\\ large\\ landholders\\ that\\ basically\\ relied\\ on\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commerce\\ and\\ Banking\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ subordinates\\ were\\ invariably\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ domestic\\ field\\,\\ virtually\\ every\\ free\\ man\\ who\\ could\\ afford\\ one\\ owned\\ a\\ slave\\ attendant\\ and\\ a\\ slave\\ woman\\ to\\ do\\ his\\ household\\ chores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ actual\\ number\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ society\\ is\\ controversial\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ fact\\ that\\ slaves\\ were\\ an\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ smallest\\ estimates\\ are\\ about\\ one\\ third\\ to\\ one\\ fourth\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ population\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ south\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ main\\ sources\\ of\\ supply\\ for\\ slaves\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Captives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ victims\\ of\\ greek\\ war\\ or\\ piracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Outsiders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ purchased\\ from\\ foreign\\ traders\\,\\ these\\ slaves\\ were\\ often\\ captives\\ taken\\ in\\ wars\\ b\\/t\\ foreign\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ other\\ ways\\ such\\ as\\ penal\\ servitude\\ or\\ adoption\\ of\\ unwanted\\ children\\,\\ but\\ these\\ were\\ of\\ little\\ consequence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Finely\\ discusses\\ the\\ perceptions\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\,\\ the\\ free\\ working\\ class\\,\\ and\\ the\\ slaves\\ themselves\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ overwhelming\\ majority\\ of\\ slaves\\ were\\ foreigners\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ Aristotle\\ tried\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ class\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ natural\\-born\\ slaves\\,\\ he\\ was\\ largely\\ unsuccessful\\ and\\ most\\ greeks\\ simply\\ saw\\ slavery\\ as\\ a\\ fact\\ of\\ life\\,\\ a\\ conventional\\ institution\\ universally\\ practiced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ many\\ things\\ came\\ under\\ debate\\ in\\ greek\\ society\\,\\ there\\ was\\ never\\ a\\ vain\\ of\\ abolitionist\\ thought\\ in\\ greek\\ literature\\ or\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ little\\ is\\ known\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ common\\ free\\ man\\ thought\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ since\\ surviving\\ accounts\\ come\\ from\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ leisure\\ class\\,\\ it\\ is\\ safe\\ to\\ assume\\ they\\ left\\ slavery\\ unquestioned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ thinking\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;class\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ of\\ them\\ identifying\\ their\\ own\\ oppression\\ with\\ that\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ also\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ being\\ upset\\ that\\ slave\\ labor\\ competition\\ forced\\ them\\ to\\ work\\ longer\\ hours\\ for\\ less\\ pay\\ or\\ anything\\ like\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ in\\ society\\ could\\ be\\ changed\\ during\\ time\\ of\\ crisis\\,\\ but\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\ remained\\ untouched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ during\\ times\\ of\\ war\\,\\ warring\\ city\\-states\\ would\\ free\\ the\\ opposing\\ side\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slaves\\,\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resources\\,\\ not\\ slavery\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometimes\\,\\ slaves\\ would\\ be\\ freed\\ and\\ conscripted\\ into\\ the\\ army\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ their\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ psychology\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ is\\ illusive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ slaves\\ would\\ defend\\ their\\ masters\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ slaves\\ escaping\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ very\\ common\\ problem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ very\\ few\\ slave\\ revolts\\,\\ aside\\ from\\ in\\ Sparta\\,\\ where\\ the\\ helots\\ were\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ conquered\\ people\\ forced\\ to\\ work\\ their\\ own\\ land\\ in\\ enslavement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ conclusion\\,\\ finley\\ claims\\ that\\ slavery\\ was\\ a\\ basic\\ institution\\ in\\ Greek\\ civilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Susan\\ Mosher\\ Stuard\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;To\\ Town\\ to\\ Serve\\:\\ Urban\\ Domestic\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Medieval\\ Ragusa\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Medieval\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 9\\:3\\ \\(1983\\)\\,\\ 155\\-71\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ attempts\\ to\\ answer\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ were\\ slaves\\ employed\\,\\ in\\ place\\ of\\ free\\ wage\\ laborers\\,\\ in\\ urban\\ environments\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ragusa\\ provides\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ in\\ which\\ slaves\\,\\ largely\\ female\\,\\ were\\ employed\\ in\\ household\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Provided\\ non\\-skilled\\ labor\\ to\\ household\\ and\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Method\\ was\\ cheap\\,\\ but\\ required\\ united\\ efforts\\ of\\ cohesive\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ slave\\ system\\ was\\ replaced\\ by\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ reliance\\ on\\ rural\\ contract\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreign\\ competition\\ for\\ trained\\,\\ domestic\\ servants\\ priced\\ rural\\ Balkan\\ slaves\\ of\\ ragusa\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cheap\\ contract\\ labor\\ filled\\ the\\ gap\\ for\\ cheap\\ unskilled\\ labor\\ and\\ resembled\\ chattel\\ slavery\\ of\\ earlier\\ centuries\\,\\ but\\ even\\ better\\ for\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Over\\ the\\ long\\ term\\,\\ a\\ cheap\\ labor\\ supply\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ cohesive\\ and\\ tranquil\\ civic\\ society\\ gave\\ Ragusa\\ a\\ real\\ power\\ and\\ edge\\ in\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Main\\ article\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ was\\ deeply\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ life\\ of\\ Ragusa\\ by\\ the\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ at\\ least\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Law\\ in\\ ragusa\\ protected\\ slave\\ owners\\ in\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ matters\\;\\ nobles\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ normal\\ folk\\ owned\\ numerous\\ slaves\\;\\ almost\\ every\\ noble\\ bride\\ took\\ a\\ slave\\ into\\ her\\ conjugal\\ household\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bosnia\\ and\\ Herzegovina\\ were\\ prime\\ hunting\\ grounds\\ for\\ the\\ slave\\ traders\\,\\ ostensibly\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ heretics\\ though\\ heretics\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ non\\-hertics\\ were\\ enslaved\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ more\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ Bosnian\\ nobility\\ was\\ simply\\ less\\ able\\ to\\ protect\\ its\\ people\\ than\\ other\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ragusan\\ slavery\\,\\ though\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Adriatic\\ trade\\,\\ was\\ unique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ragusan\\ demand\\ for\\ slavery\\ was\\ tied\\ to\\ its\\ strict\\ immigration\\ policies\\,\\ which\\ placed\\ an\\ impediment\\ on\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ free\\ wage\\ laborers\\ into\\ the\\ town\\ and\\ created\\ a\\ context\\ for\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reason\\ for\\ strict\\ control\\ of\\ population\\ size\\ was\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ supply\\ of\\ fresh\\ water\\ and\\ grain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ desire\\ to\\ expand\\ commercially\\,\\ combined\\ with\\ the\\ impracticality\\ and\\ ragusan\\ disdain\\ for\\ free\\ access\\ of\\ outsiders\\ to\\ the\\ city\\ made\\ controlled\\,\\ private\\ acquisition\\ of\\ chattel\\ slaves\\ an\\ appropriate\\,\\ effective\\ method\\ for\\ aquiring\\ unskilled\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ cohesion\\ of\\ the\\ ruling\\ class\\ and\\ the\\ centering\\ of\\ commerce\\ on\\ the\\ household\\ as\\ the\\ productive\\ unit\\ made\\ slavery\\ easily\\ controlled\\ and\\ easy\\ to\\ enforce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ only\\ 3000\\ in\\ the\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ C\\.\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ slaves\\ that\\ were\\ bought\\ and\\ sold\\ in\\ Ragusa\\,\\ numbering\\ in\\ the\\ hundreds\\ in\\ short\\ spans\\ of\\ time\\,\\ is\\ remarkable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ 154\\ slaves\\ changed\\ hands\\ in\\ 39\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Residents\\ of\\ Italian\\ towns\\ who\\ sought\\ domestic\\ slaves\\ sought\\ out\\ slaves\\ that\\ had\\ served\\ in\\ Ragusa\\,\\ who\\ were\\ extremely\\ well\\ trained\\ and\\ obedient\\,\\ driving\\ up\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ ragusan\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ different\\ names\\ for\\ and\\ types\\ of\\ slaves\\ existed\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ claimed\\ by\\ mosher\\ that\\ these\\ many\\ euphemisms\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;gentling\\&rdquo\\;\\ terms\\,\\ masking\\ the\\ harsh\\ reality\\ of\\ chattel\\ slavery\\ and\\ helping\\ create\\ a\\ reward\\ system\\ of\\ status\\ for\\ domestic\\ laborers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ragusans\\ overwhelmingly\\ preferred\\ women\\ slaves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ recorded\\ slave\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ historical\\ records\\ are\\ of\\ women\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ were\\ thought\\ more\\ docile\\ and\\ tractable\\ than\\ men\\;\\ they\\ were\\ easily\\ controlled\\ through\\ the\\ structures\\ of\\ the\\ domestic\\ household\\;\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ strong\\ women\\ from\\ mountainous\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indeed\\,\\ most\\ runaways\\ were\\ male\\ \\(though\\ this\\ is\\ mostly\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ male\\ slaves\\ were\\ given\\ jobs\\ that\\ gave\\ greater\\ opportunity\\ for\\ escape\\,\\ while\\ female\\ slaves\\ were\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ household\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;There\\ existed\\ high\\ anxiety\\ over\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ and\\ statute\\ law\\ provided\\ elaborate\\ measures\\ involving\\ the\\ whole\\ community\\ for\\ reclaiming\\ fugitive\\ slaves\\ and\\ punishing\\ any\\ whom\\ harbored\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ragusa\\ was\\ worried\\ about\\ possible\\ threat\\ posed\\ by\\ large\\ servile\\ class\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slave\\ owners\\ kept\\ as\\ few\\ male\\ slaves\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ slaves\\ were\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ congregate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Despite\\ suitability\\ of\\ slavery\\ to\\ Ragusan\\ life\\ and\\ prosperity\\,\\ ragusa\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ abandon\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ foreign\\ demand\\ for\\ Ragusan\\ slaves\\ and\\ a\\ dwindling\\ supply\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ interior\\,\\ which\\ continually\\ drove\\ up\\ the\\ prices\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ area\\,\\ fazing\\ them\\ out\\ as\\ a\\ cheap\\,\\ convenient\\ method\\ of\\ non\\-skilled\\ labor\\ locally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ slave\\ labor\\ was\\ replaced\\ with\\ contract\\ labor\\ from\\ rural\\ bosnia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ would\\ sell\\ themselves\\ into\\ servitude\\ for\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ years\\ in\\ Ragusa\\ for\\ an\\ agreed\\ upon\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ represented\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ mode\\ of\\ supply\\ for\\ labor\\ demands\\ in\\ ragusa\\,\\ but\\ aside\\ from\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ resell\\ contract\\ laborers\\ like\\ chattels\\,\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ non\\-skilled\\ labor\\ changed\\ little\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ contract\\ labor\\ was\\ cheaper\\ for\\ Ragusans\\ for\\ several\\ reasons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ substantially\\ reduced\\ the\\ drain\\ on\\ non\\-skilled\\ labor\\ from\\ overseas\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ household\\ only\\ retained\\ the\\ laborer\\ during\\ their\\ most\\ productive\\ years\\,\\ then\\ the\\ contract\\ ended\\ and\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ any\\ obligation\\ to\\ sustain\\ them\\ into\\ old\\ age\\ or\\ marry\\ them\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ prices\\ for\\ contract\\ labor\\ were\\ much\\ cheaper\\ than\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ economic\\ consequences\\ of\\ a\\ servile\\ method\\ of\\ delivering\\ non\\-skilled\\ labor\\ to\\ the\\ community\\,\\ whether\\ contract\\ or\\ chattel\\,\\ promoted\\ Ragusa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ commercial\\ growth\\ for\\ four\\ reasons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ price\\ of\\ slaves\\ was\\ cheap\\ compared\\ to\\ nobles\\&rsquo\\;\\ wealth\\ and\\ commodities\\ in\\ general\\,\\ allowing\\ for\\ capital\\ accumulation\\ impossible\\ where\\ labor\\ costed\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\when\\ prices\\ of\\ slaves\\ spiraled\\,\\ an\\ even\\ cheaper\\ labor\\ source\\ was\\ available\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ragusa\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ spend\\ a\\ lot\\ policing\\ and\\ controlling\\ a\\ free\\ wage\\-earning\\ class\\,\\ so\\ could\\ spend\\ more\\ on\\ public\\ benefits\\ and\\ allowed\\ nobles\\ to\\ monopolize\\ government\\ with\\ united\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\corrolary\\ to\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ placid\\,\\ peaceful\\ environment\\ of\\ high\\ civic\\ participation\\ in\\ Ragusa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Working\\ class\\ families\\,\\ due\\ to\\ slow\\ immigration\\ and\\ manumission\\ were\\ all\\ ex\\-dependents\\ and\\ so\\ were\\ intimately\\ attached\\ to\\ nobles\\,\\ setting\\ up\\ a\\ social\\ world\\ that\\ was\\ obedient\\ and\\ defferent\\ to\\ elite\\ of\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ less\\ class\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ D\\.\\ Phillips\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ from\\ Roman\\ Times\\ to\\ Early\\ TransAtlantic\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Minneapolis\\,\\ 1985\\)\\,\\ 43\\-65\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.c\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ a\\.d\\.\\,\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ Western\\ Europe\\ is\\ how\\ serfdom\\ supplanted\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transformation\\ was\\ not\\ total\\,\\ slaves\\ still\\ remained\\ as\\ domestics\\,\\ artisans\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ slavery\\ persisted\\ in\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ Slavery\\ to\\ Serfdom\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ evolution\\ from\\ slavery\\ to\\ serfdom\\ must\\ be\\ understood\\ in\\ the\\ larger\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ political\\,\\ social\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ changes\\ taking\\ place\\ in\\ western\\ Europe\\ following\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ Middle\\ ages\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ time\\ periods\\ connected\\ by\\ reign\\ of\\ Charlemagne\\ and\\ his\\ carolignian\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Germanic\\ successor\\ kingdoms\\ to\\ roman\\ empire\\ \\-\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ serfdom\\ gradually\\ develops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Germanic\\ migrations\\ south\\ and\\ west\\ were\\ spurned\\ by\\ several\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Newly\\ developed\\ agriculture\\ brings\\ population\\ explosion\\,\\ encouraging\\ migration\\ to\\ warmer\\ south\\ with\\ more\\ easily\\ worked\\ soil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ invading\\ huns\\ from\\ central\\ asia\\ pushed\\ Germanic\\ tribes\\ south\\ and\\ while\\ eastern\\ rome\\ could\\ push\\ them\\ back\\,\\ western\\ rome\\ could\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ internal\\ weaknesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ slavery\\ as\\ legal\\ and\\ social\\ institution\\,\\ Germanic\\ invasion\\ meant\\ little\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ slavery\\ was\\ present\\ in\\ Germanic\\ law\\ and\\ prominent\\ in\\ Roman\\ law\\,\\ with\\ few\\ exceptions\\,\\ rules\\ governing\\ slavery\\ remained\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sources\\ of\\ slaves\\ were\\ also\\ the\\ same\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\birth\\,\\ capture\\ in\\ war\\,\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ adoption\\ of\\ unwanted\\ children\\,\\ free\\ selling\\ themselves\\ into\\ slavery\\ to\\ avoid\\ starving\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\germans\\ were\\ also\\ uncomfortable\\ with\\ enslaving\\ their\\ own\\,\\ most\\ slaves\\ were\\ foriengers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\,\\ enslavement\\ as\\ punishment\\ for\\ crimes\\ was\\ widespread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\harsh\\ distinctions\\ in\\ law\\ existed\\ b\\/t\\ slave\\ and\\ free\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ penalties\\ imposed\\ for\\ criminal\\ acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\german\\ masters\\ could\\ buy\\,\\ sell\\,\\ trade\\,\\ judge\\,\\ punish\\,\\ and\\ dispose\\ of\\ their\\ \\ \\;slaves\\ with\\ little\\ limitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fugitive\\ slaves\\ were\\ very\\ common\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ innovation\\ from\\ roman\\ times\\,\\ possibly\\ due\\ to\\ small\\ armies\\ of\\ germans\\,\\ was\\ to\\ use\\ slaves\\ in\\ military\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\church\\ encourage\\ manumission\\ and\\ improved\\ conditions\\ for\\ slaves\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ advocate\\ abolition\\ and\\ held\\ its\\ own\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\manumission\\ was\\ practiced\\ but\\ could\\ be\\ revoked\\ for\\ actions\\ former\\ masters\\ deemed\\ unacceptable\\ and\\ freed\\ slaves\\ were\\ subject\\ to\\ legal\\ disabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nonfree\\ made\\ up\\ sizable\\ portion\\ of\\ population\\ and\\ slaves\\ were\\ often\\ lumped\\ together\\ with\\ roman\\ coloni\\,\\ who\\ were\\ technically\\ free\\ though\\ bound\\ to\\ their\\ plots\\ of\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\complex\\ gradation\\ existed\\ amongst\\ slaves\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\idonei\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ small\\ class\\ of\\ most\\ trusted\\ slaves\\ with\\ specialized\\ tasks\\,\\ escaped\\ most\\ onerous\\ parts\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ rest\\ were\\ agricultural\\ workers\\ and\\ domestic\\ servants\\,\\ and\\ most\\ agricultural\\ workers\\ enjoyed\\ some\\ level\\ of\\ land\\ tenure\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ later\\ serfs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\royal\\ slaves\\ had\\ the\\ highest\\ status\\ and\\ were\\ often\\ recruited\\ from\\ idonei\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\move\\ from\\ slavery\\ to\\ serfdom\\ accompanied\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ villa\\ or\\ manor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\one\\ part\\ of\\ arable\\ land\\ was\\ the\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ other\\ part\\ divided\\ amongst\\ peasants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\peasants\\ worked\\ own\\ land\\ and\\ gave\\ part\\ of\\ production\\ to\\ lord\\ as\\ payment\\ and\\ were\\ also\\ required\\ to\\ work\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ land\\ part\\-time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ a\\ marked\\ change\\ from\\ roman\\ villa\\,\\ worked\\ exclusively\\ by\\ slave\\ gang\\ labor\\ though\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ labor\\ continued\\ on\\ large\\ estates\\ into\\ middle\\ ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reasons\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ shift\\ from\\ slave\\ labor\\ to\\ dependent\\ peasants\\ on\\ manors\\/villas\\ are\\ several\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rural\\ workers\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ plots\\ of\\ land\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ supervision\\ and\\ were\\ more\\ productive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bringing\\ greater\\ returns\\ to\\ lord\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burden\\ of\\ raising\\ workers\\ to\\ productive\\ age\\ fell\\ on\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intermarriage\\ of\\ free\\ and\\ slave\\ peasants\\ brought\\ leveling\\ of\\ lower\\ classes\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ joining\\ of\\ small\\ villages\\ of\\ free\\ farmers\\ to\\ large\\ estates\\ for\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Under\\ Charlemagne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ empire\\,\\ merging\\ of\\ slave\\ and\\ free\\ dependent\\ laborer\\ class\\ continued\\ with\\ improvements\\ in\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ slaves\\,\\ including\\ the\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ marry\\ more\\ freely\\ and\\ being\\ tied\\ to\\ land\\ instead\\ of\\ particular\\ master\\,\\ making\\ them\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ akin\\ to\\ free\\ serf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fall\\ of\\ carolignian\\ empire\\ brought\\ development\\ of\\ feudal\\ system\\ with\\ many\\ small\\ kingdoms\\ because\\ lack\\ of\\ surplus\\ did\\ not\\ allow\\ for\\ large\\ army\\ to\\ control\\ large\\ regions\\ and\\ to\\ dominate\\ large\\ groups\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Free\\ peasants\\ and\\ slaves\\ basically\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ at\\ this\\ point\\,\\ with\\ slaves\\ owing\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ more\\ labor\\ to\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Improvements\\ in\\ technology\\ also\\ made\\ farmwork\\ easier\\ and\\ large\\ slave\\ gangs\\ unnecessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Domestic\\ slavery\\ and\\ slavery\\ of\\ artisans\\,\\ manufacturers\\ continued\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ few\\ urban\\ centers\\ and\\ in\\ italy\\,\\ where\\ cities\\ were\\ more\\ prominent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shielded\\ from\\ sources\\ of\\ slaves\\,\\ france\\ made\\ earliest\\ and\\ most\\ full\\ development\\ of\\ serdom\\ with\\ germany\\ and\\ Scandinavia\\ following\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ most\\ workers\\ were\\ serfs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ serfdom\\,\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ found\\ more\\ profit\\ from\\ cheaper\\ labor\\ \\(didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ to\\ feed\\,\\ clothe\\,\\ shelter\\ and\\ control\\ population\\)\\,\\ from\\ taxes\\ on\\ serfs\\,\\ and\\ from\\ monopoly\\ over\\ capital\\ for\\ productive\\ activity\\ and\\ also\\ continued\\ to\\ have\\ say\\ in\\ lives\\ of\\ serfs\\,\\ such\\ as\\ who\\ they\\ could\\ marry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Early\\ Medieval\\ Slave\\ Trade\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ a\\ weakened\\ economy\\ and\\ slavery\\ giving\\ way\\ to\\ serfdom\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ great\\ internal\\ demand\\ for\\ slaves\\ in\\ western\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ markets\\ for\\ slaves\\ flourished\\ outside\\ w\\.\\ Europe\\,\\ primarily\\ in\\ the\\ muslim\\ world\\ from\\ spain\\ to\\ the\\ middle\\ east\\ and\\ the\\ Byzantine\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ merchants\\ took\\ advantage\\ of\\ these\\ markets\\,\\ recruiting\\ slaves\\ from\\ fringes\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ rule\\,\\ which\\ was\\ often\\ resisted\\,\\ limiting\\ slavery\\ was\\ that\\ Christians\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ sold\\ to\\ non\\-christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ gold\\ drain\\ existed\\ from\\ the\\ western\\ roman\\ empire\\ to\\ the\\ east\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ Europe\\,\\ underdeveloped\\ and\\ rural\\,\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ import\\ many\\ needed\\ goods\\ from\\ east\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ commodities\\ that\\ found\\ market\\ in\\ the\\ east\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sources\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Captives\\ in\\ wars\\ and\\ kidnapped\\ slavs\\,\\ who\\ were\\ pagans\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ brought\\ over\\ several\\ routes\\ across\\ germany\\ and\\ france\\,\\ to\\ Venice\\,\\ where\\ they\\ were\\ shipped\\ to\\ meditteranean\\ world\\ or\\ from\\ british\\ isles\\ to\\ spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ often\\ castrated\\ first\\,\\ to\\ satisfy\\ demand\\ for\\ eunuchs\\ in\\ muslim\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slave\\ trade\\ curtailed\\ when\\ Slavic\\ lands\\ convert\\ to\\ Christianity\\ and\\ Spanish\\ Christians\\ retake\\ muslim\\ controlled\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\ from\\ Venice\\ continued\\,\\ despite\\ disapproval\\ of\\ church\\ and\\ slavery\\ from\\ eastern\\ Europe\\ to\\ the\\ Byzantines\\ continued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ cohesion\\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ west\\ developing\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ after\\ the\\ Vikings\\ converted\\ and\\ they\\ turned\\ back\\ the\\ Magyars\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ turn\\ on\\ the\\ offensive\\ against\\ muslim\\ invaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ improvements\\ in\\ agriculture\\ helped\\ bring\\ population\\ boom\\ and\\ material\\ prosperity\\ necessary\\ to\\ expand\\ frontiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ muslim\\ world\\ torn\\ by\\ internal\\ strife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ crusades\\ had\\ profound\\ and\\ surprising\\ effects\\ on\\ slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\:\\ Early\\ Euro\\-African\\ Trade\\ Contacts\\:\\ Gold\\,\\ Ivory\\,\\ and\\ Slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 2\\ \\-\\-\\ Part\\ 1\\:\\ Western\\ Africa\\ \\(The\\ Atlantic\\ World\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ Slavs\\ were\\ the\\ most\\ dominant\\ slave\\ group\\;\\ specifically\\,\\ wanted\\ Slavic\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Muslim\\ society\\ motivated\\ by\\ jihad\\/creating\\ ideal\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-often\\ crisis\\ between\\ ideals\\ and\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Muslim\\ jihadists\\ pulled\\ out\\ of\\ army\\ because\\ of\\ disillusionment\\;\\ slaves\\ to\\ replaced\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trans\\-Saharan\\ Trade\\.\\ C13th\\ pilgrimage\\ of\\ Mansa\\ Musa\\ of\\ Mali\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Early\\ on\\,\\ slaves\\ are\\ an\\ insignificant\\ component\\ of\\ trade\\ between\\ Europe\\ and\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Europeans\\ named\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ West\\ Africa\\ after\\ commodities\\ they\\ found\\ there\\ \\(ie\\ Ivory\\,\\ Slave\\,\\ Gold\\ Coast\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Mali\\ king\\,\\ Mansa\\,\\ controlled\\ \\½\\;\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ production\\ of\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Made\\ a\\ pilgrimage\\ to\\ Mecca\\,\\ took\\ large\\ caravan\\ of\\ people\\,\\ animals\\,\\ etc\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gave\\ out\\ so\\ much\\ gold\\ that\\ it\\ depresses\\ the\\ price\\ for\\ gold\\ for\\ a\\ decade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Caught\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ Christians\\ and\\ Muslims\\ that\\ Mali\\ is\\ rich\\;\\ impressed\\ Muslims\\ followed\\ Mansa\\ back\\ to\\ West\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-European\\ countries\\ begin\\ to\\ mint\\ currency\\ in\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Muslims\\ also\\ use\\ silver\\,\\ coming\\ mostly\\ from\\ European\\ mints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crusades\\ and\\ Crusader\\ States\\ \\-\\ Crusades\\ began\\ in\\ C11th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-During\\ Crusades\\,\\ Europeans\\ see\\ sugarcane\\ plantations\\ and\\ production\\ of\\ sugar\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Ottoman\\ Empire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Slavic\\ slaves\\;\\ Asian\\ trade\\ routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Slavic\\ area\\ of\\ Black\\ Sea\\ that\\ Europeans\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ access\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Closed\\ off\\ Asian\\ trade\\ routes\\ from\\ Western\\ Europe\\,\\ cut\\ off\\ Europeans\\ from\\ spice\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Portugal\\ wants\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ direct\\ sea\\ route\\ to\\ Asia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Atlantic\\ exchange\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ goods\\,\\ ideas\\,\\ crops\\,\\ diseases\\,\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Europeans\\ bring\\ new\\ viral\\ diseases\\ to\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-created\\ more\\ compact\\ settlements\\ for\\ protection\\ but\\ allowed\\ diseases\\ to\\ spread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advent\\ of\\ the\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ Portugal\\ interested\\ in\\ extending\\ theater\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-rumor\\ of\\ powerful\\ African\\ king\\ in\\ center\\ of\\ Africa\\ \\(not\\ real\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Portuguese\\ want\\ to\\ find\\ him\\ and\\ created\\ an\\ alliance\\,\\ encircled\\ Muslims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exploration\\ of\\ Africa\\:\\ Senegal\\/Cape\\ Verde\\ Islands\\ \\(1444\\)\\,\\ S\\.\\ Leone\\ \\(1460\\)\\,\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ \\(1471\\)\\,\\ Benin\\ \\(1475\\)\\,\\ India\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ C15th\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Portugal\\:\\ leading\\ maritime\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Portugal\\ had\\ expelled\\ Muslims\\ from\\ Portugal\\ by\\ 1262\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Iberian\\ power\\ to\\ expel\\ Muslim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Aviz\\ Dynasty\\ from\\ 1385\\,\\ Prince\\ Henry\\ the\\ Navigator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Interested\\ in\\ financing\\ overseas\\ exploration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Technological\\ developments\\ in\\ C15th\\ \\-\\ Caravel\\,\\ Compass\\,\\ Astrolabe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Caravel\\:\\ Europe\\ moving\\ from\\ canoes\\ to\\ huge\\ sails\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Refinement\\ of\\ compass\\,\\ new\\ astrolabe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ altitude\\ of\\ sun\\ and\\ other\\ celestial\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ Portuguese\\ Interest\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Direct\\ access\\ to\\ West\\ African\\ sources\\ of\\ gold\\.\\ A\\.\\ Adu\\ Boahen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-would\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ buy\\ through\\ middle\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Finding\\ a\\ direct\\ sea\\ route\\ to\\ Asia\\.\\ Trade\\ in\\ spices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Missionary\\ objective\\ \\(Crusades\\)\\:\\ Finding\\ Prester\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Prester\\:\\ powerful\\ Christian\\ king\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ did\\ not\\ find\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Colonies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Cape\\ Verde\\,\\ Sao\\ Tome\\,\\ Angola\\,\\ Mozambique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-colonies\\ not\\ explicitly\\ an\\ agenda\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ but\\ create\\ some\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gives\\ impression\\ that\\ colonies\\ were\\ important\\ from\\ the\\ outset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patterns\\ of\\ Early\\ Euro\\-African\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pre\\-existing\\ West\\ African\\ trade\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ trade\\ across\\ ecological\\ zones\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Barbary\\ Horses\\,\\ gold\\,\\ quaqua\\ cloth\\ of\\ Benin\\,\\ slaves\\ from\\ Bight\\ of\\ Biafra\\ and\\ Angola\\,\\ cowrie\\ shells\\ Maldhive\\ Islands\\ \\(Indian\\ Ocean\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\African\\ ability\\ to\\ insist\\ on\\ established\\ patterns\\ of\\ trade\\ \\-\\ John\\ Thornton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Africa\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\ Portuguese\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Portuguese\\ find\\ what\\ they\\ want\\,\\ use\\ large\\ ships\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ \\(ie\\ find\\ cloth\\/what\\ Africans\\ want\\ and\\ sell\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Thornton\\:\\ highlights\\ ability\\ of\\ Africa\\ to\\ insist\\ on\\ trade\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ wanted\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portuguese\\ claim\\ to\\ monopoly\\;\\ West\\ African\\ insistence\\ on\\ free\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Initially\\,\\ Portugal\\ tried\\ to\\ raid\\ West\\ African\\ post\\,\\ but\\ rebuffed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Portugal\\ claimed\\ monopoly\\ because\\ of\\ Pope\\&rsquo\\;s\\ edict\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ West\\ Africans\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ Pope\\,\\ insisted\\ on\\ free\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C17th\\ transition\\ in\\ trading\\ patterns\\.\\ Ray\\ Kea\\ on\\ consumer\\ tastes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-West\\ Africa\\ starts\\ buying\\ Portuguese\\/European\\ commodities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Ray\\ Kea\\:\\ 150\\ European\\ commodities\\ in\\ demand\\ at\\ post\\ including\\ 40\\ types\\ of\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thornton\\ on\\ African\\ manufacturing\\ before\\ 1700\\:\\ non\\-essential\\ imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-not\\ necessity\\ items\\,\\ but\\ consumer\\ items\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-European\\ items\\ that\\ had\\ diversified\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\West\\ African\\ Exports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gold\\,\\ Ivory\\,\\ Gum\\,\\ Hides\\ and\\ Skins\\,\\ Wax\\,\\ Spices\\.\\ Naming\\ of\\ the\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-by\\ 1700\\,\\ almost\\ 215\\ lbs\\ of\\ gold\\ exported\\ from\\ West\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ West\\ Africa\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ forts\\,\\ castles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ built\\ to\\ store\\ gold\\ by\\ Portuguese\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ built\\ to\\ house\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Mali\\ extended\\ trade\\ routes\\ in\\ the\\ forest\\;\\ Mansa\\ controlled\\ gold\\,\\ made\\ him\\ rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portuguese\\;\\ Dutch\\ West\\ Indian\\ Company\\;\\ Company\\ of\\ Royal\\ Adventurers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Akan\\ of\\ Ghana\\,\\ Gold\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Outside\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Akan\\:\\ slaves\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elmina\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ mine\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ Wangara\\,\\ Malinke\\,\\ Mande\\,\\ dyula\\ \\(traders\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bambuk\\ \\(Upper\\ Niger\\ River\\)\\,\\ Bure\\ \\(Senegal\\ River\\ Valley\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Gold\\ from\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Akan\\ demand\\ for\\ Foreigners\\;\\ Ivor\\ Wilks\\,\\ A\\.\\ Norman\\ Klein\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Wilks\\:\\ Akan\\ witnessing\\ commercial\\ and\\ urban\\ prosperity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Akan\\ pushes\\ north\\ in\\ forest\\ to\\ carve\\ new\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Klein\\:\\ lose\\ people\\ because\\ of\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-exploited\\ fertility\\ of\\ foreign\\ women\\ to\\ maintain\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-diseases\\ spread\\,\\ even\\ today\\ Akan\\ has\\ some\\ of\\ highest\\ deaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Before\\ 1650\\,\\ slave\\ trade\\ not\\ dominant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-African\\ community\\ self\\-sufficient\\ in\\ material\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-African\\ tastes\\ defined\\ before\\ Portuguese\\ arrive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Portuguese\\ advantage\\ only\\ in\\ economies\\ of\\ scale\\ as\\ middlemen\\,\\ change\\ from\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 6\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 4\\ \\-\\-\\ Part\\ 2\\:\\ East\\ African\\ Coast\\ \\(The\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ World\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\ The\\ World\\ of\\ the\\ Swahili\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\West\\ Africa\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ absence\\ of\\ maritime\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-rocky\\ coastline\\,\\ heavy\\ surf\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-did\\ not\\ encourage\\ people\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ ocean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Atlantic\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ barrier\\ than\\ an\\ avenue\\ or\\ highway\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Atlantic\\ sea\\ was\\ uncharted\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Indian\\ Ocean\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ charted\\ sea\\:\\ Romans\\,\\ Persians\\,\\ Chinese\\,\\ Indians\\,\\ Arabs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ contrast\\,\\ Indian\\ ocean\\ well\\-navigated\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-had\\ charts\\,\\ maps\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Periplus\\ of\\ the\\ Erythraen\\ Sea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-text\\ in\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ AD\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ roman\\ imperial\\ officer\\ sailed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wrote\\ on\\ what\\ he\\ saw\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Decline\\ of\\ Rome\\;\\ shift\\ to\\ overland\\ routes\\ to\\ Asia\\.\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-lose\\ site\\ of\\ East\\ Africa\\ until\\ rise\\ of\\ Islam\\ and\\ emergence\\ of\\ trade\\ within\\ framework\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ AD\\,\\ start\\ getting\\ more\\ data\\ on\\ African\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\East\\ Africans\\ and\\ maritime\\ commerce\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ East\\ Africans\\ in\\ Malacca\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-East\\ Af\\:\\ seafaring\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-used\\ Dhow\\ \\(sailing\\ boat\\)\\;\\ sailed\\ in\\ Indian\\ ocean\\ using\\ monsoon\\ winds\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Rise\\ of\\ Swahili\\ language\\ and\\ civilization\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1000\\-1500\\:\\ Somali\\ coast\\ \\(Mogadishu\\)\\ to\\ Mozambique\\ \\(Sofala\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mombasa\\,\\ Malindi\\,\\ Kilwa\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Dhow\\,\\ Monsoon\\ Winds\\:\\ NE\\ from\\ Nov\\-Mar\\;\\ SW\\ from\\ April\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-come\\ from\\ India\\ to\\ East\\ Af\\ from\\ Nov\\-Mar\\;\\ April\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sail\\ from\\ East\\ Af\\ to\\ middle\\ east\\ and\\ Asia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-have\\ to\\ be\\ smart\\,\\ travel\\ in\\ these\\ months\\ or\\ get\\ stuck\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Sofala\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ place\\ on\\ map\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ outlet\\ for\\ gold\\,\\ take\\ it\\ to\\ Kilwa\\,\\ important\\ last\\ stop\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-can\\ only\\ go\\ Kilwa\\ \\(no\\ further\\ South\\)\\ or\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ back\\ in\\ one\\ sailing\\ season\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-important\\ on\\ trade\\ route\\ because\\ last\\ stopping\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Ivory\\ and\\ Gold\\:\\ East\\ African\\ interior\\ and\\ the\\ Zimbabwean\\ Plateau\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-2\\ most\\ important\\ exports\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-interaction\\ between\\ Africans\\,\\ Persians\\,\\ and\\ Asians\\ would\\ create\\ a\\ distinctive\\ civilization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Swahili\\ civilization\\;\\ Oceanic\\ influence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ words\\ from\\ all\\ the\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-create\\ string\\ of\\ important\\ towns\\ along\\ the\\ coast\\:\\ Mombasa\\,\\ Malindi\\,\\ Kilwa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Advent\\ of\\ the\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\C15th\\ century\\ Mombasa\\ the\\ leading\\ Swahili\\ town\\;\\ Malindi\\ the\\ chief\\ rival\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-2\\ key\\ towns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\1480s\\-90s\\:\\ Bartolomeu\\ Dias\\ and\\ Pero\\ de\\ Covilha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Bartolomeu\\:\\ by\\ sea\\,\\ looking\\ for\\ route\\ to\\ Asia\\,\\ spices\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Covilha\\:\\ by\\ land\\;\\ supposed\\ to\\ find\\ Christian\\ kingdom\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-found\\ disappointment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Bartolomeu\\:\\ crew\\ mutinied\\,\\ went\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Vasco\\ da\\ Gama\\ in\\ East\\ Africa\\ in\\ 1498\\.\\ Ahmad\\-ibn\\-Madjid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-East\\ Africans\\ said\\ most\\ famous\\ pilot\\ \\=\\ Ahmad\\;\\ Vasco\\ asks\\ him\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ to\\ Asia\\,\\ that\\ is\\ how\\ he\\ got\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-struck\\ by\\ beautiful\\ Swahili\\ towns\\ along\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\East\\ African\\ trade\\ compared\\ with\\ West\\ African\\ trade\\:\\ water\\-borne\\;\\ accessibility\\ of\\ trade\\ goods\\ in\\ the\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ basin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gold\\,\\ ivory\\,\\ spices\\,\\ jewels\\,\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Portuguese\\ conquests\\.\\ Albequerque\\ from\\ 1505\\.\\ Took\\ Sofala\\ and\\ Kilwa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-take\\ important\\ ports\\ in\\ Indian\\ ocean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-trying\\ to\\ control\\ gold\\ with\\ these\\ two\\ ports\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Creating\\ trading\\ stations\\ at\\ Macau\\,\\ Goa\\,\\ the\\ Philippines\\,\\ Mombasa\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-trying\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ spice\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-took\\ Mombasa\\ to\\ keep\\ Muslims\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Trading\\ Post\\ Empire\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ established\\ by\\ 1520\\:\\ naval\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Portuguese\\ trying\\ to\\ create\\ this\\ in\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-wanted\\ key\\ ports\\ that\\ could\\ help\\ them\\ control\\ trade\\;\\ impose\\ taxes\\ on\\ trade\\ from\\ these\\ key\\ ports\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-wanted\\ trade\\ monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-ie\\ all\\ Swahili\\ traders\\ should\\ be\\ tribute\\ to\\ us\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-wanted\\ to\\ decide\\ what\\ could\\ be\\ traded\\,\\ restricted\\ some\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decline\\ in\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Portuguese\\ attempt\\ to\\ establish\\ trade\\ monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Portuguese\\ products\\ not\\ in\\ demand\\ in\\ East\\ Africa\\.\\ Unfavorable\\ B\\.O\\.T\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-want\\ Indian\\ textiles\\,\\ not\\ Portuguese\\;\\ want\\ beads\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Resistance\\ to\\ Port\\ presence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ south\\ corner\\ of\\ Arabia\\:\\ the\\ Omani\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Oman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ at\\ entrance\\ of\\ Persian\\ Gulf\\,\\ where\\ spices\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Oman\\ able\\ to\\ resist\\ Portuguese\\ attempts\\ to\\ establish\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Oman\\ leads\\ resistance\\ on\\ East\\ Africans\\ coast\\ against\\ Port\\;\\ kick\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ East\\ Africa\\ except\\ Mozambique\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\South\\ corner\\ of\\ Arabia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Omani\\ \\(entrance\\ to\\ Persian\\ Gulf\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Extension\\ of\\ the\\ arena\\ of\\ Crusades\\ to\\ the\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ in\\ the\\ C16th\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-several\\ bloody\\ conflicts\\ between\\ Portuguese\\ and\\ Muslims\\ spearheaded\\ by\\ Ottoman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ 1541\\-3\\,\\ Ethiopia\\ almost\\ overrun\\ by\\ Muslims\\,\\ had\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ gratitude\\,\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ establish\\ Jesuit\\ mission\\,\\ but\\ expelled\\ in\\ 1633\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-instill\\ Ethiopian\\ dislike\\ for\\ Roman\\ Catholics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\By\\ mid\\-C16th\\,\\ Trading\\ Post\\ Empire\\ begins\\ to\\ collapse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-no\\ investment\\,\\ just\\ naval\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Trade\\ not\\ through\\ investment\\ but\\ extraction\\ based\\ on\\ naval\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Bloody\\ conflicts\\ with\\ Muslims\\ from\\ the\\ C16th\\ from\\ Ethiopia\\ to\\ Goa\\.\\ Ottoman\\ Empire\\ defender\\ of\\ the\\ Muslim\\ faith\\.\\ Portugal\\ and\\ Ethiopia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\East\\ Africa\\ in\\ the\\ World\\ Economy\\:\\ the\\ View\\ from\\ Mutapa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\East\\ Africa\\ and\\ India\\ \\(Gujarat\\)\\ in\\ late\\ medieval\\/early\\ modern\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-East\\ Africa\\ exporting\\ ivory\\ and\\ gold\\ to\\ middle\\ east\\ and\\ india\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-where\\ gold\\ produced\\ on\\ zimbabwe\\ plateau\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-wash\\/hunt\\ for\\ gold\\,\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ buy\\ textiles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ India\\,\\ ivory\\ used\\ for\\ bangles\\ and\\ other\\ jewelry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-when\\ woman\\ lost\\ husband\\,\\ break\\ all\\ jewelry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ elastic\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-currency\\ using\\ of\\ gold\\,\\ gold\\ for\\ jewelry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-people\\ did\\ not\\ value\\ either\\ too\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Mutapa\\ State\\ \\(Shona\\ people\\)\\;\\ Mutapa\\ economy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ farming\\,\\ cattle\\,\\ cold\\,\\ cloth\\,\\ beads\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-did\\ not\\ value\\ in\\ gold\\.\\ Did\\ not\\ have\\ exchange\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-valued\\ land\\ and\\ cattled\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-very\\ few\\ people\\ hunted\\ for\\ elephants\\ just\\ to\\ export\\ ivory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-hunted\\ them\\ for\\ meat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-tusk\\ by\\-product\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-originally\\ used\\ tusks\\ for\\ fences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ killed\\ Swahili\\ merchants\\ who\\ knew\\ its\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-challenge\\:\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ them\\ to\\ hunt\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Ivory\\ and\\ gold\\ in\\ Mutapa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Dilemma\\ of\\ Muslim\\ merchants\\,\\ and\\ later\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\English\\ and\\ Dutch\\ enter\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ trade\\ in\\ C17th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-things\\ go\\ down\\ for\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Overthrow\\ of\\ Portuguese\\ hegemony\\ from\\ 1728\\-9\\;\\ Seyyid\\ Said\\ and\\ Zanzibar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-2\\ things\\ becoming\\ important\\ from\\ trade\\:\\ slaves\\ \\(peak\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\)\\ and\\ clothes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ brought\\ so\\ much\\ wealth\\ that\\ East\\ African\\ under\\ hegemony\\ of\\ Omani\\ Arabs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Said\\:\\ king\\ of\\ Oman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ relocates\\ capital\\ to\\ East\\ African\\ coast\\ to\\ monitor\\ and\\ benefit\\ from\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Port\\ expelled\\ from\\ Persia\\,\\ then\\ Oman\\ and\\ finally\\ East\\ Africa\\ with\\ Omani\\ aid\\ in\\ 1728\\-9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-trading\\ post\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ halt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Use\\ value\\ vs\\ exchange\\ value\\:\\ interface\\ of\\ different\\ economic\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-pail\\ in\\ value\\ compared\\ to\\ things\\ that\\ went\\ from\\ West\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-look\\ at\\ ivory\\,\\ gold\\,\\ beads\\,\\ textiles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ exchanging\\ has\\ so\\ much\\ value\\ compared\\ to\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ getting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-different\\ economic\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-people\\ in\\ Mutapa\\ have\\ econ\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ use\\ value\\,\\ not\\ exchange\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-when\\ different\\ systems\\ interface\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ great\\ opportunities\\:\\ portuguese\\ get\\ ivory\\ and\\ gold\\,\\ problem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ valued\\ by\\ producers\\ of\\ these\\ items\\;\\ can\\ make\\ enormous\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-cloth\\ and\\ beads\\ value\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ far\\ outweighs\\ value\\ at\\ point\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-buy\\ cloth\\ in\\ Gujarat\\ for\\ 100\\,\\ sell\\ on\\ coast\\ for\\ 200\\,\\ by\\ end\\ Mutapa\\ \\=\\ 780\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-beads\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 100\\,\\ Malini\\ \\(coast\\ of\\ Kenya\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 200\\,\\ Sufula\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1300\\ and\\ 2600\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Muslim\\,\\ Swa\\,\\ Port\\ merchants\\ make\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ products\\;\\ because\\ ivory\\ and\\ gold\\ not\\ valued\\ by\\ Africans\\,\\ leaves\\ producers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-eventually\\,\\ Af\\ drawn\\ in\\ Euro\\ consumption\\ patterns\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ changes\\ demand\\ patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-as\\ scared\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ insecurity\\,\\ affects\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-1830s\\ onwards\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ transformation\\ in\\ consumption\\ and\\ production\\ patterns\\;\\ in\\ some\\ places\\,\\ self\\-sufficiency\\ lost\\,\\ European\\ metals\\ push\\ out\\ traditional\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Large\\ profits\\ for\\ intermediaries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Relative\\ autonomy\\ for\\ African\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Richard\\ Bean\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;A\\ Note\\ on\\ the\\ Relative\\ Importance\\ of\\ Slaves\\ and\\ Gold\\ in\\ West\\ African\\ Exports\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ African\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 15\\:3\\ \\(1974\\)\\,\\ 351\\-56\\.\\ \\-\\-\\ CHENG\\ HO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Thornton\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Africa\\ and\\ Africans\\ in\\ the\\ Making\\ of\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\,\\ 1992\\)\\,\\ 43\\-71\\.\\ \\-\\-\\ CHENG\\ HO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ N\\.\\ Pearson\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Port\\ Cities\\ and\\ Intruders\\:\\ The\\ Swahili\\ Coast\\,\\ India\\,\\ and\\ Portugal\\ in\\ the\\ Early\\ Modern\\ Era\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Baltimore\\,\\ 1998\\)\\,\\ 101\\-28\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ message\\ of\\ article\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Export\\ of\\ ivory\\ and\\ gold\\ from\\ E\\.\\ Africa\\ was\\ controlled\\ by\\ Africans\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ foreign\\ buyers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ East\\ Africa\\ trade\\ was\\ with\\ western\\ India\\.\\ \\ \\;India\\ was\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ great\\ producer\\ of\\ cotton\\ cloths\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\East\\ Africa\\:\\ had\\ a\\ large\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\&rdquo\\;\\ called\\ Mutapa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gold\\ was\\ mined\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;well\\ over\\ 1\\ ton\\ was\\ exported\\ each\\ year\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ economy\\ of\\ Mutapa\\ was\\ self\\-sufficient\\,\\ based\\ on\\ cattle\\ and\\ agriculture\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ gold\\ had\\ no\\ intrinsic\\ value\\,\\ for\\ this\\ area\\ had\\ no\\ coined\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gold\\ was\\ exchanged\\ for\\ cloth\\ and\\ beads\\ from\\ India\\.\\ \\ \\;Cloth\\ was\\ necessary\\ because\\ it\\ became\\ cold\\ in\\ the\\ plateau\\ and\\ the\\ local\\ cloth\\ was\\ scarce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ivory\\ was\\ highly\\ prized\\ in\\ India\\ \\(used\\ for\\ ornamentation\\ and\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bangles\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Ivory\\ was\\ not\\ highly\\ prized\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ was\\ exchanged\\ for\\ cloth\\ and\\ beads\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ major\\ ports\\ on\\ the\\ E\\.\\ African\\ coast\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sofala\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ great\\ exit\\ for\\ gold\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ too\\ far\\ south\\ for\\ ships\\ from\\ India\\ and\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ direct\\ passage\\ on\\ one\\ monsoon\\ \\(couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ catch\\ the\\ wind\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kilwa\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Another\\ great\\ center\\ for\\ trading\\ was\\ further\\ up\\ north\\,\\ therefore\\ more\\ accessible\\ to\\ India\\/Middle\\ East\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modes\\ of\\ production\\ in\\ Africa\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;in\\ Africa\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ superimposed\\ bureaucracy\\ which\\ interferes\\ only\\ indirectly\\ with\\ the\\ community\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essentially\\,\\ African\\ despots\\ did\\ not\\ exploit\\ their\\ own\\ people\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ their\\ neighbors\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ long\\-distance\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ the\\ surplus\\ came\\ from\\ trade\\ and\\ some\\ from\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-In\\ this\\ market\\ between\\ E\\.\\ Africa\\ and\\ India\\/Middle\\ East\\/Europeans\\,\\ the\\ advantage\\ lay\\ with\\ Africa\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ of\\ the\\ products\\ the\\ Africans\\ received\\ were\\ discretionary\\ \\(except\\ for\\ cloth\\)\\,\\ thus\\ their\\ urgency\\ to\\ obtain\\ gold\\ or\\ ivory\\ was\\ small\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ luxury\\ items\\ obtained\\ by\\ Africans\\ \\(beads\\,\\ cloth\\)\\ helped\\ them\\ to\\ distinguish\\ themselves\\ from\\ the\\ masses\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ a\\ greater\\ separation\\ of\\ class\\ occurred\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ trade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Foreigners\\ could\\ not\\ obtain\\ raw\\ materials\\ themselves\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ the\\ location\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ immune\\ to\\ infectious\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\ of\\ reading\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;This\\ reading\\ demonstrates\\ an\\ unconventional\\ view\\ of\\ trade\\ where\\ the\\ producers\\ control\\ the\\ market\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ merchants\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sale\\ of\\ ivory\\ and\\ gold\\ were\\ important\\ for\\ the\\ Africans\\ to\\ obtain\\ luxury\\ items\\ like\\ beads\\ and\\ cloth\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\:\\ Slave\\ Systems\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 7\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 9\\ \\-\\-\\ Part\\ 1\\:\\ The\\ Lineage\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Did\\ slavery\\ exist\\ in\\ Africa\\ before\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ arrival\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relationships\\ between\\ export\\ slave\\ trade\\ and\\ African\\ slavery\\ \\-\\ Before\\ the\\ portuguese\\ arrival\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ dependent\\ people\\ who\\ could\\ have\\ formed\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ Atlantic\\ slavery\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\a\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rodney\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;believes\\ slavery\\ began\\ with\\ Atlantic\\ trade\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Political\\ clients\\&rdquo\\;\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ households\\ of\\ chiefs\\ and\\ kings\\ but\\ no\\ large\\ scale\\ presence\\ of\\ servant\\ or\\ agricultural\\ slaves\\.\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ servile\\ group\\ distinct\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ available\\ for\\ sale\\ to\\ the\\ Portuguese\\.\\ Draughts\\ and\\ famines\\ were\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ dependent\\ groups\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ Fage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1969\\)\\ thought\\ Rodney\\ was\\ wrong\\,\\ and\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ in\\ west\\ Africa\\ slavery\\ and\\ slave\\ trade\\ were\\ important\\ processes\\ in\\ political\\ and\\ economical\\ terms\\ before\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ the\\ portuguese\\.\\ Fage\\ thought\\ slavery\\ and\\ slave\\ trade\\ were\\ integral\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economical\\ development\\ of\\ states\\ in\\ west\\ Africa\\,\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ closely\\ linked\\ to\\ production\\.\\ In\\ west\\ Africa\\ land\\ was\\ abandoned\\,\\ and\\ labor\\ was\\ scarce\\.\\ It\\ was\\ access\\ to\\ labor\\ that\\ enabled\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ small\\ entrepreneurs\\ under\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ to\\ be\\ productive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emmanuel\\ Terray\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1974\\)\\ also\\ argues\\ for\\ a\\ pre\\-existence\\ of\\ slavery\\ to\\ Portuguese\\ arrival\\.\\ He\\ believed\\ kings\\ and\\ chiefs\\ in\\ west\\ Africa\\ were\\ reluctant\\ to\\ tax\\ their\\ citizens\\ and\\ subjects\\ since\\ they\\ also\\ worked\\ as\\ soldiers\\ in\\ their\\ armies\\ \\(they\\ had\\ no\\ formal\\ army\\)\\.\\ Ruling\\ classes\\ often\\ turned\\ to\\ slave\\ labor\\ for\\ gold\\ mines\\,\\ salt\\ mines\\,\\ etc\\,\\ from\\ which\\ they\\ acquired\\ the\\ goods\\ for\\ long\\ distance\\ slave\\ trading\\.\\ The\\ slaves\\ they\\ used\\ at\\ first\\ came\\ from\\ wars\\ and\\ raids\\.\\ Terray\\ argues\\ that\\ by\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ a\\ slave\\ system\\ of\\ production\\ had\\ already\\ come\\ to\\ existence\\ in\\ the\\ interior\\ of\\ west\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ the\\ slave\\ system\\ was\\ present\\ on\\ the\\ coasts\\ of\\ Senegal\\,\\ Gambia\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ all\\ agree\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ slavery\\ would\\ expand\\ once\\ Atlantic\\ slavery\\ came\\ into\\ play\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ Meillassoux\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;argues\\ that\\ for\\ slavery\\ to\\ exist\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ 2\\ conditions\\ present\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Presence\\ of\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Presence\\ of\\ foreign\\ traders\\,\\ who\\ facilitate\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ slaves\\ from\\ their\\ homes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ thus\\ emerges\\ in\\ a\\ context\\ of\\ intercultural\\ contact\\,\\ trade\\ and\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;re\\ 4\\ categories\\ of\\ slavery\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kinship\\ \\(slavery\\ based\\ on\\ lineage\\)\\.\\ In\\ kinship\\ slave\\ society\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ kin\\ group\\ that\\ assimilates\\,\\ and\\ kinship\\ is\\ set\\ as\\ a\\ reason\\ for\\ slavery\\.\\ The\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ is\\ in\\ its\\ social\\ value\\,\\ and\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ material\\ differentiation\\ with\\ the\\ master\\ is\\ very\\ small\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\,\\ slaves\\ that\\ are\\ appended\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ belong\\ to\\ it\\.\\ States\\ often\\ find\\ kinship\\ groups\\ problematic\\,\\ since\\ they\\ impose\\ obligations\\ on\\ the\\ states\\.\\ In\\ many\\ centralized\\ states\\,\\ having\\ slaves\\ provides\\ the\\ elites\\ with\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ circumvent\\ the\\ demands\\ of\\ the\\ states\\ and\\ centralize\\ the\\ power\\ on\\ themselves\\.\\ States\\ provide\\ an\\ avenue\\ for\\ the\\ centralization\\ of\\ political\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ few\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islam\\ \\(Muslims\\ who\\ own\\ slaves\\)\\.\\ Muslims\\ allow\\ slaves\\ to\\ marry\\ and\\ have\\ families\\,\\ work\\ and\\ acquire\\ capital\\ for\\ themselves\\ and\\ once\\ they\\ have\\ become\\ Muslims\\ they\\ can\\ buy\\ their\\ freedom\\ with\\ the\\ permission\\ of\\ their\\ master\\.\\ Manumission\\ \\(to\\ free\\ the\\ slaves\\)\\ is\\ encouraged\\ and\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ pious\\ act\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plantation\\ \\(producing\\ for\\ the\\ \\ \\;market\\)\\.\\ Using\\ land\\ and\\ labor\\ in\\ rational\\ ways\\,\\ to\\ make\\ money\\ for\\ the\\ market\\.\\ Masters\\ often\\ deny\\ slaves\\ social\\ lives\\,\\ to\\ prevent\\ them\\ from\\ mutinying\\&hellip\\;\\ they\\ prefer\\ to\\ feed\\ and\\ own\\ slaves\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ them\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ lands\\ or\\ families\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;they\\ want\\ to\\ deny\\ slaves\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ family\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ kinship\\,\\ the\\ slave\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;outsider\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kinship\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ on\\ which\\ a\\ society\\ reproduces\\ itself\\ socially\\.\\ It\\ comprises\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ blood\\ relations\\ and\\ also\\ includes\\ relationships\\ that\\ have\\ come\\ through\\ marriage\\ and\\ adoption\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Descent\\ \\(blood\\ relation\\)\\ can\\ be\\ Patrilineal\\ \\(inherits\\ traditional\\ office\\,\\ wealth\\ and\\ inheritance\\)\\,\\ Matrilineal\\ and\\ Bilineal\\ \\(combining\\ aspects\\ of\\ both\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ slaves\\ held\\ in\\ africa\\ were\\ females\\,\\ because\\ they\\ could\\ reproduce\\,\\ have\\ children\\ and\\ were\\ furthermore\\ easier\\ to\\ assimilate\\ into\\ society\\.\\ Women\\ were\\ valued\\ more\\ as\\ weapons\\ related\\ to\\ production\\.\\ All\\ domestic\\ weapons\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ women\\.\\ Males\\ acquired\\ female\\ slaves\\ interested\\ in\\ reproduction\\,\\ and\\ females\\ also\\ acquired\\ females\\ slaves\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ use\\ inside\\ the\\ household\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kinship\\ is\\ an\\ ideology\\,\\ defining\\ who\\ are\\ insiders\\ and\\ who\\ are\\ outsiders\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miers\\ and\\ Kopytoff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ important\\ collection\\ of\\ essays\\ on\\ slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ They\\ worked\\ on\\ kinship\\ societies\\,\\ and\\ found\\ no\\ agricultural\\ and\\ saleable\\ slaves\\.\\ They\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ a\\ slave\\ structure\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ society\\,\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ constituted\\ as\\ a\\ distinct\\ social\\ class\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ found\\ a\\ structure\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;rights\\-in\\-persons\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ie\\ when\\ a\\ man\\ marries\\ a\\ woman\\ he\\ also\\ acquires\\ her\\ possessions\\,\\ her\\ fertility\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ They\\ concluded\\ that\\ unlike\\ the\\ western\\ type\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ African\\ slavery\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ less\\ an\\ institution\\ of\\ exploitation\\ and\\ oppression\\ and\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ institution\\ of\\ marginality\\ that\\ defined\\ outsiders\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ west\\ Africa\\,\\ everyone\\ seemed\\ to\\ belong\\ either\\ IN\\ a\\ kingroup\\ or\\ TO\\ a\\ kingroup\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ were\\ actually\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;wealth\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ a\\ kingroup\\.\\ Corporate\\ rights\\ always\\ overshadowed\\ individual\\ ones\\.\\ Slaves\\ belonged\\ TO\\ a\\ kingroup\\,\\ constituting\\ wealth\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ belonging\\ as\\ insiders\\.\\ Over\\ generations\\ it\\ looked\\ like\\ slaves\\ or\\ the\\ descendents\\ of\\ slaves\\ gained\\ some\\ assimilation\\ within\\ the\\ society\\ \\(slave\\-to\\-kinship\\ continuum\\ and\\ generational\\ mobility\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Melliassoux\\ argues\\ against\\ Meier\\ and\\ Kopytoff\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ kinship\\ and\\ slavery\\ are\\ antithetical\\ concepts\\.\\ He\\ denies\\ the\\ slave\\-to\\-kin\\ continuum\\,\\ since\\ according\\ to\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\ is\\ totally\\ opposite\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ kinman\\.\\ He\\ enforces\\ the\\ instrumentality\\ of\\ force\\ in\\ slavery\\,\\ stating\\ that\\ the\\ slave\\ still\\ remains\\ a\\ commodity\\ and\\ is\\ still\\ an\\ outsider\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Igboland\\ and\\ the\\ Niger\\ Delta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benin\\ is\\ stated\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ abolitionist\\ state\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ The\\ Niger\\ delta\\ is\\ rather\\ unfertile\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ soil\\,\\ so\\ that\\ when\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ arrive\\ the\\ area\\ is\\ rather\\ unoccupied\\.\\ After\\ they\\ arrive\\ groups\\ from\\ the\\ interior\\ start\\ moving\\ to\\ the\\ coast\\ looking\\ for\\ ports\\ through\\ which\\ they\\ can\\ trade\\ with\\ the\\ Portuguese\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sources\\ of\\ slaves\\ were\\ often\\ through\\ abduction\\ and\\ kidnap\\.\\ Slaves\\ were\\ kidnapped\\ while\\ they\\ were\\ children\\.\\ These\\ slaves\\ often\\ changed\\ masters\\ many\\ times\\ during\\ their\\ lives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ city\\ states\\ had\\ emerged\\ along\\ the\\ coast\\ and\\ specialized\\ in\\ trade\\.\\ They\\ created\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;house\\ system\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ was\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ corporation\\ that\\ brought\\ together\\ people\\ from\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ origins\\.\\ The\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ was\\ to\\ trade\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;anyone\\ \\(even\\ a\\ slave\\)\\ could\\ rise\\ and\\ become\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ house\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ profit\\ and\\ survive\\ from\\ pillage\\.\\ These\\ city\\ states\\ were\\ also\\ independent\\ and\\ autonomous\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;some\\ became\\ monarchies\\ and\\ some\\ republics\\ \\(like\\ Old\\ Calabar\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Niger\\ Delta\\ had\\ become\\ the\\ west\\ African\\ slave\\ mart\\ for\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 8\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 11\\ \\-\\-\\ Part\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ State\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Trans\\-Saharan\\ Trade\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ play\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ consolidation\\ of\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Via\\ Atlantic\\ trade\\,\\ we\\ get\\ horses\\,\\ which\\ become\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guns\\ also\\ come\\ via\\ Atlantic\\;\\ transform\\ warfare\\;\\ determines\\ military\\ power\\ post\\-1650\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warriors\\ vs\\.\\ Merchants\\ Use\\ of\\ Slavery\\ \\(Meillassoux\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Merchants\\ become\\ slave\\ owners\\ since\\ Warriors\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ use\\ for\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warriors\\ typically\\ used\\ slaves\\ simply\\ as\\ currency\\ for\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muslim\\ merchants\\ are\\ first\\ to\\ use\\ slaves\\ to\\ produce\\ commodity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ and\\ Political\\ Centralization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Circumventing\\ kinship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kinship\\ is\\ asset\\ and\\ constraint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kinship\\ constrain\\ the\\ centralization\\ of\\ political\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ circumvents\\ kinship\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ centralize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\State\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Historical\\ Context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\State\\ Formation\\ and\\ the\\ Trans\\-Saharan\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cavalry\\ states\\ of\\ Ghana\\,\\ Mali\\,\\ and\\ Songhai\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ on\\ horses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ professed\\ some\\ degree\\ of\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meillassoux\\ on\\ Slave\\ trade\\ by\\ nominally\\ Muslim\\ state\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Arabic\\ sources\\ from\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meillassoux\\ argues\\ that\\ Jihads\\ waged\\ were\\ slavery\\-motivated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tarikh\\ al\\-Fattash\\;\\ Tarikh\\ as\\-Sudan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(authored\\ in\\ Timbuktu\\ in\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ written\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\;\\ from\\ these\\ books\\,\\ we\\ get\\ sense\\ that\\ use\\ of\\ slaves\\ was\\ more\\ a\\ feature\\ of\\ royal\\ courts\\ in\\ Songhai\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kinds\\ of\\ Songhai\\ appointed\\ slaves\\ as\\ ministers\\ to\\ keep\\ loyalty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ one\\ King\\ of\\ Songhai\\ whose\\ mother\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ slave\\ woman\\ during\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ The\\ Akan\\ and\\ Slavery\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1500\\-1700\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1500\\-1700\\:\\ Political\\ Transformation\\ in\\ Gold\\ Coast\\:\\ age\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Abirempom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extension\\ of\\ trans\\-Saharan\\ trade\\ routes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Akan\\ gold\\;\\ Atlantic\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Akan\\ is\\ forested\\ and\\ surrounding\\ rivers\\ contain\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Desire\\ to\\ hold\\ this\\ region\\ triggers\\ fighting\\ among\\ city\\-states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ gold\\ mining\\ done\\ by\\ slaves\\ as\\ local\\,\\ freemen\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ in\\ mines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Food\\ production\\ done\\ by\\ slaves\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Class\\ formation\\ occurs\\ and\\ appropriation\\ of\\ land\\ \\(rent\\ in\\ gold\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ agricultural\\ slavery\\ leads\\ to\\ proliferation\\ of\\ city\\-states\\ in\\ Akan\\;\\ not\\ centralized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monetization\\ of\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ economy\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ gold\\ as\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Banditry\\ as\\ the\\ route\\ to\\ Abirempon\\ status\\;\\ poor\\ could\\ resort\\ to\\ banditry\\ and\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;big\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ formation\\ and\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ city\\-states\\:\\ Denkyira\\,\\ Akwamu\\,\\ Asante\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Banditry\\ ceases\\ with\\ formation\\ of\\ these\\ city\\-states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Transformation\\ of\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Asante\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Early\\ Akan\\ demand\\ for\\ outsiders\\ \\-\\ Matriliny\\ as\\ an\\ assimilative\\ mechanism\\ of\\ outsiders\\:\\ alliance\\ and\\ not\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Obi\\ nkyere\\ obi\\ ase\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ 77\\ laws\\ of\\ Okomfo\\ Anokye\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ one\\ should\\ tell\\ someone\\ of\\ their\\ un\\-free\\ origins\\;\\ valued\\ alliance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ redefinition\\ of\\ Matrilineage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Becomes\\ closed\\;\\ no\\ more\\ outsiders\\ inducted\\ into\\ lineage\\;\\ matrilineages\\ decline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ expansion\\ and\\ state\\ bureaucracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tribute\\,\\ trade\\,\\ slaves\\ increased\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kumasi\\ \\(capital\\)\\ \\(capital\\=law\\ against\\ farming\\)\\,\\ noble\\ status\\,\\ and\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1803\\ and\\ 1807\\ European\\ abolition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reinstatement\\ of\\ kinship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Danes\\,\\ British\\,\\ and\\ Dutch\\ in\\ Africa\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Danes\\ abolish\\ 1803\\;\\ English\\ in\\ 1807\\;\\ problems\\ occur\\ 1810\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ abolition\\,\\ increased\\ population\\ of\\ poor\\ in\\ Asante\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ of\\ Asante\\ disbands\\/disburses\\ slave\\ villages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asante\\ solves\\ crises\\:\\ \\ \\;Slaves\\ in\\ capital\\ were\\ distributed\\ outside\\ to\\ countryside\\ to\\ families\\ via\\ kinship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1820\\,\\ slave\\ villages\\ completely\\ disbursed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exile\\ of\\ Asantehene\\ Prempeh\\ I\\ and\\ chiefs\\ \\(1896\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ kinship\\ of\\ slaves\\ after\\ disbursement\\,\\ slaves\\ constituted\\ another\\ branch\\ of\\ kin\\ \\(free\\ branch\\,\\ slave\\ branch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Seychelles\\,\\ exiles\\ become\\ Christian\\,\\ and\\ return\\ to\\ become\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\G\\.\\ I\\.\\ Jones\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Olaudah\\ Equiano\\ of\\ the\\ Niger\\ Ibo\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ Philip\\ Curtin\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Africa\\ Remembered\\:\\ Narratives\\ by\\ West\\ Africans\\ from\\ the\\ Era\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Madison\\,\\ 1967\\)\\,\\ 60\\-98\\.\\ \\-\\-\\ PHOEBE\\ JOHNSON\\-BLACK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;The\\ Diary\\ of\\ Antera\\ Duke\\,\\ an\\ Efik\\ Slave\\ Trading\\ Chief\\ of\\ the\\ Eighteenth\\ Century\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ Darryl\\ Forde\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Efik\\ Traders\\ of\\ Old\\ Calabar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\,\\ 1956\\)\\,\\ vii\\-xiii\\ and\\ 27\\-78\\.\\ \\-\\-\\ skipping\\ this\\ one\\ \\(I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ all\\ had\\ enough\\ of\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suzanne\\ Miers\\ and\\ Igor\\ Kopytoff\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Introduction\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\:\\ Historical\\ and\\ Anthropological\\ Perspectives\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Madison\\,\\ 1977\\)\\,\\ 3\\-81\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ freedom\\:\\ Western\\ concepts\\ and\\ African\\ realities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ two\\ problems\\ with\\ Western\\ analysis\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ think\\ American\\ slavery\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;normal\\&rdquo\\;\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ and\\ we\\ view\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ slavery\\ to\\ be\\ freedom\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ a\\ continuum\\&hellip\\;which\\ I\\ will\\ get\\ to\\ later\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ squeamish\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ harsh\\ realities\\ of\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ borne\\ from\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ guilt\\ over\\ what\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rights\\-in\\-persons\\ in\\ African\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Right\\-in\\-person\\:\\ the\\ rights\\ that\\ one\\ person\\ or\\ group\\ exercises\\ over\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ children\\ have\\ right\\ to\\ protection\\ \\&\\;\\ support\\ from\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ parents\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ obedience\\ from\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ a\\ matrilineal\\ society\\,\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ claim\\ the\\ children\\ as\\ members\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kin\\ group\\ is\\ not\\ transferred\\ to\\ the\\ husband\\ and\\ they\\ therefore\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kin\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ patrilineal\\ society\\,\\ the\\ husband\\ acquires\\ this\\ right\\,\\ and\\ the\\ children\\ therefore\\ belong\\ to\\ his\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Members\\ of\\ corporate\\ groups\\ belong\\ TO\\ and\\ IN\\ these\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Belonging\\ TO\\ \\=\\ individual\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ wealth\\ of\\ his\\ corporate\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Belonging\\ IN\\ \\=\\ refer\\ to\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implications\\ for\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Westerners\\ considering\\ \\&lsquo\\;slavery\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ African\\ societies\\ must\\ discard\\ their\\ own\\ concepts\\ of\\ ownership\\,\\ property\\,\\ and\\ the\\ purchasing\\ of\\ people\\ b\\/c\\ African\\ lineages\\ \\&ldquo\\;own\\&rdquo\\;\\ their\\ members\\ and\\ these\\ members\\ constitute\\ lineage\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;slave\\&rsquo\\;\\ must\\ be\\ examined\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ to\\ which\\ he\\ belongs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ comparing\\ his\\ position\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ members\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ acquisition\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ acquired\\ in\\ may\\ ways\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ some\\ more\\ personally\\ wrenching\\ than\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Buying\\ of\\ orphans\\ who\\ otherwise\\ would\\ have\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Barter\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strangers\\ volunteered\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Victims\\ of\\ kidnapping\\,\\ raiding\\,\\ and\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uses\\ of\\ acquired\\ persons\\ were\\ many\\ and\\ varied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expand\\ a\\ kin\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labor\\ to\\ till\\ the\\ fields\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paddlers\\ for\\ canoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soldiers\\ for\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Etc\\,\\ etc\\,\\ etc\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overall\\ people\\ were\\ a\\ versatile\\ asset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ outsider\\ and\\ his\\ marginality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ people\\ were\\ transferred\\ from\\ one\\ group\\ to\\ another\\ there\\ was\\ usually\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ compulsion\\,\\ sometimes\\ by\\ relatives\\ and\\ sometimes\\ by\\ force\\ of\\ arms\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ way\\,\\ the\\ individual\\ was\\ wrenched\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ people\\,\\ losing\\ his\\ social\\ personality\\,\\ his\\ identity\\ and\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ more\\ familiar\\ customs\\ and\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ person\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ marginality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ so\\ termed\\ by\\ van\\ Gennep\\,\\ who\\ talked\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rites\\ of\\ passage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ has\\ lost\\ his\\ old\\ social\\ identity\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ yet\\ have\\ a\\ new\\ one\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ is\\ ambiguous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ slavery\\ is\\ how\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ stranger\\ while\\ continuing\\ to\\ treat\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ stranger\\;\\ antithesis\\ of\\ slavery\\ here\\ is\\ not\\ freedom\\ but\\ belonging\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dimensions\\ of\\ marginality\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ types\\ of\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Status\\ mobility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reflects\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ formal\\ incorporation\\ into\\ the\\ new\\ society\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ slave\\,\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ resold\\ or\\ not\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Affective\\ mobility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ esteem\\ and\\ affection\\ with\\ which\\ slave\\ is\\ treated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worldly\\ success\\ mobility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ means\\ changes\\ toward\\ a\\ better\\ style\\ of\\ life\\,\\ more\\ political\\ influence\\,\\ and\\ even\\ control\\ over\\ greater\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lifetime\\ mobility\\ \\-\\ changes\\ in\\ mobility\\ over\\ lifetime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intergenerational\\ mobility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ changes\\ over\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conditions\\ and\\ constraints\\ in\\ the\\ institutionalization\\ of\\ marginality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ outsider\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ being\\ with\\ volition\\,\\ his\\ placement\\ will\\ be\\ affected\\ by\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ acquirer\\,\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ being\\ acquired\\ for\\ a\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ a\\ slave\\ can\\ bring\\ with\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;baggage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ former\\ status\\,\\ culture\\,\\ language\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ there\\ was\\ often\\ a\\ preference\\ for\\ young\\ children\\,\\ who\\ can\\ be\\ molded\\,\\ and\\ women\\,\\ who\\ can\\ more\\ easily\\ fit\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ slavery\\-to\\-kinship\\ continuum\\:\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ relationships\\ of\\ slavery\\ can\\ be\\ redefined\\ into\\ this\\ of\\ kinship\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ kinship\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ rights\\-in\\-persons\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ essentially\\ a\\ continuum\\ of\\ marginality\\ whose\\ progressive\\ reduction\\ led\\ to\\ quasi\\-kinship\\ and\\ kinship\\.\\ \\ \\;Read\\ more\\ about\\ this\\ on\\ pages\\ 22\\-24\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abolition\\ of\\ marginality\\ through\\ dissociation\\,\\ redemption\\,\\ and\\ manumission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manumission\\ means\\ a\\ withdrawal\\ fro\\ the\\ master\\ and\\ his\\ kin\\ group\\,\\ and\\ it\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ mean\\ a\\ withdrawal\\ from\\ the\\ host\\ society\\ and\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ risks\\ run\\ by\\ being\\ a\\ freeman\\ is\\ enslavement\\ by\\ someone\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incorporation\\ of\\ the\\ 1st\\ generation\\ into\\ the\\ kin\\ group\\/Incorporation\\ of\\ 2nd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ details\\ here\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ bog\\ down\\ this\\ study\\ guide\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ wan\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ this\\ read\\ it\\ on\\ page\\ 29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ acquiring\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ kin\\ group\\ obtains\\ rights\\ over\\ her\\ fertility\\ \\&\\;\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ position\\ of\\ slave\\ offspring\\ in\\ the\\ kin\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Threat\\ to\\ a\\ master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ control\\ when\\ slaves\\ married\\ free\\ people\\ b\\/c\\ this\\ established\\ ties\\ for\\ the\\ offspring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incorporation\\ into\\ the\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\:\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ acquisitor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ might\\ be\\ bought\\ by\\ a\\ merchant\\ and\\ end\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ trading\\ agent\\,\\ might\\ be\\ bought\\ up\\ by\\ ruler\\ and\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ palace\\;\\ a\\ lot\\ depends\\ on\\ acquisitor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ structure\\ of\\ marginalities\\ and\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ slave\\ strata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ acquired\\ persons\\ held\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ different\\ positions\\ in\\ society\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ appropriate\\ to\\ say\\ they\\ were\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ society\\ instead\\ of\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ revolts\\ were\\ relatively\\ rare\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ b\\/c\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ slaves\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ self\\-conscious\\ stratum\\ when\\ in\\ fact\\ they\\ were\\ generally\\ dispersed\\ through\\ the\\ social\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treatment\\ and\\ resistance\\:\\ problems\\ of\\ comparative\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europeans\\ found\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ stereotype\\ and\\ proceeded\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ idealized\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ institution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Versatility\\ and\\ variation\\ in\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ acquired\\ persons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Valuable\\ as\\ economic\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ social\\ capital\\;\\ could\\ be\\ converted\\ from\\ one\\ to\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Numbers\\ and\\ concentrations\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ how\\ and\\ whom\\ to\\ count\\ and\\ why\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ is\\ a\\ slave\\ society\\ when\\ you\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;slaves\\&rdquo\\;\\ dispersed\\ through\\ the\\ social\\ structure\\ at\\ different\\ places\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\-kinship\\ continuum\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consider\\ reproduction\\ of\\ slave\\ population\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ their\\ children\\ continue\\ to\\ be\\ classified\\ as\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ dynamics\\ of\\ African\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ opportunity\\ was\\ created\\ for\\ entrepreneurs\\ and\\ middlemen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ African\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ is\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ elements\\,\\ which\\ if\\ differently\\ combined\\,\\ might\\ become\\ adoption\\,\\ marriage\\,\\ parentage\\,\\ obligations\\ to\\ kinsmen\\,\\ clientship\\,\\ and\\ so\\ forth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\M\\ \\&\\;\\ K\\ argue\\ that\\ Meillassoux\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ that\\ a\\ slave\\ is\\ necessarily\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ violent\\ capture\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ view\\ is\\ more\\ domestic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ existence\\ cannot\\ be\\ understood\\ in\\ the\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ economics\\ of\\ the\\ classic\\ triad\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ land\\,\\ and\\ capital\\.\\ \\ \\;Argument\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ political\\ \\(and\\ social\\)\\ considerations\\ may\\ override\\ economic\\ ones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ overseas\\ trade\\ and\\ of\\ abolition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ groups\\ in\\ Africa\\ acquired\\ slaves\\ for\\ different\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Africa\\ has\\ been\\ emphasized\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;supplier\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;user\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ slaves\\ and\\ a\\ result\\ the\\ abolition\\ of\\ slaves\\ there\\ is\\ strange\\ to\\ some\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Addendum\\:\\ a\\ plea\\ on\\ terminology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\M\\ \\&\\;\\ K\\ put\\ \\&ldquo\\;slave\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ quotations\\ throughout\\ the\\ article\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ that\\ generally\\ conjures\\ up\\ images\\ of\\ Western\\ slavery\\ when\\ in\\ reality\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ than\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disclaimer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ hope\\ this\\ study\\ guide\\ for\\ the\\ M\\ \\&\\;\\ K\\ reading\\ has\\ been\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ details\\ and\\ examples\\ of\\ stuff\\ you\\ should\\ skim\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ details\\ are\\ simply\\ far\\ too\\ complex\\ and\\ detailed\\ to\\ include\\ in\\ this\\ guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ if\\ not\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ should\\ be\\ completely\\ correct\\,\\ but\\ double\\-checking\\ of\\ anything\\ doubtful\\ is\\ wise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Claude\\ Meillassoux\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Anthropology\\ of\\ Slavery\\:\\ Womb\\ of\\ Iron\\ and\\ Gold\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Chicago\\,\\ 1991\\)\\,\\ 9\\-22\\,\\ 43\\-66\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ KUELLI\\ GEORGE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\:\\ Slave\\ Systems\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 16\\ \\-\\-\\ Part\\ 3\\:\\ Islam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Quran\\ and\\ Islamic\\ Jurists\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ and\\ process\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quran\\ has\\ no\\ dictates\\ as\\ to\\ who\\ is\\/can\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dictating\\ slavery\\ becomes\\ role\\ of\\ Islamic\\ Jurists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quran\\,\\ Hadith\\ \\(revealed\\ truth\\)\\,\\ Sharia\\ \\(law\\)\\:\\ 3\\ major\\ sources\\ of\\ knowledge\\ in\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sharia\\ speaks\\ to\\ practice\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unbelief\\ becomes\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ slavery\\ because\\ you\\ cannot\\ enslave\\ fellow\\ Muslims\\;\\ unbelief\\ \\=\\ heathen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conversion\\:\\ conversion\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ mean\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manumission\\ is\\ encouraged\\ as\\ a\\ specific\\ act\\;\\ it\\ is\\ pious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Having\\ the\\ option\\ of\\ manumission\\ also\\ encourages\\ slavery\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ because\\ knowing\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ earn\\ your\\ way\\ out\\,\\ encourages\\ slaves\\ to\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Islamic\\ law\\ and\\ slavery\\ as\\ a\\ temporary\\ state\\ of\\ legal\\ incapacitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Being\\ in\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ someone\\;\\ slave\\ and\\ free\\ person\\ all\\ have\\ same\\ spiritual\\ worth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ can\\ marry\\,\\ have\\ a\\ family\\,\\ earn\\ an\\ income\\,\\ and\\ purchase\\ him\\ or\\ herself\\ with\\ the\\ permission\\ of\\ master\\;\\ right\\ to\\ self\\-purchase\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ Muslim\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Freed\\ slaves\\ in\\ Islam\\ are\\ more\\ accepted\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ Roman\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\,\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\,\\ you\\ had\\ been\\ put\\ in\\ chains\\,\\ branded\\,\\ and\\ tortured\\,\\ you\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ become\\ a\\ Roman\\ citizen\\ when\\ freed\\ because\\ you\\ where\\ tarnished\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ you\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ allowed\\ in\\ or\\ within\\ a\\ certain\\ distance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maraka\\ Muslim\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ Niger\\ Valley\\ \\(southwestern\\ Mali\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Changing\\ Face\\ of\\ Muslim\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ development\\ of\\ jihad\\ as\\ an\\ ideology\\ of\\ enslavement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basis\\ of\\ jihad\\:\\ jihad\\ becomes\\ ideology\\ that\\ justifies\\ slavery\\;\\ even\\ in\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Cent\\.\\ jihad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ being\\ waged\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Islam\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ likely\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ slavery\\ movement\\;\\ more\\ you\\ wage\\ jihad\\ the\\ more\\ you\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ running\\ out\\ of\\ those\\ you\\ could\\ enslave\\;\\ Arab\\-\\ and\\ East\\-African\\-\\ Muslims\\ resolve\\ this\\ problem\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ from\\ the\\ late\\ medieval\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ merging\\ of\\ the\\ identities\\ of\\ Muslim\\ and\\ Merchant\\ in\\ SSA\\,\\ and\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ mercantile\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ West\\ African\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Muslims\\ though\\ they\\ understand\\ it\\;\\ jurists\\ discourage\\ trade\\ with\\ this\\ group\\ and\\ because\\ their\\ services\\ are\\ important\\,\\ Muslim\\ merchants\\ are\\ prosperous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goods\\ they\\ brought\\ and\\ attention\\ they\\ created\\ were\\ attractive\\ to\\ other\\ merchants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Merchants\\ then\\ converted\\ to\\ Islam\\ so\\ they\\ could\\ gain\\ access\\ to\\ merchant\\ system\\,\\ which\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ trust\\;\\ trust\\ based\\ on\\ Muslimism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muslim\\ merchants\\ were\\ mobile\\ and\\ knew\\ where\\ certain\\ goods\\ and\\ conditions\\ were\\;\\ they\\ were\\ pioneers\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ great\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ Africa\\ sees\\ sharp\\ distinctions\\ between\\ merchants\\ and\\ military\\ aristocrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warriors\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ demeaning\\ to\\ trade\\ so\\ Muslim\\ merchants\\ were\\ very\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ facilitated\\ imports\\ and\\ exports\\ of\\ horses\\ and\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ got\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ that\\ as\\ armies\\ when\\ to\\ war\\,\\ they\\ were\\ followed\\ by\\ merchats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traders\\&rsquo\\;\\ settlements\\ created\\ so\\ Muslim\\ merchants\\ have\\ places\\ to\\ stay\\ along\\ long\\-distance\\ trade\\ routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ settle\\ and\\ produce\\ food\\ \\(for\\ when\\ caravans\\ arrived\\)\\,\\ later\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muslim\\ traders\\ are\\ first\\ to\\ use\\ slaves\\ consistently\\ for\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ goods\\ for\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Jihad\\ as\\ an\\ ideology\\ of\\ Enslavement\\ in\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arab\\ Muslims\\ need\\ to\\ consider\\ ability\\ to\\ enslave\\ people\\ in\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Ralph\\ Willis\\:\\ The\\ extension\\ of\\ Islam\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\&rdquo\\;\\ Africa\\:\\ Arab\\ Muslims\\,\\ Swahili\\ and\\ West\\ African\\ Muslims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Resolving\\ a\\ paradox\\:\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hamitic\\ Myth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biblical\\ curse\\ of\\ Ham\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ See\\ Genesis\\ 9\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ham\\ as\\ the\\ representative\\ of\\ Africans\\ and\\ root\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\:\\ most\\ of\\ Africa\\ is\\ Muslim\\,\\ not\\ following\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ from\\ unbelief\\ to\\ race\\ a\\ basis\\ of\\ enslavement\\:\\ jihad\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ free\\ people\\ but\\ becomes\\ mechanism\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ enslave\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ahmad\\ Baba\\ \\(Timbuktu\\ scholar\\)\\ and\\ merchants\\ of\\ Tuwat\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Framework\\ for\\ an\\ Appreciation\\ of\\ the\\ Legal\\ Position\\ of\\ Sudanese\\ taken\\ as\\ Slaves\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1614\\)\\ \\[note\\:\\ Sudanese\\ is\\ not\\ same\\ as\\ modern\\ Sudan\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Baba\\ says\\ if\\ basis\\ of\\ slavery\\ is\\ unbelief\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ areas\\ where\\ slaves\\ are\\ coming\\ from\\ have\\ converted\\ to\\ Islam\\,\\ then\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\ should\\ be\\ on\\ Arab\\ Muslims\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ those\\ they\\ have\\ enslaved\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Muslim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ Muslims\\ constitute\\ Umma\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;community\\ of\\ the\\ faithful\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ community\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ accept\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ different\\ or\\ late\\ in\\ coming\\ to\\ Islam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ie\\:\\ Mali\\,\\ Songhai\\,\\ Katsina\\,\\ Kano\\,\\ Borno\\;\\ Mossi\\,\\ Kotokoli\\,\\ Yoruba\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Quran\\ on\\ race\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ racial\\ or\\ color\\ prejudice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changing\\ Arab\\ Muslim\\ attitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ and\\ conquest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ conceding\\ religious\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Earlier\\ Arab\\ experience\\ with\\ Ethiopia\\ \\(Bhilal\\ the\\ Muezzin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ Muezzin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethiopians\\ are\\ lighter\\ skinned\\,\\ which\\ is\\ more\\ desirable\\/sophisticated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Importance\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ slave\\ trade\\ to\\ Arab\\ Muslims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Racism\\ evolves\\ and\\ people\\ start\\ justifying\\ slavery\\ on\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\&hellip\\;\\ African\\ Muslims\\ are\\ black\\&hellip\\;\\ what\\ do\\ to\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arab\\ Muslims\\ move\\ to\\ race\\ as\\ basis\\ for\\ slavery\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ unbelief\\;\\ East\\ and\\ West\\ African\\ Muslims\\ cannot\\ shift\\ from\\ unbelief\\ to\\ race\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ race\\ so\\ they\\ hold\\ onto\\ unbelief\\ as\\ metric\\ but\\ they\\ leave\\ some\\ parts\\ of\\ land\\ unconverted\\ \\(non\\-Muslim\\)\\ on\\ purpose\\ so\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ area\\ to\\ raid\\ for\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maraka\\ Mercantile\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Roberts\\.\\ Maraka\\,\\ Soninke\\ from\\ Ghana\\,\\ but\\ speak\\ Bambara\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maraka\\ are\\ traders\\;\\ aristocrats\\ thought\\ traders\\ were\\ second\\ class\\ but\\ they\\ needed\\ them\\ so\\ traders\\ get\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jahaanke\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(clerics\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dyula\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(professional\\ traders\\)\\ dispersion\\ in\\ West\\ Africa\\.\\ Mande\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maraka\\ clerical\\-commercial\\ enclaves\\ in\\ middle\\ Niger\\ Valley\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Nyamina\\,\\ Banamba\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ context\\:\\ Segu\\ \\(from\\ 1712\\)\\,\\ Tokolor\\ State\\ \\(from\\ 1861\\)\\,\\ French\\ colonialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trans\\-Saharan\\ trade\\,\\ market\\ production\\,\\ and\\ Maraka\\ slave\\ agricultural\\ villages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maraka\\ cultivate\\ food\\ in\\ wet\\ season\\ and\\ cotton\\/textiles\\ in\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ year\\;\\ salves\\ are\\ useful\\ year\\-round\\;\\ production\\ of\\ cotton\\ becomes\\ important\\ in\\ trade\\ across\\ W\\.\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Plantation\\ slavery\\.\\ Maraka\\ slave\\ relations\\.\\ 1905\\ slave\\ exodus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ work\\ part\\ time\\ for\\ masters\\,\\ and\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ days\\ for\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ could\\ marry\\,\\ earn\\ income\\,\\ and\\ purchase\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creates\\ interesting\\ overlay\\ of\\ pre\\-Islamic\\ slave\\ traditions\\ \\(Bambara\\)\\ and\\ Islamic\\ slavery\\ practices\\ \\(Maraka\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1903\\:\\ French\\ pass\\ laws\\ not\\ recognizing\\ slavery\\ but\\ because\\ they\\ recognize\\ Maraka\\,\\ they\\ don\\ not\\ publicize\\ law\\ that\\ slavery\\ is\\ illegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\May\\ 1905\\,\\ someone\\ puts\\ word\\ out\\ that\\ slavery\\ is\\ outlawed\\ and\\ mass\\ exodus\\ happens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ Maraka\\ become\\ immersed\\ in\\ grain\\ and\\ cotton\\ trade\\ they\\ being\\ to\\ pervert\\ relations\\ with\\ trade\\ and\\ contradict\\ traditional\\ relationship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Islam\\ encourages\\ self\\-purchase\\,\\ but\\ Maraka\\ sets\\ price\\ at\\ 2\\-3x\\ price\\ of\\ normal\\ slave\\ so\\ it\\ takes\\ longer\\ and\\ only\\ old\\ slaves\\ can\\ buy\\ their\\ freedom\\;\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ slave\\ can\\ self\\-purchase\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ older\\ and\\ less\\ useful\\,\\ so\\ new\\ young\\ slaves\\ can\\ be\\ bought\\ to\\ replace\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maraka\\ slaves\\ decide\\ not\\ to\\ purchase\\ themselves\\ because\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ purchase\\ wife\\ and\\ children\\ too\\,\\ which\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ financial\\ sense\\ so\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ financial\\ security\\,\\ the\\ slaves\\ bought\\ other\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maraka\\ slaves\\ worked\\ alongside\\ slave\\ who\\ was\\ also\\ master\\,\\ therefore\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ belonged\\ to\\ master\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ investing\\ in\\ the\\ institution\\,\\ they\\ reinforce\\ this\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ people\\ become\\ important\\ warlords\\:\\ Samori\\,\\ Ti\\é\\;ba\\,\\ and\\ Babemba\\:\\ most\\ of\\ Maraka\\ slaves\\ are\\ supplied\\ by\\ these\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ generation\\ trade\\ slaves\\ so\\ they\\ knew\\ where\\ their\\ homes\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maraka\\ slaves\\ were\\ mistreated\\,\\ poorly\\ fed\\,\\ poorly\\ clothed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Muslim\\ masters\\,\\ their\\ sons\\,\\ their\\ wives\\:\\ allowed\\ slaves\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ ideal\\ Muslim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ as\\ a\\ site\\ for\\ conversion\\ and\\ eventual\\ emancipation\\ for\\ Muslims\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emancipation\\ rare\\ among\\ Maraka\\ because\\ different\\ customs\\/norms\\ of\\ slavery\\ from\\ pre\\-Islamic\\ and\\ Islamic\\ times\\ complicate\\ things\\;\\ overlap\\ of\\ Islamic\\ and\\ customary\\ norms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 10\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 18\\ \\-\\-\\ Part\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Plantation\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Plantations\\ in\\ Africa\\;\\ larger\\ historical\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Plantation\\ slavery\\ is\\ the\\ exception\\ to\\ statement\\ that\\ most\\ slave\\ systems\\ were\\ actually\\ tantamount\\ to\\ serfdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ internal\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ in\\ Africa\\;\\ higher\\ here\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africa\\ has\\ more\\ slaves\\ than\\ America\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Causes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Industrial\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Required\\ raw\\ materials\\ like\\ ground\\ nuts\\ and\\ palm\\ oil\\ \\(used\\ for\\ engines\\,\\ machines\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abolition\\ of\\ Slavery\\ and\\ resulting\\,\\ subsequent\\,\\ legitimate\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Replaces\\ illegitimate\\/slave\\ trade\\;\\ trade\\ in\\ cash\\ crops\\ \\(used\\ to\\ sell\\)\\ vs\\.\\ subsistence\\ crops\\ \\(used\\ to\\ survive\\;\\ food\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dahomey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ that\\ resisted\\ slave\\ trade\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ but\\ by\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ thick\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1870\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\.5M\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#8356\\;\\ of\\ palm\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Export\\ slavery\\ trade\\ from\\ East\\ Africa\\ peaks\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ \\(from\\ Mogadishu\\ to\\ Kilwa\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exported\\ to\\ Arabia\\,\\ Marictius\\ \\(off\\ Madagascar\\)\\,\\ and\\ even\\ Americas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plantation\\ society\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ Western\\ hemisphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Plantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Definition\\:\\ \\ \\;Large\\ scale\\,\\ specialized\\ unit\\ that\\ develops\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ serve\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ a\\ vast\\,\\ widespread\\ market\\ of\\ particular\\ commodities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ East\\ Africa\\:\\ \\ \\;Sugar\\ and\\ cloves\\ \\(and\\ grain\\ and\\ coconuts\\,\\ but\\ not\\ so\\ much\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daily\\ life\\ on\\ a\\ sugar\\ plantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thick\\ sugar\\ cane\\ harvested\\ by\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Must\\ be\\ processed\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\15\\ hours\\/day\\ of\\ labor\\;\\ no\\ time\\ for\\ social\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ Reproduction\\:\\ \\ \\;undertaking\\ of\\ rituals\\ of\\ family\\/culture\\,\\ but\\ no\\ time\\ for\\ this\\ to\\ take\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\/gang\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demands\\ of\\ the\\ market\\ in\\ determining\\ plantation\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Changing\\ of\\ market\\ affects\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ large\\ profit\\ can\\ be\\ made\\,\\ then\\ owners\\ will\\ exploit\\ labor\\ fully\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biological\\ reproduction\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;uneconomic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ these\\ costs\\ borne\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ cheaper\\ to\\ import\\ slaves\\ in\\ vs\\.\\ reproducing\\ of\\ slaves\\ on\\ plantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Takes\\ 12\\-13\\ years\\ of\\ upbringing\\ of\\ slave\\ is\\ costly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ reason\\ that\\ no\\ plantation\\ slaves\\ reproduce\\;\\ instead\\,\\ numbers\\ are\\ imported\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rise\\ of\\ planter\\ classes\\,\\ and\\ the\\ consequent\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ system\\ to\\ one\\ which\\ ignores\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ social\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ are\\ solely\\ interested\\ in\\ making\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relationship\\ between\\ slave\\/master\\ breaks\\ down\\ in\\ these\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ in\\ East\\ Africa\\ pre\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Early\\ history\\ of\\ Mombasa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\800\\-1000AD\\,\\ Swahili\\ language\\ appears\\ as\\ distinct\\ on\\ East\\ African\\ Coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Swahili\\ society\\ defined\\ by\\ adherence\\ to\\ Islam\\;\\ first\\ Mosques\\ appear\\ in\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ further\\ south\\ in\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Swahili\\ culture\\ \\=\\ urban\\ culture\\;\\ city\\-states\\ appear\\,\\ autonomous\\ from\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;Example\\ of\\ city\\-state\\=Mombasa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turbulent\\ history\\ with\\ Europeans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fort\\ Jesus\\ 1498AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immigrants\\ to\\ Mombasa\\ and\\ the\\ Swahili\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mombasa\\ has\\ absorbed\\ many\\ different\\ peoples\\ via\\ immigration\\;\\ melting\\ pot\\ of\\ diverse\\ religions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Institution\\ of\\ slavery\\ as\\ centered\\ on\\ paternalism\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shirazi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ clients\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ really\\ master\\-slave\\ relation\\;\\ more\\ patron\\-client\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Master\\ has\\ massive\\ responsibilities\\ to\\ his\\ clients\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ slaves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Master\\ civilizes\\ his\\ slaves\\ in\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ Master\\ can\\ command\\ followers\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ social\\ prestige\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ prestige\\,\\ Master\\ owes\\ rights\\ to\\ slaves\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marriage\\;\\ master\\ pays\\/organizes\\ ceremony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ to\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ to\\ shelter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ to\\ be\\ indoctrinated\\ in\\ Islam\\ \\(typically\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allowed\\ as\\ it\\ keeps\\ separation\\ from\\ slaves\\ and\\ Muslims\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Islam\\ in\\ slavery\\ and\\ the\\ rights\\ a\\ slave\\ could\\ expect\\ \\(listed\\ just\\ above\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Importance\\ of\\ the\\ Swahili\\ language\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\watumwa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mtumwa\\ mjinga\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mkulia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mzalia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ speaking\\ Swahili\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watrumwa\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ held\\ person\\ \\(general\\ term\\ applied\\ to\\ all\\ slaves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mtumwa\\ mikinga\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stupid\\ slave\\/foolish\\ slave\\ \\(appied\\ to\\ slaves\\ who\\ are\\ brought\\ as\\ adults\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ same\\ rights\\;\\ start\\ as\\ lower\\ person\\;\\ usually\\ plantation\\ slave\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mkulia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ here\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(applied\\ to\\ those\\ grown\\ up\\ on\\ East\\ Coast\\;\\ usually\\ domestic\\ slave\\;\\ trusted\\ slave\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mzalia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;born\\ here\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(applied\\ to\\ those\\ born\\ into\\ family\\;\\ take\\ on\\ tremendous\\ responsibility\\ for\\ his\\ master\\;\\ represent\\ master\\ in\\ trade\\;\\ right\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ sold\\;\\ allowed\\ to\\ earn\\ money\\ on\\ side\\ for\\ himself\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Characterizing\\ slavery\\ on\\ the\\ Mrima\\ coast\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shamba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ijara\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vibarna\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mafundi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shamba\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ agricultural\\ slaves\\;\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ household\\ or\\ near\\ them\\;\\ work\\ couple\\ days\\ of\\ work\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ land\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ijara\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ similar\\ to\\ Shamba\\;\\ go\\ months\\ without\\ seeing\\ master\\;\\ give\\ tribute\\ to\\ master\\ in\\ money\\/goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vibarna\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ serf\\;\\ not\\ attached\\ to\\ household\\;\\ they\\ can\\ rent\\ themselves\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mafundi\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ craftsmen\\;\\ absolute\\ right\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ sold\\;\\ integral\\ to\\ religious\\ ceremonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Plantation\\ Slavery\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ East\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Plantation\\ slavery\\ appears\\ in\\ 1840s\\;\\ Omani\\ Arabs\\ integral\\ in\\ rise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ Omani\\ power\\ and\\ slavery\\/plantations\\ in\\ Arabia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transfer\\ of\\ Capital\\ to\\ Zanzibar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Come\\ down\\ with\\ higher\\-ups\\ that\\ dominate\\ upper\\-echelon\\ of\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Begin\\ to\\ dominate\\ Swahili\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1811\\-1860\\ \\=\\ 7\\-20M\\/year\\ leave\\ east\\ coast\\ for\\ Arabia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Omanis\\ have\\ date\\ plantations\\ \\(easy\\ to\\ run\\/manage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Development\\ of\\ clove\\ plantations\\ in\\ East\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1820\\-1840\\ \\=\\ experiments\\ with\\ clove\\ plantations\\;\\ after\\ 20\\ years\\,\\ success\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ are\\ slaves\\ going\\ to\\ come\\ from\\ to\\ fill\\ these\\ plantations\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hamid\\ bin\\ Muhammed\\ el\\ Murjebi\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tippu\\ Tip\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Largest\\ slaver\\ in\\ this\\ process\\;\\ controls\\ slave\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Swahili\\ Zanzibar\\ trader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ connection\\ to\\ Sultans\\ in\\ Zanzibar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effective\\ King\\ of\\ the\\ area\\ during\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Henry\\ Morton\\ Stanley\\:\\ Meets\\ Tippu\\ Tip\\ in\\ 1876\\:\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ impressive\\/remarkable\\ people\\,\\ clothes\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expanding\\ agriculture\\ on\\ the\\ East\\ African\\ coast\\ with\\ money\\ garnered\\ from\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ Omani\\ Arabs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Pangani\\ Slave\\ Plantations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ development\\ of\\ an\\ Arabic\\-speaking\\,\\ mostly\\ Omani\\ planter\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1880s\\ emergence\\ of\\ planter\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overseers\\ are\\ Omani\\ Arabs\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ Swahili\\ but\\ Arabic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Practice\\ different\\ sect\\ of\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institute\\ impressive\\ sugar\\ regime\\ \\(very\\ harsh\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Changes\\ in\\ slave\\ rights\\,\\ concept\\ of\\ patronage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ regard\\ for\\ master\\/slave\\ relationship\\ as\\ slaves\\ provide\\ no\\ prestige\\ to\\ Omani\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Omani\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ social\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rights\\ to\\ marriage\\,\\ food\\,\\ shelter\\,\\ own\\ slaves\\ taken\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resistance\\ through\\ strategies\\ of\\ flight\\,\\ dress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1873\\:\\ slaves\\ gather\\ and\\ have\\ festival\\/dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ festivals\\ extremely\\ important\\ \\(rite\\ of\\ passage\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ fled\\ not\\ necessarily\\ to\\ escape\\,\\ but\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ integrate\\ into\\ society\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ doing\\ this\\,\\ slaves\\ can\\ make\\ their\\ masters\\ appreciate\\ them\\ more\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ going\\ on\\ strike\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ festival\\,\\ slaves\\ flee\\ from\\ Pangani\\;\\ expect\\ to\\ be\\ followed\\,\\ so\\ they\\ arm\\ and\\ drive\\ off\\ captors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\August\\ 1874\\:\\ Sugar\\ sales\\ drop\\ 60\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ final\\ flight\\ from\\ Pangani\\ and\\ the\\ recognition\\ of\\ Makorara\\ by\\ the\\ Sultan\\ of\\ Zanzibar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ recognized\\ as\\ independent\\/autonomous\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Ralph\\ Willis\\,\\ \\(ed\\.\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slaves\\ and\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Muslim\\ Africa\\ Vol\\ 1\\:\\ Islam\\ and\\ the\\ Ideology\\ of\\ Enslavement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\,\\ 1985\\)\\,\\ 1\\-26\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Islamic\\ notions\\ of\\ the\\ enslavable\\ stemmed\\ from\\ a\\ peculiar\\ world\\ view\\:\\ slaves\\ were\\ seen\\ to\\ lack\\ those\\ attachments\\ of\\ lineage\\ or\\ genealogy\\ which\\ an\\ Arab\\ dominated\\ society\\ held\\ in\\ high\\ esteem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\ belief\\ is\\ the\\ signal\\ cause\\ of\\ possession\\-\\ and\\ his\\ submission\\ to\\ Islam\\ hones\\ the\\ possibility\\ for\\ redemption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ so\\ called\\ curse\\ of\\ Ham\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(Noah\\&\\#39\\;s\\ son\\ who\\ saw\\ him\\ naked\\)\\ led\\ to\\ rise\\ of\\ \\"\\;blackness\\"\\;\\ as\\ condition\\ for\\ enslavement\\.\\ The\\ darker\\ the\\ mother\\,\\ the\\ lower\\ the\\ estate\\ of\\ her\\ offspring\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paradox\\ that\\ jihad\\,\\ in\\ its\\ effort\\ to\\ free\\ men\\ from\\ unbelief\\,\\ became\\ a\\ device\\ to\\ deprive\\ men\\ of\\ their\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\ are\\ excused\\ from\\ categories\\ of\\ ensvaleable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Jihad\\,\\ in\\ its\\ effort\\ to\\ banish\\ the\\ humiliation\\ of\\ non\\ belivers\\ \\(kufr\\)\\,\\ inflicted\\ the\\ shame\\ of\\ servitude\\ and\\ set\\ in\\ tandem\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ legal\\ relations\\ which\\ fixed\\ the\\ bond\\ between\\ master\\ and\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Richard\\ L\\.\\ Roberts\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Ideology\\,\\ Slavery\\ and\\ State\\ Formation\\:\\ The\\ Evolution\\ of\\ Maraka\\ Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Niger\\ Valley\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ Paul\\ Lovejoy\\,\\ \\(ed\\.\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ideology\\ of\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Beverly\\ Hills\\,\\ 1981\\)\\,\\ 171\\-99\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ideolology\\ of\\ Slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ explores\\ the\\ social\\ fabric\\ and\\ underpinnings\\ of\\ Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Marka\\ civilization\\ on\\ the\\ Middle\\ Niger\\ River\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ Savanna\\,\\ there\\ was\\ \\;\\ limited\\ recourse\\ a\\ slave\\ could\\ have\\ taken\\ against\\ their\\ owner\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ dissatisfied\\ with\\ their\\ situation\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ most\\ obvious\\ rectifier\\ of\\ a\\ particularly\\ deprived\\ circumstance\\ was\\ to\\ attempt\\ escape\\.\\ However\\,\\ escape\\ was\\ perilous\\ and\\ normally\\ unsuccessful\\.\\ Many\\ surrounding\\ communities\\ had\\ reciprocal\\ retrieval\\ policies\\ for\\ slaves\\ which\\ hindered\\ slaves\\ mobility\\ as\\ they\\ tried\\ to\\ escape\\.\\ This\\ problem\\ was\\ exacerbated\\ because\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ sustenance\\ as\\ a\\ fugitive\\,\\ and\\ any\\ begging\\ for\\ food\\ might\\ expose\\ them\\ as\\ runaways\\.\\ \\;\\ Moreover\\,\\ \\;to\\ prevent\\ slaves\\ from\\ escaping\\,\\ owners\\ would\\ cast\\ a\\ psychological\\ barricade\\ manifested\\ in\\ a\\ supposed\\ super\\ natural\\ barrier\\ that\\ acted\\ as\\ a\\ restraint\\ against\\ flight\\.\\ Perhaps\\ most\\ importantly\\,\\ attempted\\ escapees\\ were\\ severely\\ punished\\ which\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ to\\ discourage\\ such\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Although\\ escape\\ most\\ commonly\\ was\\ used\\ by\\ slaves\\ to\\ rectify\\ their\\ situation\\,\\ there\\ were\\ other\\ opportunities\\ for\\ a\\ mistreated\\ slave\\ to\\ seek\\ a\\ remedy\\.\\ \\;\\ Slaves\\ could\\ appeal\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ Segu\\ King\\ who\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ appropriate\\ slaves\\ if\\ he\\ saw\\ fit\\.\\ A\\ more\\ frequent\\ strategy\\ was\\ an\\ appeal\\ by\\ the\\ discontented\\ slave\\ to\\ the\\ village\\ elders\\ who\\ could\\ exert\\ a\\ moral\\ and\\ public\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ slave\\&\\#39\\;s\\ master\\ to\\ ameliorate\\ his\\ behavior\\.\\ \\;\\ Another\\ approach\\ would\\ be\\ under\\ Marka\\ law\\,\\ the\\ slave\\ could\\ also\\ cut\\ the\\ ear\\ of\\ another\\ nobel\\&\\#39\\;s\\ horses\\ \\;\\ or\\ children\\.\\ The\\ slave\\&\\#39\\;s\\ master\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ offer\\ the\\ offending\\ slave\\ as\\ compensation\\ for\\ the\\ transgression\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\,\\ thereby\\ allowing\\ the\\ slave\\ to\\ be\\ transferred\\ away\\ from\\ his\\ oppressive\\ master\\.\\ Slaves\\ also\\ had\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ acquire\\ property\\,\\ although\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ own\\ it\\,\\ which\\ could\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ conduit\\ to\\ help\\ to\\ improve\\ their\\ living\\ situation\\.\\ Slaves\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ farm\\ a\\ small\\ piece\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ land\\ and\\ sell\\ their\\ excess\\ yield\\ at\\ market\\.\\ They\\ could\\ use\\ these\\ funds\\ to\\ purchase\\ luxury\\ items\\ for\\ themselves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ or\\ even\\ to\\ purchase\\ other\\ slaves\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ work\\.\\ A\\ final\\,\\ and\\ rarely\\ used\\ approach\\,\\ was\\ to\\ buy\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ freedom\\.\\ If\\ a\\ slave\\ acquired\\ enough\\ wealth\\,\\ he\\ could\\ make\\ an\\ offer\\ to\\ his\\ master\\ to\\ purchase\\ his\\ own\\ freedom\\.\\ Masters\\ rarely\\ acquiesced\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ almost\\ impossible\\ for\\ a\\ slave\\ to\\ raise\\ enough\\ to\\ purchase\\ not\\ only\\ himself\\ but\\ his\\ whole\\ family\\.\\ \\;\\ Yet\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ rare\\ occurrences\\ when\\ these\\ transactions\\ occurred\\,\\ the\\ actual\\ living\\ conditions\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ changed\\ little\\,\\ as\\ the\\ paternal\\ ties\\ the\\ master\\ had\\ to\\ the\\ slave\\ offered\\ protection\\ that\\ was\\ difficult\\ for\\ freed\\ slaves\\ to\\ find\\ elsewhere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Overall\\,\\ there\\ were\\ distinct\\ methods\\ for\\ slaves\\ to\\ alleviate\\ their\\ plight\\.\\ Although\\ not\\ always\\ successful\\,\\ these\\ mechanisms\\ served\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ order\\ among\\ the\\ slaves\\ and\\ encouraged\\ and\\ ossified\\ them\\ around\\ the\\ slave\\ system\\ by\\ allowing\\ them\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ \\"\\;emotional\\ stake\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcia\\ Wright\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Strategies\\ of\\ Slaves\\ and\\ Women\\:\\ Life\\ Stories\\ from\\ East\\/Central\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\,\\ 1993\\)\\,\\ 21\\-57\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Experiences\\ of\\ 3\\ Individuals\\ in\\ the\\ Lakes\\ Region\\ of\\ East\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Region\\:\\ Between\\ Lake\\ Nyasa\\ and\\ Lake\\ Tanganyika\\ in\\ East\\ Central\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\diversified\\ economy\\ with\\ cattle\\,\\ crops\\,\\ regional\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\constantly\\ changing\\,\\ instable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\middle\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ increased\\ trade\\ with\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ merchants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\effects\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ generalized\\ but\\ depend\\ on\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\kind\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\proximity\\ to\\ trade\\ routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\political\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Instability\\ caused\\ by\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dislocation\\ of\\ productive\\ activities\\ and\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\northward\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Bemba\\ and\\ Sangu\\ from\\ Northeast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\increased\\ presence\\ of\\ Muslim\\ trader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ commercial\\ and\\ missionary\\ communities\\ being\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advent\\ of\\ military\\ and\\ administrative\\ colonialism\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ new\\,\\ polyethnic\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drought\\ and\\ locust\\ plagues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Stories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\biography\\-autobiographies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\told\\ to\\ Elise\\ Kootz\\-Kretschmer\\,\\ a\\ missionary\\ and\\ ethnographer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ in\\ general\\ during\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\accepted\\ conventional\\ roles\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ have\\ certain\\ fatalism\\ about\\ adversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\status\\ is\\ secured\\ through\\ progress\\ into\\ marriage\\,\\ motherhood\\ and\\ grandmotherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sometimes\\ is\\ payment\\ for\\ debt\\ \\(her\\ hand\\ in\\ marriage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\then\\ easily\\ assimilated\\ into\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ raids\\,\\ were\\ captured\\,\\ not\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Men\\ in\\ general\\ during\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\in\\ raids\\,\\ were\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ grew\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\,\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ absorbed\\ into\\ lineage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ could\\ rise\\ to\\ positions\\ to\\ trust\\ and\\ access\\ to\\ wealth\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ dissociation\\ from\\ any\\ lineage\\ groups\\ and\\ hence\\ has\\ no\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\became\\ attached\\ to\\ societies\\ through\\ occupational\\ means\\ rather\\ than\\ familial\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\covert\\,\\ transaction\\ taking\\ place\\ at\\ night\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narwimba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Born\\ into\\ family\\ of\\ lesser\\ chief\\,\\ moved\\ around\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ raids\\,\\ got\\ married\\ and\\ then\\ became\\ a\\ widow\\.\\ Had\\ to\\ see\\ which\\ of\\ dead\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ member\\ would\\ take\\ her\\,\\ ended\\ up\\ marrying\\ Mirambo\\,\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ line\\ for\\ chiefship\\.\\ Narwimba\\ became\\ a\\ lesser\\ wife\\ \\(especially\\ since\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ marry\\ her\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\)\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ Mirambo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ marrying\\ younger\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ over\\ 40\\ yrs\\ old\\,\\ there\\ were\\ raids\\ and\\ Narwimba\\ and\\ a\\ daughter\\ were\\ captured\\ as\\ slaves\\,\\ but\\ b\\/c\\ Narwimba\\ was\\ so\\ old\\,\\ the\\ slave\\ traders\\ had\\ to\\ travel\\ with\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ coast\\.\\ On\\ the\\ way\\,\\ she\\ escaped\\ and\\ was\\ discovered\\ by\\ local\\ villagers\\,\\ and\\ saved\\ by\\ the\\ women\\ in\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ she\\ grew\\ older\\,\\ she\\ realized\\ that\\ her\\ position\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;power\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ie\\ a\\ chieftan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\)\\ really\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ much\\,\\ especially\\ proven\\ when\\ her\\ daughter\\ ran\\ away\\ with\\ an\\ unapproved\\ man\\ and\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ family\\ members\\ really\\ cared\\.\\ Also\\ proved\\ when\\ one\\ of\\ her\\ other\\ daughters\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ compensation\\,\\ so\\ Nawrwimba\\ fled\\ to\\ her\\ home\\ village\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ she\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ self\\-supporting\\ in\\ her\\ village\\ by\\ herself\\,\\ so\\ she\\ had\\ to\\ follow\\ her\\ son\\ to\\ the\\ mission\\ station\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chisi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Story\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ a\\ mother\\-focused\\ Safwa\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\a\\ slave\\ early\\ on\\,\\ so\\ not\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\.\\ Knew\\ what\\ to\\ expect\\ from\\ life\\,\\ knew\\ to\\ be\\ hardworking\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\her\\ life\\ was\\ spent\\ in\\ small\\ settlements\\,\\ so\\ she\\ was\\ easily\\ absorbed\\ into\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\after\\ she\\ was\\ abducted\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\ and\\ realized\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\,\\ she\\ ran\\ away\\,\\ threw\\ herself\\ to\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ village\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chief\\ and\\ he\\ married\\ her\\.\\ She\\ rapidly\\ became\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ village\\,\\ shown\\ when\\ her\\ husband\\ beat\\ her\\ and\\ the\\ villagers\\ found\\ him\\ guilty\\.\\ She\\ took\\ her\\ children\\ and\\ moved\\ out\\ \\(because\\ of\\ her\\ taking\\ charge\\ of\\ her\\ children\\,\\ she\\ is\\ now\\ their\\ complete\\ guardian\\)\\.\\ She\\ lived\\ with\\ her\\ son\\ at\\ the\\ mission\\ station\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meli\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\born\\ to\\ a\\ powerful\\ family\\,\\ but\\ once\\ a\\ slave\\,\\ changed\\ owners\\ frequently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\was\\ always\\ renamed\\ at\\ each\\ trade\\,\\ went\\ on\\ for\\ some\\ time\\ until\\ she\\ was\\ bought\\ by\\ missionaries\\.\\ In\\ the\\ village\\ around\\ the\\ station\\,\\ she\\ was\\ recognized\\ by\\ original\\ family\\ members\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ take\\ her\\ back\\,\\ but\\ the\\ missionaries\\ also\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ her\\.\\ Struggle\\ for\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ own\\ her\\ ensues\\,\\ but\\ ends\\ when\\ her\\ suitor\\ courts\\ her\\ by\\ approaching\\ the\\ missionaries\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ husband\\ prospered\\ in\\ selling\\ cattle\\,\\ but\\ upon\\ his\\ death\\,\\ she\\ agrees\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\,\\ but\\ only\\ if\\ the\\ guy\\ is\\ monogamous\\.\\ He\\ lies\\ \\(what\\ a\\ surprise\\)\\,\\ she\\ leaves\\ him\\ and\\ gains\\ some\\ independence\\ by\\ practicing\\ midwifery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Differences\\/Similarities\\ between\\ stories\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chisi\\ and\\ Narwimba\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\experience\\ early\\ on\\ in\\ life\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chisi\\ realized\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ attachment\\ to\\ a\\ male\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Meli\\ and\\ Narwimba\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\meli\\ \\=\\ very\\ perseverant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\USES\\ KINSHIP\\ MODEL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ women\\ and\\ one\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ man\\ \\=\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ talked\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Btwn\\ the\\ two\\ lakes\\,\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ unstable\\ the\\ area\\ was\\ and\\ how\\ that\\ contributed\\ to\\ many\\ more\\ stressors\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ villages\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ time\\ of\\ constant\\ uncertainty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Northern\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ \\#2\\,\\ reason\\ for\\ that\\,\\ in\\ 2\\ out\\ of\\ 3\\ stories\\,\\ women\\ were\\ captured\\ by\\ raiders\\ \\(Bemba\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Instability\\ caused\\ raiders\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ raiders\\ were\\ expanding\\ \\(because\\ wanted\\ more\\ territory\\ to\\ find\\ slaves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ tell\\ that\\ women\\ were\\ set\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Being\\ a\\ woman\\ sucked\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ man\\&mdash\\;had\\ to\\ accept\\ their\\ roles\\ \\(2\\ out\\ of\\ three\\ women\\ fought\\ against\\ it\\)\\;\\ women\\ had\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ men\\ to\\ secure\\ any\\ sort\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\ were\\ really\\ easily\\ assimilated\\ into\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Men\\ could\\ never\\ become\\ assimilated\\ \\(accepted\\ into\\ a\\ lineage\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Could\\ find\\ role\\ of\\ status\\ or\\ power\\ \\(could\\ become\\ judges\\ \\&ndash\\;unbiased\\ position\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;chapter\\ \\=\\ basic\\ intro\\ to\\ the\\ stories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;chapter\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stories\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ super\\ easy\\ read\\,\\ talks\\ about\\ basically\\ her\\ life\\ story\\&mdash\\;family\\ moved\\ around\\ because\\ of\\ raids\\,\\ then\\ married\\ thi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\idea\\ of\\ ownership\\&mdash\\;family\\ owns\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\importance\\ of\\ being\\ attached\\ to\\ a\\ group\\ \\(family\\ or\\ the\\ missionaries\\)\\;\\ attachment\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ gain\\ power\\ \\/\\ status\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\common\\ theme\\:\\ woman\\ who\\ recorded\\ their\\ stories\\ was\\ a\\ missionary\\&mdash\\;obviously\\ all\\ these\\ women\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;rescued\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ missionary\\&mdash\\;biased\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ religion\\ shaped\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jonathon\\ Glassman\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;The\\ Bondsman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ New\\ Clothes\\:\\ The\\ Contradictory\\ Consciousness\\ of\\ Slave\\ Resistance\\ on\\ the\\ Swahili\\ Coast\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ African\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 32\\:2\\ \\(1991\\)\\,\\ 277\\-312\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Glassman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ article\\,\\ he\\ considers\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ theories\\ about\\ slavery\\ to\\ determine\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ slave\\ resistance\\ on\\ the\\ Swahili\\ coast\\.\\ One\\ theory\\ of\\ slavery\\ examined\\ by\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ Miers\\ and\\ Kopytoff\\&\\#39\\;s\\ institution\\ of\\ marginality\\,\\ which\\ views\\ slaves\\ as\\ outsiders\\ brought\\ forcibly\\ into\\ a\\ new\\ culture\\.\\ Over\\ time\\,\\ African\\ customs\\,\\ which\\ initially\\ acted\\ to\\ enforce\\ the\\ marginal\\ positions\\ of\\ slaves\\,\\ began\\ to\\ reduce\\ this\\ marginality\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ slaves\\ became\\ functional\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ through\\ developing\\ ties\\ of\\ fictive\\ kinship\\.\\ Slaves\\ are\\ able\\,\\ under\\ this\\ view\\,\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ social\\ reproduction\\ and\\ advance\\ their\\ position\\ in\\ society\\.\\ This\\ functionalist\\ view\\ of\\ slavery\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ theories\\ of\\ Lovejoy\\,\\ who\\ believes\\ that\\ slaves\\ are\\ engaged\\ in\\ a\\ conscious\\ class\\ struggle\\ against\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ their\\ master\\&\\#39\\;s\\ culture\\.\\ The\\ third\\ theory\\ discussed\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ Gramsci\\,\\ who\\ believes\\ that\\ slaves\\ do\\ not\\ consistently\\ and\\ uniformly\\ reject\\ the\\ ideological\\ constructs\\ of\\ their\\ masters\\.\\ Slaves\\ are\\ not\\ bound\\ together\\ by\\ a\\ common\\ ideological\\ perspective\\,\\ but\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ fragments\\ of\\ ideologies\\ that\\ vie\\ for\\ dominance\\.\\ The\\ author\\ suggests\\ that\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ absorption\\ may\\ provide\\ insight\\ into\\ this\\ debate\\.\\ The\\ question\\ is\\ how\\ to\\ examine\\ absorption\\ of\\ slaves\\ into\\ the\\ greater\\ culture\\ without\\ resorting\\ to\\ a\\ functionalist\\ view\\.\\ Glassman\\ introduces\\ conflict\\ into\\ the\\ analysis\\ of\\ absorption\\ to\\ shed\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ slavery\\ and\\ slave\\ resistance\\.\\ The\\ functionalist\\ perspective\\ perceives\\ slavery\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\ through\\ which\\ outsiders\\ are\\ gradually\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ kin\\ and\\ community\\ structure\\ of\\ their\\ masters\\ through\\ norms\\ and\\ community\\ consensus\\.\\ Introducing\\ conflict\\ into\\ the\\ analysis\\ enables\\ a\\ different\\ interpretation\\,\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ master\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interests\\ are\\ protected\\ by\\ the\\ maintaining\\ the\\ marginal\\ status\\ of\\ slaves\\.\\ The\\ slave\\ fights\\ against\\ this\\ alienating\\ state\\ of\\ affairs\\ by\\ demanding\\ more\\ autonomous\\ participation\\ in\\ social\\ reproduction\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ fuller\\ membership\\ in\\ local\\ institutions\\ of\\ community\\ and\\ kinship\\.\\ Conflict\\ results\\ from\\ these\\ demands\\,\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ this\\ conflict\\ is\\ resolved\\ by\\ further\\ incorporation\\ of\\ slaves\\ into\\ the\\ greater\\ community\\.\\ Absorption\\ is\\ therefore\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ ongoing\\ struggle\\ between\\ master\\ and\\ slave\\,\\ and\\ this\\ conflict\\ shapes\\ the\\ institutions\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ the\\ slave\\&\\#39\\;s\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ community\\.\\ The\\ author\\ examines\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ on\\ the\\ Swahili\\ coast\\ of\\ Africa\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ it\\ supports\\ this\\ absorption\\-conflict\\ view\\.\\ He\\ finds\\ that\\ slavery\\ on\\ the\\ Swahili\\ coast\\ was\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ a\\ paternalistic\\ cultural\\ norm\\ or\\ patron\\-client\\ relationship\\.\\ Conflicts\\ over\\ inclusion\\ into\\ society\\ are\\ outlined\\.\\ In\\ many\\ cases\\ slaves\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ some\\ level\\ of\\ autonomy\\ and\\ inclusion\\ into\\ society\\.\\ This\\ established\\ a\\ stratified\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ different\\ strata\\ of\\ slaves\\ existed\\ with\\ varying\\ levels\\ of\\ autonomy\\.\\ Introduction\\ of\\ sugar\\ cane\\ plantations\\ changed\\ master\\-slave\\ relationships\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ patron\\-client\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ owner\\-commodity\\ for\\ plantation\\ slaves\\.\\ This\\ relationship\\ coexisted\\ with\\ the\\ traditional\\ patron\\-client\\ relationship\\ for\\ slaves\\ in\\ other\\ sectors\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ mistreatment\\ of\\ slaves\\ on\\ sugar\\ cane\\ plantation\\ resulted\\ in\\ rebellion\\,\\ as\\ the\\ slaves\\ perceived\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ being\\ denied\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ access\\ to\\ social\\ reproduction\\.\\ The\\ consciousness\\ of\\ the\\ rebels\\ was\\ couched\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ language\\ of\\ patron\\-client\\ relationships\\ and\\ the\\ moral\\ economy\\.\\ The\\ modification\\ of\\ Miers\\ and\\ Kopytoff\\&\\#39\\;s\\ functionalist\\ view\\ with\\ conflict\\ provides\\ new\\ insights\\ into\\ slavery\\ and\\ the\\ struggle\\ of\\ slaves\\ against\\ their\\ masters\\.\\ The\\ framework\\ is\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ applicable\\ to\\ New\\ World\\ slavery\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ author\\ provides\\ a\\ detailed\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ historical\\ evolution\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Swahili\\ coast\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ now\\ northern\\ Tanzania\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\:\\ Slave\\ Trades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 23\\ \\-\\-\\ Occidental\\,\\ Oriental\\,\\ and\\ African\\ Slave\\ Trades\\:\\ The\\ Contours\\ of\\ Demography\\ and\\ Enslavement\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\:\\ capitalism\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;numbers\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Arguments\\/Points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Differing\\ views\\:\\ Was\\ slavery\\ a\\ player\\ in\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ capitalism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eric\\ Williams\\ thesis\\:\\ claims\\ slavery\\ profits\\ birthed\\ capitalism\\ and\\ capitalists\\ worked\\ to\\ abolish\\ slavery\\ due\\ to\\ self\\ interest\\ regarding\\ wage\\ earners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roger\\ Anstey\\:\\ disagrees\\ with\\ Williams\\;\\ slave\\ trade\\ not\\ profitable\\ enough\\ for\\ this\\ to\\ happen\\;\\ need\\ broader\\ argument\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shift\\ from\\ focus\\ on\\ finding\\ the\\ precise\\ numbers\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ describe\\ Atl\\.\\ Slave\\ trade\\ to\\ social\\ history\\ \\(combine\\ human\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\ with\\ the\\ data\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Former\\:\\ Dubois\\,\\ Inkori\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Latter\\:\\ Smallwood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traders\\ commodify\\ slaves\\ but\\ slaves\\ desire\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;remain\\ human\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ch2\\ exerpt\\:\\ slave\\ revolt\\,\\ killed\\ crew\\,\\ some\\ escape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch5\\ p145\\:\\ Captain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ logger\\ entry\\:\\ could\\ understand\\ why\\ the\\ slave\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ pulled\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ boat\\ \\(aka\\ to\\ perpetual\\ misery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manning\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;idea\\:\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ 3\\ slave\\ trades\\ \\(Trans\\-Saharan\\,\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\,\\ and\\ Internal\\ African\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ event\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\:\\ Internal\\ African\\ slave\\ trade\\:\\ Africans\\ preferred\\ women\\ b\\/c\\ harder\\ to\\ handle\\ men\\ but\\ Atl\\ slave\\ traders\\ preferred\\ men\\ therefore\\ perfect\\ outlet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Baquaqua\\ \\(see\\ Law\\ reading\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Differing\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ Middle\\ Passage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ effect\\ on\\ Africans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Liminality\\ and\\ crisis\\ of\\ cognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ used\\ to\\ the\\ sea\\ therefore\\ unprepared\\ for\\ the\\ passage\\ \\(one\\ of\\ many\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ unprepared\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\some\\ think\\ that\\ theya\\ re\\ zapped\\ and\\ come\\ to\\ Americas\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;blank\\ slate\\ minds\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\others\\ argue\\ that\\ they\\ remember\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trauma\\/inability\\ to\\ respond\\ appropriately\\ to\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ this\\ course\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changing\\ views\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ data\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\ \\(eg\\.\\ capitalism\\)\\ v\\.\\ small\\ scale\\ \\(eg\\.\\ The\\ trauma\\ experienced\\ by\\ individual\\ slaves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Film\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Shackles\\ of\\ memory\\:\\ The\\ Atlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 12\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 25\\ \\-\\-\\ The\\ Plantation\\ Complex\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Atlantic\\ System\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Plantation\\ Complex\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Atlantic\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Crusades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ Crusade\\ was\\ in\\ 1095\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ primary\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ Crusades\\ was\\ to\\ wrest\\ Jerusalem\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Muslims\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dates\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\European\\ conquest\\ of\\ Cyprus\\:\\ 1190\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\European\\ conquest\\ of\\ Tyre\\:\\ 1123\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Italian\\ Merchants\\ and\\ Sugar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Italian\\ merchants\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ Europeans\\ to\\ be\\ familiar\\ with\\ sugar\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ commercial\\ dealings\\ they\\ had\\ with\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\.\\ Italian\\ merchants\\ offer\\ to\\ transport\\ crusaders\\ and\\ their\\ weaponry\\ to\\ the\\ arena\\ of\\ war\\.\\ They\\ would\\ be\\ rewarded\\ with\\ land\\ grants\\ based\\ on\\ lands\\ annexed\\ during\\ the\\ crusades\\.\\ Most\\ Europeans\\ who\\ were\\ given\\ land\\ grants\\ often\\ rented\\ them\\ out\\.\\ Italian\\ merchants\\,\\ however\\,\\ opted\\ not\\ to\\ rent\\ out\\ their\\ land\\ but\\ experiment\\ in\\ the\\ cultivation\\ of\\ sugar\\ using\\ muslim\\ captives\\ taken\\ during\\ the\\ crusades\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mediterranean\\ and\\ Atlantic\\ Island\\ Sugar\\ Plantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\prisoners\\ from\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ Crusades\\ were\\ plantation\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ production\\ expanded\\,\\ Europeans\\ began\\ to\\ use\\ Slavs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ C14th\\ and\\ C15th\\ small\\ numbers\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ Africans\\ were\\ used\\ in\\ Southern\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TURNING\\ POINT\\:\\ In\\ 1453\\,\\ Contantinople\\ was\\ captured\\,\\ bringing\\ the\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ sea\\ and\\ the\\ Caucasus\\ Mountains\\ under\\ Turk\\ Rule\\.\\ Slavs\\ were\\ now\\ under\\ Turk\\ rule\\ and\\ no\\ longer\\ accessible\\ as\\ slaves\\.\\ This\\ is\\ when\\ the\\ labor\\ source\\ that\\ came\\ from\\ Africa\\ began\\ to\\ increase\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TURNING\\ POINT\\ NUMBER\\ TWO\\:\\ Portuguese\\ maritime\\ exploration\\.\\ Portuguese\\ were\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ sea\\ trade\\ route\\ to\\ India\\ for\\ Asian\\ spices\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ growing\\ Ottoman\\ Empire\\,\\ they\\ would\\ otherwise\\ have\\ to\\ travel\\ by\\ land\\ through\\ the\\ empire\\ to\\ get\\ Asian\\ spices\\.\\ They\\ wanted\\ a\\ sea\\ route\\.\\ Also\\ they\\ wanted\\ gold\\ from\\ Africa\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ slavery\\ was\\ not\\ an\\ initial\\ incentive\\ for\\ maritime\\ exploration\\,\\ they\\ found\\ a\\ direct\\ source\\ of\\ slaves\\ when\\ they\\ explored\\ the\\ African\\ coast\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Two\\ Atlantic\\ Systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Atlantic\\ System\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spain\\ and\\ Portugal\\ established\\ these\\ as\\ settlement\\ colonies\\.\\ They\\ focused\\ mostly\\ on\\ substitences\\ agriculture\\ and\\ thus\\ were\\ not\\ really\\ dependant\\ on\\ the\\ export\\ market\\.\\ Colonists\\ usually\\ outnumbered\\ slaves\\ in\\ this\\ system\\.\\ Slaves\\ reproduced\\ naturally\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ Brazilian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hacienda\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\ Atlantic\\ System\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dutch\\,\\ French\\,\\ and\\ British\\ set\\ up\\ plantation\\ islands\\.\\ These\\ were\\ spurred\\ by\\ capatalist\\ forces\\.\\ Their\\ aim\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ money\\.\\ They\\ had\\ food\\ imported\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ producing\\ cash\\ crops\\ not\\ designed\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ population\\.\\ Slaves\\ did\\ not\\ reproduce\\ themselves\\.\\ Supporting\\ slave\\ children\\ until\\ they\\ were\\ ready\\ to\\ work\\ was\\ not\\ financially\\ advantageous\\ for\\ the\\ slave\\ owners\\.\\ New\\ slaves\\ were\\ just\\ brought\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ Dutch\\ got\\ booted\\ out\\ of\\ Brazil\\ by\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ they\\ decided\\ not\\ to\\ create\\ any\\ more\\ sugar\\ plantations\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ Go\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ British\\ who\\ agree\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ with\\ technology\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ carry\\ their\\ trade\\.\\ With\\ Dutch\\ investment\\ and\\ French\\ and\\ British\\ support\\,\\ sugar\\ islands\\ are\\ set\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\:\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Haiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Janet\\ Ewald\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Slavery\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ Slave\\ Trades\\ from\\ Africa\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Historical\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 97\\:2\\ \\(1992\\)\\,\\ 465\\-86\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\African\\ slave\\ trade\\:\\ Atlantic\\,\\ across\\ Sahara\\ Desert\\,\\ Red\\ Sea\\,\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ \\(centered\\ on\\ island\\ of\\ Zanzibar\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ ended\\ in\\ Muslim\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Began\\ before\\ Atlantic\\ slave\\ trade\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ places\\ lasted\\ into\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transported\\ within\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lovejoy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ transformed\\ when\\ slaves\\ play\\ ansd\\ essential\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lineage\\ or\\ domestic\\ mode\\ of\\ production\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ slave\\ mode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africa\\ responded\\ to\\ outside\\ forces\\ more\\ than\\ it\\ influenced\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africans\\ working\\ on\\ plantations\\ fueled\\ the\\ economic\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ Americas\\ and\\ transformed\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ basin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africa\\ yielded\\ slaves\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ as\\ much\\ value\\ from\\ them\\ as\\ Europeans\\ could\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ in\\ the\\ Americas\\ quickly\\ paid\\ for\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Miller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ trade\\ allowed\\ Europeans\\ to\\ conserve\\ and\\ accumulate\\ capital\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ industrial\\ technology\\ and\\ wages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nurtured\\ capitalist\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ did\\ trade\\ w\\/Africa\\ in\\ particular\\ allow\\ Europeans\\ to\\ accumulate\\ capital\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ political\\ economies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europe\\ and\\ Asia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ political\\ economies\\ based\\ on\\ exchange\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sought\\ gold\\ and\\ silver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africa\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ based\\ on\\ use\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sought\\ rights\\ to\\ the\\ loyalty\\ and\\ labor\\ of\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tried\\ to\\ accumulate\\ by\\ borrowing\\ trade\\ goods\\ \\(esp\\.\\ cloth\\)\\ and\\ attracting\\ followers\\ with\\ these\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;great\\ transformation\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ West\\-Central\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\before\\ slaves\\ in\\ Africa\\ produced\\ commodities\\ for\\ export\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\kings\\ and\\ village\\ headmen\\ fell\\ from\\ power\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ replaced\\ by\\ strong\\,\\ armed\\ men\\ who\\ gathered\\ dependents\\ and\\ slaves\\ \\(mostly\\ women\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manning\\:\\ slave\\ exports\\ reduced\\ regional\\ pop\\ of\\ Angola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Miller\\:\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ reproduction\\ offset\\ losses\\ of\\ Africans\\ taken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ use\\-value\\ economies\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ merchant\\ capitalism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ network\\ of\\ credit\\ and\\ debt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africans\\ eager\\ to\\ accept\\ European\\ goods\\ on\\ credit\\ to\\ then\\ get\\ rights\\ over\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shortage\\ of\\ capital\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ Europeans\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ cash\\ \\(which\\ was\\ often\\)\\ they\\ called\\ on\\ African\\ investments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Triggered\\ chain\\ reaction\\ of\\ liquidation\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Africans\\ surrendered\\ what\\ they\\ valued\\ most\\ to\\ pay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\*Pivotal\\ figure\\ in\\ enslavement\\:\\ trader\\,\\ chief\\,\\ or\\ king\\ trying\\ to\\ stave\\ off\\ creditors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Curtin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ deal\\ with\\ morality\\,\\ Miller\\ \\&\\;\\ Manning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ deal\\ with\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miller\\/Manning\\/Africans\\:\\ use\\ of\\ metaphors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\link\\ slave\\ trade\\ with\\ death\\ and\\ the\\ transformation\\ into\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slavery\\ as\\ a\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islamic\\ world\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ great\\ transformation\\ to\\ industrial\\ capitalism\\,\\ plantation\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ play\\ a\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ slavery\\,\\ shared\\ legal\\ systems\\ and\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ in\\ Islamic\\ Africa\\ and\\ external\\ Islamic\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Atlantic\\ Africa\\:\\ logic\\ economic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manning\\:\\ resulted\\ in\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ slavery\\ in\\ Atlantic\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Islamic\\ Africa\\:\\ logic\\ ideological\\ and\\ institutional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;African\\ Islam\\&rdquo\\;\\ impelled\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ideology\\ supported\\ both\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ masters\\ and\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\difference\\ btwn\\ African\\ slavery\\ and\\ slavery\\ in\\ African\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lovejoy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ performed\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ work\\ bc\\ social\\ structures\\ were\\ on\\ a\\ larger\\ scale\\ than\\ kinship\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\.\\ Slaves\\ important\\ to\\ local\\ production\\ w\\/o\\ strong\\ links\\ to\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ export\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Framework\\ for\\ slavery\\ under\\ 3\\ settings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Regional\\ commercial\\ network\\ between\\ Africa\\,\\ Americas\\,\\ and\\ Islamic\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Provided\\ transport\\ and\\ markets\\ transforming\\ human\\ beings\\ into\\ commodities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overland\\ and\\ maritime\\ trade\\ flourished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Merchants\\ invested\\ in\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\E\\.\\ Africa\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slaves\\ began\\ to\\ produce\\ export\\ commodities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ end\\ of\\ overseas\\ slave\\ trade\\ intensified\\ exploitation\\ of\\ slaves\\ within\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\African\\ commercial\\ frontier\\ expanded\\ b\\/c\\ European\\ factories\\ manufactured\\ exports\\ for\\ low\\ prices\\,\\ middle\\ classes\\ brought\\ African\\ imports\\ at\\ high\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ successful\\ traders\\ invested\\ in\\ foreign\\ trade\\,\\ no\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Persian\\ Gulf\\ economies\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rely\\ on\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Omani\\ merchants\\ profited\\ from\\ slave\\ trade\\ and\\ financed\\ the\\ Gulf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ filled\\ temporary\\ labor\\ shortages\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ control\\ over\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mobile\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Presence\\ of\\ other\\ workers\\ influenced\\ where\\ slaves\\ worked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ violence\\ enslaved\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ ruling\\ elites\\ used\\ slaves\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ surplus\\ for\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\States\\ encouraged\\ \\&ldquo\\;stateless\\&rdquo\\;\\ organization\\ on\\ their\\ frontiers\\ for\\ enslavement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roberts\\:\\ state\\ power\\ stimulated\\ and\\ depended\\ on\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Underpinned\\ state\\ formation\\,\\ political\\ processes\\ transformed\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ and\\ warriors\\ gathered\\ resources\\ to\\ turn\\ them\\ over\\ to\\ other\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frontier\\ warfare\\ provided\\ security\\ for\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ kingdom\\ and\\ slaves\\ for\\ the\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islamic\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muslim\\ rulers\\ legitimated\\ enslavement\\ on\\ non\\-Muslims\\ and\\ defined\\ relationship\\ of\\ slaves\\ and\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dictated\\ distribution\\ of\\ war\\ booty\\ and\\ taxation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alienated\\ merchants\\,\\ no\\ cohesive\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ slavery\\ so\\ Muslim\\ merchants\\ could\\ escape\\ instability\\ and\\ demands\\ of\\ Islamic\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Household\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ most\\ slaves\\ worked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Household\\ heads\\ preferred\\ slaves\\ over\\ family\\ or\\ wage\\ labor\\ for\\ agricultural\\ work\\ bc\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ try\\ and\\ claim\\ land\\ and\\ were\\ more\\ loyal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Masters\\ refused\\ to\\ use\\ slaves\\ in\\ Mesopotamia\\ b\\/c\\ cultivating\\ land\\ meant\\ you\\ were\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ growth\\ of\\ commerce\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ emphasis\\ on\\ privacy\\ of\\ households\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slaves\\ used\\ to\\ preserve\\ privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transformation\\ of\\ slavery\\ reached\\ its\\ height\\ just\\ before\\ colonial\\ conquest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;civilizing\\ mission\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ end\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sometimes\\ unintentionally\\ encouraged\\ slavery\\ or\\ replaced\\ it\\ w\\/other\\ coercive\\ labor\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slavery\\ ended\\ due\\ to\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\environment\\ set\\ up\\ by\\ colonial\\ regime\\ helped\\ \\(political\\ economy\\ helpful\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\mastered\\ turned\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ families\\ \\(wives\\ and\\ kids\\)\\ for\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\racist\\ ideology\\ grew\\ as\\ slavery\\ ended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africans\\ responded\\ by\\ creating\\ pan\\-African\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tried\\ to\\ change\\ ideology\\ to\\ fit\\ new\\ captive\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ideas\\ about\\ shaping\\ of\\ slavery\\ by\\ Islamic\\ ideology\\ emerged\\ from\\ confrontations\\ over\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slavery\\ sanctioned\\ by\\ Islamic\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slavery\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ ended\\ by\\ using\\ institutions\\ of\\ Islam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\used\\ Islamic\\ law\\ to\\ enable\\ slaves\\ to\\ buy\\ their\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\buying\\ slaves\\ costly\\,\\ manumission\\ cheap\\ so\\ encouraged\\ masters\\ to\\ free\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\manumitted\\ slaves\\ but\\ often\\ bound\\ freedmen\\ to\\ them\\ by\\ clientage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\strong\\ British\\/European\\ ideas\\ that\\ slavery\\ was\\ peculiarly\\ \\&ldquo\\;Islamic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smallwood\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Saltwater\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Entire\\ Book\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ Political\\ Economy\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\ Ship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ African\\ traders\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ gold\\,\\ they\\ traded\\ captive\\ people\\ for\\ European\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transport\\ across\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ was\\ most\\ expensive\\ part\\ of\\ Atlantic\\ trade\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gold\\ was\\ efficient\\ to\\ carry\\ across\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ b\\/c\\ gold\\ took\\ up\\ very\\ little\\ space\\ on\\ the\\ ship\\ but\\ was\\ worth\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contrast\\ with\\ people\\:\\ slaves\\ were\\ expensive\\ to\\ transport\\ so\\ ships\\ tried\\ to\\ create\\ economies\\ of\\ scale\\ by\\ packing\\ lots\\ of\\ people\\ onto\\ the\\ ships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ slave\\ ship\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ the\\ journey\\ until\\ it\\ had\\ maximized\\ slave\\ numbers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Because\\ human\\ beings\\ were\\ treated\\ as\\ inanimate\\ objects\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ bodies\\ stowed\\ aboard\\ a\\ ship\\ was\\ limited\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ physical\\ dimensions\\ an\\ configuration\\ of\\ those\\ bodies\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(68\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maximizing\\ size\\ of\\ slave\\ cargo\\ key\\ to\\ profitability\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ hold\\:\\ specially\\ designed\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ people\\;\\ shackles\\,\\ bolts\\,\\ platforms\\,\\ a\\ bean\\ room\\ to\\ store\\ food\\ for\\ slaves\\;\\ slave\\ ships\\ could\\ hold\\ an\\ average\\ of\\ 300\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bingham\\:\\ this\\ guy\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ put\\ 350\\ on\\ his\\ slave\\ ship\\;\\ instead\\ he\\ took\\ 450\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Captains\\ were\\ paid\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ slaves\\ they\\ brought\\,\\ not\\ total\\ profit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Before\\ late\\ C18th\\:\\ ships\\ not\\ specifically\\ built\\ to\\ carry\\ slaves\\;\\ captains\\ made\\ regular\\ ships\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Case\\ study\\&mdash\\;Peter\\ Blake\\:\\ cut\\ air\\ holes\\ into\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sides\\;\\ constructed\\ platforms\\ to\\ add\\ surface\\ area\\;\\ set\\ up\\ furnace\\ to\\ cook\\ slaves\\&rsquo\\;\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Captives\\ segregated\\ by\\ sex\\ in\\ quarters\\ below\\ decks\\;\\ erected\\ barricades\\ to\\ separate\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ above\\ deck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\African\\ owners\\ exploited\\ captives\\&rsquo\\;\\ labor\\ until\\ a\\ dealer\\ visited\\;\\ African\\ brokers\\ then\\ held\\ slaves\\ until\\ European\\ ship\\ captains\\ began\\ receiving\\ them\\;\\ African\\ brokers\\ held\\ slaves\\ until\\ arrival\\ of\\ European\\ ships\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ command\\ higher\\ prices\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ between\\ Akwamu\\ and\\ Agona\\ built\\ up\\ supply\\ of\\ people\\ needed\\ to\\ off\\-load\\:\\ made\\ slaves\\ easier\\ to\\ come\\ by\\;\\ gold\\ difficult\\ to\\ acquire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Standard\\ instructions\\ for\\ ship\\ captains\\:\\ twice\\ as\\ many\\ men\\ as\\ women\\,\\ nobody\\ under\\ 15\\ or\\ over\\ 40\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reality\\:\\ over\\ half\\ of\\ adults\\ purchased\\ were\\ women\\,\\ nearly\\ a\\ quarter\\ of\\ population\\ died\\ or\\ escaped\\ before\\ group\\ boarded\\ ship\\,\\ epidemic\\ disease\\ raged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Qualities\\ that\\ mattered\\ to\\ suppliers\\:\\ whether\\ captives\\ would\\ survive\\ journey\\ or\\ not\\&mdash\\;commodities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Quality\\ subordinate\\ to\\ quantity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ sellers\\ were\\ in\\ advantageous\\ position\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ could\\ offer\\ sickly\\,\\ too\\ young\\,\\ too\\ old\\,\\ or\\ women\\ instead\\ of\\ healthy\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\:\\ more\\ valuable\\ than\\ men\\ on\\ African\\ market\\,\\ but\\ also\\ easier\\ to\\ obtain\\ and\\ dispose\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ hard\\ to\\ acquire\\&mdash\\;they\\ appeared\\ in\\ irregular\\ bursts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europeans\\:\\ compared\\ different\\ prices\\ of\\ slaves\\ along\\ coast\\;\\ African\\ investors\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ this\\ advantage\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ lacked\\ shipping\\ technology\\&mdash\\;this\\ info\\ asymmetry\\ meant\\ African\\ traders\\ got\\ way\\ less\\ money\\ than\\ Europeans\\ did\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\,\\ on\\ Gold\\ Coast\\,\\ African\\ traders\\ still\\ sold\\ captives\\ for\\ more\\ money\\ than\\ they\\ were\\ worth\\ in\\ domestic\\ market\\&mdash\\;this\\ was\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ time\\ constraints\\ of\\ European\\ traders\\ in\\ African\\ market\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demand\\ for\\ slaves\\ on\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ outpaced\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Annual\\ loss\\ of\\ 1\\,500\\-2\\,000\\ people\\ in\\ last\\ decades\\ of\\ C17th\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ significant\\ in\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ w\\/\\ population\\ of\\ over\\ a\\ million\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gold\\ Coast\\:\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ all\\ goods\\ traded\\ through\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\ went\\ through\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accounting\\ system\\ of\\ slave\\ ships\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accounts\\ lost\\ value\\ for\\ acquired\\ slaves\\&mdash\\;b\\/c\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ trade\\ goods\\ for\\ slaves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Until\\ aggregate\\ of\\ captives\\ reached\\ capacity\\,\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ enter\\ Credits\\ of\\ ledger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Departure\\ of\\ slave\\ ship\\ caused\\ \\&ldquo\\;shipping\\ slaves\\&rdquo\\;\\ column\\ to\\ be\\ credited\\ by\\ general\\ account\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economic\\ rationalizations\\ \\(economies\\ of\\ scale\\,\\ efficiency\\ of\\ production\\,\\ meeting\\ market\\ demand\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ justified\\ objectification\\ of\\ slaves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Anomalous\\ Intimacies\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\ Cargo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Atlantic\\ commodification\\ meant\\ that\\ strangers\\ were\\ stuck\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;anomalous\\ intimacy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ cargo\\:\\ antithesis\\ of\\ community\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europeans\\ knew\\ that\\ cargoes\\ had\\ varying\\ degrees\\ of\\ social\\/ethnic\\ complexity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Captain\\ Brome\\:\\ recognized\\ disagreement\\ between\\ captives\\ from\\ Jolof\\ and\\ Bambaras\\ \\(Bambara\\=interior\\ people\\)\\ choosing\\ sides\\ as\\ a\\ collective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experienced\\ captains\\ knew\\ that\\ keeping\\ many\\ captives\\ of\\ one\\ town\\ and\\ language\\ together\\ would\\ risk\\ mutiny\\ \\(captain\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ferrers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ this\\&mdash\\;he\\ died\\ in\\ a\\ mutiny\\;\\ captives\\ continued\\ mutinying\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ until\\ they\\ reached\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ local\\ planters\\&rsquo\\;\\ sale\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ ships\\ gave\\ slaves\\ generic\\ names\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ the\\ diversity\\ of\\ their\\ boats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Generic\\ terms\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Gambian\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Angolan\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Gold\\ Coast\\&rdquo\\;\\ cargo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ contributed\\ to\\ diversity\\ of\\ captives\\&mdash\\;Asante\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myths\\ show\\ origins\\ of\\ matrilineal\\ systems\\:\\ originator\\ of\\ Asante\\&rsquo\\;s\\ royal\\ Oyoko\\ clan\\,\\ Ankyewa\\ Nyame\\,\\ descended\\ on\\ a\\ long\\ gold\\ chain\\ from\\ heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showed\\ that\\ Oyoko\\ believed\\ they\\ came\\ from\\ this\\ one\\ specific\\ place\\ of\\ origin\\ and\\ no\\ where\\ else\\;\\ anyone\\ else\\ who\\ arrives\\ is\\ an\\ outsider\\ that\\ is\\ integrated\\ \\(continuum\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genealogy\\ legitimized\\ territorial\\ claims\\ to\\ authority\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ankyewa\\ Nyame\\&rsquo\\;s\\ myth\\ functioned\\ like\\ a\\ political\\ agenda\\ would\\ in\\ Europe\\:\\ to\\ integrate\\ distinct\\ institutions\\ of\\ belonging\\ into\\ one\\ axis\\ of\\ political\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultural\\ identity\\ and\\ historical\\ weight\\ of\\ kinship\\ meant\\ that\\ state\\ was\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warring\\ states\\ sometimes\\ shared\\ ties\\ of\\ affinity\\ that\\ prohibited\\ sale\\ of\\ captives\\&mdash\\;Abbraers\\ and\\ Cormanteen\\ people\\ were\\ at\\ war\\ but\\ were\\ one\\ nation\\.\\ How\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ ideas\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ fit\\ perfectly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethnic\\ identity\\ was\\ between\\ overlapping\\ claims\\ of\\ state\\ and\\ clan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\C17th\\:\\ Asante\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ nation\\ \\(had\\ symbols\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ but\\ existed\\ b\\/w\\ communities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impact\\:\\ Europeans\\ were\\ effed\\ because\\ not\\ all\\ armed\\ conflicts\\ resulted\\ in\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Captives\\ offered\\ for\\ sale\\ to\\ Atlantic\\ trade\\ were\\ those\\ for\\ whom\\ \\&ldquo\\;ethnic\\ difference\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ shared\\ kinship\\ affiliation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(117\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ on\\ slave\\ ships\\&mdash\\;dialects\\ were\\ sometimes\\ close\\(\\ Ex\\&mdash\\;Akan\\ language\\)\\,\\ bilingualism\\ common\\,\\ widely\\ used\\ lingua\\ franca\\,\\ mobility\\ of\\ populations\\ \\(women\\ moved\\ to\\ husbands\\&rsquo\\;\\ villages\\,\\ occupational\\ mobility\\ in\\ traders\\ and\\ fishermen\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concepts\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Akan\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Angolans\\ are\\ mistaken\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Captives\\ in\\ a\\ hull\\ were\\ between\\ integrated\\ \\&ldquo\\;groups\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ random\\ \\&ldquo\\;crowds\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ captives\\ were\\ consciously\\ embracing\\ a\\ diaspora\\&mdash\\;they\\ were\\ forced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ cargo\\:\\ a\\ cultural\\ formation\\&mdash\\;assuming\\ that\\ shared\\ cultural\\ traits\\ constitute\\ a\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ in\\ a\\ hull\\ were\\ as\\ close\\ together\\ as\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ during\\ sex\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ in\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;intermediary\\ space\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;conscious\\ of\\ local\\ identity\\ but\\ also\\ of\\ common\\ fate\\ in\\ hull\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ had\\ in\\ common\\:\\ traumatic\\ alienation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ HALEY\\ THUN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Commodification\\:\\ did\\ not\\ change\\ fact\\ that\\ slave\\ cargo\\ consisted\\ of\\ individual\\ subjects\\-\\ each\\ has\\ social\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ ship\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;antithesis\\ of\\ community\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ figure\\ out\\ captive\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;exploration\\ of\\ social\\ landscape\\ of\\ Gold\\ Coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;unique\\ social\\ tapestry\\ of\\ slave\\ cargo\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\,\\ ethnicity\\,\\ cultural\\ practice\\,\\ social\\ configurations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Of\\ Several\\ Nations\\ and\\ Languages\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ agents\\ understood\\ cargoes\\ they\\ carried\\ had\\ social\\ and\\ ethnic\\ complexity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ America\\ in\\ 1643\\,\\ Gambia\\ River\\ to\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\421\\ slaves\\ from\\ trading\\ networks\\ on\\ Gambia\\ River\\,\\ 40\\ captured\\ at\\ French\\ assault\\ on\\ Goree\\ Island\\ and\\ Saint\\ Louis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ mutiny\\ on\\ board\\ where\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jellofes\\ \\[Jolofs\\]\\ rose\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Bambaras\\ sided\\ with\\ the\\ Master\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bambara\\=\\ interior\\ people\\ who\\ reached\\ coast\\ via\\ Soninke\\ trading\\ state\\ Gajaaga\\,\\ 421\\ assemeled\\ at\\ Gambia\\ River\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jellofs\\=\\ from\\ Jolof\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Senegal\\ River\\,\\ never\\ figured\\ prominently\\ in\\ slave\\ exports\\,\\ rebels\\ on\\ the\\ America\\,\\ likely\\ domestic\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Ferrers\\ in\\ 1722\\,\\ Cape\\ Coast\\ Castle\\ to\\ Jamaica\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Captain\\-\\ first\\ timer\\,\\ 300\\ slaves\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ from\\ Cetre\\-Crue\\ after\\ coastal\\ people\\ had\\ just\\ ended\\ war\\ with\\ inland\\ people\\,\\ got\\ a\\ good\\ rate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Veteran\\ slaving\\ captain\\,\\ Snelgrave\\,\\ warned\\ of\\ having\\ too\\ many\\ slaves\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ \\&ldquo\\;town\\ and\\ language\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ slaves\\ on\\ this\\ ship\\ staple\\ diet\\ was\\ rice\\ and\\ the\\ captain\\ had\\ not\\ purchased\\ any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ aboard\\ the\\ Ferrers\\ staged\\ a\\ revolt\\,\\ took\\ the\\ captain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ and\\ eighty\\ captives\\,\\ two\\ other\\ rebellions\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ the\\ regions\\ that\\ exported\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ market\\ encompassed\\ a\\ pluraility\\ of\\ ethnicities\\ and\\ speech\\ communities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Senegambia\\,\\ Sierra\\ Leone\\,\\ the\\ Windward\\ Coast\\,\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\,\\ the\\ Bight\\ of\\ Benin\\,\\ the\\ Bight\\ of\\ Biafra\\,\\ West\\-Central\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ southeast\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\None\\ of\\ these\\ regions\\ correspeonded\\ to\\ national\\ bodies\\ in\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ ships\\ obtained\\ their\\ cargo\\ from\\ only\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ ports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ports\\ were\\ collection\\ sites\\,\\ had\\ slaves\\ from\\ all\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gold\\ Coast\\-\\ regional\\ system\\ of\\ supply\\ allowed\\ slave\\ traders\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;complete\\&rdquo\\;\\ cargo\\ from\\ large\\ stretch\\ of\\ territory\\-\\ Cape\\ Three\\ Points\\ to\\ Volta\\ River\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cargoes\\ regularly\\ comprised\\ of\\ multiple\\ ethnicities\\,\\ languages\\,\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diversity\\ of\\ cargoes\\ at\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ can\\ be\\ measured\\ by\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ dialects\\ of\\ Akan\\ spoken\\ along\\ 100\\ mile\\ stretch\\ from\\ Axim\\ to\\ Kormantin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guan\\-\\ language\\ of\\ regions\\ pre\\-Akan\\ settlers\\-\\ dominant\\ in\\ Winneba\\ and\\ Beraku\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ga\\-\\ language\\ of\\ coastal\\ Accra\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ewe\\-\\ language\\ of\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ Volta\\ River\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Variations\\ of\\ Gbe\\,\\ Aja\\,\\ Fon\\ and\\ others\\ from\\ Whydah\\,\\ Offra\\ and\\ Jakin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ Asante\\ state\\ entered\\ Atlantic\\ market\\ in\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\-\\ their\\ reach\\ into\\ the\\ northern\\ hinterland\\ changed\\ slave\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethnic\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gold\\ Coast\\ changed\\ from\\ early\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ to\\ later\\,\\ therefore\\ social\\ identity\\ of\\ slaves\\ changed\\&mdash\\;more\\ complexity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ did\\ ethnic\\ labels\\ actually\\ have\\ in\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daily\\ lives\\?\\ At\\ what\\ level\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ orgaization\\ did\\ \\&ldquo\\;identity\\&rdquo\\;\\ reside\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Europeans\\ mapped\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ by\\ details\\ relevant\\ to\\ them\\-\\ where\\ there\\ was\\ gold\\ and\\ where\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ which\\ areas\\ had\\ good\\ merchants\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ maps\\ provide\\ interesting\\ background\\ in\\ search\\ to\\ explain\\ socioethnic\\ background\\ of\\ the\\ Gold\\ coast\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1629\\ Dutch\\ map\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Regions\\ of\\ the\\ G\\[old\\]\\ C\\[oast\\]\\ in\\ Guinea\\&rdquo\\;\\ showed\\ 43\\ landschapen\\ \\(territorial\\ units\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ Akan\\ terms\\ oman\\:\\ political\\ units\\ and\\ afamu\\:\\ geographical\\ units\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ what\\ extend\\ did\\ states\\ correspond\\ to\\ ethnic\\ groups\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concern\\ here\\ is\\ who\\ occupied\\ this\\ landscape\\ from\\ which\\ Europeans\\ created\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;slave\\ cargoes\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ how\\ did\\ those\\ inhabitants\\ define\\ themselves\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\ Are\\ You\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Asante\\ tradition\\,\\ Ankyewa\\ Nyame\\,\\ the\\ original\\ ancestress\\ of\\ royal\\ Oyoko\\ clan\\,\\ appeared\\ in\\ forest\\ of\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ by\\ descending\\ from\\ the\\ sky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stories\\ from\\ Akan\\ speaking\\ communities\\ have\\ ancenstors\\ emerging\\ from\\ holes\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\ or\\ from\\ the\\ sky\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Oyoko\\-\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ primordial\\ settlers\\,\\ history\\ begins\\ here\\-\\ therefore\\ Ankyewa\\ Nyame\\ appears\\ in\\ oral\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Story\\ commemorates\\ cycles\\ of\\ migratin\\ in\\ which\\ Akan\\ speaking\\ peoples\\ gradually\\ filled\\ forest\\ of\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ dispersal\\ and\\ settlement\\ of\\ Akan\\ described\\ here\\ but\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ matriclan\\ the\\ Oyoko\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orgin\\ of\\ matriclans\\ and\\ matrilineal\\ systems\\ of\\ descent\\ common\\ in\\ the\\ region\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Akan\\-speaking\\ groups\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Matriclan\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ three\\ levels\\ of\\ kinship\\ orgnization\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ economic\\ power\\ in\\ Akan\\-speaking\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Matriclan\\ \\(abusua\\ kesee\\)\\ the\\ largest\\ \\,\\ matrilineage\\ \\(abusua\\)\\ and\\ lineage\\ system\\ \\(cyafunu\\ koro\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\=\\ everyone\\ bound\\ first\\ to\\ extended\\ family\\ then\\ to\\ matrilineage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ matriclan\\ as\\ to\\ facilitate\\ the\\ integration\\ and\\ social\\ cohesion\\ of\\ societies\\ shaped\\ by\\ incorporation\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\ of\\ immigrant\\ strangers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Groups\\ brought\\ together\\ by\\ recent\\ migration\\ were\\ fictively\\ integrated\\-\\ geneology\\=\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ blood\\ and\\ kinship\\ ties\\ through\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geneology\\ was\\ important\\ vector\\ of\\ ethnic\\ distinction\\ within\\ culture\\ of\\ Akan\\ speaking\\ peoples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oral\\ traditions\\ illutrate\\ antituqity\\ of\\ kinship\\ institutions\\ \\(matriclans\\ or\\ abusua\\)\\ and\\ emergence\\ of\\ centralized\\ territorial\\ institions\\ \\(the\\ polity\\ or\\ oman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ commoners\\ and\\ slaves\\ history\\ and\\ geneology\\ were\\ not\\ particularly\\ reliable\\ or\\ useful\\ anchors\\ of\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ integration\\ of\\ clan\\ and\\ state\\ derived\\ bases\\ of\\ identity\\ was\\ not\\ possible\\ for\\ non\\-elite\\ Akan\\ socities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Issues\\ of\\ warfare\\,\\ refugee\\ displacement\\,\\ slavery\\ damaged\\ political\\ significance\\ of\\ kinship\\ ties\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ state\\ was\\ not\\ necessarily\\ also\\ a\\ national\\ body\\ \\(it\\ had\\ no\\ definite\\ correlation\\ in\\ national\\ or\\ ethnic\\ membership\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ distinct\\ axes\\ of\\ authority\\:\\ kinship\\ \\(matriclan\\)\\ and\\ kingship\\ \\(state\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethnic\\ identity\\ connected\\ to\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oral\\ traditions\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ perceive\\ the\\ complex\\ social\\ topography\\ of\\ the\\ region\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ geography\\ cannot\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ an\\ ethnically\\ homogenous\\ people\\ who\\ called\\ themselves\\ the\\ Akan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;it\\ is\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ competitive\\ claims\\ to\\ resources\\ and\\ power\\ waged\\ by\\ groups\\ whose\\ identities\\ were\\ rooted\\ \\(not\\ in\\ a\\ shared\\ language\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;culture\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ interplay\\ of\\ local\\,\\ historically\\ contingent\\ markers\\ of\\ affiliation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Identity\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ multivalent\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Another\\ King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Country\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ benefited\\ Europeans\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ the\\ region\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ geography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Royal\\ African\\ Company\\,\\ Cape\\ Coast\\ Castle\\,\\ 1682\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ warfare\\ between\\ two\\ polities\\ near\\ Anomabu\\ officials\\ at\\ castle\\ were\\ confused\\ because\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ captives\\ taken\\ appeared\\ at\\ the\\ fort\\ for\\ sale\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ warring\\ states\\ shared\\ ties\\ of\\ affinity\\ that\\ prohibited\\ sale\\ of\\ captives\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europeans\\ commonly\\ tried\\ to\\ define\\ African\\ polities\\ in\\ the\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;countries\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;kings\\&rdquo\\;\\ mirroring\\ the\\ European\\ nation\\-states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ England\\ was\\ designated\\ a\\ place\\ inhabited\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;English\\&rdquo\\;\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Gold\\ coast\\ \\&ldquo\\;countries\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ not\\ nations\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ seventeeth\\ century\\,\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ kingship\\ could\\ not\\ override\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ kinship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ large\\ supplies\\ of\\ slaves\\ became\\ available\\ in\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ war\\,\\ not\\ all\\ armed\\ conflicts\\ produced\\ captives\\ available\\ for\\ export\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ market\\ hungered\\ to\\ seize\\ all\\ who\\ became\\ captives\\,\\ in\\ whatever\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ politics\\ determined\\ which\\ captives\\ would\\ actually\\ end\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ changed\\ in\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ when\\ the\\ insittuiton\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ aqcuired\\ sufficient\\ legitimacy\\ and\\ political\\ power\\ was\\ not\\ longer\\ based\\ on\\ kinship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Became\\ possible\\ and\\ common\\ to\\ treat\\ kinsmen\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ from\\ a\\ different\\ country\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\boundaries\\ of\\ countries\\ came\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethnic\\ and\\ linguistic\\ diversity\\ did\\ not\\ mean\\ people\\ could\\ not\\ communicate\\ with\\ one\\ another\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speakers\\ of\\ other\\ major\\ languages\\ often\\ found\\ they\\ could\\ understand\\ many\\ dialects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Measure\\ of\\ bilingualism\\ common\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marriages\\,\\ work\\,\\ wars\\,\\ etc\\.\\ regularly\\ put\\ people\\ in\\ motion\\ within\\ the\\ broader\\ landscape\\-\\ especially\\ women\\,\\ traders\\ and\\ fishermen\\,\\ and\\ war\\ prisoners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\ linguistic\\ similarities\\ did\\ not\\ enable\\ easy\\ relations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Communities\\ of\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ cannot\\ be\\ reduced\\ to\\ monolithic\\ groups\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Akan\\,\\ the\\ Angolans\\,\\ the\\ Biafrans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Too\\ much\\ socioethnic\\ complexities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Huge\\ variety\\ and\\ complexity\\ for\\ possible\\ affiliations\\ and\\ conflict\\ among\\ people\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;cargoes\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ African\\ diaspora\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shared\\ cultural\\ traits\\ do\\ not\\ automatically\\ constitute\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ on\\ ships\\ only\\ really\\ had\\ in\\ common\\ their\\ isolation\\ from\\ their\\ kin\\ and\\ ethnic\\ communities\\ of\\ origin\\ \\(which\\ defined\\ their\\ individual\\ and\\ group\\ identity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ cargo\\ put\\ captives\\ into\\ setting\\ where\\ commuication\\ was\\ a\\ necessity\\ and\\ interaction\\ took\\ place\\ on\\ an\\ unparalleled\\ level\\ of\\ intimacy\\ and\\ urgency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ shackles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ they\\ engaged\\ in\\ these\\ situations\\ the\\ captives\\ laid\\ the\\ groundwork\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ diasporic\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ would\\ only\\ become\\ known\\ in\\ setting\\ of\\ Americas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ slave\\ ship\\ over\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ was\\ an\\ intermediary\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Africans\\ on\\ these\\ ships\\ probably\\&mdash\\;looked\\ back\\ at\\ African\\ landscape\\ to\\ see\\ society\\ increasingly\\ commited\\ to\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ people\\ for\\ goods\\,\\ felt\\ the\\ terror\\ of\\ the\\ open\\ sea\\ and\\ unnatural\\ society\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ ship\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ horizon\\ felt\\ forbidding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Americas\\ the\\ social\\ fabric\\ of\\ African\\ communities\\ experienced\\ disapperance\\ of\\ kinship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ cargo\\ \\=\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ collective\\ of\\ isolated\\ and\\ alienated\\ persons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Constituted\\ a\\ novel\\ social\\ formation\\ that\\ bore\\ no\\ correlation\\ to\\ the\\ communities\\ they\\ left\\ behind\\ and\\ therefore\\ no\\ recognizable\\ meaning\\ or\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\commodity\\ and\\ slaves\\ trying\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lots\\ of\\ journal\\ entries\\ by\\ Captain\\ that\\ lists\\ all\\ of\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mentions\\ the\\ Equiano\\ diary\\ and\\ Equiano\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ on\\ the\\ slave\\ ship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ slaves\\ very\\ confused\\ as\\ to\\ why\\ they\\ were\\ on\\ a\\ ship\\ since\\ there\\ were\\ spirits\\ in\\ the\\ sea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ Africans\\,\\ ship\\ was\\ very\\ confusing\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ ruined\\ their\\ since\\ of\\ time\\ since\\ it\\ continued\\ moving\\ without\\ a\\ \\:discernible\\ direction\\ or\\ destination\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ land\\ vanished\\ from\\ the\\ horizon\\ altogether\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\KEY\\ WORDS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Commodity\\ and\\ v\\.\\ Humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ competing\\ narratives\\ of\\ Slave\\ Experience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ narrative\\:\\ Ship\\ as\\ height\\ of\\ maritime\\ commercial\\ endeavor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ narrative\\:\\ Lonely\\ attempts\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ continue\\ functioning\\ as\\ subjective\\ beings\\-persons\\ possessing\\ independent\\ will\\ and\\ agency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Africans\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ dark\\ about\\ their\\ future\\ and\\ constantly\\ asked\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ done\\ with\\ us\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Here\\ \\[on\\ the\\ ship\\]\\ their\\ commodification\\ built\\ toward\\ a\\ crescendo\\ that\\ threatened\\ never\\ to\\ arrive\\,\\ but\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ African\\ captives\\ suspended\\ in\\ an\\ agony\\ whose\\ language\\ no\\ one\\ knew\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(125\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Atlantic\\ Time\\-Space\\ and\\ Its\\ Reckoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stephanie\\ Smallwood\\ cites\\ European\\ feelings\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ traveling\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ by\\ oat\\ and\\ compares\\ them\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ Africans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ least\\ the\\ Europeans\\ could\\ \\&ldquo\\;translate\\ the\\ land\\-based\\ systems\\ of\\ time\\-space\\ reckoning\\ of\\ medieval\\ Europe\\ to\\ the\\ wider\\ temporal\\ and\\ spatial\\ context\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;new\\&rsquo\\;\\ Atlantic\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NO\\ network\\ of\\ communication\\ so\\ there\\ were\\ very\\ few\\ people\\ who\\ could\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Africans\\ and\\ tell\\ them\\ how\\ the\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ Americas\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Akan\\ system\\ of\\ time\\:\\ The\\ Akan\\ calendar\\ drew\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ many\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ visitors\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ 40\\ day\\ system\\ that\\ focused\\ on\\ agriculture\\.\\ \\ \\;Clearly\\ this\\ calendar\\ was\\ not\\ reconcilable\\ with\\ sea\\ travels\\.\\ \\ \\;African\\ captives\\ tried\\ to\\ measure\\ time\\ at\\ sea\\ by\\ measuring\\ the\\ cycles\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Accounting\\ of\\ the\\ Dead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ details\\ the\\ diseases\\ and\\ malnutrition\\ that\\ the\\ Africans\\ suffered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ regarded\\ as\\ property\\ and\\ were\\ referred\\ to\\ in\\ business\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instead\\ of\\ dying\\,\\ they\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;departed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Captain\\ Blake\\ kept\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;property\\ now\\ lost\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ average\\,\\ 20\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ Africans\\ carried\\ into\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ in\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\ died\\ at\\ sea\\,\\ and\\ 40\\ percent\\ of\\ cargoes\\ experienced\\ morality\\ levels\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\above\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ benchmark\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(150\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crowding\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;tight\\ packing\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\ Slave\\ merchants\\ and\\ their\\ backers\\ disguised\\ from\\ themselves\\ the\\ ugly\\ truth\\ that\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ regime\\ of\\ commodification\\ took\\ captives\\ from\\ fully\\ realized\\ humanity\\ and\\ suspended\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ purgatory\\ in\\ between\\ tenuous\\ life\\ and\\ dishonorable\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(151\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;even\\ the\\ African\\ dead\\ were\\ enslaved\\ and\\ commodified\\,\\ trapped\\ in\\ a\\ time\\-space\\ regime\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ unable\\ fully\\ to\\ die\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Take\\ Away\\ Points\\ Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Africans\\ were\\ dehumanized\\ throughout\\ the\\ Middle\\ Passage\\,\\ as\\ the\\ Europeans\\ saw\\ them\\ as\\ cargo\\,\\ not\\ as\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Captians\\ referred\\ to\\ the\\ slaves\\ in\\ business\\ terms\\ and\\ clearly\\ did\\ not\\ give\\ them\\ suitable\\ conditions\\ to\\ live\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ European\\ narratives\\,\\ we\\ see\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ business\\ and\\ sea\\ travel\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ African\\ narratives\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ drastic\\ change\\ and\\ unknown\\ that\\ the\\ Africans\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ had\\ never\\ been\\ on\\ ships\\ before\\ and\\ thanks\\ to\\ the\\ constant\\ travel\\ of\\ the\\ boat\\,\\ they\\ lost\\ their\\ concept\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ their\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Big\\ Debate\\ \\(according\\ to\\ my\\ TF\\)\\:\\ \\ \\;Commodification\\ v\\.\\ Humanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robin\\ Law\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Individualising\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\:\\ The\\ Biography\\ of\\ Mahommah\\ Gardo\\ Baquaqua\\ of\\ Djougou\\ \\(1854\\)\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Transactions\\ of\\ the\\ Royal\\ Historical\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 12\\ \\(2002\\)\\,\\ 113\\-40\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*The\\ substance\\ is\\ from\\ joint\\ research\\ with\\ Professor\\ Paul\\ Lovejoy\\,\\ even\\ through\\ Law\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ giving\\ the\\ presentation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Title\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ was\\ created\\ because\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ research\\ done\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\ \\(primarily\\ a\\ large\\ datatbase\\ that\\ was\\ created\\)\\ is\\ large\\ and\\ quantitative\\,\\ not\\ recognizing\\ the\\ voiced\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ that\\ were\\ enslaved\\.\\ Slaves\\,\\ as\\ portrayed\\ in\\ common\\ research\\,\\ are\\ passive\\ victims\\,\\ not\\ actors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ number\\ of\\ narratives\\ have\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ but\\ most\\ are\\ from\\ American\\-born\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complications\\ when\\ interpreting\\ slave\\ narratives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-written\\ by\\ non\\-slaves\\ \\(Europeans\\ or\\ Americans\\)\\ based\\ off\\ what\\ slaves\\ say\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-written\\ as\\ propaganda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-written\\ many\\ years\\ after\\ enslavement\\ \\(question\\ of\\ accuracy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-possibility\\ of\\ fraud\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-very\\ few\\ actual\\ accounts\\&ndash\\;how\\ representative\\ are\\ these\\ folks\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-accounts\\ written\\ mainly\\ by\\ males\\,\\ primarily\\ by\\ those\\ enslaved\\ as\\ children\\,\\ and\\ primarily\\ by\\ Muslims\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ Baquaqua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Baquaqua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ was\\ created\\ because\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ return\\ home\\ as\\ a\\ Christian\\ missionary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-omitted\\ from\\ anthologies\\ of\\ slave\\ narratives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lovejoy\\ and\\ Law\\ visited\\ the\\ region\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ biography\\ and\\ concluded\\ that\\ the\\ homeland\\ \\&ldquo\\;Zoogoo\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Djougou\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ details\\ were\\ accurate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baquaqua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1820\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Baquaqua\\ born\\ to\\ a\\ merchant\\ father\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ commercial\\ community\\.\\ While\\ he\\ attended\\ school\\,\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ complete\\ elementary\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ mid\\-teens\\ he\\ was\\ taken\\ captive\\ in\\ a\\ war\\ in\\ Daboya\\,\\ but\\ released\\ and\\ returned\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ fell\\ asleep\\ after\\ a\\ drunken\\ party\\ in\\ a\\ neigboring\\ town\\ and\\ was\\ kidnapped\\ into\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-His\\ importation\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\ to\\ Brazil\\ was\\ technically\\ illegal\\ \\(this\\ probably\\ happened\\ in\\ 1845\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Delivered\\ to\\ Pernambuco\\,\\ taken\\ to\\ Recife\\,\\ lived\\ in\\ Olinda\\,\\ and\\ was\\ later\\ sold\\ to\\ Rio\\ de\\ Janeiro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Baquaqua\\ acquires\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ name\\ Jose\\ da\\ Costa\\-\\ USA\\ newspaper\\ reports\\ in\\ 1847\\ refer\\ to\\ him\\ by\\ this\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-June\\,\\ 1847\\:\\ Baquaqua\\ arrives\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ Local\\ Abolitionists\\ demand\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ him\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ other\\ slaves\\ working\\ on\\ the\\ ship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lembranca\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ ship\\ captain\\ won\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ hearings\\,\\ and\\ before\\ they\\ could\\ have\\ another\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ outcomes\\ again\\,\\ Baquaqua\\ and\\ another\\ escaped\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ Boston\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Went\\ from\\ Boston\\ to\\ Haiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-March\\,\\ 1848\\:\\ Converted\\ to\\ Christianity\\.\\ The\\ Reverend\\ there\\,\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Baptist\\ Free\\ Mission\\ Society\\ hoped\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ employed\\ as\\ a\\ missionary\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-October\\ 1849\\:\\ Baquaqua\\ returned\\ to\\ USA\\ to\\ be\\ enrolled\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ Central\\ College\\.\\ He\\ spent\\ three\\ years\\ in\\ the\\ Primary\\ \\(preparatory\\)\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ college\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ move\\ from\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Free\\ Mission\\ Society\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ an\\ American\\ minister\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Africa\\ or\\ funding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Baquaqua\\ approached\\ the\\ American\\ Missionary\\ Association\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ send\\ him\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1854\\:\\ Emigrated\\ to\\ Canada\\ and\\ from\\ there\\ arranged\\ to\\ publish\\ his\\ biography\\ in\\ Detroit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1855\\:\\ Moved\\ to\\ England\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ Africa\\ from\\ there\\,\\ but\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ successful\\ and\\ contacted\\ the\\ Baptist\\ Free\\ Mission\\ Society\\ two\\ years\\ later\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ we\\ know\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problems\\ presented\\ by\\ Baquaqua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-authorship\\:\\ jointly\\ published\\ by\\ Baquaqua\\ and\\ Samuel\\ Moore\\,\\ a\\ Unitarian\\ minister\\.\\ Parts\\ are\\ in\\ third\\-person\\,\\ others\\ in\\ first\\-person\\.\\ Clear\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ Baquaqua\\ was\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-accuracy\\:\\ the\\ latter\\ part\\ can\\ be\\ backed\\ up\\ by\\ newspaper\\ accounts\\,\\ record\\ of\\ the\\ Baptists\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-account\\ tailored\\ to\\ the\\ Baptist\\ audience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-seems\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ slave\\ in\\ Africa\\ for\\ longer\\ than\\ he\\ admits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ bit\\ on\\ how\\ he\\ conceived\\ of\\ his\\ homeland\\ and\\ his\\ Muslim\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Baquaqua\\ would\\ emphasize\\ his\\ African\\ background\\ when\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-was\\ commitment\\ fo\\ Christian\\ Evangelisation\\ simply\\ something\\ employed\\ to\\ get\\ him\\ home\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ are\\ only\\ narrow\\ theological\\ differences\\ between\\ Islam\\ and\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-First\\ experience\\ with\\ Christianity\\ was\\ exposure\\ to\\ Roman\\ Catholics\\,\\ yet\\ he\\ converted\\ Baptist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ worship\\ of\\ images\\ in\\ human\\ form\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ reason\\ he\\ rejected\\ Catholicism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-another\\ issue\\ critical\\ in\\ conversion\\ was\\ that\\ of\\ alcoholic\\ drinks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ his\\ homeland\\,\\ those\\ that\\ were\\ strict\\ Muslims\\ did\\ not\\ drink\\,\\ while\\ non\\-Muslims\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Baquaqua\\ was\\ born\\ to\\ Muslims\\ but\\ was\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;indifferent\\&rdquo\\;\\ Muslim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ Baptists\\ interpreted\\ Baquaqua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ to\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ society\\ back\\ home\\ was\\ in\\ need\\ of\\ Christian\\ redemption\\,\\ yet\\ his\\ own\\ account\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ positive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Seems\\ that\\ he\\ felt\\ regret\\ and\\ guilt\\ over\\ how\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ younger\\ \\(his\\ rejection\\ of\\ his\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lifesytle\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-While\\ his\\ conversion\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ sincere\\,\\ in\\ becoming\\ Baptist\\,\\ he\\ was\\ adhering\\ to\\ something\\ that\\ was\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ his\\ Islamic\\ roots\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ bit\\ on\\ the\\ publication\\ of\\ slave\\ narratives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1772\\:\\ First\\ autobiographical\\ account\\ of\\ an\\ enslaved\\ African\\ published\\.\\ Slave\\:\\ James\\ Albert\\ Ukawsaw\\ Gronniosaw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1789\\:\\ Biography\\ of\\ Olaudah\\ Equiano\\ published\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1854\\:\\ Baquaqua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biography\\ is\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ USA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1837\\:\\ Samuel\\ Ajay\\ Crowther\\,\\ African\\ enslaved\\ but\\ liberated\\ by\\ the\\ anti\\-slaving\\ squadron\\,\\ writes\\ his\\ biography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1967\\:\\ Philip\\ Curtin\\ publishes\\ an\\ anthology\\ of\\ American\\-born\\ ex\\-slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1984\\:\\ Allan\\ Austin\\ publishes\\ anthology\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\African\\ Muslims\\ in\\ Antebellum\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\:\\ The\\ Atlantic\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 13\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 30\\ \\-\\-\\ Meeting\\ of\\ Old\\ and\\ New\\ Worlds\\:\\ Demography\\ and\\ Disease\\ in\\ the\\ Americas\\.\\ \\-\\-\\ ANITA\\ FOLCH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philip\\ D\\.\\ Curtin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rise\\ and\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Plantation\\ Complex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\,\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ 3\\-110\\.\\ \\;\\ skipping\\ this\\ for\\ now\\ b\\/c\\ I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ not\\ sure\\ if\\ week\\ 7\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ midterm\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patrick\\ Manning\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ and\\ African\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\,\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ 27\\-37\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recap\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Americas\\ was\\ increasing\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ dying\\ out\\ in\\ most\\ other\\ places\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ article\\ explores\\ the\\ economic\\ forces\\ that\\ increased\\ Americas\\&rsquo\\;\\ demand\\ for\\ slaves\\ and\\ increased\\ Africans\\&rsquo\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ supply\\ slaves\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ article\\ first\\ reviews\\ slavery\\ in\\ ancient\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Greece\\,\\ slaves\\ were\\ non\\-Greek\\ \\(supplied\\ from\\ war\\ and\\ purchase\\)\\,\\ made\\ up\\ about\\ 1\\/3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ population\\ and\\ were\\ mostly\\ urban\\ and\\ artisanal\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Rome\\,\\ slaves\\ were\\ mostly\\ in\\ the\\ rural\\,\\ agricultural\\ area\\ and\\ the\\ slave\\ population\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reproduce\\ itself\\ thanks\\ to\\ manumission\\ and\\ low\\ rates\\ of\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ for\\ medieval\\ times\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ academic\\ controversy\\ over\\ whether\\ Islam\\ stopped\\ or\\ spread\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\&mdash\\;while\\ the\\ Qu\\&rsquo\\;ran\\ and\\ religious\\ law\\ limit\\ the\\ abuses\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ encourage\\ manumission\\,\\ history\\ seems\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ Islam\\ may\\ have\\ actually\\ protected\\ slavery\\ rather\\ than\\ helped\\ stem\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ crusades\\ played\\ an\\ instrumental\\ role\\ in\\ slavery\\ as\\ it\\ introduced\\ Western\\ European\\ crusaders\\ to\\ sugar\\ who\\ brought\\ it\\ back\\ with\\ them\\ after\\ they\\ fought\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ in\\ 1500\\,\\ Africans\\ made\\ up\\ a\\ minority\\ of\\ slaves\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ globe\\,\\ but\\ in\\ 1700\\,\\ they\\ made\\ up\\ a\\ majority\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Demand\\ in\\ New\\ World\\/Occident\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;African\\ disease\\ resistance\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ advantages\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ sugar\\ and\\ mine\\ work\\,\\ and\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ replenish\\ lost\\ slaves\\ with\\ new\\ ones\\ set\\ the\\ demand\\ pattern\\ for\\ slavery\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\ 32\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ demand\\ for\\ slavery\\ from\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ cheap\\ labor\\&mdash\\;if\\ labor\\ was\\ too\\ expensive\\,\\ production\\ and\\ transportation\\ would\\ have\\ added\\ costs\\ making\\ the\\ goods\\ too\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ demand\\ for\\ African\\ slaves\\ in\\ particular\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ already\\ been\\ exposed\\ to\\ many\\ diseases\\ \\(unlike\\ the\\ Old\\ World\\ populations\\ who\\ quickly\\ died\\ out\\)\\ and\\ therefore\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ lowest\\ mortality\\ rate\\ of\\ any\\ ethnic\\ group\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ \\(including\\ Europeans\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ slaves\\ died\\ out\\ without\\ \\&ldquo\\;replenishing\\ themselves\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ so\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ fresh\\ slaves\\ on\\ a\\ regular\\ basis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supply\\ from\\ Africa\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;In\\ Africa\\,\\ there\\ was\\ lots\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ very\\ low\\ supply\\ of\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Africans\\ would\\ still\\ sell\\ slaves\\ because\\ 1\\)\\ there\\ were\\ always\\ greedy\\ merchants\\ that\\ would\\ kidnap\\ Africans\\ to\\ sell\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ that\\ Europeans\\ would\\ pay\\ for\\ slaves\\ was\\ worth\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ slave\\ could\\ produce\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ value\\ disparity\\ was\\ caused\\ from\\ the\\ technological\\ disadvantages\\ Africa\\ faced\\&mdash\\;they\\ only\\ had\\ a\\ hoe\\ and\\ even\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ had\\ plows\\,\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ done\\ very\\ little\\ for\\ the\\ fertility\\ of\\ the\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ that\\ Europeans\\ would\\ pay\\ would\\ exceed\\ their\\ productivity\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ Africa\\ was\\ low\\ from\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ low\\ cost\\ of\\ capturing\\ slaves\\ \\(it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ how\\ stolen\\ goods\\ are\\ cheaper\\ than\\ real\\ ones\\ because\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ good\\)\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ limited\\ demand\\ for\\ slaves\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ keeping\\ the\\ price\\ low\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Orient\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ demand\\ here\\ was\\ for\\ domestic\\ servants\\,\\ maybe\\ soldiers\\,\\ laborers\\ and\\ eunuchs\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ were\\ alternative\\ supplies\\ for\\ slaves\\,\\ Africans\\ joined\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ assigned\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;reviewed\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ learned\\ about\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ slavery\\ while\\ going\\ into\\ depth\\ about\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ and\\ the\\ economic\\ forces\\ behind\\ slavery\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\.\\ C\\.\\ Emmer\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;The\\ Dutch\\ and\\ the\\ Making\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ Atlantic\\ System\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ Barbara\\ L\\.\\ Solow\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slavery\\ and\\ the\\ Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Cambridge\\,\\ 1991\\)\\,\\ 75\\-95\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ ideas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ The\\ Dutch\\ played\\ a\\ critical\\ role\\ as\\ an\\ intermediary\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ Atlantic\\ system\\ \\(with\\ Spain\\ and\\ Portugal\\)\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ Atlantic\\ System\\ \\(with\\ Britain\\ and\\ France\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Dutch\\ also\\ played\\ a\\ large\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ downfall\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\ Atlantic\\ systems\\ respectively\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ Dutch\\ were\\ very\\ active\\ participants\\ in\\ the\\ Slave\\ trade\\,\\ despite\\ their\\ inability\\ to\\ keep\\ up\\ with\\ slave\\ dynamics\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Similarities\\ between\\ the\\ First\\ and\\ Second\\ Atlantic\\ System\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ metropoles\\ invested\\ initial\\ capital\\ for\\ conquest\\ of\\ African\\ and\\ American\\ possessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Europe\\ provided\\ free\\ and\\ indentured\\ settlers\\,\\ administrators\\,\\ military\\ and\\ navy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ sections\\ provided\\ bases\\ for\\ barter\\ trade\\ with\\ variety\\ of\\ African\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ African\\ section\\ housed\\ European\\ settlement\\ or\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ regions\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ deliver\\ forced\\ labor\\ to\\ various\\ American\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ sets\\ of\\ New\\ World\\ colonies\\ able\\ to\\ develop\\ an\\ independent\\ subsistence\\ agriculture\\,\\ neither\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ in\\ need\\ of\\ vital\\ European\\ imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ colonies\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ create\\ own\\ trade\\ links\\ with\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ populations\\ never\\ reached\\ 50\\%\\ level\\,\\ and\\ dominant\\ populations\\ of\\ Europeans\\,\\ ex\\-Europeans\\,\\ and\\ inhabitants\\ of\\ mixed\\ Amerindian\\ and\\ European\\ descent\\ increased\\ by\\ self\\-sustained\\ demographic\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Differences\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Main\\ points\\ of\\ difference\\ include\\ economic\\ gravity\\,\\ demographic\\ and\\ rocial\\ composition\\,\\ and\\ organization\\ of\\ trade\\ and\\ investment\\ \\(and\\ social\\ fabric\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ Atlantic\\ System\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ oriented\\ towards\\ market\\ economy\\;\\ natural\\ laws\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\ could\\ not\\ take\\ hold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ infrastructural\\ problems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Iberian\\ shipping\\ firms\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ satisfy\\ demand\\ for\\ transportation\\ \\(of\\ produce\\ and\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iberians\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ drive\\ out\\ non\\-Iberian\\ investments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iberians\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ produce\\ enough\\ products\\ to\\ satisfy\\ demands\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ or\\ able\\ to\\ absorb\\ fully\\ Latin\\ American\\ exports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ most\\ Iberian\\ colonies\\ still\\ outside\\ influence\\ of\\ international\\ investment\\ and\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Such\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ with\\ slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monopoly\\ on\\ slave\\ trade\\ in\\ colonies\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Asiento\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;led\\ to\\ inability\\ for\\ Latin\\ American\\ producers\\ to\\ export\\ products\\ to\\ develop\\ flexible\\ response\\ to\\ changing\\ market\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ main\\ agricultural\\ unit\\ are\\ haciendas\\ because\\ land\\,\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ capital\\ required\\ for\\ this\\ crop\\ are\\ fixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Second\\ Atlantic\\ System\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Much\\ more\\ capitalist\\ system\\,\\ involved\\ in\\ international\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Initially\\ European\\ states\\ tried\\ to\\ dominate\\ flow\\ of\\ market\\ like\\ in\\ first\\ Atlantic\\ system\\,\\ but\\ private\\ capitalism\\ was\\ too\\ strong\\ and\\ geographical\\ conditions\\ made\\ such\\ a\\ system\\ impossible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plantation\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ flexible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ market\\ forces\\ often\\ resulted\\ changes\\ in\\ acreage\\ under\\ cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ treated\\ more\\ harshly\\ in\\ second\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ believe\\ ideological\\ reason\\:\\ Spain\\ and\\ Portugal\\ imbued\\ with\\ Catholic\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ were\\ more\\ humane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ more\\ likely\\ reason\\ was\\ the\\ ratio\\ between\\ white\\ and\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;Ratio\\ clearly\\ was\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ demands\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ market\\ in\\ the\\ Second\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Role\\ of\\ the\\ Dutch\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ First\\ Atlantic\\ System\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dutch\\ had\\ a\\ 12\\ year\\ truce\\ with\\ Spain\\ \\(and\\ Portugal\\ by\\ association\\)\\ from\\ 1609\\-1621\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dutch\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ international\\ market\\ without\\ expensive\\ investments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ they\\ created\\ Dutch\\ East\\ India\\ Company\\ with\\ massive\\ support\\ from\\ Dutch\\ investors\\ and\\ transported\\ \\½\\;\\ or\\ even\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ brazilian\\ sugar\\ to\\ Amsterdam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ truce\\ with\\ spain\\ diminished\\ velocity\\ of\\ Dutch\\ expansion\\ in\\ Atlantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Iberians\\ offered\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ purchasing\\ transatlantic\\ produce\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Dutch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ towards\\ the\\ later\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ truce\\,\\ the\\ Dutch\\ created\\ the\\ Dutch\\ West\\ India\\ Company\\ to\\ monopolize\\ all\\ trade\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opposition\\ to\\ the\\ company\\ in\\ commercial\\ circles\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ stalemate\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ company\\ never\\ took\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ company\\ could\\ not\\ sell\\ enough\\ stock\\ or\\ collect\\ enough\\ other\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ company\\ could\\ not\\ maintain\\ its\\ monopoly\\ because\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ private\\ and\\ illegal\\ trade\\ occurring\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ company\\ allowed\\ the\\ Dutch\\ to\\ wage\\ a\\ constant\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;global\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ against\\ the\\ Iberian\\ with\\ financial\\ and\\ naval\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ Dutch\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Through\\ this\\ company\\,\\ the\\ Dutch\\ effectively\\ broke\\ the\\ Portuguese\\/Spanish\\ stranglehold\\ over\\ trade\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\,\\ which\\ was\\ significant\\ for\\ any\\ European\\ nation\\ with\\ a\\ commercial\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ initial\\ conquests\\,\\ Dutch\\ Brazil\\ \\(New\\ Holland\\)\\ remained\\ pivot\\ point\\ for\\ Dutch\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ provide\\ the\\ remaining\\ Portuguese\\ planters\\,\\ who\\ still\\ owned\\ the\\ sugar\\ industry\\,\\ with\\ a\\ workforce\\,\\ the\\ Dutch\\ had\\ to\\ acquire\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ West\\ India\\ Company\\ established\\ a\\ regular\\,\\ triangular\\ slave\\ trae\\ between\\ Brazil\\,\\ Elmina\\ on\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\,\\ and\\ Luanda\\ in\\ Angola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Between\\ 1636\\ and\\ 1644\\,\\ the\\ Dutch\\ could\\ transfer\\ 2\\,500\\ slaves\\/year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ the\\ Dutch\\ slave\\ trade\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ adjust\\ to\\ the\\ limited\\ purchasing\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ planters\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Brazilian\\ adventure\\&rdquo\\;\\ turned\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ huge\\ financial\\ blow\\ that\\ sent\\ the\\ West\\ India\\ Company\\ into\\ unrecoverable\\ debt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ resulting\\ Dutch\\ withdrawal\\ from\\ Brazil\\ though\\,\\ laid\\ the\\ foundations\\ for\\ the\\ second\\ Atlantic\\ system\\ by\\ forcing\\ the\\ Cutch\\ to\\ offer\\ their\\ expertise\\ in\\ slave\\ trading\\ and\\ transportation\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Second\\ Atlantic\\ System\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ important\\ factors\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ Atlantic\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Spanish\\ had\\ little\\ energy\\ left\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ Iberian\\-Dutch\\ \\&ldquo\\;global\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ thus\\ could\\ not\\ prevent\\ British\\ and\\ French\\ colonization\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1644\\,\\ the\\ Dutch\\ had\\ large\\ supply\\ of\\ African\\ slaves\\ but\\ no\\ market\\ to\\ sell\\ because\\ imports\\ into\\ Brazil\\ had\\ been\\ halted\\ by\\ the\\ revolting\\ Portuguese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\moradores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ revolt\\ in\\ Dutch\\ Brazil\\ halted\\ exportation\\ of\\ clay\\ sugar\\ to\\ Dutch\\ refineries\\ and\\ thus\\ sugar\\ prices\\ in\\ Europe\\ rose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ factors\\,\\ the\\ Dutch\\ found\\ eligible\\ buyers\\ of\\ slaves\\ and\\ sellers\\ of\\ sugar\\ in\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ French\\ colonies\\ of\\ Curacao\\,\\ Venezuela\\,\\ Barbados\\ and\\ French\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growth\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ Atlantic\\ system\\ was\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ initial\\ free\\ competition\\ in\\ non\\-Spanish\\ Caribbean\\ between\\ 1624\\ and\\ 1665\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attempts\\ by\\ British\\ to\\ monopolize\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ mercantilist\\ policies\\,\\ eventually\\ created\\ a\\ partitioned\\ Caribbean\\,\\ one\\ resembling\\ the\\ first\\ Atlantic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ factors\\ prevented\\ the\\ second\\ Atlantic\\ system\\ from\\ ever\\ becoming\\ like\\ the\\ first\\ one\\ though\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ slave\\ trade\\ always\\ remained\\ competitive\\ and\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ international\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ European\\ powers\\ at\\ play\\ remained\\ interested\\ in\\ international\\ investments\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Dutch\\ in\\ Tobago\\,\\ British\\ in\\ Demarara\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ market\\ orientation\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ Atlantic\\ system\\ was\\ international\\ distribution\\ of\\ its\\ produce\\,\\ most\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ carried\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ Dutch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Yankee\\ Traders\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ new\\ world\\ prevented\\ monopolization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ in\\ Dutch\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Majority\\ of\\ Dutch\\ overseas\\ efforts\\ actually\\ concentrated\\ in\\ Asia\\,\\ where\\ the\\ Dutch\\ overshadowed\\ other\\ European\\ competitors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\,\\ slavery\\ still\\ played\\ part\\ in\\ Dutch\\ economy\\ and\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ was\\ widespread\\ in\\ the\\ Dutch\\ East\\ Indies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ used\\ to\\ produce\\ agricultural\\ exports\\ but\\ rather\\ mostly\\ as\\ domestic\\ workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ slaves\\ provided\\ much\\ of\\ he\\ labor\\ for\\ large\\ cattle\\,\\ win\\,\\ and\\ grain\\ farms\\ in\\ South\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Dutch\\ Atlantic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ economy\\ of\\ New\\ Netherland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ played\\ minor\\ role\\ along\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\ in\\ West\\ Africa\\ in\\ strings\\ of\\ strongholds\\ requiring\\ each\\ about\\ 100\\-200\\ European\\ and\\ 600\\ slave\\ personnel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ also\\ worked\\ as\\ salt\\ plans\\,\\ producing\\ food\\ for\\ ships\\ and\\ slaves\\ in\\ transit\\ in\\ the\\ Dutch\\ Antilles\\ \\(transit\\ trade\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ there\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ worked\\ plantations\\ \\(fully\\ resembling\\ ones\\ in\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ French\\ Caribbean\\)\\ in\\ the\\ Dutch\\ Guianas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overinvestment\\ and\\ underproduction\\ in\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ Guianas\\ such\\ as\\ Surinam\\ led\\ to\\ major\\ financial\\ deficits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ negative\\ trade\\ balance\\ also\\ explains\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ the\\ Dutch\\ as\\ slave\\ traders\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ Dutch\\ economy\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dependent\\ upon\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dutch\\ showed\\ no\\ concerted\\ action\\ against\\ abolition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1800\\,\\ Dutch\\ were\\ clearly\\ showing\\ declining\\ interest\\ \\(along\\ with\\ severely\\ declining\\ power\\)\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ but\\ still\\ held\\ Atlantic\\ possessions\\ for\\ two\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Financiers\\ of\\ plantation\\ mortgages\\ wanted\\ their\\ money\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ fear\\ that\\ if\\ colonies\\ like\\ Surinam\\ were\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ Netherlands\\,\\ then\\ investors\\ would\\ not\\ receive\\ their\\ money\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Dutch\\ stood\\ to\\ earn\\ good\\ profit\\ from\\ the\\ export\\ trade\\ from\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ to\\ Amsterdam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 30, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Slavery_Midterm_Study_Guide_1.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Ec1017 - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "economics-1017", "libertarian-perspective"], "text": null, "id": 16, "html": "\\\\\\Ec1017studyguide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c33\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c48\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c41\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c46\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c38\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c39\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c32\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-7\\.2pt\\;margin\\-left\\:43\\.2pt\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c47\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-7\\.2pt\\;margin\\-left\\:21\\.6pt\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c42\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c6\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c11\\{color\\:\\#808080\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#008000\\}\\.c43\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c50\\{margin\\-left\\:14\\.2pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c49\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c25\\{vertical\\-align\\:sub\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c51\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c34\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c2\\{color\\:\\#339966\\}\\.c44\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c40\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\ 1\\:\\ Introduction\\ and\\ Course\\ Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedman\\,\\ Milton\\ \\(1962\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Capitalism\\ and\\ Freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ definitive\\ \\(albeit\\ broad\\)\\ piece\\ of\\ literature\\ on\\ libertarian\\ economic\\ policy\\.\\ Friedman\\ seeks\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ government\\ can\\ play\\ in\\ contributing\\ positively\\ to\\ society\\ without\\ encroaching\\ on\\ personal\\ freedom\\.\\ Friedman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ analysis\\ of\\ personal\\ freedom\\ hinges\\ upon\\ economic\\ freedom\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ markets\\ that\\ are\\ unfettered\\ by\\ superfluous\\ regulation\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ that\\ free\\ markets\\ are\\ inextricably\\ linked\\ to\\ freedom\\ is\\ that\\ citizens\\ should\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ allocate\\ their\\ resources\\ in\\ whichever\\ way\\ they\\ see\\ fit\\,\\ without\\ the\\ interference\\ of\\ overbearing\\ government\\ policies\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ contemporary\\ world\\ relies\\ upon\\ mutually\\ beneficial\\ action\\ among\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ group\\,\\ or\\ within\\ a\\ society\\,\\ but\\ libertarians\\ hold\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ not\\ regulate\\ this\\ action\\,\\ or\\ that\\ the\\ action\\ cannot\\ be\\ regulated\\ in\\ an\\ effective\\ manner\\.\\ One\\ specific\\ example\\ Friedman\\ highlights\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\,\\ which\\ significantly\\ increased\\ government\\ spending\\,\\ yet\\ it\\ breached\\ personal\\ rights\\ by\\ utilizing\\ high\\ taxes\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ programs\\ that\\ many\\ citizens\\ did\\ not\\ support\\.\\ In\\ his\\ technical\\ analysis\\,\\ Friedman\\ illustrates\\ that\\ markets\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ clear\\ an\\ unregulated\\ economy\\;\\ without\\ the\\ hindrances\\ of\\ government\\ regulation\\,\\ competitiveness\\ is\\ ensured\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ prices\\ and\\ wages\\ remain\\ accurately\\ determined\\,\\ which\\ balances\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\ in\\ such\\ an\\ economy\\,\\ which\\ Friedman\\ believes\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ essential\\ factor\\.\\ According\\ to\\ this\\ theory\\,\\ social\\ ills\\ such\\ as\\ poverty\\ and\\ unemployment\\ occur\\ when\\ the\\ state\\ interferes\\ with\\ the\\ natural\\ economic\\ order\\.\\ Friedman\\ does\\ not\\ offer\\ a\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ situation\\;\\ he\\ simply\\ claims\\ that\\ this\\ scenario\\ is\\ unfavorable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\ and\\ Cass\\ R\\.\\ Sunstein\\ \\(2003\\)\\,\\ Libertarian\\ Paternalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Usually\\ the\\ libertarian\\ perspective\\ is\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Paternalistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ derogatory\\?\\ Libertarian\\ paternalism\\ \\=\\ oxymoronic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\ of\\ the\\ paper\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\encourage\\ economists\\ to\\ rethink\\ their\\ \\(usually\\ negative\\)\\ views\\ of\\ paternalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Authors\\ of\\ the\\ paper\\ think\\ that\\ economists\\&rsquo\\;\\ anti\\-paternalism\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ 1\\.\\)\\ false\\ assumption\\ and\\ 2\\.\\)\\ at\\ least\\ two\\ misconceptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\False\\ assumption\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\people\\ always\\ \\(or\\ usually\\)\\ make\\ choices\\ that\\ are\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Misconception\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ viable\\ alternatives\\ to\\ paternalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\,\\ some\\ organization\\ or\\ agent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\ make\\ a\\ choice\\ that\\ affects\\ the\\ choices\\ of\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ employer\\ can\\ either\\ 1\\.\\)\\ choose\\ healthy\\ meal\\ order\\;\\ 2\\.\\)\\ choose\\ at\\ random\\;\\ or\\ 3\\.\\)\\ choose\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ make\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ employees\\ obese\\.\\ \\ \\;Employer\\ will\\ choose\\ \\#1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ who\\ would\\ choose\\ \\#2\\ or\\ \\#3\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Misconception\\:\\ paternalism\\ always\\ involves\\ coercion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ no\\ coercion\\ is\\ involved\\,\\ then\\ authors\\ assert\\ that\\ some\\ types\\ of\\ paternalism\\ should\\ be\\ acceptable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;such\\ actions\\ \\=\\ libertarian\\ paternalism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Policy\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Paternalistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ selected\\ with\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ influencing\\ the\\ choices\\ of\\ affected\\ parties\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ makes\\ those\\ parties\\ better\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Are\\ Choices\\ Rational\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ suggests\\ that\\ people\\ always\\ make\\ rational\\ judgment\\ s\\ and\\ decisions\\.\\ \\ \\;Especially\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inter\\-temporal\\ choice\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\people\\ are\\ always\\ inconsistent\\ and\\ value\\ present\\ consumption\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ future\\ consumption\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Is\\ Paternalism\\ Inevitable\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Planners\\ forced\\ to\\ make\\ some\\ design\\ choices\\:\\ e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;default\\ option\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ determines\\ what\\ happens\\ if\\ an\\ agent\\ fails\\ to\\ choose\\ for\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ people\\ exhibit\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;status\\ quo\\&rdquo\\;\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(people\\ tend\\ to\\ stick\\ with\\ current\\ arrangements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\.\\ 401\\-K\\ savings\\ plan\\:\\ plan\\ is\\ supposedly\\ good\\ for\\ employees\\,\\ and\\ employers\\ can\\ either\\ simply\\ ask\\ if\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ join\\ or\\ 2\\.\\)\\ have\\ automatic\\ enrollment\\,\\ in\\ which\\ employees\\ have\\ to\\ actively\\ opt\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Should\\ automatic\\ enrollment\\ be\\ considered\\ paternalistic\\?\\ \\ \\;Yes\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ is\\ it\\ meddling\\ with\\ employee\\ preferences\\?\\ No\\:\\ most\\ employees\\ \\(the\\ authors\\ think\\)\\ prefer\\ the\\ 401\\ K\\ plan\\;\\ Automatic\\ enroll\\.\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ employees\\&rsquo\\;\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ not\\ require\\ employees\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ decision\\?\\ 1\\.\\)\\ This\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ option\\ that\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\also\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\somewhat\\ paternalistic\\ in\\ nature\\!\\ Many\\ employees\\ do\\ not\\ WANT\\ to\\ have\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beyond\\ the\\ Inevitable\\ \\(but\\ still\\ Libertarian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ the\\ government\\ or\\ firm\\ will\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ intrusive\\ manner\\,\\ such\\ as\\ raising\\ the\\ transaction\\ costs\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ behavior\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ getting\\ dessert\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ what\\ diners\\ what\\,\\ since\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ unhealthy\\ temptation\\ of\\ eating\\ dessert\\ if\\ the\\ transactions\\ costs\\ were\\ higher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\How\\ to\\ Choose\\:\\ The\\ Toolbox\\ of\\ the\\ Libertarian\\ Paternalist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\How\\ should\\ sensible\\ planners\\ choose\\ among\\ many\\ potential\\ systems\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ Compare\\ possible\\ rules\\,\\ using\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ such\\ direct\\ inquiry\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\,\\ then\\ seek\\ \\&ldquo\\;indirect\\ proxies\\ for\\ welfare\\:\\ methods\\ that\\ test\\ whether\\ one\\ or\\ another\\ approach\\ is\\ welfare\\-promoting\\ w\\/o\\ relying\\ on\\ guesswork\\ about\\ that\\ question\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Select\\ an\\ approach\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ majority\\ would\\ choose\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ explicit\\ choices\\ were\\ required\\ and\\ revealed\\.\\ \\ \\;Problems\\:\\ perhaps\\ the\\ majority\\ is\\ insufficiently\\ informed\\,\\ or\\ that\\ the\\ majority\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choice\\ is\\ itself\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ some\\ default\\ rule\\ \\(See\\ above\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Select\\ an\\ approach\\ that\\ would\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\force\\ people\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ choices\\ explicit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(e\\.g\\.\\ force\\ employees\\ to\\ choose\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ their\\ retirement\\ plans\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Problem\\:\\ employees\\ could\\ be\\ ill\\-informed\\ and\\ will\\ not\\ promote\\ individual\\ welfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Select\\ the\\ approach\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\minimizes\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ opt\\-outs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(e\\.g\\.\\ very\\ few\\ people\\ opt\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ 401\\ K\\ plan\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ automatically\\ enrolled\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ due\\ to\\ these\\ numbers\\,\\ it\\ is\\ reasonable\\ to\\ assume\\ that\\ automatic\\ enrollment\\ is\\ good\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ of\\ paper\\:\\ to\\ defend\\ libertarian\\ paternalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ which\\ freedom\\ of\\ choice\\ is\\ preserved\\ but\\ recognizes\\ that\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ institutions\\ sometimes\\ need\\/should\\ \\&ldquo\\;steer\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ toward\\ bettering\\ their\\ own\\ welfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ kind\\ of\\ paternalism\\ is\\ always\\ inevitable\\,\\ in\\ which\\ case\\ the\\ goal\\ should\\ be\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Avoid\\ random\\,\\ arbitrary\\,\\ or\\ harmful\\ effects\\ and\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ situation\\ that\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ promote\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ welfare\\,\\ suitably\\ defined\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miron\\,\\ Jeffrey\\ A\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\,\\ Introduction\\,\\ Chapter\\ 1\\ of\\ In\\ Libertarian\\ Land\\:\\ Why\\ Small\\ Government\\ Would\\ Benefit\\ Us\\ All\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ This\\ reading\\ is\\ basically\\ a\\ brief\\ write\\-up\\ of\\ Lecture\\ 1\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Professor\\ Miron\\ introduced\\ ideas\\ of\\ Consequentialist\\ Libertarianism\\,\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ Libertarianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(philosophical\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;externality\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Modern\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Government\\ intervention\\ is\\ pervasive\\ in\\ most\\ societies\\ today\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prohibit\\ or\\ regulate\\ \\&ldquo\\;vices\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ drugs\\,\\ alcohol\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\;\\ subsidize\\ insurance\\;\\ Social\\ Security\\;\\ public\\ schools\\;\\ marriage\\;\\ all\\ the\\ topics\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ covered\\ so\\ far\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Societal\\ Approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ \\(liberals\\ and\\ conservatives\\ alike\\)\\ think\\ intervention\\ is\\ beneficial\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maybe\\ alternative\\ interventions\\ would\\ be\\ good\\?\\ But\\ intervention\\ in\\ any\\ case\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ New\\ Approach\\:\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Government\\ intervention\\ dramatically\\ reduced\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;no\\ public\\ schools\\;\\ no\\ government\\-provided\\ insurance\\;\\ no\\ prohibition\\ of\\ alcohol\\,\\ drugs\\;\\ no\\ agricultural\\ subsidies\\;\\ no\\ government\\-provided\\ civil\\ marriages\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ key\\ roles\\:\\ 1\\.\\)\\ defining\\ and\\ enforcing\\ property\\ rights\\;\\ 2\\.\\)\\ nat\\&rsquo\\;l\\ defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\CONSEQUENTIALIST\\ LIBERTARIANISM\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\choose\\ policy\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ there\\ a\\ problem\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ what\\ policies\\ could\\ help\\?\\ For\\ those\\ policies\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ and\\ only\\ if\\ the\\ benefits\\ outweigh\\ the\\ costs\\,\\ then\\ intervene\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Libertarianism\\:\\ implies\\ radically\\ smaller\\ government\\ because\\ of\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ alleged\\ \\&ldquo\\;problems\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ small\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ there\\ were\\ problems\\,\\ government\\ intervention\\ would\\ generate\\ costs\\ BEYOND\\ those\\ original\\ problems\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\laissez\\-faire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ the\\ best\\ policy\\ in\\ most\\ cases\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;based\\ on\\ theory\\ and\\ evidence\\,\\ laissez\\-faire\\ \\(non\\-intervention\\)\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ alternatives\\ despite\\ imperfections\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\OTHER\\ FORMS\\ of\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Philosophical\\ Libertarianism\\:\\ Rights\\-based\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ government\\ should\\ never\\ violate\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ or\\ freedoms\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ government\\ interventions\\ curtail\\ some\\ individual\\ freedoms\\,\\ so\\ these\\ policies\\ are\\ unacceptable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ asserts\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ aspects\\ of\\ philosophical\\ libertarian\\ thought\\ are\\ also\\ contradictory\\:\\ for\\ example\\,\\ philosophical\\ libertarians\\ accept\\ role\\ of\\ government\\ in\\ national\\ defense\\,\\ but\\ national\\ defense\\ infringes\\ upon\\ some\\ individual\\ rights\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Versus\\ Consequentialist\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ basic\\ principle\\ of\\ C\\.L\\.\\ is\\ to\\ balance\\ the\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\;\\ can\\ disagree\\ about\\ the\\ extent\\ of\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ principle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Externality\\&rdquo\\;\\ Libertarianism\\:\\ governments\\ intervene\\ when\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ harm\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ person\\ or\\ property\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\externalities\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ justify\\ everything\\ and\\ anything\\.\\ \\ \\;Someone\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ affected\\ by\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decisions\\ or\\ presence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ externalities\\ exist\\,\\ laissez\\-faire\\ may\\ be\\ best\\ because\\ policy\\ may\\ create\\ more\\ negative\\ externalities\\ and\\ costs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Benefits\\ of\\ Consequentialist\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ forces\\ discussion\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ consequences\\ \\(of\\ private\\ and\\ government\\ actions\\)\\,\\ and\\ pinpoints\\ perspective\\ differences\\ \\(due\\ to\\ either\\ fact\\ or\\ morals\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\:\\ Drug\\ Prohibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benefits\\ of\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ according\\ to\\ advocates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\reduced\\ rug\\ use\\ and\\ abuse\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lower\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\improved\\ health\\ and\\ productivity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\drugs\\ are\\ morally\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Costs\\ of\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ for\\ enforcement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\increases\\ crime\\ and\\ corruption\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reduced\\ health\\ and\\ productivity\\ for\\ drug\\ users\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ Analysis\\ of\\ Drug\\ Prohibition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Prohibition\\ does\\ not\\ eliminate\\ demand\\ of\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Underground\\ markets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evidence\\ does\\ not\\ suggest\\ a\\ big\\ effect\\ of\\ reducing\\ drug\\ use\\ from\\ prohibition\\ laws\\,\\ just\\ as\\ speeding\\ laws\\,\\ certain\\ tax\\ laws\\,\\ blue\\ laws\\ are\\ not\\ very\\ effective\\ in\\ achieving\\ their\\ objectives\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Penalties\\ are\\ frequently\\ mild\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prohibition\\ does\\ not\\ eliminate\\ supply\\ of\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Black\\ market\\ suppliers\\ incur\\ costs\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ legal\\ markets\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ transporting\\ goods\\ in\\ secret\\,\\ bribing\\ officials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ they\\ operate\\ in\\ secret\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ face\\ low\\ marginal\\ costs\\ of\\ evading\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ cost\\-increasing\\ government\\ policies\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ income\\ and\\ excise\\ taxation\\,\\ environmental\\ and\\ OSHA\\ regulation\\,\\ minimum\\ wage\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ shows\\ that\\ prohibitions\\ at\\ best\\ only\\ modestly\\ effective\\ in\\ reducing\\ consumption\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prohibition\\ increases\\ violence\\ not\\ because\\ drugs\\ make\\ users\\ more\\ violent\\ due\\ to\\ psychopharmacological\\ effects\\ of\\ drugs\\,\\ but\\ because\\ prohibition\\ makes\\ it\\ more\\ difficult\\ for\\ drug\\ market\\ participants\\ to\\ resolve\\ disputes\\ with\\ courts\\ and\\ lawyers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prohibition\\ increases\\ income\\-generating\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prohibition\\ raises\\ drug\\ prices\\,\\ which\\ implies\\ more\\ theft\\ robbery\\,\\ other\\ income\\-generating\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prohibition\\ is\\ redistribution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effects\\ of\\ prohibition\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ cost\\ in\\ the\\ economic\\ sense\\,\\ it\\ is\\ redistribution\\ from\\ government\\ taxes\\ to\\ supplier\\ profits\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ market\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prohibition\\ diminishes\\ quality\\ control\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overdoes\\ and\\ accidental\\ poisonings\\ per\\ unit\\ of\\ drug\\ consumption\\ because\\ consumers\\ cannot\\ sue\\ manufactures\\ over\\ faulty\\ goods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prohibition\\ increases\\ corruption\\ through\\ bribes\\ and\\ coercion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prohibition\\ complicates\\ foreign\\ relations\\,\\ trade\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ and\\ security\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Normative\\ Analysis\\ of\\ Drug\\ Prohibition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ prohibition\\ on\\ consumption\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ trivial\\,\\ however\\,\\ then\\ the\\ normative\\ analysis\\ rests\\ on\\ how\\ one\\ views\\ drug\\ use\\ and\\ policies\\ that\\ might\\ affect\\ drug\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Should\\ policy\\ attempt\\ to\\ reduce\\ drug\\ consumption\\ at\\ all\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ yes\\,\\ is\\ prohibition\\ the\\ best\\ approach\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ drug\\ consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economic\\ model\\ says\\ that\\ people\\ consume\\ drugs\\ because\\ they\\ think\\ drug\\ use\\ makes\\ them\\ better\\ off\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ self\\-medication\\,\\ looks\\ cool\\,\\ or\\ because\\ people\\ enjoy\\ being\\ intoxicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ all\\ drug\\ consumption\\ is\\ rational\\,\\ then\\ reducing\\ drug\\ consumption\\ is\\ a\\ cost\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ benefit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paternalism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Myopia\\/irrationality\\/self\\-control\\ problems\\ certainly\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ a\\ policy\\ intervention\\ is\\ necessarily\\ desirable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ determination\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;myopic\\&rdquo\\;\\ will\\ reflect\\ majority\\ preferences\\,\\ not\\ objective\\ concerns\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ marijuana\\ versus\\ alcohol\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plus\\,\\ policies\\ that\\ deter\\ drug\\ use\\ might\\ cause\\ substitutions\\ toward\\ other\\ goods\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ alcohol\\)\\ that\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;worse\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ reasons\\ to\\ believe\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ prohibition\\ exceed\\ its\\ costs\\,\\ even\\ granting\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ myopia\\ and\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ paternalism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Externalities\\ on\\ drug\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adverse\\ effects\\ on\\ unborn\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traffic\\ or\\ industrial\\ accidents\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ policies\\ that\\ deter\\ drug\\ use\\ might\\ increase\\ consumption\\ of\\ other\\ goods\\ that\\ generate\\ externalities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Calculating\\ net\\ externalities\\ is\\ thus\\ very\\ tricky\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morality\\ on\\ drug\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ use\\ is\\ immoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ prohibition\\ on\\ drug\\ use\\ is\\ also\\ immoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increased\\ violence\\,\\ more\\ children\\ infected\\ by\\ HIV\\,\\ restrictions\\ on\\ medicine\\ for\\ the\\ sick\\,\\ diminished\\ civil\\ liberties\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reduced\\ response\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Less\\ personal\\ accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ net\\ effect\\ is\\ uncertain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virtually\\ all\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ prohibition\\ are\\ undesirable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ policy\\ should\\ attempt\\ to\\ reduce\\ drug\\ consumption\\,\\ prohibition\\ is\\ likely\\ the\\ worse\\ policy\\ choice\\ for\\ achieving\\ tha\\ tend\\,\\ given\\ the\\ broad\\ range\\ of\\ negative\\ side\\-effects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alternatives\\ to\\ prohibition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\subsidized\\ treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\harm\\ reduction\\ policies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\age\\ restrictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ these\\ are\\ preferable\\ to\\ prohibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ not\\ generate\\ black\\ markets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ require\\ its\\ own\\ analysis\\,\\ and\\ each\\ ahs\\ the\\ potential\\ negative\\ side\\ effects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relating\\ to\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\nothing\\ here\\ is\\ really\\ specific\\ to\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\key\\ factor\\ is\\ the\\ economic\\ incentives\\ created\\ by\\ prohibition\\,\\ not\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ prohibited\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ helps\\ explain\\ why\\ libertarians\\ oppose\\,\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ prohibitions\\ as\\ a\\ policy\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ other\\ interventions\\ are\\ OK\\,\\ just\\ that\\ others\\ are\\ more\\ readily\\ visible\\ and\\ their\\ effects\\ more\\ obvious\\,\\ which\\ facilitates\\ rational\\ analysis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ analysis\\ does\\ not\\ mention\\ rights\\,\\ only\\ of\\ welfare\\ of\\ drug\\ consumers\\ and\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ analysis\\ addressed\\ the\\ externality\\ issue\\,\\ but\\ showed\\ that\\,\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ that\\ approach\\ is\\ incomplete\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Miron\\,\\ Jeffrey\\ A\\.\\ \\(2004\\)\\,\\ \\"\\;Liberal\\ Versus\\ Libertarian\\ Views\\ on\\ Drug\\ Legalization\\,\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ article\\ clarifies\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ underlying\\ assumptions\\ made\\ by\\ both\\ liberal\\ and\\ libertarian\\ arguments\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ drug\\ legalization\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ subtle\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;Miron\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ libertarian\\ arguments\\ are\\ more\\ appealing\\ to\\ people\\ unpersuaded\\ by\\ liberal\\ arguments\\,\\ and\\ possibly\\ strengthens\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ legalization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Libertarian\\ perspectives\\ \\-\\ individuals\\ should\\ decide\\ whether\\ they\\ consume\\ drugs\\,\\ since\\ they\\ are\\ making\\ reasonable\\,\\ informed\\ choices\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ when\\ decisions\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;rational\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ government\\ interference\\ will\\ do\\ more\\ harm\\ than\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;Basic\\ libertarian\\ anti\\-prohibition\\ arguments\\:\\ increasing\\ utility\\ for\\ drug\\ users\\ and\\ sellers\\,\\ avoiding\\ victimless\\ crimes\\,\\ black\\ markets\\,\\ and\\ the\\ pitfalls\\ of\\ those\\ markets\\ \\(quality\\ loss\\,\\ prices\\,\\ violence\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liberal\\ arguments\\ \\-\\ also\\ against\\ prohibition\\,\\ but\\ generally\\ only\\ for\\ more\\ benign\\ drugs\\ \\(marijuana\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Liberals\\ are\\ against\\ prohibition\\ for\\ generally\\ the\\ same\\ reasons\\,\\ but\\ are\\ less\\ concerned\\ with\\ consumer\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ support\\ much\\ more\\ government\\ involvement\\ \\(taxes\\,\\ regulation\\,\\ treatment\\ subsidies\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ liberals\\ and\\ libertarians\\ think\\ prosecution\\ of\\ drug\\ users\\ is\\ excessive\\,\\ but\\ liberals\\ are\\ not\\ that\\ sympathetic\\ towards\\ drug\\ sellers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legalization\\ or\\ Decriminalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Generally\\,\\ liberals\\ are\\ more\\ sympathetic\\ to\\ the\\ freedoms\\ of\\ individuals\\ than\\ businesses\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ consume\\ drugs\\ is\\ defended\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ sell\\ or\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ decriminalization\\ approach\\ usually\\ requires\\ substantive\\ government\\ control\\ and\\ regulation\\ of\\ drug\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;Liberals\\ point\\ to\\ European\\ countries\\ that\\ have\\ decriminalized\\ drugs\\ rather\\ than\\ legalizing\\ them\\ outright\\,\\ and\\ have\\ minimized\\ harms\\ from\\ drug\\ prohibition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Libertarians\\ find\\ this\\ approach\\ odd\\ and\\ inconsistent\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ market\\ should\\ be\\ open\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ elimination\\ of\\ black\\ market\\ trade\\ promotes\\ legal\\ profit\\ making\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ under\\ decriminalization\\,\\ only\\ the\\ adverse\\ treatment\\ of\\ drug\\ users\\ is\\ lessened\\.\\ \\ \\;Black\\ markets\\ for\\ the\\ sale\\ and\\ production\\ will\\ still\\ exist\\,\\ since\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ drugs\\ will\\ still\\ be\\ restricted\\.\\ \\ \\;Libertarians\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;decriminalization\\&rdquo\\;\\ seen\\ in\\ European\\ countries\\ is\\ also\\ backed\\ by\\ very\\ little\\ enforcement\\,\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ virtually\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ legalization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legalization\\ of\\ Marijuana\\ Only\\ vs\\.\\ Legalization\\ of\\ All\\ Drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ short\\,\\ liberals\\ still\\ cling\\ to\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ some\\ drugs\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;ok\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ others\\ are\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;bad\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Liberals\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ that\\ most\\ individuals\\ can\\ make\\ reasonable\\ decisions\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ drugs\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ relatively\\ harmful\\,\\ so\\ their\\ argument\\ for\\ legalization\\ usually\\ diminishes\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ drugs\\ such\\ as\\ cocaine\\,\\ heroin\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Libertarians\\ push\\ for\\ legalization\\ of\\ all\\ drugs\\,\\ because\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ individuals\\ are\\ competent\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ choices\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ evils\\ of\\ prohibition\\ are\\ inherent\\ in\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ prohibition\\ itself\\,\\ not\\ the\\ drugs\\ being\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;Drug\\ users\\ should\\ bear\\ the\\ responsibility\\ of\\ their\\ actions\\.\\ \\(One\\ of\\ the\\ ideas\\ Miron\\ uses\\ consistently\\ is\\ that\\ with\\ less\\ government\\ interference\\ and\\ dictation\\ about\\ what\\ our\\ actions\\ should\\ be\\,\\ this\\ all\\-is\\-legal\\ system\\ will\\ force\\ us\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ informed\\ and\\ more\\ responsible\\ about\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ our\\ actions\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subsidizing\\ Drug\\ Abuse\\ Treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ subsidization\\ of\\ drug\\ abuse\\ treatment\\ often\\ finds\\ its\\ way\\ into\\ the\\ liberal\\ argument\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ money\\ would\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ money\\ not\\ spent\\ on\\ persecution\\ of\\ drug\\ users\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ argument\\ for\\ subsidies\\ usually\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ beliefs\\ of\\ liberals\\ that\\ drug\\ use\\ should\\ indeed\\ be\\ curtailed\\,\\ just\\ not\\ by\\ prohibition\\ or\\ police\\ enforcement\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ belief\\ highlights\\ the\\ opinion\\ that\\ drug\\ use\\ and\\ addiction\\ is\\ a\\ disease\\ not\\ controllable\\ by\\ individuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\To\\ libertarians\\,\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ and\\ subsidization\\ for\\ treatment\\ are\\ separate\\ issues\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ money\\ gained\\ from\\ scaling\\ back\\ interdiction\\ should\\ not\\ necessarily\\ go\\ toward\\ subsidies\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ trying\\ to\\ treat\\ drug\\ use\\ has\\ no\\ real\\ priority\\ for\\ libertarians\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ there\\ are\\ negatives\\ to\\ subsidizing\\ treatment\\,\\ most\\ importantly\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ drugs\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;bad\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ also\\ that\\ it\\ starts\\ a\\ slippery\\ slope\\ towards\\ mandatory\\ treatment\\.\\ \\ \\;Treatment\\ also\\ has\\ dubious\\ effectiveness\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ however\\,\\ liberals\\ and\\ libertarians\\ agree\\ that\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ drug\\ treatment\\ for\\ marijuana\\ is\\ low\\,\\ and\\ reflects\\ coercion\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ \\(since\\ liberals\\ see\\ marijuana\\ as\\ benign\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Regulation\\ and\\ Taxation\\ of\\ Legal\\ Drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Liberals\\ and\\ libertarians\\ disagree\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ drugs\\ would\\ be\\ handled\\ under\\ legalization\\.\\ \\ \\;Liberals\\ would\\ put\\ drugs\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ category\\ as\\ other\\ products\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;sin\\ taxes\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ more\\ regulation\\,\\ fines\\,\\ and\\ restrictions\\ than\\ normal\\ products\\.\\ \\ \\;Liberals\\ also\\ see\\ consumers\\ as\\ easily\\ misled\\ and\\ coerced\\,\\ and\\ are\\ against\\ advertising\\ of\\ drugs\\ as\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Libertarians\\ are\\ against\\ most\\ sin\\ taxes\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ taxes\\ are\\ only\\ offsetting\\ negative\\ externalities\\ if\\ we\\ take\\ a\\ stance\\ on\\ whether\\ consumers\\ should\\ be\\ purchasing\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\;Grouping\\ drugs\\ this\\ way\\ can\\ be\\ manipulated\\ for\\ political\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ \\;Extreme\\ taxation\\ can\\ also\\ drive\\ the\\ drug\\ underground\\,\\ eliminating\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ legalization\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ this\\ is\\ preferable\\ to\\ prohibition\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ better\\.\\ \\ \\;Age\\ restrictions\\ also\\ can\\ do\\ more\\ harm\\ than\\ good\\,\\ since\\ they\\ breed\\ contempt\\ for\\ the\\ law\\,\\ and\\ encourage\\ parents\\ to\\ assume\\ their\\ children\\ are\\ not\\ using\\ these\\ products\\.\\ Advertising\\ can\\ inform\\ consumers\\ about\\ different\\ products\\ and\\ improve\\ competition\\,\\ which\\ benefits\\ consumers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Needle\\ Exchange\\ Programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Liberals\\ believe\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ step\\ in\\ and\\ ensure\\ that\\ clean\\ needles\\ are\\ distributed\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ HIV\\.\\ \\ \\;Under\\ legalization\\,\\ the\\ price\\ and\\ availability\\ of\\ clean\\ needles\\ would\\ likely\\ become\\ better\\,\\ but\\ libertarians\\ believe\\ that\\ regardless\\,\\ individuals\\ should\\ accept\\ whatever\\ risks\\ are\\ present\\;\\ they\\ also\\ assume\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ will\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ clean\\ and\\ readily\\ available\\ needles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ Testing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Liberals\\ are\\ generally\\ against\\ drug\\ testing\\ in\\ the\\ job\\ sector\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ call\\ this\\ an\\ invasion\\ of\\ privacy\\ and\\ believe\\ firms\\ should\\ not\\ hound\\ their\\ employees\\ in\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ profits\\.\\ \\ \\;Libertarians\\ are\\ against\\ government\\ imposition\\ of\\ mandatory\\ drug\\ testing\\,\\ but\\ believe\\ employers\\ should\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ do\\ as\\ they\\ wish\\ with\\ their\\ employees\\,\\ in\\ the\\ attempt\\ to\\ maximize\\ productivity\\ or\\ identify\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsible\\&rdquo\\;\\ employees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ lesson\\ to\\ extract\\ from\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ examining\\ the\\ libertarian\\ view\\ helps\\ to\\ extract\\ some\\ extraneous\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ policy\\ debate\\ from\\ the\\ pressing\\ question\\ of\\ legalization\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ include\\ subsidizing\\ treatment\\ and\\ drug\\ testing\\,\\ which\\ merit\\ analysis\\,\\ but\\ are\\ separate\\ from\\ this\\ issue\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ lesson\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ perspective\\ may\\ be\\ appealing\\ to\\ some\\ opponents\\ of\\ the\\ liberal\\ argument\\,\\ which\\ strikes\\ some\\ people\\ as\\ indulgent\\ to\\ drug\\ users\\ because\\ of\\ this\\ advocacy\\ of\\ government\\ subsidy\\ and\\ involvement\\.\\ \\ \\;Requiring\\ individuals\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ risk\\ involved\\ in\\ drug\\ use\\ may\\ appeal\\ to\\ these\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ libertarian\\ defense\\ of\\ drug\\ legalization\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ individuals\\ will\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ choices\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ people\\ other\\ than\\ hard\\-core\\ libertarians\\ will\\ prefer\\ a\\ modification\\ of\\ this\\ policy\\ that\\ focuses\\ on\\ drugs\\ like\\ marijuana\\ and\\ allows\\ for\\ some\\ regulations\\ of\\ these\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miron\\,\\ Jeffrey\\ A\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vice\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ Libertarian\\ Land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Current\\ Government\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-attempt\\ to\\ suppress\\ vice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ goods\\ and\\ activities\\ viewed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sinful\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-ex\\:\\ alcohol\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ tobacco\\,\\ prostitution\\,\\ gambling\\,\\ and\\ certain\\ types\\ of\\ consensual\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-3\\ types\\ of\\ control\\:\\ prohibition\\,\\ sin\\ taxation\\ \\(elevated\\ taxes\\ on\\ the\\ commodity\\)\\,\\ or\\ they\\ regulate\\ the\\ commodity\\ to\\ a\\ substantial\\ degree\\ \\(gambling\\,\\ prostitution\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Libertarian\\ Perspective\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Libertarianism\\ holds\\ that\\ governments\\ should\\ forego\\ all\\ attempts\\ to\\ suppress\\ vice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-should\\ be\\ private\\ efforts\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ negative\\ consequences\\ of\\ vice\\,\\ such\\ as\\ drug\\-testing\\ by\\ private\\ employers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-or\\ policies\\ that\\ target\\ the\\ adverse\\ effects\\ of\\ certain\\ vices\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ laws\\ against\\ drunk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\driving\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drug\\ Prohibition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ arguments\\ for\\ prohibition\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ consumers\\ do\\ not\\ make\\ reasonable\\ decisions\\ about\\ whether\\ to\\ consume\\ drugs\\ so\\ the\\ \\.paternalistic\\.\\ justification\\ for\\ prohibition\\ says\\ society\\ should\\ outlaw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\drugs\\ to\\ protect\\ people\\ from\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problem\\:\\ paternalism\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ justify\\ a\\ huge\\ range\\ of\\ government\\ interventions\\ so\\ it\\ can\\ open\\ a\\ Pandora\\&\\#39\\;s\\ box\\ of\\ government\\ intervention\\ into\\ the\\ most\\ private\\ aspects\\ of\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ drug\\ use\\ harms\\ innocent\\ third\\ parties\\ \\(negative\\ externality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\problem\\:\\ difficulty\\ lies\\ in\\ determining\\ what\\ is\\ an\\ externality\\ and\\ which\\ ones\\ society\\ should\\ target\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Costs\\ of\\ Prohibition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\reduced\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ drugs\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ myopic\\ and\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ generate\\ externalities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\prohibition\\ is\\ harming\\ those\\ who\\ consume\\ drugs\\ despite\\ the\\ law\\ \\(black\\ market\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\increased\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\spawns\\ disrespect\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diminishes\\ personal\\ accountability\\ because\\ branding\\ drugs\\ as\\ so\\ awful\\ they\\ must\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\outlawed\\ provides\\ an\\ excuse\\ for\\ acts\\ committed\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ Policies\\ \\&\\;\\ Their\\ Problems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Sin\\ Taxation\\:\\ potentially\\ reduces\\ myopic\\ or\\ externality\\-generating\\ alcohol\\ use\\,\\ but\\ it\\ can\\ also\\ lower\\ responsible\\ alcohol\\ consumption\\;\\ the\\ net\\ effect\\ on\\ consumer\\ welfare\\ is\\ ambiguous\\,\\ discourages\\ self\\ thought\\,\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ sin\\ taxation\\ can\\ drive\\ the\\ market\\ underground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Subsidizing\\ Abuse\\ treatment\\:\\ treatment\\ has\\ limited\\ success\\ in\\ producing\\ better\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ drug\\ or\\ alcohol\\ users\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ expensive\\,\\ deems\\ alcohol\\ and\\ drug\\ use\\ as\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Public\\ Health\\ Campaigns\\:\\ government\\ messages\\ about\\ drugs\\ or\\ alcohol\\ often\\ contain\\ extreme\\ exaggerations\\ that\\ mainly\\ convince\\ teenagers\\ to\\ ignore\\ all\\ warnings\\ about\\ health\\ or\\ risk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Age\\ Restrictions\\:\\ Many\\ minors\\ get\\ around\\ these\\ restrictions\\,\\ so\\ they\\ learn\\ that\\ rules\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ broken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Limits\\ on\\ Entry\\ \\(gambling\\)\\:\\ raises\\ prices\\,\\ which\\ might\\ discourage\\ problem\\ gamblers\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\certainly\\ harms\\ responsible\\ gamblers\\ and\\ when\\ restrictions\\ on\\ entry\\ are\\ substantial\\,\\ they\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\encourage\\ black\\ market\\ provision\\ with\\ all\\ the\\ attendant\\ ills\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bottom\\ Line\\:\\ government\\ should\\ not\\ prohibit\\ or\\ limit\\ drug\\ use\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-does\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\ libertarians\\ oppose\\ private\\ efforts\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ negative\\ consequences\\ that\\ can\\ result\\ from\\ certain\\ goods\\ when\\ used\\ inappropriately\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-allows\\ for\\ government\\ policies\\ that\\ directly\\ target\\ externalities\\ from\\ particular\\ goods\\ \\(drunk\\ driving\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-should\\ have\\ free\\ entry\\ without\\ any\\ government\\ provision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\:\\ Social\\ Security\\ and\\ Savings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Social\\ security\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ government\\ transfer\\ program\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ \\$472B\\ in\\ taxes\\ collected\\ and\\ \\$421B\\ paid\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SS\\ faces\\ will\\ face\\ financial\\ trouble\\ in\\ the\\ future\\&mdash\\;liberals\\ want\\ to\\ raise\\ taxes\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ SS\\,\\ while\\ conservatives\\ want\\ to\\ create\\ private\\ accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ SS\\ is\\ financed\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;equal\\&rdquo\\;\\ taxes\\ \\(total\\ 12\\.6\\%\\ of\\ income\\)\\ on\\ employees\\ and\\ employers\\,\\ employees\\ mainly\\ shoulder\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ this\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ have\\ worked\\ for\\ at\\ least\\ 10\\ years\\ and\\ have\\ reached\\ the\\ retirement\\ age\\ are\\ eligible\\ for\\ benefits\\ which\\ are\\ dependent\\ on\\ a\\ roughly\\ progressive\\ formula\\ based\\ on\\ wage\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ SS\\ trust\\ fund\\ links\\ taxes\\ and\\ benefits\\&mdash\\;the\\ balance\\ of\\ the\\ fund\\ can\\ be\\ \\+\\ or\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Benefits\\ are\\ paid\\ out\\ immediately\\ from\\ current\\ taxes\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ money\\ one\\ receives\\ does\\ not\\ equal\\ the\\ taxes\\ he\\/she\\ paid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Due\\ to\\ inconstant\\ population\\ growth\\/baby\\ boom\\ in\\ 10\\-15\\ years\\ more\\ money\\ will\\ be\\ paid\\ out\\ than\\ is\\ coming\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\~30\\ years\\ the\\ Trust\\ Fund\\ will\\ be\\ bankrupt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Private\\ accounts\\ would\\ allow\\ individuals\\ to\\ put\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ wages\\ into\\ stocks\\,\\ bonds\\,\\ or\\ mutual\\ funds\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ paying\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ as\\ taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Private\\ accounts\\ do\\ not\\ improve\\ solvency\\,\\ rate\\ of\\ return\\,\\ or\\ economy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rate\\ of\\ saving\\ in\\ other\\ household\\ savings\\ plans\\ will\\ go\\ down\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ forced\\ saving\\ of\\ private\\ accounts\\ and\\ assuming\\ no\\ benefits\\ are\\ cut\\,\\ then\\ other\\ taxes\\ must\\ be\\ levied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ reduction\\ in\\ benefits\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ reduction\\ in\\ taxes\\ is\\ what\\ would\\ make\\ SS\\ more\\ solvent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ benefit\\ cut\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ tax\\ cut\\ \\+\\ an\\ additional\\ benefit\\ cut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ additional\\ benefit\\ cut\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ increased\\ solvency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Private\\ accounts\\ exist\\ already\\ as\\ private\\ savings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mandating\\ minimum\\ savings\\ is\\ a\\ different\\ issue\\ from\\ fixing\\ SS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reasons\\ for\\ mandating\\ private\\ savings\\ are\\ weak\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SS\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ but\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ creates\\ distortions\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ reduced\\ national\\ savings\\,\\ people\\ retiring\\ too\\ early\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ way\\ is\\ to\\ eliminate\\ SS\\ and\\ institute\\ low\\-income\\/disability\\ insurance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ by\\ gradually\\ increasing\\ the\\ retirement\\ age\\ or\\ introducing\\ means\\ testing\\ of\\ benefit\\ receipt\\ or\\ greater\\ taxation\\ of\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Converting\\ SS\\ into\\ a\\ low\\-income\\/disability\\ insurance\\ program\\ is\\ economically\\ and\\ politically\\ possible\\ over\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Murphy\\,\\ Kevin\\ M\\.\\ and\\ Finis\\ Welch\\ \\(1998\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Perspectives\\ on\\ the\\ Social\\ Security\\ Crisis\\ and\\ Proposed\\ Solutions\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ current\\ Tax\\ System\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Basically\\ its\\ just\\ a\\ tax\\ and\\ transfer\\ program\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ short\\ term\\ it\\ looks\\ good\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ surplus\\,\\ but\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ picture\\ is\\ gloomy\\.\\ \\\\Benefits\\ are\\ culculated\\ by\\ indexing\\ earnings\\ from\\ each\\ year\\ of\\ an\\ individiual\\&\\#39\\;s\\ career\\ to\\ age\\ 60\\ using\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\-wide\\ avverage\\ earnings\\ when\\ the\\ individual\\ is\\ age\\ 60\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ economy\\ wide\\ average\\ earnings\\ in\\ that\\ year\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(relatively\\ complicted\\,\\ i\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ think\\ you\\ really\\ have\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ calculated\\)\\\\The\\ returns\\ are\\ not\\ very\\ good\\ on\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ taxed\\ over\\ your\\ lifetime\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ implied\\ returns\\ earned\\ per\\ dollar\\ contributed\\ will\\ differ\\ significantly\\ across\\ cohorts\\ of\\ workers\\ since\\ tax\\ rates\\ have\\ been\\ adjusted\\ upward\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Taxable\\ maximum\\ has\\ also\\ increased\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\With\\ such\\ a\\ bad\\ rate\\ of\\ return\\,\\ the\\ larger\\ you\\ contribute\\,\\ the\\ larger\\ you\\ will\\ lose\\.\\\\Balancing\\ the\\ system\\ so\\ you\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ lose\\ your\\ money\\ you\\ contibute\\ would\\ require\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ taxes\\ by\\ 23\\%\\.\\ \\;\\ But\\ this\\ would\\ not\\ end\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ social\\ secuirty\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ might\\ bring\\ the\\ overall\\ system\\ into\\ balance\\,\\ but\\ it\\ would\\ only\\ exacerbate\\ the\\ burden\\ the\\ system\\ places\\ on\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ young\\ and\\ future\\ generates\\.\\ \\\\Thus\\,\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ social\\ security\\ is\\ getting\\ worse\\ and\\ the\\ longer\\ we\\ wait\\ change\\ the\\ system\\,\\ the\\ more\\ damaging\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ and\\ the\\ harder\\ the\\ change\\ will\\ be\\.\\ \\\\It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ surprising\\ that\\ they\\ returns\\ are\\ low\\ in\\ a\\ Samuelsonian\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ system\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ system\\ is\\ not\\ sustainable\\.\\ \\;\\ Those\\ earlier\\ cohorts\\ weren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ hurt\\ by\\ the\\ system\\,\\ it\\ is\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ younger\\ cohorts\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ be\\ faced\\ with\\ the\\ low\\ returns\\ inherent\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ system\\.\\\\Privitization\\ must\\ involve\\ redistribution\\ across\\ individuals\\ and\\/or\\ incentive\\ effects\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ system\\ to\\ acheive\\ the\\ same\\ results\\.\\ \\;\\ Privitization\\ provides\\ no\\ gain\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\Incentives\\:\\ \\;\\ A\\ private\\ system\\ with\\ defined\\ contributions\\,\\ flat\\ tax\\ rates\\,\\ and\\ actuarilly\\ benefit\\ schedules\\ would\\ reduce\\ marginal\\ tax\\ rates\\ on\\ work\\ for\\ both\\ young\\ and\\ old\\,\\ thereby\\ improving\\ efficiency\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\The\\ system\\ could\\ be\\ balanced\\ by\\ cutting\\ taxes\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ raising\\ efficiency\\.\\ And\\ a\\ consumption\\ tax\\ could\\ increase\\ efficiency\\ gains\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\Privatization\\ gives\\ individuals\\ greater\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ portfolios\\ rather\\ than\\ relying\\ on\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ compensate\\ for\\ any\\ undesirable\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ investment\\ policy\\.\\ \\\\Pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ system\\-\\ the\\ benefit\\ levels\\ and\\ taxes\\ are\\ always\\ subject\\ to\\ change\\ based\\ on\\ politcal\\ forces\\.\\ \\;\\ Which\\ can\\ be\\ risky\\.\\\\Digging\\ an\\ even\\ deeper\\ hole\\ is\\ probably\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ compelling\\ reasons\\ for\\ getting\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ structure\\.\\\\But\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ sooner\\ rather\\ than\\ later\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diamond\\,\\ Peter\\ A\\.\\ and\\ Peter\\ R\\.\\ Orszag\\ \\(2005\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Saving\\ Social\\ Security\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Social\\ Security\\ provides\\ retirees\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ basic\\ level\\ of\\ income\\ that\\ is\\ protected\\ against\\ inflation\\,\\ financial\\ market\\ fluctuations\\,\\ and\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ outliving\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assets\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ also\\ protects\\ against\\ disability\\,\\ death\\ of\\ family\\ wage\\ earner\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provides\\ majority\\ of\\ income\\ for\\ two\\-thirds\\ of\\ elderly\\ beneficiaries\\,\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ income\\ of\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ elderly\\ beneficiaries\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\:\\ Over\\ the\\ next\\ 75\\ years\\,\\ costs\\ are\\ projected\\ to\\ rise\\ by\\ 2\\.5\\ \\%\\ of\\ GDP\\ while\\ revenues\\ are\\ projected\\ to\\ decline\\ as\\ a\\ percentage\\ of\\ GDP\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ authors\\ propose\\ benefit\\ improvements\\ for\\ vulnerable\\ groups\\,\\ policies\\ to\\ close\\ the\\ underlying\\ social\\ security\\ deficit\\,\\ and\\ examine\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ replacing\\ part\\ of\\ social\\ security\\ with\\ individual\\ accounts\\ \\(which\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Improving\\ Social\\ Insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Workers\\ with\\ low\\ lifetime\\ earnings\\ often\\ live\\ in\\ poverty\\ during\\ retirement\\ despite\\ Social\\ Security\\&rsquo\\;s\\ progressive\\ benefit\\ formula\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ authors\\ propose\\ a\\ benefit\\ enhancement\\ for\\ low\\ earners\\,\\ which\\ would\\ apply\\ to\\ workers\\ with\\ at\\ least\\ 20\\ years\\ of\\ covered\\ earnings\\ before\\ retirement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ widow\\ typically\\ suffers\\ a\\ 30\\%\\ drop\\ in\\ living\\ standards\\ around\\ the\\ time\\ she\\ loses\\ her\\ husband\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ authors\\ propose\\ that\\ social\\ security\\ strengthen\\ its\\ protection\\ of\\ widows\\ and\\ widowers\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ survivor\\ benefit\\ equals\\ at\\ least\\ three\\-quarters\\ the\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ previous\\ combined\\ benefits\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Disabled\\ workers\\ and\\ their\\ families\\ have\\ higher\\ poverty\\ rates\\ and\\ are\\ more\\ financially\\ vulnerable\\ than\\ the\\ general\\ population\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ authors\\ propose\\ that\\ disabled\\ workers\\ be\\ held\\ harmless\\ from\\ benefit\\ reductions\\ that\\ go\\ along\\ with\\ their\\ plans\\ for\\ social\\ security\\ over\\ the\\ next\\ 75\\ years\\.\\ Their\\ plan\\ reduces\\ initial\\ benefits\\ upon\\ disability\\ but\\ increases\\ annual\\ benefits\\ at\\ a\\ rate\\ faster\\ than\\ inflation\\,\\ thus\\ increasing\\ lifetime\\ benefit\\ levels\\ for\\ workers\\ who\\ become\\ disabled\\ earlier\\ in\\ their\\ careers\\ and\\ reduces\\ them\\ for\\ workers\\ who\\ become\\ disabled\\ later\\ in\\ their\\ careers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Restoring\\ Actuarial\\ Balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Social\\ security\\ reforms\\ need\\ to\\ not\\ only\\ close\\ the\\ 75\\-year\\ deficit\\,\\ but\\ also\\ ensure\\ a\\ stable\\ or\\ rising\\ trust\\ fund\\ relative\\ to\\ expenditures\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 75\\-year\\ projection\\ period\\.\\ This\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sustainable\\ solvency\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ authors\\ address\\ three\\ factors\\ which\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ actuarial\\ imbalance\\:\\ increasing\\ life\\ expectancy\\,\\ increases\\ in\\ earnings\\ inequality\\,\\ and\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ the\\ legacy\\ debt\\ resulting\\ from\\ the\\ program\\&rsquo\\;s\\ early\\ history\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increasing\\ Life\\ Expectancy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Propose\\ a\\ balanced\\ combination\\ of\\ benefit\\ and\\ tax\\ adjustments\\.\\ Every\\ year\\ \\(from\\ 2012\\)\\ the\\ Office\\ of\\ the\\ Chief\\ Actuary\\ would\\ calculate\\ the\\ net\\ cost\\ to\\ Social\\ Security\\ from\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ life\\ expectancy\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ year\\ for\\ a\\ typical\\ worker\\ of\\ full\\ benefit\\ age\\.\\ Half\\ of\\ this\\ cost\\ would\\ be\\ offset\\ by\\ a\\ reduction\\ in\\ benefits\\ \\(applied\\ to\\ workers\\ age\\ 59\\ and\\ younger\\)\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ half\\ would\\ be\\ financed\\ by\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ payroll\\ tax\\ rate\\.\\ This\\ would\\ reduce\\ the\\ 75\\-year\\ deficit\\ by\\ one\\ third\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ projections\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increasing\\ Earnings\\ Inequality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ fraction\\ of\\ aggregate\\ earnings\\ above\\ the\\ maximum\\ taxable\\ earnings\\ base\\ has\\ risen\\,\\ and\\ the\\ loss\\ in\\ revenue\\ more\\ than\\ offsets\\ the\\ reduction\\ in\\ benefits\\ paid\\ on\\ high\\ earnings\\.\\ People\\ with\\ higher\\ earnings\\ and\\ more\\ education\\ live\\ longer\\ than\\ those\\ with\\ lower\\ earnings\\ and\\ less\\ education\\,\\ and\\ these\\ differences\\ by\\ earnings\\ and\\ education\\ are\\ increasing\\ over\\ time\\.\\ This\\ changing\\ pattern\\ makes\\ social\\ security\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\less\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;progressive\\ since\\ higher\\ earners\\ collect\\ benefits\\ for\\ a\\ longer\\ number\\ of\\ years\\ relative\\ to\\ lower\\ earners\\.\\ They\\ propose\\ lowering\\ the\\ marginal\\ benefit\\ in\\ the\\ top\\ tier\\,\\ affecting\\ the\\ highest\\-earning\\ 15\\ percent\\ of\\ workers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burden\\ of\\ the\\ Legacy\\ Debt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Benefits\\ paid\\ to\\ all\\ current\\ and\\ past\\ beneficiaries\\ exceeds\\ what\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ financed\\ with\\ the\\ revenue\\ they\\ contributed\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ case\\ because\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ I\\,\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\,\\ and\\ World\\ War\\ II\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ propose\\ universal\\ coverage\\ under\\ social\\ security\\ \\(many\\ state\\ and\\ government\\ workers\\ are\\ not\\ covered\\ by\\ social\\ security\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bear\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ the\\ legacy\\ debt\\;\\ their\\ plan\\ brings\\ all\\ newly\\ hired\\ state\\ and\\ local\\ workers\\ under\\ social\\ security\\)\\,\\ a\\ legacy\\ tax\\ on\\ earnings\\ above\\ the\\ maximum\\ earnings\\ base\\;\\ and\\ a\\ universal\\ legacy\\ charge\\ that\\ applies\\ to\\ all\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ reduction\\ in\\ benefits\\ component\\.\\ Older\\ workers\\ have\\ a\\ smaller\\ reduction\\ in\\ benefits\\ than\\ younger\\ ones\\,\\ and\\ reductions\\ are\\ smaller\\ for\\ lower\\ earners\\ and\\ larger\\ for\\ higher\\ ones\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Individual\\ Accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ individual\\ accounts\\ increases\\ the\\ risk\\,\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ higher\\ correlation\\ between\\ risks\\ already\\ borne\\ by\\ workers\\ and\\ the\\ risks\\ in\\ individual\\ accounts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ accounts\\ can\\ only\\ improve\\ social\\ security\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ finance\\ traditional\\ benefits\\ if\\ it\\ reduces\\ these\\ traditional\\ benefits\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ way\\ for\\ individual\\ accounts\\ to\\ restore\\ solvency\\ is\\ to\\ front\\-load\\ benefit\\ reductions\\ significantly\\ more\\ than\\ needed\\ \\(and\\ cuts\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ would\\ be\\ smaller\\)\\.\\ It\\ could\\ also\\ raise\\ the\\ payroll\\ tax\\ rate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ Saving\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ objectives\\ of\\ reform\\ is\\ to\\ raise\\ national\\ savings\\ \\(which\\ would\\ increase\\ national\\ income\\ and\\ reduce\\ future\\ burden\\ of\\ benefits\\)\\.\\ People\\ argue\\ that\\ accumulating\\ assets\\ in\\ individual\\ accounts\\ raises\\ national\\ savings\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ trust\\ fund\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ argue\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;individual\\ account\\ deposits\\ do\\ not\\ directly\\ raise\\ national\\ saving\\ unless\\ they\\ are\\ financed\\ by\\ additional\\ front\\-loaded\\ benefit\\ reductions\\ or\\ revenue\\ increases\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rates\\ of\\ Return\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\People\\ argue\\ that\\ individual\\ accounts\\ would\\ facilitate\\ higher\\ rates\\ of\\ return\\.\\ Authors\\ claim\\ that\\ this\\ reflects\\ differential\\ expected\\ rates\\ of\\ return\\ on\\ social\\ security\\ contributions\\ versus\\ bonds\\,\\ and\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ expected\\ rates\\ of\\ return\\ of\\ stocks\\ and\\ bonds\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ returns\\ on\\ social\\ security\\ and\\ bonds\\ reflects\\ the\\ legacy\\ debt\\ \\(discussed\\ before\\)\\ and\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ returns\\ on\\ stocks\\ and\\ bonds\\ reflects\\ risk\\.\\ Adjusting\\ for\\ these\\ two\\ factors\\ explains\\ the\\ entire\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ rates\\ of\\ return\\ between\\ social\\ security\\ and\\ stocks\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\-retirement\\ access\\ to\\ account\\ balances\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Would\\ undercut\\ basic\\ principle\\ of\\ Social\\ Security\\ \\(preserving\\ retirement\\ funds\\ until\\ retirement\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Risk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Some\\ cohorts\\ of\\ workers\\ will\\ retire\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ financial\\ markets\\ are\\ depressed\\ and\\ asset\\ values\\ far\\ lower\\ than\\ they\\ anticipated\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quality\\ of\\ Investment\\ Decisions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Adding\\ more\\ inexperienced\\ investors\\ to\\ the\\ market\\ is\\ dangerous\\,\\ while\\ educating\\ them\\ is\\ costly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Feldstein\\-Samwick\\ Proposals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ Individual\\ Accounts\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ basic\\ plan\\ \\&ldquo\\;diverts\\ a\\ matching\\ contribution\\ of\\ 1\\.5\\%\\ of\\ payroll\\ from\\ existing\\ payroll\\ taxes\\ for\\ workers\\ who\\ also\\ make\\ a\\ voluntary\\ contribution\\ of\\ 1\\.5\\%\\ of\\ payroll\\ to\\ individual\\ accounts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ They\\ do\\ not\\ adjust\\ account\\ returns\\ for\\ risk\\,\\ and\\ basically\\ use\\ the\\ equity\\ premium\\ to\\ finance\\ the\\ benefits\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Feldstein\\,\\ Martin\\ \\(2005\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Structural\\ Social\\ Security\\ Reform\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Governments\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ currently\\ considering\\ structural\\ reforms\\ of\\ Social\\ Security\\ pension\\ programs\\,\\ to\\ shift\\ from\\ a\\ pure\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ tax\\ financed\\ system\\ to\\ a\\ mixed\\ system\\ that\\ combined\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ benefits\\ with\\ investment\\ based\\ personal\\ retirement\\ accounts\\ \\(currently\\ in\\ Australia\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ China\\,\\ Britain\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Security\\ Today\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\retirement\\ benefit\\ is\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ final\\ year\\ earnings\\ for\\ those\\ with\\ median\\ earnings\\ and\\ reties\\ at\\ the\\ normal\\ retirement\\ age\\ \\(65\\-67\\)\\.\\ An\\ additional\\ 50\\%\\ is\\ payable\\ to\\ a\\ married\\ couple\\ if\\ the\\ resulting\\ total\\ exceeds\\ what\\ they\\ would\\ receive\\ based\\ on\\ two\\ separate\\ records\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ widow\\ receives\\ her\\ own\\ potential\\ benefit\\,\\ and\\ benefit\\ to\\ which\\ her\\ husband\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ entitled\\.\\ The\\ benefits\\ are\\ financed\\ by\\ a\\ payroll\\ tax\\,\\ 10\\.6\\%\\ of\\ wage\\ up\\ to\\ 87900\\.In\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ OASI\\ \\(Old\\ Age\\ and\\ Survivor\\ Insurance\\)\\ there\\ is\\ 1\\.8\\%\\ tax\\ for\\ disability\\,\\ 2\\.9\\%\\ for\\ Medicare\\,\\ bringing\\ total\\ to\\ 15\\.3\\%\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ current\\ inflow\\ to\\ the\\ trust\\ fund\\ exceeds\\ the\\ actual\\ cost\\ of\\ current\\ benefits\\;\\ but\\ benefits\\ exceed\\ the\\ inflow\\ in\\ about\\ 2018\\,\\ and\\ gov\\.\\ \\ \\;will\\ have\\ to\\ sell\\ bonds\\ to\\ finance\\ benefits\\.\\ Gov\\.\\ must\\ begin\\ borrowing\\ to\\ pay\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Reform\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Future\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ retirees\\ per\\ worker\\ means\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ joining\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ today\\,\\ would\\ receive\\ the\\ real\\ rate\\ of\\ return\\ only\\ 2\\.5\\%\\.\\ Therefore\\:\\ 1\\)\\ benefits\\ must\\ be\\ cut\\ below\\ projected\\ levels\\ 2\\)\\ or\\ taxes\\ must\\ be\\ increased\\.\\ So\\,\\ the\\ net\\ rate\\ of\\ return\\ will\\ be\\ reduced\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ a\\ Mixed\\ System\\ Could\\ Work\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;There\\ are\\ many\\ ways\\ to\\ reform\\;\\ A\\.\\ Samwick\\ and\\ M\\ Feldstein\\ designed\\ a\\ plan\\ to\\ satisfy\\ five\\ requirements\\:\\ 1\\)\\ current\\ retirees\\ receive\\ full\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ benefits\\ specified\\ in\\ current\\ law\\ 2\\)\\ for\\ future\\ retirees\\,\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ plus\\ expected\\ investment\\ based\\ annuities\\ equal\\/\\ exceed\\ benefits\\ of\\ current\\ law\\ 4\\)\\ permanent\\ solution\\,\\ trust\\ fund\\ after\\ 75\\-year\\ period\\ will\\ be\\ positive\\ and\\ growing\\ 5\\)\\ no\\ use\\ of\\ exciting\\ general\\ revenue\\ to\\ finance\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personal\\ retirement\\ account\\ balances\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ invested\\ in\\ diversified\\ equity\\ and\\ bond\\ mutual\\ funds\\.\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ the\\ personal\\ retirement\\ account\\ balances\\ should\\ be\\ invested\\ in\\ a\\ broad\\ equity\\ mutual\\ fund\\ index\\,\\ 40\\%\\ in\\ a\\ corporate\\ bond\\ fund\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cost\\ of\\ Transition\\ to\\ a\\ Mixed\\ System\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ transition\\ generation\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ \\&ldquo\\;double\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ once\\ to\\ finance\\ Social\\ Security\\ benefits\\ to\\ current\\ retirees\\,\\ and\\ again\\ to\\ save\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ retirement\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ slow\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ benefits\\ in\\ a\\ gradual\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ mixed\\ system\\ would\\ be\\ equal\\ to\\ or\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ benchmark\\ benefits\\ projected\\ in\\ current\\ law\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ shift\\ of\\ payroll\\ tax\\ funds\\ to\\ the\\ personal\\ retirement\\ accounts\\ temporarily\\ increases\\ the\\ budget\\ deficit\\,\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ reduce\\ overall\\ national\\ saving\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ concerns\\-\\ administration\\ costs\\,\\ risk\\,\\ income\\ distribution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ countries\\ have\\ experienced\\ high\\ administrative\\ costs\\.\\ The\\ key\\ determinants\\ of\\ the\\ administrative\\ costs\\ any\\ mutual\\ fund\\ are\\ in\\ marketing\\,\\ in\\ the\\ collection\\ of\\ the\\ funds\\,\\ in\\ the\\ frequency\\ with\\ witch\\ investments\\ can\\ be\\ changed\\ from\\ one\\ investment\\ manager\\ into\\ another\\,\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ individuals\\ can\\ talk\\ to\\ stuff\\ at\\ the\\ fund\\ manager\\.\\ Risk\\ is\\ involved\\ as\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ benefits\\ and\\ investment\\ based\\ benefits\\ are\\ both\\ inherently\\ uncertain\\.\\ Pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ benefits\\ are\\ uncertain\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ unpredictable\\ demographics\\ and\\ unreliable\\ politics\\.\\ Investment\\-based\\ accounts\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ market\\ risk\\,\\ but\\ these\\ market\\ risks\\ can\\ be\\ quantified\\ and\\ reduced\\ by\\ investment\\ strategies\\.\\ Mixed\\ system\\ that\\ combines\\ both\\ benefits\\ can\\ provide\\ greater\\ protection\\ than\\ a\\ pure\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\-go\\ or\\ investment\\-based\\ system\\.\\ Thirdly\\,\\ some\\ opponents\\ of\\ the\\ mixed\\ system\\ are\\ concerned\\ that\\ investment\\-based\\ accounts\\ would\\ weaken\\ what\\ they\\ perceive\\ as\\ the\\ redistributive\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ system\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ The\\ shift\\ from\\ pay\\-as\\-you\\ \\&ndash\\;go\\ to\\ a\\ mixed\\ system\\ can\\ reduce\\ the\\ distortions\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\ and\\ increase\\ the\\ present\\ value\\ of\\ expected\\ future\\ consumption\\.\\ Transition\\ to\\ such\\ system\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ gradually\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ large\\ deficits\\,\\ a\\ tax\\ increase\\,\\ or\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ expected\\ retirement\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 4\\:\\ Subsidizing\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ is\\ substantial\\ monetary\\ government\\ intervention\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ education\\ including\\ public\\ schools\\,\\ tuition\\ subsidies\\,\\ and\\ research\\ funding\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ liberals\\ and\\ conservatives\\ agree\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ play\\ a\\ huge\\ role\\ in\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Assume\\ each\\ person\\ has\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ human\\ capital\\ \\(brain\\ power\\,\\ skill\\,\\ knowledge\\)\\ and\\ acquiring\\ education\\ has\\ a\\ positive\\ impact\\ on\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ human\\ capital\\ as\\ it\\ increases\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ productivity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ basic\\ assumption\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ capital\\ model\\ is\\ that\\ education\\ increases\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ productivity\\ which\\ makes\\ sense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-All\\ people\\ should\\ keep\\ getting\\ education\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ the\\ marginal\\ benefit\\ equals\\ the\\ marginal\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-3\\ Possible\\ Justifications\\ for\\ Why\\ the\\ Government\\ should\\ subsidize\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ The\\ social\\ return\\ to\\ education\\ exceeds\\ the\\ private\\ return\\ \\(reading\\ and\\ writing\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;common\\ language\\ benefits\\ everyone\\)\\ \\=positive\\ externalities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;PROBLEM\\:\\ Some\\ kinds\\ of\\ education\\ seem\\ unlikely\\ to\\ generate\\ externalities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Professor\\ states\\ that\\ existing\\ estimates\\ do\\ not\\ suggest\\ large\\ spillovers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ The\\ social\\ return\\ equals\\ the\\ private\\ return\\ but\\ some\\ people\\ are\\ myopic\\ and\\ thus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;underinvest\\ in\\ education\\.\\ \\ \\;Subsidizing\\ would\\ reduce\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ myopia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ increase\\ the\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;PROBLEM\\:\\ People\\ and\\ Parents\\ do\\ make\\ sensible\\ decisions\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Thus\\ this\\ argument\\ does\\ not\\ suggest\\ high\\ subsidies\\ but\\ only\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;subsidy\\ is\\ positive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ Some\\ people\\ are\\ too\\ poor\\ to\\ purchase\\ education\\ and\\/or\\ they\\ cannot\\ borrow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;because\\ of\\ credit\\ constraints\\ \\(a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ potential\\ borrower\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ obtain\\ a\\ loan\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ expected\\ PDV\\ of\\ investment\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;positive\\)\\.\\ Banks\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ loans\\ because\\ no\\ collateral\\.\\ Banks\\ can\\ try\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;to\\ set\\ rates\\ based\\ on\\ average\\ level\\ of\\ default\\ but\\ then\\ only\\ risky\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;will\\ borrow\\=Adverse\\ Selection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;PROBLEM\\:\\ Banks\\ can\\ impose\\ collateral\\ requirements\\ and\\ can\\ sometimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;determine\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ risks\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ could\\ apprentice\\ or\\ make\\ investments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;gradually\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\ if\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ arguments\\ are\\ valid\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ benefit\\ to\\ subsidizing\\ education\\ only\\ if\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ intervention\\ exceed\\ the\\ cost\\ \\(subsidy\\=large\\ cost\\!\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-COSTS\\ OF\\ SUBSIDIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ DWL\\ of\\ taxation\\;\\ 2\\)\\ Discourages\\ innovation\\;\\ 3\\)Promotes\\ standardization\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\)\\ Makes\\ govt\\ take\\ stands\\ on\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ speech\\ codes\\,\\ affirmative\\ action\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;single\\ sex\\ education\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Conclusions\\:\\ Laissez\\-faire\\ equilibrium\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ efficient\\ outcome\\ than\\ usually\\ acknowledged\\ and\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ subsidizing\\ potentially\\ are\\ far\\ in\\ excess\\ of\\ any\\ benefits\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ subsidy\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ aimed\\ at\\ young\\ people\\ \\(K\\-6\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ should\\ subsidies\\ occur\\ \\(if\\ one\\ is\\ to\\ assume\\ the\\ govt\\ should\\ subsidize\\)\\?\\ Assuming\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ market\\ failures\\ in\\ the\\ market\\ to\\ supply\\ education\\ \\(which\\ is\\ a\\ reasonable\\ assumption\\ based\\ on\\ private\\ schools\\)\\ then\\ a\\ policy\\ that\\ would\\ lower\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ schools\\ is\\ sufficient\\ \\(provide\\ vouchers\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Vouchers\\ would\\ encourage\\ private\\ schools\\ to\\ innovate\\,\\ control\\ costs\\ and\\ oppose\\ bad\\ regulation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Voucher\\ Problem\\:\\ Put\\ the\\ government\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ defining\\ all\\ schools\\ which\\ would\\ give\\ ability\\ to\\ suppress\\ competition\\,\\ stifle\\ innovation\\,\\ and\\ impose\\ bad\\ regulations\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ some\\ libertarians\\ believe\\ vouchers\\ are\\ worse\\ than\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Professor\\ believes\\ that\\ Vouchers\\ will\\ improve\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ education\\ by\\ a\\ little\\ \\(5\\%\\)\\ but\\ reduce\\ costs\\ by\\ 25\\-50\\%\\ and\\ increase\\ satisfaction\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;vouchers\\ are\\ a\\ plus\\,\\ but\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ us\\ into\\ a\\ nation\\ of\\ geniuses\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miron\\,\\ Jeffrey\\ A\\.\\ \\(2001\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Case\\ Against\\ Public\\ Colleges\\ and\\ Universities\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ public\\ money\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ buy\\ college\\ educations\\-\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ subsidize\\ students\\ at\\ private\\ universities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\80\\%\\ of\\ college\\ students\\ are\\ enrolled\\ in\\ public\\ colleges\\-\\ requiring\\ \\$50\\ billion\\ tax\\ dollars\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benefits\\ of\\ public\\ education\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\law\\-abiding\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\greater\\ productivity\\ \\(offset\\ by\\ college\\ grads\\ contributing\\ mostly\\ to\\ private\\ industry\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ sophisticated\\ culture\\ \\(offset\\ by\\ diminishing\\ returns\\ of\\ secondary\\ education\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\loans\\ provided\\ for\\ underprivileged\\ who\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\ college\\ \\(offset\\ by\\ private\\ means\\ of\\ obtaining\\ scholarships\\,\\ work\\ study\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Costs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\lost\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diminishing\\ returns\\ on\\ higher\\-level\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\higher\\ education\\ mainly\\ benefits\\ private\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\throws\\ public\\ institutions\\ into\\ culture\\ wars\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ over\\ affirmative\\ action\\/\\ freedom\\ of\\ academics\\,\\ gender\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Politicians\\ cut\\ controversial\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inefficiency\\ caused\\ by\\ focus\\ on\\ state\\-sponsorship\\ and\\ grants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ arguments\\ against\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\private\\ universities\\ often\\ out\\-perform\\ public\\ universities\\,\\ denying\\ traditional\\ supply\\-side\\ rationale\\ for\\ government\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\benefits\\ high\\-income\\ students\\,\\ getting\\ reduced\\ tuition\\ because\\ of\\ general\\ population\\ taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ if\\ schools\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ adopt\\ need\\-based\\ tuitions\\,\\ they\\ would\\ effectively\\ be\\ recreating\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ private\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\subjecting\\ colleges\\ to\\ market\\ demands\\ would\\ force\\ schools\\ to\\ tailor\\ curriculum\\ towards\\ what\\ the\\ community\\ wants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\College\\,\\ merit\\-based\\ vouchers\\ would\\ be\\ just\\ as\\ beneficial\\ because\\ a\\)\\ lower\\-income\\ students\\ would\\ benefit\\,\\ b\\)\\ government\\ would\\ avoid\\ affirmative\\ action\\ issues\\ c\\)\\ leads\\ to\\ greater\\ innovation\\ by\\ private\\ schools\\ without\\ limitations\\ of\\ government\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miron\\,\\ Jeffrey\\ A\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\,\\ \\"\\;Education\\,\\ \\"\\;\\ Chapter\\ 4\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ Libertarian\\ Land\\:\\ Why\\ Small\\ Government\\ Would\\ Benefit\\ Us\\ All\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Libertarian\\ Land\\-\\ all\\ schools\\ would\\ be\\ private\\,\\ and\\ only\\ vouchers\\ would\\ be\\ merit\\-based\\ and\\ apply\\ at\\ an\\ early\\ level\\ of\\ schooling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ case\\ that\\ public\\ schools\\ continue\\ to\\ operate\\,\\ government\\ should\\ not\\ spend\\ money\\ backing\\ teacher\\ unions\\ or\\ ensuring\\ teacher\\ certification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ primarily\\ subsidizes\\ consumers\\ currently\\ for\\ three\\ reasons\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Education\\ benefits\\ society\\ generally\\,\\ creates\\ positive\\ spillovers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Should\\ only\\ subsidize\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ spillover\\,\\ say\\ junior\\ high\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ kinds\\ of\\ education\\ \\(Shakespeare\\,\\ history\\)\\ have\\ little\\ spillover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spillovers\\ exaggerated\\ by\\ each\\ branch\\ of\\ academia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ consumers\\ fail\\ to\\ recognize\\ long\\-term\\ benefits\\ and\\ purchase\\ too\\ little\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increases\\ paternalism\\ in\\ general\\ in\\ determining\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ to\\ buy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myopic\\ customers\\ might\\ then\\ invest\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\too\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ must\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ all\\ parental\\ decisions\\,\\ which\\ government\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ intervene\\ with\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poorer\\ people\\ who\\ would\\ benefit\\ from\\ education\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ purchase\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Should\\ only\\ apply\\ to\\ initial\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\;\\ apprenticeships\\ and\\ loans\\ could\\ account\\ for\\ higher\\ levels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biggest\\ problem\\ with\\ subsidizing\\ education\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ constitutes\\ education\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ size\\ fits\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ myopic\\ approach\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ does\\ the\\ government\\ define\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ school\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ content\\-\\ leading\\ to\\ greater\\ paternalism\\ and\\ manipulation\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ also\\ forces\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ stand\\ on\\ controversial\\ issues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Solution\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Subsidize\\ through\\ vouchers\\,\\ not\\ through\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;Private\\ schools\\ can\\ provide\\ variety\\ of\\ education\\ to\\ fit\\ demands\\.\\ \\ \\;Evidence\\ shows\\ this\\ also\\ leads\\ to\\ better\\ educations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Accountability\\ Systems\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\High\\ Stakes\\ testing\\ which\\ result\\ in\\ rewards\\ for\\ certain\\ schools\\ and\\ teachers\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ may\\ bring\\ greater\\ success\\,\\ BUT\\-\\ More\\ students\\ are\\ labeled\\ as\\ learning\\-disabled\\,\\ teachers\\ may\\ just\\ teach\\ to\\ the\\ test\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ indication\\ of\\ long\\-term\\ improvement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\:\\ Marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\(marriage\\)\\ contract\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ basically\\ an\\ agreement\\ between\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ people\\ which\\ creates\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ do\\,\\ or\\ not\\ do\\,\\ something\\.\\ The\\ agreement\\ creates\\ a\\ legal\\ relationship\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ duties\\.\\ If\\ the\\ agreement\\ is\\ broken\\,\\ then\\ the\\ law\\ provides\\ certain\\ remedies\\.\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ factors\\ necessary\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ contract\\:\\ 1\\)\\ an\\ offer\\,\\ 2\\)\\ acceptance\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ consideration\\.\\ One\\ party\\ makes\\ an\\ offer\\,\\ the\\ second\\ party\\ must\\ accept\\ the\\ offer\\ and\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ consideration\\ exchanged\\.\\ Consideration\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ something\\ of\\ value\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Government\\ can\\ adopt\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ policies\\ toward\\ various\\ types\\ of\\ contracts\\:\\ prohibit\\ outright\\;\\ permit\\ but\\ decline\\ to\\ help\\ enforce\\;\\ or\\ permit\\ and\\ agree\\ to\\ help\\ enforce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enforcing\\ contracts\\ generates\\ both\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ costs\\ consist\\ of\\ expenditure\\ for\\ police\\ courts\\ and\\ judges\\,\\ plus\\ possibly\\ effects\\ in\\ altering\\ private\\ sector\\ behavior\\ in\\ undesirable\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ benefits\\ come\\ from\\ promoting\\ peaceful\\ resolution\\ of\\ disputes\\ and\\ from\\ facilitating\\ economic\\ activity\\ that\\ relies\\ on\\ contracts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Living\\ Arrangements\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ property\\ brought\\ into\\ a\\ communal\\ living\\ situation\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ owned\\ the\\ property\\ before\\ the\\ communal\\ relation\\ began\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ income\\ earned\\ by\\ any\\ person\\ in\\ a\\ communal\\ arrangement\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ earned\\ the\\ income\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ property\\ acquired\\ during\\ the\\ communal\\ living\\ situation\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ paid\\ for\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ government\\ stands\\ ready\\ to\\ enforce\\ private\\ contracts\\ regarding\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ property\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\if\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;those\\ contracts\\ satisfy\\ reasonable\\ criteria\\ for\\ clarity\\,\\ enforceability\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ policy\\ is\\ what\\ exists\\ now\\ for\\ communal\\ situations\\ other\\ than\\ those\\ coincident\\ with\\ a\\ legal\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ in\\ the\\ policy\\ requires\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ define\\ or\\ provide\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ policy\\ addresses\\ all\\ communal\\ living\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ prevents\\ private\\ contracts\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;mimic\\&rdquo\\;\\ relevant\\ features\\ of\\ current\\ marriage\\ contract\\.\\ \\ \\;Private\\ contracts\\ can\\ address\\ this\\ without\\ having\\ policy\\ define\\ or\\ provide\\ marriage\\;\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ separable\\ issue\\.\\ The\\ policy\\ proposed\\ here\\ might\\ not\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;optimal\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ the\\ example\\ shows\\ it\\ is\\ feasible\\ to\\ address\\ this\\ issue\\ without\\ any\\ government\\ provision\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inheritance\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ persons\\ who\\ die\\ without\\ a\\ valid\\ will\\,\\ the\\ government\\ takes\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ persons\\ who\\ write\\ valid\\ wills\\,\\ the\\ government\\ enforces\\ these\\ wills\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ in\\ this\\ policy\\ requires\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ define\\ or\\ provide\\ civil\\ marriage\\.\\ The\\ policy\\ applies\\ to\\ everyone\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ their\\ sex\\,\\ sexual\\ orientation\\,\\ or\\ any\\ other\\ characteristic\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ in\\ this\\ policy\\ prevents\\ or\\ discourages\\ religious\\ marriages\\ between\\ persons\\ of\\ whatever\\ sex\\ or\\ sexual\\ orientation\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ religious\\ ceremonies\\ simply\\ have\\ no\\ legal\\ implications\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nothing\\ prevents\\ anyone\\ from\\ adopting\\ wills\\ that\\ mimic\\ current\\ rules\\ within\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ policy\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ what\\ occurs\\ now\\,\\ except\\ that\\ under\\ current\\ law\\ the\\ spouses\\ have\\ special\\ privileges\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ there\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ not\\ one\\ standard\\ now\\ about\\ inheritances\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ some\\ states\\,\\ one\\ spouse\\ can\\ disinherit\\ the\\ other\\;\\ in\\ other\\ states\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ allowed\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ with\\ policy\\ toward\\ division\\ of\\ communal\\ property\\,\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ role\\ for\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ can\\ occur\\ easily\\ without\\ government\\ provision\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ biological\\ mother\\ is\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ legal\\ \\&ldquo\\;parent\\&rdquo\\;\\ unless\\ the\\ mother\\ voluntarily\\ gives\\ up\\ that\\ status\\ \\(by\\ putting\\ the\\ child\\ up\\ for\\ adoption\\ or\\ by\\ agreeing\\ to\\ share\\ legal\\ guardianship\\ with\\ another\\ person\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ biological\\ father\\ is\\ always\\ responsible\\ for\\ X\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ child\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ government\\ enforces\\ private\\ contracts\\ regarding\\ adoption\\,\\ guardianship\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ policy\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ government\\ provision\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ policy\\ does\\ not\\ prevent\\ religious\\ or\\ other\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ policy\\ does\\ not\\ prevent\\ private\\ contracting\\ that\\ mimics\\ some\\ or\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ current\\ civil\\ marriages\\.\\ This\\ policy\\ overlaps\\ with\\ what\\ already\\ occurs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ existence\\ of\\ these\\ alternatives\\ in\\ the\\ cases\\ of\\ shared\\ living\\ space\\/inheritance\\/children\\ shows\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ question\\ for\\ analysis\\:\\ Which\\ approach\\ is\\ better\\,\\ and\\ by\\ what\\ criterion\\?\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Efficiency\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ contracts\\ demanded\\ by\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ are\\ diverse\\ and\\ complicated\\,\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ some\\ savings\\ in\\ enforcement\\ and\\ contracting\\ resources\\ from\\ government\\ marriages\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ imposition\\ of\\ one\\ particular\\ approach\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ government\\ provision\\ is\\ efficient\\,\\ because\\ the\\ additional\\ resources\\ needed\\ under\\ a\\ private\\ system\\ arise\\ because\\ of\\ diverse\\ demands\\;\\ government\\ imposition\\ means\\ the\\ inefficiency\\ of\\ having\\ everyone\\ adopt\\ the\\ same\\ marriage\\ contract\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ government\\ provision\\ probably\\ economizes\\ on\\ enforcement\\ and\\ contracting\\ resources\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ on\\ overall\\ efficiency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Welfare\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ argument\\ for\\ civil\\ marriage\\ would\\ be\\ that\\ these\\ protect\\ children\\ better\\ than\\ private\\ contracts\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ obvious\\ reason\\ why\\,\\ and\\ children\\ can\\ already\\ be\\ born\\ outside\\ of\\ civil\\ marriages\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vulnerable\\ Adults\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ third\\ possible\\ consideration\\ is\\ that\\ some\\ adults\\ might\\ enter\\ communal\\ living\\ arrangements\\ and\\ devote\\ substantial\\ resources\\ to\\ childcare\\,\\ household\\ upkeep\\,\\ joint\\ production\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ under\\ the\\ expectation\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ would\\ share\\ property\\,\\ child\\ care\\,\\ inheritance\\,\\ only\\ to\\ be\\ disappointed\\ later\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ is\\ possible\\ already\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Perhaps\\ having\\ civil\\ marriages\\ creates\\ the\\ appropriate\\ expectation\\ and\\ reduces\\ the\\ magnitude\\ of\\ this\\ problem\\,\\ but\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ obvious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Given\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ government\\ can\\ improve\\ social\\ welfare\\ by\\ providing\\ civil\\ marriages\\,\\ the\\ key\\ question\\ is\\ this\\:\\ Does\\ this\\ argument\\ apply\\ only\\ to\\ opposite\\ sex\\ couples\\ or\\ do\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ reasons\\ apply\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ same\\-sex\\ couples\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Professor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ answer\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ arguments\\ apply\\ to\\ same\\-sex\\ couples\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ to\\ opposite\\-sex\\ couples\\.\\ \\ \\;Apparently\\ many\\ gay\\ couples\\ do\\ desire\\ the\\ contracts\\ in\\ a\\ civil\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ If\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ relatively\\ efficient\\ at\\ providing\\ this\\ bundle\\ of\\ contracts\\,\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ see\\ why\\ that\\ applies\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ opposite\\-sex\\ couples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ government\\ and\\ public\\ provision\\ are\\ roughly\\ equivalent\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ efficiency\\,\\ etc\\,\\ how\\ does\\ ones\\ choose\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ the\\ private\\ contracting\\ approach\\ might\\ be\\ better\\:\\ It\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ stand\\ on\\ marriage\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ the\\ other\\ and\\ thus\\ avoids\\ the\\ polarization\\ that\\ occurs\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ private\\ contracting\\ approach\\ means\\ there\\ is\\ less\\ scope\\ for\\ government\\ to\\ limit\\ choices\\ and\\ thereby\\ reduce\\ welfare\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ interesting\\ implication\\ of\\ the\\ arguments\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ having\\ government\\ exit\\ the\\ marriage\\ business\\ might\\ strengthen\\ religious\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ extensions\\ of\\ the\\ arguments\\ here\\ to\\ polygamy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\ first\\ that\\ polygamy\\ is\\ already\\ \\&ldquo\\;legal\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ can\\ legally\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ house\\ with\\ many\\ women\\,\\ father\\ children\\ with\\ them\\,\\ have\\ parental\\ rights\\ and\\ obligations\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\ second\\ that\\ the\\ private\\ contracting\\ approach\\ would\\ allow\\ this\\ to\\ continue\\ unless\\ the\\ government\\ decided\\ not\\ to\\ enforce\\ \\&ldquo\\;polygamy\\&rdquo\\;\\ contracts\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ that\\ case\\,\\ polygamy\\ is\\ treated\\ little\\ differently\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ the\\ polygamy\\ \\&ldquo\\;scare\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ irrelevant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 6\\:\\ Anti\\-Trust\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Huge\\ government\\ bureaucracy\\ involved\\ in\\ policy\\ setting\\ and\\ enforcing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Current\\ view\\:\\ mkt\\ does\\ things\\ pretty\\ well\\ but\\ various\\ factors\\ \\(Greed\\,\\ informational\\ asymmetries\\,\\ monopoly\\)\\ lead\\ to\\ substantial\\ imperfections\\ that\\ are\\ ameliorated\\ by\\ govt\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Libertarian\\:\\ imperfections\\ smaller\\ than\\ asserted\\ and\\ interventions\\ have\\ problems\\ of\\ their\\ own\\,\\ thus\\ laissez\\-faire\\=\\ the\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\History\\:\\ Growth\\ of\\ large\\ corporations\\ \\(trusts\\)\\ in\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ prompted\\ the\\ Sherman\\ Act\\ \\(1890\\)\\ and\\ Clayton\\ Act\\ \\(1914\\)\\ both\\ quite\\ vague\\-\\ started\\ with\\ unfair\\ actions\\ to\\ both\\ competitors\\ and\\ consumers\\ evolved\\ to\\ just\\ consumers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laws\\ Prohibit\\:\\ Price\\ Fixing\\ \\(cartelization\\ ex\\ OPEC\\)\\,\\ Mergers\\ that\\ substantially\\ lessen\\ competition\\ \\(Coke\\ \\&\\;\\ Pepsi\\;\\ concentration\\ ratio\\ tests\\)\\,\\ Attempts\\ to\\ monopolize\\(\\ vague\\ and\\ unclear\\ but\\ best\\ ex\\.\\ is\\ predator\\ pricing\\)\\,\\ Monopolization\\ \\(restrictions\\ and\\ definitions\\ very\\ unclear\\ which\\ presents\\ a\\ problem\\ ex\\.\\ making\\ product\\ better\\ and\\ cheaper\\)\\,\\ Practices\\ viewed\\ as\\ enhancing\\ mkt\\ power\\ \\(tying\\ arrangements\\,\\ price\\ discrimination\\,\\ vertical\\ mergers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\ For\\ A\\-T\\ Policy\\:\\ Competition\\ is\\ efficient\\ \\(P\\=MC\\)\\ \\,\\ monopoly\\(P\\>\\;MC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ that\\ is\\ w\\/\\ assumption\\ of\\ no\\ price\\ discrimination\\ which\\ could\\ under\\ monopolies\\ enhance\\ efficiency\\ with\\ only\\ distributional\\ implications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argument\\ Against\\ A\\-T\\ Policy\\:\\ Mkt\\ Power\\ is\\ modest\\ in\\ US\\ and\\ is\\ short\\ lived\\ because\\ of\\ entry\\,\\ cartels\\ and\\ inherently\\ unstable\\(competition\\ for\\ power\\)\\,\\ govt\\ creates\\ monopolies\\(\\ public\\ schools\\,\\ post\\ office\\)\\,\\ Free\\ Trade\\ and\\ big\\ companies\\ provide\\ competition\\,\\ Threat\\ of\\ Acquisition\\ is\\ good\\ \\(maximize\\ value\\)\\,\\ companies\\ use\\ A\\-T\\ policies\\ against\\ competitors\\ they\\ cant\\ compete\\ with\\ and\\ it\\ sometimes\\ work\\ because\\ agencies\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ discretion\\ \\(effected\\ by\\ political\\ considerations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncertainty\\:\\ in\\ absence\\ of\\ A\\-T\\ firms\\ considering\\ M\\&\\;A\\ need\\ only\\ consider\\ merits\\ not\\ forecast\\ DOJ\\/FTC\\ and\\ additional\\ costs\\ and\\ delays\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ key\\ issue\\ in\\ most\\ anti\\-trust\\ enforcement\\ is\\ defining\\ the\\ market\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ incredibly\\ open\\ to\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Enormous\\ scope\\ for\\ difference\\ enforcement\\ at\\ different\\ times\\,\\ industries\\,\\ political\\ climates\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arguments\\ Against\\ Anti\\-Trust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mergers\\ Can\\ Improve\\ Efficiency\\ \\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ do\\ two\\ firms\\ want\\ to\\ merge\\,\\ or\\ why\\ does\\ one\\ firm\\ want\\ to\\ acquire\\ another\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ possible\\ reason\\ is\\ to\\ reduce\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\ are\\ also\\ motivations\\ that\\ imply\\ increased\\ economic\\ efficiency\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economies\\ of\\ scale\\ or\\ scope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mechanism\\ for\\ cutting\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\High\\ P\\ \\/\\ Low\\ Q\\ Might\\ be\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ competitive\\ outcome\\ for\\ P\\,\\ Q\\ are\\ efficient\\ under\\ certain\\ assumptions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ for\\ some\\ goods\\,\\ there\\ is\\ potentially\\ an\\ argument\\ that\\ the\\ efficient\\ Q\\ is\\ lower\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goods\\ whose\\ production\\ generate\\ externalities\\ like\\ pollution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goods\\ whose\\ consumption\\ is\\ excessive\\ due\\ to\\ addiction\\ and\\ myopia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allowing\\ market\\ power\\ moves\\ P\\,\\ Q\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ direction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monopoly\\ Profits\\ Induce\\ Innovation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ goods\\ are\\ initially\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ monopolist\\:\\ the\\ business\\ that\\ introduced\\ the\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ time\\,\\ however\\,\\ imitation\\ and\\ technological\\ progress\\ erode\\ these\\ monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ anti\\-trust\\ enforcement\\ reduces\\ the\\ profits\\ from\\ \\ \\;innovation\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ incentive\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ initial\\ product\\,\\ or\\ the\\ competing\\ products\\,\\ falls\\.Thus\\,\\ a\\ potentially\\ large\\ cost\\ is\\ reduced\\ innovation\\ and\\ technological\\ progress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Regulation\\ of\\ Local\\ Monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ certain\\ goods\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ inefficient\\ to\\ have\\ multiples\\ suppliers\\ because\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ costs\\ involves\\ major\\ capital\\ investments\\ but\\ small\\ marginal\\ costs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ Telephone\\,\\ cable\\,\\ internet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Set\\ prices\\ at\\ \\&ldquo\\;average\\ costs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ below\\ the\\ monopoly\\ price\\ but\\ enough\\ above\\ MC\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ activity\\ breaks\\ even\\ on\\ average\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ given\\ the\\ existing\\ technology\\)\\,\\ regulation\\ of\\ local\\ monopoly\\ might\\ make\\ sense\\.\\ But\\ once\\ one\\ accounts\\ for\\ the\\ long\\ run\\ impacts\\,\\ the\\ value\\ becomes\\ far\\ less\\ clear\\.\\ The\\ libertarian\\ \\&ldquo\\;hunch\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ that\\ laissez\\-faire\\ would\\ be\\ better\\ overall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anti\\-Trust\\ unquestionably\\ has\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ generate\\ more\\ harm\\ than\\ good\\,\\ such\\ as\\ by\\ discouraging\\ innovation\\ and\\ competitive\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ empirical\\ assessment\\ that\\ shows\\ a\\ benefit\\;\\ certainly\\ substantial\\ costs\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tort\\ Liability\\ and\\ competition\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ effective\\ remedies\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;bad\\&rdquo\\;\\ businesses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tort\\ liability\\ means\\ that\\ someone\\ who\\ commits\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tort\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrong\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ liable\\ for\\ the\\ damages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ a\\ business\\ that\\ sells\\ a\\ product\\ that\\ injures\\ someone\\ must\\ compensate\\ the\\ victim\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baker\\,\\ Jonathan\\ B\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Case\\ for\\ Antitrust\\ Enforcement\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ central\\ role\\ of\\ antitrust\\ is\\ to\\ protect\\ consumers\\ against\\ anticompetitive\\ conduct\\ that\\ raises\\ prices\\,\\ reduces\\ output\\,\\ and\\ hinders\\ innovation\\ and\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Competition\\ is\\ a\\ public\\ good\\,\\ and\\ society\\ cannot\\ expect\\ the\\ victims\\ of\\ anticompetitive\\ conduct\\ to\\ protect\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ intends\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ overall\\,\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ to\\ consumers\\ and\\ social\\ welfare\\ seem\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ far\\ larger\\ than\\ what\\ the\\ government\\ spends\\ on\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ for\\ Antitrust\\ Regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Department\\ of\\ Justice\\ has\\ recently\\ undertaken\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ high\\ profile\\ international\\ cartel\\ prosecutions\\ such\\ as\\ \\$500\\ million\\ by\\ Hoffman\\-La\\ Roche\\,\\ \\$100\\ million\\ by\\ Archer\\ Daniels\\ Midland\\ \\(ADM\\)\\ and\\ \\$45\\ million\\ by\\ Sotheby\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Antitrust\\ law\\ objects\\ to\\ agreements\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ practices\\ that\\ likely\\ facilitate\\ collusion\\ or\\ appear\\ to\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ higher\\ prices\\ such\\ as\\ agreements\\ among\\ rivals\\ to\\ exchange\\ price\\ and\\ output\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Antitrust\\ law\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ competition\\ on\\ quality\\ and\\ innovation\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ on\\ output\\ and\\ price\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relatedly\\,\\ antitrust\\ law\\ is\\ concerned\\ if\\ firms\\ exploit\\ a\\ standard\\-setting\\ agreement\\ to\\ exclude\\ rivals\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ improvements\\ in\\ product\\ quality\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Allied\\ Tube\\&\\;Conduit\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\.\\ Indian\\ Head\\,\\ Inc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguments\\ against\\ Antitrust\\ Laws\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arguments\\ against\\ prosecution\\ of\\ cartels\\ often\\ emphasize\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ for\\ sellers\\ to\\ achieve\\ or\\ maintain\\ coordination\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ buyers\\ may\\ try\\ to\\ create\\ competition\\ among\\ sellers\\,\\ or\\ producers\\ may\\ be\\ tempted\\ to\\ cheat\\ on\\ their\\ cartel\\ arrangements\\.\\ For\\ such\\ reasons\\,\\ the\\ coordination\\ of\\ a\\ cartel\\,\\ when\\ effective\\ at\\ all\\,\\ almost\\ invariably\\ falls\\ short\\ of\\ joint\\-profit\\ maximization\\ and\\ the\\ cartel\\ itself\\ may\\ crumble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unfortunately\\,\\ these\\ competitive\\ pressures\\ have\\ proven\\ insufficient\\ to\\ prevent\\ all\\ cartels\\ for\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ reasons\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ sellers\\ are\\ few\\ and\\ buyers\\ are\\ many\\ collective\\ buyer\\ action\\ to\\ increase\\ competition\\ is\\ highly\\ implausible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ firms\\ have\\ shown\\ great\\ inventiveness\\ in\\ creating\\ organizational\\ mechanisms\\ to\\ assure\\ coordination\\ and\\ enforcement\\.\\ One\\ such\\ famous\\ example\\ is\\ that\\ General\\ Electric\\,\\ Westinghouse\\ and\\ other\\ sellers\\ agreed\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\ to\\ rotate\\ the\\ low\\ bid\\ for\\ procurement\\ of\\ various\\ electrical\\ equipment\\ among\\ \\ \\;according\\ to\\ the\\ phases\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mergers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Since\\ 1976\\,\\ firms\\ have\\ been\\ required\\ to\\ notify\\ the\\ antitrust\\ authorities\\ of\\ all\\ mergers\\ above\\ a\\ certain\\ size\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ choosing\\ the\\ tiny\\ proportion\\ of\\ merger\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ will\\ intervene\\,\\ antitrust\\ authorities\\ largely\\ emphasize\\ horizontal\\ mergers\\ \\(acquisitions\\ among\\ competitors\\)\\ in\\ relatively\\ concentrated\\ markets\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ 1995\\,\\ the\\ Department\\ of\\ Justice\\ stopped\\ Microsoft\\,\\ the\\ owner\\ of\\ Microsoft\\ Money\\ personal\\ \\ \\;from\\ acquiring\\ Intuit\\,\\ owner\\ of\\ the\\ leading\\ rival\\ software\\ product\\,\\ Quicken\\.\\ The\\ two\\ software\\ products\\ together\\ accounted\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ 90\\ percent\\ of\\ a\\ market\\ into\\ which\\ entry\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ difficult\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ several\\ ways\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ economic\\ and\\ competitive\\ effects\\ of\\ detrimental\\ mergers\\ although\\ a\\ comparison\\ over\\ time\\ is\\ impossible\\ since\\ blocked\\ mergers\\ evidently\\ never\\ take\\ place\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ small\\ mergers\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ reportable\\ in\\ advance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ data\\ on\\ pricing\\ in\\ markets\\ with\\ different\\ structures\\ i\\.e\\.\\ in\\ markets\\ where\\ the\\ potential\\ acquirer\\ faces\\ or\\ does\\ not\\ face\\ competition\\ to\\ determine\\ what\\ their\\ pricing\\ behavior\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conduct\\ simulations\\ of\\ merges\\ to\\ model\\ possible\\ pricing\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monopolization\\ and\\ Exclusionary\\ Agreements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Exclusionary\\ conduct\\ against\\ competition\\ can\\ be\\ attacked\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ monopoly\\ if\\ it\\ involves\\ unilateral\\ acts\\ of\\ dominant\\ firms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ horizontal\\ or\\ vertical\\ agreement\\ between\\ firms\\ and\\ their\\ suppliers\\ and\\ customers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ three\\ main\\ strategies\\ for\\ breaking\\ up\\ a\\ monopoly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;conduct\\ relief\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ barring\\ anticompetitive\\ practices\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;structural\\ relief\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\,\\ a\\ divestiture\\ or\\ breakup\\ of\\ the\\ firm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\and\\ imposing\\ a\\ requirement\\ that\\ the\\ monopolist\\ license\\ its\\ key\\ intellectual\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ example\\ of\\ conduct\\ relief\\ is\\ the\\ FTC\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consent\\ settlement\\ with\\ drug\\-maker\\ Bristol\\-Myers\\ Squibb\\ in\\ 2003\\ which\\ barred\\ Bristol\\ from\\ taking\\ future\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ regulatory\\ processes\\ it\\ allegedly\\ abused\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ example\\ of\\ structural\\ relief\\ is\\ the\\ breakup\\ of\\ the\\ AT\\&\\;T\\ monopoly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ case\\ is\\ the\\ settlement\\ which\\ required\\ Xerox\\ to\\ license\\ its\\ patents\\ for\\ a\\ small\\ royalty\\,\\ effectively\\ removing\\ most\\ of\\ its\\ patent\\ protection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ Evidence\\ on\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Firm\\ Behavior\\ without\\ Antitrust\\ Laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ four\\ experiments\\ that\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ firms\\ without\\ the\\ constraint\\ of\\ antitrust\\ regulations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Industry\\ performance\\ in\\ US\\ before\\ the\\ Sherman\\ Act\\ of\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Studies\\ of\\ major\\ industries\\ during\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ and\\ early\\ twentieth\\ centuries\\ demonstrate\\ successful\\ though\\ imperfect\\ coordination\\ in\\ steel\\,\\ bromine\\,\\ railroads\\ and\\ petroleum\\ refining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ evidence\\ plainly\\ suggests\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ antitrust\\ rules\\ anticompetitive\\ conduct\\ would\\ often\\ take\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Industry\\ performance\\ during\\ the\\ 1930s\\ when\\ industries\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ develop\\ \\&ldquo\\;Codes\\ of\\ Fair\\ Competition\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ practice\\ free\\ from\\ antitrust\\ prohibitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ number\\ of\\ industries\\ used\\ their\\ codes\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ price\\-fixing\\ through\\ various\\ methods\\:\\ setting\\ minimum\\ prices\\,\\ prohibiting\\ sales\\ below\\ average\\ cost\\,\\ prohibiting\\ capacity\\ expansion\\ or\\ outlawing\\ secret\\ or\\ selective\\ price\\-cutting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Performance\\ since\\ 1918\\ when\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ repealed\\ antitrust\\ laws\\ as\\ they\\ applied\\ to\\ export\\ cartels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ study\\ of\\ 111\\ cartel\\ episodes\\ covering\\ 93\\ industries\\ during\\ the\\ years\\ 1918\\ to\\ 1965\\ found\\ many\\ examples\\ of\\ long\\-lived\\ export\\ agreements\\ motivated\\ by\\ price\\-fixing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\)\\ A\\ fourth\\ experiment\\ with\\ relaxed\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ involves\\ a\\ period\\ during\\ which\\ the\\ antitrust\\ authorities\\ wanted\\ to\\ prevent\\ certain\\ mergers\\,\\ but\\ the\\ transactions\\ were\\ nevertheless\\ permitted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Refers\\ to\\ merges\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\ between\\ large\\ airline\\ carriers\\ such\\ as\\ Northwestern\\ and\\ Republic\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Retrospective\\ studies\\ of\\ these\\ mergers\\ have\\ found\\ higher\\ fares\\ in\\ some\\ markets\\,\\ with\\ estimated\\ average\\ price\\ increases\\ generally\\ at\\ least\\ 5\\&ndash\\;10\\ percent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\In\\ sum\\,\\ studies\\ of\\ firm\\ behavior\\ during\\ these\\ four\\ periods\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ without\\ antitrust\\,\\ firms\\ can\\ and\\ do\\ exercise\\ market\\ power\\,\\ to\\ the\\ detriment\\ of\\ consumers\\ and\\ other\\ buyers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cross\\-National\\ Comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ developed\\ and\\ many\\ developing\\ countries\\ have\\ competition\\ policies\\ today\\,\\ with\\ enforcement\\ in\\ many\\ jurisdictions\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Canada\\ and\\ the\\ European\\ Union\\,\\ now\\ roughly\\ comparable\\ to\\ enforcement\\ practices\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ 1980\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ nations\\ with\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ has\\ increased\\ from\\ about\\ 17\\ to\\ perhaps\\ 100\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Economists\\ seeking\\ to\\ understand\\ why\\ some\\ nations\\ have\\ grown\\ wealthy\\ consistently\\ find\\ that\\ impediments\\ to\\ competition\\ impede\\ innovation\\,\\ growth\\ and\\ prosperity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarly\\,\\ other\\ studies\\ suggest\\ that\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ competition\\ across\\ developed\\ countries\\,\\ which\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ correlated\\ with\\ the\\ consistency\\ and\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\,\\ have\\ been\\ an\\ important\\ factor\\ explaining\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ performance\\ of\\ major\\ industries\\ across\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ technological\\ innovation\\ was\\ more\\ rapid\\ during\\ competitive\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Deterrence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Threat\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ may\\ deter\\ anticompetitive\\ actions\\ in\\ all\\ markets\\,\\ not\\ just\\ those\\ where\\ antitrust\\ prosecutions\\ occur\\ because\\ managers\\ are\\ deterred\\ by\\ observing\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ antitrust\\ regulation\\ at\\ other\\ firms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ unlikely\\ that\\ the\\ current\\ levels\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ lead\\ to\\ overdeterrence\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ serious\\ evidence\\ that\\ legitimate\\ cooperative\\ behavior\\ among\\ industry\\ rivals\\&mdash\\;standard\\ setting\\,\\ joint\\ research\\ and\\ development\\ projects\\&mdash\\;is\\ being\\ deterred\\ today\\ for\\ fear\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cost\\ and\\ Benefits\\ of\\ Antitrust\\ Regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ direct\\ governmental\\ cost\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ roughly\\ \\$150million\\ per\\ year\\.\\ Firm\\ expenditures\\ on\\ filing\\ fees\\,\\ lawyers\\ and\\ economic\\ consultants\\ average\\ perhaps\\ \\$2\\.5\\ million\\ per\\ case\\ for\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ \\$500\\ million\\ annually\\.\\ Including\\ indirect\\ costs\\,\\ total\\ costs\\ for\\ antitrust\\ are\\ \\$2\\ billion\\ annually\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ benefits\\ of\\ antitrust\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ greater\\.\\ By\\ a\\ rough\\ approximation\\ every\\ year\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ life\\ expectancy\\ of\\ one\\ cartel\\ is\\ shortened\\ justifies\\ perhaps\\ one\\-third\\ to\\ two\\-thirds\\ of\\ the\\ \\$150\\ million\\ direct\\ costs\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ against\\ all\\ anticompetitive\\ cartels\\,\\ mergers\\,\\ monopolies\\ and\\ practices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ number\\ of\\ economists\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ Harberger\\ have\\ sought\\ to\\ estimate\\ the\\ economy\\-wide\\ welfare\\ loss\\ from\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ market\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ with\\ Harberger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ method\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\assumes\\ unitary\\ demand\\ elasticities\\ but\\ without\\ this\\ assumption\\ the\\ welfare\\ loss\\ from\\ anticompetitive\\ measures\\ amounts\\ to\\ 4\\%\\ of\\ national\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ignores\\ lost\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ from\\ overcharging\\ buyers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ignores\\ the\\ social\\ costs\\ that\\ arise\\ when\\ anticompetitive\\ practices\\ reduce\\ the\\ incentives\\ for\\ innovation\\ in\\ an\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Once\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ are\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\ Harberger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ method\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ costs\\ to\\ the\\ economy\\ from\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ market\\ power\\ could\\ readily\\ be\\ at\\ least\\ 1\\ percent\\ of\\ national\\ product\\,\\ or\\ in\\ excess\\ of\\ \\$100\\ billion\\ annually\\,\\ notwithstanding\\ the\\ antitrust\\ laws\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Given\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ potential\\ losses\\ in\\ economic\\ welfare\\ and\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ as\\ exhibited\\ in\\ many\\ cases\\,\\ the\\ goal\\ should\\ be\\ to\\ apply\\ sensibly\\,\\ and\\ sharpen\\ as\\ necessary\\,\\ the\\ tools\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crandall\\,\\ Robert\\ W\\.\\ and\\ Clifford\\ Winston\\ \\(2003\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Does\\ Antitrust\\ Policy\\ Improve\\ Consumer\\ Welfare\\?\\ Assessing\\ the\\ Evidence\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Abstract\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ paper\\ assesses\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ antitrust\\ policy\\ and\\ enforcement\\ on\\ consumer\\ welfare\\.\\ We\\ find\\ no\\ evidence\\ that\\ antitrust\\ policy\\ in\\ the\\ areas\\ of\\ monopolization\\,\\ collusion\\,\\ and\\ mergers\\ has\\ provided\\ much\\ benefit\\ to\\ consumers\\ and\\,\\ in\\ some\\ instances\\,\\ we\\ find\\ evidence\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ have\\ lowered\\ consumer\\ welfare\\.\\ We\\ also\\ do\\ not\\ find\\ any\\ evidence\\ that\\ antitrust\\ policy\\ has\\ deterred\\ firms\\ from\\ engaging\\ in\\ actions\\ that\\ could\\ harm\\ consumers\\.\\ We\\ identify\\ various\\ reasons\\ for\\ the\\ apparent\\ ineffectiveness\\ of\\ antitrust\\ policy\\,\\ and\\ offer\\ preliminary\\ policy\\ recommendations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ economic\\ theory\\ can\\ help\\ organize\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ variables\\ affected\\ by\\ antitrust\\ policy\\,\\ it\\ often\\ offers\\ little\\ policy\\ guidance\\ because\\ almost\\ any\\ action\\ by\\ a\\ firm\\ short\\ of\\ outright\\ price\\ fixing\\ can\\ turn\\ out\\ to\\ have\\ pro\\-competitive\\ or\\ anticompetitive\\ consequences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ case\\ for\\ a\\ broad\\ antitrust\\ policy\\ must\\ rest\\ on\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ that\\ shows\\ that\\ such\\ policies\\ have\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ broad\\ social\\ interest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ find\\ little\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ three\\ forms\\ of\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ \\(changing\\ the\\ structure\\/behavior\\ of\\ monopolies\\;\\ prosecuting\\ firms\\ that\\ engage\\ in\\ anticompetitive\\ practices\\;\\ and\\ reviewing\\ proposed\\ mergers\\)\\ has\\ provided\\ a\\ social\\ benefit\\ to\\ consumers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Antitrust\\ enforcement\\ done\\ by\\ the\\ Dept\\.\\ of\\ Justice\\ and\\ Federal\\ Trade\\ Commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Total\\ resources\\ consumed\\ by\\ antitrust\\ enforcement\\ amount\\ to\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ government\\ antitrust\\ agency\\ expenditures\\ \\(namely\\ firms\\ needing\\ legal\\ advice\\ for\\ mergers\\ and\\ defense\\ against\\ government\\ lawsuits\\,\\ but\\ also\\ management\\ resources\\ to\\ oversee\\ proper\\ firm\\ conduct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Largest\\ cost\\ of\\ antirust\\ enforcement\\ is\\ the\\ discouragement\\ of\\ firms\\ pursuing\\ potentially\\ efficient\\ mergers\\,\\ or\\ other\\ competitive\\ methods\\ because\\ of\\ fears\\ of\\ competitors\\ using\\ antitrust\\ authorities\\ against\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ each\\ individual\\ monopoly\\ case\\ is\\ different\\,\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ analyze\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\en\\ masse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ so\\ they\\ analyze\\ specific\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ government\\ acted\\ in\\ expectations\\ of\\ consumer\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breakup\\ of\\ Standard\\ Oil\\ was\\ useless\\ because\\ already\\ losing\\ market\\ share\\ to\\ competition\\ from\\ new\\ oil\\ fields\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ US\\ and\\ Gulf\\ regions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ Tobacco\\ broken\\ up\\ into\\ a\\ three\\ part\\ oligopoly\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ compete\\ through\\ prices\\ but\\ rather\\ advertising\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ prices\\ of\\ tobacco\\ products\\ remained\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ before\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ rose\\ due\\ to\\ new\\ government\\ taxes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alcoa\\ \\(Aluminum\\ Company\\ of\\ America\\)\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\ and\\ 30s\\ dominated\\ a\\ small\\ market\\ that\\ probably\\ could\\ only\\ support\\ one\\ supplier\\.\\ \\ \\;Decrees\\ to\\ break\\ up\\ Alcoa\\ did\\ little\\ to\\ alter\\ price\\ margins\\ of\\ aluminum\\.\\ \\ \\;Long\\ term\\ government\\ action\\ to\\ create\\ more\\ competition\\ was\\ pointless\\ as\\ an\\ expanded\\ market\\ that\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ would\\ create\\ more\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reasons\\ why\\ monoplization\\ cases\\ fail\\ to\\ increase\\ competition\\ to\\ benefit\\ consumers\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawn\\ out\\ length\\ of\\ the\\ cases\\ means\\ that\\ industry\\ competition\\ has\\ changed\\ before\\ the\\ remedy\\ is\\ implemented\\ \\(Standard\\ Oil\\,\\ IBM\\,\\ Microsoft\\)\\ \\ \\;In\\ IBM\\&rsquo\\;s\\ case\\,\\ the\\ product\\ it\\ was\\ being\\ tried\\ over\\ was\\ outdated\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ decree\\,\\ and\\ IBM\\ had\\ already\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ a\\ monopoly\\ in\\ mainframe\\ computers\\,\\ bringing\\ on\\ yet\\ another\\ antitrust\\ case\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ remedy\\ turns\\ out\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ negligible\\ practical\\ impact\\ \\(Large\\ Chain\\ Grocery\\ Stores\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ efficiency\\ forces\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mergers\\ can\\ either\\ increase\\ monopoly\\ power\\ of\\ a\\ firm\\ \\(raise\\ prices\\)\\,\\ or\\ can\\ increase\\ operational\\ efficiency\\ \\(reduce\\ prices\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ economists\\ believe\\ that\\ mergers\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\ are\\ not\\ anticompetitive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ research\\ finds\\ that\\ court\\ blocks\\ to\\ stop\\ mergers\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ competition\\ significantly\\ hurt\\ efficiency\\ where\\ competition\\ can\\ not\\ supplant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believe\\ antitrust\\ authorities\\ overreach\\ and\\ attempt\\ to\\ block\\ productive\\ mergers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conclude\\ that\\ efforts\\ by\\ antitrust\\ authorities\\ to\\ block\\ particular\\ mergers\\ or\\ affect\\ a\\ merger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ outcome\\ by\\ allowing\\ it\\ only\\ if\\ certain\\ conditions\\ are\\ met\\ either\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ increase\\ or\\ may\\ very\\ well\\ decrease\\ consumer\\ welfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Antitrust\\ enforcement\\ has\\ not\\ deterred\\ firms\\ from\\ engaging\\ in\\ actions\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ seriously\\ harmed\\ consumers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ deterrent\\ effects\\ may\\ exist\\,\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ relatively\\ small\\ compared\\ with\\ the\\ well\\ demonstrated\\ ability\\ of\\ competitive\\ markets\\ to\\ deter\\ anticompetitive\\ practices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ instances\\ where\\ erstwhile\\ monopolies\\ have\\ seen\\ their\\ market\\ shares\\ eroded\\ by\\ new\\ competitors\\ \\(Standard\\ Oil\\,\\ US\\ Steel\\,\\ Alcoa\\,\\ IBM\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ for\\ even\\ two\\ firms\\ to\\ collude\\ on\\ prices\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ long\\ run\\ contracts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Firms\\ that\\ produce\\ differentiated\\ products\\ face\\ less\\ incentive\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ and\\ maintain\\ collusive\\ agreements\\ than\\ firms\\ that\\ produce\\ homogeneous\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ apparent\\ ineffectiveness\\ of\\ antitrust\\ policy\\ stems\\ from\\ several\\ causes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ excessive\\ duration\\ of\\ monopolization\\ cases\\,\\ which\\ portends\\ that\\ the\\ particular\\ issue\\ being\\ addressed\\ will\\ evolve\\ into\\ something\\ different\\-\\ oftern\\ of\\ less\\ importance\\-\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ it\\ is\\ resolved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ difficulties\\ in\\ sorting\\ out\\ which\\ mergers\\ or\\ instances\\ of\\ potentially\\ anitcompetive\\ behavior\\ threaten\\ consumer\\ welfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ substantial\\ and\\ growing\\ challenges\\ of\\ formulating\\ and\\ implementing\\ effective\\ antitrust\\ policies\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ economy\\ characterized\\ by\\ dynamic\\ competition\\,\\ rapid\\ technological\\ change\\ and\\ important\\ intellectual\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ forces\\ influencing\\ which\\ antitrust\\ cases\\ are\\ initiated\\ or\\ dropped\\,\\ including\\ other\\ firms\\ exploiting\\ the\\ process\\ against\\ their\\ rivals\\ for\\ competitive\\ advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ market\\ to\\ spur\\ competition\\ and\\ curb\\ anticompetitive\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ they\\ believe\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ little\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ funding\\ for\\ a\\ broad\\ antitrust\\ policy\\ has\\ provided\\ benefits\\ to\\ consumer\\ welfare\\,\\ and\\ they\\ therefore\\ recommend\\ a\\ limited\\ scope\\ to\\ concentrate\\ on\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ obvious\\ price\\ fixing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 7\\:\\ Guns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Contending\\ Views\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gun\\ Control\\ Advocates\\ believe\\ that\\ \\&lsquo\\;guns\\ kill\\ people\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gun\\ Rights\\ Advocates\\ believe\\ self\\-defence\\/deterrence\\ dominates\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Libertarians\\ argue\\ that\\ both\\ sides\\ overstate\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ their\\ preferred\\ policies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\ Types\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;Gun\\ Control\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Regulations\\:\\ age\\ restrictions\\,\\ waiting\\ periods\\,\\ assault\\ weapon\\ bans\\ without\\ banning\\ guns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Outright\\ gun\\ prohibition\\ or\\ regulation\\ so\\ severe\\ as\\ to\\ dramatically\\ restrict\\ ownership\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theoretical\\ Benefits\\ of\\ Gun\\ Control\\:\\ Reduced\\ availability\\ of\\ guns\\ for\\ criminals\\,\\ suicide\\,\\ domestic\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theoretical\\ Costs\\:\\ Lost\\ utility\\ for\\ hunters\\,\\ folks\\ using\\ guns\\ for\\ self\\-defence\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theory\\=Reality\\?\\ Most\\ guns\\ are\\ not\\ used\\ in\\ crime\\,\\ criminals\\ typically\\ obtain\\ guns\\ illegally\\,\\ and\\ do\\ so\\ in\\ areas\\ with\\ tight\\ restrictions\\.\\ Knives\\ and\\ other\\ weapons\\ can\\ substitute\\ for\\ guns\\.\\ Between\\ 50\\,000\\ and\\ millions\\ of\\ instances\\ of\\ gun\\ use\\ to\\ scare\\ off\\ criminals\\ annually\\.\\ Literature\\ on\\ violence\\ and\\ gun\\ ownership\\ rates\\/gun\\ laws\\ is\\ ambiguous\\,\\ as\\ the\\ two\\ variables\\ are\\ not\\ independent\\ of\\ each\\ other\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ waiting\\ periods\\ and\\ other\\ mild\\ controls\\ do\\ not\\ prevent\\ beneficial\\ gun\\ use\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gun\\ Prohibition\\ would\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ significant\\ effects\\.\\ Gun\\ control\\ advocates\\ often\\ state\\ that\\ mild\\ regulations\\ are\\ a\\ step\\ to\\ prohibition\\,\\ likewise\\ their\\ opponents\\.\\ However\\,\\ massive\\ negative\\ effects\\ from\\ a\\ black\\ market\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ or\\ alcohol\\ trade\\ during\\ the\\ 20\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Concealed\\ carry\\ laws\\ may\\ have\\ an\\ additional\\ deterrent\\ effect\\ \\(in\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ instance\\ where\\ a\\ crime\\ is\\ attempted\\ or\\ in\\ progress\\ and\\ a\\ gun\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ stop\\ or\\ repel\\ the\\ criminal\\)\\ by\\ making\\ criminals\\ fear\\ that\\ an\\ apparently\\ vulnerable\\ victim\\ may\\ be\\ \\&lsquo\\;packing\\ heat\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ Banning\\ concealed\\ carry\\ may\\ not\\ significantly\\ affect\\ rates\\ of\\ concealed\\ carry\\,\\ especially\\ among\\ criminals\\ \\(for\\ familiar\\ reasons\\.\\)\\ Evidence\\ from\\ different\\ state\\ with\\ changing\\ concealed\\ carry\\ laws\\ shows\\ no\\ significant\\ effect\\ of\\ concealed\\ carry\\ laws\\ either\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gun\\ ownership\\ is\\ also\\ held\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ check\\ against\\ totalitarian\\ government\\.\\ Historically\\ almost\\ all\\ genocides\\ have\\ been\\ preceded\\ by\\ the\\ disarming\\ of\\ the\\ relevant\\ population\\,\\ and\\ hand\\ guns\\ are\\ not\\ very\\ effective\\ against\\ tanks\\.\\ Further\\,\\ not\\ obvious\\ that\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ countries\\ are\\ really\\ at\\ risk\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ Iraq\\ shows\\ how\\ much\\ trouble\\ even\\ a\\ small\\ armed\\ minority\\ can\\ cause\\ for\\ a\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\ is\\ a\\ legal\\ issue\\,\\ and\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ the\\ economic\\ discussion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mild\\ controls\\ have\\ mild\\ effects\\,\\ but\\ generally\\ lead\\ to\\ prohibition\\,\\ which\\ can\\ have\\ significant\\ negative\\ effects\\.\\ Gun\\ regulation\\ has\\ a\\ negligible\\ effect\\ on\\ crime\\ either\\ way\\,\\ but\\ gun\\ owners\\ derive\\ substantial\\ utility\\ from\\ gun\\ ownership\\.\\ Therefore\\ minimal\\ regulation\\ or\\ none\\ at\\ all\\ is\\ the\\ preferred\\ libertarian\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Duggan\\,\\ Mark\\ \\(2001\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\More\\ Guns\\,\\ More\\ Crime\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ paper\\ tries\\ to\\ estimate\\ annual\\ rates\\ of\\ gun\\ ownership\\ at\\ both\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ county\\ levels\\ during\\ the\\ past\\ two\\ decades\\ and\\ shows\\ that\\ increases\\ in\\ gun\\ ownership\\ lead\\ to\\ substantial\\ increases\\ in\\ the\\ overall\\ homicide\\ rate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ driven\\ entirely\\ by\\ a\\ relationship\\ between\\ firearms\\ and\\ homicides\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ gun\\ is\\ used\\.\\ He\\ also\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ gun\\ ownership\\ on\\ all\\ other\\ crimes\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ marked\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ previous\\ studies\\ have\\ used\\ fairly\\ unreliable\\ licensing\\ records\\ and\\ surveys\\ to\\ estimate\\ gun\\ ownership\\,\\ but\\ he\\ uses\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;unique\\ dataset\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ state\\-\\ and\\ county\\-level\\ sales\\ data\\ for\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ largest\\ gun\\ magazines\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Guns\\ \\&\\;\\ Ammo\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ he\\ says\\ provide\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ accurate\\ way\\ to\\ measure\\ both\\ the\\ level\\ and\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ gun\\ ownership\\ within\\ a\\ geographic\\ area\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\sales\\ rate\\ of\\ gun\\ magazines\\ is\\ much\\ higher\\ in\\ counties\\ and\\ states\\ with\\ individual\\-level\\ characteristics\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ an\\ average\\ gun\\ owner\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sales\\ rate\\ has\\ a\\ one\\-for\\-one\\ relationship\\ with\\ gun\\ accidents\\ for\\ any\\ given\\ area\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sales\\ rate\\ is\\ positively\\ related\\ to\\ number\\ of\\ gun\\ shows\\ in\\ the\\ area\\;\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sales\\ rate\\ is\\ positively\\ related\\ to\\ NRA\\ membership\\ in\\ the\\ area\\;\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sales\\ rate\\ is\\ positively\\ related\\ to\\ governmental\\ gun\\-ownership\\ estimates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(all\\ statistically\\ significant\\ data\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ \\(that\\ more\\ guns\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ more\\ gun\\-homicide\\)\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ the\\ finding\\ that\\ changes\\ in\\ gun\\ ownership\\ \\(as\\ conveyed\\ by\\ sales\\ rate\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Guns\\ \\&\\;\\ Ammo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ over\\ time\\ consistently\\ lag\\ current\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ \\*gun\\*\\-homicide\\ rate\\ for\\ a\\ given\\ geographic\\ area\\.\\ However\\,\\ gun\\ ownership\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ tracking\\ the\\ \\*non\\-gun\\*\\ homicide\\ rate\\ at\\ all\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ more\\ guns\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ more\\ gun\\-homicide\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ more\\ guns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 8\\:\\ Environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ TAKEAWAY\\ OF\\ THE\\ LECTURE\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Environmentalism\\ and\\ libertarianism\\ are\\ fully\\ compatible\\ when\\ viewed\\ from\\ the\\ right\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXTERNALITIES\\ ARGUMENT\\ FOR\\ INTERVENTION\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ first\\ it\\ seems\\ environmental\\ issues\\ like\\ pollution\\,\\ endangered\\ species\\,\\ and\\ depletion\\ of\\ natural\\ resources\\ generate\\ negative\\ externalities\\ and\\ therefore\\ deserve\\ to\\ be\\ regulated\\ because\\ laissez\\-fair\\ outcomes\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ efficient\\.\\ \\ \\;Usually\\ this\\ means\\ a\\ tax\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ we\\ could\\ also\\ regulate\\ volume\\ rather\\ than\\ price\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ issues\\ like\\ uncertainty\\ and\\ evasion\\ to\\ consider\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Coase\\ theorem\\ offers\\ an\\ alternative\\ solution\\:\\ those\\ affected\\ can\\ pay\\ those\\ responsible\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ externalities\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ work\\ due\\ to\\ transaction\\ costs\\ and\\ distributional\\ implications\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ instance\\,\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ \\$5\\ for\\ silence\\ but\\ your\\ roommate\\ values\\ loud\\ music\\ at\\ \\$6\\,\\ you\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ silence\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ outcome\\ is\\ still\\ efficient\\ because\\ both\\ parties\\ have\\ reached\\ an\\ agreement\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ preferences\\,\\ but\\ the\\ negative\\ externality\\ persists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ if\\ we\\ add\\ in\\ intervention\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ matter\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ school\\ says\\ that\\ you\\ own\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ silence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ value\\ silence\\ at\\ \\$5\\ and\\ roommate\\ values\\ music\\ at\\ \\$6\\,\\ your\\ roommate\\ will\\ pay\\ you\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ value\\ silence\\ at\\ \\$6\\ and\\ roommate\\ values\\ music\\ at\\ \\$5\\,\\ your\\ roommate\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pay\\ enough\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ silence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ of\\ the\\ outcomes\\ are\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ efficient\\ outcomes\\ as\\ before\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ school\\ says\\ that\\ your\\ roommate\\ owns\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ silence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ efficient\\ results\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ Coase\\ theorem\\ states\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\efficient\\ outcome\\ occurs\\ regardless\\ of\\ who\\ owns\\ the\\ property\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ income\\ will\\ differ\\ depending\\ on\\ who\\ owns\\ the\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ theorem\\ makes\\ the\\ critical\\ assumption\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ barriers\\ to\\ contracting\\ between\\ the\\ parties\\;\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ no\\ transaction\\ costs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ Coase\\ theorem\\ has\\ broad\\ implications\\ \\(transaction\\ cost\\ perspective\\ justifies\\ vertical\\ integration\\)\\,\\ it\\ also\\ has\\ its\\ limits\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\,\\ the\\ victims\\ of\\ the\\ negative\\ externalities\\ are\\ small\\ parties\\ who\\ cannot\\ coordinate\\ actions\\ to\\ pay\\ those\\ responsible\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\,\\ there\\ are\\ large\\ transaction\\ costs\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\ of\\ this\\ include\\ clean\\ air\\,\\ ocean\\,\\ etc\\,\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ here\\ that\\ policy\\ may\\ potentially\\ play\\ a\\ role\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ as\\ examples\\ shows\\,\\ clearly\\ defining\\ property\\ rights\\ could\\ reduce\\ transaction\\ costs\\,\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ best\\ intervention\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ bottom\\ line\\ on\\ Coase\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ theorem\\ shows\\ that\\ intervention\\ is\\ not\\ justified\\ solely\\ by\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ externalities\\ because\\ private\\ action\\ may\\ solve\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ case\\ private\\ action\\ is\\ constrained\\ by\\ transaction\\ costs\\,\\ policy\\ should\\ define\\ property\\ rights\\,\\ reduce\\ those\\ costs\\,\\ and\\ step\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXHAUSTABLE\\ RESOURCES\\ ARGUMENT\\ FOR\\ INTERVENTION\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ want\\ intervention\\ because\\ resources\\ are\\ limited\\,\\ but\\ often\\ these\\ assumptions\\ are\\ wrong\\ or\\,\\ even\\ if\\ accurate\\,\\ do\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\ policy\\ can\\ be\\ effective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Resources\\ may\\ have\\ dropped\\,\\ but\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ supply\\ has\\ ceased\\ to\\ meet\\ demand\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ new\\ discoveries\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ proven\\ reserves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ technology\\ has\\ improved\\ efficiency\\,\\ thus\\ less\\ resources\\ per\\ unit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ new\\ technology\\ has\\ reduced\\ demand\\ for\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\For\\ these\\ reasons\\,\\ demand\\ has\\ typically\\ declined\\ relative\\ to\\ supply\\,\\ not\\ increased\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ prices\\ of\\ raw\\ materials\\ show\\ a\\ downward\\ trend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Depletion\\,\\ furthermore\\,\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;Hotelling\\ says\\ that\\ private\\ market\\ uses\\ up\\ an\\ exhaustible\\ resource\\ at\\ the\\ optimal\\ rate\\:\\ as\\ the\\ good\\ becomes\\ scarce\\,\\ price\\ rises\\;\\ as\\ price\\ rises\\,\\ demand\\ falls\\;\\ so\\ over\\ time\\,\\ the\\ resource\\ is\\ depleting\\ at\\ the\\ socially\\ efficient\\ rate\\,\\ assuming\\ competition\\ in\\ the\\ resource\\ extraction\\ industry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(monopoly\\ would\\ set\\ the\\ prices\\ artificially\\ high\\,\\ thus\\ at\\ socially\\ inefficient\\ rates\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ makes\\ the\\ critical\\ assumption\\ that\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ privately\\ owned\\ and\\ traded\\ in\\ standard\\ markets\\ and\\ fails\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ common\\ resources\\ like\\ fish\\ in\\ the\\ ocean\\ or\\ grazing\\ fields\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ problem\\ is\\ again\\ property\\ rights\\ \\/\\ transaction\\ costs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ party\\ negatively\\ affected\\ is\\ the\\ future\\ generation\\,\\ and\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ way\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ pay\\ the\\ current\\ one\\ to\\ stop\\ over\\-extraction\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ transaction\\ costs\\ are\\ high\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ solve\\ this\\ from\\ again\\ a\\ Coasian\\ perspective\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ assign\\ property\\ rights\\:\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ give\\ each\\ farmer\\ a\\ fenced\\ in\\ plot\\ rather\\ than\\ allowing\\ them\\ to\\ graze\\ on\\ common\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ the\\ farmer\\ has\\ an\\ incentive\\ to\\ take\\ good\\ care\\ of\\ his\\ land\\ rather\\ than\\ lay\\ waste\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RECYCLING\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Currently\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ MANDATORY\\ government\\ policy\\ on\\ RESIDENTIAL\\ recycling\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ justified\\ by\\ externalities\\ from\\ landfills\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ landfills\\ are\\ filling\\ up\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ recycling\\ reduce\\ pollution\\ because\\ new\\ goods\\ have\\ positive\\ externalities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ are\\ all\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Landfills\\ are\\ NOT\\ for\\ toxic\\ commercial\\ waste\\,\\ they\\ are\\ for\\ residential\\ garbage\\,\\ and\\ are\\ strictly\\ regulated\\ under\\ environmental\\ protections\\.\\ \\ \\;Golf\\ courses\\,\\ shopping\\ centers\\,\\ are\\ routinely\\ built\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ landfills\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Landfills\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ scarce\\.\\ \\ \\;Who\\ keeps\\ millions\\ of\\ holes\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\ open\\ just\\ to\\ show\\ there\\ we\\ have\\ enough\\ capacity\\ for\\ landfills\\?\\ \\ \\;As\\ one\\ dump\\ gets\\ filled\\,\\ another\\ is\\ opened\\,\\ so\\ capacity\\ has\\ not\\ declined\\;\\ we\\ just\\ have\\ fewer\\,\\ but\\ much\\ larger\\,\\ landfills\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ land\\ available\\ vastly\\ out\\-scale\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ trash\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ if\\ we\\ run\\ out\\ of\\ land\\,\\ the\\ previous\\ logic\\ applies\\:\\ prices\\ for\\ land\\ will\\ rise\\,\\ increasing\\ incentives\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ recycle\\ or\\ reduce\\ trash\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recycling\\ does\\ not\\ reduce\\ pollution\\ by\\ producing\\ new\\ commodities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ program\\ is\\ expensive\\,\\ and\\,\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ recycling\\,\\ uses\\ just\\ as\\ much\\ toxic\\ chemicals\\ \\/\\ produce\\ pollutions\\.\\ \\ \\;Evidence\\ suggests\\ that\\ recycling\\ is\\ similar\\ or\\ worse\\ to\\ existing\\ pollution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ government\\ policies\\ in\\ recycling\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ justified\\,\\ and\\ people\\ have\\ privately\\ recycled\\ for\\ ages\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ environmental\\ concerns\\,\\ but\\ because\\ it\\ costs\\ less\\ to\\ recycle\\ than\\ it\\ does\\ to\\ get\\ new\\ stuff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ENDANGERED\\ SPECIES\\ ACT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1973\\,\\ the\\ government\\ made\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ animals\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ harmed\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ forbade\\ many\\ property\\ owners\\ to\\ develop\\ their\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ is\\ justified\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Some\\ species\\ have\\ substantial\\ commercial\\,\\ emotional\\,\\ or\\ recreational\\ value\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diversity\\ of\\ species\\ provides\\ a\\ social\\ benefit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ first\\:\\ intervention\\ makes\\ sense\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ poor\\ property\\ rights\\ and\\ high\\ transaction\\ costs\\ \\(like\\ whales\\ in\\ the\\ ocean\\)\\,\\ but\\ the\\ fact\\ is\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ species\\ are\\ on\\ private\\ land\\,\\ and\\ could\\ simply\\ be\\ an\\ exhaustible\\ resource\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\ second\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ public\\ good\\ everyone\\ enjoys\\ but\\ no\\ individual\\ can\\ capture\\ the\\ full\\ magnitude\\ of\\ these\\ benefits\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ this\\ empirically\\ compelling\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\.\\ \\ \\;Evidence\\ shows\\ that\\ ESA\\ protects\\ megafauna\\ \\(Bambi\\)\\,\\ with\\ infinitesimal\\ impact\\ on\\ diversity\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ effect\\ is\\ pre\\-emptive\\ destruction\\ of\\ habitats\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ substantial\\ costs\\ are\\ imposed\\ on\\ property\\ owners\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(the\\ original\\ law\\ forbade\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ economics\\ to\\ evaluate\\ which\\ species\\ should\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ list\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CLEAN\\ AIR\\ AND\\ WATER\\ ACTS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ were\\ adopted\\ in\\ 1970\\ and\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\.\\ \\ \\;Pollution\\ is\\ restricted\\ or\\ prohibited\\ and\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ air\\ \\&\\;\\ water\\ are\\ much\\ cleaner\\ than\\ 35\\ years\\ ago\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ Coase\\ theorem\\ is\\ irrelevant\\ here\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ say\\ who\\ owns\\ the\\ air\\ of\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ merit\\ of\\ the\\ acts\\ is\\ still\\ debatable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ need\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ why\\ we\\ care\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ this\\ is\\ worth\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ effects\\ have\\ been\\ definite\\,\\ but\\ finite\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ costs\\ have\\ been\\ substantial\\,\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ policy\\ has\\ become\\ too\\ aggressive\\.\\ \\ \\;Without\\ a\\ careful\\ analysis\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ which\\ is\\ greater\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ alternatives\\,\\ like\\ tradable\\ permits\\ rather\\ than\\ regulations\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ have\\ been\\ adopted\\ and\\ appear\\ to\\ work\\ better\\ than\\ quantity\\ limits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ key\\ issue\\ is\\ also\\ whether\\ to\\ conduct\\ this\\ at\\ federal\\ vs\\.\\ state\\ level\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ there\\ are\\ similar\\ issues\\ arise\\ across\\ states\\,\\ feds\\ approach\\ makes\\ sense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ these\\ issues\\ differ\\ substantially\\ or\\ if\\ policy\\ is\\ too\\ aggressive\\,\\ states\\ should\\ do\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ although\\ things\\ like\\ acid\\ rain\\ may\\ make\\ federal\\ regulation\\ sound\\ sensible\\,\\ overall\\ state\\ regulation\\ should\\ achieve\\ a\\ better\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(there\\ may\\ also\\ be\\ added\\ benefits\\ from\\ state\\ versus\\ state\\ competition\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ TAKING\\ CLAUSE\\ OF\\ THE\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\TH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;AMENDMENT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;nor\\ shall\\ private\\ property\\ be\\ taken\\ for\\ public\\ use\\ without\\ just\\ compensation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laws\\ like\\ ESA\\ blatantly\\ violate\\ this\\ amendment\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ amendment\\ makes\\ sense\\:\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ benefit\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ paying\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ requirement\\ helps\\ discipline\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ with\\ the\\ endangered\\ species\\,\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ just\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ land\\ or\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ species\\,\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ ESA\\ is\\ unnecessary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONCLUSION\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ presence\\ of\\ externalities\\ potentially\\ justifies\\ environmental\\ policies\\,\\ but\\ private\\ actions\\ can\\ reduce\\ or\\ eliminate\\ if\\ transactions\\ costs\\ are\\ low\\ and\\ \\/\\ or\\ property\\ rights\\ are\\ assigned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ instances\\ where\\ intervention\\ still\\ makes\\ sense\\,\\ but\\ attempting\\ to\\ address\\ them\\ from\\ the\\ Coasian\\ perspective\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ work\\ better\\ than\\ many\\ command\\ and\\ control\\ approaches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ environmental\\ policies\\ \\(mandated\\ recycling\\)\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ justify\\ under\\ any\\ reasonable\\ assumptions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ many\\ \\&ldquo\\;plausible\\&rdquo\\;\\ policies\\ work\\ badly\\ in\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ control\\ would\\ likely\\ improve\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ environmental\\ policies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\,\\ Daniel\\ K\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Eight\\ Great\\ Myths\\ of\\ Recycling\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eight\\ myths\\ about\\ recycling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Americans\\ lost\\ perspective\\ on\\ the\\ issue\\,\\ only\\ acceptable\\ way\\ is\\ to\\ recycle\\ when\\ became\\ part\\ of\\ state\\ and\\ federal\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ ways\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ trash\\:\\ dump\\,\\ burn\\ or\\ recycle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historically\\ known\\ as\\ scavenging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ burning\\,\\ gradually\\ replaced\\ by\\ landfills\\ post\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Environmental\\ Protection\\ Agency\\ \\(EPA\\)\\ claim\\ US\\ landfill\\ capacity\\ is\\ declining\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ causes\\ panic\\,\\ EPA\\ failed\\ to\\ notice\\ that\\ landfills\\ were\\ actually\\ growing\\ in\\ size\\ and\\ capacity\\ \\(1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 1\\:\\ Our\\ garbage\\ will\\ bury\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ landfills\\ became\\ less\\ numerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ fact\\ capacity\\ is\\ increasing\\ according\\ to\\ National\\ Solid\\ Waste\\ Management\\ Association\\(NSWMA\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;The\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ far\\ more\\ rubbish\\ than\\ is\\ worth\\ considering\\ will\\ fit\\ into\\ far\\ less\\ space\\ than\\ is\\ worth\\ worrying\\ about\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 2\\:\\ Our\\ garbage\\ will\\ poison\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fear\\ that\\ landfills\\ will\\ leak\\ toxic\\ waste\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EPA\\ recognizes\\ hazard\\ to\\ humans\\ is\\ virtually\\ nonexistent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ potentially\\ damaging\\ is\\ filling\\ in\\ wetland\\ \\(run\\ off\\ and\\ flood\\ control\\ and\\ water\\ filtering\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modern\\ landfill\\ very\\ safe\\,\\ well\\ sealed\\ to\\ rest\\ of\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methane\\ even\\ used\\ for\\ energy\\ prod\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 3\\:\\ Packaging\\ is\\ our\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ one\\ third\\ today\\ packaging\\ but\\ intensive\\ use\\ of\\ packaging\\ yields\\ less\\ waste\\,\\ breakage\\ and\\ food\\ spoilage\\ and\\,\\ on\\ balance\\,\\ less\\ total\\ rubbish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ still\\ being\\ done\\ by\\ private\\ sector\\ much\\ by\\ reducing\\ weight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 4\\:\\ We\\ must\\ achieve\\ trash\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\ 47\\ states\\ ship\\ garbage\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trade\\ good\\ for\\ wealth\\ of\\ nation\\,\\ only\\ negative\\ impact\\ lower\\ property\\ value\\ of\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ shipped\\ however\\ very\\ localized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 5\\:\\ We\\ squander\\ irreplaceable\\ recourses\\ when\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recycle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ recycling\\ has\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ raw\\ material\\ stocks\\,\\ other\\ activities\\,\\ long\\ practiced\\ in\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\,\\ are\\ already\\ doing\\ that\\.\\ Some\\ resources\\ even\\ growing\\ ex\\.\\ forests\\.\\ Rain\\ forest\\ problem\\ due\\ to\\ property\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finite\\ resources\\ not\\ run\\ out\\ because\\:\\ Prices\\,\\ innovation\\ and\\ substitution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 6\\:\\ Recycling\\ always\\ protect\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recycling\\ is\\ a\\ manufacturing\\ process\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ it\\ too\\ has\\ environmental\\ impact\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ collecting\\ and\\ transporting\\ less\\ efficient\\ with\\ recycling\\ than\\ rubbish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 7\\:\\ Recycling\\ saves\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rests\\ on\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ reusing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\some\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\resources\\ means\\ using\\ fewer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\total\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\resources\\.\\ Not\\ true\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Commercial\\ and\\ industrial\\ recycling\\ is\\ a\\ profitable\\ market\\ that\\ turns\\ discards\\ and\\ scraps\\ into\\ marketable\\ products\\.\\ But\\ collecting\\ from\\ consumers\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ costly\\,\\ and\\ it\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ collection\\ of\\ items\\ that\\ are\\ far\\ less\\ valuable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myth\\ 8\\:\\ Without\\ forced\\ recycling\\ mandates\\,\\ there\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ recycling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ promotes\\ premature\\ or\\ excessive\\ disposal\\ ignores\\ an\\ enormous\\ body\\ of\\ evidence\\ to\\ the\\ contrary\\.\\ Firms\\ only\\ survive\\ in\\ the\\ marketplace\\ if\\ they\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ their\\ customers\\&rsquo\\;\\ ownership\\ costs\\.\\ Private\\ sector\\ has\\ much\\ to\\ gain\\ from\\ recycling\\.\\ Scavenging\\ one\\ of\\ oldest\\ professions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Voluntary\\,\\ informed\\ recycling\\ can\\ be\\ beneficial\\ increasing\\ wealth\\ and\\ health\\.\\ Mandatory\\ recycling\\ squander\\ valuable\\ resources\\.\\ Misinformation\\ can\\ be\\ as\\ damaging\\ as\\ mandatory\\ recycling\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Except\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ rare\\ cases\\,\\ the\\ free\\ market\\ system\\ is\\ eminently\\ capable\\ of\\ providing\\ both\\ disposal\\ and\\ recycling\\ in\\ an\\ amount\\ and\\ mix\\ that\\ creates\\ the\\ greatest\\ wealth\\ for\\ society\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coase\\,\\ R\\.H\\.\\ \\(1960\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Problem\\ of\\ Social\\ Cost\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\-Social\\ Costs\\-\\ Those\\ actions\\ of\\ business\\ firms\\ which\\ have\\ harmful\\ effects\\ on\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\-Reciprocal\\ Nature\\ of\\ the\\ Problem\\-\\ A\\ inflicts\\ harm\\ on\\ B\\;\\ but\\,\\ avoiding\\ the\\ harm\\ to\\ B\\ inflicts\\ harm\\ on\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-Must\\ determine\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ obtained\\ and\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ sacrificed\\,\\ both\\ in\\ total\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ margins\\.\\ Solution\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ depends\\ on\\ whether\\ by\\ A\\ causing\\ a\\ harm\\,\\ more\\ is\\ added\\ to\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ income\\ than\\ is\\ subtracted\\ to\\ B\\&rsquo\\;s\\ income\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\-Delimitation\\ of\\ rights\\ facilitates\\ market\\ transactions\\ to\\ transfer\\ and\\ recombine\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ ultimate\\ result\\ \\(which\\ maximizes\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ production\\)\\ is\\ independent\\ of\\ the\\ legal\\ system\\ if\\ the\\ pricing\\ system\\ works\\ without\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ decision\\ of\\ the\\ courts\\ regarding\\ liability\\ for\\ damage\\ is\\ without\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-However\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\-If\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ cost\\ involved\\ in\\ market\\ transactions\\,\\ the\\ initial\\ delimitation\\ of\\ rights\\ does\\ effect\\ the\\ efficiency\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ costs\\ of\\ altering\\ and\\ combining\\ rights\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ a\\ greater\\ value\\ of\\ production\\ through\\ the\\ market\\ may\\ be\\ so\\ great\\ that\\ the\\ optimal\\ arrangement\\ of\\ rights\\ may\\ never\\ be\\ achieved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\-Government\\ action\\ may\\ be\\ desirable\\ to\\ overcome\\ transaction\\ costs\\,\\ unless\\ the\\ administrative\\ costs\\ of\\ governmental\\ regulation\\ exceed\\ the\\ gain\\ that\\ would\\ come\\ from\\ regulating\\ the\\ harmful\\ effects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\-Reasonable\\ Bounds\\-\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ when\\ conduct\\ is\\ unreasonable\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ light\\ of\\ its\\ utility\\ and\\ the\\ harm\\ which\\ results\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ nuisance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ plaintiff\\ may\\ be\\ required\\ to\\ accept\\ some\\ not\\ unreasonable\\ discomfort\\ for\\ the\\ general\\ good\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-Whether\\ something\\ is\\ a\\ nuisance\\ or\\ not\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ its\\ circumstances\\.\\ \\(ie\\-\\ the\\ legality\\ of\\ the\\ action\\ and\\ its\\ affect\\ on\\ public\\ interest\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\-Whether\\ the\\ gain\\ from\\ preventing\\ the\\ harm\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ loss\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ suffered\\ elsewhere\\ as\\ a\\ results\\ of\\ stopping\\ the\\ action\\ which\\ produces\\ the\\ harm\\,\\ is\\ the\\ key\\ determinant\\ in\\ the\\ desirability\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ course\\ of\\ action\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metrick\\,\\ Andrew\\ and\\ Martin\\ L\\.\\ Weitzman\\ \\(1996\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Patterns\\ of\\ Behavior\\ in\\ Endangered\\ Species\\ Preservation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ paper\\ analyzes\\ the\\ main\\ determinants\\ of\\ government\\ policy\\ about\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ endangered\\ species\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ explanatory\\ variables\\ are\\ degree\\ of\\ endangerment\\,\\ taxonomic\\ uniqueness\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ visceral\\ characteristics\\ such\\ as\\ physical\\ size\\ and\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ species\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ higher\\ form\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overall\\ the\\ paper\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ visceral\\ characteristics\\ is\\ much\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ scientific\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ paper\\ seeks\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ actual\\ patterns\\ of\\ government\\ spending\\ of\\ limited\\ resources\\ on\\ species\\ preservation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Endangered\\ Species\\ Act\\ of\\ 1973\\ gave\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ protect\\ species\\ from\\ extinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ agencies\\ decide\\ to\\ 1\\.\\ place\\ species\\ on\\ the\\ list\\ and\\ 2\\.\\ deciding\\ how\\ much\\ to\\ spend\\ on\\ recovery\\ of\\ the\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spending\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ highly\\ concentrated\\ on\\ a\\ small\\ group\\ of\\ species\\ all\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ mammals\\ or\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ degree\\ of\\ biological\\ uniqueness\\ appears\\ to\\ play\\ no\\ role\\ in\\ expenditure\\ decisions\\.\\ \\ \\;6\\ of\\ the\\ top\\ 10\\ species\\ protected\\ are\\ not\\ genetically\\ unique\\,\\ having\\ a\\ near\\-twin\\ subspecies\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ danger\\ of\\ extinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objectives\\ in\\ biodiversity\\ Preservation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\conservation\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\species\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ the\\ main\\ vehicle\\ for\\ biodiversity\\ preservation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\divide\\ arguments\\ of\\ species\\-oriented\\ approach\\ into\\ the\\ following\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Species\\ have\\ commercial\\ value\\ in\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ food\\,\\ medicine\\,\\ clothing\\ or\\ tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ endangered\\ species\\ have\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ commercial\\ value\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ so\\ should\\ have\\ limited\\ effect\\ on\\ government\\ spending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Existence\\ value\\ that\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ people\\ simply\\ knowing\\ that\\ the\\ species\\ exists\\ on\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ species\\ are\\ never\\ observed\\ directly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Includes\\ moral\\ arguments\\ that\\ humankind\\ had\\ ethical\\ obligation\\ to\\ preserve\\ species\\ even\\ without\\ direct\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contributory\\ value\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ argument\\ that\\ certain\\ level\\ of\\ biodiversity\\ must\\ be\\ maintained\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ ecosystems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ such\\ a\\ case\\ we\\ should\\ seek\\ to\\ preserve\\ certain\\ \\&ldquo\\;keystone\\&rdquo\\;\\ species\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ understood\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ policy\\ over\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Visceral\\ characteristics\\ such\\ as\\ their\\ size\\ and\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ higher\\ life\\ forms\\ explain\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ listing\\ and\\ spending\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pay\\ more\\ attention\\ the\\ more\\ they\\ resemble\\ humans\\ in\\ size\\ or\\ characteristics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suggest\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ helpful\\ to\\ separate\\ industries\\ doing\\ research\\ from\\ the\\ ones\\ who\\ make\\ policies\\ to\\ prevent\\ mixing\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ distinct\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\:\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ and\\ Discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-INTRODUCTION\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ the\\ main\\ settings\\ of\\ banned\\ or\\ limited\\ discrimination\\ are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Employment\\ \\(Affirmative\\ Action\\)\\,\\ Housing\\,\\ and\\ College\\ Admissions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ people\\ are\\ against\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ discrimination\\,\\ but\\ we\\ must\\ determine\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ efficient\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ step\\ in\\ and\\ regulate\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Must\\ consider\\ magnitude\\ of\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Must\\ consider\\ cost\\ and\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-ECONOMIC\\ MODEL\\ OF\\ DISCRIMINATION\\-\\ \\ \\;\\(slides\\ 5\\-10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Discrimination\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\ lowers\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ wage\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ being\\ discriminated\\ against\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ non\\-discriminatory\\ firms\\ gain\\ a\\ cost\\ advantage\\ by\\ hiring\\ these\\ people\\ at\\ a\\ lower\\ wage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ non\\-discriminatory\\ firms\\ taking\\ profits\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ discriminatory\\ firms\\ and\\ pushing\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thus\\,\\ the\\ market\\ wage\\ is\\ equal\\ for\\ everyone\\ in\\ a\\ perfectly\\ competitive\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ means\\ that\\ market\\ should\\ limit\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ discrimination\\ by\\ employers\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ is\\ costly\\ for\\ the\\ firms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-MAGNITUDE\\ OF\\ DISCRIMINATION\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(slides\\ 11\\-16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-As\\ a\\ fact\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sizable\\ wage\\ gap\\ \\(22\\%\\)\\ between\\ whites\\ and\\ blacks\\ and\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ \\(28\\%\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-However\\,\\ when\\ we\\ control\\ for\\ certain\\ factors\\ such\\ as\\ age\\,\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ education\\,\\ the\\ wage\\ gap\\ due\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;discrimination\\&rdquo\\;\\ becomes\\ much\\ smaller\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ \\&ldquo\\;rule\\ out\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ some\\ discrimination\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ not\\ a\\ major\\ determinant\\ of\\ wage\\ gaps\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\(Slide\\ 14\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-EFFECTIVENESS\\ OF\\ POLICIES\\ TO\\ REDUCE\\ DISCRIMINATION\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(slides\\ 17\\-22\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Two\\ main\\ policies\\:\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ Prohibit\\ discrimination\\ in\\ hiring\\,\\ promotion\\,\\ firing\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ 2\\)\\ Adopt\\ policies\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;affirmatively\\&rdquo\\;\\ promote\\ hiring\\ of\\ certain\\ targeted\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Black\\/White\\ and\\ Female\\/Male\\ wage\\ differentials\\ have\\ decreased\\ substantially\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 50\\ years\\,\\ but\\ this\\ decline\\ started\\ well\\ before\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ policies\\ were\\ passed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Thus\\,\\ these\\ policies\\ probably\\ have\\ some\\ effect\\ but\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ major\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ decreasing\\ wage\\ gaps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-COST\\ OF\\ ANTI\\-DISCRIMINATORY\\ POLICIES\\-\\ \\(slides\\ 23\\-28\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Affirmative\\ Action\\ \\(AA\\)\\ can\\ result\\ in\\ negative\\ views\\ of\\ the\\ targeted\\ group\\.\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;minorities\\ got\\ their\\ jobs\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ AA\\ and\\ not\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ merit\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-AA\\ might\\ reduce\\ incentives\\ to\\ acquire\\ human\\ capital\\ or\\ expend\\ extra\\ effort\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ overcome\\ discrimination\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\AA\\ undermines\\ the\\ incentive\\ to\\ compete\\ in\\ the\\ marketplace\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Possible\\ that\\ efficiency\\ is\\ lost\\ through\\ AA\\ b\\/c\\ firms\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ hire\\ less\\ qualified\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Not\\ a\\ big\\ effect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-PUNCHLINE\\-\\ \\ \\;\\(slides\\ 29\\-35\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\POLICY\\ SHOULD\\ NOT\\ PROHIBIT\\ DISCRIMINATION\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ costs\\ and\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ tell\\ private\\ firms\\ what\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-By\\ that\\ same\\ token\\,\\ private\\ institutions\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ pursue\\ AA\\ if\\ that\\ is\\ their\\ choice\\ but\\ the\\ government\\ cannot\\ force\\ them\\ to\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Welch\\,\\ Finis\\ \\(2003\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Catching\\ Up\\:\\ Wages\\ of\\ Black\\ Men\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ summary\\ of\\ recent\\ trends\\ in\\ the\\ wages\\ of\\ African\\-American\\ men\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ wages\\ of\\ white\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ the\\ early\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\ witnessed\\ rapid\\ improvement\\ in\\ the\\ relative\\ status\\ of\\ blacks\\,\\ the\\ research\\ that\\ studied\\ this\\ trend\\ tried\\ to\\ disentangle\\ effects\\ of\\ antidiscrimination\\ legislation\\ and\\ executive\\ branch\\ edicts\\ from\\ responses\\ to\\ increasing\\ educational\\ levels\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ school\\-provided\\ resources\\ devoted\\ to\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ author\\ however\\ observed\\ that\\,\\ although\\ the\\ relative\\ wages\\ of\\ blacks\\ were\\ increasing\\,\\ there\\ was\\ little\\ evidence\\ of\\ improvement\\ within\\ cohort\\;\\ instead\\ the\\ gains\\ were\\ dominated\\ by\\ the\\ labor\\-market\\ arrival\\ of\\ cohorts\\ who\\ would\\ do\\ better\\ than\\ earlier\\ arrivals\\,\\ but\\ not\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ those\\ to\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ although\\ there\\ was\\ clear\\ evidence\\ of\\ employment\\ shifts\\ toward\\ industries\\ with\\ concentrations\\ of\\ firms\\ presumed\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ sensitive\\ to\\ affirmative\\-action\\ pressures\\ the\\ wage\\ gains\\ were\\ pervasive\\ and\\ not\\ restricted\\ to\\ these\\ industries\\.\\ They\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ improvement\\ in\\ education\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ legislation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\byD\\.lagias\\:\\ Lagias\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DeLeire\\,\\ Thomas\\ \\(2000\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Unintended\\ Consequences\\ of\\ the\\ Americans\\ with\\ Disabilities\\ Act\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Governmental\\ public\\ policies\\ are\\ perceived\\ inefficient\\ by\\ economists\\ as\\ those\\ policies\\ ignore\\ the\\ unintended\\ consequences\\ of\\ their\\ implementation\\.\\ The\\ American\\ with\\ Disabilities\\ Act\\ is\\ justifying\\ their\\ \\ \\;fears\\ since\\ the\\ provisions\\ from\\ the\\ government\\ have\\ \\ \\;harmed\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;beneficiaries\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ added\\ cost\\ of\\ employing\\ made\\ those\\ employees\\ unattractive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ threats\\ of\\ prosecution\\ under\\ the\\ Equal\\ Employment\\ Opportunity\\ Commission\\ made\\ firms\\ reluctant\\ to\\ hire\\ disabled\\ workers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ADA\\ goals\\:\\ ensures\\ that\\ people\\ with\\ disabilities\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ types\\ of\\ employment\\ from\\ which\\ they\\ traditionally\\ have\\ been\\ excluded\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;increases\\ job\\ opportunities\\ for\\ disabled\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Reverse\\ Results\\:\\ ADA\\ caused\\ a\\ decrease\\ of\\ about\\ 8\\ percentage\\ points\\ in\\ the\\ employment\\ rate\\ of\\ men\\ with\\ disabilities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ADA\\ caused\\ lower\\ employment\\ regardless\\ of\\ age\\,\\ educational\\ level\\,\\ and\\ type\\ of\\ disability\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Those\\ most\\ affected\\ by\\ ADA\\ were\\ young\\,\\ less\\-educated\\ and\\ mentally\\ disabled\\ men\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alternatives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ provide\\ a\\ wage\\ subsidy\\ for\\ disabled\\ workers\\ to\\ encourage\\ them\\ to\\ remain\\ in\\ or\\ reenter\\ the\\ workplace\\ after\\ becoming\\ disabled\\.\\ The\\ wage\\ subsidy\\,\\ even\\ if\\ given\\ directly\\ to\\ workers\\,\\ effectively\\ would\\ reduce\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ hiring\\ and\\ accommodating\\ them\\.\\ That\\,\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ would\\ increase\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ firms\\ to\\ hire\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DeLeire\\,\\ Thomas\\ \\(2000\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Unintended\\ Consequences\\ of\\ the\\ Americans\\ with\\Disabilities\\ Act\\,\\ Regulation\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;23\\(1\\)\\,\\ 21\\-24\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Theory\\ and\\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;unintended\\ consequences\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;economist\\ have\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ all\\ consequences\\ of\\ a\\policy\\&hellip\\;here\\ are\\ some\\ examples\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ workers\\ wages\\ will\\ fall\\ if\\ you\\ mandate\\ benefits\\ \\(ie\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ expensive\\ for\\employer\\)\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ \\;unemployment\\ jumps\\ up\\ when\\ you\\ implement\\ minimum\\ wage\\ laws\\\\&bull\\;American\\ with\\ Disabilities\\ Act\\ \\(ADA\\)\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ unintended\\ consequences\\ that\\harm\\ people\\ with\\ disabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Disabled\\ people\\ as\\ a\\ group\\ earn\\ less\\ than\\ average\\ when\\ working\\ \\(79\\%\\ of\\ average\\wage\\ of\\ non\\ disabled\\ workers\\)\\ and\\ fewer\\ work\\ \\(53\\%\\ of\\ disabled\\ men\\ work\\,\\ while\\89\\%\\ for\\ non\\-disabled\\)\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ Also\\ are\\ older\\,\\ less\\ educated\\,\\ and\\ work\\ in\\ less\\ skilled\\ occupations\\ on\\ average\\\\&bull\\;Purpose\\ of\\ the\\ act\\ was\\ to\\ remove\\ barriers\\ of\\ employment\\ for\\ disabled\\ people\\,\\banning\\ employer\\ discrimination\\ against\\ them\\,\\ and\\ requiring\\ employers\\ to\\accommodate\\ their\\ disabilities\\ in\\ the\\ work\\ place\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&bull\\;Instead\\ authors\\ argue\\ that\\ ADA\\ act\\ has\\ added\\ to\\ costs\\ of\\ hiring\\ people\\ with\\ disabilities\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ employers\\ hire\\ fewer\\ workers\\ with\\ disabilities\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-Threat\\ of\\ litigation\\ from\\ Equal\\ Employment\\ Opportunity\\ Commission\\discourages\\ firms\\ from\\ hiring\\ disabled\\ people\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-Expensive\\ workplace\\ accommodations\\ also\\ adds\\ significant\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\&bull\\;\\ Section\\ 101\\(9\\)\\ says\\ employers\\ have\\ to\\ make\\ \\&ldquo\\;reasonable\\ accommodation\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\modify\\ work\\ environment\\ for\\ people\\ with\\ disabilities\\ including\\ modifying\\facilities\\,\\ redesigning\\ schedules\\,\\ provide\\ special\\ equipment\\ or\\ assistance\\,\\etc\\&hellip\\;\\\\-\\-\\-\\-51\\%\\ of\\ accommodations\\ cost\\ nothing\\,\\ but\\ large\\ non\\-monetary\\ cost\\ for\\ revising\\schedules\\\\-\\-\\-\\-12\\%\\ cost\\ more\\ than\\ \\$2\\,000\\,\\ 4\\%\\ more\\ than\\ \\$5\\,000\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.MORE\\ COSTS\\=Less\\ incentive\\ to\\ hire\\ these\\ people\\ if\\ you\\ can\\ avoid\\ it\\\\&bull\\;\\ Lawsuits\\ for\\ non\\-compliance\\ are\\ very\\ expensive\\ \\\\-\\-\\-\\-Average\\ penalty\\ for\\ discrimination\\ by\\ OOEC\\ is\\ \\$14\\,325\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ lawyer\\ fees\\ are\\ also\\ EXPENSIVE\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Before\\ and\\ after\\ statistics\\ for\\ employment\\ of\\ men\\ 18\\-65\\ shows\\ that\\ after\\ ADA\\,\\employment\\ of\\ disabled\\ men\\ fell\\ 10\\.9\\%\\,\\ while\\ employment\\ of\\ non\\-disabled\\ men\\fell\\ 3\\.1\\%\\ \\(7\\.8\\%\\ difference\\)\\\\&bull\\;ADA\\ also\\ lowered\\ employment\\ for\\ disabled\\ men\\ after\\ controlling\\ for\\ age\\ and\\educational\\ levels\\\\&bull\\;Those\\ most\\ negatively\\ effected\\ were\\ the\\ young\\,\\ less\\ educated\\,\\ and\\ mentally\\disabled\\ men\\ \\(most\\ vulnerable\\ groups\\)\\\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-This\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ true\\ in\\ theory\\ because\\ burden\\ of\\ costs\\ has\\ fallen\\ hard\\ on\\workers\\ least\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ accommodated\\ voluntarily\\ by\\ firms\\ in\\ the\\absence\\ of\\ ADA\\ \\(lesser\\ skilled\\ workers\\ and\\ workers\\ with\\ mental\\ disabilities\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Summary\\ and\\ alternatives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ ADA\\ regulations\\ raises\\ cost\\ of\\ hiring\\ disabled\\ workers\\ through\\litigation\\ costs\\ and\\ accommodation\\ costs\\&hellip\\;as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ less\\ disabled\\ workers\\ are\\hired\\\\&bull\\;Alternative\\ propose\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Disabled\\ Workers\\ Tax\\ Credit\\ \\(DWTC\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\provides\\ a\\ wage\\ subsidy\\ for\\ disabled\\ workers\\.\\ Wage\\ subsidy\\,\\ even\\ if\\ given\\ directly\\ to\\ workers\\ would\\ reduce\\ costs\\ for\\ employers\\ to\\ hire\\ them\\ and\\ increase\\ number\\ of\\ disabled\\ workers\\ that\\ are\\ hired\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\DWTC\\ may\\ be\\ cheaper\\ to\\ run\\,\\ more\\ effective\\ than\\ forcing\\ the\\ hiring\\ of\\ disabled\\workers\\ through\\ the\\ employment\\ of\\ mandates\\ by\\ ADA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Welch\\,\\ Finis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Catching\\ Up\\:\\ Wages\\ of\\ Black\\ Men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ has\\ very\\ detailed\\ statistics\\ and\\ regressions\\ so\\ I\\ will\\ include\\ the\\ main\\ points\\ without\\ going\\ into\\ great\\ detail\\.\\ My\\ guess\\ is\\ Professor\\ Miron\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ the\\ stats\\ anyway\\ b\\/c\\ his\\ statistics\\ are\\ mostly\\ bullshit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theory\\ and\\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Wages\\ for\\ black\\ men\\ have\\ seen\\ rapid\\ improvement\\ relative\\ to\\ whites\\ since\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ This\\ article\\ tries\\ to\\ disentangle\\ effects\\ of\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ legislation\\ and\\ educational\\ improvements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Authors\\ look\\ at\\ evidence\\ from\\ wages\\ in\\ firms\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ most\\ effected\\ by\\ affirmative\\ action\\ pressures\\ \\(larger\\ firms\\ required\\ to\\ file\\ with\\ EEOC\\ and\\ government\\ firms\\)\\ and\\ find\\ that\\ gains\\ were\\ not\\ pervasive\\ and\\ limited\\ to\\ these\\ industries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-Conclude\\,\\ educational\\ legislation\\ and\\ improvement\\ has\\ played\\ a\\ more\\ important\\ roll\\ than\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ legislation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Briefly\\ talking\\ about\\ regression\\ in\\ average\\ wages\\ for\\ black\\ workers\\ in\\ 70\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ authors\\ have\\ two\\ explanations\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Wage\\ distribution\\ has\\ increased\\-\\-\\ black\\ workers\\ earned\\ wages\\ below\\ the\\ median\\,\\ and\\ when\\ wage\\ distribution\\ increases\\,\\ wages\\ below\\ the\\ median\\ fall\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ median\\.\\ 2\\)\\ Minority\\ workers\\ have\\ always\\ suffered\\ disproportionately\\ during\\ recessions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Data\\ taken\\ from\\ 1964\\-2002\\,\\ wages\\ are\\ earnings\\ of\\ full\\ time\\ employees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Overall\\,\\ 1963\\ mean\\ wage\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ was\\ \\ \\;43\\.7\\%\\ of\\ mean\\ wage\\ for\\ white\\ men\\,\\ by\\ 2001\\ mean\\ wage\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ rose\\ to\\ 74\\.2\\%\\ \\(more\\ than\\ \\½\\;\\ the\\ gap\\ closed\\ in\\ 38\\ years\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Also\\ took\\ statistics\\ for\\ quartiles\\ and\\ percentiles\\ of\\ wages\\ to\\ track\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ wage\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&bull\\;Bottom\\ of\\ the\\ ladder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-in\\ 1963\\ black\\ men\\ were\\ 4\\.7\\ times\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ white\\ men\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ lowest\\ wage\\ decile\\ \\(poorest\\ 10\\%\\)\\ and\\ 2\\.5\\ times\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ whites\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ lowest\\ quartile\\ \\(poorest\\ 25\\%\\)\\.\\ By\\ 1963\\ blacks\\ were\\ only\\ 1\\.73\\ times\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ bottom\\ 10\\%\\,\\ 1\\.66\\ times\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ bottom\\ 25\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-this\\ evidence\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ encouraging\\ as\\ one\\ might\\ like\\,\\ however\\,\\ \\ \\;as\\ black\\ men\\ moved\\ from\\ bottom\\ 10\\%\\ to\\ 11\\-25\\%\\ range\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&bull\\;Top\\ of\\ the\\ ladder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-in\\ 1963\\,\\ only\\ 2\\.2\\%\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ had\\ wages\\ in\\ top\\ 10\\%\\,\\ only\\ 5\\.9\\%\\ in\\ top\\ 25\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-there\\ has\\ NOT\\ been\\ much\\ improvement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-Champions\\ of\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ legislation\\ would\\ predict\\ rise\\ in\\ the\\ top\\ 10\\%\\ and\\ top\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ wages\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ greater\\ pressure\\ to\\ increase\\ representation\\ where\\ under\\ representation\\ is\\ most\\ obvious\\ \\(ie\\ high\\ paying\\ jobs\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ evidence\\ tells\\ the\\ opposite\\ story\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wages\\ are\\ up\\ due\\ to\\ improvement\\ among\\ the\\ poorest\\ of\\ wage\\ earners\\,\\ relatively\\ little\\ improvement\\ at\\ the\\ top\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Second\\ regression\\ is\\ complicated\\ but\\ shows\\ that\\ as\\ experience\\ increases\\,\\ wage\\ differentials\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ decreases\\.\\ This\\ coefficient\\ is\\ much\\ stronger\\ than\\ the\\ coefficient\\ of\\ time\\ alone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ discrimination\\ were\\ the\\ key\\ factor\\,\\ then\\ as\\ time\\ went\\ on\\,\\ wages\\ should\\ increase\\ across\\ the\\ entire\\ black\\ population\\,\\ not\\ specifically\\ the\\ most\\ experienced\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-This\\ evidence\\ supports\\ that\\ fact\\ that\\ gains\\ in\\ wages\\ are\\ primarily\\ productivity\\ related\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ legislation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 10\\:\\ Public\\ Schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Recently\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ substantial\\ criticism\\ of\\ public\\ schools\\ \\(K\\-12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Libertarian\\ answer\\ \\=\\ Eliminate\\ public\\ schools\\ and\\ government\\ involvement\\ in\\ education\\ \\(exceptions\\ \\=\\ means\\-tested\\ vouchers\\ for\\ youngest\\ students\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liberal\\ answer\\ \\=\\ More\\ govt\\.\\ spending\\ on\\ education\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;More\\ teachers\\ per\\ student\\ and\\ higher\\ pay\\ for\\ teachers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conservative\\ answer\\ \\=\\ High\\-stakes\\ testing\\ of\\ students\\,\\ testing\\ and\\ certification\\ of\\ teachers\\,\\ charter\\ schools\\,\\ and\\ vouchers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ accountability\\ view\\ of\\ Conservatives\\ might\\ not\\ offer\\ substantial\\ benefits\\ and\\ could\\ cause\\ serious\\ harm\\.\\ \\ \\;Accountability\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ mean\\ more\\ competition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ public\\ schools\\ \\=\\ low\\/declining\\ test\\ scores\\ and\\ high\\/increasing\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ with\\ liberal\\ approach\\ \\=\\ spending\\ has\\ increased\\ greatly\\ over\\ past\\ years\\ with\\ little\\ improvement\\ in\\ test\\ scores\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ no\\ relationship\\ between\\ spending\\ per\\ pupil\\ and\\ educational\\ output\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accountability\\ \\(via\\ high\\ stakes\\ testing\\)\\ approach\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ schools\\ perform\\ poorly\\ because\\ nobody\\ faces\\ a\\ penalty\\ when\\ results\\ are\\ bad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Accountability\\ approach\\ calls\\ for\\ providing\\ explicit\\ monetary\\ rewards\\ or\\ punishments\\ to\\ teachers\\,\\ districts\\,\\ etc\\.\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ scores\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Rationale\\ behind\\ this\\ reasoning\\ \\=\\ students\\ will\\ study\\ harder\\ \\&\\;\\ teachers\\ will\\ teach\\ better\\ because\\ of\\ rewards\\/punishments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Existing\\ evidence\\ documents\\ that\\ accountability\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ higher\\ test\\ scores\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ results\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ evaluated\\ carefully\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pass\\ rates\\ vs\\.\\ avg\\.\\ scores\\ \\(pass\\ rate\\ may\\ increase\\ while\\ avg\\.\\ score\\ remains\\ unchanged\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Direct\\ costs\\ of\\ accountability\\ system\\ are\\ relatively\\ cheap\\ and\\ lead\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ direction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\IF\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;test\\ scores\\ per\\ dollar\\ of\\ expenditure\\ is\\ the\\ greatest\\ concern\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ with\\ Accountability\\ Approach\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 1\\)\\ Accountability\\ assumes\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ better\\ way\\ to\\ run\\ schools\\,\\ but\\ studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ school\\ quality\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ great\\ impact\\ on\\ educational\\ outcomes\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\)\\ Could\\ lead\\ to\\ increased\\ classification\\ of\\ students\\ as\\ non\\-English\\ proficient\\ or\\ learning\\ disabled\\ students\\ \\&\\;\\ will\\ therefore\\ take\\ their\\ scores\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ pool\\.\\ \\ \\;3\\)\\ \\ \\;Accountability\\ can\\ encourage\\ cheating\\ by\\ teachers\\ and\\ students\\ since\\ incentives\\ are\\ large\\.\\ \\ \\;4\\)\\ Teachers\\ will\\ only\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;teach\\ to\\ the\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ will\\ neglect\\ other\\ important\\ studies\\.\\ \\ \\;5\\)\\ Accountability\\ approach\\ imposes\\ one\\ specific\\ approach\\ on\\ everyone\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ right\\ for\\ all\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ teachers\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-40\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;percentile\\ since\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ at\\ risk\\ of\\ failure\\.\\ \\ \\;6\\)\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ to\\ fix\\ bad\\ govt\\.\\ with\\ more\\ govt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accountability\\ will\\ fail\\ in\\ long\\ run\\ because\\:\\ tests\\ will\\ become\\ easier\\ so\\ more\\ pass\\,\\ schools\\ and\\ teachers\\ will\\ cheat\\ and\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ improve\\ quality\\ of\\ education\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Substantial\\ costs\\ and\\ few\\ if\\ any\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alternative\\ Approaches\\ to\\ Accountability\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Find\\ ways\\ to\\ reduce\\ costs\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ lead\\ to\\ declines\\ in\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ Reduce\\ barriers\\ to\\ entry\\ in\\ teaching\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ teachers\\ to\\ be\\ certified\\ etc\\.\\)\\ 2\\)\\ Eliminate\\ unnecessary\\ federal\\ and\\ state\\ regulation\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Bilingual\\ education\\)\\ 3\\)\\ Eliminate\\ teachers\\ unions\\ 4\\)\\ Reduce\\ size\\ of\\ school\\ districts\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ approach\\ \\(ie\\ cutting\\ costs\\)\\ lacks\\ political\\ appeal\\ because\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ promise\\ better\\ education\\,\\ only\\ cheaper\\ price\\ tag\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charters\\ and\\ Vouchers\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Benefits\\ often\\ oversold\\,\\ but\\ they\\ can\\ increase\\ competition\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ 1\\)\\ higher\\ test\\ scores\\ 2\\)\\ Higher\\ utility\\ 3\\)\\ lower\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Competition\\ approach\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ cost\\-cutting\\ approach\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ guarantee\\ huge\\ improvements\\ in\\ education\\,\\ but\\ increase\\ productivity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Competition\\ \\=\\ best\\ answer\\ since\\ it\\ fosters\\ innovation\\ and\\ variety\\ while\\ enhancing\\ accountability\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\:\\ Unions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DiNardo\\,\\ John\\ and\\ David\\ S\\.\\ Lee\\ \\(2004\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Economic\\ Impacts\\ of\\ Unionization\\ on\\ Private\\ Sector\\ Employees\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unions\\ impose\\ certain\\ costs\\ to\\ employers\\-\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ cost\\ associated\\ with\\ unions\\ is\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ members\\&rsquo\\;\\ wages\\.\\ They\\ can\\ also\\ limit\\ the\\ employers\\&rsquo\\;\\ discretion\\ in\\ hiring\\ and\\ firing\\ and\\ even\\ potentially\\ alter\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ pay\\ among\\ groups\\.\\ These\\ costs\\ and\\ constraints\\ can\\ lead\\ the\\ employers\\ to\\ reduce\\ employment\\,\\ output\\ and\\ sometimes\\ even\\ cease\\ their\\ operation\\ all\\ together\\.\\ So\\ the\\ question\\ which\\ comes\\ to\\ mind\\ is\\:\\ are\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ unionization\\ for\\ employers\\ large\\ or\\ small\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recent\\ data\\ from\\ US\\,\\ show\\ little\\ change\\ in\\ one\\ measure\\ of\\ union\\ power\\-\\ the\\ union\\ wage\\ premium\\.\\ Union\\ workers\\ receive\\ 15\\ percent\\ or\\ higher\\ premiums\\ over\\ demographically\\ similar\\ non\\-union\\ workers\\.\\ However\\ there\\ are\\ also\\ arguments\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 30\\ years\\,\\ the\\ union\\ power\\ in\\ US\\ has\\ been\\ on\\ the\\ decline\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ union\\ membership\\,\\ and\\ new\\ organizing\\ activity\\,\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ managerial\\ opposition\\ and\\ increased\\ use\\ of\\ permanent\\ replacement\\ workers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ two\\ important\\ problems\\ associated\\ with\\ measuring\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ unions\\.\\ One\\,\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ large\\ datasets\\ over\\ time\\ which\\ provide\\ info\\ on\\ union\\ status\\.\\ Second\\,\\ unionization\\ is\\ not\\ random\\.\\ Unions\\ may\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ organized\\ more\\ frequently\\ at\\ companies\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ successful\\,\\ or\\ a\\ union\\ organizing\\ drive\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ successful\\ if\\ the\\ firm\\ is\\ poorly\\ managed\\ and\\ the\\ employees\\ are\\ unhappy\\ with\\ the\\ management\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ US\\,\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ unions\\ must\\ be\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ rights\\ and\\ protections\\ that\\ the\\ law\\,\\ as\\ specified\\ in\\ the\\ National\\ Labor\\ Relations\\ Act\\,\\ provides\\ to\\ workers\\.\\ If\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ workers\\ gain\\ legal\\ recognition\\ as\\ provided\\ for\\ by\\ the\\ NLRA\\,\\ they\\ are\\ legally\\ protected\\ from\\ being\\ fired\\ for\\ association\\ with\\ a\\ union\\ and\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ replaced\\ under\\ certain\\ conditions\\ and\\ the\\ law\\ dictates\\ the\\ employer\\ to\\ bargain\\ with\\ the\\ union\\ in\\ good\\ faith\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ recognition\\:\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ workers\\ decide\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ union\\,\\ they\\ contact\\ a\\ labor\\ union\\ and\\ in\\ collaboration\\ with\\ them\\ they\\ begin\\ a\\ card\\ drive\\.\\ Unions\\ generally\\ seek\\ to\\ get\\ cards\\ from\\ at\\ least\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\ month\\ period\\ \\(NLRA\\ requires\\ 30\\ percent\\ only\\)\\.\\ After\\ the\\ submission\\ of\\ the\\ cards\\,\\ NLRA\\ makes\\ a\\ ruling\\ on\\ whether\\ the\\ people\\ the\\ union\\ seeks\\ to\\ represent\\ have\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ interest\\.\\ Next\\ NLRA\\ holds\\ an\\ election\\ at\\ the\\ work\\ site\\-\\ a\\ simple\\ majority\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ win\\.\\ After\\ a\\ seven\\ day\\ period\\ in\\ which\\ parties\\ can\\ object\\,\\ if\\ the\\ union\\ still\\ has\\ a\\ simple\\ majority\\ then\\ the\\ union\\ is\\ certified\\ and\\ officially\\ recognized\\.\\ In\\ practice\\,\\ employers\\ generally\\ try\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ card\\ drives\\ through\\ various\\ and\\ sometimes\\ illegal\\ tactics\\ such\\ as\\ firing\\ union\\ activists\\ or\\ holding\\ captive\\ meetings\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ inform\\ workers\\ of\\ the\\ dire\\ consequences\\ of\\ unionization\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methodology\\/Data\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ study\\ presents\\ quasi\\-experimental\\ evidence\\ on\\ the\\ causal\\ effects\\ of\\ unionization\\ on\\ employer\\/business\\ failures\\ or\\ dislocations\\,\\ employment\\,\\ output\\,\\ productivity\\,\\ and\\ wages\\ using\\ two\\ large\\ databases\\ representative\\ of\\ US\\ establishments\\ at\\ risk\\ of\\ being\\ unionized\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ dataset\\ is\\ the\\ universe\\ of\\ NLRB\\ representation\\ elections\\ held\\ between\\ 1984\\ and\\ 1992\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ one\\ is\\ the\\ universe\\ of\\ contact\\ expiration\\ notices\\ from\\ the\\ Federal\\ Mediation\\ and\\ Conciliation\\ Service\\ from\\ 1984\\-2001\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ they\\ have\\ data\\ on\\ business\\ survivorship\\,\\ employments\\ and\\ estimated\\ sales\\ volume\\ from\\ a\\ commercial\\ database\\ with\\ info\\ on\\ population\\ of\\ businesses\\ with\\ a\\ telephone\\ number\\ as\\ of\\ 2001\\ and\\ detailed\\ employment\\,\\ output\\,\\ investment\\ and\\ wage\\ information\\ from\\ Census\\ Bureau\\ on\\ manufacturing\\ establishments\\ from\\ 1974\\ to\\ 1999\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Their\\ analysis\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ most\\ unionization\\ occurs\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ secret\\ ballot\\ election\\.\\ By\\ law\\,\\ if\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ workers\\ vote\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ a\\ union\\,\\ the\\ law\\ requires\\ the\\ management\\ to\\ bargain\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ good\\ faith\\,\\ as\\ explained\\ above\\.\\ This\\ process\\ creates\\ a\\ natural\\ set\\ of\\ comparisons\\ between\\ establishments\\ that\\ faced\\ elections\\ where\\ the\\ union\\ barely\\ won\\ \\(by\\ 1\\ vote\\)\\ and\\ those\\ that\\ faced\\ elections\\ where\\ the\\ union\\ barely\\ lost\\ \\(by\\ 1\\ vote\\)\\.\\ The\\ comparison\\ is\\ made\\ between\\ near\\ winners\\ and\\ near\\ losers\\ and\\ the\\ regression\\-discontinuity\\ design\\ they\\ use\\ eliminates\\ any\\ confounding\\ or\\ omitted\\ variable\\ biases\\ in\\ the\\ results\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Results\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Barely\\ winning\\ an\\ election\\ has\\ a\\ lasting\\ impact\\ on\\ legal\\ recognition\\ of\\ the\\ union\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ measurable\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ collective\\ bargaining\\ process\\.\\ If\\ winning\\ a\\ close\\ election\\ has\\ little\\ lasting\\ impact\\ on\\ legal\\ recognition\\ status\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ clear\\ reason\\ why\\ the\\ treatment\\ \\(barely\\ winning\\ or\\ losing\\)\\ matters\\.\\ Where\\ they\\ barely\\ win\\ the\\ election\\,\\ unions\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ recognition\\ over\\ long\\ time\\ horizons\\ and\\ where\\ they\\ barely\\ lose\\,\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ evidence\\ of\\ repeated\\ attempts\\ to\\ organize\\ a\\ union\\ in\\ the\\ workplace\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ unions\\ who\\ barely\\ win\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ chance\\ of\\ securing\\ a\\ collective\\ bargaining\\ agreement\\ with\\ the\\ employer\\ as\\ the\\ groups\\ which\\ win\\ by\\ a\\ great\\ margin\\.\\ Unions\\,\\ who\\ barely\\ lose\\,\\ have\\ little\\ chance\\ for\\ signing\\ such\\ an\\ agreement\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ significant\\ impact\\ on\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ important\\ employer\\ outcomes\\.\\ Union\\ effects\\ on\\ business\\ survival\\ rate\\ are\\ very\\ small\\ \\(on\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ negative\\ 0\\.01\\-0\\.02\\ on\\ a\\ mean\\ rate\\ of\\ 0\\.4\\ over\\ 8\\ years\\)\\.\\ The\\ union\\ impacts\\ on\\ employment\\,\\ output\\,\\ and\\ productivity\\ are\\ statistically\\ significant\\ and\\ are\\ respectively\\ \\-3\\ to\\ 3\\%\\ for\\ production\\ hours\\,\\ \\-4\\ to\\ 4\\ \\%\\ for\\ output\\,\\ \\-2\\ to\\ 0\\ percent\\ for\\ output\\ per\\ worker\\ over\\ 1\\-15\\ year\\ time\\-horizons\\.\\ The\\ study\\&rsquo\\;s\\ estimates\\ for\\ union\\ wage\\ impacts\\ are\\ small\\,\\ usually\\ centered\\ on\\ 0\\.\\ Thus\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ the\\ effects\\ have\\ such\\ large\\ margins\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ effects\\ are\\ relatively\\ small\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ conclude\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ recent\\ decades\\ in\\ US\\,\\ the\\ legal\\ mandate\\ which\\ makes\\ the\\ employer\\ to\\ bargain\\ with\\ a\\ certified\\ union\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ faith\\&rdquo\\;\\ had\\ a\\ little\\ economic\\ impact\\ on\\ employers\\ because\\ unions\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ very\\ successful\\ at\\ securing\\ significant\\ wage\\ gains\\ through\\ bargaining\\.\\ The\\ small\\ wage\\ gaps\\ which\\ the\\ authors\\ find\\ go\\ against\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ the\\ previous\\ literature\\,\\ which\\ finds\\ significant\\ gaps\\ between\\ unionized\\ and\\ non\\-unionized\\ workers\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ state\\ that\\ this\\ results\\ from\\ them\\ using\\ a\\ different\\ type\\ of\\ data\\.\\ The\\ other\\ literature\\ uses\\ individual\\ level\\ household\\ survey\\ data\\ where\\ they\\ use\\ establishment\\ level\\ data\\,\\ which\\ is\\ more\\ appropriate\\ in\\ addressing\\ effects\\ of\\ unionization\\ on\\ employers\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ data\\ contains\\ info\\ about\\ recent\\ unionization\\ within\\ the\\ last\\ 20\\ years\\ while\\ most\\ other\\ dataset\\ possess\\ v\\.\\ little\\ info\\ about\\ when\\ the\\ union\\ was\\ formed\\.\\ In\\ sum\\,\\ they\\ conclude\\ that\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ unions\\ in\\ raising\\ wage\\ rates\\ is\\ exaggerated\\ because\\ most\\ unions\\ could\\ not\\ overcome\\ market\\ forces\\ that\\ tend\\ to\\ keep\\ wages\\ at\\ competitive\\ levels\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\:\\ Abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ Funding\\ of\\ Ideas\\,\\ Knowledge\\,\\ and\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Argument\\ for\\ Government\\ Funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ funds\\ things\\ like\\ science\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;knowledge\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ arts\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ viewed\\ to\\ be\\ public\\ goods\\ and\\ not\\ produced\\ at\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ level\\,\\ as\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ does\\ not\\ profit\\ by\\ providing\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ While\\ this\\ is\\ partially\\ right\\,\\ the\\ public\\ knowledge\\ funding\\ may\\ have\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\weak\\ basis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ cause\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\negative\\ externalities\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ All\\ causes\\ may\\ be\\ funded\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ important\\ ones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Potential\\ Problems\\ with\\ Attempting\\ to\\ Fund\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ The\\ standard\\ view\\ that\\ there\\ exists\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ elasticity\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ right\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\magnitude\\ of\\ underfunding\\ is\\ unclear\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Afterall\\,\\ government\\ funding\\ is\\ only\\ \\$69\\.6bil\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\$181bil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Oftentimes\\,\\ science\\ is\\ pursued\\ because\\ of\\ substantial\\ personal\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\ financial\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ benefit\\ from\\ engaging\\ in\\ research\\ \\(ex\\.\\:\\ individual\\ investigators\\ like\\ Adam\\ Smith\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Universities\\,\\ philanthropists\\,\\ and\\ private\\ companies\\ will\\ often\\ engage\\ in\\ scientific\\ research\\.\\ While\\ this\\ funding\\ may\\ not\\ produce\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ amount\\,\\ scientific\\ research\\ will\\ still\\ go\\ on\\,\\ even\\ if\\ government\\ funding\\ is\\ cut\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ The\\ argument\\ that\\ applied\\ research\\ stems\\ from\\ basic\\ research\\ is\\ not\\ true\\ in\\ every\\ case\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ cases\\ where\\ it\\ flows\\ from\\ applied\\ research\\ \\(ex\\.\\:\\ semiconductors\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ government\\ funding\\ have\\ negative\\ side\\ effects\\?\\ Is\\ there\\ a\\ relationship\\ between\\ government\\ research\\ and\\ outcomes\\ like\\ productivity\\ growth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\funding\\ often\\ reflects\\ politics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rather\\ than\\ need\\ for\\ inquiry\\ \\(ex\\.\\:\\ stem\\ cell\\ research\\,\\ environmental\\ policy\\,\\ drug\\ prohibition\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Funding\\ can\\ be\\ centralized\\ and\\ perpetuate\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bias\\ toward\\ \\&ldquo\\;big\\ science\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;through\\ pork\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Some\\ basic\\ research\\ is\\ unnecessary\\,\\ so\\ funding\\ is\\ basically\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tax\\ on\\ the\\ general\\ public\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ a\\ credit\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;smart\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ NSF\\ grant\\ applications\\ given\\ to\\ economists\\ \\=\\ IQ\\ tests\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Much\\ government\\ funding\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hand\\-out\\ to\\ private\\ companies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ avoid\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ funding\\ their\\ own\\ applied\\ research\\ programs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slippery\\ slope\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ this\\ can\\ open\\ doors\\ for\\ government\\ to\\ fund\\ all\\ sort\\ of\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Funding\\ for\\ the\\ Humanities\\ and\\ Other\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Funding\\ exists\\ for\\ the\\ humanities\\ \\(NPR\\,\\ PBS\\,\\ Center\\ for\\ Public\\ Broadcasting\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ smaller\\ as\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;benefits\\ everyone\\ without\\ capturing\\ the\\ returns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Many\\ science\\ funding\\ problems\\ exist\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ magnified\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ arts\\ funding\\ \\(politicization\\;\\ harder\\ to\\ identify\\ the\\ magnitude\\ and\\ scope\\ of\\ funding\\ and\\ easier\\ to\\ abuse\\;\\ humanities\\ can\\ survive\\ without\\ federal\\ funding\\)\\.\\ If\\ the\\ programming\\ is\\ economically\\ viable\\,\\ it\\ will\\ survive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ As\\ baseball\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ culture\\,\\ it\\ receives\\ sizable\\ subsidies\\.\\ These\\ subsidies\\ mainly\\ benefit\\ \\&ldquo\\;rich\\ businessmen\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ own\\ sports\\ teams\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Again\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\slippery\\ slope\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ if\\ we\\ fund\\ baseball\\,\\ why\\ not\\ mud\\ wrestling\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Patents\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ provide\\ sufficient\\ incentive\\ for\\ innovation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ However\\,\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gives\\ the\\ patent\\-holder\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;17\\-year\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\monopoly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(AIDS\\ drug\\ price\\-gauging\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Libertarians\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ patent\\ protection\\ is\\ not\\ critical\\,\\ as\\ companies\\ can\\ protect\\ their\\ product\\ by\\ making\\ it\\ sufficiently\\ different\\ and\\ will\\ receive\\ a\\ sizable\\ chunk\\ of\\ the\\ market\\ share\\ simply\\ by\\ being\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\:\\ There\\ are\\ reasonable\\ arguments\\ for\\ the\\ funding\\ of\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ enough\\ a\\ priori\\ reasons\\ and\\ empirical\\ realities\\ do\\ not\\ make\\ these\\ arguments\\ compelling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dohonue\\,\\ John\\ J\\.\\,\\ III\\,\\ and\\ Steven\\ D\\.\\ Levitt\\ \\(2001\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Impact\\ of\\ Legalized\\ Abortion\\ on\\ Crime\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hypothesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ legalization\\ of\\ abortions\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ is\\ a\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ reduced\\ crime\\ in\\ late\\ 1980s\\ and\\ 1990s\\.\\ Since\\ 1991\\,\\ the\\ US\\ has\\ experienced\\ the\\ sharpest\\ drop\\ in\\ murder\\ rates\\ since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Prohibition\\ in\\ 1933\\.\\ Violent\\ crime\\ and\\ property\\ crime\\ have\\ each\\ declined\\ more\\ than\\ 30\\ percent\\.\\ Crime\\ began\\ to\\ fall\\ roughly\\ eighteen\\ years\\ after\\ abortion\\ legalization\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Legalized\\ abortion\\ may\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ reduced\\ crime\\ through\\ either\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reductions\\ in\\ cohort\\ sizes\\-\\ The\\ smaller\\ cohort\\ that\\ results\\ from\\ abortion\\ legalization\\ means\\ that\\ when\\ the\\ cohort\\ reaches\\ the\\ late\\ teens\\ and\\ twenties\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ fewer\\ young\\ males\\ in\\ their\\ highest\\-crime\\ years\\ and\\ thus\\ less\\ crime\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lower\\ per\\ capita\\ offending\\ rates\\-\\ Children\\ born\\ after\\ abortion\\ legalization\\ may\\ have\\ lower\\ rates\\ of\\ criminality\\ for\\ two\\ reasons\\.\\ First\\,\\ women\\ who\\ have\\ abortions\\ are\\ those\\ most\\ at\\ risk\\ to\\ give\\ birth\\ to\\ children\\ who\\ will\\ engage\\ in\\ criminal\\ activity\\.\\ Also\\ women\\ may\\ use\\ abortions\\ to\\ optimize\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ child\\ bearing\\ and\\ thus\\ legalized\\ abortions\\ provide\\ women\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ delay\\ birth\\ until\\ conditions\\ are\\ optimal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methodology\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Donohue\\ and\\ Levitt\\ regressed\\ crime\\ rates\\ on\\ 8\\ \\&ldquo\\;Effective\\ Abortion\\ \\(EA\\)\\ Rates\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ 8\\ years\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EA\\(1997\\)\\=\\ A\\(1982\\)\\*\\(Arrest\\ rate\\ for\\ 15\\ yr\\ olds\\/\\ Total\\ arrest\\ rate\\ in\\ 1997\\)\\ \\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\(1981\\)\\*\\(Arrest\\ rate\\ for\\ 16\\ yr\\ olds\\/\\ Total\\ arrest\\ rate\\ in\\ 1997\\)\\+\\ \\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EA\\(1996\\)\\=\\ A\\(1981\\)\\*\\(Arrest\\ rate\\ for\\ 15\\ yr\\ olds\\/\\ Total\\ arrest\\ rate\\ in\\ 1996\\)\\+\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EA\\(1995\\)\\=\\ \\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Results\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Through\\ regressions\\ analysis\\,\\ they\\ showed\\ that\\ that\\ legalized\\ abortion\\ has\\ contributed\\ significantly\\ to\\ recent\\ crime\\ reductions\\.\\ The\\ five\\ states\\ that\\ allowed\\ abortion\\ in\\ 1970\\ experienced\\ declines\\ earlier\\ than\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ which\\ legalized\\ in\\ 1973\\ with\\ Roe\\ v\\.\\ Wade\\.\\ States\\ with\\ high\\ abortion\\ rates\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\ experienced\\ greater\\ crime\\ reductions\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\.\\ In\\ high\\ abortion\\ states\\,\\ only\\ arrests\\ of\\ those\\ born\\ after\\ abortion\\ legalization\\ fall\\ relative\\ to\\ low\\ abortion\\ states\\.\\ Legalized\\ abortion\\ appears\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ 50\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ recent\\ drop\\ in\\ crime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 12\\:\\ Funding\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ on\\ Government\\ Funding\\ of\\ Knowledge\\ and\\ Culture\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\ funding\\ includes\\ the\\ National\\ Science\\ Foundation\\ and\\ National\\ Institute\\ of\\ Health\\ \\(the\\ two\\ are\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ spending\\)\\ and\\ smaller\\ projects\\ like\\ the\\ National\\ Endowment\\ for\\ the\\ Arts\\,\\ the\\ Corporation\\ for\\ Public\\ Broadcasting\\ \\(NPR\\ and\\ PBS\\)\\ and\\ museums\\,\\ stadiums\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ rationale\\ for\\ spending\\:\\ Knowledge\\ is\\ public\\ good\\ so\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ under\\-funded\\ if\\ only\\ funded\\ by\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ funding\\ of\\ science\\ is\\ small\\ in\\ comparison\\ with\\ private\\ funding\\ through\\ corporations\\ or\\ private\\ universities\\ and\\ much\\ of\\ this\\ private\\ science\\ is\\ in\\ basic\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ applied\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ science\\ is\\ funded\\ without\\ the\\ hope\\ of\\ a\\ immediate\\ financial\\ award\\ \\(Galileo\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ scientists\\ often\\ get\\ side\\ job\\ such\\ as\\ being\\ a\\ professor\\ to\\ fund\\ their\\ passion\\ for\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientific\\ research\\ may\\ be\\ less\\ under\\-funded\\ by\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ than\\ expected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Costs\\ of\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ funding\\:\\ government\\ determining\\ what\\ is\\ worthy\\ science\\ is\\ dangerous\\;\\ has\\ bias\\ toward\\ funding\\ large\\ research\\ projects\\;\\ bias\\ toward\\ status\\ quo\\ science\\;\\ funding\\ is\\ simply\\ an\\ inefficient\\ transfer\\ from\\ dumb\\ taxpayers\\ to\\ smart\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ GDP\\ has\\ not\\ noticeably\\ improved\\ now\\ that\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ funds\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arts\\ and\\ humanities\\ funding\\ is\\ even\\ less\\ reasonable\\ because\\ most\\ good\\ work\\ in\\ these\\ areas\\ can\\ generate\\ substantial\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ private\\ market\\ \\(selling\\ your\\ art\\ or\\ books\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Politicization\\ is\\ also\\ worse\\ in\\ judging\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PBS\\/NPR\\ fund\\ programming\\ for\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ much\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ why\\ should\\ we\\ have\\ it\\ at\\ all\\?\\ And\\ now\\ cable\\ niche\\ channels\\ are\\ delivering\\ much\\ of\\ this\\ content\\ \\(documentaries\\,\\ histories\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ line\\ of\\ thinking\\ could\\ call\\ for\\ government\\ funding\\ of\\ all\\ entertainment\\ and\\ culture\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ baseball\\)\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patents\\ are\\ another\\ way\\ government\\ can\\ encourage\\ innovation\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ unclear\\ whether\\ they\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ net\\ incentive\\ or\\ disincentive\\ to\\ innovation\\/creativity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedman\\,\\ Milton\\ and\\ Zvi\\ Griliches\\ \\(1994\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Correspondence\\ Regarding\\ National\\ Science\\ Foundation\\ Grants\\ for\\ Economics\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Milton\\ Friedman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-National\\ Science\\ Foundation\\ has\\ done\\ harm\\ to\\ progress\\ of\\ economic\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;grantsmanship\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ writing\\ good\\ grant\\ applications\\ becomes\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ what\\ your\\ research\\ contributions\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-subjects\\ of\\ economic\\ research\\ directed\\ by\\ NSF\\ bureaucrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-stifles\\ innovation\\ in\\ new\\ types\\ of\\ research\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;peer\\ review\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-It\\ is\\ ethically\\ questionable\\ to\\ tax\\ people\\ to\\ fund\\ research\\ efforts\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ voluntarily\\ contribute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-Zvi\\ Griliches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Defends\\ peer\\ review\\ process\\ for\\ determining\\ NSF\\ funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Opposed\\ Congress\\ cutting\\ NSF\\ budget\\ for\\ economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Disagrees\\ with\\ Friedman\\ that\\ NSF\\ favors\\ mathematical\\ economic\\ research\\ and\\ that\\ benefits\\ of\\ government\\ research\\ definitely\\ do\\ not\\ outweigh\\ the\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-Laband\\,\\ Ralston\\,\\ Piette\\,\\ and\\ TOlison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-conduct\\ empirical\\ study\\ of\\ effect\\ of\\ receiving\\ NSF\\ funding\\ on\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ the\\ paper\\ is\\ cited\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;Find\\ a\\ statistically\\ significant\\ positive\\ correlation\\ between\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ a\\ paper\\ is\\ cited\\ and\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ NSF\\ funding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kealey\\,\\ Terence\\ \\(1996\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Economic\\ Laws\\ of\\ Scientific\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Case\\ against\\ Government\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\The\\ Economic\\ Laws\\ of\\ Scientific\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Terence\\ Kealey\\St\\.\\ Martin\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ New\\ York\\,\\ 1997\\382\\ pp\\,\\ paper\\ ISBN\\ 0\\-312\\-17306\\-7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reviewed\\ by\\ Frank\\ Forman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ayn\\ Rand\\ dramatized\\ the\\ case\\ against\\ government\\ funding\\ of\\ science\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Atlas\\ Shrugged\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ a\\ dramatization\\ is\\ not\\ evidence\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\,\\ according\\ to\\ standard\\ economic\\ theory\\,\\ research\\ is\\ almost\\ a\\ perfect\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ \\"\\;pure\\ public\\ good\\,\\"\\;\\ a\\ good\\ that\\ once\\ produced\\ can\\ be\\ consumed\\ by\\ all\\ without\\ any\\ possibility\\ of\\ exclusion\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ property\\-rights\\ delimitation\\.\\ Such\\ goods\\ will\\ be\\ underproduced\\ in\\ the\\ market\\,\\ since\\ the\\ producers\\ can\\ capture\\ only\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ research\\ that\\ they\\ themselves\\ use\\.\\ Rational\\ citizens\\,\\ all\\ of\\ them\\,\\ might\\ very\\ well\\ empower\\ the\\ state\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ research\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ goods\\.\\ Not\\ every\\ citizen\\ would\\ actually\\ benefit\\ from\\ each\\ good\\ so\\ provided\\,\\ but\\ under\\ a\\ well\\-designed\\ constitution\\,\\ each\\ citizen\\ would\\ presumably\\ be\\ better\\ off\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ constitutionally\\ limited\\ state\\ provision\\ of\\ public\\ goods\\ than\\ without\\ it\\.\\ This\\ would\\ mean\\ unanimity\\ of\\ agreement\\-a\\ social\\ contract\\-and\\ hence\\ no\\ initiation\\ of\\ force\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ what\\ about\\ government\\ funding\\ of\\ science\\?\\ Nearly\\ every\\ scientific\\ paper\\,\\ it\\ is\\ true\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ conclude\\ with\\ an\\ appeal\\ for\\ funds\\ for\\ \\"\\;further\\ research\\,\\"\\;\\ but\\ even\\ so\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ public\\ funding\\ is\\ accepted\\ by\\ nearly\\ everyone\\ except\\ a\\ few\\ ideological\\ extremists\\.\\ Along\\ comes\\ a\\ bombshell\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ by\\ Terence\\ Kealey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ The\\ Economic\\ Laws\\ of\\ Scientific\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ that\\ argues\\ that\\ government\\ funding\\ of\\ science\\ at\\ best\\ displaces\\ private\\ funding\\ and\\ in\\ fact\\ diverts\\ research\\ into\\ less\\ productive\\ channels\\.\\ I\\ am\\ surprised\\ that\\ this\\ book\\ has\\ not\\ gotten\\ much\\ more\\ attention\\ from\\ the\\ free\\-market\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ book\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ science\\ and\\ its\\ funding\\,\\ with\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ pages\\ per\\ century\\ increasing\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ present\\.\\ The\\ author\\ argues\\ that\\ technology\\ drives\\ science\\,\\ even\\ basic\\ science\\,\\ just\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ reverse\\,\\ which\\ is\\ awfully\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ John\\ Galt\\ and\\ his\\ motor\\.\\ Kealey\\ describes\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ several\\ engineers\\ and\\ other\\ practical\\ men\\ turned\\ scientists\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Carnot\\,\\ Torricelli\\,\\ Joule\\,\\ Pasteur\\,\\ and\\ Mendel\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ most\\ new\\ technology\\ comes\\ from\\ old\\ technology\\.\\ The\\ book\\ is\\ highly\\ instructive\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ greatly\\ entertaining\\ to\\ read\\.\\ To\\ wit\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Laissez\\-faire\\ works\\.\\ The\\ historical\\ \\(and\\ contemporary\\)\\ evidence\\ is\\ compelling\\:\\ the\\ freer\\ the\\ markets\\ and\\ the\\ lower\\ the\\ taxes\\,\\ the\\ richer\\ the\\ country\\ grows\\.\\ But\\ laissez\\-faire\\ fails\\ to\\ satisfy\\ certain\\ human\\ needs\\.\\ It\\ fails\\ the\\ politician\\,\\ who\\ craves\\ for\\ power\\;\\ it\\ fails\\ the\\ socialist\\,\\ who\\ craves\\ to\\ impose\\ equality\\ on\\ others\\;\\ it\\ fails\\ the\\ businessman\\,\\ who\\ craves\\ for\\ security\\;\\ and\\ it\\ fails\\ the\\ anally\\ fixated\\,\\ who\\ craves\\ for\\ order\\.\\ It\\ also\\ fails\\ the\\ idle\\,\\ the\\ greedy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sluttish\\,\\ who\\ crave\\ for\\ a\\ political\\ system\\ that\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ acquire\\ others\\&\\#39\\;\\ wealth\\ under\\ the\\ due\\ process\\ of\\ law\\.\\ This\\ dreadful\\ collection\\ of\\ inadequates\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ will\\ coalesce\\ on\\ dirigisme\\,\\ high\\ taxes\\ and\\ a\\ strong\\ state\\"\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 260\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ are\\ the\\ three\\ Laws\\ of\\ Funding\\ for\\ Civil\\ R\\&\\;D\\,\\ based\\ upon\\ comparing\\ different\\ countries\\ and\\ across\\ time\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;The\\ percentage\\ of\\ national\\ GDP\\ spent\\ increases\\ with\\ national\\ GDP\\ per\\ capita\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;Public\\ and\\ private\\ funding\\ displace\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;Public\\ and\\ private\\ displacements\\ are\\ not\\ equal\\:\\ public\\ funds\\ displace\\ more\\ than\\ they\\ do\\ themselves\\ provide\\"\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 245\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ funds\\ that\\ are\\ displaced\\;\\ so\\ is\\ their\\ effectiveness\\,\\ as\\ a\\ rule\\,\\ from\\ projects\\ that\\ have\\ a\\ promise\\ to\\ become\\ useful\\ to\\ those\\ that\\ only\\ keep\\ scientists\\ busy\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ many\\ wealthy\\ men\\ generously\\ fund\\ science\\ and\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ choose\\ genuine\\ innovators\\ and\\ not\\ those\\ merely\\ expert\\ in\\ filling\\ out\\ grant\\ applications\\.\\ Kealey\\ describes\\ many\\ gentleman\\ amateurs\\,\\ the\\ greatest\\ being\\ Darwin\\.\\ And\\ he\\ compares\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ medical\\ research\\ in\\ England\\ during\\ this\\ century\\ in\\ detail\\,\\ with\\ the\\ advantage\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ former\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kealey\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ businesses\\ have\\ to\\ fund\\ their\\ own\\ science\\ departments\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ would\\ rather\\ let\\ other\\ businesses\\ perform\\ the\\ research\\ and\\ free\\-ride\\ off\\ it\\:\\ it\\ takes\\ pretty\\ good\\ scientists\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ the\\ really\\ good\\ ones\\ are\\ up\\ to\\.\\ And\\ those\\ that\\ have\\ an\\ talent\\ for\\ science\\ will\\ demand\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ small\\ lab\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ perks\\ of\\ the\\ job\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Economic\\ Laws\\ of\\ Scientific\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;belongs\\ on\\ a\\ growing\\ shelf\\ of\\ books\\ about\\ the\\ general\\ futility\\ and\\ perversity\\ of\\ government\\ activity\\.\\ The\\ perversity\\ is\\ better\\ known\\:\\ we\\ all\\ know\\ about\\ Charles\\ Murray\\&\\#39\\;s\\ thesis\\ on\\ the\\ perversity\\ of\\ poverty\\ programs\\ from\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Losing\\ Ground\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Basic\\ Books\\,\\ 1984\\)\\.\\ What\\ is\\ less\\ known\\ is\\ the\\ futility\\ of\\ attempts\\ to\\ increase\\ redistribution\\ though\\ government\\.\\ Gordon\\ Tullock\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Economics\\ of\\ Income\\ Redistribution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Boston\\:\\ Kluwer\\-Nijhof\\,\\ 1983\\)\\,\\ argued\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ naturally\\ moderately\\ charitable\\ and\\ will\\ give\\ up\\ five\\ percent\\ of\\ their\\ income\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ poor\\ \\-\\ and\\ will\\ do\\ so\\ whether\\ organized\\ privately\\ or\\ collectively\\.\\ Public\\ poverty\\ programs\\ are\\ perverse\\,\\ since\\ public\\ programs\\ \\(esp\\.\\ federal\\ ones\\)\\ must\\ operate\\ under\\ bureaucratic\\ rules\\ and\\ cannot\\ distinguish\\ the\\ deserving\\ from\\ the\\ undeserving\\ poor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ similar\\ constant\\ in\\ health\\ care\\.\\ The\\ percentage\\ of\\ GDP\\ devoted\\ to\\ health\\ care\\ in\\ countries\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ solely\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ GDP\\ per\\ capita\\ and\\ is\\ independent\\ of\\ its\\ organization\\,\\ privately\\ or\\ publicly\\.\\ \\(See\\ the\\ last\\ chapter\\ of\\ Charles\\ E\\.\\ Phelps\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Health\\ Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ HarperCollins\\,\\ 1992\\)\\.\\)\\ Public\\ provision\\ of\\ health\\ care\\ is\\ futile\\,\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ increase\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ GDP\\ devoted\\ to\\ it\\.\\ It\\ is\\ perverse\\,\\ since\\ publicly\\ funded\\ health\\ care\\ suffers\\ from\\ the\\ usual\\ problems\\.\\ And\\ now\\ Kealey\\ has\\ shown\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ for\\ science\\.\\ Perversity\\,\\ yes\\ \\-\\ but\\ futility\\,\\ much\\ more\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(http\\:\\/\\/www\\.cycad\\.com\\/cgi\\-bin\\/pinc\\/apr2000\\/books\\/ff\\_govscience\\.html\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 13\\:\\ Campaign\\ Finance\\ Regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ansolabehere\\,\\ Stephen\\,\\ John\\ M\\.\\ De\\ Figueiredo\\,\\ and\\ James\\ M\\.\\ Snyder\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Why\\ is\\ There\\ so\\ Little\\ Money\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Politics\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ goal\\ of\\ this\\ paper\\ is\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ campaign\\ contributions\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ show\\ why\\ those\\ contributions\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ consumption\\ goods\\ rather\\ than\\ as\\ a\\ market\\ for\\ buying\\ political\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ evidence\\ shows\\ that\\ individuals\\ rather\\ than\\ organizations\\ are\\ by\\ far\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ source\\ of\\ campaign\\ funds\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ estimated\\ that\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ billion\\ spent\\ during\\ the\\ 1999\\-2000\\ election\\ cycle\\,\\ individuals\\ contributed\\ 2\\.4\\ billion\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ small\\ amounts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Campaign\\ contributions\\ are\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ investments\\ in\\ political\\ outcomes\\,\\ but\\ economist\\ Gordon\\ Tullock\\ then\\ asked\\ the\\ question\\,\\ why\\ is\\ there\\ so\\ little\\ money\\ in\\ US\\ politics\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\ seems\\ like\\ industries\\ are\\ investing\\ far\\ too\\ little\\ in\\ the\\ legislative\\ process\\ relative\\ to\\ how\\ important\\ public\\ policy\\ is\\ to\\ their\\ businesses\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ defense\\ contractors\\ contributed\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ 10\\.6\\ million\\ in\\ 1998\\ and\\ 13\\.2\\ million\\ in\\ 2000\\,\\ but\\ the\\ US\\ spent\\ 134\\ billion\\ on\\ defense\\ expenditures\\ in\\ 2000\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ Tullock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ puzzle\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ explanation\\ to\\ Tullock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ puzzle\\ is\\ that\\ evidence\\ showing\\ that\\ campaign\\ contributions\\ significantly\\ influence\\ the\\ voting\\ patterns\\ of\\ congressmen\\ is\\ thin\\.\\ \\ \\;Legislator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ votes\\ depend\\ primarily\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ beliefs\\ and\\ the\\ preferences\\ of\\ their\\ constituencies\\ and\\ their\\ parties\\,\\ and\\ contributions\\ explain\\ only\\ a\\ miniscule\\ fraction\\ of\\ the\\ variation\\ in\\ voting\\ patterns\\ seen\\ in\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ campaign\\ contributions\\ are\\ not\\ political\\ investments\\,\\ then\\ what\\ are\\ they\\?\\ \\ \\;The\\ authors\\ argue\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ give\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ ideological\\,\\ excited\\ by\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ an\\ election\\,\\ and\\ have\\ the\\ means\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ giving\\ to\\ campaigns\\ is\\ economically\\ equivalent\\ to\\ giving\\ to\\ charities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ models\\ suggest\\ that\\ such\\ giving\\ is\\ a\\ normal\\ good\\ and\\ should\\ thus\\ increase\\ as\\ income\\ increases\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\,\\ evidence\\ shows\\ that\\ campaign\\ contributions\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ correlated\\ with\\ the\\ levels\\ of\\ personal\\ income\\ than\\ with\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ government\\ expenditures\\,\\ which\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ case\\ if\\ contributions\\ were\\ being\\ used\\ as\\ political\\ investments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ evidence\\ shows\\ that\\ individuals\\ give\\ the\\ average\\ and\\ marginal\\ dollar\\ in\\ campaigns\\,\\ a\\ fact\\ that\\ runs\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ fundamental\\ assumption\\ of\\ all\\ investor\\ models\\ of\\ politics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ politicians\\ rely\\ principally\\ on\\ interests\\ groups\\ and\\ large\\ individual\\ donors\\ for\\ their\\ campaign\\ funds\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ accurate\\ view\\ of\\ political\\ giving\\ must\\ thus\\ place\\ the\\ small\\ individual\\ contributor\\,\\ whose\\ motivations\\ reflect\\ the\\ consumption\\ value\\ of\\ giving\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ potential\\ return\\ on\\ investment\\,\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ campaign\\ finance\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smith\\,\\ Bradley\\ \\(1996\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Faulty\\ Assumptions\\ and\\ Undemocratic\\ Consequences\\ of\\ Campaign\\ Finance\\ Reform\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ last\\ 25\\ years\\ has\\ seen\\ strong\\ demand\\ for\\ campaign\\ finance\\ reform\\ from\\ legal\\ scholars\\ and\\ the\\ public\\.\\ \\ \\;Motivation\\ for\\ reform\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ perception\\ of\\ political\\ \\"\\;corruption\\"\\;\\ and\\ a\\ more\\ general\\ interest\\ in\\ political\\ equality\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ essay\\ argues\\ that\\ reform\\ scholarship\\ suffers\\ from\\ a\\ faulty\\ assumption\\ about\\ the\\ causes\\ and\\ effects\\ of\\ political\\ corruption\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ campaign\\ finance\\ regulation\\ is\\ itself\\ in\\ conflict\\ with\\ equality\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ undemocratic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\ \\;Brief\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ financing\\ and\\ regulation\\ of\\ american\\ campaigns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Corporate\\ political\\ participation\\ came\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ increasing\\ federal\\ and\\ state\\ regulatory\\ powers\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\ \\(ICC\\,\\ Sherman\\ Anti\\-Trust\\ Act\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Theretofore\\ campaigns\\ were\\ financed\\ either\\ by\\ the\\ individuals\\ themselves\\ \\(in\\ the\\ early\\ history\\ of\\ America\\)\\ or\\,\\ after\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ \\"\\;mass\\ parties\\"\\;\\,\\ by\\ funding\\ from\\ the\\ party\\ \\(which\\ in\\ turn\\ only\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ sources\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Corporate\\ involvement\\ became\\ very\\ influential\\ very\\ quickly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ in\\ 1888\\,\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\&\\#39\\;s\\ national\\ campaign\\ funds\\ came\\ from\\ corporations\\,\\ and\\ 73\\%\\ of\\ Teddy\\ Roosevelt\\&\\#39\\;s\\ campaign\\ was\\ funded\\ by\\ corporations\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1904\\,\\ about\\ three\\-quarters\\ of\\ the\\ Democrats\\&\\#39\\;\\ presidential\\ campaign\\ funding\\ came\\ from\\ two\\ wealthy\\ businessmen\\ \\(this\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ year\\ that\\ Teddy\\ ran\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ some\\ state\\ response\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ but\\ nothing\\ dramatic\\-\\-most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ corporations\\ were\\ required\\ to\\ disclose\\ campaign\\ contributions\\ and\\ expenditures\\.\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ involvement\\ began\\ around\\ 1907\\,\\ but\\ the\\ next\\ six\\ decades\\ saw\\ relatively\\ weak\\ regulation\\.\\.\\.\\ until\\ 1974\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ 1974\\ regulations\\ existed\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ until\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unfortunately\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ money\\ is\\ somehow\\ influencing\\ modern\\ day\\ elections\\ more\\ than\\ it\\ did\\,\\ say\\,\\ 200\\ years\\ ago\\ is\\ unwarranted\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ time\\ immemorial\\ \\(or\\ at\\ least\\ close\\)\\,\\ small\\ special\\ interest\\ groups\\ have\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ candidate\\ that\\ helps\\ their\\ agenda\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ hope\\ that\\ the\\ examples\\ above\\ show\\ that\\ present\\-day\\ individual\\ corporations\\ make\\ up\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ \\(if\\ not\\ less\\)\\ percentage\\ of\\ overall\\ corporate\\ donations\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ though\\ \\"\\;crisis\\"\\;\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ fun\\ buzzword\\,\\ there\\ really\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\ \\;Faulty\\ Assumptions\\ of\\ campaign\\ finance\\ reformers\\ Four\\ general\\ assumptions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Too\\ much\\ money\\ spent\\ in\\ campaigns\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Campaigns\\ run\\ on\\ small\\ contributions\\ are\\ somehow\\ more\\ democratic\\ than\\ those\\ run\\ on\\ large\\ contributions\\;\\ Money\\ buys\\ elections\\ \\(probably\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ that\\ is\\ detrimental\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ good\\)\\;\\ Money\\ is\\ a\\ corrupting\\ influence\\ on\\ the\\ legislature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\,\\ is\\ there\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ not\\ enough\\ money\\ is\\ spent\\ on\\ campaigns\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ guessing\\ that\\ there\\ is\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;Yes\\,\\ there\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;Compared\\ to\\ what\\?\\ \\ \\;We\\ spent\\ two\\ times\\ as\\ much\\ per\\ year\\ on\\ yogurt\\ than\\ on\\ campaigns\\.\\ \\ \\;Makes\\ you\\ think\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ Proctor\\ and\\ Gamble\\ and\\ Phillip\\ Morris\\ combined\\ spent\\ as\\ much\\ on\\ advertising\\ than\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ campaign\\ expenditures\\,\\ federal\\ and\\ state\\,\\ in\\ a\\ two\\-year\\ cycle\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\ more\\ money\\ spent\\ on\\ campaigning\\ presumably\\ contributes\\ to\\ whatever\\ extent\\ to\\ a\\ better\\-informed\\ electorate\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ it\\ is\\ unclear\\ that\\ restraining\\ spending\\ would\\ mitigate\\ negative\\ campaigns\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ seems\\ that\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ well\\-produced\\ negative\\ campaigns\\ would\\ become\\ more\\ important\\ if\\ spending\\ is\\ limited\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ sum\\,\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ spending\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ \\$10\\ per\\ person\\ on\\ every\\ campaign\\ \\(federal\\,\\ state\\,\\ local\\)\\ combined\\ constitutes\\ too\\ much\\ spending\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ think\\ the\\ second\\ assumption\\ really\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ addressed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ assumption\\ suffers\\ from\\ statistical\\ vaguery\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ off\\,\\ somebody\\ who\\ spends\\ little\\ on\\ a\\ campaign\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ win\\.\\ \\ \\;Secondly\\,\\ more\\ funds\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ more\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ public\\ \\(or\\ vice\\ versa\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ just\\ a\\ correlation\\ there\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Third\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ examples\\ at\\ the\\ federal\\ level\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ spent\\ a\\ fraction\\ \\(on\\ average\\,\\ 2\\/3\\)\\ on\\ campaigning\\ and\\ won\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ even\\ one\\ fellow\\ who\\ spent\\ 1\\/20\\ and\\ won\\!\\ \\ \\;Hot\\ damn\\!\\ \\ \\;Basically\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ correlation\\ there\\.\\.\\.\\ but\\ whatcha\\ gonna\\ do\\ with\\ it\\,\\ small\\ timer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fourth\\ might\\ seem\\ like\\ a\\ trump\\ card\\,\\ but\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ basically\\ an\\ intuition\\.\\ \\ \\;Trust\\ me\\ when\\ I\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ math\\ has\\ been\\ done\\,\\ and\\ contributions\\ rarely\\ ever\\ affect\\ votes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ money\\ follows\\ who\\&\\#39\\;s\\ going\\ to\\ vote\\ for\\ what\\,\\ not\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ please\\ try\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ politicians\\ are\\ strong\\,\\ strong\\ people\\,\\ with\\ strong\\,\\ unwavering\\ opinions\\ on\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;Actually\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ probably\\ the\\ case\\ that\\ politicians\\ care\\ more\\ about\\ their\\ household\\ constituency\\ than\\ their\\ corporate\\ constituency\\,\\ and\\ when\\ corporate\\ spending\\ is\\ successful\\ in\\ passing\\/destroying\\ legislation\\ \\(which\\ it\\ is\\ usually\\ not\\)\\,\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ generally\\ with\\ issues\\ that\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ really\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ seriously\\,\\ there\\ really\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ a\\ causation\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Undemocratic\\ consequences\\ of\\ campaign\\ finance\\ reform\\ Reform\\ focuses\\ on\\ three\\ specific\\ tactics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limiting\\ contributions\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limiting\\ spending\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ultimately\\,\\ using\\ public\\ funding\\ for\\ campaigns\\ \\(I\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ really\\ aware\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ possibility\\-\\-talk\\ about\\ a\\ sick\\ joke\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ side\\ effects\\ of\\ these\\ tactics\\ are\\ pretty\\ easy\\ to\\ surmise\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Campaign\\ finance\\ reform\\ entrenches\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ see\\.\\ \\ \\;Incumbents\\ have\\ a\\ decided\\ advantage\\ when\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ hard\\ for\\ challengers\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ appropriate\\ funds\\.\\ \\ \\;PACs\\ almost\\ always\\ contribute\\ to\\ incumbents\\.\\ \\ \\;Incumbents\\ have\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ advantages\\ ranging\\ from\\ name\\ recognition\\ to\\ sending\\ postage\\-free\\ mail\\ via\\ the\\ \\"\\;franking\\ privilege\\"\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Regulation\\ lowers\\ overall\\ spending\\,\\ which\\ is\\ good\\ news\\ for\\ those\\ already\\ in\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ benefits\\ of\\ spending\\ are\\ significantly\\ greater\\ for\\ a\\ challenger\\ than\\ for\\ an\\ incumbent\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ know\\ what\\ some\\ of\\ you\\ are\\ thinking\\:\\ just\\ set\\ an\\ appropriate\\ spending\\ limit\\,\\ right\\?\\ \\ \\;Where\\ you\\ gonna\\ put\\ it\\,\\ huh\\?\\ \\ \\;Where\\ you\\ gonna\\ put\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;That\\&\\#39\\;s\\ what\\ I\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Campaign\\ finance\\ reform\\ promotes\\ influence\\ peddling\\ and\\ reduces\\ accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Contribution\\ limits\\ encourage\\ contributors\\ to\\ further\\ seek\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ legislative\\ process\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ electoral\\ process\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Blah\\ blah\\ blah\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\this\\ might\\ even\\ lead\\ to\\ bribery\\ in\\ the\\ worst\\ cases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.F\\.R\\.\\ favors\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Money\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ everything\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ targeting\\ money\\ is\\ just\\ going\\ to\\ empower\\ other\\ elites\\ \\(examples\\:\\ hollywood\\,\\ influential\\ academics\\,\\ really\\,\\ really\\ good\\ looking\\ people\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\ target\\ somebody\\ who\\ is\\ good\\ at\\ being\\ an\\ entrepreneur\\ to\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ somebody\\ who\\ is\\ good\\ at\\ being\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ a\\ large\\ labor\\ organization\\?\\ \\ \\;My\\ influence\\ comes\\ from\\ money\\,\\ your\\ influence\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ media\\.\\ \\ \\;Am\\ I\\ really\\ that\\ bad\\ a\\ person\\?\\ \\ \\;I\\ think\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ argument\\ so\\ far\\ against\\ CFR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Campaign\\ Finance\\ Limitation\\ favor\\ wealthy\\ candidates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Self\\-evident\\ when\\ we\\ consider\\ that\\ the\\ Buckley\\ decision\\ rules\\ out\\ limitations\\ on\\ personal\\ spending\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CFR\\ favors\\ special\\ interests\\ over\\ grassroots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Also\\ self\\-evident\\.\\ \\ \\;Almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ you\\&\\#39\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ spend\\ your\\ money\\ where\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ most\\ bang\\-for\\-the\\-buck\\.\\ \\ \\;Farmers\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Townsfolk\\?\\ \\ \\;Get\\ real\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ awesome\\ problem\\ that\\ with\\ CF\\ regulations\\,\\ as\\ with\\ many\\ other\\ such\\ regulations\\,\\ there\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ get\\ around\\ the\\ rules\\ if\\ you\\ know\\ the\\ game\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ it\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ the\\ small\\-timers\\ who\\ know\\ the\\ game\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ the\\ big\\-timers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ really\\ big\\-timers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ comments\\ on\\ public\\ funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Just\\ thinking\\ about\\ this\\ makes\\ me\\ sick\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ not\\ even\\ going\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ it\\,\\ and\\ I\\ think\\ I\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ written\\ enough\\ already\\.\\ \\ \\;Sorry\\ for\\ any\\ typos\\-\\-I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ writing\\ this\\ on\\ my\\ roommate\\&\\#39\\;s\\ laptop\\ and\\ the\\ keyboard\\ is\\ really\\ small\\ and\\ laptoppy\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ luck\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 14\\:\\ Medical\\ Care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 15\\:\\ Alleviating\\ Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Feldstein\\,\\ Martin\\ \\(1998\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Income\\ Inequality\\ and\\ Poverty\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ part\\ argues\\ income\\ inequality\\ is\\ in\\ no\\ need\\ of\\ remedy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ real\\ problem\\ is\\ not\\ inequality\\ but\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ sources\\ of\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unemployment\\,\\ low\\ level\\ of\\ earning\\ capacity\\,\\ and\\ individual\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supports\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ pareto\\ principle\\ \\(a\\ change\\ is\\ good\\ if\\ it\\ makes\\ someone\\ better\\ off\\ without\\ making\\ anyone\\ else\\ worse\\ off\\)\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ more\\ money\\ to\\ the\\ richer\\ without\\ taking\\ money\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ poor\\ is\\ making\\ someone\\ better\\ off\\ without\\ making\\ someone\\ else\\ worse\\ off\\-\\ though\\ it\\ increases\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ in\\ incomes\\ because\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increased\\ productivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entrepreneurial\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ work\\ by\\ high\\ wage\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lower\\ costs\\ of\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ rise\\ in\\ income\\ is\\ good\\,\\ because\\ it\\ makes\\ these\\ people\\ better\\ off\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ those\\ not\\ getting\\ a\\ higher\\ income\\ worse\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poverty\\ as\\ the\\ real\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Measuring\\ poverty\\ is\\ very\\ misleading\\ and\\ difficult\\ \\(cash\\ income\\ as\\ a\\ misldeading\\ indicator\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difficulty\\ in\\ measuring\\ cost\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inability\\ to\\ earn\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ very\\ low\\ wage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inadequate\\ schooling\\ or\\ training\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ also\\ low\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ \\(IQ\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ choice\\ leads\\ to\\ poverty\\ as\\ well\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ people\\ just\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Better\\ non\\-monetary\\ policies\\ may\\ help\\ to\\ reduce\\ poverty\\ and\\ alleviate\\ its\\ long\\-term\\ intergenerational\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ poverty\\ cannot\\ be\\ solved\\ by\\ monetary\\ policy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nechyba\\,\\ Thomas\\ J\\.\\ \\(2001\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Social\\ Approval\\,\\ Values\\,\\ and\\ AFDC\\:\\ A\\ Re\\-Examination\\ of\\ the\\ Illegitimacy\\ Debate\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ provides\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ models\\ that\\ describe\\ a\\ scenario\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ AFDC\\ \\(Aid\\ to\\ Families\\ with\\ Dependent\\ Children\\)\\ could\\ initiate\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ illegitimacy\\ but\\ also\\ that\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ AFDC\\ would\\ not\\ necessarily\\ stop\\ rising\\ illegitimacy\\ rates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ past\\ 40\\+\\ years\\,\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ illegitimate\\ children\\ has\\ risen\\ significantly\\ and\\ likewise\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ female\\-headed\\ households\\ has\\ risen\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ debate\\ among\\ conservatives\\ and\\ liberals\\ as\\ to\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ AFDC\\ is\\ to\\ blame\\ for\\ this\\ increase\\ and\\ also\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ AFDC\\ is\\ an\\ effective\\ solution\\.\\ \\ \\;Conservatives\\ believe\\ that\\ AFDC\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ rise\\ in\\ illegitimacy\\ rates\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ provides\\ an\\ incentive\\ for\\ poor\\,\\ single\\ women\\ to\\ have\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ receive\\ monetary\\ compensation\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ incentive\\ encourages\\ fertility\\ and\\ divorce\\ and\\ discourages\\ marriage\\ thus\\ breaking\\ down\\ the\\ familial\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ has\\ shown\\ that\\ increased\\ illegitimacy\\ is\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ welfare\\ populations\\;\\ illegitimacy\\ has\\ also\\ risen\\ among\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ eligible\\ to\\ receive\\ aid\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ though\\ real\\ wages\\ paid\\ by\\ AFDC\\ have\\ declined\\,\\ illegitimacy\\ has\\ continued\\ to\\ rise\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ monetary\\ incentive\\ and\\ illegitimacy\\ is\\ inconclusive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nechyba\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ rational\\ choice\\ theory\\ used\\ to\\ attempt\\ to\\ model\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ the\\ ADFC\\ and\\ illegitimacy\\ rates\\ has\\,\\ thus\\ far\\,\\ been\\ incomplete\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ introduces\\ a\\ social\\ element\\ in\\ which\\ social\\ acceptance\\ of\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ births\\ increases\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ in\\ which\\ women\\ with\\ nothing\\ to\\ gain\\ financially\\,\\ still\\ gain\\ utility\\ from\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ argument\\ goes\\ basically\\ that\\ \\(so\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ stigma\\ of\\ having\\ an\\ illegitimate\\ child\\ is\\ not\\ above\\ some\\ critical\\ level\\)\\ once\\ AFDC\\ is\\ introduced\\,\\ it\\ provides\\ incentive\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ have\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ women\\ do\\ this\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ more\\ socially\\ acceptable\\ to\\ have\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\ until\\ it\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ child\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ serves\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ even\\ though\\ real\\ wages\\ paid\\ by\\ AFDC\\ have\\ been\\ declining\\,\\ illegitimacy\\ has\\ continued\\ to\\ rise\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ also\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ theory\\ that\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ AFDC\\ would\\ not\\ permanently\\ reduce\\ illegitimacy\\.\\ This\\ phenomenon\\ can\\ be\\ contained\\ within\\ communities\\:\\ for\\ example\\,\\ within\\ Harlem\\ this\\ effect\\ may\\ be\\ great\\ but\\ may\\ not\\ cause\\ a\\ wealthy\\ Long\\ Island\\ community\\ to\\ have\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ assuming\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ spillover\\ between\\ communities\\ then\\ this\\ model\\ can\\ explain\\ why\\ illegitimacy\\ has\\ risen\\ in\\ poor\\ communities\\ and\\ the\\ population\\ at\\ large\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ model\\ primarily\\ discusses\\ the\\ choice\\ of\\ women\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ child\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ child\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ paper\\ also\\ discusses\\ the\\ choice\\ between\\ being\\ married\\ and\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ and\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ alone\\.\\ \\ \\;Marriage\\ presumably\\ removes\\ the\\ stigma\\ of\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\ and\\ is\\ thus\\ advantageous\\,\\ but\\ assuming\\ there\\ is\\ cost\\ of\\ marriage\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ negative\\ effect\\ on\\ utility\\ due\\ to\\ decreased\\ leisure\\,\\ than\\ the\\ results\\ would\\ be\\ much\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ introduction\\ of\\ AFDC\\ initially\\ causes\\ incentives\\ for\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ birth\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ greater\\ social\\ acceptance\\ for\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ having\\ illegitimate\\ children\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ rational\\ to\\ choose\\ an\\ illegitimate\\ birth\\ over\\ a\\ married\\ birth\\ because\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ cost\\ associated\\ with\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ conclusion\\,\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ AFDC\\ may\\ set\\ in\\ motion\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ events\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ high\\ illegitimacy\\ rates\\,\\ but\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ removal\\ \\(gradual\\ or\\ immediate\\)\\ may\\ not\\ significantly\\ or\\ permanently\\ reduce\\ illegitimacy\\ rates\\.\\ \\ \\;Below\\ I\\ have\\ copied\\ nearly\\ exactly\\ excerpts\\ from\\ the\\ paper\\ that\\ outline\\ the\\ argument\\ perhaps\\ more\\ clearly\\ than\\ I\\ have\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ also\\ several\\ graphs\\ and\\ models\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\ that\\ illustrate\\ this\\ theory\\ but\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ are\\ essential\\ to\\ conveying\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excerpts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ three\\ decades\\ following\\ 1960\\,\\ illegitimate\\ births\\ as\\ a\\ percentage\\ of\\ total\\ live\\ births\\ rose\\ from\\ below\\ 5\\ percent\\ to\\ over\\ 30\\ percent\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fraction\\ of\\ households\\ headed\\ by\\ females\\ rose\\ similarly\\ from\\ 7\\ percent\\ to\\ well\\ over\\ 20\\ percent\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\ close\\ to\\ one\\ third\\ of\\ all\\ births\\ nationwide\\,\\ approximately\\ two\\ thirds\\ of\\ black\\ births\\,\\ and\\ as\\ many\\ as\\ 80\\ percent\\ of\\ births\\ in\\ some\\ central\\ cities\\ occur\\ to\\ single\\ mothers\\.\\ \\ \\;Children\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ poverty\\ than\\ members\\ of\\ any\\ other\\ age\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;Given\\ the\\ strong\\ link\\ between\\ socioeconomic\\ background\\ during\\ childhood\\ and\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ indicators\\ of\\ future\\ success\\,\\ these\\ trends\\ are\\ disturbing\\ to\\ policy\\ makers\\ interested\\ in\\ reforming\\ welfare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ set\\ of\\ policy\\ initiatives\\ involves\\ either\\ eliminating\\ long\\-standing\\ social\\ programs\\ that\\ assist\\ single\\ mothers\\ or\\ altering\\ their\\ incentive\\ structures\\ dramatically\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ arises\\ from\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ US\\ social\\ policy\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ significant\\ contributing\\ factor\\ to\\ increased\\ illegitimacy\\ and\\ decreased\\ family\\ formation\\,\\ a\\ notion\\ that\\ is\\ widely\\ discussed\\ in\\ literature\\ and\\ broadly\\ supported\\ by\\ rational\\ choice\\ theory\\.\\ Becker\\ \\(1991\\)\\ suggests\\ that\\ a\\ program\\ such\\ as\\ Aid\\ to\\ Families\\ with\\ Dependent\\ Children\\ \\(AFDC\\)\\ raises\\ the\\ fertility\\ of\\ eligible\\ women\\,\\ including\\ single\\ women\\,\\ and\\ also\\ encourages\\ divorce\\ and\\ discourages\\ marriage\\ \\(p\\.\\ 357\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Murray\\ \\(1984\\)\\ argues\\ that\\ such\\ programs\\ lie\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ social\\ disintegration\\ among\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ now\\ defunct\\ AFDC\\ program\\ was\\ particularly\\ targeted\\ because\\ in\\ most\\ cases\\ eligibility\\ required\\ both\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ dependent\\ child\\ and\\ the\\ incapacitation\\ or\\ absence\\ of\\ one\\ parent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ at\\ least\\ three\\ factors\\ that\\ raise\\ doubt\\ about\\ this\\ link\\ between\\ illegitimacy\\ and\\ AFDC\\ suggested\\ by\\ rational\\ choice\\ theory\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ While\\ illegitimacy\\ and\\ increased\\ family\\ dissolution\\ are\\ indeed\\ significantly\\ more\\ prominent\\ among\\ those\\ eligible\\ for\\ public\\ assistance\\,\\ these\\ phenomena\\ are\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ restricted\\ to\\ welfare\\ populations\\.\\ 2\\)\\ Despite\\ declines\\ in\\ real\\ levels\\ of\\ AFDC\\ benefits\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 2\\.5\\ decades\\,\\ illegitimacy\\ has\\ been\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\ \\(until\\ recently\\)\\ among\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ the\\ population\\ at\\ large\\.\\ 3\\)\\ Much\\ of\\ the\\ long\\ empirical\\ literature\\ linking\\ AFDC\\ to\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ births\\ tends\\ to\\ confirm\\ this\\ skepticism\\ in\\ that\\ its\\ results\\ have\\ been\\ largely\\ inconclusive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ paper\\ extends\\ the\\ rational\\ choice\\ framework\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ many\\ who\\ have\\ criticized\\ US\\ social\\ policy\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ in\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ new\\ argument\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ approval\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ introduced\\,\\ an\\ argument\\ that\\ is\\ exogenous\\ for\\ individuals\\ but\\ is\\ determined\\ endogenously\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ all\\ individual\\ behavior\\ in\\ past\\ generations\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ births\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ determines\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ social\\ approval\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ those\\ choosing\\ to\\ become\\ single\\ mothers\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ exogenous\\ shocks\\ such\\ as\\ AFDC\\,\\ changes\\ in\\ individual\\ behavior\\ today\\ therefore\\ influence\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ social\\ approval\\ tomorrow\\ which\\ may\\ further\\ change\\ individual\\ behavior\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\ further\\ influence\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ social\\ approval\\ tomorrow\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ may\\ further\\ change\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ social\\ approval\\ and\\ the\\ consequent\\ implications\\ in\\ the\\ distant\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ it\\ is\\ demonstrated\\ that\\,\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ role\\ for\\ social\\ approval\\ or\\ stigma\\,\\ the\\ rising\\ illegitimacy\\ accompanied\\ by\\ declining\\ real\\ AFDC\\ benefits\\ is\\ eminently\\ plausible\\,\\ as\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;spillover\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ illegitimacy\\ from\\ the\\ AFDC\\ population\\ into\\ the\\ population\\ at\\ large\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ model\\ predicts\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\ financial\\ incentives\\ embed\\ in\\ AFDC\\ can\\ become\\ quite\\ secondary\\ once\\ values\\ have\\ changed\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ births\\ become\\ sufficiently\\ desirable\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ time\\ and\\ state\\ effects\\ can\\ dominate\\ even\\ if\\ financial\\ factors\\ are\\ initially\\ the\\ only\\ consideration\\ motivating\\ women\\ to\\ choose\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ births\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ desirability\\ of\\ having\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ children\\ is\\ determined\\ in\\ considerable\\ part\\ by\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ others\\ who\\ have\\ had\\ children\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ the\\ behavioral\\ effects\\ of\\ introducing\\ a\\ cash\\ assistance\\ program\\ that\\ only\\ single\\ mothers\\ are\\ eligible\\ for\\ can\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ grow\\ with\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ models\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ it\\ becomes\\ evident\\ that\\ AFDC\\,\\ while\\ setting\\ off\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ illegitimacy\\,\\ becomes\\ an\\ increasingly\\ minor\\ factor\\ in\\ the\\ decision\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ birth\\ as\\ one\\ approaches\\ a\\ new\\ steady\\ state\\,\\ with\\ over\\ 90\\ percent\\ of\\ those\\ having\\ such\\ births\\ eventually\\ not\\ altering\\ their\\ choice\\ even\\ if\\ AFDC\\ were\\ eliminated\\ entirely\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ illegitimacy\\ set\\ off\\ by\\ AFDC\\ spills\\ over\\ into\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ population\\,\\ and\\ those\\ on\\ welfare\\ increasingly\\ are\\ not\\ having\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ births\\ primarily\\ to\\ qualify\\ for\\ welfare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ stigma\\ of\\ having\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ childbirths\\ is\\ high\\,\\ then\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ AFDC\\ cannot\\ alter\\ social\\ values\\ permanently\\ unless\\ AFDC\\ is\\ implemented\\ indefinitely\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ steady\\ state\\ would\\ return\\ to\\ zero\\ after\\ AFDC\\ is\\ removed\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ stigma\\ is\\ lower\\ but\\ still\\ substantial\\ than\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ AFDC\\ could\\ cause\\ out\\-of\\-wedlock\\ births\\ to\\ rise\\ to\\ a\\ high\\ steady\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 16\\:\\ Stabilization\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 17\\:\\ Miscellaneous\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 18\\:\\ National\\ Defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 18\\:\\ Monetary\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedman\\,\\ Milton\\ \\(1953\\)\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Effect\\ of\\ Full\\-Employment\\ Policy\\ on\\ Economic\\ Stability\\,\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ was\\ very\\ technical\\ with\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ complicated\\ math\\ involved\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ model\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ basic\\ idea\\.\\.\\.\\\\\\-\\ Full\\ employment\\ policy\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ mean\\ adoption\\ by\\ government\\ of\\ a\\ high\\ and\\ stable\\ level\\ of\\ employment\\ as\\ a\\ leading\\ policy\\ objective\\.\\ Deliberate\\ actions\\ to\\ promote\\ this\\ objective\\ taken\\ from\\ time\\ to\\ time\\ to\\ add\\ or\\ subtract\\ from\\ aggregate\\ money\\ demand\\ for\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\.Govt\\ actions\\ to\\ attain\\ stability\\,\\ however\\,\\ might\\ actually\\ increase\\ instability\\.\\ \\\\-\\ Proponents\\ of\\ full\\-employment\\ policy\\ seem\\ to\\ take\\ for\\ granted\\ that\\ a\\ full\\-employment\\ policy\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ destabilizing\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ policy\\.\\a\\)\\ This\\ model\\,\\ takes\\ investment\\(I\\)\\ as\\ given\\ by\\ external\\ circumstances\\ and\\ unaffected\\ by\\ govt\\ action\\,\\ consumption\\ as\\ determined\\ by\\ current\\ income\\ \\(Y\\)\\,\\ and\\ current\\ income\\ as\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ investment\\,\\ consumption\\ \\(C\\)\\ and\\ govt\\.\\ expenditure\\ \\(G\\)\\.\\ It\\ neglects\\ price\\ movements\\.\\Y\\=\\ C\\ \\+\\ I\\ \\+\\ G\\b\\)\\ Increased\\ G\\ adds\\ to\\ Y\\ directly\\,\\ stimulates\\ C\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ further\\ Y\\ through\\ the\\ C\\ multiplier\\.\\ The\\ system\\ has\\ no\\ lags\\.\\ This\\ implies\\ that\\ for\\ each\\ time\\ unit\\ a\\ particular\\ value\\ of\\ real\\ govt\\ expenditure\\,\\ and\\ a\\ minimum\\ value\\ of\\ money\\ govt\\ expenditure\\,\\ that\\ would\\ produce\\ full\\ employment\\,\\ and\\ these\\ values\\ do\\ not\\ depend\\ on\\ what\\ has\\ occured\\ in\\ preceding\\ time\\ units\\.\\ Fluctuations\\ in\\ I\\ can\\ be\\ offset\\ by\\ appropriate\\ G\\.\\ This\\ also\\ assumes\\ that\\ G\\ can\\ be\\ altered\\ without\\ significant\\ lag\\-\\ so\\ that\\ these\\ fluctuations\\ can\\ be\\ produced\\ by\\ deliberate\\ action\\.\\ In\\ any\\ period\\ that\\ Y\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ full\\ employment\\,\\ G\\ can\\ be\\ increased\\.\\c\\)\\ This\\ model\\ does\\ not\\ provide\\ theory\\ of\\ cyclical\\ fluctuations\\.\\ But\\ optimum\\ action\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ produces\\ stability\\ of\\ income\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ in\\ the\\ model\\ to\\ indicate\\ that\\ this\\ result\\ is\\ incapable\\ of\\ attainment\\ or\\ that\\ it\\ requires\\ knowledge\\ unavailable\\.\\ \\\\-\\ Opponents\\ attack\\ full\\ employment\\ policies\\ not\\ on\\ the\\ grounds\\ of\\ instability\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ on\\ the\\ grounds\\ that\\ such\\ policies\\ would\\ strengthen\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ threaten\\ political\\ freedom\\,\\ or\\ would\\ reduce\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ progress\\,\\ or\\ would\\ strengthen\\ the\\ pressure\\ groups\\ and\\ promote\\ inflation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedman\\,\\ Milton\\ \\(1953\\)\\,\\ \\"\\;A\\ Monetary\\ and\\ Fiscal\\ Framework\\ for\\ Economic\\ Stability\\,\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Effects\\ of\\ a\\ Full\\-Employment\\ Policy\\ on\\ Economic\\ Stability\\:\\ A\\ formal\\ Analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Everyone\\ touts\\ a\\ full\\ employment\\ policy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ high\\ and\\ stable\\ employment\\ is\\ a\\ leading\\ policy\\ agenda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ the\\ policies\\ are\\ generally\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ direction\\ and\\ smaller\\ than\\ the\\ fluctuations\\ they\\ are\\ designed\\ to\\ offset\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;but\\ since\\ they\\ are\\ counter\\-cyclical\\,\\ they\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ destabilizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Old\\ model\\ Y\\=C\\+I\\+G\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\=consumption\\,\\ y\\=income\\,\\ I\\=investment\\,\\ G\\=government\\ expenditure\\ on\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ include\\ time\\ lags\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increase\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\$\\ expenditure\\ \\(G\\)\\ by\\ lowering\\ tax\\ or\\ spending\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ principle\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ government\\ does\\ not\\ spend\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ amount\\ necessary\\ to\\ produce\\ full\\ employment\\ it\\ can\\ do\\ no\\ harm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inadequate\\ bc\\ no\\ theory\\ of\\ cyclical\\ fluctuations\\,\\ fluctuations\\ in\\ investment\\,\\ lagged\\ reactions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\X\\(T\\)\\=income\\ at\\ time\\ t\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ specified\\ full\\-employment\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\(T\\)\\ \\=\\ the\\ amount\\ added\\ or\\ subtracted\\ from\\ X\\(t\\)\\ so\\ z\\(t\\)\\=x\\(t\\)\\+y\\(t\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\(t\\)\\ does\\ not\\ measure\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ countercyclical\\ action\\ at\\ time\\ t\\ may\\ reflect\\ previous\\ activity\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ variance\\ \\(std\\.\\ dev\\.\\ squared\\)\\ \\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\z\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\+\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\y\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\2r\\<\\/span\\>\\xy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\y\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\r\\<\\/span\\>\\xy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ correlation\\ coefficient\\ b\\/w\\ x\\ and\\ y\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ countercyclical\\ policy\\ were\\ always\\ timed\\ and\\ proportioned\\ correctly\\ x\\ and\\ y\\ would\\ be\\ perfectly\\ negatively\\ correlated\\ and\\ r\\<\\/span\\>\\xy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\z\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\=1\\+\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\y\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\+2r\\<\\/span\\>\\xy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\y\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lt\\ side\\ is\\ ratio\\ of\\ variance\\ in\\ income\\ when\\ countercyclical\\ policy\\ is\\ present\\ vs\\.\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ \\<\\;1\\ the\\ countercyclical\\ policy\\ supports\\ stability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ \\>\\;1\\ the\\ policy\\ has\\ failed\\ and\\ is\\ destabilizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ \\:\\ r\\<\\/span\\>\\xy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ between\\ \\-1\\ and\\ \\&ndash\\;\\(1\\/2\\)\\ \\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\y\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ will\\ be\\ stabilizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ \\:\\ r\\<\\/span\\>\\xy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ between\\ \\&ndash\\;\\(1\\/2\\)\\ \\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\y\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ and\\ \\+1\\ will\\ be\\ destabilizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\,\\ when\\ \\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\y\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\-r\\<\\/span\\>\\xy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&part\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\x\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ optimum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Magnitude\\ of\\ effect\\ of\\ correction\\ varies\\ with\\ the\\ magnitude\\ of\\ the\\ intial\\ stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difficult\\ to\\ measure\\ what\\ magnitude\\ of\\ effect\\ is\\ being\\ produced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ time\\ lags\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\)\\ need\\ for\\ action\\ and\\ recognition\\ 2\\)lag\\ b\\/w\\ recognition\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ action\\ and\\ taking\\ action\\ 3\\)\\ lag\\ b\\/w\\ action\\ and\\ its\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Minimize\\ the\\ time\\ lags\\ you\\ have\\ control\\ over\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ should\\ rely\\ on\\ an\\ automatic\\ reaction\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ price\\ index\\ stays\\ within\\ a\\ broad\\ range\\ and\\ then\\ we\\ should\\ supplement\\ the\\ reactions\\ with\\ discretionary\\ action\\ if\\ the\\ index\\ moves\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ band\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 19\\:\\ Crime\\ and\\ Property\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 20\\:\\ Taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Martin\\ Feldstein\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Tax\\ Avoidance\\ and\\ the\\ Deadweight\\ Loss\\ of\\ the\\ Income\\ Tax\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abstract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Traditional\\ method\\ of\\ analyzing\\ distorting\\ effects\\ of\\ income\\ tax\\-\\ underestimates\\ total\\ deadweight\\ loss\\ \\(DWL\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ incremental\\ deadweight\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ignores\\ effect\\ on\\ forms\\ of\\ compensation\\ and\\ patterns\\ of\\ consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Full\\ DWL\\-\\ easy\\ to\\ calculate\\-\\ use\\ compensated\\ elasticity\\ of\\ taxable\\ income\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ tax\\ rates\\ b\\/c\\ leisure\\,\\ excludable\\ income\\,\\ and\\ deductible\\ consumption\\ are\\ Hicksian\\ composite\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Estimates\\ imply\\ DWL\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ revenue\\ or\\ 10x\\ Harberger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ classic\\ 1964\\ estimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relative\\ DWL\\ caused\\ by\\ increasing\\ existing\\ tax\\ rates\\ is\\ substantially\\ greater\\ and\\ may\\ exceed\\ \\$2\\ per\\ \\$1\\ of\\ revenue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Article\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Since\\ Harberger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ classic\\ 1964\\ paper\\-\\ focused\\ on\\ effects\\ of\\ income\\ tax\\ on\\ supply\\ of\\ labor\\ and\\ rate\\ of\\ capital\\ accumulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Estimated\\ a\\ low\\ elasticity\\ of\\ labor\\ supply\\ and\\ of\\ saving\\-\\ therefore\\,\\ small\\ DWL\\ of\\ income\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\True\\ deadweight\\ losses\\-\\ substantially\\ greater\\ than\\ conventional\\ estimates\\ b\\/c\\ traditional\\ framework\\ ignores\\ effect\\ of\\ higher\\ income\\ tax\\ rates\\ on\\ tax\\ avoidance\\ through\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ compensation\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ employer\\-paid\\ health\\ insurance\\)\\ and\\ through\\ changes\\ in\\ patterns\\ of\\ consumption\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ owner\\-occupied\\ housing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ tax\\ avoidance\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\-\\ DWL\\ of\\ income\\ tax\\ and\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ income\\ tax\\ rates\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ than\\ 10x\\ as\\ large\\ as\\ Harberger\\ estimates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DWL\\-\\ easy\\ to\\ calculate\\ even\\ when\\ exclusions\\ cannot\\ be\\ measured\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ better\\ working\\ conditions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\?\\ \\ \\;Income\\ tax\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ the\\ relative\\ prices\\ of\\ leisure\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\-favored\\ forms\\ of\\ consumption\\ that\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ exclusions\\ and\\ deductions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relative\\ prices\\ of\\ leisure\\,\\ excludable\\ income\\,\\ and\\ deductible\\ consumption\\ all\\ fixed\\-\\ can\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ single\\ Hicksian\\ composite\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Magnitude\\ of\\ exclusions\\ cannot\\ be\\ measure\\ directly\\-\\ but\\ compensated\\ change\\ in\\ taxable\\ income\\ induced\\ by\\ changes\\ in\\ tax\\ rates\\ provides\\ all\\ info\\ needed\\ to\\ evaluate\\ the\\ DWL\\ of\\ the\\ income\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traditional\\ Harberger\\ analysis\\ of\\ DWL\\ of\\ labor\\ income\\ tax\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Choice\\ b\\/w\\ leisure\\ \\(L\\)\\ and\\ consumption\\ \\(C\\)\\,\\ subject\\ to\\ budget\\ constraint\\ where\\ consumption\\ \\=\\ labor\\ earnings\\ minus\\ tax\\ on\\ those\\ earnings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Indication\\ of\\ order\\ of\\ magnitude\\ of\\ exclusions\\ and\\ deductions\\-\\ suggested\\ by\\ Treasury\\ Dep\\&rsquo\\;t\\-\\ estimates\\ tax\\ expenditures\\ in\\ personal\\ income\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tax\\ expenditures\\-\\ revenue\\ losses\\ that\\ result\\ from\\ reductions\\ in\\ taxable\\ income\\ due\\ to\\ certain\\ exclusions\\ and\\ deductions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-1993\\:\\ \\ \\;\\$1\\,500\\ billion\\ estimated\\ deductions\\ and\\ exclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Huge\\,\\ but\\ still\\ understated\\-\\ does\\ not\\ include\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ behavior\\ that\\ reduces\\ taxable\\ income\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ choice\\ of\\ more\\ pleasant\\ working\\ conditions\\)\\ instead\\ of\\ higher\\ cash\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\DWL\\ of\\ personal\\ income\\ tax\\ on\\ labor\\ income\\ reflects\\ induced\\ changes\\ in\\ itemized\\ deductions\\ and\\ in\\ income\\ exclusions\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ broader\\ than\\ usual\\ measure\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ labor\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DWL\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ income\\ tax\\ can\\ be\\ calculated\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ elasticity\\ of\\ taxable\\ income\\ w\\.r\\.t\\.\\ net\\ of\\ tax\\ share\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Response\\ of\\ taxable\\ income\\ involves\\ much\\ broader\\ behavior\\ than\\ traditional\\ elasticity\\ of\\ labor\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taxable\\-income\\ elasticity\\ is\\ larger\\ than\\ traditional\\ labor\\-supply\\ elasticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resulting\\ DWL\\-\\ correspondingly\\ greater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DWL\\/dollar\\ of\\ revenue\\ of\\ using\\ a\\ labor\\ income\\ tax\\ rather\\ than\\ lump\\-sum\\ tax\\-\\ 12x\\ larger\\ than\\ Haberger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ estimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ S\\.S\\ tax\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\-\\ DWL\\ even\\ greater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basically\\-\\ marginal\\ increase\\ in\\ tax\\ revenue\\ achieved\\ by\\ proportional\\ rise\\ in\\ all\\ personal\\ income\\ tax\\ rates\\ involves\\ DWL\\ of\\ \\$2\\ per\\ incremental\\ dollar\\ of\\ revenue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 21\\:\\ Miscellaneous\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 22\\:\\ Miscellaneous\\ III\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 23\\:\\ Miscellaneous\\ IV\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 24\\:\\ Themes\\ and\\ Comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 25\\:\\ Libertarian\\ Land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIDTERM\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Present\\ and\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ libertarian\\ analysis\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ topics\\ listed\\ below\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Your\\ answer\\ should\\ first\\ outline\\ the\\ libertarian\\ viewpoint\\ and\\ then\\ give\\ your\\ own\\ evaluation\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ desirable\\ government\\ policy\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ this\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gun\\ Control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguments\\ for\\ gun\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\guns\\ play\\ an\\ independent\\ role\\ in\\ causing\\ crime\\ \\(promotes\\ domestic\\ violence\\,\\ facilitates\\ burglary\\,\\ rape\\,\\ assault\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reduces\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ guns\\ therefore\\ reducing\\ crime\\ and\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ empirical\\ data\\ on\\ the\\ above\\ claims\\ is\\ inconclusive\\,\\ does\\ not\\ show\\ these\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguments\\ against\\ gun\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-gun\\ owners\\ gain\\ utility\\ from\\ owning\\ a\\ gun\\ \\(hunting\\,\\ collecting\\,\\ target\\ practice\\,\\ self\\-defense\\/security\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-controls\\ impose\\ costs\\ on\\ these\\ law\\-abiding\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ of\\ the\\ claims\\ for\\ gun\\ control\\ are\\ unfounded\\ \\(increased\\ crime\\,\\ increased\\ crime\\,\\ and\\ gun\\ control\\ reduces\\ availability\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ is\\ a\\ plausible\\ case\\ for\\ mild\\ control\\ but\\ history\\ shows\\ mild\\ control\\ often\\ expands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ gun\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-similar\\ to\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ \\(\\ effect\\ of\\ control\\ are\\ worse\\ than\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ guns\\ themselves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ black\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ violent\\ resolution\\ of\\ disputes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-disrespect\\ for\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Concealed\\ Carry\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;right\\ to\\ carry\\ a\\ concealed\\ weapon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ an\\ attacker\\,\\ or\\ robber\\ is\\ uncertain\\ whether\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ armed\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ attack\\-\\ same\\ principle\\ as\\ an\\ alarm\\ for\\ your\\ car\\ or\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Against\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Disputes\\ and\\ arguments\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ turn\\ violent\\ or\\ deadly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*The\\ correct\\ Policy\\ in\\ the\\ Libertarian\\ view\\ is\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ gun\\ control\\.\\ There\\ are\\ other\\ factors\\ that\\ are\\ far\\ more\\ important\\ determinants\\ of\\ crime\\.\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drug\\ Prohibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ libertarian\\ perspective\\ on\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ holds\\ that\\ the\\ negative\\ impacts\\ of\\ drugs\\ on\\ society\\ are\\ not\\ be\\ that\\ bad\\,\\ and\\,\\ furthermore\\,\\ that\\ the\\ costs\\ imposed\\ on\\ society\\ by\\ prohibition\\ are\\ higher\\ than\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ alleviated\\ by\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ According\\ to\\ advocates\\ of\\ prohibition\\,\\ it\\ manages\\ to\\ decrease\\ drug\\ abuse\\,\\ reduce\\ crime\\,\\ increase\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ and\\ productivity\\,\\ and\\ morally\\ delegitimize\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ illegal\\ drugs\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarians\\ would\\ first\\ argue\\ that\\ prohibition\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eliminate\\ either\\ the\\ demand\\ or\\ supply\\ of\\ drugs\\.\\ \\;\\ Prohibition\\ simply\\ forces\\ drug\\ markets\\ underground\\.\\ \\;\\ Evidence\\ indicates\\ that\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ an\\ inadequate\\ motivator\\ for\\ most\\ people\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ obey\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ laws\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ penalties\\ are\\ frequently\\ mild\\ for\\ drug\\ possession\\,\\ people\\ have\\ little\\ incentive\\ to\\ obey\\ the\\ law\\.\\ \\;\\ Similarly\\,\\ from\\ a\\ supply\\ standpoint\\,\\ even\\ though\\ costs\\ are\\ imposed\\ on\\ suppliers\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ avoiding\\ law\\ enforcement\\,\\ bribing\\ officials\\,\\ etc\\,\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ able\\ to\\ avoid\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ costs\\ imposed\\ on\\ non\\ black\\ market\\ industries\\,\\ such\\ as\\ taxation\\,\\ environmental\\ regulation\\,\\ minimum\\ wage\\ laws\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ Furthermore\\,\\ traffickers\\ have\\ consistently\\ demonstrated\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ stay\\ one\\ step\\ ahead\\ of\\ drug\\ enforcement\\ agents\\,\\ reducing\\ the\\ costs\\ imposed\\ on\\ them\\.\\ \\;\\ Empirical\\ evidence\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ drugs\\ has\\ fallen\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 20\\ years\\ despite\\ significant\\ increases\\ in\\ enforcement\\.\\ \\;\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ driving\\ the\\ market\\ underground\\ has\\ significant\\ negative\\ effects\\ that\\ libertarians\\ would\\ argue\\ outweigh\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ prohibition\\.\\ \\;\\ Although\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ scientific\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ drug\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\use\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;causes\\ violence\\,\\ there\\ is\\ evidence\\ that\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ increases\\ violence\\ by\\ reducing\\ access\\ to\\ peaceful\\ dispute\\ settlement\\ mechanisms\\ like\\ the\\ police\\ and\\ the\\ courts\\.\\ \\;\\ Furthermore\\,\\ prohibition\\ induces\\ income\\ generating\\ crime\\ by\\ increasing\\ drug\\ prices\\,\\ which\\ encourages\\ people\\ who\\ need\\ money\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ drug\\ habits\\ to\\ commit\\ more\\ crimes\\.\\ \\;\\ Additionally\\,\\ prohibition\\ causes\\ redistribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ to\\ criminals\\,\\ since\\ in\\ a\\ legal\\ market\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ income\\ generated\\ by\\ trade\\ accrues\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ as\\ taxes\\.\\ \\;\\ Though\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ cost\\,\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ positive\\ redistribution\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Prohibition\\ also\\ decreases\\ quality\\ control\\ of\\ drug\\ products\\,\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ advertising\\,\\ no\\ availability\\ of\\ legal\\ recourse\\,\\ and\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ prefer\\ easier\\ to\\ struggle\\,\\ stronger\\ drugs\\.\\ \\;\\ Hence\\,\\ more\\ overdoses\\ and\\ poisoning\\ are\\ likely\\ under\\ prohibition\\.\\ \\;\\ Prohibition\\ also\\ increases\\ corruption\\ and\\ breeds\\ disrespect\\ for\\ the\\ law\\,\\ costs\\,\\ which\\,\\ although\\ hard\\ to\\ quantify\\,\\ can\\ significantly\\ damage\\ the\\ framework\\ of\\ our\\ democratic\\ system\\.\\ \\;\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ paternalist\\ assumption\\ made\\ by\\ prohibition\\ that\\ people\\ cannot\\ determine\\ what\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ themselves\\ opens\\ the\\ door\\ to\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ government\\ intrusion\\,\\ civil\\ liberties\\ violations\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ am\\ not\\ convinced\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ the\\ laissez\\-faire\\ solution\\ that\\ many\\ libertarians\\ would\\ advocate\\ with\\ regards\\ to\\ drug\\ prohibition\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ form\\ for\\ policy\\ to\\ take\\ however\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ government\\ interventions\\ short\\ of\\ prohibition\\ that\\ would\\ avoid\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ imposing\\ a\\ black\\ market\\ while\\ also\\ attempting\\ to\\ alleviate\\ over\\ consumption\\ of\\ hazardous\\ drugs\\.\\ \\;\\ These\\ include\\ public\\ health\\ campaigns\\ to\\ reduce\\ demand\\,\\ large\\ sin\\ taxes\\ on\\ drugs\\ to\\ drive\\ down\\ demand\\,\\ and\\ subsidized\\ treatment\\ of\\ drug\\ addicts\\.\\ \\;\\ These\\ policies\\ could\\ all\\ drive\\ down\\ drug\\ consumption\\ without\\ the\\ negative\\ social\\ costs\\ imposed\\ by\\ a\\ total\\ prohibition\\ on\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ Libertarians\\ may\\ differ\\ in\\ their\\ personal\\ beliefs\\ concerning\\ the\\ appropriateness\\ of\\ abortion\\,\\ Libertarians\\ support\\ legal\\ abortion\\.\\ Libertarian\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ legality\\ of\\ abortion\\ centers\\ on\\ both\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ that\\ abortion\\ is\\ comparable\\ to\\ murder\\ has\\ some\\ validity\\ to\\ it\\,\\ but\\ this\\ cannot\\ be\\ a\\ legitimate\\ justification\\ for\\ banning\\ abortion\\ since\\ we\\ lack\\ a\\ clear\\ definition\\ as\\ to\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\&rdquo\\;\\ actually\\ begins\\ \\(whether\\ it\\ be\\ at\\ conception\\,\\ at\\ birth\\,\\ or\\ somewhere\\ in\\ between\\)\\.\\ Fetuses\\ are\\ viable\\ at\\ an\\ earlier\\ point\\ with\\ scientific\\ progress\\ and\\ ideas\\ of\\ what\\ constitutes\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ religious\\,\\ emotional\\,\\ and\\ moral\\ perspectives\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ legitimate\\ reasons\\ for\\ taking\\ human\\ life\\ already\\ exist\\ under\\ law\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ self\\-defense\\ and\\ governmental\\ policy\\ concerning\\ war\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ banning\\ abortion\\ on\\ the\\ grounds\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;abortion\\ equals\\ murder\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ be\\ incorrect\\.\\ Another\\ important\\ justification\\ for\\ the\\ legality\\ of\\ abortion\\ pertains\\ to\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\ and\\ more\\ generally\\,\\ that\\ governments\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ control\\ what\\ people\\ do\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ bodies\\.\\ Prohibiting\\ abortion\\ may\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ slippery\\ slope\\ that\\ allows\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ extend\\ its\\ power\\ to\\ other\\ activities\\ it\\ deems\\ fit\\.\\ That\\ said\\,\\ however\\,\\ Libertarians\\ are\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ Roe\\ v\\.\\ Wade\\ decision\\ because\\ the\\ decision\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ states\\ are\\ prohibited\\ from\\ banning\\ abortion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sets\\ abortion\\ policy\\ at\\ the\\ federal\\ level\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ level\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abortion\\ is\\ a\\ controversial\\ issue\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ divide\\ amongst\\ the\\ American\\ population\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ correct\\ stance\\ on\\ abortion\\.\\ Despite\\ my\\ support\\ of\\ legal\\ abortion\\ \\(and\\ my\\ belief\\ that\\ abortion\\ should\\ be\\ legal\\ throughout\\ America\\)\\,\\ the\\ Libertarian\\ perspective\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ leaving\\ abortion\\ policy\\ to\\ state\\ regulation\\ \\-\\ is\\ a\\ sensible\\ approach\\ to\\ accounting\\ for\\ the\\ differing\\ views\\ on\\ abortion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\By\\ preventing\\ states\\ from\\ banning\\ abortion\\,\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ ignores\\ the\\ diverging\\ views\\ on\\ abortion\\.\\ By\\ overturning\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Roe\\ v\\.\\ Wade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;decision\\,\\ federal\\ control\\ of\\ abortion\\ would\\ return\\ to\\ its\\ 1973\\ level\\ and\\ states\\ would\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ regulate\\ abortion\\.\\ This\\,\\ however\\,\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ legal\\ abortion\\.\\ Abortion\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ widely\\ available\\ since\\ many\\ states\\ would\\ continue\\ to\\ keep\\ abortion\\ legal\\ while\\ others\\ might\\ add\\ certain\\ restrictions\\ to\\ abortions\\.\\ While\\ some\\ states\\ may\\ ban\\ abortions\\ altogether\\,\\ this\\ would\\ not\\ prevent\\ a\\ woman\\ from\\ obtaining\\ an\\ abortion\\ in\\ another\\ state\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ leaving\\ abortion\\ up\\ to\\ state\\ control\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ slippery\\ slope\\ as\\ well\\.\\ States\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ favor\\ legal\\ abortion\\ may\\ use\\ additional\\ legislation\\ to\\ hinder\\ their\\ constituents\\ from\\ going\\ to\\ other\\ states\\ to\\ obtain\\ abortions\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ women\\ who\\ live\\ in\\ poverty\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ afford\\ a\\ trip\\ to\\ another\\ state\\ and\\ an\\ abortion\\ would\\ then\\ not\\ be\\ an\\ option\\.\\ Legislation\\ allowing\\ abortion\\ has\\ little\\ effect\\ on\\ those\\ who\\ possess\\ moral\\ and\\ religious\\ perspectives\\ that\\ look\\ down\\ on\\ abortion\\.\\ Women\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ the\\ option\\ of\\ having\\ an\\ abortion\\ and\\ the\\ decision\\ to\\ exercise\\ this\\ right\\ should\\ be\\ left\\ to\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ultimately\\,\\ abortion\\ advances\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ the\\ equality\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ self\\-defense\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ principle\\ that\\ abortion\\ is\\ a\\ component\\ of\\ a\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sovereign\\ right\\ of\\ self\\-defense\\ of\\ her\\ life\\ against\\ unwanted\\ violations\\ of\\ her\\ body\\,\\ and\\ government\\ policy\\ should\\ reflect\\ this\\ right\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Schools\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ subsidises\\ education\\ is\\ taken\\ as\\ given\\.\\ The\\ libertarian\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ public\\ schools\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ public\\ schools\\ altogether\\ and\\ cut\\ government\\ involvement\\ to\\ means\\-tested\\ vouchers\\ for\\ youngest\\ kids\\ \\(at\\ the\\ most\\!\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ emphasis\\ here\\ is\\ on\\ how\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ libertarians\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ current\\ system\\ of\\ public\\ schools\\ could\\ be\\ improved\\ and\\ why\\ the\\ libertarian\\ perspective\\ may\\ be\\ overshooting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ liberal\\ answer\\ \\(more\\ and\\ better\\ paid\\ teachers\\)\\ seems\\ not\\ convincing\\ given\\ the\\ empirical\\ evidence\\.\\ The\\ conservative\\ answers\\ sound\\ appealing\\ at\\ first\\ but\\ are\\ partly\\ less\\ so\\ at\\ second\\ glance\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ proposed\\ \\&ldquo\\;accountability\\&rdquo\\;\\ approach\\ has\\ significant\\ weaknesses\\ compared\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;competition\\&rdquo\\;\\ approaches\\:\\ it\\ discourages\\ diversity\\ and\\ encourages\\ cheating\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;teaching\\ to\\ the\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ focussing\\ on\\ specific\\ students\\ etc\\.\\ A\\ better\\ way\\ of\\ improving\\ public\\ schools\\ is\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ cutting\\ costs\\ although\\ this\\ may\\ sound\\ politically\\ hardly\\ appealing\\ because\\ the\\ outcome\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ same\\ \\(bad\\?\\)\\ education\\ for\\ less\\ money\\.\\ The\\ competition\\ approach\\ focuses\\ on\\ Charters\\ and\\ Vouchers\\ to\\ encourage\\ schools\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ demand\\ of\\ students\\ and\\ their\\ parents\\ \\(\\=\\ higher\\ utility\\ for\\ them\\)\\ and\\ thereby\\ work\\ as\\ efficient\\ as\\ possible\\ \\(\\=\\ reducing\\ costs\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ possible\\ arguments\\ against\\ the\\ libertarian\\ view\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ externality\\ and\\ myopia\\ arguments\\ could\\ be\\ more\\ serious\\ than\\ libertarians\\ claim\\.\\ The\\ positive\\ externality\\ occurs\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ increasing\\ productivity\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ higher\\ utility\\ for\\ other\\ people\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ learning\\ of\\ cultural\\ techniques\\ and\\ customs\\,\\ the\\ common\\ historical\\ experience\\ etc\\.\\ might\\ influence\\ the\\ development\\ and\\ the\\ decisions\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ beyond\\ an\\ empirical\\ investigation\\ and\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ severe\\ social\\ disruptions\\ invaluable\\.\\ The\\ myopia\\ argument\\ might\\ have\\ more\\ influence\\ because\\ the\\ net\\ cost\\ of\\ forcing\\ or\\ encouraging\\ people\\ to\\ attend\\ school\\ is\\ probably\\ minor\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ the\\ opposite\\ case\\ where\\ the\\ cost\\ imposed\\ on\\ a\\ child\\ that\\ has\\ myopic\\ parents\\ can\\ be\\ substantial\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ all\\ this\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ competition\\ is\\ that\\ vouchers\\ probably\\ increase\\ the\\ division\\ between\\ poor\\ and\\ rich\\ children\\ and\\ therefore\\ have\\ a\\ political\\ implication\\:\\ The\\ influential\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ society\\ will\\ probably\\ opt\\ for\\ less\\ subsidy\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cheaper\\&rdquo\\;\\ voucher\\)\\ and\\ thus\\ lower\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ education\\ for\\ poor\\ people\\ who\\ face\\ credit\\ constraints\\ \\/\\ are\\ myopic\\ and\\ thus\\ lowers\\ education\\ below\\ the\\ social\\ optimum\\.\\ In\\ case\\ of\\ public\\ schools\\ the\\ division\\ is\\ less\\ severe\\ and\\ this\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ keep\\ public\\ schools\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ an\\ argument\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ accountability\\:\\ if\\ competition\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ desirable\\ as\\ libertarians\\ claim\\,\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ elicit\\ effort\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ schools\\,\\ districts\\ or\\ teachers\\ accountable\\.\\ Of\\ course\\,\\ the\\ way\\ this\\ is\\ currently\\ done\\ may\\ be\\ inefficient\\ or\\ even\\ harmful\\.\\ But\\ other\\ designs\\ could\\ well\\ discourage\\ cheating\\ and\\ improve\\ efficiency\\.\\ Changing\\ tests\\ \\(the\\ teachers\\ cannot\\ prepare\\ for\\)\\,\\ penalties\\ in\\ case\\ of\\ cheating\\,\\ tests\\ in\\ more\\ subjects\\ etc\\.\\ may\\ improve\\ the\\ accountability\\ approach\\.\\ If\\ rewards\\ and\\ penalties\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ strict\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ now\\,\\ it\\ is\\ reasonable\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ teachers\\ see\\ these\\ test\\ as\\ a\\ welcome\\ appraisal\\ of\\ their\\ work\\.\\ If\\ furthermore\\ these\\ test\\ are\\ not\\ published\\ but\\ rather\\ taken\\ by\\ the\\ school\\ districts\\ as\\ an\\ internal\\ quality\\ management\\ tool\\ \\(comparable\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ myriads\\ of\\ firms\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\)\\,\\ they\\ might\\ help\\ to\\ improve\\ education\\ because\\ school\\ districts\\ are\\ held\\ responsible\\ because\\ of\\ movement\\ of\\ people\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ cost\\ cutting\\ approaches\\ can\\ hardly\\ be\\ opposed\\ although\\ they\\ may\\ prove\\ inefficient\\ in\\ cases\\ like\\ the\\ barrier\\ to\\ entry\\ for\\ teachers\\,\\ because\\ the\\ schools\\ will\\ probably\\ rely\\ on\\ those\\ barriers\\ anyway\\.\\ But\\ removing\\ federal\\ regulation\\ \\(and\\ other\\ state\\ regulation\\,\\ too\\)\\ and\\ reducing\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ districts\\ is\\ definitely\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ of\\ improving\\ public\\ schools\\.\\ The\\ latter\\ especially\\ if\\ the\\ competitions\\ between\\ school\\ districts\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ channel\\ to\\ elicit\\ effort\\ and\\ increase\\ quality\\ and\\ efficiency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Since\\ I\\ am\\ not\\ a\\ native\\ speaker\\ I\\ probably\\ made\\ some\\ mistakes\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ wording\\/formulation\\.\\ I\\ am\\ sorry\\ for\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Further\\,\\ I\\ am\\ not\\ very\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ school\\ system\\ so\\ maybe\\ I\\ forgot\\ things\\ that\\ seem\\ pretty\\ obvious\\ to\\ you\\.\\ My\\ view\\ is\\ more\\ a\\ European\\ one\\ but\\ I\\ still\\ hope\\ I\\ have\\ provided\\ some\\ ideas\\ that\\ are\\ useful\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\ preparation\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarians\\ would\\ support\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ individuals\\ to\\ voluntarily\\ associate\\ in\\,\\ or\\ not\\ associate\\ in\\,\\ labor\\ unions\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ additions\\,\\ employers\\ should\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ recognize\\ or\\ refuse\\ to\\ recognize\\ collective\\ bargaining\\ agents\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ government\\ interference\\ in\\ bargaining\\ between\\ employers\\ and\\ employees\\,\\ either\\ mandating\\ recognition\\ of\\ unions\\ or\\ disallowing\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ reasons\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ force\\ employers\\ to\\ recognize\\ unions\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ of\\ all\\,\\ collective\\ bargaining\\ agreements\\ often\\ raise\\ wages\\ higher\\ than\\ the\\ market\\ clearing\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ this\\ occurs\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ deadweight\\ loss\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ effective\\ wage\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ hurts\\ employers\\ who\\ cannot\\ afford\\ the\\ higher\\ wages\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ potential\\ employees\\ whose\\ services\\ are\\ not\\ worth\\ the\\ inflated\\ wage\\,\\ but\\ would\\ be\\ worth\\ the\\ market\\ wage\\.\\ \\ \\;Further\\,\\ unions\\ can\\ be\\ inefficient\\ in\\ helping\\ employees\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ excessive\\ bureaucracy\\ involved\\ in\\ labor\\ union\\ negotiations\\ with\\ employers\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ when\\ employees\\ in\\ certain\\ industries\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ join\\ unions\\,\\ they\\ lose\\ their\\ personal\\ right\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ full\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ wage\\ bargaining\\ process\\ with\\ their\\ employer\\ and\\ must\\ abide\\ by\\ the\\ decisions\\ of\\ their\\ unions\\,\\ they\\ are\\ deprived\\ of\\ personal\\ freedom\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Affirmative\\ Action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Present\\ an\\ economic\\ analysis\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ policies\\ listed\\ below\\ and\\ explain\\ what\\ the\\ libertarian\\ position\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ that\\ issue\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Discuss\\ alternatives\\ to\\ the\\ libertarian\\ view\\ and\\ give\\ your\\ position\\ on\\ the\\ best\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Policy\\ 3\\:\\ Laws\\ that\\ either\\ require\\,\\ or\\ prohibit\\,\\ the\\ drug\\-testing\\ of\\ employees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ of\\ all\\,\\ libertarians\\ believe\\ that\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ free\\ market\\ for\\ drugs\\ ie\\.\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ illegal\\,\\ because\\ they\\ believe\\ the\\ social\\ costs\\ of\\ prohibition\\ \\(violence\\,\\ accidental\\ poisoning\\,\\ etc\\)\\ are\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ benefits\\ \\(less\\ people\\ using\\ drugs\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ libertarians\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ problem\\ with\\ private\\ parties\\ deciding\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ drug\\ test\\ their\\ employees\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ a\\ firm\\ wants\\ to\\ drug\\ test\\ because\\ they\\ think\\ drugs\\ are\\ immoral\\,\\ lower\\ productivity\\ or\\ create\\ a\\ hazard\\ in\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ that\\ is\\ totally\\ fine\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ libertarian\\ perspective\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ drugs\\,\\ they\\ can\\ go\\ work\\ somewhere\\ else\\.\\ \\;\\ Libertarians\\ just\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ get\\ involved\\ with\\ drugs\\ \\(except\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ possible\\ exceptions\\ such\\ a\\ drunk\\ driving\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ law\\ that\\ requires\\ drug\\ testing\\ for\\ all\\ employees\\ would\\ most\\ likely\\ be\\ opposed\\ by\\ libertarians\\ because\\ that\\ is\\ essentially\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ making\\ drugs\\ illegal\\,\\ unless\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ \\(not\\ generally\\ the\\ case\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Libertarians\\ would\\ probably\\ support\\ a\\ law\\ that\\ makes\\ drug\\ testing\\ required\\ for\\ airline\\ pilots\\ or\\ something\\ like\\ that\\ because\\ clearly\\ these\\ people\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ using\\ drugs\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ legal\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\ a\\ blanket\\ policy\\ would\\ probably\\ not\\ be\\ supported\\.\\ \\;\\ Possible\\ drawbacks\\ of\\ a\\ policy\\ like\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ people\\ trying\\ to\\ cheat\\ the\\ system\\ by\\ paying\\ off\\ drug\\ testers\\ or\\ creating\\ a\\ market\\ for\\ drugs\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ tests\\,\\ which\\ might\\ lead\\ to\\ more\\ accidental\\ poisonings\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ law\\ that\\ prohibits\\ drug\\ testing\\ would\\ probably\\ also\\ be\\ opposed\\ by\\ libertarians\\ because\\ of\\ examples\\ like\\ the\\ above\\ airline\\ pilot\\ example\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ law\\ like\\ this\\ might\\ lead\\ to\\ problems\\ of\\ violating\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ privacy\\ by\\ employers\\ trying\\ to\\ spy\\ on\\ their\\ employees\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ using\\ drugs\\ or\\ something\\ like\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ in\\ between\\ case\\ would\\ be\\ ideal\\ from\\ a\\ libertarian\\ view\\ where\\ employers\\ can\\ choose\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ drug\\ test\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ the\\ labor\\ supply\\ for\\ a\\ certain\\ job\\ might\\ go\\ down\\ slightly\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ people\\ filling\\ those\\ super\\-important\\ positions\\ would\\ self\\ select\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ appropriate\\ candidates\\ \\(ie\\ not\\ big\\ drug\\ addicts\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Consequently\\,\\ productivity\\ would\\ go\\ up\\ for\\ this\\ firm\\.\\ \\;\\ For\\ less\\ skilled\\ positions\\,\\ if\\ people\\ are\\ using\\ drugs\\ in\\ their\\ spare\\ time\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ productive\\ at\\ work\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ happier\\ overall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ An\\ alternative\\ to\\ this\\ view\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ drugs\\ are\\ inherently\\ immoral\\ so\\ obviously\\ drug\\ testing\\ should\\ be\\ required\\.\\ \\;\\ You\\ can\\ also\\ present\\ your\\ own\\ opinion\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Policy\\ 4\\:\\ Mandatory\\ seat\\-belt\\ laws\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Paternalism\\ \\-\\-\\ Government\\ is\\ telling\\ us\\ what\\ our\\ ideal\\ car\\ has\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slippery\\ Slope\\ \\-\\-\\ If\\ they\\ can\\ tell\\ you\\ that\\ you\\ need\\ seatbelts\\,\\ then\\ they\\ can\\ essentially\\ tell\\ you\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ gas\\ you\\ need\\,\\ etc\\.\\ If\\ they\\ can\\ force\\ us\\ to\\ wear\\ seatbelts\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ safer\\,\\ they\\ can\\ also\\ force\\ us\\ to\\ eat\\ healthy\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ safer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ know\\ for\\ sure\\ if\\ seatbelts\\ are\\ actually\\ making\\ driving\\ safer\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ are\\ worse\\ off\\ in\\ accidents\\ with\\ seat\\ belts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ People\\ may\\ drive\\ more\\ aggressively\\ with\\ mandatory\\ seat\\ belt\\ laws\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Wearing\\ a\\ seat\\ belt\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Mandatory\\ seat\\ belt\\ laws\\ will\\ cost\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\.\\ The\\ government\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ money\\ from\\ those\\ they\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;protect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ libertarian\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ forcing\\ drivers\\ to\\ wear\\ seat\\ belts\\ will\\ save\\ lives\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ the\\ benefit\\ outweighs\\ the\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Best\\ policy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Seat\\ belt\\ use\\ should\\ be\\ encouraged\\ but\\ not\\ mandatory\\.\\ The\\ decision\\ should\\ be\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ individual\\ driver\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Policy\\ 5\\:\\ Subsidies\\ for\\ the\\ Corporation\\ for\\ Public\\ Broadcasting\\ \\(NPR\\,\\ PBS\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ libertarian\\ position\\ towards\\ subsidies\\ for\\ the\\ Corporation\\ for\\ Public\\ Broadcasting\\ \\(NPR\\,\\ PBS\\)\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ vehement\\ opposition\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ classic\\ libertarian\\,\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ approach\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ costs\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ program\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ money\\ for\\ the\\ subsidies\\ must\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ taxpayers\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\ to\\ considering\\ absolute\\ costs\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ higher\\ taxes\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ this\\ tax\\ money\\ going\\ toward\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ some\\ other\\ federal\\ program\\.\\ \\ \\;Libertarians\\ object\\ to\\ the\\ collection\\ of\\ tax\\ money\\ going\\ towards\\ various\\ government\\ programs\\ \\(save\\ certain\\ programs\\ such\\ as\\ national\\ defense\\,\\ police\\ force\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ and\\ they\\ certainly\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ the\\ Corporation\\ for\\ Public\\ Broadcasting\\ as\\ a\\ worthy\\ program\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ and\\ foremost\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ subsidies\\ for\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ are\\ even\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ support\\ for\\ these\\ subsidies\\ probably\\ comes\\ from\\ individuals\\ who\\ believe\\ that\\ programs\\ such\\ as\\ NPR\\ and\\ PBS\\ provide\\ educational\\ broadcasting\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ at\\ large\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ libertarian\\ objection\\ might\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ educational\\ broadcasting\\ offered\\ by\\ NPR\\ and\\ PBS\\ is\\ already\\ offered\\ in\\ commercial\\ broadcasting\\,\\ rendering\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ unnecessary\\ and\\ superfluous\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ commercial\\ broadcasting\\ is\\ already\\ satisfying\\ whatever\\ role\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ might\\ play\\,\\ then\\ subsidizing\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ is\\ an\\ inefficient\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ if\\ that\\ objection\\ is\\ not\\ believed\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ further\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ opposed\\ to\\ subsidies\\ for\\ the\\ Corporation\\ for\\ Public\\ Broadcasting\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ problem\\ with\\ having\\ the\\ government\\ fund\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ then\\ has\\ a\\ say\\ in\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ programs\\ that\\ get\\ broadcast\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ encroaching\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ into\\ the\\ private\\ sphere\\ \\(literally\\ allowing\\ them\\ into\\ homes\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ television\\ sets\\ or\\ radios\\)\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ concern\\ of\\ libertarians\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ slippery\\ slope\\ argument\\ might\\ also\\ be\\ presented\\ here\\:\\ if\\ we\\ let\\ the\\ government\\ have\\ a\\ stake\\ in\\ what\\ television\\ shows\\ we\\ see\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ hear\\ over\\ the\\ radio\\,\\ then\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ them\\ also\\ controlling\\ what\\ we\\ read\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ ultimately\\ what\\ we\\ think\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ I\\ mentioned\\ before\\,\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ libertarian\\ view\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ NPR\\ and\\ PBS\\ are\\ necessary\\ because\\ they\\ provide\\ an\\ unbiased\\ educational\\ service\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ public\\ can\\ enjoy\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ extension\\ of\\ that\\ argument\\ might\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ these\\ subsidies\\ is\\ relatively\\ small\\,\\ a\\ drop\\ in\\ the\\ bucket\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ overall\\ budget\\,\\ and\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ having\\ quality\\ educational\\ broadcast\\ is\\ worth\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ find\\ this\\ argument\\ difficult\\ to\\ accept\\,\\ and\\ believe\\ that\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ day\\ when\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ competing\\ commercial\\ programs\\ offering\\ every\\ imaginable\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ subsidizing\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ is\\ unnecessary\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ level\\ of\\ control\\ it\\ gives\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ a\\ far\\ greater\\ cost\\ than\\ the\\ subsidies\\ themselves\\,\\ and\\ those\\ two\\ costs\\ combine\\ to\\ outweigh\\ any\\ benefits\\ the\\ public\\ broadcasting\\ might\\ provide\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXTRA\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarian\\ Economics\\:\\ The\\ Big\\ Picture\\,\\ with\\ some\\ specific\\ examples\\ and\\ comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Libertarianism\\:\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ government\\ policy\\ is\\ usually\\ laissez\\-faire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ differs\\ from\\ anarchism\\ because\\ libertarians\\ support\\ government\\ involvement\\ in\\ national\\ defense\\,\\ and\\ in\\ definition\\ and\\ protection\\ of\\ property\\ rights\\ \\(support\\ Defense\\,\\ Justice\\,\\ State\\,\\ and\\ Treasury\\ departments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*liberals\\ are\\ suspicious\\ of\\ government\\ intervention\\ in\\ some\\ spheres\\ \\(social\\)\\ but\\ highly\\ receptive\\ in\\ others\\ \\(economic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*conservatives\\ are\\ suspicious\\ of\\ government\\ intervention\\ in\\ some\\ spheres\\ \\(economic\\)\\ but\\ highly\\ receptive\\ in\\ others\\ \\(social\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*libertarianism\\ is\\ more\\ consistent\\:\\ suspicious\\ of\\ all\\ government\\ intervention\\,\\ and\\ supports\\ intervention\\ only\\ if\\ the\\ entire\\ range\\ of\\ consequences\\ from\\ intervention\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ what\\ occurs\\ under\\ laissez\\-faire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Drug\\ prohibition\\:\\ libertarians\\ strongly\\ oppose\\ drug\\ prohibition\\,\\ viewing\\ most\\ of\\ its\\ effects\\ as\\ undesirable\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ one\\ possible\\ exception\\ is\\ potential\\ reduction\\ in\\ drug\\ consumption\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ achieved\\ in\\ much\\ more\\ effective\\ ways\\,\\ such\\ as\\ through\\ public\\ health\\ campaigns\\ or\\ sin\\ taxes\\.\\ \\ \\;Laissez\\-faire\\ may\\ still\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ option\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ drugs\\,\\ libertarians\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ opposed\\ to\\ any\\ and\\ all\\ form\\ of\\ government\\ intervention\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Social\\ Security\\:\\ libertarians\\ oppose\\ the\\ SS\\ system\\ because\\ it\\ creates\\ distortions\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ recognize\\ that\\ the\\ problem\\ exists\\,\\ and\\ the\\ solution\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ simply\\ ignoring\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;laissez\\-faire\\&rdquo\\;\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ short\\ term\\ solution\\ is\\ to\\ simply\\ raise\\ taxes\\ or\\ cut\\ benefits\\;\\ one\\ long\\ term\\ solution\\ is\\ to\\ convert\\ SS\\ into\\ a\\ disability\\ insurance\\ or\\ life\\ insurance\\ program\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Subsidized\\ education\\:\\ libertarians\\ oppose\\ most\\ government\\ intervention\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ education\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ may\\ support\\ modest\\ subsidy\\ for\\ younger\\ students\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ K\\-6\\ level\\,\\ and\\ certainly\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ across\\-the\\-board\\ \\(subsidy\\ should\\ go\\ to\\ poor\\ households\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ subsidizing\\ must\\ be\\ done\\,\\ means\\-tested\\ vouchers\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ effective\\ than\\ public\\ schools\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Gay\\ marriage\\:\\ libertarians\\ feel\\ that\\ government\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ marriage\\ business\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ support\\ a\\ laissez\\-faire\\ government\\ approach\\ to\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;Government\\ can\\ enforce\\ provisions\\ of\\ private\\ marriage\\ contracts\\,\\ but\\ should\\ not\\ do\\ anything\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*anti\\-trust\\ policy\\:\\ libertarians\\ generally\\ oppose\\ regulations\\ on\\ business\\,\\ since\\ they\\ do\\ more\\ harm\\ \\(increased\\ costs\\ and\\ limiting\\ competition\\)\\ than\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ government\\ must\\ intervene\\,\\ Tort\\ Liability\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ more\\ cost\\-effective\\ solution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*gun\\ control\\:\\ Many\\ people\\ obtain\\ utility\\ from\\ guns\\,\\ while\\ guns\\ themselves\\ do\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ cause\\ substantial\\ harm\\;\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ guns\\ deters\\ some\\ crime\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ the\\ laissez\\-faire\\ approach\\ to\\ guns\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\,\\ meaning\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ gun\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*environmental\\ policy\\:\\ Intervention\\ may\\ be\\ necessary\\ at\\ times\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ externalities\\,\\ but\\ private\\ actions\\ or\\ state\\ government\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ much\\ better\\ control\\ than\\ the\\ current\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\-size\\-fits\\-all\\&rdquo\\;\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*discrimination\\:\\ The\\ government\\ should\\ not\\ intervene\\,\\ since\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ intervention\\ are\\ high\\ \\(complicated\\ and\\ intrusive\\ affirmative\\ action\\ programs\\,\\ counter\\-productive\\ view\\ of\\ firms\\ and\\ private\\ property\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ private\\ AA\\ should\\ be\\ permitted\\,\\ but\\ the\\ government\\ itself\\ should\\ not\\ take\\ a\\ stand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*public\\ schools\\ and\\ accountability\\:\\ The\\ accountability\\ approach\\ has\\ numerous\\ costs\\ and\\ flaws\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ improve\\ public\\ schools\\ is\\ to\\ increase\\ competition\\,\\ perhaps\\ by\\ charters\\ or\\ vouchers\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ course\\,\\ libertarians\\ believe\\ that\\ there\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ public\\ schools\\ at\\ all\\,\\ but\\ if\\ they\\ must\\ exist\\,\\ they\\ would\\ recommend\\ modest\\ intervention\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ voucher\\ system\\,\\ to\\ improve\\ education\\ overall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*abortion\\:\\ Libertarians\\ are\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ legal\\ abortion\\,\\ but\\ are\\ not\\ entirely\\ laissez\\-faire\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ subjective\\ \\&ldquo\\;dividing\\ line\\&rdquo\\;\\ after\\ which\\ abortion\\ equals\\ murder\\,\\ but\\ feel\\ that\\ this\\ line\\ should\\ be\\ determined\\ on\\ a\\ state\\-by\\-state\\ basis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*government\\ funding\\ of\\ knowledge\\,\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ culture\\:\\ Libertarians\\ oppose\\ government\\ funding\\ of\\ science\\,\\ art\\,\\ etc\\ because\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ does\\ a\\ more\\ than\\ adequate\\ job\\ with\\ funding\\,\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ business\\ of\\ choosing\\ which\\ programs\\ should\\ be\\ funded\\.\\ \\ \\;Intervention\\ is\\ inefficient\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ to\\ thought\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 11, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Ec1017studyguide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "History of the US West - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "us-west"], "text": null, "id": 61, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\_Study\\_Guide\\_His\\_1641\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c38\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c36\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c43\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-180pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c6\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c5\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-216pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144\\.8pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:63\\.8pt\\}\\.c25\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c3\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c37\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:45\\.8pt\\}\\.c42\\{color\\:\\#0000ee\\}\\.c40\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c24\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c39\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c34\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-144pt\\}\\.c41\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c45\\{text\\-indent\\:12pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c44\\{font\\-size\\:20pt\\}\\.c17\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c33\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ Questions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ as\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ conquest\\,\\ from\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ Europeans\\ through\\ the\\ late\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ We\\ really\\ could\\ talk\\ about\\ anything\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ might\\ discuss\\ the\\ conquest\\ of\\ the\\ Indians\\ and\\ battles\\ with\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ territory\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ expanding\\,\\ we\\ could\\ discuss\\ cultural\\ conquest\\ \\(Americanization\\ Programs\\&hellip\\;\\ Chinese\\,\\ Mexican\\,\\ Indian\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ consequences\\.\\.\\.\\ were\\ cities\\ developed\\,\\ reparations\\,\\ environmental\\ consequences\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ put\\ Asterisks\\ next\\ to\\ important\\ date\\ from\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ and\\ next\\ to\\ letters\\ that\\ have\\ texts\\ that\\ correspond\\ to\\ the\\ specific\\ discussion\\ in\\ the\\ outline\\.\\ I\\ structured\\ the\\ outline\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ lecture\\.\\.thus\\,\\ the\\ class\\ readings\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ highlight\\ what\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Popular\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\-century\\ West\\ have\\ most\\ often\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\archetypes\\ of\\ self\\-made\\ men\\ and\\ lone\\ gunmen\\,\\ however\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ more\\ often\\ been\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ partnerships\\,\\ families\\,\\ and\\ unions\\.\\ Focusing\\ on\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\history\\ of\\ westward\\ migration\\ and\\ mining\\,\\ discuss\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ collective\\ action\\ in\\ the\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ Without\\ cooperation\\ and\\ combined\\ efforts\\,\\ the\\ American\\ migration\\ westward\\ probably\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ succeeded\\ in\\ conquering\\ the\\ land\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ did\\.\\ Unions\\ between\\ families\\,\\ co\\-pioneers\\ and\\ co\\-workers\\ account\\ for\\ everything\\ from\\ the\\ initial\\ move\\ westward\\ to\\ the\\ complete\\ domination\\ of\\ western\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ lands\\.\\ Community\\ and\\ collective\\ action\\ permitted\\ settlers\\ to\\ survive\\ and\\ settle\\,\\ and\\ build\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ of\\ physical\\ society\\ and\\ social\\ community\\ that\\ still\\ exists\\ today\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Lecture\\:\\ Notes\\ from\\ Professor\\ St\\.\\ John\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Western\\ Migration\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;I\\:\\ Natives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Native\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ nomadic\\,\\ traveled\\ in\\ groups\\ through\\ the\\ plains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;That\\ image\\ changed\\ when\\ Europeans\\ entered\\ the\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\:\\ Spanish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Alvar\\ NuNez\\ Cabeza\\ de\\ Vaca\\ \\(1527\\-1536\\)\\ expedition\\.\\ 9\\ years\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;wandering\\ through\\-out\\ the\\ western\\ wasteland\\ with\\ his\\ company\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ soldiers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Followed\\ by\\ Franciscan\\ friar\\ \\&ldquo\\;Niza\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ was\\ led\\ by\\ Black\\ Slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Esteban\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\ Spanish\\ settlements\\ \\[Missions\\]\\ begun\\ by\\ fthr\\.\\ Junipero\\ Serra\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Relied\\ on\\ forced\\ cooperation\\ btw\\.\\ Spanish\\ settlers\\ and\\ natives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\)\\ As\\ time\\ passes\\ and\\ Spanish\\/Indian\\ relations\\ tighten\\ through\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ marriages\\,\\ Spanish\\ switch\\ to\\ trade\\ \\*alliances\\*\\ to\\ keep\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;III\\:\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Francis\\ Drake\\ sent\\ with\\ crew\\ to\\ pirate\\ western\\ waters\\ and\\ annoy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ in\\ 1578\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Hudson\\ Bay\\ Company\\;\\ Marriage\\ Alliances\\ and\\ Trade\\ Alliances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;in\\ Pudget\\ sound\\ \\[Washington\\.\\]\\ Fur\\ trading\\.\\ Beginning\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;lone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;gunman\\/mountain\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ stereotype\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\:\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Move\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ \\*Oregon\\ Trail\\*\\:\\ btw\\ 1840\\-1860\\,\\ sets\\ of\\ people\\,\\ usually\\ seeking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ religious\\ or\\ other\\ freedoms\\,\\ moved\\ west\\ in\\ packs\\.\\ Ie\\:\\ Marcus\\ \\&\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Narcissa\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ team\\ of\\ 47\\ pioneers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Mormons\\ settling\\ in\\ Utah\\ Colony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*c\\.\\)\\ Susan\\ Magoffin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Down\\ The\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ An\\ illustration\\ of\\ life\\ on\\ the\\ trail\\,\\ having\\ set\\ off\\ west\\ with\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;new\\ husband\\ and\\ their\\ caravan\\ of\\ wagons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Describes\\ how\\ she\\ and\\ husband\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;helpers\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ tend\\ their\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ needs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\)\\ Details\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ being\\ raided\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ team\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;banded\\ together\\ to\\ protect\\ themselves\\ in\\ such\\ instances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\)\\ Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ though\\,\\ most\\ families\\ that\\ went\\ west\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;idea\\,\\ thus\\,\\ setting\\ up\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ define\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-made\\&rdquo\\;\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;V\\.\\ Getting\\ to\\ the\\ Gold\\ Mines\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Overland\\:\\ Involved\\ team\\ effort\\ like\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\ pioneers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ By\\ Sea\\:\\ More\\ Independent\\,\\ Isthmus\\ of\\ Panama\\ or\\ Across\\ Cape\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Paid\\ ur\\ dues\\ then\\ went\\ onboard\\.\\ Landed\\ alone\\ in\\ California\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Setting\\ up\\ the\\ impetus\\ for\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;VI\\:\\ Mining\\ Communities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ San\\ Fran\\:\\ Sacramento\\:\\ Crowded\\ harbors\\,\\ booms\\ in\\ restaurants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Mining\\ camps\\ products\\ of\\ need\\:\\ Prompted\\ co\\-ops\\ and\\ quick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ urbanization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\ Social\\ Demographics\\ of\\ the\\ camps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ 92\\.5\\%\\ male\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Mixing\\ pot\\ of\\ races\\;\\ White\\ and\\ Chinese\\ worked\\ together\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\)\\ \\*Anglo\\ Miners\\ formed\\ Vigilante\\ groups\\ and\\ pushed\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ other\\ races\\.\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\)\\ \\*Formed\\ traveling\\ companies\\&hellip\\;based\\ on\\ practical\\ needs\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;shared\\ values\\.\\.ie\\ \\[Sabbath\\ Keepers\\]\\*\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\)\\ 6\\-8\\ men\\ groups\\ created\\ familial\\ units\\ to\\ split\\ up\\ daily\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ like\\ cooking\\,\\ cleaning\\,\\ washing\\&hellip\\;etc\\.\\ Reformation\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ social\\ norms\\ from\\ the\\ East\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\)\\ \\*When\\ taking\\ on\\ domestic\\ roles\\,\\ miners\\ always\\ in\\ pairs\\.\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*d\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Letter\\ From\\ A\\ Gold\\ Miner\\;\\ Placerville\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ Discusses\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Long\\ Tom\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;trough\\ through\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;large\\ quantities\\ of\\ dirt\\ were\\ worked\\ by\\ many\\ men\\ to\\ sift\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;gold\\ faster\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Describes\\ the\\ difficulty\\ however\\ in\\ getting\\ total\\ cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ though\\ many\\ want\\ laws\\ to\\ protect\\ themselves\\ and\\ their\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ newfound\\ ritches\\.\\ IE\\&hellip\\;a\\ cry\\ for\\ community\\ and\\ social\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*e\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Shirly\\ Letters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Letter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ Talks\\ about\\ California\\ s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Hotel\\ State\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ so\\ inundated\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;bars\\ and\\ taverns\\.\\ Killing\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ lonely\\ prospectors\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;mountains\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Describes\\ settlers\\ helping\\ each\\ other\\.\\ How\\ when\\ the\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ of\\ one\\ family\\ \\(Mrs\\.\\ B\\)\\ was\\ weak\\ after\\ child\\-birth\\,\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ man\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ her\\ boarding\\ house\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;carried\\ her\\ bread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ and\\ tea\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*f\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ extra\\ data\\,\\ include\\ Susan\\ Lee\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Domestic\\&hellip\\;The\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Southern\\ Mines\\ in\\ the\\ California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Peggy\\ Pascoe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Home\\ Mission\\ Women\\,\\ Race\\,\\ Culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Both\\ in\\ Course\\ Reader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ western\\ expansion\\ draw\\ on\\,\\ challenge\\,\\ and\\ strengthen\\ different\\ constructions\\ of\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Traditional\\ gender\\ roles\\ had\\ man\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ financial\\ supporter\\ and\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ household\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Traditionally\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ chores\\ like\\ cooking\\,\\ cleaning\\,\\ laundry\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Western\\ US\\ needed\\ settlers\\,\\ thus\\ men\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ go\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ expansion\\ draw\\ on\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ left\\ the\\ traditional\\ household\\ to\\ explore\\ a\\ potential\\ better\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ West\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Maintained\\ connections\\ with\\ family\\ by\\ usually\\ sending\\ money\\ home\\ to\\ fulfill\\ job\\ as\\ bread\\ winner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ also\\ sent\\ home\\ letters\\ and\\ journals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-And\\ continued\\ to\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ a\\ rough\\ uncertain\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ pioneer\\ into\\ an\\ unknown\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Playing\\ cowboys\\ and\\ Indians\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ expansion\\ challenge\\ the\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Placed\\ men\\ in\\ communities\\ with\\ filled\\ entirely\\ with\\ men\\.\\ \\(Only\\ female\\ interaction\\:\\ saloon\\ girls\\ and\\ prostitutes\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ different\\ setting\\ for\\ men\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ void\\ of\\ a\\ domesticated\\ women\\ forced\\ men\\ to\\ do\\ daily\\ tasks\\ that\\ were\\ traditionally\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\:\\ cooking\\,\\ cleaning\\,\\ laundry\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-No\\ women\\ there\\ to\\ affirm\\ their\\ masculinity\\,\\ so\\ found\\ other\\ ways\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ fellow\\ men\\:\\ gambling\\,\\ fighting\\,\\ guns\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ living\\ in\\ settlements\\,\\ particularly\\ gold\\ mines\\,\\ also\\ divided\\ domestic\\ chores\\ amongst\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lucious\\ Fairchild\\ worked\\ waiting\\ tables\\ \\(Susan\\ Johnson\\ reading\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ expansion\\ strengthen\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-West\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ outlet\\ where\\ men\\ could\\ start\\ over\\ and\\ assert\\ their\\ masculinity\\ over\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ the\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ became\\ less\\ dependent\\ on\\ women\\ for\\ domestic\\ necessities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ and\\ suburban\\ West\\ placed\\ men\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ concrete\\ family\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Think\\ Brady\\ Bunch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READINGS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(\\&bull\\;\\ \\.A\\ letter\\ from\\ a\\ gold\\ miner\\,\\ Placerville\\,\\ California\\,\\ October\\,\\ 1850\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Available\\ online\\ at\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/memory\\.loc\\.gov\\/cgi\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bin\\/query\\/r\\?ammem\\/calbk\\:\\@field\\(DOCID\\+\\@lit\\(calbk155div2\\)\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Letters\\ 2\\,4\\,6\\,7\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ 10\\ from\\ \\.The\\ Shirley\\ letters\\ from\\ California\\ mines\\ in\\ 1851\\-52\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Available\\ online\\ at\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/memory\\.loc\\.gov\\/cgibin\\/query\\/r\\?ammem\\/calbk\\:\\@field\\(DOCID\\+\\@lit\\(calbk146\\)\\)\\:\\@\\@\\@\\$REF\\$\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Susan\\ Lee\\ Johnson\\,\\ \\.\\.Domestic\\.\\ Life\\ in\\ the\\ Diggings\\:\\ The\\ Southern\\ Mines\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\,\\.\\ from\\ Valerie\\ J\\.\\ Matsumoto\\ and\\ Blake\\ Allmendinger\\,\\ eds\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ Edge\\:\\ Remapping\\ the\\ American\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Course\\ Reader\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Elliott\\ West\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Contested\\ Plains\\:\\ Indians\\,\\ Goldseekers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Rush\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Introduction\\,\\ Chapters\\ 1\\ and\\ 5\\-7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prominent\\ figures\\ of\\ Western\\ Masculine\\ Identity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Davy\\ Crocket\\,\\ Daniel\\ Boone\\,\\ Jedidiah\\ Smith\\,\\ Lucious\\ Fairchild\\,\\ Mike\\ Brady\\ \\(modern\\ expansion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ have\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ categories\\ defined\\ western\\ history\\ and\\ limited\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ability\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\ to\\ access\\ opportunities\\ in\\ the\\ West\\?\\ You\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\want\\ to\\ consider\\ policies\\ and\\ practices\\ involving\\ some\\ or\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\employment\\,\\ housing\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ and\\ military\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ off\\:\\ groups\\ of\\ oppressed\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\African\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mexicans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Employment\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discrimination\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ employment\\ came\\ from\\ miners\\ and\\ it\\ excluded\\ minorities\\ through\\ armed\\ threats\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ refusal\\ of\\ landowners\\ to\\ sell\\ to\\ foreigners\\.\\ In\\ 1850\\ this\\ xenophobia\\ became\\ legislative\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ Foreign\\ Miners\\ Act\\ which\\ charged\\ 20\\ dollars\\ for\\ immigrants\\ to\\ work\\.\\ Also\\ in\\ the\\ larger\\ mines\\ minority\\ workers\\ were\\ categorically\\ paid\\ less\\ than\\ white\\ workers\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ hold\\ leadership\\ positions\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ West\\ minority\\ workers\\ earned\\ less\\ wage\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ field\\ they\\ were\\ employed\\ in\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\ Action\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indian\\ Removal\\ act\\ 1830\\:\\ moved\\ 70\\,000\\ Indians\\ from\\ the\\ southern\\ US\\ to\\ Oklahoma\\.\\ Of\\ these\\ 70\\,000\\ many\\ die\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ over\\.\\ Once\\ Indians\\ from\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ West\\ are\\ primarily\\ on\\ the\\ reservations\\ the\\ western\\ settlers\\ begin\\ to\\ start\\ trouble\\.\\ They\\ didin\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respect\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ reservations\\ or\\ the\\ Indians\\ lands\\ and\\ they\\ stole\\ from\\ the\\ Indians\\.\\ In\\ 1851\\-2\\ the\\ reservations\\ shift\\ from\\ sovereignty\\ to\\ wardship\\ and\\ the\\ become\\ close\\ to\\ concentration\\ camps\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trains\\ and\\ fed\\ gov\\ want\\ Indians\\ to\\ cede\\ land\\ to\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Us\\ government\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ make\\ deals\\ that\\ stick\\ with\\ the\\ Indians\\,\\ in\\ part\\ because\\ their\\ lack\\ of\\ centralized\\ government\\ and\\ leadership\\ and\\ their\\ nomadicism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\ action\\ begins\\ in\\ 1865\\ Custer\\ and\\ Kerney\\ try\\ to\\ suppress\\ raiding\\.\\ They\\ destroy\\ the\\ Indians\\ food\\ source\\ and\\ cut\\ off\\ supplies\\.\\ Us\\ pursues\\ them\\ until\\ 1886\\.\\ when\\ all\\ have\\ been\\ defeated\\ or\\ put\\ on\\ a\\ reservation\\ camp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ horses\\ to\\ highways\\,\\ western\\ history\\ has\\ been\\ shaped\\ by\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ important\\ and\\ changing\\ role\\ of\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\transportation\\ in\\ shaping\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\ and\\,\\ particularly\\,\\ its\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\relationship\\ to\\ the\\ East\\.\\ Use\\ at\\ least\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ possible\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\horses\\,\\ ships\\,\\ overland\\ trails\\,\\ railroads\\,\\ and\\ highways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ eventually\\ explore\\ and\\ conquer\\ the\\ entire\\ West\\ through\\ transportation\\ was\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ given\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ manifest\\ destiny\\ \\(term\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ transportation\\ has\\ always\\ provided\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ hard\\ work\\ creates\\ trails\\,\\ railroads\\,\\ and\\ highways\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ American\\ idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ working\\ hard\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ during\\ Great\\ Depression\\,\\ people\\ had\\ jobs\\ working\\ on\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ forms\\ of\\ transportation\\ became\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ advanced\\,\\ thus\\ connecting\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.\\ when\\ cross\\-country\\ trains\\ developed\\,\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ unreachable\\:\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ unified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.\\ Government\\ control\\ of\\ Western\\ railroads\\ and\\ highways\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ say\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\.\\ Lots\\ of\\ transportation\\ issues\\ lead\\ to\\ images\\ of\\ lawlessness\\ and\\ distrust\\ for\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ fake\\ transportation\\ brochures\\ for\\ trails\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ horrible\\ things\\ like\\ the\\ Donner\\ Party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ failed\\ expedition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Credit\\ Mobilier\\ scandal\\ and\\ railroad\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overland\\ trails\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ opened\\ up\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Lewis\\ and\\ Clark\\ Expedition\\ \\(term\\ 5\\)\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ map\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ explore\\ it\\,\\ bringing\\ back\\ appealing\\ tales\\ to\\ Easterners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ extremely\\ important\\ option\\ for\\ travel\\ during\\ the\\ gold\\ rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ people\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ risky\\ Panama\\ journey\\ or\\ the\\ expensive\\/lengthy\\ Cape\\ Horn\\ journey\\ could\\ take\\ an\\ overland\\ trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ facilitated\\ trade\\ with\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ example\\:\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ trail\\ was\\ good\\ for\\ trade\\ with\\ New\\ Mexicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.\\ allows\\ many\\ different\\ groups\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ example\\:\\ Mormon\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.\\ opens\\ up\\ huge\\ business\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ people\\ create\\ trail\\ brochures\\,\\ ferries\\,\\ supply\\ forts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\.\\ transported\\ Eastern\\ American\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ gender\\ norms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\G\\.\\ Destroyed\\ Western\\ ecology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ overhunted\\ animals\\,\\ especially\\ buffalo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ trampled\\ earth\\ and\\ grass\\ and\\ cut\\ down\\ trees\\ for\\ firewood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ dust\\ pollution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Railroads\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ train\\ depots\\ would\\ determine\\ which\\ towns\\ grew\\ and\\ which\\ towns\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ example\\:\\ Chicago\\ had\\ all\\ the\\ rail\\ lines\\ centered\\ on\\ it\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ grew\\ into\\ the\\ huge\\ city\\ it\\ is\\ today\\,\\ while\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ as\\ many\\ railways\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ become\\ a\\ trading\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Red\\ Cars\\ \\(term\\ 40\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ trolleys\\ became\\ common\\,\\ they\\ would\\ dictate\\ where\\ cities\\ and\\ suburbs\\ developed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ important\\ for\\ trade\\ with\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ refrigerated\\ railroad\\ cars\\ allow\\ meat\\ to\\ be\\ shipped\\ across\\ the\\ country\\:\\ larger\\ market\\ for\\ Western\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ grain\\ elevators\\ to\\ store\\ wheat\\ that\\ railroads\\ transport\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ prices\\ of\\ tickets\\ fall\\ because\\ of\\ competition\\ between\\ railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ West\\ becomes\\ easily\\ accessible\\ to\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Highways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ highways\\ and\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ automobile\\ meant\\ that\\ huge\\,\\ sprawling\\ cities\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ West\\,\\ like\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ and\\ Houston\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ automobile\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ create\\ such\\ sprawling\\ cities\\ in\\ the\\ East\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ already\\ mostly\\ developed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ only\\ build\\ up\\,\\ not\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ during\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ \\(term\\ 44\\)\\,\\ Oakies\\ \\(term\\ 45\\)\\ used\\ the\\ easily\\ accessible\\ highway\\ system\\ to\\ travel\\ West\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ better\\ work\\ and\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ this\\ changed\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ helped\\ there\\ to\\ be\\ cheap\\ labor\\,\\ thus\\ boosting\\ the\\ agriculture\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ traveling\\ across\\ route\\ 66\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ to\\ Easterners\\,\\ the\\ West\\ now\\ becomes\\ an\\ easily\\ reachable\\ tourist\\ attraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ especially\\ with\\ huge\\ impact\\ of\\ Hollywood\\,\\ everyone\\ wants\\ to\\ go\\ see\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\West\\ in\\ real\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ completely\\ changed\\ Indian\\ lifestyle\\-\\ Indians\\ became\\ dependent\\ on\\ horses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ made\\ Indians\\ able\\ to\\ cover\\ more\\ territory\\,\\ which\\ was\\ good\\ for\\ trading\\ and\\ hunting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ horses\\ are\\ a\\ status\\ symbol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ships\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Shipyards\\ provided\\ work\\ during\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ homesteading\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ the\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ in\\ 1862\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ suburbs\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\ reflect\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ independence\\ and\\ ownership\\ in\\ western\\ and\\ American\\ history\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Refer\\ to\\ DJ\\ Waldie\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Holy\\ Land\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mike\\ Davis\\ \\&ldquo\\;Homegrown\\ Revolution\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ terms\\:\\ \\ \\;Homestead\\ Act\\ \\(1862\\)\\,\\ Dawes\\ Act\\ \\(1887\\)\\,\\ Suburbs\\,\\ Federal\\ Housing\\ Administration\\ \\(FHA\\)\\,\\ Lakewood\\ Company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Homestead\\ Act\\ of\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ means\\ devised\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ of\\ distributing\\ public\\ land\\ to\\ individual\\ farmers\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ limit\\ of\\ 160\\ acres\\/family\\ was\\ imposed\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ individual\\ holdings\\ and\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ free\\ or\\ cheap\\ for\\ to\\ encourage\\ as\\ many\\ families\\ to\\ become\\ self\\-sufficient\\ farmers\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ theme\\ that\\ recurred\\ in\\ Professor\\ St\\.\\ John\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lectures\\ was\\ the\\ Western\\ myth\\ \\(traced\\ to\\ Jefferson\\)\\ that\\ land\\ ownership\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ the\\ independence\\ that\\ defined\\ American\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ and\\ other\\ government\\ programs\\ for\\ land\\ distribution\\ were\\,\\ in\\ effect\\,\\ an\\ endorsement\\ of\\ these\\ ideas\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ this\\ system\\ of\\ land\\ distribution\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ a\\ failure\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ system\\ only\\ worked\\ for\\ areas\\ with\\ adequate\\ rainfall\\ and\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ quickly\\ transferred\\ to\\ larger\\ holders\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ early\\ twentieth\\,\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ tweaked\\ with\\ this\\ system\\ allowing\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ land\\ to\\ be\\ distributed\\ in\\ larger\\ parcels\\ and\\ for\\ different\\ purposes\\ \\(see\\ the\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Act\\,\\ the\\ Mining\\ Act\\,\\ Dawes\\ Act\\,\\ Desert\\ Land\\ Act\\,\\ Timber\\ and\\ Stone\\ Act\\,\\ and\\ Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\ \\(the\\ specifics\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ not\\ particularly\\ important\\ but\\ were\\ outlined\\ in\\ lecture\\ for\\ 10\\/17\\/05\\)\\)\\,\\ none\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ successful\\ in\\ stimulating\\ renewed\\ independent\\ farming\\ but\\ continued\\ the\\ gradual\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ land\\ was\\ consolidated\\ and\\ those\\ working\\ the\\ land\\ were\\ not\\ the\\ owners\\ and\\ often\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ ethnicity\\ \\(see\\ Foley\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Whiteness\\ of\\ Cotton\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ myth\\ of\\ ownership\\ and\\ independence\\ promulgated\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ was\\ the\\ model\\ by\\ which\\ land\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ distributed\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ distributed\\ land\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ mattered\\ too\\ much\\,\\ because\\ technology\\ and\\ manufacturing\\ steered\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ American\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ direction\\,\\ which\\ has\\ again\\ been\\ modified\\ by\\ service\\ jobs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ development\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\suburbs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ an\\ important\\ direction\\ in\\ Western\\ land\\ use\\.\\ \\ \\;Suburbs\\ were\\ areas\\ of\\ single\\ family\\ homes\\ which\\ often\\ developed\\ around\\ rigid\\ grids\\ with\\ central\\ shopping\\ malls\\ and\\ emphasized\\ sameness\\ of\\ architecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Planned\\ suburbs\\ \\(the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ which\\ perhaps\\ being\\ Lakewood\\ CA\\,\\ developed\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lakewood\\ Company\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ developed\\ during\\ the\\ 1950s\\ in\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ both\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ made\\ possible\\ by\\ developments\\ in\\ mortgage\\ financing\\ system\\ fueled\\ by\\ Federal\\ intervention\\ via\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Federal\\ Housing\\ Administration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(which\\ insured\\ private\\ mortgages\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Veterans\\ Administration\\ \\(which\\ insured\\ home\\ loans\\ for\\ Vets\\)\\ that\\ allowed\\ far\\ more\\ people\\ to\\ buy\\ homes\\.\\ \\ \\;Down\\ payments\\,\\ when\\ a\\ loan\\ was\\ insured\\ by\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\,\\ were\\ well\\ within\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ a\\ middle\\ class\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\ intervened\\ to\\ promote\\ this\\ image\\ of\\ individual\\ ownership\\ being\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Developers\\ stepped\\ in\\ and\\ produced\\ large\\ settlements\\ of\\ cheap\\ homes\\ for\\ mass\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;Owning\\ a\\ home\\,\\ it\\ was\\ thought\\,\\ allowed\\ a\\ family\\ to\\ express\\ their\\ Americanness\\ and\\ develop\\ as\\ a\\ strong\\,\\ healthy\\,\\ individual\\ unit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Again\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ many\\ cultural\\ observers\\ have\\ criticized\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ suburbanization\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ have\\ felt\\ that\\ suburbs\\ force\\ them\\ into\\ restrictive\\ gender\\ roles\\.\\ \\ \\;DJ\\ Waldie\\ noted\\ the\\ exclusion\\ of\\ Jews\\ and\\ blacks\\ from\\ suburban\\ communities\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ the\\ grid\\ and\\ the\\ sameness\\ paralyze\\ identity\\?\\ \\ \\;Was\\ American\\ individuality\\ overrun\\ by\\ television\\,\\ advertisement\\,\\ and\\ consumption\\?\\ \\ \\;Waldie\\&\\#39\\;s\\ book\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ failure\\,\\ Lakewood\\ did\\ not\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ happy\\,\\ healthy\\ dream\\ town\\ envisioned\\ by\\ its\\ founders\\ and\\ original\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gist\\ of\\ this\\ thing\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Federal\\ Government\\ first\\ distributed\\ land\\ and\\ then\\ reshaped\\ the\\ home\\ finance\\ system\\ to\\ encourage\\ individual\\ land\\ and\\ home\\ ownership\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ system\\ stems\\ from\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ independence\\ and\\ fundamental\\ American\\ qualities\\ deriving\\ from\\ independent\\ land\\ ownership\\.\\ \\ \\;Neither\\ the\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ or\\ the\\ suburbs\\ developed\\ as\\ originally\\ envisioned\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ have\\ spawned\\ criticism\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ later\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cities\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cities\\ in\\ fact\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ major\\ part\\ of\\ Western\\ History\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ numerous\\ images\\ of\\ wilderness\\ and\\ rural\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Fur\\ trading\\ Outposts\\/Hubs\\ of\\ Commerce\\&mdash\\;The\\ French\\ and\\ English\\ Settlers\\ used\\ these\\ places\\ for\\ commerce\\ and\\ to\\ get\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Resupply\\ Stations\\ on\\ the\\ Wagon\\ Trains\\&mdash\\;Often\\ people\\ would\\ book\\ their\\ journey\\ from\\ Resupply\\ Station\\ to\\ Resupply\\ Station\\.\\ Towns\\ Sprang\\ around\\ these\\ areas\\ and\\ where\\ people\\ chose\\ to\\ populate\\.\\ Larger\\ Network\\.\\ Think\\ the\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\ Computer\\ Game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Cities\\ are\\ commercial\\ centers\\.\\ Place\\ where\\ people\\ could\\ go\\ to\\ find\\ civilization\\,\\ entertainment\\,\\ Women\\.\\ It\\ provides\\ them\\ a\\ tie\\ to\\ society\\.\\ \\(Think\\ Gold\\ Rush\\/Saloons\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hollywood\\ Rose\\ up\\ made\\ the\\ West\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ today\\.\\ Made\\ West\\ center\\ of\\ US\\ society\\ and\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Cities\\ changed\\ Western\\ Landscape\\.\\ Federal\\ Government\\ with\\ irrigation\\ projects\\,\\ railroads\\ either\\ spelled\\ \\ \\;boom\\/bust\\ for\\ cities\\,\\ suburbs\\ changing\\ the\\ landscape\\.\\ \\(Think\\ the\\ Red\\ Queen\\ Book\\.\\ Chinatown\\.\\,\\ DJ\\ Waldies\\ \\&ldquo\\;Holy\\ Land\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Were\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ all\\ this\\ extra\\ disposable\\ land\\ for\\ projects\\ and\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Bases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conflict\\ over\\ rural\\ vs\\.\\ urban\\,\\ what\\ the\\ West\\ should\\ become\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ developed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Books\\ to\\ look\\ at\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elliott\\ West\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Contested\\ Plains\\:\\ Indians\\,\\ Goldseekers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Rush\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Richard\\ White\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Organic\\ Machine\\:\\ The\\ Remaking\\ of\\ the\\ Columbia\\ River\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ì\\;Chinatown\\î\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.J\\.\\ Waldie\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Holy\\ Land\\:\\ A\\ Suburban\\ Memoir\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rivers\\ as\\ providing\\ means\\ for\\ survival\\,\\ means\\ for\\ land\\ transformation\\,\\ and\\ a\\ solid\\ power\\ source\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Control\\ of\\ Rivers\\ for\\ the\\ earliest\\ settlers\\ was\\ an\\ essential\\ means\\ of\\ survival\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ needed\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ river\\ as\\ means\\ for\\ a\\ quality\\ water\\ source\\ and\\ also\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ more\\ rapid\\ transportation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rivers\\ also\\ provided\\ those\\ that\\ needed\\ it\\ with\\ water\\ for\\ irrigation\\ for\\ their\\ crops\\ and\\ with\\ methods\\ of\\ sifting\\ through\\ content\\ from\\ mines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ indigenous\\ peoples\\ needed\\ the\\ rivers\\ for\\ their\\ horses\\ and\\ the\\ fertile\\ grass\\ that\\ lined\\ the\\ rivers\\ that\\ flowed\\ through\\ the\\ region\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ as\\ the\\ white\\ influence\\ grew\\ throughout\\ the\\ west\\ it\\ cut\\ back\\ on\\ the\\ Indians\\ ability\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ regular\\ migratory\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reisner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\ shows\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ to\\ sustain\\ life\\ and\\ transform\\ land\\ in\\ his\\ examination\\ of\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ LA\\ aqueduct\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ diverting\\ the\\ water\\ of\\ the\\ Owens\\ Valley\\ to\\ flow\\ down\\ to\\ LA\\,\\ Mulholland\\ and\\ his\\ business\\ backers\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ manipulation\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ source\\ and\\ the\\ inclusion\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ seedy\\ characters\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ shows\\ how\\ important\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ water\\ into\\ the\\ LA\\ area\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;Whoever\\ controlled\\ the\\ water\\ source\\ controlled\\ the\\ city\\ because\\ without\\ its\\ water\\ being\\ shipped\\ in\\ \\(or\\ stolen\\)\\ from\\ the\\ Owens\\ Valley\\,\\ the\\ city\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ unable\\ to\\ survive\\,\\ so\\ anyone\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ obtain\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ vied\\ for\\ a\\ hand\\ in\\ the\\ controlling\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ source\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ reason\\ why\\ LA\\ has\\ become\\ such\\ a\\ large\\ and\\ influential\\ city\\ while\\ the\\ natural\\ path\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ has\\ not\\ produced\\ a\\ sister\\ city\\,\\ because\\ the\\ river\\ was\\ tamed\\ and\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ LA\\ for\\ their\\ benefit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ Columbia\\ river\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ driving\\ both\\ nuclear\\ and\\ non\\ nuclear\\ power\\ plants\\ just\\ again\\ shows\\ how\\ important\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ control\\ over\\ a\\ river\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ authorized\\ the\\ building\\ of\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ dams\\ up\\ and\\ down\\ the\\ Columbia\\ they\\ gave\\ power\\ plants\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ harness\\ the\\ power\\ from\\ the\\ rapids\\ of\\ the\\ river\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ putting\\ up\\ dams\\ the\\ shape\\ and\\ flow\\ of\\ a\\ river\\ was\\ once\\ again\\ changed\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ benefit\\ a\\ special\\ interest\\ of\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ again\\,\\ however\\,\\ where\\ the\\ controlling\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ aided\\ one\\ cause\\ as\\ with\\ the\\ settlers\\ and\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ LA\\,\\ it\\ also\\ had\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ some\\,\\ such\\ as\\ were\\ had\\ on\\ the\\ Indians\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ the\\ water\\ that\\ LA\\ channeled\\ would\\ have\\ naturally\\ flowed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ building\\ of\\ dams\\ on\\ the\\ Columbia\\ to\\ harness\\ the\\ river\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ hurt\\ many\\ local\\ fishermen\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ migratory\\ patterns\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ river\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fish\\,\\ thus\\ slowing\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ fish\\ to\\ small\\ business\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ability\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ rivers\\ allowed\\ for\\ settlers\\ to\\ migrate\\ to\\ the\\ west\\,\\ a\\ city\\ to\\ rise\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ desert\\,\\ and\\ for\\ immense\\ amounts\\ of\\ power\\ to\\ be\\ generated\\ in\\ the\\ northwest\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ rivers\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ employed\\ them\\ for\\ these\\ reasons\\ had\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ those\\ who\\ had\\ previously\\ controlled\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ thing\\ is\\ for\\ sure\\,\\ in\\ the\\ struggle\\ over\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ rivers\\,\\ history\\ proves\\ to\\ have\\ favored\\ those\\ who\\ won\\ their\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ option\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Rivers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Control\\ of\\ rivers\\ can\\ be\\ analyzed\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ federal\\ control\\ vs\\.\\ private\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Government\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ entity\\ willing\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ massive\\ costs\\ of\\ damming\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ controlled\\ water\\ stood\\ to\\ make\\ tons\\ of\\ money\\ \\(Red\\ Queen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transportation\\ of\\ goods\\ on\\ rivers\\ defined\\ early\\ western\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Alvar\\ Nu\\ñ\\;\\é\\;z\\ Cabeza\\ de\\ Vaca\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ explorer\\ who\\ \\ \\;went\\ to\\ Florida\\ to\\ find\\ slaves\\ in\\ 1528\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ search\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ riches\\ Cabeza\\ de\\ Vaca\\ got\\ lost\\ and\\ ended\\ up\\ skirting\\ the\\ Gulf\\ Coast\\ from\\ Florida\\ to\\ Texas\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ shipwrecked\\ in\\ Galveston\\,\\ TX\\ but\\ continued\\ through\\ TX\\ and\\ Mexico\\ using\\ the\\ Rio\\ Grande\\.\\ \\ \\;Came\\ into\\ contact\\ with\\ Caddo\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;Indians\\ believed\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ god\\ and\\ he\\ believed\\ the\\ Indians\\ lived\\ in\\ pure\\ luxury\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ journey\\ sparked\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ west\\ \\(Coronado\\ and\\ De\\ Soto\\)\\ of\\ dreams\\ of\\ wealthy\\ cities\\ and\\ gold\\.\\ \\ \\;De\\ Vaca\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ conqueror\\ he\\ was\\ merely\\ \\(lost\\)\\ floundering\\.\\ \\(9\\/26\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Francisco\\ V\\á\\;squez\\ de\\ Coronado\\ \\(1540\\-2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ conquistador\\ determined\\ to\\ find\\ gold\\ and\\ wealth\\;\\ provoked\\ by\\ De\\ Vaca\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inferences\\ of\\ wealthy\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ searching\\ for\\ the\\ seven\\ golden\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;seven\\ golden\\ cities\\&rdquo\\;\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ only\\ poor\\ pueblos\\ of\\ the\\ Zuni\\ tribe\\.\\ \\ \\;Coronado\\ and\\ his\\ army\\ forcibly\\ took\\ over\\ Cibola\\ \\(kills\\ and\\ burns\\)\\ \\ \\;and\\ other\\ pueblos\\ claiming\\ people\\ and\\ land\\ for\\ the\\ pope\\.\\ \\ \\;Journeys\\ to\\ Wichita\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ riches\\ only\\ to\\ find\\ poor\\ Wichita\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;Returns\\ to\\ Spanish\\ Mexico\\ with\\ no\\ gold\\.\\ \\(9\\/26\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Pueblo\\ Revolt\\ of\\ 1680\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Coordinated\\ Pueblo\\ Indian\\ resistance\\ to\\ Spanish\\/Franciscan\\ oppression\\.\\ \\ \\;Increasing\\ violence\\ by\\ frays\\ and\\ Spanish\\ Army\\,\\ violence\\ against\\ sacred\\ Indian\\ objects\\ and\\ locations\\,\\ and\\ defamation\\ to\\ Pueblo\\ religion\\ and\\ culture\\;\\ sparked\\ Pueblo\\ coordination\\ to\\ revolt\\ against\\ Spanish\\.\\ \\ \\;Masterminded\\ by\\ Pope\\ \\ \\;\\(include\\ a\\ dash\\ above\\ the\\ e\\ in\\ Pope\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ caught\\ by\\ surprise\\.\\ \\ \\;Hundreds\\ of\\ soldiers\\ and\\ friars\\ were\\ murdered\\.\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ evacuate\\ to\\ El\\ Paso\\ and\\ remain\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ pueblos\\ until\\ 1896\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(9\\/28\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\-\\ Additional\\ information\\ and\\ revolt\\ theories\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ What\\ Caused\\ the\\ Pueblo\\ Revolt\\ of\\ 1680\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Louisiana\\ Purchase\\,\\ 1803\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\With\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ expand\\ for\\ defensive\\ measures\\ \\(Sp\\ and\\ Fr\\ controlled\\ Mississippi\\ River\\=US\\ dependent\\ on\\ foreign\\ powers\\)\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ agrarianism\\ principles\\,\\ US\\ purchases\\ Louisiana\\ from\\ Napoleon\\ for\\ \\$15\\ million\\ dollars\\.\\ \\ \\;Land\\ boundary\\ is\\ ill\\-defined\\.\\ \\ \\;LP\\ is\\ the\\ onset\\ of\\ American\\ expansionism\\ and\\ initiates\\ US\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\.\\ \\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Lewis\\ \\&\\;\\ Clark\\ Expedition\\,\\ 1804\\-1806\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Expedition\\ backed\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ northwest\\ passage\\ and\\ to\\ discover\\/explore\\ the\\ land\\ acquired\\ in\\ the\\ LP\\.\\ \\ \\;43\\ men\\,\\ dependent\\ on\\ fur\\ traders\\ and\\ Indians\\,\\ traveled\\ through\\ existing\\ Indian\\/fur\\ trader\\ social\\ networks\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mission\\ was\\ successful\\ scientifically\\ in\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ unknown\\ flora\\ and\\ fauna\\ and\\ was\\ successful\\ in\\ discovering\\ the\\ ethnographics\\ of\\ LP\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Gained\\ extensive\\ knowledge\\ of\\ West\\ geography\\ through\\ detailed\\ maps\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Zebulon\\ Pike\\ \\(1806\\-7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\American\\ explorer\\ backed\\ by\\ government\\ to\\ forge\\ relationships\\ with\\ Indians\\ who\\ held\\ allegiance\\ to\\ Spain\\ and\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ military\\ strength\\ of\\ Spain\\ in\\ US\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Louisiana\\ Territory\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(by\\ way\\ of\\ the\\ Red\\ River\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Pike\\ was\\ overtaken\\ by\\ Spanish\\,\\ imprisoned\\,\\ and\\ was\\ led\\ through\\ the\\ Southwest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Sp\\.\\ considered\\ him\\ a\\ spy\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ Sp\\.\\ led\\ journey\\ he\\ discovered\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ Sp\\.\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ West\\ and\\ the\\ geography\\ of\\ the\\ southern\\ exposures\\ of\\ the\\ Louisiana\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ loose\\ path\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ later\\ named\\ the\\ Sante\\ Fe\\ trail\\.\\ Early\\ inroad\\ to\\ the\\ southwest\\.\\ \\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Fur\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\French\\ and\\ English\\ mountain\\ men\\ depended\\ on\\ interracial\\ marriage\\ with\\ Indian\\ and\\ Mexican\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ intermarriages\\ granted\\ mountain\\ men\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ furs\\ of\\ beaver\\ and\\ later\\ bison\\.\\ \\ \\;Trade\\ hinged\\ on\\ the\\ Rendezvous\\ System\\,\\ created\\ by\\ Jedediah\\ Smith\\ and\\ William\\ Ashley\\ in\\ the\\ Tetons\\,\\ where\\ Natives\\ and\\ fur\\ trappers\\ met\\ to\\ trade\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ pelts\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ beaver\\ pelts\\ became\\ unpopular\\ and\\ out\\-trapped\\,\\ fur\\ traders\\ began\\ hunting\\ bison\\ for\\ their\\ fur\\.\\ \\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1821\\,\\ the\\ Sante\\ Fe\\ Trail\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ dominant\\ and\\ defined\\ trading\\ trail\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;William\\ Becknell\\,\\ following\\ in\\ Zebulon\\ Pike\\&rsquo\\;s\\ footsteps\\,\\ created\\ the\\ SF\\ Trail\\.\\ \\ \\;Trail\\ spurred\\ bi\\-national\\ trading\\ and\\ bi\\-national\\ marriages\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ trail\\ from\\ Missouri\\ to\\ Santa\\ Fe\\,\\ NM\\ was\\ a\\ vital\\ military\\ and\\ commercial\\ highway\\ until\\ the\\ railroad\\ was\\ established\\ in\\ the\\ Southwest\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ route\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ army\\ used\\ to\\ invade\\ Mexico\\ in\\ the\\ Am\\/Mex\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Additional\\ information\\ in\\ Down\\ the\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Trail\\ and\\ into\\ Mexico\\)\\ \\ \\;\\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\&mdash\\;the\\ term\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\ was\\ coined\\ by\\ John\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\ in\\ 1845\\ and\\ referred\\ to\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ America\\ was\\ destined\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ expand\\ westward\\ across\\ the\\ continent\\ and\\ spread\\ democracy\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ morally\\ justify\\ expansion\\,\\ conquest\\,\\ and\\ annexation\\ in\\ the\\ West\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ was\\ important\\ in\\ Polk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expansionist\\ policy\\,\\ when\\ he\\ took\\ his\\ presidential\\ victory\\ as\\ a\\ mandate\\ for\\ expansion\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Oregon\\ Question\\,\\ the\\ dispute\\ between\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ Great\\ Britain\\ over\\ the\\ boundary\\ of\\ Oregon\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ annexation\\ of\\ Texas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\&mdash\\;The\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ was\\ fought\\ between\\ Mexico\\ and\\ America\\ between\\ 1846\\ and\\ 1848\\ over\\ the\\ borders\\ of\\ Texas\\.\\ The\\ disputed\\ land\\ was\\ the\\ Nueces\\ strip\\,\\ the\\ strip\\ of\\ land\\ between\\ the\\ Nueces\\ River\\ and\\ the\\ Rio\\ Grande\\.\\ Polk\\ wanted\\ an\\ excuse\\ for\\ war\\ and\\ expansion\\,\\ which\\ he\\ found\\ when\\ he\\ sent\\ troops\\ into\\ the\\ Nueces\\ strip\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ fired\\ upon\\ by\\ the\\ Mexican\\ patrol\\.\\ This\\ war\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ Polk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expansionist\\ policy\\,\\ though\\ it\\ was\\ unpopular\\ in\\ the\\ North\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ ended\\ by\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Guadalupe\\ Hidalgo\\ in\\ 1848\\ when\\ Mexico\\ lost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Guadalupe\\ Hidalgo\\,\\ 1848\\&mdash\\;This\\ treaty\\ ended\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ in\\ 1848\\.\\ Mexico\\ lost\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ gave\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ control\\ of\\ Texas\\,\\ California\\,\\ and\\ other\\ lands\\ that\\ totaled\\ almost\\ half\\ of\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ territory\\ before\\ the\\ treaty\\.\\ In\\ return\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ paid\\ \\$18\\,250\\,000\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ Gadsden\\ Purchase\\,\\ 1853\\&mdash\\;The\\ Gadsden\\ Purchase\\ was\\ a\\ small\\ strip\\ of\\ land\\ in\\ current\\ Arizona\\ and\\ New\\ Mexico\\ purchased\\ by\\ the\\ US\\ from\\ Mexico\\ in\\ 1853\\.\\ The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ paid\\ \\$10\\ million\\ for\\ this\\ small\\ area\\ of\\ land\\ that\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ proposed\\ southern\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ route\\.\\ This\\ purchase\\ thus\\ also\\ played\\ into\\ sectional\\ disputes\\ over\\ the\\ route\\ that\\ a\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ should\\ take\\ and\\ over\\ slavery\\.\\ With\\ this\\ purchase\\ the\\ final\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ continental\\ U\\.S\\.\\ were\\ defined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ John\\ C\\.\\ Fr\\é\\;mont\\ \\(1813\\-1890\\)\\&mdash\\;John\\ C\\.\\ Fr\\é\\;mont\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Army\\ Corps\\ of\\ Topographical\\ Engineers\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1840s\\,\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ \\(1846\\-1848\\)\\,\\ and\\ ran\\ for\\ president\\ \\(1856\\)\\.\\ This\\ Army\\ Corps\\ of\\ Topographical\\ Engineers\\ was\\ a\\ military\\ arm\\ under\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ president\\,\\ but\\ most\\ were\\ trained\\ as\\ scientists\\.\\ Fremont\\,\\ with\\ this\\ corps\\ explored\\ and\\ mapped\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ Rockies\\ and\\ California\\,\\ and\\ the\\ information\\ he\\ brought\\ back\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ convince\\ Americans\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ worthwhile\\ acquisition\\.\\ This\\ was\\ how\\ he\\ earned\\ the\\ nickname\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ Pathfinder\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ his\\ service\\ with\\ the\\ Topographical\\ Engineers\\ shows\\ how\\ exploration\\ and\\ conquest\\ were\\ joined\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ mind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Surveys\\,\\ 1853\\-1855\\&mdash\\;These\\ surveys\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ attempt\\ to\\ resolve\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ where\\ the\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ should\\ go\\,\\ which\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ sectional\\ debate\\ between\\ North\\ and\\ South\\.\\ Though\\ some\\ topographical\\ engineers\\ went\\ on\\ these\\ surveys\\,\\ there\\ were\\ not\\ railroad\\ engineers\\ with\\ them\\.\\ These\\ surveys\\ tried\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ best\\ route\\ for\\ a\\ railroad\\ and\\ showed\\ how\\ people\\ were\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ scientific\\ answer\\ to\\ a\\ political\\ question\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ Overland\\ Trails\\&mdash\\;The\\ Overland\\ Trail\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ ways\\ to\\ travel\\ to\\ the\\ west\\.\\ Traveling\\ on\\ an\\ overland\\ trail\\ required\\ a\\ tight\\ schedule\\ and\\ leaving\\ at\\ a\\ specific\\ time\\ and\\ between\\ 1840\\ and\\ 1860\\,\\ 300\\,000\\ people\\ traveled\\ west\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ People\\ traveled\\ in\\ groups\\ or\\ wagon\\ trains\\ and\\ often\\ moved\\ west\\ in\\ family\\ units\\,\\ transporting\\ American\\ society\\ and\\ culture\\ with\\ them\\.\\ The\\ overland\\ trails\\ also\\ offered\\ economic\\ opportunities\\ to\\ many\\,\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ promoted\\ certain\\ trails\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ became\\ suppliers\\ or\\ ran\\ ferries\\,\\ though\\ these\\ trails\\ also\\ exacted\\ an\\ ecological\\ toll\\ on\\ the\\ land\\ they\\ passed\\ through\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\ The\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\&mdash\\;This\\ was\\ an\\ overland\\ trail\\ to\\ the\\ west\\ that\\ started\\ in\\ Independence\\,\\ Missouri\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ Oregon\\ that\\ was\\ most\\ used\\ between\\ 1840\\ and\\ 1869\\,\\ before\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ the\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\.\\ The\\ first\\ people\\ who\\ went\\ on\\ the\\ trail\\ were\\ missionaries\\,\\ the\\ Whitmans\\,\\ who\\ started\\ a\\ mission\\ to\\ convert\\ Indians\\ that\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ stopping\\ point\\ on\\ the\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\.\\ \\(more\\ general\\ information\\ about\\ Overland\\ Trails\\ could\\ be\\ filled\\ in\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.Brigham\\ Young\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brigham\\ Young\\ became\\ the\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Mormons\\ after\\ Joseph\\ Smith\\ was\\ assassinated\\ in\\ Illinois\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ led\\ them\\ west\\ to\\ Utah\\ where\\ he\\ founded\\ Salt\\ Lake\\ City\\ \\(1846\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ escapes\\ the\\ persecution\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ facing\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ Illinois\\.\\ \\ \\;Young\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ he\\ created\\ a\\ highly\\ organized\\ system\\ of\\ migration\\ that\\ was\\ efficient\\ but\\ strenuous\\ \\(handcart\\ co\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ his\\ decision\\ to\\ lead\\ the\\ Mormons\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ significant\\ because\\ at\\ that\\ time\\ Utah\\ was\\ technically\\ still\\ Mexican\\ territory\\,\\ and\\ this\\ in\\ turn\\ shows\\ that\\ Americans\\ truly\\ did\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\18\\.\\ California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\ \\(1849\\)\\ was\\ the\\ pinnacle\\ of\\ the\\ placer\\ miner\\ movement\\ to\\ California\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ remembered\\ for\\ its\\ excessive\\ optimism\\,\\ embellished\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ the\\ influx\\ of\\ single\\ males\\ that\\ it\\ brought\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ coast\\.\\ \\ \\;Work\\ was\\ very\\ hard\\ for\\ the\\ miners\\ who\\ rarely\\ struck\\ it\\ rich\\ on\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ vast\\ lands\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ trying\\ to\\ plunder\\.\\ \\ \\;Still\\,\\ the\\ opportunity\\ of\\ striking\\ it\\ rich\\ led\\ thousands\\ to\\ migrate\\ westward\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ general\\,\\ the\\ Gold\\ Rush\\ of\\ 1849\\ played\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ of\\ California\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\19\\.\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1862\\,\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\,\\ under\\ the\\ leadership\\ of\\ Abe\\ Lincoln\\,\\ funded\\ and\\ supported\\ the\\ building\\ of\\ a\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroad\\ across\\ the\\ northern\\ plains\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ signed\\ contracts\\ with\\ the\\ Union\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ and\\ the\\ Central\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ companies\\ for\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ railroad\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ gave\\ these\\ companies\\ the\\ land\\ for\\ the\\ tracks\\ and\\ money\\ for\\ their\\ efforts\\ \\(earned\\ \\$16k\\ mile\\ \\(flat\\)\\,\\ \\$48k\\ \\(mountain\\)\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ involvement\\ with\\ trying\\ to\\ encourage\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ out\\ west\\ and\\ with\\ trying\\ to\\ make\\ transportation\\ of\\ goods\\ to\\ the\\ East\\ easier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\20\\.\\ First\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroad\\,\\ 1863\\-1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Union\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ and\\ the\\ Central\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ literally\\ raced\\ each\\ other\\ to\\ complete\\ this\\ railroad\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ they\\ got\\ paid\\ by\\ the\\ mile\\ by\\ the\\ government\\,\\ the\\ tracks\\ were\\ built\\ cheaply\\ and\\ sloppily\\ and\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ replaced\\ shortly\\ after\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ the\\ road\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ met\\ in\\ Promontory\\ Point\\,\\ UT\\ in\\ 1869\\&mdash\\;the\\ reason\\ why\\ it\\ took\\ so\\ long\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ companies\\ encountered\\ problems\\ with\\ Indians\\,\\ Sierra\\ Nevada\\ Mountains\\,\\ labor\\ \\(12k\\ died\\,\\ including\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ foreign\\ laborers\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ railroad\\,\\ however\\,\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ great\\ accomplishment\\ because\\ it\\ connected\\ the\\ East\\ to\\ the\\ West\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ it\\ signifies\\ an\\ open\\ gateway\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\21\\.\\ Homestead\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ was\\ a\\ plan\\ that\\ promoted\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ that\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ had\\ envisioned\\ for\\ Americans\\&mdash\\;small\\ farmers\\ living\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ accords\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ plan\\ stipulated\\ that\\ Americans\\ could\\ move\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ get\\ 160acres\\ of\\ land\\ either\\ for\\ free\\ by\\ living\\ on\\ it\\ for\\ five\\ years\\ or\\ by\\ paying\\ \\$1\\ an\\ acre\\ and\\ living\\ on\\ it\\ for\\ six\\ months\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Act\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ convinced\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ try\\ their\\ luck\\ at\\ farming\\;\\ however\\,\\ it\\ only\\ worked\\ well\\ in\\ agriculturally\\ sound\\ places\\ where\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ rainfall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\22\\.\\ Reservation\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ the\\ latter\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ reservation\\ system\\ which\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\land\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ was\\ managed\\ by\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Native\\ American\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\tribe\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;under\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ Department\\ of\\ the\\ Interior\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bureau\\ of\\ Indian\\ Affairs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ reservations\\ were\\ originally\\ set\\ up\\ like\\ concentration\\ camps\\ in\\ 1869\\,\\ but\\ later\\ changed\\ into\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ today\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;They\\ have\\ limited\\ national\\ sovereignty\\ because\\ the\\ lands\\ are\\ federally\\ owned\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ highlight\\ how\\ hard\\ it\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ Indian\\ \\&ldquo\\;problem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ reservations\\ were\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ a\\ perfect\\ solution\\ on\\ account\\ of\\ there\\ were\\ factional\\ struggles\\ over\\ land\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ central\\ leadership\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ intertribal\\ conflict\\ within\\ the\\ reservations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\23\\.\\ Frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ frontier\\ according\\ to\\ Fredrick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\ in\\ 1890\\ was\\ an\\ area\\ that\\ had\\ no\\ fewer\\ than\\ two\\ people\\ per\\ square\\ mile\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ 1890\\,\\ the\\ frontier\\ that\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ rapidly\\ closing\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ large\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ lands\\ had\\ been\\ surveyed\\ and\\ settled\\ on\\,\\ and\\ people\\ were\\ populating\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ remote\\ of\\ places\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ political\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ frontier\\ represents\\ the\\ independence\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ American\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ today\\,\\ we\\ are\\ still\\ chasing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;frontier\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ places\\ like\\ space\\&mdash\\;we\\ are\\ continually\\ striving\\ to\\ go\\ farther\\ and\\ become\\ greater\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ we\\ used\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ West\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ until\\ the\\ 1980s\\ when\\ historians\\ started\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ paradigm\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ regional\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ Fredrick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fredrick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\ was\\ a\\ scholar\\ and\\ historian\\ from\\ Wisconsin\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ paper\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Significance\\ of\\ the\\ Frontier\\ in\\ American\\ History\\&rdquo\\;\\ coincided\\ with\\ the\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Exposition\\ in\\ 1893\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ paper\\ he\\ used\\ the\\ US\\ census\\ of\\ 1890\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ claimed\\ that\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ free\\ land\\ secured\\ the\\ progress\\ and\\ maintained\\ the\\ Jeffersonian\\ ideal\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ within\\ the\\ paper\\,\\ he\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ frontier\\ is\\ closing\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ in\\ trouble\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ more\\ areas\\ to\\ explore\\ and\\ expand\\ into\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Terms\\ 25\\-32\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\.\\ Open\\ Range\\ Ranching\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ type\\ of\\ cattle\\ ranching\\ that\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ Great\\ Plains\\ region\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ after\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ most\\ Native\\ Americans\\ and\\ bison\\,\\ and\\ before\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ homesteaders\\.\\ These\\ \\&ldquo\\;open\\ ranges\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ public\\ tracts\\ of\\ land\\ where\\ anybody\\ could\\ turn\\ their\\ cattle\\ loose\\ for\\ grazing\\.\\ Towards\\ the\\ late\\ nineteenth\\-century\\ the\\ fencing\\ off\\ of\\ privately\\-owned\\ lands\\ and\\ increase\\ in\\ arable\\ farming\\ limited\\ open\\ range\\ ranching\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\.\\ Occupational\\ Segregation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Late\\ nineteenth\\/early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ practice\\ of\\ separation\\ based\\ on\\ race\\ in\\ the\\ wage\\-earning\\ workforce\\ of\\ the\\ West\\.\\ Created\\ racial\\ divides\\ and\\ prohibited\\ certain\\ races\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ blacks\\,\\ Chinese\\)\\ from\\ advancing\\ in\\ their\\ industry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\.\\ Dual\\ Wage\\ System\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Related\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Occupational\\ Segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(see\\ above\\)\\.\\ Late\\ nineteenth\\/early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ practice\\ of\\ paying\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ races\\ different\\ amounts\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ job\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ this\\ focuses\\ on\\ whites\\ receiving\\ more\\ pay\\ than\\ minorities\\ for\\ similar\\ jobs\\,\\ it\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ the\\ early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ Dual\\ Wage\\ System\\ that\\ women\\ experienced\\ in\\ the\\ workforce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\36\\.\\ Anti\\-coolie\\ Clubs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Thousands\\ of\\ Chinese\\ came\\ to\\ California\\ during\\ the\\ 1860\\&\\#39\\;s\\ and\\ 70\\&\\#39\\;s\\ to\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ railroads\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ tracks\\ were\\ laid\\,\\ they\\ stayed\\ on\\ in\\ timbering\\,\\ farming\\,\\ cigar\\-making\\ and\\ household\\ jobs\\.\\ While\\ times\\ were\\ good\\,\\ white\\ Californians\\ co\\-existed\\ amiably\\ enough\\ with\\ Asian\\ immigrants\\,\\ but\\ the\\ late\\ 1870\\&\\#39\\;s\\ and\\ 80\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brought\\ an\\ economic\\ downturn\\.\\ White\\ immigrants\\,\\ most\\ of\\ them\\ recent\\ arrivals\\ in\\ California\\ themselves\\,\\ blamed\\ the\\ Chinese\\ for\\ their\\ labor\\ woes\\.\\ Anti\\-Chinese\\ clubs\\ began\\ forming\\ in\\ 1878\\.\\ By\\ 1885\\,\\ disgruntled\\ white\\ workers\\ clamored\\ for\\ the\\ expulsion\\ of\\ California\\&\\#39\\;s\\ quarter\\ million\\ Chinese\\,\\ and\\ politicians\\ seized\\ on\\ the\\ discontent\\ as\\ a\\ hot\\ issue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\37\\.\\ Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\,\\ 1882\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ act\\ excluded\\ all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Chinese\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\laborers\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ 10\\ years\\.\\ Amendments\\ made\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1884\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tightened\\ the\\ provisions\\ that\\ allowed\\ previous\\ immigrants\\ to\\ leave\\ and\\ return\\,\\ and\\ clarified\\ that\\ the\\ law\\ applied\\ to\\ ethnic\\ Chinese\\ regardless\\ of\\ their\\ country\\ of\\ origin\\.\\ The\\ act\\ was\\ passed\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ Chinese\\ who\\ had\\ immigrated\\ to\\ the\\ Western\\ United\\ States\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ unsettled\\ conditions\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\China\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ jobs\\ working\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\railroads\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\immigration\\ law\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;passed\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ targeted\\ at\\ a\\ specific\\ ethnic\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\38\\.\\ Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\ \\(WFM\\)\\ was\\ a\\ radical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\labor\\ union\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ gained\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ militancy\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\mine\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fields\\ of\\ the\\ western\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ founded\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\.\\ Its\\ efforts\\ to\\ organize\\ both\\ hard\\ rock\\ miners\\ and\\ smelter\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Rocky\\ Mountains\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;states\\ brought\\ it\\ into\\ sharp\\ conflicts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ often\\ pitched\\ battles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ with\\ both\\ employers\\ and\\ governmental\\ authorities\\.\\ It\\ also\\ played\\ a\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Industrial\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ 1905\\,\\ but\\ left\\ the\\ group\\ several\\ years\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\39\\.\\ International\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ IWW\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Chicago\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ June\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1905\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ a\\ convention\\ of\\ two\\ hundred\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\socialists\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\anarchists\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ radical\\ trade\\ unionists\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ \\(mainly\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ who\\ were\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ policies\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\American\\ Federation\\ of\\ Labor\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Its\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ promote\\ worker\\ solidarity\\ against\\ the\\ employing\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\.\\ Henrey\\ E\\.\\ Huntington\\ \\&\\;\\ PER\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\ cars\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Shaper\\ of\\ economic\\ life\\ in\\ Southern\\ California\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ decades\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ He\\ was\\ especially\\ interested\\ in\\ Southern\\ California\\ as\\ a\\ territory\\ for\\ railway\\ expansion\\.\\ In\\ 1898\\,\\ he\\ formed\\ a\\ syndicate\\ to\\ buy\\ and\\ reorganize\\ the\\ street\\ railway\\ system\\ of\\ Los\\ Angeles\\.\\ On\\ July\\ 4\\,\\ 1902\\,\\ a\\ crowd\\ of\\ 30\\,000\\ watched\\ a\\ \\"\\;Big\\ Red\\ Car\\"\\;\\ of\\ Huntington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Pacific\\ Electric\\ Railway\\ complete\\ the\\ interurban\\ line\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ scheduled\\ run\\ to\\ Long\\ Beach\\.\\ Within\\ a\\ few\\ years\\,\\ Pacific\\ Electric\\ was\\ operating\\ the\\ most\\ extensive\\ inter\\-urban\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ linking\\ hundreds\\ of\\ Southern\\ California\\ towns\\ with\\ more\\ than\\ 900\\ red\\ cars\\ on\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\,100\\ miles\\ of\\ track\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\41\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\,\\ 1902\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ legislative\\ recognition\\ that\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ had\\ the\\ responsibility\\ and\\ power\\ to\\ institutionally\\ deal\\ with\\ Western\\ aridity\\,\\ and\\ that\\ individual\\ farmers\\ cannot\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\ alone\\.\\ This\\ act\\ gives\\ the\\ Fed\\ government\\ primary\\ responsibility\\ for\\ dam\\ and\\ irrigation\\ projects\\ and\\ creates\\ the\\ Bureau\\ of\\ Reclamation\\.\\ Extremely\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ sets\\ off\\ the\\ trend\\ of\\ a\\)\\ major\\ Federal\\ involvement\\ in\\ irrigation\\ and\\ dam\\ building\\ and\\ b\\)\\ powerful\\ agrobusinesses\\ dominating\\ western\\ agriculture\\ \\(although\\ it\\ theoretically\\ mandated\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ receiving\\ water\\ from\\ federal\\ irrigation\\ projects\\ own\\ more\\ than\\ 160\\ acres\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reclamation\\ Service\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ aka\\ the\\ Bureau\\ of\\ Reclamation\\ created\\ under\\ the\\ Newlands\\ Act\\ of\\ 1902\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ significant\\ for\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ reasons\\.\\ Also\\ brought\\ new\\ Progressive\\ Era\\ techniques\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\ and\\ scientific\\ management\\,\\ and\\ was\\ highly\\ utilitarian\\,\\ though\\ also\\ subject\\ to\\ political\\ pressures\\.\\ By\\ 1906\\,\\ almost\\ every\\ Western\\ state\\ had\\ some\\ federal\\ water\\ project\\ in\\ progress\\.\\ This\\ service\\ basically\\ ends\\ up\\ subsidizing\\ huge\\ agrobusinesses\\ in\\ the\\ West\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ places\\ like\\ the\\ Imperial\\ Valley\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\43\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Repatriation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[Louis\\ said\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ on\\ the\\ final\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\44\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Dust\\ Bowl\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ term\\ used\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ a\\ phenomenon\\ affecting\\ the\\ Southern\\ Plains\\ \\(parts\\ of\\ Kansas\\,\\ Oklahoma\\,\\ Texas\\,\\ New\\ Mexico\\,\\ Nevada\\)\\ during\\ the\\ Depression\\.\\ Non\\-sustainable\\ agricultural\\ practices\\ and\\ years\\ of\\ drought\\ produced\\ an\\ extremely\\ dry\\ and\\ arid\\ climate\\ often\\ afflicted\\ by\\ huge\\ dust\\ storms\\ which\\ made\\ farming\\ and\\ inhabiting\\ these\\ areas\\ difficult\\.\\ The\\ phenomenon\\ is\\ described\\ in\\ John\\ Steinbeck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ responsible\\ for\\ driving\\ the\\ migration\\ of\\ poor\\ farmers\\ from\\ the\\ Midwest\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ during\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\45\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Okies\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ derogatory\\ term\\ for\\ the\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ dust\\ bowl\\ and\\ plains\\ who\\ moved\\ west\\ during\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ dust\\ bowl\\ was\\ hit\\ incredibly\\ hard\\ by\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ ecology\\ \\(people\\ had\\ combined\\ effects\\ of\\ Depression\\,\\ chronic\\ poverty\\,\\ drought\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ so\\ people\\ first\\ moved\\ in\\ droves\\ to\\ California\\.\\ They\\ quickly\\ came\\ under\\ attack\\ by\\ Californians\\ as\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ cutting\\ into\\ work\\ and\\ relief\\ supplies\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ were\\ incredibly\\ stigmatized\\.\\ When\\ they\\ came\\ into\\ California\\,\\ they\\ lose\\ their\\ whiteness\\,\\ and\\ are\\ stereotyped\\ with\\ the\\ characteristics\\ usually\\ used\\ in\\ stereotypes\\ for\\ Hispanics\\ or\\ other\\ minority\\ groups\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ known\\ as\\ lazy\\,\\ lacking\\ in\\ restraint\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ distanced\\ from\\ the\\ term\\ \\"\\;okie\\"\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ major\\ impact\\ the\\ Depression\\ had\\ on\\ the\\ west\\ even\\ indirectly\\,\\ but\\ also\\ of\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ Western\\ identity\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\ impacted\\ by\\ major\\ events\\ and\\ regional\\ conceptions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\46\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;John\\ Steinbeck\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Author\\ who\\ wrote\\ novels\\ about\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ in\\ books\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Showed\\ people\\ moving\\ from\\ the\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ as\\ deserving\\ of\\ sympathy\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ their\\ difficult\\ situation\\ and\\ their\\ whiteness\\.\\ People\\ like\\ Steinbeck\\ combated\\ the\\ vision\\ of\\ Okies\\ as\\ non\\-white\\ people\\ who\\ Californians\\ and\\ others\\ saw\\ as\\ a\\ nuisance\\ to\\ be\\ rid\\ of\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\47\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dorothea\\ Lange\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Photographer\\ who\\ took\\ incredibly\\ famous\\ pictures\\ during\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;Migrant\\ Mother\\"\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Her\\ pictures\\ were\\ incredibly\\ evocative\\ and\\ emotional\\ and\\ garnered\\ sympathy\\,\\ much\\ like\\ Steinbeck\\,\\ for\\ people\\ hit\\ particularly\\ hard\\ by\\ the\\ Depression\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ white\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ were\\ experiencing\\ hard\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ creation\\ of\\ sympathy\\ in\\ Lange\\&\\#39\\;s\\ pictures\\ was\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ whiteness\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\ shows\\ construction\\ of\\ identity\\ in\\ the\\ West\\,\\ the\\ way\\ racial\\ identity\\ affects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\perception\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\48\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Federal\\ Emergency\\ Relief\\ Administration\\ \\(FERA\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ federal\\ agency\\ principally\\ responsible\\ for\\ FDR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ programs\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 100\\ days\\ of\\ depression\\ relief\\.\\ Headed\\ by\\ Harry\\ Hopkins\\,\\ this\\ agency\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ direct\\ relief\\ such\\ as\\ clothing\\ and\\ food\\ distribution\\.\\ Congress\\ allocated\\ \\$500mm\\ to\\ fund\\ this\\,\\ and\\ states\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ match\\ relief\\ funding\\,\\ but\\ most\\ \\(especially\\ in\\ the\\ west\\)\\ simply\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ paying\\ for\\ nearly\\ all\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Between\\ 1933\\ and\\ 1939\\,\\ the\\ west\\ received\\ the\\ most\\ per\\ capita\\ relief\\ out\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regions\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ relief\\ was\\ often\\ distributed\\ according\\ to\\ racial\\ hierarchies\\,\\ further\\ perpetuating\\ racial\\ divisions\\ in\\ the\\ west\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\49\\.\\ Agricultural\\ Adjustment\\ Administration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;New\\ Deal\\ program\\.\\ Its\\ purpose\\ was\\ to\\ help\\ farmers\\ by\\ reducing\\ production\\ of\\ staple\\ crops\\,\\ thus\\ raising\\ farm\\ prices\\ and\\ encouraging\\ more\\ diversified\\ farming\\.\\ Farmers\\ were\\ given\\ benefit\\ payments\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ limiting\\ acreage\\ given\\ to\\ staple\\ crops\\;\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ cotton\\ and\\ tobacco\\ coercive\\ taxes\\ forced\\ \\(1934\\-35\\)\\ farmers\\ to\\ cut\\ the\\ amounts\\ that\\ they\\ marketed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\50\\.\\ Civilian\\ Conservation\\ Corps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;New\\ Deal\\ program\\.\\ The\\ CCC\\ provided\\ work\\ and\\ vocational\\ training\\ for\\ unemployed\\ single\\ young\\ men\\ through\\ conserving\\ and\\ developing\\ the\\ country\\&\\#39\\;s\\ natural\\ resources\\.\\ At\\ its\\ peak\\ in\\ 1935\\,\\ the\\ organization\\ had\\ more\\ than\\ 500\\,000\\ members\\ in\\ over\\ 2\\,600\\ camps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\51\\.\\ Boulder\\ Dam\\ aka\\ Hoover\\ Dam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ dam\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ supplier\\ of\\ hydroelectric\\ power\\ and\\ provides\\ for\\ flood\\ control\\,\\ river\\ regulation\\,\\ and\\ improved\\ navigation\\.\\ Hoover\\ Dam\\ impounds\\ Lake\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mead\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ the\\ largest\\ reservoir\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\;\\ water\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ irrigate\\ more\\ than\\ 650\\,000\\ acres\\ \\(263\\,000\\ hectares\\)\\ in\\ S\\ California\\ and\\ Arizona\\,\\ and\\ c\\.400\\,000\\ acres\\ \\(162\\,000\\ hectares\\)\\ in\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\52\\.\\ Grand\\ Coulee\\ Dam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ dam\\ was\\ built\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Columbia\\ Basin\\ Project\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\irrigation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\desert\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;areas\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Northwest\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ not\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ for\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\electricity\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ primary\\ goal\\ of\\ irrigation\\ was\\ forgotten\\ as\\ the\\ war\\ time\\ need\\ for\\ electricity\\ increased\\.\\ The\\ dam\\ was\\ instrumental\\ in\\ the\\ industrial\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Northwest\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\53\\.\\ Indian\\ Reorganization\\ Act\\ 1934\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Its\\ main\\ provisions\\ were\\ to\\ restore\\ to\\ Native\\ Americans\\ management\\ of\\ their\\ assets\\ \\(mostly\\ land\\)\\;\\ to\\ prevent\\ further\\ depletion\\ of\\ reservation\\ resources\\;\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ sound\\ economic\\ foundation\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ reservations\\;\\ and\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ local\\ self\\-government\\ on\\ a\\ tribal\\ basis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\54\\.\\ Attack\\ on\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ Dec\\ 7\\,\\ 1941\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;On\\ Dec\\.\\ 7\\,\\ 1941\\,\\ while\\ negotiations\\ were\\ going\\ on\\ with\\ Japanese\\ representatives\\ in\\ Washington\\,\\ Japanese\\ carrier\\-based\\ planes\\ swept\\ in\\ without\\ warning\\ over\\ Oahu\\ and\\ attacked\\ \\(7\\:55\\ descr\\=\\&\\#39\\;\\[AM\\]\\&\\#39\\;\\ local\\ time\\)\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Pacific\\ fleet\\,\\ moored\\ in\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\55\\.\\ Los\\ Alamos\\,\\ New\\ Mexico\\ \\ \\;\\?\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Los\\ Alamos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ unincorporated\\ townsite\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Alamos\\ County\\,\\ New\\ Mexico\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ As\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\2000\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;census\\,\\ the\\ townsite\\ had\\ a\\ total\\ population\\ of\\ 11\\,909\\.\\ It\\ is\\ home\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Alamos\\ National\\ Laboratory\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ was\\ founded\\ to\\ undertake\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Manhattan\\ Project\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\56\\.\\ Hanford\\,\\ Washington\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ was\\ evacuated\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1943\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;along\\ with\\ the\\ town\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\White\\ Bluffs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ room\\ for\\ the\\ nuclear\\ production\\ facility\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hanford\\ Site\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ n\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1913\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ town\\ had\\ a\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ link\\ on\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Chicago\\,\\ Milwaukee\\ and\\ St\\.\\ Paul\\ Railroad\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\57\\.\\ Henry\\ J\\.\\ Kaiser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Henry\\ Kaiser\\ spent\\ much\\ of\\ his\\ later\\ years\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Honolulu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ developed\\ an\\ obsession\\ with\\ perfecting\\ its\\ urban\\ landscape\\.\\ He\\ founded\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Kaiser\\ Hawaiian\\ Village\\ Hotel\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ now\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ Hilton\\ resorts\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Elsewhere\\,\\ Kaiser\\ built\\ civic\\ centers\\,\\ roads\\,\\ schools\\.\\ He\\ is\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ constructing\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hoover\\ Dam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Grand\\ Coulee\\ Dam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\58\\.\\ Emergency\\ Farm\\ Labor\\ Program\\ aka\\ Bracero\\ Program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bracero\\ Program\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ joint\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\labor\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;program\\ initiated\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\August\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1942\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Federal\\ Government\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mexican\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Federal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Government\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ program\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ bring\\ skilled\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mexican\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\agricultural\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;laborers\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ fill\\ gaps\\ in\\ the\\ agriculture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\labor\\ market\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\59\\.\\ Sleepy\\ Lagoon\\ 1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sleepy\\ Lagoon\\ Murder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1942\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ California\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;criminal\\ trial\\ of\\ 22\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mexican\\-American\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;young\\ men\\;\\ the\\ convictions\\ were\\ reversed\\ on\\ appeal\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1944\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ case\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ precursor\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Zoot\\ Suit\\ Riots\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1943\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ case\\ arose\\ from\\ the\\ homicide\\ of\\ Jose\\ Diaz\\,\\ whose\\ body\\ was\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ Sleepy\\ Lagoon\\ reservoir\\ in\\ southeast\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ California\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\August\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1942\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Racial\\ prejudice\\ and\\ press\\ hysteria\\,\\ primarily\\ in\\ the\\ Herald\\-Express\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ Times\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ arrest\\ of\\ 600\\ Mexican\\-American\\ youths\\ in\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ murder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Zoot\\ Suit\\ Riots\\,\\ 1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Central\\ to\\ racial\\ anxieties\\ of\\ early\\ Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ when\\ Mexican\\ laborers\\ clashed\\ with\\ white\\ military\\ personnel\\ in\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexicans\\ easily\\ identifiable\\ by\\ their\\ zoot\\ suits\\,\\ which\\ were\\ baggy\\ suits\\ that\\ were\\ popular\\ among\\ Mexicans\\ and\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dozens\\ battled\\ on\\ the\\ streets\\;\\ some\\ arrested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Military\\ personnel\\ temporarily\\ banned\\ from\\ L\\.A\\.\\ city\\ limits\\ soon\\ after\\ riots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Japanese\\ Internment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\World\\ War\\ II\\-era\\ forcible\\ relocation\\ of\\ approx\\.\\ 112\\,000\\-120\\,000\\ Japanese\\ Americans\\,\\ 62\\ percent\\ of\\ whom\\ were\\ second\\-generation\\,\\ American\\-born\\ citizens\\ \\(Nisei\\)\\,\\ from\\ the\\ west\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hundreds\\ of\\ acres\\ of\\ property\\ held\\ by\\ Japanese\\ Americans\\ fell\\ into\\ disrepair\\,\\ was\\ sold\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\losses\\ in\\ the\\ approx\\.\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ for\\ victims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ reparations\\ paid\\ in\\ 1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ government\\ officially\\ apologized\\ for\\ internment\\ in\\ 1988\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Executive\\ Order\\ 9066\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Order\\ made\\ by\\ FDR\\ in\\ 1942\\,\\ which\\ declared\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ areas\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ which\\ any\\ or\\ all\\ persons\\ may\\ be\\ excluded\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Authorized\\ internment\\ of\\ Japanese\\ Nisei\\ and\\ Issei\\ \\(Japanese\\ citizens\\ living\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ Interstate\\ and\\ Defense\\ Highway\\ Act\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Largest\\ public\\ works\\ project\\ in\\ American\\ history\\ to\\ that\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\allowed\\ for\\ construction\\ of\\ more\\ than\\ 40\\,000\\ miles\\ of\\ interstate\\ highways\\ from\\ \\$25\\ billion\\ in\\ govt\\.\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Purportedly\\ seen\\ by\\ Eisenhower\\ as\\ an\\ expedient\\ measure\\ for\\ national\\ defense\\,\\ if\\ invaded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nevada\\ Test\\ Site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ \\&ldquo\\;Clan\\ of\\ the\\ One\\ Breasted\\ Women\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disneyland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ Findlay\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Disneyland\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sunbelt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Extraordinary\\ growth\\ helped\\ by\\ two\\ trends\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Federal\\ investment\\ in\\ military\\ industrial\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technological\\ advancements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Communication\\ \\(long\\-distance\\ telephones\\,\\ airlines\\,\\ computers\\)\\ allowed\\ corporations\\ to\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Air\\-conditioning\\ \\(1906\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suburbia\\ \\(sprawl\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Financing\\ provided\\ by\\ New\\ Deal\\ housing\\ programs\\ \\(HOLC\\,\\ FHA\\)\\,\\ the\\ VA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\67\\.\\ Suburbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ transportation\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\"\\;red\\ cars\\,\\"\\;\\ automobiles\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ helped\\ a\\ suburban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\explosion\\.\\ People\\ found\\ the\\ land\\ prices\\ cheaper\\,\\ their\\ houses\\ more\\ unique\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ a\\ quieter\\ living\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ suburbs\\.\\ They\\ are\\ important\\ to\\ western\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\history\\ because\\ we\\ see\\ women\\ changing\\ as\\ suburbs\\ are\\ begun\\.\\ Women\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ being\\ the\\ house\\ maker\\ and\\ doing\\ everything\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ husband\\ happy\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\being\\ dissatisfied\\ with\\ their\\ being\\ confined\\ at\\ home\\.\\ Also\\ see\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\ to\\ make\\ things\\ easier\\ at\\ home\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ dishwashers\\,\\ washing\\ machines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ dryers\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ Also\\ see\\ discontent\\ in\\ the\\ racial\\ segregation\\ as\\ well\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ discontent\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;elusive\\"\\;\\ middle\\ class\\;\\ both\\ fight\\ for\\ their\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\68\\.\\ Federal\\ Housing\\ Administration\\ \\(FHA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Began\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\ in\\ 1934\\.\\ Changed\\ mortgage\\ rates\\ and\\ FHA\\ loans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ people\\ so\\ instead\\ of\\ having\\ to\\ pay\\ a\\ house\\ off\\ in\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ they\\ would\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\have\\ 30\\ years\\ to\\ pay\\ off\\ the\\ loan\\.\\ Important\\ to\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\well\\ as\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ suburbs\\ because\\ it\\ made\\ it\\ more\\ affordable\\ for\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\middle\\ class\\ to\\ afford\\ houses\\ in\\ the\\ suburbs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\69\\.\\ Lakewood\\ Company\\ \\(1950\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ company\\ to\\ build\\ post\\-war\\ suburbs\\.\\ Significance\\ to\\ western\\ history\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ company\\ to\\ build\\ homes\\ on\\ a\\ grid\\.\\ Also\\,\\ built\\ homes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\ an\\ assembly\\ line\\ type\\ model\\ which\\ made\\ it\\ less\\ expensive\\ for\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\homebuyers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\70\\.\\ Stamford\\ Industrial\\ Park\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1950\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Land\\ was\\ leased\\ by\\ Stamford\\ to\\ business\\ on\\ Stamford\\&\\#39\\;s\\ excess\\ land\\ to\\ help\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\finance\\ their\\ postwar\\ growth\\.\\ Significance\\:\\ Changed\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\centers\\ from\\ a\\ boring\\,\\ drab\\ look\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ university\\ type\\ atmosphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(i\\.e\\.\\ more\\ trees\\,\\ greener\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ land\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\71\\.\\ Watts\\ Riots\\ \\(1965\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Began\\ as\\ a\\ scuffle\\ between\\ a\\ police\\ officer\\ and\\ three\\ family\\ members\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arrested\\ after\\ being\\ pulled\\ over\\.\\ The\\ riot\\ began\\ shortly\\ after\\ and\\ lasted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ 6\\ days\\.\\ This\\ pattern\\ of\\ rioting\\ happened\\ elsewhere\\ which\\ could\\ be\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\important\\ significance\\.\\ Also\\,\\ this\\ helped\\ stir\\ up\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\as\\ well\\ as\\ fighting\\ for\\ better\\ opportunities\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\west\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\72\\.\\ Sagebrush\\ Rebellion\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1970\\&\\#39\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sagebrush\\ rebels\\ \\(ranchers\\ and\\ farmers\\)\\ wanted\\ more\\ accessibility\\ to\\ Federal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lands\\ in\\ their\\ states\\.\\ Senators\\ wanted\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lands\\ over\\ to\\ their\\ respective\\ state\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ then\\ turn\\ it\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ private\\ development\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\ since\\ the\\ land\\ is\\ just\\ sitting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\there\\ not\\ being\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\73\\.\\ Chicano\\ Movement\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1960\\&\\#39\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\.\\ There\\ demands\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wants\\ included\\ restoration\\ of\\ land\\ grants\\,\\ farm\\ workers\\ rights\\,\\ \\ \\;enhanced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\education\\,\\ and\\ voting\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\74\\.\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\ \\(1966\\ governor\\ of\\ Cali\\.\\ and\\ 1980\\ president\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ his\\ governorship\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ key\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ right\\.\\ Strongly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\against\\ communism\\.\\ During\\ his\\ presidency\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ attack\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\ from\\ the\\ inside\\;\\ attacked\\ the\\ government\\ for\\ deficit\\ spending\\.\\ He\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\builds\\ a\\ bigger\\,\\ stronger\\ military\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\75\\.\\ Immigration\\ Act\\ of\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyndon\\ Johnson\\ enacted\\ this\\ legislation\\ which\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ national\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\based\\ on\\ national\\ origin\\.\\ Now\\ the\\ main\\ quota\\ bias\\ was\\ the\\ occupation\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\applicant\\.\\ Set\\ up\\ border\\ patrol\\.\\ Doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ quotas\\ just\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\them\\.\\ Sets\\ up\\ special\\ category\\ for\\ family\\ members\\ and\\ citizens\\ already\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ set\\ up\\ preferences\\ for\\ professionals\\ and\\ refugees\\.\\ This\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\immigration\\ act\\ increased\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ immigrants\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Images\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Image\\ \\#1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;American\\ Progress\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(John\\ Gast\\,\\ 1872\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ image\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ rapid\\ emigration\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ frontier\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ floating\\ lady\\ signifies\\ the\\ national\\ enlightenment\\ and\\ underlines\\ US\\&rsquo\\;s\\ convictions\\ of\\ Manifest\\ destiny\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ suggests\\,\\ with\\ the\\ telegraph\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ binding\\ of\\ the\\ east\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ west\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ John\\ Gast\\&\\#39\\;s\\ portrayal\\ of\\ America\\&\\#39\\;s\\ westward\\ movement\\,\\ bison\\ herds\\ and\\ Indians\\ retreat\\ as\\ a\\ radiant\\ manifest\\ destiny\\,\\ donning\\ a\\ Star\\ of\\ Empire\\,\\ leads\\ homesteaders\\ and\\ other\\ settlers\\,\\ wagons\\,\\ and\\ railroads\\ across\\ the\\ great\\ plains\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ image\\ reveals\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confidence\\ that\\ the\\ frontier\\ will\\ bring\\ progress\\ and\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ burgeoning\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Miners\\ in\\ the\\ Sierras\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Charles\\ Christian\\ Nahl\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1851\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ painting\\ shows\\ one\\ method\\ of\\ placer\\ mining\\ in\\ which\\ buckets\\ of\\ dirt\\ and\\ water\\ from\\ the\\ river\\ could\\ be\\ poured\\ down\\ the\\ ramp\\ and\\ the\\ gold\\ would\\ settle\\ out\\.\\ This\\ was\\ more\\ efficient\\ than\\ panning\\ for\\ gold\\,\\ but\\ it\\ required\\ cooperation\\ to\\ work\\ the\\ machinery\\.\\ This\\ painting\\ shows\\ how\\ miners\\ had\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ groups\\,\\ which\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ communities\\ that\\ formed\\ during\\ the\\ Gold\\ Rush\\.\\ This\\ also\\ shows\\ the\\ tradeoff\\ that\\ occurred\\ when\\ more\\ efficient\\ means\\ of\\ mining\\ required\\ more\\ labor\\ and\\ more\\ capital\\ to\\ run\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ industrialization\\ of\\ mining\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anti\\-Chinese\\ Cartoon\\,\\ c\\.1870s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ cartoon\\ shows\\ the\\ anti\\-Chinese\\ sentiment\\ that\\ ran\\ throughout\\ the\\ West\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ and\\ helped\\ to\\ create\\ groups\\ like\\ Anti\\-coolie\\ clubs\\.\\ \\ \\;Chinese\\ people\\ often\\ owned\\ outfitting\\ stores\\ in\\ small\\ mining\\ towns\\ across\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ earned\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ from\\ these\\ places\\,\\ and\\ accordingly\\,\\ miners\\ who\\ were\\ toiling\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ mines\\ became\\ jealous\\ of\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;easy\\&rdquo\\;\\ fortune\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ picture\\,\\ on\\ a\\ larger\\ scale\\,\\ represents\\ the\\ overall\\ animosity\\ that\\ Americans\\ had\\ toward\\ the\\ Chinese\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ different\\ race\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ they\\ were\\ becoming\\ wealthy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ animosity\\ factored\\ into\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ the\\ Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\ in\\ 1882\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Image\\ \\#5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Three\\ Lakota\\ Boys\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ their\\ arrival\\ at\\ Carlisle\\ Indian\\ School\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ c\\.1880\\-1900\\.\\ Illustrates\\ American\\ attempts\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anglicize\\&rdquo\\;\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ stripping\\ away\\ of\\ their\\ identities\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ made\\ to\\ dress\\,\\ act\\,\\ and\\ speak\\ in\\ Anglo\\ customs\\.\\ Often\\ times\\ Native\\ American\\ children\\ were\\ essentially\\ kidnapped\\ from\\ their\\ homes\\ and\\ brought\\ to\\ special\\ boarding\\ schools\\ out\\ east\\,\\ like\\ Carlisle\\ Indian\\ School\\,\\ where\\ many\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ treated\\ harshly\\ and\\ died\\,\\ or\\ were\\ forever\\ displaced\\ from\\ their\\ families\\ and\\ ways\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Advertisement\\ for\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Wild\\ West\\ c\\.1890\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sign\\ for\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Wild\\ West\\ show\\ which\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Custer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ last\\ stand\\ and\\ presents\\ an\\ entire\\ tableau\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ as\\ it\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ buffalo\\ hunt\\,\\ Indian\\ attack\\,\\ and\\ pony\\ express\\ ride\\.\\ Creates\\ a\\ pop\\ culture\\ icon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ He\\ uses\\ history\\ to\\ tell\\ a\\ story\\,\\ and\\ his\\ performance\\ travels\\ world\\-wide\\.\\ \\;\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\ was\\ a\\ showbiz\\ mastermind\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\ he\\ creates\\ the\\ new\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ as\\ all\\ about\\ attacking\\ Indians\\ \\(inverted\\ conquest\\)\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\ sense\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ defending\\ themselves\\ against\\ a\\ savage\\ land\\.\\ \\;\\ Frontier\\ is\\ necessary\\,\\ then\\,\\ to\\ stop\\ savagery\\ from\\ overcoming\\ civilization\\.\\ Creates\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ expansive\\,\\ romantic\\ frontier\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Destitute\\ Pea\\ Pickers\\ in\\ California\\.\\ Mother\\ of\\ Seven\\ Children\\.\\ Age\\ Thirty\\-Two\\.\\ Nipomo\\,\\ California\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Dorothea\\ Lange\\,\\ February\\,\\ 1936\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dorothea\\ Lange\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\May\\ 26\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1895\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\October\\ 11\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1965\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ was\\ an\\ influential\\ documentary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\photographer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Lange\\ is\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ her\\ Depression\\-era\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Farm\\ Security\\ Administration\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(FSA\\)\\.\\ Lange\\&\\#39\\;s\\ photographs\\ humanized\\ the\\ tragic\\ consequences\\ of\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ and\\ profoundly\\ influenced\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ documentary\\ photography\\.\\ Her\\ most\\ famous\\ photograph\\,\\ commonly\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Migrant\\ Mother\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(pictured\\ left\\)\\,\\ was\\ the\\ sixth\\ and\\ last\\ frame\\ taken\\ of\\ Lange\\&\\#39\\;s\\ haphazard\\ visit\\ to\\ a\\ migrant\\ workers\\&\\#39\\;\\ campsite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;She\\ said\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ living\\ on\\ frozen\\ vegetables\\ from\\ the\\ surrounding\\ fields\\,\\ and\\ birds\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ killed\\.\\ She\\ had\\ just\\ sold\\ the\\ tires\\ from\\ her\\ car\\ to\\ buy\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#8\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Destitute\\ Pea\\ Pickers\\ in\\ California\\.\\ Mother\\ of\\ Seven\\ Children\\.\\ Age\\ Thirty\\-Two\\.\\ Nipomo\\,\\ California\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Dorothea\\ Lange\\,\\ February\\,\\ 1936\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Great\\ Depression\\ hit\\ western\\ farmers\\ especially\\ hard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Westerners\\ initially\\ conceived\\ stock\\ market\\ crash\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Eastern\\ problem\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reality\\:\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sell\\ anything\\ without\\ a\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Of\\ 10\\ states\\ hardest\\ hit\\,\\ 7\\ were\\ Western\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herbert\\ Hoover\\ the\\ first\\ real\\ western\\ President\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\,\\ particularly\\,\\ hurt\\ by\\ Depression\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Families\\,\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unemployed\\ in\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\charities\\ collapse\\,\\ Unemployed\\ Citizens\\&rsquo\\;\\ Brigades\\ spring\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hoovervilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dust\\ Bowl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creation\\ of\\ sympathy\\ for\\ whites\\ \\(John\\ Steinbeck\\,\\ Dorothea\\ Lange\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Percentage\\ of\\ public\\ lands\\ by\\ state\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1990\\&\\#39\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ slide\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ how\\ much\\ land\\ is\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Federal\\ Government\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ states\\.\\ Shows\\ the\\ importance\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\significance\\ of\\ the\\ Sagebrush\\ rebellion\\ because\\ so\\ much\\ land\\ is\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ Readings\\ and\\ Lectures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plot\\ Summary\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinatown\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\1974\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hollis\\ Mulwray\\ is\\ a\\ chief\\ engineer\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ department\\.\\ Ida\\ Sessions\\,\\ pretending\\ to\\ be\\ his\\ wife\\ Evelyn\\,\\ asks\\ P\\.I\\.\\ JJ\\ Jake\\ Gittes\\ to\\ investigate\\ his\\ adulterous\\ ways\\.\\ Jake\\ takes\\ photos\\ of\\ Hollis\\ with\\ a\\ young\\ lady\\.\\ Hollis\\ then\\ turns\\ up\\ murdered\\,\\ which\\ Jake\\ decides\\ to\\ investigate\\.\\ Jake\\ finds\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ was\\ looking\\ for\\.\\ He\\ discovers\\ a\\ plot\\ to\\ buy\\ cheap\\,\\ unwatered\\ land\\ for\\ low\\ prices\\,\\ water\\ the\\ land\\,\\ and\\ sell\\ it\\ for\\ millions\\ of\\ dollars\\.\\ The\\ plot\\ is\\ masterminded\\ by\\ one\\ Noah\\ Cross\\,\\ who\\ is\\ Evelyn\\&\\#39\\;s\\ father\\ and\\ Hollis\\&\\#39\\;\\ one\\-time\\ business\\ partner\\.\\ His\\ investigation\\ leads\\ him\\ to\\ an\\ affair\\ with\\ Evelyn\\ and\\ a\\ discussion\\ with\\ Noah\\ Cross\\,\\ both\\ of\\ whom\\ seem\\ curiously\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ girl\\ Hollis\\ was\\ seen\\ with\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ In\\-depth\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Water\\ is\\ the\\ life\\ blood\\ of\\ every\\ community\\.\\"\\;\\ With\\ this\\ statement\\,\\ the\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ Department\\ of\\ Water\\ and\\ Power\\&\\#39\\;s\\ website\\ begins\\ its\\ biography\\ of\\ William\\ Mulholland\\,\\ the\\ real\\ life\\ model\\ of\\ two\\ of\\ this\\ movie\\&\\#39\\;s\\ characters\\,\\ water\\ department\\ chief\\ Hollis\\ Mulwray\\ \\(an\\ obvious\\ play\\ on\\ words\\)\\ and\\ water\\ tycoon\\ Noah\\ Cross\\.\\ And\\ indeed\\ water\\,\\ the\\ access\\ to\\ it\\ and\\ the\\ wealth\\ it\\ provides\\,\\ is\\ what\\ drives\\ everything\\ and\\ everybody\\ in\\ this\\ movie\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ ever\\-thirsty\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ decades\\ of\\ this\\ century\\,\\ a\\ budding\\ boom\\ town\\ on\\ the\\ brink\\ of\\ victory\\ or\\ decay\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ one\\ or\\ th\\ other\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ city\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ongoing\\ access\\ to\\ drinking\\ water\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Chinatown\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;s\\ story\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ William\\ Mulholland\\&\\#39\\;s\\ greatest\\ coup\\;\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ Owen\\ Valley\\ aqueduct\\ which\\ provided\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ with\\ a\\ steady\\ source\\ of\\ drinking\\ water\\ but\\ also\\ entailed\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ controversy\\.\\ Splitting\\ Mulholland\\&\\#39\\;s\\ complex\\ real\\-life\\ persona\\ into\\ two\\ fictional\\ characters\\ \\(the\\ noble\\ Mulwray\\ who\\ thinks\\ that\\ water\\ should\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ who\\ refuses\\ to\\ authorize\\ an\\ unsavory\\ new\\ dam\\ construction\\ project\\ and\\ the\\ greedy\\,\\ unscrupulous\\ Cross\\ who\\ will\\ use\\ \\*any\\*\\ means\\ to\\ advance\\ his\\ personal\\ fortune\\)\\ creates\\ the\\ movie\\&\\#39\\;s\\ one\\ necessary\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ conflict\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ other\\ than\\ this\\,\\ the\\ predominant\\ shades\\ are\\ those\\ of\\ gray\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Into\\ the\\ wars\\ raging\\ around\\ L\\.A\\.\\&\\#39\\;s\\ water\\ supply\\,\\ private\\ eye\\ Jake\\ Gittes\\ \\(Jack\\ Nicholson\\)\\ is\\ unwittingly\\ thrown\\ when\\ a\\ woman\\ introducing\\ herself\\ as\\ Hollis\\ Mulwray\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ asks\\ him\\ to\\ investigate\\ her\\ husband\\&\\#39\\;s\\ alleged\\ infidelity\\.\\ Before\\ he\\ realizes\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ he\\ is\\ drawn\\ into\\ a\\ web\\ of\\ treachery\\ and\\ treason\\,\\ and\\ fatally\\ attracted\\ to\\ the\\ real\\ Mrs\\.\\ Mulwray\\ \\(Faye\\ Dunaway\\)\\,\\ Noah\\ Cross\\ \\(John\\ Huston\\)\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\.\\ Soon\\ reaching\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ used\\,\\ he\\ refuses\\ to\\ drop\\ the\\ investigation\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ decides\\ to\\ dig\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ scheming\\ he\\ has\\ witnessed\\ \\-\\ the\\ classical\\ film\\ noir\\ setup\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reiner\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;RED\\ QUEEN\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ is\\ the\\ true\\ story\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chinatown\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ based\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-LA\\ quickly\\ went\\ from\\ a\\ nothing\\ city\\ to\\ sprawling\\/over\\-populate\\ metropolis\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ 1800\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Needed\\ Water\\ to\\ survive\\ so\\ stole\\ it\\ from\\ nearby\\ Owen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ River\\.\\ Benefit\\:\\ It\\ was\\ higher\\ in\\ sea\\ level\\ than\\ LA\\ so\\ water\\ could\\ be\\ siphoned\\ down\\ with\\ little\\ power\\/electricity\\.\\ CHEAP\\ AND\\ EFFICENT\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Let\\ by\\ Fred\\ Eaton\\ and\\ Bill\\ Mulholland\\&mdash\\;used\\ subterfuge\\,\\ spies\\,\\ bribery\\,\\ and\\ trickery\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ river\\ and\\ thus\\ milked\\ the\\ surrounding\\ area\\ dry\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ this\\ included\\ the\\ exaggerating\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ problem\\ to\\ get\\ public\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thus\\ Owens\\ River\\ created\\ LA\\ and\\ made\\ it\\ the\\ huge\\ metropolis\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ today\\ but\\ also\\ doomed\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ it\\ created\\ a\\ huge\\ sprawling\\ over\\ populated\\ city\\ and\\ a\\ city\\ that\\ now\\ could\\ reign\\ in\\ any\\ water\\ source\\ thus\\ making\\ it\\ even\\ larger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\White\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Organic\\ Machine\\&rdquo\\;\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ book\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ Columbia\\ River\\ and\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manipulation\\ of\\ it\\ for\\ progress\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ effects\\ of\\ this\\ manipulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Starts\\ with\\ discussing\\ the\\ salmon\\ runs\\ and\\ how\\ man\\ went\\ from\\ simple\\ fishing\\ for\\ subsistence\\ to\\ canneries\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ competition\\ that\\ came\\ with\\ harvesting\\ these\\ fish\\.\\ It\\ also\\ discusses\\ how\\ this\\ led\\ to\\ over\\ harvesting\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ decline\\ of\\ fish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Constant\\ conflict\\ between\\ people\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ nature\\ pure\\/unaltered\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ their\\ advantage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Second\\ part\\ of\\ chapter\\ discusses\\ both\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ steam\\/mechanization\\ power\\ from\\ wood\\ and\\ coal\\ and\\ even\\ earlier\\ human\\ effort\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Finally\\ talks\\ about\\ electricity\\ and\\ the\\ damming\\ of\\ the\\ Columbia\\ \\(in\\ the\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ altered\\ the\\ landscape\\ completely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ notes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Chinese\\ are\\ working\\ for\\ cheap\\ labor\\ and\\ are\\ taking\\ jobs\\ from\\ white\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Act\\ is\\ targeted\\ towards\\ labor\\ and\\ forces\\ sets\\ a\\ cap\\ on\\ amount\\ of\\ Chinese\\ allowed\\ into\\ the\\ country\\ only\\ allowing\\ diplomats\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ merchants\\,\\ teachers\\,\\ students\\ and\\ wives\\ of\\ merchants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Forced\\ all\\ Chinese\\ people\\ to\\ carry\\ around\\ paperwork\\ something\\ like\\ a\\ green\\ card\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foley\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ is\\ traditional\\ that\\ tenant\\ farmer\\ will\\ eventually\\ become\\ owners\\ of\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ occurred\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ abundance\\ of\\ land\\ to\\ the\\ West\\,\\ but\\ once\\ the\\ land\\ ran\\ out\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ overabundance\\ of\\ tenant\\ farmers\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ they\\ many\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ were\\ stuck\\ with\\ being\\ a\\ tenant\\ farmer\\ competing\\ with\\ share\\ croppers\\.\\ \\ \\;Land\\ owners\\ would\\ also\\ hire\\ many\\ African\\ and\\ Hispanic\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ as\\ well\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ as\\ efficient\\ as\\ the\\ white\\ tenant\\ farmers\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ white\\ people\\ broke\\ up\\ into\\ two\\ different\\ social\\ groups\\ and\\ those\\ that\\ were\\ stuck\\ in\\ tenant\\ farming\\ were\\ looked\\ down\\ upon\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ trash\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ white\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ are\\ forming\\ groups\\ like\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;KKK\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ scare\\ away\\ the\\ other\\ minorities\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ competing\\ with\\.\\ \\ \\;Tenant\\ farmers\\ are\\ stuck\\ in\\ this\\ level\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ thrifty\\,\\ but\\ banks\\ have\\ risen\\ interest\\ rates\\ and\\ thus\\ making\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ buy\\ land\\,\\ thus\\ these\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ are\\ stuck\\ in\\ mediocrity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ Caused\\ the\\ Pueblo\\ Revolt\\ of\\ 1680\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terry\\ Tempest\\ Williams\\,\\ CLAN\\ OF\\ THE\\ ONE\\ BREASTED\\ WOMEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Autobiographical\\ account\\ of\\ federal\\ nuclear\\ testing\\ in\\ Nevada\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Williams\\ is\\ a\\ fifth\\-generation\\ descendent\\ of\\ Mormon\\ pioneers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ roots\\ in\\ Utah\\ reach\\ back\\ to\\ 1847\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Her\\ \\&ldquo\\;tribe\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ her\\ family\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ devastated\\ by\\ breast\\ cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ one\\ case\\ of\\ cancer\\ in\\ her\\ family\\ before\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mormons\\ generally\\ suffer\\ low\\ cancer\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ her\\ mother\\,\\ her\\ grandmothers\\,\\ and\\ six\\ aunts\\ have\\ had\\ mastectomies\\.\\ Seven\\ have\\ died\\.\\ The\\ two\\ remaining\\ survivors\\ have\\ just\\ completed\\ chemotherapy\\ and\\ radiation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Author\\ recalls\\ seeing\\ a\\ flash\\ of\\ light\\ in\\ the\\ desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Father\\ tells\\ her\\ about\\ a\\ test\\ bomb\\ on\\ Sept\\.\\ 7\\,\\ 1957\\ that\\ her\\ family\\ witnessed\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ driving\\ home\\ from\\ Riverside\\,\\ Calif\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ of\\ Operation\\ Blumbbob\\,\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ tests\\ from\\ Nevada\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\took\\ 14\\ years\\ for\\ mother\\ to\\ develop\\ cancer\\,\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\,\\ according\\ to\\ scientists\\,\\ that\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ develop\\ cancer\\ from\\ radiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aboveground\\ atomic\\ testing\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ Nevada\\ from\\ 1951\\-1962\\.\\ North\\ winds\\ blew\\ Utahans\\ with\\ fallout\\ and\\ left\\ hundreds\\ of\\ dead\\ sheep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ government\\ has\\ denied\\ its\\ guilt\\ in\\ cancer\\ cases\\ since\\ late\\ 1970s\\ with\\ one\\ exception\\:\\ in\\ 1984\\,\\ a\\ judge\\ awarded\\ damages\\ to\\ ten\\ plaintiffs\\,\\ marking\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ the\\ federal\\ court\\ acknowledged\\ that\\ nuclear\\ tests\\ had\\ caused\\ cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ruling\\ was\\ overturned\\ in\\ 1987\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ 1988\\,\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ refused\\ to\\ review\\ that\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1988\\,\\ Williams\\ participated\\ in\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\,\\ crossing\\ the\\ boundary\\ into\\ the\\ Nevada\\ Test\\ Site\\ and\\ getting\\ arrested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ was\\ a\\ gesture\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ the\\ Clan\\ of\\ One\\-Breasted\\ Women\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Organic\\ Machine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Part\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tells\\ how\\ the\\ Columbia\\ River\\ became\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ nuclear\\ energy\\ machine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ govt\\.\\ chose\\ Hanford\\ site\\ in\\ WA\\ to\\ produce\\ plutonium\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ sparse\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ then\\ populated\\ the\\ region\\ with\\ thousands\\ of\\ employees\\,\\ families\\,\\ town\\ of\\ 50\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\destroyed\\ town\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ determined\\ town\\ was\\ too\\ close\\ to\\ reactors\\ to\\ be\\ safe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\,\\ the\\ region\\ remained\\ populated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Managers\\,\\ technicians\\,\\ scientists\\ \\&ldquo\\;obfuscated\\&hellip\\;lied\\&hellip\\;deceived\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ dangerous\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Plutonium\\ guarded\\ American\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Release\\ of\\ chemicals\\,\\ including\\ iodine\\ 131\\,\\ certainly\\ killed\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;These\\ deaths\\ were\\ planned\\ because\\ the\\ releases\\ were\\ planned\\,\\ although\\ the\\ planners\\ never\\ intended\\ to\\ kill\\ individual\\ victims\\.\\ They\\ acted\\ for\\ a\\ greater\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ M\\.\\ Findlay\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Magic\\ Lands\\:\\ Western\\ Cityscapes\\ and\\ American\\ Culture\\ After\\ 1940\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disneyland\\ was\\ created\\ in\\ an\\ idealized\\ West\\.\\ It\\ built\\ upon\\ old\\ images\\ and\\ then\\ cultivated\\ new\\ ones\\,\\ transporting\\ its\\ vision\\ of\\ culture\\ from\\ West\\ to\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Version\\ western\\ autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perfectly\\ planned\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\suburban\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Supposed\\ to\\ be\\ timeless\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ its\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Enshrined\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ stood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\competition\\ with\\ the\\ Soviets\\ in\\ productivity\\,\\ in\\ space\\,\\ in\\ ways\\ of\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represented\\ new\\ western\\ service\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ then\\ defeated\\ that\\ image\\ by\\ propagating\\ \\&ldquo\\;individualism\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ West\\ in\\ Frontierland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&ldquo\\;Controlled\\ Western\\ Environment\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Balanced\\ against\\ \\&ldquo\\;dirtiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Coney\\ Island\\,\\ NY\\,\\ distastefulness\\ of\\ New\\ Orleans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ wholesome\\ family\\ experience\\;\\ screeners\\ kept\\ out\\ \\&ldquo\\;hippies\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;undesirables\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Race\\ relations\\ inside\\ theme\\ park\\ \\&ldquo\\;were\\ far\\ from\\ futuristic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Ex\\.\\ Aunt\\ Jemima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Pancake\\ House\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Came\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ intriguing\\ model\\ of\\ urban\\ design\\ \\(suburbs\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/12\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mining\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discovery\\ of\\ gold\\ in\\ California\\,\\ Jan\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1848\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overview\\:\\ discovery\\,\\ verification\\ \\(letters\\,\\ media\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Beale\\ spreads\\ word\\ back\\ east\\,\\ people\\ come\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;49\\&hellip\\;\\ eventually\\ 300\\,000\\ people\\ come\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leaving\\ Home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ national\\ story\\,\\ men\\ leaving\\ as\\ if\\ to\\ war\\,\\ people\\ affected\\ back\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Getting\\ to\\ Mines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\to\\ California\\:\\ overland\\,\\ around\\ Cape\\,\\ across\\ isthmus\\ of\\ panama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ Yukon\\:\\ over\\ the\\ Chilkoot\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Urbanization\\:\\ supply\\ posts\\,\\ San\\ Francisco\\,\\ Sacramento\\,\\ Denver\\,\\ Auroria\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ merchants\\,\\ casino\\ owners\\,\\ suppliers\\ get\\ the\\ richest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ Mining\\ Camps\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ become\\ urban\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Social\\ World\\ of\\ the\\ Camps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Demographics\\:\\ very\\ diverse\\ \\(Chinese\\,\\ Mexican\\,\\ white\\,\\ some\\ slaves\\,\\ Indians\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\transethnic\\/racial\\ partnerships\\ early\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ cooperation\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ necessary\\,\\ racial\\ lines\\ once\\ again\\ divide\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gender\\:\\ in\\ 1850\\,\\ Cali\\ population\\ is\\ 92\\.5\\%\\ male\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ crisis\\ of\\ masculinity\\,\\ anxious\\ about\\ doing\\ domestic\\ work\\,\\ away\\ from\\ families\\,\\ women\\ in\\ mines\\ usually\\ Indian\\/Mexican\\,\\ changes\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ lady\\ \\(see\\ Shirley\\ letters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Social\\ Organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\gender\\ roles\\ taken\\ away\\ \\(ref\\.\\ Johnson\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Domestic\\ Diggings\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\try\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ recreate\\ family\\ kinship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ travel\\ with\\ other\\ men\\ in\\ family\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;company\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ transcontinental\\ gossip\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ labor\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\domestic\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commercialization\\ of\\ domestic\\ duties\\ \\(women\\ in\\ mines\\ made\\ mad\\ \\$\\ \\-\\-\\ restaurants\\,\\ prostitution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ did\\ Chinese\\ and\\ Mexican\\ men\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ of\\ Placer\\ Mining\\ \\(for\\ test\\,\\ could\\ reference\\ letter\\ from\\ Placerville\\ gold\\ miner\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\ one\\ has\\ mining\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\started\\ with\\ panning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ developed\\ more\\ efficient\\ means\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;cradles\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\?\\?\\?\\ \\(not\\ sure\\ of\\ name\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\snow\\ melt\\-off\\,\\ water\\ is\\ freezing\\ ass\\ cold\\,\\ averaged\\ only\\ 10\\ cents\\/bucket\\ and\\ it\\ got\\ increasingly\\ hard\\ to\\ find\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ Mines\\ and\\ Mining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Law\\ \\&\\;\\ Access\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\physical\\ punishment\\,\\ hanging\\/executions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\harsher\\ on\\ foreigners\\,\\ US\\ access\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foreign\\ Miners\\ Tax\\ 1850\\ \\=\\ \\$20\\,\\ drives\\ foreigners\\ out\\ of\\ mines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capital\\ \\&\\;\\ Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\claims\\ become\\ very\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mining\\ goes\\ underground\\,\\ need\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ \\$\\ \\(shaft\\,\\ hydrolic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ mid\\-1850s\\ eastern\\ investors\\ and\\ industrial\\ mining\\ moves\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ men\\ go\\ home\\ as\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Repercussions\\ \\&\\;\\ Legacies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gold\\ Rush\\ Legacies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ redistribution\\ of\\ population\\,\\ California\\ becomes\\ an\\ anglo\\ state\\,\\ American\\ laws\\/values\\ move\\ west\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 17\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ Federal\\ Control\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Territorial\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Northwest\\ Ordinance\\ of\\ 1787\\ \\(reviewed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kansas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polygamy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mormon\\ War\\,\\ 1857\\-1858\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sectional\\ Politics\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ West\\&mdash\\;revisited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Battles\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kansas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ Territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ in\\ National\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Territorial\\ Governments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ Territories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Creation\\ of\\ New\\ Territories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Alaska\\,\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Territorial\\ Officials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Federal\\ Appointees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corruption\\-\\-Territorial\\ Rings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Persistence\\ of\\ the\\ Territorial\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Utah\\,\\ 1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oklahoma\\,\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arizona\\ \\&\\;\\ New\\ Mexico\\,\\ 1912\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alaska\\,\\ 1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ First\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Insecure\\ Expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Credit\\ Mobilier\\,\\ 1864\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Big\\ 4\\ of\\ the\\ Central\\ Pacific\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Land\\ Distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adjudicating\\ Mexican\\ and\\ Spanish\\ Land\\ Grants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homestead\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Grant\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mining\\ Act\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Desert\\ Land\\ Act\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Timber\\ and\\ Stone\\ Act\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\,\\ 1901\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Conquest\\ and\\ Indian\\ Survival\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\:\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Rachel\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 19\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideology\\ and\\ Past\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Vanishing\\ Indians\\-\\ not\\ vanishing\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ pushed\\ out\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Removal\\-\\ forced\\ into\\ Oklahoma\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trail\\ of\\ Tears\\,\\ 1838\\-1839\\-\\ from\\ Georgia\\ to\\ Oklahoma\\ 1\\/8\\ die\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ Encroachment\\ and\\ the\\ Federal\\ Response\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\A\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Collapse\\ of\\ Permanent\\ Indian\\ Territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ The\\ Overland\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ Gold\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Reservation\\ System\\ \\(US\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shift\\ from\\ Sovereignty\\ to\\ Wardship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Origins\\ of\\ the\\ Reservation\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Treaties\\ \\&\\;\\ Land\\ Cessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Military\\ Conquest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Failure\\ of\\ Federal\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Southwest\\ \\(Different\\ kind\\ of\\ warfare\\ w\\/\\ raiders\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Navajos\\-\\ 1863\\ Carson\\ in\\ Mexico\\ Scorch\\ Earth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Apaches\\-\\ Geronimo\\ still\\ raid\\ cross\\ border\\ \\(taken\\ to\\ Florida\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Great\\ Plains\\-\\ West\\ \\(Expanding\\ nations\\ run\\ into\\ each\\ other\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1864\\ San\\ Creek\\ Massacre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dakota\\ and\\ Boozman\\ Trail\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Persistence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/31\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extracting\\ Western\\ Resources\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\:\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Rachel\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 31\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ of\\ Mining\\:\\ Revisited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ Corporate\\ Mining\\ Capitalist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Gold\\ is\\ gone\\,\\ now\\ look\\ for\\ base\\ metals\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Copper\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Bisbee\\,\\ Arizona\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ie\\.\\ Butte\\,\\ Montana\\ \\(Northern\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ fields\\ of\\ exploration\\ in\\ the\\ West\\-\\ California\\ and\\ Texas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Buffalo\\ Hides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cattle\\ Ranching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trail\\ Drives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Texas\\ Longhorns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ Ranching\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Open\\ Range\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boom\\ \\&\\;\\ Bust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consolidation\\ and\\ Enclosure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Barbed\\ wire\\,\\ 1874\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Range\\ Wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Western\\ Limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Market\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Populism\\ and\\ the\\ Plight\\ of\\ Western\\ Farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ Grange\\ of\\ Patrons\\ of\\ Husbandry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Farmers\\&rsquo\\;\\ Alliance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Party\\,\\ 1890s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\11\\/2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\,\\ Class\\,\\ Land\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\:\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Rachel\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 2\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Farmland\\ \\&\\;\\ Farm\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ideology\\ of\\ Independent\\ Farming\\ \\&\\;\\ Free\\ Land\\:\\ Revisited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Populism\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Plight\\ of\\ Western\\ Farmers\\&mdash\\;Again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Plight\\ of\\ Western\\ Farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Origins\\ of\\ Agribusiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ Bonanza\\ Farms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Land\\ Reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Persistence\\ of\\ Family\\ Farms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Triumph\\ of\\ Agribusiness\\ in\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wage\\ Work\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Working\\ Conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Little\\ Chance\\ of\\ Economic\\ Advancement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dual\\ Labor\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Occupational\\ Segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dual\\ Wage\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Racial\\ \\&\\;\\ Ethnic\\ Divisions\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Class\\ Consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Racial\\ Divides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ Anti\\-Chinese\\ Campaigns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anti\\-coolie\\ Clubs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dennis\\ Kearney\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Workingmen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethnic\\ Divides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Denial\\ about\\ the\\ Permanence\\ of\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unionization\\ \\&\\;\\ Class\\ Conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Individual\\ Unions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Butte\\ Miners\\ Union\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\ \\(WFM\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Cripple\\ Creek\\,\\ Colorado\\,\\ 1903\\-1904\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\International\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ \\(IWW\\)\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Wobblies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Bisbee\\ Deportation\\,\\ Arizona\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demise\\ of\\ Labor\\ Radicalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Centralia\\ Massacre\\,\\ 1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cities\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Introduction\\:\\ Region\\ of\\ Cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Already\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ cities\\,\\ and\\ west\\ \\(and\\ rest\\ of\\ us\\)\\ becoming\\ ever\\ more\\ urban\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\,\\ as\\ people\\ are\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ farms\\ and\\ into\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ More\\ people\\ live\\ in\\ cities\\ of\\ 10000\\ or\\ more\\ in\\ west\\ than\\ in\\ any\\ other\\ region\\ except\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\northeast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Cities\\ also\\ becoming\\ more\\ powerful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ The\\ Origins\\ of\\ the\\ Urban\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Urban\\ outposts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ 19th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Mining\\ camps\\ with\\ high\\ concentrations\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Also\\ supply\\ centers\\ like\\ Sacramento\\ and\\ Denver\\ \\-\\ also\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ mining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Shipping\\ points\\ \\-\\ Wichita\\,\\ KS\\,\\ Dodge\\ City\\,\\ Abeline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\.\\ Chicago\\ \\-\\ not\\ really\\ in\\ West\\ but\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ western\\ farm\\ areas\\ were\\ dependent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\ things\\ happening\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vi\\.\\ San\\ Francisco\\ \\-\\ first\\ real\\ western\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Started\\ during\\ the\\ gold\\ rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Developmnet\\ in\\ san\\ fran\\ of\\ elite\\ set\\ of\\ capital\\,\\ which\\ capitalist\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\then\\ use\\ to\\ control\\ other\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vii\\.\\ Seattle\\ and\\ Denver\\ also\\ growing\\ a\\ bit\\ after\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\ Dallas\\ 43000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1900\\,\\ to\\ over\\ 100000\\ in\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\viii\\.\\ Gradual\\ urban\\ growth\\ going\\ on\\ throughout\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Urban\\ areas\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ power\\ of\\ centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Manufacturing\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Los\\ Angeles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Urban\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Boosters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Aim\\ is\\ to\\ grow\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Promotion\\ in\\ SoCal\\ in\\ late\\ 19th\\ and\\ early\\ 20th\\ cent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Distribute\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ promotional\\ materials\\ talking\\ about\\ great\\ climate\\,\\ leisurly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lifestyle\\,\\ draws\\ on\\ romanticism\\ of\\ mission\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Start\\ labeling\\ fruit\\ crates\\ that\\ are\\ distrib\\ to\\ rest\\ of\\ nation\\ that\\ promote\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\image\\ of\\ beautiful\\,\\ sunny\\,\\ pastoral\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\.\\ Rose\\ Parade\\,\\ 1890\\,\\ Pasadena\\ hunt\\ club\\ \\-\\ wanted\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wonderful\\ weather\\ was\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vi\\.\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Land\\ sales\\ boom\\,\\ 1888\\ bust\\ \\-\\ over\\ next\\ 2\\ years\\,\\ prices\\ fall\\ by\\ 50\\%\\,\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pick\\ up\\ again\\ a\\ bit\\ in\\ 1890s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vii\\.\\ Also\\,\\ City\\ governments\\ start\\ workign\\ with\\ boosters\\ to\\ have\\ big\\ expositions\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\draw\\ ppls\\ attention\\ to\\ advantages\\ of\\ various\\ cities\\ \\(Seattle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Alaska\\-Yukon\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Exposition\\,\\ 1909\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ The\\ Economics\\ of\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ More\\ to\\ how\\ city\\ grows\\ then\\ the\\ Chamber\\ of\\ Commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Very\\ important\\ to\\ growth\\ of\\ cities\\ \\-\\ could\\ determine\\ whether\\ city\\ lived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\or\\ died\\.\\ You\\ need\\ transportation\\ links\\ more\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\ in\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ 1881\\ S\\.\\ Pacific\\ RR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ 1887\\ \\[\\?\\?\\]\\ other\\ rr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ So\\ two\\ rrs\\,\\ and\\ a\\ rate\\ war\\ \\-\\ very\\ cheap\\ tickets\\ from\\ midwest\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Land\\ Speculation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Creates\\ great\\ individual\\ wealth\\ in\\ cities\\,\\ and\\ can\\ turn\\ cities\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\financial\\ centers\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\financial\\ centers\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ RE\\ investors\\ would\\ come\\ in\\,\\ buy\\ up\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ land\\,\\ and\\ divide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\up\\ and\\ sell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Create\\ whole\\ new\\ towns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ William\\ A\\.\\ Garland\\ \\-\\ subdivided\\ and\\ sold\\ westlake\\,\\ hermosa\\ park\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beverly\\ hills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Hollywood\\ \\-\\ started\\ selling\\ tracts\\ in\\ early\\ 20th\\ cent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Hollywood\\ sign\\ \\-\\ 1923\\ \\-\\ land\\ promotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\)\\ Two\\ main\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Makes\\ land\\ speculators\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ money\\ \\-\\ harry\\ chandler\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\harrison\\ gray\\ otis\\,\\ henry\\ huntington\\,\\ anyone\\ important\\ in\\ early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LA\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Also\\ responsible\\ for\\ sprawl\\ of\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\)\\ All\\ people\\ buying\\ land\\ and\\ selling\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ no\\ centralized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\planning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\)\\ Trolley\\ lines\\-\\ pacific\\ Electric\\ railway\\ etc\\ \\(red\\ car\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\)\\ Henry\\ huntington\\ owned\\ lines\\ \\-\\ and\\ where\\ he\\ owned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lines\\,\\ people\\ could\\/would\\ settle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\)\\ He\\ also\\ owned\\ electric\\ company\\ \\-\\ so\\ could\\ also\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Varied\\ a\\ lot\\ depending\\ on\\ what\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ LA\\-\\ Movie\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Film\\ makers\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ NJ\\,\\ migrated\\ there\\ because\\ you\\ can\\ film\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\outside\\ year\\-round\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ varied\\ terrain\\ around\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Close\\ to\\ mexican\\ border\\ \\-\\ thomas\\ edison\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ owns\\ all\\ movie\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\equipt\\ patents\\,\\ others\\ start\\ making\\ illegally\\,\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ escape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\easily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Oil\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Manufacturing\\ \\-\\ because\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ consumers\\ and\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ close\\.\\ In\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\interwar\\ years\\,\\ becomes\\ major\\ manufacturing\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Managing\\ Urban\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Early\\ on\\,\\ very\\ much\\ grown\\ by\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ In\\ early\\ 20th\\ cent\\,\\ part\\ of\\ larger\\ progressive\\ movement\\,\\ people\\ partner\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\ to\\ help\\ organize\\,\\ manage\\,\\ beautify\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Begin\\ to\\ bring\\ in\\ urban\\ planners\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ organize\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Reorg\\ city\\ streets\\ for\\ traffic\\,\\ parks\\ and\\ beautification\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Almost\\ every\\ western\\ city\\ has\\ these\\ planners\\,\\ and\\ usu\\ by\\ eastern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\planners\\ \\(Frederick\\ Law\\ Olmsted\\ in\\ LA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ In\\ general\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ manage\\ to\\ actually\\ action\\ the\\ plans\\ because\\ very\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ All\\ these\\ things\\ require\\ enhanced\\ municipal\\ government\\ that\\ has\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ tax\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ transformation\\ between\\ the\\ relationship\\ btw\\ individuals\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ As\\ taxes\\ come\\ in\\,\\ the\\ cities\\ are\\ becoming\\ more\\ powerful\\ and\\ more\\ able\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ shape\\ the\\ environment\\ around\\ them\\ \\(LA\\ and\\ water\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Cities\\ became\\ central\\ figures\\ in\\ shaping\\ western\\ history\\ and\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Demographics\\ of\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Urban\\ growth\\ is\\ about\\ people\\,\\ and\\ accumulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Immigrants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ From\\ europe\\,\\ Asia\\ and\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Similar\\ to\\ whats\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ NE\\ \\-\\ lots\\ people\\ emigrating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ In\\ 1880\\,\\ SF\\ has\\ highest\\ \\%\\ of\\ foreign\\ born\\ people\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Tend\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ ethnic\\ enclaves\\-\\ for\\ ex\\,\\ SF\\ Chinatown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ gave\\ pl\\ ability\\ to\\ share\\ language\\,\\ experience\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\commonality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Also\\ major\\ places\\ of\\ oppression\\ \\(all\\ chinese\\ in\\ SF\\ required\\ to\\ live\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\chinatown\\ for\\ \\&\\#39\\;sanitation\\&\\#39\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Rural\\ to\\ urban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Actually\\ at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ more\\ single\\ women\\ moving\\ to\\ western\\ cities\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\y\\ g\\ g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Sort\\ of\\ a\\ reversal\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ mining\\ city\\ pattern\\ \\-\\ by\\ 1880s\\,\\ native\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\born\\ women\\ outnumber\\ native\\ born\\ men\\ in\\ western\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Not\\ sure\\ why\\-\\ some\\ because\\ escaping\\ domestic\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cities\\ offer\\ economic\\ activities\\ not\\ available\\ to\\ rural\\ women\\ in\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Initially\\ pretty\\ homogeneous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Largely\\ white\\-\\ midwesterners\\.\\ Some\\ intellectual\\ literature\\ criticizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ for\\ being\\ dull\\,\\ all\\ the\\ same\\,\\ zombies\\,\\ etc\\ \\-\\ not\\ dynamic\\ cultural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\scene\\ in\\ s\\.\\ cali\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Recreating\\ midwest\\ transplanted\\ with\\ suburban\\ housing\\ in\\ 1920s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Also\\ stick\\ together\\ \\-\\ form\\ \\&\\#39\\;state\\ clubs\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\-\\ Iowa\\ club\\ of\\ Pasadena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Increasing\\ diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ After\\ 1910\\-\\ mex\\ revolution\\-\\ mexican\\ immigration\\ increases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Af\\-ams\\ also\\ moving\\ to\\ the\\ west\\.\\ Great\\ Migration\\ not\\ just\\ south\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\north\\ \\-\\ some\\ to\\ west\\ as\\ well\\.\\ 1910\\-8000\\ 1930\\-40000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Chinese\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ the\\ west\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\congregating\\ in\\ cities\\ \\(not\\ allowed\\ to\\ immigrate\\ anymore\\,\\ because\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\chinese\\ exclusion\\ act\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ 15\\%\\ of\\ pop\\ are\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ by\\ 1930\\.\\ \\(1910\\=6\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Racial\\ Discrimination\\ and\\ Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ The\\ white\\ midwestern\\ pop\\ not\\ so\\ happy\\ about\\ growing\\ diversity\\-\\ discrim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Anti\\ Chinese\\ riots\\ througout\\ late\\ 19th\\ c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ 1920s\\-\\ growth\\ of\\ KKK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Mostly\\ rural\\ but\\ growing\\ interest\\ in\\ suburban\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Very\\ accepted\\ and\\ public\\ in\\ white\\ communities\\-\\ aura\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\respectability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ But\\ still\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ violence\\/intimidation\\ we\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Residential\\ segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Informally\\ \\-\\ people\\ moving\\ into\\ areas\\ where\\ others\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\would\\ be\\ intimidated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Also\\ formal\\ restrictive\\ covenants\\ \\-\\ house\\ could\\ legally\\ only\\ be\\ sold\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WASPs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Racial\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ A\\ few\\ major\\ outbreaks\\ in\\ \\&\\#39\\;southern\\&\\#39\\;\\ part\\ of\\ west\\ \\-\\ OK\\,\\ TX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Tulsa\\,\\ 1921\\ \\-\\ 30\\ deaths\\,\\ 1000\\ homes\\ destroyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ this\\ week\\ \\-\\ about\\ water\\ and\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ section\\ thanksgiving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Urban\\ Demands\\ and\\ the\\ Consumption\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/9\\/05\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Urban\\ Demands\\ and\\ the\\ Consumption\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Intro\\:\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ and\\ Water\\ \\&\\;\\ Power\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Reisner\\ article\\ \\-\\ Lipincott\\,\\ Eaton\\,\\ Mulholland\\,\\ schemed\\ to\\ get\\ all\\ water\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Owens\\ valley\\ to\\ Los\\ Angeles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Mulholland\\ builds\\ engineering\\ marvel\\ \\-\\ a\\ huge\\ aquaduct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Cross\\ 223\\ miles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Owens\\ valley\\,\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ agro\\ area\\,\\ basically\\ is\\ so\\ dry\\ it\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\.\\ Mulholland\\&\\#39\\;s\\ St\\.\\ Francis\\ dam\\ collapses\\,\\ and\\ he\\ goes\\ away\\ feeling\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ failure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vi\\.\\ Indicative\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ drive\\ for\\ water\\ would\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ do\\ \\-\\ violent\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tense\\ confrontations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vii\\.\\ Wealth\\ generation\\ through\\ auspices\\ of\\ serving\\ public\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\viii\\.\\ Idea\\ that\\ nature\\ can\\ be\\ mastered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Remaking\\ Urban\\ Landscapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Making\\ a\\ Port\\ for\\ LA\\ at\\ San\\ Pedro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ San\\ Pedro\\ \\-\\ wants\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\,\\ deep\\ water\\ port\\.\\ Totally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reconstructs\\ coastline\\,\\ brings\\ rail\\ down\\ to\\ it\\ \\_\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ very\\ much\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\constructed\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Then\\,\\ early\\ 20th\\ c\\.\\ LA\\ annexes\\ San\\ Pedro\\ \\-\\-\\ expanding\\ in\\ tentacle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fashion\\ to\\ incorporate\\ land\\ that\\ it\\ needs\\ and\\ control\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ San\\ Pedro\\ connects\\ to\\ Pacific\\ and\\ Panama\\ Canal\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Regrading\\ Seattle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Almost\\ has\\ too\\ much\\ water\\ \\-\\ enclosed\\,\\ and\\ is\\ also\\ very\\ hilly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Decide\\ to\\ take\\ down\\ the\\ hills\\ \\-\\ Thompson\\ says\\ will\\ remove\\ 14mm\\ cubic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yards\\ of\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ will\\ dump\\ land\\ in\\ the\\ water\\ to\\ make\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Water\\ for\\ San\\ Francisco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Hetch\\ Hetchy\\ Valley\\ in\\ Sierras\\ \\-\\ want\\ to\\ put\\ a\\ reservoir\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Leads\\ to\\ big\\ debate\\ btw\\ city\\ of\\ SF\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ want\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\preserve\\ the\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Finally\\,\\ SF\\ wins\\,\\ build\\ dam\\ and\\ valley\\ fills\\ up\\.\\ And\\ even\\ today\\ 80\\%\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SF\\ water\\ from\\ Hetch\\ Hetchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Reclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;Reclaiming\\&\\#39\\;\\ Arid\\ Lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ People\\ in\\ 19th\\ and\\ early\\ 20th\\ c\\ looked\\ out\\ on\\ lands\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wanted\\ to\\ change\\ them\\ so\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ better\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ First\\,\\ through\\ private\\ local\\ and\\ state\\ irrigation\\ efforts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Virtually\\ imposs\\ for\\ independent\\ farmer\\ to\\ irrigate\\ himself\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\requires\\ large\\,\\ organized\\ effort\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Mormons\\ are\\ the\\ first\\ models\\ of\\ how\\ this\\ can\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Soon\\,\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ efforts\\ are\\ in\\ financial\\ trouble\\ because\\ they\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\expect\\ more\\ people\\ to\\ come\\ in\\ and\\ use\\ the\\ water\\ then\\ actually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\happens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Many\\,\\ like\\ Calexico\\ flood\\ channel\\,\\ are\\ built\\ without\\ adequate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\safe\\ guards\\ \\-\\-\\ creates\\ Salton\\ Sea\\ as\\ entire\\ flow\\ of\\ Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\river\\ flows\\ into\\ the\\ valley\\ irrigation\\ canals\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Development\\ Company\\ then\\ has\\ to\\ sell\\ out\\ to\\ Southern\\ Pacific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\railroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ And\\ after\\ fixing\\ everything\\,\\ do\\ create\\ really\\ good\\ farmland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Local\\ and\\ state\\ govts\\ start\\ doing\\ this\\ a\\ little\\ too\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Federal\\ Reclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ 1902\\ Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Creates\\ reclamation\\ fund\\,\\ financed\\ by\\ sale\\ of\\ public\\ lands\\ in\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\western\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Includes\\ limitation\\ that\\ anyone\\ getting\\ fed\\ irrigation\\ water\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\only\\ have\\ 160\\ acres\\ of\\ land\\ \\-\\ trying\\ to\\ instill\\ small\\ agrarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mentality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Bureau\\ of\\ Reclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Comes\\ out\\ of\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Classic\\ example\\ of\\ progressive\\ era\\ management\\ \\-\\ professional\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\scientific\\ management\\,\\ highly\\ utilitarian\\.\\ Engineers\\ surveying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\west\\ to\\ decide\\ what\\ best\\ and\\ most\\ efficient\\ uses\\ of\\ western\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\water\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ But\\ also\\ subject\\ to\\ political\\ pressures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ By\\ 1906\\,\\ almost\\ every\\ western\\ state\\ has\\ some\\ project\\ going\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\)\\ Water\\ should\\ be\\ expensive\\ \\-\\ its\\ very\\ expensive\\ to\\ move\\ water\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\but\\ fed\\ government\\ pays\\ \\-\\ so\\ huge\\ subsidies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\f\\)\\ And\\ actually\\,\\ people\\ ignore\\ the\\ land\\ limit\\,\\ so\\ fed\\ basically\\ ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\up\\ subsidizing\\ huge\\ agrobussiness\\ in\\ west\\,\\ esp\\ in\\ places\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imperial\\ Valley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Federal\\ control\\ of\\ western\\ lands\\ and\\ the\\ uses\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Forest\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Tied\\ to\\ water\\ supply\\ \\-\\ early\\ protection\\ from\\ government\\ need\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\protect\\ the\\ watershed\\ so\\ water\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flow\\ down\\ too\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Harrison\\ and\\ Clevelend\\,\\ 1890\\-\\ first\\ federal\\ forests\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ But\\ 1897\\,\\ gave\\ secretary\\ of\\ interior\\ power\\ to\\ go\\ in\\ a\\ manage\\ use\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\western\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Gifford\\ Pinchot\\ \\-\\ becomes\\ director\\ in\\ 1898\\ of\\ forest\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Hugely\\ expands\\ amount\\ of\\ lands\\ conserved\\,\\ and\\ how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\ uses\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ First\\ of\\ \\&\\#39\\;conservationists\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ Progressive\\/scientific\\ management\\ \\-\\ brings\\ people\\ trained\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yale\\ school\\ of\\ forestry\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ \\-\\ sets\\ up\\ grazing\\ fees\\,\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ timbering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\)\\ System\\ of\\ managing\\ and\\ alloting\\ who\\ uses\\ forests\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\)\\ Idea\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ manage\\ forests\\ for\\ their\\ use\\ \\-\\ not\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\protecting\\ them\\ so\\ they\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\)\\ Leads\\ to\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ conflict\\ with\\ local\\ government\\ and\\ citizens\\ who\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\want\\ to\\ use\\ forest\\ service\\ land\\ for\\ local\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Eventually\\ big\\ biz\\ comes\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ forestry\\ \\-\\ pay\\ grazing\\ fees\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\both\\ parties\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ forests\\ in\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\possible\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ National\\ Parks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ These\\ are\\ different\\ \\-\\ protected\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ 1874\\ Yosemite\\ set\\ aside\\,\\ then\\ 1872\\ Yellowstone\\ National\\ park\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ These\\ places\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ pretty\\ useless\\ and\\ rugged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Hetch\\ Hetchy\\ vs\\ Yellowstone\\ \\-\\ equally\\ \\&\\#39\\;beautiful\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\-\\ but\\ if\\ useful\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\it\\ gets\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Preservationists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Unlike\\ conservationists\\,\\ think\\ that\\ nature\\ should\\ be\\ preserved\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nature\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ And\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ monumental\\ areas\\.\\ Thinks\\ all\\ can\\ help\\ the\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\condition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ John\\ Muir\\ is\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ This\\ debate\\ between\\ people\\ who\\ think\\ nature\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ vs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\protected\\ goes\\ until\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Mount\\ Reinier\\,\\ Glacier\\ National\\ Park\\ \\=\\ victories\\ of\\ preservationists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hetch\\ Hetchy\\,\\ Olympic\\ National\\ Park\\ are\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/21\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\WWII\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Govt\\ deficit\\ quadrupled\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mobilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\pearl\\ harbor\\ Dec\\.\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1941\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fleet\\ in\\ Hawaii\\ sign\\ of\\ western\\ imperialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defending\\ the\\ Pacific\\ Coast\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bases\\ in\\ Cali\\ and\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mobilizing\\ troops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Federal\\ Investment\\ \\&\\;\\ War\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ the\\ West\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ location\\,\\ weather\\,\\ available\\ land\\,\\ cheap\\ hydro\\-electric\\ power\\,\\ successful\\ lobbying\\ by\\ westerners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ Investment\\:\\ Defense\\ Plant\\ Corporation\\ \\(DPC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ Industry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ CA\\ benefits\\ most\\,\\ gets\\ 1\\/10\\ Fed\\ \\$\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Building\\ the\\ Atomic\\ Bomb\\:\\ Manhattan\\ Project\\ \\(Oppenheimer\\,\\ Bohr\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ Los\\ Alamos\\ NM\\ \\(secret\\ lab\\)\\,\\ Hanford\\ WA\\ \\(produce\\ plutonium\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\armaments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aircraft\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shipyards\\ \\(Henry\\ J\\.\\ Kaiser\\,\\ Richmond\\ CA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\ \\&\\;\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\War\\ Production\\:\\ \\ \\;craft\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ assembly\\ line\\,\\ skilled\\ labor\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ unskilled\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\increased\\ demands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\migration\\ 1940\\-1950\\ 8\\ million\\ migrate\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diversity\\ in\\ the\\ workforce\\:\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agricultural\\ Labor\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Bracero\\ Program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emergency\\ Farm\\ Labor\\ Program\\,\\ aka\\ Bracero\\ Program\\,\\ 1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\increased\\ demand\\ for\\ American\\ wheat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rain\\ returns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\need\\ cheap\\ labor\\:\\ Bracero\\ Program\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ we\\ need\\ Mexican\\ immigration\\ labor\\,\\ Mexicans\\ got\\ higher\\ wages\\ than\\ in\\ mexico\\,\\ but\\ still\\ poor\\ living\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/23\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Social\\ Transformations\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Question\\ of\\ Equality\\ in\\ Wartime\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Diversification\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ Workforce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ turn\\ to\\ them\\ as\\ male\\ labor\\ force\\ drops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Challenges\\ gender\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ but\\ women\\ still\\ responsible\\ for\\ domestic\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ turn\\ over\\,\\ especially\\ for\\ women\\ with\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Minorities\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ high\\ demand\\ for\\ labor\\ in\\ war\\ industries\\,\\ black\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\African\\ Amer\\.\\ Mostly\\ to\\ CA\\,\\ still\\ limits\\ on\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\begin\\ to\\ organize\\ nationally\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Double\\ V\\ campaign\\:\\ against\\ facism\\ abroad\\ and\\ racism\\ at\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Army\\ still\\ segregated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ victories\\:\\ Exec\\ Order\\ 8022\\,\\ Fair\\ Employment\\ Practices\\ Committee\\ \\(FEPC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indians\\:\\ reservations\\ in\\ significant\\ \\#s\\;\\ lose\\ some\\ collective\\ identity\\,\\ but\\ access\\ better\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 24, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Study_Guide_His_1641_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The US in the 1960s - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history"], "text": null, "id": 64, "html": "\\\\\\studyguidehist1672\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Elaine\\ Tyler\\ May\\:\\ Cold\\ War\\-Warm\\ Hearth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Starts\\ with\\ recap\\ of\\ consensus\\ of\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nuclear\\ family\\,\\ tells\\ about\\ a\\ LIFE\\ story\\ about\\ a\\ honeymoon\\ in\\ a\\ nuclear\\ bunker\\ for\\ two\\ weeks\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;unbroken\\ togetherness\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ image\\ of\\ family\\ togetherness\\ within\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ the\\ thick\\-walled\\ shelter\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ reassuring\\ one\\ to\\ Americans\\ at\\ the\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demographically\\ Americans\\ were\\ more\\ eager\\ to\\ make\\ families\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ creating\\ baby\\ boom\\,\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ prosperity\\ and\\ peace\\,\\ and\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ normalcy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ of\\ babyboom\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ 60s\\/70s\\ and\\ created\\ the\\ counter\\ culture\\,\\ highest\\ divorce\\ rate\\ and\\ lowest\\ birth\\ rate\\ so\\ far\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ like\\ grandparents\\ who\\ also\\ had\\ lowest\\ birthrate\\ and\\ highest\\ divorce\\ rate\\ of\\ their\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ that\\ solidarity\\ at\\ home\\ was\\ in\\ reaction\\ to\\ challenges\\ abroad\\ from\\ cold\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nixon\\/Kruschev\\ debated\\ over\\ merits\\ of\\ US\\/Soviet\\ system\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ tv\\ sets\\ and\\ dishwashers\\ not\\ missiles\\ or\\ governmental\\ structures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ debate\\ helped\\ give\\ Nixon\\ his\\ national\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reading\\ shifts\\ to\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ covering\\ men\\ and\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;organization\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\ works\\ in\\ a\\ large\\ corporation\\ with\\ little\\ autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ are\\ also\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ either\\ menial\\ and\\ subordinate\\ jobs\\ in\\ greater\\ numbers\\ than\\ before\\ or\\ are\\ full\\ time\\ homemakers\\ who\\ appreciate\\ their\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ in\\ the\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adjusted\\ to\\ the\\ nuclear\\ threat\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ disregard\\ it\\,\\ rather\\ just\\ buried\\ it\\ in\\ their\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homes\\ filled\\ with\\ marriage\\ and\\ children\\ were\\ their\\ defense\\ against\\ the\\ coldness\\ of\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ war\\ deaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ this\\ move\\ from\\ the\\ ethnic\\ based\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ nuclear\\ family\\,\\ and\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ have\\ adult\\ groups\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ community\\ that\\ ethnicities\\ once\\ held\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ tendency\\ to\\ trust\\ a\\ larger\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ and\\/or\\ experts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ trust\\ in\\ experts\\ gave\\ them\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ nuclear\\ families\\ were\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ questions\\ and\\ uncertainties\\ posed\\ by\\ foreign\\ affairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ trend\\ in\\ surveys\\ of\\ married\\ couples\\ that\\ marriage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benefits\\ outweighed\\ its\\ sacrifices\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ stability\\ meaning\\ more\\ than\\ financial\\ independence\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ attitude\\ of\\ worthwhile\\ sacrifice\\ did\\ not\\ continue\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\,\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ mvements\\ of\\ the\\ 60s\\ were\\ from\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ values\\ of\\ domesticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ideology\\ of\\ the\\ Liberal\\ Consensus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;Godfrey\\ Hodgson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\liberal\\ consensus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;system\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ beliefs\\,\\ widespread\\ acceptance\\,\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ optimism\\,\\ problems\\ are\\ solvable\\,\\ occurred\\ from\\ mid\\ 1950s\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ period\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;age\\ of\\ consensus\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Americans\\ in\\ this\\ period\\ accepted\\ the\\ same\\ system\\ of\\ assumptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-American\\ capitalism\\ abolished\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ and\\ now\\ everyone\\ in\\ America\\ is\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ the\\ country\\ is\\ approaching\\ economic\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-entrance\\ into\\ intellectual\\ age\\,\\ university\\ enrollments\\ multiplying\\ in\\ years\\ after\\ WWII\\,\\ endowments\\ accumulated\\,\\ federal\\ and\\ state\\ funds\\ became\\ available\\,\\ salaries\\ and\\ status\\ of\\ professors\\ rose\\ \\(for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ academic\\ life\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ and\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;in\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ Americans\\ were\\ worried\\ about\\ themselves\\ \\(health\\ and\\ status\\)\\,\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ end\\ they\\ were\\ worried\\ about\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ nuclear\\ war\\ with\\ Russia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Two\\ faces\\ of\\ the\\ consensus\\ mood\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;1\\.\\ confident\\ to\\ the\\ verge\\ of\\ complacency\\ about\\ the\\ perfectibility\\ of\\ American\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ anxious\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ paranoia\\ about\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ communism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Domestic\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\/early\\ 60s\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ should\\ seek\\ better\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ while\\ keeping\\ its\\ guard\\ up\\ and\\ seeking\\ to\\ contain\\ communism\\&mdash\\;this\\ was\\ common\\ ground\\ \\(consensus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-disagreement\\ over\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ US\\ should\\ support\\ the\\ UN\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-disagreement\\ over\\ level\\ of\\ foreign\\ aid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-disagreement\\ over\\ speed\\ of\\ space\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Historical\\ contributing\\ factors\\ to\\ consensus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-new\\ prosperity\\ calmed\\ the\\ class\\ antipathies\\ of\\ the\\ depression\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-sense\\ of\\ an\\ enemy\\ at\\ the\\ gate\\ strengthened\\ national\\ unity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-American\\,\\ democratic\\,\\ free\\-enterprise\\ system\\ creates\\ abundance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-production\\/economic\\ growth\\ better\\ meets\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ needs\\,\\ social\\ conflict\\ over\\ resources\\ becomes\\ obsolete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-therefore\\,\\ a\\ natural\\ harmony\\ of\\ interests\\ in\\ society\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-social\\ problems\\ are\\ addressed\\ just\\ like\\ industrial\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ feels\\ a\\ responsibility\\ to\\ bring\\ this\\ system\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;In\\ 1956\\,\\ Rockefeller\\ brothers\\ organized\\ a\\ special\\ studies\\ project\\,\\ bringing\\ together\\ a\\ team\\ of\\ diagnosticians\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;meet\\ and\\ examine\\ the\\ most\\ critical\\ problems\\ facing\\ the\\ nation\\ over\\ the\\ next\\ ten\\ to\\ fifteen\\ years\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Discovered\\ that\\ the\\ shared\\ assumptions\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ governmental\\ and\\ business\\ elite\\ were\\ very\\ similar\\.\\ The\\ underlying\\ tone\\ was\\ the\\ struggle\\ with\\ Soviet\\ danger\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Eisenhower\\ administration\\ made\\ official\\ report\\ on\\ the\\ national\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ got\\ together\\ a\\ panel\\ of\\ economists\\,\\ findings\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ Rockefeller\\ report\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ perfectible\\ America\\ threatened\\ from\\ without\\ by\\ the\\ Communist\\ serpent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;This\\ guy\\ sums\\ it\\ up\\ nicely\\:\\ Fred\\ Freed\\,\\ TV\\ producer\\ NBC\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;in\\ 1961\\ we\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ consensus\\ society\\.\\ Those\\ were\\ the\\ days\\ of\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\.\\ There\\ was\\ an\\ enemy\\ outside\\,\\ the\\ communists\\,\\ Nikita\\ Khrushchev\\,\\ the\\ red\\ Chinese\\&hellip\\;back\\ then\\ there\\ was\\ general\\ agreement\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ about\\ what\\ was\\ right\\ and\\ what\\ was\\ wrong\\ about\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Nobody\\ really\\ questioned\\ the\\ system\\&hellip\\;we\\ had\\ a\\ common\\ set\\ of\\ beliefs\\ and\\ common\\ values\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Affluent\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ part\\ one\\ of\\ Chapter\\ 21\\,\\ Galbraith\\ makes\\ his\\ overarching\\ argument\\ for\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ what\\ he\\ terms\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ balance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ poverty\\ in\\ public\\ services\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ lack\\ of\\ good\\ schools\\,\\ highways\\,\\ parks\\,\\ libraries\\,\\ hospitals\\ etc\\,\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ downfall\\ of\\ our\\ affluent\\ society\\ \\(originally\\ written\\ in\\ 1958\\)\\ and\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ eliminate\\ the\\ poverty\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ sector\\ we\\ will\\ see\\ even\\ more\\ growth\\ and\\ employment\\ that\\ is\\ sustainable\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ period\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ Galbraith\\ essentially\\ argues\\ two\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ he\\ distinguishes\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ public\\ and\\ private\\ goods\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ conclusions\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;functions\\ accrue\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ because\\,\\ as\\ a\\ purely\\ technical\\ matter\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ alternative\\ to\\ public\\ management\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ anything\\ that\\ is\\ public\\ is\\ public\\ because\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exploit\\ it\\ to\\ make\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ purse\\ by\\ the\\ legislature\\ in\\ our\\ \\&ldquo\\;affluent\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ become\\ so\\ complex\\ and\\ intertwined\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ hurting\\ the\\ growth\\ and\\ maintenance\\ of\\ public\\ services\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ in\\ which\\ legislators\\ must\\ find\\ a\\ need\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ transfer\\ resources\\ for\\ public\\ uses\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ finds\\ this\\ absurd\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;fewer\\ automobiles\\ would\\ be\\ purchased\\ than\\ at\\ present\\ were\\ it\\ necessary\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ positive\\ case\\ for\\ their\\ purchase\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ a\\ case\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ for\\ schools\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ thinks\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ worry\\ less\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;wasting\\&rdquo\\;\\ money\\ on\\ schools\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ goods\\ because\\ he\\ sees\\ that\\ terminology\\ as\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ paradox\\ as\\ schools\\ only\\ serve\\ a\\ positive\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galbraith\\ then\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ balance\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ so\\ important\\ to\\ him\\,\\ that\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ should\\ create\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ proportional\\ income\\ tax\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ explicity\\ states\\ that\\ this\\ must\\ be\\ accomplished\\ by\\ relying\\ on\\ personal\\ and\\ corporate\\ income\\ taxes\\,\\ for\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ calls\\ for\\ politics\\ to\\ be\\ put\\ aside\\ \\(easier\\ said\\ then\\ done\\)\\ and\\ says\\ the\\ only\\ hope\\ is\\ that\\ politicians\\,\\ especially\\ liberals\\,\\ can\\ separate\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ equality\\ \\(when\\ are\\ the\\ rich\\ too\\ rich\\)\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ social\\ balance\\,\\ because\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ latter\\ is\\ by\\ far\\ the\\ more\\ important\\ question\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ ends\\ this\\ section\\ with\\ an\\ important\\ statement\\ directed\\ at\\ politicians\\ and\\ partisans\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ rational\\ liveral\\,\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ will\\ resist\\ tax\\ reduction\\,\\ even\\ that\\ which\\ ostensibly\\ favors\\ the\\ porr\\,\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\,\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ reason\\,\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ hesitate\\ to\\ accept\\ increases\\ that\\ are\\ neutral\\ as\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ income\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Essentially\\,\\ liberals\\ should\\ abandaon\\ their\\ beliefs\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ serve\\ social\\ balance\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ smart\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Galbraith\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galbraith\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ sales\\ tax\\ on\\ a\\ state\\ and\\ local\\ level\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ assure\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ this\\ makes\\ sense\\ because\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ affluent\\ in\\ privately\\ produces\\ good\\ and\\ poor\\ in\\ public\\ services\\,\\ therefore\\ take\\ from\\ the\\ former\\ and\\ provide\\ to\\ the\\ latter\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ section\\ he\\ addresses\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ sales\\ tax\\ is\\ not\\ proportional\\ and\\ therefore\\ would\\ hurt\\ poor\\ people\\ more\\ than\\ rich\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ necessary\\ sacrifice\\,\\ because\\ if\\ social\\ balance\\ is\\ reached\\ then\\ poverty\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ can\\ be\\ eliminated\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ if\\ schools\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ services\\ are\\ increased\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ poor\\ people\\ because\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ better\\ educated\\ and\\ more\\ capable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ and\\ VI\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ sections\\ argues\\ more\\ concretely\\ why\\ sales\\ tax\\ is\\ a\\ viable\\ option\\,\\ not\\ really\\ important\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ just\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ above\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ that\\ neither\\ liberals\\ or\\ conservatives\\ have\\ seen\\ this\\ yet\\ but\\ they\\ should\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ section\\ addresses\\ when\\ will\\ we\\ know\\ when\\ society\\ has\\ reached\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ has\\ no\\ real\\ good\\ answer\\ but\\ instead\\ says\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ balanced\\ and\\ this\\ should\\ be\\ reason\\ enough\\ to\\ strive\\ for\\ balance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ chapter\\ Galbraith\\ looks\\ at\\ poverty\\ in\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\,\\ explains\\ its\\ nature\\,\\ explains\\ how\\ to\\ rid\\ the\\ society\\ of\\ it\\ and\\ attempts\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ it\\ has\\ persisted\\ and\\ why\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ disgrace\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ opens\\ by\\ explaining\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ poverty\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ case\\ poverty\\,\\ which\\ he\\ explains\\ as\\ individual\\ poverty\\,\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ certain\\ malfunction\\ in\\ an\\ individual\\ \\(mental\\ illness\\,\\ alchoholism\\ etc\\)\\ in\\ an\\ otherwise\\ affluent\\ and\\ well\\ functioning\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ is\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ poverty\\ and\\ claims\\ it\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ inevitable\\ and\\ not\\ worrisome\\ to\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ type\\ of\\ poverty\\ is\\ insular\\ poverty\\,\\ which\\ manifests\\ itself\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;island\\ of\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ concentrated\\ poverty\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ south\\ Bronx\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ Galbraith\\,\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ characteristics\\ of\\ this\\ insular\\ poverty\\ are\\ the\\ forces\\ which\\ keep\\ it\\ going\\ consistently\\ from\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ forces\\ are\\,\\ Race\\,\\ poor\\ educational\\ facilities\\,\\ disintegration\\ of\\ families\\ leaving\\ single\\ parent\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ because\\ of\\ these\\ factors\\,\\ insular\\ poverty\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ solved\\ simply\\ by\\ a\\ general\\ increase\\ in\\ affluence\\ of\\ society\\ or\\ a\\ general\\ increase\\ in\\ income\\ across\\ a\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Galbraith\\ then\\ addresses\\ why\\ this\\ insular\\ poverty\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ bigger\\ political\\ issues\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ because\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\ where\\ the\\ poor\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ large\\ mobilizing\\ factor\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ essentially\\ political\\ suicide\\ for\\ a\\ politician\\ to\\ invest\\ heavily\\ in\\ protecting\\ the\\ very\\ poor\\ and\\ their\\ interests\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ he\\ says\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ align\\ safely\\ with\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ a\\ poor\\ society\\ in\\ which\\ your\\ political\\ power\\ would\\ come\\ from\\ feeding\\ the\\ mouths\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ in\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\ you\\ hurt\\ yourself\\ by\\ being\\ morally\\ conscious\\ and\\ helping\\ the\\ poor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Galbraith\\ then\\ offers\\ his\\ solution\\ to\\ insular\\ poverty\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ immediately\\ throws\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ the\\ old\\ solution\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;helping\\ people\\ help\\ themselves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ counterproductive\\ and\\ has\\ not\\ shown\\ results\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ elimate\\ poverty\\ efficiently\\,\\ we\\ must\\,\\ indeed\\,\\ invest\\ more\\ than\\ proportionately\\ in\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ there\\ that\\ high\\ quality\\ schools\\,\\ strong\\ health\\ services\\,\\ special\\ provision\\ for\\ nutrition\\ and\\ recreation\\ are\\ most\\ needed\\ to\\ compensate\\ for\\ the\\ very\\ low\\ investment\\ which\\ families\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ offspring\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ poor\\ communities\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ cycle\\ of\\ poverty\\.\\ \\ \\;Essentially\\ he\\ again\\ argues\\ that\\ investing\\ in\\ social\\ balance\\ will\\ eliminate\\ poverty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Galbraith\\ wraps\\ up\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ poverty\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ remarkable\\,\\ because\\ some\\ countries\\ are\\ poor\\ and\\ therefore\\ cannot\\ avoid\\ it\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ he\\ says\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\,\\ that\\ poverty\\ only\\ exists\\ because\\ people\\ are\\ too\\ comfortable\\ and\\ used\\ to\\ turning\\ a\\ blind\\ eye\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ eliminated\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ remarkable\\ that\\ it\\ exists\\ but\\ disgraceful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Balance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ using\\ investment\\ in\\ public\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ such\\ as\\ schools\\ and\\ hospitals\\ and\\ health\\ care\\ programs\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ eliminate\\ poverty\\ within\\ affluent\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insular\\ Poverty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ poverty\\ that\\ exists\\ amongst\\ many\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ concentrated\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\ include\\ the\\ South\\ Bronx\\,\\ Puerto\\ rico\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ West\\ Virginia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ this\\ all\\ fits\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ that\\ Professor\\ McGirr\\ had\\ us\\ read\\ this\\ book\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ realize\\ how\\ people\\ were\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ its\\ economy\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ reading\\ Galbraith\\ it\\ becomes\\ very\\ apparent\\ that\\ he\\ forsaw\\ endless\\ growth\\ and\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ the\\ affluent\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Professor\\ McGirr\\ probably\\ wanted\\ us\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ this\\ mentally\\ led\\ people\\ to\\ start\\ thinking\\ about\\ new\\ things\\,\\ like\\ Galbraith\\ does\\ with\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ poverty\\ in\\ a\\ unique\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ also\\ led\\ to\\ people\\ thinking\\ about\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ etc\\,\\ which\\ in\\ part\\ helped\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ unique\\ environment\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ luck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coming\\ of\\ Age\\ in\\ Mississippi\\:\\ Chapters\\ 10\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 10\\-17\\ are\\ devoted\\ to\\ Anne\\ Moody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ years\\ in\\ high\\ school\\,\\ and\\ chapters\\ 18\\-20\\ begin\\ to\\ cover\\ her\\ years\\ in\\ college\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ fifteen\\ years\\ old\\ when\\ I\\ began\\ to\\ hate\\ people\\ \\(p136\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\High\\ school\\ begins\\ with\\ Anne\\ changing\\ her\\ name\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Essie\\ Mae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(which\\ her\\ mother\\ still\\ calls\\ her\\)\\ to\\ Anne\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ lives\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\,\\ stepfather\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Raymond\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ siblings\\ throughout\\ high\\ school\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Drew\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mississippi\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ shocked\\ by\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emmitt\\ Till\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ teenager\\ from\\ Chicago\\ who\\ was\\ brutally\\ lynched\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mississippi\\ Delta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;near\\ the\\ small\\ town\\ of\\ Drew\\ in\\ Sunflower\\ County\\.\\ His\\ murder\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ events\\ which\\ energized\\ the\\ nascent\\ American\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ main\\ suspects\\ for\\ the\\ crime\\ were\\ acquitted\\,\\ a\\ federal\\ investigation\\ into\\ his\\ murder\\ was\\ initiated\\ in\\ 2004\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ killed\\ because\\ he\\ allegedly\\ whistled\\ at\\ a\\ white\\ woman\\ in\\ a\\ drugstore\\,\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 14\\,\\ which\\ was\\ Anne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ age\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Anne\\ describes\\ how\\ this\\ event\\ causes\\ her\\ to\\ become\\ angry\\,\\ not\\ only\\ at\\ the\\ white\\ people\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ black\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ Delta\\ for\\ not\\ rising\\ up\\ against\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ significant\\ moment\\ of\\ her\\ life\\ because\\ it\\ begins\\ to\\ fuel\\ her\\ wish\\ to\\ take\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ through\\ Till\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ that\\ Anne\\ first\\ hears\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NAACP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ working\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miss\\ Burke\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;Miss\\ Burke\\ is\\ a\\ white\\ woman\\ for\\ whom\\ Anne\\ does\\ housework\\,\\ and\\ she\\ would\\ often\\ try\\ to\\ provoke\\ Anne\\ into\\ breaking\\ the\\ stone\\-like\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\ that\\ her\\ mother\\ tells\\ her\\ to\\ keep\\ at\\ work\\,\\ for\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ take\\ much\\ to\\ cause\\ the\\ white\\ people\\ of\\ this\\ area\\ to\\ snap\\ at\\ a\\ black\\ person\\ simply\\ for\\ stating\\ an\\ opinion\\.\\ \\ \\;Miss\\ Burke\\ would\\ sometimes\\ have\\ Anne\\ over\\ while\\ she\\ was\\ having\\ guild\\ meetings\\ with\\ other\\ white\\ women\\ of\\ Drew\\,\\ simply\\ so\\ that\\ Anne\\ could\\ hear\\ the\\ threats\\ against\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ black\\ girl\\,\\ and\\ in\\ hopes\\ that\\ she\\ would\\ spread\\ the\\ word\\ to\\ her\\ black\\ friends\\ and\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Anne\\ also\\ tutored\\ Miss\\ Burke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wayne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ his\\ friends\\ at\\ math\\,\\ all\\ of\\ whom\\ became\\ quite\\ close\\ friends\\ despite\\ their\\ races\\.\\ \\ \\;Wayne\\,\\ however\\,\\ does\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ use\\ Anne\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ angering\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ sitting\\ very\\ close\\ to\\ her\\ and\\ seemingly\\ threatening\\ to\\ become\\ involved\\ with\\ her\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ Anne\\ understandably\\ uncomfortable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ common\\ trait\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ uncovered\\ in\\ this\\ section\\,\\ which\\ involves\\ affairs\\ between\\ married\\ white\\ men\\ and\\ single\\ white\\ women\\,\\ whom\\ would\\ often\\ do\\ housework\\ for\\ the\\ white\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ well\\-described\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bess\\ and\\ Fox\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p137\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ Anne\\ describes\\ it\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ these\\ affairs\\ did\\ not\\ end\\ in\\ divorce\\,\\ but\\ sometimes\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ job\\ or\\ the\\ unwillingness\\ for\\ the\\ black\\ teen\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ cruelty\\ to\\ blacks\\ is\\ well\\ documented\\ in\\ this\\ section\\,\\ including\\ the\\ beating\\ of\\ Anne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jerry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ he\\ picked\\ up\\ a\\ lift\\ from\\ the\\ local\\ Sheriff\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cassidy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ burning\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Taplin\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ home\\ while\\ they\\ were\\ all\\ still\\ inside\\.\\ \\ \\;Anne\\ is\\ open\\ about\\ how\\ these\\ acts\\ of\\ brutality\\ affected\\ her\\ deeper\\ and\\ deeper\\ after\\ incident\\,\\ sometimes\\ resulting\\ in\\ her\\ trying\\ extra\\ hard\\ at\\ school\\ and\\ extracurricular\\ activities\\,\\ especially\\ basketball\\ \\(which\\ also\\ provided\\ her\\ with\\ a\\ scholarship\\ for\\ college\\)\\,\\ more\\ to\\ prove\\ herself\\ more\\ intelligent\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ black\\ people\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Uncle\\ Tom\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\ who\\ would\\ either\\ accept\\ things\\ for\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ were\\ or\\ cooperate\\ with\\ the\\ white\\ people\\ than\\ to\\ strive\\ to\\ succeed\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ point\\,\\ however\\,\\ where\\ she\\ does\\ lose\\ this\\ drive\\ out\\ of\\ pure\\ emotional\\ exhaustion\\,\\ only\\ to\\ regain\\ it\\ once\\ she\\ gets\\ to\\ college\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Natchez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ then\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tougaloo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ summers\\ before\\ college\\ \\(and\\ during\\)\\,\\ Anne\\ goes\\ to\\ New\\ Orleans\\ to\\ make\\ money\\,\\ living\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sister\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Celia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ she\\ works\\ unknowingly\\ as\\ a\\ scab\\ at\\ a\\ chicken\\ factory\\ under\\ completely\\ miserable\\ conditions\\,\\ then\\ she\\ gets\\ a\\ job\\ washing\\ dishes\\ \\(and\\ eventually\\ waitressing\\)\\ at\\ a\\ restaurant\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maple\\ Hill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ cast\\ of\\ characters\\ including\\ two\\ transvestites\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ her\\ coworkers\\ she\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ Orleans\\ social\\ scene\\ and\\ eventually\\ with\\ the\\ New\\ Orleans\\ chapter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\CORE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Anne\\ attends\\ a\\ school\\ in\\ Centreville\\,\\ where\\ she\\ learns\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Samuel\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Quinn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ condemned\\ by\\ the\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ principal\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mr\\.\\ Willis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ this\\,\\ Anne\\ writes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ death\\ brought\\ back\\ memories\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ killings\\,\\ beatings\\ and\\ abuses\\ inflicted\\ upon\\ Negroes\\ by\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ lay\\ in\\ bed\\ for\\ two\\ days\\ after\\ his\\ death\\ recalling\\ the\\ Taplin\\ burning\\,\\ Jerry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beating\\,\\ Emmett\\ Till\\&rsquo\\;s\\ murder\\,\\ and\\ working\\ for\\ Miss\\ Burke\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ hated\\ myself\\ and\\ every\\ Negro\\ in\\ Centreville\\ for\\ not\\ putting\\ a\\ stop\\ to\\ the\\ killings\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ putting\\ up\\ a\\ fight\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ stop\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ thought\\ of\\ waging\\ a\\ war\\ in\\ protest\\ against\\ the\\ killings\\ all\\ by\\ myself\\,\\ if\\ no\\ one\\ else\\ would\\ help\\ \\(pp202\\-203\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ after\\ that\\ she\\ estranges\\ herself\\ from\\ her\\ mother\\ and\\ Raymond\\ and\\ moves\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ her\\ father\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Woodville\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ enjoys\\ the\\ warmth\\ of\\ their\\ household\\ and\\ attends\\ Johnson\\ High\\ School\\ where\\ she\\ becomes\\ a\\ favorite\\ of\\ the\\ basketball\\ coach\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dunbar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ graduates\\ and\\ attends\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Natchez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ miserable\\,\\ and\\ then\\ moves\\ on\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tougaloo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Chapter\\ 20\\ ends\\ with\\ Anne\\ just\\ about\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ NAACP\\ chapter\\ at\\ Tougaloo\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ writes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ more\\ I\\ remembered\\ the\\ killings\\,\\ beatings\\,\\ and\\ intimidations\\,\\ the\\ more\\ I\\ worried\\ what\\ might\\ possibly\\ happen\\ to\\ me\\ or\\ my\\ family\\ if\\ I\\ joined\\ the\\ NAACP\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ I\\ knew\\ I\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ join\\,\\ anyway\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ had\\ wanted\\ to\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ \\(p269\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chafe\\,\\ Civilities\\ and\\ Civil\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Civilities\\ and\\ Civil\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ H\\.\\ Chafe\\,\\ Chapters\\ 2\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chafe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ civil\\ rights\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Greensboro\\,\\ North\\ Carolina\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ not\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Deep\\ South\\ and\\ not\\ often\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ sentence\\ as\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ southern\\ cities\\ which\\ were\\ more\\ famous\\ areas\\ for\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ like\\ Montgomery\\ and\\ Birmingham\\,\\ Greensboro\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ crucial\\ area\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ host\\ of\\ the\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;largest\\ civil\\ rights\\ protests\\ ever\\ to\\ occur\\ in\\ North\\ Carolina\\ \\(118\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Long\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ liberal\\ city\\ by\\ blacks\\,\\ whites\\,\\ and\\ northerners\\,\\ Chafe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ looks\\ to\\ point\\ that\\ such\\ left\\-leaning\\ tendencies\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ translate\\ into\\ blacks\\ gaining\\ equal\\ rights\\ as\\ whites\\ very\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ he\\ explains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blacks\\ wanted\\ to\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ good\\ faith\\ of\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ after\\ frustration\\ reached\\ a\\ peak\\ did\\ overt\\ rebellion\\ occur\\,\\ to\\ be\\ followed\\ again\\ by\\ quiet\\ patience\\ when\\ promises\\ of\\ change\\ were\\ offered\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ rebellion\\ would\\ rise\\ once\\ more\\,\\ set\\ in\\ motion\\ by\\ yet\\ another\\ betrayal\\ of\\ promises\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ the\\ crisis\\ \\(110\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ summary\\ of\\ each\\ individual\\ chapter\\ will\\ explain\\ the\\ events\\ that\\ help\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ pendulum\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ Chafe\\ just\\ mentioned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Moderation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ spring\\ of\\ 1954\\,\\ everyone\\ applauds\\ liberal\\ Greensboro\\ when\\ it\\ decides\\ to\\ go\\ along\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brown\\ vs\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ passes\\ a\\ resolution\\ to\\ desegregate\\ the\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ little\\ progress\\ is\\ every\\ really\\ made\\,\\ as\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ members\\ actually\\ support\\ Chairman\\ Ed\\ Hudgins\\&rsquo\\;\\ draft\\ of\\ a\\ compliance\\ issue\\ on\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ businessmen\\,\\ religious\\ leaders\\,\\ and\\ other\\ North\\ Carolinians\\ also\\ worked\\ to\\ forestall\\ any\\ real\\ action\\,\\ as\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ stalled\\ in\\ forcing\\ the\\ South\\ to\\ take\\ decisive\\ action\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brown\\<\\/span\\>\\\\¸\\;\\ frustrating\\ black\\ citizens\\.\\ \\ \\;Governor\\ Luther\\ Hodges\\ does\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ job\\ of\\ holding\\ off\\ black\\ demands\\,\\ as\\ he\\ creates\\ the\\ Pearsall\\ Committee\\,\\ which\\ essentially\\ did\\ nothing\\,\\ got\\ the\\ Pupil\\ Assignment\\ Act\\ passed\\,\\ which\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ actually\\ have\\ the\\ proper\\ components\\ to\\ enforce\\ desegregation\\,\\ and\\ managed\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ NAACP\\ fearful\\ that\\ conservative\\ elements\\ like\\ the\\ KKK\\ were\\ threatening\\ to\\ gain\\ more\\ support\\ if\\ he\\ actually\\ tried\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ of\\ substance\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ the\\ Pearsall\\ Plan\\ was\\ passed\\ which\\ also\\ did\\ nothing\\,\\ but\\ was\\ widely\\ accepted\\ by\\ people\\ as\\ a\\ progressive\\ measure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;With\\ Hodges\\ and\\ other\\ leaders\\ failing\\ to\\ deliver\\ on\\ promises\\,\\ the\\ grass\\-roots\\ protests\\ from\\ blacks\\ begin\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ early\\ protest\\ came\\ during\\ Hodges\\&rsquo\\;\\ visit\\ to\\ the\\ North\\ Carolina\\ Agricultural\\ and\\ Technical\\ College\\ \\(A\\&\\;T\\)\\ in\\ Greensboro\\ in\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\.\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ thereafter\\,\\ black\\ leaders\\ started\\ protesting\\ against\\ highly\\ visible\\ things\\,\\ like\\ the\\ great\\ disparity\\ in\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ gyms\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ their\\ demands\\ growing\\,\\ the\\ schools\\ began\\ to\\ grant\\ token\\ desegregation\\ before\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ 1957\\-58\\ school\\ year\\,\\ and\\ admitted\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ black\\ students\\ to\\ the\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\ their\\ efforts\\ were\\ praised\\ for\\ being\\ so\\ progressive\\,\\ but\\ still\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ black\\ leaders\\&rsquo\\;\\ demands\\.\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ things\\ were\\ about\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ head\\,\\ as\\ it\\ became\\ clear\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;North\\ Carolina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ progressivism\\ consisted\\ primarily\\ of\\ its\\ shrewdness\\ in\\ opposing\\ racial\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(70\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ Sit\\-Ins\\ Begin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;What\\ makes\\ Greensboro\\ so\\ famous\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ famous\\ sit\\-ins\\ begin\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ this\\ subject\\ which\\ Chafe\\ devotes\\ most\\ of\\ this\\ chapter\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;Begun\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ the\\ sit\\-in\\ movement\\ came\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ heels\\ of\\ the\\ blacks\\&rsquo\\;\\ general\\ frustration\\ in\\ desegregating\\ the\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ there\\ were\\ small\\ victories\\ and\\ some\\ students\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ transfer\\ schools\\,\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ much\\ actual\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\,\\ black\\ leaders\\ decided\\ to\\ turn\\ their\\ focus\\ towards\\ businesses\\,\\ who\\ they\\ hoped\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ change\\ if\\ they\\ hit\\ them\\ where\\ it\\ hurt\\ most\\:\\ their\\ wallets\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ so\\ on\\ February\\ 1\\,\\ 1960\\,\\ four\\ students\\ from\\ A\\&\\;T\\ sat\\ down\\ at\\ the\\ lunch\\ counter\\ at\\ the\\ Woolworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ downtown\\ Greensboro\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ movement\\ quickly\\ snowballed\\,\\ and\\ an\\ organizational\\ structure\\ to\\ keep\\ up\\ the\\ sit\\-ins\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ sprang\\ up\\,\\ paralyzing\\ Woolworths\\ and\\ other\\ later\\ targets\\ of\\ the\\ sit\\-ins\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ harassed\\,\\ violence\\ never\\ erupted\\,\\ and\\ the\\ protest\\ came\\ to\\ a\\ temporary\\ halt\\ thanks\\ to\\ the\\ negotiations\\ of\\ the\\ Greensboro\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ College\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Chancellor\\ Gordon\\ Blackwell\\,\\ who\\ got\\ the\\ blacks\\ to\\ stand\\ down\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ business\\ leader\\ named\\ Edward\\ Zane\\ then\\ took\\ over\\ as\\ the\\ primary\\ negotiator\\,\\ but\\ failed\\ in\\ actually\\ persuading\\ the\\ white\\ business\\ leaders\\ to\\ desegregate\\ their\\ stores\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ his\\ failure\\,\\ the\\ demonstrations\\ continued\\ on\\ April\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ time\\,\\ there\\ were\\ also\\ protests\\ were\\ held\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ sit\\-ins\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ the\\ demonstrations\\ took\\ their\\ tole\\,\\ forcing\\ the\\ principal\\ eight\\ downtown\\ stores\\ to\\ give\\ into\\ the\\ pressure\\ they\\ faced\\ from\\ the\\ black\\ students\\,\\ concerned\\ citizens\\,\\ and\\ the\\ larger\\ parent\\ corporation\\ which\\ feared\\ embarrassment\\ from\\ the\\ whole\\ issue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ desegregating\\ measure\\ was\\ praised\\ by\\ all\\,\\ but\\ ended\\ the\\ general\\ civility\\ that\\ had\\ existed\\ between\\ the\\ whites\\ and\\ black\\ leaders\\ up\\ until\\ this\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ A\\ Time\\ of\\ Testing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ 1960\\,\\ John\\ F\\.\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ Terry\\ Sanford\\ were\\ elected\\ as\\ the\\ president\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ governor\\ of\\ North\\ Carolina\\,\\ respectively\\,\\ giving\\ a\\ much\\ clearer\\ support\\ of\\ enlightened\\ liberalism\\ from\\ the\\ voters\\.\\ \\ \\;Sanford\\ quickly\\ went\\ to\\ work\\ to\\ actually\\ help\\ end\\ the\\ inequality\\ among\\ the\\ races\\,\\ and\\ encouraged\\ black\\ protests\\ to\\ help\\ garner\\ support\\ for\\ his\\ efforts\\,\\ since\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ Carolinian\\ government\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ him\\ any\\ real\\ power\\ to\\ enact\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Greensboro\\,\\ black\\ leaders\\ started\\ advocating\\ for\\ the\\ desegregation\\ of\\ entire\\ stores\\,\\ school\\ districts\\,\\ hospitals\\,\\ and\\ other\\ areas\\,\\ but\\ were\\ again\\ met\\ with\\ resistance\\.\\ \\ \\;Frustration\\ grew\\,\\ and\\ protests\\ picked\\ up\\ in\\ earnest\\ again\\ in\\ late\\ summer\\ of\\ 1962\\,\\ with\\ a\\ focus\\ growing\\ on\\ the\\ school\\ system\\ this\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ at\\ this\\ decisive\\ point\\ that\\ Chafe\\ ends\\ this\\ segment\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ the\\ white\\ leaders\\ were\\ following\\ a\\ similar\\ pattern\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ by\\ taking\\ efforts\\ to\\ stall\\ any\\ actual\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ time\\ this\\ delay\\ took\\ its\\ form\\ in\\ the\\ Human\\ Relations\\ Commission\\,\\ which\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ study\\ and\\ solve\\ problems\\ of\\ racial\\ problems\\,\\ but\\ in\\ reality\\ did\\ nothing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ chapter\\,\\ activists\\ from\\ Greensboro\\ start\\ to\\ protest\\ and\\ hold\\ demonstrations\\ in\\ large\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ to\\ give\\ you\\ an\\ idea\\,\\ within\\ eighteen\\ days\\,\\ there\\ were\\ 2000\\ activists\\ assaulted\\ and\\ at\\ one\\ point\\,\\ over\\ 1400\\ black\\ protestors\\ were\\ arrested\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ gathered\\ to\\ protest\\ segregation\\ in\\ Greensboro\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chafe\\ notes\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ NAACP\\ began\\ to\\ question\\ everything\\,\\ which\\ led\\ students\\ and\\ other\\ activists\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ and\\ question\\ the\\ authority\\.\\ \\ \\;Chafe\\ goes\\ on\\ and\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ different\\ protests\\ that\\ occurred\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ were\\ violent\\,\\ where\\ they\\ blocked\\ entrances\\ of\\ local\\ businesses\\ that\\ were\\ still\\ segregated\\ and\\ force\\ the\\ Mayor\\ Schenck\\ and\\ other\\ city\\ leaders\\ to\\ start\\ making\\ changes\\.\\ \\ \\;Moreover\\,\\ student\\ demonstrators\\ tried\\ sit\\ ins\\ where\\ they\\ sat\\ in\\ theatres\\ and\\ refused\\ to\\ leave\\ unless\\ they\\ were\\ integrated\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ way\\,\\ their\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ pack\\ the\\ jails\\,\\ exhaust\\ the\\ city\\,\\ and\\ force\\ city\\ officials\\ to\\ make\\ changes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ situation\\ in\\ the\\ jails\\ got\\ so\\ bad\\ that\\ 100\\ jailers\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ share\\ 2\\ beds\\ and\\ 2\\ bathrooms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ they\\ forced\\ the\\ Mayor\\ to\\ speak\\ out\\ against\\ segregation\\ and\\ gave\\ businesses\\ one\\ week\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ his\\ request\\ for\\ desegregation\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ agreed\\ to\\ suspend\\ demonstrations\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ mixed\\ results\\.\\ \\ \\;25\\%\\ of\\ the\\ restaurants\\ were\\ now\\ open\\ to\\ blacks\\ and\\ motels\\ and\\ theaters\\ started\\ doing\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ gave\\ no\\ support\\ to\\ desegregation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rate\\ of\\ progress\\ lagged\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ pace\\ set\\ by\\ other\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ took\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ the\\ 1964\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ almost\\ a\\ year\\ later\\,\\ that\\ Greensboro\\ reached\\ the\\ same\\ degree\\ of\\ integration\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mayor\\ Schenck\\-\\ mentioned\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Thomas\\-\\ CORE\\ leader\\,\\ led\\ protests\\ and\\ first\\ sit\\ in\\ at\\ Greensboro\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\ a\\ major\\ player\\ in\\ ending\\ segregation\\ in\\ Greensboro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Generation\\ gap\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ younger\\ activists\\ thought\\ that\\ merely\\ sitting\\ down\\ with\\ white\\ leaders\\ solved\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ students\\,\\ negotiation\\ meant\\ little\\ if\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ anything\\ concrete\\ that\\ developed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Older\\ activists\\ questioned\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ worth\\ it\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ jail\\ and\\ put\\ their\\ own\\ bodies\\ on\\ the\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ local\\ black\\ pastors\\ seemed\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ wear\\ and\\ tear\\ on\\ their\\ churches\\ than\\ about\\ winning\\ the\\ struggle\\ \\(students\\ thought\\ about\\ picketing\\ prestigious\\ black\\ churches\\ who\\ were\\ unwilling\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effective\\ grassroots\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ Mayor\\ Schenck\\ forced\\ business\\ to\\ integrate\\,\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easier\\ said\\ then\\ done\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ I\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ Greensboro\\ businesses\\ were\\ integrating\\ really\\ slowly\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ verbal\\ protest\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ useless\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ force\\ change\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ change\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ when\\ the\\ Mayor\\ forces\\ businesses\\ to\\ integrate\\,\\ nothing\\ really\\ happens\\ unless\\ the\\ people\\ themselves\\ mobilize\\ and\\ protest\\ until\\ something\\ is\\ done\\ permanently\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;After\\ the\\ sit\\ ins\\ and\\ demonstrations\\,\\ restaurants\\ and\\ motels\\ began\\ to\\ integrate\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ larger\\ dilemma\\ of\\ structural\\ and\\ institutional\\ racism\\ remained\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ instance\\,\\ black\\ Greensboro\\ lacked\\ decent\\ apartments\\ and\\ general\\ city\\ upkeep\\ \\(paving\\ streets\\,\\ housing\\ improvements\\)\\ that\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ seemed\\ to\\ enjoy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ school\\ system\\ continued\\ to\\ be\\ segregated\\,\\ as\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ was\\ dominated\\ by\\ white\\ corporate\\ racists\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ students\\ living\\ next\\ to\\ black\\ students\\ were\\ provided\\ with\\ buses\\ so\\ that\\ children\\ could\\ attend\\ predominantly\\ white\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ 1000\\ black\\ students\\ attended\\ integrated\\ schools\\-\\ a\\ number\\ that\\ is\\ significantly\\ below\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ other\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ school\\ board\\ defended\\ themselves\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ housing\\ problem\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ educational\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ black\\ students\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ white\\ schools\\ if\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ areas\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Chafe\\ counters\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ from\\ 1914\\ to\\ 1929\\ there\\ had\\ been\\ city\\ ordinances\\ prohibiting\\ blacks\\ from\\ living\\ in\\ certain\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;When\\ blacks\\ did\\ cross\\ the\\ boundary\\ and\\ live\\ in\\ white\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ the\\ KKK\\ harassed\\ and\\ threatened\\ to\\ kill\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Chafe\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ segregation\\ issues\\ were\\ all\\ interconnected\\.\\ \\ \\;Segregation\\ in\\ education\\ facilities\\ was\\ reinforced\\ by\\ segregation\\ in\\ housing\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Dorsett\\-\\ led\\ the\\ KKK\\ resurgence\\ in\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lisa\\ McGirr\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Suburban\\ Warriors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 1\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orange\\ County\\ was\\ the\\ suburban\\ heartland\\ that\\ was\\ the\\ birthing\\ ground\\ of\\ a\\ powerful\\ grassroots\\ political\\ movement\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ revitalized\\ and\\ military\\ Right\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fueled\\ by\\ politics\\ of\\ antistatism\\,\\ virulent\\ anticommunism\\,\\ and\\ strict\\ normative\\ conservatism\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ middle\\ class\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ of\\ Orange\\ County\\ rose\\ to\\ object\\ the\\ perceived\\ threats\\ of\\ communism\\ and\\ liberalism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\They\\ forged\\ study\\ groups\\,\\ multiplied\\ chapter\\ of\\ national\\ right\\-wing\\ organizations\\ and\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ voices\\ heard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ Orange\\ County\\ become\\ so\\ supportive\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ region\\ had\\ become\\ extremely\\ affluent\\ and\\ prosperous\\ due\\ to\\ large\\ military\\ corporations\\ that\\ had\\ established\\ themselves\\.\\ This\\ in\\ turn\\ brought\\ entrepreneurs\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ success\\ and\\ prosperity\\ reaffirmed\\ in\\ many\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ dream\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ individualism\\ and\\ independence\\ from\\ government\\ red\\ tape\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rapid\\ growth\\ had\\ deepened\\ and\\ magnified\\ the\\ social\\ strains\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\ But\\ this\\ had\\ happened\\ in\\ many\\ other\\ areas\\ as\\ well\\.\\ In\\ Orange\\ County\\,\\ it\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ successes\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ militaristic\\,\\ anticommunist\\ ethos\\ linked\\ to\\ prosperity\\ that\\ cemented\\ the\\ conservative\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\James\\ B\\.\\ Utt\\ was\\ elected\\ as\\ Orange\\ County\\&rsquo\\;s\\ congressional\\ representative\\ and\\ preached\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ staunch\\ Protestant\\ moralism\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ libertarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orange\\ County\\,\\ and\\ Southern\\ California\\ in\\ general\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ against\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ collectivism\\:\\ federal\\ regulations\\,\\ the\\ welfare\\ state\\ and\\ liberal\\ political\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ people\\ drew\\ on\\ the\\ legacy\\ of\\ 1950s\\ McCarthyism\\ for\\ their\\ anticommunist\\ language\\,\\ targets\\ and\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ movements\\ of\\ South\\ California\\ did\\ not\\ reflect\\ the\\ broader\\ vibrant\\ national\\ liberal\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\June\\ 24\\,\\ 1960\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ first\\ sparks\\ of\\ grassroots\\ mobilization\\ ignited\\ when\\ Joel\\ Dvorman\\,\\ held\\ a\\ meeting\\ in\\ his\\ backyard\\ for\\ the\\ Orange\\ County\\ chapter\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Civil\\ Liberties\\ Union\\ \\(ACLU\\)\\.\\ Reaction\\ against\\ this\\ liberal\\ meeting\\ spread\\ throughout\\ the\\ county\\ thanks\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ James\\ Wallace\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ sign\\ of\\ the\\ mobilization\\ of\\ anti\\ liberal\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ sleeping\\ Giant\\ is\\ awakening\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Men\\ and\\ Women\\ \\&hellip\\;are\\ pledging\\ a\\ fight\\ to\\ victory\\ for\\ God\\ and\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Victories\\ across\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ conservative\\ activity\\ quickened\\ throughout\\ the\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ John\\ Birch\\ Society\\ which\\ by\\ the\\ early\\ 1960s\\ had\\ 300\\ chapters\\ in\\ California\\ and\\ an\\ estimated\\ membership\\ of\\ 60\\.000\\.\\ Robert\\ Welch\\ formed\\ the\\ party\\ with\\ the\\ intent\\ of\\ generating\\ a\\ national\\ membership\\ of\\ anticommunists\\ who\\ would\\ help\\ in\\ the\\ struggle\\ to\\ shift\\ the\\ political\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ resurgence\\ of\\ grassroots\\ mobilization\\ on\\ the\\ Right\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ conservative\\ political\\ power\\ and\\ influence\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ level\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Bee\\ Gathright\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brownie\\ leader\\,\\ mother\\ of\\ three\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Held\\ a\\ meeting\\ in\\ a\\ school\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ could\\ listen\\ to\\ a\\ speaker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ when\\ I\\ discovered\\ I\\ was\\ conservative\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ attended\\ study\\ groups\\ and\\ eventually\\ joined\\ a\\ conservative\\ Republican\\ volunteer\\ organization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ working\\ against\\ Nixon\\ she\\ put\\ her\\ heart\\ and\\ soul\\ into\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presidential\\ campaign\\ in\\ 1964\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ story\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ solid\\ middle\\ class\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ central\\ beneficiaries\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;affluent\\ society\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walter\\ Knott\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Key\\ financier\\ of\\ anti\\-communist\\ schools\\ and\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ continued\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ fostering\\ of\\ grassroots\\ conservatism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ Grassroots\\ Goldwater\\ Campaign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\California\\ Republican\\ Assembly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;formed\\ in\\ 1930s\\ to\\ bypass\\ a\\ state\\ law\\ prohibiting\\ endorsement\\ of\\ candidates\\ by\\ county\\ and\\ state\\ central\\ committees\\ in\\ party\\ primaries\\,\\ conservative\\ activisits\\ had\\ gained\\ support\\ over\\ moderate\\ Republicans\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ they\\ met\\ March\\ 1964\\ to\\ choose\\ a\\ slate\\ of\\ leaders\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ year\\ and\\ to\\ endorse\\ a\\ presidential\\ candidate\\ \\(Goldwater\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Nolan\\ Frizzelle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ elected\\ president\\ of\\ the\\ organization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1962\\ still\\ too\\ weak\\ \\:\\ failed\\ to\\ get\\ Joe\\ Shell\\ for\\ GOP\\ governor\\ nomination\\ \\(Nixon\\ wins\\ instead\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ party\\ passes\\ opposition\\ to\\ John\\ Birch\\ Society\\,\\ meaning\\ many\\ conservative\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mobilize\\ for\\ Nixon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conservatives\\ form\\ a\\ separate\\ endorsing\\ organization\\ in\\ 1963\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\United\\ Republicans\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;under\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bruce\\ Reagan\\,\\ joseph\\ Crosby\\,\\ and\\ Joe\\ Shell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 1964\\,\\ try\\ again\\ to\\ get\\ CRA\\ to\\ endorse\\ conservative\\ candidates\\,\\ succeed\\,\\ endorsed\\ Goldwater\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ adopt\\ several\\ new\\ platforms\\/principles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sharon\\ Declaration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ adopted\\ by\\ CRA\\,\\ founding\\ document\\ of\\ William\\ Buckley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oung\\ Americans\\ for\\ Freedom\\-\\ affirm\\ commitment\\ to\\ economic\\ freedom\\,\\ states\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ destruction\\ of\\ international\\ communism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ stresses\\ ambivalence\\ toward\\ popular\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Factors\\ influencing\\ mobilization\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\:\\ conservatives\\&rsquo\\;\\ lack\\ of\\ influence\\ in\\ Washington\\,\\ Eisenhowers\\ triumph\\,\\ Joseph\\ McCarthy\\ had\\ been\\ censured\\,\\ growing\\ rights\\-based\\ liberalism\\ \\(Freedom\\ Rides\\,\\ sit\\ ins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ there\\ had\\ been\\ previous\\ mobilizations\\ in\\ the\\ past\\:\\ CA\\ conservatives\\ had\\ challenged\\ Earl\\ Warren\\,\\ conservative\\ Senator\\ William\\ Knowland\\ got\\ the\\ nomination\\ for\\ governor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Birch\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;under\\ leadership\\ of\\ Republican\\ Robert\\ Welch\\,\\ dedicated\\ to\\ infiltrating\\ the\\ party\\,\\ play\\ key\\ roles\\ in\\ GOP\\ activism\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ a\\ journal\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Opinion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ is\\ how\\ moderate\\ Republcians\\,\\ the\\ Left\\,\\ and\\ Democratic\\ liberals\\ characterize\\ the\\ conservative\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ more\\ radical\\ calls\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;impeach\\ Earl\\ Warren\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;get\\ the\\ US\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ UN\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ But\\ most\\ conservatives\\ are\\ not\\ members\\,\\ even\\ though\\ many\\ perceive\\ the\\ organization\\ as\\ loyal\\ and\\ patriotic\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ values\\ of\\ conservatives\\ that\\ mesh\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ society\\:\\ anticommunism\\,\\ laissze\\ faire\\ economics\\,\\ staunch\\ moralism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Howard\\ Jarvis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ failed\\ to\\ unseat\\ Senator\\ Thomas\\ Kuchel\\ organized\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conservative\\ Party\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;later\\ in\\ 1962\\,\\ believing\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ possible\\ for\\ conservatives\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ GOP\\ nomination\\ for\\ president\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goldwater\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ stepped\\ down\\ to\\ Nixon\\ in\\ 1960\\ election\\,\\ but\\ then\\ conservatives\\ mobilized\\ undr\\ \\&ldquo\\;Draft\\ Goldwater\\ Movement\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ organized\\ \\&ldquo\\;National\\ Draft\\ Goldwater\\ Committee\\&rdquo\\;\\ drew\\ on\\ local\\ conservative\\ networks\\,\\ especially\\ successful\\ in\\ old\\ South\\ because\\ Goldwater\\ opposed\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Bill\\ 1963\\ and\\ was\\ pro\\-states\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ appeal\\:\\ entrepreneurial\\ individualism\\,\\ reference\\ to\\ West\\ as\\ reflective\\ of\\ true\\ American\\ values\\,\\ militant\\ anticommunism\\,\\ willigness\\ to\\ use\\ low\\-yield\\ nuclear\\ weapons\\,\\ stress\\ on\\ moralism\\ for\\ religious\\ conservatives\\,\\ opinion\\ for\\ states\\&rsquo\\;rights\\ and\\ against\\ government\\ collectivism\\.\\ \\ \\;Pillars\\ of\\ support\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ books\\ and\\ pamphlets\\ including\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conscience\\ of\\ a\\ Conservative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(2\\)Conservtive\\ leaers\\ hold\\ events\\ to\\ drum\\ up\\ support\\-\\ Walter\\ Knott\\ has\\ kickoff\\ on\\ Knott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Barry\\ Farm\\,\\ ppl\\ like\\ John\\ Wayne\\ and\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\ \\(3\\)religious\\ leaders\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Clergymen\\ for\\ Social\\ and\\ Political\\ Conservatism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;formed\\ \\(4\\)the\\ press\\:\\ libertarian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Register\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(daily\\ newspaper\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goldwater\\ beats\\ Rockefeller\\ in\\ primary\\:\\ 51\\.6\\%\\ to\\ 48\\.4\\%\\,\\ loses\\ national\\ election\\ to\\ LBH\\ 61\\%\\ to\\ 39\\%\\ \\(most\\ decisive\\ victory\\ ever\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Conservative\\ Worldview\\ at\\ the\\ Grassroots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ understand\\ appeal\\ in\\ the\\ values\\,\\ fears\\,\\ prejudices\\ of\\ the\\ community\\,\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ political\\/psychological\\ assessments\\ that\\ people\\ had\\ done\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Republican\\ concerns\\ of\\ limited\\ spending\\ and\\ increased\\ federal\\ power\\ compounded\\ when\\ JFK\\ bring\\ liberal\\ vision\\ to\\ White\\ House\\,\\ building\\ on\\ New\\ Deal\\ legacy\\ Far\\-reaching\\ social\\/cultural\\ changes\\ frightening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Staunch\\ libertarianism\\ in\\ Orange\\ County\\,\\ the\\ weekly\\ newspaper\\ of\\ most\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Register\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ libertarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ fear\\ of\\ distant\\ national\\ elites\\ and\\ concentrations\\ of\\ state\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Combined\\ with\\ somewhat\\ incompatiable\\ social\\ conservatism\\,\\ articulate\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ US\\ as\\ fundamentally\\ Christian\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ also\\ wary\\ of\\ state\\ power\\ and\\ technocratic\\ solutions\\,\\ but\\ socially\\ normative\\,\\ not\\ objecting\\ on\\ grounds\\ of\\ individual\\ liberty\\,\\ rather\\ on\\ decline\\ of\\ morality\\ and\\ righteous\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lieral\\ emphasis\\ on\\ personal\\ rights\\/freedom\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ anarchy\\ because\\ it\\ correlatedto\\ social\\ permissiveness\\ and\\ disorder\\.\\ \\ \\;Critical\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Griswold\\ v\\.\\ Connecticut\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(right\\ to\\ sexual\\ privacy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Granville\\ Knight\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;leader\\ of\\ CA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Birch\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fusionism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Prof\\.\\ McGirr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ word\\ for\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ libertarianism\\ and\\ social\\ conservatism\\ that\\ defined\\ the\\ conservative\\ Republican\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anticommunism\\ galvanizes\\ conservatives\\ \\(real\\ struggle\\ between\\ US\\ and\\ USSR\\,\\ material\\ dependence\\ of\\ Orange\\ County\\ on\\ military\\/industrial\\ complex\\,\\ for\\ libertarians\\ communism\\ s\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ for\\ religious\\ conservatives\\,\\ its\\ denies\\ god\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberal\\ anticommunism\\ in\\ diplomacy\\/negotiations\\,\\ foreign\\ aid\\ programs\\,\\ multilateral\\ action\\,\\ United\\ Nations\\,\\ also\\ called\\ for\\ disarmament\\ though\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ conservatives\\ these\\ aid\\ communism\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ use\\ United\\ Nations\\ as\\ mobilizing\\ force\\-\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ government\\ centralization\\ made\\ by\\ distant\\ powerful\\ elites\\,\\ includes\\ communist\\/socialis\\ t\\ countries\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ international\\ understandings\\ celebrates\\ cultural\\/moral\\ relativism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ closer\\ to\\ home\\ use\\ schools\\:\\ curriculum\\,\\ textbook\\ literature\\,\\ social\\ activities\\ of\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ another\\ arm\\ of\\ the\\ state\\,\\ feared\\ brainwashing\\ children\\:\\ mobilizes\\ both\\ social\\/religious\\ conservatives\\ and\\ libertarians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parents\\ form\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Citizens\\ for\\ Fundamental\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;t\\ promote\\ teaching\\ of\\ fundamental\\ values\\ in\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ attack\\ on\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\:\\ expresses\\ segregationist\\/racist\\ sentiments\\,\\ also\\ states\\ rights\\,\\ anticommunism\\ \\(saw\\ it\\ as\\ Communist\\ plot\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ Americans\\ Hate\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ CHAPTERS\\ 6\\ \\-\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.J\\.\\ Dionne\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ SIX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THESIS\\:\\ By\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ traditional\\ and\\ libertarian\\ conservatives\\ united\\ under\\ a\\ fusionist\\ conservatism\\ that\\ supported\\ free\\-markets\\ and\\ traditional\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\End\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ solidified\\ new\\ deal\\ liberalism\\,\\ and\\ much\\ to\\ the\\ chagrin\\ of\\ conservatives\\,\\ Americans\\ accepted\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ role\\ as\\ legitimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conservatives\\ were\\ uncomfortable\\ with\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ old\\ hierarchies\\ and\\ decidedly\\ against\\ the\\ newly\\ powerful\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ early\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ the\\ conservative\\ group\\ faced\\ a\\ fundamental\\ problem\\:\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ clear\\ body\\ of\\ conservative\\ doctrine\\.\\ Conservatives\\ were\\ reactionaries\\ \\(against\\ Roosevelt\\,\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ conservative\\ thinkers\\ who\\ helped\\ shape\\ conservative\\ thought\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ William\\ F\\.\\ Buckley\\,\\ Friedrich\\ A\\.\\ von\\ Hayek\\,\\ Richard\\ Weaver\\,\\ and\\ Russell\\ Kirk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayek\\:\\ For\\ Hayek\\,\\ democratic\\ socialism\\ was\\ an\\ impossibility\\,\\ he\\ advocated\\ a\\ libertarian\\ free\\-market\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ intellectual\\ rebirth\\ of\\ free\\-market\\ conservatism\\ was\\ made\\ easier\\ as\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ faded\\ into\\ the\\ past\\.\\ The\\ social\\ revolution\\ that\\ occurred\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ made\\ capitalism\\ an\\ increasingly\\ appealing\\ idea\\.\\ The\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ home\\ ownership\\ and\\ higher\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ GI\\ Bill\\&mdash\\;these\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ and\\ previously\\ nonexistent\\ constituency\\ for\\ free\\-market\\ ideas\\,\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ new\\ middle\\ class\\ owed\\ much\\ to\\ the\\ benevolent\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ Orange\\ County\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ government\\ involvement\\ created\\ this\\ new\\ conservative\\ middle\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Weaver\\ declared\\ conservatism\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ paradigm\\ of\\ essences\\ toward\\ which\\ the\\ phenomenology\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ in\\ continuing\\ approximation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ conservatism\\ was\\ a\\ movement\\ that\\ would\\ put\\ into\\ place\\ objective\\ standards\\ for\\ human\\ conduct\\ and\\ criteria\\ for\\ the\\ judgment\\ of\\ theories\\ and\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Russell\\ Kirk\\:\\ Kirk\\ argued\\ against\\ those\\ who\\ saw\\ liberalism\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ valid\\ American\\ tradition\\,\\ that\\ conservatism\\ had\\ redefined\\ the\\ American\\ experiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kirk\\ laid\\ out\\ six\\ canons\\ of\\ conservatism\\ that\\ were\\ important\\ signposts\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ conservative\\ doctrine\\,\\ including\\ the\\ belief\\ of\\ natural\\ law\\ which\\ rules\\ society\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ conscience\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ contradiction\\ within\\ post\\-war\\ conservative\\ thought\\:\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ battle\\ between\\ libertarians\\ and\\ traditionalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Buckley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ National\\ Review\\ helped\\ to\\ forge\\ the\\ marriage\\ of\\ conservative\\ thought\\.\\ The\\ National\\ Review\\ saw\\ its\\ task\\ as\\ battling\\ against\\ such\\ an\\ unprincipled\\ pursuit\\ of\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ primary\\ architect\\ of\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ traditional\\ and\\ libertarian\\ conservative\\ thought\\ was\\ Frank\\ Meyer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meyer\\:\\ Fusionism\\ \\(this\\ new\\ brand\\ of\\ conservatism\\)\\ meant\\ utilizing\\ libertarian\\ means\\ in\\ a\\ conservative\\ society\\ for\\ traditionalist\\ ends\\.\\ This\\ concept\\ was\\ held\\ together\\ by\\ anticommunism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ conservatism\\ seemed\\ to\\ promise\\ hope\\ for\\ the\\ old\\ isolationist\\ right\\.\\ But\\ Buckley\\ and\\ the\\ editors\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Review\\ ensured\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ isolationism\\.\\ For\\ them\\,\\ it\\ was\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ wage\\ war\\ against\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ communism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ conservatives\\,\\ internationalism\\ was\\ really\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ nationalism\\.\\ Conservative\\ anticommunists\\ were\\ mistrustful\\ of\\ international\\ organizations\\ and\\ advocated\\ an\\ American\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fusionist\\ conservatives\\ leaned\\ heavily\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ free\\-market\\ conservatives\\,\\ but\\ those\\ who\\ espoused\\ the\\ fusionist\\ cause\\ as\\ their\\ own\\ fell\\ back\\ constantly\\ on\\ traditionalist\\ thinking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ critique\\ of\\ fusionist\\ conservatism\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ more\\ an\\ artificial\\ compromise\\ than\\ a\\ genuinely\\ coherent\\ philosophical\\ system\\.\\ Libertarians\\ opposed\\ the\\ willingness\\ of\\ Buckley\\ to\\ subordinate\\ concern\\ for\\ civil\\ liberties\\ to\\ the\\ struggle\\ against\\ communism\\ and\\ they\\ opposed\\ the\\ National\\ Review\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emphasis\\ on\\ tradition\\ and\\ its\\ mistrust\\ of\\ reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ contradictions\\ of\\ fusionism\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\ later\\ on\\,\\ by\\ the\\ early\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ conservatives\\ now\\ had\\ a\\ working\\ philosophy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ SEVEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THESIS\\:\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ showed\\ that\\ conservatives\\ had\\ an\\ important\\ national\\ voice\\,\\ although\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ decade\\,\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ found\\ their\\ voice\\ in\\ Nixon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conservative\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ can\\ be\\ characterized\\ under\\ the\\ slogan\\:\\ Moderate\\ Republicanism\\.\\ Eisenhower\\ epitomized\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ modern\\ republicanism\\,\\ which\\ was\\ difficult\\ to\\ define\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ Eisenhower\\ had\\ a\\ driving\\ philosophy\\,\\ it\\ was\\ that\\ moderate\\ brand\\ of\\ conservatism\\ best\\ defined\\ as\\ prudence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arthur\\ Larson\\ \\(name\\ is\\ not\\ important\\)\\ described\\ a\\ Republican\\ philosophy\\ that\\ was\\ willing\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ terms\\ with\\ what\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\ had\\ wrought\\,\\ while\\ opposing\\ its\\ excesses\\.\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ accepted\\ that\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\ were\\ irreversible\\.\\ In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ modern\\ republicanism\\ that\\ dominated\\ politics\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ was\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ an\\ idea\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ instinct\\ or\\ a\\ balancing\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Given\\ this\\ limbo\\ of\\ Republicanism\\,\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ wonder\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ such\\ an\\ explosive\\ appeal\\ to\\ Barry\\ Goldwater\\,\\ especially\\ considering\\ his\\ slogan\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ choice\\,\\ not\\ an\\ echo\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ conservatism\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ lost\\ cause\\.\\ Fusionism\\ had\\ largely\\ united\\ the\\ conservative\\ factions\\,\\ and\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\ election\\ opened\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ a\\ conservative\\ challenge\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conservatives\\ also\\ had\\ Barry\\ Goldwater\\ and\\ F\\.\\ Clifton\\ \\(Cliff\\)\\ White\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ was\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chief\\ strategist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Federation\\ of\\ Young\\ Republicans\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ this\\ organization\\ that\\ provided\\ the\\ skeleton\\ for\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ conservative\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\White\\ and\\ Goldwater\\ loyalists\\ saw\\ the\\ potential\\ of\\ a\\ middle\\-class\\ conservative\\ politics\\ of\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ basically\\ satisfied\\ with\\ consensus\\ politics\\,\\ where\\ did\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conservative\\ insurgency\\ come\\ from\\?\\ JFK\\ in\\ 1960\\ campaigned\\ that\\ the\\ days\\ of\\ passion\\ were\\ over\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ thirst\\ and\\ restlessness\\ in\\ late\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\.\\ The\\ launch\\ of\\ sputnik\\ also\\ made\\ Americans\\ feel\\ that\\ something\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ done\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ uneasiness\\ with\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ not\\ only\\ created\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\,\\ but\\ also\\ created\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ right\\,\\ the\\ flip\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ coin\\ of\\ middle\\-class\\ protest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ Goldwater\\ emphasized\\ freedom\\,\\ he\\ also\\ emphasized\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ fusionism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ equation\\,\\ virtue\\.\\ As\\ John\\ Steinbeck\\ sensed\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ restlessness\\ stemmed\\ in\\ part\\ from\\ its\\ sense\\ that\\ modernity\\ had\\ undermined\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ morality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ was\\ nothing\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ moral\\ crusade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ on\\ civil\\ rights\\ reflected\\ his\\ views\\ on\\ property\\ rights\\.\\ The\\ federal\\ government\\ could\\ not\\ tell\\ individuals\\ whom\\ to\\ hire\\ or\\ whom\\ they\\ must\\ allow\\ into\\ their\\ restaurants\\.\\ The\\ issue\\ should\\ be\\ one\\ for\\ the\\ states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conservatism\\ gave\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ a\\ philosophical\\ toehold\\ it\\ had\\ lacked\\ before\\.\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ were\\ anti\\-Goldwater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ in\\ the\\ 1964\\ election\\,\\ right\\-wing\\ enthusiasts\\ were\\ justified\\ in\\ their\\ overall\\ elation\\ in\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ campaign\\.\\ They\\ had\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ wing\\ is\\ a\\ formidable\\ force\\ in\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ immediate\\ aftermath\\ of\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ campaign\\ gave\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ some\\ hope\\.\\ By\\ carrying\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ in\\ 1964\\,\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ conservatives\\ had\\ already\\ frightened\\ the\\ moderates\\ and\\ liberals\\ into\\ a\\ new\\ respect\\ for\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essentially\\ centrist\\ posture\\.\\ Likewise\\,\\ by\\ rebuilding\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ 1966\\ elections\\,\\ the\\ moderates\\ scared\\ the\\ conservatives\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ appreciate\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ save\\ them\\ from\\ someone\\ far\\ more\\ liberal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ some\\ efforts\\ to\\ remake\\ the\\ party\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ liberal\\ voice\\.\\ Jacob\\ K\\ Javits\\ attempted\\ to\\ rescue\\ an\\ older\\ Republican\\ tradition\\ of\\ nationalism\\&mdash\\;that\\ is\\ a\\ preference\\ for\\ national\\ interests\\ over\\ state\\ or\\ regional\\ interests\\.\\ The\\ Ripon\\ Society\\ argued\\ against\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ normalizing\\ relations\\ with\\ China\\ and\\ for\\ more\\ progressive\\ taxes\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ These\\ attempts\\,\\ however\\,\\ were\\ largely\\ ignored\\,\\ and\\ the\\ party\\ found\\ its\\ moderate\\ voice\\ in\\ Nixon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ south\\,\\ southern\\ conservatives\\ realized\\ that\\ after\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\,\\ a\\ national\\ campaign\\ needed\\ to\\ sound\\ more\\ moderate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Nixon\\ record\\ had\\ the\\ potential\\ of\\ putting\\ substance\\ on\\ the\\ bones\\ of\\ Modern\\ Republicanism\\.\\ Nixon\\ opened\\ relations\\ with\\ Communist\\ China\\;\\ he\\ created\\ the\\ Occupational\\ Safety\\ and\\ Health\\ Administration\\,\\ revenue\\ sharing\\,\\ etc\\.\\ On\\ domestic\\ issues\\,\\ many\\ of\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\-term\\ initiatives\\ were\\ astoundingly\\ liberal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revenue\\ sharing\\ for\\ example\\ was\\ a\\ liberal\\ program\\ with\\ a\\ conservative\\ bent\\.\\ Revenue\\ sharing\\ took\\ a\\ chunk\\ of\\ federal\\ tax\\ revenues\\ and\\ returned\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ states\\ and\\ cities\\ to\\ spend\\ as\\ they\\ wished\\.\\ It\\ gave\\ concrete\\ support\\ to\\ the\\ decentralist\\ theme\\ conservatives\\ had\\ been\\ pushing\\ for\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nixon\\ would\\ also\\ propose\\ liberal\\ ideas\\ but\\ not\\ actually\\ push\\ them\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ win\\ favor\\ from\\ both\\ liberals\\ and\\ conservatives\\.\\ The\\ Family\\ Assistance\\ Plan\\ promised\\ a\\ minimum\\ payment\\,\\ but\\ Nixon\\ did\\ not\\ campaign\\ for\\ this\\ plan\\,\\ and\\ it\\ got\\ bogged\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ issue\\ after\\ issue\\,\\ Nixon\\ positioned\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ well\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ of\\ where\\ anyone\\ expected\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ later\\.\\ And\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ he\\ kept\\ the\\ Republican\\ right\\ in\\ check\\.\\ However\\ on\\ issues\\ that\\ would\\ later\\ define\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\ politics\\&mdash\\;race\\,\\ student\\ disorders\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ issues\\&mdash\\;Nixon\\ was\\ thoroughly\\ conservative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watergate\\ destroyed\\ Richard\\ Nixon\\ and\\ ended\\ what\\ chance\\ there\\ was\\ that\\ Nixon\\ could\\ lay\\ the\\ groundwork\\ for\\ a\\ reinvigorated\\ Modern\\ Republicanism\\.\\ Gerald\\ Ford\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ in\\ 1976\\ signaled\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Modern\\ Republicanism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\ Is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\:\\ From\\ Port\\ Huron\\ to\\ the\\ Siege\\ of\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Out\\ of\\ Apathy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ book\\ is\\ set\\ up\\ as\\ an\\ explanation\\ of\\ the\\ roots\\ of\\ the\\ student\\ movement\\&rsquo\\;s\\ height\\ in\\ 1968\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ climaxed\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\ of\\ Chicago\\ had\\ begun\\&hellip\\;a\\ decade\\ before\\ in\\ dormitories\\ and\\ classrooms\\ of\\ college\\ campuses\\ across\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ book\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\ is\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\University\\ of\\ Michigan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crucial\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ for\\ student\\ activists\\ to\\ critique\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ meet\\ and\\ come\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&ldquo\\;multiversity\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ mammoth\\ institution\\ catering\\ to\\ a\\ multiplicity\\ of\\ constitutents\\,\\ from\\ freshmen\\ in\\ Ann\\ Arbor\\ to\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\ in\\ Washington\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Research\\ directed\\ by\\ foreign\\ policy\\ goals\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ size\\ due\\ to\\ post\\-baby\\ boom\\ rush\\ of\\ students\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;unprecedented\\ affluence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ of\\ consensus\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Michigan\\ school\\ participated\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;celebration\\ of\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\,\\ the\\ faith\\ in\\ social\\ engineering\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Student\\ activists\\ tapped\\ into\\ avant\\ garde\\ culture\\ of\\ marginalized\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haber\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;beat\\&rdquo\\;\\ culture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ p\\.\\ 39\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Alan\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;resident\\ activist\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ U\\ Michigan\\,\\ Ann\\ Arbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wanted\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ major\\ problems\\ of\\ society\\ \\(arms\\ race\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ racism\\,\\ students\\&rsquo\\;\\ discontents\\ on\\ campus\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ found\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ DEMOCRACY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ worked\\ via\\ SLID\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Student\\ League\\ for\\ Industrial\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\student\\ branch\\ of\\ LID\\,\\ which\\ had\\ a\\ rich\\ history\\ in\\ American\\ socialism\\ \\(not\\ communism\\!\\ They\\ wanted\\ to\\ distance\\ themselves\\ from\\ communism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;pragmatic\\ radicalism\\&hellip\\;strong\\ ties\\ with\\ liberals\\ and\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nationally\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ SLID\\ foundered\\,\\ but\\ at\\ Michigan\\ Haber\\ helped\\ it\\ thrive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\emphasized\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ students\\:\\ saw\\ the\\ campus\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ laboratory\\ where\\ students\\ test\\ ideas\\ and\\ techniques\\ which\\ are\\ later\\ used\\ in\\ all\\ areas\\ of\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\very\\ inspired\\ by\\ Greensboro\\ sit\\-ins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ evidence\\ of\\ DIRECT\\ ACTION\\ and\\ true\\ commitment\\;\\ he\\ created\\ \\&ldquo\\;sympathy\\ pickets\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ Michigan\\ to\\ stand\\ in\\ solidarity\\ with\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sponsored\\ a\\ conference\\ on\\ human\\ rights\\ that\\ discussed\\ how\\ to\\ connect\\ intellectual\\ projects\\ with\\ direct\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\his\\ deep\\ concern\\ was\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Instead\\ of\\ being\\ regarded\\ as\\ an\\ edn\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ direct\\ action\\ should\\ become\\ the\\ pretext\\ for\\ \\&lsquo\\;a\\ deeper\\ appraisal\\ of\\ social\\ problems\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ drawing\\ on\\ the\\ North\\ student\\&rsquo\\;s\\ special\\ talent\\ for\\ \\&lsquo\\;discussion\\,\\ research\\ and\\ debate\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(40\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sharon\\ Jeffrey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ activist\\,\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Editor\\ of\\ the\\ Michigan\\ Daily\\,\\ student\\ newspaper\\,\\ and\\ recruited\\ by\\ Haber\\ and\\ Jeffrey\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ them\\ at\\ SLID\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Two\\:\\ On\\ the\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SUMMARY\\ \\-\\-\\ Hayden\\ as\\ the\\ self\\-consciously\\ constructed\\ \\&ldquo\\;archetype\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ student\\ radical\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(42\\)\\;\\ the\\ image\\ constructed\\ through\\ his\\ WRITINGS\\,\\ which\\ were\\ sort\\ of\\ evangelical\\ attempts\\ to\\ convert\\ Northern\\ college\\ students\\ into\\ activists\\ by\\ portraying\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ battle\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ in\\ romanticized\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entrenched\\ in\\ the\\ beat\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ descirbes\\ himself\\ as\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;totally\\ enamored\\ of\\ James\\ Dean\\,\\ motorcycles\\,\\ and\\ t\\-shirts\\ and\\ Levi\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ beer\\ parties\\ and\\ getting\\ involved\\ in\\ sort\\ of\\ the\\ fringe\\,\\ bohemian\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ campus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jack\\ Kerouac\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;inspires\\ him\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ road\\ trip\\ to\\ Berkeley\\ in\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trip\\ to\\ Berkeley\\ 1960\\ gets\\ him\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ student\\ movement\\ there\\,\\ inspiring\\ him\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ committed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looked\\ at\\ SLATE\\,\\ Berkeley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ student\\ political\\ party\\,\\ which\\ was\\ organizing\\ against\\ anti\\-Communist\\ HUAC\\ hearings\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ disloyalty\\ and\\ subversion\\ in\\ the\\ Bay\\ Area\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protestors\\ against\\ HUAC\\ investigation\\ attacked\\ by\\ police\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Friday\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ May\\ 13\\,\\ 1960\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sparking\\ more\\ protests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ many\\ simultaneous\\ and\\ similar\\ things\\ going\\ on\\ at\\ different\\ campuses\\ to\\ create\\ sense\\ of\\ momentum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Then\\ went\\ to\\ Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ Democratic\\ Convention\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;joined\\ the\\ picket\\ line\\ outside\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ activists\\ advocating\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ strong\\ civil\\ rights\\ plank\\ in\\ the\\ Party\\ platform\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Becoming\\ more\\ political\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ journalst\\ but\\ a\\ participant\\ in\\ protests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liked\\ Adlai\\ Stevenson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;intellectual\\ seriousness\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ criticized\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;fuzzy\\ image\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ he\\ liked\\ Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;glamour\\ and\\ guile\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ suggested\\ he\\ lacked\\ substance\\&hellip\\;\\ question\\:\\ how\\ to\\ combine\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ Student\\ Association\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;funded\\ and\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ CIA\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ radicals\\ in\\ check\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;militantly\\ anti\\-Communist\\ youth\\ organization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ paradoxically\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ forum\\ for\\ student\\ radicals\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;air\\&hellip\\;ideas\\ and\\ win\\&hellip\\;converts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(49\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SNCC\\ was\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ it\\,\\ an\\ inspiration\\ to\\ Hayden\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;existential\\ commitment\\&rdquo\\;\\ its\\ members\\ had\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Back\\ at\\ Michigan\\,\\ Hayden\\ created\\ VOICE\\,\\ student\\ political\\ party\\ modeled\\ after\\ SLATE\\,\\ and\\ also\\ used\\ writing\\ to\\ publicize\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\ across\\ country\\ via\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Once\\ convinced\\ to\\ join\\ by\\ Sharon\\ and\\ Haber\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hayden\\ became\\ the\\ official\\ SDS\\ liaison\\ to\\ the\\ Southern\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saw\\ SNCC\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ cutting\\ edge\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ the\\ moral\\ vanguard\\&mdash\\;the\\ young\\ people\\ showing\\ white\\ students\\ cloistered\\ on\\ college\\ campuses\\ the\\ real\\ meaning\\ of\\ courage\\,\\ commitment\\,\\ and\\ democratic\\ responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ therefore\\ wrote\\ about\\ it\\ n\\ \\&ldquo\\;romanticized\\&rdquo\\;\\ terms\\ \\(60\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ convey\\ to\\ students\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ the\\ importance\\ and\\ power\\ and\\ magic\\ of\\ direct\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ actually\\ did\\ inspire\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\,\\ who\\ read\\ his\\ pamphlets\\ and\\ letters\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motivated\\ by\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;middle\\-class\\ emptiness\\ of\\ alienation\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ feel\\ fulfilled\\,\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ community\\ with\\ purpose\\ \\(59\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Three\\:\\ Politics\\ and\\ Vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SUMMARY\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ About\\ SDS\\ growing\\ as\\ an\\ organization\\.\\ Against\\ previous\\ leftist\\ groups\\,\\ which\\ obsessed\\ with\\ distinguishing\\ themselves\\ from\\ Communists\\,\\ Hayden\\ and\\ Haber\\ wanted\\ to\\ leave\\ SDS\\ open\\ to\\ many\\ positions\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[B\\]oth\\ thought\\ that\\ SDS\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ open\\,\\ undoctrinaire\\ forum\\ for\\ expressing\\ the\\ widest\\ possible\\ range\\ of\\ progressive\\ political\\ views\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haber\\ tries\\ to\\ resolve\\ tension\\ between\\ LID\\ and\\ SDS\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ LID\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;pragmatic\\ caution\\&rdquo\\;\\ born\\ of\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ Communist\\ fervor\\ and\\ dogmatism\\ versus\\ SDS\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;impatient\\ activism\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ SDS\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ intellectual\\ center\\ able\\ to\\ give\\ educational\\ service\\ to\\ action\\ groups\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ educate\\ activists\\ about\\ the\\ intellectual\\ background\\ of\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ action\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ against\\ old\\ model\\ that\\ emphasized\\ due\\-paying\\ membership\\ as\\ very\\ important\\,\\ Haber\\ wants\\ to\\ open\\ SDS\\ up\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ seminar\\ model\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ anyone\\ can\\ listen\\ and\\ all\\ students\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ especially\\ those\\ who\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ members\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ are\\ the\\ target\\ audience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ resolves\\ by\\ making\\ non\\-dogmatism\\ the\\ resounding\\ dogma\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ vision\\ of\\ democracy\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ dogma\\,\\ not\\ even\\ a\\ clear\\-cut\\ doctrine\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ promise\\ ofpolitical\\ debate\\ and\\ shared\\ discovery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ brought\\ together\\ many\\ already\\ existing\\ student\\ political\\ groups\\ across\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ there\\ were\\ turf\\ wars\\,\\ as\\ with\\ the\\ conflict\\ between\\ LID\\ leader\\ Michael\\ Harrington\\-idolizing\\ group\\ of\\ students\\ who\\ also\\ wanted\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ SDS\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ by\\ 1961\\ they\\ all\\ ame\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ conference\\ in\\ Ann\\ Arbor\\ where\\ optimism\\ and\\ common\\ ground\\ ruled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decided\\ to\\ write\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ political\\ manifesto\\ of\\ the\\ Left\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ 1962\\&hellip\\;\\ Hayden\\ would\\ author\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 4\\-6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\C\\.\\ Wright\\ Mills\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;prophet\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;master\\ thinker\\ behind\\ a\\great\\ deal\\ of\\ what\\ Haber\\ and\\ Hayden\\ were\\ saying\\ and\\ doing\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\New\\ Left\\;\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ modern\\ American\\ society\\,\\ immorality\\ of\\ power\\and\\ the\\ powerlessness\\ of\\ individuals\\;\\ greatly\\ affected\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Powerless\\ People\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Mills\\&rsquo\\;\\ essay\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ intellectuals\\must\\ respond\\ to\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ big\\ organizations\\ \\(encouraged\\ individualism\\ because\\of\\ corruption\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arnold\\ Kaufman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ one\\ of\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ professors\\,\\ used\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;participatory\\democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ society\\ in\\ which\\ every\\ associate\\ assumed\\ a\\direct\\ responsibility\\ for\\ citizens\\ \\(differs\\ from\\ a\\ representative\\ system\\)\\,\\advocated\\ increased\\ participation\\ to\\ revitalize\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Port\\ Huron\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ SDS\\ convention\\ on\\ June\\ 12\\,\\ 1962\\ at\\ which\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manifesto\\ was\\ approved\\;\\ only\\ 59\\ participants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michael\\ Harrington\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ AFL\\-CIO\\,\\ supported\\ socialism\\ and\\ felt\\ threatened\\ by\\ the\\ radical\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ SDS\\;\\ openly\\ criticized\\ the\\ manifesto\\ upon\\ arriving\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ \\(dramatic\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ convention\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Progressive\\ Youth\\ Organizing\\ Committee\\ \\(YPSL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Communist\\-sponsored\\ youth\\ group\\ that\\ replaced\\ the\\ Labor\\ Youth\\ League\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\ \\&\\;\\ Paul\\ Booth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ president\\ and\\ vice\\ president\\ of\\ SDS\\ following\\ the\\ ratification\\ of\\ the\\ manifesto\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Important\\ facts\\/notes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ looked\\ to\\ Mills\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ and\\ Haber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ regarding\\ the\\ New\\Left\\;\\ Mills\\ encouraged\\ individualism\\,\\ feared\\ that\\ the\\ democratic\\ spirit\\ was\\ at\\ risk\\in\\ America\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ was\\ destroying\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ classical\\democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mills\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ student\\ activism\\ within\\ the\\movement\\ \\(beginning\\ of\\ the\\ manifesto\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ forced\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ manifesto\\ without\\ Mills\\&rsquo\\;\\ help\\ due\\ to\\ his\\ death\\ in\\March\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ first\\ based\\ the\\ manifesto\\ on\\ Kaufman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideal\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\as\\ a\\ complement\\ to\\ representative\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\ main\\ topics\\ in\\ first\\ draft\\ of\\ manifesto\\:\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ modern\\ society\\,\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ large\\ corporations\\,\\ mass\\ society\\,\\ totalitarianism\\,\\ Third\\ World\\ revolutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ acknowledged\\ the\\ self\\-interested\\ nature\\ of\\ men\\,\\ making\\ America\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;inactive\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ the\\ republic\\ it\\ was\\ originally\\ created\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ and\\ Haber\\ both\\ shared\\ an\\ aversion\\ to\\ dogma\\ and\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ notion\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ open\\-ended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ spring\\ of\\ 1962\\,\\ Hayden\\ advocated\\ direct\\ action\\ by\\ the\\ SDS\\ rather\\ than\\ endless\\ debates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ SDS\\ convention\\,\\ Steve\\ Max\\ and\\ Jim\\ Brooks\\ proposed\\ that\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drafts\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;values\\&rdquo\\;\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ section\\ to\\ the\\ manifesto\\;\\ Hayden\\ strongly\\ opposed\\ splitting\\ it\\ into\\ 2\\ sections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ participants\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ only\\ expected\\ to\\ draft\\ a\\ document\\ that\\ would\\ affect\\ the\\ way\\ people\\ thought\\;\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ expect\\ to\\ spawn\\ a\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ draft\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ was\\ different\\ from\\ previous\\ outline\\ \\-\\ focused\\ on\\ politics\\,\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ the\\ colonial\\ revolution\\,\\ civil\\ rights\\ students\\,\\ labor\\,\\ values\\,\\ and\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ climax\\ of\\ the\\ educational\\ conference\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ came\\ with\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ a\\ panel\\ consisting\\ of\\ Michael\\ Harrington\\ and\\ Donald\\ Slaiman\\ \\(of\\ the\\ AFL\\-CIO\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ openly\\ criticized\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Old\\ Radicals\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ manifesto\\;\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ the\\ Old\\ Left\\ in\\ any\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ a\\ manifesto\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ new\\ spirit\\ began\\ to\\ crystallize\\ at\\ the\\ convention\\ \\(democracy\\ came\\ to\\ life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ agreed\\ that\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ manifesto\\ needed\\ to\\ clearly\\ state\\ the\\ SDS\\&rsquo\\;\\ anti\\-Communist\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debate\\ between\\ Haber\\ and\\ Harrington\\ continued\\ throughout\\ the\\ convention\\,\\ forced\\ to\\ compromise\\ in\\ final\\ draft\\ of\\ manifesto\\ regarding\\ Communism\\ sections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sharon\\ Jeffrey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ accomplished\\ organizers\\ of\\ the\\ SDS\\;\\ very\\ active\\ \\&\\;\\ radical\\;\\ believed\\ SDS\\ had\\ to\\ shift\\ from\\ an\\ intellectual\\ to\\ an\\ active\\ movement\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ERAP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\(Economic\\ Research\\ and\\ Action\\ Project\\)\\ SDS\\ project\\ established\\ in\\ Sept\\.\\,\\ 1963\\,\\ advocated\\ direct\\ action\\ and\\ direct\\ democracy\\;\\ created\\ with\\ money\\ from\\ the\\ UAW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\$5000\\ donation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Al\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ director\\ of\\ ERAP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carl\\ Wittman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ SDS\\ spokesperson\\,\\ interested\\ in\\ developing\\ a\\ national\\ strategy\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ experiences\\ as\\ a\\ spokesperson\\ in\\ Chester\\;\\ realized\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ poor\\ whites\\/blacks\\;\\ collaborated\\ with\\ Hayden\\ on\\ a\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;An\\ Interracial\\ Movement\\ of\\ the\\ Poor\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Wittman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paper\\;\\ emphasized\\ need\\ for\\ organization\\ \\(students\\ to\\ organize\\ poor\\ whites\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;forge\\ an\\ explosive\\ radical\\ coalition\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ caused\\ ERAP\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ organizing\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Near\\ West\\ Side\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ poor\\ area\\ of\\ Cleveland\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ first\\ ERAP\\ program\\ was\\ launched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ facts\\/notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ had\\ financial\\ ties\\ with\\ LID\\ \\(League\\ for\\ Industrial\\ Democracy\\)\\ and\\ therefore\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ cautious\\ and\\ avoid\\ creating\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ insurgency\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ began\\ to\\ doubt\\ whether\\ universities\\ were\\ the\\ appropriate\\ place\\ to\\ begin\\ social\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Al\\ Haber\\ strongly\\ opposed\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Wittman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ \\(as\\ proposed\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Interracial\\ Movement\\ of\\ the\\ Poor\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haber\\ lost\\ in\\ debate\\ against\\ Hayden\\ at\\ 1963\\ convention\\;\\ was\\ replaced\\ as\\ ERAP\\ president\\ by\\ Rennie\\ Davis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LBJ\\ advocated\\ anti\\-poverty\\ programs\\,\\ made\\ SDS\\ activism\\ a\\ legitimate\\ counterpart\\ to\\ government\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ ERAP\\ project\\ in\\ Cleveland\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Near\\ West\\ Side\\;\\ another\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ summer\\ of\\ 1965\\,\\ SDS\\ severely\\ changed\\ and\\ divided\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ longer\\ young\\ intellectuals\\,\\ more\\ activists\\ preparing\\ to\\ invade\\ impoverished\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ Potter\\ elected\\ new\\ president\\ of\\ SDS\\ in\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cleveland\\ project\\ successful\\ because\\ it\\ allowed\\ the\\ poor\\ to\\ organize\\ themselves\\ into\\ a\\ national\\ conference\\,\\ won\\ concessions\\ on\\ school\\ lunch\\ programs\\ for\\ welfare\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1965\\,\\ most\\ ERAP\\ programs\\ shut\\ down\\ due\\ to\\ tensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ War\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;last\\ straw\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ created\\ urgency\\ to\\ organize\\ against\\ it\\,\\ questioned\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ it\\ eventually\\ failed\\,\\ the\\ ERAP\\ programs\\ had\\ a\\ decisive\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\;\\ ideals\\ and\\ methods\\ continued\\ in\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ which\\ was\\ only\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ The\\ PHS\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ 1962\\ by\\ a\\ student\\ group\\ \\(SDS\\)\\ of\\ about\\ 60\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ theoretical\\ declaration\\ aimed\\ at\\ bettering\\ America\\ by\\ encouraging\\ people\\ to\\ meet\\ their\\ greatest\\ individual\\ potential\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ PHS\\ argues\\ for\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ to\\ avoid\\ bureaucratic\\ breakdowns\\ within\\ the\\ political\\ systems\\.\\ \\ \\;PHS\\ is\\ a\\ complaint\\ on\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Regarding\\ society\\,\\ it\\ calls\\ for\\ individualism\\ within\\ an\\ active\\ democratic\\ system\\;\\ regarding\\ government\\,\\ it\\ calls\\ for\\ an\\ active\\ hands\\-on\\ government\\ that\\ provides\\ social\\ welfare\\ programs\\.\\ \\ \\;PHS\\ also\\ is\\ weary\\ of\\ anti\\-Communism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ writers\\ are\\ pro\\-democratic\\,\\ but\\ argue\\ that\\ extreme\\ anti\\-Communism\\ undermines\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ also\\ pacifists\\,\\ but\\ the\\ statement\\ was\\ written\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ protest\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Themes\\:\\ \\ \\;Participatory\\ Democracy\\ Government\\ Social\\ Aid\\ SDS\\ \\(student\\ movements\\,\\ which\\ were\\ sparked\\ by\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\)\\ New\\ Left\\ \\(Democrats\\ NOT\\ socialists\\/communists\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Bright\\ Shining\\ Lie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neil\\ Sheehan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pages\\ 269\\-331\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Written\\ by\\ a\\ journalist\\ for\\ The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Bright\\ Shining\\ Lie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ missteps\\ and\\ failures\\ at\\ every\\ level\\ of\\ American\\ leadership\\ during\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheehan\\ specifically\\ follows\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lieutenant\\ Colonel\\ John\\ Paul\\ Vann\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ was\\ never\\ blinded\\ by\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rsquo\\;\\ successful\\ past\\,\\ and\\ was\\ always\\ willing\\ to\\ criticize\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ these\\ particular\\ pages\\,\\ Sheehan\\ highlights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ battle\\ at\\ Ap\\ Bac\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ decisive\\ 1963\\ battle\\ during\\ the\\ war\\ that\\ was\\ misrepresented\\ to\\ American\\ government\\ and\\ people\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\ this\\ battle\\ was\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ because\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ presence\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ escalated\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ not\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ reporters\\ sent\\ there\\ yet\\ to\\ cover\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ big\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(269\\-70\\)\\.The\\ troops\\ made\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ mistakes\\ during\\ this\\ battle\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ overall\\ lack\\ of\\ communication\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ worst\\ and\\ most\\ humiliating\\ defeat\\ ever\\ inflicted\\ on\\ the\\ Saigon\\ side\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ dramatic\\ illumination\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ flaws\\ in\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ armed\\ forces\\ \\(278\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ \\(South\\ Vietnam\\)\\ against\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ \\(DRVN\\ or\\ North\\ Vietnam\\)\\ and\\ the\\ National\\ Liberation\\ Front\\ \\(Viet\\ Cong\\)\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ latter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ association\\ with\\ communism\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ you\\ get\\ it\\,\\ the\\ battle\\ was\\ bad\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Anyway\\,\\ the\\ reporters\\ spoke\\ to\\ Vann\\ about\\ the\\ Ap\\ Bac\\,\\ and\\ he\\ told\\ them\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;miserable\\ damn\\ performance\\&rdquo\\;\\ off\\ the\\ record\\,\\ however\\ anyone\\ who\\ knew\\ him\\ basically\\ could\\ tell\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ said\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;President\\ Kennedy\\ read\\ the\\ newspaper\\ articles\\ about\\ this\\ miserable\\ performance\\ and\\ demanded\\ an\\ explanation\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ instead\\ of\\ telling\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ the\\ generals\\&mdash\\;most\\ notably\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\General\\ Paul\\ Harkins\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\insisted\\ that\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ had\\ actually\\ won\\ the\\ battle\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ even\\ tried\\ to\\ fire\\ Vann\\ for\\ a\\ while\\,\\ but\\ was\\ convinced\\ not\\ to\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ draw\\ even\\ more\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Vann\\ loudly\\ denied\\ being\\ the\\ source\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ mollify\\ tensions\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sheehan\\ emphasizes\\ in\\ these\\ pages\\ the\\ absurdity\\ of\\ Harkins\\ delusion\\ about\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ was\\ he\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ winning\\ battles\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ outcome\\ would\\ be\\ positive\\,\\ but\\ he\\ actually\\ believed\\ it\\,\\ which\\ was\\ scarier\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheehan\\ himself\\ asks\\ Harkins\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ the\\ truth\\ off\\ the\\ record\\ \\(he\\ still\\ answers\\ the\\ battle\\ was\\ a\\ success\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ quotes\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ expressing\\ shock\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ government\\ was\\ so\\ naive\\ to\\ believe\\ these\\ claims\\ \\(308\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheehan\\ specifically\\ attributes\\ the\\ disillusion\\ of\\ the\\ leadership\\ on\\ so\\ many\\ levels\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;disease\\ of\\ victory\\ \\(285\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ arose\\ from\\ the\\ victories\\ in\\ WWII\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ writes\\ that\\ U\\.S\\.\\ generals\\ did\\ not\\ enter\\ any\\ battle\\ thinking\\ that\\ their\\ soldiers\\ lives\\ might\\ be\\ lost\\ in\\ vain\\ or\\ carelessly\\ because\\ they\\ always\\ assumed\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ win\\.\\ \\ \\;Anyway\\,\\ Vann\\ did\\ put\\ together\\ an\\ extensive\\ critical\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ report\\ and\\ encouraged\\ Harkins\\ to\\ submit\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;fail\\ report\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ the\\ latter\\ did\\ not\\ happen\\.\\ \\ \\;Higher\\ ups\\ in\\ Washington\\ only\\ glazed\\ over\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ document\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ essentially\\ blinded\\ by\\ positive\\ reports\\ from\\ Harkins\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ good\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ song\\ he\\ publishes\\ on\\ 306\\.\\ \\ \\;Anyway\\,\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ basically\\ gives\\ repeated\\ examples\\ of\\ how\\ JFK\\ and\\ all\\ these\\ important\\ people\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ war\\ is\\ going\\ extremely\\ well\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ absurd\\ thought\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ also\\ prematurely\\ optimistic\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ consider\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ make\\ any\\ predictions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notable\\ moments\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\/communism\\ fear\\ influence\\:\\ 320\\,\\ 315\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JFK\\ reaction\\ to\\ articles\\ by\\ Sheehan\\ and\\ other\\ reporters\\:\\ 318\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ about\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ and\\ Vann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\:\\ 316\\-17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;By\\ 1963\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ had\\ potentially\\ furnished\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ Communists\\ with\\ enough\\ weapons\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ army\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ capable\\ of\\ challenging\\ and\\ defeating\\ ARVN\\ \\(308\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Bright\\ Shining\\ Lie\\ pgs\\ 331\\-end\\ of\\ Book\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\April\\ 1963\\,\\ Vann\\ turns\\ over\\ command\\ of\\ the\\ advisory\\ detachment\\ to\\ successor\\ and\\ plans\\ to\\ head\\ home\\ after\\ short\\ stay\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ Talked\\ to\\ Sheehan\\ \\(going\\ on\\ 1\\ month\\ leave\\ in\\ US\\)\\ on\\ the\\ airplane\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ US\\.\\.\\.Vann\\ explained\\ how\\ the\\ Army\\ was\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ about\\ to\\ let\\ Harkins\\ push\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ living\\ in\\ El\\ Paso\\,\\ Vann\\ moved\\ family\\ to\\ Washington\\ DC\\.\\ Discussion\\ of\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ crisis\\ of\\ 1963\\ \\(forbade\\ the\\ flying\\ of\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ flag\\ on\\ Buddha\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bday\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Ngo\\ Dinhs\\ attacked\\ Buddhists\\ and\\ claimed\\ they\\ were\\ communist\\ supporters\\.\\ \\ \\;Ngo\\ Dinhs\\ recognized\\ that\\ publicity\\ of\\ attacks\\ was\\ bad\\,\\ so\\ tried\\ to\\ scare\\ reporters\\ away\\.\\ In\\ 1963\\,\\ Vann\\ went\\ to\\ Pentagon\\ to\\ be\\ debriefed\\ but\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ him\\,\\ so\\ he\\ did\\ it\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ telling\\ officers\\ of\\ his\\ final\\ report\\,\\ February\\ 8\\ message\\,\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ account\\,\\ and\\ documentation\\ to\\ substantiate\\ his\\ arguments\\&hellip\\;gradually\\ worked\\ up\\ the\\ Army\\ hierarchy\\ \\(see\\ IDs\\)\\.\\ Vann\\ debriefed\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\ \\(Krulak\\/Taylor\\ supported\\ Harkins\\ though\\ so\\ debriefing\\ campaign\\ failed\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ canceled\\ it\\)\\.\\ Vann\\ retired\\ 1963\\,\\ raising\\ admiration\\ for\\ his\\ moral\\ courage\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ though\\ he\\ retired\\,\\ Vann\\ missed\\ the\\ Army\\ and\\ regretted\\ leaving\\,\\ felt\\ rejected\\ in\\ Denver\\.\\ \\ \\;Viet\\ Cong\\ dismantle\\ American\\ stockades\\.\\ Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\ Jr\\.\\ replaces\\ Frederick\\ Nolting\\ as\\ ambassador\\.\\ \\ \\;School\\ riots\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ against\\ Diem\\.\\ McNamara\\ and\\ Taylor\\ sent\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ report\\ back\\ to\\ Kennedy\\ that\\ military\\ still\\ making\\ great\\ progress\\ and\\ war\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ won\\ by\\ 1965\\.\\ JFK\\ assassinated\\ after\\ the\\ November\\ Honolulu\\ conference\\ by\\ Lee\\ Harvey\\ Oswald\\,\\ causing\\ LBJ\\ to\\ inherit\\ presidency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ IDs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUANG\\ DUC\\-\\ Buddhist\\ monk\\ who\\ burned\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MALCOM\\ BROWNE\\-\\ took\\ photo\\ of\\ Quang\\ Duc\\ that\\ astonished\\ the\\ American\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LANSDALE\\-\\ Air\\ Force\\ general\\ who\\ Vann\\ briefed\\ \\,\\ Vann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hero\\,\\ in\\ disfavor\\ with\\ circle\\ of\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MAJ\\.\\ GEN\\.\\ HAROLD\\ JOHNSON\\-Army\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assistant\\ deputy\\ chief\\ of\\ staff\\ for\\ operations\\ who\\ listened\\ to\\ Vann\\ then\\ sent\\ him\\ to\\ Gen\\.\\ BARKSDALE\\ HAMLETT\\ who\\ arranged\\ for\\ Vann\\ to\\ brief\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\ on\\ July\\ 8\\,\\ 1963\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VICTOR\\ KRULAK\\-\\ briefed\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\,\\ said\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ proliferating\\ like\\ Vann\\ had\\ said\\,\\ was\\ alerted\\ to\\ Vann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ to\\ discredit\\ Harkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HENRY\\ CABOT\\ LODGE\\-\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XA\\ LOI\\ PAGODA\\-\\ raid\\ on\\ this\\ famous\\ pagoda\\ by\\ ARVN\\ troops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THICH\\ TRI\\ QUANG\\-the\\ most\\ militant\\ Buddhist\\ leader\\ who\\ organized\\ the\\ first\\ protest\\ meeting\\ in\\ Hue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BRAVO\\ TWO\\-\\ Nov\\.\\ 1\\,\\ 1963\\ storming\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Police\\ headquarters\\ by\\ Saigon\\ marines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MADAME\\ NHU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Miller\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Democracy\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\ Ch\\.\\ 11\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chp\\ 11\\:\\ A\\ Leader\\ in\\ Search\\ of\\ Legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Students\\ for\\ a\\ Democratic\\ Society\\ \\(SDS\\)\\ grows\\ significantly\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ but\\ maintains\\ its\\ domestic\\ focus\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ it\\ grows\\ larger\\,\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ and\\ limitations\\ of\\ its\\ original\\ message\\ \\(key\\:\\ participatory\\ democracy\\)\\ causes\\ problems\\ and\\ divisions\\ within\\ the\\ group\\,\\ especially\\ between\\ the\\ old\\ \\(esp\\ Paul\\ Booth\\)\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ members\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Tradition\\ of\\ Debs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ Booth\\,\\ VP\\ of\\ SDS\\,\\ helped\\ change\\ PREP\\ \\(Peace\\ Research\\ and\\ Education\\ Project\\)\\ from\\ an\\ internal\\ forum\\ for\\ foreign\\ policy\\ analysis\\ into\\ activism\\&mdash\\;militant\\ tactics\\&mdash\\;mass\\ organizing\\ shifting\\ military\\ workers\\ \\(like\\ engineers\\)\\ into\\ other\\ industries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Efforts\\ made\\ impossible\\ by\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reinvigoration\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;military\\-industrial\\ complex\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Secret\\ of\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\LBJ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Gulf\\ of\\ Tonkin\\ Speech\\ August\\ 4\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ communist\\ attack\\ on\\ innocent\\ American\\ ships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ US\\ involvement\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;prevent\\ further\\ aggression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ pushes\\ for\\ general\\ protest\\ in\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\.\\ F\\.\\ Stone\\ publishes\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ speech\\ suggesting\\ that\\ Communists\\ had\\ been\\ provoked\\&mdash\\;inspired\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seeds\\ of\\ later\\ protests\\ on\\ margins\\:\\ experts\\ affiliated\\ with\\ the\\ Institute\\ for\\ Policy\\ Study\\ with\\ critical\\ working\\ papers\\ on\\ Vietnam\\,\\ Communist\\ Party\\,\\ Marxist\\-Leninist\\ splinter\\ groups\\,\\ veteran\\ pacifists\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Liberation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;magazine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mainstream\\ \\(SANE\\)\\ less\\ responsive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Booth\\ determined\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ to\\ protest\\ Vietnam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zen\\ Koans\\ and\\ New\\ Recruits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ National\\ Council\\,\\ December\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conflicts\\ between\\ factions\\ within\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Steve\\ Max\\ \\(with\\ Political\\ Education\\ Project\\/PEP\\)\\ supported\\ LBJ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reelection\\&mdash\\;his\\ electoral\\ strategy\\ decisively\\ rejected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opponent\\ in\\ debate\\:\\ Tom\\ Hayden\\&mdash\\;had\\ grown\\ more\\ radical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Debate\\ complicated\\ by\\ new\\ members\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Jeffrey\\ Shero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\unaware\\ of\\ groups\\ commitment\\ to\\ pluralism\\ and\\ experimentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\uninitiated\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ tolerant\\ and\\ skeptical\\ kind\\ of\\ radicalism\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ birthright\\ of\\ SDS\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Birth\\ of\\ the\\ Anti\\-War\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\at\\ Council\\,\\ SDS\\ narrowly\\ votes\\ to\\ sponsor\\ a\\ march\\ on\\ Washington\\ in\\ protest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Decide\\ to\\ keep\\ demands\\/goals\\ ambiguous\\&mdash\\;did\\ not\\ present\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ administrations\\ Vietnam\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Escalation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\tense\\ relations\\ btwn\\ SDS\\ and\\ mainstream\\ peace\\ movement\\/older\\ peace\\ activists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\concerned\\ about\\ associations\\ with\\ Marxist\\-Leninists\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ clear\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ march\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\eventually\\ support\\ the\\ march\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\anti\\-war\\ sentiments\\ intensifies\\ in\\ universities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LBJ\\ increases\\ ground\\ troops\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ April\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\ oppose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LBJ\\ makes\\ a\\ speech\\ to\\ John\\ Hopkins\\ University\\&mdash\\;in\\ defense\\ of\\ adding\\ more\\ troops\\ but\\ supporting\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ international\\ discussions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\support\\ for\\ the\\ march\\ grows\\ because\\ debate\\ between\\ the\\ generations\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ First\\ March\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\April\\ 17\\,\\ 1965\\ Washington\\ DC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\success\\-15\\,000\\ people\\ show\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\speeches\\ by\\ SNCC\\ field\\-worker\\ Bob\\ Parris\\,\\ I\\.\\ F\\.\\ Stone\\,\\ Staughton\\ Lynd\\,\\ Senator\\ Ernest\\ Gruening\\ \\(WY\\)\\ who\\ had\\ initially\\ opposed\\ increased\\ US\\ involvement\\,\\ Paul\\ Potter\\ discussed\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ system\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;ambiguous\\ on\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symbolizes\\ great\\ change\\ in\\ SDS\\&mdash\\;support\\ by\\ young\\ radicals\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;a\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ chiliastic\\ hope\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Revolutionary\\ Symbolism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Following\\ the\\ march\\,\\ SDS\\ decided\\ to\\ create\\ more\\ community\\-organizing\\ projects\\,\\ including\\ ones\\ with\\ an\\ anti\\-war\\ focus\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ main\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ retrospect\\,\\ Booth\\ regrets\\ not\\ establishing\\ SDS\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ organizational\\ leader\\ in\\ the\\ anti\\-war\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Media\\ Images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Coverage\\ of\\ SDS\\ increases\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ march\\,\\ spreading\\ the\\ message\\ and\\ work\\ of\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ York\\ Times\\ spreads\\ message\\ that\\ SDS\\ is\\ mostly\\ about\\ domestic\\ problems\\&mdash\\;they\\ are\\ anti\\-war\\ because\\ it\\ detracts\\ from\\ their\\ work\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Anti\\-Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\500\\ people\\ attended\\ the\\ annual\\ SDS\\ convention\\ in\\ June\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rise\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ convention\\ was\\ the\\ conversation\\,\\ not\\ workshops\\ discussing\\ working\\ papers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ radical\\&mdash\\;new\\ SDS\\ members\\ not\\ well\\ read\\ in\\ Marxism\\ and\\ they\\ consider\\ the\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ living\\ document\\&rdquo\\;\\ open\\ to\\ revision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Internal\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\question\\ of\\ what\\ political\\ structure\\ SDS\\ should\\ have\\&mdash\\;dislike\\ of\\ hierarchy\\,\\ elitism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;despite\\ its\\ deepening\\ experimental\\ commitment\\ to\\ direct\\ democracy\\,\\ SDS\\ could\\ not\\ guarantee\\ that\\ participation\\ would\\ be\\ equally\\ open\\ to\\ every\\ member\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\problem\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;organizational\\ elite\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(Tom\\ Hayden\\,\\ Paul\\ Booth\\)\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ ideals\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chaos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\experiment\\ in\\ office\\ democracy\\ a\\ disaster\\&mdash\\;nobody\\ got\\ anything\\ done\\ \\(like\\ processing\\ mail\\)\\ at\\ the\\ national\\ SDS\\ office\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\debate\\ and\\ confusion\\ within\\ SDS\\ abt\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jeffrey\\ Shero\\ \\(newer\\ member\\ and\\ VP\\)\\ wanted\\ to\\ decentralize\\ SDS\\ with\\ regional\\ offices\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ national\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ confusion\\ about\\ basic\\ ideas\\ and\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ SDS\\&mdash\\;what\\ exactly\\ does\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ mean\\?\\ \\ \\;Issues\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ glossed\\ over\\ in\\ the\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\ causing\\ trouble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Btwn\\ Jeff\\ Shero\\ and\\ Paul\\ Booth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Booth\\ recognize\\ that\\ quaker\\-style\\ meetings\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shero\\ \\&ldquo\\;feared\\ that\\ any\\ consolidation\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\ would\\ rob\\ the\\ Movement\\ of\\ its\\ cutting\\ edge\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Red\\-Baiting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ publicity\\ \\(CBS\\ does\\ a\\ sympathetic\\ story\\ on\\ middle\\ class\\ kids\\ in\\ rebellion\\ against\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\)\\ turns\\ negative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Members\\ of\\ congress\\ and\\ media\\ attack\\ SDS\\ as\\ an\\ Anti\\-draft\\ group\\ in\\ league\\ with\\ communists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Booth\\ managed\\ to\\ spread\\ positive\\ image\\ of\\ SDS\\ spreading\\ democracy\\ in\\ slums\\ of\\ America\\ to\\ stop\\ negative\\ publicity\\ and\\ bolster\\ allies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\In\\ Search\\ of\\ Legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ Booth\\ attacked\\ within\\ SDS\\ for\\ press\\ conference\\&mdash\\;undemocratic\\ leadership\\/\\ de\\ facto\\ representation\\ undermines\\ \\&ldquo\\;authenticity\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ for\\ SDS\\ to\\ live\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ democracy\\ but\\ Booth\\ thinks\\ that\\ group\\ to\\ large\\ to\\ have\\ every\\ decision\\ be\\ a\\ consensus\\&mdash\\;should\\ reinstitution\\ officer\\ accountability\\ mechanisms\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ have\\ representatives\\ to\\ say\\ something\\ and\\ people\\ can\\ control\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ saying\\,\\ but\\ Booth\\ recognizes\\ that\\ people\\ wish\\ that\\ leadership\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Like\\ a\\ Rolling\\ Stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ very\\ confused\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;10\\,000\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characterized\\ by\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Like\\ a\\ Rolling\\ Stone\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blowing\\ in\\ the\\ Wind\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;hostility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tolerance\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ SDS\\ is\\ dead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\An\\ Ending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\December\\ conference\\ confirmed\\ confusion\\ about\\ its\\ direction\\ rather\\ than\\ solved\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\ offered\\ no\\ answers\\ since\\ it\\ was\\ so\\ vague\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conflict\\ btwn\\ Shero\\ and\\ Booth\\ strongest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Booth\\:\\ democractic\\ nat\\&rsquo\\;l\\ organization\\ for\\ structure\\,\\ orderly\\ administration\\,\\ representative\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shero\\:\\ abolish\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Honesty\\,\\ guts\\,\\ local\\ initiative\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ fuel\\ the\\ movement\\,\\ not\\ leadership\\ and\\ discipline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ tensions\\ within\\ the\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Booth\\ left\\ SDS\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ generation\\ of\\ radicals\\&mdash\\;an\\ ending\\ for\\ the\\ veterans\\/old\\ guard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SDS\\ grows\\ to\\ 100\\,000\\ by\\ 1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Still\\ plagued\\ with\\ problems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demonstrations\\ and\\ marches\\ on\\ college\\ campuses\\ and\\ in\\ city\\ streets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Full\\ of\\ young\\ radicals\\ commited\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;participatory\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ democracy\\ of\\ individual\\ participation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chp\\ 12\\:\\ A\\ Moralist\\ in\\ Search\\ of\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\ because\\ a\\ symbol\\/spokesman\\ of\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ revolution\\ in\\ the\\ years\\ following\\ 1965\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ identified\\ with\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ Communists\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ experiences\\ with\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ oppressed\\ in\\ the\\ ghettos\\ of\\ Newark\\,\\ NJ\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ and\\ more\\ young\\ people\\ were\\ inspired\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;debate\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\,\\ the\\ wrongs\\ of\\ government\\ policy\\,\\ the\\ duties\\ of\\ citizenship\\,\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ authority\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ revolution\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Wager\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ finished\\ his\\ last\\ major\\ intellectual\\ work\\:\\ thesis\\ on\\ C\\ Wright\\ Mills\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idealistic\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ democratic\\ hope\\ was\\ at\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;a\\ different\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ willing\\ to\\ wager\\ on\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Let\\ the\\ People\\ Decide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ERAP\\ project\\ in\\ Newark\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ not\\ so\\ interested\\ in\\ organizing\\ students\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Willing\\ to\\ polarize\\ friends\\ because\\ of\\ passionate\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Other\\ Side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interested\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ months\\ of\\ protest\\&mdash\\;focused\\ on\\ Newark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Invited\\ to\\ join\\ a\\ Communist\\ historian\\ and\\ Staughton\\ Lynd\\,\\ a\\ radical\\ \\(but\\ not\\ communist\\)\\ friend\\ to\\ Hanoi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revelation\\:\\ Socialism\\ in\\ action\\ works\\,\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ Hayden\\ saw\\ in\\ N\\ Vietnam\\&mdash\\;believed\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ preserve\\ their\\ freedom\\ and\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Saw\\ Vietnamese\\ living\\ under\\ the\\ bombs\\ as\\ setting\\ a\\ standard\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;morality\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\A\\ Socialism\\ in\\ the\\ Heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wrote\\ a\\ book\\ with\\ Lynd\\ on\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experience\\ in\\ Hanoi\\ convinced\\ Hayden\\ that\\ he\\ found\\ a\\ good\\ model\\ for\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ organization\\ in\\ N\\ Vietnam\\&mdash\\;embraced\\ guerrilla\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ visited\\ at\\ the\\ peak\\ of\\ the\\ Communist\\ Party\\ trying\\ to\\ mobilize\\ the\\ entire\\ population\\ to\\ withstand\\ total\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ambition\\ Unbound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ went\\ on\\ lecture\\ circuits\\ after\\ book\\,\\ but\\ stayed\\ in\\ the\\ Newark\\ area\\&mdash\\;community\\ organizer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drifted\\ away\\ from\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growing\\ political\\ power\\ on\\ his\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Fire\\ This\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Riot\\ in\\ black\\ ghetto\\ in\\ Newark\\ July\\ 12\\,\\ 1967\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ American\\ form\\ of\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\&mdash\\;wrote\\ about\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ Review\\ of\\ Books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Violence\\ alone\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ society\\&mdash\\;need\\ politics\\ and\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ fascination\\ with\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\ entered\\ American\\ intellectual\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Fantasies\\ of\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Detroit\\ riots\\ followed\\ Newark\\&mdash\\;guerilla\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ dropped\\ more\\ bombs\\ on\\ Vietnam\\ bolstering\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolutionary\\ zeal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ blended\\ seamlessly\\ in\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ All\\ Viet\\ Cong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ became\\ more\\ involved\\ in\\ anti\\-war\\ efforts\\ instead\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ community\\ organizer\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ ghetto\\&mdash\\;received\\ criticism\\ from\\ advocates\\ of\\ black\\ power\\ after\\ riots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traveled\\ with\\ a\\ delegation\\ to\\ Czechoslovakia\\ to\\ meet\\ with\\ Vietnamese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vietnamese\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ NLF\\ was\\ in\\ final\\ victory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ solidarity\\ with\\ Viet\\ Cong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Rituals\\ of\\ Confrontation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ March\\ on\\ the\\ Pentagon\\ Oct\\ 12\\,\\ 1967\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\100\\,000\\ participants\\&mdash\\;pacifists\\,\\ militants\\,\\ religious\\ and\\ radical\\ groups\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\power\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ acted\\ out\\&mdash\\;no\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\In\\ Search\\ of\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Administrative\\ Committee\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Mobilization\\ meets\\ in\\ December\\ 1967\\ to\\ decide\\ on\\ action\\ for\\ the\\ Democratic\\ convention\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Huge\\ disagreements\\&mdash\\;too\\ many\\ interest\\ groups\\ want\\ different\\ things\\ \\(pacifists\\,\\ advocates\\ of\\ aggressive\\ direct\\ action\\,\\ liberals\\ concerned\\ about\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ sympathyzers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ and\\ Rennie\\ plan\\ to\\ organize\\ a\\ demonstration\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;act\\ out\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ dramatically\\ and\\ with\\ a\\ literal\\ effect\\ of\\ influencing\\ the\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Should\\ be\\ non\\-violent\\ and\\ legal\\ and\\ appeal\\ to\\ different\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intended\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;delegitimate\\ Democratic\\ party\\ and\\ build\\ support\\ for\\ independent\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ oppose\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Critics\\ within\\ SDS\\ wanted\\ draft\\ resistance\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ focus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yippies\\ \\(Youth\\ International\\ Party\\)\\ want\\ aggressive\\ street\\ action\\ in\\ Chicago\\ \\(blend\\ pot\\ and\\ politics\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shadow\\ Ambassador\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ recognizes\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ leaders\\ for\\ organization\\ and\\ to\\ create\\ continuity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leading\\ split\\ existence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncompromising\\ outsider\\&rdquo\\;\\/insurgent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insider\\&mdash\\;shadow\\ ambassador\\,\\ more\\ practical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meeting\\ with\\ Robert\\ Kennedy\\ \\(the\\ senator\\ opposed\\ the\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ advocated\\ \\&ldquo\\;unconditional\\ bombing\\ halt\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\H\\ liked\\ RFK\\ for\\ his\\ potential\\ to\\ create\\ social\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tet\\ Offensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\70\\,000\\ Communist\\ troops\\ attacked\\ more\\ that\\ 100\\ cities\\ and\\ towns\\ in\\ S\\ Vietnam\\ including\\ Saigon\\&mdash\\;Hayden\\ hopes\\ that\\ this\\ will\\ encourage\\ peace\\ negotiations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Facing\\ Reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\growing\\ sense\\ of\\ crisis\\&mdash\\;for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ Americans\\ realize\\ defeat\\ is\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ killed\\ April\\ 1968\\&mdash\\;riots\\ in\\ DC\\ and\\ other\\ US\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bringing\\ the\\ War\\ Home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Students\\ at\\ Columbia\\ took\\ over\\ university\\ buildings\\&mdash\\;established\\ \\&ldquo\\;communes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ arrested\\ as\\ a\\ commune\\ leader\\&mdash\\;most\\ students\\ politically\\ undereducated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\student\\ strike\\ was\\ a\\ strict\\ hierarchy\\ despite\\ feeling\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tears\\ of\\ Rage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\RFK\\ killed\\ June\\ 1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\ for\\ Hayden\\&mdash\\;RFK\\ had\\ been\\ representative\\ of\\ democratic\\ idealism\\ and\\ direct\\ action\\&mdash\\;had\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ unite\\ poor\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;lost\\ promise\\ of\\ liberalism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Democracy\\ Is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Young\\ radicals\\ want\\ revolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ lost\\ hope\\ in\\ reform\\ at\\ Convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\encouraged\\ resistance\\ to\\ armed\\ troops\\ in\\ Chicago\\ and\\ CIA\\ infiltrators\\ among\\ demonstrators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sovereignty\\ of\\ the\\ people\\:\\ mass\\ demonstration\\ and\\ small\\ guerrilla\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Struggle\\ Begins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dispute\\ within\\ the\\ Mobilization\\ \\(group\\ sponsoring\\ demonstration\\ with\\ Hayden\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ wanted\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;community\\ of\\ risk\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ strengthen\\ their\\ commitment\\ stopping\\ the\\ war\\ under\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ lives\\ \\(mayor\\ Daley\\ called\\ armed\\ troops\\ into\\ the\\ city\\ in\\ preparation\\ for\\ protestors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confrontation\\ with\\ cops\\ in\\ Lincoln\\ Park\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\ before\\ convention\\ and\\ throughout\\ the\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ adopts\\ disguises\\ to\\ avoid\\ arrest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ disorder\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Whole\\ World\\ is\\ Watching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Mobilization\\ Committee\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legal\\ demonstration\\ attracted\\ 10\\,000\\ \\(not\\ the\\ hoped\\ or\\ 300\\,000\\)\\ and\\ heavily\\ policed\\ by\\ armed\\ National\\ Guardsmen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ told\\ everyone\\ to\\ break\\ into\\ small\\ bands\\ to\\ infiltrate\\ and\\ disrupt\\ the\\ city\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ tear\\ gas\\,\\ etc\\,\\ innocent\\ people\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hear\\ him\\ and\\ whole\\ group\\ wanders\\ to\\ the\\ designated\\ rally\\ spot\\,\\ surrounded\\ by\\ police\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Police\\ attack\\ and\\ the\\ protestors\\ fall\\ apart\\ but\\ they\\ chant\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ whole\\ world\\ is\\ watching\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ TV\\ cameras\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Incognito\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chicago\\ demonstration\\ a\\ success\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Left\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Party\\&mdash\\;delegitimated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demonstrators\\ united\\ under\\ battle\\&mdash\\;new\\ sense\\ of\\ courage\\ and\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raised\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ prolonging\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brought\\ New\\ Left\\ to\\ complete\\ public\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ praised\\ demonstrators\\&mdash\\;uses\\ the\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ people\\ saw\\ of\\ him\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ an\\ accurate\\ representation\\&mdash\\;his\\ larger\\ sense\\ of\\ political\\ purpose\\ melted\\ away\\ and\\ people\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ his\\ vision\\ of\\ democracy\\ and\\ the\\ moral\\ element\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ Americans\\ unsympathetic\\ with\\ demonstrators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Testimony\\ before\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Un\\-American\\ Activities\\ December\\ 1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confusion\\ over\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ democracy\\&mdash\\;says\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ democratic\\ system\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\,\\ exemplified\\ by\\ such\\ a\\ committee\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Violence\\ justified\\?\\ Hayden\\ claims\\ defensive\\ for\\ survival\\ reasons\\,\\ but\\ author\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;constructive\\ purpose\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\/fantasies\\ of\\ revolution\\ grew\\ more\\ radical\\ but\\ confused\\&mdash\\;longtime\\ hopes\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ modern\\ day\\ revolutionary\\ Continental\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indicted\\ of\\ conspiracy\\ to\\ start\\ Chicago\\ riots\\ with\\ Rennie\\ Davis\\,\\ Dave\\ Dellinger\\ \\(of\\ the\\ Mobilization\\)\\,\\ Abbie\\ Hoffman\\,\\ Jared\\ Rubin\\ \\(Yippies\\)\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ constantly\\ argued\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ conspired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ had\\ lost\\ respect\\,\\ excessively\\ defiant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lost\\ intellectual\\ credentials\\ to\\ become\\ advocate\\ and\\ practitioner\\ of\\ direct\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ moral\\ model\\&mdash\\;hypocritical\\:\\ overly\\ ambitious\\,\\ egotistical\\ and\\ independent\\ in\\ social\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ Left\\&mdash\\;more\\ prominent\\,\\ but\\ self\\-destructing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ and\\ more\\ participants\\ \\(rebellious\\ youth\\)\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ really\\ fighting\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ New\\ Left\\ becomes\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mass\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Direct\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ had\\ transformed\\ from\\ community\\ organizing\\ to\\ taunting\\ police\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ collapsed\\ in\\ 1969\\&mdash\\;taken\\ over\\ by\\ Progressive\\ Labor\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Small\\ group\\ survived\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Weatherman\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paramilitary\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ recoiled\\ at\\ their\\ cold\\ hatred\\&mdash\\;spirit\\ of\\ SDS\\ had\\ gotten\\ out\\ of\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ lost\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ revolutionary\\ zeal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refused\\ to\\ avoid\\ trial\\ and\\ go\\ underground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Returned\\ to\\ his\\ political\\ side\\ which\\ saved\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ longer\\ the\\ activist\\,\\ the\\ Weathermen\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ listen\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 31\\,\\ 2005\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Conclusion\\:\\ A\\ Collective\\ Dream\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\ just\\ a\\ summary\\/reflection\\ on\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sixties\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ span\\ of\\ time\\ but\\ a\\ collective\\ spirit\\ BUT\\ spirit\\ of\\ ecstatic\\ freedom\\ impossible\\ to\\ sustain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ had\\ search\\ for\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ produced\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Killings\\ at\\ Kent\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ went\\ on\\ for\\ several\\ years\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Preoccupation\\ with\\ war\\ protest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inability\\ to\\ agree\\ on\\ what\\ institutions\\ were\\ appropriate\\ for\\ participatory\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Successes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affected\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ American\\ political\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raised\\ fundamental\\ questions\\ about\\ nature\\,\\ limits\\ of\\ democracy\\ in\\ modern\\ industrial\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ scientist\\ Samuel\\ Huntington\\ said\\ the\\ Movement\\ resulted\\ in\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strained\\ fiscal\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weakened\\ military\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ popular\\ skepticism\\ about\\ legitimate\\ aspects\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Called\\ for\\ more\\ tough\\-minded\\ approach\\ to\\ government\\ \\(which\\ was\\ seen\\ under\\ Reagan\\ administration\\,\\ when\\ neo\\-conservatives\\ reaped\\ benefits\\ of\\ aims\\ of\\ New\\ Left\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legacy\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fusion\\ of\\ democratic\\ ideals\\ with\\ self\\-actualization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ feminism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opening\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ arena\\ so\\ that\\ alternatives\\ to\\ capitalism\\ can\\ be\\ imagined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collapse\\ of\\ system\\ of\\ segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Students\\ become\\ a\\ political\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ an\\ agenda\\-changed\\ sense\\ of\\ politics\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ did\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\ fall\\ apart\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inability\\ to\\ extend\\ its\\ middle\\-class\\ base\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delusions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolutionary\\ apocalypse\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Failure\\ to\\ develop\\ durable\\ organizational\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SDS\\ trying\\ too\\ many\\ things\\ at\\ once\\ \\(student\\ group\\,\\ anti\\-war\\ organization\\,\\ and\\ party\\ of\\ New\\ Left\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ for\\ more\\ capable\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ for\\ more\\ sharply\\ defined\\ theory\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grasp\\ of\\ political\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-destructive\\ self\\-righteousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impatience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;breakaway\\ experiences\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(317\\)\\-political\\ and\\ cultural\\ moments\\ when\\ boundaries\\ melted\\ away\\ and\\ it\\ seemed\\ as\\ if\\ anything\\ could\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midwest\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(321\\)\\-training\\ arm\\ of\\ Citizen\\ Action\\,\\ a\\ national\\ federation\\ of\\ grass\\-roots\\ citizen\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Campaign\\ for\\ Economic\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(renamed\\ Campaign\\ California\\)\\-\\ network\\ of\\ grass\\-roots\\ citizen\\-action\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ People\\ \\(what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ after\\ the\\ Movement\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-sense\\ of\\ identity\\ shaken\\ after\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ Movement\\;\\ moved\\ to\\ Venice\\,\\ turned\\ away\\ from\\ Ireland\\,\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talked\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ in\\ ten\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ returned\\ to\\ California\\ where\\ he\\ wrote\\ a\\ book\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ American\\ genocide\\,\\ helped\\ start\\ the\\ Indochina\\ peace\\ campaign\\ to\\ cut\\ off\\ American\\ aid\\ to\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;Learned\\ from\\ Vietnamese\\ propaganda\\ that\\ American\\ people\\ fundamentally\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ Booth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-gave\\ up\\ on\\ efforts\\ to\\ convince\\ SDS\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ structure\\ and\\ discipline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sharon\\ Jeffrey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-drifted\\ away\\ from\\ radical\\ politics\\ \\(alienated\\ by\\ growing\\ violence\\ of\\ the\\ Movement\\)\\;\\ began\\ studying\\ techniques\\ of\\ self\\-actualization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dick\\ Flacks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-remained\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ the\\ Sixties\\,\\ understanding\\ the\\ era\\ through\\ intellectual\\ work\\ at\\ University\\ of\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Al\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-still\\ an\\ ardent\\ activist\\,\\ organizing\\ peace\\ protests\\,\\ antiapartheid\\ rallies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bob\\ Ross\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-associate\\ professor\\ at\\ Clark\\ University\\,\\ co\\-authored\\ a\\ book\\ presenting\\ a\\ new\\ model\\ of\\ international\\ capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Steve\\ Max\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-activist\\ in\\ stimulating\\ \\&ldquo\\;resurgent\\ pupulism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ full\\-time\\ organizer\\ and\\ curriculum\\ director\\ for\\ the\\ Midwest\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Eyes\\ on\\ the\\ Prize\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Reader\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ Time\\ to\\ Break\\ Silence\\&rdquo\\;\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ antiwar\\ speech\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ expresses\\ his\\ disapproval\\ of\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ involvement\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ silence\\ is\\ betrayal\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ the\\ difficulties\\ of\\ speaking\\ out\\ against\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\ and\\ conforming\\ to\\ the\\ surrounding\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ notes\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\ that\\ a\\ significant\\ number\\ of\\ religious\\ leaders\\ have\\ condemned\\ an\\ event\\,\\ suggesting\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ spirit\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ rising\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ addresses\\ the\\ criticism\\ that\\ peace\\ and\\ civil\\ rights\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mix\\,\\ responding\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ making\\ a\\ plea\\ to\\ his\\ nation\\,\\ not\\ any\\ other\\,\\ for\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ lists\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ reasons\\ for\\ opposing\\ the\\ war\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ is\\ that\\ shifting\\ focus\\ to\\ the\\ war\\ took\\ energy\\ away\\ from\\ helping\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\ \\;Secondly\\,\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ sending\\ poor\\ men\\ to\\ fight\\ in\\ disproportionate\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ King\\ says\\ that\\ social\\ change\\ comes\\ most\\ meaningfully\\ through\\ non\\-violent\\ action\\ \\(which\\ Vietnam\\ certainly\\ was\\ not\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\King\\ also\\ speaks\\ out\\ sympathetically\\ toward\\ war\\-torn\\ Vietnam\\,\\ and\\ how\\ America\\ almost\\ forced\\ the\\ NLF\\ into\\ existence\\ by\\ permitting\\ the\\ repression\\ and\\ cruelty\\ of\\ Diem\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ looking\\ at\\ our\\ actions\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ enemy\\,\\ King\\ says\\,\\ we\\ can\\ realize\\ our\\ own\\ shortcomings\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ expresses\\ his\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ troops\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lastly\\,\\ King\\ suggests\\ five\\ government\\ actions\\:\\ 1\\.\\ End\\ all\\ Bombing\\;\\ 2\\.\\ Declare\\ unilateral\\ cease\\-fire\\ to\\ hopefully\\ open\\ lines\\ of\\ communication\\ for\\ negotiation\\;\\ 3\\.\\ Curtail\\ military\\ build\\-up\\ in\\ Thailand\\ and\\ interference\\ in\\ Laos\\ to\\ prevent\\ other\\ Southeast\\ Asian\\ battlegrounds\\;\\ 4\\.\\ Accept\\ that\\ the\\ NLF\\ has\\ substantial\\ influence\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ thus\\ must\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ negotiations\\;\\ and\\ 5\\.\\ Set\\ a\\ date\\ to\\ remove\\ all\\ foreign\\ troops\\ from\\ Vietnam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Don\\ Duncan\\ \\"\\;The\\ Whole\\ Thing\\ was\\ a\\ Lie\\!\\"\\;\\,\\ 1966\\ The\\ \\&\\#39\\;60s\\ papers\\,\\ pg\\ 286\\-309\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Duncan\\ is\\ writing\\ about\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ Special\\ Forces\\ during\\ Vietnam\\.\\ Joined\\ in\\ 1959\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ \\"\\;a\\ militant\\ anti\\-Communist\\"\\;\\ and\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ about\\ the\\ threat\\.\\ His\\ training\\ at\\ Fort\\ Bragg\\ involves\\ learning\\ \\"\\;about\\"\\;\\ Soviet\\ torture\\,\\ and\\ complains\\ that\\ the\\ army\\ \\"\\;condemns\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ guerrilla\\ for\\ supposedly\\ doing\\ those\\ very\\ things\\"\\;\\ that\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ teaching\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ Also\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ continuing\\ racism\\.\\ They\\ are\\ teaching\\ the\\ men\\ to\\ \\"\\;organize\\ guerrilla\\ movements\\ in\\ foreign\\ countries\\"\\;\\ and\\ THE\\ ENEMY\\ is\\ clearly\\ communism\\ and\\ communist\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;Arrives\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ \\(Saigon\\)\\ \\-\\ struck\\ by\\ the\\ \\"\\;confusion\\,\\ noise\\,\\ smells\\,\\ people\\ \\-\\ almost\\ overwhelming\\"\\;\\,\\ notes\\ poverty\\,\\ cultural\\ differences\\ and\\ the\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ Americans\\.\\ Also\\ struck\\ by\\ unanimous\\ contempt\\ for\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ within\\ the\\ unit\\ he\\ joins\\,\\ wonders\\ why\\ they\\ are\\ supporting\\ such\\ a\\ supposedly\\ corrupt\\,\\ cowardly\\ government\\.\\ the\\ reply\\ is\\ because\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ anti\\-Communist\\.\\ There\\ is\\ little\\ interaction\\ between\\ Americans\\ and\\ the\\ average\\ Vietnamese\\,\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ it\\ is\\ with\\ people\\ dependent\\ on\\ Americans\\ for\\ their\\ money\\,\\ so\\ will\\ say\\ anything\\,\\ and\\ he\\ evaluates\\ the\\ country\\ by\\ American\\ opinions\\ rather\\ than\\ actual\\ observation\\.\\ Americans\\ hated\\ by\\ Vietnamese\\,\\ making\\ the\\ same\\ mistakes\\ as\\ the\\ french\\:\\ \\"\\;arrogance\\,\\ disrespect\\,\\ rudeness\\,\\ prejudice\\ and\\ ignorance\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ if\\ a\\ Vietnamese\\ is\\ nice\\,\\ he\\ is\\ suspected\\ of\\ being\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ spy\\.\\ \\ \\;Signs\\ up\\ for\\ Project\\ Delta\\,\\ a\\ classified\\ project\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Laos\\ and\\ find\\ out\\ more\\ about\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\,\\ after\\ 2\\.5\\ months\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ Not\\ a\\ success\\.\\ Driven\\ by\\ US\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ not\\ by\\ helping\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\.\\ 6\\ out\\ of\\ 40\\ \\"\\;dedicated\\ volunteers\\"\\;\\ returned\\.\\ Confirmed\\ many\\ doubts\\ about\\ importance\\ of\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Mihn\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Next\\ mission\\ in\\ Viet\\ Cong\\-held\\ area\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ \\-\\ checking\\ out\\ a\\ plantation\\.\\ Went\\ in\\ with\\ a\\ team\\,\\ found\\ various\\ abandoned\\ posts\\ then\\ at\\ the\\ central\\ headquarters\\,\\ unexpectedly\\ found\\ a\\ whole\\ battalion\\ of\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ armed\\,\\ in\\ uniform\\,\\ but\\ just\\ relaxing\\ \\-\\ unique\\ situation\\ to\\ find\\.\\ Radios\\ out\\ to\\ have\\ US\\ troops\\ landed\\ to\\ surround\\ the\\ plantation\\ to\\ get\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ flat\\ fields\\ as\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ bombed\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ area\\,\\ but\\ plan\\ is\\ badly\\ botched\\.\\ First\\,\\ planes\\ fly\\ over\\ for\\ 45\\ minutes\\,\\ so\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ are\\ alerted\\ and\\ flee\\ from\\ headquarters\\ into\\ the\\ fields\\.\\ Then\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ have\\ dispersed\\ around\\ plantation\\,\\ and\\ bombing\\ is\\ disorganized\\,\\ Duncan\\ is\\ worried\\ about\\ them\\ being\\ hit\\ themselves\\.\\ US\\ headquarters\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\,\\ Duncan\\ notes\\ it\\ as\\ \\"\\;a\\ dazzling\\ exhibition\\ of\\ flying\\ \\-\\ worthless\\ \\-\\ but\\ impressive\\"\\;\\.\\ Finally\\ US\\ team\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ chopper\\.\\ Officials\\ estimated\\ 250\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ killed\\ by\\ bombs\\ on\\ first\\ day\\,\\ Duncan\\ estimates\\ maybe\\ 6\\.\\ no\\ real\\ military\\ significance\\ to\\ the\\ bombing\\,\\ not\\ effective\\ in\\ anything\\ but\\ very\\ concentrated\\ areas\\ \\(villages\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Questions\\ the\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ because\\ \\"\\;one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ axioms\\ one\\ learns\\ about\\ unconventional\\ warfare\\ is\\ that\\ no\\ insurgent\\ or\\ guerrilla\\ movement\\ can\\ endure\\ without\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ people\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ obviously\\ there\\ is\\ support\\ if\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ \\"\\;can\\ maneuver\\ and\\ live\\ under\\ the\\ very\\ noses\\ of\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ troops\\"\\;\\.\\ Decides\\ that\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ are\\ pro\\-Viet\\ Cong\\ and\\ anti\\-Saigon\\,\\ and\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ position\\ \\"\\;We\\ are\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ sympathy\\ with\\ the\\ aspirations\\ and\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ people\\,\\"\\;\\ was\\ a\\ lie\\.\\ If\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ lie\\,\\ how\\ many\\ other\\ are\\ there\\?\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;While\\ in\\ Vietnam\\,\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ ha\\ obviously\\ gained\\ in\\ strength\\,\\ \\"\\;the\\ more\\ troops\\ and\\ money\\ we\\ poured\\ in\\,\\ the\\ more\\ people\\ hated\\ us\\"\\;\\.\\ Questions\\ whether\\ \\"\\;communism\\ is\\ spreading\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ our\\ involvement\\ or\\ because\\ of\\ it\\.\\"\\;\\ Points\\ out\\ that\\ while\\ \\"\\;The\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ might\\ sleep\\ in\\ \\[villagers\\]\\ houses\\,\\ the\\ government\\ troops\\ ransacked\\ them\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;Decides\\ \\"\\;The\\ whole\\ thing\\ was\\ a\\ lie\\.\\ We\\ weren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ preserving\\ freedom\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ freedom\\ to\\ preserve\\.\\ To\\ voice\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ meant\\ jail\\ or\\ death\\.\\.\\.\\ It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ democracy\\ we\\ brought\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ \\-\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ anti\\-communism\\.\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ I\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ think\\ Vietnam\\ will\\ be\\ better\\ off\\ under\\ Ho\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brand\\ of\\ communism\\.\\ But\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ for\\ me\\ or\\ my\\ government\\ to\\ decide\\.\\ That\\ decision\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\"\\;\\.\\ Appreciates\\ student\\ protesters\\ because\\ they\\ oppose\\ people\\ dying\\ for\\ a\\ lie\\ and\\ corrupting\\ democracy\\,\\ while\\ it\\ took\\ him\\ 10\\ years\\ in\\ the\\ army\\ to\\ learn\\ this\\ lesson\\.\\ \\ \\;TERMS\\ \\(not\\ terribly\\ important\\)\\ Special\\ Forces\\*\\ \\-\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ men\\ very\\ dedicated\\ to\\ fighting\\ communism\\,\\ trained\\ to\\ organize\\ guerrilla\\ movements\\ in\\ foreign\\ countries\\.\\ In\\ Vietnam\\,\\ contempt\\ for\\ Vietnamese\\.\\ \\ \\;ARVN\\ \\(Army\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\)\\ \\-\\ considered\\ \\"\\;cowardly\\"\\;\\ by\\ other\\ Special\\ Forces\\ men\\,\\ probably\\ supplying\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ with\\ many\\ of\\ their\\ weapons\\,\\ commit\\ many\\ atrocities\\ \\(not\\ portrayed\\ well\\)\\ \\ \\;LLDB\\ \\(Luc\\ Luong\\ Dac\\ Biet\\ \\-\\ Vietnamese\\ Special\\ Forces\\)\\ \\-\\ \\"\\;rotten\\,\\ corrupt\\,\\ cowardly\\"\\;\\,\\ terrorize\\ villages\\ \\ \\;Project\\ Delta\\ \\-\\ classified\\ project\\ within\\ Special\\ Forces\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Laos\\ and\\ \\"\\;to\\ try\\ and\\ find\\ the\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\ trail\\ and\\ gather\\ info\\ on\\ traffic\\,\\ troops\\,\\ weapons\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\ Made\\ up\\ of\\ 40\\ volunteers\\,\\ only\\ 6\\ not\\ killed\\ or\\ captured\\.\\ Driven\\ by\\ US\\ self\\-interest\\.\\ To\\ many\\,\\ confirmed\\ that\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\&\\#39\\;s\\ involvement\\ exaggerated\\,\\ most\\ weapons\\ coming\\ from\\ ARVN\\ and\\ by\\ sea\\,\\ and\\ most\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ actually\\ from\\ the\\ South\\,\\ not\\ imported\\ from\\ the\\ North\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;The\\ Fort\\ Hood\\ Three\\:\\ The\\ Case\\ of\\ the\\ Three\\ GIs\\ Who\\ Said\\ \\"\\;No\\"\\;\\ to\\ the\\ War\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ \\-\\ Three\\ Speeches\\"\\;\\ Pvt\\.\\ Dennis\\ Mora\\,\\ Pvt\\.\\ David\\ Samas\\ and\\ PFC\\ James\\ Johnson\\ \\-\\ read\\ at\\ a\\ press\\ conference\\ June\\ 30\\,\\ 1966\\ The\\ \\&\\#39\\;60s\\ Papers\\,\\ pg\\ 301\\-309\\ \\ \\;Are\\ taking\\ a\\ stand\\ against\\ the\\ war\\ which\\ they\\ consider\\ \\"\\;immoral\\,\\ illegal\\ and\\ unjust\\"\\;\\ and\\ are\\ asking\\ to\\ not\\ be\\ sent\\ to\\ Vietnam\\.\\ They\\ represent\\ a\\ cross\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ \\(Af\\ Am\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\,\\ Lithuanian\\/Italian\\)\\ and\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ many\\ other\\ GIs\\.\\ They\\ believe\\ it\\ is\\ evident\\ that\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ support\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ and\\ want\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ Ky\\.\\ Everyone\\ realizes\\ the\\ war\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ ever\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ \\"\\;won\\"\\;\\,\\ but\\ most\\ soldiers\\ just\\ put\\ it\\ off\\ and\\ talk\\ themselves\\ into\\ it\\ \\-\\ but\\ these\\ three\\ decided\\ to\\ \\"\\;stand\\ up\\ and\\ fight\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ is\\ right\\"\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Dennis\\ Mora\\ statement\\ \\(Puerto\\ Rican\\)\\ \\(main\\ point\\:\\ thinks\\ should\\ be\\ spending\\ effort\\ on\\ War\\ on\\ Poverty\\,\\ not\\ Vietnam\\)\\ Active\\ in\\ the\\ peace\\ movement\\ before\\ he\\ was\\ drafted\\.\\ Believes\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ genocide\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ holds\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ the\\ outsider\\.\\ His\\ main\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ war\\ is\\ \\"\\;a\\ colossal\\ waste\\ of\\ resources\\ which\\ are\\ needed\\ here\\ at\\ home\\"\\;\\ for\\ the\\ War\\ on\\ Poverty\\,\\ which\\ he\\ thus\\ sees\\ as\\ a\\ joke\\.\\ He\\ talks\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ experience\\ growing\\ up\\ in\\ Spanish\\ Harlem\\ fighting\\ poverty\\ and\\ racism\\.\\ He\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ war\\ fought\\ for\\ industry\\ and\\ corporations\\,\\ with\\ no\\ end\\ in\\ sight\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\ Samas\\ \\(Lithuanian\\ and\\ Italian\\)\\ \\(speech\\ was\\ prepared\\ for\\ a\\ July\\ 7th\\ meeting\\ but\\ Samas\\ was\\ taken\\ by\\ military\\ police\\ just\\ before\\ it\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ read\\,\\ so\\ his\\ wife\\ read\\ the\\ draft\\ on\\ his\\ behalf\\)\\ \\(main\\ point\\:\\ thinks\\ Peace\\ activists\\ need\\ to\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ GI\\ and\\ show\\ popular\\ support\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ war\\)\\ Has\\ also\\ always\\ been\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ war\\,\\ but\\ just\\ made\\ his\\ feelings\\ public\\ at\\ June\\ 30th\\ press\\ conference\\.\\ Talks\\ about\\ the\\ result\\ \\-\\ hiding\\ out\\,\\ being\\ followed\\,\\ police\\ calling\\ his\\ parents\\ and\\ feeding\\ them\\ lies\\ about\\ him\\ being\\ in\\ danger\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ tool\\ of\\ the\\ Communists\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ his\\ address\\.\\ But\\ he\\ says\\ they\\ will\\ fight\\ back\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ peace\\ movements\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ disconnected\\ from\\ the\\ soldier\\ so\\ the\\ soldier\\ sees\\ them\\ as\\ against\\ him\\,\\ whereas\\ they\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ reach\\ out\\ and\\ offer\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ GI\\ and\\ bring\\ him\\ home\\,\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ Reminds\\ them\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ only\\ depend\\ on\\ this\\ legal\\ action\\,\\ the\\ public\\ must\\ voice\\ their\\ opinions\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;James\\ Johnson\\ \\(African\\ American\\)\\ \\(again\\ prepared\\ for\\ July\\ 7th\\ meeting\\ but\\ seized\\,\\ so\\ speech\\ was\\ read\\ by\\ his\\ brother\\)\\ \\(main\\ point\\:\\ thinks\\ should\\ be\\ spending\\ effort\\ on\\ Civil\\ Rights\\,\\ not\\ in\\ Vietnam\\)\\ Again\\,\\ always\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ war\\,\\ spent\\ much\\ time\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ but\\ was\\ told\\ he\\ was\\ being\\ paid\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ soldier\\,\\ not\\ a\\ politician\\.\\ Lists\\ off\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ learned\\ the\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ was\\ lying\\ about\\,\\ like\\ that\\ the\\ Saigon\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ was\\ not\\ actually\\ elected\\ by\\ the\\ people\\,\\ General\\ Ky\\ \\(current\\ dictator\\)\\ lists\\ Hitler\\ as\\ his\\ hero\\,\\ peace\\ offers\\ from\\ North\\ Vietnam\\ were\\ rejected\\ by\\ the\\ US\\.\\ Compares\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnmese\\ plight\\ to\\ the\\ Civil\\ Right\\ movement\\ \\-\\ both\\ just\\ are\\ groups\\ who\\ want\\ representation\\ in\\ their\\ government\\.\\ Argues\\ that\\ \\"\\;it\\ is\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ Negro\\ realizes\\ that\\ his\\ strength\\ can\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ much\\ better\\ use\\ right\\ here\\ at\\ home\\"\\;\\ because\\ as\\ of\\ now\\,\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ 2\\:1\\ black\\:white\\ soldiers\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ not\\ being\\ treated\\ any\\ better\\ at\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carle\\ Oglesby\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Revolted\\"\\;\\ in\\ The\\ Sixties\\ Papers\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 318\\-334\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ paper\\,\\ Oglesby\\ attempts\\ to\\ humanize\\ rebels\\ in\\ general\\,\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ implicitly\\ complicate\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ \\"\\;right\\"\\;\\ in\\ its\\ military\\ involvement\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ He\\ starts\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ rebel\\ is\\ much\\ like\\ myself\\.\\.\\.\\ He\\ is\\ politically\\ extraordinary\\.\\ That\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ psychologically\\ so\\"\\;\\ \\(320\\)\\.\\ He\\ paints\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ rebel\\ as\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ has\\ realized\\ fully\\ the\\ injustices\\ perpetrated\\ on\\ him\\ by\\ society\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ these\\ injustices\\ are\\ not\\ random\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ \\"\\;whole\\ system\\"\\;\\ that\\ controls\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ its\\ members\\ \\(323\\)\\.\\ This\\ realization\\ creates\\ a\\ mindset\\ in\\ which\\ incremental\\ change\\ is\\ unacceptable\\;\\ the\\ rebel\\&\\#39\\;s\\ desire\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ from\\ injustice\\ causes\\ him\\ to\\ become\\ an\\ \\"\\;incorrigible\\ absolutist\\ who\\ has\\ replaces\\ all\\ \\&\\#39\\;problems\\&\\#39\\;\\ with\\ the\\ one\\ grand\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ system\\ is\\ an\\ error\\"\\;\\ \\(324\\)\\.\\ Oglesby\\ also\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ that\\ drives\\ men\\ to\\ violent\\ revolution\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ particular\\ ideology\\;\\ Communism\\ per\\ se\\ does\\ not\\ drive\\ men\\ to\\ revolt\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ total\\ change\\ that\\ motivates\\ rebels\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ developing\\ this\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ rebel\\ as\\ a\\ normal\\ man\\ driven\\ to\\ extremes\\ by\\ an\\ unjust\\ society\\,\\ Oglesby\\ calls\\ into\\ question\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ \\"\\;our\\ enemies\\ must\\ be\\ unjust\\,\\ stupid\\,\\ dishonest\\,\\ craven\\,\\ and\\ wrong\\"\\;\\ \\(319\\)\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ article\\:\\ \\"\\;The\\ rebel\\ is\\ the\\ man\\ for\\ whom\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ decreed\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ way\\ out\\.\\ The\\ rebel\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ man\\ whom\\ America\\ has\\ called\\ \\&\\#39\\;the\\ Communist\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ taken\\ as\\ her\\ enemy\\.\\ The\\ man\\ whom\\ America\\ now\\ claims\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ kill\\"\\;\\ \\(333\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 26, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/studyguidehist1672.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "African American Studies 10 Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "african-american-studies-10"], "text": null, "id": 8, "html": "\\\\\\AAAS10\\_Study\\_Guide\\_\\-\\_Midterm\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c32\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c30\\{max\\-width\\:540pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:36pt\\ 36pt\\ 36pt\\ 36pt\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\ Narrow\\\"\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.6pt\\;margin\\-left\\:21\\.6pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c25\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c20\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c16\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\African\\ and\\ African\\ American\\ Studies\\ 10\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Midterm\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ One\\:\\ \\ \\;Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 5\\-7\\.\\ The\\ Nature\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\:\\ Man\\ or\\ Beast\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\David\\ Hume\\:\\ from\\ Of\\ National\\ Characters\\ \\(1748\\/54\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\desroch\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hume\\ begins\\ by\\ delineating\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ perception\\ of\\ national\\ characters\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ have\\ no\\ sense\\ establish\\ seen\\ national\\ characters\\ in\\ their\\ extreme\\ and\\ generalize\\ them\\ upon\\ every\\ individual\\ in\\ the\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ do\\ have\\ sense\\ are\\ temperate\\ by\\ recognizing\\ that\\ each\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ have\\ its\\ own\\ set\\ of\\ manners\\ of\\ which\\ some\\ are\\ expressed\\ more\\ frequently\\ by\\ the\\ entire\\ group\\ than\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;Two\\ ways\\ for\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ national\\ characters\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\,\\ moral\\ causes\\ whereby\\ circumstances\\ affected\\ the\\ mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motives\\ or\\ reasons\\ that\\ creates\\ a\\ commonalty\\ that\\ becomes\\ habitual\\ to\\ the\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\,\\ physical\\ causes\\ whereby\\ physical\\ elements\\ work\\ to\\ shape\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\,\\ complexion\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ their\\ mannerism\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ put\\ much\\ stock\\ into\\ this\\ however\\ he\\ then\\ conjectures\\ if\\ characters\\ did\\ depend\\ on\\ physical\\ elements\\,\\ then\\ hot\\ and\\ cold\\ are\\ very\\ influential\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ beyond\\ the\\ polar\\ circles\\ or\\ within\\ the\\ tropics\\ are\\ an\\ inferior\\ race\\;\\ cannot\\ attain\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ no\\ civilized\\ nation\\ had\\ any\\ complexion\\ other\\ than\\ white\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ barbaric\\ of\\ the\\ whites\\ showed\\ a\\ level\\ of\\ ingenuity\\ above\\ other\\ breeds\\ of\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;Negroes\\ merely\\ imitate\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ parrot\\,\\ while\\ whites\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ innovate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\argues\\ that\\ the\\ varying\\ characteristics\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ different\\ countries\\ owe\\ principally\\ to\\ \\"\\;moral\\ causes\\"\\;\\ such\\ as\\ governments\\,\\ and\\ very\\ little\\ to\\ \\"\\;physical\\ causes\\"\\;\\ such\\ as\\ native\\ food\\ and\\ climate\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ against\\ physical\\ causes\\ by\\ illustrating\\ that\\ two\\ specific\\ societies\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ geographical\\ conditions\\ may\\ have\\ highly\\ diverse\\ characteristics\\.\\ Also\\,\\ two\\ societies\\ in\\ vastly\\ different\\ geographical\\ conditions\\ may\\ have\\ similar\\ characteristics\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 1753\\ edition\\,\\ Hume\\ included\\ a\\ controversial\\ note\\ arguing\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ inferior\\ to\\ whites\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ Beattie\\:\\ from\\ An\\ Essay\\ on\\ the\\ Nature\\ and\\ Immutability\\ of\\ Truth\\,\\ in\\ Opposition\\ to\\ Sophistry\\ and\\ Skepticism\\ \\(1770\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\desroch\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ begins\\ by\\ denouncing\\ Aristotle\\ for\\ reasoning\\ that\\ men\\ of\\ physical\\ strength\\ and\\ little\\ genius\\ are\\ destined\\ to\\ labor\\ and\\ slavery\\ \\(Nature\\ vs\\.\\ Nurture\\)\\ while\\ Native\\&rsquo\\;s\\ of\\ Greece\\ were\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ empire\\.\\ \\ \\;Ascribes\\ this\\ same\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\ to\\ Hume\\ and\\ goes\\ further\\ to\\ say\\ these\\ are\\ merely\\ in\\ place\\ as\\ an\\ excuse\\ to\\ enforce\\ servitude\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ explains\\ that\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ civilization\\ requires\\ a\\ long\\ time\\,\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ savage\\ natures\\ of\\ French\\ and\\ British\\ people\\ some\\ 2\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ \\ \\;Uses\\ the\\ empires\\ of\\ Peru\\ and\\ Mexico\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ only\\ with\\ men\\ of\\ action\\,\\ speculation\\,\\ and\\ ingenuity\\ could\\ create\\ and\\ manage\\ these\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ lack\\ in\\ the\\ sciences\\ is\\ due\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ letters\\ however\\ their\\ oratory\\ is\\ superb\\.\\ \\ \\;Further\\ attributes\\ the\\ dearth\\ in\\ ingenuity\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ unfavorable\\ conditions\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ and\\ yet\\ even\\ so\\ those\\ spread\\ out\\ in\\ Europe\\ have\\ indeed\\ showed\\ signs\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ ingenuity\\.\\ \\ \\;Great\\ line\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ suppose\\ him\\ \\(black\\ man\\)\\ of\\ an\\ inferior\\ species\\ because\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ thus\\ distinguish\\ himself\\,\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ rational\\ to\\ suppose\\ any\\ private\\ European\\ of\\ an\\ inferior\\ species\\,\\ because\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ raise\\ himself\\ to\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ royalty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ ends\\ with\\ stating\\ that\\ if\\ whites\\ looked\\ back\\ to\\ various\\ figures\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ past\\,\\ they\\ would\\ see\\ fine\\ examples\\ of\\ barbarity\\.\\ \\ \\;Beattie\\ attempts\\ to\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ traditional\\ white\\ argument\\ of\\ superiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ detailed\\ attack\\ on\\ Hume\\&\\#39\\;s\\ broad\\ construal\\ of\\ the\\ virtues\\ was\\ presented\\ by\\ James\\ Beattie\\ in\\ his\\ An\\ essay\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ and\\ immutability\\ of\\ truth\\ \\(1770\\)\\.\\ \\(12\\)\\ Unlike\\ the\\ above\\ attacks\\ which\\ focus\\ on\\ Hume\\&\\#39\\;s\\ theory\\ as\\ it\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ Enquiry\\,\\ Beattie\\ examines\\ Hume\\&\\#39\\;s\\ account\\ in\\ the\\ Treatise\\.\\ For\\ Beattie\\,\\ Hume\\ errs\\ by\\ founding\\ his\\ position\\ \\"\\;not\\ on\\ fact\\,\\ but\\ on\\ theory\\,\\ and\\ \\[is\\]\\ supported\\ by\\ ambiguous\\ words\\ and\\ inaccurate\\ experience\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Immanuel\\ Kant\\:\\ from\\ Observations\\ on\\ the\\ Feeling\\ of\\ the\\ Beautiful\\ and\\ Sublime\\ \\(1764\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\desroch\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\,\\ Kant\\ goes\\ through\\ various\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\ attributing\\ them\\ certain\\ qualities\\ which\\ are\\ amenable\\ yet\\ ultimately\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ element\\ which\\ is\\ missing\\:\\ \\ \\;Arabs\\ are\\ noble\\ yet\\ has\\ an\\ inflamed\\ imagination\\ that\\ distorts\\ his\\ reasoning\\;\\ Japanese\\ are\\ too\\ resolute\\ degenerating\\ into\\ stubbornness\\ and\\ too\\ few\\ signs\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;finer\\ feeling\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\ \\;Indians\\ and\\ Chinese\\ are\\ too\\ grotesque\\ in\\ their\\ religion\\ and\\ artwork\\.\\ \\ \\;Last\\ of\\ all\\,\\ he\\ claims\\ Negroes\\ have\\ not\\ once\\ created\\ anything\\ of\\ great\\ worth\\ or\\ praise\\ in\\ art\\ or\\ science\\,\\ linking\\ these\\ difference\\ to\\ the\\ degree\\ in\\ difference\\ between\\ their\\ mentalities\\ and\\ skin\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ continues\\ on\\ with\\ the\\ inability\\ to\\ grasp\\ the\\ finer\\ feelings\\ in\\ life\\,\\ such\\ as\\ decorating\\ to\\ increase\\ sensual\\ charm\\ and\\ combining\\ it\\ with\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ morality\\.\\ \\ \\;Ultimately\\,\\ he\\ claims\\ the\\ Negro\\ to\\ hold\\ his\\ women\\ in\\ a\\ subservient\\ \\(slave\\-like\\)\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ home\\,\\ weak\\ among\\ others\\ outside\\ his\\ home\\,\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ blackness\\ is\\ a\\ clear\\ indicator\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ stupid\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ his\\ overall\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ races\\ besides\\ the\\ white\\ man\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ the\\ black\\ man\\,\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ mental\\ capacity\\ and\\ level\\ of\\ rationality\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ the\\ same\\ species\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ Kant\\ describes\\ the\\ different\\ ways\\ that\\ various\\ people\\ have\\ finer\\ feelings\\.\\ He\\ qualifies\\ his\\ remarks\\ by\\ stating\\,\\ \\"\\;\\[W\\]hether\\ these\\ national\\ differences\\ are\\ contingent\\ and\\ depend\\ upon\\ the\\ times\\ and\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ government\\,\\ or\\ are\\ bound\\ by\\ a\\ certain\\ necessity\\ to\\ the\\ climate\\,\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ here\\ inquire\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;African\\ Negroes\\ possess\\ no\\ finer\\ feelings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Johann\\ Gottfried\\ von\\ Herder\\:\\ from\\ Ideas\\ on\\ the\\ Philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ Mankind\\ \\(1784\\-91\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\desroch\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ begins\\ by\\ reversing\\ the\\ argument\\ against\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ the\\ opposite\\ perspective\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;whiteness\\ is\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ degeneracy\\ in\\ many\\ animals\\ near\\ the\\ pole\\&rdquo\\;\\ thereby\\ the\\ Negro\\ has\\ as\\ much\\ right\\ to\\ claim\\ the\\ white\\ man\\ is\\ a\\ degenerate\\ as\\ the\\ white\\ man\\ calls\\ him\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ evil\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ takes\\ the\\ reader\\ on\\ a\\ journey\\ through\\ the\\ surrounding\\ areas\\ of\\ Africa\\ and\\ slowly\\ moves\\ inward\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ claims\\ the\\ Negro\\ race\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ Gambia\\ and\\ Senegal\\ rivers\\ and\\.\\ \\ \\;Along\\ the\\ way\\,\\ he\\ characterizes\\ the\\ gradual\\ changes\\ in\\ skin\\ tone\\,\\ bodily\\ proportions\\,\\ and\\ physical\\ features\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ lips\\,\\ nose\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ goes\\ as\\ far\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ shades\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ in\\ this\\ region\\ will\\ be\\ filled\\ up\\ without\\ a\\ single\\ break\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ argument\\ is\\ simply\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ black\\ race\\ is\\ a\\ direct\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ internal\\ fluids\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ white\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ climate\\ dictates\\ the\\ diet\\ and\\ manner\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ regions\\ of\\ most\\ intense\\ heat\\ are\\ where\\ the\\ darkest\\ blacks\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ found\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ thick\\,\\ less\\ tense\\ and\\ dry\\ skin\\ \\(compared\\ to\\ whites\\)\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ an\\ oil\\ drawn\\ forth\\ by\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ which\\ also\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ coarseness\\,\\ wool\\-like\\ hair\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ he\\ does\\ make\\ a\\ link\\ from\\ an\\ environmental\\ effect\\ to\\ a\\ physiological\\ and\\ then\\ innate\\ characteristic\\ of\\ blacks\\.\\ \\ \\;Physiologically\\,\\ the\\ climate\\ made\\ the\\ black\\ race\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ more\\ supple\\ and\\ sensual\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ therefore\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ geared\\ towards\\ sensual\\ animal\\ enjoyment\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ further\\,\\ since\\ the\\ conditioning\\ is\\ concentrated\\ to\\ physical\\ aspects\\,\\ it\\ necessarily\\ refuses\\ the\\ finer\\ intellect\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ defends\\ this\\ claim\\ by\\ stating\\ that\\ Nature\\ \\&ldquo\\;formed\\ of\\ him\\ what\\ was\\ most\\ fir\\ for\\ his\\ country\\,\\ and\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ his\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\presented\\ formal\\ defiance\\ of\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ reason\\ and\\ Enlightenment\\.\\ Herder\\,\\ who\\ hated\\ absolutism\\ and\\ Prussian\\ nationalism\\,\\ but\\ who\\ was\\ imbued\\ with\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ German\\ Volk\\,\\ yet\\ as\\ historical\\ theorist\\ turned\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\.\\ Seeking\\ to\\ reconcile\\ his\\ thought\\ with\\ this\\ earlier\\ age\\,\\ Herder\\ sought\\ to\\ harmonize\\ his\\ conception\\ of\\ sentiment\\ with\\ reason\\,\\ whereby\\ all\\ knowledge\\ is\\ implicit\\ in\\ the\\ soul\\;\\ the\\ most\\ elementary\\ stage\\ is\\ sensuous\\ and\\ intuitive\\ perception\\ which\\ by\\ development\\ can\\ become\\ self\\-conscious\\ and\\ rational\\.\\ To\\ Herder\\,\\ this\\ development\\ is\\ the\\ harmonizing\\ of\\ primitive\\ and\\ derivative\\ truth\\,\\ of\\ experience\\ and\\ intelligence\\,\\ feeling\\ and\\ reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Immanuel\\ Kant\\:\\ Review\\ of\\ Johann\\ Gottfried\\ von\\ Herder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ideas\\ on\\ the\\ Philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ Mankind\\ \\(1785\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\desroch\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attacks\\ Herder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\-sided\\ accounts\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ emphasizing\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ claims\\ and\\ interpretations\\ from\\ accounts\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ a\\ historical\\ and\\ critical\\ mindset\\,\\ sift\\ through\\ all\\ the\\ possible\\ descriptions\\ and\\ repots\\ on\\ human\\ nature\\ and\\ comparing\\ the\\ mutually\\ contradictory\\ ones\\ such\\ that\\ you\\ supplement\\ them\\ with\\ comments\\ and\\ the\\ credibility\\ of\\ the\\ authors\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ he\\ believes\\ Herder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ jumble\\ of\\ weak\\-supported\\ hypotheses\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ criticizes\\ Herder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hypothesis\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\ being\\ the\\ ultimate\\ formative\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ Herder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ were\\ to\\ hold\\ true\\,\\ then\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ education\\ lies\\ not\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ inherent\\ capacity\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ species\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ the\\ outside\\ forces\\ of\\ other\\ natures\\.\\ \\ \\;Kant\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ efforts\\ that\\ brings\\ about\\ his\\ capacity\\ for\\ education\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ key\\ line\\ for\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ line\\ of\\ thinking\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ all\\ the\\ epochs\\ of\\ mankind\\&hellip\\;we\\ find\\ a\\ happiness\\ which\\ is\\ precisely\\ commensurate\\ with\\ the\\ concepts\\ and\\ habits\\ of\\ the\\ creature\\ in\\ question\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ the\\ circumstances\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ born\\ and\\ grew\\ up\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Since\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ blacks\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ rational\\ ability\\ and\\ capacity\\ and\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ an\\ animal\\ than\\ a\\ human\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ then\\ the\\ happiness\\ experienced\\ by\\ the\\ white\\ race\\ is\\ larger\\ and\\ more\\ significant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\:\\ from\\ Notes\\ on\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Virginia\\ \\(1787\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\torgers\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Argument\\:\\ even\\ if\\ black\\ people\\ were\\ free\\,\\ can\\ not\\ live\\ together\\ in\\ same\\ nation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;article\\ argues\\ reasons\\ why\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\distinctions\\ produced\\ by\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\existing\\ social\\ relations\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ would\\ make\\ peaceful\\ coexistence\\ impossible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ would\\ inevitably\\ war\\ resulting\\ in\\ the\\ extermination\\ of\\ one\\ race\\ or\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Innate\\ physical\\ differences\\ in\\ black\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Color\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ known\\ cause\\ of\\ different\\ skin\\ color\\,\\ but\\ fixed\\ in\\ nature\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physical\\ beauty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ whites\\ superior\\ in\\ physical\\ beauty\\ \\(hair\\,\\ color\\,\\ more\\ symmetrical\\ figure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ secret\\ a\\ \\"\\;disagreeable\\ ordour\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ less\\ tolerant\\ of\\ the\\ cold\\ and\\ more\\ tolerant\\ of\\ the\\ heat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Innate\\ cognitive\\ differences\\ in\\ black\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Less\\ brave\\/more\\ adventurous\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ because\\ cannot\\ cognitively\\ recognize\\ danger\\ before\\ it\\ arrives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Love\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ capable\\ of\\ love\\;\\ sex\\ is\\ less\\ sensual\\ and\\ absent\\ of\\ feeling\\ \\-\\ more\\ an\\ animal\\ act\\ without\\ passion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ general\\ blacks\\ live\\ more\\ by\\ sensation\\ than\\ reflection\\ \\(body\\ over\\ the\\ mind\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ reason\\ and\\ imagination\\ they\\ are\\ dull\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inferior\\ to\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ slaves\\ have\\ been\\ exposed\\ to\\ white\\ intellectualism\\,\\ but\\ still\\ produce\\ no\\ intellectual\\ or\\ artistic\\ work\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ gifted\\ in\\ music\\ \\(for\\ time\\ and\\ tune\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ subject\\ to\\ misery\\ \\(the\\ inspiration\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ poetry\\)\\,\\ the\\ slaves\\ do\\ not\\ produce\\ any\\ poetry\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TJ\\ says\\ religion\\ made\\ Phyllis\\ Wheatly\\ \\(but\\ she\\ is\\ still\\ not\\ a\\ poet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degrades\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ black\\ writer\\ Ignatius\\ Sancho\\ as\\ incoherent\\ and\\ absent\\ of\\ reasoning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ black\\ writers\\ but\\ when\\ compared\\ to\\ white\\ writers\\ he\\ sits\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ mixed\\ with\\ whites\\ show\\ clear\\ improvement\\ in\\ body\\ and\\ in\\ mind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ inferiority\\ cannot\\ only\\ be\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ their\\ condition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ proof\\:\\ Roman\\ slaves\\ \\(who\\ were\\ white\\)\\ were\\ subject\\ to\\ worse\\ conditions\\ but\\ still\\ were\\ great\\ artists\\ and\\ accredited\\ intellectuals\\,\\ SO\\ black\\ slaves\\ must\\ be\\ naturally\\ inferior\\ to\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TJ\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ slaves\\ are\\ not\\ morally\\ inferior\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\tendency\\ to\\ steal\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ their\\ condition\\ rather\\ than\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Are\\ not\\ permitted\\ to\\ own\\ property\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ bound\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ that\\ require\\ one\\ to\\ respect\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TJ\\ poses\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ justifiable\\ for\\ a\\ slave\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ little\\ from\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ taken\\ everything\\ away\\ from\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\:\\ instances\\ where\\ slaves\\ display\\ integrity\\,\\ gratitude\\,\\ and\\ fidelity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Questions\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ the\\ opinion\\ that\\ black\\ people\\ are\\ naturally\\ inferior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ much\\ is\\ nature\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ condition\\ cannot\\ be\\ easily\\ studied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ people\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ studied\\ as\\ \\"\\;subjects\\ of\\ natural\\ history\\"\\;\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ concrete\\ evidence\\ to\\ go\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ can\\ still\\ suppose\\ \\"\\;different\\ species\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ genus\\"\\;\\ have\\ different\\ qualities\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ color\\ cannot\\ be\\ ignored\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Color\\ HUGE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ obstacle\\ to\\ emancipation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ whites\\ who\\ are\\ for\\ emancipation\\ want\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ dignity\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HOW\\?\\ Get\\ rid\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ black\\ people\\ after\\ they\\ are\\ emancipated\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ mixture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cannot\\ live\\ together\\ because\\ of\\ effects\\ of\\ relationship\\ between\\ master\\ and\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dominance\\ exercised\\ regularly\\ and\\ violently\\ by\\ white\\ people\\ over\\ black\\ people\\ \\(and\\ submission\\ exercised\\ by\\ black\\ people\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;children\\ watch\\ this\\ and\\ learn\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ proper\\ way\\ to\\ treat\\ black\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;children\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ to\\ the\\ younger\\ slaves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tyranny\\ is\\ learned\\ and\\ practiced\\ and\\ embedded\\ in\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\THEREFORE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slaves\\ who\\ are\\ freed\\ must\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nature\\ of\\ this\\ relationship\\ between\\ master\\ and\\ slave\\ cannot\\ be\\ stopped\\ and\\ black\\ people\\ will\\ be\\ condemned\\ to\\ a\\ miserable\\ life\\ forever\\ \\(in\\ US\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wrath\\ of\\ God\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\God\\ is\\ just\\ and\\ will\\ not\\ forever\\ tolerate\\ the\\ injustice\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eventually\\ the\\ tables\\ will\\ turn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ event\\ of\\ a\\ war\\ between\\ races\\ \\(which\\ TJ\\ sees\\ as\\ inevitable\\)\\ God\\ will\\ not\\ favor\\ the\\ white\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\TJ\\ predicts\\ change\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ emancipation\\ is\\ inevitable\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ just\\ hopes\\ it\\ happens\\ with\\ the\\ consent\\ of\\ masters\\ rather\\ than\\ by\\ a\\ bloody\\ slave\\ revolt\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ extermination\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOTES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\TJ\\ was\\ an\\ interesting\\ man\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ biggest\\ proponent\\ of\\ liberty\\ during\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\ but\\ himself\\ owned\\ hundreds\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ this\\ piece\\ shows\\ he\\ was\\ clearly\\ conflicted\\ by\\ this\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ knew\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ in\\ an\\ extreme\\ moral\\ dilemma\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ justify\\ the\\ inferiority\\ of\\ blacks\\ yet\\ still\\ recognizes\\ that\\ white\\ people\\ are\\ exerting\\ an\\ unjust\\ tyranny\\ over\\ black\\ people\\ which\\ cannot\\ last\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Around\\ this\\ time\\ the\\ Haitian\\ Revolution\\ was\\ taking\\ place\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ TJ\\ gets\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ his\\ fears\\ of\\ a\\ bloody\\ slave\\ revolt\\ leading\\ in\\ the\\ massacre\\ of\\ all\\ white\\ slave\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ revealed\\ conflicting\\ perspectives\\ on\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;Notes\\ on\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Virginia\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ book\\ published\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\.\\ While\\ United\\ States\\ minister\\ to\\ France\\,\\ Jefferson\\ had\\ this\\ book\\ published\\ in\\ May\\ 1785\\,\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Compte\\ de\\ Buffon\\&\\#39\\;s\\ very\\ public\\ belittling\\ of\\ America\\ and\\ its\\ people\\ and\\ natural\\ resources\\.\\ Jefferson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ work\\ quickly\\ gained\\ the\\ Franco\\-American\\ cultural\\ spotlight\\ and\\ raced\\ through\\ nineteen\\ editions\\ in\\ at\\ least\\ five\\ countries\\ before\\ Jefferson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\.\\ This\\ edition\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Benjamin\\ Banneker\\:\\ Letter\\ to\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ \\(August\\ 19\\,\\ 1791\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\torgers\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\blacks\\ have\\ been\\ abused\\ and\\ censured\\;\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;rather\\ as\\ brutish\\ than\\ human\\,\\ and\\ scarcely\\ capable\\ of\\ mental\\ endowments\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ hopes\\ Jefferson\\ is\\ more\\ willing\\ than\\ others\\ to\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\ and\\ eradicate\\ these\\ false\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ all\\ stand\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ relation\\ to\\ God\\ \\;\\ He\\ created\\ us\\,\\ afforded\\ us\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ sensations\\,\\ and\\ endowed\\ us\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ faculties\\;\\ variations\\ in\\ color\\,\\ society\\,\\ or\\ religion\\ do\\ not\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\those\\ who\\ maintain\\ for\\ themselves\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ and\\ possess\\ the\\ obligations\\ of\\ Christianity\\ have\\ the\\ duty\\ of\\ extending\\ their\\ power\\ and\\ influence\\ to\\ every\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ Jefferson\\ really\\ believed\\ in\\ his\\ laws\\ \\(which\\ preserve\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\)\\,\\ then\\ he\\ would\\ want\\ everybody\\ \\-\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ rank\\ or\\ distinction\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;to\\ enjoy\\ such\\ privileges\\;\\ and\\ would\\ prevent\\ men\\ from\\ degrading\\ the\\ uprightness\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ with\\ cruelty\\ and\\ barbarism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Banneker\\ thankful\\ to\\ be\\ black\\ and\\ free\\;\\ wishes\\ his\\ brethren\\ could\\ experience\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wants\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ recall\\ what\\ life\\ was\\ like\\ under\\ the\\ arms\\ and\\ tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ crown\\:\\ reduced\\ Americans\\ to\\ servitude\\,\\ human\\ aid\\ seemed\\ unavailable\\,\\ hope\\ grew\\ thin\\;\\ but\\ they\\ \\ \\;now\\ enjoy\\ freedom\\ and\\ tranquility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ the\\ injustices\\ suffered\\ under\\ the\\ British\\ crown\\,\\ Jefferson\\ publicly\\ held\\ forth\\ the\\ doctrine\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ hold\\ these\\ truths\\ to\\ be\\ self\\ evident\\,\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ created\\ equal\\;\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ endowed\\ by\\ their\\ Creator\\ with\\ certain\\ unalienable\\ rights\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ could\\ Jefferson\\ be\\ so\\ convinced\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benevolence\\ and\\ his\\ equal\\ distribution\\ of\\ rights\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ counteract\\ his\\ mercies\\ by\\ enslaving\\ blacks\\?\\ Guilty\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ act\\ that\\ you\\ detested\\ in\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ on\\ say\\ that\\ since\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writing\\ to\\ Jefferson\\ anyway\\,\\ might\\ as\\ well\\ include\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ \\ \\;an\\ Almanac\\ which\\ he\\ calculated\\ for\\ the\\ succeeding\\ year\\ \\(Banneker\\ was\\ an\\ astronomer\\)\\;\\ production\\ of\\ his\\ arduous\\ study\\ of\\ astronomy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ emphasizes\\ how\\ difficult\\ it\\ was\\,\\ but\\ he\\ industriously\\ applied\\ himself\\ and\\ accomplished\\ it\\ with\\ accuracy\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ send\\ it\\ to\\ Jefferson\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ handwriting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\expressing\\ his\\ belief\\ that\\ blacks\\ possess\\ talents\\ equal\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ \\"\\;other\\ colours\\ of\\ men\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;On\\ August\\ 19\\ 1791\\,\\ Banneker\\ sent\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ almanac\\ to\\ secretary\\ of\\ state\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\.\\ In\\ an\\ enclosed\\ letter\\,\\ he\\ questioned\\ the\\ slaveholder\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sincerity\\ as\\ a\\ \\"\\;friend\\ to\\ liberty\\.\\"\\;\\ He\\ urged\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ help\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ \\"\\;absurd\\ and\\ false\\ ideas\\"\\;\\ that\\ one\\ race\\ is\\ superior\\ to\\ another\\.\\ He\\ wished\\ Jefferson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sentiments\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ his\\,\\ that\\ \\"\\;one\\ Universal\\ Father\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ afforded\\ us\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ sensations\\ and\\ endowed\\ us\\ all\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ faculties\\.\\"\\;\\ Jefferson\\ responded\\ with\\ praise\\ for\\ Banneker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ accomplishments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\:\\ Letter\\ to\\ Benjamin\\ Banneker\\ \\(August\\ 30\\,\\ 1791\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\torgers\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jefferson\\ agrees\\ that\\ nature\\ has\\ given\\ blacks\\ talents\\ equal\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ other\\ races\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ want\\ of\\ them\\,\\ is\\ owing\\ merely\\ to\\ the\\ degraded\\ condition\\ of\\ their\\ existence\\,\\ both\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ claims\\ that\\ nobody\\ wishes\\ more\\ than\\ him\\ to\\ start\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ will\\ raise\\ blacks\\&rsquo\\;\\ condition\\ to\\ what\\ it\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ sent\\ the\\ Almanac\\ to\\ the\\ Secretary\\ of\\ the\\ Academy\\ of\\ Sciences\\ at\\ Paris\\,\\ because\\ he\\ considered\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ a\\ document\\,\\ to\\ which\\ your\\ whole\\ color\\ had\\ a\\ right\\ for\\ their\\ justification\\ against\\ the\\ doubts\\ which\\ have\\ been\\ entertained\\ of\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ solid\\ piece\\ of\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ polite\\ response\\ to\\ Banneker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ August\\ 1791\\ letter\\,\\ Jefferson\\ expressed\\ his\\ ambivalent\\ feelings\\ about\\ slavery\\ and\\ assured\\ the\\ surveyor\\ that\\ \\"\\;no\\ body\\ wishes\\ more\\ ardently\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ good\\ system\\ commenced\\ for\\ raising\\ the\\ condition\\"\\;\\ of\\ blacks\\ \\"\\;to\\ what\\ it\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\.\\"\\;\\ Jefferson\\ also\\ indicated\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ sent\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ Banneker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ work\\ to\\ the\\ Marquis\\ de\\ Condorcet\\ \\(1743\\-1794\\)\\,\\ secretary\\ of\\ the\\ Royal\\ Academy\\ of\\ Science\\ and\\ a\\ strong\\ advocate\\ of\\ racial\\ equality\\,\\ for\\ the\\ marquis\\&\\#39\\;s\\ use\\ in\\ disposing\\ of\\ other\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ doubts\\ about\\ black\\ inferiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\:\\ Letter\\ to\\ Joel\\ Barlow\\ \\(1809\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\torgers\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\discusses\\ an\\ exchange\\ between\\ Bishop\\ Gregoire\\ and\\ Joel\\ Barlow\\;\\ tells\\ Barlowe\\ that\\ he\\ believes\\ the\\ bishop\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ man\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ imagination\\ enough\\ to\\ declaim\\ eloquently\\,\\ but\\ without\\ judgment\\ to\\ decide\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gregoire\\ wrote\\ to\\ Jefferson\\ years\\ before\\,\\ expressing\\ his\\ doubts\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Notes\\ of\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ also\\ sent\\ Jefferson\\ his\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ literature\\ of\\ negroes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ claims\\ that\\ Gregoire\\&rsquo\\;s\\ naivet\\é\\;\\ made\\ him\\ gather\\ every\\ story\\ on\\ men\\ of\\ color\\,\\ however\\ slight\\ the\\ color\\ was\\ \\(so\\ not\\ necessarily\\ black\\ men\\)\\;\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ amount\\ to\\ what\\ they\\ know\\ about\\ Banneker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Banneker\\ had\\ spherical\\ trigonometry\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ almanacs\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ Ellicot\\ \\(his\\ neighbor\\ and\\ friend\\)\\ helped\\ him\\ out\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\ \\ \\;that\\ he\\ wrote\\ to\\ Gregoire\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;very\\ soft\\ answer\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ his\\ critique\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Notes\\ on\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ the\\ opinions\\ he\\ expressed\\ about\\ blacks\\ were\\ never\\ fixed\\,\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ expressing\\ doubt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ believes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;St\\.\\ Domingo\\,\\ will\\,\\ in\\ time\\,\\ throw\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ question\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Years\\ later\\,\\ however\\,\\ Jefferson\\ reneged\\ on\\ his\\ favorable\\ comments\\ to\\ Banneker\\ about\\ blacks\\ in\\ letters\\ to\\ Henri\\ Gregoire\\ \\(1750\\-1831\\)\\ and\\ Joel\\ Barlow\\ \\(1754\\-1812\\)\\ in\\ 1809\\.\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Talents\\ is\\ no\\ measure\\ of\\ their\\ rights\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ indicated\\ that\\ Banneker\\ may\\ have\\ had\\ help\\ in\\ his\\ calculations\\,\\ and\\,\\ in\\ an\\ 1809\\ letter\\ to\\ Joel\\ Barlow\\,\\ stated\\ that\\ Banneker\\ had\\ \\"\\;a\\ mind\\ of\\ very\\ common\\ stature\\ indeed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ this\\ letter\\,\\ Jefferson\\ explains\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ his\\ statements\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Notes\\ on\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Virginia\\,\\ on\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\,\\ differentiating\\ between\\ demonstrable\\ talent\\ and\\ rights\\:\\ \\"\\;be\\ assured\\ that\\ no\\ person\\ living\\ wishes\\ more\\ sincerely\\ than\\ I\\ do\\,\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ complete\\ refutation\\ of\\ the\\ doubts\\ I\\ have\\ myself\\ entertained\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ my\\ doubts\\ were\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ personal\\ observation\\ on\\ the\\ limited\\ sphere\\ of\\ my\\ own\\ State\\,\\ where\\ the\\ opportunities\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ their\\ genius\\ were\\ not\\ favorable\\,\\ and\\ those\\ of\\ exercising\\ it\\ still\\ less\\ so\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ but\\ whatever\\ be\\ their\\ degree\\ of\\ talent\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ measure\\ of\\ their\\ rights\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Phillis\\ Wheatley\\:\\ Preface\\ and\\ Verification\\ Materials\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;To\\ the\\ Public\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\torgers\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*These\\ are\\ both\\ just\\ paragraphs\\ that\\ are\\ testimonials\\ that\\ Phillis\\ Wheatly\\ did\\ in\\ fact\\ write\\ the\\ poems\\ in\\ her\\ published\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ speak\\ to\\ the\\ disbelief\\ that\\ a\\ black\\ person\\ \\(and\\ woman\\ for\\ that\\ matter\\)\\ could\\ produce\\ intellectually\\ driven\\ material\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ they\\ are\\ so\\ short\\ I\\ am\\ just\\ going\\ to\\ provide\\ each\\ paragraph\\ here\\ for\\ you\\ guys\\ to\\ read\\ if\\ you\\ feel\\ so\\ inclined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;The\\ following\\ poems\\ were\\ written\\ originally\\ for\\ the\\ Amusement\\ of\\ the\\ Author\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ Products\\ of\\ her\\ leisure\\ Moments\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ had\\ no\\ Intention\\ ever\\ to\\ have\\ published\\ them\\;\\ nor\\ would\\ they\\ now\\ have\\ made\\ their\\ Appearance\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ Importunity\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ her\\ best\\,\\ most\\ generous\\ Friends\\;\\ to\\ whom\\ she\\ considers\\ herself\\,\\ as\\ under\\ the\\ greatest\\ Obligations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ her\\ Attempts\\ in\\ Poetry\\ are\\ now\\ sent\\ into\\ the\\ World\\,\\ it\\ is\\ hoped\\ the\\ Critic\\ will\\ not\\ severely\\ censure\\ their\\ Defects\\;\\ and\\ we\\ presume\\ they\\ have\\ too\\ much\\ Merit\\ to\\ be\\ cast\\ aside\\ with\\ Contempt\\,\\ as\\ worthless\\ and\\ trifling\\ Effusions\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;To\\ the\\ Public\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;As\\ it\\ is\\ been\\ repeatedly\\ suggested\\ to\\ the\\ Publisher\\,\\ by\\ Persons\\,\\ who\\ have\\ seen\\ the\\ Manuscript\\,\\ that\\ Numbers\\ would\\ be\\ ready\\ to\\ suspect\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ really\\ the\\ Writings\\ of\\ Phillis\\,\\ he\\ has\\ procured\\ the\\ following\\ Attestation\\,\\ from\\ the\\ most\\ respectable\\ Characters\\ in\\ Boston\\,\\ that\\ none\\ might\\ have\\ the\\ least\\ Ground\\ for\\ disputing\\ their\\ Original\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ those\\ Names\\ are\\ under\\-written\\,\\ do\\ assure\\ the\\ World\\,\\ that\\ the\\ poems\\ specified\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ Page\\,\\ \\*\\ were\\ \\(as\\ we\\ verily\\ believe\\)\\ written\\ by\\ Phillis\\,\\ a\\ young\\ Negro\\ Girl\\,\\ who\\ was\\ but\\ a\\ few\\ Years\\ since\\,\\ brought\\ an\\ uncultivated\\ Barbarian\\ from\\ Africa\\,\\ ad\\ has\\ ever\\ since\\ been\\,\\ and\\ now\\ is\\,\\ under\\ the\\ Disadvantage\\ of\\ serving\\ as\\ a\\ Slave\\ in\\ a\\ Family\\ in\\ this\\ Town\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ been\\ examined\\ by\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ Judges\\,\\ and\\ is\\ thought\\ qualified\\ to\\ write\\ them\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ many\\ white\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ found\\ it\\ hard\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ a\\ black\\ woman\\ could\\ be\\ so\\ intelligent\\ as\\ to\\ write\\ poetry\\,\\ in\\ 1772\\ Wheatley\\ had\\ to\\ defend\\ her\\ literary\\ ability\\ in\\ court\\.\\ She\\ was\\ examined\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ Boston\\ luminaries\\ including\\ John\\ Erving\\,\\ Reverend\\ Charles\\ Chauncey\\,\\ John\\ Hancock\\,\\ Thomas\\ Hutchinson\\,\\ the\\ governor\\ of\\ Massachusetts\\,\\ and\\ his\\ Lieutenant\\ Governor\\ Andrew\\ Oliver\\.\\ They\\ concluded\\ that\\ she\\ had\\ in\\ fact\\ written\\ the\\ poems\\ ascribed\\ to\\ her\\ and\\ signed\\ an\\ attestation\\ which\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ preface\\ to\\ her\\ book\\ Poems\\ on\\ Various\\ Subjects\\,\\ Religious\\ and\\ Moral\\ published\\ in\\ Aldgate\\,\\ London\\ in\\ 1773\\.\\ The\\ book\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ London\\ because\\ publishers\\ in\\ Boston\\ had\\ refused\\ to\\ publish\\ the\\ text\\.\\ Wheatley\\ and\\ her\\ master\\&\\#39\\;s\\ son\\,\\ Nathanial\\ Wheatley\\,\\ went\\ to\\ London\\,\\ where\\ Selina\\,\\ Countess\\ of\\ Huntingdon\\ and\\ the\\ Earl\\ of\\ Dartmouth\\ helped\\ with\\ the\\ publication\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ McCune\\ Smith\\:\\ On\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 14th\\ Query\\ on\\ Notes\\ of\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Virginia\\,\\ Anglo\\ African\\ Magazine\\ \\(August\\ 1859\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\wblount\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Initial\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Can\\ the\\ black\\ and\\ the\\ white\\ live\\ together\\ in\\ harmony\\ under\\ American\\ institutions\\,\\ each\\ contributing\\ to\\ the\\ peace\\ and\\ prosperity\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ self\\-gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ involved\\ in\\ American\\ institutions\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ institutions\\ or\\ the\\ human\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-institutional\\ factors\\:\\ ultimately\\,\\ he\\ concludes\\ that\\ these\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ answer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)irrelevant\\ if\\ the\\ country\\ functions\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)In\\ Maine\\,\\ Mass\\.\\,\\ and\\ RI\\,\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ live\\ together\\ in\\ harmony\\ due\\ to\\ laws\\ that\\ designate\\ all\\ men\\ as\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\ In\\ S\\.C\\.\\,\\ Miss\\.\\,\\ and\\ GA\\,\\ black\\ and\\ whites\\ live\\ in\\ harmony\\ as\\ well\\,\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ subjugation\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;Slavery\\ causes\\ these\\ areas\\ to\\ suffer\\ from\\ poor\\ civil\\/religious\\ liberties\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ limited\\ prosperity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ take\\ on\\ the\\ debate\\;\\ hatred\\ between\\ the\\ races\\ renders\\ them\\ incapable\\ of\\ living\\ together\\ in\\ harmony\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ physical\\ and\\ mental\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ races\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Smith\\ analyzes\\ the\\ potential\\ physical\\ differences\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\osteological\\(bone\\)\\/muscle\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ questioned\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ research\\ that\\ sought\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ blacks\\ had\\ cranial\\ measurements\\ closer\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ animals\\ than\\ to\\ whites\\;\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ research\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ systematic\\,\\ biologically\\-based\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ races\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hair\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-research\\ shows\\ that\\ black\\ hair\\ is\\ actually\\ hair\\ and\\ not\\ wool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-black\\ hair\\ can\\ be\\ straightened\\ using\\ certain\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-black\\ hair\\ is\\ becoming\\ more\\ like\\ white\\ hair\\ now\\ that\\ blacks\\ have\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ continent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-the\\ hair\\ of\\ all\\ people\\ that\\ live\\ in\\ America\\ will\\ eventually\\ become\\ less\\ dissimilar\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ all\\ be\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ climate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\ skin\\ color\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-cites\\ sources\\ who\\ have\\ said\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ attractive\\ black\\ people\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ nothing\\ essentially\\ hideous\\ or\\ distinctly\\ deformed\\ in\\ a\\ black\\ complexion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(p\\.\\ 68\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-T\\.\\ Jefferson\\ had\\ a\\ black\\ grand\\-daughter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-3\\ Basic\\ skin\\ color\\ types\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;white\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ Leucos\\)\\ has\\ been\\ called\\ the\\ color\\ of\\ defect\\(e\\.g\\.\\ white\\ hair\\ from\\ old\\ age\\,\\ albino\\)\\;\\ very\\ small\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;yellow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ Xanthous\\)\\:\\ most\\ white\\ people\\ fit\\ in\\ this\\ category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;black\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ Melanic\\)\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-non\\-Africans\\/non\\-negroes\\ descendants\\ can\\ have\\ Melanic\\ skin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;The\\ black\\ complexion\\ of\\ the\\ negro\\ race\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ distinctive\\ mark\\ separating\\ them\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ mankind\\,\\ but\\ is\\,\\ on\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ combined\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ hot\\ climate\\ and\\ low\\,\\ marshy\\ soil\\,\\ on\\ which\\ they\\ or\\ their\\ ancestor\\ resided\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Since\\ blacks\\ can\\ get\\ lighter\\ and\\ whites\\ can\\ get\\ darker\\,\\ skin\\ color\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ factor\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ races\\ into\\ different\\ species\\ \\(p\\.\\ 73\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ \\&ldquo\\;original\\&rdquo\\;\\ skin\\ tone\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;Melanic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Concluding\\ Thoughts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\)\\ The\\ physical\\ distinctions\\ of\\ blacks\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bar\\ them\\ from\\ being\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\compared\\ the\\ anatomy\\ of\\ whites\\ and\\ blacks\\.\\ \\ \\;Regarded\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ scholarly\\ African\\ American\\ of\\ his\\ time\\,\\ Smith\\&\\#39\\;s\\ writings\\ suggest\\ his\\ wide\\-ranging\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\David\\ Walker\\:\\ Article\\ I\\ from\\ his\\ Appeal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\jwong\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ piece\\,\\ David\\ Walker\\ appeals\\ to\\ noting\\ the\\ following\\ things\\,\\ proving\\ with\\ each\\ examplee\\ the\\ poor\\ situation\\ of\\ blacks\\,\\ often\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ Jews\\ \\(Israelites\\)\\ in\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ Christianity\\,\\ and\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ whites\\ have\\ degraded\\ blacks\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;wretched\\ state\\ of\\ slavery\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ trat\\ them\\ worse\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ nation\\ that\\ has\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ mentions\\ Jews\\ in\\ Egypt\\,\\ but\\ draws\\ a\\ parallel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Laws\\ prohibit\\ blacks\\ from\\ marrying\\ whites\\,\\ and\\ Walker\\ mentions\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ not\\ even\\ want\\ to\\ marry\\ white\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Who\\ will\\ leave\\ his\\ own\\ color\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ marry\\ a\\ white\\ woman\\,\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ double\\ slave\\ to\\ her\\ just\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ white\\,\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ tereated\\ by\\ her\\ as\\ he\\ surely\\ will\\ be\\,\\ as\\ a\\ niger\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ right\\ to\\ own\\ land\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Can\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ color\\ buy\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ keep\\ it\\ peaceably\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;he\\ notes\\ many\\ a\\ case\\ in\\ which\\ blacks\\ save\\ up\\ all\\ their\\ money\\ to\\ buy\\ land\\,\\ and\\ then\\ are\\ cheated\\ out\\ of\\ it\\ by\\ the\\ white\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ united\\ as\\ a\\ group\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ trust\\ each\\ other\\,\\ or\\ else\\ this\\ will\\ perpetuate\\ their\\ miseries\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ angry\\ that\\ whites\\,\\ the\\ enemy\\,\\ has\\ long\\ kept\\ blacks\\ subjugated\\ and\\ argued\\ that\\ blacks\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ white\\,\\ and\\ that\\ God\\ made\\ an\\ unfortunate\\ creature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Instead\\,\\ Walker\\ says\\ that\\ their\\ color\\ was\\ created\\ on\\ purpose\\,\\ and\\ is\\ integral\\ to\\ who\\ they\\ are\\,\\ and\\ displays\\ anger\\ at\\ whites\\ for\\ arguing\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;unfortunate\\&rdquo\\;\\ color\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ stay\\ in\\ subjugation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cites\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ Turks\\,\\ who\\ treat\\ Greeks\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ like\\ brutes\\ than\\ human\\ beings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ the\\ same\\ page\\,\\ a\\ newspaper\\ advertisement\\ for\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ slaves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;points\\ to\\ the\\ hypocrisy\\ of\\ this\\ injustice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ whites\\ have\\ been\\ unjust\\ and\\ have\\ dehumanized\\ the\\ blacks\\.\\ Walker\\ asks\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ my\\ brethren\\,\\ are\\ we\\ MEN\\?\\ Did\\ our\\ creator\\ make\\ us\\ to\\ be\\ slaves\\ to\\ dust\\ and\\ ashes\\ like\\ ourselves\\?\\ Are\\ they\\ not\\ dying\\ worms\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ we\\?\\ What\\ right\\ then\\,\\ have\\ we\\ to\\ obey\\ and\\ call\\ any\\ other\\ master\\,\\ but\\ Himself\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basically\\,\\ Walker\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ America\\ is\\ unjust\\,\\ and\\ unchristian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ the\\ end\\,\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ quite\\ call\\ men\\ to\\ action\\ aggressively\\,\\ but\\ prays\\ that\\ God\\ bring\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walker\\ published\\ a\\ seventy\\-six\\ page\\ pamphlet\\ entitled\\ Walker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Appeal\\,\\ in\\ Four\\ Articles\\;\\ Together\\ with\\ a\\ Preamble\\,\\ to\\ the\\ Coloured\\ Citizens\\ of\\ the\\ World\\,\\ but\\ in\\ Particular\\,\\ and\\ Very\\ Expressly\\,\\ to\\ Those\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ of\\ America\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Appeal\\,\\ Walker\\ argued\\ that\\ African\\ Americans\\ suffered\\ more\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ identified\\ four\\ causes\\ for\\ their\\ \\"\\;wretchedness\\:\\"\\;\\ slavery\\,\\ a\\ submissive\\ and\\ cringing\\ attitude\\ towards\\ whites\\ \\(even\\ amongst\\ free\\ blacks\\)\\,\\ indifference\\ by\\ Christian\\ ministers\\,\\ and\\ false\\ help\\ by\\ groups\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ American\\ Colonization\\ Society\\,\\ which\\ promised\\ freedom\\ from\\ slavery\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ condition\\ that\\ freed\\ blacks\\ would\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ leave\\ America\\ for\\ colonies\\ in\\ West\\ Africa\\ \\(Mayer\\ 83\\)\\.\\ The\\ pamphlet\\ called\\ for\\ immediate\\,\\ universal\\,\\ and\\ unconditional\\ emancipation\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ an\\ uncommon\\ position\\,\\ even\\ amongst\\ antislavery\\ activists\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1820s\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ and\\ in\\ particular\\ condemned\\ colonization\\ plans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ralph\\ Waldo\\ Emerson\\:\\ Address\\ Delivered\\ in\\ Concord\\ on\\ the\\ Anniversary\\ of\\ the\\ Emancipation\\ of\\ the\\ Negroes\\,\\ in\\ the\\ British\\ West\\ Indies\\ \\(August\\ 1\\,\\ 1844\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\jwwhite\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-said\\ that\\ this\\ anniversary\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ day\\ for\\ humankind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ subject\\ \\[referring\\ to\\ liberty\\]\\ is\\ \\ \\;said\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ making\\ dull\\ men\\ eloquent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Page\\ 95\\ of\\ sourcebook\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ words\\ of\\ freedom\\ must\\ be\\ heard\\ by\\ everyone\\,\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ spokesman\\ of\\ freedom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-it\\ is\\ cheaper\\ to\\ pay\\ wages\\ than\\ to\\ own\\ the\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-history\\ of\\ mankind\\ shows\\ that\\ one\\ race\\ was\\ victim\\ and\\ served\\ other\\ races\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-negro\\ captives\\ appear\\ in\\ paintings\\ in\\ oldest\\ Egyptian\\ temples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ blood\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ representing\\ the\\ punishments\\,\\ is\\ anti\\-slavery\\ in\\ its\\ presence\\;\\ those\\ who\\ see\\ it\\ realize\\ how\\ horrible\\ it\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Quakers\\ took\\ abolitionary\\ measures\\ in\\ London\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1700s\\,\\ they\\ were\\ from\\ both\\ America\\ and\\ Britain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ 1790s\\,\\ bills\\ to\\ abolish\\ slave\\ trade\\ were\\ constantly\\ rejected\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ king\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ royal\\ family\\ members\\ except\\ 1\\ were\\ against\\ the\\ bills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-horrific\\ facts\\ became\\ known\\ to\\ the\\ land\\ eventually\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\slave\\ trade\\ abolished\\ from\\ boycott\\ \\(of\\ island\\ produce\\)\\ pressure\\ in\\ 1807\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ people\\ of\\ Britain\\ had\\ a\\ conscience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\despite\\ the\\ law\\,\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ continued\\ illegally\\,\\ 200\\,000\\ from\\ Africa\\.\\ Boats\\ made\\ more\\ swift\\,\\ less\\ comfort\\ for\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lord\\ Stanley\\,\\ Minister\\ of\\ the\\ Colonies\\,\\ proposed\\ his\\ bill\\ for\\ emancipation\\ on\\ May\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1833\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-gave\\ slaves\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ apprenticed\\ laborers\\.\\ \\ \\;Laborers\\ get\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ profit\\ for\\ 10\\ years\\ and\\ then\\ servants\\ are\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-went\\ into\\ effect\\ august\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1834\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Antigua\\ had\\ so\\ many\\ slaves\\ that\\ they\\ rejected\\ apprenticeship\\ and\\ went\\ straight\\ to\\ emancipation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-negroes\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\ with\\ joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ August\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1838\\,\\ the\\ shackles\\ had\\ dropped\\ from\\ every\\ British\\ slave\\ \\ \\;because\\ the\\ islands\\ had\\ resolved\\ to\\ drop\\ apprenticeships\\ early\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\:\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ thanks\\,\\ where\\ equality\\ reigned\\ supreme\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ disqualifications\\ and\\ distinctions\\ of\\ color\\ have\\ ceased\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-erection\\ of\\ numerous\\ churches\\ and\\ schools\\ to\\ accommodate\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ population\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-he\\ believed\\ that\\ England\\ was\\ the\\ strongest\\ nation\\,\\ and\\ that\\ 8\\/1\\/1838\\ was\\ a\\ historical\\ signal\\ of\\ civilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-at\\ first\\,\\ British\\ saw\\ profit\\ in\\ exploiting\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ to\\ raise\\ crops\\ for\\ no\\ wages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-but\\ the\\ moral\\ intellect\\ of\\ man\\ interfered\\ with\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-slavery\\ causes\\ everything\\ to\\ decay\\;\\ provided\\ no\\ opportunity\\ for\\ advancement\\ for\\ blacks\\ in\\ any\\ area\\ of\\ life\\\\-in\\ America\\ \\(specifically\\ Mass\\.\\)\\,\\ they\\ make\\ laws\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ execute\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ fourth\\ article\\ of\\ the\\ constitution\\,\\ which\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ citizens\\ of\\ each\\ state\\ shall\\ be\\ entitled\\ to\\ all\\ privileges\\ and\\ immunities\\ of\\ citizens\\ in\\ the\\ several\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-northern\\ state\\ representatives\\ subordinate\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ southern\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\back\\ to\\ British\\ Emancipation\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-calls\\ it\\ a\\ moral\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ were\\ not\\ working\\ under\\ a\\ leader\\,\\ but\\ working\\ under\\ a\\ sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ repentance\\ of\\ the\\ tyrant\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\back\\ to\\ situation\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ America\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Emerson\\ is\\ against\\ politicians\\ in\\ America\\,\\ believes\\ political\\ association\\ has\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;deleterious\\ effect\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ robbing\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ his\\ power\\ in\\ rhetoric\\ and\\ opinion\\,\\ etc\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-seats\\ of\\ power\\ filled\\ by\\ the\\ ignorant\\ and\\ selfish\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-august\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;marks\\ the\\ civilization\\ of\\ the\\ negro\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-believes\\ not\\ in\\ blacks\\ reaching\\ equality\\ through\\ the\\ pity\\ of\\ whites\\,\\ but\\ by\\ through\\ power\\ within\\ themselves\\ as\\ a\\ community\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-compares\\ it\\ to\\ a\\ lion\\.\\ \\ \\;Lions\\ prevailed\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ teeth\\ and\\ claws\\,\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ help\\ from\\ some\\ other\\ species\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-blacks\\ would\\ advance\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ white\\ compassion\\ but\\ because\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-black\\ man\\ must\\ carry\\ in\\ himself\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;indispensable\\ element\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ and\\ coming\\ civilization\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-will\\ protect\\ him\\ from\\ hate\\ and\\ possible\\ unfavorable\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-similar\\ to\\ Booker\\ T\\,\\ because\\ says\\ that\\ blacks\\ must\\ help\\ themselves\\ and\\ that\\ other\\ help\\ is\\ worthless\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-his\\ final\\ note\\ on\\ British\\ Emancipation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-event\\ showed\\ that\\ blacks\\ can\\ contend\\ with\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-undisputable\\ progress\\ in\\ human\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ genius\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ race\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ slavery\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;voice\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ pronounces\\ Freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\,\\ Emerson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ powerful\\ attack\\ on\\ slavery\\,\\ was\\ delivered\\ at\\ the\\ request\\ of\\ radical\\ abolitionist\\ Mary\\ Merrick\\ Brooks\\,\\ wife\\ of\\ Concord\\ lawyer\\ Nathan\\ Brooks\\.\\ \\ \\;Following\\ initial\\ delivery\\ of\\ the\\ address\\,\\ Emerson\\&mdash\\;now\\ a\\ recognized\\ antislavery\\ advocate\\&mdash\\;was\\ asked\\ several\\ times\\ to\\ reread\\ it\\ at\\ abolition\\ gatherings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\:\\ The\\ Claims\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ Ethnologically\\ Considered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\jllee\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ breaks\\ down\\ the\\ argument\\ of\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ slavery\\.\\ All\\ people\\ can\\ get\\ wisdom\\,\\ truth\\,\\ fidelity\\,\\ industry\\,\\ peace\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ neutral\\ in\\ black\\-white\\ debate\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ either\\ or\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negro\\ manhood\\ is\\ a\\ heavy\\ topic\\,\\ but\\ technically\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ because\\ the\\ negro\\ has\\ no\\ rights\\ because\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ man\\.\\ What\\ is\\ man\\?\\ Man\\ has\\ physical\\ differences\\ from\\ animals\\,\\ common\\ sense\\,\\ speech\\ and\\ reason\\,\\ power\\ to\\ get\\ knowledge\\,\\ virtues\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Also\\,\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ improve\\ his\\ situation\\ by\\ fixing\\ problems\\.\\ Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ negro\\ fit\\ this\\ criteria\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Science\\ divides\\ men\\ from\\ each\\ other\\ by\\ analyzing\\/captilizing\\/emphasizing\\ differences\\ between\\ peoples\\.\\ Bible\\ preaches\\ human\\ unity\\.\\ Slavery\\ is\\ worthless\\ if\\ the\\ African\\ and\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ are\\ equal\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ whites\\ use\\ theories\\ to\\ draw\\ conclusions\\ that\\ Blacks\\ should\\ be\\ slaves\\.\\ They\\ emphasize\\ that\\ negros\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ intelligent\\ African\\ people\\.\\ Their\\ reasoning\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ prejudice\\,\\ not\\ fact\\.\\ Whites\\ deny\\ Negro\\-Egyptian\\ relationship\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ hair\\,\\ nose\\,\\ skin\\,\\ features\\,\\ etc\\.\\ also\\,\\ they\\ exaggerate\\ differences\\ by\\ putting\\ high\\ class\\ Europeans\\ vs\\.\\ low\\ class\\ negroes\\.\\ Douglass\\ argues\\ African\\ people\\ are\\ one\\ people\\,\\ and\\ world\\ environment\\ explains\\ the\\ different\\ complexions\\ of\\ different\\ people\\.\\ Essential\\ characteristics\\ of\\ humanity\\ are\\ the\\ same\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ against\\ colonization\\ because\\ the\\ negro\\ has\\ adapted\\ well\\ and\\ toiled\\ and\\ fought\\ hard\\ here\\ in\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Concludes\\ that\\ when\\ \\"\\;pure\\"\\;\\ science\\ is\\ applied\\ to\\ notions\\ of\\ \\"\\;pure\\"\\;\\ race\\ the\\ results\\ are\\ usually\\ fictions\\ for\\ future\\ generations\\ to\\ refute\\,\\ ignore\\,\\ or\\ be\\ oppressed\\.\\ Douglass\\ speech\\ suggests\\ that\\ academe\\ has\\ generally\\ reflected\\ the\\ same\\ biases\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ tendencies\\,\\ as\\ the\\ larger\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 12\\.\\ Cultural\\ Retentions\\:\\ American\\ or\\ African\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Melville\\ J\\.\\ Herskovits\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Significance\\ of\\ Africanisms\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Myth\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ Past\\ \\(1941\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dsengeh\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Herskovits\\ believes\\ that\\ what\\ allows\\ for\\ social\\ discrimination\\ today\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;myths\\&rsquo\\;\\ which\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ question\\ within\\ society\\.\\ A\\ list\\ of\\ those\\ myths\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Negroes\\ are\\ naturally\\ of\\ a\\ childlike\\ character\\,\\ and\\ adjust\\ easily\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ unsatisfactory\\ social\\ situations\\,\\ which\\ they\\ accept\\ readily\\ and\\ even\\ happily\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ Indians\\,\\ who\\ preferred\\ extinction\\ to\\ slavery\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ the\\ poorer\\ stock\\ of\\ Africa\\ was\\ enslave\\,\\ the\\ more\\ intelligent\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ communities\\ raided\\ having\\ been\\ clever\\ enough\\ to\\ elude\\ the\\ slavers\\&rsquo\\;\\ nets\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ Negroes\\ were\\ brought\\ from\\ all\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ continent\\,\\ spoke\\ diverse\\ languages\\,\\ represented\\ greatly\\ differing\\ bodies\\ of\\ custom\\,\\ and\\,\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ policy\\,\\ were\\ distributed\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ lose\\ tribal\\ identity\\,\\ no\\ least\\ common\\ denominator\\ of\\ understanding\\ or\\ behavior\\ could\\ have\\ possibly\\ been\\ worked\\ out\\ of\\ them\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ granting\\ enough\\ Negroes\\ of\\ a\\ given\\ tribe\\ had\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ live\\ together\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ will\\ and\\ ability\\ to\\ continue\\ their\\ customary\\ modes\\ of\\ behavior\\,\\ the\\ cultures\\ of\\ Africa\\ were\\ so\\ savage\\ and\\ relatively\\ so\\ low\\ in\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ human\\ civilization\\ that\\ the\\ apparent\\ superiority\\ of\\ European\\ customs\\ and\\ actually\\ did\\ cause\\ them\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ such\\ aboriginal\\ traditions\\ as\\ they\\ may\\ otherwise\\ have\\ desired\\ to\\ preserve\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Negro\\ is\\ thus\\ a\\ man\\ without\\ a\\ past\\.\\ \\`\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reasons\\ to\\ question\\ various\\ arguments\\ for\\ the\\ above\\ debates\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\most\\ writers\\ have\\ all\\ not\\ lived\\ in\\ Africa\\ to\\ compare\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ Negroes\\ here\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ References\\ are\\ never\\ made\\ to\\ such\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ Writers\\ completely\\ strip\\ of\\ Negroes\\ brought\\ on\\ slave\\ ships\\ of\\ its\\ entire\\ social\\ heritage\\ like\\ never\\ before\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ gods\\ destroyed\\ by\\ whites\\,\\ new\\ language\\,\\ no\\ bonds\\ of\\ affection\\ between\\ blood\\ related\\ family\\ members\\ \\(see\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\)\\-\\ nothing\\ left\\ from\\ Africa\\ within\\ the\\ Negro\\ here\\.\\(E\\.B\\ Reuter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Broken\\ cultural\\ heritage\\ \\(Negro\\ came\\ unprepared\\,\\ everything\\ in\\ America\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ imbibed\\ first\\)\\ argued\\ by\\ Charles\\ S\\.\\ Johnson\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Herskovits\\ will\\ use\\ research\\ from\\ negroes\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ world\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ Nigeria\\,\\ the\\ gold\\ coast\\ \\(Ghana\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ also\\ variations\\ within\\ Africa\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ variations\\ in\\ negro\\ characteristics\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ question\\ he\\ is\\ answering\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;SINCE\\ AFRICAN\\ CULTURE\\ HAS\\ GIVEN\\ WAY\\ BEFORE\\ EUROPEAN\\ CONTACT\\,\\ TO\\ WHAT\\ EXTENT\\ DOES\\ THE\\ RESULTING\\ ADJUSTMENT\\ INDICATE\\ INHERENT\\ APTITUDES\\ FOR\\ SPECIFIC\\ FORMS\\ OF\\ TRADITION\\,\\ AND\\ WHAT\\ LIGHT\\ CAN\\ RESEARCH\\ THROW\\ ON\\ THE\\ INNATE\\ ABILITY\\ OF\\ NEGROES\\ TO\\ HANDLE\\ EUROPEAN\\ CIVILIZATION\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(You\\ all\\ should\\ think\\ about\\ this\\ question\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Brazil\\-\\ Bush\\ Negroes\\ of\\ Suriname\\,\\ Negroes\\ on\\ the\\ Coastal\\ plains\\ of\\ Brazil\\,\\ peasants\\ of\\ Haiti\\ \\(in\\ decreasing\\ order\\ of\\ exhibiting\\ strong\\ civilization\\ which\\ is\\ mostly\\ African\\)\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ Islands\\ of\\ British\\,\\ Dutch\\&hellip\\;show\\ less\\ relations\\ to\\ Africa\\ \\(contact\\ with\\ EU\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\USA\\-\\ Savannahs\\ of\\ Southern\\ Georgia\\,\\ Gullah\\ islands\\ off\\ the\\ Carolina\\ coast\\ show\\ lots\\ of\\ African\\ elements\\ in\\ their\\ culture\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ Negroes\\ in\\ cities\\ that\\ have\\ no\\ link\\ to\\ Africa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ essay\\ gives\\ various\\ arguments\\ that\\ push\\ African\\ Americans\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ terrible\\ Africans\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Herskovits\\ concludes\\ his\\ essay\\ by\\ reiterating\\ the\\ way\\ Afro\\ Americans\\ see\\ Africa\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;badge\\ of\\ shame\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mark\\ of\\ slavery\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ wiped\\ out\\.\\ However\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ prevents\\ the\\ Negro\\ from\\ moving\\ forward\\ today\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ One\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ proud\\ of\\ their\\ history\\,\\ their\\ culture\\-like\\ the\\ whites\\ are\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Teutons\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\argued\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ important\\ survivals\\ of\\ African\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ elsewhere\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\,\\ which\\ had\\ persisted\\ through\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Africanisms\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Herskovits1936\\)\\ \\&mdash\\;traits\\ or\\ evidence\\ that\\ illustrates\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ African\\ practices\\,\\ attributes\\,\\ or\\ features\\&mdash\\;in\\ the\\ Americas\\ had\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ neglected\\ yet\\ controversial\\ area\\ of\\ inquiry\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ pioneering\\ study\\ of\\ Herskovits\\,\\ The\\ Myth\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ Past\\ \\(1941\\)\\ focus\\ increased\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Africanisms\\ retained\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ Suriname\\,\\ and\\ Brazil\\,\\ where\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ living\\ African\\ culture\\ is\\ still\\ apparent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Franklin\\ Frazier\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ethnic\\ Family\\ Patterns\\:\\ The\\ Negro\\ Family\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ American\\ Journal\\ of\\ Sociology\\ \\(May\\,\\ 1948\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dsengeh\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.\\ F\\.\\ Frazier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ argues\\ that\\ African\\ culture\\ is\\ nothing\\ more\\ than\\ history\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ Black\\ Americans\\ mainly\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ African\\ family\\ was\\ broken\\ and\\ the\\ consequent\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ structure\\ formed\\ within\\ and\\ after\\ slavery\\ up\\ to\\ mid\\ last\\ century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slaves\\ broken\\ and\\ separated\\ from\\ their\\ families\\ before\\ shipment\\ to\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Then\\ dispersed\\ across\\ different\\ farms\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ other\\ people\\ from\\ different\\ parts\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;memories\\ of\\ the\\ homeland\\ was\\ effaced\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Different\\ marriage\\ tradition\\,\\ developing\\ family\\ was\\ shaped\\ by\\ the\\ slave\\ system\\ \\(when\\ and\\ when\\ not\\ to\\ mate\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Change\\ of\\ roles\\ \\(father\\ has\\ less\\ authority\\ over\\ family\\ because\\ he\\ had\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ power\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Then\\ family\\ units\\ assimilated\\ into\\ white\\ culture\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ prosper\\ \\(rapid\\ change\\ seen\\ in\\ servants\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ close\\ proximity\\ to\\ white\\ masters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ issue\\ of\\ mixed\\ blood\\ also\\ ensured\\ changed\\ expectations\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ unit\\ from\\ that\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ \\&ldquo\\;CIVIL\\ WAR\\,\\ EMANCIPATION\\,\\ AND\\ RECONSTRUCTION\\&rdquo\\;\\ destroyed\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;customary\\ forms\\ or\\ family\\ relations\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ metamorphosed\\ during\\ slavery\\.\\ Father\\ more\\ powerful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Interracial\\ marriage\\ and\\ too\\ many\\ single\\ mothers\\ also\\ changed\\ family\\ structure\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Northward\\ migration\\ and\\ world\\ wars\\ also\\ affected\\ families\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;NEW\\ SOCIAL\\ AND\\ ECONOMIC\\ ENVIRONMENT\\&rdquo\\;\\ crucial\\ factor\\ for\\ change\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ Negro\\ wives\\ as\\ head\\ of\\ families\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ whites\\,\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\ relatives\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ Negroes\\ \\(from\\ this\\ family\\ statistics\\ data\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Social\\ migration\\-\\ families\\ inwards\\ to\\ cities\\ and\\ this\\ greatly\\ changed\\ every\\ structure\\ from\\ the\\ low\\ class\\ to\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\;\\ amount\\ of\\ children\\ born\\,\\ interracial\\ marriage\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ social\\ uplift\\ \\(education\\,\\ more\\ economic\\ powers\\ and\\ participation\\)\\ the\\ Negroes\\ life\\ \\&ldquo\\;conforms\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ Pattern\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ general\\ deviation\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ Black\\ Nationalism\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ isolation\\&rsquo\\;\\ as\\ Frazer\\ calls\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\analysed\\ the\\ cultural\\ and\\ historical\\ forces\\ that\\ influenced\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ family\\ from\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ comprehensive\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ life\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ from\\ slavery\\ to\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\ Frazier\\ insisted\\ that\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ were\\ shaped\\ by\\ social\\ conditions\\,\\ not\\ by\\ race\\.\\ His\\ book\\ set\\ the\\ terms\\ for\\ all\\ future\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ matriarchy\\,\\ despite\\ recent\\ challenges\\ and\\ new\\ approaches\\,\\ dominates\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ black\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;hailed\\ as\\ \\"\\;a\\ highly\\ important\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ intimate\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\"\\;\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ comprehensive\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ life\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ colonial\\-era\\ slavery\\,\\ extending\\ through\\ the\\ years\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ emancipation\\,\\ to\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ and\\ migrations\\ to\\ both\\ southern\\ and\\ northern\\ cities\\ in\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\.\\ Frazier\\ discussed\\ all\\ the\\ themes\\ that\\ have\\ concerned\\ subsequent\\ students\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ family\\,\\ including\\ matriarchy\\ and\\ patriarchy\\,\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ slavery\\ on\\ family\\ solidarity\\ and\\ personal\\ identity\\,\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ long\\-term\\ poverty\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ access\\ to\\ education\\,\\ migration\\ and\\ rootlessness\\,\\ and\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ family\\ and\\ community\\.\\ Frazier\\ insisted\\ that\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ were\\ shaped\\ not\\ by\\ race\\,\\ but\\ by\\ social\\ conditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\John\\ Thornton\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Central\\ African\\ Names\\ and\\ African\\ American\\ Naming\\ Practices\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ William\\ and\\ Mary\\ Quarterly\\ \\(October\\,\\ 1993\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\jwong\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ seeks\\ to\\ explain\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ legacies\\ of\\ Central\\ African\\ naming\\ patterns\\ in\\ African\\ American\\ naming\\ patterns\\.\\ He\\ cites\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Akan\\ custom\\ of\\ giving\\ \\&ldquo\\;day\\ names\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ US\\-\\ name\\ baby\\ after\\ the\\ day\\ on\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ born\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hard\\ to\\ recognize\\ if\\ the\\ name\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ English\\,\\ or\\ if\\ the\\ name\\ has\\ already\\ made\\ it\\ into\\ mainstream\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ article\\ will\\ also\\ explore\\ Angola\\ region\\ naming\\ patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Angolans\\ made\\ up\\ slightly\\ over\\ half\\ African\\ slave\\ exports\\,\\ a\\ quarter\\ of\\ those\\ in\\ North\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ to\\ identify\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ try\\ to\\ identify\\ because\\ many\\ were\\ Christian\\ and\\ were\\ given\\ Christian\\ names\\ in\\ Portuguese\\;\\ they\\ often\\ used\\ baptismal\\ and\\ saint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ to\\ indicate\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ slaves\\ rbought\\ over\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ were\\ not\\ from\\ Angola\\,\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ Christian\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ of\\ these\\ adopted\\ Christian\\ names\\ upon\\ arrival\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ way\\ of\\ knowing\\ which\\ of\\ them\\ had\\ different\\ names\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Researchers\\ also\\ found\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ many\\ Angolans\\ were\\ baptized\\ and\\ given\\ Christian\\ Saints\\&rsquo\\;\\ names\\,\\ they\\ were\\ still\\ called\\ by\\ other\\ names\\ by\\ their\\ peers\\ in\\ African\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Earliest\\ documents\\ refer\\ to\\ elites\\,\\ and\\ elites\\ had\\ double\\ Kikongo\\ names\\ that\\ refer\\ to\\ descent\\ \\(baptismal\\ names\\ were\\ also\\ given\\,\\ but\\ not\\ passed\\ down\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Although\\ sometimes\\ ruling\\ lines\\ adopted\\ Portuguese\\ roots\\ for\\ their\\ names\\ \\(Like\\ Alfonso\\ I\\ kept\\ the\\ name\\ Alfonso\\ in\\ the\\ family\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ slaves\\ were\\ from\\ the\\ nobility\\,\\ but\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ slaves\\ adopted\\ the\\ naming\\ patterns\\ of\\ their\\ social\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ Christian\\ names\\ came\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ lineage\\,\\ but\\ were\\ adopted\\ as\\ straight\\-up\\ piety\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commoner\\ names\\:\\ All\\ bear\\ saint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ with\\ a\\ double\\ form\\,\\ with\\ the\\ surname\\ Dom\\ preceding\\,\\ so\\ an\\ example\\ would\\ be\\ Dom\\ Pedro\\ Garcia\\ \\(Dom\\ is\\ Mister\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christian\\ names\\ were\\ sometimes\\ combined\\ with\\ African\\ names\\,\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ slaves\\ who\\ were\\ smuggled\\ bore\\ only\\ one\\ name\\,\\ some\\ with\\ no\\ Christian\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ name\\ whatsoever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ naming\\ tradition\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ practice\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ as\\ first\\ names\\ being\\ last\\ names\\,\\ like\\ Charles\\,\\ Francois\\,\\ Pierre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Practice\\ of\\ namesaking\\ for\\ grandparents\\ may\\ have\\ its\\ route\\ here\\ \\(15\\%\\ children\\ were\\ named\\ after\\ parents\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 14\\,\\ 21\\ Which\\ Way\\ Freedom\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\David\\ Walker\\:\\ Article\\ II\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;Walker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Appeal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;acmaule\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Walker\\,\\ a\\ free\\ black\\ from\\ Boston\\,\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ militant\\ and\\ radical\\ of\\ the\\ abolitionists\\.\\ In\\ 1829\\,\\ he\\ provoked\\ a\\ storm\\ of\\ controversy\\ by\\ publishing\\ the\\ controversial\\ pamphlet\\ Walker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Appeal\\.to\\ the\\ Colored\\ Citizens\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ urges\\ slaves\\ to\\ arm\\ themselves\\ and\\ revolt\\ against\\ their\\ masters\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;America\\ is\\ more\\ our\\ country\\ than\\ is\\ the\\ whites\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\-\\ we\\ have\\ enriched\\ it\\ with\\ our\\ blood\\ and\\ tears\\.The\\ whites\\ want\\ slaves\\ and\\ want\\ us\\ for\\ their\\ slaves\\,\\ but\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ will\\ curse\\ the\\ day\\ they\\ ever\\ saw\\ us\\&hellip\\;If\\ you\\ \\[start\\ a\\ rebellion\\]\\,\\ make\\ sure\\ work\\ \\-\\ do\\ not\\ \\[go\\ easy\\ on\\ them\\]\\,\\ for\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ \\[go\\ easy\\ on\\]\\ you\\.\\ They\\ want\\ us\\ for\\ their\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ think\\ nothing\\ of\\ murdering\\ us\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ subject\\ us\\ to\\ that\\ wretched\\ condition\\ \\-\\-\\ therefore\\,\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ made\\ by\\ us\\,\\ kill\\ or\\ be\\ killed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\William\\ Lloyd\\ Garrison\\:\\ Editorial\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Walker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Appeal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;acmaule\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ its\\ call\\ for\\ revolts\\ and\\ insurrection\\,David\\ Walker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Appeal\\ was\\ a\\ strong\\ statement\\ against\\ slavery\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ radical\\ abolitionist\\ William\\ Lloyd\\ Garrison\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ issue\\ of\\ his\\ anti\\-slavery\\ newspaper\\,\\ The\\ Liberator\\,\\ Garrison\\ denounced\\ Walker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Appeal\\.\\ \\"\\;Believing\\,\\ as\\ we\\ do\\,\\"\\;\\ Garrison\\ wrote\\,\\ \\"\\;that\\ a\\ good\\ end\\ does\\ not\\ justify\\ wicked\\ means\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\,\\ we\\ deprecate\\ \\[disapprove\\ of\\]\\ the\\ spirit\\ and\\ tendency\\ of\\ this\\ Appeal\\.\\"\\;\\ Garrison\\ did\\,\\ however\\,\\ qualify\\ his\\ denouncement\\.\\ He\\ continued\\,\\ \\"\\;Nevertheless\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ people\\,\\ as\\ a\\ nation\\,\\ to\\ denounce\\ it\\ as\\ bloody\\ or\\ monstrous\\.\\"\\;\\ And\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ slaves\\ or\\ the\\ abolitionists\\ who\\ were\\ responsible\\ for\\ Walker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ call\\ for\\ violence\\,\\ but\\ slaveholders\\ and\\ other\\ slavery\\ proponents\\.\\ \\"\\;Every\\ sentence\\ they\\ write\\ \\-\\-\\ every\\ word\\ they\\ speak\\ \\-\\-\\ every\\ resistance\\ they\\ make\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\,\\"\\;\\ Garrison\\ said\\,\\ \\"\\;is\\ a\\ call\\ upon\\ their\\ slaves\\ to\\ destroy\\ them\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Henry\\ Highland\\ Garnet\\:\\ An\\ Address\\:\\ To\\ the\\ Slaves\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ of\\ America\\ \\(1843\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\acmaule\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\enjoined\\ enslaved\\ persons\\ to\\ rise\\ up\\ against\\ their\\ masters\\ and\\ deliver\\ an\\ irresistible\\ stroke\\ for\\ freedom\\.\\ At\\ first\\ the\\ address\\ was\\ greeted\\ with\\ enthusiasm\\,\\ and\\ the\\ whole\\ convention\\ \\"\\;was\\ literally\\ infused\\ with\\ tears\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Any\\ man\\ that\\ says\\ I\\ am\\ \\[for\\ colonization\\ or\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ Africa\\]\\ behind\\ my\\ back\\ is\\ an\\ assassin\\ and\\ a\\ coward\\;\\ any\\ man\\ that\\ says\\ it\\ to\\ my\\ face\\ is\\ a\\ liar\\,\\ and\\ I\\ stamp\\ the\\ infamous\\ charge\\ upon\\ his\\ forehead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ endeavor\\ to\\ make\\ you\\ as\\ much\\ like\\ brutes\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ When\\ they\\ have\\ blinded\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ your\\ mind\\-\\ when\\ they\\ have\\ embittered\\ the\\ sweet\\ waters\\ of\\ life\\-\\ when\\ they\\ have\\ shot\\ out\\ the\\ light\\ which\\ shines\\ from\\ the\\ word\\ of\\ God\\,\\ then\\ and\\ not\\ till\\ then\\,\\ has\\ American\\ slavery\\ done\\ its\\ perfect\\ work\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neither\\ gods\\ nor\\ angels\\,\\ or\\ just\\ men\\,\\ command\\ you\\ to\\ suffer\\ for\\ a\\ single\\ moment\\.\\ Therefore\\ it\\ is\\ your\\ imperative\\ duty\\ to\\ use\\ every\\ means\\,\\ moral\\,\\ intellectual\\,\\ and\\ physical\\,\\ that\\ promise\\ success\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Think\\ of\\ the\\ undying\\ glory\\ around\\ the\\ ancient\\ name\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ forget\\ not\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ native\\ American\\ citizens\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\,\\ you\\ are\\ justly\\ entitled\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ rights\\.\\ In\\ every\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ mind\\ the\\ good\\ seeds\\ of\\ liberty\\ are\\ planted\\,\\ and\\ he\\ who\\ brings\\ his\\ fellow\\ down\\ so\\ low\\,\\ as\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ contented\\ with\\ a\\ condition\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ commits\\ the\\ highest\\ crime\\ against\\ God\\ and\\ man\\.\\ Brethren\\,\\ arise\\,\\ arise\\!\\ Strike\\ for\\ your\\ lives\\ and\\ liberties\\.\\ Now\\ is\\ the\\ day\\ and\\ the\\ hour\\.\\ Let\\ every\\ slave\\ throughout\\ the\\ land\\ do\\ this\\,\\ and\\ the\\ days\\ of\\ slavery\\ are\\ numbered\\.\\ You\\ cannot\\ be\\ more\\ oppressed\\ than\\ you\\ have\\ been\\-\\ you\\ cannot\\ suffer\\ greater\\ cruelties\\ than\\ you\\ have\\ already\\.\\ Rather\\ die\\ freemen\\ than\\ live\\ to\\ be\\ slaves\\.\\ Remember\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ four\\ million\\!\\ In\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ God\\,\\ we\\ ask\\,\\ are\\ you\\ men\\?\\ Where\\ is\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ your\\ fathers\\?\\ Has\\ it\\ all\\ run\\ out\\ of\\ your\\ veins\\?\\ Awake\\,\\ awake\\!\\ Let\\ your\\ motto\\ be\\ resistance\\,\\ resistance\\,\\ resistance\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\:\\ Minutes\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Convention\\ of\\ Colored\\ Citizens\\:\\ Held\\ at\\ Buffalo\\,\\ 1843\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\acmaule\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\ and\\ Samuel\\ Ringgold\\ Ward\\:\\ Resolved\\,\\ That\\ The\\ Constitution\\ Of\\ The\\ United\\ States\\,\\ In\\ Letter\\,\\ Spirit\\,\\ And\\ Design\\,\\ Is\\ Essentially\\ Antislavery\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ Debate\\ Between\\ Samuel\\ Ringgold\\ Ward\\ And\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ In\\ New\\ York\\,\\ New\\ York\\ On\\ 11\\ May\\ 1849\\,\\ Daily\\ Tribune\\ \\(May\\ 14\\,\\ 1849\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\acmaule\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\FREDERICK\\ DOUGLASS\\:\\ Narrative\\ of\\ the\\ Life\\ of\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\,\\ Written\\ By\\ Himself\\ \\(1845\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\materrel\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Douglass\\ talks\\ about\\ his\\ past\\ during\\ this\\ chapter\\.\\ We\\ learn\\ that\\ his\\ mother\\ is\\ Harriet\\ Bailey\\ and\\ his\\ father\\ is\\ likely\\ his\\ slave\\ owner\\ was\\ his\\ father\\.\\ His\\ first\\ master\\ is\\ Captain\\ Anthony\\.\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aunt\\ Hester\\ was\\ brutally\\ hit\\ by\\ his\\ master\\ and\\ Douglass\\ noted\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ that\\ he\\ saw\\ the\\ evil\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ chapter\\,\\ we\\ learn\\ about\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\ who\\ owns\\ about\\ 400\\ slaves\\ over\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ properties\\.\\ Slaves\\ receive\\ only\\ little\\ food\\ and\\ had\\ only\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ pieces\\ of\\ clothes\\ for\\ the\\ year\\.\\ \\ \\;Captain\\ Anthony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overseer\\ is\\ Mr\\.\\ Severe\\,\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ very\\ cruel\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Mr\\.\\ Hopkins\\ becomes\\ the\\ next\\ overseer\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ cruel\\ as\\ Mr\\.\\ Severe\\.\\ The\\ farm\\ where\\ Douglass\\ grew\\ up\\,\\ the\\ main\\ campus\\,\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ House\\ Farm\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Douglass\\ remembers\\ hearing\\ the\\ songs\\ of\\ his\\ brethren\\ in\\ chains\\ and\\ noticed\\ that\\ they\\ sounded\\ both\\ joyful\\ and\\ sad\\.\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ people\\ who\\ thinks\\ the\\ slaves\\ are\\ singing\\ out\\ of\\ happiness\\ are\\ missing\\ the\\ message\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colonel\\ Lloyd\\ has\\ a\\ garden\\ that\\ he\\ loves\\ very\\ much\\.\\ To\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ slaves\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\ the\\ food\\ of\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\ surrounds\\ it\\ with\\ tar\\ so\\ that\\ if\\ a\\ slave\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ will\\ be\\ marked\\.\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\ also\\ owns\\ a\\ stable\\ with\\ impressive\\ horses\\,\\ and\\ the\\ stable\\ is\\ run\\ by\\ two\\ slaves\\.\\ The\\ slaves\\ receive\\ lashes\\ for\\ no\\ reason\\,\\ but\\ still\\ never\\ lash\\ out\\ at\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\.\\ One\\ day\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\ saw\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ slaves\\ \\(neither\\ had\\ seen\\ each\\ other\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ asked\\ the\\ slave\\ how\\ his\\ master\\ treated\\ him\\.\\ The\\ slave\\ said\\ the\\ master\\ was\\ hard\\ on\\ him\\ and\\ told\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\ that\\ his\\ master\\ was\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\.\\ Lloyd\\ sent\\ the\\ slave\\ to\\ Georgia\\.\\ Douglass\\ then\\ comments\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ the\\ destitution\\ of\\ their\\ situation\\ and\\ even\\ argued\\ that\\ their\\ masters\\ were\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ new\\ overseer\\ is\\ placed\\ onto\\ the\\ plantation\\ to\\ replace\\ Mr\\.\\ Hopkins\\.\\ His\\ name\\ is\\ Mr\\.\\ Gore\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Gore\\ is\\ very\\ hard\\ on\\ the\\ slaves\\ and\\ provoked\\ slaves\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ punish\\ them\\.\\ One\\ day\\ Mr\\.\\ Gore\\ whips\\ a\\ slave\\ named\\ Demby\\,\\ and\\ Demby\\ runs\\ to\\ a\\ rivel\\ to\\ help\\ soothe\\ the\\ pain\\.\\ \\ \\;Mr\\.\\ Gore\\ tells\\ him\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ water\\,\\ but\\ Demby\\ does\\ not\\,\\ so\\ Mr\\.\\ Gore\\ shoots\\ Demby\\ dead\\.\\ As\\ another\\ story\\ of\\ slaveowner\\ cruelty\\,\\ Douglass\\ speaks\\ about\\ how\\ a\\ slave\\ owner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\ beat\\ a\\ female\\ slave\\ to\\ death\\ with\\ a\\ stick\\ to\\ the\\ chest\\.\\ This\\ was\\ because\\ the\\ girl\\ was\\ tired\\ from\\ watching\\ a\\ crying\\ baby\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\.\\ The\\ woman\\ was\\ never\\ convicted\\ of\\ the\\ crime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Douglass\\ never\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ field\\ work\\ because\\ slaves\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ young\\ children\\.\\ Douglass\\ often\\ accompanied\\ the\\ Colonel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grandson\\ on\\ hunting\\ trips\\,\\ which\\ saved\\ him\\ from\\ terrible\\ pain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ At\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ eight\\,\\ Douglass\\ left\\ Colonel\\ Lloyd\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plantation\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ plantation\\ of\\ Hugh\\ Auld\\.\\ While\\ there\\ in\\ Baltimore\\,\\ he\\ meets\\ with\\ Mr\\.\\ Auld\\,\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Sophia\\ Auld\\,\\ and\\ their\\ child\\ Thomas\\ Auld\\.\\ Douglass\\ considers\\ his\\ movement\\ to\\ this\\ new\\ land\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\ from\\ God\\ because\\ he\\ got\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ better\\ life\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ if\\ he\\ was\\ free\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sophia\\ Auld\\ is\\ very\\ kind\\ to\\ Douglass\\.\\ Douglass\\ says\\ she\\ does\\ not\\ enjoy\\ belittling\\ her\\ slaves\\ nor\\ does\\ she\\ consider\\ it\\ disrespectful\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ look\\ in\\ her\\ eye\\.\\ Mrs\\.\\ Auld\\ starts\\ to\\ teach\\ him\\ the\\ alphabet\\,\\ but\\ stops\\ later\\ on\\ because\\ her\\ husband\\ tells\\ her\\ too\\.\\ Douglass\\ realizes\\ that\\ whites\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ blacks\\ from\\ \\ \\;learning\\ to\\ keep\\ them\\ down\\.\\ Douglass\\ notes\\ that\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ have\\ a\\ much\\ easier\\ life\\ that\\ slaves\\ from\\ the\\ country\\;\\ he\\ does\\ cite\\ one\\ counterexample\\ though\\.\\ The\\ Hamilton\\ family\\ starves\\ two\\ of\\ their\\ slave\\ girls\\,\\ and\\ the\\ wife\\ specifically\\ participated\\ in\\ multiple\\ beatings\\ of\\ the\\ girls\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Douglass\\ continues\\ to\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ read\\ even\\ without\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ his\\ old\\ teacher\\ Mrs\\.\\ Auld\\.\\ He\\ notes\\ that\\ Mrs\\.\\ Auld\\ has\\ turned\\ cruel\\ and\\ even\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;devil\\-like\\&rdquo\\;\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\ Douglass\\ has\\ local\\ boys\\ teach\\ him\\ how\\ to\\ read\\ through\\ trading\\ bread\\ and\\ tricking\\ them\\ into\\ playing\\ games\\ that\\ have\\ them\\ write\\ a\\ letter\\ or\\ word\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ learn\\.\\ In\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Columbian\\ Order\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Douglass\\ reads\\ about\\ a\\ slave\\ who\\ convinces\\ his\\ master\\ to\\ free\\ him\\ after\\ refuting\\ every\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ masters\\ points\\ as\\ to\\ why\\ slavery\\ is\\ good\\.\\ Douglass\\ also\\ hears\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;abolition\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ docks\\,\\ two\\ Irish\\ men\\ tell\\ him\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ escape\\,\\ though\\ Douglass\\ decided\\ not\\ to\\ because\\ he\\ knew\\ many\\ people\\ told\\ slaves\\ to\\ escape\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ catch\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ Douglass\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ learn\\ to\\ write\\ completely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ master\\,\\ Captain\\ Anthony\\,\\ dies\\,\\ and\\ Douglass\\ has\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ plantation\\ from\\ Baltimore\\ to\\ his\\ chagrin\\.\\ Douglass\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ given\\ either\\ to\\ Master\\ Andrew\\ or\\ Lucretia\\ Auld\\.\\ He\\ get\\ Lucretia\\ Auld\\ and\\ is\\ sent\\ back\\ to\\ Baltimore\\,\\ but\\ then\\ both\\ Andrew\\ and\\ Lucretia\\ die\\ leaving\\ the\\ slaves\\ to\\ strangers\\.\\ All\\ the\\ slaves\\ are\\ sold\\ back\\ into\\ slavery\\,\\ even\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grandmother\\,\\ who\\ Douglass\\ says\\ raised\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ generations\\ of\\ slaves\\ on\\ the\\ Lloyd\\ plantation\\.\\ By\\ the\\ time\\ this\\ has\\ settled\\,\\ Douglass\\ ends\\ up\\ with\\ Thomas\\ Auld\\,\\ but\\ Douglass\\ does\\ not\\ mind\\ noting\\ that\\ this\\ owners\\ in\\ Baltimore\\ had\\ become\\ very\\ cruel\\.\\ When\\ watching\\ ships\\ sailing\\ northward\\,\\ Douglass\\ resolves\\ to\\ escape\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ slave\\ owner\\ is\\ very\\ cruel\\,\\ and\\ Douglass\\ notes\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ give\\ the\\ slaves\\ enough\\ food\\ to\\ eat\\.\\ Thomas\\ Auld\\ is\\ incredibly\\ mean\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ explain\\ his\\ cruelty\\ through\\ his\\ religious\\ ways\\.\\ Douglass\\ sometimes\\ lets\\ Auld\\&rsquo\\;s\\ horse\\ run\\ away\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ retrieve\\ it\\ and\\ receive\\ a\\ full\\ meal\\ from\\ the\\ neighbor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plantation\\.\\ Auld\\ decides\\ to\\ let\\ Douglass\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ slavebreaker\\ known\\ as\\ Mr\\.\\ Covey\\ to\\ break\\ Douglass\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ Mr\\.\\ Covey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ farm\\,\\ Douglass\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ Douglass\\ receives\\ many\\ whippings\\ from\\ Covey\\ during\\ his\\ early\\ months\\ at\\ his\\ farm\\.\\ Covey\\ often\\ works\\ with\\ his\\ slaves\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ known\\ to\\ sneak\\ through\\ the\\ grass\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ find\\ slaves\\ resting\\,\\ a\\ crime\\ for\\ which\\ he\\ would\\ beat\\ them\\.\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ condition\\ gets\\ worse\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ six\\ months\\ and\\ he\\ nearly\\ loses\\ his\\ spirit\\,\\ but\\ he\\ noticed\\ the\\ boats\\ on\\ the\\ harbor\\ cruelly\\ remind\\ him\\ that\\ he\\ wants\\ freedom\\.\\ After\\ another\\ beating\\,\\ Douglass\\ runs\\ back\\ to\\ Mr\\.\\ Auld\\,\\ who\\ tells\\ Douglass\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Mr\\.\\ Covey\\.\\ When\\ he\\ returns\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Covey\\ chases\\ him\\ with\\ into\\ the\\ fields\\,\\ but\\ Douglass\\ hides\\ again\\.\\ Douglass\\ gets\\ a\\ root\\ from\\ Sandy\\ Jenkins\\ that\\ will\\ stop\\ Douglass\\ from\\ getting\\ beat\\.\\ When\\ Douglass\\ arrives\\,\\ Covey\\ is\\ nice\\,\\ but\\ the\\ next\\ day\\,\\ Covey\\ tries\\ to\\ get\\ Douglass\\ and\\ beat\\ him\\ again\\;\\ however\\,\\ Douglass\\ does\\ not\\ let\\ his\\ happen\\.\\ He\\ actually\\ fights\\ back\\ and\\ takes\\ some\\ of\\ Covey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\.\\ While\\ Covey\\ claims\\ to\\ have\\ beaten\\ Douglass\\,\\ Covey\\ never\\ beat\\ Douglass\\ again\\.\\ Douglass\\ notes\\ that\\ slave\\ owners\\ let\\ their\\ slaves\\ celebrate\\ holidays\\;\\ this\\ time\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ slaves\\ something\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ year\\,\\ so\\ this\\ helped\\ keep\\ rebellion\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ community\\ down\\.\\ Douglass\\ is\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ William\\ Freeland\\ who\\ while\\ works\\ his\\ slaves\\ hard\\,\\ does\\ treat\\ them\\ fairly\\.\\ Douglass\\ teaches\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\ around\\ him\\ how\\ to\\ read\\.\\ Douglass\\ comes\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ plan\\ to\\ have\\ several\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Freeland\\ plantation\\ escape\\,\\ but\\ his\\ plan\\ is\\ foiled\\ by\\ an\\ unnamed\\ traitor\\ \\(though\\ we\\ can\\ assume\\ it\\ is\\ Sandy\\ Jenkins\\)\\.\\ They\\ all\\ go\\ to\\ jail\\ but\\ are\\ eventually\\ freed\\ with\\ Douglass\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ Baltimore\\.\\ Douglass\\ is\\ apprenticed\\ to\\ a\\ shipbuilder\\ named\\ William\\ Gardner\\,\\ where\\ he\\ undergoes\\ severe\\ taunting\\ by\\ whites\\.\\ Because\\ free\\ blacks\\ were\\ doing\\ the\\ jobs\\ better\\ than\\ white\\,\\ Gardner\\ fires\\ all\\ his\\ free\\ black\\ employees\\.\\ Douglass\\ turns\\ all\\ his\\ wages\\ over\\ to\\ Hugh\\ Auld\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ chapter\\ where\\ Douglas\\ has\\ his\\ escape\\.\\ Douglass\\ tells\\ his\\ master\\ Mr\\.\\ Auld\\ that\\ he\\ wants\\ a\\ new\\ job\\.\\ His\\ master\\ is\\ at\\ first\\ very\\ apprehensive\\ but\\ then\\ he\\ lets\\ him\\ get\\ the\\ new\\ job\\.\\ Douglass\\ has\\ to\\ still\\ pay\\ wages\\ to\\ Mr\\.\\ Auld\\.\\ \\ \\;Douglass\\ misses\\ his\\ payment\\ by\\ one\\ week\\ and\\ Mr\\.\\ Auld\\ freaks\\ out\\,\\ thinking\\ Douglass\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ escape\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Auld\\ removes\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ privileges\\ \\.Douglass\\ resolves\\ to\\ escape\\ much\\ later\\ after\\ he\\ regains\\ Mr\\.\\ Auld\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trust\\.\\ Douglass\\ eventually\\ does\\ escape\\ to\\ New\\ York\\,\\ but\\ he\\ says\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ as\\ a\\ freeman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ Two\\:\\ Political\\ Strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 26\\-28\\.\\ Protest\\ or\\ Accommodation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\:\\ The\\ Atlanta\\ Exposition\\ Address\\ \\(1895\\/Pub\\.\\ 1901\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\sdelle\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ his\\ own\\ words\\,\\ the\\ aim\\ of\\ this\\ speech\\ was\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;say\\ something\\ that\\ would\\ cement\\ the\\ friendship\\ of\\ the\\ races\\ and\\ bring\\ about\\ hearty\\ cooperation\\ between\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Washington\\ argues\\ that\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ Southern\\ population\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ race\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ the\\ material\\,\\ civil\\ or\\ moral\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ south\\ cannot\\ be\\ considered\\ while\\ disregarding\\ the\\ Negro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Washington\\ argues\\ that\\ blacks\\ should\\ \\&ldquo\\;cast\\ down\\ their\\ buckets\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Engage\\ in\\ Agriculture\\,\\ Mechanics\\,\\ Commerce\\,\\ Domestic\\ service\\ and\\ the\\ professions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Live\\ in\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Live\\ morally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stay\\ out\\ of\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Achieve\\ economic\\ independence\\ from\\ the\\ bottom\\,\\ starting\\ with\\ labor\\-intensive\\ jobs\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ race\\ can\\ prosper\\ till\\ it\\ learns\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ as\\ much\\ dignity\\ in\\ tilling\\ a\\ field\\ as\\ in\\ writing\\ a\\ poem\\.\\ It\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ life\\ we\\ must\\ begin\\,\\ and\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ top\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ also\\ entreated\\ whites\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hire\\ black\\ workerswho\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;tilled\\ your\\ fields\\,\\ cleared\\ your\\ forests\\,\\ builded\\ your\\ railroads\\ and\\ cities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ return\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ blacks\\ will\\ buy\\ surplus\\ land\\ from\\ whites\\,\\ will\\ run\\ white\\ factories\\ for\\ whites\\,\\ and\\ would\\ even\\ accept\\ land\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ fertile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Washington\\ argues\\ that\\ blacks\\ can\\ either\\ be\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ ignorance\\ and\\ crime\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ or\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ intelligence\\ and\\ progress\\,\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ business\\ and\\ industrial\\ prosperity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essentially\\,\\ Washington\\ was\\ arguing\\ that\\ blacks\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ economic\\ emancipation\\ first\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ political\\ freedoms\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ them\\ once\\ whites\\ realize\\ what\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\ blacks\\ would\\ be\\ playing\\ in\\ the\\ economic\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ September\\ 18\\,\\ 1895\\,\\ African\\-American\\ spokesman\\ and\\ leader\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ spoke\\ before\\ a\\ predominantly\\ white\\ audience\\ at\\ the\\ Cotton\\ States\\ and\\ International\\ Exposition\\ in\\ Atlanta\\.\\ His\\ \\&ldquo\\;Atlanta\\ Compromise\\&rdquo\\;\\ address\\,\\ as\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ called\\,\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ and\\ influential\\ speeches\\ in\\ American\\ history\\.\\ Washington\\ soothed\\ his\\ listeners\\&rsquo\\;\\ concerns\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;uppity\\&rdquo\\;\\ blacks\\ by\\ claiming\\ that\\ his\\ race\\ would\\ content\\ itself\\ with\\ living\\ \\&ldquo\\;by\\ the\\ productions\\ of\\ our\\ hands\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Given\\ to\\ a\\ predominantly\\ white\\ audience\\ at\\ the\\ Cotton\\ States\\ and\\ International\\ Exposition\\ in\\ Atlanta\\,\\ Georgia\\,\\ the\\ speech\\ has\\ been\\ recognized\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ and\\ influential\\ speeches\\ in\\ American\\ history\\,\\ because\\ it\\ forever\\ changed\\ hiring\\ practices\\.\\ \\ \\;Washington\\ began\\ with\\ a\\ call\\ to\\ the\\ African\\-American\\ race\\,\\ which\\ comprised\\ one\\ third\\ of\\ the\\ Southern\\ population\\,\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ work\\.\\ He\\ declared\\ that\\ the\\ South\\ was\\ where\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ was\\ given\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ chance\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ North\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ worlds\\ of\\ commerce\\ and\\ industry\\.\\ He\\ then\\ addressed\\ the\\ White\\ audience\\,\\ telling\\ them\\ rather\\ than\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ immigrant\\ population\\ arriving\\ at\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ a\\ million\\ souls\\ a\\ year\\,\\ they\\ should\\ hire\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ eight\\ million\\ African\\-Americans\\.\\ He\\ praised\\ their\\ loyalty\\,\\ fidelity\\,\\ and\\ love\\ in\\ service\\ to\\ the\\ white\\ population\\,\\ but\\ warned\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ burden\\ on\\ society\\ if\\ oppression\\ continued\\,\\ stating\\ outright\\ that\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ south\\ was\\ inherently\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\ and\\ their\\ liberties\\.\\ He\\ addressed\\ the\\ inequality\\ between\\ commercial\\ legality\\ and\\ social\\ acceptance\\,\\ proclaiming\\ that\\ \\"\\;The\\ opportunity\\ to\\ earn\\ a\\ dollar\\ in\\ a\\ factory\\ just\\ now\\ is\\ worth\\ infinitely\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ spend\\ a\\ dollar\\ in\\ an\\ opera\\ house\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bishop\\ Henry\\ McNeal\\ Turner\\:\\ Response\\ to\\ Atlanta\\ Exposition\\ Speech\\ \\(1895\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\sdelle\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\After\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ made\\ his\\ famous\\ \\&ldquo\\;Atlanta\\ Compromise\\&rdquo\\;\\ address\\ calling\\ for\\ blacks\\ to\\ save\\ money\\,\\ live\\ morally\\,\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ politics\\ and\\ remain\\ in\\ the\\ South\\,\\ where\\ they\\ would\\ eventually\\ earn\\ the\\ respect\\ of\\ whites\\,\\ his\\ address\\ received\\ national\\ acclaim\\,\\ and\\ Washington\\ was\\ accepted\\ as\\ the\\ leading\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ spokesman\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turner\\ criticized\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Address\\ for\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;no\\ reference\\ was\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ lynchings\\ and\\ enactments\\ of\\ cruel\\ and\\ revolting\\ laws\\ against\\ our\\ race\\ in\\ this\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Turner\\ argued\\ that\\ social\\ equality\\ carries\\ with\\ it\\ civil\\ equality\\,\\ political\\ equality\\,\\ financial\\ equality\\,\\ judicial\\ equality\\,\\ business\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ that\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ postulation\\ that\\ the\\ enactment\\ of\\ laws\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ equal\\ rights\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;artificial\\ forcing\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ disservice\\ to\\ the\\ Negro\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turner\\ interprets\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assertion\\ that\\ the\\ Negro\\ is\\ not\\ prepared\\ for\\ freedom\\ as\\ also\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ prepared\\ for\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turner\\ praises\\ Prof\\ Washington\\ as\\ a\\ great\\ man\\,\\ but\\ chastises\\ his\\ remarks\\ on\\ social\\ equality\\ for\\ giving\\ white\\ people\\ justification\\ for\\ oppression\\ as\\ they\\ will\\ use\\ him\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Negro\\ race\\ is\\ satisfied\\ with\\ being\\ degraded\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ \\ \\;Du\\ Bois\\:\\ Of\\ Mr\\.\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ and\\ Others\\ \\(1903\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\sdelle\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\DuBois\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ timing\\ and\\ the\\ backdrop\\ of\\ economic\\ growth\\ and\\ race\\ apathy\\ within\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ ascendancy\\ of\\ BTW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ argues\\ that\\ his\\ program\\ of\\ industrial\\ education\\,\\ conciliation\\ of\\ the\\ South\\,\\ and\\ submission\\ and\\ silence\\ as\\ to\\ civil\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\,\\ was\\ not\\ wholly\\ original\\ for\\ Free\\ Negroes\\ from\\ 1830\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ war\\-time\\ had\\ built\\ industrial\\ schools\\,\\ and\\ Price\\ and\\ others\\ had\\ sought\\ an\\ alliance\\ with\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ credits\\ BTW\\ with\\ perfecting\\ the\\ program\\ as\\ a\\ veritable\\ Way\\ of\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reaction\\ to\\ BTW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Atlanta\\ Compromise\\:\\ startled\\ and\\ won\\ the\\ applause\\ of\\ the\\ South\\,\\ interested\\ and\\ won\\ the\\ North\\,\\ and\\ silenced\\ if\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ convert\\ the\\ Negroes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Today\\ BTW\\ stands\\ as\\ the\\ leading\\ spokesman\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ people\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Among\\ his\\ own\\ people\\ however\\ BTW\\ has\\ encountered\\ great\\ opposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surveys\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Negroes\\&rsquo\\;\\ struggle\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ insurrections\\:\\ Gabriel\\ in\\ VA\\ \\(1800\\)\\,\\ Vesey\\ in\\ Carolina\\ \\(1822\\)\\,\\ Nat\\ Turner\\ in\\ VA\\ \\(1831\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;African\\&rdquo\\;\\ churches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ Walker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Appeal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assimilation\\ through\\ self\\-assertion\\ and\\ self\\-development\\ \\(Redmond\\,\\ Nell\\,\\ Wells\\-Brown\\ and\\ Douglass\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BTW\\ emerged\\ as\\ the\\ leader\\ of\\ two\\-\\ the\\ great\\ Compromiser\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ all\\ voices\\ of\\ criticism\\ was\\ suppressed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DuBois\\ criticizes\\ BTW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\ for\\ accepting\\ the\\ alleged\\ inferiority\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Washington\\ asks\\ black\\ people\\ to\\ forgo\\ Political\\ Power\\,\\ Civil\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ Higher\\ education\\ of\\ Negro\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ argues\\ that\\ forgoing\\ the\\ above\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ Disenfranchisement\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\,\\ legal\\ discrimination\\ and\\ declining\\ financial\\ support\\ for\\ institutions\\ for\\ higher\\ education\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ further\\ argues\\ that\\ Washington\\ faces\\ the\\ Triple\\ Paradox\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negroes\\ cannot\\ become\\ business\\ men\\ and\\ property\\ owners\\ because\\ they\\ cannot\\ defend\\ their\\ rights\\ without\\ suffrage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thrift\\ and\\ self\\ respect\\ cannot\\ co\\-exist\\ with\\ civic\\ inferiority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Without\\ higher\\ education\\,\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ teachers\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ schools\\ and\\ industrial\\ schools\\ he\\ advocates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DuBois\\ instead\\ argues\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\,\\ Civic\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ the\\ education\\ of\\ youth\\ according\\ to\\ ability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DuBois\\ argues\\ that\\ Negroes\\ must\\ insist\\ continually\\ that\\ voting\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ modern\\ manhood\\,\\ that\\ color\\ discrimination\\ is\\ barbarism\\,\\ and\\ that\\ black\\ boys\\ need\\ education\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ white\\ boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ present\\ generation\\ of\\ the\\ Southerners\\ are\\ not\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ past\\,\\ and\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ blindly\\ hated\\ or\\ blamed\\ for\\ it\\.\\ Praising\\ the\\ wrongs\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ condemning\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ notes\\ varied\\ Southern\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ Negro\\:\\ the\\ ignorant\\ Southerner\\ hates\\ him\\,\\ the\\ worker\\ fears\\ his\\ competition\\,\\ the\\ capitalist\\ wishes\\ to\\ exploit\\ him\\,\\ and\\ others\\ wish\\ to\\ help\\ him\\ rise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ contends\\ that\\ Mr\\.\\ Washington\\ should\\ be\\ most\\ criticized\\ for\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ his\\ doctrine\\ has\\ allowed\\ whites\\ to\\ shift\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ problem\\ to\\ the\\ Negro\\,\\ when\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ burden\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ nation\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ concludes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;so\\ far\\ as\\ Mr\\.\\ Washington\\ preaches\\ Thrift\\,\\ Patience\\ and\\ Industrial\\ Training\\ for\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ we\\ must\\ hold\\ up\\ his\\ hands\\ and\\ strive\\ with\\ him\\&hellip\\;But\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ Mr\\.\\ Washington\\ apologizes\\ for\\ injustice\\,\\ North\\ or\\ South\\,\\ does\\ not\\ rightly\\ value\\ the\\ privilege\\ and\\ duty\\ of\\ voting\\,\\ belittles\\ \\[discrimination\\]\\ and\\ opposes\\ \\[higher\\ education\\]\\&hellip\\;we\\ must\\ unceasingly\\ and\\ firmly\\ opposed\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ influential\\ public\\ critique\\ of\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policy\\ of\\ racial\\ accommodation\\ and\\ gradualism\\ came\\ in\\ 1903\\ when\\ black\\ leader\\ and\\ intellectual\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\ published\\ an\\ essay\\ in\\ his\\ collection\\ The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\ with\\ the\\ title\\ \\&ldquo\\;Of\\ Mr\\.\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ and\\ Others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ DuBois\\ rejected\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ willingness\\ to\\ avoid\\ rocking\\ the\\ racial\\ boat\\,\\ calling\\ instead\\ for\\ political\\ power\\,\\ insistence\\ on\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ the\\ higher\\ education\\ of\\ Negro\\ youth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ helped\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ intellectual\\ argument\\ for\\ the\\ black\\ freedom\\ struggle\\ in\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\.\\ Souls\\ justified\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ higher\\ education\\ for\\ Negroes\\ and\\ thus\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ By\\ describing\\ a\\ global\\ color\\-line\\,\\ Du\\ Bois\\ anticipated\\ pan\\-Africanism\\ and\\ colonial\\ revolutions\\ in\\ the\\ Third\\ World\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ this\\ stunning\\ critique\\ of\\ how\\ \\&\\#39\\;race\\&\\#39\\;\\ is\\ lived\\ through\\ the\\ normal\\ aspects\\ of\\ daily\\ life\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ what\\ would\\ become\\ known\\ as\\ \\&\\#39\\;whiteness\\ studies\\&\\#39\\;\\ a\\ century\\ later\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\:\\ My\\ Pilgrimage\\ to\\ Nonviolence\\,\\ Fellowship\\ \\(September\\ 1958\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\sdelle\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\King\\ traces\\ his\\ intellectual\\ journey\\ to\\ nonviolence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ grew\\ up\\ hating\\ segregation\\ and\\ oppression\\,\\ having\\ witnessed\\ the\\ KKK\\,\\ police\\ brutality\\,\\ and\\ injustice\\ in\\ the\\ courtroom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learned\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;inseparable\\ twin\\ of\\ racial\\ injustice\\ was\\ economic\\ injustice\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ affected\\ both\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Read\\ Thoreau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Essay\\ on\\ Civil\\ Disobedience\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ connection\\ with\\ nonviolent\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Embarked\\ on\\ an\\ intellectual\\ quest\\ for\\ a\\ method\\ to\\ eliminate\\ social\\ evil\\ in\\ Crozer\\ Theological\\ Seminary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studied\\ Walter\\ Rauschenbusch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christianity\\ and\\ the\\ Social\\ Crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ learned\\ that\\ any\\ religion\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ concern\\ itself\\ with\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ conditions\\ of\\ man\\ is\\ moribund\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studied\\ Plato\\,\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Rosseau\\,\\ Hobbes\\,\\ Bentham\\,\\ Mill\\,\\ Locke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studied\\ Marxism\\ critically\\:\\ disagreed\\ with\\ Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ materialistic\\ interpretation\\ of\\ history\\,\\ ethical\\ relativism\\ \\(the\\ ends\\ justify\\ the\\ means\\)\\,\\ and\\ political\\ totalitarianism\\,\\ but\\ agreed\\ with\\ his\\ points\\ that\\ showed\\ the\\ weaknesses\\ of\\ traditional\\ capitalism\\,\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ self\\-conscious\\ masses\\,\\ and\\ challenged\\ the\\ social\\ conscience\\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ churches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studied\\ Nietzsche\\ and\\ his\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ Hebraic\\-Christianity\\ morality\\ of\\ glorifying\\ weakness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studied\\ and\\ found\\ intellectual\\ and\\ moral\\ satisfaction\\ in\\ Gandhi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argues\\ that\\ Gandhi\\ was\\ probably\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ to\\ lift\\ the\\ love\\ ethic\\ of\\ Jesus\\ above\\ mere\\ interaction\\ between\\ individuals\\ to\\ a\\ powerful\\ and\\ effective\\ social\\ force\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Studied\\ Niebuhr\\ and\\ was\\ confused\\ by\\ his\\ ultimate\\ rejection\\ of\\ pacifism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grew\\ to\\ perceive\\ true\\ pacifism\\ not\\ as\\ unrealistic\\ submission\\ to\\ evil\\ power\\ as\\ Niebuhr\\ contends\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;rather\\ a\\ courageous\\ confrontation\\ of\\ evil\\ by\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ love\\,\\ in\\ the\\ faith\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ recipient\\ of\\ violence\\ than\\ the\\ inflicter\\ of\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ never\\ joined\\ a\\ pacifist\\ organization\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ wary\\ of\\ the\\ illusions\\ of\\ a\\ superficial\\ optimism\\ concerning\\ human\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ a\\ false\\ idealism\\,\\ and\\ felt\\ too\\ many\\ pacifists\\ leaned\\ unconsciously\\ toward\\ self\\-righteousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ BU\\,\\ under\\ Dean\\ Muelder\\ and\\ Professor\\ Chalmers\\,\\ King\\ came\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ Niebuhr\\ had\\ overemphasized\\ the\\ corruption\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ he\\ studied\\ personalistic\\ philosophy\\ \\(the\\ theory\\ that\\ the\\ clue\\ to\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ ultimate\\ reality\\ is\\ found\\ in\\ personality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ gave\\ King\\ the\\ metaphysical\\ and\\ philosophical\\ grounding\\ for\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ personal\\ God\\ and\\ a\\ metaphysical\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ dignity\\ and\\ worth\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ personality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studied\\ Hegel\\ and\\ learned\\ that\\ Growth\\ comes\\ through\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ King\\ went\\ to\\ Montgomery\\ as\\ a\\ pastor\\,\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ plan\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ process\\.\\ He\\ simply\\ responded\\ to\\ the\\ call\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ for\\ a\\ spokesman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Living\\ through\\ the\\ actual\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ protest\\,\\ King\\ came\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ nonviolence\\ more\\ and\\ more\\,\\ and\\ begun\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ commitment\\ to\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ brief\\ autobiographical\\ statement\\ by\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ souls\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ window\\ into\\ King\\&\\#39\\;s\\ development\\ into\\ an\\ practitioner\\ of\\ nonviolent\\ direct\\ action\\.\\ Here\\ he\\ makes\\ clear\\ his\\ debt\\ to\\ and\\ his\\ criticism\\ of\\ Reinhold\\ Niebuhr\\.\\ The\\ latter\\ worked\\ from\\ an\\ inadequate\\ or\\ even\\ faulty\\ view\\ of\\ nonviolence\\ as\\ nonresistance\\,\\ repeating\\ the\\ mistake\\ of\\ his\\ theological\\ mentor\\,\\ St\\.\\ Augustine\\.\\ In\\ this\\ article\\,\\ King\\,\\ freed\\ from\\ the\\ constraints\\ of\\ addressing\\ a\\ mass\\ audience\\,\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ give\\ free\\ rein\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ theological\\ reflections\\.\\ Readers\\ not\\ familiar\\ with\\ philosophical\\ personalism\\ or\\ the\\ writings\\ of\\ Hegel\\ need\\ not\\ fret\\;\\ for\\ once\\,\\ let\\ King\\ splash\\ in\\ the\\ fountains\\ of\\ theological\\ discourse\\,\\ even\\ if\\ only\\ momentarily\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ Bayard\\ Rustin\\:\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ Meets\\ Bayard\\ Rustin\\ \\(1960\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\blandau\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ first\\ describes\\ how\\ Elijah\\ Muhammad\\,\\ the\\ spiritual\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Nation\\of\\ Islam\\,\\ has\\ eliminated\\ from\\ his\\ followers\\ moral\\ vices\\ such\\ as\\ crime\\ and\\substance\\ abuse\\.\\ He\\ articulates\\ economic\\ nationalist\\ ideas\\ of\\ creating\\ Black\\businesses\\ to\\ create\\ jobs\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ necessary\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ white\\people\\ for\\ employment\\.\\ He\\ also\\ expresses\\ a\\ religious\\ nationalist\\ approach\\,\\saying\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ take\\ God\\ to\\ solve\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negro\\&rsquo\\;s\\ problem\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ believes\\\\&ldquo\\;is\\ not\\ a\\ political\\ problem\\&hellip\\;it\\ is\\ an\\ economic\\ problem\\,\\ a\\ social\\ problem\\,\\ a\\mental\\ problem\\,\\ and\\ a\\ spiritual\\ problem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ However\\,\\ he\\ also\\ maintains\\ that\\ any\\religion\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ consider\\ politics\\ is\\ the\\ wrong\\ religion\\.\\ He\\ favors\\setting\\ up\\ a\\ separate\\ Black\\ state\\ either\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ or\\ somewhere\\ else\\.\\ He\\believes\\ that\\ one\\ is\\ either\\ a\\ citizen\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ citizen\\,\\ not\\ a\\ citizen\\ by\\degree\\.\\ He\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ white\\ liberals\\ who\\ encourage\\ Blacks\\ to\\ be\\ passive\\and\\ non\\-violent\\ do\\ not\\ tell\\ whites\\ struggling\\ for\\ freedom\\ to\\ uphold\\ the\\ same\\standard\\.\\ He\\ contrasts\\ the\\ quick\\ acceptance\\ of\\ European\\ immigrants\\ with\\ the\\treatment\\ of\\ Black\\ people\\,\\ and\\ concludes\\ \\&ldquo\\;integration\\ is\\ hypocrisy\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\,\\\\&ldquo\\;as\\ any\\ intelligent\\ person\\ can\\ see\\,\\ the\\ white\\ man\\ is\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ share\\ his\\wealth\\ with\\ his\\ ex\\-slaves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ draws\\ the\\ analogy\\ of\\ Moses\\ leading\\ the\\ Hebrews\\out\\ of\\ oppression\\ in\\ Egypt\\,\\ not\\ trying\\ to\\ integrate\\ with\\ Pharaoh\\.\\ Rustin\\attempts\\ to\\ counter\\ Malcolm\\ by\\ accusing\\ him\\ of\\ not\\ knowing\\ where\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\take\\ Black\\ people\\,\\ and\\ pointing\\ to\\ advancements\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ non\\-violent\\ civil\\rights\\ movement\\.\\ Further\\,\\ he\\ tells\\ Malcolm\\ that\\ most\\ Black\\ Muslims\\ are\\culturally\\ Christian\\ and\\ read\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ but\\ simply\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ same\\religious\\ terminology\\ of\\ their\\ master\\.\\ Rustin\\ agrees\\ with\\ Malcolm\\ that\\ racial\\identity\\ is\\ important\\,\\ but\\ believes\\ Blacks\\ should\\ stay\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\struggle\\ for\\ their\\ rights\\.\\ Rustin\\ also\\ questions\\ Malcolm\\ about\\ Elijah\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\supposed\\ position\\ that\\ Harlem\\ is\\ exploited\\ by\\ Jewish\\ business\\ owners\\.\\ Malcolm\\responds\\ that\\ an\\ exploiter\\ is\\ an\\ exploiter\\ whether\\ he\\ is\\ Jewish\\,\\ French\\,\\German\\,\\ or\\ anything\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Chicago\\,\\ debates\\ Bayard\\ Rustin\\ on\\ the\\ topic\\,\\ \\"\\;Integration\\ or\\ Separation\\ for\\ the\\ Black\\ Man\\?\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Black\\ Panthers\\:\\ In\\ Defense\\ of\\ Self\\-Defense\\:\\ Executive\\ Mandate\\ Number\\ One\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Panther\\ \\(June\\ 2\\,\\ 1967\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\blandau\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ newspaper\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ Panther\\ Party\\ in\\ response\\ to\\the\\ Mulford\\ Gun\\ Bill\\,\\ passed\\ by\\ the\\ California\\ legislature\\ to\\ outlaw\\ the\\ armed\\patrols\\ that\\ the\\ Black\\ Panthers\\ had\\ been\\ carrying\\ out\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ community\\from\\ police\\ brutality\\.\\ It\\ was\\ delivered\\ by\\ Bobby\\ Seale\\,\\ co\\-founder\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\Panthers\\,\\ on\\ the\\ steps\\ of\\ the\\ Capitol\\ in\\ Sacremento\\.\\ It\\ speaks\\ of\\ the\\ historic\\and\\ continuing\\ brutal\\ treatment\\ dealt\\ to\\ nonwhite\\ people\\ by\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\and\\ links\\ the\\ oppression\\ of\\ Black\\ people\\ to\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genocide\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ It\\speculates\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ intended\\ to\\ put\\ Blacks\\ in\\ the\\ internment\\ camps\\used\\ for\\ the\\ Japanese\\ during\\ WWII\\.\\ It\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ Blacks\\ have\\ already\\\\&ldquo\\;begged\\,\\ prayed\\,\\ petitioned\\,\\ and\\ demonstrated\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Now\\,\\ it\\ says\\,\\ the\\ time\\ has\\ come\\for\\ Blacks\\ to\\ defend\\ themselves\\ by\\ any\\ means\\ necessary\\ before\\ it\\ is\\ too\\ late\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Black\\ Panther\\ Party\\ for\\ Self\\-Defense\\ calls\\ upon\\ the\\ American\\ People\\ in\\ general\\ and\\ the\\ Black\\ People\\ in\\ particular\\ to\\ take\\ careful\\ note\\ of\\ the\\ racist\\ California\\ Legislature\\,\\ which\\ is\\ now\\ considering\\ legislation\\ aimed\\ at\\ keeping\\ the\\ Black\\ People\\ disarmed\\ and\\ powerless\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ racist\\ police\\ agencies\\ throughout\\ the\\ country\\ are\\ intensify\\ the\\ terror\\,\\ brutality\\,\\ murder\\ and\\ repression\\ of\\ Black\\ People\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ Government\\ is\\ waging\\ a\\ racist\\ war\\ of\\ genocide\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ the\\ concentration\\ camps\\ in\\ the\\ Japanese\\ American\\ were\\ interned\\ during\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ were\\ being\\ renovated\\ and\\ expanded\\.\\ Since\\ America\\ has\\ historically\\ reserved\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ most\\ barbaric\\ treatment\\ for\\ non\\-White\\ people\\,\\ we\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ conclude\\ that\\ these\\ concentration\\ camps\\ are\\ being\\ prepared\\ for\\ Black\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ determined\\ to\\ gain\\ their\\ freedom\\ by\\ any\\ means\\ necessary\\.\\ The\\ enslavement\\ of\\ Black\\ people\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ founding\\ of\\ this\\ country\\,\\ the\\ genocide\\ practiced\\ on\\ the\\ American\\ Indians\\ and\\ the\\ confinement\\ of\\ the\\ survivors\\ on\\ reservations\\,\\ the\\ savage\\ lynching\\ of\\ thousands\\ Black\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ the\\ dropping\\ of\\ atomic\\ bombs\\ on\\ Hiroshima\\ Nagasaki\\,\\ and\\ now\\ the\\ cowardly\\ massacre\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ all\\ testify\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ toward\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ the\\ racist\\ power\\ structure\\ of\\ America\\ has\\ but\\ one\\ policy\\:\\ repression\\,\\ genocide\\,\\ terror\\,\\ and\\ the\\ big\\ stick\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ people\\ have\\ begged\\,\\ prayed\\,\\ petitioned\\ and\\ demonstrated\\,\\ among\\ other\\ things\\,\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ racist\\ power\\ structure\\ of\\ America\\ to\\ right\\ the\\ wrongs\\ which\\ have\\ historically\\ perpetuated\\ against\\ Black\\ people\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ efforts\\ have\\ been\\ answered\\ by\\ more\\ repression\\,\\ deceit\\,\\ and\\ hypocrisy\\.\\ As\\ the\\ aggression\\ of\\ the\\ racist\\ American\\ Government\\ escalates\\ in\\ Vietnam\\,\\ the\\ police\\ agencies\\ of\\ America\\ escalate\\ the\\ repression\\ of\\ Black\\ people\\ throughout\\ the\\ ghettos\\ of\\ America\\.\\ Vicious\\ police\\ dogs\\,\\ cattle\\ prods\\,\\ and\\ increased\\ patrols\\ have\\ become\\ familiar\\ sights\\ in\\ Black\\ communities\\.\\ City\\ Hall\\ turns\\ a\\ deaf\\ ear\\ to\\ the\\ pleas\\ of\\ Black\\ people\\ for\\ relief\\ from\\ this\\ increasing\\ terror\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Black\\ Panther\\ Party\\ for\\ Self\\-Defense\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ time\\ has\\ come\\ for\\ Black\\ people\\ to\\ arm\\ themselves\\ against\\ this\\ terror\\ before\\ it\\ is\\ too\\ late\\.\\ The\\ pending\\ Mulford\\ Act\\ brings\\ the\\ hour\\ of\\ doom\\ one\\ step\\ nearer\\.\\ A\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ suffered\\ so\\ much\\ for\\ so\\ long\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ a\\ racist\\ society\\ must\\ draw\\ the\\ line\\ somewhere\\.\\ We\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ Black\\ communities\\ of\\ America\\ must\\ rise\\ up\\ as\\ one\\ man\\ to\\ halt\\ the\\ progression\\ of\\ a\\ trend\\ that\\ leads\\ inevitable\\ to\\ their\\ total\\ destruction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\:\\ Message\\ to\\ the\\ Grassroots\\ \\(1963\\)\\ Full\\ Text\\/Sound\\ available\\ online\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\blandau\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ says\\ that\\ America\\ has\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ people\\ of\\ color\\inside\\ of\\ it\\.\\ He\\ calls\\ for\\ Black\\ unity\\ saying\\ that\\ one\\ does\\ not\\ catch\\ hell\\ for\\being\\ a\\ Baptist\\,\\ or\\ a\\ Methodist\\,\\ or\\ a\\ Muslim\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ for\\ being\\ Black\\.\\ Unity\\is\\ needed\\ against\\ the\\ common\\ enemy\\:\\ the\\ white\\ man\\.\\ He\\ recalls\\ the\\ Bandung\\Conference\\,\\ a\\ conference\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ held\\ in\\ Bandung\\,\\ Indonesia\\ in\\ 1955\\ that\\promoted\\ Afro\\-Asian\\ unity\\ against\\ western\\ colonialism\\.\\ He\\ believes\\ that\\ people\\of\\ color\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ should\\ follow\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ presenting\\ unified\\ front\\against\\ white\\ oppression\\ publicly\\ and\\ working\\ out\\ their\\ differences\\ in\\ private\\.\\Then\\ he\\ attempts\\ to\\ counter\\ mistaken\\ ideas\\ about\\ what\\ a\\ revolution\\ is\\,\\distinguishing\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;black\\ revolution\\&rsquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;negro\\ revolution\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ He\\ says\\ that\\a\\ real\\ revolution\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ land\\ and\\ carried\\ out\\ through\\ bloodshed\\,\\ using\\ as\\examples\\ the\\ American\\,\\ Russian\\,\\ and\\ Chinese\\ Revolutions\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\anti\\-colonial\\ struggles\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ of\\ obtaining\\land\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ independence\\ is\\ nationalism\\.\\ He\\ chides\\ his\\ audience\\,\\saying\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ white\\ people\\ in\\ Germany\\ and\\ Korea\\,\\but\\ will\\ not\\ fight\\ when\\ their\\ own\\ churches\\ are\\ bombed\\.\\ He\\ then\\ makes\\ his\\ famous\\distinction\\ between\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;house\\ negro\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;field\\ negro\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ the\\ former\\ loves\\and\\ identifies\\ with\\ his\\ master\\,\\ while\\ the\\ latter\\ hates\\ his\\ master\\.\\ He\\ says\\ that\\historically\\,\\ the\\ house\\ negro\\ kept\\ the\\ field\\ negro\\ in\\ check\\ and\\ non\\-violent\\ and\\became\\ a\\ spokesman\\ for\\ blacks\\ that\\ was\\ acceptable\\ to\\ whites\\.\\ He\\ believes\\ that\\Christian\\ preachers\\ like\\ MLK\\ have\\ filled\\ that\\ role\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;kept\\ you\\ on\\ the\\plantation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ in\\ the\\ Koran\\ that\\ tells\\ you\\ to\\suffer\\ peacefully\\ or\\ love\\ your\\ enemy\\.\\ It\\ teaches\\ to\\ be\\ peaceful\\,\\ courteous\\,\\respectful\\,\\ etc\\.\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;if\\ someone\\ puts\\ his\\ hand\\ on\\ you\\,\\ send\\ him\\ to\\ the\\cemetery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ draws\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Big\\ Six\\&rdquo\\;\\ Black\\ Leaders\\ fighting\\ each\\other\\ for\\ funding\\ from\\ white\\ liberals\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ really\\ lead\\ the\\Black\\ revolution\\.\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ march\\ on\\ Washington\\ was\\ drained\\ of\\ its\\militancy\\ because\\ these\\ Big\\ Six\\ Leaders\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ follow\\ orders\\ from\\ white\\liberals\\.\\ This\\ makes\\ the\\ Black\\ movement\\ weak\\,\\ like\\ a\\ cup\\ of\\ coffee\\ integrated\\with\\ cream\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 5\\-8\\.\\ Nationalism\\ and\\ Pan\\-Africanism\\ versus\\ Integration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Martin\\ R\\.\\ Delany\\:\\ The\\ Political\\ Destiny\\ of\\ the\\ Colored\\ Race\\ \\(1854\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\akerele\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Political\\ Destiny\\ of\\ the\\ Colored\\ Race\\ \\(1854\\)\\ \\-\\ In\\ August\\ 1854\\ he\\ led\\ the\\ National\\ Emigration\\ Convention\\ in\\ Cleveland\\,\\ where\\ he\\ again\\ advanced\\ his\\ emigrationist\\ argument\\ in\\ his\\ manifesto\\ \\"\\;Political\\ Destiny\\ of\\ the\\ Colored\\ Race\\ on\\ the\\ American\\ Continent\\"\\;\\.\\ A\\ resolution\\ was\\ approved\\ by\\ those\\ present\\,\\ including\\ a\\ significant\\ minority\\ of\\ women\\,\\ that\\ \\"\\;as\\ men\\ and\\ equals\\,\\ we\\ demand\\ every\\ political\\ right\\,\\ privilege\\ and\\ position\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ whites\\ are\\ eligible\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ and\\ we\\ will\\ either\\ attain\\ to\\ these\\,\\ or\\ accept\\ nothing\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ is\\ considered\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ black\\ nationalism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Delany\\ continued\\ to\\ popularize\\ self\\&\\#8208\\;elevation\\ and\\ voluntary\\ emigration\\ of\\ free\\ blacks\\,\\ issuing\\ a\\ call\\ for\\ a\\ National\\ Emigration\\ Convention\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ met\\ in\\ Cleveland\\ in\\ 1854\\.\\ Here\\ he\\ attacked\\ the\\ American\\ Colonization\\ Society\\ and\\ delivered\\ his\\ famous\\ speech\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Political\\ Destiny\\ of\\ the\\ Colored\\ Race\\ on\\ the\\ American\\ Continent\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1854\\)\\.\\ In\\ it\\ Delany\\ rejects\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ blacks\\ can\\ live\\ and\\ prosper\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ advocates\\ their\\ emigration\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Indies\\ and\\ Central\\ and\\ South\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Delany\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bold\\ call\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\ to\\ emigrate\\ to\\ Central\\ and\\ South\\ America\\ or\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ Somewhat\\ in\\ the\\ mode\\ of\\ David\\ Walker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Appeal\\ \\(1829\\)\\,\\ he\\ sets\\ forth\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ antiblack\\ racism\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ law\\ and\\ custom\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ unless\\ the\\ free\\ blacks\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ \\"\\;the\\ ruling\\ element\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ politic\\,\\"\\;\\ they\\ are\\ lacking\\ in\\ the\\ full\\ participatory\\ rights\\ of\\ citizenship\\.\\ He\\ maintains\\ that\\ African\\ Americans\\ would\\ have\\ the\\ best\\ chance\\ of\\ achieving\\ those\\ rights\\ by\\ emigrating\\ to\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ majority\\ both\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ population\\ and\\ political\\ power\\.\\ Elaborating\\ his\\ own\\ version\\ of\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\ to\\ argue\\ for\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ remaining\\ in\\ the\\ Americas\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\,\\ say\\,\\ to\\ emigrating\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ he\\ proclaims\\ that\\ the\\ \\"\\;finger\\ of\\ God\\"\\;\\ beneficently\\ directed\\ the\\ forcible\\ taking\\ of\\ Africans\\ to\\ the\\ Americas\\,\\ where\\ blacks\\ have\\ a\\ providential\\ destiny\\ to\\ emerge\\ as\\ the\\ ruling\\ element\\.\\ This\\ belief\\ informs\\ his\\ novel\\ Blake\\,\\ selections\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ included\\ in\\ Part\\ 3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;African\\ Civilization\\ Society\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Monthly\\ \\(February\\ 1859\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\akerele\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Henry\\ Highland\\ Garnet\\:\\ Speech\\ at\\ an\\ Enthusiastic\\ Meeting\\ of\\ the\\ Colored\\ Citizens\\ of\\ Boston\\.\\ The\\ Weekly\\ Anglo\\-African\\ \\(1859\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\akerele\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\:\\ What\\ Du\\ Bois\\ Thinks\\ of\\ Garvey\\,\\ Crisis\\ \\(January\\ 1921\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dfinkton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-DuBois\\ claims\\ Garvey\\ is\\ a\\ shady\\ business\\ man\\,\\ stafting\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ Garvey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enterprises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\are\\ incorporated\\ in\\ Delaware\\ where\\ no\\ financial\\ statements\\ are\\ required\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ claims\\ Garvey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ company\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Star\\ Line\\,\\ does\\ not\\ even\\ own\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ boats\\ it\\ claims\\ to\\ possess\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ other\\ capital\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ scarcely\\ worth\\ its\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Although\\ Garvey\\ has\\ sincere\\ sentiments\\,\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ sub\\-par\\ business\\ man\\ and\\ is\\ wasting\\ the\\ money\\ of\\ the\\ many\\ poor\\ black\\ people\\ who\\ trust\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Garvey\\ is\\ a\\ sincere\\,\\ hard\\-working\\ idealist\\;\\ he\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ stubborn\\,\\ domineering\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\;\\ he\\ has\\ worthy\\ industrial\\ and\\ commercial\\ schemes\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ inexperienced\\ business\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ Garvey\\ Thinks\\ of\\ Du\\ Bois\\,\\ Negro\\ World\\ \\(January\\ 1\\,\\ 1921\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dfinkton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-While\\ he\\ criticizes\\ Garvey\\,\\ DuBois\\ has\\ had\\ his\\ own\\ business\\ failures\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Moon\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Horizon\\&rdquo\\;\\ magazines\\,\\ and\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ the\\ Niagra\\ Movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Garvey\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;oi\\ poloi\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ DuBois\\ is\\ only\\ concerned\\ of\\ the\\ cultured\\,\\ talented\\ tenth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Garvey\\ is\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ vision\\ and\\ ideas\\ while\\ DuBois\\ is\\ merely\\ a\\ critic\\,\\ unable\\ to\\ inspire\\ the\\ masses\\.\\ \\ \\;Garvey\\ and\\ his\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ radical\\ and\\ want\\ advancement\\ for\\ all\\ men\\,\\ regardless\\ \\&ldquo\\;of\\ their\\ intellectual\\ attainments\\ and\\ achievements\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ DuBois\\:\\ Manifesto\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ Pan\\-African\\ Congress\\ \\(September\\ 1921\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dfinkton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ the\\ duty\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ assist\\ in\\ every\\ way\\ the\\ advance\\ of\\ the\\ backward\\ and\\ suppressed\\ groups\\ of\\ mankind\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rise\\ of\\ all\\ men\\ is\\ a\\ menace\\ to\\ no\\ on\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ human\\ ideal\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ likenesses\\ of\\ men\\ far\\ outweigh\\ their\\ differences\\ and\\ people\\ mutually\\ need\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ can\\ succeed\\ more\\ together\\,\\ with\\ mutual\\ respect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ world\\ today\\ attempts\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ favored\\ few\\ may\\ luxuriate\\ in\\ the\\ toil\\ of\\ the\\ tortured\\ many\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ should\\ be\\ judged\\ as\\ men\\ and\\ not\\ as\\ material\\ and\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ vast\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ labor\\ vote\\ in\\ modern\\ democracies\\ has\\ been\\ cajoled\\ and\\ \\ \\;flattered\\ into\\ imperialistic\\ schemes\\ to\\ enslave\\ and\\ debauch\\ black\\,\\ brown\\ and\\ yellow\\ labor\\,\\ until\\ with\\ fatal\\ retribution\\,\\ they\\ are\\ themselves\\ today\\ bound\\ and\\ gagged\\ and\\ rendered\\ impotent\\ by\\ the\\ resulting\\ monopoly\\ of\\ the\\ worlds\\ raw\\ material\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ a\\ dominant\\ cruel\\ and\\ irresponsible\\ few\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Nations\\ like\\ Belgium\\,\\ Portugal\\ and\\ Spain\\ are\\ improving\\ their\\ humane\\ codes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-To\\ save\\ their\\ own\\ government\\ the\\ US\\ enfranchised\\ the\\ Negro\\ and\\ after\\ the\\ danger\\ passed\\ allowed\\ these\\ Negroes\\ to\\ be\\ lawlessly\\ disenfranchised\\ and\\ subjected\\ to\\ a\\ caste\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-France\\ has\\ sought\\ to\\ place\\ their\\ cultured\\ black\\ citizens\\ on\\ a\\ plane\\ of\\ absolute\\ legal\\ and\\ social\\ equality\\ of\\ whites\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Negro\\ race\\ demands\\ recognition\\ of\\ men\\ despite\\ their\\ color\\,\\ local\\ self\\-government\\,\\ education\\ and\\ self\\-knowledge\\,\\ freedom\\ in\\ religion\\ and\\ social\\ customs\\,\\ co\\-operation\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ government\\ and\\ industry\\,\\ common\\ ownership\\ of\\ land\\,\\ international\\ institutional\\ for\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ Negro\\ problems\\ and\\ establishment\\ of\\ an\\ international\\ section\\ in\\ the\\ Labor\\ Bureau\\ of\\ the\\ League\\ of\\ Nations\\ charged\\ with\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ native\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\George\\ S\\.\\ Schuyler\\:\\ Pan\\-Africanism\\:\\ A\\ Waste\\ of\\ Time\\,\\ Pittsburgh\\ Courier\\ \\(July\\ 9\\,\\ 1927\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dfinkton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Pan\\-Africanism\\ is\\ worthless\\ \\(as\\ the\\ U\\.N\\.I\\.A\\.\\)\\ because\\ only\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ Negroes\\ outside\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ want\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Other\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negroes\\&rdquo\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ consider\\ themselves\\ black\\ but\\ rather\\ Zulus\\,\\ Fantis\\,\\ Vais\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Dark\\ people\\ everywhere\\,\\ like\\ light\\ people\\ everywhere\\,\\ are\\ nationalists\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Samuel\\ A\\.\\ Haynes\\:\\ Pan\\-Africanism\\:\\ A\\ Mighty\\ Force\\,\\ Negro\\ World\\ \\(July\\ 16\\,\\ 1927\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Samuel\\ A\\.\\ Haynes\\:\\ Pan\\-Africanism\\:\\ A\\ Mighty\\ Force\\,\\ Negro\\ World\\ \\(July\\ 16\\,\\ 1927\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dfinkton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ claims\\ Schuyler\\ is\\ speaking\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ realm\\ as\\ there\\ actually\\ is\\ an\\ Africa\\ for\\ the\\ Africans\\ movement\\,\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ global\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.N\\.I\\.A\\.\\,\\ West\\ African\\ Students\\&rsquo\\;\\ Union\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\,\\ and\\ the\\ African\\ National\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ says\\ Asia\\ and\\ Africa\\ will\\ join\\ hands\\ against\\ Western\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ counters\\ that\\ whites\\ too\\ manage\\ to\\ work\\ together\\ as\\ they\\ have\\ all\\ agreed\\ to\\ keep\\ themselves\\ rulers\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ other\\ races\\ weak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\George\\ S\\.\\ Schuyler\\:\\ Pan\\-Africanism\\:\\ A\\ Wild\\ Scheme\\,\\ Pittsburgh\\ Courier\\ \\(July\\ 23\\,\\ 1927\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dfinkton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ basically\\ calls\\ Haynes\\ an\\ idiotic\\,\\ typical\\ Garveyite\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ because\\ some\\ radicals\\ mention\\ the\\ movement\\,\\ he\\ claims\\,\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ phenomenon\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ compares\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ Bolsheviks\\ of\\ many\\ countries\\,\\ stating\\ that\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;going\\ Bolshevik\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ says\\ Negro\\ Nationalism\\ is\\ merely\\ a\\ wild\\-scheme\\ by\\ men\\ of\\ no\\ more\\ sense\\ and\\ logic\\ than\\ the\\ KKK\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Stokely\\ Carmichael\\ and\\ Charles\\ Hamilton\\:\\ Introduction\\ to\\ Black\\ Power\\ \\(1967\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dfinkton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Blacks\\ must\\ redefine\\ themselves\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ vilified\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ justify\\ their\\ continued\\ oppression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Blacks\\ have\\ to\\ struggle\\ for\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ terns\\ to\\ define\\ themselves\\ and\\ to\\ have\\ society\\ recognize\\ these\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Political\\ power\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ psychological\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Integration\\ will\\ not\\ succeed\\ because\\ too\\ many\\ white\\ people\\ think\\ it\\ means\\ black\\ men\\ want\\ to\\ marry\\ their\\ daughters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Black\\ people\\ must\\ know\\ their\\ history\\ and\\ establish\\ their\\ cultural\\ heritage\\.\\ White\\ people\\ have\\ been\\ suppressing\\ this\\ for\\ far\\ too\\ long\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Black\\ people\\ must\\ develop\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ themselves\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ deal\\ with\\ American\\ racism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ want\\ political\\ modernization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;questioning\\ old\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;searching\\ for\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ political\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;broaden\\ political\\ participation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ reject\\ assimilation\\ into\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ because\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ values\\ perpetuate\\ racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Blacks\\ should\\ reject\\ the\\ racist\\ institutions\\ and\\ values\\ of\\ this\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Before\\ a\\ group\\ can\\ enter\\ the\\ open\\ society\\,\\ it\\ must\\ first\\ close\\ ranks\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ separate\\,\\ then\\ it\\ must\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Black\\ interests\\ must\\ be\\ controlled\\ by\\ black\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Negro\\ must\\ run\\ its\\ own\\ affairs\\ so\\ when\\ the\\ white\\ man\\ \\&ldquo\\;barks\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ blacks\\ will\\ not\\ flinch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Power\\ will\\ come\\ through\\ community\\ and\\ powerlessness\\ breeds\\ beggars\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Black\\ Power\\-\\&ldquo\\;is\\ full\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ decision\\ making\\ processes\\ affecting\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ black\\ people\\ and\\ recognition\\ of\\ the\\ virtues\\ in\\ themselves\\ as\\ black\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Group\\ strength\\ for\\ black\\ people\\ must\\ be\\ articulated\\ no\\ to\\ mention\\ defended\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Civil\\ rights\\ laws\\ are\\ passed\\ only\\ to\\ be\\ nullified\\ by\\ deliberately\\ weak\\ enforcement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ nation\\ imposes\\ institutional\\ racism\\ o\\ n\\ the\\ black\\ masses\\ if\\ not\\ upon\\ every\\ individual\\ that\\ is\\ black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Whites\\ assume\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ of\\ value\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ and\\ that\\ little\\ of\\ value\\ could\\ be\\ created\\ among\\ black\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Black\\ people\\ have\\ not\\ suffered\\ as\\ individuals\\ but\\ as\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ group\\;\\ therefore\\ their\\ liberation\\ lies\\ in\\ group\\ action\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Integration\\ speaks\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ blackness\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ an\\ unrealistic\\ way\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ means\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ complete\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ decent\\ house\\ or\\ education\\ black\\ people\\ must\\ move\\ into\\ a\\ white\\ neighborhood\\ with\\ white\\ schools\\,\\ reinforces\\ white\\ superiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Integration\\ as\\ traditionally\\ articulated\\ would\\ abolish\\ the\\ black\\ community\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;No\\ person\\ can\\ be\\ healthy\\,\\ complete\\ and\\ mature\\ if\\ he\\ must\\ deny\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ himself\\;\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ integration\\ ahs\\ required\\ thus\\ far\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 12\\.\\ Feminism\\ versus\\ Black\\ Macho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Combahee\\ River\\ Collective\\:\\ A\\ Black\\ Feminist\\ Statement\\ \\(1977\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\jberglun\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ statement\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ black\\ feminists\\ who\\ began\\ meeting\\ three\\ years\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ publication\\ of\\ this\\ piece\\ \\(1974\\,\\ publication\\ in\\ 1977\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ statement\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ four\\ sections\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ genesis\\ of\\ contemporary\\ black\\ feminism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ we\\ believe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ in\\ organizing\\ black\\ feminists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ feminist\\ issues\\ and\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Genesis\\ of\\ Contemporary\\ Black\\ Feminism\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Black\\ women\\ have\\ very\\ negative\\ relationship\\ with\\ American\\ political\\ system\\ due\\ to\\ oppression\\ of\\ their\\ race\\ and\\ their\\ sex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ struggles\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ are\\ unique\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ their\\ racial\\ and\\ sexual\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ feminism\\ is\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;consciousness\\-raising\\&rdquo\\;\\ among\\ black\\ women\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ influences\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ women\\ have\\ been\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ white\\ male\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beginning\\ of\\ black\\ feminism\\ began\\ with\\ American\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ in\\ 1960s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1973\\ black\\ feminists\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ formed\\ separate\\ black\\ feminist\\ group\\ called\\ National\\ Black\\ Feminist\\ Organization\\ \\(NBFO\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ feminism\\ also\\ connected\\ to\\ black\\ liberation\\ movements\\ of\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 1970s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ many\\ women\\ involved\\ in\\ these\\ movements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*key\\ quote\\*\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ was\\ our\\ experience\\ and\\ disillusionment\\ within\\ these\\ liberation\\ movements\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ experience\\ on\\ the\\ periphery\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ male\\ left\\,\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ politics\\ that\\ was\\ antiracist\\,\\ unlike\\ those\\ of\\ white\\ women\\,\\ and\\ antisexist\\,\\ unlike\\ those\\ of\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ men\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ We\\ Believe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Black\\ women\\ are\\ inherently\\ valuable\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ black\\ feminism\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ fulfill\\ \\&ldquo\\;our\\ need\\ as\\ human\\ persons\\ for\\ autonomy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Politics\\ about\\ self\\-love\\,\\ love\\ for\\ other\\ women\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Socialists\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ believe\\ capitalism\\,\\ imperialism\\,\\ and\\ patriarchal\\ structure\\ have\\ to\\ go\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sexual\\ politics\\ under\\ patriarchy\\ is\\ as\\ pervasive\\ in\\ black\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lives\\ as\\ are\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ class\\ and\\ race\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ all\\ kinds\\ usually\\ experience\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Criticism\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;socialization\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ in\\ this\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reject\\ \\&ldquo\\;lesbian\\ separatism\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ black\\ women\\ were\\ free\\,\\ everyone\\ else\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ because\\ black\\ women\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problems\\ in\\ Organizing\\ Black\\ Feminists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Addressing\\ several\\ oppressions\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ privileges\\ \\(that\\ one\\ would\\ get\\ from\\ being\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ class\\,\\ race\\,\\ gender\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychological\\ toll\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ to\\ exert\\ their\\ manhood\\ and\\ power\\,\\ and\\ negative\\ reaction\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ towards\\ black\\ feminism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Talks\\ about\\ the\\ various\\ work\\ they\\ were\\ involved\\ in\\,\\ working\\ with\\ other\\ groups\\ \\(NBFO\\,\\ social\\ feminists\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Development\\ of\\ their\\ politics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ they\\ went\\ from\\ a\\ study\\ group\\ to\\ talking\\ about\\ starting\\ a\\ publication\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ AIM\\ to\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ isolated\\ black\\ women\\ and\\ raise\\ their\\ awareness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fighting\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*key\\ quote\\*\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ exist\\ as\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ black\\ who\\ are\\ feminists\\,\\ each\\ stranded\\ for\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ working\\ independently\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ yet\\ an\\ environment\\ in\\ this\\ society\\ remotely\\ congenial\\ to\\ our\\ struggle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ because\\,\\ being\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\,\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ no\\ one\\ else\\ has\\ done\\:\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(taken\\ from\\ Michele\\ Wallace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Black\\ Feminist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Search\\ for\\ Sisterhood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ Feminist\\ Issues\\ and\\ Practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\To\\ work\\ on\\ issues\\ where\\ race\\,\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ class\\ all\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Examples\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sterilization\\ abuse\\,\\ abortion\\ rights\\,\\ battered\\ women\\,\\ rape\\,\\ and\\ health\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Workshops\\ and\\ educationals\\ on\\ black\\ feminism\\ on\\ college\\ campuses\\,\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conferences\\,\\ and\\ some\\ high\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Racism\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ end\\ does\\ not\\ always\\ justify\\ the\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Michele\\ Wallace\\:\\ From\\ Black\\ Macho\\,\\ Black\\ Macho\\ and\\ the\\ Myth\\ of\\ the\\ Superwoman\\ \\(1979\\)\\,\\ 13\\&ndash\\;33\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ajacobs\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Discussion\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;growing\\ distrust\\,\\ even\\ hatred\\,\\ between\\ black\\ men\\ and\\ black\\ woman\\&rdquo\\;\\ attributes\\ this\\ to\\ white\\ racism\\ AND\\ ignorance\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ terms\\ to\\ sexual\\ politics\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ lack\\ of\\ understanding\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ failed\\ revolution\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Revolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;a\\ revolution\\ subsequently\\ dissipated\\ and\\ distorted\\ by\\ their\\ inability\\ to\\ see\\ each\\ other\\ clearly\\ through\\ the\\ fog\\ of\\ sexual\\ myths\\ and\\ fallacies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ this\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ their\\ unity\\ as\\ a\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Movement\\&rdquo\\;\\ put\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ position\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\,\\ though\\ this\\ power\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ man\\.\\ Now\\ she\\ deals\\ with\\ both\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ white\\ man\\ is\\ downtown\\.\\ The\\ black\\ man\\ lives\\ with\\ her\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wallace\\ lists\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;workhorse\\ that\\ keeps\\ \\[black\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\]\\ house\\ functioning\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Describes\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;grip\\ of\\ Black\\ Macho\\ and\\ it\\ has\\ created\\ within\\ her\\ inestimable\\ emotional\\ devastation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discusses\\ black\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contributions\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ causes\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ community\\:\\ education\\ reform\\,\\ involvement\\ in\\ churches\\,\\ etc\\.\\ and\\ how\\ these\\ acts\\ are\\ now\\ being\\ used\\ against\\ them\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;proof\\ that\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ has\\ never\\ known\\ her\\ place\\ and\\ has\\ mightily\\ battled\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ for\\ his\\ male\\ prerogative\\ as\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ household\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ that\\ black\\ women\\ only\\ see\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;myth\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ when\\ they\\ see\\ him\\&mdash\\;mythology\\ is\\ based\\ \\&ldquo\\;upon\\ the\\ real\\ persecution\\ of\\ black\\ men\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ black\\ women\\ only\\ see\\ the\\ downtrodden\\ black\\ man\\,\\ as\\ do\\ most\\ people\\ who\\ perceive\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discussion\\ of\\ slavery\\ as\\ dehumanizing\\ for\\ everyone\\ involved\\ but\\ especially\\ bad\\ for\\ black\\ men\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ was\\ not\\ permitted\\ to\\ fulfill\\ his\\ traditional\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ being\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ also\\ discusses\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ interracial\\ relationships\\ between\\ white\\ slaveowners\\ and\\ their\\ female\\ slaves\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ has\\ served\\ to\\ create\\ tension\\ between\\ black\\ men\\ and\\ women\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ picture\\ drawn\\ for\\ us\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ child\\,\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ constant\\ victim\\ of\\ an\\ unholy\\ alliance\\ between\\ his\\ woman\\ and\\ the\\ enemy\\,\\ the\\ white\\ man\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ emotional\\ interpretation\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ contemporary\\ black\\ man\\ to\\ justify\\ his\\ oppression\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\,\\ to\\ justify\\ his\\ getting\\ ahead\\ by\\ walking\\ over\\ her\\ prostrate\\ body\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wallace\\ believes\\ that\\ reducing\\ the\\ social\\ history\\ of\\ slaves\\ to\\ the\\ usurping\\ of\\ family\\ roles\\ by\\ black\\ women\\ and\\ miscegenation\\ would\\ be\\ inaccurate\\ and\\ would\\ prove\\ that\\ black\\ self\\-perception\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;solely\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ white\\ oppression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discusses\\ the\\ variety\\ of\\ dimensions\\ that\\ social\\ interaction\\ took\\ on\\ during\\ slavery\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ blacks\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ carve\\ out\\ rights\\ for\\ themselves\\&mdash\\;contextualizes\\ miscegenation\\ as\\ one\\ way\\ black\\ women\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ status\\ in\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ slavery\\ \\(other\\ examples\\:\\ excelling\\ at\\ physical\\ labor\\,\\ being\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;mammy\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ house\\ slave\\,\\ being\\ a\\ house\\ slave\\ with\\ special\\ skills\\)\\ Men\\ also\\ had\\ ways\\ to\\ distinguish\\ themselves\\ such\\ as\\ being\\ artisans\\,\\ craftsmen\\ or\\ mechanics\\,\\ black\\ slave\\ drivers\\.\\ Points\\ out\\ that\\ black\\ male\\ slaves\\ were\\ indeed\\ able\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ certain\\ level\\ of\\ domestic\\ stability\\&mdash\\;dominant\\ perception\\ of\\ no\\ male\\ heads\\ of\\ household\\ are\\ another\\ aspect\\ of\\ myth\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ was\\ emasculated\\ by\\ slavery\\ is\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ and\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ were\\ creatures\\ without\\ will\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ reality\\ they\\ formed\\ a\\ distinct\\ African\\-American\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;myth\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ castration\\&rdquo\\;\\ continues\\,\\ and\\ principle\\ in\\ complicity\\ is\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\.\\ Wallace\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ during\\ slavery\\,\\ ownership\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ was\\ not\\ on\\ black\\ men\\,\\ rather\\ it\\ was\\ claimed\\ by\\ white\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wallace\\ also\\ discusses\\ conditions\\ post\\-slavery\\-\\ post\\ Reconstruction\\ the\\ rising\\ tide\\ of\\ racism\\ focused\\ often\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ emasculation\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ \\(sexual\\ aspect\\ of\\ lynchings\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\&rsquo\\;\\ reaction\\ to\\ this\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ solidarity\\ in\\ which\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ worked\\ for\\ their\\ families\\&rsquo\\;\\ financial\\ comfort\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ discontinued\\ when\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Only\\ as\\ American\\ blacks\\ began\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ standards\\ for\\ family\\ life\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ for\\ manhood\\ and\\ womanhood\\ embraced\\ by\\ American\\ whites\\,\\ did\\ black\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ begin\\ to\\ resent\\ one\\ another\\.\\ And\\ as\\ time\\ went\\ on\\ their\\ culture\\,\\ under\\ constant\\ attack\\ from\\ the\\ enemy\\,\\ became\\ more\\ impoverished\\ and\\ dependent\\ and\\ left\\ with\\ fewer\\ self\\-regenerating\\ mechanisms\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americanization\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;another\\ word\\ for\\ self\\-hatred\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Process\\ of\\ Americanization\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ black\\ man\\ accepting\\ the\\ American\\ definition\\ of\\ himself\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\ he\\ bought\\ into\\ the\\ stereotypical\\ images\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ set\\ up\\ by\\ white\\ America\\,\\ from\\ literature\\ and\\ film\\ such\\ as\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cabin\\ and\\ Birth\\ of\\ a\\ Nation\\,\\ the\\ stereotypes\\ were\\ Toms\\,\\ Coons\\ and\\ Bucks\\ \\(devoted\\ to\\ whites\\,\\ clownish\\,\\ sexual\\ and\\ predatory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discusses\\ how\\ black\\ male\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\ as\\ a\\ sexual\\ predator\\ to\\ the\\ white\\ female\\ became\\ a\\ condition\\ of\\ his\\ psyche\\ and\\ how\\ both\\ white\\ and\\ black\\ women\\ were\\ stereotyped\\ and\\ reduced\\ to\\ property\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ the\\ white\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purity\\,\\ like\\ the\\ black\\ female\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promiscuity\\,\\ was\\ based\\ upon\\ her\\ status\\ as\\ property\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discusses\\ black\\ politics\\ in\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;50s\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\ and\\ how\\ female\\ black\\ political\\ leaders\\ were\\ not\\ supported\\ by\\ black\\ males\\&mdash\\;examples\\ of\\ Fanni\\ Lou\\ Hamer\\ and\\ Shirley\\ Chisolm\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shirley\\ Chisolm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ candidacy\\ is\\ a\\ marked\\ ending\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ Movement\\ in\\ Wallace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ reaction\\ of\\ black\\ men\\ to\\ Chisolm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\,\\ they\\ made\\ no\\ attempt\\ at\\ all\\ to\\ conceal\\,\\ marked\\ the\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ Black\\ Movement\\ breathed\\ its\\ last\\ as\\ a\\ viable\\ entity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sees\\ this\\ as\\ proof\\ that\\ the\\ movement\\ suffered\\ due\\ to\\ buying\\ into\\ Americanization\\ and\\ being\\ conditioned\\ to\\ white\\ perceptions\\ of\\ black\\ men\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ male\\ hostility\\ to\\ Chisolm\\ exploded\\ any\\ illusion\\ that\\ blacks\\ might\\ actually\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ sustain\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ themselves\\ apart\\ from\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ racist\\/sexist\\ influence\\,\\ a\\ notion\\ essential\\ to\\ their\\ autonomy\\ and\\ inner\\ direction\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discusses\\ the\\ Moynihan\\ report\\ that\\ deemed\\ black\\ family\\ structure\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;abnormal\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ matriarchy\\&mdash\\;and\\ this\\ made\\ black\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ power\\ structure\\ impossible\\.\\ Wallace\\ sees\\ the\\ conclusions\\ of\\ the\\ report\\ as\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;strong\\ black\\ woman\\ precluded\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\ black\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ therefore\\ feeding\\ into\\ the\\ gender\\ divide\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Concludes\\ that\\ blacks\\&rsquo\\;\\ pursuit\\ of\\ freedom\\ is\\ being\\ obfuscated\\ by\\ the\\ black\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obessession\\ with\\ his\\ pursuit\\ of\\ manhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Staples\\:\\ The\\ Myth\\ of\\ Black\\ Macho\\:\\ A\\ Response\\ to\\ Angry\\ Black\\ Feminists\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(March\\/April\\ 1979\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\jberglun\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Main\\ idea\\ of\\ this\\ selection\\ is\\ an\\ examination\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ feminist\\ critique\\ of\\ Black\\ men\\ as\\ oppressors\\.\\ A\\ brief\\ outline\\ of\\ the\\ feminist\\ thesis\\ argues\\ that\\ Black\\ Men\\,\\ through\\ sexual\\ violence\\,\\ desertion\\,\\ and\\ miscegenation\\ have\\ deserted\\ the\\ impoverished\\ and\\ vulnerable\\ Black\\ Women\\,\\ who\\ are\\ better\\ off\\ \\&ldquo\\;going\\ it\\ alone\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Staples\\ attacks\\ this\\ thesis\\ with\\ three\\ major\\ arguments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ Men\\ are\\ in\\ no\\ position\\ of\\ power\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ oppress\\ Black\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\ Black\\ Men\\ are\\ dying\\ from\\ homicide\\ and\\ suicide\\ at\\ a\\ rate\\ vastly\\ higher\\ than\\ Black\\ Women\\.\\ A\\ shortage\\ of\\ Black\\ Men\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ diminished\\ ability\\ of\\ Black\\ Men\\ to\\ oppress\\.\\ Many\\ Black\\ men\\ are\\ also\\ in\\ powerless\\ positions\\.\\ Imprisoned\\,\\ unemployed\\,\\ homeless\\,\\ addicted\\,\\ unable\\ to\\ utilize\\ the\\ tools\\ of\\ oppression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Black\\ Men\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ owners\\ of\\ institutions\\ that\\ would\\ create\\ structural\\ oppression\\ toward\\ Black\\ Women\\.\\ Black\\ Men\\ are\\ in\\ neither\\ families\\ nor\\ the\\ church\\,\\ the\\ two\\ outlets\\ controlled\\ largely\\ by\\ the\\ Black\\ Community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\ Note\\:\\ Staples\\ does\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ during\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\,\\ men\\ were\\ in\\ charge\\,\\ but\\ claims\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ an\\ agreed\\ upon\\ strategy\\ so\\ that\\ Black\\ Men\\ could\\ reclaim\\ their\\ manhood\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\ Black\\ women\\ earn\\ more\\,\\ are\\ more\\ present\\ in\\ higher\\ education\\ and\\ outperform\\ Black\\ men\\ on\\ many\\ indicators\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ Feminism\\ Co\\-opts\\ White\\ Feminism\\,\\ Ignores\\ Capitalism\\ and\\ Yields\\ Unrealistic\\ Conclusions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;White\\ feminism\\ is\\ uninterested\\ in\\ Black\\ Men\\.\\ Originally\\ it\\ couched\\ them\\ as\\ rapists\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ reactionary\\ and\\ unfounded\\ claim\\,\\ but\\ as\\ time\\ wore\\ on\\,\\ it\\ became\\ gauche\\ for\\ white\\ women\\ to\\ criticize\\ Black\\ Men\\.\\ Furthermore\\ white\\ feminism\\,\\ in\\ its\\ critique\\ of\\ white\\ males\\,\\ critiques\\ power\\ structures\\ that\\ white\\ males\\ control\\.\\ To\\ graft\\ this\\ similar\\ notion\\ onto\\ Black\\ males\\ is\\ fatuous\\ given\\ that\\ Black\\ men\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ nearly\\ the\\ power\\ that\\ white\\ men\\ do\\.\\ Shange\\ and\\ Wallace\\ co\\-opt\\ middle\\ class\\ white\\ feminism\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ themselves\\ middle\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;go\\ it\\ alone\\&rdquo\\;\\ strategy\\ leaves\\ many\\ women\\ unhappy\\ as\\ they\\ get\\ older\\.\\ People\\ need\\ company\\ and\\ thrive\\ on\\ companionship\\.\\ Having\\ no\\ man\\ and\\ no\\ children\\ is\\ an\\ unfulfilling\\ life\\ that\\ the\\ feminist\\ proposes\\ out\\ of\\ pride\\ rather\\ than\\ an\\ assessment\\ of\\ what\\ will\\ be\\ fulfilling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ real\\ culprit\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Staples\\)\\ is\\ capitalism\\,\\ which\\,\\ for\\ reasons\\ unexplained\\,\\ is\\ the\\ true\\ cause\\ of\\ all\\ Black\\ suffering\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ Men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ issues\\ are\\ summarily\\ ignored\\,\\ making\\ the\\ debate\\ one\\ sided\\ and\\ bitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\ Black\\ Men\\ have\\ been\\ denied\\ the\\ typical\\ roles\\ of\\ manhood\\:\\ Breadwinner\\,\\ Protector\\,\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ household\\,\\ respect\\.\\ The\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ is\\ left\\ is\\ sexuality\\,\\ an\\ area\\ in\\ which\\ Black\\ Men\\ overcompensate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\ Black\\ Men\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ suffer\\ from\\ the\\ afflictions\\ of\\ prison\\,\\ drugs\\ etc\\.\\ Are\\ put\\ in\\ an\\ awkward\\ position\\.\\ They\\ can\\ choose\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ a\\ controlling\\ domineering\\ and\\ bitter\\ Black\\ woman\\,\\ made\\ bitter\\ from\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ unsuitable\\ Black\\ Men\\,\\ or\\ they\\ may\\ choose\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ effeminate\\,\\ subordinate\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ more\\ supportive\\ white\\ woman\\.\\ Staples\\ noted\\ that\\ in\\ middle\\ class\\ Black\\ Families\\,\\ the\\ woman\\ was\\ more\\ supportive\\ and\\ subordinate\\ than\\ in\\ lower\\ class\\ families\\.\\ She\\ was\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ white\\ ideal\\ of\\ feminine\\.\\ The\\ notion\\ that\\ Black\\ Men\\ or\\ men\\ in\\ general\\ may\\ prefer\\ a\\ less\\ domineering\\ mate\\ and\\ that\\ women\\ should\\ behave\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ manner\\ to\\ get\\ Men\\ is\\ antithetical\\ to\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\ in\\ general\\ and\\ is\\ summarily\\ rejected\\ along\\ with\\ what\\ a\\ Black\\ Man\\ apparently\\ wants\\ or\\ needs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Staples\\ concedes\\ many\\ points\\ to\\ Wallace\\ and\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ at\\ least\\,\\ her\\ piece\\ gave\\ rise\\ to\\ many\\ important\\ questions\\,\\ but\\ overall\\ he\\ is\\ disheartened\\ with\\ what\\ he\\ feels\\ is\\ a\\ wholesale\\ attack\\ on\\ Black\\ Men\\ by\\ Black\\ Women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Julianne\\ Malveaux\\:\\ Political\\ and\\ Historical\\ Aspects\\ of\\ Black\\ Male\\/Female\\ Relationships\\:\\ The\\ Sexual\\ Politics\\ of\\ Black\\ People\\:\\ Angry\\ Black\\ Women\\,\\ Angry\\ Black\\ Men\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(May\\/June\\ 1979\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\mario\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ajacobs\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Harry\\ Edwards\\:\\ A\\ Time\\ to\\ Listen\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(May\\/June\\ 1979\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\mario\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Barbara\\ Ransby\\ and\\ Tracye\\ Matthews\\:\\ Black\\ Popular\\ Culture\\ and\\ the\\ Transcendence\\ of\\ Patriarchal\\ Illusions\\,\\ Race\\ and\\ Class\\ \\(1993\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\mario\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ Barbara\\ Ransby\\ and\\ Tracye\\ Matthews\\,\\ co\\-authors\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Popular\\ Culture\\ and\\ the\\ Transcendence\\ of\\ Patriarchal\\ Illusions\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1993\\)\\,\\ much\\ of\\ black\\ popular\\ culture\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ dilemmas\\ specific\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ black\\ male\\ in\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\,\\ and\\ both\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ expressing\\ those\\ problems\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pseudo\\-solutions\\&rdquo\\;\\ offered\\ \\&ldquo\\;further\\ marginalise\\ and\\ denigrate\\ Black\\ women\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(57\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ particular\\,\\ Ransby\\ and\\ Matthews\\ analyze\\ three\\ phenomena\\ of\\ popular\\ culture\\:\\ the\\ growing\\ popularity\\ of\\ cultural\\ and\\ intellectual\\ Afrocentrism\\,\\ which\\ they\\ argue\\ glorifies\\ an\\ African\\ past\\ unsuitable\\ to\\ the\\ demands\\ of\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\;\\ the\\ revival\\ of\\ interest\\ in\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ other\\ black\\ prophet\\-heroes\\,\\ whom\\ they\\ assert\\ are\\ blindly\\ accepted\\ by\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ youth\\ as\\ role\\ models\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ the\\ skewed\\ message\\ such\\ hero\\ worship\\ sends\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;only\\ larger\\ than\\ life\\ great\\ men\\ can\\ make\\ or\\ change\\ history\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(62\\)\\;\\ and\\ rap\\ music\\,\\ which\\ they\\ vilify\\ for\\ its\\ suggestions\\ of\\ sexual\\ promiscuity\\,\\ female\\ objectification\\,\\ and\\ violent\\ behavior\\.\\ \\;\\ By\\ focusing\\ on\\ black\\ women\\ in\\ their\\ narratives\\,\\ contemporary\\ African\\ American\\ women\\ writers\\ not\\ only\\ celebrate\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ as\\ she\\ is\\ today\\ but\\ articulate\\ for\\ their\\ readers\\ her\\ rich\\ and\\ varied\\ heritage\\,\\ a\\ heritage\\ deserving\\ of\\ recognition\\ and\\ proud\\ acknowledgement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Audre\\ Lorde\\:\\ The\\ Master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Tools\\ Will\\ Never\\ Dismantle\\ the\\ Master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ House\\,\\ from\\ Sister\\ Outsider\\ \\(1984\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\mario\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 14\\.\\ Structure\\ versus\\ Agency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Resolution\\ of\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ Adopting\\ the\\ Report\\ and\\ Recommendations\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ Task\\ Force\\ \\(December\\ 1996\\ and\\ Revised\\ January\\ 1997\\ versions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\compton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ to\\ devise\\ a\\ program\\ to\\ improve\\ the\\ English\\ language\\ acquisition\\ and\\ application\\ skills\\ of\\ African\\-American\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ African\\ American\\ Vernacular\\ English\\ \\(AAVE\\)\\,\\ also\\ sometimes\\ called\\ Black\\ Vernacular\\ or\\ Ebonics\\,\\ is\\ spoken\\ by\\ many\\ African\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ It\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ share\\ many\\ characteristics\\ with\\ African\\ Creole\\ and\\ with\\ various\\ Western\\ African\\ languages\\.\\ Though\\ considered\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ and\\ pride\\ by\\ some\\,\\ the\\ black\\ vernacular\\ is\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ discontentment\\ in\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ community\\ as\\ many\\ believe\\ this\\ vernacular\\ only\\ hurts\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ overcome\\ racism\\.\\ In\\ 1996\\,\\ the\\ Oakland\\ school\\ board\\ wanted\\ Ebonics\\ officially\\ recognized\\ as\\ a\\ language\\ or\\ dialect\\.\\ At\\ its\\ last\\ meeting\\,\\ the\\ outgoing\\ Oakland\\ school\\ board\\ unanimously\\ passed\\ the\\ resolution\\ before\\ stepping\\ down\\ from\\ their\\ positions\\ to\\ the\\ newly\\ elected\\ board\\ consisting\\ of\\ members\\ who\\ held\\ different\\ political\\ views\\.\\ The\\ new\\ board\\ modified\\ the\\ resolution\\ and\\ then\\ effectively\\ dropped\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ few\\ key\\ points\\ from\\ the\\ original\\ resolution\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ African\\ language\\ systems\\ are\\ genetically\\ based\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\West\\ and\\ Niger\\-Congo\\ African\\ languages\\ officially\\ recognized\\ in\\ public\\ education\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;benefit\\ African\\ American\\ students\\ in\\ appreciation\\ of\\ language\\ and\\ mastery\\ of\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ other\\ states\\,\\ such\\ programs\\ have\\ vindicated\\ African\\ American\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ Bilingual\\ Education\\ Act\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;implement\\ and\\ sustain\\ programs\\ of\\ instruction\\ for\\ children\\ and\\ youth\\ of\\ limited\\ English\\ proficiency\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Standardized\\ test\\ and\\ grade\\ scores\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ students\\ are\\ substantially\\ below\\ state\\ and\\ national\\ norms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ scores\\ will\\ be\\ remedied\\ by\\ teachers\\ and\\ aides\\ certified\\ in\\ the\\ methodology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\BE\\ IT\\ RECOGNIZED\\:\\ Board\\ will\\ recognize\\ this\\ culture\\ and\\ language\\;\\ the\\ Superintendent\\ and\\ staff\\ shall\\ immediately\\ implement\\ best\\ possible\\ program\\;\\ earmark\\ special\\ funding\\;\\ periodic\\ reports\\ at\\ least\\ once\\ per\\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\William\\ Cosby\\:\\ Elements\\ of\\ Igno\\-Ebonics\\ Style\\,\\ Wall\\ Street\\ Journal\\ \\(January\\ 10\\,\\ 1997\\)\\ A10\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\compton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ is\\ Bill\\ Cosby\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ Oakland\\ School\\ Board\\,\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ Wall\\ Street\\ Journal\\ in\\ 1997\\.\\ Cosby\\ has\\ spoken\\ widely\\ about\\ his\\ contempt\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ ghetto\\ youth\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ today\\ and\\ the\\ language\\ that\\ they\\ speak\\.\\ In\\ this\\ piece\\,\\ he\\ imitates\\ Ebonics\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ an\\ impediment\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ race\\.\\ To\\ him\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;nothing\\ stands\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ black\\ youth\\ moving\\ forward\\ except\\ themselves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ few\\ key\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\To\\ legitimize\\ Ebonics\\ in\\ the\\ schools\\ is\\ to\\ legitimize\\ it\\ with\\ authority\\ figures\\ such\\ as\\ law\\-enforcement\\ officers\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affixed\\ message\\ necessary\\?\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ driver\\ speaks\\ Ebonics\\ only\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ dialects\\ have\\ evolved\\ in\\ different\\ regions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ only\\ language\\ that\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\ would\\ have\\ in\\ common\\ would\\ be\\ body\\ language\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ widely\\-held\\ belief\\ is\\ that\\ for\\ blacks\\ to\\ advance\\ in\\ society\\,\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ economically\\.\\ But\\ Ebonics\\ are\\ not\\ found\\ on\\ a\\ job\\ application\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Put\\ \\&lsquo\\;em\\ in\\ an\\ ear\\ fur\\ near\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ non\\-Ebonics\\-speaking\\ patient\\ would\\ put\\ eye\\ drops\\ in\\ ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hollywood\\:\\ English\\ subtitles\\ for\\ Ebonics\\ movies\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\IN\\ SHORT\\:\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ vicious\\ attack\\ of\\ the\\ decision\\ to\\ legitimize\\ Ebonics\\ in\\ the\\ classroom\\.\\ Cosby\\ essentially\\ derides\\ the\\ language\\ and\\ presents\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ ignorance\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ should\\ be\\ working\\ hard\\ to\\ legitimize\\ the\\ classroom\\-\\-and\\ English\\-\\-in\\ the\\ street\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ellis\\ Cose\\:\\ Why\\ Ebonics\\ Is\\ Irrelevant\\,\\ Newsweek\\ \\(January\\ 13\\,\\ 1997\\)\\ 80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\compton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\(From\\ press\\ release\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;According\\ to\\ Cose\\,\\ author\\ of\\ Color\\-Blind\\,\\ the\\ alleged\\ goal\\ of\\ Ebonics\\ proponents\\-\\-to\\ cultivate\\ pride\\ and\\ self\\-respect\\ among\\ young\\ black\\ students\\-\\-is\\ a\\ noble\\ one\\.\\ But\\ instilling\\ false\\ pride\\ in\\ students\\ who\\ misuse\\ the\\ English\\ language\\ perpetuates\\ academic\\ failure\\ among\\ African\\-American\\ students\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ this\\ short\\ article\\,\\ Cose\\ maintains\\ that\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ teaching\\ and\\ communicating\\ with\\ black\\ students\\ is\\ instilling\\ confidence\\ in\\ them\\.\\ He\\ lists\\ several\\ success\\ stories\\ of\\ programs\\ that\\ have\\ achieved\\ this\\ through\\ the\\ more\\ traditional\\ route\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ legitimizing\\ ebonics\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ few\\ key\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ Oakland\\ educators\\ truly\\ are\\ imcapable\\ of\\ communicating\\ with\\ children\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ problem\\ that\\ a\\ crash\\ course\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ English\\&rdquo\\;\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ solve\\.\\ They\\ key\\ to\\ teaching\\ black\\ children\\&hellip\\;they\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ mastering\\ any\\ material\\ put\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Success\\ stories\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Waitz\\ Elementary\\ School\\ in\\ Mission\\,\\ Texas\\:\\ well\\ over\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ fourth\\ graders\\ place\\ at\\ \\(or\\ above\\)\\ grade\\ level\\ in\\ math\\ and\\ English\\ of\\ standardized\\ test\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;did\\ this\\ by\\ closely\\ monitoring\\ students\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xavier\\ University\\ in\\ New\\ Orleans\\:\\ has\\ worked\\ with\\ black\\ high\\ schoolers\\ through\\ summer\\ enrichment\\ programs\\,\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ students\\ end\\ up\\ attending\\ Xavier\\ which\\ sends\\ more\\ blacks\\ to\\ med\\ school\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ institution\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Arthur\\ Whimbey\\ uses\\ \\&ldquo\\;text\\ reconstructions\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ have\\ students\\ reconstruct\\ black\\ vignettes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philip\\ Uri\\ Treisman\\ at\\ UT\\ has\\ made\\ math\\ whizzes\\ out\\ of\\ numerous\\ black\\ and\\ Latino\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\El\\ Paso\\,\\ Texas\\:\\ stunning\\ turnarounds\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;philosophy\\ rooted\\ in\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;virtually\\ all\\ students\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ high\\ achievement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Johns\\ Hopkins\\ Center\\ for\\ Research\\ on\\ the\\ Education\\ of\\ Children\\ Placed\\ at\\ Risk\\:\\ typical\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;grader\\ in\\ an\\ affiliated\\ school\\ is\\ a\\ full\\ academic\\ year\\ ahead\\ of\\ his\\ nonaffiliated\\ peers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Marcyliena\\ Morgan\\:\\ Chapter\\ 1\\,\\ Language\\,\\ Discourse\\ and\\ Power\\ \\(2006\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\cosgrov\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\African\\ American\\ language\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ teaching\\ of\\ linguistics\\ and\\ language\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ and\\ this\\ book\\,\\ in\\ the\\ series\\ Studies\\ in\\ the\\ Social\\ and\\ Cultural\\ Foundations\\ of\\ Language\\,\\ is\\ aimed\\ specifically\\ at\\ upper\\ level\\ undergraduates\\ and\\ graduates\\.\\ It\\ covers\\ the\\ entire\\ field\\ \\-\\ grammar\\,\\ speech\\,\\ and\\ verbal\\ genres\\,\\ and\\ it\\ also\\ discusses\\ the\\ various\\ historical\\ strands\\ that\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ identified\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ English\\.\\ The\\ first\\ section\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ South\\,\\ the\\ second\\ with\\ urban\\ and\\ northern\\ black\\ popular\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ with\\ policy\\ issues\\.\\ Morgan\\ examines\\ the\\ language\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ changing\\ and\\ complex\\ African\\ American\\ and\\ general\\ American\\ speech\\ communities\\,\\ and\\ their\\ culture\\,\\ politics\\,\\ art\\ and\\ institutions\\.\\ She\\ also\\ covers\\ the\\ current\\ heated\\ political\\ and\\ educational\\ debates\\ about\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ dialect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Unique\\ in\\ the\\ subject\\ it\\ addresses\\,\\ and\\ designed\\ for\\ both\\ student\\ and\\ professional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\ Covers\\ a\\ wide\\ field\\,\\ drawing\\ on\\ a\\ mass\\ of\\ fascinating\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&bull\\;\\ Young\\ but\\ established\\ and\\ much\\ admired\\ author\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\William\\ Labov\\ et\\ al\\.\\:\\ Toasts\\ \\(1968\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\cosgrov\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\ \\-\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ her\\ contribution\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bill\\ Cosby\\:\\ Wayne\\ County\\ Community\\ College\\ Speech\\ \\(January\\ 13\\,\\ 2005\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\compton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ transcript\\ of\\ a\\ speech\\ delivered\\ by\\ Bill\\ Cosby\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ NAACP\\ in\\ commemoration\\ of\\ the\\ 50\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Anniversary\\ of\\ Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\.\\ The\\ speech\\ is\\ often\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pound\\ Cake\\ Speech\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ Cosby\\ references\\ young\\ black\\ kids\\ stealing\\ pound\\ cakes\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ getting\\ up\\ in\\ arms\\ such\\ as\\ it\\ did\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\.\\ Cosby\\ has\\ given\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ these\\ speeches\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ essentially\\ harangues\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ for\\ failing\\ to\\ parent\\ their\\ children\\.\\ In\\ this\\ speech\\ he\\ criticizes\\ such\\ occurrences\\ as\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ vernacular\\,\\ single\\-parent\\ families\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ material\\ gain\\,\\ and\\ the\\ high\\ school\\ dropout\\ rate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ few\\ key\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brown\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ white\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ problem\\;\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ got\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ community\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\References\\ Christianity\\ frequently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ keep\\ asking\\ Jesus\\ to\\ ask\\ doing\\ things\\ for\\ you\\.\\ You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ keep\\ asking\\ that\\ God\\ will\\ find\\ a\\ way\\.\\ God\\ is\\ tired\\ of\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ try\\ to\\ make\\ Jesus\\ smile\\.\\ Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ start\\ parenting\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ status\\ of\\ black\\ education\\:\\ what\\ has\\ Brown\\ vs\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ done\\ for\\ us\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;50\\ percent\\ drop\\ out\\ rate\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ telling\\ you\\,\\ and\\ people\\ in\\ jail\\,\\ and\\ women\\ having\\ children\\ by\\ five\\,\\ six\\ different\\ men\\.\\ Under\\ what\\ excuse\\?\\ I\\ want\\ somebody\\ to\\ love\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Everybody\\ knows\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ speak\\ English\\ except\\ these\\ knuckleheads\\.\\ You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ land\\ a\\ plane\\ with\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Why\\ you\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ a\\ doctor\\ with\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ crap\\ coming\\ out\\ of\\ your\\ mouth\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ Bible\\ that\\ has\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ language\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Basketball\\ players\\ \\-\\-\\ multimillionaires\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ write\\ a\\ paragraph\\.\\ Football\\ players\\,\\ multimillionaires\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ read\\.\\ Yes\\.\\ Multimillionaires\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Materials\\ wants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ these\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ parenting\\.\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ buying\\ things\\ for\\ the\\ kid\\ \\-\\-\\ \\$500\\ sneakers\\ \\-\\-\\ for\\ what\\?\\ They\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ buy\\ or\\ spend\\ \\$250\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hooked\\ on\\ Phonics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Blame\\ it\\ on\\ Africa\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ part\\ of\\ Africa\\ did\\ this\\ come\\ from\\?\\ We\\ are\\ not\\ Africans\\.\\ Those\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ Africans\\;\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ a\\ damned\\ thing\\ about\\ Africa\\.\\ With\\ names\\ like\\ Shaniqua\\,\\ Shaligua\\,\\ Mohammed\\ and\\ all\\ that\\ crap\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ are\\ in\\ jail\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Start\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ have\\ to\\ begin\\ to\\ build\\ in\\ the\\ neighborhood\\,\\ have\\ restaurants\\,\\ have\\ cleaners\\,\\ have\\ pharmacies\\,\\ have\\ real\\ estate\\,\\ have\\ medical\\ buildings\\ instead\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ rob\\ them\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Michael\\ Eric\\ Dyson\\:\\ Chapter\\ 2\\,\\ Is\\ Bill\\ Cosby\\ Right\\?\\ \\(2006\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\compton\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Cosby\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ black\\ elites\\ who\\ are\\ critical\\ of\\ blacks\\ for\\ making\\ poor\\ choices\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ whites\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ Three\\:\\ Part\\ Three\\:\\ Race\\ and\\ Class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 19\\.\\ Socialism\\ or\\ Capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\:\\ I\\.\\ W\\.\\ W\\.\\,\\ Crisis\\ \\(June\\ 1919\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dichter\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;reader\\ responds\\ to\\ an\\ article\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\ which\\ he\\ believes\\ is\\ misleading\\ because\\ it\\ states\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ black\\ members\\ among\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ IWW\\ is\\ an\\ international\\ Union\\ which\\ contends\\ that\\ all\\ workers\\ should\\ be\\ united\\ within\\ a\\ single\\ union\\ as\\ a\\ class\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ wage\\ system\\ should\\ be\\ abolished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ trial\\ involving\\ members\\ of\\ this\\ party\\,\\ there\\ was\\ one\\ black\\ defendant\\ named\\ Ben\\ Fletcher\\ who\\ received\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reader\\ argued\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ this\\ party\\,\\ but\\ prominent\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ incarcerated\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ white\\ defendants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ the\\ article\\ to\\ be\\ rewritten\\ to\\ express\\ this\\ fact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ responds\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ away\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ the\\ intention\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ express\\ incorrect\\ statistics\\.\\ He\\ also\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ paper\\ respected\\ organizations\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ which\\ drew\\ no\\ color\\ barriers\\ for\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ paper\\ did\\ though\\ dislike\\ the\\ methods\\ of\\ this\\ socialist\\ group\\ in\\ protesting\\ WWII\\ because\\ DuBois\\ felt\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ duty\\ of\\ every\\ \\&ldquo\\;thoughtful\\ American\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ an\\ international\\ cause\\ of\\ such\\ tremendous\\ proportions\\ and\\ \\ \\;defend\\ all\\ American\\ liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\.\\ Philip\\ Randolph\\ and\\ Chandler\\ Owen\\:\\ The\\ Crisis\\ of\\ The\\ Crisis\\,\\ The\\ Messenger\\ \\(July\\ 1919\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dichter\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ article\\ Randolph\\ and\\ Owen\\ take\\ Dubois\\ to\\ task\\ for\\ what\\ they\\ see\\ as\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ editorial\\ skill\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ though\\ they\\ do\\ applaud\\ him\\ as\\ being\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ black\\ intellectuals\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ feel\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ above\\ mentioned\\ article\\ that\\ his\\ failure\\ in\\ getting\\ the\\ facts\\ straight\\ exposed\\ his\\ inability\\ to\\ use\\ facts\\ correctly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ is\\ quoted\\ make\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ IWW\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;pro\\-German\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ protested\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ not\\ taken\\ up\\ arms\\,\\ and\\ should\\ therefore\\ be\\ ashamed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Randolph\\ and\\ Owen\\ are\\ incredulous\\ as\\ to\\ how\\ DuBois\\,\\ as\\ a\\ Sociology\\ and\\ economics\\ professor\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ pro\\-Germans\\,\\ and\\ the\\ IWW\\,\\ and\\ point\\ out\\ 2\\ flaws\\ in\\ his\\ statement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Firstly\\,\\ they\\ felt\\ as\\ though\\ the\\ IWW\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ slandered\\ anyway\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ organizations\\ that\\ allowed\\ blacks\\ to\\ join\\ and\\ because\\ Germans\\ were\\ not\\ the\\ true\\ oppressors\\ of\\ blacks\\,\\ but\\ American\\ whites\\,\\ who\\ had\\ systematically\\ disenfranchised\\ them\\ for\\ centuries\\.\\ The\\ true\\ traitors\\ were\\ those\\ who\\ decided\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;master\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(government\\)\\ because\\ even\\ upon\\ returning\\ victorious\\,\\ blacks\\ were\\ still\\ held\\ in\\ lower\\ regard\\ by\\ whites\\ than\\ their\\ German\\ captors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Secondly\\ they\\ believed\\ that\\ DuBois\\ was\\ ignorant\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ IWW\\ actively\\ accomplished\\.\\ They\\ were\\ not\\ a\\ pro\\-German\\ organization\\,\\ but\\ a\\ workers\\ Union\\ who\\ promoted\\ industrial\\ unionism\\.\\ For\\ example\\ in\\ a\\ printing\\ plant\\ where\\ one\\ would\\ see\\ pressman\\,\\ compositors\\,\\ and\\ linotypers\\,\\ if\\ the\\ pressman\\ were\\ to\\ strike\\,\\ than\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ workers\\ who\\ cease\\ working\\ as\\ well\\ until\\ the\\ issue\\ was\\ resolved\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ felt\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ feasible\\ way\\ to\\ run\\ a\\ union\\ organization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\:\\ The\\ Negro\\ and\\ Radical\\ Thought\\,\\ Crisis\\ \\(July\\ 1921\\)\\ Includes\\ Claude\\ McKay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ letter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dichter\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ piece\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ letter\\ from\\ Claude\\ McKay\\ criticizing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ an\\ article\\ written\\ about\\ the\\ Russian\\ Revolution\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ discussed\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ event\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ influencing\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\McKay\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ Revolution\\ is\\ a\\ cause\\ worthy\\ of\\ black\\ attention\\ because\\ it\\ exemplifies\\ how\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ people\\ despite\\ their\\ numbers\\,\\ were\\ able\\ attain\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ revolution\\ was\\ fueled\\ by\\ the\\ socialist\\ cause\\,\\ and\\ though\\ the\\ NAACP\\ is\\ doing\\ great\\ work\\,\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ blacks\\ should\\ organize\\ under\\ a\\ socialist\\ banner\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ overwhelmingly\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ believes\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ discriminated\\ by\\ color\\,\\ yes\\,\\ but\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ discriminated\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ lowest\\ form\\ of\\ worker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Above\\ all\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ ruling\\ classes\\,\\ will\\ not\\ give\\ blacks\\ true\\ rights\\ without\\ the\\ economic\\ struggle\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ working\\ class\\ as\\ combined\\ unit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ responds\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ NAACP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ mission\\ is\\ the\\ emancipation\\ of\\ Negro\\,\\ and\\ to\\ this\\ all\\ other\\ issues\\ come\\ second\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ agrees\\ with\\ McKay\\ that\\ the\\ Russian\\ Revolution\\ is\\ a\\ crucial\\ example\\ in\\ the\\ struggle\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ working\\ class\\,\\ but\\ that\\ the\\ immediate\\ cause\\ of\\ blacks\\ lies\\ in\\ America\\ and\\ not\\ Russia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ agrees\\ that\\ the\\ socialist\\ cause\\ is\\ important\\,\\ but\\ that\\ American\\ blacks\\ must\\ first\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ proletariat\\ cause\\ is\\ really\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ furthering\\ black\\ advancement\\ and\\ secondly\\ whether\\ blacks\\ from\\ around\\ the\\ nation\\ should\\ truly\\ trust\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basically\\ greater\\ understanding\\ is\\ needed\\ before\\ blacks\\ take\\ up\\ the\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\:\\ Marxism\\ and\\ the\\ Negro\\ Problem\\,\\ Crisis\\ \\(May\\ 1933\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Wallace\\ Lee\\:\\ Negro\\ Digest\\ Poll\\:\\ Have\\ Communists\\ Quit\\ Fighting\\ for\\ Negro\\ Rights\\?\\ Negro\\ Digest\\ \\(December\\ 1945\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dichter\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Karl\\ Marx\\ was\\ a\\ Jew\\,\\ who\\ was\\ well\\ educated\\,\\ but\\ had\\ radical\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ some\\ books\\ cannot\\ be\\ ignored\\ and\\ these\\ include\\:\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ the\\ Critique\\ of\\ Pure\\ Reason\\,\\ the\\ Origin\\ of\\ Species\\,\\ and\\ Karl\\ Marx\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Capital\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Initially\\ scorned\\ by\\ universities\\ and\\ academia\\,\\ Karl\\ Marx\\ is\\ now\\ revered\\ for\\ his\\ extraordinary\\ genius\\,\\ even\\ if\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ agree\\ with\\ his\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Karl\\ Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ study\\ and\\ interpret\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ industry\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ earlier\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Communist\\ Manifesto\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1848\\)\\,\\ Marx\\ argues\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ history\\ of\\ mankind\\&hellip\\;has\\ been\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ class\\ struggles\\,\\ contest\\ between\\ exploiting\\ and\\ exploited\\,\\ ruling\\ and\\ oppressed\\ classes\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ revolution\\ is\\ inevitable\\ with\\ the\\ oppressed\\ class\\ \\(proletariat\\)\\ overthrowing\\ the\\ ruling\\ class\\ \\(bourgeoisie\\)\\ resulting\\ in\\ a\\ class\\-less\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DuBois\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ class\\ struggle\\ Marx\\ describes\\ is\\ a\\ living\\ reality\\ in\\ Capitalist\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marx\\ lays\\ down\\ a\\ logical\\ lien\\ of\\ thought\\ for\\ the\\ exploitation\\ of\\ labor\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ value\\ of\\ products\\ in\\ the\\ open\\ market\\ depends\\ on\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capital\\ \\(K\\)\\ consists\\ of\\ machines\\,\\ materials\\ and\\ wages\\ paid\\ for\\ labor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sales\\ of\\ finished\\ products\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Costs\\ of\\ production\\ \\=\\ Surplus\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ surplus\\ value\\ arises\\ from\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surplus\\ value\\ \\=\\ market\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ commodities\\ which\\ laborers\\ produce\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ labor\\ wages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surplus\\ value\\ is\\ therefore\\ \\=\\ exploitation\\ of\\ the\\ laborer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ exploitation\\,\\ inherent\\ in\\ the\\ capitalist\\ system\\ of\\ production\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ poverty\\,\\ of\\ industrial\\ crises\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ of\\ social\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ has\\ been\\ heavily\\ assailed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ labor\\ theory\\ of\\ value\\ has\\ been\\ denied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ theory\\ of\\ surplus\\ value\\ refuted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ inevitability\\ of\\ revolution\\ scoffed\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ with\\ almost\\ chronic\\ industrial\\ crises\\ and\\ wars\\ based\\ on\\ economic\\ rivalry\\,\\ and\\ unending\\ poverty\\,\\ unemployment\\,\\ disease\\ and\\ crime\\,\\ \\ \\;many\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ question\\ the\\ fundamentals\\ of\\ our\\ economic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ has\\ resulted\\ in\\ revolutions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Russia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Re\\-examination\\ of\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ agric\\ bills\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ has\\ this\\ got\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ Negro\\ problem\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Majority\\ of\\ Negroes\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ working\\ proletariat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ Negro\\ suffers\\ from\\ the\\ whole\\ capitalistic\\ suffering\\,\\ the\\ worst\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suffering\\ comes\\ from\\ white\\ laborers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ white\\ labor\\ that\\ deprives\\ the\\ Negro\\ of\\ suffrage\\,\\ denies\\ him\\ equal\\ access\\ to\\ education\\,\\ trade\\ unions\\ and\\ discriminates\\ openly\\ against\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ large\\ development\\ is\\ a\\ post\\-Marxian\\ phenomenon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ new\\ class\\ of\\ technical\\ engineers\\ and\\ managers\\ has\\ arisen\\ forming\\ a\\ working\\ class\\ aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bankers\\ and\\ financiers\\ are\\ the\\ intermediaries\\ who\\ distribute\\ capital\\ and\\ direct\\ this\\ new\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Struggle\\ among\\ labor\\ groups\\ to\\ join\\ this\\ new\\ class\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ the\\ Irish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ the\\ Germans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ the\\ Scandinavians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Extension\\ of\\ this\\ worldwide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capitalists\\ have\\ consolidated\\ their\\ economic\\ power\\ and\\ bribed\\ white\\ workers\\ by\\ high\\ wages\\,\\ vision\\ fo\\ wealth\\ and\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ drive\\ \\&ldquo\\;niggers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colored\\ people\\ used\\ as\\ labor\\ \\~\\ slaves\\ in\\ China\\,\\ India\\,\\ Africa\\ and\\ West\\ Indies\\ for\\ white\\ capitalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ the\\ philosophy\\ of\\ Karl\\ Marx\\ apply\\ today\\ to\\ colored\\ labor\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\,\\ colored\\ labor\\ has\\ no\\ common\\ ground\\ with\\ white\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ for\\ this\\ reason\\ that\\ American\\ socialism\\ and\\ communism\\ has\\ ignored\\ the\\ Negro\\,\\ with\\ the\\ latter\\ openly\\ calling\\ for\\ the\\ Negro\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expulsion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ US\\ also\\ a\\ petty\\ bourgeoisie\\ is\\ being\\ developed\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ clergymen\\,\\ teachers\\,\\ farm\\ owners\\,\\ professional\\ men\\ and\\ retail\\ business\\ men\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;talented\\ tenth\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ revolt\\ of\\ any\\ black\\ proletariat\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ logically\\ directed\\ against\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marxian\\ philosophy\\ is\\ a\\ true\\ diagnosis\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ in\\ Europe\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ despite\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ logical\\ difficulties\\,\\ but\\ must\\ be\\ modified\\ for\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Negro\\ is\\ exploited\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ poverty\\,\\ crime\\,\\ delinquency\\ and\\ indigence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ exploitation\\ comes\\ not\\ from\\ a\\ black\\ capitalistic\\ class\\,\\ but\\ from\\ the\\ white\\ capitalists\\ and\\ equally\\ from\\ the\\ white\\ proletariat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ after\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\,\\ unskilled\\ and\\ common\\ white\\ labor\\ is\\ too\\ frightened\\ at\\ Negro\\ competition\\ to\\ attempt\\ united\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marxian\\ revolution\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ united\\ class\\-conscious\\ proletariat\\ is\\ trumped\\ by\\ race\\ antagonism\\ and\\ labor\\ group\\ rivalry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\William\\ L\\.\\ Patterson\\,\\ George\\ S\\.\\ Schuyler\\:\\ Round\\ Table\\:\\ Have\\ Communists\\ Quit\\ Fighting\\ for\\ Negro\\ Rights\\?\\ Negro\\ Digest\\ \\(1945\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dichter\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Wallace\\ Lee\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negro\\ Digest\\ Poll\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\majority\\ of\\ respondents\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\among\\ those\\ who\\ say\\ yes\\,\\ many\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ the\\ Communists\\&rsquo\\;\\ are\\ distracted\\ by\\ the\\ war\\,\\ which\\ they\\ support\\ \\(Communists\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ embarrass\\ FDR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ administration\\ during\\ wartime\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\among\\ those\\ who\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ many\\ think\\ fighting\\ the\\ war\\ \\&ldquo\\;synonymous\\ with\\ the\\ fight\\ for\\ racial\\ equality\\,\\ since\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ expressed\\ war\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ Allies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-William\\ J\\.\\ Patterson\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;No\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Patterson\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ question\\ is\\ only\\ raised\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ growing\\ political\\ consciousness\\ of\\ Negro\\ America\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ growing\\ role\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\ in\\ left\\-wing\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;increasing\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ Communists\\ among\\ the\\ Negro\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Scottsboro\\ case\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ Communists\\&rsquo\\;\\ usefulness\\ to\\ efforts\\ for\\ racial\\ equality\\ because\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Communists\\ dramatized\\ and\\ politicized\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ case\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patterson\\ also\\ contends\\ that\\ Communists\\ have\\ made\\ sincere\\ and\\ sustained\\ efforts\\ to\\ organize\\ African\\-American\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ South\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ war\\ against\\ Hitler\\ is\\ fundamentally\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ struggle\\ against\\ racism\\,\\ and\\ that\\,\\ because\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\&rsquo\\;\\ disadvantaged\\ \\&ldquo\\;economic\\ position\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ security\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ the\\ Communists\\ are\\ fighting\\ for\\ pertain\\ to\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-George\\ S\\.\\ Schuyler\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yes\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Communists\\ have\\ never\\ in\\ fact\\ sincerely\\ supported\\ the\\ struggles\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\.\\ Their\\ true\\ motivation\\ has\\ been\\ to\\ help\\ and\\ defend\\ Russia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Communists\\ never\\ cared\\ about\\ protecting\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\ \\(the\\ kind\\ of\\ rights\\ they\\ often\\ derided\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;bourgeois\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ but\\ only\\ wanted\\ to\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ government\\ to\\ diplomatically\\ recognize\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.S\\.R\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Communists\\,\\ at\\ Moscow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behest\\,\\ threatened\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ film\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ and\\ White\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;exposing\\ the\\ horrors\\ of\\ the\\ Anglo\\-American\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ exchange\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;postponing\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ established\\ diplomatic\\ relations\\ with\\ Russia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Schuyler\\ contends\\ that\\ the\\ Communists\\ only\\ wanted\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ Scottsboro\\ case\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolutionary\\ propaganda\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ their\\ reckless\\ tactics\\ \\&ldquo\\;made\\ it\\ impossible\\ for\\ the\\ boys\\ to\\ get\\ free\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Russia\\ was\\ allied\\ with\\ Germany\\,\\ the\\ Communists\\ were\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ war\\,\\ which\\ just\\ goes\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ to\\ them\\ is\\ protecting\\ Mother\\ Russia\\,\\ and\\ that\\ African\\-Americans\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ trust\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Claudia\\ Jones\\:\\ An\\ End\\ to\\ the\\ Neglect\\ of\\ the\\ Problems\\ of\\ Negro\\ Women\\ \\(1949\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dichter\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\notes\\ growth\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;militant\\ participation\\ of\\ Negro\\ women\\ in\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ peace\\,\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ security\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\profound\\ implications\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negro\\ liberation\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ emerging\\ anti\\-fascist\\,\\ anti\\-imperialist\\ coalition\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\points\\ out\\ hypocrisy\\ of\\ business\\,\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ claiming\\ that\\ women\\ enjoy\\ equality\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Truman\\ administration\\ has\\ shown\\ no\\ concern\\ for\\ black\\ women\\ whose\\ husbands\\ have\\ been\\ lynched\\ or\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ incarcerated\\ for\\ fighting\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negro\\ women\\ head\\ many\\ families\\,\\ also\\ work\\ as\\ breadwinners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\median\\ income\\ much\\ lower\\ than\\ for\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ majority\\ of\\ Negro\\ women\\ get\\ less\\ than\\ half\\ the\\ pay\\ of\\ white\\ women\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\excluded\\ from\\ nearly\\ all\\ fields\\ of\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;except\\ the\\ most\\ menial\\ and\\ underpaid\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\World\\ War\\ Two\\ offered\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ non\\-domestic\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\now\\ being\\ forced\\ back\\ into\\ domestic\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negro\\ woman\\ faces\\ \\&ldquo\\;special\\ oppression\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ as\\ Negro\\,\\ as\\ woman\\,\\ and\\ as\\ worker\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\victim\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ chauvinist\\ stereotype\\ as\\ to\\ where\\ her\\ place\\ should\\ be\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TV\\,\\ movies\\,\\ press\\ ignore\\ her\\ real\\ role\\ as\\ breadwinner\\,\\ instead\\ portrays\\ her\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;traditional\\ \\&lsquo\\;mammy\\&rsquo\\;\\ who\\ puts\\ the\\ care\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ families\\ of\\ others\\ above\\ her\\ own\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;traditional\\ stereotype\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;slave\\ mother\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ images\\ must\\ be\\ combated\\ in\\ the\\ media\\,\\ advertising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Few\\ Negro\\ women\\ in\\ leadership\\ of\\ trade\\ unions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\surprising\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ played\\ a\\ big\\ role\\ in\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sharecroppers\\&rsquo\\;\\ strikes\\,\\ pre\\-C\\.I\\.O\\.\\ organizing\\,\\ tobacco\\ worker\\ strikes\\ in\\ NC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\trade\\ unions\\ have\\ failed\\ to\\ organize\\ the\\ domestic\\ worker\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;shows\\ their\\ neglect\\ of\\ Negro\\ woman\\ worker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\minimum\\-wage\\ laws\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cover\\ most\\ black\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ servant\\-served\\ relationship\\ between\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ women\\ \\&ldquo\\;feeds\\ chauvinist\\ attitudes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\white\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chauvinism\\ keeps\\ them\\ from\\ seeing\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ superexploitation\\ of\\ Negro\\ women\\ tends\\ to\\ depress\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ all\\ women\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ Negro\\ women\\ in\\ their\\ organizing\\ efforts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\manifestations\\ of\\ white\\ chauvinism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\progressives\\ and\\ Communists\\ fight\\ for\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ issues\\ relevant\\ to\\ Negro\\ women\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;drawing\\ the\\ line\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ intermarriage\\,\\ social\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\responsibility\\ to\\ overcome\\ chauvinism\\ rests\\ squarely\\ with\\ white\\ women\\ and\\ men\\,\\ while\\ black\\ men\\ have\\ responsibility\\ to\\ fight\\ attitudes\\ of\\ male\\ superiority\\ within\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\white\\ progressive\\ mothers\\ often\\ unwilling\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ children\\ in\\ schools\\ with\\ black\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\discusses\\ case\\ of\\ Rosa\\ Lee\\ Ingram\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\mother\\ of\\ 14\\,\\ imprisoned\\ for\\ life\\ for\\ defending\\ self\\ against\\ white\\ supremacists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ingram\\ case\\ illustrates\\ the\\ landless\\,\\ Jim\\-Crow\\,\\ oppressed\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ family\\ in\\ America\\.\\ It\\ reflects\\ particularly\\ the\\ degradation\\ of\\ Negro\\ women\\ today\\ under\\ American\\ bourgeois\\ democracy\\ moving\\ to\\ fascism\\ and\\ war\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\race\\ trumping\\ gender\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ developing\\ consciousness\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\ question\\ today\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ must\\ not\\ fail\\ to\\ recognize\\ that\\ the\\ Negro\\ question\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\,\\ and\\ not\\ equal\\ to\\,\\ the\\ woman\\ question\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ Socialist\\ America\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ final\\ and\\ full\\ guarantee\\ of\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emancipation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\unemployment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negro\\ women\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ last\\ to\\ be\\ hired\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ be\\ fired\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\growing\\ campaign\\ for\\ equal\\ employment\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ has\\ done\\ little\\ to\\ help\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Communist\\ Party\\ embraces\\ Negro\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ struggles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Who\\,\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ Negro\\ woman\\,\\ the\\ most\\ exploited\\ and\\ oppressed\\,\\ belongs\\ in\\ our\\ Party\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\harness\\ the\\ militancy\\,\\ organization\\ capabilities\\ of\\ Negro\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\need\\ to\\ raise\\ white\\ progressives\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;political\\ consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Wright\\:\\ Chapter\\ from\\ The\\ God\\ That\\ Failed\\ \\(1944\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\jessomatt\\@gmail\\.com\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biographical\\ Note\\:\\ Richard\\ Wright\\ was\\ born\\ of\\ poor\\ Negro\\ parents\\ on\\ September\\ 4\\,\\ 1908\\ on\\ a\\ plantation\\ near\\ Natchez\\,\\ Mississippi\\.\\ His\\ father\\ deserted\\ him\\,\\ his\\ mother\\ raised\\ him\\ until\\ she\\ was\\ stricken\\ with\\ paralysis\\,\\ and\\ then\\ his\\ grandmother\\ raised\\ him\\.\\ He\\ left\\ home\\ at\\ fifteen\\.\\ He\\ decided\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ writer\\ after\\ reading\\ H\\.L\\.\\ Mencken\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Book\\ of\\ Prefaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;He\\ became\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ communist\\ party\\ through\\ the\\ John\\ Reed\\ Club\\.\\ Author\\ of\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Uncle\\ Tom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Children\\,\\ How\\ Bigger\\ was\\ Born\\,\\ Native\\ Son\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ Boy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ one\\ chapter\\ of\\ 6\\,\\ compiled\\ by\\ Richard\\ Crossman\\ and\\ published\\ in\\ 1949\\.\\ Each\\ chapter\\ is\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disenchantment\\ with\\ Communism\\.\\ Wright\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chapter\\ begins\\ with\\ him\\ attending\\ a\\ meeting\\ \\&ldquo\\;of\\ some\\ white\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ happeneing\\ sof\\ the\\ world\\.\\ There\\,\\ he\\ meets\\ Sol\\,\\ a\\ Jewish\\ boy\\,\\ who\\ introduces\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ John\\ Reed\\ Club\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ for\\ getting\\ his\\ writing\\ more\\ exposure\\.\\ At\\ the\\ Club\\,\\ he\\ meets\\ someone\\ named\\ Grimm\\,\\ who\\ gives\\ him\\ several\\ copies\\ of\\ old\\ communist\\ magazines\\.\\ Wright\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ catches\\ him\\ reading\\ the\\ magazines\\,\\ is\\ appalled\\ at\\ the\\ man\\ on\\ the\\ cover\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ them\\,\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ understand\\ such\\ things\\.\\ Wright\\,\\ though\\ holding\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ concerns\\ as\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ is\\ enthralled\\ regardless\\,\\ and\\ is\\ inspired\\ to\\ write\\.\\ He\\ realizes\\ from\\ the\\ magazines\\ that\\ the\\ Communist\\ magazines\\ are\\ over\\-simplyfying\\ the\\ voices\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ people\\.\\ Two\\ of\\ his\\ poems\\ are\\ published\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ going\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ meetings\\,\\ Wright\\ realized\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ two\\ factions\\ in\\ the\\ club\\:\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ artists\\ who\\ essentially\\ ran\\ the\\ club\\,\\ and\\ the\\ writers\\;\\ Wright\\ joined\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ writers\\.\\ Soon\\ the\\ arguments\\ escalated\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ the\\ writers\\ demanded\\ a\\ club\\ secretary\\ be\\ appointed\\.\\ Wright\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ was\\ put\\ up\\ for\\ the\\ vote\\ because\\ they\\ knew\\ that\\ no\\ self\\-respecting\\ communist\\ would\\ go\\ against\\ the\\ largest\\ minority\\ group\\&mdash\\;which\\ they\\ were\\ attempting\\ to\\ unite\\ with\\ them\\.\\ Wright\\ won\\ the\\ election\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ certain\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ club\\ were\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Communist\\ party\\.\\ They\\ influenced\\ what\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ club\\.\\ After\\ an\\ issue\\ with\\ printing\\,\\ they\\ also\\ pressured\\ Wright\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ member\\ or\\ he\\ would\\ lose\\ his\\ position\\ as\\ secretary\\.\\ He\\ agreed\\ and\\ joined\\ the\\ party\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ jewish\\ man\\ named\\ Comrade\\ Young\\ of\\ Detroit\\ then\\ joined\\ the\\ club\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Detroit\\ John\\ Reed\\ Club\\.\\ After\\ gaining\\ the\\ trust\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ club\\,\\ he\\ launched\\ an\\ attack\\ against\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ members\\,\\ Swann\\,\\ accusing\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ traitor\\.\\ Members\\ were\\ aghast\\,\\ and\\ even\\ questioned\\ Wright\\ as\\ to\\ whether\\ he\\ had\\ anything\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ this\\.\\ Humiliated\\ at\\ the\\ questioning\\,\\ Wright\\ questioned\\ Young\\.\\ Young\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ sent\\ to\\ rid\\ the\\ club\\ of\\ any\\ \\&ldquo\\;traitors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wright\\ was\\ then\\ asked\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ report\\ to\\ his\\ unit\\&mdash\\;membership\\ whisch\\ is\\ obligatory\\ for\\ all\\ Communists\\.\\ The\\ Unit\\ was\\ impressed\\ with\\ his\\ speech\\ and\\ manner\\.\\ They\\ found\\ him\\ an\\ asset\\ to\\ the\\ party\\.\\ He\\ was\\ deemed\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;intellectual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wright\\ then\\ met\\ a\\ man\\ named\\ Ross\\,\\ who\\ was\\ indicted\\ for\\ inciting\\ riots\\,\\ and\\ decided\\ to\\ take\\ notes\\ on\\ his\\ life\\.\\ Then\\,\\ one\\ night\\,\\ a\\ black\\ party\\ member\\ brought\\ him\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ streets\\ to\\ discuss\\ how\\ Wright\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loyalty\\ must\\ be\\ proven\\ to\\ the\\ Party\\,\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;many\\ intellectuals\\ have\\ been\\ shot\\ by\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ was\\ vague\\,\\ but\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ Wright\\&rsquo\\;s\\ note\\ taking\\.\\ Wright\\ did\\ not\\ understand\\;\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ understand\\ what\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ had\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Chicago\\,\\ the\\ problem\\ with\\ Trotsky\\,\\ and\\ why\\ he\\ was\\ being\\ warned\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Later\\ again\\,\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ Central\\ Committee\\,\\ Ed\\ Green\\,\\ was\\ suspicious\\ of\\ Wright\\ \\ \\;and\\ his\\ notes\\,\\ and\\ spread\\ this\\ suspicion\\ to\\ Ross\\ also\\.\\ People\\ were\\ wondering\\ what\\ Wright\\ planned\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ notes\\,\\ and\\ who\\ he\\ planned\\ to\\ show\\ them\\ to\\.\\ After\\ this\\ incident\\,\\ the\\ Party\\ and\\ the\\ club\\ began\\ to\\ turn\\ on\\ Wright\\,\\ trusting\\ him\\ less\\ and\\ less\\.\\ They\\ ordered\\ him\\ to\\ stay\\ away\\ from\\ Ross\\.\\ The\\ club\\ was\\ finally\\ disbanded\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wright\\ was\\ then\\ sent\\ to\\ a\\ meeting\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ disbanding\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ clubs\\,\\ he\\ quips\\ that\\ they\\ did\\ this\\ simply\\ to\\ keep\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ club\\.\\ While\\ there\\,\\ he\\ is\\ reminded\\ again\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ black\\ man\\,\\ as\\ he\\ cannot\\ even\\ get\\ a\\ room\\.\\ After\\ the\\ trip\\,\\ a\\ man\\ named\\ Comrade\\ Nealson\\ asked\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ him\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ Wright\\ to\\ organize\\ a\\ group\\ against\\ the\\ high\\ cost\\ of\\ living\\.\\ Wright\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ writing\\ and\\ Negro\\ life\\,\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ qualified\\ for\\ such\\ a\\ role\\.\\ Nealson\\ and\\ the\\ Party\\ forced\\ him\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ role\\ regardless\\.\\ He\\ sensed\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ let\\ him\\ leave\\ after\\ he\\ was\\ done\\ with\\ this\\,\\ though\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\,\\ as\\ his\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ party\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ good\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ more\\ prodding\\ by\\ Nealson\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ important\\ roles\\ in\\ the\\ Party\\,\\ Wright\\ finally\\ asked\\ at\\ the\\ next\\ meeting\\ to\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ ranks\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\,\\ essentially\\ \\&ldquo\\;taking\\ a\\ break\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ Party\\.\\ Nealson\\ asked\\ to\\ defer\\ the\\ decision\\ on\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;break\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Wright\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ leaving\\ the\\ meeting\\.\\ Afterwards\\,\\ Nealson\\ spread\\ the\\ rumor\\ that\\ Wright\\ was\\ actually\\ a\\ Trotskyite\\ that\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ pull\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ party\\.\\ Wright\\ then\\ threatened\\ to\\ resign\\ from\\ the\\ Party\\,\\ but\\ was\\ told\\ by\\ two\\ of\\ his\\ peers\\ that\\ he\\ cannot\\ as\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ look\\ good\\ if\\ someone\\ like\\ him\\ left\\ the\\ Party\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wright\\ was\\ then\\ transferred\\ tp\\ the\\ Federal\\ Negro\\ Theater\\ to\\ do\\ publicity\\.\\ There\\,\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ showcase\\ the\\ talent\\ of\\ the\\ actors\\,\\ and\\ worked\\ with\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ friends\\ to\\ better\\ the\\ group\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ actors\\ turned\\ on\\ him\\ and\\ asked\\ him\\ to\\ leave\\.\\ At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ he\\ began\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ indeed\\,\\ negroes\\ are\\ childrish\\ and\\ will\\ never\\ grow\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;He\\ was\\ then\\ asked\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ trial\\ of\\ Ross\\.\\ He\\ was\\ suspicious\\ as\\ first\\,\\ wondering\\ whether\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ trial\\ for\\ him\\,\\ but\\ finally\\ went\\ out\\ of\\ curiosity\\.\\ Ross\\ plead\\ guilty\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ charges\\ the\\ Party\\ charged\\ him\\ with\\.\\ Wright\\ wanted\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ trial\\,\\ so\\ stricken\\ by\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ Ross\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Comrades\\ wabted\\ him\\ to\\ stay\\ and\\ see\\ what\\ happened\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ enemy\\ of\\ the\\ working\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Finally\\ he\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ leave\\.\\ Wright\\ vowed\\ again\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ be\\ alone\\ and\\ never\\ let\\ himself\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ Party\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;After\\ the\\ Federal\\ Experiment\\ Theater\\,\\ Wright\\ was\\ transferred\\ to\\ the\\ Federal\\ Writer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ project\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ Party\\ members\\ who\\ deemed\\ him\\ a\\ traitor\\ and\\ thus\\ could\\ never\\ speak\\ with\\ him\\.\\ These\\ members\\ later\\ conspired\\ to\\ get\\ Wright\\ fired\\.\\ One\\ day\\,\\ after\\ this\\ event\\,\\ Wright\\ realized\\ it\\ was\\ May\\ Day\\ and\\ looked\\ for\\ his\\ unit\\ to\\ march\\ with\\,\\ When\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ his\\ unit\\,\\ he\\ was\\ invited\\ to\\ march\\ with\\ the\\ unit\\ of\\ another\\ black\\ party\\ member\\.\\ Wright\\ was\\ cautious\\,\\ as\\ he\\ knew\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;enemy\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ those\\ there\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ some\\ white\\ party\\ members\\ physically\\ and\\ verbally\\ abused\\ him\\,\\ and\\ kicked\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ marching\\ area\\.\\ The\\ black\\ communist\\ watched\\;\\ Wright\\ was\\ in\\ disbelief\\ of\\ this\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;After\\ this\\ event\\,\\ Wright\\ vowed\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ truth\\ and\\ spread\\ the\\ word\\ about\\ humanity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 21\\.\\ Gender\\ or\\ Race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frances\\ Beale\\:\\ Double\\ Jeopardy\\:\\ To\\ Be\\ Black\\ and\\ Female\\ \\(1970\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\tdturner\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beale\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ argument\\ in\\ this\\ paper\\ is\\ that\\ capitalism\\ \\(and\\ its\\ afterbirth\\&mdash\\;racism\\)\\ has\\ attempted\\ to\\ destroy\\ Black\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ destruction\\ is\\ facilitated\\ by\\ capitalism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ assigning\\ males\\ and\\ females\\ to\\ specific\\ roles\\ that\\ neither\\ Black\\ men\\ nor\\ Black\\ women\\ can\\ realize\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ under\\ capitalism\\,\\ the\\ successful\\ qualities\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ is\\ the\\ successful\\ \\&ldquo\\;breadwinner\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ sufficiently\\ provides\\ for\\ his\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ is\\ to\\ tend\\ to\\ the\\ home\\ and\\ care\\ for\\ her\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ due\\ to\\ capitalism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oppressive\\ nature\\,\\ neither\\ role\\ can\\ be\\ fulfilled\\ by\\ Blacks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relationship\\ Between\\ Black\\ Men\\ and\\ Black\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Capitalism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exclusion\\ of\\ Blacks\\ within\\ its\\ model\\ family\\ puts\\ a\\ sever\\ strain\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ Black\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ within\\ the\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ the\\ Black\\ male\\ rejects\\ the\\ tenets\\ of\\ capitalism\\ on\\ many\\ issues\\,\\ he\\ simultaneously\\ imposes\\ these\\ guidelines\\ on\\ Black\\ women\\ within\\ the\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ certain\\ Black\\ men\\ maintain\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ psychologically\\ castrated\\ by\\ society\\ but\\ that\\ black\\ women\\ somehow\\ escaped\\ this\\ persecution\\ and\\ even\\ contributed\\ to\\ this\\ emasculation\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ degrading\\ forms\\ of\\ oppression\\ for\\ Black\\ women\\ as\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ sexually\\ abused\\ and\\ economically\\ exploited\\ by\\ white\\ colonists\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ the\\ onslaught\\ of\\ criticisms\\ from\\ Black\\ men\\,\\ Black\\ women\\ have\\ no\\ protector\\ and\\ are\\ undermined\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ household\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Overall\\,\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ misconception\\ that\\ Black\\ women\\ must\\ be\\ subjugated\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ Blacks\\ to\\ achieve\\ equality\\,\\ however\\,\\ Beal\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ strong\\ nation\\ against\\ oppression\\,\\ every\\ man\\,\\ woman\\,\\ and\\ child\\ must\\ highly\\ develop\\ political\\ consciousness\\,\\ academic\\ prowess\\,\\ and\\ technical\\ skill\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economic\\ Exploitation\\ of\\ Black\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Though\\ capitalism\\ economically\\ exploits\\ Black\\ \\(and\\ all\\ poor\\)\\ men\\,\\ it\\ gives\\ them\\ a\\ false\\ sense\\ of\\ superiority\\ in\\ the\\ home\\,\\ giving\\ the\\ oppression\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ home\\ an\\ escape\\ valve\\ for\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ women\\,\\ especially\\ black\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ woman\\,\\ are\\ exploited\\ as\\ surplus\\ labor\\ supply\\ through\\ low\\ wages\\ and\\ jobs\\ in\\ exploitive\\ industries\\ \\(domestic\\ \\&\\;\\ hospital\\ workers\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Historically\\ racist\\ and\\ chauvinistic\\ labor\\ unions\\ fail\\ to\\ fight\\ inequality\\ in\\ labor\\ wages\\ across\\ race\\ and\\ sex\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ manipulative\\ use\\ Black\\ people\\ and\\ women\\ is\\ a\\ cancer\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ labor\\ scene\\ and\\ the\\ liberation\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ groups\\ will\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ stepping\\ stone\\ to\\ liberation\\ for\\ all\\ oppressed\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bedroom\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ so\\-called\\ government\\ birth\\ control\\ initiatives\\ provide\\ another\\ means\\ of\\ oppression\\.\\ \\ \\;Beale\\ refers\\ to\\ this\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ method\\ of\\ outright\\ surgical\\ genocide\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ asserts\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ scheme\\ by\\ the\\ ruling\\-class\\ elite\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ Black\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ vasectomy\\,\\ which\\ is\\ performed\\ on\\ males\\,\\ is\\ a\\ quick\\ and\\ simple\\ process\\,\\ salpingectomy\\,\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;getting\\ your\\ tubes\\ tied\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ is\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ intricate\\ and\\ dangerous\\ surgery\\.\\ \\ \\;Threatened\\ with\\ the\\ cut\\-off\\ of\\ welfare\\,\\ some\\ black\\ women\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ this\\ procedure\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rigid\\ abortion\\ laws\\ of\\ that\\ time\\ are\\ also\\ problematic\\ as\\ rich\\ white\\ women\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ obtain\\ these\\ procedures\\ with\\ no\\ difficulty\\ and\\ Blacks\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ find\\ less\\ safe\\ sources\\ for\\ this\\ procedure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relationship\\ to\\ the\\ White\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Much\\ discourse\\ occurs\\ over\\ the\\ parallels\\ between\\ the\\ white\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liberation\\ movement\\ and\\ the\\ black\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ those\\ white\\ groups\\ without\\ an\\ anti\\-imperialist\\ and\\ antiracist\\ ideology\\ have\\ nothing\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ Black\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ struggles\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ major\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ movements\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ white\\ movement\\ is\\ basically\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ assumed\\ that\\ the\\ white\\ movement\\ does\\ not\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ system\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ in\\ both\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oppression\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ unification\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ is\\ impossible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ new\\ world\\ that\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ and\\ black\\ women\\ strive\\ for\\ must\\ destroy\\ oppression\\ of\\ any\\ type\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ means\\ all\\ traditional\\ routines\\ established\\ in\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ totally\\ corrupt\\ society\\ must\\ be\\ altered\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ assigned\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ old\\ roles\\ of\\ housekeeper\\ and\\ mother\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ everyone\\ must\\ develop\\ a\\ high\\ political\\ consciousness\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ system\\,\\ and\\ create\\ new\\ institutions\\ that\\ eliminate\\ oppression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mae\\ C\\.\\ King\\:\\ Oppression\\ and\\ Power\\:\\ The\\ Unique\\ Status\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ Woman\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ Political\\ System\\,\\ Quarterly\\ \\(1975\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\tdturner\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ purports\\ that\\ Black\\ women\\ hold\\ a\\ unique\\ status\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ political\\ system\\ rooted\\ in\\ the\\ heritage\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ slavery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ end\\,\\ the\\ oppression\\ of\\ Black\\ women\\ and\\ Blacks\\ in\\ general\\ is\\ not\\ justified\\ on\\ a\\ racial\\ basis\\ and\\ continued\\ in\\ other\\ institutional\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ seeks\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ these\\ differences\\ and\\ examine\\ their\\ implications\\ through\\ hcaste\\ and\\ status\\ differences\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ three\\ fundamental\\ points\\ \\(1\\)\\ sex\\ role\\ differences\\ between\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ women\\ in\\ America\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ the\\ inappropriateness\\ of\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ women\\ to\\ Black\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ predicament\\;\\ and\\ \\(3\\)\\ the\\ political\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ racial\\ dichotomy\\ and\\ caste\\ structure\\ of\\ American\\ society\\ for\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ an\\ effective\\ interracial\\ and\\ intercaste\\ alliance\\ capable\\ of\\ generating\\ equal\\ benefits\\ for\\ both\\ components\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Slave\\ Heritage\\ and\\ Role\\ Differentials\\ of\\ Black\\ and\\ White\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;King\\ notes\\ that\\ America\\ is\\ organized\\ on\\ a\\ racial\\ caste\\ basis\\ in\\ which\\ Black\\ women\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ caste\\ and\\ white\\ women\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ supper\\ caste\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ group\\ is\\ discriminated\\ against\\ by\\ its\\ respective\\ male\\ counterparts\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ this\\ caste\\ system\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ analyzing\\ the\\ potential\\ of\\ a\\ black\\-white\\ alliance\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ caste\\ system\\ describes\\ the\\ American\\ political\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ the\\ political\\ system\\ made\\ no\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ roles\\ of\\ black\\ women\\ and\\ those\\ of\\ black\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ the\\ white\\ woman\\ has\\ been\\ characterized\\ as\\ small\\,\\ weak\\,\\ soft\\,\\ peaceful\\,\\ and\\ relaxed\\,\\ this\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ docile\\ housewife\\ does\\ not\\ reflect\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Black\\ women\\ simply\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ to\\ enjoy\\ the\\ luxuries\\ of\\ suburbia\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ American\\ society\\ has\\ systematically\\ denied\\ black\\ men\\ job\\ opportunities\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nearly\\ impossible\\ for\\ Black\\ women\\ to\\ fit\\ the\\ housewife\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ systematic\\ denial\\ not\\ only\\ made\\ it\\ impossible\\ for\\ Black\\ men\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ that\\ Black\\ women\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ woman\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ seen\\ as\\ weak\\ or\\ peaceful\\,\\ Black\\ women\\ are\\ depicted\\ as\\ strong\\ and\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;bearers\\ of\\ heavy\\ burdens\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ their\\ role\\ differs\\ little\\ from\\ Black\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Misapplication\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ Woman\\&rdquo\\;\\ Status\\ Analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Since\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ system\\ has\\ generally\\ rendered\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ woman\\&rdquo\\;\\ images\\ inapplicable\\ to\\ Black\\ woman\\,\\ a\\ political\\ movement\\ organized\\ around\\ these\\ as\\ central\\ issues\\ is\\ not\\ likely\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ white\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ is\\ directed\\ primarily\\ against\\ white\\ male\\ sexism\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ for\\ Black\\ women\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ racism\\,\\ this\\ problem\\ of\\ racism\\ and\\ sexism\\ is\\ inextricably\\ linked\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ white\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ fails\\ acknowledge\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ the\\ white\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ makes\\ the\\ American\\ housewife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cause\\ or\\ grievances\\ the\\ focal\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ since\\ Black\\ women\\ do\\ not\\ fit\\ this\\ mold\\,\\ the\\ white\\ movement\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ address\\ Black\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ issues\\ is\\ limited\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Limited\\ Viability\\ of\\ an\\ Interracial\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Alliance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ upper\\ caste\\ American\\ housewife\\ probably\\ shares\\ the\\ same\\ prejudiced\\ views\\ of\\ her\\ white\\ male\\ companion\\,\\ so\\ she\\ probably\\ opposes\\ any\\ black\\-white\\ coalition\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ she\\ will\\ most\\ likely\\ oppose\\ any\\ black\\-white\\ coalition\\ which\\ commits\\ itself\\ to\\ a\\ program\\ of\\ action\\ considerate\\ of\\ vital\\ concerns\\ of\\ black\\ women\\.\\ This\\ attitude\\ towards\\ Black\\ women\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ indicator\\ of\\ how\\ successful\\ a\\ joint\\ coalition\\ would\\ be\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ if\\ a\\ joint\\ coalition\\ was\\ successful\\,\\ unless\\ the\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruits\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ explicitly\\ defined\\ and\\ articulated\\ at\\ every\\ state\\ and\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;battle\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ US\\ racism\\ indicates\\ that\\ promised\\ implicit\\ rewards\\ to\\ each\\ party\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ honored\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ even\\ if\\ this\\ movement\\ is\\ successful\\,\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ support\\ for\\ black\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ issues\\ by\\ white\\ women\\ would\\ probably\\ lead\\ to\\ another\\ form\\ of\\ subjugation\\ of\\ Black\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ the\\ American\\ experience\\ of\\ Black\\ and\\ white\\ women\\ differs\\ politically\\,\\ economically\\,\\ socially\\,\\ and\\ emotionally\\,\\ a\\ commonality\\ of\\ interest\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ assumed\\ and\\ would\\ be\\ difficult\\ to\\ foster\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Elizabeth\\ Almquist\\:\\ Untangling\\ the\\ Effects\\ of\\ Race\\ and\\ Sex\\:\\ The\\ Disadvantaged\\ Status\\ of\\ Black\\ Women\\,\\ Social\\ Science\\ \\(1975\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\aalexand\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subject\\:\\ Gender\\ does\\ oppress\\ black\\ women\\,\\ often\\ more\\ so\\ than\\ does\\ their\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Counters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\black\\ women\\ as\\ unworthy\\ subjects\\ of\\ social\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ sex\\ differences\\/sexism\\ and\\ race\\ differences\\ \\/racism\\ \\(there\\ is\\ no\\ pertinent\\ overlap\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Race\\ is\\ black\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ burden\\ and\\ sex\\ merely\\ intensifies\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;black\\ women\\ have\\ an\\ easier\\ time\\ finding\\ work\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ enjoy\\ a\\ certain\\ \\&lsquo\\;unnatural\\ superiority\\&rsquo\\;\\ over\\ black\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Argues\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Black\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ are\\ disadvantages\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ race\\,\\ and\\ that\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ feminist\\ movement\\ appeals\\ largely\\ to\\ white\\ housewives\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ women\\ work\\ outside\\ the\\ household\\,\\ they\\ add\\ the\\ paid\\ job\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ their\\ unpaid\\ ones\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Marriage\\ is\\ a\\ union\\ between\\ unequals\\,\\ with\\ husbands\\ wielding\\ the\\ greater\\ amount\\ of\\ marital\\ power\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\man\\ makes\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ big\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\:\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ often\\&ldquo\\;\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ brings\\ the\\ most\\ to\\ the\\ marriage\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;family\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ prototypical\\ home\\ further\\ support\\ this\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Why\\ this\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Women\\ do\\ not\\ control\\ a\\ major\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wealth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ higher\\ the\\ rank\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\,\\ the\\ lower\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mode\\ of\\ study\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ these\\ inequalities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Compares\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ males\\,\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ females\\,\\ white\\ females\\ and\\ males\\,\\ and\\ black\\ males\\ and\\ females\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;determine\\ whether\\ the\\ two\\ figures\\ for\\ racial\\ differences\\ exceed\\ the\\ two\\ figures\\ for\\ sexual\\ differences\\,\\ or\\ whether\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ sexual\\ disparities\\ outweigh\\ the\\ racial\\ disparities\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ race\\ differentials\\ exceed\\ the\\ two\\ sex\\ differentials\\ in\\ unemployment\\ rates\\.\\ There\\ is\\ interaction\\ effect\\ \\(crossing\\ in\\ the\\ graph\\)\\ for\\ black\\ women\\ and\\ their\\ unemployment\\ rates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Gaps\\ between\\ groups\\ paired\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ sex\\ are\\ larger\\ than\\ those\\ between\\ the\\ groups\\ compared\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ ranks\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ female\\ professionals\\ are\\ swerrled\\ by\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ nurses\\ and\\ teachers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;sexual\\ segregation\\ exceeds\\ racial\\ segregation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;women\\ are\\ unable\\ o\\ convert\\ their\\ educational\\ and\\ occupational\\ attainments\\ into\\ earnings\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ high\\ rates\\ men\\ do\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ only\\ do\\ blacks\\ form\\ a\\ caste\\ in\\ America\\,\\ but\\ females\\ do\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Even\\ when\\ \\[women\\]\\ enter\\ male\\ dominated\\ male\\ dominated\\ occupations\\,\\ their\\ sexual\\ status\\ is\\ highlighted\\ and\\ emphasized\\.\\ They\\ do\\ not\\ past\\ readily\\ into\\ the\\ dominant\\ caste\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Furthermore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Women\\ from\\ all\\ walks\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ backgrounds\\ have\\ joined\\ together\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;will\\ ultimately\\ redound\\ to\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ all\\ women\\,\\ white\\ or\\ black\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\We\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\ to\\ be\\ divided\\ along\\ racial\\ lines\\ w\\/n\\ this\\ mvmt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beth\\ E\\.\\ Richie\\:\\ Battered\\ Black\\ Women\\:\\ A\\ Challenge\\ for\\ the\\ Black\\ Community\\,\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(1985\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\aalexand\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subject\\:\\ domestic\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ and\\ in\\ other\\ minority\\ communities\\;\\ \\ \\;solutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\particularly\\ bad\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ society\\ that\\ negates\\ my\\ existence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\divisive\\ issue\\ to\\ air\\ to\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;trap\\ of\\ silence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Big\\ Question\\:\\ Whether\\ or\\ not\\ expose\\ this\\ additional\\ problem\\ within\\ the\\ black\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;loyalty\\ \\&\\;\\ devotion\\ are\\ enormous\\ barriers\\ to\\ overcome\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Battered\\ Minority\\ Women\\ \\(BMW\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;History\\ of\\ being\\ physically\\ battered\\ by\\ men\\ in\\ their\\ home\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ experience\\ of\\ having\\ survived\\ the\\ trauma\\ of\\ a\\ lifetime\\ of\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;strong\\ allegiance\\ to\\ various\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ communities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Why\\ are\\ they\\ battered\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;because\\ their\\ men\\ are\\ deprived\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Solutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Men\\ \\ \\;must\\ be\\ held\\ responsible\\ for\\ every\\ injury\\ they\\ cause\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ \\[black\\ women\\]\\ must\\ learn\\ that\\ on\\ occasion\\ we\\ must\\ use\\ our\\ strength\\ \\ \\;for\\ ourselves\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ women\\ must\\ assume\\ a\\ leadership\\ role\\ in\\ challenging\\ our\\ communities\\ to\\ put\\ in\\ check\\ institutional\\ and\\ individual\\ homophobic\\ behavior\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\do\\ work\\ separate\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ feminist\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Clarence\\ Thomas\\:\\ Clarence\\ Thomas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ First\\ Statement\\ to\\ the\\ Senate\\ Judiciary\\ Committee\\,\\ October\\ 11\\,\\ 1991\\ \\(Winter\\ 1991\\/Sp\\ 1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\aalexand\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subject\\:\\ Defends\\ himself\\ against\\ accusations\\ of\\ sexually\\ harassing\\ Anita\\ Hill\\ via\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ their\\ professional\\ relationship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ lawyer\\ and\\ judge\\,\\ claims\\ to\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ really\\ understood\\ the\\ anguish\\,\\ the\\ fears\\,\\ the\\ doubts\\,\\ the\\ seriousness\\ of\\ the\\ matter\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ sexual\\ harassment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alleged\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ interested\\ in\\ Hill\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ professional\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ to\\ have\\ discussed\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ her\\ about\\ pornographic\\ or\\ X\\-rated\\ films\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ looking\\ over\\ their\\ relationship\\,\\ sees\\ nothing\\ but\\ an\\ amorous\\ feelings\\ toward\\ her\\,\\ having\\ helped\\ her\\ to\\ gain\\ all\\ of\\ most\\ recent\\ career\\ positions\\;\\ identifies\\ that\\ there\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ their\\ relationship\\ after\\ he\\ began\\ working\\ at\\ the\\ E\\.E\\.O\\.C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ their\\ final\\ professional\\ split\\ as\\ Hill\\ took\\ a\\ positon\\ as\\ a\\ professor\\ per\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ Thomas\\,\\ he\\ claims\\ to\\ have\\ had\\ little\\ contact\\ with\\ her\\ other\\ than\\ in\\ 1\\ or\\ 2\\ later\\ visits\\ to\\ Tulsa\\,\\ OK\\,\\ her\\ new\\ location\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;She\\ never\\ raised\\ any\\ hint\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ uncomfortable\\ with\\ me\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ a\\ person\\ I\\ have\\ helped\\ at\\ every\\ turn\\ in\\ the\\ road\\ since\\ we\\ met\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Though\\ I\\ am\\,\\ by\\ no\\ means\\,\\ a\\ perfect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ means\\,\\ I\\ have\\ not\\ done\\ what\\ she\\ has\\ alleged\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essentially\\,\\ within\\ his\\ first\\ 103\\ days\\ in\\ office\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ subject\\ to\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ personal\\ battles\\,\\ but\\ this\\ one\\,\\ with\\ someone\\ he\\ considered\\ a\\ friend\\,\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ straw\\.\\ He\\ even\\ claims\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ his\\ old\\ job\\ if\\ it\\ will\\ allow\\ him\\ the\\ privacy\\ and\\ sanctity\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ personal\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ not\\ American\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ never\\ asked\\ to\\ be\\ nominated\\.\\ It\\ was\\ an\\ honor\\.\\ Little\\ did\\ I\\ know\\ the\\ price\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ too\\ high\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ provide\\ the\\ rope\\ for\\ my\\ own\\ lynching\\,\\ or\\ for\\ further\\ humiliation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Anita\\ Hill\\:\\ Statement\\ of\\ Professor\\ Anita\\ F\\.\\ Hill\\ to\\ the\\ Senate\\ Judiciary\\ Committee\\,\\ October\\ 11\\,\\ 1991\\ \\(Winter\\ 1991\\/Spring\\ 1992\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\pfenster\\@gmail\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-law\\ professor\\ at\\ University\\ of\\ Oklahoma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-raised\\ in\\ a\\ Baptist\\ family\\ without\\ much\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-introduced\\ to\\ Clarence\\ Thomas\\ by\\ a\\ mutual\\ friend\\ after\\ she\\ graduated\\ from\\ Yale\\ Law\\ School\\;\\ accepted\\ position\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ him\\ as\\ his\\ assistant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-three\\ months\\ later\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ her\\ to\\ go\\ out\\ socially\\ with\\ him\\;\\ she\\ declines\\,\\ citing\\ concerns\\ with\\ professionalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-he\\ continues\\ to\\ ask\\ her\\ out\\,\\ straining\\ their\\ working\\ relationship\\ further\\ by\\ discussing\\ explicit\\ sexual\\ acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-her\\ attempts\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ situation\\ were\\ rarely\\ successful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-when\\ Thomas\\ was\\ made\\ chair\\ of\\ E\\.E\\.O\\.C\\.\\,\\ she\\ decides\\ to\\ go\\ with\\ him\\,\\ believing\\ the\\ sexual\\ overtures\\ had\\ ended\\,\\ and\\ also\\ believing\\ she\\ had\\ no\\ alternative\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-things\\ are\\ ok\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ months\\,\\ but\\ then\\ the\\ harassment\\ continues\\,\\ highlighted\\ by\\ a\\ bizarre\\ exchange\\ where\\ Thomas\\ picked\\ a\\ can\\ of\\ coke\\ up\\ off\\ his\\ desk\\ and\\ asked\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Who\\ has\\ put\\ pubic\\ hair\\ on\\ my\\ Coke\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-January\\,\\ 1983\\,\\ Hill\\ secretly\\ begins\\ looking\\ for\\ another\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Spring\\,\\ 1983\\,\\ hired\\ by\\ Oral\\ Roberts\\ University\\ as\\ a\\ teacher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thomas\\ arranges\\ a\\ dinner\\,\\ claiming\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ professional\\ courtesy\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ social\\ invitation\\,\\ and\\ she\\ accepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ discusses\\ her\\ work\\ and\\ the\\ time\\ she\\ had\\ spent\\ working\\ with\\ him\\,\\ saying\\ he\\ was\\ pleased\\ with\\ most\\ all\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Finally\\ tells\\ her\\ that\\ if\\ she\\ ever\\ reveals\\ his\\ behavior\\ to\\ anyone\\,\\ it\\ would\\ ruin\\ his\\ career\\.\\ Not\\ an\\ apology\\ or\\ an\\ explanation\\,\\ just\\ a\\ statement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-After\\ leaving\\ DC\\,\\ Hill\\ and\\ Thomas\\ have\\ minimal\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Hill\\ acknowledges\\ she\\ might\\ have\\ taken\\ action\\ earlier\\,\\ but\\ believed\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ course\\ she\\ took\\ was\\ easier\\,\\ if\\ not\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Finally\\ could\\ not\\ keep\\ the\\ truth\\ bottled\\ up\\ any\\ more\\,\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ came\\ forward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Clarence\\ Thomas\\:\\ Second\\ Statement\\ from\\ Judge\\ Clarence\\ Thomas\\,\\ October\\ 11\\,\\ 1991\\ \\(Winter\\ 1991\\/Spring\\ 1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\pfenster\\@gmail\\.com\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thomas\\ begins\\ by\\ categorically\\ denying\\ any\\ sexual\\ conversations\\,\\ attempts\\ to\\ date\\ her\\,\\ sexual\\ harassment\\ of\\ her\\,\\ or\\ any\\ sexual\\ interest\\ in\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-blames\\ media\\ for\\ validating\\ the\\ sleaze\\ that\\ was\\ searched\\ for\\ by\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ judiciary\\ committee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-asserts\\ that\\ something\\ is\\ wrong\\ with\\ the\\ country\\ when\\ any\\ person\\ would\\ be\\ subjected\\ to\\ the\\ accusations\\ he\\ has\\ heard\\ directed\\ towards\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-refers\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ high\\-tech\\ lynching\\ for\\ uppity\\ blacks\\ who\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ deign\\ to\\ think\\ for\\ themselves\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ R\\.\\ Lawrence\\ III\\:\\ Cringing\\ at\\ Myths\\ of\\ Black\\ Sexuality\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(Winter\\ 1991\\/Spring\\ 1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\pfenster\\@gmail\\.com\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-African\\-Americans\\ cringe\\ when\\ they\\ hear\\ of\\ the\\ Hill\\/Thomas\\ story\\ because\\ all\\ black\\ men\\ are\\ implicated\\.\\ The\\ myths\\ of\\ black\\ sexuality\\ are\\ alive\\ and\\ well\\ in\\ America\\.\\ White\\ America\\ will\\ hear\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ oversexed\\ black\\ men\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ prevalance\\ of\\ sexual\\ harassment\\ in\\ the\\ workplace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Second\\ myth\\ states\\ that\\ black\\ women\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ refuse\\ the\\ sexual\\ advances\\ of\\ any\\ man\\.\\ People\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believing\\ Hill\\ because\\ they\\ believe\\ the\\ myth\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;unchaste\\&rdquo\\;\\ black\\ women\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thirdly\\,\\ it\\ elicits\\ a\\ cringe\\ because\\ racist\\ myths\\ have\\ been\\ internalized\\ by\\ the\\ black\\ community\\,\\ and\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ black\\ male\\ violence\\ against\\ black\\ women\\ is\\ a\\ familiar\\ one\\.\\ The\\ anger\\ resulting\\ from\\ degradation\\ by\\ whites\\ is\\ turned\\ around\\ by\\ black\\ men\\ onto\\ the\\ black\\ women\\ of\\ their\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ can\\ blacks\\ simultaneously\\ fight\\ the\\ mutually\\ reinforcing\\ oppressions\\ of\\ racism\\ and\\ sexism\\ in\\ society\\?\\ This\\ story\\ is\\ about\\ more\\ than\\ two\\ people\\,\\ more\\ than\\ sexual\\ harassment\\ in\\ the\\ workplace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thomas\\ is\\ banking\\ on\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ believing\\ him\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ preserve\\ racial\\ solidarity\\ and\\ protect\\ against\\ the\\ racial\\ stereotype\\ of\\ the\\ oversexed\\ black\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lawrence\\ argues\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thomas\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ use\\ our\\ collective\\ racial\\ victimization\\ to\\ blind\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Julianne\\ Malveaux\\:\\ No\\ Peace\\ in\\ a\\ Sisterly\\ Space\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(Winter\\ 1991\\/Spring\\ 1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\pfenster\\@gmail\\.com\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-everywhere\\ Malveaux\\ goes\\,\\ people\\ are\\ talking\\ about\\ Hill\\/Thomas\\.\\ Hill\\ is\\ supported\\ in\\ bookstores\\ and\\ health\\ food\\ stores\\,\\ while\\ black\\ men\\ combine\\ fiction\\ with\\ justification\\ in\\ their\\ support\\ of\\ Thomas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Malveaux\\ expected\\ solidarity\\ and\\ sisterhood\\ among\\ her\\ female\\ friends\\,\\ but\\ she\\ has\\ not\\ found\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Arizona\\ Senator\\ Dennis\\ DeConcini\\ refers\\ to\\ Hill\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;some\\ lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ Professor\\ Anita\\ Hill\\,\\ describing\\ the\\ allegations\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;unfortunate\\ for\\ Judge\\ Thomas\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Women\\ in\\ candle\\ shop\\,\\ overheard\\ by\\ Malveaux\\,\\ are\\ not\\ empathetic\\ to\\ Hill\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;I\\ hate\\ that\\ bitch\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;if\\ he\\ talked\\ dirty\\ to\\ her\\,\\ why\\ did\\ she\\ follow\\ him\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ other\\ comments\\ are\\ overheard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-black\\ women\\ distanced\\ Hill\\ and\\ her\\ success\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ her\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-great\\ deal\\ of\\ resentment\\ towards\\ Hill\\ amongst\\ black\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Working\\ black\\ women\\ are\\ accused\\ of\\ being\\ the\\ downfall\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ family\\,\\ but\\ without\\ their\\ work\\,\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ all\\ two\\-earner\\ families\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ poverty\\.\\ They\\ work\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ to\\,\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ choose\\ to\\ work\\ over\\ men\\ and\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-NY\\ Times\\ prints\\ a\\ piece\\ by\\ a\\ black\\ male\\ scholar\\ who\\ claimed\\ that\\ this\\ sexual\\ language\\ Thomas\\ was\\ accused\\ of\\ using\\ was\\ how\\ black\\ people\\ regularly\\ talked\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ black\\ women\\ prefer\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;bitch\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;baby\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thomas\\ found\\ support\\ because\\ he\\ appealed\\ to\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ man\\ being\\ lynched\\;\\ a\\ quick\\ and\\ dramatic\\ death\\.\\ The\\ plight\\ of\\ black\\ women\\ is\\ slower\\ and\\ more\\ deliberate\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ the\\ grind\\ of\\ daily\\ life\\ that\\ wears\\ us\\ slowly\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jacquelyne\\ Johnson\\ Jackson\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Them\\ Against\\ Us\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Anita\\ Hill\\ v\\.\\ Clarence\\ Thomas\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(Winter\\ 1991\\/Spring\\ 1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\pfenster\\@gmail\\.com\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jackson\\ supported\\ Thomas\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ she\\ would\\ support\\ any\\ black\\ player\\ on\\ the\\ field\\ at\\ college\\ football\\ games\\,\\ whether\\ that\\ player\\ was\\ on\\ her\\ team\\ or\\ playing\\ against\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Hill\\ gets\\ categorized\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;them\\ vs\\.\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Jackson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jackson\\ supported\\ Thomas\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ George\\ Bush\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ black\\ star\\.\\ If\\ he\\ lost\\ his\\ job\\,\\ an\\ equally\\ or\\ more\\ conservative\\ non\\-black\\ would\\ take\\ his\\ spot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jackson\\ accuses\\ Hill\\ of\\ lying\\ and\\ playing\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;young\\ dumb\\ female\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ supposedly\\ unaware\\ of\\ her\\ rights\\ as\\ an\\ employee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Given\\ Hill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mediocre\\ behavior\\ and\\ looks\\,\\ and\\ considering\\ Thomas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ ambitions\\,\\ Jackson\\ agrees\\ with\\ attorney\\ John\\ Doggett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assertion\\ that\\ Hill\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ worth\\ Thomas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ risk\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ case\\ showed\\ that\\ African\\-Americans\\ are\\ not\\ ideologically\\ or\\ politically\\ united\\.\\ Racial\\ representatives\\ must\\ truly\\ represent\\ the\\ majority\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ race\\,\\ not\\ just\\ their\\ opinions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ black\\,\\ racially\\ integrated\\ hirings\\ or\\ appointees\\ have\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Toms\\ and\\ Aunt\\ Thomasinas\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Blacks\\ who\\ support\\ blacks\\ are\\ unacceptable\\ to\\ whites\\,\\ and\\ labeled\\ as\\ arrogant\\,\\ uncooperative\\ and\\ unacceptable\\ employees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-According\\ to\\ Jackson\\,\\ Hill\\ wrongly\\ assumed\\ that\\ white\\ males\\ were\\ more\\ partial\\ to\\ black\\ females\\ than\\ to\\ black\\ males\\.\\ Most\\ blacks\\ objected\\ to\\ Hill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ acquiescence\\ to\\ white\\ male\\ superiority\\ and\\ improper\\ use\\ of\\ black\\ females\\ against\\ black\\ males\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\African\\ American\\ Women\\ in\\ Defense\\ of\\ Ourselves\\,\\ The\\ Black\\ Scholar\\ \\(Winter\\ 1991\\/Spring\\ 1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\pfenster\\@gmail\\.com\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-authors\\ do\\ not\\ support\\ the\\ nomination\\ of\\ Thomas\\ as\\ an\\ Associate\\ Justice\\ of\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\.\\ In\\ this\\ instance\\,\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ man\\ on\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ does\\ not\\ guarantee\\ that\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\ will\\ be\\ protected\\.\\ This\\ move\\ is\\ bad\\ not\\ only\\ for\\ African\\-American\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ but\\ for\\ anyone\\ concerned\\ with\\ social\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thomas\\ outrageously\\ manipulated\\ the\\ legacy\\ of\\ lynching\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protect\\ himself\\,\\ trivializing\\ and\\ misrepresenting\\ a\\ painful\\ part\\ of\\ African\\-American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Sexual\\ abuse\\ of\\ black\\ women\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ taken\\ seriously\\.\\ The\\ common\\ assumption\\ is\\ that\\ black\\ women\\ cannot\\ be\\ raped\\ or\\ otherwise\\ sexually\\ abused\\.\\ Hill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ case\\ shows\\ that\\ those\\ black\\ women\\ who\\ do\\ come\\ forward\\ are\\ not\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ believed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\April\\ 2\\.\\ Sell\\-outs\\ or\\ Race\\ Men\\ and\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\E\\.\\ Franklin\\ Frazier\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Behind\\ the\\ Masks\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Black\\ Bourgeoisie\\ \\(1957\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\rvalix\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Black\\ Bourgeoisie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Masks\\ they\\ wear\\ conceal\\ feelings\\ of\\ inferiority\\,\\ insecurity\\ and\\ frustrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ escape\\ identification\\ w\\/\\ the\\ masses\\ of\\ Negroes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ developed\\ a\\ self\\-hatred\\ that\\ reveals\\ itself\\ in\\ their\\ deprecation\\ of\\ physical\\ and\\ social\\ Negro\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Feelings\\ if\\ inferiority\\/insecurity\\:\\ revealed\\ in\\ their\\ struggle\\ for\\ status\\ w\\/in\\ Negro\\ world\\ and\\ their\\ craving\\ of\\ white\\ recognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constantly\\ seek\\ escape\\ in\\ delusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mark\\ of\\ Oppression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Despite\\ their\\ efforts\\,\\ middle\\-class\\ families\\ cannot\\ shield\\ their\\ children\\ from\\ the\\ mark\\ of\\ oppression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quote\\ from\\ middle\\-class\\ youth\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ I\\ or\\ any\\ other\\ Negro\\ can\\ help\\ but\\ feel\\ inferior\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\feeling\\ of\\ inferiority\\ is\\ deep\\-rooted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ middle\\-class\\ Negroes\\ may\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ white\\,\\ but\\ would\\ never\\ admit\\ it\\ b\\/c\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ admitting\\ their\\ inferiority\\ complex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ bourgeoisie\\ boasts\\ of\\ pride\\ in\\ Negro\\ id\\,\\ but\\ when\\ attitude\\ of\\ class\\ is\\ studied\\,\\ it\\ shows\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ in\\ fact\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ identified\\ w\\/\\ Negroes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insecurities\\ \\&\\;\\ Frustration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Black\\ bourgeoisie\\ has\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ competition\\ w\\/\\ whites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\for\\ jobs\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\prefer\\ security\\ afforded\\ by\\ their\\ monopoly\\ of\\ certain\\ occupations\\ w\\/in\\ segregated\\ Negro\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\competition\\ would\\ mean\\ whites\\ were\\ taking\\ them\\ seriously\\,\\ and\\ this\\ would\\ force\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ responsible\\ and\\ serious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negroes\\ are\\ notorious\\ for\\ inefficient\\ management\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ excuses\\ like\\,\\ Negro\\ race\\ is\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;child\\ race\\&rsquo\\;\\ ad\\ they\\ must\\ \\&lsquo\\;crawl\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ walk\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fear\\ of\\ competition\\ w\\/\\ whites\\ probably\\ responsible\\ for\\ middle\\-classes\\&rsquo\\;\\ fear\\ of\\ competence\\ and\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-rate\\ performance\\ w\\/in\\ its\\ own\\ ranks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\when\\ \\ \\;a\\ Negro\\ is\\ competent\\ he\\ is\\ accused\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ white\\ or\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ insisting\\ that\\ Negroes\\ measure\\ up\\ to\\ white\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\especially\\ true\\ when\\ white\\ approval\\ is\\ taken\\ as\\ mark\\ of\\ competence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negroes\\ who\\ adopt\\ white\\ standards\\ are\\ objects\\ of\\ envy\\ and\\ hatred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\fear\\ of\\ competition\\ w\\/\\ white\\ women\\ for\\ Negro\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\generally\\ have\\ no\\ problem\\ white\\ man\\ marrying\\ Negro\\ women\\ \\(especially\\ if\\ he\\ has\\ status\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\position\\ of\\ middle\\-class\\ Negro\\ women\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ lighter\\ complexion\\ or\\ meager\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ \\&\\;\\ Women\\:\\ both\\ have\\ feeling\\ of\\ insecurities\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ fear\\ of\\ losing\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pretended\\ wealth\\ as\\ a\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ fake\\ wealth\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ erase\\ rejection\\ of\\ white\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negro\\ males\\:\\ use\\ \\&lsquo\\;personalities\\&rsquo\\;\\ to\\ exercise\\ influence\\ among\\ whites\\ and\\ achieve\\ distinction\\ among\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ South\\,\\ he\\ generally\\ must\\ let\\ women\\ assume\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ husbands\\ escape\\ frustrations\\ by\\ having\\ affairs\\;\\ may\\ sometime\\ have\\ support\\ of\\ son\\/daughter\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ socialite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\attempt\\ of\\ Negro\\ women\\ to\\ escape\\ frustrated\\ life\\ \\(frustration\\ has\\ sexual\\ origins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&lsquo\\;glamorous\\&rsquo\\;\\ husband\\:\\ cheats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\poker\\ takes\\ over\\ former\\ preoccupation\\ w\\/\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\other\\ frustrations\\ lie\\ in\\:\\ women\\ live\\ idle\\/ineffectual\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&lsquo\\;dripping\\ w\\/diamonds\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ pander\\ to\\ society\\ \\(again\\,\\ extravagant\\ show\\ of\\ wealth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\those\\ who\\ work\\ do\\ it\\ to\\ please\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ Negro\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ read\\ very\\ little\\ and\\ have\\ no\\ interest\\ in\\ music\\,\\ art\\ or\\ theater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\spoiled\\ bc\\ parents\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ kids\\ should\\ be\\ \\&lsquo\\;inhibited\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\done\\ so\\ the\\ child\\ maintains\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ status\\ and\\ be\\ eligible\\ to\\ enter\\ social\\ set\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\devotion\\ to\\ children\\ is\\ only\\ sincere\\ relationship\\ the\\ bourgeoisie\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seem\\ to\\ hope\\ their\\ children\\ will\\ be\\ accepted\\ into\\ the\\ white\\ world\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ barred\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-Hatred\\ \\&\\;\\ Guilt\\ Feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chief\\ frustration\\ of\\ Negro\\:\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ accepted\\ into\\ white\\ world\\ despite\\ wealth\\.\\ \\(still\\ excluded\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negro\\ constantly\\ represses\\ hostility\\ towards\\ whites\\:\\ avoid\\ contact\\ w\\/\\ whites\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ mail\\ in\\ bills\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ prefer\\ to\\ deceive\\ whites\\ and\\ utilize\\ them\\ for\\ own\\ advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ they\\ cant\\ indulge\\ in\\ hostility\\ against\\ whites\\,\\ they\\ at\\ times\\ turn\\ on\\ other\\ minority\\ groups\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Jews\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hostility\\ also\\ directed\\ at\\ himself\\,\\ the\\ Negro\\.\\ \\(self\\-hatred\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\compete\\ against\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Delusions\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ mid\\-class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\alcohol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\magic\\/chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Esther\\ Popel\\ Shaw\\:\\ Review\\ of\\ Bourgeoisie\\ Noire\\,\\ Journal\\ of\\ Negro\\ Education\\ \\(1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\rvalix\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\E\\.\\ Franklin\\ Frazier\\:\\ Preface\\ to\\ the\\ Collier\\ Books\\ Edition\\ of\\ Black\\ Bourgeoisie\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\rvalix\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Wright\\:\\ Between\\ Laughter\\ and\\ Tears\\:\\ A\\ Review\\ of\\ Zora\\ Neale\\ Hurston\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Their\\ Eyes\\ Were\\ Watching\\ God\\,\\ New\\ Masses\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;37\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\rvalix\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\These\\ Low\\ Grounds\\,\\ by\\ Waters\\ Edward\\ Tuprin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ Eyes\\ were\\ Watching\\ God\\,\\ by\\ Zora\\ Neale\\ Hurston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evaluation\\ of\\ 2\\ books\\:\\ difficult\\ bc\\ neither\\ has\\ basic\\ idea\\/theme\\ that\\ lends\\ itself\\ significant\\ interpretation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ Low\\ Grounds\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\has\\ motive\\ and\\ desire\\,\\ but\\ \\&lsquo\\;saga\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ 4\\ generations\\ of\\ Negro\\ life\\ is\\ swamped\\ by\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;attempt\\ of\\ a\\ negro\\ writer\\ to\\ encompass\\ in\\ fiction\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ negro\\ from\\ slavery\\ to\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;story\\:\\ Carrie\\,\\ grows\\ up\\ in\\ whorehouse\\;\\ marries\\ Prince\\ \\(farmer\\)\\;\\ fled\\ w\\/\\ 2\\ daughters\\ \\(Blanche\\ \\&\\;\\ Martha\\)\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ his\\ infidelities\\;\\ yrs\\ later\\ when\\ he\\ convinces\\ her\\ to\\ return\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ murdered\\ by\\ jealous\\ lover\\ \\(Grundy\\)\\;\\ Blanche\\ remains\\ w\\/\\ father\\ but\\ Martha\\ flees\\ North\\ in\\ shame\\ \\(pregnant\\,\\ and\\ lover\\ killed\\ in\\ accident\\)\\;\\ Martha\\&rsquo\\;s\\ acting\\ enables\\ her\\ to\\ send\\ son\\ \\(Jimmy\\-Lew\\)\\ to\\ college\\;\\ novel\\ ends\\ w\\/\\ disillusioned\\ son\\ being\\ comforted\\ by\\ wife\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ of\\ bk\\ is\\ inetersting\\,\\ but\\ end\\ of\\ book\\ is\\ sketchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turpin\\ views\\ parts\\ of\\ novel\\ thru\\ eyes\\ of\\ one\\ emotionally\\ alien\\ to\\ the\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characters\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ humanized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lacks\\ great\\ theme\\ and\\ passion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Their\\ Eyes\\ Were\\ Watching\\ God\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hurston\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ desire\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ write\\ serious\\ fiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romantic\\ Janie\\ marries\\ farmer\\;\\ flees\\ husband\\ and\\ marries\\ Jody\\ \\(upcoming\\ negro\\ business\\ man\\)\\ who\\ proves\\ no\\ better\\ than\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;husband\\;\\ 20\\ yrs\\ later\\,\\ Janie\\ is\\ a\\ frustrated\\ widow\\ w\\/\\ small\\ fortune\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;Tea\\ Cake\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ young\\ drifter\\ she\\ takes\\ in\\;\\ live\\ happily\\ for\\ 2\\ yrs\\;\\ Tea\\ Cake\\ bitten\\ by\\ rabid\\ dog\\ and\\ gets\\ rabies\\;\\ Janie\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ only\\ man\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ever\\ loved\\ when\\ he\\ attacks\\ her\\ during\\ a\\ canine\\ rage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prose\\ cloaked\\ in\\ facile\\ sensuality\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dogged\\ negro\\ expression\\ since\\ p\\.wheatley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dialogue\\ catches\\ psychological\\ movement\\ of\\ negro\\,\\ but\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hurston\\ voluntarily\\ continues\\ tradition\\ which\\ was\\ forced\\ on\\ the\\ negro\\ in\\ theater\\ \\(minstrel\\ technique\\ that\\ makes\\ whites\\ laugh\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turpins\\ faults\\ are\\ that\\ of\\ an\\ honest\\ man\\,\\ hurtson\\ carries\\ no\\ theme\\/message\\/thought\\;\\ novel\\ is\\ addressed\\ to\\ whte\\ folks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exploits\\ \\&lsquo\\;quiant\\&rsquo\\;\\ life\\ of\\ negro\\ to\\ invoke\\ piteous\\ smile\\ from\\ \\&lsquo\\;superior\\&rsquo\\;\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lectures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\/5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ the\\ black\\ person\\ who\\ attains\\ in\\ anyway\\ an\\ individual\\ or\\ is\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ representative\\ of\\ a\\ group\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ are\\ they\\ supposed\\ to\\ represent\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ family\\ or\\ the\\ group\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Barrack\\ Obama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ Chicago\\ are\\ getting\\ angry\\ because\\ he\\ has\\ some\\ white\\ advisors\\ surrounding\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ started\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-1800s\\ but\\ in\\ 1919\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Tom\\&rdquo\\;\\ came\\ to\\ being\\ as\\ an\\ insult\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Until\\ 1920\\,\\ this\\ book\\ was\\ looked\\ upon\\ favorably\\ by\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marcus\\ Garvey\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Tome\\ is\\ dead\\ and\\ buried\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ race\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Not\\ a\\ black\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ white\\ heart\\ but\\ a\\ black\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ black\\ heart\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\UNIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ person\\ to\\ articulate\\ Africa\\ for\\ the\\ Africans\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Back\\ to\\ Africa\\ movement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ hero\\ was\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\,\\ black\\,\\ and\\ green\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ colors\\ of\\ black\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\ hated\\ Garvey\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Great\\ Migration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1910\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 7\\ million\\ out\\ of\\ 8\\ million\\ African\\ Americans\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1920s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ over\\ half\\ move\\ to\\ the\\ North\\ into\\ the\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ disrupted\\ profoundly\\ class\\ relations\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ between\\ slaves\\ were\\ ancestors\\ had\\ been\\ free\\ for\\ decades\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ of\\ sudden\\ they\\ had\\ uneducated\\ newly\\ freed\\ slaves\\ joining\\ them\\ up\\ North\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ North\\ in\\ 1920\\,\\ there\\ were\\ about\\ 600\\,000\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ North\\.\\ By\\ 1930\\,\\ they\\ were\\ over\\ 1million\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ black\\ men\\ were\\ also\\ allowed\\ to\\ fight\\ in\\ the\\ First\\ World\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claude\\ McKay\\ wrote\\ about\\ the\\ red\\ riots\\ in\\ Illinois\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ race\\ riots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ We\\ Must\\ Die\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ poem\\ scared\\ the\\ whites\\ and\\ the\\ old\\ Southern\\ blacks\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\ in\\ the\\ feminine\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Aunt\\ Jemima\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\September\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1733\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ of\\ her\\ poems\\ published\\ in\\ London\\ \\(since\\ Bostonians\\ did\\ not\\ believe\\ that\\ an\\ African\\ could\\ write\\ such\\ poems\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Great\\ Chain\\ of\\ Being\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ top\\ was\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ bottom\\ was\\ the\\ amoeba\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ beneath\\ god\\ were\\ angels\\,\\ then\\ Europeans\\,\\ then\\ Chinese\\ \\(Yellow\\ people\\)\\,\\ then\\ Brown\\ people\\ \\(India\\)\\,\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\(red\\)\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ were\\ the\\ Africans\\ \\(Black\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Came\\ to\\ its\\ height\\ during\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\;\\ started\\ by\\ Plato\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idea\\ of\\ Polygenesis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ were\\ came\\ from\\ different\\ sets\\ of\\ parents\\ and\\ we\\ were\\ not\\ even\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ human\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Considered\\ apes\\ and\\ Africans\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ when\\ they\\ discovered\\ the\\ continent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ beneath\\ the\\ Africans\\ were\\ the\\ apes\\ on\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ being\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ idea\\ was\\ promoted\\ through\\ writing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Black\\ people\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ master\\ the\\ arts\\ and\\ sciences\\ to\\ go\\ against\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ blacks\\ were\\ not\\ human\\ beings\\.\\ So\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ individual\\ or\\ representatives\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\/7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\ speech\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ My\\ Name\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Synecticy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ part\\ for\\ a\\ whole\\ \\(Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ notion\\ of\\ representing\\ comes\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blacks\\ had\\ to\\ prove\\ they\\ were\\ human\\ beings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ writing\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ and\\ expressing\\ reason\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ still\\ caught\\ in\\ that\\ discourse\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ does\\ this\\ idea\\ come\\ from\\ about\\ race\\ and\\ reason\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Francis\\ Bacon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\ and\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1864\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Goodwin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ said\\ Negros\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\ since\\ they\\ know\\ human\\ employments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ you\\ can\\ read\\ and\\ write\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ conundrum\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slaves\\ were\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ read\\ and\\ write\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1748\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ Hume\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Africans\\ \\(Negros\\)\\ are\\ not\\ descedents\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ capable\\ of\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ arts\\ and\\ sciences\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1764\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kant\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ so\\ fundamental\\ is\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Blackness\\ equals\\ stupidity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hegel\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ writing\\ system\\ so\\ no\\ history\\ in\\ African\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ differences\\ are\\ fixed\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ their\\ existence\\ consists\\ more\\ of\\ sensation\\ rather\\ than\\ reflection\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ These\\ people\\ like\\ to\\ sleep\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Blacks\\ can\\ do\\ but\\ cannot\\ think\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ Response\\ to\\ these\\ Ideas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ wrote\\ to\\ Samson\\ Okum\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ at\\ Dartmouth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Any\\ idiots\\ know\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ben\\ Bannaker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ black\\ person\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ almanac\\ which\\ he\\ calculated\\ himself\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ Jefferson\\ stating\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ a\\ race\\ of\\ beings\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ writing\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ mental\\ thinking\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ Walker\\ 1829\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ intellectual\\ tradion\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ is\\ born\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ smart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Claims\\ the\\ Egyptians\\ were\\ Africans\\ and\\ colored\\ people\\ since\\ Jefferson\\ says\\ the\\ Egyptians\\ are\\ smart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Arguments\\ must\\ be\\ refuted\\ and\\ he\\ assumed\\ white\\ people\\ were\\ devils\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ He\\ died\\ under\\ mysterious\\ circumstances\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ commencement\\ address\\ at\\ what\\ is\\ now\\ Case\\ Western\\ Reserve\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Refutes\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ polygenesis\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ says\\ Egypt\\ is\\ a\\ black\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\James\\ McHune\\ Smith\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\ degrees\\ with\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Glasgow\\;\\ friend\\ of\\ Douglass\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Time\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ compared\\ themselves\\ \\(white\\ Americans\\)\\ as\\ slaves\\ to\\ King\\ George\\ of\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ When\\ the\\ colonists\\ come\\ over\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\,\\ they\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ citizens\\ of\\ England\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ protesting\\ are\\ these\\ taxes\\ that\\ are\\ put\\ on\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ John\\ Adams\\ considered\\ himself\\ a\\ slave\\ and\\ referred\\ to\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ Negro\\ in\\ writings\\ about\\ the\\ independence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ since\\ these\\ men\\ were\\ slaveowners\\,\\ they\\ did\\ indeed\\ understand\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ slavery\\ through\\ the\\ language\\ they\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Both\\ black\\ people\\ and\\ white\\ people\\ agreed\\ to\\ certain\\ essentialist\\ ideas\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ disagreed\\ in\\ how\\ they\\ were\\ carried\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Race\\ as\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religious\\ argument\\ about\\ race\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exodus\\ narrative\\ of\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whites\\ used\\ this\\ narrative\\ of\\ exodus\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ brought\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ however\\ blacks\\ saw\\ them\\ as\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\ of\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ qualities\\ that\\ were\\ given\\ to\\ blacks\\ are\\ also\\ given\\ to\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethnology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ issue\\ of\\ science\\;\\ Cotton\\ Mather\\ had\\ a\\ slave\\ called\\ Onisimus\\ from\\ Ghanian\\ stock\\ and\\ he\\ introduced\\ vaccination\\ \\(against\\ smallpox\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\/14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Monday\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ should\\ be\\ read\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ a\\ name\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\ speech\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Color\\ Us\\ Black\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ movie\\ you\\ should\\ see\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jules\\ Pfifer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Cartoonist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stokely\\ Carmichael\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1968\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ started\\ using\\ the\\ word\\ \\&lsquo\\;black\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debate\\ bwn\\.\\ 1825\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1845\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ first\\ black\\ news\\ paper\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Freedom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Journal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(New\\ York\\,\\ 1827\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Took\\ place\\ through\\ black\\ publications\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ Cuffe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ richest\\ black\\ man\\ in\\ America\\ at\\ that\\ time\\;\\ convinced\\ that\\ repatriating\\ blacks\\ back\\ to\\ African\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ idea\\ but\\ he\\ never\\ did\\ so\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Still\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Jennings\\ wrote\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Freedom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Journal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ claim\\ is\\ on\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ several\\ generations\\ in\\ this\\ country\\ so\\ they\\ have\\ become\\ naturalized\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colonization\\ Society\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ proponent\\ of\\ bringing\\ Africans\\ back\\ to\\ Africa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\James\\ Forten\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prominent\\ black\\ man\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wrote\\ to\\ W\\.L\\.\\ Garrison\\ in\\ 1831\\ \\(published\\ in\\ Liberator\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ should\\ endeavor\\ to\\ help\\ people\\ here\\ through\\ education\\ and\\ many\\ Africans\\,\\ like\\ him\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ themselves\\ African\\ since\\ they\\ have\\ already\\ invested\\ so\\ much\\ in\\ this\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\GREAT\\ RESEARCH\\ PAPER\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;look\\ at\\ a\\ newspaper\\ during\\ a\\ certain\\ decade\\ and\\ see\\ how\\ blacks\\ used\\ the\\ editorial\\ columns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1855\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ James\\ McCune\\ Smith\\,\\ a\\ black\\ man\\,\\ wrote\\ the\\ intro\\ for\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slave\\ narrative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\for\\ him\\,\\ blackness\\ signified\\ bestiality\\ so\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ to\\ colored\\ was\\ welcomed\\ for\\ him\\ since\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ were\\ complete\\ differences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ the\\ race\\ was\\ getting\\ lighter\\ through\\ generations\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ through\\ the\\ white\\ slave\\ masters\\ sleeping\\ with\\ their\\ slaves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chief\\ Spokesman\\ for\\ Integration\\ was\\ a\\ successful\\ businessman\\ named\\ William\\ Whipper\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ all\\ names\\ that\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ African\\ and\\ Colored\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ was\\ adopted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ reason\\ was\\ because\\ they\\ thought\\ the\\ American\\ colonization\\ society\\ would\\ use\\ that\\ name\\ as\\ a\\ link\\ that\\ these\\ people\\ belonged\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ few\\ Africans\\ actually\\ agreed\\ with\\ him\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Your\\ thought\\:\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ using\\ the\\ white\\ definition\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ Africa\\ is\\ in\\ determining\\ what\\ they\\ should\\ call\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ Way\\ Freedom\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Slavery\\ as\\ social\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changing\\ Interpretations\\ of\\ Freedom\\ and\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ is\\ writing\\ about\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ his\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ end\\ slavery\\ in\\ portraying\\ the\\ horrors\\.\\ But\\ he\\ really\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ true\\ depiction\\ of\\ what\\ slavery\\ is\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ulrich\\ Phillips\\ wrote\\ about\\ slavery\\ in\\ 1918\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ freedom\\ in\\ slavery\\;\\ because\\ slaves\\ were\\ imitative\\ they\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ change\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ African\\ customs\\.\\ He\\ saw\\ slavery\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;training\\ school\\&rsquo\\;\\ for\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jim\\ Crow\\ segregation\\ era\\ in\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ historians\\ such\\ as\\ Kenneth\\ Stamp\\ and\\ Stanley\\ Okins\\ wrote\\ very\\ harsh\\ interpretations\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;Masters\\ kept\\ slaves\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ culture\\ despite\\ being\\ economically\\ profitable\\ for\\ slave\\ masters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Slaves\\ were\\ whipped\\ down\\ into\\ the\\ immediate\\ social\\ death\\ that\\ occurred\\.\\ Slaves\\ are\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ white\\ man\\ in\\ black\\ skin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ humanity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supreme\\ Court\\ Decision\\ \\&ldquo\\;Brown\\ vs\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ showing\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ just\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ the\\ late\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 1970s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Black\\ power\\ and\\ black\\ nationalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ see\\ distinctive\\ black\\ patterns\\ of\\ behavior\\ such\\ as\\ music\\ and\\ folk\\ tales\\ and\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ slavery\\ gave\\ people\\ some\\ living\\ space\\ and\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ like\\ a\\ concentration\\ camp\\ because\\ Jews\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ exterminated\\,\\ blacks\\ were\\ economic\\ commodities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Time\\ where\\ Black\\ Nationalism\\ and\\ black\\ power\\ came\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exodus\\ motif\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gave\\ them\\ a\\ sense\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ enslaved\\ \\(Jews\\ in\\ Israel\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*The\\ big\\ debate\\,\\ when\\ slavery\\ is\\ portrayed\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ does\\ it\\ make\\ it\\ look\\ less\\ oppressive\\ as\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ involved\\ many\\ different\\ people\\ and\\ laws\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ more\\ free\\ to\\ speak\\ of\\ slavery\\ as\\ revolt\\ or\\ as\\ an\\ agency\\ of\\ slavery\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Birth\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\ Narratives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Trope\\ of\\ the\\ Talking\\ Book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\/21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Only\\ 500\\,000\\ slaves\\ came\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Capoeira\\ \\(South\\ America\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 4\\ million\\ Africans\\ shipped\\ from\\ Angola\\ to\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ great\\ connections\\ between\\ African\\ traditions\\ from\\ the\\ old\\ world\\ and\\ African\\ traditions\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ Black\\ People\\ respond\\ to\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ read\\ or\\ write\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Literary\\ tradition\\ is\\ the\\ fiction\\ that\\ people\\ create\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ 1850\\ they\\ started\\ to\\ create\\ slave\\ narratives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ had\\ to\\ represent\\ themselves\\ as\\ psychologically\\ undamaged\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ can\\ this\\ be\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chiasmus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ the\\ slave\\ narratives\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ this\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ show\\ a\\ reversal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ show\\ how\\ they\\ were\\ reduced\\ below\\ being\\ a\\ human\\ and\\ then\\ how\\ they\\ rose\\ up\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\James\\ Gronniosaw\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ African\\ prince\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ set\\ himself\\ equal\\ to\\ Europeans\\ \\(6\\ years\\ after\\ Kant\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trope\\ of\\ the\\ talking\\ book\\ was\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ you\\ figured\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ Africans\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ smart\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ slave\\ narratives\\ authors\\ read\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ books\\ and\\ just\\ reproduced\\ them\\ in\\ some\\ altered\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ his\\ first\\ public\\ speech\\ in\\ Nantucket\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ rehearses\\ his\\ story\\ of\\ slavery\\ on\\ the\\ lecture\\ circuit\\ for\\ 4\\ years\\ before\\ he\\ wrote\\ his\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*James\\ Williams\\ had\\ made\\ up\\ his\\ whole\\ slave\\ narrative\\ so\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ Douglass\\ had\\ many\\ facts\\ in\\ his\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ replaced\\ the\\ trope\\ of\\ the\\ talking\\ book\\ with\\ the\\ talk\\ of\\ chiasmus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\March\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,1894\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;wealthy\\ mansion\\ in\\ Maryland\\ he\\ owned\\ there\\;\\ arranged\\ a\\ meeting\\ with\\ the\\ grandson\\ of\\ his\\ old\\ master\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ run\\ away\\ from\\.\\ He\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ his\\ birthday\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ succeed\\ in\\ finding\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ died\\ in\\ February\\ of\\ 1895\\.\\ How\\ human\\ is\\ that\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ second\\ narrative\\,\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ gets\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ oratorical\\ and\\ intellectual\\ ability\\ from\\ his\\ mother\\ who\\ was\\ black\\ and\\ before\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ smart\\ because\\ his\\ father\\ was\\ white\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ He\\ backed\\ this\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ intellect\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ finds\\ an\\ Egyptian\\ that\\ reminds\\ him\\ of\\ his\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ reduced\\ his\\ father\\ from\\ his\\ first\\ narrative\\ to\\ his\\ third\\ narrative\\ to\\ nothing\\ and\\ his\\ mother\\ he\\ rose\\ up\\ to\\ be\\ something\\ as\\ great\\ as\\ Coretta\\ Scott\\ King\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ writing\\ in\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ his\\ times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ can\\ we\\ ever\\ know\\ the\\ truth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\History\\ educates\\ and\\ memory\\ motivates\\ \\(Laurel\\ Thatcher\\ Ulrich\\)\\;\\ History\\ is\\ the\\ enemy\\ of\\ memory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\History\\ documents\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;what\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\memory\\ celebrates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;what\\ you\\ can\\ take\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ make\\ accessible\\ and\\ useful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paternalist\\ compromise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ masters\\ understood\\ their\\ slaves\\ were\\ people\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ also\\ their\\ slaves\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ slaves\\ had\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ understanding\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ live\\ within\\ this\\ system\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ certain\\ rights\\ and\\ reciprocities\\ were\\ followed\\.\\ \\(Eugene\\ Genovese\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NEED\\ NOTES\\ FROM\\ 2\\/26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\/28\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Booker\\ T\\.\\ and\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Dudley\\ Randall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\,\\ there\\ was\\ still\\ rampant\\ racism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\ still\\ gave\\ black\\ men\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\ however\\,\\ there\\ were\\ still\\ certain\\ laws\\ that\\ prevented\\ black\\ men\\ from\\ voting\\ in\\ certain\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ scientific\\ and\\ legal\\ discrimination\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ mass\\ consumption\\ of\\ racism\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1915\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Birth\\ of\\ a\\ Nation\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ D\\.W\\.\\ Griffith\\.\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ said\\ this\\ was\\ amazing\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ really\\ said\\ that\\ in\\ this\\ environment\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ by\\ was\\ to\\ look\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ used\\ to\\ apologize\\ for\\ lynching\\ because\\ he\\ believed\\ that\\ it\\ made\\ white\\ people\\ look\\ barbarous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Niagara\\ Convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\,\\ no\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ bide\\ our\\ time\\ and\\ just\\ be\\ good\\ workers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ main\\ figures\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ were\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ MLK\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ argument\\ is\\ not\\ that\\ courage\\ is\\ the\\ issue\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ integrated\\ in\\ America\\?\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ debate\\ over\\ the\\ strategy\\ of\\ struggle\\ for\\ MLK\\ it\\ was\\ nonviolence\\ and\\ for\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ it\\ was\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Montgomery\\ bus\\ boycotts\\,\\ there\\ were\\ incremental\\ changes\\ in\\ segregation\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ beginning\\ of\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Unionism\\ such\\ as\\ CIO\\,\\ Sharecroppers\\ Tenant\\ Union\\ Authorities\\,\\ Labor\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ issues\\ \\(issues\\ that\\ demand\\ justices\\ e\\.g\\.\\ The\\ Scottsboro\\ Boys\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ are\\ economic\\ justice\\ issues\\ with\\ race\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ them\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ prominent\\ during\\ the\\ 1930s\\ and\\ 40s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ NAACP\\ comes\\ on\\ board\\ at\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ riots\\ and\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ and\\ takes\\ up\\ what\\ the\\ black\\ led\\ Niagara\\ Movement\\ has\\ begun\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ They\\ decide\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ dismantle\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ is\\ via\\ the\\ law\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ lawyer\\ was\\ Charles\\ Hamilton\\ Houston\\ \\(Harvard\\ Law\\ and\\ a\\ soldier\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ WWI\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ One\\ of\\ his\\ mentees\\ is\\ Thurgood\\ Marshall\\ \\(first\\ black\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Justice\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1944\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Smith\\ v\\.\\ Alright\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ there\\ was\\ really\\ only\\ one\\ party\\,\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Party\\ and\\ black\\ people\\ were\\ disenfranchised\\ from\\ political\\ clout\\ there\\.\\ The\\ courts\\ said\\ that\\ this\\ primary\\ was\\ illegal\\ \\(because\\ no\\ blacks\\ were\\ allowed\\)\\.\\ At\\ least\\ on\\ the\\ books\\ one\\ could\\ begin\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ law\\ changing\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ blacks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 1940s\\,\\ in\\ affluent\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ there\\ were\\ contracts\\ to\\ prevent\\ blacks\\ from\\ owning\\ houses\\ so\\ in\\ the\\ courts\\ there\\ were\\ cases\\ that\\ turned\\ this\\ around\\ \\(Lorraine\\ Hansbury\\ \\&ldquo\\;Raisin\\ in\\ the\\ Sun\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Education\\ cases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ made\\ victories\\ at\\ the\\ higher\\ education\\ level\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Black\\ people\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ Maryland\\ could\\ not\\ go\\ to\\ U\\.\\ Maryland\\ \\(case\\ of\\ Donald\\ Gaines\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ in\\ Topeka\\,\\ Kansas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ court\\ renders\\ \\&lsquo\\;separate\\ but\\ equal\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ inherently\\ equal\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ at\\ a\\ deliberate\\ speed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Before\\ this\\ people\\ began\\ mobilizing\\ on\\ the\\ local\\ level\\.\\ Blacks\\ had\\ come\\ back\\ from\\ WWII\\ who\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ situation\\ where\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ fighting\\ against\\ things\\ that\\ they\\ saw\\ at\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Rosa\\ Parks\\ refused\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ her\\ seat\\ to\\ a\\ white\\ man\\,\\ she\\ was\\ sitting\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ bus\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ white\\ man\\ told\\ her\\ to\\ get\\ up\\ since\\ the\\ white\\ section\\ was\\ filled\\ up\\ and\\ she\\ just\\ refused\\ to\\ get\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ helpless\\ tired\\ woman\\,\\ she\\ was\\ an\\ activist\\ and\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ secretary\\ of\\ the\\ NAACP\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ had\\ already\\ been\\ three\\ cases\\ that\\ year\\ about\\ this\\ but\\ Rosa\\ Parks\\ was\\ a\\ churchgoing\\ woman\\ and\\ they\\ could\\ organize\\ a\\ movement\\ around\\ her\\ and\\ boycott\\ the\\ buses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ rose\\ to\\ this\\ position\\ to\\ lead\\ this\\ movement\\ with\\ the\\ understandings\\ of\\ Christian\\ movements\\ and\\ beliefs\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ made\\ their\\ cause\\ seem\\ heroic\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ They\\ used\\ the\\ strategy\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\ and\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Negro\\ revolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ drawing\\ on\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ understanding\\ of\\ revolution\\ with\\ comparisons\\ to\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Believed\\ that\\ the\\ gaining\\ of\\ land\\ was\\ needed\\ through\\ bloodshed\\ and\\ land\\ gives\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1949\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ DuBois\\ at\\ Madison\\ Square\\ Garden\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ this\\ time\\ he\\ was\\ alienated\\ by\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ Northern\\ Civil\\ Right\\ movements\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ South\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ story\\ we\\ know\\ however\\ had\\ to\\ arise\\ from\\ the\\ South\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ circumstances\\ in\\ this\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ warring\\ elites\\,\\ tensions\\ within\\ the\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NEED\\ NOTES\\ FROM\\ 3\\/5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\/7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ first\\ essay\\ should\\ draw\\ in\\ on\\ specific\\ readings\\ and\\ quote\\ where\\ necessary\\ to\\ reinforce\\ a\\ point\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ making\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ right\\ or\\ wrong\\ answer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Issue\\ of\\ segregation\\ or\\ separatism\\ vs\\.\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ always\\ a\\ social\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ these\\ debates\\ occur\\ where\\ nationalism\\ seems\\ to\\ rear\\ its\\ head\\ with\\ certain\\ events\\ like\\ race\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dred\\ Scott\\ Decision\\ 1857\\ \\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Dred\\ Scott\\ had\\ traveled\\ to\\ the\\ North\\ with\\ his\\ master\\ and\\ argued\\ about\\ whether\\ he\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ back\\.\\ He\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ and\\ they\\ also\\ declared\\ the\\ African\\ Americans\\ were\\ not\\ citizens\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ the\\ founding\\ fathers\\ never\\ intended\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ \\(Supreme\\ Court\\ Decision\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ some\\ dissenting\\ opinions\\ to\\ this\\ however\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ black\\ voted\\ in\\ colonial\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ the\\ South\\,\\ even\\ if\\ a\\ black\\ man\\ owned\\ property\\,\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ vote\\.\\ \\ \\;Blacks\\ were\\ not\\ declared\\ American\\ citizens\\ until\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcus\\ Garvey\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ context\\ of\\ WWI\\ aftermath\\ and\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ self\\-determination\\ of\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1884\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ European\\ nations\\ carved\\ up\\ Africa\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ led\\ to\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ boundary\\ disputes\\ during\\ the\\ Great\\ War\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ black\\ armed\\ forces\\ were\\ not\\ integrated\\ until\\ the\\ Korean\\ War\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ started\\ the\\ League\\ of\\ Nations\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ states\\ is\\ that\\ each\\ group\\ should\\ have\\ its\\ own\\ right\\ to\\ its\\ self\\-determination\\.\\ \\ \\;Marcus\\ Garvey\\ went\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ press\\ to\\ Paris\\ to\\ ask\\ questions\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ about\\ our\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ Congo\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ since\\ King\\ Leopold\\ there\\ was\\ cutting\\ the\\ arms\\ and\\ legs\\ off\\ black\\ people\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ saw\\ WWI\\ as\\ a\\ war\\ for\\ imperialism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcus\\ Garvey\\ was\\ charismatic\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ every\\ many\\ through\\ his\\ method\\ of\\ speaking\\,\\ better\\ than\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(Book\\ by\\ James\\ Brown\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Arts\\ of\\ Resistance\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Philip\\ Randolph\\ was\\ a\\ huge\\ opponent\\ of\\ Garvey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ he\\ led\\ an\\ all\\ black\\ march\\ in\\ Washington\\ to\\ protest\\ segregation\\ in\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultural\\ Nationalism\\ started\\ after\\ the\\ 1960s\\ \\ \\;\\ Ron\\ Karunga\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ started\\ Kwanzaa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Feminist\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complications\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ race\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;Black\\ Macho\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ feminist\\ movement\\ is\\ often\\ understood\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ abolitionist\\ movement\\.\\ The\\ to\\ first\\ women\\ who\\ spoke\\ publicly\\ were\\ condemned\\ for\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;in\\ 1831\\ \\ \\;Moriah\\ Stewart\\ \\(black\\ women\\)\\ was\\ pelted\\ with\\ tomatoes\\ and\\ run\\ out\\ of\\ town\\ but\\ she\\ uses\\ strong\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ biblical\\ history\\ in\\ 1833\\ in\\ her\\ farewell\\ speech\\.\\ Another\\ woman\\ who\\ spoke\\ out\\ against\\ slavery\\ was\\ Sarah\\ Grimke\\ and\\ she\\ was\\ ostracized\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ feminists\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ was\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ since\\ he\\ made\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ Seneca\\ Falls\\ Convention\\ in\\ 1848\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ thing\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ story\\ so\\ complicated\\ is\\ that\\ while\\ white\\ women\\ were\\ fighting\\ to\\ get\\ off\\ the\\ pedestal\\ and\\ stop\\ showing\\ people\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ too\\ fragile\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ black\\ women\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ strong\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\ picking\\ cotton\\ and\\ such\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ victims\\ of\\ rape\\ and\\ had\\ to\\ watch\\ their\\ families\\ being\\ torn\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ For\\ many\\ black\\ women\\ just\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ home\\ was\\ a\\ feminist\\ statement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\ was\\ ratified\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ word\\ male\\ had\\ been\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ Constitution\\ had\\ been\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ Constitution\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ was\\ proposed\\ in\\ 1866\\ and\\ ratified\\ in\\ 1868\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ debate\\ was\\ that\\ black\\ men\\ had\\ fought\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ so\\ therefore\\ they\\ deserve\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ So\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ and\\ even\\ a\\ black\\ feminist\\ names\\ Frances\\ Ellen\\ Watkins\\ Harper\\ agreed\\ that\\ \\&lsquo\\;this\\ was\\ the\\ Negro\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hour\\&rsquo\\;\\ who\\ agreed\\ that\\ there\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ any\\ confusion\\ in\\ the\\ amendment\\ being\\ proposed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1870s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bradwell\\ case\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Myra\\ Bradwell\\ had\\ a\\ law\\ degree\\ and\\ she\\ went\\ into\\ business\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ newspaper\\ and\\ the\\ court\\ decided\\ that\\ she\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ lawyer\\ as\\ a\\ married\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ They\\ believed\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ preordained\\ by\\ man\\ and\\ nature\\ to\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ job\\ while\\ married\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ around\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ black\\ women\\ are\\ becoming\\ teachers\\,\\ doctors\\,\\ and\\ journalists\\ and\\ they\\ want\\ higher\\ education\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ fighting\\ for\\ the\\ right\\ for\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ They\\ join\\ feminist\\ movements\\ and\\ form\\ clubs\\ that\\ are\\ largely\\ about\\ racial\\ uplift\\ but\\ also\\ about\\ gaining\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ lot\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ clubs\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ white\\ clubs\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ work\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ some\\ people\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ the\\ black\\ women\\ having\\ their\\ own\\ organizations\\ and\\ leadership\\ and\\ determining\\ how\\ their\\ own\\ money\\ was\\ spent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ were\\ also\\ some\\ black\\ women\\ who\\ opposed\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suffrage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ era\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ 1880\\ to\\ 1970\\.\\ This\\ era\\ was\\ also\\ called\\ the\\ Nadir\\ since\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ horrific\\ racism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ complication\\ comes\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\.\\ Ida\\ B\\.\\ Wells\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Barnett\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ 1870s\\ she\\ is\\ riding\\ in\\ a\\ train\\ in\\ Tennessee\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ riding\\ in\\ the\\ ladies\\ car\\ and\\ the\\ conductor\\ physically\\ takes\\ her\\ and\\ drags\\ her\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ car\\ while\\ people\\ cheered\\.\\ She\\ recognized\\ that\\ while\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ women\\,\\ she\\ was\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ lady\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ women\\ are\\ ordinarily\\ seen\\ as\\ sensuous\\,\\ and\\ not\\ ladylike\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ 1895\\ article\\ written\\ by\\ Jakes\\ said\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ a\\ Negro\\ lady\\ so\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\National\\ Association\\ of\\ Colored\\ Women\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ formed\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ terms\\ of\\ motherhood\\,\\ Anna\\ Jubilee\\ Cooper\\ said\\ that\\ women\\ were\\ the\\ ones\\ who\\ steered\\ the\\ family\\,\\ which\\ was\\ not\\ much\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ white\\ families\\ believed\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ is\\ so\\ much\\ more\\ important\\ for\\ black\\ women\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ ladies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Some\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ family\\ is\\ problematic\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Moynihan\\ report\\ \\(1963\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Negro\\ man\\ cannot\\ take\\ account\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ male\\ responsibilities\\ that\\ are\\ set\\ in\\ part\\ by\\ the\\ community\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Politics\\ of\\ Respectibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(precursor\\ to\\ this\\ was\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ toothbrush\\ and\\ bar\\ of\\ soap\\)\\ which\\ had\\ radical\\ and\\ conservative\\ meanings\\ to\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ are\\ who\\ they\\ are\\ because\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ inside\\ of\\ you\\ so\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ say\\ who\\ you\\ are\\ because\\ you\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ respectable\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ a\\ middle\\ class\\ ideology\\ by\\ it\\ is\\ middle\\ class\\ in\\ its\\ expectations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complication\\ of\\ Black\\ men\\ themselves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ sexism\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ Right\\ Community\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Black\\ are\\ also\\ being\\ sexualized\\ through\\ lynching\\ and\\ through\\ their\\ relations\\ with\\ white\\ women\\ \\(such\\ as\\ Emmett\\ Till\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ sexual\\ specter\\ of\\ politics\\ would\\ use\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ miscegenation\\,\\ black\\ men\\ and\\ white\\ women\\,\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ keep\\ blacks\\ out\\ of\\ white\\ areas\\,\\ where\\ white\\ women\\ were\\ saying\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ protect\\ themselves\\ from\\ black\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ always\\ a\\ public\\ and\\ private\\ African\\ American\\ discourse\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Will\\ black\\ women\\ associate\\ themselves\\ more\\ with\\ Hilary\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ woman\\ or\\ with\\ Barrack\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Your\\ thought\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ black\\ women\\ had\\ to\\ fight\\ racism\\ more\\ since\\ the\\ stereotypes\\ against\\ them\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ related\\ to\\ racism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\/19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Socialism\\ vs\\.\\ Capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Capitalism\\ has\\ won\\ out\\ throughout\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ however\\ that\\ nature\\ of\\ Socialism\\ has\\ also\\ changed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Capitalism\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ went\\ through\\ a\\ readjustment\\ through\\ the\\ Roosevelt\\ New\\ Deal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ welfare\\,\\ aid\\ to\\ dependent\\ children\\,\\ agricultural\\ subsidies\\,\\ and\\ other\\ elements\\ of\\ socialism\\.\\ \\ \\;Americans\\ today\\ expect\\ today\\ government\\ regulation\\ and\\ universal\\ healthcare\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ inconceivable\\ to\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\ earlier\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Realistic\\ Critique\\ of\\ Capitalism\\ and\\ Black\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ an\\ economic\\ perspective\\,\\ black\\ people\\ have\\ experienced\\ a\\ wrought\\ relationship\\ with\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Since\\ black\\ people\\ as\\ slaves\\ were\\ the\\ property\\ and\\ were\\ capitalized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ commoditized\\ black\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Domestic\\ slave\\ trade\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ movement\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ East\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Walter\\ Johnson\\ \\&ldquo\\;Soul\\ by\\ Soul\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Monopolies\\ and\\ trusts\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Populist\\ Movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blacks\\ and\\ white\\ farmers\\;\\ growing\\ antitrust\\ laws\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ under\\ TR\\ and\\ WW\\ that\\ sought\\ to\\ bring\\ in\\ unbridled\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonialism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ capitalism\\ via\\ resources\\ in\\ Africa\\ \\(Garvey\\ and\\ DuBois\\ tried\\ to\\ transform\\ this\\ relationship\\ of\\ colonialism\\ and\\ capitalism\\ since\\ resources\\ were\\ building\\ up\\ Europe\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Gospel\\ of\\ Wealth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pulling\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ up\\ by\\ his\\ bootstraps\\ and\\ people\\ such\\ as\\ Washington\\ believed\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ blacks\\ to\\ set\\ themselves\\ free\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Washington\\ advocated\\ through\\ the\\ National\\ Negro\\ Business\\ League\\.\\ \\ \\;Uplifting\\ books\\ modeled\\ on\\ the\\ books\\ of\\ Horatio\\ Alger\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1970s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Richard\\ Nixon\\ supported\\ small\\ businesses\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\ using\\ affirmative\\ action\\.\\ The\\ racial\\ demand\\ is\\ to\\ give\\ blacks\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ opportunity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ black\\ people\\ have\\ flirted\\ with\\ socialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ Robeson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Phillip\\ Randolph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chandler\\ Owen\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Messenger\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cyril\\ Briggs\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Messenger\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hubert\\ Harrison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ Book\\ Brotherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claude\\ McKay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Your\\ thought\\:\\ Boring\\ lecture\\,\\ blah\\ blah\\ blah\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\ Dr\\.\\ Higginbotham\\ is\\ discussing\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ capitalism\\ and\\ socialism\\ on\\ the\\ black\\ movements\\ in\\ America\\ throughout\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Your\\ thought\\:\\ Think\\ about\\ affect\\ of\\ socialism\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ communism\\ in\\ Cold\\ War\\ America\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ affected\\ the\\ movements\\&hellip\\;interesting\\ idea\\ for\\ an\\ essay\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ Northern\\ cities\\ but\\ you\\ also\\ see\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ Southern\\ Farmers\\ tenant\\ Union\\ and\\ the\\ CIO\\ \\(Congress\\ of\\ Industrial\\ Organization\\)\\ all\\ had\\ Communist\\ leanings\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ open\\ philosophies\\ of\\ racial\\ equality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ These\\ groups\\ had\\ few\\ white\\ members\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ North\\,\\ Communists\\ did\\ not\\ include\\ religion\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ South\\,\\ they\\ made\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ making\\ religion\\ very\\ powerful\\ in\\ their\\ organizations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\/21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ and\\ Answer\\ Portion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ women\\ and\\ Black\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ her\\ last\\ lecture\\,\\ socialism\\ vs\\.\\ capitalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Higginbotham\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ debate\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ has\\ been\\ argued\\ mostly\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;Traditions\\ of\\ integregration\\ and\\ separatism\\ have\\ both\\ argued\\ for\\ capitalism\\.\\ Capitalism\\ itself\\ has\\ been\\ transformed\\ because\\ of\\ demands\\ and\\ expectations\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\ was\\ there\\ no\\ strong\\ and\\ sustained\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ as\\ there\\ was\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Europe\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ a\\ much\\ larger\\ and\\ powerful\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ argument\\ of\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;Race\\ has\\ divided\\ white\\ and\\ black\\ workers\\,\\ what\\ DuBois\\ calls\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ wages\\ of\\ whiteness\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ gave\\ whites\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ superiority\\ over\\ blacks\\ which\\ stemmed\\ from\\ segreation\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Thus\\ poor\\ whites\\ vote\\ for\\ political\\ parties\\ which\\ from\\ an\\ economic\\ perspective\\ are\\ opposite\\ to\\ their\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Your\\ thought\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ see\\ this\\ as\\ well\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ concerning\\ the\\ Bible\\ belt\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ possibly\\ in\\ this\\ country\\,\\ people\\ of\\ poorer\\ classes\\ tend\\ to\\ go\\ more\\ towards\\ non\\-economic\\ issues\\ concerning\\ race\\ and\\ religion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(e\\.g\\.\\ Conservative\\ South\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Her\\ argument\\ today\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Race\\ in\\ America\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ generally\\,\\ operates\\ as\\ a\\ metalanguage\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ acts\\ as\\ a\\ global\\ sign\\,\\ and\\ race\\ as\\ a\\ construct\\ of\\ social\\ relations\\ and\\ it\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ power\\ to\\ mean\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ gender\\ does\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ fluid\\ set\\ of\\ overlapping\\ discourses\\,\\ it\\ rolls\\ into\\ things\\ that\\ have\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(e\\.g\\.\\ Hair\\ and\\ specch\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ good\\ hair\\ and\\ good\\ speech\\ are\\ tied\\ into\\ racial\\ ideas\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ argue\\ that\\ race\\ is\\ a\\ myth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ agrees\\ with\\ this\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ socially\\ understood\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ is\\ as\\ much\\ difference\\ within\\ a\\ race\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ between\\ races\\.\\ But\\ while\\ it\\ is\\ arbitrary\\,\\ it\\ also\\ appears\\ very\\ natural\\ and\\ fixed\\ in\\ other\\ respects\\.\\ \\ \\;Ideology\\ does\\ have\\ real\\ affects\\ on\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lives\\ since\\ it\\ speaks\\ about\\ and\\ lends\\ meaning\\ to\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ terms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Race\\ is\\ constantly\\ impregnating\\ other\\ things\\ with\\ its\\ meaning\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ gives\\ meaning\\ to\\ identities\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ racialized\\ and\\ it\\ gives\\ meaning\\ to\\ other\\ social\\ constructions\\ such\\ as\\ gender\\ and\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ when\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ fought\\ for\\ rights\\,\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ base\\ arguments\\ was\\ no\\ special\\ treatments\\ and\\ that\\ justice\\ should\\ be\\ color\\ blind\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ argued\\ by\\ Tourjay\\ in\\ the\\ Plessy\\ case\\ and\\ also\\ stated\\ by\\ John\\ Harland\\,\\ the\\ dissenting\\ judge\\ of\\ the\\ Plessy\\ case\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ we\\ know\\ today\\ that\\ when\\ colorblind\\ is\\ used\\,\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ forces\\ that\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ exclude\\ more\\ diversity\\,\\ hcnce\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ color\\ blind\\.\\ It\\ precludes\\ unity\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ gender\\ group\\ \\,\\ the\\ working\\ class\\,\\ and\\ unity\\ with\\ white\\ women\\ and\\ black\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Race\\ can\\ often\\ appear\\ is\\ affect\\ to\\ solidify\\ people\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ racial\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ race\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ issues\\ are\\ swept\\ under\\ the\\ rug\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\ constructs\\ gender\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slave\\ Celia\\,\\ who\\ is\\ put\\ to\\ death\\ because\\ she\\ defended\\ herself\\ against\\ rape\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ court\\ would\\ not\\ define\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ woman\\ because\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ slave\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ slavery\\,\\ when\\ women\\ retreated\\ from\\ the\\ fields\\,\\ they\\ were\\ called\\ female\\ loafers\\ when\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ go\\ into\\ the\\ fields\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ the\\ Freedman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bureau\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Class\\ perspective\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ could\\ afford\\ to\\ ride\\ in\\ a\\ car\\ first\\ class\\ \\(Arthur\\ Mitchell\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ black\\ democrat\\ from\\ Illinois\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ still\\ had\\ to\\ ride\\ in\\ the\\ smoking\\ car\\ with\\ the\\ poor\\ whites\\ since\\ he\\ was\\ still\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Have\\ blacks\\ ultimately\\ assimilated\\ into\\ American\\ Society\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Different\\ with\\ Ellis\\ Island\\ idea\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Internally\\ and\\ external\\ sense\\ of\\ pan\\ ethnic\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Blacks\\ did\\ not\\ face\\ the\\ option\\ of\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ even\\ new\\ white\\ immigrants\\ who\\ had\\ formed\\ a\\ pan\\-white\\ group\\ as\\ were\\ the\\ blacks\\ who\\ were\\ coming\\ from\\ the\\ Caribbeans\\ and\\ Jamaicans\\ \\ \\;who\\ came\\ before\\ the\\ 1924\\ Exclusion\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fear\\ of\\ miscenegation\\ proved\\ effective\\ in\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ whites\\ trying\\ to\\ save\\ a\\ white\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Black\\ nationalists\\ spoke\\ of\\ Africa\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ rhetoric\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Africa\\ was\\ presented\\ as\\ a\\ black\\ women\\ whose\\ purity\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ saved\\ and\\ protected\\,\\ and\\ this\\ protection\\ was\\ needed\\ from\\ colonial\\ powers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\ has\\ trumped\\ gender\\ in\\ other\\ ways\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Dr\\.\\ Banks\\ \\(female\\ law\\ professor\\)\\ states\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ her\\ books\\ that\\ her\\ status\\ meant\\ little\\ in\\ separating\\ herself\\ from\\ the\\ stereotypes\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ black\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ What\\ hurt\\ her\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ feared\\ and\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ perceived\\ as\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ understood\\ that\\ black\\ men\\ could\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ dangerous\\ but\\ was\\ surprised\\ about\\ black\\ women\\ being\\ perceived\\ as\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ women\\ are\\ categories\\ in\\ two\\ subordinate\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ priority\\.\\ One\\ opinion\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ such\\ intersectionality\\ that\\ one\\ is\\ marginalizes\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarence\\ Thomas\\ and\\ Anita\\ Hill\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ high\\ tech\\ lynching\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ him\\ to\\ call\\ upon\\ that\\ language\\ was\\ a\\ call\\ for\\ anti\\ racist\\ groups\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Anita\\ Hill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ was\\ more\\ problematic\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ challenging\\ some\\ her\\ peers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ white\\ women\\ sided\\ with\\ her\\ more\\ than\\ black\\ women\\ who\\ believed\\ she\\ was\\ hurting\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ race\\ was\\ served\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;most\\ famous\\ Black\\ person\\ of\\ her\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Representation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\long\\ vexed\\ history\\;\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ by\\ back\\ to\\ Wheatley\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Enlightenment\\ in\\ the\\ 1800s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Query\\:\\ A\\ famous\\ Black\\ person\\:\\ Are\\ they\\ independent\\ or\\ do\\ they\\ represent\\ all\\ Black\\ African\\ Americans\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Barack\\ Obama\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Not\\ black\\ enough\\?\\ Who\\ does\\ he\\ represent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1919\\&mdash\\;Invention\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Tom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1852\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Tom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cabin\\&rdquo\\;\\ Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\;\\ originally\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Man\\ Who\\ Was\\ a\\ Thing\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Uncle\\ Tom\\:\\ from\\ Hero\\ to\\ Epithet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ was\\ once\\ a\\ favorable\\ term\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;presented\\ Blacks\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Actually\\ heroic\\ deeply\\ Christian\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ up\\ escape\\ routes\\ of\\ 2\\ mulatto\\ women\\ and\\ died\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ changed\\ in\\ 1919\\ by\\ Marcus\\ Garvey\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Tom\\ is\\ dead\\ and\\ buried\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ To\\ Garvey\\,\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ was\\ a\\ Black\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ white\\ heart\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ Black\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ Black\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcus\\ Garvey\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaican\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ was\\ his\\ hero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\UNIA\\ was\\ his\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proponent\\ of\\ Africa\\ for\\ Africans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\ hated\\ Garvey\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;got\\ him\\ in\\ trouble\\ with\\ the\\ FBI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Everyone\\ started\\ using\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Tom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ division\\ between\\ recently\\ freed\\ slaves\\ and\\ established\\ Blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Great\\ Migration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ division\\ amongst\\ Blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\~2\\ million\\ southerners\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ North\\ or\\ the\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disputed\\ class\\ distinctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ chaos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ established\\ blacks\\ found\\ Southern\\ agrarian\\ Blacks\\ embarrassing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summer\\ 1919\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Red\\ Riots\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blood\\ flowed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\WWI\\ black\\ men\\ fought\\ in\\ wars\\,\\ defending\\ America\\,\\ then\\ came\\ back\\ and\\ were\\ discriminated\\ against\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ we\\ must\\ die\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Claude\\ McKay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ scared\\ whites\\ and\\ established\\ Blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\ hated\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ called\\ him\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gates\\ and\\ Cornell\\ West\\ called\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Aunt\\ Jane\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ write\\ militant\\ poems\\.\\ She\\ was\\ given\\ a\\ written\\ exam\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ she\\ could\\ write\\ those\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;REPRESENTATION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;her\\ results\\ show\\ aptitude\\ or\\ potential\\ of\\ all\\ Black\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;she\\ passed\\ when\\ whites\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ any\\ Black\\ person\\ could\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Great\\ Chain\\ of\\ Being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Whites\\ discovered\\ Blacks\\ and\\ apes\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ confused\\ the\\ two\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ think\\,\\ therefore\\ I\\ am\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Reason\\ makes\\ one\\ human\\;\\ this\\ is\\ displayed\\ through\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ must\\ prove\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Barbara\\ Fields\\ said\\ we\\ cannot\\ understand\\ racism\\ until\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ transaction\\ between\\ Whites\\ and\\ Blacks\\ for\\ Black\\ flesh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ racism\\ start\\ slavery\\ or\\ vice\\ versa\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ your\\ name\\?\\&mdash\\;Malcolm\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Synecdoche\\&mdash\\;part\\ for\\ whole\\.\\ Example\\:\\ Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\ and\\ representation\\ of\\ all\\ Blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Great\\ Chain\\ of\\ Being\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Aristotle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Prove\\ yourself\\ and\\ take\\ a\\ step\\ up\\ the\\ Great\\ Chain\\ of\\ Being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justification\\ for\\ slavery\\ is\\ Blacks\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Human\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ environment\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ their\\ nature\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Francis\\ Bacon\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1684\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mastery\\ of\\ Arts\\ and\\ Sciences\\ separates\\ man\\ from\\ beast\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;if\\ you\\ can\\ read\\ and\\ write\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ human\\ \\(Slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Blacks\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ read\\ and\\ write\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ David\\ Hume\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\blacks\\ are\\ a\\ different\\ breed\\,\\ no\\ ingenuity\\,\\ no\\ arts\\,\\ no\\ sciences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;parrot\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\&mdash\\;blackness\\ \\=\\ stupidity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Georg\\ Hegel\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ written\\ language\\,\\ \\ \\;no\\ history\\,\\ incapable\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ \\&ndash\\;orangutans\\ prefer\\ Black\\ women\\ to\\ female\\ orangutans\\,\\ Black\\ men\\ prefer\\ white\\ women\\;\\ They\\ \\&ldquo\\;feel\\&rdquo\\;\\ therefore\\ they\\ are\\;\\ invalidated\\ Wheatley\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ real\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blacks\\ refute\\ Jefferson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wheatley\\ to\\ Reverend\\ Olcam\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ An\\ idiot\\ knows\\ we\\ are\\ human\\ and\\ deserve\\ to\\ be\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Banniker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ letter\\ to\\ Jefferson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ humans\\,\\ same\\ faculties\\,\\ hypocrisy\\ \\(we\\ hold\\ these\\ truths\\ to\\ be\\ self\\-evident\\,\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ created\\ equal\\)\\;\\ sent\\ hand\\-written\\ Almanac\\ to\\ Jefferson\\ \\(Jefferson\\ later\\ said\\ that\\ Banniker\\ had\\ help\\ of\\ white\\ neighbor0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cites\\ Egyptians\\ as\\ yellow\\ and\\ black\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ white\\ women\\,\\ then\\ also\\ compare\\ whites\\ to\\ devils\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inhuman\\ now\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ Egypt\\ narrative\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Blacks\\ identify\\ as\\ African\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ Egyptians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ identify\\ as\\ Israelites\\ with\\ exodus\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assigned\\ specific\\ moral\\ qualities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ascribe\\ inherent\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whites\\ justifiy\\ slavery\\ by\\ denying\\ humanity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;therefore\\,\\ Reclamation\\ of\\ Egypt\\ was\\ very\\ important\\ because\\ Egyptians\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ white\\ but\\ had\\ arts\\ and\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Context\\:\\ this\\ debate\\ is\\ occurring\\ during\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\;\\ Patrick\\ Henry\\ and\\ Jefferson\\ both\\ compare\\ themselves\\ to\\ slaves\\ to\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\metaphorical\\ talk\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ your\\ negro\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Race\\ as\\ nation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;both\\ whites\\ and\\ blacks\\ understood\\ this\\ \\(problematic\\ position\\ of\\ Italians\\,\\ Irish\\,\\ Eastern\\ Europeans\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ black\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ BUT\\ not\\ quite\\ white\\ either\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Analogy\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\romantic\\ racism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ascribing\\ inherent\\ qualities\\ to\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\:\\ Black\\ as\\ docile\\,\\ followers\\,\\ submissive\\ and\\ less\\ than\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cotton\\ Mather\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Onisimus\\ \\(spelling\\)\\-\\ Ghanaian\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;discovered\\ vaccination\\ \\(inoculation\\ or\\ variolation\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;William\\ Douglass\\ vs\\ Cotton\\ Mather\\ debate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultural\\ Retentions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ African\\ or\\ American\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jewish\\ Anthropologist\\ Herskovits\\ vs\\.\\ Black\\ Socialist\\ Frazier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shift\\ in\\ Understanding\\ of\\ Herskovits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\started\\ writing\\ oin\\ the\\ 1920s\\ lots\\ of\\ racism\\ nationalism\\,\\ Ku\\ Klux\\,\\ Klan\\,\\ Birth\\ of\\ anation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientific\\ background\\ to\\ racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Franz\\ Boas\\ \\(Herskovits\\&rsquo\\;\\ teacher\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;race\\ as\\ socially\\ and\\ culturally\\ constructed\\,\\ over\\ time\\ all\\ look\\ similar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herskovits\\ \\(1920s\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;different\\ \\&ldquo\\;races\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultures\\&rdquo\\;\\ converge\\ together\\ to\\ be\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Blacks\\ not\\ so\\ different\\ than\\ the\\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herskovits\\ is\\ problematic\\ to\\ Locke\\:\\ Blacks\\ like\\ Locke\\ say\\,\\ Blacks\\ do\\ have\\ distinct\\ culture\\,\\ not\\ inferior\\,\\ but\\ bedrock\\ of\\ American\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cultural\\ pluralism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ each\\ culture\\ has\\ its\\ won\\ way\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ things\\,\\ nott\\ inferior\\/superior\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;just\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herskovits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;speaks\\ of\\ Diaspora\\,\\ spread\\ of\\ West\\ African\\ folklore\\,\\ religion\\ and\\ myth\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\ \\(mostly\\ South\\ America\\,\\ Caribbean\\)\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ US\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;religion\\,\\ family\\ structure\\,\\ music\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Religion\\ stronghold\\ for\\ African\\ cultural\\ retention\\ essentially\\ arguing\\ that\\ Blacks\\ do\\ have\\ a\\ past\\,\\ they\\ have\\ kept\\ theirs\\ and\\ have\\ affected\\ whites\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frazier\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\impossible\\ that\\ W\\.\\ African\\ slaves\\ could\\ retain\\ thir\\ culture\\ in\\ US\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;too\\ many\\ different\\ cultures\\,\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\his\\ POV\\ was\\ dominant\\ at\\ that\\ time\\ because\\ during\\ beginning\\ of\\ civil\\ rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;integration\\ became\\ key\\ in\\ early\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Herskovits\\ became\\ more\\ prominent\\ in\\ 1970s\\ with\\ the\\ onset\\ of\\ Black\\ Power\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ Cultural\\ Retentions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cotton\\ Mather\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Onisimus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;small\\ pox\\ inoculation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ring\\ shout\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;shuffling\\ dance\\,\\ sing\\,\\ lapped\\ hands\\,\\ stomped\\ feet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;racial\\ identity\\ defined\\ in\\ contestation\\ of\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ and\\ practices\\.\\ \\(Free\\ blacks\\ saw\\ folk\\ practices\\ as\\ more\\ than\\ improper\\,\\ saw\\ them\\ as\\ retrogression\\ and\\ heathenish\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rice\\ cultivation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;blacks\\ brought\\ rice\\ into\\ S\\.\\ Carolina\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dancing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ part\\ of\\ African\\ revolt\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ Central\\ African\\ warfare\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ capoeira\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1970s\\-80s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;people\\ take\\ Herskovits\\&rsquo\\;\\ argument\\ seriously\\,\\ Blacks\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ come\\ tabula\\ rossa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mints\\ and\\ Price\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blacks\\ bring\\ mental\\ framework\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cognition\\ orientation\\;\\ all\\ Africans\\ come\\ together\\ and\\ must\\ converse\\ on\\ slave\\ boats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;new\\ ideas\\,\\ new\\ language\\ formed\\;\\ example\\:\\ Yoruba\\ deify\\ twins\\,\\ Ibo\\ destroy\\ twins\\ BUT\\ in\\ both\\ tribes\\,\\ twins\\ are\\ special\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trade\\ creates\\ common\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\John\\ Thorntom\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1980s\\ and\\ 90s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ debate\\ about\\ form\\ of\\ AFricanisms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;must\\ study\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ slave\\ trade\\ not\\ as\\ heterogeneous\\ as\\ once\\ thought\\,\\ language\\ like\\ Bantu\\ \\(similar\\)\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ from\\ Angola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Tradition\\ over\\ time\\ toward\\ one\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ or\\ true\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mixture\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ folk\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stono\\ Rebellion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slave\\/blacks\\ kill\\ slave\\ owners\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;outlaw\\ literacy\\ and\\ the\\ drum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;looked\\ down\\ on\\ Africans\\,\\ he\\ to\\ thought\\ them\\ primitive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;even\\ with\\ his\\ Pan\\-African\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pablo\\ Picasso\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cubism\\/modernism\\ created\\ by\\ integrating\\ African\\ masks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ralph\\ Ellison\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ African\\ and\\ African\\ American\\ are\\ separated\\ by\\ Middle\\ Passage\\ and\\ 400\\ years\\ of\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gates\\ and\\ Higginbotham\\ disagree\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;nuanced\\ look\\;\\ both\\ continents\\ are\\ connected\\ and\\ information\\ and\\ traditions\\ travel\\ both\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 14\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;My\\ grandfather\\ was\\ colored\\,\\ my\\ father\\ is\\ a\\ negro\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ proud\\ black\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Henry\\ Louis\\ Gates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stokely\\ Carmichael\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Black\\ Power\\ movement\\ brought\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\&rdquo\\;\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Find\\ a\\ true\\ name\\,\\ free\\ yourself\\ from\\ prison\\ of\\ stereotypes\\ made\\ by\\ white\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ McCune\\ Smith\\ prefaced\\ Douglass\\&rsquo\\;\\ 1855\\ narrative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;book\\ authorized\\ by\\ a\\ black\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Black\\ and\\ White\\ are\\ binaries\\,\\ opposites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colored\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ black\\)\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blacks\\ become\\ colored\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ Cuffe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ richest\\ Black\\ man\\,\\ for\\ repatriation\\ to\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Jennings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ talked\\ about\\ flirtation\\ with\\ Africa\\,\\ Blacks\\ know\\ no\\ other\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Forten\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1831\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ fight\\ for\\ equality\\,\\ to\\ stop\\ prejudice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ namestakes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Niger\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ name\\ for\\ black\\ inanimate\\ objects\\ or\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ American\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ citizens\\ of\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Samuel\\ Cornish\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Colored\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Whipper\\&mdash\\;abandon\\ the\\ term\\ colored\\ and\\ obliterate\\ the\\ term\\ African\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ American\\ Colonization\\ Society\\ would\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ send\\ blacks\\ back\\ to\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Henry\\ Highland\\ Garnet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Let\\ resistance\\ be\\ our\\ motto\\,\\ lift\\ this\\ yolk\\ of\\ namestakes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ Way\\ Freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Freedom\\ diametric\\ to\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ slaves\\ victims\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Freedom\\ of\\ agency\\,\\ of\\ expression\\,\\ noso\\ diametrically\\ opposed\\ to\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ touch\\ on\\ freedom\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phillips\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slavery\\ as\\ training\\ school\\ for\\ civilization\\;\\ many\\ opportunities\\ for\\ freedom\\;\\ slavery\\ was\\ non\\-profitable\\,\\ instead\\ it\\ existed\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1950s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kenneth\\ Stampp\\ and\\ Stanley\\ Elkins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slaves\\ as\\ victims\\,\\ loss\\ of\\ culture\\,\\ made\\ to\\ fear\\,\\ whites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\did\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Stampp\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Blacks\\ are\\ whites\\ in\\ Black\\ skin\\,\\ same\\ feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elkins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ likens\\ slavery\\ to\\ concentration\\ camps\\,\\ product\\ of\\ slavery\\ is\\ Sambo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\-respect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Herbert\\ Gutman\\ Eugene\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ New\\ look\\ at\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\spirituals\\,\\ folklore\\,\\ living\\ space\\ in\\ slavery\\ \\(freedom\\ factor\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concentration\\ camp\\ trope\\ is\\ faulty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;slave\\ woners\\ not\\ interested\\ inextermination\\ of\\ blacks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;actually\\ capital\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ as\\ chosen\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Debate\\:\\ Blacks\\ stole\\ opportunites\\ for\\ freedom\\,\\ creativity\\;\\ does\\ this\\ make\\ slavery\\ seem\\ less\\ oppressive\\?\\;\\ were\\ slaves\\ duped\\ by\\ masters\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;given\\&rdquo\\;\\ opportunities\\ for\\ space\\ so\\ they\\ would\\ work\\ harder\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ connection\\ to\\ Africa\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Middle\\ passage\\ created\\ tabula\\ rassa\\/clean\\ slate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ true\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;blacks\\ believed\\ stereotypes\\ about\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Angola\\-Brazil\\ pipeline\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;over\\ 4\\ million\\ Blacks\\;\\ Africans\\ sold\\ other\\ Africans\\ into\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ \\(usually\\ prisoners\\ of\\ war\\)\\;\\ capoeira\\,\\ cattle\\ grazing\\,\\ rice\\ growing\\ made\\ the\\ trip\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Name\\ Stakes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Trope\\ of\\ the\\ Talking\\ Book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ Narratives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ New\\ genre\\ 1770\\-1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ writing\\ about\\ themselves\\,\\ their\\ lives\\,\\ their\\ oppression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hurt\\;\\ psychological\\ trauma\\ and\\ scars\\ of\\ slavery\\ not\\ yet\\ dealty\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chiasmus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;reversal\\;\\ basis\\ of\\ slave\\ narrative\\;\\ man\\ becomes\\ slave\\;\\ slave\\ becomes\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gronniosaw\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;African\\ Prince\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Trope\\ of\\ Talking\\ Book\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ imaginary\\ anecdote\\;\\ Book\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talk\\ to\\ black\\ man\\ \\(in\\ 5\\ separate\\ slave\\ narratives\\)\\;\\ black\\ literary\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\ saved\\ the\\ Slave\\ Narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;still\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ my\\ birthday\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Master\\ was\\ father\\,\\ father\\ was\\ Master\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Williams\\ created\\ a\\ fictional\\ slave\\ narrative\\ which\\ horrified\\ the\\ community\\;\\ now\\ all\\ slave\\ narratives\\ need\\ verisimilitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1845\\-1855\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;elevates\\ his\\ black\\ mother\\,\\ says\\ his\\ father\\ was\\ white\\ or\\ nearly\\ white\\ \\(followed\\ by\\ claims\\ that\\ he\\ got\\ all\\ his\\ intellect\\ from\\ his\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ heritage\\)\\;\\ his\\ mother\\ goes\\ from\\ nothing\\ to\\ everything\\;\\ Father\\ from\\ master\\ to\\ nothing\\;\\ chiasmus\\;\\ Douglass\\ as\\ synecdoche\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nat\\ Turner\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;biblical\\ mandate\\ to\\ kill\\ all\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genorese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;compromises\\ within\\ slavery\\;\\ \\ \\;Masters\\ let\\ slaves\\ go\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\,\\ slaves\\ \\&ldquo\\;accept\\&rdquo\\;\\ ownership\\,\\ though\\ slaves\\ never\\ abided\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ their\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Protest\\ and\\ Accomodation\\&mdash\\;late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ \\&ndash\\;complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accomodationist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foe\\ of\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Covertly\\ fought\\ for\\ voting\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overtly\\ spoke\\ out\\ against\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Resurgence\\ of\\ racism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;must\\ look\\ at\\ past\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ that\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1865\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ abolition\\ of\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ratify\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1870\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ black\\ men\\ vote\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1875\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ discrimination\\ based\\ on\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1877\\ \\-\\ Reconstruction\\ comes\\ to\\ an\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1883\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ States\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ limited\\ to\\ federal\\ law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;basically\\ over\\-turned\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\;\\ Frederic\\ Douglass\\ was\\ shocked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1890\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mississippi\\ Plan\\-\\ Black\\ men\\ denied\\ vote\\ started\\ wave\\ of\\ stopping\\ Blacks\\ from\\ voting\\ via\\ intimidation\\,\\ economic\\ reprise\\,\\ terrorism\\,\\ lynching\\,\\ imprisonment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Academic\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ application\\ of\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\;\\ anthropometry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\State\\ mandated\\ segregation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Louisiana\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;laws\\ to\\ make\\ cities\\ more\\ efficient\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;better\\ the\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ citizens\\,\\ comfort\\ of\\ passengers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ Orleans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;test\\ case\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Homer\\ Plessy\\ \\(7\\/8ths\\ white\\)\\,\\ blacks\\ argued\\ that\\ no\\ train\\ conductor\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ identify\\ passengers\\&rsquo\\;\\ racial\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Supreme\\ court\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;reasonable\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ racially\\ segregate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;now\\ separate\\ but\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gilded\\ Age\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;large\\ corps\\ over\\ small\\ business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Booker\\ T\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ famous\\ speech\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ all\\ things\\ mutually\\ beneficial\\ to\\ the\\ South\\,\\ Blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ work\\ together\\,\\ in\\ all\\ else\\,\\ separate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;assumption\\:\\ separate\\ can\\ be\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1905\\ Niagara\\ Movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ few\\ men\\ who\\ stood\\ up\\ against\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;courageous\\ movement\\,\\ faced\\ lots\\ of\\ obstacles\\ \\(blacks\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ vote\\,\\ lynching\\,\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Booker\\ T\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ get\\ land\\ and\\ money\\,\\ then\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ do\\ not\\ submit\\ to\\ be\\ subjugated\\,\\ must\\ get\\ political\\ power\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ there\\ any\\ validity\\ to\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 28\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disenfranchisement\\,\\ ascendant\\ racism\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\ \\(Nadir\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bariah\\ School\\ \\(Quakers\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ integrated\\,\\ but\\ state\\ law\\ prohibited\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Birth\\ of\\ a\\ Nation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ glorified\\ Ku\\ Klux\\ Klan\\,\\ Pres\\.\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ \\(Klan\\ member\\)\\ loved\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HBUs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ Tuskegee\\ Institute\\ was\\ black\\ owned\\ and\\ run\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Booker\\ T\\ had\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ida\\ B\\.\\ Wells\\-\\ anti\\-lynching\\ crusader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ ideology\\ vs\\.\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MLK\\ \\=\\ non\\-violent\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\X\\ \\=\\ violent\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1930s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Union\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\,\\ labor\\ economic\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1955\\ Montgomery\\ Bus\\ Boycotts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;racism\\ has\\ been\\ chipped\\ away\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NAACP\\ takes\\ up\\ what\\ Niagara\\ Movement\\ had\\ begun\\ from\\ 1910\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1930s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;destroy\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ through\\ legal\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thurgood\\ Marshall\\ fought\\ against\\ teacher\\ pay\\ discrepancy\\,\\ housing\\ covenant\\ law\\,\\ labor\\ cases\\,\\ education\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brown\\ Cases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1954\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ separate\\ is\\ inherently\\ unequal\\,\\ rectify\\ separate\\ but\\ equal\\ with\\ all\\ deliberate\\ speed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;turned\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ slow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rosa\\ Parks\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ secretary\\ of\\ NAACP\\,\\ activist\\,\\ in\\ Black\\ part\\ of\\ bus\\,\\ bus\\ was\\ full\\,\\ white\\ man\\ wanted\\ seat\\,\\ she\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ up\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;series\\ of\\ cases\\ that\\ year\\,\\ history\\ of\\ violence\\ and\\ intimidation\\ on\\ buses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ rose\\ up\\ to\\ lead\\ bus\\ boycott\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;no\\ more\\ patience\\,\\ must\\ protest\\,\\ different\\ from\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\,\\ filled\\ with\\ religiousness\\ \\(reinterpreting\\ spirituals\\,\\ turn\\ the\\ other\\ cheek\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fannie\\ Lou\\ Hamer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ beaten\\ for\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ blacks\\ to\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ruby\\ Hurley\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ rhetorical\\ biblical\\ logic\\ to\\ get\\ Blacks\\ out\\ to\\ fight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ appealed\\ to\\ manhood\\;\\ you\\ are\\ violent\\ to\\ protect\\ US\\,\\ get\\ violent\\ to\\ protect\\ your\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oginga\\ Odinga\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kenyan\\ freedom\\ fighter\\,\\ break\\ bods\\ of\\ European\\ colonialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Civil\\ Rights\\ had\\ to\\ start\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1\\.\\ racism\\ stronger\\ there\\,\\ 2\\.\\ all\\ black\\ institutions\\ \\(due\\ to\\ building\\ of\\ Black\\ infrastructure\\)\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;later\\ saw\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ all\\ black\\ organizations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;against\\ NAACP\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Booker\\ T\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;educated\\ bourgeois\\ black\\ nationalist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 5, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/AAAS10_Study_Guide_-_Midterm_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Poems, Poets, Poetry Study Guide ", "tags": ["harvard", "poems", "poets", "poetry", "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding"], "text": null, "id": 5, "html": "\\\\\\Study\\_Guide\\_Draft\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c26\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-72pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c14\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:4\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c25\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c13\\{color\\:\\#00051f\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-right\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c8\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c17\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Easter\\ Morning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1981\\)\\&ndash\\;\\ A\\.\\ R\\.\\ Ammons\\ \\(1926\\-2001\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 361\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\.\\ \\ \\;Paired\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Jewish\\ Cemetery\\ at\\ Newport\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Elegy\\ Written\\ in\\ a\\ Country\\ Churchyard\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ \\&lsquo\\;same\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ rewritten\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\,\\ nature\\,\\ god\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\,\\ Elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\ \\(no\\ discernable\\ pattern\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ lots\\ of\\ repetition\\ of\\ single\\ words\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ a\\ child\\ unable\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ new\\ words\\ for\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ could\\ represent\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ stuck\\ on\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Lots\\ of\\ religious\\ imagery\\ \\(death\\,\\ rebirth\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;end\\ of\\ poem\\ focuses\\ on\\ birds\\ \\(him\\ \\&\\;\\ his\\ bro\\?\\ resurrection\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ little\\ brother\\ died\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ young\\.\\ \\ \\;Poem\\ is\\ largely\\ about\\ that\\ relationship\\,\\ what\\ it\\ did\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ poem\\ opening\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ have\\ a\\ life\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ become\\,\\ \\/\\ that\\ turned\\ aside\\ and\\ stopped\\,\\ \\/astonished\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;And\\ then\\ about\\ halfway\\ through\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ child\\ in\\ me\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ become\\ \\/\\ was\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ go\\,\\ \\/\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ into\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Towards\\ the\\ resolution\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;still\\ it\\/\\ is\\ a\\ picture\\-book\\,\\ letter\\-perfect\\ \\/\\ Easter\\ morning\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quoted\\ online\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ called\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ classic\\ poem\\&hellip\\;\\ a\\ revelation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ revelation\\ is\\ revealed\\ in\\ the\\ title\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Easter\\ Morning\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ represents\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotional\\ resurrection\\,\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ overcome\\ his\\ younger\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ by\\ finding\\ beauty\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ Ammons\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ has\\ carried\\ his\\ feelings\\ about\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ around\\ with\\ him\\ for\\ his\\ whole\\ life\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hold\\ it\\ in\\ me\\ like\\ a\\ pregnancy\\&hellip\\;\\ not\\ to\\ grow\\ or\\ grow\\ old\\ but\\ dwell\\ on\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ goes\\ on\\,\\ discusses\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ graveyard\\ with\\ his\\ extended\\ family\\,\\ eventually\\ discussing\\ his\\ own\\ emotions\\ and\\ his\\ helplessness\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;crying\\ out\\ \\/\\ for\\ help\\,\\ come\\ and\\ fix\\ this\\ or\\ we\\ \\/\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ by\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ Ammons\\ finds\\ solace\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ the\\ death\\,\\ he\\ finds\\ the\\ resurrection\\ of\\ Easter\\ morning\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ watches\\ two\\ birds\\ who\\ are\\ separated\\,\\ then\\ circle\\ and\\ reunite\\ and\\ continue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ birds\\ could\\ possibly\\ be\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ brother\\,\\ or\\ it\\ could\\ just\\ be\\ a\\ beautiful\\ image\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mother\\-in\\-Law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 214\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 6\\.\\ \\ \\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\,\\ identity\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ Domestic\\ \\(polished\\ table\\,\\ meal\\ prep\\)\\,\\ medical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ lesbian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daughter\\-in\\-law\\,\\ strange\\ as\\ you\\ are\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tell\\ me\\ something\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ tackles\\ a\\ rarely\\ \\(poetically\\)\\ discussed\\ subject\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ a\\ daughter\\-in\\-law\\ remembers\\ how\\ her\\ mother\\-in\\-law\\ attempted\\ to\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ her\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ initiate\\ a\\ dialogue\\,\\ sharing\\ cooking\\ advice\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ younger\\ woman\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ difficult\\ time\\ opening\\ up\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\ the\\ truths\\ revealed\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ are\\ serious\\ matters\\;\\ her\\ husband\\ is\\ dead\\,\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ lesbian\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ question\\ posed\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ intimacy\\ can\\ truly\\ be\\ achieved\\ between\\ these\\ women\\ of\\ different\\ generations\\ and\\ identities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Necessities\\ of\\ Life\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1966\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 108\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ Describing\\ Poems\\,\\ Poetry\\ about\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Motherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Confessional\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\ most\\ often\\,\\ but\\ line\\ length\\ varies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 21\\ unrhymed\\ couplets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ birth\\,\\ adolescence\\,\\ motherhood\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\ was\\ married\\ with\\ children\\ then\\ experienced\\ an\\ alienation\\ from\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ After\\ this\\,\\ she\\ became\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ feminist\\ and\\ pride\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ small\\,\\ fixed\\ dot\\,\\ still\\ see\\ \\/\\ that\\ old\\ myself\\,\\ a\\ dark\\-blue\\ thumbtack\\ \\/\\ pushed\\ into\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ \\/\\ a\\ hard\\ little\\ head\\ protruding\\&rdquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ spoken\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ has\\ emerged\\ from\\ the\\ exhaustions\\ of\\ motherhood\\ and\\ is\\ thinking\\ that\\ she\\ will\\ at\\ last\\ have\\ a\\ private\\ life\\ again\\.\\ She\\ retraces\\ her\\ own\\ birth\\ and\\ ambitious\\ adolescence\\,\\ then\\ shows\\ her\\ inner\\ deprivation\\ as\\ her\\ life\\ \\(once\\ she\\ becomes\\ a\\ mother\\)\\ was\\ handed\\ over\\ to\\ others\\ in\\ what\\ sometimes\\ seemed\\ to\\ her\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\;\\ she\\ concludes\\ with\\ her\\ present\\ anticipation\\ of\\ a\\ new\\,\\ but\\ aging\\,\\ self\\.\\ \\(From\\ PPP\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ important\\ progression\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ through\\ time\\.\\ The\\ narrator\\ brings\\ three\\ distinct\\ times\\ in\\ her\\ past\\ into\\ her\\ present\\ thinking\\:\\ first\\ birth\\,\\ then\\ her\\ adolescence\\ and\\ finally\\ motherhood\\.\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ specifically\\ points\\ to\\ Rich\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ verb\\ tenses\\ to\\ unfold\\ the\\ narrative\\ and\\ watch\\ the\\ past\\ become\\ momentarily\\ present\\ in\\ memory\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ future\\ becomes\\ tenseless\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ an\\ infinitive\\.\\ Although\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ feels\\ her\\ future\\ is\\ open\\ and\\ limitless\\,\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ women\\ knitting\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ points\\ to\\ her\\ aging\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poems\\ structure\\ is\\ consistently\\ divided\\ into\\ couplets\\,\\ but\\ the\\ poem\\ progresses\\ through\\ the\\ couplets\\.\\ Only\\ twice\\ do\\ individual\\ couplets\\ contain\\ full\\ sentences\\.\\ Every\\ other\\ instance\\,\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ flow\\ between\\ the\\ couplets\\ continuing\\ across\\ the\\ blank\\ space\\ on\\ the\\ page\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ smooth\\ transition\\ from\\ stanza\\ to\\ stanza\\.\\ This\\ reflects\\ how\\ the\\ narrator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ is\\ also\\ ever\\ continuing\\ even\\ as\\ she\\ grows\\ and\\ her\\ perspective\\ changes\\ sharply\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prospective\\ Immigrants\\ Please\\ Note\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1963\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\-Pg\\ 218\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ under\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ social\\ identity\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ spiritual\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ 2\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\,\\ short\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 7\\ stanzas\\ of\\ three\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ no\\ rhyming\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ door\\,\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ both\\ a\\ physical\\ immigration\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ spiritual\\ journey\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ door\\ itself\\/\\ makes\\ no\\ promises\\/\\ It\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ door\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Vendler\\ writes\\ about\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ another\\ of\\ her\\ poems\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mother\\-in\\-Law\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ that\\ other\\ poem\\,\\ Rich\\ gives\\ no\\ specifics\\ of\\ her\\ social\\ identity\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ by\\ addressing\\ prospective\\ immigrants\\ she\\ identifies\\ herself\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\ was\\ once\\ in\\ that\\ position\\,\\ and\\ is\\ thus\\ an\\ immigrant\\ herself\\.\\ Rich\\ presents\\ the\\ choice\\ to\\ immigrate\\ or\\ not\\,\\ offering\\ the\\ possible\\ outcomes\\ of\\ either\\ decision\\.\\ If\\ one\\ chooses\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ door\\,\\ she\\ warns\\ of\\ the\\ risks\\;\\ having\\ a\\ double\\-consciousness\\,\\ or\\ forgoing\\ your\\ own\\ last\\ name\\ to\\ forge\\ a\\ new\\ identity\\.\\ Rich\\ confirms\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ still\\ lead\\ an\\ honorable\\ life\\ if\\ they\\ choose\\ not\\ to\\ enter\\ through\\ the\\ door\\.\\ You\\ can\\ hold\\ on\\ to\\ your\\ name\\,\\ your\\ family\\,\\ your\\ hometown\\ and\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;live\\ worthily\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;die\\ bravely\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ she\\ warns\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ blind\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\,\\ and\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ greater\\ cost\\ than\\ those\\ incurred\\ by\\ entering\\ through\\ the\\ door\\.\\ You\\ get\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ despite\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ hardships\\ of\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ door\\,\\ she\\ is\\ still\\ happy\\ with\\ her\\ decision\\.\\ Vendler\\ writes\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ actual\\ physical\\ immigration\\ but\\ instead\\ one\\ of\\ a\\ spiritual\\ journey\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;immemorial\\ promise\\ of\\ a\\ better\\ spiritual\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Most\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Rich\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;argument\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ states\\ the\\ two\\ choices\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ consequences\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ choices\\.\\ She\\ guarantees\\ nothing\\,\\ however\\,\\ warning\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ The\\ door\\ itself\\/\\ makes\\ no\\ promises\\/\\ It\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ door\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ leaves\\ the\\ reader\\ at\\ the\\ door\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ decision\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ embark\\ on\\ the\\ journey\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Middle\\-Aged\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 567\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\.20\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ class\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Traditional\\ genres\\ of\\ life\\-stages\\:\\ The\\ childhood\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ of\\ adolescence\\,\\ the\\ coming\\-out\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ love\\-poem\\,\\ the\\ marriage\\ poem\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adolescence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inexperience\\/experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ exclusion\\,\\ of\\ relationship\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ 26\\ lines\\,\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ six\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Light\\/the\\ sun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ tranquility\\ of\\ the\\ house\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fruit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(perhaps\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ tree\\ of\\ knowledge\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\ of\\ Eden\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fruit\\ is\\ what\\ her\\ parents\\ possess\\,\\ it\\ is\\ presented\\ twice\\)\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\house\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ her\\ elders\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Adrienne\\ Rich\\ is\\ still\\ alive\\ today\\ and\\ is\\ an\\ active\\ teacher\\,\\ feminist\\,\\ poet\\,\\ and\\ writer\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ been\\ active\\ in\\ sociopolitical\\ movements\\ since\\ the\\ late\\ sixties\\;\\ perhaps\\ most\\ notable\\ has\\ been\\ her\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liberation\\ movement\\,\\ especially\\ after\\ her\\ estrangement\\ from\\ her\\ husband\\ in\\ 1969\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ declared\\ herself\\ a\\ lesbian\\ in\\ 1976\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;For\\ to\\ be\\ young\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Was\\ always\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ other\\ peoples\\&rsquo\\;\\ houses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Whose\\ peace\\,\\ if\\ we\\ sought\\ it\\,\\ had\\ been\\ made\\ by\\ others\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Was\\ our\\ at\\ second\\-hand\\ and\\ not\\ for\\ long\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Middle\\-Aged\\&rdquo\\;\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ referred\\ to\\ by\\ the\\ title\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ is\\ shown\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ faces\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ voices\\&rsquo\\;\\ measure\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ finally\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ figures\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;All\\ three\\ elements\\ are\\ followed\\ by\\ language\\ of\\ peace\\,\\ tranquility\\,\\ and\\ domestic\\ harmony\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ house\\ of\\ these\\ older\\ people\\ works\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ them\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ sees\\ their\\ faces\\ compared\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Holland\\ tiles\\ and\\ Oriental\\ carpet\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ their\\ figures\\ moving\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Sunday\\ garden\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ this\\ opening\\ sentence\\ introduces\\ the\\ conflict\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ alienation\\ from\\ these\\ people\\,\\ who\\ she\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;afflicted\\,\\ haunted\\ us\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ shifts\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ subject\\ becomes\\ the\\ author\\ in\\ her\\ youth\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ elucidates\\ the\\ strange\\ sense\\ of\\ isolation\\ she\\ introduces\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ sentence\\,\\ describing\\ how\\ she\\ felt\\ alien\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ her\\ parents\\ \\(\\?\\)\\,\\ even\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ distances\\ herself\\ from\\ the\\ calmness\\ of\\ her\\ elders\\,\\ which\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;made\\ by\\ others\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\-hand\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alienation\\ more\\ fully\\,\\ transforming\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ active\\ feeling\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;envy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ introduces\\ her\\ subject\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;we\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\ and\\ links\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ strange\\ verb\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;tasted\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ as\\ though\\,\\ in\\ her\\ adolescence\\,\\ she\\ samples\\ the\\ future\\,\\ has\\ tantalizing\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ possible\\ while\\ also\\ having\\ it\\ held\\ beyond\\ her\\ reach\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ fourth\\ sentence\\,\\ Rich\\ further\\ defines\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ her\\ desire\\,\\ describing\\ all\\ her\\ elders\\ provided\\ for\\ her\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ food\\ and\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ stay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ revealing\\ the\\ one\\ thing\\ she\\ yearned\\ for\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;twenty\\ years\\ of\\ living\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ experience\\ and\\ knowledge\\ of\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fifth\\ sentence\\ takes\\ a\\ darker\\ turn\\,\\ outlining\\ the\\ things\\ her\\ parents\\ hid\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ peace\\ and\\ tranquility\\ is\\ perforated\\ by\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;k\\&rdquo\\;\\ sounds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\oarse\\ stain\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\ra\\<\\/span\\>\\ck\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ letters\\ \\&ldquo\\;lo\\<\\/span\\>\\ck\\<\\/span\\>\\ed\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ dresser\\ drawer\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sixth\\ sentence\\ finally\\ brings\\ Rich\\ to\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ these\\ things\\;\\ she\\ sees\\ the\\ sacrifices\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ peace\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ she\\ admired\\ and\\ envied\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;terms\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ things\\ left\\ \\&ldquo\\;unsaid\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ulysses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(written\\ 1833\\,\\ revised\\ for\\ publication\\ 1842\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Tennyson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 1\\;\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\,\\ The\\ invented\\ persona\\ and\\ its\\ uses\\-\\-satiric\\,\\ literary\\,\\ mythological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Death\\,\\ Hero\\,\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Elegy\\,\\ Dramatic\\ Monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ unrhymed\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Many\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\ are\\ enjambed\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ a\\ thought\\ does\\ not\\ end\\ with\\ the\\ line\\-break\\;\\ the\\ sentences\\ often\\ end\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ end\\,\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ enjambment\\ is\\ appropriate\\ in\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ pushing\\ forward\\ \\"\\;beyond\\ the\\ utmost\\ bound\\ of\\ human\\ thought\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ myth\\,\\ exploration\\/quest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Victorian\\ age\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ written\\ in\\ 1833\\ and\\ revised\\ for\\ publication\\ in\\ 1842\\,\\ Tennyson\\ reworks\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ Ulysses\\ by\\ drawing\\ on\\ the\\ ancient\\ hero\\ of\\ Homer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Odyssey\\ \\(\\"\\;Ulysses\\"\\;\\ is\\ the\\ Roman\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ \\"\\;Odysseus\\"\\;\\)\\ and\\ the\\ medieval\\ hero\\ of\\ Dante\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Inferno\\.\\ Homer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Ulysses\\,\\ as\\ described\\ in\\ Scroll\\ XI\\ of\\ the\\ Odyssey\\,\\ learns\\ from\\ a\\ prophecy\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ take\\ a\\ final\\ sea\\ voyage\\ after\\ killing\\ the\\ suitors\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\ Penelope\\.\\ The\\ details\\ of\\ this\\ sea\\ voyage\\ are\\ described\\ by\\ Dante\\ in\\ Canto\\ XXVI\\ of\\ the\\ Inferno\\:\\ Ulysses\\ finds\\ himself\\ restless\\ in\\ Ithaca\\ and\\ driven\\ by\\ \\"\\;the\\ longing\\ I\\ had\\ to\\ gain\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\"\\;\\ Dante\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Ulysses\\ is\\ a\\ tragic\\ figure\\ who\\ dies\\ while\\ sailing\\ too\\ far\\ in\\ an\\ insatiable\\ thirst\\ for\\ knowledge\\.\\ Tennyson\\ combines\\ these\\ two\\ accounts\\ by\\ having\\ Ulysses\\ make\\ his\\ speech\\ shortly\\ after\\ returning\\ to\\ Ithaca\\ and\\ resuming\\ his\\ administrative\\ responsibilities\\,\\ and\\ shortly\\ before\\ embarking\\ on\\ his\\ final\\ voyage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ also\\ concerns\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ personal\\ journey\\,\\ for\\ it\\ was\\ composed\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ weeks\\ after\\ Tennyson\\ learned\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ dear\\ college\\ friend\\ Arthur\\ Henry\\ Hallam\\ in\\ 1833\\.\\ Like\\ In\\ Memoriam\\,\\ then\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ elegy\\ for\\ a\\ deeply\\ cherished\\ friend\\.\\ Ulysses\\,\\ who\\ symbolizes\\ the\\ grieving\\ poet\\,\\ proclaims\\ his\\ resolution\\ to\\ push\\ onward\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ the\\ awareness\\ that\\ \\"\\;death\\ closes\\ all\\"\\;\\ \\(line\\ 51\\)\\.\\ As\\ Tennyson\\ himself\\ stated\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ expresses\\ his\\ own\\ \\"\\;need\\ of\\ going\\ forward\\ and\\ braving\\ the\\ struggle\\ of\\ life\\"\\;\\ after\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\ Hallam\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ final\\ line\\,\\ \\"\\;to\\ strive\\,\\ to\\ seek\\,\\ to\\ find\\,\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ yield\\,\\"\\;\\ came\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ motto\\ for\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Victorian\\ contemporaries\\:\\ the\\ poem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ hero\\ longs\\ to\\ flee\\ the\\ tedium\\ of\\ daily\\ life\\ \\"\\;among\\ these\\ barren\\ crags\\"\\;\\ \\(line\\ 2\\)\\ and\\ to\\ enter\\ a\\ mythical\\ dimension\\ \\"\\;beyond\\ the\\ sunset\\,\\ and\\ the\\ baths\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ western\\ stars\\"\\;\\ \\(lines\\ 60\\-61\\)\\;\\ as\\ such\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ individual\\ self\\-assertion\\ and\\ the\\ Romantic\\ rebellion\\ against\\ bourgeois\\ conformity\\.\\ Thus\\ for\\ Tennyson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ immediate\\ audience\\,\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ Ulysses\\ held\\ not\\ only\\ mythological\\ meaning\\,\\ but\\ stood\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ contemporary\\ cultural\\ icon\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Ulysses\\,\\"\\;\\ like\\ many\\ of\\ Tennyson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ other\\ poems\\,\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ reach\\ beyond\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ field\\ of\\ vision\\ and\\ the\\ mundane\\ details\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Ulysses\\ is\\ the\\ antithesis\\ of\\ the\\ mariners\\ in\\ \\"\\;The\\ Lotos\\-Eaters\\,\\"\\;\\ who\\ proclaim\\ \\"\\;we\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ roam\\"\\;\\ and\\ desire\\ only\\ to\\ relax\\ amidst\\ the\\ Lotos\\ fields\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ Ulysses\\ \\"\\;cannot\\ rest\\ from\\ travel\\"\\;\\ and\\ longs\\ to\\ roam\\ the\\ globe\\ \\(line\\ 6\\)\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ Lady\\ of\\ Shallot\\,\\ who\\ longs\\ for\\ the\\ worldly\\ experiences\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ denied\\,\\ Ulysses\\ hungers\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ untraveled\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ in\\ all\\ dramatic\\ monologues\\,\\ here\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ emerges\\ almost\\ unintentionally\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ words\\.\\ Ulysses\\&\\#39\\;\\ incompetence\\ as\\ a\\ ruler\\ is\\ evidenced\\ by\\ his\\ preference\\ for\\ potential\\ quests\\ rather\\ than\\ his\\ present\\ responsibilities\\.\\ He\\ devotes\\ a\\ full\\ 26\\ lines\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ egotistical\\ proclamation\\ of\\ his\\ zeal\\ for\\ the\\ wandering\\ life\\,\\ and\\ another\\ 26\\ lines\\ to\\ the\\ exhortation\\ of\\ his\\ mariners\\ to\\ roam\\ the\\ seas\\ with\\ him\\.\\ However\\,\\ he\\ offers\\ only\\ 11\\ lines\\ of\\ lukewarm\\ praise\\ to\\ his\\ son\\ concerning\\ the\\ governance\\ of\\ the\\ kingdom\\ in\\ his\\ absence\\,\\ and\\ a\\ mere\\ two\\ words\\ about\\ his\\ \\"\\;aged\\ wife\\"\\;\\ Penelope\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ words\\ betray\\ his\\ abdication\\ of\\ responsibility\\ and\\ his\\ specificity\\ of\\ purpose\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sunflower\\ Sutra\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 302\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Allen\\ Ginsberg\\ \\(1926\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1997\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Not\\ specifically\\ listed\\,\\ but\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgements\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ lament\\ poem\\,\\ protest\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ partially\\ an\\ ode\\ \\(second\\ half\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ written\\ in\\ free\\ verse\\ of\\ sorts\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ lacks\\ any\\ sort\\ of\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ and\\ has\\ uneven\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ 2\\ full\\ pages\\,\\ but\\ only\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ one\\ stanza\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;split\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ that\\ some\\ lines\\ are\\ indented\\,\\ others\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ elements\\:\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ when\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ looks\\ like\\ an\\ unstructured\\ mess\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ perhaps\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ structure\\ reflects\\ the\\ authors\\ ranting\\ feeling\\ about\\ sitting\\ in\\ a\\ disorderly\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;gnarled\\ steel\\ roots\\ of\\ trees\\ of\\ machinery\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ gray\\ Sunflower\\ poised\\ against\\ the\\ sunset\\,\\ crackly\\ bleak\\ and\\ dusty\\ with\\ smut\\ and\\ smog\\ and\\ smoke\\ of\\ olden\\ locomotives\\ in\\ its\\ eye\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ lots\\ more\\ imagery\\,\\ in\\ almost\\ every\\ line\\ \\(lots\\ of\\ personification\\ of\\ the\\ sunflower\\,\\ too\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ this\\ poet\\ was\\ revered\\ as\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ counter\\-culture\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ spoke\\ out\\ against\\ the\\ war\\,\\ trashed\\ the\\ authorities\\ any\\ chance\\ had\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrote\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ protest\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ perfect\\ beauty\\ of\\ a\\ sunflower\\!\\ A\\ perfect\\ excellent\\ lovely\\ sunflower\\ existence\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ basically\\ Ginsberg\\ lamenting\\ about\\ how\\ technology\\ has\\ destroyed\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ souls\\,\\ and\\ he\\ uses\\ a\\ sunflower\\ to\\ represent\\ his\\ soul\\ and\\ a\\ railroad\\ locomotive\\ to\\ represent\\ technology\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sunflower\\ Sutra\\&rdquo\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ Buddhist\\ religious\\ text\\,\\ raising\\ the\\ sunflower\\ to\\ even\\ holier\\ heights\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ makes\\ constant\\ reference\\ to\\ WIliam\\ Blake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ah\\!\\ Sun\\-flower\\&rdquo\\;\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ three\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ establish\\ Ginsberg\\ and\\ Jack\\ Kerouac\\ as\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ his\\ companion\\,\\ and\\ introduce\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ locomotive\\,\\ which\\ comes\\ to\\ personify\\ the\\ artificial\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ are\\ further\\ alerted\\ to\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ the\\ metropolitan\\ setting\\ when\\ the\\ narrator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ initial\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ sunflower\\ recalls\\:\\ \\"\\;Hells\\ of\\ the\\ Eastern\\ rivers\\,\\ bridges\\ clanking\\ Joes\\ Greasy\\ Sandwiches\\,\\ dead\\ baby\\ carriages\\,\\ black\\ treadless\\ tires\\ forgotten\\ and\\ unretreaded\\.\\.\\.\\ condoms\\ \\&\\;\\ pots\\,\\ steel\\ knives\\,\\ nothing\\ stainless\\,\\ only\\ the\\ dank\\ muck\\ and\\ the\\ razor\\-sharp\\ artifacts\\ passing\\ into\\ the\\ past\\&mdash\\;\\"\\;\\ The\\ filth\\ of\\ humanity\\&\\#39\\;s\\ discarded\\ by\\-products\\ are\\ illustrated\\ in\\ this\\ line\\ and\\ many\\ others\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ \\"\\;rusty\\ iron\\ pole\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;oily\\ water\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ initial\\ setting\\.\\ It\\ recurs\\ as\\ the\\ locomotive\\,\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ sunflower\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grayness\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;artificial\\ worse\\-than\\-dirt\\"\\;\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ the\\ very\\ bane\\ of\\ all\\ existence\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ major\\ shift\\ in\\ tone\\ occurs\\ about\\ halfway\\ through\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ when\\ the\\ narrator\\ suddenly\\ addresses\\ the\\ sunflower\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Unholy\\,\\ battered\\ old\\ thing\\ you\\ were\\,\\ my\\ sunflower\\ O\\ my\\ soul\\,\\ I\\ \\/\\ loved\\ you\\ then\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ Ginsberg\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ not\\ only\\ claims\\ the\\ sunflower\\ as\\ his\\ own\\,\\ but\\ bares\\ his\\ soul\\ to\\ it\\,\\ concluding\\ with\\ the\\ exultant\\ declaration\\ of\\ his\\ love\\.\\ Also\\,\\ he\\ speaks\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ person\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ addressing\\ the\\ sunflower\\ directly\\ \\(then\\ addressing\\ \\&ldquo\\;anyone\\ who\\ will\\ listen\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ complete\\ the\\ nightmarish\\ vision\\ of\\ a\\ machine\\-world\\ inhabited\\ by\\ soulless\\ beings\\ whose\\ bodies\\ are\\ no\\ better\\ than\\ refuse\\,\\ and\\ whose\\ humanity\\ is\\ reduced\\ to\\ the\\ crudeness\\ of\\ obscene\\ four\\-letter\\ words\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;cunts\\ of\\ wheelbarrows\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;milky\\ breasts\\ of\\ cars\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;wornout\\ asses\\ out\\ of\\ chairs\\ and\\ sphincters\\ of\\ dynamos\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ Ginsberg\\ giving\\ a\\ sermon\\ of\\ sorts\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;anyone\\ who\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ listen\\,\\ explaining\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ our\\ skin\\ of\\ grime\\&hellip\\;we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ beautiful\\ golden\\ sunflowers\\ inside\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ sunflower\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ collective\\ soul\\ is\\ tainted\\ by\\ its\\ cover\\ of\\ the\\ grime\\ of\\ modern\\ existence\\,\\ Ginsberg\\&\\#39\\;s\\ final\\ glorious\\ vision\\ reveals\\ his\\ optimistic\\ hope\\ for\\ the\\ enlightenment\\ and\\ salvation\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ \\(FYI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ plagiarized\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ this\\ because\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ confusing\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Procession\\ at\\ Candlemas\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(sorry\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ it\\-I\\ think\\ the\\ 1940\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Amy\\ Clampitt\\-Pgs\\.\\ 417\\-421\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ choices\\ for\\ the\\ third\\ paper\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ mourning\\,\\ feminist\\,\\ returning\\ home\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ an\\ elegy\\ and\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 48\\ stanzas\\ are\\ 3\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ childbirth\\,\\ life\\,\\ death\\.\\ Route\\ 80\\ serves\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;drive\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ through\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ religious\\ imagery\\ and\\ the\\ sacred\\ female\\ of\\ ancient\\ Greece\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ mosaic\\ insult\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ stillness\\ and\\ sorrow\\/\\ of\\ things\\ moving\\ back\\ to\\ where\\ they\\ came\\ from\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ this\\ was\\ under\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ stuff\\ to\\ consider\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ Clampitt\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ bus\\ ride\\ home\\ to\\ visit\\ her\\ mother\\ on\\ her\\ death\\ bed\\ and\\ her\\ thoughts\\ wander\\ throughout\\ the\\ journey\\.\\ She\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ general\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ people\\ traveling\\ home\\-usually\\ because\\ of\\ bad\\ news\\.\\ Clampitt\\ uses\\ travel\\ imagery\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;driving\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ keeping\\ a\\ common\\ theme\\ throughout\\.\\ The\\ female\\ plays\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(remember\\ she\\ is\\ mourning\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ mother\\)\\.\\ Candlemas\\ is\\ the\\ ritual\\ purification\\ of\\ females\\ after\\ they\\ have\\ given\\ birth\\-after\\ 40\\ days\\ they\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ considered\\ impure\\ and\\ can\\ re\\-enter\\ the\\ temple\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ female\\ as\\ bearer\\ of\\ children\\ has\\ been\\ used\\ to\\ oppress\\ women\\ throughout\\ history\\.\\ She\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ ritual\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mosaic\\ insult\\-such\\ a\\ loathing\\/\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ origin\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ However\\,\\ she\\ also\\ brings\\ up\\ ancient\\ Greek\\ goddesses\\ who\\ were\\ worshipped\\ before\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ Christianity\\.\\ Important\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ that\\ Clampitt\\ gives\\ very\\ little\\ information\\ about\\ her\\ own\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ simply\\ describing\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mother\\/\\ curtained\\ in\\ Intensive\\ Care\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ the\\ quality\\ that\\ makes\\ this\\ poem\\ deserving\\ of\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ genre\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ she\\ views\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ life\\-enmeshing\\,\\ birth\\,\\ death\\ and\\ life\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ Most\\ poignantly\\ this\\ is\\ stated\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rest\\-in\\-peace\\ of\\ the\\ placental\\ cord\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ underscored\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanzas\\,\\ when\\ images\\ of\\ death\\ \\(her\\ mother\\ in\\ intensive\\ care\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;bereavement\\ altering\\ the\\ moving\\ lights\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ interrupted\\ by\\ a\\ lively\\ image\\ of\\ Kurdish\\ women\\ \\(the\\ description\\ appeals\\ to\\ several\\ senses\\,\\ making\\ the\\ scene\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;alive\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ covers\\ a\\ large\\ scope\\:\\ it\\ traverses\\ history\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ women\\,\\ it\\ mourns\\ the\\ injustices\\ placed\\ on\\ women\\,\\ but\\ also\\ touches\\ on\\ other\\ injustices\\ faced\\ by\\ other\\ people\\ throughout\\ time\\,\\ and\\ it\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ life\\ experience\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ Despite\\ expanding\\ to\\ such\\ a\\ large\\ scope\\,\\ however\\,\\ Clampitt\\ brings\\ the\\ reader\\ back\\ to\\ her\\ present\\ place\\ and\\ time\\-on\\ a\\ bus\\ in\\ Chicago\\ in\\ the\\ winter\\.\\ She\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ her\\ situation\\-driving\\ home\\ along\\ Route\\ 80\\ to\\ visit\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ intensive\\ care\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Garden\\ \\(1681\\:\\ published\\ posthumously\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Andrew\\ Marvell\\ p\\.\\ 137\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Lecture\\ Oct\\.\\ 16\\ \\-\\ Antecedent\\ Scenario\\,\\ Genre\\,\\ Structural\\ Parts\\,\\ Climax\\ and\\ Closure\\,\\ Speech\\-Acts\\,\\ Grammar\\,\\ Agency\\,\\ Imagination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ Garden\\ poem\\,\\ nature\\,\\ solitude\\,\\ contemplation\\,\\ self\\-discovery\\,\\ body\\-mind\\-soul\\,\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\ form\\:\\ no\\ clear\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ Composed\\ of\\ nine\\,\\ 8\\-line\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ stanza\\ rhymes\\ aabbccdd\\ \\(four\\ couplets\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ greenery\\/plants\\,\\ fruits\\,\\ garden\\ of\\ Eden\\ \\(paradise\\)\\,\\ Apollo\\ \\&\\;\\ Daphne\\,\\ Pan\\ \\&\\;\\ Syrinx\\,\\ body\\,\\ mind\\,\\ soul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Marvell\\ is\\ an\\ English\\ Metaphysical\\ poet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ vainly\\ men\\ themselves\\ amaze\\ \\/\\ To\\ win\\ the\\ palm\\,\\ the\\ oak\\,\\ or\\ bays\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Society\\ is\\ all\\ but\\ Rude\\ \\/\\ To\\ this\\ delicious\\ solitude\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Marvell\\ praises\\ the\\ garden\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ of\\ solitude\\ and\\ spiritual\\ renewal\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ society\\ and\\ public\\ life\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Society\\ is\\ all\\ but\\ Rude\\ \\/\\ To\\ this\\ delicious\\ solitude\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Marvell\\ attests\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ foolish\\ to\\ labor\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ trophies\\ of\\ achievement\\ that\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ parts\\ of\\ trees\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ palm\\,\\ the\\ oak\\,\\ or\\ bays\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ better\\ off\\ having\\ the\\ entire\\ tree\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ Marvell\\ describes\\ how\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;Insnared\\ in\\ flowers\\,\\ I\\ fall\\ on\\ grass\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mind\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;that\\ ocean\\&rdquo\\;\\ capable\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Annihilating\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ power\\ belonging\\ only\\ properly\\ to\\ God\\,\\ but\\ also\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ mind\\ by\\ Marvell\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\soul\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;like\\ a\\ bird\\,\\ it\\ sits\\ and\\ sings\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ are\\ all\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ no\\ only\\ are\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ senses\\ satisfied\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ but\\ so\\ are\\ his\\ mind\\ and\\ soul\\.\\ \\ \\;Parts\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ however\\,\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ Marvell\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ isolate\\ himself\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ wounded\\ soul\\,\\ perhaps\\ afflicted\\ by\\ lost\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ nature\\ as\\ far\\ more\\ beautiful\\ than\\ women\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;No\\ white\\ nor\\ red\\ was\\ ever\\ seen\\ \\/\\ So\\ amorous\\ as\\ this\\ lovely\\ green\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ where\\ white\\ and\\ red\\ typically\\ associated\\ with\\ feminine\\ beauty\\ and\\ green\\ signifies\\ the\\ garden\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ Marvell\\ scorns\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ lovers\\ carving\\ their\\ name\\ into\\ a\\ tree\\ and\\ rewrites\\ genesis\\ without\\ a\\ woman\\ \\(he\\ imagines\\ the\\ garden\\ of\\ Eden\\ without\\ Eve\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ completely\\ satisfied\\ in\\ the\\ solitude\\ of\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ with\\ no\\ women\\ around\\,\\ but\\ dwelling\\ on\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ garden\\ perhaps\\ reveals\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ prompted\\ him\\ to\\ isolate\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ His\\ Coy\\ Mistress\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ after\\ his\\ death\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Andrew\\ Marvell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1621\\-78\\)\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ 529\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ First\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ carpe\\ diem\\,\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhymed\\ couplets\\,\\ three\\ stanzas\\ set\\ apart\\ by\\ indents\\ not\\ line\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ creative\\ love\\ imagery\\,\\ decay\\ imagery\\,\\ then\\ love\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ us\\ roll\\ all\\ our\\ strength\\ and\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ sweetness\\ up\\ into\\ one\\ ball\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ tear\\ our\\ pleasures\\ with\\ rough\\ strife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thorough\\ the\\ iron\\ gates\\ of\\ life\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ though\\ we\\ cannot\\ make\\ our\\ sun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stand\\ still\\,\\ yet\\ we\\ will\\ make\\ him\\ run\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanzas\\ are\\ 20\\ lines\\,\\ 12\\ lines\\,\\ 14\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ \\ \\;\\(20\\ lines\\)\\ is\\ exclusively\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ poet\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ treat\\ his\\ mistress\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ most\\ notable\\ image\\ is\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ vegetable\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ vegetable\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ reproductive\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ how\\ long\\ he\\ would\\ adore\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ her\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ all\\ about\\ decay\\ and\\ life\\ ending\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ she\\ waits\\ too\\ long\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;worms\\ shall\\ try\\ \\/\\ That\\ long\\-preserved\\ virginity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ mostly\\ an\\ exhortation\\ and\\ conclusion\\ to\\ the\\ claims\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ carpe\\ diem\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Motivation\\:\\ Get\\ his\\ mistress\\ to\\ sleep\\ with\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Noted\\ for\\ its\\ creative\\ imagery\\ and\\ fine\\ logical\\ persuasive\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ My\\ Dear\\ and\\ Loving\\ Husband\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(mid\\-1600\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anne\\ Bradstreet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ 140\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ just\\ a\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ 6\\ rhymed\\ couplets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ first\\ female\\ American\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Then\\ while\\ we\\ live\\,\\ in\\ love\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ so\\ persever\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ That\\ when\\ we\\ live\\ no\\ more\\ we\\ may\\ live\\ ever\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ trite\\ silly\\ love\\ poem\\ that\\ Shakespeare\\ mocks\\ in\\ his\\ sonnet\\ about\\ his\\ lover\\&rsquo\\;s\\ looks\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ says\\ her\\ love\\ is\\ worth\\ more\\ than\\ gold\\ mines\\ and\\ rivers\\ cannot\\ quench\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ makes\\ no\\ original\\ contribution\\ to\\ its\\ genre\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ really\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ image\\ a\\ question\\ about\\ this\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Her\\ Kind\\ \\(page\\ 209\\)\\ Anne\\ Sexton\\ \\(1928\\-1974\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ostracism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ Extended\\ metaphor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ each\\ containing\\ seven\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ meter\\ varies\\ with\\ some\\ lines\\ in\\ tetramer\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ pentameter\\.\\ The\\ stress\\ layout\\ also\\ varies\\,\\ with\\ stresses\\ other\\ than\\ iambs\\ and\\ trochees\\ found\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ does\\ rhyme\\ however\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ a\\-b\\-a\\-b\\-c\\-b\\-c\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ in\\ all\\ three\\ stanzas\\ is\\ the\\ same\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Hideous\\ Witch\\,\\ Witches\\ environment\\,\\ torture\\ scenes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Came\\ from\\ middle\\ class\\ background\\.\\ Contemporary\\ of\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\.\\ Entered\\ therapy\\ numerous\\ times\\ for\\ difficult\\ behavior\\,\\ infidelity\\,\\ depression\\ and\\ attempted\\ suicide\\.\\ Pulitzer\\ prize\\ winner\\.\\ Became\\ estranged\\ as\\ she\\ grew\\ older\\,\\ separating\\ herself\\ from\\ friends\\ until\\ she\\ committed\\ suicide\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Her\\ Kind\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ extended\\ metaphor\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ excluded\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ non\\-conforming\\ behaviors\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ is\\ identifying\\ with\\ witches\\,\\ which\\ are\\ misunderstood\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ branded\\ to\\ be\\ evil\\ and\\ are\\ treated\\ as\\ such\\.\\ In\\ American\\ history\\ the\\ Salem\\ witch\\ trials\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ mistreatment\\,\\ where\\ hysteria\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ torture\\ and\\ death\\ of\\ many\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ england\\ town\\.\\ This\\ torture\\ is\\ referenced\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ as\\ well\\,\\ through\\ the\\ incorporation\\ of\\ images\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ rack\\,\\ which\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ pull\\ people\\ apart\\,\\ and\\ burning\\ people\\ at\\ the\\ stake\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ gender\\ specific\\,\\ referencing\\ only\\ females\\.\\ Sexton\\ says\\ of\\ a\\ witch\\:\\ \\"\\;\\ A\\ woman\\ like\\ that\\ is\\ misunderstood\\"\\;\\ The\\ title\\ also\\ makes\\ this\\ clear\\ \\"\\;Her\\ Kind\\"\\;\\ stressing\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ roles\\ are\\ often\\ very\\ clearly\\ defined\\ and\\ any\\ deviation\\ from\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ automatic\\ finger\\-pointing\\ The\\ speaker\\,\\ likely\\ referring\\ to\\ Sexton\\ herself\\,\\ really\\ drives\\ home\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ \\"\\;witch\\,\\"\\;\\ by\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ \\"\\;I\\ have\\ been\\ her\\ kind\\"\\;\\ in\\ every\\ stanza\\.\\ Note\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ disgust\\ and\\ sarcasm\\ used\\ in\\ describing\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;witch\\"\\;\\:\\ \\"\\;lonely\\ thing\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;twelve\\-fingered\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lord\\ Randal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Traditional\\ Ballad\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anonymous\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ p\\.\\ 62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ arranged\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ question\\ and\\ response\\,\\ love\\/being\\ killed\\ by\\ your\\ lover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ but\\ pick\\ the\\ dominant\\ meter\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 10\\ \\ \\;four\\ line\\ verses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ vernal\\,\\ death\\,\\ decay\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;O\\ where\\ ha\\&rsquo\\;\\ you\\ been\\,\\ Lord\\ Randal\\,\\ my\\ son\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ And\\ where\\ ha\\&rsquo\\;\\ you\\ been\\,\\ my\\ handsome\\ young\\ man\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ each\\ verse\\ are\\ the\\ mother\\ asking\\ a\\ question\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ two\\ are\\ the\\ son\\ responding\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ each\\ line\\ is\\ always\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mother\\ asks\\ the\\ same\\ question\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ son\\ responds\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fourth\\ line\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ 5\\ verses\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ five\\ verses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ questions\\ and\\ answers\\ reveal\\ that\\ the\\ son\\ has\\ met\\ with\\ his\\ true\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ forest\\,\\ she\\ made\\ him\\ eels\\ and\\ he\\ returns\\ home\\ because\\ his\\ hawks\\ and\\ hounds\\ die\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ realizes\\ he\\ is\\ poisoned\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;verse\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ fourth\\ line\\ changes\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ wearied\\ wi\\&rsquo\\;\\ huntin\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;For\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sick\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ verses\\ describe\\ what\\ he\\ will\\ leave\\ to\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ vengeful\\ note\\;\\ he\\ leaves\\ his\\ true\\ love\\ \\&ldquo\\;hell\\ and\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cuckoo\\ Song\\ by\\ Anonymous\\ P\\.\\ 11\\Genre\\:\\ Nature\\,\\ Spring\\Prosody\\:\\ None\\ whatsoever\\!\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ 12\\ lines\\ in\\ one\\ stanza\\.\\ Most\\ words\\ rhyme\\ with\\ \\"\\;cu\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;nu\\,\\"\\;\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Natural\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ cuckoo\\ bird\\ singing\\.\\Author\\:\\ Anonymous\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ The\\ cuckoo\\ bird\\&\\#39\\;s\\ song\\ is\\ symbolic\\ of\\ the\\commencement\\ of\\ nature\\.\\Also\\,\\ this\\ author\\,\\ like\\ E\\.\\ E\\.\\ Cummings\\,\\ detracts\\ from\\ normal\\structures\\ and\\ recreates\\ words\\ such\\ as\\ through\\ as\\ \\"\\;thru\\.\\"\\;\\ He\\ purposely\\uses\\ the\\ vowel\\ \\"\\;u\\"\\;\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\ to\\ echoed\\ the\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\\\(\\"\\;cucuu\\,\\ cucuu\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ in\\ old\\ old\\ English\\.\\ This\\ poem\\shows\\ spring\\ coming\\ to\\ life\\ through\\ the\\ cuckoo\\ bird\\&\\#39\\;s\\ song\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ My\\ First\\ Son\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1616\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ben\\ Johnson\\ \\(16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ tragedy\\,\\ death\\ of\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\,\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabb\\/\\ \\#1\\ stanza\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ parental\\,\\ world\\ vs\\.\\ heaven\\,\\ grave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ dramatist\\;\\ son\\ of\\ a\\ clergyman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Farwell\\,\\ thou\\ child\\ of\\ my\\ right\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ My\\ First\\ Son\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ father\\ about\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;Jonson\\ is\\ extremely\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ son\\ and\\ this\\ sadness\\ is\\ depicted\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Jonson\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;farewell\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ his\\ son\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ his\\ joy\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ son\\ also\\ means\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;Jonson\\ admits\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ placed\\ too\\ much\\ hope\\ and\\ happiness\\ in\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ his\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ that\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ dead\\,\\ Jonson\\ explains\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;pay\\[ing\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(or\\ suffering\\)\\ for\\ putting\\ his\\ hope\\ and\\ happiness\\ in\\ his\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ how\\ Jonson\\ considers\\ his\\ time\\ with\\ his\\ son\\ a\\ gift\\,\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;seven\\ year\\ thou\\ wert\\ lent\\ to\\ me\\,\\ and\\ I\\ thee\\ pay\\/\\ Exacted\\ by\\ thy\\ fate\\,\\ on\\ the\\ just\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 4\\-5\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;lent\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ both\\ show\\ that\\ he\\ knew\\ he\\ would\\ only\\ have\\ his\\ son\\ for\\ a\\ limited\\ time\\,\\ but\\ also\\ suggests\\ a\\ detachment\\ from\\ his\\ son\\-\\ perhaps\\ Jonson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ pain\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ someone\\ lends\\ something\\ to\\ a\\ person\\,\\ it\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ belonging\\ to\\ the\\ lender\\,\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ Jonson\\ in\\ this\\ case\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\,\\ Jonson\\ does\\ not\\ sounds\\ grateful\\ for\\ the\\ years\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ spend\\ with\\ his\\ son\\ nor\\ does\\ he\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ comforted\\ by\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ tone\\ is\\ desperate\\,\\ disillusioned\\ and\\ depressed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\ Jonson\\ changes\\ his\\ attitude\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ questions\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ death\\,\\ when\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ jealous\\ of\\ his\\ son\\ for\\ being\\ able\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ have\\ so\\ soon\\ \\&lsquo\\;scaped\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ flesh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ shows\\ Jonson\\ discontent\\ with\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Jonson\\ recognizes\\ that\\ his\\ grief\\ for\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ son\\,\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ is\\ in\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ interest\\,\\ because\\ his\\ death\\ has\\ allowed\\ him\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ perils\\ of\\ earth\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ grief\\ is\\,\\ instead\\,\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ a\\ father\\ who\\ has\\ suffered\\ loss\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ Jonson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotions\\ change\\ and\\ he\\ becomes\\ a\\ proud\\ father\\,\\ sharing\\ how\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ best\\ piece\\ of\\ poetry\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 10\\)\\&mdash\\;his\\ greatest\\ accomplishment\\&mdash\\;and\\ hoping\\ that\\ his\\ son\\ is\\ in\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ Jonson\\ creates\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ loving\\ his\\ son\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lik\\[ing\\]\\ him\\ too\\ much\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Loving\\ his\\ son\\ means\\ wanting\\ the\\ best\\ for\\ his\\ son\\,\\ while\\ liking\\ his\\ son\\ too\\ much\\ might\\ cloud\\ his\\ judgment\\ for\\ what\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ the\\ son\\&mdash\\;to\\ be\\ in\\ heaven\\&mdash\\;despite\\ how\\ sad\\ it\\ makes\\ him\\ feel\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Still\\ to\\ be\\ Neat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 299\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ben\\ Johnson\\ \\(1572\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1637\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ not\\ listed\\ specifically\\,\\ but\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 9\\,\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ love\\ poem\\;\\ speech\\ acts\\ include\\ lamentation\\ and\\ commands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ \\&ndash\\;dramatic\\ change\\ between\\ stanza\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stuctural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ AABB\\,\\ marches\\ along\\ steadily\\,\\ split\\ into\\ 2\\ identical\\ stanzas\\;\\ a\\ very\\ \\&ldquo\\;neat\\&rdquo\\;\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ the\\ poets\\ praise\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;simplicity\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ structural\\ elements\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ reflect\\ the\\ simplicity\\ the\\ author\\ so\\ loves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Still\\ to\\ be\\ powdered\\,\\ still\\ perfumed\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ versus\\ \\&ldquo\\;Robes\\ loosely\\ flowing\\,\\ hair\\ as\\ free\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Ben\\ Johnson\\ was\\ a\\ playwright\\ and\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Give\\ me\\ a\\ look\\,\\ give\\ me\\ a\\ face\\ \\/\\ That\\ makes\\ simplicity\\ a\\ grace\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ generally\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ author\\ prefers\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ natural\\ and\\ simple\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ it\\ when\\ women\\ are\\ dressed\\ up\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;powdered\\,\\ and\\ perfumed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ two\\ identical\\ stanzas\\:\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ describes\\ a\\ woman\\ \\&ldquo\\;Still\\ to\\ be\\ neat\\,\\ still\\ to\\ be\\ dressed\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ is\\ gets\\ all\\ dolled\\ up\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;going\\ to\\ a\\ feast\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Note\\ that\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;still\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;always\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;constantly\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ leaves\\ the\\ reader\\ hanging\\,\\ as\\ the\\ author\\ expresses\\ his\\ ambivalence\\ toward\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;neat\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ the\\ time\\,\\ ending\\ the\\ stanza\\ with\\ the\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ is\\ not\\ sweet\\,\\ all\\ is\\ not\\ sound\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ implores\\ the\\ Lady\\ he\\ addresses\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Give\\ me\\ a\\ look\\,\\ give\\ me\\ a\\ face\\ \\/\\ That\\ makes\\ simplicity\\ a\\ grace\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ encouraging\\ her\\ to\\ wear\\ a\\ loose\\ robe\\ and\\ to\\ let\\ her\\ hair\\ be\\ natural\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ this\\ more\\ simply\\ physical\\ appearance\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweet\\ neglect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ such\\ sweet\\ neglect\\ intrigues\\ him\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ th\\&rsquo\\;adulteries\\ of\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(by\\ art\\,\\ I\\ think\\ he\\ means\\ make\\-up\\,\\ dress\\-up\\,\\ hair\\-up\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ ending\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\important\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ \\[meaning\\ all\\ th\\&rsquo\\;adulteries\\ of\\ art\\,\\ or\\ the\\ lady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ appearance\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ paragraph\\]\\ strike\\ mine\\ eyes\\,\\ but\\ not\\ my\\ heart\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ though\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;done\\-up\\&rdquo\\;\\ lady\\ may\\ be\\ aesthetically\\ pleasing\\,\\ he\\ loves\\ beyond\\ the\\ shallow\\ world\\ of\\ clothes\\ and\\ make\\-up\\,\\ and\\ he\\ prefers\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ben\\ Jonson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1616\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ On\\ Gut\\ \\(p\\.\\ 80\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 4\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ satire\\,\\ allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ short\\ satirical\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Venus\\ and\\ Adonis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(after\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ narrative\\ poem\\ of\\ that\\ name\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ababcc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ gluttony\\/sin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Ben\\ Jonson\\ \\(1572\\&ndash\\;1637\\)\\,\\ English\\ Renaissance\\ playwright\\ and\\ poet\\,\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ in\\ his\\ belly\\ can\\ he\\ change\\ a\\ sin\\:\\/\\ Lust\\ it\\ comes\\ out\\,\\ that\\ gluttony\\ went\\ in\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ one\\-stanza\\ satirical\\ and\\ epigrammatic\\ poem\\ describing\\ a\\ lustful\\ glutton\\.\\ Uses\\ a\\ proper\\ stanza\\-form\\ in\\ an\\ ironic\\ manner\\.\\ Somewhat\\ grotesque\\ and\\ raunchy\\ imagery\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;eats\\ all\\ day\\ and\\ lechers\\ all\\ the\\ night\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Africa\\ Says\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Carl\\ Phillips\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ unrequited\\ love\\,\\ morning\\,\\ winter\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ not\\ uniform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ divided\\ into\\ paragraph\\ like\\ parts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ pain\\,\\ decay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poems\\ starts\\ of\\ by\\ telling\\ the\\ reader\\ what\\ not\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ when\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ region\\ of\\ Africa\\.\\ He\\ lists\\ of\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ things\\ and\\ then\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ three\\ stanzas\\ the\\ voice\\ proceeds\\ to\\ describe\\ this\\ old\\ woman\\ who\\ he\\ has\\ probably\\ come\\ across\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ physical\\ appearance\\ lack\\ of\\ finger\\ etc\\.\\.\\ and\\ then\\ connects\\ her\\ physical\\ appearance\\ to\\ the\\ way\\ Africa\\ really\\ is\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ much\\ pain\\ and\\ poverty\\ among\\ other\\ things\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ like\\ the\\ voice\\ is\\ calling\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Africa\\ and\\ help\\ make\\ it\\ better\\ because\\ he\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ urging\\ them\\ to\\ stay\\ ad\\ help\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grass\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1878\\-1967\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Karl\\ Sandburg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ war\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ command\\ poem\\,\\ self\\ definition\\ and\\ narration\\ \\(contains\\ elements\\ of\\ all\\ three\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ there\\ is\\ none\\,\\ but\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ this\\ matters\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ form\\ of\\ poem\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ \\,\\ the\\ physical\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ on\\ the\\ page\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;the\\ stanzas\\ are\\ all\\ very\\ small\\ and\\ short\\ maybe\\ resembling\\ blades\\ of\\ grass\\ themselves\\.\\ No\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ burial\\,\\ war\\,\\ repetitiveness\\,\\ unimportance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ original\\ by\\ giving\\ commands\\ using\\ something\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ usually\\ speak\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ uses\\ grass\\ to\\ survey\\ the\\ sites\\ of\\ the\\ famous\\ battles\\ during\\ the\\ Napoleonic\\ war\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ and\\ world\\ war\\ one\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ basically\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ which\\ past\\ battles\\ are\\ soon\\ and\\ easily\\ forgotten\\.\\ However\\ it\\ is\\ memorable\\ because\\ the\\ poet\\ puts\\ the\\ grass\\ blade\\ in\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ reason\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ command\\ poem\\ should\\ defiantly\\ be\\ mentioned\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ grass\\ blade\\ repeats\\ certain\\ commands\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ like\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;pile\\,\\ and\\ let\\ me\\ work\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ repetition\\ of\\ pile\\ here\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ a\\)\\ it\\ reasserts\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ command\\ poem\\ and\\ b\\)\\ it\\ shows\\ repetitiveness\\ which\\ the\\ author\\ has\\ intended\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ repetitive\\ and\\ never\\ changing\\ \\(\\ war\\ always\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ ending\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ death\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ Couple\\-\\ Charles\\ Simic\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1938\\)\\ p\\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\:\\ The\\ Public\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Protest\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;N\\/A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\No\\ rhyme\\.\\ Uneven\\ lines\\.\\ Four\\ lines\\ per\\ stanza\\,\\ four\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;decline\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ age\\,\\ inevitability\\ of\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ their\\ window\\ stays\\ dark\\,\\/\\ I\\ know\\ that\\ his\\ hand\\ has\\ reached\\ hers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ first\\ hand\\ description\\ of\\ an\\ old\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ and\\ their\\ potential\\ future\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ someone\\ who\\ sits\\ and\\ watches\\ them\\.\\ Each\\ stanza\\ consist\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ subject\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ couple\\.\\ Stanza\\ 1\\:\\ Three\\ potential\\ futures\\ for\\ the\\ old\\ couple\\:\\ Murder\\,\\ eviction\\ or\\ starvation\\.\\ Stanza\\ 2\\:\\ A\\ fourth\\ potential\\ future\\:\\ terminal\\ illness\\.\\ Stanza\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ present\\ time\\ until\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ futures\\ happens\\.\\ Stanza\\ 4\\:\\ What\\ the\\ speaker\\ believes\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\.\\ So\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ change\\ from\\ the\\ potential\\ horrors\\ of\\ the\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ future\\ to\\ a\\ peaceful\\ interim\\ period\\.\\ This\\ decline\\ from\\ the\\ terrible\\ future\\ to\\ the\\ relatively\\ peaceful\\ interim\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ one\\ overall\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ part\\ the\\ speaker\\ plays\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ It\\ is\\ through\\ his\\ eyes\\ that\\ everything\\ I\\ seen\\ yet\\ we\\ know\\ nothing\\ of\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ couple\\.\\ He\\ seems\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ the\\ couple\\ do\\ and\\ think\\,\\ and\\ he\\ knows\\ what\\ their\\ future\\ is\\.\\ We\\ must\\ see\\ the\\ speaker\\/watcher\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;principle\\ consciousness\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Helen\\ Vendler\\ from\\ her\\ book\\)\\ and\\ then\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ protest\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ poem\\ protests\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neglect\\ of\\ its\\ most\\ helpless\\ members\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ modern\\ urban\\ life\\.\\ The\\ act\\ of\\ watching\\ a\\ case\\ like\\ this\\ can\\ happen\\ to\\ anyone\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ it\\ impacts\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ \\(like\\ the\\ watcher\\ who\\ becomes\\ almost\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ old\\ couple\\ as\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ citation\\)\\ we\\ all\\ therefore\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ horror\\ and\\ guilt\\.\\ Now\\ the\\ two\\ \\&ldquo\\;interlocking\\ shapes\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ couple\\ \\(heading\\ for\\ disaster\\)\\ and\\ the\\ watcher\\ \\(speculating\\)\\ makes\\ up\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ We\\ see\\ other\\ poems\\ which\\ also\\ have\\ interlocking\\ shapes\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;Infant\\ Sorrow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(with\\ the\\ baby\\ as\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spatially\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;there\\ are\\ two\\ rooms\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\temporally\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ potential\\ outcomes\\ are\\ exhausted\\,\\ the\\ couple\\ will\\ die\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ or\\ will\\ save\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tichborne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Elegy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1586\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Chidiock\\ Tichborne\\ \\(p\\.\\ 64\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 27\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ As\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ Venus\\ and\\ Adonis\\ stanzas\\ \\(six\\ lines\\ of\\ rhymed\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ababcc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\ in\\ nature\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;leaves\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;corn\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ emptiness\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;spent\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ lack\\ of\\ fulfillment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Chidiock\\ Tichborne\\ \\(1558\\&ndash\\;1586\\)\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ conspirator\\ executed\\ for\\ attempting\\ to\\ assassinate\\ Queen\\ Elizabeth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ refrain\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ now\\ I\\ live\\,\\ and\\ now\\ my\\ life\\ is\\ done\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tichborne\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ on\\ the\\ eve\\ of\\ his\\ execution\\ for\\ conspiracy\\ to\\ kill\\ Queen\\ Elizabeth\\.\\ He\\ did\\ in\\ fact\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ a\\ plot\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ queen\\,\\ which\\ was\\ foiled\\ by\\ Sir\\ Walsingham\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ moving\\ for\\ its\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ cut\\ short\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ centers\\ around\\ emptiness\\,\\ darkness\\,\\ and\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ winter\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;frost\\ of\\ cares\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;saw\\ no\\ sun\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ is\\ fallen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;youth\\ is\\ spent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ explicitly\\ uses\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ having\\ his\\ life\\ \\&ldquo\\;cut\\ short\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ calling\\ up\\ the\\ Greek\\ mythology\\ of\\ the\\ Fates\\,\\ who\\ spin\\ our\\ lives\\ and\\ then\\ cut\\ them\\ off\\.\\ He\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ thread\\ is\\ cut\\ and\\ yet\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ spun\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ also\\ uses\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ an\\ hourglass\\ to\\ symbolize\\ his\\ time\\ running\\ out\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ glass\\ is\\ full\\,\\ and\\ now\\ my\\ glass\\ is\\ run\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ present\\ tense\\ and\\ frequent\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;now\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ refrain\\,\\ makes\\ death\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ immanent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Passionate\\ Shepherd\\ to\\ His\\ Love\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1599\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Christopher\\ Marlowe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ N\\/A\\ \\(from\\ the\\ book\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ pastoral\\ love\\-earthly\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ arguments\\ \\(if\\ read\\ along\\ with\\ Sir\\ Walter\\ Ralegh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Reply\\ to\\ the\\ Shepherd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Six\\ quatrains\\ rhyming\\ aabb\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ pastoral\\ images\\ \\(groves\\,\\ hills\\,\\ fields\\,\\ roses\\,\\ sheep\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Christopher\\ Marlowe\\ is\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ England\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ important\\ dramaturges\\ before\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(Marlowe\\ was\\ an\\ early\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\)\\.\\ He\\ was\\ educated\\ at\\ Cambridge\\,\\ and\\ never\\ married\\.\\ Little\\ is\\ know\\ of\\ his\\ personal\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Come\\ live\\ with\\ me\\ and\\ by\\ my\\ love\\ \\/\\ And\\ we\\ will\\ all\\ the\\ pleasures\\ prove\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\experience\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ belt\\ of\\ straw\\ and\\ ivy\\ buds\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;With\\ coral\\ clasps\\ and\\ amber\\ studs\\:\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;And\\ if\\ these\\ pleasures\\ may\\ thee\\ move\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Come\\ live\\ with\\ me\\,\\ and\\ be\\ my\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marlow\\ introduces\\ his\\ theme\\ using\\ a\\ pastoral\\ setting\\:\\ the\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\,\\ and\\ it\\ narrates\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;speech\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ a\\ Passionate\\ Shepherd\\ \\(a\\ courtier\\ in\\ pastoral\\ disguise\\)\\ tries\\ to\\ persuade\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;nymph\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(an\\ aristocratic\\ young\\ woman\\ playing\\ at\\ being\\ a\\ rustic\\ shepherdess\\)\\.\\ He\\ starts\\ the\\ poem\\ entreating\\ her\\ to\\ go\\ live\\ with\\ him\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ experience\\ all\\ the\\ possible\\ earthly\\ pleasures\\.\\ He\\ then\\ continues\\ with\\ a\\ litany\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ can\\ offer\\ her\\ \\(roses\\,\\ flowers\\,\\ beautiful\\ clothing\\,\\ and\\ what\\ not\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;everything\\ a\\ maiden\\ could\\ have\\ wanted\\ in\\ his\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ author\\ concludes\\ both\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ stanzas\\ with\\ a\\ slight\\ variation\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ these\\ delights\\ thy\\ mind\\ my\\ move\\,\\ \\/\\ Then\\ live\\ with\\ me\\ and\\ be\\ my\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ gains\\ more\\ significance\\ if\\ is\\ read\\ along\\ Sir\\ Walter\\ Raleigh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Reply\\ to\\ the\\ Shepherd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ Ralegh\\ answers\\ that\\ all\\ what\\ Marlow\\ offers\\ the\\ maiden\\ is\\ superficial\\ pleasure\\ and\\ not\\ real\\ love\\,\\ and\\ that\\ time\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;Soon\\ break\\,\\ soon\\ wither\\,\\ soon\\ for\\[get\\]\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\/\\ In\\ folly\\ ripe\\,\\ in\\ reason\\ rotten\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ the\\ earthly\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ offered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jubilate\\ Agno\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 587\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Christopher\\ Smart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 23\\.\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Anaphore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ religious\\,\\ mundane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ he\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poor\\ and\\ so\\ indeed\\ is\\ he\\ called\\ by\\ benevolence\\ perpetually\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Poor\\ Jeoffry\\!\\ poor\\ Jeoffry\\!\\ the\\ rat\\ has\\ bit\\ thy\\ throat\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ I\\ bless\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ Jesus\\ that\\ Jeoffry\\ is\\ better\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ Prof\\.\\ V\\ calls\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;parody\\ of\\ religion\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;analogy\\ of\\ human\\ worship\\ of\\ God\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ presents\\ small\\ details\\ of\\ feline\\ habits\\ and\\ actions\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ considered\\ blessings\\ and\\ elevates\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ social\\ relationships\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;tribe\\ of\\ Tiger\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ service\\ of\\ God\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;keeps\\ the\\ Lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ watch\\ in\\ the\\ night\\ against\\ the\\ adversary\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ cat\\ has\\ principles\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ hygeine\\,\\ mercy\\ towards\\ prey\\)\\,\\ demonstrates\\ obedience\\,\\ and\\ leads\\ a\\ generally\\ content\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\,\\ we\\ can\\ realize\\ that\\ our\\ own\\ blessings\\ are\\ even\\ more\\ elegant\\ and\\ wide\\-ranged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Incident\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1927\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Countee\\ Cullen\\ \\(453\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Political\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ prejudice\\,\\ loss\\ of\\ innocence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcb\\/\\ 3\\ quatrains\\ \\/\\ every\\ other\\ line\\ in\\ indented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ child\\ behavior\\,\\ Baltimore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\ poet\\ during\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Of\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ happened\\ there\\/\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ that\\ I\\ remember\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ an\\ adult\\ looking\\ back\\ on\\ a\\ traumatic\\ event\\ that\\ happened\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ takes\\ us\\ through\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;incident\\&rdquo\\;\\ chronologically\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ events\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ child\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ child\\ is\\ taking\\ a\\ trip\\ to\\ Baltimore\\ and\\ begins\\ by\\ describing\\ how\\ excited\\ he\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ coming\\ to\\ the\\ city\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;heart\\-filled\\,\\ head\\-filled\\ with\\ glee\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 2\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\ arrives\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ he\\ sees\\ a\\ Baltimorean\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ starring\\ at\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ boy\\ smiles\\ at\\ the\\ Baltimorean\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Baltimorean\\ child\\ sticks\\ out\\ his\\ tongue\\ and\\ calls\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nigger\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\ how\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ lived\\ in\\ Baltimore\\ for\\ several\\ months\\ after\\ that\\,\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;incident\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ all\\ that\\ he\\ remembers\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ child\\-like\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ simple\\ diction\\,\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ song\\-like\\ and\\ the\\ innocence\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ being\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nigger\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ complete\\ shock\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\ because\\ nothing\\ that\\ happens\\ previously\\ foreshadows\\ the\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ neutral\\ word\\,\\ does\\ not\\ reflect\\ the\\ horrible\\ nature\\ of\\ what\\ occurs\\ to\\ the\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ song\\-like\\ rhyme\\ and\\ the\\ childish\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ child\\ \\(who\\ smile\\ and\\ stick\\ their\\ tongues\\ out\\,\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ typical\\ childlike\\ behavior\\)\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ expect\\ what\\ ultimately\\ happens\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ rhyme\\-scheme\\ places\\ a\\ further\\ emphasis\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nigger\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ rhyming\\ pairs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ the\\ shock\\ of\\ what\\ happens\\ all\\ make\\ the\\ event\\ stand\\ out\\ more\\ and\\ show\\ the\\ trauma\\ that\\ this\\ caused\\ the\\ boy\\ even\\ years\\ later\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heritage\\ \\(page\\ 206\\)\\ Countee\\ Cullen\\ \\(1903\\-1946\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Understanding\\ Roots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lyric\\/Modern\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ five\\ stanzas\\ of\\ different\\ lengths\\.\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ are\\ the\\ shortest\\,\\ having\\ 10\\ and\\ 8\\ lines\\ respectively\\.\\ Within\\ the\\ stanzas\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ substanzas\\ defined\\ by\\ italics\\,\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ being\\ of\\ 4\\ lines\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ being\\ 12\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ primarily\\ in\\ trimeter\\,\\ with\\ most\\ lines\\ having\\ 7\\ syllables\\.\\ Many\\ lines\\ begin\\ with\\ a\\ dactyl\\ and\\ end\\ with\\ two\\ trochees\\,\\ thus\\ each\\ line\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ a\\ three\\ syllable\\ and\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ two\\ syllable\\ stress\\ markers\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ of\\ couplets\\,\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ a\\-a\\-b\\-b\\-c\\-c\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Natural\\ scenes\\ of\\ beauty\\ \\(Sunset\\,\\ jungle\\)\\,\\ Wild\\ and\\ feral\\ behavior\\ \\(dances\\,\\ wet\\ bodies\\)\\,\\ Fire\\ and\\ heat\\ \\(especially\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Black\\.\\ Adopted\\ by\\ a\\ black\\ minister\\.\\ An\\ important\\ figure\\ in\\ 1920\\&\\#39\\;s\\ New\\ York\\,\\ the\\ black\\ cultural\\ revival\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\.\\ Married\\ and\\ divorced\\ the\\ daughter\\ of\\ WEB\\ Du\\ Bois\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ life\\ was\\ a\\ teacher\\ at\\ local\\ high\\ school\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ the\\ speaker\\ to\\ examine\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ roots\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ was\\ being\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ lifetime\\ of\\ Cullen\\,\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ examining\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ black\\ American\\ with\\ little\\ cultural\\ connection\\ to\\ Africa\\ yet\\ be\\ called\\ by\\ that\\ name\\.\\ The\\ ambiguous\\ connection\\ with\\ an\\ African\\ experience\\ is\\ clearly\\ identified\\ early\\ on\\,\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ italicized\\ portion\\,\\ questioning\\ \\"\\;What\\ is\\ Africa\\ to\\ me\\?\\"\\;\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ speaker\\ shows\\ that\\ he\\ his\\ distant\\ from\\ this\\ concept\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ even\\ though\\ that\\ his\\ ancestry\\ is\\ located\\ there\\.\\ While\\ his\\ \\"\\;dark\\ blood\\"\\;\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ he\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ \\"\\;Great\\ drums\\"\\;\\ are\\ distant\\.\\ He\\ presents\\ Africa\\ as\\ a\\ wild\\ and\\ savage\\ place\\,\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ jungle\\.\\ While\\ he\\ senses\\ the\\ urge\\ for\\ some\\ of\\ those\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ urge\\ to\\ \\"\\;strip\\"\\;\\ or\\ to\\ do\\ \\"\\;the\\ \\"\\;the\\ Lovers\\ dance\\,\\"\\;\\ he\\ feels\\ he\\ should\\ not\\ do\\ so\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ wild\\ ways\\.\\ This\\ is\\ then\\ taken\\ to\\ a\\ religious\\ level\\,\\ whereby\\ he\\ distinguishes\\ himself\\ from\\ his\\ African\\ roots\\ by\\ his\\ realization\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ its\\ higher\\ calling\\.\\ But\\ even\\ within\\ these\\ Christian\\ roots\\ he\\ professes\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ ambivalence\\ is\\ cemented\\ into\\ the\\ speakers\\ thoughts\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ far\\ from\\ his\\ roots\\,\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ feel\\ a\\ calling\\,\\ and\\ can\\ still\\ call\\ them\\ \\"\\;civilized\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Spring\\ Poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dave\\ Smith\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(3\\-26\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ spring\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\ \\;sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\/\\ \\#1\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ auto\\ junkyard\\/car\\,\\ spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ contemporary\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ then\\ is\\ a\\ Spring\\ poem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Spring\\ Poem\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Smith\\ creates\\ a\\ pun\\ on\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;spring\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;instead\\ of\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ weather\\ as\\ a\\ traditional\\ spring\\ poem\\ would\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ a\\ spring\\ in\\ a\\ car\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ auto\\ junkyard\\,\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ atypical\\ scene\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ would\\ expect\\ a\\ spring\\ poem\\ to\\ be\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ an\\ epigraph\\ by\\ Louise\\ Gluck\\,\\ which\\ states\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Every\\ poet\\ should\\ write\\ a\\ Spring\\ poem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Smith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ is\\ an\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\ obligation\\ set\\ forth\\ by\\ Gluck\\,\\ but\\ with\\ a\\ creative\\ adaptation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smith\\ use\\ of\\ heavy\\ enjambment\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ literal\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ between\\ winter\\ and\\ spring\\ that\\ he\\ describes\\&mdash\\;just\\ like\\ the\\ seasons\\ bleed\\ together\\ during\\ the\\ transition\\,\\ so\\ too\\ do\\ his\\ thoughts\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ use\\ of\\ enjambment\\ also\\ furthers\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ conversational\\ or\\ modeling\\ his\\ flow\\-of\\-thought\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ beginning\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ though\\ Smith\\ was\\ addressing\\ Gluck\\ and\\ her\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ Spring\\ poem\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ thoughts\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ poets\\ are\\ for\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 3\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poet\\ describes\\ a\\ rusted\\ car\\ which\\ sits\\ in\\ a\\ junkyard\\,\\ but\\ how\\ despite\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dying\\ \\(rusting\\)\\,\\ it\\ still\\ brings\\ life\\ through\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ sit\\ inside\\ the\\ car\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ imagine\\ couples\\ in\\ the\\ backseat\\ of\\ the\\ car\\ by\\ Smith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ phrases\\ about\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;damp\\ rumps\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ fog\\ and\\ sweat\\ that\\ their\\ actions\\ create\\ on\\ the\\ windows\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ time\\ period\\ is\\ late\\ March\\ and\\ early\\ April\\,\\ which\\ marks\\ the\\ ending\\ of\\ winter\\ and\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ spring\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;weeds\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ make\\ their\\ way\\ up\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ car\\,\\ add\\ to\\ the\\ literal\\ movement\\ and\\ progression\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\&mdash\\;the\\ growing\\ weeds\\ representing\\ growing\\/emerging\\ life\\ characteristic\\ of\\ spring\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ how\\ the\\ spring\\ is\\ still\\ in\\ motion\\ as\\ it\\ shoots\\ out\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;brilliant\\ tooth\\ uncoiling\\ from\\ Winter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tension\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-11\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Together\\ these\\ images\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ spring\\ has\\ come\\&mdash\\;something\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ prevented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Argument\\:\\ On\\ 1942\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1990s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ Mura\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ p\\.\\ 235\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ family\\ and\\ remembrance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 5\\ stanzas\\:\\ 5\\,4\\,4\\,4\\,1\\ lines\\,\\ abcbb\\ deff\\ gghh\\ iiji\\ j\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Japanese\\ internment\\ camps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;generation\\ Asian\\-American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;And\\ she\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ die\\ then\\&hellip\\;after\\ the\\ war\\,\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Paul\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ you\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;Oh\\ I\\ know\\,\\ I\\ know\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ part\\ of\\ your\\ job\\,\\ your\\ way\\,\\ but\\ why\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ you\\ glean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ how\\ far\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ come\\,\\ how\\ much\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recall\\ \\-\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ an\\ argument\\ \\(I\\ believe\\)\\ between\\ the\\ author\\ and\\ his\\ mother\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\ \\(her\\ mother\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ entirely\\ the\\ mother\\ speaking\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ words\\ and\\ attitude\\ of\\ the\\ author\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ inferred\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ tell\\ that\\ the\\ mother\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ bothered\\ by\\ her\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\ while\\ the\\ son\\ is\\ still\\ outraged\\ at\\ the\\ treatment\\ received\\ by\\ his\\ older\\ relatives\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ even\\ tries\\ to\\ blame\\ unrelated\\ events\\ \\(such\\ as\\ his\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\)\\ on\\ the\\ camps\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ starts\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ with\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ towards\\ the\\ camps\\ and\\ her\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ stanzas\\ travel\\ back\\ in\\ time\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ camps\\:\\ in\\ general\\ at\\ first\\ and\\ then\\ what\\ the\\ grandmother\\ did\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ moves\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ camps\\ and\\ goes\\ back\\ towards\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ towards\\ her\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ could\\ stand\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ are\\ symmetric\\ \\(first\\ stanza\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ dash\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ dash\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ ends\\ with\\ an\\ ellipsis\\ \\(to\\ move\\ into\\ the\\ camps\\)\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ begins\\ with\\ an\\ ellipsis\\ \\(leaving\\ the\\ camps\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ \\(one\\ line\\)\\ stanza\\ uses\\ both\\ a\\ dash\\ and\\ an\\ ellipsis\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mother\\ is\\ almost\\ pleading\\ with\\ her\\ son\\ to\\ leave\\ it\\ alone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ recollection\\ seems\\ to\\ put\\ her\\ arguments\\ in\\ a\\ weak\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ seems\\ to\\ imply\\ that\\ the\\ camps\\ and\\ the\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cancer\\ were\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wants\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\,\\ while\\ his\\ mother\\ wants\\ to\\ move\\ on\\,\\ she\\ has\\ let\\ go\\ of\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ the\\ mistreatment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Gulf\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1969\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Derek\\ Walcott\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 272\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\section\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ week\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\.27\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ a\\ section\\ entitled\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ the\\ indictment\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ and\\ a\\ culture\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ also\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Airplane\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\poem\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\race\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Four\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 15\\ stanzas\\ in\\ the\\ first\\,\\ 7\\ in\\ the\\ second\\,\\ 5\\ in\\ the\\ third\\,\\ 2\\ plus\\ one\\ line\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tercets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\terza\\ rima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(aba\\,\\ bcb\\,\\ cdc\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\(perhaps\\ because\\ Walcott\\ sees\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ affairs\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ purgatory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\airplane\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cauldron\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ Gulf\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fire\\/burning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flowers\\/rose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Derek\\ Alton\\ Walcott\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 1930\\ in\\ Castries\\,\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\ \\(an\\ island\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;West\\-Indian\\ poet\\,\\ playwright\\,\\ writer\\ and\\ visual\\ artist\\ who\\ writes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\English\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Wikipedia\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ He\\ won\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ for\\ literature\\ in\\ 1992\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;His\\ work\\,\\ which\\ developed\\ independently\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\schools\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\magic\\ realism\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emerging\\ in\\ both\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\South\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Europe\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ around\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ his\\ birth\\,\\ is\\ intensely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ symbolism\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\myth\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\culture\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;I\\ have\\ no\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;as\\ long\\ as\\ summer\\ bubbling\\ to\\ its\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;boils\\ for\\ that\\ day\\ when\\ in\\ the\\ Lord\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ coals\\ of\\ fire\\ are\\ headed\\ upon\\ the\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;of\\ all\\ whose\\ gospel\\ is\\ the\\ whip\\ and\\ flame\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;age\\ after\\ age\\,\\ the\\ uninstructing\\ dead\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Gulf\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ Derek\\ Walcott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ comprehensive\\ indictment\\ of\\ US\\ culture\\ and\\ racism\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ sixties\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ opens\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ describing\\ the\\ takeoff\\ of\\ his\\ airplane\\ from\\ Texas\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ erects\\ a\\ strange\\ parallel\\ between\\ his\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ airplane\\;\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;fuelled\\ by\\ liquor\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ airplane\\ is\\ fuelled\\ by\\ gasoline\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ liftoff\\ is\\ also\\ related\\ to\\ death\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;divine\\ union\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ proceeds\\ to\\ describe\\ all\\ the\\ material\\ belongings\\ left\\ behind\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ soul\\ detaches\\ itself\\ from\\ created\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ identifies\\ matches\\ \\(the\\ first\\ instance\\ of\\ fire\\ imagery\\)\\,\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ fables\\ by\\ Borges\\ \\(important\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ writer\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ rose\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ remind\\ him\\ of\\ himself\\,\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ his\\ return\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ island\\ suburb\\,\\ forest\\,\\ mountain\\ water\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(St\\.\\ Lucia\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ section\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ also\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ instance\\ of\\ corruption\\/decay\\;\\ upon\\ his\\ death\\,\\ Walcott\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ objects\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ shall\\ \\&ldquo\\;burn\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ shall\\ be\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ petal\\ shriveling\\ from\\ its\\ core\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ close\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ also\\ brings\\ Walcott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ his\\ mind\\,\\ they\\ offer\\ no\\ advice\\ for\\ the\\ living\\,\\ they\\ embody\\ \\&ldquo\\;detachment\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Walcott\\ turns\\ to\\ the\\ turmoil\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ below\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ the\\ land\\ beneath\\ him\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ cauldron\\ boiling\\ with\\ its\\ wars\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ says\\ that\\,\\ from\\ above\\,\\ the\\ earth\\ \\&ldquo\\;again\\ looks\\ new\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ rebirth\\;\\ nature\\ holds\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ healing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ close\\ of\\ this\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ however\\,\\ brings\\ a\\ clearer\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cauldron\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;detached\\,\\ divided\\ states\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;slaughter\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;darkens\\ every\\ summer\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;smoke\\ of\\ bursting\\ ghettos\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sickens\\ the\\ state\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ then\\ relates\\ his\\ own\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ \\(he\\ stayed\\ in\\ Texas\\ for\\ a\\ time\\ but\\ then\\ returned\\ to\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\,\\ his\\ home\\)\\,\\ where\\ he\\ says\\ he\\ initially\\ felt\\ at\\ home\\ because\\ of\\ superficial\\ similarities\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrought\\ balconies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;tropic\\ air\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ legendary\\ jazz\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\ then\\ reveals\\ the\\ discrimination\\ he\\ met\\,\\ his\\ relegation\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;status\\ as\\ a\\ second\\ soul\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ conflict\\ between\\ cultures\\,\\ he\\ says\\,\\ like\\ the\\ gulf\\,\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;daily\\ widening\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ rose\\ and\\ fire\\ arises\\,\\ this\\ time\\ a\\ signal\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ embodied\\ by\\ the\\ Black\\ Panthers\\ \\(he\\ calls\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;stalking\\,\\ moonless\\ panthers\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ hearkens\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;stalking\\,\\ moonlit\\ tiger\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Borges\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\)\\ who\\ turn\\ from\\ God\\ and\\ instead\\ use\\ violence\\ \\(the\\ \\&ldquo\\;X\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ only\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ Passover\\ but\\ also\\ Malcolm\\ X\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ last\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ shortest\\ part\\,\\ Walcott\\ again\\ embraces\\ a\\ wider\\ scope\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ looks\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ gulf\\ from\\ the\\ airplane\\,\\ and\\ see\\ the\\ entire\\ body\\ of\\ water\\ as\\ a\\ massive\\ cauldron\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;the\\ coast\\ of\\ Texas\\ is\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;metal\\ rim\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ a\\ situation\\ of\\ fire\\ fighting\\ fire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;coals\\ of\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\ being\\ used\\ against\\ those\\ \\&ldquo\\;whose\\ gospel\\ is\\ the\\ whip\\ and\\ flame\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ he\\ must\\ flee\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ he\\ censures\\,\\ ultimately\\,\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ discriminatory\\ nature\\ of\\ white\\ society\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ violent\\ response\\ of\\ black\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;age\\ after\\ age\\,\\ the\\ uninstructing\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\ seems\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ lament\\,\\ a\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ human\\ society\\ to\\ evolve\\ and\\ escape\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Season\\ of\\ Phantasmal\\ Peace\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1981\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Derek\\ Walcott\\ \\(105\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ the\\ pleasure\\ of\\ fantasy\\ and\\ allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ birds\\,\\ light\\/dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Caribbean\\ poet\\ who\\ has\\ studied\\ postcolonial\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Only\\ this\\ passage\\ of\\ phantasmal\\ light\\/\\ that\\ not\\ the\\ narrowest\\ shadow\\ dared\\ to\\ sever\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-11\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Walcott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ he\\ uses\\ imagery\\ of\\ several\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ birds\\ to\\ display\\ the\\ coming\\ together\\ of\\ many\\ diverse\\ types\\ of\\ people\\ \\(or\\ species\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ birds\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&mdash\\;geese\\,\\ ospreys\\,\\ starlings\\,\\ and\\ killdeer\\&mdash\\;are\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ migratory\\ birds\\ that\\ nest\\ in\\ colonies\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ these\\ birds\\ are\\ coming\\ together\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ weather\\ must\\ be\\ warmer\\ here\\ than\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ originally\\ from\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ illusion\\ present\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;phantansmal\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ means\\ delusion\\ or\\ imaginary\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ word\\,\\ which\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ and\\ made\\ reference\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;phantasmal\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;shows\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ light\\ that\\ is\\ mentioned\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ exist\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadows\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ are\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ summary\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ suggests\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ everything\\ has\\ been\\ phantasmal\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ they\\ have\\ last\\ longer\\&mdash\\;thus\\ time\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ relative\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ pattern\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ soundlessness\\ of\\ the\\ birds\\.\\ \\ \\;Ironically\\,\\ though\\ the\\ birds\\ \\&ldquo\\;screech\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;caw\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;cry\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;soundless\\&rdquo\\;\\ repeatedly\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ barrier\\ that\\ exists\\ between\\ those\\ trying\\ to\\ hear\\/understand\\ the\\ birds\\ and\\ the\\ birds\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Perhaps\\ because\\ the\\ birds\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ familiar\\ presence\\&mdash\\;they\\ only\\ pass\\ through\\ for\\ the\\ warm\\ season\\&mdash\\;they\\ are\\ not\\ understood\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ superiority\\ present\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ the\\ birds\\ hover\\ over\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[lift\\]\\ up\\ the\\ shadows\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Walcott\\ refers\\ to\\ those\\ below\\ the\\ birds\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wingless\\ ones\\/\\ below\\ them\\ who\\ shared\\ dark\\ holes\\ in\\ windows\\ and\\ in\\ houses\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 29\\-30\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;pity\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;wingless\\ ones\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ that\\ they\\ wish\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ the\\ flying\\ birds\\ ahead\\,\\ but\\ are\\ plagued\\ by\\ suppression\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ language\\ is\\ very\\ dark\\ and\\ dreary\\,\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ long\\ length\\ of\\ each\\ line\\,\\ creates\\ a\\ heavy\\ and\\ depression\\ atmosphere\\ for\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ is\\ described\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ possible\\ interpretation\\:\\ Keeping\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ Walcott\\ was\\ from\\ Caribbean\\ and\\ studied\\ post\\-colonialism\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ imperialism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ birds\\ coming\\ together\\ from\\ various\\ nations\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;multitudinous\\ dialects\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ colonizers\\ who\\ came\\ from\\ many\\ different\\ nations\\ which\\ all\\ have\\ different\\ languages\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ birds\\ are\\ soundless\\ though\\ they\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;twittering\\ tongues\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ be\\ because\\ the\\ natives\\ might\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ colonizers\\,\\ so\\ to\\ them\\ their\\ words\\ are\\ meaningless\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Snake\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1920\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ D\\.H\\.\\ Lawrence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 101\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/4\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Personal\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ No\\ consistent\\ rhythm\\,\\ however\\,\\ within\\ stanzas\\ there\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;hypnotic\\ repeated\\ rhythms\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(PPP\\)\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Was\\ it\\ cowardice\\,\\ that\\ I\\ dared\\ not\\ kill\\ him\\?\\ \\/\\ Was\\ it\\ perversity\\,\\ that\\ I\\ longed\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ him\\?\\ \\/\\ Was\\ it\\ humility\\,\\ to\\ feel\\ so\\ honoured\\?\\ \\/\\ I\\ felt\\ so\\ honoured\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ No\\ consistent\\ structure\\.\\ The\\ stanzas\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ narration\\ of\\ events\\ such\\ as\\ how\\ the\\ snake\\ drinks\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ snake\\ moves\\ to\\ leave\\ are\\ longer\\ than\\ the\\ stanzas\\ written\\ about\\ Lawrence\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feelings\\ and\\ thoughts\\ about\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ blackness\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ snake\\ escapes\\,\\ the\\ snake\\ as\\ threatening\\ versus\\ divine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ author\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ after\\ a\\ similar\\ encounter\\ with\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\ when\\ the\\ author\\ began\\ using\\ free\\ verse\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ break\\ the\\ stereotypes\\ of\\ old\\ poetry\\,\\ at\\ times\\ taking\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ extreme\\ of\\ no\\ rhyme\\ or\\ meter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ deep\\,\\ strange\\-scented\\ shade\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ dark\\ carob\\ tree\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;I\\ came\\ down\\ the\\ steps\\ with\\ my\\ pitcher\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;And\\ must\\ wait\\,\\ must\\ stand\\ and\\ wait\\,\\ for\\ there\\ he\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ trough\\ before\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ author\\ uses\\ his\\ encounter\\ with\\ a\\ snake\\ to\\ explore\\ his\\,\\ or\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ relation\\ to\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ lacks\\ consistent\\ rhyme\\ or\\ rhythm\\ and\\ is\\ structurally\\ scattered\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ moves\\ from\\ only\\ the\\ literal\\ events\\ \\(how\\ the\\ author\\ walks\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ trough\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ snake\\ is\\ drinking\\,\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ snake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ color\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ to\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ voice\\ of\\ his\\ education\\&rdquo\\;\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ For\\ the\\ next\\ few\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ deals\\ with\\ his\\ inner\\ thoughts\\ on\\ why\\ or\\ why\\ not\\ he\\ would\\ kill\\ the\\ snake\\,\\ only\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ as\\ the\\ author\\ describes\\ the\\ snake\\ continuing\\ to\\ drink\\ and\\ then\\ finally\\ move\\ to\\ leave\\.\\ After\\ the\\ author\\ feebly\\ attempts\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\,\\ he\\ returns\\ to\\ his\\ inner\\ emotions\\ about\\ the\\ snake\\ and\\ his\\ actions\\ towards\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ This\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ movement\\ between\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ and\\ his\\ inside\\ world\\ mimics\\ how\\ he\\ moves\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ between\\ his\\ feelings\\ towards\\ to\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ author\\ wavers\\ between\\ fearing\\ the\\ snake\\ and\\ feeling\\ honored\\ by\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ He\\ compares\\ the\\ snake\\ drinking\\ to\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ cattle\\ drinking\\ \\(not\\ so\\ threatening\\)\\ and\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ snake\\ with\\ the\\ personal\\ pronoun\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;someone\\ was\\ before\\ me\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ snake\\ is\\ a\\ person\\.\\ Later\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ common\\ belief\\ in\\ Sicily\\ is\\ that\\ golden\\ snakes\\ are\\ venomous\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ author\\ blames\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ education\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ more\\ generally\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\,\\ for\\ his\\ urge\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ snake\\ that\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;peaceful\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;pacified\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;quiet\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ drinking\\ the\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ as\\ a\\ Second\\ Language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 281\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dionisio\\ Martinez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 8\\,\\ 13\\,\\ 15\\.\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ irregular\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Cuban\\,\\ b\\.\\ 1956\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ thought\\ I\\ heard\\ a\\ murder\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\room\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ radio\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ discusses\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ memory\\ of\\ his\\ childhood\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ father\\ and\\ his\\ friends\\ tried\\ to\\ overthrow\\ the\\ Communist\\ regime\\ \\(and\\ failed\\)\\,\\ and\\ their\\ life\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ secrecy\\,\\ fear\\,\\ and\\ deception\\.\\ \\ \\;Key\\ phrases\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ next\\ room\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ plots\\ were\\ made\\,\\ where\\ the\\ whores\\ made\\ a\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ next\\ room\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ later\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ room\\ next\\ door\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ secrecy\\ in\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;exile\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Do\\ Not\\ Go\\ Gentle\\ into\\ That\\ Good\\ Night\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(194X\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dylan\\ Thomas\\ p\\.20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ additional\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Valediction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Villanelle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aba\\ aba\\ aba\\ aba\\ aba\\ abaa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Death\\,\\ rage\\,\\ father\\,\\ night\\,\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rage\\,\\ rage\\ against\\ the\\ dying\\ of\\ the\\ light\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ Do\\ not\\ go\\ gentle\\ into\\ that\\ good\\ night\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ villanelle\\ is\\ a\\ French\\ poetic\\ form\\ that\\ originally\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ pastoral\\,\\ simple\\,\\ and\\ light\\ verse\\.\\ That\\ Thomas\\ would\\ employ\\ that\\ form\\ for\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ death\\ enhances\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overall\\ irony\\ of\\ beseeching\\ a\\ dying\\ person\\ to\\ rage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ Thomas\\&rsquo\\;\\ call\\ to\\ his\\ father\\,\\ who\\ is\\ in\\ his\\ eighties\\ and\\ has\\ started\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;go\\ gentle\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ to\\ regain\\ his\\ ferocity\\ that\\ Dylan\\ had\\ always\\ seen\\ in\\ him\\ earlier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ part\\ form\\:\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ which\\ introduces\\ Dylan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ refrain\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ villanelle\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ middle\\ four\\ stanzas\\ are\\ a\\ progression\\ through\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;wise\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;grave\\&rdquo\\;\\ men\\ do\\ to\\ still\\ express\\ their\\ liveliness\\ even\\ though\\ death\\ approaches\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ stanza\\ then\\ turns\\ this\\ idea\\ to\\ Dylan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\,\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ fight\\ in\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ ways\\ the\\ four\\ other\\ examples\\ did\\,\\ even\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;fierce\\ tears\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ fairly\\ unilateral\\ thematically\\;\\ it\\ introduces\\ a\\ thought\\,\\ develops\\ the\\ idea\\ and\\ then\\ directs\\ it\\ toward\\ a\\ person\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ main\\ imagery\\ focuses\\ on\\ a\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ brightness\\ and\\ darkness\\,\\ which\\ translates\\ in\\ our\\ minds\\ to\\ life\\ and\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ alternating\\ quickly\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;night\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;day\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ helps\\ center\\ our\\ mind\\ on\\ the\\ transition\\ that\\ Dylan\\ is\\ so\\ concerned\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ villanelle\\ form\\ helps\\ especially\\ well\\ in\\ this\\ matter\\,\\ with\\ only\\ two\\ rhyme\\-sounds\\ that\\ alternate\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\r\\-p\\-o\\-p\\-h\\-e\\-s\\-s\\-a\\-g\\-r\\ \\(page\\ 173\\)\\ EE\\ Cummings\\ \\(1894\\-1962\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Natural\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Concrete\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ concrete\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ prevents\\ it\\ from\\ having\\ any\\ particular\\ prosody\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ discernible\\ meter\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ not\\ divided\\ into\\ stanzas\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ 15\\ lines\\ long\\ and\\ each\\ line\\ has\\ a\\ variable\\ number\\ of\\ syllables\\,\\ some\\ even\\ having\\ one\\.\\ Punctuation\\ is\\ commonly\\ used\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ dash\\ and\\ the\\ paranthesis\\.\\ Capitalization\\ of\\ letters\\ within\\ words\\ is\\ common\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ mispelled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ one\\ image\\,\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ grasshopper\\ hopping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Harvard\\ graduate\\.\\ Held\\ a\\ steady\\ job\\ for\\ only\\ a\\ short\\ period\\ after\\ graduation\\ before\\ going\\ to\\ france\\ and\\ being\\ imprisoned\\.\\ Traveled\\ throughout\\ Europe\\ and\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ authors\\ such\\ as\\ Gertrude\\ Stein\\ and\\ Ezra\\ Pound\\.\\ Believed\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ Romantic\\ that\\ incorporated\\ modernist\\ styles\\ of\\ expression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ purpose\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ more\\ to\\ convey\\ a\\ specific\\ idea\\ or\\ theme\\,\\ is\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ an\\ image\\ through\\ words\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ effective\\ space\\,\\ punctuation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ scrambling\\ and\\ capitalization\\ of\\ words\\,\\ cummings\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ characterize\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ a\\ grasshopper\\ in\\ its\\ natural\\ habitat\\,\\ jumping\\ from\\ one\\ plant\\ to\\ another\\.\\ For\\ example\\ the\\ full\\ capitalization\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ indicates\\ a\\ zooming\\ in\\ of\\ the\\ imagery\\,\\ whereby\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ jumping\\ towards\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ contains\\ the\\ one\\ exclamation\\ point\\,\\ used\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ jump\\ of\\ the\\ grasshopper\\,\\ or\\ as\\ cummings\\ shows\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\l\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;eA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\!p\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ parallels\\ the\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ jumps\\.\\ The\\ speed\\ of\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ exhibited\\ by\\ the\\ scrambling\\ of\\ the\\ letters\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\,\\ with\\ \\"\\;S\\"\\;\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ page\\ and\\ \\"\\;a\\"\\;\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ word\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ spelled\\ differently\\ every\\ time\\.\\ This\\ is\\ done\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ each\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ in\\ its\\ jump\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ different\\.\\ Only\\ the\\ final\\ word\\ is\\ spelled\\ correctly\\,\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ finally\\ the\\ grasshopper\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ stop\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ viewed\\ in\\ a\\ stereotypic\\ fashion\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ properly\\ spelled\\ word\\ should\\ be\\ incorporated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Pleasant\\ to\\ Know\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\-\\ Edward\\ Lear\\ \\(1812\\-1888\\)\\ p\\.232\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ description\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Tetrameter\\/\\ Pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ abab\\ etc\\,\\ 8\\ stanzas\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;indented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ Himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ has\\ many\\ friends\\,\\ laymen\\ and\\ clerical\\;\\/\\ Old\\ Foss\\ is\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ his\\ cat\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ the\\ speaker\\ describes\\ himself\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ emotional\\ or\\ psychological\\ descriptions\\ of\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ only\\ things\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ perceived\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\.\\ So\\ rather\\ then\\ say\\ he\\ is\\ sad\\ he\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ weeps\\ by\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ is\\ interesting\\ in\\ that\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ describing\\ an\\ individual\\ not\\ from\\ an\\ abstract\\ or\\ all\\-knowing\\ standpoint\\ but\\ from\\ another\\ individual\\ in\\ society\\.\\ More\\ interesting\\ though\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ would\\ know\\ everything\\ about\\ himself\\,\\ yet\\ he\\ decides\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ himself\\ from\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ ignorance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ imagery\\ and\\ tone\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ changes\\ from\\ serious\\ descriptions\\ of\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ to\\ ridiculous\\ and\\ amusing\\ descriptions\\ like\\ the\\ citation\\ above\\.\\ So\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ constantly\\ changing\\ from\\ serious\\ to\\ funny\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ ballad\\ form\\ also\\ aids\\ in\\ making\\ the\\ poem\\ seem\\ for\\ light\\ hearted\\.\\ However\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ the\\ tone\\ becomes\\ sad\\ when\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ penultimate\\ stanza\\ where\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ is\\ weeping\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ ending\\ by\\ the\\ describing\\ the\\ immanent\\ death\\ of\\ Mr\\.\\ Lear\\ whose\\ \\&ldquo\\;days\\ of\\ his\\ pilgrimage\\ vanish\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ the\\ opening\\ line\\ and\\ closing\\ line\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ create\\ this\\ image\\ that\\ Lear\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ himself\\ and\\ thinking\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ who\\ he\\ is\\ because\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ society\\ sees\\ of\\ him\\.\\ He\\ is\\ not\\ taking\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ individual\\,\\ but\\ just\\ looking\\ at\\ his\\ social\\ identity\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ creating\\ this\\ image\\ that\\ our\\ personal\\ selves\\ and\\ our\\ social\\ selves\\ are\\ two\\ different\\ entities\\ and\\ here\\ the\\ personal\\ self\\ is\\ looking\\ fondly\\ at\\ the\\ social\\ self\\ who\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ die\\ soon\\,\\ while\\ the\\ personal\\ self\\ lives\\ on\\.\\ Perhaps\\ his\\ age\\ compelled\\ him\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ his\\ worldly\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\anyone\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ pretty\\ how\\ town\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\1940\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ E\\.E\\.\\ Cummings\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 453\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Section\\ week\\ of\\ October\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\&ndash\\;children\\,\\ death\\ and\\ dying\\,\\ nature\\,\\ time\\,\\ human\\ worth\\,\\ love\\,\\ ordinary\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ modified\\ ballad\\ with\\ rearranging\\ refrain\\,\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ trochaic\\ \\(approximately\\)\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\-\\-repetition\\ of\\ lines\\ \\&ldquo\\;sun\\ moon\\ stars\\ rain\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;autumn\\ winter\\ spring\\ summer\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ varying\\ order\\ \\&ndash\\;the\\ lack\\ of\\ capitalization\\ throughout\\ and\\ parenthetical\\ phrases\\ missing\\ spaces\\ \\[ex\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Women\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\men\\(both\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ seasons\\,\\ heavenly\\ bodies\\ \\(stars\\,\\ moon\\,\\ sun\\)\\,\\ lovers\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ name\\ noted\\ on\\ syllabus\\ as\\ Edward\\ Estlin\\,\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ unorthodox\\ usage\\ of\\ capitalization\\ \\(ie\\:\\ extensive\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ case\\)\\,\\ layout\\,\\ punctuation\\,\\ and\\ syntax\\.\\ When\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ correct\\ fashion\\,\\ his\\ poems\\ often\\ paint\\ a\\ syntactical\\ picture\\ as\\ vital\\ to\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ the\\ words\\ themselves\\.\\ Cummings\\&\\#39\\;\\ poetry\\ often\\ deals\\ with\\ themes\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\love\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ nature\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\(also\\,\\ Harvard\\ class\\ of\\ 1916\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\(last\\ stanza\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;Women\\ and\\ men\\(both\\ dong\\ and\\ ding\\)\\ \\/\\ summer\\ autumn\\ winter\\ spring\\ \\/\\ reaped\\ their\\ sowing\\ and\\ went\\ their\\ came\\ \\/\\ sun\\ moon\\ stars\\ rain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ life\\ cycle\\ of\\ a\\ townspeople\\ and\\ of\\ one\\ ignored\\ couple\\.\\ Cummings\\ employs\\ reversed\\ word\\ order\\,\\ almost\\-but\\-not\\-quite\\-nonsense\\ sentences\\,\\ play\\ on\\ words\\,\\ and\\ repetition\\.\\ We\\ get\\ the\\ coming\\ and\\ going\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\;\\ the\\ leading\\ of\\ lives\\,\\ circumscribed\\,\\ sometimes\\ small\\-minded\\,\\ monotonous\\.\\ But\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ yearning\\ and\\ dreaming\\,\\ marriage\\,\\ children\\,\\ joy\\ and\\ hope\\.\\ Woven\\ into\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ townsfolk\\ is\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ \\"\\;anyone\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;noone\\"\\;\\,\\ ignored\\ or\\ even\\ reviled\\ by\\ everyone\\ else\\.\\ Only\\ \\"\\;children\\ guessed\\"\\;\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ falling\\ in\\ love\\-\\-that\\ \\"\\;anyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ any\\ was\\ all\\ to\\ her\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\"\\;\\ Time\\ passes\\,\\ they\\ die\\,\\ they\\ are\\ buried\\ next\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ they\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\,\\ \\"\\;all\\ by\\ all\\ and\\ deep\\ by\\ deep\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ Wish\\ by\\ spirit\\ and\\ if\\ by\\ yes\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structurally\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;anyone\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ pretty\\ how\\ town\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ set\\ out\\ in\\ quatrains\\ with\\ irregular\\ rhyme\\ and\\ internal\\ rhyme\\.\\ The\\ conventional\\ stanzaic\\ pattern\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ conflict\\ between\\ the\\ traditional\\ mode\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ with\\ its\\ traditional\\ conservative\\ values\\,\\ with\\ the\\ the\\ inverted\\ syntax\\ and\\ ungrammatical\\ structures\\ that\\ appear\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(\\&\\#39\\;laughed\\ their\\ cryings\\ and\\ did\\ their\\ dance\\&\\#39\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ reflects\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ themes\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ intuitive\\ spontaneity\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ can\\ experience\\ within\\ the\\ regimented\\ views\\ of\\ mainstream\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ types\\ of\\ lines\\ also\\ alternate\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\;\\ short\\ lines\\ have\\ four\\ syllables\\ and\\ four\\ beats\\,\\ long\\ lines\\ have\\ twelve\\ syllables\\ and\\ four\\ beats\\.\\ \\ \\;Short\\ lines\\ march\\ steady\\ and\\ purposefully\\,\\ while\\ long\\ lines\\ dance\\ a\\ waltz\\ \\(one\\ emphasis\\ every\\ 3\\ syllables\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ contrast\\ is\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ where\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ facts\\ of\\ life\\,\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ nature\\ we\\ all\\ live\\ by\\,\\ repeat\\ and\\ constrain\\ life\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;star\\ rain\\ sun\\ moon\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(6\\,1\\)\\)\\ and\\ the\\ love\\ between\\ noone\\ and\\ anyone\\ enlivens\\,\\ and\\ brings\\ joy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Refrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summer\\,\\ autumn\\,\\ winter\\,\\ spring\\:\\ represents\\ both\\ change\\ and\\ constancy\\ \\(constancy\\ because\\ of\\ repetition\\ of\\ refrain\\,\\ change\\ because\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sun\\,\\ moon\\,\\ stars\\,\\ rain\\:\\ represents\\ daily\\ cycle\\;\\ in\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ suggests\\ possibility\\ of\\ life\\ even\\ after\\ \\&ldquo\\;noone\\&rdquo\\;\\ dies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nineteen\\ by\\ Elizabeth\\ Alexander\\ P\\.106\\Genre\\:\\ Love\\ poem\\,\\ Sex\\ poem\\,\\ War\\ poems\\Prosody\\:\\ Loose\\ hexameter\\Structural\\ Detail\\ No\\ rhymes\\,\\ three\\ stanzas\\.\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Consistent\\ images\\ of\\ marijuana\\ and\\ the\\ 70\\&\\#39\\;s\\.\\Author\\:\\ Lived\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ were\\ 8\\ years\\ old\\ during\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ Alexander\\&\\#39\\;s\\ disturbing\\ memories\\ of\\ summer\\ camp\\ as\\ a\\young\\ child\\,\\ until\\ she\\ turns\\ nineteen\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ her\\ \\"\\;first\\ summer\\away\\ from\\ home\\.\\"\\;\\ However\\,\\ Alexander\\ continues\\ to\\ see\\ this\\ strange\\Vietnam\\ veteran\\ who\\ was\\ her\\ camp\\ counselor\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ Also\\,\\ the\\author\\ uses\\ white\\ imagery\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ beginning\\ and\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\;\\this\\ is\\ interesting\\ because\\ white\\ is\\ a\\ color\\ which\\ symbolizes\\ peace\\even\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ her\\ relationship\\ with\\ a\\ Vietnam\\ veteran\\.\\She\\ also\\ uses\\ foreboding\\ and\\ disturbing\\ images\\ and\\ diction\\ such\\ as\\\\"\\;poison\\-ivied\\ fields\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;musty\\.\\"\\;\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ blatant\\ indications\\ of\\sex\\ when\\ she\\ states\\,\\ \\"\\;he\\&hellip\\;\\ grabbed\\ between\\ my\\ legs\\.\\"\\;\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ only\\indications\\ we\\ have\\ of\\ what\\ war\\ was\\ like\\ at\\ Vietnam\\ was\\ the\\ rain\\;\\ this\\undertones\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ this\\ tragic\\,\\ dramatic\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Do\\ I\\ Love\\ Thee\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1850\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Elizabeth\\ Barrett\\ Browning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 300\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\ \\(Chapter\\ 9\\)\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ mostly\\ of\\ an\\ Italian\\ sonnet\\:\\ abba\\,\\ abba\\,\\ cdcdcd\\ \\(\\?\\ \\-\\ the\\ sestet\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rhyme\\ perfectly\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\ \\;Mostly\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ love\\ thee\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ various\\ realms\\-\\ everyday\\,\\ spiritual\\,\\ idealistic\\ references\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Victorian\\ woman\\,\\ raised\\ in\\ England\\,\\ moved\\ to\\ Italy\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ \\(against\\ her\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wishes\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ was\\ presented\\ in\\ collection\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sonnets\\ from\\ the\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ while\\ she\\ was\\ in\\ Italy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ do\\ I\\ love\\ thee\\?\\ Let\\ me\\ count\\ the\\ ways\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\,\\ section\\ or\\ within\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sonnet\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ discusses\\ her\\ love\\ for\\ him\\ in\\ spiritual\\ terms\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;to\\ the\\ depth\\ and\\ breadth\\ and\\ height\\/\\ My\\ soul\\ can\\ reach\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;everyday\\&rsquo\\;s\\/\\ Most\\ quiet\\ need\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ over\\ time\\,\\ from\\ the\\ love\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;childhood\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faith\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ thee\\ better\\ after\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ hidden\\ or\\ complex\\ to\\ this\\ poem\\ than\\ being\\ a\\ poem\\ of\\ true\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ Fishhouses\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1947\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Elizabeth\\ Bishop\\-Pgs\\.\\ 386\\-388\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 11\\-Poems\\ as\\ pleasures\\-complex\\ pleasures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ personal\\ grief\\,\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ place\\ from\\ which\\ you\\ came\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ changes\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ There\\ are\\ 3\\ stanzas\\-the\\ first\\ and\\ last\\ are\\ very\\ long\\,\\ the\\ second\\ is\\ only\\ 6\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ The\\ fishhouses\\,\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ religious\\ imagery\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Bishop\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ died\\ at\\ an\\ early\\ age\\ and\\ her\\ mother\\ was\\ committed\\ to\\ a\\ sanitarium\\.\\ Bishop\\ was\\ raised\\ by\\ her\\ grandparents\\ in\\ Nova\\ Scotia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ is\\ silver\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ was\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ my\\ grandfather\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ returning\\ to\\ your\\ home\\ after\\ being\\ gone\\ for\\ a\\ while\\.\\ Bishop\\ was\\ raised\\ by\\ her\\ grandparents\\ in\\ Nova\\ Scotia\\.\\ She\\ encounters\\ and\\ old\\ man\\ on\\ the\\ dock\\,\\ despite\\ how\\ cold\\ it\\ is\\ he\\ is\\ sitting\\ outside\\,\\ netting\\,\\ waiting\\ for\\ his\\ boat\\.\\ Her\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ shows\\ her\\ fondness\\ for\\ the\\ place\\ as\\ she\\ describes\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ is\\ silver\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ otherwise\\ impersonal\\ subject\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ positive\\,\\ silver\\ imagery\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ scene\\ shows\\ her\\ affection\\ for\\ the\\ place\\:\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ lobster\\ pots\\,\\ scales\\ of\\ the\\ herring\\,\\ even\\ \\&ldquo\\;iridescent\\ flies\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Bishop\\ breaks\\ the\\ impersonal\\ description\\ when\\ she\\ realizes\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ was\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ her\\ late\\ grandfathers\\-immediately\\ giving\\ her\\ a\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ man\\ while\\ zoning\\ in\\ on\\ a\\ personal\\ grief\\.\\ The\\ break\\ in\\ impersonalized\\ tone\\ is\\ underscored\\ when\\ she\\ offers\\ him\\ the\\ specific\\ brand\\ of\\ Lucky\\ Strike\\ cigarettes\\.\\ Despite\\ her\\ fondness\\ for\\ the\\ place\\,\\ you\\ sense\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;done\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ way\\-all\\ is\\ worn\\ and\\ old\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ date\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ very\\ short\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\.\\ It\\ is\\ Bishop\\&rsquo\\;s\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ ramp\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ ocean\\.\\ This\\ stanza\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ ramp\\,\\ bridging\\ the\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ land\\ and\\ the\\ ocean\\-and\\ allowing\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ travel\\ between\\ to\\ the\\ spaces\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ describes\\ the\\ ocean\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ tongue\\-and\\-cheek\\ exchange\\ between\\ Bishop\\ and\\ a\\ seal\\ about\\ religion\\;\\ despite\\ this\\ cheekiness\\,\\ however\\,\\ it\\ shows\\ Bishop\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loneliness\\ as\\ she\\ walks\\ alone\\ and\\ has\\ no\\ one\\ else\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\.\\ The\\ water\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\ is\\ also\\ used\\ for\\ Baptism\\ imagery\\.\\ Also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ that\\ midway\\ through\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ what\\ was\\ before\\ described\\ as\\ silver\\ is\\ now\\ given\\ the\\ more\\ dismal\\ description\\ of\\ gray\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ clear\\ gray\\ icy\\ water\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rounded\\ gray\\ and\\ blue\\-gray\\ stones\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Bishop\\ also\\ changes\\ her\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\ three\\ times\\,\\ seemingly\\ unsatisfied\\ with\\ each\\ version\\.\\ She\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ more\\ philosophical\\ note\\,\\ using\\ the\\ ocean\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ gaining\\ knowledge\\;\\ something\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ difficult\\ and\\ even\\ painful\\-but\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ to\\ reap\\ the\\ benefits\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ ocean\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\:\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ historical\\ it\\ flows\\-again\\ underlining\\ the\\ water\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sestina\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Elizabeth\\ Bishop\\ \\(pg\\ 392\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ assigned\\ for\\ section\\ 10\\/11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ family\\,\\ love\\,\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ sestina\\ \\=\\ 6\\ six\\-line\\ stanzas\\ and\\ a\\ three\\ line\\ envoy\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ same\\ six\\ end\\ words\\ in\\ each\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ all\\ six\\ words\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ envoy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ six\\ repeated\\ words\\ \\=\\ grandmother\\,\\ child\\,\\ house\\,\\ stove\\,\\ almanac\\,\\ tears\\.\\ Other\\ images\\ are\\ rain\\,\\ flowers\\,\\ tea\\ \\(lexicon\\ of\\ domestic\\ items\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ autobiographical\\;\\ she\\ was\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ her\\ grandparents\\ in\\ novia\\ scotia\\ after\\ dad\\ dies\\ and\\ mom\\ goes\\ permanently\\ insane\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ final\\ envoy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Time\\ to\\ plant\\ tears\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;says\\ the\\ almanac\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ grandmother\\ sings\\ to\\ the\\ marvelous\\ stove\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ the\\ child\\ draws\\ another\\ inscrutable\\ house\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ explores\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ child\\ and\\ a\\ grandmother\\ living\\ together\\,\\ and\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ allows\\ Bishop\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ aspects\\ of\\ their\\ life\\ in\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ combinations\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ Bishop\\ presents\\ the\\ house\\ using\\ the\\ traditional\\ domestic\\ lexicon\\,\\ filled\\ with\\ the\\ grandmother\\,\\ the\\ child\\,\\ the\\ stove\\ and\\ the\\ almanac\\.\\ The\\ last\\ word\\ on\\ the\\ sixth\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;tears\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ contrastive\\ because\\ it\\ implies\\ an\\ emotional\\ state\\ of\\ sadness\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ just\\ being\\ a\\ domestic\\ object\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Following\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;tears\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ grandmother\\ tries\\ to\\ hide\\ her\\ tears\\,\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ poem\\ continues\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ very\\ house\\ itself\\ is\\ exposing\\ her\\ sadness\\ because\\ the\\ condensation\\ on\\ the\\ tea\\ kettle\\ and\\ the\\ drops\\ in\\ the\\ tea\\ are\\ also\\ tear\\-like\\.\\ The\\ child\\ also\\ cannot\\ escape\\ the\\ sadness\\,\\ because\\ as\\ she\\ tries\\ to\\ imagine\\ a\\ perfect\\ house\\ with\\ a\\ father\\ figure\\ to\\ replace\\ her\\ lost\\ father\\,\\ the\\ buttons\\ are\\ his\\ coat\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ tears\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ sadness\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;tears\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ combined\\ with\\ uncanny\\ imagery\\,\\ such\\ as\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ almanac\\ hovers\\ half\\ open\\ above\\ the\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ a\\ terrible\\ fate\\ were\\ about\\ to\\ befall\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fundamentally\\,\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ life\\-implications\\ because\\ like\\ the\\ repeating\\ words\\,\\ life\\ has\\ a\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ aspects\\ and\\ they\\ recombine\\ until\\ they\\ are\\ used\\-up\\ and\\ hardened\\ into\\ your\\ soul\\ as\\ a\\ habit\\.\\ Thus\\ Bishop\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ patterns\\ of\\ loss\\ and\\ sadness\\ that\\ are\\ folded\\ into\\ the\\ house\\ will\\ haunt\\ the\\ grandmother\\ and\\ the\\ child\\ their\\ whole\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remembrance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Bronte\\ 401\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/8\\ Paper\\ topic\\ on\\ patterning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ mourning\\,\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ quatrains\\ rhyming\\ abab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ nature\\,\\ sorrow\\,\\ lost\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ devoutly\\ Catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Once\\ drinking\\ deep\\ of\\ that\\ divinest\\ anguish\\,\\ How\\ could\\ I\\ seek\\ the\\ empty\\ world\\ again\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ mourning\\ her\\ lost\\ love\\ and\\ toiling\\ on\\ his\\ grave\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ all\\ along\\,\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ since\\ his\\ death\\ \\(years\\ ago\\)\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ haunted\\ by\\ thoughts\\ of\\ missing\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ then\\ learn\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ point\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ so\\ hopeless\\ she\\ was\\ suicidal\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ she\\ did\\ not\\ kill\\ herself\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;even\\ Despair\\ was\\ powerless\\ to\\ destroy\\&mdash\\;perhaps\\ due\\ to\\ her\\ religious\\ beliefs\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ she\\ learned\\ to\\ continue\\ living\\ \\(out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;without\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ joy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ she\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ resigned\\ herself\\ to\\ a\\ joyless\\ life\\,\\ for\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ ending\\ the\\ misery\\ through\\ suicide\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ next\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ methodically\\ details\\ how\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ persevered\\ and\\ denied\\ her\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;burning\\ wish\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ die\\,\\ so\\ that\\ she\\ may\\ be\\ reunited\\ with\\ her\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ conflicting\\ desires\\:\\ a\\ childish\\ wish\\ to\\ kill\\ herself\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ her\\ love\\ again\\,\\ and\\ a\\ mature\\,\\ pious\\ voice\\ that\\ denies\\ this\\ wish\\ and\\ controls\\ the\\ suicidal\\ urges\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ learn\\ that\\ the\\ battle\\ between\\ these\\ wishes\\ is\\ not\\ completely\\ won\\ by\\ the\\ mature\\ voice\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ just\\ thinking\\ about\\ her\\ lost\\ love\\ makes\\ her\\ think\\ about\\ killing\\ herself\\ again\\ \\(see\\ citation\\ above\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ narrow\\ Fellow\\ in\\ the\\ Grass\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\~1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\ \\(p\\.\\ 18\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Riddle\\ Poem\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;could\\ also\\ be\\ read\\ as\\ an\\ erotic\\ poem\\ \\(I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ not\\ sure\\ if\\ Vendler\\ interpreted\\ it\\ in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ check\\ your\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimesters\\ and\\ heptameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Six\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ composed\\ of\\ mostly\\ iambic\\ trimesters\\ and\\ iambic\\ hexameters\\ \\(4\\-3\\-4\\-3\\)\\ with\\ minor\\ departures\\ \\(third\\ stanza\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ trimesters\\ only\\,\\ and\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ are\\ trimesters\\ as\\ well\\)\\,\\ the\\ rhyming\\ structure\\ is\\ very\\ subtle\\:\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ fourth\\ have\\ a\\ secondary\\ rhyme\\ \\(weak\\ rhyme\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Narrowness\\,\\ whip\\,\\ Grass\\,\\ boggy\\ acre\\,\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ an\\ implied\\ sense\\ of\\ fear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Born\\ in\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ along\\ with\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ American\\ poets\\.\\ Lived\\ most\\ of\\ her\\ life\\ secluded\\ in\\ her\\ home\\ in\\ Amherst\\ Massachusetts\\.\\ Very\\ prolific\\,\\ wrote\\ more\\ than\\ 1700\\ poems\\ in\\ her\\ lifetime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ never\\ met\\ this\\ Fellow\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Attended\\,\\ or\\ alone\\ \\/\\ Without\\ a\\ tighter\\ breathing\\ \\/\\ And\\ Zero\\ at\\ the\\ Bone\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ Dickinson\\ writes\\ a\\ riddle\\ about\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ She\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ snake\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;narrow\\ Fellow\\ in\\ the\\ Grass\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Grass\\ divis\\ as\\ with\\ a\\ Comb\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ she\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ snake\\ includes\\ a\\ shaft\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Whip\\ lash\\ \\/\\ Unbraiding\\ in\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ also\\ refers\\ to\\ herself\\ as\\ a\\ barefoot\\ boy\\ \\(which\\ \\ \\;might\\ be\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ gender\\ pressures\\ of\\ her\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;not\\ sure\\ about\\ this\\ though\\)\\.\\ The\\ author\\ also\\ finishes\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ the\\ verses\\ with\\ a\\ long\\ dash\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\-\\-\\-\\&ldquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ leaves\\ the\\ author\\ in\\ suspense\\,\\ and\\ since\\ the\\ main\\ topic\\ is\\ a\\ Snake\\,\\ it\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ wants\\ to\\ convey\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ concludes\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ never\\ met\\ this\\ Fellow\\ \\/\\ Attended\\,\\ or\\ alone\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Without\\ a\\ tighter\\ breathing\\ \\/\\ And\\ Zero\\ at\\ the\\ Bone\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ finally\\ unveils\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ Snake\\.\\ The\\ one\\ thing\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ is\\ that\\ Vendler\\ included\\ this\\ poem\\ within\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\ segment\\,\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ sense\\ if\\ what\\ Dickinson\\ does\\ in\\ her\\ poem\\ is\\ write\\ a\\ riddle\\ about\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ However\\ the\\ allusions\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Boy\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ mean\\ that\\ she\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ such\\ themes\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ ascribed\\ to\\ the\\ male\\ gender\\,\\ since\\ women\\ were\\ to\\ stay\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ never\\ go\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ fields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ great\\ pain\\,\\ a\\ formal\\ feeling\\ comes\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 349\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Tombs\\,\\ snow\\,\\ Hour\\ of\\ Lead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Here\\,\\ Dickinson\\ reflects\\ upon\\ what\\ she\\ experiences\\ when\\ a\\ crisis\\ is\\ already\\ passed\\.\\ The\\ only\\ reference\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ that\\ crisis\\ is\\ the\\ phrase\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;After\\ great\\ pain\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ notes\\ that\\ following\\ great\\ pain\\,\\ \\"\\;a\\ formal\\ feeling\\"\\;\\ often\\ sets\\ in\\,\\ during\\ which\\ the\\ \\"\\;Nerves\\"\\;\\ are\\ solemn\\ and\\ \\"\\;ceremonious\\,\\ like\\ Tombs\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ heart\\ questions\\ whether\\ it\\ ever\\ really\\ endured\\ such\\ pain\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ really\\ so\\ recent\\ \\(\\"\\;The\\ stiff\\ Heart\\ questions\\ was\\ it\\ He\\,\\ that\\ bore\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ Yesterday\\,\\ or\\ Centuries\\ before\\?\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ Dickinson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ descriptive\\ words\\ lend\\ a\\ funereal\\ feel\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ The\\ emotion\\ following\\ pain\\ is\\ \\"\\;formal\\,\\"\\;\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ nerves\\ feel\\ like\\ \\"\\;Tombs\\,\\"\\;\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ heart\\ is\\ stiff\\ and\\ disbelieving\\.\\ The\\ feet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Wooden\\ way\\"\\;\\ evokes\\ a\\ wooden\\ casket\\,\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ \\"\\;like\\ a\\ stone\\"\\;\\ recalls\\ a\\ headstone\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ fragile\\ state\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ experiencing\\ the\\ \\"\\;formal\\ feeling\\"\\;\\ by\\ never\\ referring\\ to\\ such\\ people\\ as\\ whole\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ detailing\\ their\\ bodies\\ in\\ objectified\\ fragments\\ \\(\\"\\;The\\ stiff\\ Heart\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;The\\ Feet\\,\\ mechanical\\,\\"\\;\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\"\\;After\\ great\\ pain\\"\\;\\ is\\ structurally\\ looser\\ than\\ most\\ Dickinson\\ poems\\:\\ The\\ iambic\\ meter\\ fades\\ in\\ places\\;\\ line\\-length\\ ranges\\ from\\ dimeter\\ to\\ pentameter\\;\\ the\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ haphazard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ I\\ could\\ not\\ stop\\ for\\ Death\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 345\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ gentlemen\\ suitor\\,\\ schoolchildren\\,\\ Setting\\ Sun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ calmly\\ accepts\\ death\\.\\ She\\ personifies\\ Death\\ as\\ a\\ suitor\\ who\\ takes\\ her\\ on\\ a\\ carriage\\ ride\\ toward\\ eternity\\.\\ This\\ sinister\\ carriage\\ ride\\ marks\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ death\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ taking\\ her\\ by\\ surprise\\,\\ Death\\ and\\ her\\ carriage\\ ride\\ move\\ at\\ a\\ slow\\ controlled\\ pace\\.\\ In\\ stanza\\ three\\ she\\ passes\\ through\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ life\\.\\ The\\ children\\ at\\ recess\\ represent\\ her\\ childhood\\,\\ the\\ Fields\\ of\\ Gazing\\ Grain\\ represent\\ maturity\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Setting\\ Sun\\ marks\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ her\\ life\\.\\ She\\ feels\\ at\\ home\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ death\\,\\ calling\\ her\\ grave\\ a\\ House\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ an\\ interesting\\ observation\\ on\\ Time\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ centuries\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ dead\\ feel\\ shorter\\ than\\ a\\ day\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ comforting\\ portrayal\\ of\\ eternity\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ death\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ endless\\ cycle\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ six\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ or\\ quatrains\\.\\ The\\ first\\ and\\ third\\ lines\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\ are\\ in\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ fourth\\ lines\\ are\\ in\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ felt\\ a\\ Cleaving\\ in\\ my\\ Mind\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 348\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ felt\\ a\\ Cleaving\\ in\\ my\\ Mind\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 348\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sewing\\ imagery\\,\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ describes\\ the\\ disorientation\\ felt\\ as\\ she\\ attempts\\ unsuccessfully\\ to\\ organize\\ her\\ thoughts\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ interesting\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ knitting\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ brain\\ and\\ the\\ trouble\\ she\\ is\\ having\\ thinking\\ clearly\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ images\\ of\\ splitting\\ seams\\ and\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ her\\ mind\\ is\\ not\\ working\\ properly\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;sequence\\ \\[of\\ thoughts\\]\\ ravelled\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\ \\/\\ Like\\ balls\\ upon\\ a\\ floor\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ poem\\ fits\\ into\\ the\\ poems\\ on\\ time\\,\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ how\\ suffering\\ and\\ inability\\ to\\ think\\ clearly\\ has\\ clouded\\ all\\ perception\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ heard\\ a\\ Fly\\ buzz\\&mdash\\;when\\ I\\ died\\&mdash\\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ 189\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/30\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimesters\\ and\\ tetrameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ quatrains\\ rhymed\\ ABCB\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ stillness\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ recluse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncertain\\ stumbling\\ Buzz\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[some\\ FROM\\ PPP\\]\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ showing\\ imagination\\ by\\ speaking\\ posthumously\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ her\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Dickinson\\ is\\ perfectly\\ aware\\ that\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ a\\ Christina\\ out\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ when\\ God\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;King\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ soul\\ to\\ heaven\\,\\ and\\ she\\ shows\\ the\\ mourners\\ waiting\\ precisely\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ last\\ onset\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ instead\\ of\\ God\\ coming\\ to\\ take\\ her\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ reports\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blue\\&mdash\\;uncertain\\ stumbling\\ Buzz\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ inventing\\ this\\ sacrilegious\\ rendering\\ of\\ the\\ conventional\\ \\&ldquo\\;happy\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Christan\\ believer\\,\\ Dickinson\\ re\\-imagines\\ death\\ in\\ a\\ wholly\\ bodily\\ and\\ nihilistic\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ thus\\ incredibly\\ blasphemous\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ themes\\ include\\ loneliness\\&mdash\\;she\\ is\\ accompanied\\ at\\ her\\ deathbed\\ but\\ only\\ really\\ describes\\ the\\ fly\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ rhymes\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 3\\ quatrains\\ are\\ all\\ only\\ half\\-rhymes\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ true\\ rhymes\\ until\\ the\\ final\\ quatrain\\,\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ true\\ completion\\ is\\ only\\ completed\\ with\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ like\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ Lap\\ the\\ Miles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 344\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ eating\\,\\ horse\\,\\ domesticated\\ animal\\,\\ train\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Dickinson\\ makes\\ observations\\ on\\ a\\ train\\ passing\\ through\\ the\\ countryside\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ the\\ train\\ to\\ set\\ out\\ a\\ linear\\,\\ predictable\\ idea\\ of\\ time\\ with\\ a\\ clear\\ beginning\\ and\\ end\\.\\ The\\ most\\ striking\\ thing\\ to\\ notice\\ while\\ reading\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ how\\ Dickinson\\ personifies\\ the\\ train\\ as\\ an\\ animal\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ she\\ uses\\ words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;lap\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;lick\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;feed\\ itself\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ train\\ is\\ an\\ animal\\ feeding\\ on\\ the\\ passing\\ countryside\\.\\ The\\ train\\ continues\\ its\\ journey\\ around\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pile\\ of\\ Mountains\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ through\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Shanties\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ wedged\\ between\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ a\\ Quarry\\.\\ Before\\ going\\ down\\ the\\ hill\\,\\ the\\ extra\\ force\\ the\\ train\\ must\\ exert\\ to\\ climb\\ the\\ mountains\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;complaining\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;hooting\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ train\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\ continues\\ into\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ as\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;neighs\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ a\\ horse\\ as\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;chases\\ itself\\ down\\ Hill\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ lines\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ swift\\ transition\\ when\\ the\\ train\\ abruptly\\ stops\\.\\ Like\\ a\\ well\\-trained\\ animal\\ it\\ has\\ stopped\\ at\\ its\\ stable\\ door\\ and\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;docile\\&rdquo\\;\\ again\\.\\ The\\ journey\\ has\\ ended\\ where\\ it\\ began\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ line\\,\\ Dickinson\\ makes\\ an\\ unusual\\ word\\ choice\\ with\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;omnipotent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ Nobody\\!\\ \\ \\;Who\\ are\\ you\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ posthumously\\ in\\ 1890\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\p\\.\\ 198\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ but\\ pick\\ the\\ dominant\\ meter\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ two\\ quatrains\\,\\ aabc\\ defe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Kind\\ of\\ a\\ shut\\-in\\,\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ poems\\ were\\ published\\ posthumously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ dreary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Somebody\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ How\\ public\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ a\\ Frog\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ To\\ tell\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ livelong\\ June\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ To\\ an\\ admiring\\ Bog\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Very\\ simple\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ she\\ asks\\ questions\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\ and\\ discovers\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ a\\ nobody\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ fears\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ will\\ tell\\ someone\\ else\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ advertise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ know\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ stanza\\ explains\\ why\\ she\\ is\\ happy\\ being\\ nobody\\ \\(the\\ notable\\ citation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ feels\\ that\\ being\\ somebody\\ means\\ you\\ are\\ obligated\\ to\\ everyone\\ else\\ \\(the\\ bog\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ negative\\ view\\ of\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ expands\\ the\\ Time\\ \\-\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 352\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ coiling\\ within\\,\\ contracting\\,\\ Gamuts\\ of\\ Eternities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Dickinson\\ presents\\ us\\ with\\ a\\ paradox\\:\\ that\\ pain\\ expands\\ time\\ and\\ pain\\ contracts\\ time\\.\\ Within\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Circumference\\ of\\ a\\ Single\\ Brain\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ ages\\ drag\\ on\\ as\\ the\\ pain\\ continues\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ medical\\ terminology\\ describe\\ how\\ someone\\ experiences\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Brain\\ \\-\\-\\ is\\ wider\\ than\\ the\\ Sky\\ \\-\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-1886\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 455\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 13\\:\\ Poems\\ speaking\\ about\\ poetry\\ as\\ process\\ and\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generic\\ ballad\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\,\\ trimeter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(4\\-3\\-4\\-3\\ \\=\\ 8\\-6\\-8\\-6\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ generic\\ ballad\\:\\ 3\\ tercets\\,\\ abcb\\;\\ also\\ lots\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&mdash\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ compares\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ sky\\ \\(in\\ width\\)\\,\\ sea\\ \\(in\\ depth\\)\\,\\ finally\\ god\\ \\(in\\ weight\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Single\\ woman\\,\\ largely\\ unpublished\\ during\\ her\\ lifetime\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ title\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ one\\ the\\ other\\ will\\ contain\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ one\\ the\\ other\\ will\\ absorb\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ w\\/\\ god\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ they\\ will\\ differ\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ \\-\\-\\/As\\ Syllable\\ from\\ Sound\\ \\-\\-\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ jist\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ too\\ much\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ further\\ things\\ to\\ think\\ about\\,\\ however\\,\\ include\\ the\\ brain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ transform\\ itself\\,\\ as\\ the\\ brain\\ turns\\ itself\\ blue\\:\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blue\\ to\\ Blue\\&rdquo\\;\\ comparison\\ of\\ brain\\ \\&\\;\\ sea\\ in\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Dickinson\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sponges\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Buckets\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ we\\ are\\ surprised\\ by\\ the\\ simple\\ domesticity\\,\\ and\\ also\\ by\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ sponge\\ and\\ bucket\\ of\\ absorbing\\ slowly\\,\\ perhaps\\ even\\ squeezing\\ into\\ the\\ bucket\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ gives\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ only\\ think\\ and\\ keep\\ thinking\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ absorb\\ it\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ hefting\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ and\\ God\\:\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ strange\\ physical\\ feeling\\ of\\ lifting\\ either\\ the\\ brain\\ or\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;Syllable\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sound\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\ \\;From\\ the\\ ordering\\,\\ Syllable\\ \\=\\ brain\\ and\\ Sound\\ \\=\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ theories\\ suggest\\ that\\ a\\ syllable\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ sounds\\,\\ therefore\\ God\\>\\;brain\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ suggest\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ brain\\ that\\ allows\\ sound\\ to\\ be\\ articulated\\ into\\ syllables\\,\\ therefore\\ brain\\>\\;God\\.\\ \\ \\;Or\\ perhaps\\ they\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ infinitely\\ close\\ in\\ meaning\\,\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ only\\ differ\\ in\\ a\\ tiny\\ amount\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ Day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Night\\ had\\ come\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 349\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Soul\\ as\\ instrument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Dickinson\\ describes\\ the\\ inner\\ torment\\ she\\ experiences\\ from\\ getting\\ over\\ a\\ catastrophe\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ Day\\.\\ The\\ day\\ after\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;thing\\ so\\ terrible\\&rdquo\\;\\ happened\\,\\ Dickinson\\ hopes\\ that\\ she\\ will\\ experience\\ relief\\ and\\ gratefulness\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ survived\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ she\\ tells\\ her\\ soul\\ to\\ sing\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ stanza\\ one\\.\\ Her\\ soul\\ is\\ too\\ damaged\\ by\\ the\\ catastrophe\\,\\ however\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\.\\ She\\ hopes\\ she\\ can\\ mend\\ it\\,\\ yet\\,\\ as\\ the\\ days\\ go\\ on\\,\\ the\\ catastrophe\\ is\\ recurring\\ in\\ her\\ mind\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;tis\\ Years\\ ago\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ Day\\ \\-\\ \\/\\ My\\ Brain\\ keeps\\ giggling\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ still\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ she\\ says\\.\\ No\\ matter\\ how\\ much\\ time\\ has\\ passed\\,\\ she\\ cannot\\ recover\\ from\\ the\\ experience\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\,\\ she\\ thinks\\ she\\ is\\ going\\ mad\\ because\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ this\\ experience\\ is\\ internally\\ tormenting\\ her\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Heart\\ asks\\ Pleasure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ First\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 347\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ Inquisitor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Dickinson\\ divides\\ time\\,\\ here\\,\\ by\\ subjective\\ criteria\\ into\\ different\\ states\\ of\\ life\\.\\ She\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Heart\\ asks\\ Pleasure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ phrases\\ that\\ the\\ heart\\ asks\\ for\\ as\\ life\\ progresses\\.\\ She\\ transitions\\ to\\ each\\ state\\ by\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ then\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ outlining\\ a\\ clear\\,\\ simple\\ progression\\ of\\ time\\.\\ Life\\ begins\\ with\\ Pleasure\\,\\ then\\ excuse\\ from\\ Pain\\,\\ then\\ the\\ easing\\ of\\ suffering\\,\\ then\\ sleep\\,\\ then\\ death\\.\\ She\\ calls\\ death\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;privilege\\&rdquo\\;\\ only\\ granted\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;will\\ of\\ the\\ Inquisitor\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ personifies\\ the\\ Heart\\ into\\ a\\ universal\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ experience\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ simple\\,\\ humble\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ cycle\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Heart\\ Asks\\ Pleasure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ First\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ in\\ 1890\\,\\ date\\ of\\ writing\\ unknown\\)\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-16\\-06\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ prayer\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\,\\ some\\ lines\\ have\\ an\\ extra\\ beat\\,\\ no\\ end\\ rhymes\\ \\(some\\ lines\\ sort\\ of\\ have\\ slant\\ rhymes\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sleep\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;be\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ perhaps\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ stretch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ quatrains\\,\\ note\\ the\\ frequent\\ use\\ of\\ dashes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\,\\ death\\ and\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ female\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Heart\\ asks\\ Pleasure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ \\-\\ \\/\\ And\\ then\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Excuse\\ from\\ Pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Most\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ is\\ paraphrased\\ from\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ analysis\\,\\ pgs\\ 112\\-113\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\PPP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ prayer\\-poem\\ lists\\,\\ in\\ order\\,\\ the\\ five\\ things\\ that\\ the\\ heart\\ requests\\:\\ pleasure\\,\\ excuse\\ from\\ pain\\,\\ anodynes\\ \\(painkillers\\)\\,\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ privilege\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ praying\\ Heart\\ shifts\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;someone\\ demanding\\ pleasure\\ to\\ an\\ abject\\ prisoner\\ craving\\ from\\ God\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ privilege\\ to\\ die\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(112\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ then\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ lines\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ frequent\\ use\\ of\\ dashes\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ Dickinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;blasphemous\\&rdquo\\;\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;inquisitor\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ describe\\ God\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ apparently\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ torturers\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ Inquisition\\ who\\ were\\ called\\ inquisitors\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ stanzas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\,\\ the\\ Heart\\ still\\ seems\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ God\\ might\\ answer\\ its\\ prayers\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ second\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ lost\\ hope\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ certain\\ Slant\\ of\\ light\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(185X\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emily\\ Dickinson\\ p\\.351\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 23\\:\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Depression\\,\\ Death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Alternating\\ trochaic\\ tetrameter\\ \\/\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcb\\ cded\\ etc\\.\\ \\/\\ 4\\ stanzas\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\ ech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Death\\,\\ light\\,\\ shadows\\,\\ winter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ rural\\ New\\ England\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ it\\ comes\\,\\ the\\ Landscape\\ listens\\ \\-\\-\\ \\/\\ Shadows\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hold\\ their\\ breath\\ \\-\\-\\ \\/\\ When\\ it\\ goes\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;tis\\ like\\ the\\ Distance\\ \\/\\ On\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ Death\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dickinson\\ plays\\ with\\ time\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ first\\ three\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ light\\ is\\ frozen\\;\\ we\\ are\\ observing\\ its\\ slant\\,\\ its\\ oppressiveness\\,\\ its\\ emotionality\\&mdash\\;which\\ Dickinson\\ paints\\ bleakly\\.\\ \\ \\;Light\\ is\\ usually\\ a\\ positive\\ symbol\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ reversed\\ entirely\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ divine\\,\\ heavenly\\ qualities\\ other\\ poets\\ usually\\ associate\\ with\\ it\\ are\\ turned\\:\\ now\\ it\\ gives\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heavenly\\ Hurt\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;imperial\\ Affliction\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ slanted\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ winter\\ afternoon\\,\\ but\\ that\\ very\\ slant\\ conveys\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ crookedness\\,\\ imperfection\\,\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\ \\ \\;Contextualized\\ in\\ the\\ season\\ of\\ death\\,\\ these\\ feelings\\ bear\\ down\\ upon\\ Dickinson\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heft\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ in\\ conjunction\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cathedral\\ Tunes\\&rdquo\\;\\ both\\ conjures\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ huge\\ bells\\ and\\ the\\ somber\\ disquietude\\ often\\ created\\ by\\ great\\,\\ solemn\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ redemption\\,\\ and\\ humans\\ cannot\\ overcome\\ it\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;None\\ may\\ teach\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Any\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suddenly\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ the\\ light\\ is\\ unfrozen\\ and\\ we\\ see\\ where\\ it\\ has\\ come\\ from\\,\\ and\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ going\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ shift\\ in\\ time\\ is\\ dramatic\\ and\\ unexpected\\,\\ because\\ we\\ normally\\ do\\ not\\ perceive\\ light\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ scene\\ now\\ eerily\\ resembles\\ the\\ room\\ of\\ a\\ dying\\ man\\,\\ surrounded\\ by\\ his\\ kin\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;hold\\ their\\ breath\\&rdquo\\;\\ waiting\\ for\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ passage\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ light\\ going\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Distance\\ \\/\\ On\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ Death\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ light\\ disappearing\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ dying\\ man\\,\\ fading\\ away\\ as\\ he\\ passes\\ into\\ another\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ define\\ exactly\\ what\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ meaning\\,\\ like\\ any\\ other\\ Dickinson\\ poem\\,\\ but\\ it\\ paints\\ a\\ pessimistic\\ picture\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ finitude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ certain\\ Slant\\ of\\ light\\ \\-\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emily\\ Dickinson\\ \\(1830\\-\\ 1886\\)\\ p\\.\\ 351\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Dec\\.\\ 6\\ Chapter\\ 11\\ PPP\\ Studying\\ Groups\\ of\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Poems\\ about\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ winter\\ afternoons\\,\\ cathedral\\ tunes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\As\\ Dickinson\\ observes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;certain\\ slant\\ of\\ light\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ time\\ is\\ at\\ a\\ standstill\\.\\ The\\ slant\\ of\\ light\\ seems\\ to\\ represent\\ some\\ momentary\\ glimpse\\ at\\ Death\\ or\\ eternity\\.\\ Her\\ use\\ of\\ religious\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphors\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Cathedral\\ Tunes\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heavenly\\ Hurt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Seal\\ Despair\\)\\ evoke\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ this\\ light\\ comes\\ from\\ an\\ unearthly\\ place\\.\\ She\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ light\\ \\&ldquo\\;oppresses\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ giving\\ it\\ important\\ emotional\\ significance\\.\\ The\\ light\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ look\\ at\\ time\\ becomes\\ it\\ cuts\\ into\\ the\\ normal\\ progression\\ of\\ time\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ Dickinson\\ a\\ glimpse\\ into\\ Death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Poem\\ for\\ Myself\\ \\(page\\ 508\\)\\ Etheridge\\ Knight\\ \\(1931\\-1991\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Anthology\\,\\ \\"\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Racial\\ issues\\,\\ Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Song\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Poem\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ one\\ long\\ stanza\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ rhyme\\ structures\\ but\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ lyric\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ repetitions\\ found\\ in\\ quatrains\\ within\\ the\\ stanza\\,\\ of\\ the\\ form\\ abab\\ \\(such\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ lines\\)\\.\\ The\\ meter\\ is\\ generally\\ undefined\\ although\\ it\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ trimeter\\ and\\ incorporates\\ numerous\\ trochees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Mud\\,\\ rural\\ farmyard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\ Black\\ author\\ of\\ the\\ mid\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ Knight\\ served\\ prison\\-time\\ after\\ resulting\\ to\\ crime\\ to\\ preserve\\ addiction\\ to\\ drugs\\ and\\ alcohol\\.\\ He\\ started\\ writing\\ in\\ prison\\ after\\ being\\ visited\\ by\\ Gwendolyn\\ Brooks\\.\\ Was\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ striking\\ elements\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ title\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ two\\ different\\ titles\\ reflect\\ the\\ two\\ different\\ roles\\ the\\ speaker\\ experiences\\ as\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ as\\ left\\ his\\ rural\\ Mississipi\\ home\\.\\ The\\ non\\-parenthesized\\ title\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ speakers\\ own\\ view\\ of\\ his\\ song\\,\\ while\\ the\\ parenthesized\\ title\\ serves\\ as\\ how\\ someone\\ else\\ would\\ view\\ his\\ work\\,\\ especially\\ someone\\ white\\ and\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ the\\ life\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ has\\ lived\\.\\ This\\ title\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ parallelism\\ where\\ the\\ speaker\\ can\\ convey\\ two\\ viewpoints\\.\\ Knight\\ also\\ takes\\ advantage\\ of\\ symbolism\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ true\\ depth\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;Blues\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ \\"\\;mud\\"\\;\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ poverty\\,\\ particularly\\ rural\\ poverty\\,\\ and\\ also\\ for\\ how\\ many\\ black\\ poor\\ go\\ through\\ life\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ and\\ unpleasant\\ to\\ walk\\ through\\ thick\\ mud\\,\\ this\\ man\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ difficult\\ time\\ going\\ through\\ his\\ life\\ events\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ repetition\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ also\\ key\\.\\ The\\ constant\\ usage\\ of\\ certain\\ words\\ provides\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ how\\ the\\ speaker\\ judges\\ his\\ experiences\\,\\ the\\ focal\\ points\\ of\\ his\\ views\\ on\\ things\\.\\ The\\ repetition\\ of\\ the\\ cities\\ and\\ states\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Mississipi\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ City\\,\\ provide\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ contrasts\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ uses\\ to\\ show\\ both\\ his\\ initial\\ ambivalence\\ and\\ his\\ final\\ decision\\ to\\ return\\ back\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ River\\-Merchant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Wife\\:\\ A\\ Letter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(around\\ 1912\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ezra\\ Pound\\-Pg\\.\\ 145\\-146\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 16\\,\\ under\\ describing\\ poems\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ a\\ love\\ poem\\,\\ a\\ letter\\,\\ life\\-stage\\ poem\\ on\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ love\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Trochaic\\,\\ each\\ line\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ downbeat\\.\\ The\\ lengths\\ vary\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 5\\ stanzas\\.\\ The\\ last\\ stanza\\ is\\ the\\ longest\\,\\ telling\\ of\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ present\\ situation\\ missing\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Love\\ and\\ its\\ development\\,\\ loneliness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ desired\\ my\\ dust\\ to\\ be\\ mingled\\ with\\ yours\\/\\ Forever\\ and\\ forever\\ and\\ forever\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ short\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ girl\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ marriage\\ arranged\\ for\\ her\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ fourteen\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ track\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ developing\\ feelings\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\ from\\ childhood\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;adulthood\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ author\\ is\\ sixteen\\ as\\ the\\ letter\\ is\\ being\\ written\\)\\.\\ Her\\ letter\\ is\\ composed\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ river\\-merchant\\ and\\ has\\ been\\ away\\ from\\ home\\ for\\ some\\ time\\,\\ and\\ who\\ she\\ dearly\\ misses\\ and\\ anticipates\\ his\\ return\\.\\ The\\ opening\\ stanza\\ has\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ young\\ girl\\,\\ with\\ hair\\ cut\\ straight\\ across\\ her\\ forehead\\.\\ It\\ has\\ images\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ girl\\ and\\ boy\\ playing\\ in\\ the\\ village\\ \\&ldquo\\;Two\\ small\\ people\\,\\ without\\ dislike\\ or\\ suspicion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ arranged\\ marriage\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\ when\\ she\\ is\\ fourteen\\,\\ she\\ is\\ so\\ shy\\ she\\ cannot\\ even\\ look\\ at\\ her\\ husband\\ during\\ the\\ ceremony\\.\\ By\\ fifteen\\ her\\ love\\ and\\ attachment\\ for\\ him\\ has\\ grown\\.\\ At\\ sixteen\\ he\\ must\\ leave\\ for\\ his\\ job\\ and\\ her\\ love\\ for\\ him\\ is\\ so\\ great\\ that\\ she\\ cannot\\ stand\\ his\\ absence\\ for\\ such\\ a\\ long\\ time\\.\\ She\\ longs\\ to\\ hear\\ from\\ him\\ and\\ find\\ where\\ he\\ is\\ and\\ when\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ home\\,\\ offering\\ to\\ walk\\ hundreds\\ of\\ miles\\ to\\ meet\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ major\\ image\\/theme\\ is\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ love\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ she\\ is\\ an\\ innocent\\,\\ unsuspecting\\ child\\ playing\\.\\ When\\ she\\ is\\ to\\ marry\\ she\\ is\\ shy\\,\\ lowering\\ her\\ head\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ never\\ laughed\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Also\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ she\\ refers\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\-to\\-be\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ Lord\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ At\\ fifteen\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ stopped\\ scowling\\&rdquo\\;\\ shows\\ her\\ softening\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ The\\ quote\\ above\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ desired\\ my\\ dust\\ to\\ be\\ mingled\\ with\\ yours\\/\\ Forever\\ and\\ forever\\ and\\ forever\\&rdquo\\;\\ shows\\ not\\ only\\ her\\ growing\\ attachment\\ but\\ the\\ repetition\\ echoes\\ and\\ emphasizes\\ her\\ previous\\ marriage\\ vows\\,\\ underscoring\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ her\\ feelings\\.\\ The\\ last\\ two\\ stanzas\\ describe\\ her\\ loneliness\\ at\\ his\\ absence\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ monkeys\\ make\\ sorrowful\\ noise\\ overhead\\&rdquo\\;\\-this\\ image\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ display\\ her\\ loneliness\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ monkey\\ noise\\ is\\ generally\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ chipper\\ shows\\ how\\ she\\ is\\ taking\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ this\\ lens\\ of\\ loneliness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1977\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gary\\ Soto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\.08\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ chapter\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ examined\\ in\\ class\\/section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grandma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ poem\\ about\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\limited\\ knowledge\\ of\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mexican\\-American\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ first\\ with\\ 11\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ 3\\ sentences\\)\\,\\ the\\ second\\ with\\ 22\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ 2\\ sentences\\)\\,\\ the\\ third\\ with\\ 29\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ 5\\ sentences\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ domestic\\ images\\,\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ an\\ agricultural\\ worker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Gary\\ Soto\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 1952\\ in\\ Fresno\\,\\ California\\ to\\ working\\-class\\ Mexican\\-American\\ parents\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ father\\ was\\ killed\\ in\\ a\\ factory\\ incident\\ \\(which\\ may\\ be\\ what\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ when\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ his\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\ son\\ \\/\\ dropped\\ from\\ a\\ ladder\\ \\/\\ and\\ was\\ dust\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ when\\ Soto\\ was\\ 11\\ years\\ old\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ of\\ his\\ works\\ describe\\ the\\ harsh\\ conditions\\ of\\ life\\ for\\ Mexican\\ Americans\\ in\\ Central\\ Valley\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ remember\\ her\\ insides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Were\\ washed\\ of\\ tapeworm\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Her\\ arms\\ swelled\\ into\\ knobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Of\\ small\\ growths\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ relatively\\ simple\\ language\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ language\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ story\\&rsquo\\;s\\ of\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;history\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ related\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ stories\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ her\\ fifties\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ fifties\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ describes\\ her\\ going\\ about\\ simple\\ domestic\\ tasks\\;\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Grandma\\ lit\\ the\\ stove\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ can\\ tell\\ she\\ is\\ probably\\ a\\ recent\\ immigrant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ uses\\ a\\ stone\\ \\&ldquo\\;brought\\ from\\ Guadalajara\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ and\\,\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ counts\\ her\\ money\\ in\\ both\\ Spanish\\ and\\ English\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ struggling\\ economic\\ status\\ becomes\\ clear\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ when\\ Soto\\ describes\\ how\\ she\\ hides\\ her\\ money\\ and\\ steals\\ goods\\ from\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ Soto\\ begins\\ to\\ more\\ actively\\ reflect\\ upon\\ what\\ he\\ knows\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ reveals\\ she\\ was\\ probably\\ a\\ migrant\\ worker\\ \\(she\\ cut\\ grapes\\ and\\ boxed\\ plums\\)\\ and\\ also\\ describes\\ what\\ he\\ remembers\\ of\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ her\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ physical\\ pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;arms\\ swelled\\ into\\ knobs\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ insides\\ \\&ldquo\\;washed\\ of\\ tapeworm\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ emotional\\ pain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ son\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;dropped\\ from\\ a\\ ladder\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ write\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ know\\,\\ first\\ sad\\,\\ dark\\ things\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;sorrows\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tear\\&rdquo\\;\\ falling\\ down\\ her\\ cheek\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ unknown\\ he\\ mentions\\,\\ her\\ shining\\ face\\,\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ positive\\ image\\,\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ strength\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ her\\ hardship\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soto\\ closes\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ the\\ admission\\ that\\ all\\ he\\ knows\\ are\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ stories\\ he\\ hears\\ are\\ stories\\ of\\ triumph\\,\\ stories\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pulled\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ grandmother\\ from\\ Mexico\\ to\\ her\\ new\\ life\\ in\\ California\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ stories\\,\\ he\\ announces\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ are\\ stories\\ of\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ all\\ begin\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\ and\\ her\\ past\\ to\\ his\\ joint\\ identity\\ as\\ a\\ Mexican\\ and\\ US\\ citizen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Easter\\ Wings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ George\\ Herbert\\ \\(136\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Date\\ unsure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Module\\ \\(Describing\\ Poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Prayer\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shaped\\ poem\\ \\(its\\ physically\\ resembles\\ its\\ subject\\ matter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Varying\\ line\\ lengths\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ meter\\ varies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Two\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 10\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ They\\ are\\ shaped\\ like\\ hourglasses\\ with\\ the\\ smallest\\ lines\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ stanza\\ and\\ the\\ longest\\ lines\\ being\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ the\\ last\\.\\ Form\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ to\\ understand\\ \\(pg\\ 136\\-37\\)\\ how\\ the\\ author\\ utilizes\\ structure\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Wings\\,\\ God\\,\\ flight\\,\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ dichotomy\\,\\ sickness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\,\\ if\\ I\\ imp\\ my\\ wing\\ on\\ thine\\ \\/\\ Affliction\\ shall\\ advance\\ the\\ flight\\ in\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ shaped\\ poem\\ its\\ interpretation\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ its\\ structure\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\ Herbert\\ addresses\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creation\\ of\\ man\\ and\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subsequent\\ fall\\ from\\ grace\\ and\\ distancing\\ from\\ God\\.\\ As\\ man\\ distanced\\ himself\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ becomes\\ thinner\\ and\\ thinner\\ culminating\\ in\\ the\\ lines\\ \\&ldquo\\;Most\\ poor\\:\\ \\/With\\ thee\\&rdquo\\;\\ until\\ Herbert\\ remarks\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ let\\ me\\ rise\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ as\\ he\\ asks\\ to\\ be\\ closer\\ to\\ God\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ too\\ expands\\.\\ The\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ poems\\ stanzas\\ are\\ two\\ large\\ wings\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ ultimately\\ what\\ Herbert\\ is\\ asking\\ for\\ \\(the\\ ability\\ to\\ ascend\\ and\\ be\\ closer\\ with\\ god\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ Herbert\\ stops\\ speaking\\ generally\\ about\\ mankind\\ and\\ focuses\\ on\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ own\\ deteriorating\\ relationship\\ with\\ God\\ but\\ just\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ asks\\ if\\ he\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;imp\\ my\\ wing\\ on\\ thine\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ improve\\ his\\ own\\ flight\\ toward\\ redemption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Love\\ \\(III\\)\\ by\\ George\\ Herbert\\ P\\.66\\Genre\\:\\ Love\\ poems\\Prosody\\:\\ Fluctuations\\ between\\ pentameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ Three\\ Stanzas\\,\\ six\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ Rhyme\\ scheme\\ ababcc\\.\\Every\\ line\\ of\\ trimeter\\ is\\ dramatically\\ indented\\.\\ Also\\,\\ dialogue\\between\\ \\"\\;I\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Love\\.\\"\\;\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Religious\\ imagery\\,\\ we\\ discover\\ Love\\ \\=\\ Lord\\.\\Author\\:\\ Herbert\\ is\\ very\\ resistant\\ toward\\ love\\.\\ Discusses\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\a\\ playful\\ way\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ Herbert\\ consistently\\ spatially\\ orients\\ himself\\ away\\from\\ love\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ He\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ comically\\ through\\saying\\,\\ \\"\\;taste\\ my\\ meat\\.\\"\\;\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ playful\\ and\\ lighthearted\\ poem\\ that\\ exposes\\ Herbert\\&\\#39\\;s\\resistance\\ towards\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ love\\.\\ His\\ diction\\ could\\ be\\ described\\ as\\simplistic\\ as\\ he\\ uses\\ many\\ monosyllabic\\ and\\ basic\\ words\\;\\ these\\ basic\\words\\ reflect\\ Herbert\\&\\#39\\;s\\ simple\\ hesitant\\ attitude\\ toward\\ love\\.\\ He\\ also\\uses\\ religious\\ diction\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;spirit\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;sin\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Lord\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ is\\directly\\ related\\ to\\ his\\ perception\\ of\\ love\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ he\\consistently\\ capitalizes\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Love\\"\\;\\ and\\ personifies\\ Love\\ through\\dialogue\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Herbert\\ addresses\\ Love\\ as\\ \\"\\;Lord\\;\\"\\;\\this\\ explicitly\\ reveals\\ that\\ he\\ believes\\ Love\\ to\\ be\\ directly\\ tied\\ to\\the\\ Lord\\.\\ Also\\,\\ this\\ is\\ further\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ choice\\ of\\ the\\ word\\Lord\\ instead\\ of\\ God\\ or\\ Savior\\ \\(because\\ Lord\\ sounds\\ like\\ Love\\)\\.\\ Herbert\\also\\ utilizes\\ structure\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\;\\ every\\ ending\\ rhyming\\ couplet\\ of\\each\\ stanza\\ marks\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ stanza\\ content\\ \\(each\\ ending\\ couplet\\expresses\\ Love\\&\\#39\\;s\\ persistence\\ in\\ making\\ Herbert\\ feel\\ love\\)\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prayer\\ \\(I\\)\\-\\ George\\ Herbert\\ \\(1593\\-1633\\)\\ p\\.158\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\;\\ The\\ Ordering\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Meditation\\ on\\ Prayer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Dactylic\\ Tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ effghh\\,\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ first\\ two\\ 4\\ lines\\,\\ last\\ one\\ 6\\ lines\\.\\ In\\ stanza\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\ the\\ two\\ middle\\ lines\\ are\\ indented\\,\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\ lines\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 5\\ and\\ 6\\ are\\ also\\ indented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ Religious\\ imagery\\;\\ angels\\,\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ heaven\\ and\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Church\\ bells\\ beyond\\ the\\ stars\\ heard\\,\\ the\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\,\\/\\ The\\ land\\ of\\ spices\\;\\ something\\ understood\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ sonnet\\ by\\ Herbert\\ we\\ are\\ shown\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ definitions\\ all\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ concept\\,\\ the\\ prayer\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ section\\ on\\ ordering\\ of\\ language\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ one\\ must\\ look\\ at\\ why\\ he\\ ordered\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\.\\ Initially\\ it\\ may\\ seem\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ list\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ equal\\ definitions\\ of\\ a\\ prayer\\ like\\ the\\ radii\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ circle\\ \\(look\\ at\\ image\\ o\\ page\\ 158\\)\\.\\ However\\ one\\ must\\ look\\ at\\ whether\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ radial\\ ordering\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ temporal\\ ordering\\.\\ Does\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ prayer\\ change\\ throughout\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ There\\ is\\ arguably\\ a\\ significant\\ different\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;thunder\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;softness\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ are\\ both\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ prayer\\.\\ There\\ is\\ arguably\\ both\\ a\\ radial\\ shape\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;dynamic\\ temporal\\ unfolding\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Vendler\\)\\.\\ We\\ see\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concept\\ of\\ Prayer\\ change\\ yet\\ still\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguably\\ this\\ reflects\\ the\\ complicated\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ prayer\\,\\ which\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Religion\\ has\\ played\\ some\\ many\\ important\\ and\\ different\\ parts\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ complications\\ that\\ arise\\ when\\ trying\\ to\\ define\\ prayer\\.\\ If\\ one\\ tries\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ one\\ faces\\ many\\ paradoxes\\.\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\ this\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ God\\ as\\ well\\ where\\ he\\ has\\ moved\\ from\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Justice\\ and\\ Wrath\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ to\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Love\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\.\\ In\\ both\\ cases\\ one\\ faces\\ this\\ issue\\ of\\ a\\ concept\\ having\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ and\\ contradicting\\ definitions\\.\\ So\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ poet\\ decides\\ that\\ all\\ he\\ can\\ truly\\ say\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;something\\ understood\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ describe\\ prayer\\.\\ Metaphors\\ only\\ confuse\\ and\\ complicate\\ the\\ idea\\.\\ It\\ is\\ merely\\ something\\ that\\ people\\ understand\\ yet\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ describe\\,\\ like\\ God\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Collar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 497\\)\\(1633\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ George\\ Herbert\\ \\(1593\\-1633\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\10\\/2\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dialogue\\ \\(with\\ himself\\)\\,\\ like\\ a\\ soliloquy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;religious\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ dominant\\ pattern\\ is\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\(4\\ beats\\)\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ irregular\\ line\\ lengths\\ and\\ an\\ occasional\\ anapest\\ interjected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;no\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ and\\ irregular\\ line\\ length\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ collar\\&mdash\\;bound\\,\\ enslaved\\ by\\ religion\\,\\ nature\\/harvest\\ \\(one\\ of\\ the\\ responsibilities\\ of\\ clergy\\ of\\ his\\ time\\&mdash\\;which\\ he\\ feels\\ he\\ fails\\ at\\)\\,\\ \\ \\;animal\\ imagery\\ \\(symbolizing\\ rebellion\\,\\ wildness\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;forsaking\\ the\\ cage\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Herbert\\ was\\ a\\ priest\\ who\\ died\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ of\\ TB\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ life\\ and\\ writing\\ is\\ constantly\\ marked\\ by\\ failed\\ endeavors\\.\\ His\\ poetry\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ feelings\\ of\\ self\\-deprecation\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ unworthiness\\.\\ Another\\ poem\\ by\\ Herbert\\ from\\ our\\ syllabus\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ \\(III\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ denotes\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ same\\ themes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;But\\ as\\ I\\ raved\\ an\\ grew\\ more\\ fierce\\ and\\ wild\\/\\ at\\ every\\ word\\,\\/\\ Methought\\ I\\ heard\\ once\\ calling\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Child\\!\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ I\\ replied\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Lord\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ main\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ spends\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ rebelling\\ against\\ convention\\ and\\ the\\ Lord\\ but\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ comes\\ back\\ to\\ God\\,\\ revealing\\ that\\ He\\ has\\ been\\ with\\ him\\ the\\ entire\\ time\\.\\ His\\ rebellion\\ in\\ speech\\ is\\ reflected\\ through\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ \\(and\\ structure\\)throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ until\\ it\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ end\\,\\ when\\ he\\ comes\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ four\\ lines\\ \\(and\\ uses\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\)\\,\\ showing\\ his\\ reconciliation\\ with\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ These\\ final\\ lines\\ also\\ stand\\ out\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ pattern\\ of\\ speech\\ changes\\:\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ monologue\\ speaking\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ tense\\,\\ but\\ the\\ final\\ lines\\ are\\ seemingly\\ narrative\\ using\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\,\\ recalling\\ his\\ experience\\ of\\ when\\ he\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ tone\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ begins\\ as\\ confrontational\\,\\ frustrated\\,\\ and\\ rebellious\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ evident\\ through\\ his\\ repetition\\ of\\ aggressive\\,\\ rhetorical\\ questions\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Shall\\ I\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ questions\\.\\ It\\ then\\ shifts\\ to\\ more\\ resolute\\,\\ commanding\\,\\ determined\\ tone\\.\\ His\\ thought\\ process\\ also\\ seems\\ impulsive\\ and\\ passionate\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ thought\\ out\\ and\\ calculating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ seemingly\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\:\\ this\\ first\\ being\\ his\\ aggressive\\ rebellion\\,\\ despair\\,\\ and\\ self\\-deprecation\\.\\ The\\ second\\ part\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ line\\ 19\\ and\\ the\\ commanding\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Recover\\&rdquo\\;\\ signifies\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;recovery\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ stops\\ questioning\\ and\\ begins\\ to\\ command\\ \\(himself\\)\\ on\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ revealing\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ resolution\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;While\\ the\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ technically\\ irregular\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ contains\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ irregular\\ or\\ phonetic\\ rhyme\\ \\(both\\ assonance\\ and\\ consonance\\)\\ which\\ keeps\\ the\\ poem\\ in\\ the\\ category\\ of\\ traditional\\ poetry\\ and\\ brings\\ it\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ connectedness\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ also\\ conveys\\ imagery\\ through\\ similes\\ and\\ hyperboles\\,\\ which\\ convey\\ the\\ ridiculousness\\ of\\ his\\ rebellious\\ outbreak\\,\\ particularly\\ considering\\ that\\ he\\ knows\\ his\\ ending\\&mdash\\;that\\ he\\ will\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ God\\/remains\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Felix\\ Randal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(late\\ 1870s\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gerard\\ Manley\\ Hopkins\\ \\(pg\\ 233\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ seven\\ or\\ eight\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ quatrains\\ followed\\ by\\ 2\\ tercets\\,\\ abba\\ cddc\\ efg\\ efg\\ \\(in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ a\\ Petrarchan\\ sonnet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ sickness\\,\\ decay\\,\\ large\\ objects\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Christian\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ seeing\\ the\\ sick\\ endears\\ them\\ to\\ us\\,\\ us\\ too\\ it\\ endears\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Felix\\ Randal\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ pretty\\ typical\\ of\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lyrical\\ style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lots\\ of\\ alliteration\\,\\ assonance\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ describes\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reaction\\ upon\\ learning\\ that\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ parishioners\\,\\ Felix\\ Randal\\,\\ was\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tone\\ seems\\ almost\\ flip\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ is\\ he\\ dead\\ then\\?\\ \\/\\ my\\ duty\\ all\\ ended\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ as\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ Randal\\,\\ Hopkins\\ seems\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ sympathetic\\ and\\ mournful\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ tercet\\ Hopkins\\ points\\ out\\ the\\ fragility\\ and\\ ephemerality\\ of\\ life\\,\\ noting\\ \\(basically\\)\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ would\\ have\\ predicted\\ such\\ a\\ strong\\ man\\ to\\ die\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Hopkins\\ ends\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ large\\ and\\ powerful\\ Felix\\ had\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ gray\\ drayhorse\\ his\\ bright\\ and\\ battering\\ sandal\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;For\\ me\\,\\ this\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ god\\ Hephaestus\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ blacksmith\\ like\\ Felix\\,\\ and\\ was\\ physically\\ very\\ strong\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ clear\\ what\\ Felix\\ died\\ of\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seemed\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ on\\ suddenly\\,\\ and\\ prompted\\ Felix\\ to\\ seek\\ religious\\ counsel\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ seems\\ to\\ me\\ that\\ Hopkins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ message\\ is\\:\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ when\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ die\\,\\ so\\ come\\ and\\ get\\ saved\\ before\\ you\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spring\\ and\\ Fall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gerard\\ Manley\\ Hopkins\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ an\\ adults\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ child\\ \\(to\\ child\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\(an\\ inner\\ meditation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ the\\ lines\\ alternate\\ between\\ 7\\ syllables\\ and\\ 8\\ syllables\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ suffering\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ tone\\ is\\ very\\ critical\\ to\\ understanding\\ this\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Throughout\\ this\\ entire\\ poem\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ adult\\ who\\ knows\\ suffering\\ well\\ \\.\\ This\\ adult\\ comes\\ across\\ a\\ young\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ crying\\ because\\ some\\ leaves\\ have\\ fallen\\ ff\\ a\\ tree\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;golden\\ grove\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ adult\\ in\\ turn\\ can\\ not\\ really\\ tell\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ instead\\ tells\\ that\\ child\\ to\\ save\\ her\\ tears\\ because\\ life\\ will\\ later\\ give\\ her\\ more\\ serious\\ things\\ to\\ cry\\ about\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ really\\ appease\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ continues\\ to\\ pose\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\&rdquo\\;\\ these\\ leaves\\ have\\ to\\ fall\\ etc\\.\\.\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ finally\\ turns\\ into\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ tone\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ It\\ starts\\ of\\ in\\ disbelief\\ as\\ the\\ adult\\ can\\ not\\ believe\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sadness\\.\\ And\\ it\\ ultimately\\ ends\\ in\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ grief\\ as\\ the\\ adult\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ grief\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ mourning\\ after\\ a\\ loved\\ and\\ lost\\ one\\ \\(Margaret\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ adult\\ stars\\ off\\ as\\ being\\ patronizing\\ and\\ impatient\\ belittling\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sadness\\ and\\ her\\ grief\\.\\ However\\ he\\ ends\\ with\\ realizing\\ the\\ true\\ weight\\ of\\ her\\ grief\\ and\\ therefore\\ gives\\ it\\ the\\ importance\\ that\\ is\\ deserves\\ ultimately\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ grief\\ that\\ he\\ tries\\ to\\ illustrate\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ young\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grief\\ \\(progression\\ through\\ time\\ \\=\\ changes\\ in\\ tone\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pied\\ Beauty\\ by\\ Gerard\\ Manly\\ Hopkins\\ P\\.99\\Genre\\:\\ Beauty\\ poems\\,\\ lyrical\\ poems\\.\\Prosody\\:\\ Loose\\ \\ \\;pentameter\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ One\\ stanza\\ with\\ ten\\ lines\\;\\ every\\ set\\ of\\ three\\ lines\\has\\ increasing\\ indents\\.\\Major\\ Images\\:\\ Colorful\\ bright\\ detailed\\ nature\\/\\ natural\\ images\\.\\Author\\:\\ Lived\\ in\\ 1800\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ has\\ appreciation\\ for\\ \\"\\;ugly\\"\\;\\ things\\ in\\ life\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ The\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ have\\dappled\\ things\\ to\\ understand\\ beauty\\.\\\\Hopkins\\ begins\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ classification\\ and\\ a\\ definition\\of\\ \\"\\;pied\\ beauty\\:\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;dappled\\ things\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ word\\ \\"\\;dappled\\"\\;\\ is\\ an\\ odd\\ word\\and\\ goes\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ eccentric\\ diction\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;spare\\,\\"\\;\\\\"\\;counter\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;adazzle\\.\\"\\;\\ Hopkins\\ purposely\\ chooses\\ these\\ unusually\\words\\ to\\ accentuate\\ and\\ help\\ reflect\\ what\\ is\\ \\"\\;pied\\ beauty\\.\\"\\;\\ It\\ is\\ also\\interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ he\\ begins\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ nouns\\ such\\ as\\\\"\\;chestnut\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;finches\\"\\;\\ and\\ progresses\\ to\\ adjectives\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;fickle\\"\\;\\or\\ \\"\\;freckled\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ actual\\ life\\ itself\\ \\(the\\chestnuts\\ or\\ finches\\)\\ are\\ more\\ important\\ and\\ significant\\ than\\ the\\descriptions\\ of\\ it\\ \\(this\\ is\\ unusually\\ because\\ in\\ English\\ adjectives\\ go\\before\\ nouns\\,\\-\\ the\\ red\\ dog\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ Herbert\\ states\\ \\"\\;beauty\\is\\ past\\ change\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ reveals\\ that\\ beauty\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\ without\\ these\\\\"\\;dappled\\ things\\.\\"\\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ Real\\ Cool\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1960\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gwendolyn\\ Brooks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ \\ \\;85\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ kids\\ playing\\ pool\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Prosody\\:\\ mostly\\ 3\\ syllables\\ per\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ two\\ line\\ stanzas\\,\\ 8\\ three\\ word\\ sentences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\ american\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jazz\\ June\\.\\ We\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Die\\ soon\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ seven\\ kids\\ the\\ author\\ sees\\ playing\\ pool\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ seven\\ lines\\ ends\\ with\\ We\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pause\\ between\\ lines\\ gives\\ each\\ short\\ sentence\\ a\\ jazz\\ feel\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ how\\ they\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ feel\\ like\\ they\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ margins\\:\\ better\\ than\\ society\\ \\(cool\\)\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ in\\ more\\ danger\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ sentence\\ lays\\ out\\ another\\ way\\ they\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jazz\\ June\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ time\\ but\\ they\\ will\\ also\\ die\\ soon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oread\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1915\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ H\\.\\ D\\.\\ \\(p\\.\\ 172\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 18\\/23\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\/tempest\\/myth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ short\\ lyric\\,\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ trochaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ six\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ short\\ but\\ full\\ of\\ punch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ tempestuous\\,\\ sea\\ mixed\\ with\\ forest\\ imagery\\,\\ natural\\ forces\\ of\\ destruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Hilda\\ Doolittle\\ \\(1886\\&ndash\\;1961\\)\\,\\ generally\\ known\\ only\\ by\\ her\\ initials\\ H\\.D\\.\\,\\ was\\ an\\ American\\ poet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;She\\ is\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ her\\ association\\ with\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\ avant\\-garde\\ Imagist\\ poets\\,\\ modernists\\ who\\ strived\\ for\\ precision\\ and\\ clarity\\ of\\ imagery\\ while\\ rejecting\\ Romantic\\ sentiment\\.\\ Her\\ later\\ writing\\ trended\\ towards\\ a\\ more\\ distinctly\\ feminist\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ short\\ and\\ perhaps\\ worth\\ memorizing\\,\\ but\\ if\\ not\\,\\ then\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Whirl\\ up\\,\\ sea\\&mdash\\;\\/\\ whirl\\ your\\ pointed\\ pines\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;hurl\\ your\\ green\\ over\\ us\\,\\/\\ cover\\ us\\ with\\ your\\ pools\\ of\\ fir\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[I\\ was\\ a\\ bit\\ stumped\\ on\\ this\\;\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ ideas\\ for\\ a\\ deeper\\ meaning\\,\\ go\\ for\\ it\\.\\]\\ A\\ very\\ short\\ poem\\ full\\ of\\ tempestuous\\ almost\\ violent\\ movement\\.\\ H\\.\\ D\\.\\ mixes\\ sea\\ turmoil\\&mdash\\;words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;whirl\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;splash\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;hurl\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;pools\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;with\\ forest\\ images\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;pointed\\ pines\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ pines\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fir\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oread\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ a\\ mountain\\ nymph\\,\\ which\\ evokes\\ a\\ general\\ mythical\\ connotation\\.\\ It\\ sounds\\ as\\ if\\ this\\ nymph\\ or\\ some\\ narrator\\ is\\ commanding\\ the\\ sea\\ gods\\ or\\ sea\\ forces\\ to\\ wreck\\ havoc\\ on\\ the\\ hillside\\.\\ There\\ is\\ definitely\\ a\\ certain\\ delight\\ in\\ violence\\ here\\.\\ On\\ a\\ more\\ meta\\-level\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ language\\ to\\ succinctly\\ evoke\\ vivid\\ and\\ striking\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Knife\\-Sharpener\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Song\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1969\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Heidy\\ Steidlmayer\\ pg\\.\\ 307\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\&mdash\\;unassigned\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ adultery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\,\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 15\\ lines\\&mdash\\;use\\ of\\ dash\\&mdash\\;italics\\,\\ repetition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;oh\\ yes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ accuses\\ her\\ husband\\ of\\ infidelity\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;knife\\&rdquo\\;\\ diction\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;sliding\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sharpened\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;edge\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;cutthroat\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;is\\ important\\ for\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ his\\ mistress\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ metaphorical\\ sharpening\\ of\\ knives\\.\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ characters\\:\\ her\\ \\(she\\)\\,\\ him\\ \\(he\\)\\,\\ and\\ me\\ \\(I\\)\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ pronouns\\ is\\ important\\.\\ Her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adulterous\\ actions\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;flashy\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ cutthroat\\&mdash\\;but\\ without\\ a\\ flaw\\,\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;carefully\\&rdquo\\;\\ undresses\\ \\&ldquo\\;her\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ speaker\\ repeats\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\oh\\ yes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;five\\ times\\,\\ seemingly\\ breathing\\ herself\\ into\\ the\\ curt\\ poem\\,\\ also\\ serves\\ to\\ underscore\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ repeatedly\\ sharpening\\ a\\ knife\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ presence\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ line\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;us\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;but\\ he\\ said\\ no\\ word\\ of\\ her\\ to\\ me\\/nor\\ I\\ to\\ him\\ of\\ us\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\oh\\ yes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Naming\\ of\\ Parts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1942\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Henry\\ Reed\\ 170\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/28\\ section\\ on\\ diction\\ and\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ language\\-play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ war\\ poem\\,\\ protest\\ poem\\,\\ parody\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ mixed\\,\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ six\\ sestets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ military\\ imagery\\ juxtaposed\\ with\\ natural\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ served\\ in\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;which\\ in\\ your\\ case\\ you\\ have\\ not\\ got\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ one\\ level\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ parody\\ of\\ basic\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ recruits\\ are\\ being\\ instructed\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ a\\ gun\\,\\ but\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ parts\\ are\\ missing\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ not\\ enough\\ weapons\\ to\\ go\\ around\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ training\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ silly\\ and\\ futile\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ also\\ operates\\ on\\ a\\ deeper\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constant\\ jamming\\ together\\ of\\ nature\\ images\\ and\\ military\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ military\\ language\\ is\\ utilitarian\\,\\ mechanical\\ and\\ formal\\,\\ while\\ the\\ natural\\ language\\ is\\ gentle\\ and\\ fertile\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ weapons\\ automatic\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ young\\ recruits\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ about\\ it\\,\\ they\\ just\\ follow\\ orders\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soldier\\ at\\ first\\ tries\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rhetoric\\ by\\ co\\-opting\\ and\\ perverting\\ the\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ branches\\ hold\\ in\\ the\\ gardens\\ their\\ silent\\,\\ eloquent\\ gestures\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ in\\ our\\ case\\ we\\ have\\ not\\ got\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Then\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ shift\\ toward\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soldier\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ perverting\\ the\\ sergeant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ military\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ he\\ is\\ projecting\\ the\\ military\\ mentality\\ onto\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ bees\\ are\\ assaulting\\ and\\ fumbling\\ the\\ flowers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Nature\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ innocent\\,\\ but\\ militant\\,\\ at\\ least\\ through\\ the\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ despite\\ the\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resistance\\,\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ converted\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ signifies\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ succumbing\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ mentality\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ message\\ is\\ revealed\\ through\\ examining\\ the\\ interplay\\ of\\ military\\ and\\ natural\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jewish\\ Cemetery\\ at\\ Newport\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1854\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Henry\\ Wadsworth\\ Longfellow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 518\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyrics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;same\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Easter\\ Morning\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Elegy\\ Written\\ in\\ a\\ Country\\ Churchyard\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ historical\\,\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Comprehensive\\ lyric\\,\\ Elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ quatrains\\ of\\ ABAB\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ exile\\ \\(references\\ to\\ many\\ biblical\\ stories\\:\\ Exodus\\,\\ Purim\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ New\\ Englander\\,\\ not\\ Jewish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;something\\ easy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hopefully\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ chronicles\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ on\\ the\\ Jewish\\ people\\ as\\ he\\ wanders\\ among\\ gravestones\\ at\\ the\\ Jewish\\ cemetery\\ in\\ Newport\\,\\ RI\\.\\ \\ \\;RI\\ was\\ established\\ with\\ religious\\ freedom\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ principal\\ draws\\ for\\ Jews\\,\\ to\\ which\\ Longfellow\\ refers\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ came\\ they\\ here\\?\\ What\\ burst\\ of\\ Christian\\ hate\\,\\ \\/\\ What\\ persecution\\,\\ merciless\\ and\\ blind\\,\\ \\/\\ Drove\\ o\\&rsquo\\;er\\ the\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ observes\\ the\\ names\\ on\\ the\\ graves\\,\\ both\\ stereotypical\\ Jewish\\ names\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Spanish\\-sounding\\ ones\\,\\ likely\\ from\\ Jews\\ descended\\ from\\ the\\ inquisition\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ their\\ persecution\\,\\ mixing\\ description\\ with\\ allusions\\ to\\ Jewish\\ texts\\ and\\ history\\ \\(eg\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Trampled\\ and\\ beaten\\ were\\ they\\ as\\ the\\ sand\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ God\\ promised\\ Abraham\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ would\\ be\\ as\\ numerous\\ as\\ the\\ sand\\ on\\ the\\ beach\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ portrays\\ the\\ Jews\\ as\\ a\\ backwards\\-looking\\ \\(\\&\\;\\ therefore\\ backwards\\-thinking\\ maybe\\ too\\)\\ culture\\ that\\ was\\ once\\ great\\ but\\ will\\ never\\ rise\\ again\\ \\(as\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ the\\ empty\\ Synagogue\\ and\\ cemetery\\ in\\ Newport\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monody\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1864\\&ndash\\;5\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Herman\\ Melville\\ \\(p\\.\\ 532\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 18\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Introduction\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(elegy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\,\\ winter\\/death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ monody\\/elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ iambic\\ \\(some\\ anapests\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ two\\ stanzas\\,\\ six\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abcbdb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ winter\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Herman\\ Melville\\ \\(1819\\&ndash\\;1891\\)\\ was\\ an\\ American\\ author\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ novel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moby\\-Dick\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ was\\ close\\ friends\\ with\\ Nathaniel\\ Hawthorne\\,\\ for\\ whom\\ this\\ elegy\\ was\\ likely\\ written\\,\\ but\\ the\\ two\\ were\\ estranged\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ Hawthorne\\ died\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ease\\ me\\,\\ a\\ little\\ ease\\,\\ my\\ song\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ monody\\ was\\ likely\\ written\\ for\\ Nathaniel\\ Hawthorne\\,\\ Melville\\&rsquo\\;s\\ one\\-time\\ friend\\.\\ \\(Hawthorne\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vine\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Melville\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epic\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Clarel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ here\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cloistral\\ vine\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;glazed\\ with\\ ice\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ Melville\\ laments\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ dear\\ friend\\,\\ first\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ estranged\\,\\ and\\ now\\ because\\ of\\ death\\.\\ The\\ tone\\ progresses\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ adoration\\,\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ resignation\\.\\ He\\ accepts\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;neither\\ \\[was\\]\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ neither\\ of\\ them\\ was\\ at\\ fault\\ for\\ the\\ estrangement\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ their\\ differences\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ progresses\\ to\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ utter\\ grief\\ and\\ regret\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ death\\ to\\ set\\ his\\ seal\\&mdash\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ so\\ overwhelming\\ that\\ the\\ voice\\ is\\ cut\\ off\\.\\ Melville\\ then\\ asks\\ that\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;song\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ he\\ is\\ writing\\,\\ give\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;ease\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ little\\ ease\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ repetition\\ reinforces\\ the\\ pleading\\ nature\\ of\\ his\\ verse\\.\\ He\\ is\\ bereaved\\ and\\ helpless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ break\\ and\\ a\\ refocusing\\ between\\ stanzas\\ one\\ and\\ two\\.\\ In\\ classic\\ elegy\\ style\\,\\ Melville\\ shifts\\ from\\ a\\ lament\\ for\\/praise\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\ to\\ a\\ scene\\ of\\ some\\ \\(though\\ little\\)\\ consolation\\.\\ Melville\\ uses\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ winter\\ and\\ the\\ falling\\ of\\ snow\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ human\\ death\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ an\\ imagined\\ \\(or\\ perhaps\\ literal\\)\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ countryside\\ around\\ Hawthorne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grave\\.\\ Melville\\ describes\\ the\\ isolation\\ Hawthorne\\ continues\\ to\\ have\\,\\ even\\ after\\ death\\.\\ \\(I\\ believe\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ said\\ that\\ Melville\\ may\\ have\\ scared\\ off\\ Hawthorne\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ overly\\ admiring\\,\\ and\\ Hawthorne\\ preferred\\ more\\ personal\\ space\\.\\)\\ The\\ grave\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hermit\\-mound\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ vine\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ once\\ \\&ldquo\\;hid\\ the\\ shyest\\ grape\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ I\\ suppose\\ consolation\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\ of\\ natural\\ beauty\\ and\\ serenity\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ scene\\ of\\ quiet\\ grief\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Berg\\-\\ Herman\\ Melville\\ \\(1819\\-1891\\)\\ p\\.531\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\ Dates\\:\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Paper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Dream\\ description\\,\\ warning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ No\\ uniform\\ rhyme\\.\\ 4\\ stanza\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\ lines\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 6\\ lines\\,\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 12\\ lines\\,\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 10\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ destruction\\,\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Though\\ lumpish\\ thou\\,\\ a\\ lumbering\\ one\\-\\/\\ A\\ lumbering\\ lubbard\\ loitering\\ slow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(example\\ of\\ alliteration\\ being\\ used\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ slow\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Iceberg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ about\\ a\\ dream\\ the\\ speaker\\ had\\ we\\ are\\ told\\ about\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ a\\ ship\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\.\\ The\\ next\\ two\\ stanza\\ describe\\ the\\ iceberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ indestructible\\ nature\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ ship\\ which\\ after\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;infatuate\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;stunned\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ bafflement\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ iceberg\\ \\&ldquo\\;went\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Went\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ repeated\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ three\\ stanza\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;go\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\.\\ This\\ is\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ iceberg\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ whatever\\ gets\\ in\\ its\\ way\\ will\\ be\\ destroyed\\.\\ The\\ final\\ stanza\\ changes\\ slightly\\ though\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ the\\ Iceberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mortality\\,\\ slowness\\ and\\ indifference\\.\\ We\\ perhaps\\ the\\ iceberg\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ this\\ poem\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ warning\\ against\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempted\\ domination\\ over\\ nature\\.\\ If\\ man\\ tries\\ to\\ control\\ nature\\ \\(represented\\ by\\ the\\ Iceberg\\)\\ he\\ will\\ go\\ down\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ uses\\ lots\\ of\\ alliteration\\ to\\ parallel\\ and\\ emphasize\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ iceberg\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ language\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ iceberg\\ consists\\ mainly\\ of\\ words\\ that\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ nature\\ or\\ things\\ in\\ nature\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;gorges\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;beaches\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ varying\\ stanza\\ length\\ may\\ be\\ reflective\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ dreams\\,\\ because\\ the\\ mind\\ tends\\ to\\ jump\\ from\\ image\\ to\\ image\\ randomly\\.\\ Arguably\\ the\\ author\\ was\\ compelled\\ to\\ speak\\ as\\ reaction\\ to\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ attempt\\ to\\ control\\ nature\\ during\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Broken\\ Home\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1966\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ James\\ Merrill\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\;\\ Paper\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Divorce\\,\\ Time\\,\\ \\ \\;Sunset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\ Sequence\\,\\ Comprehensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Mostly\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ with\\ many\\ deviations\\ in\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Seven\\ fourteen\\ line\\ sonnets\\ with\\ varying\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ mythology\\,\\ politics\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Homosexual\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Charles\\ Merrill\\ \\(founder\\ of\\ Merrill\\ Lynch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ seven\\ sonnets\\ that\\ are\\ connected\\ by\\ imagery\\ and\\ themes\\,\\ yet\\ each\\ is\\ formally\\ and\\ narratively\\ self\\-contained\\.\\ The\\ title\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autobiographical\\ subjects\\&mdash\\;the\\ divorce\\ of\\ James\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\ and\\ his\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ brokenness\\ or\\ incompleteness\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ childlessness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ sonnet\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ poet\\ outside\\,\\ watching\\ parents\\ and\\ a\\ child\\ framed\\ by\\ a\\ window\\&mdash\\;a\\ tableau\\ he\\ contrasts\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sunless\\,\\ cooler\\&rdquo\\;\\ room\\ below\\.\\ Thoughts\\ of\\ his\\ childless\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Sunless\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ existence\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\ for\\ whom\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ flame\\ quickens\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ word\\ stirs\\&rdquo\\;\\ prompt\\ him\\ to\\ ask\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;tongue\\ of\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(either\\ his\\ muse\\ or\\ his\\ homosexual\\ lover\\)\\ whether\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ and\\ I\\ are\\ as\\ real\\/\\ At\\ least\\ as\\ the\\ people\\ upstairs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ sonnet\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ life\\ of\\ his\\ father\\,\\ Charles\\ Merrill\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ brokerage\\ firm\\ Merrill\\ Lynch\\,\\ Pierce\\,\\ Fenner\\ and\\ Smith\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ quatrains\\,\\ Merrill\\ discovers\\ in\\ his\\ father\\ the\\ soul\\ of\\ a\\ visionary\\ \\&ldquo\\;eclipsed\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ a\\ desire\\ for\\ business\\ and\\ sex\\ that\\ drove\\ him\\ to\\ warm\\ \\&ldquo\\;up\\ for\\ a\\ green\\ bride\\&rdquo\\;\\ every\\ thirteen\\ years\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Too\\ late\\ now\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ poet\\ realizes\\ that\\,\\ as\\ he\\ did\\,\\ his\\ father\\ could\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;invested\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;cloud\\ banks\\ well\\ above\\ Wall\\ Street\\ and\\ wife\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ sonnet\\ provides\\ a\\ historical\\ backdrop\\ for\\ the\\ particular\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ marriage\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\.\\ Merrill\\ describes\\ a\\ set\\ scene\\ from\\ the\\ 1920\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ veiled\\ suffragette\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;hobble\\ skirt\\&rdquo\\;\\ attacks\\ a\\ famous\\ man\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ place\\ with\\ insults\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\War\\ mongerer\\!\\ Pig\\!\\ Give\\ us\\ the\\ vote\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ fourth\\ and\\ fifth\\ sonnets\\,\\ Merrill\\ moves\\ from\\ outside\\,\\ where\\ at\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beginning\\ he\\ watched\\ the\\ idealized\\ family\\ \\&ldquo\\;gleaming\\ like\\ fruit\\/\\ With\\ evening\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mild\\ gold\\ leaf\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ inside\\ the\\ window\\ to\\ probe\\ the\\ harsh\\ realities\\ of\\ two\\ particular\\ memories\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ childhood\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ sonnet\\ presents\\ an\\ oedipal\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ young\\ boy\\ is\\ led\\ by\\ his\\ Irish\\ setter\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ bedroom\\ of\\ a\\ sleeping\\ woman\\&mdash\\;apparently\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;clad\\ in\\ taboos\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;who\\ awakens\\ from\\ a\\ deathlike\\ sleep\\ to\\ terrify\\ dog\\ and\\ boy\\.\\ Thinly\\ veiled\\ sexual\\ images\\ allow\\ Merrill\\ to\\ explore\\ troubling\\ aspects\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ sexuality\\.\\ In\\ describing\\ the\\ bedroom\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;throbbed\\ like\\ a\\ bruise\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Merrill\\ creates\\ an\\ oedipal\\ pun\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blinds\\ that\\ beat\\ sun\\ from\\ the\\ bed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ phallic\\ Irish\\ setter\\ Michael\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;satyr\\-thighed\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;head\\/\\ Passionately\\ lowered\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ penetrates\\ the\\ closed\\ door\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;slumps\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ the\\ floor\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ a\\ heterosexual\\ encounter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ fifth\\ sonnet\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Merrill\\ remembers\\ overhearing\\ his\\ parents\\ \\(who\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ each\\ other\\ still\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ discussing\\ their\\ frenzied\\ lifestyle\\ outside\\ his\\ window\\ after\\ a\\ party\\.\\ The\\ lead\\ soldier\\ guarding\\ the\\ boy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ windowsill\\ in\\ the\\ octave\\ introduces\\ a\\ cluster\\ of\\ images\\ the\\ poet\\ uses\\ in\\ the\\ sestet\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ gradual\\ cooling\\ of\\ his\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ feelings\\,\\ which\\ were\\ once\\ intense\\ \\&ldquo\\;Like\\ metal\\ poured\\ at\\ the\\ close\\ of\\ a\\ proletarian\\ novel\\,\\/\\ Refined\\ and\\ glowing\\ from\\ the\\ crucible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ sixth\\ sonnet\\ again\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ present\\ status\\ of\\ Merrill\\ as\\ childless\\ poet\\ with\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\&rdquo\\;\\ begins\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ defending\\ his\\ childlessness\\,\\ this\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ introduces\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ justification\\ for\\ breaking\\ with\\ the\\ examples\\ of\\ his\\ parents\\ by\\ refusing\\ to\\ be\\ political\\ and\\ rejecting\\ a\\ traditional\\ family\\ for\\ himself\\.\\ This\\ sonnet\\ also\\ provides\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rationale\\ for\\ his\\ particular\\ poetics\\ by\\ asserting\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ the\\ artifice\\ of\\ his\\ apolitical\\ poems\\&mdash\\;those\\ rare\\ avocados\\ \\&ldquo\\;gemmed\\ with\\ air\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;small\\ gilt\\ leaves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ octave\\ of\\ the\\ final\\ sonnet\\ presents\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ memories\\ as\\ a\\ house\\ in\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ child\\,\\ a\\ red\\ dog\\ roam\\ the\\ corridors\\,\\/\\ Still\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ sestet\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ Merrill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ occupied\\,\\ which\\ is\\ now\\ converted\\ into\\ a\\ boarding\\ school\\ from\\ which\\ another\\ child\\ can\\ watch\\ a\\ setting\\ sun\\ without\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;stiflement\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ nightmares\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Broken\\ Home\\&rdquo\\;\\ describes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Otherwise\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1995\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jane\\ Kenyon\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 210\\-211\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-30\\-06\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ life\\ and\\ death\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ oppositional\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ lots\\ of\\ lines\\ have\\ two\\ beats\\,\\ but\\ the\\ rhythm\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ enough\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ dimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 1\\ 12\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ 1\\ 14\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ no\\ rhyme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ otherwise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ continually\\ wondering\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ death\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ was\\ dying\\ of\\ leukemia\\ when\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;but\\ one\\ day\\,\\ I\\ know\\,\\ \\/\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ otherwise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kenyon\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ while\\ dying\\ of\\ leukemia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ prefaced\\ by\\ the\\ epigraph\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ live\\ with\\ cancer\\;\\ I\\ know\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ otherwise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Kenyon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ living\\ with\\ cancer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ walks\\ the\\ reader\\ a\\ typical\\ day\\ in\\ her\\ life\\ with\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ continually\\ reminds\\ the\\ reader\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ otherwise\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ letting\\ us\\ know\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ constantly\\ thinking\\ about\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ her\\ telling\\ us\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ day\\,\\ I\\ know\\,\\ \\/\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ otherwise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\&rdquo\\;\\ haunting\\ her\\ \\(which\\ represents\\ death\\)\\ will\\ one\\ day\\ be\\ realized\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\ Kenyon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ short\\,\\ generally\\ terse\\ sentences\\,\\ which\\ perhaps\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ brevity\\ of\\ life\\,\\ and\\ lend\\ the\\ poem\\ a\\ very\\ honest\\,\\ forthright\\,\\ matter\\-of\\-fact\\ tone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paradoxes\\ and\\ Oxymorons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1981\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Ashbery\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 368\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/18\\ Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Poem\\ about\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Conversation\\ between\\ Poet\\ and\\ Reader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ hexameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ quatrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ longing\\,\\ existence\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ashbery\\ wanted\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ common\\ reader\\,\\ who\\ thinks\\ poems\\ are\\ constructed\\ on\\ many\\ interpretive\\ levels\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Quote\\ from\\ a\\ book\\ on\\ Ashbery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poetry\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ sad\\ because\\ it\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ yours\\,\\ and\\ cannot\\.\\ \\/\\ What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ plain\\ level\\?\\ It\\ is\\ that\\ and\\ other\\ things\\,\\ \\/\\ Bringing\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ them\\ into\\ play\\.\\ Play\\?\\ \\/\\ Well\\,\\ actually\\,\\ yes\\,\\ but\\ I\\ consider\\ play\\ to\\ be\\ \\/\\ A\\ deeper\\ outside\\ thing\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ main\\ paradox\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ poet\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;concerned\\ with\\ language\\ on\\ a\\ very\\ plain\\ level\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ reader\\ still\\ does\\ not\\ understand\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ when\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ talking\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ looks\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ and\\ pretends\\ to\\ fidget\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ reader\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ it\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ readers\\ lack\\ of\\ comprehension\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ incomprehension\\ is\\ more\\ obvious\\ as\\ the\\ reader\\ interrupts\\ the\\ poet\\ with\\ questions\\ about\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ the\\ meaning\\ \\(see\\ notation\\ above\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ paradoxes\\ show\\ the\\ difficulty\\ in\\ doing\\ what\\ Ashbery\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ do\\.\\ The\\ reader\\ \\&ldquo\\;plays\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ leads\\ Ashbery\\ to\\ believe\\ he\\ has\\ accomplished\\ his\\ goal\\,\\ writing\\ the\\ poem\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ but\\ the\\ reader\\ changes\\ or\\ simply\\ teased\\ him\\.\\ As\\ he\\ stated\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ \\(the\\ reader\\)\\ miss\\ it\\,\\ it\\ \\(the\\ poem\\)\\ misses\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ final\\ paradox\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ sentence\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Now\\,\\ Ashbery\\ has\\ conceded\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ What\\ is\\ read\\ by\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ not\\ what\\ he\\ intends\\ to\\ write\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ Trees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1956\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Ashbery\\ \\(Poem\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ book\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ are\\ amazing\\:\\ each\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joining\\ a\\ neighbor\\,\\ as\\ though\\ speech\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Were\\ a\\ still\\ performance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arranging\\ by\\ chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ meet\\ as\\ far\\ this\\ morning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ agreeing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ it\\,\\ you\\ and\\ I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ suddenly\\ what\\ the\\ trees\\ try\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ tell\\ us\\ we\\ are\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ their\\ merely\\ being\\ there\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Means\\ something\\;\\ that\\ soon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ may\\ touch\\,\\ love\\,\\ explain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ glad\\ not\\ to\\ have\\ invented\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ comeliness\\,\\ we\\ are\\ surrounded\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ silence\\ already\\ filled\\ with\\ noises\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ canvas\\ on\\ which\\ emerges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ chorus\\ of\\ smiles\\,\\ a\\ winter\\ morning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Place\\ in\\ a\\ puzzling\\ light\\,\\ and\\ moving\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ days\\ put\\ on\\ such\\ reticence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ accents\\ seem\\ their\\ own\\ defense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sep\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Poems\\ as\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ no\\ particular\\ form\\,\\ marriage\\ poem\\ \\(he\\ is\\ rumored\\ to\\ be\\ homosexual\\,\\ so\\ this\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ coming\\ out\\ poem\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ First\\ two\\ stanzas\\ composed\\ mainly\\ of\\ short\\ verses\\ \\(trochaic\\ trimeters\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ iambic\\ tetrameters\\)\\,\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ mainly\\ composed\\ by\\ long\\ verses\\ \\(tetrameters\\ and\\ pentameters\\ \\&ndash\\;both\\ iambic\\ and\\ trochaic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Composed\\ of\\ five\\ stanzas\\ each\\ containing\\ two\\ heroic\\ couplets\\ \\(the\\ only\\ couplet\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rhyme\\ is\\ the\\ sixth\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ trees\\,\\ stillness\\,\\ morning\\ to\\ latter\\ evoke\\ sound\\,\\ choir\\,\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ later\\ conclude\\ with\\ stillness\\ and\\ reticence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Contemporary\\ poet\\,\\ has\\ won\\ a\\ numerous\\ amount\\ of\\ accolades\\,\\ starting\\ with\\ the\\ Yale\\ Younger\\ Poets\\ Prize\\ he\\ then\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ Pulitzer\\ Prize\\,\\ the\\ National\\ Books\\ award\\,\\ etc\\.\\ He\\ graduated\\ from\\ Harvard\\ in\\ 1949\\,\\ and\\ during\\ the\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ he\\ lived\\ in\\ France\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ surrealists\\.\\ He\\ is\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ writers\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;New\\ York\\ School\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\(whole\\ poem\\ cited\\ above\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ starts\\ with\\ an\\ analogy\\ between\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ trees\\ and\\ a\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\;\\ how\\ the\\ stillness\\ of\\ the\\ trees\\ is\\ in\\ harmony\\ with\\ the\\ world\\,\\ which\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ is\\ telling\\ the\\ lovers\\ that\\ their\\ being\\ in\\ that\\ state\\ means\\ something\\.\\ The\\ author\\ then\\ introduces\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ antithetical\\ dyads\\ \\&lsquo\\;silence\\ already\\ filled\\ with\\ noises\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;a\\ puzzling\\ light\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ ultimately\\ contrast\\ with\\ the\\ firmness\\ of\\ the\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reticent\\ love\\ \\(such\\ love\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ some\\ \\&lsquo\\;invented\\ comeliness\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ nor\\ does\\ it\\ need\\ such\\ \\&lsquo\\;accents\\&rsquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ real\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*Note\\:\\ Double\\ check\\ the\\ above\\ analysis\\ with\\ your\\ notes\\.\\ I\\ was\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ what\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ said\\ about\\ the\\ above\\ poem\\,\\ so\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ my\\ analysis\\ may\\ be\\ flawed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dream\\ Song\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Berryman\\ \\(pg\\ 374\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/23\\,\\ assigned\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ dreams\\,\\ desire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ self\\-reflexive\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ three\\ sestets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ culinary\\,\\ femininity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ possibly\\ a\\ pervert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sir\\ Bones\\:\\ is\\ stuffed\\,\\ de\\ world\\,\\ wif\\ feeding\\ girls\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ narrates\\ the\\ dream\\ character\\ \\&ldquo\\;Henry\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ encounter\\ with\\ an\\ attractive\\ but\\ married\\ woman\\ at\\ a\\ diner\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ his\\ sexual\\ attraction\\ to\\ her\\ in\\ an\\ absurdist\\ fashion\\ by\\ equating\\ her\\ with\\ culinary\\ delights\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;paprika\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;spumoni\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ Italian\\ ice\\ cream\\.\\)\\ Berryman\\ also\\ tries\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ poem\\ more\\ entertaining\\ by\\ having\\ Henry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alter\\-ego\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mr\\.\\ Bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ mock\\ him\\ by\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ stuffed\\,\\ de\\ world\\,\\ wif\\ feeding\\ girls\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ a\\ deeper\\ level\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ explores\\ societal\\ rules\\ against\\ passion\\.\\ Henry\\ wants\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;spring\\ on\\ her\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ held\\ back\\ by\\ the\\ societal\\ pressure\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ diner\\ and\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ Also\\,\\ his\\ conscience\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mr\\.\\ Bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ rules\\ against\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Badger\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1793\\-1864\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Clare\\ pg\\.\\ 422\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 27\\&mdash\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\ \\(usefulness\\ of\\ symbols\\ in\\ poems\\ of\\ moral\\ judgment\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ three\\ sonnets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\ \\(aabbccddeeffgg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Clare\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ an\\ angry\\ and\\ barbaric\\ mob\\ of\\ men\\ who\\ recklessly\\ and\\ mindlessly\\ track\\ and\\ kill\\ a\\ badger\\.\\ He\\ condemns\\ the\\ terrible\\ mob\\ for\\ their\\ noisiness\\ and\\ drunkenness\\ and\\ admires\\ the\\ bravery\\ of\\ the\\ stoic\\ old\\ badger\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\ leaves\\ his\\ hold\\&rdquo\\;\\ until\\ the\\ end\\ when\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;leaves\\ his\\ hold\\ and\\ crackles\\,\\ groans\\,\\ and\\ dies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ mob\\ is\\ a\\ collective\\ beast\\&mdash\\;whereas\\ the\\ badger\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ a\\ noble\\ and\\ humanly\\ creature\\.\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\ grunting\\&rdquo\\;\\ badger\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;demure\\ and\\ small\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ initially\\ drives\\ the\\ dogs\\ and\\ crowd\\ away\\.\\ The\\ pentameter\\ and\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\ create\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ steady\\ panic\\ and\\ the\\ quick\\ pace\\ of\\ the\\ crowd\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ dignified\\ awkwardness\\ of\\ the\\ badger\\ and\\ his\\ death\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ abrupt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Love\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Clare\\ \\(page\\ 423\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Introduction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Lyric\\ poetry\\ defined\\ by\\ contrast\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ unrequited\\ love\\,\\ pain\\ and\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcdcd\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\ stanzas\\ each\\ with\\ 8\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ love\\,\\ human\\ body\\,\\ nature\\,\\ flowers\\,\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\,\\ seasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ Romantic\\ poet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wrote\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ love\\ ballads\\ and\\ rural\\/nature\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ ne\\&rsquo\\;er\\ was\\ struck\\ before\\ that\\ hour\\/\\ With\\ love\\ so\\ sudden\\ and\\ so\\ sweet\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ starts\\ with\\ the\\ sudden\\ feeling\\ of\\ love\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ woman\\ and\\ compares\\ her\\ face\\ to\\ a\\ flower\\,\\ once\\ he\\ sees\\ her\\ face\\ he\\ turns\\ pale\\ and\\ immobile\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ uses\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ crating\\ a\\ personal\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ poet\\ and\\ his\\ experience\\.\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ captures\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ love\\ at\\ first\\ sight\\.\\ Then\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ moves\\ to\\ the\\ personal\\ transformation\\ within\\ the\\ narrator\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blood\\ rushes\\ to\\ his\\ face\\ and\\ his\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ anything\\ nor\\ can\\ he\\ speak\\.\\ The\\ final\\ stanza\\ questions\\ love\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ captures\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ unrequited\\ love\\ stating\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ never\\ seen\\ such\\ a\\ face\\ \\(or\\ had\\ such\\ an\\ experience\\ and\\ his\\ heart\\ is\\ left\\ dwelling\\ \\(alone\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Valediction\\:\\ Forbidding\\ Mourning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Donne\\ \\(1572\\-1631\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Poems\\ as\\ arranged\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ valediction\\-love\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ballad\\,\\ lyric\\ about\\ the\\ sublime\\ character\\ of\\ real\\ love\\-marriage\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ballad\\ stanza\\,\\ nine\\ stanzas\\ in\\ total\\.\\ The\\ one\\ variation\\ Donne\\ introduces\\ to\\ the\\ ballad\\ stanza\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ four\\ verses\\ are\\ tetrameters\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ an\\ iteration\\ between\\ trimesters\\ and\\ tetrameters\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ \\(second\\ and\\ fourth\\ lines\\)\\ is\\ congruent\\ with\\ the\\ ballad\\ stanza\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ celestial\\ bodies\\ \\(spheres\\,\\ references\\ to\\ sublunar\\ lovers\\)\\,\\ love\\,\\ death\\ \\(but\\ seen\\ from\\ a\\ positive\\ vantage\\ point\\,\\ hence\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Forbidding\\ \\[of\\ the\\]\\ Mourning\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ a\\ compass\\ and\\ its\\ legs\\ \\(image\\ used\\ as\\ an\\ analogy\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ bond\\ between\\ Donne\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\ \\;Jacobean\\ poet\\ and\\ preacher\\,\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ metaphysical\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ period\\.\\ His\\ works\\,\\ notable\\ for\\ their\\ realistic\\ and\\ sensual\\ style\\,\\ include\\ sonnets\\,\\ love\\ poetry\\,\\ religious\\ poems\\,\\ Latin\\ translations\\,\\ epigrams\\,\\ elegies\\,\\ songs\\,\\ satires\\ and\\ sermons\\.\\ His\\ poetry\\ is\\ noted\\ for\\ its\\ vibrancy\\ of\\ language\\ and\\ immediacy\\ of\\ metaphor\\,\\ compared\\ with\\ that\\ of\\ his\\ contemporaries\\.\\ He\\ married\\ the\\ niece\\ of\\ Thomas\\ Egerton\\ \\(daughter\\ of\\ Thomas\\ Moore\\)\\ against\\ their\\ wills\\.\\ This\\ earned\\ him\\ the\\ ruin\\ of\\ his\\ career\\.\\ John\\ Donne\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ master\\ of\\ the\\ conceit\\,\\ an\\ extended\\ metaphor\\ that\\ combines\\ two\\ vastly\\ unlike\\ ideas\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ idea\\,\\ often\\ using\\ imagery\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ conceits\\ found\\ in\\ other\\ Elizabethan\\ poetry\\,\\ most\\ notably\\ Petrarchan\\ conceits\\,\\ which\\ formed\\ clich\\é\\;d\\ comparisons\\ between\\ more\\ closely\\ related\\ objects\\ \\(such\\ as\\ a\\ rose\\ and\\ love\\)\\,\\ Metaphysical\\ conceits\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ greater\\ depth\\ in\\ comparing\\ two\\ completely\\ unlike\\ objects\\.\\ \\(Wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ Donne\\ compares\\ his\\ love\\,\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ to\\ a\\ compass\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ though\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ sit\\,\\ \\/\\ Yet\\ when\\ the\\ other\\ far\\ doth\\ roam\\,\\ \\/\\ It\\ leans\\ and\\ hearkens\\ after\\ it\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ grows\\ erect\\,\\ as\\ that\\ comes\\ home\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Donne\\ starts\\ by\\ entreating\\ his\\ audience\\ to\\ refrain\\ from\\ mourning\\ virtuous\\ man\\,\\ and\\ let\\ them\\ \\&lsquo\\;melt\\,\\ and\\ make\\ no\\ noise\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;No\\ tear\\-floods\\,\\ nor\\ sigh\\-tempests\\ move\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ profanation\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;laity\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ their\\ love\\ \\(the\\ poet\\ assumes\\ that\\ all\\ virtuous\\ men\\ are\\ married\\ and\\ they\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ special\\ unearthly\\ affection\\ for\\ their\\ wives\\)\\.\\ He\\ then\\ continues\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ love\\ that\\ binds\\ him\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ and\\ compares\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ celestial\\ bodies\\ which\\ are\\ eternal\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocent\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ love\\ of\\ earthly\\ \\&ldquo\\;sublunar\\&rdquo\\;\\ creatures\\ is\\ superficial\\ \\&ldquo\\;Whose\\ soul\\ is\\ sense\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ deep\\ and\\ entrenched\\.\\ Subsequently\\,\\ the\\ author\\ continues\\ to\\ reaffirm\\ his\\ rejection\\ for\\ mourning\\ because\\ when\\ one\\ loves\\ as\\ he\\ loves\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ one\\ could\\ \\&ldquo\\;Care\\ less\\,\\ eyes\\,\\ lips\\,\\ and\\ hands\\ to\\ miss\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ last\\ three\\ stanzas\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ show\\ an\\ interesting\\ twist\\ in\\ his\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphors\\,\\ Donne\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ compare\\ his\\ love\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ with\\ a\\ compass\\.\\ His\\ wife\\ remains\\ as\\ the\\ center\\,\\ and\\ tilts\\ towards\\ his\\ direction\\ when\\ he\\ goes\\ far\\ \\(imagine\\ the\\ compass\\ opening\\)\\,\\ and\\ when\\ he\\ returns\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;grows\\ erect\\,\\ as\\ that\\ comes\\ home\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(imagine\\ the\\ compasss\\ closing\\)\\.\\ Regarding\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motives\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ marriage\\ ruined\\ his\\ political\\ career\\ \\(he\\ married\\ against\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\)\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ that\\ might\\ have\\ induced\\ to\\ value\\ their\\ marital\\ love\\ above\\ anything\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sylvia\\ the\\ Fair\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(sorry\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ a\\ year\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Dryden\\ \\(p\\.\\ 197\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 30\\/Nov\\.\\ 1\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ A\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\/lust\\/satire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\ song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ anapestic\\ and\\ iambic\\;\\ always\\ iambic\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ refrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ cantos\\,\\ each\\ 11\\ lines\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;aabbccddeec\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ last\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ccddeec\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ a\\ refrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sexual\\,\\ lustful\\,\\ somewhat\\ pastoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Dryden\\ \\(1631\\&ndash\\;1700\\)\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ Restoration\\ poet\\ known\\ best\\ for\\ his\\ satiric\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ they\\ meant\\ by\\ their\\ sighing\\,\\ and\\ kissing\\ so\\ close\\!\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ And\\ sighing\\ and\\ kissing\\,\\/\\ And\\ sighing\\ and\\ kissing\\ so\\ close\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ rather\\ risqu\\é\\;\\ love\\ song\\ reveals\\ Dryden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lustful\\ nature\\ and\\ his\\ attitude\\ that\\ sex\\ is\\ not\\ sacred\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ be\\ had\\ and\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ all\\ curious\\ young\\ women\\ \\(and\\ men\\)\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ also\\ somewhat\\ satirical\\,\\ as\\ it\\ makes\\ fun\\ of\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ sex\\ was\\ like\\,\\ or\\ that\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ pure\\ to\\ have\\ such\\ thoughts\\,\\ and\\ would\\ only\\ find\\ out\\ from\\ a\\ man\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ progresses\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ young\\ girl\\ lying\\ in\\ a\\ field\\ wonders\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ men\\.\\.\\.meant\\ by\\ their\\ their\\ sighing\\,\\ and\\ kissing\\ so\\ close\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ second\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ prays\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;aid\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ someone\\ who\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;instruct\\ a\\ young\\ virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ ways\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ sex\\,\\ to\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ is\\ finally\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ at\\ a\\ loss\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ has\\ lost\\ her\\ virginity\\.\\ The\\ maiden\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ seem\\ innocent\\ at\\ first\\,\\ but\\ we\\ learn\\ that\\ she\\ in\\ fact\\ knows\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ is\\ meant\\ by\\ their\\ sighing\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ desires\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\.\\ In\\ the\\ refrain\\,\\ Dryden\\ uses\\ anaphora\\ \\(repeating\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\.\\.\\.\\ And\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ clasping\\ and\\ twining\\,\\/\\ And\\ panting\\ and\\ wishing\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ the\\ iambic\\ rhythm\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ sensation\\ of\\ escalating\\ lovemaking\\ and\\ desire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\La\\ Belle\\ Dame\\ Sans\\ Merci\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1819\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(pg\\.506\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 2\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\-\\-\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\,\\ love\\,\\ death\\,\\ fantasy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ literary\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Twelve\\ stanzas\\ of\\ four\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ abab\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanzas\\ I\\-III\\ describe\\ an\\ anonymous\\ speaker\\ coming\\ upon\\ the\\ knight\\,\\ asking\\ him\\ a\\ question\\ and\\ then\\ describing\\ his\\ physical\\ appearance\\ and\\ mental\\ state\\.\\ The\\ knight\\&\\#39\\;s\\ subsequent\\ narrative\\ consists\\ of\\ three\\ units\\:\\ stanzas\\ IV\\-VII\\ describe\\ the\\ knight\\&\\#39\\;s\\ meeting\\ and\\ involvement\\ with\\ the\\ lady\\;\\ stanza\\ VIII\\ presents\\ the\\ climax\\ \\(he\\ goes\\ with\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ \\"\\;elfin\\ grot\\"\\;\\)\\;\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ describe\\ his\\ sleep\\ and\\ expulsion\\ from\\ the\\ grotto\\.\\ The\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ \\(IV\\-VII\\)\\ are\\ balanced\\ by\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ \\(IX\\-XII\\)\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ returns\\ to\\ where\\ it\\ started\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ a\\ circular\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\ \\=\\ lily\\ \\(symbol\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ Western\\ cultures\\)\\,\\ paleness\\,\\ fading\\,\\ withering\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;sexual\\ references\\ \\=\\ her\\ eyes\\ were\\ wild\\,\\ elfin\\ grot\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;femme\\ fatale\\-\\-\\ She\\ seduces\\ him\\ with\\ her\\ beauty\\,\\ with\\ her\\ accomplishments\\,\\ with\\ her\\ avowal\\ of\\ love\\,\\ and\\ with\\ sensuality\\ \\(\\"\\;roots\\ of\\ relish\\ sweet\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ honey\\ wild\\,\\ and\\ manna\\ dew\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ pale\\ men\\ suggests\\ she\\ is\\ deliberately\\ destructive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ poetry\\ is\\ often\\ characterized\\ by\\ elaborate\\ word\\ choice\\ and\\ sensual\\ imagery\\.\\ \\(This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ sensual\\ imagery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ met\\ a\\ lady\\ in\\ the\\ meads\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;Full\\ beautiful\\&mdash\\;a\\ faery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ child\\,\\ Her\\ hair\\ was\\ long\\,\\ her\\ foot\\ was\\ light\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ her\\ eyes\\ were\\ wild\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ sure\\ in\\ language\\ strange\\ she\\ said\\&mdash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\&lsquo\\;I\\ love\\ thee\\ true\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ encounter\\ between\\ an\\ unnamed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\knight\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ a\\ mysterious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\fairy\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ knight\\ in\\ a\\ barren\\ landscape\\,\\ \\"\\;haggard\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;woe\\-begone\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ tells\\ the\\ reader\\ how\\ he\\ met\\ a\\ beautiful\\ lady\\ whose\\ \\"\\;eyes\\ were\\ wild\\"\\;\\;\\ he\\ set\\ her\\ on\\ his\\ horse\\ and\\ they\\ went\\ together\\ to\\ her\\ \\"\\;elfin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\grot\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\,\\ where\\ they\\ began\\ to\\ make\\ love\\.\\ Falling\\ asleep\\,\\ the\\ knight\\ had\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ \\"\\;pale\\ kings\\ and\\ princes\\"\\;\\,\\ who\\ warn\\ him\\ that\\ \\"\\;La\\ Belle\\ Dame\\ sans\\ Merci\\ hath\\ thee\\ in\\ thrall\\!\\"\\;\\ \\(\\ The\\ Lady\\ without\\ pity\\ has\\ you\\ in\\ her\\ charm\\ \\;\\!\\)\\.\\ He\\ awoke\\ to\\ find\\ himself\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ \\"\\;cold\\ hill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ side\\"\\;\\ where\\ he\\ is\\ now\\ \\"\\;palely\\ loitering\\"\\;\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ knight\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ death\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\lily\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(a\\ symbol\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ Western\\ culture\\)\\,\\ paleness\\,\\ \\"\\;fading\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;wither\\[ing\\]\\"\\;\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ he\\ may\\ well\\ be\\ dead\\ himself\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ He\\ is\\ clearly\\ doomed\\ to\\ remain\\ on\\ the\\ hillside\\,\\ but\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ this\\ fate\\ is\\ unknown\\.\\ A\\ straightforward\\ reading\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ Belle\\ Dame\\ entraps\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\A\\ few\\ important\\ points\\ to\\ note\\:\\ \\\\-As\\ a\\ human\\ being\\,\\ the\\ knight\\ cannot\\ fully\\ understand\\ the\\ non\\-\\ mortal\\;\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ \\"\\;faery\\&\\#39\\;s\\ child\\,\\"\\;\\ sings\\ a\\ \\"\\;faery\\&\\#39\\;s\\ song\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ takes\\ him\\ to\\ an\\ \\"\\;elfin\\ grot\\.\\"\\;\\ She\\ speaks\\ \\"\\;in\\ language\\ strange\\"\\;\\ \\(VII\\)\\.\\ Whether\\ she\\ speaks\\ a\\ language\\ unknown\\ to\\ the\\ knight\\ or\\ merely\\ had\\ an\\ unfamiliar\\ pronunciation\\,\\ the\\ phrase\\ suggests\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ failure\\ of\\ communication\\.\\ They\\ are\\ incompatible\\ by\\ nature\\.\\\\-The\\ anonymous\\ speaker\\ at\\ face\\ value\\ is\\ a\\ concerned\\ passerby\\ who\\ comes\\ upon\\ the\\ knight\\ accidentally\\ and\\ who\\ describes\\ accurately\\ and\\ factually\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ knight\\ and\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ they\\ meet\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ knight\\&\\#39\\;s\\ pitiful\\ condition\\ exists\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ or\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ anonymous\\ speaker\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\ to\\ a\\ Nightingale\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1819\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 245\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\section\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ week\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\10\\.16\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ chapter\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Describing\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ section\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Discussion\\ of\\ patterns\\:\\ rhetorical\\ \\(who\\ speaks\\?\\ who\\ is\\ addressed\\?\\ tonal\\ echoing\\?\\)\\,\\ structural\\,\\ syntactic\\,\\ metaphorical\\,\\ stanzaic\\,\\ rhythmical\\,\\ phonetic\\,\\ etc\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nocturne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ about\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bird\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ with\\ the\\ eighth\\ line\\ of\\ every\\ stanza\\ in\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ eight\\ stanzas\\,\\ each\\ ten\\ lines\\ rhyming\\ ababcdecde\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ a\\ sonnet\\ but\\ without\\ the\\ second\\ abab\\)\\;\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ enjambment\\ between\\ stanzas\\ two\\ and\\ three\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decay\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nightingale\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Greek\\/classical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;gods\\ and\\ themes\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Biblical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;figures\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\song\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ bird\\,\\ drugs\\ causing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\intoxication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ Romantic\\ poet\\ who\\ lived\\ from\\ 1795\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1821\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ Keats\\ became\\ ill\\ with\\ tuberculosis\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ killed\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ his\\ later\\ writings\\ \\(such\\ as\\ this\\ poem\\)\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ his\\ disease\\ and\\ exhibit\\ a\\ pervasive\\ fear\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ was\\ published\\ right\\ after\\ both\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ brother\\ \\(from\\ TB\\)\\ and\\ his\\ secret\\ engagement\\ to\\ Fanny\\ Browne\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Away\\!\\ away\\!\\ for\\ I\\ will\\ fly\\ to\\ thee\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Not\\ charioted\\ by\\ Bacchus\\ and\\ his\\ pards\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;But\\ on\\ the\\ viewless\\ wings\\ of\\ Poesy\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Though\\ the\\ dull\\ brain\\ perplexes\\ and\\ retards\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Already\\ with\\ thee\\!\\ tender\\ is\\ the\\ night\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;And\\ haply\\ the\\ Queen\\-Moon\\ is\\ on\\ her\\ throne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cluster\\&\\#39\\;d\\ around\\ by\\ all\\ her\\ starry\\ Fays\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\ opens\\ his\\ poem\\ by\\ describing\\ his\\ sorrow\\ and\\ says\\ he\\ is\\ intoxicated\\ in\\ \\(as\\ if\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;hemlock\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;some\\ dull\\ opiate\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ his\\ happiness\\ at\\ the\\ flight\\ of\\ the\\ nightingale\\,\\ which\\ he\\ calls\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;light\\-winged\\ Dryad\\ of\\ the\\ trees\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;There\\ immediately\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ his\\ inner\\ conflict\\,\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;heart\\ aches\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;being\\ too\\ happy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ for\\ intoxicants\\ to\\ leave\\ his\\ mortal\\ state\\ of\\ being\\,\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ bird\\ in\\ flight\\ in\\ joy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ stanza\\ then\\ brings\\ his\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ life\\ he\\ would\\ leave\\ behind\\;\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ a\\ mortal\\ plagued\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\weariness\\,\\ the\\ fever\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fret\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ stanza\\ brings\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ deeper\\ darkness\\ and\\ despair\\ at\\ the\\ human\\ plight\\;\\ even\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ negated\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ mortal\\ sickness\\ and\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ brings\\ a\\ shift\\;\\ Keats\\ abandons\\ the\\ false\\ promise\\ of\\ intoxicants\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Bacchus\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ mentioned\\ here\\,\\ is\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ wine\\ in\\ classical\\ mythology\\)\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ instead\\ join\\ the\\ bird\\ through\\ his\\ poetry\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Posey\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ archaic\\ term\\ for\\ poetry\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ a\\ moment\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ rising\\ hopefulness\\;\\ Keats\\ is\\ among\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Queen\\-Moon\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;starry\\ Fays\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;But\\ then\\ he\\ drops\\ abruptly\\,\\ realizing\\ that\\,\\ in\\ his\\ mortal\\ state\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ light\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ far\\ beneath\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ forest\\ he\\ describes\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\ more\\ explicitly\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ sees\\ Keats\\ standing\\ a\\ natural\\ setting\\,\\ but\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;cannot\\ see\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ flowers\\ at\\ his\\ feet\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ decay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ darkness\\ is\\ strangely\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;embalmed\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ flowers\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;covered\\ up\\ in\\ leaves\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ rotting\\,\\ and\\ flies\\ surround\\ the\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ sixth\\ stanza\\,\\ Keats\\ describes\\,\\ in\\ detail\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ his\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ continues\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ bird\\,\\ and\\ considers\\ how\\ its\\ song\\ would\\ continue\\,\\ even\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;become\\ a\\ sod\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ seems\\ resigned\\,\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ succumbs\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ low\\-point\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ seventh\\ stanza\\ then\\ considers\\ the\\ immortality\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\ \\(which\\ he\\ so\\ admires\\)\\,\\ who\\ can\\ transcend\\ history\\ \\(we\\ see\\ a\\ reference\\ here\\ to\\ Ruth\\,\\ a\\ Biblical\\ figure\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ eighth\\ stanza\\,\\ Keats\\ bids\\ farewell\\ to\\ the\\ bird\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fancy\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ mind\\ previously\\ engaged\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ calls\\ the\\ bird\\ \\&ldquo\\;deceiving\\ elf\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ displaying\\ his\\ refusal\\ to\\ continue\\ to\\ continue\\ to\\ pointlessly\\ entertain\\ the\\ imaginative\\ course\\ of\\ his\\ mind\\.\\ The\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\ \\(which\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ repeating\\ element\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ until\\ this\\ point\\)\\ finally\\ fades\\ away\\,\\ and\\ Keats\\ is\\ left\\ confused\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ vision\\ or\\ perhaps\\ only\\ dreamed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ close\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ brings\\ a\\ question\\,\\ which\\ introduces\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ and\\ no\\ real\\ consolation\\ for\\ the\\ despair\\ of\\ the\\ mortal\\ condition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ First\\ Looking\\ into\\ Chapman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Homer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1816\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(p\\.\\ 125\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 16\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sonnets\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ discovery\\/revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\,\\ hero\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ a\\ Petrarchan\\ sonnet\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abba\\ abba\\ cdcdcd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ discovery\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ sea\\;\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(1795\\&ndash\\;1821\\)\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ principal\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Romantic\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yet\\ never\\ did\\ I\\ breathe\\ its\\ pure\\ serene\\/\\ Till\\ I\\ heard\\ Chapman\\ speak\\ out\\ loud\\ and\\ bold\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ Keats\\ describes\\ his\\ sense\\ of\\ wonder\\ and\\ humbling\\ discovery\\ upon\\ reading\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Odyssey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ The\\ progression\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ experience\\ and\\ knowledge\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ inexperience\\ and\\ ignorance\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ by\\ describing\\ his\\ travels\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;many\\ goodly\\ states\\ and\\ kingdoms\\ seen\\;\\/\\ Round\\ many\\ western\\ islands\\ have\\ I\\ been\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ then\\,\\ though\\ he\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;oft\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;been\\ told\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epic\\,\\ he\\ actually\\ breathes\\ the\\ air\\ of\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ landscape\\.\\ First\\ he\\ describes\\ this\\ experience\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;watcher\\ of\\ the\\ skies\\/\\ When\\ a\\ new\\ plant\\ swims\\ into\\ his\\ ken\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ of\\ an\\ astronomer\\ discovering\\ a\\ planet\\.\\ But\\ then\\ he\\ decides\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ just\\ analogy\\,\\ because\\ the\\ planet\\ is\\ a\\ distant\\ removed\\ object\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epic\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ new\\ place\\ on\\ earth\\ to\\ be\\ discovered\\ and\\ explored\\.\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ first\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Homerian\\ landscape\\ is\\ like\\ Cortez\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Pacific\\.\\ Here\\ he\\ reaches\\ the\\ climax\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ using\\ words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;peak\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ heightened\\ sensation\\ and\\ elation\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;silent\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ breathless\\ excitement\\ of\\ the\\ men\\.\\ This\\ is\\ somewhat\\ of\\ a\\ riddle\\-poem\\,\\ asking\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ is\\ it\\ like\\ to\\ discover\\ Homer\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ giving\\ us\\ a\\ final\\ answer\\ until\\ the\\ end\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ heroic\\,\\ but\\ also\\ communal\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ Cortez\\ who\\ discovers\\ uncharted\\ territory\\,\\ but\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ men\\ as\\ well\\.\\ We\\ understand\\ that\\ Keats\\ regards\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ reader\\ among\\ other\\ readers\\,\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\ among\\ poets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ Sitting\\ Down\\ to\\ Read\\ King\\ Lear\\ Once\\ Again\\ \\(1818\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\-\\ 507\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Lecture\\,\\ Dec\\.\\ 18\\.\\ \\-\\ Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ Poem\\ about\\ reading\\ and\\ writing\\ poetry\\,\\ personal\\ struggle\\,\\ romance\\,\\ tragedy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\ Form\\:\\ Sonnet\\ \\(hybrid\\ of\\ Petrarchan\\ and\\ Shakespearean\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Pentameter\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ last\\ line\\ is\\ iambic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hexameter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ The\\ sonnet\\ follows\\ a\\ Petrarchan\\ \\(Italian\\)\\ pattern\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 8\\ lines\\ \\(abbaabba\\ \\=\\ embraced\\ quatrains\\)\\,\\ but\\ a\\ Shakespearean\\ \\(English\\)\\ pattern\\ in\\ the\\ sestet\\,\\ the\\ last\\ 6\\ lines\\ \\(cdcdee\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ music\\/sound\\,\\ fairyland\\,\\ fire\\,\\ wings\\/feathers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Keats\\ is\\ a\\ poet\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Romantic\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ highly\\ sensory\\ imagery\\ \\(engaging\\ all\\ five\\ senses\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Adieu\\!\\ for\\ once\\ again\\ the\\ fierce\\ dispute\\ \\/\\ Betwixt\\ damnation\\ and\\ impassioned\\ clay\\ \\/\\ Must\\ I\\ burn\\ through\\;\\ once\\ more\\ humbly\\ assay\\ \\/\\ The\\ bitter\\-sweet\\ of\\ this\\ Shakespearean\\ fruit\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Keats\\ describes\\ his\\ shift\\ from\\ literature\\ of\\ romance\\ \\(using\\ Spenser\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Faerie\\ Queen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ his\\ model\\)\\,\\ to\\ literature\\ of\\ tragedy\\ \\(using\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ Lear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ his\\ model\\)\\,\\ a\\ shift\\ prompted\\ after\\ Keats\\ reads\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ Lear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ the\\ second\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Keats\\ addresses\\ the\\ siren\\ song\\ of\\ romance\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;O\\ golden\\-tongued\\ Romance\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ bids\\ it\\ a\\ formal\\ farewell\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Adieu\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ deciding\\ instead\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ tragedy\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ presents\\ two\\ metaphors\\ for\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ read\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ Lear\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ reader\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;Burn\\ through\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ tragedy\\ whose\\ main\\ dispute\\ is\\ between\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ evil\\,\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;impassioned\\ clay\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(reaching\\ toward\\ happiness\\,\\ success\\,\\ fame\\)\\ and\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;damnation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\[The\\ dispute\\ in\\ tragedy\\ is\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ medieval\\ tragedies\\ of\\ heaven\\ vs\\.\\ hell\\ and\\ the\\ struggle\\ between\\ your\\ own\\ will\\ to\\ live\\ and\\ evil\\ forces\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ reader\\ can\\ experience\\ the\\ play\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;bitter\\-sweet\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ metaphor\\ of\\ taste\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Tragedy\\ can\\ be\\ sweet\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ work\\ of\\ art\\,\\ as\\ creation\\ causes\\ aesthetic\\ ecstasy\\ despite\\ the\\ horrible\\ themes\\ of\\ tragedy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ Keats\\ challenges\\ himself\\ to\\ pursue\\ the\\ genre\\ of\\ tragedy\\,\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ literature\\ with\\ no\\ redeeming\\ end\\ but\\ with\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ encompass\\ themes\\ of\\ moral\\ substance\\ \\(metaphor\\ 1\\)\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ aesthetically\\ grand\\ \\(metaphor\\ 2\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sonnet\\ is\\ a\\ hybrid\\ of\\ Petrarchan\\ \\(European\\ romance\\)\\ and\\ Shakespearean\\ forms\\,\\ thus\\ enacting\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shift\\ from\\ romance\\ to\\ tragedy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ sonnet\\ is\\ NOT\\ in\\ Shakespearean\\ pentameter\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ the\\ hexameter\\ of\\ Spenser\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Faerie\\ Queen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\ is\\ therefore\\ a\\ last\\ farewell\\ to\\ Spenser\\,\\ a\\ casting\\ of\\ the\\ eyes\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ romance\\ Keats\\ has\\ forsaken\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ tragedy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Human\\ Seasons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1818\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(p\\.\\ 13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 20\\/25\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ As\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(poems\\ about\\ nature\\ and\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\ and\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\ababcdcdefefgg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ changing\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\,\\ natural\\/pastoral\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(1795\\&ndash\\;1821\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Four\\ seasons\\ fill\\ the\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ year\\;\\/\\ Four\\ seasons\\ are\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\ likens\\ the\\ aging\\ of\\ humans\\ to\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\,\\ a\\ well\\-worn\\ analogy\\,\\ but\\ one\\ that\\ he\\ gives\\ life\\ through\\ vivid\\ imagery\\.\\ He\\ progresses\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;lusty\\ spring\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;summer\\,\\ when\\ luxuriously\\/\\ He\\ chews\\ the\\ honied\\ cud\\ of\\ fair\\ spring\\ thoughts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ There\\ is\\ something\\ both\\ pleasurable\\ in\\ the\\ luxurious\\,\\ sweet\\ relaxation\\ of\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;summer\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ also\\ something\\ old\\ and\\ stale\\&mdash\\;fresh\\ thoughts\\ have\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;cud\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Then\\ Keats\\ moves\\ on\\ to\\ autumn\\,\\ in\\ which\\ man\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;tired\\ wings\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ turns\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;idleness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ couplet\\ gives\\ us\\ \\&ldquo\\;winter\\ too\\ of\\ pale\\ misfeature\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ ugliness\\ of\\ old\\ age\\ and\\ death\\.\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ final\\ line\\ is\\ a\\ philosophical\\ warning\\ to\\ us\\ all\\:\\ one\\ can\\ never\\ \\&ldquo\\;forget\\ his\\ mortal\\ nature\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-\\ Form\\:\\ metaphorical\\ conceit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ structural\\ detail\\:\\ Dickinson\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ four\\-line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ ABCB\\ rhyme\\ schemes\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;alternating\\ iambic\\ tentrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ She\\ sticks\\ to\\ this\\ form\\ very\\ loosely\\ and\\ interrupts\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;meter\\ with\\ long\\ dashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sewing\\ imagery\\,\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poet\\ of\\ inwardness\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ known\\ for\\ aphoristic\\ style\\ where\\ substantial\\ meanings\\ are\\ compressed\\ into\\ very\\ few\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ describes\\ the\\ disorientation\\ felt\\ as\\ she\\ attempts\\ unsuccessfully\\ to\\ organize\\ her\\ thoughts\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ interesting\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ knitting\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ brain\\ and\\ the\\ trouble\\ she\\ is\\ having\\ thinking\\ clearly\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ images\\ of\\ splitting\\ seams\\ and\\ unraveling\\ balls\\ of\\ yarn\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ her\\ mind\\ is\\ not\\ working\\ properly\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;sequence\\ \\[of\\ thoughts\\]\\ ravelled\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\ \\/\\ Like\\ balls\\ upon\\ a\\ floor\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ poem\\ fits\\ into\\ the\\ poems\\ on\\ time\\,\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ how\\ suffering\\ and\\ inability\\ to\\ think\\ clearly\\ has\\ clouded\\ all\\ perception\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ Autumn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1819\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 167\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 18\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ seasons\\,\\ autumn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ irregular\\ \\(often\\ iambic\\)\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ 11\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ Lots\\ of\\ hyphenated\\ adjectives\\:\\ bosom\\-friend\\,\\ cottage\\-trees\\,\\ soft\\-lifted\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ 3\\ lines\\:\\ full\\-grown\\,\\ hedge\\-crickets\\,\\ red\\-breast\\,\\ garden\\-croft\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ swelling\\,\\ plump\\,\\ engorged\\ fruits\\,\\ animals\\,\\ harvest\\,\\ autumn\\,\\ twittering\\ birds\\,\\ Autumn\\ as\\ a\\ goddess\\,\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ poetry\\ is\\ often\\ characterized\\ by\\ elaborate\\ word\\ choice\\ and\\ sensual\\ imagery\\.\\ Keats\\ died\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1821\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tuberculosis\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ just\\ 17\\ months\\ after\\ this\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;With\\ fruit\\ the\\ vines\\ that\\ round\\ the\\ thatch\\-eves\\ run\\;\\ \\\\ \\ \\;To\\ bend\\ with\\ apples\\ the\\ moss\\&\\#39\\;d\\ cottage\\-trees\\,\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;And\\ fill\\ all\\ fruit\\ with\\ ripeness\\ to\\ the\\ core\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\ \\;To\\ swell\\ the\\ gourd\\,\\ and\\ plump\\ the\\ hazel\\ shells\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Where\\ are\\ the\\ songs\\ of\\ spring\\?\\ \\;\\ Ay\\,\\ where\\ are\\ they\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\&\\#39\\;s\\ speaker\\ opens\\ his\\ first\\ stanza\\ by\\ addressing\\ Autumn\\,\\ describing\\ its\\ abundance\\ and\\ its\\ intimacy\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ with\\ whom\\ Autumn\\ ripens\\ fruits\\ and\\ causes\\ the\\ late\\ flowers\\ to\\ bloom\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ describes\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ Autumn\\ as\\ a\\ female\\ goddess\\,\\ often\\ seen\\ sitting\\ on\\ the\\ granary\\ floor\\,\\ her\\ hair\\ \\"\\;soft\\-lifted\\"\\;\\ by\\ the\\ wind\\,\\ and\\ often\\ seen\\ sleeping\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\ or\\ watching\\ a\\ cider\\-press\\ squeezing\\ the\\ juice\\ from\\ apples\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ tells\\ Autumn\\ not\\ to\\ wonder\\ where\\ the\\ songs\\ of\\ spring\\ have\\ gone\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ her\\ own\\ music\\.\\ At\\ twilight\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;small\\ gnats\\"\\;\\ hum\\ above\\ the\\ shallows\\ of\\ the\\ river\\,\\ lifted\\ and\\ dropped\\ by\\ the\\ wind\\,\\ and\\ \\"\\;full\\-grown\\ lambs\\"\\;\\ bleat\\ from\\ the\\ hills\\,\\ crickets\\ sing\\,\\ robins\\ whistle\\ from\\ the\\ garden\\,\\ and\\ swallows\\,\\ gathering\\ for\\ their\\ coming\\ migration\\,\\ sing\\ from\\ the\\ skies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\-by\\-line\\ analysis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Stanza\\ 1\\:\\ Keats\\ describes\\ autumn\\ with\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ specific\\,\\ concrete\\,\\ vivid\\ visual\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 1\\:\\ Mist\\ put\\ before\\ fruitfulness\\ \\(which\\ is\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ normal\\ perception\\ of\\ autumn\\,\\ where\\ the\\ first\\ thought\\ is\\ of\\ fruits\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ sun\\ provides\\ warmth\\ and\\ the\\ earth\\ provides\\ moisture\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 5\\:TO\\ BEND\\;\\ image\\ of\\ over\\-full\\ trees\\,\\ so\\ many\\ apples\\ that\\ the\\ branches\\ bend\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 6\\:\\ TO\\ FILL\\;\\ ripeness\\ added\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ in\\ \\(the\\ sun\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 7\\:\\ TO\\ SWELL\\,\\ TO\\ PLUMP\\;\\ more\\ images\\ of\\ ripened\\,\\ engorged\\ fruit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 8\\-9\\:\\ TO\\ SET\\;\\ full\\ fruit\\ and\\ late\\ flowers\\,\\ connection\\ to\\ everlasting\\ summer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 11\\:\\ summer\\ has\\ been\\ plentiful\\,\\ image\\ of\\ honey\\ running\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ honeycomb\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;clammy\\&rdquo\\;\\ description\\ represents\\ acceptance\\ of\\ unpleasant\\ connotation\\ as\\ natural\\-\\ without\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanza\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ season\\,\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ Goddess\\ of\\ Autumn\\ among\\ the\\ harvest\\,\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 12\\:\\ He\\ addresses\\ the\\ season\\ directly\\,\\ as\\ if\\ autumn\\ \\(the\\ goddess\\)\\ was\\ the\\ overseer\\ of\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ season\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 15\\-16\\:\\ Image\\ of\\ the\\ goddess\\,\\ half\\-reaped\\ furrow\\ shows\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ season\\.\\ She\\ \\(the\\ goddess\\)\\ is\\ never\\ acting\\,\\ she\\ is\\ always\\ about\\ to\\ act\\.\\ The\\ word\\ reap\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ grim\\ reaper\\,\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ death\\/winter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 17\\-18\\:\\ poppies\\ in\\ wheat\\ fields\\ \\(poppies\\=opium\\)\\,\\ they\\ are\\ cut\\ down\\ with\\ the\\ wheat\\=collateral\\ damage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 21\\-22\\:\\ Wheat\\ and\\ Cider\\=Food\\ and\\ Drink\\.\\ Patient\\=Suffering\\.\\ Deathbed\\ scene\\=Last\\ harvest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanza\\ 3\\:\\ He\\ describes\\ the\\ song\\ of\\ autumn\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ season\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 23\\-24\\:\\ Autumn\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ music\\,\\ different\\ from\\ spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 25\\-26\\:\\ The\\ harvest\\ is\\ over\\,\\ it\\ is\\ cloudy\\ \\(covering\\ the\\ sun\\)\\ and\\ at\\ sunset\\ \\(rosy\\ hue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 27\\-28\\:\\ Wailful\\ choir\\=Song\\ of\\ Autumn\\.\\ Mourn\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ autumn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 30\\-33\\:\\ Full\\-grown\\ lambs\\ \\(not\\ the\\ babies\\ of\\ spring\\)\\ bleat\\ \\(SONG\\)\\,\\ hedge\\ crickets\\ sing\\ \\(SONG\\)\\,\\ redbreast\\ whistles\\ \\(SONG\\)\\ and\\ gathering\\ swallows\\ twitter\\ \\(SONG\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ season\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\Keats\\ blends\\ living\\ and\\ dying\\,\\ the\\ pleasant\\ and\\ the\\ unpleasant\\,\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ inextricably\\ one\\;\\ he\\ accepts\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ the\\ mixed\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Have\\ Fears\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Reflection\\ on\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\,\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ in\\ organization\\ \\(3\\ quatrains\\ and\\ a\\ couplet\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ shore\\ of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ Romantic\\ poets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;then\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\ Of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\ I\\ stand\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ think\\ Till\\ Love\\ and\\ Fame\\ to\\ nothingness\\ do\\ sink\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ like\\ to\\ die\\ before\\ completing\\ your\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ and\\ also\\ how\\ miserable\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ die\\ without\\ seeing\\ his\\ beloved\\ once\\ more\\.\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ finish\\ is\\ dreadful\\,\\ and\\ also\\ speaks\\ to\\ his\\ feeling\\ of\\ isolation\\ in\\ his\\ mortality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thought\\ is\\ organized\\ in\\ 8\\+6\\ Petrarchan\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fame\\ discussed\\ in\\ quatrain\\ 1\\ and\\ Love\\ in\\ quatrain\\ 2\\,\\ but\\ names\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ order\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ and\\ Fame\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ couplet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ explains\\ itself\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ lines\\,\\ and\\ also\\ expands\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ wider\\ world\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ line\\ unexpectedly\\ \\&ldquo\\;Of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Zooming\\ out\\ effect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arranged\\ using\\ time\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;when\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Diction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Harvest\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ completing\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ \\(a\\ desk\\ piled\\ high\\ with\\ books\\ is\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ field\\ full\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;full\\-ripened\\ grain\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;nothingness\\&rdquo\\;\\ ties\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;able\\ to\\ link\\ the\\ wider\\ world\\ to\\ personal\\ experience\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;before\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;are\\ replaced\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\(that\\ is\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ after\\ or\\ corrects\\ \\&ldquo\\;before\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;darker\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;may\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;May\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggests\\ possibility\\,\\ whereas\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ simple\\ future\\,\\ which\\ suggests\\ inevitability\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ after\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ knows\\ that\\ his\\ death\\ is\\ inevitable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Love\\ and\\ Fame\\ are\\ like\\ sinking\\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ have\\ Fears\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1818\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Keats\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\.25\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ class\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Traditional\\ genres\\ of\\ life\\-stages\\,\\ cont\\.\\:\\ Parenthood\\ poem\\;\\ vocation\\ poem\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ poem\\;\\ elegy\\;\\ posthumous\\ poem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ also\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lament\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shakespearean\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efefgg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Harvest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ \\(the\\ pen\\ \\&ldquo\\;glean\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ books\\ hold\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ rich\\ garners\\ the\\ full\\ ripen\\&\\#39\\;d\\ grain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Shadows\\ of\\ Clouds\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ Keats\\ fears\\ he\\ will\\ miss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Keats\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ Romantic\\ poet\\ who\\ lived\\ from\\ 1795\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1821\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ Keats\\ became\\ ill\\ with\\ tuberculosis\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ killed\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ his\\ later\\ writings\\ \\(such\\ as\\ this\\ poem\\)\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ his\\ disease\\ and\\ exhibit\\ a\\ pervasive\\ fear\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Keats\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ secret\\ romance\\ with\\ his\\ neighbor\\ Fanny\\ Browne\\ \\(who\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ person\\ addressed\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ Keat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\)\\.\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ when\\ I\\ feel\\,\\ fair\\ creature\\ of\\ an\\ hour\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ look\\ upon\\ thee\\ more\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Never\\ have\\ relish\\ in\\ the\\ faery\\ power\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ unreflecting\\ love\\;\\-\\-then\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ the\\ wide\\ world\\ I\\ stand\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ think\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Till\\ love\\ and\\ fame\\ to\\ nothingness\\ do\\ sink\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;When\\ I\\ have\\ Fears\\&rdquo\\;\\ expresses\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ fear\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ quatrain\\,\\ Keats\\ hypothesizes\\ with\\ horror\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ dying\\ before\\ he\\ writes\\ all\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;teeming\\ brain\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ producing\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ quatrain\\,\\ he\\ continues\\ in\\ this\\ vein\\ but\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ wider\\ scope\\,\\ wondering\\ at\\ the\\ wonders\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\(the\\ \\&ldquo\\;huge\\ cloudy\\ symbols\\ of\\ a\\ high\\ romance\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ he\\ may\\ fail\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ experience\\ and\\ transform\\ into\\ poetry\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ third\\ quatrain\\,\\ he\\ shifts\\ his\\ focus\\ and\\ considers\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\ never\\ look\\ upon\\ \\[her\\]\\ more\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ however\\,\\ in\\ the\\ epigrammatic\\ couplet\\ \\(in\\ which\\ he\\ maintains\\ a\\ wide\\ scope\\;\\ he\\ stands\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ wide\\ world\\)\\ which\\ closes\\ his\\ poem\\,\\ Keats\\ realizes\\ that\\,\\ at\\ his\\ moment\\ of\\ death\\,\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ enjoys\\ in\\ life\\ will\\ matter\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ and\\ fame\\&rdquo\\;\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;sink\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ nothingness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Notable\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ repeated\\ use\\ of\\ adverbs\\ and\\ nouns\\ of\\ complete\\ negation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;never\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;nothingness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ emphasize\\ the\\ finality\\ of\\ the\\ oblivion\\ he\\ fears\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ remarkable\\ is\\ Keats\\&rsquo\\;\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ simple\\ future\\ tense\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;shall\\ never\\ look\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ example\\)\\ which\\ brings\\ his\\ reader\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ Keats\\ sees\\ death\\ not\\ simply\\ as\\ a\\ possibility\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ unavoidable\\ fact\\ of\\ his\\ existence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ Late\\ Massacre\\ in\\ Piedmont\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(published\\ in\\ 1673\\ but\\ written\\ earlier\\ c\\.\\ 1655\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ religious\\ \\(maybe\\ political\\ as\\ well\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abbacddcefefef\\,\\ Stanzas\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ line\\ breaks\\ but\\ only\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lines\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ indented\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ends\\ of\\ lines\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ complete\\ thoughts\\ or\\ sentences\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ enjambment\\,\\ even\\ between\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ martyrdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ protestant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Avenge\\,\\ O\\ Lord\\,\\ thy\\ slaughtered\\ saints\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Protestants\\ in\\ Italy\\ were\\ massacred\\ because\\ they\\ refused\\ to\\ convert\\ to\\ Catholicism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ essentially\\ commands\\ to\\ God\\ to\\ first\\ \\&ldquo\\;Avenge\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;Forget\\ not\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ commands\\ which\\ begin\\ the\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ followed\\ by\\ positive\\ theological\\ descriptions\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\ are\\ more\\ about\\ effects\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ moans\\ of\\ the\\ massacred\\ are\\ sent\\ to\\ the\\ hills\\ and\\ then\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ which\\ goes\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ \\ \\;references\\ a\\ quote\\ by\\ Tertullian\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ martyrs\\ is\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ the\\ church\\ and\\ a\\ line\\ from\\ the\\ bible\\ which\\ says\\ that\\ seeds\\ spread\\ on\\ good\\ ground\\ multiply\\ a\\ hundred\\-fold\\.\\ \\ \\;Milton\\ hopes\\ that\\ the\\ protestants\\ who\\ died\\ will\\ inspire\\ others\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ \\(represented\\ by\\ the\\ pope\\ as\\ the\\ triple\\ tyrant\\ and\\ by\\ Babylon\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Milton\\ could\\ be\\ compelled\\ to\\ speak\\ in\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ his\\ poem\\ will\\ reinforce\\ the\\ faith\\ of\\ those\\ around\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ completely\\ regular\\ sonnet\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ rhythm\\ and\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ arrangement\\ of\\ sentences\\ is\\ unusual\\.\\ \\ \\;Sentences\\ are\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ lines\\ and\\ ideas\\ are\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ Milton\\,\\ an\\ Englishman\\,\\ uses\\ an\\ Italian\\ sonnet\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ Italy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Consider\\ How\\ My\\ Light\\ is\\ Spent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\(139\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Describing\\ Poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Prayer\\/Self\\ Reflexive\\/Disability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ uniform\\ but\\ pick\\ the\\ dominant\\ meter\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ one\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ sonnet\\ that\\ has\\ no\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ but\\ that\\ is\\ roughly\\ organized\\ into\\ 4\\ left\\ indented\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 4\\,4\\,3\\ and\\ 3\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ follows\\ the\\ following\\ pattern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abba\\,\\ abba\\,\\ abc\\,\\ abc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Light\\ and\\ Darkness\\,\\ God\\,\\ faith\\,\\ death\\,\\ disability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ John\\ Milton\\ was\\ nearly\\ completely\\ blind\\ when\\ he\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ title\\ indicates\\ he\\ is\\ speaking\\ about\\ losing\\ his\\ eyesight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ I\\ consider\\ hoe\\ my\\ light\\ is\\ spent\\,\\ \\/\\ Ere\\ half\\ my\\ days\\ in\\ this\\ dark\\ world\\ and\\ wide\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ sonnet\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ sonnet\\ 16\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ meditates\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ become\\ blind\\.\\ He\\ expresses\\ his\\ frustration\\ at\\ being\\ prevented\\ by\\ his\\ disability\\ from\\ serving\\ God\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ he\\ desires\\ to\\.\\ He\\ is\\ answered\\ by\\ \\"\\;Patience\\,\\"\\;\\ who\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ many\\ who\\ hurry\\ to\\ do\\ his\\ bidding\\,\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ really\\ need\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ what\\ is\\ valued\\ is\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ bear\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\"\\;mild\\ yoke\\,\\"\\;\\ to\\ tolerate\\ whatever\\ God\\ asks\\ for\\ w\\/o\\ complaint\\.\\ As\\ the\\ famous\\ last\\ line\\ sums\\ it\\ up\\,\\ \\"\\;They\\ also\\ serve\\ who\\ only\\ stand\\ and\\ wait\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ presents\\ a\\ carefully\\ reasoned\\ argument\\,\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ for\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ physical\\ impairment\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ learns\\ that\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ being\\ an\\ obstacle\\ to\\ his\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ for\\ him\\,\\ his\\ blindness\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ that\\ work\\,\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ achievement\\ lies\\ in\\ living\\ patiently\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\(Milton\\ himself\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ write\\ his\\ twelve\\-book\\ epic\\ poem\\,\\ \\"\\;Paradise\\ Lost\\,\\"\\;\\ after\\ becoming\\ blind\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Allegro\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.537\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1645\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\(1608\\-1674\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;10\\/30\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ the\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pastoral\\ poem\\,\\ part\\ of\\ debate\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\ \\(except\\ for\\ first\\ ten\\ lines\\,\\ see\\ below\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ first\\ 10\\ lines\\ alternate\\ between\\ trimeter\\ and\\ pentameter\\,\\ with\\ the\\ pentameter\\ lines\\ indented\\ and\\ a\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ of\\ abbacddeec\\.\\ Then\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ tetrameter\\ \\(or\\ close\\ to\\ it\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ no\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\ 152\\ line\\ poem\\.\\ Rhyming\\ pairs\\ of\\ lines\\.\\ \\(aabbccddeeff\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;joyful\\ days\\,\\ distinction\\ between\\ aristocracy\\ and\\ peasantry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Milton\\ has\\ a\\ very\\ allegorical\\,\\ philosophical\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;These\\ delights\\ if\\ though\\ canst\\ give\\,\\/\\ Mirth\\,\\ with\\ thee\\ I\\ mean\\ to\\ live\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ centered\\ on\\ Milton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primary\\ question\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ makes\\ contentment\\ in\\ philosophical\\ life\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ L\\&rsquo\\;Allegro\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;happy\\/cheerful\\ person\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ spends\\ an\\ idealized\\ day\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ night\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ apparently\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ compliment\\ to\\ another\\ Milton\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Il\\ Penseroso\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\meaning\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ thoughtful\\ person\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ parallel\\ portrays\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;active\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pensive\\,\\ inward\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(perhaps\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ theme\\ is\\ evident\\ through\\ the\\ opening\\ lines\\ in\\ which\\ Milton\\ banishes\\ \\&ldquo\\;Melancholy\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;loathed\\ melancholy\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ ten\\ lines\\.\\ This\\ beginning\\ section\\ establishes\\ the\\ melancholic\\ state\\ as\\ the\\ lowest\\,\\ worst\\ place\\ of\\ existence\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ poem\\ turns\\ towards\\ a\\ portrayal\\ of\\ mirth\\,\\ of\\ a\\ happy\\,\\ active\\ experience\\.\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ this\\ state\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ treat\\ the\\ melancholic\\ state\\.\\ The\\ ending\\ section\\ supposedly\\ presents\\ the\\ state\\ when\\ melancholy\\ is\\ completely\\ eliminated\\,\\ a\\ necessity\\ for\\ higher\\ education\\ and\\ understanding\\ and\\ moral\\ enlightening\\ to\\ exist\\.\\ Different\\ critics\\ have\\ varying\\ opinions\\ on\\ Milton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conclusion\\ about\\ this\\ dichotomy\\,\\ many\\ suggesting\\ that\\ he\\ portrays\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Il\\ Penseroso\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;higher\\&rdquo\\;\\ end\\,\\ a\\ better\\ way\\ to\\ live\\ over\\ the\\ carefree\\,\\ happy\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ allusions\\,\\ makes\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ follow\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ reader\\ because\\ the\\ allusions\\ are\\ to\\ references\\ of\\ characters\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ descriptions\\ of\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ for\\ aristocracy\\ and\\ for\\ peasantry\\.\\ The\\ challenge\\ for\\ the\\ aristocracy\\ is\\ to\\ find\\ meaningful\\ things\\ to\\ fill\\ up\\ their\\ day\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ prayer\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ an\\ imagination\\ of\\ a\\ sea\\ in\\ hell\\,\\ with\\ the\\ allusion\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Orpheus\\&rsquo\\;\\ journey\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\ to\\ retrieve\\ his\\ wife\\ but\\ he\\ looks\\ back\\ \\(breaking\\ deal\\)\\ and\\ condemns\\ wife\\ to\\ Hates\\ forever\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ convinced\\ of\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ a\\ happy\\,\\ pleasure\\-filled\\ life\\;\\ perhaps\\ he\\ has\\ exhausted\\ all\\ possible\\ pleasures\\ for\\ both\\ aristocrats\\ and\\ peasants\\.\\ Yet\\ his\\ final\\ line\\ \\(see\\ quote\\ above\\)\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ possibility\\/attempt\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;mirth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lycidas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 294\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1638\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Milton\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\11\\/8\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pastoral\\ elegy\\.\\ Also\\ monody\\ \\(a\\ funeral\\ song\\ sung\\ by\\ a\\ single\\ voice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ lyric\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\.\\ Irregular\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ with\\ no\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ irregular\\ stanza\\ structure\\ \\(no\\ white\\ space\\)\\ but\\ different\\ length\\ stanzas\\ are\\ distinguished\\ through\\ indentation\\ of\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ new\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;death\\,\\ decaying\\ corpse\\,\\ pastoral\\ imagery\\,\\ shepherds\\ lots\\ of\\ allegorical\\ allusions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Milton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Bitter\\ constraint\\,\\ and\\ sad\\ occasion\\ dear\\,\\ \\/Compels\\ me\\ to\\ disturb\\ your\\ season\\ due\\;\\ \\/For\\ Lycidas\\ is\\ dead\\,\\ dead\\ ere\\ his\\ prime\\,\\/\\ Young\\ Lycidas\\,\\ and\\ hat\\ no\\ left\\ his\\ peer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ an\\ elegy\\ about\\ his\\ friend\\ who\\ drowned\\ in\\ the\\ Irish\\ seas\\ and\\ he\\ simultaneously\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ ruin\\ of\\ the\\ corrupted\\ clergy\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ laments\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ someone\\ young\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;dead\\ ere\\ his\\ prime\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ seems\\ especially\\ tragic\\ and\\ unjust\\&mdash\\;why\\ must\\ we\\ mourn\\ the\\ young\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ represents\\ a\\ paradigmatic\\ \\(model\\)\\ elegy\\ that\\ employs\\ syncretism\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ he\\ uses\\ allusions\\ from\\ multiple\\ eras\\,\\ realms\\,\\ specifically\\ referencing\\ different\\ conceptions\\ of\\ time\\,\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ path\\,\\ and\\ space\\ \\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ Milton\\ alludes\\ to\\ Greek\\ history\\ \\(Apollo\\)\\ and\\ to\\ Christianity\\ \\(St\\.\\ Peter\\,\\ the\\ patron\\ saint\\ of\\ mourners\\)\\.\\ He\\ conveys\\ both\\ the\\ Christian\\ scheme\\ of\\ life\\ that\\ is\\ linear\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ creation\\,\\ original\\ sin\\,\\ incarnation\\ \\(in\\ which\\ God\\ becomes\\ man\\)\\,\\ and\\ ending\\ with\\ the\\ Apocalypse\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Classical\\ age\\,\\ time\\ is\\ a\\ circular\\ conception\\ that\\ revolves\\ from\\ the\\ Golden\\ age\\ \\(state\\ of\\ perfection\\)\\,\\ to\\ a\\ silver\\ age\\,\\ to\\ bronze\\,\\ age\\,\\ to\\ an\\ iron\\ age\\,\\ and\\ back\\ to\\ Golden\\ age\\.\\ This\\ circular\\ conception\\ allows\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ to\\ be\\ meted\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ spacing\\ pattern\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ realms\\ differ\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ Christian\\ conception\\ of\\ space\\ includes\\ heaven\\ on\\ top\\,\\ earth\\ \\(bounded\\ by\\ time\\)\\ underneath\\,\\ and\\ hell\\ \\(eternal\\)\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ The\\ Classic\\ conception\\ consists\\ of\\ Mt\\.\\ Olympus\\/Gods\\ at\\ the\\ top\\,\\ Men\\ underneath\\ that\\,\\ Hates\\ underneath\\ that\\ \\(dark\\,\\ firey\\)\\,\\ the\\ Elysian\\ fields\\ \\(pastoral\\ ending\\ place\\ for\\ heroes\\ and\\ philosophers\\ that\\ is\\ separate\\ from\\ Hates\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ uses\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ classic\\ \\&ldquo\\;requirements\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ an\\ elegy\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ the\\ showing\\ of\\ the\\ corpse\\,\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ must\\ not\\ float\\ upon\\ his\\ watery\\ bier\\/\\ Unwept\\,\\ and\\ welter\\ to\\ the\\ parching\\ wind\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ln\\.12\\-13\\)\\.\\ This\\ represents\\ the\\ confrontation\\ with\\ death\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ the\\ most\\ difficult\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ presents\\ the\\ second\\ corpse\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;destined\\&rdquo\\;\\ dead\\ body\\,\\ as\\ he\\ hopes\\ that\\ someone\\ will\\ elegize\\ him\\ when\\ he\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ might\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ his\\ regrets\\ in\\ life\\,\\ or\\ perhaps\\ the\\ trivial\\ pursuit\\ of\\ fame\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ pastoral\\ memory\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ again\\ laments\\ his\\ death\\ and\\ his\\ absence\\ from\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Several\\ references\\ to\\ a\\ Shepard\\,\\ flock\\,\\ and\\ nature\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fifth\\ stanza\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ why\\ did\\ Lycidas\\ have\\ to\\ die\\?\\ Where\\ were\\ the\\ nymphs\\ to\\ save\\ him\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ tragic\\ moment\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ comes\\ in\\ line\\ 129\\ when\\ Milton\\ describes\\ the\\ sheep\\ dying\\,\\ first\\ from\\ starvation\\ with\\ gruesome\\ imagery\\ of\\ rotting\\ inside\\,\\ and\\ secondly\\ from\\ a\\ wolf\\.\\ The\\ tragedy\\ comes\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daily\\ devours\\ apace\\,\\ and\\ nothing\\ said\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ tragic\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ response\\ to\\ death\\&hellip\\;perhaps\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ writing\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ hope\\ that\\ someone\\ writes\\ about\\ him\\?\\ To\\ at\\ least\\ respond\\ and\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ tragedy\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ending\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ provides\\ some\\ comfort\\ or\\ resolution\\ as\\ Milton\\ discusses\\ Lycidas\\&rsquo\\;\\ passage\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ place\\ \\(afterlife\\)\\,\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ heaven\\.\\ This\\ part\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ imagery\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;highness\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ saints\\ or\\ angels\\ or\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ characters\\ in\\ heaven\\,\\ eternity\\.\\ The\\ final\\ stanza\\ presents\\ both\\ a\\ Classic\\ and\\ a\\ Christian\\ apocalypse\\ that\\ signifies\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\ of\\ mourning\\.\\ Imagery\\ of\\ the\\ setting\\ sun\\ and\\ reference\\ to\\ what\\ will\\ come\\ \\&ldquo\\;tomorrow\\&rdquo\\;\\ conveys\\ this\\ sentiment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\San\\ Sepulco\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jorie\\ Graham\\ \\(pg\\ 147\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ Chapter\\ 4\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ metaphysical\\ exploration\\,\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ ekphrasis\\ \\(poem\\ on\\ an\\ art\\ object\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ sestets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ unrhymed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ graves\\,\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ last\\ line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;each\\ breath\\ is\\ a\\ button\\/\\ coming\\ undone\\,\\ something\\ terribly\\/\\ nimble\\-fingered\\/\\ finding\\ all\\ the\\ stops\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ begins\\ banally\\ enough\\,\\ with\\ the\\ narrator\\ describing\\ her\\ home\\ in\\ Italy\\.\\ It\\ has\\ a\\ confessional\\ tone\\,\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ admits\\ that\\ like\\ a\\ body\\ stripped\\ of\\ all\\ veils\\,\\ one\\ can\\ see\\ through\\ to\\ her\\ bones\\.\\ The\\ landscape\\ is\\ described\\ in\\ mysterious\\ and\\ mystical\\ ways\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ milk\\ on\\ the\\ air\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;ice\\ on\\ the\\ oil\\ lemonskins\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ she\\ describes\\ a\\ fresco\\ in\\ a\\ grave\\,\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ is\\ metaphysically\\ exploring\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ existence\\ \\&ldquo\\;before\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ god\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ picture\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ pregnant\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\ getting\\ ready\\ to\\ give\\ birth\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ expands\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ birthing\\ and\\ concludes\\ that\\ every\\ moment\\ is\\ a\\ birth\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ mystical\\ imagery\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ sinister\\ about\\ the\\ birthing\\ process\\.\\ Every\\ moment\\ is\\ not\\ pregnant\\ with\\ possibility\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ pregnant\\ with\\ death\\ because\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;stillborn\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ exploration\\ itself\\ is\\ not\\ positive\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ conducted\\ by\\ something\\ \\&ldquo\\;terrible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Graham\\ seems\\ to\\ see\\ life\\ as\\ fundamentally\\ tragic\\:\\ even\\ as\\ one\\ lives\\ and\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;go\\ in\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ every\\ moment\\ is\\ wrapped\\ in\\ tragedy\\ and\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soul\\ Says\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1991\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jorie\\ Graham\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 482\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/30\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Self\\-Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ The\\ rhythm\\ is\\ rising\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;\\ in\\ hunger\\,\\ in\\ boredom\\,\\ the\\ spindrift\\,\\ the\\ ticket\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Otherwise\\,\\ completely\\ free\\ verse\\ in\\ stanza\\ form\\ with\\ no\\ consistent\\ rhyme\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ No\\ pattern\\ or\\ consistent\\ form\\.\\ Some\\ lines\\ end\\ italicized\\.\\ There\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ spacing\\ and\\ phrases\\ and\\ lines\\ in\\ parentheses\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ and\\ a\\ bracketed\\ description\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ doing\\ below\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ pastoral\\,\\ water\\,\\ breaking\\ waves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Born\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ City\\.\\ Grew\\ up\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ where\\ she\\ went\\ to\\ a\\ French\\ school\\.\\ Known\\ for\\ writing\\ about\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ big\\ questions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Now\\ then\\,\\ I\\ said\\,\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ meet\\ that\\ which\\ I\\ liken\\ to\\ \\/\\ \\(even\\ though\\ the\\ wave\\ break\\ and\\ drown\\ me\\ in\\ laughter\\)\\ \\/\\ the\\ wave\\ breaking\\,\\ the\\ wave\\ drowning\\ me\\ in\\ a\\ laughter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ hints\\ to\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ a\\ conversation\\ between\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ her\\ soul\\.\\ The\\ italics\\ and\\ the\\ parentheses\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ are\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ author\\ to\\ emphasis\\ the\\ duality\\ between\\ the\\ person\\ and\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ line\\ 5\\ reads\\ \\&ldquo\\;Distilled\\ in\\ you\\ \\(can\\ you\\ hear\\ me\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Also\\,\\ as\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ cited\\ above\\,\\ the\\ last\\ line\\ is\\ a\\ close\\ repetition\\ of\\ the\\ penultimate\\ line\\ which\\ was\\ set\\ off\\ in\\ parentheses\\.\\ This\\ repetition\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ the\\ union\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ parts\\ that\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sure\\ of\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ confusion\\ begins\\ when\\ the\\ poem\\ opens\\ with\\ the\\ line\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ To\\ be\\ so\\ held\\ by\\ brittleness\\,\\ shapeliness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ two\\ very\\ opposing\\ words\\.\\ It\\ is\\ then\\ emphasized\\ with\\ italics\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ line\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ where\\ you\\ go\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\have\\ to\\ touch\\ what\\ you\\ must\\ touch\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ soul\\ and\\ person\\ are\\ one\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ on\\ a\\ similar\\ level\\,\\ one\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ the\\ other\\.\\ But\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ much\\ softer\\ and\\ understanding\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\ \\(So\\ listen\\,\\ listen\\,\\ this\\ will\\ soothe\\ you\\)\\ \\(if\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ want\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ transformation\\ then\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ agreement\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ sides\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ End\\ is\\ For\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1950\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jorie\\ Graham\\ pg\\.\\ 276\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 15\\&mdash\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ war\\,\\ marriage\\,\\ murder\\ \\(juxtaposition\\ of\\ the\\ public\\,\\ the\\ private\\,\\ and\\ the\\ mythological\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\,\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ very\\ unconventional\\&mdash\\;use\\ of\\ italics\\,\\ one\\-word\\ lines\\,\\ ellipses\\,\\ indention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ bomber\\ engines\\/barbed\\ wire\\ \\(war\\)\\,\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\ Orpheus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Graham\\ establishes\\ the\\ public\\ and\\ militaristic\\ scene\\ of\\ a\\ barbed\\-wire\\ enclosed\\ field\\ full\\ of\\ B\\-52\\ bombers\\ on\\ perpetual\\ alert\\,\\ kept\\ running\\ always\\ in\\ case\\ they\\ must\\ respond\\ immediately\\ to\\ an\\ enemy\\ threat\\.\\ She\\ then\\ internalizes\\ the\\ anxiety\\,\\ restlessness\\,\\ and\\ fear\\ of\\ this\\ public\\ setting\\,\\ intertwining\\ it\\ chaotically\\ with\\ her\\ private\\ experiences\\ in\\ marriage\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ transcendent\\ mythology\\ of\\ Orpheus\\.\\ Her\\ use\\ of\\ personal\\ emotions\\ and\\ anecdotes\\ to\\ illuminate\\ history\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ lends\\ a\\ certain\\ texture\\ to\\ the\\ copiousness\\ and\\ remoteness\\ of\\ history\\.\\ By\\ interweaving\\ various\\ \\(and\\ strikingly\\ unglamorous\\)\\ emotional\\ experiences\\ with\\ the\\ seemingly\\ distant\\ nature\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ myth\\,\\ she\\ uses\\ a\\ spiritual\\ sense\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ familiarity\\ to\\ enliven\\ the\\ profound\\ pathos\\ of\\ the\\ pervasive\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;eternity\\ of\\ engines\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(line\\ 53\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\ is\\ powerful\\ because\\ it\\&mdash\\;through\\ diction\\ and\\ tone\\&mdash\\;integrates\\ the\\ various\\ realms\\ of\\ myth\\,\\ private\\,\\ and\\ public\\.\\ She\\ compares\\ the\\ engines\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;sickness\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\ ear\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(6\\)\\ and\\ constant\\ screams\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ bombers\\ will\\ respond\\ immediately\\ and\\ unconsciously\\ to\\ enemy\\ threat\\,\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ to\\ stop\\,\\ prevent\\,\\ or\\ end\\ war\\.\\ The\\ deafening\\ bombers\\ \\&ldquo\\;wholly\\ possess\\&rdquo\\;\\ everything\\ \\(66\\)\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ the\\ diction\\ of\\ the\\ bombers\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;metal\\ braces\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;extinguished\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ an\\ encounter\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ The\\ bombers\\ are\\ prepared\\ and\\ definitely\\ kinetic\\,\\ but\\ are\\ simultaneously\\ arrested\\ and\\ static\\,\\ waiting\\ to\\ forcefully\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ another\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ the\\ loudness\\ and\\ permanence\\ of\\ this\\ scene\\ to\\ portray\\ an\\ experience\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ when\\ they\\ stood\\ for\\ hours\\ \\&ldquo\\;unwilling\\ to\\ move\\,\\ irreconcilable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(5\\)\\.\\ She\\ asks\\ him\\ to\\ hold\\ her\\ and\\ he\\ refuses\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;Until\\ we\\ were\\ what\\ we\\ must\\ have\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\:\\ shapes\\ the\\ shapelessness\\ was\\ taking\\ back\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(95\\)\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ mythological\\ story\\ of\\ Orpheus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\&mdash\\;his\\ severed\\ head\\ floated\\ down\\ the\\ river\\ Hebrus\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ Lesbos\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ home\\ of\\ lyric\\ poetry\\.\\ Here\\,\\ the\\ myth\\ is\\ perpetual\\ and\\ present\\ \\(use\\ of\\ present\\ tense\\ vs\\.\\ past\\ tense\\ of\\ history\\)\\.\\ The\\ brokenness\\ of\\ her\\ marriage\\,\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ war\\ \\(even\\ in\\ the\\ waiting\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ pangs\\ of\\ brutal\\ murder\\ are\\ incorporated\\ by\\ an\\ enveloping\\ and\\ emotional\\ voice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Song\\ for\\ the\\ Deer\\ and\\ Myself\\ to\\ Return\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1990\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Joy\\ Harjo\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\p\\.\\ 174\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:longing\\ for\\ nature\\ and\\ home\\,\\ variation\\ on\\ a\\ nature\\ poem\\,\\ fantasy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ 15\\ line\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ night\\ and\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Native\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Now\\ the\\ deer\\ and\\ I\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ a\\ song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ to\\ get\\ them\\ back\\,\\ to\\ get\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ back\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ because\\ if\\ it\\ works\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ going\\ with\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ And\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ call\\ Louis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ and\\ nearly\\ too\\ late\\ to\\ go\\ home\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ primarily\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ beginning\\ describes\\ the\\ night\\ just\\ before\\ dawn\\ \\(just\\ before\\ a\\ transition\\,\\ as\\ the\\ author\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ then\\ sings\\ a\\ Creek\\ Indian\\ song\\ which\\ calls\\ the\\ deer\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ plays\\ on\\ the\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expectations\\ by\\ saying\\ of\\ the\\ song\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ works\\,\\ of\\ course\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ compares\\ the\\ magic\\ of\\ the\\ deer\\ song\\ to\\ her\\ search\\ for\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ appreciate\\ the\\ deer\\ coming\\ to\\ her\\ home\\ in\\ Denver\\,\\ she\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ their\\ natural\\ habitat\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ sentence\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ reflects\\ the\\ in\\ between\\ situation\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ Louis\\ \\(probably\\ someone\\ with\\ a\\ greater\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ community\\ and\\/or\\ nature\\)\\ but\\ she\\ feels\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ almost\\ become\\ too\\ detached\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ her\\ roots\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ really\\ only\\ two\\ images\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ uniqueness\\ stands\\ them\\ apart\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ fragile\\ weft\\ of\\ ebony\\ night\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ city\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ hammock\\ of\\ my\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belly\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homecoming\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1996\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Julia\\ Alvarez\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1950\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;9\\/20\\.\\ Poems\\ as\\ Life\\ module\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;narrative\\ \\(tells\\ story\\ of\\ wedding\\ memory\\)\\,\\ culture\\ comparisons\\,\\ self\\ realization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ narrative\\ form\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;culture\\/ethnicity\\,\\ class\\,\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Julia\\ \\Á\\;lvarez\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\poet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\novelist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\essayist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Born\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\New\\ York\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ her\\ parents\\ returned\\ with\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Dominican\\ Republic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;when\\ she\\ was\\ three\\ months\\ of\\ age\\ and\\ raised\\ her\\ there\\ until\\ she\\ was\\ ten\\.\\ In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1960\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ family\\ fled\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ after\\ her\\ father\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ underground\\ against\\ the\\ military\\ dictator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ would\\ be\\ years\\/\\ before\\ I\\ took\\ the\\ courses\\ that\\ would\\ change\\ my\\ mind\\/\\ in\\ schools\\ paid\\ for\\ by\\ sugar\\ from\\ the\\ fields\\ around\\ us\\/\\ years\\ before\\ I\\ could\\ comprehend\\ how\\ one\\ does\\ not\\ see\\ the\\ maids\\ when\\ they\\ pass\\ by\\ with\\ trays\\ of\\ deviled\\ eggs\\ arranged\\ in\\ daisy\\ wheels\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ literally\\ describes\\ attending\\ a\\ South\\ American\\ wedding\\ reception\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ 17\\ year\\-old\\ college\\ student\\ where\\ the\\ bride\\ is\\ her\\ cousin\\ and\\ the\\ groom\\ is\\ a\\ man\\ from\\ Minnesota\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ uses\\ the\\ poem\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ particular\\ life\\ aspects\\ of\\ her\\ relatives\\&rsquo\\;\\ lives\\ and\\ flaws\\ in\\ society\\ as\\ she\\ now\\ sees\\ them\\,\\ as\\ an\\ outsider\\ looking\\ in\\ \\(Vendler\\,\\ 16\\)\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ sparked\\ by\\ a\\ realization\\ she\\ experiences\\ in\\ reflection\\ as\\ an\\ older\\ person\\ looking\\ back\\ on\\ the\\ memory\\.\\ \\ \\;Specifically\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ realization\\ about\\ class\\,\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ gender\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ realization\\ is\\ clearly\\ stated\\ when\\ she\\ alludes\\ to\\ the\\ courses\\ she\\ will\\ take\\ that\\ open\\ up\\ her\\ consciousness\\,\\ marking\\ a\\ climax\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(see\\ quote\\ above\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Within\\ this\\ climax\\,\\ she\\ maintains\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ cultures\\ and\\ experiences\\,\\ between\\ her\\ classes\\ and\\ the\\ sugar\\ fields\\ that\\ paid\\ for\\ them\\.\\ She\\ seemingly\\ looks\\ back\\ with\\ disgust\\ at\\ the\\ fakeness\\,\\ materialism\\,\\ ignorance\\ of\\ this\\ intermix\\ between\\ her\\ Latino\\ family\\ and\\ the\\ All\\-American\\ Minnesotans\\,\\ where\\ her\\ family\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ impress\\ the\\ others\\ and\\ each\\ are\\ wary\\ to\\ trust\\ and\\ accept\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ also\\ conveys\\ the\\ distant\\,\\ mistrusting\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ wedding\\ guests\\ and\\ the\\ maids\\ and\\ workmen\\ \\(showed\\ through\\ the\\ blonde\\,\\ freckled\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ touches\\ of\\ the\\ maids\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ portrays\\ the\\ thematic\\ mix\\/contrast\\ between\\ American\\ and\\ Latino\\ culture\\ that\\ is\\ portrayed\\ through\\ imagery\\,\\ language\\,\\ and\\ tone\\.\\ The\\ most\\ obvious\\ is\\ the\\ interjection\\ of\\ Spanish\\ words\\ \\(finca\\,\\ tio\\,\\ gringos\\)\\.\\ Another\\ is\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ dance\\ associated\\ with\\ each\\ culture\\:\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ meringue\\ versus\\ the\\ Minnesota\\ Charleston\\ versus\\ the\\ workman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ jig\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ both\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ life\\ because\\ it\\ describes\\ her\\ disgust\\ with\\ her\\ personal\\ experience\\ of\\ her\\ uncle\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ treats\\ her\\ \\(a\\ sexual\\,\\ creepy\\ way\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ greater\\ societal\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ mixing\\ cultures\\ and\\ the\\ forgotten\\ lower\\ class\\ characters\\ \\(the\\ maids\\ and\\ the\\ workmen\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ gender\\ contrasts\\,\\ depicted\\ through\\ the\\ different\\ language\\ and\\ treatment\\ of\\ genders\\.\\ Specifically\\,\\ she\\ distinguishes\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;dark\\-skinned\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ women\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ describing\\ the\\ wedding\\ guests\\,\\ her\\ uncle\\ showing\\ that\\ her\\ cousin\\ \\&ldquo\\;was\\ valued\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(note\\ the\\ passive\\ tense\\,\\ making\\ her\\ cousin\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ sexual\\ imagery\\ surrounding\\ the\\ way\\ her\\ uncle\\ treats\\ her\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;fondling\\ my\\ shoulder\\ blades\\ beneath\\ my\\ bridesmaid\\ gown\\/\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ breasts\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Other\\ notable\\ images\\:\\ the\\ wedding\\ cake\\&mdash\\;symbolizing\\ the\\ constructed\\,\\ fake\\,\\ confectionary\\ society\\ life\\ that\\ required\\ upkeep\\/touch\\ ups\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ workers\\ could\\ only\\ steal\\ glances\\ of\\ \\(as\\ something\\ unobtainable\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genius\\ Child\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(19XX\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ p\\.220\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Political\\,\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ occasional\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabb\\ a\\ ca\\ ded\\ aa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ genius\\ child\\,\\ lynching\\,\\ eagle\\,\\ monster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ civil\\ rights\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Nobody\\ loves\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\.\\/Kill\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ let\\ his\\ soul\\ run\\ wild\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hughes\\ frequently\\ brings\\ a\\ voice\\ to\\ the\\ marginalized\\&mdash\\;here\\ he\\ addresses\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;genius\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ may\\ come\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ experiences\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ great\\ intelligence\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ child\\ this\\ probably\\ isolated\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ \\&ldquo\\;monster\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ stylized\\ like\\ a\\ childhood\\ song\\,\\ with\\ very\\ simple\\ rhyme\\ and\\ meter\\,\\ and\\ phrases\\ that\\ demarcate\\ chants\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ a\\ song\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ with\\ a\\ chant\\,\\ the\\ song\\ treats\\ the\\ genius\\ child\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ very\\ dangerous\\;\\ mention\\ his\\ name\\ softly\\,\\ or\\ the\\ song\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;get\\ out\\ of\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ main\\ tonal\\ turn\\ however\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ italicized\\ line\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nobody\\ loves\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ Hughes\\ imagines\\ the\\ feelings\\ of\\ his\\ chanting\\ tribe\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ you\\ love\\ someone\\ so\\ different\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ monster\\ \\/\\ Of\\ frightening\\ name\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;which\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ child\\ appears\\ to\\ its\\ people\\,\\ a\\ little\\ person\\ with\\ so\\ much\\ power\\ and\\ a\\ different\\ way\\ of\\ thought\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ refrain\\ gets\\ ugly\\ and\\ absolute\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nobody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;loves\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\,\\ not\\ even\\ his\\ parents\\,\\ teachers\\,\\ siblings\\,\\ peers\\&hellip\\;\\ To\\ offer\\ the\\ solution\\ of\\ killing\\ the\\ monster\\ to\\ spare\\ society\\,\\ Langston\\ takes\\ the\\ most\\ unsparing\\ view\\ possible\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ societal\\ critique\\ that\\ jolts\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ room\\ in\\ society\\ for\\ the\\ uniquely\\ different\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\ or\\ tame\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ a\\ genius\\ child\\ who\\ may\\ have\\ unbridled\\ potential\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ Hughes\\,\\ society\\ kills\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ those\\ distinguished\\ by\\ exceptional\\ talent\\ or\\ intelligence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\High\\ to\\ Low\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(1902\\-1967\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 233\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 6\\:\\ Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ black\\ social\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ short\\ lines\\,\\ some\\ rhyme\\ \\(no\\ pattern\\)\\,\\ no\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ loud\\?\\ Unkempt\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ male\\,\\ well\\-educated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ trouble\\ is\\ you\\ \\:\\ \\/\\ you\\ talk\\ too\\ loud\\,\\ \\/\\ look\\ to\\ black\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ confronts\\ the\\ divisions\\ within\\ black\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ written\\ from\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ an\\ upper\\-class\\ black\\ to\\ a\\ lower\\-class\\ black\\,\\ annoyed\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ lumped\\ together\\,\\ when\\ one\\ sees\\ the\\ other\\ so\\ negatively\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ writes\\ in\\ the\\ chapter\\,\\ the\\ opinions\\ are\\ also\\ layered\\ upon\\ how\\ the\\ non\\-black\\ \\(white\\)\\ population\\ views\\ blacks\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ layering\\ of\\ judgments\\ and\\ perceptions\\ is\\ what\\ compels\\ the\\ high\\-class\\ speaker\\ \\(presumably\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\)\\ to\\ speak\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ presents\\ examples\\ of\\ what\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ acceptable\\ when\\ he\\ uses\\ parentheses\\ to\\ suggest\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ethical\\ Culture\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;St\\.\\ Phillips\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ fancy\\ school\\ and\\ church\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Me\\ and\\ the\\ Mule\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(pg\\ 222\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/6\\ Reading\\ for\\ Chapter\\ 7\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ race\\,\\ social\\ commentary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\/structural\\ detail\\:\\ ballad\\ form\\:\\ quatrains\\,\\ where\\ lines\\ 2\\ and\\ 4\\ rhyme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ mules\\,\\ the\\ color\\ black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\ artist\\ who\\ wrote\\ during\\ the\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\.\\ Poetry\\ and\\ writings\\ emphasize\\ pride\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ culture\\ despite\\ discrimination\\ and\\ prejudice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ a\\ mule\\ so\\ long\\/\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forgot\\ about\\ his\\ race\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;you\\ got\\ to\\ take\\ me\\/\\ like\\ I\\ am\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Hughes\\ discusses\\ a\\ mule\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;identity\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ an\\ analogy\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ search\\ for\\ self\\.\\ The\\ mule\\ is\\ old\\,\\ probably\\ overworked\\,\\ and\\ of\\ mixed\\ racial\\ descent\\ \\(mules\\ are\\ a\\ cross\\ between\\ horses\\ and\\ mules\\.\\)\\ Despite\\ these\\ negative\\ facts\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ mule\\ \\&ldquo\\;grins\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Hughes\\ concludes\\ that\\ the\\ mule\\ must\\ not\\ care\\ about\\ his\\ unsavory\\ genealogy\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ so\\ long\\ that\\ he\\ just\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ Hughes\\ equates\\ his\\ black\\ heritage\\ with\\ the\\ mule\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mixed\\ heritage\\,\\ and\\ decides\\ that\\ like\\ the\\ mule\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ a\\ damn\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ As\\ Vendler\\ notes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;live\\ long\\ enough\\ and\\ you\\ become\\ just\\ yourself\\,\\ not\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ Hughes\\ because\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ he\\ can\\ accept\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ is\\ impervious\\ to\\ external\\ threats\\ to\\ his\\ identity\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ being\\ hurt\\ by\\ social\\ prejudices\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ he\\ confidently\\ states\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ got\\ to\\ take\\ me\\/\\ like\\ I\\ am\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\ the\\ poem\\ arrives\\ at\\ a\\ cathartic\\ ending\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Hughes\\ like\\ the\\ mule\\ accepts\\ his\\ heritage\\ and\\ grins\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ since\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ revert\\ to\\ the\\ simplest\\ early\\ song\\ form\\,\\ we\\ expect\\ poems\\ in\\ this\\ form\\ to\\ contain\\ a\\ narrative\\ and\\ some\\ folk\\ wisdom\\.\\ Hughes\\ thus\\ subtly\\ uses\\ the\\ structural\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ to\\ suggest\\ to\\ his\\ readers\\ that\\ they\\ all\\ might\\ learn\\ something\\ from\\ accepting\\ their\\ identity\\ instead\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ conform\\ to\\ societal\\ constructions\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theme\\ for\\ English\\ B\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(19\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 20\\,\\ 25\\.\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Race\\ relations\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Free\\ verse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Cities\\,\\ streets\\,\\ dialogues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;But\\ I\\ guess\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ what\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ feel\\ and\\ see\\ and\\ hear\\,\\ Harlem\\,\\ I\\ hear\\ you\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hear\\ you\\,\\ hear\\ me\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ two\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\,\\ me\\,\\ talk\\ on\\ this\\ page\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ an\\ introduction\\,\\ presenting\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biographical\\ background\\ \\(22\\ years\\ old\\,\\ colored\\,\\ now\\ a\\ college\\ student\\ in\\ Harlem\\)\\,\\ the\\ writing\\ prompt\\ for\\ the\\ piece\\ we\\ are\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ his\\ urban\\ environs\\ at\\ time\\ of\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ has\\ two\\ trains\\ of\\ thought\\.\\ \\ \\;Firstly\\,\\ he\\ considers\\ himself\\ defined\\ by\\ how\\ he\\ responds\\ to\\ his\\ city\\ and\\ engages\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ dialogue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ consideration\\ of\\ race\\ relations\\,\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ microcosm\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relation\\ to\\ his\\ teacher\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sees\\ that\\ his\\ likes\\ do\\ not\\ differ\\ greatly\\ from\\ those\\ of\\ white\\ people\\ like\\ his\\ instructor\\.\\ \\ \\;Certainly\\,\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ races\\ have\\ different\\ experiences\\ to\\ relate\\,\\ but\\ as\\ Americans\\ they\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ each\\ other\\ whether\\ they\\ like\\ it\\ or\\ not\\ and\\ can\\ learn\\ from\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ dialogue\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ exchange\\ between\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ his\\ city\\ or\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ teacher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\World\\ War\\ II\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(late\\ 1940s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(p\\.\\ 247\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 13\\/15\\ Lecture\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(subset\\:\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ historical\\;\\ also\\ political\\/protest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ song\\-and\\-echo\\;\\ also\\ epigrammatic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ iambic\\ in\\ the\\ chorus\\ part\\ \\(before\\ the\\ echo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ The\\ first\\ half\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ chorus\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ puts\\ it\\,\\ which\\ is\\ rhymed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ababccab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ with\\ the\\ refrain\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\,\\ my\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyme\\)\\ indented\\ to\\ connote\\ its\\ exclamatory\\/responsory\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ second\\/final\\ stanza\\ is\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;Echo\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ each\\ word\\&mdash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Did\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Somebody\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Die\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ set\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ line\\,\\ capitalized\\ and\\ italicized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ first\\ half\\ has\\ little\\ imagery\\,\\ just\\ vagaries\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;grand\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ echo\\ introduces\\ images\\ of\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ \\(1902\\&ndash\\;1967\\)\\ was\\ a\\ black\\ American\\ poet\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ 1920s\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\ movement\\ during\\ which\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ black\\ artists\\/writers\\ proliferated\\ and\\ became\\ more\\ prominent\\.\\ Though\\ mostly\\ silent\\ about\\ his\\ leftist\\ views\\ during\\ WWII\\,\\ he\\ became\\ more\\ outspoken\\ about\\ his\\ objections\\ to\\ the\\ war\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 40s\\ into\\ 50s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ a\\ grand\\ time\\ was\\ the\\ war\\,\\/\\ My\\,\\ my\\!\\/\\/\\ Echo\\:\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Did\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Somebody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Die\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hughes\\ gives\\ us\\ two\\ views\\ of\\ WWII\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ voiced\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ chorus\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ cries\\ of\\ joy\\ at\\ the\\ economic\\ boom\\ \\(new\\ jobs\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ provided\\ by\\ the\\ war\\.\\ The\\ other\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Echo\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;\\ comes\\ from\\ some\\ unknown\\ speaker\\ \\(the\\ poet\\?\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ history\\?\\)\\ and\\ is\\ formatted\\ to\\ emphasize\\ its\\ sacred\\ nature\\.\\ On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ WWII\\ brought\\ prosperity\\ to\\ many\\ poor\\ families\\;\\ on\\ the\\ other\\,\\ it\\ brought\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ sons\\ and\\ husbands\\ to\\ many\\.\\ This\\ short\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ neat\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ form\\ many\\ historical\\ poems\\ take\\:\\ it\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ problematic\\ dual\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ it\\ uses\\ an\\ epigrammatic\\ twist\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ and\\ it\\ provides\\ a\\ philosophic\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ events\\ that\\ encompasses\\ both\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poema\\ para\\ los\\ Californios\\ Muertos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1954\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Lorna\\ Dee\\ Cervantes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 174\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ October\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Resentment\\,\\ Anger\\,\\ Compunction\\ for\\ the\\ dead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Macaronic\\ Poem\\,\\ Lyric\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Free\\ Verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 4\\ Stanzas\\ of\\ unequal\\ lengths\\ \\(line\\ count\\ of\\ stanzas\\ in\\ order\\:\\ 10\\,\\ 8\\,\\ 10\\,\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ White\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;white\\,\\ high\\-class\\ houses\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;fantasmas\\ blancas\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Family\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ \\(Mother\\ Earth\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\,\\ ancestors\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;soy\\ la\\ hija\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Mother\\ Earth\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;belly\\ valleys\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;fertile\\ dust\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;tierra\\ la\\ madre\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Lorna\\ Dee\\ Cervantes\\ is\\ a\\ famous\\ Chicana\\ poet\\.\\ A\\ Chicana\\ is\\ a\\ cultural\\ identity\\ for\\ persons\\ who\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ connection\\ to\\ their\\ Mexican\\-American\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ and\\ often\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ accompanying\\ political\\ consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ blue\\ jay\\ shrieks\\ \\/\\ above\\ the\\ pungent\\ odor\\ of\\ crushed\\ \\/\\ eucalyptus\\ and\\ the\\ pure\\ scent\\ \\/\\ of\\ rage\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ the\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ prefaced\\ by\\ a\\ caption\\ from\\ a\\ plaque\\ outside\\ a\\ restaurant\\ in\\ California\\ that\\ reads\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Once\\ a\\ refuge\\ for\\ Mexican\\ Californios\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ caption\\ leads\\ the\\ speaker\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ her\\ own\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ plaque\\,\\ bringing\\ back\\ images\\ of\\ her\\ dead\\ ancestors\\.\\ She\\ writes\\ of\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ whites\\ and\\ the\\ Hispanics\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;silver\\ buckles\\ and\\ spent\\ bullets\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;embroidered\\ shawls\\ and\\ dark\\ rebozos\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ author\\ speaks\\ to\\ her\\ dead\\ ancestors\\,\\ wondering\\ both\\ about\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ was\\ it\\ like\\ here\\ \\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ refuge\\ did\\ you\\ find\\ here\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ it\\ true\\ that\\ you\\ still\\ live\\ here\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ She\\ then\\ communicates\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ her\\ native\\ Spanish\\,\\ telling\\ that\\ that\\ she\\ can\\ rid\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ ghosts\\,\\ that\\ only\\ her\\ ancestors\\ ghosts\\ have\\ to\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ there\\.\\ This\\ statement\\ heightens\\ the\\ tensions\\ between\\ the\\ whites\\ and\\ her\\ ancestors\\,\\ suggestive\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ of\\ white\\ wrongdoings\\ to\\ the\\ Hispanics\\.\\ As\\ we\\ move\\ into\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ feels\\ out\\ of\\ place\\.\\ She\\ is\\ surrounded\\ by\\ strangers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ plaque\\,\\ there\\ is\\ remnants\\ of\\ the\\ Californios\\ left\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ enraged\\,\\ and\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ using\\ harsh\\ words\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;crushed\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rage\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ Spanish\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ We\\ begin\\ the\\ poem\\ in\\ English\\,\\ with\\ only\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ Spanish\\.\\ However\\,\\ as\\ the\\ speaker\\ connects\\ with\\ her\\ past\\ and\\ with\\ her\\ ancestors\\,\\ we\\ see\\ an\\ increasing\\ amount\\ of\\ Spanish\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ speaker\\ was\\ forcing\\ it\\ onto\\ the\\ English\\-speaking\\ reader\\.\\ By\\ using\\ Spanish\\,\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ both\\ allowing\\ herself\\ to\\ connect\\ with\\ her\\ ancestors\\ \\(who\\ most\\ likely\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ very\\ much\\ English\\)\\ and\\ insisting\\ that\\ she\\ will\\ never\\ lose\\ her\\ native\\ tongue\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ her\\ use\\ of\\ Spanish\\ separates\\ her\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;strangers\\&rdquo\\;\\ around\\ her\\ and\\ connects\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ Californios\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mock\\ Orange\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1985\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Louise\\ Gluck\\-Pg\\ 304\\-305\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 20\\ and\\ the\\ lyric\\ demarcating\\ life\\-stages\\.\\ Also\\ included\\ on\\ November\\ 30\\ under\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ marriage\\ poem\\,\\ life\\-cycle\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Trochaic\\,\\ each\\ line\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ downbeat\\,\\ adding\\ to\\ the\\ intensity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 6\\ stanzas\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ rhyming\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\/stanzas\\ are\\ enjambed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hate\\ them\\.\\ I\\ hate\\ them\\ as\\ I\\ hate\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Should\\ be\\ easy\\ to\\ remember\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ Gluck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disillusionment\\ with\\ her\\ marriage\\ and\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ marriage\\ throughout\\ history\\.\\ The\\ act\\ of\\ sex\\ and\\ the\\ mock\\ orange\\ bush\\ represent\\ this\\ disillusionment\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ starts\\ off\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ angry\\ tone\\,\\ as\\ Gluck\\ addresses\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ What\\ has\\ spurred\\ her\\ to\\ speak\\ is\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suggestion\\ that\\ her\\ bad\\ mood\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ interest\\ in\\ sex\\ might\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ menstruating\\.\\ Gluck\\ opens\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ angrily\\ retorting\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ I\\ tell\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ then\\ shocks\\ the\\ reader\\ again\\ by\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ flowers\\ in\\ the\\ yard\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hate\\ them\\/\\ I\\ hate\\ them\\ as\\ I\\ hate\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Gluck\\ then\\ describes\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ sex\\ in\\ violent\\ terms\\;\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mouth\\ is\\ sealing\\ hers\\,\\ his\\ body\\ is\\ paralyzing\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ hers\\.\\ Still\\,\\ she\\ \\&ldquo\\;enjoys\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ sex\\ because\\ she\\ always\\ orgasms\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ cry\\ that\\ always\\ escapes\\&rdquo\\;\\-yet\\ she\\ describes\\ it\\ as\\ low\\ and\\ humiliating\\.\\ She\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;low\\,\\ humiliating\\/\\ premise\\ of\\ union\\&rdquo\\;\\-union\\ here\\ represents\\ the\\ physical\\ union\\ of\\ their\\ two\\ bodies\\ but\\ also\\ echoes\\ the\\ union\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ Despite\\ her\\ distaste\\ for\\ sex\\ and\\ the\\ humiliation\\ it\\ brings\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ that\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ answered\\ positively\\.\\ The\\ tone\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\;\\ she\\ goes\\ from\\ angrily\\ addresses\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ person\\ to\\ plural\\ first\\ person\\-\\&ldquo\\;Do\\ you\\ see\\?\\ We\\ were\\ made\\ fools\\ of\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ softening\\ then\\ becomes\\ more\\ introspective\\ as\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ alone\\ with\\ Gluck\\ wondering\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ can\\ I\\ be\\ content\\/\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ still\\/\\ that\\ odor\\ in\\ the\\ world\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ pronoun\\ change\\ coincides\\ with\\ the\\ softening\\ of\\ the\\ tone\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sham\\&rdquo\\;\\-as\\ Gluck\\ sees\\ it\\-of\\ marriage\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ continue\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ we\\ marry\\ and\\ have\\ children\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ think\\ it\\ is\\-as\\ she\\ states\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ were\\ made\\ fools\\ of\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ change\\ in\\ emotion\\ can\\ be\\ tracked\\ through\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ orange\\ bushes\\ outside\\ her\\ window\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ they\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;flowers\\/lighting\\ the\\ yard\\&rdquo\\;\\-giving\\ positive\\ imagery\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\ it\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ second\\ of\\ mock\\ orange\\/drifts\\ through\\ the\\ window\\&rdquo\\;\\-the\\ change\\ in\\ description\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ two\\ were\\ deceived\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ Gluck\\ is\\ wondering\\ how\\ she\\ can\\ be\\ content\\ with\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;odor\\&rdquo\\;\\ still\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ word\\ odor\\ has\\ a\\ negative\\ connotation\\,\\ leaving\\ a\\ bad\\ taste\\ in\\ the\\ mouth\\ of\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ School\\ Children\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Louise\\ Gluck\\ \\(pg\\ 4\\,\\ 33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/27\\ Chapter\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ page\\ 4\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ ones\\ she\\ analyzes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ private\\ lives\\,\\ maternity\\,\\ authority\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-forms\\:\\ lyric\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ three\\ quatrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ unrhymed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ apples\\ and\\ apple\\ orchards\\,\\ teachers\\ behind\\ desks\\,\\ coat\\ hooks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ morning\\ the\\ mothers\\ have\\ labored\\ to\\ gather\\ the\\ late\\ apples\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ gray\\ limbs\\ of\\ the\\ fruit\\ trees\\ bearing\\ so\\ little\\ ammunition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ day\\ of\\ school\\,\\ using\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ clich\\é\\;\\ images\\ that\\ are\\ typically\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ event\\.\\ The\\ description\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ begins\\ innocently\\ enough\\,\\ with\\ the\\ children\\ carrying\\ \\&ldquo\\;little\\ satchels\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ mothers\\ collecting\\ bright\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\ and\\ gold\\&rdquo\\;\\ apples\\ to\\ give\\ them\\ to\\ take\\ to\\ their\\ teachers\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ Mothers\\ are\\ working\\ hard\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;labored\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ an\\ optimistic\\ and\\ productive\\ tone\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ preparing\\ and\\ gathering\\ apples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ next\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ traditional\\ imagery\\ takes\\ a\\ sinister\\ turn\\.\\ The\\ teachers\\ are\\ not\\ approachable\\;\\ they\\ are\\ spatially\\ separated\\ across\\ an\\ ocean\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ like\\ malevolent\\ deities\\ who\\ demand\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;offering\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Coat\\ hooks\\ are\\ also\\ starkly\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;nails\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ conjuring\\ images\\ of\\ torture\\ and\\ hangings\\.\\ Gluck\\ also\\ reveals\\ the\\ mothers\\ internal\\ conflict\\ and\\ distress\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ protect\\ and\\ provide\\ for\\ their\\ children\\,\\ but\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ reach\\ the\\ teachers\\.\\ The\\ apples\\ were\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;words\\ of\\ another\\ language\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ teachers\\ are\\ impenetrable\\ through\\ a\\ language\\ barrier\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ are\\ in\\ vain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ last\\ stanza\\ solidifies\\ the\\ unraveling\\ of\\ a\\ happy\\ first\\ day\\ of\\ school\\.\\ Gluck\\ uses\\ battle\\ imagery\\,\\ calling\\ the\\ apples\\ \\&ldquo\\;ammunition\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ mothers\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;way\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ a\\ defeated\\ army\\ while\\ the\\ teachers\\ are\\ impenetrably\\ silent\\ while\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;teach\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Even\\ the\\ colors\\ are\\ lost\\ and\\ only\\ gray\\ is\\ left\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ apples\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ repeats\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;they\\ become\\ more\\ pathetic\\ as\\ the\\ poem\\ goes\\ on\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(33\\)\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ described\\ in\\ a\\ series\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;words\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;these\\ offerings\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ finally\\ \\&ldquo\\;ammunition\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ Gluck\\ progressively\\ shows\\ the\\ Mothers\\ losing\\ control\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ children\\ from\\ the\\ sinister\\ authority\\ figures\\ of\\ the\\ school\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Footnote\\ to\\ the\\ Amnesty\\ Report\\ on\\ Torture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Margaret\\ Atwood\\ \\(pg\\ 69\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/29\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ reading\\ other\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ social\\ commentary\\,\\ fear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-forms\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ torture\\ instruments\\,\\ walls\\,\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ first\\ line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ torture\\ chamber\\ is\\ not\\ like\\ anything\\ you\\ would\\ have\\ expected\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ man\\ who\\ cleans\\ the\\ floors\\ is\\ glad\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;sometimes\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ hard\\ he\\ tries\\,\\ his\\ children\\ are\\ not\\ there\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ plays\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conceptions\\ about\\ torture\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ levels\\.\\ In\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Atwood\\ forces\\ readers\\ to\\ rethink\\ their\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\ reality\\ of\\ torture\\,\\ and\\ strips\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ temptation\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ glamorous\\ and\\ Hollywood\\-esque\\.\\ Thus\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;sexy\\ chains\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ futuristic\\ \\&ldquo\\;cold\\-lighted\\ chrome\\&rdquo\\;\\ technologies\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ horrifyingly\\ bodily\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ smell\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;vomit\\,\\ the\\ same\\ shed\\ teeth\\,\\ the\\ same\\ piss\\ and\\ liquid\\ shit\\,\\ the\\ same\\ panic\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ shifts\\ focus\\ and\\ examines\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ one\\ step\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ bodily\\ refuse\\:\\ the\\ cleaner\\.\\ Traditional\\ examinations\\ of\\ torture\\ usually\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ actually\\ doing\\ the\\ torturing\\;\\ this\\ poem\\ asks\\ us\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ tacitly\\ support\\ the\\ atrocity\\.\\ As\\ Atwood\\ notes\\,\\ the\\ cleaner\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ glad\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ hide\\ what\\ he\\ does\\ from\\ his\\ family\\.\\ This\\ is\\ almost\\ more\\ horrifying\\,\\ because\\ the\\ reader\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ normal\\ loving\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ involved\\ with\\ torture\\ on\\ a\\ seemingly\\ innocent\\ level\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ is\\ afraid\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ might\\ do\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ he\\ often\\ fears\\ for\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ children\\.\\ Atwood\\ cleverly\\ makes\\ the\\ reader\\ sympathize\\ and\\ maybe\\ even\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ cleaner\\,\\ and\\ by\\ doing\\ show\\ she\\ forces\\ the\\ readers\\ to\\ approach\\ the\\ atrocity\\ of\\ torture\\ and\\ consider\\ what\\ they\\ themselves\\ would\\ do\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ condition\\.\\ Ultimately\\ she\\ thus\\ asks\\ every\\ person\\ to\\ examine\\ how\\ complicit\\ they\\ are\\ with\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Courtship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(196X\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mark\\ Strand\\ p\\.146\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Describing\\ Poems\\:\\ additional\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Courtship\\,\\ parody\\,\\ satire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\,\\ 5\\ lines\\ each\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Penis\\,\\ vagina\\,\\ womb\\,\\ masculinity\\,\\ sexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Canadian\\ modernist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ reach\\ for\\ her\\ panties\\ and\\ beg\\ forgiveness\\ as\\ you\\ do\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ tongue\\-in\\-cheek\\ parody\\ of\\ relationships\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ a\\ humorous\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ boy\\ trying\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ a\\ certain\\ girl\\ he\\ likes\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ boy\\ however\\,\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ klutz\\ in\\ what\\ he\\ says\\,\\ and\\ the\\ usual\\ awkwardness\\ of\\ opposing\\ agendas\\ during\\ the\\ dating\\ process\\ is\\ exaggerated\\ to\\ the\\ extreme\\ by\\ Strand\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ protagonist\\ is\\ exceedingly\\,\\ awkwardly\\ honest\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ male\\ reader\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ feel\\ for\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ center\\ around\\ some\\ period\\ during\\ puberty\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ boy\\,\\ which\\ Strand\\ refers\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ person\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ in\\ his\\ shoes\\,\\ has\\ a\\ uncontrolled\\ spout\\ of\\ honesty\\ when\\ he\\ tells\\ a\\ girl\\ whom\\ he\\ likes\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ big\\ penis\\,\\ but\\ then\\ confesses\\ \\&ldquo\\;its\\ demands\\ are\\ ridiculous\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ as\\ of\\ yet\\ unsatisfied\\;\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ frequently\\ resort\\ to\\ masturbation\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ course\\ this\\ horrifies\\ the\\ girl\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ becomes\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ funny\\ as\\ the\\ boy\\ tries\\ to\\ correct\\ this\\ grievous\\ error\\ of\\ admission\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ renounces\\ his\\ masculinity\\ in\\ his\\ shame\\;\\ suddenly\\ he\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ penis\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ actually\\ \\&ldquo\\;want\\[s\\]\\ to\\ bear\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ was\\ the\\ reason\\ for\\ his\\ confusion\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ course\\ this\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ stupid\\ a\\ thing\\ to\\ say\\,\\ so\\ in\\ frustration\\ he\\ curses\\ the\\ day\\ he\\ was\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;Sexual\\ desire\\ overtakes\\ him\\ and\\ he\\ makes\\ an\\ advance\\ on\\ the\\ girl\\,\\ which\\ is\\ rejected\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ ironic\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Taken\\ by\\ storm\\,\\ she\\ is\\ the\\ girl\\ you\\ will\\ marry\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strand\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ fixated\\ on\\ how\\ men\\ have\\ to\\ repress\\ their\\ sexuality\\ during\\ \\&ldquo\\;courtship\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ main\\ concern\\ during\\ the\\ entire\\ process\\&mdash\\;in\\ fact\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ with\\ his\\ last\\ line\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ they\\ bother\\ to\\ marry\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ girl\\,\\ representing\\ the\\ sensibilities\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ womanhood\\ in\\ general\\,\\ is\\ above\\ the\\ cravings\\ of\\ sexuality\\&mdash\\;a\\ state\\ the\\ men\\ unconsciously\\ wish\\ they\\ could\\ achieve\\,\\ hence\\ the\\ entire\\ regression\\ from\\ masculinity\\ attempted\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ stanzas\\&mdash\\;but\\ alas\\,\\ they\\ cannot\\ actually\\ do\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\,\\ for\\ that\\ would\\ void\\ their\\ very\\ nature\\,\\ their\\ manhood\\ and\\ their\\ purpose\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ paradox\\ of\\ masculinity\\,\\ expressed\\ in\\ a\\ comedy\\ about\\ pubescent\\ dating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dover\\ Beach\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1867\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Matthew\\ Arnold\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ N\\/A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ life\\ critic\\-political\\ critic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ no\\ uniformity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ first\\ is\\ the\\ longest\\ \\(14\\ lines\\)\\,\\ the\\ last\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ longest\\ \\(9\\)\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ third\\ \\(8\\)\\ and\\ second\\ \\(6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ English\\ Channel\\,\\ Aegean\\,\\ Religious\\ Faith\\ \\(portrayed\\ as\\ a\\ sea\\)\\,\\ images\\ of\\ evils\\ of\\ the\\ Victorian\\ era\\ \\(war\\,\\ struggle\\,\\ flight\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Considered\\ along\\ with\\ Tennyson\\,\\ and\\ Browning\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ Victorian\\ era\\.\\ He\\ is\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ Romanticism\\ and\\ Modernism\\ \\(the\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\ are\\ Romantic\\)\\ and\\ the\\ pessimistic\\ perspective\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ Modern\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ we\\ are\\ here\\ as\\ on\\ a\\ darkling\\ plain\\ \\/\\ Swept\\ with\\ confused\\ alarms\\ of\\ struggle\\ and\\ flight\\ \\/\\ Where\\ ignorant\\ armies\\ clash\\ by\\ night\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arnold\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Channel\\ and\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ France\\,\\ where\\ everything\\ is\\ tranquil\\.\\ However\\,\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ stanza\\ 1\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ transition\\ in\\ his\\ description\\ and\\ he\\ starts\\ portraying\\ the\\ waves\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ sadness\\ \\&ldquo\\;tremulous\\ cadence\\ slow\\,\\ and\\ bring\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;The\\ eternal\\ note\\ of\\ sadness\\ in\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ supports\\ his\\ transition\\ in\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ the\\ description\\ when\\ he\\ quotes\\ that\\ Sophocles\\ saw\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ in\\ the\\ Aegean\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ same\\ scene\\ evoked\\ in\\ his\\ mind\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;turbid\\ ebb\\ and\\ flow\\ \\/\\ Of\\ human\\ misery\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ continues\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Sea\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ this\\ time\\ Arnold\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ different\\ connotation\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ Religious\\ Faith\\ as\\ a\\ sea\\ that\\ once\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ the\\ full\\,\\ and\\ round\\ earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shore\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ now\\ he\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;hear\\[s\\]\\ \\/\\ Its\\ melancholy\\,\\ long\\,\\ withdrawing\\ roar\\,\\ \\/\\ Retreating\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ probably\\ is\\ a\\ critic\\ on\\ the\\ Church\\ as\\ it\\ starts\\ loosing\\ its\\ credibility\\ during\\ the\\ XIX\\ Century\\.\\ Finally\\ he\\ addresses\\ his\\ lover\\ \\(he\\ does\\ not\\ specify\\ the\\ gender\\ of\\ his\\ lover\\)\\ and\\ asks\\ to\\ truly\\ love\\ each\\ other\\,\\ for\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ beautiful\\ things\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ but\\ sadness\\ in\\ it\\,\\ leaving\\ their\\ love\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ they\\ can\\ cling\\ to\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scince\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ help\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Michel\\ Drayton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ unrequited\\ love\\,\\ morning\\,\\ winter\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\ \\;iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(strict\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ shakespearen\\ sonnet\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ loss\\ of\\ love\\,\\ separation\\ \\,death\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ irrelevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Like\\ most\\ other\\ sonnet\\ this\\ one\\ talks\\ about\\ lost\\ love\\ and\\ the\\ speaker\\ letting\\ go\\ of\\ his\\ lover\\.\\ The\\ first\\ octave\\ basically\\ talks\\ about\\ farewells\\ and\\ concealing\\ the\\ vows\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ possibly\\ divorce\\ or\\ possibly\\ more\\ symbolic\\ vows\\ that\\ two\\ people\\ silently\\ make\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ love\\/are\\ in\\ a\\ relationship\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ should\\ note\\ the\\ different\\ changes\\ of\\ pronouns\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ Theses\\ rapid\\ changes\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;us\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ I\\ to\\ you\\ to\\ me\\ to\\ it\\ highlight\\ the\\ confused\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ thus\\ also\\ pinpointing\\ towards\\ his\\ anxiety\\ and\\ sadness\\ after\\ this\\ separation\\ which\\ occurred\\.\\ Moreover\\ this\\ helps\\ create\\ a\\ move\\ of\\ sadness\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ mirrors\\ the\\ voice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ sestet\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ the\\ voice\\ wants\\ the\\ woman\\ to\\ rescue\\ passion\\.\\ Similarly\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ sestet\\ the\\ voice\\ is\\ avoiding\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ first\\ person\\ as\\ he\\ turns\\ to\\ third\\ person\\ instead\\.\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\ we\\ see\\ hw\\ the\\ voice\\ himself\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ rescued\\ and\\ wants\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ lover\\ and\\ yet\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ his\\ dignity\\ is\\ preventing\\ him\\ from\\ pleading\\ it\\ and\\ asking\\ for\\ it\\ himself\\ but\\ instead\\ indirectly\\ using\\ the\\ third\\ person\\ to\\ ask\\ for\\ it\\ \\(making\\ it\\ impersonal\\)\\.\\ Also\\ he\\ creates\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;theatrical\\ tableau\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(I\\ feel\\ like\\ this\\ term\\ should\\ be\\ used\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ arouse\\ his\\ lovers\\ pity\\ towards\\ him\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ deathbed\\ scene\\;\\ almost\\ attempting\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ die\\ without\\ her\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Wind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1820\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ Ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\,\\ \\"\\;Ode\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Wind\\"\\;\\ \\(582\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lamentation\\ of\\ human\\ earthly\\ condition\\,\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ read\\ as\\ a\\ Praise\\-Poem\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ supra\\-human\\ powers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Terza\\ Rima\\,\\ five\\ cantos\\ \\(ABA\\,\\ BCB\\,\\ CDC\\,\\ DED\\,\\ FF\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ wind\\ as\\ agent\\ of\\ death\\ and\\ destruction\\ \\(also\\ in\\ canto\\ one\\,\\ as\\ an\\ agent\\ of\\ life\\)\\,\\ storm\\,\\ rain\\,\\ earth\\ submitted\\ to\\ wind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ whims\\.\\ Last\\ two\\ cantos\\ portray\\ wind\\ as\\ the\\ agent\\ that\\ will\\ immortalize\\ Shelley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\ was\\ a\\ Romantic\\.\\ During\\ his\\ life\\ he\\ made\\ some\\ trips\\ to\\ Italy\\ \\(there\\ are\\ references\\ to\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\ and\\ to\\ an\\ island\\ in\\ Baiae\\ Bay\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\)\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ husband\\ of\\ Mary\\ Shelley\\,\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ Frankenstein\\.\\ Percy\\ Shelley\\ was\\ a\\ radical\\ atheist\\ and\\ was\\ expulsed\\ from\\ Oxford\\ for\\ having\\ published\\ a\\ pamphlet\\ on\\ this\\ topic\\.\\ He\\ led\\ a\\ tragic\\ life\\,\\ his\\ first\\ wife\\ drowned\\,\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ followed\\ the\\ same\\ fate\\ after\\ his\\ trip\\ to\\ the\\ Italian\\ peninsula\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Drive\\ my\\ dead\\ thoughts\\ over\\ the\\ universe\\ \\/\\ Like\\ withered\\ leaves\\ to\\ quicken\\ a\\ new\\ birth\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(he\\ is\\ imploring\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ and\\ sort\\ of\\ elevate\\ him\\ along\\ with\\ his\\ legacy\\,\\ kind\\ of\\ weird\\ though\\,\\ but\\ then\\ again\\ Shelley\\ was\\ a\\ Romantic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ things\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ useful\\ to\\ remind\\:\\ Phoebe\\ draw\\ a\\ very\\ complicated\\ diagram\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ section\\,\\ illustrating\\ the\\ second\\ canto\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ sort\\ of\\ portrayed\\ the\\ sea\\ and\\ the\\ sky\\ as\\ two\\ symmetrically\\ opposed\\ bows\\,\\ and\\ the\\ wind\\ surging\\ the\\ clouds\\,\\ and\\ water\\ in\\ a\\ ebb\\-like\\ fashion\\.\\ Also\\,\\ semi\\-quoting\\ her\\ last\\ words\\ \\&lsquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Wind\\ describes\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ that\\ Shelly\\ believed\\ poetry\\ had\\,\\ that\\ of\\ dispersing\\ solidity\\,\\ power\\ of\\ vaporization\\,\\ winds\\ ability\\ to\\ stir\\-up\\ levels\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literal\\ sequence\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 1\\:\\ Talks\\ about\\ the\\ wind\\ shaking\\ dead\\ leaves\\ and\\ liberating\\ \\&lsquo\\;pestilence\\-stricken\\ multitudes\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ then\\ he\\ switches\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ life\\-giving\\ qualities\\ of\\ the\\ Spring\\ wind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 2\\:\\ \\[Phoebe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ diagram\\]\\ He\\ describes\\ the\\ wind\\ shaking\\ both\\ the\\ sky\\ \\(rain\\,\\ lightning\\ and\\ clouds\\)\\ and\\ the\\ sea\\ in\\ ecstasy\\.\\ He\\ then\\ equates\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ a\\ dirge\\ \\(funeral\\ chant\\)\\ that\\ will\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ dome\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;vast\\ sepulcher\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ the\\ wind\\ itself\\ has\\ created\\ by\\ generating\\ all\\ the\\ turmoil\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 3\\:\\ Shelley\\ describes\\ a\\ quaint\\ Mediterranean\\ scene\\ that\\ is\\ suddenly\\ destroyed\\ and\\ uprooted\\ by\\ the\\ might\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\ and\\ an\\ enraged\\ ocean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ transition\\ in\\ the\\ general\\ theme\\ between\\ Canto\\ 3\\ and\\ Canto\\ 4\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ continuing\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ Wind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ destructive\\ agency\\,\\ Shelley\\ takes\\ on\\ an\\ imploration\\ to\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ \\(Shelley\\)\\ and\\ immortalize\\ him\\ by\\ elevating\\ him\\ above\\ the\\ mortal\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 4\\:\\ He\\ implores\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ leaf\\ and\\ empower\\ him\\ \\(although\\ to\\ a\\ lesser\\ degree\\ than\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\)\\ because\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;falls\\ upon\\ the\\ thorns\\ of\\ life\\!\\ I\\ bleed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canto\\ 5\\:\\ He\\ implores\\ the\\ wind\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ his\\ \\&lsquo\\;lyre\\,\\ even\\ as\\ the\\ forest\\ is\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ \\&lsquo\\;thoughts\\&rsquo\\;\\ immortal\\ through\\ dispersing\\ them\\ \\&lsquo\\;among\\ mankind\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ last\\ couplet\\,\\ however\\ retracts\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ from\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ immortalizing\\ \\(through\\ destruction\\ and\\ apparently\\ renewal\\)\\ agency\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\,\\ and\\ asks\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ The\\ trumpet\\ of\\ a\\ prophecy\\!\\ O\\ Wind\\,\\ \\/\\ If\\ Winter\\ comes\\,\\ can\\ Spring\\ be\\ far\\ behind\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ ponder\\ whether\\ if\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ life\\-generating\\ qualities\\ of\\ wind\\ are\\ worthier\\ than\\ its\\ destructive\\ qualities\\ \\(after\\ all\\,\\ Spring\\ comes\\ immediately\\ after\\ the\\ Winter\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ it\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;far\\ behind\\&rsquo\\;\\ but\\ also\\ immediately\\ proceeding\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shelley\\ finishes\\ his\\ first\\ three\\ Cantos\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;oh\\,\\ hear\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ all\\ the\\ destruction\\ he\\ has\\ portrayed\\ caused\\ him\\ pleasure\\.\\ What\\ might\\ have\\ compelled\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ speak\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ desire\\ \\(sooo\\ Romantic\\)\\ to\\ be\\ immortal\\,\\ and\\ transcendental\\ \\(destruction\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ force\\ that\\ renews\\ by\\ renovating\\ what\\ is\\ foul\\ and\\ corrupt\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reasons\\ for\\ Attendance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Phillip\\ Larkin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Inrospective\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ both\\ iambic\\ and\\ trochaic\\ pentamters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ stanzas\\ of\\ five\\ verses\\ each\\,\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ rhyme\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sex\\,\\ human\\ warmth\\,\\ pleasure\\,\\ inside\\/outside\\ dichotomy\\,\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Poet\\ and\\ Jazz\\ Musician\\,\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ poets\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ Wrote\\ mostly\\ popular\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ calls\\ me\\ is\\ that\\ lifted\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;rough\\-tongued\\ bell\\ \\/\\ \\(Art\\,\\ if\\ you\\ like\\)\\ whose\\ individual\\ sound\\ \\/\\ Insists\\ I\\ too\\ am\\ individual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Larkin\\ introduces\\ his\\ poem\\ Reasons\\ for\\ Attendance\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ party\\,\\ and\\ its\\ mix\\ of\\ music\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\ and\\ human\\ warmth\\ immediately\\ grasp\\ his\\ attention\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 1\\-3\\)\\.\\ The\\ author\\ situates\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ outside\\ observer\\,\\ even\\ when\\ he\\ implies\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ invited\\ to\\ attend\\ such\\ event\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ speculate\\ on\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ his\\ reluctance\\ to\\ participate\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ as\\ Larkin\\ continues\\ to\\ specify\\ the\\ mixed\\ feelings\\ that\\ the\\ scene\\ evokes\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ scrutinize\\ further\\ on\\ the\\ real\\ inner\\ motivations\\ and\\ tensions\\ that\\ led\\ the\\ author\\ to\\ portray\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ does\\ an\\ otherwise\\ commonplace\\ social\\ activity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ very\\ outset\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ interplay\\ between\\ the\\ speech\\ acts\\ and\\ imagery\\ Larking\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ his\\ first\\ impressions\\ \\-namely\\ worldly\\ and\\ human\\ feelings\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 4\\-9\\)\\-\\ clues\\ in\\ the\\ reader\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ his\\ real\\ standing\\ on\\ the\\ sentimental\\ worth\\ of\\ such\\ initial\\ perceptions\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ portrayal\\ of\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;trumpet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ brings\\ him\\ to\\ appreciate\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ inside\\ the\\ building\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ party\\ is\\ taking\\ place\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 2\\-5\\)\\.\\ The\\ description\\ takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ monologue\\,\\ however\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ the\\ poet\\ shifts\\ his\\ speech\\ and\\ immerses\\ in\\ a\\ soliloquy\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 6\\-10\\)\\ trying\\ to\\ explain\\ and\\ comprehend\\ \\(supposedly\\ for\\ himself\\ only\\,\\ for\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ encased\\ between\\ two\\ long\\ dashes\\)\\ the\\ impressions\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ scene\\ has\\ caused\\ on\\ him\\.\\ The\\ first\\ tension\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ exposes\\ in\\ such\\ introspection\\ is\\ a\\ desire\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 7\\)\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;sex\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 8\\)\\,\\ and\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ imagery\\ to\\ accentuate\\ his\\ sense\\ of\\ desire\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;smoke\\ and\\ sweat\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 6\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;wonderful\\ feel\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ share\\ \\/\\ \\[of\\]\\ happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 9\\-10\\)\\ also\\ contributes\\ to\\ underline\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ observer\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ participant\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ wonder\\ why\\ is\\ he\\ outside\\ if\\ he\\ clearly\\ feels\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ company\\.\\ Nonetheless\\,\\ the\\ proceeding\\ shift\\ from\\ soliloquy\\ to\\ a\\ monologue\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-11\\)\\ clarifies\\ that\\ such\\ feelings\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ motive\\ that\\ led\\ the\\ author\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ the\\ impressions\\ that\\ the\\ scene\\ evoked\\ on\\ him\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ motives\\,\\ namely\\ evoked\\ by\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;lifted\\,\\ rough\\-tongued\\ bell\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\ trumpet\\,\\ individual\\ sound\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\ and\\ art\\ \\(l\\.\\ 13\\)\\ that\\ lead\\ him\\ to\\ reconsider\\ his\\ participation\\ on\\ the\\ event\\.\\ The\\ iteration\\ monologue\\-soliloquy\\-monologue\\ and\\ the\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ imagery\\ that\\ Laking\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ what\\ draws\\ his\\ attention\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ human\\ warmth\\ and\\ interaction\\ imagery\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ individualism\\)\\ reveals\\ the\\ true\\ ambivalence\\ that\\ operates\\ in\\ his\\ soul\\:\\ the\\ choice\\ he\\ faces\\ of\\ whether\\ to\\ attain\\ self\\ realization\\ in\\ life\\ with\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ a\\ significant\\ other\\ and\\ ultimately\\ gain\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ lion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ share\\/\\ \\[o\\]f\\ happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ or\\ whether\\ to\\ attain\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ that\\ can\\ derive\\ pleasure\\ from\\ solitary\\ activities\\ such\\ as\\ music\\ \\&ldquo\\;whose\\ individual\\ sound\\ \\/\\ \\[i\\]nsists\\ \\[he\\]\\ too\\ \\[is\\ an\\]\\ individual\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 14\\-15\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parallel\\ to\\ the\\ imagery\\ and\\ the\\ speech\\ acts\\ Larking\\ uses\\ to\\ portray\\ his\\ inner\\ feelings\\,\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ counterpart\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ structure\\ that\\ reflects\\ his\\ feeling\\ of\\ insecurity\\ and\\ doubt\\.\\ His\\ iteration\\ between\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ trochaic\\ pentameters\\ in\\ stanzas\\ 1\\ and\\ 3\\,\\ and\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ iambic\\ pentameters\\ in\\ stanzas\\ 2\\ and\\ 5\\ reflect\\ the\\ momentous\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ statements\\ he\\ has\\ previously\\ made\\ by\\ showing\\ Larkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ human\\ side\\,\\ and\\ reflecting\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ even\\ then\\,\\ he\\ still\\ feels\\ a\\ little\\ reluctance\\ to\\ shed\\ aside\\ his\\ human\\ affective\\ disposition\\ altogether\\.\\ Nonetheless\\,\\ this\\ sentimental\\ doubt\\ is\\ resolved\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ where\\ his\\ last\\ monologue\\ carefully\\ explains\\ his\\ ultimate\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ his\\ unwillingness\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ party\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ being\\ inside\\ or\\ outside\\ the\\ event\\,\\ or\\ about\\ interacting\\ with\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ opposite\\ sex\\ \\(interactions\\ that\\ eventually\\ turn\\ in\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;mauls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 18\\)\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\)\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ about\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ living\\ a\\ life\\ filled\\ with\\ happiness\\ \\(l\\.\\ 17\\)\\,\\ without\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 17\\-19\\)\\.\\ In\\ his\\ case\\,\\ it\\ is\\ music\\ what\\ has\\ spoken\\ to\\ him\\ \\(l\\.\\ 15\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ others\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ still\\ be\\ happy\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 16\\-17\\)\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ Larkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ leaves\\ his\\ last\\ verse\\ as\\ an\\ invitation\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ also\\ reconsider\\ his\\ true\\ standing\\ his\\ life\\,\\ for\\ if\\ the\\ reader\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;misjudged\\ himself\\.\\ Or\\ lied\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 20\\)\\,\\ he\\ will\\ ultimately\\ be\\ unable\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ fulfilling\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Talking\\ in\\ Bed\\-\\ Philip\\ Larkin\\ \\(1922\\-1985\\)\\ p\\.110\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Describing\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Meditation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Dactylic\\ tetrameter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aba\\ cac\\ dcd\\ eee\\,\\ 4\\ stanzas\\,\\ 3\\ lines\\ per\\ stanza\\.\\ Last\\ two\\ lines\\ are\\ shorter\\ and\\ whole\\ last\\ stanza\\ rhymes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ time\\,\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ isolation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ becomes\\ still\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ find\\/\\ Words\\ at\\ once\\ true\\ and\\ kind\\/\\ Or\\ not\\ untrue\\ and\\ not\\ unkind\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ meditation\\ on\\ the\\ estrangement\\ between\\ two\\ lovers\\ after\\ many\\ years\\.\\ After\\ the\\ initial\\ general\\ opening\\ statement\\ the\\ poem\\ moves\\ into\\ the\\ present\\ tense\\ and\\ describes\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ this\\ couple\\ lying\\ in\\ bed\\ together\\ in\\ utter\\ silence\\,\\ with\\ the\\ world\\ going\\ on\\ around\\ them\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ nothing\\ actually\\ happens\\ the\\ couple\\ is\\ still\\ lying\\ there\\ in\\ silence\\ no\\ closer\\ to\\ understanding\\ or\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ isolation\\ they\\ are\\ feeling\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ appears\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ in\\ the\\ opening\\ stanza\\ how\\ talking\\ should\\ be\\ easy\\ because\\ the\\ couple\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ history\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ very\\ honest\\ in\\ bed\\ before\\.\\ He\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ meditate\\ on\\ this\\ state\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ how\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ is\\ no\\ help\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ essentially\\ no\\ explanation\\ for\\ why\\ this\\ problem\\,\\ which\\ is\\ he\\ redefines\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\ is\\ happening\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essentially\\ what\\ makes\\ this\\ poem\\ interesting\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ narrative\\,\\ because\\ nothing\\ actually\\ happens\\,\\ but\\ Larkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ method\\ of\\ meditating\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ The\\ pattern\\ is\\ how\\ it\\ used\\ to\\ be\\,\\ what\\ is\\ wrong\\ now\\,\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ finally\\ a\\ redefinition\\ after\\ meditating\\ about\\ the\\ problem\\ from\\ different\\ perspectives\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ moves\\ away\\ from\\ classical\\ narrative\\ poems\\ in\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ resolution\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ only\\ a\\ redefinition\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ he\\ started\\ with\\.\\ What\\ compelled\\ Larkin\\ to\\ write\\ such\\ a\\ poem\\ might\\ have\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ impotency\\ that\\ so\\ many\\ feel\\ when\\ trying\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ emotional\\ or\\ relationship\\ issues\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ knows\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ but\\ has\\ no\\ control\\ or\\ ability\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ Being\\ Brought\\ from\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 300\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Phillis\\ Wheatley\\ \\(1753\\ \\-\\ 1784\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ not\\ specifically\\ assigned\\,\\ but\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 9\\,\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ lyric\\:\\ religious\\ poem\\ \\(heavily\\ religious\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mention\\ of\\ Jesus\\/redemption\\/etc\\ in\\ every\\ line\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ elements\\:\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ simple\\ AABB\\,\\ perhaps\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ simplicity\\ and\\ clarity\\ of\\ the\\ message\\ she\\ is\\ sending\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negroes\\ black\\ as\\ Cain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wheatley\\ was\\ brought\\ to\\ America\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ 7\\ or\\ 8\\,\\ in\\ 1761\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ learned\\ the\\ English\\ language\\ very\\ quickly\\ \\(she\\ is\\ remembered\\ as\\ a\\ genius\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ view\\ our\\ race\\ with\\ scornful\\ eye\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Their\\ color\\ is\\ a\\ diabolic\\ dye\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\/\\ Remember\\ Christians\\,\\ Negros\\,\\ black\\ as\\ Cain\\,\\ \\/\\ May\\ be\\ refined\\,\\ and\\ join\\ th\\&rsquo\\;angelic\\ train\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ short\\,\\ one\\-stanza\\,\\ 8\\-line\\ poem\\,\\ effectively\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ Wheatley\\,\\ brought\\ over\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\ from\\ Africa\\,\\ feels\\ lucky\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;saved\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(religiously\\-speaking\\)\\,\\ but\\ reminds\\ white\\ people\\ that\\ blacks\\ are\\ essentially\\ there\\ equals\\ since\\ they\\,\\ too\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;May\\ be\\ refined\\,\\ and\\ join\\ th\\&rsquo\\;angelic\\ train\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ four\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ discuss\\ what\\ she\\ learned\\ after\\ coming\\ from\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;pagan\\ land\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ America\\ \\(ie\\.\\ she\\ learned\\ tha\\ tthere\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ God\\ and\\ a\\ Savior\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ she\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ known\\ before\\ arriving\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ four\\ lines\\,\\ however\\,\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ different\\ tone\\,\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ suddenly\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ directed\\ at\\ white\\ Christians\\:\\ she\\ says\\ that\\,\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ view\\ our\\ sable\\ \\[referring\\ to\\ skin\\ color\\]\\ race\\ with\\ scornful\\ eye\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Christians\\ need\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ even\\ Negros\\ who\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ as\\ Cain\\ \\/\\ May\\ be\\ refined\\,\\ and\\ join\\ th\\&rsquo\\;angelic\\ train\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Referencing\\ the\\ biblical\\ figure\\ Cain\\,\\ the\\ evil\\ twin\\ that\\ murders\\ his\\ brother\\ Abel\\,\\ and\\ using\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;refined\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggest\\ to\\ me\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ being\\ sarcastic\\/ironic\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ pointing\\ out\\ the\\ utter\\ irony\\ that\\,\\ if\\ blacks\\ are\\ equal\\ before\\ God\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ angelic\\ train\\,\\ then\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\ for\\ their\\ to\\ be\\ such\\ grave\\ inequality\\ in\\ the\\ worldly\\ realm\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ the\\ Ball\\ Turret\\ Gunner\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1945\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Randall\\ Jarrell\\ 122\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\ on\\ agency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\,\\ war\\,\\ death\\-bed\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(mostly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcdb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ humans\\ as\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ Airforce\\ in\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;when\\ I\\ died\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\they\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\washed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\me\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\out\\ of\\ the\\ turret\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ change\\ of\\ agency\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ main\\ verbs\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;the\\ speaker\\ has\\ the\\ agency\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ killed\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ and\\ final\\ line\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ agency\\ changes\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;they\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ actor\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ object\\ which\\ is\\ acted\\ upon\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ sentences\\ are\\ each\\ two\\ lines\\ long\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ sentence\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ line\\ long\\,\\ which\\ echoes\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ abbreviated\\ life\\ and\\ premature\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ line\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ vulnerability\\ and\\ dehumanization\\ of\\ soldiers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ says\\ that\\,\\ while\\ his\\ mother\\ was\\ sleeping\\,\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;fell\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ her\\ into\\ the\\ war\\&mdash\\;an\\ almost\\ accidental\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ get\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ had\\ the\\ mother\\ only\\ been\\ awake\\,\\ she\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ prevent\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ next\\ line\\ he\\ talks\\ about\\ having\\ wet\\ fur\\&mdash\\;as\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ an\\ animal\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ gives\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ both\\ vulnerable\\ and\\ dehumanized\\.\\ \\ \\;Jarrell\\ notes\\ that\\ when\\ a\\ soldier\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ ball\\ turret\\,\\ he\\ looked\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;foetus\\ in\\ the\\ womb\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ appearance\\ of\\ being\\ dependent\\ and\\ vulnerable\\ echoes\\ with\\ Jarrell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sentiments\\ on\\ battle\\,\\ where\\ he\\ seemed\\ to\\ just\\ be\\ waiting\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;nightmare\\ fighters\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ Lucasta\\,\\ Going\\ to\\ the\\ Wars\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Richard\\ Lovelace\\ \\(1618\\-1658\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 300\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\ \\(Chapter\\ 9\\)\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ love\\,\\ war\\:\\ leaving\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\,\\ except\\ lines\\ 1\\ and\\ 3\\ DO\\ rhyme\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ the\\ typical\\ ballad\\ stanza\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ alternating\\ tetrameter\\ \\&\\;\\ trimeter\\ 4\\-3\\-4\\-3\\ within\\ each\\ quatrain\\ \\(\\=\\ 8\\-6\\-8\\-6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\.\\ \\ \\;Poem\\ is\\ three\\ 4\\-line\\ stanzas\\ \\(quatrains\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ could\\ not\\ love\\ thee\\,\\ dear\\,\\ so\\ much\\,\\ \\/\\ Loved\\ I\\ not\\ honor\\ more\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\,\\ section\\ or\\ within\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;Author\\ leaves\\ his\\ mistress\\ for\\ the\\ war\\,\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ war\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ new\\ mistress\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Progression\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ Stanza\\ 1\\:\\ describes\\ mistress\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;chaste\\ breast\\ and\\ quiet\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\:\\ going\\ to\\ war\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ with\\ a\\ stronger\\ faith\\ embrace\\ \\/\\ A\\ sword\\,\\ a\\ horse\\,\\ a\\ shield\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;3\\:\\ you\\ should\\ love\\ me\\ for\\ my\\ love\\ of\\ honor\\ \\(which\\ is\\ why\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ going\\ to\\ war\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ poet\\ is\\ compelled\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ explain\\ to\\ Lucasta\\ \\(a\\ nickname\\ for\\ his\\ mistress\\,\\ Lucy\\)\\ why\\ he\\ must\\ leave\\ her\\ to\\ fight\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ emerges\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ an\\ argument\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ having\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ opens\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tell\\ me\\ not\\,\\ sweet\\,\\ I\\ am\\ unkind\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ pleads\\ with\\ her\\ to\\ understand\\ his\\ motivation\\ and\\ to\\ love\\ him\\ for\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flash\\ Cards\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1989\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rita\\ Dove\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1952\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;class\\,\\ introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ childhood\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ unrhymed\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Two\\ four\\ line\\ stanzas\\ followed\\ by\\ two\\ three\\ line\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ signs\\ of\\ youth\\ and\\ implied\\ powerlessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\-American\\,\\ appointed\\ Poet\\ Laureate\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ 1993\\ for\\ 2\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ten\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ kept\\ saying\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ only\\ ten\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ stanza\\ reveals\\ the\\ significant\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ child\\ is\\ intelligent\\,\\ the\\ father\\ is\\ demanding\\,\\ the\\ child\\ is\\ overwhelmed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ three\\ stanzas\\ recount\\ what\\ happens\\ after\\ school\\ lets\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ there\\ are\\ images\\ of\\ youth\\ beginning\\ to\\ blossom\\ \\(a\\ bud\\ on\\ a\\ geranium\\,\\ tulip\\ trees\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ bee\\ and\\ the\\ tulip\\ trees\\ are\\ both\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ rain\\,\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ walking\\ home\\ from\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ stanza\\ shows\\ the\\ father\\ relaxing\\ after\\ work\\ \\(as\\ a\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ child\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ supper\\,\\ they\\ work\\ on\\ schoolwork\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;we\\ drilled\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ stanza\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ stress\\ of\\ this\\ has\\ invaded\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subconscious\\ and\\ comes\\ out\\ in\\ her\\ dreams\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ culminates\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ \\(Notable\\ citation\\ above\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apparently\\,\\ her\\ father\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ black\\ research\\ chemist\\ ever\\ and\\ broke\\ many\\ color\\ barriers\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ he\\ took\\ his\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ education\\ very\\ seriously\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parsley\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1983\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rita\\ Dove\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 305\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\ \\(Chapter\\ 9\\)\\:\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ inequality\\,\\ racism\\,\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ part\\ 1\\:\\ song\\,\\ part\\ 2\\:\\ n\\/a\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ pentameter\\,\\ mostly\\ iambic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ sections\\ of\\ varying\\ length\\:\\ 1\\.\\ The\\ Cane\\ Fields\\,\\ is\\ a\\ villanelle\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ The\\ Palace\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ 7\\-\\ and\\ 8\\-line\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ notable\\ exception\\ \\ \\;being\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ \\(1\\ line\\ by\\ itself\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\spring\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\general\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parrot\\,\\ general\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boots\\,\\ sugar\\ cane\\ fields\\,\\ arrowhead\\ teeth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Black\\,\\ female\\,\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ parrot\\ imitating\\ spring\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Out\\ of\\ the\\ swamp\\ \\(\\,\\)\\ \\(\\.\\)\\ the\\ cane\\ appears\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(phrased\\ several\\ ways\\,\\ 4\\ times\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Katalina\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(meant\\ to\\ be\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;Katarina\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ an\\ R\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ historical\\ event\\ where\\ General\\ Trujillo\\,\\ dictator\\ of\\ the\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\,\\ ordered\\ 20K\\ blacks\\ killed\\ for\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ roll\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;R\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\perejil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ parsley\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ focuses\\ first\\ on\\ the\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ sugar\\ cane\\ fields\\,\\ their\\ powerlessness\\ and\\ maybe\\ also\\ the\\ senselessness\\ of\\ the\\ massacre\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ two\\ lines\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ citations\\-\\ first\\ about\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;parrot\\ imitating\\ spring\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;out\\ of\\ the\\ swamp\\ the\\ cane\\ appears\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ each\\ repeated\\ four\\ times\\,\\ as\\ is\\ traditional\\ of\\ a\\ villanelle\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ section\\ exposes\\ the\\ victimization\\ of\\ the\\ workers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\,\\ longer\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ General\\,\\ his\\ parrot\\,\\ and\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ his\\ dead\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Condensed\\ from\\ an\\ article\\ by\\ Prof\\.\\ Vendler\\ that\\ I\\ found\\ on\\ JSTOR\\:\\ \\)\\ This\\ section\\ gets\\ into\\ the\\ General\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ about\\ the\\ justification\\ of\\ the\\ killing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ parrot\\ belonged\\ to\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ and\\ reminds\\ the\\ General\\ unbearably\\ of\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ General\\ associates\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ the\\ Creole\\ workers\\ to\\ roll\\ their\\ R\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ disrespect\\ for\\ his\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\,\\ Spanish\\ with\\ a\\ rolled\\ R\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ designs\\ the\\ test\\ of\\ \\ \\;saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;perejil\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ kills\\ the\\ workers\\ supposedly\\ to\\ uphold\\ his\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ honor\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ release\\ from\\ his\\ misery\\ of\\ having\\ lost\\ his\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wingfoot\\ Lake\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg235\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rita\\ Dove\\ \\(1952\\-\\ \\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ November\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\:\\ Africa\\ and\\ the\\ African\\-American\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ assigned\\ for\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;week\\ of\\ section\\ meeting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ race\\ poem\\,\\ protest\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\(focuses\\ on\\ the\\ feelings\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ plot\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ no\\ dominant\\ meter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ no\\ rhynme\\ scheme\\,\\ split\\ into\\ 5\\ stanzas\\,\\ unusual\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sentences\\ begin\\ in\\ one\\ stanza\\ and\\ end\\ in\\ the\\ next\\,\\ reflecting\\ old\\ woman\\ being\\ at\\ loose\\ ends\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ swimming\\ pool\\,\\ waxy\\ beef\\ patties\\,\\ Africa\\ \\(Nile\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ swimmers\\&rsquo\\;\\ white\\ arms\\ jutting\\ into\\ the\\ chevrons\\ of\\ high\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ black\\ female\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ she\\ watched\\ the\\ TV\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ crow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wing\\ moved\\ slowly\\ through\\ the\\ white\\ streets\\ of\\ government\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ describes\\ an\\ old\\ black\\ woman\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ describing\\ her\\ ambivalence\\ about\\ desegregation\\ and\\ racism\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ Thomas\\ \\(presumably\\ her\\ husband\\)\\ drives\\ her\\ past\\ a\\ swimming\\ pool\\ in\\ which\\ white\\ people\\ are\\ swimming\\ \\(note\\ the\\ spatial\\ distance\\ between\\ them\\ and\\ the\\ pool\\ of\\ whites\\)\\,\\ and\\ she\\ reacted\\ by\\ rolling\\ up\\ her\\ window\\ and\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;drive\\ on\\ fast\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ giving\\ the\\ reader\\ the\\ impression\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ angry\\/upset\\ by\\ the\\ sight\\,\\ or\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ her\\ husband\\ is\\ so\\ intrigued\\ by\\ the\\ pool\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ ten\\ years\\ later\\,\\ on\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ July\\,\\ and\\ the\\ old\\ lady\\ is\\ with\\ her\\ daughters\\ at\\ their\\ husbands\\&rsquo\\;\\ family\\ picnic\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ desegregation\\ had\\ already\\ occurred\\,\\ the\\ white\\ and\\ black\\ families\\ were\\ still\\ separated\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ eating\\ the\\ same\\ things\\ \\(Heinz\\,\\ waxy\\ beef\\ patties\\,\\ Salem\\ potato\\ chip\\ bags\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ stanza\\ goes\\ back\\ in\\ time\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;ten\\ years\\ ago\\ had\\ been\\ harder\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ describing\\ a\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\ watched\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ a\\ crow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wing\\ moved\\ slowly\\ through\\ the\\ white\\ streets\\ of\\ government\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ making\\ both\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ Jim\\ Crowe\\ laws\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ March\\ on\\ Washington\\.\\ \\ \\;Win\\ the\\ next\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ learn\\ that\\ watching\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;brave\\ swimming\\&rdquo\\;\\ scared\\ her\\,\\ which\\ perhaps\\ explains\\ her\\ behavior\\ when\\ she\\ saw\\ the\\ swimming\\ pool\\ of\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ daughter\\ also\\ scares\\ her\\ by\\ telling\\ her\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;afro\\-Americans\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ neither\\ of\\ them\\ really\\ knew\\ anything\\ about\\ Africa\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ about\\ Africa\\:\\ she\\ had\\ never\\ been\\ there\\,\\ and\\ wonders\\ whether\\ the\\ Nile\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ Mississippi\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ Dove\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\ rather\\ cryptically\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\ \\[the\\ old\\ lady\\]\\ came\\ from\\ was\\ the\\ past\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ Goodyear\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;begun\\ to\\ dream\\ of\\ a\\ park\\ under\\ the\\ company\\ symbol\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(presumably\\ the\\ park\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ for\\ the\\ picnic\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ white\\ foot\\ sprouting\\ two\\ small\\ wings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(last\\ line\\ invokes\\ angelic\\ theme\\;\\ ironic\\ that\\,\\ even\\ after\\ desegregation\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;angel\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ still\\ white\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ Last\\ Duchess\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1842\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Browning\\ 168\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/18\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ power\\,\\ arrogance\\,\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ dramatic\\ monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\,\\ one\\ long\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ art\\,\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ visited\\ Italy\\,\\ became\\ interested\\ in\\ its\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ gift\\ of\\ a\\ nine\\-hundred\\-years\\-old\\ name\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ is\\ a\\ duke\\ who\\ has\\ just\\ revealed\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ his\\ previous\\ wife\\ to\\ a\\ listener\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ listener\\,\\ we\\ learn\\,\\ is\\ an\\ envoy\\ from\\ the\\ Count\\,\\ whose\\ daughter\\ the\\ Duke\\ wants\\ to\\ marry\\ next\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ his\\ monologue\\,\\ the\\ Duke\\ reveals\\ himself\\ as\\ arrogant\\,\\ misogynistic\\ and\\ controlling\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ learn\\ that\\ he\\ got\\ rid\\ of\\ her\\ life\\ \\(perhaps\\ had\\ her\\ killed\\)\\ because\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ control\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ interesting\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ painting\\ of\\ his\\ previous\\ wife\\ in\\ a\\ proud\\,\\ boastful\\ manner\\,\\ yet\\ talks\\ about\\ his\\ actual\\ previous\\ wife\\ in\\ an\\ angry\\,\\ disgusted\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ something\\ he\\ can\\ control\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ never\\ could\\ his\\ actual\\ wife\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Duke\\ also\\ values\\ art\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ his\\ status\\;\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ name\\-dropping\\ as\\ he\\ discusses\\ all\\ his\\ paintings\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ quote\\ above\\ refers\\ to\\ his\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ long\\ legacy\\ of\\ royalty\\&mdash\\;he\\ clearly\\ feels\\ superior\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ background\\.\\ \\ \\;Toward\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ Duke\\ turns\\ toward\\ the\\ matter\\ at\\ hand\\&mdash\\;negotiating\\ a\\ dowry\\ for\\ the\\ Count\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ whom\\ the\\ Duke\\ hopes\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ next\\ wife\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ diction\\ shifts\\ markedly\\ from\\ art\\ to\\ business\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ left\\ with\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ the\\ Count\\&rsquo\\;s\\ envoy\\ has\\ been\\ so\\ turned\\ off\\ by\\ the\\ Duke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arrogance\\ that\\ a\\ dowry\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ negotiated\\ after\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ rhymed\\ couplets\\,\\ Browning\\ makes\\ the\\ rhymes\\ subtle\\ by\\ including\\ lots\\ of\\ enjambments\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ sentences\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rhyme\\,\\ only\\ the\\ end\\-words\\ of\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mending\\ Wall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 144\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 16\\.\\ \\ \\;Describing\\ Poems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ long\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ gaps\\,\\ Faerieland\\,\\ fauna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ New\\ Englander\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Something\\ there\\ is\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ love\\ a\\ wall\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ sends\\ the\\ frozen\\-ground\\-swell\\ under\\ it\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ spills\\ the\\ upper\\ boulders\\ in\\ the\\ sun\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ makes\\ gaps\\ even\\ two\\ can\\ pass\\ abreast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ speaker\\ wonders\\ why\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ neighbor\\ should\\ mend\\ the\\ stone\\ wall\\ between\\ their\\ properties\\ every\\ year\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ it\\,\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ unnatural\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Gift\\ Outright\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 302\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ \\(1874\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ December\\ 20\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\:\\ Deducing\\ morals\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\detecting\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ judging\\ the\\ implied\\ author\\ and\\ implied\\ reader\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Reminiscent\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ written\\ in\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ but\\ lacks\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 16\\ lines\\ long\\,\\ all\\ one\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ wrote\\ lots\\ of\\ poetry\\ about\\ rural\\ life\\ in\\ New\\ England\\:\\ won\\ some\\ Pulitzer\\ prizes\\ for\\ his\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citation\\:\\ about\\ the\\ land\\ in\\ early\\ America\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Such\\ as\\ we\\ were\\ we\\ gave\\ ourselves\\ outright\\&hellip\\;To\\ the\\ land\\ vaguely\\ realizing\\ westward\\,\\ \\/\\ But\\ still\\ unstoried\\,\\ artless\\,\\ unenhanced\\,\\ \\/\\ Such\\ as\\ she\\ was\\,\\ such\\ as\\ she\\ would\\ become\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ transition\\ that\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forefathers\\ underwent\\ from\\ when\\ they\\ originally\\ settled\\,\\ to\\ when\\ they\\ became\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ how\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ relationship\\ with\\ their\\ mother\\ country\\ \\(England\\)\\ changes\\ as\\ settlers\\ came\\ to\\ USA\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ split\\ into\\ three\\ parts\\,\\ though\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ short\\,\\ one\\-stanza\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ thy\\ first\\ arrived\\ in\\ MA\\ and\\ VA\\,\\ the\\ land\\ belonged\\ to\\ the\\ settlers\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ land\\ \\(because\\ they\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;belonged\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ England\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ interim\\ between\\ feeling\\ devotion\\ to\\ mother\\ country\\ and\\ new\\ country\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Something\\ we\\ were\\ withholding\\ made\\ us\\ weak\\ \\/\\ Until\\ we\\ found\\ it\\ was\\ ourselves\\ \\/\\ We\\ were\\ withholiding\\ from\\ our\\ land\\ of\\ living\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ forthwith\\ found\\ salvation\\ in\\ surrender\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ colonists\\ have\\ surrendered\\ to\\ the\\ land\\,\\ and\\ are\\ now\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;possessed\\ by\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;possess\\&rdquo\\;\\ this\\ new\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ then\\ moves\\ toward\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ bringing\\ up\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;unstoried\\,\\ artless\\,\\ unenhanced\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(especially\\ because\\ Puritans\\ were\\ anti\\-art\\)\\ western\\ plains\\ of\\ America\\ that\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ been\\ explored\\.\\ \\ \\;Vendler\\ said\\ in\\ class\\ that\\ his\\ poem\\ was\\ really\\ controversial\\ with\\ American\\ Indians\\ because\\ the\\ land\\ was\\,\\ clearly\\,\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;unstoried\\,\\ artless\\ and\\ unenhanced\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Road\\ Not\\ Taken\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1916\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ p\\.69\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\:\\ additional\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Individualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abaab\\ cdccd\\ efeef\\ ghggh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ two\\ roads\\,\\ forest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ American\\ poet\\ from\\ rural\\ New\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Two\\ roads\\ diverged\\ in\\ a\\ wood\\,\\ and\\ I\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\/\\ I\\ took\\ the\\ one\\ less\\ traveled\\ by\\,\\ \\/\\ and\\ that\\ has\\ made\\ all\\ the\\ difference\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ was\\ inspired\\ by\\ a\\ meeting\\ with\\ Edward\\ Thomas\\ during\\ a\\ brief\\ period\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ World\\ War\\ I\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ they\\ walked\\ around\\ some\\ woods\\ in\\ England\\ that\\ were\\ carpeted\\ in\\ daffodils\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;yellow\\ wood\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ usual\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ advises\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ forge\\ his\\ own\\ path\\ through\\ life\\ and\\ not\\ follow\\ the\\ route\\ others\\ have\\ taken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ contradictions\\ in\\ this\\ explanation\\&mdash\\;the\\ speaker\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ roads\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;worn\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ really\\ about\\ the\\ same\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ morning\\ he\\ made\\ this\\ decision\\ they\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;equally\\ lay\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ covered\\ in\\ leaves\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ returns\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ when\\ he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ took\\ the\\ one\\ less\\ traveled\\ by\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ that\\ has\\ made\\ all\\ the\\ difference\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ line\\ can\\ either\\ be\\ taken\\ with\\ sarcasm\\,\\ irony\\,\\ or\\ bare\\ truthfulness\\,\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ been\\ read\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ then\\,\\ why\\ would\\ the\\ speaker\\ be\\ saying\\ all\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ a\\ sigh\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ suggest\\ both\\ that\\ the\\ poet\\ now\\ wishes\\ he\\ took\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ road\\ not\\ taken\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ or\\ perhaps\\ it\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ road\\ before\\ he\\ made\\ the\\ decision\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ road\\ less\\ traveled\\ and\\ the\\ road\\ he\\ did\\ choose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ divided\\ in\\ two\\ parts\\,\\ which\\ split\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ at\\ the\\ height\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oh\\,\\ I\\ kept\\ the\\ first\\ for\\ another\\ day\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ interpreted\\ either\\ positively\\ or\\ negatively\\,\\ as\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ allows\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ final\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ how\\ we\\ interpret\\ our\\ past\\ decisions\\&mdash\\;that\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ our\\ past\\ actions\\ is\\ entirely\\ added\\ by\\ our\\ minds\\,\\ whenever\\ we\\ look\\ back\\ upon\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unharvested\\ \\(page\\ 101\\)\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ \\(1874\\-1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Nature\\ as\\ a\\ Lesson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ two\\ stanzas\\,\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ as\\ a\\ decamer\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ a\\ tetramer\\.\\ The\\ poems\\ are\\ written\\ in\\ pentameter\\ although\\ variations\\ are\\ present\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\ a\\-b\\-a\\-c\\-b\\-c\\-d\\-a\\-d\\-e\\ \\/\\ e\\-d\\-f\\-f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Empty\\ apple\\ tree\\,\\ fruit\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Frost\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ and\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ eastern\\ Massachusetts\\ on\\ a\\ farm\\,\\ predisposing\\ him\\ to\\ rural\\ themes\\.\\ He\\ won\\ 4\\ Pulitzer\\ prizes\\.\\ Read\\ at\\ the\\ inauguration\\ of\\ JFK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\"\\;Unharvested\\"\\;\\ uses\\ the\\ natural\\ setting\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ conveying\\ a\\ lesson\\ to\\ humanity\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ speaker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ examination\\ of\\ an\\ apple\\ tree\\ having\\ been\\ overlooked\\ by\\ the\\ harvest\\ season\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ explores\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ leaving\\ things\\ behind\\,\\ and\\ questions\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ okay\\ to\\ let\\ people\\ waste\\ and\\ forget\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ apple\\ tree\\.\\ The\\ apple\\ tree\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ for\\ biblical\\ reference\\,\\ and\\ Frost\\ directly\\ references\\ Adam\\ and\\ Evee\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ to\\ last\\ and\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ parallel\\ between\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ the\\ red\\ apples\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ and\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ original\\ sin\\ into\\ humanity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ apples\\,\\ and\\ Frost\\ makes\\ this\\ point\\ even\\ stronger\\ by\\ the\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ line\\,\\ discussing\\ \\"\\;apples\\ or\\ something\\.\\"\\;\\ One\\ asks\\ oneself\\,\\ what\\ is\\ this\\ \\"\\;something\\?\\"\\;\\ and\\ it\\ clearly\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ condition\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ has\\ no\\ rhyme\\ and\\ is\\ particularly\\ straightforward\\,\\ a\\ departure\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ a\\ strong\\,\\ almost\\ bleak\\ set\\ of\\ images\\,\\ that\\ is\\ less\\ developed\\ earlier\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Apple\\-Picking\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 100\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1914\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Frost\\ \\(1874\\-1963\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;10\\/4\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;could\\ be\\ a\\ nature\\ or\\ rustic\\ lyric\\,\\ a\\ seasonal\\ lyric\\,\\ a\\ self\\-reflexive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ but\\ with\\ many\\ lines\\ of\\ different\\ lengths\\,\\ which\\ breaks\\ up\\ the\\ droning\\ pattern\\ of\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\(creating\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ speaker\\ drifting\\ off\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reader\\&mdash\\;who\\ should\\ be\\ paying\\ attention\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ with\\ no\\ regular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;apple\\-picking\\ \\(harvesting\\,\\ life\\ activity\\)\\,\\ pane\\ of\\ glass\\ \\(reflective\\ on\\ life\\)\\,\\ sleep\\,\\ winter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Frost\\ spent\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ New\\ England\\,\\ and\\ his\\ to\\-the\\-point\\ language\\ and\\ emphasis\\ on\\ individualism\\ in\\ his\\ poetry\\ reflect\\ this\\ background\\.\\ He\\ usually\\ uses\\ traditional\\ patterns\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ experimenting\\ with\\ form\\ like\\ many\\ poets\\ of\\ his\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;For\\ I\\ have\\ had\\ too\\ much\\/\\ Of\\ apple\\-picking\\:\\ I\\ am\\ overtired\\/\\ Of\\ the\\ great\\ harvest\\ I\\ myself\\ desired\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;As\\ with\\ many\\ Frost\\ poems\\,\\ he\\ transforms\\ a\\ regular\\ experience\\ \\(involving\\ nature\\)\\ and\\ transcends\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ contemplative\\ moment\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ death\\ on\\ the\\ horizon\\ \\(symbolized\\ by\\ the\\ approaching\\ winter\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ apple\\-picking\\,\\ harvesting\\ fruit\\,\\ represents\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activity\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ experienced\\ fully\\,\\ the\\ regrets\\,\\ mistakes\\,\\ and\\ short\\ comings\\ in\\ life\\.\\ The\\ wonderment\\ of\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ sleep\\ suggests\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ a\\ regular\\ night\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sleep\\,\\ endless\\ sleep\\,\\ or\\ sleep\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ new\\-awakening\\ \\(the\\ woodchuck\\ coming\\ out\\ of\\ hibernation\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;As\\ stated\\ above\\,\\ the\\ irregularity\\ of\\ rhyme\\ and\\ line\\ length\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ opposing\\ force\\ to\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(drifting\\ off\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ board\\ of\\ day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activities\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ imagery\\ of\\ sleep\\ and\\ winter\\ suggest\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ the\\ ladder\\ pointing\\ towards\\ heaven\\ continue\\ this\\ theme\\ of\\ contemplating\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ long\\ sleep\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ is\\ constant\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ completion\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;barrel\\ that\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fill\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ regrets\\ of\\ things\\ not\\ done\\ in\\ life\\.\\ Yet\\ this\\ is\\ simultaneously\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ten\\ thousand\\ thousand\\ fruit\\ to\\ touch\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ the\\ endless\\ opportunities\\ in\\ life\\,\\ which\\ cannot\\ all\\ be\\ realized\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ potential\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ through\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ Fall\\ of\\ Man\\,\\ with\\ the\\ apple\\ as\\ the\\ catalyst\\ which\\ condemned\\ man\\ to\\ sin\\ and\\ a\\ lower\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Frost\\ moves\\ between\\ present\\ and\\ past\\ tense\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ making\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ discern\\ the\\ sequence\\ of\\ events\\,\\ which\\ enhances\\ the\\ movement\\ between\\ dream\\ and\\ reality\\,\\ sleep\\ and\\ awake\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Vendler\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ has\\ three\\ parts\\,\\ the\\ first\\ consisting\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;realistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ images\\,\\ the\\ second\\ filled\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;dream\\-images\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ returns\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;realistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ images\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Night\\,\\ Death\\,\\ Mississippi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1913\\-1980\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Hayden\\ pg\\.\\ 270\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Section\\ assignment\\ week\\ of\\ November\\ 13\\&mdash\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&mdash\\;Political\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ monologue\\&mdash\\;political\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Poem\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\ \\(the\\ first\\ part\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ simple\\ quatrains\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Crucifixion\\ allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\-American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\O\\ night\\ betrayed\\ by\\ darkness\\ not\\ its\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Grown\\ too\\ old\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ lynching\\ rituals\\,\\ the\\ old\\ white\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ excitedly\\ listens\\ for\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ town\\ lynching\\ as\\ he\\ lives\\ vicariously\\ and\\ blissfully\\ through\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ participation\\ in\\ it\\.\\ Feeling\\ the\\ close\\ bond\\ of\\ the\\ shared\\ ritual\\,\\ the\\ old\\ man\\ imagines\\ meeting\\ his\\ son\\ after\\ the\\ rite\\ and\\ takes\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ bond\\ between\\ father\\ and\\ son\\ now\\ revived\\ by\\ the\\ monstrous\\ excitement\\ of\\ the\\ lynching\\.\\ The\\ lynching\\ is\\ never\\ directly\\ \\&ldquo\\;shown\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ imagined\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christ\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ used\\ in\\ vain\\,\\ but\\ the\\ vision\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\ burning\\ on\\ the\\ lily\\ cross\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ parallel\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ lynching\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ man\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ part\\,\\ the\\ stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christ\\,\\ it\\ was\\ better\\/than\\ hunting\\ bear\\/which\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ why\\/you\\ want\\ him\\ dead\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ reflective\\ of\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complex\\ and\\ unconventional\\ approach\\ to\\ racist\\ sentiments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Hayden\\ portrays\\ a\\ deeply\\-entrenched\\ and\\ almost\\ visceral\\ racism\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ simply\\ threatening\\ love\\ or\\ the\\ bonds\\ of\\ society\\,\\ racial\\ hatred\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ secures\\ and\\ perpetuates\\ the\\ bonds\\ between\\ father\\ and\\ son\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ message\\ is\\ the\\ human\\ and\\ violent\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\ are\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ monstrous\\ tendencies\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\.\\ Racism\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ \\&ldquo\\;monsters\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ it\\ is\\ deeply\\ steeped\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\ consciousness\\ and\\ most\\ basic\\ familial\\ bonds\\,\\ where\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ kids\\ obediently\\ and\\ almost\\ perfunctorily\\ fetch\\ their\\ father\\ water\\ so\\ he\\ can\\ wash\\ the\\ black\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\ off\\ after\\ a\\ disgustingly\\ exhilarating\\ lynching\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Those\\ Winter\\ Sundays\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1962\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Hayden\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 20\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 9\\-25\\-06\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ father\\-son\\ relationship\\,\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Not\\ uniform\\,\\ but\\ seems\\ to\\ alternate\\ fairly\\ regularly\\ between\\ iambic\\ and\\ trochaic\\ line\\ beginnings\\,\\ most\\ lines\\ in\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ stanzas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 5\\ lines\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\,\\ 5\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ cold\\,\\ cracks\\/splinters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ African\\-American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ did\\ I\\ know\\,\\ what\\ did\\ I\\ know\\ \\/\\ of\\ love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ austere\\ and\\ lonely\\ offices\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ describes\\ Sunday\\ mornings\\ in\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ childhood\\ home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ his\\ father\\ would\\ rise\\ early\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;make\\ banked\\ fires\\ blaze\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ his\\ unappreciative\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Hayden\\ seems\\ to\\ regret\\ his\\ own\\ indifference\\ to\\ his\\ father\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ last\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ note\\ the\\ alliterated\\ \\&ldquo\\;b\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;k\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;ck\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;c\\&rdquo\\;\\ sounds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ also\\ connected\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wake\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;splintering\\,\\ breaking\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\ the\\ alliterated\\ \\&ldquo\\;w\\&rdquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ the\\ alliterated\\ \\&ldquo\\;d\\&rdquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Those\\ Winter\\ Sundays\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1962\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Hayden\\,\\ Pg\\ 20\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ September\\ 25\\,\\ under\\ traditional\\ genres\\ of\\ life\\-stages\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ life\\-stage\\ poem\\,\\ a\\ father\\-son\\ poem\\,\\ a\\ lyric\\ about\\ regret\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 3\\ stanzas\\,\\ 5\\ lines\\-4\\ lines\\-5\\ lines\\.\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;two\\ stanzas\\ are\\ enjambed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ The\\ sacrifices\\ made\\ by\\ his\\ father\\ are\\ represented\\ by\\ Sunday\\ mornings\\,\\ when\\ his\\ father\\ went\\ above\\ and\\ beyond\\ by\\ starting\\ the\\ fire\\ for\\ the\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ warmth\\ and\\ polishing\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shoes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ I\\ suppose\\ that\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ working\\ class\\ family\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ home\\ life\\ was\\ less\\ than\\ ideal\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ did\\ I\\ know\\ of\\ love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ austere\\ and\\ lonely\\ offices\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Vendler\\ seemed\\ to\\ like\\ that\\ line\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ talks\\ about\\ Hayden\\ looking\\ back\\ on\\ his\\ childhood\\ as\\ an\\ adult\\,\\ more\\ specifically\\ at\\ the\\ relationship\\ he\\ had\\ with\\ his\\ father\\.\\ As\\ an\\ adult\\,\\ he\\ regrets\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ treated\\ his\\ father\\,\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ being\\ unaware\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ sacrifices\\ his\\ father\\ made\\ for\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ family\\.\\ As\\ an\\ adult\\ he\\ is\\ now\\ apologizing\\ to\\ his\\ dead\\ father\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ took\\ for\\ granted\\.\\ Hayden\\ chooses\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ Sunday\\ mornings\\ to\\ most\\ aptly\\ represent\\ all\\ that\\ his\\ father\\ did\\ for\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sundays\\ too\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ father\\ woke\\ early\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ fire\\,\\ only\\ waking\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ once\\ the\\ house\\ had\\ been\\ warmed\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ did\\ he\\ do\\ this\\ for\\ the\\ family\\ on\\ his\\ one\\ day\\ of\\ rest\\,\\ but\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;polished\\ my\\ good\\ shoes\\ as\\ well\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Vendler\\ notes\\ the\\ superfluity\\ of\\ language\\ in\\ those\\ statements\\ shows\\ the\\ superfluity\\ of\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ his\\ family\\.\\ The\\ harsh\\ \\&ldquo\\;c\\&rdquo\\;\\ sound\\ throughout\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;blueblack\\ cold\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;cracked\\ hands\\ that\\ ached\\&rdquo\\;\\ show\\ the\\ fathers\\ blue\\ collar\\ laboring\\ throughout\\ the\\ week\\.\\ Still\\,\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ the\\ morning\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ moment\\ of\\ peace\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ comes\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ as\\ Hayden\\ feared\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ chronic\\ angers\\ of\\ that\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ lyric\\ comes\\ softer\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ ending\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ did\\ I\\ know\\,\\ what\\ did\\ I\\ know\\/\\ of\\ love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ austere\\ and\\ lonely\\ offices\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ not\\ only\\ his\\ self\\-doubt\\ and\\ regret\\,\\ but\\ also\\ makes\\ the\\ reader\\ ask\\ the\\ same\\ question\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ herself\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ lyric\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ out\\ loud\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Argument\\ of\\ His\\ Book\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1648\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Herrick\\ p120\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ salvation\\,\\ self\\-reflective\\ poem\\,\\ religious\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyming\\ couplets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ nature\\ \\(seasons\\,\\ plants\\,\\ daily\\ cycles\\)\\ and\\ love\\ \\(weddings\\,\\ love\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ a\\ Cavalier\\ poet\\ and\\ a\\ vicar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ write\\ of\\ hell\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ contains\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ declarations\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ poet\\ writes\\ and\\ sings\\ about\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ sing\\ of\\ brooks\\,\\ of\\ blossoms\\,\\ birds\\,\\ and\\ bowers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ catalogues\\ these\\ things\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ six\\ couplets\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ lists\\ as\\ subject\\ matters\\ are\\ all\\ generally\\ positive\\:\\ nature\\ and\\ seasons\\ and\\ weddings\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ rhetorical\\ devices\\ include\\ alliteration\\ and\\ cataloguing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ shift\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ couplet\\,\\ which\\ begins\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ write\\ of\\ hell\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ the\\ poet\\ mentions\\ something\\ negative\\,\\ and\\,\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ extremely\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ climax\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ resolves\\ this\\ extreme\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ subject\\ matter\\ by\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ positive\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ last\\ lines\\,\\ he\\ writes\\ that\\ he\\ dreams\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ salvation\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ first\\ six\\ couplets\\ acknowledge\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ good\\ in\\ an\\ earthly\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ couplet\\ acknowledges\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ hell\\,\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ lines\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ hope\\ for\\ salvation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ the\\ Virgins\\,\\ to\\ Make\\ Much\\ of\\ Time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Herrick\\ \\(pg\\ 98\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/6\\ Chapter\\ 3\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ reading\\ other\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ romance\\,\\ societal\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ heroic\\ quatrain\\ \\(mostly\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ rhyming\\ abab\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ flowers\\,\\ the\\ sun\\ \\(cycle\\ of\\ day\\ and\\ night\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\,\\ having\\ lost\\ but\\ once\\ your\\ prime\\,\\ you\\ may\\ forever\\ tarry\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ considers\\ a\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ maiden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ societal\\ role\\ of\\ marrying\\ well\\.\\ Herrick\\ objectifies\\ the\\ girls\\ by\\ comparing\\ them\\ to\\ flowers\\ that\\ bloom\\ beautifully\\ once\\ and\\ then\\ die\\,\\ and\\ must\\ therefore\\ marry\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ desirable\\.\\ He\\ places\\ this\\ transient\\ feminine\\ imagery\\ in\\ juxtaposition\\ to\\ the\\ male\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ which\\ rises\\ and\\ then\\ sets\\ only\\ to\\ rise\\ again\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ from\\ the\\ poem\\ that\\ in\\ his\\ society\\,\\ men\\ hold\\ the\\ dominant\\ position\\ and\\ the\\ women\\ are\\ secondary\\ and\\ doomed\\ to\\ spinsterhood\\ if\\ they\\ cannot\\ attract\\ a\\ husband\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Upon\\ Julia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Clothes\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Robert\\ Herrick\\ \\(66\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Poems\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Love\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\ \\/\\ Dramatic\\ monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Two\\ tercets\\ rhyming\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\aaa\\ bbb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Julia\\ clothed\\ \\(sweetly\\ flows\\)\\ vs\\.\\ Julia\\ naked\\ \\(brave\\ vibration\\,\\ glittering\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Then\\,\\ then\\,\\ methinks\\,\\ how\\ sweetly\\ flows\\ That\\ liquefaction\\ of\\ her\\ clothes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ contemplates\\ how\\ pleasant\\ his\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;s\\ silk\\ clothes\\ flow\\ about\\ her\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ further\\ admires\\ how\\ the\\ clothes\\ fit\\ around\\ her\\ body\\,\\ but\\ this\\ time\\ he\\ is\\ more\\ captivated\\ and\\ aroused\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ energy\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descriptive\\ words\\ increases\\ with\\ each\\ line\\,\\ from\\ flowing\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;vibration\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;glittering\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ her\\ interaction\\ with\\ her\\ clothes\\ is\\ brilliant\\,\\ electric\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ Union\\ Dead\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1917\\-1977\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ pg\\.\\ 268\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 15\\&mdash\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ American\\ history\\,\\ childhood\\,\\ race\\,\\ degeneration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 17\\ stanzas\\ of\\ four\\ lines\\ of\\ various\\ lengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ fish\\,\\ dryness\\ vs\\.\\ rebirth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Member\\ of\\ the\\ prominent\\ Lowell\\ family\\,\\ Bostonian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ rejoices\\ in\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lovely\\,\\ peculiar\\ power\\ to\\ choose\\ life\\ and\\ die\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(38\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ about\\ a\\ bronze\\ monument\\ in\\ Boston\\ that\\ commemorates\\ Colonel\\ Shaw\\,\\ who\\ commanded\\ the\\ first\\ all\\-Negro\\ regiment\\ in\\ the\\ North\\.\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ is\\ immediately\\ personal\\ as\\ he\\ integrates\\ the\\ history\\ and\\ connectedness\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ his\\ city\\ with\\ the\\ larger\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\,\\ New\\ England\\,\\ race\\ relations\\,\\ and\\ ultimately\\,\\ what\\ time\\ has\\ done\\&mdash\\;or\\ failed\\ to\\ do\\&mdash\\;for\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ America\\.\\ The\\ title\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ ironically\\ reverses\\ the\\ standard\\ historical\\ view\\ about\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ which\\ is\\ reinforced\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\ South\\&hellip\\;stands\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ line\\ one\\.\\ The\\ enemy\\ has\\ survived\\ in\\ racism\\,\\ which\\ was\\ not\\ defeated\\ by\\ Shaw\\ and\\ is\\ evident\\ still\\ in\\ forced\\ school\\ integration\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Ultimately\\,\\ Lowell\\ indicts\\ his\\ own\\ class\\ and\\ ethnicity\\&mdash\\;he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;savagely\\ servile\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;crouches\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ his\\ television\\ set\\ like\\ everyone\\ else\\ and\\ passively\\ watches\\ the\\ news\\ \\(59\\)\\.\\ He\\ is\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ wretchedness\\ of\\ the\\ parking\\ garage\\ that\\ has\\ greedily\\ overtaken\\ Boston\\ Common\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ of\\ dryness\\ is\\ pervasive\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sahara\\ of\\ snow\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ dry\\ airy\\ tanks\\,\\ parking\\ spaces\\ are\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;civic\\ sand\\-piles\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ juxtaposed\\ against\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;vegetating\\ kingdom\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ fish\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ illuminates\\ the\\ glaring\\ omnipresence\\ of\\ the\\ past\\&mdash\\;in\\ physical\\ monuments\\ and\\ visible\\ decay\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ failure\\ to\\ progress\\ or\\ even\\ adhere\\ to\\ transcendent\\ and\\ sincere\\ ideals\\.\\ In\\ the\\ opening\\ quote\\ \\&ldquo\\;servare\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ Latin\\ for\\ to\\ save\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ leave\\ everything\\ behind\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ Republic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(even\\ their\\ ideals\\)\\.\\ And\\ so\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ men\\ destroying\\ their\\ world\\ with\\ the\\ intention\\ of\\ saving\\ it\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;service\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Civil\\ War\\,\\ Hiroshima\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ March\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 245\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\.06\\.06\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ analysis\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ examined\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ class\\ which\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ self\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ others\\:\\ the\\ enslaved\\ self\\,\\ the\\ filial\\ self\\,\\ the\\ collective\\ self\\,\\ the\\ aged\\ self\\,\\ etc\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\protest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\history\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inexperience\\/experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ Detail\\:\\ 16\\ lines\\,\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ one\\ sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\ historically\\ significant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\monuments\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Washington\\ DC\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Lincoln\\ Memorial\\,\\ the\\ Washington\\ Obelisk\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\army\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;marching\\;\\ the\\ color\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\green\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ was\\ born\\ into\\ the\\ Lowell\\ family\\ which\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ families\\ of\\ Boston\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Wikipedia\\)\\ and\\ which\\ has\\ played\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ roles\\ throughout\\ American\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Lowell\\ lived\\ from\\ 1917\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1977\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ \\(which\\ affected\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ writings\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ apparent\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ note\\ for\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ conscientious\\ objector\\ in\\ WWII\\ and\\ served\\ several\\ months\\ at\\ a\\ federal\\ prison\\ \\(as\\ a\\ result\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ suffered\\ from\\ bipolar\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;lovely\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lock\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;arms\\,\\ to\\ march\\ absurdly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\locked\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(un\\<\\/span\\>\\lock\\<\\/span\\>\\ing\\ to\\ keep\\ my\\ wet\\ glasses\\ from\\ slipping\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;to\\ see\\ the\\ cigarette\\ match\\ quaking\\ in\\ my\\ fingers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;then\\ to\\ step\\ off\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\green\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Union\\ Army\\ recruits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;for\\ the\\ first\\ Bull\\ Run\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ March\\&rdquo\\;\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alienation\\ from\\ the\\ ideology\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ architecture\\ of\\ Washington\\ DC\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ sees\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ state\\-associated\\ structures\\ which\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ white\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ tall\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ long\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ poem\\ then\\ focuses\\ in\\ on\\ Lowell\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ position\\ in\\ a\\ protest\\ \\(the\\ poem\\ is\\ actually\\ about\\ a\\ Vietnam\\ protest\\ march\\ on\\ the\\ Pentagon\\ which\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ 1967\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ again\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ presented\\ with\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ his\\ discomfort\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ cries\\ of\\ the\\ protestors\\ are\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;harangues\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Lowell\\ says\\ his\\ arms\\ are\\ locked\\ with\\ his\\ fellows\\ \\&ldquo\\;absurdly\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ his\\ fear\\ is\\ clear\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ glasses\\ slip\\ from\\ his\\ face\\ and\\ his\\ hands\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;quaking\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ fear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lowell\\ then\\ references\\ Melville\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\ Union\\ Army\\ recruits\\ \\/\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ Bull\\ Run\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ works\\ this\\ well\\-known\\ image\\ of\\ inexperience\\ becoming\\ experience\\ into\\ his\\ own\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reader\\ is\\ shown\\ the\\ driving\\ forces\\ behind\\ the\\ protest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;photographer\\,\\ the\\ notables\\,\\ the\\ girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ then\\ is\\ presented\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ emblematic\\ series\\ of\\ nouns\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(as\\ Helen\\ says\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ describing\\ this\\ poem\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fear\\,\\ glory\\,\\ chaos\\,\\ rout\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ represent\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ both\\ political\\ protest\\ and\\ warfare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ final\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ brings\\ the\\ collision\\ of\\ Lowell\\ and\\ his\\ fellow\\ protestors\\ with\\ the\\ soldiers\\ who\\ come\\ to\\ drive\\ them\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ forces\\ are\\ described\\ by\\ the\\ adjective\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ suggests\\ linkage\\ or\\ commonality\\ \\(and\\ also\\ brings\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ finality\\ and\\ closure\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confused\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ army\\ soldiers\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sees\\ the\\ soldiers\\ both\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Martian\\,\\ the\\ ape\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ hero\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ he\\ presents\\ protest\\ in\\ a\\ unique\\ light\\,\\ a\\ light\\ that\\ shows\\ both\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ alienation\\ from\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ government\\ and\\ a\\ hesitation\\/fear\\ to\\ truly\\ stand\\ up\\ in\\ protest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*also\\ of\\ note\\:\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Dwight\\ Macdonald\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ active\\ opponent\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Skunk\\ Hour\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1957\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ \\(pgs\\.\\ 10\\-11\\,\\ 51\\-52\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 9\\-20\\-06\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\;\\ assigned\\ 9\\-27\\-06\\,\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\,\\ private\\/public\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ confessional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Not\\ uniform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ sestets\\,\\ each\\ sestet\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ internal\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ slant\\ rhyme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ The\\ sea\\,\\ New\\ England\\,\\ skunks\\,\\ nature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Boston\\ Brahmin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ myself\\ am\\ hell\\;\\ \\/\\ nobody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ here\\ \\-\\ \\/\\ \\/\\ only\\ skunks\\,\\ that\\ search\\ \\/\\ in\\ the\\ moonlight\\ for\\ a\\ bite\\ to\\ eat\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(The\\ following\\ is\\ mostly\\ paraphrased\\ from\\ Professor\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ pgs\\.\\ 52\\-53\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\PPP\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ has\\ three\\ parts\\:\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ describe\\ \\&ldquo\\;grotesque\\ inhabitants\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ town\\;\\ the\\ next\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\describe\\ Lowell\\ himself\\;\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ describe\\ skunks\\ taking\\ over\\ the\\ town\\ \\(52\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;grotesque\\ inhabitants\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\actually\\ represent\\ Lowell\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Lowell\\ describes\\ his\\ self\\-decay\\ into\\ madness\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\voyeurism\\,\\ as\\ he\\ watches\\ lovers\\ in\\ their\\ cars\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ decay\\ becomes\\ complete\\ as\\ the\\ skunks\\ \\&ldquo\\;march\\&rdquo\\;\\ into\\ town\\,\\ taking\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\over\\.\\ \\ \\;Professor\\ Vendler\\ writes\\ that\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ was\\ Lowell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ revenge\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ heritage\\,\\ which\\ he\\ always\\ regarded\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mixed\\ admiration\\ and\\ contempt\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ it\\ shows\\ his\\ heritage\\ gradually\\ disappearing\\ back\\ into\\ nature\\,\\ as\\ all\\ cultures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\eventually\\ do\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Elizabeth\\ Bishop\\,\\ and\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ her\\ poem\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Armadillo\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epilogue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 288\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1975\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ \\(1917\\-1977\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\/20\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;epilogue\\,\\ reflective\\ lyric\\,\\ artistic\\ \\(on\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ writing\\)\\ poetry\\,\\ poem\\ about\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ rhyme\\ and\\ meter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ line\\ length\\,\\ no\\ division\\ in\\ stanzas\\.\\ Several\\ short\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ grace\\ of\\ accuracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Robert\\ Lowell\\ comes\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ oldest\\ Boston\\ families\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ activist\\ in\\ WWII\\ and\\ against\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ war\\.\\ His\\ personal\\ life\\ was\\ filled\\ with\\ psychological\\ and\\ marital\\ problems\\,\\ including\\ hospitalization\\ for\\ manic\\ depression\\.\\ He\\ originally\\ wrote\\ in\\ very\\ formal\\ style\\,\\ but\\ started\\ to\\ write\\ from\\ personal\\ experience\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ loose\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ are\\ poor\\ passing\\ facts\\,\\/\\ warned\\ by\\ that\\ to\\ give\\/\\ each\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ photograph\\/\\ his\\ living\\ name\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ formal\\ definition\\ of\\ an\\ epilogue\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ concluding\\ part\\ added\\ to\\ literary\\ work\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ writing\\,\\ its\\ creativity\\ and\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ its\\ purpose\\ or\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ artistic\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ his\\ despair\\ over\\ his\\ writing\\,\\ wishing\\ he\\ could\\ make\\ something\\ as\\ beautiful\\ and\\ creative\\ as\\ Vermeer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(a\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Dutch\\ artist\\)\\ paining\\ of\\ \\ \\;a\\ girl\\ reading\\ a\\ letter\\,\\ yearning\\ for\\ its\\ absent\\ writer\\,\\ with\\ illuminating\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\ behind\\ her\\ \\(an\\ image\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ creativity\\)\\.\\ He\\ feels\\ that\\ his\\ writing\\ creates\\ a\\ simple\\ \\&ldquo\\;snapshot\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ an\\ abrupt\\ and\\ harsh\\ word\\,\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ life\\ and\\ is\\ limited\\/suppressed\\ \\&ldquo\\;by\\ fact\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Yet\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ he\\ realizes\\ that\\ accuracy\\ in\\ representing\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ grace\\ of\\ accuracy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ true\\ mission\\,\\ which\\ he\\ does\\ indeed\\ complete\\.\\ This\\ part\\ is\\ marked\\ by\\ the\\ defensive\\ question\\ and\\ self\\-realization\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yet\\ why\\ not\\ say\\ what\\ happened\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ recognizes\\ his\\ duty\\ or\\ calling\\ as\\ poet\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ existence\\ before\\ it\\ disappears\\ into\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;photograph\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;grace\\ of\\ accuracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ symbolized\\ the\\ grace\\ of\\ art\\ and\\ aesthetic\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ he\\ sees\\ human\\ existence\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;poor\\ passing\\ facts\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ he\\ has\\ restored\\ faith\\ in\\ his\\ duty\\ to\\ capture\\ this\\ in\\ a\\ beautiful\\ way\\,\\ into\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;photograph\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;snapshot\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ seemingly\\ more\\ artistic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ realization\\ process\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ worth\\ and\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ emphasizing\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ read\\ poetry\\ as\\ the\\ writer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ continuing\\ experience\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ his\\ set\\ judgments\\ of\\ reality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Burning\\ Babe\\ \\(page\\ 229\\)\\ Robert\\ Southwell\\ \\(1561\\-1595\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Anecdote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ found\\ as\\ one\\ stanza\\ 16\\ lines\\ long\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ iambic\\ heptameter\\,\\ with\\ each\\ line\\ containing\\ approximately\\ 14\\ syllables\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ 8\\ couplets\\ put\\ together\\,\\ a\\-a\\-b\\-b\\-c\\-c\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Angelic\\ imagery\\ \\(baby\\ on\\ fire\\)\\,\\ Crucifixion\\,\\ snow\\/fire\\ contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;English\\ Catholic\\ and\\ Jesuit\\ priest\\.\\ Stayed\\ in\\ england\\ during\\ time\\ Catholic\\ were\\ persecuted\\.\\ Was\\ assumed\\ to\\ be\\ plotting\\ against\\ the\\ Queen\\,\\ and\\ was\\ captured\\ in\\ england\\ while\\ supporting\\ catholic\\ families\\.\\ Southwell\\ was\\ tried\\ for\\ treason\\ and\\ hanged\\,\\ having\\ spent\\ a\\ large\\ portion\\ of\\ time\\ in\\ prison\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Southwell\\&\\#39\\;s\\ poem\\ is\\ an\\ unorthdox\\ method\\ of\\ examining\\ religious\\ themes\\.\\ His\\ use\\ of\\ imagery\\ departs\\ from\\ the\\ standard\\ nativity\\ motif\\ in\\ highlighting\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ Jesus\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ a\\ epiphany\\-like\\ anecdote\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ and\\ his\\ role\\ as\\ savior\\.\\ In\\ describing\\ the\\ conflagrated\\ baby\\,\\ Southwell\\ creates\\ an\\ aura\\ of\\ passion\\ and\\ power\\.\\ Fire\\ is\\ often\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ intense\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ intense\\ \\ \\;emotion\\ that\\ Southwell\\ wants\\ to\\ convey\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;shame\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;justice\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;mercy\\"\\;\\ are\\ not\\ at\\ a\\ human\\ level\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ something\\ grander\\,\\ at\\ a\\ level\\ where\\ only\\ harsh\\ fires\\ can\\ describe\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\.\\ This\\ fire\\ has\\ dual\\ properties\\ however\\,\\ while\\ showing\\ strong\\ emotional\\ intensity\\ in\\ the\\ baby\\ Jesus\\,\\ it\\ also\\ conveys\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ giving\\,\\ \\"\\;Love\\ is\\ the\\ fire\\.\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;warming\\ their\\ hearts\\"\\;\\ are\\ two\\ examples\\.\\ Another\\ contrast\\ is\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ Jesus\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ winter\\ night\\ the\\ speaker\\ stands\\ in\\,\\ which\\ is\\ symbolic\\ for\\ a\\ life\\ without\\ Christian\\ principles\\ and\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ Jesus\\ for\\ humanity\\.\\ Also\\ note\\ the\\ anthropomorphism\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\,\\ as\\ it\\ can\\ speak\\ just\\ as\\ an\\ adult\\ and\\ yet\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ child\\,\\ showing\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ held\\ by\\ human\\ physical\\ limitations\\.\\ A\\ baby\\ Jesus\\ is\\ first\\ Jesus\\ before\\ being\\ a\\ baby\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dejection\\:\\ An\\ Ode\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1802\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Samuel\\ Taylor\\ Coleridge\\ \\(425\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ depression\\ over\\ unattainable\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Ode\\,\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ meter\\ which\\ generally\\ varies\\ between\\ trimeter\\ and\\ pentameter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rhyme\\ alternates\\ between\\ bracketed\\ rhymes\\ \\(abba\\)\\ and\\ couplets\\ \\(cc\\)\\/\\ \\#8\\ cantos\\/\\ structure\\ differs\\ in\\ each\\ canto\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ natural\\-\\ heaven\\/earth\\,\\ weather\\-wind\\,\\ storm\\,\\ rain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Coleridge\\ was\\ severely\\ depressed\\ when\\ he\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\-\\ faced\\ with\\ a\\ severe\\ illness\\,\\ a\\ marriage\\ that\\ was\\ falling\\ apart\\ and\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ write\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Might\\ startle\\ this\\ dull\\ pain\\,\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ move\\ and\\ live\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 20\\)\\ \\ \\;OR\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ may\\ not\\ hope\\ from\\ outward\\ forms\\ to\\ win\\/\\ The\\ passion\\ and\\ the\\ life\\,\\ whose\\ fountains\\ are\\ within\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 45\\-46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Dejection\\:\\ An\\ Ode\\&rdquo\\;\\ describes\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ extreme\\ depression\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ an\\ unfulfilling\\ marriage\\ and\\ his\\ loss\\ of\\ creativity\\&mdash\\;something\\ that\\ was\\ extremely\\ important\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\ because\\ it\\ fully\\ exhausts\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ his\\ depression\\&mdash\\;it\\ details\\ his\\ emotions\\,\\ causes\\,\\ results\\ and\\ solutions\\ to\\ his\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ an\\ epigraph\\ which\\ serves\\ to\\ foreshadow\\ the\\ events\\ that\\ are\\ to\\ come\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ballad\\ of\\ Sir\\ Patrick\\ Spence\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ calmness\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;deadly\\ storm\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Coleridge\\ describes\\ how\\ the\\ weather\\ around\\ him\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;tranquil\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ believes\\ means\\ that\\ a\\ storm\\ is\\ soon\\ coming\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ storm\\ represents\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ whereby\\ he\\ foresees\\ that\\ though\\ things\\ in\\ his\\ relationship\\ are\\ fine\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ he\\ realizes\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ soon\\ take\\ a\\ downturn\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ exploring\\ his\\ emotions\\,\\ Coleridge\\ comes\\ to\\ many\\ new\\ realizations\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ he\\ realizes\\ that\\ he\\ cannot\\ look\\ to\\ other\\ people\\ or\\ to\\ his\\ surrounding\\ to\\ bring\\ him\\ happiness\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ has\\ to\\ find\\ fulfillment\\ within\\ himself\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ may\\ not\\ hope\\ from\\ outward\\ forms\\ to\\ win\\/\\ The\\ passion\\ and\\ the\\ life\\,\\ whose\\ fountains\\ are\\ within\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 45\\-46\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ epiphany\\ shows\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reflection\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ necessary\\ step\\ in\\ his\\ escaping\\ his\\ own\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\,\\ Coleridge\\ realizes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ receive\\ but\\ what\\ we\\ give\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 47\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ separated\\ into\\ 8\\ cantos\\,\\ and\\ characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ ode\\,\\ each\\ canto\\ represents\\ a\\ differing\\ structure\\,\\ imagery\\,\\ and\\ tone\\&mdash\\;the\\ irregular\\ stanzaic\\ structure\\ allows\\ each\\ strophe\\ to\\ set\\ alone\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ mindset\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\,\\ which\\ shows\\ the\\ reflective\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ particular\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ depression\\ he\\ feels\\ in\\ cantos\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\&mdash\\;where\\ the\\ language\\ is\\ dark\\,\\ violent\\ and\\ exaggerated\\ through\\ use\\ of\\ exclamation\\ points\\&mdash\\;and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ remember\\ and\\ describe\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cantos\\&mdash\\;where\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ calm\\,\\ jovial\\ and\\ optimistic\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ canto\\ 7\\,\\ the\\ imagination\\ that\\ Coleridge\\ is\\ most\\ upset\\ about\\ losing\\ appears\\ to\\ return\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ full\\ with\\ wild\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphors\\ of\\ witches\\,\\ mad\\ lutanists\\,\\ devils\\,\\ actors\\,\\ poets\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ imagination\\ comes\\ back\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;noise\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ plagues\\ him\\ \\(noise\\ \\=\\ his\\ depression\\)\\ silences\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ Coleridge\\ has\\ found\\ some\\ hope\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ canto\\ is\\ a\\ benediction\\ for\\ his\\ beloved\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ the\\ final\\ canto\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ about\\ his\\ feelings\\ or\\ his\\ depression\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ about\\ a\\ person\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ his\\ depression\\ cannot\\ be\\ so\\ bad\\ as\\ to\\ consume\\ his\\ thoughts\\ like\\ previously\\&mdash\\;now\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ think\\ and\\ wish\\ a\\ loved\\ one\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Other\\ thoughts\\:\\ Note\\ the\\ continued\\ use\\ of\\ music\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\&mdash\\;references\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ wind\\ and\\ storm\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ lute\\.\\ \\ \\;Track\\ the\\ progression\\ of\\ sound\\ throughout\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ Coleridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ natural\\ imagery\\ to\\ reflect\\ his\\ emotions\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ Romantic\\ poets\\&mdash\\;he\\ was\\ a\\ pioneer\\ in\\ Romanticism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kubla\\ Khan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Samuel\\ Taylor\\ Coleridge\\ \\(page\\ 258\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ dream\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ a\\ vision\\ in\\ a\\ dream\\ \\-\\ fragment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ important\\ as\\ it\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ whimsical\\/dream\\ like\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ chant\\-like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ somewhat\\ free\\ verse\\&hellip\\;but\\ found\\ this\\ online\\&hellip\\;\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ tetrameter\\ with\\ a\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ of\\ ABAABCCDEDE\\,\\ alternating\\ between\\ staggered\\ rhymes\\ and\\ couplets\\.\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ expands\\ into\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ follows\\ roughly\\ the\\ same\\ rhyming\\ pattern\\,\\ also\\ expanded\\-\\-\\ ABAABCCDDFFGGHIIHJJ\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ tightens\\ into\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ rhymes\\ ABABCC\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ continues\\ the\\ tetrameter\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ rhymes\\ ABCCBDEDEFGFFFGHHG\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ creation\\,\\ recreation\\ and\\ social\\ reactions\\ to\\ places\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ poet\\ known\\ for\\ longer\\ more\\ romantic\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ short\\ it\\ includes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ detail\\ and\\ uses\\ many\\ exclamations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meaning\\ is\\ widely\\ disputed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Coleridge\\ imagines\\ space\\ of\\ Kubla\\ Khan\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ In\\ the\\ notes\\ it\\ is\\ stated\\ that\\ Kubla\\ Khan\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruler\\ of\\ the\\ Mongol\\ dynasty\\ in\\ the\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ in\\ China\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Coleridge\\ had\\ used\\ poetic\\ license\\ to\\ invent\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;topography\\ and\\ place\\ names\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ opening\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Coleridge\\ describes\\ a\\ detailed\\ place\\ in\\ Xanadu\\ with\\ the\\ sacred\\ river\\ Alph\\ and\\ the\\ mountains\\/surrounding\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ image\\ portrayed\\ in\\ nearly\\ sublime\\ and\\ places\\ the\\ reader\\ within\\ the\\ vision\\.\\ The\\ first\\ 30\\ lines\\ are\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ Kubbla\\ Khan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Coleridge\\ describes\\ a\\ peaceful\\ domain\\ and\\ natural\\ forces\\ with\\ a\\ varying\\ rhyme\\ to\\ mimic\\ the\\ river\\ that\\ runs\\ through\\ the\\ land\\.\\ Once\\ Kubbla\\ Khan\\ hear\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ancestral\\ voices\\ of\\ prophesying\\ war\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(30\\)\\ the\\ poem\\ takes\\ \\ \\;a\\ turn\\ where\\ the\\ setting\\ becomes\\ overshadowed\\ and\\ beings\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;float\\ midway\\ on\\ the\\ waves\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(32\\)\\.\\ The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ hope\\ to\\ revive\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;symphony\\ and\\ sing\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ damsel\\ the\\ narrator\\ hears\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ he\\ could\\ he\\ would\\ rebuilt\\ the\\ dome\\ and\\ also\\ those\\ who\\ heard\\ him\\ would\\ shout\\ \\&ldquo\\;beware\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ confusing\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ spatial\\ and\\ temporal\\ placements\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ moves\\ through\\ a\\ whimsical\\ scene\\ using\\ the\\ rhyme\\ to\\ reflect\\ the\\ authors\\ dream\\ like\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ Frontier\\ of\\ Writing\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Seamus\\ Heaney\\ \\-\\ \\(1987\\)\\ \\-\\ 146\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Political\\ Poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ suppression\\,\\ subjugation\\,\\ judgment\\,\\ poetry\\,\\ writing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyrical\\ ballad\\,\\ modified\\ terza\\-rima\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 3\\ lines\\;\\ aba\\ cdc\\ efe\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ guns\\,\\ military\\ \\(soldiers\\,\\ armour\\,\\ sergeant\\)\\,\\ ocular\\ \\(seeing\\,\\ training\\,\\ eyeing\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Heaney\\ is\\ a\\ native\\ of\\ Ireland\\,\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ suddenly\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ through\\,\\ arraigned\\ yet\\ freed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ current\\ of\\ a\\ tarmac\\ road\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ fairly\\ cryptic\\ poem\\ about\\ the\\ nerve\\-racking\\ experience\\ of\\ crossing\\ a\\ heavily\\ guarded\\ border\\ \\(unnamed\\,\\ but\\ likely\\ Ireland\\/N\\.\\ Ireland\\)\\ and\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ control\\/freedom\\ while\\ being\\ judged\\ by\\ the\\ armed\\ border\\ guards\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ action\\ of\\ being\\ halted\\ at\\ the\\ border\\,\\ gun\\-sighted\\ by\\ border\\ guards\\,\\ checked\\ out\\ and\\ cleared\\ for\\ passage\\,\\ then\\ carefully\\ driving\\ away\\ occurs\\ twice\\,\\ taking\\ 4\\ stanzas\\ each\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ four\\ stanzas\\ are\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ unnamed\\ physical\\ border\\,\\ while\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ recount\\ a\\ similar\\ experience\\ at\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;frontier\\ of\\ writing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ physical\\ setting\\,\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ verbs\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ simple\\ present\\ tense\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;stops\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;hold\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ whereas\\ the\\ last\\ four\\ stanzas\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ present\\ progressive\\ tense\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;training\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;flowing\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Clearly\\,\\ Heaney\\ draws\\ the\\ parallel\\,\\ with\\ the\\ equal\\ literary\\ weight\\ of\\ four\\ stanzas\\,\\ between\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ intellectual\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ former\\ culminates\\ with\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;guarded\\ unconcerned\\ acceleration\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ the\\ latter\\ leaves\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;arraigned\\ yet\\ freed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Both\\ occurrences\\ of\\ interrogation\\ and\\ intimidation\\ are\\ clearly\\ off\\-putting\\,\\ but\\ the\\ verb\\ and\\ diction\\ differences\\ highlight\\ the\\ finite\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ experience\\ at\\ the\\ physical\\ border\\ and\\ the\\ non\\-definite\\ nature\\ of\\ his\\ passage\\ through\\ writing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boundary\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ previous\\ citation\\ may\\ make\\ it\\ seem\\ as\\ though\\ the\\ never\\-ending\\ intellectual\\ experience\\ is\\ more\\ negative\\ than\\ the\\ physical\\,\\ an\\ opposite\\ interpretation\\ is\\ possible\\ as\\ Heaney\\ ends\\ the\\ physical\\ experience\\ \\&ldquo\\;subjugated\\,\\ yes\\,\\ and\\ obedient\\&rdquo\\;\\ whereas\\ the\\ intellectual\\ experience\\ sees\\ him\\ moving\\ beyond\\ the\\ threatening\\ \\&ldquo\\;armour\\-plated\\ vehicles\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;soldiers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ explicit\\ resolution\\ of\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ one\\ experience\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ the\\ other\\,\\ but\\ clearly\\ experiencing\\ both\\ negative\\ occurrences\\ of\\ oppression\\ and\\ judgment\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ lyric\\ facet\\ of\\ this\\ lyrical\\-ballad\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ terza\\ rima\\ form\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ hint\\ that\\ either\\ form\\ is\\ eqully\\ hellish\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ border\\ crossing\\ that\\ happens\\ as\\ if\\ across\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ current\\ of\\ a\\ tarmac\\ road\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(think\\ the\\ River\\ Styx\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mid\\-Term\\ Break\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1963\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Seamus\\ Heaney\\ \\(pgs\\.\\ 180\\-181\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-30\\-06\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ childhood\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ generally\\ pentameter\\,\\ sometimes\\ iambic\\ and\\ sometimes\\ trochaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Seven\\ tercets\\,\\ plus\\ one\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ tears\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ four\\ foot\\ box\\,\\ a\\ foot\\ for\\ every\\ year\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ tells\\ about\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trip\\ home\\ from\\ school\\ for\\ his\\ younger\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ funeral\\,\\ moving\\ from\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ one\\ day\\ until\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ the\\ next\\,\\ perhaps\\ to\\ emphasize\\ that\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;morning\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ at\\ four\\ years\\ old\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ noting\\ that\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ not\\ confronted\\ with\\ the\\ corpse\\ until\\ the\\ last\\ few\\ stanzas\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ one\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ tell\\ who\\ died\\ until\\ the\\ very\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ worth\\ noting\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ deals\\ with\\ Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\ very\\ indirectly\\,\\ without\\ giving\\ his\\ name\\ or\\ many\\ descriptive\\ details\\.\\ \\ \\;Heaney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tone\\ is\\ also\\ somewhat\\ detached\\,\\ until\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ final\\,\\ emotional\\ line\\,\\ when\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ Heaney\\ begins\\ to\\ break\\ down\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ reader\\ can\\ finally\\ really\\ understand\\ what\\ has\\ happened\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terminus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1987\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Seamus\\ Heaney\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 224\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 6\\:\\ Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ conflict\\ between\\ past\\ and\\ present\\,\\ secular\\/religious\\ values\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ identity\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ rhyming\\,\\ 3\\ sections\\,\\ couplet\\ stanzas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(4\\-3\\-4\\ couplets\\/section\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ borders\\,\\ contrasts\\ between\\ modernity\\ \\&\\;\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ it\\ any\\ wonder\\ when\\ I\\ thought\\/\\ I\\ would\\ have\\ second\\ thoughts\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ the\\ march\\ drain\\ and\\ the\\ march\\ drain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banks\\ \\/\\ Suffering\\ the\\ limit\\ of\\ each\\ claim\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ between\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heaney\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ confusing\\ nature\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\ not\\ only\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ change\\,\\ but\\ on\\ a\\ physical\\ border\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ the\\ march\\ drain\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ division\\ between\\ two\\ parishes\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ discusses\\ his\\ confusion\\ and\\ second\\-guesses\\ when\\ his\\ parents\\ used\\ Biblical\\ stories\\ to\\ apply\\ to\\ modern\\ morals\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ contrasts\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prudent\\ squirrel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hoard\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mammon\\ of\\ iniquity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ should\\ save\\,\\ but\\ not\\ be\\ greedy\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ industrialization\\ by\\ hearing\\ both\\ an\\ engine\\ and\\ a\\ horse\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ being\\ an\\ Irishman\\ imposes\\ another\\ conflict\\ between\\ Irish\\ identity\\ and\\ British\\ rule\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ challenges\\ of\\ having\\ multiple\\ identities\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ \\(or\\ inability\\)\\ to\\ balance\\ and\\ integrate\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 129\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.136\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\-1616\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\10\\/16\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lust\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;three\\ quatrains\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\)\\ and\\ a\\ couplet\\ \\(gg\\)\\.\\ The\\ couplet\\ is\\ indented\\ in\\ this\\ version\\,\\ further\\ highlighting\\ the\\ concluding\\,\\ distinctness\\ of\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\ \\(already\\ distinguished\\ for\\ its\\ change\\ in\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ different\\ phases\\ of\\ lust\\&mdash\\;the\\ painful\\ longing\\,\\ the\\ blissful\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ the\\ shameful\\ aftermath\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ constant\\ \\&ldquo\\;madness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ lust\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;All\\ this\\ the\\ world\\ well\\ knows\\;\\ yet\\ none\\ knows\\ well\\/\\ To\\ shun\\ the\\ heaven\\ that\\ leads\\ men\\ to\\ this\\ hell\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ post\\-lust\\ reflection\\ on\\ the\\ destructive\\ powers\\ and\\ painful\\,\\ detrimental\\ experience\\ of\\ lust\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ lust\\ as\\ a\\ temptation\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ pursued\\,\\ and\\ once\\ obtained\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ swallowed\\ bait\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ ultimately\\ leads\\ men\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;hell\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ While\\ man\\ is\\ aware\\ of\\ this\\ fate\\,\\ none\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ resist\\ this\\ temptation\\ and\\ avoid\\ the\\ shame\\ that\\ comes\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ the\\ different\\ points\\ in\\ time\\ surrounding\\ lust\\:\\ the\\ longing\\ for\\ it\\ \\(before\\ lust\\)\\,\\ the\\ present\\ act\\ \\(consummation\\ of\\ lust\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ memory\\/aftermath\\ \\(that\\ brings\\ the\\ shame\\)\\.\\ The\\ first\\ quatrain\\ depicts\\ the\\ longing\\ for\\ lust\\ and\\ presents\\ a\\ long\\ list\\ of\\ painful\\,\\ destructive\\ adjectives\\ that\\ describe\\ this\\ state\\.\\ The\\ second\\ quatrain\\ presents\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ phases\\:\\ how\\ lust\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;despised\\&rdquo\\;\\ once\\ it\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;enjoyed\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ change\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;past\\ reason\\ hunted\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ seeking\\ of\\ lust\\)\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;past\\ reason\\ hated\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(after\\ lust\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;had\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ repetition\\ of\\ this\\ phase\\ highlights\\ the\\ change\\ through\\ the\\ word\\ that\\ follows\\ the\\ repeated\\ phrase\\ \\(hunted\\ to\\ hated\\)\\.\\ The\\ third\\ quatrain\\ depicts\\ how\\ lust\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;mad\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ all\\ three\\ forms\\ \\&ldquo\\;Had\\,\\ having\\&hellip\\;to\\ have\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ continual\\ fleeting\\ change\\ between\\ time\\ and\\ verb\\ tense\\ convey\\ almost\\ the\\ uncontrollable\\ whirlwind\\ of\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ lust\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ patterning\\ of\\ time\\ depicts\\ the\\ author\\ as\\ one\\ who\\ has\\ experience\\ lust\\ and\\ the\\ shameful\\ aftermath\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ is\\ both\\ despair\\ over\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inability\\ to\\ resist\\ this\\ cycle\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ try\\ to\\ awaken\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ awareness\\ to\\ avoid\\ this\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ \\(though\\ perhaps\\ knowingly\\ in\\ vain\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;One\\ unusual\\ feature\\ of\\ this\\ sonnet\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ contain\\ any\\ personal\\ reference\\ or\\ experience\\.\\ Shakespeare\\ presents\\ this\\ experience\\ of\\ lust\\ in\\ a\\ completely\\ impersonal\\ tone\\,\\ referencing\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ experiences\\ that\\ come\\ with\\ lust\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ specific\\ encounter\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ the\\ description\\ ensure\\ that\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ personal\\ experience\\ that\\ has\\ clearly\\ affected\\ the\\ author\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Way\\ Back\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sheila\\ Ortiz\\ Taylor\\ 237\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/6\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ identity\\,\\ self\\-perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ stanzas\\ and\\ lines\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ domesticity\\,\\ photography\\,\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ way\\ back\\ is\\ a\\ land\\ more\\ innocent\\ than\\ this\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Using\\ old\\ family\\ photographs\\ as\\ reference\\ points\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ tells\\ of\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ brother\\ and\\ sister\\ and\\ their\\ struggles\\ to\\ navigate\\ between\\ two\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ there\\ is\\ their\\ heritage\\,\\ embodied\\ by\\ their\\ appearance\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Indian\\ bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;eyes\\&hellip\\;\\ holding\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ careless\\ loss\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ their\\ family\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;eight\\ brothers\\ lost\\ fingers\\,\\ toes\\,\\ knees\\ and\\ elbows\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ the\\ brother\\ and\\ the\\ sister\\ try\\ to\\ identify\\ themselves\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ culture\\ that\\ is\\ destroying\\ that\\ heritage\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ both\\ marry\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ adopt\\ American\\ lifestyles\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ becomes\\ a\\ hairdresser\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ his\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;wounds\\ ache\\ more\\ than\\ seemed\\ possible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ fought\\ so\\ hard\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ only\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ youngest\\ disregard\\ it\\ anyway\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ brother\\ and\\ the\\ sister\\ celebrate\\ American\\ holidays\\&mdash\\;Christmas\\ and\\ Halloween\\&mdash\\;with\\ the\\ utmost\\ devotion\\ and\\ enthusiasm\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ try\\ as\\ they\\ might\\ to\\ fit\\ into\\ American\\ culture\\,\\ the\\ brother\\ and\\ sister\\ are\\ outsiders\\ there\\ too\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ neighbors\\,\\ who\\ see\\ the\\ Indian\\ brother\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;would\\ not\\ let\\ their\\ children\\ trick\\ or\\ treat\\ where\\ a\\ grown\\ man\\ put\\ costumes\\ on\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ exactly\\ the\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eagerness\\ to\\ fit\\ into\\ American\\ society\\ that\\ marks\\ him\\ as\\ an\\ outsider\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ brother\\ is\\ in\\ limbo\\ between\\ two\\ social\\ identities\\&mdash\\;having\\ betrayed\\ his\\ native\\ heritage\\ and\\ unwelcome\\ by\\ Westerners\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ stanza\\ shows\\ him\\ alone\\,\\ drinking\\ in\\ his\\ car\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ photographs\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ poet\\ conveys\\ though\\,\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ back\\ is\\ a\\ land\\ more\\ innocent\\ than\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ much\\ has\\ been\\ betrayed\\ on\\ this\\ land\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ really\\ no\\ way\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Phrases\\ that\\ best\\ exemplify\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ identity\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;artists\\ of\\ the\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ of\\ all\\ in\\ costume\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;both\\ refer\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ brother\\ and\\ sister\\ were\\ presenting\\ themselves\\ as\\ non\\-native\\,\\ but\\ would\\ never\\ truly\\ be\\ non\\-native\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sherman\\ Alexie\\ \\(pg\\ 149\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/16\\ Chapter\\ 4\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ exploitation\\,\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ five\\ tercets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ unrhymed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ pawn\\ shops\\,\\ Indian\\ artifacts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ when\\ the\\ last\\ Indian\\ has\\ pawned\\ everything\\/\\ but\\ his\\ heart\\,\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\ takes\\ that\\ for\\ 20\\ bucks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ exploitation\\ of\\ Indians\\.\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\ was\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Wild\\ Wild\\ West\\ Show\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ Indians\\ were\\ paid\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ parody\\ of\\ their\\ existence\\ when\\ they\\ still\\ had\\ freedom\\ and\\ were\\ fighting\\ off\\ the\\ intrusion\\ of\\ the\\ colonizers\\.\\ In\\ a\\ slight\\ departure\\ from\\ the\\ historical\\ facts\\,\\ Alexie\\ uses\\ a\\ pawn\\ shop\\ as\\ a\\ convenient\\ vehicle\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ economically\\ destitute\\ plight\\ of\\ Indians\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ Indians\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ live\\ off\\ the\\ land\\,\\ they\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ sell\\ belongings\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ Indians\\ maintain\\ certain\\ elements\\ of\\ their\\ heritage\\ because\\ they\\ still\\ have\\ the\\ beaded\\ outfit\\,\\ they\\ are\\ clearly\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanized\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ VCRs\\ and\\ televisions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ act\\ of\\ pawning\\ off\\ their\\ things\\ seems\\ matter\\ of\\ fact\\,\\ but\\ the\\ poem\\ emotionally\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ in\\ which\\ Alexie\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Indians\\ are\\ figuratively\\ selling\\ off\\ even\\ their\\ bodies\\,\\ and\\ then\\ even\\ worse\\,\\ their\\ hearts\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ completely\\ \\&ldquo\\;sold\\-out\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ eaten\\ alive\\ by\\ American\\ capitalism\\,\\ and\\ they\\ pay\\ to\\ gawk\\ over\\ their\\ own\\ possessions\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ name\\ \\&ldquo\\;Native\\ American\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ his\\ sign\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ completely\\ ironic\\,\\ as\\ it\\ shows\\ that\\ these\\ days\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ sinister\\ exploitations\\ of\\ people\\ is\\ covered\\ by\\ a\\ veneer\\ of\\ political\\ correctness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ Amtrak\\ from\\ Boston\\ to\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sherman\\ Alexie\\ \\(page\\ 251\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ cultural\\ estrangement\\,\\ group\\ identification\\,\\ nationalism\\,\\ American\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Nine\\ four\\ line\\ stanzas\\ and\\ one\\ sentence\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ American\\ landscape\\/culture\\,\\ Walden\\ Pond\\,\\ train\\ \\(obviously\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Native\\ American\\ poet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ important\\ to\\ recreating\\ the\\ space\\ of\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ barriers\\ and\\ extinction\\ of\\ oral\\ literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ recalls\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ American\\ history\\,\\ American\\ landscape\\ and\\ American\\ literature\\ with\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ with\\ Thoreau\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ woman\\ pointing\\ to\\ a\\ house\\ that\\ is\\ over\\ 200\\ years\\ old\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ opens\\ the\\ poem\\ to\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ a\\ long\\ history\\ particularly\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ history\\.\\ The\\ woman\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;taught\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ this\\ house\\ that\\ she\\ points\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ narrator\\ who\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ learn\\ American\\ history\\ rather\\ than\\ what\\ she\\ should\\ know\\ of\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;tribal\\ stories\\ whose\\ architecture\\ is\\ 15\\,00\\ years\\ older\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ narrator\\ is\\ then\\ confronted\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ \\&ldquo\\;Did\\ you\\ see\\ Walden\\ Pond\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ narrator\\ conveys\\ her\\ uneasiness\\ by\\ stating\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ Walden\\ Ponds\\ especially\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ from\\.\\ This\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ that\\ American\\ culture\\ is\\ forced\\ upon\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ denies\\ her\\ of\\ her\\ rich\\ Native\\ American\\ history\\ prior\\.\\ In\\ the\\ sixth\\ stanza\\ the\\ narrator\\ mentions\\ Don\\ Henley\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ popular\\ musician\\ who\\ organized\\ concerts\\ to\\ save\\ Walden\\ Pond\\ from\\ real\\ estate\\ developers\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ her\\ lack\\ of\\ appreciation\\ for\\ what\\ everyone\\ thinks\\ he\\ did\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ expressing\\ her\\ frustration\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ naivety\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ simply\\ listened\\ to\\ the\\ woman\\ babble\\ about\\ American\\ history\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ narrators\\ broader\\ relation\\ and\\ identification\\ with\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Indians\\ \\(the\\ narrator\\ explains\\)\\ only\\ listen\\ to\\ facts\\ about\\ what\\ they\\ call\\/pretend\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;home\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ they\\ struggle\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ culture\\ alive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Balsero\\ Singing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pg\\.\\ 280\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Silvia\\ Curbelo\\ \\(1955\\ \\-\\ \\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ November\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ appear\\ on\\ syllabus\\,\\ but\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\&rdquo\\;\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Sea\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\(same\\ location\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ open\\ sea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ thing\\ changing\\ is\\ the\\ thoughts\\/dreams\\ of\\ the\\ balsero\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ poem\\ is\\ split\\ into\\ 9\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ identical\\ \\(three\\ lines\\ each\\,\\ alternating\\ between\\ dimeter\\ and\\ trimeter\\)\\,\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ which\\ has\\ only\\ two\\ beats\\ and\\ is\\ one\\ line\\ long\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ but\\ the\\ poem\\ flows\\ like\\ a\\ dream\\ might\\,\\ with\\ long\\ sentences\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ immigrant\\ singing\\ is\\ reflected\\ by\\ the\\ dream\\-like\\ state\\ felt\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ the\\ child\\,\\ lover\\/wife\\,\\ harbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Silvia\\ Curbelo\\ is\\ a\\ female\\ Cuban\\ immigrant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Each\\ new\\ breath\\ \\/\\ is\\ a\\ harbor\\,\\ then\\ a\\ wave\\ \\/\\ closes\\ over\\ it\\ \\/\\/\\ like\\ a\\ book\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ Firstly\\,\\ a\\ balsero\\ is\\ a\\ refugee\\ from\\ Cuba\\ in\\ a\\ raft\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ hidden\\ history\\ behind\\ migration\\,\\ as\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cuban\\ boat\\-person\\&rdquo\\;\\ encodes\\ his\\ past\\ life\\ through\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ music\\ summons\\ up\\ three\\ episodes\\ from\\ his\\ previous\\ life\\:\\ first\\,\\ he\\ remembers\\ a\\ child\\ leaning\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ \\(presumably\\ his\\)\\,\\ then\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ another\\ dream\\ \\/\\/\\ he\\ is\\ dancing\\ in\\ a\\ cottage\\ by\\ the\\ sea\\ and\\ music\\ is\\ a\\ language\\ he\\ has\\ just\\ learned\\ to\\ speak\\,\\/the\\ cool\\ yes\\ of\\ her\\ throat\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suggesting\\ that\\ his\\ second\\ memory\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ a\\ past\\ wife\\/\\.over\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ entire\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ hallucination\\ of\\ an\\ immigrant\\ on\\ a\\ raft\\ who\\ is\\ lost\\/dehydrated\\/going\\ crazy\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ sky\\ goes\\ on\\/for\\ days\\ with\\ its\\ one\\ cloud\\ waving\\,\\ the\\ song\\ lifting\\ him\\ like\\ a\\ sail\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ then\\ explains\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ real\\ boat\\ is\\ lost\\/at\\ sea\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ implying\\ that\\ this\\ raft\\ is\\ make\\-shift\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ guy\\ is\\ barely\\ surviving\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ image\\ he\\ sees\\ is\\ a\\ harbor\\,\\ but\\ even\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;Each\\ new\\ breath\\ is\\ a\\ harbor\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ wave\\ closes\\ over\\ it\\ \\/\\/\\ like\\ a\\ book\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ hopeful\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ soon\\ reach\\ his\\ destination\\ \\(America\\)\\,\\ but\\ his\\ dream\\ is\\ constantly\\ squelched\\ by\\ each\\ passing\\ wave\\.\\ \\ \\;Strangely\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ ends\\ in\\ a\\ one\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ a\\ book\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ closing\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ suggests\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ story\\;\\ perhaps\\ this\\ final\\ line\\ was\\ added\\ to\\ provide\\ closure\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ or\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ Balsero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ would\\ soon\\ be\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\ that\\ the\\ poems\\ progression\\ goes\\ from\\ a\\ memory\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ back\\ in\\ Cuba\\,\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ mention\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ destination\\,\\ providing\\ some\\ degree\\ of\\ linear\\ progression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bend\\ in\\ the\\ River\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1941\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Simon\\ J\\.\\ Ortiz\\ pg\\.\\ 275\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ History\\ and\\ Regionality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\,\\ quest\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structure\\:\\ 3\\ 5\\-line\\ stanzas\\,\\ one\\ four\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ one\\ eight\\-line\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Native\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ quest\\-poem\\,\\ as\\ the\\ speaker\\ ventures\\ along\\ a\\ river\\ towards\\ the\\ mountains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ cold\\ strong\\ shelter\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ There\\ are\\ different\\ spatial\\ and\\ temporal\\ coordinates\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ moves\\ from\\ large\\ scale\\ to\\ small\\-scale\\ visions\\ of\\ nature\\:\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;flicker\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ flies\\ by\\ to\\ the\\ mountains\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Arkansas\\ River\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;glacial\\ stone\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ small\\ pebbles\\ the\\ river\\ quietly\\ \\&ldquo\\;ripples\\ over\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ speaker\\ is\\ also\\ asserting\\ and\\ contemplating\\ his\\ own\\ place\\ along\\ the\\ river\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ are\\ tracks\\/at\\ river\\&rsquo\\;s\\ edge\\,\\ raccoon\\,\\/coyote\\,\\ deer\\,\\ crow\\,\\/and\\ now\\ my\\ own\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ a\\ simple\\ and\\ solemn\\ tone\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ presence\\ of\\ natural\\ spirituality\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;prayer\\ sticks\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;pray\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ shall\\ arrive\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Reply\\ to\\ the\\ Shepherd\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 90\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sir\\ Walter\\ Raleigh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 4\\,\\ 11\\.\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 6\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ \\(aabb\\ ccdd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Negated\\ pastoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ could\\ youth\\ last\\ and\\ love\\ still\\ breed\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Had\\ joys\\ no\\ date\\ nor\\ age\\ no\\ need\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\ these\\ delights\\ my\\ mind\\ might\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ live\\ with\\ thee\\ and\\ be\\ thy\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ Christopher\\ Marlowe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Passionate\\ Shepherd\\ to\\ His\\ Love\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ pastoral\\ ballad\\.\\ \\ \\;Raleigh\\ nullifies\\ all\\ idealized\\ imagery\\ in\\ its\\ analog\\ poem\\,\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ ephemeral\\ nature\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ love\\ as\\ reasons\\ for\\ rejecting\\ the\\ shepherd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daddy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\(pg\\ 21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/27\\ Chapter\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ page\\ 21\\,\\ reading\\ other\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genres\\:\\ private\\ life\\,\\ paternal\\ relationship\\,\\ death\\ and\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-forms\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ quintains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ no\\ particular\\ rhyme\\ pattern\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ continuous\\ return\\ of\\ words\\ that\\ rhyme\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ Jew\\,\\ shoe\\,\\ blue\\,\\ two\\,\\ true\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ holocaust\\,\\ death\\,\\ vampires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Plath\\ had\\ clinical\\ depression\\ and\\ bipolar\\ disorder\\,\\ and\\ frequently\\ attempted\\ suicide\\ and\\ finally\\ killed\\ herself\\ at\\ age\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ last\\ line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;daddy\\,\\ daddy\\,\\ you\\ bastard\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ through\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Plath\\ unfolds\\ her\\ opinions\\ on\\ her\\ relationship\\ with\\ her\\ father\\.\\ In\\ the\\ beginning\\ she\\ notes\\ that\\ she\\ felt\\ smothered\\ and\\ rotting\\,\\ just\\ like\\ his\\ gangrenous\\ foot\\ in\\ his\\ shoe\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ healthy\\ relationship\\,\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ sense\\ of\\ closeness\\ given\\ her\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;ach\\ du\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ uses\\ a\\ German\\ pronoun\\ reserved\\ for\\ intimates\\.\\ She\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ used\\ to\\ pray\\ to\\ recover\\ you\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ showing\\ that\\ she\\ thought\\ there\\ was\\ something\\ salvageable\\ in\\ their\\ relationship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ emotional\\ and\\ psychological\\ shift\\ when\\ she\\ equates\\ herself\\ with\\ a\\ Jew\\ during\\ the\\ Holocaust\\.\\ Plath\\ no\\ longer\\ sees\\ herself\\ as\\ the\\ passive\\ victim\\ of\\ a\\ bad\\ situation\\;\\ she\\ sees\\ herself\\ as\\ the\\ victim\\ of\\ direct\\ violence\\ and\\ oppression\\.\\ She\\ describes\\ her\\ father\\ as\\ a\\ Nazi\\ whom\\ she\\ fears\\,\\ and\\ discusses\\ how\\ even\\ after\\ he\\ died\\ she\\ was\\ still\\ affected\\ by\\ him\\ because\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;bit\\ my\\ pretty\\ red\\ heart\\ in\\ two\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ She\\ also\\ blames\\ him\\ for\\ her\\ attempted\\ suicide\\,\\ and\\ her\\ accusatory\\ tone\\ is\\ compounded\\ by\\ the\\ repeated\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ Plath\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ passive\\ and\\ rotting\\ or\\ a\\ victim\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ after\\ her\\ suicide\\ she\\ is\\ reborn\\ as\\ a\\ avenging\\ angel\\ of\\ sorts\\.\\ She\\ finally\\ kills\\ him\\ off\\ like\\ a\\ vampire\\,\\ and\\ notes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ through\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ is\\ unclear\\,\\ however\\,\\ whether\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;through\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ finally\\ purged\\ herself\\ of\\ him\\,\\ or\\ whether\\ by\\ destroying\\ him\\ she\\ has\\ also\\ destroyed\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ herself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lady\\ Lazarus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1966\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ 555\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/1\\ Consturcting\\ a\\ self\\&mdash\\;the\\ invented\\ mythological\\ persona\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\,\\ despair\\,\\ voyeurism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ address\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\-verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ tercets\\,\\ no\\ consistent\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ decay\\,\\ injury\\,\\ Naxi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ severely\\ depressed\\ and\\ suicidal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dying\\ is\\ an\\ art\\,\\ live\\ everything\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ do\\ it\\ exceptionally\\ well\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sylvia\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ had\\ diabetes\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ treatable\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ he\\ simply\\ gave\\ up\\ on\\ life\\ and\\ willed\\ himself\\ to\\ die\\,\\ which\\ he\\ did\\ when\\ Plath\\ was\\ very\\ young\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ response\\,\\ Plath\\ herself\\ became\\ suicidal\\.\\ \\ \\;Plath\\ is\\ a\\ confessional\\ poet\\ and\\ spoke\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ voice\\ of\\ her\\ experiences\\ of\\ pity\\ and\\ despair\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ felt\\ that\\ her\\ readers\\ were\\ voyeurs\\&mdash\\;they\\ just\\ wanted\\ to\\ know\\ her\\ dark\\,\\ twisted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\story\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ for\\ the\\ underlying\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ censure\\ of\\ these\\ voyeuristic\\ readers\\.\\ \\ \\;Plath\\ takes\\ on\\ the\\ persona\\ of\\ Lady\\ Lazarus\\ so\\ that\\ her\\ readers\\ can\\ peer\\ under\\ her\\ bandages\\ and\\ see\\ her\\ wounds\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;then\\ unwrap\\ me\\ hand\\ and\\ foot\\&mdash\\;the\\ big\\ strip\\ tease\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;She\\ makes\\ herself\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ freak\\-show\\ and\\ mocks\\ both\\ the\\ voyeuristic\\ audience\\ and\\ her\\ own\\ exhibitionist\\ tendencies\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ your\\ opus\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ valuable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;She\\ fluxuates\\ between\\ a\\ decaying\\ corpse\\ and\\ a\\ live\\ person\\&mdash\\;representative\\ of\\ her\\ multiple\\ suicide\\ attempts\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ she\\ imagines\\ people\\ plucking\\ off\\ pieces\\ of\\ her\\ dead\\ body\\ to\\ use\\ as\\ relics\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ demonstration\\ of\\ perverse\\ voyeurism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1959\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\(124\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Describing\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(107\\-149\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ pregnancy\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\/\\ 9\\ lines\\/\\ 9\\ syllables\\ per\\ line\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ fruit\\-\\ melon\\,\\ apples\\;\\ animals\\-\\ elephant\\,\\ cow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ credited\\ with\\ advancing\\ the\\ genre\\ of\\ confessional\\ poetry\\;\\ severely\\ depressed\\ and\\ eventually\\ committed\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ a\\ riddle\\ in\\ nine\\ syllabus\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\ OR\\ \\&ldquo\\;Boarded\\ the\\ train\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ getting\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ her\\ pregnancy\\ ties\\ the\\ poem\\ together\\&mdash\\;we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ 9\\ lines\\ each\\ with\\ 9\\ syllables\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ pregnancy\\ last\\ 9\\ months\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ metaphors\\ that\\ Plath\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ pregnancy\\ all\\ show\\ a\\ different\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ pregnancy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ metaphors\\ describe\\ parallel\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Unaware\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ baby\\ will\\ be\\ like\\,\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;riddle\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Her\\ pregnancy\\ has\\ also\\ caused\\ her\\ to\\ gain\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ weight\\,\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ move\\ around\\ and\\ thus\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;elephant\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;ponderous\\ house\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Because\\ her\\ stomach\\ is\\ so\\ big\\ compared\\ to\\ her\\ legs\\,\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;melon\\ strolling\\ on\\ two\\ tendrils\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 3\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Several\\ more\\ metaphors\\ continue\\,\\ but\\ then\\ in\\ line\\ 7\\,\\ Plath\\ switches\\ from\\ using\\ images\\ to\\ using\\ abstractions\\ to\\ describe\\ how\\ she\\ feels\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ means\\,\\ a\\ stage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\&mdash\\;so\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\,\\ and\\ like\\ a\\ stage\\ of\\ a\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ in\\ this\\ same\\ line\\ Plath\\ changes\\ back\\ to\\ using\\ concrete\\ images\\ to\\ describe\\ her\\ pregnancy\\-\\ as\\ she\\ describes\\ how\\ she\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ cow\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feeling\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ stuck\\ in\\ her\\ pregnancy\\ and\\ cannot\\ escape\\ it\\&mdash\\;she\\ uses\\ the\\ metaphor\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;boarded\\ the\\ train\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ getting\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ train\\ as\\ the\\ final\\ image\\ for\\ how\\ she\\ feels\\,\\ suggests\\ the\\ further\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ pregnancy\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ imagine\\ a\\ train\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ and\\ travels\\ for\\ awhile\\-\\ which\\ is\\ just\\ like\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feeling\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ after\\ nine\\ months\\,\\ though\\ the\\ pregnancy\\ will\\ be\\ over\\,\\ she\\ would\\ still\\ have\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ child\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morning\\ Song\\ \\(page\\ 558\\)\\-Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\(1932\\-1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Anthology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Motherhood\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Announcement\\ \\(two\\ characters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ free\\ verse\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ discernible\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ meter\\ averages\\ around\\ pentameter\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ sizeable\\ variation\\ with\\ some\\ lines\\ having\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ 6\\ syllables\\,\\ thus\\ is\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ a\\ single\\ meter\\.\\ It\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ 6\\ stanzas\\,\\ with\\ each\\ stanza\\ containing\\ three\\ lines\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\.\\ Enjambed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fat\\-gold\\ watch\\,\\ moth\\-breath\\ and\\ pink\\ roses\\,\\ baby\\ as\\ cat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;At\\ an\\ early\\ age\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ attempted\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\ and\\ was\\ unsuccessful\\.\\ She\\ attempted\\ again\\ in\\ her\\ twenties\\ and\\ again\\ was\\ unsuccessful\\.\\ After\\ marriage\\ \\(she\\ was\\ wed\\ to\\ another\\ author\\)\\ and\\ birth\\ of\\ her\\ children\\,\\ she\\ again\\ attempted\\ suicide\\ in\\ her\\ thirties\\ and\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ She\\ wrote\\ The\\ Bell\\ Jar\\,\\ a\\ famous\\ novel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ uses\\ varied\\ imagery\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ speakers\\ feelings\\ toward\\ her\\ newborn\\ child\\,\\ providing\\ contrasts\\ that\\ describe\\ both\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ interepreted\\ by\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ Plath\\ begins\\ the\\ description\\ through\\ unflattering\\ imagery\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;bald\\ cry\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;fat\\ gold\\ watch\\,\\"\\;\\ indcating\\ her\\ annoyance\\ at\\ the\\ harsh\\ sound\\ of\\ a\\ babies\\ cry\\.\\ This\\ imagery\\ transforms\\ however\\,\\ and\\ her\\ tone\\ becomes\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ affectionate\\ with\\ each\\ stanza\\.\\ She\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ sound\\ as\\ \\"\\;clear\\ vowels\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;handful\\ of\\ notes\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ that\\ while\\ it\\ is\\ unpleasant\\ physically\\,\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ crying\\ is\\ something\\ dear\\ to\\ her\\ heart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ applicant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1960s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sylvia\\ Plath\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ date\\(s\\)\\ assigned\\ and\\ course\\ module\\(s\\)\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ poems\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ political\\ poems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ unrequited\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ lyric\\ \\(I\\ think\\)it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ seem\\ to\\ fit\\ into\\ anything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ some\\ random\\ rhyme\\ also\\ uniform\\ form\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\(sadness\\,\\ sorrow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ author\\ had\\ problems\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ Ted\\ Hughes\\ and\\ he\\ cheated\\ on\\ her\\ and\\ she\\ killed\\ herself\\.\\.\\ feminist\\ \\(went\\ to\\ smith\\)\\ etc\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Applicant\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ another\\ depth\\ of\\ emotion\\,\\ seemingly\\ incongruous\\ to\\ torment\\,\\ called\\ humor\\.\\ More\\ precisely\\,\\ her\\ particular\\ style\\ is\\ intermingled\\ with\\ sarcasm\\ and\\ acerbic\\ commentaries\\ on\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ By\\ exemplifying\\ stereotypical\\ roles\\,\\ Plath\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ embody\\ a\\ caustic\\ irony\\.\\ This\\,\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ reflects\\ the\\ decade\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\,\\ a\\ momentous\\ era\\ of\\ awakening\\ of\\ repressed\\ feminism\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ Marriage\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ an\\ absurdly\\ narrow\\ existence\\ perpetrated\\ by\\ weak\\ men\\ and\\ obliviously\\ tolerant\\ women\\ within\\ cultural\\ paradigms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Plath\\ makes\\ a\\ statement\\ against\\ the\\ ideals\\ society\\ imposes\\ on\\ what\\ true\\ functions\\ a\\ wife\\ and\\ husband\\ serve\\.\\ Mockingly\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ suggests\\ that\\ such\\ women\\ eventually\\ become\\ automated\\,\\ mechanical\\ versions\\ of\\ a\\ person\\.\\ Men\\,\\ similarly\\,\\ are\\ then\\ portrayed\\ to\\ desire\\ and\\ accept\\ these\\ qualities\\ as\\ inherent\\ or\\ necessary\\ to\\ being\\ good\\ women\\.\\ Plath\\ also\\ calls\\ marriage\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;last\\ resort\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ implying\\ the\\ impotence\\ or\\ incompleteness\\ for\\ which\\ the\\ woman\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ compensate\\.\\ To\\ her\\ it\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ practical\\ rather\\ than\\ emotional\\ bond\\;\\ it\\ has\\ entered\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;applicant\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ partner\\ or\\ spouse\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ dialog\\ format\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ the\\ questioning\\ tone\\,\\ Plath\\ points\\ accusingly\\ at\\ apathy\\ and\\ conformity\\ as\\ the\\ culprits\\.\\ The\\ presentation\\ may\\ be\\ facetious\\,\\ but\\ the\\ reader\\ comes\\ away\\ with\\ the\\ disturbing\\ realization\\ that\\ this\\ situation\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ laughably\\ uncommon\\.\\ With\\ bittersweet\\ words\\ and\\ ironic\\ humor\\,\\ Plath\\ reminds\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ living\\ for\\ someone\\ instead\\ of\\ with\\ someone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Love\\ Song\\ of\\ J\\.\\ Alfred\\ Prufrock\\ \\ \\;\\-T\\.S\\.\\ Eliot\\ \\(1888\\-1965\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ page\\ 200\\,\\ covered\\ Nov\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ lecture\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\ con\\.\\ The\\ invented\\ persona\\ and\\ its\\ uses\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ a\\ personal\\ reflection\\ of\\ oneself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ A\\ long\\ poem\\,\\ with\\ 20\\ actual\\ stanzas\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\,\\ including\\ many\\ 12\\ line\\ stanzas\\ with\\ several\\ unusual\\ line\\ breaks\\.\\ Though\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ rigid\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ couplets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ meter\\ most\\ closely\\ resembles\\ iambic\\,\\ though\\ the\\ writing\\ flows\\ rather\\ freely\\ like\\ a\\ train\\ of\\ thought\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyric\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imageries\\:\\ The\\ poem\\ has\\ many\\,\\ many\\ images\\ and\\ vivid\\,\\ unusual\\ descriptions\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ many\\ action\\ verbs\\ despite\\ the\\ reflective\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tense\\ shifts\\ slowly\\ from\\ present\\ to\\ past\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\T\\.S\\.\\ Eliot\\ was\\ very\\ religious\\,\\ having\\ graduated\\ from\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Divinity\\ School\\,\\ and\\ he\\ founded\\ a\\ Unitarian\\ church\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Many\\ believe\\ the\\ narrator\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Prufrock\\,\\ to\\ be\\ either\\ crippled\\ or\\ somehow\\ impaired\\ or\\ impotent\\.\\ Though\\ he\\ describes\\ many\\ actions\\,\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ his\\ conscience\\ is\\ journeying\\ but\\ he\\ physically\\ does\\ not\\ leave\\ his\\ room\\.\\ This\\ poem\\ addresses\\ a\\ major\\ personal\\ conflict\\ for\\ this\\ man\\.\\ As\\ one\\ critic\\,\\ Roger\\ Mitchell\\,\\ notes\\,\\ \\[J\\.\\ Alfred\\ Prufrock\\]\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ speaker\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ Eliot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poems\\.\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ Representative\\ Man\\ of\\ early\\ Modernism\\.\\ Shy\\,\\ cultivated\\,\\ oversensitive\\,\\ sexually\\ retarded\\ \\(many\\ have\\ said\\ impotent\\)\\,\\ ruminative\\,\\ isolated\\,\\ self\\-aware\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ He\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ speakers\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ Eliot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ early\\ poems\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ trapped\\ inside\\ their\\ own\\ excessive\\ alertness\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Stanza\\ four\\ supports\\ this\\ claims\\ and\\ brings\\ about\\ Prufrock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ indecisiveness\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ confidence\\.\\ He\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;Time\\ for\\ you\\ and\\ time\\ for\\ me\\,\\/\\ And\\ time\\ yet\\ for\\ a\\ hundred\\ indecisions\\,\\/\\ And\\ for\\ a\\ hundred\\ visions\\ and\\ revisions\\,\\/\\ Before\\ the\\ taking\\ of\\ a\\ toast\\ and\\ tea\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 201\\,\\ 31\\-34\\)\\ The\\ speaker\\ delays\\,\\ puts\\ off\\ confronting\\ his\\ love\\.\\ He\\ lives\\ in\\ visions\\,\\ imagining\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ like\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ the\\ strength\\ to\\ force\\ the\\ moment\\ to\\ its\\ crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(line\\ 80\\)\\ but\\ ultimately\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;wept\\ and\\ prayed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(81\\)\\.\\ One\\ ironic\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ rumination\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ problem\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ solution\\.\\ Whereas\\ one\\ might\\ expect\\ some\\ progress\\ to\\ be\\ gained\\ from\\ such\\ intense\\ thought\\,\\ this\\ man\\ seems\\ crippled\\ by\\ his\\ self\\-doubt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ dreamy\\,\\ disconnected\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ thoughts\\ and\\ actions\\ seem\\ rather\\ random\\ and\\ unrelated\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ tries\\ to\\ equate\\ himself\\ to\\ objects\\ through\\ confused\\ similies\\.\\ The\\ questions\\ on\\ page\\ 2\\,\\ including\\ \\&ldquo\\;Do\\ I\\ dare\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ should\\ I\\ presume\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ are\\ both\\ repeated\\,\\ really\\ strike\\ home\\ the\\ internal\\ struggle\\ which\\ Prufrock\\ faces\\.\\ Whereas\\ we\\ expect\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ Song\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ bold\\ and\\ pointed\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ Shakespearian\\ sonnet\\,\\ this\\ love\\ poem\\ falls\\ more\\ into\\ the\\ category\\ of\\ self\\-reflection\\ and\\ fails\\ in\\ achieving\\ any\\ romantic\\ effect\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ Papa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Waltz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1948\\)\\,\\ Theodore\\ Roethke\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 104\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ 10\\-4\\-06\\,\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ perhaps\\ an\\ elegy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ trimeter\\,\\ mostly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ quatrains\\,\\ rhyming\\ abab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ whiskey\\,\\ parent\\ with\\ child\\,\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Such\\ waltzing\\ was\\ not\\ easy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rhythm\\ \\(the\\ trimeter\\)\\ mirrors\\ the\\ beat\\ of\\ the\\ waltz\\ \\(1\\-2\\-3\\,\\ 1\\-2\\-3\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Roethke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\,\\ though\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ lack\\ the\\ elegance\\ and\\ grace\\ of\\ the\\ typical\\ waltzer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;such\\ waltzing\\ was\\ not\\ easy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Roethke\\ mentions\\ the\\ whiskey\\ on\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breath\\ and\\ the\\ dirt\\ on\\ his\\ hands\\ as\\ two\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ violent\\ about\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dancing\\,\\ prompting\\ Roethke\\ to\\ remark\\ that\\ he\\ held\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ like\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ seems\\ a\\ very\\ strange\\ way\\ to\\ describe\\ dancing\\ with\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ Roethke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ \\&ldquo\\;could\\ not\\ unfrown\\&rdquo\\;\\ herself\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ is\\ somehow\\ displeased\\ with\\ Roethke\\ and\\ his\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ probably\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ poem\\ comes\\ full\\ circle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ mentions\\ Roethke\\ \\&ldquo\\;hanging\\ on\\ like\\ death\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ mentions\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;still\\ clinging\\ to\\ your\\ shirt\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ important\\,\\ I\\ think\\,\\ that\\ Roethke\\ is\\ addressing\\ his\\ father\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;your\\ breath\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;your\\ shirt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ note\\:\\ each\\ stanza\\ is\\ very\\ regularly\\ punctuated\\,\\ with\\ the\\ second\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ ending\\ with\\ a\\ comma\\ or\\ semi\\-colon\\,\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ ending\\ with\\ a\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elegy\\ Written\\ in\\ a\\ Country\\ Churchyard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1716\\-1771\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Gray\\ pg\\.\\ 483\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 1\\&mdash\\;Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ class\\,\\ mortality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\,\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;long\\ o\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ important\\ and\\ pervasive\\&mdash\\;slowly\\,\\ plowman\\,\\ drowsy\\,\\ tower\\,\\ owl\\,\\ bower\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 32\\ stanzas\\ of\\ four\\ lines\\ \\(rhyming\\ abab\\)\\&mdash\\;including\\ three\\-stanza\\ epitaph\\ at\\ the\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ imagery\\ of\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;ivy\\-mantled\\ tower\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;unlettered\\ muse\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ short\\ and\\ simple\\ annals\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ uses\\ the\\ sad\\ anonymity\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ poor\\ men\\ to\\ deliver\\ a\\ commentary\\ on\\ social\\ injustices\\ and\\ class\\.\\ He\\ illuminates\\ the\\ poor\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dignified\\ modesty\\ by\\ enumerating\\ his\\ simple\\ joys\\ and\\ rebukes\\ the\\ proud\\ and\\ the\\ rich\\,\\ addressing\\ the\\ aristocracy\\ directly\\.\\ He\\ is\\ especially\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ terribleness\\ of\\ an\\ unhonored\\ dead\\,\\ speculating\\ that\\ their\\ lives\\ were\\ also\\ unhonored\\,\\ their\\ potential\\ unrealized\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Perhaps\\ in\\ this\\ neglected\\ spot\\ is\\ lad\\/Some\\ heart\\ once\\ pregnant\\ with\\ celestial\\ fire\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\.\\ He\\ addresses\\ the\\ contempt\\ that\\ the\\ rich\\ may\\ have\\ for\\ the\\ simple\\ funeral\\ ceremonies\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncouth\\ rhymes\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;frail\\&rdquo\\;\\ memorials\\ \\(78\\)\\.\\ He\\ praises\\ the\\ poor\\ or\\ unknown\\ for\\ their\\ sincerity\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ corrupting\\ and\\ misguided\\ ambition\\.\\ Gray\\ uses\\ the\\ proper\\ elegy\\ form\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ conspicuous\\ failure\\ of\\ society\\ to\\ remember\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ especially\\ amidst\\ the\\ wealth\\,\\ heraldry\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ pomp\\ of\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ worldly\\ honor\\ \\(33\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ the\\ rich\\ ultimately\\ share\\ the\\ same\\ mortal\\ fate\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ paths\\ of\\ glory\\ lead\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ grave\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(36\\)\\.\\ Rich\\ men\\ cannot\\ flatter\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;dull\\ cold\\ ear\\ of\\ Death\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(44\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Convergence\\ of\\ the\\ Twain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1912\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Hardy\\,\\ Pg\\.\\ 67\\-68\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Paper\\ \\#1\\ assigned\\ October\\ 4th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Remembrance\\,\\ a\\ recollection\\.\\ Under\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ arranged\\ life\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ sinking\\ of\\ the\\ Titanic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ The\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\ are\\ written\\ in\\ an\\ iambic\\ trimester\\ or\\ tetrameter\\.\\ The\\ final\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\ is\\ trochaic\\ and\\ is\\ longer\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ two\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 11\\ stanzas\\(numbered\\)\\,\\ each\\ of\\ 3\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ are\\ short\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ is\\ longer\\ then\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ falling\\ rhythm\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ There\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ ship\\ beneath\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ representing\\ undesirable\\ human\\ traits\\,\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ God\\ who\\ is\\ orchestrating\\ the\\ events\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ consummation\\ comes\\,\\ and\\ jars\\ two\\ hemispheres\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ sinking\\ of\\ the\\ titanic\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ serene\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ ship\\ beneath\\ the\\ sea\\ and\\ grows\\ in\\ intensity\\ and\\ anticipation\\ until\\ the\\ final\\ line\\ when\\ the\\ crash\\ finally\\ occurs\\.\\ The\\ first\\ five\\ stanzas\\ are\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ last\\ six\\ in\\ several\\ ways\\;\\ each\\ stanza\\ ends\\ with\\ punctuation\\,\\ giving\\ it\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ finality\\,\\ the\\ scene\\ is\\ underwater\\ after\\ the\\ crash\\ has\\ occurred\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ stagnant\\ feel\\,\\ all\\ occurring\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ tense\\.\\ These\\ first\\ stanzas\\ talk\\ about\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ downfalls\\ of\\ the\\ ship\\,\\ the\\ undesirable\\ traits\\ of\\ its\\ builders\\ and\\ passengers\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ its\\ demise\\.\\ These\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ vanity\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pride\\ of\\ Life\\ that\\ planner\\ her\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;opulent\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;sensuous\\ mind\\{s\\}\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ fish\\ query\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ does\\ this\\ vaingloriousness\\ down\\ here\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ pride\\,\\ wealth\\,\\ and\\ vanity\\ are\\ stated\\ in\\ conjunction\\ with\\ gross\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\ \\&ldquo\\;sea\\-worm\\ crawls\\-grotesque\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ sparkles\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;bleared\\ and\\ black\\ and\\ blind\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;domm\\ moon\\-eyes\\ fishes\\&rdquo\\;\\ gaze\\.\\ The\\ pace\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ stanzas\\ as\\ Hardy\\ talks\\ about\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;Immanent\\ Will\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Spinner\\ of\\ the\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ stanzas\\ are\\ enjambed\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ quickening\\ pace\\ as\\ the\\ ship\\ and\\ the\\ iceberg\\ grow\\.\\ The\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ human\\ pride\\ and\\ vanity\\ causing\\ the\\ crash\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ God\\ created\\ its\\ fate\\ gives\\ the\\ poem\\ an\\ ironic\\ tone\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ after\\ 10\\ stanzas\\ of\\ build\\ up\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;consummation\\ comes\\,\\ and\\ jars\\ to\\ hemispheres\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ making\\ the\\ crash\\ of\\ utmost\\ importance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ruined\\ Maid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 199\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Hardy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 30\\,\\ Nov\\ 1\\.\\ \\ \\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 6\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ \\(aabb\\ ccbb\\ ddbb\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ rustic\\ vs\\.\\ refined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;My\\ dear\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ raw\\ country\\ girl\\,\\ such\\ as\\ you\\ be\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cannot\\ quite\\ expect\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ruined\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ said\\ she\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ ballad\\ presents\\ a\\ dialogue\\ between\\ two\\ young\\ women\\,\\ perhaps\\ sisters\\,\\ who\\ used\\ to\\ live\\ and\\ work\\ together\\ on\\ a\\ farm\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ continues\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ difficult\\ life\\,\\ the\\ other\\,\\ who\\ says\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ risen\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ title\\,\\ which\\ contains\\ a\\ singular\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\ maid\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ begs\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ which\\ woman\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ farm\\ girl\\,\\ while\\ poor\\,\\ has\\ not\\ fallen\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ girl\\ who\\ has\\ risen\\ may\\ have\\ fallen\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\ a\\ fall\\ from\\ innocence\\ or\\ a\\ fall\\ in\\ manner\\ in\\ that\\ she\\ calls\\ the\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ raw\\ country\\ girl\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Still\\,\\ while\\ the\\ supposed\\ lady\\ ends\\ with\\ rustic\\ diction\\,\\ using\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ indicates\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ indeed\\ the\\ socially\\ elevated\\ woman\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;ruined\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ term\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ ironically\\ in\\ previous\\ stanzas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Litany\\ in\\ Time\\ of\\ Plague\\-\\ Thomas\\ Nashe\\ \\(1567\\-\\?1601\\)\\ p\\.\\ 229\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Litany\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabbccd\\ \\(ccd\\ is\\ repeated\\ in\\ each\\ stanza\\)\\ 6\\ stanzas\\,\\ 7\\ lines\\ the\\ two\\ last\\ lines\\ are\\ a\\ refrain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ Religion\\,\\ death\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Lived\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ plague\\ was\\ still\\ around\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ sick\\,\\ I\\ must\\ die\\.\\/\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Lord\\,\\ have\\ mercy\\ on\\ us\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(example\\ of\\ chorus\\ in\\ a\\ poem\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ spoken\\ by\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ dying\\ from\\ the\\ plague\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\ he\\ goes\\ through\\ certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ attributes\\ of\\ the\\ living\\.\\ However\\,\\ each\\ stanza\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ acceptance\\ that\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ in\\ life\\ you\\ will\\ die\\.\\ In\\ stanza\\ one\\ he\\ discusses\\ the\\ natural\\ acts\\ of\\ life\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lustful\\ joys\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ Stanza\\ two\\ he\\ discusses\\ wealth\\ and\\ scientific\\ knowledge\\,\\ in\\ three\\ physical\\ beauty\\,\\ in\\ four\\ physical\\ strength\\,\\ in\\ five\\ he\\ discusses\\ wit\\ and\\ artistic\\ ability\\ and\\ finally\\ in\\ 6\\ he\\ concludes\\ that\\ because\\ death\\ is\\ inevitable\\ all\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ accept\\ it\\ and\\ look\\ forward\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ for\\ society\\ because\\ it\\ concludes\\ that\\ everyone\\ will\\ die\\ regardless\\ of\\ what\\ great\\ attributes\\ they\\ may\\ have\\ in\\ life\\.\\ The\\ repetition\\ of\\ the\\ Notable\\ Citation\\ is\\ what\\ makes\\ this\\ poem\\ a\\ religious\\ litany\\.\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ that\\ he\\ writes\\ this\\ poem\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ dying\\ of\\ the\\ plague\\ \\(he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\am\\ sick\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ however\\ he\\ then\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lord\\ have\\ mercy\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\us\\<\\/span\\>\\\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ arguably\\ because\\ the\\ plague\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ bubonic\\ plague\\ or\\ any\\ other\\ time\\ specific\\ plague\\,\\ but\\ death\\ itself\\.\\ All\\ mankind\\ is\\ affected\\ by\\ the\\ plague\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ therefore\\ God\\ must\\ have\\ mercy\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ us\\.\\ Therefore\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ plague\\ becomes\\ all\\ times\\ and\\ places\\.\\ It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ that\\ the\\ person\\ reading\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ not\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ plague\\ or\\ is\\ dying\\ from\\ the\\ plague\\ because\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ one\\ we\\ all\\ share\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ Flee\\ From\\ Me\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 16\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thomas\\ Wyatt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 20\\,\\ Poems\\ as\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Unrequited\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ rime\\ royal\\ \\(ababbcc\\)\\,\\ 3\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ bird\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ have\\ seen\\ them\\,\\ gentle\\,\\ tame\\,\\ and\\ meek\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ now\\ are\\ wild\\,\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ remember\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ sometime\\ they\\ put\\ themselves\\ in\\ danger\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ take\\ bread\\ at\\ my\\ hand\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Continual\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ is\\ turned\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ key\\ phrases\\ that\\ characterize\\ the\\ content\\ and\\ structure\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ addresses\\ the\\ changed\\ behavior\\ of\\ female\\ love\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ him\\,\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;range\\,\\ busily\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\ love\\ elsewhere\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ two\\ stanzas\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ special\\ woman\\ to\\ whom\\ he\\ was\\ seriously\\ attached\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ stanza\\ presents\\ the\\ couple\\ at\\ their\\ most\\ intimate\\,\\ while\\ the\\ third\\ contrasts\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ current\\ distance\\ between\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Specifically\\,\\ his\\ lover\\ takes\\ him\\ in\\ during\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;leave\\ to\\ go\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ third\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Among\\ School\\ Children\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1865\\-1939\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ W\\.B\\.\\ Yeats\\ pg\\.\\ 651\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 11\\&mdash\\;The\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;philosophical\\ poem\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;how\\ should\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ by\\ 8\\ \\(eight\\ eight\\-line\\ stanzas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ children\\,\\ nuns\\,\\ mothers\\,\\ scarecrow\\,\\ mythological\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Written\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ after\\ his\\ 60\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;birthday\\&hellip\\;ending\\ was\\ edited\\ to\\ emphasize\\ importance\\ of\\ living\\ life\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ \\(original\\ ending\\ revisited\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ lovers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;How\\ can\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ dancer\\ from\\ the\\ dance\\?\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ \\"\\;square\\"\\;\\ poem\\-\\-8\\ stanzas\\,\\ 8\\ lines\\,\\ reflecting\\ its\\ conclusion\\ about\\ the\\ perfect\\ life\\-\\-where\\ the\\ dance\\ is\\ indistinguishable\\ from\\ the\\ dancer\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ Yeats\\ juxtaposes\\ the\\ extremities\\ of\\ youth\\ \\(blooming\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ the\\ Ledean\\ body\\,\\ madonna\\-like\\ mother\\)\\ with\\ old\\ age\\ \\(ugliness\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ your\\ mother\\ even\\ regrets\\ having\\ you\\)\\.\\.\\.man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enterprises\\ and\\ labors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(even\\ in\\ scholarship\\ and\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ wisdom\\)\\ mock\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ \\(part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ repudiation\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ labor\\)\\.\\ When\\ he\\ visits\\ a\\ school\\ as\\ a\\ public\\ figure\\,\\ the\\ children\\ remind\\ him\\ of\\ what\\ his\\ wife\\ was\\ perhaps\\ like\\ as\\ a\\ child\\ when\\ she\\ endured\\ a\\ tragedy\\ \\(which\\ she\\ later\\ recounted\\ to\\ him\\&mdash\\;and\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ they\\ became\\ so\\ close\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;into\\ the\\ yolk\\ and\\ white\\ of\\ the\\ one\\ shell\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ He\\ speaks\\ about\\ lovers\\,\\ nuns\\,\\ and\\ mothers\\ and\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;passion\\,\\ piety\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ affection\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ he\\ concludes\\ that\\ perhaps\\ the\\ tree\\ has\\ the\\ ideal\\ way\\ of\\ life\\&mdash\\;constantly\\ producing\\ and\\ being\\ reborn\\.\\ But\\ it\\ does\\ not\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ unaware\\,\\ unconscious\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\,\\ Yeats\\ concludes\\ that\\ life\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ time\\ between\\ and\\ during\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ blooming\\ and\\ then\\ becoming\\ a\\ scarecrow\\.\\.\\.life\\ should\\ be\\ danced\\ with\\ an\\ unchoreographed\\ dance\\ in\\ a\\ realm\\ beyond\\ enterprise\\-\\-our\\ bodies\\ sway\\ to\\ music\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ brightening\\ \\(progressive\\ adjective\\)\\ glance\\-\\-we\\ dance\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ we\\ create\\ and\\ invent\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ music\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Asians\\ Dying\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1967\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ W\\.\\ S\\.\\ Merwin\\ \\(p\\.\\ 271\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\.\\ 16\\ Section\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Political\\ Poems\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ political\\/protest\\ poetry\\;\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ often\\ trochaic\\ or\\ dactylic\\ \\(falling\\ rhythms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ stanzas\\ decreasing\\ in\\ length\\:\\ 9\\ lines\\,\\ 6\\ lines\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 5\\;\\ unrhymed\\ but\\ uses\\ alliteration\\/assonance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ fire\\ imagery\\ \\(ash\\,\\ smoke\\,\\ flames\\)\\;\\ death\\/destruction\\;\\ ghostly\\/ephemeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ W\\.\\ S\\.\\ Merwin\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1927\\)\\ is\\ an\\ American\\ poet\\ who\\ became\\ well\\-known\\ as\\ an\\ anti\\-war\\ poet\\ during\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ nights\\ disappear\\ like\\ bruises\\ but\\ nothing\\ is\\ healed\\/\\ The\\ dead\\ go\\ away\\ like\\ bruises\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ with\\ no\\ past\\/\\ And\\ fire\\ their\\ only\\ future\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ anti\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ poem\\ that\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ birds\\-eye\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ landscape\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ napalm\\.\\ Everything\\ is\\ viewed\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ napalm\\ and\\ fire\\.\\ Merwin\\ uses\\ words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;everything\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;nothing\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ stress\\ the\\ all\\-encompassing\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ destruction\\.\\ The\\ imagery\\ is\\ very\\ ghostly\\ and\\ ephemeral\\,\\ with\\ descriptions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;ash\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;ghosts\\.\\.\\.trail\\[ing\\]\\ in\\ the\\ sky\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;paper\\ bells\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;smoke\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadows\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ fleeting\\ imagery\\ reinforces\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ destruction\\ will\\ disappear\\ and\\ be\\ forgotten\\.\\ Merwin\\ imagines\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ dead\\ corpses\\ and\\ burnt\\ fields\\ will\\ eventually\\ fade\\ like\\ bruises\\&mdash\\;painful\\ at\\ first\\ but\\ eventually\\ hidden\\ from\\ sight\\.\\ He\\ also\\ depicts\\ the\\ soldiers\\ who\\ do\\ the\\ napalming\\ as\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;possessors\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(of\\ napalm\\)\\ who\\ are\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;columns\\ of\\ smoke\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;thin\\ flames\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;fire\\ their\\ only\\ future\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ men\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ napalm\\ they\\ use\\;\\ they\\ become\\ like\\ elements\\ of\\ fire\\ themselves\\.\\ The\\ overall\\ tone\\ is\\ detached\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ experience\\ his\\ own\\ horror\\ at\\ this\\ war\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sunday\\ Morning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1917\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\-Pgs\\ 609\\-612\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 6\\,\\ the\\ Comprehensive\\ Sequence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ spirituality\\,\\ mortality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 8\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 15\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ images\\ of\\ nature\\ are\\ used\\ heavily\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ holy\\ hush\\ of\\ ancient\\ sacrifice\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Divinity\\ must\\ live\\ within\\ herself\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ traces\\ \\;a\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thoughts\\ on\\ spirituality\\.\\ It\\ opens\\ with\\ her\\ sitting\\ in\\ her\\ peignoir\\,\\ drinking\\ coffee\\,\\ eating\\ oranges\\,\\ and\\ enjoying\\ her\\ pet\\ cockatoo\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ attending\\ church\\,\\ as\\ she\\ \\&ldquo\\;should\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ speaks\\ of\\ institutionalized\\ religion\\ in\\ dark\\ terms\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ holy\\ hush\\ of\\ ancient\\ sacrifice\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;dominion\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\ and\\ sepulchre\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Stevens\\ proposes\\ that\\ she\\ must\\ find\\ religion\\ within\\ herself\\-examining\\ her\\ visceral\\ emotions\\ as\\ relating\\ to\\ natural\\ occurrences\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Passions\\ of\\ rain\\,\\ or\\ moods\\ in\\ falling\\ snow\\/\\&hellip\\;Elations\\ when\\ the\\ forest\\ blooms\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ sentiments\\ towards\\ institutionalized\\ religion\\ are\\ stated\\ again\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ which\\ describes\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;dividing\\ and\\ indifferent\\ blue\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nature\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ religion\\ for\\ the\\ woman\\ \\(interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ Stevens\\ felt\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ own\\ views\\ in\\ a\\ female\\ voice\\)\\.\\ Still\\,\\ she\\ ponders\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ time\\,\\ the\\ mortality\\ of\\ all\\ things\\,\\ and\\ the\\ incessant\\ changing\\ of\\ seasons\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ she\\ decides\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ all\\ living\\ things\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ their\\ mortality\\.\\ The\\ fleeting\\ moments\\,\\ seasons\\,\\ etc\\ will\\ inevitably\\ end\\,\\ yet\\ that\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ recognize\\ their\\ beauty\\.\\ Stevens\\ writes\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;Death\\ is\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ her\\ worship\\ of\\ nature\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ substitute\\ for\\ religion\\.\\ She\\ is\\ aware\\ the\\ she\\,\\ too\\,\\ will\\ die\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ arouse\\ questions\\ in\\ her\\ about\\ the\\ afterlife\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ there\\ no\\ change\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ paradise\\?\\/\\ Does\\ ripe\\ fruit\\ never\\ fall\\?\\.\\.\\.\\.Alas\\,\\ they\\ should\\ wear\\ our\\ colors\\ there\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Still\\ she\\ seems\\ more\\ satisfied\\ with\\ her\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ the\\ here\\ and\\ now\\,\\ and\\ though\\ all\\ will\\ inevitably\\ die\\,\\ it\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ spending\\ our\\ short\\ time\\ on\\ earth\\ worrying\\ about\\ the\\ afterlife\\ instead\\ of\\ enjoying\\ what\\ earth\\ has\\ to\\ offer\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Emperor\\ of\\ Ice\\-Cream\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1922\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(172\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(151\\-175\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ funeral\\ poem\\,\\ appearance\\ vs\\.\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ narrative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ meter\\ varies\\ throughout\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ blank\\ verse\\/\\ \\#2\\ stanzas\\/\\ refrain\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ each\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ vanity\\,\\ bedroom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ regularly\\ traveled\\ to\\ Florida\\ and\\ Cuba\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ be\\ be\\ finale\\ of\\ seem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 7\\)\\ OR\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ only\\ emperor\\ is\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ during\\ a\\ wake\\ and\\ juxtaposes\\ the\\ two\\ spaces\\ that\\ those\\ attending\\ the\\ funeral\\ can\\ go\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ space\\ is\\ the\\ kitchen\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ making\\ ice\\ cream\\ for\\ the\\ wake\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ space\\ is\\ the\\ bedroom\\ where\\ the\\ dead\\ woman\\ is\\ waiting\\ to\\ be\\ properly\\ covered\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ two\\ spaces\\ are\\ represented\\ in\\ two\\ different\\ stanzas\\ but\\ of\\ equal\\ length\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ stanzas\\ have\\ parallel\\ endings\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ only\\ emperor\\ is\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ line\\ is\\ more\\ heavily\\ weighted\\ than\\ the\\ others\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ repeated\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ has\\ many\\ more\\ syllables\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ lines\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ higher\\ force\\-\\ he\\ orders\\ everyone\\ around\\,\\ which\\ is\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ numerous\\ commands\\ that\\ he\\ gives\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ attendance\\ at\\ the\\ funeral\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;call\\ the\\ roller\\ of\\ big\\ cigars\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 1\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;take\\ from\\ the\\ dresser\\ of\\ deal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ first\\ space\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ introduces\\ is\\ the\\ kitchen\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ we\\ see\\ much\\ vain\\ imagery\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ man\\ who\\ stirs\\ the\\ ice\\ cream\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;muscular\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ women\\ are\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;wenches\\ \\[who\\]\\ dawdle\\ in\\ such\\ dress\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 4\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ the\\ women\\ are\\ standing\\ around\\ in\\ their\\ normal\\ clothing\\,\\ not\\ even\\ trying\\ to\\ go\\ visit\\ the\\ old\\ lady\\ in\\ the\\ bedroom\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;concupiscent\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ suggests\\ the\\ ulterior\\ motives\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ lustful\\ and\\ full\\ of\\ desire\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ describes\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ attendance\\ at\\ the\\ wake\\,\\ who\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ focused\\ on\\ themselves\\ and\\ eating\\ ice\\ cream\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\ who\\ has\\ died\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ space\\ is\\ the\\ bedroom\\ where\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\ is\\ lying\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lifestyle\\ cannot\\ be\\ hidden\\ any\\ longer\\&mdash\\;her\\ dresser\\ is\\ missing\\ three\\ knobs\\,\\ which\\ shows\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ well\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ sheet\\ cannot\\ cover\\ her\\ entire\\ body\\,\\ which\\ exposes\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;horny\\ feet\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;show\\[s\\]\\ how\\ cold\\ she\\ is\\,\\ and\\ dumb\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 14\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ images\\ shed\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ line\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ be\\ be\\ finale\\ of\\ seem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 8\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ these\\ lines\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ revealing\\ reality\\ and\\ ending\\ appearances\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ We\\ notice\\ how\\ though\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ woman\\,\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ even\\ mentioned\\ until\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ though\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ woman\\,\\ it\\ still\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ line\\ about\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ ice\\-cream\\ begins\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ also\\ ends\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ human\\ desire\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Idea\\ of\\ Order\\ at\\ Key\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1879\\-1955\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ pg\\.\\ 606\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ December\\ 13\\&mdash\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\ as\\ Process\\ and\\ Product\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ nature\\ through\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ an\\ apology\\ for\\ \\(or\\ defense\\ of\\)\\ poetry\\,\\ Stevens\\ uses\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;sang\\ beyond\\ the\\ genius\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ enter\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ poetry\\ or\\ art\\ as\\ the\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ sounds\\ of\\ nature\\ into\\ human\\ sounds\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ the\\ land\\,\\ the\\ air\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sea\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ view\\ of\\ nature\\ as\\ inherently\\ meaningless\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ meaningless\\ plunges\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ the\\ wind\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\&mdash\\;it\\ only\\ makes\\ noise\\.\\ The\\ human\\ makes\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ inhuman\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ world\\ intelligible\\ by\\ organizing\\ nature\\ in\\ poetry\\,\\ in\\ song\\,\\ etc\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;arranging\\,\\ deepening\\,\\ enchanting\\ night\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ rage\\ or\\ furor\\ to\\ write\\ or\\ compose\\&mdash\\;to\\ do\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ done\\ before\\ and\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ possible\\.\\ Poetry\\ serves\\ to\\ order\\ planes\\ of\\ existence\\ in\\ finer\\ lines\\&mdash\\;to\\ locate\\ ourselves\\ more\\ precisely\\ on\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ diction\\ of\\ a\\ map\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;emblazoned\\ zones\\ and\\ fiery\\ poles\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ express\\ poetry\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ navigation\\,\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ the\\ geographer\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ depends\\ the\\ universe\\&mdash\\;and\\ renders\\ it\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ forgotten\\&mdash\\;by\\ inserting\\ himself\\.\\ The\\ mastery\\ of\\ language\\ is\\ comparable\\ to\\ the\\ geographic\\ mastery\\ of\\ space\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Idea\\ of\\ Order\\ at\\ Key\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 606\\ \\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(1879\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Due\\ December\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\ as\\ Process\\ and\\ Product\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ nocturne\\,\\ religious\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ quite\\ comprehensive\\ because\\ it\\ leaves\\ the\\ reader\\ wondering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ irregular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ and\\ stanza\\ length\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ one\\ line\\ is\\ structurally\\ out\\ of\\ place\\ \\(appears\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ page\\ rather\\ than\\ aligned\\ to\\ the\\ left\\-hand\\ margin\\)\\,\\ which\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ was\\ her\\ voice\\ that\\ made\\ \\/\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ ever\\-hooded\\,\\ tragic\\-gestured\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(perhaps\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ limited\\ capacity\\ to\\ only\\ make\\ noise\\ rather\\ than\\ communicate\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Secondly\\,\\ Key\\ West\\ is\\ the\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ land\\,\\ sky\\,\\ and\\ sea\\ all\\ meet\\.\\ \\ \\;Thirdly\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;glassy\\ lights\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ fishing\\ boats\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mastered\\ the\\ night\\ and\\ portioned\\ out\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ \\/\\ Fixing\\ emblazoned\\ zones\\ and\\ fiery\\ poles\\,\\ \\/\\ Arranging\\,\\ deepening\\,\\ enchanting\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(equating\\ mastery\\ of\\ language\\ to\\ mastery\\ of\\ space\\ \\(latitude\\ and\\ longitude\\)\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ wrote\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ his\\ \\(famous\\)\\ poetry\\ from\\ age\\ 60\\ forward\\;\\ common\\ themes\\ often\\ included\\ \\&ldquo\\;poems\\ about\\ poetry\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ old\\ age\\,\\ poetry\\ about\\ growing\\ old\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ The\\ recurring\\ theme\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ girl\\ is\\ singing\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ sea\\ is\\ making\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ sounds\\,\\ yet\\ these\\ sounds\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;meaningless\\ plungings\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ the\\ wind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\ is\\ we\\ who\\ assign\\ meaning\\ to\\ these\\ sounds\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ when\\ she\\ sang\\,\\ the\\ sea\\ \\,\\ \\/\\ Whatever\\ self\\ it\\ had\\,\\ became\\ the\\ self\\ \\/\\ That\\ was\\ her\\ song\\,\\ for\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ maker\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ surprising\\,\\ because\\ it\\ paints\\ humans\\ as\\ somehow\\ superior\\ to\\ nature\\;\\ human\\ beings\\ have\\ a\\ capacity\\ that\\ nature\\ does\\ not\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ assign\\ meaning\\ to\\ mere\\ sounds\\,\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ communicate\\ with\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ this\\ theme\\ again\\ when\\ the\\ poet\\ compares\\ the\\ singing\\ woman\\ to\\ the\\ sea\\ by\\ explaining\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ it\\ was\\ she\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ sea\\ we\\ hear\\.\\ \\/\\ For\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ maker\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ she\\ sang\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ her\\ voice\\,\\ controlled\\ primarily\\ by\\ her\\ own\\ voice\\ box\\,\\ the\\ sea\\ was\\ controlled\\ by\\ a\\ different\\ force\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;maker\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(presumably\\ God\\)\\ who\\ appears\\ again\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ maker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rage\\ to\\ order\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ maker\\&rdquo\\;\\ wants\\ to\\ order\\ words\\ and\\ the\\ entire\\ world\\ in\\ an\\ even\\ more\\ specific\\ and\\ detailed\\ way\\ \\(more\\ than\\ the\\ latitude\\/longitude\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ light\\ from\\ the\\ boats\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ maker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rage\\ to\\ order\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\&hellip\\;In\\ ghostlier\\ demarcations\\,\\ keener\\ sounds\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Plain\\ Sense\\ of\\ Things\\ \\(page\\ 7\\)\\ \\-\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(1879\\-1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lyric\\ Extended\\ Metaphor\\,\\ Seasons\\,\\ Old\\ Age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ blank\\ verse\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ definite\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\.\\ There\\ are\\ 5\\ stanzas\\.\\ Each\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ quatrain\\ with\\ each\\ line\\ containing\\ approximately\\ 10\\ syllables\\.\\ This\\ would\\ put\\ it\\ at\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\,\\ although\\ there\\ are\\ significant\\ deviations\\ from\\ this\\ standard\\,\\ with\\ some\\ lines\\ containing\\ less\\ and\\ some\\ containing\\ up\\ to\\ 14\\ syllables\\.\\ Enjambed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Winter\\,\\ coldness\\,\\ delapidated\\ structures\\,\\ silent\\ pond\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wallace\\ Steven\\&\\#39\\;s\\ was\\ by\\ profession\\ a\\ lawyer\\ who\\ worked\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ White\\ male\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ an\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\ wealthy\\ urban\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ reflective\\ style\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ extended\\ imagery\\ and\\ metaphor\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ indicate\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ ruminating\\ over\\ the\\ difficulties\\ of\\ coping\\ with\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ aging\\.\\ This\\ process\\ involves\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ dreams\\ and\\ hopes\\ that\\ accompany\\ youth\\,\\ and\\ through\\ the\\ cold\\ and\\ silent\\ imagery\\ Stevens\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ indicate\\ the\\ speakers\\ sense\\ of\\ calm\\ suffering\\ that\\ involves\\ this\\ loss\\ of\\ sentiment\\.\\ The\\ turning\\ point\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ 4th\\ stanza\\,\\ whereby\\ the\\ author\\ realizes\\ that\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ change\\ also\\ produces\\ something\\ valuable\\.\\ This\\ process\\ of\\ change\\ is\\ presented\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ pond\\,\\ whereby\\ a\\ pond\\ without\\ reflections\\ symbolizes\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ life\\ lacking\\ the\\ youthful\\ notions\\.\\ This\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ dilapidated\\ house\\,\\ which\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ these\\ youthful\\ notions\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ in\\ these\\ two\\ symbols\\ is\\ there\\ strength\\.\\ The\\ dilapidated\\ house\\ is\\ clearly\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ something\\ lost\\,\\ while\\ the\\ the\\ unexpressive\\ pond\\ is\\ a\\ subtle\\ indication\\ of\\ seeing\\ the\\ underlying\\ elements\\ once\\ the\\ fluff\\ is\\ gone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Planet\\ on\\ the\\ Table\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 608\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\(1879\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\ \\(cont\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ December\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ Speaking\\ about\\ Poetry\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ alternates\\ between\\ trimeter\\ and\\ tetrameter\\,\\ but\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;beat\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ heard\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ on\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ poem\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ flow\\ easily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Poem\\ split\\ into\\ 5\\ stanzas\\,\\ all\\ tercets\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ rhyme\\ is\\ in\\ middle\\ stanza\\:\\ rhymes\\ \\&ldquo\\;sun\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ comparing\\ self\\ to\\ sun\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Planet\\ on\\ the\\ Table\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ lying\\ before\\ him\\ on\\ a\\ table\\ that\\ contained\\ his\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ wrote\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ his\\ \\(famous\\)\\ poetry\\ from\\ age\\ 60\\ forward\\;\\ common\\ themes\\ often\\ included\\ \\&ldquo\\;poems\\ about\\ poetry\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ old\\ age\\,\\ poetry\\ about\\ growing\\ old\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ self\\ and\\ the\\ sun\\ were\\ one\\ \\/\\ And\\ his\\ poems\\,\\ although\\ makings\\ of\\ his\\ self\\,\\ \\/\\ Were\\ no\\ less\\ makings\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Wallace\\ Stevens\\ \\&ldquo\\;sees\\ his\\ life\\ work\\ contained\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ object\\,\\ the\\ potential\\ book\\ lying\\ before\\ him\\ on\\ a\\ table\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Vendler\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ begins\\ with\\ Ariel\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ tree\\ spirit\\ in\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Tempest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ poet\\ who\\ writes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ remembered\\ time\\ \\/\\ Or\\ of\\ something\\ seen\\ that\\ he\\ liked\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Other\\ poets\\ works\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;waste\\ and\\ welter\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ his\\ poems\\ were\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;makings\\ of\\ his\\ self\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;makings\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(by\\ comparing\\ himself\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ Stevens\\ is\\ attributing\\ greatness\\ to\\ his\\ poetry\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ explains\\ that\\ the\\ primary\\ purpose\\ for\\ writing\\ poetry\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ survives\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ mattered\\ was\\ that\\ \\[the\\ poems\\]\\ should\\ bear\\ \\/\\ Some\\ lineament\\ or\\ character\\,\\&hellip\\;Of\\ the\\ planet\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ part\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ his\\ poetry\\ was\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ those\\ who\\ read\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ here\\-and\\-now\\;\\ the\\ future\\ was\\ irrelevant\\ \\(which\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ contrast\\ to\\ other\\ poets\\ we\\ have\\ read\\,\\ who\\ lament\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ forgotten\\ when\\ they\\ die\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Keats\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ I\\ Have\\ Fears\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ he\\ wished\\ for\\ was\\ that\\ his\\ poetry\\ would\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ lineament\\ or\\ character\\,\\ \\/\\ Some\\ affluence\\,\\ if\\ only\\ half\\-perceived\\,\\ \\/\\ In\\ the\\ poverty\\ of\\ their\\ words\\,\\ \\/\\ Off\\ the\\ planet\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ part\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Note\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\ is\\ in\\ past\\ tense\\,\\ perhaps\\ suggesting\\ that\\ much\\ change\\ had\\ occurred\\ from\\ when\\ he\\ first\\ began\\ writing\\ his\\ poetry\\,\\ or\\ that\\ poems\\ lose\\ importance\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Hand\\ Mirror\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(631\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Sept\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Introduction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Decay\\/Self\\ Reflexive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dramatic\\ Monologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ one\\ stanza\\ of\\ 14\\ lines\\ with\\ no\\ rhyming\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lines\\ are\\ indented\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ necessarily\\ break\\ up\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Decay\\/rot\\/\\ loss\\ of\\ vanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Famous\\ Romantic\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lungs\\ rotting\\ away\\ piecemeal\\,\\ stomach\\ sour\\ and\\ cankerous\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-portrait\\ based\\ on\\ holding\\ up\\ a\\ hand\\ mirror\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Professor\\ Vendler\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ hand\\ mirror\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ women\\ and\\ vanity\\,\\ but\\ Whitman\\ uses\\ the\\ hand\\ mirror\\ to\\ rebuke\\ vanity\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\,\\ however\\,\\ traces\\ of\\ vanity\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ destroyed\\.\\ \\;\\ Whitman\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ looking\\ at\\ himself\\ in\\ a\\ mirror\\ and\\ remarking\\ how\\ hideously\\ ugly\\ and\\ decayed\\ he\\ has\\ become\\,\\ and\\ how\\ remarkable\\ this\\ is\\ given\\ that\\ he\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ attractive\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ writes\\,\\ \\"\\;No\\ more\\ a\\ flashing\\ eye\\,\\ no\\ more\\ a\\ sonorous\\ voice\\ or\\ springy\\ step\\,\\"\\;\\ implying\\ that\\ he\\ once\\ had\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ then\\ describes\\ himself\\ in\\ really\\ vile\\ detail\\,\\ including\\ \\"\\;Lungs\\ rotting\\ away\\ piecemeal\\,\\ stomach\\ sour\\ and\\ cankerous\\,\\/\\ Joints\\ rheumatic\\,\\ bowels\\ clogged\\ with\\ abomination\\"\\;\\ etc\\.\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ line\\ is\\,\\ \\"\\;Such\\ from\\ one\\ look\\ in\\ this\\ looking\\-glass\\ ere\\ you\\ go\\ hence\\,\\"\\;\\ suggesting\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ forever\\ remain\\ in\\ this\\ state\\ of\\ decay\\ revealed\\ to\\ him\\ by\\ the\\ looking\\ glass\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ last\\ line\\ again\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ indeed\\ decay\\ from\\ something\\ much\\ better\\ looking\\ than\\ what\\ now\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ looking\\ glass\\.\\ \\;\\ Whitman\\ writes\\,\\ \\"\\;Such\\ a\\ result\\ so\\ soon\\ \\-\\ and\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ beginning\\!\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ If\\ we\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ the\\ beginning\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ worth\\ mentioning\\ Whitman\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ surprised\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ grown\\ this\\ ugly\\,\\ which\\ appears\\ bracketed\\ by\\ parentheses\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ \\-\\ when\\ he\\ looks\\ at\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ mirror\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ \\"\\;who\\ is\\ it\\?\\ \\;\\ is\\ it\\ you\\?\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ So\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ rebuke\\ of\\ vanity\\,\\ like\\ Professor\\ Vendler\\ said\\,\\ but\\ the\\ speaker\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ entirely\\ estranged\\ from\\ vanity\\,\\ he\\ just\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ bring\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ vain\\ any\\ more\\.\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Also\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ really\\ strong\\,\\ forceful\\ meter\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ which\\ works\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ vile\\ things\\ Whitman\\ describes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Noiseless\\ Patient\\ Spider\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1891\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 67\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 9\\/27\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Analogy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ two\\ 5\\-line\\ stanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ empty\\ space\\,\\ attachment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ O\\ my\\ soul\\ where\\ you\\ stand\\,\\ \\/\\ Surrounded\\,\\ detached\\,\\ in\\ measureless\\ oceans\\ of\\ space\\,\\ \\/\\ ceaselessly\\ musing\\,\\ venturing\\ throwing\\,\\ seeking\\ the\\ spheres\\ to\\ connect\\ them\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ exemplify\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;small\\ in\\ theme\\ yet\\ has\\ it\\ the\\ sweep\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ uses\\ the\\ analogy\\ of\\ a\\ spider\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ spin\\ its\\ web\\ to\\ address\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ find\\ his\\/her\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ begins\\ on\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;little\\ promontory\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ spider\\ is\\ exploring\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;vacant\\ vast\\ surrounding\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ spider\\ launches\\ \\&ldquo\\;filament\\,\\ filament\\,\\ filament\\,\\ out\\ of\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ repetition\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ work\\ going\\ into\\ building\\ the\\ web\\ as\\ he\\ spider\\ \\&ldquo\\;ever\\ tirelessly\\ speeding\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ second\\ verse\\ then\\ switches\\ to\\ an\\ examination\\ of\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soul\\ stands\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;measureless\\ space\\&rdquo\\;\\ surrounding\\ him\\.\\ He\\ too\\ is\\ seeking\\ lasting\\ connection\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ world\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ friendship\\ with\\ others\\ or\\ a\\ connection\\ with\\ his\\ creator\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ filament\\ 3\\ times\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ uses\\ three\\ phrases\\ for\\ his\\ connections\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ form\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Till\\ the\\ bridge\\ you\\ will\\ need\\ be\\ form\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ till\\ the\\ ductile\\ anchor\\ hold\\,\\ \\/\\ Till\\ the\\ gossamer\\ thread\\ you\\ fling\\ catch\\ somewhere\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ From\\ his\\ small\\ observation\\ of\\ the\\ spider\\,\\ Whitman\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ examination\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ soul\\ and\\ its\\ place\\ it\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hush\\&\\#39\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\ To\\-day\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 330\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\.\\ Quatrain\\ and\\ 3\\ tercets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ mourning\\,\\ military\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ first\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Lincoln\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ sing\\ poet\\ in\\ our\\ name\\,\\ \\/\\ Sing\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ we\\ bore\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\because\\ you\\,\\ dweller\\ in\\ camps\\,\\ know\\ it\\ truly\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ his\\ first\\ poem\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ Whitman\\ chooses\\ to\\ speak\\ in\\ the\\ collective\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Union\\ army\\,\\ as\\ soldiers\\ call\\ on\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sing\\&hellip\\;in\\ our\\ name\\&hellip\\;one\\ verse\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ reads\\ as\\ quasi\\-military\\ orders\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ command\\ that\\ a\\ silence\\ be\\ maintained\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\ during\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ funeral\\ service\\ in\\ Washington\\.\\ The\\ first\\ stanza\\ describes\\ the\\ liturgy\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ commander\\ in\\ chief\\.\\ After\\ they\\ have\\ performed\\ the\\ collective\\ ritual\\ of\\ silence\\ and\\ draped\\ guns\\ to\\ show\\ respect\\ for\\ Lincoln\\,\\ however\\,\\ they\\ realize\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ something\\ necessary\\ to\\ their\\ ceremony\\,\\ a\\ sung\\ utterance\\ in\\ their\\ name\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ stanzas\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ soldiers\\ can\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ ritual\\ and\\ consolation\\,\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ perform\\ the\\ song\\.\\ It\\ requires\\ a\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ help\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;dweller\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ particular\\ heaviness\\ of\\ the\\ soldiers\\ heart\\.\\ In\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ soldiers\\ imagine\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ invaulted\\,\\ but\\ Lincoln\\ was\\ not\\ actually\\ buried\\ in\\ Washington\\ like\\ Whitman\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ true\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ Saw\\ in\\ Louisiana\\ a\\ Live\\-Oak\\ Growing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(198\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Emblem\\ poem\\/\\ Nature\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Identity\\ poem\\ \\(lyric\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ n\\/a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Poem\\ has\\ only\\ 13\\ lines\\ and\\ is\\ without\\ any\\ rhythmic\\ or\\ formal\\ stanzaic\\ pattern\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Oak\\ tree\\,\\ companionship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uttering\\ joyous\\ leaves\\ all\\ its\\ life\\ without\\ a\\ friend\\ or\\ a\\ lover\\ near\\,\\ \\/\\ I\\ know\\ very\\ well\\ I\\ could\\ not\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poet\\ observed\\ an\\ oak\\ tree\\ in\\ Louisiana\\ which\\ stood\\ alone\\ and\\ whose\\ dark\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;were\\ delightful\\.\\ The\\ oak\\ was\\ rough\\,\\ unyielding\\,\\ and\\ lusty\\&mdash\\;it\\ reminded\\ the\\ poet\\ of\\ himself\\,\\ though\\ he\\ wondered\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ it\\ could\\ utter\\ joyous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ alone\\,\\ without\\ a\\ friend\\&mdash\\;he\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ broke\\ off\\ a\\ twig\\ and\\ carried\\ it\\ to\\ his\\ room\\.\\ To\\ him\\ it\\ seemed\\ a\\ strange\\ \\&ldquo\\;token\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ of\\ manly\\ love\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ And\\ still\\ he\\ wonders\\ how\\ it\\ could\\ utter\\ joyous\\ messages\\ through\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;without\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ a\\ lover\\ near\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ twig\\ is\\ a\\ phallic\\ symbol\\.\\ Even\\ the\\ live\\ oak\\ itself\\ approximates\\ the\\ phallic\\ and\\ thus\\ suggests\\ manly\\ love\\.\\ Physical\\ love\\ is\\ as\\ elementary\\ as\\ the\\ oak\\ tree\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ its\\ luxuriant\\ growth\\ is\\ an\\ organic\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ manly\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ spirit\\.\\ Whitman\\ is\\ surprised\\ that\\ the\\ tree\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ express\\ itself\\ so\\ luxuriantly\\ alone\\&mdash\\;he\\ could\\ not\\ write\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ poems\\,\\ without\\ companionship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 331\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ ballad\\ measure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Stanzas\\ consist\\ of\\ 4\\ seven\\ beat\\ ballad\\ lines\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ tetrameter\\ \\+\\ trimeter\\.\\ Followed\\ by\\ 2\\ trimeter\\ lines\\ and\\ then\\ another\\ tetrameter\\ \\+\\ trimeter\\,\\ but\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ rhyming\\ pattern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabbcded\\ aabbcded\\ aabbcded\\.\\ It\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ noted\\ that\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ stanzas\\ appear\\ like\\ a\\ ship\\ approaching\\ its\\ destination\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ It\\ is\\ conjectured\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ poem\\ written\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ ballad\\ measure\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hush\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(first\\ poem\\)\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ troops\\ ask\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sing\\ the\\ love\\ we\\ bore\\ him\\ \\(Lincoln\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ O\\ heart\\!\\ Heart\\!\\ Heart\\!\\ \\/\\ O\\ the\\ bleeding\\ drops\\ of\\ red\\ \\/\\ Where\\ on\\ the\\ deck\\ my\\ Captain\\ lies\\,\\ \\/\\ Fallen\\ cold\\ and\\ dead\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ sung\\ in\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ Union\\ recruit\\ who\\ has\\ sailed\\ on\\ the\\ ship\\ with\\ his\\ captain\\.\\ The\\ tide\\ of\\ war\\ has\\ changed\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ victory\\ is\\ in\\ sight\\,\\ as\\ cheering\\ crowds\\ are\\ welcoming\\ the\\ ship\\ into\\ the\\ port\\.\\ But\\ at\\ that\\ moment\\,\\ the\\ captain\\ is\\ shot\\ and\\ dies\\ \\(end\\ of\\ first\\ stanza\\ cited\\ above\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ boy\\ continues\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ captain\\ as\\ someone\\ still\\ living\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\,\\ cradled\\ in\\ the\\ boys\\ arms\\,\\ can\\ hear\\ the\\ words\\ spoken\\ to\\ him\\.\\ The\\ turning\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ when\\ the\\ young\\ sailor\\ resigns\\ himself\\ to\\ the\\ captain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ and\\ begins\\ referring\\ to\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ person\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Another\\ important\\ reference\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ when\\ the\\ boy\\ calls\\ the\\ captain\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ father\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ brings\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ captain\\ down\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ personal\\ level\\ of\\ father\\-son\\ instead\\ of\\ captain\\-sailor\\.\\ In\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Whitman\\ had\\ already\\ made\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ more\\ intimate\\ than\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hush\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ bringing\\ the\\ relationship\\ down\\ from\\ Commander\\-Soldier\\ to\\ the\\ closer\\ relationship\\ between\\ Captain\\-Sailor\\.\\ By\\ making\\ the\\ relationship\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ personal\\,\\ Whitman\\ makes\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relation\\ to\\ others\\ more\\ democratic\\ and\\ intimate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ regularly\\ rhyming\\ stanzas\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ also\\ contribute\\ to\\ its\\ personal\\ feeling\\.\\ The\\ ballad\\ measures\\ were\\ of\\ the\\ sort\\ that\\ were\\ popular\\ in\\ folk\\ poetry\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;song\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ the\\ soldiers\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hush\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Be\\ the\\ Camps\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ sailors\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ Captain\\!\\ My\\ Captain\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ be\\ familiar\\ with\\ and\\ the\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ of\\ victory\\ and\\ celebration\\ are\\ expected\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ young\\ sailor\\.\\ \\(Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ you\\ the\\ flag\\ is\\ flung\\,\\ for\\ you\\ the\\ bugle\\ trills\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ Dust\\ Was\\ Once\\ the\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1871\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 339\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ epitaph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ One\\ quatrain\\ because\\ an\\ epitaph\\ should\\ be\\ short\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ inscribed\\ on\\ a\\ tombstone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ last\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\ pieces\\ on\\ Lincoln\\ written\\ by\\ Whitman\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ dust\\ was\\ once\\ the\\ man\\,\\ \\/\\ Gentle\\,\\ plain\\,\\ just\\ and\\ resolute\\,\\ under\\ whose\\ cautious\\ hand\\,\\ \\/\\ Against\\ the\\ foulest\\ crime\\ in\\ history\\ known\\ in\\ any\\ land\\ or\\ age\\,\\ \\/\\ Was\\ saved\\ the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ such\\ a\\ short\\ poem\\,\\ it\\ contains\\ quite\\ depth\\ in\\ relating\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ dust\\ to\\ saving\\ the\\ Nation\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ turmoil\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ line\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ grasps\\ the\\ dust\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ close\\ to\\ himself\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ dust\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ pointing\\ outward\\ or\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ grave\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ dust\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ such\\ outward\\ perspective\\ was\\ present\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ Lilacs\\ Last\\ in\\ the\\ Dooryard\\ Bloom\\&rsquo\\;d\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ second\\ line\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adjectives\\ each\\ describe\\ a\\ different\\ aspect\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ in\\ a\\ succinct\\ way\\.\\ His\\ initial\\ gentleness\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ his\\ final\\ resoluteness\\.\\ Plain\\ describes\\ his\\ simple\\ past\\,\\ and\\ just\\ describes\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legal\\ career\\.\\ The\\ last\\ adjective\\ in\\ the\\ line\\ is\\ not\\ applied\\ to\\ Lincoln\\ himself\\ but\\ to\\ his\\ guiding\\ hand\\,\\ speaking\\ to\\ his\\ wisdom\\ as\\ a\\ leader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ epitaph\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ active\\ verb\\ to\\ its\\ subject\\.\\ Lincoln\\ is\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ man\\&hellip\\;Who\\ saved\\ the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ was\\ those\\ under\\ his\\ guidance\\,\\ the\\ soldiers\\ in\\ the\\ army\\,\\ that\\ saved\\ the\\ Union\\,\\ although\\ they\\ get\\ no\\ mention\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ line\\,\\ Whitman\\ uses\\ the\\ euphemism\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ foulest\\ crime\\ in\\ history\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ Placing\\ slavery\\ between\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ guidance\\ and\\ the\\ eventual\\ salvation\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ Notably\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ line\\,\\ Whitman\\ chooses\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ epitaph\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ syntactically\\ normal\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Union\\ of\\ these\\ States\\ was\\ saved\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ placing\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ more\\ significance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Heard\\ the\\ Learn\\&rsquo\\;d\\ Astronomer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 11\\/20\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\,\\ Judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ valediction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ varied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ mixed\\ stanza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ vernal\\,\\ death\\,\\ decay\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;look\\&rsquo\\;d\\ up\\ in\\ perfect\\ silence\\ at\\ the\\ stars\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ broken\\ into\\ two\\ halves\\,\\ each\\ with\\ four\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ half\\,\\ all\\ anaphora\\,\\ details\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ of\\ listening\\ to\\ an\\ astronomer\\ detail\\ how\\ the\\ universe\\ works\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lecturer\\,\\ with\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;charts\\ and\\ diagrams\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ reduced\\ the\\ sky\\ to\\ a\\ science\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ entire\\ audience\\ is\\ awed\\ by\\ this\\,\\ and\\ they\\ applaud\\ the\\ lecturer\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;tired\\ and\\ sick\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ revelation\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ secrets\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ half\\,\\ he\\ leaves\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;wander\\&rdquo\\;\\ amongst\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mystical\\ night\\-air\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;After\\ being\\ instructed\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ the\\ speaker\\ wishes\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ his\\ ignorance\\ back\\,\\ for\\ then\\ the\\ stars\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ mystical\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ bittersweet\\ sentiment\\ is\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ line\\,\\ quoted\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Lilacs\\ Last\\ in\\ the\\ Dooryard\\ Bloom\\&\\#39\\;d\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1865\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 332\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 12\\/6\\ Comprehensive\\ Lyric\\:\\ Personal\\ and\\ Collective\\ War\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ death\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ elegy\\,\\ personal\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 16\\ cantos\\ ranging\\ from\\ 5\\ to\\ 53\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ vernal\\,\\ death\\,\\ grief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ The\\ third\\ poem\\ written\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Lincoln\\.\\ Considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ finest\\ poems\\ Whitman\\ ever\\ wrote\\.\\ It\\ is\\ grander\\ and\\ more\\ poignant\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ elegies\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ by\\ Whitman\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ lilacs\\ in\\ the\\ dooryard\\ bloom\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ the\\ great\\ star\\ early\\ droop\\&rsquo\\;d\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ sky\\ in\\ the\\ night\\,\\ \\/\\ I\\ mourn\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ shall\\ mourn\\ with\\ ever\\-returning\\ spring\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\ poems\\ on\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ written\\ in\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ personal\\ lyric\\ voice\\.\\ In\\ it\\,\\ Lincoln\\ is\\ not\\ placed\\ in\\ a\\ vertical\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ as\\ president\\,\\ commander\\-in\\-chief\\,\\ captain\\,\\ or\\ even\\ father\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ rather\\ placed\\ horizontally\\ as\\ a\\ fellow\\ man\\ of\\ great\\ wisdom\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ follows\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coffin\\ train\\ as\\ it\\ makes\\ its\\ long\\ and\\ mournful\\ journey\\.\\ However\\,\\ nothing\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ depends\\ on\\ historical\\ fact\\ about\\ the\\ assassination\\ or\\ any\\ of\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ acts\\ as\\ presidency\\.\\ Even\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ reburied\\ with\\ him\\ is\\ omitted\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Whitman\\ relies\\ on\\ 3\\ symbols\\:\\ the\\ lilac\\ of\\ this\\ earth\\,\\ the\\ star\\ of\\ the\\ evening\\ sky\\,\\ and\\ the\\ hermit\\-thrush\\ of\\ the\\ dark\\ swamp\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ takes\\ place\\ within\\ the\\ realms\\ represented\\ by\\ these\\ symbols\\ the\\ upper\\ world\\,\\ middle\\-world\\,\\ and\\ underworld\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ cantos\\ can\\ be\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ 4\\ cycles\\.\\ The\\ first\\ comprises\\ cantos\\ 1\\-4\\ which\\ present\\ the\\ setting\\ in\\ clear\\ perspective\\.\\ Spring\\ returns\\,\\ the\\ lilacs\\ blossom\\,\\ the\\ star\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ sky\\ is\\ covered\\ in\\ the\\ night\\,\\ and\\ a\\ shy\\,\\ solitary\\ thrush\\ sings\\ a\\ song\\ expressing\\ its\\ inmost\\ grief\\.\\ The\\ recurrence\\ of\\ spring\\ is\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ rebirth\\,\\ the\\ star\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grief\\ for\\ Lincoln\\,\\ and\\ the\\ bird\\ symbolizes\\ a\\ reconciliation\\ with\\ death\\ and\\ it\\ song\\ is\\ the\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\.\\ The\\ second\\ canto\\ describes\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intense\\ grief\\ for\\ the\\ dead\\ and\\ each\\ line\\ begins\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ an\\ exclamation\\ which\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ mouth\\ open\\ in\\ woe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ second\\ cycle\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ comprises\\ cantos\\ 5\\-9\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ the\\ journey\\ of\\ the\\ coffin\\ through\\ the\\ natural\\ scenary\\ and\\ industrial\\ cities\\.\\ Somber\\ face\\,\\ solemn\\ voices\\,\\ and\\ mournful\\ dirges\\ mark\\ the\\ journey\\ across\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ offers\\ the\\ dead\\ man\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ sprig\\ of\\ lilac\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ bringing\\ fresh\\ blossoms\\ not\\ for\\ Lincoln\\ alone\\ but\\ for\\ all\\ dead\\ men\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ association\\ of\\ death\\ with\\ a\\ living\\ object\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ then\\ address\\ the\\ star\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ sky\\,\\ imagining\\ it\\ full\\ of\\ woe\\,\\ and\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ bird\\ to\\ continue\\ singing\\ its\\ song\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ third\\ cycle\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ cantos\\ 10\\-13\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ wonders\\ how\\ he\\ shall\\ sing\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ the\\ large\\ sweet\\ soul\\ that\\ has\\ gone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Whitman\\ references\\ various\\ cities\\ and\\ areas\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;varied\\ and\\ ample\\ land\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ bird\\ continues\\ singing\\ from\\ the\\ swamps\\.\\ The\\ song\\ has\\ a\\ liberating\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soul\\,\\ although\\ the\\ star\\ still\\ holds\\ him\\,\\ as\\ does\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mastering\\ odor\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ lilac\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ fourth\\ cycle\\ of\\ cantos\\ 14\\-16\\ restate\\ the\\ earlier\\ themes\\ and\\ symbols\\ but\\ from\\ a\\ perspective\\ of\\ immortality\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ meditates\\ on\\ one\\ day\\ sitting\\ in\\ the\\ peaceful\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;unconscious\\ scenery\\ of\\ my\\ land\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ suddenly\\ realizing\\ that\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;knew\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ bird\\ follows\\ the\\ poet\\ in\\ this\\ passage\\.\\ It\\ becomes\\ a\\ spiritual\\ ally\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\.\\ As\\ the\\ bird\\ sings\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ sees\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;battle\\-corpses\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;debris\\ of\\ slain\\ soldiers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ soldiers\\ are\\ happy\\ in\\ their\\ resting\\ place\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ relatives\\ that\\ continue\\ to\\ suffer\\.\\ The\\ coffin\\ reaches\\ its\\ journey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ end\\.\\ As\\ the\\ coffin\\ passes\\ him\\,\\ the\\ poet\\ salutes\\ it\\,\\ reminding\\ himself\\ that\\ the\\ lilac\\ blooming\\ in\\ the\\ dooryard\\ will\\ return\\ each\\ spring\\.\\ All\\ three\\ symbols\\ join\\ the\\ poet\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ goodbye\\ to\\ Lincoln\\.\\ The\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ final\\ realization\\ of\\ immortality\\ through\\ the\\ emotional\\ conflict\\ of\\ personal\\ loss\\ is\\ the\\ principal\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hours\\ Continuing\\ Long\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.6\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(1819\\-1892\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 9\\/20\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poem\\ as\\ Life\\:\\ The\\ Private\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ module\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;love\\ poem\\ \\(but\\ also\\ loss\\,\\ desertion\\,\\ longing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lyric\\ poem\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irregular\\ free\\ verse\\ \\(typical\\ of\\ Whitman\\)\\,\\ though\\ highly\\ rhythmic\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ dactyls\\ \\(DAdada\\)\\,\\ mimicking\\ speech\\ patterns\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;no\\ regular\\ form\\ or\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ \\(typical\\ of\\ Whitman\\)\\ but\\ structural\\ patterns\\ exist\\.\\ Except\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ line\\,\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ broken\\ up\\ into\\ a\\ string\\ of\\ independent\\ clauses\\ \\(connected\\ with\\ semi\\-colons\\)\\,\\ each\\ beginning\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;hours\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(except\\ for\\ line\\ 12\\ which\\ breaks\\ the\\ pattern\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sullen\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ lines\\ indented\\.\\ The\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\(lines\\ 15\\-26\\)\\ follow\\ this\\ same\\ visual\\ structure\\ but\\ are\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ questions\\,\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Does\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ second\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ question\\ indented\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ a\\ visual\\ pattern\\ that\\ highlights\\ the\\ words\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hours\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sullen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Does\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;desertion\\,\\ longing\\,\\ loneliness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Whitman\\ is\\ a\\ humanist\\,\\ modernist\\ writer\\ during\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ unconventional\\ \\(un\\-traditional\\ European\\)\\ style\\ and\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ homosexual\\,\\ which\\ is\\ evident\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\ and\\ several\\ others\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ portrays\\ \\&ldquo\\;male\\ friendship\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ even\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ male\\ body\\ \\(Wikipedia\\)\\.\\ He\\ tends\\ to\\ use\\ vernacular\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tends\\ to\\ blend\\ between\\ the\\ self\\ and\\ world\\,\\ the\\ private\\ and\\ the\\ public\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Whitman\\ feels\\ strong\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ thus\\ physical\\ contact\\ becomes\\ important\\ to\\ spiritual\\ communion\\ \\(Sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ often\\ employs\\ lists\\ or\\ anecdotes\\ as\\ poetic\\ features\\ to\\ convey\\ his\\ story\\ and\\ meaning\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ sympathetic\\ experience\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Sullen\\ and\\ suffering\\ hours\\!\\ \\(I\\ am\\ ashamed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ useless\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\/\\ am\\ what\\ I\\ am\\)\\;\\ \\/\\ Hours\\ of\\ my\\ torment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ other\\ men\\ ever\\ have\\ the\\/\\ like\\,\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ feelings\\?\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ poem\\ expresses\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ loss\\ after\\ a\\ lover\\ has\\ deserted\\ him\\.\\ The\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ of\\ loss\\,\\ how\\ slow\\ \\(long\\ hours\\)\\ and\\ empty\\ the\\ world\\ feels\\ without\\ the\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ then\\ transitions\\ in\\ the\\ line\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hours\\ of\\ my\\ torment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ other\\ men\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ connect\\ with\\ humanity\\,\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ others\\ have\\ had\\ a\\ similar\\ experience\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ find\\ comfort\\ in\\ shared\\ experience\\ and\\ emotion\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Does\\ he\\ see\\ himself\\ reflected\\ in\\ me\\?\\)\\.\\ This\\ second\\ half\\ combines\\ hope\\ of\\ connecting\\ with\\ others\\ through\\ loss\\ with\\ the\\ despondency\\ of\\ being\\ deserted\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ convey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ mix\\ the\\ self\\ and\\ the\\ world\\,\\ the\\ private\\ and\\ the\\ public\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ grammar\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ reflects\\ these\\ two\\ separate\\ parts\\:\\ the\\ first\\ consisting\\ of\\ phrases\\ divided\\ by\\ semicolons\\,\\ the\\ second\\ consisting\\ of\\ questions\\.\\ This\\ portrays\\ the\\ longing\\,\\ hoping\\,\\ attempts\\ to\\ engage\\ and\\ relate\\ to\\ others\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ language\\ and\\ imagery\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ convey\\ the\\ emptiness\\,\\ endlessness\\,\\ slowness\\ of\\ time\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ rejection\\ and\\ loss\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ line\\ 6\\ he\\ mentions\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ country\\ roads\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ city\\ streets\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ two\\ contrasting\\ images\\ that\\ can\\ both\\ be\\ lonely\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ in\\ line\\ 18\\-19\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ his\\ desertion\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ morning\\,\\ dejected\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ night\\&hellip\\;thinking\\/\\ who\\ is\\ lost\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ this\\ reflects\\ the\\ totality\\,\\ continuity\\,\\ and\\ inescapability\\ of\\ his\\ emotional\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ I\\ Walked\\ out\\ One\\ Evening\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1937\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ W\\.H\\.\\ Auden\\ p\\.372\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Section\\,\\ week\\ of\\ October\\ 9\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Love\\ lyric\\,\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcb\\ etc\\.\\ \\/\\ 15\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 4\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ River\\,\\ clocks\\ chiming\\,\\ two\\ lovers\\,\\ time\\,\\ seasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ English\\ poet\\,\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ glacier\\ knocks\\ in\\ the\\ cupboard\\,\\ \\/\\ The\\ desert\\ sighs\\ in\\ the\\ bed\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ the\\ crack\\ in\\ the\\ teacup\\ opens\\ \\/\\ A\\ lane\\ to\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thematically\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ about\\ mortality\\ and\\ Time\\ conquering\\ all\\ things\\,\\ even\\ Love\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ with\\ an\\ evening\\ walk\\,\\ the\\ initial\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ crowd\\ like\\ a\\ field\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;harvest\\ wheat\\&rdquo\\;\\ foreshadows\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ to\\ eventually\\ be\\ cut\\ down\\ \\(by\\ Time\\,\\ we\\ will\\ find\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Stanza\\ 2\\ the\\ speaker\\ hears\\ one\\ lover\\ speaking\\ to\\ another\\,\\ and\\ stanzas\\ 3\\-5\\ are\\ the\\ sweet\\ verses\\ of\\ hyperbole\\ we\\ find\\ in\\ all\\ love\\ poems\\:\\ that\\ I\\ will\\ love\\ you\\ forever\\,\\ till\\ the\\ sky\\ falls\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ tonal\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ when\\ Time\\ interrupts\\.\\ \\ \\;Auden\\ uses\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clocks\\,\\ which\\ remind\\ everyone\\ of\\ Time\\,\\ speaking\\ directly\\ to\\ our\\ two\\ imaginary\\ lovers\\.\\ \\ \\;Time\\ announces\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ undefeatable\\&mdash\\;that\\ the\\ lover\\&rsquo\\;s\\ verses\\ are\\ meaningless\\ because\\ in\\ reality\\ nothing\\ goes\\ on\\ forever\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ interrupts\\ all\\ good\\ things\\ eventually\\;\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;coughs\\ when\\ you\\ would\\ kiss\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ way\\ someone\\ might\\ demurely\\ intrude\\ on\\ a\\ private\\ conversation\\ by\\ coughing\\ to\\ announce\\ their\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Time\\ then\\ speaks\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ eight\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ emotional\\ height\\ increasing\\ with\\ each\\ one\\ to\\ the\\ climax\\ in\\ the\\ last\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ there\\ are\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\:\\ snow\\ drifting\\ into\\ the\\ green\\ valleys\\ of\\ summer\\,\\ then\\ to\\ age\\ weakening\\ those\\ who\\ dance\\ and\\ dive\\,\\ then\\ an\\ allusion\\ to\\ suicide\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;plunge\\ \\[your\\ hands\\]\\ in\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ wrist\\;\\ \\/\\ Stare\\,\\ stare\\ in\\ the\\ basin\\ \\/\\ And\\ wonder\\ what\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ missed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ images\\ become\\ increasing\\ bizarre\\:\\ we\\ have\\ great\\ forces\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;glaciers\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;deserts\\&rdquo\\;\\ pouring\\ into\\ and\\ crushing\\ our\\ houses\\,\\ and\\ the\\ crack\\ in\\ the\\ teacup\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ mortality\\ and\\ imperfection\\ of\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;Stanza\\ twelve\\ uses\\ nursery\\ rhymes\\,\\ but\\ twists\\ them\\ all\\ around\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ Time\\ can\\ eventually\\ change\\ everything\\:\\ Jack\\ is\\ gay\\ for\\ the\\ Giant\\,\\ Jill\\ is\\ having\\ sex\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ climax\\ that\\ punches\\ the\\ last\\ hole\\ in\\ the\\ lovers\\&rsquo\\;\\ dream\\ is\\ a\\ paradox\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ to\\ last\\ stanza\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ love\\ your\\ crooked\\ neighbor\\ \\/\\ With\\ your\\ crooked\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;which\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\ because\\ a\\ crooked\\ heart\\ cannot\\ love\\;\\ but\\ as\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ Time\\ makes\\ everything\\ imperfect\\,\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ we\\ will\\ ever\\ be\\&mdash\\;imperfect\\ and\\ human\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ then\\,\\ we\\ realizes\\,\\ only\\ a\\ crooked\\ heart\\ could\\ love\\ a\\ crooked\\ neighbor\\,\\ so\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ we\\ will\\ ever\\ do\\,\\ deluding\\ ourselves\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ actually\\ participate\\ in\\ anything\\ as\\ ideal\\ as\\ Love\\.\\ The\\ last\\ stanza\\ returns\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ speaker\\ by\\ the\\ river\\,\\ with\\ the\\ great\\ running\\ river\\ connecting\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ clocks\\ and\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ Time\\ as\\ an\\ unstoppable\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ of\\ disillusionment\\,\\ which\\ really\\ bears\\ down\\ on\\ and\\ dismisses\\ the\\ idealized\\,\\ eternal\\ romance\\ of\\ earlier\\ poets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dulce\\ et\\ Decorum\\ Est\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wilfred\\ Owen\\ \\(249\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\ taken\\ from\\ quotation\\ by\\ Roman\\ poet\\ Horace\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dulce\\ et\\ decorum\\ est\\ pro\\ patria\\ mori\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ sweet\\ and\\ fitting\\ to\\ die\\ for\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(History\\ and\\ Regionality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ War\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ WWI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Revisionary\\ History\\ poem\\ \\(changing\\ the\\ heroic\\ way\\ war\\ was\\ perceived\\ classically\\ or\\ the\\ idealized\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ remember\\ events\\ like\\ WW1\\ to\\ expose\\ the\\ horror\\ of\\ new\\ military\\ tactics\\ i\\.e\\.\\ gas\\ attacks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ loosely\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 8\\,\\ 6\\,\\ 8\\,\\ and\\ 4\\ lines\\.\\ An\\ unrhyming\\ couplet\\ that\\ fits\\ the\\ alternating\\ rhyme\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ hangs\\ in\\ between\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanzas\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ is\\ alternate\\ throughout\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Blood\\,\\ death\\,\\ Gas\\,\\ devil\\,\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Wilfred\\ Owen\\ died\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ in\\ 1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ friend\\,\\ you\\ would\\ not\\ tell\\ with\\ such\\ high\\ zest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ children\\ ardent\\ for\\ some\\ desperate\\ glory\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ old\\ Lie\\:\\ Dulce\\ et\\ decorum\\ est\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pro\\ patria\\ mori\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ war\\-weary\\ soldiers\\ marching\\ \\"\\;through\\ sludge\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;blood\\-shod\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;drunk\\ with\\ fatigue\\"\\;\\.\\ As\\ gas\\ shells\\ begin\\ to\\ fall\\,\\ the\\ soldiers\\ scramble\\ to\\ put\\ their\\ gas\\ masks\\ on\\.\\ In\\ the\\ rush\\,\\ one\\ man\\ clumsily\\ drops\\ his\\ mask\\,\\ and\\ the\\ narrator\\ sees\\ the\\ man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;yelling\\ out\\ and\\ stumbling\\ \\/\\ and\\ flound\\&\\#39\\;ring\\ like\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ fire\\ or\\ lime\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;guttering\\,\\ choking\\,\\ drowning\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;permeates\\ his\\ thoughts\\ and\\ dreams\\,\\ forcing\\ him\\ to\\ live\\ this\\ grotesque\\ nightmare\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ Owen\\ writes\\ that\\ if\\ readers\\ could\\ see\\ the\\ body\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\"\\;eyes\\ writhing\\"\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;face\\ hanging\\"\\;\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;vile\\,\\ incurable\\ sores\\ on\\ innocent\\ tongues\\"\\;\\&mdash\\;they\\ would\\ cease\\ to\\ send\\ young\\ men\\ to\\ war\\ while\\ instilling\\ visions\\ of\\ glory\\ in\\ their\\ heads\\.\\ No\\ longer\\ would\\ they\\ tell\\ their\\ children\\ the\\ \\"\\;Old\\ lie\\,\\"\\;\\ so\\ long\\ ago\\ told\\ by\\ the\\ Roman\\ poet\\ Horace\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dulce\\ et\\ decorum\\ est\\/\\ Pro\\ patria\\ mori\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(literally\\,\\ \\"\\;Sweet\\ and\\ honorable\\ it\\ is\\,\\ to\\ die\\ for\\ the\\ fatherland\\"\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disabled\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(date\\ not\\ given\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wilfred\\ Owens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 550\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Assigned\\ for\\ Section\\ 1\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Protest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\,\\ poems\\ spoken\\ by\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\disabled\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Dramatic\\ lyric\\,\\ free\\ indirect\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Irregular\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 7\\ stanzas\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cold\\ \\&\\;\\ dank\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;shivered\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ cold\\&hellip\\;it\\ is\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Absence\\ of\\ Color\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;dark\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;ghastly\\ suit\\ of\\ grey\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ lost\\ his\\ colour\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Wilfred\\ Owen\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ soldier\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ renowned\\ World\\ War\\ I\\ poet\\,\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;shocking\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;realistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ poetry\\ on\\ the\\ horrors\\ of\\ war\\.\\ Ironically\\,\\ Owens\\ himself\\ died\\ was\\ killed\\ in\\ action\\ just\\ a\\ week\\ before\\ the\\ war\\ ended\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ cold\\ and\\ late\\ it\\ is\\!\\ Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ they\\ come\\ \\/\\ And\\ put\\ him\\ into\\ bed\\?\\ Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ they\\ come\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ the\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ are\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\ disabled\\ figure\\ \\(he\\ is\\ sitting\\ in\\ a\\ wheel\\ chair\\,\\ he\\ is\\ legless\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ There\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ children\\ playing\\ in\\ the\\ park\\ and\\ the\\ figure\\ inside\\ gives\\ the\\ reader\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ alienation\\ and\\ of\\ abandonment\\ about\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ For\\ the\\ next\\ few\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ writer\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\.\\ He\\ writes\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;Town\\ used\\ to\\ swing\\ so\\ gay\\&rdquo\\;\\ before\\ the\\ young\\ man\\ went\\ to\\ war\\.\\ The\\ young\\ man\\ reminisces\\ about\\ why\\ it\\ was\\ that\\ he\\ joined\\ the\\ regiment\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;someone\\ had\\ said\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ look\\ a\\ god\\ in\\ kilts\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ please\\ his\\ Meg\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ retrospect\\,\\ all\\ childish\\ reasons\\ \\(after\\ all\\,\\ the\\ subject\\ was\\ not\\ even\\ nineteen\\ when\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Smiling\\ they\\ wrote\\ his\\ lie\\:\\ aged\\ nineteen\\ years\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ When\\ he\\ came\\ home\\,\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;some\\ cheered\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ cared\\ as\\ he\\ had\\ thought\\ they\\ would\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ young\\ man\\ alone\\ in\\ an\\ institute\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stripped\\ of\\ everything\\ that\\ makes\\ life\\ worth\\ living\\ such\\ as\\ companionship\\,\\ independence\\ \\(he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ make\\ his\\ own\\ choices\\ anymore\\)\\.\\ It\\ also\\ dehumanizing\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ pass\\ from\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ strong\\ eyes\\ that\\ were\\ whole\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ absolutely\\ no\\ redemption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ when\\ we\\ analyze\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ disabled\\ person\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ the\\ speaker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ cannot\\ write\\ the\\ poem\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ is\\ trapped\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ helplessness\\ abandonment\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ syntax\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ works\\ hard\\ to\\ speak\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ using\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ man\\,\\ giving\\ the\\ reader\\ a\\ much\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ language\\ used\\ is\\ so\\ simple\\ and\\ youthful\\,\\ the\\ reader\\ is\\ much\\ sadder\\ about\\ the\\ damage\\ war\\ has\\ done\\ to\\ such\\ a\\ young\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Infant\\ Joy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1789\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ p\\.28\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Birth\\,\\ Childhood\\,\\ Joy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ dimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abcaac\\ dbceec\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Infant\\,\\ sweet\\ joy\\,\\ naming\\ the\\ baby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\,\\ spiritualist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ happy\\ am\\,\\/\\ Joy\\ is\\ my\\ name\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\&rdquo\\;Sweet\\ joy\\ befall\\ thee\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Blake\\,\\ every\\ moment\\ in\\ life\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ either\\ of\\ two\\ ways\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ innocently\\ or\\ with\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ poem\\ is\\ from\\ his\\ Songs\\ of\\ Innocence\\;\\ it\\ radiates\\ with\\ unbridled\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ centers\\ around\\ the\\ naming\\ of\\ a\\ baby\\,\\ although\\ Blake\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ baby\\ in\\ this\\ dialog\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ a\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fantasy\\ of\\ what\\ she\\ would\\ want\\ the\\ baby\\ to\\ say\\ as\\ she\\ chooses\\ a\\ name\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ innocence\\ of\\ a\\ baby\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;both\\ a\\ clich\\é\\;\\ and\\ a\\ truth\\:\\ a\\ baby\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;beautiful\\,\\ guileless\\,\\ smiling\\,\\ appealing\\,\\ the\\ joy\\ of\\ its\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ days\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ very\\ simple\\,\\ and\\ the\\ almost\\ perfect\\ dimeter\\ evokes\\ baby\\-talk\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ mostly\\ the\\ baby\\ speaking\\,\\ then\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ is\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ turn\\,\\ expounding\\ on\\ how\\ fitting\\ the\\ baby\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chosen\\ name\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Sweet\\ joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ spondee\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ and\\ emphasized\\ four\\ times\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ each\\ time\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ line\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ happy\\ poem\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Infant\\ Sorrow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1794\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ p\\.29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\ \\(second\\ week\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Birth\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ none\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ aabb\\ ccdd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Birth\\,\\ fiend\\,\\ struggling\\,\\ sulking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\,\\ spiritualist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bound\\ and\\ weary\\,\\ I\\ thought\\ best\\/To\\ sulk\\ upon\\ my\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breast\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blake\\ divides\\ this\\ poem\\ in\\ two\\,\\ and\\ a\\ closer\\ look\\ shows\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ principal\\ division\\ between\\ the\\ physical\\ body\\ \\(first\\ stanza\\)\\ and\\ the\\ mental\\ operations\\ \\(second\\ stanza\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ main\\ verb\\ of\\ stanza\\ one\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;leapt\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ stanza\\ two\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;thought\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;First\\ the\\ baby\\ leaps\\ into\\ this\\ world\\,\\ then\\ thinks\\ about\\ its\\ condition\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ chooses\\ to\\ sulk\\,\\ after\\ fruitlessly\\ struggling\\ and\\ striving\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multiple\\ other\\ shapes\\ appear\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Within\\ each\\ stanza\\ appear\\ each\\ parent\\,\\ so\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;parents\\/baby\\,\\ parents\\/baby\\&rdquo\\;\\ alternation\\ is\\ superimposed\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ shape\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;physical\\/mental\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ showing\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constant\\ dependency\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ on\\ its\\ parents\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ shape\\ is\\ the\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ spiritual\\ that\\ stands\\ out\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ a\\ fiend\\ hid\\ in\\ a\\ cloud\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ baby\\ has\\ come\\ down\\ from\\ a\\ supernatural\\ world\\ and\\ finds\\ himself\\ less\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ cherubs\\ from\\ heaven\\ than\\ to\\ the\\ devils\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ present\\ participial\\ adjectives\\ and\\ non\\-\\&ldquo\\;ing\\&rdquo\\;\\ adjectives\\;\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\doing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feeling\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ struggling\\ performed\\ and\\ the\\ suffering\\ experienced\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ active\\ verbial\\ adjectives\\ follow\\ a\\ downward\\ course\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\&mdash\\;from\\ the\\ initial\\ \\&ldquo\\;leaping\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ is\\ a\\ inversion\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ expected\\,\\ passive\\ \\&ldquo\\;being\\ born\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\&mdash\\;to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;piping\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ where\\ the\\ baby\\ tries\\ expressing\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;struggling\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;striving\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;bound\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ adjectives\\ becoming\\ less\\ active\\ as\\ the\\ baby\\ resigns\\ itself\\ to\\ its\\ imprisonment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ all\\ these\\ shapes\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ elevated\\ from\\ mere\\ description\\ to\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ baby\\&rsquo\\;s\\ condition\\,\\ the\\ overlapping\\ and\\ interlocking\\ patterns\\ giving\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ a\\ dynamic\\ and\\ engaging\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\London\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 88\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ October\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\:\\ Images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Scorning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Rhyme\\ Scheme\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\#\\ of\\ Stanzas\\:\\ 4\\ quatrains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Regular\\ spacing\\ and\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Death\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Runs\\ in\\ blood\\ down\\ Palace\\ walls\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Marriage\\ hearse\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Crying\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;every\\ cry\\ of\\ every\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ Infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cry\\ of\\ fear\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Chimney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sweeper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cry\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ new\\-born\\ Infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tear\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Black\\ \\/\\ Dark\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Chimney\\-sweeper\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;blackning\\ Church\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;midnight\\ streets\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;William\\ Blake\\ was\\ an\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ artist\\.\\ Specifically\\,\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ visual\\ imagery\\ in\\ his\\ poetry\\ has\\ been\\ praised\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ the\\ youthful\\ Harlot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ \\/\\ Blasts\\ the\\ new\\-born\\ Infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tear\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ blights\\ with\\ plagues\\ the\\ Marriage\\ hearse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ the\\ Poem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ author\\ walks\\ through\\ streets\\ by\\ the\\ Thames\\ River\\ in\\ London\\.\\ This\\ setting\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ city\\,\\ and\\,\\ as\\ the\\ poem\\ progresses\\,\\ we\\ find\\ that\\ Blake\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ critique\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ a\\ modern\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\city\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-based\\ life\\.\\ We\\ walks\\ through\\ crowds\\,\\ and\\ finds\\ \\&ldquo\\;marks\\ of\\ weakness\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;woe\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\every\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ everyone\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ being\\ affected\\ by\\ some\\ evil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ Blake\\ reiterates\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ everybody\\ is\\ suffering\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ cry\\ of\\ every\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ infant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cry\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ voice\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ every\\ ban\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ penetrates\\ everyone\\.\\ Then\\,\\ Blake\\ finally\\ provides\\ the\\ readers\\ with\\ an\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ anguish\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mind\\ forg\\&rsquo\\;d\\ manacles\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;manacles\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ as\\ it\\ conveys\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ something\\ chaining\\ down\\ everyone\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ stanza\\ three\\,\\ Blake\\ moves\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ bigger\\ picture\\.\\ He\\ now\\ addresses\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ these\\ imposed\\ false\\ beliefs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ Church\\ that\\ takes\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ forcing\\ them\\ to\\ believe\\ false\\ things\\.\\ But\\,\\ as\\ he\\ did\\ before\\,\\ Blake\\ now\\,\\ again\\,\\ moves\\ us\\ up\\ the\\ ladder\\ of\\ evils\\.\\ There\\ is\\ something\\ worse\\ than\\ an\\ institution\\ aving\\ powers\\ over\\ your\\ thoughts\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ them\\ having\\ power\\ over\\ your\\ life\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ hapless\\ Soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sigh\\ \\/\\ Runs\\ in\\ blood\\ down\\ Palace\\ walls\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ Blake\\ decides\\ on\\ an\\ evil\\ that\\ is\\ even\\ more\\ wicked\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sexual\\ dishonesty\\ and\\ corruption\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ with\\ this\\ last\\ image\\ of\\ modern\\ evils\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sexual\\ dishonesty\\ that\\ leads\\ both\\ to\\ literal\\ disease\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ syphilis\\ causes\\ a\\ newborn\\ child\\ to\\ become\\ blind\\)\\,\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ which\\ reach\\ forward\\ into\\ the\\ future\\ generations\\,\\ and\\ figurative\\ disease\\,\\ the\\ disruption\\ and\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ realize\\ the\\ way\\ Blake\\ uses\\ imagery\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ image\\ after\\ image\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ increasingly\\ worse\\ evils\\.\\ Each\\ image\\ both\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ previous\\ ones\\ and\\ replaces\\ it\\ \\(as\\ the\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;worst\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ building\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ climatic\\ manner\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ Blake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ repetition\\ to\\ stress\\ major\\ themes\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ he\\ repeats\\ the\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\&rdquo\\;\\ again\\ and\\ again\\ to\\ stress\\ the\\ extreme\\ penetration\\ and\\ power\\ of\\ these\\ evils\\ on\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ London\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Little\\ Black\\ Boy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ \\(231\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Poetry\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Identity\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ \\ \\;7\\ quatrains\\ with\\ alternate\\ rhyme\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abab\\ abab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ arranged\\ in\\ heroic\\ quatrains\\ \\(broad\\ pentameter\\ alternately\\ rhyming\\ quatrains\\)\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ often\\ used\\ poetically\\ with\\ philosophic\\ and\\ noble\\ subjects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ God\\,\\ lambs\\ \\(people\\)\\,\\ shady\\ grove\\ \\(metaphor\\ for\\ earth\\)\\,\\ white\\ and\\ black\\,\\ heaven\\ vs\\.\\ earth\\,\\ body\\ vs\\.\\ soul\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Poem\\ dates\\ from\\ 1788\\ around\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ anti\\-slavery\\ movement\\ which\\ William\\ Blake\\ was\\ a\\ supporter\\ of\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ these\\ black\\ bodies\\ and\\ this\\ sun\\-burnt\\ face\\/\\ Is\\ but\\ a\\ cloud\\,\\ and\\ like\\ a\\ shady\\ grove\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ little\\ boy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ explains\\ to\\ him\\ that\\ their\\ earthly\\ bodies\\ are\\ but\\ a\\ shell\\ of\\ their\\ souls\\,\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ heaven\\ nothing\\ of\\ our\\ earthly\\ concerns\\ or\\ position\\ will\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ narrator\\ is\\ a\\ young\\ black\\ child\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ hardship\\ of\\ his\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ relative\\ to\\ a\\ young\\ white\\ child\\ who\\ neither\\ likes\\ him\\ nor\\ seems\\ to\\ endure\\ as\\ much\\.\\ He\\ insists\\ in\\ a\\ childlike\\ manner\\ that\\ that\\ though\\ his\\ exterior\\ is\\ black\\,\\ inside\\ his\\ soul\\ is\\ as\\ white\\ \\(pure\\)\\ as\\ the\\ angelic\\-looking\\ English\\ child\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reader\\ realizes\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ parroting\\ what\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ taught\\ \\(souls\\ are\\ white\\,\\ angels\\ are\\ white\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\)\\.\\ His\\ mother\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ force\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ she\\ brings\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ comfort\\ and\\ explains\\ that\\ this\\ life\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ trial\\ and\\ preparation\\.\\ In\\ Heaven\\,\\ however\\,\\ he\\ and\\ the\\ white\\ boy\\ will\\ play\\ around\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ tent\\ of\\ God\\ like\\ lambs\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ which\\ point\\ both\\ boys\\ will\\ attain\\ equality\\ before\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ white\\ child\\ will\\ then\\ love\\ his\\ black\\ counterpart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Sick\\ Rose\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1789\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 98\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\-4\\-06\\ \\(Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ emblem\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ mostly\\ iambic\\ dimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ heroic\\ quatrains\\,\\ \\(abcb\\,\\ abcb\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ decay\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\,\\ sexual\\ undertones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Christian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ Rose\\,\\ thou\\ art\\ sick\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ speaker\\,\\ addressing\\ a\\ rose\\,\\ informs\\ it\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ sick\\.\\ An\\ \\"\\;invisible\\"\\;\\ worm\\ has\\ stolen\\ into\\ its\\ bed\\ in\\ a\\ \\"\\;howling\\ storm\\"\\;\\ and\\ under\\ the\\ cover\\ of\\ night\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;dark\\ secret\\ love\\"\\;\\ of\\ this\\ worm\\ is\\ destroying\\ the\\ rose\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ two\\ quatrains\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ rhyme\\ ABCB\\.\\ The\\ ominous\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ short\\,\\ two\\-beat\\ lines\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ foreboding\\ or\\ dread\\ and\\ complements\\ the\\ unflinching\\ directness\\ with\\ which\\ the\\ speaker\\ tells\\ the\\ rose\\ she\\ is\\ dying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ rose\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ beautiful\\ natural\\ object\\ that\\ has\\ become\\ infected\\ by\\ a\\ worm\\,\\ it\\ also\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ literary\\ rose\\,\\ the\\ conventional\\ symbol\\ of\\ love\\.\\ The\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ worm\\ resonates\\ with\\ the\\ Biblical\\ serpent\\ and\\ also\\ suggests\\ a\\ phallus\\.\\ Worms\\ are\\ quintessentially\\ earthbound\\,\\ and\\ symbolize\\ death\\ and\\ decay\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;bed\\"\\;\\ into\\ which\\ the\\ worm\\ creeps\\ denotes\\ both\\ the\\ natural\\ flowerbed\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ lovers\\&\\#39\\;\\ bed\\.\\ The\\ rose\\ is\\ sick\\,\\ and\\ the\\ poem\\ implies\\ that\\ love\\ is\\ sick\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ rose\\ is\\ unaware\\ of\\ its\\ sickness\\.\\ Of\\ course\\,\\ an\\ actual\\ rose\\ could\\ not\\ know\\ anything\\ about\\ its\\ own\\ condition\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ emphasis\\ falls\\ on\\ the\\ allegorical\\ suggestion\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ love\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ recognize\\ its\\ own\\ ailing\\ state\\.\\ This\\ results\\ partly\\ from\\ the\\ insidious\\ secrecy\\ with\\ which\\ the\\ \\"\\;worm\\"\\;\\ performs\\ its\\ work\\ of\\ corruption\\-\\-not\\ only\\ is\\ it\\ invisible\\,\\ it\\ enters\\ the\\ bed\\ at\\ night\\.\\ This\\ secrecy\\ indeed\\ constitutes\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ infection\\ itself\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;crimson\\ joy\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ rose\\ connotes\\ both\\ sexual\\ pleasure\\ and\\ shame\\,\\ thus\\ joining\\ the\\ two\\ concepts\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ Blake\\ thought\\ was\\ perverted\\ and\\ unhealthy\\.\\ The\\ rose\\&\\#39\\;s\\ joyful\\ attitude\\ toward\\ love\\ is\\ tainted\\ by\\ the\\ aura\\ of\\ shame\\ and\\ secrecy\\ that\\ our\\ culture\\ attaches\\ to\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Wild\\ Swans\\ at\\ Coole\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1917\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Assigned\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ paper\\ options\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lamentation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ roughly\\ iambic\\,\\ each\\ stanza\\ has\\ six\\ verses\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ number\\ of\\ beats\\:\\ 434353\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ five\\ sestets\\ rhyming\\ ababcc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ autumn\\,\\ swans\\,\\ twilight\\,\\ ground\\/air\\/water\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\ poet\\,\\ dramaturge\\ and\\ public\\ figure\\.\\ In\\ 1923\\ he\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ in\\ Literature\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ always\\ inspired\\ poetry\\,\\ which\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\ artistic\\ form\\ gives\\ expression\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ a\\ whole\\ nation\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ was\\ concerned\\ with\\ Irish\\ Nationalist\\ motives\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ need\\ of\\ creating\\ an\\ Irish\\ aesthetic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Among\\ what\\ rushes\\ will\\ they\\ build\\,\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;By\\ what\\ lakes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ edge\\ or\\ pool\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;Delight\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ when\\ I\\ awake\\ some\\ day\\ \\/\\ \\ \\;To\\ find\\ they\\ have\\ flown\\ away\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yeats\\ starts\\ his\\ poem\\ describing\\ a\\ still\\ lake\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;nine\\-and\\-fifty\\&rdquo\\;\\ swans\\ are\\ swimming\\.\\ He\\ continues\\ to\\ narrate\\ how\\ nineteen\\ years\\ \\&ldquo\\;autumns\\&rdquo\\;\\ have\\ passed\\ since\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ park\\ at\\ Coole\\ the\\ last\\ time\\.\\ He\\ continues\\ on\\ to\\ lament\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ now\\ my\\ heart\\ is\\ sore\\&rdquo\\;\\ how\\ he\\ has\\ grown\\ older\\,\\ and\\ things\\ have\\ changed\\ \\(world\\ has\\ seen\\ the\\ first\\ world\\ war\\)\\ since\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ he\\ saw\\ those\\ \\&ldquo\\;brillian\\ creatures\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ penultimate\\ stanza\\ evidences\\ how\\ much\\ he\\ admires\\ the\\ seemingly\\ eternal\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Swans\\ \\&ldquo\\;Unwearied\\ still\\,\\ lover\\ by\\ lover\\&hellip\\;their\\ hearts\\ have\\ not\\ grown\\ old\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ stanza\\ Yeats\\ laments\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ Swans\\ will\\ someday\\ fly\\ away\\.\\ One\\ can\\ notice\\ from\\ the\\ way\\ Yeats\\ portrays\\ the\\ swans\\ that\\ he\\ regards\\ them\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ changed\\ since\\ he\\ came\\ back\\,\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ to\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ cling\\ to\\ remember\\ his\\ past\\.\\ Regarding\\ the\\ motives\\,\\ it\\ is\\ obvious\\ from\\ the\\ historical\\ context\\ during\\ which\\ the\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\ that\\ Yeats\\ is\\ reacting\\ to\\ a\\ world\\ that\\ has\\ changed\\ abruptly\\ and\\ violently\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crazy\\ Jane\\ Talks\\ with\\ the\\ Bishop\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ 192\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\/30\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ lost\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ adaptation\\ of\\ an\\ old\\ folk\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ three\\ sestets\\ rhymed\\ abcbdb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ aging\\,\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ educated\\,\\ philosophical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;fair\\ needs\\ foul\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Yeats\\ adopts\\ the\\ persona\\ of\\ Crazy\\ Jane\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ back\\ story\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ Jane\\ and\\ her\\ lover\\ Jack\\ used\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ parish\\,\\ but\\ Jack\\ was\\ banned\\ from\\ the\\ parish\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;religious\\ reasons\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ real\\ reason\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ priest\\ was\\ jealous\\ of\\ Jack\\.\\ \\ \\;Crazy\\ Jane\\,\\ years\\ later\\,\\ runs\\ into\\ the\\ priest\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Priest\\ begins\\ by\\ noticing\\ Jane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breasts\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;flat\\ and\\ fallen\\ now\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ means\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ once\\ noticed\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;unflat\\ and\\ unfallen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ inappropriate\\ for\\ a\\ priest\\ and\\ gives\\ away\\ the\\ true\\ reason\\ for\\ Jack\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banishment\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ priest\\ also\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ encouraging\\ Jane\\ to\\ forget\\ earthly\\ things\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;some\\ foul\\ sty\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ instead\\ devote\\ herself\\ to\\ God\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;live\\ in\\ a\\ heavenly\\ mansion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ Jane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reply\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ remarks\\ on\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ her\\ friends\\,\\ the\\ inevitable\\ outcome\\ of\\ aging\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ she\\ also\\ believes\\ that\\ love\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ fulfilled\\ without\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;Jane\\ knows\\ this\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;learned\\ in\\ bodily\\ lowliness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\,\\ Jane\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ women\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;proud\\ and\\ stiff\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;thus\\ denying\\ sexual\\ activity\\,\\ but\\ then\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;whole\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ persona\\ Crazy\\ Jane\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ justify\\ these\\ assertions\\,\\ because\\ the\\ reader\\ understands\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ poor\\,\\ uneducated\\ peasant\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ Yeats\\&rsquo\\;\\ reason\\ for\\ adopting\\ persona\\:\\ he\\ can\\ make\\ claims\\ using\\ the\\ persona\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voice\\ that\\ he\\ himself\\ would\\ never\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ without\\ further\\ justification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meru\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ \\(1865\\-1939\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\:\\ 301\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ November\\ 20\\:\\ Deducing\\ morals\\,\\ detecting\\ means\\,\\ judging\\ the\\ implied\\ author\\ and\\ implied\\ reader\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ The\\ fall\\ of\\ civilization\\,\\ mortality\\ of\\ everything\\:\\ life\\/death\\ cycles\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shakespearian\\ Sonnet\\,\\ Elegy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ almost\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\.\\ \\ \\;Gets\\ more\\ regular\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\,\\ cdcd\\,\\ efef\\,\\ gg\\ \\(typical\\ Shakespearian\\ sonnet\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ spacing\\/indents\\.\\ All\\ one\\ stanza\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ 1\\.\\ civilization\\ like\\ a\\ barrel\\-\\ if\\ remove\\ hoops\\,\\ staves\\ fall\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Sages\\ go\\ up\\ to\\ Mt\\ Meru\\ to\\ experience\\ cold\\-\\ end\\ of\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ them\\ experiencing\\ the\\ extremes\\ and\\ then\\ knowing\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ cycles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ the\\ cycles\\:\\ life\\/death\\,\\ day\\/night\\,\\ culture\\ \\&\\;\\ civilization\\ thrive\\/fall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\,\\ v\\ famous\\,\\ known\\ also\\ for\\ being\\ a\\ great\\ poet\\ of\\ the\\ later\\ life\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ themes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Egypt\\ and\\ Greece\\,\\ good\\-bye\\,\\ and\\ good\\-bye\\,\\ Rome\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Or\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ day\\ brings\\ round\\ the\\ night\\,\\ that\\ before\\ dawn\\/\\ His\\ glory\\ and\\ his\\ monuments\\ are\\ gone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mostly\\ about\\ the\\ downfall\\ of\\ civilizations\\:\\ The\\ beginning\\ suggests\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ fragility\\ of\\ a\\ hoped\\ barrel\\ \\(easy\\ to\\ take\\ apart\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sums\\ up\\ thousands\\ of\\ years\\ when\\ says\\ goodbye\\ to\\ Egypt\\,\\ Greece\\ and\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tears\\ apart\\ these\\ cultures\\ with\\ the\\ harsh\\ R\\ sounds\\ he\\ uses\\ in\\ lines\\ 4\\-7\\ \\(teRRoR\\,\\ Ravening\\,\\ centuRy\\ afteR\\ centuRy\\,\\ Raging\\,\\ upRooting\\,\\ Reality\\&hellip\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ couplet\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ also\\ reflects\\ the\\ downfall\\ imagery\\ with\\ the\\ day\\/night\\ cycle\\ representing\\ life\\/death\\ cycles\\ of\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hermits\\ upon\\ Mount\\ Meru\\&rdquo\\;\\ travel\\ there\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ extremes\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ 100\\%\\ sure\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ the\\ parallel\\ is\\ the\\ hermits\\ understanding\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ cold\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ man\\ understanding\\ that\\ one\\ day\\ he\\ and\\ everything\\ he\\ knows\\ will\\ be\\ gone\\ \\&\\;\\ forgotten\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sailing\\ to\\ Byzantium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1928\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Butler\\ Yeats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Nov\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ the\\ aged\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ four\\ ottava\\-rima\\ stanzas\\ \\(eight\\ verses\\ each\\,\\ rhyming\\ abababcc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ gold\\,\\ eternity\\,\\ youth\\/old\\ age\\,\\ Byzantium\\ as\\ a\\ holy\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Irish\\ poet\\,\\ dramaturge\\ and\\ public\\ figure\\.\\ In\\ 1923\\ he\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ in\\ Literature\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ always\\ inspired\\ poetry\\,\\ which\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\ artistic\\ form\\ gives\\ expression\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ a\\ whole\\ nation\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ was\\ concerned\\ with\\ Irish\\ Nationalist\\ motives\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ need\\ of\\ creating\\ an\\ Irish\\ aesthetic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ is\\ no\\ country\\ for\\ old\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;An\\ aged\\ man\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ paltry\\ thing\\,\\ \\/\\ A\\ tattered\\ coat\\ upon\\ a\\ stick\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yeats\\ introduces\\ the\\ poem\\ with\\ the\\ striking\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ no\\ country\\ for\\ old\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ His\\ first\\ stanza\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ images\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ \\(birds\\,\\ fish\\,\\ and\\ mackerel\\-crowded\\ seas\\)\\ that\\ remind\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ youth\\,\\ when\\ contrasted\\ with\\ such\\ striking\\ introductory\\ phrase\\.\\ The\\ second\\ stanza\\ continues\\ and\\ laments\\ that\\ aged\\ man\\ are\\ considered\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;paltry\\ thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tattered\\ coat\\ upon\\ a\\ stick\\&rdquo\\;\\ unless\\ they\\ are\\ full\\ of\\ energies\\,\\ and\\ for\\ that\\ reason\\ Yeats\\ states\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ sailed\\ away\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;holy\\ city\\ of\\ Bizantium\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ There\\ he\\ evokes\\ the\\ Saints\\ in\\ the\\ gold\\ mosaics\\ of\\ a\\ wall\\ \\(Remember\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ diagram\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ saints\\ with\\ a\\ golden\\ background\\,\\ and\\ remember\\ what\\ she\\ said\\ about\\ it\\:\\ namely\\ that\\ golden\\ backgrounds\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ inform\\ the\\ spectator\\ of\\ the\\ divine\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ representation\\)\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stanza\\ is\\ a\\ plea\\ to\\ the\\ saints\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ and\\ take\\ him\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ artifice\\ of\\ eternity\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ for\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;fastened\\ to\\ a\\ dying\\ animal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(his\\ body\\)\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ states\\ the\\ forms\\ he\\ will\\ take\\ if\\ they\\ make\\ him\\ eternal\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ golden\\ tree\\ with\\ mechanical\\ birds\\ that\\ sing\\ \\(apparently\\ he\\ took\\ this\\ image\\ because\\ he\\ read\\ somewhere\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ Emperor\\ in\\ Byzantium\\ that\\ had\\ one\\ of\\ such\\ trees\\ build\\ for\\ him\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sing\\ \\/\\ To\\ lords\\ and\\ ladies\\ of\\ Byzantium\\ \\/\\ Of\\ what\\ is\\ past\\,\\ or\\ passing\\,\\ or\\ to\\ come\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Carlos\\ Williams\\ \\(83\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ cat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\climbed\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ top\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ jamcloset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\first\\ the\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\forefoot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\carefully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\then\\ the\\ hind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stepped\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\into\\ the\\ pit\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ empty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\flowerpot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Introduction\\ \\(Poetic\\ Structure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Nature\\(perhaps\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ brief\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ free\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 4\\ stanzas\\ of\\ 3\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ Very\\ structure\\ oriented\\.\\ See\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ full\\ page\\ write\\-up\\ on\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ pgs\\ 84\\-85\\ in\\ PPP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ cat\\,\\ jamcloset\\,\\ flowerpot\\,\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ about\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ its\\ structure\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ utilizes\\ its\\ visual\\ spacing\\ and\\ major\\ pauses\\ \\(stanza\\ breaks\\)\\ to\\ mimic\\ the\\ cat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motion\\.\\ As\\ Vendler\\ notes\\ in\\ PPP\\ this\\ entire\\ poem\\ could\\ be\\ written\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ sentence\\ but\\ the\\ pauses\\ are\\ included\\ to\\ separate\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ cat\\ stopping\\ before\\ the\\ descent\\ to\\ an\\ unknown\\ region\\ 2\\)\\ The\\ second\\ pause\\ comes\\ after\\ the\\ right\\ forefoot\\ has\\ found\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ poise\\ 3\\)\\ The\\ third\\ comes\\ after\\ the\\ hind\\ leg\\ successfully\\ moves\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ forefoot\\ 4\\)\\ Then\\ comes\\ the\\ farcical\\ end\\ when\\ the\\ cat\\ finds\\ itself\\ trapped\\ inside\\ a\\ deep\\ flowerpot\\ instead\\ of\\ on\\ a\\ flat\\ surface\\ \\(taken\\ from\\ PPP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Dance\\-\\ William\\ Carlos\\ Williams\\ \\(1883\\-1963\\)\\ p\\.104\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ A\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Dactylic\\ trimeter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ one\\ stanza\\,\\ 12\\ lines\\,\\ no\\ rhyme\\,\\ enjambment\\ throughout\\ the\\ whole\\ poem\\.\\ First\\ and\\ final\\ line\\ are\\ identical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imagery\\:\\ \\ \\;dancing\\ people\\ at\\ a\\ fairground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ dancers\\ go\\ round\\,\\ they\\ go\\ round\\ and\\/\\ around\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ is\\ arguably\\ Williams\\ attempt\\ of\\ writing\\ a\\ poem\\ that\\ is\\ as\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ painting\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ Like\\ a\\ painting\\ Williams\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ is\\ framed\\ with\\ the\\ lines\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ Breughel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ great\\ picture\\,\\ The\\ Kermess\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ opening\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ closing\\ line\\.\\ Then\\ like\\ a\\ painting\\ Williams\\ attempts\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ images\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ space\\.\\ By\\ using\\ enjambment\\ throughout\\ the\\ whole\\ poem\\ he\\ creates\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ lots\\ of\\ activity\\ and\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ which\\ portrays\\ a\\ fair\\ where\\ many\\ people\\ are\\ dancing\\ and\\ swinging\\.\\ Williams\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ describe\\ a\\ painting\\ in\\ a\\ twelve\\-line\\ stanza\\,\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ given\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ consensus\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ a\\ picture\\ is\\ worth\\ a\\ thousand\\ words\\.\\ So\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ a\\ painting\\ does\\ and\\ create\\ lots\\ of\\ images\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ space\\ Williams\\ lists\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ images\\ he\\ sees\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ attempts\\ to\\ compact\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\ into\\ each\\ sentence\\,\\ by\\ writing\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ squeal\\,\\ and\\ the\\ blare\\ and\\ the\\/\\ tweedle\\ of\\ bagpipes\\,\\ a\\ bugle\\ and\\ fiddles\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ However\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ meant\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ the\\ painting\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ actually\\ event\\ of\\ a\\ fair\\ in\\ real\\ life\\ where\\ so\\ much\\ is\\ happening\\ before\\ you\\ that\\ only\\ get\\ briefly\\ reflect\\ on\\ each\\ image\\.\\ The\\ only\\ image\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ is\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ dancing\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ because\\ they\\ dominate\\ the\\ painting\\ and\\ a\\ fairground\\ and\\ therefore\\ they\\ dominate\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ The\\ words\\ go\\ round\\ is\\ repeated\\ when\\ describing\\ there\\ movements\\ as\\ are\\ kicking\\,\\ rolling\\,\\ swinging\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ description\\ reflects\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\.\\ On\\ top\\ the\\ frame\\ then\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ then\\ the\\ instruments\\ around\\ them\\,\\ then\\ the\\ shanks\\ of\\ the\\ fairground\\ and\\ finally\\ the\\ bottom\\ frame\\.\\ So\\ the\\ oddity\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ its\\ adaptation\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ artistic\\ practice\\ with\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epitaph\\ on\\ a\\ Hare\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 449\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Cowper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Oct\\ 11\\.\\ \\ \\;Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegiac\\ ballad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ tetrameter\\/trimeter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 11\\ ballad\\ stanzas\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Though\\ duly\\ from\\ my\\ hand\\ he\\ took\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ His\\ pittance\\ every\\ night\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ jealous\\ look\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;And\\,\\ when\\ he\\ could\\,\\ would\\ bite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ ballad\\ stanza\\ is\\ usually\\ reserved\\ for\\ serious\\ subjects\\,\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ firstly\\ humorous\\ for\\ being\\ an\\ elegy\\ for\\ a\\ hare\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ person\\ and\\ secondly\\ in\\ the\\ comical\\ details\\ of\\ Tiney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavior\\ and\\ habits\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ short\\,\\ hare\\ was\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ amusement\\ for\\ a\\ speaker\\,\\ who\\ appreciated\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ his\\ pet\\ especially\\ during\\ times\\ of\\ melancholy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 29\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(64\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Arranged\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(27\\-72\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\,\\ tragedy\\,\\ power\\ of\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\/\\ 1\\ stanza\\/\\ couplet\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ indented\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ earth\\,\\ fate\\/fortune\\/heaven\\,\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sonnets\\ are\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ 154\\ poems\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ themes\\ including\\,\\ love\\,\\ beauty\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ featured\\ in\\ the\\ sonnets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ thy\\ sweet\\ love\\ remembered\\ such\\ wealth\\ brings\\/\\ That\\ then\\ I\\ scorn\\ to\\ change\\ my\\ state\\ with\\ kings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 13\\-14\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sonnet\\ 29\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ large\\ set\\ of\\ sonnets\\ written\\ by\\ Shakespeare\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ begins\\ by\\ explaining\\ how\\ depressed\\ he\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ status\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ neither\\ wealthy\\ nor\\ popular\\ and\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ social\\ outcast\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ he\\ weeps\\,\\ prays\\ to\\ heaven\\ \\(though\\ his\\ prayers\\ are\\ unanswered\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;deaf\\ haven\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 3\\)\\)\\ and\\ wishes\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ be\\ someone\\ with\\ more\\ hope\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ jealous\\ of\\ those\\ around\\ him\\ who\\ have\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;desiring\\ this\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\,\\ and\\ that\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scope\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 6\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ \\(described\\ above\\)\\,\\ which\\ focus\\ on\\ his\\ negative\\ emotional\\ state\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ a\\ separation\\ between\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ six\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ sonnet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Yet\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 9\\)\\ reflects\\ this\\ turning\\ point\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ Shakespeare\\ describes\\ how\\ while\\ he\\ is\\ thinking\\ all\\ these\\ negative\\ thoughts\\ about\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ happens\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ someone\\ he\\ loves\\,\\ which\\ completely\\ changes\\ his\\ sentiments\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\/\\&hellip\\;sings\\ hymns\\ at\\ heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gate\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 10\\-12\\)\\ and\\ we\\ see\\ how\\ thinking\\ about\\ this\\ love\\ takes\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ depression\\ and\\ brings\\ him\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ ends\\ by\\ saying\\ how\\ much\\ just\\ remembering\\ this\\ love\\ means\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ enough\\ to\\ cause\\ him\\ to\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ change\\ his\\ status\\ after\\ all\\-\\ socially\\ or\\ economically\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ depressed\\,\\ dreary\\,\\ and\\ hopeless\\ tone\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ once\\ the\\ poet\\ realizes\\ that\\ he\\ finds\\ happiness\\ in\\ being\\ loved\\,\\ the\\ tone\\ is\\ very\\ pleasant\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ also\\ notice\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ repeated\\ three\\ times\\ and\\ serves\\ to\\ connect\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;outcast\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 2\\)\\,\\ then\\ to\\ his\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\ \\(l\\.\\ 10\\)\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ to\\ his\\ state\\ of\\ life\\ \\(l\\.\\ 14\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ three\\ uses\\ serve\\ to\\ connect\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 60\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(13\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poem\\ as\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ ravages\\ of\\ Time\\,\\ life\\ stages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\/\\ 1\\ stanza\\/\\ couplet\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ indented\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ sea\\/waves\\,\\ birth\\/light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sonnets\\ are\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ 154\\ poems\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ themes\\ including\\,\\ love\\,\\ beauty\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ featured\\ in\\ the\\ sonnets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ nothing\\ stands\\ but\\ for\\ his\\ scythe\\ to\\ mow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sonnet\\ 60\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ traditional\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ which\\ is\\ organized\\ into\\ three\\ quatrains\\ and\\ a\\ couplet\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ quatrain\\ represents\\ a\\ different\\ metaphor\\ describing\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ Time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ quatrain\\ describes\\ Time\\ like\\ the\\ tide\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ as\\ the\\ waves\\ cycle\\ forward\\,\\ with\\ Time\\ each\\ new\\ minute\\ replaces\\ the\\ previous\\ one\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ continuous\\ pattern\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;toil\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(l\\.\\ 4\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ this\\ process\\ suggests\\ a\\ harshness\\ of\\ the\\ journey\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ quatrain\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ during\\ a\\ day\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ Time\\ in\\ human\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ man\\ is\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ rising\\ sun\\,\\ which\\ is\\ eventually\\ overshadowed\\ by\\ the\\ eclipse\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ human\\ life\\ we\\ grow\\ older\\ and\\ older\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ this\\ maturity\\ leads\\ to\\ our\\ decline\\ \\(death\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ quatrain\\ describes\\ Time\\ as\\ a\\ monster\\ that\\ destroys\\ the\\ blossoming\\ youth\\,\\ creates\\ wrinkles\\ on\\ the\\ forehead\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\ grows\\ older\\ and\\ plows\\ over\\ all\\ that\\ stands\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ quatrains\\ show\\ how\\ the\\ speaker\\ believes\\ that\\ Time\\ creates\\ beautiful\\ things\\,\\ but\\ then\\ quickly\\ destroys\\ through\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ poem\\ progresses\\,\\ we\\ notice\\ how\\ the\\ destructions\\ of\\ Time\\ take\\ place\\ more\\ quickly\\ in\\ the\\ metaphors\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ however\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ speaker\\ believes\\ that\\ Time\\ is\\ destructive\\,\\ he\\ still\\ expresses\\ hope\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ that\\ his\\ words\\ may\\ counteract\\ this\\ seemingly\\ inevitable\\ destruction\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ yet\\ to\\ times\\ in\\ hope\\ my\\ verse\\ shall\\ stand\\/\\ Praising\\ thy\\ worth\\,\\ despite\\ his\\ cruel\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ll\\.\\ 13\\-14\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ his\\ words\\ live\\ on\\ and\\ tell\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ beloved\\,\\ then\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ escaped\\ from\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ Time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ thoughts\\:\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ this\\ sonnet\\ is\\ \\#60\\,\\ which\\ could\\ also\\ represent\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ 60\\ minutes\\ in\\ an\\ hour\\-\\ thus\\ broadening\\ the\\ Time\\ theme\\ to\\ even\\ the\\ title\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ note\\ how\\ each\\ metaphor\\ \\(and\\ quatrain\\)\\ is\\ a\\ sentence\\-\\ further\\ showing\\ the\\ division\\ between\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ Time\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ the\\ upward\\ and\\ downward\\ movement\\/shape\\ that\\ each\\ metaphor\\ creates\\ \\(see\\ pg\\.\\ 58\\-59\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\,\\ Poets\\ and\\ Poetry\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ more\\ detail\\ on\\ this\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 66\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(pgs\\.\\ 159\\-160\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ 10\\-18\\-06\\,\\ the\\ Play\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complaint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcdcdefefgg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ decay\\,\\ dishonor\\,\\ decadence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tired\\ with\\ all\\ these\\,\\ from\\ these\\ would\\ I\\ be\\ gone\\,\\ \\/\\ Save\\ that\\ to\\ die\\,\\ I\\ leave\\ my\\ love\\ alone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shakespeare\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Sonnet\\ 66\\ is\\ a\\ world\\-weary\\,\\ desperate\\ list\\ of\\ grievances\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ society\\.\\ The\\ speaker\\ criticizes\\ three\\ things\\:\\ general\\ unfairness\\ of\\ life\\,\\ societal\\ immorality\\,\\ and\\ oppressive\\ government\\.\\ Lines\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\ illustrate\\ the\\ economic\\ unfairness\\ caused\\ by\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ station\\ or\\ nobility\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\,\\ to\\ behold\\ desert\\ a\\ beggar\\ born\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ needy\\ nothing\\ trimm\\&\\#39\\;d\\ in\\ jollity\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lines\\ 4\\-7\\ to\\ portray\\ disgraced\\ trust\\ and\\ loyalty\\,\\ unfairly\\ given\\ authority\\,\\ as\\ by\\ an\\ unworthy\\ king\\ \\"\\;Gilden\\ honour\\ shamefully\\ misplaced\\"\\;\\,\\ and\\ female\\ innocence\\ corrupted\\ \\"\\;Maiden\\ virtue\\ rudely\\ strumpeted\\"\\;\\.\\ Lines\\ 8\\,\\ 10\\,\\ and\\ 12\\,\\ as\\ in\\ lines\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\,\\ characterize\\ reversals\\ of\\ what\\ one\\ deserves\\,\\ and\\ what\\ one\\ actually\\ receives\\ in\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ opposed\\ to\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ sonnets\\,\\ which\\ have\\ a\\ \\"\\;turn\\"\\;\\ in\\ mood\\ or\\ thought\\ at\\ line\\ 9\\,\\ \\(the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ quatrain\\ the\\ mood\\ of\\ Sonnet\\ 66\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ until\\ the\\ last\\ line\\,\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ declares\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ keeping\\ him\\ alive\\ is\\ his\\ lover\\.\\ This\\ stresses\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ lover\\ is\\ helping\\ him\\ merely\\ survive\\,\\ whereas\\ sonnets\\ 29\\ and\\ 30\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ positive\\ and\\ have\\ 6\\ lines\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ affirm\\ that\\ the\\ lover\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 76\\ \\(Why\\ is\\ my\\ verse\\ so\\ barren\\ of\\ new\\ pride\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 285\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\ \\-1616\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ not\\ specifically\\ assigned\\,\\ but\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ November\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attitudes\\,\\ Values\\ Judgments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ poem\\ about\\ poetry\\,\\ answer\\-poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\ form\\:\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ fits\\ perfect\\ sonnet\\ form\\:\\ 12\\ lines\\ of\\ ABAB\\,\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\ are\\ CC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ compares\\ his\\ poetry\\ to\\ the\\ sun\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ as\\ the\\ sun\\ is\\ daily\\ new\\ and\\ old\\,\\ \\/\\ So\\ is\\ my\\ love\\,\\ still\\ telling\\ what\\ is\\ told\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ Shakespeare\\ was\\ often\\ criticized\\ for\\ writing\\ poems\\ only\\ about\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ citations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;So\\ all\\ my\\ best\\ is\\ dressing\\ old\\ worlds\\ new\\,\\ \\/\\ Spending\\ again\\ what\\ is\\ already\\ spent\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ originally\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ Shakespeare\\ lamenting\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;same\\-old\\&rdquo\\;\\-ness\\ of\\ his\\ poetry\\,\\ asking\\ questions\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Why\\ is\\ my\\ verse\\ so\\ barren\\ of\\ new\\ pride\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ laments\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ word\\ doth\\ almost\\ tell\\ my\\ name\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ his\\ poetry\\ is\\ so\\ repetitive\\ that\\ anyone\\ can\\ tell\\ who\\ the\\ author\\ is\\ simply\\ by\\ reading\\ a\\ word\\ or\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ sonnet\\ turns\\ into\\ an\\ answer\\ poem\\,\\ however\\,\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ six\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ learn\\ that\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ patron\\ had\\ criticized\\ him\\ for\\ always\\ writing\\ in\\ sonnet\\ form\\ \\(about\\ love\\,\\ and\\ also\\ an\\ old\\-fashioned\\ style\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ final\\ six\\ lines\\ are\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ to\\ his\\ patron\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ \\(which\\ was\\ asked\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ eight\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ answers\\ that\\ he\\ always\\ writes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweet\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ my\\ best\\ is\\ dressing\\ old\\ words\\ new\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Shakespeare\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ love\\ deserves\\ to\\ be\\ addressed\\ and\\ talked\\ about\\ all\\ the\\ time\\,\\ comparing\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ which\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;daily\\ new\\ and\\ old\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ Vendler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ are\\ things\\ so\\ precious\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ sun\\ and\\ love\\ being\\ among\\ them\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ we\\ never\\ have\\ enough\\ of\\ tehm\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ poetry\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ never\\ has\\ new\\ words\\&hellip\\;The\\ only\\ thing\\ any\\ poet\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;dress\\ \\[that\\ is\\,\\ arrange\\]\\ old\\ words\\ new\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(287\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 130\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1609\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ p\\.97\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 4\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ pleasure\\ of\\ parody\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Parody\\,\\ love\\,\\ love\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ Sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\ \\(abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ Eyes\\,\\ lips\\,\\ breasts\\,\\ hair\\,\\ cheeks\\,\\ breath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ the\\ Shakespeare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ are\\ nothing\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\;\\/\\ Coral\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ red\\ than\\ her\\ lips\\&rsquo\\;\\ red\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shakespeare\\ does\\ a\\ parody\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ love\\ sonnet\\ \\(of\\ which\\ he\\ wrote\\ many\\ himself\\,\\ but\\ was\\ preceded\\ primarily\\ by\\ Petrarch\\)\\ and\\ turns\\ it\\ on\\ its\\ head\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ love\\ sonnets\\ describe\\ the\\ beloved\\ in\\ superlatives\\ and\\ hyperbole\\,\\ but\\ Shakespeare\\ basically\\ brings\\ us\\ down\\ to\\ earth\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\your\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mistress\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\has\\ no\\ such\\ powers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ typical\\ grandiose\\ metaphors\\ and\\ allusions\\ are\\ reversed\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ opening\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ shine\\ brightly\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\;\\ \\/\\ Coral\\ is\\ not\\ more\\ red\\ than\\ her\\ lips\\&rsquo\\;\\ red\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ opposite\\ \\(see\\ the\\ notable\\ citation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ordinary\\ beauty\\ and\\ humanity\\ of\\ his\\ mistress\\ is\\ what\\ Shakespeare\\ loves\\ in\\ this\\ sonnet\\,\\ and\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ jest\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ twelve\\ lines\\ the\\ couplet\\ returns\\ us\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ sonnet\\:\\ total\\ and\\ consuming\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ structured\\ simply\\,\\ addressing\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ lady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ qualities\\ one\\ by\\ one\\ as\\ a\\ sonneteer\\ would\\ customarily\\ do\\,\\ except\\ with\\ this\\ parody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wry\\ twist\\:\\ in\\ order\\,\\ we\\ examine\\ the\\ eyes\\,\\ breasts\\,\\ hair\\,\\ cheeks\\,\\ breath\\,\\ speech\\,\\ and\\ then\\ her\\ walk\\.\\ A\\ note\\ of\\ clarification\\:\\ the\\ wires\\ referred\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ actually\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ finely\\ spun\\ golden\\ threads\\ in\\ hair\\ nets\\ \\(which\\ are\\ actually\\ a\\ sight\\ of\\ beauty\\)\\,\\ not\\ our\\ metal\\ threads\\ of\\ today\\;\\ Shakespeare\\ simply\\ means\\ that\\ her\\ hair\\ is\\ black\\ and\\ not\\ golden\\,\\ nothing\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 30\\-\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\-1616\\)\\ p\\.178\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Constructing\\ a\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ mourning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Sonnet\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ pentameter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ abab\\ cdcd\\ efef\\ gg\\,\\ Shakespearean\\ sonnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ death\\,\\ sadness\\,\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ if\\ the\\ while\\ I\\ think\\ on\\ thee\\ \\(dear\\ friend\\)\\/\\ All\\ losses\\ are\\ restored\\ and\\ sorrows\\ end\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ poem\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ actions\\ that\\ he\\ habitually\\ partakes\\ in\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ remembering\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ friends\\ whom\\ he\\ mourned\\ for\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ still\\ brings\\ back\\ these\\ memories\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ bring\\ back\\ the\\ feelings\\ of\\ mourning\\.\\ Perhaps\\ he\\ does\\ this\\ to\\ pay\\ back\\ his\\ debt\\ of\\ grief\\ and\\ honor\\ is\\ dead\\ friends\\.\\ However\\ what\\ happens\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ he\\ does\\ this\\ he\\ is\\ brought\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ exact\\ feelings\\ he\\ had\\ before\\.\\ It\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ feeling\\ them\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ this\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ new\\ pay\\ as\\ if\\ not\\ paid\\ before\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ So\\ he\\ is\\ overcome\\ by\\ the\\ feelings\\ every\\ time\\ he\\ recalls\\ his\\ dead\\ friends\\.\\ So\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ time\\ is\\ he\\ was\\ without\\ friends\\,\\ found\\ friends\\,\\ lost\\ his\\ friends\\,\\ mourned\\ his\\ friends\\,\\ stopped\\ mourning\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ recalls\\ the\\ feelings\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ mourn\\ them\\ again\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ great\\ grief\\ that\\ he\\ feels\\ when\\ thinking\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ old\\ friends\\ that\\ ends\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweet\\ silent\\ thought\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ makes\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ painful\\ recollection\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ this\\ the\\ speaker\\ decides\\ to\\ find\\ consolation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ friend\\ he\\ still\\ has\\ whom\\ is\\ mentioned\\ to\\ the\\ final\\ stanza\\ and\\ helps\\ him\\ end\\ the\\ sorrow\\ of\\ remembering\\ his\\ dead\\ friends\\.\\ By\\ doing\\ this\\ Shakespeare\\ creates\\ a\\ self\\ in\\ the\\ speaker\\ who\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ alive\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ future\\.\\ Also\\ not\\ only\\ does\\ he\\ have\\ a\\ past\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ multi\\-phased\\ past\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ brought\\ to\\ life\\ by\\ Shakespeare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descriptions\\.\\ The\\ tone\\ changes\\ from\\ sweet\\ remembrance\\ to\\ grief\\ to\\ reconciliation\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ significant\\ departure\\ from\\ mourning\\ poem\\ in\\ that\\ its\\ shows\\ remembrance\\ has\\ being\\ bad\\ for\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ that\\ forgetting\\ his\\ dead\\ friends\\ and\\ remembering\\ his\\ new\\ friend\\ makes\\ him\\ feel\\ better\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sonnet\\ 130\\-\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(1564\\-1616\\)\\ p\\.97\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\ Love\\ poem\\,\\ mocking\\ reply\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\:\\ Sonnet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Iambic\\ Pentameter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcdcdefefgg\\ Shakespearean\\ Sonnet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imagery\\:\\ Mocking\\ a\\ clich\\é\\;\\ love\\ sonnet\\;\\ Beauty\\,\\ Roses\\,\\ goddesses\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ yet\\ by\\ heaven\\ I\\ think\\ my\\ love\\ as\\ rare\\/\\ As\\ any\\ she\\ belied\\ with\\ false\\ compare\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Example\\ of\\ Shakespearean\\ Couplet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ sonnet\\ is\\ a\\ mocking\\ reply\\ to\\ a\\ love\\ sonnet\\ that\\ Shakespeare\\ has\\ read\\.\\ In\\ the\\ sonnet\\ he\\ read\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ about\\ how\\ beautiful\\ the\\ poets\\ mistress\\ is\\.\\ Shakespeare\\ in\\ this\\ sonnet\\ goes\\ through\\ each\\ clich\\é\\;\\ and\\ undermines\\ it\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ mistress\\.\\ For\\ example\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ My\\ Mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ are\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\ Shakespeare\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;\\ eyes\\ are\\ nothing\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ His\\ pattern\\ of\\ each\\ line\\ acting\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ line\\ in\\ another\\ poem\\ continues\\ throughout\\ the\\ sonnet\\ until\\ the\\ ninth\\ line\\ where\\ Shakespeare\\ gives\\ his\\ mistress\\ the\\ greatest\\ compliment\\ a\\ poet\\ can\\ give\\ which\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ love\\ to\\ hear\\ her\\ speak\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ However\\ after\\ this\\ he\\ continues\\ until\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\ undermining\\ the\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ of\\ other\\ love\\ poems\\.\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ two\\ lines\\ he\\ turns\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ positives\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ these\\ comparison\\ that\\ are\\ obviously\\ untrue\\ are\\ actually\\ insulting\\ to\\ put\\ upon\\ a\\ love\\ as\\ true\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ he\\ has\\ for\\ his\\ mistress\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ poem\\ Shakespeare\\ mocks\\ the\\ common\\ clich\\é\\;s\\ and\\ emblems\\ of\\ describing\\ women\\ as\\ Goddesses\\,\\ Roses\\ and\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\ So\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ see\\ Shakespeare\\ take\\ a\\ common\\ genre\\ \\(the\\ love\\ poem\\)\\ and\\ depart\\ from\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ way\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ though\\ seems\\ to\\ portray\\ an\\ even\\ deeper\\ and\\ stronger\\ love\\ by\\ denying\\ these\\ fantastical\\ descriptions\\ and\\ stating\\ that\\ his\\ love\\ is\\ beyond\\ these\\ obvious\\ lies\\.\\ So\\ although\\ the\\ poem\\ begins\\ in\\ a\\ humorous\\ manner\\ the\\ tone\\ eventually\\ changes\\ at\\ the\\ final\\ couplet\\.\\ Here\\ Shakespeare\\ finally\\ stops\\ joking\\ and\\ states\\ the\\ true\\ nature\\ of\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ his\\ mistress\\,\\ a\\ love\\ that\\ is\\ greater\\ then\\ any\\ lie\\ or\\ clich\\é\\;\\ he\\ could\\ write\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ slumber\\ did\\ my\\ spirit\\ steal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1800\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\-Pg\\ 92\\ \\(also\\ appears\\ on\\ pgs\\.\\ 123\\ and\\ 241\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ October\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Poems\\ as\\ Pleasure\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ Mourning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\)\\:\\ elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ alternates\\ between\\ tetrameter\\ and\\ trimeter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ 2\\ stanzas\\,\\ 4\\ lines\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;She\\ seemed\\ a\\ thing\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ feel\\/\\ The\\ touch\\ of\\ earthly\\ years\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ lyric\\ is\\ a\\ mournful\\ poem\\ for\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ a\\ lost\\ lover\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ a\\ slumber\\ did\\ he\\ spirit\\ \\(mind\\)\\ seal\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ he\\ shut\\ his\\ mind\\ off\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ even\\ his\\ lover\\ was\\ a\\ mortal\\ being\\;\\ he\\ never\\ could\\ have\\ imagined\\ her\\ death\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;seemed\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;She\\ seemed\\ a\\ thing\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ feel\\/the\\ touch\\ of\\ earthly\\ years\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ This\\ alludes\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ she\\ does\\ in\\ fact\\ die\\.\\ In\\ the\\ break\\ between\\ stanzas\\ his\\ lover\\ dies\\,\\ bringing\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\,\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ in\\ here\\ grave\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ tenses\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ shows\\ the\\ change\\,\\ from\\ past\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lack\\ of\\ narration\\ surrounding\\ the\\ events\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ experience\\ is\\ too\\ painful\\ for\\ Wordsworth\\ to\\ discuss\\.\\ She\\ goes\\ from\\ being\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ mortal\\ to\\ a\\ thing\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ among\\ the\\ rocks\\,\\ stones\\,\\ and\\ trees\\.\\ The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recognize\\ her\\ death\\,\\ only\\ negating\\ features\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ human\\,\\ until\\ she\\ becomes\\ part\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ as\\ described\\ as\\ poignant\\,\\ as\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ tensions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Composed\\ upon\\ Westminster\\ Bridge\\ \\(254\\)\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Module\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;History\\ and\\ Regionality\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Nature\\/\\ Urban\\ Contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lyric\\/Romantic\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\ and\\ Structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ poem\\ is\\ one\\ stanza\\ containing\\ 14\\ lines\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ pentameter\\,\\ with\\ almost\\ all\\ lines\\ having\\ ten\\ syllables\\ and\\ the\\ stress\\ is\\ usually\\ iambic\\ in\\ character\\.\\ The\\ rhyme\\ scheme\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ a\\-b\\-b\\-a\\-a\\-b\\-b\\-a\\-c\\-d\\-c\\-d\\-c\\-d\\.\\ Note\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ multiple\\ colons\\ and\\ semicolons\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Sunrise\\,\\ jewelry\\,\\ a\\ serene\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\English\\ poet\\ who\\ started\\ the\\ Romantic\\ Age\\ for\\ english\\ poetry\\.\\ Lived\\ primarily\\ in\\ England\\ but\\ traveled\\ extensively\\ in\\ France\\.\\ Was\\ friends\\ with\\ Samuel\\ Taylor\\ Coleridge\\.\\ Became\\ poet\\ laureate\\ of\\ Britain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ composition\\ serves\\ to\\ characterize\\ something\\ in\\ a\\ means\\ totally\\ different\\ than\\ its\\ normal\\ way\\.\\ Westminster\\ bridge\\ is\\ a\\ bridge\\ that\\ overlooks\\ much\\ of\\ London\\,\\ which\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ was\\ a\\ bustling\\ city\\,\\ that\\ was\\ often\\ dirty\\ and\\ polluted\\.\\ The\\ growing\\ industrialization\\ gave\\ the\\ city\\ its\\ harsh\\,\\ unattractive\\ looks\\.\\ In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Wordsworth\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ city\\ literally\\ through\\ a\\ different\\ light\\.\\ In\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ city\\ during\\ sunrise\\,\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ beauty\\ in\\ a\\ sight\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ rarely\\ described\\ so\\.\\ He\\ expresses\\ this\\ astonishment\\ through\\ numerous\\ exclamations\\,\\ notably\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Dear\\ God\\!\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;\\.\\.lying\\ still\\!\\"\\;\\ He\\ makes\\ a\\ direct\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ calm\\ and\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ the\\ \\"\\;splendour\\"\\;\\ is\\ partly\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ \\"\\;mighty\\ heart\\"\\;\\ lying\\ still\\.\\ This\\ coexistence\\ of\\ calm\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ comparing\\ the\\ \\"\\;towers\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;domes\\"\\;\\ to\\ \\"\\;valley\\,\\ rock\\ or\\ hill\\.\\"\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ shows\\ that\\ while\\ these\\ two\\ realms\\ are\\ inherently\\ different\\,\\ under\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ dawn\\ both\\ can\\ be\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ beauty\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ separate\\ ways\\.\\ While\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ temporary\\,\\ as\\ a\\ \\"\\;garment\\,\\"\\;\\ its\\ majesty\\,\\ \\ \\;has\\ some\\ merit\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ Wandered\\ Lonely\\ as\\ a\\ Cloud\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(page\\ 314\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\ September\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Chapter\\ 2\\,\\ Poems\\ ass\\ Arranged\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\ nature\\,\\ self\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\ Mostly\\ tetrameter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ four\\ beats\\ per\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\ ababcc\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quatrain\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ couplet\\ \\/\\ \\#4\\ stanzas\\ \\/\\ the\\ sixth\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ breaks\\ from\\ the\\ pattern\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ flowers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\ daffodils\\,\\ nature\\,\\ clouds\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\ English\\ poet\\ who\\ focused\\ a\\ lot\\ on\\ nature\\,\\ can\\ assume\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ narrator\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;dance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ alliteration\\ belongs\\ to\\ daffodils\\ thus\\ they\\ belong\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ There\\ are\\ families\\ of\\ words\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;glee\\,\\ gay\\ and\\ jocund\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(family\\ of\\ being\\ happy\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;glance\\,\\ glee\\,\\ gay\\ and\\ gaze\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(connected\\ by\\ alliteration\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;saw\\ glance\\,\\ gaze\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(family\\ of\\ looking\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;float\\,\\ flutter\\,\\ dance\\,\\ shine\\,\\ twinkle\\,\\ toss\\,\\ flash\\,\\ fill\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(family\\ of\\ motion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Balance\\ of\\ words\\ from\\ the\\ German\\ side\\ of\\ English\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anglo\\ Saxon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ words\\ coming\\ from\\ the\\ Latin\\-French\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Antiphonal\\ structure\\ of\\ alternation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\/B\\/A\\/B\\ where\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\ and\\ the\\ flowers\\ are\\ the\\ objects\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ daffodils\\ are\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ sentences\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ they\\ engage\\ in\\ syntactic\\ dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Sentences\\ complete\\ stanzas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ sentences\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ sentence\\ the\\ second\\ stanza\\&hellip\\;but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hinge\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ stanza\\ three\\ and\\ four\\ thus\\ bears\\ twice\\ the\\ weight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Poem\\ moves\\ from\\ the\\ opening\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ lonely\\ and\\ feels\\ unconnected\\ akin\\ to\\ a\\ cloud\\ and\\ then\\ eventually\\ ends\\ at\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ still\\ alone\\ but\\ not\\ lonely\\ \\(stanza\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\ is\\ outside\\ and\\ stanza\\ 4\\ is\\ inside\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ feels\\ the\\ bliss\\ of\\ solitude\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ involuntary\\ experiences\\ of\\ delight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Three\\ glances\\ at\\ the\\ daffodils\\ moves\\ the\\ poem\\ spatially\\ and\\ temporally\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ order\\ the\\ poet\\ sees\\,\\ glances\\ and\\ gazes\\ at\\ the\\ flowers\\ in\\ the\\ landscape\\ all\\ in\\ motion\\ and\\ all\\ together\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ End\\ comes\\ to\\ a\\ final\\ resolution\\ with\\ the\\ lasting\\ impression\\ of\\ the\\ daffodils\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ode\\:\\ Intimations\\ of\\ Immortality\\ from\\ Recollections\\ of\\ Early\\ Childhood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 642\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Reprise\\ of\\ Lycidas\\ \\[294\\]\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(yyyy\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;11\\/29\\.\\ The\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\(s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Epitaph\\ \\(praising\\ a\\ dead\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genre\\-form\\(s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\ comprehensive\\ lyric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosody\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mostly\\ iambic\\ but\\ lines\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Structural\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rhyming\\ poem\\ but\\ no\\ regular\\ scheme\\.\\ But\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ song\\-like\\ flow\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ 11\\ stanzas\\ of\\ irregular\\ length\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ imageries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bliss\\ of\\ ignorant\\ youth\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ adult\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ troubles\\ and\\ tragedy\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\.\\ Concentrated\\ on\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Freudian\\ child\\ psyche\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ adult\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ Citation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ birth\\ is\\ but\\ a\\ sleep\\ and\\ a\\ forgetting\\.\\.\\.\\/Not\\ in\\ entire\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ \\/\\ And\\ not\\ in\\ utter\\ nakedness\\,\\ \\/But\\ trailing\\ clouds\\ of\\ glory\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ \\/\\ From\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ our\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ conveys\\ Wordsworth\\&\\#39\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ on\\ earth\\ is\\ a\\ dim\\ shadow\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\,\\ purer\\ existence\\,\\ dimly\\ recalled\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ then\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ growing\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ He\\ portrays\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ child\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ man\\ and\\ Wordsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disapproval\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ adult\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\.\\ Particularly\\ representative\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ \\&lsquo\\;playing\\ funeral\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ stanza\\ 7\\.\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ further\\ emphasized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ curt\\,\\ unimportant\\ rhythm\\ of\\ these\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ laments\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;celestial\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\.\\ Second\\ stanza\\ contains\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ as\\ child\\,\\ before\\ tainted\\/exposed\\ to\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ In\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ stanzas\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ joy\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ images\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ seem\\ sublime\\ and\\ forced\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ again\\ am\\ strong\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ hear\\,\\ I\\ hear\\,\\ with\\ joy\\ I\\ hear\\!\\/\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ put\\ the\\ poem\\ away\\ for\\ four\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ fourth\\ stanza\\ \\(interesting\\ NOTE\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ picked\\ it\\ up\\ again\\.\\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ stanza\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ place\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ before\\ life\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ true\\ glory\\ and\\ beauty\\ is\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ childhood\\ do\\ we\\ retain\\ some\\ memory\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ a\\ philosopher\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stanza\\ he\\ exults\\ in\\ joy\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ hold\\ onto\\ that\\ memory\\ from\\ childhood\\ of\\ world\\ of\\ innocence\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ truth\\;\\ he\\ can\\ still\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ sacred\\ place\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Delight\\ and\\ liberty\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ creed\\/\\ Of\\ Childhood\\,\\ whether\\ busy\\ or\\ at\\ rest\\,\\/\\ with\\ new\\-fledge\\ hope\\ still\\ fluttering\\ in\\ his\\ breast\\&mdash\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ final\\ stanzas\\,\\ the\\ author\\ uses\\ language\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ imaginative\\ creativity\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ mature\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ shapes\\ of\\ humanity\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sparknotes\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ a\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\,\\ searching\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ placidness\\,\\ naturalness\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ youth\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ joyous\\ scenes\\ are\\ when\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ grieving\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 4, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Study_Guide_Draft_2.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice - Class Notes", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "ethical-reasoning-22"], "text": null, "id": 25, "html": "\\\\\\Main\\_Ideas\\_\\-\\_Outlines\\_MASTER\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c34\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:196\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c42\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:123\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c19\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:80\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c37\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c43\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c45\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18\\.7pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18\\.7pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9\\.4pt\\;margin\\-left\\:9\\.4pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c49\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9\\.4pt\\;margin\\-left\\:46\\.8pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-10\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:46\\.8pt\\}\\.c32\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c46\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c40\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c44\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c39\\{margin\\-left\\:21pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-left\\:0\\.7pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c35\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c48\\{margin\\-left\\:74\\.8pt\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:57pt\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:12pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c50\\{margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c47\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c10\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c38\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Utilitarianism\\ Outline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Basic\\ Concept\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utility\\:\\ happiness\\;\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarianism\\:\\ Right\\ and\\ wrong\\ defined\\ as\\ maximizing\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Definition\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ qualitative\\ distinction\\.\\ Only\\ number\\ and\\ intensity\\ matters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Two\\ Main\\ Objections\\ to\\ Utilitarianism\\ and\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Attempt\\ to\\ Resuscitate\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ It\\ simply\\ aggregates\\ all\\ values\\ and\\ translates\\ them\\ into\\ dollar\\ terms\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ It\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\assumes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ all\\ values\\ are\\ translatable\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ uniform\\ measure\\ of\\ values\\.\\ This\\ assumption\\ is\\ questionable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utilitarianism\\ often\\ refuses\\ to\\ make\\ qualitative\\ distinction\\,\\ and\\ just\\ aggregates\\ preferences\\ and\\ interests\\ without\\ looking\\ at\\ what\\ those\\ preferences\\ are\\ for\\ and\\ how\\ worthy\\ they\\ are\\.\\ Why\\ should\\ society\\ honor\\ the\\ mere\\ intensity\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ preferences\\ however\\ base\\ or\\ unworthy\\ these\\ preferences\\ may\\ be\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Response\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ human\\ being\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ pig\\ satisfied\\;\\ better\\ to\\ be\\ Socrates\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ fool\\ satisfied\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ an\\ unquestionable\\ fact\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equally\\ acquainted\\ with\\ and\\ equally\\ capable\\ of\\ appreciating\\ and\\ enjoying\\ both\\ do\\ give\\ a\\ most\\ marked\\ preference\\ to\\ the\\ manner\\ of\\ existence\\ which\\ employs\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\higher\\ faculties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Further\\ consideration\\:\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Is\\ this\\ persuasive\\?\\ Simpson\\ vs\\.\\ Shakespeare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Utilitarianism\\ does\\ not\\ take\\ seriously\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ fails\\ to\\ respect\\ individual\\ rights\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\:\\ justice\\ and\\ individual\\ rights\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Justice\\ is\\ a\\ name\\ for\\ certain\\ moral\\ requirements\\ which\\,\\ regarded\\ collectively\\,\\ stand\\ higher\\ in\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ social\\ utility\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ of\\ more\\ paramount\\ obligation\\,\\ than\\ any\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Individual\\ rights\\ are\\ sacred\\,\\ privileged\\ and\\ prior\\,\\ and\\ justice\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ traded\\ off\\ for\\ lesser\\ things\\.\\ But\\ the\\ reason\\ is\\ ultimately\\,\\ Mill\\ claims\\,\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ reason\\:\\ they\\ are\\ considered\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\ interests\\ of\\ human\\ kind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Further\\ consideration\\:\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ What\\ if\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ case\\ where\\ we\\ make\\ an\\ exception\\ and\\ violate\\ individual\\ rights\\ but\\ it\\ will\\ make\\ people\\ better\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ is\\ it\\ just\\ then\\ to\\ use\\ people\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Suppose\\ the\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\ works\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ such\\ that\\ respecting\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ making\\ everybody\\ better\\ off\\.\\ Is\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ reason\\,\\ or\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\,\\ to\\ respect\\ people\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Proof\\ of\\ Principle\\ of\\ Utility\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ utilitarian\\ doctrine\\ is\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ desirable\\,\\ and\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ sole\\ evidence\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ produce\\ that\\ anything\\ is\\ desirable\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ do\\ actually\\ desire\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ objection\\ to\\ empirical\\ proof\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Empirical\\ principles\\ are\\ wholly\\ unsuited\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ moral\\ laws\\&hellip\\;\\ The\\ principle\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ happiness\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ objectionable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Other\\ Objections\\ Mill\\ Considers\\ and\\ Responds\\ to\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ It\\ supposes\\ that\\ life\\ has\\ no\\ higher\\ end\\ than\\ pleasure\\,\\ no\\ better\\ and\\ nobler\\ object\\ of\\ desire\\ and\\ pursuit\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ doctrine\\ worthy\\ only\\ of\\ swine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ Better\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ human\\ being\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ pig\\ satisfied\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Many\\ who\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ the\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ occasionally\\ postpone\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ temptation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Happiness\\ is\\ unattainable\\.\\ What\\ right\\ does\\ one\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ happy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ The\\ hero\\ or\\ the\\ martyr\\ resigns\\ entirely\\ his\\ own\\ portion\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ or\\ the\\ chances\\ of\\ it\\,\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ something\\ which\\ he\\ prizes\\ more\\ than\\ his\\ individual\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Utilitarian\\ standard\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ in\\ conduct\\ only\\ concerns\\ the\\ agent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ disinterested\\ character\\ is\\ too\\ high\\ for\\ humanity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ It\\ is\\ often\\ affirmed\\ that\\ utilitarianism\\ renders\\ men\\ cold\\ and\\ unsympathizing\\;\\ that\\ it\\ makes\\ them\\ regard\\ only\\ the\\ dry\\ and\\ hard\\ consideration\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ actions\\,\\ not\\ taking\\ the\\ qualities\\ from\\ which\\ those\\ actions\\ emanate\\ into\\ their\\ moral\\ judgment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Utility\\ is\\ often\\ summarily\\ stigmatized\\ as\\ an\\ immoral\\ doctrine\\ by\\ giving\\ it\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;expediency\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ would\\ often\\ be\\ expedient\\ to\\ tell\\ a\\ lie\\,\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ getting\\ over\\ some\\ momentary\\ embarrassment\\,\\ or\\ attaining\\ some\\ object\\ immediately\\ useful\\ to\\ ourselves\\ or\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ There\\ is\\ not\\ time\\,\\ previous\\ to\\ action\\,\\ for\\ calculating\\ and\\ weighing\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ any\\ line\\ of\\ conduct\\ on\\ the\\ general\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Basic\\ Principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basis\\ of\\ libertarian\\ argument\\ is\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ self\\-possession\\ \\(also\\ refer\\ to\\ Locke\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individuals\\ have\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ to\\ right\\ to\\ live\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ freely\\&mdash\\;provided\\ that\\ we\\ respect\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ right\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Society\\ must\\ be\\ formed\\ as\\ to\\ avoid\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ the\\ ideal\\ form\\ of\\ government\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;minimal\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ paternalistic\\ legislation\\ that\\ seeks\\ to\\ protect\\ people\\ from\\ themselves\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ seat\\-belt\\ laws\\,\\ helmet\\ laws\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ morals\\ legislation\\ that\\ attempts\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ redistribution\\ of\\ income\\/wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Redistribution\\ of\\ income\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Redistribution\\ in\\ effect\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\ that\\ lays\\ claim\\ to\\ personal\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Nozick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Only\\ a\\ minimal\\ state\\ is\\ justified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distributive\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distribution\\ is\\ not\\ central\\,\\ done\\ by\\ agreements\\ between\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ we\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ justice\\ in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nozick\\ believes\\ in\\ an\\ entitlement\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisitions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ original\\ acquisition\\ of\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ transfer\\ of\\ holdings\\ between\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ acquire\\ a\\ holding\\ through\\ the\\ above\\ principles\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ these\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ these\\ principles\\ are\\ violated\\,\\ people\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rectification\\ of\\ injustice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ dimensions\\ of\\ distributive\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\ vs\\ End\\-Result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\how\\ a\\ holding\\ came\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Past\\ circumstances\\ create\\ entitlements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\End\\-Result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ the\\ holding\\ looks\\ like\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structurally\\ identical\\ distributions\\ are\\ equally\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patterned\\ vs\\ Non\\-patterned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ system\\ is\\ patterned\\ if\\ the\\ distribution\\ is\\ made\\ according\\ relative\\ to\\ some\\ factor\\ or\\ weighted\\ set\\ of\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ unpatterned\\ distributions\\ that\\ coincidentally\\ correlate\\ according\\ to\\ some\\ factor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ wealth\\ in\\ a\\ capitalist\\ society\\ correlates\\ with\\ intelligence\\,\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ distribute\\ wealth\\ to\\ smart\\ people\\)\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ the\\ whole\\ situation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gifts\\,\\ luck\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Historical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\End\\-Result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Patterned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Distribution\\ according\\ to\\ moral\\ merit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Egalitarian\\,\\ Utilitarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Not\\ Patterned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Libertarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Random\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ a\\ society\\ to\\ be\\ free\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ deviate\\ from\\ any\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ example\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ arrive\\ at\\ some\\ pattern\\,\\ then\\ people\\ voluntarily\\ choose\\ to\\ give\\ Wilt\\ more\\ money\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ enjoy\\ his\\ basketball\\ skills\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ trade\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ the\\ holdings\\ of\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;parties\\,\\ and\\ everyone\\ is\\ made\\ better\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ choice\\ will\\ always\\ cause\\ society\\ to\\ deviate\\ from\\ any\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ patterned\\ system\\ would\\ require\\ continual\\ intervention\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taxation\\ is\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ forced\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ take\\ n\\ hours\\ worth\\ of\\ income\\ from\\ a\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ forcing\\ them\\ to\\ work\\ n\\ hours\\ longer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consider\\ choice\\ between\\ labor\\ and\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tax\\ only\\ effects\\ those\\ who\\ choose\\ extra\\ labor\\,\\ ie\\ those\\ who\\ prefer\\ goods\\ over\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ would\\ be\\ illegitimate\\ to\\ tax\\ leisure\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ accept\\ a\\ tax\\ on\\ income\\ just\\ because\\ somebody\\ has\\ different\\ preferences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Property\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ property\\ right\\ means\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ choose\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ your\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\End\\-result\\ principles\\ give\\ people\\ a\\ claim\\ on\\ the\\ total\\ social\\ output\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seizing\\ the\\ output\\ of\\ somebody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ having\\ ownership\\ in\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ conflicts\\ with\\ the\\ Lockean\\ principle\\ of\\ self\\-ownership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emmigration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consider\\ a\\ country\\ with\\ some\\ welfare\\ system\\ where\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ opt\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ allow\\ emigration\\,\\ this\\ in\\ effect\\ does\\ allow\\ people\\ to\\ opt\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ you\\ also\\ justify\\ kidnapping\\ people\\ to\\ forcefully\\ immigrate\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lockean\\ Acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Property\\ rights\\ originate\\ in\\ mixing\\ your\\ labor\\ with\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ true\\ because\\ self\\-ownership\\ means\\ you\\ own\\ your\\ own\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labor\\ improves\\ things\\,\\ and\\ you\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ value\\ you\\ create\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ true\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ left\\ for\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ if\\ this\\ ever\\ does\\ not\\ hold\\,\\ you\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ previous\\ acquisition\\ took\\ away\\ something\\ valuable\\ from\\ the\\ later\\ person\\ who\\ was\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ keep\\ arguing\\ back\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ no\\ private\\ property\\ leaves\\ others\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nozick\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ benefits\\ from\\ private\\ property\\ \\(better\\ efficiency\\,\\ productivity\\,\\ etc\\)\\ satisfy\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ proviso\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Friedmans\\:\\ Equality\\ of\\ Opportunity\\ v\\.\\ Equality\\ of\\ Outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Claim\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ secure\\ liberty\\,\\ whereas\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ threatens\\ individual\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ for\\ the\\ Friedmans\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\une\\ carri\\è\\;re\\ ouverte\\ aux\\ talents\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(a\\ career\\ open\\ to\\ talent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ equal\\ under\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ individual\\ must\\ be\\ regarded\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ right\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ free\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Equality\\ of\\ outcome\\,\\ defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;fair\\ shares\\ for\\ all\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Laws\\ that\\ promote\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ interfere\\ with\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pursuit\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Practical\\ considerations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ what\\ people\\ receive\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ fairness\\,\\ who\\ decides\\ what\\ is\\ fair\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ it\\ even\\ possible\\ to\\ achieve\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Granted\\,\\ life\\ is\\ not\\ fair\\ in\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ income\\,\\ talent\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ nonetheless\\,\\ we\\ as\\ a\\ society\\ benefit\\ from\\ this\\ unfairness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ favor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ laws\\ that\\ grant\\ everyone\\ an\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ to\\ compete\\ in\\ the\\ market\\ for\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;laws\\ that\\ promote\\ one\\ group\\ over\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ context\\,\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ \\(NOT\\ equality\\ of\\ outcomes\\)\\ appropriately\\ respects\\ individual\\ liberty\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ legitimate\\ object\\ of\\ public\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Terminology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Discussion\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ formal\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ and\\ substantive\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ people\\ are\\ treated\\ equally\\ under\\ the\\ law\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ laws\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Substantive\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ people\\ in\\ actuality\\ have\\ equal\\ opportunities\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ affirmative\\ action\\,\\ public\\ education\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claim\\ that\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ threatens\\ individual\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Critique\\ of\\ Social\\ Security\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SS\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ minimal\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ idea\\ for\\ individuals\\ to\\ save\\ during\\ their\\ working\\ years\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ personal\\ liberty\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ set\\ aside\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ their\\ earnings\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ retirement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saving\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ volition\\,\\ NOT\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Hayek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Liberty\\ includes\\ equality\\ of\\ general\\ rules\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ conduct\\;\\ to\\ legislate\\ beyond\\ this\\ violates\\ individual\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ different\\,\\ if\\ we\\ treat\\ them\\ equally\\,\\ it\\ will\\ inevitable\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ unequal\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ ensure\\ equality\\ of\\ result\\ is\\ to\\ treat\\ individuals\\ differently\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unequally\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ what\\ emerges\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ material\\ equality\\ and\\ equality\\ before\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\On\\ Distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Unjust\\ to\\ impose\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ distribution\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ upon\\ preconceived\\ notions\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\,\\ ought\\ to\\ consider\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moral\\ merit\\,\\ and\\ make\\ transfers\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ deserving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Permissible\\ for\\ an\\ individual\\ to\\ acquire\\ additional\\ talents\\ to\\ obtain\\ more\\ valuable\\ things\\ because\\ these\\ talents\\ benefit\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ achieve\\ an\\ equal\\ distribution\\ of\\ goods\\ without\\ interfering\\ with\\ voluntary\\ exchanges\\ and\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ disconnect\\ between\\ value\\ and\\ merit\\ in\\ a\\ free\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Material\\ rewards\\ to\\ not\\ necessarily\\ correlate\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ conceive\\ of\\ as\\ merit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\On\\ Family\\,\\ Inheritance\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ proponents\\ of\\ redistribution\\ complain\\ that\\ individuals\\ born\\ to\\ particular\\ families\\ possess\\ certain\\ advantages\\,\\ but\\ these\\ same\\ people\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ use\\ qualities\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ acquires\\ due\\ to\\ innate\\ talent\\ are\\ socially\\ beneficial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ those\\ useful\\ qualities\\ due\\ to\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ familial\\ background\\ are\\ treated\\ differently\\ from\\ those\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ natural\\ talents\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarly\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ disadvantage\\ to\\ society\\ of\\ some\\ being\\ born\\ to\\ wealthy\\ families\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ to\\ encourage\\ parents\\ to\\ endow\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\ with\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\ \\(morals\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ knowledge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wealth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enforcing\\ equality\\ of\\ education\\ prevents\\ some\\ children\\ from\\ getting\\ the\\ better\\ education\\ they\\ otherwise\\ might\\ have\\ received\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tanuj\\ Parikh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;political\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ right\\ of\\ making\\ laws\\ with\\ penalties\\ of\\ death\\,\\ and\\ consequently\\ all\\ less\\ penalties\\,\\ for\\ the\\ regulating\\ and\\ preserving\\ of\\ property\\,\\ and\\ of\\ employing\\ the\\ common\\-wealth\\ from\\ foreign\\ injury\\;\\ and\\ all\\ this\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ public\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ to\\ understand\\ political\\ power\\ properly\\,\\ we\\ must\\ first\\ consider\\ what\\ state\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ naturally\\ in\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ state\\ of\\ perfect\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ state\\ of\\ equality\\;\\ all\\ power\\ and\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ reciprocal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ license\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ person\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;destroy\\ himself\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Governed\\ by\\ Law\\ of\\ Nature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reason\\ dictates\\ that\\ everyone\\ being\\ equal\\ means\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ harm\\ another\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ health\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ or\\ possessions\\;\\ also\\,\\ since\\ rights\\ are\\ unalienable\\,\\ I\\ cannot\\ harm\\ myself\\ \\(violate\\ my\\ own\\ rights\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ reason\\ to\\ impinge\\ on\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ is\\ to\\ deliver\\ justice\\ on\\ an\\ offender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ execute\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ upon\\ any\\ offenders\\,\\ but\\ within\\ \\&ldquo\\;calm\\ reason\\ and\\ conscience\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ receive\\ reparation\\ or\\ instill\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ restraint\\ in\\ other\\ potential\\ offenders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Punishment\\ \\=\\ lawfully\\ doing\\ harm\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ defends\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ argument\\ with\\ example\\ about\\ a\\ foreigner\\ being\\ punished\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ \\(\\§\\;\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reparation\\ can\\ be\\ demanded\\ by\\ an\\ injured\\ party\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ just\\ doling\\ out\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ man\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ kill\\ a\\ murderer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transgressors\\ should\\ receive\\ punishments\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ how\\ bad\\ their\\ crime\\ was\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ war\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ force\\ or\\ a\\ declared\\ design\\ of\\ force\\,\\ upon\\ another\\ person\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ common\\ superior\\ on\\ earth\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ for\\ relief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ state\\ of\\ enmity\\ and\\ destruction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ person\\ who\\ attempts\\ to\\ put\\ another\\ man\\ under\\ his\\ absolute\\ power\\ places\\ himself\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anyone\\ who\\ would\\ take\\ away\\ the\\ freedom\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ must\\ be\\ looked\\ on\\ as\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ of\\ war\\ allows\\ you\\ to\\ murder\\ a\\ thief\\ because\\ you\\ two\\ are\\ now\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ actual\\ force\\ is\\ over\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ ends\\ between\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ end\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ is\\ a\\ principle\\ reason\\ men\\ organize\\ into\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ liberty\\ of\\ man\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ from\\ any\\ superior\\ power\\ on\\ earth\\ and\\ have\\ only\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ law\\ to\\ govern\\ his\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ liberty\\ of\\ man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ to\\ be\\ under\\ no\\ legislative\\ power\\,\\ but\\ the\\ one\\ established\\ by\\ consent\\ in\\ the\\ common\\-wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Freedom\\ of\\ men\\ under\\ government\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ common\\ standing\\ rule\\ for\\ everyone\\ to\\ live\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ man\\ cannot\\ enslave\\ himself\\ to\\ another\\ any\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ can\\ take\\ his\\ own\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perfect\\ condition\\ of\\ Slavery\\ \\=\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ continued\\ between\\ a\\ lawful\\ conqueror\\ and\\ captive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ gave\\ land\\ to\\ all\\ men\\ to\\ use\\ in\\ common\\,\\ but\\ also\\ gave\\ them\\ reason\\ to\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ advantage\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ convenience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ everything\\ in\\ nature\\ is\\ given\\ in\\ common\\ to\\ everyone\\,\\ there\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ appropriate\\ them\\ some\\ way\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ beneficial\\ to\\ one\\ specific\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ private\\ property\\ arises\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Everyone\\ owns\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ owns\\ his\\ own\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whatever\\ is\\ mixed\\ with\\ labor\\ becomes\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ one\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ enough\\,\\ and\\ as\\ good\\,\\ left\\ in\\ common\\ for\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Everyone\\ has\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ as\\ much\\ property\\ as\\ he\\ can\\ ascertain\\ without\\ wasting\\ it\\ \\=\\ spoilage\\;\\ God\\ has\\ given\\ us\\ the\\ earth\\ to\\ enjoy\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ we\\ cannot\\ waste\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ anything\\ that\\ is\\ wasted\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ an\\ one\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ share\\ and\\ belongs\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Property\\ in\\ land\\ is\\ established\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ has\\ claim\\ to\\ as\\ much\\ land\\ as\\ one\\ tills\\,\\ plants\\,\\ improves\\,\\ cultivates\\,\\ and\\ can\\ use\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ \\(\\§\\;\\ 32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Money\\ is\\ a\\ lasting\\ thing\\ people\\ can\\ keep\\ without\\ spoiling\\,\\ and\\ that\\ by\\ mutual\\ consent\\ people\\ would\\ take\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ truly\\ useful\\,\\ but\\ perishable\\ supports\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Money\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ fairly\\ possess\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ himself\\ can\\ use\\ the\\ product\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Man\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ inclinations\\ from\\ God\\ to\\ form\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ society\\ was\\ between\\ man\\ and\\ wife\\ \\(conjugal\\ society\\)\\,\\ then\\ parent\\ and\\ children\\,\\ then\\ master\\ and\\ servant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ cannot\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ any\\ part\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Political\\ society\\ arises\\ from\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ preserve\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Those\\ in\\ a\\ civil\\ society\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ united\\ together\\ and\\ have\\ established\\ common\\ law\\ and\\ judicature\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\,\\ with\\ authority\\ to\\ decide\\ controversies\\ and\\ punish\\ offenders\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Power\\ of\\ making\\ laws\\ \\=\\ common\\-wealth\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ regulate\\ what\\ punishment\\ shall\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ each\\ transgression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Power\\ of\\ war\\ and\\ peace\\ \\=\\ power\\ to\\ punish\\ any\\ injury\\ done\\ unto\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ common\\-wealth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Legislative\\ and\\ executive\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ society\\ \\=\\ judge\\ by\\ the\\ standing\\ laws\\,\\ how\\ far\\ offenses\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\ when\\ committed\\ within\\ the\\ commonwealth\\ and\\ to\\ decide\\ how\\ far\\ injuries\\ from\\ without\\ are\\ to\\ vindicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Political\\ \\/\\ civil\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ everyone\\ is\\ united\\ as\\ to\\ quit\\ every\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ executive\\ powers\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ resign\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ public\\;\\ this\\ moves\\ men\\ from\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ into\\ a\\ commonwealth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ absolute\\ monarchy\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ civil\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ man\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\ may\\ be\\ exempted\\ from\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shaina\\ Trotta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Locke\\ \\-\\ Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 9\\,\\ 10\\,\\ 11\\,\\ 18\\,\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Ends\\ of\\ Political\\ Society\\ and\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ their\\ freedom\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ society\\ is\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ their\\ lives\\,\\ liberties\\,\\ and\\ estates\\,\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;property\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ protected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Men\\ enter\\ into\\ society\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ certain\\ things\\ that\\ will\\ allow\\ their\\ property\\ to\\ be\\ protected\\,\\ but\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ they\\ must\\ relinquish\\ their\\ natural\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ society\\,\\ men\\ are\\ provided\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ established\\,\\ settled\\,\\ known\\ law\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ known\\ and\\ indifferent\\ judge\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;power\\ to\\ back\\ and\\ support\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Society\\ uses\\ these\\ three\\ elements\\ to\\ work\\ towards\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ maintaining\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ peace\\,\\ safety\\,\\ and\\ public\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Men\\ must\\ in\\ exchange\\ transfer\\ their\\ two\\ main\\ powers\\ to\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ to\\ do\\ whatever\\ he\\ wants\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ impose\\ on\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ freedom\\ is\\ given\\ up\\ to\\ be\\ regulated\\ by\\ laws\\ made\\ by\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ to\\ punish\\ those\\ who\\ commit\\ crimes\\ against\\ him\\ is\\ given\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Forms\\ of\\ a\\ Common\\-wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ initially\\ forming\\ a\\ society\\,\\ the\\ majority\\ selects\\ what\\ type\\ of\\ government\\ they\\ would\\ prefer\\ to\\ be\\ governed\\ by\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ democracy\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ retain\\ legislative\\ powers\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ oligarchy\\ requires\\ them\\ to\\ submit\\ their\\ legislative\\ power\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ monarchy\\ requires\\ them\\ to\\ give\\ their\\ power\\ to\\ one\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ majority\\ always\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ change\\ whatever\\ type\\ of\\ government\\ is\\ selected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ term\\ commonwealth\\,\\ Locke\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ to\\ exist\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Extent\\ of\\ the\\ Legislative\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\ considers\\ the\\ legislative\\ power\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ legislative\\ power\\ is\\ in\\ place\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ laws\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ and\\ approved\\ of\\ by\\ this\\ legislative\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;Every\\ person\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ obey\\ laws\\ made\\ by\\ this\\ legislative\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ is\\ limited\\ in\\ that\\ its\\ laws\\ must\\ apply\\ equally\\ to\\ everyone\\,\\ and\\ be\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ legislative\\ body\\ cannot\\ raise\\ taxes\\ on\\ the\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\,\\ transfer\\ its\\ power\\ to\\ anyone\\ else\\,\\ or\\ oppose\\ the\\ majority\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 18\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ Tyranny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ tyranny\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ exercise\\ of\\ power\\ beyond\\ right\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ fair\\ ruler\\ will\\ always\\ operate\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ tyrannical\\ ruler\\ breaks\\ the\\ laws\\ and\\ acts\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ purposes\\.\\ \\ \\;Any\\ executive\\ power\\ that\\ no\\ longer\\ works\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ is\\ a\\ tyranny\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ there\\ are\\ reasons\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ quickly\\ oppose\\ their\\ tyrannical\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ some\\ countries\\,\\ the\\ monarch\\ himself\\ is\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ sacred\\ and\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ he\\ does\\,\\ he\\ is\\ still\\ free\\ from\\ question\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ people\\ may\\ also\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ laws\\ will\\ prevent\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ force\\ or\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ afraid\\ that\\ their\\ attempt\\ at\\ removing\\ their\\ government\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ successful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 19\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Dissolution\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ can\\ be\\ dissolved\\ when\\ a\\ foreign\\ power\\ invades\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ able\\ to\\ remain\\ as\\ one\\ whole\\ and\\ independent\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ a\\ government\\ no\\ longer\\ works\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ dissolved\\ and\\ then\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ dissolved\\,\\ the\\ people\\ can\\ then\\ create\\ a\\ legislative\\ body\\ that\\ works\\ for\\ their\\ benefit\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allowance\\ does\\ not\\ lead\\ to\\ government\\ constantly\\ being\\ overthrown\\ because\\ people\\ are\\ reluctant\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ ways\\,\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ mistreated\\ they\\ will\\ rebel\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ system\\ is\\ in\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ system\\ allows\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ legislative\\ body\\ without\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;Locke\\ also\\ states\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ rebel\\ against\\ oppression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ get\\ to\\ decide\\ if\\ a\\ leader\\ has\\ abused\\ his\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ society\\ is\\ still\\ in\\ place\\,\\ the\\ powers\\ given\\ to\\ it\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ cannot\\ be\\ taken\\ back\\,\\ and\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ government\\ exists\\,\\ the\\ power\\ given\\ to\\ it\\ by\\ the\\ society\\ cannot\\ be\\ taken\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ government\\ or\\ society\\ must\\ be\\ completely\\ dissolved\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ new\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ben\\ Milder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\:\\ Section\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\All\\ Kant\\ does\\ is\\ basically\\ state\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ takes\\ you\\ through\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ case\\ studies\\ and\\ examples\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ help\\ you\\ better\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ is\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ Kant\\ is\\ NOT\\ doing\\ is\\ proving\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\.\\ We\\ just\\ use\\ common\\ thinking\\ about\\ morality\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ what\\ this\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\ starts\\ out\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ concept\\ of\\ good\\ will\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ will\\ is\\ good\\ just\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ will\\ Kant\\ is\\ describing\\ is\\ self\\-contained\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ utilitarian\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ larger\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;Utilitarian\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ good\\ will\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ is\\ the\\ outcome\\ \\(consequentiality\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Kant\\ that\\ says\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ is\\ your\\ motivation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ unsuccessful\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ thought\\ that\\ counts\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ theory\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\deontological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ moral\\ actions\\ is\\ duty\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ Action\\ Motivations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Duty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ action\\ done\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inclination\\ to\\ achieve\\ an\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Action\\ done\\ because\\ you\\ like\\ doing\\ good\\ deeds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Action\\ done\\ because\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\ or\\ harmed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Special\\ case\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doing\\ good\\ because\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ incentive\\ to\\ do\\ bad\\ \\(no\\ moral\\ judgment\\ made\\)\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ right\\ actions\\ must\\ be\\ performed\\ according\\ to\\ duty\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ a\\ special\\ value\\ that\\ actions\\ from\\ other\\ motivations\\ do\\ not\\ have\\;\\ only\\ type\\ one\\ is\\ moral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ shopkeeper\\ acting\\ fairly\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ reputation\\ is\\ not\\ acting\\ morally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Altruists\\,\\ who\\ act\\ not\\ out\\ of\\ duty\\ but\\ sympathy\\,\\ have\\ no\\ moral\\ worth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ duty\\ is\\ operative\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ misanthrope\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ that\\ person\\ helps\\ other\\ people\\,\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ duty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moral\\ worth\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ of\\ duty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\ Section\\:\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Goals\\ of\\ Second\\ Section\\:\\ show\\ why\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ is\\ supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\,\\ and\\ determining\\ whether\\ it\\ applies\\ to\\ rational\\ beings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ Types\\ of\\ Imperatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Hypothetical\\ imperatives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ use\\ instrumental\\ reason\\.\\ \\ \\;IF\\ you\\ want\\ X\\,\\ then\\ do\\ Y\\.\\2\\.\\ Categorical\\ imperative\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ without\\ reference\\ to\\ any\\ further\\ purpose\\.\\ \\ \\;Concerned\\ with\\ form\\ and\\ principle\\ which\\ follows\\;\\ imperative\\ of\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ Formula\\ of\\ universal\\ law\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Act\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ maxim\\ \\(principle\\)\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ will\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ way\\ you\\ can\\ determine\\ is\\ try\\ to\\ universalize\\ the\\ maxim\\ upon\\ which\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ about\\ to\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;Bad\\ maxims\\ would\\ undermine\\ themselves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ we\\ know\\ false\\ promises\\ are\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ you\\ should\\ universalize\\ to\\ test\\ your\\ maxim\\ is\\ to\\ see\\ whether\\ you\\ are\\ privileging\\ your\\ particular\\ needs\\ and\\ desires\\ over\\ everybody\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ you\\ act\\ on\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ laws\\,\\ you\\ have\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;ought\\&rdquo\\;\\ statement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ ought\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ class\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\ says\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ always\\ acted\\ on\\ reason\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;d\\ always\\ act\\ according\\ to\\ objective\\ necessity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ tells\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ something\\,\\ and\\ that\\ thing\\ is\\ objectively\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ we\\ know\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ subject\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ reason\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ desires\\ and\\ inclinations\\ that\\ come\\ out\\ there\\.\\ The\\ moral\\ laws\\ are\\ not\\ objectively\\ necessary\\ for\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Other\\ Formulations\\ of\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\:\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Form\\ of\\ humanity\\ \\(most\\ important\\)\\:\\ I\\ ought\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ will\\ use\\ the\\ humanity\\ in\\ myself\\ and\\ others\\ not\\ merely\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rational\\ beings\\ have\\ dignity\\,\\ worthy\\ of\\ reverence\\ and\\ respect\\.\\ \\ \\;Act\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ you\\ always\\ treat\\ humanity\\,\\ whether\\ in\\ your\\ own\\ person\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ person\\ of\\ any\\ other\\,\\ never\\ simply\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ but\\ always\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ times\\ as\\ an\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ ends\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Humans\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ as\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\ Form\\ \\-\\ People\\ legislate\\ universal\\ law\\ via\\ maxims\\;\\ humans\\ must\\ act\\ as\\ autonomous\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ Kant\\ has\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ autonomous\\ beings\\,\\ which\\ would\\ prove\\ his\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\ applies\\ to\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kant\\ Outline\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\K\\.\\ Sloan\\ Strike\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intent\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grounding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ categorization\\ of\\ rational\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ formal\\ cognition\\:\\ only\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ rational\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ material\\ cognition\\:\\ concerned\\ with\\ some\\ object\\;\\ something\\ beyond\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Within\\ material\\ cognition\\,\\ there\\ are\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ freedom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ of\\ these\\ have\\ pure\\ and\\ empirical\\ parts\\.\\ Pure\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ reason\\ alone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\ priori\\)\\,\\ while\\ empirical\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ experience\\ \\(a\\ posteriori\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ for\\ us\\ act\\ morally\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ acting\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ law\\,\\ understanding\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ acting\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ we\\ are\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ acting\\ out\\ of\\ conformity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Our\\ actions\\ are\\ not\\ truly\\ moral\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ done\\ without\\ a\\ moral\\ motivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ moral\\ law\\ is\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ free\\ will\\ \\(with\\ what\\ one\\ ought\\ to\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ metaphysics\\ of\\ morals\\ goes\\ beyond\\ the\\ empirical\\ part\\&hellip\\;\\ it\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\.\\ His\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grounding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ foundation\\ for\\ his\\ future\\ work\\ \\(Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\)\\ by\\ defining\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Third\\ Section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ order\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ Kant\\ must\\ now\\ show\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ autonomous\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ must\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ rational\\ beings\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ autonomous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-We\\ are\\ always\\ caught\\ between\\ two\\ realms\\/worlds\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Phenomenal\\ \\(sensible\\)\\-\\ We\\ are\\ objects\\ in\\ this\\ realm\\,\\ as\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ imperatives\\ that\\ nature\\ gives\\ us\\.\\ We\\ are\\ trapped\\ by\\ our\\ senses\\/pain\\ and\\ pleasure\\ \\(we\\ eat\\ because\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ hungry\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ We\\ are\\ not\\ acting\\ autonomously\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ being\\ influenced\\ by\\ outside\\ forces\\.\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exists\\ solely\\ in\\ this\\ realm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Noumenal\\ \\(intelligible\\)\\-\\ We\\ are\\ subjects\\ rather\\ than\\ objects\\ in\\ this\\ intelligible\\ realm\\.\\ We\\ act\\ according\\ to\\ laws\\ that\\ we\\ give\\ ourselves\\,\\ and\\ act\\ autonomously\\ and\\ rationally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ says\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ both\\ realms\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ good\\ decision\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ both\\ worlds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ order\\ to\\ act\\ rationally\\ and\\ autonomously\\,\\ we\\ must\\ exist\\,\\ at\\ least\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\,\\ within\\ the\\ noumenal\\ world\\.\\ However\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ only\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ noumenal\\ world\\ and\\ ignore\\ the\\ phenomenal\\ completely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Our\\ freedom\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ our\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\&hellip\\;\\ if\\ we\\ existed\\ exclusively\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\,\\ then\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ completely\\ free\\ and\\ autonomous\\ beings\\,\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ existed\\ exclusively\\ in\\ the\\ sensible\\ world\\,\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ cause\\ and\\ effect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Our\\ freedom\\ is\\ a\\ priori\\ because\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ us\\ by\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capable\\ of\\ existing\\ solely\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\,\\ as\\ we\\ must\\ continue\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ sensible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-However\\,\\ he\\ admits\\ that\\ he\\ cannot\\ absolutely\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ existing\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ is\\ no\\ way\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\know\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ we\\ are\\ rational\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ autonomous\\ and\\ recognize\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ act\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ a\\ Supposed\\ Right\\ to\\ Lie\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ response\\ to\\ critics\\ of\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ Kant\\ addresses\\ a\\ tough\\ situation\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ prove\\ his\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ following\\ situation\\ is\\ proposed\\:\\ A\\ murderer\\ comes\\ to\\ your\\ door\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ yours\\,\\ who\\ he\\ means\\ to\\ kill\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ friend\\ is\\ hiding\\ in\\ your\\ house\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ lie\\ to\\ the\\ murderer\\ and\\ save\\ your\\ friend\\,\\ or\\ do\\ you\\ tell\\ the\\ truth\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Some\\ people\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ murderer\\ is\\ not\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ so\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ deserve\\ the\\ truth\\ and\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ act\\ accordingly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ says\\ that\\ to\\ most\\ people\\ the\\ issue\\ is\\ not\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ murderer\\ deserves\\ the\\ truth\\.\\ What\\ is\\ considered\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ happen\\ to\\ their\\ friend\\ \\(consequentialist\\ mentality\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ because\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ stepping\\ outside\\ your\\ moral\\ boundaries\\ \\(by\\ lying\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ save\\ your\\ friend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\,\\ losing\\ your\\ autonomy\\,\\ is\\ more\\ tragic\\ than\\ your\\ friend\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ says\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ be\\ truthful\\ \\(honest\\)\\ in\\ all\\ declarations\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ is\\ a\\ sacred\\ and\\ absolutely\\ commanding\\ decree\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ limited\\ by\\ no\\ expediency\\,\\"\\;\\ including\\ human\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ does\\ say\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ save\\ your\\ friend\\ without\\ abandoning\\ your\\ morals\\/autonomy\\.\\ You\\ can\\ say\\ something\\ true\\ that\\ the\\ murderer\\ might\\ interpret\\ differently\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ lying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ key\\ is\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ without\\ the\\ intent\\ to\\ mislead\\,\\ because\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ immoral\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ must\\ choose\\ your\\ truth\\ carefully\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Critics\\ say\\ that\\ creative\\ truth\\ telling\\ is\\ no\\ different\\ than\\ lying\\ because\\ they\\ both\\ mislead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ moral\\ difference\\ between\\ lying\\ and\\ telling\\ a\\ truth\\ that\\ misleads\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ consequences\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Lectures\\ on\\ Ethics\\:\\ Duties\\ Towards\\ the\\ Body\\ in\\ Respect\\ to\\ Sexual\\ Impulse\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kant\\ begins\\ by\\ explaining\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ human\\ love\\ and\\ a\\ love\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ purely\\ of\\ sexual\\ desire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ desire\\ used\\ without\\ love\\ is\\ immoral\\ because\\ it\\ treats\\ someone\\ else\\ as\\ an\\ object\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ argues\\ that\\ sexuality\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ inclination\\ that\\ one\\ person\\ has\\ for\\ another\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ inclination\\ that\\ one\\ has\\ for\\ the\\ sex\\ of\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ sacrificed\\ to\\ pure\\ sexual\\ desire\\.\\ This\\ makes\\ man\\ an\\ animal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ desire\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ man\\ has\\ by\\ nature\\,\\ so\\ should\\ it\\ be\\ alright\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ exploit\\ that\\/is\\ prostitution\\ wrong\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ argue\\ that\\ prostitution\\ is\\ wrong\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ consequences\\ that\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ practice\\,\\ but\\ Kant\\ is\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ consequences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\,\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ prostitution\\ is\\ wrong\\ because\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ own\\ ourselves\\.\\ Because\\ prostitution\\ makes\\ you\\ an\\ object\\,\\ it\\ puts\\ your\\ humanity\\ at\\ risks\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ your\\ status\\ as\\ an\\ autonomous\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ human\\ body\\ is\\ not\\ separable\\ from\\ the\\ self\\/\\ the\\ autonomous\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ to\\ surrender\\ part\\ of\\ yourself\\ is\\ to\\ surrender\\ all\\ of\\ yourself\\,\\ as\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ being\\ is\\ unity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ says\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ marriage\\ is\\ different\\ because\\ you\\ surrender\\ all\\ of\\ yourself\\ to\\ your\\ spouse\\ and\\ they\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ \\ \\;\\(zero\\ sum\\)\\,\\ so\\ each\\ wins\\ themselves\\ back\\ No\\ one\\ is\\ being\\ taken\\ advantage\\ of\\ or\\ being\\ treated\\ as\\ an\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ within\\ this\\ union\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ is\\ sex\\ morally\\ permissible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ a\\ man\\ is\\ married\\ to\\ multiple\\ women\\?\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ polygamy\\ is\\ not\\ moral\\ because\\ the\\ exchange\\ is\\ not\\ equal\\.\\ A\\ man\\ surrendering\\ himself\\ to\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ woman\\ means\\ that\\ each\\ woman\\ gains\\ less\\ than\\ she\\ is\\ yielding\\.\\ She\\ should\\ be\\ entitled\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ spouse\\ if\\ she\\ is\\ surrendering\\ all\\ of\\ herself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 7\\,\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ II\\:\\ Institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 4\\ \\(Equal\\ Liberty\\)\\ Sec\\.\\ 40\\:\\ Kantian\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Justice\\ as\\ Fairness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Some\\ of\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ principles\\ come\\ from\\ Kant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morality\\ from\\ rational\\ choice\\,\\ people\\ should\\ still\\ be\\ acting\\ autonomously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\-\\ principles\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ acceptable\\ to\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Original\\ position\\-\\ how\\ Rawls\\ conceives\\ the\\ moral\\ legislation\\ in\\ which\\ Kantian\\ society\\ must\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principles\\ of\\ justice\\ \\=\\ categorical\\ imperatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autonomy\\ from\\ men\\ acting\\ freely\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ acknowledge\\ original\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kantian\\ Interpretation\\-\\ not\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doctrine\\,\\ but\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ fairness\\,\\ abandons\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dualisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 5\\ \\(Distributive\\ Shares\\)\\ Sec\\.\\ 41\\:\\ The\\ Concept\\ of\\ Justice\\ in\\ a\\ Political\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ how\\ the\\ 2\\ principles\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ social\\ system\\ helps\\ to\\ shape\\ the\\ desires\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\,\\ including\\ economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contract\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\ imposes\\ limits\\ on\\ the\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\-\\ puts\\ constraints\\ on\\ some\\ institutions\\ and\\ requires\\ some\\ other\\ ones\\ to\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ as\\ fairness\\ not\\ dependent\\ on\\ current\\ wants\\ and\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ advances\\ in\\ an\\ authoritarian\\ institution\\ at\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ basic\\ freedom\\ are\\ not\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unanimity\\ possible\\ through\\ original\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ Sec\\ 47\\:\\ Precepts\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Transfers\\ and\\ benefits\\ from\\ public\\ goods\\ should\\ overall\\ benefit\\ least\\ well\\ off\\ while\\ maintaining\\ equal\\ liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distributive\\ justice\\-\\ contains\\ lots\\ of\\ procedural\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distributions\\ not\\ made\\ according\\ to\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ wants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ fair\\ wages\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Using\\ Common\\ sense\\ precepts\\,\\ somewhat\\ arbitrary\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ concurrently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ each\\ according\\ to\\ his\\ contribution\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ each\\ according\\ to\\ his\\ effort\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subordinate\\ to\\ first\\ principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Which\\ ones\\ are\\ valued\\ the\\ most\\ depends\\ on\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 48\\:\\ Legitimate\\ Expectations\\ and\\ Moral\\ Desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tendency\\ to\\ want\\ distributions\\ to\\ be\\ according\\ to\\ moral\\ desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ to\\ distinguish\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\ from\\ moral\\ desert\\,\\ in\\ just\\ scheme\\,\\ only\\ get\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concept\\ of\\ moral\\ worth\\ secondary\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ game\\,\\ the\\ losers\\ may\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\deserve\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ win\\,\\ but\\ not\\ entitled\\ to\\ championship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unequal\\ distributions\\ help\\ cover\\ costs\\ of\\ training\\,\\ attract\\ people\\ to\\ needed\\ positions\\ in\\ a\\ just\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Part\\ III\\:\\ Ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Ch\\.\\ 7\\ \\(Goodness\\ as\\ Rationality\\)\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 68\\:\\ Several\\ Contrasts\\ between\\ the\\ Right\\ and\\ the\\ Good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Compares\\ right\\ and\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ good\\-\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ unanimity\\ in\\ rational\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Within\\ justice\\ constraints\\,\\ people\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ follow\\ inclinations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ one\\ person\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ for\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\:\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ good\\:\\ evaluation\\ may\\ depend\\ on\\ needing\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ facts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ and\\ making\\ just\\ institutions\\ not\\ dependent\\ on\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\ \\(The\\ Good\\ of\\ Justice\\)\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 79\\:\\ The\\ Ideal\\ of\\ Social\\ Union\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ two\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ give\\ a\\ reference\\ point\\ for\\ evaluating\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Private\\ society\\:\\ each\\ has\\ own\\ end\\,\\ institutions\\ have\\ no\\ inherent\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ w\\/private\\ \\=\\ each\\ person\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ everything\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ must\\ choose\\ which\\ abilities\\ to\\ encourage\\,\\ work\\ together\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ connected\\ through\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ every\\ animal\\ achieves\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ similar\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ social\\ union\\ has\\ a\\ shared\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Regulated\\ by\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ well\\-ordered\\ society\\ \\=\\ one\\ that\\ follows\\ justice\\ as\\ fairness\\ \\(social\\ union\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ person\\ following\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ like\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ not\\ eliminate\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ achieve\\ more\\ working\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 84\\:\\ Hedonism\\ as\\ a\\ Method\\ of\\ Choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Hedonism\\:\\ trying\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ dominant\\-end\\ conception\\ of\\ deliberation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ human\\ life\\ guided\\ by\\ reason\\,\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ dominant\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pleasure\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ only\\ plausible\\ dominant\\ end\\,\\ basically\\ like\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ pleasure\\ is\\ not\\ actually\\ a\\ plausible\\ dominant\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ decide\\ when\\ pleasures\\ conflict\\?\\ Problem\\ of\\ plurality\\ of\\ ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ dominant\\ end\\ that\\ coincides\\ with\\ our\\ judgments\\ of\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teleological\\ doctrines\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 85\\:\\ The\\ Unity\\ of\\ the\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Need\\ a\\ solution\\ to\\ problem\\ of\\ choice\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ hedonism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ personality\\ has\\ 2\\ capacities\\:\\ conception\\ of\\ good\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ dominant\\-end\\ conception\\:\\ pleasure\\ of\\ self\\ or\\ of\\ group\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ maximized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ priority\\ of\\ right\\:\\ individuals\\ can\\ and\\ do\\ choose\\ their\\ final\\ ends\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\-\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ uniquely\\ determined\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 86\\:\\ The\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ Sense\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sense\\ of\\ Justice\\ \\=\\ an\\ effective\\ desire\\ to\\ apply\\ and\\ act\\ from\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ in\\ a\\ well\\-ordered\\ society\\ should\\ want\\ to\\ affirm\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ only\\ shift\\ human\\ desires\\ gradually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ well\\-ordered\\ society\\,\\ bonds\\ between\\ people\\ extend\\ widely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ should\\ want\\ to\\ act\\ justly\\ as\\ free\\ and\\ rational\\ beings\\ \\(Kantian\\ interpretation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ wanting\\ to\\ preserve\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ rational\\,\\ still\\ can\\ suffer\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ may\\ not\\ consider\\ an\\ affirmation\\ of\\ their\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ a\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ just\\ to\\ force\\ these\\ people\\ to\\ comply\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yes\\,\\ since\\ principles\\ of\\ right\\ and\\ justice\\ are\\ collectively\\ rational\\,\\ interest\\ of\\ each\\ that\\ everyone\\ else\\ complies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ agree\\ to\\ penalties\\ for\\ not\\ complying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 87\\:\\ Concluding\\ Remarks\\ of\\ Justification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basically\\ a\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ arguments\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aristotle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Book\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Teleological\\ v\\.\\ Deontological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;telos\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;end\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;result\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\teleological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ morality\\ based\\ on\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ is\\ right\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;deon\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;obligation\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\deontological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ morality\\ based\\ on\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ is\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ from\\ last\\ 2002\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exam\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;2\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;When\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ flute\\-players\\ are\\ equal\\ in\\ their\\ art\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reason\\ why\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\those\\ of\\ them\\ who\\ are\\ better\\ born\\ should\\ have\\ better\\ flutes\\ given\\ to\\ them\\;\\ for\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ play\\ any\\ better\\ on\\ the\\ flute\\,\\ and\\ the\\ superior\\ instrument\\ should\\ be\\ reserved\\ for\\ him\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ superior\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(Aristotle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1282b\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\,\\ should\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-players\\ receive\\ the\\ best\\ flutes\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\ does\\ Aristotle\\ apply\\ this\\ theory\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ to\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ offices\\,\\ honors\\,\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;utilitarian\\!\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ pleasing\\ music\\ will\\ be\\ heard\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ flute\\ to\\ be\\ played\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;telos\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ flute\\ is\\ be\\ played\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Telos\\ of\\ Humans\\:\\ Man\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Nature\\:\\&ldquo\\;all\\ things\\ derive\\ their\\ essential\\ character\\ from\\ their\\ function\\ and\\ capacity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ individual\\ is\\ not\\ self\\-sufficient\\ when\\ isolated\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\therefore\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ city\\ exists\\ by\\ nature\\ and\\&hellip\\;is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;polis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Men\\ have\\ a\\ capacity\\ for\\ language\\ and\\ rationale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Naturally\\,\\ therefore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ telos\\ of\\ man\\ involves\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ these\\ capacities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;rationale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;polis\\ \\+\\ rationale\\ \\=\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\ on\\ politics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;United\\ States\\:\\ fair\\ framework\\ of\\ rights\\ with\\ no\\ determinate\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;opportunity\\ to\\ choose\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Aristotle\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;laws\\ meant\\ to\\ cultivate\\ good\\ character\\ in\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ is\\ already\\ determined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;dependent\\ on\\ class\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Modern\\ constitutions\\ v\\.\\ Ancient\\ constitutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Class\\ structure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Polis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Good\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ male\\ is\\ naturally\\ fitter\\ to\\ command\\ than\\ the\\ female\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ principle\\ of\\ rule\\ and\\ subordination\\ in\\ nature\\ at\\ large\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Some\\ men\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ give\\ direction\\ and\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ thus\\ clear\\ that\\,\\ just\\ as\\ some\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ free\\,\\ so\\ others\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ these\\ latter\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ slavery\\ is\\ both\\ beneficial\\ and\\ just\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Polis\\ is\\ then\\ a\\ collaboration\\ of\\ slaves\\ and\\ masters\\,\\ tradesmen\\ and\\ merchants\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\foreigners\\ and\\ aristocracy\\,\\ whose\\ ultimate\\ telos\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Book\\ III\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Preview\\:\\ good\\ life\\-\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;aristoi\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;best\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ allowed\\ the\\ leisure\\ to\\ engage\\ their\\ higher\\ faculties\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lesser\\ Point\\ of\\ Book\\ I\\:\\ 8\\,9\\:\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ household\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ providing\\ that\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ good\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ amount\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ finite\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\however\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ introduction\\ of\\ currency\\ coupled\\ with\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ physical\\ enjoyment\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;which\\ seems\\ to\\ rest\\ on\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ acquisition\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;has\\ led\\ men\\ to\\ occupy\\ themselves\\ wholly\\ with\\ making\\ money\\ \\(1257b\\~50\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\ better\\ highlights\\ what\\ Aristotle\\ was\\ getting\\ at\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ II\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;moral\\ virtue\\ comes\\ about\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ habit\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\none\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ virtues\\ arises\\ in\\ us\\ by\\ nature\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ adapted\\ by\\ nature\\ to\\ receive\\ them\\,\\ and\\ are\\ made\\ perfect\\ by\\ habit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\becoming\\ just\\ or\\ unjust\\,\\ brave\\ or\\ cowardly\\,\\ moderate\\ or\\ excessive\\ is\\ an\\ exercise\\ of\\ habit\\,\\ and\\ as\\ an\\ issue\\ of\\ habit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;it\\ is\\ easier\\ for\\ the\\ just\\,\\ brave\\,\\ and\\ temperate\\ to\\ remain\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ products\\ of\\ our\\ upbringing\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;brought\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ way\\ from\\ our\\ very\\ youth\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;legislators\\ make\\ the\\ citizens\\ good\\ by\\ forming\\ habits\\ in\\ them\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ this\\ that\\ a\\ good\\ constitution\\ differs\\ from\\ a\\ bad\\ one\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ X\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Is\\ Pleasure\\ Good\\ or\\ Bad\\ or\\ What\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Some\\ people\\ say\\ pleasure\\ is\\ good\\ and\\ all\\ thing\\ aim\\ toward\\ it\\ \\(Eudoxus\\)\\ and\\ others\\ say\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ good\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ pleasure\\&hellip\\;for\\ the\\ good\\ cannot\\ become\\ more\\ desirable\\ by\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ anything\\ to\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Plato\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ same\\ proportion\\ is\\ not\\ found\\ in\\ all\\ things\\,\\ nor\\ a\\ single\\ proportion\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ but\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ relaxed\\ and\\ yet\\ persist\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ point\\,\\ and\\ it\\ may\\ differ\\ in\\ degree\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ case\\ of\\ pleasure\\ also\\ may\\ therefore\\ be\\ of\\ this\\ kind\\&hellip\\;They\\ say\\,\\ too\\,\\ that\\ pain\\ is\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ according\\ to\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ pleasure\\ is\\ replenishment\\.\\ But\\ these\\ experiences\\ are\\ bodily\\&hellip\\;for\\ pleasures\\ of\\ learning\\ and\\,\\ among\\ the\\ sensuous\\ pleasures\\,\\ those\\ of\\ smell\\,\\ and\\ also\\ many\\ sounds\\ and\\ sights\\,\\ and\\ memories\\ and\\ hopes\\,\\ do\\ not\\ presuppose\\ pain\\&hellip\\;if\\ things\\ are\\ pleasant\\ to\\ people\\ of\\ vicious\\ constitution\\,\\ we\\ must\\ not\\ suppose\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ pleasant\\ to\\ others\\ than\\ these\\,\\ just\\ as\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ reason\\ so\\ about\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ wholesome\\ or\\ sweet\\ or\\ bitter\\ to\\ sick\\ people\\&hellip\\;there\\ are\\ many\\ things\\ we\\ should\\ bre\\ keen\\ about\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ brought\\ no\\ pleasure\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ seeing\\,\\ remembering\\,\\ knowing\\,\\ possessing\\ the\\ virtues\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ pleasures\\ necessarily\\ do\\ accompany\\ these\\,\\ that\\ makes\\ no\\ odds\\;\\ we\\ should\\ choose\\ these\\ even\\ if\\ no\\ pleasure\\ resulted\\&hellip\\;neither\\ is\\ pleasure\\ the\\ good\\ nor\\ is\\ all\\ pleasure\\ desirable\\,\\ and\\ that\\ some\\ pleasures\\ are\\ desirable\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ differing\\ in\\ kind\\ or\\ in\\ their\\ sources\\ from\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ayla\\ Bloomberg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Aristotle\\ Book\\ III\\ Outline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ city\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ city\\ is\\ a\\ body\\ of\\ citizens\\ organized\\ by\\ a\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Who\\ is\\ a\\ citizen\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Citizenship\\ is\\ not\\ granted\\ only\\ to\\ someone\\ residing\\ in\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ citizen\\ is\\ one\\ who\\ participates\\ directly\\ in\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ positions\\ should\\ be\\ rotated\\ and\\ some\\ should\\ have\\ limited\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ constitution\\ defines\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ citizen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Citizenship\\ is\\ not\\ passed\\ down\\ through\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regardless\\ of\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\,\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ citizen\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ hold\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ city\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Territory\\ and\\ population\\ of\\ a\\ city\\ do\\ not\\ define\\ the\\ city\\ because\\ these\\ things\\ may\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ city\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ its\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ its\\ composition\\ is\\ different\\,\\ the\\ compound\\ becomes\\ a\\ different\\ compound\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 1276b1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Citizens\\ differ\\ from\\ one\\ another\\ in\\ virtue\\,\\ but\\ their\\ purpose\\/role\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ the\\ same\\-\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ their\\ association\\ which\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ constitution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ thus\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ citizen\\ without\\ possessing\\ the\\ excellence\\ by\\ which\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 4\\,\\ 1276b34\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ good\\ ruler\\ and\\ a\\ good\\ man\\ is\\ practical\\ wisdom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Occupations\\ of\\ manual\\ laborers\\ must\\ remain\\ separate\\ from\\ tasks\\ performed\\ by\\ the\\ good\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ citizen\\ is\\ free\\ from\\ the\\ necessary\\ tasks\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ ruler\\ must\\ learn\\ by\\ being\\ ruled\\ and\\ the\\ excellence\\ of\\ a\\ citizen\\ involves\\ having\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ rule\\ over\\ free\\ men\\ from\\ both\\ points\\ of\\ view\\ \\[ruling\\ and\\ being\\ ruled\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 4\\,\\ 1277b7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ manual\\ laborers\\ be\\ citizens\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ citizen\\ of\\ excellence\\&hellip\\;can\\ only\\ be\\ achieved\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ free\\ from\\ the\\ necessary\\ tasks\\ of\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 1278a8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ citizen\\ depends\\ in\\ part\\ on\\ the\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ shows\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ several\\ kinds\\ of\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Citizenship\\ is\\ granted\\ if\\ one\\ can\\ serve\\ in\\ offices\\ of\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ a\\ constitution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ constitutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ organization\\ of\\ a\\ city\\,\\ in\\ respect\\ of\\ its\\ offices\\ generally\\,\\ but\\ especially\\ in\\ respect\\ of\\ that\\ particular\\ office\\ which\\ is\\ sovereign\\ in\\ all\\ issues\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 6\\,\\ 1278b6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ constitution\\ involves\\ the\\ different\\ branches\\ of\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ chief\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ the\\ good\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Just\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;ts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kingship\\-\\ looks\\ to\\ common\\ interest\\ among\\ monarchial\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aristocracy\\-\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ people\\ seek\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ for\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constitutional\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\(polity\\)\\-\\ masses\\ govern\\ the\\ city\\ with\\ a\\ view\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Unjust\\ forms\\ of\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ benefit\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tyranny\\ \\(perversion\\ of\\ kingship\\)\\-\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ by\\ single\\ person\\ directed\\ to\\ interest\\ of\\ that\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oligarchy\\ \\(perversion\\ of\\ Aristocracy\\)\\-\\ directed\\ to\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ well\\-to\\-do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\ \\(perversion\\ of\\ polity\\)\\-\\ directed\\ to\\ interest\\ of\\ poor\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collaboration\\ on\\ the\\ Constitutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Oligarchy\\-\\ a\\ constitution\\ under\\ which\\ the\\ rich\\,\\ being\\ few\\ in\\ number\\,\\ hold\\ public\\ offices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\-\\ a\\ constitution\\ under\\ which\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ being\\ many\\ in\\ number\\,\\ hold\\ public\\ offices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ and\\ Oligarchial\\ Conceptions\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ means\\ equality\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inequality\\ is\\ just\\,\\ but\\ only\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ unequal\\,\\ not\\ for\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ determine\\ who\\ is\\ equal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ determining\\ factor\\,\\ such\\ as\\ wealth\\,\\ of\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ \\(the\\ telos\\ of\\ the\\ city\\)\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;a\\ city\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ association\\ for\\ residence\\ on\\ a\\ common\\ site\\,\\ or\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ preventing\\ mutual\\ injustice\\ and\\ easy\\ exchange\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 1280b929\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Those\\ who\\ contribute\\ most\\ to\\ this\\ association\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\ to\\ them\\ \\(or\\ even\\ greater\\)\\ in\\ free\\ birth\\ and\\ descent\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 1281a2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ person\\ or\\ body\\ of\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ sovereign\\ in\\ a\\ city\\?\\ \\(I\\.e\\.\\ rich\\,\\ poor\\,\\ one\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ political\\ positions\\ are\\ not\\ rotated\\ then\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ deprived\\ of\\ honor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ person\\ or\\ body\\ of\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ sovereign\\ because\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ is\\ affected\\ by\\ their\\ innate\\ beliefs\\/feelings\\/opinions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ only\\ law\\ should\\ be\\ sovereign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Should\\ the\\ people\\ at\\ large\\ be\\ sovereign\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ men\\ each\\ has\\ his\\ share\\ of\\ goodness\\ and\\ wisdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ should\\ elect\\ officials\\ and\\ examine\\ their\\ conduct\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ their\\ tenure\\ of\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Above\\ all\\,\\ rightly\\ constituted\\ laws\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ final\\ sovereign\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ authority\\ should\\ only\\ apply\\ to\\ cases\\ which\\ cannot\\ be\\ covered\\ by\\ the\\ general\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ what\\ criterion\\ are\\ people\\ considered\\ equal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ end\\ in\\ view\\ is\\ the\\ greatest\\ good\\ and\\ the\\ good\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ to\\ be\\ pursued\\&hellip\\;justice\\ consists\\ in\\ what\\ tends\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 12\\,\\ 1282b14\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ determine\\ who\\ is\\ equal\\ depends\\ on\\ their\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flute\\ player\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;those\\ who\\ are\\ better\\ at\\ the\\ job\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ the\\ better\\ supply\\ of\\ tools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ constitutes\\ a\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ society\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ virtue\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ goodness\\ in\\ matters\\ of\\ common\\ concern\\ and\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ just\\ basis\\ for\\ determining\\ who\\ should\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;equally\\ right\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ city\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\ The\\ citizen\\ is\\,\\ in\\ general\\,\\ one\\ who\\ shares\\ in\\ the\\ civic\\ life\\ of\\ ruling\\ and\\ being\\ ruled\\ in\\ turn\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 13\\,\\ 1283b27\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legislation\\ is\\ limited\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\ in\\ birth\\ and\\ capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ individual\\ far\\ superior\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ made\\ king\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Communitarianism\\:\\ \\ \\;Sandel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Introduction\\ \\-\\ Sandel\\ challenges\\ the\\ deontological\\ liberalism\\ of\\ Kant\\ and\\ Rawls\\,\\ who\\ argue\\ that\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ can\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ established\\ prior\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sociological\\ objection\\ is\\ that\\ neutrality\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ and\\ any\\ conception\\ of\\ right\\ must\\ reflect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\some\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unique\\ conception\\ of\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ Kant\\ says\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ good\\,\\ he\\ is\\ asserting\\ a\\ possible\\ formulation\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ that\\ the\\ individual\\ must\\ come\\ before\\ all\\ other\\ concerns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Humean\\ objection\\ states\\ that\\ a\\ prior\\ and\\ independent\\ self\\ can\\ operate\\ outside\\ of\\ its\\ empirical\\ surroundings\\ in\\ real\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ contrast\\,\\ Rawls\\ places\\ individuals\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ position\\ to\\ determine\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ predicated\\ on\\ human\\ circumstances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Justice\\ and\\ the\\ Moral\\ Subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ original\\ position\\ must\\ either\\ consider\\ some\\ generally\\ accepted\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Sociological\\ objection\\)\\,\\ or\\ must\\ be\\ predicated\\ on\\ arbitrary\\ initial\\ assumptions\\ which\\ render\\ this\\ formulation\\ of\\ justice\\ impractical\\ \\(Humean\\ objection\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Also\\,\\ one\\ cannot\\ derive\\ justice\\ from\\ the\\ original\\ position\\ without\\ considering\\ the\\ self\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ends\\ and\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ separate\\ oneself\\ from\\ societal\\ values\\ and\\ obligations\\ is\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;radically\\ situated\\&rdquo\\;\\ self\\ which\\ is\\ too\\ abstract\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ any\\ practical\\ use\\ in\\ determining\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Conclusion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ We\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ our\\ communities\\ \\(family\\,\\ school\\,\\ country\\,\\ etc\\)\\ and\\ have\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ better\\ these\\ communities\\.\\ \\ \\;Failing\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ and\\ neglecting\\ our\\ attachments\\ implies\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ moral\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ decisions\\ we\\ make\\ are\\ entirely\\ bound\\ up\\ in\\ their\\ impact\\ on\\ these\\ communities\\ because\\ our\\ memberships\\ are\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ by\\ accepting\\ our\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ self\\-understanding\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ our\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ larger\\ societal\\ context\\,\\ we\\ strive\\ to\\ improve\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ that\\ we\\ share\\ with\\ others\\ like\\ ourselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morality\\ and\\ the\\ Liberal\\ Ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Communitarians\\ support\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ and\\ question\\ the\\ liberal\\ claim\\ of\\ the\\ priority\\ of\\ right\\ over\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Kantian\\ defense\\ of\\ liberalism\\ is\\ flawed\\ because\\ we\\ cannot\\ determine\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\acts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ morally\\ permissible\\ without\\ some\\ prior\\ conception\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Individuals\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ their\\ role\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ life\\,\\ not\\ solely\\ as\\ independent\\ moral\\ agents\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ communities\\ have\\ defined\\ our\\ lives\\ so\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ implicated\\ in\\ the\\ purposes\\ and\\ end\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similarly\\,\\ policies\\ must\\ be\\ evaluated\\ on\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ better\\ society\\,\\ not\\ only\\ on\\ their\\ intent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alasdair\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Virtues\\,\\ Unity\\ of\\ Life\\,\\ and\\ Concept\\ of\\ a\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Components\\ of\\ human\\ life\\ usually\\ separated\\ by\\ social\\ sciences\\ and\\ philosophers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-work\\ v\\.\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-public\\ v\\.\\ private\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ separation\\ dilutes\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ who\\ we\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ there\\ cannot\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ sharp\\ separation\\&hellip\\;between\\ the\\ individual\\ or\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ plays\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;a\\ self\\ separated\\ from\\ its\\ roles\\&hellip\\;loses\\ that\\ arena\\ of\\ social\\ relationships\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Aristotelian\\ virtues\\ function\\ if\\ they\\ function\\ at\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Virtue\\ must\\ be\\ demonstrable\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ components\\,\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;comparative\\ advantage\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-bravery\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ is\\ a\\ virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-professional\\ skill\\ is\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Self\\ must\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ constituted\\ largely\\ by\\ narrative\\ or\\ setting\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ situated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-belief\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;concomitant\\ concept\\ of\\ selfhood\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\ whose\\ unity\\ resides\\ in\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ a\\ narrative\\ which\\ links\\ birth\\ to\\ life\\ to\\ death\\ as\\ narrative\\ beginning\\ to\\ middle\\ to\\ end\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ part\\ of\\ self\\ which\\ is\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ narrative\\ transcends\\ both\\ temporal\\ and\\ spatial\\ bounds\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Narrative\\ determines\\ what\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intentions\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-for\\ example\\,\\ if\\ ask\\ what\\ man\\ is\\ doing\\ in\\ yard\\,\\ possible\\ accurate\\ responses\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;Digging\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Gardening\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Taking\\ exercise\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Preparing\\ for\\ winter\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pleasing\\ his\\ wife\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-truly\\ correct\\ answer\\ relies\\ upon\\ what\\ his\\ intentions\\ are\\&mdash\\;which\\ are\\ primary\\ and\\ which\\ are\\ secondary\\,\\ whether\\ his\\ goals\\ are\\ long\\-\\ or\\ short\\-term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-behavior\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ fully\\ understood\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ setting\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ agent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;we\\.\\.cannot\\ characterize\\ intentions\\ independently\\ of\\ the\\ settings\\ which\\ make\\ these\\ intentions\\ intelligible\\ both\\ to\\ agents\\ and\\ to\\ themselves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-an\\ individual\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ why\\ he\\ acts\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ that\\ relates\\ to\\ his\\ narrative\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;No\\ individual\\ can\\ operate\\ as\\ a\\ truly\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\&rdquo\\;\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-much\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ do\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ what\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ have\\ done\\ that\\ have\\ put\\ us\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-accordingly\\,\\ an\\ individual\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ sole\\ author\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ narrative\\,\\ but\\ can\\ rather\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;co\\-author\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ enter\\ upon\\ a\\ stage\\ which\\ we\\ did\\ not\\ design\\ and\\ we\\ find\\ ourselves\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ of\\ our\\ making\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ necessarily\\ determined\\ by\\ factors\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ control\\,\\ established\\ by\\ generations\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-each\\ person\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ bearer\\ of\\ tradition\\ insofar\\ as\\ he\\ acts\\ according\\ to\\ certain\\ modes\\ of\\ understanding\\,\\ values\\,\\ and\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ established\\ by\\ generations\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ search\\ for\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ good\\ is\\ generally\\ and\\ characteristically\\ conducted\\ within\\ a\\ context\\ defined\\ by\\ those\\ traditions\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ part\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Each\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ present\\ is\\ defined\\ critically\\ by\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ pasts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Connection\\ to\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ narratives\\ are\\ interlocking\\,\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ must\\ see\\ ourselves\\ as\\ constantly\\ moving\\ toward\\ some\\ communal\\ telos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ work\\ together\\ towards\\ some\\ shared\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ story\\-telling\\ animal\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ role\\ to\\ play\\ that\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ his\\ personal\\ narrative\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ understand\\ our\\ role\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ we\\ are\\ perceived\\ by\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ community\\,\\ and\\ on\\ our\\ \\&ldquo\\;quest\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ must\\ see\\ where\\ we\\ fit\\ into\\ that\\ community\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ truly\\ understand\\ who\\ we\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ Walzer\\,\\ Excerpts\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goods\\ have\\ social\\ meanings\\ and\\ are\\ critical\\ to\\ social\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-all\\ distributions\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ patterned\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ shared\\ conceptions\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ goods\\ are\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ for\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;6\\ propositions\\ to\\ theory\\ of\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ All\\ goods\\ with\\ which\\ distributive\\ justice\\ is\\ concerned\\ are\\ social\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ items\\ that\\ have\\ value\\ across\\ society\\,\\ and\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;idiosyncratic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\value\\ such\\ as\\ sentimentality\\ and\\ other\\ privately\\ valued\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-goods\\ have\\ different\\ meanings\\ in\\ different\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ People\\ take\\ on\\ identities\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ conceive\\ and\\ create\\,\\ then\\ possess\\ and\\ employ\\ social\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ have\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ relationships\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ set\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ this\\ relationship\\ helps\\ to\\ characterize\\ who\\ they\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ non\\-abstract\\ single\\ set\\ of\\ primary\\ goods\\ conceivable\\ across\\ all\\ moral\\ and\\ material\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-even\\ goods\\ that\\ are\\ deemed\\ by\\ one\\ society\\ as\\ necessary\\ may\\ be\\ rejected\\ or\\ ignored\\ by\\ a\\ different\\ society\\,\\ as\\ goods\\ \\&ldquo\\;carry\\ different\\ meanings\\ in\\ different\\ places\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\)\\ The\\ meaning\\ of\\ goods\\ determine\\ their\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-distributive\\ schemes\\ are\\ arranged\\ according\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ good\\,\\ and\\ what\\ allocation\\ of\\ goods\\ is\\ optimal\\ toward\\ that\\ end\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-certain\\ tradable\\ goods\\ \\(like\\ bodies\\ in\\ prostitution\\)\\ are\\ barred\\ from\\ transfer\\ strictly\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ social\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Social\\ meanings\\ are\\ historical\\ in\\ character\\;\\ and\\ so\\ distributions\\,\\ and\\ just\\ and\\ unjust\\ distributions\\,\\ change\\ over\\ time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-distributions\\ will\\ fluctuate\\ as\\ social\\ valuations\\ of\\ particular\\ goods\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ When\\ meanings\\ are\\ distinct\\,\\ distributions\\ must\\ be\\ autonomous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ relative\\ wealth\\ of\\ goods\\ in\\ one\\ sphere\\ should\\ not\\ determine\\ the\\ allocation\\ that\\ a\\ person\\ receives\\ in\\ a\\ separate\\ sphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Medical\\ care\\ as\\ an\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ prevailing\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ justice\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ American\\ government\\ should\\ fund\\ programs\\ like\\ Medicaid\\ or\\ Medicare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ reflects\\ a\\ communitarian\\ movement\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ step\\ in\\ and\\ provide\\ public\\ services\\ when\\ lives\\ are\\ at\\ stake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;all\\ that\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ make\\ \\(universal\\ healthcare\\)\\ morally\\ necessary\\ is\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;want\\&rsquo\\;\\ so\\ widely\\ and\\ deeply\\ felt\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ plausible\\ be\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ generally\\ the\\ want\\ not\\ of\\ this\\ or\\ that\\ person\\ alone\\ but\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ generally\\&mdash\\;a\\ \\&lsquo\\;human\\ want\\&rsquo\\;\\ even\\ though\\ culturally\\ shaped\\ and\\ stressed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ wealthy\\ can\\ get\\ treatment\\ more\\ readily\\ than\\ the\\ poor\\ reflects\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;proposition\\ of\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ that\\ spheres\\ should\\ not\\ overlap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-attitudes\\ towards\\ healthcare\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ history\\,\\ and\\ the\\ demanded\\ distribution\\ of\\ such\\ reflects\\ the\\ changing\\ social\\ importance\\ of\\ healthcare\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Relativity\\ and\\ the\\ Non\\-Relativity\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-VERY\\ IMPT\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ given\\ society\\ is\\ just\\ if\\ its\\ substantive\\ life\\ is\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\&mdash\\;that\\ is\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ faithful\\ to\\ the\\ shared\\ understandings\\ of\\ the\\ members\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;Every\\ substantive\\ account\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ is\\ a\\ local\\ account\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;We\\ are\\ \\(all\\ of\\ us\\)\\ culture\\-producing\\ creatures\\;\\ we\\ make\\ and\\ inhabit\\ meaningful\\ worlds\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Justice\\ is\\ rooted\\ in\\ the\\ distinct\\ understandings\\ of\\ places\\,\\ honors\\,\\ jobs\\,\\ things\\ of\\ all\\ sorts\\,\\ that\\ constitute\\ a\\ shared\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ override\\ those\\ understandings\\ is\\ \\(always\\)\\ to\\ act\\ unjustly\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Basically\\,\\ justice\\ requires\\ that\\ one\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ meaning\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ distribute\\ these\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ these\\ social\\ conceptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ right\\ is\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ good\\,\\ as\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ right\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ discovering\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ community\\ and\\ acting\\ with\\ the\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ in\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ is\\ a\\ teleological\\ theory\\ in\\ that\\ justice\\ is\\ defined\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ goals\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ particular\\ role\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ plays\\ in\\ aiding\\ the\\ collective\\ pursuit\\ of\\ those\\ goals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Main_Ideas_-_Outlines_MASTER.doc", "desc": "All of the class notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese 130a - Class Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "chinese", "130a"], "text": null, "id": 9, "html": "\\\\\\Chinese\\_130a\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c10\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:15pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Thursday\\,\\ September\\ 20\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#22987\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21021\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26411\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;jianli\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24314\\;\\&\\#31435\\;\\ \\=\\ jianli\\ \\=\\ to\\ create\\ \\/\\ set\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\ \\=\\ take\\ advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#20313\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#21608\\;\\&\\#26411\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20805\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\ \\=\\ chong1fen4li4yong4\\ \\=\\ set\\ phrase\\ \\=\\ make\\ full\\ use\\ of\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#35782\\;\\ \\=\\ \\ \\;knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#21153\\;\\ \\=\\ service\\ \\=\\ fu2wu4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#34987\\;\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ advantage\\ of\\ \\(negative\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#65288\\;NP\\&\\#65289\\;\\#\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24038\\;\\&\\#21491\\;\\ \\(NP\\)\\ \\=\\ approximately\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#24038\\;\\&\\#21491\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NP\\ can\\ go\\ b4\\ or\\ after\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;X\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24072\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35268\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35745\\;\\&\\#21010\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#31574\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21220\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20461\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ add\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ vocab\\ list\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ work\\ part\\-time\\ to\\ support\\ studying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#29233\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#29233\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ predicate\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26159\\;is\\ optional\\ w\\/\\ modal\\ verb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surrounding\\ a\\ predicate\\ w\\/\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ makes\\ it\\ more\\ assertive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modal\\ verbs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20250\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35201\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33021\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38656\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28072\\;\\ \\=\\ zhang3\\ \\=\\ to\\ increase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\=\\ intransitive\\ verb\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ water\\ radical\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ 2refer\\ 2flooding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\&\\#28072\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#22359\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Its\\ opposite\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#38477\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ usage\\,\\ opposite\\ meaning\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#29275\\;\\&\\#22902\\;\\&\\#28072\\;\\&\\#20215\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ milk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ price\\ has\\ risen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\&\\#28072\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#31199\\;\\ \\=\\ rent\\.\\ \\ \\;Fang2zu1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#28072\\;\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#31199\\;\\&hellip\\;use\\ these\\ as\\ single\\ words\\,\\ the\\ 3\\ characters\\ 2gether\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20215\\;\\&\\#26684\\;\\ \\=\\ jia4ge2\\ \\=\\ jia4qian2\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20215\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20184\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\=\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#31209\\;\\&\\#24207\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25216\\;\\&\\#26415\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ verb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&hellip\\;NP\\/sentence\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31649\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ get\\ involved\\ and\\ take\\ control\\ of\\ something\\/somebody\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#31649\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#31649\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#35841\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ my\\ parents\\ control\\ who\\ I\\ make\\ friends\\ with\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\=\\ make\\ sure\\ \\(not\\)\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ positive\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21035\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ negative\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friday\\,\\ September\\ 21\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#32426\\;\\ \\=\\ century\\ \\=\\ shi4ji4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21021\\;\\/\\&\\#21069\\;\\/\\&\\#20013\\;\\/\\&\\#21518\\;\\/\\&\\#26411\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1949\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#32426\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32479\\;\\&\\#35745\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#20159\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20159\\;\\ \\=\\ yi4\\ \\=\\ hundred\\ million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#24038\\;\\&\\#21491\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23613\\;\\&\\#31649\\;\\ \\=\\ jin1guan3\\ \\=\\ sui1ran2\\ \\=\\ even\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35831\\;\\&\\#21151\\;\\&\\#26816\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21361\\;\\&\\#38505\\;\\ \\=\\ wei1xian3\\ \\=\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#31199\\;\\ \\=\\ rent\\ \\=\\ fang2zu1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21271\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#31199\\;\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20493\\;\\ \\=\\ bei4\\ \\=\\ multiple\\ \\(rent\\ increased\\ 3\\ bei\\,\\ 3\\ times\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28072\\;\\&\\#20215\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ increase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38477\\;\\&\\#20215\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ decrease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#36164\\;\\ \\=\\ gon1zi1\\ \\=\\ salary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#20276\\;\\ \\=\\ lao3ban4\\ \\=\\ landlord\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ September\\ 24\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21574\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ stay\\ \\=\\ dai1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yan2zhong4\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20005\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\ \\=\\ serious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lian2ci2\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\ \\=\\ conjunctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xing4yun4\\ \\=\\ lucky\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24184\\;\\&\\#36816\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\ \\=\\ ji4ran2\\ \\=\\ given\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ September\\ 25\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\/VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#32418\\;\\&\\#33889\\;\\&\\#33796\\;\\&\\#65288\\;pu2tao\\ \\=\\ grape\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#37202\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#36710\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#35762\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\(\\&\\#21543\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\basic\\ requirement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ have\\ to\\ at\\ least\\ have\\/do\\&hellip\\;\\(right\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ have\\ to\\ at\\ least\\ have\\ a\\ few\\ brand\\ name\\ clothes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S1\\,\\ \\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\ S2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25260\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#31471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ r\\ upward\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ \\&\\#25260\\;\\ is\\ for\\ a\\ really\\ heavy\\,\\ \\&\\#37325\\;\\,\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#31471\\;\\ is\\ to\\ keep\\ something\\ level\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25260\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\/\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25260\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\ \\=\\ lift\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28176\\;\\&\\#28176\\;\\ \\(\\&\\#22320\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28176\\;\\&\\#28176\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#24815\\;\\ \\=\\ gradually\\ get\\ used\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#28176\\;\\&\\#28176\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#22987\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30465\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24515\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#38065\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#35799\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#20107\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#21147\\;\\&\\#27668\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ adjective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30465\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\ \\=\\ save\\ from\\ having\\ to\\ worry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30465\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\ \\=\\ save\\ trouble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21147\\;\\&\\#27668\\;\\ \\=\\ physical\\ strength\\,\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ effort\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#30340\\;Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dignified\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ very\\ strong\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#25480\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;It\\ must\\ go\\ before\\ the\\ subject\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ PROUD\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ American\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32431\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\(\\+\\&\\#26159\\;\\)\\+VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32431\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\&\\#28010\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ this\\ is\\ purely\\ a\\ waste\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#21322\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ he\\ only\\ took\\ half\\ an\\ hour\\ to\\ finish\\ the\\ test\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#38047\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#24039\\;\\&\\#20811\\;\\&\\#21147\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\ only\\ took\\ me\\ 10\\ minutes\\ to\\ finish\\ the\\ chocolate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\OV\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20809\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21334\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ sold\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;Popular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20809\\;\\ only\\ good\\ for\\ tangible\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21463\\;SB\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35266\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ also\\ say\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#21040\\;SB\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\/respect\\/criticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#36873\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;famous\\ selected\\ love\\ letters\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#38169\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ predicate\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ true\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ but\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Verbally\\ stress\\ the\\ initial\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\ \\=\\ must\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ must\\ see\\ mom\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21193\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\ \\=\\ with\\ great\\ difficulty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21193\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;perusaded\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21193\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#32479\\;\\&\\#30410\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ persuaded\\ him\\ with\\ great\\ difficulty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\+\\ MW\\ \\+\\ N\\ \\+\\ Predicate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ There\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ person\\ I\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ September\\ 27\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32440\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#20853\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\ \\=\\ impresion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\ \\+\\ Sth\\/Sb\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\B\\ \\&\\#32473\\;\\ A\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#29313\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24072\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21360\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#65289\\;A\\ \\&\\#36319\\;\\ B\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#25442\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ very\\ formal\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#25442\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#25226\\;B\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ considers\\ B\\ as\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30446\\;\\&\\#26631\\;\\ \\=\\ goal\\ \\=\\ mu4biao1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26790\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ dream\\ \\=\\ meng4xiang3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ afraid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ predicate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ afraid\\ that\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24656\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ afraid\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ B\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#32874\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\ \\(modern\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\ B\\ \\+\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;A\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;B\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#23384\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ \\&\\#27491\\;\\&\\#24335\\;\\,\\ zheng4shi4\\,\\ formal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#23384\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\(kan4bing4\\ \\=\\ see\\ doctor\\)\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\(phenomenon\\)\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\_\\_\\&\\#36731\\;\\_\\_\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35266\\;\\&\\#24565\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35266\\;\\&\\#24565\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#33394\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\=\\ something\\ about\\ girlfriends\\ and\\ boyfriends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25152\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ October\\ 02\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35282\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20445\\;\\&\\#25345\\;\\/\\&\\#22788\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#39046\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35859\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65289\\;A\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65288\\;explanation\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ called\\ term\\,\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Explanation\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35859\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36194\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\/\\&\\#36755\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22330\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36187\\;\\ \\=\\ competition\\ \\=\\ bi3sai4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lost\\ to\\ Harvard\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#36755\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Something\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20196\\;sb\\/\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\&\\#24778\\;\\&\\#35766\\;\\/\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\/\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27668\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20196\\;sb\\/\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\&\\#24778\\;\\&\\#35766\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32451\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#36164\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#25480\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24863\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24778\\;\\&\\#35766\\;\\/\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;NP\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#32570\\;\\&\\#20047\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#30721\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32570\\;\\&\\#20047\\;\\ is\\ very\\ formal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ works\\ with\\ multiple\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ have\\ to\\ lack\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ thing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#32570\\;\\&\\#20047\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#31995\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27491\\;\\&\\#24335\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\ \\=\\ precisely\\ because\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\N\\&\\#28909\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#28909\\;\\ \\=\\ English\\ fever\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MW\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#32929\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#32929\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#28909\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#21644\\;\\ B\\ \\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 03\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35878\\;\\&\\#34394\\;\\ \\=\\ qian1xu1\\ \\=\\ modest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35282\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\(\\&\\#30475\\;\\/\\&\\#35828\\;\\/\\&\\#30740\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35282\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35282\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30740\\;\\&\\#31350\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#31246\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ pay\\ tax\\ \\=\\ jiao1shui4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\,\\ \\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#22788\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\/\\&\\#20445\\;\\&\\#25345\\;\\&\\#39046\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35859\\;\\+Expression\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26159\\;explanation\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explanation\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#35859\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\+Expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#31726\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35753\\;\\/\\&\\#20196\\;\\(formal\\)\\ \\+\\ Sb\\/\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;Sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\/NP\\&\\#20196\\;Sb\\ \\+\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#36214\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\&\\#23545\\;\\ object\\ \\&\\#32570\\;\\&\\#20047\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#40092\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ October\\ 04\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#33457\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20080\\;\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ the\\ trip\\ to\\ see\\ you\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#36305\\;\\(pao3\\)\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36255\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ worth\\ coming\\ this\\ far\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36255\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#36305\\;\\&\\#30340\\;MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;B\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#21051\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#20048\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\/\\&\\#30495\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#24796\\;\\ \\+\\ Sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#38463\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22992\\;\\&\\#22992\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#21834\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\ \\=\\ How\\ did\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ China\\ \\(a\\ way\\ of\\ saying\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ China\\)\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ phrase\\ used\\ 4tangible\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22885\\;\\&\\#36816\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ao4yun4hui4\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ The\\ olympics\\ will\\ unite\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#28872\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25913\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#27665\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21160\\;\\&\\#37327\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frequency\\ of\\ the\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27425\\;\\ \\=\\ times\\ MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\ \\=\\ bian4\\ \\=\\ times\\ MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ bw\\ these\\ 2\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ object\\ after\\ \\&\\#36941\\;\\ is\\ very\\ specific\\,\\ usually\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ clear\\ beginning\\ and\\ ending\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36255\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ trips\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duration\\ of\\ the\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;brief\\ n\\ casual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\=\\ a\\ while\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38453\\;\\ \\=\\ zhen4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#39039\\;\\ \\=\\ dun4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;used\\ for\\ meals\\ and\\ beatings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quantity\\ of\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30524\\;\\ \\=\\ yan3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21475\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33050\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ for\\ kicks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36386\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33050\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ gave\\ him\\ a\\ kick\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ kicked\\ him\\ once\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&\\#19979\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#22330\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ Pronoun\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&\\#27425\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#21475\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36386\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\ \\=\\ ti1qiu2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ YES\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27425\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ YES\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ NO\\,\\ NOT\\ SPECIFIC\\ EVENT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ YEA\\,\\ THIS\\ \\=\\ SPECIFIC\\ ACTION\\.\\ \\ \\;START\\ THE\\ CHARACTER\\ FROM\\ THE\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\ST\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;STROKE\\ 2THE\\ SECOND\\ STROKE\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36255\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#39039\\;\\ \\=\\ for\\ giving\\ beatings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chi1yi1dun4fan4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\ \\=\\ have\\ a\\ bite\\ of\\ food\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ mouthful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22330\\;\\ \\=\\ MW\\ for\\ concerts\\ and\\ movies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21898\\;\\ \\=\\ han3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ call\\,\\ to\\ cry\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#24503\\;\\&\\#23041\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24503\\;\\&\\#23041\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\#21898\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ October\\ 9\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38753\\;\\&\\#38753\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36719\\;\\&\\#32501\\;\\&\\#32501\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26825\\;\\ \\=\\ mian2\\ \\=\\ fluffy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32501\\;\\&\\#32650\\;\\ \\=\\ mian2yang2\\ \\=\\ sheep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24863\\;\\&\\#21160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\=\\ gan3dong4\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intransitive\\ verb\\,\\ meaning\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ an\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#27969\\;\\&\\#20256\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#39318\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#27969\\;\\&\\#20256\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ this\\ song\\ passed\\ down\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ few\\ decades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#39318\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#27969\\;\\&\\#20256\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ song\\ that\\ spread\\ on\\ the\\ internet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#35753\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#39318\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#27969\\;\\&\\#20256\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ this\\ song\\ spread\\ out\\ \\(into\\ the\\ population\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\ QW\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;already\\&rdquo\\;\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#26202\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#23621\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25913\\;\\&\\#38761\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\ \\=\\ gai3ge2kai1fang4\\ \\=\\ opening\\ to\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Done\\ by\\ \\&\\#37011\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;Deng\\ Xiaoping\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20256\\;\\&\\#36827\\;\\ \\=\\ spread\\ into\\ \\=\\ chuan2jin4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#38470\\;\\ \\=\\ da4lu4\\ \\=\\ Chinese\\ mainland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\ \\=\\ in\\ one\\ fell\\ swoop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#34987\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#31181\\;\\&\\#36719\\;\\&\\#32501\\;\\&\\#32501\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26354\\;\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37266\\;\\ \\=\\ xing3\\ \\=\\ to\\ wake\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#37266\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ wake\\ up\\ right\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\ \\&\\#34987\\;\\ NP\\ \\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#34987\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ really\\ attracted\\ to\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NP\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ Sb\\ \\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ she\\ enchants\\ me\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30702\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#28145\\;\\ \\=\\ you\\ ask\\ me\\ how\\ much\\ I\\ love\\ you\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\ \\=\\ 100\\%\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\/\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\ \\=\\ 1\\/10\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\ \\=\\ like\\ 12\\/10\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;VERY\\ happy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ most\\ representative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#25671\\;\\&\\#28378\\;\\&\\#20048\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#38155\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23828\\;\\&\\#20581\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25913\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\ \\=\\ representative\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\=\\ possess\\ nothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\+\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ never\\ thought\\ you\\ spoke\\ Chinese\\ so\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 10\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\/v\\ \\~\\ V\\/S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#26426\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ think\\ studying\\ Confucius\\ is\\ worth\\ my\\ studying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25512\\;\\&\\#33616\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Braveheart\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\/\\&\\#30495\\;\\+\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#24796\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#24796\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24537\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#38463\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#30021\\;\\&\\#38144\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#38463\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22478\\;\\&\\#24066\\;\\&\\#38463\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\=\\ How\\ is\\ Boston\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ city\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;B\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#20048\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#28872\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32972\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#35753\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#26356\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#26494\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;A\\&\\#21644\\;B\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\/\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#20048\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ want\\ to\\ link\\ music\\ and\\ politics\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20196\\;\\/\\&\\#35753\\;Sb\\&\\#24863\\;\\&\\#21160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;QW\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;VP\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sth\\/Sb\\&\\#25226\\;Sb\\/sth\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sth\\&\\#36855\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;Sb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ October\\ 11\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32670\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Classical\\ Chinese\\ is\\ pretty\\ similar\\ to\\ English\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ grammar\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ phrase\\ is\\ from\\ classical\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sth\\ \\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\ \\+\\ location\\ \\(\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\,\\ \\#\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ Chinese\\ people\\ are\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\ \\=\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#21306\\;\\ \\=\\ di4qu1\\ \\=\\ area\\/region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\ \\=\\ all\\ over\\ China\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#31687\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24459\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31687\\;\\=\\ MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Thousands\\ without\\ exception\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24459\\;\\ \\=\\ without\\ exception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ phrase\\ can\\ function\\ as\\ a\\ predicate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#19982\\;\\ B\\ \\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19982\\;\\ \\=\\ yu3\\ \\=\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\,\\ together\\ with\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#19982\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#40836\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ your\\ clothes\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ match\\ your\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#19982\\;Yao\\ Ming\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\&\\#22826\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ their\\ heights\\ match\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#26497\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ polarize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\ \\=\\ diverge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#26497\\;\\ \\=\\ two\\ extremities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chinese\\ society\\ polarizes\\.\\ \\ \\;Rich\\ get\\ richer\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#26497\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;subj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;S1\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;S2\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\ N\\,\\ \\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#31867\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#31867\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ most\\ Chinese\\ universities\\ are\\ Beijing\\ university\\ and\\ qinghua\\.\\ \\ \\;Former\\ emphasizes\\ humanities\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\.\\ \\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Strictly\\ speaking\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20005\\;\\&\\#26684\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20855\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ concretely\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#31616\\;\\&\\#21333\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ simply\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22374\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ frankly\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ generally\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#37237\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ speaking\\ from\\ another\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meaning\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Written\\ only\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Formal\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Casual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Willing\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#24895\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#24895\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#24895\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ for\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#23547\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#23547\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friend\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\/\\&\\#26379\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ become\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ possess\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25317\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#25317\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Together\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#20849\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\ \\=\\ classical\\ Chinese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26356\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#21547\\;\\&\\#33988\\;\\ \\=\\ same\\ as\\ \\&\\#26356\\;\\&\\#21547\\;\\&\\#33988\\;\\ \\=\\ means\\ more\\ implicit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friday\\,\\ October\\ 12\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\#\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#20065\\;\\=jia1xiang1\\=hometown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26446\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#25480\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\ \\=\\ match\\;\\ matching\\,\\ suitable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19982\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#24189\\;\\&\\#40664\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#36164\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#31216\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32844\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\ \\=\\ zhi2ye4\\ \\=\\ occupation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21363\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#21363\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29256\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ my\\ book\\ will\\ soon\\ get\\ published\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#21363\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#22987\\;\\&\\#12290\\;The\\ new\\ year\\ is\\ soon\\ to\\ come\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20005\\;\\&\\#26684\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20855\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22374\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31616\\;\\&\\#21333\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adv\\ \\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ October\\ 16\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21448\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#31867\\;\\&\\#21551\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#28010\\;\\&\\#28459\\;\\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#24189\\;\\&\\#40664\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\+adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#28909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25277\\;\\&\\#28895\\;\\ \\=\\ smoking\\ \\(cigs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\ \\=\\ avg\\.\\,\\ ordinary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#20917\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\ \\=\\ under\\ normal\\ circumstances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\ \\=\\ my\\ grades\\ are\\ ordinary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27668\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\ \\=\\ weather\\ is\\ normal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\ \\=\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ girl\\ or\\ guy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19987\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\ \\=\\ your\\ major\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\+VP\\+\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35752\\;\\&\\#35770\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 17\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21017\\;\\ \\=\\ while\\ \\=\\ ze2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36739\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\&\\#24335\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\conjunction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21363\\;\\&\\#20351\\;\\ \\=\\ even\\ if\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\+adj\\/vp\\+\\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\+adj\\/vp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26082\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\+NP\\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#26080\\;NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\(\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\)adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#21182\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32844\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\ \\=\\ occupation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38480\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fact\\,\\ \\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25552\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#32467\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26465\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;meaning\\:\\ \\ \\;prerequisite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ October\\ 18\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\ VP\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28028\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\ \\=\\ qu1shi4\\ \\=\\ tendency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\&\\#29575\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stand\\ by\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Has\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\right\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;b4\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\ \\=\\ divorce\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24405\\;\\&\\#21462\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\ \\=\\ acceptance\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\ \\=\\ continuation\\ \\(graduation\\?\\)\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\ \\=\\ related\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36362\\;yong3\\&\\#36291\\;yue4\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Radical\\ of\\ \\&\\#36362\\;\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36362\\;\\&\\#36291\\;\\&\\#21442\\;\\&\\#21152\\;\\ \\=\\ eagerly\\ join\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36362\\;\\&\\#36291\\;\\&\\#25253\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\ \\=\\ eagerly\\ sign\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#21543\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ in\\ a\\ couple\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#36798\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ compared\\ to\\ developed\\ western\\ countries\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ the\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ phrase\\ is\\ long\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ say\\ \\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#39564\\;\\ \\=\\ jing1yan4\\ \\=\\ experience\\ \\(in\\ general\\)\\,\\ and\\ we\\ should\\ know\\ when\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\ \\(experiences\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\,\\ each\\ instance\\)\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23186\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#38431\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ newspapers\\ like\\ writing\\ excessive\\ reports\\ about\\ celebrities\\&rsquo\\;\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#26435\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20599\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#24517\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#65288\\;not\\ necessary\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;True\\,\\ he\\ took\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ money\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ necessary\\ to\\ make\\ too\\ big\\ a\\ deal\\ about\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neg\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20877\\;V\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ disturb\\ my\\ study\\ anymore\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\(\\&\\#36807\\;\\)\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ him\\ anymore\\ after\\ graduation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\(\\=truly\\)\\ vs\\.\\&\\#30495\\;\\ \\(\\=really\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Be\\ careful\\ in\\ which\\ contexts\\ you\\ use\\ these\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#65292\\;are\\ usually\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ happy\\ I\\ am\\!\\ \\ \\;Use\\ \\&\\#30495\\;\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\&hellip\\;\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ key\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maybe\\ just\\ to\\ assert\\ a\\ factual\\ situation\\?\\ \\ \\;To\\ assert\\ the\\ factuality\\?\\ \\ \\;Sounds\\ a\\ little\\ like\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65292\\;S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#35266\\;\\&\\#24565\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;along\\ with\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ Sentence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31934\\;\\&\\#31070\\;\\ \\=\\ spiritual\\.\\ \\ \\;Similar\\ to\\ religious\\ connotations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ opposed\\ 2something\\ material\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friday\\,\\ October\\ 19\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20943\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\(jian3xiang3\\)\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\ \\=\\ had\\ the\\ tendency\\ to\\ decrease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22686\\;\\&\\#21152\\;\\(zeng1jia1\\)\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36235\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\ \\=\\ had\\ the\\ tendency\\ to\\ increase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\ \\=\\ birth\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#29359\\;\\&\\#32618\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\ \\=\\ fan1zui4lv4\\ \\=\\ crime\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\ \\=\\ Shi4ye4lv4\\ \\=\\ unemployment\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#23703\\;\\ \\=\\ xia4gang1\\ \\=\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27668\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#31967\\;\\&\\#31957\\;\\&\\#65288\\;zao1gao1\\ \\=\\ awful\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ weather\\ is\\ very\\ awful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22478\\;\\&\\#24066\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27668\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neg\\&\\#20877\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ longer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#35980\\;\\ \\=\\ your\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;Has\\ political\\ connotations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\ \\=\\ along\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36319\\;sb\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ divorce\\ someone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#23233\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#23548\\;\\&\\#33268\\;\\ \\=\\ lead\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\ \\=\\ in\\ between\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#26435\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#20043\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32416\\;\\&\\#32439\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ pollution\\ causes\\ fights\\ between\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25112\\;\\&\\#20105\\;\\ \\=\\ war\\ \\=\\ zhan4zheng1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#31995\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ October\\ 23\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36827\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\ \\=\\ social\\ progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\ \\=\\ manifestation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36827\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#22561\\;\\&\\#21253\\;\\ \\=\\ han4bao3bao1\\ \\=\\ Chinese\\ words\\ phonetically\\ based\\ off\\ English\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25353\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\ prep\\ \\=\\ following\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\ \\=\\ based\\ on\\&hellip\\;according\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\#21644\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#25353\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25353\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#21150\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\ \\=\\ following\\ this\\ method\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#31995\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ count\\ as\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20080\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ In\\ America\\,\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ buy\\ a\\ car\\ means\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ rich\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;Vp\\&\\#23601\\;VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21051\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ not\\ go\\ to\\ class\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;vs\\.\\ \\&\\#36830\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\/\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#35782\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\ \\=\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ know\\ me\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#35843\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#38191\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#39554\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22992\\;\\&\\#22992\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#39554\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#39554\\;\\ \\=\\ ma4\\ \\=\\ to\\ scold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#38506\\;\\&\\#20276\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#24378\\;\\&\\#35843\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S1\\&\\#65292\\;\\ subj\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#36828\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#36828\\;\\(yuan3\\)\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;adv\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ bit\\ too\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\&\\#29255\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\ softens\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ what\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ saying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\&\\#22826\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24635\\;adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#22871\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#29260\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#35013\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#24046\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ time\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65292\\;2007\\&\\#24180\\;10\\&\\#26376\\;24\\&\\#21495\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29579\\;\\&\\#20255\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#40654\\;\\&\\#25249\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21319\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36827\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27665\\;\\&\\#20027\\;\\ \\=\\ democracy\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#27665\\;\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25353\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\following\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25353\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#24220\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35268\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;co\\ count\\ as\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#21151\\;\\ \\=\\ successful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#38454\\;\\&\\#32423\\;\\ \\=\\ zhong1chan3jie1ji2\\ \\=\\ middle\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ be\\ influenced\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\/\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\ \\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;vp\\&\\#23601\\;vp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&ldquo\\;vp\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;vp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27611\\;\\&\\#27901\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\,\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\&hellip\\;vp\\/adj\\/\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ \\-\\ rhetorical\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26410\\;\\&\\#20813\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;adj\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22826\\;adj\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#65292\\;2007\\&\\#24180\\;10\\&\\#26376\\;25\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#36731\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\XX\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;XX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\XX\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;XX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\XX\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;XX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#33267\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\ \\=\\ could\\ it\\ be\\ that\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sub\\+\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\+vp\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#39532\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\ \\+\\ subj\\ \\+\\ vp\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33713\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20919\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#36895\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22815\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#39532\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&\\#21361\\;\\&\\#38505\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36827\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\+adv\\+vp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#36827\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#25552\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#27700\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;vs\\.\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\+\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;Noun\\ phrase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ object\\ following\\ \\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\ is\\ being\\ acted\\ upon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#38738\\;\\&\\#23569\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;increase\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#24503\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#20851\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#38761\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&\\#38169\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#24352\\;VP\\/S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24441\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#65289\\;A\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#37038\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#20449\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26446\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#26045\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65289\\;NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#21476\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#26159\\;formal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36873\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#35270\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26377\\;B\\ \\+\\ certain\\ quantitative\\ amount\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23002\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Yao\\ Ming\\ \\=\\ yao2ming2\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#31859\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;sufficiently\\ reached\\.\\ \\ \\;Has\\ reached\\ some\\ amount\\ in\\ the\\ full\\ scale\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21271\\;\\&\\#26497\\;\\&\\#65288\\;north\\ pole\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#20919\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21807\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\ adj\\ \\=\\ only\\,\\ sole\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21807\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ express\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\/\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25253\\;\\&\\#32440\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#31687\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\ \\=\\ main\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ most\\ main\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mainest\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ English\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ you\\ can\\ in\\ zhongwen\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#21644\\;B\\+aspect\\ \\&\\#25509\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\ \\(jie1jin4\\)\\ \\=\\ A\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#31687\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#31687\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#39118\\;\\&\\#26684\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#25509\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#34385\\;\\ \\=\\ kao3lv4\\ \\=\\ considering\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#34385\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#21709\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#65292\\;2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;2\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\=\\ become\\ \\(for\\ adjectives\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ become\\ \\(for\\ nouns\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#24080\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#24352\\;VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29992\\;A\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#24076\\;\\&\\#26395\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#25340\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#26377\\;B\\,\\ A\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#26377\\;B\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21807\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21807\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#34411\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#20027\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#32842\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ post\\/publish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#34411\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#32593\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#21644\\;B\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36739\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\ \\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#25509\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;jie1jin4\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#20917\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#34385\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\=\\ considering\\ this\\ fact\\ or\\ opinion\\,\\ blah\\ blah\\ blah\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#34385\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ October\\ 31\\,\\ 2007\\&\\#65306\\;\\ \\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19971\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#20165\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#20110\\;B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#31726\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20165\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#25628\\;\\&\\#32034\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27969\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#26222\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\ \\(pu3ji2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#33041\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26222\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31243\\;\\&\\#24230\\;\\(cheng2du4\\ \\=\\ degree\\)\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20892\\;\\&\\#26449\\;\\&\\#65288\\;nong2cun1\\ \\=\\ countryside\\ \\(\\?\\)\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#39062\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26222\\;\\&\\#21450\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MIT\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20165\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31105\\;\\&\\#27490\\;VP\\ \\(to\\ prohibit\\ \\=\\ jin4zhi3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#22270\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31105\\;\\&\\#27490\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#26426\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#21697\\;\\ \\=\\ zhan3pin3\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sth\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26032\\;V\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ predicate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22799\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29256\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26032\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;xin1\\&\\#65289\\;V\\ \\+\\ a\\ NP\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ predicate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29256\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29256\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ NP\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ indefinite\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#28748\\;\\&\\#32928\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\/sth\\&\\#36319\\;sb\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sb\\/sth\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\/\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ sb\\ \\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\+\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\+\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22270\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#33298\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#23601\\;VP\\&\\#19968\\;V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#22307\\;\\&\\#33410\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Halloween\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#31359\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24694\\;\\&\\#65288\\;e4\\ \\=\\ hungry\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#38169\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\(\\#\\)\\ \\&\\#65288\\;about\\,\\ nearly\\,\\ close\\ to\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\#\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#34987\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#24405\\;\\&\\#21462\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23626\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#32423\\;\\ \\(jie4\\/ji2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\ B\\ \\&\\#39640\\;\\/\\&\\#20302\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23626\\;\\/\\&\\#32423\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23626\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\+NP\\ \\=\\ \\(well\\ recognized\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#26159\\;Bill\\ Gates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\ \\=\\ partner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26376\\;1\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#19971\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26366\\;\\&\\#32463\\;adv\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\&\\#36807\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26366\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\ \\=\\ ceng2jing1\\ \\=\\ once\\,\\ at\\ one\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26366\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neg\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#29702\\;\\ \\=\\ ignore\\ intentionally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35875\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\ \\=\\ rumor\\ \\=\\ yao2yan3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21150\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\&\\#35875\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\=\\ for\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\ \\=\\ for\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24076\\;\\&\\#26395\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#21271\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ small\\ world\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20559\\;\\&\\#20731\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#22478\\;\\&\\#24066\\;\\ \\=\\ remote\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30896\\;\\&\\#24039\\;\\ \\(peng4qiao3\\)\\ adv\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\=\\ unplanned\\,\\ accidentally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#30896\\;\\&\\#24039\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31455\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\ \\(zhang1ran2\\)\\ \\+\\ adv\\ \\=\\ this\\ has\\ no\\ concrete\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20855\\;\\&\\#20307\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#31455\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ marker\\ means\\,\\ like\\,\\ wow\\!\\ \\ \\;No\\ way\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#31455\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#22359\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\&\\#31455\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#23452\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32536\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\ \\(yuan2fen4\\)\\ \\=\\ predestined\\,\\ affinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meaning\\ comes\\ from\\ Buddhism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32536\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32536\\;\\&\\#20221\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\=\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ \\ \\;Under\\ this\\ circumstance\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Again\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#65288\\;past\\&\\#65289\\;\\=\\ \\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#65288\\;future\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21407\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26053\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#39134\\;\\&\\#26426\\;\\&\\#31080\\;\\&\\#31361\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#28072\\;\\&\\#20215\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#20915\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\(NP\\)\\ Location\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\(NP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36941\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#28385\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\ \\=\\ full\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28385\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#28385\\;\\&\\#23627\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\ \\=\\ everywhere\\ in\\ this\\ room\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21385\\;\\&\\#23475\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;8\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ already\\ this\\ much\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26376\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\ \\=\\ \\(Topic\\ comment\\ one\\ MW\\ after\\ another\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ days\\ pass\\ by\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ getting\\ more\\ and\\ more\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33713\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#22478\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20214\\;\\&\\#28418\\;\\&\\#20142\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24076\\;\\&\\#26395\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ elements\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ quality\\,\\ but\\ different\\ degrees\\.\\ \\ \\;Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ one\\ good\\ and\\ one\\ bad\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ varying\\ degrees\\ of\\ goodness\\/badness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\(NP\\(\\?\\)\\)\\ V\\+\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\=\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36739\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\&\\#24335\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20351\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#35753\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20196\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\ \\=\\ make\\ somebody\\ do\\ something\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Sb\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\+VP\\ \\=\\ \\(Sb\\ VP\\ with\\ great\\ difficulty\\,\\ Sb\\,\\ manage\\ to\\ VP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ the\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\,\\ it\\ means\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ but\\ is\\ more\\ colloquial\\,\\ \\&\\#26356\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;9\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\ \\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\ \\+\\ time\\ expression\\ \\/\\ change\\ \\=\\ S\\ \\(in\\ the\\ blink\\ of\\ an\\ eye\\,\\ S\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#21322\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36716\\;\\&\\#30524\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21363\\;\\&\\#23558\\;\\(ji2jiang1\\)\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ \\+\\ V\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\=\\ Cannot\\ V\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25343\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27927\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#24815\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\+\\ \\#\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;when\\ I\\ count\\ it\\ up\\ \\(\\?\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31639\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#21442\\;\\&\\#21152\\;\\&\\#26202\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\&\\#20102\\;is\\ to\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;already\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\ MW\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\ comment\\ \\=\\ \\(Topic\\ comment\\ one\\ MW\\ after\\ another\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\(\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#35782\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#25165\\;VP\\ \\=\\ \\(Sb\\ VP\\ with\\ great\\ difficulty\\,\\ Sb\\ manage\\ to\\ VP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\(de2dao4\\ \\=\\ to\\ get\\/receive\\)\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24184\\;\\&\\#20111\\;S1\\,\\ \\&\\#21542\\;\\&\\#21017\\;\\/\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;S2\\ \\=\\ fortunately\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ otherwise\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24184\\;\\&\\#20111\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#33041\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24184\\;\\&\\#20111\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#24110\\;\\&\\#21161\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21097\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\=sheng4xia4\\ \\=\\ to\\ remain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24618\\;\\ NP\\ VP\\ \\=\\ to\\ blame\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#65292\\;2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;13\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\ adj\\/v\\ \\=\\ hardly\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#25285\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\ \\=\\ hardly\\ worry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\ NP\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#22256\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\ \\=\\ no\\ difficulty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ O\\ V\\ O\\ \\=\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20173\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;reng2ran2\\&\\#65289\\;\\=\\ \\&\\#36824\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&\\#25226\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\ oration\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#34255\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ the\\ seat\\ stands\\ a\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#31449\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ VP1\\ \\&\\#25165\\;\\ VP2\\ \\=\\ \\(Sb\\ \\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ VP1\\ \\&\\#25165\\;\\ VP2\\)\\ \\=\\ \\(Sb\\ not\\ VP2\\ until\\ VP1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23828\\;\\ \\=\\ cui1\\ \\=\\ nag\\/urge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;14\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\/v\\ \\=\\ without\\ adj\\/v\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#29369\\;\\&\\#35947\\;\\ \\=\\ you2yu4\\ \\=\\ hesitation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ without\\ hestitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22855\\;\\&\\#24618\\;\\ \\=\\ qi2guai4\\ \\=\\ without\\ strangeness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\+NP\\ \\=\\ without\\ np\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\ \\=\\ without\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#31726\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#27627\\;\\&\\#26080\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#20041\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#32610\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ that\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sort\\ of\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ so\\ much\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#21809\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#21809\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#32610\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#32610\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#33457\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#32610\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&\\#19968\\;MW\\&\\#22320\\;\\+VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35835\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21477\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21477\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#35835\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Place\\ \\+\\ v\\ \\+\\ noun\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#23460\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#35270\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26862\\;\\&\\#26519\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#34255\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#35768\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21160\\;\\&\\#29289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\(zhi2dao4\\ \\=\\ until\\&hellip\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;not\\ until\\ then\\ did\\ X\\ occur\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#23681\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22307\\;\\&\\#35806\\;\\&\\#33410\\;\\(sheng1dan4jie3\\ \\=\\ Christmas\\)\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20652\\;sb\\ \\+\\ vp\\ \\=\\ to\\ urge\\/to\\ nag\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#38047\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24072\\;\\&\\#20652\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#65288\\;adj\\&\\#65289\\;\\=\\ \\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#33324\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20908\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#20919\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#35937\\;\\&\\#21152\\;\\&\\#25343\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Canada\\ \\=\\ jia1na4da4\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;15\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20061\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\last\\ year\\ in\\ this\\ place\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faces\\ are\\ all\\ reflecting\\ red\\ in\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\faces\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ where\\ to\\ go\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ flower\\ still\\ smiles\\ in\\ the\\ spring\\ breeze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\ \\=\\ to\\ look\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20687\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\ VP\\ \\=\\ \\(S\\ VP\\ respectively\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adv\\ respectively\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ respective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35831\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\=\\ \\(to\\ pass\\ \\/\\ to\\ pass\\ through\\ \\/\\ through\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\+\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\+\\ time\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\+\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ \\+\\ amount\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36214\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Catch\\ up\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ have\\ been\\ behind\\,\\ then\\ catch\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#21162\\;\\&\\#21147\\;\\&\\#36214\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ I\\ will\\ ardently\\ catch\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Run\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;16\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20061\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chang\\ when\\ it\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;long\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zhang\\ when\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ grow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\ adj\\/adv\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26257\\;\\&\\#20551\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#22238\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;v\\/prep\\ \\=\\ pass\\ through\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ \\+\\ amount\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#21862\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23681\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30385\\;\\&\\#32441\\;\\&\\#65288\\;wrinkles\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36214\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Catch\\ up\\ \\&\\#65288\\;with\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Run\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;20\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23427\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;set\\ groups\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ unlimited\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#32905\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&\\#12297\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21478\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ \\=\\ adv\\ \\(when\\ not\\ combined\\ with\\ an\\ adjective\\ \\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ needs\\ another\\ verb\\ 2complete\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4actions\\ that\\ r\\ already\\ completed\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ 4hypothetical\\ or\\ future\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ endure\\ a\\ painful\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ endure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\ \\=\\ VP\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&\\#12297\\;for\\ when\\ you\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sleep\\ last\\ night\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ time\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ endured\\ that\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\ \\(see\\ a\\ doctor\\)\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;to\\ treat\\/cure\\&\\#65289\\;\\ \\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;to\\ fall\\ ill\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#39532\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ yesterday\\ I\\ fell\\ sick\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24863\\;\\&\\#20882\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\&\\#30528\\;\\ pronounced\\ \\&ldquo\\;zhao2\\&rdquo\\;\\ here\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ complement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\ \\+\\ MW\\ \\(\\+\\ N\\)\\ \\=\\ several\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\ \\=\\ 30\\ or\\ so\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\ \\=\\ several\\ thousand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65289\\;V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;positive\\/negative\\ connotations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;connotation\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#26159\\;optional\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\+N\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20852\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#20041\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;makes\\ sense\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24110\\;\\&\\#21161\\;\\ \\=\\ has\\ help\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25928\\;\\ \\=\\ effective\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;NP\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;VP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;by\\ means\\ of\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vs\\.\\ \\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ can\\ be\\ prepositions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#35752\\;\\&\\#35770\\;\\ \\=\\ by\\ discussing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#35752\\;\\&\\#35770\\;\\ \\=\\ after\\ discussing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chinese\\ diagnoses\\ process\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26395\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#30475\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38395\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#21548\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38382\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#21490\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20999\\;\\ \\=\\ qie1\\ \\=\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Surgery\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\ \\=\\ yin1yang2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#23665\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21335\\;\\&\\#36793\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&\\#23665\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21271\\;\\&\\#36793\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#34913\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20581\\;\\&\\#24247\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;21\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30528\\;\\ \\=\\ zhao2\\ \\=\\ complement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\(\\&\\#35273\\;\\)\\ \\=\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\+VP\\&\\#65289\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\ \\=\\ ao2ye4\\ \\=\\ for\\ when\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sleep\\ for\\ whatever\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#20037\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#27605\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\+MW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ boston\\ has\\ 60\\-something\\ colleges\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&\\#22909\\;\\ makes\\ it\\ bigger\\ than\\ just\\ \\&\\#20960\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20960\\;\\&\\#27425\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65289\\;VP\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negative\\ connotation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\&\\#21644\\;\\ \\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;connotation\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\&\\#65288\\;xing2rong2ci2\\&\\#65289\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#35268\\;\\&\\#24459\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#39564\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20449\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\ \\=\\ confident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#34913\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#20449\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\ \\=\\ fun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24110\\;\\&\\#21161\\;\\ \\=\\ helpful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#27700\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24110\\;\\&\\#21161\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\ \\=\\ tong1guo4\\ \\=\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#33292\\;\\&\\#33492\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#21495\\;\\&\\#33033\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#20048\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#36816\\;\\ \\=\\ good\\ luck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26159\\;S1\\,\\ S\\&\\#23601\\;VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#34913\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;27\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\&\\#19978\\;\\ \\+\\ Quantity\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;V\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ Quantity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ have\\ to\\ reach\\ a\\ certain\\ quantity\\ with\\ this\\ complement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;eat\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ two\\ weeks\\&rsquo\\;\\ worth\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ final\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ sleep\\ for\\ three\\ whole\\ days\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#26411\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ye4\\ \\=\\ night\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#33647\\;can\\ be\\ categorized\\ into\\ 4\\ categories\\,\\ whether\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ warm\\ or\\ cold\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23506\\;\\&\\#65288\\;han2\\ \\=\\ cold\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ why\\ people\\ eat\\ ginger\\ with\\ crab\\ meat\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ match\\ a\\ hot\\ food\\ with\\ a\\ cold\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28909\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#28201\\;\\ \\(wen1\\ \\=\\ mild\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#33529\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20937\\;\\ \\=\\ liang2\\ \\=\\ cool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31348\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\ \\=\\ xue2li4\\ \\=\\ acupuncture\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21619\\;\\&\\#33647\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#21619\\;\\ \\=\\ mw\\ for\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ herbal\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21033\\;\\ \\=\\ beneficial\\ \\=\\ you3li4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#33391\\;\\&\\#33647\\;\\&\\#33510\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#24182\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24544\\;\\&\\#65288\\;zhong1\\ \\=\\ loyal\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#36870\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ni4\\ \\=\\ opposite\\/contrary\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#21033\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#29992\\;B\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ A\\ is\\ produced\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ method\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#33337\\;\\&\\#65288\\;chuan1\\ \\=\\ to\\ wear\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Table\\ is\\ made\\ with\\ wood\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#22060\\;\\&\\#23039\\;\\&\\#21183\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#26408\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#65288\\;mu4tou\\ \\=\\ wood\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&ldquo\\;V\\ into\\&rdquo\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ change\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ regard\\ something\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ misperceive\\ something\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ mis\\-hear\\ something\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\=\\ I\\ thought\\ today\\ was\\ Saturday\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25720\\;\\(mo1\\)\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ feel\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23581\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;chang2\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ taste\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\ \\=\\ easy\\ to\\ use\\.\\ \\ \\;Credit\\ cards\\ \\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\ B\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ as\\ good\\ as\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\/\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ B\\ \\(\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ Adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#25928\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20687\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#31185\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ke1xue2\\ \\=\\ scientific\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\ only\\ takes\\ positive\\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ takes\\ negative\\ and\\ positive\\ qualities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#65289\\;B\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ A\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22815\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&mdash\\;\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ theory\\ underlying\\ Chinese\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Corresponding\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ basic\\ elements\\ to\\ organs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26411\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&\\#12297\\;liver\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#32925\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#28779\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&\\#12297\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22303\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;tu3\\ \\=\\ spleen\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37329\\;\\ \\=\\ silver\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lung\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#32954\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27700\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;kidney\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#32958\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wood\\ promotes\\ fire\\ \\(solid\\ line\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Water\\ restrains\\ fire\\ \\(dotted\\ line\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ organ\\ is\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ of\\ these\\ emotions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liver\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ anger\\.\\ \\ \\;Liver\\ corresponds\\ to\\ wood\\.\\ \\ \\;Wood\\ promotes\\ fire\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;28\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\(\\&\\#19978\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#24815\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23506\\;\\&\\#20551\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#29609\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;B\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\+\\ \\[\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#32445\\;\\&\\#32422\\;\\&\\#33298\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\ \\;successful\\/into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Successful\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#20511\\;\\&\\#65288\\;jie4\\ \\=\\ to\\ borrow\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20511\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Into\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\V\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\+adj\\ \\(\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#38395\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;wen\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#28201\\;\\ \\=\\ smell\\&\\#65289\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#33261\\;\\&\\#65288\\;chou4\\ \\=\\ smelly\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#35910\\;\\&\\#33104\\;\\&\\#65288\\;dou4fu\\ \\=\\ tofu\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#38395\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#33261\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#39321\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#39321\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BMW\\&\\#24320\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#33298\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#65289\\;B\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\ \\=\\ mood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#34913\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Physical\\ movement\\ verbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20030\\;\\ \\=\\ ju3\\ \\=\\ to\\ raise\\ above\\ your\\ head\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20030\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\ \\=\\ raise\\ your\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#31471\\;\\ \\=\\ duan1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25260\\;\\ \\=\\ tai2\\ \\=\\ to\\ raise\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25260\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25644\\;\\ \\=\\ ban1\\ \\=\\ to\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25302\\;\\ \\=\\ tuo1\\ \\=\\ to\\ drag\\ while\\ facing\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25289\\;\\ \\=\\ la1\\ \\=\\ to\\ pull\\ while\\ facing\\ towards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25512\\;\\ \\=\\ tui1\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25172\\;\\ \\=\\ reng1\\ \\=\\ throw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20280\\;\\ \\=\\ shen1\\ \\=\\ to\\ push\\ out\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20280\\;\\&\\#33292\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25235\\;\\ \\=\\ zhua1\\ \\=\\ to\\ grab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25206\\;\\ \\=\\ fu2\\ \\=\\ learn\\ on\\ arm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25600\\;\\ \\=\\ chan1\\ \\=\\ support\\ with\\ arm\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25684\\;\\/\\&\\#36300\\;\\ \\=\\ shuai1\\=die1\\ \\=\\ to\\ fall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25441\\;\\ \\=\\ jian3\\ \\=\\ \\[\\&\\#25343\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\]\\ \\=\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;29\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ B\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\=\\ A\\ is\\ one\\ part\\ of\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32972\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ where\\ the\\ adj\\ goes\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;N\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Minorities\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#26641\\;\\&\\#27665\\;\\&\\#26063\\;\\&\\#65288\\;minorities\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\ \\(N\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;NP\\ \\(indefinite\\)\\ \\+\\ predicate\\/comment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#21151\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#21592\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ applied\\ to\\ 20\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30003\\;\\&\\#35831\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\N1\\&\\#26377\\;adj\\&\\#30340\\;N2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N1\\ \\(1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;topic\\)\\ N2\\ \\(2ndary\\ topic\\)\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36710\\;\\&\\#22827\\;\\&\\#31038\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20302\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#36164\\;\\&\\#65288\\;gong1zi1\\ \\=\\ salary\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;NP\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\/\\&\\#35828\\;\\ \\=\\ From\\ the\\ angle\\ of\\ NP\\,\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#21490\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#38899\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#21490\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;11\\&\\#26376\\;30\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\&\\#21407\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#65292\\;VP\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;NP\\&\\#65288\\;indefinite\\&\\#65289\\;\\+\\ comment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NP1\\ \\+\\ NP2\\ \\+\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\+\\&\\#24615\\;\\&\\#26684\\;\\+\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24189\\;\\&\\#40664\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\+\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\+\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#25910\\;\\&\\#20837\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;NP\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#65292\\;Sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#25509\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#21483\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#65289\\;B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30343\\;\\&\\#24093\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#21483\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#31034\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#20029\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#31034\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#28418\\;\\&\\#20142\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;B\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#37096\\;\\&\\#20998\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;12\\&\\#26376\\;4\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30011\\;\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#36148\\;\\ \\=\\ tie1\\ \\=\\ to\\ paste\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25346\\;\\ \\=\\ gua4\\ \\=\\ to\\ hang\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ paint\\/draw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#40657\\;\\&\\#26495\\;\\(blackboard\\ \\=\\ hei1ban3\\)\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#31505\\;\\&\\#31505\\;\\&\\#33080\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24351\\;\\&\\#24351\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ be\\ painted\\,\\ drawn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Location\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#30528\\;\\/\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24133\\;\\&\\#22826\\;\\&\\#26497\\;\\&\\#22270\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#22871\\;\\&\\#25346\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;B\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20915\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\(\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\)\\ V\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22312\\;COOP\\&\\#20080\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#30149\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#34913\\;\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\?\\]\\ \\=\\ asking\\ for\\ a\\ noun\\ \\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\&\\#65289\\;of\\ sorts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[A\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\]\\ \\=\\ asking\\ for\\ a\\ \\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20081\\;\\ \\=\\ adv\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indiscriminately\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20081\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20081\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Randomly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#20081\\;\\&\\#36208\\;\\&\\#36335\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ little\\ kids\\ walk\\ randomly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20081\\;\\&\\#25172\\;\\&\\#65288\\;reng1\\ \\=\\ to\\ throw\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#22403\\;\\&\\#22334\\;\\&\\#65288\\;la1ji1\\ \\=\\ trash\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arbitrarily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#20081\\;\\&\\#25209\\;\\&\\#35780\\;\\&\\#65288\\;pi2ping2\\ \\=\\ to\\ criticize\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20081\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ adv\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\=\\ as\\ one\\ pleases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Help\\ yourself\\ \\&\\#65288\\;while\\ eating\\&\\#65289\\;\\=\\ \\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ just\\ looking\\ around\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ adj\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\=\\ casual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38752\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\/\\&\\#29992\\;\\/\\&\\#36890\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#65289\\;NP\\&\\#26469\\;V\\ \\=\\ rely\\ on\\ NP\\ to\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#38752\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;can\\ be\\ a\\ \\&\\#21160\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26834\\;\\&\\#27714\\;\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36187\\;\\=bang4qiu2bi3sai4\\ \\=\\ baseball\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19978\\;B\\ \\=\\ A\\ cannot\\ compare\\ with\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;12\\&\\#26376\\;05\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Location\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#25346\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#30011\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#36148\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#22681\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#29255\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ will\\ put\\ a\\ photograph\\ on\\ my\\ wall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#35270\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;B\\&\\#20915\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#32946\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36136\\;\\&\\#37327\\;\\&\\#20915\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#32479\\;\\ \\=\\ zong3tong3\\ \\=\\ president\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#32479\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26681\\;\\&\\#25454\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#21382\\;\\&\\#20915\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\/\\&\\#36896\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32418\\;\\&\\#37202\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#20135\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20081\\;\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#20081\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#22352\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#38543\\;\\&\\#20415\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#35841\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#29255\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\ vs\\.\\ A\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ one\\ asks\\ for\\ a\\ shorter\\ answer\\,\\ probably\\ just\\ an\\ adjective\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\ one\\ asks\\ for\\ a\\ longer\\ more\\ descriptive\\ answer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38752\\;\\ A\\ \\(\\&\\#26469\\;\\)\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#27773\\;\\&\\#36710\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#38752\\;\\&\\#36208\\;\\&\\#36335\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36208\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hawaii\\&\\#38752\\;\\&\\#26053\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#36186\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\ B\\ \\=\\ A\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ compare\\ with\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[B\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36739\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[similar\\ to\\ A\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\ B\\ adj\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ for\\ saying\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ that\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;12\\&\\#26376\\;6\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\ \\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\_\\_\\_\\_\\&\\#30140\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#30140\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#30140\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#30140\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#21385\\;\\&\\#23475\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22836\\;\\&\\#30140\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28436\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#28436\\;\\ \\=\\ n\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#35282\\;\\&\\#33394\\;\\ \\=\\ role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\&\\#65306\\;\\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\/\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#35270\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\ \\=\\ v\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tom\\ Cruise\\ \\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;Mission\\ Impossible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\[\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#22768\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#30446\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#26159\\;topic\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;comment\\ \\(quantity\\)\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#24537\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#19996\\;\\&\\#35199\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#35753\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29100\\;\\&\\#22812\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#32773\\;\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#21151\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#29256\\;\\&\\#65288\\;chu1ban3\\ \\=\\ publish\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#30334\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30475\\;Sentence\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\/\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\/\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\=\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ fooled\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;Actually\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#39295\\;\\&\\#65288\\;e4\\ \\=\\ hungry\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#31163\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#29575\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23130\\;\\&\\#23035\\;\\&\\#36136\\;\\&\\#37327\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31934\\;\\&\\#24425\\;\\ \\=\\ adj\\ u\\ only\\ use\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ done\\.\\ A\\ view\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ count\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ sporting\\ event\\ does\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27927\\;\\&\\#32819\\;\\&\\#24685\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#24685\\;\\ \\=\\ gong1\\ \\=\\ modest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35013\\;\\&\\#32843\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#21713\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#29677\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#24324\\;\\&\\#26023\\;\\ \\=\\ v\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24324\\;\\ \\=\\ nong4\\ \\=\\ use\\ \\=\\ main\\ verb\\ in\\ this\\ phrase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26023\\;\\ \\=\\ fu3\\ \\=\\ axe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19987\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#30095\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#27973\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25165\\;\\ \\&\\#21644\\;\\ \\&\\#23398\\;\\ \\=\\ talents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30095\\;\\ \\=\\ shu1\\ \\=\\ lack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#34503\\;\\&\\#28155\\;\\&\\#36275\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Time\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\&\\#65292\\;Time\\&\\#23601\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ like\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21018\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\ \\=\\ \\=\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\+3\\ \\=\\ 5\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;amounts\\ to\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;amounts\\ to\\ doing\\ something\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;12\\&\\#26376\\;7\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24815\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#25968\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21463\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36814\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32451\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#20687\\;\\&\\#37329\\;\\&\\#29577\\;\\&\\#33391\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20170\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35753\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#29275\\;\\&\\#24377\\;\\&\\#29748\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#25968\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35802\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#27927\\;\\&\\#32819\\;\\&\\#24685\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#32039\\;\\&\\#24352\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#30456\\;\\&\\#20449\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#22238\\;\\&\\#31572\\;\\&\\#22238\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24072\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#35013\\;\\&\\#32843\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#21713\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#20917\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29677\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#24324\\;\\&\\#26023\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20132\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#29233\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#30095\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#27973\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\&\\#25913\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20171\\;\\&\\#32461\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#34503\\;\\&\\#28155\\;\\&\\#36275\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#31456\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#25509\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#25913\\;\\&\\#36807\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20171\\;\\&\\#32461\\;\\&\\#25165\\;\\&\\#30011\\;\\&\\#40857\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#30555\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sb\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\&\\#30140\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28436\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#21592\\;\\/\\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ perform\\ \\/\\ performance\\ \\/\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#28436\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35266\\;\\&\\#20247\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21442\\;\\&\\#35266\\;\\ \\=\\ can1guan1\\ \\=\\ to\\ visit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;Joaquin\\ Phoenix\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#20102\\;Hotel\\ Rwanda\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fact\\,\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#26159\\;topic\\&\\#23601\\;comment\\/quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#24191\\;\\&\\#22330\\;\\&\\#65288\\;guang3chang3\\ \\=\\ square\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32963\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#27721\\;\\&\\#22561\\;\\&\\#21253\\;\\&\\#65288\\;han4bao1bao1\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20809\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#33151\\;\\ \\=\\ leg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#33011\\;\\&\\#33162\\;\\ \\=\\ ge4bo3\\ \\=\\ upper\\ arm\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30475\\;S1\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\/\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\/\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;S2\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ fooled\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ S1\\,\\ S2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23569\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22270\\;\\&\\#20070\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#27982\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20854\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\&\\#27745\\;\\&\\#26579\\;\\&\\#65288\\;wu1ran3\\ \\=\\ pollution\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38382\\;\\&\\#39064\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23384\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\ \\=\\ cun2zai4\\ \\=\\ to\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#28010\\;\\&\\#36153\\;\\ \\=\\ lang4fei4\\ \\=\\ to\\ waste\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#27515\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\ \\=\\ Facebook\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#20110\\;B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;HBA\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#20061\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Time\\ expression\\ \\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\&\\#65292\\;Time\\ Expression\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\=\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ like\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ this\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#21270\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29616\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36830\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31934\\;\\&\\#24425\\;\\ \\=\\ jing1cai3\\ \\=\\ splendid\\,\\ used\\ for\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\done\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#28436\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#28436\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33410\\;\\&\\#30446\\;\\=jie2mu4\\ \\=\\ program\\ \\(\\&\\#30005\\;\\&\\#35270\\;\\&\\#33410\\;\\&\\#30446\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#36187\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21457\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\ \\=\\ fa1yan2\\ \\=\\ to\\ state\\ your\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#35272\\;\\ \\=\\ zhan3lan3\\ \\=\\ exhibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#21338\\;\\&\\#29289\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#36817\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23637\\;\\&\\#35272\\;\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#31934\\;\\&\\#24425\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35748\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#20889\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\+\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\ \\=\\ in\\ the\\ manner\\ of\\ this\\ verb\\,\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22914\\;\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\positive\\ adjective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31471\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#25260\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25103\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23427\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29702\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#37324\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#29702\\;\\ is\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\ \\=\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\ \\=\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\I\\ thought\\ so\\ too\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ do\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#21543\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32032\\;\\&\\#36136\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36136\\;\\&\\#37327\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21681\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\[\\&\\#35831\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\ \\[\\ \\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#30340\\;suggestion\\/request\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21476\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21160\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\]\\ \\ \\;\\-\\-\\&\\#12297\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35328\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#34920\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#24178\\;\\&\\#12290\\;1\\:\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#21809\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#21543\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\&rdquo\\;2\\:\\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\&\\#30331\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#26159\\;climb\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#30331\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#31561\\;\\&\\#20110\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#21160\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#27493\\;\\&\\#30331\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#28857\\;\\&\\#20799\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30830\\;\\&\\#23454\\;\\ \\=\\ indeed\\ \\=\\ que2shi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#31069\\;\\&\\#65288\\;zhu4\\ \\=\\ to\\ wish\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24070\\;\\&\\#39118\\;\\&\\#39034\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\=\\ I\\ wish\\ things\\ go\\ smoothly\\ for\\ you\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;12\\&\\#26376\\;12\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\/\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#21307\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38452\\;\\&\\#38451\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#34913\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#37325\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#65288\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#24459\\;\\ \\=\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#32423\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#35268\\;\\&\\#24459\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#26679\\;\\&\\#35268\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26469\\;sth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#39302\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#29942\\;\\&\\#65288\\;ping2\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#21860\\;\\&\\#37202\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#26202\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tian1dian3\\ \\=\\ dessert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20540\\;\\&\\#65288\\;bu4zhi2\\ \\=\\ to\\ decorate\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22681\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#35813\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#28023\\;\\&\\#25253\\;\\&\\#65288\\;hai2bao4\\ \\=\\ poster\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#34892\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\=\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ very\\ talented\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ cannot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stand\\ it\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ \\=\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ it\\!\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#38047\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35265\\;\\&\\#38047\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;12\\&\\#26376\\;13\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ by\\ the\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21521\\;\\/\\&\\#36319\\;Sb\\&\\#20511\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20174\\;\\ works\\ for\\ places\\,\\ not\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20511\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26032\\;schedule\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21628\\;\\&\\#30334\\;\\&\\#24212\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\=\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\=\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\ \\+\\ adv\\ \\=\\ make\\ sure\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adv\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\/\\&\\#35201\\;\\ for\\ positive\\,\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\/\\&\\#21035\\;\\/\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\ for\\ negative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Topic\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ Comment\\ \\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\=\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ it\\ the\\ case\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\comment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#20313\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\ \\=\\ time\\ not\\ spent\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20313\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\ \\=\\ free\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20313\\;\\&\\#29233\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\ \\=\\ hobbies\\ done\\ in\\ free\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21487\\;adv\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\you\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19990\\;\\&\\#30028\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#12290\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ telling\\ you\\ Harvard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ best\\ university\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ telling\\ you\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ not\\ going\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ \\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;adj\\&hellip\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ is\\ A\\ as\\ adj\\ as\\ B\\/\\(what\\ you\\ described\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ situation\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#23002\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#65288\\;Yao2\\ Ming2\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31967\\;\\&\\#31957\\;\\ \\=\\ zao1gao1\\ \\=\\ awful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\ \\=\\ ping2chang2\\ \\=\\ ordinary\\/common\\,\\ ordinarily\\,\\ commonly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25402\\;adj\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ pretty\\ adj\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25402\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ pretty\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adj\\/v\\ \\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#21568\\;\\ \\=\\ suggests\\ surprise\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2007\\&\\#24180\\;12\\&\\#26376\\;14\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#28909\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25140\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#24125\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#24815\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#36305\\;\\&\\#40857\\;\\&\\#22871\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#32489\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#20302\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#36864\\;\\&\\#22530\\;\\&\\#40723\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#29992\\;\\&\\#21035\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#20195\\;\\&\\#26367\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20250\\;\\&\\#35745\\;\\&\\#36825\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25671\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#26641\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#34429\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35838\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#35299\\;\\&\\#36824\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#21322\\;\\&\\#29942\\;\\&\\#37259\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#35273\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#29677\\;\\&\\#38376\\;\\&\\#24324\\;\\&\\#26023\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#27809\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#20449\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#30896\\;\\&\\#38025\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35828\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#21548\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#20081\\;\\&\\#24377\\;\\&\\#29748\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#23110\\;\\&\\#23110\\;\\&\\#65288\\;po2po2\\ \\=\\ grandmother\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27426\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#27873\\;\\&\\#34321\\;\\&\\#33735\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#34892\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23110\\;\\&\\#23110\\;\\&\\#20174\\;\\&\\#26469\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#35848\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25919\\;\\&\\#27835\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#31505\\;\\&\\#22075\\;\\&\\#22075\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#27450\\;\\&\\#39575\\;\\&\\#65288\\;qi1pian4\\ \\=\\ to\\ deceive\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#21483\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20204\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#31505\\;\\&\\#38754\\;\\&\\#34382\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24072\\;\\&\\#21578\\;\\&\\#35785\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#32451\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#33457\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#32451\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35821\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\&\\#32451\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39532\\;\\&\\#21518\\;\\&\\#28846\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25209\\;\\&\\#35780\\;\\ \\=\\ pi1ping2\\ \\=\\ to\\ criticize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#22920\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#32463\\;\\&\\#39564\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#24544\\;\\&\\#21578\\;\\&\\#65288\\;zhong1gao4\\ \\=\\ advice\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32473\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#20024\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#20026\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21464\\;\\&\\#25104\\;\\&\\#31505\\;\\&\\#35805\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30007\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#30333\\;\\&\\#26085\\;\\&\\#26790\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#36873\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35797\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#20064\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#37329\\;\\&\\#27833\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21150\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#38750\\;\\&\\#27515\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#21496\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#28818\\;\\&\\#20919\\;\\&\\#39277\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20010\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#36136\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#65288\\;di4zhi4xue2jia1\\ \\=\\ geologist\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#65292\\;\\&\\#22905\\;\\&\\#24635\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23545\\;\\&\\#23665\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#20355\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23665\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\ VP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;make\\ sure\\ to\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\+\\ \\&\\#21035\\;\\/\\&\\#35201\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20313\\;adj\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ spare\\ time\\,\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19987\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\ \\=\\ professional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#38752\\;\\&\\#19994\\;\\&\\#20313\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\&\\#38388\\;\\&\\#36186\\;\\&\\#38065\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subj\\ \\&\\#21487\\;\\ VP\\ \\(\\&\\#21834\\;\\)\\ \\=\\ function\\ of\\ this\\ sentence\\ is\\ to\\ remind\\ someone\\ of\\ something\\&\\#12290\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;something\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;VP\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23380\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#30452\\;\\&\\#23398\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#21834\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22269\\;\\&\\#31929\\;\\&\\#38463\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25402\\;adj\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;pretty\\ adj\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#25402\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20004\\;\\&\\#19975\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20140\\;\\&\\#21095\\;\\&\\#25402\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#25026\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#33457\\;\\&\\#38271\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#25402\\;\\&\\#38590\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#33457\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#26448\\;\\&\\#25402\\;\\&\\#20581\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#12290\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#26102\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#24403\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\ \\=\\ that\\ time\\ \\/\\ that\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#65288\\;A\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#65288\\;B\\&\\#65289\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\[\\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\]\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27874\\;\\&\\#22763\\;\\&\\#39039\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#20919\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65281\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21809\\;\\&\\#27468\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21527\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\[\\&\\#24418\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#35789\\;\\]\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#20040\\;\\&\\#21834\\;\\&\\#65311\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ adj\\ at\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 7, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Chinese_130a_-_Class_Notes_1.doc", "desc": "Notes from the entire semester"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Economics 10 - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "economics-10", "mankiw"], "text": null, "id": 17, "html": "\\\\\\GROUP\\_STUDY\\_GUIDE\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c49\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:177\\.3pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 3\\.5pt\\ 0pt\\ 3\\.5pt\\}\\.c17\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:87\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c20\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:87\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c29\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.5pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c15\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c42\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:148\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c9\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c40\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c41\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:86\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c25\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c11\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:88pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c23\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:92\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c38\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:146\\.5pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c35\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:148\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c34\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c37\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c36\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c30\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c58\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c44\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Trebuchet\\ MS\\\"\\}\\.c61\\{height\\:1px\\;width\\:33\\%\\}\\.c59\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:124\\.5pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:88\\.5pt\\}\\.c54\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:160\\.5pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c39\\{text\\-indent\\:35\\.4pt\\;margin\\-left\\:35\\.4pt\\}\\.c43\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-135pt\\;margin\\-left\\:135pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c8\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\}\\.c46\\{font\\-size\\:8pt\\}\\.c7\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c18\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.c51\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c50\\{margin\\-left\\:158\\.4pt\\}\\.c55\\{margin\\-left\\:106\\.2pt\\}\\.c56\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c48\\{color\\:\\#ff6600\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c19\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c52\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c47\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c32\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c53\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c57\\{text\\-indent\\:35\\.4pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:70\\.8pt\\}\\.c60\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Social\\ Analysis\\-10\\ Microeconomics\\ Study\\ Guide\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ten\\ Principles\\ of\\ Economics\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Efficiency\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ society\\ getting\\ the\\ most\\ it\\ can\\ from\\ its\\ scarce\\ resources\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;size\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ pie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ disturbing\\ economic\\ prosperity\\ fairly\\ among\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;how\\ the\\ economic\\ pie\\ is\\ divided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ten\\ Principles\\ of\\ Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ face\\ tradeoffs\\:\\ scarcity\\ causes\\ people\\ \\(society\\)\\ to\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ it\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ex\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;guns\\ and\\ butter\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ cost\\ of\\ something\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ to\\ get\\ it\\:\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;whatever\\ must\\ be\\ given\\ up\\ to\\ obtain\\ some\\ item\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rational\\ people\\ think\\ at\\ the\\ margin\\:\\ thinking\\ how\\ a\\ small\\ incremental\\ change\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ affect\\ your\\ decision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ respond\\ to\\ incentives\\:\\ costs\\ vs\\.\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Trade\\ can\\ make\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\:\\ ability\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ product\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\,\\ specialize\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ best\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Markets\\ are\\ usually\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ organize\\ economic\\ activity\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;invisible\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;self\\ interest\\ guide\\ the\\ decisions\\ and\\ naturally\\ fins\\ the\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Governments\\ can\\ sometimes\\ improve\\ market\\ outcome\\:\\ naturally\\ markets\\ usually\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;maximizes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ economic\\ pie\\,\\ however\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ the\\ slices\\ are\\ equal\\.\\ Also\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\externalities\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ maximize\\ social\\ surplus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\ depends\\ on\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ produce\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\:\\ productivity\\ is\\ usually\\ the\\ cause\\ for\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Prices\\ rise\\ when\\ the\\ government\\ prints\\ too\\ much\\ money\\:\\ inflation\\ \\(an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ overall\\ level\\ of\\ prices\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\)\\ occurs\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ too\\ much\\ money\\ being\\ circulated\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ Value\\ the\\ money\\ falls\\ when\\ the\\ government\\ increases\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ being\\ printed\\ causing\\ prices\\ to\\ rise\\ as\\ result\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Society\\ faces\\ the\\ short\\-run\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ inflation\\ and\\ unemployment\\:\\ \\ \\;reducing\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ circulated\\ reduces\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ that\\ will\\ spend\\.\\ Prices\\ take\\ time\\ to\\ lower\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ short\\ time\\ where\\ prices\\ will\\ remain\\ high\\ and\\ spending\\ is\\ decreasing\\ where\\ unemployment\\ will\\ occur\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thinking\\ Like\\ an\\ Economist\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Circular\\ Flow\\ Diagram\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ visual\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ that\\ show\\ how\\ dollars\\ flow\\ through\\ markets\\ among\\ households\\ a\\ firms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FIRMS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Produce\\ and\\ sell\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Hire\\ and\\ use\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Markets\\ for\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Firms\\ sell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Households\\ buy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goods\\ and\\ services\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Revenue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Markets\\ for\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Households\\ sell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Firms\\ buy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inputs\\ for\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wages\\,\\ rent\\,\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HOUSEHOLDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Buy\\ and\\ consume\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Own\\ and\\ sell\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\,\\ land\\ and\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ and\\ services\\ bought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Production\\ Possibilities\\ Frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ graph\\ that\\ shows\\ the\\ various\\ combinations\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ Statement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;descriptive\\ statement\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Normative\\ Statement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ assertion\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ought\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Macroeconomics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ study\\ of\\ economy\\-wide\\ phenomena\\,\\ including\\ inflation\\ and\\ unemployment\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Microeconomics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ households\\ and\\ firms\\ make\\ decisions\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ interact\\ in\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ \\&ldquo\\;Interdependence\\ and\\ the\\ Gains\\ from\\ Trade\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ producer\\ has\\ an\\ absolute\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\ when\\ they\\ require\\ a\\ smaller\\ quantity\\ of\\ inputs\\ to\\ produce\\ this\\ good\\ than\\ other\\ producers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ an\\ item\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ give\\ up\\ to\\ get\\ that\\ item\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparative\\ advantage\\ deals\\ with\\ comparing\\ the\\ opportunity\\ costs\\ of\\ two\\ producers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ producer\\ with\\ the\\ lower\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ two\\ producers\\ consider\\ trading\\,\\ the\\ producer\\ with\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\ should\\ specialize\\ in\\ producing\\ that\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goods\\ produced\\ abroad\\ and\\ sold\\ domestically\\ are\\ called\\ imports\\.\\ \\ \\;Goods\\ produced\\ domestically\\ and\\ sold\\ abroad\\ are\\ called\\ exports\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\ makes\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\ because\\ it\\ allows\\ producers\\ to\\ specialize\\ in\\ those\\ areas\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Used\\ in\\ the\\ Book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ Farmer\\,\\ One\\ Rancher\\,\\ Each\\ Produces\\ Meat\\ \\&\\;\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amount\\ of\\ Meat\\ or\\ Potatoes\\ Produced\\ in\\ 8\\ Hours\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Meat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Farmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\8\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\32\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rancher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\20\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\48\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minutes\\ Needed\\ to\\ Make\\ 1\\ Ounce\\ of\\ Meat\\ or\\ Potatoes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Meat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Farmer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\60\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\15\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rancher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\24\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\10\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rancher\\ has\\ an\\ absolute\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ both\\ meat\\ and\\ potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Opportunity\\ Cost\\ of\\ Meat\\ and\\ Potatoes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Meat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\1\\ oz\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Farmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\4\\ oz\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\¼\\;\\ oz\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rancher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\2\\ oz\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\½\\;\\ oz\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ farmer\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ potatoes\\ and\\ the\\ rancher\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ meat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ The\\ Gains\\ from\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Farmer\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Farmer\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Rancher\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Rancher\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Production\\ and\\ Consumption\\ without\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Production\\ with\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\0\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\32\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\18\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\12\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gets\\ 5\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ 15\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ 5\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gets\\ 15\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Consumption\\ with\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\5\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\17\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\13\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\27\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Gains\\ from\\ Trade\\:\\ Increase\\ in\\ Consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 1\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 1\\ oz\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 1\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 3\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ from\\ Page\\ 57\\ in\\ the\\ Textbook\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Each\\ person\\ produces\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ produced\\ by\\ many\\ other\\ people\\ both\\ in\\ our\\ country\\ and\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Interdependence\\ and\\ trade\\ are\\ desirable\\ because\\ they\\ allow\\ everyone\\ to\\ enjoy\\ a\\ greater\\ quantity\\ and\\ variety\\ of\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ two\\ ways\\ to\\ compare\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ two\\ people\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ person\\ who\\ can\\ produce\\ the\\ good\\ with\\ the\\ smaller\\ quantity\\ of\\ inputs\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ absolute\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ person\\ who\\ has\\ the\\ smaller\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ gains\\ from\\ trade\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ comparative\\ advantage\\,\\ not\\ absolute\\ advantage\\.\\ \\ \\;Absolute\\ Advantage\\:\\ Inputs\\,\\ Comparative\\ Advantage\\:\\ Opportunity\\ Cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\ makes\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\ because\\ it\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ specialize\\ in\\ those\\ activities\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ principle\\ of\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ applies\\ to\\ countries\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ to\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Economists\\ use\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ to\\ advocate\\ free\\ trade\\ among\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Key\\ Concepts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Absolute\\ Advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opportunity\\ Cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparative\\ Advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Market\\ Forces\\ of\\ Supply\\ and\\ Demand\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Law\\ of\\ Demand\\-\\ for\\ normal\\ good\\,\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ is\\ negatively\\ related\\ to\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Market\\ demand\\ \\=\\ the\\ horizontal\\ aggregation\\ of\\ all\\ individual\\ demand\\ curves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shifts\\ in\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\ can\\ result\\ from\\ changes\\ in\\ income\\,\\ prices\\ of\\ related\\ goods\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ expectations\\,\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ buyers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ are\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ movement\\ along\\ the\\ curve\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Law\\ of\\ Supply\\-\\ quantity\\ supplied\\ is\\ positively\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Market\\ supply\\=\\ the\\ horizontal\\ aggregation\\ of\\ all\\ individual\\ supply\\ curves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shifts\\ in\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\ can\\ result\\ from\\ changes\\ in\\ input\\ prices\\,\\ technology\\,\\ expectations\\,\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ sellers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ quantity\\ supplied\\ are\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ movement\\ along\\ the\\ curve\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Market\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\ curves\\ intersect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Law\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\-\\ surpluses\\ and\\ shortages\\ are\\ temporary\\ in\\ free\\ markets\\ because\\ price\\ and\\ quantity\\ will\\ return\\ to\\ equilibrium\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Elasticity\\ and\\ its\\ Application\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elasticity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ responsiveness\\ of\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ or\\ supplied\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ its\\ determinants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\price\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ much\\ the\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ responds\\ to\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ price\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Computing\\ Price\\ Elasticity\\ of\\ Demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\ED\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\(percent\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\/\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ price\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ use\\ the\\ midpoint\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ calculate\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;point\\ A\\:\\ Price\\ \\=\\ \\$4\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Quantity\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ 120\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\point\\ B\\:\\ Price\\ \\=\\ \\$6\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Quantity\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ 80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elasticity\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[\\(Q\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Q\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(Q\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\Q\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\[\\(P\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\/\\(Q\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\\\+Q\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[\\(80\\-120\\)\\/\\(200\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\[\\(6\\-4\\)\\/\\(10\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\=\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Types\\ of\\ elasticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elastic\\,\\ elasticity\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inelastic\\,\\ elasticity\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unit\\ elastic\\,\\ elasticity\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ Tell\\ Elasticity\\ on\\ a\\ graph\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perfectly\\ inelastic\\ curve\\ is\\ vertical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inelastic\\ curve\\ is\\ relatively\\ steep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elastic\\ Curve\\ is\\ relatively\\ flat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perfectly\\ elastic\\ curve\\ is\\ horizontal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ Know\\ if\\ a\\ good\\ is\\ Elastic\\ or\\ Inelastic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elastic\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Inelastic\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ many\\ close\\ substitutes\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ few\\ close\\ substitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ good\\ is\\ a\\ luxury\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ good\\ is\\ a\\ necessity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ very\\ specific\\ market\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ broad\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ for\\ \\#3\\:\\ insulin\\ is\\ inelastic\\,\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ choosing\\ between\\ different\\ brands\\ of\\ insulin\\,\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ more\\ elastic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Long\\ time\\ horizon\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ short\\ time\\ horizon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\ Revenue\\ TEST\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ demand\\ is\\ inelastic\\,\\ price\\ and\\ total\\ revenue\\ move\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ direction\\,\\ that\\ is\\ if\\ price\\ increases\\,\\ so\\ will\\ total\\ revenue\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ \\%\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ was\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ \\%\\ change\\ in\\ price\\ increase\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ total\\ revenue\\ increased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ demand\\ is\\ elastic\\,\\ price\\ and\\ total\\ revenue\\ move\\ in\\ opposite\\ directions\\.\\ That\\ is\\ if\\ price\\ increases\\,\\ total\\ revenue\\ decreases\\,\\ because\\ consumers\\ are\\ responsive\\ to\\ the\\ price\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ demand\\ is\\ unit\\ elastic\\,\\ total\\ revenue\\ is\\ constant\\ when\\ price\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Something\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Although\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ curves\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ are\\ linear\\,\\ and\\ the\\ slope\\ is\\ constant\\,\\ the\\ elasticity\\ is\\ NOT\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ Demand\\ Elasticities\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Income\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\:\\ measures\\ how\\ much\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ changes\\ as\\ consumer\\ income\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ divided\\ by\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ income\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ it\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ 0\\,\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ a\\ normal\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ it\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ 0\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ an\\ inferior\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cross\\-price\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\:\\ measures\\ how\\ the\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ of\\ one\\ good\\ changes\\ as\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ another\\ good\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\=\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ divided\\ by\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ the\\ elasticity\\ is\\ positive\\,\\ then\\ the\\ goods\\ are\\ substitutes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ elasticity\\ is\\ negative\\,\\ then\\ the\\ goods\\ are\\ complements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ Elasticity\\ of\\ Supply\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\measure\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ quantity\\ supplied\\ responds\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Calculate\\ the\\ same\\ was\\ as\\ price\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ tell\\ elasticity\\ from\\ Supply\\ curve\\:\\ same\\ rules\\ that\\ applied\\ to\\ demand\\ curves\\ to\\ tell\\ elasticity\\ apply\\ to\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\"\\;Supply\\,\\ Demand\\ and\\ Government\\ Policies\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Big\\ Picture\\,\\ Intro\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ Chapter\\ moves\\ from\\ discussing\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ markets\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ to\\ discussing\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ governments\\ try\\ to\\ affect\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Takeaway\\ \\#1\\:\\ Price\\ Ceilings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\If\\ binding\\,\\ then\\ they\\ create\\ shortage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Even\\ when\\ non\\-binding\\,\\ if\\ supply\\ curve\\ shifts\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ or\\ demand\\ to\\ the\\ right\\,\\ non\\-binding\\ can\\ become\\ binding\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Mankiw\\ Example\\:\\ OPEC\\ and\\ the\\ oil\\ crisis\\;\\ when\\ supply\\ shrunk\\,\\ price\\ maximums\\ created\\ a\\ shortage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Takeaway\\ \\#2\\:\\ Price\\ Floors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ binding\\,\\ then\\ they\\ create\\ surplus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Even\\ when\\ non\\-binding\\,\\ if\\ supply\\ curve\\ shifts\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ or\\ demand\\ to\\ the\\ left\\,\\ non\\-binding\\ can\\ still\\ \\ \\;become\\ binding\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Mankiw\\ Example\\:\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\;\\ with\\ a\\ minimum\\ wage\\,\\ price\\ minimums\\ on\\ labor\\ create\\ a\\ surplus\\ of\\ \\ \\;labor\\&mdash\\;unemployment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Takeaway\\ \\#3\\:\\ Both\\ Price\\ Ceilings\\ and\\ Price\\ Floors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\:\\ With\\ price\\ controls\\,\\ more\\ elastic\\ curves\\ effect\\ greater\\ shortages\\ and\\ surpluses\\B\\:\\ All\\ curves\\ are\\ more\\ elastic\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\Therefore\\C\\:\\ All\\ price\\ controls\\ are\\ disproportionately\\ more\\ harmful\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takeaway\\ \\#4\\:\\ Taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ if\\ you\\ tax\\ buyers\\ or\\ sellers\\,\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\ is\\ always\\ shared\\.\\ Distribution\\ of\\ this\\ burden\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tax\\ Incidence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takeaway\\ \\#5\\:\\ Tax\\ Incidence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ harder\\ on\\ the\\ less\\ elastic\\ element\\ of\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Mankiw\\ Example\\:\\ luxury\\ tax\\;\\ while\\ attempting\\ to\\ tax\\ goods\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\ class\\,\\ since\\ demand\\ for\\ tax\\ is\\ elastic\\ \\(easy\\ to\\ not\\ buy\\ luxury\\ goods\\)\\ and\\ supply\\ is\\ inelastic\\ \\(firms\\ dedicated\\ to\\ producing\\ luxury\\ goods\\ are\\ not\\ easily\\ converted\\ to\\ alternative\\ uses\\)\\,\\ luxury\\ taxes\\ incidence\\ falls\\ heavier\\ on\\ businesses\\ that\\ produce\\ luxury\\ goods\\ than\\ luxury\\ good\\ consumers\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ luxury\\ tax\\ was\\ thusly\\ repealed\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;93\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Big\\ Picture\\,\\ Outro\\:\\What\\ happens\\ when\\ governments\\ try\\ to\\ affect\\ markets\\ against\\ the\\ markets\\&rsquo\\;\\ will\\:\\ surpluses\\/shortages\\/market\\ shrinking\\.\\ Economics\\ moral\\:\\ leave\\ the\\ market\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Consumers\\,\\ Producers\\ and\\ the\\ Efficiency\\ of\\ Markets\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ equilibrium\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\ in\\ a\\ market\\ maximizes\\ the\\ total\\ benefits\\ received\\ by\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumer\\ surplus\\ is\\ the\\ area\\ below\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\ and\\ above\\ the\\ price\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ most\\ markets\\,\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ does\\ reflect\\ economic\\ well\\-being\\.\\ The\\ exceptions\\ include\\ drug\\ addicts\\ who\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ a\\ high\\ price\\ for\\ heroin\\ and\\ the\\ price\\ they\\ currently\\ face\\ for\\ it\\ is\\ low\\.\\ We\\ would\\ not\\ say\\ that\\ this\\ represents\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ because\\ society\\ does\\ not\\ benefit\\ from\\ drug\\ addicts\\ and\\ drug\\ addicts\\ are\\ not\\ looking\\ after\\ their\\ own\\ best\\ interests\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Producer\\ surplus\\ is\\ the\\ area\\ below\\ price\\ and\\ above\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumer\\ surplus\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ are\\ the\\ basic\\ tools\\ that\\ economists\\ use\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ welfare\\ of\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ in\\ a\\ market\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Adding\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ together\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\ Surplus\\=\\ Value\\ to\\ buyers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Amount\\ paid\\ by\\ buyers\\ \\+\\ Amount\\ received\\ by\\ sellers\\-\\ Cost\\ to\\ sellers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\ Surplus\\=\\ Value\\ to\\ buyers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Cost\\ to\\ sellers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ an\\ allocation\\ is\\ inefficient\\ then\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ gains\\ from\\ trade\\ among\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ are\\ not\\ being\\ realized\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ an\\ allocation\\ is\\ inefficient\\ if\\ a\\ good\\ is\\ not\\ being\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ sellers\\ with\\ the\\ lowest\\ cost\\;\\ a\\ good\\ is\\ also\\ inefficient\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ being\\ consumed\\ by\\ the\\ buyers\\ who\\ value\\ it\\ most\\ highly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ question\\ of\\ efficiency\\ is\\ whether\\ the\\ pie\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ as\\ possible\\;\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ equity\\ is\\ whether\\ the\\ pie\\ is\\ divided\\ fairly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ markets\\ allocate\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ goods\\ to\\ the\\ buyers\\ who\\ value\\ them\\ most\\ highly\\ \\,\\ as\\ measured\\ by\\ their\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ markets\\ allocate\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ goods\\ to\\ the\\ sellers\\ who\\ can\\ produce\\ them\\ at\\ least\\ cost\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ markets\\ produce\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ goods\\ that\\ maximizes\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ consumer\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ benevolent\\ planner\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ alter\\ the\\ market\\ outcome\\ because\\ the\\ invisible\\ hand\\ has\\ already\\ guided\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ to\\ an\\ allocation\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resources\\ that\\ maximizes\\ total\\ surplus\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ economists\\ often\\ advocate\\ free\\ markets\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ organize\\ economic\\ activity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ market\\ for\\ organs\\,\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ imposed\\ a\\ price\\ ceiling\\ of\\ zero\\ dollars\\.\\ The\\ result\\ is\\ a\\ shortage\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\ Many\\ economists\\ believe\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ large\\ benefits\\ to\\ allowing\\ a\\ free\\ market\\ in\\ organs\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ market\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ efficient\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\,\\ but\\ critics\\ of\\ this\\ plan\\ worry\\ about\\ fairness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Definitions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Welfare\\ economics\\:\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\ affects\\ economic\\ well\\-being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Willingness\\ to\\ pay\\:\\ the\\ maximum\\ amount\\ that\\ a\\ buyer\\ will\\ pay\\ for\\ a\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumer\\ surplus\\:\\ a\\ buyer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ minus\\ the\\ amount\\ the\\ buyer\\ actually\\ pays\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Marginal\\ buyer\\:\\ the\\ buyer\\ who\\ would\\ leave\\ the\\ market\\ first\\ if\\ the\\ price\\ were\\ any\\ higher\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cost\\:\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ everything\\ a\\ seller\\ must\\ give\\ up\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Producer\\ surplus\\:\\ the\\ amount\\ a\\ seller\\ is\\ paid\\ minus\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ production\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Benevolent\\ Social\\ Planner\\:\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ all\\-knowing\\,\\ all\\-powerful\\,\\ well\\-intentioned\\ dictator\\ who\\ wants\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ economic\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ everyone\\ in\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equity\\:\\ the\\ fairness\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ well\\-being\\ among\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Efficiency\\:\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ resource\\ allocation\\ of\\ maximizing\\ the\\ total\\ surplus\\ received\\ by\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Application\\:\\ The\\ Costs\\ of\\ Taxation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Taxes\\ place\\ a\\ wedge\\ between\\ the\\ price\\ buyers\\ pay\\ and\\ the\\ price\\ \\sellers\\ receive\\,\\ so\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ draw\\ shifted\\ curves\\ anymore\\.\\2\\.\\ The\\ government\\ wins\\ from\\ taxes\\ while\\ consumers\\ and\\ producers\\ lose\\ \\out\\.\\ Government\\ receives\\ revenue\\ which\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\ \\times\\ the\\ quantity\\ sold\\.\\ Consumers\\ and\\ producers\\ lose\\ surplus\\.\\3\\.\\ Taxes\\ impose\\ inefficiency\\ \\ \\;because\\ they\\ cause\\ consumers\\ to\\ buy\\ less\\ \\and\\ producers\\ to\\ produce\\ less\\,\\ which\\ shrinks\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ pie\\ below\\ \\the\\ level\\ which\\ maximizes\\ social\\ surplus\\.\\4\\.\\ The\\ reduction\\ in\\ consumer\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ usually\\ exceeds\\ \\government\\ revenue\\.\\ The\\ decrease\\ in\\ social\\ surplus\\ in\\ a\\ market\\ due\\ to\\ \\the\\ distortion\\ in\\ that\\ market\\ from\\ the\\ tax\\.is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ deadweight\\ \\loss\\(DWL\\)\\.\\5\\.\\ When\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\ is\\ relatively\\ inelastic\\,\\ the\\ DWL\\ of\\ a\\ tax\\ is\\ \\small\\.\\ When\\ the\\ demand\\ is\\ relatively\\ inelastic\\,\\ the\\ DWL\\ of\\ a\\ tax\\ is\\ also\\ \\small\\.\\6\\.\\ A\\ small\\ tax\\ has\\ a\\ small\\ DWL\\ and\\ revenue\\;\\ a\\ medium\\ tax\\ has\\ a\\ larger\\ \\DWL\\ and\\ more\\ revenue\\;\\ a\\ very\\ large\\ tax\\ has\\ a\\ very\\ large\\ DWL\\ but\\ small\\ \\revenue\\.\\7\\.\\ A\\ good\\ tax\\ design\\ will\\ \\ \\;\\ A\\.\\ Tax\\ more\\ markets\\ less\\(have\\ a\\ broad\\ tax\\ \\base\\)\\ to\\ minimize\\ DWL\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ B\\.\\ Make\\ the\\ marginal\\ benefit\\ to\\ \\society\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ marginal\\ cost\\ to\\ society\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Application\\:\\ International\\ Trade\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\ Key\\ Takeaways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Al\\ low\\ domestic\\ price\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ country\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ country\\ will\\ become\\ an\\ exporter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ high\\ domestic\\ price\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ country\\ will\\ become\\ an\\ importer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-When\\ a\\ country\\ becomes\\ an\\ exporter\\-\\ producers\\ are\\ better\\ of\\ consumers\\ are\\ worse\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ When\\ a\\ country\\ allows\\ trade\\ and\\ becomes\\ an\\ importer\\ of\\ a\\ good\\,\\ consumers\\ are\\ better\\ of\\,\\ and\\ producers\\ are\\ worse\\ off\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Tariff\\-\\ tax\\ on\\ imports\\ moves\\ a\\ market\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ that\\ would\\ exist\\ without\\ trade\\ and\\ reduces\\ the\\ gains\\ from\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Import\\ quota\\-a\\ limit\\ on\\ imports\\-\\ similar\\ effects\\ that\\ a\\ tariff\\,\\ but\\ the\\ holders\\ of\\ the\\ import\\ license\\ receive\\ the\\ revenue\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ would\\ collect\\ with\\ a\\ tariff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Externalities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Externality\\-\\ the\\ resulting\\ effect\\ on\\ a\\ third\\ party\\ of\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;transaction\\ between\\ a\\ buyer\\ and\\ a\\ seller\\,\\ or\\ the\\ uncompensated\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;impact\\ of\\ one\\ person\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ on\\ the\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ a\\ bystander\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(i\\.e\\.\\ CO2\\ from\\ cars\\ destroying\\ the\\ environment\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ all\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;involved\\ in\\ the\\ transaction\\ between\\ gasoline\\ seller\\ and\\ consumer\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ Negative\\ externalities\\ cause\\ socially\\ optimal\\ Q\\ to\\ be\\ less\\ than\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ market\\ efficient\\ Q\\,\\ and\\ positive\\ externalities\\ cause\\ socially\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;optimal\\ Q\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ than\\ market\\ efficient\\ Q\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ The\\ Coase\\ theorem\\ states\\ that\\ if\\ private\\ parties\\ can\\ bargain\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;without\\ cost\\ over\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\,\\ they\\ can\\ solve\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;problems\\ of\\ externalities\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ in\\ some\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;cases\\,\\ both\\ parties\\ can\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ socially\\ efficient\\ outcome\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;without\\ compromising\\ their\\ respective\\ wants\\ or\\ needs\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 4\\.\\ If\\ the\\ two\\ parties\\ cannot\\ privately\\ internalize\\ the\\ externality\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;without\\ cost\\,\\ the\\ government\\ often\\ steps\\ in\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;externality\\.\\ Governments\\ will\\ usually\\ tax\\ markets\\ with\\ negative\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;externalities\\ \\(called\\ a\\ Pigovian\\ tax\\)\\ and\\ subsidize\\ markets\\ with\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;positive\\ externalities\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ market\\ efficient\\ Q\\ will\\ be\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;equal\\ to\\ socially\\ efficient\\ Q\\ in\\ each\\ case\\.\\ Governments\\ also\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;internalize\\ externalities\\ by\\ regulating\\ seller\\ or\\ consumer\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;behavior\\,\\ or\\ issuing\\ permits\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 5\\.\\ Case\\ Stude\\:\\ Gasoline\\ is\\ taxed\\ so\\ heavily\\ because\\ the\\ tax\\ is\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Pigovian\\ tax\\ that\\ aims\\ to\\ correct\\ three\\ pressing\\ issues\\ derived\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;from\\ the\\ gasoline\\ market\\:\\ the\\ tax\\ helps\\ to\\ \\*regulate\\ congestion\\*\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;by\\ encouraging\\ people\\ to\\ take\\ public\\ transportation\\ and\\ live\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;closer\\ to\\ work\\,\\ lower\\ the\\ incidence\\ of\\ \\*accidents\\*\\ because\\ it\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;encourages\\ people\\ to\\ drive\\ normal\\ sized\\ cars\\,\\ thereby\\ lowering\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;risk\\ of\\ people\\ being\\ killed\\ in\\ car\\ vs\\.\\ SUV\\ accidents\\,\\ and\\ reduces\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\*pollution\\*\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ gasoline\\,\\ thereby\\ reducing\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;amount\\ of\\ pollution\\ reaching\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ and\\ causing\\ global\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;warming\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ tax\\ that\\ internalizes\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;negative\\ externality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\ \\&ldquo\\;Public\\ Goods\\ and\\ Common\\ Resources\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Free\\ goods\\ are\\ a\\ challenge\\ for\\ economic\\ analysis\\,\\ because\\ they\\ make\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\ inefficient\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\>\\;\\ Private\\ markets\\ might\\ not\\ provide\\ free\\ goods\\ in\\ efficient\\ amounts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excludability\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ property\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ whereby\\ a\\ person\\ can\\ be\\ prevented\\ from\\ using\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rivalry\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ property\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ \\ \\;whereby\\ one\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ diminishes\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\ kinds\\ of\\ goods\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ both\\ excludable\\ and\\ rival\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ neither\\ excludable\\ nor\\ rival\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\ Resources\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ rival\\ but\\ not\\ excludable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natural\\ Monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ excludable\\ but\\ not\\ rival\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Rival\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Yes\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ice\\-cream\\ cones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congested\\ Toll\\ Roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natural\\ Monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fire\\ Protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cable\\ TV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncongested\\ toll\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\ Resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fish\\ in\\ the\\ ocean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congested\\ non\\-toll\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tornado\\ sirens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncongested\\ non\\-toll\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Yes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excludable\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Free\\-rider\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ person\\ who\\ receives\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ but\\ avoids\\ paying\\ for\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Free\\-Rider\\ Problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Since\\ people\\ cannot\\ be\\ excluded\\ from\\ enjoying\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\public\\ good\\,\\ individuals\\ may\\ withhold\\ paying\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ hoping\\ that\\ others\\ will\\ pay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ free\\-rider\\ problem\\ prevents\\ private\\ markets\\ from\\ supplying\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ goods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ Solution\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\ provides\\ the\\ public\\ good\\,\\ if\\ total\\ social\\ benefit\\ exceeds\\ the\\ total\\ social\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ government\\ might\\ make\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\ by\\ providing\\ the\\ public\\ good\\ and\\ paying\\ for\\ it\\ with\\ tax\\ revenue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Public\\ Goods\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\National\\ Defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fighting\\ Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lighthouse\\ question\\:\\ Are\\ Lighthouses\\ public\\ goods\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ a\\ lighthouse\\ benefits\\ many\\ ship\\ captains\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ public\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ it\\ primarily\\ benefits\\ a\\ single\\ port\\ owner\\,\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ private\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cost\\ Benefit\\ Analysis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ study\\ that\\ compares\\ the\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\ to\\ society\\ of\\ providing\\ a\\ public\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ order\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ public\\ good\\ or\\ not\\,\\ the\\ total\\ benefits\\ of\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ use\\ the\\ good\\ must\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ providing\\ and\\ maintaining\\ the\\ public\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ could\\ a\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ be\\ difficult\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Public\\ goods\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ price\\ attached\\.\\ Thus\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complicated\\ to\\ estimate\\ social\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ benefits\\ and\\ resource\\ costs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Things\\ like\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\,\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ aesthetics\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ assess\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ Commons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\illustrates\\ why\\ common\\ resources\\ get\\ used\\ excessively\\ and\\ not\\ optimal\\ from\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perspective\\,\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ free\\ of\\ charge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Common\\ Resources\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Clean\\ air\\ and\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congested\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fish\\,\\ whales\\ and\\ other\\ wildlife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ cow\\ extinct\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Private\\ ownership\\ and\\ profit\\ motive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Consideration\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Markets\\ fails\\ to\\ allocate\\ resources\\ efficiently\\,\\ when\\ property\\ rights\\ are\\ not\\ well\\ established\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ potentially\\ solve\\ this\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 12\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Design\\ of\\ the\\ Tax\\ System\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\*Taxes\\ cause\\ inefficiency\\*\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ are\\ deadweight\\ losses\\ and\\ administrative\\ burdens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ tax\\ systems\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ efficiency\\ and\\ equity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vocab\\ \\(in\\ no\\ particular\\ order\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tax\\ liability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ much\\ a\\ family\\ owes\\,\\ based\\ on\\ its\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\taxable\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ income\\ minus\\ deductibles\\ and\\ certain\\ amounts\\ based\\ on\\ dependents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marginal\\ tax\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ tax\\ rate\\ applied\\ to\\ each\\ additional\\ \\$1\\ of\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\average\\ tax\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ taxes\\ paid\\ divided\\ by\\ total\\ income\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\budget\\ surplus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ excess\\ of\\ receipts\\ over\\ spending\\ \\(in\\ a\\ given\\ time\\ period\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\budget\\ deficit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ excess\\ of\\ spending\\ over\\ receipts\\ \\(in\\ a\\ given\\ time\\ period\\)\\;\\ financed\\ by\\ borrowing\\ from\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Benefits\\ Principle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ pay\\ taxes\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ benefit\\ they\\ receive\\ from\\ gov\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ability\\-to\\-Pay\\ Principle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ taxes\\ should\\ be\\ levied\\ on\\ a\\ person\\ according\\ to\\ how\\ well\\ that\\ person\\ can\\ shoulder\\ the\\ burden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vertical\\ equity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ taxpayers\\ with\\ a\\ greater\\ ability\\ to\\ pay\\ should\\ pay\\ larger\\ amounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\horizontal\\ equity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ taxpayers\\ with\\ similar\\ abilities\\ to\\ pay\\ taxes\\ should\\ pay\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\quintiles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ five\\ equal\\ sized\\ tax\\ brackets\\ based\\ on\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\flypaper\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ says\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ tax\\ sticks\\ wherever\\ it\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ is\\ false\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ tax\\ on\\ furs\\ may\\ hurt\\ the\\ less\\ well\\-off\\ producers\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ wealthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ taxes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\payroll\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ tax\\ on\\ wage\\ that\\ a\\ firm\\ pays\\ its\\ workers\\ \\(also\\ called\\ social\\ insurance\\ taxes\\ b\\/c\\ used\\ to\\ pay\\ medicare\\ \\&\\;\\ soc\\ sec\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\excise\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ taxes\\ on\\ specific\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\consumption\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ would\\ tax\\ what\\ people\\ spend\\ rather\\ than\\ what\\ they\\ save\\ \\&\\;\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ distort\\ incentives\\ to\\ save\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lump\\-sum\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ tax\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ for\\ every\\ person\\ \\(most\\ efficient\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ distort\\ incentives\\ or\\ cause\\ DWL\\,\\ but\\ inequitable\\ because\\ it\\ takes\\ the\\ same\\ amt\\ from\\ poor\\ \\&\\;\\ rich\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tax\\ Systems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\proportional\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ tax\\ payers\\ pay\\ the\\ same\\ fraction\\ of\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\regressive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ high\\-income\\ taxpayers\\ pay\\ a\\ smaller\\ fraction\\ of\\ their\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\progressive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ high\\-income\\ taxpayers\\ pay\\ a\\ larger\\ fraction\\ of\\ their\\ income\\ \\(current\\ US\\ system\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Costs\\ of\\ Production\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ costs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Total\\ cost\\&mdash\\;the\\ market\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ inputs\\ a\\ firm\\ uses\\ in\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explicit\\ costs\\&mdash\\;input\\ costs\\ that\\ require\\ an\\ outlay\\ of\\ money\\ by\\ the\\ firm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Implicit\\ costs\\&mdash\\;input\\ costs\\ that\\ do\\ no\\ require\\ an\\ outlay\\ of\\ money\\ by\\ the\\ firm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fixed\\ costs\\&mdash\\;costs\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ vary\\ with\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ output\\ produced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Variable\\ costs\\&mdash\\;costs\\ that\\ DO\\ vary\\ with\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ output\\ produced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Average\\ total\\ cost\\ \\=\\ TC\\/q\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Average\\ fixed\\ cost\\ \\=\\ TFC\\/q\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Average\\ variable\\ cost\\ \\=\\ TVC\\/q\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marginal\\ cost\\ \\=\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ total\\ cost\\ that\\ arises\\ from\\ an\\ extra\\ unit\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ profit\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Profit\\ \\=\\ total\\ revenue\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ profit\\ \\=\\ TR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ TC\\,\\ including\\ both\\ explicit\\ and\\ implicit\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accounting\\ profit\\ \\=\\ TR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ explicit\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*diminishing\\ marginal\\ product\\&mdash\\;the\\ property\\ whereby\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ input\\ declines\\ as\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ input\\ decreases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*efficient\\ scale\\&mdash\\;the\\ quantity\\ of\\ output\\ that\\ minimizes\\ average\\ total\\ cost\\ \\(all\\ firms\\ in\\ a\\ competitive\\ market\\ will\\ produce\\ at\\ this\\ level\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MC\\ \\>\\;\\ AC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;AC\\ rising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MC\\ \\<\\;\\ AC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;AC\\ falling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MC\\ \\=\\ AC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;AC\\ flat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increasing\\ returns\\ to\\ scale\\&mdash\\;when\\ firms\\ get\\ more\\ than\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ output\\ when\\ they\\ double\\ ALL\\ inputs\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Specialization\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decreasing\\ returns\\ to\\ scale\\&mdash\\;when\\ firms\\ get\\ less\\ than\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ output\\ when\\ they\\ double\\ ALL\\ inputs\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Coordination\\ problems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constant\\ returns\\ to\\ scale\\&mdash\\;when\\ firms\\ get\\ exactly\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ output\\ when\\ they\\ double\\ ALL\\ inputs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ important\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ goal\\ of\\ firms\\ is\\ to\\ maximize\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ marginal\\-cost\\ curve\\ always\\ crosses\\ the\\ average\\-total\\ cost\\ curve\\ at\\ the\\ minimum\\ of\\ average\\-total\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ firm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ costs\\ often\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ time\\ horizon\\ being\\ considered\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Many\\ costs\\ are\\ fixed\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ but\\ variable\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Firms\\ in\\ Competitive\\ Markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perfectly\\ Competitive\\ Market\\:\\ A\\ market\\ with\\ many\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ trading\\ identical\\ products\\ so\\ that\\ each\\ buyer\\ and\\ seller\\ is\\ a\\ price\\ taker\\;\\ firms\\ can\\ enter\\/exit\\ the\\ market\\ freely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Profit\\=\\ TR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ TC\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Total\\ Revenue\\=\\ \\(Price\\ x\\ Quantity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Marginal\\ Revenue\\=P\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Average\\ Revenue\\=\\ TR\\/Q\\ \\=\\ \\(P\\ x\\ Q\\)\\/Q\\ \\=\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\:\\ To\\ Maximize\\ Profit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;choose\\ quantity\\ that\\ makes\\ profit\\ as\\ large\\ as\\ possible\\ OR\\ compare\\ MR\\ to\\ MC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Q1\\.\\ MR\\ \\>\\;\\ MC\\ raise\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Q2\\.\\ MR\\ \\<\\;\\ MC\\ lower\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Q3\\.\\ MC\\ \\=\\ MR\\ profit\\ maximization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Price\\ line\\ is\\ horizontal\\ because\\ firm\\ is\\ price\\ taker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MC\\ crosses\\ at\\ minimum\\ of\\ ATC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shut\\ Down\\:\\ Short\\-run\\ decision\\ not\\ to\\ produce\\ anything\\ during\\ a\\ specific\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ because\\ of\\ current\\ market\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-saves\\ variable\\ costs\\ of\\ making\\ the\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-fixed\\ cost\\ becomes\\ sunk\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ shut\\ down\\ if\\ TR\\ \\<\\;\\ VC\\ \\(P\\ \\<\\;\\ AVC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exit\\:\\ Long\\-run\\ decision\\ to\\ leave\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-exit\\ if\\ TR\\ \\<\\;\\ TC\\ \\(P\\ \\<\\;\\ ATC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-enter\\ if\\ P\\ \\>\\;\\ ATC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sunk\\ Cost\\:\\ A\\ cost\\ that\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ committed\\ and\\ cannot\\ be\\ recovered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Long\\ Run\\:\\ Mkt\\ Supply\\ with\\ entry\\/exit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;firms\\ remaining\\ in\\ market\\ must\\ be\\ making\\ zero\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economic\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ process\\ occurs\\ when\\ price\\ and\\ ATC\\ are\\ driven\\ to\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-long\\ run\\ supply\\ curve\\ is\\ typically\\ more\\ elastic\\ than\\ short\\ run\\ supply\\ curve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 15\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Monopoly\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fundamental\\ cause\\ of\\ monopoly\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\barriers\\ to\\ entry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Barriers\\ to\\ entry\\ result\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ firm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sole\\ ownership\\ of\\ a\\ key\\ resource\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ provided\\ a\\ single\\ firm\\ with\\ the\\ EXCLUSIVE\\ right\\ to\\ produce\\ some\\ good\\ or\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Costs\\ of\\ production\\ making\\ a\\ single\\ producer\\ more\\ efficient\\ than\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ special\\ type\\ of\\ monopoly\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\natural\\ monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ a\\ natural\\ monopoly\\ has\\ decreasing\\ ATC\\ over\\ their\\ range\\ of\\ output\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ firm\\ faces\\ economies\\ of\\ scale\\ \\(if\\ the\\ firm\\ doubles\\ inputs\\,\\ the\\ firm\\ more\\ than\\ doubles\\ their\\ output\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Features\\ of\\ Monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Monopolies\\ produce\\ at\\ the\\ quantity\\ where\\ MC\\=MR\\.\\ At\\ this\\ quantity\\,\\ profit\\ is\\ maximized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ perfectly\\ competitive\\ firm\\,\\ the\\ monopolist\\ faces\\ a\\ downward\\ sloping\\ demand\\ curve\\.\\ The\\ monopolist\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;price\\ maker\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ provider\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ it\\ faces\\ the\\ market\\ demand\\ curve\\,\\ which\\ is\\ downward\\ sloping\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ substitution\\ effect\\,\\ diminishing\\ marginal\\ utility\\,\\ and\\ the\\ income\\ effect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ monopolist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ MR\\ curve\\ is\\ lies\\ beneath\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\ because\\ the\\ monopolist\\ must\\ lower\\ the\\ price\\ on\\ all\\ goods\\ sold\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ an\\ additional\\ good\\ \\(unless\\ the\\ monopoly\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ price\\ discriminate\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ a\\ monopoly\\ firm\\,\\ P\\>\\;MR\\=MC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monopolist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ charge\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ PC\\ price\\ and\\ provide\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ PC\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ monopolist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ failure\\ to\\ meet\\ socially\\ optimal\\ standards\\ for\\ price\\ and\\ production\\ results\\ in\\ DWL\\.\\ The\\ DWL\\ is\\ the\\ area\\ bounded\\ by\\ the\\ length\\ between\\ the\\ monopoly\\ quantity\\ \\(where\\ MC\\=MR\\)\\ and\\ socially\\ optimal\\ quantity\\ \\(where\\ MC\\=D\\)\\,\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\,\\ and\\ the\\ marginal\\ cost\\ curve\\ \\(See\\ Graph\\ on\\ P\\.327\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Regulation\\ of\\ Monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\In\\ regulating\\ natural\\ monopolies\\,\\ the\\ government\\ may\\ pursue\\ either\\ marginal\\-cost\\ or\\ average\\-cost\\ pricing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\AC\\ pricing\\ guarantees\\ firms\\ do\\ not\\ earn\\ losses\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ DWL\\ to\\ society\\ due\\ to\\ producing\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MC\\ pricing\\ causes\\ the\\ firm\\ to\\ earn\\ a\\ loss\\ because\\ the\\ price\\ is\\ set\\ to\\ MC\\,\\ which\\ is\\ lower\\ than\\ ATC\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ monopoly\\ scenario\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Potential\\ Solution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Governments\\ may\\ opt\\ to\\ pursue\\ AC\\ pricing\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ subsidizing\\ the\\ firm\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ monopolist\\ will\\ have\\ no\\ incentive\\ to\\ produce\\ under\\ MC\\ pricing\\ because\\ he\\ will\\ earn\\ losses\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;There\\ are\\ DWL\\&rsquo\\;s\\ associated\\ with\\ subsidies\\ because\\ government\\ gains\\ money\\ for\\ subsidies\\ through\\ taxation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ Discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ business\\ practice\\ of\\ selling\\ the\\ same\\ good\\ at\\ different\\ prices\\ to\\ different\\ customers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ Price\\ Discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ movie\\ tickets\\,\\ airline\\ prices\\,\\ discount\\ coupons\\,\\ financial\\ aid\\,\\ quantity\\ discounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Each\\ of\\ these\\ examples\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ price\\ discrimination\\ because\\ it\\ differentiates\\ between\\ two\\ consumers\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ \\(movie\\ theatres\\ discriminate\\ based\\ on\\ age\\,\\ airlines\\ discriminate\\ between\\ business\\ and\\ personal\\ travelers\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ discrimination\\ raises\\ profit\\,\\ raises\\ total\\ surplus\\,\\ and\\ lowers\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ in\\ the\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ price\\ discriminator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ demand\\ curve\\ equals\\ its\\ marginal\\ revenue\\ curve\\ because\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ lower\\ the\\ price\\ on\\ all\\ previous\\ goods\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ an\\ additional\\ good\\.\\ Thus\\ the\\ price\\ discriminator\\ produces\\ where\\ MC\\=MR\\=D\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ level\\ of\\ output\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ DWL\\ in\\ this\\ scenario\\,\\ so\\ total\\ surplus\\ increases\\.\\ The\\ PD\\ earns\\ all\\ additional\\ surplus\\ and\\ under\\ perfect\\ discrimination\\ all\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ because\\ the\\ each\\ individual\\ consumer\\ is\\ paying\\ his\\ own\\ personal\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\.\\ \\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 16\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oligopoly\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takeaways\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Firms\\ in\\ most\\ industries\\ fall\\ somewhere\\ in\\ between\\ a\\ monopoly\\ and\\ perfect\\ competition\\ this\\ situation\\ is\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\imperfect\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ imperfect\\ competition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Oligopoly\\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;market\\ structure\\ in\\ which\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ sellers\\ offer\\ similar\\ or\\ identical\\ products\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quantity\\ Produced\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ perfect\\ competition\\ but\\ higher\\ than\\ monopoly\\.\\ Price\\ is\\ higher\\ than\\ perfect\\ competition\\ but\\ lower\\ than\\ monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ex\\-\\ Tennis\\ Balls\\,\\ Crude\\ Oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Key\\ feature\\ is\\ TENSION\\ between\\ cooperation\\ and\\ self\\-interest\\.\\ Personal\\ incentives\\ prevent\\ group\\ from\\ achieving\\ monopoly\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Collusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ an\\ agreement\\ among\\ firms\\ about\\ quantity\\ produced\\ or\\ price\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cartel\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ group\\ of\\ firms\\ acting\\ in\\ unison\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nash\\ Equilibrium\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ economic\\ actors\\ interacting\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ choose\\ their\\ best\\ strategy\\ given\\ the\\ strategy\\ that\\ all\\ other\\ actors\\ have\\ chosen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\ Effects\\ that\\ oligopolists\\ consider\\ when\\ deciding\\ how\\ much\\ to\\ produce\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Price\\ Effect\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Raising\\ production\\ will\\ increase\\ total\\ amount\\ sold\\,\\ which\\ will\\ lower\\ the\\ price\\ and\\ lower\\ the\\ profit\\ on\\ all\\ other\\ previous\\ items\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Output\\ Effect\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Because\\ P\\>\\;MC\\ selling\\ one\\ more\\ item\\ at\\ the\\ going\\ price\\ will\\ raise\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Game\\ Theory\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ study\\ of\\ people\\ behave\\ in\\ strategic\\ situations\\.\\ A\\ particular\\ game\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dilemma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ illustrates\\ why\\ cooperation\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ maintain\\ even\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ mutually\\ beneficial\\.\\ A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dominant\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ strategy\\ that\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ a\\ player\\ in\\ a\\ game\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ strategies\\ chosen\\ by\\ other\\ players\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tit\\-for\\-Tat\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;illustrates\\ that\\ in\\ repeated\\ games\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ players\\ care\\ enough\\ about\\ future\\ profits\\,\\ they\\ will\\ choose\\ to\\ forgo\\ the\\ one\\-time\\ gain\\ from\\ defection\\.\\ The\\ threat\\ of\\ penalty\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ may\\ be\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ maintain\\ cooperation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 17\\ \\&ldquo\\;Monopolistic\\ Competition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Information\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ textbook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monopolistic\\ competition\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ market\\ structure\\ in\\ which\\ many\\ firms\\ sell\\ products\\ that\\ are\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;similar\\ but\\ not\\ identical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Many\\ sellers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Product\\ differentiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ entry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Profit\\ maximization\\:\\ \\ \\;firm\\ chooses\\ quantity\\ at\\ which\\ MR\\ \\=\\ MC\\,\\ then\\ uses\\ demand\\ curve\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ price\\ consistent\\ with\\ that\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ equilibrium\\ in\\ a\\ monopolistically\\ competitive\\ market\\ differs\\ from\\ that\\ in\\ a\\ perfectly\\ competitive\\ market\\ in\\ two\\ related\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ each\\ firm\\ in\\ a\\ monopolistically\\ competitive\\ market\\ has\\ excess\\ capacity\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ is\\,\\ it\\ operates\\ on\\ the\\ downward\\-sloping\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ average\\-total\\-cost\\ curve\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\,\\ each\\ firm\\ charges\\ a\\ price\\ above\\ marginal\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Long\\-Run\\ Equilibrium\\:\\ \\ \\;profit\\ encourages\\ entry\\,\\ demand\\ curve\\ shifts\\ left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;losses\\ encourage\\ exit\\,\\ demand\\ curve\\ shifts\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monopolistic\\ versus\\ Perfect\\ Competition\\ \\(page\\ 378\\ of\\ textbook\\ for\\ graphs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monopolistic\\ Competition\\ and\\ the\\ Welfare\\ of\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ product\\-variety\\ externality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ business\\-stealing\\ externality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advertising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Critics\\ argue\\ that\\ advertising\\ impedes\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critics\\ argue\\ that\\ firms\\ use\\ advertising\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ consumer\\ irrationality\\ and\\ to\\ reduce\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Policymakers\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ advertising\\ can\\ make\\ markets\\ more\\ competitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defenders\\ of\\ advertising\\ argue\\ that\\ firms\\ use\\ advertising\\ to\\ inform\\ consumers\\ and\\ to\\ compete\\ more\\ vigorously\\ on\\ price\\ and\\ product\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advertising\\ as\\ a\\ Signal\\ of\\ Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Differences\\ and\\ Similarities\\ among\\ Perfect\\ Competition\\,\\ Monopolistic\\ Competition\\,\\ and\\ Monopoly\\ \\(page\\ 385\\ of\\ textbook\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 18\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Market\\ for\\ Factors\\ of\\ Production\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ inputs\\ used\\ to\\ produce\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ are\\ called\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\.\\ The\\ three\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\ are\\ labor\\,\\ land\\ and\\ capital\\.\\ Labor\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ demand\\ for\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ production\\ is\\ a\\ derived\\ demand\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ decision\\ to\\ supply\\ a\\ given\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ labor\\ is\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ output\\ from\\ an\\ additional\\ unit\\ of\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ MPL\\ declines\\ as\\ workers\\ are\\ added\\,\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ diminishing\\ marginal\\ product\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\,\\ or\\ marginal\\ revenue\\ product\\,\\ is\\ the\\ extra\\ revenue\\ a\\ firm\\ gets\\ from\\ hiring\\ an\\ additional\\ unit\\ of\\ a\\ factor\\ production\\.\\ It\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ labor\\ multiplied\\ by\\ the\\ market\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ output\\;\\ accordingly\\,\\ it\\ too\\ is\\ diminishing\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ downward\\-sloping\\ curve\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ marginal\\ revenue\\ product\\ curve\\ is\\ the\\ labor\\ demand\\ curve\\ for\\ a\\ competitive\\,\\ profit\\ maximizing\\ firm\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ firm\\ will\\ hire\\ workers\\ until\\ the\\ curve\\ intersects\\ the\\ market\\ wage\\ line\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ face\\ a\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ work\\ and\\ leisure\\;\\ the\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ and\\ hour\\ of\\ leisure\\ is\\ whatever\\ their\\ wage\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ upward\\-sloping\\ supply\\ curve\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ work\\ more\\ hours\\ if\\ their\\ wage\\ increases\\ \\(as\\ the\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ leisure\\ increases\\,\\ they\\ take\\ less\\ of\\ it\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ that\\ factor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 19\\ \\&ldquo\\;Earnings\\ and\\ Discrimination\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Workers\\ earn\\ different\\ wages\\ for\\ many\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ some\\ extent\\,\\ wage\\ differentials\\ compensate\\ workers\\ for\\ job\\ attributes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Workers\\ with\\ more\\ human\\ capital\\ get\\ paid\\ more\\ than\\ workers\\ with\\ less\\ human\\ capital\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ return\\ to\\ accumulating\\ human\\ capital\\ is\\ high\\ and\\ has\\ increased\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ decade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ much\\ variation\\ in\\ earnings\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ things\\ economists\\ can\\ measure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ unexplained\\ variation\\ in\\ earnings\\ is\\ largely\\ attributable\\ to\\ natural\\ ability\\,\\ effort\\,\\ and\\ chance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ economists\\ have\\ suggested\\ that\\ more\\-educated\\ workers\\ earn\\ higher\\ wages\\ because\\ workers\\ with\\ high\\ natural\\ ability\\ use\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ signal\\ their\\ high\\ ability\\ to\\ employers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wages\\ are\\ sometimes\\ pushed\\ above\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ level\\ because\\ of\\ minimum\\-wage\\ laws\\,\\ unions\\,\\ and\\ efficiency\\ wages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ differences\\ in\\ earnings\\ are\\ attributable\\ to\\ discrimination\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ race\\,\\ sex\\,\\ or\\ other\\ factors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ measuring\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ discrimination\\,\\ one\\ must\\ correct\\ for\\ differences\\ in\\ human\\ capital\\ and\\ job\\ characteristics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Competitive\\ markets\\ tend\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ discrimination\\ on\\ wages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discrimination\\ can\\ persist\\ in\\ competitive\\ markets\\ if\\ customers\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\willing\\ to\\ pay\\ more\\ to\\ discriminatory\\ firms\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\or\\ if\\ the\\ government\\ passes\\ laws\\ requiring\\ firms\\ to\\ discriminate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Chapter\\ 20\\ \\&ldquo\\;Income\\ Inequality\\ and\\ Poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\5\\ key\\ take\\-aways\\\\poverty\\-rate\\ percentage\\ of\\ population\\ below\\ poverty\\ line\\ set\\ by\\ fed\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\at\\ roughly\\ three\\ times\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ adequate\\ diet\\\\life\\ cycle\\ is\\ regular\\ patter\\ of\\ income\\ prediction\\:\\ rises\\ as\\ gain\\experience\\ peaks\\ at\\ around\\ 50\\ and\\ retires\\ at\\ around\\ 65\\\\(note\\ \\:\\ permanent\\ income\\ \\=\\ average\\ income\\)\\\\Utilitariaism\\ v\\.\\ Liberalism\\ \\ \\;v\\.\\ Libertarianism\\Utilitarianism\\:\\ think\\,\\ rob\\ peter\\ to\\ pay\\ paul\\,\\ maximize\\ theoretical\\ utility\\Liberalism\\:\\ Rawls\\&\\#39\\;\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ before\\ born\\ in\\ an\\ \\"\\;original\\ position\\"\\;\\making\\ a\\ contract\\ \\(rem\\.\\ Mankiw\\ lecture\\)\\ to\\ help\\ out\\ those\\ who\\ may\\ need\\ it\\ in\\ life\\Libertarianism\\:\\ \\ \\;libaralism\\ people\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ take\\ my\\ money\\ and\\ i\\ never\\agreed\\ to\\ any\\ ignorance\\ contract\\\\Negative\\ Income\\ Tax\\:\\ supplement\\ the\\ income\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ while\\ rich\\ pay\\taxes\\,\\ poor\\ receive\\ money\\ instead\\ \\(hence\\,\\ negative\\ tax\\ on\\ them\\)\\\\or\\ in\\-kind\\ transfers\\ instead\\ such\\ as\\ food\\ stamps\\ or\\ free\\ stuff\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 21\\:\\ The\\ Theory\\ of\\ Consumer\\ Choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slope\\ of\\ the\\ budget\\ constraint\\ \\=\\ Relative\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ goods\\.\\ A\\ consumer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(buyer\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ budget\\ constraints\\ shows\\ us\\ the\\ amount\\ and\\ type\\ of\\ various\\ products\\/goods\\ he\\ can\\ buy\\ with\\ his\\ given\\ income\\ and\\ the\\ prices\\ of\\ those\\ various\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Consumer\\ Indifference\\ curve\\ \\=\\ Consumer\\ Preferences\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Therefore\\,\\ an\\ indifference\\ curve\\ portrays\\ similar\\ types\\ of\\ goods\\ that\\ would\\ also\\ satisfy\\ the\\ buyer\\ \\(consumer\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\By\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ indifference\\ curve\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slope\\ of\\ an\\ indifference\\ curve\\ \\(at\\ any\\ given\\ point\\)\\:\\ This\\ will\\ tell\\ us\\ the\\ Consumer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ marginal\\ rate\\ of\\ substitution\\ \\(the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ consumer\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ substitute\\ one\\ good\\ for\\ another\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Position\\ of\\ points\\ on\\ the\\ indifference\\ curve\\:\\ Points\\ that\\ are\\ higher\\ on\\ the\\ indifference\\ curve\\ show\\ preference\\,\\ whereas\\ lower\\ points\\ show\\ lower\\ preference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slope\\ of\\ the\\ Indifference\\ curve\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Slope\\ of\\ the\\ budget\\ constraint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(The\\ marginal\\ rate\\ of\\ substitution\\ between\\ goods\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ relative\\ price\\ of\\ goods\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ consumer\\ will\\ reach\\ his\\ optimization\\ point\\ by\\ choosing\\ the\\ point\\ on\\ his\\ budget\\ constraint\\ that\\ lies\\ on\\ the\\ highest\\ indifference\\ curve\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ falls\\,\\ the\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ consumer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choices\\ can\\ be\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ an\\ income\\ effect\\ and\\ a\\ substitution\\ effect\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Income\\ effect\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ consumption\\ that\\ arises\\ because\\ a\\ lower\\ price\\ makes\\ the\\ consumer\\ better\\ off\\.\\ The\\ income\\ effect\\ is\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ movement\\ from\\ a\\ lower\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ indifference\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Substitution\\ effect\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ consumption\\ that\\ arises\\ because\\ a\\ price\\ change\\ encourages\\ greater\\ consumption\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ that\\ has\\ become\\ relatively\\ cheaper\\.\\ The\\ substitution\\ effect\\ is\\ reflected\\ by\\ a\\ movement\\ along\\ an\\ indifference\\ curve\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ slope\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ consumer\\ choice\\ can\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ explain\\ \\(among\\ other\\ things\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ demand\\ curves\\ can\\ potentially\\ slope\\ upward\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ higher\\ wages\\ could\\ either\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ labor\\ supplied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ higher\\ interest\\ rates\\ could\\ either\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ saving\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 22\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Frontiers\\ of\\ Microeconomics\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\Asymmetric\\ Information\\ \\=\\ Difference\\ in\\ access\\ to\\ relevant\\ knowledge\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hidden\\ actions\\:\\ principals\\,\\ agents\\,\\ and\\ moral\\ hazard\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Moral\\ hazard\\ happens\\ when\\ the\\ principal\\ cannot\\ perfectly\\ monitor\\ agents\\behavior\\ who\\ tends\\ to\\ put\\ less\\ effort\\ than\\ the\\ principals\\ desire\\.\\ \\ \\;Better\\monitoring\\,\\ high\\ wages\\,\\ and\\ delayed\\ payment\\ are\\ ways\\ employers\\ can\\ respond\\ to\\this\\ problem\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hidden\\ characteristics\\:\\ adverse\\ selection\\=the\\ tendency\\ for\\ the\\ mix\\ of\\unobserved\\ attributes\\ to\\ become\\ undesirable\\ from\\ the\\ standpoint\\ of\\ an\\ uniformed\\party\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\:\\ used\\ car\\ market\\,\\ labor\\,\\ health\\ insurance\\ market\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Signaling\\:\\ an\\ action\\ taken\\ by\\ an\\ informed\\ party\\ to\\ reveal\\ private\\ information\\to\\ an\\ uniformed\\ party\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Screening\\:\\ an\\ action\\ taken\\ by\\ an\\ uninformed\\ party\\ to\\ induce\\ an\\ informed\\ party\\to\\ reveal\\ information\\.\\\\Political\\ Economy\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ is\\ an\\ imperfect\\ institution\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Condorcet\\ paradox\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ majority\\ rule\\ to\\ produce\\ transitive\\preferences\\ for\\ society\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Arrow\\&\\#39\\;s\\ impossibility\\ theorem\\-\\ a\\ mathematical\\ result\\ showing\\ that\\,\\ under\\certain\\ assumed\\ conditions\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ scheme\\ for\\ aggregating\\ individual\\preferences\\ into\\ a\\ valid\\ set\\ of\\ social\\ preferences\\-\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ perfect\\ voting\\system\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Median\\ voter\\ theorem\\-\\ a\\ mathematical\\ result\\ showing\\ that\\ if\\ voters\\ are\\ choosing\\a\\ point\\ along\\ a\\ line\\ and\\ each\\ voter\\ wants\\ the\\ point\\ closest\\ to\\ his\\ most\\preferred\\ pint\\,\\ then\\ majority\\ rule\\ will\\ pick\\ the\\ most\\ preferred\\ point\\ of\\ the\\median\\ voter\\.\\ Implications\\:\\ Political\\ parties\\ move\\ their\\ views\\ towards\\ the\\median\\ voter\\ to\\ win\\ more\\ votes\\.\\ Minority\\ views\\ not\\ given\\ much\\ weight\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Politicians\\ are\\ people\\ too\\.\\ Driven\\ by\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ greed\\\\Behavioral\\ Economics\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;People\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ always\\ rational\\-too\\ overconfident\\,\\ give\\ too\\ much\\ weight\\ to\\ a\\small\\ number\\ of\\ vivid\\ observations\\,\\ reluctant\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ minds\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;People\\ care\\ about\\ fairness\\-\\ ultimatum\\ game\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;People\\ are\\ inconsistent\\ over\\ time\\-\\ people\\ procrastinate\\,\\ dreary\\ tasks\\ are\\ put\\off\\ till\\ later\\,\\ are\\ not\\ committed\\ to\\ the\\ task\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;price\\ ceiling\\:\\ a\\ legal\\ maximum\\ on\\ the\\ price\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ good\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;price\\ floor\\:\\ a\\ legal\\ minimum\\ on\\ the\\ price\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ good\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 10, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/GROUP_STUDY_GUIDE_1.doc", "desc": "Full School Year Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Economics 10 - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "economics-10", "mankiw"], "text": null, "id": 15, "html": "\\\\\\GROUP\\_STUDY\\_GUIDE\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:177\\.3pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 3\\.5pt\\ 0pt\\ 3\\.5pt\\}\\.c39\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:146\\.5pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c1\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:87\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c32\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.5pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c38\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c10\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:87\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c26\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:92\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c42\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c35\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:148\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c46\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c22\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:148\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c34\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:147\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c29\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:86\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c28\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:88pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c41\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c40\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c33\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c50\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c43\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:88\\.5pt\\}\\.c37\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-135pt\\;margin\\-left\\:135pt\\}\\.c47\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:160\\.5pt\\}\\.c49\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c52\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:124\\.5pt\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c36\\{height\\:1px\\;width\\:33\\%\\}\\.c44\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c54\\{margin\\-left\\:70\\.8pt\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c57\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:158\\.4pt\\}\\.c51\\{margin\\-left\\:35\\.4pt\\}\\.c13\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c53\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c45\\{font\\-size\\:8pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c55\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c6\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c15\\{color\\:\\#ff6600\\}\\.c48\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:35\\.4pt\\}\\.c25\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Trebuchet\\ MS\\\"\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c58\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c56\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c7\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c59\\{margin\\-left\\:106\\.2pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Social\\ Analysis\\-10\\ Microeconomics\\ Study\\ Guide\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ten\\ Principles\\ of\\ Economics\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Efficiency\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ society\\ getting\\ the\\ most\\ it\\ can\\ from\\ its\\ scarce\\ resources\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;size\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ pie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ disturbing\\ economic\\ prosperity\\ fairly\\ among\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;how\\ the\\ economic\\ pie\\ is\\ divided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ten\\ Principles\\ of\\ Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ face\\ tradeoffs\\:\\ scarcity\\ causes\\ people\\ \\(society\\)\\ to\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ it\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ex\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;guns\\ and\\ butter\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ cost\\ of\\ something\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ to\\ get\\ it\\:\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;whatever\\ must\\ be\\ given\\ up\\ to\\ obtain\\ some\\ item\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rational\\ people\\ think\\ at\\ the\\ margin\\:\\ thinking\\ how\\ a\\ small\\ incremental\\ change\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ affect\\ your\\ decision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ respond\\ to\\ incentives\\:\\ costs\\ vs\\.\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Trade\\ can\\ make\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\:\\ ability\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ product\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\,\\ specialize\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ best\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Markets\\ are\\ usually\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ organize\\ economic\\ activity\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;invisible\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;self\\ interest\\ guide\\ the\\ decisions\\ and\\ naturally\\ fins\\ the\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Governments\\ can\\ sometimes\\ improve\\ market\\ outcome\\:\\ naturally\\ markets\\ usually\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;maximizes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ economic\\ pie\\,\\ however\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ the\\ slices\\ are\\ equal\\.\\ Also\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\externalities\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ maximize\\ social\\ surplus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\ depends\\ on\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ produce\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\:\\ productivity\\ is\\ usually\\ the\\ cause\\ for\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Prices\\ rise\\ when\\ the\\ government\\ prints\\ too\\ much\\ money\\:\\ inflation\\ \\(an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ overall\\ level\\ of\\ prices\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\)\\ occurs\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ too\\ much\\ money\\ being\\ circulated\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ Value\\ the\\ money\\ falls\\ when\\ the\\ government\\ increases\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ being\\ printed\\ causing\\ prices\\ to\\ rise\\ as\\ result\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Society\\ faces\\ the\\ short\\-run\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ inflation\\ and\\ unemployment\\:\\ \\ \\;reducing\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ circulated\\ reduces\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ that\\ will\\ spend\\.\\ Prices\\ take\\ time\\ to\\ lower\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ short\\ time\\ where\\ prices\\ will\\ remain\\ high\\ and\\ spending\\ is\\ decreasing\\ where\\ unemployment\\ will\\ occur\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thinking\\ Like\\ an\\ Economist\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Circular\\ Flow\\ Diagram\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ visual\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ that\\ show\\ how\\ dollars\\ flow\\ through\\ markets\\ among\\ households\\ a\\ firms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FIRMS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Produce\\ and\\ sell\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Hire\\ and\\ use\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Markets\\ for\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Firms\\ sell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Households\\ buy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goods\\ and\\ services\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Revenue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Markets\\ for\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Households\\ sell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Firms\\ buy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inputs\\ for\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wages\\,\\ rent\\,\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HOUSEHOLDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Buy\\ and\\ consume\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Own\\ and\\ sell\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\,\\ land\\ and\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ and\\ services\\ bought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Production\\ Possibilities\\ Frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ graph\\ that\\ shows\\ the\\ various\\ combinations\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ Statement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;descriptive\\ statement\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Normative\\ Statement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ assertion\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ought\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Macroeconomics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ study\\ of\\ economy\\-wide\\ phenomena\\,\\ including\\ inflation\\ and\\ unemployment\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Microeconomics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ households\\ and\\ firms\\ make\\ decisions\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ interact\\ in\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ \\&ldquo\\;Interdependence\\ and\\ the\\ Gains\\ from\\ Trade\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ producer\\ has\\ an\\ absolute\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\ when\\ they\\ require\\ a\\ smaller\\ quantity\\ of\\ inputs\\ to\\ produce\\ this\\ good\\ than\\ other\\ producers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ an\\ item\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ give\\ up\\ to\\ get\\ that\\ item\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparative\\ advantage\\ deals\\ with\\ comparing\\ the\\ opportunity\\ costs\\ of\\ two\\ producers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ producer\\ with\\ the\\ lower\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ two\\ producers\\ consider\\ trading\\,\\ the\\ producer\\ with\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\ should\\ specialize\\ in\\ producing\\ that\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goods\\ produced\\ abroad\\ and\\ sold\\ domestically\\ are\\ called\\ imports\\.\\ \\ \\;Goods\\ produced\\ domestically\\ and\\ sold\\ abroad\\ are\\ called\\ exports\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\ makes\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\ because\\ it\\ allows\\ producers\\ to\\ specialize\\ in\\ those\\ areas\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Used\\ in\\ the\\ Book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ Farmer\\,\\ One\\ Rancher\\,\\ Each\\ Produces\\ Meat\\ \\&\\;\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amount\\ of\\ Meat\\ or\\ Potatoes\\ Produced\\ in\\ 8\\ Hours\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Meat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Farmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\8\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\32\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rancher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\20\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\48\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minutes\\ Needed\\ to\\ Make\\ 1\\ Ounce\\ of\\ Meat\\ or\\ Potatoes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Meat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Farmer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\60\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\15\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rancher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\24\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\10\\ min\\/oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rancher\\ has\\ an\\ absolute\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ both\\ meat\\ and\\ potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Opportunity\\ Cost\\ of\\ Meat\\ and\\ Potatoes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Meat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\1\\ oz\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Farmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\4\\ oz\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\¼\\;\\ oz\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rancher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\2\\ oz\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\½\\;\\ oz\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ farmer\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ potatoes\\ and\\ the\\ rancher\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ meat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ The\\ Gains\\ from\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Farmer\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Farmer\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Rancher\\ Meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Rancher\\ Potatoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Production\\ and\\ Consumption\\ without\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Production\\ with\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\0\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\32\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\18\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\12\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gets\\ 5\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ 15\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ 5\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Gets\\ 15\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Consumption\\ with\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\5\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\17\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\13\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\27\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Gains\\ from\\ Trade\\:\\ Increase\\ in\\ Consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 1\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 1\\ oz\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 1\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ 3\\ oz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ from\\ Page\\ 57\\ in\\ the\\ Textbook\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Each\\ person\\ produces\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ produced\\ by\\ many\\ other\\ people\\ both\\ in\\ our\\ country\\ and\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Interdependence\\ and\\ trade\\ are\\ desirable\\ because\\ they\\ allow\\ everyone\\ to\\ enjoy\\ a\\ greater\\ quantity\\ and\\ variety\\ of\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ two\\ ways\\ to\\ compare\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ two\\ people\\ in\\ producing\\ a\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ person\\ who\\ can\\ produce\\ the\\ good\\ with\\ the\\ smaller\\ quantity\\ of\\ inputs\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ absolute\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ person\\ who\\ has\\ the\\ smaller\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ gains\\ from\\ trade\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ comparative\\ advantage\\,\\ not\\ absolute\\ advantage\\.\\ \\ \\;Absolute\\ Advantage\\:\\ Inputs\\,\\ Comparative\\ Advantage\\:\\ Opportunity\\ Cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\ makes\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\ because\\ it\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ specialize\\ in\\ those\\ activities\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ principle\\ of\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ applies\\ to\\ countries\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ to\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Economists\\ use\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ to\\ advocate\\ free\\ trade\\ among\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Key\\ Concepts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Absolute\\ Advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opportunity\\ Cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparative\\ Advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Market\\ Forces\\ of\\ Supply\\ and\\ Demand\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Law\\ of\\ Demand\\-\\ for\\ normal\\ good\\,\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ is\\ negatively\\ related\\ to\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Market\\ demand\\ \\=\\ the\\ horizontal\\ aggregation\\ of\\ all\\ individual\\ demand\\ curves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shifts\\ in\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\ can\\ result\\ from\\ changes\\ in\\ income\\,\\ prices\\ of\\ related\\ goods\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ expectations\\,\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ buyers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ are\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ movement\\ along\\ the\\ curve\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Law\\ of\\ Supply\\-\\ quantity\\ supplied\\ is\\ positively\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Market\\ supply\\=\\ the\\ horizontal\\ aggregation\\ of\\ all\\ individual\\ supply\\ curves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shifts\\ in\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\ can\\ result\\ from\\ changes\\ in\\ input\\ prices\\,\\ technology\\,\\ expectations\\,\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ sellers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ quantity\\ supplied\\ are\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ movement\\ along\\ the\\ curve\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Market\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\ curves\\ intersect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Law\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\-\\ surpluses\\ and\\ shortages\\ are\\ temporary\\ in\\ free\\ markets\\ because\\ price\\ and\\ quantity\\ will\\ return\\ to\\ equilibrium\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Elasticity\\ and\\ its\\ Application\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elasticity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ responsiveness\\ of\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ or\\ supplied\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ its\\ determinants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\price\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ much\\ the\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ responds\\ to\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ price\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Computing\\ Price\\ Elasticity\\ of\\ Demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\ED\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\(percent\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\/\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ price\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ use\\ the\\ midpoint\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ calculate\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;point\\ A\\:\\ Price\\ \\=\\ \\$4\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Quantity\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ 120\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\point\\ B\\:\\ Price\\ \\=\\ \\$6\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Quantity\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ 80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elasticity\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[\\(Q\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Q\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(Q\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\Q\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\[\\(P\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\/\\(Q\\<\\/span\\>\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\\\+Q\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[\\(80\\-120\\)\\/\\(200\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\[\\(6\\-4\\)\\/\\(10\\)\\/2\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\=\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Types\\ of\\ elasticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elastic\\,\\ elasticity\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inelastic\\,\\ elasticity\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unit\\ elastic\\,\\ elasticity\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ Tell\\ Elasticity\\ on\\ a\\ graph\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perfectly\\ inelastic\\ curve\\ is\\ vertical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inelastic\\ curve\\ is\\ relatively\\ steep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elastic\\ Curve\\ is\\ relatively\\ flat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perfectly\\ elastic\\ curve\\ is\\ horizontal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ Know\\ if\\ a\\ good\\ is\\ Elastic\\ or\\ Inelastic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elastic\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Inelastic\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ many\\ close\\ substitutes\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ few\\ close\\ substitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ good\\ is\\ a\\ luxury\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ good\\ is\\ a\\ necessity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ very\\ specific\\ market\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ broad\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ for\\ \\#3\\:\\ insulin\\ is\\ inelastic\\,\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ choosing\\ between\\ different\\ brands\\ of\\ insulin\\,\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ more\\ elastic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Long\\ time\\ horizon\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ short\\ time\\ horizon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\ Revenue\\ TEST\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ demand\\ is\\ inelastic\\,\\ price\\ and\\ total\\ revenue\\ move\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ direction\\,\\ that\\ is\\ if\\ price\\ increases\\,\\ so\\ will\\ total\\ revenue\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ \\%\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ was\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ \\%\\ change\\ in\\ price\\ increase\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ total\\ revenue\\ increased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ demand\\ is\\ elastic\\,\\ price\\ and\\ total\\ revenue\\ move\\ in\\ opposite\\ directions\\.\\ That\\ is\\ if\\ price\\ increases\\,\\ total\\ revenue\\ decreases\\,\\ because\\ consumers\\ are\\ responsive\\ to\\ the\\ price\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ demand\\ is\\ unit\\ elastic\\,\\ total\\ revenue\\ is\\ constant\\ when\\ price\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Something\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Although\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ curves\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ are\\ linear\\,\\ and\\ the\\ slope\\ is\\ constant\\,\\ the\\ elasticity\\ is\\ NOT\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ Demand\\ Elasticities\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Income\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\:\\ measures\\ how\\ much\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ changes\\ as\\ consumer\\ income\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ divided\\ by\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ income\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ it\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ 0\\,\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ a\\ normal\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ it\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ 0\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ an\\ inferior\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cross\\-price\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\:\\ measures\\ how\\ the\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ of\\ one\\ good\\ changes\\ as\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ another\\ good\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\=\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ quantity\\ demanded\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ divided\\ by\\ percent\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ the\\ elasticity\\ is\\ positive\\,\\ then\\ the\\ goods\\ are\\ substitutes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ elasticity\\ is\\ negative\\,\\ then\\ the\\ goods\\ are\\ complements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ Elasticity\\ of\\ Supply\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\measure\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ quantity\\ supplied\\ responds\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Calculate\\ the\\ same\\ was\\ as\\ price\\ elasticity\\ of\\ demand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ tell\\ elasticity\\ from\\ Supply\\ curve\\:\\ same\\ rules\\ that\\ applied\\ to\\ demand\\ curves\\ to\\ tell\\ elasticity\\ apply\\ to\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\"\\;Supply\\,\\ Demand\\ and\\ Government\\ Policies\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Big\\ Picture\\,\\ Intro\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ Chapter\\ moves\\ from\\ discussing\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ markets\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ to\\ discussing\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ governments\\ try\\ to\\ affect\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Takeaway\\ \\#1\\:\\ Price\\ Ceilings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\If\\ binding\\,\\ then\\ they\\ create\\ shortage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Even\\ when\\ non\\-binding\\,\\ if\\ supply\\ curve\\ shifts\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ or\\ demand\\ to\\ the\\ right\\,\\ non\\-binding\\ can\\ become\\ binding\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Mankiw\\ Example\\:\\ OPEC\\ and\\ the\\ oil\\ crisis\\;\\ when\\ supply\\ shrunk\\,\\ price\\ maximums\\ created\\ a\\ shortage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Takeaway\\ \\#2\\:\\ Price\\ Floors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ binding\\,\\ then\\ they\\ create\\ surplus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Even\\ when\\ non\\-binding\\,\\ if\\ supply\\ curve\\ shifts\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ or\\ demand\\ to\\ the\\ left\\,\\ non\\-binding\\ can\\ still\\ \\ \\;become\\ binding\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Mankiw\\ Example\\:\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\;\\ with\\ a\\ minimum\\ wage\\,\\ price\\ minimums\\ on\\ labor\\ create\\ a\\ surplus\\ of\\ \\ \\;labor\\&mdash\\;unemployment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Takeaway\\ \\#3\\:\\ Both\\ Price\\ Ceilings\\ and\\ Price\\ Floors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\:\\ With\\ price\\ controls\\,\\ more\\ elastic\\ curves\\ effect\\ greater\\ shortages\\ and\\ surpluses\\B\\:\\ All\\ curves\\ are\\ more\\ elastic\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\Therefore\\C\\:\\ All\\ price\\ controls\\ are\\ disproportionately\\ more\\ harmful\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takeaway\\ \\#4\\:\\ Taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ if\\ you\\ tax\\ buyers\\ or\\ sellers\\,\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\ is\\ always\\ shared\\.\\ Distribution\\ of\\ this\\ burden\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tax\\ Incidence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takeaway\\ \\#5\\:\\ Tax\\ Incidence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ harder\\ on\\ the\\ less\\ elastic\\ element\\ of\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Mankiw\\ Example\\:\\ luxury\\ tax\\;\\ while\\ attempting\\ to\\ tax\\ goods\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\ class\\,\\ since\\ demand\\ for\\ tax\\ is\\ elastic\\ \\(easy\\ to\\ not\\ buy\\ luxury\\ goods\\)\\ and\\ supply\\ is\\ inelastic\\ \\(firms\\ dedicated\\ to\\ producing\\ luxury\\ goods\\ are\\ not\\ easily\\ converted\\ to\\ alternative\\ uses\\)\\,\\ luxury\\ taxes\\ incidence\\ falls\\ heavier\\ on\\ businesses\\ that\\ produce\\ luxury\\ goods\\ than\\ luxury\\ good\\ consumers\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ luxury\\ tax\\ was\\ thusly\\ repealed\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;93\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Big\\ Picture\\,\\ Outro\\:\\What\\ happens\\ when\\ governments\\ try\\ to\\ affect\\ markets\\ against\\ the\\ markets\\&rsquo\\;\\ will\\:\\ surpluses\\/shortages\\/market\\ shrinking\\.\\ Economics\\ moral\\:\\ leave\\ the\\ market\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Consumers\\,\\ Producers\\ and\\ the\\ Efficiency\\ of\\ Markets\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ equilibrium\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\ in\\ a\\ market\\ maximizes\\ the\\ total\\ benefits\\ received\\ by\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumer\\ surplus\\ is\\ the\\ area\\ below\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\ and\\ above\\ the\\ price\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ most\\ markets\\,\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ does\\ reflect\\ economic\\ well\\-being\\.\\ The\\ exceptions\\ include\\ drug\\ addicts\\ who\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ a\\ high\\ price\\ for\\ heroin\\ and\\ the\\ price\\ they\\ currently\\ face\\ for\\ it\\ is\\ low\\.\\ We\\ would\\ not\\ say\\ that\\ this\\ represents\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ because\\ society\\ does\\ not\\ benefit\\ from\\ drug\\ addicts\\ and\\ drug\\ addicts\\ are\\ not\\ looking\\ after\\ their\\ own\\ best\\ interests\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Producer\\ surplus\\ is\\ the\\ area\\ below\\ price\\ and\\ above\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumer\\ surplus\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ are\\ the\\ basic\\ tools\\ that\\ economists\\ use\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ welfare\\ of\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ in\\ a\\ market\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Adding\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ together\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\ Surplus\\=\\ Value\\ to\\ buyers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Amount\\ paid\\ by\\ buyers\\ \\+\\ Amount\\ received\\ by\\ sellers\\-\\ Cost\\ to\\ sellers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\ Surplus\\=\\ Value\\ to\\ buyers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Cost\\ to\\ sellers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ an\\ allocation\\ is\\ inefficient\\ then\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ gains\\ from\\ trade\\ among\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ are\\ not\\ being\\ realized\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ an\\ allocation\\ is\\ inefficient\\ if\\ a\\ good\\ is\\ not\\ being\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ sellers\\ with\\ the\\ lowest\\ cost\\;\\ a\\ good\\ is\\ also\\ inefficient\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ being\\ consumed\\ by\\ the\\ buyers\\ who\\ value\\ it\\ most\\ highly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ question\\ of\\ efficiency\\ is\\ whether\\ the\\ pie\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ as\\ possible\\;\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ equity\\ is\\ whether\\ the\\ pie\\ is\\ divided\\ fairly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ markets\\ allocate\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ goods\\ to\\ the\\ buyers\\ who\\ value\\ them\\ most\\ highly\\ \\,\\ as\\ measured\\ by\\ their\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ markets\\ allocate\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ goods\\ to\\ the\\ sellers\\ who\\ can\\ produce\\ them\\ at\\ least\\ cost\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ markets\\ produce\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ goods\\ that\\ maximizes\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ consumer\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ benevolent\\ planner\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ alter\\ the\\ market\\ outcome\\ because\\ the\\ invisible\\ hand\\ has\\ already\\ guided\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ to\\ an\\ allocation\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resources\\ that\\ maximizes\\ total\\ surplus\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ economists\\ often\\ advocate\\ free\\ markets\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ organize\\ economic\\ activity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ market\\ for\\ organs\\,\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ imposed\\ a\\ price\\ ceiling\\ of\\ zero\\ dollars\\.\\ The\\ result\\ is\\ a\\ shortage\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\ Many\\ economists\\ believe\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ large\\ benefits\\ to\\ allowing\\ a\\ free\\ market\\ in\\ organs\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ market\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ efficient\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\,\\ but\\ critics\\ of\\ this\\ plan\\ worry\\ about\\ fairness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Definitions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Welfare\\ economics\\:\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\ affects\\ economic\\ well\\-being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Willingness\\ to\\ pay\\:\\ the\\ maximum\\ amount\\ that\\ a\\ buyer\\ will\\ pay\\ for\\ a\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumer\\ surplus\\:\\ a\\ buyer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ minus\\ the\\ amount\\ the\\ buyer\\ actually\\ pays\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Marginal\\ buyer\\:\\ the\\ buyer\\ who\\ would\\ leave\\ the\\ market\\ first\\ if\\ the\\ price\\ were\\ any\\ higher\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cost\\:\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ everything\\ a\\ seller\\ must\\ give\\ up\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Producer\\ surplus\\:\\ the\\ amount\\ a\\ seller\\ is\\ paid\\ minus\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ production\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Benevolent\\ Social\\ Planner\\:\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ all\\-knowing\\,\\ all\\-powerful\\,\\ well\\-intentioned\\ dictator\\ who\\ wants\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ economic\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ everyone\\ in\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equity\\:\\ the\\ fairness\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ well\\-being\\ among\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Efficiency\\:\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ resource\\ allocation\\ of\\ maximizing\\ the\\ total\\ surplus\\ received\\ by\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Application\\:\\ The\\ Costs\\ of\\ Taxation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Taxes\\ place\\ a\\ wedge\\ between\\ the\\ price\\ buyers\\ pay\\ and\\ the\\ price\\ \\sellers\\ receive\\,\\ so\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ draw\\ shifted\\ curves\\ anymore\\.\\2\\.\\ The\\ government\\ wins\\ from\\ taxes\\ while\\ consumers\\ and\\ producers\\ lose\\ \\out\\.\\ Government\\ receives\\ revenue\\ which\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\ \\times\\ the\\ quantity\\ sold\\.\\ Consumers\\ and\\ producers\\ lose\\ surplus\\.\\3\\.\\ Taxes\\ impose\\ inefficiency\\ \\ \\;because\\ they\\ cause\\ consumers\\ to\\ buy\\ less\\ \\and\\ producers\\ to\\ produce\\ less\\,\\ which\\ shrinks\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ pie\\ below\\ \\the\\ level\\ which\\ maximizes\\ social\\ surplus\\.\\4\\.\\ The\\ reduction\\ in\\ consumer\\ and\\ producer\\ surplus\\ usually\\ exceeds\\ \\government\\ revenue\\.\\ The\\ decrease\\ in\\ social\\ surplus\\ in\\ a\\ market\\ due\\ to\\ \\the\\ distortion\\ in\\ that\\ market\\ from\\ the\\ tax\\.is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ deadweight\\ \\loss\\(DWL\\)\\.\\5\\.\\ When\\ the\\ supply\\ curve\\ is\\ relatively\\ inelastic\\,\\ the\\ DWL\\ of\\ a\\ tax\\ is\\ \\small\\.\\ When\\ the\\ demand\\ is\\ relatively\\ inelastic\\,\\ the\\ DWL\\ of\\ a\\ tax\\ is\\ also\\ \\small\\.\\6\\.\\ A\\ small\\ tax\\ has\\ a\\ small\\ DWL\\ and\\ revenue\\;\\ a\\ medium\\ tax\\ has\\ a\\ larger\\ \\DWL\\ and\\ more\\ revenue\\;\\ a\\ very\\ large\\ tax\\ has\\ a\\ very\\ large\\ DWL\\ but\\ small\\ \\revenue\\.\\7\\.\\ A\\ good\\ tax\\ design\\ will\\ \\ \\;\\ A\\.\\ Tax\\ more\\ markets\\ less\\(have\\ a\\ broad\\ tax\\ \\base\\)\\ to\\ minimize\\ DWL\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ B\\.\\ Make\\ the\\ marginal\\ benefit\\ to\\ \\society\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ marginal\\ cost\\ to\\ society\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Application\\:\\ International\\ Trade\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\ Key\\ Takeaways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Al\\ low\\ domestic\\ price\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ country\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ country\\ will\\ become\\ an\\ exporter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ high\\ domestic\\ price\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ a\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ country\\ will\\ become\\ an\\ importer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-When\\ a\\ country\\ becomes\\ an\\ exporter\\-\\ producers\\ are\\ better\\ of\\ consumers\\ are\\ worse\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ When\\ a\\ country\\ allows\\ trade\\ and\\ becomes\\ an\\ importer\\ of\\ a\\ good\\,\\ consumers\\ are\\ better\\ of\\,\\ and\\ producers\\ are\\ worse\\ off\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Tariff\\-\\ tax\\ on\\ imports\\ moves\\ a\\ market\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ that\\ would\\ exist\\ without\\ trade\\ and\\ reduces\\ the\\ gains\\ from\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Import\\ quota\\-a\\ limit\\ on\\ imports\\-\\ similar\\ effects\\ that\\ a\\ tariff\\,\\ but\\ the\\ holders\\ of\\ the\\ import\\ license\\ receive\\ the\\ revenue\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ would\\ collect\\ with\\ a\\ tariff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Externalities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Externality\\-\\ the\\ resulting\\ effect\\ on\\ a\\ third\\ party\\ of\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;transaction\\ between\\ a\\ buyer\\ and\\ a\\ seller\\,\\ or\\ the\\ uncompensated\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;impact\\ of\\ one\\ person\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ on\\ the\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ a\\ bystander\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(i\\.e\\.\\ CO2\\ from\\ cars\\ destroying\\ the\\ environment\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ all\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;involved\\ in\\ the\\ transaction\\ between\\ gasoline\\ seller\\ and\\ consumer\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ Negative\\ externalities\\ cause\\ socially\\ optimal\\ Q\\ to\\ be\\ less\\ than\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ market\\ efficient\\ Q\\,\\ and\\ positive\\ externalities\\ cause\\ socially\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;optimal\\ Q\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ than\\ market\\ efficient\\ Q\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ The\\ Coase\\ theorem\\ states\\ that\\ if\\ private\\ parties\\ can\\ bargain\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;without\\ cost\\ over\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\,\\ they\\ can\\ solve\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;problems\\ of\\ externalities\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ in\\ some\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;cases\\,\\ both\\ parties\\ can\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ socially\\ efficient\\ outcome\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;without\\ compromising\\ their\\ respective\\ wants\\ or\\ needs\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 4\\.\\ If\\ the\\ two\\ parties\\ cannot\\ privately\\ internalize\\ the\\ externality\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;without\\ cost\\,\\ the\\ government\\ often\\ steps\\ in\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;externality\\.\\ Governments\\ will\\ usually\\ tax\\ markets\\ with\\ negative\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;externalities\\ \\(called\\ a\\ Pigovian\\ tax\\)\\ and\\ subsidize\\ markets\\ with\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;positive\\ externalities\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ market\\ efficient\\ Q\\ will\\ be\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;equal\\ to\\ socially\\ efficient\\ Q\\ in\\ each\\ case\\.\\ Governments\\ also\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;internalize\\ externalities\\ by\\ regulating\\ seller\\ or\\ consumer\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;behavior\\,\\ or\\ issuing\\ permits\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 5\\.\\ Case\\ Stude\\:\\ Gasoline\\ is\\ taxed\\ so\\ heavily\\ because\\ the\\ tax\\ is\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Pigovian\\ tax\\ that\\ aims\\ to\\ correct\\ three\\ pressing\\ issues\\ derived\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;from\\ the\\ gasoline\\ market\\:\\ the\\ tax\\ helps\\ to\\ \\*regulate\\ congestion\\*\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;by\\ encouraging\\ people\\ to\\ take\\ public\\ transportation\\ and\\ live\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;closer\\ to\\ work\\,\\ lower\\ the\\ incidence\\ of\\ \\*accidents\\*\\ because\\ it\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;encourages\\ people\\ to\\ drive\\ normal\\ sized\\ cars\\,\\ thereby\\ lowering\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;risk\\ of\\ people\\ being\\ killed\\ in\\ car\\ vs\\.\\ SUV\\ accidents\\,\\ and\\ reduces\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\*pollution\\*\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ gasoline\\,\\ thereby\\ reducing\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;amount\\ of\\ pollution\\ reaching\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ and\\ causing\\ global\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;warming\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ tax\\ that\\ internalizes\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;negative\\ externality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\ \\&ldquo\\;Public\\ Goods\\ and\\ Common\\ Resources\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Free\\ goods\\ are\\ a\\ challenge\\ for\\ economic\\ analysis\\,\\ because\\ they\\ make\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ resources\\ inefficient\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\>\\;\\ Private\\ markets\\ might\\ not\\ provide\\ free\\ goods\\ in\\ efficient\\ amounts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excludability\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ property\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ whereby\\ a\\ person\\ can\\ be\\ prevented\\ from\\ using\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rivalry\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ property\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ \\ \\;whereby\\ one\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ diminishes\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\ kinds\\ of\\ goods\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ both\\ excludable\\ and\\ rival\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ neither\\ excludable\\ nor\\ rival\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\ Resources\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ rival\\ but\\ not\\ excludable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natural\\ Monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Goods\\ that\\ are\\ excludable\\ but\\ not\\ rival\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Rival\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Yes\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ice\\-cream\\ cones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congested\\ Toll\\ Roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natural\\ Monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fire\\ Protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cable\\ TV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncongested\\ toll\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\ Resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fish\\ in\\ the\\ ocean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congested\\ non\\-toll\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tornado\\ sirens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncongested\\ non\\-toll\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Yes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excludable\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Free\\-rider\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ person\\ who\\ receives\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ but\\ avoids\\ paying\\ for\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Free\\-Rider\\ Problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Since\\ people\\ cannot\\ be\\ excluded\\ from\\ enjoying\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\public\\ good\\,\\ individuals\\ may\\ withhold\\ paying\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ hoping\\ that\\ others\\ will\\ pay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ free\\-rider\\ problem\\ prevents\\ private\\ markets\\ from\\ supplying\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ goods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ Solution\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\ provides\\ the\\ public\\ good\\,\\ if\\ total\\ social\\ benefit\\ exceeds\\ the\\ total\\ social\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ government\\ might\\ make\\ everyone\\ better\\ off\\ by\\ providing\\ the\\ public\\ good\\ and\\ paying\\ for\\ it\\ with\\ tax\\ revenue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Public\\ Goods\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\National\\ Defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fighting\\ Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lighthouse\\ question\\:\\ Are\\ Lighthouses\\ public\\ goods\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ a\\ lighthouse\\ benefits\\ many\\ ship\\ captains\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ public\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ it\\ primarily\\ benefits\\ a\\ single\\ port\\ owner\\,\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ private\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cost\\ Benefit\\ Analysis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ study\\ that\\ compares\\ the\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\ to\\ society\\ of\\ providing\\ a\\ public\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ order\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ public\\ good\\ or\\ not\\,\\ the\\ total\\ benefits\\ of\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ use\\ the\\ good\\ must\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ providing\\ and\\ maintaining\\ the\\ public\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ could\\ a\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ be\\ difficult\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Public\\ goods\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ price\\ attached\\.\\ Thus\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complicated\\ to\\ estimate\\ social\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ benefits\\ and\\ resource\\ costs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Things\\ like\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\,\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ aesthetics\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ assess\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ Commons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\illustrates\\ why\\ common\\ resources\\ get\\ used\\ excessively\\ and\\ not\\ optimal\\ from\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perspective\\,\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ free\\ of\\ charge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Common\\ Resources\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Clean\\ air\\ and\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congested\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fish\\,\\ whales\\ and\\ other\\ wildlife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ cow\\ extinct\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Private\\ ownership\\ and\\ profit\\ motive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Consideration\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Markets\\ fails\\ to\\ allocate\\ resources\\ efficiently\\,\\ when\\ property\\ rights\\ are\\ not\\ well\\ established\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ potentially\\ solve\\ this\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 12\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Design\\ of\\ the\\ Tax\\ System\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\*Taxes\\ cause\\ inefficiency\\*\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ are\\ deadweight\\ losses\\ and\\ administrative\\ burdens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ tax\\ systems\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ efficiency\\ and\\ equity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vocab\\ \\(in\\ no\\ particular\\ order\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tax\\ liability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ much\\ a\\ family\\ owes\\,\\ based\\ on\\ its\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\taxable\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ income\\ minus\\ deductibles\\ and\\ certain\\ amounts\\ based\\ on\\ dependents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marginal\\ tax\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ tax\\ rate\\ applied\\ to\\ each\\ additional\\ \\$1\\ of\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\average\\ tax\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ taxes\\ paid\\ divided\\ by\\ total\\ income\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\budget\\ surplus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ excess\\ of\\ receipts\\ over\\ spending\\ \\(in\\ a\\ given\\ time\\ period\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\budget\\ deficit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ excess\\ of\\ spending\\ over\\ receipts\\ \\(in\\ a\\ given\\ time\\ period\\)\\;\\ financed\\ by\\ borrowing\\ from\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Benefits\\ Principle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ pay\\ taxes\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ benefit\\ they\\ receive\\ from\\ gov\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ability\\-to\\-Pay\\ Principle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ taxes\\ should\\ be\\ levied\\ on\\ a\\ person\\ according\\ to\\ how\\ well\\ that\\ person\\ can\\ shoulder\\ the\\ burden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vertical\\ equity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ taxpayers\\ with\\ a\\ greater\\ ability\\ to\\ pay\\ should\\ pay\\ larger\\ amounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\horizontal\\ equity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ taxpayers\\ with\\ similar\\ abilities\\ to\\ pay\\ taxes\\ should\\ pay\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\quintiles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ five\\ equal\\ sized\\ tax\\ brackets\\ based\\ on\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\flypaper\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ says\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ tax\\ sticks\\ wherever\\ it\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ is\\ false\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ tax\\ on\\ furs\\ may\\ hurt\\ the\\ less\\ well\\-off\\ producers\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ wealthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ taxes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\payroll\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ tax\\ on\\ wage\\ that\\ a\\ firm\\ pays\\ its\\ workers\\ \\(also\\ called\\ social\\ insurance\\ taxes\\ b\\/c\\ used\\ to\\ pay\\ medicare\\ \\&\\;\\ soc\\ sec\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\excise\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ taxes\\ on\\ specific\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\consumption\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ would\\ tax\\ what\\ people\\ spend\\ rather\\ than\\ what\\ they\\ save\\ \\&\\;\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ distort\\ incentives\\ to\\ save\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lump\\-sum\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ tax\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ for\\ every\\ person\\ \\(most\\ efficient\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ distort\\ incentives\\ or\\ cause\\ DWL\\,\\ but\\ inequitable\\ because\\ it\\ takes\\ the\\ same\\ amt\\ from\\ poor\\ \\&\\;\\ rich\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tax\\ Systems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\proportional\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ tax\\ payers\\ pay\\ the\\ same\\ fraction\\ of\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\regressive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ high\\-income\\ taxpayers\\ pay\\ a\\ smaller\\ fraction\\ of\\ their\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\progressive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ high\\-income\\ taxpayers\\ pay\\ a\\ larger\\ fraction\\ of\\ their\\ income\\ \\(current\\ US\\ system\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Costs\\ of\\ Production\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ costs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Total\\ cost\\&mdash\\;the\\ market\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ inputs\\ a\\ firm\\ uses\\ in\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explicit\\ costs\\&mdash\\;input\\ costs\\ that\\ require\\ an\\ outlay\\ of\\ money\\ by\\ the\\ firm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Implicit\\ costs\\&mdash\\;input\\ costs\\ that\\ do\\ no\\ require\\ an\\ outlay\\ of\\ money\\ by\\ the\\ firm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fixed\\ costs\\&mdash\\;costs\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ vary\\ with\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ output\\ produced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Variable\\ costs\\&mdash\\;costs\\ that\\ DO\\ vary\\ with\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ output\\ produced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Average\\ total\\ cost\\ \\=\\ TC\\/q\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Average\\ fixed\\ cost\\ \\=\\ TFC\\/q\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Average\\ variable\\ cost\\ \\=\\ TVC\\/q\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marginal\\ cost\\ \\=\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ total\\ cost\\ that\\ arises\\ from\\ an\\ extra\\ unit\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ profit\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Profit\\ \\=\\ total\\ revenue\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ profit\\ \\=\\ TR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ TC\\,\\ including\\ both\\ explicit\\ and\\ implicit\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accounting\\ profit\\ \\=\\ TR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ explicit\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*diminishing\\ marginal\\ product\\&mdash\\;the\\ property\\ whereby\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ input\\ declines\\ as\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ input\\ decreases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*efficient\\ scale\\&mdash\\;the\\ quantity\\ of\\ output\\ that\\ minimizes\\ average\\ total\\ cost\\ \\(all\\ firms\\ in\\ a\\ competitive\\ market\\ will\\ produce\\ at\\ this\\ level\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MC\\ \\>\\;\\ AC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;AC\\ rising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MC\\ \\<\\;\\ AC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;AC\\ falling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MC\\ \\=\\ AC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;AC\\ flat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increasing\\ returns\\ to\\ scale\\&mdash\\;when\\ firms\\ get\\ more\\ than\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ output\\ when\\ they\\ double\\ ALL\\ inputs\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Specialization\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decreasing\\ returns\\ to\\ scale\\&mdash\\;when\\ firms\\ get\\ less\\ than\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ output\\ when\\ they\\ double\\ ALL\\ inputs\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Coordination\\ problems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constant\\ returns\\ to\\ scale\\&mdash\\;when\\ firms\\ get\\ exactly\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ output\\ when\\ they\\ double\\ ALL\\ inputs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ important\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ goal\\ of\\ firms\\ is\\ to\\ maximize\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ marginal\\-cost\\ curve\\ always\\ crosses\\ the\\ average\\-total\\ cost\\ curve\\ at\\ the\\ minimum\\ of\\ average\\-total\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ firm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ costs\\ often\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ time\\ horizon\\ being\\ considered\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Many\\ costs\\ are\\ fixed\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ but\\ variable\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Firms\\ in\\ Competitive\\ Markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perfectly\\ Competitive\\ Market\\:\\ A\\ market\\ with\\ many\\ buyers\\ and\\ sellers\\ trading\\ identical\\ products\\ so\\ that\\ each\\ buyer\\ and\\ seller\\ is\\ a\\ price\\ taker\\;\\ firms\\ can\\ enter\\/exit\\ the\\ market\\ freely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Profit\\=\\ TR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ TC\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Total\\ Revenue\\=\\ \\(Price\\ x\\ Quantity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Marginal\\ Revenue\\=P\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Average\\ Revenue\\=\\ TR\\/Q\\ \\=\\ \\(P\\ x\\ Q\\)\\/Q\\ \\=\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\:\\ To\\ Maximize\\ Profit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;choose\\ quantity\\ that\\ makes\\ profit\\ as\\ large\\ as\\ possible\\ OR\\ compare\\ MR\\ to\\ MC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Q1\\.\\ MR\\ \\>\\;\\ MC\\ raise\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Q2\\.\\ MR\\ \\<\\;\\ MC\\ lower\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Q3\\.\\ MC\\ \\=\\ MR\\ profit\\ maximization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Price\\ line\\ is\\ horizontal\\ because\\ firm\\ is\\ price\\ taker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MC\\ crosses\\ at\\ minimum\\ of\\ ATC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shut\\ Down\\:\\ Short\\-run\\ decision\\ not\\ to\\ produce\\ anything\\ during\\ a\\ specific\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ because\\ of\\ current\\ market\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-saves\\ variable\\ costs\\ of\\ making\\ the\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-fixed\\ cost\\ becomes\\ sunk\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ shut\\ down\\ if\\ TR\\ \\<\\;\\ VC\\ \\(P\\ \\<\\;\\ AVC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exit\\:\\ Long\\-run\\ decision\\ to\\ leave\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-exit\\ if\\ TR\\ \\<\\;\\ TC\\ \\(P\\ \\<\\;\\ ATC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-enter\\ if\\ P\\ \\>\\;\\ ATC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sunk\\ Cost\\:\\ A\\ cost\\ that\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ committed\\ and\\ cannot\\ be\\ recovered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Long\\ Run\\:\\ Mkt\\ Supply\\ with\\ entry\\/exit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;firms\\ remaining\\ in\\ market\\ must\\ be\\ making\\ zero\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economic\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ process\\ occurs\\ when\\ price\\ and\\ ATC\\ are\\ driven\\ to\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-long\\ run\\ supply\\ curve\\ is\\ typically\\ more\\ elastic\\ than\\ short\\ run\\ supply\\ curve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 15\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Monopoly\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fundamental\\ cause\\ of\\ monopoly\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\barriers\\ to\\ entry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Barriers\\ to\\ entry\\ result\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ firm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sole\\ ownership\\ of\\ a\\ key\\ resource\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ provided\\ a\\ single\\ firm\\ with\\ the\\ EXCLUSIVE\\ right\\ to\\ produce\\ some\\ good\\ or\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Costs\\ of\\ production\\ making\\ a\\ single\\ producer\\ more\\ efficient\\ than\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ special\\ type\\ of\\ monopoly\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\natural\\ monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ a\\ natural\\ monopoly\\ has\\ decreasing\\ ATC\\ over\\ their\\ range\\ of\\ output\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ firm\\ faces\\ economies\\ of\\ scale\\ \\(if\\ the\\ firm\\ doubles\\ inputs\\,\\ the\\ firm\\ more\\ than\\ doubles\\ their\\ output\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Features\\ of\\ Monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Monopolies\\ produce\\ at\\ the\\ quantity\\ where\\ MC\\=MR\\.\\ At\\ this\\ quantity\\,\\ profit\\ is\\ maximized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ perfectly\\ competitive\\ firm\\,\\ the\\ monopolist\\ faces\\ a\\ downward\\ sloping\\ demand\\ curve\\.\\ The\\ monopolist\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;price\\ maker\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ provider\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ it\\ faces\\ the\\ market\\ demand\\ curve\\,\\ which\\ is\\ downward\\ sloping\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ substitution\\ effect\\,\\ diminishing\\ marginal\\ utility\\,\\ and\\ the\\ income\\ effect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ monopolist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ MR\\ curve\\ is\\ lies\\ beneath\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\ because\\ the\\ monopolist\\ must\\ lower\\ the\\ price\\ on\\ all\\ goods\\ sold\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ an\\ additional\\ good\\ \\(unless\\ the\\ monopoly\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ price\\ discriminate\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ a\\ monopoly\\ firm\\,\\ P\\>\\;MR\\=MC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monopolist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ charge\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ PC\\ price\\ and\\ provide\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ PC\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ monopolist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ failure\\ to\\ meet\\ socially\\ optimal\\ standards\\ for\\ price\\ and\\ production\\ results\\ in\\ DWL\\.\\ The\\ DWL\\ is\\ the\\ area\\ bounded\\ by\\ the\\ length\\ between\\ the\\ monopoly\\ quantity\\ \\(where\\ MC\\=MR\\)\\ and\\ socially\\ optimal\\ quantity\\ \\(where\\ MC\\=D\\)\\,\\ the\\ demand\\ curve\\,\\ and\\ the\\ marginal\\ cost\\ curve\\ \\(See\\ Graph\\ on\\ P\\.327\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Regulation\\ of\\ Monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\In\\ regulating\\ natural\\ monopolies\\,\\ the\\ government\\ may\\ pursue\\ either\\ marginal\\-cost\\ or\\ average\\-cost\\ pricing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\AC\\ pricing\\ guarantees\\ firms\\ do\\ not\\ earn\\ losses\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ DWL\\ to\\ society\\ due\\ to\\ producing\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MC\\ pricing\\ causes\\ the\\ firm\\ to\\ earn\\ a\\ loss\\ because\\ the\\ price\\ is\\ set\\ to\\ MC\\,\\ which\\ is\\ lower\\ than\\ ATC\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ monopoly\\ scenario\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Potential\\ Solution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Governments\\ may\\ opt\\ to\\ pursue\\ AC\\ pricing\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ subsidizing\\ the\\ firm\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ monopolist\\ will\\ have\\ no\\ incentive\\ to\\ produce\\ under\\ MC\\ pricing\\ because\\ he\\ will\\ earn\\ losses\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;There\\ are\\ DWL\\&rsquo\\;s\\ associated\\ with\\ subsidies\\ because\\ government\\ gains\\ money\\ for\\ subsidies\\ through\\ taxation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ Discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ business\\ practice\\ of\\ selling\\ the\\ same\\ good\\ at\\ different\\ prices\\ to\\ different\\ customers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ Price\\ Discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ movie\\ tickets\\,\\ airline\\ prices\\,\\ discount\\ coupons\\,\\ financial\\ aid\\,\\ quantity\\ discounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Each\\ of\\ these\\ examples\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ price\\ discrimination\\ because\\ it\\ differentiates\\ between\\ two\\ consumers\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ \\(movie\\ theatres\\ discriminate\\ based\\ on\\ age\\,\\ airlines\\ discriminate\\ between\\ business\\ and\\ personal\\ travelers\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ discrimination\\ raises\\ profit\\,\\ raises\\ total\\ surplus\\,\\ and\\ lowers\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ in\\ the\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ price\\ discriminator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ demand\\ curve\\ equals\\ its\\ marginal\\ revenue\\ curve\\ because\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ lower\\ the\\ price\\ on\\ all\\ previous\\ goods\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ an\\ additional\\ good\\.\\ Thus\\ the\\ price\\ discriminator\\ produces\\ where\\ MC\\=MR\\=D\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ socially\\ optimal\\ level\\ of\\ output\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ DWL\\ in\\ this\\ scenario\\,\\ so\\ total\\ surplus\\ increases\\.\\ The\\ PD\\ earns\\ all\\ additional\\ surplus\\ and\\ under\\ perfect\\ discrimination\\ all\\ consumer\\ surplus\\ because\\ the\\ each\\ individual\\ consumer\\ is\\ paying\\ his\\ own\\ personal\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\.\\ \\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 16\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oligopoly\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takeaways\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Firms\\ in\\ most\\ industries\\ fall\\ somewhere\\ in\\ between\\ a\\ monopoly\\ and\\ perfect\\ competition\\ this\\ situation\\ is\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\imperfect\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ imperfect\\ competition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Oligopoly\\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;market\\ structure\\ in\\ which\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ sellers\\ offer\\ similar\\ or\\ identical\\ products\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quantity\\ Produced\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ perfect\\ competition\\ but\\ higher\\ than\\ monopoly\\.\\ Price\\ is\\ higher\\ than\\ perfect\\ competition\\ but\\ lower\\ than\\ monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ex\\-\\ Tennis\\ Balls\\,\\ Crude\\ Oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Key\\ feature\\ is\\ TENSION\\ between\\ cooperation\\ and\\ self\\-interest\\.\\ Personal\\ incentives\\ prevent\\ group\\ from\\ achieving\\ monopoly\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Collusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ an\\ agreement\\ among\\ firms\\ about\\ quantity\\ produced\\ or\\ price\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cartel\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ group\\ of\\ firms\\ acting\\ in\\ unison\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nash\\ Equilibrium\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ economic\\ actors\\ interacting\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ choose\\ their\\ best\\ strategy\\ given\\ the\\ strategy\\ that\\ all\\ other\\ actors\\ have\\ chosen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\ Effects\\ that\\ oligopolists\\ consider\\ when\\ deciding\\ how\\ much\\ to\\ produce\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Price\\ Effect\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Raising\\ production\\ will\\ increase\\ total\\ amount\\ sold\\,\\ which\\ will\\ lower\\ the\\ price\\ and\\ lower\\ the\\ profit\\ on\\ all\\ other\\ previous\\ items\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Output\\ Effect\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Because\\ P\\>\\;MC\\ selling\\ one\\ more\\ item\\ at\\ the\\ going\\ price\\ will\\ raise\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Game\\ Theory\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ study\\ of\\ people\\ behave\\ in\\ strategic\\ situations\\.\\ A\\ particular\\ game\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dilemma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ illustrates\\ why\\ cooperation\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ maintain\\ even\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ mutually\\ beneficial\\.\\ A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dominant\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ strategy\\ that\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ a\\ player\\ in\\ a\\ game\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ strategies\\ chosen\\ by\\ other\\ players\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tit\\-for\\-Tat\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;illustrates\\ that\\ in\\ repeated\\ games\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ players\\ care\\ enough\\ about\\ future\\ profits\\,\\ they\\ will\\ choose\\ to\\ forgo\\ the\\ one\\-time\\ gain\\ from\\ defection\\.\\ The\\ threat\\ of\\ penalty\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ may\\ be\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ maintain\\ cooperation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 17\\ \\&ldquo\\;Monopolistic\\ Competition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Information\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ textbook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monopolistic\\ competition\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ market\\ structure\\ in\\ which\\ many\\ firms\\ sell\\ products\\ that\\ are\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;similar\\ but\\ not\\ identical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Many\\ sellers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Product\\ differentiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ entry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Profit\\ maximization\\:\\ \\ \\;firm\\ chooses\\ quantity\\ at\\ which\\ MR\\ \\=\\ MC\\,\\ then\\ uses\\ demand\\ curve\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ price\\ consistent\\ with\\ that\\ quantity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ equilibrium\\ in\\ a\\ monopolistically\\ competitive\\ market\\ differs\\ from\\ that\\ in\\ a\\ perfectly\\ competitive\\ market\\ in\\ two\\ related\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ each\\ firm\\ in\\ a\\ monopolistically\\ competitive\\ market\\ has\\ excess\\ capacity\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ is\\,\\ it\\ operates\\ on\\ the\\ downward\\-sloping\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ average\\-total\\-cost\\ curve\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\,\\ each\\ firm\\ charges\\ a\\ price\\ above\\ marginal\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Long\\-Run\\ Equilibrium\\:\\ \\ \\;profit\\ encourages\\ entry\\,\\ demand\\ curve\\ shifts\\ left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;losses\\ encourage\\ exit\\,\\ demand\\ curve\\ shifts\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monopolistic\\ versus\\ Perfect\\ Competition\\ \\(page\\ 378\\ of\\ textbook\\ for\\ graphs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monopolistic\\ Competition\\ and\\ the\\ Welfare\\ of\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ product\\-variety\\ externality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ business\\-stealing\\ externality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advertising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Critics\\ argue\\ that\\ advertising\\ impedes\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critics\\ argue\\ that\\ firms\\ use\\ advertising\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ consumer\\ irrationality\\ and\\ to\\ reduce\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Policymakers\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ advertising\\ can\\ make\\ markets\\ more\\ competitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defenders\\ of\\ advertising\\ argue\\ that\\ firms\\ use\\ advertising\\ to\\ inform\\ consumers\\ and\\ to\\ compete\\ more\\ vigorously\\ on\\ price\\ and\\ product\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advertising\\ as\\ a\\ Signal\\ of\\ Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Differences\\ and\\ Similarities\\ among\\ Perfect\\ Competition\\,\\ Monopolistic\\ Competition\\,\\ and\\ Monopoly\\ \\(page\\ 385\\ of\\ textbook\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 18\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Market\\ for\\ Factors\\ of\\ Production\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ inputs\\ used\\ to\\ produce\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ are\\ called\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\.\\ The\\ three\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\ are\\ labor\\,\\ land\\ and\\ capital\\.\\ Labor\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ demand\\ for\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ production\\ is\\ a\\ derived\\ demand\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ decision\\ to\\ supply\\ a\\ given\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ labor\\ is\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ output\\ from\\ an\\ additional\\ unit\\ of\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ MPL\\ declines\\ as\\ workers\\ are\\ added\\,\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ diminishing\\ marginal\\ product\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\,\\ or\\ marginal\\ revenue\\ product\\,\\ is\\ the\\ extra\\ revenue\\ a\\ firm\\ gets\\ from\\ hiring\\ an\\ additional\\ unit\\ of\\ a\\ factor\\ production\\.\\ It\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ labor\\ multiplied\\ by\\ the\\ market\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ output\\;\\ accordingly\\,\\ it\\ too\\ is\\ diminishing\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ downward\\-sloping\\ curve\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ marginal\\ revenue\\ product\\ curve\\ is\\ the\\ labor\\ demand\\ curve\\ for\\ a\\ competitive\\,\\ profit\\ maximizing\\ firm\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ firm\\ will\\ hire\\ workers\\ until\\ the\\ curve\\ intersects\\ the\\ market\\ wage\\ line\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ face\\ a\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ work\\ and\\ leisure\\;\\ the\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ and\\ hour\\ of\\ leisure\\ is\\ whatever\\ their\\ wage\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ upward\\-sloping\\ supply\\ curve\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ work\\ more\\ hours\\ if\\ their\\ wage\\ increases\\ \\(as\\ the\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ leisure\\ increases\\,\\ they\\ take\\ less\\ of\\ it\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ factors\\ of\\ production\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ marginal\\ product\\ of\\ that\\ factor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 19\\ \\&ldquo\\;Earnings\\ and\\ Discrimination\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Workers\\ earn\\ different\\ wages\\ for\\ many\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ some\\ extent\\,\\ wage\\ differentials\\ compensate\\ workers\\ for\\ job\\ attributes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Workers\\ with\\ more\\ human\\ capital\\ get\\ paid\\ more\\ than\\ workers\\ with\\ less\\ human\\ capital\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ return\\ to\\ accumulating\\ human\\ capital\\ is\\ high\\ and\\ has\\ increased\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ decade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ much\\ variation\\ in\\ earnings\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ things\\ economists\\ can\\ measure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ unexplained\\ variation\\ in\\ earnings\\ is\\ largely\\ attributable\\ to\\ natural\\ ability\\,\\ effort\\,\\ and\\ chance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ economists\\ have\\ suggested\\ that\\ more\\-educated\\ workers\\ earn\\ higher\\ wages\\ because\\ workers\\ with\\ high\\ natural\\ ability\\ use\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ signal\\ their\\ high\\ ability\\ to\\ employers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wages\\ are\\ sometimes\\ pushed\\ above\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ level\\ because\\ of\\ minimum\\-wage\\ laws\\,\\ unions\\,\\ and\\ efficiency\\ wages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ differences\\ in\\ earnings\\ are\\ attributable\\ to\\ discrimination\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ race\\,\\ sex\\,\\ or\\ other\\ factors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ measuring\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ discrimination\\,\\ one\\ must\\ correct\\ for\\ differences\\ in\\ human\\ capital\\ and\\ job\\ characteristics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Competitive\\ markets\\ tend\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ discrimination\\ on\\ wages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discrimination\\ can\\ persist\\ in\\ competitive\\ markets\\ if\\ customers\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\willing\\ to\\ pay\\ more\\ to\\ discriminatory\\ firms\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\or\\ if\\ the\\ government\\ passes\\ laws\\ requiring\\ firms\\ to\\ discriminate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Chapter\\ 20\\ \\&ldquo\\;Income\\ Inequality\\ and\\ Poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\5\\ key\\ take\\-aways\\\\poverty\\-rate\\ percentage\\ of\\ population\\ below\\ poverty\\ line\\ set\\ by\\ fed\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\at\\ roughly\\ three\\ times\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ adequate\\ diet\\\\life\\ cycle\\ is\\ regular\\ patter\\ of\\ income\\ prediction\\:\\ rises\\ as\\ gain\\experience\\ peaks\\ at\\ around\\ 50\\ and\\ retires\\ at\\ around\\ 65\\\\(note\\ \\:\\ permanent\\ income\\ \\=\\ average\\ income\\)\\\\Utilitariaism\\ v\\.\\ Liberalism\\ \\ \\;v\\.\\ Libertarianism\\Utilitarianism\\:\\ think\\,\\ rob\\ peter\\ to\\ pay\\ paul\\,\\ maximize\\ theoretical\\ utility\\Liberalism\\:\\ Rawls\\&\\#39\\;\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ before\\ born\\ in\\ an\\ \\"\\;original\\ position\\"\\;\\making\\ a\\ contract\\ \\(rem\\.\\ Mankiw\\ lecture\\)\\ to\\ help\\ out\\ those\\ who\\ may\\ need\\ it\\ in\\ life\\Libertarianism\\:\\ \\ \\;libaralism\\ people\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ take\\ my\\ money\\ and\\ i\\ never\\agreed\\ to\\ any\\ ignorance\\ contract\\\\Negative\\ Income\\ Tax\\:\\ supplement\\ the\\ income\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ while\\ rich\\ pay\\taxes\\,\\ poor\\ receive\\ money\\ instead\\ \\(hence\\,\\ negative\\ tax\\ on\\ them\\)\\\\or\\ in\\-kind\\ transfers\\ instead\\ such\\ as\\ food\\ stamps\\ or\\ free\\ stuff\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 21\\:\\ The\\ Theory\\ of\\ Consumer\\ Choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Takeaways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slope\\ of\\ the\\ budget\\ constraint\\ \\=\\ Relative\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ goods\\.\\ A\\ consumer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(buyer\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ budget\\ constraints\\ shows\\ us\\ the\\ amount\\ and\\ type\\ of\\ various\\ products\\/goods\\ he\\ can\\ buy\\ with\\ his\\ given\\ income\\ and\\ the\\ prices\\ of\\ those\\ various\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Consumer\\ Indifference\\ curve\\ \\=\\ Consumer\\ Preferences\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Therefore\\,\\ an\\ indifference\\ curve\\ portrays\\ similar\\ types\\ of\\ goods\\ that\\ would\\ also\\ satisfy\\ the\\ buyer\\ \\(consumer\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\By\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ indifference\\ curve\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slope\\ of\\ an\\ indifference\\ curve\\ \\(at\\ any\\ given\\ point\\)\\:\\ This\\ will\\ tell\\ us\\ the\\ Consumer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ marginal\\ rate\\ of\\ substitution\\ \\(the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ consumer\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ substitute\\ one\\ good\\ for\\ another\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Position\\ of\\ points\\ on\\ the\\ indifference\\ curve\\:\\ Points\\ that\\ are\\ higher\\ on\\ the\\ indifference\\ curve\\ show\\ preference\\,\\ whereas\\ lower\\ points\\ show\\ lower\\ preference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slope\\ of\\ the\\ Indifference\\ curve\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Slope\\ of\\ the\\ budget\\ constraint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(The\\ marginal\\ rate\\ of\\ substitution\\ between\\ goods\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ relative\\ price\\ of\\ goods\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ consumer\\ will\\ reach\\ his\\ optimization\\ point\\ by\\ choosing\\ the\\ point\\ on\\ his\\ budget\\ constraint\\ that\\ lies\\ on\\ the\\ highest\\ indifference\\ curve\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ falls\\,\\ the\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ consumer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choices\\ can\\ be\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ an\\ income\\ effect\\ and\\ a\\ substitution\\ effect\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Income\\ effect\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ consumption\\ that\\ arises\\ because\\ a\\ lower\\ price\\ makes\\ the\\ consumer\\ better\\ off\\.\\ The\\ income\\ effect\\ is\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ movement\\ from\\ a\\ lower\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ indifference\\ curve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Substitution\\ effect\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ consumption\\ that\\ arises\\ because\\ a\\ price\\ change\\ encourages\\ greater\\ consumption\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ that\\ has\\ become\\ relatively\\ cheaper\\.\\ The\\ substitution\\ effect\\ is\\ reflected\\ by\\ a\\ movement\\ along\\ an\\ indifference\\ curve\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ slope\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ consumer\\ choice\\ can\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ explain\\ \\(among\\ other\\ things\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ demand\\ curves\\ can\\ potentially\\ slope\\ upward\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ higher\\ wages\\ could\\ either\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ the\\ quantity\\ of\\ labor\\ supplied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ higher\\ interest\\ rates\\ could\\ either\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ saving\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 22\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Frontiers\\ of\\ Microeconomics\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\Asymmetric\\ Information\\ \\=\\ Difference\\ in\\ access\\ to\\ relevant\\ knowledge\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hidden\\ actions\\:\\ principals\\,\\ agents\\,\\ and\\ moral\\ hazard\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Moral\\ hazard\\ happens\\ when\\ the\\ principal\\ cannot\\ perfectly\\ monitor\\ agents\\behavior\\ who\\ tends\\ to\\ put\\ less\\ effort\\ than\\ the\\ principals\\ desire\\.\\ \\ \\;Better\\monitoring\\,\\ high\\ wages\\,\\ and\\ delayed\\ payment\\ are\\ ways\\ employers\\ can\\ respond\\ to\\this\\ problem\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hidden\\ characteristics\\:\\ adverse\\ selection\\=the\\ tendency\\ for\\ the\\ mix\\ of\\unobserved\\ attributes\\ to\\ become\\ undesirable\\ from\\ the\\ standpoint\\ of\\ an\\ uniformed\\party\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\:\\ used\\ car\\ market\\,\\ labor\\,\\ health\\ insurance\\ market\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Signaling\\:\\ an\\ action\\ taken\\ by\\ an\\ informed\\ party\\ to\\ reveal\\ private\\ information\\to\\ an\\ uniformed\\ party\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Screening\\:\\ an\\ action\\ taken\\ by\\ an\\ uninformed\\ party\\ to\\ induce\\ an\\ informed\\ party\\to\\ reveal\\ information\\.\\\\Political\\ Economy\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ is\\ an\\ imperfect\\ institution\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Condorcet\\ paradox\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ majority\\ rule\\ to\\ produce\\ transitive\\preferences\\ for\\ society\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Arrow\\&\\#39\\;s\\ impossibility\\ theorem\\-\\ a\\ mathematical\\ result\\ showing\\ that\\,\\ under\\certain\\ assumed\\ conditions\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ scheme\\ for\\ aggregating\\ individual\\preferences\\ into\\ a\\ valid\\ set\\ of\\ social\\ preferences\\-\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ perfect\\ voting\\system\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Median\\ voter\\ theorem\\-\\ a\\ mathematical\\ result\\ showing\\ that\\ if\\ voters\\ are\\ choosing\\a\\ point\\ along\\ a\\ line\\ and\\ each\\ voter\\ wants\\ the\\ point\\ closest\\ to\\ his\\ most\\preferred\\ pint\\,\\ then\\ majority\\ rule\\ will\\ pick\\ the\\ most\\ preferred\\ point\\ of\\ the\\median\\ voter\\.\\ Implications\\:\\ Political\\ parties\\ move\\ their\\ views\\ towards\\ the\\median\\ voter\\ to\\ win\\ more\\ votes\\.\\ Minority\\ views\\ not\\ given\\ much\\ weight\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Politicians\\ are\\ people\\ too\\.\\ Driven\\ by\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ greed\\\\Behavioral\\ Economics\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;People\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ always\\ rational\\-too\\ overconfident\\,\\ give\\ too\\ much\\ weight\\ to\\ a\\small\\ number\\ of\\ vivid\\ observations\\,\\ reluctant\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ minds\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;People\\ care\\ about\\ fairness\\-\\ ultimatum\\ game\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;People\\ are\\ inconsistent\\ over\\ time\\-\\ people\\ procrastinate\\,\\ dreary\\ tasks\\ are\\ put\\off\\ till\\ later\\,\\ are\\ not\\ committed\\ to\\ the\\ task\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;price\\ ceiling\\:\\ a\\ legal\\ maximum\\ on\\ the\\ price\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ good\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;price\\ floor\\:\\ a\\ legal\\ minimum\\ on\\ the\\ price\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ good\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 10, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/GROUP_STUDY_GUIDE.doc", "desc": "Full School Year Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice - Study Guide", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "ethical-reasoning-22"], "text": null, "id": 22, "html": "\\\\\\List\\_of\\_Concepts\\_\\-\\_Justice\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c0\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c3\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c5\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c11\\{color\\:\\#000099\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ Review\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Martin\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Neill\\,\\ December\\ 2002\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ reviewing\\ the\\ material\\ before\\ the\\ Final\\ Examination\\,\\ you\\ should\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ ideas\\ and\\ concepts\\.\\ \\This\\ is\\ not\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ exhaustive\\ list\\,\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ helpful\\ in\\ structuring\\ your\\ thoughts\\ about\\ the\\ material\\.\\ \\Naturally\\,\\ the\\ very\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ coming\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ possible\\ understanding\\ of\\ this\\ material\\ is\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ texts\\ themselves\\.\\ \\Bear\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ probably\\ pay\\ special\\ attention\\ to\\ our\\ 5\\ major\\ thinkers\\:\\that\\ is\\,\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Locke\\,\\ Kant\\,\\ Mill\\ and\\ Rawls\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Political\\ Liberalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ where\\ you\\ feel\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ write\\ a\\ few\\ sentences\\ on\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ topics\\,\\ you\\ should\\ be\\ well\\ on\\ your\\ way\\ to\\ mastery\\ of\\ this\\ material\\.\\ \\My\\ single\\ biggest\\ piece\\ of\\ advice\\,\\ at\\ this\\ stage\\,\\ and\\ now\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\ all\\ the\\ material\\ for\\ the\\ course\\,\\ is\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ connections\\ between\\ all\\ the\\ theories\\.\\ \\By\\ seeing\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ argue\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ where\\ they\\ might\\ agree\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THEORY\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Bentham\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ general\\ utilitarian\\ principle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ social\\ decision\\-making\\ under\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ His\\ idea\\ of\\ man\\ being\\ under\\ the\\ soverignty\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;two\\ sovereign\\ masters\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Pleasure\\ as\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ The\\ issue\\ of\\ commensurability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ With\\ regards\\ to\\ Mill\\ \\&\\;\\ Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(A\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ families\\ of\\ objections\\ to\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Incommensurability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Higher\\/Lower\\ Pleasures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(B\\)\\ Remember\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ as\\ involving\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Consequentialism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ right\\ as\\ determined\\ by\\ bringing\\ about\\ good\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Welfarism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ utility\\/happiness\\ as\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Sum\\-maximization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ deliberately\\ ignores\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ separateness\\ of\\ persons\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Mill\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Utilitarianism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ where\\ Mill\\ departs\\ from\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;commensurability\\&rsquo\\;\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utilitarian\\ justification\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ Act\\-utilitarianism\\ vs\\ Rule\\-utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Nozick\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Anarchy\\,\\ State\\ and\\ Utopia\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;patterned\\&rsquo\\;\\ distributions\\ and\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ just\\ acquisitions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Different\\ assumptions\\ about\\ the\\ individual\\ made\\ by\\ utilitarians\\ and\\ libertarians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ argument\\ for\\ why\\ taxation\\ amounts\\ to\\ forced\\ labour\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\(Michael\\ Jordan\\)\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ self\\-ownership\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;Lockean\\ proviso\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(5\\)\\ Locke\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Differences\\ from\\ libertarianism\\.\\ Why\\ Locke\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ libertarian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ to\\ civil\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;State\\ of\\ War\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Property\\ rights\\,\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ property\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\ law\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;tacit\\ consent\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ provisos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ much\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ left\\ for\\ others\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ and\\ function\\ of\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ His\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ and\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(6\\)\\ Markets\\ and\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ money\\ is\\ a\\ suitable\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ all\\ commodities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Are\\ markets\\ suitable\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ of\\ distribution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Limits\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ property\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ consent\\,\\ and\\ of\\ contracts\\.\\ Conditions\\ under\\ which\\ a\\ contract\\ is\\ enforceable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Anderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ market\\ transactions\\ as\\ undermining\\ social\\ understandings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Kimbrell\\:\\ organ\\-selling\\ as\\ violating\\ bodily\\ integrity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ notion\\ that\\ some\\ contracts\\ might\\ be\\ exploitative\\,\\ even\\ if\\ consensual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(7\\)\\ Kant\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\.\\ Its\\ various\\ formulations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ hypothetical\\ imperatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ consequentialist\\ moral\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ duty\\ vs\\ mere\\ inclination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ concept\\ of\\ freedom\\ as\\ autonomy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ How\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;categorical\\ imperative\\ test\\&rsquo\\;\\ functions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ following\\ Kantian\\ concepts\\ should\\ all\\ make\\ some\\ sense\\ to\\ you\\:\\ prudence\\;\\ autonomy\\;\\ inclination\\;\\ heteronomy\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\ Imperative\\;\\ respect\\;\\ law\\;\\ will\\;\\ hypothetical\\ imperative\\;\\ freedom\\;\\ happiness\\;\\ action\\;\\ The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\;\\ maxim\\;\\ Reason\\;\\ duty\\;\\ right\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ maxim\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ as\\ the\\ action\\ \\+\\ the\\ purpose\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ performed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ Good\\ Will\\ as\\ the\\ highest\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dualisms\\ \\(autonomy\\ vs\\ heteronomy\\,\\ categorical\\ vs\\ hypothetical\\,\\ sensible\\ vs\\ intelligible\\,\\ duty\\ vs\\ inclination\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ line\\ up\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(8\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ contractarian\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ Original\\ Position\\ and\\ the\\ Veil\\ of\\ Ignorance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ Two\\ Principles\\ of\\ Justice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Equal\\ Basic\\ Liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2a\\.\\ Fair\\ Equality\\ of\\ Opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2b\\.\\ The\\ Difference\\ Principle\\ \\(maximin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;reflective\\ equilibrium\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Some\\ things\\ being\\ \\&lsquo\\;arbitrary\\ from\\ a\\ moral\\ point\\ of\\ view\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ \\(the\\ self\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ Right\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ contrast\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;entitlements\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\&rsquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&lsquo\\;moral\\ desert\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Natural\\ talents\\ as\\ collective\\ assets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ 5\\-stage\\ diagram\\ discussed\\ in\\ section\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(1\\)\\ Feudal\\ Aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ Natural\\ Liberty\\ \\(libertarianism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ Liberal\\ Equality\\ \\(meritocracy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ \\(with\\ rewards\\ for\\ effort\\,\\ due\\ to\\ desert\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(5\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ without\\ Desert\\ \\(Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;social\\ primary\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xii\\)\\ The\\ restriction\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(9\\)\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Dworkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ merit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Dworkin\\,\\ and\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ self\\-understanding\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ using\\ people\\ as\\ means\\ instead\\ of\\ ends\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ embodying\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ attitude\\,\\ or\\ as\\ failing\\ to\\ treat\\ people\\ as\\ equals\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Dworkin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ equal\\ treatment\\ vs\\.\\ equal\\ outcomes\\.\\ Rejection\\ of\\ desert\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&lsquo\\;acceptance\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;rejection\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\:\\ the\\ relation\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Aristotle\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Politics\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ deontological\\ and\\ teleological\\ theories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ Man\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ state\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ citizenship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\&rsquo\\;\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ Good\\ Life\\,\\ and\\ of\\ Happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;telos\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ a\\ person\\,\\ activity\\ or\\ institution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ Aristotle\\.\\ The\\ specificity\\ of\\ virtue\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ particular\\ kinds\\ of\\ person\\ or\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ to\\ promote\\ \\&lsquo\\;living\\ well\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ Determinations\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ involving\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(11\\)\\ Communitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Obligations\\ of\\ Community\\ or\\ Solidarity\\ \\(Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ type\\-3\\ obligations\\,\\ where\\ type\\-1\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;General\\ Obligations\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ type\\-2\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;Contractual\\ or\\ Consensual\\ or\\ Voluntarist\\&rsquo\\;\\ obligations\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ liberal\\ \\(voluntarist\\)\\ self\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ communitarian\\ \\(narrative\\,\\ embedded\\)\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\ and\\ its\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\ in\\ liberalism\\ and\\ in\\ communitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(12\\)\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;After\\ Virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ narrative\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;teleological\\ unity\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ communal\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ MacIntyre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Aristotelianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(13\\)\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ self\\ as\\ partly\\ constituted\\ by\\ its\\ attachments\\ and\\ commitments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Moral\\ and\\ political\\ obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ these\\ \\&lsquo\\;constitutive\\&rsquo\\;\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Arguments\\ against\\ the\\ Rawlsian\\/Kantian\\ \\&lsquo\\;unencumbered\\ self\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(14\\)\\ Walzer\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ methodology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ interpreting\\ \\&lsquo\\;shared\\ understandings\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ welfare\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(15\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Political\\ Liberalism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Justice\\ as\\ fairness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;fact\\ of\\ reasonable\\ pluralism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;idea\\ of\\ an\\ overlapping\\ consensus\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ neutrality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Between\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\(in\\ TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Between\\ comprehensive\\ religious\\,\\ moral\\ or\\ philosophical\\ doctrines\\ \\(PL\\ only\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;public\\ reason\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ fair\\ system\\ of\\ co\\-operation\\ between\\ people\\ regarded\\ as\\ reasonable\\ and\\ rational\\,\\ free\\ and\\ equal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ three\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;political\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Limited\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\ \\(TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Independent\\ of\\ any\\ comprehensive\\ doctrine\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ Reliant\\ on\\ ideas\\ which\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;implicit\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ political\\ culture\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Rawls\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ bracketing\\ grave\\ moral\\ questions\\ \\(Lincoln\\-Douglas\\,\\ Abortion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Reasonable\\ Pluralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Liberal\\ Public\\ Reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ last\\ word\\ of\\ advice\\:\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ unhelpful\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ notions\\ \\(some\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ abstract\\)\\ just\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ theory\\.\\ \\Thus\\,\\ thinking\\ about\\ specific\\ examples\\ is\\ of\\ immense\\ value\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ seeing\\ how\\ these\\ different\\ theories\\ work\\,\\ and\\ in\\ rendering\\ them\\ vivid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ do\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ discussing\\ this\\ semester\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXAMPLES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Queen\\ vs\\.\\ Dudley\\ \\&\\;\\ Stephens\\ \\(the\\ lifeboat\\ case\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Trolley\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Enthusiastic\\ Transplant\\ Doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Simpsons\\ vs\\ Shakespeare\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\/\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Civil\\ War\\ military\\ draft\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Baby\\ M\\ \\&\\;\\ commercial\\ surrogacy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Organ\\-selling\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Nozick\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\&\\#39\\;Tale\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\&\\#39\\;\\Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Shopkeeper\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Lying\\ to\\ the\\ Murderer\\ at\\ the\\ Door\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Bill\\ Clinton\\ and\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Kant\\ on\\ Sex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bakke\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Hopwood\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;Proxy\\ War\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ University\\ Rejection\\ and\\ Acceptance\\ Letters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Casey\\ Martin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ golf\\ cart\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Callie\\ Smartt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cherleading\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Nazis\\ in\\ Skokie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\MLK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ march\\ from\\ Selma\\ to\\ Montgomery\\,\\ AL\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Gay\\ Marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/List_of_Concepts_-_Justice.doc", "desc": "List of Concepts"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:19:19.531026+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Presidency - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "american-presidency"], "text": null, "id": 34, "html": null, "course_id": 17, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/1540finalguide_2.doc", "desc": "Final Guide for Gov 1540"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 01:16:18.671745+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The American Presidency - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "american", "presidency"], "text": null, "id": 32, "html": null, "course_id": 17, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/1540finalguide.doc", "desc": "Final Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:21:20.716704+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Foreign Policy - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "american", "government", "foreign-policy"], "text": null, "id": 35, "html": "\\\\\\AFPstudyguide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:27pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c35\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c32\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c30\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c11\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:34pt\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c25\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c17\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\February\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Classifying\\ Foreign\\ Policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walter\\ Russell\\ Mead\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Special\\ Providence\\:\\ American\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\ and\\ How\\ it\\ Changed\\ the\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ remarkable\\ features\\ about\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\ today\\ is\\ the\\ ignorance\\ of\\ and\\ contempt\\ for\\ the\\ national\\ foreign\\ policy\\ tradition\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ thoughtful\\ people\\ here\\ and\\ abroad\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ US\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ remarkably\\ successful\\ history\\ in\\ IR\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ the\\ strong\\ tradition\\ of\\ US\\ foreign\\ policy\\ goes\\ back\\ far\\ beyond\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\ For\\ hundreds\\ of\\ years\\ the\\ greatest\\ American\\ minds\\ have\\ worked\\ on\\ AFP\\,\\ Secretary\\ of\\ State\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ huge\\ importance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ President\\ from\\ Washington\\ to\\ Wilson\\ sent\\ troops\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ Two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ rise\\ of\\ American\\ power\\ has\\ been\\ consistent\\,\\ striking\\,\\ sustained\\ over\\ the\\ long\\ term\\,\\ and\\ accomplished\\ at\\ an\\ astonishingly\\ low\\ cost\\ considering\\ the\\ size\\ and\\ range\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ the\\ country\\ has\\ amassed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 34\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ assumptions\\ of\\ continental\\ realists\\ make\\ it\\ impossible\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ and\\ why\\ AFP\\ works\\ so\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ ignore\\ economic\\ considerations\\:\\ for\\ them\\,\\ politics\\ is\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ completely\\ Euro\\-centric\\,\\ they\\ lack\\ the\\ attention\\ to\\ scale\\ that\\ AFP\\ has\\ shown\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ two\\ centuries\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ believe\\ in\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;auteur\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ policy\\,\\ the\\ mastermind\\ behind\\ the\\ scenes\\.\\ No\\ such\\ man\\ in\\ US\\ FP\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ constitutional\\ process\\ is\\ a\\ shuddering\\ and\\ clunking\\ machine\\ that\\ can\\ never\\ hope\\ to\\ operate\\ smoothly\\ or\\ in\\ secrecy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ all\\ states\\ are\\ represented\\ in\\ Congress\\,\\ AFP\\ looks\\ to\\ all\\ borders\\ and\\ all\\ sides\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ less\\ clear\\ distinction\\ between\\ society\\ and\\ state\\ in\\ US\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ this\\ affects\\ FP\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ Four\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hamiltonians\\ \\&ldquo\\;pursue\\ their\\ goals\\ with\\ the\\ sinuous\\ pragmatism\\ of\\ the\\ wily\\ serpent\\,\\ yet\\ their\\ purposes\\ \\[are\\]\\ as\\ human\\ and\\ peaceable\\ as\\ those\\ that\\ legend\\ attributes\\ to\\ the\\ dove\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 99\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ a\\ Hamiltonian\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ speaks\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ Continental\\ realist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ an\\ elitist\\ and\\ a\\ snob\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ looks\\ to\\ interest\\ to\\ guide\\ his\\ conduct\\,\\ yet\\ he\\ romantically\\ dreams\\ of\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ interests\\ are\\ aligned\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ sees\\ commerce\\ as\\ a\\ cause\\ of\\ peace\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hamiltonian\\ FP\\ springs\\ from\\ the\\ traditional\\ framework\\ of\\ European\\ diplomacy\\ but\\ is\\ less\\ defensive\\ and\\ more\\ optimistic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ interest\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ Hamiltonians\\ as\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Freedom\\ of\\ Sea\\ and\\ Air\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ trade\\ with\\ other\\ great\\ powers\\ and\\ their\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protect\\ strategically\\ necessary\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ flow\\ of\\ money\\ between\\ trading\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sees\\ Great\\ Britain\\ as\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ successful\\ AFP\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ trade\\,\\ financial\\ stability\\,\\ and\\ investment\\.\\ The\\ two\\ countries\\ also\\ share\\ a\\ common\\ relation\\ with\\ Europe\\ \\(bottled\\ scorpions\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hamiltonians\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ military\\ strong\\ enough\\ to\\ garner\\ British\\ respect\\,\\ and\\ otherwise\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ Euro\\ politics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ great\\ Hamiltonian\\ successes\\ after\\ WWII\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assisting\\ in\\ the\\ dismantling\\ of\\ the\\ decaying\\ fabric\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seeing\\ off\\ the\\ challenges\\ from\\ Germany\\,\\ Japan\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Building\\ a\\ new\\ international\\ system\\ centered\\ on\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hamiltonian\\ optimism\\ revealed\\ by\\ how\\ quickly\\ they\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ assume\\ the\\ mantle\\ of\\ the\\ hegemon\\.\\ When\\ it\\ became\\ clear\\ that\\ Britain\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ adequately\\ fulfill\\ that\\ role\\,\\ America\\ picked\\ Britain\\ apart\\ ruthlessly\\.\\ They\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ benefit\\ from\\ exclusive\\ trade\\ with\\ their\\ colonies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ hegemon\\,\\ Hamiltonians\\ became\\ committed\\ to\\ alliance\\ with\\ foreign\\ countries\\ and\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ drop\\ economic\\ protectionism\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\ international\\ financial\\ stability\\,\\ and\\ aid\\ in\\ the\\ economic\\ recovery\\ of\\ our\\ allies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\133\\&mdash\\;Missionaries\\ and\\ their\\ critical\\ role\\ in\\ spreading\\ Wilsonian\\ values\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;determined\\ to\\ relieve\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ peoples\\ of\\ the\\ burdens\\ of\\ superstition\\,\\ paganism\\,\\ feudalism\\,\\ and\\ ignorance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Women\\ played\\ a\\ big\\ role\\,\\ as\\ they\\ gained\\ medical\\ and\\ theological\\ training\\ and\\ dispersed\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ help\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\China\\ railway\\ loan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\imposed\\ onerous\\ conditions\\ on\\ a\\ loan\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ Christian\\ Chinese\\ government\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ inspired\\ by\\ Christian\\ missionaries\\&mdash\\;American\\ capitalists\\ were\\ now\\ trying\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ fragile\\ new\\ government\\ by\\ offering\\ a\\ high\\-interest\\ loan\\.\\ \\ \\;Christians\\ throughout\\ America\\ then\\ responded\\ by\\ aggressively\\ lobbying\\ Congress\\ to\\ prohibit\\ the\\ sleazy\\ loan\\ from\\ being\\ offered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Wilsonian\\ ideals\\ involved\\ linking\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ American\\ power\\ to\\ a\\ liberal\\ Christian\\ ideology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\136\\&mdash\\;It\\ is\\ a\\ remnant\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ Liberal\\ conscience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\138\\&mdash\\;The\\ US\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ and\\ duty\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Wilsonian\\ ideals\\ receive\\ their\\ most\\ hostile\\ criticism\\ from\\ realists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Democratic\\ Government\\ and\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ human\\ rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Missionaries\\ attempted\\ to\\ protect\\ people\\ from\\ unscrupulous\\ Westerners\\,\\ while\\ also\\ advocating\\ Western\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\147\\&mdash\\;As\\ the\\ missionary\\ movement\\ grew\\,\\ it\\ moved\\ to\\ a\\ second\\ level\\ of\\ political\\ activism\\ in\\ which\\ time\\ was\\ devoted\\ towards\\ protecting\\ the\\ lives\\,\\ property\\ and\\ other\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ missionaries\\,\\ which\\ was\\ quite\\ time\\-consuming\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\148\\&mdash\\;In\\ its\\ highest\\ level\\ of\\ activity\\,\\ the\\ missionaries\\ advocated\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ government\\ get\\ involved\\ in\\ human\\ rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ missionaries\\ affected\\ government\\ policy\\,\\ their\\ greatest\\ accomplishments\\ occurred\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Missionaries\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ enough\\ money\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ isolated\\ luxury\\,\\ so\\ they\\ had\\ close\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ indigenous\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wilson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Grand\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\162\\&mdash\\;Democracies\\ make\\ better\\ and\\ more\\ reliable\\ partners\\ than\\ monarchies\\ or\\ tyrannies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wilsonianism\\ did\\ a\\ brilliant\\ job\\ rebuilding\\ Europe\\ after\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aims\\ to\\ promote\\ democracy\\ and\\ prevent\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\172\\&mdash\\;Wilsonians\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ so\\ many\\ causes\\ that\\ they\\ become\\ very\\ fragmented\\ and\\ thus\\ force\\ policymakers\\ to\\ tackle\\ a\\ huge\\ variety\\ of\\ problems\\ that\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ resources\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vindicator\\ only\\ of\\ her\\ own\\:\\ The\\ Jeffersonian\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\175\\&mdash\\;The\\ US\\ is\\ a\\ precious\\ gem\\ to\\ be\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ future\\ generations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeffersonian\\ warn\\ that\\ the\\ unchecked\\ operation\\ of\\ capitalism\\ does\\ not\\ always\\ reinforce\\ democracy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jeffersonians\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ in\\ an\\ never\\ ending\\ quest\\ to\\ right\\ its\\ wrongs\\ and\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ the\\ founders\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\181\\&mdash\\;Aristocrats\\ attempted\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ government\\ seem\\ more\\ complex\\ than\\ it\\ actually\\ is\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ oppress\\ the\\ common\\ farmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Building\\ democracy\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ good\\,\\ but\\ doing\\ so\\ abroad\\ risks\\ becoming\\ entangled\\ in\\ foreign\\ quarrels\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\182\\&mdash\\;The\\ US\\ should\\ set\\ an\\ example\\,\\ not\\ pose\\ a\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberty\\ is\\ precious\\ and\\ fragile\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeffersonians\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ opportunities\\ in\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ they\\ see\\ threats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\186\\&mdash\\;Wars\\ cost\\ money\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ centralized\\ power\\&mdash\\;ware\\ strengthens\\ the\\ executive\\ against\\ his\\ legislature\\ and\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Speak\\ softly\\ and\\ carry\\ the\\ smallest\\ possible\\ stick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\191\\&mdash\\;They\\ love\\ the\\ pluralist\\,\\ decentralized\\ nature\\ of\\ American\\ interest\\ groups\\&mdash\\;this\\ is\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ democracy\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Monroe\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\194\\&mdash\\;Jeffersonians\\ attempt\\ to\\ define\\ American\\ interests\\ as\\ narrowly\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ allowing\\ them\\ to\\ serve\\ the\\ interests\\ without\\ coming\\ into\\ conflict\\ with\\ other\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\200\\&mdash\\;Unlike\\ what\\ most\\ historians\\ say\\,\\ the\\ Monroe\\ doctrine\\ aimed\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ the\\ Americans\\ mutual\\ partners\\,\\ as\\ the\\ other\\ colonial\\ powers\\ were\\ more\\ threatening\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jeffersonians\\ loved\\ the\\ system\\ because\\ it\\ left\\ Britain\\ to\\ bear\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ patrolling\\ the\\ Western\\ Hemisphere\\ with\\ its\\ ships\\,\\ keeping\\ the\\ US\\ from\\ having\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ a\\ large\\ military\\ buildup\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\204\\&mdash\\;The\\ decline\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ empire\\ put\\ the\\ Jeffersonians\\ in\\ a\\ huge\\ dilemma\\&mdash\\;must\\ they\\ become\\ a\\ global\\ hegemon\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*205\\&mdash\\;They\\ hated\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ replacing\\ Britain\\ as\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hegemon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*208\\&mdash\\;They\\ called\\ for\\ less\\ muscular\\ behavior\\ vis\\-\\à\\;\\-vis\\ the\\ Soviets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\209\\&mdash\\;The\\ undermining\\ of\\ Jeffersonian\\ strength\\ by\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ events\\&mdash\\;The\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\ proved\\ that\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ useful\\ tool\\ for\\ protecting\\ Jeffersonian\\ interests\\ such\\ as\\ political\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*210\\&mdash\\;Jeffersonian\\ thought\\ during\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ Soviets\\ were\\ a\\ defensive\\,\\ not\\ an\\ offensive\\,\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*211\\-many\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutions\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ battling\\ in\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ actually\\ deserved\\ to\\ win\\&mdash\\;they\\ were\\ also\\ big\\ proponents\\ of\\ arms\\ control\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\213\\&mdash\\;From\\ the\\ 1970s\\ onward\\,\\ the\\ tide\\ began\\ to\\ turn\\ back\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ Jeffersonian\\ ideas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\217\\&mdash\\;Calls\\ for\\ the\\ US\\ to\\ lower\\ its\\ international\\ profile\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;functions\\ like\\ a\\ reverse\\ gear\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tiger\\,\\ Tiger\\,\\ Burning\\ Bright\\:\\ the\\ School\\ of\\ Andrew\\ Jackson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\219\\&mdash\\;The\\ US\\ is\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ dangerous\\ military\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ US\\ has\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ make\\ its\\ enemies\\ yield\\ to\\ its\\ demands\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\224\\&mdash\\;Jacksonians\\ are\\ profoundly\\ suspicious\\ of\\ elites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\220\\&mdash\\;We\\ are\\ not\\ simply\\ a\\ people\\ of\\ merchants\\,\\ missionaries\\,\\ and\\ constitutional\\ lawyers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*222\\&mdash\\;The\\ influence\\ of\\ Jacksonian\\ thought\\ in\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\224\\&mdash\\;Like\\ the\\ Jeffersonians\\,\\ they\\ are\\ profoundly\\ suspicious\\ of\\ elites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-both\\ groups\\ are\\ strongly\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ Constitution\\ and\\ the\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\225\\&mdash\\;They\\ are\\ often\\ considered\\ the\\ most\\ obstructionist\\ of\\ the\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\227\\&mdash\\;Ronald\\ Reagan\\ \\=\\ Jacksonian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\231\\&mdash\\;Honor\\ is\\ important\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\238\\&mdash\\;Jacksonians\\ are\\ democratic\\ and\\ populist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\240\\&mdash\\;There\\ is\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ while\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\problems\\ are\\ complicated\\,\\ solutions\\ are\\ simple\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\241\\&mdash\\;Folk\\ Community\\ \\=\\ the\\ American\\ middle\\ class\\&mdash\\;the\\ group\\ that\\ Jacksonians\\ adamantly\\ fight\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\244\\&mdash\\;Jacksonian\\ political\\ philosophy\\ is\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ instinct\\ than\\ an\\ ideology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-They\\ are\\ realists\\ in\\ foreign\\ policy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\246\\&mdash\\;Our\\ diplomacy\\ must\\ be\\ cunning\\,\\ forceful\\,\\ and\\ no\\ more\\ scrupulous\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*247\\&mdash\\;Mentions\\ why\\ the\\ Jacksonians\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*249\\&mdash\\;During\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ the\\ Kremlin\\ became\\ the\\ chief\\ symbol\\ of\\ fear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\254\\&mdash\\;Limited\\ War\\ is\\ repulsive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\256\\&mdash\\;Unconditional\\ victory\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ acceptable\\ outcome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\261\\&mdash\\;Problems\\ that\\ the\\ Jacksonian\\ school\\ poses\\ for\\ American\\ policy\\-makers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacksonian\\ Values\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-reliance\\&mdash\\;you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ by\\ on\\ welfare\\ or\\ inheritance\\ or\\ connections\\&mdash\\;you\\ get\\ by\\ on\\ hard\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equality\\&mdash\\;everyone\\ is\\ independent\\ and\\ must\\ pull\\ their\\ own\\ weight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ distinction\\ between\\ those\\ that\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ folk\\ community\\ and\\ those\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Corruption\\ is\\ inevitable\\,\\ so\\ lets\\ make\\ it\\ work\\ for\\ us\\ rather\\ than\\ for\\ our\\ enemies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-While\\ problems\\ are\\ complicated\\,\\ solutions\\ are\\ simple\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jimmy\\ Carter\\ had\\ a\\ million\\ reasons\\ why\\ we\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bomb\\ Iran\\,\\ and\\ why\\ we\\ had\\ to\\ give\\ away\\ the\\ Panama\\ Canal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-For\\ many\\ years\\,\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ ultimate\\ evil\\,\\ only\\ to\\ be\\ replaced\\ by\\ the\\ Kremlin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cult\\ Mentality\\&mdash\\;born\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Structural\\ Realist\\ Theories\\ of\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kenneth\\ N\\.\\ Waltz\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Structural\\ Realism\\ After\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ could\\ realism\\ become\\ obsolete\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Would\\ take\\ changes\\ of\\ the\\ system\\,\\ \\(changes\\ in\\ the\\ system\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ enough\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Nuclear\\ weapons\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ altered\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ political\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Significant\\ changes\\ take\\ place\\ when\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ great\\ powers\\ reduces\\ to\\ two\\ or\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ democratic\\ peace\\ thesis\\ is\\ right\\,\\ structural\\ realist\\ theory\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Causes\\ of\\ War\\ \\(in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ democratic\\ peace\\ thesis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Waltz\\ criticizes\\ democratic\\ peace\\ theory\\,\\ \\(refusing\\ to\\ call\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;theory\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ rather\\,\\ using\\ \\&ldquo\\;thesis\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ noting\\ the\\ technicalities\\ that\\ its\\ proponents\\ use\\ to\\ categorize\\ a\\ democracy\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;liberal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ notes\\ that\\ democracies\\ will\\ look\\ less\\ liberal\\ as\\ they\\ prepare\\ to\\ fight\\ a\\ war\\ they\\ fear\\,\\ and\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ liberal\\ democracy\\ at\\ war\\ with\\ another\\ country\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ call\\ that\\ country\\ a\\ liberal\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ an\\ external\\ authority\\,\\ a\\ state\\ cannot\\ be\\ sure\\ that\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ tomorrow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enemy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Conclusion\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Democracies\\ rarely\\ right\\ democracies\\,\\ we\\ might\\ say\\,\\ then\\ add\\ as\\ a\\ word\\ of\\ essential\\ caution\\ that\\ the\\ internal\\ excellence\\ of\\ states\\ is\\ a\\ brittle\\ basis\\ of\\ peace\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Democratic\\ peace\\ thesis\\ as\\ flawed\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;excellence\\ of\\ states\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ stable\\ liberal\\ democracies\\)\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ good\\ basis\\ of\\ peace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Citizens\\ of\\ democratic\\ countries\\ tend\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ their\\ countries\\ as\\ good\\ simply\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ democratic\\,\\ and\\ as\\ undemocratic\\ states\\ as\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ leads\\ to\\ democratic\\ states\\ seeking\\ peace\\ by\\ making\\ undemocratic\\ states\\ democratic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Weak\\ Effects\\ of\\ Interdependence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Could\\ interdependence\\ promote\\ peace\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ profit\\ motive\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Germany\\ and\\ Britain\\,\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ second\\-best\\ customers\\,\\ fought\\ a\\ long\\ a\\ bloody\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Interdependence\\ promotes\\ peace\\ by\\ multiplying\\ contacts\\ among\\ states\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ multiplies\\ the\\ occasion\\ for\\ conflicts\\ that\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Because\\ interdependence\\ can\\ produce\\ peace\\ or\\ war\\,\\ its\\ effects\\ are\\ gray\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ weak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Limited\\ Role\\ of\\ International\\ Institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ A\\ criticism\\ of\\ realist\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ depreciated\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Changes\\ in\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ alliance\\:\\ pre\\-Cold\\ War\\ in\\ a\\ multi\\-polar\\ world\\,\\ allies\\ were\\ interdependent\\.\\ During\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ alliances\\ centered\\ around\\ the\\ US\\ or\\ USSR\\,\\ with\\ that\\ nation\\ securing\\ its\\ bloc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ The\\ long\\ lives\\ of\\ international\\ institutions\\;\\ once\\ established\\,\\ hard\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Waltz\\ says\\ NATO\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ no\\ longer\\ even\\ a\\ treaty\\ of\\ guarantee\\ because\\ one\\ cannot\\ answer\\ the\\ question\\,\\ guarantee\\ against\\ whom\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ NATO\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ serve\\ a\\ purpose\\,\\ but\\ still\\ exists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ March\\ of\\ Dimes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ having\\ beaten\\ polio\\,\\ marched\\ against\\ amelioration\\ of\\ birth\\ defects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Realists\\,\\ noticing\\ that\\ as\\ an\\ alliance\\ NATO\\ has\\ lost\\ its\\ major\\ function\\,\\ see\\ it\\ mainly\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ maintaining\\ and\\ lengthening\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grip\\ on\\ the\\ foreign\\ and\\ military\\ policies\\ of\\ European\\ states\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Realism\\ reveals\\ that\\ international\\ institutions\\ primarily\\ serve\\ national\\ rather\\ than\\ international\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Using\\ NATO\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ realism\\ after\\ Cold\\ War\\ shows\\ us\\ that\\ US\\ has\\ behaved\\ as\\ unchecked\\ powers\\ usually\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ counterweights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Mearsheimer\\ says\\ that\\ liberal\\ institutionalism\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;swallowed\\ up\\ by\\ realism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Institutional\\ approach\\ starts\\ with\\ structural\\ theory\\,\\ applies\\ origins\\ and\\ operations\\ of\\ institutions\\,\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ realist\\ conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Balancing\\ Power\\:\\ Not\\ Today\\ but\\ Tomorrow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Notes\\ flaw\\ of\\ realism\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ predict\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ predict\\ when\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Another\\ glaring\\ flaw\\ is\\ that\\ Waltz\\ says\\ deviations\\ from\\ the\\ theory\\&rsquo\\;s\\ predictions\\ reflect\\ myopic\\ policymakers\\,\\ which\\ turns\\ the\\ theory\\ prescriptive\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ descriptive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Balancing\\ Power\\ in\\ a\\ Multipolar\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;US\\ has\\ yet\\ to\\ be\\ balanced\\ against\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;Europe\\ is\\ very\\ cohesive\\ on\\ economic\\ issues\\,\\ but\\ not\\ so\\ on\\ military\\ issues\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ cannot\\ balance\\ against\\ the\\ US\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ US\\ makes\\ many\\ of\\ Europe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ important\\ decisions\\.\\ All\\ of\\ this\\ happens\\ while\\ many\\ European\\ nations\\ complain\\ of\\ the\\ unipolarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Waltz\\ is\\ waiting\\ for\\ Europe\\ to\\ emerge\\ as\\ a\\ great\\ world\\ force\\,\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ coalition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Waltz\\ sees\\ Asia\\ as\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ a\\ great\\ power\\ to\\ balance\\ the\\ US\\ will\\ emerge\\ from\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ China\\ or\\ Japan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ He\\ talks\\ of\\ Japan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reluctance\\ to\\ spend\\ on\\ military\\,\\ but\\ notes\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ spend\\ as\\ a\\ deterrent\\ against\\ China\\ and\\ North\\ Korea\\,\\ among\\ others\\,\\ which\\ are\\ perceived\\ threats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Notes\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ nuclear\\ weapons\\ calm\\ countries\\ down\\/keep\\ them\\ from\\ becoming\\ violent\\ \\(because\\ they\\ are\\ faced\\ with\\ nuclear\\ counter\\ attacks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ very\\ effort\\ to\\ maintain\\ a\\ hegemonic\\ position\\ is\\ the\\ surest\\ way\\ to\\ undermine\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(referring\\ to\\ US\\,\\ to\\ state\\ the\\ obvious\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ By\\ extending\\ influence\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ moving\\ eastward\\,\\ US\\ is\\ pushing\\ Russia\\ toward\\ China\\ instead\\ of\\ drawing\\ it\\ toward\\ Europe\\ and\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Every\\ time\\ peace\\ breaks\\ out\\,\\ people\\ pop\\ up\\ to\\ proclaim\\ that\\ realism\\ is\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Take\\ home\\ message\\:\\ Although\\ world\\ is\\ unipolar\\ and\\ peaceful\\ now\\,\\ balancing\\ of\\ power\\ is\\ occurring\\ before\\ our\\ eyes\\.\\ It\\ may\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ taking\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ to\\ happen\\,\\ but\\ balancing\\ is\\ occurring\\,\\ and\\ in\\ retrospect\\ will\\ seem\\ like\\ it\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ blink\\ of\\ an\\ eye\\ \\(years\\ from\\ now\\)\\.\\ Structural\\ realism\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ still\\ alive\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;until\\ and\\ unless\\ a\\ transformation\\ occurs\\,\\ it\\ remains\\ the\\ basic\\ theory\\ of\\ international\\ politics\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hegemonic\\ Stability\\ Theories\\ of\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mark\\ S\\.\\ Sheetz\\;\\ Michael\\ Mastanduno\\,\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Debating\\ the\\ Unipolar\\ Moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Mastanduno\\:\\ Assessment\\ of\\ Realism\\ in\\ Post\\ Cold\\-War\\ US\\ FP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realist\\ theory\\ is\\ still\\ relevant\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Balance\\-of\\-threat\\ theory\\ explains\\ U\\.S\\.\\ security\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Effort\\ to\\ preserve\\ US\\ position\\ at\\ top\\ of\\ international\\ hierarchy\\ by\\ engaging\\ and\\ reassuring\\ other\\ major\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Using\\ less\\ aggressive\\ technique\\ in\\ this\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Balance\\-of\\-power\\ theory\\ explains\\ U\\.S\\.\\ economic\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Effort\\ to\\ mobilize\\ for\\ national\\ economic\\ competition\\ against\\ other\\ major\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Highly\\ aggressive\\ to\\ pursue\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ theories\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ explain\\ entire\\ action\\,\\ not\\ just\\ one\\ issue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sheetz\\:\\ Hegemonic\\ Stability\\ Theory\\ \\(also\\ realist\\ theory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Combination\\ of\\ Balance\\-of\\-Threat\\ and\\ Balance\\-of\\-Power\\ theories\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Best\\ fit\\ for\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Theory\\ argues\\ that\\ international\\ politics\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ succession\\ of\\ hegemonies\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ single\\ powerful\\ state\\ dominates\\ the\\ system\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ its\\ victory\\ in\\ hegemonic\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Actions\\ of\\ Hegemon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Establishes\\ international\\ order\\ that\\ promotes\\ its\\ own\\ interests\\ and\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Supplies\\ public\\ goods\\ to\\ international\\ order\\ \\(inevitably\\ overpays\\ for\\ public\\ goods\\ in\\ effort\\ to\\ maintain\\ dominance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Promotes\\ stability\\ in\\ international\\ economy\\ \\(lender\\ and\\ market\\ of\\ last\\ resort\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decline\\ of\\ Hegemon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Overpayment\\ for\\ public\\ goods\\ combines\\ with\\ diffusion\\ of\\ military\\ and\\ economic\\ technology\\ ensures\\ challengers\\ will\\ arise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Declining\\ hegemon\\ will\\ attempt\\ to\\ defray\\ costs\\ and\\ decline\\ by\\ getting\\ tribute\\ from\\ clients\\,\\ changing\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ so\\ it\\ has\\ the\\ advantage\\,\\ and\\ resorting\\ to\\ preventive\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Will\\ exert\\ all\\ effort\\ to\\ maintain\\ status\\ quo\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\European\\ Case\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ US\\ Support\\ of\\ NATO\\ not\\ concurrent\\ w\\/\\ Mastanduno\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ But\\ according\\ to\\ hegemonic\\ stability\\ theory\\,\\ NATO\\ provides\\ way\\ to\\ ensure\\ alliances\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ stability\\ rather\\ than\\ hostility\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ US\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\actions\\ in\\ the\\ Balkans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ achieve\\ stability\\ only\\ explained\\ by\\ hegemonic\\ theory\\ \\(others\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pursue\\ stability\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ According\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\balance\\-of\\-power\\ theory\\ US\\ should\\ not\\ allow\\ trade\\ deficits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\w\\/\\ Japan\\ and\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ According\\ to\\ Mastanduno\\,\\ US\\ should\\ play\\ hardball\\ against\\ these\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ These\\ deficits\\ mean\\ relative\\ economic\\ strength\\ in\\ China\\ and\\ Japan\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ translated\\ into\\ military\\ strength\\ \\(doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fit\\ theories\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Economic\\ stability\\ theory\\ allows\\ these\\ to\\ persist\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ paying\\ to\\ collective\\ goods\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mastanduno\\ Rebuttal\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hegemonic\\ Stability\\ theory\\ not\\ precise\\ in\\ prediction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ One\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\ differentiate\\ between\\ hegemons\\ and\\ declining\\ hegemons\\ \\(which\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ do\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Without\\ this\\ classification\\,\\ the\\ theory\\ has\\ no\\ predictive\\ strength\\ b\\/c\\ hegemons\\ and\\ declining\\ hegemons\\ act\\ differently\\.\\ \\(Pg\\ 173\\,\\ Paragraph\\ 3\\ gives\\ examples\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Act\\ against\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Theory\\ says\\ hegemons\\ should\\ pursue\\ stability\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;aggressive\\ unilateralism\\ and\\ threats\\ of\\ economic\\ retaliation\\&rdquo\\;\\ may\\ jeopardize\\ international\\ system\\ stability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Potential\\ Follow\\-up\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Apply\\ hegemonic\\ stability\\ theory\\ to\\ separate\\ issues\\ and\\ predict\\ accordingly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\ that\\ arise\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Relationship\\ between\\ security\\ and\\ economic\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Moves\\ away\\ from\\ Sheetz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ at\\ broad\\,\\ inclusive\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Clearly\\ establish\\ if\\ US\\ is\\ hegemon\\ or\\ hegemon\\ in\\ decline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Establish\\ clear\\ predictions\\ and\\ decide\\ based\\ on\\ US\\ actions\\ since\\ end\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Democratic\\ Peace\\ Theories\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Peace\\ Theory\\ \\-\\ Zeev\\ Maoz\\ and\\ Bruce\\ Russett\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Normative\\ and\\ Structural\\ Causes\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Peace\\,\\ 1946\\-1986\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Political\\ Science\\ Review\\,\\ September\\ 1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Peace\\ Prenomenon\\ Examined\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Democratic\\ states\\ are\\ in\\ general\\ about\\ as\\ likely\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ war\\ and\\ conflict\\ at\\ non\\-democracies\\,\\ but\\ democracies\\ have\\ rarely\\ clashed\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ violent\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Authors\\ test\\ two\\ different\\ models\\ to\\ explain\\ this\\ phenomenon\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Normative\\ model\\:\\ norms\\ of\\ compromise\\ and\\ cooperation\\ prevent\\ conflicts\\ between\\ democracies\\ from\\ escalating\\ into\\ violent\\ clashes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traced\\ back\\ to\\ thinkers\\ like\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\ and\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assume\\ states\\ externalize\\ norms\\ of\\ behavior\\ that\\ characterize\\ their\\ domestic\\ political\\ processes\\/institutions\\;\\ and\\ that\\ that\\ anarchic\\ nature\\ of\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ politics\\ implies\\ that\\ a\\ clash\\ between\\ democratic\\ \\&\\;\\ non\\-democratic\\ norms\\ is\\ dominated\\ by\\ the\\ latter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ competition\\ in\\ non\\-democratic\\ regimes\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ zero\\-sum\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ parties\\ and\\ its\\ consequences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stability\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ images\\ a\\ democratic\\ state\\ can\\ communicate\\ to\\ its\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Structural\\ model\\:\\ complex\\ political\\ mobilization\\ processes\\ impose\\ institutional\\ constraints\\ on\\ the\\ leaders\\ of\\ 2\\ democracies\\ confronting\\ each\\ other\\ to\\ make\\ conflict\\ unfeasible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discussed\\ by\\ modern\\ students\\ of\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Due\\ to\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ the\\ democratic\\ process\\ and\\ the\\ requirement\\ of\\ securing\\ a\\ broad\\ base\\ of\\ support\\,\\ democratic\\ leaders\\ are\\ reluctant\\ to\\ wage\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ mobilize\\ the\\ legislature\\,\\ interest\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ the\\ public\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ difficult\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assumes\\ that\\ domestic\\ support\\ for\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ challenges\\ must\\ be\\ mobilized\\ from\\ groups\\ that\\ provide\\ the\\ leadership\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ required\\ for\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ action\\;\\ and\\ that\\ short\\ cuts\\ to\\ political\\ mobilization\\ can\\ only\\ work\\ in\\ emergencies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Differences\\ between\\ Models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structural\\ view\\ constitutional\\ and\\ legal\\ constraints\\ on\\ executive\\ action\\ key\\;\\ normative\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ norms\\ of\\ the\\ domestic\\ behavior\\ on\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ normative\\ model\\ is\\ right\\,\\ older\\ democracies\\ should\\ be\\ les\\ likely\\ to\\ clash\\,\\ but\\ age\\ should\\ not\\ matter\\ to\\ the\\ structural\\ model\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structural\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\variations\\ b\\/w\\ democracies\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ conflict\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ presidential\\ systems\\ less\\ constrained\\ than\\ parliamentary\\)\\ matter\\;\\ Does\\ not\\ matter\\ to\\ normative\\ model\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ DATA\\:\\ Authors\\ look\\ at\\ pairs\\ of\\ independent\\ states\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ during\\ the\\ period\\ 1946\\-86\\,\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ Era\\.\\ Multivariate\\ Analysis\\ conducted\\ to\\ examine\\ support\\ for\\ DPT\\ and\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ each\\ model\\.\\ Numerous\\ statistics\\ presented\\,\\ see\\ article\\ if\\ interested\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONCLUSIONS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ democratic\\ peace\\ phenomenon\\&mdash\\;the\\ relative\\ lack\\ of\\ conflict\\ AND\\ complete\\ absence\\ of\\ war\\ between\\ democracies\\-is\\ probably\\ not\\ a\\ spurious\\ correlation\\.\\ When\\ controlling\\ for\\ other\\ confounding\\ factors\\ \\(geographic\\ contiguity\\,\\ military\\ capability\\)\\,\\ regime\\ type\\ has\\ a\\ consistent\\ dampening\\ effect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ models\\ are\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ authors\\&rsquo\\;\\ data\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stronger\\ and\\ more\\ consistent\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ normative\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Normative\\ model\\ may\\ provide\\ a\\ better\\ overall\\ account\\ of\\ DP\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ findings\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allied\\ parties\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ fight\\ each\\ other\\ than\\ expected\\ by\\ chance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Level\\ of\\ democratization\\ has\\ significant\\ effect\\ on\\ dispute\\ escalation\\ and\\ crisis\\ escalation\\ \\(democracies\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ escalate\\ disputes\\ vs\\.\\ other\\ democracies\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ power\\ disparities\\ discourage\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ diplomatic\\ disputes\\ in\\ any\\ militarized\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracies\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Fight\\ Democracies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rudolph\\ J\\.\\ Rummel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peace\\ Magazine\\,\\ May\\-June\\ 1999\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ peace\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rummel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;war\\ version\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ democracies\\ do\\ not\\ \\(virtually\\ never\\)\\ make\\ war\\ on\\ each\\ other\\;\\ democracies\\ have\\ the\\ least\\ foreign\\ violence\\,\\ domestic\\ collective\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ democide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ war\\ defined\\ as\\ any\\ military\\ engagements\\ in\\ which\\ 1\\,000\\ or\\ more\\ were\\ killed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rummel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;general\\ version\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ democracy\\ is\\ a\\ general\\ cure\\ for\\ political\\ or\\ collective\\ violence\\ of\\ any\\ kind\\&mdash\\;a\\ method\\ of\\ nonviolence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ definition\\ of\\ democracy\\ vs\\.\\ more\\ relaxed\\ pre\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ definition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ democracy\\=\\ regular\\ elections\\ for\\ govt\\.\\ positions\\,\\ competitive\\ political\\ parties\\,\\ near\\ universal\\ franchise\\,\\ secrete\\ balloting\\,\\ civil\\ liberties\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\/human\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\=\\ periodic\\,\\ competitive\\ elections\\,\\ so\\ the\\ powerful\\ can\\ be\\ kicked\\ out\\,\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ body\\ of\\ citizens\\ hold\\ equal\\ rights\\ regardless\\ of\\ class\\ or\\ status\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenges\\ to\\ Rummel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Promotion\\ of\\ DPT\\ and\\ Democracy\\ \\/\\/\\ Rummel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Can\\ you\\ apply\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ democracy\\ to\\ previous\\ centuries\\?\\ Rummel\\ seems\\ to\\ believe\\ one\\ can\\ apply\\ the\\ two\\ definitions\\ above\\ and\\ answer\\ \\&ldquo\\;yes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ other\\ factors\\ really\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ war\\?\\ Democracy\\&mdash\\;over\\ economic\\ development\\,\\ industrialization\\,\\ geographic\\ distance\\,\\ trade\\,\\ alliances\\,\\ etc\\.\\&mdash\\;always\\ comes\\ out\\ the\\ best\\ explanation\\ in\\ a\\ statistically\\ significant\\ sense\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ war\\ b\\/w\\ democracies\\ in\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ era\\ really\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ the\\ SU\\?\\ Lack\\ of\\ war\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ aided\\ by\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ but\\ other\\ periods\\ like\\ Europe\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ CW\\ show\\ that\\ unity\\ has\\ grown\\ as\\ former\\ enemies\\ became\\ democratic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ does\\ this\\ democratic\\ peace\\ theory\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1795\\ Perpetual\\ Peace\\,\\ which\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Important\\ Explanations\\ for\\ the\\ Modern\\ Version\\ of\\ DPT\\:\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Democratic\\ leaders\\ are\\ restrained\\ by\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ costs\\ \\/deaths\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diversity\\ of\\ institutions\\ and\\ relations\\ within\\ and\\ b\\/w\\ democracies\\ creates\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\ inhibiting\\ belligerence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democratic\\ culture\\ of\\ negotiation\\ and\\ conciliation\\ means\\ that\\ democratic\\ leaders\\ are\\ basically\\ dovish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracies\\ see\\ each\\ other\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\,\\ same\\ values\\,\\ more\\ willing\\ to\\ negotiate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wars\\ that\\ some\\ believe\\ were\\ between\\ democracies\\ but\\ that\\ Rummel\\ argues\\ were\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\War\\ of\\ 1812\\:\\ Britain\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ democracy\\ despite\\ parliamentary\\ govt\\.\\,\\ because\\ voting\\ was\\ not\\ secret\\ and\\ franchise\\ was\\ limited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spanish\\ American\\ War\\:\\ in\\ Spain\\,\\ the\\ 2\\ major\\ political\\ parties\\ alternated\\ in\\ power\\,\\ not\\ by\\ elections\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hitler\\ in\\ WWII\\:\\ once\\ given\\ power\\ to\\ rule\\ by\\ decree\\ in\\ 1933\\ and\\ suppressed\\ opposition\\,\\ his\\ govt\\.\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ democratic\\-\\-rights\\ like\\ freedom\\ of\\ speech\\ \\&\\;\\ religion\\ limited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Civil\\ War\\:\\ South\\ not\\ a\\ sovereign\\ democracy\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ not\\ recognized\\ as\\ an\\ independent\\ state\\ by\\ any\\ major\\ power\\,\\ franchise\\ limited\\ to\\ free\\ males\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ fact\\ that\\ Great\\ Britain\\ has\\ fought\\ more\\ wars\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ country\\ and\\ that\\ France\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ have\\ also\\ fought\\ many\\ wars\\ does\\ not\\ disprove\\ the\\ DPT\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ more\\ democratic\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ the\\ less\\ severe\\ its\\ wars\\.\\ The\\ US\\,\\ France\\,\\ and\\ Britain\\ have\\ fought\\ many\\ wars\\,\\ but\\ lower\\ in\\ casualties\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ nondemocracies\\ like\\ Japan\\,\\ Germany\\ and\\ the\\ \\(former\\)\\ SU\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracies\\ have\\ much\\ less\\ violence\\ than\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ government\\:\\ more\\ deadly\\ internal\\ violence\\ was\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ Teiping\\ Rebeillion\\ in\\ China\\,\\ Mexican\\ Revolution\\,\\ Russian\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ Chinese\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ colonialization\\ which\\ ended\\ a\\ few\\ decades\\ post\\-WII\\,\\ democracies\\ committed\\ less\\ democide\\ and\\ usually\\ gave\\ up\\ their\\ colonies\\ without\\ much\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ violence\\ b\\/w\\ racial\\ groups\\,\\ strike\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ interpersonal\\ murder\\ and\\ assaults\\ are\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ his\\ argument\\,\\ which\\ is\\ that\\ freedom\\ reduces\\ to\\ a\\ minimum\\ political\\ violence\\,\\ not\\ civil\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ Rummel\\ advocates\\ a\\ universal\\ democracy\\,\\ given\\ the\\ absolute\\ importance\\ of\\ eliminating\\ war\\,\\ and\\ sees\\ the\\ predictive\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ democratic\\ peace\\ theory\\.\\ Rummel\\ asserts\\ that\\ with\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ democracy\\,\\ armies\\ and\\ secret\\ services\\ can\\ be\\ eliminated\\ altogether\\.\\ Freedom\\ produces\\ bonds\\ and\\ restraints\\;\\ economically\\,\\ freedom\\ should\\ release\\ creative\\ forces\\,\\ motivate\\ people\\ to\\ improve\\ their\\ products\\ and\\ create\\ efficient\\ use\\ of\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Moralism\\-Legalism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ an\\ exceptional\\ country\\ with\\ original\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61472\\;Exceptionalism\\:\\ Summary\\ of\\ the\\ Moravscik\\ piece\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\No\\ common\\ background\\ or\\ ancestry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;No\\ common\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Brief\\ history\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;No\\ common\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;We\\ are\\ not\\ like\\ other\\ states\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;We\\ have\\ a\\ distinct\\ commitment\\ to\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Liberty\\,\\ Egalitarianism\\,\\ Individualism\\,\\ Populism\\,\\ and\\ Laissez\\ Faire\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Jeffersonian\\ principles\\ of\\ liberty\\ and\\ egalitarianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Jacksonian\\ emphasis\\ on\\ Populism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;We\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\geographically\\ distinct\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ power\\ to\\ never\\ share\\ a\\ border\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ major\\ powers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;Political\\ institutions\\:\\ Constitution\\ is\\ the\\ oldest\\ and\\ least\\ copied\\ document\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Constitution\\ is\\ the\\ oldest\\ and\\ the\\ least\\ copied\\ document\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Pre\\-industrial\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Electoral\\ college\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;2\\/3\\ votes\\ necessary\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Splitting\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ system\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;We\\ have\\ no\\ socialist\\/labor\\ party\\,\\ which\\ represents\\ lower\\ workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;Religion\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Much\\ more\\ religion\\:\\ 45\\%\\ go\\ the\\ ceremonies\\ once\\ a\\ week\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;More\\ than\\ 95\\%\\ belief\\ in\\ God\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;Public\\ Life\\ is\\ dominated\\ by\\ lawyers\\ in\\ politics\\ \\(legalism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;Federal\\ government\\ is\\ restricted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;Citizens\\ are\\ uniquely\\ uninformed\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ because\\ little\\ TV\\ time\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ international\\ affairs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;4\\%\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ graduates\\ have\\ 2\\ years\\ of\\ foreign\\ language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ignorance\\ of\\ international\\ geography\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\ is\\ prone\\ to\\ be\\ legalistic\\ and\\ moralistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;George\\ F\\.\\ Kenna\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Theory\\:\\ Doctrine\\ of\\ Containment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Warned\\ not\\ to\\ lean\\ on\\ UN\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ Stalin\\ or\\ trust\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Kennan\\ feared\\ US\\ would\\ retreat\\ from\\ power\\ politics\\ \\(like\\ spying\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Kellog\\-Briand\\ Pact\\&mdash\\;\\(evidence\\ of\\ legalistic\\ tradition\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ outlawed\\ war\\,\\ which\\ Japan\\ and\\ Germany\\ liked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Legalism\\ did\\ not\\ re\\-emerge\\ post\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ NSC\\-68\\ did\\ not\\ rely\\ on\\ UN\\ or\\ tyr\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ legal\\ agreement\\.\\ NSC\\-68\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ place\\ faith\\ in\\ international\\ law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Why\\ legalism\\ disappeared\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ US\\ could\\ not\\ control\\ General\\ Assembly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Post\\ Cold\\ War\\ people\\ thought\\ it\\ could\\ return\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Bush\\ 41\\-\\ did\\ use\\ UN\\ assistance\\ in\\ the\\ Gulf\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;UN\\ was\\ ready\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ big\\ role\\,\\ but\\ the\\ US\\ was\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ let\\ UN\\ set\\ foreign\\ policy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Bush\\ 43\\ ignored\\ the\\ Security\\ Council\\ regarding\\ his\\ policy\\ in\\ Iraq\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Moravscik\\ said\\ that\\ ht\\ US\\ has\\ shown\\ little\\ interest\\ in\\ legalism\\ CEDAN\\,\\ CRC\\,\\ CESE\\,\\ ACHR\\,\\ and\\ ICC\\ are\\ all\\ not\\ signed\\ by\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Also\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ internal\\ obligation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Federal\\ government\\ cannot\\ set\\ universal\\ policy\\ due\\ to\\ states\\&rsquo\\;\\ rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Reflection\\ of\\ most\\ military\\ power\\.\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ pact\\ to\\ take\\ human\\ rights\\ seriously\\.\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ commit\\ military\\ power\\ without\\ knowing\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ we\\ were\\ weak\\ in\\ 1920\\&rsquo\\;s\\ we\\ were\\ legalistic\\ but\\ now\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ international\\ law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;Moralism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;US\\ terror\\ bombing\\ campaign\\ vs\\.\\ civilians\\ in\\ WWII\\ so\\ not\\ moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Truman\\ dropped\\ the\\ bomb\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;US\\ hardened\\ its\\ foreign\\ policy\\ outlook\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Secretary\\ of\\ State\\ was\\ a\\ moralist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ More\\ clandestine\\ methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Covert\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\·\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\CIA\\ assassinated\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ intercepted\\ messages\\,\\ sabotage\\,\\ etc\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ CIA\\ was\\ created\\ in\\ 1947\\ for\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\ Informatio\\ agency\\ but\\ could\\ do\\ anything\\ necessary\\ fro\\ security\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ CIA\\ was\\ successful\\ so\\ Presidents\\ used\\ it\\ more\\ often\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ With\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Castro\\ regime\\,\\ there\\ were\\ 8\\ attempts\\ \\ \\;to\\ kill\\ Castro\\ between\\ 1960\\-1965\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61472\\;\\·\\;\\&\\#61472\\;These\\ attempts\\ were\\ authorized\\ by\\ Eisenhower\\ and\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\considered\\ pragmatic\\ more\\ than\\ legalistic\\ or\\ moralistic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Use\\ of\\ the\\ CIA\\ by\\ Reagan\\ in\\ Afghanistan\\ and\\ now\\ under\\ Bush\\ 43\\ at\\ Guantanamo\\ Bay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ US\\ is\\ not\\ especially\\ immoral\\,\\ however\\,\\ we\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ amoral\\ as\\ everyone\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;American\\ Exceptionalism\\:\\ A\\ Double\\-Edged\\ Sword\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Seymour\\ Martin\\ Lipset\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;America\\ is\\ a\\ unique\\ nation\\ built\\ on\\ ideology\\ rather\\ than\\ united\\ by\\ a\\ common\\ history\\,\\ as\\ are\\ most\\ other\\ Western\\ nations\\.\\ This\\ reality\\ further\\ sets\\ the\\ US\\ apart\\,\\ giving\\ rise\\ to\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ American\\ exceptionalism\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;became\\ widely\\ applied\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ efforts\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ weakness\\ of\\ working\\-class\\ radicalism\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ To\\ Lipsett\\,\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ radicalism\\ and\\ socialism\\ in\\ America\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dominance\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;middle\\ class\\ individualistic\\ values\\&rdquo\\;\\ prevalent\\ in\\ American\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ American\\ \\&ldquo\\;exceptionalism\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ significant\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ stark\\ contrast\\ of\\ conservatism\\ in\\ America\\ with\\ that\\ of\\ European\\ nations\\.\\ Lipset\\ summarizes\\ that\\ essentially\\ American\\ conservatism\\ is\\ European\\ liberalism\\,\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ideology\\ that\\ is\\ anti\\-monarchical\\,\\ anti\\-statist\\,\\ and\\ pro\\-laissez\\ faire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Paradox\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Human\\ Rights\\ Policy\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Andrew\\ Moravscik\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ work\\ attempts\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ US\\ ambivalence\\ and\\ hesitance\\ regarding\\ the\\ adoption\\ of\\ international\\ human\\ rights\\ policy\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ perplexing\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ liberal\\ democracy\\,\\ often\\ quite\\ eager\\ to\\ spread\\ its\\ ideals\\ is\\ so\\ hesitant\\ and\\ resistant\\ in\\ ratifying\\ human\\ rights\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moravscik\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ previous\\ argument\\ rests\\ on\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ dominated\\ by\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;rights\\ culture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ \\&ldquo\\;rights\\ culture\\ is\\ dominated\\ by\\ 1\\)\\ a\\ sincere\\ reverence\\ of\\ US\\ Constitution\\,\\ to\\ US\\ political\\ institutions\\ like\\ the\\ Senate\\ and\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\;\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ belief\\ of\\ popular\\ sovereignty\\;\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ limited\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;To\\ Moravscik\\,\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;culturalist\\&rdquo\\;\\ arguments\\ are\\ weak\\ and\\ not\\ empirical\\.\\ He\\ sets\\ out\\ an\\ empirical\\ \\&ldquo\\;pluralistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ perspective\\ as\\ to\\ why\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ \\&lsquo\\;exceptionalism\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ international\\ human\\ rights\\ policy\\&mdash\\;the\\ US\\ aversion\\ to\\ formal\\ acceptance\\ and\\ enforcement\\ of\\ international\\ human\\ rights\\ norms\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Moravscik\\ 2003\\:1\\)\\ prevents\\ US\\ from\\ accepting\\ international\\ human\\ rights\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Four\\ major\\ characteristics\\ make\\ the\\ US\\ particularly\\ ambivalent\\ in\\ its\\ acceptance\\ of\\ human\\ rights\\ policy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1\\)\\ is\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ superpower\\ and\\ its\\ ability\\ as\\ a\\ hegemon\\.\\ It\\ holds\\ greater\\ bargaining\\ power\\ in\\ bilateral\\ negotiations\\ and\\ thus\\ resistant\\ to\\ multilateral\\ agreements\\;\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ a\\ stable\\ democracy\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ especially\\ \\&ldquo\\;skeptical\\ of\\ enforceable\\ international\\ human\\ rights\\ norms\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Moravscik\\ 2003\\:19\\)\\;\\ 3\\)\\ there\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ US\\ politics\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;conservative\\ opposition\\ to\\ an\\ expansion\\ of\\ rights\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ such\\ national\\ conceptions\\ of\\ rights\\ are\\ in\\ tension\\ with\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ promote\\ and\\ establish\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ common\\ set\\ of\\ common\\ international\\ human\\ rights\\ standards\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Moravscik\\ 2003\\:21\\-22\\)\\;\\ and\\ 4\\)\\ the\\ system\\ of\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\ inherit\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ political\\ system\\ make\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;difficult\\ for\\ national\\ government\\ to\\ accept\\ international\\ obligations\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ blockades\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ the\\ States\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Courts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Ultimately\\,\\ America\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ international\\ power\\ and\\ democracy\\ maintaining\\ all\\ four\\ of\\ these\\ characteristics\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ unique\\ in\\ its\\ unwillingness\\ to\\ adopt\\ international\\ human\\ rights\\ policies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 28\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Cycles\\ of\\ Isolation\\ and\\ Intervention\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ to\\ Vietnam\\:\\ Shifting\\ Generational\\ Paradigms\\ and\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ Roskin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Roskin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ Each\\ elite\\ American\\ generation\\ comes\\ to\\ favor\\ ONE\\ of\\ these\\ orientations\\:\\ interventionist\\ or\\ noninterventionist\\ because\\ of\\ catastrophes\\ they\\ may\\ have\\ endured\\ or\\ experienced\\,\\ by\\ applying\\ the\\ OPPOSITE\\ paradigm\\ of\\ the\\ previous\\ elite\\ generation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ explains\\ why\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ paradigm\\ was\\ opposite\\ to\\ the\\ isolationist\\ WWI\\ paradigm\\ and\\ after\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\,\\ elites\\ respond\\ with\\ non\\-intervention\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ after\\ the\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ interventionist\\ generation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ shift\\ at\\ approximately\\ GENERATIONAL\\ intervals\\,\\ because\\ this\\ is\\ how\\ long\\ it\\ takes\\ for\\ the\\ bearers\\ of\\ one\\ tradition\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ power\\ and\\ eventually\\ misapply\\ the\\ lessons\\ of\\ their\\ youth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roskin\\ seeks\\ to\\ explain\\ behavior\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ seemingly\\ disparate\\ elements\\ into\\ an\\ overall\\ view\\ over\\ several\\ decades\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PARADIGM\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;paradigm\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;paradigm\\ shift\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ borrowed\\ from\\ Thomas\\ Kuhn\\,\\ defined\\ as\\ universally\\ recognized\\ that\\ provide\\ as\\ model\\ problems\\ or\\ solutions\\ to\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ practitioners\\;\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ dynamic\\ view\\ b\\/c\\ anomalies\\ and\\ changes\\ often\\ come\\ into\\ play\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ new\\ paradigm\\ is\\ at\\ best\\ merely\\ a\\ closer\\ approximation\\ to\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foreign\\ Policy\\ paradigms\\ are\\ LESS\\ VERIFIABLE\\ than\\ say\\,\\ natural\\-science\\ ones\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\you\\ can\\ only\\ verify\\ a\\ FP\\ paradigm\\ if\\ it\\ has\\ given\\ rise\\ to\\ a\\ catastrophe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mass\\ public\\ has\\ only\\ low\\ or\\ intermittent\\ interest\\ in\\ Foreign\\ affairs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ \\&ldquo\\;isolationism\\&rdquo\\;\\ if\\ less\\ educated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elites\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ crucial\\ component\\ to\\ sustaining\\ Foreign\\ issues\\,\\ not\\ American\\ voters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ lose\\ elites\\&rsquo\\;\\ interest\\,\\ America\\ stays\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ emotional\\ component\\ to\\ paradigm\\ shifts\\ \\;\\ ACRIMONY\\ often\\ accompanies\\ such\\ a\\ shift\\;\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ elites\\ have\\ been\\ impressed\\ by\\ earlier\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FP\\ paradigm\\ has\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ birth\\,\\ growth\\,\\ and\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birth\\ is\\ when\\ an\\ event\\ proves\\ the\\ old\\ paradigm\\ wrong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\J\\.F\\.K\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\helped\\ to\\ install\\ the\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ paradigm\\.\\ Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ was\\ in\\ marked\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ isolationism\\ of\\ his\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kennedy\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Britain\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1930s\\,\\ democracy\\ simply\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ the\\ Nazi\\ menace\\ seriously\\,\\ and\\ failed\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ the\\ danger\\ and\\ build\\ up\\ defenses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\America\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ according\\ to\\ Kennedy\\ refuses\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;global\\ challenge\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Soviet\\ penetration\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ World\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ when\\ Eisenhower\\ let\\ US\\ defense\\ preparedness\\ slide\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;missile\\ gap\\&rdquo\\;\\ appears\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ once\\ in\\ presidency\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Kennedy\\ proceeds\\ to\\ implement\\ big\\ defense\\ budget\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ his\\ advisers\\ stuck\\ to\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ paradigm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ events\\ of\\ late\\ 1930s\\ and\\ early\\ 1940s\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\far\\ stronger\\ in\\ forming\\ Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(in\\ his\\ twenties\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ most\\ impressionable\\)\\ FP\\ orientation\\ than\\ say\\,\\ Eisenhower\\ in\\ his\\ forties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generation\\ example\\:\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ Kennedy\\ assumed\\ the\\ presidency\\,\\ there\\ were\\ few\\ countervailing\\ views\\ to\\ dilute\\ and\\ moderate\\ a\\ policy\\ of\\ thoroughgoing\\ interventionism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discrepancy\\ does\\ exist\\ with\\ the\\ public\\ who\\ could\\ not\\ understand\\ the\\ same\\ threat\\ \\&ldquo\\;communism\\&rdquo\\;\\ held\\ as\\ Kennedy\\ stocked\\ up\\ arms\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ Vietnam\\ debacle\\,\\ few\\ continued\\ the\\ interventionist\\ paradigm\\;\\ Nixon\\ introduces\\ a\\ policy\\ markedly\\ different\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ his\\ predecessors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ the\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ paradigm\\,\\ applied\\ for\\ three\\ decades\\ came\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;shipwreck\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structure\\ that\\ is\\ imparted\\ by\\ a\\ traumatic\\ foreign\\ policy\\ experience\\ is\\ what\\ makes\\ for\\ a\\ shift\\ into\\ nonintervention\\,\\ post\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1898\\ US\\ fabricates\\ justification\\ for\\ invading\\ Cuba\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Philippines\\,\\ Hawaii\\ and\\ establishing\\ a\\ pacific\\ empire\\;\\ concocted\\ the\\ independence\\ of\\ Panama\\,\\ then\\ gives\\ us\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ Isthmus\\ canal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ takes\\ on\\ Europe\\ in\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\WWI\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ retreat\\ back\\ into\\ negotiation\\;\\ planned\\ to\\ lead\\ the\\ League\\ of\\ Nations\\ via\\ Versailles\\ treaty\\;\\ strong\\ interventionist\\ period\\,\\ disaster\\ as\\ Roskin\\ says\\ was\\ at\\ Versailles\\ treaty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ it\\ went\\ too\\ far\\ beyond\\ what\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ could\\ accept\\;\\ most\\ of\\ Europe\\ rejected\\ Wilson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 14\\ points\\;\\ sowing\\ the\\ seeds\\ of\\ a\\ Second\\ World\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inside\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ Wilson\\ gone\\ too\\ far\\;\\ his\\ experiment\\ with\\ global\\ leadership\\ was\\ repudiated\\;\\ this\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ retreat\\ in\\ isolationism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ determines\\ not\\ to\\ use\\ wars\\ anymore\\ \\(Kellogg\\-Briand\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ US\\ passes\\ the\\ neutrality\\ Acts\\ making\\ it\\ illegal\\ to\\ have\\ relationships\\ and\\ diplomacy\\ under\\ circumstances\\ with\\ belligerent\\ states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ emerged\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\,\\ the\\ lessons\\ of\\ Versailles\\ was\\ replaced\\ by\\ lessons\\ of\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ generation\\ felt\\ it\\ was\\ important\\ to\\ keep\\ US\\ troops\\ in\\ Japan\\ and\\ in\\ Korea\\ against\\ Communist\\ North\\ Korea\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ a\\ militarized\\ containment\\ of\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Threat\\,\\ or\\ preventative\\ War\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ Roskin\\ would\\ expect\\,\\ these\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ interventionists\\ went\\ too\\ far\\;\\ they\\ gained\\ control\\ over\\ USFP\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ and\\ started\\ intervening\\ everywhere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ tried\\ to\\ block\\ the\\ victory\\ of\\ a\\ Communist\\ revolution\\ in\\ a\\ place\\ that\\ was\\ impossible\\,\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ defend\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ simply\\ impossible\\ and\\ interventionists\\ were\\ determined\\ to\\ try\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1968\\ interventionist\\ disaster\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ response\\ to\\ excessive\\ intervention\\,\\ US\\ heads\\ back\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ isolationism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1969\\,\\ Nixon\\ begins\\ withdrawing\\ troops\\ from\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\,\\ called\\ the\\ Nixon\\ Doctrine\\,\\ and\\ then\\ Nixon\\ made\\ an\\ opening\\ to\\ China\\,\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ confrontation\\ but\\ on\\ appeasement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kissinger\\ and\\ Nixon\\ promised\\ China\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;d\\ withdraw\\ from\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ Taiwan\\ and\\ recognize\\ the\\ People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ R\\.O\\.C\\>\\;\\;\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ move\\ towards\\ isolationism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Economic\\ Need\\ for\\ Empire\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Andrew\\ Bacevich\\,\\ The\\ Real\\ World\\ War\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ present\\ Iraqi\\ War\\ can\\ be\\ called\\ World\\ War\\ IV\\ \\(WWIII\\ was\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\)\\.\\ This\\ label\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ reassures\\ Americans\\ \\(who\\ understand\\ how\\ World\\ Wars\\ begin\\,\\ and\\ understand\\ how\\ to\\ go\\ about\\ fighting\\ them\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ legitimizes\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ explains\\ 9\\/11\\ as\\ analogous\\ to\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ labeling\\ the\\ War\\ on\\ Terror\\ as\\ WWIV\\ is\\ misleading\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ it\\ blames\\ exterior\\ factors\\ for\\ American\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ allows\\ Americans\\ to\\ overlook\\ the\\ real\\ issue\\:\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drift\\ towards\\ militarism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;American\\ aggressive\\ behavior\\ started\\ after\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ instead\\ of\\ two\\ separate\\ wars\\ occurring\\ in\\ chronological\\ order\\,\\ WWIII\\ and\\ WIV\\ actually\\ \\&ldquo\\;evolved\\ in\\ tandem\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ with\\ the\\ present\\ war\\ overlaying\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ have\\ been\\ 3\\ stages\\ of\\ WWIV\\:\\ \\(Before\\ 1979\\,\\ the\\ US\\ attempted\\ to\\ not\\ engage\\ in\\ military\\ conflicts\\ abroad\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\two\\ events\\ entered\\ American\\ into\\ Stage\\ I\\ of\\ WWIV\\:\\ the\\ Iranian\\ Revolution\\,\\ and\\ the\\ USSR\\ invasion\\ of\\ Afghanistan\\,\\ which\\ posed\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ American\\ Oil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carter\\ Doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ established\\ that\\ any\\ attempt\\ by\\ an\\ outside\\ force\\ to\\ gain\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ Persian\\ Gulf\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ US\\ interests\\ and\\ America\\,\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ would\\ engage\\ in\\ conflict\\.\\ Carter\\ also\\ had\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;prophetic\\&rdquo\\;\\ realization\\ about\\ energy\\ dependence\\,\\ and\\ started\\ an\\ American\\ obsession\\ with\\ foreign\\ oil\\ in\\ the\\ Gulf\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Reagan\\ era\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ fence\\ between\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ and\\ WWIV\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Reagan\\ administration\\ began\\ the\\ American\\ interference\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ \\(examples\\ being\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Marine\\ \\"\\;peacekeepers\\"\\;\\ in\\ Lebanon\\ and\\ the\\ Beirut\\ bombing\\ in\\ 1983\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;tanker\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ 1984\\-88\\,\\ and\\ the\\ commitment\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ forces\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ oil\\ from\\ the\\ Persian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\only\\ clear\\ thread\\ of\\ similarities\\ between\\ Reagan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ is\\ the\\ involvement\\ of\\ oil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ These\\ actions\\ set\\ a\\ precedent\\ for\\ other\\ AFP\\ involvement\\ as\\ Persian\\ Gulf\\ oil\\ was\\ established\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ asset\\ to\\ protect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stage\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ first\\ Bush\\ administration\\ attempted\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ Reagan\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ enough\\ direction\\.\\ Clinton\\ had\\ trouble\\ being\\ effective\\ in\\ fighting\\ the\\ threats\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ claim\\ over\\ oil\\.\\ Says\\ that\\ Bush\\ I\\ and\\ Clinton\\ \\&ldquo\\;used\\ force\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ policy\\,\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ distracting\\ attention\\ from\\ the\\ contradictions\\ that\\ riddled\\ U\\.S\\.\\ policy\\.\\ Bombing\\ something\\-\\-at\\ times\\,\\ almost\\ anything\\-\\-became\\ a\\ convenient\\ way\\ of\\ keeping\\ up\\ appearances\\&rdquo\\;\\ During\\ Stage\\ 2\\,\\ America\\ lost\\ sight\\ of\\ any\\ unified\\ resolution\\.\\ Creating\\ a\\ policy\\ vision\\ for\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ difficult\\,\\ as\\ there\\ are\\ 2\\ competing\\ US\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ region\\:\\ the\\ dependence\\ on\\ oil\\,\\ and\\ connections\\ with\\ Israel\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stage\\ 3\\:\\ Post\\ 9\\/1\\,\\ Bush\\ II\\ took\\ the\\ US\\ into\\ a\\ full\\-force\\ military\\ conflict\\,\\ and\\ used\\ terms\\ of\\ ideology\\ rather\\ than\\ focusing\\ on\\ American\\ economic\\ interests\\.\\ This\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;crusade\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ effective\\ because\\ of\\ 2\\ factors\\:\\ the\\ chaos\\ in\\ American\\ life\\ after\\ the\\ 9\\/11\\ attacks\\ that\\ caused\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;historical\\ amnesia\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ not\\ remembering\\ past\\ American\\ failures\\ in\\ the\\ region\\,\\ and\\ forgetting\\ instances\\ where\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ military\\ power\\ was\\ brought\\ to\\ terms\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Vietnam\\)\\.\\ America\\ was\\ full\\ of\\ patriots\\ that\\ believed\\ the\\ country\\ invincible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overview\\:\\ American\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ the\\ sole\\ motive\\ to\\ protect\\ economic\\ interests\\,\\ specifically\\ oil\\ in\\ the\\ Persian\\ Gulf\\.\\ The\\ current\\ war\\ is\\ a\\ culmination\\ of\\ policies\\ and\\ values\\ beginning\\ with\\ Carter\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ recent\\ development\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*Paarlberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\:\\ This\\ article\\ attempts\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ motives\\ behind\\ AFP\\ by\\ quoting\\ top\\ officials\\ who\\ have\\ said\\ that\\ open\\ markets\\ are\\ essential\\,\\ although\\ they\\ never\\ actually\\ say\\ that\\ open\\ markets\\ are\\ the\\ driving\\ force\\ behind\\ US\\ actions\\ abroad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\ \\-\\ March\\ 6\\:\\ \\ \\;American\\ Unilateralism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\ for\\ American\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thursday\\ March\\ 6\\ 2008\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\McCain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advisers\\ are\\ a\\ fairly\\ core\\ neoconservative\\ set\\.\\ But\\ in\\ some\\ respects\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ almost\\ Wilsonian\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ against\\ torture\\,\\ for\\ global\\ warming\\ policies\\,\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ league\\ of\\ democracies\\ and\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pro\\-immigration\\.\\ And\\ he\\ once\\ called\\ Jerry\\ Falwell\\ an\\ evil\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Petraeus\\ gives\\ his\\ update\\ in\\ April\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ debate\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ with\\ all\\ three\\ leading\\ contenders\\ participating\\.\\ But\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ April\\.\\ First\\,\\ the\\ midterm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Long\\ answers\\ questions\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;identify\\ the\\ pearl\\ harbor\\ generation\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ mentioning\\ Michael\\ Rusk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ question\\&mdash\\;\\ \\[DBL\\ CHECK\\ ON\\ A\\ COUPLE\\ OF\\ THINGS\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ US\\ acts\\ alone\\,\\ it\\ usually\\ draws\\ criticism\\ from\\ allies\\ who\\ would\\ prefer\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ consulted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eikenberry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2002\\ article\\ recognizes\\ that\\ though\\ acting\\ alone\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ feature\\ of\\ US\\ foreign\\ policy\\ on\\ and\\ off\\ forever\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ new\\ unilateralism\\ that\\ has\\ come\\ into\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\ since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GRADATIONS\\ OF\\ UNILATERALISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pure\\ Unilateralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;act\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ inform\\ or\\ consult\\ anyone\\,\\ let\\ others\\ read\\ about\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ newspaper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polite\\ Unilateralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;act\\ but\\ warn\\ them\\ and\\ perhaps\\ give\\ them\\ something\\ in\\ return\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ Bush\\ abandoned\\ the\\ ballistic\\ missile\\ pull\\-out\\ \\ \\;but\\ later\\ negotiated\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Welcoming\\ Unilateralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;welcome\\ coalitions\\ of\\ the\\ willing\\,\\ kind\\ of\\ ad\\ hoc\\,\\ a\\ la\\ carte\\ unilateralism\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ other\\ countries\\ affect\\ your\\ decision\\ to\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hub\\+Spoke\\ Bilateralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;negotiate\\ bilateral\\ agreements\\ \\[get\\ a\\ little\\ more\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Regional\\ Multilateralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;work\\ through\\ regional\\ multilateral\\ treaty\\,\\ through\\ NAFTA\\ or\\ NATO\\,\\ ASEAN\\,\\ etc\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ than\\ consultation\\.\\ You\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\ unless\\ these\\ regional\\ institutions\\ endorse\\ the\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Global\\ Multilateralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\ without\\ WTO\\ or\\ UN\\,\\ more\\ pure\\ form\\ of\\ global\\ multilateralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ which\\ form\\ is\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ take\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ powerful\\ nation\\ will\\ ever\\ give\\ up\\ its\\ power\\ and\\ play\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ rules\\ as\\ an\\ average\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eikenberry\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ accretion\\ of\\ international\\ laws\\ that\\ is\\ changing\\,\\ not\\ the\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ toward\\ multilateralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ multilateralism\\ was\\ the\\ gold\\ standard\\ of\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nixon\\ shocked\\ Japan\\ by\\ announcing\\ he\\ would\\ devalue\\ the\\ currency\\ and\\ soon\\ after\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ China\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ 1971\\ pair\\ of\\ Nixon\\ shocks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ Japan\\ was\\ so\\ unusual\\ that\\ it\\ inspired\\ a\\ major\\ initiative\\ financed\\ by\\ David\\ Rockefeller\\ to\\ rein\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ unilateralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ created\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\trilateral\\ commission\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ tried\\ to\\ push\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ unilateral\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clinton\\ admin\\ decided\\ not\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ land\\ mine\\ convention\\,\\ Senate\\ inserted\\ exceptions\\ in\\ the\\ chemical\\ weapons\\ treaty\\,\\ and\\ rejected\\ the\\ something\\ else\\ treaty\\.\\ This\\ was\\ noticed\\ and\\ heavily\\ criticized\\,\\ and\\ this\\ pattern\\ of\\ unilateralism\\ became\\ even\\ more\\ pronounced\\ in\\ the\\ Bush\\ administration\\.\\ He\\ violated\\ the\\ Sunshine\\ policy\\ without\\ notification\\,\\ pulled\\ out\\ of\\ Kyoto\\,\\ would\\ not\\ participate\\ in\\ ICC\\,\\ withdrew\\ unilaterally\\ from\\ the\\ ballistic\\ missile\\ treaty\\.\\ All\\ of\\ this\\ was\\ before\\ September\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eikenberry\\ predicted\\ that\\ despite\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hegemonic\\ power\\,\\ the\\ forces\\ toward\\ multilateralism\\ were\\ so\\ strong\\ that\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foreign\\ policy\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ multilateralism\\.\\ He\\ cited\\ survey\\ data\\ that\\ U\\.S\\.\\ citizens\\ actually\\ supported\\ Kyoto\\ protocol\\ or\\ the\\ UN\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[GET\\ NKT\\ TO\\ EXPLAIN\\ THE\\ DAMN\\ BOXES\\ ON\\ THE\\ BLACKBOARD\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ of\\ Allies\\ and\\ Disagreement\\ with\\ Allies\\ are\\ the\\ axes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matrix\\ describes\\ US\\ degree\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\ unilateralism\\ vs\\ multilateralism\\ on\\ a\\ scale\\ determined\\ by\\ power\\ of\\ our\\ allies\\ and\\ disagreement\\ with\\ our\\ allies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eikenberry\\ article\\ makes\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ European\\ armies\\ have\\ stopped\\ spending\\ money\\ on\\ defense\\ and\\ since\\ that\\ means\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ our\\ allies\\ has\\ declined\\ relative\\ to\\ ours\\,\\ there\\ is\\ less\\ incentive\\ now\\ to\\ act\\ multilaterally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\She\\ explains\\ Kyoto\\ treaty\\ by\\ saying\\ we\\ took\\ the\\ lead\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ set\\ an\\ example\\ by\\ pulling\\ out\\ and\\ so\\ exposing\\ the\\ flaws\\ of\\ the\\ treaty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ other\\ countries\\ did\\ not\\ feel\\ that\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIDTERM\\ AHAHAHAHAHAAAH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Foreign\\ policy\\ exceptional\\ or\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ way\\ to\\ prepare\\ is\\ to\\ group\\ theories\\ into\\ bundle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Try\\ tying\\ theories\\ together\\ into\\ bundles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Would\\ the\\ authors\\ of\\ NSC\\-68\\ advocate\\ a\\ pre\\-emptive\\ strike\\ against\\ Iran\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\ definitely\\ want\\ to\\ bring\\ in\\ oppositional\\ perspectives\\&mdash\\;which\\ theories\\ are\\ strong\\ contrasts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ symbiotic\\ dyads\\&mdash\\;which\\ theories\\ have\\ real\\ overlaps\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prime\\ examples\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ given\\ theories\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\textbook\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\:\\ Public\\ Opinion\\ and\\ the\\ Media\\ as\\ a\\ Constraint\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Louis\\ Fisher\\,\\ \\"\\;Deciding\\ on\\ War\\ Against\\ Iraq\\:\\ Institutional\\ Failures\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ James\\ Caraley\\,\\ ed\\.\\ American\\ Hegemony\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 29\\-50\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Following\\ the\\ swift\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ victory\\ in\\ Iraq\\,\\ teams\\ of\\ experts\\ conducted\\ careful\\ searches\\ to\\ discover\\ the\\ weapons\\ of\\ mass\\ destruction\\ that\\ President\\ George\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\ offered\\ as\\ the\\ principal\\ justification\\ for\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ his\\ claim\\ that\\ these\\ weapons\\ represented\\ a\\ direct\\ and\\ immediate\\ threat\\.\\ \\ \\;Months\\ after\\ the\\ president\\ announced\\ victory\\,\\ little\\ evidence\\ has\\ been\\ found\\ nor\\ is\\ there\\ much\\ reason\\ to\\ expect\\ anything\\ significant\\ to\\ emerge\\.\\ \\ \\;Stories\\ began\\ to\\ circulate\\ that\\ perhaps\\ the\\ Bush\\ administration\\ had\\ deceived\\ allies\\,\\ Congress\\,\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ public\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ MUDDLED\\ EXPLANATION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Bush\\ favored\\ clear\\ language\\ and\\ simple\\,\\ linear\\ logic\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ speeches\\ about\\ Iraq\\ were\\ so\\ convoluted\\ with\\ many\\ confusing\\ arguments\\ is\\ telling\\.\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;His\\ speeches\\ were\\ filled\\ with\\ strained\\ arguments\\ and\\ dramatic\\ claims\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ substantiated\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Looking\\ at\\ \\"\\;All\\ Options\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ When\\ the\\ administration\\ first\\ began\\ talking\\ about\\ war\\ against\\ Iraq\\,\\ Ari\\ Fleischer\\ \\(White\\ House\\ spokesman\\)\\ said\\ on\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ occasions\\ that\\ Bush\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ rushing\\ into\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Bush\\ himself\\ in\\ August\\ 2002\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ patient\\ man\\ and\\ needed\\ to\\ weigh\\ all\\ options\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Within\\ five\\ days\\,\\ the\\ administration\\ switched\\ to\\ a\\ frenzied\\ mode\\.\\ \\ \\;Cheney\\ delivered\\ a\\ forceful\\ speech\\ that\\ offered\\ a\\ single\\ option\\:\\ going\\ to\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ September\\ 1\\&mdash\\;Colin\\ Powell\\ said\\ that\\ weapons\\ inspectors\\ should\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ Iraq\\ as\\ a\\ first\\ step\\ in\\ resolving\\ the\\ dispute\\ with\\ Iraq\\.\\ \\ \\;Fleischer\\ tried\\ to\\ reconcile\\ this\\ statement\\ with\\ Cheney\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ but\\ Cheney\\ had\\ already\\ announced\\ that\\ Iraq\\ did\\ possess\\ WMD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Regime\\ Change\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ meaning\\ of\\ \\"\\;regime\\ change\\"\\;\\ changed\\ from\\ week\\ to\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ April\\ 4\\,\\ 2002\\&mdash\\;Bush\\ said\\ that\\ Saddam\\ needs\\ to\\ go\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ August\\ 1\\,\\ 2002\\&mdash\\;Again\\,\\ Saddam\\ needs\\ to\\ go\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ September\\ 12\\,\\ 2002\\&mdash\\;addressing\\ the\\ U\\.N\\.\\:\\ underlying\\ message\\ was\\ if\\ Iraq\\ complies\\ with\\ certain\\ demands\\,\\ Saddam\\ can\\ stay\\ in\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ October\\ 21\\,\\ 2002\\&mdash\\;After\\ Congress\\ passed\\ Iraq\\ resolution\\,\\ Bush\\ said\\ again\\ that\\ Hussein\\ could\\ stay\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ Hussein\\ complied\\ with\\ every\\ UN\\ mandate\\,\\ that\\ would\\ in\\ itself\\ signal\\ that\\ the\\ regime\\ had\\ changed\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ means\\ that\\ Saddam\\ could\\ stay\\ in\\ office\\ if\\ he\\ changed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Belittling\\ Inspections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ After\\ the\\ September\\ 12\\ UN\\ speech\\,\\ Iraq\\ agreed\\ four\\ days\\ later\\ to\\ unconditional\\ inspections\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ there\\ was\\ good\\ cause\\ to\\ be\\ skeptical\\ of\\ Iraq\\&\\#39\\;s\\ promises\\,\\ Fisher\\ argues\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ have\\ tested\\ Iraq\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sincerity\\ first\\ with\\ inspection\\ teams\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ instead\\,\\ the\\ administration\\ began\\ to\\ make\\ light\\ of\\ inspections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ lots\\ of\\ rationales\\ for\\ war\\ were\\ offered\\&mdash\\;the\\ administration\\ seemed\\ unprepared\\ or\\ unwilling\\ to\\ distinguish\\ between\\ fundamental\\ reasons\\ and\\ less\\ consequential\\ considerations\\.\\ \\ \\;undifferentiated\\ laundry\\ list\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Legal\\ Authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Initially\\ the\\ administration\\ concluded\\ that\\ Bush\\ did\\ not\\ need\\ authority\\ from\\ Congress\\ to\\ mount\\ an\\ offensive\\ war\\ against\\ Iraq\\,\\ since\\ by\\ the\\ administration\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interpretation\\ the\\ 1991\\ Iraq\\ resolution\\ provided\\ continuing\\ military\\ authority\\ to\\ the\\ President\\,\\ transferring\\ authority\\ from\\ father\\ to\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ \\"\\;The\\ Framers\\ made\\ the\\ president\\ Commander\\ in\\ Chief\\,\\ not\\ a\\ monarch\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BRINGING\\ CONGRESS\\ ON\\ BOARD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rush\\ to\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Although\\ the\\ administration\\ had\\ debated\\ going\\ to\\ war\\ against\\ Iraq\\ ever\\ since\\ September\\ 11\\,\\ Congress\\ was\\ expected\\ to\\ act\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ \\"\\;The\\ message\\ to\\ Congress\\ was\\ now\\:\\ Get\\ on\\ board\\ or\\ we\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ leave\\ without\\ you\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disarray\\ by\\ Democrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Democrats\\,\\ unable\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ counterstrategy\\,\\ appeared\\ to\\ favor\\ a\\ prompt\\ vote\\ on\\ the\\ Iraq\\ resolution\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ issue\\ off\\ the\\ table\\ so\\ they\\ could\\ focus\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ issues\\ before\\ the\\ November\\ midterm\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Voting\\ on\\ the\\ Iraq\\ resolution\\,\\ however\\,\\ could\\ never\\ erase\\ the\\ White\\ House\\&\\#39\\;s\\ advantage\\ in\\ controlling\\ the\\ headlines\\,\\ if\\ not\\ through\\ the\\ Iraq\\ resolution\\ then\\ through\\ ongoing\\,\\ cliffhanging\\ negotiations\\ with\\ the\\ UN\\ Security\\ Council\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ steady\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ war\\,\\ Democrats\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ redirect\\ the\\ political\\ agenda\\ to\\ corporate\\ crime\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ stock\\ market\\,\\ and\\ the\\ struggling\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Bush\\ charged\\ that\\ the\\ Democrats\\ were\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ special\\ interests\\ in\\ Washington\\ and\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ security\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\UNSUBSTANTIATED\\ EXECUTIVE\\ CLAIMS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Bush\\ and\\ other\\ top\\ officials\\ invited\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\ to\\ sessions\\ where\\ they\\ would\\ receive\\ confidential\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ threat\\ from\\ Iraq\\,\\ but\\ the\\ lawmakers\\ said\\ they\\ heard\\ little\\ that\\ was\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Link\\ Between\\ Iraq\\ and\\ al\\ Qaeda\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ administration\\ tried\\ repeatedly\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ Iraq\\ and\\ al\\ Qaeda\\,\\ but\\ the\\ reports\\ could\\ never\\ be\\ substantiated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Members\\ of\\ al\\ Qaeda\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ sixty\\ countries\\&mdash\\;to\\ Fisher\\,\\ presence\\ alone\\ does\\ not\\ justify\\ military\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Allies\\ in\\ Europe\\ could\\ find\\ now\\ evidence\\ of\\ links\\ between\\ Iraq\\ and\\ al\\ Qaeda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weapons\\ of\\ Mass\\ Destruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ administration\\ kept\\ a\\ steady\\ drumbeat\\ for\\ war\\,\\ releasing\\ various\\ accounts\\ to\\ demsontrate\\ why\\ Iraq\\ was\\ an\\ imminent\\ threat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ September\\ 7\\&mdash\\;Bush\\ cited\\ a\\ report\\ by\\ the\\ International\\ Atomic\\ Energy\\ Agency\\ that\\ the\\ Iraqis\\ were\\ 6\\ months\\ away\\ from\\ developing\\ a\\ weapon\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ report\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ October\\ 7\\&mdash\\;Bush\\ claimed\\ that\\ satellite\\ photographs\\ revealed\\ that\\ Iraq\\ was\\ rebuilding\\ facilites\\ at\\ sites\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ nuclear\\ program\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;Reporters\\ who\\ visited\\ the\\ facility\\ found\\ few\\ clues\\ to\\ indicate\\ a\\ weapons\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Administration\\ claimed\\ that\\ Iraq\\ bought\\ aluminum\\ tubes\\ and\\ planned\\ to\\ use\\ them\\ to\\ enrich\\ uranium\\ to\\ produce\\ nuclear\\ weapons\\&mdash\\;modifications\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ centrifuges\\ for\\ enriching\\ uranium\\ would\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ substantial\\,\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ evidence\\ that\\ Iraq\\ had\\ purchased\\ materials\\ needed\\ for\\ centrifuges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ February\\ 5\\,\\ 2003\\&mdash\\;Powell\\ laid\\ out\\ his\\ case\\ for\\ going\\ to\\ war\\,\\ citing\\ mobile\\ production\\ facilities\\ used\\ to\\ make\\ biological\\ agents\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ May\\ 28\\,\\ 2003\\ report\\ by\\ the\\ intelligence\\ community\\ found\\ nothing\\ definitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plagiarism\\ and\\ Fabrication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ British\\ government\\ released\\ a\\ nineteen\\-page\\ report\\ entitled\\ \\"\\;Iraq\\:\\ Its\\ Infrastructure\\ of\\ Concealment\\,\\ Deception\\ and\\ Intimidation\\"\\;\\ which\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ thorough\\ analysis\\ prepared\\ by\\ British\\ intelligence\\ agencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ In\\ February\\ 2003\\,\\ the\\ government\\ admitted\\ that\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ report\\ had\\ been\\ lifted\\ from\\ magazines\\ and\\ academic\\ journals\\,\\ some\\ of\\ it\\ verbatim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ For\\ Fisher\\,\\ this\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ willingness\\ of\\ the\\ administration\\ to\\ exploit\\ and\\ go\\ public\\ with\\ any\\ information\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ tenuous\\ and\\ suspect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONGRESS\\ FOLDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Democrats\\,\\ especially\\ those\\ considering\\ a\\ bid\\ for\\ presidency\\ \\(Dick\\ Gephardt\\,\\ John\\ Edwards\\,\\ Joe\\ Lieberman\\,\\ John\\ Kerry\\)\\,\\ supported\\ the\\ war\\ resolution\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ dispel\\ the\\ perception\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ antiwar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ vote\\ on\\ the\\ Iraq\\ resolution\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Tonkin\\ Gulf\\ Precedent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Congressional\\ debate\\ in\\ 2002\\ resembles\\ the\\ Tonkin\\ Gulf\\ resolution\\ debate\\ \\(Senate\\ debate\\ of\\ 1964\\ authorizing\\ LBJ\\ to\\ use\\ military\\ force\\ in\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\ without\\ a\\ formal\\ declaration\\ of\\ war\\ by\\ Congress\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ The\\ resolutions\\ are\\ virtually\\ identical\\ in\\ transferring\\ to\\ the\\ president\\ the\\ sole\\ decision\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ war\\ and\\ determine\\ its\\ scope\\ and\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Senate\\ Action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Daschle\\&mdash\\;calls\\ for\\ bipartisanship\\.\\ \\ \\;Fisher\\ comments\\,\\ \\"\\;Placing\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ president\\ or\\ calling\\ for\\ bipartisanship\\ are\\ not\\ proper\\ substitutes\\ for\\ analyzing\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ military\\ force\\ against\\ another\\ country\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ MILITARY\\,\\ NOT\\ A\\ POLITICAL\\,\\ VICTORY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ United\\ states\\ triumphed\\ militarily\\ over\\ Iraq\\ in\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ month\\,\\ but\\ with\\ deep\\,\\ long\\-term\\ costs\\ to\\ constitutional\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Congress\\ failed\\ to\\ discharge\\ its\\ constitutional\\ duties\\ when\\ it\\ passed\\ the\\ Iraq\\ resolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DOCTORING\\ INTELLIGENCE\\ REPORTS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Fisher\\ questions\\ whether\\ the\\ intelligence\\ reports\\ were\\ doctored\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ unequivocal\\ language\\ in\\ the\\ CIA\\ analysis\\ report\\,\\ \\"\\;Baghdad\\ has\\ chemical\\ and\\ biological\\ weapons\\,\\"\\;\\ yet\\ there\\ is\\ language\\ within\\ the\\ report\\ that\\ nuances\\ this\\ a\\ little\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONCLUSIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ political\\ institutions\\ failed\\ in\\ their\\ constitutional\\ duties\\ when\\ they\\ authorized\\ war\\ against\\ Iraq\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Bush\\ administration\\ never\\ presented\\ sufficient\\ and\\ credible\\ information\\ to\\ justify\\ statutory\\ action\\ in\\ October\\ 2002\\ and\\ military\\ operations\\ in\\ March\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Congressional\\ Control\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lee\\ H\\.\\ Hamilton\\ and\\ Jordan\\ Tama\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Creative\\ Tension\\:\\ The\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\ Roles\\ of\\ the\\ President\\ and\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ of\\ those\\ lovely\\ books\\ that\\ says\\ all\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ say\\ in\\ the\\ introduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hamilton\\ was\\ a\\ Member\\ of\\ Congress\\ for\\ 34\\ years\\ \\(1965\\-1999\\)\\,\\ who\\ spent\\ his\\ entire\\ tenure\\ on\\ the\\ Foreign\\ Relations\\ Committee\\.\\ \\ \\;Highly\\ Wilsonian\\ and\\ Hamiltonian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tenure\\ once\\ dominated\\ by\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ now\\ passed\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ threat\\ once\\ posed\\ by\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ is\\ now\\ gone\\,\\ and\\ America\\ has\\ new\\ opportunities\\ to\\ advance\\ its\\ goals\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ international\\ environment\\ is\\,\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\,\\ overwhelmingly\\ beneficial\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ whose\\ preeminence\\ is\\ not\\ challenged\\ seriously\\ by\\ any\\ other\\ nation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;We\\ face\\ many\\ dangers\\,\\ however\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ such\\ as\\ rogue\\ terrorist\\ groups\\ appropriating\\ loose\\ Soviet\\ nuclear\\ weaponry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ can\\ implement\\ its\\ priorities\\ firmly\\ with\\ firm\\ leadership\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ must\\,\\ however\\,\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ limits\\ to\\ American\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ neither\\ powerful\\ enough\\ to\\ cause\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ills\\,\\ nor\\ powerful\\ enough\\ to\\ cure\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ it\\ is\\ critical\\ that\\ we\\ maintain\\ good\\ relations\\ with\\ our\\ international\\ allies\\ and\\ friends\\,\\ manage\\ prudently\\ our\\ sometimes\\ difficult\\ relationships\\ with\\ Russia\\ and\\ China\\,\\ and\\ support\\ and\\ strengthen\\ international\\ institutions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ fundamental\\ principle\\ that\\ should\\ guide\\ the\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\ to\\ foreign\\ policy\\ is\\ that\\ U\\.S\\.\\ engagement\\ and\\ leadership\\ are\\ essential\\ to\\ promote\\ American\\ national\\ interests\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ Americans\\ recognize\\ that\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ has\\ a\\ special\\ responsibility\\ and\\ opportunity\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ world\\ a\\ better\\ and\\ safer\\ place\\&mdash\\;by\\ marshaling\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ progress\\,\\ combating\\ international\\ terrorism\\,\\ extending\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ strengthening\\ democratic\\ ideas\\ and\\ practices\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(47\\-8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ president\\ should\\ also\\ recognize\\ that\\ we\\ must\\ strike\\ the\\ right\\ balance\\ between\\ leadership\\ and\\ partnership\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(48\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\ of\\ book\\:\\ Congress\\ and\\ President\\ do\\ and\\ must\\ cooperate\\ in\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\(5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ varied\\ allocation\\ of\\ Constitutional\\ powers\\ \\(treaty\\-making\\ and\\ war\\-declaration\\ to\\ Congress\\,\\ management\\ of\\ the\\ armed\\ forces\\ to\\ the\\ executive\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ shared\\ constitutional\\ responsibility\\ presupposes\\ that\\ the\\ president\\ and\\ Congress\\ will\\ work\\ together\\ to\\ develop\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ and\\ it\\ leaves\\ the\\ door\\ open\\ to\\ both\\ of\\ them\\ to\\ assert\\ their\\ authority\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involves\\ both\\ agreement\\ and\\ disagreement\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\division\\ of\\ labor\\ and\\ contention\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ some\\ basic\\ foreign\\ policy\\ issues\\,\\ the\\ president\\ and\\ Congress\\ agree\\ on\\ their\\ respective\\ roles\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ instance\\,\\ Congress\\ generally\\ does\\ not\\ question\\ the\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ to\\ manage\\ diplomatic\\ relations\\ with\\ other\\ nations\\,\\ and\\ presidents\\ accept\\ that\\ Congress\\ must\\ appropriate\\ funds\\ for\\ diplomacy\\ and\\ defense\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ on\\ a\\ panoply\\ of\\ other\\ issues\\&mdash\\;from\\ oversight\\ of\\ foreign\\ aid\\ and\\ responsibility\\ for\\ trade\\ policy\\ to\\ authorization\\ of\\ military\\ deployments\\ and\\ funding\\ for\\ international\\ institutions\\&mdash\\;Congress\\ and\\ the\\ president\\ battle\\ intensely\\ to\\ exert\\ influence\\ and\\ advance\\ their\\ priorities\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Although\\ the\\ president\\ is\\ the\\ chief\\ foreign\\ policy\\ maker\\,\\ Congress\\ has\\ a\\ responsibility\\ to\\ be\\ both\\ an\\ informed\\ critic\\ and\\ a\\ constructive\\ partner\\ of\\ the\\ president\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ideal\\ established\\ by\\ the\\ founders\\ is\\ neither\\ for\\ one\\ branch\\ to\\ dominate\\ the\\ other\\ nor\\ for\\ there\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ identity\\ of\\ views\\ between\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ founders\\ wisely\\ sought\\ to\\ encourage\\ a\\ creative\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ president\\ and\\ Congress\\ that\\ would\\ produce\\ policies\\ that\\ advance\\ national\\ interests\\ and\\ reflect\\ the\\ views\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Sustained\\ consultation\\ between\\ the\\ president\\ and\\ Congress\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ mechanism\\ for\\ fostering\\ an\\ effective\\ foreign\\ policy\\ with\\ broad\\ support\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ respect\\ and\\ punch\\ overseas\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ both\\ danger\\ and\\ opportunity\\,\\ we\\ need\\ such\\ a\\ foreign\\ policy\\ to\\ advance\\ out\\ interests\\ and\\ values\\ around\\ the\\ globe\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Incidentally\\,\\ Paarlberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ assert\\ that\\ this\\ argument\\ is\\,\\ historically\\ speaking\\,\\ chicken\\ shit\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ founders\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ the\\ president\\ within\\ a\\ nautical\\ mile\\ of\\ actual\\ foreign\\ policy\\ creation\\,\\ as\\ the\\ treaty\\,\\ war\\ declaration\\,\\ and\\ funding\\ powers\\ granted\\ to\\ Congress\\ demonstrated\\.\\ \\ \\;Whether\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ productive\\ relationship\\ is\\ a\\ different\\ argument\\ altogether\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Interesting\\ given\\ Iraq\\,\\ and\\ a\\ compelling\\ argument\\ that\\ the\\ president\\ is\\ at\\ an\\ advantage\\ in\\ setting\\ the\\ foreign\\ policy\\ agenda\\,\\ even\\ ex\\ post\\ facto\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ came\\ to\\ Congress\\ as\\ a\\ supporter\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ but\\ I\\ developed\\ concerns\\ about\\ its\\ conduct\\ after\\ taking\\ a\\ congressional\\ trip\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-1960s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&hellip\\;\\ But\\ Congress\\ was\\ slow\\ to\\ take\\ dramatic\\ action\\ on\\ Vietnam\\,\\ in\\ part\\ because\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ was\\ difficult\\ for\\ Congress\\ to\\ block\\ funding\\ for\\ the\\ war\\ effort\\ without\\ holding\\ up\\ all\\ appropriations\\ for\\ defense\\ or\\ denying\\ U\\.S\\.\\ combat\\ forces\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ defend\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ time\\,\\ no\\ amendments\\ were\\ allowed\\ on\\ defense\\ appropriation\\ bills\\,\\ which\\ were\\ decided\\ by\\ a\\ single\\ yes\\-no\\ vote\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ of\\ us\\ who\\ had\\ reservations\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ blunt\\,\\ and\\ politically\\ unpopular\\,\\ tool\\ of\\ rejecting\\ entire\\ defense\\ appropriation\\ bills\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\-12\\:\\ cites\\ the\\ War\\ Powers\\ Act\\ as\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ returned\\ collaboration\\ of\\ the\\ legislative\\ and\\ executive\\ branches\\ in\\ war\\-making\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ act\\&hellip\\;stipulates\\ that\\ the\\ president\\ must\\ consult\\ with\\ Congress\\ before\\ introducing\\ U\\.S\\.\\ forces\\ into\\ hostilities\\ or\\ imminent\\ hostilities\\,\\ must\\ report\\ to\\ Congress\\ when\\ such\\ forces\\ are\\ introduced\\,\\ and\\ must\\ terminate\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ forces\\ within\\ sixty\\ to\\ ninety\\ days\\ unless\\ Congress\\ authorizes\\ their\\ use\\ or\\ extends\\ this\\ period\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(12\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ gives\\ the\\ president\\ carte\\ blanche\\ to\\ put\\ forces\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ within\\ that\\ period\\,\\ giving\\ him\\ a\\ first\\-mover\\ advantage\\ and\\ allowing\\ him\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ Congress\\ is\\ depriving\\ troops\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ of\\ the\\ equipment\\ and\\ funds\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ win\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ course\\,\\ most\\ of\\ these\\ powers\\ have\\ receded\\ over\\ time\\&mdash\\;see\\ the\\ apocryphal\\ prediction\\ on\\ pg\\.\\ 14\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ war\\ on\\ terrorism\\ may\\ trigger\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ presidential\\ power\\&hellip\\;\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ that\\ Congress\\ will\\ give\\ up\\ its\\ hard\\-won\\ foreign\\ policy\\ influence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(14\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Interest\\ groups\\&mdash\\;sometimes\\ including\\ other\\ nations\\ and\\ their\\ proxies\\&mdash\\;lobby\\ Congress\\ and\\ the\\ President\\ for\\ favored\\ foreign\\ policies\\,\\ but\\ their\\ influence\\ has\\ declined\\ since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ media\\ exerts\\ a\\ heavy\\ influence\\ on\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ giving\\ a\\ premium\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;quick\\ reactions\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(27\\)\\ \\(this\\ is\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ something\\ Paarlberg\\ spoke\\ about\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institutional\\ changes\\ in\\ Congress\\ since\\ WWII\\ have\\ also\\ increased\\ its\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Access\\ to\\ further\\ intelligence\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ de\\ jure\\ oversight\\ capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weaker\\ party\\ ties\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ weaker\\ forced\\ allegiance\\ to\\ party\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Others\\,\\ however\\,\\ have\\ decreased\\ its\\ power\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreign\\ policy\\ decisions\\&mdash\\;particularly\\ those\\ that\\ relate\\ to\\ trade\\&mdash\\;are\\ now\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dispersed\\ to\\ several\\ committees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ each\\ house\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Omnibus\\ finance\\ bills\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\now\\ contain\\ lots\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\ appropriations\\,\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ chance\\ to\\ debate\\ each\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ executive\\ is\\ being\\ weighed\\ down\\ by\\ its\\ own\\ bureaucracy\\ \\(which\\ is\\ manifestly\\ untrue\\;\\ the\\ executive\\ bureaucracy\\ has\\ shrunk\\ by\\ almost\\ 2\\/3\\ since\\ the\\ Carter\\ era\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ the\\ National\\ Security\\ Council\\ has\\ taken\\ on\\ a\\ bigger\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ unified\\ executive\\ bureaucracy\\ between\\ departments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regardless\\ of\\ both\\ developments\\,\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\ has\\ been\\ behind\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ every\\ major\\ foreign\\ policy\\ initiative\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ fifty\\ years\\.\\ \\(42\\-3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primary\\ advantage\\ in\\ foreign\\ policy\\-making\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ reflects\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ people\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ diversity\\ of\\ backgrounds\\ it\\ brings\\ to\\ bear\\ in\\ its\\ policy\\-making\\.\\ \\ \\;Congress\\ also\\ forces\\ the\\ executive\\ to\\ enumerate\\ its\\ reasons\\ for\\ pursuing\\ a\\ particular\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\ can\\ often\\ be\\ parochial\\ in\\ their\\ definition\\ of\\ American\\ interests\\,\\ or\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ marginal\\ interests\\&mdash\\;such\\ as\\ from\\ lobbyists\\&mdash\\;in\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ national\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ lax\\ in\\ its\\ regulatory\\ duties\\ \\(64\\-5\\)\\&mdash\\;in\\ which\\ case\\,\\ the\\ president\\ does\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\ anyway\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ flaws\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acting\\ too\\ timidly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attempting\\ to\\ micromanage\\ foreign\\ policy\\ \\(66\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Linking\\ unrelated\\ issues\\ together\\ for\\ consideration\\,\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ by\\ an\\ individual\\ member\\ to\\ get\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ way\\ \\(67\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ President\\ should\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\,\\ consult\\ Congress\\ on\\ most\\ major\\ foreign\\ policy\\ initiatives\\ until\\ after\\ the\\ fact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ President\\ and\\ Congress\\ should\\ consult\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ just\\ went\\ through\\ 84\\ worthless\\ pages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Divergent\\ Party\\ Preferences\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Article\\:\\ Charles\\ Kupchan\\ and\\ Peter\\ Trubowitz\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dead\\ Center\\:\\ the\\ Demise\\ of\\ Liberal\\ Internationalism\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;International\\ Security\\,\\ Vol\\.\\ 32\\,\\ No\\.\\ 2\\ \\(Fall\\ 2007\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 7\\-44\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Main\\ argument\\:\\ while\\ many\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ Bush\\ administration\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foreign\\ policy\\ represents\\ an\\ aberration\\ from\\ the\\ US\\&rsquo\\;\\ commitment\\ to\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\ \\(US\\ power\\ plus\\ international\\ cooperation\\)\\,\\ this\\ article\\ contends\\ that\\ the\\ Bush\\ administration\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brand\\ of\\ international\\ engagement\\ represents\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ US\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ we\\ see\\ now\\ is\\ an\\ unraveling\\ of\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\ which\\ guided\\ US\\ foreign\\ policy\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ characterizes\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\ as\\ a\\ coupling\\ of\\ US\\ power\\ and\\ international\\ partisanship\\ bolstered\\ by\\ a\\ bipartisan\\ consensus\\ behind\\ US\\ engagement\\ in\\ world\\ affairs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Article\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ parts\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Rise\\ of\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\ \\(will\\ abbreviate\\ this\\ to\\ L\\.I\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Demise\\ of\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;Implications\\ of\\ the\\ analysis\\ for\\ US\\ grand\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\characterized\\ by\\ multilateralism\\ and\\ international\\ institutions\\ and\\ a\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ US\\ military\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FDR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ coupled\\ power\\ and\\ partnership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bipartisanship\\ was\\ essential\\ for\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ liberal\\ internationalism\\ because\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Bipartisanship\\ made\\ possible\\ political\\ entrepreneurship\\ needed\\ to\\ launch\\ L\\.I\\.\\ b\\/c\\ L\\.I\\.\\ assumed\\ significant\\ political\\ risks\\ making\\ bipartisanship\\ a\\ necessary\\ condition\\ for\\ domestic\\ viability\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;Implementation\\ required\\ broad\\ institutional\\ support\\ not\\ just\\ strong\\ executive\\ support\\ \\[Senate\\ ratification\\ requires\\ 2\\/3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;majority\\ making\\ bipartisanship\\ necessary\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bipartisanship\\ essential\\ for\\ implementation\\ of\\ L\\.I\\.\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ provided\\ constancy\\ and\\ continuity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ foreign\\ policy\\ as\\ elections\\ shifted\\ power\\ from\\ one\\ party\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ giving\\ L\\.I\\.\\ remarkable\\ staying\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geopolitical\\ sources\\ of\\ L\\.I\\.\\:\\ Cold\\ War\\ necessitated\\ global\\ alliance\\ for\\ political\\ reasons\\ and\\ economic\\ imperatives\\ \\(open\\ trade\\ system\\ which\\ benefited\\ democracies\\ and\\ countered\\ communist\\ powers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domestic\\ sources\\ of\\ L\\.I\\.\\:\\ North\\-South\\ regional\\ alliances\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ had\\ different\\ incentives\\ for\\ supporting\\ L\\.I\\.\\;\\ public\\ opinion\\ supported\\ L\\.I\\.\\ in\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Demise\\ of\\ Liberal\\ Internationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Roots\\ of\\ demise\\ stretch\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ the\\ ideological\\ conflicts\\ over\\ foreign\\ policy\\ which\\ emerged\\ during\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ the\\ intensification\\ of\\ US\\-Soviet\\ rivalry\\ bolstered\\ support\\ for\\ L\\.I\\.\\ but\\ it\\ never\\ fully\\ recovered\\ from\\ the\\ political\\ divides\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movements\\,\\ and\\ stress\\ of\\ 1970s\\ economic\\ downturn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\L\\.I\\.\\ really\\ fell\\ apart\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democrats\\ came\\ to\\ identify\\ with\\ one\\ half\\ of\\ L\\.I\\ \\(partnership\\)\\ while\\ the\\ Republicans\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ half\\ \\(military\\ power\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Geopolitical\\ sources\\ of\\ L\\.I\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decline\\:\\ unipolarity\\ provides\\ a\\ different\\ set\\ of\\ geopolitical\\ and\\ domestic\\ incentives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unipolarity\\ meant\\ a\\ greater\\ ambivalence\\ towards\\ multilateralism\\ and\\ weakened\\ perceived\\ need\\ for\\ political\\ discipline\\ and\\ bipartisan\\ cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ bipartisanship\\ increased\\ in\\ the\\ immediate\\ aftermath\\ of\\ 9\\/11\\,\\ it\\ faded\\ by\\ 2003\\ over\\ differences\\ on\\ war\\ in\\ Iraq\\,\\ war\\ on\\ terrorism\\ and\\ defense\\ spending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ threat\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Islamic\\ extremism\\ and\\ the\\ fight\\ against\\ terrorism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ did\\ not\\ inspire\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ shared\\ nationalist\\ purpose\\ and\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domestic\\ sources\\ for\\ L\\.I\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decline\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\return\\ of\\ regional\\ divides\\ along\\ party\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ uneven\\ effects\\ of\\ globalization\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\ exacerbated\\ this\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\formation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;two\\ Americas\\&rdquo\\;\\ one\\ multiethnic\\ and\\ multiracial\\ \\(tended\\ to\\ be\\ liberal\\ and\\ democratic\\)\\ and\\ the\\ largely\\ white\\ working\\/middle\\ class\\ republicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ number\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\moderates\\ also\\ declined\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;polarization\\ and\\ diverging\\ public\\ judgments\\ about\\ the\\ relative\\ efficacy\\ of\\ military\\ power\\ vs\\.\\ diplomacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Proposed\\ Course\\ of\\ Action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Efforts\\ to\\ rebuild\\ L\\.I\\.\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ wiser\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ for\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ discriminating\\ and\\ selective\\ in\\ its\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ demand\\ less\\ power\\ and\\ less\\ partisanship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ a\\ more\\ discriminating\\ grand\\ strategy\\ will\\ not\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ partisan\\ differences\\ over\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\holds\\ promise\\ of\\ cross\\-regional\\ appeal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ the\\ alternative\\ of\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\intractable\\ polarization\\,\\ which\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ political\\ stalemate\\ at\\ hoe\\ and\\ failed\\ leadership\\ abroad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 18, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/AFPstudyguide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:21:20.716704+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Foreign Policy - Class Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "american", "government", "foreign-policy"], "text": null, "id": 36, "html": "\\\\\\Gov1790\\_Lect\\_Notes\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:525\\.6pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:57\\.6pt\\ 43\\.2pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 43\\.2pt\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:225pt\\}\\.c27\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c8\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c9\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\American\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\/Thursday\\ 12\\:00\\-1\\:00\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 8\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Forgive\\ the\\ Russians\\,\\ ignore\\ the\\ Germans\\,\\ punish\\ the\\ French\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Condoleezza\\ Rice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ foreign\\ policies\\ little\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ efforts\\ of\\ governments\\ to\\ pursue\\ the\\ national\\ interest\\ with\\ the\\ powers\\ available\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ if\\ we\\ know\\ they\\ amount\\ of\\ power\\ possessed\\ by\\ a\\ country\\,\\ and\\ if\\ we\\ could\\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ is\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ predict\\ their\\ actions\\?\\ No\\,\\ because\\ their\\ power\\ and\\ interest\\ are\\ often\\ determined\\ by\\ their\\ foreign\\ policy\\ ambition\\,\\ and\\ ambitions\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ power\\ grows\\,\\ the\\ defined\\ list\\ of\\ interest\\ grows\\ as\\ well\\.\\ For\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ our\\ interest\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ grown\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ tyranny\\ on\\ Earth\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ \\=\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ someone\\ do\\ something\\ or\\ prevent\\ someone\\ form\\ doing\\ something\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ otherwise\\ done\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ understood\\ in\\ a\\ coercive\\ manner\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ kinds\\ of\\ power\\:\\ Compellence\\:\\ Unless\\ you\\ to\\ X\\ by\\ T\\,\\ I\\ will\\ do\\ y\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deterrence\\:\\ if\\ you\\ do\\ x\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ do\\ y\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ deadline\\ needed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ interest\\ of\\ a\\ State\\ can\\ be\\ pursued\\ by\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ soft\\ and\\ hard\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soft\\ Power\\:\\ seduction\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ making\\ someone\\ do\\ what\\ we\\ want\\,\\ we\\ make\\ them\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ we\\ want\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ culture\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ soft\\ power\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ making\\ others\\ want\\ to\\ live\\ like\\ we\\ do\\ and\\ therefore\\ making\\ them\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ us\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ results\\ in\\ friendly\\ relations\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ really\\ good\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ reliable\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.g\\.\\ Hollywood\\ movies\\ account\\ for\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ European\\ movie\\ sales\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ hate\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ when\\ a\\ country\\ is\\ attracted\\ to\\ our\\ culture\\ through\\ soft\\ power\\,\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ controlled\\ by\\ Sec\\.\\ Rice\\ or\\ the\\ White\\ House\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ controlled\\ by\\ Hollywood\\ and\\ MTV\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ reliable\\.\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ manipulated\\ by\\ foreign\\ policy\\ experts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hard\\ Power\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Military\\ Might\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Intelligence\\ Community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Stick\\ and\\ Carrot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Foreign\\ Service\\ that\\ communicates\\ our\\ preferences\\ and\\ consequences\\ of\\ not\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ the\\ states\\ of\\ Europe\\ have\\ decided\\ not\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ employing\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ instruments\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GDP\\ in\\ America\\ \\(11\\ Trillion\\)\\ matches\\ the\\ GDP\\ of\\ the\\ EU\\ 25\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ tax\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ than\\ we\\ do\\ but\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spend\\ their\\ money\\ on\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ intelligence\\ budget\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ combine\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ spending\\ of\\ NATO\\ countries\\,\\ they\\ are\\ only\\ fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ spend\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ money\\ is\\ spent\\ paying\\ the\\ salary\\ of\\ soldiers\\ who\\ never\\ leave\\ home\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ they\\ are\\ only\\ spending\\ a\\ fraction\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ spend\\,\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ buy\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ global\\ reach\\.\\ We\\ chose\\ to\\ create\\ this\\ instrument\\ of\\ hard\\ power\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ they\\ chose\\ not\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ they\\ could\\.\\ But\\ they\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ therefore\\,\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ complaints\\ are\\ only\\ half\\-hearted\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ mind\\ being\\ number\\ two\\.\\ They\\ let\\ us\\ do\\ military\\ stuff\\ for\\ them\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ spend\\ their\\ money\\ on\\ their\\ socialist\\ economy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ cut\\ tons\\ of\\ stuff\\ yesterday\\ but\\ increased\\ the\\ Defense\\ Budget\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ mobilization\\ and\\ intervention\\ that\\ tipped\\ the\\ balance\\ against\\ Germany\\ in\\ WWI\\,\\ allowing\\ Great\\ Brittan\\ and\\ France\\ to\\ be\\ victorious\\.\\ After\\ WWI\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Government\\ decided\\ to\\ pursue\\ unarmed\\ neutrality\\ and\\ subsequently\\ dismantled\\ the\\ military\\,\\ turned\\ battleships\\ into\\ scrap\\ mettle\\,\\ leaving\\ us\\ powerless\\ to\\ check\\ Germany\\ and\\ Japan\\.\\ Our\\ economy\\ was\\ the\\ largest\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ before\\ WWII\\ but\\ our\\ military\\ was\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ We\\ were\\ behind\\ Germany\\,\\ Japan\\,\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\ Because\\ Europe\\ have\\ chosen\\ Mars\\ and\\ we\\ had\\ chosen\\ Venus\\.\\ Now\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ conclusion\\ of\\ WWII\\,\\ we\\ chose\\ to\\ maintain\\ strong\\ military\\ presence\\.\\ In\\ 47\\:\\ Marshall\\ Plan\\ and\\ the\\ Truman\\ Doctrine\\.\\ Or\\ maybe\\ in\\ 49\\ with\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ NATO\\.\\ But\\ really\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ 1950\\ with\\ NSC\\ 68\\,\\ after\\ USSR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ detonation\\ of\\ a\\ bomb\\.\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ lessons\\ of\\ history\\,\\ think\\ carefully\\ about\\ the\\ situation\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ and\\ take\\ decisive\\ action\\ to\\ contain\\ a\\ nuclear\\ power\\.\\ NSC\\ 68\\ was\\ drafted\\ by\\ Paul\\ Knitsgy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ passage\\:\\ In\\ both\\ WW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ ultimate\\ victors\\ had\\ the\\ strength\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ to\\ win\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ strength\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ war\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ strength\\ for\\ a\\ strong\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ a\\ build\\ up\\ of\\ power\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ containment\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\.\\ If\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ prepared\\ this\\ time\\,\\ we\\ will\\ get\\ dragged\\ in\\ again\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ we\\ win\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;d\\ rather\\ avoid\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Called\\ for\\ tax\\ increase\\ to\\ pay\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defense\\ spending\\ tripled\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ year\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ made\\ the\\ clear\\ choice\\ to\\ be\\ powerful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ A\\ list\\ interests\\ and\\ B\\ list\\ interests\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ list\\ \\-\\ Vital\\ National\\ Interests\\:\\ \\(Enemies\\ change\\ but\\ some\\ interests\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Prevent\\ WMD\\ attack\\ on\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ensure\\ survival\\ \\+\\ cooperation\\ of\\ allies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prevent\\ failed\\ or\\ hostile\\ state\\ on\\ border\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ensure\\ the\\ viability\\ and\\ stability\\ of\\ major\\ \\&ldquo\\;global\\&rdquo\\;\\ systems\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ national\\ markets\\,\\ trade\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Establish\\ productive\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ PRC\\ and\\ Russia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ then\\ we\\ have\\ waged\\ two\\ wars\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ see\\ how\\ they\\ fit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kosovo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prevent\\ ethnic\\ cleansing\\.\\ Important\\ but\\ human\\ rights\\ is\\ not\\ on\\ this\\ list\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Preventing\\ genocide\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\#11\\ on\\ the\\ B\\ list\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afghanistan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ terrorist\\ networks\\ also\\ on\\ the\\ B\\ list\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iraq\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ WMD\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ likely\\ on\\ our\\ forces\\ if\\ we\\ attacked\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ suggested\\ listing\\ countries\\ not\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Carter\\ and\\ Perry\\ in\\ 1999\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ list\\:\\ Countries\\ that\\ could\\ threaten\\ our\\ survival\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\ list\\:\\ countries\\ that\\ could\\ threaten\\ our\\ interests\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\ list\\:\\ countries\\ that\\ could\\ threaten\\ our\\ interest\\ indirectly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ had\\ trouble\\ coming\\ up\\ with\\ countries\\ to\\ fit\\ A\\ list\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ one\\ threatened\\ our\\ survival\\,\\ according\\ to\\ them\\ \\.\\ So\\ why\\ spend\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ defense\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Afghanistan\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ make\\ the\\ C\\ list\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ We\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ that\\ scheme\\ either\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ characterization\\ is\\ misleading\\:\\ we\\ attacked\\ Afghanistan\\ out\\ of\\ retaliation\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ threat\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ Taliban\\ but\\ was\\ being\\ protected\\ by\\ the\\ Taliban\\.\\ Come\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obvious\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NSC\\ 68\\ \\(maybe\\ NSC\\ 2002\\)\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;national\\ interests\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ speaks\\ of\\ the\\ overall\\ purpose\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quotes\\ the\\ preamble\\ and\\ speaks\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ values\\.\\ NSC\\ speaks\\ of\\ good\\ vs\\.\\ evil\\,\\ not\\ interests\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ to\\ reject\\ or\\ warn\\ against\\ any\\ assertion\\ that\\ foreign\\ policy\\ is\\ the\\ harnessing\\ of\\ power\\ to\\ pursue\\ interests\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ that\\ simple\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sectioning\\ reminder\\:\\ Before\\ Friday\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\www\\.section\\.fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 10\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Traditions\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extended\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wilsonians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Hamiltonians\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abroad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Protect\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Jeffersonians\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Jacksonian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ Home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pursue\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Values\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vs\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*New\\ stripe\\ called\\ Neo\\-Cons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Continental\\ Realists\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mead\\ said\\ that\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\ should\\ be\\ left\\ to\\ the\\ Elites\\,\\ not\\ elected\\ officials\\.\\ They\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\ between\\ states\\ and\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bother\\ with\\ commerce\\,\\ human\\ rights\\,\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ They\\ should\\ be\\ cunning\\,\\ ruthless\\,\\ willing\\ to\\ betray\\ allies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Foreign\\ policy\\ was\\ made\\ in\\ a\\ room\\ by\\ three\\ people\\ and\\ two\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ Henry\\ Kissinger\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mead\\ identifies\\ four\\ different\\ traditions\\ that\\ have\\ made\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\ distinctively\\ successful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ that\\ Europe\\ was\\ the\\ cradle\\ of\\ diplomacy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ people\\ were\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ smoky\\ room\\ talking\\ foreign\\ policy\\ and\\ a\\ European\\ accent\\ would\\ be\\ heard\\ they\\ would\\ quite\\ and\\ assume\\ that\\ we\\ had\\ more\\ to\\ learn\\ from\\ Europe\\ than\\ they\\ did\\ from\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bismarck\\ said\\ that\\ God\\ had\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;special\\ providence\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ fools\\,\\ drunks\\,\\ and\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hamiltonians\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ as\\ interested\\ in\\ a\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ a\\ balance\\ of\\ trade\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ earliest\\ colonial\\ days\\,\\ we\\ were\\ globally\\ connected\\ through\\ maritime\\ commerce\\.\\ Great\\ fortunes\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ exportation\\ of\\ good\\ or\\ through\\ the\\ import\\ of\\ slave\\ who\\ made\\ the\\ import\\ possible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ interruption\\ in\\ trade\\ was\\ the\\ nightmare\\ that\\ we\\ feared\\ for\\ 150\\ years\\.\\ They\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ all\\ open\\ to\\ globalization\\.\\ Keep\\ an\\ open\\ door\\ abroad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ adverse\\ to\\ using\\ military\\ power\\,\\ particularly\\ if\\ it\\ opens\\ up\\ trade\\.\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Teddy\\ Roosevelt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;China\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quelled\\ the\\ Boxer\\ Rebellion\\ and\\ then\\ insisted\\ on\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Revised\\ the\\ Monroe\\ Doctrine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ protect\\ our\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\our\\ interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ the\\ Hamiltonians\\ that\\ said\\ we\\ should\\ step\\ in\\ to\\ the\\ shoes\\ of\\ the\\ declining\\ English\\ to\\ keep\\ open\\ the\\ trade\\ routes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Hamiltonians\\,\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ military\\ power\\ was\\ not\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ world\\ safe\\ for\\ democracy\\,\\ but\\ for\\ trade\\ and\\ investments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ call\\ them\\ Hamiltonians\\?\\ Because\\ Alexander\\ Hamilton\\ laid\\ the\\ groundwork\\ to\\ establish\\ America\\ as\\ a\\ trade\\ power\\.\\ From\\ the\\ very\\ start\\ he\\ wanted\\ New\\ York\\ to\\ rival\\ London\\ and\\ he\\ wanted\\ America\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ next\\ commercial\\ powerhouse\\.\\ He\\ was\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ monarchist\\.\\ He\\ thought\\ the\\ President\\ should\\ hold\\ office\\ for\\ life\\.\\ He\\ was\\ most\\ at\\ ease\\ talking\\ with\\ bankers\\ not\\ farmers\\.\\ He\\ created\\ the\\ first\\ National\\ Bank\\.\\ He\\ was\\ from\\ NYC\\.\\ He\\ is\\ still\\ revered\\ the\\ patron\\ saint\\ of\\ American\\ Values\\.\\ But\\ he\\ is\\ still\\ reviled\\ for\\ his\\ elitist\\ tendencies\\.\\ Hamilton\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ Adie\\ de\\ camp\\ to\\ Gen\\.\\ Washington\\ and\\ considered\\ him\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ father\\ figure\\.\\ Hamilton\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ get\\ along\\ with\\ Jefferson\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ died\\ fighting\\ a\\ duel\\ against\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vice\\ President\\,\\ Aaron\\ Burr\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alexander\\ Hamilton\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ founding\\ father\\ who\\ was\\ outspokenly\\ against\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ primarily\\ on\\ development\\ grounds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeffersonians\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ wanted\\ to\\ lead\\ by\\ example\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\,\\ if\\ they\\ wish\\.\\ Built\\ and\\ operated\\ to\\ give\\ freedom\\ and\\ liberty\\ within\\ its\\ boarders\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ policy\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ too\\ active\\ because\\ the\\ institutions\\ that\\ are\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ active\\ \\(armies\\,\\ navies\\,\\ spies\\ etc\\)\\ are\\ not\\ democratic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ are\\ elitist\\,\\ secret\\.\\ Jefferson\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ It\\ would\\ also\\ become\\ necessary\\ to\\ make\\ alliances\\ with\\ other\\ states\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ measure\\ up\\ to\\ our\\ standard\\ of\\ democracy\\.\\ Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ hands\\ dirty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ not\\ complete\\ pacifists\\ or\\ even\\ complete\\ isolationists\\.\\ They\\ realized\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ need\\ to\\ protect\\ ourselves\\.\\ FDR\\ was\\ Jeffersonian\\.\\ This\\ thought\\ served\\ us\\ fairly\\ well\\ in\\ both\\ WW\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ We\\ delayed\\ putting\\ our\\ own\\ forces\\ at\\ risk\\,\\ delayed\\ even\\ entering\\ the\\ war\\ until\\ the\\ end\\.\\ Started\\ in\\ pacific\\ in\\ 37\\,\\ in\\ Europe\\ in\\ 39\\,\\ and\\ we\\ got\\ in\\ in\\ 41\\,\\ but\\ still\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ put\\ our\\ troops\\ on\\ the\\ continent\\ of\\ Europe\\ until\\ 43\\,\\ after\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ all\\ exhausted\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ tipped\\ the\\ balance\\ and\\ presided\\ over\\ the\\ spoils\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motto\\ was\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;keep\\ the\\ ships\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ in\\ to\\ fewer\\ fights\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ make\\ the\\ Louisiana\\ Purchase\\,\\ but\\ that\\ was\\ so\\ farmers\\ had\\ more\\ room\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ was\\ to\\ back\\ off\\ and\\ allow\\ the\\ two\\ superpowers\\,\\ Brittan\\ and\\ France\\,\\ to\\ balance\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ find\\ people\\ who\\ vote\\ republican\\ who\\ are\\ Jeffersonians\\,\\ look\\ libertarian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ CATO\\ institute\\.\\ And\\ then\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Party\\.\\ Every\\ since\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ war\\,\\ pro\\ equality\\ at\\ home\\,\\ anti\\ war\\ abroad\\.\\ The\\ quintessential\\ Jeffersonian\\ was\\ George\\ McGovern\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Come\\ home\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 2000\\,\\ it\\ was\\ Ralph\\ Nader\\.\\ In\\ 2004\\,\\ the\\ Dems\\ had\\ quite\\ a\\ few\\.\\ The\\ only\\ overtly\\ non\\ Jeffersonian\\ in\\ the\\ Dem\\ primary\\ was\\ Joe\\ Lieberman\\,\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ fold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kerry\\ was\\ strongly\\ against\\ war\\ intervention\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Vietnam\\,\\ even\\ Gulf\\ War\\ I\\.\\ He\\ worked\\ hard\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ to\\ oppose\\ Reagan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ to\\ spread\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Central\\ America\\.\\ He\\ voted\\ against\\ the\\ Defense\\ spending\\.\\ When\\ we\\ ran\\ for\\ President\\,\\ he\\ concealed\\ his\\ tendencies\\.\\ In\\ doing\\ so\\ we\\ appeared\\ false\\,\\ and\\ with\\ good\\ reason\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ hyper\\ Jeffersonian\\ today\\ is\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\:\\ thinks\\ our\\ elections\\ are\\ a\\ manufactured\\ consensus\\.\\ Condemns\\ all\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wilsonians\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spread\\ our\\ democratic\\ values\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hamiltonians\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ world\\ safe\\ for\\ American\\ interests\\.\\ Wilsonians\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ world\\ safe\\ for\\ American\\ values\\,\\ which\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ American\\ but\\ are\\ universal\\ values\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\ The\\ primary\\ carrier\\ were\\ the\\ Christian\\ missionaries\\ who\\ took\\ American\\ values\\ and\\ spread\\ them\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wilson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ announced\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ to\\ spread\\ democracy\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ end\\ world\\ itself\\.\\ Through\\ his\\ fourteen\\ points\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;foreswear\\ forever\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ war\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\President\\ Clinton\\ intervened\\ in\\ Haiti\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ rights\\.\\ \\(Clueless\\)\\ Bosnia\\,\\ to\\ protect\\ he\\ human\\ rights\\ of\\ Bosnians\\.\\ Albanians\\.\\ Carter\\ tried\\ to\\ spread\\ human\\ rights\\ in\\ south\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ronald\\ Reagan\\ took\\ a\\ strong\\ stance\\ against\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;evil\\ empire\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Bush\\ senior\\ intervened\\ in\\ panama\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\President\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\ has\\ adopted\\ a\\ strong\\ strain\\ of\\ Wilsonian\\ foreign\\ policy\\ since\\ Iraq\\,\\ after\\ the\\ WMD\\&rsquo\\;s\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ up\\.\\ He\\ started\\ using\\ vintage\\ Wilsonian\\ language\\.\\ In\\ November\\ 2003\\,\\ he\\ spoke\\ t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ free\\ Iraq\\,\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ easy\\,\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ watershed\\ event\\ in\\ the\\&hellip\\;adopted\\ a\\ new\\ strategy\\.\\ The\\ advance\\ of\\ freedom\\ leads\\ to\\ peace\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ calling\\ of\\ our\\ time\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ President\\ George\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\ a\\ Wilsonian\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norton\\ Lecture\\ Hall\\ in\\ the\\ Fogg\\ Museum\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 15\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bush\\ declaring\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ spread\\ democracy\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ easy\\ seemed\\ Wilsonian\\.\\ \\(spread\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\)\\ His\\ father\\ was\\ Wilsonian\\,\\ but\\ now\\ W\\ seems\\ more\\ jacksonian\\ because\\ he\\ uses\\ military\\ force\\ to\\ spread\\ democracy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ paper\\ assignment\\ on\\ the\\ website\\:\\ apply\\ Mead\\ to\\ the\\ two\\ documents\\ we\\ read\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\.\\ 1997\\ NSC\\ something\\.\\ NS\\ 68\\.\\ perhaps\\ links\\ to\\ neo\\ con\\ but\\ not\\ completely\\.\\ They\\ are\\ still\\ competing\\ with\\ Mead\\&rsquo\\;s\\ classifications\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacksonian\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ those\\ who\\ generally\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ concerned\\ with\\ spreading\\ American\\ values\\.\\ They\\ usually\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ concerned\\ with\\ spreading\\ American\\ economic\\ interests\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacksonian\\ are\\ not\\ identified\\ primarily\\ by\\ what\\ they\\ believe\\ but\\ through\\ their\\ place\\ of\\ birth\\ in\\ America\\.\\ And\\ they\\ are\\ identified\\ by\\ their\\ willingness\\ to\\ fight\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ homeland\\ and\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ feel\\ any\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ things\\ abroad\\.\\ They\\ are\\ suspicious\\ of\\ the\\ elitists\\ Hamiltonians\\ and\\ the\\ concoctions\\ they\\ come\\ up\\ with\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\They\\ trust\\ something\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ American\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ demands\\ on\\ other\\ countries\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stand\\ to\\ allow\\ other\\ nations\\ to\\ challenge\\ us\\.\\ Jacksonians\\ have\\ no\\ problem\\ using\\ overwhelming\\ force\\ on\\ other\\ nations\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ asking\\ for\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Drop\\ the\\ bomb\\ on\\ Japan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ attacked\\ us\\ on\\ Sunday\\ morning\\ unprovoked\\.\\ Firebomb\\ dresdin\\?\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ nazi\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\\\Jacksonians\\ are\\ not\\ imperialists\\.\\ After\\ we\\ took\\ down\\ Germany\\ and\\ Japan\\,\\ we\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ them\\,\\ just\\ keep\\ them\\ off\\ our\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risking\\ American\\ lives\\ for\\ humanitarian\\ reasons\\ and\\ placing\\ Americans\\ under\\ U\\.N\\.\\ command\\ and\\ making\\ us\\ wear\\ those\\ helmets\\ his\\ hateful\\ to\\ jacksonians\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ weak\\ responses\\ of\\ Clinton\\ and\\ Carter\\ are\\ unacceptable\\.\\ These\\ sensibilities\\ are\\ attributed\\ to\\ our\\ early\\ times\\ as\\ a\\ frontier\\ country\\ where\\ the\\ men\\ had\\ to\\ arm\\ themselves\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ families\\ from\\ all\\ the\\ threats\\.\\ And\\ when\\ they\\ Indians\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fight\\ by\\ our\\ code\\ they\\ felt\\ justified\\ in\\ ruthlessly\\ wiping\\ them\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jackson\\ lived\\ his\\ personal\\ life\\ by\\ the\\ strictest\\ code\\ of\\ honor\\.\\ Jackson\\ challenged\\ Dickenson\\ to\\ a\\ dual\\ and\\ killed\\ him\\ after\\ being\\ wounded\\ because\\ Dickenson\\ insulted\\ his\\ wife\\.\\ He\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;freedom\\ and\\ violence\\ were\\ inextricably\\ intertwined\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ truly\\ democratic\\ president\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ President\\ elected\\ by\\ all\\ males\\ whether\\ they\\ had\\ property\\ or\\ not\\.\\ He\\ is\\ still\\ honored\\ as\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ democratic\\ party\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacksonians\\ today\\:\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primarily\\ being\\ carried\\ forward\\ by\\ portions\\ of\\ the\\ populous\\ in\\ heartland\\ America\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ south\\,\\ Midwest\\,\\ south\\ west\\.\\ They\\ link\\ this\\ belief\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ military\\ service\\.\\ They\\ base\\ their\\ belief\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Tribe\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ anglo\\ European\\ heritage\\ and\\ their\\ \\ \\;current\\ protestant\\ beliefs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ Bush\\ Jacksonian\\?\\ Mead\\ worried\\ about\\ how\\ his\\ book\\ would\\ apply\\ post\\ 9\\-11\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ in\\ his\\ afterward\\ that\\ the\\ four\\ class\\ system\\ would\\ still\\ work\\.\\ 911\\ did\\ not\\ alter\\ the\\ overall\\ structure\\ of\\ AFP\\.\\ They\\ classes\\ still\\ played\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\.\\ Terrorism\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ war\\ but\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ respond\\ to\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ old\\ as\\ the\\ Republic\\ itself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mead\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ mention\\ NeoCons\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ have\\ existed\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ thought\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ influence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Vietnam\\,\\ the\\ Dems\\ Party\\ became\\ mostly\\ a\\ Jeffersonian\\ party\\.\\ McGovern\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Come\\ Home\\ America\\.\\ Those\\ dems\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ forward\\ struggle\\ against\\ communism\\ sometimes\\ became\\ Republican\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ the\\ south\\.\\ But\\ outside\\ the\\ south\\,\\ dems\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ GOP\\ formed\\ their\\ own\\ forward\\ leaning\\ wing\\ of\\ the\\ Dems\\,\\ lead\\ by\\ Scoop\\ Jackson\\.\\ He\\ called\\ for\\ confrontation\\ and\\ containment\\ not\\ appeasement\\.\\ They\\ were\\ cold\\ war\\ Neo\\ conservatives\\ who\\ were\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ even\\ the\\ Ford\\ and\\ Nixon\\ policies\\.\\ Richard\\ Pearle\\ was\\ Jackson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assistant\\ in\\ the\\ senate\\ and\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ leading\\ post\\ cold\\ war\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ Jean\\ Kirkpatrick\\ became\\ a\\ neocon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ agenda\\ collapse\\ when\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ collapsed\\ and\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ was\\ won\\.\\ They\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ an\\ evil\\ empire\\ to\\ struggle\\ against\\.\\ The\\ went\\ into\\ eclipse\\ during\\ the\\ Clinton\\ admin\\.\\ But\\ a\\ younger\\ generation\\ arose\\ and\\ like\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ American\\ power\\ was\\ unchecked\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ it\\ that\\ way\\ and\\ exploit\\ it\\ for\\ positive\\ purposes\\.\\ Hegemonic\\ neo\\ cons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ urge\\ to\\ extend\\ our\\ authority\\ was\\ encouraged\\ by\\ the\\ quick\\ and\\ easy\\ victory\\ against\\ Iraq\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ nineties\\.\\ They\\ said\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ pull\\ back\\ and\\ cut\\ back\\ our\\ military\\ but\\ to\\ push\\ forward\\ and\\ ensure\\ continued\\ dominance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ was\\ to\\ prevent\\ other\\ countires\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ our\\ allies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ as\\ dependant\\ as\\ our\\ enemies\\ on\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ our\\ military\\.\\ If\\ we\\ had\\ so\\ much\\ they\\ could\\ never\\ catch\\ up\\ hopefully\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ bother\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ Bush\\ admin\\ repudiated\\ the\\ document\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ leaked\\ to\\ the\\ NYT\\.\\ It\\ seemed\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ turned\\ back\\.\\ If\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ foreign\\ policy\\ appointments\\,\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ neo\\ cons\\.\\ They\\ went\\ to\\ holdovers\\ from\\ Bush\\ I\\.\\ VP\\ Dick\\ Cheney\\ was\\ not\\ neo\\ con\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ been\\ Sec\\ of\\ Defense\\.\\ Condi\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ cold\\ war\\ realist\\.\\ Powell\\ had\\ been\\ more\\ Wilsonian\\ than\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ Rumsfeld\\ had\\ actually\\ been\\ Sec\\.\\ of\\ Defense\\ in\\ 1975\\ under\\ Ford\\ when\\ they\\ pursued\\ a\\ relaxation\\ of\\ tensions\\ with\\ Russia\\.\\ He\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ a\\ missile\\ defense\\ but\\ not\\ regime\\ change\\.\\ Powell\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ with\\ a\\ significant\\ military\\ record\\ but\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ reluctant\\ to\\ use\\ military\\ force\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neo\\ Con\\&rsquo\\;s\\ got\\ some\\ appointments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ all\\ second\\ tier\\.\\ Paul\\ Wolfowitz\\ at\\ Defense\\.\\ Doug\\ Fieth\\.\\ Richard\\ Pearle\\ on\\ the\\ Defense\\ Policy\\ Board\\.\\ So\\ they\\ were\\ there\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ control\\.\\ Elliot\\ Abrams\\ on\\ NSC\\.\\ Steve\\ Hadly\\ the\\ deputy\\ to\\ Condi\\.\\ VP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chief\\ of\\ staff\\ was\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\ but\\ the\\ VP\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ Out\\ of\\ three\\ thousand\\ nominees\\,\\ having\\ six\\ or\\ eight\\ appointments\\ scattered\\ across\\ the\\ second\\ tier\\ was\\ not\\ take\\ over\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ carry\\ much\\ weight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Project\\ for\\ a\\ New\\ American\\ Century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ promoting\\ neo\\ con\\ agenda\\ \\(think\\ tank\\)\\.\\ Conspiracy\\ theories\\ say\\ that\\ they\\ run\\ the\\ WH\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ There\\ are\\ plenty\\ of\\ Wilsonian\\ and\\ Jeffersonian\\ foundations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ finally\\ gave\\ the\\ neo\\ con\\ movement\\ real\\ power\\ was\\ 911\\.\\ The\\ shocking\\ terror\\ attacks\\ on\\ U\\.S\\.\\ soil\\.\\ It\\ does\\ seem\\ true\\ that\\ Cheney\\ was\\ transformed\\ from\\ a\\ traditional\\ foreign\\ policy\\ official\\ into\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ Some\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ spent\\ too\\ much\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ bunker\\ after\\ 911\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ was\\ still\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ they\\ first\\ talked\\ about\\ regime\\ change\\ in\\ Iraq\\,\\ everyone\\ said\\ no\\.\\ Powell\\ got\\ together\\ with\\ Gen\\ Shelton\\ and\\ Andy\\ Card\\.\\ Wolfowitz\\ pitched\\ the\\ idea\\ to\\ the\\ President\\ at\\ camp\\ David\\ and\\ he\\ told\\ Andy\\ Card\\ to\\ get\\ Wolfowitz\\ under\\ control\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bush\\ himself\\ branded\\ the\\ attackers\\ the\\ evil\\ doers\\.\\ No\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ crime\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Woodward\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ said\\ that\\ Cofer\\ Black\\,\\ a\\ CIA\\ briefer\\ said\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ it\\ but\\ people\\ will\\ die\\,\\ even\\ Americans\\.\\ Bush\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;well\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ war\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ A\\ classic\\ Jacksonian\\ moment\\.\\ And\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ finished\\,\\ Al\\ Qaeda\\ will\\ have\\ flies\\ walking\\ on\\ their\\ eye\\ balls\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ was\\ then\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ flies\\ on\\ the\\ eye\\ balls\\ guy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ neo\\ cons\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ power\\ until\\ we\\ conquered\\ Afghanistan\\ in\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ days\\.\\ The\\ combination\\ of\\ new\\ technology\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ conquer\\ the\\ Taliban\\ with\\ almost\\ zero\\ casualties\\.\\ We\\ lost\\ more\\ journalist\\ than\\ soldiers\\ in\\ the\\ initial\\ stages\\.\\ If\\ we\\ could\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ Afghanistan\\,\\ we\\ could\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ Iraq\\.\\ We\\ will\\ be\\ greeted\\ as\\ liberators\\ like\\ in\\ Afghanistan\\.\\ Collateral\\ damage\\ would\\ be\\ minimal\\ too\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ said\\ no\\,\\ like\\ Powell\\,\\ ran\\ out\\ of\\ arguments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Bush\\&rsquo\\;s\\ SOTU\\ we\\ would\\ wage\\ a\\ more\\ global\\ struggle\\ against\\ axis\\ of\\ evil\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ evil\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ connections\\ between\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ neo\\ cons\\ and\\ the\\ hegemonic\\ neo\\ cons\\ of\\ today\\.\\ Where\\ does\\ their\\ obsession\\ with\\ evil\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Wilsonians\\ tend\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ good\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ neo\\ cons\\ tend\\ to\\ obsess\\ about\\ the\\ omnipresence\\ of\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ good\\ that\\ God\\ can\\ do\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ evil\\ that\\ will\\ triumph\\ otherwise\\.\\ Richard\\ Pearle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\:\\ The\\ End\\ of\\ Evil\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ said\\ we\\ should\\ take\\ out\\ the\\ regimes\\ in\\ Iran\\ and\\ North\\ Korea\\ and\\ punish\\ France\\ if\\ they\\ get\\ in\\ the\\ way\\.\\ He\\ attributes\\ their\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;evil\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ holocaust\\ for\\ neo\\ con\\ jews\\.\\ For\\ neo\\ con\\ Christians\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ Biblical\\ teaching\\.\\ He\\ compares\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ Mel\\ Gibson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ focus\\ on\\ evil\\ in\\ The\\ Passion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ neo\\ conservative\\ Judeo\\ Christians\\ targeted\\ the\\ third\\ major\\ religion\\,\\ Islam\\.\\ They\\ enlisted\\ Lewis\\,\\ who\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ hated\\ the\\ West\\,\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ done\\ but\\ because\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ compete\\.\\ If\\ they\\ can\\,\\ they\\ will\\ destroy\\ us\\ so\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ stop\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ 911\\,\\ more\\ traditional\\ Hamilton\\ people\\ bought\\ into\\ the\\ Lewis\\ stuff\\ \\.Rove\\ had\\ him\\ into\\ the\\ WH\\ and\\ Cheney\\ read\\ his\\ book\\.\\ If\\ we\\ toppled\\ regimes\\ and\\ installed\\ democracies\\,\\ we\\ could\\ gain\\ traction\\ in\\ the\\ region\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ meet\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\ on\\ the\\ street\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ honest\\:\\ I\\ wish\\ we\\ could\\,\\ but\\ we\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ been\\ successful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 17\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realism\\:\\ why\\ does\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\ sometimes\\ go\\ introverted\\ and\\ sometimes\\ extroverted\\?\\ Why\\ pursue\\ property\\ rights\\ and\\ then\\ human\\ rights\\?\\ Why\\ the\\ fluctuations\\?\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ what\\ is\\ distinctive\\ about\\ America\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ learn\\ what\\ is\\ distinctive\\ about\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ theory\\ says\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ exceptional\\ about\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ Others\\ would\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ in\\ our\\ place\\.\\ If\\ we\\ moved\\ the\\ CIA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realists\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ deep\\ fundamental\\ assumptions\\:\\ 1\\.\\ Human\\ nature\\ is\\ flawed\\.\\ We\\ are\\ a\\ greedy\\ species\\.\\ Not\\ all\\ individuals\\ but\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ difference\\.\\ 2\\.\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ world\\ government\\ yet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ think\\ they\\ can\\ predict\\ foreign\\ policy\\ decisions\\ of\\ other\\ states\\.\\ When\\ they\\ choose\\ allies\\ they\\ will\\ balance\\ rather\\ than\\ bandwagon\\.\\ When\\ they\\ make\\ an\\ alliance\\,\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ with\\ the\\ weaker\\ state\\ than\\ the\\ strong\\ state\\.\\ They\\ will\\ balance\\ the\\ power\\ rather\\ than\\ bandwagon\\ the\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ makes\\ sense\\ if\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ what\\ happens\\ in\\ each\\ situation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Poland\\ tried\\ to\\ bandwagon\\ with\\ Germany\\ against\\ Chzeck\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ balancing\\ against\\ them\\.\\ Given\\ these\\ well\\ known\\ risks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ expected\\ that\\ the\\ weak\\ will\\ balance\\ against\\ the\\ strong\\ and\\ the\\ result\\ is\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ have\\ countries\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ 10\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 4\\,\\ 3\\,\\ and\\ 2\\.\\ The\\ 5\\ and\\ 4\\ balance\\ against\\ the\\ 10\\,\\ which\\ the\\ 2\\ then\\ joins\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ purpose\\ in\\ fighting\\ a\\ war\\ is\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ how\\ powerful\\ the\\ other\\ state\\ is\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ these\\ systemic\\ realists\\ use\\ theoretical\\ approach\\ to\\ predict\\ US\\ policy\\,\\ how\\ successful\\ are\\ they\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Waltz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;theory\\ of\\ international\\ politics\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ to\\ continue\\ as\\ allies\\ after\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Germany\\.\\ They\\ predicted\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ become\\ rivals\\ and\\ balance\\ against\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ prompted\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ was\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;invisible\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ balance\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NSC\\ 68\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ USSR\\ was\\ weaker\\ than\\ us\\,\\ so\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ predicted\\ that\\ others\\ would\\ join\\ the\\ weaker\\ power\\.\\ But\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\.\\ The\\ secondary\\ states\\ joined\\ the\\ strong\\ state\\ against\\ the\\ weaker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ USSR\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ failure\\ to\\ predict\\,\\ not\\ the\\ US\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ but\\ the\\ foreign\\ policy\\ of\\ the\\ secondary\\ states\\.\\ Attempts\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ less\\ ridged\\ realists\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ these\\ anomalies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ is\\ threatening\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ next\\ to\\ you\\ or\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ hostile\\ intent\\.\\ When\\ it\\ is\\ across\\ the\\ ocean\\ and\\ friendly\\ it\\ is\\ less\\ threatening\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ America\\ posed\\ a\\ better\\ option\\ for\\ alliance\\ than\\ Stalin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Soviet\\ Union\\.\\ It\\ not\\ only\\ helps\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ small\\ countries\\ close\\ to\\ USSR\\ allied\\ with\\ us\\ and\\ why\\ Cuba\\ allied\\ with\\ USSR\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mearsheimer\\ argued\\ that\\ with\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\,\\ America\\ would\\ no\\ long\\ need\\ NATO\\ or\\ need\\ troops\\ in\\ Germany\\,\\ so\\ we\\ would\\ pull\\ out\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\ With\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ down\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ gone\\ the\\ newly\\ reunited\\ Germany\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ new\\ European\\ power\\,\\ which\\ would\\ trigger\\ an\\ alliance\\ of\\ Germany\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ France\\ and\\ the\\ UK\\ both\\ had\\ nukes\\,\\ their\\ balance\\ against\\ Germany\\ would\\ threaten\\ Germany\\,\\ which\\ would\\ then\\ seek\\ Nukes\\ as\\ well\\.\\ This\\ would\\ then\\ threaten\\ UK\\ and\\ France\\ who\\ would\\ then\\ launch\\ an\\ attack\\,\\ repeated\\ WWII\\.\\ The\\ solution\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ US\\ to\\ just\\ give\\ nukes\\ to\\ Germany\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ they\\ were\\ wrong\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ stayed\\,\\ UK\\ and\\ France\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ threatened\\,\\ NATO\\ expanded\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ application\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\ seemed\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ but\\ was\\ just\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Waltz\\ wrote\\ an\\ article\\ about\\ the\\ emerging\\ structure\\:\\ Germany\\ would\\ move\\ toward\\ Russia\\ etc\\.\\ UK\\ toward\\ Japan\\.\\ But\\ instead\\ Germany\\ and\\ Russian\\ have\\ both\\ moved\\ toward\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wrote\\ a\\ book\\ called\\ the\\ End\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Era\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ got\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ US\\ wrong\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Favorite\\:\\ Charles\\ Krauthammer\\:\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Unapolar\\ Moment\\:\\ Fifteen\\ year\\ moment\\ in\\ 1990\\ we\\ spent\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ next\\ six\\ states\\ combined\\.\\ In\\ 2000\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ next\\ 12\\,\\ and\\ now\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ rest\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realists\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ different\\ now\\ because\\ of\\ nukes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ measure\\ in\\ defense\\ spending\\.\\ They\\ have\\ chosen\\ to\\ balance\\ using\\ asymmetric\\ tactics\\.\\ They\\ have\\ sought\\ or\\ acquired\\ terrorist\\ weapons\\ of\\ mass\\ destruction\\ that\\ neutralize\\ our\\ conventional\\ forces\\.\\ In\\ Iraq\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ army\\ that\\ gave\\ us\\ trouble\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ asymmetric\\ tactics\\ of\\ the\\ insurgents\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\China\\ is\\ doing\\ its\\ best\\ to\\ balance\\ against\\ us\\.\\ Balancing\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ taken\\ place\\ against\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ who\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ try\\?\\ China\\,\\ Japan\\,\\ Germany\\,\\ Russia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ before\\ they\\ could\\ challenge\\ us\\ they\\ would\\ poise\\ an\\ unacceptable\\ threat\\ against\\ its\\ more\\ proximate\\ neighbors\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ accident\\ of\\ geography\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ maintain\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ primacy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maybe\\ what\\ makes\\ US\\ primacy\\ acceptable\\ to\\ rivals\\ is\\ not\\ geographical\\ location\\ but\\ benign\\ intentions\\ of\\ us\\ to\\ those\\ potential\\ rivals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ seeking\\ an\\ empire\\.\\ We\\ are\\ seeking\\ regime\\ change\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ Berlin\\ or\\ Moscow\\ or\\ Beijing\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ Kabul\\ and\\ Baghdad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ pursuit\\ of\\ primacy\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ our\\ rivals\\ will\\ complain\\ about\\ out\\ of\\ envy\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ oppose\\ out\\ of\\ national\\ pride\\ but\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ threaten\\ them\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ worth\\ competing\\ with\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ better\\ ways\\ to\\ explain\\ it\\.\\ Our\\ future\\ explanations\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ at\\ systemic\\ explanations\\ but\\ a\\ sub\\-systemic\\ explanation\\ of\\ pairs\\ of\\ states\\.\\ Join\\ democratic\\ or\\ not\\.\\ Either\\ both\\,\\ none\\,\\ or\\ on\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ other\\.\\ They\\ now\\ say\\ you\\ can\\ predict\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ one\\ state\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ other\\ state\\ in\\ the\\ dyad\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ a\\ democratic\\ state\\ or\\ a\\ non\\ democratic\\ state\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ totally\\ internal\\,\\ not\\ totally\\ systemic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 22\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ make\\ systemic\\ realism\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ needed\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ messy\\.\\ Use\\ balance\\ of\\ threat\\ versus\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ democratic\\ Peace\\ Theory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bruce\\ Russet\\:\\ The\\ foreign\\ policy\\ relationships\\ that\\ democratic\\ states\\ have\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ do\\ not\\ conform\\ to\\ expectations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ a\\ war\\ between\\ two\\ democratic\\ states\\.\\ The\\ most\\ important\\ fact\\ of\\ our\\ time\\:\\ democracies\\ never\\ wage\\ war\\ against\\ democracies\\.\\ Among\\ these\\ democracies\\,\\ a\\ zone\\ of\\ democratic\\ peace\\ has\\ emerged\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ theory\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ who\\ has\\ more\\ power\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ matter\\ is\\ if\\ one\\ or\\ both\\ have\\ democratic\\ government\\.\\ Bush\\ has\\ embraced\\ this\\ theme\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ spreading\\ freedom\\ and\\ democracy\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ those\\ newly\\ freed\\ societies\\ but\\ will\\ also\\ pacify\\ those\\ states\\ as\\ they\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ European\\ leaders\\ must\\ be\\ as\\ baffled\\ now\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ by\\ Wilson\\ after\\ WWII\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\/why\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Promoting\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ democracy\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ misdirected\\ idealism\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\-headed\\ realism\\.\\ Natan\\ Scharansky\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Palestinians\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ negotiated\\ with\\ until\\ they\\ elect\\ their\\ leadership\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fact\\ that\\ democracies\\ have\\ never\\ fought\\ against\\ each\\ other\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Grasping\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Peace\\,\\ book\\ by\\ Bruce\\ Russet\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\:\\ a\\ political\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ positions\\ in\\ government\\ are\\ elected\\ in\\ competitive\\,\\ cyclical\\ elections\\ in\\ which\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ adult\\ population\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\War\\:\\ a\\ violent\\ conflict\\ between\\ two\\ states\\ in\\ which\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ thousand\\ people\\ die\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ counts\\ the\\ pairs\\ of\\ countries\\ who\\ could\\ have\\ fought\\ each\\ other\\ as\\ a\\ potential\\ war\\.\\ He\\ calls\\ them\\ politically\\ relevant\\ inter\\-state\\ dyads\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ Table\\ 2\\.1\\ from\\ Russett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\.\\ No\\ wars\\ between\\ two\\ democratic\\ states\\.\\ It\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ Mac\\ peace\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ democratic\\ peace\\.\\ Serbia\\ brought\\ that\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ tried\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ other\\ characteristics\\ that\\ might\\ also\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ income\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ formal\\ diplomatic\\ relations\\ etc\\.\\ Democratic\\ peace\\ still\\ holds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ states\\ wage\\ war\\ just\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ He\\ does\\ not\\ rely\\ on\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;democracies\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ to\\ fight\\&rdquo\\;\\ hypothesis\\.\\ He\\ offers\\ two\\ different\\ explanations\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Cultural\\ normative\\ explanation\\:\\ violent\\ conflict\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ rejected\\ as\\ an\\ acceptable\\ way\\ to\\ resolve\\ disputes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2000\\ Presidential\\ Elections\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ During\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ when\\ either\\ could\\ have\\ claimed\\ victory\\,\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ assassinated\\,\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ arrested\\,\\ no\\ violence\\ erupted\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\He\\ says\\ that\\ a\\ peaceful\\ culture\\ tends\\ to\\ result\\ from\\ a\\ democratic\\ state\\.\\ When\\ a\\ democratic\\ state\\ meets\\ another\\ in\\ world\\ affairs\\,\\ that\\ peaceful\\ culture\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ extend\\ to\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Would\\ threaten\\ North\\ Korea\\ but\\ not\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Structural\\ Institutional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Violent\\ conflict\\ is\\ rare\\ because\\ decisions\\ to\\ engage\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ taken\\ quickly\\ or\\ secretly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democratic\\ dyads\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ prone\\ to\\ violence\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ easily\\ able\\ to\\ launch\\ sudden\\ surprise\\ attacks\\.\\ The\\ decision\\ to\\ initiate\\ an\\ attack\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ person\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ power\\ or\\ institutions\\ that\\ matter\\ most\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ values\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Peace\\ explains\\ the\\ puzzle\\ of\\ post\\ WWII\\ Europe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ France\\ and\\ Germany\\ sided\\ with\\ us\\ not\\ Russia\\.\\ Unified\\ Germany\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ balanced\\ against\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ a\\ democracy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Democratic\\ peace\\ clock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1900\\ no\\ democracies\\ on\\ earth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ US\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ women\\ or\\ blacks\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ Midnight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1950\\,\\ fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ population\\ lived\\ under\\ democracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ was\\ 3\\:43\\ AM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 2000\\,\\ 58\\.2\\ percent\\ of\\ world\\ population\\ lived\\ under\\ democracy\\:\\ 6\\:59\\ AM\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sunrise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\High\\ noon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ be\\ at\\ peace\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ democratic\\ peace\\ theory\\ comes\\ close\\ to\\ predicting\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ conduct\\ a\\ hegemonic\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ Taking\\ out\\ rogue\\ governments\\ accelerates\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ democracies\\ and\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ threaten\\ other\\ democratic\\ allies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ to\\ try\\ this\\ was\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ create\\ a\\ league\\ of\\ nations\\ that\\ would\\ incorporate\\ and\\ spread\\ democratic\\ values\\.\\ Got\\ into\\ trouble\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ next\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ elevate\\ democracy\\ was\\ Clinton\\?\\ Democratic\\ Enlargement\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ suddenly\\ found\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ crises\\ that\\ went\\ way\\ beyond\\ lacking\\ democratic\\ states\\.\\ He\\ they\\ pursued\\ peacekeeping\\ and\\ humanitarian\\ efforts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Each\\ of\\ these\\ three\\ countries\\ had\\ something\\ that\\ Iraq\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Germany\\ had\\ former\\ democracy\\.\\ Japan\\ was\\ ethnically\\ homogenous\\ and\\ panama\\ was\\ surrounded\\ by\\ democracies\\ or\\ soon\\ to\\ be\\ democracies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 24\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kissinger\\ told\\ Bush\\ that\\ Putin\\ would\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;none\\ of\\ your\\ business\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ then\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ do\\ democracy\\ our\\ own\\ way\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critique\\ of\\ Systemic\\ Theories\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Peace\\ see\\ US\\ as\\ oldest\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Systemic\\ realist\\ see\\ US\\ as\\ regular\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neither\\ see\\ US\\ as\\ exceptional\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Huntington\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ ideology\\ or\\ nationalism\\ that\\ will\\ divide\\ the\\ world\\ post\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ collapse\\.\\ It\\ will\\ be\\ culture\\.\\ Using\\ language\\ and\\ religion\\,\\ Huntington\\ divided\\ the\\ world\\ into\\ six\\ categories\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ West\\:\\ Protestant\\ and\\ Catholic\\ Christianity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavic\\:\\ orthodox\\ Christianity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Islamic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hindu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Japanese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Huntington\\ puts\\ Latin\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ because\\ its\\ languages\\ are\\ European\\ and\\ its\\ religion\\ Catholic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Africa\\ was\\ a\\ little\\ harder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ why\\ are\\ these\\ divisions\\ more\\ important\\ since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\?\\ Because\\ nationalism\\ is\\ much\\ diminished\\ influence\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ EU\\ and\\ globalization\\.\\ State\\ divisions\\ were\\ artificially\\ constructions\\ anyway\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ over\\ the\\ world\\ people\\ are\\ modernizing\\.\\ Just\\ because\\ people\\ in\\ Russia\\ like\\ MacDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ they\\ are\\ western\\.\\ Osama\\ Bin\\ Laden\\ uses\\ a\\ computer\\ and\\ cell\\ phone\\ but\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ western\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ modern\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Huntington\\ even\\ saw\\ signs\\ in\\ what\\ he\\ called\\ an\\ Islamic\\/Confusion\\ connection\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ say\\ these\\ two\\ as\\ possibly\\ ganging\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ west\\:\\ China\\ sharing\\ technology\\ with\\ Iran\\ etc\\.\\ Huntington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advise\\ was\\ somewhat\\ Jeffersonian\\.\\ The\\ US\\ should\\ hunker\\ down\\ and\\ build\\ strong\\ ties\\ with\\ other\\ western\\ states\\ and\\ hope\\ you\\ can\\ hang\\ on\\.\\ The\\ west\\ against\\ the\\ rest\\.\\ This\\ was\\ in\\ 1993\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Has\\ world\\-wide\\ foreign\\ policy\\ developed\\ the\\ way\\ Huntington\\ predicted\\?\\ On\\ balance\\,\\ he\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ things\\ have\\ not\\ moved\\ in\\ this\\ direction\\.\\ An\\ example\\ he\\ invoked\\ was\\ the\\ Gulf\\ War\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ war\\ between\\ the\\ west\\ and\\ Islam\\.\\ But\\ it\\ started\\ by\\ an\\ Arab\\ state\\ invading\\ another\\ Arab\\ state\\.\\ The\\ coalition\\ that\\ we\\ put\\ together\\ included\\ Russia\\,\\ China\\,\\ India\\,\\ Japan\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Arab\\ and\\ Muslim\\ countries\\:\\ Egypt\\,\\ Syria\\ etc\\.\\ Hardly\\ a\\ clash\\ a\\ civilizations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ thought\\:\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ it\\ seem\\ that\\ as\\ we\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ pitched\\ battle\\ between\\ states\\ as\\ the\\ conflict\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ culture\\/religion\\/civilization\\ based\\ conflict\\ that\\ Huntington\\ was\\ right\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Back\\ to\\ him\\:\\ Even\\ 9\\/11\\ did\\ not\\ spark\\ a\\ clash\\ of\\ civilizations\\.\\ Osama\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ Muslim\\ nation\\ is\\ throwing\\ its\\ sons\\ at\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iraq\\:\\ foreign\\ policy\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ Israel\\ and\\ Palestine\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ hostile\\.\\ But\\ the\\ primary\\ protests\\ came\\ from\\ Europe\\.\\ The\\ opposition\\ in\\ the\\ UN\\ Security\\ Council\\ came\\ from\\ Europe\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ seeing\\ the\\ United\\ states\\ as\\ just\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ or\\ just\\ another\\ democracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ US\\ as\\ distinctive\\ and\\ exceptional\\.\\ How\\ is\\ it\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\?\\ West\\ says\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ different\\ because\\ our\\ identity\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ linked\\ to\\ a\\ traditional\\ homeland\\ or\\ a\\ language\\ or\\ a\\ culture\\.\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ any\\ of\\ those\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ descended\\ from\\ people\\ who\\ came\\ from\\ other\\ places\\.\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ our\\ own\\ language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ speak\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ England\\ or\\ Spain\\.\\ We\\ have\\ only\\ the\\ briefest\\ of\\ common\\ history\\.\\ Europeans\\ are\\ amused\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ impressed\\ with\\ landmarks\\ that\\ are\\ two\\ hundred\\ years\\ old\\.\\ Imagine\\ how\\ the\\ Chinese\\ and\\ Egyptians\\ feel\\ when\\ we\\ present\\ this\\ stuff\\ as\\ our\\ history\\.\\ We\\ have\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ culture\\ now\\ than\\ we\\ did\\ during\\ the\\ Revolution\\.\\ Then\\,\\ 98\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ were\\ protestant\\ Christians\\ and\\ 80\\%\\ were\\ British\\.\\ Even\\ then\\,\\ a\\ full\\ 20\\%\\ were\\ Africans\\.\\ Now\\,\\ after\\ two\\ centuries\\ and\\ waves\\ and\\ waves\\ of\\ immigration\\ from\\ non\\ English\\ speaking\\ cultures\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ cultural\\ identity\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 2\\,\\ 2005\\ \\(section\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ theories\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realism\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Democratic\\ Peace\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Clash\\ of\\ Civ\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Donnelly\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rummel\\ \\/\\ Ikenberry\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Huntington\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Type\\ of\\ theory\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;systemic\\/structural\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;normative\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;systemic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Institutional\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;unit\\:\\ culture\\/language\\/reli\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assumptions\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Unit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Level\\/unit\\ of\\ anal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;0\\ sum\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Variables\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;power\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;regime\\ type\\*\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;cultural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Level\\ of\\ threat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Balance\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Predictions\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;democ\\.\\ dyad\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;west\\ vs\\.\\ axis\\ \\(islam\\/confus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\=\\ no\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evidence\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lack\\ of\\ war\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Yugoslavia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prescriptions\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;democ\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;peace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Spread\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Says\\ what\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;maintain\\ preeminence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Prevent\\ balance\\ against\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;weather\\ storm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ define\\ war\\ and\\ define\\ democracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ argument\\ ensues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 3\\,\\ 2005\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Isolationism\\ and\\ Interventionism\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comes\\ from\\ geographic\\ separation\\ from\\ great\\ powers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ never\\ have\\ a\\ super\\ power\\ even\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ hemisphere\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ isolates\\ itself\\ from\\ superpower\\ alliances\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jeffersonian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ready\\ to\\ defend\\ the\\ nation\\ its\\ own\\ shores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\let\\ others\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ fight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cyclical\\ diplomatic\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\deep\\ intervention\\ onto\\ isolation\\ then\\ deep\\ intervention\\ then\\ isolation\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ timing\\ of\\ these\\ shifts\\ is\\ explain\\ by\\ Roskin\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rests\\ on\\ four\\ assumptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreign\\ policy\\ is\\ made\\ by\\ elites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ people\\ are\\ content\\ with\\ isolation\\ but\\ people\\ will\\ go\\ along\\ if\\ elites\\ say\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ elites\\ act\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ two\\ basic\\ paradigms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ define\\ national\\ defenses\\ protecting\\ North\\ American\\ boarders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\OR\\,\\ it\\ is\\ dangerous\\ to\\ not\\ protect\\ America\\ at\\ a\\ distance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ paradigm\\ you\\ believe\\ and\\ act\\ upon\\ depends\\ on\\ when\\ you\\ were\\ born\\.\\ These\\ generations\\ of\\ elites\\ will\\ replace\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ power\\ every\\ 20\\-30\\ years\\.\\ What\\ changes\\ the\\ generations\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ time\\ but\\ the\\ witnessing\\ of\\ a\\ foreign\\ policy\\ disaster\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\.\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ generation\\ given\\ to\\ interventionism\\.\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ generated\\ a\\ generation\\ of\\ isolationism\\.\\ 20\\-30\\ years\\ because\\ careers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ last\\ much\\ long\\ than\\ that\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ the\\ generation\\ will\\ eventually\\ over\\-apply\\ the\\ paradigm\\ and\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ mistake\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\ and\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ rising\\ generation\\.\\ That\\ seems\\ to\\ teach\\ the\\ opposite\\ lesson\\.\\ Relatively\\ simply\\ method\\ for\\ explaining\\ and\\ predicting\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intervention\\ until\\ 1919\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Versailles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isolationist\\ until\\ 1941\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intervention\\ until\\ 1968\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Vietnam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isolationist\\ until\\ 2001\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ September\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Vietnam\\ generation\\:\\ new\\ isolationist\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ started\\ by\\ Nixon\\ in\\ 1971\\,\\ who\\ started\\ pulling\\ out\\ and\\ appeasing\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confirming\\ Ruskin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\:\\ Hostage\\ situation\\:\\ sent\\ rescue\\ instead\\ of\\ invade\\ or\\ strike\\.\\ Carter\\ said\\ he\\ took\\ greatest\\ pride\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ combat\\ deaths\\ overseas\\ under\\ his\\ watch\\.\\ Jeffersonian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beirut\\:\\ Reagan\\ has\\ learned\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ either\\ win\\ or\\ get\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clinton\\ endured\\ tons\\ of\\ terrorist\\ attacks\\ and\\ all\\ he\\ did\\ is\\ blow\\ up\\ a\\ milk\\ factory\\ in\\ Sudan\\.\\ Jeffersonian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carter\\ Presidency\\ fits\\ the\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ generation\\,\\ but\\ Reagan\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\.\\ He\\ built\\ up\\ forces\\,\\ built\\ Star\\ Wars\\,\\ put\\ ballistic\\ missiles\\ in\\ Europe\\ etc\\.\\ But\\ he\\ was\\ old\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ was\\ an\\ impressionable\\ young\\ man\\ not\\ when\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ happened\\ but\\ when\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ happened\\.\\ He\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ generation\\.\\ Bush\\ too\\ was\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ generation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ enlisted\\ right\\ after\\ and\\ was\\ shot\\ down\\.\\ He\\ used\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ analogies\\ to\\ describe\\ Gulf\\ War\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hitler\\ to\\ Hussein\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clinton\\ \\(William\\ Jefferson\\)\\ was\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Viet\\ Nam\\.\\ He\\ worked\\ for\\ Fulbright\\ during\\ the\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ explanation\\:\\ partisanship\\.\\ Dems\\ are\\ isolationist\\ and\\ Republicans\\ are\\ interventionist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dems\\ got\\ us\\ into\\ VN\\ and\\ therefore\\ were\\ more\\ traumatized\\ by\\ the\\ mistake\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ went\\ the\\ other\\ way\\.\\ Republicans\\ were\\ not\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ seems\\ like\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ democrats\\ want\\ Iraq\\ to\\ be\\ disaster\\ to\\ prove\\ their\\ new\\ fearful\\ whiplash\\ from\\ Viet\\ name\\ correct\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 8\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exceptionalist\\ theories\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imperialism\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ form\\ of\\ capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sees\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ trade\\ abroad\\ as\\ primary\\ goal\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bacevich\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Hamiltonian\\ goal\\ of\\ opening\\ markets\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ then\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ persistent\\ even\\ predominant\\ trait\\ even\\ today\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Bacevich\\ argument\\ about\\ the\\ present\\ day\\ is\\ built\\ on\\ two\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\by\\ itself\\ the\\ internal\\ American\\ market\\ is\\ insufficient\\ to\\ maintain\\ sufficient\\ American\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ the\\ opening\\ of\\ markets\\ abroad\\ has\\ not\\ just\\ been\\ one\\ thrust\\ but\\ the\\ primary\\ thrust\\ of\\ our\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ does\\ not\\ approach\\ like\\ an\\ economist\\.\\ He\\ provides\\ mostly\\ testimonial\\ evidence\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ statements\\ from\\ officials\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ access\\ to\\ markets\\ abroad\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prosper\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sec\\.\\ of\\ state\\ also\\ say\\ that\\ human\\ rights\\ in\\ china\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ in\\ Africa\\ are\\ compelling\\ American\\ interests\\.\\ But\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ it\\ so\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paarlberg\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ opening\\ markets\\ is\\ a\\ distinctively\\ less\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ our\\ foreign\\ policy\\ compared\\ to\\ every\\ other\\ significant\\ economies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exported\\ \\%\\ of\\ GDP\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\:\\ 8\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Japan\\:\\ 10\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\China\\:\\ 20\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Germany\\:\\ 24\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thailand\\:\\ 55\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\%\\ of\\ our\\ economic\\ growth\\ over\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ resulted\\ from\\ the\\ increase\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ therefore\\ productivity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europe\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ done\\ well\\ in\\ productivity\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ undefended\\ research\\ and\\ development\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ the\\ EU\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\ is\\ about\\ out\\ size\\,\\ we\\ outstrip\\ them\\ by\\ 40\\%\\ r\\ and\\ d\\.\\ We\\ outstrip\\ Japan\\ 150\\%\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ markets\\ we\\ depend\\ on\\ are\\ import\\ not\\ export\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Talent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\foreign\\ capital\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ make\\ up\\ for\\ low\\ savings\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\foreign\\ energy\\ sources\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ oil\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ dependency\\ that\\ results\\ from\\ our\\ weakness\\ in\\ math\\ and\\ science\\.\\ Since\\ 1975\\ we\\ have\\ fallen\\ from\\ 3\\ to\\ 17\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ 18\\-24\\ year\\ olds\\ earning\\ math\\ and\\ science\\ degrees\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ math\\ and\\ science\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ foreign\\ born\\.\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ scientist\\ working\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ come\\ from\\ Europe\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ this\\ were\\ true\\,\\ we\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ employing\\ Jacksonian\\ defense\\ of\\ homeland\\ security\\.\\ We\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ making\\ immigration\\ so\\ difficult\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foreign\\ college\\ applications\\ are\\ way\\ down\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ dependence\\ on\\ oil\\ is\\ like\\ our\\ dependence\\ on\\ math\\ and\\ science\\ people\\ from\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Half\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ we\\ use\\ comes\\ from\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Paul\\:\\ He\\ wrote\\ the\\ essay\\ just\\ before\\ Iraq\\.\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ war\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ democracy\\ or\\ WMD\\ but\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ cartel\\ of\\ oil\\ companies\\.\\ Been\\ happening\\ since\\ FDR\\ met\\ with\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ Persia\\ in\\ 1940\\ something\\.\\ The\\ invasion\\ of\\ Iraq\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ reinserting\\ US\\ and\\ UK\\ oil\\ companies\\.\\ US\\ was\\ planning\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ puppet\\ government\\ that\\ would\\ give\\ us\\ generous\\ deals\\ on\\ Iraqi\\ oil\\.\\ Prediction\\:\\ a\\ US\\ government\\ in\\ Baghdad\\ would\\ tip\\ the\\ balance\\ toward\\ oil\\ companies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ actually\\ happened\\ was\\ less\\ sinister\\.\\ US\\ oil\\ companies\\ were\\ not\\ given\\ any\\ concessions\\.\\ All\\ the\\ oil\\ money\\ went\\ into\\ a\\ fund\\ to\\ rebuild\\ Iraq\\.\\ The\\ new\\ real\\ government\\ took\\ full\\ possession\\ and\\ control\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ use\\ for\\ building\\ palaces\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ the\\ Iraqi\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ offer\\ Saudi\\ Arabia\\ security\\ for\\ their\\ regime\\ and\\ oil\\ if\\ they\\ will\\ maintain\\ a\\ steady\\ flow\\ of\\ oil\\ into\\ our\\ country\\.\\ We\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worried\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ take\\ Saudi\\ Arabia\\ and\\ cut\\ off\\ oil\\ supply\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ then\\ gets\\ no\\ oil\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ worry\\ was\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ sell\\ it\\,\\ make\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ and\\ use\\ it\\ all\\ on\\ military\\ and\\ WMD\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\International\\ economic\\ needs\\ are\\ important\\ but\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ Hamiltonian\\ sense\\ of\\ us\\ needed\\ access\\ to\\ foreign\\ markets\\.\\ But\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ need\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ send\\ out\\ exports\\,\\ we\\ need\\ imports\\,\\ talent\\,\\ investment\\ and\\ oil\\.\\ We\\ should\\ not\\ go\\ neo\\ con\\,\\ but\\ into\\ cooperative\\ Wilsonianism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberalism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 9\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;American\\ Exceptionalism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Liberty\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;UN\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Human\\ Rights\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Generational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lipset\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Heinbecker\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Moravcsik\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Roskin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;shared\\ ideol\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Amer\\.\\ Diff\\ threat\\ percep\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;geop\\.\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Five\\ things\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;U\\.S\\.\\ except\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unilat\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Conserve\\.\\ Minor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;UN\\ unable\\ to\\ delta\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;extrm\\ stability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Decentralization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methods\\ \\ \\;\\ U\\.S\\.\\/Europe\\/Can\\.\\ Comp\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;look\\ at\\ us\\/un\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Preem\\/prev\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tests\\/evid\\.\\ \\ \\;Diff\\.\\ in\\ lib\\/cons\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;standards\\ for\\ interv\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implic\\.\\ \\ \\;Double\\-edged\\ sword\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 10\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Unilateralism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ common\\ charge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ consultation\\ with\\ Allies\\ was\\ very\\ important\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nixon\\ surprised\\ Japan\\ twice\\ in\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 71\\:\\ devalue\\ the\\ dollar\\ and\\ halt\\ the\\ conversion\\ of\\ dollar\\ into\\ gold\\ and\\ visit\\ China\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ result\\ of\\ these\\ shocks\\ was\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ Trilateral\\ Commission\\,\\ first\\ director\\ was\\ Zbigniew\\ Brzenzki\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Any\\ organization\\ that\\ uses\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;ethics\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;international\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ its\\ name\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ Wilsonian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inserted\\ exemptions\\ into\\ chemical\\ weapons\\ ban\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1999\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Senate\\ rejected\\ the\\ Nuclear\\ Test\\ Ban\\ Treaty\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ participate\\ in\\ international\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abandon\\ ABM\\ treaty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dobryanski\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Difference\\ in\\ unilateralism\\ \\(checked\\ only\\ by\\ appetites\\ and\\ armies\\)\\ and\\ leadership\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Iraq\\:\\ not\\ only\\ did\\ we\\ seek\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ international\\ community\\,\\ we\\ had\\ it\\.\\ UN\\ decries\\:\\ we\\ took\\ them\\ more\\ seriously\\ than\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ approve\\ Kyoto\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ cause\\ 4\\.9\\ million\\ jobs\\ lost\\,\\ hurt\\ us\\ and\\ rest\\ of\\ world\\ with\\ little\\ good\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\International\\ criminal\\ court\\:\\ our\\ stance\\ is\\ accurately\\ described\\ as\\ leadership\\.\\ We\\ have\\ made\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ support\\ law\\ around\\ world\\.\\ Therefore\\ we\\ are\\ most\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ mistreatment\\ by\\ others\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ at\\ us\\ for\\ imposing\\ law\\ previously\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dwain\\ Colefield\\ links\\ unilateralism\\ to\\ the\\ Jacksonian\\ Christian\\ right\\ that\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ trilateral\\ commission\\ is\\ the\\ antichrist\\ or\\ something\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ John\\ Kerry\\ said\\ Bush\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policy\\ failed\\ the\\ global\\ test\\:\\ When\\ our\\ country\\ is\\ in\\ danger\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ international\\ poll\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\ to\\ defend\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ least\\ demanding\\ form\\ of\\ multilateralism\\ is\\ consultation\\:\\ \\(warning\\ them\\ what\\ we\\ do\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ could\\ have\\ at\\ least\\ told\\ South\\ Korea\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ abandon\\ the\\ Sunshine\\ Project\\ \\(or\\ something\\)\\ to\\ save\\ him\\ the\\ embarrassment\\ of\\ finding\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ news\\.\\ Seems\\ easy\\,\\ but\\ not\\ that\\ simple\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ we\\ are\\ about\\ to\\ be\\ controversial\\,\\ other\\ leaders\\ may\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ in\\ advance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negotiation\\ of\\ side\\ deals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consult\\ and\\ negotiate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ they\\ still\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\ or\\ agree\\ to\\ disagree\\,\\ if\\ they\\ continue\\ to\\ criticize\\ and\\ block\\ our\\ actions\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\,\\ on\\ the\\ rule\\ that\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\ this\\ way\\ unless\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ bad\\ for\\ everybody\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;If\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bring\\ the\\ allies\\ on\\ board\\,\\ probably\\ making\\ a\\ mistake\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Kerry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ demanding\\:\\ not\\ a\\ test\\ of\\ alliance\\ agreement\\,\\ like\\ NATO\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ to\\ get\\ endorsement\\ from\\ a\\ global\\ institution\\ with\\ legal\\ standard\\.\\ \\(Kerry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ old\\ test\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ earlier\\ in\\ career\\)\\ Would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ approved\\ by\\ UN\\ Security\\ Council\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ the\\ security\\ council\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ much\\ because\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ had\\ veto\\ and\\ they\\ used\\ it\\.\\ Better\\ now\\,\\ but\\ even\\ Clinton\\ only\\ used\\ SC\\ when\\ convenient\\.\\ Multilateral\\ when\\ possible\\,\\ unilateral\\ when\\ necessary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ viewed\\ by\\ US\\ President\\ as\\ a\\ replacement\\ for\\ a\\ decision\\ making\\ process\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ State\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ our\\ allies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Expected\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Unilateralism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Agreement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;High\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ cooperation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ arguments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ of\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relative\\ to\\ power\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ allies\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ Ratification\\ of\\ US\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Straight\\ for\\ unilateral\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;L\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ Ratification\\ \\(lower\\ left\\)\\ we\\ did\\ this\\ after\\ 9\\/11\\.\\ Post\\ 9\\/11\\,\\ we\\ decided\\ unilaterally\\ to\\ invade\\ Afghanistan\\ but\\ then\\ we\\ welcomed\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ our\\ allies\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ offered\\ military\\ assistance\\ but\\ we\\ declined\\.\\ Same\\ thing\\ happened\\ in\\ Cuban\\ Missile\\ Crisis\\.\\ Almost\\ no\\ discussion\\ about\\ allies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ would\\ agree\\ to\\ whatever\\ we\\ decided\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unilateral\\ arguments\\:\\ \\(upper\\ right\\)\\ if\\ their\\ power\\ is\\ high\\ but\\ our\\ agreement\\ is\\ low\\.\\ Like\\ in\\ the\\ WTO\\ when\\ we\\ disagree\\ about\\ agriculture\\.\\ We\\ eventually\\ agreed\\ to\\ disagree\\ about\\ agriculture\\.\\ WTO\\ requires\\ consensus\\ \\(unanimous\\)\\ so\\ India\\ and\\ Brazil\\ could\\ withstand\\ US\\ and\\ Europe\\.\\ They\\ had\\ equal\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ cooperation\\ \\(upper\\ left\\)\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ France\\ in\\ Lebanon\\.\\ We\\ agree\\ on\\ the\\ withdraw\\ of\\ Syrian\\ troops\\.\\ We\\ have\\ been\\ cooperating\\ well\\ recently\\.\\ Another\\ example\\:\\ US\\ policy\\ toward\\ North\\ Korea\\.\\ Chinese\\ like\\ Americans\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ nuclear\\ free\\ peninsula\\.\\ We\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ goals\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 17\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\&rsquo\\;s\\ midterm\\:\\ format\\:\\ six\\ questions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ answer\\ any\\ five\\.\\ In\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ short\\ answer\\ questions\\.\\ Asking\\ for\\ factual\\ information\\;\\ ID\\&rsquo\\;s\\;\\ and\\ analytical\\ answers\\.\\ Should\\ move\\ though\\ quickly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenge\\:\\ letters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Powers\\ of\\ Congress\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\declare\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\raise\\ and\\ equip\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reject\\ treaties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\only\\ takes\\ 1\\/3\\ \\+\\ 1\\ to\\ reject\\ a\\ treaty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reject\\ nominees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\regulate\\ foreign\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\authorize\\ spending\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Creative\\ Tension\\:\\ Lee\\ Hamilton\\,\\ Director\\ of\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ Center\\ for\\ Scholar\\ \\(classic\\ Hamiltonian\\/Wilsonian\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ would\\ Walter\\ Russell\\ Meade\\ characterize\\ the\\ thinking\\ of\\ Lee\\ Hamilton\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ vice\\ chair\\ of\\ the\\ 9\\/11\\ commission\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ President\\ and\\ the\\ Congress\\ really\\ marked\\ by\\ creative\\ tension\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ original\\ constitution\\ design\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ foreign\\ policy\\ was\\ an\\ invitation\\ to\\ struggle\\ between\\ executive\\ and\\ legislature\\.\\ Framers\\ wanted\\ Congress\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ upper\\ hand\\.\\ Originally\\ given\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;make\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ concerns\\ about\\ invasion\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ emergency\\ resulted\\ in\\ change\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;declare\\ war\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ allowing\\ the\\ president\\ to\\ make\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ the\\ president\\ decides\\ to\\ make\\ war\\,\\ congress\\ gets\\ to\\ decide\\ if\\ they\\ get\\ any\\ money\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Following\\ WWII\\:\\ new\\ generation\\ of\\ congressmen\\ began\\ to\\ field\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ powers\\ to\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\.\\ They\\ allowed\\ the\\ president\\ to\\ conduct\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ policy\\ using\\ executive\\ agreements\\ that\\ were\\ just\\ as\\ legally\\ binding\\ as\\ treaties\\.\\ Truman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 14\\ treaties\\ 0\\ over\\ 200\\ executive\\ agreements\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ forces\\ have\\ been\\ sent\\ into\\ combat\\ sixty\\ times\\ since\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ declaration\\ of\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ declare\\ war\\ \\(US\\ forces\\ have\\ been\\ sent\\ into\\ combat\\ sixty\\ times\\ since\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ declaration\\ of\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ raise\\ and\\ equip\\ armies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ undermined\\ by\\ a\\ standing\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Reject\\ treaties\\ \\(executive\\ agreements\\ instead\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\War\\ Powers\\ Act\\:\\ president\\ must\\ do\\ three\\ things\\:\\ consult\\ the\\ congress\\ before\\ introducing\\ forces\\ to\\ hostilities\\.\\;\\ 2\\)\\ must\\ report\\ to\\ congress\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ introduced\\.\\ 3\\)\\ If\\ the\\ President\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ approval\\ for\\ actions\\ within\\ 60\\-90\\ days\\,\\ must\\ terminate\\ actions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ provisions\\ have\\ never\\ restrained\\ a\\ president\\.\\ No\\ president\\ has\\ viewed\\ it\\ as\\ constitutional\\.\\ They\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ their\\ actions\\;\\ 1999\\ Kosovo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Clinton\\ went\\ to\\ Congress\\ and\\ ogt\\ approval\\ from\\ Senate\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ House\\.\\ Clinton\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ anyway\\ and\\ hoped\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ finish\\ in\\ 60\\-90\\ days\\ but\\ nothing\\ happened\\.\\ Some\\ complained\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ basically\\ fine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Authorize\\ Spending\\ \\(Congress\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cut\\ off\\ funding\\ for\\ troops\\ once\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ the\\ field\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Congress\\ voted\\ 95\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 0\\ that\\ Clinton\\ should\\ not\\ agree\\ to\\ Kyoto\\ unless\\ developing\\ countries\\ had\\ to\\ restrict\\ emission\\ as\\ well\\.\\ They\\ refused\\ and\\ that\\ was\\ that\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ president\\,\\ how\\ can\\ the\\ congress\\ dictate\\ trade\\ policy\\ but\\ cave\\ on\\ funding\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ Because\\ they\\ see\\ trade\\ policy\\ as\\ jobs\\ in\\ their\\ districts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ domestic\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 18, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1790_Lect_Notes.doc", "desc": "Class Notes for whole year"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:16:13.365335+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Presidency - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "american-presidency"], "text": null, "id": 33, "html": null, "course_id": 17, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/1540finalguide_1.doc", "desc": "Final Guide for Gov 1540"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:21:20.716704+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Foreign Policy - Class Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "american", "government", "foreign-policy"], "text": null, "id": 37, "html": "\\\\\\Gov1790\\_Lect\\_Notes\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{max\\-width\\:525\\.6pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:57\\.6pt\\ 43\\.2pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 43\\.2pt\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:225pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c25\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c16\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c22\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\American\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\/Thursday\\ 12\\:00\\-1\\:00\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 8\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Forgive\\ the\\ Russians\\,\\ ignore\\ the\\ Germans\\,\\ punish\\ the\\ French\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Condoleezza\\ Rice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ foreign\\ policies\\ little\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ efforts\\ of\\ governments\\ to\\ pursue\\ the\\ national\\ interest\\ with\\ the\\ powers\\ available\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ if\\ we\\ know\\ they\\ amount\\ of\\ power\\ possessed\\ by\\ a\\ country\\,\\ and\\ if\\ we\\ could\\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ is\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ predict\\ their\\ actions\\?\\ No\\,\\ because\\ their\\ power\\ and\\ interest\\ are\\ often\\ determined\\ by\\ their\\ foreign\\ policy\\ ambition\\,\\ and\\ ambitions\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ power\\ grows\\,\\ the\\ defined\\ list\\ of\\ interest\\ grows\\ as\\ well\\.\\ For\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ our\\ interest\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ grown\\ to\\ include\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ tyranny\\ on\\ Earth\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ \\=\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ someone\\ do\\ something\\ or\\ prevent\\ someone\\ form\\ doing\\ something\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ otherwise\\ done\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ understood\\ in\\ a\\ coercive\\ manner\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ kinds\\ of\\ power\\:\\ Compellence\\:\\ Unless\\ you\\ to\\ X\\ by\\ T\\,\\ I\\ will\\ do\\ y\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deterrence\\:\\ if\\ you\\ do\\ x\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ do\\ y\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ deadline\\ needed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ interest\\ of\\ a\\ State\\ can\\ be\\ pursued\\ by\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ soft\\ and\\ hard\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soft\\ Power\\:\\ seduction\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ making\\ someone\\ do\\ what\\ we\\ want\\,\\ we\\ make\\ them\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ we\\ want\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ culture\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ soft\\ power\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ making\\ others\\ want\\ to\\ live\\ like\\ we\\ do\\ and\\ therefore\\ making\\ them\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ us\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ results\\ in\\ friendly\\ relations\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ really\\ good\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ reliable\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.g\\.\\ Hollywood\\ movies\\ account\\ for\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ European\\ movie\\ sales\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ hate\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ when\\ a\\ country\\ is\\ attracted\\ to\\ our\\ culture\\ through\\ soft\\ power\\,\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ controlled\\ by\\ Sec\\.\\ Rice\\ or\\ the\\ White\\ House\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ controlled\\ by\\ Hollywood\\ and\\ MTV\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ reliable\\.\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ manipulated\\ by\\ foreign\\ policy\\ experts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hard\\ Power\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Military\\ Might\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Intelligence\\ Community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Stick\\ and\\ Carrot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Foreign\\ Service\\ that\\ communicates\\ our\\ preferences\\ and\\ consequences\\ of\\ not\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ the\\ states\\ of\\ Europe\\ have\\ decided\\ not\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ employing\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ instruments\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GDP\\ in\\ America\\ \\(11\\ Trillion\\)\\ matches\\ the\\ GDP\\ of\\ the\\ EU\\ 25\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ tax\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ than\\ we\\ do\\ but\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spend\\ their\\ money\\ on\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ intelligence\\ budget\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ combine\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ spending\\ of\\ NATO\\ countries\\,\\ they\\ are\\ only\\ fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ spend\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ money\\ is\\ spent\\ paying\\ the\\ salary\\ of\\ soldiers\\ who\\ never\\ leave\\ home\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ they\\ are\\ only\\ spending\\ a\\ fraction\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ spend\\,\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ buy\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ global\\ reach\\.\\ We\\ chose\\ to\\ create\\ this\\ instrument\\ of\\ hard\\ power\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ they\\ chose\\ not\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ they\\ could\\.\\ But\\ they\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ therefore\\,\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ complaints\\ are\\ only\\ half\\-hearted\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ mind\\ being\\ number\\ two\\.\\ They\\ let\\ us\\ do\\ military\\ stuff\\ for\\ them\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ spend\\ their\\ money\\ on\\ their\\ socialist\\ economy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ cut\\ tons\\ of\\ stuff\\ yesterday\\ but\\ increased\\ the\\ Defense\\ Budget\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ mobilization\\ and\\ intervention\\ that\\ tipped\\ the\\ balance\\ against\\ Germany\\ in\\ WWI\\,\\ allowing\\ Great\\ Brittan\\ and\\ France\\ to\\ be\\ victorious\\.\\ After\\ WWI\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Government\\ decided\\ to\\ pursue\\ unarmed\\ neutrality\\ and\\ subsequently\\ dismantled\\ the\\ military\\,\\ turned\\ battleships\\ into\\ scrap\\ mettle\\,\\ leaving\\ us\\ powerless\\ to\\ check\\ Germany\\ and\\ Japan\\.\\ Our\\ economy\\ was\\ the\\ largest\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ before\\ WWII\\ but\\ our\\ military\\ was\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ We\\ were\\ behind\\ Germany\\,\\ Japan\\,\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\ Because\\ Europe\\ have\\ chosen\\ Mars\\ and\\ we\\ had\\ chosen\\ Venus\\.\\ Now\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ conclusion\\ of\\ WWII\\,\\ we\\ chose\\ to\\ maintain\\ strong\\ military\\ presence\\.\\ In\\ 47\\:\\ Marshall\\ Plan\\ and\\ the\\ Truman\\ Doctrine\\.\\ Or\\ maybe\\ in\\ 49\\ with\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ NATO\\.\\ But\\ really\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ 1950\\ with\\ NSC\\ 68\\,\\ after\\ USSR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ detonation\\ of\\ a\\ bomb\\.\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ lessons\\ of\\ history\\,\\ think\\ carefully\\ about\\ the\\ situation\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ and\\ take\\ decisive\\ action\\ to\\ contain\\ a\\ nuclear\\ power\\.\\ NSC\\ 68\\ was\\ drafted\\ by\\ Paul\\ Knitsgy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ passage\\:\\ In\\ both\\ WW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ ultimate\\ victors\\ had\\ the\\ strength\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ to\\ win\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ strength\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ war\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ strength\\ for\\ a\\ strong\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ a\\ build\\ up\\ of\\ power\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ containment\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\.\\ If\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ prepared\\ this\\ time\\,\\ we\\ will\\ get\\ dragged\\ in\\ again\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ we\\ win\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;d\\ rather\\ avoid\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Called\\ for\\ tax\\ increase\\ to\\ pay\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defense\\ spending\\ tripled\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ year\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ made\\ the\\ clear\\ choice\\ to\\ be\\ powerful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ A\\ list\\ interests\\ and\\ B\\ list\\ interests\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ list\\ \\-\\ Vital\\ National\\ Interests\\:\\ \\(Enemies\\ change\\ but\\ some\\ interests\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Prevent\\ WMD\\ attack\\ on\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ensure\\ survival\\ \\+\\ cooperation\\ of\\ allies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prevent\\ failed\\ or\\ hostile\\ state\\ on\\ border\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ensure\\ the\\ viability\\ and\\ stability\\ of\\ major\\ \\&ldquo\\;global\\&rdquo\\;\\ systems\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ national\\ markets\\,\\ trade\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Establish\\ productive\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ PRC\\ and\\ Russia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ then\\ we\\ have\\ waged\\ two\\ wars\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ see\\ how\\ they\\ fit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kosovo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prevent\\ ethnic\\ cleansing\\.\\ Important\\ but\\ human\\ rights\\ is\\ not\\ on\\ this\\ list\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Preventing\\ genocide\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\#11\\ on\\ the\\ B\\ list\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afghanistan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ terrorist\\ networks\\ also\\ on\\ the\\ B\\ list\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iraq\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ WMD\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ likely\\ on\\ our\\ forces\\ if\\ we\\ attacked\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ suggested\\ listing\\ countries\\ not\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Carter\\ and\\ Perry\\ in\\ 1999\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ list\\:\\ Countries\\ that\\ could\\ threaten\\ our\\ survival\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\ list\\:\\ countries\\ that\\ could\\ threaten\\ our\\ interests\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\ list\\:\\ countries\\ that\\ could\\ threaten\\ our\\ interest\\ indirectly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ had\\ trouble\\ coming\\ up\\ with\\ countries\\ to\\ fit\\ A\\ list\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ one\\ threatened\\ our\\ survival\\,\\ according\\ to\\ them\\ \\.\\ So\\ why\\ spend\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ defense\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Afghanistan\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ make\\ the\\ C\\ list\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ We\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ that\\ scheme\\ either\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ characterization\\ is\\ misleading\\:\\ we\\ attacked\\ Afghanistan\\ out\\ of\\ retaliation\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ threat\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ Taliban\\ but\\ was\\ being\\ protected\\ by\\ the\\ Taliban\\.\\ Come\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obvious\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NSC\\ 68\\ \\(maybe\\ NSC\\ 2002\\)\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;national\\ interests\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ speaks\\ of\\ the\\ overall\\ purpose\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quotes\\ the\\ preamble\\ and\\ speaks\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ values\\.\\ NSC\\ speaks\\ of\\ good\\ vs\\.\\ evil\\,\\ not\\ interests\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ to\\ reject\\ or\\ warn\\ against\\ any\\ assertion\\ that\\ foreign\\ policy\\ is\\ the\\ harnessing\\ of\\ power\\ to\\ pursue\\ interests\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ that\\ simple\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sectioning\\ reminder\\:\\ Before\\ Friday\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\www\\.section\\.fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 10\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Traditions\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extended\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wilsonians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Hamiltonians\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abroad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Protect\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Jeffersonians\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Jacksonian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ Home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pursue\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Values\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vs\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*New\\ stripe\\ called\\ Neo\\-Cons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Continental\\ Realists\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mead\\ said\\ that\\ Foreign\\ Policy\\ should\\ be\\ left\\ to\\ the\\ Elites\\,\\ not\\ elected\\ officials\\.\\ They\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\ between\\ states\\ and\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bother\\ with\\ commerce\\,\\ human\\ rights\\,\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ They\\ should\\ be\\ cunning\\,\\ ruthless\\,\\ willing\\ to\\ betray\\ allies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Foreign\\ policy\\ was\\ made\\ in\\ a\\ room\\ by\\ three\\ people\\ and\\ two\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ Henry\\ Kissinger\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mead\\ identifies\\ four\\ different\\ traditions\\ that\\ have\\ made\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\ distinctively\\ successful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ that\\ Europe\\ was\\ the\\ cradle\\ of\\ diplomacy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ people\\ were\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ smoky\\ room\\ talking\\ foreign\\ policy\\ and\\ a\\ European\\ accent\\ would\\ be\\ heard\\ they\\ would\\ quite\\ and\\ assume\\ that\\ we\\ had\\ more\\ to\\ learn\\ from\\ Europe\\ than\\ they\\ did\\ from\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bismarck\\ said\\ that\\ God\\ had\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;special\\ providence\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ fools\\,\\ drunks\\,\\ and\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hamiltonians\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ as\\ interested\\ in\\ a\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ a\\ balance\\ of\\ trade\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ earliest\\ colonial\\ days\\,\\ we\\ were\\ globally\\ connected\\ through\\ maritime\\ commerce\\.\\ Great\\ fortunes\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ exportation\\ of\\ good\\ or\\ through\\ the\\ import\\ of\\ slave\\ who\\ made\\ the\\ import\\ possible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ interruption\\ in\\ trade\\ was\\ the\\ nightmare\\ that\\ we\\ feared\\ for\\ 150\\ years\\.\\ They\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ all\\ open\\ to\\ globalization\\.\\ Keep\\ an\\ open\\ door\\ abroad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ adverse\\ to\\ using\\ military\\ power\\,\\ particularly\\ if\\ it\\ opens\\ up\\ trade\\.\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Teddy\\ Roosevelt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;China\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quelled\\ the\\ Boxer\\ Rebellion\\ and\\ then\\ insisted\\ on\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Revised\\ the\\ Monroe\\ Doctrine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ protect\\ our\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\our\\ interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ the\\ Hamiltonians\\ that\\ said\\ we\\ should\\ step\\ in\\ to\\ the\\ shoes\\ of\\ the\\ declining\\ English\\ to\\ keep\\ open\\ the\\ trade\\ routes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Hamiltonians\\,\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ military\\ power\\ was\\ not\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ world\\ safe\\ for\\ democracy\\,\\ but\\ for\\ trade\\ and\\ investments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ call\\ them\\ Hamiltonians\\?\\ Because\\ Alexander\\ Hamilton\\ laid\\ the\\ groundwork\\ to\\ establish\\ America\\ as\\ a\\ trade\\ power\\.\\ From\\ the\\ very\\ start\\ he\\ wanted\\ New\\ York\\ to\\ rival\\ London\\ and\\ he\\ wanted\\ America\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ next\\ commercial\\ powerhouse\\.\\ He\\ was\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ monarchist\\.\\ He\\ thought\\ the\\ President\\ should\\ hold\\ office\\ for\\ life\\.\\ He\\ was\\ most\\ at\\ ease\\ talking\\ with\\ bankers\\ not\\ farmers\\.\\ He\\ created\\ the\\ first\\ National\\ Bank\\.\\ He\\ was\\ from\\ NYC\\.\\ He\\ is\\ still\\ revered\\ the\\ patron\\ saint\\ of\\ American\\ Values\\.\\ But\\ he\\ is\\ still\\ reviled\\ for\\ his\\ elitist\\ tendencies\\.\\ Hamilton\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ Adie\\ de\\ camp\\ to\\ Gen\\.\\ Washington\\ and\\ considered\\ him\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ father\\ figure\\.\\ Hamilton\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ get\\ along\\ with\\ Jefferson\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ died\\ fighting\\ a\\ duel\\ against\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vice\\ President\\,\\ Aaron\\ Burr\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alexander\\ Hamilton\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ founding\\ father\\ who\\ was\\ outspokenly\\ against\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ primarily\\ on\\ development\\ grounds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeffersonians\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ wanted\\ to\\ lead\\ by\\ example\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\,\\ if\\ they\\ wish\\.\\ Built\\ and\\ operated\\ to\\ give\\ freedom\\ and\\ liberty\\ within\\ its\\ boarders\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ policy\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ too\\ active\\ because\\ the\\ institutions\\ that\\ are\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ active\\ \\(armies\\,\\ navies\\,\\ spies\\ etc\\)\\ are\\ not\\ democratic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ are\\ elitist\\,\\ secret\\.\\ Jefferson\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ It\\ would\\ also\\ become\\ necessary\\ to\\ make\\ alliances\\ with\\ other\\ states\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ measure\\ up\\ to\\ our\\ standard\\ of\\ democracy\\.\\ Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ hands\\ dirty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ not\\ complete\\ pacifists\\ or\\ even\\ complete\\ isolationists\\.\\ They\\ realized\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ need\\ to\\ protect\\ ourselves\\.\\ FDR\\ was\\ Jeffersonian\\.\\ This\\ thought\\ served\\ us\\ fairly\\ well\\ in\\ both\\ WW\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ We\\ delayed\\ putting\\ our\\ own\\ forces\\ at\\ risk\\,\\ delayed\\ even\\ entering\\ the\\ war\\ until\\ the\\ end\\.\\ Started\\ in\\ pacific\\ in\\ 37\\,\\ in\\ Europe\\ in\\ 39\\,\\ and\\ we\\ got\\ in\\ in\\ 41\\,\\ but\\ still\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ put\\ our\\ troops\\ on\\ the\\ continent\\ of\\ Europe\\ until\\ 43\\,\\ after\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ all\\ exhausted\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ tipped\\ the\\ balance\\ and\\ presided\\ over\\ the\\ spoils\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motto\\ was\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;keep\\ the\\ ships\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ in\\ to\\ fewer\\ fights\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ make\\ the\\ Louisiana\\ Purchase\\,\\ but\\ that\\ was\\ so\\ farmers\\ had\\ more\\ room\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ was\\ to\\ back\\ off\\ and\\ allow\\ the\\ two\\ superpowers\\,\\ Brittan\\ and\\ France\\,\\ to\\ balance\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ find\\ people\\ who\\ vote\\ republican\\ who\\ are\\ Jeffersonians\\,\\ look\\ libertarian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ CATO\\ institute\\.\\ And\\ then\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Party\\.\\ Every\\ since\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ war\\,\\ pro\\ equality\\ at\\ home\\,\\ anti\\ war\\ abroad\\.\\ The\\ quintessential\\ Jeffersonian\\ was\\ George\\ McGovern\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Come\\ home\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 2000\\,\\ it\\ was\\ Ralph\\ Nader\\.\\ In\\ 2004\\,\\ the\\ Dems\\ had\\ quite\\ a\\ few\\.\\ The\\ only\\ overtly\\ non\\ Jeffersonian\\ in\\ the\\ Dem\\ primary\\ was\\ Joe\\ Lieberman\\,\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ fold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kerry\\ was\\ strongly\\ against\\ war\\ intervention\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Vietnam\\,\\ even\\ Gulf\\ War\\ I\\.\\ He\\ worked\\ hard\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ to\\ oppose\\ Reagan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ to\\ spread\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Central\\ America\\.\\ He\\ voted\\ against\\ the\\ Defense\\ spending\\.\\ When\\ we\\ ran\\ for\\ President\\,\\ he\\ concealed\\ his\\ tendencies\\.\\ In\\ doing\\ so\\ we\\ appeared\\ false\\,\\ and\\ with\\ good\\ reason\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ hyper\\ Jeffersonian\\ today\\ is\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\:\\ thinks\\ our\\ elections\\ are\\ a\\ manufactured\\ consensus\\.\\ Condemns\\ all\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wilsonians\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spread\\ our\\ democratic\\ values\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hamiltonians\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ world\\ safe\\ for\\ American\\ interests\\.\\ Wilsonians\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ world\\ safe\\ for\\ American\\ values\\,\\ which\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ American\\ but\\ are\\ universal\\ values\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\ The\\ primary\\ carrier\\ were\\ the\\ Christian\\ missionaries\\ who\\ took\\ American\\ values\\ and\\ spread\\ them\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wilson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ announced\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ to\\ spread\\ democracy\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ end\\ world\\ itself\\.\\ Through\\ his\\ fourteen\\ points\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;foreswear\\ forever\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ war\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\President\\ Clinton\\ intervened\\ in\\ Haiti\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ rights\\.\\ \\(Clueless\\)\\ Bosnia\\,\\ to\\ protect\\ he\\ human\\ rights\\ of\\ Bosnians\\.\\ Albanians\\.\\ Carter\\ tried\\ to\\ spread\\ human\\ rights\\ in\\ south\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ronald\\ Reagan\\ took\\ a\\ strong\\ stance\\ against\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;evil\\ empire\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Bush\\ senior\\ intervened\\ in\\ panama\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\President\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\ has\\ adopted\\ a\\ strong\\ strain\\ of\\ Wilsonian\\ foreign\\ policy\\ since\\ Iraq\\,\\ after\\ the\\ WMD\\&rsquo\\;s\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ up\\.\\ He\\ started\\ using\\ vintage\\ Wilsonian\\ language\\.\\ In\\ November\\ 2003\\,\\ he\\ spoke\\ t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ free\\ Iraq\\,\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ easy\\,\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ watershed\\ event\\ in\\ the\\&hellip\\;adopted\\ a\\ new\\ strategy\\.\\ The\\ advance\\ of\\ freedom\\ leads\\ to\\ peace\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ calling\\ of\\ our\\ time\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ President\\ George\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\ a\\ Wilsonian\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norton\\ Lecture\\ Hall\\ in\\ the\\ Fogg\\ Museum\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 15\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bush\\ declaring\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ spread\\ democracy\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ easy\\ seemed\\ Wilsonian\\.\\ \\(spread\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\)\\ His\\ father\\ was\\ Wilsonian\\,\\ but\\ now\\ W\\ seems\\ more\\ jacksonian\\ because\\ he\\ uses\\ military\\ force\\ to\\ spread\\ democracy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ paper\\ assignment\\ on\\ the\\ website\\:\\ apply\\ Mead\\ to\\ the\\ two\\ documents\\ we\\ read\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\.\\ 1997\\ NSC\\ something\\.\\ NS\\ 68\\.\\ perhaps\\ links\\ to\\ neo\\ con\\ but\\ not\\ completely\\.\\ They\\ are\\ still\\ competing\\ with\\ Mead\\&rsquo\\;s\\ classifications\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacksonian\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ those\\ who\\ generally\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ concerned\\ with\\ spreading\\ American\\ values\\.\\ They\\ usually\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ concerned\\ with\\ spreading\\ American\\ economic\\ interests\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacksonian\\ are\\ not\\ identified\\ primarily\\ by\\ what\\ they\\ believe\\ but\\ through\\ their\\ place\\ of\\ birth\\ in\\ America\\.\\ And\\ they\\ are\\ identified\\ by\\ their\\ willingness\\ to\\ fight\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ homeland\\ and\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ feel\\ any\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ things\\ abroad\\.\\ They\\ are\\ suspicious\\ of\\ the\\ elitists\\ Hamiltonians\\ and\\ the\\ concoctions\\ they\\ come\\ up\\ with\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\They\\ trust\\ something\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ American\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ demands\\ on\\ other\\ countries\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stand\\ to\\ allow\\ other\\ nations\\ to\\ challenge\\ us\\.\\ Jacksonians\\ have\\ no\\ problem\\ using\\ overwhelming\\ force\\ on\\ other\\ nations\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ asking\\ for\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Drop\\ the\\ bomb\\ on\\ Japan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ attacked\\ us\\ on\\ Sunday\\ morning\\ unprovoked\\.\\ Firebomb\\ dresdin\\?\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ nazi\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\\\Jacksonians\\ are\\ not\\ imperialists\\.\\ After\\ we\\ took\\ down\\ Germany\\ and\\ Japan\\,\\ we\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ them\\,\\ just\\ keep\\ them\\ off\\ our\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risking\\ American\\ lives\\ for\\ humanitarian\\ reasons\\ and\\ placing\\ Americans\\ under\\ U\\.N\\.\\ command\\ and\\ making\\ us\\ wear\\ those\\ helmets\\ his\\ hateful\\ to\\ jacksonians\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ weak\\ responses\\ of\\ Clinton\\ and\\ Carter\\ are\\ unacceptable\\.\\ These\\ sensibilities\\ are\\ attributed\\ to\\ our\\ early\\ times\\ as\\ a\\ frontier\\ country\\ where\\ the\\ men\\ had\\ to\\ arm\\ themselves\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ families\\ from\\ all\\ the\\ threats\\.\\ And\\ when\\ they\\ Indians\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fight\\ by\\ our\\ code\\ they\\ felt\\ justified\\ in\\ ruthlessly\\ wiping\\ them\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jackson\\ lived\\ his\\ personal\\ life\\ by\\ the\\ strictest\\ code\\ of\\ honor\\.\\ Jackson\\ challenged\\ Dickenson\\ to\\ a\\ dual\\ and\\ killed\\ him\\ after\\ being\\ wounded\\ because\\ Dickenson\\ insulted\\ his\\ wife\\.\\ He\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;freedom\\ and\\ violence\\ were\\ inextricably\\ intertwined\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ truly\\ democratic\\ president\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ President\\ elected\\ by\\ all\\ males\\ whether\\ they\\ had\\ property\\ or\\ not\\.\\ He\\ is\\ still\\ honored\\ as\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ democratic\\ party\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacksonians\\ today\\:\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primarily\\ being\\ carried\\ forward\\ by\\ portions\\ of\\ the\\ populous\\ in\\ heartland\\ America\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ south\\,\\ Midwest\\,\\ south\\ west\\.\\ They\\ link\\ this\\ belief\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ military\\ service\\.\\ They\\ base\\ their\\ belief\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Tribe\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ anglo\\ European\\ heritage\\ and\\ their\\ \\ \\;current\\ protestant\\ beliefs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ Bush\\ Jacksonian\\?\\ Mead\\ worried\\ about\\ how\\ his\\ book\\ would\\ apply\\ post\\ 9\\-11\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ in\\ his\\ afterward\\ that\\ the\\ four\\ class\\ system\\ would\\ still\\ work\\.\\ 911\\ did\\ not\\ alter\\ the\\ overall\\ structure\\ of\\ AFP\\.\\ They\\ classes\\ still\\ played\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\.\\ Terrorism\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ war\\ but\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ respond\\ to\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ old\\ as\\ the\\ Republic\\ itself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mead\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ mention\\ NeoCons\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ have\\ existed\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ thought\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ influence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Vietnam\\,\\ the\\ Dems\\ Party\\ became\\ mostly\\ a\\ Jeffersonian\\ party\\.\\ McGovern\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Come\\ Home\\ America\\.\\ Those\\ dems\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ forward\\ struggle\\ against\\ communism\\ sometimes\\ became\\ Republican\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ the\\ south\\.\\ But\\ outside\\ the\\ south\\,\\ dems\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ GOP\\ formed\\ their\\ own\\ forward\\ leaning\\ wing\\ of\\ the\\ Dems\\,\\ lead\\ by\\ Scoop\\ Jackson\\.\\ He\\ called\\ for\\ confrontation\\ and\\ containment\\ not\\ appeasement\\.\\ They\\ were\\ cold\\ war\\ Neo\\ conservatives\\ who\\ were\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ even\\ the\\ Ford\\ and\\ Nixon\\ policies\\.\\ Richard\\ Pearle\\ was\\ Jackson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assistant\\ in\\ the\\ senate\\ and\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ leading\\ post\\ cold\\ war\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ Jean\\ Kirkpatrick\\ became\\ a\\ neocon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ agenda\\ collapse\\ when\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ collapsed\\ and\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ was\\ won\\.\\ They\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ an\\ evil\\ empire\\ to\\ struggle\\ against\\.\\ The\\ went\\ into\\ eclipse\\ during\\ the\\ Clinton\\ admin\\.\\ But\\ a\\ younger\\ generation\\ arose\\ and\\ like\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ American\\ power\\ was\\ unchecked\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ it\\ that\\ way\\ and\\ exploit\\ it\\ for\\ positive\\ purposes\\.\\ Hegemonic\\ neo\\ cons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ urge\\ to\\ extend\\ our\\ authority\\ was\\ encouraged\\ by\\ the\\ quick\\ and\\ easy\\ victory\\ against\\ Iraq\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ nineties\\.\\ They\\ said\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ pull\\ back\\ and\\ cut\\ back\\ our\\ military\\ but\\ to\\ push\\ forward\\ and\\ ensure\\ continued\\ dominance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ was\\ to\\ prevent\\ other\\ countires\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ our\\ allies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ as\\ dependant\\ as\\ our\\ enemies\\ on\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ our\\ military\\.\\ If\\ we\\ had\\ so\\ much\\ they\\ could\\ never\\ catch\\ up\\ hopefully\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ bother\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ Bush\\ admin\\ repudiated\\ the\\ document\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ leaked\\ to\\ the\\ NYT\\.\\ It\\ seemed\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ turned\\ back\\.\\ If\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ foreign\\ policy\\ appointments\\,\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ neo\\ cons\\.\\ They\\ went\\ to\\ holdovers\\ from\\ Bush\\ I\\.\\ VP\\ Dick\\ Cheney\\ was\\ not\\ neo\\ con\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ been\\ Sec\\ of\\ Defense\\.\\ Condi\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ cold\\ war\\ realist\\.\\ Powell\\ had\\ been\\ more\\ Wilsonian\\ than\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ Rumsfeld\\ had\\ actually\\ been\\ Sec\\.\\ of\\ Defense\\ in\\ 1975\\ under\\ Ford\\ when\\ they\\ pursued\\ a\\ relaxation\\ of\\ tensions\\ with\\ Russia\\.\\ He\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ a\\ missile\\ defense\\ but\\ not\\ regime\\ change\\.\\ Powell\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ with\\ a\\ significant\\ military\\ record\\ but\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ reluctant\\ to\\ use\\ military\\ force\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neo\\ Con\\&rsquo\\;s\\ got\\ some\\ appointments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ all\\ second\\ tier\\.\\ Paul\\ Wolfowitz\\ at\\ Defense\\.\\ Doug\\ Fieth\\.\\ Richard\\ Pearle\\ on\\ the\\ Defense\\ Policy\\ Board\\.\\ So\\ they\\ were\\ there\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ control\\.\\ Elliot\\ Abrams\\ on\\ NSC\\.\\ Steve\\ Hadly\\ the\\ deputy\\ to\\ Condi\\.\\ VP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chief\\ of\\ staff\\ was\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\ but\\ the\\ VP\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ Out\\ of\\ three\\ thousand\\ nominees\\,\\ having\\ six\\ or\\ eight\\ appointments\\ scattered\\ across\\ the\\ second\\ tier\\ was\\ not\\ take\\ over\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ carry\\ much\\ weight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Project\\ for\\ a\\ New\\ American\\ Century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ promoting\\ neo\\ con\\ agenda\\ \\(think\\ tank\\)\\.\\ Conspiracy\\ theories\\ say\\ that\\ they\\ run\\ the\\ WH\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ There\\ are\\ plenty\\ of\\ Wilsonian\\ and\\ Jeffersonian\\ foundations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ finally\\ gave\\ the\\ neo\\ con\\ movement\\ real\\ power\\ was\\ 911\\.\\ The\\ shocking\\ terror\\ attacks\\ on\\ U\\.S\\.\\ soil\\.\\ It\\ does\\ seem\\ true\\ that\\ Cheney\\ was\\ transformed\\ from\\ a\\ traditional\\ foreign\\ policy\\ official\\ into\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\.\\ Some\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ spent\\ too\\ much\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ bunker\\ after\\ 911\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ was\\ still\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ they\\ first\\ talked\\ about\\ regime\\ change\\ in\\ Iraq\\,\\ everyone\\ said\\ no\\.\\ Powell\\ got\\ together\\ with\\ Gen\\ Shelton\\ and\\ Andy\\ Card\\.\\ Wolfowitz\\ pitched\\ the\\ idea\\ to\\ the\\ President\\ at\\ camp\\ David\\ and\\ he\\ told\\ Andy\\ Card\\ to\\ get\\ Wolfowitz\\ under\\ control\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bush\\ himself\\ branded\\ the\\ attackers\\ the\\ evil\\ doers\\.\\ No\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ crime\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Woodward\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ said\\ that\\ Cofer\\ Black\\,\\ a\\ CIA\\ briefer\\ said\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ it\\ but\\ people\\ will\\ die\\,\\ even\\ Americans\\.\\ Bush\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;well\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ war\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ A\\ classic\\ Jacksonian\\ moment\\.\\ And\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ finished\\,\\ Al\\ Qaeda\\ will\\ have\\ flies\\ walking\\ on\\ their\\ eye\\ balls\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ was\\ then\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ flies\\ on\\ the\\ eye\\ balls\\ guy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ neo\\ cons\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ power\\ until\\ we\\ conquered\\ Afghanistan\\ in\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ days\\.\\ The\\ combination\\ of\\ new\\ technology\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ conquer\\ the\\ Taliban\\ with\\ almost\\ zero\\ casualties\\.\\ We\\ lost\\ more\\ journalist\\ than\\ soldiers\\ in\\ the\\ initial\\ stages\\.\\ If\\ we\\ could\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ Afghanistan\\,\\ we\\ could\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ Iraq\\.\\ We\\ will\\ be\\ greeted\\ as\\ liberators\\ like\\ in\\ Afghanistan\\.\\ Collateral\\ damage\\ would\\ be\\ minimal\\ too\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ said\\ no\\,\\ like\\ Powell\\,\\ ran\\ out\\ of\\ arguments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Bush\\&rsquo\\;s\\ SOTU\\ we\\ would\\ wage\\ a\\ more\\ global\\ struggle\\ against\\ axis\\ of\\ evil\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ evil\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ connections\\ between\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ neo\\ cons\\ and\\ the\\ hegemonic\\ neo\\ cons\\ of\\ today\\.\\ Where\\ does\\ their\\ obsession\\ with\\ evil\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Wilsonians\\ tend\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ good\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ neo\\ cons\\ tend\\ to\\ obsess\\ about\\ the\\ omnipresence\\ of\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ good\\ that\\ God\\ can\\ do\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ evil\\ that\\ will\\ triumph\\ otherwise\\.\\ Richard\\ Pearle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\:\\ The\\ End\\ of\\ Evil\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ said\\ we\\ should\\ take\\ out\\ the\\ regimes\\ in\\ Iran\\ and\\ North\\ Korea\\ and\\ punish\\ France\\ if\\ they\\ get\\ in\\ the\\ way\\.\\ He\\ attributes\\ their\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;evil\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ holocaust\\ for\\ neo\\ con\\ jews\\.\\ For\\ neo\\ con\\ Christians\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ Biblical\\ teaching\\.\\ He\\ compares\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ Mel\\ Gibson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ focus\\ on\\ evil\\ in\\ The\\ Passion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ neo\\ conservative\\ Judeo\\ Christians\\ targeted\\ the\\ third\\ major\\ religion\\,\\ Islam\\.\\ They\\ enlisted\\ Lewis\\,\\ who\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ Muslim\\ world\\ hated\\ the\\ West\\,\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ done\\ but\\ because\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ compete\\.\\ If\\ they\\ can\\,\\ they\\ will\\ destroy\\ us\\ so\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ stop\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ 911\\,\\ more\\ traditional\\ Hamilton\\ people\\ bought\\ into\\ the\\ Lewis\\ stuff\\ \\.Rove\\ had\\ him\\ into\\ the\\ WH\\ and\\ Cheney\\ read\\ his\\ book\\.\\ If\\ we\\ toppled\\ regimes\\ and\\ installed\\ democracies\\,\\ we\\ could\\ gain\\ traction\\ in\\ the\\ region\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ meet\\ a\\ neo\\ con\\ on\\ the\\ street\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ honest\\:\\ I\\ wish\\ we\\ could\\,\\ but\\ we\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ been\\ successful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 17\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realism\\:\\ why\\ does\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\ sometimes\\ go\\ introverted\\ and\\ sometimes\\ extroverted\\?\\ Why\\ pursue\\ property\\ rights\\ and\\ then\\ human\\ rights\\?\\ Why\\ the\\ fluctuations\\?\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ what\\ is\\ distinctive\\ about\\ America\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ learn\\ what\\ is\\ distinctive\\ about\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ theory\\ says\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ exceptional\\ about\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ Others\\ would\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ in\\ our\\ place\\.\\ If\\ we\\ moved\\ the\\ CIA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realists\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ deep\\ fundamental\\ assumptions\\:\\ 1\\.\\ Human\\ nature\\ is\\ flawed\\.\\ We\\ are\\ a\\ greedy\\ species\\.\\ Not\\ all\\ individuals\\ but\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ difference\\.\\ 2\\.\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ world\\ government\\ yet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ think\\ they\\ can\\ predict\\ foreign\\ policy\\ decisions\\ of\\ other\\ states\\.\\ When\\ they\\ choose\\ allies\\ they\\ will\\ balance\\ rather\\ than\\ bandwagon\\.\\ When\\ they\\ make\\ an\\ alliance\\,\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ with\\ the\\ weaker\\ state\\ than\\ the\\ strong\\ state\\.\\ They\\ will\\ balance\\ the\\ power\\ rather\\ than\\ bandwagon\\ the\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ makes\\ sense\\ if\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ what\\ happens\\ in\\ each\\ situation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Poland\\ tried\\ to\\ bandwagon\\ with\\ Germany\\ against\\ Chzeck\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ balancing\\ against\\ them\\.\\ Given\\ these\\ well\\ known\\ risks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ expected\\ that\\ the\\ weak\\ will\\ balance\\ against\\ the\\ strong\\ and\\ the\\ result\\ is\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ have\\ countries\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ 10\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 4\\,\\ 3\\,\\ and\\ 2\\.\\ The\\ 5\\ and\\ 4\\ balance\\ against\\ the\\ 10\\,\\ which\\ the\\ 2\\ then\\ joins\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ purpose\\ in\\ fighting\\ a\\ war\\ is\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ how\\ powerful\\ the\\ other\\ state\\ is\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ these\\ systemic\\ realists\\ use\\ theoretical\\ approach\\ to\\ predict\\ US\\ policy\\,\\ how\\ successful\\ are\\ they\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Waltz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;theory\\ of\\ international\\ politics\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ to\\ continue\\ as\\ allies\\ after\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Germany\\.\\ They\\ predicted\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ become\\ rivals\\ and\\ balance\\ against\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ prompted\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ was\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;invisible\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ balance\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NSC\\ 68\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ USSR\\ was\\ weaker\\ than\\ us\\,\\ so\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ predicted\\ that\\ others\\ would\\ join\\ the\\ weaker\\ power\\.\\ But\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\.\\ The\\ secondary\\ states\\ joined\\ the\\ strong\\ state\\ against\\ the\\ weaker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ USSR\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ failure\\ to\\ predict\\,\\ not\\ the\\ US\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ but\\ the\\ foreign\\ policy\\ of\\ the\\ secondary\\ states\\.\\ Attempts\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ less\\ ridged\\ realists\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ these\\ anomalies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ is\\ threatening\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ next\\ to\\ you\\ or\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ hostile\\ intent\\.\\ When\\ it\\ is\\ across\\ the\\ ocean\\ and\\ friendly\\ it\\ is\\ less\\ threatening\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ America\\ posed\\ a\\ better\\ option\\ for\\ alliance\\ than\\ Stalin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Soviet\\ Union\\.\\ It\\ not\\ only\\ helps\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ small\\ countries\\ close\\ to\\ USSR\\ allied\\ with\\ us\\ and\\ why\\ Cuba\\ allied\\ with\\ USSR\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mearsheimer\\ argued\\ that\\ with\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\,\\ America\\ would\\ no\\ long\\ need\\ NATO\\ or\\ need\\ troops\\ in\\ Germany\\,\\ so\\ we\\ would\\ pull\\ out\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\ With\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ down\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ gone\\ the\\ newly\\ reunited\\ Germany\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ new\\ European\\ power\\,\\ which\\ would\\ trigger\\ an\\ alliance\\ of\\ Germany\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ France\\ and\\ the\\ UK\\ both\\ had\\ nukes\\,\\ their\\ balance\\ against\\ Germany\\ would\\ threaten\\ Germany\\,\\ which\\ would\\ then\\ seek\\ Nukes\\ as\\ well\\.\\ This\\ would\\ then\\ threaten\\ UK\\ and\\ France\\ who\\ would\\ then\\ launch\\ an\\ attack\\,\\ repeated\\ WWII\\.\\ The\\ solution\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ US\\ to\\ just\\ give\\ nukes\\ to\\ Germany\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ they\\ were\\ wrong\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ stayed\\,\\ UK\\ and\\ France\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ threatened\\,\\ NATO\\ expanded\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ application\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\ seemed\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ but\\ was\\ just\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Waltz\\ wrote\\ an\\ article\\ about\\ the\\ emerging\\ structure\\:\\ Germany\\ would\\ move\\ toward\\ Russia\\ etc\\.\\ UK\\ toward\\ Japan\\.\\ But\\ instead\\ Germany\\ and\\ Russian\\ have\\ both\\ moved\\ toward\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wrote\\ a\\ book\\ called\\ the\\ End\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Era\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ got\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ US\\ wrong\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Favorite\\:\\ Charles\\ Krauthammer\\:\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Unapolar\\ Moment\\:\\ Fifteen\\ year\\ moment\\ in\\ 1990\\ we\\ spent\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ next\\ six\\ states\\ combined\\.\\ In\\ 2000\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ next\\ 12\\,\\ and\\ now\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ rest\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realists\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ different\\ now\\ because\\ of\\ nukes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ measure\\ in\\ defense\\ spending\\.\\ They\\ have\\ chosen\\ to\\ balance\\ using\\ asymmetric\\ tactics\\.\\ They\\ have\\ sought\\ or\\ acquired\\ terrorist\\ weapons\\ of\\ mass\\ destruction\\ that\\ neutralize\\ our\\ conventional\\ forces\\.\\ In\\ Iraq\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ army\\ that\\ gave\\ us\\ trouble\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ asymmetric\\ tactics\\ of\\ the\\ insurgents\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\China\\ is\\ doing\\ its\\ best\\ to\\ balance\\ against\\ us\\.\\ Balancing\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ taken\\ place\\ against\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ who\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ try\\?\\ China\\,\\ Japan\\,\\ Germany\\,\\ Russia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ before\\ they\\ could\\ challenge\\ us\\ they\\ would\\ poise\\ an\\ unacceptable\\ threat\\ against\\ its\\ more\\ proximate\\ neighbors\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ accident\\ of\\ geography\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ maintain\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ primacy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maybe\\ what\\ makes\\ US\\ primacy\\ acceptable\\ to\\ rivals\\ is\\ not\\ geographical\\ location\\ but\\ benign\\ intentions\\ of\\ us\\ to\\ those\\ potential\\ rivals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ seeking\\ an\\ empire\\.\\ We\\ are\\ seeking\\ regime\\ change\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ Berlin\\ or\\ Moscow\\ or\\ Beijing\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ Kabul\\ and\\ Baghdad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ pursuit\\ of\\ primacy\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ our\\ rivals\\ will\\ complain\\ about\\ out\\ of\\ envy\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ oppose\\ out\\ of\\ national\\ pride\\ but\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ threaten\\ them\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ worth\\ competing\\ with\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ better\\ ways\\ to\\ explain\\ it\\.\\ Our\\ future\\ explanations\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ at\\ systemic\\ explanations\\ but\\ a\\ sub\\-systemic\\ explanation\\ of\\ pairs\\ of\\ states\\.\\ Join\\ democratic\\ or\\ not\\.\\ Either\\ both\\,\\ none\\,\\ or\\ on\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ other\\.\\ They\\ now\\ say\\ you\\ can\\ predict\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ one\\ state\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ other\\ state\\ in\\ the\\ dyad\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ a\\ democratic\\ state\\ or\\ a\\ non\\ democratic\\ state\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ totally\\ internal\\,\\ not\\ totally\\ systemic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 22\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ make\\ systemic\\ realism\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ needed\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ messy\\.\\ Use\\ balance\\ of\\ threat\\ versus\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ democratic\\ Peace\\ Theory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bruce\\ Russet\\:\\ The\\ foreign\\ policy\\ relationships\\ that\\ democratic\\ states\\ have\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ do\\ not\\ conform\\ to\\ expectations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ a\\ war\\ between\\ two\\ democratic\\ states\\.\\ The\\ most\\ important\\ fact\\ of\\ our\\ time\\:\\ democracies\\ never\\ wage\\ war\\ against\\ democracies\\.\\ Among\\ these\\ democracies\\,\\ a\\ zone\\ of\\ democratic\\ peace\\ has\\ emerged\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ theory\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ who\\ has\\ more\\ power\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ matter\\ is\\ if\\ one\\ or\\ both\\ have\\ democratic\\ government\\.\\ Bush\\ has\\ embraced\\ this\\ theme\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ spreading\\ freedom\\ and\\ democracy\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ those\\ newly\\ freed\\ societies\\ but\\ will\\ also\\ pacify\\ those\\ states\\ as\\ they\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ European\\ leaders\\ must\\ be\\ as\\ baffled\\ now\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ by\\ Wilson\\ after\\ WWII\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\/why\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Promoting\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ democracy\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ misdirected\\ idealism\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\-headed\\ realism\\.\\ Natan\\ Scharansky\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Palestinians\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ negotiated\\ with\\ until\\ they\\ elect\\ their\\ leadership\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fact\\ that\\ democracies\\ have\\ never\\ fought\\ against\\ each\\ other\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Grasping\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Peace\\,\\ book\\ by\\ Bruce\\ Russet\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\:\\ a\\ political\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ positions\\ in\\ government\\ are\\ elected\\ in\\ competitive\\,\\ cyclical\\ elections\\ in\\ which\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ adult\\ population\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\War\\:\\ a\\ violent\\ conflict\\ between\\ two\\ states\\ in\\ which\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ thousand\\ people\\ die\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ counts\\ the\\ pairs\\ of\\ countries\\ who\\ could\\ have\\ fought\\ each\\ other\\ as\\ a\\ potential\\ war\\.\\ He\\ calls\\ them\\ politically\\ relevant\\ inter\\-state\\ dyads\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ Table\\ 2\\.1\\ from\\ Russett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\.\\ No\\ wars\\ between\\ two\\ democratic\\ states\\.\\ It\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ Mac\\ peace\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ democratic\\ peace\\.\\ Serbia\\ brought\\ that\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ tried\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ other\\ characteristics\\ that\\ might\\ also\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ income\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ formal\\ diplomatic\\ relations\\ etc\\.\\ Democratic\\ peace\\ still\\ holds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ states\\ wage\\ war\\ just\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ He\\ does\\ not\\ rely\\ on\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;democracies\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ to\\ fight\\&rdquo\\;\\ hypothesis\\.\\ He\\ offers\\ two\\ different\\ explanations\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Cultural\\ normative\\ explanation\\:\\ violent\\ conflict\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ rejected\\ as\\ an\\ acceptable\\ way\\ to\\ resolve\\ disputes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2000\\ Presidential\\ Elections\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ During\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ when\\ either\\ could\\ have\\ claimed\\ victory\\,\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ assassinated\\,\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ arrested\\,\\ no\\ violence\\ erupted\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\He\\ says\\ that\\ a\\ peaceful\\ culture\\ tends\\ to\\ result\\ from\\ a\\ democratic\\ state\\.\\ When\\ a\\ democratic\\ state\\ meets\\ another\\ in\\ world\\ affairs\\,\\ that\\ peaceful\\ culture\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ extend\\ to\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Would\\ threaten\\ North\\ Korea\\ but\\ not\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Structural\\ Institutional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Violent\\ conflict\\ is\\ rare\\ because\\ decisions\\ to\\ engage\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ taken\\ quickly\\ or\\ secretly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democratic\\ dyads\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ prone\\ to\\ violence\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ easily\\ able\\ to\\ launch\\ sudden\\ surprise\\ attacks\\.\\ The\\ decision\\ to\\ initiate\\ an\\ attack\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ person\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ power\\ or\\ institutions\\ that\\ matter\\ most\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ values\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Peace\\ explains\\ the\\ puzzle\\ of\\ post\\ WWII\\ Europe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ France\\ and\\ Germany\\ sided\\ with\\ us\\ not\\ Russia\\.\\ Unified\\ Germany\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ balanced\\ against\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ a\\ democracy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Democratic\\ peace\\ clock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1900\\ no\\ democracies\\ on\\ earth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ US\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ women\\ or\\ blacks\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ Midnight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1950\\,\\ fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ population\\ lived\\ under\\ democracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ was\\ 3\\:43\\ AM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 2000\\,\\ 58\\.2\\ percent\\ of\\ world\\ population\\ lived\\ under\\ democracy\\:\\ 6\\:59\\ AM\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sunrise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\High\\ noon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ be\\ at\\ peace\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ democratic\\ peace\\ theory\\ comes\\ close\\ to\\ predicting\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ conduct\\ a\\ hegemonic\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ Taking\\ out\\ rogue\\ governments\\ accelerates\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ democracies\\ and\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ threaten\\ other\\ democratic\\ allies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ to\\ try\\ this\\ was\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ create\\ a\\ league\\ of\\ nations\\ that\\ would\\ incorporate\\ and\\ spread\\ democratic\\ values\\.\\ Got\\ into\\ trouble\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ next\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ elevate\\ democracy\\ was\\ Clinton\\?\\ Democratic\\ Enlargement\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ suddenly\\ found\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ crises\\ that\\ went\\ way\\ beyond\\ lacking\\ democratic\\ states\\.\\ He\\ they\\ pursued\\ peacekeeping\\ and\\ humanitarian\\ efforts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Each\\ of\\ these\\ three\\ countries\\ had\\ something\\ that\\ Iraq\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Germany\\ had\\ former\\ democracy\\.\\ Japan\\ was\\ ethnically\\ homogenous\\ and\\ panama\\ was\\ surrounded\\ by\\ democracies\\ or\\ soon\\ to\\ be\\ democracies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 24\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kissinger\\ told\\ Bush\\ that\\ Putin\\ would\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;none\\ of\\ your\\ business\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ then\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ do\\ democracy\\ our\\ own\\ way\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critique\\ of\\ Systemic\\ Theories\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Peace\\ see\\ US\\ as\\ oldest\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Systemic\\ realist\\ see\\ US\\ as\\ regular\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neither\\ see\\ US\\ as\\ exceptional\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Huntington\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ ideology\\ or\\ nationalism\\ that\\ will\\ divide\\ the\\ world\\ post\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ collapse\\.\\ It\\ will\\ be\\ culture\\.\\ Using\\ language\\ and\\ religion\\,\\ Huntington\\ divided\\ the\\ world\\ into\\ six\\ categories\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ West\\:\\ Protestant\\ and\\ Catholic\\ Christianity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavic\\:\\ orthodox\\ Christianity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Islamic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hindu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Japanese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Huntington\\ puts\\ Latin\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ because\\ its\\ languages\\ are\\ European\\ and\\ its\\ religion\\ Catholic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Africa\\ was\\ a\\ little\\ harder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ why\\ are\\ these\\ divisions\\ more\\ important\\ since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\?\\ Because\\ nationalism\\ is\\ much\\ diminished\\ influence\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ EU\\ and\\ globalization\\.\\ State\\ divisions\\ were\\ artificially\\ constructions\\ anyway\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ over\\ the\\ world\\ people\\ are\\ modernizing\\.\\ Just\\ because\\ people\\ in\\ Russia\\ like\\ MacDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ they\\ are\\ western\\.\\ Osama\\ Bin\\ Laden\\ uses\\ a\\ computer\\ and\\ cell\\ phone\\ but\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ western\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ modern\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Huntington\\ even\\ saw\\ signs\\ in\\ what\\ he\\ called\\ an\\ Islamic\\/Confusion\\ connection\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ say\\ these\\ two\\ as\\ possibly\\ ganging\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ west\\:\\ China\\ sharing\\ technology\\ with\\ Iran\\ etc\\.\\ Huntington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advise\\ was\\ somewhat\\ Jeffersonian\\.\\ The\\ US\\ should\\ hunker\\ down\\ and\\ build\\ strong\\ ties\\ with\\ other\\ western\\ states\\ and\\ hope\\ you\\ can\\ hang\\ on\\.\\ The\\ west\\ against\\ the\\ rest\\.\\ This\\ was\\ in\\ 1993\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Has\\ world\\-wide\\ foreign\\ policy\\ developed\\ the\\ way\\ Huntington\\ predicted\\?\\ On\\ balance\\,\\ he\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ things\\ have\\ not\\ moved\\ in\\ this\\ direction\\.\\ An\\ example\\ he\\ invoked\\ was\\ the\\ Gulf\\ War\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ war\\ between\\ the\\ west\\ and\\ Islam\\.\\ But\\ it\\ started\\ by\\ an\\ Arab\\ state\\ invading\\ another\\ Arab\\ state\\.\\ The\\ coalition\\ that\\ we\\ put\\ together\\ included\\ Russia\\,\\ China\\,\\ India\\,\\ Japan\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Arab\\ and\\ Muslim\\ countries\\:\\ Egypt\\,\\ Syria\\ etc\\.\\ Hardly\\ a\\ clash\\ a\\ civilizations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ thought\\:\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ it\\ seem\\ that\\ as\\ we\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ pitched\\ battle\\ between\\ states\\ as\\ the\\ conflict\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ culture\\/religion\\/civilization\\ based\\ conflict\\ that\\ Huntington\\ was\\ right\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Back\\ to\\ him\\:\\ Even\\ 9\\/11\\ did\\ not\\ spark\\ a\\ clash\\ of\\ civilizations\\.\\ Osama\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ Muslim\\ nation\\ is\\ throwing\\ its\\ sons\\ at\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iraq\\:\\ foreign\\ policy\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ Israel\\ and\\ Palestine\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ hostile\\.\\ But\\ the\\ primary\\ protests\\ came\\ from\\ Europe\\.\\ The\\ opposition\\ in\\ the\\ UN\\ Security\\ Council\\ came\\ from\\ Europe\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ seeing\\ the\\ United\\ states\\ as\\ just\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ or\\ just\\ another\\ democracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ US\\ as\\ distinctive\\ and\\ exceptional\\.\\ How\\ is\\ it\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\?\\ West\\ says\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ different\\ because\\ our\\ identity\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ linked\\ to\\ a\\ traditional\\ homeland\\ or\\ a\\ language\\ or\\ a\\ culture\\.\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ any\\ of\\ those\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ descended\\ from\\ people\\ who\\ came\\ from\\ other\\ places\\.\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ our\\ own\\ language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ speak\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ England\\ or\\ Spain\\.\\ We\\ have\\ only\\ the\\ briefest\\ of\\ common\\ history\\.\\ Europeans\\ are\\ amused\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ impressed\\ with\\ landmarks\\ that\\ are\\ two\\ hundred\\ years\\ old\\.\\ Imagine\\ how\\ the\\ Chinese\\ and\\ Egyptians\\ feel\\ when\\ we\\ present\\ this\\ stuff\\ as\\ our\\ history\\.\\ We\\ have\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ culture\\ now\\ than\\ we\\ did\\ during\\ the\\ Revolution\\.\\ Then\\,\\ 98\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ were\\ protestant\\ Christians\\ and\\ 80\\%\\ were\\ British\\.\\ Even\\ then\\,\\ a\\ full\\ 20\\%\\ were\\ Africans\\.\\ Now\\,\\ after\\ two\\ centuries\\ and\\ waves\\ and\\ waves\\ of\\ immigration\\ from\\ non\\ English\\ speaking\\ cultures\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ cultural\\ identity\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 2\\,\\ 2005\\ \\(section\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ theories\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Realism\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Democratic\\ Peace\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Clash\\ of\\ Civ\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Donnelly\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rummel\\ \\/\\ Ikenberry\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Huntington\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Type\\ of\\ theory\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;systemic\\/structural\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;normative\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;systemic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Institutional\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;unit\\:\\ culture\\/language\\/reli\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assumptions\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Unit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Level\\/unit\\ of\\ anal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;0\\ sum\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Variables\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;power\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;regime\\ type\\*\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;cultural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Level\\ of\\ threat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Balance\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Predictions\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;democ\\.\\ dyad\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;west\\ vs\\.\\ axis\\ \\(islam\\/confus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\=\\ no\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evidence\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lack\\ of\\ war\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Yugoslavia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prescriptions\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;democ\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;peace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Spread\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Says\\ what\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;maintain\\ preeminence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Prevent\\ balance\\ against\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;weather\\ storm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ define\\ war\\ and\\ define\\ democracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ argument\\ ensues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 3\\,\\ 2005\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Isolationism\\ and\\ Interventionism\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comes\\ from\\ geographic\\ separation\\ from\\ great\\ powers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ never\\ have\\ a\\ super\\ power\\ even\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ hemisphere\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ isolates\\ itself\\ from\\ superpower\\ alliances\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jeffersonian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ready\\ to\\ defend\\ the\\ nation\\ its\\ own\\ shores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\let\\ others\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ fight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cyclical\\ diplomatic\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\deep\\ intervention\\ onto\\ isolation\\ then\\ deep\\ intervention\\ then\\ isolation\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ timing\\ of\\ these\\ shifts\\ is\\ explain\\ by\\ Roskin\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rests\\ on\\ four\\ assumptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreign\\ policy\\ is\\ made\\ by\\ elites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ people\\ are\\ content\\ with\\ isolation\\ but\\ people\\ will\\ go\\ along\\ if\\ elites\\ say\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ elites\\ act\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ two\\ basic\\ paradigms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ define\\ national\\ defenses\\ protecting\\ North\\ American\\ boarders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\OR\\,\\ it\\ is\\ dangerous\\ to\\ not\\ protect\\ America\\ at\\ a\\ distance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ paradigm\\ you\\ believe\\ and\\ act\\ upon\\ depends\\ on\\ when\\ you\\ were\\ born\\.\\ These\\ generations\\ of\\ elites\\ will\\ replace\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ power\\ every\\ 20\\-30\\ years\\.\\ What\\ changes\\ the\\ generations\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ time\\ but\\ the\\ witnessing\\ of\\ a\\ foreign\\ policy\\ disaster\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\.\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ generation\\ given\\ to\\ interventionism\\.\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ generated\\ a\\ generation\\ of\\ isolationism\\.\\ 20\\-30\\ years\\ because\\ careers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ last\\ much\\ long\\ than\\ that\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ the\\ generation\\ will\\ eventually\\ over\\-apply\\ the\\ paradigm\\ and\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ mistake\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\ and\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ rising\\ generation\\.\\ That\\ seems\\ to\\ teach\\ the\\ opposite\\ lesson\\.\\ Relatively\\ simply\\ method\\ for\\ explaining\\ and\\ predicting\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intervention\\ until\\ 1919\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Versailles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isolationist\\ until\\ 1941\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intervention\\ until\\ 1968\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Vietnam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isolationist\\ until\\ 2001\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ September\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Vietnam\\ generation\\:\\ new\\ isolationist\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ started\\ by\\ Nixon\\ in\\ 1971\\,\\ who\\ started\\ pulling\\ out\\ and\\ appeasing\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confirming\\ Ruskin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\:\\ Hostage\\ situation\\:\\ sent\\ rescue\\ instead\\ of\\ invade\\ or\\ strike\\.\\ Carter\\ said\\ he\\ took\\ greatest\\ pride\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ combat\\ deaths\\ overseas\\ under\\ his\\ watch\\.\\ Jeffersonian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beirut\\:\\ Reagan\\ has\\ learned\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ either\\ win\\ or\\ get\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clinton\\ endured\\ tons\\ of\\ terrorist\\ attacks\\ and\\ all\\ he\\ did\\ is\\ blow\\ up\\ a\\ milk\\ factory\\ in\\ Sudan\\.\\ Jeffersonian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carter\\ Presidency\\ fits\\ the\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ generation\\,\\ but\\ Reagan\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\.\\ He\\ built\\ up\\ forces\\,\\ built\\ Star\\ Wars\\,\\ put\\ ballistic\\ missiles\\ in\\ Europe\\ etc\\.\\ But\\ he\\ was\\ old\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ was\\ an\\ impressionable\\ young\\ man\\ not\\ when\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ happened\\ but\\ when\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ happened\\.\\ He\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ generation\\.\\ Bush\\ too\\ was\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ generation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ enlisted\\ right\\ after\\ and\\ was\\ shot\\ down\\.\\ He\\ used\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ analogies\\ to\\ describe\\ Gulf\\ War\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hitler\\ to\\ Hussein\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clinton\\ \\(William\\ Jefferson\\)\\ was\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Viet\\ Nam\\.\\ He\\ worked\\ for\\ Fulbright\\ during\\ the\\ Viet\\ Nam\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ explanation\\:\\ partisanship\\.\\ Dems\\ are\\ isolationist\\ and\\ Republicans\\ are\\ interventionist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dems\\ got\\ us\\ into\\ VN\\ and\\ therefore\\ were\\ more\\ traumatized\\ by\\ the\\ mistake\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ went\\ the\\ other\\ way\\.\\ Republicans\\ were\\ not\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ seems\\ like\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ democrats\\ want\\ Iraq\\ to\\ be\\ disaster\\ to\\ prove\\ their\\ new\\ fearful\\ whiplash\\ from\\ Viet\\ name\\ correct\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 8\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exceptionalist\\ theories\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imperialism\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ form\\ of\\ capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sees\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ trade\\ abroad\\ as\\ primary\\ goal\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bacevich\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Hamiltonian\\ goal\\ of\\ opening\\ markets\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ then\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ persistent\\ even\\ predominant\\ trait\\ even\\ today\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Bacevich\\ argument\\ about\\ the\\ present\\ day\\ is\\ built\\ on\\ two\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\by\\ itself\\ the\\ internal\\ American\\ market\\ is\\ insufficient\\ to\\ maintain\\ sufficient\\ American\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ the\\ opening\\ of\\ markets\\ abroad\\ has\\ not\\ just\\ been\\ one\\ thrust\\ but\\ the\\ primary\\ thrust\\ of\\ our\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ does\\ not\\ approach\\ like\\ an\\ economist\\.\\ He\\ provides\\ mostly\\ testimonial\\ evidence\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ statements\\ from\\ officials\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ access\\ to\\ markets\\ abroad\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prosper\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sec\\.\\ of\\ state\\ also\\ say\\ that\\ human\\ rights\\ in\\ china\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ in\\ Africa\\ are\\ compelling\\ American\\ interests\\.\\ But\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ it\\ so\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paarlberg\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ opening\\ markets\\ is\\ a\\ distinctively\\ less\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ our\\ foreign\\ policy\\ compared\\ to\\ every\\ other\\ significant\\ economies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exported\\ \\%\\ of\\ GDP\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\:\\ 8\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Japan\\:\\ 10\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\China\\:\\ 20\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Germany\\:\\ 24\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thailand\\:\\ 55\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\%\\ of\\ our\\ economic\\ growth\\ over\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ resulted\\ from\\ the\\ increase\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ therefore\\ productivity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europe\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ done\\ well\\ in\\ productivity\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ undefended\\ research\\ and\\ development\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ the\\ EU\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\ is\\ about\\ out\\ size\\,\\ we\\ outstrip\\ them\\ by\\ 40\\%\\ r\\ and\\ d\\.\\ We\\ outstrip\\ Japan\\ 150\\%\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ markets\\ we\\ depend\\ on\\ are\\ import\\ not\\ export\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Talent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\foreign\\ capital\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ make\\ up\\ for\\ low\\ savings\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\foreign\\ energy\\ sources\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ oil\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ dependency\\ that\\ results\\ from\\ our\\ weakness\\ in\\ math\\ and\\ science\\.\\ Since\\ 1975\\ we\\ have\\ fallen\\ from\\ 3\\ to\\ 17\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ 18\\-24\\ year\\ olds\\ earning\\ math\\ and\\ science\\ degrees\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ math\\ and\\ science\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ foreign\\ born\\.\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ scientist\\ working\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ come\\ from\\ Europe\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ this\\ were\\ true\\,\\ we\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ employing\\ Jacksonian\\ defense\\ of\\ homeland\\ security\\.\\ We\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ making\\ immigration\\ so\\ difficult\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foreign\\ college\\ applications\\ are\\ way\\ down\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ dependence\\ on\\ oil\\ is\\ like\\ our\\ dependence\\ on\\ math\\ and\\ science\\ people\\ from\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Half\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ we\\ use\\ comes\\ from\\ abroad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Paul\\:\\ He\\ wrote\\ the\\ essay\\ just\\ before\\ Iraq\\.\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ war\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ democracy\\ or\\ WMD\\ but\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ cartel\\ of\\ oil\\ companies\\.\\ Been\\ happening\\ since\\ FDR\\ met\\ with\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ Persia\\ in\\ 1940\\ something\\.\\ The\\ invasion\\ of\\ Iraq\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ reinserting\\ US\\ and\\ UK\\ oil\\ companies\\.\\ US\\ was\\ planning\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ puppet\\ government\\ that\\ would\\ give\\ us\\ generous\\ deals\\ on\\ Iraqi\\ oil\\.\\ Prediction\\:\\ a\\ US\\ government\\ in\\ Baghdad\\ would\\ tip\\ the\\ balance\\ toward\\ oil\\ companies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ actually\\ happened\\ was\\ less\\ sinister\\.\\ US\\ oil\\ companies\\ were\\ not\\ given\\ any\\ concessions\\.\\ All\\ the\\ oil\\ money\\ went\\ into\\ a\\ fund\\ to\\ rebuild\\ Iraq\\.\\ The\\ new\\ real\\ government\\ took\\ full\\ possession\\ and\\ control\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ use\\ for\\ building\\ palaces\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ the\\ Iraqi\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ offer\\ Saudi\\ Arabia\\ security\\ for\\ their\\ regime\\ and\\ oil\\ if\\ they\\ will\\ maintain\\ a\\ steady\\ flow\\ of\\ oil\\ into\\ our\\ country\\.\\ We\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worried\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ take\\ Saudi\\ Arabia\\ and\\ cut\\ off\\ oil\\ supply\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ then\\ gets\\ no\\ oil\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ worry\\ was\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ sell\\ it\\,\\ make\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ and\\ use\\ it\\ all\\ on\\ military\\ and\\ WMD\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\International\\ economic\\ needs\\ are\\ important\\ but\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ Hamiltonian\\ sense\\ of\\ us\\ needed\\ access\\ to\\ foreign\\ markets\\.\\ But\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ need\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ send\\ out\\ exports\\,\\ we\\ need\\ imports\\,\\ talent\\,\\ investment\\ and\\ oil\\.\\ We\\ should\\ not\\ go\\ neo\\ con\\,\\ but\\ into\\ cooperative\\ Wilsonianism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberalism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 9\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;American\\ Exceptionalism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Liberty\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;UN\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Human\\ Rights\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Generational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lipset\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Heinbecker\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Moravcsik\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Roskin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;shared\\ ideol\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Amer\\.\\ Diff\\ threat\\ percep\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;geop\\.\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Five\\ things\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;U\\.S\\.\\ except\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unilat\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Conserve\\.\\ Minor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;UN\\ unable\\ to\\ delta\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;extrm\\ stability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Decentralization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methods\\ \\ \\;\\ U\\.S\\.\\/Europe\\/Can\\.\\ Comp\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;look\\ at\\ us\\/un\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Preem\\/prev\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tests\\/evid\\.\\ \\ \\;Diff\\.\\ in\\ lib\\/cons\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;standards\\ for\\ interv\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implic\\.\\ \\ \\;Double\\-edged\\ sword\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 10\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Unilateralism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ common\\ charge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ consultation\\ with\\ Allies\\ was\\ very\\ important\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nixon\\ surprised\\ Japan\\ twice\\ in\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 71\\:\\ devalue\\ the\\ dollar\\ and\\ halt\\ the\\ conversion\\ of\\ dollar\\ into\\ gold\\ and\\ visit\\ China\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ result\\ of\\ these\\ shocks\\ was\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ Trilateral\\ Commission\\,\\ first\\ director\\ was\\ Zbigniew\\ Brzenzki\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Any\\ organization\\ that\\ uses\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;ethics\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;international\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ its\\ name\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ Wilsonian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inserted\\ exemptions\\ into\\ chemical\\ weapons\\ ban\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1999\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Senate\\ rejected\\ the\\ Nuclear\\ Test\\ Ban\\ Treaty\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ participate\\ in\\ international\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abandon\\ ABM\\ treaty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dobryanski\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Difference\\ in\\ unilateralism\\ \\(checked\\ only\\ by\\ appetites\\ and\\ armies\\)\\ and\\ leadership\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Iraq\\:\\ not\\ only\\ did\\ we\\ seek\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ international\\ community\\,\\ we\\ had\\ it\\.\\ UN\\ decries\\:\\ we\\ took\\ them\\ more\\ seriously\\ than\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ approve\\ Kyoto\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ cause\\ 4\\.9\\ million\\ jobs\\ lost\\,\\ hurt\\ us\\ and\\ rest\\ of\\ world\\ with\\ little\\ good\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\International\\ criminal\\ court\\:\\ our\\ stance\\ is\\ accurately\\ described\\ as\\ leadership\\.\\ We\\ have\\ made\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ support\\ law\\ around\\ world\\.\\ Therefore\\ we\\ are\\ most\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ mistreatment\\ by\\ others\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ at\\ us\\ for\\ imposing\\ law\\ previously\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dwain\\ Colefield\\ links\\ unilateralism\\ to\\ the\\ Jacksonian\\ Christian\\ right\\ that\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ trilateral\\ commission\\ is\\ the\\ antichrist\\ or\\ something\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ John\\ Kerry\\ said\\ Bush\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policy\\ failed\\ the\\ global\\ test\\:\\ When\\ our\\ country\\ is\\ in\\ danger\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ international\\ poll\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\ to\\ defend\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ least\\ demanding\\ form\\ of\\ multilateralism\\ is\\ consultation\\:\\ \\(warning\\ them\\ what\\ we\\ do\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ could\\ have\\ at\\ least\\ told\\ South\\ Korea\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ abandon\\ the\\ Sunshine\\ Project\\ \\(or\\ something\\)\\ to\\ save\\ him\\ the\\ embarrassment\\ of\\ finding\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ news\\.\\ Seems\\ easy\\,\\ but\\ not\\ that\\ simple\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ we\\ are\\ about\\ to\\ be\\ controversial\\,\\ other\\ leaders\\ may\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ in\\ advance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negotiation\\ of\\ side\\ deals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consult\\ and\\ negotiate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ they\\ still\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\ or\\ agree\\ to\\ disagree\\,\\ if\\ they\\ continue\\ to\\ criticize\\ and\\ block\\ our\\ actions\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\,\\ on\\ the\\ rule\\ that\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\ this\\ way\\ unless\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ bad\\ for\\ everybody\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;If\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bring\\ the\\ allies\\ on\\ board\\,\\ probably\\ making\\ a\\ mistake\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Kerry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ demanding\\:\\ not\\ a\\ test\\ of\\ alliance\\ agreement\\,\\ like\\ NATO\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ to\\ get\\ endorsement\\ from\\ a\\ global\\ institution\\ with\\ legal\\ standard\\.\\ \\(Kerry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ old\\ test\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ earlier\\ in\\ career\\)\\ Would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ approved\\ by\\ UN\\ Security\\ Council\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ the\\ security\\ council\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ much\\ because\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ had\\ veto\\ and\\ they\\ used\\ it\\.\\ Better\\ now\\,\\ but\\ even\\ Clinton\\ only\\ used\\ SC\\ when\\ convenient\\.\\ Multilateral\\ when\\ possible\\,\\ unilateral\\ when\\ necessary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ viewed\\ by\\ US\\ President\\ as\\ a\\ replacement\\ for\\ a\\ decision\\ making\\ process\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ State\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ our\\ allies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Expected\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Unilateralism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Agreement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;High\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ cooperation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ arguments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ of\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relative\\ to\\ power\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ allies\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ Ratification\\ of\\ US\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Straight\\ for\\ unilateral\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;L\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ Ratification\\ \\(lower\\ left\\)\\ we\\ did\\ this\\ after\\ 9\\/11\\.\\ Post\\ 9\\/11\\,\\ we\\ decided\\ unilaterally\\ to\\ invade\\ Afghanistan\\ but\\ then\\ we\\ welcomed\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ our\\ allies\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ offered\\ military\\ assistance\\ but\\ we\\ declined\\.\\ Same\\ thing\\ happened\\ in\\ Cuban\\ Missile\\ Crisis\\.\\ Almost\\ no\\ discussion\\ about\\ allies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ would\\ agree\\ to\\ whatever\\ we\\ decided\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unilateral\\ arguments\\:\\ \\(upper\\ right\\)\\ if\\ their\\ power\\ is\\ high\\ but\\ our\\ agreement\\ is\\ low\\.\\ Like\\ in\\ the\\ WTO\\ when\\ we\\ disagree\\ about\\ agriculture\\.\\ We\\ eventually\\ agreed\\ to\\ disagree\\ about\\ agriculture\\.\\ WTO\\ requires\\ consensus\\ \\(unanimous\\)\\ so\\ India\\ and\\ Brazil\\ could\\ withstand\\ US\\ and\\ Europe\\.\\ They\\ had\\ equal\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multilateral\\ cooperation\\ \\(upper\\ left\\)\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ France\\ in\\ Lebanon\\.\\ We\\ agree\\ on\\ the\\ withdraw\\ of\\ Syrian\\ troops\\.\\ We\\ have\\ been\\ cooperating\\ well\\ recently\\.\\ Another\\ example\\:\\ US\\ policy\\ toward\\ North\\ Korea\\.\\ Chinese\\ like\\ Americans\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ nuclear\\ free\\ peninsula\\.\\ We\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ goals\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 17\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\&rsquo\\;s\\ midterm\\:\\ format\\:\\ six\\ questions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ answer\\ any\\ five\\.\\ In\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ short\\ answer\\ questions\\.\\ Asking\\ for\\ factual\\ information\\;\\ ID\\&rsquo\\;s\\;\\ and\\ analytical\\ answers\\.\\ Should\\ move\\ though\\ quickly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenge\\:\\ letters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Powers\\ of\\ Congress\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\declare\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\raise\\ and\\ equip\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reject\\ treaties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\only\\ takes\\ 1\\/3\\ \\+\\ 1\\ to\\ reject\\ a\\ treaty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reject\\ nominees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\regulate\\ foreign\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\authorize\\ spending\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Creative\\ Tension\\:\\ Lee\\ Hamilton\\,\\ Director\\ of\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\ Center\\ for\\ Scholar\\ \\(classic\\ Hamiltonian\\/Wilsonian\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ would\\ Walter\\ Russell\\ Meade\\ characterize\\ the\\ thinking\\ of\\ Lee\\ Hamilton\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ vice\\ chair\\ of\\ the\\ 9\\/11\\ commission\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ President\\ and\\ the\\ Congress\\ really\\ marked\\ by\\ creative\\ tension\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ original\\ constitution\\ design\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ foreign\\ policy\\ was\\ an\\ invitation\\ to\\ struggle\\ between\\ executive\\ and\\ legislature\\.\\ Framers\\ wanted\\ Congress\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ upper\\ hand\\.\\ Originally\\ given\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;make\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ concerns\\ about\\ invasion\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ emergency\\ resulted\\ in\\ change\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;declare\\ war\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ allowing\\ the\\ president\\ to\\ make\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ the\\ president\\ decides\\ to\\ make\\ war\\,\\ congress\\ gets\\ to\\ decide\\ if\\ they\\ get\\ any\\ money\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Following\\ WWII\\:\\ new\\ generation\\ of\\ congressmen\\ began\\ to\\ field\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ powers\\ to\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\.\\ They\\ allowed\\ the\\ president\\ to\\ conduct\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ policy\\ using\\ executive\\ agreements\\ that\\ were\\ just\\ as\\ legally\\ binding\\ as\\ treaties\\.\\ Truman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 14\\ treaties\\ 0\\ over\\ 200\\ executive\\ agreements\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ forces\\ have\\ been\\ sent\\ into\\ combat\\ sixty\\ times\\ since\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ declaration\\ of\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ declare\\ war\\ \\(US\\ forces\\ have\\ been\\ sent\\ into\\ combat\\ sixty\\ times\\ since\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ declaration\\ of\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ raise\\ and\\ equip\\ armies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ undermined\\ by\\ a\\ standing\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Reject\\ treaties\\ \\(executive\\ agreements\\ instead\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\War\\ Powers\\ Act\\:\\ president\\ must\\ do\\ three\\ things\\:\\ consult\\ the\\ congress\\ before\\ introducing\\ forces\\ to\\ hostilities\\.\\;\\ 2\\)\\ must\\ report\\ to\\ congress\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ introduced\\.\\ 3\\)\\ If\\ the\\ President\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ approval\\ for\\ actions\\ within\\ 60\\-90\\ days\\,\\ must\\ terminate\\ actions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ provisions\\ have\\ never\\ restrained\\ a\\ president\\.\\ No\\ president\\ has\\ viewed\\ it\\ as\\ constitutional\\.\\ They\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ their\\ actions\\;\\ 1999\\ Kosovo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Clinton\\ went\\ to\\ Congress\\ and\\ ogt\\ approval\\ from\\ Senate\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ House\\.\\ Clinton\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ anyway\\ and\\ hoped\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ finish\\ in\\ 60\\-90\\ days\\ but\\ nothing\\ happened\\.\\ Some\\ complained\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ basically\\ fine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Authorize\\ Spending\\ \\(Congress\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cut\\ off\\ funding\\ for\\ troops\\ once\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ the\\ field\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Congress\\ voted\\ 95\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 0\\ that\\ Clinton\\ should\\ not\\ agree\\ to\\ Kyoto\\ unless\\ developing\\ countries\\ had\\ to\\ restrict\\ emission\\ as\\ well\\.\\ They\\ refused\\ and\\ that\\ was\\ that\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ president\\,\\ how\\ can\\ the\\ congress\\ dictate\\ trade\\ policy\\ but\\ cave\\ on\\ funding\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ Because\\ they\\ see\\ trade\\ policy\\ as\\ jobs\\ in\\ their\\ districts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ domestic\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 18, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1790_Lect_Notes_1.doc", "desc": "Class Notes for whole year"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:55:02.086216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice - Study Guide", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "ethical-reasoning-22"], "text": null, "id": 23, "html": "\\\\\\List\\_of\\_Concepts\\_\\-\\_Justice\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c10\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c2\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#000099\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ Review\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Martin\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Neill\\,\\ December\\ 2002\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ reviewing\\ the\\ material\\ before\\ the\\ Final\\ Examination\\,\\ you\\ should\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ ideas\\ and\\ concepts\\.\\ \\This\\ is\\ not\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ exhaustive\\ list\\,\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ helpful\\ in\\ structuring\\ your\\ thoughts\\ about\\ the\\ material\\.\\ \\Naturally\\,\\ the\\ very\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ coming\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ possible\\ understanding\\ of\\ this\\ material\\ is\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ texts\\ themselves\\.\\ \\Bear\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ probably\\ pay\\ special\\ attention\\ to\\ our\\ 5\\ major\\ thinkers\\:\\that\\ is\\,\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Locke\\,\\ Kant\\,\\ Mill\\ and\\ Rawls\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Political\\ Liberalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ where\\ you\\ feel\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ write\\ a\\ few\\ sentences\\ on\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ topics\\,\\ you\\ should\\ be\\ well\\ on\\ your\\ way\\ to\\ mastery\\ of\\ this\\ material\\.\\ \\My\\ single\\ biggest\\ piece\\ of\\ advice\\,\\ at\\ this\\ stage\\,\\ and\\ now\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\ all\\ the\\ material\\ for\\ the\\ course\\,\\ is\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ connections\\ between\\ all\\ the\\ theories\\.\\ \\By\\ seeing\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ argue\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ where\\ they\\ might\\ agree\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THEORY\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Bentham\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ general\\ utilitarian\\ principle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ social\\ decision\\-making\\ under\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ His\\ idea\\ of\\ man\\ being\\ under\\ the\\ soverignty\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;two\\ sovereign\\ masters\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Pleasure\\ as\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ The\\ issue\\ of\\ commensurability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ With\\ regards\\ to\\ Mill\\ \\&\\;\\ Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(A\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ families\\ of\\ objections\\ to\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Incommensurability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Higher\\/Lower\\ Pleasures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(B\\)\\ Remember\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ as\\ involving\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Consequentialism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ right\\ as\\ determined\\ by\\ bringing\\ about\\ good\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Welfarism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ utility\\/happiness\\ as\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Sum\\-maximization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ deliberately\\ ignores\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ separateness\\ of\\ persons\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Mill\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Utilitarianism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ where\\ Mill\\ departs\\ from\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;commensurability\\&rsquo\\;\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utilitarian\\ justification\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ Act\\-utilitarianism\\ vs\\ Rule\\-utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Nozick\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Anarchy\\,\\ State\\ and\\ Utopia\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;patterned\\&rsquo\\;\\ distributions\\ and\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ just\\ acquisitions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Different\\ assumptions\\ about\\ the\\ individual\\ made\\ by\\ utilitarians\\ and\\ libertarians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ argument\\ for\\ why\\ taxation\\ amounts\\ to\\ forced\\ labour\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\(Michael\\ Jordan\\)\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ self\\-ownership\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;Lockean\\ proviso\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(5\\)\\ Locke\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Differences\\ from\\ libertarianism\\.\\ Why\\ Locke\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ libertarian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ to\\ civil\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;State\\ of\\ War\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Property\\ rights\\,\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ property\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\ law\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;tacit\\ consent\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ provisos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ much\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ left\\ for\\ others\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ and\\ function\\ of\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ His\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ and\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(6\\)\\ Markets\\ and\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ money\\ is\\ a\\ suitable\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ all\\ commodities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Are\\ markets\\ suitable\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ of\\ distribution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Limits\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ property\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ consent\\,\\ and\\ of\\ contracts\\.\\ Conditions\\ under\\ which\\ a\\ contract\\ is\\ enforceable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Anderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ market\\ transactions\\ as\\ undermining\\ social\\ understandings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Kimbrell\\:\\ organ\\-selling\\ as\\ violating\\ bodily\\ integrity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ notion\\ that\\ some\\ contracts\\ might\\ be\\ exploitative\\,\\ even\\ if\\ consensual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(7\\)\\ Kant\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\.\\ Its\\ various\\ formulations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ hypothetical\\ imperatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ consequentialist\\ moral\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ duty\\ vs\\ mere\\ inclination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ concept\\ of\\ freedom\\ as\\ autonomy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ How\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;categorical\\ imperative\\ test\\&rsquo\\;\\ functions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ following\\ Kantian\\ concepts\\ should\\ all\\ make\\ some\\ sense\\ to\\ you\\:\\ prudence\\;\\ autonomy\\;\\ inclination\\;\\ heteronomy\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\ Imperative\\;\\ respect\\;\\ law\\;\\ will\\;\\ hypothetical\\ imperative\\;\\ freedom\\;\\ happiness\\;\\ action\\;\\ The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\;\\ maxim\\;\\ Reason\\;\\ duty\\;\\ right\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ maxim\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ as\\ the\\ action\\ \\+\\ the\\ purpose\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ performed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ Good\\ Will\\ as\\ the\\ highest\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dualisms\\ \\(autonomy\\ vs\\ heteronomy\\,\\ categorical\\ vs\\ hypothetical\\,\\ sensible\\ vs\\ intelligible\\,\\ duty\\ vs\\ inclination\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ line\\ up\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(8\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ contractarian\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ Original\\ Position\\ and\\ the\\ Veil\\ of\\ Ignorance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ Two\\ Principles\\ of\\ Justice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Equal\\ Basic\\ Liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2a\\.\\ Fair\\ Equality\\ of\\ Opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2b\\.\\ The\\ Difference\\ Principle\\ \\(maximin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;reflective\\ equilibrium\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Some\\ things\\ being\\ \\&lsquo\\;arbitrary\\ from\\ a\\ moral\\ point\\ of\\ view\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ \\(the\\ self\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ Right\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ contrast\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;entitlements\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\&rsquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&lsquo\\;moral\\ desert\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Natural\\ talents\\ as\\ collective\\ assets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ 5\\-stage\\ diagram\\ discussed\\ in\\ section\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(1\\)\\ Feudal\\ Aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ Natural\\ Liberty\\ \\(libertarianism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ Liberal\\ Equality\\ \\(meritocracy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ \\(with\\ rewards\\ for\\ effort\\,\\ due\\ to\\ desert\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(5\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ without\\ Desert\\ \\(Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;social\\ primary\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xii\\)\\ The\\ restriction\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(9\\)\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Dworkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ merit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Dworkin\\,\\ and\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ self\\-understanding\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ using\\ people\\ as\\ means\\ instead\\ of\\ ends\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ embodying\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ attitude\\,\\ or\\ as\\ failing\\ to\\ treat\\ people\\ as\\ equals\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Dworkin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ equal\\ treatment\\ vs\\.\\ equal\\ outcomes\\.\\ Rejection\\ of\\ desert\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&lsquo\\;acceptance\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;rejection\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\:\\ the\\ relation\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Aristotle\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Politics\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ deontological\\ and\\ teleological\\ theories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ Man\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ state\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ citizenship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\&rsquo\\;\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ Good\\ Life\\,\\ and\\ of\\ Happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;telos\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ a\\ person\\,\\ activity\\ or\\ institution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ Aristotle\\.\\ The\\ specificity\\ of\\ virtue\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ particular\\ kinds\\ of\\ person\\ or\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ to\\ promote\\ \\&lsquo\\;living\\ well\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ Determinations\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ involving\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(11\\)\\ Communitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Obligations\\ of\\ Community\\ or\\ Solidarity\\ \\(Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ type\\-3\\ obligations\\,\\ where\\ type\\-1\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;General\\ Obligations\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ type\\-2\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;Contractual\\ or\\ Consensual\\ or\\ Voluntarist\\&rsquo\\;\\ obligations\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ liberal\\ \\(voluntarist\\)\\ self\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ communitarian\\ \\(narrative\\,\\ embedded\\)\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\ and\\ its\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\ in\\ liberalism\\ and\\ in\\ communitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(12\\)\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;After\\ Virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ narrative\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;teleological\\ unity\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ communal\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ MacIntyre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Aristotelianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(13\\)\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ self\\ as\\ partly\\ constituted\\ by\\ its\\ attachments\\ and\\ commitments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Moral\\ and\\ political\\ obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ these\\ \\&lsquo\\;constitutive\\&rsquo\\;\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Arguments\\ against\\ the\\ Rawlsian\\/Kantian\\ \\&lsquo\\;unencumbered\\ self\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(14\\)\\ Walzer\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ methodology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ interpreting\\ \\&lsquo\\;shared\\ understandings\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ welfare\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(15\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Political\\ Liberalism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Justice\\ as\\ fairness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;fact\\ of\\ reasonable\\ pluralism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;idea\\ of\\ an\\ overlapping\\ consensus\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ neutrality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Between\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\(in\\ TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Between\\ comprehensive\\ religious\\,\\ moral\\ or\\ philosophical\\ doctrines\\ \\(PL\\ only\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;public\\ reason\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ fair\\ system\\ of\\ co\\-operation\\ between\\ people\\ regarded\\ as\\ reasonable\\ and\\ rational\\,\\ free\\ and\\ equal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ three\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;political\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Limited\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\ \\(TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Independent\\ of\\ any\\ comprehensive\\ doctrine\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ Reliant\\ on\\ ideas\\ which\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;implicit\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ political\\ culture\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Rawls\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ bracketing\\ grave\\ moral\\ questions\\ \\(Lincoln\\-Douglas\\,\\ Abortion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Reasonable\\ Pluralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Liberal\\ Public\\ Reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ last\\ word\\ of\\ advice\\:\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ unhelpful\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ notions\\ \\(some\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ abstract\\)\\ just\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ theory\\.\\ \\Thus\\,\\ thinking\\ about\\ specific\\ examples\\ is\\ of\\ immense\\ value\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ seeing\\ how\\ these\\ different\\ theories\\ work\\,\\ and\\ in\\ rendering\\ them\\ vivid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ do\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ discussing\\ this\\ semester\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXAMPLES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Queen\\ vs\\.\\ Dudley\\ \\&\\;\\ Stephens\\ \\(the\\ lifeboat\\ case\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Trolley\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Enthusiastic\\ Transplant\\ Doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Simpsons\\ vs\\ Shakespeare\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\/\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Civil\\ War\\ military\\ draft\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Baby\\ M\\ \\&\\;\\ commercial\\ surrogacy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Organ\\-selling\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Nozick\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\&\\#39\\;Tale\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\&\\#39\\;\\Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Shopkeeper\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Lying\\ to\\ the\\ Murderer\\ at\\ the\\ Door\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Bill\\ Clinton\\ and\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Kant\\ on\\ Sex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bakke\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Hopwood\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;Proxy\\ War\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ University\\ Rejection\\ and\\ Acceptance\\ Letters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Casey\\ Martin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ golf\\ cart\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Callie\\ Smartt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cherleading\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Nazis\\ in\\ Skokie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\MLK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ march\\ from\\ Selma\\ to\\ Montgomery\\,\\ AL\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Gay\\ Marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/List_of_Concepts_-_Justice_1.doc", "desc": "List of Concepts"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Hebrew Bible - Lectures", "tags": ["harvard", "hebrew", "bible"], "text": null, "id": 80, "html": "\\\\\\Hebrew\\_Assembled\\_Weekly\\_Lectures\\_and\\_Readings\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:96\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c30\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:80\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c28\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:88\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:511\\.2pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:50\\.4pt\\ 50\\.4pt\\ 50\\.4pt\\ 50\\.4pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c35\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-size\\:20pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c19\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c32\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c20\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:6pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Hebrew\\ Bible\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weekly\\ Readings\\ and\\ Lectures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weeks\\ 7\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 7\\ Lectures\\ and\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 7\\ Reading\\ Summaries\\ and\\ General\\ Essay\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Week\\ 7\\ Reading\\ Summaries\\ and\\ Key\\ IDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ ID\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ root\\ meaning\\ \\&ldquo\\;pass\\ over\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ JSB\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ favorable\\ translation\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;protect\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pesah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sacrifice\\ is\\ apotropaic\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ protect\\ flocks\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sacrifice\\:\\ slaughter\\ and\\ eating\\ of\\ paschal\\ lamb\\ or\\ goat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pesah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sacrifice\\ was\\ home\\ and\\ family\\ based\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deuteronomy\\ moved\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ home\\ to\\ the\\ central\\ shrine\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;never\\ lost\\ its\\ domestic\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Christianity\\:\\ Passover\\ becomes\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pasch\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ means\\ Easter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Latinized\\ version\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ 2\\ definitions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ unleavened\\ bread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\bread\\ made\\ without\\ being\\ allowed\\ to\\ rise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\text\\ says\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;must\\ be\\ eaten\\ during\\ Passover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;gets\\ historical\\ explanation\\:\\ During\\ Exodus\\,\\ Israelites\\ were\\ in\\ a\\ hurry\\ to\\ leave\\ Egypt\\ and\\ could\\ not\\ wait\\ for\\ bread\\ to\\ rise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ agricultural\\ seven\\-day\\ festival\\ in\\ the\\ spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Differences\\ in\\ Bible\\-\\ show\\ inevitably\\ of\\ exegesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exodus\\ 12\\,\\ Leviticus\\:\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ first\\ month\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\,\\ 7\\-day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\ follows\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deuteronomy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ pesah\\ festival\\ are\\ apparently\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\:\\ pesah\\ is\\ first\\ day\\ followed\\ by\\ six\\ days\\ of\\ eating\\ matzah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eventually\\ merged\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\ to\\ become\\ one\\ festival\\ of\\ Passover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apotropaic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\something\\ that\\ gives\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lit\\ \\&ldquo\\;turning\\ away\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ averting\\ danger\\ or\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;said\\ to\\ be\\ apotropaic\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ protects\\ flocks\\ from\\ danger\\ or\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Idea\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ kill\\ one\\ and\\ save\\ the\\ rest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ historicized\\:\\ averting\\ death\\ of\\ Israelites\\ themselves\\ by\\ exodus\\ in\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seder\\-\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ meal\\ eaten\\ and\\ a\\ ritual\\ performed\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ night\\ of\\ Passover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Consists\\ of\\ symbolic\\ food\\,\\ real\\ food\\,\\ ritualized\\ gestures\\,\\ and\\ ritualized\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lit\\ \\&ldquo\\;order\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Torah\\ makes\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\seder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ provides\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ its\\ later\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ outlines\\ of\\ the\\ seder\\ given\\ in\\ Mishnah\\-\\ Two\\ key\\ ideas\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ every\\ generation\\ one\\ should\\ regard\\ himself\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ personally\\ had\\ gone\\ forth\\ from\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Redemption\\ from\\ Egypt\\ prefigures\\ our\\ future\\ redemption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Likely\\ that\\ Mishnah\\ seder\\ is\\ rabbinic\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\;\\ transfer\\ the\\ Passover\\ ritual\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ HOME\\ from\\ the\\ central\\ shrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Haggadah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;prescribed\\ text\\ told\\ during\\ the\\ seder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ritualized\\ telling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lit\\ \\&ldquo\\;response\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;narrative\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Afiqoman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Mishnah\\:\\ something\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ do\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ meal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traditional\\ explanations\\ are\\ no\\ after\\ dinner\\ treats\\ or\\ entertainment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ Middle\\ Ages\\:\\ Became\\ piece\\ of\\ matzah\\ that\\ is\\ broken\\ off\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ seder\\ and\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ meal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Represents\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbol\\ for\\ the\\ redemption\\ \\=\\ messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maror\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ the\\ bitter\\ herbs\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ Passover\\ Seder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\according\\ to\\ the\\ Haggadah\\,\\ herbs\\ symbolize\\ bitterness\\ of\\ the\\ slavery\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ancillary\\ in\\ Scripture\\,\\ becomes\\ more\\ central\\ to\\ Seder\\ in\\ post\\-Mishnah\\ instructions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 12\\-13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*Exodus\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;Important\\ Chapter\\ describing\\ the\\ Exodus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ tells\\ Aaron\\ and\\ Moses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ month\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ should\\ commemorate\\ exodus\\.\\ On\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ month\\ in\\ the\\ evening\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ 7\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Israelites\\ should\\ slaughter\\ lamb\\ and\\ put\\ blood\\ on\\ doorposts\\ of\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sacrifice\\ eaten\\ by\\ family\\ units\\ in\\ house\\ with\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ and\\ bitter\\ herbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ blood\\ on\\ the\\ houses\\ are\\ a\\ sign\\ to\\ show\\ God\\ to\\ pass\\ over\\ the\\ people\\,\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ stricken\\ like\\ the\\ Egyptians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;should\\ be\\ festival\\ of\\ remembrance\\ for\\ all\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ Exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ strikes\\ down\\ the\\ first\\-borns\\ in\\ Egypt\\ in\\ every\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Israelites\\ journeyed\\ away\\ from\\ Egypt\\ while\\ eating\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ a\\ hurry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ tells\\ Moses\\ that\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ passing\\ is\\ that\\ only\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ circumcised\\ can\\ eat\\ Passover\\ offering\\,\\ no\\ foreigners\\ unless\\ circumcised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Israelites\\ freed\\ from\\ Egypt\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Moses\\ tells\\ people\\ to\\ remember\\ how\\ the\\ Lord\\ freed\\ people\\ from\\ Egypt\\ and\\ that\\ no\\ leavened\\ bread\\ shall\\ be\\ eaten\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\7\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ first\\ male\\ animal\\ should\\ be\\ sacrificed\\ and\\ every\\ first\\-born\\ son\\ redeemed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narrator\\ tells\\ that\\ God\\ leads\\ people\\ on\\ roundabout\\ but\\ safer\\ way\\ home\\ from\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 23\\:14\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ orders\\ people\\ to\\ hold\\ festival\\ 3\\ times\\ a\\ year\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Seven\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\festival\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Feast\\ of\\ the\\ Harvest\\-\\ Day\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ fruits\\ of\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ Feast\\ of\\ Ingathering\\-\\ Gathering\\ of\\ work\\ in\\ field\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ summer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ prohibits\\ leavened\\ bread\\ with\\ sacrifices\\:\\ v18\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ not\\ offer\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ my\\ sacrifice\\ with\\ anything\\ leavened\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 34\\:\\ 18\\-26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ orders\\ people\\ to\\ observe\\ seven\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ orders\\ rest\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ promises\\ He\\ will\\ protect\\ their\\ homes\\ when\\ they\\ leave\\ for\\ the\\ festivals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ prohibits\\ leavened\\ bread\\ with\\ sacrifices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leviticus\\ 23\\:\\ 4\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ orders\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ first\\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ first\\ month\\ is\\ seven\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ says\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ not\\ work\\ on\\ first\\ day\\ and\\ seventh\\ day\\-\\ first\\ and\\ last\\ days\\ of\\ festival\\ \\(becomes\\ normative\\ of\\ Jewish\\ practice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Numbers\\ 28\\:\\ 16\\-25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ orders\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ first\\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ first\\ month\\ is\\ seven\\ day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ is\\ sacred\\:\\ People\\ should\\ not\\ work\\ and\\ should\\ offer\\ sacrifices\\.\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ should\\ be\\ day\\ of\\ rest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specific\\ instructions\\ given\\ for\\ mixing\\ different\\ animals\\ for\\ meal\\ and\\ offering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Deuteronomy\\ 16\\:1\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;festival\\ are\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Total\\ of\\ 7\\ days\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ offered\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ day\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ six\\ days\\ of\\ eating\\ matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Command\\ to\\ eat\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ because\\ v3\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ departed\\ from\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Egypt\\ hurriedly\\-\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ may\\ remember\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ your\\ departure\\ from\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Egypt\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ you\\ live\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pesah\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ slaughtered\\ and\\ eaten\\ only\\ at\\ central\\ shrine\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ home\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ should\\ be\\ day\\ of\\ rest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mishnah\\ Pesahim\\ 10\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Mishnah\\ Pesahim\\ gives\\ instructions\\ for\\ Passover\\:\\ Instructions\\ are\\ given\\ for\\ four\\ cups\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ appetizers\\,\\ instruction\\/telling\\,\\ blessings\\,\\ meal\\,\\ and\\ hymns\\ of\\ praise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ the\\ eve\\ of\\ Passover\\ people\\ must\\ not\\ eat\\ until\\ night\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fathers\\ should\\ tell\\ sons\\ how\\ the\\ night\\ is\\ different\\ than\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ nights\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ food\\ rituals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ things\\ on\\ Passover\\ must\\ be\\ mentioned\\ to\\ fulfill\\ obligation\\:\\ 1\\)\\ The\\ Passover\\-sacrifice\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ unleavened\\ bread\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ the\\ bitter\\ herb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ generation\\ should\\ regard\\ himself\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ personally\\ had\\ gone\\ forth\\ from\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duty\\ to\\ thank\\,\\ praise\\,\\ glorify\\,\\ honor\\ God\\ who\\ freed\\ them\\ and\\ ancestors\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ joy\\ and\\ light\\ and\\ redemption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;We\\ do\\ not\\ bid\\ farewell\\ to\\ the\\ paschal\\ meal\\ with\\ afiqoman\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ Entries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Note\\:\\ I\\ thought\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ most\\ helpful\\ and\\ effective\\ to\\ write\\ paragraph\\ summaries\\ of\\ the\\ Wikipedia\\ entries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Passover\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Passover\\ is\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Festival\\ of\\ Unleavened\\ Bread\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ Jewish\\ holiday\\ celebrated\\ from\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ Nisan\\.\\ \\ \\;Passover\\ commemorates\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;birth\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Children\\ of\\ Israel\\ who\\ become\\ the\\ Jewish\\ nation\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\.\\ The\\ main\\ symbol\\ of\\ Passover\\ is\\ matzah\\-\\ flat\\,\\ unleavened\\ bread\\,\\ which\\ many\\ Jews\\ eat\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ night\\ of\\ Passover\\.\\ \\ \\;Jews\\ do\\ not\\ eat\\ leavened\\ bread\\ during\\ these\\ 7\\ days\\.\\ Observances\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\ include\\:\\ remove\\ and\\ sale\\ of\\ leavened\\ bread\\,\\ formal\\ search\\ for\\ leavened\\ bread\\,\\ burning\\ the\\ leavened\\ bread\\,\\ matzah\\ baking\\,\\ and\\ specific\\ dishware\\ reserved\\ only\\ for\\ Passover\\.\\ The\\ Passover\\ Seder\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ night\\ of\\ Passover\\ and\\ involves\\ the\\ reading\\ of\\ the\\ Haggadah\\.\\ The\\ Seder\\ has\\ questions\\,\\ answers\\,\\ and\\ unusual\\ activities\\ to\\ arouse\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ children\\ at\\ the\\ table\\.\\ The\\ intermediary\\ days\\ of\\ Passover\\ have\\ a\\ semi\\-festive\\ status\\.\\ The\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ Passover\\ is\\ another\\ full\\ Jewish\\ holiday\\ commemorating\\ the\\ Children\\ of\\ Israel\\ reaching\\ the\\ Red\\ Sea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Passover\\ Seder\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Passover\\ Seder\\ is\\ the\\ ritualized\\ feast\\ that\\ occurs\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ night\\ of\\ Passover\\ in\\ Israel\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\ nights\\ of\\ Passover\\ in\\ the\\ Jewish\\ Diaspora\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Seder\\ is\\ typically\\ a\\ household\\ and\\ family\\ ritual\\ and\\ an\\ integral\\ aspect\\ of\\ Jewish\\ faith\\ and\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Haggadah\\ states\\ that\\ without\\ the\\ Exodus\\,\\ Jews\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ slaves\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ occasion\\ for\\ much\\ praise\\ and\\ thanksgiving\\ to\\ God\\.\\ The\\ Haggadah\\ divides\\ the\\ night\\ into\\ 15\\ ritual\\ parts\\.\\ Themes\\ of\\ the\\ Seder\\ include\\:\\ slavery\\ and\\ freedom\\,\\ drinking\\ the\\ four\\ coups\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ the\\ Seder\\ Plate\\ containing\\ symbolic\\ foods\\,\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ arousing\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ children\\.\\ The\\ Seder\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ of\\ Jewish\\ faith\\ from\\ parent\\ to\\ child\\ and\\ between\\ generations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Afikoman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Afikoman\\ is\\ defined\\ on\\ Wikipedia\\ as\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ matzah\\ that\\ is\\ hidden\\ at\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ Seder\\ and\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ meal\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ eat\\ any\\ food\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ night\\ after\\ afikoman\\ is\\ eaten\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ hiding\\ of\\ the\\ afikoman\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ arouse\\ interest\\ and\\ excitement\\ of\\ the\\ children\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ encouraged\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ it\\.\\ Afikoman\\ became\\ the\\ last\\ food\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ Seder\\ after\\ the\\ abolition\\ of\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\ with\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;temple\\ in\\ 70\\ CE\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maror\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Maror\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ bitter\\ herbs\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ Passover\\ Seder\\.\\ \\ \\;According\\ to\\ the\\ Haggadah\\,\\ these\\ herbs\\ symbolize\\ bitterness\\ of\\ the\\ slavery\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ most\\ commonly\\ used\\ vegetables\\ are\\ horseradish\\ and\\ romaine\\ lettuce\\.\\ During\\ the\\ Seder\\,\\ each\\ participant\\ makes\\ a\\ blessing\\ over\\ the\\ maror\\ and\\ eats\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Haggadah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Haggadah\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ the\\ scriptural\\ commandment\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;tell\\ your\\ son\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ the\\ exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\.\\ The\\ Haggadah\\ provides\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ rituals\\ during\\ the\\ Passover\\ Seder\\ and\\ tells\\ the\\ Passover\\ story\\.\\ The\\ Haggadah\\ is\\ an\\ actual\\ manuscript\\ and\\ different\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ exist\\.\\ There\\ have\\ been\\ some\\ additions\\ to\\ the\\ text\\ since\\ its\\ original\\ compilation\\ and\\ today\\,\\ there\\ are\\ attempts\\ to\\ modernize\\ the\\ Haggadah\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ a\\ seder\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ Haggadah\\?\\ Does\\ the\\ Torah\\ envision\\ either\\?\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ Paschal\\ meal\\ envisioned\\ by\\ the\\ Torah\\ contrast\\ with\\ the\\ ritualized\\ festive\\ meal\\ of\\ a\\ Seder\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ a\\ Seder\\ is\\ the\\ ritualized\\ feast\\ that\\ traditionally\\ occurs\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ night\\ of\\ Passover\\.\\ The\\ Seder\\ commemorates\\ the\\ enslavement\\ and\\ Exodus\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\ from\\ Egypt\\ through\\ the\\ Haggadah\\,\\ drinking\\ four\\ cups\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ eating\\ matzah\\,\\ and\\ eating\\ other\\ symbolic\\ foods\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ occasion\\ for\\ much\\ praise\\ and\\ thanksgiving\\ to\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Haggadah\\ contains\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ Seder\\ in\\ 15\\ steps\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ ritualized\\ telling\\ of\\ the\\ Exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\ that\\ takes\\ place\\ throughout\\ the\\ night\\.\\ It\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ the\\ scriptural\\ commandment\\ to\\ tell\\ future\\ generations\\ about\\ the\\ exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;instruction\\ manual\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ Passover\\ Seder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Seder\\ and\\ the\\ Haggadah\\ are\\ nowhere\\ mentioned\\ explicitly\\ in\\ the\\ Torah\\.\\ However\\,\\ Professor\\ Cohen\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ Torah\\ does\\ provide\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ later\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ Seder\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ the\\ Rabbis\\ outline\\ the\\ instructions\\ for\\ the\\ Seder\\ in\\ the\\ Mishnah\\,\\ they\\ support\\ their\\ reasoning\\ for\\ it\\ using\\ Biblical\\ text\\.\\ An\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Torah\\ does\\ not\\ mention\\ the\\ Seder\\,\\ but\\ provides\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ it\\,\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ Mishnah\\ Pesahaim\\ 10\\.\\ Rabbis\\ support\\ their\\ statement\\ that\\ every\\ generation\\ should\\ regard\\ himself\\ as\\ personally\\ going\\ forth\\ from\\ Egypt\\ by\\ the\\ script\\ from\\ Exodus\\ 13\\:8\\,\\ which\\ reads\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ you\\ shall\\ tell\\ your\\ son\\ on\\ that\\ day\\,\\ saying\\:\\ it\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ that\\ which\\ the\\ Lord\\ did\\ for\\ me\\ when\\ I\\ came\\ forth\\ out\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Similarly\\,\\ the\\ Haggadah\\ is\\ nowhere\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ Torah\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ Rabbis\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ Seder\\ as\\ outlined\\ by\\ Mishnah\\ Pesahim\\ 10\\.\\ However\\,\\ \\ \\;Jewish\\ tradition\\ holds\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ oral\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ this\\ scripture\\ that\\ encourages\\ Jews\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;tell\\ your\\ son\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ the\\ Exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\.\\ The\\ Haggadah\\ also\\ directly\\ uses\\ Biblical\\ text\\ by\\ quoting\\ passages\\,\\ psalms\\,\\ and\\ prayers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Cohen\\ addressed\\ the\\ exact\\ point\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Paschal\\ meal\\ as\\ envisioned\\ by\\ the\\ Torah\\ contrasts\\ with\\ the\\ Seder\\.\\ His\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ much\\ evidence\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ for\\ the\\ Seder\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ the\\ Seder\\ is\\ a\\ post\\-70CE\\,\\ Rabbinic\\ re\\-reading\\ of\\ the\\ evening\\ of\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ Nisan\\.\\ The\\ most\\ striking\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ Paschal\\ meal\\ envisioned\\ by\\ the\\ Torah\\ and\\ the\\ ritualized\\ festive\\ meal\\ of\\ the\\ Seder\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\.\\ Deuteronomy\\ envisions\\ the\\ Paschal\\ meal\\ to\\ be\\ eaten\\ only\\ at\\ the\\ temple\\.\\ Professor\\ Cohen\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ Mishnah\\ Seder\\ was\\ the\\ Rabbinic\\ Response\\ to\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\ by\\ the\\ Romans\\,\\ transferring\\ the\\ Passover\\ ritual\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ home\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Exodus\\ chapter\\ 12\\,\\ the\\ main\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ evening\\ is\\ the\\ slaughter\\,\\ roasting\\,\\ and\\ eating\\ of\\ the\\ paschal\\ lamb\\ or\\ goat\\.\\ However\\,\\ when\\ the\\ Romans\\ destroyed\\ the\\ temple\\,\\ it\\ became\\ impossible\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ the\\ slaughtered\\ lamb\\ on\\ the\\ altar\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ Rabbis\\ responded\\ by\\ creating\\ the\\ Passover\\ Seder\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ ancillary\\ things\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ Paschal\\ meal\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\,\\ haroset\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(dipping\\ sauce\\)\\,\\ bitter\\ herbs\\)\\ become\\ primary\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pesah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sacrifice\\ itself\\ become\\ less\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ night\\.\\ The\\ Mishnah\\ Seder\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ devoted\\ to\\ teaching\\ and\\ reading\\ the\\ Scripture\\ \\(Haggadah\\)\\;\\ the\\ eating\\ remains\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ central\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Scripture\\,\\ ritualized\\ talking\\ and\\ symbolic\\ foods\\ are\\ not\\ envisioned\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ an\\ important\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\similarity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;between\\ the\\ Torah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ Paschal\\ meal\\ and\\ the\\ Seder\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ remains\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ remembrance\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ festival\\ to\\ Lord\\ throughout\\ ages\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ instructed\\ in\\ Exodus\\ 12\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 8\\ Lectures\\ and\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 8\\:\\ From\\ Pesah\\ to\\ Pasch\\,\\ from\\ Sacrifice\\ to\\ Seder\\ II\\ \\(M\\ Mar\\ 19\\ and\\ W\\ Mar\\ 21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READINGS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\ all\\ four\\ Gospels\\ emphasize\\ the\\ connection\\ with\\ Pesah\\ but\\ do\\ so\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ synoptic\\ vs\\.\\ John\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\F\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Sat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Sun\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&uarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Synoptics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\14\\ \\(Last\\ supper\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\13\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\14\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\X\\ \\=\\ crucifixion\\,\\ \\&uarr\\;\\ \\=\\ resurrection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Matthew\\ 26\\:2\\;\\ 17\\-30\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Describes\\ the\\ Last\\ Supper\\ and\\ betrayal\\ by\\ Judas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thursday\\ is\\ 14\\ Nisan\\ \\[though\\ note\\ confusion\\ of\\ Matthew\\ 26\\:17\\,\\ where\\ the\\ first\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ feast\\ of\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ seems\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ 14\\ Nisan\\;\\ cf\\.\\ Mark\\ 14\\:12\\]\\,\\ Friday\\ day\\ of\\ crucifixion\\ is\\ 15\\ Nisan\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Last\\ Supper\\ is\\ a\\ paschal\\ meal\\;\\ not\\ quite\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\seder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sequence\\:\\ meal\\ \\(including\\ dipping\\ v\\ 23\\)\\,\\ presumably\\ the\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\;\\ bread\\;\\ \\ \\;blessing\\;\\ wine\\;\\ give\\ thanks\\;\\ hymn\\.\\ \\[but\\ no\\ bitter\\ herbs\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Matthew\\ 26\\:23\\ Jesus\\ replied\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ one\\ who\\ has\\ dipped\\ his\\ hand\\ into\\ the\\ bowl\\ with\\ me\\ will\\ betray\\ me\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;26While\\ they\\ were\\ eating\\,\\ Jesus\\ took\\ bread\\,\\ pronounced\\ a\\ blessing\\,\\ and\\ broke\\ it\\,\\ and\\ gave\\ it\\ to\\ his\\ disciples\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Take\\ and\\ eat\\;\\ this\\ is\\ my\\ body\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;27Then\\ he\\ took\\ the\\ cup\\,\\ gave\\ thanks\\ and\\ offered\\ it\\ to\\ them\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Drink\\ from\\ it\\,\\ all\\ of\\ you\\.\\ 28This\\ is\\ my\\ blood\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\,\\ which\\ is\\ poured\\ out\\ for\\ many\\ for\\ the\\ forgiveness\\ of\\ sins\\.\\ 29I\\ tell\\ you\\,\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ drink\\ of\\ this\\ fruit\\ of\\ the\\ vine\\ from\\ now\\ on\\ until\\ that\\ day\\ when\\ I\\ drink\\ it\\ anew\\ with\\ you\\ in\\ my\\ Father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ kingdom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;30When\\ they\\ had\\ sung\\ a\\ hymn\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Matzah\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ bread\\&hellip\\;so\\ in\\ this\\ passage\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;bread\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ unleavened\\ bread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ Seder\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ ritualized\\ talking\\/script\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ instruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Luke\\ 22\\:7\\-23\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Same\\ chronology\\ as\\ Matthew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Last\\ Supper\\ is\\ a\\ paschal\\ meal\\;\\ not\\ quite\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Seder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recline\\;\\ wine\\;\\ give\\ thanks\\;\\ bread\\;\\ give\\ thanks\\;\\ meal\\,\\ presumably\\ the\\ Paschal\\ sacrifice\\;\\ wine\\.\\ \\[but\\ no\\ bitter\\ herbs\\]\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Luke\\ 22\\:14When\\ the\\ hour\\ came\\,\\ Jesus\\ and\\ his\\ apostles\\ reclined\\ at\\ the\\ table\\.\\ 15And\\ he\\ said\\ to\\ them\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ have\\ eagerly\\ desired\\ to\\ eat\\ this\\ Passover\\ with\\ you\\ before\\ I\\ suffer\\.\\ 16For\\ I\\ tell\\ you\\,\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ eat\\ it\\ again\\ until\\ it\\ finds\\ fulfillment\\ in\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ God\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ 17After\\ taking\\ the\\ cup\\,\\ he\\ gave\\ thanks\\ and\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Take\\ this\\ and\\ divide\\ it\\ among\\ you\\.\\ 18For\\ I\\ tell\\ you\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ drink\\ again\\ of\\ the\\ fruit\\ of\\ the\\ vine\\ until\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ God\\ comes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;19And\\ he\\ took\\ bread\\,\\ gave\\ thanks\\ and\\ broke\\ it\\,\\ and\\ gave\\ it\\ to\\ them\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ my\\ body\\ given\\ for\\ you\\;\\ do\\ this\\ in\\ remembrance\\ of\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ 20In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ after\\ the\\ supper\\ he\\ took\\ the\\ cup\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ cup\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ in\\ my\\ blood\\,\\ which\\ is\\ poured\\ out\\ for\\ you\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reclining\\ at\\ meals\\ at\\ table\\ \\(how\\ upper\\ class\\ people\\ in\\ Roman\\ times\\ would\\ have\\ eaten\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Luke\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ wine\\,\\ bread\\,\\ meal\\,\\ wine\\ \\(not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ Matthew\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ Seder\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ many\\ motifs\\ but\\ no\\ ritualized\\ talking\\,\\ scriptural\\ exegesis\\,\\ telling\\ of\\ the\\ story\\,\\ instruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assume\\ bread\\ \\=\\ matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ cup\\ of\\ wine\\ is\\ the\\ covenant\\ in\\ his\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Both\\ leave\\ out\\ bitter\\ herbs\\,\\ and\\ Cohen\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ why\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ 13\\:1\\;\\ 19\\:14\\;\\ 31\\-37\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\crucifixion\\ is\\ on\\ Friday\\ 14\\ Nisan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Passage\\ describes\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ of\\ Jesus\\ by\\ the\\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scripture\\ was\\ fulfilled\\ because\\ not\\ one\\ bone\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ body\\ was\\ broken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ last\\ supper\\ in\\ John\\,\\ ceremonial\\ or\\ otherwise\\;\\ no\\ Eucharist\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;this\\ is\\ my\\ blood\\&hellip\\;this\\ is\\ my\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ 1\\:29\\ Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ \\(Paschal\\)\\ lamb\\ of\\ God\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ next\\ day\\ John\\ \\[the\\ Baptist\\]\\ saw\\ Jesus\\ coming\\ toward\\ him\\ and\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Behold\\,\\ the\\ Lamb\\ of\\ God\\,\\ who\\ takes\\ away\\ the\\ sin\\ of\\ the\\ world\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ he\\ mean\\ lamb\\ as\\ an\\ atonement\\ sacrifice\\ or\\ Pascal\\ lamb\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bones\\ were\\ not\\ broken\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ lamb\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bones\\ were\\ not\\ broken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\ Corinthians\\ 5\\:7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ as\\ Paschal\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Christ\\ our\\ Passover\\ is\\ sacrificed\\ to\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\ Corinthians\\ 11\\:23\\-26\\ \\(Last\\ supper\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Describes\\ the\\ Eucharist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jesus\\ gives\\ the\\ people\\ bread\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ his\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ wine\\ as\\ his\\ blood\\ to\\ remember\\ him\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Justin\\ Martyr\\,\\ First\\ Apology\\,\\ c\\.\\ 65\\ and\\ 66\\ and\\ 67\\ \\(the\\ Eucharist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Apology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ is\\ earliest\\ extant\\ \\(existing\\)\\ description\\ of\\ Eucharist\\;\\ no\\ connection\\ with\\ Pesah\\ at\\ all\\;\\ \\ \\;not\\ a\\ meal\\;\\ importance\\ of\\ Sunday\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Apology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;directed\\ at\\ Romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pesah\\ completely\\ disappears\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ meal\\ involved\\,\\ just\\ left\\ with\\ symbolic\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Justin\\ 40\\.1\\-3\\;\\ 111\\.3\\ \\-\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\ as\\ type\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Paschal\\ lamb\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\type\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ Christ\\,\\ with\\ whose\\ blood\\ believers\\ anoint\\ themselves\\ \\(and\\ attain\\ salvation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Typology\\,\\ fulfillment\\ is\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\ is\\ the\\ blood\\ that\\ bring\\ life\\ and\\ protects\\ us\\ from\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Passover\\ in\\ the\\ Christian\\ tradition\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Easter\\ liturgy\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ references\\ to\\ Christ\\ as\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christian\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ Passover\\,\\ as\\ observed\\ by\\ ancient\\ Israel\\,\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ the\\ true\\ Passover\\ Sacrifice\\ of\\ God\\ that\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ by\\ Jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Passover\\ represents\\ for\\ some\\ Christians\\ a\\ spiritual\\ deliverance\\ from\\ the\\ slavery\\ of\\ sin\\ \\(John\\ 8\\:34\\)\\ and\\ is\\,\\ since\\ Jesus\\&\\#39\\;\\ death\\,\\ a\\ memorial\\ of\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ that\\ Jesus\\ has\\ made\\ for\\ mankind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christians\\ celebrate\\ this\\ holiday\\ differently\\;\\ some\\ celebrate\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ Jews\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ Christian\\ Passover\\ services\\ include\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ to\\ represent\\ Jesus\\&\\#39\\;\\ body\\,\\ and\\ wine\\ to\\ represent\\ his\\ blood\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Covenant\\.\\ These\\ are\\ a\\ symbolic\\ substitute\\ for\\ Jesus\\ as\\ the\\ true\\ sacrificial\\ Passover\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lamb\\ of\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ Christians\\ observe\\ the\\ celebration\\ on\\ the\\ night\\ before\\ Passover\\,\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ Jesus\\ held\\ his\\ Last\\ Supper\\,\\ while\\ others\\ observe\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ Passover\\ was\\ sacrificed\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Jesus\\&\\#39\\;\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ Christians\\ believe\\ Easter\\ \\(as\\ a\\ Christian\\ festival\\)\\ has\\ been\\ derived\\ from\\ Passover\\ \\(as\\ Jewish\\ festival\\)\\.\\ They\\ claim\\ Easter\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ Passover\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\ On\\ Pascha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Major\\ themes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ true\\ Paschal\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 12\\ provides\\ the\\ type\\,\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christ\\,\\ God\\,\\ son\\,\\ and\\ lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Israel\\ slaughters\\ the\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\ \\=\\ Christ\\ \\=\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Israel\\ bears\\ moral\\ responsibility\\ for\\ its\\ act\\ of\\ murder\\ \\§\\;74\\-77\\:\\ \\ \\;73\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Why\\,\\ O\\ Israel\\ did\\ you\\ do\\ this\\ strange\\ injustice\\?\\ You\\ dishonored\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ had\\ honored\\ you\\.\\ You\\ held\\ in\\ contempt\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ held\\ you\\ in\\ esteem\\.\\ You\\ denied\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ publicly\\ acknowledged\\ you\\.\\ You\\ renounced\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ proclaimed\\ you\\ his\\ own\\.\\ You\\ killed\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ made\\ you\\ to\\ live\\.\\ Why\\ did\\ you\\ do\\ this\\,\\ O\\ Israel\\?\\ 74\\.\\ Hast\\ it\\ not\\ been\\ written\\ for\\ your\\ benefit\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Do\\ not\\ shed\\ innocent\\ blood\\ lest\\ you\\ die\\ a\\ terrible\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\[i\\.e\\.\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\]\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ Israel\\ admits\\,\\ I\\ killed\\ the\\ Lord\\!\\ Why\\?\\ Because\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\[first\\ reference\\ to\\ paradoxical\\ argument\\:\\ necessary\\ for\\ world\\ salvation\\ for\\ Christ\\ to\\ be\\ sacrificed\\ \\(through\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ we\\ live\\)\\,\\ yet\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ blame\\ the\\ Jews\\ for\\ doing\\ it\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ to\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benefit\\?\\]\\ You\\ have\\ deceived\\ yourself\\,\\ O\\ Israel\\,\\ rationalizing\\ thus\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ \\ \\;\\[Melito\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\:\\]\\ 75\\.\\ It\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ suffer\\,\\ yes\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\;\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ dishonored\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\;\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ judged\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\;\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ crucified\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\,\\ nor\\ by\\ your\\ right\\ hand\\.\\ 76\\.\\ O\\ Israel\\!\\ You\\ ought\\ to\\ have\\ cried\\ aloud\\ to\\ God\\ with\\ this\\ voice\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ Lord\\,\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ your\\ Son\\ to\\ suffer\\,\\ and\\ if\\ this\\ was\\ your\\ will\\,\\ let\\ him\\ suffer\\ indeed\\,\\ but\\ not\\ at\\ my\\ hands\\.\\ Let\\ him\\ suffer\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ strangers\\.\\ Let\\ him\\ be\\ judged\\ by\\ the\\ uncircumcised\\ \\[Gentiles\\]\\.\\ Let\\ him\\ be\\ crucified\\ by\\ the\\ tyrannical\\ right\\ hand\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ mine\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ Christian\\ Paschal\\ Haggadah\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Should\\ we\\ imagine\\ a\\ liturgy\\?\\ He\\ would\\ have\\ read\\ New\\ Testament\\ texts\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Bible\\ was\\ not\\ written\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ describe\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ Pascal\\ Haggadah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cohen\\ argues\\ NO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ references\\ to\\ bread\\ \\(matzah\\)\\ or\\ wine\\ or\\ bitter\\ herbs\\ except\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ Israelite\\ celebration\\ of\\ the\\ Pesah\\ in\\ \\§\\;\\ 80\\ and\\ 93\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ reference\\ to\\ Eucharist\\ or\\ to\\ any\\ other\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ supper\\ \\(of\\ course\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ Johannine\\ chronology\\,\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ following\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ last\\ supper\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Melito\\ celebrates\\ Passover\\ on\\ the\\ fourteenth\\ of\\ Nisan\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ Sunday\\ following\\ \\(Eusebius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Historia\\ Ecclesiastica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;5\\.24\\)\\,\\ hence\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ Quartodeciman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afiqomanous\\ is\\ used\\ twice\\ in\\ Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\ to\\ describe\\ Christ\\ \\(means\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ who\\ cometh\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ comes\\ from\\ Genesis\\ 29\\:10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Melito\\ suggests\\ that\\ some\\ Christians\\ some\\ where\\ had\\ something\\ like\\ a\\ Seder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Melito\\ never\\ uses\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jews\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Always\\ refers\\ to\\ these\\ people\\ as\\ Israel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Melito\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ca\\.\\ 160\\-170\\ CE\\ Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extended\\ sermon\\ on\\ Jesus\\ the\\ lamb\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uses\\ typology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\ as\\ lamb\\ that\\ protects\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pascal\\ homily\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ of\\ Jewish\\ origin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ generation\\ or\\ so\\ after\\ Justin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quartodeciman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Easter\\ celebrated\\ on\\ 14\\ Nisan\\ either\\ late\\ afternoon\\ or\\ early\\ evening\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Easter\\ on\\ Sunday\\ is\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ the\\ resurrection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easter\\ on\\ 14\\ Nisan\\ is\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ \\(celebrating\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ passion\\,\\ crucifixion\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ rhetorical\\,\\ loves\\ paradoxical\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ likes\\ binary\\ oppositions\\,\\ reminded\\ of\\ Paul\\ although\\ he\\ is\\ more\\ rhetorical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ questions\\ for\\ Week\\ 8\\ for\\ more\\ info\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Quartodeciman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ practice\\ of\\ fixing\\ the\\ celebration\\ of\\ Passover\\ for\\ Christians\\ on\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ Nisan\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hebrew\\ Calendar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Killed\\/excommunicated\\ by\\ Victor\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\ was\\ one\\!\\ Later\\ considered\\ a\\ Saint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ not\\ hold\\ a\\ seder\\ regardless\\ of\\ date\\ they\\ adhere\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Nisan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ non\\-biblical\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ month\\ in\\ the\\ Jewish\\ calendar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ Pesah\\ sacrifice\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ afternoon\\ of\\ Nisan\\ 14\\ into\\ the\\ evening\\ \\(which\\ is\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ Nisan\\ 15\\)\\;\\ the\\ seven\\ day\\ matzah\\ festival\\ \\(colloquially\\ known\\ as\\ Pesah\\ or\\ Passover\\)\\ begins\\ on\\ Nisan\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nisan\\ \\=\\ first\\ month\\,\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ evening\\ is\\ Pesah\\ sacrifice\\,\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;matzah\\ festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Easter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ Christian\\ feast\\ of\\ the\\ resurrection\\ of\\ Jesus\\ \\ \\;\\(name\\ apparently\\ derives\\ from\\ the\\ Saxon\\ goddess\\ Eostre\\,\\ whose\\ festival\\ had\\ been\\ celebrated\\ in\\ the\\ spring\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pascha\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ the\\ name\\ for\\ Easter\\ in\\ Greek\\ and\\ Latin\\ and\\ with\\ slight\\ variation\\ in\\ Romance\\ languages\\ \\(from\\ Heb\\.\\ Pesah\\ and\\ Greek\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\paschein\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ passion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Pascho\\&rdquo\\;\\=to\\ suffer\\,\\ passion\\ comes\\ from\\ Latin\\ and\\ related\\ to\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Eucharist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Christian\\ main\\ ritual\\ of\\ mass\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seen\\ by\\ Justin\\ as\\ a\\ Christian\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ Christian\\ ritual\\ of\\ eating\\ bread\\ and\\ drinking\\ wine\\ instituted\\ by\\ Jesus\\ during\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Last\\ Supper\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(lit\\:\\ thanksgiving\\ in\\ Greek\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bread\\ \\=\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\,\\ wine\\ \\=\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\ and\\ symbol\\ of\\ covenant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Paschal\\ sacrifice\\ \\(lamb\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\originates\\ from\\ Exodus\\ \\(12\\)\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lamb\\ sacrificed\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ angel\\ of\\ death\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Israelite\\&rsquo\\;s\\ household\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ and\\ Melito\\ both\\ see\\ Jesus\\ as\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ the\\ Pascal\\ lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\STUDY\\ QUESTIONS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Did\\/do\\ Christians\\ celebrate\\ the\\ Passover\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ view\\ of\\ Jesus\\ as\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ lamb\\ offering\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ Passover\\ sacrifice\\ became\\ a\\ popular\\ motif\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\,\\ notably\\ in\\ the\\ Gospel\\ of\\ John\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blood\\ of\\ Passover\\ and\\ the\\ lamb\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ for\\ Christ\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Justin\\ 40\\ and\\ 111\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yes\\,\\ they\\ celebrate\\ the\\ Last\\ Supper\\ in\\ which\\ Jesus\\ ate\\ with\\ the\\ twelve\\ disciples\\ and\\ broke\\ bread\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ his\\ body\\ and\\ wine\\ as\\ his\\ blood\\ and\\ said\\ that\\ some\\ one\\ \\(Judas\\)\\ would\\ betray\\ him\\ \\(Matthew\\ 26\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Described\\ as\\ a\\ feast\\ \\(John\\ 13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ 19\\:14\\ places\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ Nisan\\ on\\ a\\ Friday\\,\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ crucifixion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ eat\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ \\(1\\ Corinthians\\ 5\\:7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Passover\\ is\\ significant\\ in\\ Christian\\ theology\\ because\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ Synoptic\\ Gospels\\,\\ the\\ Last\\ Supper\\ was\\ the\\ Passover\\ meal\\ eaten\\ on\\ the\\ 15th\\ of\\ Nisan\\ and\\ Jesus\\ was\\ arrested\\ that\\ night\\ and\\ crucified\\ the\\ following\\ afternoon\\ \\(the\\ Gospel\\ of\\ John\\ puts\\ the\\ events\\ a\\ day\\ earlier\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ were\\ Quartodecimans\\?\\ Who\\ was\\ Melito\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ his\\ significance\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUARTODECIMANS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\See\\ ID\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\MELITO\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Melito\\ was\\ the\\ bishop\\ of\\ Sardis\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ prolific\\ early\\ Christian\\ writer\\ \\(he\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ celebrated\\ Apology\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Concerning\\ the\\ Passover\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ celebrates\\ Passover\\ on\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ Nisan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ that\\ Jews\\ were\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ of\\ Jesus\\ and\\ this\\ inspired\\ riots\\ against\\ the\\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Melito\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ likeness\\ of\\ God\\ is\\ preserved\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ famous\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Melito\\ lists\\ the\\ first\\ Christian\\ canon\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\.\\ Melito\\&\\#39\\;s\\ canon\\ excludes\\ the\\ deuterocanonical\\ books\\ which\\ are\\ used\\ by\\ Roman\\ Catholics\\ and\\ Eastern\\ Orthodox\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Did\\ the\\ Jewish\\ Seder\\ or\\ Haggadah\\ influence\\ Christian\\ Easter\\ liturgy\\?\\ Did\\ the\\ Christian\\ Easter\\ liturgy\\ influence\\ the\\ Jewish\\ seder\\ or\\ Haggadah\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ the\\ liturgy\\,\\ Christians\\ recite\\ the\\ Agnus\\ Dei\\ and\\ certain\\ fraction\\ sentences\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christ\\ our\\ Passover\\ is\\ sacrificed\\ for\\ us\\;\\ therefore\\ let\\ us\\ keep\\ the\\ feast\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ at\\ the\\ breaking\\ of\\ the\\ bread\\ \\(the\\ symbolic\\ body\\ of\\ Christ\\)\\.\\ The\\ Passover\\ theme\\ reaches\\ its\\ apogee\\ during\\ Holy\\ Week\\ and\\ Easter\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ liturgy\\ for\\ the\\ Great\\ Vigil\\ of\\ Easter\\ includes\\ the\\ Exsultet\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ an\\ ancient\\ hymn\\ which\\ contains\\ the\\ line\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ our\\ passover\\ feast\\,\\ when\\ Christ\\,\\ the\\ true\\ Lamb\\,\\ is\\ slain\\,\\ whose\\ blood\\ consecrates\\ the\\ homes\\ of\\ all\\ believers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Another\\ theme\\ connecting\\ the\\ Christian\\ Easter\\ with\\ the\\ Passover\\ is\\ the\\ Christian\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ resurrection\\ as\\ liberation\\ from\\ slavery\\ \\(that\\ is\\,\\ slavery\\ to\\ sin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarities\\:\\ both\\ in\\ spring\\,\\ search\\ for\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 9\\ Lectures\\ and\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 10\\ Lectures\\ and\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 11\\ Lectures\\ and\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 11\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ From\\ the\\ God\\ which\\ is\\ One\\ to\\ the\\ One\\ which\\ is\\ Two\\;\\ The\\ Torah\\ and\\ Logos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Genesis\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ More\\ philosophical\\ description\\ of\\ creation\\ \\(this\\ is\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ Plato\\,\\ a\\ more\\ abstract\\ God\\ who\\ speaks\\ things\\ into\\ existence\\)\\.\\ The\\ Bible\\ does\\ not\\ explicitly\\ mention\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ angels\\ or\\ other\\ heavenly\\ beings\\.\\ There\\ is\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ mysterious\\ plural\\ in\\ Genesis\\ 1\\:26\\,\\ describing\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ humankind\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ us\\ make\\ man\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\our\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;image\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jewish\\ scholars\\ claim\\ this\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ divine\\ council\\ of\\ angels\\ and\\ other\\ divine\\ beings\\.\\ Christian\\ scholars\\ tend\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ Godhead\\ \\(originally\\ two\\ parts\\,\\ later\\ three\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genesis\\ 18\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ three\\ visitors\\ to\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tent\\;\\ the\\ text\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ three\\ beings\\ as\\ humans\\,\\ angels\\,\\ and\\ God\\ at\\ various\\ points\\;\\ this\\ story\\ reveals\\ the\\ mysterious\\ nature\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ on\\ Earth\\.\\ It\\ appears\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ take\\ human\\ form\\ to\\ interact\\ with\\ Abraham\\,\\ and\\ the\\ JSB\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ three\\ men\\ are\\ God\\ with\\ two\\ divine\\ escorts\\.\\ Later\\ Christian\\ scholars\\ would\\ probably\\ argue\\ that\\ these\\ three\\ men\\ represent\\ the\\ Trinity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ among\\ the\\ Israelites\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ God\\ has\\ Israel\\ build\\ a\\ Tabernacle\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ quite\\ difficult\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ actually\\ resides\\ in\\ this\\ construction\\.\\ In\\ some\\ references\\,\\ God\\ himself\\ dwells\\ in\\ the\\ temple\\.\\ In\\ others\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;name\\ of\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ glory\\ of\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Tabernacle\\.\\ These\\ are\\ examples\\ of\\ hypostatization\\,\\ or\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ an\\ abstract\\ concept\\ as\\ a\\ physical\\ substance\\ or\\ reality\\.\\ Can\\ God\\ himself\\ really\\ be\\ confined\\ to\\ the\\ Tabernacle\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ transcendent\\?\\ If\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Tabernacle\\,\\ can\\ he\\ be\\ elsewhere\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Logos\\ and\\ Wisdom\\ Theology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Proverbs\\ 8\\:22\\-31\\ and\\ John\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Proverbs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ abstract\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Wisdom\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ among\\ the\\ first\\ creations\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ before\\ the\\ earth\\ itself\\.\\ Jewish\\ theology\\ equates\\ \\&ldquo\\;Wisdom\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ Torah\\,\\ and\\ this\\ passage\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ evidence\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ Torah\\ was\\ created\\ before\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ was\\ used\\ by\\ God\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ moments\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ New\\ Testament\\ description\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;logos\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ existed\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ beginning\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Often\\ translated\\ \\(incorrectly\\)\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;word\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Important\\ passage\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ beginning\\ was\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Word\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Word\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ with\\ God\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Word\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ God\\.\\ Without\\ Him\\,\\ nothing\\ was\\ made\\ that\\ was\\ made\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Christians\\ interpret\\ this\\ passage\\ to\\ mean\\ that\\ Christ\\ always\\ existed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ on\\ the\\ Name\\ and\\ Glory\\ of\\ God\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Justin\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ name\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\&rdquo\\;\\ appeared\\ before\\ in\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ \\(Joshua\\)\\.\\ God\\ appeared\\ to\\ Abraham\\,\\ Moses\\,\\ and\\ Jacob\\ before\\ in\\ many\\ forms\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ unreasonable\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ born\\ of\\ a\\ virgin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ on\\ the\\ Existence\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Justin\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ three\\ visitors\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ another\\ God\\ and\\ Lord\\ \\&ldquo\\;under\\ the\\ Creator\\ of\\ all\\ things\\,\\ who\\ is\\ also\\ called\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Angel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Justin\\ says\\ that\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ angel\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ burning\\ bush\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virgin\\ Birth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Justin\\ points\\ out\\ various\\ prophetic\\ writings\\ which\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ Messiah\\ will\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ not\\ from\\ a\\ human\\ seed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Henotheism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ god\\ without\\ the\\ denial\\ of\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Middleton\\ Article\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Philo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\ reveal\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ Jewish\\ thought\\ and\\ Greek\\ thought\\.\\ Jews\\ viewed\\ God\\ as\\ immanent\\,\\ participating\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\.\\ Greeks\\ portrayed\\ him\\ as\\ transcendent\\,\\ beyond\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ human\\ understanding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philo\\ says\\ that\\ Logos\\ created\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ and\\ Logos\\ is\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\ God\\ communicates\\ with\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Logos\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ Son\\ of\\ God\\,\\ the\\ High\\ Priest\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Image\\ of\\ God\\.\\ It\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ phrases\\ are\\ also\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Middleton\\ argues\\ that\\ Logos\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ transcendent\\ God\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ Proverbs\\,\\ Wisdom\\ is\\ personified\\ \\(hypostatization\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ targums\\ \\(Aramaic\\ translations\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\)\\,\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;memra\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ speech\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Again\\,\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ God\\ interacts\\ with\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ the\\ text\\ says\\ that\\ God\\ did\\ something\\,\\ the\\ targums\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ Word\\ of\\ God\\ did\\ something\\.\\ Circumlocution\\ for\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Middleton\\ also\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ what\\ dwells\\ in\\ the\\ Tabernacle\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ God\\,\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ God\\,\\ the\\ Glory\\ of\\ God\\,\\ etc\\.\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Targums\\ use\\ the\\ word\\ Shakinta\\ \\(literally\\,\\ dwelling\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opening\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ Gospel\\ of\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clear\\ reference\\ to\\ Logos\\ theology\\.\\ John\\ probably\\ borrowed\\ these\\ conceptions\\ from\\ Philo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ main\\ point\\ in\\ Middleton\\:\\ God\\ is\\ an\\ immutable\\ divine\\ being\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ explain\\ how\\ he\\ created\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Logos\\ theology\\ answers\\ this\\ question\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ hypostasized\\ characteristic\\ of\\ God\\ \\(his\\ Logos\\)\\ that\\ humans\\ can\\ understand\\ and\\ interact\\ with\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 12\\ Lectures\\ and\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 12\\:\\ From\\ Sacrifices\\ to\\ Prayer\\ and\\ Eucharist\\ \\(M\\ Apr\\ 30\\ and\\ W\\ May\\ 2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\\\Atonement\\ through\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ animals\\:\\ Leviticus\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Lord\\ gives\\ Moses\\ Instructions\\ for\\ how\\ Aaron\\ should\\ make\\ his\\ sin\\ and\\ burnt\\ offerings\\,\\ for\\ both\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ intense\\ descriptions\\ about\\ which\\ animals\\ and\\ which\\ parts\\ of\\ them\\ should\\ be\\ dealt\\ with\\ where\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;I\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ doubt\\ full\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ details\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ offering\\ for\\ sins\\,\\ but\\ also\\ purify\\ the\\ altar\\,\\ the\\ tent\\ of\\ meeting\\,\\ and\\ the\\ shrine\\;\\ also\\ has\\ to\\ release\\ the\\ goat\\ of\\ Azazel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\JSB\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Previous\\ chapters\\ say\\ that\\ sin\\ contaminates\\ the\\ tabernacle\\ and\\ atonement\\ sacrifices\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ most\\ of\\ them\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ unintentional\\ wrongs\\ go\\ righted\\ so\\ this\\ big\\ yearly\\ cleaning\\ has\\ to\\ go\\ down\\ to\\ get\\ those\\ that\\ slipped\\ through\\ the\\ cracks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ the\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;month\\ \\=\\ Yom\\ Hapkippurim\\,\\ non\\-demonic\\ view\\ of\\ defilement\\ and\\ ritual\\ complexity\\ \\=\\ unique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ sins\\ to\\ the\\ scapegoat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transferring\\ of\\ sin\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ priest\\ \\&ne\\;\\ same\\ as\\ repentance\\ mentioned\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anticipation\\ of\\ vicarious\\ atonement\\,\\ but\\ note\\ that\\ scapegoat\\ is\\ not\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Critique\\ of\\ sacrificial\\ religion\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\these\\ are\\ not\\ supposed\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ god\\&rsquo\\;s\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ sacrifice\\ at\\ all\\,\\ just\\ misplaced\\ emphasis\\.\\ \\ \\;God\\ wants\\ both\\ sacrifice\\ and\\ righteousness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Judaeism\\ after\\ 70CE\\:\\ \\ \\;piety\\ and\\ righteousness\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ sacrifice\\,\\ but\\ hope\\ that\\ some\\ one\\ will\\ rebuild\\ the\\ temple\\&hellip\\;\\ an\\ evolution\\ of\\ judaiems\\ to\\ reflect\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hosea\\ 6\\:6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suggests\\ that\\ god\\ desires\\ goodness\\ rather\\ than\\ sacrifice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ transgressing\\ the\\ covenant\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\ was\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ false\\ hood\\ not\\ lack\\ of\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isaiah\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suggests\\ that\\ Israel\\ is\\ a\\ sinful\\ nation\\ that\\ has\\ turned\\ its\\ back\\ on\\ god\\;\\ explains\\ why\\ land\\ has\\ been\\ taken\\ away\\ from\\ them\\ and\\ why\\ the\\ are\\ downtrodden\\;\\ compares\\ Israel\\ to\\ Sodom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ claims\\ that\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ stated\\ with\\ their\\ sacrifice\\,\\ offerings\\ and\\ prayers\\,\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ listen\\ to\\ them\\ unless\\ the\\ people\\ learn\\ to\\ do\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ also\\ promises\\ restoration\\ of\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ Israel\\ eventually\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ righteous\\,\\ faithful\\ city\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ promising\\ judgment\\ and\\ retribution\\ against\\ Israel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\JSB\\ notes\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ poem\\ of\\ indictment\\ and\\ hope\\;\\ structured\\ as\\ a\\ \\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\legal\\ complaint\\ about\\ how\\ Israel\\ has\\ violated\\ the\\ covenant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\metaphorical\\ description\\ of\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inviolability\\ \\(though\\ devastated\\ Israel\\ will\\ never\\ fall\\ completely\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rite\\ \\&ne\\;\\ right\\,\\ sacrifices\\ are\\ no\\ good\\ unless\\ accompanied\\ by\\ ethical\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lament\\ and\\ hope\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ laments\\ the\\ punishment\\ but\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ Zion\\ will\\ rise\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unclear\\ whether\\ the\\ punishment\\ described\\ applies\\ to\\ sinners\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ reformed\\ Zion\\,\\ or\\ if\\ it\\ means\\ all\\ the\\ residents\\ of\\ the\\ sinful\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isaiah\\ 58\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Talks\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ eager\\ to\\ know\\ god\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ says\\ fasting\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ get\\ your\\ voice\\ heard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ desires\\ metaphorical\\ fasting\\ \\,\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ \\(feed\\ them\\,\\ let\\ them\\ into\\ your\\ home\\,\\ clothe\\ them\\ and\\ not\\ ignore\\ them\\;\\ fasting\\ demonstrate\\ willingness\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ things\\ for\\ others\\ \\&\\;\\ not\\ be\\ done\\ just\\ for\\ salvation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ says\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ this\\ the\\ lord\\ will\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ them\\ and\\ strengthen\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ should\\ refrain\\ from\\ trampling\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ enjoy\\ the\\ heritage\\ of\\ Jacob\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\JSB\\ Notes\\ say\\:\\ this\\ chapter\\ demonstrates\\ difference\\ between\\ true\\ and\\ false\\ piety\\;\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ fasting\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ not\\ for\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ benefit\\ but\\ should\\ demonstrate\\ real\\ humility\\ by\\ caring\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\;\\ result\\ of\\ true\\ piety\\:\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ Returns\\ to\\ Zion\\;\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ rebuilding\\ post\\ Babylonians\\ has\\ been\\ delayed\\;\\ Sabbath\\:\\ \\ \\;Isaiah\\ calls\\ for\\ both\\ rituals\\ and\\ ethical\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;God\\ wants\\ righeousness\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ sabbath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jeremiah\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tells\\ people\\ to\\ mend\\ their\\ ways\\ if\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ dwell\\ in\\ the\\ promised\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ rely\\ on\\ a\\ physical\\ structure\\ for\\ closeness\\ to\\ god\\ when\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ are\\ bad\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ den\\ of\\ thieves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tells\\ people\\ to\\ go\\ look\\ at\\ Shiloh\\ and\\ see\\ how\\ he\\ will\\ cast\\ them\\ out\\ if\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respond\\ to\\ god\\&rsquo\\;s\\ call\\,\\ but\\ also\\ tells\\ them\\ not\\ to\\ pray\\ for\\ these\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;they\\ deserve\\ it\\,\\ they\\ are\\ hurting\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ says\\ that\\ people\\ of\\ Judah\\ have\\ displeased\\ him\\ and\\ worshiped\\ other\\ gods\\ and\\ done\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ commanded\\ them\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ says\\ a\\ time\\ is\\ coming\\ when\\ he\\ will\\ slaughter\\ these\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ whoel\\ land\\ shall\\ fall\\ into\\ ruin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\JSB\\ notes\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ sermon\\ delivered\\ by\\ Jeremiah\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ King\\ Jehoiakim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reign\\;\\ sermon\\ questions\\ the\\ protective\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\,\\ deemed\\ Josiah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reform\\ a\\ failure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;likened\\ Judah\\ to\\ northern\\ Israel\\ \\=\\ Judah\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ suffer\\ punishment\\ unless\\ it\\ follows\\ the\\ torah\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rituals\\ are\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ ensure\\ divine\\ presence\\ at\\ the\\ temple\\ one\\ must\\ observe\\ moral\\ precepts\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ critique\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ temple\\ is\\ protection\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ redeemed\\ Israel\\ in\\ Egypt\\ without\\ a\\ temple\\ or\\ sacrifices\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psalm\\ 51\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ prayer\\ to\\ be\\ cleansed\\ of\\ sin\\.\\ \\ \\;Suggests\\ presence\\ of\\ original\\ sin\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ was\\ born\\ with\\ iniquity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acknowledges\\ that\\ god\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ offerings\\ and\\ sacrifices\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ contrite\\ spirit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asks\\ to\\ make\\ Zion\\ prosper\\ from\\ theses\\ sacrifices\\:\\ both\\ in\\ righeousness\\ and\\ burnt\\ offerings\\ \\(offerings\\ will\\ be\\ possible\\ when\\ temple\\ rebuilt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\JSB\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Individual\\ complaint\\ expressing\\ extreme\\ guilt\\:\\ \\ \\;Have\\ mercy\\,\\ purify\\,\\ blot\\ out\\,\\ wash\\ me\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prayer\\ is\\ more\\ effective\\ than\\ sacrifices\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ contrast\\ to\\ priestly\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conclusions\\ suggests\\ that\\ prayers\\ substitute\\ for\\ offerings\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ temple\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\ prayer\\ is\\ more\\ efficacious\\ than\\ sacrifice\\:\\ but\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ plea\\ to\\ rebuild\\ the\\ temple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ suffering\\ servant\\,\\ vicarious\\ atonement\\:\\ \\ \\;Isaiah\\ 52\\:13\\-53\\:12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psalm\\ 110\\:\\ \\ \\;refers\\ to\\ David\\,\\ how\\ he\\ sits\\ at\\ the\\ right\\ hand\\ of\\ God\\,\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ mighty\\ warrior\\ and\\ priest\\ by\\ god\\&rsquo\\;s\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ that\\ the\\ lords\\ servant\\ will\\ prosper\\,\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ ugly\\ and\\ downtrodden\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ once\\ shunned\\ by\\ men\\ this\\ servant\\ prospers\\ and\\ becomes\\ handsome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ bearing\\ the\\ sickness\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ and\\ was\\ carrying\\ the\\ guilt\\ for\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ sins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ maltreated\\ and\\ submissive\\,\\ and\\ was\\ himself\\ a\\ guilt\\ offering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ servant\\ will\\ be\\ rewarded\\ for\\ carrying\\ the\\ guilt\\ of\\ many\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\though\\ sacrificial\\ language\\ is\\ not\\ prominent\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ later\\ readers\\ of\\ both\\ creeds\\ apply\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ depictions\\ of\\ who\\ the\\ servant\\ is\\:\\ 1\\.\\ \\ \\;the\\ prophet\\ himself\\;\\ 2\\.\\ Christ\\ \\(to\\ Christians\\)\\;\\ 3\\.\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\ \\(to\\ Jews\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ as\\ high\\ priest\\ and\\ atonement\\ sacrifice\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Letter\\ to\\ the\\ Hebrews\\ 7\\-10\\ \\(to\\ understand\\ this\\ reading\\ you\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ read\\ Psalms\\ 110\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Melchizedek\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ priest\\ who\\ was\\ allotted\\ a\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ everything\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ descendent\\ of\\ Levi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ as\\ a\\ priest\\ in\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ Melchizedek\\:\\ indicates\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ law\\,\\ since\\ Jesus\\ was\\ from\\ tribe\\ of\\ Judah\\ rather\\ than\\ Levi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;indicates\\ that\\ new\\ priesthood\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ indestructible\\ life\\ rather\\ than\\ ancestry\\,\\ permanent\\ priesthood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;since\\ he\\ is\\ exalted\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ offer\\ sacrifices\\,\\ also\\ he\\ was\\ sacrificed\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ ministry\\ and\\ covenant\\ is\\ superior\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Levite\\ priests\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ new\\ and\\ supersedes\\ the\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ need\\ for\\ the\\ special\\ day\\ of\\ atonement\\ signifies\\ that\\ the\\ laws\\ and\\ purifications\\ under\\ the\\ old\\ covenant\\ were\\ not\\ enough\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ new\\ better\\ one\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blood\\ of\\ Christ\\ is\\ the\\ cleansing\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ new\\ most\\ holy\\ place\\;\\ plus\\ Christ\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ and\\ atone\\ again\\ and\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ once\\.\\ \\ \\;Already\\ died\\,\\ and\\ will\\ come\\ again\\ to\\ purify\\ and\\ judge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reference\\ to\\ psalm\\ 110\\ and\\ scripture\\ saying\\ that\\ sacrifices\\ were\\ not\\ enough\\;\\ jesus\\ is\\ purification\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ now\\,\\ one\\ must\\ not\\ trample\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ god\\ underfoot\\ and\\ must\\ wait\\ expectantly\\ for\\ \\ \\;judgment\\ and\\ reward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ is\\ a\\ midrash\\ on\\ Psalms\\ 110\\:\\ \\ \\;Christ\\ is\\ a\\ high\\ priest\\ in\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ Melchizedeq\\:\\ eternal\\,\\ without\\ human\\ paternity\\,\\ superior\\ to\\ Abraham\\ \\(ancestor\\ of\\ Levi\\,\\ therefore\\ Christ\\ is\\ superior\\ to\\ temple\\ priests\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ fitting\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ priest\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ offer\\ up\\ sacrifices\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ did\\ this\\ once\\ and\\ for\\ all\\ by\\ offering\\ himself\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ Christ\\ appeared\\ as\\ the\\ high\\ priest\\ of\\ things\\ to\\ come\\ he\\ entered\\ into\\ the\\ even\\-holier\\ tabernacle\\ not\\ through\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ a\\ goat\\ but\\ through\\ his\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tabernacle\\=heaven\\,\\ in\\ actual\\ presence\\ of\\ God\\,\\ not\\ just\\ fake\\ presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refers\\ to\\ Isaiah\\ and\\ that\\ Christ\\ is\\ now\\ the\\ means\\ for\\ atonement\\ when\\ regular\\ sacrifices\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ enough\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quotes\\ Isaiah\\ extensively\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ not\\ references\\ ot\\ Isaiah\\ 53\\&hellip\\;\\ bearing\\ sins\\ of\\ many\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ 41\\.1\\-3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eucharist\\,\\ related\\ to\\ offering\\ of\\ flour\\ to\\ cure\\ leprosy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ that\\ sacrifices\\ offered\\ by\\ gentiles\\ are\\ better\\ than\\ offered\\ by\\ jews\\ \\(Eucharist\\/Christ\\,\\ etc\\ vs\\.\\ sin\\ offerings\\ of\\ old\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;eucharist\\ \\=\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ christians\\;\\ Flour\\ mentioned\\ with\\ lepers\\ is\\ a\\ cloaked\\ reference\\ to\\ jesus\\ according\\ to\\ christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ 115\\-117\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;Justin\\ sees\\ Christ\\ as\\ a\\ priest\\;\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ Christians\\ is\\ the\\ Eucharist\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ guilt\\ or\\ sin\\ offerings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ tries\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ scripture\\ referred\\ to\\ Jesus\\ as\\ a\\ high\\ priest\\ predicted\\ by\\ Zechariah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ that\\ since\\ Jews\\ read\\ scripture\\ with\\ literal\\ exactitude\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ judged\\ by\\ god\\ with\\ literal\\ exactitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ that\\ only\\ sacrifices\\ offered\\ by\\ Christians\\ through\\ Christ\\ are\\ pleasing\\ to\\ god\\ and\\ no\\ other\\ kind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ that\\ redemption\\ of\\ dispersed\\ peoples\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ gentiles\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ did\\ God\\ demand\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\ to\\ save\\ Jews\\ from\\ Idolatry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ 19\\.6\\,\\:\\ \\ \\;god\\ was\\ adapting\\ his\\ laws\\ to\\ suit\\ weak\\ people\\ \\(Jews\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;required\\ offering\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ him\\ to\\ prevent\\ them\\ from\\ sacrificing\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ demons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ 22\\.1\\:\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ sins\\ of\\ idolatry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ 22\\.11\\:\\ were\\ commanded\\ to\\ offer\\ sacrifices\\ because\\ of\\ sins\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ good\\ enough\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ required\\ to\\ build\\ the\\ temple\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ abstain\\ from\\ building\\ idols\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ two\\ goats\\ of\\ the\\ Day\\ of\\ Atonement\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ 40\\.4\\:\\ goats\\=two\\ comings\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ caught\\ and\\ put\\ to\\ death\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ Christ\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\;\\ that\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;escaped\\ goat\\ will\\ come\\ back\\ and\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ reminder\\ of\\ past\\ wrongs\\ and\\ make\\ people\\ willing\\ to\\ repent\\ and\\ live\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ 111\\.1\\:\\ goats\\ representing\\ two\\ comings\\ of\\ Christ\\ were\\ predicted\\ in\\ Moses\\/Joshua\\&hellip\\;\\ Moses\\ chills\\ on\\ the\\ hill\\ until\\ evening\\ while\\ Joshua\\ fights\\ in\\ battle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ suffers\\ for\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ humanity\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ 94\\-96\\;\\ Moses\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ serpent\\ statue\\ even\\ after\\ he\\ had\\ proclaimed\\ idolatry\\ sinful\\ suggests\\ Jesus\\ coming\\ to\\ break\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ bite\\ of\\ the\\ serpent\\ \\(original\\ sin\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ can\\ follow\\ the\\ law\\ exactly\\,\\ thus\\ all\\ of\\ man\\ kind\\ carries\\ a\\ curse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christ\\ is\\ put\\ to\\ death\\ for\\ the\\ sufferings\\ of\\ man\\ kind\\.\\ \\ \\;Making\\ Christ\\ and\\ other\\ prophets\\ suffer\\ was\\ not\\ pious\\,\\ but\\ his\\ sufferings\\ had\\ redeeming\\ results\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;claims\\ retribution\\ is\\ coming\\ to\\ the\\ Jews\\ for\\ mistreating\\ Christ\\ and\\ putting\\ him\\ to\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;Chrisitans\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ human\\ race\\ is\\ under\\ a\\ curse\\ and\\ only\\ Christ\\ can\\ remove\\ that\\ curse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Questions\\ to\\ consider\\:\\ for\\ these\\ I\\ will\\ just\\ list\\ the\\ main\\ points\\ and\\ arguments\\ that\\ came\\ up\\ in\\ my\\ section\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ the\\ Christian\\ critique\\ of\\ the\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\ demanded\\ by\\ the\\ Torah\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ prophetic\\ critique\\ as\\ recorded\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discussions\\ note\\ that\\ early\\ Christians\\ critique\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ prevent\\ idolatry\\,\\ but\\ Jewish\\ prophets\\,\\ but\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ unnecessary\\ for\\ gentiles\\ who\\ were\\ not\\ as\\ rebellious\\ or\\ fickle\\ as\\ the\\ Jews\\&hellip\\;\\ where\\ as\\ the\\ prophets\\ merely\\ critique\\ these\\ sacrifices\\ as\\ not\\ being\\ sufficient\\ or\\ fully\\ worthwhile\\ since\\ good\\ works\\ and\\ piety\\ is\\ more\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Others\\ noted\\ that\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ progression\\ of\\ time\\,\\ either\\ of\\ the\\ exilic\\ period\\ or\\ of\\ the\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\ merely\\ becoming\\ more\\ less\\ important\\ to\\ Jewish\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Others\\ sought\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ that\\ while\\ Christians\\ fully\\ rejected\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\,\\ Jews\\ still\\ kept\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ requirement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ made\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sacrifice\\ superior\\ to\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\ for\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basically\\ people\\ argues\\ that\\ both\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Christian\\ critiques\\ placed\\ good\\ works\\ above\\ sacrifices\\ but\\ that\\ Jews\\ kept\\ sacrifices\\ as\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ atonement\\ but\\ that\\ Christians\\ annulled\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ Christianity\\ fulfilled\\,\\ replaced\\,\\ or\\ cancelled\\ the\\ biblical\\ sacrifices\\?\\ \\ \\;Has\\ Judaism\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jewish\\ prophets\\ seem\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ sacrifices\\ were\\ only\\ bad\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ being\\ offered\\ in\\ lieu\\ of\\ piety\\,\\ not\\ in\\ conjunction\\ with\\ it\\&hellip\\;\\ like\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ dentist\\ you\\ cannot\\ ignore\\ the\\ maintenance\\ all\\ year\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ make\\ up\\ with\\ it\\ on\\ one\\ go\\,\\ \\ \\;you\\ have\\ to\\ brush\\ the\\ whole\\ year\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ atonement\\ possible\\ without\\ blood\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ argued\\ that\\ blood\\ was\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ sacrifice\\ in\\ general\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ blood\\ need\\ not\\ be\\ immediate\\ or\\ proximate\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christians\\ get\\ to\\ blood\\ through\\ sacrifice\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ both\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ use\\ good\\ acts\\ and\\ humilty\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ true\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ discussion\\ over\\ rabbi\\ mier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assertion\\ that\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ one\\ could\\ redeem\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\&hellip\\;\\ did\\ this\\ necessarily\\ refer\\ to\\ Christ\\,\\ or\\ could\\ it\\ be\\ any\\ pious\\ person\\,\\ or\\ has\\ it\\ happened\\ yet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ debate\\ over\\ whether\\ mier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\ referred\\ to\\ god\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forgiveness\\,\\ or\\ god\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forgiveness\\ through\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Others\\ pointed\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ a\\ sacrifical\\ animal\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ Christ\\ for\\ atonement\\ \\(Jew\\ vs\\.\\ Christian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 13\\ Lectures\\ and\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;From\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Israel\\ to\\ the\\ Nations\\;\\ the\\ End\\ of\\ Days\\ \\(M\\ May\\ 7\\ and\\ W\\ May\\ 9\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;Reading\\ period\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\\\Old\\ and\\ new\\ covenant\\,\\ old\\ and\\ new\\ creation\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Jeremiah\\ 31\\:31\\-34\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JSB\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;notes\\:\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\new\\ covenant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ interpreted\\ by\\ Christians\\ as\\ a\\ prophecy\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ through\\ Jesus\\ \\(New\\ Testament\\ \\=\\ new\\ covenant\\)\\ but\\ here\\ it\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ Israel\\ after\\ the\\ Babylonian\\ exile\\ and\\ the\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ the\\ Temple\\;\\ the\\ difference\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ content\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ it\\ is\\ learned\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Cohen\\:\\ Jewish\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ Israel\\ shall\\ sin\\ no\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;See\\,\\ a\\ time\\ is\\ coming\\&hellip\\;when\\ I\\ will\\ make\\ a\\ new\\ covenant\\ with\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Israel\\ and\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Judah\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\-34\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ put\\ My\\ Teaching\\ into\\ their\\ inmost\\ being\\ and\\ inscribe\\ it\\ upon\\ their\\ hearts\\.\\ Then\\ I\\ will\\ be\\ their\\ God\\,\\ and\\ they\\ shall\\ by\\ My\\ people\\.\\ No\\ longer\\ will\\ thy\\ need\\ to\\ teach\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ say\\ to\\ one\\ another\\,\\ Heed\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\JSB\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ idea\\ will\\ later\\ develop\\ that\\ all\\ person\\ have\\ a\\ divine\\ spark\\ within\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeremiah\\ 32\\:37\\-41\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;See\\,\\ I\\ will\\ gather\\ them\\ from\\ all\\ the\\ lands\\&hellip\\;And\\ I\\ will\\ make\\ an\\ everlasting\\ covenant\\ with\\ them\\ that\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ turn\\ away\\ from\\ them\\ and\\ that\\ I\\ will\\ treat\\ them\\ graciously\\;\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ put\\ into\\ their\\ hearts\\ reverence\\ for\\ Me\\,\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ turn\\ away\\ from\\ Me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JSB\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ God\\ promises\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\everlasting\\ covenant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ the\\ people\\ will\\ look\\ to\\ God\\ and\\ will\\ ensure\\ their\\ security\\.\\ Everlasting\\ covenants\\ were\\ made\\ with\\ Noah\\ \\(Gen\\.\\ 9\\.16\\,\\ Isaac\\ 24\\-5\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ broken\\)\\,\\ Abraham\\ \\(Gen\\.\\ 17\\.7\\,\\ 19\\)\\,\\ Israel\\ \\(Exod\\.\\ 31\\.16\\,\\ Lev\\.\\ 24\\.8\\,\\ for\\ the\\ Shabbat\\)\\,\\ Phineas\\ the\\ priest\\ \\(Num\\ 25\\.13\\)\\,\\ David\\,\\ Israel\\,\\ and\\ Jerusalem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ezekiel\\ 11\\:14\\-21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Similar\\ idea\\ to\\ Jeremiah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ give\\ them\\ one\\ heart\\ and\\ put\\ a\\ new\\ spirit\\ in\\ them\\;\\ I\\ will\\ remove\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ stone\\ from\\ their\\ bodies\\ and\\ given\\ them\\ a\\ heart\\ of\\ flesh\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;that\\ they\\ may\\ follow\\ My\\ laws\\ and\\ faithfully\\ observe\\ My\\ rules\\.\\ Then\\ they\\ shall\\ be\\ My\\ people\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ be\\ their\\ God\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ characterizes\\ the\\ covenant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JSB\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Oracle\\ concerning\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ Israel\\;\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ 14\\ oracles\\ associated\\ w\\/Ezekiel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ departure\\ fr\\ Jerusalem\\ anticipates\\ the\\ future\\ restoration\\ of\\ Israel\\ once\\ the\\ punishment\\ is\\ complete\\.\\ Attempts\\ to\\ point\\ to\\ divine\\ mercy\\ as\\ the\\ ultimate\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ judgment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ezekiel\\ 36\\:16\\-36\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Similar\\ idea\\ as\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\-17\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ word\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ came\\ to\\ me\\.\\ O\\ mortal\\,\\ when\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Israel\\ dwelt\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ soil\\,\\ they\\ defiled\\ it\\ with\\ their\\ ways\\ and\\ their\\ deeds\\;\\ their\\ ways\\ were\\ in\\ My\\ sight\\ like\\ the\\ uncleanness\\ of\\ a\\ menstruous\\ woman\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;imagery\\ of\\ menstrual\\ blood\\ \\(see\\ Lev\\.\\ 15\\.19\\-30\\)\\ to\\ portray\\ the\\ impurity\\ of\\ the\\ land\\;\\ also\\ reference\\ to\\ idolatrous\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JSB\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ This\\ part\\ of\\ Ezekiel\\ \\(36\\.16\\-37\\.14\\)\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ purification\\ and\\ restoration\\ of\\ Israel\\.\\ Specifically\\,\\ 36\\.16\\-38\\ elaborates\\ on\\ the\\ sanctification\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\-32\\:\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ reclaim\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\,\\ Israel\\ must\\ be\\ restored\\.\\ This\\ is\\ done\\ for\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sake\\,\\ not\\ because\\ Israel\\ is\\ deserving\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Not\\ for\\ your\\ sake\\ will\\ I\\ act\\&hellip\\;but\\ for\\ My\\ holy\\ name\\,\\ which\\ you\\ have\\ caused\\ to\\ be\\ profaned\\ among\\ the\\ nations\\ to\\ which\\ you\\ have\\ come\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\:\\ God\\ intends\\ to\\ purify\\ Israel\\ with\\ clean\\ water\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ standard\\ procedure\\ for\\ purification\\ in\\ such\\ cases\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ sprinkle\\ clean\\ water\\ upon\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\-27\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ will\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ new\\ heart\\ and\\ put\\ a\\ new\\ spirit\\ into\\ you\\:\\ I\\ will\\ remove\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ stone\\ from\\ your\\ body\\ and\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ heart\\ of\\ flesh\\;\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ put\\ My\\ spirit\\ into\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gentiles\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 2\\:1\\-5\\ \\(Micah\\ 4\\:1\\-5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ section\\ begins\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\ as\\ it\\ should\\ and\\ will\\ be\\:\\ a\\ city\\ of\\ peace\\,\\ equity\\ and\\ divine\\ presence\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ section\\ \\(2\\.6\\-4\\.1\\)\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ sinfulness\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ inhabitants\\ and\\ their\\ grim\\ fate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\ \\(2\\.2\\-4\\)\\ is\\ found\\ also\\ in\\ Micah\\ 4\\.1\\-4\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mount\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ Temple\\ Mount\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Zion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ the\\ Temple\\ Mount\\,\\ and\\ by\\ extension\\,\\ more\\ broadly\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ city\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.4\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ He\\ will\\ judge\\ among\\ the\\ nations\\/And\\ arbitrate\\ for\\ the\\ many\\ peoples\\&hellip\\;Nation\\ shall\\ not\\ take\\ up\\/Sword\\ against\\ nation\\;\\/They\\ shall\\ never\\ again\\ know\\ war\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JSB\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ prophet\\ imagines\\ a\\ future\\ where\\ nations\\ will\\ submit\\ to\\ arbitration\\ at\\ Mount\\ Zion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.17\\:\\ A\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ section\\ and\\ the\\ message\\ of\\ Isaiah\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Then\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ haughtiness\\ shall\\ be\\ humbled\\/And\\ the\\ pride\\ of\\ man\\ brought\\ low\\.\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\None\\ but\\ the\\ Lord\\ shall\\ be\\/Exalted\\ in\\ that\\ day\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.1\\-15\\:\\ Unworthy\\ leaders\\ and\\ a\\ society\\ in\\ ruins\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Sovereign\\ Lord\\ of\\ hosts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Will\\ remove\\ from\\ Jerusalem\\ and\\ from\\ Judah\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;God\\ will\\ remove\\ Judah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ food\\ and\\ leaders\\ though\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unclear\\ whether\\ it\\ has\\ already\\ happened\\ or\\ will\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ near\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.16\\-4\\.1\\:\\ The\\ haughtiness\\ of\\ wealthy\\ women\\,\\ and\\ their\\ downfall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.25\\-4\\.1\\:\\ The\\ punishment\\:\\ by\\ killing\\ the\\ men\\,\\ it\\ leaves\\ the\\ women\\ bereaved\\ and\\ impoverished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.2\\-6\\:\\ tone\\ changes\\;\\ prophet\\ describes\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ cleansing\\ punishment\\;\\ it\\ focuses\\ on\\ Israel\\ and\\ Zion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.2\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ that\\ day\\,\\/The\\ radiance\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\/Will\\ lend\\ beauty\\ and\\ glory\\,\\/And\\ the\\ splendor\\ of\\ the\\ land\\/\\[Will\\ give\\]\\ dignity\\ and\\ majesty\\,\\/To\\ the\\ survivors\\ of\\ Israel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.3\\:\\ And\\ those\\ who\\ remain\\ in\\ Zion\\/And\\ are\\ left\\ in\\ Jerusalem\\/All\\ who\\ are\\ inscribed\\ for\\ life\\ in\\ Jerusalem\\/Shall\\ be\\ called\\ holy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.1\\-30\\:\\ a\\ poem\\ of\\ rebuke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-7\\:\\ The\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ vineyard\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\-24\\:\\ A\\ series\\ of\\ divine\\ complaints\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;complaint\\ is\\ directed\\ toward\\ wealth\\ landowners\\ who\\ expand\\ their\\ own\\ property\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ farmers\\ of\\ modest\\ means\\;\\ this\\ goes\\ against\\ the\\ Torah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teachings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\-17\\:\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;complaint\\:\\ parties\\ instead\\ of\\ piety\\;\\ feeding\\ the\\ appetite\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sheol\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ underworld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;suffer\\ exile\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fate\\ of\\ northern\\ Israelites\\ in\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\-19\\:\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;complaint\\:\\ ppl\\ are\\ guilty\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\;\\ sinners\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ that\\ God\\ will\\ fulfill\\ is\\ purpose\\;\\ or\\ faithful\\ Israelites\\ who\\ impatiently\\ demand\\ that\\ God\\ act\\ immediately\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\-21\\:\\ two\\ brief\\ complaints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\-30\\:\\ the\\ coming\\ disaster\\;\\ God\\ portrayed\\ as\\ bludgeoning\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ both\\ through\\ and\\ earthquake\\ that\\ has\\ already\\ taken\\ place\\ and\\ a\\ foreign\\ invasion\\ yet\\ to\\ come\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ in\\ that\\ day\\,\\ a\\ roaring\\ shall\\ resound\\ over\\ him\\ like\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\;\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ shall\\ look\\ below\\ and\\,\\ behold\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Distressing\\ darkness\\,\\ with\\ light\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Darkness\\,\\ in\\ its\\ lowering\\ clouds\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 42\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-4\\:\\ God\\ introduces\\ the\\ servant\\,\\ emphasizing\\ his\\ gentle\\ nature\\.\\ God\\ addresses\\ the\\ nations\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ while\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ servant\\,\\ the\\ nation\\ Israel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JSB\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;identity\\ of\\ the\\ servant\\ is\\ hotly\\ debated\\;\\ possibilities\\ include\\ the\\ Messiah\\ and\\ the\\ Israelite\\ nation\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ The\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;servant\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ most\\ other\\ chs\\ 40\\-66\\ clearly\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ nation\\ Israel\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ faithful\\ within\\ Israel\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ likely\\ explanation\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\ in\\ My\\ grace\\,\\ have\\ summoned\\ you\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ I\\ have\\ grasped\\ you\\ by\\ the\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ created\\ you\\,\\ and\\ appointed\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ covenant\\ people\\,\\ a\\ light\\ of\\ nations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nations\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ witness\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faithfulness\\ to\\ the\\ covenant\\ when\\ Israel\\ is\\ redeemed\\;\\ the\\ people\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ tool\\ through\\ which\\ God\\ becomes\\ known\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ nations\\ as\\ mighty\\,\\ just\\,\\ and\\ reliable\\.\\ Israelites\\ are\\ a\\ light\\ to\\ the\\ nations\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ them\\,\\ not\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ what\\ they\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\:18\\-21\\:\\ The\\ servant\\,\\ who\\ deserves\\ punishment\\,\\ will\\ ultimately\\ be\\ redeemed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 49\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Motif\\ of\\ the\\ servant\\ appears\\ again\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ debate\\ about\\ who\\ the\\ servant\\ represents\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ the\\ entire\\ nation\\ of\\ Israel\\ the\\ servant\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ the\\ prophet\\ \\(Deutero\\-Isaiah\\)\\ speaking\\ here\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ servant\\ and\\ encouragement\\ for\\ Zion\\;\\ assures\\ the\\ people\\ that\\ Zion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ full\\ restoration\\ is\\ not\\ far\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;light\\ of\\ nations\\&rdquo\\;\\ appears\\ again\\ in\\ v\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\-13\\:\\ The\\ servant\\ announces\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ recognize\\ the\\ one\\ God\\ when\\ the\\ whole\\ Israelite\\ nation\\ returns\\ to\\ its\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 56\\:1\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Covenant\\ and\\ community\\:\\ role\\ that\\ observance\\ of\\ the\\ commandments\\ plays\\ in\\ forming\\ Judean\\ identity\\;\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*3\\-6\\:\\ Assures\\ foreigners\\ that\\ through\\ full\\ observance\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\ they\\ can\\ become\\ like\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Judean\\ community\\;\\ this\\ passage\\ shows\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ conversions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;As\\ for\\ the\\ foreigners\\/Who\\ attach\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\/To\\ minister\\ to\\ Him\\,\\/And\\ to\\ love\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\/To\\ be\\ His\\ servants\\ \\&ndash\\;\\/All\\ who\\ keep\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ profane\\ it\\,\\/And\\ who\\ hold\\ fast\\ to\\ My\\ covenant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\:\\ I\\ will\\ bring\\ them\\ to\\ My\\ sacred\\ mount\\/And\\ let\\ them\\ rejoice\\ in\\ My\\ house\\ of\\ prayer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-gentiles\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;attach\\ themselves\\ to\\ God\\ to\\ serve\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ temple\\ shall\\ be\\ a\\ house\\ of\\ prayer\\ for\\ all\\ peoples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 60\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prophet\\ focuses\\ less\\ on\\ the\\ return\\ to\\ Zion\\ since\\ it\\ has\\ already\\ begun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Text\\ makes\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ Davidic\\ family\\;\\ God\\ will\\ rule\\ the\\ nation\\ directly\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ and\\ the\\ whole\\ nation\\ will\\ enjoy\\ royal\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\60\\.4\\-16\\:\\ Because\\ the\\ nations\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ recognize\\ and\\ fear\\ God\\,\\ they\\ will\\ bring\\ tribute\\ to\\ Zion\\.\\ Nations\\ will\\ transport\\ Judean\\ exiles\\ to\\ Jerusalem\\ and\\ add\\ to\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wealth\\.\\ Isaiah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ universalism\\ gives\\ way\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ national\\ set\\ of\\ concerns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 65\\-66\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\66\\:22\\-24\\:\\ A\\ final\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ fates\\ awaiting\\ those\\ who\\ accept\\ the\\ Lord\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ reject\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ \\ \\;Distinction\\ betw\\ Judeans\\ and\\ non\\-Judeans\\ is\\ not\\ mentioned\\ here\\;\\ worshippers\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ flesh\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ men\\ who\\ rebelled\\ against\\ Me\\&rdquo\\;\\ include\\ Israelites\\;\\ book\\ of\\ Isaiah\\ ends\\ on\\ highly\\ universal\\ note\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eternal\\ love\\ for\\ Israel\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Ahava\\ Rabbah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ the\\ prayer\\-book\\ \\(to\\ be\\ distributed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ 9\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ subject\\:\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ Christ\\:\\ two\\ poles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Descent\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ They\\ are\\ Israelites\\;\\ theirs\\ are\\ the\\ sonship\\,\\ the\\ glory\\,\\ the\\ covenants\\,\\ the\\ giving\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\,\\ the\\ worship\\,\\ and\\ the\\ promises\\;\\ theirs\\ are\\ the\\ patriarchs\\,\\ and\\ from\\ them\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ flesh\\,\\ is\\ the\\ Christ\\.\\ \\(Romans\\ 9\\:4\\-5\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Faith\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;7\\-8\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ It\\ is\\ through\\ Isaac\\ that\\ your\\ offspring\\ will\\ be\\ reckoned\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ natural\\ children\\ who\\ are\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ promise\\ who\\ are\\ regarded\\ as\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ offspring\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ if\\ he\\ did\\ this\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ riches\\ of\\ his\\ glory\\ known\\ to\\ the\\ objects\\ of\\ his\\ mercy\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ prepared\\ in\\ advance\\ for\\ glory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 24\\:\\ even\\ us\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ also\\ called\\,\\ not\\ only\\ from\\ the\\ Jews\\ but\\ also\\ from\\ the\\ Gentiles\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\,\\ Paul\\ is\\ very\\ unclear\\ in\\ 9\\-11\\.\\ God\\ did\\ not\\ reject\\ his\\ people\\&hellip\\;\\ all\\ Israel\\ will\\ be\\ saved\\.\\ Though\\,\\ Cohen\\ argues\\ that\\ by\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ logic\\,\\ God\\ did\\ reject\\ his\\ people\\ and\\ Christ\\ arose\\ from\\ the\\ Jews\\;\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ this\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ considers\\ himself\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ historic\\ Jewish\\ community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galatians\\ 4\\:21\\-5\\:1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hagar\\ stands\\ for\\ Jerusalem\\,\\ and\\ represents\\ it\\ being\\ in\\ slavery\\ with\\ her\\ children\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.1\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ for\\ freedom\\ that\\ Christ\\ has\\ set\\ us\\ free\\.\\ Stand\\ firm\\,\\ then\\,\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ let\\ yourselves\\ be\\ burdened\\ again\\ by\\ a\\ yoke\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parable\\ of\\ the\\ vineyard\\:\\ Isaiah\\ 5\\:1\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ is\\ the\\ farmer\\ and\\ Israel\\ the\\ vineyard\\.\\ At\\ first\\ the\\,\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ character\\ is\\ not\\ evident\\ and\\ only\\ gradually\\ do\\ we\\ realize\\ that\\ the\\ audience\\ is\\ being\\ rebuked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ \\&ldquo\\;cleared\\ \\[the\\ ground\\]\\ of\\ stones\\&rdquo\\;\\ hoping\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ would\\ yield\\ grapes\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ instead\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ yielded\\ wild\\ grapes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;For\\ the\\ vineyard\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ of\\ Hosts\\/Is\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Israel\\/And\\ the\\ seedlings\\ he\\ lovingly\\ tended\\/Are\\ the\\ men\\ of\\ Judah\\/And\\ He\\ hoped\\ for\\ Justice\\,\\/But\\ behold\\,\\ injustice\\;\\/For\\ equity\\,\\/But\\ behold\\,\\ iniquity\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matthew\\ 21\\:33\\-46\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ parable\\ in\\ Isaiah\\ is\\ changed\\ so\\ the\\ owner\\ of\\ the\\ vineyard\\ \\(God\\)\\ rents\\ the\\ vineyard\\ to\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;tenants\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ kill\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ servants\\ when\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ come\\ and\\ collect\\ fruit\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Therefore\\,\\ when\\ the\\ owner\\ of\\ the\\ vineyard\\ comes\\,\\ what\\ will\\ he\\ do\\ to\\ those\\ tenants\\?\\ He\\ will\\ bring\\ those\\ wretches\\ to\\ a\\ wretched\\ end\\,\\ they\\ replied\\,\\ and\\ he\\ will\\ rent\\ the\\ vineyard\\ to\\ other\\ tenants\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Christian\\ interpretation\\:\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ rejected\\ the\\ Jews\\ \\(tenants\\)\\ but\\ Cohen\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ replacing\\ the\\ leadership\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Christians\\ are\\ the\\ true\\ people\\ of\\ God\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Justin\\ 26\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ No\\ salvation\\ to\\ the\\ Jews\\ except\\ through\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ I\\ replied\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;I\\ do\\ not\\ say\\ so\\;\\ but\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ persecuted\\ and\\ do\\ persecute\\ Christ\\,\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ repent\\,\\ shall\\ not\\ inherit\\ anything\\ on\\ the\\ holy\\ mountain\\.\\ But\\ the\\ Gentiles\\,\\ who\\ have\\ believed\\ on\\ Him\\,\\ and\\ have\\ repented\\ of\\ the\\ sins\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ committed\\,\\ they\\ shall\\ receive\\ the\\ inheritance\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ patriarchs\\ and\\ the\\ prophets\\,\\ and\\ the\\ just\\ men\\ who\\ are\\ descended\\ from\\ Jacob\\,\\ even\\ although\\ they\\ neither\\ keep\\ the\\ Sabbath\\,\\ nor\\ are\\ circumcised\\,\\ nor\\ observe\\ the\\ feasts\\.\\ Assuredly\\ they\\ shall\\ receive\\ the\\ holy\\ inheritance\\ of\\ God\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ 80\\-81\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\80\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ I\\ and\\ others\\,\\ who\\ are\\ right\\-minded\\ Christians\\ on\\ all\\ points\\,\\ are\\ assured\\ that\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ resurrection\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\,\\ and\\ a\\ thousand\\ years\\ in\\ Jerusalem\\,\\ which\\ will\\ then\\ be\\ built\\,\\ adorned\\,\\ and\\ enlarged\\,\\ \\[as\\]\\ the\\ prophets\\ Ezekiel\\ and\\ Isaiah\\ and\\ others\\ declare\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\81\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ there\\ shall\\ be\\ the\\ new\\ heaven\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ the\\ former\\ shall\\ not\\ be\\ remembered\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ resurrection\\ of\\ the\\ righteous\\ Christians\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ 1000\\ years\\ when\\ Jerusalem\\ is\\ rebuilt\\ with\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ 119\\-125\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christians\\ are\\ the\\ holy\\ people\\ promised\\ to\\ Abraham\\;\\ They\\ have\\ been\\ called\\ liked\\ Abraham\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Thou\\ hast\\ forsaken\\ God\\ that\\ begat\\ thee\\,\\ and\\ forgotten\\ God\\ that\\ brought\\ thee\\ up\\.\\ And\\ the\\ Lord\\ saw\\,\\ and\\ was\\ jealous\\,\\ and\\ was\\ provoked\\ to\\ anger\\ by\\ reason\\ of\\ the\\ rage\\ of\\ His\\ sons\\ and\\ daughters\\:\\ and\\ He\\ said\\,\\ I\\ will\\ turn\\ My\\ face\\ away\\ from\\ them\\,\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ show\\ what\\ shall\\ come\\ on\\ them\\ at\\ the\\ last\\;\\ for\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ forward\\ generation\\,\\ children\\ in\\ whom\\ is\\ no\\ faith\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ people\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ holy\\ people\\,\\ as\\ we\\ have\\ shown\\ already\\ And\\ they\\ shall\\ call\\ them\\ the\\ holy\\ people\\,\\ redeemed\\ by\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\122\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Therefore\\ what\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ the\\ prophets\\ was\\ spoken\\ not\\ of\\ those\\ persons\\,\\ but\\ of\\ us\\,\\ concerning\\ whom\\ the\\ Scripture\\ speaks\\:\\ \\&lsquo\\;I\\ will\\ lead\\ the\\ blind\\ by\\ a\\ way\\ which\\ they\\ knew\\ not\\;\\ and\\ they\\ shall\\ walk\\ in\\ paths\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ not\\ known\\.\\ And\\ I\\ am\\ witness\\,\\ saith\\ the\\ Lord\\ God\\,\\ and\\ my\\ servant\\ whom\\ I\\ have\\ chosen\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ 130\\-136\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\131\\:\\ How\\ much\\ more\\ faithful\\ to\\ God\\ the\\ Gentiles\\ are\\ who\\ converted\\ to\\ Christ\\ than\\ the\\ Jews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\135\\:\\ Christ\\ is\\ king\\ of\\ Israel\\,\\ and\\ Christians\\ are\\ the\\ Israelitic\\ race\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDS\\/Key\\ Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ covenant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ begins\\ with\\ Jeremiah\\ and\\ Ezekiel\\;\\ interpreted\\ by\\ Christians\\ as\\ a\\ prophecy\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ through\\ Jesus\\;\\ Jewish\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ covenant\\;\\ the\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ Israel\\ shall\\ sin\\ no\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parable\\ of\\ the\\ Vineyard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(see\\ reading\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supersessionism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ verb\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\supersede\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ which\\ means\\ literally\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;sit\\ upon\\,\\ sit\\ on\\ top\\ of\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(NOT\\ the\\ verb\\ supercede\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ applies\\ to\\ Christians\\ who\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ the\\ new\\ chosen\\ people\\,\\ as\\ heirs\\ to\\ the\\ covenant\\,\\ replacing\\ the\\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Verus\\ Israel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ true\\ Israel\\,\\ topic\\ of\\ Jewish\\-Christian\\ disputations\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\;\\ the\\ question\\ deals\\ with\\ theological\\ or\\ covenantal\\ continuity\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Which\\ is\\ faithful\\ to\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Scriptures\\?\\ Who\\ has\\ the\\ covenant\\ with\\ God\\?\\ It\\ cannot\\ belong\\ to\\ both\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 36, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Hebrew_Assembled_Weekly_Lectures_and_Readings.doc", "desc": "Lectures"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Ethical and Political Theory - Questions -", "tags": ["harvard", "chinese", "classical", "ethical", "political", "theory"], "text": null, "id": 84, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\_Discussion\\_Questions\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c31\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c37\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c34\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c38\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c35\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c4\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c9\\{color\\:\\#008080\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c23\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c39\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c16\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c32\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Ethical\\ and\\ Political\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DISCUSSION\\ QUESTIONS\\ \\&\\;\\ SECTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ genre\\,\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ text\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ In\\ your\\ opinion\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ possible\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ presenting\\ philosophical\\ positions\\ in\\ this\\ manner\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Dialogue\\.\\ Conversational\\,\\ simple\\ language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;easier\\ to\\ relate\\ to\\ everyday\\ life\\ and\\ every\\ type\\ or\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ are\\ the\\ themes\\ of\\ ethics\\ and\\ politics\\ related\\ in\\ the\\ text\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ central\\ concepts\\ used\\ to\\ articulate\\ these\\ themes\\?\\ Are\\ ethics\\ and\\ politics\\ the\\ overriding\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ are\\ there\\ other\\ themes\\ that\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Politics\\ linked\\ directly\\ with\\ ethics\\.\\ Virtue\\ \\>\\;\\ punishment\\ and\\ regulations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ \\"\\;Filial\\ son\\ and\\ good\\ brother\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ government\\ \\(2\\.21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ If\\ everyone\\ were\\ following\\ rituals\\,\\ natural\\ order\\ would\\ fall\\ into\\ place\\ without\\ need\\ of\\ a\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ 2\\.3\\ \\-\\-\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ leader\\ \\(not\\ necessarily\\ government\\)\\ to\\ guide\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ 8\\.9\\,\\ 11\\.26\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ need\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ a\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ ritual\\ \\(li\\)\\ and\\ goodness\\ \\(ren\\)\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ ritual\\ and\\ the\\ ordering\\ of\\ the\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relevant\\ passages\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\:\\ 3\\.3\\ \\(supports\\ rituals\\ including\\ music\\)\\,\\ 3\\.4\\ \\(better\\ to\\ be\\ spare\\)\\,\\ 3\\.15\\,\\ 3\\.19\\ \\(lord\\ should\\ employ\\ ministers\\ with\\ ritual\\)\\.\\ 12\\.1\\,\\ 14\\.41\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goodness\\:\\ 1\\.3\\ \\(clever\\ tongue\\ and\\ fine\\ appearance\\ \\=\\ goodness\\)\\,\\ 3\\.3\\,\\ 4\\.1\\,\\ 4\\.3\\ \\(truly\\ able\\ to\\ love\\/despise\\ others\\;\\ sense\\ of\\ understanding\\/distinction\\ between\\ opposites\\)\\,\\ 4\\.5\\ \\(achievement\\ \\&\\;\\ failure\\ the\\ same\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ manner\\)\\,\\ 4\\.6\\ \\(there\\ is\\ NO\\ ONE\\ completely\\ devoted\\ to\\ goodness\\/completely\\ good\\)\\,\\ 8\\.7\\ \\(struggles\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\)\\,\\ 12\\.1\\,\\ 12\\.22\\ \\(altruistic\\)\\,\\ 13\\.19\\,\\ 17\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Through\\ practicing\\ daily\\ ritual\\ one\\ will\\ develop\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ places\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Way\\ of\\ Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ have\\ in\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ Confucius\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ Confucius\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ do\\ all\\ people\\ have\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ become\\ good\\?\\ In\\ chapter\\ 5\\.10\\,\\ Confucius\\ states\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rotten\\ wood\\ cannot\\ be\\ carved\\ and\\ a\\ wall\\ of\\ dung\\ cannot\\ be\\ plastered\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Is\\ goodness\\ only\\ for\\ aristocrats\\?\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ think\\ through\\ these\\ issues\\,\\ you\\ may\\ find\\ it\\ helpful\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ key\\ terms\\ used\\ by\\ Confucius\\ when\\ speaking\\ about\\ how\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inherent\\ substance\\ can\\ be\\ transformed\\ by\\ ethical\\ self\\-cultivation\\.\\ These\\ include\\ the\\ terms\\ \\&ldquo\\;nature\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(xing\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;native\\ substance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(zhi\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ refinement\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(wen\\)\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ relations\\ between\\ these\\ three\\ terms\\?\\ Some\\ relevant\\ passages\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ consideration\\:\\ 6\\.18\\,\\ 12\\.8\\,\\ 15\\.18\\,\\ 15\\.38\\,\\ 17\\.2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ If\\ we\\ always\\ dwell\\ among\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ good\\,\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ help\\ others\\?\\ \\(p\\.\\ 10\\;\\ 4\\.1\\)\\;\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ receive\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ transmit\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ stay\\ with\\ good\\ to\\ receive\\,\\ but\\ then\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ know\\ when\\ you\\ can\\ start\\ transmitting\\?\\ Isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ claiming\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ good\\ enough\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ being\\ not\\ good\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ goodness\\ and\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\ \\-\\ Discussion\\ Questions\\ \\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;How\\ is\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ \\"\\;impartiality\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;impartial\\ caring\\"\\;\\ \\(jian\\&\\#39\\;ai\\)\\similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;\\ notion\\ of\\ Goodness\\ \\(ren\\)\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ the\\ two\\ concepts\\differ\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ advocates\\ \\"\\;impartiality\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ treating\\ everyone\\ equally\\,\\ not\\ applying\\ any\\ \\form\\ of\\ favoritism\\,\\ even\\ to\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ family\\.\\ His\\ reasoning\\ behind\\ this\\ is\\rationally\\ calculated\\ \\?\\ if\\ you\\ treat\\ another\\ person\\&\\#39\\;s\\ parents\\ well\\ out\\ of\\impartiality\\,\\ then\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ they\\ will\\ treat\\ your\\ own\\ parent\\&\\#39\\;s\\ well\\.\\ His\\ notion\\ \\of\\ impartial\\ caring\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ Goodness\\ in\\ that\\ both\\ideas\\ encourage\\ benevolence\\ \\(treating\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ treated\\yourself\\.\\)\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ Confucius\\ emphasizes\\ throughout\\ The\\ Analects\\ \\\\"\\;filial\\ piety\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;respect\\ for\\ elders\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ encouragement\\ of\\equal\\ treatment\\ to\\ everyone\\.\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ state\\/society\\ for\\ Mozi\\,\\ and\\ how\\ did\\ society\\ come\\ \\into\\ being\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ valuable\\ in\\ society\\ determined\\?\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ what\\ ways\\ is\\ \\this\\ process\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Analects\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ For\\ Mozi\\,\\ the\\ state\\ should\\ implement\\ a\\ reward\\/punishment\\ system\\ \\(laws\\)\\.\\ He\\believes\\ this\\ creates\\ order\\ and\\ promotes\\ good\\ behavior\\ and\\ prevents\\ bad\\behavior\\.\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ benevolent\\ person\\ should\\ rule\\ the\\ state\\ \\and\\ determine\\ societal\\ standards\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\.\\ \\(He\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ what\\created\\ order\\ in\\ ancient\\ times\\.\\)\\ These\\ standards\\ are\\ decided\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\a\\ rational\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ criteria\\ Mozi\\ uses\\ to\\ determine\\ \\whether\\ or\\ not\\ something\\ is\\ good\\ are\\:\\ if\\ it\\ increases\\ the\\ population\\,\\ if\\ it\\brings\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ government\\,\\ if\\ it\\ helps\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Both\\ Confucius\\ and\\Mozi\\ agree\\ that\\ the\\ state\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ruler\\ is\\ obligated\\ to\\ lead\\ his\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\,\\ \\but\\ they\\ disagree\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Confucius\\ opposes\\ a\\ clear\\-cut\\ legal\\ system\\to\\ influence\\ morality\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ laws\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ cause\\ someone\\ to\\internalize\\ morality\\,\\ but\\ Mozi\\ does\\ believe\\ in\\ laws\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ rationally\\ \\determine\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ good\\ and\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bad\\.\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ rituals\\?\\ How\\ do\\ rituals\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ spirits\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ self\\-cultivation\\ through\\ ritual\\ is\\ useless\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\developing\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ \\(which\\ is\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ Confucius\\.\\)\\ Instead\\ he\\ \\advocates\\ a\\ rational\\ calculus\\ of\\ benefits\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ you\\ cannot\\ build\\a\\ political\\ order\\ out\\ of\\ practicing\\ rituals\\.\\ However\\,\\ Mozi\\ argues\\ for\\ the\\practice\\ of\\ rituals\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ spirits\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ performing\\ \\these\\ rituals\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ effect\\ on\\ people\\ \\?\\ if\\ people\\ perform\\ sacrificial\\offerings\\ for\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\ and\\ maintain\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ them\\ then\\,\\ Mozi\\argues\\,\\ this\\ will\\ bring\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ by\\ scaring\\ people\\ into\\ being\\ \\punished\\ for\\ being\\ bad\\ \\(by\\ the\\ spirits\\)\\.\\ But\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ other\\ rituals\\,\\such\\ as\\ music\\ listening\\ and\\ lavish\\ funerals\\/prolonged\\ mourning\\ are\\ wasteful\\rituals\\ with\\ no\\ utilitarian\\ benefit\\.\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Mozi\\ devotes\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ effort\\ to\\ the\\ analysis\\ and\\ explication\\ of\\ \\historical\\ texts\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ in\\ the\\ Mozi\\,\\ and\\ what\\is\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ bases\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ arguments\\ on\\ historical\\ examples\\ and\\ past\\ figures\\.\\ He\\ \\uses\\ history\\ to\\ justify\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ implement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ such\\ as\\ impartiality\\ and\\the\\ rejection\\ of\\ lavish\\ funerals\\ and\\ prolonged\\ mourning\\ periods\\.\\ For\\ Mozi\\,\\ the\\past\\ informs\\ the\\ present\\ because\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\ was\\ \\the\\ right\\ way\\.\\ It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ be\\ manipulating\\history\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ support\\ and\\ fit\\ in\\ with\\ his\\ philosophy\\.\\ \\(He\\ presents\\ certain\\events\\ as\\ historical\\ facts\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ actually\\ happened\\.\\)\\ \\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Scholarship\\ on\\ early\\ Chinese\\ thought\\ often\\ credits\\ the\\ followers\\ of\\ Mozi\\ with\\the\\ development\\ of\\ systematic\\ logic\\ and\\ science\\.\\ How\\ would\\ Mozi\\ understand\\ what\\is\\,\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\,\\ termed\\ \\"\\;logic\\"\\;\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ \\which\\ the\\ followers\\ of\\ Mozi\\ identify\\ problems\\ and\\ attempt\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\solutions\\?\\ Pay\\ particular\\ attention\\ to\\ chapter\\ 35\\.\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Again\\,\\ Mozi\\ uses\\ a\\ rational\\,\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\ solutions\\ to\\problems\\.\\ He\\ simply\\ weighs\\ out\\ how\\ beneficial\\ something\\ is\\,\\ and\\ is\\ more\\ \\\\"\\;logical\\"\\;\\ while\\ Confucius\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ more\\ emotional\\.\\ He\\ also\\ explains\\ in\\detail\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ assess\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ and\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bad\\ by\\ using\\ the\\ 3\\ gauges\\:\\precedence\\ \\(from\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\)\\,\\ evidence\\ \\(if\\ people\\ have\\ heard\\/seen\\ it\\ be\\ \\done\\)\\,\\ and\\ application\\ \\(implement\\ it\\ as\\ state\\ policy\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ it\\ is\\beneficial\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\ Section\\ Questions\\:\\1\\.\\ Mencius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ human\\ nature\\-\\-seeds\\ that\\ represent\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\,\\ but\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ nurtured\\ by\\ good\\ environment\\.\\ knows\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ because\\ of\\ past\\ sage\\ kings\\.\\ differs\\ from\\ confucius\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ the\\ people\\ around\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ doing\\ good\\ \\(ie\\ practicing\\ rituals\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ emphasis\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ you\\ practicing\\ rituals\\ to\\ be\\ good\\.\\ Mozi\\ has\\ the\\ completely\\ opposite\\ view\\-\\-human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\ and\\ need\\ laws\\ with\\ set\\ punishment\\ and\\ reward\\ system\\ to\\ keep\\ order\\.\\ \\\\2\\.\\ the\\ government\\ \\(ie\\ ruler\\)\\ sets\\ the\\ example\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ helps\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ good\\ environment\\ for\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;seeds\\"\\;\\ to\\ be\\ nurtured\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ does\\ Mencius\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ critiques\\ leveled\\ by\\ Mozi\\ against\\ Confucius\\?\\ Why\\ does\\ he\\ become\\ more\\ specific\\ in\\ his\\ directives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Straight\\ from\\ the\\ book\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 117\\)\\:\\ \\"\\;Mengzi\\ uses\\ his\\ particular\\ conception\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ both\\ Mohism\\ and\\ Yangism\\.\\ \\;\\ As\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\,\\ Mengzi\\ agrees\\ with\\ the\\ Yangists\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ a\\ nature\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ follow\\,\\ but\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Yangists\\ have\\ supplied\\ an\\ impoverished\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ contents\\ of\\ that\\ nature\\.\\ \\;\\ Against\\ the\\ Mohists\\,\\ Mengzi\\ argues\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ order\\ of\\ development\\ of\\ human\\ compassion\\,\\ and\\ that\\,\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ psychological\\ fact\\,\\ humans\\ must\\ learn\\ to\\ love\\ members\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ family\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ learn\\ to\\ love\\ strangers\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;7A15\\,\\ 7A45\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Some\\ Mohists\\ in\\ Mengzi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ era\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ conceded\\ this\\ point\\,\\ but\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ compassion\\ cultivated\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ should\\ be\\ extended\\ outward\\ to\\ love\\ everyone\\ equally\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ Mengzi\\ claims\\ that\\,\\ given\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ our\\ compassion\\ develops\\ out\\ of\\ love\\ of\\ kin\\,\\ any\\ effort\\ to\\ love\\ everyone\\ equally\\ violates\\ our\\ naturally\\ greater\\ compassion\\ for\\ family\\ members\\.\\ \\;\\ Finally\\,\\ Mengzi\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ base\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\li\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;benefit\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;profit\\,\\"\\;\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ profit\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ kingdom\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ will\\ be\\ self\\-defeating\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1A1\\)\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Basically\\,\\ Mencius\\ uses\\ his\\ personal\\ view\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ Mohists\\:\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ the\\ innate\\ ability\\ to\\ be\\ good\\/righteous\\/benevolent\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ volition\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ seek\\ for\\ within\\ themselves\\,\\ within\\ their\\ hearts\\,\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ obtained\\ from\\ doctrines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;4\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ continuities\\ and\\ discontinuities\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ between\\ the\\ ideas\\ articulated\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ those\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ On\\ what\\ points\\ did\\ Mencius\\ build\\ on\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;\\ paradigm\\,\\ where\\ did\\ he\\ depart\\ from\\ it\\,\\ and\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Mengzi\\ was\\ a\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ Confucian\\ thinker\\,\\ and\\ above\\ all\\,\\ he\\ championed\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ central\\ idea\\ of\\ individual\\ cultivation\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ philosophical\\ underpinning\\ gives\\ his\\ rhetoric\\ a\\ numinous\\ and\\ majestic\\ form\\,\\ as\\ he\\ frequently\\ draws\\ on\\ ambiguous\\ metaphorical\\ language\\ and\\ makes\\ romantic\\ claims\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ heart\\ of\\ compassion\\ is\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ benevolence\\"\\;\\ \\(130\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Above\\ all\\,\\ Mengzi\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ ideal\\ pervasion\\ of\\ \\"\\;benevolence\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;righteousness\\"\\;\\ into\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ advises\\ King\\ Hui\\,\\ \\"\\;Let\\ Your\\ Majesty\\ say\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;Benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\,\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ all\\,\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ the\\ principal\\ importance\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ abstract\\ dispositions\\ \\(118\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ the\\ implications\\ of\\ his\\ rhetorical\\ campaign\\ for\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ are\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ creating\\ a\\ political\\ society\\ where\\ people\\ are\\ nice\\ and\\ just\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\;\\ More\\ so\\ than\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Mengzi\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ order\\,\\ unity\\,\\ and\\ livelihood\\ of\\ the\\ population\\&mdash\\;similar\\ to\\ Mozi\\,\\ though\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ foundational\\ focus\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ discusses\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ not\\ as\\ arbitrary\\ lofty\\ ideals\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ preconditions\\ a\\ pragmatic\\ vision\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ explains\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\ that\\ a\\ political\\ precondition\\ of\\ benevolence\\ would\\ increase\\ the\\ wealth\\ and\\ livelihood\\ of\\ his\\ state\\ by\\ causing\\ \\"\\;all\\ under\\ Heaven\\ who\\ serve\\ others\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ their\\ place\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ court\\,\\ those\\ who\\ plough\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ plough\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fields\\,\\ merchants\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ place\\ their\\ goods\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ markets\\"\\;\\ \\(122\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Whereas\\ Mengzi\\ criticizes\\ King\\ Hui\\&\\#39\\;s\\ concern\\ for\\ profiting\\ his\\ state\\ \\(117\\-118\\)\\,\\ his\\ criticism\\ is\\ merely\\ a\\ superficial\\ rhetorical\\ device\\ aimed\\ at\\ romanticizing\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\.\\ \\;\\ As\\ his\\ counsel\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\ demonstrates\\,\\ Mengzi\\ in\\ reality\\ is\\ wholly\\ concerned\\ with\\ profiting\\ his\\ society\\,\\ with\\ meeting\\ the\\ pragmatic\\ needs\\ of\\ his\\ people\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ also\\ rhetorically\\ romanticizes\\ emotional\\ considerations\\ with\\ his\\ description\\ of\\ and\\ advocacy\\ for\\ a\\ \\"\\;heart\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ unfeeling\\ toward\\ others\\,\\"\\;\\ but\\ his\\ interest\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ itself\\ but\\ rather\\ lies\\ in\\ its\\ ability\\ of\\ \\"\\;bringing\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\"\\;\\ \\(129\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Similar\\ to\\ his\\ advice\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\,\\ this\\ excerpt\\ shows\\ a\\ more\\ evident\\ concern\\ for\\ pragmatic\\ issues\\ than\\ is\\ visible\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ despite\\ his\\ pragmatic\\ concerns\\,\\ Mengzi\\ does\\ not\\ sacrifice\\ the\\ Confucian\\ ideals\\ of\\ righteousness\\ and\\ benevolence\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ view\\ of\\ goodness\\&mdash\\;more\\ specifically\\,\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\&mdash\\;as\\ the\\ precondition\\ for\\ ideal\\ political\\ society\\ combined\\ with\\ his\\ belief\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ capable\\ of\\ this\\ goodness\\ fashions\\ his\\ perspective\\ on\\ suitable\\ governance\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ establishing\\ the\\ ideal\\ political\\ society\\ is\\ an\\ organic\\ form\\ of\\ governance\\ based\\ on\\ bringing\\ all\\ within\\ society\\ under\\ a\\ truly\\ benevolent\\ and\\ righteous\\ ruler\\.\\ \\;\\ But\\ despite\\ his\\ pragmatic\\ concerns\\,\\ for\\ Mengzi\\,\\ a\\ truly\\ benevolent\\ and\\ righteous\\ ruler\\ will\\ never\\ sacrifice\\ these\\ ideals\\,\\ as\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ \\"\\;if\\ any\\ could\\ obtain\\ all\\ under\\ Heaven\\ by\\ performing\\ one\\ unrighteous\\ deed\\,\\ or\\ killing\\ one\\ innocent\\ person\\,\\ he\\ would\\ not\\ do\\ it\\"\\;\\ \\(129\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ declares\\,\\ \\"\\;Life\\ is\\ something\\ I\\ desire\\;\\ righteousness\\ is\\ also\\ something\\ I\\ desire\\&hellip\\;\\[but\\]\\ If\\ I\\ cannot\\ have\\ both\\,\\ I\\ will\\ forsake\\ life\\ and\\ select\\ righteousness\\,\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ the\\ paramount\\ importance\\ of\\ forms\\ of\\ goodness\\ in\\ Mengzi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ \\(150\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ For\\ Mengzi\\,\\ because\\ goodness\\ is\\ the\\ essential\\ precondition\\,\\ suitable\\ governance\\ requires\\ unadulterated\\ upholding\\ of\\ goodness\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ leaders\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Laozi\\,\\ how\\ would\\ a\\ proper\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ inform\\ human\\ actions\\?\\ Or\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ for\\ one\\ who\\ understood\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ how\\ would\\ s\\/he\\ act\\ and\\ what\\ might\\ s\\/he\\ achieve\\ accordingly\\?\\ What\\ does\\ the\\ author\\ mean\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;non\\-action\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Words\\ cannot\\ describe\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ but\\ Laozi\\ tries\\ nonetheless\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ confused\\ in\\ that\\ polar\\ opposites\\ grow\\ from\\ it\\,\\ seemingly\\ contradictory\\ but\\ really\\ not\\.\\ Grass\\ grows\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ and\\ returns\\ to\\ it\\.\\ Everything\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ A\\ proper\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ would\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ related\\ and\\ inter\\-connected\\.\\ We\\ should\\ behave\\ accordingly\\ by\\ taking\\ into\\ account\\ everything\\ we\\ do\\ effects\\ everything\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ political\\ vision\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ would\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daoist\\&rdquo\\;\\ government\\ be\\ like\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ few\\ laws\\.\\ See\\ Chapter\\ 80\\;\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ simplicity\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ over\\-extend\\ yourself\\,\\ non\\-progressive\\-\\-goes\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ constancy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ are\\ civilization\\ \\(or\\ human\\ artifice\\)\\ and\\ nature\\ \\(ziran\\)\\ viewed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ history\\ for\\ humankind\\?\\ How\\ are\\ these\\ ideas\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ in\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\ have\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Civilization\\ is\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ nature\\;\\ it\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ progression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ statement\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ great\\ Way\\ is\\ abandoned\\,\\ there\\are\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ \\/\\ When\\ wisdom\\ and\\ intelligence\\ come\\ forth\\,\\there\\ is\\ great\\ hypocrisy\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\ \\;\\(18\\)\\ How\\ is\\ this\\ an\\ explicit\\ critique\\ of\\ the\\ Confucian\\ position\\?\\ How\\ can\\ the\\ abandonment\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ termed\\ \\&rdquo\\;virtue\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ other\\ contexts\\ be\\ construed\\ as\\ beneficial\\ \\(19\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ would\\ you\\ begin\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rhetoric\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;especially\\ considering\\ the\\ rhetorical\\ structures\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ employed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mozi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ poignantly\\ expressing\\ the\\ superficial\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ conventional\\ \\(as\\ expressed\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 11\\)\\,\\ what\\ do\\ the\\ rhetorical\\ devices\\ specific\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;accomplish\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Daodejing\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ seemingly\\ unrelated\\,\\ short\\,\\ poetic\\ chapters\\.\\ They\\ are\\ highly\\ contradictory\\.\\ This\\ goes\\ against\\ the\\ conventional\\ essay\\-like\\,\\ cause\\-effect\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ Mozi\\ and\\ Mengzi\\.\\ This\\,\\ however\\,\\ amplifies\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ Daodejing\\,\\ using\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\.\\ It\\ is\\ disparate\\,\\ paradoxical\\,\\ but\\ all\\ interrelated\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ coherent\\,\\ but\\ non\\-prescriptive\\,\\ argument\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ femininity\\ portrayed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ gender\\ here\\ differ\\ from\\ the\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Femininity\\ is\\ portrayed\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ light\\.\\ Characteristics\\ associated\\ with\\ womanhood\\ are\\ lauded\\.\\ Suppleness\\ and\\ \\ \\;flexibility\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ young\\ sapling\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ snap\\ in\\ during\\ the\\ storm\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ myriad\\ things\\.\\ Calmness\\ is\\ a\\ beneficial\\ characteristic\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ negotiation\\ and\\ martial\\ arts\\.\\ No\\ other\\ texts\\,\\ until\\ discussions\\ of\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\,\\ really\\ address\\ gender\\ issues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kongzi\\ and\\ Mengzi\\ used\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\ as\\ their\\ exemplars\\ of\\ sagehood\\.\\ Who\\ does\\ Zhuangzi\\ hold\\ up\\ as\\ paradigms\\ for\\ proper\\ living\\?\\ Why\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ these\\ figures\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ butcher\\ is\\ the\\ clearest\\ example\\ of\\ someone\\ Zhuangzi\\ holds\\ up\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ sagehood\\.\\ He\\ probably\\ chose\\ a\\ slightly\\ shocking\\ profession\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ spontaneity\\ in\\ whatever\\ it\\ is\\ we\\ do\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ model\\ ourselves\\ after\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ fight\\ the\\ Way\\ but\\ rather\\ work\\ with\\ it\\:\\ not\\ fearing\\ death\\,\\ not\\ forcing\\ distinctions\\,\\ and\\ simply\\ reveling\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ pattern\\ of\\ things\\.\\ He\\ is\\ especially\\ scornful\\ of\\ mourning\\,\\ which\\ he\\ sees\\ as\\ pointless\\ and\\ unnecessarily\\ restricting\\.\\ In\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worldview\\,\\ death\\ and\\ birth\\ are\\ equally\\ glorious\\;\\ we\\ should\\ not\\ mourn\\ one\\ while\\ celebrating\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ Zhuangzi\\ and\\ Laozi\\ will\\ later\\ be\\ classified\\ together\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daoist\\&rdquo\\;\\ thinkers\\,\\ one\\ can\\ observe\\ significant\\ differences\\ in\\ their\\ respective\\ philosophies\\.\\ Broadly\\ speaking\\,\\ what\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;following\\ the\\ Dao\\&rdquo\\;\\ entail\\ in\\ the\\ two\\ texts\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ similarities\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ philosophers\\,\\ and\\ where\\ are\\ they\\ different\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\See\\ end\\ of\\ Lecture\\ 2\\ notes\\.\\ Besides\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ chart\\,\\ Laozi\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ completely\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ says\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ always\\ inside\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ but\\ may\\ not\\ realize\\ it\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\ does\\ not\\ discuss\\ \\&ldquo\\;winning\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ all\\,\\ while\\ Laozi\\ places\\ quite\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ emphasis\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ beat\\ your\\ opponent\\ \\(going\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ strategic\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ Daodejing\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ Zhuangzian\\ ethics\\ absolutely\\ relativistic\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ are\\ all\\ moral\\ values\\ and\\ positions\\ equally\\ valid\\&mdash\\;thereby\\ making\\ moral\\ judgment\\ impossible\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ on\\ what\\ foundation\\ does\\ he\\ make\\ moral\\ judgment\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ language\\ play\\ in\\ moral\\ judgment\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethics\\ are\\ not\\ relativistic\\.\\ His\\ moral\\ system\\ is\\ based\\ not\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;goodness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;harmony\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ his\\ analogue\\ to\\ virtue\\.\\ So\\,\\ in\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ system\\,\\ views\\ that\\ accord\\ with\\ the\\ natural\\ patterns\\ in\\ nature\\ are\\ better\\.\\ With\\ regard\\ to\\ language\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ writes\\ that\\ words\\ are\\ for\\ the\\ meaning\\:\\ once\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ meaning\\,\\ we\\ can\\ forget\\ the\\ words\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ language\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ help\\ grasp\\ moral\\ judgments\\,\\ but\\ should\\ not\\ play\\ a\\ direct\\ role\\ in\\ actually\\ forming\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;wandering\\ at\\ ease\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(or\\ simply\\ \\&ldquo\\;wandering\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ a\\ central\\ motif\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\?\\ Besides\\ looking\\ for\\ specific\\ usages\\ of\\ the\\ term\\,\\ how\\ does\\ the\\ imagery\\ Zhuangzi\\ employs\\ also\\ relate\\ to\\ this\\ motif\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ uses\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ wordplay\\ and\\ strange\\ stories\\ in\\ his\\ writing\\.\\ This\\ sort\\ of\\ imagination\\ demonstrates\\ spontaneity\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ No\\ matter\\ how\\ hard\\ you\\ try\\ to\\ understand\\ life\\,\\ you\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\,\\ and\\ the\\ made\\-up\\ terms\\ and\\ names\\ are\\ an\\ illustration\\ of\\ this\\ idea\\,\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ mental\\ wandering\\.\\ Wandering\\ by\\ definition\\ means\\ you\\ have\\ no\\ set\\ destination\\,\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ the\\ Zhuangzian\\ idea\\ of\\ not\\ knowing\\ the\\ meaning\\ on\\ life\\ and\\ not\\ trying\\ too\\ hard\\ to\\ find\\ it\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ just\\ follow\\ life\\ where\\ it\\ takes\\ you\\,\\ and\\ by\\ following\\ these\\ natural\\ patterns\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ discovered\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ specific\\ guidelines\\ for\\ inner\\ cultivation\\ are\\ provided\\ in\\ the\\ text\\?\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ what\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ them\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ successful\\ inner\\ cultivation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ cast\\ off\\ sorrow\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ joy\\,\\ anger\\,\\ desire\\,\\ profit\\ seeking\\.\\/\\ Your\\ mind\\ will\\ just\\ revert\\ to\\ equanimity\\.\\/The\\ true\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\(III\\.6\\-8\\.pp50\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cultivate\\ your\\ mind\\,\\ make\\ your\\ thoughts\\ tranquil\\/\\ And\\ the\\ Way\\ can\\ thereby\\ be\\ attained\\&rdquo\\;\\(V\\.13\\-14\\ pp54\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Reverently\\ be\\ aware\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Way\\]\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ waver\\,\\/\\ And\\ you\\ will\\ daily\\ renew\\ your\\ inner\\ power\\,\\/\\ Thoroughly\\ understand\\ all\\ under\\ the\\ heavens\\,\\&hellip\\;\\/To\\ reverently\\ bring\\ forth\\ the\\ effulgence\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Way\\]\\:\\/\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;inward\\ attainment\\&rdquo\\;\\(XVI\\.9\\-13\\.pp76\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ is\\ this\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ it\\ relate\\ to\\ this\\ particular\\ practice\\ of\\ inner\\ cultivation\\?\\ \\&hellip\\;How\\ does\\ this\\ help\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\?\\ Does\\ the\\ successful\\ cultivation\\ of\\ one\\ naturally\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ successful\\ cultivation\\ of\\ the\\ other\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ distant\\ from\\ us\\;\\/\\ When\\ people\\ attain\\ it\\ they\\ are\\ sustained\\/\\ That\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ separated\\ from\\ us\\;\\/\\ When\\ people\\ accord\\ with\\ it\\ they\\ are\\ harmonious\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(V\\.5\\-6\\.pp54\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ answer\\ resides\\ in\\ the\\ calmness\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\/\\ When\\ your\\ mind\\ is\\ well\\ ordered\\,\\ your\\ senses\\ are\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\(XIV\\.\\ 9\\-10\\.pp72\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;As\\ for\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\:\\/\\ The\\ heavens\\ bring\\ forth\\ their\\ vital\\ essence\\,\\/\\ The\\ earth\\ brings\\ forth\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\/\\ These\\ two\\ combine\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ person\\.\\/\\ When\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ harmony\\ there\\ is\\ vitality\\&hellip\\;\\/Just\\ let\\ a\\ balanced\\ and\\ aligned\\ \\[breathing\\]\\ fill\\ your\\ chest\\/\\ And\\ it\\ will\\ swirl\\ and\\ blend\\ within\\ your\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\(XXI\\.\\ 1\\-5\\,\\ 10\\-11\\,\\ pp86\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ your\\ body\\ is\\ not\\ aligned\\,\\ \\/\\ The\\ inner\\ power\\ will\\ not\\ come\\.\\/\\ When\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ tranquil\\ within\\,\\/\\ Your\\ mind\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ well\\ ordered\\.\\/\\ Align\\ your\\ body\\,\\ assist\\ the\\ inner\\ power\\,\\/Then\\ it\\ will\\ gradually\\ come\\ on\\ its\\ own\\&rdquo\\;\\(XI\\.\\ 1\\-6\\,\\ pp66\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ Daodejing\\ and\\/or\\ Zhuangzi\\?\\ In\\ this\\ text\\,\\ what\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ One\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\?\\ Why\\ will\\ this\\ enable\\ one\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ master\\ for\\ the\\ myriad\\ things\\?\\ Relatedly\\,\\ what\\ does\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;numious\\&rdquo\\;\\ mean\\ in\\ this\\ text\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ vital\\ essence\\ of\\ all\\ things\\:\\/\\ It\\ is\\ that\\ brings\\ them\\ to\\ life\\.\\/\\ It\\ generates\\ the\\ five\\ grains\\ below\\/\\ And\\ becomes\\ the\\ constellated\\ stars\\ above\\.\\/\\ When\\ flowing\\ amid\\ the\\ heavens\\ and\\ the\\ earth\\/\\ We\\ call\\ it\\ ghostly\\ and\\ numious\\.\\/\\ When\\ stored\\ within\\ the\\ chests\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\/\\ We\\ call\\ them\\ sages\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(I\\.1\\-8\\.pp\\ 46\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ numinous\\ \\[mind\\]\\ naturally\\ residing\\ within\\;\\/\\ One\\ moment\\ it\\ goes\\,\\ the\\ next\\ it\\ comes\\,\\/\\ And\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ conceive\\ of\\ it\\.\\/\\ If\\ you\\ lose\\ it\\ you\\ are\\ inevitably\\ disordered\\;\\/\\ If\\ you\\ attain\\ it\\ you\\ are\\ inevitably\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\(XIII\\.1\\-5\\.pp70\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Do\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ as\\ drastically\\ different\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ texts\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\?\\ Is\\ self\\-cultivation\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Neiye\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;divorced\\ from\\ social\\ engagement\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ cultivated\\ person\\ and\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;With\\ a\\ well\\-ordered\\ mind\\ within\\ you\\,\\/\\ Well\\-ordered\\ words\\ issue\\ forth\\ from\\ your\\ mouth\\,\\/\\ And\\ well\\-ordered\\ tasks\\ are\\ imposed\\ upon\\ others\\.\\/\\ Then\\ all\\ under\\ the\\ heavens\\ will\\ be\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(X\\.1\\-4\\.pp64\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ Eight\\:\\ Morality\\ as\\ Human\\ Artifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ \\(Hs\\ü\\;n\\ Tzu\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Readings\\ in\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 255\\-309\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ human\\ propriety\\ play\\ for\\ Xunzi\\?\\ Is\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ natural\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ external\\ or\\ internal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ritual\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ restraint\\ \\(Ivanhoe\\ and\\ Norden\\,\\ 256\\)\\.\\ Ritual\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\,\\ who\\ established\\ them\\ to\\ prevent\\ chaos\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ allot\\ things\\ to\\ people\\,\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ to\\ satisfy\\ their\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(274\\;\\ see\\ also\\ 300\\)\\.\\ The\\ three\\ roots\\ of\\ ritual\\ are\\ Heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ ancestors\\,\\ and\\ rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\ \\(275\\-276\\)\\.\\ Rituals\\ are\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ human\\ propriety\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rituals\\ are\\ the\\ great\\ divisions\\ in\\ the\\ proper\\ model\\ for\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(258\\)\\.\\ Distinctions\\ \\(such\\ as\\ not\\ just\\ having\\ a\\ father\\ and\\ son\\,\\ as\\ among\\ animals\\,\\ but\\ an\\ intimate\\ relationship\\ between\\ them\\)\\ are\\ what\\ make\\ us\\ human\\,\\ and\\ rituals\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ those\\ distinctions\\ \\(266\\)\\.\\ Social\\ divisions\\,\\ of\\ which\\ ritual\\ is\\ the\\ best\\,\\ separate\\ us\\ from\\ the\\ beasts\\,\\ and\\ standards\\ or\\ righteousness\\ must\\ applied\\ in\\ creating\\ those\\ divisions\\ \\(267\\)\\.\\ Ritual\\ makes\\ human\\ efforts\\ productive\\ and\\ effective\\ \\(262\\)\\ and\\ corrects\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ person\\ \\(264\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ criticizes\\ Mozi\\ for\\ rejecting\\ ritual\\ \\(264\\)\\ and\\ for\\ not\\ establishing\\ differences\\ \\(274\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ ritual\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ accomplish\\ its\\ intended\\ concrete\\ goal\\ \\(for\\ instance\\,\\ one\\ can\\ perform\\ the\\ rain\\ sacrifice\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ rain\\ \\[272\\]\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ gives\\ things\\ their\\ proper\\ form\\.\\ Ritual\\ provides\\ a\\ middle\\ way\\ to\\ check\\ the\\ excesses\\ of\\ emotional\\ responses\\ to\\ death\\ or\\ love\\ \\(280\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ criticizes\\ Mozi\\ for\\ advocating\\ a\\ short\\ mourning\\ period\\ \\(282\\)\\.\\ NB\\ the\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ filial\\ son\\ should\\ disobey\\ orders\\ and\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ \\(306\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;correcting\\ names\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(zhengming\\)\\ relate\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethical\\ and\\ political\\ thought\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correcting\\ names\\ is\\ pertinent\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emphasis\\ on\\ distinctions\\ and\\ propriety\\.\\ Xunzi\\ defines\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ terms\\ in\\ life\\ \\(262\\-263\\)\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ lead\\ others\\ along\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ is\\ called\\ \\&lsquo\\;teaching\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ prescribes\\ the\\ remedies\\ for\\ excesses\\ \\(263\\)\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ overly\\ deep\\ thinking\\,\\ simplify\\ it\\ with\\ easy\\ goodness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ These\\ remedies\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ nourish\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ He\\ puts\\ great\\ emphasis\\ on\\ social\\ distinctions\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ naming\\ of\\ those\\ distinctions\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ who\\ can\\ use\\ these\\ to\\ serve\\ his\\ parents\\ is\\ called\\ filial\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(268\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ stresses\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ not\\ seek\\ to\\ blur\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ mark\\ of\\ the\\ sage\\ not\\ to\\ seek\\ to\\ understand\\ Heaven\\ \\(270\\)\\.\\ In\\ his\\ discourse\\ on\\ Heaven\\,\\ he\\ includes\\ a\\ typical\\ series\\ of\\ definitions\\ \\(271\\)\\ to\\ advance\\ his\\ teachings\\.\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ divine\\ and\\ human\\ affairs\\ underlies\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ natural\\ omens\\ and\\ disasters\\ that\\ always\\ occur\\ \\(272\\)\\.\\ The\\ kings\\ set\\ names\\ for\\ things\\ and\\ thus\\ made\\ distinctions\\ \\(292\\-293\\)\\.\\ People\\ were\\ honest\\,\\ because\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ disorder\\ the\\ correct\\ names\\ \\(293\\)\\.\\ Now\\,\\ the\\ confusion\\ about\\ names\\ mirrors\\ the\\ confusion\\ about\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\ \\(293\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\?\\ In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ goodness\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\He\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ inherently\\ evil\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ humans\\ must\\ practice\\ ritual\\ \\(which\\ is\\ external\\ to\\ their\\ nature\\)\\ to\\ become\\ good\\.\\ People\\,\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ at\\ birth\\,\\ differentiate\\ themselves\\ through\\ learning\\ \\(257\\)\\.\\ Learning\\ begins\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ reciting\\ the\\ classics\\ and\\ studying\\ ritual\\ \\(258\\)\\.\\ One\\ must\\ find\\ the\\ right\\ teacher\\,\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;rituals\\ and\\ music\\ provide\\ proper\\ models\\ but\\ give\\ no\\ precepts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(259\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ teacher\\ can\\ correct\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\ of\\ ritual\\ \\(264\\)\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ Daoists\\,\\ Xunzi\\ sees\\ \\&ldquo\\;ritual\\ and\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\yi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ Heaven\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ it\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(267\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;deliberate\\ effort\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wuwei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;non\\-action\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Daoists\\)\\,\\ must\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ the\\ raw\\ material\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ unify\\ things\\.\\ Goodness\\ stems\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;deliberate\\ effort\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(298\\)\\,\\ which\\ comes\\ through\\ learning\\ and\\ working\\ \\(299\\)\\,\\ not\\ from\\ nature\\.\\ People\\ can\\ become\\ good\\ when\\ the\\ have\\ teachers\\ and\\ proper\\ models\\ \\(298\\-299\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ innate\\ human\\ disposition\\ to\\ like\\ benefit\\ and\\ desire\\ gain\\,\\ but\\ ritual\\ and\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ can\\ change\\ that\\ \\(301\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ explicitly\\ defines\\ himself\\ against\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ idea\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ good\\ \\(299\\-302\\)\\.\\ The\\ sage\\ who\\ created\\ ritual\\ and\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ potter\\ who\\ mixes\\ clay\\ and\\ produced\\ objects\\ \\(303\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anyone\\ on\\ the\\ streets\\ could\\ become\\ a\\ Yu\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(304\\)\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ anyone\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ sage\\ through\\ accumulation\\ of\\ learning\\ \\(305\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ metaphors\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ use\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ self\\-cultivation\\?\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ compare\\ to\\ those\\ used\\ by\\ Mencius\\ or\\ Confucius\\?\\ Who\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ adheres\\ more\\ closely\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ them\\ depart\\ from\\ his\\ teaching\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ process\\ of\\ learning\\ is\\ like\\ bending\\ and\\ steaming\\ wood\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ straight\\ \\(256\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ uses\\ the\\ metaphors\\ of\\ controlling\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ nourishing\\ the\\ heart\\ \\(263\\)\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ metaphors\\ of\\ craftsmanship\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ carpenter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ square\\ and\\ the\\ ink\\-line\\ \\(277\\)\\.\\ The\\ heart\\ must\\ achieve\\ emptiness\\,\\ single\\-mindedness\\,\\ and\\ stillness\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ Way\\ \\(288\\)\\.\\ The\\ human\\ heart\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ pan\\ of\\ water\\:\\ if\\ one\\ sets\\ it\\ straight\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ move\\ it\\,\\ the\\ dirty\\ parts\\ will\\ settle\\ to\\ the\\ bottom\\,\\ and\\ the\\ clear\\ parts\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ top\\ \\(290\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ heart\\ is\\ the\\ craftsman\\ and\\ overseer\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ the\\ warp\\ and\\ pattern\\ of\\ good\\ order\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(296\\)\\.\\ The\\ bad\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ like\\ blunt\\ metal\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ honed\\ and\\ grinded\\ \\(298\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORE\\ WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\ for\\ Week\\ 8\\,\\ Xunzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ play\\ for\\ Xunzi\\?\\ Is\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ natural\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ external\\ or\\ internal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\ propriety\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ order\\ people\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Humans\\ are\\ born\\ having\\ desires\\&hellip\\;the\\ former\\ kings\\ hated\\ such\\ chaos\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ established\\ rituals\\ and\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ allot\\ things\\ to\\ people\\,\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ desires\\ and\\ to\\ satisfy\\ their\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ rituals\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ roots\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ has\\ three\\ roots\\:\\ Heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ are\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ life\\.\\ Forefathers\\ and\\ ancestors\\ are\\ the\\ roots\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kind\\.\\ Rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\ are\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ order\\&hellip\\;Ritual\\ serves\\ Heaven\\ above\\ and\\ earth\\ below\\,\\ it\\ honors\\ forefathers\\ and\\ ancestors\\,\\ and\\ it\\ exalts\\ rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(275\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sage\\ Kings\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puett\\ said\\ in\\ lecture\\ that\\ people\\ need\\ to\\ observe\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ constantly\\ refine\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\ propriety\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ quality\\:\\ humans\\ require\\ a\\ teacher\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ Way\\&mdash\\;p\\.\\ 259\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ learning\\,\\ nothing\\ is\\ more\\ expedient\\ than\\ to\\ draw\\ near\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ person\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ correct\\ your\\ person\\.\\ The\\ teacher\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ correct\\ your\\ practice\\ of\\ ritual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ \\&lsquo\\;correcting\\ names\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(zhengming\\)\\ relate\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethical\\ and\\ political\\ thought\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Names\\ are\\ not\\ intrinsic\\ to\\ the\\ object\\ but\\ once\\ they\\ are\\ conventionally\\ agreed\\ upon\\,\\ to\\ change\\ them\\ is\\ wrong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ serve\\ to\\ communicate\\,\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;name\\ games\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ other\\ paradoxes\\ should\\ be\\ eliminated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creating\\ names\\ \\&ldquo\\;confuses\\ people\\ and\\ causes\\ them\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ much\\ disputation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(279\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sage\\ kings\\ made\\ names\\&mdash\\;292\\;\\ these\\ names\\ were\\ fixed\\ and\\ the\\ corresponding\\ objects\\ were\\ thus\\ distinguished\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ thing\\ Confucius\\ would\\ do\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ correct\\ names\\&mdash\\;see\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Son\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ son\\,\\ father\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ father\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acknowledges\\ that\\ standards\\ of\\ communication\\ are\\ arbitrary\\,\\ but\\ recognizes\\ that\\ there\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ order\\&mdash\\;so\\ even\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ defined\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ order\\ and\\ collectively\\ understand\\ that\\ order\\ is\\ necessary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ names\\ as\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ social\\ consensus\\;\\ Confucius\\ talks\\ about\\ names\\ that\\ are\\ handed\\ down\\ from\\ antiquity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ \\&ldquo\\;predetermined\\ appropriateness\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ he\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ dichotomies\\ \\(ugly\\ vs\\.\\ beautiful\\,\\ bad\\ vs\\.\\ good\\)\\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ even\\ talking\\ about\\ abstract\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\,\\ but\\ he\\ uses\\ words\\ to\\ differentiate\\ states\\;\\ goodness\\ and\\ badness\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ political\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\&mdash\\;not\\ so\\ much\\ judging\\ a\\ moral\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ using\\ word\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\?\\ In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ goodness\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bad\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;amorality\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ being\\ inherently\\ evil\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ naturally\\ desire\\ profit\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ other\\ materialistic\\ things\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Following\\ these\\ natural\\ desires\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;inborn\\ nature\\ and\\ dispositions\\&rdquo\\;\\ creates\\ disorder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ contradiction\\ to\\ Menzi\\,\\ who\\ says\\ that\\ learning\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ manifest\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ their\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ says\\ that\\ learning\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ your\\ basic\\ nature\\&mdash\\;there\\ is\\ division\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ deliberate\\ effort\\-299\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deliberate\\ effort\\ through\\ ritual\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ create\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\,\\ which\\ cultivates\\ goodness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ metaphors\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ use\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ self\\-cultivation\\?\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ compare\\ to\\ those\\ used\\ by\\ Mencius\\ or\\ Confucius\\?\\ Who\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ adheres\\ more\\ closely\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ them\\ depart\\ from\\ his\\ teachings\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deliberateness\\:\\ emphasizes\\ process\\ of\\ activity\\&mdash\\;the\\ potter\\,\\ the\\ carpenter\\ \\(277\\)\\,\\ other\\ craft\\ examples\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Student\\ and\\ teachers\\ are\\ both\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ their\\ roles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Menzi\\:\\ being\\ more\\ natural\\ about\\ cultivating\\ self\\;\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ emphasizes\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\:\\ Gentleman\\ identifies\\ rituals\\ and\\ internalizes\\ them\\;\\ every\\ little\\ movement\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ slight\\,\\ was\\ always\\ perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\P\\.\\ 259\\:\\ connects\\ to\\ analects\\;\\ distinguish\\ between\\ whether\\ learning\\ is\\ real\\ and\\ actions\\ follow\\ it\\ or\\ whether\\ learning\\ is\\ just\\ pointless\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ of\\ just\\ dialoguing\\,\\ your\\ learning\\ must\\ have\\ action\\ and\\ meaning\\&mdash\\;understand\\ what\\ stillness\\ and\\ emptiness\\ mean\\ through\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Major\\ metaphor\\:\\ crooked\\ wood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Crooked\\ wood\\ must\\ await\\ steaming\\ and\\ straightening\\ on\\ the\\ shaping\\ frame\\,\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ straight\\.\\ Blunt\\ metal\\ must\\ await\\ honing\\ and\\ grinding\\,\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ sharp\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\.\\ 299\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ teachers\\ to\\ shape\\ you\\ and\\ act\\ as\\ models\\ \\(299\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ ritual\\ to\\ enforce\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ vision\\ of\\ statecraft\\ put\\ forth\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Book\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ law\\ play\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ law\\ come\\ from\\,\\ and\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ it\\ based\\?\\ Does\\ ritual\\ have\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\101\\ prosperity\\ defined\\ as\\ war\\ and\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\103\\,\\ 104\\ create\\ single\\-mindedness\\,\\ build\\ uniformity\\ and\\ consolidation\\ \\(rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ give\\ uniformity\\ of\\ purpose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\96\\ force\\ the\\ lazy\\/idle\\ to\\ work\\ by\\ removing\\ others\\ \\(force\\ people\\ into\\ agriculture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ rituals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rites\\ as\\ 1\\ of\\ 10\\ evils\\ \\(108\\)\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ dissipations\\ \\(111\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\At\\ one\\ point\\ the\\ text\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Do\\ not\\ allow\\ merchants\\ to\\ buy\\ grain\\ nor\\ farmers\\ to\\ sell\\ grain\\.\\ If\\ farmers\\ may\\ not\\ sell\\ their\\ grain\\,\\ then\\ the\\ lazy\\ and\\ inactive\\ ones\\ will\\ exert\\ themselves\\ and\\ be\\ energetic\\;\\ and\\,\\ if\\ merchants\\ may\\ not\\ buy\\ grain\\,\\ then\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ particular\\ joy\\ over\\ abundant\\ years\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ a\\ society\\ without\\ \\&ldquo\\;buying\\ and\\ selling\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ what\\ occupation\\(s\\)\\ can\\ people\\ hold\\?\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ state\\ enforce\\ this\\ situation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ must\\ work\\ to\\ sustain\\ themselves\\ \\=\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;depend\\ on\\ others\\&\\#39\\;\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\agriculture\\ can\\ bring\\ waste\\ lands\\ under\\ cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ it\\ is\\ forbidden\\ to\\ sell\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ no\\ purpose\\ to\\ stealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\98\\ remove\\ music\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ concentrate\\ on\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\99\\ remove\\ patrons\\ for\\ criminals\\ \\(no\\ food\\,\\ no\\ petitions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ society\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ vision\\ discussed\\ in\\ question\\ one\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ role\\ does\\ morality\\ play\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\purpose\\ of\\ society\\ is\\ to\\ conquer\\ other\\ lands\\,\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\ prosperity\\ \\-\\ also\\ see\\ question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ role\\ for\\ morality\\ \\(also\\ see\\ lecture\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\111\\ governing\\ through\\ the\\ wicked\\ creates\\ order\\ and\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\,\\ the\\ past\\ has\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ reference\\ point\\ for\\ the\\ present\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ history\\ put\\ forth\\ in\\ this\\ text\\?\\ How\\ do\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ present\\?\\ How\\ is\\ this\\ both\\ similar\\ and\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\95\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ necessity\\ to\\ imitate\\ antiquity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duke\\ Hsiao\\:\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plans\\ should\\ be\\ directed\\ by\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\104\\ Odes\\ and\\ History\\ are\\ useless\\ in\\ the\\ practical\\ sense\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ kings\\ made\\ people\\ turn\\ back\\ to\\ war\\ and\\ agriculture\\ during\\ Tang\\ and\\ Wu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\emphasizes\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ change\\ strategies\\ for\\ governing\\ \\(Zhuangzian\\ flexibility\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\re\\-interprets\\ Laozian\\ paradoxes\\:\\ by\\ aiming\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ virtuous\\,\\ one\\ only\\ makes\\ criminals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rejects\\ importance\\ of\\ ritual\\ found\\ in\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ synthesize\\ and\\ critique\\ the\\ positions\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ earlier\\ figures\\ we\\ have\\ read\\?\\ \\ \\;One\\ obvious\\ thing\\ to\\ consider\\ is\\ that\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ was\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ Xunzi\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ did\\ he\\ learn\\ from\\ his\\ master\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ did\\ he\\ reject\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ seems\\ to\\ combine\\ Doaism\\ and\\ Mohism\\ by\\ teaching\\ that\\ rulers\\ should\\ be\\ still\\ and\\ empty\\,\\ following\\ the\\ way\\,\\ and\\ this\\ will\\ better\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ firm\\ set\\ of\\ rules\\ and\\ well\\ ordered\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Han\\ Feizi\\ clearly\\ used\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ technique\\ of\\ finding\\ the\\ valuable\\ parts\\ of\\ other\\ philosophies\\ and\\ combining\\ them\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ made\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ realizing\\ when\\ certain\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\ were\\ out\\-dated\\ and\\ no\\ longer\\ pertinent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ offering\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ certain\\ to\\ succeed\\&rdquo\\;\\ given\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ tendencies\\ of\\ humans\\,\\ and\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\ have\\ different\\ customs\\;\\ the\\ new\\ and\\ the\\ old\\ require\\ different\\ preparations\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(340\\)\\.\\ Does\\ his\\ presentation\\ of\\ a\\ way\\,\\ which\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ argue\\ would\\ be\\ effective\\ at\\ any\\ time\\,\\ contradict\\ his\\ claim\\ that\\ past\\ ways\\ do\\ not\\ fit\\ in\\ present\\ circumstances\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ is\\ his\\ argument\\ consistent\\ with\\ his\\ project\\?\\ Does\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ saying\\ contradict\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personally\\ I\\ think\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ is\\ not\\ contradicting\\ himself\\ here\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ offering\\ a\\ more\\ abstract\\ method\\ of\\ running\\ a\\ state\\ and\\ not\\ specific\\ instructions\\ for\\ how\\ rulers\\ should\\ react\\ in\\ certain\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sets\\ of\\ rules\\,\\ rewards\\,\\ punishments\\,\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ make\\-up\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ could\\ all\\ change\\ drastically\\ but\\ be\\ implemented\\ with\\ his\\ same\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ think\\ he\\ purposefully\\ created\\ his\\ way\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ manner\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ modified\\ to\\ better\\ suit\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ Sima\\ Qian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\ and\\ Li\\ Si\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Sima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ narrative\\,\\ what\\ did\\ these\\ figures\\ do\\ to\\ merit\\ this\\ judgment\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\According\\ to\\ his\\ conclustions\\,\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ bad\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Were\\ only\\ looking\\ to\\ promote\\ their\\ own\\ well\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;strive\\ for\\ enlightened\\ government\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ repairing\\ the\\ ruler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defects\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(206\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ supported\\ harsh\\ rules\\ and\\ punishments\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ his\\ narrative\\ suggests\\ that\\ maybe\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 100\\%\\ bad\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ doing\\ what\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ done\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(esp\\ for\\ Li\\ Si\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ almost\\ feels\\ like\\ the\\ good\\ guy\\ in\\ his\\ story\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ Sima\\ Qian\\,\\ writing\\ history\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ simply\\ a\\ recounting\\ of\\ past\\ events\\.\\ How\\ is\\ writing\\ history\\ a\\ moral\\ practice\\ for\\ Sima\\ Qian\\?\\ How\\ does\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ relate\\ to\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ cultivation\\ in\\ the\\ present\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Finds\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ unconditional\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\ to\\ be\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ writing\\ history\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easy\\ for\\ events\\ and\\ people\\ to\\ get\\ classified\\ as\\ strictly\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ look\\ at\\ Qin\\ empire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ were\\ doing\\ what\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ difficult\\ Warring\\ States\\ period\\,\\ so\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ that\\ their\\ harsh\\ rule\\ was\\ just\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ had\\ some\\ good\\ results\\,\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ Confucius\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ correct\\ course\\ of\\ action\\,\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ when\\ you\\ write\\ history\\,\\ you\\ are\\ taking\\ a\\ stance\\ on\\ events\\,\\ and\\ should\\ take\\ all\\ the\\ circumstances\\ into\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ helps\\ an\\ individual\\ self\\-cultivate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analyzing\\ how\\ people\\ act\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ past\\ judgmentally\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ helps\\ you\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ new\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ more\\ familiar\\ you\\ are\\ with\\ the\\ correct\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ in\\ past\\ events\\,\\ the\\ better\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ correct\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 38, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Discussion_Questions_1.doc", "desc": "Discussion Questions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Evolution of Vertebrates - Final Review", "tags": ["harvard", "vertebrates", "evolution"], "text": null, "id": 86, "html": "\\\\\\Compiled\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=MSSLfUayeNh9PW3ng9UWrqo0P1CSBNc3gBWclSzSx0c\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c34\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c31\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c10\\{color\\:\\#31849b\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.c12\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c32\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\ESSAY\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emily\\ Wooton\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\)\\ THE\\ MAJOR\\ FEATURES\\ OF\\ VERTEBRATE\\ EVOLUTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Who\\ are\\ the\\ Vertebrates\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Evolutionary\\ Biology\\/Paleontology\\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Important\\ vocabulary\\ in\\ evolutionary\\ biology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;phylogeny\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ descent\\ of\\ taxa\\ from\\ common\\ ancestors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\synapomorphies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ derived\\ character\\ state\\ shared\\ by\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;terminal\\ groups\\ and\\ inherited\\ from\\ most\\ recent\\ common\\ ancestor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\convergence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ similarities\\ between\\ organisms\\ that\\ evolved\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;independently\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\geologic\\ eras\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ Phanerozoic\\:\\ Paleozoic\\,\\ Mesozoic\\,\\ Cenozoic\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Quaternary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\(periods\\:\\ Cambrian\\,\\ Ordovician\\,\\ Silurian\\,\\ Devonian\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Carboniferous\\,\\ Permian\\,\\ Triassic\\,\\ Jurassic\\,\\ Cretaceous\\,\\ Paleocene\\,\\ Eocene\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Oligocene\\,\\ Miocene\\,\\ Pliocene\\,\\ Pleistocene\\,\\ Holocene\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Chordates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ cephalochordates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ urochordates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ craniates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ General\\ Chordate\\ Characteristics\\ \\(Synapomorphies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ notochord\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ purpose\\:\\ stiffen\\ the\\ body\\,\\ ensure\\ activity\\ of\\ body\\ wall\\ musculature\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;result\\ in\\ undulatory\\ locomotion\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ simple\\ contraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ dorsal\\ nerve\\ chord\\,\\ segmented\\ muscles\\ and\\ gills\\,\\ endostyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Primitive\\ Chordates\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Where\\ we\\ came\\ from\\ \\(to\\ be\\ shown\\ with\\ pictures\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Fossil\\ Record\\:\\ Yunnanozoon\\ \\(earliest\\ known\\)\\,\\ Pikaia\\ \\(Burgess\\ Shale\\)\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Haikouella\\ \\(Chengjiang\\)\\,\\ Conodonts\\ \\(great\\ for\\ biostratigraphy\\!\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Extant\\:\\ sea\\ squirts\\,\\ lancelets\\ \\(cephalochordates\\,\\ urochordates\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.\\ Craniates\\ \\=\\ Vertebrata\\ \\(or\\,\\ the\\ vertebrates\\ you\\ know\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ skeleton\\ of\\ hydroxyapatite\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ calcitic\\ or\\ siliceous\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ backbones\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Evolution\\ and\\ Diversification\\ of\\ Fishes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Gnathostomes\\ \\=\\ jaws\\!\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ agnatha\\,\\ the\\ slimehags\\ and\\ lampreys\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Divergence\\ of\\ Actinoptergii\\ and\\ Sarcopterygii\\ \\=\\ fundamental\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;phylogenetic\\ dichotomy\\ in\\ vertebrate\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Also\\ includes\\ extinct\\ forms\\ like\\ heterostracans\\ and\\ osteostracans\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;extant\\ taxon\\ of\\ chondrichthyes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Osteichthyans\\ \\(Actinopterygians\\,\\ Sarcopterygians\\)\\ \\=\\ bony\\ fish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Actinopterygians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ ray\\-finned\\ fishes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ most\\ diverse\\ taxa\\ with\\ 25\\,000\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Less\\ to\\ more\\ derived\\ \\=\\ neopterygians\\,\\ teleosts\\,\\ euteleost\\,\\ neoteleosts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Advances\\ in\\ locomotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Pterygiophores\\-\\ bones\\ at\\ the\\ base\\ of\\ fin\\ rays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\primitive\\ characteristic\\ \\(of\\ plesiomorphic\\ fish\\)\\ \\=\\ 3\\:1\\ of\\ fins\\ to\\ pterygiophore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ derived\\ \\(of\\ neopterygii\\)\\ \\=\\ 1\\:1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\+\\ Caudal\\ Fin\\ structure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tail\\ fin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\plesiomorphic\\ \\=\\ heterocercal\\ tail\\ \\(asymmetrical\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\teleosts\\ \\=\\ homocercal\\ tail\\ \\(external\\ symmetrical\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\+\\ Fin\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ pectoral\\ fins\\ migrate\\ dorsally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ pelvic\\ fins\\ migrate\\ forward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ Advances\\ in\\ Feeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ improved\\ suction\\ feeding\\ \\(can\\ open\\ mouth\\ and\\ gills\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ jaw\\ protrusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ Respiration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ from\\ true\\ lungs\\,\\ to\\ non\\-respiratory\\ swim\\ bladder\\,\\ to\\ respiratory\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;swim\\ bladder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ Sarcopterygians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;flesh\\-winged\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Differences\\ from\\ Actinopterygians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ 2\\ dorsal\\ fins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ large\\ vertebral\\ elements\\ \\(Actinop\\:\\ large\\ notochord\\ and\\ small\\ vertebrae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ has\\ paired\\ fins\\,\\ but\\ with\\ intrinsic\\ muscles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ smaller\\ eyes\\,\\ but\\ well\\-developed\\ olfactory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\labyrinthodonty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\+\\ cosmine\\ scale\\ structure\\ \\(Actinop\\:\\ ganoid\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Extant\\ Taxa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Lungfish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Coelacanths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Progress\\ towards\\ land\\ \\=\\ Rhizodontids\\,\\ Osteolepiformes\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Elpistostegalids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Sea\\-to\\-Land\\ Transition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Elpistostegalids\\ \\=\\ transitionary\\ taxa\\ \\(Sarcopterygians\\ with\\ Tetrapod\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;synapomorphies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Tetrapod\\ structures\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Panderichthys\\,\\ Ichthyostega\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Broad\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ No\\ Dorsal\\ Fin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Paired\\ frontals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Quadrato\\-jugal\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ Dorsalventrally\\ compressed\\ skull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tiktaalik\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ endochondral\\ ossifications\\ in\\ pectoral\\ fin\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ development\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;wrist\\ and\\ forefoot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ neck\\ and\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\ detached\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Accomodations\\ for\\ gravity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ amphibiousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ broadened\\,\\ overlapping\\ \\(imbricating\\)\\ ribs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Amniote\\ Evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Cranial\\ Fenestrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Anapsids\\ \\=\\ no\\ holes\\ in\\ head\\,\\ bone\\ covers\\ adductor\\ chamber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ turtles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Synapsids\\ \\=\\ single\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ pelycosaurs\\,\\ therapsids\\,\\ mammals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Diapsids\\ \\=\\ upper\\ \\(superior\\)\\ and\\ lower\\ \\(inferior\\)\\ temporal\\ fenestrae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ lizards\\,\\ snakes\\,\\ all\\ archosauria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Euryapsid\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;parapsid\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\=\\ upper\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\ with\\ incomplete\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lower\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\,\\ derived\\ diapsid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Mesozoic\\ marine\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Adductor\\ musculature\\ in\\ amniotes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Synapsids\\ and\\ many\\ diapsids\\ \\(reptiles\\ and\\ birds\\)\\ are\\ amniotes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ increased\\ fenestration\\ provides\\ for\\ increased\\ adductor\\ muscle\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;attachment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;allows\\ for\\ stronger\\ bite\\ force\\ and\\ diversified\\ diets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ Elements\\ of\\ amniotic\\ egg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ somatopleure\\ and\\ splanchnopleure\\ extra\\-embryonic\\ membranes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ amniotic\\ membrane\\ and\\ cavity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ allantois\\ for\\ storage\\ of\\ nitrogenous\\ waster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ chorion\\ and\\ chorionic\\ cavity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Transition\\ from\\ anamniote\\ to\\ amniotes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ derived\\ from\\ amphibians\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ oldest\\ known\\ amniote\\ egg\\ from\\ Permian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ replacement\\/modification\\ of\\ jelly\\ layers\\ with\\ mineralized\\ shell\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;membrane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ reduction\\ of\\ O2\\ diffusion\\ barriers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ development\\ of\\ extraembryonic\\ membranes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ increase\\ in\\ egg\\ and\\ hatchling\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ altered\\ patterns\\ of\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.\\ Amniote\\ synapomorphies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ tooth\\ bearing\\ transverse\\ flange\\ on\\ pterygoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ supraoccipital\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ hemispheroidal\\ occipital\\ condyle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ stapes\\ is\\ small\\ ventolaterally\\ directed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ caninoform\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ fusion\\ btw\\.\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ centrum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vii\\.\\ small\\ intercentra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;viii\\.\\ no\\ intertemporal\\ bone\\,\\ otic\\ notch\\,\\ palatal\\ fangs\\,\\ or\\ labyrinthodonty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Archosaur\\ Diversification\\ and\\ the\\ Reign\\ of\\ the\\ Dinosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Primitive\\ condition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ diapsid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ caniniform\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ single\\ coracoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ hip\\ with\\ ilium\\,\\ ischium\\,\\ pubis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ 5\\ fingers\\ \\(2\\-3\\-4\\-5\\-3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ long\\ gracile\\ limbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Other\\ Diapsids\\ \\(merely\\ mentioned\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Lepidosauromorphs\\ \\(squamates\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lizards\\,\\ snakes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Archosauromorphs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Sauropterygians\\ \\(placodonts\\,\\ nothosaurs\\,\\ plesiosaurs\\,\\ ichthyosaurs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ Non\\-Ornithodirans\\ \\(overview\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Aetosaurs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thickly\\ armored\\ herbivores\\ with\\ trenchant\\ \\(slicing\\)\\ dentition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Crocodylia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Caimans\\,\\ Crocs\\,\\ Alligators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ transition\\ from\\ cursorial\\ to\\ ambush\\ predators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Phytosaurs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ piscivores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Ornithodirans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Dinosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(a\\)\\ antorbital\\ and\\ mandibular\\ fenestrae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(b\\)\\ mesotarsas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(c\\)\\ perforate\\ acetabulum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(d\\)\\ reduction\\ of\\ digit\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Ornithiscia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ convergent\\ but\\ not\\ ancestral\\ to\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(a\\)\\ reflected\\ pubis\\ \\+\\ prepubic\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(b\\)\\ predentary\\ \\+\\ edentulous\\ premaxilla\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(c\\)\\ ossified\\ tendons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(d\\)\\ lanceolate\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Saurischia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ retains\\ primitive\\ hip\\,\\ ancestral\\ to\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(a\\)\\ Sauropods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ herbivores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ elongate\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ characteristics\\ that\\ aid\\ gigantism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(b\\)\\ Therapods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ carnivores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ intramandibular\\ joint\\,\\ trenchant\\ claws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ reduced\\ forearms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ hollow\\ skeletal\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ pubic\\ foot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Origin\\ of\\ Powered\\ Flight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Taxa\\ capable\\ of\\ flight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Bats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Gliding\\ in\\ squamates\\,\\ teleosts\\,\\ frogs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Powered\\ flight\\ requires\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ mobility\\ of\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ specialized\\ shoulders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bird\\ \\=\\ furcula\\,\\ huge\\ sternum\\,\\ coracoid\\ with\\ a\\ flexible\\ joint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pterosaurs\\ \\=\\ large\\ sternum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bat\\ \\=\\ clavicular\\ function\\ strut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Wings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bird\\ \\=\\ feathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pterosaurs\\ and\\ Bats\\ \\=\\ Skin\\ membrane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Wing\\ Support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Trees\\-down\\,\\ Ground\\-up\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Origin\\ of\\ feathers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ evidence\\ from\\ fossil\\ record\\ in\\ Therapods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Wing\\-assisted\\ incline\\ running\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Discussion\\ of\\ Convergent\\ Evolution\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ flight\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ see\\ question\\ B\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tom\\ Southworth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ A\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 4\\ Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Major\\ Features\\ of\\ Vertebrate\\ Evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vertebral\\ Evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ rhipidistians\\ \\(lobed\\-fin\\ fish\\ and\\ ancestors\\ of\\ tetrapods\\)\\,\\ the\\ vertebral\\ centrum\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ two\\ pairs\\ of\\ ossicles\\ \\(intercentra\\=anterior\\,\\ pluerocentra\\=posterior\\)\\ surrounding\\ a\\ large\\ notochord\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Acanthostega\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ this\\ pattern\\ persists\\,\\ but\\ with\\ two\\ modifications\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ The\\ pleurocentra\\ are\\ larger\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ contacts\\ develop\\ between\\ the\\ neural\\ arches\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ nubbin\\-like\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ processes\\ represent\\ the\\ inception\\ of\\ articular\\ processes\\,\\ or\\ zygapophyses\\,\\ that\\ are\\ an\\ important\\ component\\ of\\ vertebral\\ mechanics\\ in\\ all\\ later\\ tetrapods\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ vertebral\\ column\\ \\(post\\-cranial\\ axial\\ skeleton\\)\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ four\\ stages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\)\\ The\\ cephalochordate\\ and\\ primitive\\ craniate\\ stage\\ was\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ notochord\\ \\(a\\ flexible\\ rod\\)\\ with\\ a\\ thin\\,\\ external\\ layer\\ of\\ elastin\\,\\ a\\ think\\ internal\\,\\ densely\\ fibrous\\ layer\\,\\ and\\ an\\ inner\\ cellular\\ gelatinous\\ matrix\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ segmented\\ bodies\\,\\ this\\ development\\ ensured\\ that\\ contraction\\ of\\ body\\ musculature\\ produced\\ undulatory\\ movements\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ shortening\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\)\\ The\\ addition\\ of\\ mineralized\\ tissues\\ \\(calcified\\ cartilage\\ for\\ chondrichthyans\\ and\\ bone\\ is\\ osteichthyans\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ primitive\\ components\\ of\\ the\\ vertebral\\ centrum\\,\\ the\\ intercentrum\\ and\\ pleurocentrum\\,\\ developed\\ to\\ stiffen\\ the\\ notochord\\ against\\ forced\\ induced\\ by\\ locomotor\\ musculature\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ spine\\ \\(dorsal\\)\\ provided\\ a\\ skeletal\\ protective\\ shell\\ over\\ the\\ spinal\\ chord\\ and\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ attachment\\ site\\ for\\ locomotor\\ musculature\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ these\\ dorsal\\ elements\\ restricted\\ bending\\ of\\ the\\ backbone\\ to\\ undulation\\ on\\ a\\ lateral\\ plane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Evolution\\ for\\ the\\ gravitational\\ load\\ coming\\ from\\ living\\ on\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Zygapophyses\\ reinforce\\ the\\ axial\\ skeleton\\ against\\ ventroflexion\\,\\ or\\ sagging\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ only\\ incipiently\\ evolved\\ in\\ early\\ amphibious\\ tetrapods\\,\\ rapidly\\ evolved\\ prominent\\,\\ overlapping\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;Synovial\\ joints\\ were\\ formed\\ where\\ zygapophyses\\ articulated\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ these\\ joints\\,\\ prezygapophyses\\ were\\ always\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ top\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(facing\\ dorsomedially\\)\\ while\\ postzygapophyses\\ \\(those\\ located\\ posterior\\ to\\ the\\ veterbrae\\)\\ were\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\,\\ facing\\ ventrolaterally\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ trait\\ persists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ichthyostega\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ this\\ stage\\ in\\ evolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vertebral\\ column\\ was\\ modified\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ gravitational\\ loading\\ of\\ the\\ trunk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\)\\ The\\ primitively\\ separate\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ vertebral\\ body\\ components\\ \\(intercentra\\/pleurocentra\\)\\ fuse\\,\\ and\\ the\\ structure\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ assumes\\ a\\ predominant\\ role\\ in\\ axial\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ the\\ limbs\\ now\\ providing\\ locomotively\\,\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ much\\ axial\\ flexibility\\ is\\ reduced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-For\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ a\\ broader\\ assessment\\ of\\ the\\ issue\\,\\ see\\ pages\\ 6\\-9\\ of\\ Farish\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notes\\ from\\ 9\\/24\\,\\ entitled\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sarcopterygian\\ fishes\\,\\ tetrapod\\ origins\\,\\ and\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ vertebral\\ column\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ Origin\\ of\\ Birds\\ and\\ Avian\\ Flight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ evidence\\ from\\ the\\ fossil\\ record\\ demonstrates\\ unequivocally\\ that\\ birds\\ evolved\\ from\\ theropod\\ dinosaurs\\,\\ numerous\\ and\\ large\\-scale\\ morphological\\ and\\ functional\\ changes\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ Aves\\ throughout\\ Mesozoic\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ closest\\ known\\ relatives\\ of\\ birds\\ were\\ the\\ Deinonychosauria\\,\\ comprising\\ two\\ families\\ of\\ theropods\\.\\ \\ \\;Cranial\\ evidence\\ supporting\\ this\\ are\\ the\\ reduced\\ or\\ absent\\ prefrontal\\,\\ the\\ slenderness\\ of\\ the\\ snout\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reduced\\ dention\\.\\ \\ \\;Postcranial\\ evidence\\ is\\ stronger\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ modern\\ birds\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Deinonychus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;possess\\ epipophyses\\ for\\ muscular\\ attachment\\ on\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ cervical\\ vertebrae\\,\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ well\\ developed\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Archaeopteryx\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(The\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\&rdquo\\;\\ bird\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ coracoid\\ is\\ dorsoventrally\\ extended\\,\\ the\\ length\\ on\\ the\\ manus\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ foot\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lateral\\ metacarpal\\ is\\ slender\\ and\\ bowed\\ laterally\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ see\\ the\\ comprehensive\\ list\\ of\\ similarities\\ between\\ Deinonychosauria\\ \\(closest\\ known\\ relative\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Archaeopteryx\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;first\\&rdquo\\;\\ bird\\)\\,\\ and\\ modern\\ birds\\,\\ see\\ page\\ 2\\ of\\ Farish\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notes\\ from\\ 11\\/3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ evolution\\ of\\ avian\\ reproduction\\ was\\ twofold\\.\\ \\ \\;Crocodylians\\ produce\\ many\\ small\\ eggs\\ upon\\ ovulation\\,\\ which\\ simultaneously\\ become\\ shelled\\ and\\ are\\ deposited\\ \\(and\\ left\\)\\ in\\ sediments\\ to\\ incubate\\.\\ \\ \\;Birds\\,\\ however\\,\\ produce\\ relatively\\ large\\ eggs\\ from\\ a\\ single\\ oviduct\\ and\\ incubate\\ the\\ eggs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ small\\ dinosaur\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Troodon\\ formosus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ an\\ animal\\ caught\\ in\\ this\\ transition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anatomical\\ transformations\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\)\\ While\\ musculature\\ used\\ for\\ flapping\\ the\\ wings\\ is\\ homologous\\ to\\ that\\ used\\ in\\ terrestrial\\ walking\\ \\(downstroke\\=propulsive\\ phase\\ of\\ walking\\,\\ upstroke\\=retractive\\ stage\\)\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ produced\\ are\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Quadrupeds\\ protract\\ and\\ retract\\ the\\ forelimb\\ anteroposteriorly\\ while\\ birds\\ depress\\ and\\ elevate\\ wings\\ dorsoventrally\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Theropodan\\ shoulder\\ orientation\\ changed\\ dramatically\\ in\\ transition\\ to\\ birds\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ sellar\\,\\ or\\ saddle\\-shaped\\ glenoid\\ is\\ widespread\\ in\\ tetrapods\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ birds\\,\\ this\\ glenoid\\ is\\ rotated\\ twice\\ by\\ 90\\°\\;\\,\\ ending\\ up\\ facing\\ dorsally\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ eventually\\ allows\\ for\\ the\\ full\\ upstroke\\ of\\ the\\ wing\\ \\(starting\\ at\\ a\\ point\\ above\\ the\\ back\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Feathers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ basically\\ feathers\\ allow\\ for\\ a\\ continuous\\ surface\\ for\\ the\\ downstroke\\ and\\,\\ rotating\\ and\\ splitting\\,\\ a\\ gapped\\ surface\\ for\\ the\\ upstroke\\ \\(less\\ resistance\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ argued\\ that\\,\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ flightless\\,\\ feathered\\ theropods\\,\\ feathers\\ first\\ evolved\\ for\\ insulation\\ and\\ thermoregulation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ The\\ caudofemoralis\\ muscle\\ and\\ tail\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ The\\ caudofemoralis\\ is\\ a\\ powerful\\ hip\\ flexor\\ which\\ becomes\\ greatly\\ reduced\\ in\\ birds\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ of\\ hip\\ retraction\\,\\ excursion\\ of\\ the\\ hind\\ limb\\ during\\ the\\ propulsive\\ phase\\ is\\ knee\\ flexion\\ and\\ extension\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ femur\\ operates\\ in\\ a\\ near\\ horizontal\\ orientation\\,\\ and\\ is\\ depressed\\ \\(retracted\\)\\ only\\ through\\ a\\ small\\ range\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ avian\\ hind\\ limb\\ operates\\ as\\ an\\ inverted\\ pendulum\\ situated\\ just\\ anterior\\ to\\ the\\ pelvis\\,\\ and\\,\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ below\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ gravity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ The\\ teropod\\ locomotor\\ system\\ is\\ coordinated\\ across\\ the\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hind\\ and\\ forelimbs\\ move\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ birds\\,\\ the\\ locomotor\\ system\\ is\\ desegregated\\ into\\ separate\\ modules\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ serving\\ flight\\ and\\ terrestrial\\ activity\\ separately\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ The\\ Avian\\ Hand\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ The\\ manus\\ of\\ modern\\ avians\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ carpometacarpus\\ with\\ digits\\ II\\ and\\ IV\\ as\\ vestigial\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ distal\\ wing\\ skeleton\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ fused\\ metacarpals\\ II\\ and\\ III\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Archaeopteryx\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ this\\ modern\\ condition\\ is\\ barely\\ underway\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ manus\\ remains\\ long\\;\\ only\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ digits\\ show\\ evidence\\ of\\ basal\\ fusion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mammalian\\ Postcranial\\ Axial\\ Evolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Specifically\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ axis\\ and\\ atlas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mammals\\ acquired\\ features\\ to\\ promote\\ substantial\\ mobility\\ of\\ the\\ head\\ and\\ neck\\.\\ The\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ complex\\ undergoes\\ the\\ key\\ structural\\ and\\ functional\\ modification\\ necessary\\ to\\ increase\\ mobility\\ of\\ the\\ head\\ and\\ neck\\ in\\ synapsid\\ evolution\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ an\\ arrangement\\ in\\ pelycosaurs\\ that\\ substantially\\ restricts\\ independent\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ head\\,\\ mammals\\ derive\\ by\\ Late\\ Triassic\\ time\\ specializations\\ of\\ the\\ atlanto\\-occipital\\ and\\ altalto\\-axial\\ joints\\ that\\ provide\\ for\\ substantial\\ range\\ of\\ flexion\\-extension\\ and\\ rotation\\,\\ respecitively\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ pelycosaurs\\,\\ the\\ Atlas\\ \\(C1\\)\\ is\\ comprised\\ of\\ six\\ discrete\\ elements\\ that\\ interlock\\ the\\ occiput\\ and\\ axis\\ \\(C2\\)\\.An\\ intervening\\ notochordal\\ remnant\\ exists\\ between\\ the\\ rostral\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ atlantal\\ centrum\\ and\\ the\\ caudal\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ occipital\\ condyle\\.\\ \\ \\;Atlantal\\ arches\\ articulate\\ dorsally\\,\\ medially\\,\\ and\\ ventrally\\ with\\ the\\ occipital\\ condyle\\ \\(preventing\\ bending\\ the\\ head\\ backwards\\ or\\ downwards\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Rotation\\ is\\ also\\ restricted\\ by\\ the\\ overlap\\ of\\ postzygapophyses\\ of\\ the\\ atlantal\\ arch\\ with\\ the\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ laminae\\ of\\ the\\ axis\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ intervertebral\\ foramen\\ is\\ large\\ \\(equivalent\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ joints\\ of\\ C2\\-C3\\ and\\ C3\\-C4\\)\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ movements\\ were\\ no\\ greater\\ than\\ movements\\ between\\ other\\ cervical\\ vertebrae\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ mammals\\,\\ the\\ eight\\ bones\\ comprising\\ the\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ complex\\ in\\ pelycosaurs\\ are\\ fused\\ \\(and\\ lost\\)\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ only\\ two\\ bones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ atlas\\ and\\ axis\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ atlanto\\-occipital\\ joint\\ permits\\ flexion\\ and\\ extension\\ while\\ the\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ joint\\ permits\\ rotation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ mammals\\,\\ the\\ occipital\\ condyles\\ lie\\ along\\ the\\ lateral\\ sides\\ of\\ foramen\\ magnum\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ flexion\\ and\\ extension\\ on\\ an\\ axis\\ that\\ passes\\ through\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ spinal\\ medulla\\,\\ thus\\ minimizing\\ deformation\\ or\\ bending\\ of\\ the\\ medulla\\ during\\ head\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ evolutionary\\ transformation\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ cynodonts\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Procynosuchus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ mammalian\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ joints\\,\\ zygopophyses\\ are\\ lost\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ instability\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ head\\ \\(think\\:\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ keep\\ your\\ head\\ upright\\ without\\ bony\\ support\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ problem\\ is\\ solved\\ with\\ a\\ transverse\\ ligament\\ originating\\ in\\ the\\ atlas\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ligament\\ rests\\ on\\ the\\ dorsal\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ dens\\,\\ thus\\ preventing\\ flexion\\ but\\ allowing\\ rotation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amrita\\ Goyal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neural\\ crest\\ cells\\ \\(L1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Singularly\\ distinctive\\ developmental\\ attribute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ectodermal\\ neural\\ plate\\ transforms\\ into\\ neural\\ tube\\,\\ cells\\ at\\ the\\ crest\\ of\\ each\\ fold\\ migrate\\ laterally\\ across\\ embryo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Give\\ rise\\ to\\ uniquely\\ craniates\\ structure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Derivatives\\:\\ Branchiomeric\\ system\\,\\ dentine\\ and\\ alveolar\\ bone\\,\\ sensory\\ ganglia\\ of\\ cranial\\ nerves\\ V\\,\\ VII\\,\\ IX\\,\\ X\\,\\ pia\\ and\\ arachniod\\ meninges\\,\\ acoustic\\ and\\ vestibular\\ systems\\,\\ spinal\\ sensory\\ and\\ autonomic\\ ganglia\\,\\ melanocytes\\,\\ adrenal\\ medulla\\,\\ cardial\\ truncoconal\\ cushions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ostyichthys\\ spilts\\ in\\ to\\ Actinopterygii\\ and\\ Sarcopterygii\\ split\\ \\(L2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Division\\ of\\ osteichthys\\ into\\ actinopterygii\\ and\\ sarcopterygii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actinops\\=rayfinned\\,\\ Sarcops\\=fleshyfinned\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sarcops\\ have\\ muscle\\ in\\ fins\\,\\ actinops\\ do\\ not\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ primitively\\ have\\ heterocercal\\ tails\\,\\ only\\ \\ \\;saurops\\ have\\ epichordal\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ median\\ dorsal\\ fins\\ in\\ sarcops\\,\\ one\\ in\\ actinops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ notochord\\ with\\ well\\ ossified\\ large\\ vertebral\\ elements\\ in\\ sarcops\\,\\ small\\ not\\ well\\ ossified\\ in\\ actinops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actinops\\ have\\ huge\\ eyes\\,\\ sarcops\\ have\\ small\\ \\(but\\ have\\ pineal\\ foramen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labyrinthadont\\ tooth\\ in\\ sarcops\\&mdash\\;complex\\ infolding\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ lamellar\\ in\\ actinops\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lungs\\ in\\ many\\ sarcops\\ groups\\ are\\ accessory\\ organ\\ of\\ respiration\\,\\ while\\ in\\ most\\ actinops\\ hydrostatic\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actinops\\ have\\ ganoid\\ scales\\,\\ sarcops\\ have\\ cosmine\\,\\ even\\ though\\ both\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ same\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ mineralized\\ tissue\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jaws\\ \\(L3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Represents\\ adaptive\\ shift\\ to\\ predation\\ on\\ larger\\ organisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jaw\\ made\\ from\\ anteriomost\\ branchial\\ arch\\ skeleton\\&mdash\\;palatoquadrate\\ and\\ Meckel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cartilages\\ represent\\ elements\\ of\\ first\\ brancial\\ arch\\,\\ then\\ overlaid\\ by\\ dermal\\ bones\\ \\(pm\\,\\ m\\,\\ d\\,\\ pd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jaws\\ initially\\ involved\\ in\\ respiration\\,\\ then\\ developed\\ a\\ feeding\\ function\\ when\\ associated\\ with\\ dermal\\ bones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gnathostomes\\=jawed\\ vertebrates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ evidence\\ jaws\\ are\\ neomorphic\\ based\\ on\\ genetic\\ work\\;\\ homoebox\\ genes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lungs\\ \\(L3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ in\\ their\\ evolution\\ actinops\\ developed\\ lungs\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ richer\\ oxygen\\ concentration\\ in\\ the\\ air\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tetrapod\\ lungs\\ are\\ ventral\\ diverticulum\\ from\\ pharyngeal\\ foregut\\;\\ subsequent\\ birfurcation\\ yields\\ paired\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lungs\\ evolved\\ more\\ than\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Swim\\ bladders\\ in\\ actinops\\ originate\\ as\\ dorsal\\ diverticuli\\ in\\ esophagogastric\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physosstomatous\\ swim\\ bladders\\&mdash\\;open\\ connection\\ with\\ alimentary\\ canal\\ maintained\\,\\ which\\ lets\\ them\\ gulp\\ and\\ burp\\ air\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ swim\\ bladders\\ have\\ microvilli\\ and\\ are\\ respiratory\\,\\ some\\ are\\ not\\ and\\ are\\ used\\ for\\ buoyancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physoclistous\\ badders\\ are\\ separate\\ from\\ esophagous\\ and\\ gas\\ contents\\ regulated\\ via\\ countercurrent\\ exchange\\ with\\ blood\\ gasses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vertebrae\\ \\(L4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vertebrae\\ of\\ earliest\\ known\\ tetrapods\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ rhipidistians\\.\\ Centrum\\ composed\\ of\\ two\\ pairs\\ of\\ ossicles\\ around\\ large\\ notochord\\.\\ Anterior\\ pair\\ of\\ intercentra\\ are\\ cresentic\\ strips\\ apposed\\ to\\ the\\ notochord\\ laterally\\ and\\ ventrally\\ and\\ articulate\\ beneath\\ notochord\\.\\ Also\\,\\ pleurocentra\\ and\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ spine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acanthostega\\ develops\\ zygopophyses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ stages\\ of\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notochord\\&mdash\\;Formation\\ of\\ notochord\\,\\ flexible\\ for\\ with\\ thin\\ external\\ elastin\\ layer\\ and\\ thick\\ internal\\ densely\\ fibrous\\ layer\\,\\ and\\ inner\\ cellular\\ gelatinous\\ matrix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Addition\\ of\\ mineralized\\ tissues\\&mdash\\;intercentrum\\ and\\ pleurocentrum\\.\\ Dorsal\\ element\\,\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ spine\\,\\ provide\\ skeletal\\ protective\\ shell\\ over\\ spinal\\ cord\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ served\\ as\\ attachment\\ for\\ locomotor\\ musculature\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zygapophyses\\-\\-Due\\ to\\ gravitational\\ load\\,\\ need\\ to\\ reinforce\\ axial\\ skeleton\\ against\\ ventroflexion\\.\\ In\\ Ichthyostega\\,\\ vertebral\\ column\\ modified\\ ot\\ support\\ gravitational\\ load\\ of\\ trunk\\.\\ Also\\,\\ elongation\\ and\\ elaboration\\ of\\ ribs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synostosis\\&mdash\\;vertebral\\ body\\ components\\ \\(pleurocentra\\ and\\ intercentra\\)\\ fuse\\.\\ Notochord\\ persists\\ in\\ mammals\\ as\\ nucleus\\ pulposus\\ in\\ center\\ of\\ intervertebral\\ disc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dissociation\\ of\\ skull\\ from\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\&mdash\\;Neck\\!\\ \\(L5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ alterations\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ tetrapod\\ forelimbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ osteolipoforms\\,\\ opercular\\ and\\ supracleitheral\\ series\\ form\\ chain\\ of\\ dermal\\ plates\\ linking\\ cleithrum\\ with\\ dorsal\\ an\\ dlateral\\ parts\\ of\\ occuiput\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Ichthyostega\\ no\\ vestive\\ of\\ opercular\\ or\\ superclietheral\\ series\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cleithrum\\ remained\\ major\\ component\\ of\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\ of\\ early\\ tetrapods\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neck\\ is\\ useful\\ because\\ you\\ can\\ turn\\ your\\ head\\ to\\ eat\\ things\\&mdash\\;important\\ because\\ fish\\ in\\ water\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ neck\\ they\\ can\\ just\\ turn\\ their\\ whole\\ bodies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Sarah\\ Eggleston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OEB\\ 139\\ final\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ study\\ guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ convergence\\ in\\ Vertebrate\\ Evolution\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Edendulousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Birds\\ and\\ some\\ edentates\\ \\(such\\ as\\ turtles\\)\\ lost\\ all\\ teeth\\ but\\ had\\ common\\ ancestors\\ with\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beaks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rhynchosaurs\\ and\\ rodents\\ both\\ have\\ a\\ similar\\ type\\ of\\ edentulous\\ process\\ on\\ the\\ premaxilla\\,\\ but\\ in\\ rhynchodonts\\ this\\ was\\ simply\\ a\\ premaxillary\\ process\\,\\ whereas\\ in\\ rodents\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ incisors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Birds\\ and\\ bats\\ developed\\ wings\\ independently\\ \\(see\\ details\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Single\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ euryapsids\\ and\\ synapsids\\ have\\ developed\\ a\\ single\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\,\\ but\\ euryapsids\\ lost\\ the\\ upper\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\ \\(evolved\\ from\\ diapsids\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\True\\ lungs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cladistia\\ \\(an\\ actinopterygian\\)\\ and\\ species\\ of\\ Teleostei\\ both\\ developed\\ true\\ lungs\\,\\ though\\ later\\ actinopterygians\\ lacked\\ true\\ lungs\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ convergent\\ in\\ these\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imbricated\\ ribs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ tetrapods\\ \\(such\\ as\\ tiktaalik\\)\\ and\\ burrowers\\ \\(including\\ anteaters\\)\\ both\\ had\\ imbricated\\ ribs\\ \\(see\\ details\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ appeared\\ in\\ osteostrachans\\ but\\ later\\ appeared\\ independently\\ in\\ acanthodians\\,\\ placoderms\\,\\ anapsids\\,\\ and\\ thelodonts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anapsids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ Paleozoic\\ groups\\ including\\ mesosaurs\\ were\\ anapsids\\;\\ turtles\\ are\\ also\\ anapsids\\,\\ and\\ assuming\\ they\\ evolved\\ from\\ diapsids\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ covergent\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tympanic\\ ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ appeared\\ in\\ millerosaurus\\,\\ but\\ cynodonts\\ developed\\ the\\ mammalian\\ inner\\ ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wings\\:\\ Birds\\,\\ bats\\,\\ and\\ pterosaurs\\ all\\ evolved\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ mobile\\ shoulder\\ joint\\ which\\ allowed\\ for\\ powered\\ flight\\.\\ However\\,\\ birds\\ developed\\ wings\\ that\\ involved\\ digits\\ III\\ and\\ IV\\ exclusively\\.\\ They\\ lost\\ the\\ other\\ digits\\ \\(digit\\ II\\ is\\ significantly\\ reduced\\)\\.\\ Bats\\ appear\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ similar\\ wing\\ structure\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ retained\\ digits\\ II\\ through\\ V\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ their\\ wings\\ are\\ a\\ synaptomorphy\\ of\\ that\\ family\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\&rsquo\\;\\ wings\\ were\\ supported\\ only\\ by\\ digit\\ IV\\;\\ pterosaurs\\ also\\ lacked\\ a\\ clavicle\\ which\\ is\\ found\\ in\\ both\\ birds\\ and\\ bats\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\ and\\ bats\\ both\\ developed\\ a\\ skin\\ wing\\ membrane\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ bird\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feathers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imbricated\\ ribs\\:\\ The\\ first\\ terrestrial\\ vertebrates\\ most\\ likely\\ had\\ imbricated\\,\\ or\\ overlapping\\,\\ ribs\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ internal\\ organs\\ against\\ gravity\\,\\ as\\ the\\ density\\ of\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ is\\ much\\ lower\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ therefore\\ provides\\ very\\ little\\ buoyant\\ force\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ bodies\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ tetrapods\\.\\ This\\ condition\\ disappeared\\ in\\ later\\ land\\-dwelling\\ animals\\ but\\ reappeared\\ in\\ burrowers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ anteaters\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ add\\ extra\\ skeletal\\ support\\ for\\ living\\ underground\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ no\\ buoyant\\ force\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ being\\ crushed\\ by\\ ground\\ collapsing\\ above\\.\\ Imbrication\\ was\\ not\\ as\\ significant\\ in\\ burrowers\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ much\\ less\\ robust\\ skeleton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ follows\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ the\\ fittest\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ properties\\ illustrated\\ above\\ are\\ highly\\ beneficial\\ in\\ some\\ respect\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ wings\\ allow\\ animals\\ to\\ fly\\ and\\ therefore\\ escape\\ predators\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ feed\\ on\\ other\\ organisms\\ more\\ easily\\.\\ Synaptomorphies\\ such\\ as\\ wings\\ evolved\\ in\\ several\\ different\\ species\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ helpful\\ trait\\ for\\ survival\\.\\ Other\\ properties\\ such\\ as\\ highly\\ ossified\\ crania\\ may\\ have\\ evolved\\ for\\ similar\\ but\\ different\\ reasons\\;\\ as\\ discussed\\ above\\,\\ the\\ first\\ terrestrial\\ vertebrates\\ had\\ to\\ contend\\ with\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ gravity\\ not\\ counteracted\\ by\\ a\\ buoyant\\ force\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ water\\.\\ Burrowers\\ such\\ as\\ snakes\\ must\\ protect\\ themselves\\ from\\ soil\\ collapsing\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ them\\.\\ While\\ the\\ highly\\ ossified\\ skull\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ families\\ is\\ ultimately\\ for\\ protection\\ of\\ their\\ internal\\ organs\\,\\ the\\ danger\\ presented\\ is\\ different\\ in\\ each\\ case\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robby\\ Kirkham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\ Think\\ of\\ 7\\ examples\\,\\ Do\\ 1\\ of\\ the\\ cases\\ in\\ detail\\,\\ and\\ do\\ conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chondrichthyans\\ added\\ calcified\\ cartilage\\ and\\ osteichthyans\\ added\\ bone\\ to\\ the\\ notocord\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ vertebral\\ column\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Both\\ early\\ forms\\ of\\ amphibians\\,\\ temnospondyls\\ and\\ anthracosaurs\\,\\ evolved\\ a\\ single\\,\\ unitary\\ vertebral\\ centrum\\ \\(the\\ temnospondyls\\ through\\ the\\ intercentrum\\ and\\ the\\ anthracosaurs\\ through\\ the\\ pleurocentrum\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\osteostracans\\ \\(boney\\ armored\\ jawless\\ fish\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ acanthodians\\ \\(\\"\\;spiny\\ sharks\\"\\;\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ placoderms\\ \\(boney\\ armored\\ jawed\\ fish\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ anaspids\\ \\(precursor\\ to\\ lamprey\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ and\\ thelodonts\\ \\(ordovician\\-devonian\\)\\ all\\ evolved\\ fins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myrmecophagidae\\ and\\ Tiktaalik\\ have\\ imbricating\\ ribs\\ for\\ thoracolumbar\\ rigidity\\ and\\ axial\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reduction\\ or\\ complete\\ loss\\ of\\ lungs\\ in\\ one\\ species\\ of\\ caecilian\\ \\(Atretochoana\\)\\,\\ a\\ species\\ of\\ frog\\ \\(telmatobius\\)\\ and\\ multiple\\ species\\ of\\ salamanders\\ \\(Crptobranchidae\\,\\ Hynobiidae\\,\\ Plethodontidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carnivorous\\ lifestyle\\,\\ especially\\ teeth\\ and\\ jaw\\ mechanism\\ in\\ the\\ Marsupial\\ Tazmanian\\ Tiger\\ and\\ Eutherian\\ Canines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Detail\\:\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Tiktaalik\\,\\ mudskipers\\,\\ frogs\\,\\ crocodilians\\,\\ and\\ hippopotamuses\\ have\\ raised\\ orbits\\.\\ This\\ feature\\ has\\ evolved\\ numerous\\ times\\ in\\ amphibious\\ taxon\\ to\\ help\\ see\\ above\\ water\\,\\ such\\ as\\ crocodilians\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ capture\\ prey\\.\\ This\\ is\\ evidence\\ of\\ Tiktaalik\\&\\#39\\;s\\ shallow\\ water\\ lifestyle\\ and\\ likely\\ movement\\ onto\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arjun\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Seven\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Horny\\ beak\\&mdash\\;has\\ developed\\ independently\\ in\\ turtles\\,\\ some\\ ornithischian\\ dinosaurs\\,\\ and\\ anomodonts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crocodylian\\ features\\&mdash\\;seen\\ in\\ both\\ Crocodylia\\ and\\ phytosaurs\\ \\(elongate\\,\\ narrow\\ skull\\;\\ elevated\\ postorbital\\ table\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Placodonts\\ vs\\.\\ synapsids\\ \\(especially\\ mammals\\)\\&mdash\\;extreme\\ similarities\\ in\\ the\\ coronoid\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ dentary\\,\\ which\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ attachment\\ site\\ and\\ lever\\ for\\ adductor\\ mandibulae\\ musculature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ichthyosaurs\\ vs\\.\\ tuna\\&mdash\\;extremely\\ similar\\ body\\ configuration\\,\\ with\\ pronounced\\ dorsal\\ fin\\ and\\ lunate\\ tail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sphenodontids\\ vs\\.\\ archosaurs\\ and\\ mammals\\&mdash\\;puboischiadic\\ plate\\ is\\ fenestrated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Limblessness\\&mdash\\;convergent\\ evolution\\ that\\ has\\ occurred\\ at\\ least\\ 62\\ independent\\ times\\ among\\ squamates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ceratopsians\\ vs\\.\\ hadrosaurs\\&mdash\\;tooth\\ batteries\\ in\\ which\\ several\\ generations\\ of\\ teeth\\ erupt\\ simultaneously\\,\\ providing\\ a\\ continuous\\ and\\ aligned\\ shearing\\ mechanism\\ \\(difference\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ hadrosaurs\\,\\ the\\ dental\\ battery\\ creates\\ a\\ crushing\\ and\\ grinding\\ pavement\\,\\ while\\ in\\ ceratopsians\\,\\ the\\ dental\\ battery\\ is\\ for\\ shearing\\ only\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pterosaurs\\ vs\\.\\ birds\\ vs\\.\\ bats\\&mdash\\;all\\ have\\ evolved\\ a\\ mobile\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\ \\(birds\\ and\\ pterosaurs\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ their\\ possession\\ of\\ a\\ plate\\-like\\,\\ keeled\\ sternum\\,\\ an\\ elongate\\ coracoids\\,\\ and\\ an\\ mobile\\ coracosternal\\ joint\\;\\ pterosaurs\\ and\\ bats\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ thin\\-skinned\\ wing\\ membrane\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edaphosaurids\\ vs\\.\\ sphenacodontids\\&mdash\\;similar\\ fan\\-shaped\\ tail\\ supported\\ by\\ greatly\\ elongated\\ neural\\ spines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myrmecobiidae\\ vs\\.\\ myremcophagids\\&mdash\\;convergence\\ on\\ ant\\-eating\\ morphology\\;\\ a\\ protracted\\ snout\\ and\\ a\\ long\\,\\ narrow\\ tongue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notoryctidae\\ vs\\.\\ moles\\&mdash\\;they\\ both\\ share\\ a\\ broad\\,\\ cornified\\ nasal\\ shield\\ for\\ digging\\ and\\ have\\ lost\\ the\\ pinnae\\ of\\ the\\ ears\\;\\ the\\ eyes\\ lack\\ lens\\ and\\ are\\ covered\\ by\\ skin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ in\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thylacinidae\\ vs\\.\\ canids\\&mdash\\;Thylacine\\ resembles\\ wolves\\ in\\ cranial\\ structure\\ and\\ digitigrades\\ posture\\ of\\ the\\ limbs\\.\\ There\\ are\\ important\\ differences\\,\\ however\\.\\ The\\ limbs\\ in\\ thylacinidae\\ are\\ relatively\\ shorter\\ than\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ canids\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ the\\ thylacines\\ were\\ less\\ cursorial\\ than\\ the\\ canids\\.\\ They\\ also\\ differ\\ in\\ dental\\ formula\\,\\ with\\ thylacines\\ having\\ the\\ postcanine\\ dental\\ formula\\ P3M4\\ \\(typical\\ of\\ marsupials\\)\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ P4\\/M3\\ in\\ canids\\.\\ The\\ thylacines\\ also\\ lack\\ carnassial\\ teeth\\ and\\ posses\\ palatial\\ vacuities\\ which\\ are\\ absent\\ in\\ wolves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\ convergence\\ is\\ so\\ common\\ because\\ it\\ results\\ from\\ separate\\ lineages\\ hitting\\ upon\\ the\\ same\\ ideal\\ solution\\ to\\ a\\ problem\\ commonly\\ seen\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ Animals\\ may\\ develop\\ the\\ same\\ manner\\ of\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ ecological\\ problem\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ swim\\ efficiently\\ through\\ water\\ may\\ yield\\ certain\\ adaptations\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ wide\\ tail\\ and\\ fins\\)\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ solutions\\ to\\ swimmingly\\ effectively\\.\\ These\\ solutions\\ will\\ be\\ favored\\ by\\ natural\\ selection\\ and\\ thus\\ recur\\ in\\ distinct\\ lineages\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ same\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ wings\\,\\ which\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ all\\ fliers\\.\\ The\\ raw\\ material\\ for\\ convergent\\ evolution\\ can\\ arise\\ from\\ random\\ mutation\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ certain\\ adaptations\\ that\\ are\\ favored\\,\\ culminating\\ in\\ similar\\ structures\\.\\ Ontogeny\\ may\\ also\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ process\\.\\ Organisms\\ that\\ better\\ adapt\\ to\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ their\\ lifetime\\ may\\ be\\ favored\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ propagation\\ of\\ those\\ traits\\ throughout\\ the\\ population\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ trait\\ that\\ is\\ usually\\ common\\ in\\ convergent\\ evolution\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ answer\\ to\\ a\\ given\\ challenge\\,\\ the\\ trait\\ will\\ therefore\\ be\\ common\\ across\\ several\\ separate\\ lineages\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multiple\\ Choice\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emily\\ Wooton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\26\\.\\ c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clara\\ Kim\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ d\\2\\ c\\3\\ b\\4\\ a\\5\\ c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\ c\\32\\ a\\33\\ d\\34\\ b\\35\\ c\\36\\ b\\37\\ c\\38\\ c\\39\\ d\\40\\ b\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dan\\ Oleary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ D\\2\\.\\ C\\3\\.\\ B\\4\\.\\ A\\5\\.\\ C\\6\\.\\ D\\7\\.\\ C\\8\\.\\ C\\9\\.\\ D\\10\\.\\ A\\11\\.\\ E\\12\\.\\ D\\13\\.\\ A\\14\\.\\ C\\15\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sha\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(maybe\\)\\ C\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;number\\ 26\\ \\-\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\)\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\.\\ B\\ \\(I\\ think\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\.\\ C\\ \\(I\\ think\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ lacking\\ the\\ review\\ notes\\ for\\ this\\ lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jenny\\ Luo\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ blue\\ color\\ denotes\\ that\\ I\\ am\\ absolutely\\ positive\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ right\\ answer\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ black\\ denotes\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ right\\ answer\\.\\ Sources\\ as\\ labeled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;sarcopterygian\\ fishes\\,\\ tetrapod\\ origins\\,\\ and\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ vertebral\\ column\\&rdquo\\;\\ summary\\ p\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fish\\ Fin\\-Tetrapod\\ Limb\\ Transition\\&rdquo\\;\\ summary\\ p\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Amphibian\\ Evolution\\+the\\ Lissamphibian\\ Problem\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ A\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Amniote\\ Origins\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 7\\,\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ E\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Amniote\\ Origins\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ D\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sphenodontids\\,\\ Squamates\\,\\+Chelonians\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ A\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sphenodontids\\,\\ Squamates\\,\\+Chelonians\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ A\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\ A\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Saurischian\\ Dinosaurs\\:\\ Sauropodomorphs\\+Therapods\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.\\ D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\ D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joy\\ Zheng\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\ D\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pterosaurs\\&rsquo\\;\\ wing\\ is\\ from\\ digit\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\ B\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\ A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\.\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\32\\.\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\.\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\.\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tom\\ Southworth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#36\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ following\\ suite\\ of\\ distinctive\\ features\\ characterizes\\ living\\ members\\ of\\ which\\ order\\ of\\ mammals\\:\\ pairs\\ of\\ upper\\ and\\ lower\\ teeth\\ erupt\\ sequentially\\ over\\ the\\ lifetime\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ are\\ shed\\ when\\ the\\ crowns\\ are\\ worn\\ out\\;\\ cranial\\ sinuses\\ are\\ extensively\\ developed\\;\\ upper\\ lateral\\ incisors\\ are\\ greatly\\ enlarged\\ and\\ elongated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Edentada\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Proboscidea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ Creodonta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ Cetacea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ b\\)\\ Proboscidea\\ \\(Elephants\\ and\\ related\\ species\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ you\\ see\\ this\\ question\\,\\ just\\ remember\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ and\\ elongated\\&rdquo\\;\\ upper\\ incisors\\ are\\ the\\ tusks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#37\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ North\\ American\\ mammals\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;have\\ a\\ South\\ American\\ ancestry\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;derived\\ from\\ South\\ America\\ during\\ the\\ Plio\\-Pleistocene\\ Interamerican\\ Faunal\\ Exchange\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nine\\ banded\\ armadillo\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dasypus\\ novemcinctus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virginia\\ Opposum\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Didelphis\\ virginiana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raccoon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Procyon\\ lotor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Glyptodontid\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Glyptotherium\\ arizonae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ c\\)\\ Raccoon\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ page\\ 10\\ of\\ Professor\\ Jenkins\\&rsquo\\;\\ notes\\ from\\ 12\\/01\\/08\\,\\ where\\ he\\ lists\\ the\\ other\\ three\\ as\\ having\\ made\\ the\\ intercontinental\\ migration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#38\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ North\\ American\\ mammals\\ entered\\ South\\ America\\ suring\\ the\\ Plio\\-Pleistocene\\ Interamerican\\ Faunal\\ Exchange\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ survive\\ there\\ today\\,\\ EXCEPT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tapirs\\ \\(Tapiridae\\)\\ and\\ deer\\ \\(Cervidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bears\\ \\(Ursidae\\)\\ and\\ dogs\\ \\(Canidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Horses\\ \\(Equidae\\)\\ and\\ elephants\\ \\(Proboscidea\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Llamas\\ \\(Camelidae\\)\\ and\\ cats\\ \\(Felidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ c\\)\\ Horses\\ and\\ elephants\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ page\\ 10\\ of\\ Professor\\ Jenkins\\&rsquo\\;\\ notes\\ from\\ 12\\/01\\/08\\,\\ where\\ he\\ lists\\ these\\ two\\ as\\ having\\ become\\ extinct\\ in\\ South\\ America\\ after\\ their\\ intercontinental\\ migration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#39\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Oldest\\ known\\ hominin\\ skull\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sahelanthropus\\ tchadensis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Late\\ Miocene\\ of\\ Chad\\ \\(6\\-7\\ mya\\)\\,\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chimpanzee\\-like\\ features\\:\\ small\\ brain\\ size\\ \\(350\\ cc\\)\\ and\\ large\\ incisors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hominin\\-like\\ features\\:\\ small\\ canines\\,\\ short\\ snout\\ and\\ a\\ browridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ventrally\\ directed\\ occiput\\ and\\ foramen\\ magnum\\,\\ which\\ are\\ indicators\\ of\\ upright\\ posture\\ and\\ bipedalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ the\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ d\\)\\ All\\ of\\ the\\ above\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ page\\ 6\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Human\\ Evolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#40\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ taxa\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\least\\ likely\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ be\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ pathway\\ that\\ gave\\ rise\\ to\\ modern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Homo\\ sapiens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Homo\\ habilis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Australopithecus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Paranthropus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;robustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Australopithecus\\ afarensis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homo\\ ergaster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ b\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Australopithecus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Paranthropus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\robustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ the\\ proposed\\ evolutionary\\ tree\\ on\\ the\\ last\\ page\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Human\\ Evolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 39, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Compiled.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Evolution of Vertebrates - Final Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "vertebrates", "evolution"], "text": null, "id": 87, "html": "\\\\\\Compiled\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=MSSLfUayeNh9PW3ng9UWrqo0P1CSBNc3gBWclSzSx0c\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c33\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c29\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c31\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c10\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c13\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.c19\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c30\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c28\\{color\\:\\#31849b\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\ESSAY\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emily\\ Wooton\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\)\\ THE\\ MAJOR\\ FEATURES\\ OF\\ VERTEBRATE\\ EVOLUTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Who\\ are\\ the\\ Vertebrates\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Evolutionary\\ Biology\\/Paleontology\\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Important\\ vocabulary\\ in\\ evolutionary\\ biology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;phylogeny\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ descent\\ of\\ taxa\\ from\\ common\\ ancestors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\synapomorphies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ derived\\ character\\ state\\ shared\\ by\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;terminal\\ groups\\ and\\ inherited\\ from\\ most\\ recent\\ common\\ ancestor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\convergence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ similarities\\ between\\ organisms\\ that\\ evolved\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;independently\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\geologic\\ eras\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ Phanerozoic\\:\\ Paleozoic\\,\\ Mesozoic\\,\\ Cenozoic\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Quaternary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\(periods\\:\\ Cambrian\\,\\ Ordovician\\,\\ Silurian\\,\\ Devonian\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Carboniferous\\,\\ Permian\\,\\ Triassic\\,\\ Jurassic\\,\\ Cretaceous\\,\\ Paleocene\\,\\ Eocene\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Oligocene\\,\\ Miocene\\,\\ Pliocene\\,\\ Pleistocene\\,\\ Holocene\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Chordates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ cephalochordates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ urochordates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ craniates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ General\\ Chordate\\ Characteristics\\ \\(Synapomorphies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ notochord\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ purpose\\:\\ stiffen\\ the\\ body\\,\\ ensure\\ activity\\ of\\ body\\ wall\\ musculature\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;result\\ in\\ undulatory\\ locomotion\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ simple\\ contraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ dorsal\\ nerve\\ chord\\,\\ segmented\\ muscles\\ and\\ gills\\,\\ endostyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Primitive\\ Chordates\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Where\\ we\\ came\\ from\\ \\(to\\ be\\ shown\\ with\\ pictures\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Fossil\\ Record\\:\\ Yunnanozoon\\ \\(earliest\\ known\\)\\,\\ Pikaia\\ \\(Burgess\\ Shale\\)\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Haikouella\\ \\(Chengjiang\\)\\,\\ Conodonts\\ \\(great\\ for\\ biostratigraphy\\!\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Extant\\:\\ sea\\ squirts\\,\\ lancelets\\ \\(cephalochordates\\,\\ urochordates\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.\\ Craniates\\ \\=\\ Vertebrata\\ \\(or\\,\\ the\\ vertebrates\\ you\\ know\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ skeleton\\ of\\ hydroxyapatite\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ calcitic\\ or\\ siliceous\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ backbones\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Evolution\\ and\\ Diversification\\ of\\ Fishes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Gnathostomes\\ \\=\\ jaws\\!\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ agnatha\\,\\ the\\ slimehags\\ and\\ lampreys\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Divergence\\ of\\ Actinoptergii\\ and\\ Sarcopterygii\\ \\=\\ fundamental\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;phylogenetic\\ dichotomy\\ in\\ vertebrate\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Also\\ includes\\ extinct\\ forms\\ like\\ heterostracans\\ and\\ osteostracans\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;extant\\ taxon\\ of\\ chondrichthyes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Osteichthyans\\ \\(Actinopterygians\\,\\ Sarcopterygians\\)\\ \\=\\ bony\\ fish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Actinopterygians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ ray\\-finned\\ fishes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ most\\ diverse\\ taxa\\ with\\ 25\\,000\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Less\\ to\\ more\\ derived\\ \\=\\ neopterygians\\,\\ teleosts\\,\\ euteleost\\,\\ neoteleosts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Advances\\ in\\ locomotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Pterygiophores\\-\\ bones\\ at\\ the\\ base\\ of\\ fin\\ rays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\primitive\\ characteristic\\ \\(of\\ plesiomorphic\\ fish\\)\\ \\=\\ 3\\:1\\ of\\ fins\\ to\\ pterygiophore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ derived\\ \\(of\\ neopterygii\\)\\ \\=\\ 1\\:1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\+\\ Caudal\\ Fin\\ structure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tail\\ fin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\plesiomorphic\\ \\=\\ heterocercal\\ tail\\ \\(asymmetrical\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\teleosts\\ \\=\\ homocercal\\ tail\\ \\(external\\ symmetrical\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\+\\ Fin\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ pectoral\\ fins\\ migrate\\ dorsally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ pelvic\\ fins\\ migrate\\ forward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ Advances\\ in\\ Feeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ improved\\ suction\\ feeding\\ \\(can\\ open\\ mouth\\ and\\ gills\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ jaw\\ protrusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ Respiration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ from\\ true\\ lungs\\,\\ to\\ non\\-respiratory\\ swim\\ bladder\\,\\ to\\ respiratory\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;swim\\ bladder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ Sarcopterygians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;flesh\\-winged\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Differences\\ from\\ Actinopterygians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ 2\\ dorsal\\ fins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ large\\ vertebral\\ elements\\ \\(Actinop\\:\\ large\\ notochord\\ and\\ small\\ vertebrae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ has\\ paired\\ fins\\,\\ but\\ with\\ intrinsic\\ muscles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ smaller\\ eyes\\,\\ but\\ well\\-developed\\ olfactory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\labyrinthodonty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\+\\ cosmine\\ scale\\ structure\\ \\(Actinop\\:\\ ganoid\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Extant\\ Taxa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Lungfish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Coelacanths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Progress\\ towards\\ land\\ \\=\\ Rhizodontids\\,\\ Osteolepiformes\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Elpistostegalids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Sea\\-to\\-Land\\ Transition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Elpistostegalids\\ \\=\\ transitionary\\ taxa\\ \\(Sarcopterygians\\ with\\ Tetrapod\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;synapomorphies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Tetrapod\\ structures\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Panderichthys\\,\\ Ichthyostega\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Broad\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ No\\ Dorsal\\ Fin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Paired\\ frontals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Quadrato\\-jugal\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ Dorsalventrally\\ compressed\\ skull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tiktaalik\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ endochondral\\ ossifications\\ in\\ pectoral\\ fin\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ development\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;wrist\\ and\\ forefoot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ neck\\ and\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\ detached\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Accomodations\\ for\\ gravity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ amphibiousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ broadened\\,\\ overlapping\\ \\(imbricating\\)\\ ribs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Amniote\\ Evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Cranial\\ Fenestrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Anapsids\\ \\=\\ no\\ holes\\ in\\ head\\,\\ bone\\ covers\\ adductor\\ chamber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ turtles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Synapsids\\ \\=\\ single\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ pelycosaurs\\,\\ therapsids\\,\\ mammals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Diapsids\\ \\=\\ upper\\ \\(superior\\)\\ and\\ lower\\ \\(inferior\\)\\ temporal\\ fenestrae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ lizards\\,\\ snakes\\,\\ all\\ archosauria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Euryapsid\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;parapsid\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\=\\ upper\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\ with\\ incomplete\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lower\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\,\\ derived\\ diapsid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Mesozoic\\ marine\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Adductor\\ musculature\\ in\\ amniotes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Synapsids\\ and\\ many\\ diapsids\\ \\(reptiles\\ and\\ birds\\)\\ are\\ amniotes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ increased\\ fenestration\\ provides\\ for\\ increased\\ adductor\\ muscle\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;attachment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;allows\\ for\\ stronger\\ bite\\ force\\ and\\ diversified\\ diets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ Elements\\ of\\ amniotic\\ egg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ somatopleure\\ and\\ splanchnopleure\\ extra\\-embryonic\\ membranes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ amniotic\\ membrane\\ and\\ cavity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ allantois\\ for\\ storage\\ of\\ nitrogenous\\ waster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ chorion\\ and\\ chorionic\\ cavity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Transition\\ from\\ anamniote\\ to\\ amniotes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ derived\\ from\\ amphibians\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ oldest\\ known\\ amniote\\ egg\\ from\\ Permian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ replacement\\/modification\\ of\\ jelly\\ layers\\ with\\ mineralized\\ shell\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;membrane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ reduction\\ of\\ O2\\ diffusion\\ barriers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ development\\ of\\ extraembryonic\\ membranes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ increase\\ in\\ egg\\ and\\ hatchling\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ altered\\ patterns\\ of\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.\\ Amniote\\ synapomorphies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ tooth\\ bearing\\ transverse\\ flange\\ on\\ pterygoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ supraoccipital\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ hemispheroidal\\ occipital\\ condyle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ stapes\\ is\\ small\\ ventolaterally\\ directed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ caninoform\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ fusion\\ btw\\.\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ centrum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vii\\.\\ small\\ intercentra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;viii\\.\\ no\\ intertemporal\\ bone\\,\\ otic\\ notch\\,\\ palatal\\ fangs\\,\\ or\\ labyrinthodonty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Archosaur\\ Diversification\\ and\\ the\\ Reign\\ of\\ the\\ Dinosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Primitive\\ condition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ diapsid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ caniniform\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ single\\ coracoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ hip\\ with\\ ilium\\,\\ ischium\\,\\ pubis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\ 5\\ fingers\\ \\(2\\-3\\-4\\-5\\-3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\ long\\ gracile\\ limbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Other\\ Diapsids\\ \\(merely\\ mentioned\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Lepidosauromorphs\\ \\(squamates\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lizards\\,\\ snakes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Archosauromorphs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Sauropterygians\\ \\(placodonts\\,\\ nothosaurs\\,\\ plesiosaurs\\,\\ ichthyosaurs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ Non\\-Ornithodirans\\ \\(overview\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Aetosaurs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thickly\\ armored\\ herbivores\\ with\\ trenchant\\ \\(slicing\\)\\ dentition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Crocodylia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Caimans\\,\\ Crocs\\,\\ Alligators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ transition\\ from\\ cursorial\\ to\\ ambush\\ predators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Phytosaurs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ piscivores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ Ornithodirans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Dinosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(a\\)\\ antorbital\\ and\\ mandibular\\ fenestrae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(b\\)\\ mesotarsas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(c\\)\\ perforate\\ acetabulum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(d\\)\\ reduction\\ of\\ digit\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Ornithiscia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ convergent\\ but\\ not\\ ancestral\\ to\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(a\\)\\ reflected\\ pubis\\ \\+\\ prepubic\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(b\\)\\ predentary\\ \\+\\ edentulous\\ premaxilla\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(c\\)\\ ossified\\ tendons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(d\\)\\ lanceolate\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\+\\ Saurischia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ retains\\ primitive\\ hip\\,\\ ancestral\\ to\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(a\\)\\ Sauropods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ herbivores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ elongate\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ characteristics\\ that\\ aid\\ gigantism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(b\\)\\ Therapods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ carnivores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ intramandibular\\ joint\\,\\ trenchant\\ claws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ reduced\\ forearms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ hollow\\ skeletal\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ pubic\\ foot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Origin\\ of\\ Powered\\ Flight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Taxa\\ capable\\ of\\ flight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Bats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ Gliding\\ in\\ squamates\\,\\ teleosts\\,\\ frogs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Powered\\ flight\\ requires\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ mobility\\ of\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ specialized\\ shoulders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bird\\ \\=\\ furcula\\,\\ huge\\ sternum\\,\\ coracoid\\ with\\ a\\ flexible\\ joint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pterosaurs\\ \\=\\ large\\ sternum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bat\\ \\=\\ clavicular\\ function\\ strut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Wings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bird\\ \\=\\ feathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pterosaurs\\ and\\ Bats\\ \\=\\ Skin\\ membrane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Wing\\ Support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Trees\\-down\\,\\ Ground\\-up\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ Origin\\ of\\ feathers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ evidence\\ from\\ fossil\\ record\\ in\\ Therapods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Wing\\-assisted\\ incline\\ running\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Discussion\\ of\\ Convergent\\ Evolution\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ flight\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ see\\ question\\ B\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61514\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tom\\ Southworth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ A\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 4\\ Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Major\\ Features\\ of\\ Vertebrate\\ Evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vertebral\\ Evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ rhipidistians\\ \\(lobed\\-fin\\ fish\\ and\\ ancestors\\ of\\ tetrapods\\)\\,\\ the\\ vertebral\\ centrum\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ two\\ pairs\\ of\\ ossicles\\ \\(intercentra\\=anterior\\,\\ pluerocentra\\=posterior\\)\\ surrounding\\ a\\ large\\ notochord\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Acanthostega\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ this\\ pattern\\ persists\\,\\ but\\ with\\ two\\ modifications\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ The\\ pleurocentra\\ are\\ larger\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ contacts\\ develop\\ between\\ the\\ neural\\ arches\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ nubbin\\-like\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ processes\\ represent\\ the\\ inception\\ of\\ articular\\ processes\\,\\ or\\ zygapophyses\\,\\ that\\ are\\ an\\ important\\ component\\ of\\ vertebral\\ mechanics\\ in\\ all\\ later\\ tetrapods\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ vertebral\\ column\\ \\(post\\-cranial\\ axial\\ skeleton\\)\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ four\\ stages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\)\\ The\\ cephalochordate\\ and\\ primitive\\ craniate\\ stage\\ was\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ notochord\\ \\(a\\ flexible\\ rod\\)\\ with\\ a\\ thin\\,\\ external\\ layer\\ of\\ elastin\\,\\ a\\ think\\ internal\\,\\ densely\\ fibrous\\ layer\\,\\ and\\ an\\ inner\\ cellular\\ gelatinous\\ matrix\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ segmented\\ bodies\\,\\ this\\ development\\ ensured\\ that\\ contraction\\ of\\ body\\ musculature\\ produced\\ undulatory\\ movements\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ shortening\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\)\\ The\\ addition\\ of\\ mineralized\\ tissues\\ \\(calcified\\ cartilage\\ for\\ chondrichthyans\\ and\\ bone\\ is\\ osteichthyans\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ primitive\\ components\\ of\\ the\\ vertebral\\ centrum\\,\\ the\\ intercentrum\\ and\\ pleurocentrum\\,\\ developed\\ to\\ stiffen\\ the\\ notochord\\ against\\ forced\\ induced\\ by\\ locomotor\\ musculature\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ spine\\ \\(dorsal\\)\\ provided\\ a\\ skeletal\\ protective\\ shell\\ over\\ the\\ spinal\\ chord\\ and\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ attachment\\ site\\ for\\ locomotor\\ musculature\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ these\\ dorsal\\ elements\\ restricted\\ bending\\ of\\ the\\ backbone\\ to\\ undulation\\ on\\ a\\ lateral\\ plane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Evolution\\ for\\ the\\ gravitational\\ load\\ coming\\ from\\ living\\ on\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Zygapophyses\\ reinforce\\ the\\ axial\\ skeleton\\ against\\ ventroflexion\\,\\ or\\ sagging\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ only\\ incipiently\\ evolved\\ in\\ early\\ amphibious\\ tetrapods\\,\\ rapidly\\ evolved\\ prominent\\,\\ overlapping\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;Synovial\\ joints\\ were\\ formed\\ where\\ zygapophyses\\ articulated\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ these\\ joints\\,\\ prezygapophyses\\ were\\ always\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ top\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(facing\\ dorsomedially\\)\\ while\\ postzygapophyses\\ \\(those\\ located\\ posterior\\ to\\ the\\ veterbrae\\)\\ were\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\,\\ facing\\ ventrolaterally\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ trait\\ persists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ichthyostega\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ this\\ stage\\ in\\ evolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vertebral\\ column\\ was\\ modified\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ gravitational\\ loading\\ of\\ the\\ trunk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\)\\ The\\ primitively\\ separate\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ vertebral\\ body\\ components\\ \\(intercentra\\/pleurocentra\\)\\ fuse\\,\\ and\\ the\\ structure\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ assumes\\ a\\ predominant\\ role\\ in\\ axial\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ the\\ limbs\\ now\\ providing\\ locomotively\\,\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ much\\ axial\\ flexibility\\ is\\ reduced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-For\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ a\\ broader\\ assessment\\ of\\ the\\ issue\\,\\ see\\ pages\\ 6\\-9\\ of\\ Farish\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notes\\ from\\ 9\\/24\\,\\ entitled\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sarcopterygian\\ fishes\\,\\ tetrapod\\ origins\\,\\ and\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ vertebral\\ column\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ Origin\\ of\\ Birds\\ and\\ Avian\\ Flight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ evidence\\ from\\ the\\ fossil\\ record\\ demonstrates\\ unequivocally\\ that\\ birds\\ evolved\\ from\\ theropod\\ dinosaurs\\,\\ numerous\\ and\\ large\\-scale\\ morphological\\ and\\ functional\\ changes\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ Aves\\ throughout\\ Mesozoic\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ closest\\ known\\ relatives\\ of\\ birds\\ were\\ the\\ Deinonychosauria\\,\\ comprising\\ two\\ families\\ of\\ theropods\\.\\ \\ \\;Cranial\\ evidence\\ supporting\\ this\\ are\\ the\\ reduced\\ or\\ absent\\ prefrontal\\,\\ the\\ slenderness\\ of\\ the\\ snout\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reduced\\ dention\\.\\ \\ \\;Postcranial\\ evidence\\ is\\ stronger\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ modern\\ birds\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Deinonychus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;possess\\ epipophyses\\ for\\ muscular\\ attachment\\ on\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ cervical\\ vertebrae\\,\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ well\\ developed\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Archaeopteryx\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(The\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\&rdquo\\;\\ bird\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ coracoid\\ is\\ dorsoventrally\\ extended\\,\\ the\\ length\\ on\\ the\\ manus\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ foot\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lateral\\ metacarpal\\ is\\ slender\\ and\\ bowed\\ laterally\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ see\\ the\\ comprehensive\\ list\\ of\\ similarities\\ between\\ Deinonychosauria\\ \\(closest\\ known\\ relative\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Archaeopteryx\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;first\\&rdquo\\;\\ bird\\)\\,\\ and\\ modern\\ birds\\,\\ see\\ page\\ 2\\ of\\ Farish\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notes\\ from\\ 11\\/3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ evolution\\ of\\ avian\\ reproduction\\ was\\ twofold\\.\\ \\ \\;Crocodylians\\ produce\\ many\\ small\\ eggs\\ upon\\ ovulation\\,\\ which\\ simultaneously\\ become\\ shelled\\ and\\ are\\ deposited\\ \\(and\\ left\\)\\ in\\ sediments\\ to\\ incubate\\.\\ \\ \\;Birds\\,\\ however\\,\\ produce\\ relatively\\ large\\ eggs\\ from\\ a\\ single\\ oviduct\\ and\\ incubate\\ the\\ eggs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ small\\ dinosaur\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Troodon\\ formosus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ an\\ animal\\ caught\\ in\\ this\\ transition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anatomical\\ transformations\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\)\\ While\\ musculature\\ used\\ for\\ flapping\\ the\\ wings\\ is\\ homologous\\ to\\ that\\ used\\ in\\ terrestrial\\ walking\\ \\(downstroke\\=propulsive\\ phase\\ of\\ walking\\,\\ upstroke\\=retractive\\ stage\\)\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ produced\\ are\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Quadrupeds\\ protract\\ and\\ retract\\ the\\ forelimb\\ anteroposteriorly\\ while\\ birds\\ depress\\ and\\ elevate\\ wings\\ dorsoventrally\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Theropodan\\ shoulder\\ orientation\\ changed\\ dramatically\\ in\\ transition\\ to\\ birds\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ sellar\\,\\ or\\ saddle\\-shaped\\ glenoid\\ is\\ widespread\\ in\\ tetrapods\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ birds\\,\\ this\\ glenoid\\ is\\ rotated\\ twice\\ by\\ 90\\°\\;\\,\\ ending\\ up\\ facing\\ dorsally\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ eventually\\ allows\\ for\\ the\\ full\\ upstroke\\ of\\ the\\ wing\\ \\(starting\\ at\\ a\\ point\\ above\\ the\\ back\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Feathers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ basically\\ feathers\\ allow\\ for\\ a\\ continuous\\ surface\\ for\\ the\\ downstroke\\ and\\,\\ rotating\\ and\\ splitting\\,\\ a\\ gapped\\ surface\\ for\\ the\\ upstroke\\ \\(less\\ resistance\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ argued\\ that\\,\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ flightless\\,\\ feathered\\ theropods\\,\\ feathers\\ first\\ evolved\\ for\\ insulation\\ and\\ thermoregulation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ The\\ caudofemoralis\\ muscle\\ and\\ tail\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ The\\ caudofemoralis\\ is\\ a\\ powerful\\ hip\\ flexor\\ which\\ becomes\\ greatly\\ reduced\\ in\\ birds\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ of\\ hip\\ retraction\\,\\ excursion\\ of\\ the\\ hind\\ limb\\ during\\ the\\ propulsive\\ phase\\ is\\ knee\\ flexion\\ and\\ extension\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ femur\\ operates\\ in\\ a\\ near\\ horizontal\\ orientation\\,\\ and\\ is\\ depressed\\ \\(retracted\\)\\ only\\ through\\ a\\ small\\ range\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ avian\\ hind\\ limb\\ operates\\ as\\ an\\ inverted\\ pendulum\\ situated\\ just\\ anterior\\ to\\ the\\ pelvis\\,\\ and\\,\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ below\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ gravity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ The\\ teropod\\ locomotor\\ system\\ is\\ coordinated\\ across\\ the\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hind\\ and\\ forelimbs\\ move\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ birds\\,\\ the\\ locomotor\\ system\\ is\\ desegregated\\ into\\ separate\\ modules\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ serving\\ flight\\ and\\ terrestrial\\ activity\\ separately\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ The\\ Avian\\ Hand\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ The\\ manus\\ of\\ modern\\ avians\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ carpometacarpus\\ with\\ digits\\ II\\ and\\ IV\\ as\\ vestigial\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ distal\\ wing\\ skeleton\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ fused\\ metacarpals\\ II\\ and\\ III\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Archaeopteryx\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ this\\ modern\\ condition\\ is\\ barely\\ underway\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ manus\\ remains\\ long\\;\\ only\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ digits\\ show\\ evidence\\ of\\ basal\\ fusion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mammalian\\ Postcranial\\ Axial\\ Evolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Specifically\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ axis\\ and\\ atlas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mammals\\ acquired\\ features\\ to\\ promote\\ substantial\\ mobility\\ of\\ the\\ head\\ and\\ neck\\.\\ The\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ complex\\ undergoes\\ the\\ key\\ structural\\ and\\ functional\\ modification\\ necessary\\ to\\ increase\\ mobility\\ of\\ the\\ head\\ and\\ neck\\ in\\ synapsid\\ evolution\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ an\\ arrangement\\ in\\ pelycosaurs\\ that\\ substantially\\ restricts\\ independent\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ head\\,\\ mammals\\ derive\\ by\\ Late\\ Triassic\\ time\\ specializations\\ of\\ the\\ atlanto\\-occipital\\ and\\ altalto\\-axial\\ joints\\ that\\ provide\\ for\\ substantial\\ range\\ of\\ flexion\\-extension\\ and\\ rotation\\,\\ respecitively\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ pelycosaurs\\,\\ the\\ Atlas\\ \\(C1\\)\\ is\\ comprised\\ of\\ six\\ discrete\\ elements\\ that\\ interlock\\ the\\ occiput\\ and\\ axis\\ \\(C2\\)\\.An\\ intervening\\ notochordal\\ remnant\\ exists\\ between\\ the\\ rostral\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ atlantal\\ centrum\\ and\\ the\\ caudal\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ occipital\\ condyle\\.\\ \\ \\;Atlantal\\ arches\\ articulate\\ dorsally\\,\\ medially\\,\\ and\\ ventrally\\ with\\ the\\ occipital\\ condyle\\ \\(preventing\\ bending\\ the\\ head\\ backwards\\ or\\ downwards\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Rotation\\ is\\ also\\ restricted\\ by\\ the\\ overlap\\ of\\ postzygapophyses\\ of\\ the\\ atlantal\\ arch\\ with\\ the\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ laminae\\ of\\ the\\ axis\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ intervertebral\\ foramen\\ is\\ large\\ \\(equivalent\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ joints\\ of\\ C2\\-C3\\ and\\ C3\\-C4\\)\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ movements\\ were\\ no\\ greater\\ than\\ movements\\ between\\ other\\ cervical\\ vertebrae\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ mammals\\,\\ the\\ eight\\ bones\\ comprising\\ the\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ complex\\ in\\ pelycosaurs\\ are\\ fused\\ \\(and\\ lost\\)\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ only\\ two\\ bones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ atlas\\ and\\ axis\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ atlanto\\-occipital\\ joint\\ permits\\ flexion\\ and\\ extension\\ while\\ the\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ joint\\ permits\\ rotation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ mammals\\,\\ the\\ occipital\\ condyles\\ lie\\ along\\ the\\ lateral\\ sides\\ of\\ foramen\\ magnum\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ flexion\\ and\\ extension\\ on\\ an\\ axis\\ that\\ passes\\ through\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ spinal\\ medulla\\,\\ thus\\ minimizing\\ deformation\\ or\\ bending\\ of\\ the\\ medulla\\ during\\ head\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ evolutionary\\ transformation\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ cynodonts\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Procynosuchus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ mammalian\\ atlanto\\-axial\\ joints\\,\\ zygopophyses\\ are\\ lost\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ instability\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ head\\ \\(think\\:\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ keep\\ your\\ head\\ upright\\ without\\ bony\\ support\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ problem\\ is\\ solved\\ with\\ a\\ transverse\\ ligament\\ originating\\ in\\ the\\ atlas\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ligament\\ rests\\ on\\ the\\ dorsal\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ dens\\,\\ thus\\ preventing\\ flexion\\ but\\ allowing\\ rotation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amrita\\ Goyal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neural\\ crest\\ cells\\ \\(L1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Singularly\\ distinctive\\ developmental\\ attribute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ectodermal\\ neural\\ plate\\ transforms\\ into\\ neural\\ tube\\,\\ cells\\ at\\ the\\ crest\\ of\\ each\\ fold\\ migrate\\ laterally\\ across\\ embryo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Give\\ rise\\ to\\ uniquely\\ craniates\\ structure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Derivatives\\:\\ Branchiomeric\\ system\\,\\ dentine\\ and\\ alveolar\\ bone\\,\\ sensory\\ ganglia\\ of\\ cranial\\ nerves\\ V\\,\\ VII\\,\\ IX\\,\\ X\\,\\ pia\\ and\\ arachniod\\ meninges\\,\\ acoustic\\ and\\ vestibular\\ systems\\,\\ spinal\\ sensory\\ and\\ autonomic\\ ganglia\\,\\ melanocytes\\,\\ adrenal\\ medulla\\,\\ cardial\\ truncoconal\\ cushions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ostyichthys\\ spilts\\ in\\ to\\ Actinopterygii\\ and\\ Sarcopterygii\\ split\\ \\(L2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Division\\ of\\ osteichthys\\ into\\ actinopterygii\\ and\\ sarcopterygii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actinops\\=rayfinned\\,\\ Sarcops\\=fleshyfinned\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sarcops\\ have\\ muscle\\ in\\ fins\\,\\ actinops\\ do\\ not\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ primitively\\ have\\ heterocercal\\ tails\\,\\ only\\ \\ \\;saurops\\ have\\ epichordal\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ median\\ dorsal\\ fins\\ in\\ sarcops\\,\\ one\\ in\\ actinops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ notochord\\ with\\ well\\ ossified\\ large\\ vertebral\\ elements\\ in\\ sarcops\\,\\ small\\ not\\ well\\ ossified\\ in\\ actinops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actinops\\ have\\ huge\\ eyes\\,\\ sarcops\\ have\\ small\\ \\(but\\ have\\ pineal\\ foramen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labyrinthadont\\ tooth\\ in\\ sarcops\\&mdash\\;complex\\ infolding\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ lamellar\\ in\\ actinops\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lungs\\ in\\ many\\ sarcops\\ groups\\ are\\ accessory\\ organ\\ of\\ respiration\\,\\ while\\ in\\ most\\ actinops\\ hydrostatic\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actinops\\ have\\ ganoid\\ scales\\,\\ sarcops\\ have\\ cosmine\\,\\ even\\ though\\ both\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ same\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ mineralized\\ tissue\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jaws\\ \\(L3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Represents\\ adaptive\\ shift\\ to\\ predation\\ on\\ larger\\ organisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jaw\\ made\\ from\\ anteriomost\\ branchial\\ arch\\ skeleton\\&mdash\\;palatoquadrate\\ and\\ Meckel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cartilages\\ represent\\ elements\\ of\\ first\\ brancial\\ arch\\,\\ then\\ overlaid\\ by\\ dermal\\ bones\\ \\(pm\\,\\ m\\,\\ d\\,\\ pd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jaws\\ initially\\ involved\\ in\\ respiration\\,\\ then\\ developed\\ a\\ feeding\\ function\\ when\\ associated\\ with\\ dermal\\ bones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gnathostomes\\=jawed\\ vertebrates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ evidence\\ jaws\\ are\\ neomorphic\\ based\\ on\\ genetic\\ work\\;\\ homoebox\\ genes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lungs\\ \\(L3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ in\\ their\\ evolution\\ actinops\\ developed\\ lungs\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ richer\\ oxygen\\ concentration\\ in\\ the\\ air\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tetrapod\\ lungs\\ are\\ ventral\\ diverticulum\\ from\\ pharyngeal\\ foregut\\;\\ subsequent\\ birfurcation\\ yields\\ paired\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lungs\\ evolved\\ more\\ than\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Swim\\ bladders\\ in\\ actinops\\ originate\\ as\\ dorsal\\ diverticuli\\ in\\ esophagogastric\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physosstomatous\\ swim\\ bladders\\&mdash\\;open\\ connection\\ with\\ alimentary\\ canal\\ maintained\\,\\ which\\ lets\\ them\\ gulp\\ and\\ burp\\ air\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ swim\\ bladders\\ have\\ microvilli\\ and\\ are\\ respiratory\\,\\ some\\ are\\ not\\ and\\ are\\ used\\ for\\ buoyancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physoclistous\\ badders\\ are\\ separate\\ from\\ esophagous\\ and\\ gas\\ contents\\ regulated\\ via\\ countercurrent\\ exchange\\ with\\ blood\\ gasses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vertebrae\\ \\(L4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vertebrae\\ of\\ earliest\\ known\\ tetrapods\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ rhipidistians\\.\\ Centrum\\ composed\\ of\\ two\\ pairs\\ of\\ ossicles\\ around\\ large\\ notochord\\.\\ Anterior\\ pair\\ of\\ intercentra\\ are\\ cresentic\\ strips\\ apposed\\ to\\ the\\ notochord\\ laterally\\ and\\ ventrally\\ and\\ articulate\\ beneath\\ notochord\\.\\ Also\\,\\ pleurocentra\\ and\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ spine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acanthostega\\ develops\\ zygopophyses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ stages\\ of\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notochord\\&mdash\\;Formation\\ of\\ notochord\\,\\ flexible\\ for\\ with\\ thin\\ external\\ elastin\\ layer\\ and\\ thick\\ internal\\ densely\\ fibrous\\ layer\\,\\ and\\ inner\\ cellular\\ gelatinous\\ matrix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Addition\\ of\\ mineralized\\ tissues\\&mdash\\;intercentrum\\ and\\ pleurocentrum\\.\\ Dorsal\\ element\\,\\ neural\\ arch\\ and\\ spine\\,\\ provide\\ skeletal\\ protective\\ shell\\ over\\ spinal\\ cord\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ served\\ as\\ attachment\\ for\\ locomotor\\ musculature\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zygapophyses\\-\\-Due\\ to\\ gravitational\\ load\\,\\ need\\ to\\ reinforce\\ axial\\ skeleton\\ against\\ ventroflexion\\.\\ In\\ Ichthyostega\\,\\ vertebral\\ column\\ modified\\ ot\\ support\\ gravitational\\ load\\ of\\ trunk\\.\\ Also\\,\\ elongation\\ and\\ elaboration\\ of\\ ribs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synostosis\\&mdash\\;vertebral\\ body\\ components\\ \\(pleurocentra\\ and\\ intercentra\\)\\ fuse\\.\\ Notochord\\ persists\\ in\\ mammals\\ as\\ nucleus\\ pulposus\\ in\\ center\\ of\\ intervertebral\\ disc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dissociation\\ of\\ skull\\ from\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\&mdash\\;Neck\\!\\ \\(L5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ alterations\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ tetrapod\\ forelimbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ osteolipoforms\\,\\ opercular\\ and\\ supracleitheral\\ series\\ form\\ chain\\ of\\ dermal\\ plates\\ linking\\ cleithrum\\ with\\ dorsal\\ an\\ dlateral\\ parts\\ of\\ occuiput\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Ichthyostega\\ no\\ vestive\\ of\\ opercular\\ or\\ superclietheral\\ series\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cleithrum\\ remained\\ major\\ component\\ of\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\ of\\ early\\ tetrapods\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neck\\ is\\ useful\\ because\\ you\\ can\\ turn\\ your\\ head\\ to\\ eat\\ things\\&mdash\\;important\\ because\\ fish\\ in\\ water\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ neck\\ they\\ can\\ just\\ turn\\ their\\ whole\\ bodies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Sarah\\ Eggleston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OEB\\ 139\\ final\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ study\\ guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ convergence\\ in\\ Vertebrate\\ Evolution\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Edendulousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Birds\\ and\\ some\\ edentates\\ \\(such\\ as\\ turtles\\)\\ lost\\ all\\ teeth\\ but\\ had\\ common\\ ancestors\\ with\\ teeth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beaks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rhynchosaurs\\ and\\ rodents\\ both\\ have\\ a\\ similar\\ type\\ of\\ edentulous\\ process\\ on\\ the\\ premaxilla\\,\\ but\\ in\\ rhynchodonts\\ this\\ was\\ simply\\ a\\ premaxillary\\ process\\,\\ whereas\\ in\\ rodents\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ incisors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Birds\\ and\\ bats\\ developed\\ wings\\ independently\\ \\(see\\ details\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Single\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ euryapsids\\ and\\ synapsids\\ have\\ developed\\ a\\ single\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\,\\ but\\ euryapsids\\ lost\\ the\\ upper\\ temporal\\ fenestra\\ \\(evolved\\ from\\ diapsids\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\True\\ lungs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cladistia\\ \\(an\\ actinopterygian\\)\\ and\\ species\\ of\\ Teleostei\\ both\\ developed\\ true\\ lungs\\,\\ though\\ later\\ actinopterygians\\ lacked\\ true\\ lungs\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ convergent\\ in\\ these\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imbricated\\ ribs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ tetrapods\\ \\(such\\ as\\ tiktaalik\\)\\ and\\ burrowers\\ \\(including\\ anteaters\\)\\ both\\ had\\ imbricated\\ ribs\\ \\(see\\ details\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ appeared\\ in\\ osteostrachans\\ but\\ later\\ appeared\\ independently\\ in\\ acanthodians\\,\\ placoderms\\,\\ anapsids\\,\\ and\\ thelodonts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anapsids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ Paleozoic\\ groups\\ including\\ mesosaurs\\ were\\ anapsids\\;\\ turtles\\ are\\ also\\ anapsids\\,\\ and\\ assuming\\ they\\ evolved\\ from\\ diapsids\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ covergent\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tympanic\\ ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ appeared\\ in\\ millerosaurus\\,\\ but\\ cynodonts\\ developed\\ the\\ mammalian\\ inner\\ ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wings\\:\\ Birds\\,\\ bats\\,\\ and\\ pterosaurs\\ all\\ evolved\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ mobile\\ shoulder\\ joint\\ which\\ allowed\\ for\\ powered\\ flight\\.\\ However\\,\\ birds\\ developed\\ wings\\ that\\ involved\\ digits\\ III\\ and\\ IV\\ exclusively\\.\\ They\\ lost\\ the\\ other\\ digits\\ \\(digit\\ II\\ is\\ significantly\\ reduced\\)\\.\\ Bats\\ appear\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ similar\\ wing\\ structure\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ retained\\ digits\\ II\\ through\\ V\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ their\\ wings\\ are\\ a\\ synaptomorphy\\ of\\ that\\ family\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\&rsquo\\;\\ wings\\ were\\ supported\\ only\\ by\\ digit\\ IV\\;\\ pterosaurs\\ also\\ lacked\\ a\\ clavicle\\ which\\ is\\ found\\ in\\ both\\ birds\\ and\\ bats\\.\\ Pterosaurs\\ and\\ bats\\ both\\ developed\\ a\\ skin\\ wing\\ membrane\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ bird\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feathers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imbricated\\ ribs\\:\\ The\\ first\\ terrestrial\\ vertebrates\\ most\\ likely\\ had\\ imbricated\\,\\ or\\ overlapping\\,\\ ribs\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ internal\\ organs\\ against\\ gravity\\,\\ as\\ the\\ density\\ of\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ is\\ much\\ lower\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ therefore\\ provides\\ very\\ little\\ buoyant\\ force\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ bodies\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ tetrapods\\.\\ This\\ condition\\ disappeared\\ in\\ later\\ land\\-dwelling\\ animals\\ but\\ reappeared\\ in\\ burrowers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ anteaters\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ add\\ extra\\ skeletal\\ support\\ for\\ living\\ underground\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ no\\ buoyant\\ force\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ being\\ crushed\\ by\\ ground\\ collapsing\\ above\\.\\ Imbrication\\ was\\ not\\ as\\ significant\\ in\\ burrowers\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ much\\ less\\ robust\\ skeleton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ follows\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ the\\ fittest\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ properties\\ illustrated\\ above\\ are\\ highly\\ beneficial\\ in\\ some\\ respect\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ wings\\ allow\\ animals\\ to\\ fly\\ and\\ therefore\\ escape\\ predators\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ feed\\ on\\ other\\ organisms\\ more\\ easily\\.\\ Synaptomorphies\\ such\\ as\\ wings\\ evolved\\ in\\ several\\ different\\ species\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ helpful\\ trait\\ for\\ survival\\.\\ Other\\ properties\\ such\\ as\\ highly\\ ossified\\ crania\\ may\\ have\\ evolved\\ for\\ similar\\ but\\ different\\ reasons\\;\\ as\\ discussed\\ above\\,\\ the\\ first\\ terrestrial\\ vertebrates\\ had\\ to\\ contend\\ with\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ gravity\\ not\\ counteracted\\ by\\ a\\ buoyant\\ force\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ water\\.\\ Burrowers\\ such\\ as\\ snakes\\ must\\ protect\\ themselves\\ from\\ soil\\ collapsing\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ them\\.\\ While\\ the\\ highly\\ ossified\\ skull\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ families\\ is\\ ultimately\\ for\\ protection\\ of\\ their\\ internal\\ organs\\,\\ the\\ danger\\ presented\\ is\\ different\\ in\\ each\\ case\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robby\\ Kirkham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\ Think\\ of\\ 7\\ examples\\,\\ Do\\ 1\\ of\\ the\\ cases\\ in\\ detail\\,\\ and\\ do\\ conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chondrichthyans\\ added\\ calcified\\ cartilage\\ and\\ osteichthyans\\ added\\ bone\\ to\\ the\\ notocord\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ vertebral\\ column\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Both\\ early\\ forms\\ of\\ amphibians\\,\\ temnospondyls\\ and\\ anthracosaurs\\,\\ evolved\\ a\\ single\\,\\ unitary\\ vertebral\\ centrum\\ \\(the\\ temnospondyls\\ through\\ the\\ intercentrum\\ and\\ the\\ anthracosaurs\\ through\\ the\\ pleurocentrum\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\osteostracans\\ \\(boney\\ armored\\ jawless\\ fish\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ acanthodians\\ \\(\\"\\;spiny\\ sharks\\"\\;\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ placoderms\\ \\(boney\\ armored\\ jawed\\ fish\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ anaspids\\ \\(precursor\\ to\\ lamprey\\ from\\ silurian\\/devonian\\)\\,\\ and\\ thelodonts\\ \\(ordovician\\-devonian\\)\\ all\\ evolved\\ fins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myrmecophagidae\\ and\\ Tiktaalik\\ have\\ imbricating\\ ribs\\ for\\ thoracolumbar\\ rigidity\\ and\\ axial\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reduction\\ or\\ complete\\ loss\\ of\\ lungs\\ in\\ one\\ species\\ of\\ caecilian\\ \\(Atretochoana\\)\\,\\ a\\ species\\ of\\ frog\\ \\(telmatobius\\)\\ and\\ multiple\\ species\\ of\\ salamanders\\ \\(Crptobranchidae\\,\\ Hynobiidae\\,\\ Plethodontidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carnivorous\\ lifestyle\\,\\ especially\\ teeth\\ and\\ jaw\\ mechanism\\ in\\ the\\ Marsupial\\ Tazmanian\\ Tiger\\ and\\ Eutherian\\ Canines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Detail\\:\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Tiktaalik\\,\\ mudskipers\\,\\ frogs\\,\\ crocodilians\\,\\ and\\ hippopotamuses\\ have\\ raised\\ orbits\\.\\ This\\ feature\\ has\\ evolved\\ numerous\\ times\\ in\\ amphibious\\ taxon\\ to\\ help\\ see\\ above\\ water\\,\\ such\\ as\\ crocodilians\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ capture\\ prey\\.\\ This\\ is\\ evidence\\ of\\ Tiktaalik\\&\\#39\\;s\\ shallow\\ water\\ lifestyle\\ and\\ likely\\ movement\\ onto\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arjun\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Seven\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Horny\\ beak\\&mdash\\;has\\ developed\\ independently\\ in\\ turtles\\,\\ some\\ ornithischian\\ dinosaurs\\,\\ and\\ anomodonts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crocodylian\\ features\\&mdash\\;seen\\ in\\ both\\ Crocodylia\\ and\\ phytosaurs\\ \\(elongate\\,\\ narrow\\ skull\\;\\ elevated\\ postorbital\\ table\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Placodonts\\ vs\\.\\ synapsids\\ \\(especially\\ mammals\\)\\&mdash\\;extreme\\ similarities\\ in\\ the\\ coronoid\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ dentary\\,\\ which\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ attachment\\ site\\ and\\ lever\\ for\\ adductor\\ mandibulae\\ musculature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ichthyosaurs\\ vs\\.\\ tuna\\&mdash\\;extremely\\ similar\\ body\\ configuration\\,\\ with\\ pronounced\\ dorsal\\ fin\\ and\\ lunate\\ tail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sphenodontids\\ vs\\.\\ archosaurs\\ and\\ mammals\\&mdash\\;puboischiadic\\ plate\\ is\\ fenestrated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Limblessness\\&mdash\\;convergent\\ evolution\\ that\\ has\\ occurred\\ at\\ least\\ 62\\ independent\\ times\\ among\\ squamates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ceratopsians\\ vs\\.\\ hadrosaurs\\&mdash\\;tooth\\ batteries\\ in\\ which\\ several\\ generations\\ of\\ teeth\\ erupt\\ simultaneously\\,\\ providing\\ a\\ continuous\\ and\\ aligned\\ shearing\\ mechanism\\ \\(difference\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ hadrosaurs\\,\\ the\\ dental\\ battery\\ creates\\ a\\ crushing\\ and\\ grinding\\ pavement\\,\\ while\\ in\\ ceratopsians\\,\\ the\\ dental\\ battery\\ is\\ for\\ shearing\\ only\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pterosaurs\\ vs\\.\\ birds\\ vs\\.\\ bats\\&mdash\\;all\\ have\\ evolved\\ a\\ mobile\\ shoulder\\ girdle\\ \\(birds\\ and\\ pterosaurs\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ their\\ possession\\ of\\ a\\ plate\\-like\\,\\ keeled\\ sternum\\,\\ an\\ elongate\\ coracoids\\,\\ and\\ an\\ mobile\\ coracosternal\\ joint\\;\\ pterosaurs\\ and\\ bats\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ thin\\-skinned\\ wing\\ membrane\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edaphosaurids\\ vs\\.\\ sphenacodontids\\&mdash\\;similar\\ fan\\-shaped\\ tail\\ supported\\ by\\ greatly\\ elongated\\ neural\\ spines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myrmecobiidae\\ vs\\.\\ myremcophagids\\&mdash\\;convergence\\ on\\ ant\\-eating\\ morphology\\;\\ a\\ protracted\\ snout\\ and\\ a\\ long\\,\\ narrow\\ tongue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notoryctidae\\ vs\\.\\ moles\\&mdash\\;they\\ both\\ share\\ a\\ broad\\,\\ cornified\\ nasal\\ shield\\ for\\ digging\\ and\\ have\\ lost\\ the\\ pinnae\\ of\\ the\\ ears\\;\\ the\\ eyes\\ lack\\ lens\\ and\\ are\\ covered\\ by\\ skin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ in\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thylacinidae\\ vs\\.\\ canids\\&mdash\\;Thylacine\\ resembles\\ wolves\\ in\\ cranial\\ structure\\ and\\ digitigrades\\ posture\\ of\\ the\\ limbs\\.\\ There\\ are\\ important\\ differences\\,\\ however\\.\\ The\\ limbs\\ in\\ thylacinidae\\ are\\ relatively\\ shorter\\ than\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ canids\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ the\\ thylacines\\ were\\ less\\ cursorial\\ than\\ the\\ canids\\.\\ They\\ also\\ differ\\ in\\ dental\\ formula\\,\\ with\\ thylacines\\ having\\ the\\ postcanine\\ dental\\ formula\\ P3M4\\ \\(typical\\ of\\ marsupials\\)\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ P4\\/M3\\ in\\ canids\\.\\ The\\ thylacines\\ also\\ lack\\ carnassial\\ teeth\\ and\\ posses\\ palatial\\ vacuities\\ which\\ are\\ absent\\ in\\ wolves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\ convergence\\ is\\ so\\ common\\ because\\ it\\ results\\ from\\ separate\\ lineages\\ hitting\\ upon\\ the\\ same\\ ideal\\ solution\\ to\\ a\\ problem\\ commonly\\ seen\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ Animals\\ may\\ develop\\ the\\ same\\ manner\\ of\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ ecological\\ problem\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ swim\\ efficiently\\ through\\ water\\ may\\ yield\\ certain\\ adaptations\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ wide\\ tail\\ and\\ fins\\)\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ solutions\\ to\\ swimmingly\\ effectively\\.\\ These\\ solutions\\ will\\ be\\ favored\\ by\\ natural\\ selection\\ and\\ thus\\ recur\\ in\\ distinct\\ lineages\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ same\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ wings\\,\\ which\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ all\\ fliers\\.\\ The\\ raw\\ material\\ for\\ convergent\\ evolution\\ can\\ arise\\ from\\ random\\ mutation\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ certain\\ adaptations\\ that\\ are\\ favored\\,\\ culminating\\ in\\ similar\\ structures\\.\\ Ontogeny\\ may\\ also\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ process\\.\\ Organisms\\ that\\ better\\ adapt\\ to\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ their\\ lifetime\\ may\\ be\\ favored\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ propagation\\ of\\ those\\ traits\\ throughout\\ the\\ population\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ trait\\ that\\ is\\ usually\\ common\\ in\\ convergent\\ evolution\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ answer\\ to\\ a\\ given\\ challenge\\,\\ the\\ trait\\ will\\ therefore\\ be\\ common\\ across\\ several\\ separate\\ lineages\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multiple\\ Choice\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emily\\ Wooton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\26\\.\\ c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clara\\ Kim\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ d\\2\\ c\\3\\ b\\4\\ a\\5\\ c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\ c\\32\\ a\\33\\ d\\34\\ b\\35\\ c\\36\\ b\\37\\ c\\38\\ c\\39\\ d\\40\\ b\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dan\\ Oleary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ D\\2\\.\\ C\\3\\.\\ B\\4\\.\\ A\\5\\.\\ C\\6\\.\\ D\\7\\.\\ C\\8\\.\\ C\\9\\.\\ D\\10\\.\\ A\\11\\.\\ E\\12\\.\\ D\\13\\.\\ A\\14\\.\\ C\\15\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sha\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(maybe\\)\\ C\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;number\\ 26\\ \\-\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\)\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\.\\ B\\ \\(I\\ think\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\.\\ C\\ \\(I\\ think\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ lacking\\ the\\ review\\ notes\\ for\\ this\\ lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jenny\\ Luo\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ blue\\ color\\ denotes\\ that\\ I\\ am\\ absolutely\\ positive\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ right\\ answer\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ black\\ denotes\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ right\\ answer\\.\\ Sources\\ as\\ labeled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;sarcopterygian\\ fishes\\,\\ tetrapod\\ origins\\,\\ and\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ vertebral\\ column\\&rdquo\\;\\ summary\\ p\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fish\\ Fin\\-Tetrapod\\ Limb\\ Transition\\&rdquo\\;\\ summary\\ p\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Amphibian\\ Evolution\\+the\\ Lissamphibian\\ Problem\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ A\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Amniote\\ Origins\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 7\\,\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ E\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Amniote\\ Origins\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ D\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sphenodontids\\,\\ Squamates\\,\\+Chelonians\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ A\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sphenodontids\\,\\ Squamates\\,\\+Chelonians\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ A\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\ A\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Saurischian\\ Dinosaurs\\:\\ Sauropodomorphs\\+Therapods\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ p\\.\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.\\ D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.\\ C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\ D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joy\\ Zheng\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\ D\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pterosaurs\\&rsquo\\;\\ wing\\ is\\ from\\ digit\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\ B\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\ A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\.\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\32\\.\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\.\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\.\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tom\\ Southworth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#36\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ following\\ suite\\ of\\ distinctive\\ features\\ characterizes\\ living\\ members\\ of\\ which\\ order\\ of\\ mammals\\:\\ pairs\\ of\\ upper\\ and\\ lower\\ teeth\\ erupt\\ sequentially\\ over\\ the\\ lifetime\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ are\\ shed\\ when\\ the\\ crowns\\ are\\ worn\\ out\\;\\ cranial\\ sinuses\\ are\\ extensively\\ developed\\;\\ upper\\ lateral\\ incisors\\ are\\ greatly\\ enlarged\\ and\\ elongated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Edentada\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Proboscidea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ Creodonta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ Cetacea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ b\\)\\ Proboscidea\\ \\(Elephants\\ and\\ related\\ species\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ you\\ see\\ this\\ question\\,\\ just\\ remember\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ and\\ elongated\\&rdquo\\;\\ upper\\ incisors\\ are\\ the\\ tusks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#37\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ North\\ American\\ mammals\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;have\\ a\\ South\\ American\\ ancestry\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;derived\\ from\\ South\\ America\\ during\\ the\\ Plio\\-Pleistocene\\ Interamerican\\ Faunal\\ Exchange\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nine\\ banded\\ armadillo\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dasypus\\ novemcinctus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virginia\\ Opposum\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Didelphis\\ virginiana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raccoon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Procyon\\ lotor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Glyptodontid\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Glyptotherium\\ arizonae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ c\\)\\ Raccoon\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ page\\ 10\\ of\\ Professor\\ Jenkins\\&rsquo\\;\\ notes\\ from\\ 12\\/01\\/08\\,\\ where\\ he\\ lists\\ the\\ other\\ three\\ as\\ having\\ made\\ the\\ intercontinental\\ migration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#38\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ North\\ American\\ mammals\\ entered\\ South\\ America\\ suring\\ the\\ Plio\\-Pleistocene\\ Interamerican\\ Faunal\\ Exchange\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ survive\\ there\\ today\\,\\ EXCEPT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tapirs\\ \\(Tapiridae\\)\\ and\\ deer\\ \\(Cervidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bears\\ \\(Ursidae\\)\\ and\\ dogs\\ \\(Canidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Horses\\ \\(Equidae\\)\\ and\\ elephants\\ \\(Proboscidea\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Llamas\\ \\(Camelidae\\)\\ and\\ cats\\ \\(Felidae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ c\\)\\ Horses\\ and\\ elephants\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ page\\ 10\\ of\\ Professor\\ Jenkins\\&rsquo\\;\\ notes\\ from\\ 12\\/01\\/08\\,\\ where\\ he\\ lists\\ these\\ two\\ as\\ having\\ become\\ extinct\\ in\\ South\\ America\\ after\\ their\\ intercontinental\\ migration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#39\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Oldest\\ known\\ hominin\\ skull\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sahelanthropus\\ tchadensis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Late\\ Miocene\\ of\\ Chad\\ \\(6\\-7\\ mya\\)\\,\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chimpanzee\\-like\\ features\\:\\ small\\ brain\\ size\\ \\(350\\ cc\\)\\ and\\ large\\ incisors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hominin\\-like\\ features\\:\\ small\\ canines\\,\\ short\\ snout\\ and\\ a\\ browridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ventrally\\ directed\\ occiput\\ and\\ foramen\\ magnum\\,\\ which\\ are\\ indicators\\ of\\ upright\\ posture\\ and\\ bipedalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ the\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ d\\)\\ All\\ of\\ the\\ above\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ page\\ 6\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Human\\ Evolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#40\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ taxa\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\least\\ likely\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ be\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ pathway\\ that\\ gave\\ rise\\ to\\ modern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Homo\\ sapiens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Homo\\ habilis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Australopithecus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Paranthropus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;robustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Australopithecus\\ afarensis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homo\\ ergaster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correct\\ answer\\ is\\ b\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Australopithecus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Paranthropus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\robustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ the\\ proposed\\ evolutionary\\ tree\\ on\\ the\\ last\\ page\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Human\\ Evolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ lecture\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 39, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Compiled_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Encounters - Final Review", "tags": ["harvard", "us-and-the-world", "american-encounters"], "text": null, "id": 55, "html": "\\\\\\HAA17y\\_American\\_Encounters\\_\\-\\_Final\\_Rdg\\_Summaries\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c32\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:3\\.6pt\\;margin\\-left\\:32\\.4pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c16\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c17\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:14\\.4pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c30\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\:\\ \\ \\;NATIVE\\ AMERICAN\\ ART\\ AND\\ AUTHENTICITY\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Northwest\\ Coast\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ Janet\\ Berlo\\ and\\ Ruth\\ Phillips\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ quite\\ long\\,\\ I\\ know\\,\\ and\\ the\\ article\\ was\\ as\\ well\\.\\ I\\ would\\ suggest\\ skimming\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ pages\\ and\\ reading\\ the\\ last\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ this\\ article\\ is\\ extremely\\ conscientious\\ about\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ anthropology\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ careful\\ not\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ Western\\ Classical\\ anthropological\\ tradition\\ or\\ to\\ imply\\ any\\ Western\\-centric\\ biases\\ in\\ its\\ discussion\\ of\\ artwork\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ begins\\ by\\ contemplating\\ Bill\\ Reid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1983\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Raven\\ and\\ the\\ First\\ Man\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ modern\\ Haida\\ sculpture\\ as\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;two\\ key\\ aspects\\ of\\ Northwest\\ Coast\\ world\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ view\\ and\\ art\\,\\ a\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ paradoxical\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ condition\\,\\ and\\ an\\ awareness\\ of\\ possibilities\\ for\\ the\\ transformation\\ hidden\\ within\\ the\\ mundane\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(173\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ the\\ northern\\ and\\ central\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ northwest\\ coast\\ have\\ long\\ been\\ producing\\ art\\,\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ recently\\ that\\ the\\ narrative\\ element\\ of\\ these\\ crests\\,\\ displayed\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\potlatches\\ \\(ritual\\ celebrations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;have\\ been\\ regarded\\ as\\ narrative\\ family\\ histories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Northwest\\ Coast\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ narrow\\ strip\\ of\\ land\\ 1\\,500\\ feet\\ long\\ that\\ extends\\ from\\ Southern\\ Alaska\\ to\\ the\\ Oregon\\-California\\ Border\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-isolated\\ geography\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;coherence\\ in\\ artistic\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-yet\\ rivers\\ allow\\ for\\ some\\ trade\\ and\\ cultural\\ exchange\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-ancestors\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ people\\ have\\ been\\ living\\ there\\ for\\ at\\ least\\ 5\\,000\\ years\\ \\(note\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ rather\\ anthropological\\ fact\\,\\ making\\ this\\ article\\ different\\ from\\ one\\ you\\&rsquo\\;d\\ read\\ about\\ Copley\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ would\\ never\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;Copley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ancestors\\ arrived\\ 100\\ years\\ before\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-European\\ contact\\ late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\ \\;Densely\\ populated\\.\\ Subsistence\\ on\\ fishing\\,\\ hunting\\ and\\ gathering\\,\\ esp\\ salmon\\.\\ \\ \\;Hunted\\ wales\\.\\ \\ \\;Shredded\\ cedar\\ bark\\ used\\ for\\ clothing\\ \\(I\\ just\\ thought\\ this\\ was\\ cool\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-many\\ language\\ groups\\,\\ suggesting\\ movement\\ into\\ the\\ region\\ from\\ different\\ times\\ and\\ places\\.\\ \\ \\;Recognizing\\ many\\ language\\ groups\\ also\\ helps\\ to\\ track\\ artistic\\ traditions\\ pre\\-contact\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Northern\\ region\\ \\(the\\ Tlingit\\,\\ The\\ Haida\\,\\ the\\ Tsimshian\\,\\ the\\ Nisgas\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ crests\\ used\\ in\\ ceremonial\\ masquerades\\ and\\ theatrical\\ performances\\ during\\ winter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Potlatches\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ the\\ ceremonies\\ in\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ origin\\ stories\\ of\\ family\\ prerogatives\\ are\\ re\\-enacted\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(178\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Southern\\ region\\ \\=\\ less\\ involved\\ in\\ ceremonials\\ because\\ of\\ more\\ contact\\ with\\ other\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\History\\ of\\ the\\ Art\\ Work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Earliest\\ examples\\ date\\ back\\ to\\ 4\\,500\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ \\ \\;Evidence\\ of\\ potlatch\\-like\\ feats\\ and\\ lip\\ ornaments\\ showing\\ social\\ systems\\ marked\\ by\\ clear\\ distinctions\\ of\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\early\\ stone\\ carvings\\ resemble\\ those\\ we\\ now\\ see\\ in\\ wood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Best\\ site\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ozette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ Olympic\\ Peninsula\\.\\ \\ \\;Mudslide\\ covered\\ town\\ with\\ clay\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;preserving\\ artwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1\\,000\\ BCE\\,\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ stylistic\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;historic\\&rdquo\\;\\ period\\ that\\ we\\ now\\ see\\ \\(the\\ naturalism\\ esp\\)\\ were\\ in\\ place\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;Early\\ Contact\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Oldest\\ pieces\\ collected\\ by\\ European\\ explorers\\ or\\ traders\\ in\\ sea\\ otter\\ pelts\\.\\ \\ \\;Captain\\ James\\ Cook\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparison\\ with\\ later\\ pieces\\ shows\\ great\\ continuity\\ in\\ artistic\\ represention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Between\\ contact\\ \\(1780s\\)\\ and\\ 1900\\,\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ died\\ from\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\ contact\\ also\\ allowed\\ art\\ to\\ flourish\\.\\ The\\ increased\\ marriages\\,\\ \\ \\;larger\\ consumer\\ base\\ of\\ explorers\\ and\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ metal\\ \\(for\\ tools\\)\\,\\ dyes\\,\\ fabrics\\ etc\\ from\\ European\\ trade\\ allowed\\ for\\ larger\\ carvings\\ and\\ innovations\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ production\\ of\\ objects\\ expressly\\ designed\\ for\\ sale\\ to\\ travellers\\ and\\ tourists\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(183\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Style\\ and\\ Techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ in\\ the\\ 1800s\\,\\ explorers\\ were\\ impressed\\ with\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Partly\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ Western\\ Medium\\ \\(sculpture\\ and\\ painting\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ stylized\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ representation\\ has\\ been\\ of\\ interest\\ to\\ Western\\ connoisseurs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\formline\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;style\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ determined\\ by\\ Bill\\ Holm\\ has\\ been\\ the\\ most\\ widely\\ discussed\\ compositional\\ technique\\ of\\ the\\ region\\ for\\ ethnocentric\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\He\\ identified\\ the\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Counterfigurative\\ method\\ of\\ representation\\:\\ human\\ or\\ figure\\ in\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expansive\\:\\ in\\ which\\ some\\ body\\ parts\\ omitted\\ or\\ redistributed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distributive\\:\\ radical\\ rearrangement\\ of\\ the\\ features\\ and\\ limbs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ forms\\:\\ U\\-forms\\,\\ ovoids\\ and\\ formlines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;Definition\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\formline\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;primary\\ form\\ line\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ sketched\\ on\\ the\\ design\\ field\\ before\\ more\\ intricate\\ design\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\main\\ design\\ units\\ emerge\\ as\\ a\\ continuous\\ flowing\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ line\\ lies\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ plane\\ and\\ is\\ almost\\ always\\ painted\\ black\\ in\\ two\\-dimensional\\ compositions\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(184\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Within\\ the\\ formline\\,\\ the\\ artist\\ then\\ fills\\ in\\ with\\ other\\,\\ geometric\\ designs\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ if\\ the\\ artist\\ was\\ creating\\ a\\ three\\-dimensional\\ object\\,\\ they\\ would\\ first\\ imagine\\ it\\ in\\ 2\\-D\\ form\\ and\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrap\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ formlined\\ design\\ around\\ the\\ 3\\-D\\ object\\ \\(see\\ p\\.\\ 185\\ for\\ a\\ good\\ visual\\ of\\ this\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ style\\ allows\\ for\\ subtle\\ variations\\ by\\ filling\\ in\\ the\\ designs\\ inside\\ the\\ formline\\ with\\ slightly\\ off\\-center\\ designs\\,\\ by\\ using\\ two\\ different\\,\\ overlapping\\ images\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\use\\ visual\\ deception\\ within\\ these\\ forms\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;mythic\\ processes\\ of\\ transformation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\,\\ this\\ style\\,\\ characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Haid\\ and\\ Tlingit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\people\\ was\\ taken\\ up\\ by\\ Southern\\ tribs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Western\\ Connoisseurship\\ and\\ Northwest\\ Coast\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bias\\ towards\\ one\\ form\\ of\\ art\\ because\\ it\\ resembles\\ Western\\ styles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scholarship\\ throughout\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ Northern\\,\\ formline\\ style\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ highly\\ developed\\,\\ mostly\\ because\\ it\\ coincided\\ with\\ the\\ Western\\ aesthetic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gendered\\ bias\\ towards\\ the\\ media\\ of\\ sculpture\\ and\\ painting\\ in\\ classifying\\ art\\ of\\ the\\ Northwest\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ importance\\ of\\ textile\\ arts\\ in\\ the\\ Southern\\ regions\\ overlooked\\ b\\/c\\ that\\ media\\ not\\ as\\ respected\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Must\\ remember\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ distinctive\\ historical\\ exchanges\\ that\\ have\\ ocurred\\ over\\ time\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ area\\ and\\ also\\&hellip\\;the\\ contexts\\ of\\ expression\\ that\\ are\\ important\\ in\\ that\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shamanism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\(def\\)\\ system\\ of\\ religious\\ practice\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ individual\\ enters\\ into\\ a\\ trance\\ state\\ to\\ contact\\ other\\-than\\-human\\ spirits\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Straits\\ Salish\\ tribe\\,\\ visual\\ objects\\ are\\ used\\ as\\ secondary\\ to\\ the\\ singing\\ etc\\ that\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ spiritual\\ rituals\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ objects\\ are\\ often\\ discarded\\ after\\ the\\ ceremony\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ spiritual\\ power\\ they\\ contain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Shamans\\ in\\ the\\ Tlingit\\ tribe\\ had\\ the\\ most\\ ornately\\ decorated\\ regalia\\,\\ masks\\,\\ amulets\\ and\\ rattles\\ depicting\\ the\\ powers\\ that\\ the\\ Shaman\\ was\\ capable\\ of\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\these\\ objects\\ usually\\ buried\\ and\\ burned\\ after\\ the\\ ritual\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ spiritual\\ content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\existing\\ objects\\ are\\ evidence\\ of\\ unauthorized\\ removal\\ from\\ graces\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ of\\ the\\ iconography\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\because\\ the\\ Shaman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ of\\ seeing\\ was\\ translated\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ well\\,\\ the\\ iconography\\ of\\ enlarged\\ eyes\\ entered\\ rockart\\ and\\ masks\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crest\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ well\\-known\\ representation\\ of\\ family\\ identity\\ and\\ status\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ coats\\ of\\ arms\\ of\\ European\\ aristocratic\\ families\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ crests\\ appear\\ on\\ canoes\\,\\ on\\ many\\ objects\\ belonging\\ to\\ the\\ family\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\totem\\ pole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ tall\\ pillar\\ of\\ cedar\\,\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ known\\ and\\ most\\ dramatic\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ can\\ be\\ inside\\ the\\ house\\,\\ outside\\ for\\ welcome\\,\\ memorial\\ or\\ commerative\\ \\(placed\\ at\\ an\\ important\\ spot\\)\\,\\ or\\ mortuary\\ poles\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helpful\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ spiritual\\ narratives\\ that\\ these\\ poles\\ retell\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ one\\ level\\,\\ the\\ crest\\ explains\\ how\\ all\\ these\\ things\\ \\[possessions\\,\\ names\\,\\ titles\\,\\ homes\\ stories\\,\\ songs\\ and\\ dances\\]\\ were\\ initially\\ bestowed\\ by\\ non\\-human\\ beings\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ when\\ humans\\ and\\ animals\\ could\\ more\\ easily\\ pass\\ in\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ domains\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ stories\\ often\\ celebrate\\ the\\ daring\\ and\\ courage\\ of\\ an\\ ancestor\\ who\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ other\\ domain\\ and\\ bring\\ home\\ rewards\\ still\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ descendents\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ depict\\ these\\ encounters\\,\\ artists\\ use\\ devices\\ such\\ as\\ visual\\ punning\\ and\\ split\\ represenation\\ to\\ give\\ concrete\\ form\\ to\\ the\\ notions\\ of\\ transformation\\,\\ fluidity\\,\\ and\\ doubled\\ reality\\ that\\ characterize\\ primordial\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(195\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ detailed\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ pole\\ commemorating\\ the\\ Dog\\ Salmon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Digression\\ into\\ how\\ a\\ house\\ in\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Coast\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ architectural\\,\\ sculptural\\,\\ and\\ painterly\\ manifestation\\ of\\ its\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ house\\ also\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ has\\ a\\ history\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ its\\ specific\\ renderings\\ arise\\ from\\ the\\ visual\\ experience\\ of\\ particular\\ times\\ and\\ places\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(197\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ poles\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ removed\\.\\ \\ \\;Due\\ to\\ floods\\,\\ some\\ poles\\ were\\ washed\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\ and\\ new\\ poles\\ ceased\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ poles\\ have\\ been\\ removed\\ to\\ safer\\,\\ tourist\\-accessible\\ locations\\,\\ which\\ has\\ served\\ to\\ secure\\ this\\ visual\\ memory\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ removes\\ the\\ poles\\ from\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ system\\ that\\ they\\ symbolize\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Potlatch\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wealthy\\ families\\ hold\\ feasts\\ during\\ which\\ they\\ display\\ and\\ retell\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ their\\ crests\\ \\(while\\ giving\\ away\\ generous\\ gifts\\ to\\ guests\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Carved\\ masks\\,\\ puppets\\,\\ props\\ and\\ dance\\ screens\\ used\\ to\\ tell\\ crest\\ stories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ masquerading\\ the\\ themes\\ of\\ spirit\\ possession\\,\\ transformation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ domestication\\ of\\ power\\ acquired\\ from\\ the\\ spirit\\ world\\ are\\ given\\ a\\ new\\ temporal\\ and\\ spatial\\ reality\\,\\ adding\\ further\\ kinetic\\ and\\ dramatic\\ dimensions\\ to\\ the\\ painterly\\ and\\ sculptural\\ techniques\\ of\\ representation\\ already\\ described\\ \\(200\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wealth\\-givers\\ are\\ often\\ represented\\ in\\ their\\ spiritual\\ form\\,\\ especially\\ at\\ potlatches\\ held\\ for\\ marriages\\ and\\ funerals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\,\\ Missionaries\\ and\\ the\\ Canadian\\ government\\ censured\\ the\\ potlatch\\ ceremony\\ as\\ an\\ apparent\\ wasting\\ of\\ wealth\\ \\(the\\ Candadian\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ outlawed\\ the\\ ceremonies\\ in\\ 1885\\)\\ and\\ thus\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ system\\ that\\ guaranteed\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ indigenous\\ political\\ authority\\,\\ oral\\ history\\,\\ and\\ traditional\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(201\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ ban\\ on\\ potlatches\\ not\\ dropped\\ until\\ 1951\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ remarkable\\ reassertion\\ of\\ this\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Art\\,\\ Commodity\\ and\\ Oral\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ story\\ of\\ Haida\\ art\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ threat\\ to\\ artistic\\ heritage\\ posed\\ by\\ Western\\ traditions\\,\\ but\\ the\\ continuity\\ of\\ these\\ traditions\\ through\\ tourist\\ art\\ and\\ curios\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ recognized\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Haidas\\,\\ living\\ on\\ the\\ Queen\\ Charlotte\\ islands\\ were\\ decimated\\ by\\ smallpox\\ in\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\ they\\ had\\ discovered\\ a\\ tourist\\-friendly\\,\\ easy\\ stone\\ for\\ their\\ art\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\argillite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\soft\\ material\\ produced\\ in\\ quarries\\ on\\ Queen\\ Charlotte\\ islands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ from\\ black\\ carbonaceous\\ shale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Used\\ by\\ Haida\\ not\\ for\\ everyday\\ use\\ \\(b\\/c\\ so\\ soft\\ and\\ brittle\\)\\ but\\ for\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ceremonial\\ pipes\\ \\(began\\ in\\ 1820s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lip\\ plug\\ \\(pre\\-contact\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inspired\\ by\\ sailors\\&rsquo\\;\\ pipes\\,\\ European\\ decorative\\ traditions\\,\\ sailor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scrimshaw\\,\\ the\\ Haida\\ added\\ surprising\\ elements\\ into\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\panel\\ pipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1860s\\,\\ post\\ smallpox\\,\\ oral\\ traditions\\ and\\ designs\\ usually\\ for\\ totem\\ poles\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bear\\ mother\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;appeared\\ on\\ argillite\\ carvings\\.\\ \\ \\;Made\\ miniature\\ totem\\ poles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ arts\\ were\\ avidly\\ collected\\ by\\ tourists\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ prominent\\ carver\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Charles\\ Edenshaw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Northwest\\ Coast\\ Art\\ in\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Revival\\ of\\ carving\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ under\\ Mungo\\ Martin\\,\\ commissioned\\ by\\ Canadian\\ museums\\.\\ \\ \\;Trained\\ Bill\\ Reid\\ \\(first\\ person\\ mentioned\\ in\\ this\\ article\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reemergence\\ of\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ ritual\\ celebration\\ \\(potlatch\\)\\ and\\ the\\ artform\\ \\(crests\\)\\ openly\\ after\\ the\\ 1951\\ revocation\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ vs\\.\\ potlatches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ relationship\\ between\\ non\\-Native\\ patrons\\ and\\ native\\ artists\\ mean\\ that\\ sometimes\\ family\\ histories\\ are\\ invoked\\ in\\ art\\,\\ other\\ times\\,\\ it\\ is\\ purely\\ for\\ sale\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gender\\ roles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ artists\\ have\\ also\\ taken\\ an\\ interesting\\ shift\\:\\ Earlier\\ in\\ the\\ century\\,\\ men\\ painted\\ and\\ sculpted\\ and\\ women\\ wove\\ and\\ sewed\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ women\\ are\\ taking\\ up\\ the\\ sculpting\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\:\\ \\ \\;ROMANTIC\\ UNCERTAINTIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Body\\ of\\ Raphaelle\\ Peale\\:\\ Still\\ Life\\ and\\ Selfhood\\ 1812\\-1824\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Alexander\\ Nemerov\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nemerov\\ explores\\ the\\ different\\ themes\\ throughout\\ Raphaelle\\ Peale\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raphaelle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ is\\ prominently\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ still\\ life\\ paintings\\ \\(exhibited\\ around\\ 100\\)\\ depicting\\ objects\\ such\\ as\\ fruit\\,\\ vegetables\\,\\ meat\\ \\(on\\ the\\ imageBase\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sill\\ Life\\ with\\ Strawberries\\ and\\ Ostrich\\ Egg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cup\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1814\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cutlet\\ and\\ Vegetables\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1816\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controversial\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ paintings\\ and\\ the\\ strange\\ and\\ salient\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uncanny\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sense\\ \\(familiar\\ made\\ unfamiliar\\)\\ haunts\\ the\\ rationality\\ of\\ a\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phenomenological\\ \\(projection\\ of\\ our\\ bodies\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ world\\,\\ intertwined\\ with\\ philosophy\\)\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Still\\ life\\ reflects\\ qualities\\ of\\ density\\ and\\ sometimes\\ echoes\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ through\\ their\\ physical\\ presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ Raphaelle\\ projecting\\ himself\\ into\\ the\\ paintings\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ Raphaelle\\ rebelling\\ against\\ his\\ father\\ \\(Charles\\ Willson\\ Peale\\)\\ through\\ visual\\ imagery\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nemerov\\ presents\\ a\\ new\\ reading\\ on\\ Raphaelle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ images\\ are\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ a\\ still\\ life\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ are\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideals\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Artist\\ in\\ His\\ Museum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ a\\ scientific\\ showmanship\\ quality\\ and\\ creates\\ a\\ tension\\ suggesting\\ a\\ radical\\ divergence\\,\\ the\\ idealized\\ Jeffersonian\\ man\\,\\ Charles\\ Willson\\ Peale\\ urged\\ Raphaelle\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;act\\ the\\ Man\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ are\\ also\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ politics\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ virtue\\ and\\ liberty\\ were\\ becoming\\ public\\ notions\\ and\\ republicanism\\ became\\ synonymous\\ with\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animate\\ qualities\\ of\\ images\\ signal\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\&rsquo\\;s\\ projective\\ imaginative\\ \\(associated\\ with\\ childish\\ behavior\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ imagined\\ in\\ Raphaelle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ presocial\\ relation\\ to\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ relationship\\ in\\ which\\ objects\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ names\\ but\\ gain\\ in\\ sensuousness\\,\\ in\\ which\\ secure\\ distinctions\\ between\\ subject\\ and\\ object\\ break\\ down\\ and\\ the\\ objects\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perception\\ phenomenological\\ mirror\\ one\\&rsquo\\;\\ primordial\\ embodiment\\ \\(more\\ fundamental\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doubling\\ with\\ Difference\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(combination\\ of\\ the\\ uncanny\\ sense\\ and\\ phenomenology\\)\\ through\\ the\\ images\\ through\\ the\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ meat\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ Raphaelle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ direct\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ relate\\ to\\ Raphaelle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\ of\\ creation\\ \\(challenge\\ between\\ enlightenment\\ and\\ romanticism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raphaelle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ are\\ both\\ playful\\ and\\ morbid\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reflection\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ \\(horrific\\ sense\\)\\,\\ juxtaposition\\ between\\ emotions\\ and\\ rationality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meat\\ images\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ visceral\\ pictures\\ made\\ by\\ Raphaelle\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ bloody\\,\\ fleshy\\,\\ grim\\ portrayals\\ of\\ nonidentity\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ non\\-idiosyncratic\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Period\\ specific\\ conventions\\ of\\ anatomical\\ representation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ new\\ found\\ mania\\ for\\ dissecting\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rhetorical\\ mix\\ between\\ butcher\\,\\ doctor\\,\\ meat\\ and\\ corpse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idea\\ of\\ art\\ history\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ dissection\\ in\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nemerov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Methodology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lets\\ the\\ paintings\\ guide\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historical\\ phenomenology\\ \\(note\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ methodology\\ and\\ projecting\\ different\\ cultural\\ contexts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nemerov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ arguments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Raphaelle\\ projects\\ ambiguity\\ into\\ his\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reveals\\ doubts\\ about\\ selfhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possible\\ failed\\ selfhood\\ \\(seen\\ through\\ dead\\ meat\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scholarship\\ animates\\ meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ImageBase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venus\\ Rising\\ from\\ the\\ Sea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ Deception\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1823\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Intimation\\ of\\ actual\\ human\\ anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ amidst\\ a\\ still\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Offers\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ morbid\\ blankness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ is\\ a\\ guidepost\\ to\\ understand\\ other\\ paintings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ they\\ allow\\ human\\ anatomy\\ to\\ erupt\\ in\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represents\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ bodily\\ representation\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cutlet\\ and\\ Vegetables\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1816\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;An\\ old\\ Philadelphian\\ cut\\ of\\ bacon\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ bundle\\ of\\ asparagus\\,\\ head\\ of\\ lettuce\\,\\ Welsh\\ onion\\,\\ rosemary\\ and\\ chervil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Penchant\\ for\\ cleanliness\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ white\\ paper\\ affixed\\ to\\ the\\ but\\ of\\ bacon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encoded\\ opposition\\ between\\ butcher\\ and\\ butchered\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Continuous\\ surface\\ and\\ edge\\ emphasize\\ the\\ embodied\\ connection\\ between\\ subject\\ and\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dark\\ strip\\ below\\ the\\ table\\ like\\ edges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dark\\ space\\ corresponds\\ to\\ extra\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Raphaelle\\ knew\\ he\\ did\\ knot\\ want\\ too\\ close\\ a\\ vantage\\ on\\ what\\ could\\ become\\ threatening\\ visceral\\ depiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ clean\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ frocked\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Objects\\ animated\\ with\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ won\\ materiality\\,\\ investment\\ with\\ the\\ density\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ flesh\\ and\\ bone\\,\\ the\\ sensuous\\ body\\ remains\\ over\\ there\\ across\\ the\\ dark\\ strip\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raphaelle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ penchant\\ for\\ identifying\\ with\\ meat\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ ventriloquism\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ projected\\ himself\\ onto\\ the\\ meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tendon\\ like\\ onions\\ reflect\\ the\\ intimate\\ relationship\\ between\\ botany\\ and\\ anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ render\\ the\\ human\\ anatomy\\ was\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ vegetative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asparagus\\ bundle\\ in\\ reflects\\ the\\ Gap\\ between\\ botany\\ and\\ anatomy\\,\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ half\\ realized\\ sense\\ of\\ a\\ finger\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ emanation\\ of\\ human\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ split\\ in\\ the\\ synthesis\\ of\\ inanimate\\ objects\\ and\\ dead\\ body\\ under\\ the\\ head\\ nature\\ morte\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ambiguous\\ physiognomy\\ of\\ one\\ thing\\ seen\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Thomas\\ Cole\\ and\\ Jacksonian\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Angela\\ Miller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Argument\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miller\\ characterizes\\ Cole\\ as\\ an\\ anti\\-democratic\\ conservative\\ with\\ strongly\\ held\\ political\\ convictions\\ that\\ are\\ manifest\\ in\\ his\\ painting\\.\\ His\\ painting\\ show\\ concerns\\ about\\ the\\ American\\ transition\\ from\\ pacifistic\\ democracy\\ to\\ populist\\ democracy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Scholars\\ have\\ generally\\ assumed\\ that\\ landscape\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beginnings\\ coincided\\ with\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ American\\ democracy\\ and\\ Cole\\ has\\ been\\ grouped\\ with\\ these\\ other\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cole\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ reveals\\ his\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ cycle\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Course\\ of\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Cole\\ had\\ deeply\\-held\\ beliefs\\ that\\ nature\\ and\\ geography\\ had\\ significant\\ impacts\\ on\\ the\\ destiny\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cole\\ was\\ deeply\\ conservative\\.\\ He\\ admired\\ the\\ hierarchical\\ society\\ of\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ over\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ He\\ was\\ raised\\ a\\ dissenting\\-Protestant\\,\\ uneasy\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ utilitarian\\ culture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cole\\ supported\\ the\\ Whig\\ politics\\ over\\ those\\ of\\ Jacksonian\\ democrats\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cole\\ had\\ become\\ convinced\\ that\\ American\\ society\\ was\\ the\\ victim\\ of\\ its\\ own\\ self\\-serving\\ pursuits\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cole\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Course\\ of\\ Empire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\painting\\ was\\ being\\ hung\\ in\\ 1837\\,\\ the\\ same\\ year\\ as\\ a\\ tremendous\\ financial\\ panic\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ major\\ American\\ economic\\ depression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ made\\ \\[Cole\\]\\ uneasy\\ was\\ the\\ erosion\\ of\\ moral\\,\\ social\\,\\ and\\ institutional\\ restraints\\ upon\\ rampant\\ individualism\\ and\\ its\\ economic\\ effects\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ supported\\ the\\ Whigs\\ in\\ their\\ legislation\\ to\\ use\\ extra\\ wealth\\ for\\ public\\ improvements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ American\\ did\\ not\\ interpret\\ Cole\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ as\\ an\\ allegory\\ of\\ American\\ political\\ culture\\.\\ James\\ Fenimore\\ Cooper\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ paintings\\ as\\ commentaries\\ on\\ drastic\\ changes\\ in\\ American\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cole\\ strove\\ to\\ hide\\ his\\ disappointment\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ experiment\\,\\ evident\\ in\\ his\\ deeply\\-held\\ faith\\ in\\ religion\\ and\\ his\\ belief\\ in\\ providence\\.\\ An\\ understanding\\ of\\ Cole\\ as\\ a\\ believer\\ in\\ republican\\ manifest\\ destiny\\ was\\ crucial\\ to\\ the\\ school\\ of\\ landscape\\ artists\\ who\\ would\\ follow\\ him\\ and\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ find\\ redemption\\ and\\ providence\\ in\\ American\\ landscapes\\ during\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\:\\ \\ \\;SPECTACULAR\\ AMERICA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Wadswoth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Tower\\:\\ \\ \\;An\\ Episode\\ in\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ American\\ Landscape\\ Vision\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Alan\\ Wallach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Monte\\ Video\\ was\\ a\\ unique\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ Republic\\,\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ political\\ and\\ cultural\\ upheaval\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ viewed\\ as\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ an\\ eccentric\\ imagination\\,\\ it\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ cultural\\ expression\\ of\\ a\\ class\\ at\\ a\\ particularly\\ momentous\\ period\\ in\\ its\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ creating\\ Monte\\ Video\\,\\ Wadsworth\\ in\\ effect\\ improvised\\ means\\ to\\ help\\ foster\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ aesthetic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;panoptic\\ sublime\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Panoramic\\ canvases\\ of\\ the\\ Hudson\\ River\\ School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Daniel\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ social\\ world\\ defined\\ by\\ deference\\,\\ patronage\\,\\ and\\ nobles\\ oblige\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ occupied\\ the\\ lower\\ rungs\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ ladder\\ deferred\\ to\\ those\\ higher\\ up\\ and\\ often\\ sought\\ their\\ patronage\\;\\ those\\ on\\ top\\ were\\,\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ theory\\,\\ responsible\\ for\\ those\\ lower\\ down\\ \\(nobles\\ oblige\\ meant\\ a\\ nobles\\ both\\ obligated\\ and\\ obliging\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crisis\\ of\\ the\\ Federalist\\ elite\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;At\\ Monte\\ Video\\,\\ Wadsworth\\ fashioned\\ an\\ idealized\\ version\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ order\\ that\\ was\\ fast\\ slipping\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;Monte\\ Video\\ stood\\ for\\ hierarchical\\ relations\\,\\ for\\ nobles\\ oblige\\,\\ for\\ tradition\\ for\\ timelessness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contemporary\\ landscape\\ aesthetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Talcott\\ Mountain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trumbull\\ helped\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Panoramas\\,\\ Viewing\\ Tower\\&hellip\\;apply\\ panorama\\ convention\\ to\\ an\\ actual\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ panorama\\ might\\ thus\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ machine\\ or\\ engine\\ of\\ sight\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ visible\\ world\\ was\\ reproduced\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ hid\\ or\\ disguised\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ vision\\ required\\ an\\ apparatus\\ of\\ production\\ and\\ that\\ what\\ was\\ being\\ produced\\ was\\,\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ spectacle\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ spectator\\ with\\ a\\ particular\\ relation\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;reality\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Panopticon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Circular\\ prison\\ where\\ guard\\ can\\ see\\ all\\ the\\ inmates\\ but\\ they\\ cannot\\ tell\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ watched\\ or\\ not\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;all\\ seeing\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ anonymous\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Panoptic\\ Sublime\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ sudden\\ access\\ of\\ power\\,\\ a\\ dizzying\\ sense\\ of\\ having\\ suddenly\\ come\\ into\\ possession\\ of\\ a\\ terrain\\ stretching\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ the\\ eye\\ could\\ see\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Wadsworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Tower\\ was\\ in\\ this\\ respect\\ a\\ stunning\\ metaphor\\ for\\ social\\ aspiration\\ and\\ social\\ dominance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Monte\\ Video\\ embodied\\ a\\ contradiction\\ between\\ a\\ conservative\\-aristocratic\\ belief\\ system\\ and\\ a\\ modernizing\\ or\\ bourgeois\\ mode\\ of\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ contradiction\\ suggests\\ the\\ complexities\\ of\\ a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ culture\\ remained\\ identified\\ with\\ aristocracy\\,\\ and\\ aristocracy\\ compensated\\ for\\ its\\ loss\\ of\\ influence\\ and\\ political\\ power\\ by\\ attempting\\ to\\ enlarge\\ its\\ cultural\\ authority\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Here\\&hellip\\;vision\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ dialectic\\ of\\ the\\ panoramic\\ and\\ the\\ telescopic\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;MASSES\\/MEDIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Age\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Portraiture\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ Jaffee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(supplements\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ folk\\ art\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ first\\ decades\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ in\\ rural\\ New\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ discusses\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ rural\\ artisan\\-entrepreneurs\\ \\(and\\ in\\ particular\\ portraitists\\)\\ played\\ in\\ economic\\ life\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ were\\ important\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ commercialization\\ of\\ rural\\ areas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ consumer\\ goods\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ big\\ part\\ of\\ rural\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Few\\ portrait\\ painters\\ with\\ training\\ were\\ itinerants\\.\\ \\ \\;Portraits\\ were\\ considered\\ luxury\\ items\\ and\\ most\\ rural\\ people\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\ them\\,\\ so\\ only\\ the\\ few\\ very\\ wealthy\\ ones\\ commissioned\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ more\\ effective\\ transportation\\ and\\ communication\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ market\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Rural\\ artisans\\ learned\\ that\\ manufacturing\\ and\\ distribution\\ went\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ invented\\ ways\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ emerging\\ market\\.\\ \\ \\;Rural\\ artisans\\ expanded\\ production\\ of\\ their\\ products\\ and\\ made\\ them\\ affordable\\ to\\ more\\ people\\,\\ transforming\\ their\\ industries\\ with\\ mechanical\\ and\\ marketing\\ innovations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1830s\\,\\ there\\ were\\ lots\\ of\\ itinerant\\ portrait\\ painters\\.\\ \\ \\;Itinerancy\\ also\\ became\\ more\\ popular\\ for\\ aspiring\\ artists\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ move\\ upward\\ socially\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ way\\ both\\ producer\\ and\\ consumer\\ shared\\ in\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ self\\-fashioning\\ through\\ the\\ purchase\\ of\\ commodities\\.\\ \\ \\;Itinerancy\\ also\\ played\\ a\\ major\\ role\\ in\\ expansion\\ of\\ portraiture\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portrait\\ painters\\,\\ like\\ other\\ artisans\\,\\ were\\ responsible\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ sales\\ and\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ transformed\\ portraits\\ from\\ luxury\\ items\\ to\\ mass\\ consumer\\ goods\\ through\\ standardized\\ production\\ and\\ new\\ distributive\\ networks\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ invented\\ rapid\\ production\\ techniques\\ so\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ more\\ efficient\\ and\\ make\\ things\\ more\\ people\\ could\\ afford\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ constrained\\ by\\ time\\ and\\ prices\\ that\\ patrons\\ would\\ pay\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ offered\\ clients\\ some\\ combination\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;art\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;craft\\&rdquo\\;\\ depending\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ would\\ often\\ use\\ stylized\\ two\\-dimensional\\ designs\\ and\\ stock\\ poses\\.\\ \\ \\;Individuals\\ were\\ often\\ distinguished\\ by\\ the\\ inclusion\\ of\\ personal\\ possessions\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ artist\\ had\\ their\\ own\\ formula\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ their\\ products\\ was\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Generally\\ itinerant\\ portraits\\ were\\ linear\\ and\\ simplistic\\ with\\ broad\\ expanses\\ of\\ color\\ and\\ texture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rufus\\ Porter\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ had\\ four\\ styles\\ of\\ portraits\\ each\\ at\\ different\\ costs\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ catered\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ ends\\ of\\ the\\ market\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ used\\ the\\ camera\\ obscura\\ \\(a\\ device\\ that\\ projects\\ the\\ sitter\\,\\ or\\ whatever\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ drawing\\,\\ with\\ mirrors\\ so\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\)\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ time\\ it\\ took\\ him\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ would\\ go\\ from\\ town\\ to\\ town\\ and\\ advertise\\ his\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ revealed\\ all\\ his\\ techniques\\ in\\ writing\\.\\ \\ \\;Porter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portraits\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ with\\ the\\ ears\\ in\\ full\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Itinerant\\ artists\\ played\\ a\\ crucial\\ role\\ in\\ popularization\\ of\\ photography\\ \\(many\\ itinerant\\ artists\\ started\\ making\\ daguerreotypes\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ paintings\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ reason\\ daguerreotypes\\ became\\ so\\ popular\\ was\\ because\\ there\\ already\\ existed\\ a\\ well\\-developed\\ market\\ of\\ consumers\\ for\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ itinerant\\ artists\\ had\\ already\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ successful\\ model\\ of\\ distribution\\ which\\ photography\\ easily\\ fit\\ into\\.\\ \\ \\;Portraitists\\ recognized\\ the\\ commercial\\ possibilities\\ of\\ daguerreotypes\\ right\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ daguerreotype\\ process\\ was\\ mechanical\\ and\\ cheap\\ and\\ could\\ make\\ portraits\\ that\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ standardized\\ family\\ portraits\\ format\\ that\\ these\\ itinerants\\ were\\ already\\ using\\ in\\ paintings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Emergence\\ of\\ a\\ Keyword\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alan\\ Trachtenberg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ is\\ most\\ relevant\\,\\ obviously\\,\\ to\\ the\\ daguerreotypes\\:\\ John\\ Plumbe\\,\\ Jr\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ Couple\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ 1845\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;California\\ forty\\-niner\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ 1850\\.\\ The\\ take\\-home\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ meaning\\ is\\ not\\ inherent\\ to\\ a\\ medium\\&mdash\\;we\\ have\\ to\\ contextualize\\ these\\ images\\ to\\ understand\\ WHY\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ medium\\ in\\ this\\ culture\\ and\\ historical\\ setting\\.\\ Trachtenberg\\ turns\\ specifically\\ to\\ texts\\ and\\ literature\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ popularity\\ of\\ daguerreotypes\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rising\\ urbanization\\ and\\ industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ age\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;confidence\\ man\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ confirm\\ authenticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Stranger\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ is\\ increasingly\\ representational\\&mdash\\;a\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ that\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ represented\\ is\\ truthful\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ key\\ points\\ of\\ the\\ article\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Photography\\ existed\\ as\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ word\\ but\\ a\\ linguistic\\ practice\\,\\ providing\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ express\\ ideas\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ can\\ be\\ known\\&mdash\\;making\\ it\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\keyword\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ potential\\ analogy\\ for\\ other\\ human\\ activities\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Daguerreotype\\&rdquo\\;\\ exemplified\\ this\\:\\ it\\ stood\\ for\\ truth\\,\\ objectivity\\,\\ the\\ impartial\\ representation\\ of\\ facts\\.\\ The\\ daguerreotype\\&rsquo\\;s\\ realism\\ makes\\ it\\ seam\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ a\\ copy\\ as\\ another\\ instance\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ camera\\ appears\\ to\\ see\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\perfect\\ accuracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;the\\ eye\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Seen\\ as\\ infallible\\,\\ perfect\\,\\ impartial\\,\\ and\\ a\\ moral\\ necessity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\:\\ This\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\untrue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ lenses\\ can\\ distort\\ shape\\,\\ perspective\\;\\ light\\ and\\ color\\ are\\ often\\ produced\\ incorrectly\\.\\ Photography\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ correct\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ other\\ forms\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ absolutely\\ true\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ irrational\\ conviction\\ in\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\ is\\ why\\ this\\ whole\\ concept\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ historians\\&mdash\\;the\\ depth\\ of\\ a\\ conviction\\ implies\\ that\\ it\\ answers\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cultural\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ was\\ context\\ for\\ daguerreotype\\?\\ 1820s\\-1860s\\ saw\\ the\\ US\\ change\\ from\\ rural\\,\\ agrarian\\ society\\ to\\ urban\\,\\ industrial\\,\\ market\\-centered\\ society\\ with\\ regional\\,\\ class\\,\\ gender\\,\\ and\\ racial\\ conflicts\\.\\ Concerns\\ over\\ progress\\,\\ the\\ future\\,\\ industrialization\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ question\\:\\ Can\\ photography\\ qualify\\ as\\ a\\ work\\ of\\ art\\,\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\copy\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ How\\ can\\ someone\\ who\\ operates\\ a\\ world\\-copying\\ machine\\ be\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;artist\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ 1840s\\:\\ demanded\\ innovation\\ and\\ reform\\,\\ as\\ articulated\\ by\\ Henry\\ David\\ Thoreau\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\repetition\\ vs\\.\\ origination\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thoreau\\ eventually\\ concludes\\ that\\ the\\ daguerreotype\\ is\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ how\\,\\ through\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ contemplation\\ and\\ stillness\\ \\(the\\ stillness\\ required\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ daguerreotype\\)\\ one\\ may\\ achieve\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ communion\\ between\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inner\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\outer\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ under\\ the\\ right\\ circumstances\\,\\ a\\ reproduction\\ may\\ be\\ an\\ original\\ and\\ originating\\ experience\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\outwarding\\ the\\ inward\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Art\\ history\\ tends\\ to\\ normalize\\ the\\ medium\\ as\\ simply\\ another\\ method\\ of\\ creating\\ arts\\,\\ when\\ in\\ fact\\ it\\ far\\-reaching\\ cultural\\ implications\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\replacing\\ the\\ hand\\ with\\ the\\ eye\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ the\\ prime\\ organ\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ production\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daguerreotypes\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ House\\ of\\ Seven\\ Gables\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ novel\\ attaches\\ two\\ significances\\ to\\ the\\ daguerreotype\\&mdash\\;either\\ exact\\ scientific\\ truth\\ or\\ a\\ magical\\ mirror\\.\\ The\\ point\\ is\\:\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ medium\\ is\\ not\\ intrinsic\\ but\\ a\\ cultural\\ invention\\ impressed\\ upon\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ need\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Efforts\\ to\\ grasp\\ meanings\\ of\\ daguerreotype\\ \\(by\\ writers\\ like\\ Thoreau\\,\\ Hawthorne\\,\\ Whitman\\)\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ comprehend\\ a\\ new\\ aspect\\ of\\ everyday\\ human\\ relations\\ during\\ this\\ time\\ of\\ major\\ urban\\ growth\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ review\\ about\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ daguerreotypes\\ \\(mostly\\ stuff\\ we\\ heard\\ in\\ lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ negative\\ means\\ each\\ one\\ is\\ unique\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reflective\\ play\\ means\\ it\\ is\\ literally\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;mirror\\-image\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evanescent\\ quality\\ of\\ image\\&mdash\\;you\\ must\\ physically\\ tilt\\ it\\ to\\ see\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daguerreotype\\ itself\\ has\\ elements\\ of\\ necromancy\\,\\ the\\ supernatural\\,\\ mystery\\;\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ capturing\\ the\\ image\\ has\\ hints\\ of\\ uncanniness\\,\\ sexual\\ transgression\\,\\ or\\ surveillance\\ \\(example\\ is\\ short\\ story\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Magnetic\\ Daguerreotypes\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ images\\ are\\ actual\\ ways\\ for\\ the\\ daguerreotypist\\ to\\ watch\\ the\\ figures\\ portrayed\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ daguerreotype\\ as\\ an\\ index\\ of\\ human\\ character\\&mdash\\;no\\ compromises\\ as\\ in\\ portraiture\\.\\ No\\ one\\ can\\ escape\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eye\\.\\ It\\ offers\\ proof\\ of\\ authenticity\\ against\\ the\\ menace\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1859\\:\\ Oliver\\ Wendell\\ Holmes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essays\\ mark\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ daguerreotype\\ era\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ phase\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\photography\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ fact\\ that\\ serious\\ intellectuals\\ would\\ write\\ about\\ photography\\ showed\\ that\\ it\\ had\\ arrived\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\culture\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wanted\\ his\\ reader\\ to\\ enjoy\\ photographs\\&mdash\\;photography\\ as\\ leisure\\,\\ not\\ analytic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Holmes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ photography\\ is\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;pleasure\\ and\\ charm\\,\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ appropriating\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ dematerialized\\ experience\\,\\ without\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ active\\ effort\\ or\\ critical\\ thought\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Photography\\ as\\ amateur\\ pastime\\&hellip\\;until\\ debate\\ over\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;art\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ photography\\ would\\ revive\\ debate\\ over\\ its\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ keyword\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\[This\\ Holmes\\ stuff\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ less\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ images\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ know\\,\\ I\\ think\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\:\\ \\ \\;SOCIETY\\ AND\\ STEREOTYPE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Standing\\ Outside\\ the\\ Door\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Elizabeth\\ Johns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Johns\\ discusses\\ the\\ fictions\\ that\\ whites\\ built\\ around\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ images\\ during\\ the\\ antebellum\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Relevant\\ paintings\\ on\\ slide\\ list\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\War\\ News\\ from\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Farmer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Nooning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Generalizations\\ about\\ antebellum\\ period\\ images\\ of\\ blacks\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Artists\\ who\\ assigned\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ African\\-Americans\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ world\\ made\\ that\\ place\\ one\\ of\\ relationship\\,\\ reserving\\ autonomy\\,\\ authority\\,\\ and\\ power\\ for\\ white\\ figures\\.\\ Artists\\ constructed\\ images\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ such\\ away\\ as\\ to\\ assure\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ explicitly\\ and\\ unalterably\\ different\\.\\ Painters\\ typically\\ gave\\ them\\ no\\ separate\\ world\\&mdash\\;they\\ were\\ defined\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ whites\\ \\(often\\ only\\ one\\ per\\ picture\\)\\.\\ They\\ made\\ no\\ distinctions\\ between\\ blacks\\,\\ who\\ existed\\ in\\ paintings\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ type\\:\\ generally\\ dark\\,\\ well\\ dressed\\ as\\ a\\ farm\\ worker\\,\\ and\\ cheerful\\.\\ In\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ blacks\\,\\ distinctions\\ between\\ whites\\ were\\ also\\ downplayed\\;\\ they\\ were\\ all\\ sovereign\\,\\ free\\ and\\ superior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ painters\\ avoided\\ references\\ to\\ activities\\ that\\ actually\\ defined\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ blacks\\,\\ including\\ any\\ images\\ of\\ black\\ labor\\,\\ black\\ females\\ or\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ blacks\\ as\\ chattel\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ denied\\ blacks\\ the\\ attributes\\ assigned\\ to\\ sovereigns\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ those\\ assigned\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ orders\\.\\ In\\ the\\ European\\ tradition\\,\\ to\\ show\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ working\\ was\\ to\\ claim\\ for\\ them\\ a\\ near\\-heroic\\ status\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ blacks\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ lazy\\ and\\ dependent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\ claims\\ that\\ no\\ American\\ artist\\ every\\ painted\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ auction\\ until\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\(the\\ only\\ two\\ that\\ she\\ notes\\ were\\ by\\ European\\ artists\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ stereotypes\\ existed\\ of\\ blacks\\ as\\ childlike\\,\\ lazy\\,\\ and\\ natural\\ \\(sensual\\)\\ as\\ means\\ to\\ distinguish\\ them\\ from\\ white\\ citizens\\ who\\ had\\ innate\\ capacities\\ for\\ equality\\:\\ mental\\ acumen\\,\\ economic\\ drive\\,\\ and\\ self\\-control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ powerful\\ element\\ in\\ the\\ oppression\\ of\\ blacks\\ was\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ unique\\ psychological\\ sensitivity\\&mdash\\;this\\ represented\\ a\\ concession\\ to\\ black\\&rsquo\\;s\\ humanity\\ and\\ a\\ weapon\\ against\\ their\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reviews\\ of\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ art\\ were\\ typically\\ oblique\\ or\\ ambiguous\\,\\ testifying\\ to\\ the\\ uneasiness\\ of\\ viewers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ world\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ center\\ of\\ journal\\ and\\ book\\ publishing\\)\\ and\\ thus\\ was\\ the\\ primary\\ source\\ of\\ dissemination\\ of\\ images\\ about\\ blacks\\.\\ It\\ was\\ therefore\\ the\\ prime\\ location\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ the\\ South\\)\\ of\\ the\\ cultural\\ construction\\ and\\ perpetuation\\ of\\ African\\-American\\ stereotypes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Until\\ the\\ 1830s\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ American\\ paintings\\ consisted\\ of\\ being\\ foils\\ cruel\\ humor\\.\\ They\\ were\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ monkey\\-like\\ clown\\ figures\\,\\ always\\ marginalized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Lewis\\ Krimmel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Francis\\ Guy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ two\\ examples\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ artist\\ who\\ depicted\\ blacks\\ in\\ this\\ manner\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ From\\ the\\ mid\\-1830s\\,\\ painters\\ represented\\ blacks\\ with\\ more\\ psychological\\ detail\\,\\ suggesting\\ ambiguity\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ blacks\\ and\\ their\\ place\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Ambiguity\\ is\\ visible\\ in\\ the\\ placement\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ space\\,\\ in\\ their\\ delineation\\ of\\ black\\ figures\\&rsquo\\;\\ emotional\\ reaction\\ to\\ actions\\ undertaken\\ by\\ others\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ interplay\\ between\\ the\\ dress\\ and\\ gestures\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\.\\ This\\ change\\ began\\ to\\ occur\\ as\\ black\\ status\\ became\\ more\\ problematic\\,\\ with\\ tensions\\ emerging\\ between\\ Southerners\\ and\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ abolition\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ North\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Amalgamation\\&rdquo\\;\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;depicted\\ interracial\\ couples\\ and\\ their\\ offspring\\ in\\ burlesqued\\ situations\\.\\ They\\ equated\\ emancipation\\ with\\ intermarriage\\ and\\ the\\ degradation\\ of\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Sidney\\ Mount\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Genre\\ painter\\ who\\ began\\ his\\ career\\ around\\ 1830\\.\\ He\\ began\\ by\\ painting\\ blacks\\ as\\ peripheral\\ and\\ comic\\ figures\\;\\ however\\,\\ he\\ soon\\ instituted\\ major\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ configurations\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ American\\ genre\\ paintings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Farmer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Nooning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1836\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\-\\ First\\ image\\ to\\ embody\\ the\\ shift\\ in\\ painting\\,\\ depicting\\ blacks\\ as\\ a\\ candidate\\ for\\ a\\ place\\ in\\ social\\ constituency\\ beyond\\ something\\ explicitly\\ marginal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ black\\ man\\ is\\ behind\\ the\\ foreground\\ group\\ of\\ whites\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ is\\ well\\ dressed\\ and\\ completely\\ comfortable\\ such\\ that\\ his\\ interiority\\ and\\ potential\\ behavior\\ are\\ uncertain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\cleverly\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;devastatingly\\&rdquo\\;\\ ambiguous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Reflects\\ greater\\ uncertainties\\ regarding\\ the\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ Union\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Johns\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\James\\ Clonney\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(pp\\.\\ 333\\-338\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christian\\ Mayr\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\ German\\ immigrant\\,\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ painter\\ to\\ depict\\ blacks\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ social\\ world\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Kitchen\\ Ball\\ at\\ White\\ Sulpher\\ Springs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1838\\)\\.\\ As\\ an\\ immigrant\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ cultural\\ outsider\\ and\\ thus\\ possibly\\ felt\\ sympathy\\ for\\ their\\ position\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ A\\ greater\\ trend\\ of\\ humanitarianism\\ informed\\ public\\ discourse\\ in\\ the\\ 1840s\\.\\ This\\ period\\ saw\\ number\\ of\\ interrelated\\ reform\\ movements\\ and\\ new\\ campaigns\\ for\\ morality\\.\\ Abolition\\ was\\ also\\ taken\\ up\\ by\\ secular\\ leaders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Romantic\\ Racialism\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Movements\\ of\\ the\\ 1840s\\ created\\ a\\ general\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ discourse\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ recognize\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;universal\\ humanity\\&rdquo\\;\\ shared\\ by\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\,\\ and\\ saw\\ that\\ slavery\\ was\\ untenable\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\spurred\\ sentimental\\ poetry\\ and\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ This\\ climate\\ freed\\ Mount\\ to\\ do\\ his\\ most\\ profound\\ work\\.\\ After\\ omitting\\ blacks\\ from\\ his\\ genre\\ paintings\\ for\\ about\\ eight\\ years\\,\\ Mount\\ resurrected\\ the\\ figure\\ with\\ three\\ scenes\\ that\\ are\\ rich\\ with\\ psychological\\ implication\\.\\ From\\ his\\ childhood\\,\\ he\\ had\\ experienced\\ his\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strong\\ affection\\ for\\ the\\ black\\ workers\\ on\\ their\\ farm\\.\\ Yet\\ he\\ was\\ strongly\\ anti\\-abolitionist\\.\\ Only\\ in\\ this\\ social\\ climate\\ could\\ he\\ admit\\ the\\ gentler\\ dimension\\ of\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ works\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eel\\ Spearing\\ at\\ Setauket\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Power\\ of\\ Music\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Johns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\claims\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Power\\ of\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ most\\ empathetic\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ antebellum\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ male\\,\\ representing\\ blacks\\ as\\ emotional\\ and\\ spiritual\\ beings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Richard\\ Caton\\ Woodville\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\War\\ News\\ from\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Woodville\\ was\\ painting\\ this\\ image\\ from\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ black\\ man\\ and\\ daughter\\ are\\ painted\\ with\\ greater\\ detail\\ and\\ emphasis\\ than\\ other\\ figures\\ and\\ thus\\ given\\ a\\ greater\\ psychological\\ interiority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ They\\ are\\ not\\ conforming\\ to\\ comic\\ or\\ annoying\\ stereotypes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\they\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;heartbreakingly\\ attentive\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ news\\,\\ calling\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ vulnerability\\ of\\ blacks\\ to\\ the\\ war\\&rsquo\\;s\\ outcome\\ \\(the\\ expansion\\ of\\ slavery\\ westward\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Like\\ Mount\\,\\ Woodville\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ influenced\\ by\\ cross\\-Atlantic\\ abolition\\ and\\ reform\\ movements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ A\\ reaction\\ against\\ blacks\\ asserted\\ itself\\ after\\ 1850\\ surrounding\\ the\\ Compromise\\ of\\ 1850\\.\\ Many\\ argued\\ that\\ slaves\\ were\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\ emancipation\\.\\ From\\ this\\ period\\ onward\\,\\ genre\\ painters\\ who\\ painted\\ blacks\\ \\(including\\ Mount\\)\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ negative\\ light\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ controversy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Eastman\\ Johnson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(pp\\.\\ 352\\-355\\)\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ artist\\ during\\ the\\ 1850s\\ who\\ combined\\ humanitarianism\\ with\\ telling\\ black\\ stereotyping\\.\\ His\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Negro\\ Life\\ at\\ the\\ South\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ a\\ provocative\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ both\\ concludes\\ that\\ antebellum\\ tradition\\ and\\ serves\\ as\\ fulcrum\\ for\\ work\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ genre\\ picture\\ of\\ blacks\\ \\(other\\ than\\ Mayr\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ to\\ represent\\ a\\ specifically\\ Southern\\ setting\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ black\\ domestic\\ group\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;THE\\ VANISHING\\ RACE\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&lsquo\\;Doomed\\ to\\ Perish\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;George\\ Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Depictions\\ of\\ the\\ Mandan\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Kathryn\\ S\\.\\ Hight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Letter\\ from\\ the\\ Mouth\\ of\\ the\\ Yellowstone\\ River\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ George\\ Catlin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ 1830\\,\\ the\\ same\\ year\\ the\\ Senate\\ passed\\ a\\ bill\\ removing\\ 30\\,000\\ Indians\\ living\\ east\\ of\\ the\\ Mississippi\\,\\ George\\ Catlin\\ left\\ the\\ east\\ coast\\ to\\ paint\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indians\\ still\\ \\&lsquo\\;in\\ a\\ natural\\ state\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ time\\,\\ pictures\\ of\\ Indians\\ living\\ beyond\\ the\\ Mississippi\\ were\\ very\\ rare\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ 1830\\-1836\\,\\ he\\ painted\\ 450\\ oil\\ portraits\\ and\\ scenes\\ that\\ formed\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indian\\ Gallery\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ later\\ achieved\\ wide\\ acclaim\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ art\\ memorialized\\ Indians\\,\\ taking\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ present\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Catlin\\ accepted\\ the\\ Indian\\ Removal\\ Bill\\ out\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ saw\\ as\\ humanitarian\\ motivations\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ most\\ whites\\,\\ he\\ saw\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ representing\\ man\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ earlier\\ early\\ evolutionary\\ stages\\.\\ \\ \\;Andrew\\ Jackson\\ echoed\\ Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;whites\\ with\\ their\\ arts\\ of\\ civilization\\&hellip\\;\\[destroy\\]\\ the\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ savage\\ \\[and\\]\\ doom\\ him\\ to\\ weakness\\ and\\ decay\\&hellip\\;\\.this\\ fate\\ surely\\ awaits\\ them\\ if\\ they\\ remain\\ within\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ the\\ States\\&hellip\\;\\.Humanity\\ and\\ national\\ honor\\ demand\\ that\\ every\\ effort\\ should\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ avert\\ so\\ great\\ a\\ calamity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Mandan\\ Indians\\ fulfilled\\ Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Indians\\ as\\ a\\ race\\ \\&ldquo\\;doomed\\ to\\ perish\\&rdquo\\;\\ if\\ exposed\\ to\\ white\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;Five\\ years\\ after\\ he\\ painted\\ them\\,\\ smallpox\\ wiped\\ out\\ Mandan\\ villages\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ decimation\\ increased\\ their\\ appeal\\ to\\ Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ white\\ audience\\;\\ Catlin\\ featured\\ the\\ Mandan\\ as\\ the\\ introduction\\ to\\ his\\ memoirs\\,\\ the\\ cover\\ for\\ his\\ Indian\\ show\\ brochures\\,\\ and\\ in\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ paintings\\ in\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indian\\ Gallery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Catlin\\ felt\\ that\\ a\\ potential\\ audience\\ could\\ be\\ persuaded\\ to\\ see\\ entertaining\\ images\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ colorful\\ and\\ dramatic\\ but\\ who\\ no\\ longer\\ threatened\\ white\\ civilization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ only\\ Indians\\ Catlin\\ named\\ in\\ his\\ brochure\\ booklets\\ were\\ Indians\\ like\\ Osceola\\ \\(image\\ base\\)\\ who\\ were\\ famous\\ for\\ being\\ defeated\\ and\\ captured\\ by\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;Portraits\\ of\\ these\\ figures\\ had\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ revealing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Far\\ West\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ Catlin\\ sometimes\\ said\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ relevant\\ because\\ they\\ reminded\\ white\\ audiences\\ that\\ the\\ Indian\\ \\&ldquo\\;threat\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ a\\ vanishing\\ worry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Osceola\\,\\ a\\ defeated\\ Seminole\\ chief\\ from\\ east\\ of\\ the\\ Mississippi\\,\\ was\\ in\\ prison\\ when\\ Catlin\\ painted\\ his\\ portrait\\ in\\ 1838\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ captured\\,\\ he\\ could\\ be\\ welcomed\\ in\\ Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Gallery\\ as\\ an\\ old\\ adversary\\ of\\ honor\\ and\\ bravery\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;mythic\\ protagonist\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ drama\\ of\\ conquest\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ of\\ Osceola\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;perhaps\\ his\\ finest\\ work\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ shows\\ a\\ 34\\-year\\-old\\ chief\\ in\\ robust\\ health\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ heroic\\ portrait\\ of\\ an\\ epic\\ figure\\ in\\ elaborate\\ costume\\ and\\ classical\\ stance\\,\\ referencing\\ white\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ Indians\\ as\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ equally\\ innocent\\ Ancient\\ Greeks\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ even\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ long\\ gun\\,\\ hardly\\ plausible\\ under\\ the\\ circumstances\\ of\\ his\\ imprisonment\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ Osceola\\ was\\ doomed\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ known\\ by\\ all\\ gallery\\ visitors\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ display\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sinister\\,\\ even\\ bizarre\\ circumstances\\&rdquo\\;\\ surrounded\\ the\\ portrait\\&rsquo\\;s\\ procurement\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ imprisoned\\ Seminole\\ chief\\ was\\ actually\\ very\\ sick\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ and\\ he\\ died\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ after\\ its\\ painting\\.\\ \\ \\;Osceola\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ friend\\&rdquo\\;\\ Dr\\.\\ Frederick\\ Weedon\\,\\ whose\\ brother\\-in\\-law\\ was\\ murdered\\ by\\ Osceola\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ Seminole\\ War\\,\\ and\\ who\\ secretly\\ beheaded\\ Osceola\\ immediately\\ after\\ the\\ chief\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ and\\ took\\ the\\ head\\ to\\ his\\ home\\,\\ where\\ it\\ remained\\ in\\ his\\ study\\ for\\ several\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Catlin\\ reveals\\ none\\ of\\ these\\ odd\\ tensions\\ in\\ his\\ painting\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ inaccurate\\ paintings\\ of\\ the\\ Mandan\\ also\\ reveal\\,\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ represent\\ what\\ he\\ actually\\ saw\\ and\\ experienced\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ his\\ audience\\,\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ romanticize\\ Indians\\ as\\ a\\ noble\\,\\ simple\\ race\\ from\\ a\\ past\\ era\\.\\ \\ \\;Details\\ that\\ conflicted\\ with\\ this\\ portrayal\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Osceola\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fatal\\ sickness\\ and\\ the\\ weird\\ details\\ surrounding\\ his\\ last\\ days\\,\\ are\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Indian\\ paintings\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Osceola\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ shows\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ sign\\ of\\ sickness\\ or\\ the\\ helplessness\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ defeated\\ in\\ war\\ and\\ tricked\\ into\\ captivity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Catlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;participant\\ observer\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Indians\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ actually\\ lived\\ with\\ each\\ tribe\\ he\\ painted\\ \\(though\\ only\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\)\\,\\ gave\\ him\\ undue\\ credibility\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ he\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ something\\ of\\ an\\ ethnologist\\,\\ in\\ truth\\ he\\ was\\ merely\\ an\\ entertainer\\.\\ \\ \\;Neglecting\\ realistic\\ details\\ that\\ conflicted\\ with\\ white\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ to\\ see\\ Indians\\ like\\ Osceola\\ as\\ a\\ noble\\ race\\ from\\ a\\ past\\ era\\,\\ his\\ images\\ \\&ldquo\\;were\\ as\\ widely\\ seen\\ as\\ any\\ pictures\\ of\\ Indians\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ RISE\\ OF\\ SENTIMENT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Lily\\ Martin\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Domestic\\ Genre\\ Painting\\ in\\ Antebellum\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\David\\ Lubin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\New\\ connoisseur\\ vs\\.\\ old\\ connoisseur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Old\\:\\ purely\\ aesthetic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\:\\ replacement\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ judgment\\ by\\ moral\\ or\\ political\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ of\\ old\\ connoisseur\\ \\(modernist\\,\\ formalist\\ viewpoint\\)\\,\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;simply\\ and\\ self\\-evidently\\ bad\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spencer\\ was\\ rediscovered\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ though\\,\\ and\\ discussion\\ about\\ her\\ art\\ has\\ instead\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;difficulties\\ in\\ earning\\ a\\ living\\ as\\ a\\ professional\\ female\\ artist\\ in\\ a\\ male\\-dominated\\ art\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spencer\\ had\\ 13\\ kids\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chief\\ financial\\ supporter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ people\\ think\\ her\\ art\\ is\\ complicit\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;systems\\ of\\ domination\\ of\\ mi\\ nineteenth\\-century\\ American\\ women\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Lubin\\ thinks\\ that\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ actually\\ took\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ and\\ gender\\ conflicts\\ of\\ the\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ was\\ both\\ ideological\\ \\(encouraging\\ accommodation\\ to\\ norms\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ rising\\ middle\\ class\\)\\ and\\ utopian\\ \\(resistant\\ to\\ class\\ or\\ gender\\ domination\\)\\,\\ at\\ once\\ an\\ instrument\\ of\\ social\\ control\\ and\\ an\\ instrument\\ of\\ social\\ subversion\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lubin\\ attempts\\ not\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ was\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ it\\ worked\\ in\\ a\\ conflicted\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ most\\ of\\ her\\ best\\-known\\ work\\ between\\ 1848\\-1858\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ living\\ in\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ decade\\ saw\\ lots\\ of\\ events\\ that\\ challenged\\ patriarchal\\ authority\\ like\\ Seneca\\ Falls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ art\\ from\\ this\\ period\\ is\\ both\\ an\\ embrace\\ of\\ these\\ patriarchal\\ values\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;teasing\\ or\\ mocking\\ subversion\\ of\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Domestic\\ Happiness\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\family\\,\\ full\\ of\\ tenderness\\,\\ mother\\ raises\\ her\\ hand\\ to\\ hold\\ back\\ the\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enthusiasm\\ as\\ to\\ not\\ wake\\ the\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seems\\ \\&ldquo\\;resoundingly\\ conservative\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ though\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ values\\ of\\ the\\ home\\ were\\ widely\\ accepted\\,\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ also\\ widespread\\ criticisms\\ of\\ this\\ mentality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ seems\\ like\\ an\\ assertion\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ nuclear\\ family\\,\\ but\\ the\\ conservative\\ idea\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ dictated\\ that\\ children\\ to\\ subordinate\\ themselves\\ to\\ parents\\,\\ especially\\ to\\ the\\ father\\,\\ and\\ this\\ painting\\ flips\\ that\\ ideal\\,\\ but\\ suggesting\\ first\\ that\\ the\\ parents\\ subordinate\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ children\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Hush\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wake\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ the\\ original\\ title\\)\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ mother\\ has\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ shows\\ family\\ as\\ reciprocal\\,\\ which\\ was\\ unorthodox\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;defends\\ sentimental\\ thinking\\ against\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ conservatives\\ who\\ preached\\ patriarchal\\ authority\\,\\ but\\ also\\ supported\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ a\\ loving\\ family\\,\\ which\\ countered\\ leftist\\ feminists\\ and\\ social\\ critics\\ of\\ the\\ sentimental\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ feminist\\,\\ and\\ Spencer\\ was\\ often\\ resistant\\ to\\ her\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sentimental\\ art\\ like\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ was\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ feminist\\ agency\\,\\ not\\ like\\ the\\ criticism\\ of\\ the\\ nuclear\\ family\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ by\\ taking\\ a\\ stand\\ against\\ \\&ldquo\\;domestic\\ misery\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ encouraging\\ \\&ldquo\\;male\\ viewers\\ to\\ renew\\ their\\ commitment\\ to\\ their\\ families\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ Little\\ Pig\\ went\\ to\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treats\\ parent\\-child\\ bond\\ with\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ humor\\,\\ that\\ seems\\ aesthetically\\ \\&ldquo\\;brash\\ and\\ vulgar\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ was\\ common\\ of\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ after\\ she\\ moved\\ to\\ NY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kitchen\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Did\\ many\\ paintings\\ of\\ seemingly\\ \\&ldquo\\;homey\\ domesticity\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ were\\ very\\ popular\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ prints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ in\\ the\\ pictures\\ always\\ address\\ someone\\ just\\ beyond\\ the\\ picture\\ plane\\&mdash\\;Spencer\\ sought\\ to\\ incorporate\\ the\\ viewer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narratives\\ that\\ attempted\\ to\\ involve\\ the\\ reader\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ did\\ so\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;rouse\\ readers\\ from\\ complacency\\ through\\ intimacy\\ rather\\ than\\ alienation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kitchen\\ scenes\\ could\\ have\\ offered\\ comfort\\,\\ etc\\ for\\ antebellum\\ women\\,\\ helping\\ to\\ ameliorate\\ the\\ loneliness\\ and\\ isolation\\ of\\ lower\\-\\ or\\ middle\\-class\\ housewives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ may\\ have\\ placated\\ housewives\\,\\ and\\ urged\\ them\\ to\\ accept\\ their\\ situation\\,\\ but\\ pop\\ culture\\ artifacts\\ like\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ \\&ldquo\\;can\\ be\\ tools\\ by\\ which\\ socially\\ subordinate\\ classes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ housewives\\,\\ try\\ to\\ pry\\ themselves\\ loose\\ from\\ domination\\ by\\ their\\ social\\ superiors\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Question\\ is\\ if\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kitchen\\ scenes\\ were\\ vehicles\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;indoctrination\\ into\\ middle\\-class\\ ideology\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ a\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ women\\ resisted\\ privatization\\ and\\ isolation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lubin\\ thinks\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ resist\\ isolation\\ because\\ her\\ images\\ undercut\\ romanticism\\ because\\ the\\ women\\ in\\ her\\ image\\ a\\ re\\ not\\ passive\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ fully\\ active\\ and\\ engaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Peeling\\ Onions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\woman\\ is\\ crying\\,\\ and\\ first\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ of\\ romanticism\\,\\ but\\ then\\ realize\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ because\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ peeling\\ onions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;irony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kitchen\\ scenes\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;instances\\ of\\ discipline\\ and\\ subversion\\ occurring\\ simultaneously\\ and\\ self\\-contradictorily\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ in\\ Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Husbands\\ are\\ shown\\ as\\ often\\ humorous\\ and\\ bumbling\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ much\\ to\\ be\\ laughed\\ at\\ as\\ revered\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ industrialization\\ arose\\ in\\ America\\,\\ it\\ drew\\ men\\ away\\ from\\ home\\,\\ but\\ a\\ financial\\ crash\\ in\\ 1857\\ exemplified\\ the\\ actual\\ little\\ control\\ that\\ men\\,\\ who\\ placed\\ themselves\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ actually\\ had\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scenes\\ of\\ men\\ are\\ often\\ funny\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ associated\\ with\\ emasculation\\ and\\ public\\ humiliation\\ like\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Young\\ Husband\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depictions\\ of\\ men\\ are\\ both\\ laudatory\\,\\ and\\ undermining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spencer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ works\\ are\\ not\\ either\\ progressive\\ or\\ reactionary\\,\\ but\\ a\\ complex\\ mixture\\ of\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Space\\,\\ Cultural\\ Authority\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Imagery\\ of\\ Feminine\\ Influence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Angela\\ Miller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ changing\\ dynamic\\ of\\ masculine\\ vs\\.\\ feminine\\ was\\ central\\ to\\ antebellum\\ American\\ culture\\:\\ this\\ dynamic\\ was\\ explored\\ through\\ natural\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditionally\\ feminine\\ elements\\ of\\ nature\\ include\\ air\\,\\ space\\,\\ and\\ light\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;transparent\\ and\\ all\\-pervasive\\,\\ like\\ feminine\\ influence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ antebellum\\ years\\,\\ women\\ were\\ ideal\\ symbols\\ of\\ a\\ productive\\ and\\ balanced\\ relationship\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ culture\\ \\(derived\\ from\\ their\\ roles\\ of\\ nurture\\ and\\ socialization\\ \\(culture\\)\\ and\\ biological\\ function\\ of\\ birthing\\ \\(nature\\)\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ growing\\ connection\\ between\\ femininity\\ and\\ nature\\ was\\ impeded\\ by\\ the\\ established\\ tradition\\ of\\ looking\\ to\\ nature\\ for\\ symbols\\ of\\ patriarchal\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mountains\\ had\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ traditional\\ roles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Judeo\\-Christian\\ tradition\\,\\ they\\ were\\ emblems\\ of\\ moral\\ and\\ religious\\ sublime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ America\\,\\ mountains\\ came\\ to\\ symbolize\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ republican\\ authority\\ \\(born\\ of\\ struggle\\ like\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ itself\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ late\\ 1820\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ Thomas\\ Cole\\ depicted\\ Mt\\.\\ Washington\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ sublime\\ \\(viewpoint\\ from\\ somewhere\\ on\\ the\\ mountain\\ itself\\ to\\ dramatize\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ rugged\\ foreground\\ and\\ smooth\\ distance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ next\\ generation\\ of\\ painters\\ \\(after\\ Cole\\)\\ preferred\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ mountain\\ seen\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;palpable\\,\\ subtly\\ radiant\\ air\\ that\\ modified\\ and\\ refined\\ its\\ rugged\\ features\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(314\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ mid\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ mountains\\ as\\ symbols\\ of\\ patriarchy\\ fell\\ to\\ the\\ wayside\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ sublime\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\ was\\ feminized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Wilderness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Sanford\\ Robinson\\ Gifford\\ \\(1860\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ feminine\\ qualities\\ described\\ by\\ Miller\\ abound\\ in\\ this\\ painting\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ gentle\\,\\ even\\ haze\\ that\\ softens\\ the\\ angular\\ masculinity\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\,\\ while\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ giving\\ the\\ painting\\ a\\ luminous\\ quality\\.\\ The\\ mountain\\ itself\\ has\\ a\\ pleasantly\\ gentle\\ slope\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ readily\\ apparent\\ precipice\\ as\\ one\\ might\\ find\\ in\\ a\\ Cole\\ painting\\.\\ The\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;position\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ landscape\\ also\\ contrasts\\ the\\ masculine\\ sublimity\\ of\\ a\\ Cole\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ perched\\ atop\\ a\\ threatening\\ precipice\\,\\ the\\ viewer\\ is\\ positioned\\ on\\ safe\\,\\ level\\ ground\\ with\\ a\\ pleasantly\\ secure\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\.\\ The\\ sky\\ and\\ water\\ are\\ both\\ calm\\,\\ and\\ the\\ even\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ reflects\\ the\\ mountain\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ calming\\ symmetry\\.\\ The\\ landscape\\ between\\ the\\ water\\ and\\ the\\ mountain\\ is\\ even\\ as\\ well\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ threatening\\ or\\ imposing\\ to\\ the\\ scene\\.\\ Again\\,\\ Miller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ about\\ gender\\ roles\\ in\\ landscape\\:\\ the\\ harsh\\,\\ jagged\\,\\ masculine\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\ is\\ tempered\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ domesticated\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ the\\ feminine\\ atmosphere\\ and\\ calm\\ surrounding\\ land\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ quintessentially\\ feminine\\ landscape\\ on\\ the\\ imagebase\\.\\ The\\ only\\ other\\ painting\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\might\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fit\\ into\\ this\\ category\\ is\\ the\\ Asher\\ B\\.\\ Durand\\ painting\\ \\&ldquo\\;Kindred\\ Spirits\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Although\\ it\\ most\\ certainly\\ is\\ not\\ sublime\\,\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feminine\\ because\\ the\\ two\\ figures\\ are\\ standing\\ over\\ a\\ precipice\\ of\\ sorts\\,\\ the\\ colors\\ are\\ dark\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ feminizing\\ atmosphere\\ or\\ even\\ overtly\\ feminine\\ natural\\ components\\.\\ The\\ only\\ reason\\ I\\ mention\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ Miller\\ uses\\ a\\ Durand\\ painting\\ on\\ p\\.\\ 315\\ of\\ her\\ article\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ good\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ femininity\\ described\\ by\\ Miller\\ would\\ be\\ Thomas\\ Cole\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\View\\ from\\ Mount\\ Holyoke\\,\\ Northampton\\,\\ MA\\,\\ after\\ a\\ Thunderstorm\\ \\(The\\ Oxbow\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1836\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ viewer\\ is\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\,\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ desolation\\ after\\ the\\ thunderstorm\\.\\ Components\\ of\\ the\\ sublime\\ include\\ the\\ dark\\ storm\\ clouds\\,\\ the\\ jagged\\ and\\ broken\\ bits\\ of\\ the\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ the\\ drop\\ that\\ reveals\\ the\\ calm\\ river\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\.\\ A\\ feminized\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ \\(besides\\ omitting\\ the\\ dark\\ clouds\\ and\\ instead\\ including\\ a\\ uniform\\ haze\\)\\ would\\ be\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ background\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ viewer\\ would\\ be\\ positioned\\ on\\ the\\ calm\\,\\ level\\ ground\\ gazing\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ majestic\\ mountain\\ \\(this\\ mitigates\\ the\\ terror\\ one\\ might\\ feel\\ at\\ such\\ a\\ great\\ height\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 22, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA17y_American_Encounters_-_Final_Rdg_Summaries.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "America and Vietnam - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "america", "vietnam"], "text": null, "id": 70, "html": "\\\\\\HSB\\_68\\_Midterm\\_Study\\_Guide\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.9pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:39\\.8pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c29\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c3\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c30\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-bottom\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c24\\{color\\:\\#000080\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c25\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:19pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HSB\\ 68\\ Midterm\\ Study\\ Guide\\,\\ Fall\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NSC\\ 68\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Background\\ \\-\\ During\\ the\\ past\\ 35\\ years\\,\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\ that\\ once\\ existed\\ and\\ prevented\\ hegemony\\ by\\ any\\ particular\\ country\\ was\\ destroyed\\ through\\ revolutions\\ and\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Power\\ has\\ gravitated\\ to\\ the\\ USSR\\ and\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;USSR\\ not\\ motivated\\ by\\ hegemony\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ a\\ fanatic\\ faith\\ that\\ desires\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ atomic\\ war\\ is\\ a\\ terrible\\ option\\,\\ the\\ Kremlin\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ expand\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ civilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\ \\;Fundamental\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ and\\ defend\\ a\\ free\\ and\\ democratic\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\ \\;Fundamental\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ Kremlin\\ is\\ to\\ expand\\ authority\\ by\\ creating\\ puupet\\ states\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ looking\\ at\\ Eurasian\\ land\\ mass\\,\\ but\\ US\\ prime\\ enemy\\ in\\ non\\ soviet\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\ \\;Underlying\\ conflict\\ in\\ realm\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ values\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nature\\ of\\ conflict\\ \\-\\ It\\ is\\ slavery\\ versus\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;Freedom\\ welcomes\\ diversity\\,\\ slavery\\ does\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Soviet\\ Uniion\\ demands\\ power\\ over\\ all\\ within\\ and\\ also\\ over\\ all\\ sattelite\\ states\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ complete\\ antithesis\\ to\\ our\\ value\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objectives\\ \\-\\ Make\\ ourselves\\ strong\\ both\\ militarily\\ and\\ politically\\.\\ \\ \\;Must\\ take\\ world\\ leadership\\ in\\ helping\\ to\\ build\\ functioning\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ systems\\ in\\ the\\ free\\ world\\.\\ Try\\ to\\ frustrate\\ the\\ soviet\\ design\\ either\\ externally\\ or\\ internally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ suceeding\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ the\\ soviets\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ our\\ superior\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ we\\ go\\ to\\ war\\,\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ unavoidable\\,\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ change\\ our\\ objectives\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ do\\ not\\ wish\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ Russia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Means\\ \\-\\ Force\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ resort\\ for\\ a\\ free\\ society\\,\\ not\\ so\\ for\\ the\\ soviets\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ a\\ military\\ victory\\ wont\\ win\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ win\\ by\\ demonstrating\\ our\\ superiority\\ to\\ the\\ soviet\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ not\\ go\\ into\\ global\\ war\\ unless\\ it\\ is\\ called\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ try\\ to\\ contain\\ conflicts\\ to\\ wars\\ of\\ limited\\ objectives\\,\\ otherwise\\ we\\ will\\ alienate\\ the\\ soviet\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ NATIONAL\\ SECURITY\\ STRATEGY\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.A\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Given\\ by\\ President\\ Bush\\ Sept\\.\\ 17\\,\\ 2002\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\overview\\ of\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ International\\ Strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ struggle\\=\\ destructive\\ totalitarian\\ vision\\ vs\\.\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\to\\ fight\\ terrorism\\ we\\ \\&ldquo\\;must\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ every\\ too\\ in\\ our\\ arsenal\\-\\ military\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\America\\ will\\ help\\ nations\\ that\\ need\\ assistance\\ in\\ combating\\ terror\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;history\\ will\\ judge\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;harshly\\ those\\ who\\ saw\\ this\\ coming\\ danger\\ but\\ failed\\ to\\ act\\&hellip\\;the\\ only\\ path\\ to\\ peace\\ and\\ security\\ is\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;nations\\ that\\ enjoy\\ freedom\\ must\\ actively\\ fight\\ terror\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goals\\ for\\ U\\.S\\.\\ gov\\.\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\aspire\\ for\\ human\\ dignity\\ \\ \\;\\(by\\ speaking\\ freely\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\strengthen\\ alliances\\ to\\ defeat\\ global\\ terrorism\\ and\\ prevent\\ attacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defuse\\ regional\\ conflicts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\prevent\\ threats\\ with\\ weapons\\ of\\ mass\\ destruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;ignite\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ global\\ econ\\.\\ growth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\expand\\ circle\\ of\\ development\\ by\\ opening\\ societies\\ and\\ building\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(The\\ article\\ is\\ 20\\ pages\\ restating\\ the\\ same\\ lofty\\ goals\\ again\\ and\\ again\\.\\ Although\\ some\\ might\\ see\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ as\\ a\\ mistake\\ that\\ America\\ is\\ repeating\\ now\\ in\\ Iraq\\,\\ president\\ Bush\\ and\\ the\\ advisors\\ behind\\ this\\ speech\\ seem\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ taking\\ action\\ is\\ always\\ the\\ only\\ suitable\\ option\\ when\\ protecting\\ democracy\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Roots\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Commitment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Major\\ Problems\\ in\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ deals\\ with\\ how\\ the\\ US\\ initially\\ got\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ conflict\\ and\\ how\\ that\\ involvement\\ escalated\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arguably\\ the\\ first\\ US\\ involvement\\ was\\ in\\ 1950\\ when\\ the\\ US\\ first\\ started\\ giving\\ the\\ French\\ Financial\\ aid\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ involvement\\ is\\ caused\\ mostly\\ by\\ two\\ factors\\,\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ communism\\ taking\\ over\\ the\\ region\\ \\(domino\\ effect\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ French\\ post\\ WWII\\.\\ After\\ the\\ war\\ France\\ is\\ still\\ reconstructing\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ needed\\ the\\ economic\\ supports\\ Vietnam\\ offered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Policy\\ toward\\ Indochina\\ of\\ 1948\\ stated\\ the\\ above\\ as\\ objectives\\.\\ As\\ well\\ as\\ improving\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\.\\ And\\ to\\ prevent\\ Chinese\\ involvement\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;penetration\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repeated\\ through\\ all\\ the\\ documents\\ is\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ Communism\\ and\\ the\\ need\\ protect\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ against\\ Communism\\ at\\ all\\ costs\\.\\ Communism\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ threat\\ from\\ both\\ USSR\\ and\\ Chinese\\ involvement\\.\\ As\\ well\\ as\\ insurgents\\ inside\\.\\ Though\\ insurgents\\ were\\ generally\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ aided\\ and\\ inspired\\ by\\ either\\ China\\ or\\ the\\ USSR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ documents\\ Ho\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ communist\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ nationalist\\ or\\ revolutionary\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ Americas\\ inability\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ and\\ its\\ major\\ players\\.\\ He\\ is\\ also\\ commonly\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ USSR\\ and\\ Red\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ first\\ essay\\ by\\ Hearden\\ the\\ important\\ points\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roosevelt\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ goal\\ for\\ Indochina\\ should\\ be\\ independence\\ and\\ he\\ would\\ allow\\ post\\ war\\ colonial\\ rule\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ if\\ independence\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ ultimate\\ goal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ho\\ is\\ quoted\\ as\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ French\\ are\\ forgiven\\ and\\ weak\\ but\\ if\\ the\\ Chinese\\ come\\ they\\ will\\ never\\ leave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bao\\ Dai\\ was\\ a\\ puppet\\ government\\ set\\ up\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ Americans\\,\\ which\\ was\\ greatly\\ unsupported\\ by\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Americans\\ also\\ wanted\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;save\\&rdquo\\;\\ Vietnam\\ from\\ communism\\ because\\ Japan\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ key\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ an\\ Asian\\ economy\\.\\ Yet\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ Japan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ raw\\ materials\\ would\\ come\\ from\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\,\\ specifically\\ Vietnam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ believed\\ by\\ enforcing\\ a\\ policy\\ of\\ containment\\,\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ Asian\\ economy\\ which\\ would\\ also\\ strengthen\\ the\\ American\\ Economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ McMahon\\ Essay\\ makes\\ similar\\ points\\ to\\ Hearden\\,\\ be\\ the\\ new\\ important\\ ideas\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ho\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ would\\ support\\ his\\ goals\\;\\ he\\ saw\\ his\\ situation\\ as\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ communism\\ from\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ carrying\\ over\\ into\\ policy\\ implemented\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ should\\ be\\ put\\ on\\ post\\ war\\ Europe\\ and\\ the\\ economic\\ recovery\\ that\\ should\\ continue\\ there\\.\\ Vietnam\\ is\\ key\\ in\\ economic\\ recovery\\ of\\ Europe\\ because\\ of\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ connection\\ to\\ colonial\\ France\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ Japan\\ as\\ an\\ economic\\ superpower\\ in\\ the\\ region\\,\\ pulling\\ raw\\ materials\\ from\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ was\\ making\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ Vietnam\\.\\ They\\ were\\ telling\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ intervene\\ to\\ stop\\ communism\\ where\\ ever\\ it\\ showed\\.\\ And\\ Vietnam\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ example\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ America\\ could\\ potentially\\ squash\\ communism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ still\\ confused\\ this\\ Quote\\ from\\ the\\ McMahon\\ Article\\ basically\\ sums\\ up\\ the\\ chapter\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Indochina\\ became\\ crucial\\ to\\ Truman\\ administration\\ planners\\ by\\ the\\ late\\ 1940\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ of\\ perceived\\ relationship\\ between\\ stability\\ in\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ and\\ economic\\ recovery\\ in\\ Western\\ Europe\\ and\\ Japan\\.\\ U\\.S\\.\\ intervention\\ in\\ Indochina\\ formed\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ carefully\\ conceived\\,\\ if\\ ultimately\\ flawed\\,\\ effort\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ economic\\ resources\\ of\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ for\\ the\\ West\\ while\\ denying\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ communist\\ powers\\.\\ It\\ grew\\,\\ in\\ short\\,\\ from\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overall\\ Cold\\ War\\ strategy\\ for\\ containing\\ Soviet\\ power\\ and\\ influence\\,\\ a\\ strategy\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ blurring\\ of\\ distinctions\\ between\\ core\\ and\\ periphery\\ and\\ elevated\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ into\\ a\\ national\\ security\\ concern\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ order\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(73\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\ Major\\ Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Document\\ 1\\,\\ President\\ Eisenhower\\ appeals\\ to\\ British\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ Winston\\ S\\.\\ Churchill\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;united\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ help\\ save\\ the\\ French\\ garrison\\ at\\ Dienbienphu\\.\\ \\ \\;Document\\ 2\\ is\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ Eisenhower\\&rsquo\\;s\\ press\\ conference\\ of\\ April\\ 7\\,\\ 1954\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ spells\\ out\\ what\\ he\\ means\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;domino\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ Indochina\\.\\ \\ \\;Vo\\ Nguyen\\ Giap\\,\\ the\\ victorious\\ Vietnamese\\ commander\\ at\\ Dienbienphu\\,\\ assesses\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ that\\ battle\\ in\\ Document\\ 3\\.\\ \\ \\;Document\\ 4\\ is\\ the\\ final\\ declaration\\ of\\ the\\ Geneva\\ Conference\\,\\ July\\ 21\\,\\ 1954\\,\\ which\\ established\\ a\\ temporary\\ division\\ between\\ northern\\ and\\ southern\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ set\\ forth\\ procedures\\ for\\ eventual\\ unification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ remaining\\ documents\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ regime\\ of\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ an\\ April\\ 28\\,\\ 1955\\ National\\ Security\\ Council\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ sect\\ crisis\\ that\\ nearly\\ toppled\\ Diem\\ from\\ power\\,\\ sharp\\ differences\\ among\\ top\\ U\\.S\\.\\ officials\\ on\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ abilities\\ come\\ to\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;Document\\ 6\\ is\\ a\\ declaration\\ by\\ the\\ government\\ of\\ Vietnam\\,\\ issued\\ on\\ August\\ 9\\,\\ 1955\\,\\ renouncing\\ any\\ negotiations\\ with\\ the\\ communist\\ regime\\ in\\ the\\ north\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ January\\ 1\\,\\ 1957\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Ambassador\\ Elbridge\\ Durbrow\\ alerted\\ Washington\\ to\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ difficulties\\ that\\ plagued\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Document\\ 8\\,\\ a\\ National\\ Security\\ Council\\ discussion\\ of\\ May\\ 9\\,\\ 1960\\,\\ Eisenhower\\ and\\ other\\ leading\\ officials\\ ponder\\ South\\ Vietnam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deepening\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ opening\\ essay\\,\\ David\\ L\\.\\ Anderson\\ of\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Indianapolis\\ offers\\ a\\ critical\\ summary\\ of\\ Eisenhower\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vietnam\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ contends\\ that\\ while\\ Eisenhower\\ may\\ deserve\\ high\\ marks\\ for\\ choosing\\ not\\ to\\ rescue\\ the\\ beleaguered\\ French\\ garrison\\ at\\ Dienbienphu\\,\\ his\\ administration\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subsequent\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ Diem\\ regime\\ represented\\ a\\ massive\\ intervention\\ in\\ Vietnamese\\ affairs\\.\\ \\ \\;Anderson\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Eisenhower\\ administration\\&rsquo\\;s\\ generous\\ economic\\,\\ military\\,\\ and\\ political\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ Saigon\\ government\\ that\\ it\\ helped\\ to\\ establish\\ never\\ proved\\ sufficient\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ viable\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ became\\ tied\\ to\\ a\\ corrupt\\,\\ inefficient\\,\\ and\\ unrepresentative\\ regime\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ that\\ never\\ commanded\\ popular\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ process\\,\\ it\\ sowed\\ the\\ seeds\\ for\\ future\\ troubles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ next\\ selection\\,\\ Ronald\\ H\\.\\ Spector\\,\\ a\\ leading\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ historian\\ and\\ professor\\ of\\ history\\ at\\ George\\ Washington\\ University\\,\\ analyzes\\ the\\ shortcomings\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ American\\ military\\ advisory\\ mission\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ depicts\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ Vietcong\\ insurgency\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\ as\\ an\\ ominous\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ regime\\,\\ one\\ that\\ American\\ military\\ advisers\\ had\\ not\\ adequately\\ prepared\\ South\\ Vietnam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ armed\\ forces\\ to\\ meet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Problems\\:\\ ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Wages\\ of\\ War\\ \\-\\ Michael\\ Hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Talks\\ about\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ on\\ the\\ Vietamese\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ how\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scar\\ was\\ more\\ psychological\\ than\\ physical\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ went\\ in\\ it\\ blindly\\.\\ \\ \\;Tried\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ up\\ with\\ Persian\\ gulf\\ and\\ other\\ sure\\ wins\\.\\ \\ \\;American\\ leadership\\ should\\ be\\ held\\ more\\ accountable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Necessary\\ War\\ \\-\\ Michael\\ Lind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\End\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\ and\\ demise\\ of\\ the\\ far\\ left\\ allows\\ us\\ now\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ proxy\\ war\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ not\\ self\\-contained\\.\\ \\ \\;Radical\\ left\\ looked\\ at\\ it\\ as\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ capitalist\\ imperialism\\.\\ \\ \\;Realists\\ or\\ neoisolationists\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ tragic\\ mistake\\.\\ \\ \\;Conservatives\\ blame\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ the\\ leadership\\ for\\ preventing\\ victory\\ by\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\ \\;Cold\\ War\\ liberals\\ or\\ liberal\\ anticommunists\\ of\\ the\\ Truman\\,\\ Kennedy\\,\\ and\\ Johnson\\ admin\\ seemed\\ to\\ have\\ disappeared\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ in\\ at\\ first\\ to\\ defend\\ credibility\\ as\\ a\\ sperpower\\ against\\ communism\\.\\ \\ \\;Necesarry\\ to\\ leave\\ to\\ preserve\\ public\\ support\\ for\\ rest\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ that\\ we\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ gone\\ in\\,\\ but\\ since\\ we\\ did\\ we\\ should\\ have\\ gone\\ all\\ out\\,\\ while\\ enticing\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;Indochina\\ worth\\ a\\ limited\\ war\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ was\\ fought\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ winner\\ was\\ Soviet\\ Union\\.\\ \\ \\;Cuased\\ US\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ isolationism\\ for\\ a\\ while\\.\\ \\ \\;Vitnam\\,\\ China\\,\\ US\\,\\ Cambodians\\,\\ Laotions\\ all\\ lost\\.\\ \\ \\;Goal\\ to\\ free\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ last\\ goal\\.\\ \\ \\;SEA\\ power\\ politics\\ more\\ important\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ important\\ was\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ Soviet\\ defeat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Grand\\ Delusion\\ \\-\\ Robert\\ Mann\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Huge\\ negative\\ impact\\ on\\ American\\ society\\,\\ politics\\,\\ diplomacy\\.\\ \\ \\;Americans\\ now\\ wary\\ of\\ their\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ America\\ has\\ the\\ scar\\ of\\ defeat\\.\\ \\ \\;Every\\ military\\ action\\ is\\ tainted\\ by\\ Vietnam\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Congress\\ has\\ gotten\\ confrontational\\ with\\ executive\\ branch\\ since\\ then\\.\\ Myths\\ people\\ had\\:\\ Vietnman\\ controlled\\ by\\ Beijing\\ or\\ Moscow\\,\\ success\\ of\\ Eisenhower\\ and\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\,\\ that\\ America\\ was\\ doing\\ well\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ military\\ not\\ political\\ war\\,\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intentions\\ to\\ no\\ wider\\ war\\,\\ Golf\\ of\\ Tonkin\\ incident\\,\\ miltary\\ victory\\ was\\ possible\\,\\ steps\\ taken\\ by\\ US\\ presidents\\ for\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;Vietnam\\ a\\ grand\\ delusion\\ that\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ avoided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h5\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Land\\ Reform\\ in\\ North\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Carried\\ out\\ a\\ large\\ land\\ reform\\ campaign\\ between\\ 1953\\ and\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abolish\\ landlordism\\,\\ pave\\ way\\ for\\ coop\\ farming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teams\\ of\\ cadres\\ trained\\ and\\ sent\\ into\\ village\\ for\\ purpose\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ live\\,\\ eat\\,\\ work\\ w\\/peasant\\.\\ Cadre\\ would\\ convince\\ peasant\\ he\\ was\\ poor\\ because\\ of\\ oppression\\ of\\ landlords\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ defeated\\ if\\ they\\ united\\ and\\ fought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ then\\ supposed\\ to\\ withdraw\\ into\\ the\\ background\\;\\ however\\,\\ many\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ patience\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ and\\ told\\ them\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ at\\ every\\ stage\\ or\\ worked\\ for\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landlords\\&rsquo\\;\\ land\\ given\\ to\\ agricultural\\ laborers\\,\\ poor\\ peasants\\,\\ middle\\ peasants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Avg\\ landlord\\ should\\ have\\ got\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ former\\ tenants\\ were\\ getting\\,\\ but\\ were\\ left\\ with\\ less\\ land\\ than\\ anyone\\ else\\ in\\ village\\,\\ often\\ deprived\\ of\\ homes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impossible\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ many\\ were\\ actually\\ killed\\ from\\ N\\.\\ Viet\\ press\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ those\\ w\\/massive\\ crimes\\ were\\ only\\ recorded\\ as\\ having\\ made\\ to\\ bow\\ head\\ and\\ admit\\ crime\\ \\(even\\ those\\ crimes\\ merited\\ death\\ sentence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ explanations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Few\\ executions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Party\\ kept\\ silent\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ ashamed\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Estimates\\ of\\ people\\ killed\\ vary\\ from\\ 3\\,000\\ to\\ 15\\,000Party\\ wanted\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ few\\ executions\\,\\ but\\ not\\ too\\ many\\ in\\ each\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Question\\ of\\ whether\\ this\\ information\\ was\\ accurate\\.\\ \\(Communist\\ sources\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaughter\\ of\\ innocent\\ victims\\ \\(often\\ described\\ in\\ anti\\-Communist\\ propaganda\\)\\ never\\ took\\ place\\,\\ says\\ author\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Middle\\ peasants\\ in\\ first\\ villages\\ made\\ up\\ most\\ of\\ Party\\ membership\\;\\ willing\\ to\\ implement\\ policies\\ favoring\\ poor\\ peasants\\.\\ Believed\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ accepted\\ policies\\ of\\ revolution\\,\\ could\\ keep\\ leading\\ positions\\ in\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landlords\\ were\\ the\\ enemy\\;\\ most\\ who\\ had\\ joined\\ French\\ forces\\ had\\ been\\ ordinary\\ peasants\\ and\\ were\\ assumed\\ to\\ be\\ basically\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Policy\\ of\\ giving\\ peasants\\/laborers\\ role\\ in\\ politics\\ disastrously\\ misapplied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Promoted\\ too\\ rapidly\\,\\ without\\ adequate\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Considered\\ great\\ accomplishment\\ to\\ expose\\ a\\ reactionary\\/landlord\\ someone\\ who\\ had\\ not\\ previously\\ been\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ one\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ therefore\\ many\\ people\\ wrongly\\ classified\\ \\(potentially\\ 30\\,000\\+\\ households\\ wrongly\\ classified\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Differences\\ from\\ Stalinist\\ purges\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ majority\\ of\\ persecuted\\ lived\\ through\\ attacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recognized\\ some\\ mistakes\\ \\(mislabels\\)\\ and\\ gave\\ back\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ were\\ reclassified\\ again\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;rich\\ peasants\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ previously\\ been\\ labeled\\ \\&ldquo\\;landlord\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agricultural\\ production\\ rose\\ rapidly\\ while\\ land\\ reform\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ \\(food\\ shortage\\ decreased\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ \\&rsquo\\;56\\,\\ shortage\\ was\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Politically\\,\\ results\\ were\\ less\\ satisfactory\\:\\ less\\ self\\-confidence\\,\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ leaders\\ \\(poor\\ peasants\\ had\\ important\\ posts\\ in\\ village\\)\\.\\ Prestige\\ and\\ unity\\ seriously\\ shaken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ World\\ Transformed\\ Summary\\:\\\\Ninh\\ meticulously\\ analyzes\\ the\\ successive\\ Party\\ pronouncements\\ on\\ cultural\\matters\\,\\ emphasizing\\ their\\ \\&lsquo\\;preoccupation\\ with\\ organization\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ their\\determination\\ to\\ articulate\\ a\\ definitive\\ vision\\ of\\ socialist\\ culture\\.\\ Her\\ use\\of\\ archival\\ sources\\ enables\\ her\\ to\\ pay\\ particular\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ Ministry\\ of\\Culture\\ which\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tellingly\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inherited\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ wartime\\ Ministry\\ of\\Propaganda\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;came\\ to\\ have\\ formidable\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ intellectual\\life\\ of\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ Ninh\\ chronicles\\ the\\ internal\\ difficulties\\ faced\\ by\\ the\\Ministry\\ in\\ trying\\ to\\ develop\\ socialist\\ culture\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ astute\\observation\\ that\\ it\\ often\\ evaluated\\ its\\ success\\ in\\ quantitative\\ rather\\ than\\qualitative\\ terms\\,\\ a\\ tendency\\ which\\ at\\ times\\ allowed\\ it\\ to\\ sidestep\\ questions\\about\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ actually\\ changed\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thinking\\.\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ themes\\ is\\ the\\ increasing\\ \\&lsquo\\;contraction\\ of\\ private\\ space\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\heavy\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ upon\\ society\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ to\\ which\\ intellectuals\\ were\\particularly\\ subject\\.\\ The\\ period\\ of\\ the\\ anti\\-French\\ Resistance\\ \\(1946\\-54\\)\\ is\\still\\ considerably\\ under\\ researched\\,and\\ Ninh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ makes\\ a\\ substantial\\contribution\\ to\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ these\\ years\\.\\ It\\ is\\ well\\ known\\ that\\ over\\the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ struggle\\,\\ the\\ gradual\\ consolidation\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strategic\\position\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ weakening\\ of\\ its\\ united\\ front\\ approach\\ and\\ a\\ concomitant\\hardening\\ of\\ its\\ Marxist\\ ideology\\.\\ This\\ change\\ was\\ most\\ clearly\\ manifested\\ in\\its\\ policies\\ towards\\ landowners\\ and\\ intellectuals\\.\\ Ninh\\ chronicles\\ the\\transition\\ from\\ the\\ rather\\ heady\\ early\\ days\\ of\\ the\\ Resistance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ writers\\and\\artists\\ flocked\\ to\\ the\\ DRV\\-held\\ liberated\\ zones\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ patriotism\\and\\ loyalty\\ to\\ the\\ Party\\ which\\ had\\ led\\ them\\ to\\ independence\\ in\\ 1945\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ a\\ time\\of\\ increasingly\\ heavy\\-handed\\ indoctrination\\ \\(from\\ around\\ mid\\-1948\\ onward\\)\\ and\\subjection\\ to\\ ideological\\ control\\.\\ This\\ change\\,\\ she\\ shows\\,\\ produced\\ polarization\\within\\ the\\ ranks\\ of\\ intellectuals\\ between\\ those\\ who\\ acquiesced\\ to\\ Party\\ control\\and\\ those\\ who\\ resisted\\ it\\.\\ The\\ resulting\\ ferment\\ and\\ frustration\\ boiled\\ over\\\\(after\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ the\\ French\\)\\ in\\ the\\ Nh\\â\\;n\\ Van\\&ndash\\;Giai\\ Ph\\#m\\ affair\\,\\ named\\ for\\the\\ two\\ short\\-lived\\ publications\\ which\\ served\\ as\\ forums\\ for\\ criticism\\ from\\artists\\ and\\ writers\\.\\ This\\ Vietnamese\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;Hundred\\ Flowers\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\in\\ China\\ lasted\\ for\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ months\\ before\\ being\\ quashed\\ by\\ the\\ Party\\.\\\\A\\ criticism\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ raised\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ articles\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\,\\ well\\,\\ soulless\\ in\\its\\ treatment\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ anguished\\ and\\ bitter\\ struggle\\ for\\ many\\intellectuals\\.\\ This\\ reviewer\\ remembers\\ watching\\ a\\ video\\ produced\\ by\\ overseas\\Vietnamese\\ some\\ years\\ ago\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ well\\-known\\ composer\\ Phum\\ Duy\\ movingly\\described\\ how\\ he\\ shed\\ tears\\ when\\ he\\ left\\ the\\ Resistance\\ zone\\ in\\ the\\ jungle\\ to\\return\\ to\\ French\\-controlled\\ H\\à\\;noi\\,\\ having\\ permanently\\ broken\\ with\\ the\\ Party\\.\\How\\ many\\ other\\ artists\\ made\\ this\\ same\\ painful\\ decision\\?\\ We\\ get\\ some\\understanding\\ of\\ the\\ tensions\\ between\\ various\\ groups\\ and\\ factions\\ of\\intellectuals\\,\\ but\\ perhaps\\ not\\ enough\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\ turmoil\\ many\\individuals\\ experienced\\.\\ In\\ this\\ respect\\ the\\ author\\ has\\ somewhat\\ limited\\herself\\ by\\ relying\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ on\\ materials\\ published\\ in\\ H\\à\\;noi\\.\\ Sources\\published\\ in\\ the\\ former\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ the\\ post\\-1975\\ community\\ would\\surely\\ offer\\ some\\ additional\\ insights\\ from\\ a\\ different\\ ideological\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Land\\ Reform\\ and\\ Land\\ Reform\\ Errors\\ in\\ North\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Edwin\\ E\\ Moise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Between\\ 1953\\ and\\ 1956\\,\\ the\\ Lao\\ Dong\\ \\(Worker\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ Party\\ launched\\ five\\ waves\\ of\\ land\\ reform\\ throughout\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reform\\ had\\ both\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ goals\\.\\ \\ \\;Economically\\ the\\ aim\\ was\\ to\\ overhaul\\ the\\ farming\\ system\\ by\\ redistributing\\ and\\ collectivizing\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ plan\\ was\\ to\\ abolish\\ landlordism\\ and\\ put\\ the\\ land\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ peasants\\,\\ while\\ hopefully\\ increasing\\ agricultural\\ production\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ sense\\ the\\ reform\\ was\\ moderately\\ successful\\.\\ \\ \\;Politically\\,\\ however\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ as\\ successful\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ powerful\\ leadership\\ of\\ peasants\\ to\\ run\\ their\\ own\\ fields\\,\\ the\\ reform\\ created\\ a\\ paranoid\\ group\\ of\\ cadres\\ and\\ unqualified\\ peasants\\ focused\\ only\\ on\\ crushing\\ often\\ imaginary\\ reactionary\\ landlord\\ plots\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ reform\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ landless\\ peasants\\,\\ left\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ targeted\\ the\\ rich\\ peasants\\ and\\ landlords\\ for\\ reprisals\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ would\\ send\\ an\\ outside\\ cadre\\ to\\ each\\ village\\ to\\ persuade\\ the\\ peasants\\ to\\ rise\\ up\\ against\\ the\\ elites\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ theory\\ a\\ cadre\\ would\\ go\\ in\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ teaching\\ one\\ peasant\\ that\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ cot\\ can\\,\\ who\\ would\\ then\\ go\\ on\\ and\\ convince\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ peasants\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ this\\ point\\ the\\ cadre\\ should\\ have\\ backed\\ down\\ and\\ let\\ the\\ peasants\\ make\\ decisions\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ replace\\ the\\ village\\ leadership\\,\\ but\\ more\\ often\\ then\\ not\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stick\\ to\\ this\\ plan\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ many\\ excesses\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ reform\\ program\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ the\\ cadres\\ and\\ peasants\\ got\\ the\\ power\\,\\ they\\ were\\ brutal\\ with\\ the\\ landlords\\.\\ \\ \\;Reports\\ of\\ landlord\\ executions\\ range\\ from\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ of\\ 500\\,000\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ recent\\ and\\ more\\ likely\\ academic\\ claim\\ of\\ 5\\,000\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ reforms\\ went\\ on\\ the\\ term\\ landlord\\ encompassed\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reforms\\ were\\ originally\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ directed\\ at\\ a\\ small\\ elite\\ of\\ landlords\\,\\ but\\ it\\ quickly\\ became\\ a\\ witch\\ hunt\\ for\\ peasants\\ only\\ slightly\\ better\\ off\\ than\\ their\\ neighbors\\ or\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ refused\\ to\\ treat\\ people\\ loosely\\ accused\\ of\\ being\\ landlords\\ as\\ their\\ enemies\\.\\ \\ \\;Overall\\ about\\ 30\\,000\\ peasant\\ households\\ were\\ wrongly\\ classified\\ as\\ landlords\\.\\ \\ \\;Peasants\\ with\\ any\\ degree\\ of\\ political\\ knowledge\\ were\\ considered\\ suspicious\\ and\\ often\\ were\\ attacked\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reform\\ even\\ imploded\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ accusing\\ thousands\\ of\\ experienced\\ and\\ loyal\\ cadres\\ of\\ having\\ connections\\ with\\ the\\ old\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Unlike\\ the\\ similar\\ Stalinist\\ purges\\,\\ the\\ mistakes\\ and\\ excesses\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ reform\\ were\\ not\\ covered\\ up\\ or\\ shoved\\ off\\ onto\\ scapegoats\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ party\\ apologized\\ for\\ the\\ excesses\\ and\\ attempted\\ to\\ right\\ any\\ wrongs\\ that\\ they\\ could\\.\\ \\ \\;Fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ those\\ classified\\ as\\ landlords\\ during\\ the\\ reform\\ were\\ reclassified\\.\\ \\ \\;Truong\\ Chinh\\,\\ the\\ general\\ secretary\\ of\\ the\\ Lao\\ Dong\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ resign\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Although\\ the\\ land\\ reform\\ was\\ violent\\,\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ it\\ was\\ indicative\\ of\\ a\\ bloodbath\\ following\\ a\\ communist\\ victory\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ excesses\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ at\\ least\\ reasonably\\ logical\\.\\ \\ \\;Executions\\ occurred\\ only\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ in\\ each\\ village\\ to\\ cause\\ fear\\,\\ they\\ knew\\ that\\ more\\ than\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ hurting\\ their\\ cause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;As\\ for\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ carrying\\ on\\ both\\ a\\ socialist\\ and\\ nationalist\\ revolution\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ article\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ inherent\\ contradiction\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ the\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ communists\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ only\\ with\\ a\\ social\\ revolution\\ can\\ you\\ mobilize\\ the\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ a\\ true\\ nationalist\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ social\\ revolutionaries\\ need\\ money\\,\\ so\\ they\\ invariably\\ appeal\\ to\\ some\\ larger\\ power\\ for\\ support\\ and\\ aid\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ could\\ be\\ argued\\ that\\ with\\ this\\ aid\\ they\\ become\\ communist\\ puppets\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ communist\\ puppet\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ true\\ nationalist\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ article\\ seems\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ although\\ both\\ revolutions\\ can\\ coexist\\,\\ in\\ most\\ situations\\ one\\ will\\ be\\ more\\ dominant\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ theory\\ this\\ situation\\ was\\ stronger\\ on\\ the\\ socialist\\ side\\,\\ because\\ the\\ plan\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ liberate\\ the\\ peasants\\ but\\ to\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ real\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ did\\ not\\ work\\ out\\ so\\ well\\ because\\ peasants\\ were\\ promoted\\ too\\ rapidly\\ without\\ any\\ training\\ or\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ in\\ theory\\ they\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ receive\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ old\\ ruling\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ article\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ 1975\\,\\ so\\ presumably\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ relevant\\ information\\ was\\ not\\ yet\\ available\\ as\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ just\\ finally\\ coming\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ last\\ few\\ pages\\ are\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ land\\ reforms\\ and\\ collectivization\\ that\\ was\\ still\\ going\\ on\\ when\\ the\\ he\\ was\\ writing\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ could\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ facts\\ and\\ figures\\ presented\\,\\ but\\ the\\ general\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ seems\\ to\\ still\\ hold\\ true\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intellectual\\ Dissent\\:\\ The\\ Nhan\\ Van\\ Giai\\ Pham\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ period\\ following\\ Dein\\ Bien\\ Phu\\,\\ and\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ nationalistic\\ pride\\ which\\ ensued\\,\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ the\\ \\ \\;conflict\\ which\\ arose\\ between\\ intellectuals\\ and\\ the\\ Party\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cultural\\ officials\\.\\ Tran\\ Dan\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ writer\\ to\\ document\\ prolifically\\ the\\ event\\ in\\ his\\ novel\\ \\&ldquo\\;Men\\ upon\\ men\\,\\ waves\\ upon\\ waves\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Intellectuals\\ began\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ army\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ their\\ solidarity\\ and\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ struggle\\,\\ but\\ were\\ oppressed\\ by\\ officials\\ and\\ heavily\\ censored\\.\\ The\\ resulting\\ period\\ of\\ intellectual\\ supression\\ was\\ called\\ the\\ Nhan\\ Van\\ Giai\\ Pham\\ period\\,\\ named\\ after\\ two\\ major\\ literary\\ works\\/\\ journals\\ published\\ during\\ the\\ time\\,\\ Nhan\\ Van\\ and\\ Giai\\ Pham\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Take\\ Home\\ Points\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ article\\ incorporates\\ many\\ specific\\ work\\ names\\ and\\ authors\\,\\ many\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ remember\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ worth\\ knowing\\ the\\ in\\ North\\ Vietnam\\,\\ post\\ Dien\\ Bien\\ Phu\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ divide\\ between\\ intellectual\\ leadership\\ and\\ the\\ intellectual\\ community\\,\\ and\\ officials\\ responded\\ harshly\\ to\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ intellectual\\ dissent\\ streaming\\ from\\ the\\ authors\\ of\\ the\\ period\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\McMahon\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ Intro\\ Documents\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Military\\ Adviser\\ Gen\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maxwell\\ Taylor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;urges\\ Kennedy\\ to\\ deploy\\ a\\ military\\ force\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;significant\\ value\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ Vietnam\\ to\\ assist\\ the\\ weak\\ forces\\ currently\\ deployed\\.\\ This\\ dispatch\\ should\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\increase\\ tensions\\ and\\ risk\\ escalation\\ into\\ a\\ major\\ war\\ in\\ Asia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\b\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Provide\\ reserve\\ backup\\ to\\ GVN\\ forces\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\c\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;raise\\ national\\ morale\\ and\\ show\\ seriousness\\ of\\ US\\ intent\\ to\\ resist\\ a\\ Communist\\ takeover\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Taylor\\ cautions\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Our\\ forces\\ should\\ not\\ engage\\ in\\ small\\-scale\\ guerrilla\\ operations\\ in\\ the\\ jungle\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dean\\ Rusk\\ Robert\\ McNamara\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emphasize\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ losing\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ to\\ the\\ Communists\\.\\ 20\\ million\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ free\\ world\\ would\\ be\\ \\&\\#39\\;lost\\&\\#39\\;\\ should\\ this\\ takeover\\ occur\\.\\ They\\ endorse\\ a\\ plan\\ to\\ send\\ troops\\ and\\ equipment\\ to\\ \\&\\#39\\;improve\\ SVN\\ morale\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ defend\\ SVN\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Early\\ Army\\ Adviser\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;recalls\\ that\\ following\\ his\\ service\\ from\\ 1962\\-3\\ \\&ldquo\\;almost\\ no\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ Washington\\ area\\ knew\\ we\\ had\\ anything\\ like\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ in\\ Vietnam\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Ouch\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mike\\ Mansfield\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;questions\\ American\\ policy\\.\\ Take\\ home\\ note\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ role\\ is\\ and\\ must\\ remain\\ secondary\\ in\\ present\\ circumstances\\.\\ It\\ is\\ their\\ country\\,\\ their\\ future\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ at\\ stake\\,\\ not\\ ours\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\JFK\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\acknowledges\\ the\\ weakness\\ of\\ the\\ SVN\\ government\\ in\\ an\\ interview\\ with\\ Cronkite\\,\\ declares\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\.\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ itself\\ who\\ have\\ to\\ win\\ or\\ lose\\ this\\ struggle\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kennedy\\ acknowledges\\ Domino\\ Theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\acknowledges\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ and\\ urges\\ the\\ US\\ not\\ to\\ thwart\\ it\\.\\ Believes\\ next\\ government\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ successful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\McGeorge\\ Bundy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\expresses\\ reservations\\ with\\ the\\ coup\\,\\ and\\ states\\ that\\ any\\ coup\\ to\\ be\\ supported\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ likelihood\\ of\\ success\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\H\\.\\ C\\.\\ Lodge\\ and\\ Diem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ final\\ conversation\\ before\\ Diem\\ is\\ killed\\.\\ Diem\\ calls\\ up\\ Lodge\\ mid\\ takeover\\,\\ Lodge\\ is\\ as\\ shady\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ and\\ skirts\\ any\\ issue\\ of\\ Diem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ safety\\,\\ urging\\ Diem\\ to\\ call\\ regarding\\ any\\ issues\\ of\\ personal\\ safety\\.\\ Shhadddyy\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essays\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mike\\ Hunt\\ \\&ldquo\\;Perils\\ of\\ Interventionism\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Hunt\\ begins\\ by\\ attacking\\ Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ character\\,\\ and\\ shallow\\ knowledge\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ A\\ similar\\ crisis\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ Laos\\ in\\ \\&\\#39\\;60\\,\\ and\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ co\\.\\ operated\\ strictly\\ based\\ on\\ Domino\\ theory\\ oriented\\ concerns\\.\\ More\\ indecision\\ by\\ the\\ administration\\ led\\ to\\ poor\\ decisions\\ and\\ more\\ conflict\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ crisis\\,\\ Kennedy\\ was\\ perplexed\\ and\\ indecisive\\.\\ More\\ of\\ Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ decisions\\ into\\ 1963\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Hunt\\,\\ were\\ based\\ purely\\ on\\ domestic\\ popularity\\,\\ in\\ attempt\\ to\\ secure\\ reelection\\.\\ Hunt\\ concludes\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ while\\ impossible\\ to\\ predict\\,\\ Kennedy\\ left\\ Johnson\\ an\\ impossible\\ situation\\ in\\ Vietnam\\,\\ resulting\\ from\\ an\\ administration\\ attempting\\ to\\ police\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ not\\ appear\\ weak\\.\\ \\(Eisenhower\\ lost\\ NVM\\ earlier\\,\\ Kennedy\\ promised\\ to\\ preserve\\ SVN\\ by\\ \\&\\#39\\;paying\\ any\\ price\\,\\ and\\ bearing\\ any\\ burden\\&\\#39\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Kaiser\\ \\&ldquo\\;Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Prudent\\ and\\ Cautious\\ Policy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ This\\ essay\\ contradicts\\ strongly\\ Hunt\\&\\#39\\;s\\ attacks\\.\\ Kaiser\\ presents\\ Kennedy\\ as\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ prudent\\ foreign\\ policy\\ maker\\,\\ and\\ backs\\ up\\ the\\ administration\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ with\\ keen\\ respect\\ to\\ US\\ military\\ safety\\,\\ the\\ low\\ public\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ actions\\.\\ Kaiser\\ presents\\ the\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ crisis\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ logical\\ and\\ well\\ thought\\-out\\ response\\,\\ and\\ concludes\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ while\\ Kennedy\\ was\\ handed\\ a\\ turbulent\\ mess\\ from\\ Eisenhower\\,\\ he\\ was\\ well\\ on\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ placating\\ the\\ situation\\ with\\ carefully\\ crafted\\ policy\\.\\ Whereas\\ Johnson\\ responded\\ poorly\\ to\\ the\\ events\\,\\ Kaiser\\ deduces\\ that\\ Kennedy\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ resolve\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Take\\ Home\\ Point\\ from\\ Essays\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ conflicting\\ opinions\\ of\\ Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ policy\\.\\ a\\)\\ Indecisive\\ and\\ ineffective\\,\\ or\\ b\\)\\ Prudent\\ and\\ cautious\\.\\ Hunt\\ claims\\ Kennedy\\ wouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ done\\ any\\ better\\ than\\ Johnson\\ in\\ resolving\\ crisis\\,\\ whereas\\ Kaiser\\ predicts\\ that\\ Kennedy\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ resolve\\ the\\ crisis\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ record\\ of\\ JFK\\&\\#39\\;s\\ term\\ in\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JFK\\ and\\ the\\ DIEM\\ COUP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ John\\ Prados\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Main\\ point\\:\\ The\\ US\\ clearly\\ aided\\ the\\ coup\\ through\\ military\\ support\\,\\ monetary\\ support\\ and\\ public\\ pressure\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ murders\\ of\\ Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\ were\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ immediate\\ plans\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ had\\ chosen\\ to\\ help\\ organize\\ and\\ support\\ a\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ government\\ headed\\ by\\ President\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Diem\\ had\\ come\\ to\\ power\\ through\\ being\\ elected\\ as\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ in\\ 1954\\ and\\ conducting\\ some\\ coups\\ and\\ staged\\ elections\\ to\\ become\\ President\\ under\\ the\\ banner\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;republic\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ banned\\ all\\ other\\ political\\ parties\\ and\\ claimed\\ he\\ would\\ reform\\ the\\ state\\ based\\ upon\\ US\\ pressure\\ after\\ 1954\\ but\\ never\\ enacted\\ any\\ policies\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ people\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ were\\ not\\ content\\ with\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ leadership\\ either\\ and\\ tried\\ a\\ military\\ coup\\ in\\ November\\ of\\ 1960\\ and\\ in\\ February\\ of\\ 1962\\.\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ in\\ response\\,\\ reassigned\\ military\\ officials\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ any\\ political\\ reforms\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ 1961\\ to\\ 1963\\ the\\ US\\ continued\\ increasing\\ levels\\ of\\ support\\ to\\ Saigon\\,\\ operating\\ off\\ of\\ military\\ and\\ CIA\\ information\\ that\\ the\\ troop\\ ratio\\ between\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ the\\ guerillas\\ was\\ strengthening\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ 1963\\ one\\ of\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brothers\\ ordered\\ military\\ fire\\ onto\\ Buddhist\\ religious\\ marchers\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ their\\ flying\\ parade\\ flags\\ \\(because\\ they\\ were\\ restricted\\ only\\ flying\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ state\\ flags\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ of\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ a\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ archbishop\\ perpetuated\\ the\\ conflict\\ through\\ the\\ fall\\ and\\ summer\\ of\\ 1963\\.\\ \\ \\;Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Nhu\\,\\ the\\ third\\ of\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ was\\ the\\ main\\ problem\\ in\\ Saigon\\,\\ as\\ a\\ manipulator\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ there\\,\\ and\\ ensured\\ that\\ no\\ Buddhist\\ reforms\\ would\\ be\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Buddhist\\ demonstrations\\ and\\ immolations\\ continued\\ in\\ Saigon\\ the\\ US\\ had\\ conflicts\\ supporting\\ a\\ government\\ that\\ was\\ violating\\ human\\ rights\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ situation\\ worsened\\ and\\ Diem\\ called\\ for\\ martial\\ law\\ in\\ August\\ of\\ 1963\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ CIA\\ began\\ researching\\ what\\ a\\ coup\\ would\\ amount\\ to\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stage\\ of\\ US\\ support\\ for\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ August\\ 1963\\,\\ State\\ Department\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Roger\\ Hilsman\\ gave\\ the\\ green\\ light\\ for\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Diem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ October\\ of\\ 1963\\,\\ phase\\ two\\,\\ final\\ preparations\\ were\\ made\\ for\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ When\\ the\\ coup\\ did\\ begin\\,\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ generals\\ gave\\ the\\ US\\ only\\ four\\ minutes\\ warning\\,\\ then\\ cut\\ off\\ telephone\\ service\\ through\\ the\\ following\\ day\\,\\ November\\ 2\\,\\ and\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subsequent\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ been\\ reported\\ \\(by\\ Robert\\ McNamara\\ and\\ Arthur\\ Schlesinger\\)\\ that\\ on\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ November\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ when\\ Michael\\ Forrestal\\ reported\\ the\\ death\\ to\\ JFK\\ he\\ was\\ genuinely\\ surprised\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ White\\ House\\ discussions\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ coup\\ neglected\\ to\\ consider\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\ to\\ Diem\\ physically\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ last\\ phone\\ conversation\\ of\\ Ambassador\\ Lodge\\ and\\ Diem\\ clearly\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ no\\ longer\\ supported\\ him\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ evidence\\ that\\ JFK\\ particularly\\ called\\ for\\ his\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Problems\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ We\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ discussed\\ any\\ of\\ this\\ in\\ section\\ or\\ lecture\\,\\ so\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ if\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americans\\ in\\ Combat\\&rdquo\\;\\ focuses\\ of\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ for\\ American\\ troops\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ two\\ documents\\ are\\ letters\\ from\\ troops\\ to\\ family\\ members\\.\\ The\\ first\\ one\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ typical\\ horrors\\ of\\ war\\,\\ how\\ one\\ is\\ forever\\ changed\\,\\ how\\ watching\\ someone\\ die\\ is\\ the\\ worst\\ part\\ of\\ war\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ letter\\,\\ a\\ troop\\ explains\\ that\\ while\\ conditions\\ are\\ terrible\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ so\\ hard\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;probably\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ doing\\ hardly\\ a\\ damn\\ thing\\ at\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ seems\\ to\\ characterize\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unlike\\ other\\ wars\\ in\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ were\\ no\\ Normandies\\ or\\ Gettysburgs\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Doc\\ 3\\)\\;\\ the\\ war\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ fought\\ in\\ battles\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ guerilla\\ war\\ of\\ attrition\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ times\\ soldiers\\ were\\ just\\ waiting\\ for\\ weeks\\ on\\ end\\.\\ Also\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;none\\ of\\ the\\ encounters\\ achieved\\ anything\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Doc\\ 3\\)\\.\\ The\\ third\\ document\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ savagery\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Americans\\ to\\ killing\\ civilians\\ and\\ prisoners\\,\\ but\\ then\\ says\\ the\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rough\\ conditions\\ imposed\\ by\\ the\\ climate\\ and\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ played\\ a\\ larger\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ than\\ any\\ innate\\ evil\\ of\\ American\\ soldiers\\.\\ The\\ next\\ two\\ documents\\ are\\ testimonials\\ by\\ one\\ soldier\\ who\\ witnessed\\ and\\ one\\ who\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ My\\ Lai\\ massacre\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Doc\\ 6\\,\\ Colin\\ Powell\\ discusses\\ his\\ two\\ tours\\ of\\ duty\\,\\ comparing\\ Saigon\\ in\\ 1962\\ to\\ 1968\\.\\ The\\ city\\ had\\ been\\ destroyed\\;\\ the\\ American\\ troops\\ were\\ much\\ less\\ motivated\\ and\\ lacked\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\.\\ The\\ question\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ clearly\\ on\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ minds\\ by\\ that\\ time\\.\\ Doc\\ 8\\ is\\ a\\ detailed\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ sorry\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Armed\\ Forces\\ by\\ a\\ colonel\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ army\\ that\\ now\\ remains\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ approaching\\ collapse\\,\\ with\\ individual\\ units\\ avoiding\\ or\\ having\\ refused\\ combat\\,\\ murdering\\ their\\ officers\\ and\\ noncmissioned\\ officers\\,\\ drug\\ ridden\\,\\ and\\ dispirited\\ where\\ not\\ near\\-mutinous\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ last\\ document\\,\\ a\\ soldier\\ recollects\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ glad\\ to\\ leave\\ Vietnam\\,\\ but\\ was\\ unsure\\ why\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ pulling\\ out\\,\\ explaining\\ that\\ the\\ situation\\ was\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ always\\ been\\.\\ He\\ seems\\ to\\ imply\\ that\\ leaving\\ without\\ accomplishing\\ anything\\ underscores\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ real\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ essays\\ gives\\ a\\ pretty\\ succinct\\ analysis\\.\\ The\\ first\\ essay\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ demographics\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ fighting\\.\\ It\\ characterizes\\ Vietnam\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;working\\ class\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ that\\ 80\\ per\\ cent\\ of\\ soldiers\\ came\\ from\\ working\\ class\\ or\\ poor\\ backgrounds\\.\\ Thinking\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ nearly\\ representative\\ of\\ their\\ young\\ generation\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ \\(probably\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;youngest\\&rdquo\\;\\ war\\ America\\ has\\ fought\\ as\\ well\\)\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ nation\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ appreciate\\ their\\ efforts\\,\\ troops\\ were\\ demoralized\\.\\ They\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;encountered\\ a\\ reality\\ utterly\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ official\\ justifications\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ presented\\ by\\ U\\.S\\.\\ policymakers\\.\\ The\\ second\\ essay\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ difficult\\ conditions\\ of\\ war\\ that\\ faced\\ U\\.S\\.\\ soldiers\\ with\\ graphic\\ detail\\.\\ It\\ explains\\ that\\ while\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ troops\\ were\\ completely\\ committed\\ to\\ fighting\\ for\\ their\\ country\\;\\ over\\ the\\ years\\,\\ the\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\,\\ rough\\ climate\\,\\ disease\\,\\ racial\\ tension\\ \\(it\\ was\\ the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\,\\ and\\ failure\\ by\\ officers\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ real\\ purpose\\ for\\ being\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ all\\ contributed\\ to\\ a\\ waning\\ morale\\ and\\ a\\ worsening\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portraits\\ of\\ its\\ People\\ At\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VIETNAM\\ IS\\ THE\\ PLACE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Starts\\ with\\ Eisenhower\\ warning\\ JFK\\ that\\ Laos\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ key\\ to\\ the\\ entire\\ area\\ of\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;JFK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ background\\:\\ favored\\ French\\,\\ feared\\ the\\ menace\\ of\\ a\\ monolithic\\ Communism\\,\\ said\\ that\\ Vietnam\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;proving\\ ground\\ for\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ reiterated\\ the\\ domino\\ theory\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ soft\\ on\\ Communism\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\JFK\\ rejected\\ neutrality\\ for\\ S\\.\\ Vietnam\\ even\\ though\\ Hanoi\\ was\\ prepared\\ to\\ accept\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ rejected\\ withdrawal\\,\\ yet\\ balked\\ at\\ plunging\\ into\\ total\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dean\\ Rusk\\ \\(secretary\\ of\\ state\\)\\,\\ Robert\\ McNamara\\ \\(defense\\ secretary\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\April\\ 1961\\:\\ JFK\\ creates\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;task\\ force\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ prepare\\ economic\\,\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ military\\ programs\\ aimed\\ at\\ preventing\\ Communist\\ domination\\ of\\ S\\.\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;George\\ Ball\\ \\(deputy\\ under\\ secretary\\ of\\ state\\)\\ took\\ hold\\ of\\ project\\.\\ \\ \\;JFK\\ sent\\ hundreds\\ of\\ advisers\\ to\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;Replaced\\ Ambassador\\ Durbrow\\ \\(who\\ annoyed\\ Diem\\)\\ with\\ Frederick\\ Nolting\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diem\\ actually\\ recoiled\\ at\\ thought\\ of\\ American\\ troops\\:\\ would\\ undermine\\ nationalist\\ pretensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ wanted\\ size\\ of\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ armed\\ forces\\ to\\ increase\\,\\ and\\ with\\ that\\ American\\ aid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ mid\\-October\\ 1961\\,\\ Diem\\ reversed\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Said\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ welcome\\ American\\ combat\\ soldiers\\,\\ but\\ JFK\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ready\\ to\\ put\\ troops\\ in\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Maxwell\\ Taylor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ message\\ to\\ Kennedy\\:\\ proposed\\ an\\ initial\\ commitment\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ of\\ 8\\,000\\ US\\ combat\\ troops\\ disguised\\ as\\ logistical\\ legions\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ a\\ flood\\&hellip\\;at\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;advance\\ party\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ test\\ out\\ how\\ hard\\ fighting\\ there\\ would\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taylor\\ had\\ lost\\ sight\\ of\\ problem\\:\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ were\\ losing\\ faith\\ in\\ Diem\\&hellip\\;So\\ this\\ proposal\\ was\\ rejected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throughout\\ the\\ JFK\\ administration\\,\\ they\\ went\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ about\\ whether\\ they\\ should\\ go\\ ahead\\ or\\ show\\ restraint\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ growing\\ US\\ military\\ involvement\\ was\\ kept\\ secret\\;\\ partly\\ because\\ violated\\ Geneva\\ and\\ partly\\ to\\ deceive\\ the\\ public\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ withdrawal\\ unthinkable\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ by\\ early\\ 1962\\,\\ despite\\ verbal\\ devotion\\ to\\ common\\ goal\\,\\ the\\ JFK\\ administration\\ and\\ Diem\\ regime\\ were\\ going\\ along\\ different\\ tracks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\US\\ establishment\\ was\\ split\\ amongst\\ those\\ who\\ favored\\ a\\ stronger\\ political\\,\\ economic\\,\\ and\\ social\\ faction\\ versus\\ those\\ who\\ favored\\ a\\ stronger\\ military\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\ there\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Strategic\\ Hamlet\\&rdquo\\;\\ program\\:\\ corral\\ peasants\\ into\\ armed\\ stockades\\,\\ depriving\\ Vietcong\\ of\\ their\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\:\\ saw\\ them\\ as\\ means\\ to\\ spread\\ influence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Operation\\ Sunrise\\:\\ March\\ 1962\\ pilot\\ program\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ strategic\\ hamlets\\&hellip\\;failed\\ miserably\\,\\ peasants\\ rallied\\ to\\ Vietcong\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ US\\ approval\\ and\\ financing\\,\\ the\\ Diem\\ government\\ continued\\ same\\ mistake\\ elsewhere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Programs\\ converted\\ peasants\\ into\\ Vietcong\\ sympathizers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nhu\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ peasants\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ interestingly\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ program\\ was\\ run\\ by\\ Colonel\\ Pham\\ Ngoc\\ Thao\\,\\ a\\ secret\\ communist\\ operative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Late\\ 1962\\,\\ brought\\ in\\ US\\ helicopters\\ to\\ ferry\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ troops\\ to\\ action\\ or\\ attack\\ battlefield\\ before\\ landing\\ with\\ guns\\.\\ \\ \\;Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ guerrillas\\,\\ as\\ they\\ adapted\\ and\\ dug\\ trenches\\ and\\ tunnels\\ as\\ shelter\\ against\\ the\\ raids\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diem\\ preferred\\ having\\ US\\ helicopters\\ fight\\ war\\ for\\ him\\,\\ as\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ minimize\\ casualties\\&hellip\\;also\\,\\ confirmed\\ conviction\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ fighting\\ a\\ military\\ conflict\\,\\ not\\ a\\ political\\/economic\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diem\\ army\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shortcomings\\ apparent\\ in\\ January\\ 1963\\,\\ at\\ Ap\\ Bac\\,\\ village\\ in\\ Mekong\\ Delta\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ inferior\\ Vietcong\\ contingent\\ mauled\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ division\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ commander\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ was\\ a\\ Diem\\ loyalist\\ who\\ was\\ pretty\\ much\\ incompetent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vietcong\\ were\\ outnumbered\\ 10\\ to\\ 1\\.\\ Yet\\ they\\ won\\ the\\ battle\\ \\(only\\ 3\\ deaths\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\:\\ 61\\ soldiers\\ killed\\,\\ a\\ hundred\\ wounded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ Lieutenant\\ Colonel\\ John\\ Paul\\ Vann\\ resigned\\&hellip\\;S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ prospects\\ dim\\ unless\\ Diem\\ overhauled\\ regime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JFK\\ refused\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ as\\ a\\ loss\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 1962\\:\\ first\\ attempt\\ at\\ killing\\ Diem\\,\\ aerial\\ assassination\\.\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ escaped\\ by\\ jumping\\ into\\ a\\ fortified\\ cellar\\.\\ \\ \\;Dug\\ himself\\ deeper\\ into\\ his\\ own\\ family\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ could\\ trust\\.\\ \\ \\;Delegated\\ more\\ authority\\ to\\ Nhu\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nhu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ for\\ people\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;personalism\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;human\\ dignity\\ as\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ modern\\ materialism\\&hellip\\;\\ too\\ abstract\\ for\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nhu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ real\\ talent\\ was\\ organizational\\&hellip\\;built\\ spy\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;Mme\\.\\ Nhu\\ was\\ even\\ worse\\ for\\ the\\ Saigon\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ credibility\\.\\ \\ \\;Sexually\\ suggestive\\,\\ she\\ became\\ S\\.\\ Vietnam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ dynamic\\ prude\\&hellip\\;S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ people\\ scorned\\ her\\ sanctimonious\\ decrees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ they\\ honestly\\ believed\\ victory\\ was\\ near\\.\\ Only\\ Mike\\ Mansfield\\,\\ Senate\\ Majority\\ Leader\\,\\ delivered\\ a\\ brutally\\ frank\\ report\\:\\ failures\\ with\\ Diem\\,\\ and\\ also\\ emphasized\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ their\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Kennedy\\ would\\ not\\ retreat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ End\\ of\\ the\\ Diem\\&rdquo\\;\\ From\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vietnam\\:\\ A\\ History\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\President\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\ and\\ his\\ brother\\ Nhu\\ were\\ killed\\ on\\ November\\ 1\\,\\ 1963\\.\\ Diem\\ had\\ been\\ ruling\\ Vietnam\\ since\\ 1955\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ dedicate\\ politician\\ his\\ downfall\\ is\\ often\\ attributed\\ to\\ his\\ inflexible\\ pride\\ and\\ the\\ ambitions\\ of\\ his\\ family\\,\\ especially\\ those\\ of\\ his\\ brother\\ Nhu\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ Madame\\ Nhu\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ first\\ lady\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ because\\ Diem\\ was\\ unmarried\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diem\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ rule\\ like\\ an\\ emperor\\ and\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ permanent\\ communist\\ threat\\ and\\ the\\ opposing\\ factions\\ alienated\\ by\\ his\\ autocracy\\.\\ The\\ complot\\ against\\ him\\ was\\ leaded\\ by\\ several\\ generals\\ who\\ either\\ envied\\ his\\ power\\ or\\ antagonized\\ his\\ style\\.\\ His\\ collapse\\ however\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ possible\\ without\\ American\\ complicity\\.\\ Kennedy\\ distrusted\\ his\\ intentions\\ to\\ conciliate\\ with\\ dissident\\ groups\\ and\\ named\\ Republican\\ and\\ former\\ political\\ rival\\ Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\ Ambassador\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Since\\ his\\ appointment\\,\\ Ambassador\\ Lodge\\ became\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ the\\ anti\\-Diem\\ movement\\.\\ Seeing\\ first\\ hand\\ that\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ generals\\ were\\ getting\\ impatient\\ of\\ not\\ receiving\\ U\\.S\\.\\ approval\\ for\\ the\\ coup\\,\\ Lodge\\ himself\\ sent\\ a\\ cable\\ to\\ Washington\\ urging\\ for\\ imminent\\ measures\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ are\\ launched\\ on\\ a\\ course\\ from\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ respectable\\ turning\\ back\\:\\ the\\ overthrow\\ of\\ the\\ Diem\\ government\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ even\\ proposed\\ that\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ should\\ cease\\ help\\ to\\ Diem\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ possible\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ adequately\\ signal\\ the\\ generals\\ to\\ proceed\\ with\\ the\\ coup\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ Lodge\\ regarding\\ the\\ coup\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ his\\ continues\\ insistence\\ on\\ it\\,\\ but\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ unlike\\ many\\ others\\,\\ the\\ President\\ actually\\ listened\\ to\\ him\\.\\ By\\ giving\\ him\\ the\\ discretion\\ to\\ suspend\\ U\\.S\\.\\ aid\\ to\\ Diem\\,\\ Kennedy\\ literally\\ handed\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mandate\\ to\\ manage\\ American\\ policy\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ When\\ the\\ Kennedy\\ administration\\ grew\\ even\\ more\\ reluctant\\ to\\ commit\\ publicly\\ to\\ either\\ encourage\\ or\\ covert\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ Lodge\\ recommended\\ Kennedy\\ to\\ tell\\ General\\ Minh\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ not\\ attempt\\ to\\ thwart\\ the\\ coup\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Kennedy\\ embraced\\ the\\ term\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ generals\\ finally\\ received\\ the\\ hint\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ awaiting\\ for\\ so\\ long\\ and\\ proceeded\\ as\\ planned\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ Diem\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ dissident\\ generals\\ \\(three\\ weeks\\ before\\ Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assassination\\)\\ Saigon\\ welcomed\\ his\\ downfall\\,\\ political\\ prisoners\\ were\\ liberated\\,\\ repressive\\ measure\\ were\\ drastically\\ diminished\\ and\\ in\\ general\\ everybody\\ saw\\ this\\ event\\ as\\ the\\ prospect\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;shorter\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Figures\\ and\\ Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Duong\\ Van\\ Minh\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Was\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ officers\\ plotting\\ against\\ Diem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lieutenant\\ Colonel\\ Lucien\\ Conein\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\CIA\\ agent\\ who\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ liaison\\ with\\ the\\ generals\\ that\\ conspired\\ to\\ overthrow\\ Diem\\.\\ His\\ special\\ contact\\ was\\ General\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tran\\ Van\\ Don\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Both\\ were\\ born\\ in\\ France\\ and\\ had\\ been\\ friends\\ for\\ years\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Dinh\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Commander\\ of\\ the\\ Saigon\\ military\\ region\\ and\\ thus\\ a\\ key\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ Diem\\ coup\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Buddhists\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Buddhist\\ activists\\ staged\\ mass\\ protests\\ and\\ even\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\self\\-immolations\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;culminating\\ in\\ several\\ coup\\ attempts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strategic\\ Hamlet\\ Program\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Strategic\\ Hamlet\\ Program\\ was\\ a\\ plan\\ by\\ the\\ governments\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\South\\ Vietnam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;during\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ War\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ combat\\ the\\ Communist\\ insurgency\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\population\\ transfer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ 1961\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ advisors\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Diem\\ regime\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ began\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ a\\ plan\\ attempted\\ to\\ isolate\\ rural\\ peasants\\ from\\ contact\\ with\\ and\\ influence\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\National\\ Liberation\\ Front\\ \\(NLF\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ Strategic\\ Hamlet\\ Program\\,\\ along\\ with\\ its\\ predecessor\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Rural\\ Community\\ Development\\ Program\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ shaping\\ of\\ events\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\ and\\ early\\ 1960s\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ programs\\ attempted\\ to\\ separate\\ rural\\ peasants\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Communist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\insurgents\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ creating\\ fortified\\ villages\\ and\\ forcing\\ the\\ peasants\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ active\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ The\\ program\\ backfired\\ drastically\\ and\\ ultimately\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ support\\ for\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regime\\ and\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ sympathy\\ for\\ Communist\\ efforts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;JFK\\ and\\ the\\ Diem\\ Coup\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ introduction\\ and\\ succeeding\\ documents\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;President\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ U\\.S\\.\\ officials\\ pushed\\ for\\ the\\ 1963\\ coup\\ against\\ Diem\\ without\\ really\\ considering\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\ to\\ Diem\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bulk\\ of\\ their\\ conversations\\ and\\ documents\\ discuss\\ whether\\ to\\ support\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ whether\\ to\\ contribute\\ to\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ whether\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ enough\\ time\\ to\\ call\\ a\\ coup\\ off\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ there\\ are\\ enough\\ military\\ commanders\\ against\\ Diem\\ to\\ overwhelm\\ the\\ commanders\\ loyal\\ to\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;By\\ around\\ August\\ of\\ 1963\\,\\ JFK\\ and\\ his\\ staff\\ knew\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ continue\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ main\\ problem\\ \\(and\\ the\\ main\\ problem\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ commanders\\ in\\ Vietnam\\)\\ was\\ actually\\ with\\ Nhu\\;\\ Nhu\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ consolidating\\ power\\,\\ advising\\ Diem\\ not\\ to\\ compromise\\ with\\ the\\ Buddhists\\,\\ who\\ might\\ ascend\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ position\\ in\\ government\\ if\\ Diem\\ ever\\ stepped\\ aside\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ much\\ pressure\\ on\\ Diem\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ Nhu\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ pretty\\ much\\ agreed\\ on\\ that\\ Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;Siamese\\ twins\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Nolting\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ reluctant\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Diem\\,\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ alternative\\ and\\ no\\ successor\\.\\ \\ \\;General\\ Paul\\ Harkins\\ supported\\ making\\ last\\ efforts\\ toward\\ Diem\\,\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ get\\ him\\ to\\ reform\\,\\ even\\ though\\ former\\ Ambassador\\ Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\ believed\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ dangerous\\ for\\ the\\ coup\\ plotters\\,\\ whom\\ Diem\\ might\\ crack\\ down\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ agreement\\ involved\\ officials\\ not\\ attempting\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ Diem\\ until\\ the\\ coup\\ was\\ ready\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Since\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ mainly\\ interested\\ in\\ removing\\ Nhu\\ from\\ the\\ government\\,\\ it\\ left\\ the\\ military\\ generals\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ take\\ Diem\\ out\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ only\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ its\\ hand\\ hidden\\ from\\ the\\ plans\\,\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ player\\ in\\ the\\ plot\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ worried\\ whether\\ the\\ coup\\ had\\ enough\\ strength\\ to\\ succeed\\ \\(it\\ was\\ estimated\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ supported\\ the\\ plotters\\ than\\ Diem\\)\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ should\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ sway\\ uncertain\\ commanders\\ into\\ the\\ fold\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ warned\\ that\\ the\\ coup\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ attempted\\ if\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ look\\ like\\ it\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ succeed\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ coup\\ failed\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ either\\ have\\ to\\ pull\\ out\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ or\\ bring\\ troops\\ in\\ to\\ install\\ its\\ own\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;JFK\\ himself\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ chances\\ of\\ the\\ rebel\\ generals\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ could\\ build\\ up\\ military\\ forces\\ to\\ help\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Novels\\/Movies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Quiet\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Author\\:\\ Graham\\ Greene\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Titles\\ of\\ some\\ other\\ works\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.o\\.\\:\\ A\\ Burnt\\-Out\\ Case\\,\\ The\\ Power\\ and\\ the\\ Glory\\,\\ The\\ Heart\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Title\\:\\ The\\ Quiet\\ American\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explain\\ the\\ title\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ characters\\ in\\ the\\ book\\,\\ the\\ American\\ diplomat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pyle\\,\\ is\\ a\\ quiet\\ person\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Date\\ of\\ Publication\\:\\ 1965\\ 4\\.\\ Edition\\:\\ Penguin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ published\\ \\:\\ 1955\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Genre\\:\\ Novel\\ of\\ character\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Theme\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\-War\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ of\\ French\\ army\\ against\\ Vietminh\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Relation\\ between\\ British\\ reporter\\,\\ Chinese\\ woman\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ diplomat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Personal\\ involvement\\ in\\ acts\\ of\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ List\\ of\\ \\(main\\)\\ characters\\ and\\ description\\ of\\ them\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Fowler\\,\\ a\\ British\\ reporter\\,\\ who\\ has\\ left\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ living\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ with\\ a\\ Chinese\\ woman\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ report\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\without\\ too\\ much\\ personal\\ involvement\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Phuong\\,\\ an\\ obedient\\ Chinese\\ woman\\,\\ searching\\ the\\ security\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marriage\\ and\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ bearing\\ children\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Pyle\\,\\ a\\ US\\-diplomat\\,\\ getting\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ French\\-Chinese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\war\\ without\\ enough\\ understanding\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Narrative\\ Technique\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ is\\ permanently\\ present\\ near\\ Fowler\\ and\\ tells\\ about\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mans\\ feelings\\,\\ thoughts\\ and\\ the\\ events\\ occurring\\ to\\ Fowler\\ or\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\writes\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ Fowler\\ himself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ a\\)\\ Time\\ lapse\\:\\ A\\ couple\\ of\\ months\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ In\\ what\\ time\\ or\\ period\\ is\\ the\\ story\\ situated\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ early\\ fifties\\,\\ during\\ the\\ French\\ colonial\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Style\\:\\ Reporter\\ like\\ style\\,\\ short\\ sentences\\,\\ colloquial\\ language\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ Stray\\ notes\\:\\ none\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ What\\ is\\ YOUR\\ OWN\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ work\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ book\\,\\ especially\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ mixture\\ of\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\events\\ and\\ the\\ excellent\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ relationships\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ main\\ characters\\ in\\ the\\ book\\:\\ Pyle\\,\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Phuong\\.\\ So\\ many\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\years\\ after\\ the\\ French\\-Vietnamese\\ war\\ still\\ an\\ interesting\\ story\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ Short\\ summary\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ British\\ reporter\\,\\ Fowler\\,\\ has\\ left\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ lives\\ in\\ Saigon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\during\\ the\\ French\\-Vietnamese\\ war\\ with\\ a\\ Chinese\\ woman\\,\\ Phuong\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\while\\ his\\ wive\\ is\\ still\\ in\\ the\\ UK\\.\\ An\\ American\\ diplomat\\,\\ Pyle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arrives\\ who\\ has\\ read\\ some\\ books\\ about\\ China\\ and\\ has\\ some\\ nave\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ideas\\ on\\ influencing\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ events\\.\\ The\\ diplomat\\ falls\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\love\\ with\\ Phuong\\ who\\,\\ after\\ some\\ time\\ starts\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ him\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ he\\ promises\\ to\\ marry\\ her\\.\\ Pyle\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ local\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\underground\\ war\\-activities\\ \\(supporting\\ a\\ third\\ force\\)\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ the\\ killing\\ of\\ innocent\\ people\\.\\ As\\ Fowler\\ discovers\\ these\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\activities\\,\\ he\\ is\\ so\\ much\\ worried\\ and\\ annoyed\\,\\ that\\ he\\ uses\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\private\\ Chinese\\ relations\\ to\\ have\\ Pyle\\ killed\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ Pyle\\ has\\ saved\\ his\\ life\\ during\\ a\\ nightly\\ trip\\ near\\ Saigon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ with\\ this\\ murder\\ that\\ the\\ book\\ begins\\.\\ Alternatively\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\events\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ the\\ murder\\ are\\ described\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowlers\\ wife\\ accepts\\ a\\ divorce\\ and\\ Fowler\\ can\\ marry\\ Phuong\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NAAM\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Graham\\ Greene\\ 4B3\\,\\ 1\\-11\\-1987\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Quiet\\ American\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowler\\ is\\ a\\ British\\ reporter\\ living\\ in\\ Saigon\\ during\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\French\\-Indochina\\-war\\.\\ He\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ events\\ round\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\death\\ of\\ an\\ American\\ diplomat\\ because\\ the\\ mistress\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\diplomat\\ lived\\ with\\ Fowler\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ and\\ Fowler\\ was\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\friend\\ of\\ the\\ diplomat\\ \\(Pyle\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/1\\ Fowler\\ waits\\ for\\ Pyle\\,\\ together\\ with\\ Phuong\\,\\ his\\ former\\ mistress\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\which\\ is\\ now\\ Pyles\\ girl\\ friend\\ and\\ wife\\-to\\-be\\.\\ They\\ smoke\\ opium\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\until\\ the\\ police\\ arrives\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ interrogated\\ at\\ the\\ police\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\office\\ by\\ Vigot\\.\\ Fowler\\ identifies\\ the\\ corps\\.\\ Pyle\\,\\ the\\ diplomat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\is\\ wounded\\ in\\ the\\ chest\\,\\ but\\ the\\ real\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ is\\ mud\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\his\\ lungs\\.\\ Fowler\\ tells\\ the\\ bad\\ news\\ to\\ Phuong\\ afterwards\\,\\ who\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\decides\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ Fowler\\ again\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/2\\ The\\ first\\ meeting\\ between\\ Pyle\\ and\\ Fowler\\ is\\ described\\,\\ right\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\after\\ Pyles\\ arrival\\.\\ They\\ discuss\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ diplomatic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\correspondent\\ York\\ Harding\\,\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ great\\ influence\\ on\\ Pyles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\thinking\\.\\ York\\ Hardings\\ book\\"\\;The\\ advance\\ of\\ red\\ China\\"\\;\\ suggests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ Vietnam\\ needs\\ a\\ \\"\\;third\\ force\\"\\;\\.Fowler\\ is\\ rather\\ critical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\about\\ Pyles\\ innocent\\ ideas\\ and\\ behaviour\\.\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Phuong\\ go\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ get\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ Phuong\\ from\\ Pyles\\ home\\,where\\ they\\ meet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vigot\\ and\\ realize\\ that\\ Pyles\\ dog\\,\\ present\\ on\\ a\\ photograph\\,has\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\also\\ disappeared\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/3\\ The\\ first\\ meeting\\ between\\ Pyle\\ and\\ Phuong\\,\\ together\\ with\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ at\\ the\\ continental\\ bar\\,\\ where\\ war\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ north\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\discussed\\.Afterwards\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ the\\ 500\\ girls\\ is\\ visited\\.\\ Pyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dances\\ with\\ Phuong\\ and\\ starts\\ to\\ love\\ her\\.\\ The\\ innocent\\ Pyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\suggests\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ house\\ before\\ the\\ evening\\ starts\\ getting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rude\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/4\\ The\\ war\\ scene\\ near\\ Phat\\ Diem\\ is\\ described\\:a\\ church\\ full\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\refugees\\,a\\ walk\\ with\\ 12\\ combatants\\.Fowler\\ is\\ present\\ when\\ they\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\meet\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ dead\\ bodies\\ in\\ a\\ canal\\.\\ When\\ Fowler\\ wants\\ to\\ get\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\asleep\\ in\\ the\\ office\\ quarter\\,\\ Pyle\\ appears\\,\\ he\\ has\\ followed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowler\\ all\\ alone\\ despite\\,all\\ dangers\\,\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ love\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\with\\ Phuong\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ marry\\ her\\ and\\ get\\ children\\.\\ Fowler\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marry\\ Phuong\\ because\\ his\\ wife\\ refuses\\ to\\ divorce\\ \\(she\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\-Catholic\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/5\\ Pyle\\ succeeds\\ in\\ finding\\ air\\ transport\\ to\\ Saigon\\ via\\ Hanoi\\.\\ In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hanoi\\ Pyle\\ has\\ left\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ Fowler\\,\\ thanking\\ Fowler\\ that\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ been\\ reasonable\\,remaining\\ friends\\ and\\ promising\\ not\\ to\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phuong\\ before\\ Fowler\\ is\\ back\\.Fowler\\ is\\ three\\ weeks\\ underway\\.\\ He\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\attends\\ several\\ events\\ eg\\.\\ a\\ press\\ conference\\ of\\ a\\ French\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\officer\\,admitting\\ he\\ needs\\ more\\ helicopters\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wounded\\ people\\.\\ Pyle\\ also\\ receives\\ a\\ telegram\\ in\\ Hanoi\\ that\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ to\\ leave\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ months\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\/1\\ Fowler\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ tell\\ Phuong\\ about\\ his\\ departure\\,\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ activities\\ in\\ Saigon\\;\\ rumours\\ say\\ Pyle\\ is\\ there\\ to\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\with\\ a\\ \\"\\;third\\ force\\"\\;\\.Pyle\\ asks\\ his\\ newspaper\\ to\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stay\\ in\\ Saigon\\.Thomas\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Alden\\ Pyle\\ meet\\ again\\.\\ Pyle\\ has\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\brought\\ his\\ dog\\,\\ which\\ Thomas\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\.\\ They\\ discuss\\ Phuong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\again\\.\\ Fowler\\ tells\\ Phuong\\ about\\ his\\ coming\\ departure\\,\\ Phuong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wants\\ to\\ join\\ him\\.\\ However\\ she\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ even\\ know\\ the\\ difference\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\between\\ the\\ USA\\ and\\ the\\ UK\\ and\\ starts\\ thinking\\:\\ what\\ does\\ she\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\really\\ want\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\/2\\ Eighty\\ kilometers\\ North\\ of\\ Saigon\\ Pyle\\ and\\ Fowler\\ happen\\ to\\ meet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\again\\.\\ As\\ Pyles\\ Buick\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ ride\\,\\ he\\ joins\\ Fowler\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lack\\ petrol\\ \\(apparently\\ stolen\\)\\ they\\ get\\ stuck\\ near\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\watch\\-tower\\,\\ that\\ during\\ the\\ night\\ is\\ guarded\\ by\\ two\\ young\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnamese\\ soldiers\\.\\ The\\ Vietminh\\ arrives\\,\\ summons\\ the\\ two\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Westerns\\ to\\ come\\ out\\.\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Pyle\\ happen\\ to\\ escape\\ via\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\water\\ in\\ the\\ rice\\ fields\\.\\ Fowler\\ breaks\\ his\\ leg\\ during\\ a\\ jump\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ the\\ watch\\-tower\\,\\ Pyle\\ saves\\ his\\ life\\ by\\ carrying\\ him\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\away\\.After\\ a\\ stay\\ in\\ hospital\\,\\ Fowler\\ returns\\ home\\ where\\ Phuong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\takes\\ care\\ of\\ him\\.\\ His\\ wife\\ has\\ sent\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ answer\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\divorce\\ request\\,\\ saying\\"\\;no\\"\\;\\.\\ Fowler\\ lies\\ to\\ Phuong\\ and\\ Pyle\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\ divorce\\ procedure\\ is\\ started\\(later\\ on\\ Phuongs\\ sister\\,\\ who\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\read\\ and\\ speak\\ English\\ discovers\\ the\\ truth\\)\\.\\ Via\\ Dominguez\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnamese\\ friend\\ and\\ helper\\,\\ Fowler\\ visits\\ messrs\\ Hou\\ and\\ Heng\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\who\\ show\\ him\\ drums\\ with\\ diolacton\\ and\\ a\\ mould\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bicycle\\-pumplike\\ objects\\.Pyle\\ comes\\ along\\ to\\ Fowlers\\ house\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tell\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ marry\\ Phuong\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ sent\\ away\\ by\\ Fowler\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\/1\\ Vigot\\,\\ the\\ policeman\\ meets\\ Fowler\\ two\\ weeks\\ after\\ Pyles\\ death\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pyles\\ dog\\ has\\ been\\ found\\.Prior\\ to\\ Pyles\\ death\\:\\ Phuong\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\apparently\\ seeing\\ Pyle\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ times\\.\\ As\\ Fowler\\ is\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\street\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ bicyclettes\\ explode\\:\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\demonstration\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ general\\ Th\\,\\ the\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;third\\ force\\"\\;\\.Fowler\\ realizes\\ that\\ Pyle\\ is\\ funding\\ and\\ supporting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\these\\ activities\\ by\\ supplying\\ money\\ and\\ plastic\\ bombing\\ material\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ thinks\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ dangerous\\ to\\ do\\ that\\.\\ In\\ Mr\\ Muoi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ garage\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\finds\\ a\\ press\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ \\"\\;pump\\ parts\\"\\;\\ that\\ caused\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\explosions\\.Coming\\ home\\ Fowler\\ discovers\\ Phuong\\ has\\ gone\\.\\ He\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\discusses\\ Pyles\\ behaviour\\ at\\ the\\ American\\ legation\\,\\ but\\ Pyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ present\\.Fowler\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ north\\,\\ joining\\ a\\ bombing\\ command\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\doing\\ dive\\-bombing\\.It\\ makes\\ clear\\ how\\ cruel\\ this\\ is\\,also\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\captain\\ realizes\\ this\\.\\ He\\ hates\\ doing\\ it\\.\\ After\\ the\\ raid\\ they\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\visit\\ an\\ opium\\ and\\ whore\\ house\\.\\ Fowler\\ is\\ to\\ tired\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\but\\ smoke\\ opium\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\/2\\ Coming\\ home\\ at\\ Saigon\\,\\ the\\ lonely\\ Fowler\\ meets\\ Pyle\\ in\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\apartment\\.There\\ is\\ a\\ letter\\ from\\ Fowlers\\ employer\\ telling\\ he\\ may\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stay\\ another\\ year\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ Pyle\\ hasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ married\\ Phuong\\ yet\\,\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wants\\ to\\ do\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ American\\ way\\"\\;\\:\\ at\\ home\\ with\\ parents\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\family\\ present\\.Fowler\\ and\\ Pyle\\ remain\\ Friends\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\war\\.\\ Fowler\\ warns\\ Pyle\\ not\\ to\\ trust\\ general\\ Th\\.Fowler\\ looks\\ for\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ flat\\.\\ After\\ visiting\\ one\\ he\\ observes\\ a\\ cruel\\ plastic\\ bombing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accident\\ in\\ the\\ street\\.\\ Later\\ Pyle\\ explains\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\upset\\ a\\ parade\\ with\\ officers\\.\\ The\\ parade\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cancelled\\,\\ innocent\\ civilians\\ have\\ now\\ been\\ killed\\.\\ Phuong\\ had\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\been\\ warned\\ by\\ Pyle\\ to\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ region\\,\\ she\\ hasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ been\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hurt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\/1\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Vigot\\ discuss\\ York\\ Hardings\\ ideas\\ and\\ the\\ influence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ ideas\\ of\\ this\\ author\\ had\\ on\\ Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ thinking\\.Analysis\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dirt\\ on\\ Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ dog\\&\\#39\\;s\\ feet\\ has\\ made\\ clear\\ Pyle\\ has\\ visited\\ Fowler\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\short\\ before\\ his\\ death\\.\\ Vigot\\ confirms\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ convinced\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowler\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ kill\\ Pyle\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\/2\\ What\\ did\\ happen\\ actually\\ \\?Fowler\\ and\\ Heng\\ have\\ met\\:\\ Fowler\\ tells\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ behaviour\\ is\\ getting\\ too\\ dangerous\\,\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stopped\\.\\ Fowler\\ will\\ make\\ an\\ appointment\\ with\\ Pyle\\ to\\ have\\ dinner\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\at\\ the\\ Vieux\\ Moulin\\.\\ Pyle\\ has\\ apparently\\ been\\ killed\\ by\\ Hengs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\,\\ on\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ restaurant\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\/3\\ Fowler\\ comes\\ home\\,\\ a\\ telegram\\ from\\ his\\ wife\\ tells\\ that\\ she\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\suddenly\\ changed\\ her\\ mind\\,\\ as\\ Fowler\\ had\\ asked\\ and\\ accepts\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\divorce\\.\\ Phuong\\ is\\ very\\ glad\\ and\\ runs\\ to\\ her\\ sister\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\news\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ William\\ J\\.\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Eugene\\ Burdick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plot\\ Summary\\ Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ published\\ in\\ 1958\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;exposed\\ in\\ graphic\\ detail\\ the\\ reasons\\ why\\ American\\ diplomacy\\ was\\ failing\\ in\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&\\#39\\;s\\ and\\ the\\ reasons\\ why\\ communism\\ was\\ succeeding\\.\\ As\\ a\\ chronicle\\ of\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ influence\\ in\\ Asia\\,\\ it\\ caused\\ quite\\ a\\ diplomatic\\ fury\\.\\ Its\\ lessons\\ seem\\ startlingly\\ urgent\\ today\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ turmoil\\ in\\ Central\\ America\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\.\\ Whether\\ the\\ foreign\\ policy\\ errors\\ this\\ book\\ dramatizes\\ have\\ been\\ corrected\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ question\\,\\ and\\ one\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ usefully\\ debated\\ in\\ the\\ classroom\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ harbinger\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ failure\\ in\\ Vietnam\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;seems\\ a\\ terribly\\ prophetic\\ book\\.\\ How\\ could\\ the\\ warnings\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Burdick\\ sounded\\ have\\ gone\\ unheeded\\?\\ An\\ examination\\ of\\ their\\ book\\ shows\\ us\\ precisely\\ how\\,\\ for\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;knowledgeable\\ and\\ skillful\\ executors\\ of\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\ \\(those\\ who\\ believe\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ things\\ we\\ do\\ must\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ whose\\ friendship\\ we\\ need\\-\\-not\\ just\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ propaganda\\"\\;\\)\\ are\\ routinely\\ replaced\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ know\\ less\\,\\ care\\ less\\,\\ and\\ are\\ eminently\\ less\\ qualified\\ to\\ serve\\ those\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ novel\\ opens\\ with\\ one\\ such\\ individual\\-\\-the\\ \\"\\;Honorable\\"\\;\\ Louis\\ Sears\\,\\ ambassador\\ to\\ the\\ fictitious\\ country\\ of\\ Sarkhan\\,\\ a\\ small\\ underdeveloped\\ nation\\ in\\ which\\ communist\\ and\\ American\\ interests\\ are\\ vying\\ for\\ supremacy\\.\\ Sears\\ has\\ assumed\\ his\\ post\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ stopgap\\.\\ Between\\ three\\ terms\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ and\\ an\\ anticipated\\ federal\\ judgeship\\ \\"\\;with\\ a\\ long\\ tenure\\,\\"\\;\\ he\\&\\#39\\;s\\ simply\\ filling\\ time\\ in\\ a\\ \\"\\;cushy\\"\\;\\ job\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ entertainment\\ budget\\ and\\ lavish\\ living\\ conditions\\,\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ he\\ had\\ never\\ heard\\ of\\,\\ serving\\ people\\ he\\ thinks\\ of\\ as\\ \\"\\;little\\ monkeys\\.\\"\\;\\ A\\ caricature\\ depicting\\ Sears\\ as\\ a\\ braying\\ mule\\ has\\ appeared\\ in\\ a\\ local\\ Sarkhanese\\ newspaper\\,\\ making\\ clear\\ just\\ how\\ the\\ American\\ ambassador\\ is\\ perceived\\:\\ Sears\\ is\\ the\\ prototype\\ of\\ \\"\\;the\\ ugly\\ American\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ following\\ chapter\\ presents\\ the\\ Russian\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Sarkhan\\,\\ Louis\\ Krupitzyn\\,\\ a\\ thorough\\ professional\\ whose\\ two\\-year\\ training\\ period\\ has\\ included\\ instruction\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ and\\ the\\ customs\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ sent\\ to\\ serve\\ in\\.\\ His\\ entire\\ staff\\ is\\ fluent\\ in\\ Sarkhanese\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ cultural\\ nuances\\ which\\ distinguish\\ the\\ Sarkhanese\\ people\\.\\ The\\ Soviet\\ ambassador\\ molds\\ himself\\ into\\ this\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ Sarkhan\\.\\ He\\ diets\\,\\ losing\\ forty\\ pounds\\;\\ he\\ studies\\ ballet\\,\\ reads\\ Sarkhanese\\ literature\\ and\\ drama\\,\\ and\\ becomes\\ a\\ skillful\\ nose\\ flute\\ player\\-\\-all\\ as\\ a\\ prelude\\ to\\ effective\\ diplomacy\\.\\ Equipped\\ with\\ his\\ country\\&\\#39\\;s\\ long\\-range\\ political\\ goals\\ for\\ Sarkhan\\ and\\ a\\ clear\\ strategy\\,\\ the\\ ambassador\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ take\\ actions\\ designed\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ communist\\ interest\\ in\\ Sarkhan\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ not\\ the\\ least\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ \\"\\;small\\ ways\\,\\"\\;\\ which\\ include\\ \\"\\;educating\\"\\;\\ the\\ population\\ by\\ degrees\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ Krupitzyn\\ instigates\\ deliberate\\ acts\\ of\\ espionage\\ designed\\ to\\ further\\ strengthen\\ the\\ communist\\ position\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ Russian\\ informer\\ planted\\ at\\ an\\ American\\ embassy\\ as\\ translator\\ supplies\\ key\\ information\\ about\\ an\\ American\\ rice\\ shipment\\ which\\ the\\ Russians\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ political\\ advantage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ the\\ American\\ ambassador\\ is\\ crude\\ and\\ bumbling\\,\\ the\\ Russian\\ is\\ refined\\ and\\ skillful\\.\\ This\\ theme\\ is\\ echoed\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ reference\\ to\\ Burma\\,\\ Ceylon\\,\\ Indonesia\\,\\ Vietnam\\,\\ Cambodia\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Philippines\\-\\-all\\ the\\ countries\\ the\\ novel\\ examines\\.\\ Still\\,\\ there\\ are\\ individuals\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ fall\\ into\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ ugly\\ American\\.\\ These\\ are\\ tough\\,\\ hardworking\\ Americans\\ with\\ a\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ human\\ decency\\ and\\ an\\ innate\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ help\\ people\\.\\ These\\ individuals\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ win\\ friends\\ for\\ America\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ they\\ help\\ improve\\ the\\ living\\ conditions\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ desperately\\ need\\ it\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ infusion\\ of\\ big\\ American\\ dollars\\ and\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ big\\ American\\ projects\\ that\\ these\\ nations\\ need\\,\\ the\\ authors\\&\\#39\\;\\ examples\\ assert\\,\\ but\\ individuals\\ who\\ contribute\\ their\\ skills\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ underdeveloped\\ nations\\ with\\ problems\\ they\\ themselves\\ have\\ identified\\.\\ In\\ the\\ book\\ these\\ individuals\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Father\\ Finian\\,\\ the\\ Jesuit\\ priest\\ who\\ enables\\ the\\ anticommunist\\ groups\\ of\\ Burma\\ to\\ understand\\ and\\ to\\ counter\\ the\\ tactics\\ of\\ those\\ communists\\ who\\ are\\ threatening\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ of\\ their\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Cowlin\\,\\ the\\ American\\ dairy\\ farmer\\ who\\ sees\\ how\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ milk\\ into\\ the\\ economy\\ of\\ Sarkhan\\ can\\ turn\\ its\\ failures\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edward\\ Hillandale\\,\\ the\\ Air\\ Force\\ colonel\\ whose\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ all\\ things\\ Filipino\\ convince\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ province\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ crude\\ and\\ contemptuous\\ and\\ rich\\,\\ thereby\\ influencing\\ a\\ crucial\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tom\\ Knox\\,\\ an\\ American\\ economic\\ consultant\\ and\\ passionate\\ chicken\\ farmer\\ who\\ shows\\ the\\ Cambodians\\ how\\ to\\ turn\\ scrawny\\ chickens\\ into\\ fat\\,\\ lucrative\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ Atkins\\,\\ field\\ engineer\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ whose\\ ingenious\\ water\\ pump\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ as\\ a\\ small\\ nonprofit\\ industry\\ for\\ the\\ struggling\\ farmers\\ in\\ the\\ dry\\ provinces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ lesson\\ is\\ clear\\.\\ These\\ decent\\ Americans\\ who\\ remain\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ countries\\ they\\ are\\ working\\ in\\ are\\ also\\ America\\&\\#39\\;s\\ best\\ ambassadors\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ three\\ years\\ after\\ this\\ book\\&\\#39\\;s\\ initial\\ publication\\,\\ John\\ F\\.\\ Kennedy\\ established\\ the\\ Peace\\ Corps\\,\\ whose\\ philosophy\\ and\\ methods\\ closely\\ parallel\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ small\\-scale\\,\\ people\\-oriented\\ assistance\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Burdick\\ depict\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ individual\\ Americans\\ cannot\\ match\\ the\\ communist\\ effort\\ to\\ dominate\\ in\\ underdeveloped\\ nations\\,\\ the\\ book\\ warns\\.\\ All\\ the\\ good\\ they\\ do\\ is\\ easily\\ undermined\\ by\\ the\\ failures\\ of\\ high\\-level\\ diplomats\\ and\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ clear\\ strategy\\ for\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ these\\ nations\\ face\\.\\ If\\ the\\ blundering\\ Ambassador\\ Sears\\ and\\ his\\ counterpart\\ and\\ eventual\\ successor\\ in\\ Sarkhan\\,\\ Joe\\ Bing\\,\\ create\\ hostility\\ rather\\ than\\ friendship\\ for\\ America\\,\\ Ambassador\\ MacWhite\\,\\ who\\ serves\\ between\\ them\\,\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ can\\ reverse\\ this\\ process\\ through\\ genuine\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ population\\ and\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ coherent\\ principles\\ designed\\ to\\ address\\ Sarkhan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ most\\ pressing\\ problems\\-\\-underdevelopment\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ and\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ communism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ MacWhite\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ ambassador\\:\\ respectful\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ and\\ customs\\ of\\ his\\ country\\,\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ training\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ all\\ diplomatic\\ personnel\\,\\ learned\\ in\\ communist\\ literature\\ and\\ the\\ methodology\\ which\\ underlies\\ the\\ communist\\ attempts\\ to\\ gain\\ power\\ in\\ poor\\ nations\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ help\\ prevent\\ similar\\ situations\\ in\\ his\\ country\\,\\ MacWhite\\ goes\\ to\\ observe\\ firsthand\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ military\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ He\\ dissects\\ the\\ failures\\ they\\ made\\ at\\ the\\ battle\\ for\\ Dien\\ Bien\\ Phu\\ and\\ studies\\ communist\\ strategy\\ and\\ Vietnamese\\ terrain\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ these\\ mistakes\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ reports\\ his\\ findings\\ to\\ the\\ senior\\ French\\ military\\ command\\ and\\ their\\ American\\ advisors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;Since\\ December\\ of\\ 1946\\ the\\ French\\ have\\ been\\ fighting\\ a\\ war\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ maneuvered\\ by\\ the\\ Communists\\ precisely\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ which\\ Mao\\ outlined\\ in\\ this\\ pamphlet\\.\\ You\\ are\\ a\\ military\\ man\\-\\-you\\ will\\ please\\ excuse\\ my\\ bluntness\\-\\-but\\ you\\ made\\ every\\ mistake\\ Mao\\ wanted\\ you\\ to\\.\\ You\\ ignored\\ his\\ every\\ lesson\\ for\\ fighting\\ on\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ terrain\\.\\ You\\ neglected\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ cooperation\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\,\\ even\\ though\\ Mao\\ proved\\ long\\ ago\\ that\\ Asians\\ will\\ not\\ fight\\ otherwise\\.\\.\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ French\\ commander\\ replies\\:\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ suggesting\\,\\ Ambassador\\ MacWhite\\,\\ that\\ the\\ nation\\ which\\ produced\\ Napoleon\\ now\\ has\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ primitive\\ Chinese\\ for\\ military\\ instruction\\,\\ I\\ can\\ tell\\ you\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ making\\ a\\ mistake\\,\\ you\\&\\#39\\;re\\ being\\ insulting\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ report\\ submitted\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ Senate\\ is\\ similarly\\ handled\\.\\ The\\ report\\ is\\ contradicted\\ by\\ the\\ testimony\\ of\\ an\\ American\\ senator\\ who\\ has\\ spent\\ a\\ brief\\ week\\ touring\\ Vietnam\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ describe\\ the\\ week\\&\\#39\\;s\\ tour\\ as\\ being\\ carefully\\ orchestrated\\ by\\ American\\ embassy\\ officials\\ determined\\ not\\ to\\ allow\\ the\\ senator\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ badly\\ things\\ are\\ going\\ both\\ militarily\\ and\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ American\\ attempt\\ to\\ \\"\\;win\\ friends\\"\\;\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ for\\ the\\ West\\.\\ The\\ Senate\\&\\#39\\;s\\ dismissal\\ of\\ MacWhite\\&\\#39\\;s\\ report\\ on\\ conditions\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ the\\ Foreign\\ Office\\ dismissal\\ of\\ MacWhite\\ himself\\ as\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Sarkhan\\ point\\ to\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\ failures\\ as\\ serious\\ as\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ careful\\ selection\\ and\\ training\\ of\\ its\\ diplomatic\\ personnel\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ another\\ ugly\\ American\\ replaces\\ MacWhite\\ in\\ Sarkhan\\.\\ As\\ for\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ America\\ to\\ learn\\ from\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ the\\ French\\,\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ fiction\\;\\ it\\ is\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ exposing\\ the\\ ineptitude\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ shape\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Burdick\\ point\\ out\\ the\\ way\\ costly\\ mistakes\\ are\\ made\\-\\-costly\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ United\\ Sates\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ even\\ more\\ costly\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ citizens\\ whose\\ lives\\ and\\ well\\-being\\ are\\ at\\ stake\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ book\\ that\\ is\\ certain\\ to\\ deepen\\ students\\&\\#39\\;\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ international\\ affairs\\.\\ Its\\ terse\\,\\ episodic\\ style\\ and\\ its\\ many\\ portraits\\ of\\ individuals\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ diplomacy\\ give\\ readers\\ an\\ important\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ dimensions\\ of\\ the\\ problems\\ which\\ receive\\ such\\ cursory\\ treatment\\ on\\ the\\ nightly\\ news\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ mandatory\\ reading\\ for\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ a\\ participatory\\ democracy\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ understanding\\ the\\ mistake\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ their\\ repetition\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 29, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HSB_68_Midterm_Study_Guide_1.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Slavery and Slave Trade - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "slavery", "slave-trade"], "text": null, "id": 71, "html": null, "course_id": 30, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Slavery_Midterm_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 01:17:04.607422+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Medicine and Society - Final Exam Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "medicine", "society"], "text": null, "id": 74, "html": "\\\\\\Medicine\\_Final\\_Exam\\_Study\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c4\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c3\\{background\\-color\\:\\#00ffff\\}\\.c5\\{background\\-color\\:\\#00ff00\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c8\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ff00ff\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Week\\ of\\ November\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Warner\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ John\\ Harley\\.\\ \\"\\;From\\ Specificity\\ to\\ Universalism\\ in\\ Medical\\ Therapeutics\\:\\ Transformation\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\-Century\\ United\\ States\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Traditional\\ practices\\ \\(bring\\ about\\ visible\\ changes\\ in\\ patient\\,\\ ea\\.\\ patient\\ different\\)\\ to\\ now\\ \\(experimental\\ science\\,\\ objectified\\ disease\\,\\ minimized\\ differences\\ between\\ patients\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Broad\\ Shift\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Mid\\ 19th\\ c\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;specificity\\&rdquo\\;\\ match\\ treatment\\ to\\ person\\ and\\ his\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Last\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ 19th\\ c\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;universal\\&rdquo\\;\\ treat\\ everyone\\ same\\ for\\ same\\ diagnosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seen\\ as\\ shifts\\ in\\ these\\ \\(interconnected\\)\\ areas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Science\\:\\ clinical\\ observation\\ \\(specificity\\ says\\ no\\ fixed\\ rules\\,\\ disease\\ differs\\ betwn\\ time\\,\\ ppl\\,\\ and\\ place\\-distance\\ from\\ other\\ sci\\.\\,\\ diseases\\ fluid\\,\\ limit\\ transmissibility\\ of\\ med\\.\\ knowledge\\)\\ to\\ laboratory\\ science\\ \\(could\\ explain\\ and\\ direct\\ therapeutic\\ behavior\\-back\\ to\\ rationalism\\,\\ disease\\ discrete\\ entity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Practice\\:\\ heroic\\ drugging\\ \\(big\\ visual\\ effect\\,\\ reinforce\\ paradigm\\ \\&\\;\\ dr\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ authority\\)\\ to\\ minimalism\\ and\\ targeted\\ therapeutics\\ \\(patients\\ prefer\\,\\ vis\\ medicatrix\\ naturae\\,\\ French\\ skepticism\\,\\ competition\\ w\\ homeopaths\\,\\ less\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\ records\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paradigm\\ of\\ health\\:\\ natural\\ balance\\ \\(relative\\,\\ individual\\ holistic\\ balance\\ w\\ environ\\.\\,\\ dr\\.\\ needs\\ to\\ know\\ patient\\ well\\,\\ country\\ v\\.\\ debilitating\\ city\\,\\ north\\ v\\ hot\\ south\\,\\ Old\\ World\\ v\\.\\ America\\)\\ to\\ normal\\ state\\ \\(can\\ be\\ measured\\,\\ isolate\\ parts\\ of\\ body\\,\\ standardization\\,\\ delegitimize\\ racism\\,\\ sexism\\,\\ classism\\ in\\ medicine\\ although\\ continues\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epistemology\\:\\ rationalism\\ to\\ empiricism\\ \\(French\\,\\ observation\\,\\ \\&rsquo\\;20\\-60\\)\\ and\\ back\\ to\\ rationalism\\ \\(German\\,\\ supplant\\ limitations\\ of\\ specificity\\ w\\ fixed\\ laws\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tear\\ down\\ specific\\ therapeutics\\ to\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;60s\\)\\ build\\ up\\ universal\\ therapeutics\\ based\\ on\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attend\\ to\\ preventative\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hospital\\ increased\\ in\\ importance\\ for\\ authoritative\\ source\\ of\\ med\\ therapeutic\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.s\\ turn\\ to\\ scientific\\ grounding\\ because\\ was\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ professional\\ uplift\\,\\ belief\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rapid\\ therapeutic\\ progress\\ \\(not\\ to\\ come\\ for\\ awhile\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leupp\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Constance\\ S\\.\\,\\ and\\ Hendrick\\,\\ Burton\\ J\\.\\ \\"\\;Twilight\\ Sleep\\ in\\ America\\,\\"\\;\\ McClure\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Magazine\\ 44\\:16\\ \\(April\\ 1915\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ response\\ to\\ Am\\.\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ method\\,\\ has\\ lots\\ of\\ pictures\\ of\\ babies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discovered\\ 1902\\ by\\ Von\\ Steinbuchel\\,\\ originally\\ small\\ doses\\ of\\ scopolamine\\-morphine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rsquo\\;06\\-7\\,\\ Gauss\\ \\&\\;\\ Kronig\\ published\\ its\\ use\\ in\\ 1000\\ births\\ w\\/o\\ injury\\ \\(then\\ 5000\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Named\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dammershlaf\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ key\\ to\\ not\\ standardize\\ treatment\\,\\ give\\ till\\ woman\\ forgets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Americans\\ adopted\\ drug\\ but\\ used\\ too\\ much\\&mdash\\;asphyxiated\\ babies\\,\\ thought\\ Gauss\\ lied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Twilight\\ Sleep\\ not\\ anesthetic\\ \\(unconscious\\)\\,\\ but\\ analgesic\\(less\\ pain\\)\\ and\\ amnesic\\ \\(forget\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1914\\ tried\\ Gaus\\/Kronig\\ method\\ in\\ America\\,\\ dr\\.s\\ go\\ to\\ Germany\\ to\\ learn\\,\\ 8\\ mo\\ 3\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\babies\\ born\\,\\ Dammershlaf\\ first\\ used\\ in\\ cities\\ in\\ hospitals\\,\\ skeptic\\ dr\\.s\\ recanted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Predicted\\ that\\ would\\ inc\\ \\#\\ of\\ children\\ in\\ upper\\ class\\,\\ lower\\ abortion\\ rate\\,\\ improve\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ obstetrics\\&mdash\\;get\\ rid\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;ignorant\\&rdquo\\;\\ midwives\\ \\(like\\ barber\\-surgeons\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adverse\\ opinions\\:\\ pain\\ not\\ that\\ severe\\ \\(male\\ dr\\.\\)\\,\\ other\\ generations\\ got\\ by\\ w\\/o\\ it\\,\\ some\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ it\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;blue\\ babies\\ \\(but\\ revive\\ or\\ can\\ be\\ stimulated\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ morphine\\ depresses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\respiration\\,\\ need\\ more\\ skilled\\ doctors\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ general\\ practice\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Get\\ rid\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;nervous\\ shock\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ childbirth\\,\\ less\\ fear\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ pain\\,\\ 2\\ hr\\ shorter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supplant\\ family\\ dr\\,\\ midwife\\,\\ forceps\\,\\ traditional\\ birth\\?\\&mdash\\;medicalize\\ birth\\,\\ need\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauss\\ technique\\,\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;indiscriminate\\ use\\ of\\ drugs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ produces\\ Dammershlaf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Empiricism\\ similarly\\ decried\\ McDowell\\ and\\ Atlee\\ when\\ they\\ performed\\ first\\ life\\-saving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ovariotomies\\,\\ which\\ were\\ done\\ in\\ Kentucky\\ before\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pernick\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Martin\\ S\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Calculus\\ of\\ Suffering\\ in\\ 19th\\-Century\\ Surgery\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ point\\:\\ drs\\ need\\ balance\\ their\\ functions\\ of\\ relieving\\ suffering\\ and\\ preserving\\ health\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ point\\ that\\ duty\\ to\\ relieve\\ suffering\\ overrides\\ duty\\ to\\ prolong\\ life\\?\\ Vice\\-versa\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ way\\ to\\ resolve\\ to\\ develop\\ common\\ set\\ of\\ professional\\ values\\ to\\ guide\\ practitioner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Subject\\ to\\ change\\ by\\ new\\ techniques\\ and\\ social\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ start\\ of\\ 19th\\ c\\.\\ W\\.\\ medical\\ ethics\\ opposed\\ to\\ relieving\\ suffering\\ at\\ any\\ risk\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mid\\ 1800s\\,\\ more\\ utilitarian\\ approach\\ to\\ pain\\ relief\\ to\\ unify\\ a\\ divided\\ profession\\ \\(also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\informed\\ by\\ stats\\,\\ humanitarianism\\,\\ romanticism\\,\\ naturalism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\before\\ anesthesia\\,\\ emotional\\ ability\\ to\\ inflict\\ vast\\ pain\\ was\\ basic\\ professional\\ req\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;saving\\ life\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ lessening\\ pain\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;pity\\&rdquo\\;\\ patient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;hard\\ to\\ inflict\\ pain\\ whenever\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ not\\ lose\\ their\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hippocratic\\ tradition\\ even\\ forbade\\ doctors\\ from\\ giving\\ pain\\ relievers\\ to\\ terminal\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Avoid\\ operations\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ possible\\-high\\ mortality\\ rate\\ and\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rush\\:\\ heroic\\,\\ more\\ dangerous\\ disease\\,\\ more\\ painful\\ remedy\\ must\\ be\\,\\ propagandized\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\saying\\ Americans\\ tougher\\ need\\/can\\ have\\ more\\ pain\\,\\ surgeons\\ more\\ courageous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stoicism\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ virile\\ republic\\,\\ Europeans\\ said\\ was\\ frontier\\ cruelty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*From\\ this\\ tradition\\ of\\ pain\\ is\\ manly\\ and\\ necessary\\ to\\ save\\ lives\\,\\ difficult\\ to\\ use\\ drugs\\ to\\ eliminate\\ pain\\ at\\ any\\ risk\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1846\\ dentist\\ Morton\\ first\\ used\\ ether\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1848\\ nitrous\\ oxide\\,\\ chlorophorm\\ in\\ NY\\,\\ London\\,\\ Paris\\ leading\\ hospitals\\&mdash\\;fast\\ spread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Worries\\ about\\ safety\\,\\ benefits\\ of\\ pain\\,\\ professional\\ etiquette\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Notice\\ doctor\\ is\\ making\\ decision\\,\\ not\\ patient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ mid\\-century\\ physicians\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ relief\\ of\\ suffering\\ never\\ justified\\ risk\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Others\\ thought\\ professional\\ duty\\ to\\ prevent\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;More\\ general\\ movement\\ toward\\ pain\\ relief\\-\\-operations\\ in\\ terminal\\ cases\\,\\ alcohol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ opiates\\,\\ neurosurgery\\ for\\ chronic\\ pain\\,\\ historical\\ experiments\\ with\\ pain\\ relief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conservative\\ medicine\\:\\ Flint\\,\\ Hooker\\,\\ Holmes\\,\\ Hamilton\\,\\ avoid\\ all\\ extremes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pierre\\ Louis\\,\\ advances\\ in\\ medical\\ statistics\\&mdash\\;measure\\ risks\\ and\\ benefits\\ of\\ a\\ drug\\,\\ avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ethical\\ absolutes\\,\\ used\\ by\\ conservatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homeopathy\\,\\ hydropathy\\,\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ alternative\\ sects\\/nihilism\\-claim\\ roots\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\classical\\ medical\\ ethics\\,\\ romantic\\ view\\ of\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benefits\\,\\ hostility\\ to\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conservativism\\ grew\\,\\ willing\\ to\\ take\\ risks\\ to\\ alleviate\\ pain\\&mdash\\;compete\\ w\\ sects\\,\\ also\\ adopt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ pressure\\ for\\ doctors\\ to\\ feel\\ more\\ emotional\\ involvement\\ with\\ patients\\ \\(feminine\\)\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bring\\ medicine\\ back\\ to\\ elite\\ practitioners\\,\\ mid\\-century\\ romanticism\\&mdash\\;but\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\manly\\ cult\\ of\\ Jacksonianism\\,\\ pain\\ price\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ progress\\,\\ Euro\\ effete\\&mdash\\;polarization\\ help\\ define\\ other\\,\\ Whiteman\\ reject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethics\\:\\ when\\ justified\\ to\\ kill\\ 1\\ person\\ to\\ save\\ others\\?\\ \\(like\\ inoculation\\)\\,\\ measure\\ cost\\-benefit\\ overall\\ or\\ for\\ individual\\ patient\\&mdash\\;appropriate\\ level\\ of\\ individualization\\,\\ how\\ measure\\ pain\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\/8\\ Lecture\\ Notes\\:\\ Surgery\\,\\ Anesthesia\\,\\ and\\ Pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Early\\ Surgical\\ Procedures\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Used\\ in\\ extreme\\ cases\\:\\ removal\\ of\\ abscesses\\,\\ gun\\ shot\\ wounds\\,\\ amputation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dangers\\:\\ shock\\,\\ bleeding\\ to\\ death\\,\\ infection\\,\\ gangrene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surgeons\\ must\\ be\\ strong\\,\\ fast\\,\\ and\\ oblivious\\ to\\ pain\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Innovations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anesthetics\\:\\ Ether\\ \\(Ether\\ dome\\ \\-\\ 1846\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antiseptics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ANESTHESIA\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ knew\\ about\\ pain\\ killing\\ effects\\ of\\ ether\\ before\\ formal\\ presentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16th\\ century\\ experiments\\ with\\ ether\\ \\+\\ nitrous\\ oxide\\ \\(Preisley\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1800\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Humphrey\\ Davy\\ suggested\\ a\\ use\\ in\\ surgery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ether\\ frolics\\:\\ trippin\\&rsquo\\;\\ on\\ ether\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\why\\ not\\ used\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morality\\?\\ Suffer\\ to\\ get\\ better\\?\\ Vis\\ medicatrix\\ natural\\?\\ \\ \\;Relationship\\ between\\ heroic\\ medicine\\ and\\ surgery\\ \\(pain\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ feature\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dentists\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Used\\ anesthetics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ they\\ wanted\\ repeat\\ customers\\,\\ comfort\\ was\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ether\\ Dome\\ demonstration\\ \\(1846\\)\\:\\ Morton\\ and\\ Warren\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ using\\ ether\\ in\\ surgeries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surgical\\ mortality\\ increases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patients\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ complain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slower\\ surgeries\\,\\ more\\ blood\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surgeons\\ feel\\ less\\ limited\\ in\\ procedures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ surgeries\\ attempted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ to\\ use\\ ether\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NO\\:\\ Childbirth\\:\\ would\\ labor\\ stop\\ or\\ slow\\?\\ pain\\ \\=\\ bonding\\ with\\ child\\?\\;\\ \\ \\;Suffering\\ and\\ religious\\ iconography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NO\\:\\ men\\ are\\ stronger\\ and\\ African\\ Americans\\ do\\ not\\ experience\\ pain\\ as\\ whites\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decision\\ made\\ on\\ case\\ by\\ case\\ basis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ protect\\ physicians\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ANTISEPTICS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ problem\\ of\\ infection\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wounds\\ left\\ open\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ environmental\\ theories\\:\\ ventilation\\ needed\\ to\\ heal\\ wound\\ from\\ the\\ inside\\ out\\,\\ superate\\,\\ produce\\ puss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puss\\ was\\ examined\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ \\(laudable\\ puss\\)\\ or\\ a\\ bad\\ thing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Degrees\\ of\\ badness\\ of\\ puss\\ created\\ by\\ Frederick\\ Troves\\ \\(surgeon\\ in\\ 1870s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Saneous\\ puss\\ \\=\\ regrettable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Igneous\\ puss\\ \\=\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cleanliness\\ was\\ not\\ yet\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Integration\\ of\\ modern\\ antiseptic\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ignos\\ Semilvive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Experiment\\ on\\ hand\\ washing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reduce\\ incidence\\ of\\ child\\ and\\ maternal\\ mortality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Lister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treat\\ surgical\\ realm\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ morbiphic\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carbolic\\ acid\\ spray\\ \\(disinfectant\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OPPOSITION\\ to\\ antiseptic\\ surgery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locates\\ cause\\ of\\ infect\\ in\\ the\\ surgery\\ room\\ \\=\\ iatrogensis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Start\\ to\\ wear\\ gloves\\ to\\ protect\\ against\\ acid\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ for\\ cleanliness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ of\\ November\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tomes\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-100\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Gospel\\ of\\ Germs\\ is\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ of\\ disease\\ from\\ its\\ interaction\\ with\\ the\\ miasmic\\ theory\\ that\\ prevailed\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-19th\\ century\\ until\\ it\\ became\\ so\\ ingrained\\ in\\ American\\ society\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\ that\\ people\\ though\\ AIDS\\ could\\ be\\ transmitted\\ trough\\ casual\\ contact\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ touching\\,\\ kissing\\,\\ or\\ sharing\\ a\\ glass\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Initially\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1870s\\ and\\ 1880s\\,\\ there\\ was\\ considerable\\ debate\\ about\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;Did\\ germs\\ exist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ so\\,\\ did\\ that\\ necessarily\\ mean\\ spontaneous\\ generation\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ germ\\ theory\\ interact\\ with\\ zymotic\\ or\\ chemical\\ theory\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ idea\\ that\\ diseases\\ were\\ caused\\ by\\ chemicals\\ created\\ by\\ decaying\\ filth\\ \\(usually\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;feces\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Microorganisms\\ were\\ observed\\ by\\ scientists\\ using\\ the\\ first\\ microscopes\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ 1600\\,\\ but\\ their\\ descriptions\\ of\\ these\\ organisms\\ were\\ fantastical\\,\\ so\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ scientific\\ community\\ established\\ that\\ the\\ environment\\ determined\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ health\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ germ\\ theory\\ had\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ baggage\\ of\\ previous\\ sham\\-science\\,\\ but\\ as\\ microscopes\\ became\\ cheap\\ and\\ accessible\\,\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ won\\ converts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ germ\\ theorists\\ rejected\\ spontaneous\\ generation\\,\\ because\\ essential\\ to\\ germ\\ theory\\ was\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ only\\ get\\ TB\\ from\\ TB\\,\\ and\\ that\\ getting\\ typhoid\\ from\\ TB\\ was\\ like\\ a\\ seagull\\ hatching\\ from\\ a\\ pigeon\\ egg\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ early\\ believers\\ in\\ germ\\ theory\\ did\\ not\\ necessarily\\ reject\\ spontaneous\\ generation\\ and\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ necessary\\ steps\\ toward\\ protecting\\ against\\ germs\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ regardless\\ of\\ how\\ they\\ came\\ about\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ germ\\ theory\\ was\\ threatening\\ to\\ the\\ Victorian\\ psyche\\ because\\ it\\ focused\\ attention\\ on\\ uncomfortable\\ subjects\\ like\\ bodily\\ fluids\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ upper\\ classes\\ had\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ their\\ own\\ secretions\\ might\\ be\\ harmful\\,\\ but\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ also\\ reinforced\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ cleanliness\\ was\\ essential\\ to\\ health\\,\\ only\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ in\\ its\\ early\\ stages\\,\\ which\\ saw\\ all\\ germs\\ as\\ dangerous\\,\\ required\\ a\\ highly\\ increased\\ intensity\\ in\\ keeping\\ a\\ clean\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ both\\ ennobled\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ work\\ and\\ made\\ it\\ more\\ difficult\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ consequences\\ of\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ germ\\ theory\\ 1870s\\-1880s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ most\\ people\\ already\\ accepted\\ the\\ zymotic\\ theory\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ germ\\ theory\\ was\\ accepted\\ more\\ as\\ a\\ nuanced\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ zymotic\\ theory\\ than\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ therefore\\ refocused\\ their\\ attention\\ on\\ what\\ they\\ already\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ major\\ source\\ of\\ infections\\:\\ fecal\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ John\\ Snow\\ on\\ cholera\\,\\ people\\ wanted\\ to\\ insure\\ that\\ their\\ water\\ supply\\ was\\ not\\ mixed\\ with\\ sewage\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ growing\\ fear\\ of\\ sewer\\ gas\\,\\ and\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ sewer\\ traps\\,\\ designed\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ gas\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ toilets\\ were\\ revamped\\ to\\ flush\\ completely\\,\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ white\\ porcelain\\ toilet\\ was\\ introduced\\ as\\ easier\\ to\\ clean\\ and\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ get\\ infected\\ than\\ its\\ wooden\\ predecessor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ these\\ developments\\ served\\ to\\ reinforce\\ class\\ distinctions\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ already\\ avoided\\ the\\ poor\\ as\\ diseased\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ more\\ diseased\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ afford\\ new\\ sanitary\\ developments\\ made\\ them\\ even\\ less\\ desirable\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ germ\\ theory\\ reinforced\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ diseased\\ and\\ the\\ things\\ they\\ touched\\ was\\ bad\\,\\ so\\ it\\ helped\\ reinforce\\ nativism\\,\\ classism\\ and\\ racism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ on\\ sanitation\\ were\\ so\\ widespread\\ that\\ when\\ president\\ Coolidge\\ was\\ shot\\,\\ after\\ he\\ appeared\\ to\\ get\\ better\\ and\\ then\\ worse\\,\\ physicians\\ and\\ news\\ media\\ blamed\\ the\\ worsening\\ of\\ his\\ condition\\ on\\ poor\\ sanitation\\ in\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ rather\\ than\\ bad\\ surgical\\ practice\\ or\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ a\\ bullet\\ was\\ lodged\\ in\\ his\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ died\\ of\\ an\\ aneurism\\,\\ presumably\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ bullet\\ or\\ the\\ surgery\\,\\ but\\ definitely\\ not\\ by\\ the\\ poor\\ white\\ house\\ toilets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Entrepreneurs\\ seized\\ on\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ as\\ a\\ money\\-making\\ opportunity\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ patented\\ sewer\\ traps\\,\\ disinfectants\\,\\ and\\ toilets\\,\\ and\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ scare\\ the\\ public\\ into\\ redoing\\ their\\ plumbing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ businesses\\ reflects\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ germ\\ theory\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ \\"\\;scientific\\"\\;\\ their\\ methods\\ are\\ with\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ already\\ established\\ zymotic\\ theory\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ widely\\ publicized\\ death\\ of\\ Theodore\\ Roosevelt\\&\\#39\\;s\\ mother\\,\\ a\\ notorious\\ neatnick\\,\\ made\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ highly\\ rigorous\\ standards\\ of\\ cleanliness\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ met\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ safe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ scientific\\ progress\\ 18902\\-1900s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ began\\ to\\ gain\\ hold\\,\\ people\\ started\\ studying\\ bacteria\\ more\\ intently\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ dangerous\\ bacilli\\ existed\\ everywhere\\,\\ but\\ were\\ often\\ not\\ airborne\\,\\ and\\ often\\ died\\ very\\ soon\\ after\\ leaving\\ human\\ hosts\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ exception\\ was\\ TB\\,\\ which\\ could\\ exist\\ in\\ dust\\,\\ but\\ since\\ not\\ everyone\\ got\\ it\\,\\ it\\ led\\ Koch\\ to\\ hypothesize\\ \\"\\;healthy\\ carriers\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Disciples\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Laboratory\\ \\(p\\.\\ 100\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\TOMES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pathogenic\\ Water\\ and\\ Food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Early\\ 1900s\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\water\\ purification\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ lower\\ rates\\ of\\ typhoid\\ infection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tuberculosis\\,\\ typhoid\\,\\ diphtheria\\,\\ and\\ scarlet\\ fever\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ worries\\ in\\ relationship\\ to\\ foodstuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ptonomaine\\ poisoning\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ popular\\ ptomaine\\ theory\\ in\\ the\\ 1880s\\,\\ that\\ says\\ that\\ when\\ proteins\\ from\\ a\\ decaying\\ body\\ produced\\ a\\ poison\\ known\\ as\\ ptomaine\\,\\ that\\ could\\ spread\\ via\\ the\\ air\\ and\\ water\\ supply\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asepsis\\ and\\ the\\ Surgical\\ Model\\ of\\ Cleanliness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1880s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Koch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ research\\ on\\ wound\\ infection\\ created\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;asepsis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surgeons\\ started\\ to\\ wear\\ gloves\\,\\ shave\\ their\\ beards\\,\\ talk\\ less\\ \\(to\\ minimize\\ infection\\ through\\ saliva\\)\\,\\ and\\ wear\\ gowns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hand\\,\\ Mouth\\,\\ and\\ Fomite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ culture\\ of\\ asepsis\\ started\\ to\\ invade\\ everyday\\ relationships\\.\\ Handshakes\\ and\\ kisses\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ free\\ of\\ risk\\.\\ Drinking\\ cups\\ and\\ water\\ fountains\\ became\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ infamy\\.\\ Handling\\ money\\,\\ licking\\ stamps\\,\\ wetting\\ a\\ finger\\ to\\ turn\\ a\\ page\\ were\\ under\\ scrutiny\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Dark\\ Side\\ of\\ Contagion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physicians\\ and\\ lay\\ people\\ alike\\ became\\ increasingly\\ fearful\\ that\\ venereal\\ disease\\ could\\ spread\\ through\\ casual\\ forms\\ of\\ touch\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ it\\ was\\ good\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ more\\ respectable\\ explanation\\ for\\ getting\\ syphilis\\ under\\ non\\-venereal\\ causes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Incorporation\\ of\\ the\\ Germ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ deepening\\ germ\\ consciousness\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\ mirrored\\ a\\ growing\\ perception\\ of\\ incorporation\\ and\\ interconnectedness\\ between\\ seemingly\\ disconnected\\ members\\ of\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Immigrants\\ associated\\ with\\ disease\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ hygiene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antituberculosis\\ crusade\\ and\\ domestic\\ science\\ movement\\ \\(started\\ in\\ the\\ 1890s\\)\\,\\ both\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ goal\\ to\\ translating\\ the\\ findings\\ of\\ bacteriologist\\ into\\ everyday\\ behavioral\\ codes\\.\\ The\\ result\\ was\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;germ\\&rdquo\\;\\ became\\ a\\ household\\ word\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ Tuberculosis\\ Religion\\ \\(p\\.\\ 113\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ greatest\\ challenge\\ of\\ early\\ 20\\ century\\ germ\\ \\&ldquo\\;gospellers\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ to\\ convince\\ Americans\\ that\\ consumption\\ was\\ a\\ communicable\\ disease\\ and\\ train\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ many\\ common\\ habits\\ that\\ spread\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Organizations\\ were\\ started\\ to\\ educate\\ the\\ public\\ about\\ tuberculosis\\:\\ 1892\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ Pennsylvania\\ Society\\ for\\ the\\ Prevention\\ of\\ Tuberculosis\\ \\(PSPT\\)\\ and\\ 1904\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Tuberculosis\\ Association\\ \\(NTA\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anti\\-TB\\ societies\\ mounted\\ the\\ first\\ truly\\ mass\\ health\\ education\\ campaign\\ directed\\ at\\ a\\ single\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Selling\\ the\\ TB\\ Gospel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anti\\-TB\\ societies\\ initially\\ relied\\ on\\ pamphlets\\,\\ popular\\ lectures\\,\\ and\\ newspaper\\ articles\\.\\ Then\\,\\ they\\ incurred\\ into\\ advertising\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ methods\\ used\\ by\\ TB\\ associations\\ to\\ raise\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\:\\ Museums\\,\\ Christmas\\ seal\\ campaigns\\,\\ enlisting\\ kids\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;crusaders\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ fight\\ against\\ TB\\ \\(by\\ 1922\\,\\ over\\ 7\\ million\\ American\\ kids\\ were\\ enrolled\\ in\\ the\\ Modern\\ Health\\ Crusade\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Antituberculosis\\ Message\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ had\\ religious\\ undertones\\:\\ Tuberculosis\\ campaing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;crusade\\;\\ TB\\ pamphlets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;tracts\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;catechisms\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ Double\\-barred\\ cross\\ as\\ the\\ NTA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ logo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ included\\ many\\ dos\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;ts\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ make\\ absolute\\ rules\\ about\\ hygiene\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ everyday\\ chores\\ should\\ be\\ conducted\\ \\(how\\ to\\ mop\\,\\ how\\ to\\ blow\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nose\\)\\.\\ Even\\ personal\\ interactions\\ and\\ familial\\ habits\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ under\\ the\\ scrutiny\\ of\\ the\\ tuberculosis\\ \\&ldquo\\;gospeller\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(no\\ beards\\,\\ stopping\\ kissing\\ children\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ an\\ emphasis\\ in\\ the\\ personal\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Chain\\ of\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Chain\\ of\\ disease\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ idea\\ that\\ everybody\\ has\\ a\\ stake\\ in\\ defeating\\ TB\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ linked\\ by\\ the\\ repercussions\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Socialism\\ of\\ the\\ Microbe\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ Idea\\ that\\ rich\\ people\\ should\\ not\\ disregard\\ the\\ poor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ getting\\ TB\\ because\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ next\\.\\ TB\\ acts\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ leveler\\,\\ promoting\\ a\\ community\\ wide\\ sense\\ of\\ responsibility\\ for\\ the\\ eradication\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ matter\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;socialism\\ of\\ the\\ microbe\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ TB\\ became\\ associated\\ with\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ moral\\ failings\\ of\\ individuals\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ sanitary\\ defects\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;lower\\ orders\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ The\\ Domestication\\ of\\ the\\ Germ\\ \\(p\\.\\ 135\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Domestic\\ science\\ movement\\:\\ As\\ women\\ became\\ college\\ educated\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ movement\\ to\\ apply\\ science\\ to\\ the\\ sphere\\ to\\ which\\ women\\ had\\ been\\ constrained\\:\\ the\\ domestic\\ realm\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ careers\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ work\\,\\ visiting\\ nursing\\,\\ and\\ home\\ economics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Women\\ Problem\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Public\\ Health\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ women\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\ were\\ not\\ educated\\ enough\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ bacteriology\\ that\\ were\\ behind\\ the\\ latest\\ developments\\ in\\ public\\ health\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ put\\ in\\ practical\\ use\\ at\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ home\\ improvement\\ and\\ enlightenment\\ fueled\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ such\\ professional\\ fields\\ as\\ social\\ work\\,\\ home\\ economics\\,\\ and\\ nursing\\,\\ and\\ thereby\\ increased\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ avenues\\ for\\ economic\\ independence\\ and\\ personal\\ satisfaction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scientific\\ Housekeeping\\ of\\ the\\ Germ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ home\\ economists\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\ sought\\ to\\ provide\\ women\\ with\\ a\\ scientific\\ rationale\\ for\\ housekeeping\\,\\ specially\\,\\ the\\ science\\ of\\ bacteriology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ tasks\\ that\\ were\\ touched\\ upon\\ home\\ economists\\ were\\ securing\\ a\\ clean\\ water\\ supply\\,\\ battling\\ dust\\,\\ securing\\ sewerage\\ free\\ of\\ dangerous\\ gases\\,\\ laundry\\,\\ keeping\\ away\\ insect\\ vectors\\,\\ nursing\\ family\\ members\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ author\\ refers\\ to\\ these\\ as\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Mosaic\\ Code\\,\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ ancient\\ religious\\ laws\\ that\\ depicted\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chores\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Woman\\,\\ Public\\ Hygiene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ power\\ of\\ women\\ as\\ consumers\\ was\\ exploited\\.\\ By\\ influencing\\ women\\ to\\ purchase\\ cleaner\\ products\\,\\ \\ \\;home\\ economists\\ could\\ influence\\ businesses\\ to\\ shift\\ towards\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ germ\\-free\\ products\\ and\\ germ\\-conscious\\ product\\ handling\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ III\\:\\ The\\ Gospel\\ in\\ Practice\\,\\ 1900\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Antisepticonscious\\ America\\ \\(p\\.\\ 157\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stripping\\ Down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Victorian\\ era\\&rsquo\\;s\\ long\\ dress\\,\\ long\\ beard\\,\\ and\\ complex\\ ornamented\\ fashion\\ came\\ to\\ an\\ end\\ aided\\ by\\ the\\ new\\ science\\ promotion\\ of\\ minimalism\\ to\\ promote\\ cleanliness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pitching\\ the\\ Germ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ germicide\\ market\\ experienced\\ a\\ boom\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ Mouthwashes\\,\\ hydrogen\\ peroxide\\,\\ household\\ disinfectants\\,\\ home\\ water\\ filters\\,\\ and\\ toilet\\ manufacturers\\,\\ benefited\\ from\\ a\\ strong\\ advertising\\ campaign\\ that\\ validated\\ American\\ \\&lsquo\\;antisepticonsciousness\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dust\\-proofing\\ and\\ sanitary\\ packing\\ were\\ also\\ observed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homes\\ Away\\ from\\ Home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ institutions\\ adapted\\ to\\ the\\ growing\\ concern\\ about\\ germs\\:\\ the\\ hotels\\,\\ Pullman\\ sleeping\\ cars\\,\\ and\\ restaurants\\.\\ This\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ possibility\\ of\\ germs\\ remaining\\ in\\ bed\\,\\ and\\ the\\ contamination\\ of\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Toward\\ a\\ New\\ Public\\ Hygiene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ market\\ forces\\ were\\ powerful\\ enough\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ manufacturers\\ and\\ service\\ deliverers\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ cleanliness\\ between\\ 1890\\ and\\ 1920\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ change\\ mostly\\ affected\\ the\\ well\\-to\\-do\\.\\ The\\ poor\\ or\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ were\\ not\\ affected\\ positively\\ by\\ this\\ change\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\State\\ supervision\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ positive\\ change\\ about\\ germ\\ spreading\\ were\\ market\\ forces\\ were\\ ineffective\\.\\ Example\\:\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ cup\\ in\\ parks\\ and\\ public\\ buildings\\,\\ and\\ its\\ replacement\\ with\\ the\\ angled\\-jet\\ fountain\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ The\\ Wages\\ of\\ Dirt\\ Were\\ Death\\ \\(p\\.\\ 183\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Models\\ of\\ cleanliness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poor\\ or\\ working\\ class\\ families\\ had\\ limited\\ access\\ to\\ public\\ health\\ knowledge\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ Municipal\\ councils\\ issued\\ simplified\\ tracts\\ to\\ immigrant\\ families\\ that\\ explained\\ how\\,\\ but\\ not\\ why\\,\\ to\\ keep\\ a\\ clean\\ household\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sanitary\\ Americanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Directions\\ were\\ not\\ effectively\\ accepted\\ by\\ immigrants\\ due\\ to\\ different\\ cultural\\ ideologies\\ \\(ex\\:\\ windows\\ shut\\ to\\ keep\\ disease\\ away\\)\\,\\ and\\ difficult\\ living\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ tenement\\ houses\\ \\(lots\\ of\\ garbage\\,\\ rats\\,\\ one\\ bed\\ in\\ the\\ room\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ cleanliness\\ and\\ Americanization\\ encouraged\\ immigrant\\ families\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ great\\ pains\\ to\\ achieve\\ spotlessness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;dirt\\,\\ disease\\,\\ and\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ motto\\ that\\ captured\\ what\\ should\\ be\\ avoided\\ within\\ the\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cleaning\\ up\\ the\\ Farm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extension\\ schools\\ were\\ set\\ up\\ in\\ different\\ colleges\\ \\(more\\ notably\\,\\ in\\ Cornell\\ University\\)\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ knowledge\\ of\\ public\\ health\\ the\\ rural\\ American\\ homes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extension\\ agents\\ would\\ impart\\ classes\\ on\\ agricultural\\ science\\ \\(usually\\ taught\\ by\\ males\\ for\\ males\\,\\ including\\ sanitary\\ dairy\\,\\ building\\ outhouses\\,\\ and\\ crop\\ selection\\)\\ and\\ home\\ economics\\ \\(usually\\ taught\\ by\\ women\\ towards\\ women\\,\\ including\\ sanitation\\,\\ food\\ preparation\\,\\ canning\\,\\ and\\ child\\ care\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ major\\ housekeeping\\ role\\ would\\ still\\ fall\\ upon\\ women\\,\\ making\\ them\\ responsible\\ when\\ someone\\ fell\\ ill\\ or\\ something\\ was\\ not\\ well\\ sanitized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Discussion\\ on\\ the\\ Advisability\\ of\\ the\\ Registration\\ of\\ Tuberculosis\\,\\"\\;\\ Transactions\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ College\\ of\\ Physicians\\ 16\\ \\(Philadelphia\\ 1894\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-27\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ has\\ interesting\\ discussions\\ between\\ doctors\\ and\\ highlights\\ several\\ key\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ Much\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ to\\ know\\-\\ \\ \\;but\\ what\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ from\\ this\\ article\\ is\\ the\\ basic\\ concept\\ and\\ the\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ themes\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ highlighted\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ bullet\\ summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ seems\\ to\\ articulate\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;discussion\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ a\\ council\\ of\\ doctors\\ who\\ have\\ decided\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ unfair\\ to\\ register\\ and\\ treat\\ people\\ has\\ subjects\\ of\\ contagious\\ disease\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ add\\ hardship\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;stamping\\ them\\ as\\ outcasts\\ of\\ society\\.\\ The\\ main\\ idea\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ doctors\\ to\\ gain\\ more\\ freedom\\ to\\ treat\\ patients\\ without\\ interference\\ from\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ \\(presented\\ by\\ a\\ Dr\\.\\ Flick\\)\\.\\ A\\ vote\\ was\\ taken\\ and\\ was\\ lost\\-\\ and\\ instead\\,\\ five\\ committee\\ members\\ were\\ elected\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ doctors\\ on\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ also\\ discusses\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ doctors\\ should\\ pay\\ strict\\ attention\\ to\\ each\\ individual\\ case\\-\\ in\\ keeping\\ their\\ environments\\ disinfected\\,\\ keeping\\ them\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ sick\\-\\ this\\ will\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ any\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ can\\ carry\\ out\\ for\\ such\\ chronic\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ highlighted\\ the\\ achievement\\ of\\ hospitals\\ to\\ contain\\ Tuberculosis\\ in\\ hospitals\\,\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ places\\ of\\ infection\\.\\-\\ and\\ doctors\\,\\ medical\\ ward\\,\\ nurses\\,\\ have\\ all\\ resisted\\ from\\ contracting\\ the\\ disease\\-\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ accomplishment\\.\\ The\\ Hospital\\ cited\\ in\\ this\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ General\\ Hospital\\ of\\ Vienna\\-\\ which\\ was\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ largest\\ hospitals\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ disagreement\\ between\\ the\\ doctors\\ and\\ the\\ board\\ of\\ health\\.\\ The\\ board\\ of\\ health\\ allows\\ that\\ if\\ someone\\ is\\ diagnosed\\ with\\ diphtheria\\,\\ they\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ remain\\ in\\ their\\ house\\ and\\ precautionary\\ measures\\ of\\ disinfection\\ are\\ taken\\-\\ but\\ the\\ doctors\\ note\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ and\\ that\\ many\\ times\\ the\\ disease\\ is\\ spread\\.\\ The\\ doctors\\ believe\\ that\\ once\\ a\\ patient\\ understands\\ they\\ are\\ ill\\,\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ immediately\\ confined\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ any\\ spread\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ idea\\ is\\ this\\:\\ That\\ the\\ doctor\\ is\\ competent\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ this\\ question\\ \\(spread\\ of\\ consumption\\)\\ without\\ the\\ intervention\\ of\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ address\\ the\\ competency\\ of\\ the\\ physician\\ and\\ urge\\ everyone\\ to\\ take\\ each\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ case\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ case\\ requiring\\ specialized\\ attention\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ connection\\ with\\ this\\ subject\\,\\ we\\ must\\ bear\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ every\\ infectious\\ disease\\ is\\ a\\ law\\ to\\ itself\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ fair\\ to\\ apply\\ to\\ tuberculosis\\ the\\ laws\\ which\\ govern\\ diphtheria\\,\\ smallpox\\,\\ etc\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pg\\ 25\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\ highlighted\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ and\\ precautions\\ taken\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ such\\ diseases\\-\\ the\\ causes\\ and\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ spreading\\ the\\ disease\\ were\\ well\\ known\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ \\(1894\\)\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ some\\ pretty\\ funny\\ ways\\ that\\ they\\ tried\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ germs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapin\\,\\ Charles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\"\\;Dirt\\,\\ Disease\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Health\\ Officer\\.\\"\\;\\ Public\\ Health\\ Papers\\ and\\ Reports\\ Presented\\ at\\ the\\ Thirtieth\\ Annual\\ Meeting\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Public\\ Health\\ Association\\ \\(1902\\)\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\)\\ Dirt\\,\\ Disease\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Health\\ Officer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\)\\ This\\ section\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ discovered\\ that\\ the\\ bite\\ of\\ a\\ mosquito\\ causes\\ yellow\\ fever\\.\\ It\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ filth\\ theory\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ when\\ everyone\\ erroneously\\ thought\\ that\\ disease\\ was\\ caused\\ by\\ environmental\\ filth\\ rather\\ than\\ personal\\ sanity\\.\\ By\\ removing\\ decaying\\ matter\\,\\ it\\ was\\ thought\\ that\\ infectious\\ diseases\\ could\\ be\\ stomped\\ out\\.\\ But\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ known\\ that\\ each\\ disease\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ origin\\ and\\ the\\ person\\ in\\ this\\ section\\ is\\ pleading\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;health\\ officers\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ turn\\ their\\ focus\\ away\\ from\\ inefficient\\ municipal\\ house\\ cleaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\)\\ The\\ Economic\\ Influence\\ of\\ the\\ Hospital\\ as\\ shown\\ upon\\ the\\ Profession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\)\\ Patients\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ hospital\\ for\\ cheaper\\ attendance\\ or\\ better\\ attendance\\.\\ If\\ they\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ pay\\ more\\ money\\ for\\ treatment\\,\\ they\\ will\\ go\\ for\\ something\\ extraordinary\\ because\\ they\\ think\\ that\\ is\\ worth\\ paying\\ the\\ extra\\ money\\.\\ Surgery\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ services\\ that\\ is\\ looked\\ upon\\ with\\ awe\\-\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ that\\ with\\ each\\ hospital\\,\\ is\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ more\\ surgeons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\)\\ Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\)\\ Dr\\.\\ Frank\\ F\\ Dow\\ \\(NY\\)\\:\\ He\\ opens\\ the\\ discussion\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ economic\\ influence\\ of\\ hospital\\ upon\\ profession\\ had\\ moved\\ care\\ from\\ homeopathy\\ towards\\ regular\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\)\\ Dr\\.\\ Edgar\\ A\\.\\ Vander\\ Veer\\ \\(NY\\)\\:\\ describes\\ how\\ surgery\\ has\\ reached\\ its\\ height\\ and\\ is\\ slowly\\ swinging\\ back\\ so\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ medical\\ men\\ will\\ have\\ their\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ surgery\\ cannot\\ advance\\ any\\ more\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ future\\ is\\ with\\ prophylactic\\ questions\\ of\\ disease\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ these\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\)\\ Dr\\.\\ J\\.\\ E\\.\\ Tuckerman\\ \\(Cleveland\\)\\:\\ He\\ believes\\ that\\ young\\ men\\ take\\ up\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ surgery\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ glamour\\ of\\ it\\.\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ fair\\ that\\ when\\ physicians\\ call\\ in\\ a\\ surgeon\\,\\ the\\ surgeon\\ charges\\ a\\ high\\ fee\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ physician\\ wait\\ three\\ or\\ four\\ years\\ for\\ his\\ fees\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\)\\ Dr\\.\\ W\\.L\\.\\ Estes\\ \\(PA\\)\\:\\ This\\ doctor\\ does\\ not\\ agree\\ that\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ surgeons\\ should\\ be\\ limited\\ to\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ hospitals\\-\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ much\\ has\\ been\\ learned\\ through\\ surgery\\ and\\ that\\ these\\ discoveries\\ are\\ worth\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ experiences\\ of\\ any\\ other\\ kind\\ of\\ doctor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nov\\ 13\\,\\ 2006\\ \\ \\;Lecture\\ \\#14\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Germ\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Innovations\\ in\\ surgery\\,\\ rise\\ of\\ aesthesia\\,\\ antiseptic\\ vs\\ aseptic\\ surgery\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Antiseptic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ spray\\ with\\ carbolic\\ acid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Aseptic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ keep\\ clean\\ before\\ hand\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pre\\-surgery\\ scrubbing\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Radical\\ shift\\ in\\ ways\\ of\\ medical\\ knowing\\ and\\ conceptualizing\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Late\\ 19th\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ drastic\\ shift\\ in\\ conceptualization\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ health\\,\\ and\\ medical\\ practices\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Germ\\ Theory\\ of\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specific\\ germs\\ causing\\ specific\\ diseases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bacteriological\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Louis\\ Pasteur\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1881\\:\\ Conducted\\ an\\ experiment\\ for\\ the\\ public\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ attempted\\ to\\ protect\\ a\\ flock\\ of\\ sheep\\ from\\ common\\ veterinary\\ disease\\ anthrax\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Planned\\ to\\ immunize\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ sheep\\ with\\ a\\ vaccine\\.\\ The\\ second\\ half\\ were\\ left\\ unvaccinated\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ weeks\\ later\\,\\ administers\\ a\\ fatal\\ dose\\ of\\ anthrax\\ to\\ all\\ sheep\\.\\ 3\\ days\\ later\\,\\ 22\\ of\\ 24\\ unvaccinated\\ sheep\\ are\\ already\\ dead\\.\\ ALL\\ the\\ vaccinated\\ sheep\\ were\\ fine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ experiment\\ challenging\\ a\\ vaccinated\\ animal\\ with\\ the\\ microbe\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*Demonstrated\\ the\\ 1\\-to\\-1\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ microbe\\ and\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Now\\ we\\ know\\ where\\ disease\\ comes\\ from\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Disease\\ specificity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Draws\\ attention\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ previous\\ zymotic\\ \\(environment\\)\\ theory\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ other\\ major\\ Germ\\ Theory\\ scientist\\ \\-\\ Prussian\\ country\\ physician\\ Robert\\ Koch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Studied\\ anthrax\\ bacillus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Developed\\ strategies\\ for\\ growing\\ these\\ anthrax\\ spores\\ so\\ he\\ could\\ experiment\\ with\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alternative\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ disease\\:\\ Instead\\ of\\ focusing\\ on\\ signs\\ and\\ symptoms\\,\\ focus\\ on\\ what\\ was\\ its\\ causal\\ organism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Koch\\ then\\ identifies\\ Tuberculosis\\ microorganism\\ in\\ 1882\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Develops\\ the\\ 4\\ Postulates\\ for\\ studying\\ bacteria\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ specific\\ organism\\ must\\ invariably\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ all\\ cases\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ organism\\ must\\ be\\ capable\\ of\\ being\\ isolated\\ and\\ grown\\ in\\ pure\\ culture\\ over\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inoculating\\ that\\ organism\\ into\\ a\\ healthy\\ animal\\/human\\ must\\ cause\\ the\\ same\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ organism\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ again\\ be\\ removed\\ and\\ isolated\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ cycle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explosive\\,\\ intensive\\ research\\ interest\\ in\\ identifying\\ specific\\ diseases\\ in\\ specific\\ organisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Things\\ like\\ gonorrhea\\,\\ typhoid\\,\\ leprosy\\,\\ malaria\\ organisms\\ are\\ isolated\\.\\ Then\\ cholera\\,\\ diphtheria\\,\\ strep\\,\\ tetanus\\,\\ e\\-coli\\,\\ pneumonia\\ are\\ isolated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pasteur\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ begins\\ studying\\ rabies\\ to\\ find\\ its\\ microbial\\ origin\\ and\\ develop\\ a\\ vaccine\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ the\\ microbe\\,\\ so\\ he\\ develops\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ disease\\ must\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ tissue\\ of\\ the\\ Central\\ NS\\.\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ vaccine\\ using\\ spinal\\ cord\\ tissue\\ from\\ a\\ rabid\\ dog\\.\\ Uses\\ the\\ vaccine\\ on\\ a\\ rabies\\-infected\\ boy\\ and\\ the\\ boy\\ recovers\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ early\\ indication\\ of\\ the\\ brilliant\\ intuition\\ of\\ these\\ scientists\\ and\\ the\\ therapeutic\\ potential\\ of\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ of\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1st\\ Serious\\ population\\-orientated\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\ came\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ diphtheria\\ anti\\-toxin\\ in\\ late\\ 1880s\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ injecting\\ horses\\ with\\ diphtheria\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ extract\\ a\\ diphtheria\\ anti\\-toxin\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ treatment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ diphtheria\\ anti\\-toxin\\ is\\ used\\ both\\ to\\ inoculate\\ people\\ and\\ to\\ treat\\ people\\ who\\ already\\ have\\ diphtheria\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\*\\*\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ push\\ of\\ germ\\ theory\\ into\\ popular\\ clinical\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ these\\ advancements\\ seem\\ brilliant\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\,\\ but\\ are\\ there\\ anomalies\\ in\\ this\\ germ\\ theory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yes\\-\\ Koch\\ said\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ bacillus\\ you\\ will\\ inevitably\\ have\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ However\\,\\ you\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ bacillus\\ and\\ not\\ develop\\ the\\ disease\\ \\(Koch\\ himself\\ had\\ the\\ TB\\ bacillus\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ latent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ scientist\\,\\ to\\ prove\\ this\\ point\\,\\ drinks\\ water\\ full\\ of\\ the\\ cholera\\ bacillus\\ and\\ lives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ Germ\\ theory\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ breakthrough\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ still\\ much\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ germs\\ and\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/15\\&mdash\\;Lecture\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venn\\ Diagram\\ with\\ Burden\\ of\\ Disease\\,\\ Public\\ Health\\,\\ and\\ Biomedicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&mdash\\;good\\ intro\\ to\\ early\\ 19th\\ C\\.\\ public\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Late\\ 18th\\-early\\ 19th\\ Centuries\\:\\ lacked\\ bounded\\ categories\\ of\\ public\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ Public\\ health\\,\\ are\\ we\\ talking\\ about\\ poverty\\?\\ Toxins\\ in\\ the\\ air\\?\\ Kind\\ of\\ all\\-encompassing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\:\\ was\\ poverty\\ related\\ to\\ disease\\?\\&mdash\\;society\\,\\ religion\\,\\ politics\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\UNBOUNDED\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1802\\:\\ Sanitation\\ public\\ health\\ ordinance\\ bans\\ sale\\ of\\ adulterated\\ meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ world\\ of\\ horse\\ transportation\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ through\\ 20th\\ century\\ had\\ implications\\ for\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Toxins\\ and\\ risks\\ of\\ urban\\ life\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ perceived\\ differently\\ than\\ we\\ do\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Before\\ notion\\ of\\ Germ\\ Theory\\&mdash\\;questions\\ of\\ health\\/environment\\ relationship\\ abounded\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Street\\ cleaning\\ investigations\\ in\\ NY\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ question\\ was\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ count\\?\\ Tell\\?\\ How\\ does\\ city\\ smell\\ this\\ month\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ if\\ things\\ are\\ getting\\ better\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\answer\\:\\ census\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Griskam\\,\\ early\\ physician\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\1845\\,\\ report\\ on\\ Sanitary\\ Cond\\&rsquo\\;n\\ of\\ Laboring\\ population\\ of\\ NY\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\much\\ concern\\ over\\ poverty\\,\\ health\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conditions\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&mdash\\;nature\\ of\\ social\\ cond\\&rsquo\\;ns\\ seen\\ as\\ crucial\\ to\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Idea\\ of\\ ventilation\\ crucial\\ to\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ critical\\ question\\:\\ what\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Availability\\ of\\ Water\\:\\ Dominant\\ question\\ in\\ rise\\ of\\ American\\ cities\\ in\\ 19th\\ Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ questions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ bring\\ potable\\ water\\ to\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ get\\ ride\\ of\\ waste\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reservoirs\\ bring\\ water\\ to\\ cities\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ sewers\\ had\\ not\\ been\\ designed\\ for\\ removal\\ of\\ excrements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ theory\\ at\\ time\\:\\ if\\ water\\ ran\\,\\ it\\ would\\ purify\\ itself\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ of\\ H20\\ predate\\ Germy\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ presumed\\ environment\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ disease\\ \\(cause\\ of\\ microorganism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\ of\\ water\\ fixtures\\ and\\ Water\\ closets\\ \\(toilets\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\huge\\ increase\\ from\\ 1853\\ to\\ 1854\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Water\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ brought\\ by\\ rivers\\ that\\ had\\ deposits\\ of\\ excrements\\ in\\ them\\ \\(from\\ upstream\\ cities\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ can\\ imagine\\ skepticism\\ regarding\\ how\\ the\\ changes\\ affected\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sanitation\\ Changes\\ b4\\ Germ\\ Theory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colonel\\ Wearing\\&mdash\\;thought\\ sewer\\ gases\\ were\\ responsible\\,\\ but\\ also\\ was\\ a\\ proponent\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ closet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sand\\ filtration\\,\\ coagulants\\,\\ chlorination\\ of\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\cleaner\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1930s\\,\\ nearly\\ 70\\%\\ Americans\\ drink\\ chlor\\&rsquo\\;d\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mid\\ 19th\\ C\\ Reformer\\,\\ Robert\\ Hartley\\&mdash\\;concerned\\ that\\ cows\\ were\\ drinking\\ unclean\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\would\\ lead\\ to\\ unclean\\ milk\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tied\\ to\\ temperance\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1880s\\/90s\\&mdash\\;Pasteur\\ brought\\ pasteurization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ debate\\ over\\ whether\\ destroying\\ the\\ microbes\\ also\\ destroyed\\ the\\ nutrients\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Debates\\ in\\ public\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diphtheria\\ antitoxins\\ late\\ 19th\\/early\\ 20th\\:\\ State\\ wanted\\ to\\ know\\ why\\ it\\ should\\ give\\ away\\ this\\ for\\ free\\ when\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ doctors\\ doing\\ it\\ in\\ their\\ offices\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quarentine\\/Detention\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(as\\ seen\\ in\\ Typhoid\\ Mary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mumps\\,\\ measles\\,\\ chicken\\ pox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Departments\\ of\\ Health\\ began\\ to\\ require\\ doc\\&rsquo\\;s\\ to\\ report\\ cases\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ Authority\\ begins\\ to\\ assert\\ right\\ not\\ to\\ report\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ market\\ \\(reporting\\ versus\\ non\\-reporting\\ doctors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Civil\\ liberties\\ infringed\\ upon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modern\\ debate\\ about\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ MA\\,\\ as\\ of\\ Jan\\.\\ 1\\,\\ physicians\\ must\\ report\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\,\\ US\\ patients\\ have\\ drugs\\ that\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ chronic\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ last\\ question\\:\\ what\\ about\\ health\\/environment\\ interaction\\ displaced\\ by\\ Germ\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rather\\ than\\ looking\\ at\\ forces\\ that\\ produce\\ disease\\,\\ issues\\ of\\ screening\\ etc\\.\\ become\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ summaries\\ for\\ week\\ of\\ Nov\\.\\ 20th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;HOSPITALS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Waugh\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ William\\ Francis\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Economic\\ Influence\\ of\\ the\\ Hospital\\ as\\ Shown\\ Upon\\ the\\ Profession\\,\\"\\;\\ Bulletin\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Academy\\ of\\ Medicine\\ 12\\ \\(1911\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 79\\-85\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patients\\ resort\\ to\\ hospitals\\ for\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cheaper\\ attendance\\ or\\ better\\ attendance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ extraordinary\\ procedure\\ justifies\\ extra\\ pay\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Glorified\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ surgeon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Glamour\\ of\\ operation\\ impresses\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Causes\\ decrease\\ in\\ practice\\ o\\ drug\\ therapeutics\\ \\(not\\ as\\ sexy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ of\\ surgery\\:\\ make\\ up\\ surgeries\\ or\\ reasons\\ to\\ perform\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ Renal\\ decapsulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economic\\ gain\\ from\\ performing\\ more\\ surgeries\\ corrupts\\ the\\ medical\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alternative\\ therapeutic\\ possibilities\\ disregarded\\ by\\ surgeons\\ who\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ about\\ drug\\ therapy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Frank\\ F\\.\\ Dow\\,\\ Rochester\\ N\\.Y\\.\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homeopathic\\ Hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grander\\ facilities\\:\\ maternity\\ ward\\,\\ contagious\\ diseases\\ building\\,\\ surgical\\ pavilion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nurses\\ encouraged\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ educated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ physicians\\ and\\ new\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Move\\ towards\\ regular\\ medicine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ causes\\ split\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homeopathic\\ purist\\ go\\ to\\ Hahnemann\\ Hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rivalry\\ between\\ two\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\ forces\\ better\\ treatment\\ from\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doctors\\ from\\ each\\ often\\ consult\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Edgar\\ A\\ Vander\\ Veer\\,\\ Albany\\,\\ N\\.Y\\.\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;pendulum\\ has\\ swung\\ toward\\ surgery\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ slowly\\ swinging\\ back\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;medical\\ men\\ will\\ have\\ their\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ J\\.E\\.\\ Tuckerman\\,\\ Cleveland\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hospitals\\ should\\ be\\ open\\ for\\ all\\ doctors\\ to\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Division\\ of\\ fees\\ \\(commission\\)\\:\\ physician\\ takes\\ cut\\ of\\ cost\\ of\\ surgery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;injustice\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fees\\ should\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ income\\ of\\ patient\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ W\\.L\\.\\ Estes\\,\\ South\\ Bethlehem\\,\\ Pa\\.\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excessive\\ increase\\ in\\ number\\ of\\ physicians\\ caused\\ by\\ hospitals\\ was\\ ignored\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ Waugh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Too\\ many\\ doctors\\:\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ Flexner\\ report\\ \\(1\\ to\\ every\\ 600\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hard\\ for\\ many\\ doctors\\ to\\ support\\ themselves\\ financially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surgery\\ has\\ been\\ helpful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Better\\ understanding\\ of\\ internal\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ men\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;saved\\ by\\ the\\ knife\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ A\\.\\ L\\.\\ Benedict\\,\\ Buffalo\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;eliminate\\ graft\\ and\\ dishonesty\\:\\ Allow\\ patients\\ to\\ request\\ doctors\\ and\\ minimize\\ patient\\ stealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Osler\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ William\\.\\ \\"\\;Remarks\\ on\\ Specialism\\,\\"\\;\\ Boston\\ Medical\\ and\\ Surgical\\ Journal\\ 126\\:19\\ \\(May\\ 1892\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 457\\-459\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialism\\ is\\ fairly\\ unique\\ to\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vast\\ amounts\\ and\\ rapid\\ increase\\ in\\ knowledge\\ legitimizes\\ and\\ necessitates\\ specialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;thoroughness\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ covered\\/monitored\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Satisfies\\ the\\ public\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ for\\ expert\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialty\\ societies\\ \\&ldquo\\;stimulate\\ work\\,\\ promote\\ good\\-fellowship\\,a\\ dn\\ aid\\ materially\\ in\\ maintaine\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ professional\\ scholarship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disadvantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isolating\\ individual\\ organs\\ or\\ systems\\ can\\ cause\\ the\\ physician\\ to\\ lose\\ track\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;whole\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Success\\ of\\ specialists\\ causes\\ med\\ students\\ to\\ jump\\ straight\\ into\\ a\\ specialty\\ and\\ miss\\ foundations\\ in\\ physiology\\ or\\ pathology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Too\\ much\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ specialty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ physician\\ can\\ develop\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;narrow\\ and\\ pedantic\\ spirit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialists\\ taking\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ general\\ practitioners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schools\\ should\\ teach\\ their\\ students\\ more\\ general\\ information\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shattuck\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Frederick\\ C\\.\\ \\"\\;Specialism\\ in\\ Medicine\\,\\"\\;\\ Journal\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Medical\\ Association\\ 35\\ \\(September\\ 1900\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 723\\-726\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SPECIALTIES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Split\\ between\\ medicine\\ and\\ surgery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hazy\\ division\\ \\-\\ much\\ overlap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\ surgeons\\ can\\ survive\\ \\(economically\\)\\ restricting\\ their\\ practice\\ to\\ surgeries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ ailments\\ considered\\ operable\\;\\ aided\\ by\\ anesthesia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obstetrics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Derived\\ from\\ midwifery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gynecology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pure\\ gynecology\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;pelvic\\ tinkering\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gyno\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recommended\\ to\\ become\\ surgeons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neurology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deals\\ with\\ a\\ system\\;\\ not\\ an\\ organ\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ less\\ risk\\ of\\ adopting\\ too\\ narrow\\ a\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dermatology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ surgeon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bacteriology\\ was\\ their\\ breakthrough\\ into\\ the\\ medical\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialists\\ exist\\ because\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Growing\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Growing\\ number\\ of\\ cities\\ and\\ transportation\\ improvements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ specific\\ techniques\\ and\\ instruments\\ required\\ \\(x\\-rays\\ for\\ example\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ACCIDENTAL\\&rdquo\\;\\ REASONS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physician\\ with\\ special\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Desire\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;hurly\\-burly\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ general\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Set\\ more\\ regular\\ hours\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patients\\ pay\\ larger\\ fees\\ for\\ special\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialism\\ and\\ the\\ vast\\ leaps\\ in\\ knowledge\\ reduces\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ charlatans\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;quacks\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hospital\\ is\\ ideal\\ location\\ for\\ specialists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cabot\\,\\ Richard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Historical\\ Development\\ and\\ Relative\\ Value\\ of\\ Laboratory\\ and\\ Clinical\\ Methods\\ of\\ Diagnosis\\,\\"\\;\\ Boston\\ Medical\\ and\\ Surgical\\ Journal\\ 157\\ \\(August\\ 1907\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 150\\-153\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Difference\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;laboratory\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;clinical\\&rdquo\\;\\ methods\\ of\\ diagnosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ true\\ definitions\\ of\\ each\\ word\\ do\\ not\\ elucidate\\ what\\ is\\ meant\\ by\\ each\\ term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notion\\ is\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;clinical\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ rougher\\,\\ more\\ approximate\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;laboratory\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ exact\\,\\ high\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;Lab\\ work\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ be\\ done\\ at\\ beside\\ too\\ though\\:\\ thermometer\\,\\ blood\\ pressure\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ diagnoses\\ should\\ be\\ made\\ solely\\ in\\ the\\ lab\\ or\\ at\\ the\\ bedside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exactness\\ of\\ lab\\ work\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ useful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;pseudo\\-scientific\\&rdquo\\;\\ pretension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Numbers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ tell\\ us\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tendencies\\ in\\ physical\\ Diagnosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insist\\ on\\ direct\\ inspection\\ instead\\ of\\ just\\ looking\\ at\\ symptoms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increased\\ importance\\ attributed\\ to\\ functional\\ diagnosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Functional\\ asks\\ what\\ does\\ the\\ organ\\ do\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ behavior\\ is\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anatomical\\ diagnosis\\ asks\\ what\\ does\\ the\\ organ\\ look\\ like\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Techniques\\ in\\ Physical\\ Diagnosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oldest\\ and\\ Simplest\\ are\\ best\\:\\ inspection\\ and\\ palpation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Percussion\\ does\\ not\\ give\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ info\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Visual\\ data\\ about\\ secretions\\ and\\ excretions\\ are\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recent\\ methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fluoroscopy\\ and\\ radiography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Useful\\ for\\ bone\\ diseases\\ or\\ when\\ presence\\ of\\ concretions\\ is\\ suspected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\X\\-rays\\ overused\\ in\\ diagnosis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ all\\ diseases\\ should\\ be\\ examined\\ with\\ X\\-rays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blood\\ pressure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Useful\\ for\\ cases\\ dealing\\ with\\ heart\\,\\ arteries\\,\\ brain\\ or\\ kidneys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Checking\\ pulse\\ with\\ a\\ finger\\ can\\ be\\ inaccurate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Counting\\ blood\\ corpuscles\\ might\\ be\\ too\\ time\\ consuming\\ for\\ most\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cryoscopy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ useful\\;\\ information\\ is\\ not\\ worth\\ the\\ labor\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tracings\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ heart\\ or\\ other\\ blood\\ vessels\\ \\=\\ \\&rdquo\\;Not\\ of\\ considerable\\ value\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examination\\ of\\ Sputa\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;yield\\ no\\ important\\ clues\\ for\\ diagnosis\\,\\ prognosis\\ or\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Warm\\ bath\\ during\\ palpation\\ of\\ the\\ belly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reduces\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ anesthetic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Herrick\\,\\ James\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\"\\;Modern\\ Diagnosis\\,\\"\\;\\ Journal\\ of\\ American\\ Medical\\ Association\\ 92\\ \\(February\\ 1929\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 518\\-522\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ accurate\\ diagnoses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vast\\ resources\\ available\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clinical\\ specialists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lab\\ and\\ instrumental\\ specialists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sensu\\ strictiori\\ \\(called\\ the\\ clinic\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ knowledge\\ of\\ specific\\ aspects\\ of\\ diseases\\ or\\ instruments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dangers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narrow\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ clinical\\ specialist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Misinterpretations\\ by\\ technicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personal\\ contact\\ with\\ patient\\ is\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physicians\\ may\\ resist\\ technology\\ and\\ stick\\ to\\ hunches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OR\\ he\\ may\\ doubt\\ his\\ personal\\ opinion\\ and\\ rely\\ solely\\ on\\ tests\\ and\\ opinions\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equal\\ weight\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ personal\\ opinion\\ of\\ doctor\\ and\\ tests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Know\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ each\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reverby\\,\\ Susan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\"\\;\\&lsquo\\;Neither\\ for\\ the\\ Drawing\\ Room\\ nor\\ the\\ Kitchen\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ Private\\ Duty\\ Nursing\\ in\\ Boston\\,\\ 1873\\-1920\\,\\"\\;\\ In\\ Sickness\\ and\\ Health\\ in\\ America\\.\\ pp\\.\\ 253\\-266\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ nurse\\ in\\ late\\ 19th\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trained\\ nurses\\ not\\ distinguishable\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\-style\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ nurses\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;trained\\ nurse\\ may\\ mean\\ then\\ anything\\,\\ everything\\,\\ or\\ next\\ to\\ nothing\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Submissive\\ role\\ to\\ doctor\\ or\\ to\\ familiy\\ \\(in\\ private\\ practice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ duty\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Make\\ do\\ with\\ less\\ equipment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schedule\\ and\\ methods\\ less\\ structured\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ patient\\ and\\ familiy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Class\\ issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deal\\ with\\ families\\ of\\ higher\\ classes\\ than\\ in\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ maintain\\ superiority\\ to\\ servants\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fear\\ of\\ being\\ treated\\ as\\ maid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seasonal\\,\\ sporatic\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gain\\ regularity\\ \\-\\ Try\\ to\\ attach\\ to\\ a\\ physicians\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ getting\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ private\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1920s\\ private\\ duty\\ is\\ declining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conflict\\ between\\ trained\\ and\\ untrained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Competing\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trained\\ usually\\ charge\\ more\\,\\ but\\ might\\ get\\ fewer\\ jobs\\ because\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Later\\ on\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nurses\\ urged\\ to\\ specialize\\ to\\ get\\ more\\ business\\/\\ \\$\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Starr\\,\\ Paul\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ Social\\ Transformation\\ of\\ American\\ Medicine\\.\\ pp\\.\\ 145\\-179\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Reconstitution\\ of\\ the\\ Hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Before\\ 1870\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ destitute\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ social\\ stigma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Religious\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ charities\\,\\ ALMSHOUSES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Death\\ houses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shift\\ between\\ 1870\\-1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caused\\ by\\ industrializing\\ capitalist\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ people\\ in\\ urban\\ centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialization\\ \\+technical\\ skills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;communal\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;associative\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ bureaucratic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ opposition\\ to\\ hospitals\\ say\\ that\\ it\\ destroys\\ the\\ family\\ aspect\\ medicine\\ used\\ to\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rely\\ less\\ on\\ charity\\ more\\ on\\ payments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Voluntary\\ hospitals\\ \\(first\\:\\ 1752\\:\\ Pennsylvania\\;\\ 1821\\:\\ MGH\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cleaner\\,\\ for\\ more\\ respectable\\ poor\\ with\\ curable\\ illnesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exclusions\\ of\\ morbid\\ patients\\ keeps\\ down\\ mortality\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Desire\\ for\\ hospitals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Means\\ of\\ developing\\ medical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Source\\ of\\ prestige\\ for\\ doctors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hope\\ to\\ gather\\ more\\ clients\\ for\\ private\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ funding\\ causes\\ trouble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wealthy\\ elite\\ in\\ cities\\ on\\ board\\ of\\ hospitals\\ \\(trustees\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Given\\ decision\\ making\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Making\\ of\\ the\\ Modern\\ Hospital\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professionalism\\ of\\ nursing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ objections\\ to\\ women\\ in\\ workplace\\ BUT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Come\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ trained\\ nurses\\ for\\ assistance\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nursing\\ students\\ \\=\\ cheap\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ in\\ surgical\\ developments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ popularity\\ in\\ 189s\\-1900s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anesthesia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lister\\ \\-\\ antispesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decline\\ in\\ length\\ of\\ stay\\/change\\ \\&ldquo\\;house\\ of\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ stigma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ of\\ moral\\ aspect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Change\\ in\\ patient\\ backgrounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ diversified\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ near\\ to\\ population\\ \\%s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wards\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;private\\ rooms\\;\\ move\\ towards\\ acute\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increases\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forced\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ economically\\ efficient\\ and\\ organized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Begin\\ to\\ gather\\ money\\ from\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ from\\ trustees\\ to\\ Doctors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doctors\\ bring\\ in\\ patients\\,\\ who\\ provide\\ money\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ important\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Professional\\ Community\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Issues\\ with\\ private\\ vs\\.\\ hospital\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doctors\\ at\\ hospitals\\ gain\\ more\\ prestige\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Issues\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;open\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;closed\\&rdquo\\;\\ staff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hospitals\\ would\\ limit\\ the\\ doctors\\ who\\ could\\ work\\ there\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ private\\ GP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ see\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ maintain\\ privilege\\ rather\\ than\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finally\\ decide\\ to\\ open\\ staffing\\ \\(allow\\ doctors\\ to\\ be\\ affiliated\\ with\\ the\\ hospital\\ but\\ not\\ emplowed\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ raise\\ revenues\\ from\\ new\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inner\\ fraternity\\:\\ recommendations\\ from\\ hospital\\ staff\\ was\\ more\\ important\\ that\\ skills\\ and\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Pattern\\ of\\ the\\ Hospital\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1751\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\voluntary\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Operated\\ by\\ charitable\\ lay\\ boards\\,\\ nondemoninational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Concentrated\\ on\\ acute\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Close\\ ties\\ to\\ university\\ medical\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patients\\:\\ poor\\ \\(for\\ teaching\\ purposes\\)\\ and\\ Rich\\ \\(for\\ income\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Have\\ largest\\ endowments\\ and\\ most\\ prestige\\ for\\ medical\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Descended\\ from\\ almshouses\\ and\\ operated\\ by\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Municipal\\ and\\ county\\ hospitals\\ are\\ usually\\ largest\\ local\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ \\&ldquo\\;open\\&rdquo\\;\\ staffing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treated\\ poor\\ and\\ chronic\\ cases\\ that\\ voluntaries\\ refused\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relied\\ on\\ gov\\.\\ appropriations\\ rather\\ than\\ fees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1850\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Particularistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Religious\\ or\\ ethnic\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intermediate\\ in\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relied\\ on\\ fees\\ from\\ patients\\ \\(working\\ and\\ middle\\ class\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treated\\ short\\ term\\ illnesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Created\\ to\\ reduce\\ discrimitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Religious\\ hosp\\.\\ take\\ pride\\ in\\ treating\\ all\\ faiths\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ though\\ not\\ all\\ races\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ a\\ particular\\ disease\\ or\\ style\\ of\\ medicine\\ \\(homeopaths\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1890\\-1920\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Profit\\-making\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Operated\\ by\\ physicians\\,\\ and\\ by\\ corporations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smallest\\,\\ relied\\ on\\ fees\\ exclusively\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mainly\\ surgical\\ centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Did\\ not\\ stick\\ around\\ for\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complaints\\ of\\ too\\ many\\ hospitals\\ by\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ hospital\\ administration\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complexity\\ of\\ internal\\ organization\\ and\\ relationship\\ with\\ outside\\ agencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ \\#\\ 16\\ on\\ 11\\/20\\/2006\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Medical\\ Technologies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TB\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Germ\\ theory\\ allowed\\ specific\\ diagnosis\\ but\\ no\\ treatment\\ until\\ mid\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Today\\ is\\ still\\ the\\ most\\ prevalent\\ disease\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-many\\ disease\\ systems\\ are\\ not\\ stable\\ and\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ effectively\\ treated\\ by\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-patients\\ and\\ healers\\ view\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ radically\\ different\\ ways\\-belief\\ in\\ privileged\\ knowledge\\-complaints\\ in\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ world\\ that\\ patients\\ have\\ too\\ much\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ Medicine\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shift\\ away\\ from\\ symptomic\\ medicine\\ \\(symptom\\ was\\ the\\ disease\\)\\ but\\ into\\ causality\\ thinking\\ \\(disease\\ due\\ to\\ poverty\\,\\ microbe\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\investigatory\\ techniques\\ changing\\ and\\ rise\\ of\\ cultural\\ profession\\ based\\ on\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\debates\\ about\\ having\\ a\\ physical\\ exam\\ \\(verbal\\,\\ visual\\)\\,\\ monoistic\\ theory\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\anatomical\\ localization\\:\\ Louis\\ counts\\ symptoms\\ with\\ pathology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ technologies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\percussion\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ listening\\ to\\ internal\\ sounds\\ \\(heartbeat\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ describes\\ differential\\ diagnosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ required\\ intimacy\\ w\\/\\ patient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ wooden\\ tube\\ developed\\ \\(early\\ sthescope\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ claims\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ tell\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ fluid\\ on\\ the\\ lungs\\ and\\ TB\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\f\\.\\ in\\ 1860\\-1870\\ the\\ stethoscope\\ is\\ developed\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ latex\\ tubing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\g\\.\\ today\\ this\\ technology\\ is\\ rarely\\ used\\ but\\ still\\ worn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\h\\.\\ enables\\ a\\ physician\\ to\\ hear\\ a\\ heart\\ murmur\\;\\ there\\ are\\ recordings\\ today\\ to\\ practice\\ listening\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ophthalmic\\ scope\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;had\\ lights\\ and\\ lenses\\ so\\ you\\ could\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ eye\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\larginic\\ scope\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ used\\ technology\\ of\\ microscope\\ to\\ look\\ into\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ based\\ on\\ notion\\ of\\ symptoms\\ not\\ equaling\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ physicians\\ begin\\ to\\ collect\\ photographs\\ in\\ hope\\ to\\ create\\ pathology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ X\\-ray\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Rentegen\\ experiments\\ w\\/\\ cathoray\\ tube\\ and\\ almost\\ by\\ accident\\ notices\\ that\\ it\\ goes\\ through\\ body\\ and\\ projects\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ 1901\\-hand\\ held\\ device\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ Thomas\\ Edison\\ was\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ x\\-ray\\ development\\ until\\ a\\ colleague\\ gets\\ cancer\\ of\\ the\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\ x\\-ray\\ photos\\ published\\ in\\ popular\\ literature\\ at\\ turn\\ of\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ disease\\ could\\ be\\ asymptomatic\\-you\\ could\\ look\\ healthy\\ but\\ you\\ could\\ never\\ truly\\ know\\ your\\ health\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;f\\.\\ x\\-rays\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ universally\\ used\\ \\@\\ 1st\\ like\\ anthesia\\ but\\ by\\ 1905\\-1910\\,\\ most\\ hospitals\\ had\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;g\\.\\ x\\-rays\\ were\\ crucial\\ to\\ the\\ shift\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ hospital\\ having\\ a\\ higher\\ status\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ latest\\ technology\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;h\\.\\ x\\-ray\\ development\\ also\\ lead\\ to\\ doctor\\-doctor\\ relationships\\ and\\ prognosis\\ and\\ diagnosis\\ being\\ done\\ without\\ the\\ patient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ sparked\\ a\\ debate\\ about\\ how\\ important\\ a\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technologies\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ free\\ of\\ impact\\ themselves\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ideas\\ arose\\ of\\ machines\\ helping\\/taking\\ over\\ vital\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\questions\\ about\\ cost\\,\\ availability\\ and\\ who\\ gets\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ new\\ technology\\ arose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rise\\ of\\ laboratory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\distance\\ of\\ diagnosis\\ radically\\ changed\\,\\ specimens\\ were\\ transferred\\ by\\ bad\\ means\\ \\(ink\\ bottles\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ idea\\ of\\ lab\\ making\\ diagnosis\\ not\\ primary\\ care\\ physician\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\idea\\ that\\ technologies\\ are\\ definitive\\,\\ misdiagnosis\\ does\\ occur\\ and\\ experiments\\ that\\ showed\\ disagreement\\ occurred\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\famous\\ example\\ of\\ this\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\ every\\ couple\\ had\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ Wasserman\\ exam\\ before\\ marriage\\ and\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ barred\\ from\\ marriage\\ until\\ done\\ w\\/\\ treatment\\ which\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ change\\ results\\,\\ there\\ were\\ false\\ positives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ \\#\\ 17\\ on\\ 11\\/22\\/2006\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Modern\\ Hospital\\ \\(Incomplete\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\problems\\ w\\/\\ lecture\\ video\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antebellum\\ hospital\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marginal\\ as\\ a\\ cultural\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1870s\\,\\ 1880s\\,\\ people\\ start\\ having\\ contact\\ w\\/\\ hospitals\\ including\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\not\\ very\\ centralized\\ like\\ modern\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ some\\ cities\\ the\\ hospital\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ employer\\,\\ for\\ instance\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ cardiologists\\ in\\ Boston\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ entire\\ UK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Highly\\ stigmatized\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;natural\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nontechnical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;extremely\\ technical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perceptions\\ of\\ it\\ being\\ a\\ dangerous\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;non\\ dangerous\\ perceptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limited\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wide\\-range\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contagion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sterile\\,\\ clean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ this\\ transition\\ occur\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cultural\\ reorientation\\ of\\ society\\ to\\ hospitals\\/changes\\ in\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hospital\\ links\\ to\\ medical\\ school\\ starts\\ in\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\idea\\ that\\ patients\\ would\\ be\\ vehicle\\ medical\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\move\\ to\\ advertise\\ hospital\\ and\\ start\\ charging\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ would\\ a\\ middle\\-class\\ paying\\ patient\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ hospital\\ in\\ 1880\\,\\ 1890\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\science\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accessibility\\ of\\ new\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hospitals\\ were\\ much\\ closer\\ to\\ people\\ due\\ to\\ urbanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\care\\ in\\ home\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ difficult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\secular\\ hospitals\\ were\\ appealing\\ but\\ dominational\\ were\\ even\\ more\\ appealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ relationship\\ of\\ doctor\\ to\\ hospital\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\trustee\\ realize\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ relations\\ w\\/\\ local\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\early\\ times\\ hospital\\ and\\ referring\\ doctors\\ both\\ billed\\ patients\\ which\\ helped\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1900\\:\\ \\~15\\%\\ of\\ physicians\\ affiliated\\ with\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1910\\:\\ \\>\\;\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ physicians\\ affiliated\\ with\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ of\\ November\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flexner\\ Report\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Medical\\ Education\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ Canada\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Very\\ influential\\!\\ Modernized\\ education\\,\\ hospitals\\,\\ with\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ science\\ that\\ greatly\\ improves\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\ in\\ society\\,\\ allowing\\ a\\ more\\ bounded\\ prof\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ div\\.\\ of\\ medical\\ schools\\:\\ require\\ 2\\ years\\ of\\ college\\,\\ require\\ high\\ school\\ grad\\,\\ elementary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Johns\\ Hopkins\\ requires\\ college\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Requirements\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ readily\\ waved\\ many\\ places\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;equivalency\\ tests\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ meet\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;medical\\ examiner\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ while\\ in\\ med\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*curriculum\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ tailored\\ to\\ weakest\\ student\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fewer\\ drop\\/fail\\ out\\ w\\ higher\\ admission\\ standards\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\South\\ in\\ worst\\ condition\\,\\ currently\\ educational\\ renaissance\\,\\ building\\ high\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Should\\ do\\ progressive\\ raise\\ of\\ med\\ school\\ admit\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\State\\ education\\ boards\\ generally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ enough\\ power\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schools\\ need\\ money\\,\\ resolve\\ doubtful\\ points\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;boy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ promote\\ excessively\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Report\\ has\\ lots\\ of\\ statistics\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ numbers\\ failing\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ admission\\ req\\.\\ changes\\,\\ also\\ used\\ historical\\ examples\\,\\ and\\ examples\\ from\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lots\\ of\\ transfers\\ to\\ avoid\\ failing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ this\\ many\\ doctors\\-\\-tighten\\ standards\\ and\\ get\\ better\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ keep\\ standards\\ low\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;poor\\ boy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ better\\ for\\ society\\ to\\ have\\ high\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lots\\ of\\ waste\\ in\\ training\\ large\\ group\\ of\\ substandard\\ doctors\\,\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ drop\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Need\\ rural\\ doctors\\ dedicated\\ to\\ medicine\\,\\ not\\ money\\/ambition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Not\\ excuse\\ to\\ lower\\ standards\\,\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ graduates\\ practicing\\ in\\ little\\ towns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Too\\ many\\ medical\\ schools\\,\\ many\\ have\\ low\\ standards\\ to\\ get\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leave\\ basic\\ lab\\ sciences\\,\\ languages\\ for\\ college\\,\\ medicine\\ for\\ medical\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recommends\\:\\ for\\ now\\ in\\ South\\-high\\ school\\,\\ everywhere\\ else\\-2\\ yr\\ college\\,\\ degree\\ for\\ few\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\states\\ to\\ require\\ MD\\ from\\ reputable\\ med\\ school\\,\\ finish\\ requirements\\ b4\\ admission\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\med\\ school\\ as\\ a\\ university\\ department\\ \\(pref\\.\\ in\\ a\\ large\\ city\\,\\ for\\ the\\ clinical\\ cases\\)\\,\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\med\\ school\\/city\\,\\ try\\ to\\ get\\ 1\\ med\\ school\\/state\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Map\\ of\\ where\\ med\\ schools\\ are\\ and\\ map\\ of\\ where\\ they\\ should\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Opportunities\\ of\\ women\\ have\\ increased\\,\\ on\\ basically\\ same\\ terms\\ as\\ men\\,\\ they\\ just\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\desire\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ profession\\ or\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Should\\ have\\ coeducational\\ schools\\,\\ make\\ sure\\ equal\\ intern\\ privileges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negro\\ doctors\\ will\\ only\\ care\\ for\\ negros\\,\\ need\\ good\\ schools\\,\\ poorly\\ trained\\ dangerous\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\negros\\ easily\\ deceived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negros\\ must\\ be\\ educated\\ for\\ his\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;our\\&rdquo\\;\\ sake\\,\\ as\\ so\\ many\\ live\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ whites\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\could\\ have\\ contagious\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Training\\ negros\\ in\\ sanitation\\ especially\\ helpful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EDUCATION\\ REFORM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Time\\ Period\\:\\ Late\\ 19th\\/early\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Education\\ Reform\\ Readings\\ \\(minus\\ Flexner\\ and\\ Arrowsmith\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bonner\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ German\\ Model\\ of\\ Training\\ Physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*Main\\ themes\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Around\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\/early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ demand\\ for\\ medical\\ education\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ ultimate\\ goal\\ of\\ these\\ reformers\\ was\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ American\\ medical\\ education\\ system\\ that\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ 3\\ ideas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-advanced\\ German\\ medical\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-British\\ bedside\\ and\\ clinical\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-a\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\&rdquo\\;\\ philosophy\\ of\\ early\\ expose\\ to\\ learning\\ by\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ The\\ German\\ medical\\ education\\ was\\ a\\ significant\\ model\\ for\\ reformers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-High\\ demand\\ for\\ increased\\ knowledge\\ in\\ medical\\ science\\ rather\\ than\\ medical\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-German\\ medicine\\ was\\ described\\ as\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;laboratory\\ based\\,\\ all\\ conquering\\ science\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;teacher\\ and\\ scientist\\ were\\ one\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ freedom\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ the\\ scientist\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ unity\\ of\\ research\\ and\\ teaching\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ advanced\\ degree\\ of\\ specialization\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ American\\ physicians\\,\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ Germany\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ accomplish\\ a\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ medicine\\ where\\ research\\,\\ laboratory\\ study\\,\\ and\\ teaching\\ were\\ combined\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-University\\ presidents\\ also\\ began\\ to\\ pursue\\ a\\ more\\ scientific\\ base\\ medical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-President\\ Charles\\ Eliot\\ of\\ Harvard\\ insisted\\ for\\ more\\ German\\ methods\\ in\\ the\\ university\\ where\\ laboratory\\ work\\ was\\ required\\ by\\ every\\ student\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*main\\ idea\\ adopted\\ from\\ this\\ model\\ was\\ undergraduate\\ laboratories\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ German\\ education\\ system\\ was\\ NOT\\ reformers\\&rsquo\\;\\ principle\\ inspiration\\-they\\ adopted\\ and\\ retained\\ British\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Compare\\ and\\ Contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ In\\ German\\ systems\\,\\ students\\ had\\ a\\ larger\\ degree\\ of\\ freedom\\ in\\ choosing\\ electives\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ required\\ courses\\ but\\ American\\ universities\\ firmly\\ adopted\\ the\\ British\\ system\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;prescribed\\ courses\\,\\ rigid\\ curricula\\,\\ and\\ frequent\\ examinations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ In\\ German\\ systems\\,\\ major\\ clinical\\ experience\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ year\\ of\\ internship\\ after\\ graduation\\ but\\ American\\ universities\\ adopted\\ British\\ model\\ of\\ clinical\\ clerkships\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ years\\ of\\ medical\\ education\\ \\(seen\\ a\\ lot\\ at\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ Hospital\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ American\\ universities\\ took\\ it\\ further\\ as\\ to\\ insist\\ that\\ students\\ have\\ extensive\\ clinical\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 2\\ years\\ of\\ medical\\ school\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ who\\ studied\\ in\\ Germany\\ were\\ highly\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ heavy\\ dependency\\ on\\ lecture\\ instruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-American\\ med\\.\\ education\\ reformers\\ wanted\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ larger\\ amount\\ of\\ practical\\ professional\\ training\\ in\\ the\\ curriculum\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ proprietary\\ schools\\ were\\ producing\\ many\\ unqualified\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ 1910\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ shift\\ to\\ personal\\ laboratory\\ training\\ for\\ medical\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Flexner\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ student\\ no\\ longer\\ merely\\ watches\\,\\ listens\\,\\ and\\ memorizes\\;\\ he\\ does\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*The\\ idea\\ of\\ hands\\ on\\ experience\\ with\\ research\\ instruments\\ early\\ on\\ in\\ medical\\ education\\ distinguished\\ American\\ medicine\\ from\\ British\\ and\\ German\\ med\\.\\ education\\*\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ The\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ reformed\\ education\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Was\\ very\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Called\\ for\\ smaller\\ medical\\ classes\\ that\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ well\\ financed\\ for\\ such\\ research\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Because\\ of\\ a\\ high\\ demand\\ for\\ medical\\ schools\\ that\\ promoted\\ education\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ research\\ \\&\\;\\ advanced\\ study\\,\\ many\\ schools\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ trend\\ and\\ change\\ their\\ curricula\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ proprietary\\ schools\\ had\\ to\\ close\\ down\\ because\\ state\\ and\\ professional\\ licensing\\ companies\\ denied\\ them\\ funding\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ inadequate\\ curricula\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ There\\ were\\ critics\\ against\\ the\\ dramatic\\ shift\\ to\\ science\\ based\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Educators\\ were\\ ignoring\\ the\\ important\\ differences\\ between\\ scientific\\ study\\ and\\ professional\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ removed\\ medical\\ education\\ from\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ professional\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-made\\ medical\\ education\\ much\\ more\\ exclusive\\ and\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hudson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Abraham\\ Flexner\\ in\\ Perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*Main\\ theme\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flexner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contribution\\ was\\ not\\ revolutionary\\,\\ but\\ rather\\,\\ catalytic\\ to\\ a\\ movement\\ that\\ was\\ already\\ occurring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Post\\-Bellum\\ Years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-American\\ medical\\ school\\ training\\ was\\ lagging\\ and\\ inferior\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ 2\\ decades\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\(\\~1865\\-1885\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-during\\ this\\ time\\ period\\,\\ there\\ were\\ also\\ opportunities\\ of\\ reform\\ coming\\ in\\ 3\\ main\\ areas\\:\\ admission\\ requirements\\,\\ medical\\ school\\ curricula\\,\\ and\\ post\\ graduate\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Admission\\ requirements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-both\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ premed\\ education\\ and\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ men\\ pursuing\\ pre\\-doctoral\\ degrees\\ increased\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Medical\\ school\\ curriculum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Surrounding\\ the\\ med\\ school\\ curriculum\\ around\\ the\\ laboratory\\ and\\ research\\ was\\ already\\ rising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Graded\\ and\\ longer\\ curriculums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Post\\ graduate\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Hospitals\\ were\\ growing\\ in\\ number\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ higher\\ demand\\ for\\ resident\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Medical\\ training\\ abroad\\ came\\ up\\ as\\ an\\ option\\,\\ especially\\ to\\ Germany\\ and\\ Austria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Two\\ principle\\ organizations\\ involved\\ in\\ reform\\ were\\ American\\ Medical\\ Association\\ \\(AMA\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Association\\ of\\ American\\ Medical\\ Colleges\\ \\(AAMC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-AMA\\ started\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 19th\\ century\\ \\(1846\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Initial\\ attempts\\ to\\ reform\\ failed\\ due\\ to\\ lack\\ of\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ 1904\\,\\ it\\ successfully\\ formed\\ a\\ Council\\ on\\ Medical\\ Education\\ which\\ inspected\\ and\\ rated\\ medical\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-AAMC\\ set\\ out\\ new\\ radical\\ standards\\ from\\ its\\ member\\ colleges\\ and\\ in\\ 1905\\,\\ the\\ curriculum\\ was\\ adopted\\ as\\ standards\\ for\\ licensure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Public\\ dissatisfaction\\ with\\ the\\ heroic\\ therapy\\ coupled\\ with\\ legal\\ issues\\ in\\ the\\ medical\\ community\\ indicated\\ that\\ state\\ regulation\\ was\\ necessary\\-\\-\\-this\\ helped\\ strengthen\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ Flexner\\ report\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*The\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ medical\\ school\\ succeeded\\ almost\\ 2\\ decades\\ before\\ the\\ Flexner\\ report\\ shows\\ that\\ American\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ med\\ education\\ was\\ dramatically\\ changing\\ from\\ the\\ mid\\ to\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ Starr\\ discusses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Focused\\ curriculum\\ and\\ less\\ medical\\ schools\\&mdash\\;standardizing\\ medical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unity\\ and\\ consensus\\ between\\ doctors\\ instead\\ of\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ 19th\\ century\\ was\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ growing\\ sectarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ principle\\ groups\\ in\\ the\\ 2nd\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ were\\ the\\ Eclectics\\ and\\ homeopaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\/early\\ 20th\\,\\ convergence\\ occured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclectics\\ were\\ botanical\\ doctors\\ \\(adopted\\ a\\ lot\\ from\\ \\ \\;Thomsonianism\\)\\ who\\ merged\\ in\\ and\\ specialized\\ in\\ different\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homeopaths\\,\\ who\\ were\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ Christian\\ science\\ today\\,\\ died\\ out\\ due\\ to\\ simplicity\\ of\\ their\\ practices\\ and\\ their\\ harsh\\ opposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ started\\ loosing\\ faith\\ in\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ strict\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ homeopathy\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ making\\ no\\ new\\ advances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complex\\ medicine\\ was\\ characterized\\ as\\ the\\ super\\ medicine\\ and\\ caused\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ doctors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sectarian\\ medicine\\ was\\ viewed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ simplistic\\ approach\\ to\\ disease\\ causation\\ and\\ therapy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Growth\\ of\\ medical\\ school\\ integrity\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ medical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prerequisites\\ for\\ medicine\\ got\\ higher\\ and\\ harder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultural\\ aspect\\&mdash\\;People\\ were\\ focusing\\ more\\ on\\ education\\ in\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economic\\ aspect\\&mdash\\;Schools\\ needed\\ to\\ increase\\ standards\\ to\\ get\\ funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Controlled\\ distribution\\ and\\ prescribing\\ of\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increasing\\ the\\ social\\ status\\ of\\ doctors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Movement\\ that\\ doctors\\ needed\\ to\\ act\\ strong\\ with\\ good\\ manners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cathell\\,\\ a\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\ doctor\\,\\ pushed\\ for\\ idea\\ of\\ doctors\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;faking\\ it\\ until\\ you\\ make\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ pushing\\ it\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sinclair\\ Lewis\\,\\ Arrowsmith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arrowsmith\\ grows\\ up\\ in\\ small\\ town\\,\\ works\\ w\\ local\\ doctor\\ \\(had\\ no\\ training\\)\\,\\ goes\\ to\\ med\\ school\\,\\ marries\\,\\ is\\ a\\ country\\ doctor\\,\\ wants\\ to\\ do\\ research\\ so\\ goes\\ to\\ an\\ institute\\ in\\ city\\,\\ has\\ German\\ mentor\\,\\ devoted\\ to\\ scientific\\ principles\\ and\\ control\\ experiments\\,\\ goes\\ to\\ Carribean\\ to\\ try\\ a\\ vaccine\\ for\\ plague\\,\\ wife\\ dies\\,\\ he\\ looses\\ sight\\ of\\ principles\\,\\ gives\\ vaccine\\ to\\ everybody\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/27\\&mdash\\;Education\\ Reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Radical\\ Changes\\ in\\ Medical\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dramatic\\ shift\\ in\\ medical\\ education\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ change\\ in\\ period\\ of\\ 1910\\-1920\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aspects\\ of\\ Medical\\ Profession\\ in\\ 20th\\ Century\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*BIG\\ change\\ from\\ 19th\\ century\\*\\ One\\ could\\ assume\\ what\\ professionals\\ know\\,\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ know\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ have\\ had\\ trained\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Called\\ \\&ldquo\\;portable\\ credentials\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ socialists\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reformers\\ redefined\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;professional\\&rdquo\\;\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abraham\\ Flexner\\&mdash\\;wrote\\ an\\ extensive\\ essay\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ defining\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ professionalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ store\\ of\\ knowledge\\ among\\ these\\ professionals\\ \\(5\\ characteristics\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complex\\&mdash\\;not\\ commonly\\ available\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theoretically\\ based\\&mdash\\;ex\\.\\ rooted\\ in\\ science\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extensive\\&mdash\\;must\\ be\\ taught\\ over\\ a\\ span\\ of\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constantly\\ changing\\&mdash\\;committed\\ to\\ developing\\ new\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Had\\ to\\ have\\ immediate\\ social\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ process\\ where\\ available\\ knowledge\\ and\\ approach\\ to\\ knowledge\\ could\\ be\\ transmitted\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ school\\ is\\ pivotal\\ institute\\ for\\ this\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\ regulatory\\ basis\\&mdash\\;other\\ doctors\\ regulate\\ standards\\ in\\ profession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Profession\\ must\\ act\\ altruistically\\ and\\ put\\ personal\\ needs\\ secondary\\ to\\ obligations\\ to\\ society\\*distinguishes\\ profession\\ from\\ other\\ groups\\ trying\\ to\\ maximize\\ profit\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ education\\ should\\ only\\ be\\ for\\ elite\\ and\\ capable\\&mdash\\;not\\ open\\ to\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ Education\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problems\\ in\\ late\\ 19th\\/early\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Too\\ many\\ doctors\\&mdash\\;would\\ prey\\ on\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1904\\,\\ 166\\ medical\\ schools\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ overproducing\\ doctors\\ of\\ poor\\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Between\\ 1860\\ and\\ 1910\\,\\ number\\ of\\ doctors\\ tripled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Little\\ to\\ no\\ prerequisites\\ for\\ medical\\ education\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1890\\,\\ Harvard\\ begins\\ to\\ require\\ entrance\\ exams\\,\\ 3\\ years\\ of\\ undergraduate\\ study\\,\\ and\\ requires\\ graded\\ curriculum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ growing\\ need\\ for\\ enforcement\\ of\\ standards\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Due\\ to\\ introduction\\ of\\ laboratory\\ medicine\\ and\\ surgery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Founding\\ of\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ medical\\ school\\ promoted\\ changes\\ in\\ medical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Based\\ on\\ German\\ graduate\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Must\\ be\\ a\\ major\\ academically\\ oriented\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ years\\ of\\ basic\\ science\\ then\\ 2\\ years\\ of\\ first\\ hand\\ experience\\ in\\ hospital\\ \\(done\\ in\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ system\\&mdash\\;intern\\,\\ 1st\\ year\\ resident\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ essential\\ arguments\\ about\\ education\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assures\\ homogeneity\\ of\\ practice\\&mdash\\;basic\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ is\\ universal\\ from\\ students\\ to\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ medical\\ schools\\ should\\ be\\ attached\\ to\\ a\\ university\\&mdash\\;committed\\ to\\ promote\\ increasing\\ knowledge\\ among\\ practitioners\\ and\\ physicians\\ through\\ constant\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laboratory\\ was\\ central\\ element\\ of\\ medical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impacts\\ of\\ Flexner\\ Report\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Report\\ was\\ introduced\\ to\\ public\\ and\\ covered\\ to\\ front\\ pages\\ of\\ many\\ newspapers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alarmed\\ the\\ public\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increased\\ homogenous\\ in\\ practice\\ of\\ medicine\\ and\\ medical\\ education\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Has\\ been\\ attacked\\ because\\ Flexner\\ reforms\\ causes\\ profession\\ itself\\ becomes\\ inheritably\\ homogenous\\&mdash\\;low\\ \\#\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ African\\ Americans\\ in\\ medicine\\&mdash\\;until\\ the\\ late\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ of\\ December\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ Magic\\ Bullet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ have\\ specific\\ social\\ responses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\want\\ \\&ldquo\\;magic\\ bullets\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ create\\ curves\\ for\\ specific\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rise\\ of\\ later\\ marriage\\ and\\ smaller\\ middle\\ class\\ families\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 19th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\progressive\\ doctors\\ looked\\ at\\ venereal\\ disease\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ shape\\ social\\ challenges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\believed\\ to\\ be\\ deadlier\\ than\\ all\\ other\\ contagious\\ diseases\\ combined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\no\\ adequate\\ treatment\\ led\\ to\\ high\\ fears\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ victims\\ of\\ their\\ husbands\\ which\\ infect\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\doctors\\ often\\ debate\\ whether\\ to\\ tell\\ wives\\ when\\ husbands\\ are\\ infected\\ because\\ helped\\ raise\\ divorce\\ rates\\ and\\ destroy\\ families\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rise\\ in\\ immigration\\ and\\ disease\\ level\\ among\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\common\\ misconception\\ that\\ disease\\ can\\ be\\ contracted\\ in\\ public\\ spaces\\/\\ non\\ sexually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ views\\ that\\ public\\ should\\ be\\ educated\\ and\\ informed\\:\\ reduce\\ stigma\\,\\ increase\\ awareness\\ and\\ therefore\\ decrease\\ spread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\prostitution\\ viewed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ infected\\ many\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1911\\:\\ Page\\ law\\ of\\ NYC\\:\\ require\\ treatment\\ of\\ women\\ found\\ as\\ prostitutes\\ with\\ Venereal\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Appealed\\ as\\ unconstitutional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anti\\ vice\\ groups\\ and\\ health\\ groups\\ joined\\ together\\ to\\ fight\\ challenges\\ cooperatively\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ Erlich\\ developed\\ Salvarsan\\ in\\ 1909\\ to\\ cure\\ Syphilis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Debate\\ by\\ public\\ health\\ vs\\ doctors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Require\\ case\\ reporting\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Make\\ diseases\\ only\\ medical\\ and\\ not\\ moral\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Secularization\\ of\\ society\\ shifted\\ the\\ control\\/\\ prevention\\ of\\ venereal\\ disease\\ on\\ only\\ moral\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\young\\ men\\ in\\ military\\ tempted\\ by\\ vice\\ because\\ bored\\ and\\ lonely\\:\\ caused\\ VD\\ contraction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\develop\\ \\&ldquo\\;wholesome\\&rdquo\\;\\ activities\\ in\\ camps\\ such\\ as\\ athletics\\ and\\ movies\\ to\\ prevent\\ need\\ and\\ spread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\councils\\ push\\ to\\ have\\ men\\ taught\\ that\\ abstinence\\ during\\ war\\ will\\ protect\\ the\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ better\\ fighters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\ pushes\\ to\\ close\\ red\\-light\\ districts\\ near\\ military\\ installments\\;\\ becomes\\ push\\ to\\ shut\\ down\\ all\\ red\\ light\\ districts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\shown\\ that\\ most\\ men\\ entered\\ military\\ already\\ infected\\ and\\ needed\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\renewed\\ push\\ for\\ treatment\\ and\\ education\\ of\\ civilians\\ to\\ protect\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\men\\ often\\ find\\ themselves\\ with\\ young\\ girls\\ who\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ actually\\ prostitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\ for\\ families\\ to\\ keep\\ young\\ women\\ away\\ from\\ temptation\\ of\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\men\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seen\\ as\\ responsible\\ for\\ transmission\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arrested\\ women\\ who\\ were\\ found\\ infected\\ were\\ usually\\ forced\\ into\\ quarantine\\/\\ incarceration\\ to\\ protect\\ military\\ and\\ government\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\growing\\ fear\\ of\\ troop\\ contraction\\ of\\ VDs\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\French\\ and\\ British\\ armies\\ proven\\ incapacitated\\ by\\ VD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Failed\\ attempts\\ to\\ put\\ together\\ allied\\ plans\\ against\\ VD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ groups\\ trying\\ to\\ provide\\ wholesome\\ entertainment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soldiers\\ pushed\\ to\\ get\\ prophylactic\\ treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VD\\ treatments\\ and\\ preventions\\ cost\\ the\\ government\\ approximately\\ \\$50\\ million\\ during\\ the\\ war\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\diseases\\ still\\ prevelant\\ even\\ though\\ penicillin\\ proven\\ as\\ effective\\ treatment\\ in\\ 1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fight\\ to\\ illegalize\\ prostitution\\ near\\ military\\ camps\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ WW\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\increased\\ education\\ again\\ for\\ troops\\ with\\ pamphlets\\ and\\ movies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\recognized\\ sex\\ inevitable\\:\\ made\\ condoms\\ widely\\ available\\ and\\ pushed\\ prophylactic\\ treatments\\ again\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\attempt\\ to\\ stop\\ relationships\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;girls\\ next\\ door\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ were\\ spreading\\ more\\ VD\\ than\\ prostitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\seen\\ as\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fault\\ for\\ passing\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\army\\ reinstated\\ pay\\ for\\ those\\ infected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\decrease\\ burden\\ as\\ fault\\ of\\ individual\\:\\ places\\ more\\ responsibility\\ on\\ government\\ and\\ general\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\penicillin\\ greatly\\ decreased\\ illness\\ from\\ VDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ push\\ for\\ moral\\ responsibility\\ against\\ contracting\\ VDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fear\\ that\\ new\\ treatment\\ will\\ increase\\ rates\\ of\\ exposure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1960s\\:\\ rise\\ of\\ birth\\ control\\ use\\ and\\ premarital\\ sexual\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1960s\\-1970s\\:\\ high\\ rises\\ in\\ VD\\ rates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ funding\\/education\\/prevention\\ remained\\ low\\ and\\ even\\ fell\\ as\\ VD\\ rates\\ rose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1980\\:\\ rise\\ of\\ new\\ VDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genital\\ Herpes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blame\\ those\\ who\\ contract\\ as\\ being\\ morally\\ loose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\AIDS\\ first\\ recognized\\ in\\ gay\\ males\\ in\\ 1981\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spread\\/infection\\ recognized\\ in\\ all\\ populations\\ in\\ 1982\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Death\\ usually\\ within\\ 3\\ \\ \\;years\\ of\\ infection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cause\\ of\\ AIDS\\:\\ HIV\\ discovered\\ in\\ 1984\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ blood\\ supplies\\ originally\\ contaminated\\ but\\ with\\ new\\ testing\\ the\\ fear\\ decreased\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ counting\\ AIDS\\ does\\ not\\ show\\ how\\ large\\ the\\ epidemic\\ may\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Believed\\ to\\ have\\ started\\ in\\ Central\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dependent\\ on\\ prevention\\ because\\ no\\ cure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Push\\ for\\ safer\\ sex\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ public\\ distrust\\ and\\ social\\ isolation\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ infected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Led\\ to\\ more\\ homophobia\\ as\\ some\\ saw\\ homosexuality\\ as\\ the\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ of\\ testing\\ to\\ recognize\\ those\\ infected\\ and\\ then\\ prevent\\ them\\ from\\ jobs\\ and\\ other\\ social\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ of\\ social\\ health\\ care\\:\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ treatment\\ expensive\\ to\\ treat\\ and\\ many\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ infected\\ are\\ also\\ uninsured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ government\\ funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fear\\ that\\ promoting\\ safe\\ sex\\ would\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ promoting\\ homosexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\View\\ that\\ problem\\ would\\ go\\ away\\ if\\ individual\\ are\\ sexually\\ responsible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ themes\\ illustrated\\ by\\ AIDS\\ outbreak\\/epidemic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fear\\ of\\ contagion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Casual\\ transmission\\ concerns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Victim\\ stigmatization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ health\\ vs\\ civil\\ liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;magic\\ bullets\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Omran\\,\\ AR\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Epidemiologic\\ Transition\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ John\\ A\\.\\ Ross\\,\\ Ed\\.\\ International\\ Encyclopedia\\ of\\ Population\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Free\\ Press\\,\\ 1982\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 172\\-183\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\)\\ Epidemiologic\\ transition\\ theory\\:\\ complex\\ changes\\ in\\ patterns\\ of\\ health\\ and\\ disease\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ and\\ on\\ their\\ demographic\\,\\ socioeconomic\\,\\ and\\ biologic\\ determinants\\ and\\ consequences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\)\\ These\\ changes\\ are\\ generally\\ correlated\\ somewhat\\ with\\ social\\,\\ economic\\,\\ and\\ medical\\ developments\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ predict\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ population\\ and\\ health\\ factors\\,\\ there\\ are\\ several\\ models\\ of\\ epidemiologic\\ transition\\ for\\ nations\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ development\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\)\\ Prepositions\\ of\\ Theory\\:\\ The\\ Epidemiologic\\ theory\\ consists\\ of\\ 5\\ Prepositions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ Mortality\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ factor\\ in\\ population\\ dynamics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Long\\-term\\ shift\\ occurs\\ in\\ mortality\\/disease\\ patterns\\ \\(infections\\ progressively\\ become\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ man\\-made\\ diseases\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\)\\ 3\\ major\\ stages\\ of\\ epidemiologic\\ transition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\)\\ The\\ age\\ of\\ pestilence\\ and\\ famine\\ \\(mortality\\ is\\ high\\ and\\ life\\-expectancy\\ is\\ low\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\)\\ The\\ age\\ of\\ receding\\ pandemics\\ \\(life\\ expectancy\\ increases\\ steadily\\ to\\ about\\ 30\\-35\\ years\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\)\\ The\\ age\\ of\\ degenerative\\ and\\ man\\-made\\ diseases\\ \\(mortality\\ declines\\ and\\ fertility\\ becomes\\ crucial\\ factor\\ in\\ population\\ growth\\-\\ Life\\ expectancy\\ exceeds\\ 70\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ This\\ transition\\ usually\\ favors\\ the\\ young\\ over\\ the\\ old\\ and\\ females\\ over\\ males\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Shifts\\ before\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ \\(in\\ more\\-developed\\ countries\\)\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ rising\\ standards\\ of\\ living\\ and\\ improved\\ nutrition\\ than\\ with\\ medical\\ progress\\.\\ And\\ 20th\\ century\\ transitions\\ \\(less\\-developed\\ countries\\)\\ are\\ initiated\\ by\\ medical\\ progress\\,\\ organized\\ health\\ care\\ and\\ disease\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Variations\\ in\\ pattern\\ differentiate\\ four\\ basic\\ models\\:\\ these\\ characterizations\\ are\\ significant\\ to\\ both\\ population\\ theory\\ and\\ practical\\ policy\\ applications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ The\\ classical\\ or\\ Western\\ model\\:\\ describes\\ shift\\ in\\ western\\ societies\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 200\\ years\\ from\\ high\\ death\\ rates\\ to\\ low\\ death\\ rates\\ and\\ low\\ birth\\ rates\\.\\ Transition\\ passed\\ through\\ three\\ stages\\ \\(see\\ proposition\\ 2\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Accelerated\\ variant\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ model\\:\\ describes\\ transitions\\ in\\ Japan\\,\\ easter\\ Europe\\,\\ and\\ soviet\\ Union\\:\\ accelerated\\ variant\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ model\\ where\\ mortality\\ transition\\ occurred\\ over\\ a\\ short\\ period\\ of\\ time\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ a\\ slow\\ process\\ of\\ modernization\\ had\\ begun\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ drop\\ in\\ mortality\\ in\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\.\\ Wide\\ use\\ of\\ abortion\\ helped\\ accelerate\\ the\\ fertility\\ transition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ Delayed\\ Model\\:\\ Third\\ world\\ countries\\-\\ \\ \\;mortality\\ had\\ declined\\ dramatically\\ since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ world\\ war\\ II\\ while\\ fertility\\ remained\\ at\\ high\\ levels\\.\\ Further\\ mortality\\ decline\\ will\\ depend\\ on\\ progress\\ made\\ supplementing\\ the\\ imported\\ medical\\ technology\\ with\\ genuine\\ health\\ care\\ and\\ social\\ development\\ \\(see\\ pg\\ 303\\ in\\ source\\ book\\ for\\ specific\\ developments\\ needed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ca\\)\\ Transitional\\ variant\\ of\\ the\\ delayed\\ model\\:\\ Taiwan\\,\\ South\\ Korea\\,\\ Singapore\\,\\ Hong\\ Kong\\,\\ Sri\\ Lanka\\,\\ and\\ other\\ developing\\ countries\\:\\ similar\\ to\\ delayed\\ model\\,\\ but\\ these\\ countries\\ were\\ fortunate\\ in\\ two\\ respects\\:\\ first\\,\\ fertility\\ declined\\ along\\ with\\ mortality\\ decline\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ efficient\\,\\ organized\\ family\\ planning\\ efforts\\.\\ Second\\,\\ mortality\\ decline\\ did\\ not\\ slacken\\,\\ hence\\ the\\ gap\\ in\\ health\\ levels\\ between\\ these\\ countries\\ in\\ this\\ model\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ classical\\ model\\ is\\ narrowing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\)\\ Epidemiologic\\ transition\\:\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\)\\ Long\\ term\\ data\\ is\\ not\\ available\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ so\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ data\\ was\\ used\\ from\\ Massachusetts\\ since\\ 1800\\,\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ since\\ 1804\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\)\\ Mortality\\ transition\\:\\ generally\\ high\\ with\\ fluctuations\\ in\\ epidemic\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Whites\\ have\\ experienced\\ lower\\ mortality\\ than\\ nonwhites\\,\\ and\\ in\\ each\\ racial\\ group\\ females\\ have\\ experienced\\ lower\\ mortality\\ than\\ males\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\)\\ Fertility\\ transition\\:\\ birth\\ rates\\ high\\ prior\\ to\\ 1850s\\ \\(higher\\ than\\ Europe\\)\\ \\-\\ in\\ those\\ days\\ families\\ were\\ required\\ to\\ populate\\ the\\ vast\\ reaches\\ of\\ the\\ western\\ states\\ and\\ territories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\)\\ Stages\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ Epidemiologic\\ Transition\\:\\ three\\ stages\\ include\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ pestilence\\ and\\ famine\\,\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ receding\\ pandemics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ degenerative\\ and\\ man\\-made\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\)\\ Inequality\\ of\\ Epidemiologic\\ Transition\\:\\ Theoretically\\,\\ mortality\\ decline\\ in\\ classical\\ model\\ of\\ epidemiologic\\ transition\\ favors\\ children\\ over\\ adults\\,\\ females\\ over\\ males\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ whites\\ over\\ nonwhites\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\)\\ Determinants\\ of\\ Mortality\\ Decline\\-\\ due\\ to\\ social\\,\\ economic\\,\\ and\\ environmental\\ improvements\\ that\\ constitute\\ the\\ modernization\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ miracle\\ drugs\\ such\\ as\\ antibiotics\\ and\\ chemotherapy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ Active\\ immunization\\ \\(small\\ pox\\,\\ rabies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ Sanitation\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\)\\ origins\\ of\\ disease\\ discovered\\-\\ bacteria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\)\\ control\\ of\\ working\\ environment\\ with\\ technology\\ of\\ industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;6\\)\\ improvements\\ in\\ hospital\\ and\\ medical\\ treatments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;7\\)\\ Organized\\ health\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Important\\:\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ 7\\ improvements\\ did\\ not\\ happen\\ until\\ after\\ the\\ 1900s\\,\\ mortality\\ decline\\ between\\ 1950s\\-1900s\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ improvements\\ in\\ personal\\ prevention\\,\\ recession\\ of\\ certain\\ diseases\\,\\ and\\ some\\ improvement\\ in\\ medical\\ and\\ preventive\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lederberg\\,\\ Joshua\\.\\ \\"\\;Infection\\ Emergent\\.\\"\\;\\ JAMA\\ 275\\ \\(January\\ 17\\,\\ 1996\\)\\:\\ 243\\-245\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\could\\ not\\ find\\ this\\ reading\\-I\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ sourcebook\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preston\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;Crisis\\ in\\ the\\ Hot\\ Zone\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ New\\ Yorker\\ \\(October\\ 26\\,\\ 1996\\)\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takes\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ building\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ Army\\ Medical\\ Research\\ Institute\\ for\\ Infectious\\ Diseases\\ \\(USAMRIID\\)\\.\\ This\\ place\\ conducts\\ research\\ into\\ ways\\ to\\ protect\\ soldiers\\ against\\ biological\\ weapons\\ and\\ natural\\ infectious\\ diseases\\-\\ specializes\\ in\\ vaccines\\,\\ drug\\ therapy\\,\\ and\\ biocontainment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ experiment\\ being\\ done\\ by\\ Nancy\\ Jaax\\ \\(experimenter\\)\\ is\\ where\\ they\\ were\\ infecting\\ monkeys\\ with\\ Ebola\\ and\\ then\\ treating\\ them\\ with\\ interferon\\ and\\ other\\ substances\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ treatments\\ stopped\\ or\\ weakened\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ Purpose\\ of\\ experiments\\ was\\ to\\ find\\ some\\ chemical\\ therapy\\ for\\ military\\ personnel\\ who\\ might\\ become\\ infected\\ with\\ Ebola\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symptoms\\ of\\ Ebola\\:\\ Ebola\\ victims\\ died\\ about\\ a\\ week\\ after\\ the\\ first\\ symptom\\ \\(headache\\)\\.\\ Relentless\\ fever\\,\\ triggers\\ paradoxical\\ combination\\ of\\ blood\\ clots\\ and\\ hemorrhages\\.\\ This\\ is\\ call\\ D\\.I\\.C\\.\\ \\(disseminated\\ intravascular\\ coagulation\\-\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ stroke\\ throughout\\ the\\ whole\\ body\\)\\.\\ A\\ classic\\ sign\\ of\\ infection\\ is\\ a\\ certain\\ expression\\ that\\ is\\ on\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ as\\ infection\\ progresses\\ \\(mask\\-like\\,\\ ghost\\-like\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Through\\ this\\ experiment\\,\\ they\\ realized\\ that\\ Ebola\\ could\\ spread\\ through\\ the\\ air\\ because\\ monkeys\\ on\\ the\\ far\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ room\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ injected\\ with\\ the\\ virus\\ had\\ gotten\\ sick\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Similar\\ experiments\\ were\\ done\\ on\\ monkeys\\ regarding\\ HIV\\,\\ simian\\ hemorrhagic\\ fever\\ \\(SHF\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Marburg\\ Virus\\ Disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ rest\\ of\\ this\\ article\\ continues\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ procedures\\ used\\ on\\ the\\ monkeys\\ and\\ the\\ methodological\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ go\\ about\\ testing\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ these\\ diseases\\ and\\ the\\ ways\\ they\\ are\\ passed\\ on\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ message\\ is\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ advancements\\ of\\ how\\ disease\\ is\\ being\\ studied\\ and\\ treated\\ as\\ individual\\ cases\\ that\\ are\\ expected\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ origin\\ and\\ means\\ of\\ infection\\-\\ rather\\ than\\ before\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ when\\ everything\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ have\\ external\\ origins\\ and\\ were\\ transmitted\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ methods\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harris\\,\\ Gardiner\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Despite\\ Warnings\\,\\ Drug\\ Giant\\ took\\ long\\ path\\ to\\ Vioxx\\ recall\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\.\\ November\\ 14\\,\\ 2004\\.\\ Section\\ 1\\ Column\\ 1\\.\\ Online\\ at\\ course\\ web\\ site\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Could\\ not\\ find\\ this\\ reading\\ online\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61516\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\-\\ 4\\ December\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GENERAL\\ SUMMARY\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ tensions\\ between\\ healing\\ and\\ a\\ commitment\\ to\\ science\\ in\\ drug\\ trials\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.G\\.\\ Arrowsmith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vaccine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ DOUBLE\\ BLIND\\ trial\\.\\ A\\ random\\ sampling\\ of\\ patients\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ doctor\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ whether\\ they\\ have\\ received\\ the\\ placebo\\ or\\ the\\ drug\\:\\ not\\ only\\ is\\ the\\ patient\\ blind\\,\\ but\\ the\\ physician\\ is\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Example\\ of\\ the\\ infants\\ and\\ oxygen\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Salk\\,\\ however\\,\\ disagreed\\,\\ and\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ unethical\\ to\\ not\\ treat\\ if\\ possible\\.\\ Watching\\ graphs\\ and\\ waiting\\ for\\ one\\ more\\ death\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ proper\\ way\\ to\\ go\\ about\\ medicine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ even\\ questions\\ about\\ placebo\\ surgeries\\ since\\ placebo\\ drug\\ therapies\\ seemed\\ to\\ work\\ so\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialization\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ and\\ scientific\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Children\\ delivered\\ in\\ hospitals\\ under\\ care\\&mdash\\;20th\\ c\\:\\ from\\ a\\ few\\ years\\:\\ not\\ often\\ delivered\\ in\\ home\\ to\\ now\\ in\\ hospital\\ by\\ physician\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DRUG\\ TRIALS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\ Pfizer\\&mdash\\;failure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ if\\ something\\ works\\ or\\ not\\?\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ at\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ all\\ medical\\ care\\ and\\ treatment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\:\\ could\\ be\\ risky\\:\\ side\\ effects\\,\\ unexpected\\ deaths\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arrowsmith\\:\\ develops\\ a\\ vaccine\\:\\ bacteriophage\\ for\\ plague\\ going\\ on\\ on\\ this\\ island\\ Island\\ \\&ldquo\\;st\\ hubert\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;careful\\ how\\ allocate\\ vaccine\\.\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ if\\ it\\ REALLY\\ WORKS\\.\\ Divide\\ natives\\ into\\ two\\ groups\\:\\ half\\ yes\\,\\ half\\ no\\.\\ compare\\ the\\ two\\.\\ But\\ people\\ are\\ dying\\.\\ And\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ utter\\ misery\\ and\\ suffering\\ of\\ the\\ epidemic\\ of\\ this\\ plague\\ Arrowsmith\\ finds\\ that\\ his\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ science\\ goes\\ down\\:\\ his\\ wife\\ dies\\ of\\ the\\ plague\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ distraught\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ just\\ give\\ his\\ vaccine\\ for\\ anyone\\ who\\ comes\\ to\\ him\\ for\\ it\\.\\ Science\\ or\\ does\\ medicine\\ erode\\ your\\ commitments\\ to\\ knowledge\\.\\ Knowing\\ and\\ strategies\\ of\\ knowing\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ really\\ going\\ to\\ go\\ away\\&hellip\\;\\ tensions\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ structure\\ the\\ approaches\\ to\\ discovering\\ new\\ knowledge\\ when\\ it\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ inevitibely\\ fall\\ on\\ this\\ dilemma\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ there\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ issues\\ in\\ med\\ ethics\\,\\ this\\ is\\ most\\ automatic\\ but\\ also\\ most\\ obscured\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20th\\ c\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Streptomycin\\:\\ Waksman\\ Rutgers\\:\\ microbes\\ that\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ bacteria\\ but\\ when\\ applied\\ would\\ attack\\ bacteria\\:\\ streptomycin\\ was\\ it\\ an\\ effective\\ antibiotic\\?\\ Work\\ for\\ TB\\?\\ Tubercal\\ bacillis\\:\\ 1882\\ by\\ koch\\&mdash\\;it\\ was\\ responsive\\ to\\ it\\:\\ how\\ responsive\\ is\\ it\\?\\?\\ Drug\\ not\\ works\\ or\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\&mdash\\;doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ work\\ but\\ how\\ well\\ does\\ it\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Bradford\\ hill\\&mdash\\;concern\\ about\\ communicating\\ disease\\ to\\ others\\ when\\ acquire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Randomize\\ samples\\.\\ Fisher\\ \\(geneticist\\)\\ also\\ worked\\ with\\ him\\.\\ Make\\ a\\ random\\ sample\\.\\ Showed\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ really\\ effective\\.\\ With\\ a\\ rel\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ patients\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ effective\\ because\\ way\\ fewer\\ people\\ died\\.\\ The\\ physicians\\ should\\ not\\ know\\ which\\ was\\ the\\ drug\\ and\\ which\\ was\\ placebo\\&hellip\\;\\.this\\ reduces\\ the\\ bias\\ of\\ interpreting\\ results\\.\\ Double\\ blind\\ trials\\&hellip\\;\\ many\\ therapeutics\\ were\\ placebo\\ effects\\.\\ Active\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ thing\\.\\ Reversal\\ of\\ the\\ placebo\\ effect\\.\\ Leads\\ to\\ denigration\\ of\\ placebo\\ effect\\.\\ Did\\ you\\ really\\ need\\ to\\ give\\ premature\\ infants\\ oxygen\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ survive\\?\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ they\\ were\\ aware\\ that\\ pure\\ oxygen\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ infant\\ blindness\\.\\ A\\ very\\ large\\ percentage\\ of\\ the\\ blind\\ had\\ become\\ blind\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ exposure\\ oto\\ oxygen\\.\\ Silveran\\:\\ randomized\\ double\\ blind\\ trial\\ on\\ oxygen\\.\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ supposed\\ to\\ randomly\\ assign\\ your\\ child\\ randomly\\ to\\ a\\ group\\:\\ decides\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ put\\ in\\ an\\ envelope\\ for\\ the\\ assignment\\:\\ physicians\\ would\\ check\\:\\ black\\ paper\\ envelopes\\.\\ In\\ a\\ 6\\ month\\ period\\ is\\ that\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ difference\\ in\\ survival\\ btw\\ o2\\ children\\ and\\ not\\,\\ but\\ randical\\ differences\\ in\\ neonatal\\ blindness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Salk\\:\\ tested\\ own\\ children\\ then\\ other\\ children\\ and\\ then\\ was\\ told\\ had\\ to\\ test\\ it\\:\\ salk\\ says\\ that\\ double\\ blind\\ trial\\ is\\ the\\ worst\\ possible\\ thing\\ you\\ can\\ do\\.\\ You\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ proving\\ that\\ my\\ vaccine\\ works\\ which\\ I\\ already\\ know\\ by\\ counting\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ children\\ who\\ get\\ paralytic\\ polio\\ next\\ year\\ who\\ received\\ a\\ dummy\\ vaccine\\.\\ Their\\ cases\\ would\\ be\\ on\\ your\\ hands\\.\\ A\\ fetish\\ of\\ orthodoxy\\.\\ Placebo\\.\\ Salk\\ lost\\.\\ Someone\\ collects\\ data\\ as\\ you\\ go\\.\\ Who\\ knows\\?\\ Mechanical\\ orientation\\ to\\ doing\\ this\\?\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ I\\ can\\ recruit\\ you\\ is\\ because\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\?\\ What\\ I\\ I\\ was\\ watching\\ graphs\\&mdash\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ waiting\\ for\\ one\\ more\\ death\\ to\\ put\\ me\\ on\\ the\\ line\\&mdash\\;I\\ know\\ a\\ lot\\ oabout\\ the\\ drug\\:\\ theses\\ are\\ the\\ rules\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ code\\ will\\ be\\ broken\\.\\ Keep\\ the\\ recruiter\\ physician\\ in\\ ignorance\\:\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ well\\ understood\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ that\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ necessarily\\ worng\\ or\\ unethical\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ balance\\ some\\ of\\ our\\ commitments\\ to\\ new\\ knowledge\\ to\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ and\\ tell\\ an\\ individual\\ basis\\.\\ The\\ evolving\\ mechanic\\ and\\ beurocrati\\ cstrucure\\ of\\ trials\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ If\\ hill\\ was\\ watching\\ the\\ data\\,\\ you\\ ah\\ dot\\ take\\ it\\ away\\ from\\ or\\ you\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ the\\ claim\\ of\\ climincal\\ epopsomething\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Issues\\ in\\ surgery\\ to\\ decide\\ efficacy\\.\\ Placebos\\ are\\ powerful\\:\\ surgical\\ placebos\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ approved\\ will\\ they\\ continue\\ to\\ monitor\\ a\\ drug\\?\\ FDA\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Placebo\\ surgeries\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Standard\\ 1970s\\/80s\\:\\ modified\\ radical\\ mastectomy\\.\\ Removal\\ of\\ breast\\ muscle\\,\\ dissection\\ of\\ lymph\\ nodes\\ in\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ arm\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ as\\ effective\\ to\\ take\\ out\\ the\\ lump\\ and\\ chemo\\ and\\ radiation\\ and\\ the\\ survival\\ rate\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 6\\,\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\:\\ Behavior\\,\\ Health\\,\\ and\\ Disease\\ \\/\\ Tobacco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cigarette\\ smoking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1900\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ much\\ smoking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1950\\ about\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ was\\ smoking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Systemic\\ \\/\\ Chronic\\ Diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ cancer\\ death\\ rates\\ are\\ stable\\ throughout\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\,\\ EXCEPT\\ for\\ lung\\ and\\ bronchus\\ cancer\\ \\[both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ although\\ women\\ started\\ about\\ 20\\ years\\ later\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Big\\ deal\\ for\\ women\\ when\\ lung\\ cancer\\ surpassed\\ breast\\ cancer\\ for\\ number\\ of\\ deaths\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lung\\ cancer\\ remains\\ a\\ stigmatized\\ disease\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ individual\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ cigarette\\ smoking\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ morbidity\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Over\\ 1000\\ deaths\\ a\\ day\\ due\\ to\\ tobacco\\ related\\ diseases\\&\\#61664\\;\\ three\\ jumbo\\ jets\\ crashing\\ every\\ day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ tobacco\\ related\\ deaths\\ happen\\ later\\ in\\ life\\ and\\ in\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ cigarette\\ smoking\\ become\\ popular\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ no\\ one\\ smoked\\ in\\ 1900\\,\\ why\\ the\\ sudden\\ rise\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ agriculture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 1900s\\,\\ changed\\ from\\ curing\\ tobacco\\ over\\ open\\ flames\\ to\\ using\\ iron\\ pipes\\ so\\ as\\ not\\ to\\ expose\\ the\\ leaf\\ to\\ the\\ open\\ flame\\&\\#61664\\;\\ made\\ the\\ leaf\\ less\\ acidic\\ so\\ easier\\ to\\ inhale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Able\\ to\\ roll\\ cigarettes\\ faster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Able\\ to\\ develop\\ demand\\ for\\ its\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ people\\ started\\ smoking\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Late\\ 19th\\ earlier\\ 20th\\ century\\ smoking\\ looked\\ down\\ upon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horrible\\ for\\ someone\\ to\\ be\\ indulgent\\ and\\ pleasure\\ seeking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cigarettes\\ brought\\ about\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ views\\ towards\\ indulgence\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucky\\ Strikes\\&\\#61664\\;\\ indulge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ smoking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stigma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tied\\ women\\ smoking\\ to\\ women\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ vote\\,\\ and\\ other\\ womens\\ rights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ advertise\\ to\\ women\\ until\\ almost\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ green\\ packaging\\ on\\ Lucky\\ Strikes\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fashionable\\&\\#61664\\;\\ cigarette\\ companies\\ changed\\ the\\ fashions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ smoking\\ dangerous\\?\\ A\\ question\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ that\\ time\\ there\\ were\\ hypothesis\\ about\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ smoking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smokers\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smokers\\ lung\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increase\\ in\\ lung\\ cancer\\ \\[which\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ almost\\ nonexistent\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ increased\\ life\\ span\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ fact\\ that\\ people\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dying\\ because\\ of\\ influenza\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\,\\ and\\ industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ automobiles\\ and\\ the\\ paving\\ of\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ a\\ risk\\ is\\ causal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ doctors\\ said\\ was\\ that\\ maybe\\ some\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ smoking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ too\\ many\\ cigarettes\\ are\\ bad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ no\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cigarettes\\ cause\\ lung\\ cancer\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Retrospective\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smokers\\ and\\ non\\-smokers\\&mdash\\;the\\ smokers\\ are\\ already\\ sick\\,\\ so\\ study\\ the\\ nonsmokers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Find\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ smokers\\ who\\ are\\ healthy\\,\\ and\\ find\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ nonsmokers\\,\\ and\\ then\\ follow\\ them\\ into\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ following\\ these\\ people\\ for\\ a\\ while\\,\\ the\\ smokers\\ were\\ at\\ much\\ higher\\ risk\\ for\\ lung\\ cancer\\ and\\ other\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ \\;\\ that\\ smoking\\ has\\ some\\ therapeutic\\ purpose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keep\\ decision\\ to\\ smoke\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ medical\\ realm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ads\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Camels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;More\\ Doctors\\ smoke\\ Camels\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ cigarette\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucky\\ Strikes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Do\\ you\\ inhale\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ads\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Either\\ I\\ quite\\ or\\ I\\ smoke\\ True\\:\\ I\\ smoke\\ True\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ were\\ thinking\\ of\\ quitting\\,\\ so\\ ads\\ would\\ work\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ smokers\\ needs\\ and\\ worries\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\ more\\ people\\ are\\ smoking\\ than\\ ever\\ before\\,\\ especially\\ with\\ the\\ added\\ benefits\\ of\\ filters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 1980s\\ people\\ started\\ talking\\ about\\ suing\\ the\\ tobacco\\ industry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1988\\ trial\\ in\\ New\\ Jersey\\&\\#61664\\;\\ Idell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Found\\ documents\\ from\\ the\\ companies\\ saying\\ that\\ cigarettes\\ contains\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ cancer\\ causing\\,\\ cancer\\ promoting\\,\\ poisonous\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ tobacco\\ argument\\ was\\ that\\ if\\ she\\ knew\\ that\\ smoking\\ could\\ be\\ detrimental\\ to\\ health\\ and\\ she\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ quit\\ \\(like\\ millions\\ of\\ people\\ had\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ do\\)\\ it\\ was\\ HER\\ decision\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Individuals\\ should\\ be\\ held\\ accountable\\ to\\ behaviors\\ that\\ affect\\ their\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Idea\\ of\\ second\\-hand\\ smoke\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Issue\\ that\\ companies\\ directing\\ advertising\\ to\\ kids\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ of\\ December\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\M\\.\\ Rubinow\\,\\ M\\.D\\,\\ Ph\\.D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Social\\ Insurance\\ and\\ the\\ Medical\\ Profession\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ Journal\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Medical\\ Association\\,\\ 1\\/30\\/1915\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rubinow\\ was\\ the\\ Chief\\ Statistician\\,\\ Ocean\\ Accident\\ and\\ Guarantee\\ Corporation\\,\\ Limited\\;\\ President\\ of\\ the\\ Casualty\\ Actuarial\\ and\\ Statistical\\ Society\\ of\\ America\\ in\\ 1915\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\discusses\\ how\\ life\\ insurance\\ has\\ helped\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ fire\\ insurance\\ has\\ helped\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ economic\\ classes\\ but\\ that\\ health\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ that\\ effects\\ everyone\\ universally\\ and\\ causes\\ the\\ greatest\\ destitution\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\states\\ that\\ the\\ working\\ man\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ brink\\ of\\ destitution\\ constantly\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ takes\\ only\\ one\\ emergency\\ to\\ push\\ him\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\discusses\\ how\\ social\\ insurance\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ three\\ decades\\ to\\ help\\ working\\ families\\ from\\ poverty\\ due\\ to\\ ordinary\\ emergencies\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ helps\\ society\\ and\\ compares\\ how\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ larger\\ impact\\ on\\ society\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ fire\\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\however\\ social\\ insurance\\ comes\\ at\\ a\\ cost\\-institutions\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ established\\ to\\ oversee\\ the\\ insurance\\ process\\,\\ ideals\\ of\\ personal\\ responsibility\\ and\\ freedom\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ abandoned\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ and\\ the\\ insurance\\ organization\\ may\\ have\\ to\\ interfere\\ in\\ the\\ insured\\ lives\\ to\\ protect\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wage\\-earners\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ alone\\ in\\ the\\ responsibility\\ of\\ paying\\ for\\ social\\ insurance\\,\\ employers\\ and\\ the\\ public\\ would\\ also\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ pay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\combats\\ argument\\ of\\ how\\ social\\ insurance\\ goes\\ against\\ social\\ Darwinism\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ best\\ interest\\ of\\ society\\ but\\ saying\\ that\\ social\\ insurance\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ better\\ health\\ conditions\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ thus\\ improve\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\encourages\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ to\\ balance\\ their\\ interests\\ with\\ helping\\ society\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ help\\ in\\ finding\\ a\\ solution\\,\\ this\\ is\\ mostly\\ directed\\ at\\ accident\\ insurance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\explains\\ that\\ accidents\\ led\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ demand\\ for\\ physicians\\ and\\ surgeons\\ but\\ the\\ injured\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ and\\ lost\\ wages\\ so\\ had\\ to\\ either\\ look\\ for\\ free\\ treatment\\,\\ apply\\ their\\ own\\ treatment\\ or\\ get\\ treatment\\ and\\ not\\ pay\\ for\\ it\\ and\\ in\\ states\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ accident\\ insurance\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ demand\\ for\\ doctors\\ and\\ surgeons\\ and\\ bills\\ are\\ being\\ paid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\states\\ that\\ everybody\\ deserves\\ medical\\ assistance\\ at\\ a\\ fair\\ price\\ because\\ medical\\ assistance\\ is\\ a\\ necessity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\warns\\ doctors\\ that\\ just\\ because\\ employers\\ and\\ casualty\\ companies\\ are\\ paying\\ for\\ accident\\ insurance\\ and\\ it\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ significantly\\ hurt\\ them\\ financially\\ not\\ to\\ go\\ crazy\\ with\\ costs\\ because\\ the\\ companies\\ will\\ pass\\ the\\ expense\\ onto\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ a\\ fee\\ schedule\\ is\\ most\\ desirous\\ and\\ that\\ doctors\\ should\\ support\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\encourages\\ physicians\\ to\\ not\\ only\\ address\\ physical\\ issues\\ but\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ injured\\ working\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moral\\ backbone\\ \\&ldquo\\;stiff\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\asks\\ the\\ physicians\\ to\\ give\\ realistic\\ recovery\\ times\\ because\\ trends\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ doctors\\ underestimate\\ the\\ time\\ it\\ takes\\ for\\ a\\ disability\\ to\\ heal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stresses\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ preventative\\ medicine\\ and\\ that\\ physicians\\ should\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gives\\ statistics\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ a\\ national\\ \\&ldquo\\;sickness\\ insurance\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ cost\\ \\(\\$300\\ million\\ a\\ yr\\.\\)\\ but\\ that\\ this\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\discusses\\ the\\ social\\ reasons\\ for\\ why\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ insurance\\ stating\\ that\\ an\\ accident\\ leading\\ to\\ poverty\\ leads\\ to\\ further\\ disease\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ but\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ realizes\\ money\\ alone\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ problem\\ but\\ is\\ highly\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;says\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ has\\ been\\ against\\ health\\ insurance\\ but\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ misguided\\ because\\ doctors\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ guaranteed\\ source\\ of\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\most\\ physicians\\ are\\ against\\ it\\ because\\ they\\ fear\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ private\\ practice\\ but\\ Rubinow\\ says\\ that\\ private\\ practice\\ is\\ significantly\\ behind\\ in\\ the\\ emerging\\ skills\\ and\\ technologies\\ of\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rubinow\\ says\\ that\\ health\\ insurance\\ would\\ improve\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ service\\ and\\ reduce\\ the\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rubinow\\ proposes\\ an\\ ideal\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ insurance\\ pays\\ a\\ significant\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ illness\\ for\\ the\\ working\\ man\\ and\\ creates\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ organized\\ medicine\\ and\\ reduces\\ medical\\ costs\\ without\\ decreasing\\ the\\ economic\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ patient\\ and\\ degrading\\ the\\ physician\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Madison\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Donald\\ L\\.\\ \\"\\;Paying\\ for\\ Medical\\ Care\\ in\\ America\\,\\"\\;\\ In\\ Gail\\ E\\.\\ Henderson\\,\\ Nancy\\ M\\.P\\.\\ King\\,\\ Ronald\\ P\\.\\ Strauss\\,\\ Sue\\ E\\.\\ Estroff\\,\\ and\\ Larry\\ R\\.\\ Churchill\\,\\ editors\\,\\ The\\ Social\\ Medicine\\ Reader\\ \\(Durham\\:\\ Duke\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1997\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 415\\-446\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ Basis\\ of\\ Health\\ Insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\paying\\ for\\ medical\\ service\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ direct\\ from\\ patient\\ to\\ doctor\\;\\ no\\ hospitals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TODAY\\:\\ hospitals\\ consume\\ nearly\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ care\\ dollar\\;\\ issues\\ of\\ indirect\\ costs\\ and\\ opportunity\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collective\\ financing\\:\\ pay\\ small\\ amounts\\ of\\ money\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ care\\ of\\ sick\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ protect\\ people\\ from\\ financial\\ ruin\\ in\\ case\\ of\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ insurance\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Compulsory\\ in\\ nature\\:\\ government\\ requires\\ coverage\\ by\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\:\\ Social\\ Security\\ which\\ includes\\ the\\ social\\ health\\ insurance\\ program\\,\\ Medicare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Assistance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paid\\ for\\ out\\ of\\ general\\ tax\\ revenue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\:\\ Medicaid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Insurance\\:\\ Bismarck\\ \\(1883\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Worker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mutual\\ benefit\\ societies\\ were\\ very\\ popular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prince\\ Otto\\ Eduard\\ Leopold\\ Von\\ Bismark\\:\\ proposed\\ a\\ social\\ insurance\\ program\\ operated\\ by\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ accepted\\:\\ Bismarck\\ settles\\ for\\ state\\-mandated\\ system\\ \\-\\ must\\ join\\ an\\ employment\\-based\\ private\\ sickness\\ funds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Insurance\\:\\ Lloyd\\ George\\ \\(1911\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\National\\ Health\\ Insurance\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Based\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;friendly\\ societies\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Covered\\ manual\\ workers\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cash\\ benefits\\ for\\ missed\\ work\\ during\\ illness\\ and\\ burial\\ benefits\\ to\\ family\\ at\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ know\\ someone\\ is\\ really\\ out\\ sick\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ wasting\\ time\\ off\\ work\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Get\\ a\\ doctor\\ to\\ certify\\ illness\\ and\\ to\\ treat\\ the\\ employee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\National\\ Health\\ Insurance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finances\\ medical\\ care\\ for\\ all\\ or\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\,\\ either\\ directly\\ or\\ through\\ private\\ sector\\ agents\\,\\ makes\\ payments\\ to\\ physicians\\,\\ hospitals\\,\\ pharmacies\\,\\ labs\\ etcs\\.\\ Which\\ operate\\ privately\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\National\\ Health\\ Service\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ is\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ financing\\ and\\ delivery\\ of\\ services\\ for\\ all\\ or\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ pop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Insurance\\:\\ The\\ AALL\\ Episode\\ \\(1912\\-1920\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\AALL\\ \\+\\ AMA\\ sought\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ workmen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ compensation\\ law\\ enacted\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ failed\\ with\\ onset\\ of\\ WWI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Would\\ have\\ required\\ employers\\ to\\ insure\\ workers\\ for\\ sick\\ leave\\,\\ burial\\ and\\ physician\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1920\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ AMA\\ declares\\ opposition\\ to\\ any\\ system\\ of\\ compulsory\\ contributory\\ insurance\\ regulated\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sheppard\\-Towner\\ Act\\ \\(1921\\)\\:\\ the\\ first\\ federal\\ grant\\ program\\ to\\ assist\\ the\\ delivery\\ of\\ public\\ heath\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Federal\\ Grant\\ Programs\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Funds\\ for\\ special\\ purposes\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ health\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Formula\\ grants\\ based\\ on\\ size\\ of\\ population\\,\\ level\\ of\\ income\\ of\\ citizens\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\ subsidies\\ also\\ go\\ to\\ medical\\ research\\ training\\ in\\ primary\\ care\\ and\\ community\\ health\\ centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ Insurance\\:\\ Paying\\ Hospitals\\ and\\ Doctors\\ \\(1920s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hospitals\\ became\\ more\\ expensive\\ and\\ essential\\ to\\ medical\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unpredictable\\ indirect\\ costs\\ and\\ medical\\ care\\ costs\\ \\(Which\\ included\\ doctor\\ and\\ hospital\\ costs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doctor\\ should\\ determine\\ fees\\ based\\ on\\ 3\\ criteria\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relative\\ skill\\ of\\ physician\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nature\\ of\\ the\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ability\\ of\\ patient\\ to\\ pay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Capitation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fixed\\ amount\\ per\\ person\\ enrolled\\ \\(paid\\ by\\ insurance\\ company\\,\\ health\\ maintenance\\ organization\\,\\ employer\\,\\ membership\\ association\\,\\ university\\ or\\ government\\)\\ regardless\\ of\\ whether\\ this\\ person\\ uses\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ popular\\ among\\ patients\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ fixed\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critics\\ say\\ there\\ is\\ incentive\\ for\\ doctor\\ to\\ do\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ possible\\ since\\ payment\\ is\\ fixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Salary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fixed\\ relative\\ to\\ training\\,\\ specialty\\ etc\\.\\ NOT\\ based\\ on\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ the\\ physician\\ generates\\ or\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ patients\\ served\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Best\\ suits\\ the\\ physician\\ who\\ is\\ lazy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ financial\\ incetive\\ toward\\ either\\ individual\\ productivity\\ or\\ quality\\ however\\,\\ supporters\\ say\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ true\\ since\\ reputation\\ is\\ important\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fee\\-for\\-Service\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Services\\ are\\ sold\\ to\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ potential\\ be\\ the\\ biggest\\ \\$\\$\\ maker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ payment\\ rewards\\ the\\ hardest\\ working\\ physician\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Criticism\\:\\ might\\ drive\\ doctors\\ to\\ employ\\ unnecessary\\ and\\ expensive\\ techniques\\ \\(surgeon\\ does\\ excessive\\ surgery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ The\\ CCMC\\ Report\\ \\(1932\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CCMC\\ does\\ research\\ that\\ shows\\ that\\ middle\\-class\\ need\\ health\\ insurance\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ specify\\ what\\ kind\\ but\\ hints\\ to\\ plans\\ similar\\ to\\ HMO\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(direct\\ service\\ plans\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ medical\\ practice\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;rationally\\&rdquo\\;\\ organized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ Indemnity\\ Insurance\\ and\\ Blue\\ Cross\\ \\(1930s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indemnity\\ insurance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ exchange\\ for\\ regular\\ payment\\ of\\ a\\ premium\\,\\ insurance\\ company\\ will\\ compensate\\ the\\ insure\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ a\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limits\\ by\\ commercial\\ insurers\\ on\\ amount\\ they\\ would\\ pay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ not\\ put\\ limits\\ on\\ what\\ type\\ of\\ care\\ a\\ patient\\ can\\ seek\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1929\\ \\(depression\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dallas\\ based\\ hospitals\\ receives\\ 50\\ cents\\ from\\ school\\ teachers\\ which\\ would\\ pay\\ for\\ 21\\ day\\ stay\\ in\\ case\\ of\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ \\&ldquo\\;hospital\\ service\\ plans\\&rdquo\\;\\ spread\\ throughout\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1934\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Blue\\ Cross\\ is\\ born\\;\\ provided\\ service\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1940s\\ \\-\\ Blue\\ Shield\\:\\ medical\\ society\\-sponsored\\ plans\\,\\ covered\\ surgical\\ and\\ medical\\ services\\ during\\ hospitalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Service\\ Benefit\\ Plans\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pays\\ doctors\\ and\\ hospital\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Insurance\\:\\ The\\ Social\\ Security\\ Act\\ \\(1935\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ committee\\ assigned\\ by\\ Roosevelt\\ to\\ study\\ unemployment\\ insurance\\,\\ old\\-age\\ pensions\\,\\ and\\ health\\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Despite\\ recommendations\\,\\ Roosevelt\\ excludes\\ health\\ insurance\\ from\\ Social\\ Security\\ Act\\ of\\ 1935\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ did\\ include\\ revival\\ and\\ expansion\\ Sheppard\\-Towner\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ feature\\ \\=\\ old\\-age\\ pension\\ provision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Insurance\\:\\ The\\ Truman\\ Program\\ \\(1945\\-1950\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Truman\\ says\\ health\\ care\\ could\\ be\\ paid\\ for\\ by\\ 4\\%\\ of\\ the\\ GDP\\ \\(Gross\\ Domestic\\ Product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Truman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ national\\ health\\ insurance\\ opposed\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;organized\\ medicine\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ calling\\ it\\ Socialized\\ medicine\\ \\(to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ anti\\-communist\\ sentiments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defeated\\ because\\ of\\ opposition\\ and\\ rise\\ in\\ private\\ insurance\\ \\(social\\ health\\ insurance\\ not\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ Fragmentation\\ of\\ the\\ Risk\\ Pool\\ \\(1942\\-1957\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benefits\\ of\\ jobs\\ became\\ health\\ benefits\\ 1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Community\\ Rating\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Entire\\ population\\ of\\ an\\ area\\ charged\\ the\\ same\\ ratel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Experience\\ Rating\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Population\\ charged\\ difference\\ rates\\ based\\ on\\ likelihood\\ of\\ illness\\ and\\ doctor\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ popular\\ with\\ large\\ employment\\-based\\ group\\ insurance\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Insurance\\:\\ The\\ Road\\ to\\ Medicare\\ \\(1958\\-1965\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Experience\\ rating\\ leaves\\ out\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ marginally\\ employed\\,\\ sick\\,\\ elderly\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1958\\ \\(Aime\\ Forand\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ Congressman\\)\\:\\ proposes\\ to\\ insure\\ elderly\\ for\\ hospitalization\\ under\\ Social\\ Security\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kennedy\\ tries\\ to\\ pass\\ it\\ but\\ opposition\\ from\\ defeats\\ meager\\ Congressional\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1965\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Medicare\\ passed\\ by\\ President\\ Johnson\\:\\ included\\ federally\\ subsidized\\,\\ but\\ state\\ operate\\ public\\ assistance\\ program\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\ \\(\\&rdquo\\;operation\\ coffee\\ cup\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Insurance\\:\\ Cost\\ Crisis\\ \\(1966\\-1980\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cost\\ crisis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ push\\ for\\ a\\ universal\\,\\ compulsory\\ health\\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ Term\\ and\\ Conditions\\ \\(1950s\\-1990s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Continued\\ rising\\ success\\ of\\ private\\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Much\\ overlap\\ between\\ the\\ Blues\\ and\\ commercial\\ companies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Both\\ sold\\ service\\ benefit\\ coverage\\ and\\ direct\\ service\\ plans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Group\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Offered\\ through\\ an\\ employer\\ as\\ a\\ benefit\\ of\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ employees\\ charged\\ and\\ treated\\ the\\ same\\ because\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ healthy\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ group\\ will\\ probably\\ make\\ up\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ get\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Individual\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Purchased\\ through\\ an\\ outside\\ salesman\\ \\(insurance\\ agent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Require\\ physical\\ exam\\ in\\ advance\\ and\\ exclude\\ pre\\-existing\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Always\\ more\\ expensive\\ than\\ group\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Co\\-Insurance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insured\\ person\\ pays\\ a\\ fixed\\ percentage\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ or\\ hospital\\ bill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deters\\ the\\ insured\\ from\\ using\\ the\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deductibles\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insured\\ person\\ pays\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ \\(say\\ \\$500\\)\\ of\\ a\\ medical\\ or\\ hospital\\ bill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deters\\ the\\ insured\\ from\\ using\\ the\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ Direct\\ Service\\ Plans\\ \\(1929\\-1969\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Direct\\ Service\\ Plans\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\See\\ to\\ it\\ that\\ the\\ needed\\ service\\ is\\ delivered\\ to\\ the\\ patient\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ service\\ can\\ be\\ directly\\ monitored\\ by\\ the\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pay\\ their\\ benefits\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ direct\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ either\\ employ\\ or\\ contract\\ with\\ all\\ of\\ their\\ service\\ resources\\ \\(physicians\\,\\ hospitals\\,\\ labs\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ HMOs\\ IPAs\\,\\ PPOs\\ \\(1970\\-1992\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HMO\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Health\\ Maintenance\\ Organization\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Accept\\ responsibility\\ for\\ delivering\\ medical\\ care\\ to\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Member\\ pay\\ a\\ fixed\\ amount\\ periodically\\ regardless\\ of\\ amount\\ of\\ services\\ they\\ actually\\ receive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prepaid\\,\\ direct\\ service\\ plans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Staff\\ model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doctors\\ are\\ employees\\ of\\ the\\ HMO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Group\\ model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doctors\\ are\\ still\\ independent\\ and\\ can\\ practice\\ fee\\-for\\-service\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IPA\\(\\ Independent\\ Practice\\ Associations\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ HMO\\ patients\\ only\\ constitute\\ a\\ very\\ small\\ percentage\\ of\\ their\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Traditional\\ IPA\\ HMO\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Controlled\\ fee\\-for\\-service\\ method\\:\\ doctors\\ paid\\,\\ but\\ some\\ is\\ held\\ back\\ in\\ reserve\\ and\\ given\\ to\\ doctor\\ if\\ he\\ stays\\ within\\ agreed\\ upon\\ limit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Incentive\\ to\\ reduce\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gatekeeper\\ IPA\\ HMO\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Open\\ only\\ to\\ primary\\ care\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ give\\ primary\\ care\\ but\\ also\\ selects\\ and\\ pays\\ for\\ any\\ specialist\\ care\\,\\ lab\\ work\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Incentive\\ to\\ be\\ judicious\\ in\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ diagnostic\\ tests\\,\\ consultations\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PPO\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Preferred\\ Provider\\ Organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Certain\\ physicians\\ agree\\ to\\ a\\ discounted\\ fee\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ referrals\\ by\\ the\\ insurance\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Insurance\\ company\\ offers\\ the\\ freedom\\ of\\ seeing\\ any\\ physician\\ the\\ patient\\ wants\\ but\\ offers\\ a\\ discounted\\ price\\ for\\ these\\ select\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ and\\ Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ Preoccupation\\ with\\ Cost\\ Control\\ \\(1980s\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Proposed\\ plan\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Prospective\\ payment\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ hospitals\\ according\\ to\\ Diagnosis\\ Related\\ Groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hospitals\\ examine\\ their\\ daily\\ cost\\ per\\ patient\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ paid\\ by\\ Medicare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Incentive\\ for\\ hospitals\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ stay\\ of\\ patients\\ and\\ to\\ spend\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ 1984\\ Medicare\\ runs\\ on\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;fee\\-for\\-case\\&rdquo\\;\\ basis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Money\\ paid\\ to\\ hospital\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ fixed\\ costs\\ of\\ specific\\ procedures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hospital\\ has\\ to\\ absorb\\ and\\ extra\\ costs\\ above\\ the\\ fixed\\ amount\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ incentive\\ to\\ reduce\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Managed\\ care\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Generic\\ term\\ implying\\ active\\ participation\\ by\\ the\\ financing\\ agency\\ in\\ monitoring\\ the\\ cost\\ and\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-Insurance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Companies\\ take\\ out\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ payroll\\ and\\ put\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ fund\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ when\\ needed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ regulations\\ by\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ self\\-insurance\\ employers\\ pull\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ risk\\ pool\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ insurance\\ for\\ small\\ companies\\ become\\ very\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ and\\ Private\\ Insurance\\:\\ The\\ Road\\ to\\ Reform\\ \\(1981\\-1992\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\President\\ Clinton\\:\\ key\\ to\\ cost\\ control\\ was\\ universal\\ entitlement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cost\\-shifting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insured\\ people\\ subsidize\\ the\\ health\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ uninsured\\ and\\ underinsured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Job\\-Lock\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ stick\\ with\\ jobs\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ for\\ fear\\ that\\ their\\ next\\ employer\\ will\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ insurance\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Restricted\\ Choice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cannot\\ select\\ your\\ own\\ doctor\\ or\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recent\\ Agendas\\ for\\ Reform\\ \\(1993\\-1996\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Containing\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Generally\\ believed\\ that\\ competition\\ among\\ insurance\\ companies\\ would\\ drive\\ down\\ the\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Expanding\\ Access\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Either\\ through\\ national\\ health\\ service\\ or\\ a\\ national\\ program\\ of\\ social\\ insurance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Funding\\ by\\ taxes\\ or\\ mandates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ Final\\ Observations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ nation\\ has\\ ever\\ employed\\ a\\ health\\ insurance\\ system\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ build\\ upon\\ the\\ incomplete\\ private\\ system\\ that\\ was\\ already\\ in\\ place\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Several\\ unsuccessful\\ attempts\\ to\\ enact\\ compulsory\\ health\\ insurance\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 22\\&mdash\\;December\\ 11\\,\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disease\\ in\\ the\\ Global\\ Age\\&mdash\\;Health\\ Care\\ Policy\\ \\;\\:\\ specializing\\ in\\ Cigarettes\\ controversy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marjorie\\ Garber\\&mdash\\;critiqued\\ phallic\\ character\\ of\\ Joe\\ Camel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(cigarette\\ packs\\)\\ nose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scientific\\ controversy\\ with\\ the\\ methodology\\ of\\ smoking\\ diseases\\&rsquo\\;\\ treatment\\:\\ shift\\ of\\ clinical\\ to\\ causal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ \\ \\;controversy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surgeon\\ General\\ says\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ put\\ warning\\ label\\ on\\ the\\ package\\;\\ they\\ DO\\,\\ but\\ they\\ put\\ the\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ cover\\ their\\ butts\\ \\(keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ by\\ CHOOSING\\ to\\ smoke\\,\\ you\\ might\\ incur\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RJ\\ Reynolds\\&mdash\\;creater\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;joe\\ camel\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ advertisement\\ industry\\ begged\\ him\\ to\\ stop\\ \\(b\\/c\\ they\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ too\\ directed\\ at\\ children\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ Georgia\\ Medical\\ College\\,\\ researcher\\ does\\ a\\ study\\ that\\ discovers\\ that\\ among\\ Mickey\\ Mouse\\,\\ Joe\\ Camel\\,\\ and\\ Garfield\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ Mickey\\ and\\ Joe\\ recognized\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ among\\ 3\\-6\\ year\\-olds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Article\\ appears\\ in\\ JAMA\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Camel\\ cigarettes\\ bigwigs\\ realized\\ that\\ they\\ needed\\ a\\ 35\\%\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ 14\\-22\\ age\\ bracket\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ Marlboro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lawyers\\ accumulated\\ documents\\ that\\ showed\\ the\\ industry\\ knew\\ it\\ was\\ harmful\\ to\\ smoke\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ lawyers\\ came\\ into\\ see\\ Brandt\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asked\\ him\\ to\\ side\\ with\\ industry\\;\\ He\\ said\\,\\ okay\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ support\\ your\\ side\\ with\\ testimony\\ \\(about\\ how\\ there\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ people\\ that\\ have\\ proclaimed\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ smoking\\)\\ \\,\\ but\\ I\\ also\\ want\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ smoking\\ companies\\ AGGRESIVELY\\ approached\\ advertisement\\ and\\ early\\ smokers\\ \\(which\\ supported\\ the\\ other\\ side\\)\\,\\ and\\ I\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ testify\\ unless\\ I\\ can\\ say\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\they\\ never\\ got\\ back\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ him\\!\\-\\-\\>\\;Google\\ Brandt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\:\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ very\\ helpful\\ at\\ this\\ meeting\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lady\\ named\\ Mrs\\.\\ Chipalone\\ \\(spell\\?\\)\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ win\\ her\\ case\\ against\\ the\\ tobacco\\ industry\\ b\\/c\\ she\\ had\\ failed\\ to\\ quit\\&mdash\\;individual\\ responsibility\\ for\\ disease\\&mdash\\;high\\ expectations\\ in\\ USA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brandt\\ claims\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ win\\ is\\ to\\ throw\\ the\\ fault\\ back\\ onto\\ the\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ early\\ AIDS\\ epidemic\\,\\ experts\\ \\(and\\ people\\)\\ claimed\\ nobody\\ should\\ get\\ AIDS\\&mdash\\;it\\ was\\ their\\ own\\ fault\\ if\\ they\\ did\\ \\(presumably\\ needles\\,\\ sex\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\States\\ began\\ to\\ sue\\ tobacco\\ companies\\ to\\ recover\\ health\\ costs\\ \\(medicare\\,\\ Medicaid\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\250billion\\ dollars\\ finally\\ won\\ by\\ all\\ states\\&mdash\\;we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ injured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MA\\ 1980s\\ used\\ to\\ have\\ tobacco\\ control\\ programs\\,\\ but\\ now\\ does\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hardly\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ money\\ won\\ by\\ the\\ states\\ went\\ to\\ public\\ health\\ funds\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 2001\\,\\ UVA\\ lawyer\\ from\\ the\\ Department\\ of\\ Justice\\ \\(Fed\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\)\\ wanted\\ to\\ sue\\ Tobacco\\ Companies\\ for\\ fraud\\ and\\ racketeering\\,\\ came\\ to\\ Brandt\\ to\\ ask\\ him\\ to\\ testify\\&mdash\\;roped\\ him\\ in\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ ASIDE\\:\\ Controversy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\about\\ how\\ historians\\ are\\ making\\ millions\\ to\\ write\\ in\\ one\\ direction\\ or\\ another\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Musto\\&mdash\\;from\\ Yale\\ \\(addiction\\ and\\ prohibition\\ specialist\\)\\&mdash\\;said\\ he\\ was\\ skeptical\\ about\\ effects\\ of\\ 2nd\\ hand\\ smoke\\ at\\ Brandt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Turns\\ out\\ Musto\\ was\\ getting\\ money\\ in\\ grants\\ from\\ Tobacco\\ industry\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 2004\\:\\ Brandt\\ had\\ to\\ write\\ deposition\\:\\ what\\ was\\ known\\ about\\ harms\\,\\ when\\,\\ what\\ industry\\ said\\ said\\ publicly\\,\\ what\\ they\\ knew\\ internally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Industry\\ kept\\ claiming\\ you\\ needed\\ experimental\\ evidence\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ Brandt\\ went\\ and\\ sat\\ down\\ with\\ lawyer\\,\\ Brody\\,\\ started\\ with\\ Cholera\\,\\ then\\ HIV\\,\\ finally\\ smoking\\;\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ painting\\ mice\\ experiments\\ with\\ chemicals\\ \\(from\\ cig\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\:\\ tumors\\ develop\\?\\&mdash\\;went\\ through\\ how\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ population\\ based\\ studies\\ were\\ crucial\\,\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ any\\ clinical\\ or\\ laboratory\\ proofs\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ asked\\ for\\ 300billion\\ dollars\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 2003\\,\\ David\\ Burnick\\ \\(from\\ Tobacco\\ Indust\\.\\)\\ questioned\\ him\\ for\\ 2\\ days\\,\\ attacking\\ his\\ validity\\ as\\ a\\ witness\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ you\\ an\\ epidemiologist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ you\\ a\\ doctor\\?\\ No\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Let\\ me\\ get\\ this\\ clear\\,\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ medical\\ doctor\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CROSS\\-EXAMINATION\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asked\\ him\\,\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ there\\ skeptics\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Claims\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ actual\\ proof\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Almost\\ everyone\\ knew\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ risks\\&mdash\\;so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ there\\ fault\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ encountered\\ problems\\ with\\ smoking\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\$300\\ billion\\ \\(actually\\ 280\\)\\&mdash\\;based\\ on\\ underage\\ profit\\ sales\\ over\\ 40\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Judge\\ Kessler\\ rules\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ prosecution\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Appeals\\ court\\ ruled\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ remedies\\ disgorgement\\ did\\ not\\ agree\\ with\\ a\\ particular\\ statute\\&mdash\\;over\\ turned\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BUT\\ expert\\ argued\\ that\\ by\\ 2025\\,\\ \\$130\\ billion\\,\\ could\\ get\\ discontinuation\\ program\\ for\\ 3\\ million\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bush\\ Administration\\ said\\ you\\ can\\ only\\ ask\\ for\\ \\$10\\ billion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\actually\\ get\\ \\$14\\ billion\\ \\(much\\ too\\ little\\ if\\ you\\ ask\\ me\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modern\\ problem\\:\\ 1\\/3\\ cigarettes\\ sold\\ to\\ China\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Less\\ than\\ 2\\.5\\ decades\\,\\ 10million\\ will\\ die\\ of\\ tobacco\\-related\\ causes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ estimated\\ that\\ about\\ 100million\\ people\\ died\\ from\\ smoking\\ causes\\ in\\ 20th\\ Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ continued\\,\\ 1\\ billion\\ would\\ die\\ in\\ 21st\\ cent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\:\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problems\\ of\\ tracing\\ epidemiology\\ of\\ communicable\\ diseases\\,\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ politics\\,\\ etc\\.\\ get\\ involved\\ with\\ even\\ non\\-communicable\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 12\\/13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Health\\ Insurance\\/Access\\ In\\ Care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\ do\\ we\\ pay\\ for\\ care\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ issue\\ arises\\ in\\ 1910\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ medical\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Origins\\ of\\ Insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\when\\ people\\ are\\ sick\\,\\ they\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\remedy\\ this\\ with\\ compensation\\ to\\ avoid\\ fostering\\ poverty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\diff\\.\\ than\\ health\\ insurance\\,\\ b\\/c\\ just\\ concerned\\ with\\ loss\\ of\\ income\\ vs\\.\\ cost\\ of\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Western\\ Europe\\ had\\ workers\\ unions\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ this\\ and\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ e\\/o\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risk\\ sharing\\ character\\ of\\ insurance\\,\\ you\\ pay\\ in\\ regular\\ amounts\\ and\\ can\\ take\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amer\\.\\ Assoc\\.\\ for\\ Labor\\ Legislation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ drafted\\ laws\\ for\\ maternity\\,\\ injury\\ etc\\.\\ after\\ WWI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ efforts\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ succeed\\ b\\/c\\ Med\\.\\ Profession\\ asserted\\ power\\ and\\ protested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Big\\ issue\\ with\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ care\\ by\\ 1930\\,\\ med\\ economy\\ becomes\\ complex\\ so\\ cost\\ increases\\ \\(hospitals\\,\\ tech\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Breakdown\\ of\\ 1930\\ health\\ care\\ dollar\\:\\ 30\\%\\ to\\ Drs\\,\\ 25\\%\\ to\\ hospit\\,\\ 20\\%\\ to\\ meds\\,\\ 12\\%\\ to\\ dentists\\,\\ 3\\%\\ to\\ public\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\ pub\\ health\\ also\\ get\\ \\~3\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Larger\\ \\%\\ of\\ physicians\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ self\\-employed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Med\\ care\\ should\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ fee\\ for\\ service\\,\\ helps\\ organize\\ approach\\ to\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ depression\\,\\ hospitals\\ had\\ low\\ occupancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baylor\\ hospit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ offers\\ up\\ to\\ 21\\ days\\ of\\ stay\\ for\\ an\\ up\\-front\\ \\$6\\ pay\\ in\\,\\ beginnings\\ of\\ Blue\\ Cross\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ group\\ hospitalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ social\\ security\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ retirement\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Should\\ health\\ insurance\\ be\\ compulsory\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ med\\ prof\\ protests\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ want\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ middle\\ man\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ third\\ party\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benefit\\ packages\\ for\\ labor\\ unions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\~WWI\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ says\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ tax\\ \\$\\ that\\ goes\\ towards\\ insurance\\ bought\\ for\\ employees\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ origins\\ of\\ employer\\-based\\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blue\\ Cross\\ did\\ not\\ ask\\ if\\ people\\ had\\ a\\ preexisting\\ condition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ take\\ anyone\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ community\\ rating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;vs\\.\\ private\\ insurers\\ who\\ only\\ select\\ those\\ who\\ would\\ rarely\\ need\\ med\\ insurance\\ \\(experience\\ rating\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Selection\\ provides\\ economic\\ advantages\\ but\\ may\\ leave\\ out\\ those\\ who\\ really\\ need\\ care\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ elderly\\,\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ the\\ unemployed\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ results\\ in\\ gaps\\ in\\ healthcare\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1950s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ proposals\\ for\\ healthcare\\ reforms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Medicare\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ insurance\\ of\\ elderly\\,\\ part\\ of\\ social\\ security\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Medicaid\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ means\\-tested\\ program\\,\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ below\\ a\\ certain\\ income\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;level\\ to\\ qualify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;AMA\\ opposes\\ both\\ aggressively\\,\\ though\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ is\\ careful\\ not\\ to\\ infringe\\ on\\ Drs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;largest\\ purchaser\\ of\\ healthcare\\ now\\ is\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ more\\ than\\ all\\ private\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ rapid\\ increase\\ in\\ healthcare\\ expenditures\\ in\\ US\\ since\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;still\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ care\\ cost\\ is\\ out\\-of\\-pocket\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;US\\ spends\\ most\\ per\\ person\\ per\\ year\\ for\\ healthcare\\ \\(\\~\\$3500\\)\\,\\ but\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ markedly\\ better\\ outcomes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ manage\\-care\\:\\ 1990s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ offer\\ incentives\\ to\\ phys\\ if\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ expensive\\ \\ \\;treatments\\/drugs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ issues\\ of\\ integrity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;45\\ mill\\ non\\-elderly\\ folks\\ in\\ US\\ are\\ uninsured\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Venn\\ Diagram\\:\\ cost\\,\\ access\\,\\ quality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hard\\ to\\ maximize\\ all\\ of\\ these\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READING\\ PERIOD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mountains\\ Beyond\\ Mountains\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;summary\\ \\;\\:\\ If\\ you\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ read\\ it\\ over\\ break\\,\\ definitely\\ read\\ it\\ after\\ the\\ class\\ is\\ over\\&hellip\\;great\\ book\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\è\\;y\\è\\;\\ m\\ò\\;n\\ gen\\ m\\ò\\;n\\&mdash\\;Haitian\\ Proverb\\ meaning\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mountains\\ Beyond\\ Mountains\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ I\\-DOKTE\\ PAUL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1994\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tracy\\ Kidder\\ meets\\ Paul\\ Farmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kidder\\ was\\ in\\ Haiti\\ to\\ report\\ on\\ American\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ two\\ met\\ on\\ a\\ flight\\ back\\ to\\ Miami\\,\\ in\\ first\\ class\\&mdash\\;attendants\\ let\\ him\\ \\(Farmer\\)\\ sit\\ there\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ flew\\ so\\ often\\ \\&\\;\\ took\\ care\\ of\\ medicial\\ emergencies\\ on\\ board\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ was\\ 35\\ when\\ they\\ met\\&mdash\\;Harvard\\ Med\\ School\\ grad\\,\\ also\\ anthropology\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Splits\\ time\\ between\\ Boston\\ \\(4\\ months\\)\\ and\\ working\\ w\\/o\\ pay\\ in\\ Haiti\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ patients\\ in\\ Haiti\\ are\\ peasants\\ who\\ lost\\ their\\ land\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ hydroelectric\\ dam\\ put\\ in\\ place\\ by\\ US\\ Army\\ Corps\\&hellip\\;they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ peasant\\ farmers\\ upstream\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brigham\\ and\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Hospital\\&mdash\\;where\\ Farmer\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ID\\&mdash\\;stands\\ for\\ Infectious\\ Disease\\,\\ his\\ specialty\\ in\\ med\\-\\-Farmer\\ uses\\ many\\ acronyms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Teaching\\ Doctor\\,\\ nice\\,\\ funny\\ sense\\ of\\ humor\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ accomplish\\ everything\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Speaks\\ Haitian\\ Creole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ email\\&mdash\\;one\\ email\\ he\\ sends\\ to\\ Kidder\\ says\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ see\\ my\\ \\&ldquo\\;oeuvre\\(\\ masterpiece\\)\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ Haiti\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kidder\\ comes\\ to\\ Haiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Port\\-au\\-Prince\\ \\=\\ main\\ \\&ldquo\\;city\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Haiti\\&mdash\\;where\\ airport\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ works\\ in\\ central\\ plateau\\,\\ in\\ village\\ of\\ Cange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\though\\,\\ and\\ road\\ to\\ get\\ there\\ is\\ REALLY\\ UNEVEN\\,\\ truck\\ breaks\\ down\\ often\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ has\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ Partners\\ in\\ Health\\ clinic\\ for\\ the\\ peasants\\ in\\ Cange\\ \\(Zanmi\\ Lasante\\ in\\ Creole\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ a\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clinic\\&mdash\\;also\\ do\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ education\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ wait\\ outside\\ the\\ clinic\\ daily\\&mdash\\;Farmer\\ likes\\ urgent\\ ones\\ to\\ get\\ taken\\ care\\ of\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Staff\\&mdash\\;partly\\ Haitian\\,\\ partly\\ Harvard\\ medical\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Income\\ not\\ great\\&mdash\\;from\\ private\\ donations\\,\\ some\\ grants\\,\\ Boston\\ developer\\ named\\ TOM\\ WHITE\\&mdash\\;pours\\ millions\\ in\\ over\\ years\\&mdash\\;main\\ benefactor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Married\\ a\\ Haitian\\ woman\\ named\\ Didi\\ Bertrand\\,\\ had\\ a\\ daughter\\ in\\ 1998\\,\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ Paris\\,\\ where\\ Didi\\ was\\ finishing\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sleep\\ at\\ night\\,\\ b\\/c\\ someone\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ getting\\ treated\\ while\\ he\\ sleeps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\regarding\\ religion\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;in\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ books\\,\\ Farmer\\ had\\ written\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ distinction\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Haitian\\ countryside\\ between\\ belief\\ in\\ sorcery\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ theories\\ and\\ practices\\ called\\ voodoo\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ That\\ is\\,\\ not\\ every\\ peasant\\ practiced\\ the\\ indigenous\\ religion\\ called\\ Voodoo\\,\\ but\\ virtually\\ everyone\\,\\ including\\ Catholics\\ and\\ Protestants\\ and\\ Voodooists\\,\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ maji\\,\\ of\\ sorcery\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ many\\ people\\ around\\ Cange\\,\\ magic\\ spells\\ sent\\ by\\ enemies\\ were\\ the\\ deep\\ cause\\ of\\ many\\ illnesses\\.\\ And\\ many\\ people\\ around\\ Cange\\ believed\\ that\\ Farmer\\,\\ like\\ all\\ good\\ Voodoo\\ priests\\,\\ knew\\ how\\ to\\ contend\\ with\\ maji\\.\\ \\(page\\ 27\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ one\\ patient\\ is\\ getting\\ a\\ spinal\\ tap\\ from\\ Farmer\\ and\\ cries\\ out\\&hellip\\;Famer\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crying\\ \\&lsquo\\;it\\ hurts\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ hungry\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ Can\\ you\\ believe\\ it\\?\\ Only\\ in\\ Haiti\\ would\\ a\\ child\\ cry\\ out\\ that\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hungry\\ during\\ a\\ spinal\\ tap\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(page\\ 32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ believed\\ that\\ you\\ had\\ to\\ give\\ people\\ food\\ and\\ visits\\ from\\ community\\ health\\ workers\\ and\\ small\\ monthly\\ stipends\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ TB\\ \\ \\;medicine\\,\\ b\\/c\\ otherwise\\ ineffective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conducted\\ study\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ he\\ was\\ right\\ \\(control\\ group\\)\\ and\\ treated\\ with\\ extra\\ stipend\\,\\ etc\\-\\-\\-he\\ was\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ study\\ on\\ his\\ own\\&mdash\\;taking\\ trips\\ on\\ foot\\ to\\ the\\ hilly\\ places\\ of\\ Haiti\\ to\\ visit\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ II\\-THE\\ TIN\\ ROOFS\\ OF\\ CANGE\\&mdash\\;title\\ comes\\ from\\ lack\\ of\\ tin\\ roofs\\ in\\ Cange\\;\\ instead\\ just\\ banana\\ bark\\ thatch\\&mdash\\;utter\\ misery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ background\\:\\ grew\\ up\\ for\\ a\\ while\\ in\\ Bermingham\\,\\ Alabama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Father\\ arranged\\ for\\ family\\ vacations\\,\\ etc\\.\\ by\\ buying\\ a\\ large\\ bus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eventually\\,\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ it\\,\\ called\\ it\\ Blue\\ Bird\\ Inn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ they\\ went\\ to\\ pick\\ oranges\\ as\\ a\\ family\\ for\\ money\\,\\ where\\ Farmer\\ met\\ Haitians\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Father\\ buys\\ boat\\,\\ Lady\\ Gin\\,\\ and\\ they\\ live\\ on\\ it\\ for\\ a\\ while\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Never\\ had\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ a\\ hometown\\,\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ is\\ my\\ campground\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;54\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Father\\ was\\ proud\\,\\ but\\ never\\ let\\ Paul\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 6\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ college\\ \\(DUKE\\)\\,\\ made\\ jokes\\,\\ made\\ friends\\ easily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Photographic\\ memory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liked\\ company\\ while\\ studying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ first\\ semester\\,\\ got\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Went\\ to\\ Paris\\ for\\ one\\ summer\\/fall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Went\\ to\\ political\\ demonstrations\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professors\\ fond\\ of\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ physicians\\ are\\ the\\ natural\\ attorneys\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ and\\ the\\ social\\ problems\\ should\\ largely\\ be\\ solved\\ by\\ them\\&mdash\\;Farmer\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 61\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ophelia\\ Dahl\\ had\\ \\(Roald\\ \\ \\;Dahl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\)\\ had\\ once\\ been\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ girlfriend\\,\\ but\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ marry\\ him\\ b\\/c\\ his\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\ was\\ so\\ strong\\&mdash\\;but\\ she\\ does\\ become\\ involved\\ with\\ Partners\\ in\\ Health\\ as\\ his\\ friend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Tout\\ moun\\ se\\ moun\\&mdash\\;we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;page\\ 81\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ built\\ a\\ school\\ for\\ children\\&mdash\\;important\\ to\\ get\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ has\\ to\\ slow\\ down\\ a\\ bit\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ gets\\ hit\\ as\\ a\\ pedestrian\\ in\\ an\\ accident\\,\\ but\\ returns\\ to\\ Cange\\ in\\ \\ \\;a\\ wheelchair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Haiti\\ was\\ 90\\%\\ Catholic\\ and\\ 100\\%\\ Voodoo\\&mdash\\;page\\ 105\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\AIDS\\ and\\ TB\\ terrible\\ epidemics\\ in\\ Haiti\\,\\ esp\\.\\ Cange\\ before\\ Farmer\\ gets\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ oppression\\ in\\ Haiti\\ is\\ high\\&mdash\\;people\\ get\\ beaten\\ to\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ demands\\ to\\ get\\ by\\ one\\ soldier\\,\\ the\\ soldier\\ demands\\ \\&lsquo\\;who\\ the\\ hell\\ are\\ you\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ Farmer\\ replies\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ person\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ him\\ when\\ he\\ gets\\ sick\\!\\&mdash\\;pg\\ 116\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\ rule\\ there\\ created\\ public\\ health\\ disaster\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ III\\-\\-MEDICOS\\ AVENTUREROS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\-18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ clean\\ water\\ and\\ shoes\\ and\\ medicine\\ and\\ food\\&hellip\\;in\\ Haiti\\&mdash\\;New\\ York\\ has\\ only\\ relative\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MULTI\\-DRUG\\ resistant\\ TB\\ seemed\\ to\\ arise\\ where\\ wealth\\ and\\ poverty\\ were\\ mingles\\&mdash\\;multi\\ drug\\ resistant\\ just\\ as\\ it\\ sounds\\:\\ some\\ strains\\ were\\ treatable\\ by\\ certain\\ drugs\\,\\ others\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jim\\ Kim\\,\\ \\ \\;a\\ partner\\ at\\ PIH\\,\\ decided\\ to\\ start\\ \\&ldquo\\;Socios\\ en\\ Salud\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Carabayllo\\ in\\ Lima\\,\\ Peru\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ started\\ traveling\\ to\\ Lima\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ everything\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peruvian\\ authorities\\ had\\ a\\ TB\\ treatment\\ plan\\,\\ DOTS\\,\\ in\\ works\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\&mdash\\;actually\\ it\\ was\\ harmful\\,\\ and\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ listen\\ to\\ Jim\\ and\\ Farmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jim\\ and\\ Paul\\ stole\\ drugs\\ from\\ HMS\\ and\\ started\\ own\\ treatment\\ plan\\ in\\ Peru\\&mdash\\;strong\\ epidemiological\\ success\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preferential\\ Option\\ for\\ the\\ Poor\\ \\(O\\ for\\ the\\ P\\)\\&mdash\\;Jim\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ goal\\ this\\ too\\ \\(like\\ Farmer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ IV\\&mdash\\;A\\ LIGHT\\ MONTH\\ FOR\\ TRAVEL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 20\\-21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ goes\\ to\\ Cuba\\ to\\ ask\\ if\\ the\\ med\\ school\\ there\\ can\\ accommodate\\ two\\ Haitian\\ students\\&mdash\\;big\\ time\\ international\\ medicine\\ efforts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WL\\&mdash\\;white\\ liberal\\,\\ Americans\\ who\\ say\\ they\\ are\\ liberal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ does\\ TB\\ program\\ in\\ Moscow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ V\\&mdash\\;O\\ FOR\\ THE\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 2000\\,\\ Gates\\ Foundation\\ gave\\ PIH\\ 45million\\ dollar\\ grant\\ to\\ wipe\\ out\\ MDR\\-TB\\ in\\ Peru\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ always\\ around\\ the\\ world\\,\\ home\\ was\\ in\\ Cange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Often\\,\\ he\\ felt\\ the\\ disease\\ people\\ died\\ of\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;Haiti\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essentially\\ ends\\ the\\ book\\ with\\ a\\ powerful\\ annecdote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ John\\,\\ a\\ small\\ boy\\ with\\ Cancer\\,\\ that\\ a\\ whole\\ team\\ of\\ PIH\\&rsquo\\;ers\\ and\\ doctors\\ help\\ to\\ bring\\ to\\ Mass\\ General\\ Hospital\\ from\\ Haiti\\&mdash\\;turns\\ out\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ save\\ him\\,\\ but\\ help\\ him\\ die\\ in\\ comfortable\\ setting\\ and\\ Mom\\ have\\ space\\/time\\ to\\ grieve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\POSSIBLE\\ WAYS\\ TO\\ INCORPORATE\\ INTO\\ ESSAYS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discuss\\ socioeconomics\\ and\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discuss\\ religion\\ and\\ medicine\\ \\(voodoo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discuss\\ international\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discuss\\ Infectious\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 32, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Medicine_Final_Exam_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "History of the US West - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "us-west"], "text": null, "id": 60, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\_Study\\_Guide\\_His\\_1641\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c42\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c30\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c31\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c39\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c33\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-180pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c12\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:63\\.8pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-216pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c1\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c40\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c25\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144\\.8pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c32\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c34\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c45\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-144pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c9\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c43\\{text\\-indent\\:12pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c38\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c36\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c44\\{font\\-size\\:20pt\\}\\.c15\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c37\\{color\\:\\#0000ee\\}\\.c41\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c35\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:45\\.8pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ Questions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ as\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ conquest\\,\\ from\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ Europeans\\ through\\ the\\ late\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ We\\ really\\ could\\ talk\\ about\\ anything\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ might\\ discuss\\ the\\ conquest\\ of\\ the\\ Indians\\ and\\ battles\\ with\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ territory\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ expanding\\,\\ we\\ could\\ discuss\\ cultural\\ conquest\\ \\(Americanization\\ Programs\\&hellip\\;\\ Chinese\\,\\ Mexican\\,\\ Indian\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ consequences\\.\\.\\.\\ were\\ cities\\ developed\\,\\ reparations\\,\\ environmental\\ consequences\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ put\\ Asterisks\\ next\\ to\\ important\\ date\\ from\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ and\\ next\\ to\\ letters\\ that\\ have\\ texts\\ that\\ correspond\\ to\\ the\\ specific\\ discussion\\ in\\ the\\ outline\\.\\ I\\ structured\\ the\\ outline\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ lecture\\.\\.thus\\,\\ the\\ class\\ readings\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ highlight\\ what\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Popular\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\-century\\ West\\ have\\ most\\ often\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\archetypes\\ of\\ self\\-made\\ men\\ and\\ lone\\ gunmen\\,\\ however\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ more\\ often\\ been\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ partnerships\\,\\ families\\,\\ and\\ unions\\.\\ Focusing\\ on\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\history\\ of\\ westward\\ migration\\ and\\ mining\\,\\ discuss\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ collective\\ action\\ in\\ the\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ Without\\ cooperation\\ and\\ combined\\ efforts\\,\\ the\\ American\\ migration\\ westward\\ probably\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ succeeded\\ in\\ conquering\\ the\\ land\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ did\\.\\ Unions\\ between\\ families\\,\\ co\\-pioneers\\ and\\ co\\-workers\\ account\\ for\\ everything\\ from\\ the\\ initial\\ move\\ westward\\ to\\ the\\ complete\\ domination\\ of\\ western\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ lands\\.\\ Community\\ and\\ collective\\ action\\ permitted\\ settlers\\ to\\ survive\\ and\\ settle\\,\\ and\\ build\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ of\\ physical\\ society\\ and\\ social\\ community\\ that\\ still\\ exists\\ today\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Lecture\\:\\ Notes\\ from\\ Professor\\ St\\.\\ John\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Western\\ Migration\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;I\\:\\ Natives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Native\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ nomadic\\,\\ traveled\\ in\\ groups\\ through\\ the\\ plains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;That\\ image\\ changed\\ when\\ Europeans\\ entered\\ the\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\:\\ Spanish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Alvar\\ NuNez\\ Cabeza\\ de\\ Vaca\\ \\(1527\\-1536\\)\\ expedition\\.\\ 9\\ years\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;wandering\\ through\\-out\\ the\\ western\\ wasteland\\ with\\ his\\ company\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ soldiers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Followed\\ by\\ Franciscan\\ friar\\ \\&ldquo\\;Niza\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ was\\ led\\ by\\ Black\\ Slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Esteban\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\ Spanish\\ settlements\\ \\[Missions\\]\\ begun\\ by\\ fthr\\.\\ Junipero\\ Serra\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Relied\\ on\\ forced\\ cooperation\\ btw\\.\\ Spanish\\ settlers\\ and\\ natives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\)\\ As\\ time\\ passes\\ and\\ Spanish\\/Indian\\ relations\\ tighten\\ through\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ marriages\\,\\ Spanish\\ switch\\ to\\ trade\\ \\*alliances\\*\\ to\\ keep\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;III\\:\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Francis\\ Drake\\ sent\\ with\\ crew\\ to\\ pirate\\ western\\ waters\\ and\\ annoy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ in\\ 1578\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Hudson\\ Bay\\ Company\\;\\ Marriage\\ Alliances\\ and\\ Trade\\ Alliances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;in\\ Pudget\\ sound\\ \\[Washington\\.\\]\\ Fur\\ trading\\.\\ Beginning\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;lone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;gunman\\/mountain\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ stereotype\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\:\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Move\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ \\*Oregon\\ Trail\\*\\:\\ btw\\ 1840\\-1860\\,\\ sets\\ of\\ people\\,\\ usually\\ seeking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ religious\\ or\\ other\\ freedoms\\,\\ moved\\ west\\ in\\ packs\\.\\ Ie\\:\\ Marcus\\ \\&\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Narcissa\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ team\\ of\\ 47\\ pioneers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Mormons\\ settling\\ in\\ Utah\\ Colony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*c\\.\\)\\ Susan\\ Magoffin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Down\\ The\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ An\\ illustration\\ of\\ life\\ on\\ the\\ trail\\,\\ having\\ set\\ off\\ west\\ with\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;new\\ husband\\ and\\ their\\ caravan\\ of\\ wagons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Describes\\ how\\ she\\ and\\ husband\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;helpers\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ tend\\ their\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ needs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\)\\ Details\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ being\\ raided\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ team\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;banded\\ together\\ to\\ protect\\ themselves\\ in\\ such\\ instances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;d\\.\\)\\ Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ though\\,\\ most\\ families\\ that\\ went\\ west\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;idea\\,\\ thus\\,\\ setting\\ up\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ define\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-made\\&rdquo\\;\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;V\\.\\ Getting\\ to\\ the\\ Gold\\ Mines\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ Overland\\:\\ Involved\\ team\\ effort\\ like\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\ pioneers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ By\\ Sea\\:\\ More\\ Independent\\,\\ Isthmus\\ of\\ Panama\\ or\\ Across\\ Cape\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Paid\\ ur\\ dues\\ then\\ went\\ onboard\\.\\ Landed\\ alone\\ in\\ California\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Setting\\ up\\ the\\ impetus\\ for\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;VI\\:\\ Mining\\ Communities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\)\\ San\\ Fran\\:\\ Sacramento\\:\\ Crowded\\ harbors\\,\\ booms\\ in\\ restaurants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\)\\ Mining\\ camps\\ products\\ of\\ need\\:\\ Prompted\\ co\\-ops\\ and\\ quick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ urbanization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\ Social\\ Demographics\\ of\\ the\\ camps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ 92\\.5\\%\\ male\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Mixing\\ pot\\ of\\ races\\;\\ White\\ and\\ Chinese\\ worked\\ together\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\)\\ \\*Anglo\\ Miners\\ formed\\ Vigilante\\ groups\\ and\\ pushed\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ other\\ races\\.\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\)\\ \\*Formed\\ traveling\\ companies\\&hellip\\;based\\ on\\ practical\\ needs\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;shared\\ values\\.\\.ie\\ \\[Sabbath\\ Keepers\\]\\*\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;v\\.\\)\\ 6\\-8\\ men\\ groups\\ created\\ familial\\ units\\ to\\ split\\ up\\ daily\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ like\\ cooking\\,\\ cleaning\\,\\ washing\\&hellip\\;etc\\.\\ Reformation\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ social\\ norms\\ from\\ the\\ East\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;vi\\.\\)\\ \\*When\\ taking\\ on\\ domestic\\ roles\\,\\ miners\\ always\\ in\\ pairs\\.\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*d\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Letter\\ From\\ A\\ Gold\\ Miner\\;\\ Placerville\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ Discusses\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Long\\ Tom\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;trough\\ through\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;large\\ quantities\\ of\\ dirt\\ were\\ worked\\ by\\ many\\ men\\ to\\ sift\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;gold\\ faster\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Describes\\ the\\ difficulty\\ however\\ in\\ getting\\ total\\ cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ though\\ many\\ want\\ laws\\ to\\ protect\\ themselves\\ and\\ their\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ newfound\\ ritches\\.\\ IE\\&hellip\\;a\\ cry\\ for\\ community\\ and\\ social\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*e\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Shirly\\ Letters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Letter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\)\\ Talks\\ about\\ California\\ s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Hotel\\ State\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ so\\ inundated\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;bars\\ and\\ taverns\\.\\ Killing\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ lonely\\ prospectors\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;mountains\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\)\\ Describes\\ settlers\\ helping\\ each\\ other\\.\\ How\\ when\\ the\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ of\\ one\\ family\\ \\(Mrs\\.\\ B\\)\\ was\\ weak\\ after\\ child\\-birth\\,\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ man\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ her\\ boarding\\ house\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;carried\\ her\\ bread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ and\\ tea\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*f\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ extra\\ data\\,\\ include\\ Susan\\ Lee\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Domestic\\&hellip\\;The\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Southern\\ Mines\\ in\\ the\\ California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Peggy\\ Pascoe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Home\\ Mission\\ Women\\,\\ Race\\,\\ Culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Both\\ in\\ Course\\ Reader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ western\\ expansion\\ draw\\ on\\,\\ challenge\\,\\ and\\ strengthen\\ different\\ constructions\\ of\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Traditional\\ gender\\ roles\\ had\\ man\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ financial\\ supporter\\ and\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ household\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Traditionally\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ chores\\ like\\ cooking\\,\\ cleaning\\,\\ laundry\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Western\\ US\\ needed\\ settlers\\,\\ thus\\ men\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ go\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ expansion\\ draw\\ on\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ left\\ the\\ traditional\\ household\\ to\\ explore\\ a\\ potential\\ better\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ West\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Maintained\\ connections\\ with\\ family\\ by\\ usually\\ sending\\ money\\ home\\ to\\ fulfill\\ job\\ as\\ bread\\ winner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ also\\ sent\\ home\\ letters\\ and\\ journals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-And\\ continued\\ to\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ a\\ rough\\ uncertain\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ pioneer\\ into\\ an\\ unknown\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Playing\\ cowboys\\ and\\ Indians\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ expansion\\ challenge\\ the\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Placed\\ men\\ in\\ communities\\ with\\ filled\\ entirely\\ with\\ men\\.\\ \\(Only\\ female\\ interaction\\:\\ saloon\\ girls\\ and\\ prostitutes\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ different\\ setting\\ for\\ men\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ void\\ of\\ a\\ domesticated\\ women\\ forced\\ men\\ to\\ do\\ daily\\ tasks\\ that\\ were\\ traditionally\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\:\\ cooking\\,\\ cleaning\\,\\ laundry\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-No\\ women\\ there\\ to\\ affirm\\ their\\ masculinity\\,\\ so\\ found\\ other\\ ways\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ fellow\\ men\\:\\ gambling\\,\\ fighting\\,\\ guns\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ living\\ in\\ settlements\\,\\ particularly\\ gold\\ mines\\,\\ also\\ divided\\ domestic\\ chores\\ amongst\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lucious\\ Fairchild\\ worked\\ waiting\\ tables\\ \\(Susan\\ Johnson\\ reading\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ expansion\\ strengthen\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-West\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ outlet\\ where\\ men\\ could\\ start\\ over\\ and\\ assert\\ their\\ masculinity\\ over\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ the\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ became\\ less\\ dependent\\ on\\ women\\ for\\ domestic\\ necessities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ and\\ suburban\\ West\\ placed\\ men\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ concrete\\ family\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Think\\ Brady\\ Bunch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READINGS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(\\&bull\\;\\ \\.A\\ letter\\ from\\ a\\ gold\\ miner\\,\\ Placerville\\,\\ California\\,\\ October\\,\\ 1850\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Available\\ online\\ at\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/memory\\.loc\\.gov\\/cgi\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bin\\/query\\/r\\?ammem\\/calbk\\:\\@field\\(DOCID\\+\\@lit\\(calbk155div2\\)\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Letters\\ 2\\,4\\,6\\,7\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ 10\\ from\\ \\.The\\ Shirley\\ letters\\ from\\ California\\ mines\\ in\\ 1851\\-52\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Available\\ online\\ at\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/memory\\.loc\\.gov\\/cgibin\\/query\\/r\\?ammem\\/calbk\\:\\@field\\(DOCID\\+\\@lit\\(calbk146\\)\\)\\:\\@\\@\\@\\$REF\\$\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Susan\\ Lee\\ Johnson\\,\\ \\.\\.Domestic\\.\\ Life\\ in\\ the\\ Diggings\\:\\ The\\ Southern\\ Mines\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\,\\.\\ from\\ Valerie\\ J\\.\\ Matsumoto\\ and\\ Blake\\ Allmendinger\\,\\ eds\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ Edge\\:\\ Remapping\\ the\\ American\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Course\\ Reader\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Elliott\\ West\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Contested\\ Plains\\:\\ Indians\\,\\ Goldseekers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Rush\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Introduction\\,\\ Chapters\\ 1\\ and\\ 5\\-7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prominent\\ figures\\ of\\ Western\\ Masculine\\ Identity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Davy\\ Crocket\\,\\ Daniel\\ Boone\\,\\ Jedidiah\\ Smith\\,\\ Lucious\\ Fairchild\\,\\ Mike\\ Brady\\ \\(modern\\ expansion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ have\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ categories\\ defined\\ western\\ history\\ and\\ limited\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ability\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\ to\\ access\\ opportunities\\ in\\ the\\ West\\?\\ You\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\want\\ to\\ consider\\ policies\\ and\\ practices\\ involving\\ some\\ or\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\employment\\,\\ housing\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ and\\ military\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ off\\:\\ groups\\ of\\ oppressed\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\African\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mexicans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Employment\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discrimination\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ employment\\ came\\ from\\ miners\\ and\\ it\\ excluded\\ minorities\\ through\\ armed\\ threats\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ refusal\\ of\\ landowners\\ to\\ sell\\ to\\ foreigners\\.\\ In\\ 1850\\ this\\ xenophobia\\ became\\ legislative\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ Foreign\\ Miners\\ Act\\ which\\ charged\\ 20\\ dollars\\ for\\ immigrants\\ to\\ work\\.\\ Also\\ in\\ the\\ larger\\ mines\\ minority\\ workers\\ were\\ categorically\\ paid\\ less\\ than\\ white\\ workers\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ hold\\ leadership\\ positions\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ West\\ minority\\ workers\\ earned\\ less\\ wage\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ field\\ they\\ were\\ employed\\ in\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\ Action\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indian\\ Removal\\ act\\ 1830\\:\\ moved\\ 70\\,000\\ Indians\\ from\\ the\\ southern\\ US\\ to\\ Oklahoma\\.\\ Of\\ these\\ 70\\,000\\ many\\ die\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ over\\.\\ Once\\ Indians\\ from\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ West\\ are\\ primarily\\ on\\ the\\ reservations\\ the\\ western\\ settlers\\ begin\\ to\\ start\\ trouble\\.\\ They\\ didin\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respect\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ reservations\\ or\\ the\\ Indians\\ lands\\ and\\ they\\ stole\\ from\\ the\\ Indians\\.\\ In\\ 1851\\-2\\ the\\ reservations\\ shift\\ from\\ sovereignty\\ to\\ wardship\\ and\\ the\\ become\\ close\\ to\\ concentration\\ camps\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trains\\ and\\ fed\\ gov\\ want\\ Indians\\ to\\ cede\\ land\\ to\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Us\\ government\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ make\\ deals\\ that\\ stick\\ with\\ the\\ Indians\\,\\ in\\ part\\ because\\ their\\ lack\\ of\\ centralized\\ government\\ and\\ leadership\\ and\\ their\\ nomadicism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Military\\ action\\ begins\\ in\\ 1865\\ Custer\\ and\\ Kerney\\ try\\ to\\ suppress\\ raiding\\.\\ They\\ destroy\\ the\\ Indians\\ food\\ source\\ and\\ cut\\ off\\ supplies\\.\\ Us\\ pursues\\ them\\ until\\ 1886\\.\\ when\\ all\\ have\\ been\\ defeated\\ or\\ put\\ on\\ a\\ reservation\\ camp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ horses\\ to\\ highways\\,\\ western\\ history\\ has\\ been\\ shaped\\ by\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ important\\ and\\ changing\\ role\\ of\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\transportation\\ in\\ shaping\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\ and\\,\\ particularly\\,\\ its\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\relationship\\ to\\ the\\ East\\.\\ Use\\ at\\ least\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ possible\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\horses\\,\\ ships\\,\\ overland\\ trails\\,\\ railroads\\,\\ and\\ highways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ eventually\\ explore\\ and\\ conquer\\ the\\ entire\\ West\\ through\\ transportation\\ was\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ given\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ manifest\\ destiny\\ \\(term\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ transportation\\ has\\ always\\ provided\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ hard\\ work\\ creates\\ trails\\,\\ railroads\\,\\ and\\ highways\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ American\\ idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ working\\ hard\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ during\\ Great\\ Depression\\,\\ people\\ had\\ jobs\\ working\\ on\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ forms\\ of\\ transportation\\ became\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ advanced\\,\\ thus\\ connecting\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.\\ when\\ cross\\-country\\ trains\\ developed\\,\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ unreachable\\:\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ unified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.\\ Government\\ control\\ of\\ Western\\ railroads\\ and\\ highways\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ say\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\.\\ Lots\\ of\\ transportation\\ issues\\ lead\\ to\\ images\\ of\\ lawlessness\\ and\\ distrust\\ for\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ fake\\ transportation\\ brochures\\ for\\ trails\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ horrible\\ things\\ like\\ the\\ Donner\\ Party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ failed\\ expedition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Credit\\ Mobilier\\ scandal\\ and\\ railroad\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overland\\ trails\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ opened\\ up\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Lewis\\ and\\ Clark\\ Expedition\\ \\(term\\ 5\\)\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ map\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ explore\\ it\\,\\ bringing\\ back\\ appealing\\ tales\\ to\\ Easterners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ extremely\\ important\\ option\\ for\\ travel\\ during\\ the\\ gold\\ rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ people\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ risky\\ Panama\\ journey\\ or\\ the\\ expensive\\/lengthy\\ Cape\\ Horn\\ journey\\ could\\ take\\ an\\ overland\\ trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ facilitated\\ trade\\ with\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ example\\:\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ trail\\ was\\ good\\ for\\ trade\\ with\\ New\\ Mexicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.\\ allows\\ many\\ different\\ groups\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ example\\:\\ Mormon\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.\\ opens\\ up\\ huge\\ business\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ people\\ create\\ trail\\ brochures\\,\\ ferries\\,\\ supply\\ forts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\.\\ transported\\ Eastern\\ American\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ gender\\ norms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\G\\.\\ Destroyed\\ Western\\ ecology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ overhunted\\ animals\\,\\ especially\\ buffalo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ trampled\\ earth\\ and\\ grass\\ and\\ cut\\ down\\ trees\\ for\\ firewood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ dust\\ pollution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Railroads\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ train\\ depots\\ would\\ determine\\ which\\ towns\\ grew\\ and\\ which\\ towns\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ example\\:\\ Chicago\\ had\\ all\\ the\\ rail\\ lines\\ centered\\ on\\ it\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ grew\\ into\\ the\\ huge\\ city\\ it\\ is\\ today\\,\\ while\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ as\\ many\\ railways\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ become\\ a\\ trading\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Red\\ Cars\\ \\(term\\ 40\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ trolleys\\ became\\ common\\,\\ they\\ would\\ dictate\\ where\\ cities\\ and\\ suburbs\\ developed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ important\\ for\\ trade\\ with\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ refrigerated\\ railroad\\ cars\\ allow\\ meat\\ to\\ be\\ shipped\\ across\\ the\\ country\\:\\ larger\\ market\\ for\\ Western\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ grain\\ elevators\\ to\\ store\\ wheat\\ that\\ railroads\\ transport\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ prices\\ of\\ tickets\\ fall\\ because\\ of\\ competition\\ between\\ railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ West\\ becomes\\ easily\\ accessible\\ to\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Highways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ highways\\ and\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ automobile\\ meant\\ that\\ huge\\,\\ sprawling\\ cities\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ West\\,\\ like\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ and\\ Houston\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ automobile\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ create\\ such\\ sprawling\\ cities\\ in\\ the\\ East\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ already\\ mostly\\ developed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ only\\ build\\ up\\,\\ not\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ during\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ \\(term\\ 44\\)\\,\\ Oakies\\ \\(term\\ 45\\)\\ used\\ the\\ easily\\ accessible\\ highway\\ system\\ to\\ travel\\ West\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ better\\ work\\ and\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ this\\ changed\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ helped\\ there\\ to\\ be\\ cheap\\ labor\\,\\ thus\\ boosting\\ the\\ agriculture\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ traveling\\ across\\ route\\ 66\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ to\\ Easterners\\,\\ the\\ West\\ now\\ becomes\\ an\\ easily\\ reachable\\ tourist\\ attraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ especially\\ with\\ huge\\ impact\\ of\\ Hollywood\\,\\ everyone\\ wants\\ to\\ go\\ see\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\West\\ in\\ real\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ completely\\ changed\\ Indian\\ lifestyle\\-\\ Indians\\ became\\ dependent\\ on\\ horses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ made\\ Indians\\ able\\ to\\ cover\\ more\\ territory\\,\\ which\\ was\\ good\\ for\\ trading\\ and\\ hunting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ horses\\ are\\ a\\ status\\ symbol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ships\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Shipyards\\ provided\\ work\\ during\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ homesteading\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ the\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ in\\ 1862\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ suburbs\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\ reflect\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ independence\\ and\\ ownership\\ in\\ western\\ and\\ American\\ history\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Refer\\ to\\ DJ\\ Waldie\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Holy\\ Land\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mike\\ Davis\\ \\&ldquo\\;Homegrown\\ Revolution\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ terms\\:\\ \\ \\;Homestead\\ Act\\ \\(1862\\)\\,\\ Dawes\\ Act\\ \\(1887\\)\\,\\ Suburbs\\,\\ Federal\\ Housing\\ Administration\\ \\(FHA\\)\\,\\ Lakewood\\ Company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Homestead\\ Act\\ of\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ means\\ devised\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ of\\ distributing\\ public\\ land\\ to\\ individual\\ farmers\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ limit\\ of\\ 160\\ acres\\/family\\ was\\ imposed\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ individual\\ holdings\\ and\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ free\\ or\\ cheap\\ for\\ to\\ encourage\\ as\\ many\\ families\\ to\\ become\\ self\\-sufficient\\ farmers\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ theme\\ that\\ recurred\\ in\\ Professor\\ St\\.\\ John\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lectures\\ was\\ the\\ Western\\ myth\\ \\(traced\\ to\\ Jefferson\\)\\ that\\ land\\ ownership\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ the\\ independence\\ that\\ defined\\ American\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ and\\ other\\ government\\ programs\\ for\\ land\\ distribution\\ were\\,\\ in\\ effect\\,\\ an\\ endorsement\\ of\\ these\\ ideas\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ this\\ system\\ of\\ land\\ distribution\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ a\\ failure\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ system\\ only\\ worked\\ for\\ areas\\ with\\ adequate\\ rainfall\\ and\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ quickly\\ transferred\\ to\\ larger\\ holders\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ early\\ twentieth\\,\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ tweaked\\ with\\ this\\ system\\ allowing\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ land\\ to\\ be\\ distributed\\ in\\ larger\\ parcels\\ and\\ for\\ different\\ purposes\\ \\(see\\ the\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Act\\,\\ the\\ Mining\\ Act\\,\\ Dawes\\ Act\\,\\ Desert\\ Land\\ Act\\,\\ Timber\\ and\\ Stone\\ Act\\,\\ and\\ Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\ \\(the\\ specifics\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ not\\ particularly\\ important\\ but\\ were\\ outlined\\ in\\ lecture\\ for\\ 10\\/17\\/05\\)\\)\\,\\ none\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ successful\\ in\\ stimulating\\ renewed\\ independent\\ farming\\ but\\ continued\\ the\\ gradual\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ land\\ was\\ consolidated\\ and\\ those\\ working\\ the\\ land\\ were\\ not\\ the\\ owners\\ and\\ often\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ ethnicity\\ \\(see\\ Foley\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Whiteness\\ of\\ Cotton\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ myth\\ of\\ ownership\\ and\\ independence\\ promulgated\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ was\\ the\\ model\\ by\\ which\\ land\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ distributed\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ distributed\\ land\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ mattered\\ too\\ much\\,\\ because\\ technology\\ and\\ manufacturing\\ steered\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ American\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ direction\\,\\ which\\ has\\ again\\ been\\ modified\\ by\\ service\\ jobs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ development\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\suburbs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ an\\ important\\ direction\\ in\\ Western\\ land\\ use\\.\\ \\ \\;Suburbs\\ were\\ areas\\ of\\ single\\ family\\ homes\\ which\\ often\\ developed\\ around\\ rigid\\ grids\\ with\\ central\\ shopping\\ malls\\ and\\ emphasized\\ sameness\\ of\\ architecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Planned\\ suburbs\\ \\(the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ which\\ perhaps\\ being\\ Lakewood\\ CA\\,\\ developed\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lakewood\\ Company\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ developed\\ during\\ the\\ 1950s\\ in\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ both\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ made\\ possible\\ by\\ developments\\ in\\ mortgage\\ financing\\ system\\ fueled\\ by\\ Federal\\ intervention\\ via\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Federal\\ Housing\\ Administration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(which\\ insured\\ private\\ mortgages\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Veterans\\ Administration\\ \\(which\\ insured\\ home\\ loans\\ for\\ Vets\\)\\ that\\ allowed\\ far\\ more\\ people\\ to\\ buy\\ homes\\.\\ \\ \\;Down\\ payments\\,\\ when\\ a\\ loan\\ was\\ insured\\ by\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\,\\ were\\ well\\ within\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ a\\ middle\\ class\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\ intervened\\ to\\ promote\\ this\\ image\\ of\\ individual\\ ownership\\ being\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Developers\\ stepped\\ in\\ and\\ produced\\ large\\ settlements\\ of\\ cheap\\ homes\\ for\\ mass\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;Owning\\ a\\ home\\,\\ it\\ was\\ thought\\,\\ allowed\\ a\\ family\\ to\\ express\\ their\\ Americanness\\ and\\ develop\\ as\\ a\\ strong\\,\\ healthy\\,\\ individual\\ unit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Again\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ many\\ cultural\\ observers\\ have\\ criticized\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ suburbanization\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ have\\ felt\\ that\\ suburbs\\ force\\ them\\ into\\ restrictive\\ gender\\ roles\\.\\ \\ \\;DJ\\ Waldie\\ noted\\ the\\ exclusion\\ of\\ Jews\\ and\\ blacks\\ from\\ suburban\\ communities\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ the\\ grid\\ and\\ the\\ sameness\\ paralyze\\ identity\\?\\ \\ \\;Was\\ American\\ individuality\\ overrun\\ by\\ television\\,\\ advertisement\\,\\ and\\ consumption\\?\\ \\ \\;Waldie\\&\\#39\\;s\\ book\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ failure\\,\\ Lakewood\\ did\\ not\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ happy\\,\\ healthy\\ dream\\ town\\ envisioned\\ by\\ its\\ founders\\ and\\ original\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gist\\ of\\ this\\ thing\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Federal\\ Government\\ first\\ distributed\\ land\\ and\\ then\\ reshaped\\ the\\ home\\ finance\\ system\\ to\\ encourage\\ individual\\ land\\ and\\ home\\ ownership\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ system\\ stems\\ from\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ independence\\ and\\ fundamental\\ American\\ qualities\\ deriving\\ from\\ independent\\ land\\ ownership\\.\\ \\ \\;Neither\\ the\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ or\\ the\\ suburbs\\ developed\\ as\\ originally\\ envisioned\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ have\\ spawned\\ criticism\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ later\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cities\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cities\\ in\\ fact\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ major\\ part\\ of\\ Western\\ History\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ numerous\\ images\\ of\\ wilderness\\ and\\ rural\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Fur\\ trading\\ Outposts\\/Hubs\\ of\\ Commerce\\&mdash\\;The\\ French\\ and\\ English\\ Settlers\\ used\\ these\\ places\\ for\\ commerce\\ and\\ to\\ get\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Resupply\\ Stations\\ on\\ the\\ Wagon\\ Trains\\&mdash\\;Often\\ people\\ would\\ book\\ their\\ journey\\ from\\ Resupply\\ Station\\ to\\ Resupply\\ Station\\.\\ Towns\\ Sprang\\ around\\ these\\ areas\\ and\\ where\\ people\\ chose\\ to\\ populate\\.\\ Larger\\ Network\\.\\ Think\\ the\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\ Computer\\ Game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Cities\\ are\\ commercial\\ centers\\.\\ Place\\ where\\ people\\ could\\ go\\ to\\ find\\ civilization\\,\\ entertainment\\,\\ Women\\.\\ It\\ provides\\ them\\ a\\ tie\\ to\\ society\\.\\ \\(Think\\ Gold\\ Rush\\/Saloons\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hollywood\\ Rose\\ up\\ made\\ the\\ West\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ today\\.\\ Made\\ West\\ center\\ of\\ US\\ society\\ and\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Cities\\ changed\\ Western\\ Landscape\\.\\ Federal\\ Government\\ with\\ irrigation\\ projects\\,\\ railroads\\ either\\ spelled\\ \\ \\;boom\\/bust\\ for\\ cities\\,\\ suburbs\\ changing\\ the\\ landscape\\.\\ \\(Think\\ the\\ Red\\ Queen\\ Book\\.\\ Chinatown\\.\\,\\ DJ\\ Waldies\\ \\&ldquo\\;Holy\\ Land\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Were\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ all\\ this\\ extra\\ disposable\\ land\\ for\\ projects\\ and\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Bases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conflict\\ over\\ rural\\ vs\\.\\ urban\\,\\ what\\ the\\ West\\ should\\ become\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ developed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Books\\ to\\ look\\ at\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elliott\\ West\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Contested\\ Plains\\:\\ Indians\\,\\ Goldseekers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Rush\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Richard\\ White\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Organic\\ Machine\\:\\ The\\ Remaking\\ of\\ the\\ Columbia\\ River\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ì\\;Chinatown\\î\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.J\\.\\ Waldie\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Holy\\ Land\\:\\ A\\ Suburban\\ Memoir\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rivers\\ as\\ providing\\ means\\ for\\ survival\\,\\ means\\ for\\ land\\ transformation\\,\\ and\\ a\\ solid\\ power\\ source\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Control\\ of\\ Rivers\\ for\\ the\\ earliest\\ settlers\\ was\\ an\\ essential\\ means\\ of\\ survival\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ needed\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ river\\ as\\ means\\ for\\ a\\ quality\\ water\\ source\\ and\\ also\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ more\\ rapid\\ transportation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rivers\\ also\\ provided\\ those\\ that\\ needed\\ it\\ with\\ water\\ for\\ irrigation\\ for\\ their\\ crops\\ and\\ with\\ methods\\ of\\ sifting\\ through\\ content\\ from\\ mines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ indigenous\\ peoples\\ needed\\ the\\ rivers\\ for\\ their\\ horses\\ and\\ the\\ fertile\\ grass\\ that\\ lined\\ the\\ rivers\\ that\\ flowed\\ through\\ the\\ region\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ as\\ the\\ white\\ influence\\ grew\\ throughout\\ the\\ west\\ it\\ cut\\ back\\ on\\ the\\ Indians\\ ability\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ regular\\ migratory\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reisner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\ shows\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ to\\ sustain\\ life\\ and\\ transform\\ land\\ in\\ his\\ examination\\ of\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ LA\\ aqueduct\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ diverting\\ the\\ water\\ of\\ the\\ Owens\\ Valley\\ to\\ flow\\ down\\ to\\ LA\\,\\ Mulholland\\ and\\ his\\ business\\ backers\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ manipulation\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ source\\ and\\ the\\ inclusion\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ seedy\\ characters\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ shows\\ how\\ important\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ water\\ into\\ the\\ LA\\ area\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;Whoever\\ controlled\\ the\\ water\\ source\\ controlled\\ the\\ city\\ because\\ without\\ its\\ water\\ being\\ shipped\\ in\\ \\(or\\ stolen\\)\\ from\\ the\\ Owens\\ Valley\\,\\ the\\ city\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ unable\\ to\\ survive\\,\\ so\\ anyone\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ obtain\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ vied\\ for\\ a\\ hand\\ in\\ the\\ controlling\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ source\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ reason\\ why\\ LA\\ has\\ become\\ such\\ a\\ large\\ and\\ influential\\ city\\ while\\ the\\ natural\\ path\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ has\\ not\\ produced\\ a\\ sister\\ city\\,\\ because\\ the\\ river\\ was\\ tamed\\ and\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ LA\\ for\\ their\\ benefit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ Columbia\\ river\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ driving\\ both\\ nuclear\\ and\\ non\\ nuclear\\ power\\ plants\\ just\\ again\\ shows\\ how\\ important\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ control\\ over\\ a\\ river\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ authorized\\ the\\ building\\ of\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ dams\\ up\\ and\\ down\\ the\\ Columbia\\ they\\ gave\\ power\\ plants\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ harness\\ the\\ power\\ from\\ the\\ rapids\\ of\\ the\\ river\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ putting\\ up\\ dams\\ the\\ shape\\ and\\ flow\\ of\\ a\\ river\\ was\\ once\\ again\\ changed\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ benefit\\ a\\ special\\ interest\\ of\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ again\\,\\ however\\,\\ where\\ the\\ controlling\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ aided\\ one\\ cause\\ as\\ with\\ the\\ settlers\\ and\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ LA\\,\\ it\\ also\\ had\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ some\\,\\ such\\ as\\ were\\ had\\ on\\ the\\ Indians\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ the\\ water\\ that\\ LA\\ channeled\\ would\\ have\\ naturally\\ flowed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ building\\ of\\ dams\\ on\\ the\\ Columbia\\ to\\ harness\\ the\\ river\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ hurt\\ many\\ local\\ fishermen\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ migratory\\ patterns\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ river\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fish\\,\\ thus\\ slowing\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ fish\\ to\\ small\\ business\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ability\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ rivers\\ allowed\\ for\\ settlers\\ to\\ migrate\\ to\\ the\\ west\\,\\ a\\ city\\ to\\ rise\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ desert\\,\\ and\\ for\\ immense\\ amounts\\ of\\ power\\ to\\ be\\ generated\\ in\\ the\\ northwest\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ rivers\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ employed\\ them\\ for\\ these\\ reasons\\ had\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ those\\ who\\ had\\ previously\\ controlled\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ thing\\ is\\ for\\ sure\\,\\ in\\ the\\ struggle\\ over\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ rivers\\,\\ history\\ proves\\ to\\ have\\ favored\\ those\\ who\\ won\\ their\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ option\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Rivers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Control\\ of\\ rivers\\ can\\ be\\ analyzed\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ federal\\ control\\ vs\\.\\ private\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Government\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ entity\\ willing\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ massive\\ costs\\ of\\ damming\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ controlled\\ water\\ stood\\ to\\ make\\ tons\\ of\\ money\\ \\(Red\\ Queen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transportation\\ of\\ goods\\ on\\ rivers\\ defined\\ early\\ western\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Alvar\\ Nu\\ñ\\;\\é\\;z\\ Cabeza\\ de\\ Vaca\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ explorer\\ who\\ \\ \\;went\\ to\\ Florida\\ to\\ find\\ slaves\\ in\\ 1528\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ search\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ riches\\ Cabeza\\ de\\ Vaca\\ got\\ lost\\ and\\ ended\\ up\\ skirting\\ the\\ Gulf\\ Coast\\ from\\ Florida\\ to\\ Texas\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ shipwrecked\\ in\\ Galveston\\,\\ TX\\ but\\ continued\\ through\\ TX\\ and\\ Mexico\\ using\\ the\\ Rio\\ Grande\\.\\ \\ \\;Came\\ into\\ contact\\ with\\ Caddo\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;Indians\\ believed\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ god\\ and\\ he\\ believed\\ the\\ Indians\\ lived\\ in\\ pure\\ luxury\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ journey\\ sparked\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ west\\ \\(Coronado\\ and\\ De\\ Soto\\)\\ of\\ dreams\\ of\\ wealthy\\ cities\\ and\\ gold\\.\\ \\ \\;De\\ Vaca\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ conqueror\\ he\\ was\\ merely\\ \\(lost\\)\\ floundering\\.\\ \\(9\\/26\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Francisco\\ V\\á\\;squez\\ de\\ Coronado\\ \\(1540\\-2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ conquistador\\ determined\\ to\\ find\\ gold\\ and\\ wealth\\;\\ provoked\\ by\\ De\\ Vaca\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inferences\\ of\\ wealthy\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ searching\\ for\\ the\\ seven\\ golden\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;seven\\ golden\\ cities\\&rdquo\\;\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ only\\ poor\\ pueblos\\ of\\ the\\ Zuni\\ tribe\\.\\ \\ \\;Coronado\\ and\\ his\\ army\\ forcibly\\ took\\ over\\ Cibola\\ \\(kills\\ and\\ burns\\)\\ \\ \\;and\\ other\\ pueblos\\ claiming\\ people\\ and\\ land\\ for\\ the\\ pope\\.\\ \\ \\;Journeys\\ to\\ Wichita\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ riches\\ only\\ to\\ find\\ poor\\ Wichita\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;Returns\\ to\\ Spanish\\ Mexico\\ with\\ no\\ gold\\.\\ \\(9\\/26\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Pueblo\\ Revolt\\ of\\ 1680\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Coordinated\\ Pueblo\\ Indian\\ resistance\\ to\\ Spanish\\/Franciscan\\ oppression\\.\\ \\ \\;Increasing\\ violence\\ by\\ frays\\ and\\ Spanish\\ Army\\,\\ violence\\ against\\ sacred\\ Indian\\ objects\\ and\\ locations\\,\\ and\\ defamation\\ to\\ Pueblo\\ religion\\ and\\ culture\\;\\ sparked\\ Pueblo\\ coordination\\ to\\ revolt\\ against\\ Spanish\\.\\ \\ \\;Masterminded\\ by\\ Pope\\ \\ \\;\\(include\\ a\\ dash\\ above\\ the\\ e\\ in\\ Pope\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ caught\\ by\\ surprise\\.\\ \\ \\;Hundreds\\ of\\ soldiers\\ and\\ friars\\ were\\ murdered\\.\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ evacuate\\ to\\ El\\ Paso\\ and\\ remain\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ pueblos\\ until\\ 1896\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(9\\/28\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\-\\ Additional\\ information\\ and\\ revolt\\ theories\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ What\\ Caused\\ the\\ Pueblo\\ Revolt\\ of\\ 1680\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Louisiana\\ Purchase\\,\\ 1803\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\With\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ expand\\ for\\ defensive\\ measures\\ \\(Sp\\ and\\ Fr\\ controlled\\ Mississippi\\ River\\=US\\ dependent\\ on\\ foreign\\ powers\\)\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ agrarianism\\ principles\\,\\ US\\ purchases\\ Louisiana\\ from\\ Napoleon\\ for\\ \\$15\\ million\\ dollars\\.\\ \\ \\;Land\\ boundary\\ is\\ ill\\-defined\\.\\ \\ \\;LP\\ is\\ the\\ onset\\ of\\ American\\ expansionism\\ and\\ initiates\\ US\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\.\\ \\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Lewis\\ \\&\\;\\ Clark\\ Expedition\\,\\ 1804\\-1806\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Expedition\\ backed\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ northwest\\ passage\\ and\\ to\\ discover\\/explore\\ the\\ land\\ acquired\\ in\\ the\\ LP\\.\\ \\ \\;43\\ men\\,\\ dependent\\ on\\ fur\\ traders\\ and\\ Indians\\,\\ traveled\\ through\\ existing\\ Indian\\/fur\\ trader\\ social\\ networks\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mission\\ was\\ successful\\ scientifically\\ in\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ unknown\\ flora\\ and\\ fauna\\ and\\ was\\ successful\\ in\\ discovering\\ the\\ ethnographics\\ of\\ LP\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Gained\\ extensive\\ knowledge\\ of\\ West\\ geography\\ through\\ detailed\\ maps\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Zebulon\\ Pike\\ \\(1806\\-7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\American\\ explorer\\ backed\\ by\\ government\\ to\\ forge\\ relationships\\ with\\ Indians\\ who\\ held\\ allegiance\\ to\\ Spain\\ and\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ military\\ strength\\ of\\ Spain\\ in\\ US\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Louisiana\\ Territory\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(by\\ way\\ of\\ the\\ Red\\ River\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Pike\\ was\\ overtaken\\ by\\ Spanish\\,\\ imprisoned\\,\\ and\\ was\\ led\\ through\\ the\\ Southwest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Sp\\.\\ considered\\ him\\ a\\ spy\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ Sp\\.\\ led\\ journey\\ he\\ discovered\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ Sp\\.\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ West\\ and\\ the\\ geography\\ of\\ the\\ southern\\ exposures\\ of\\ the\\ Louisiana\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ loose\\ path\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ later\\ named\\ the\\ Sante\\ Fe\\ trail\\.\\ Early\\ inroad\\ to\\ the\\ southwest\\.\\ \\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Fur\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\French\\ and\\ English\\ mountain\\ men\\ depended\\ on\\ interracial\\ marriage\\ with\\ Indian\\ and\\ Mexican\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ intermarriages\\ granted\\ mountain\\ men\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ furs\\ of\\ beaver\\ and\\ later\\ bison\\.\\ \\ \\;Trade\\ hinged\\ on\\ the\\ Rendezvous\\ System\\,\\ created\\ by\\ Jedediah\\ Smith\\ and\\ William\\ Ashley\\ in\\ the\\ Tetons\\,\\ where\\ Natives\\ and\\ fur\\ trappers\\ met\\ to\\ trade\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ pelts\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ beaver\\ pelts\\ became\\ unpopular\\ and\\ out\\-trapped\\,\\ fur\\ traders\\ began\\ hunting\\ bison\\ for\\ their\\ fur\\.\\ \\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1821\\,\\ the\\ Sante\\ Fe\\ Trail\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ dominant\\ and\\ defined\\ trading\\ trail\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;William\\ Becknell\\,\\ following\\ in\\ Zebulon\\ Pike\\&rsquo\\;s\\ footsteps\\,\\ created\\ the\\ SF\\ Trail\\.\\ \\ \\;Trail\\ spurred\\ bi\\-national\\ trading\\ and\\ bi\\-national\\ marriages\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ trail\\ from\\ Missouri\\ to\\ Santa\\ Fe\\,\\ NM\\ was\\ a\\ vital\\ military\\ and\\ commercial\\ highway\\ until\\ the\\ railroad\\ was\\ established\\ in\\ the\\ Southwest\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ route\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ army\\ used\\ to\\ invade\\ Mexico\\ in\\ the\\ Am\\/Mex\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Additional\\ information\\ in\\ Down\\ the\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Trail\\ and\\ into\\ Mexico\\)\\ \\ \\;\\(10\\/3\\/05\\ Lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\&mdash\\;the\\ term\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\ was\\ coined\\ by\\ John\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\ in\\ 1845\\ and\\ referred\\ to\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ America\\ was\\ destined\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ expand\\ westward\\ across\\ the\\ continent\\ and\\ spread\\ democracy\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ morally\\ justify\\ expansion\\,\\ conquest\\,\\ and\\ annexation\\ in\\ the\\ West\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ was\\ important\\ in\\ Polk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expansionist\\ policy\\,\\ when\\ he\\ took\\ his\\ presidential\\ victory\\ as\\ a\\ mandate\\ for\\ expansion\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Oregon\\ Question\\,\\ the\\ dispute\\ between\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ Great\\ Britain\\ over\\ the\\ boundary\\ of\\ Oregon\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ annexation\\ of\\ Texas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\&mdash\\;The\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ was\\ fought\\ between\\ Mexico\\ and\\ America\\ between\\ 1846\\ and\\ 1848\\ over\\ the\\ borders\\ of\\ Texas\\.\\ The\\ disputed\\ land\\ was\\ the\\ Nueces\\ strip\\,\\ the\\ strip\\ of\\ land\\ between\\ the\\ Nueces\\ River\\ and\\ the\\ Rio\\ Grande\\.\\ Polk\\ wanted\\ an\\ excuse\\ for\\ war\\ and\\ expansion\\,\\ which\\ he\\ found\\ when\\ he\\ sent\\ troops\\ into\\ the\\ Nueces\\ strip\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ fired\\ upon\\ by\\ the\\ Mexican\\ patrol\\.\\ This\\ war\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ Polk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expansionist\\ policy\\,\\ though\\ it\\ was\\ unpopular\\ in\\ the\\ North\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ ended\\ by\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Guadalupe\\ Hidalgo\\ in\\ 1848\\ when\\ Mexico\\ lost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Guadalupe\\ Hidalgo\\,\\ 1848\\&mdash\\;This\\ treaty\\ ended\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ in\\ 1848\\.\\ Mexico\\ lost\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ gave\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ control\\ of\\ Texas\\,\\ California\\,\\ and\\ other\\ lands\\ that\\ totaled\\ almost\\ half\\ of\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ territory\\ before\\ the\\ treaty\\.\\ In\\ return\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ paid\\ \\$18\\,250\\,000\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ Gadsden\\ Purchase\\,\\ 1853\\&mdash\\;The\\ Gadsden\\ Purchase\\ was\\ a\\ small\\ strip\\ of\\ land\\ in\\ current\\ Arizona\\ and\\ New\\ Mexico\\ purchased\\ by\\ the\\ US\\ from\\ Mexico\\ in\\ 1853\\.\\ The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ paid\\ \\$10\\ million\\ for\\ this\\ small\\ area\\ of\\ land\\ that\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ proposed\\ southern\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ route\\.\\ This\\ purchase\\ thus\\ also\\ played\\ into\\ sectional\\ disputes\\ over\\ the\\ route\\ that\\ a\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ should\\ take\\ and\\ over\\ slavery\\.\\ With\\ this\\ purchase\\ the\\ final\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ continental\\ U\\.S\\.\\ were\\ defined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ John\\ C\\.\\ Fr\\é\\;mont\\ \\(1813\\-1890\\)\\&mdash\\;John\\ C\\.\\ Fr\\é\\;mont\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Army\\ Corps\\ of\\ Topographical\\ Engineers\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1840s\\,\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ \\(1846\\-1848\\)\\,\\ and\\ ran\\ for\\ president\\ \\(1856\\)\\.\\ This\\ Army\\ Corps\\ of\\ Topographical\\ Engineers\\ was\\ a\\ military\\ arm\\ under\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ president\\,\\ but\\ most\\ were\\ trained\\ as\\ scientists\\.\\ Fremont\\,\\ with\\ this\\ corps\\ explored\\ and\\ mapped\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ Rockies\\ and\\ California\\,\\ and\\ the\\ information\\ he\\ brought\\ back\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ convince\\ Americans\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ worthwhile\\ acquisition\\.\\ This\\ was\\ how\\ he\\ earned\\ the\\ nickname\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ Pathfinder\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ his\\ service\\ with\\ the\\ Topographical\\ Engineers\\ shows\\ how\\ exploration\\ and\\ conquest\\ were\\ joined\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ mind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Surveys\\,\\ 1853\\-1855\\&mdash\\;These\\ surveys\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ attempt\\ to\\ resolve\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ where\\ the\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ should\\ go\\,\\ which\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ sectional\\ debate\\ between\\ North\\ and\\ South\\.\\ Though\\ some\\ topographical\\ engineers\\ went\\ on\\ these\\ surveys\\,\\ there\\ were\\ not\\ railroad\\ engineers\\ with\\ them\\.\\ These\\ surveys\\ tried\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ best\\ route\\ for\\ a\\ railroad\\ and\\ showed\\ how\\ people\\ were\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ scientific\\ answer\\ to\\ a\\ political\\ question\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ Overland\\ Trails\\&mdash\\;The\\ Overland\\ Trail\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ ways\\ to\\ travel\\ to\\ the\\ west\\.\\ Traveling\\ on\\ an\\ overland\\ trail\\ required\\ a\\ tight\\ schedule\\ and\\ leaving\\ at\\ a\\ specific\\ time\\ and\\ between\\ 1840\\ and\\ 1860\\,\\ 300\\,000\\ people\\ traveled\\ west\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ People\\ traveled\\ in\\ groups\\ or\\ wagon\\ trains\\ and\\ often\\ moved\\ west\\ in\\ family\\ units\\,\\ transporting\\ American\\ society\\ and\\ culture\\ with\\ them\\.\\ The\\ overland\\ trails\\ also\\ offered\\ economic\\ opportunities\\ to\\ many\\,\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ promoted\\ certain\\ trails\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ became\\ suppliers\\ or\\ ran\\ ferries\\,\\ though\\ these\\ trails\\ also\\ exacted\\ an\\ ecological\\ toll\\ on\\ the\\ land\\ they\\ passed\\ through\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\ The\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\&mdash\\;This\\ was\\ an\\ overland\\ trail\\ to\\ the\\ west\\ that\\ started\\ in\\ Independence\\,\\ Missouri\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ Oregon\\ that\\ was\\ most\\ used\\ between\\ 1840\\ and\\ 1869\\,\\ before\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ the\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\.\\ The\\ first\\ people\\ who\\ went\\ on\\ the\\ trail\\ were\\ missionaries\\,\\ the\\ Whitmans\\,\\ who\\ started\\ a\\ mission\\ to\\ convert\\ Indians\\ that\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ stopping\\ point\\ on\\ the\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\.\\ \\(more\\ general\\ information\\ about\\ Overland\\ Trails\\ could\\ be\\ filled\\ in\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.Brigham\\ Young\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brigham\\ Young\\ became\\ the\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Mormons\\ after\\ Joseph\\ Smith\\ was\\ assassinated\\ in\\ Illinois\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ led\\ them\\ west\\ to\\ Utah\\ where\\ he\\ founded\\ Salt\\ Lake\\ City\\ \\(1846\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ escapes\\ the\\ persecution\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ facing\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ Illinois\\.\\ \\ \\;Young\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ he\\ created\\ a\\ highly\\ organized\\ system\\ of\\ migration\\ that\\ was\\ efficient\\ but\\ strenuous\\ \\(handcart\\ co\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ his\\ decision\\ to\\ lead\\ the\\ Mormons\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ significant\\ because\\ at\\ that\\ time\\ Utah\\ was\\ technically\\ still\\ Mexican\\ territory\\,\\ and\\ this\\ in\\ turn\\ shows\\ that\\ Americans\\ truly\\ did\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\18\\.\\ California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\ \\(1849\\)\\ was\\ the\\ pinnacle\\ of\\ the\\ placer\\ miner\\ movement\\ to\\ California\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ remembered\\ for\\ its\\ excessive\\ optimism\\,\\ embellished\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ the\\ influx\\ of\\ single\\ males\\ that\\ it\\ brought\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ coast\\.\\ \\ \\;Work\\ was\\ very\\ hard\\ for\\ the\\ miners\\ who\\ rarely\\ struck\\ it\\ rich\\ on\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ vast\\ lands\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ trying\\ to\\ plunder\\.\\ \\ \\;Still\\,\\ the\\ opportunity\\ of\\ striking\\ it\\ rich\\ led\\ thousands\\ to\\ migrate\\ westward\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ general\\,\\ the\\ Gold\\ Rush\\ of\\ 1849\\ played\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ of\\ California\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\19\\.\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1862\\,\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\,\\ under\\ the\\ leadership\\ of\\ Abe\\ Lincoln\\,\\ funded\\ and\\ supported\\ the\\ building\\ of\\ a\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroad\\ across\\ the\\ northern\\ plains\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ government\\ signed\\ contracts\\ with\\ the\\ Union\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ and\\ the\\ Central\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ companies\\ for\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ railroad\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ gave\\ these\\ companies\\ the\\ land\\ for\\ the\\ tracks\\ and\\ money\\ for\\ their\\ efforts\\ \\(earned\\ \\$16k\\ mile\\ \\(flat\\)\\,\\ \\$48k\\ \\(mountain\\)\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ involvement\\ with\\ trying\\ to\\ encourage\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ out\\ west\\ and\\ with\\ trying\\ to\\ make\\ transportation\\ of\\ goods\\ to\\ the\\ East\\ easier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\20\\.\\ First\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroad\\,\\ 1863\\-1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Union\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ and\\ the\\ Central\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ literally\\ raced\\ each\\ other\\ to\\ complete\\ this\\ railroad\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ they\\ got\\ paid\\ by\\ the\\ mile\\ by\\ the\\ government\\,\\ the\\ tracks\\ were\\ built\\ cheaply\\ and\\ sloppily\\ and\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ replaced\\ shortly\\ after\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ the\\ road\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ met\\ in\\ Promontory\\ Point\\,\\ UT\\ in\\ 1869\\&mdash\\;the\\ reason\\ why\\ it\\ took\\ so\\ long\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ companies\\ encountered\\ problems\\ with\\ Indians\\,\\ Sierra\\ Nevada\\ Mountains\\,\\ labor\\ \\(12k\\ died\\,\\ including\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ foreign\\ laborers\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ railroad\\,\\ however\\,\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ great\\ accomplishment\\ because\\ it\\ connected\\ the\\ East\\ to\\ the\\ West\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ it\\ signifies\\ an\\ open\\ gateway\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\21\\.\\ Homestead\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ was\\ a\\ plan\\ that\\ promoted\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ that\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ had\\ envisioned\\ for\\ Americans\\&mdash\\;small\\ farmers\\ living\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ accords\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ plan\\ stipulated\\ that\\ Americans\\ could\\ move\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ get\\ 160acres\\ of\\ land\\ either\\ for\\ free\\ by\\ living\\ on\\ it\\ for\\ five\\ years\\ or\\ by\\ paying\\ \\$1\\ an\\ acre\\ and\\ living\\ on\\ it\\ for\\ six\\ months\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Act\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ convinced\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ try\\ their\\ luck\\ at\\ farming\\;\\ however\\,\\ it\\ only\\ worked\\ well\\ in\\ agriculturally\\ sound\\ places\\ where\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ rainfall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\22\\.\\ Reservation\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ the\\ latter\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ reservation\\ system\\ which\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\land\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ was\\ managed\\ by\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Native\\ American\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\tribe\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;under\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ Department\\ of\\ the\\ Interior\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bureau\\ of\\ Indian\\ Affairs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ reservations\\ were\\ originally\\ set\\ up\\ like\\ concentration\\ camps\\ in\\ 1869\\,\\ but\\ later\\ changed\\ into\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ today\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;They\\ have\\ limited\\ national\\ sovereignty\\ because\\ the\\ lands\\ are\\ federally\\ owned\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ highlight\\ how\\ hard\\ it\\ was\\ for\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ Indian\\ \\&ldquo\\;problem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ reservations\\ were\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ a\\ perfect\\ solution\\ on\\ account\\ of\\ there\\ were\\ factional\\ struggles\\ over\\ land\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ central\\ leadership\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ intertribal\\ conflict\\ within\\ the\\ reservations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\23\\.\\ Frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ frontier\\ according\\ to\\ Fredrick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\ in\\ 1890\\ was\\ an\\ area\\ that\\ had\\ no\\ fewer\\ than\\ two\\ people\\ per\\ square\\ mile\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ 1890\\,\\ the\\ frontier\\ that\\ the\\ West\\ was\\ rapidly\\ closing\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ large\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ lands\\ had\\ been\\ surveyed\\ and\\ settled\\ on\\,\\ and\\ people\\ were\\ populating\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ remote\\ of\\ places\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ political\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ frontier\\ represents\\ the\\ independence\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ American\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ today\\,\\ we\\ are\\ still\\ chasing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;frontier\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ places\\ like\\ space\\&mdash\\;we\\ are\\ continually\\ striving\\ to\\ go\\ farther\\ and\\ become\\ greater\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ we\\ used\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ West\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ until\\ the\\ 1980s\\ when\\ historians\\ started\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ paradigm\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ regional\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ Fredrick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fredrick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\ was\\ a\\ scholar\\ and\\ historian\\ from\\ Wisconsin\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ paper\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Significance\\ of\\ the\\ Frontier\\ in\\ American\\ History\\&rdquo\\;\\ coincided\\ with\\ the\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Exposition\\ in\\ 1893\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ paper\\ he\\ used\\ the\\ US\\ census\\ of\\ 1890\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ claimed\\ that\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ free\\ land\\ secured\\ the\\ progress\\ and\\ maintained\\ the\\ Jeffersonian\\ ideal\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ within\\ the\\ paper\\,\\ he\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ frontier\\ is\\ closing\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ in\\ trouble\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ more\\ areas\\ to\\ explore\\ and\\ expand\\ into\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Terms\\ 25\\-32\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\.\\ Open\\ Range\\ Ranching\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ type\\ of\\ cattle\\ ranching\\ that\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ Great\\ Plains\\ region\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ after\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ most\\ Native\\ Americans\\ and\\ bison\\,\\ and\\ before\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ homesteaders\\.\\ These\\ \\&ldquo\\;open\\ ranges\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ public\\ tracts\\ of\\ land\\ where\\ anybody\\ could\\ turn\\ their\\ cattle\\ loose\\ for\\ grazing\\.\\ Towards\\ the\\ late\\ nineteenth\\-century\\ the\\ fencing\\ off\\ of\\ privately\\-owned\\ lands\\ and\\ increase\\ in\\ arable\\ farming\\ limited\\ open\\ range\\ ranching\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\.\\ Occupational\\ Segregation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Late\\ nineteenth\\/early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ practice\\ of\\ separation\\ based\\ on\\ race\\ in\\ the\\ wage\\-earning\\ workforce\\ of\\ the\\ West\\.\\ Created\\ racial\\ divides\\ and\\ prohibited\\ certain\\ races\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ blacks\\,\\ Chinese\\)\\ from\\ advancing\\ in\\ their\\ industry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\.\\ Dual\\ Wage\\ System\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Related\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Occupational\\ Segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(see\\ above\\)\\.\\ Late\\ nineteenth\\/early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ practice\\ of\\ paying\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ races\\ different\\ amounts\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ job\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ this\\ focuses\\ on\\ whites\\ receiving\\ more\\ pay\\ than\\ minorities\\ for\\ similar\\ jobs\\,\\ it\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ the\\ early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ Dual\\ Wage\\ System\\ that\\ women\\ experienced\\ in\\ the\\ workforce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\36\\.\\ Anti\\-coolie\\ Clubs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Thousands\\ of\\ Chinese\\ came\\ to\\ California\\ during\\ the\\ 1860\\&\\#39\\;s\\ and\\ 70\\&\\#39\\;s\\ to\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ railroads\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ tracks\\ were\\ laid\\,\\ they\\ stayed\\ on\\ in\\ timbering\\,\\ farming\\,\\ cigar\\-making\\ and\\ household\\ jobs\\.\\ While\\ times\\ were\\ good\\,\\ white\\ Californians\\ co\\-existed\\ amiably\\ enough\\ with\\ Asian\\ immigrants\\,\\ but\\ the\\ late\\ 1870\\&\\#39\\;s\\ and\\ 80\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brought\\ an\\ economic\\ downturn\\.\\ White\\ immigrants\\,\\ most\\ of\\ them\\ recent\\ arrivals\\ in\\ California\\ themselves\\,\\ blamed\\ the\\ Chinese\\ for\\ their\\ labor\\ woes\\.\\ Anti\\-Chinese\\ clubs\\ began\\ forming\\ in\\ 1878\\.\\ By\\ 1885\\,\\ disgruntled\\ white\\ workers\\ clamored\\ for\\ the\\ expulsion\\ of\\ California\\&\\#39\\;s\\ quarter\\ million\\ Chinese\\,\\ and\\ politicians\\ seized\\ on\\ the\\ discontent\\ as\\ a\\ hot\\ issue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\37\\.\\ Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\,\\ 1882\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ act\\ excluded\\ all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Chinese\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\laborers\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ 10\\ years\\.\\ Amendments\\ made\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1884\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tightened\\ the\\ provisions\\ that\\ allowed\\ previous\\ immigrants\\ to\\ leave\\ and\\ return\\,\\ and\\ clarified\\ that\\ the\\ law\\ applied\\ to\\ ethnic\\ Chinese\\ regardless\\ of\\ their\\ country\\ of\\ origin\\.\\ The\\ act\\ was\\ passed\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ Chinese\\ who\\ had\\ immigrated\\ to\\ the\\ Western\\ United\\ States\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ unsettled\\ conditions\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\China\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ jobs\\ working\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\railroads\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\immigration\\ law\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;passed\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ targeted\\ at\\ a\\ specific\\ ethnic\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\38\\.\\ Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\ \\(WFM\\)\\ was\\ a\\ radical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\labor\\ union\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ gained\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ militancy\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\mine\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fields\\ of\\ the\\ western\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ founded\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\.\\ Its\\ efforts\\ to\\ organize\\ both\\ hard\\ rock\\ miners\\ and\\ smelter\\ workers\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Rocky\\ Mountains\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;states\\ brought\\ it\\ into\\ sharp\\ conflicts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ often\\ pitched\\ battles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ with\\ both\\ employers\\ and\\ governmental\\ authorities\\.\\ It\\ also\\ played\\ a\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Industrial\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ 1905\\,\\ but\\ left\\ the\\ group\\ several\\ years\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\39\\.\\ International\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ IWW\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Chicago\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ June\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1905\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ a\\ convention\\ of\\ two\\ hundred\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\socialists\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\anarchists\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ radical\\ trade\\ unionists\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ \\(mainly\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ who\\ were\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ policies\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\American\\ Federation\\ of\\ Labor\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Its\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ promote\\ worker\\ solidarity\\ against\\ the\\ employing\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\.\\ Henrey\\ E\\.\\ Huntington\\ \\&\\;\\ PER\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\ cars\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Shaper\\ of\\ economic\\ life\\ in\\ Southern\\ California\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ decades\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ He\\ was\\ especially\\ interested\\ in\\ Southern\\ California\\ as\\ a\\ territory\\ for\\ railway\\ expansion\\.\\ In\\ 1898\\,\\ he\\ formed\\ a\\ syndicate\\ to\\ buy\\ and\\ reorganize\\ the\\ street\\ railway\\ system\\ of\\ Los\\ Angeles\\.\\ On\\ July\\ 4\\,\\ 1902\\,\\ a\\ crowd\\ of\\ 30\\,000\\ watched\\ a\\ \\"\\;Big\\ Red\\ Car\\"\\;\\ of\\ Huntington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Pacific\\ Electric\\ Railway\\ complete\\ the\\ interurban\\ line\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ scheduled\\ run\\ to\\ Long\\ Beach\\.\\ Within\\ a\\ few\\ years\\,\\ Pacific\\ Electric\\ was\\ operating\\ the\\ most\\ extensive\\ inter\\-urban\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ linking\\ hundreds\\ of\\ Southern\\ California\\ towns\\ with\\ more\\ than\\ 900\\ red\\ cars\\ on\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\,100\\ miles\\ of\\ track\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\41\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\,\\ 1902\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ first\\ legislative\\ recognition\\ that\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ had\\ the\\ responsibility\\ and\\ power\\ to\\ institutionally\\ deal\\ with\\ Western\\ aridity\\,\\ and\\ that\\ individual\\ farmers\\ cannot\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\ alone\\.\\ This\\ act\\ gives\\ the\\ Fed\\ government\\ primary\\ responsibility\\ for\\ dam\\ and\\ irrigation\\ projects\\ and\\ creates\\ the\\ Bureau\\ of\\ Reclamation\\.\\ Extremely\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ sets\\ off\\ the\\ trend\\ of\\ a\\)\\ major\\ Federal\\ involvement\\ in\\ irrigation\\ and\\ dam\\ building\\ and\\ b\\)\\ powerful\\ agrobusinesses\\ dominating\\ western\\ agriculture\\ \\(although\\ it\\ theoretically\\ mandated\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ receiving\\ water\\ from\\ federal\\ irrigation\\ projects\\ own\\ more\\ than\\ 160\\ acres\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reclamation\\ Service\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ aka\\ the\\ Bureau\\ of\\ Reclamation\\ created\\ under\\ the\\ Newlands\\ Act\\ of\\ 1902\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ significant\\ for\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ reasons\\.\\ Also\\ brought\\ new\\ Progressive\\ Era\\ techniques\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\ and\\ scientific\\ management\\,\\ and\\ was\\ highly\\ utilitarian\\,\\ though\\ also\\ subject\\ to\\ political\\ pressures\\.\\ By\\ 1906\\,\\ almost\\ every\\ Western\\ state\\ had\\ some\\ federal\\ water\\ project\\ in\\ progress\\.\\ This\\ service\\ basically\\ ends\\ up\\ subsidizing\\ huge\\ agrobusinesses\\ in\\ the\\ West\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ places\\ like\\ the\\ Imperial\\ Valley\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\43\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Repatriation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[Louis\\ said\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ on\\ the\\ final\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\44\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Dust\\ Bowl\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ term\\ used\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ a\\ phenomenon\\ affecting\\ the\\ Southern\\ Plains\\ \\(parts\\ of\\ Kansas\\,\\ Oklahoma\\,\\ Texas\\,\\ New\\ Mexico\\,\\ Nevada\\)\\ during\\ the\\ Depression\\.\\ Non\\-sustainable\\ agricultural\\ practices\\ and\\ years\\ of\\ drought\\ produced\\ an\\ extremely\\ dry\\ and\\ arid\\ climate\\ often\\ afflicted\\ by\\ huge\\ dust\\ storms\\ which\\ made\\ farming\\ and\\ inhabiting\\ these\\ areas\\ difficult\\.\\ The\\ phenomenon\\ is\\ described\\ in\\ John\\ Steinbeck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ responsible\\ for\\ driving\\ the\\ migration\\ of\\ poor\\ farmers\\ from\\ the\\ Midwest\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ during\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\45\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Okies\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ derogatory\\ term\\ for\\ the\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ dust\\ bowl\\ and\\ plains\\ who\\ moved\\ west\\ during\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ dust\\ bowl\\ was\\ hit\\ incredibly\\ hard\\ by\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ ecology\\ \\(people\\ had\\ combined\\ effects\\ of\\ Depression\\,\\ chronic\\ poverty\\,\\ drought\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ so\\ people\\ first\\ moved\\ in\\ droves\\ to\\ California\\.\\ They\\ quickly\\ came\\ under\\ attack\\ by\\ Californians\\ as\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ cutting\\ into\\ work\\ and\\ relief\\ supplies\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ were\\ incredibly\\ stigmatized\\.\\ When\\ they\\ came\\ into\\ California\\,\\ they\\ lose\\ their\\ whiteness\\,\\ and\\ are\\ stereotyped\\ with\\ the\\ characteristics\\ usually\\ used\\ in\\ stereotypes\\ for\\ Hispanics\\ or\\ other\\ minority\\ groups\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ known\\ as\\ lazy\\,\\ lacking\\ in\\ restraint\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ distanced\\ from\\ the\\ term\\ \\"\\;okie\\"\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ major\\ impact\\ the\\ Depression\\ had\\ on\\ the\\ west\\ even\\ indirectly\\,\\ but\\ also\\ of\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ Western\\ identity\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\ impacted\\ by\\ major\\ events\\ and\\ regional\\ conceptions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\46\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;John\\ Steinbeck\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Author\\ who\\ wrote\\ novels\\ about\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ in\\ books\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Showed\\ people\\ moving\\ from\\ the\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ as\\ deserving\\ of\\ sympathy\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ their\\ difficult\\ situation\\ and\\ their\\ whiteness\\.\\ People\\ like\\ Steinbeck\\ combated\\ the\\ vision\\ of\\ Okies\\ as\\ non\\-white\\ people\\ who\\ Californians\\ and\\ others\\ saw\\ as\\ a\\ nuisance\\ to\\ be\\ rid\\ of\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\47\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dorothea\\ Lange\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Photographer\\ who\\ took\\ incredibly\\ famous\\ pictures\\ during\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;Migrant\\ Mother\\"\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Her\\ pictures\\ were\\ incredibly\\ evocative\\ and\\ emotional\\ and\\ garnered\\ sympathy\\,\\ much\\ like\\ Steinbeck\\,\\ for\\ people\\ hit\\ particularly\\ hard\\ by\\ the\\ Depression\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ white\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ were\\ experiencing\\ hard\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ creation\\ of\\ sympathy\\ in\\ Lange\\&\\#39\\;s\\ pictures\\ was\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ whiteness\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\ shows\\ construction\\ of\\ identity\\ in\\ the\\ West\\,\\ the\\ way\\ racial\\ identity\\ affects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\perception\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\48\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Federal\\ Emergency\\ Relief\\ Administration\\ \\(FERA\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ federal\\ agency\\ principally\\ responsible\\ for\\ FDR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ programs\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 100\\ days\\ of\\ depression\\ relief\\.\\ Headed\\ by\\ Harry\\ Hopkins\\,\\ this\\ agency\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ direct\\ relief\\ such\\ as\\ clothing\\ and\\ food\\ distribution\\.\\ Congress\\ allocated\\ \\$500mm\\ to\\ fund\\ this\\,\\ and\\ states\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ match\\ relief\\ funding\\,\\ but\\ most\\ \\(especially\\ in\\ the\\ west\\)\\ simply\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ paying\\ for\\ nearly\\ all\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Between\\ 1933\\ and\\ 1939\\,\\ the\\ west\\ received\\ the\\ most\\ per\\ capita\\ relief\\ out\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regions\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ relief\\ was\\ often\\ distributed\\ according\\ to\\ racial\\ hierarchies\\,\\ further\\ perpetuating\\ racial\\ divisions\\ in\\ the\\ west\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\49\\.\\ Agricultural\\ Adjustment\\ Administration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;New\\ Deal\\ program\\.\\ Its\\ purpose\\ was\\ to\\ help\\ farmers\\ by\\ reducing\\ production\\ of\\ staple\\ crops\\,\\ thus\\ raising\\ farm\\ prices\\ and\\ encouraging\\ more\\ diversified\\ farming\\.\\ Farmers\\ were\\ given\\ benefit\\ payments\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ limiting\\ acreage\\ given\\ to\\ staple\\ crops\\;\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ cotton\\ and\\ tobacco\\ coercive\\ taxes\\ forced\\ \\(1934\\-35\\)\\ farmers\\ to\\ cut\\ the\\ amounts\\ that\\ they\\ marketed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\50\\.\\ Civilian\\ Conservation\\ Corps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;New\\ Deal\\ program\\.\\ The\\ CCC\\ provided\\ work\\ and\\ vocational\\ training\\ for\\ unemployed\\ single\\ young\\ men\\ through\\ conserving\\ and\\ developing\\ the\\ country\\&\\#39\\;s\\ natural\\ resources\\.\\ At\\ its\\ peak\\ in\\ 1935\\,\\ the\\ organization\\ had\\ more\\ than\\ 500\\,000\\ members\\ in\\ over\\ 2\\,600\\ camps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\51\\.\\ Boulder\\ Dam\\ aka\\ Hoover\\ Dam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ dam\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ supplier\\ of\\ hydroelectric\\ power\\ and\\ provides\\ for\\ flood\\ control\\,\\ river\\ regulation\\,\\ and\\ improved\\ navigation\\.\\ Hoover\\ Dam\\ impounds\\ Lake\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mead\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ the\\ largest\\ reservoir\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\;\\ water\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ irrigate\\ more\\ than\\ 650\\,000\\ acres\\ \\(263\\,000\\ hectares\\)\\ in\\ S\\ California\\ and\\ Arizona\\,\\ and\\ c\\.400\\,000\\ acres\\ \\(162\\,000\\ hectares\\)\\ in\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\52\\.\\ Grand\\ Coulee\\ Dam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ dam\\ was\\ built\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Columbia\\ Basin\\ Project\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\irrigation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\desert\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;areas\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Northwest\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ not\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ for\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\electricity\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ primary\\ goal\\ of\\ irrigation\\ was\\ forgotten\\ as\\ the\\ war\\ time\\ need\\ for\\ electricity\\ increased\\.\\ The\\ dam\\ was\\ instrumental\\ in\\ the\\ industrial\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Northwest\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\53\\.\\ Indian\\ Reorganization\\ Act\\ 1934\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Its\\ main\\ provisions\\ were\\ to\\ restore\\ to\\ Native\\ Americans\\ management\\ of\\ their\\ assets\\ \\(mostly\\ land\\)\\;\\ to\\ prevent\\ further\\ depletion\\ of\\ reservation\\ resources\\;\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ sound\\ economic\\ foundation\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ reservations\\;\\ and\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ local\\ self\\-government\\ on\\ a\\ tribal\\ basis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\54\\.\\ Attack\\ on\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\ Dec\\ 7\\,\\ 1941\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;On\\ Dec\\.\\ 7\\,\\ 1941\\,\\ while\\ negotiations\\ were\\ going\\ on\\ with\\ Japanese\\ representatives\\ in\\ Washington\\,\\ Japanese\\ carrier\\-based\\ planes\\ swept\\ in\\ without\\ warning\\ over\\ Oahu\\ and\\ attacked\\ \\(7\\:55\\ descr\\=\\&\\#39\\;\\[AM\\]\\&\\#39\\;\\ local\\ time\\)\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Pacific\\ fleet\\,\\ moored\\ in\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\55\\.\\ Los\\ Alamos\\,\\ New\\ Mexico\\ \\ \\;\\?\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Los\\ Alamos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ unincorporated\\ townsite\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Alamos\\ County\\,\\ New\\ Mexico\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ As\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\2000\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;census\\,\\ the\\ townsite\\ had\\ a\\ total\\ population\\ of\\ 11\\,909\\.\\ It\\ is\\ home\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Alamos\\ National\\ Laboratory\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ was\\ founded\\ to\\ undertake\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Manhattan\\ Project\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\56\\.\\ Hanford\\,\\ Washington\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;It\\ was\\ evacuated\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1943\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;along\\ with\\ the\\ town\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\White\\ Bluffs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ room\\ for\\ the\\ nuclear\\ production\\ facility\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hanford\\ Site\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ n\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1913\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ town\\ had\\ a\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\ link\\ on\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Chicago\\,\\ Milwaukee\\ and\\ St\\.\\ Paul\\ Railroad\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\57\\.\\ Henry\\ J\\.\\ Kaiser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Henry\\ Kaiser\\ spent\\ much\\ of\\ his\\ later\\ years\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Honolulu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ developed\\ an\\ obsession\\ with\\ perfecting\\ its\\ urban\\ landscape\\.\\ He\\ founded\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Kaiser\\ Hawaiian\\ Village\\ Hotel\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ now\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ Hilton\\ resorts\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Elsewhere\\,\\ Kaiser\\ built\\ civic\\ centers\\,\\ roads\\,\\ schools\\.\\ He\\ is\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ constructing\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hoover\\ Dam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Grand\\ Coulee\\ Dam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\58\\.\\ Emergency\\ Farm\\ Labor\\ Program\\ aka\\ Bracero\\ Program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bracero\\ Program\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ joint\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\labor\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;program\\ initiated\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\August\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1942\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Federal\\ Government\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mexican\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Federal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Government\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ program\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ bring\\ skilled\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mexican\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\agricultural\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;laborers\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ fill\\ gaps\\ in\\ the\\ agriculture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\labor\\ market\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\59\\.\\ Sleepy\\ Lagoon\\ 1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sleepy\\ Lagoon\\ Murder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1942\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ California\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;criminal\\ trial\\ of\\ 22\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Mexican\\-American\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;young\\ men\\;\\ the\\ convictions\\ were\\ reversed\\ on\\ appeal\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1944\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ case\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ precursor\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Zoot\\ Suit\\ Riots\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1943\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ case\\ arose\\ from\\ the\\ homicide\\ of\\ Jose\\ Diaz\\,\\ whose\\ body\\ was\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ Sleepy\\ Lagoon\\ reservoir\\ in\\ southeast\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ California\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\August\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1942\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Racial\\ prejudice\\ and\\ press\\ hysteria\\,\\ primarily\\ in\\ the\\ Herald\\-Express\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ Times\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ arrest\\ of\\ 600\\ Mexican\\-American\\ youths\\ in\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ murder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Zoot\\ Suit\\ Riots\\,\\ 1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Central\\ to\\ racial\\ anxieties\\ of\\ early\\ Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ when\\ Mexican\\ laborers\\ clashed\\ with\\ white\\ military\\ personnel\\ in\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mexicans\\ easily\\ identifiable\\ by\\ their\\ zoot\\ suits\\,\\ which\\ were\\ baggy\\ suits\\ that\\ were\\ popular\\ among\\ Mexicans\\ and\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dozens\\ battled\\ on\\ the\\ streets\\;\\ some\\ arrested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Military\\ personnel\\ temporarily\\ banned\\ from\\ L\\.A\\.\\ city\\ limits\\ soon\\ after\\ riots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Japanese\\ Internment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\World\\ War\\ II\\-era\\ forcible\\ relocation\\ of\\ approx\\.\\ 112\\,000\\-120\\,000\\ Japanese\\ Americans\\,\\ 62\\ percent\\ of\\ whom\\ were\\ second\\-generation\\,\\ American\\-born\\ citizens\\ \\(Nisei\\)\\,\\ from\\ the\\ west\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hundreds\\ of\\ acres\\ of\\ property\\ held\\ by\\ Japanese\\ Americans\\ fell\\ into\\ disrepair\\,\\ was\\ sold\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\losses\\ in\\ the\\ approx\\.\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ for\\ victims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ reparations\\ paid\\ in\\ 1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ government\\ officially\\ apologized\\ for\\ internment\\ in\\ 1988\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Executive\\ Order\\ 9066\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Order\\ made\\ by\\ FDR\\ in\\ 1942\\,\\ which\\ declared\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ areas\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ which\\ any\\ or\\ all\\ persons\\ may\\ be\\ excluded\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Authorized\\ internment\\ of\\ Japanese\\ Nisei\\ and\\ Issei\\ \\(Japanese\\ citizens\\ living\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ Interstate\\ and\\ Defense\\ Highway\\ Act\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Largest\\ public\\ works\\ project\\ in\\ American\\ history\\ to\\ that\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\allowed\\ for\\ construction\\ of\\ more\\ than\\ 40\\,000\\ miles\\ of\\ interstate\\ highways\\ from\\ \\$25\\ billion\\ in\\ govt\\.\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Purportedly\\ seen\\ by\\ Eisenhower\\ as\\ an\\ expedient\\ measure\\ for\\ national\\ defense\\,\\ if\\ invaded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nevada\\ Test\\ Site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ \\&ldquo\\;Clan\\ of\\ the\\ One\\ Breasted\\ Women\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disneyland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ Findlay\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Disneyland\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sunbelt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Extraordinary\\ growth\\ helped\\ by\\ two\\ trends\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Federal\\ investment\\ in\\ military\\ industrial\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technological\\ advancements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Communication\\ \\(long\\-distance\\ telephones\\,\\ airlines\\,\\ computers\\)\\ allowed\\ corporations\\ to\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Air\\-conditioning\\ \\(1906\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suburbia\\ \\(sprawl\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Financing\\ provided\\ by\\ New\\ Deal\\ housing\\ programs\\ \\(HOLC\\,\\ FHA\\)\\,\\ the\\ VA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\67\\.\\ Suburbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ transportation\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\"\\;red\\ cars\\,\\"\\;\\ automobiles\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ helped\\ a\\ suburban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\explosion\\.\\ People\\ found\\ the\\ land\\ prices\\ cheaper\\,\\ their\\ houses\\ more\\ unique\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ a\\ quieter\\ living\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ suburbs\\.\\ They\\ are\\ important\\ to\\ western\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\history\\ because\\ we\\ see\\ women\\ changing\\ as\\ suburbs\\ are\\ begun\\.\\ Women\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ being\\ the\\ house\\ maker\\ and\\ doing\\ everything\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ husband\\ happy\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\being\\ dissatisfied\\ with\\ their\\ being\\ confined\\ at\\ home\\.\\ Also\\ see\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\ to\\ make\\ things\\ easier\\ at\\ home\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ dishwashers\\,\\ washing\\ machines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ dryers\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ Also\\ see\\ discontent\\ in\\ the\\ racial\\ segregation\\ as\\ well\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ discontent\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;elusive\\"\\;\\ middle\\ class\\;\\ both\\ fight\\ for\\ their\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\68\\.\\ Federal\\ Housing\\ Administration\\ \\(FHA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Began\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\ in\\ 1934\\.\\ Changed\\ mortgage\\ rates\\ and\\ FHA\\ loans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ people\\ so\\ instead\\ of\\ having\\ to\\ pay\\ a\\ house\\ off\\ in\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ they\\ would\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\have\\ 30\\ years\\ to\\ pay\\ off\\ the\\ loan\\.\\ Important\\ to\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\well\\ as\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ suburbs\\ because\\ it\\ made\\ it\\ more\\ affordable\\ for\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\middle\\ class\\ to\\ afford\\ houses\\ in\\ the\\ suburbs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\69\\.\\ Lakewood\\ Company\\ \\(1950\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ company\\ to\\ build\\ post\\-war\\ suburbs\\.\\ Significance\\ to\\ western\\ history\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ company\\ to\\ build\\ homes\\ on\\ a\\ grid\\.\\ Also\\,\\ built\\ homes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\ an\\ assembly\\ line\\ type\\ model\\ which\\ made\\ it\\ less\\ expensive\\ for\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\homebuyers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\70\\.\\ Stamford\\ Industrial\\ Park\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1950\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Land\\ was\\ leased\\ by\\ Stamford\\ to\\ business\\ on\\ Stamford\\&\\#39\\;s\\ excess\\ land\\ to\\ help\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\finance\\ their\\ postwar\\ growth\\.\\ Significance\\:\\ Changed\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\centers\\ from\\ a\\ boring\\,\\ drab\\ look\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ university\\ type\\ atmosphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(i\\.e\\.\\ more\\ trees\\,\\ greener\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ land\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\71\\.\\ Watts\\ Riots\\ \\(1965\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Began\\ as\\ a\\ scuffle\\ between\\ a\\ police\\ officer\\ and\\ three\\ family\\ members\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arrested\\ after\\ being\\ pulled\\ over\\.\\ The\\ riot\\ began\\ shortly\\ after\\ and\\ lasted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ 6\\ days\\.\\ This\\ pattern\\ of\\ rioting\\ happened\\ elsewhere\\ which\\ could\\ be\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\important\\ significance\\.\\ Also\\,\\ this\\ helped\\ stir\\ up\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\as\\ well\\ as\\ fighting\\ for\\ better\\ opportunities\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\west\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\72\\.\\ Sagebrush\\ Rebellion\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1970\\&\\#39\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sagebrush\\ rebels\\ \\(ranchers\\ and\\ farmers\\)\\ wanted\\ more\\ accessibility\\ to\\ Federal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lands\\ in\\ their\\ states\\.\\ Senators\\ wanted\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lands\\ over\\ to\\ their\\ respective\\ state\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ then\\ turn\\ it\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ private\\ development\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\ since\\ the\\ land\\ is\\ just\\ sitting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\there\\ not\\ being\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ Federal\\ Government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\73\\.\\ Chicano\\ Movement\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1960\\&\\#39\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\.\\ There\\ demands\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wants\\ included\\ restoration\\ of\\ land\\ grants\\,\\ farm\\ workers\\ rights\\,\\ \\ \\;enhanced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\education\\,\\ and\\ voting\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\74\\.\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\ \\(1966\\ governor\\ of\\ Cali\\.\\ and\\ 1980\\ president\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ his\\ governorship\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ key\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ right\\.\\ Strongly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\against\\ communism\\.\\ During\\ his\\ presidency\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ attack\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\ from\\ the\\ inside\\;\\ attacked\\ the\\ government\\ for\\ deficit\\ spending\\.\\ He\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\builds\\ a\\ bigger\\,\\ stronger\\ military\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\75\\.\\ Immigration\\ Act\\ of\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyndon\\ Johnson\\ enacted\\ this\\ legislation\\ which\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ national\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\based\\ on\\ national\\ origin\\.\\ Now\\ the\\ main\\ quota\\ bias\\ was\\ the\\ occupation\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\applicant\\.\\ Set\\ up\\ border\\ patrol\\.\\ Doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ quotas\\ just\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\them\\.\\ Sets\\ up\\ special\\ category\\ for\\ family\\ members\\ and\\ citizens\\ already\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ set\\ up\\ preferences\\ for\\ professionals\\ and\\ refugees\\.\\ This\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\immigration\\ act\\ increased\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ immigrants\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Images\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Image\\ \\#1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;American\\ Progress\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(John\\ Gast\\,\\ 1872\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ image\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ rapid\\ emigration\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ frontier\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ floating\\ lady\\ signifies\\ the\\ national\\ enlightenment\\ and\\ underlines\\ US\\&rsquo\\;s\\ convictions\\ of\\ Manifest\\ destiny\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ suggests\\,\\ with\\ the\\ telegraph\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ binding\\ of\\ the\\ east\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ west\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ John\\ Gast\\&\\#39\\;s\\ portrayal\\ of\\ America\\&\\#39\\;s\\ westward\\ movement\\,\\ bison\\ herds\\ and\\ Indians\\ retreat\\ as\\ a\\ radiant\\ manifest\\ destiny\\,\\ donning\\ a\\ Star\\ of\\ Empire\\,\\ leads\\ homesteaders\\ and\\ other\\ settlers\\,\\ wagons\\,\\ and\\ railroads\\ across\\ the\\ great\\ plains\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ image\\ reveals\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confidence\\ that\\ the\\ frontier\\ will\\ bring\\ progress\\ and\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ burgeoning\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Miners\\ in\\ the\\ Sierras\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Charles\\ Christian\\ Nahl\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1851\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ painting\\ shows\\ one\\ method\\ of\\ placer\\ mining\\ in\\ which\\ buckets\\ of\\ dirt\\ and\\ water\\ from\\ the\\ river\\ could\\ be\\ poured\\ down\\ the\\ ramp\\ and\\ the\\ gold\\ would\\ settle\\ out\\.\\ This\\ was\\ more\\ efficient\\ than\\ panning\\ for\\ gold\\,\\ but\\ it\\ required\\ cooperation\\ to\\ work\\ the\\ machinery\\.\\ This\\ painting\\ shows\\ how\\ miners\\ had\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ groups\\,\\ which\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ communities\\ that\\ formed\\ during\\ the\\ Gold\\ Rush\\.\\ This\\ also\\ shows\\ the\\ tradeoff\\ that\\ occurred\\ when\\ more\\ efficient\\ means\\ of\\ mining\\ required\\ more\\ labor\\ and\\ more\\ capital\\ to\\ run\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ industrialization\\ of\\ mining\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anti\\-Chinese\\ Cartoon\\,\\ c\\.1870s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ cartoon\\ shows\\ the\\ anti\\-Chinese\\ sentiment\\ that\\ ran\\ throughout\\ the\\ West\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ and\\ helped\\ to\\ create\\ groups\\ like\\ Anti\\-coolie\\ clubs\\.\\ \\ \\;Chinese\\ people\\ often\\ owned\\ outfitting\\ stores\\ in\\ small\\ mining\\ towns\\ across\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ earned\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ from\\ these\\ places\\,\\ and\\ accordingly\\,\\ miners\\ who\\ were\\ toiling\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ mines\\ became\\ jealous\\ of\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;easy\\&rdquo\\;\\ fortune\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ picture\\,\\ on\\ a\\ larger\\ scale\\,\\ represents\\ the\\ overall\\ animosity\\ that\\ Americans\\ had\\ toward\\ the\\ Chinese\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ different\\ race\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ they\\ were\\ becoming\\ wealthy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ animosity\\ factored\\ into\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ the\\ Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\ in\\ 1882\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Image\\ \\#5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Three\\ Lakota\\ Boys\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ their\\ arrival\\ at\\ Carlisle\\ Indian\\ School\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ c\\.1880\\-1900\\.\\ Illustrates\\ American\\ attempts\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anglicize\\&rdquo\\;\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ stripping\\ away\\ of\\ their\\ identities\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ made\\ to\\ dress\\,\\ act\\,\\ and\\ speak\\ in\\ Anglo\\ customs\\.\\ Often\\ times\\ Native\\ American\\ children\\ were\\ essentially\\ kidnapped\\ from\\ their\\ homes\\ and\\ brought\\ to\\ special\\ boarding\\ schools\\ out\\ east\\,\\ like\\ Carlisle\\ Indian\\ School\\,\\ where\\ many\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ treated\\ harshly\\ and\\ died\\,\\ or\\ were\\ forever\\ displaced\\ from\\ their\\ families\\ and\\ ways\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Advertisement\\ for\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Wild\\ West\\ c\\.1890\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sign\\ for\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Wild\\ West\\ show\\ which\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Custer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ last\\ stand\\ and\\ presents\\ an\\ entire\\ tableau\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ as\\ it\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ buffalo\\ hunt\\,\\ Indian\\ attack\\,\\ and\\ pony\\ express\\ ride\\.\\ Creates\\ a\\ pop\\ culture\\ icon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ He\\ uses\\ history\\ to\\ tell\\ a\\ story\\,\\ and\\ his\\ performance\\ travels\\ world\\-wide\\.\\ \\;\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\ was\\ a\\ showbiz\\ mastermind\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\ he\\ creates\\ the\\ new\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ as\\ all\\ about\\ attacking\\ Indians\\ \\(inverted\\ conquest\\)\\&\\#61472\\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\ sense\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ defending\\ themselves\\ against\\ a\\ savage\\ land\\.\\ \\;\\ Frontier\\ is\\ necessary\\,\\ then\\,\\ to\\ stop\\ savagery\\ from\\ overcoming\\ civilization\\.\\ Creates\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ expansive\\,\\ romantic\\ frontier\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Destitute\\ Pea\\ Pickers\\ in\\ California\\.\\ Mother\\ of\\ Seven\\ Children\\.\\ Age\\ Thirty\\-Two\\.\\ Nipomo\\,\\ California\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Dorothea\\ Lange\\,\\ February\\,\\ 1936\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dorothea\\ Lange\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\May\\ 26\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1895\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\October\\ 11\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1965\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ was\\ an\\ influential\\ documentary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\photographer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Lange\\ is\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ her\\ Depression\\-era\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Farm\\ Security\\ Administration\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(FSA\\)\\.\\ Lange\\&\\#39\\;s\\ photographs\\ humanized\\ the\\ tragic\\ consequences\\ of\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ and\\ profoundly\\ influenced\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ documentary\\ photography\\.\\ Her\\ most\\ famous\\ photograph\\,\\ commonly\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Migrant\\ Mother\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(pictured\\ left\\)\\,\\ was\\ the\\ sixth\\ and\\ last\\ frame\\ taken\\ of\\ Lange\\&\\#39\\;s\\ haphazard\\ visit\\ to\\ a\\ migrant\\ workers\\&\\#39\\;\\ campsite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;She\\ said\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ living\\ on\\ frozen\\ vegetables\\ from\\ the\\ surrounding\\ fields\\,\\ and\\ birds\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ killed\\.\\ She\\ had\\ just\\ sold\\ the\\ tires\\ from\\ her\\ car\\ to\\ buy\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#8\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Destitute\\ Pea\\ Pickers\\ in\\ California\\.\\ Mother\\ of\\ Seven\\ Children\\.\\ Age\\ Thirty\\-Two\\.\\ Nipomo\\,\\ California\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Dorothea\\ Lange\\,\\ February\\,\\ 1936\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Great\\ Depression\\ hit\\ western\\ farmers\\ especially\\ hard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Westerners\\ initially\\ conceived\\ stock\\ market\\ crash\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Eastern\\ problem\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reality\\:\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sell\\ anything\\ without\\ a\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Of\\ 10\\ states\\ hardest\\ hit\\,\\ 7\\ were\\ Western\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herbert\\ Hoover\\ the\\ first\\ real\\ western\\ President\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\,\\ particularly\\,\\ hurt\\ by\\ Depression\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Families\\,\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unemployed\\ in\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\charities\\ collapse\\,\\ Unemployed\\ Citizens\\&rsquo\\;\\ Brigades\\ spring\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hoovervilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dust\\ Bowl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creation\\ of\\ sympathy\\ for\\ whites\\ \\(John\\ Steinbeck\\,\\ Dorothea\\ Lange\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ \\#9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Percentage\\ of\\ public\\ lands\\ by\\ state\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1990\\&\\#39\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ slide\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ how\\ much\\ land\\ is\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Federal\\ Government\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ states\\.\\ Shows\\ the\\ importance\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\significance\\ of\\ the\\ Sagebrush\\ rebellion\\ because\\ so\\ much\\ land\\ is\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ Readings\\ and\\ Lectures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plot\\ Summary\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinatown\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\1974\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hollis\\ Mulwray\\ is\\ a\\ chief\\ engineer\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ department\\.\\ Ida\\ Sessions\\,\\ pretending\\ to\\ be\\ his\\ wife\\ Evelyn\\,\\ asks\\ P\\.I\\.\\ JJ\\ Jake\\ Gittes\\ to\\ investigate\\ his\\ adulterous\\ ways\\.\\ Jake\\ takes\\ photos\\ of\\ Hollis\\ with\\ a\\ young\\ lady\\.\\ Hollis\\ then\\ turns\\ up\\ murdered\\,\\ which\\ Jake\\ decides\\ to\\ investigate\\.\\ Jake\\ finds\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ was\\ looking\\ for\\.\\ He\\ discovers\\ a\\ plot\\ to\\ buy\\ cheap\\,\\ unwatered\\ land\\ for\\ low\\ prices\\,\\ water\\ the\\ land\\,\\ and\\ sell\\ it\\ for\\ millions\\ of\\ dollars\\.\\ The\\ plot\\ is\\ masterminded\\ by\\ one\\ Noah\\ Cross\\,\\ who\\ is\\ Evelyn\\&\\#39\\;s\\ father\\ and\\ Hollis\\&\\#39\\;\\ one\\-time\\ business\\ partner\\.\\ His\\ investigation\\ leads\\ him\\ to\\ an\\ affair\\ with\\ Evelyn\\ and\\ a\\ discussion\\ with\\ Noah\\ Cross\\,\\ both\\ of\\ whom\\ seem\\ curiously\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ girl\\ Hollis\\ was\\ seen\\ with\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ In\\-depth\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Water\\ is\\ the\\ life\\ blood\\ of\\ every\\ community\\.\\"\\;\\ With\\ this\\ statement\\,\\ the\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ Department\\ of\\ Water\\ and\\ Power\\&\\#39\\;s\\ website\\ begins\\ its\\ biography\\ of\\ William\\ Mulholland\\,\\ the\\ real\\ life\\ model\\ of\\ two\\ of\\ this\\ movie\\&\\#39\\;s\\ characters\\,\\ water\\ department\\ chief\\ Hollis\\ Mulwray\\ \\(an\\ obvious\\ play\\ on\\ words\\)\\ and\\ water\\ tycoon\\ Noah\\ Cross\\.\\ And\\ indeed\\ water\\,\\ the\\ access\\ to\\ it\\ and\\ the\\ wealth\\ it\\ provides\\,\\ is\\ what\\ drives\\ everything\\ and\\ everybody\\ in\\ this\\ movie\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ ever\\-thirsty\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ decades\\ of\\ this\\ century\\,\\ a\\ budding\\ boom\\ town\\ on\\ the\\ brink\\ of\\ victory\\ or\\ decay\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ one\\ or\\ th\\ other\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ city\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ongoing\\ access\\ to\\ drinking\\ water\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Chinatown\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;s\\ story\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ William\\ Mulholland\\&\\#39\\;s\\ greatest\\ coup\\;\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ Owen\\ Valley\\ aqueduct\\ which\\ provided\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ with\\ a\\ steady\\ source\\ of\\ drinking\\ water\\ but\\ also\\ entailed\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ controversy\\.\\ Splitting\\ Mulholland\\&\\#39\\;s\\ complex\\ real\\-life\\ persona\\ into\\ two\\ fictional\\ characters\\ \\(the\\ noble\\ Mulwray\\ who\\ thinks\\ that\\ water\\ should\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ who\\ refuses\\ to\\ authorize\\ an\\ unsavory\\ new\\ dam\\ construction\\ project\\ and\\ the\\ greedy\\,\\ unscrupulous\\ Cross\\ who\\ will\\ use\\ \\*any\\*\\ means\\ to\\ advance\\ his\\ personal\\ fortune\\)\\ creates\\ the\\ movie\\&\\#39\\;s\\ one\\ necessary\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ conflict\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ other\\ than\\ this\\,\\ the\\ predominant\\ shades\\ are\\ those\\ of\\ gray\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Into\\ the\\ wars\\ raging\\ around\\ L\\.A\\.\\&\\#39\\;s\\ water\\ supply\\,\\ private\\ eye\\ Jake\\ Gittes\\ \\(Jack\\ Nicholson\\)\\ is\\ unwittingly\\ thrown\\ when\\ a\\ woman\\ introducing\\ herself\\ as\\ Hollis\\ Mulwray\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ asks\\ him\\ to\\ investigate\\ her\\ husband\\&\\#39\\;s\\ alleged\\ infidelity\\.\\ Before\\ he\\ realizes\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ he\\ is\\ drawn\\ into\\ a\\ web\\ of\\ treachery\\ and\\ treason\\,\\ and\\ fatally\\ attracted\\ to\\ the\\ real\\ Mrs\\.\\ Mulwray\\ \\(Faye\\ Dunaway\\)\\,\\ Noah\\ Cross\\ \\(John\\ Huston\\)\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\.\\ Soon\\ reaching\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ used\\,\\ he\\ refuses\\ to\\ drop\\ the\\ investigation\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ decides\\ to\\ dig\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ scheming\\ he\\ has\\ witnessed\\ \\-\\ the\\ classical\\ film\\ noir\\ setup\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reiner\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;RED\\ QUEEN\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ is\\ the\\ true\\ story\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chinatown\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ based\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-LA\\ quickly\\ went\\ from\\ a\\ nothing\\ city\\ to\\ sprawling\\/over\\-populate\\ metropolis\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ 1800\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Needed\\ Water\\ to\\ survive\\ so\\ stole\\ it\\ from\\ nearby\\ Owen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ River\\.\\ Benefit\\:\\ It\\ was\\ higher\\ in\\ sea\\ level\\ than\\ LA\\ so\\ water\\ could\\ be\\ siphoned\\ down\\ with\\ little\\ power\\/electricity\\.\\ CHEAP\\ AND\\ EFFICENT\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Let\\ by\\ Fred\\ Eaton\\ and\\ Bill\\ Mulholland\\&mdash\\;used\\ subterfuge\\,\\ spies\\,\\ bribery\\,\\ and\\ trickery\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ river\\ and\\ thus\\ milked\\ the\\ surrounding\\ area\\ dry\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ this\\ included\\ the\\ exaggerating\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ problem\\ to\\ get\\ public\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thus\\ Owens\\ River\\ created\\ LA\\ and\\ made\\ it\\ the\\ huge\\ metropolis\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ today\\ but\\ also\\ doomed\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ it\\ created\\ a\\ huge\\ sprawling\\ over\\ populated\\ city\\ and\\ a\\ city\\ that\\ now\\ could\\ reign\\ in\\ any\\ water\\ source\\ thus\\ making\\ it\\ even\\ larger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\White\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Organic\\ Machine\\&rdquo\\;\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ book\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ Columbia\\ River\\ and\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manipulation\\ of\\ it\\ for\\ progress\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ effects\\ of\\ this\\ manipulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Starts\\ with\\ discussing\\ the\\ salmon\\ runs\\ and\\ how\\ man\\ went\\ from\\ simple\\ fishing\\ for\\ subsistence\\ to\\ canneries\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ competition\\ that\\ came\\ with\\ harvesting\\ these\\ fish\\.\\ It\\ also\\ discusses\\ how\\ this\\ led\\ to\\ over\\ harvesting\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ decline\\ of\\ fish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Constant\\ conflict\\ between\\ people\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ nature\\ pure\\/unaltered\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ their\\ advantage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Second\\ part\\ of\\ chapter\\ discusses\\ both\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ steam\\/mechanization\\ power\\ from\\ wood\\ and\\ coal\\ and\\ even\\ earlier\\ human\\ effort\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Finally\\ talks\\ about\\ electricity\\ and\\ the\\ damming\\ of\\ the\\ Columbia\\ \\(in\\ the\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ altered\\ the\\ landscape\\ completely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ notes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Chinese\\ are\\ working\\ for\\ cheap\\ labor\\ and\\ are\\ taking\\ jobs\\ from\\ white\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Act\\ is\\ targeted\\ towards\\ labor\\ and\\ forces\\ sets\\ a\\ cap\\ on\\ amount\\ of\\ Chinese\\ allowed\\ into\\ the\\ country\\ only\\ allowing\\ diplomats\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ merchants\\,\\ teachers\\,\\ students\\ and\\ wives\\ of\\ merchants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Forced\\ all\\ Chinese\\ people\\ to\\ carry\\ around\\ paperwork\\ something\\ like\\ a\\ green\\ card\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foley\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ is\\ traditional\\ that\\ tenant\\ farmer\\ will\\ eventually\\ become\\ owners\\ of\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ occurred\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ abundance\\ of\\ land\\ to\\ the\\ West\\,\\ but\\ once\\ the\\ land\\ ran\\ out\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ overabundance\\ of\\ tenant\\ farmers\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ they\\ many\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ were\\ stuck\\ with\\ being\\ a\\ tenant\\ farmer\\ competing\\ with\\ share\\ croppers\\.\\ \\ \\;Land\\ owners\\ would\\ also\\ hire\\ many\\ African\\ and\\ Hispanic\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ as\\ well\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ as\\ efficient\\ as\\ the\\ white\\ tenant\\ farmers\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ white\\ people\\ broke\\ up\\ into\\ two\\ different\\ social\\ groups\\ and\\ those\\ that\\ were\\ stuck\\ in\\ tenant\\ farming\\ were\\ looked\\ down\\ upon\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ trash\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ white\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ are\\ forming\\ groups\\ like\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;KKK\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ scare\\ away\\ the\\ other\\ minorities\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ competing\\ with\\.\\ \\ \\;Tenant\\ farmers\\ are\\ stuck\\ in\\ this\\ level\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ thrifty\\,\\ but\\ banks\\ have\\ risen\\ interest\\ rates\\ and\\ thus\\ making\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ buy\\ land\\,\\ thus\\ these\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ are\\ stuck\\ in\\ mediocrity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ Caused\\ the\\ Pueblo\\ Revolt\\ of\\ 1680\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terry\\ Tempest\\ Williams\\,\\ CLAN\\ OF\\ THE\\ ONE\\ BREASTED\\ WOMEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Autobiographical\\ account\\ of\\ federal\\ nuclear\\ testing\\ in\\ Nevada\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Williams\\ is\\ a\\ fifth\\-generation\\ descendent\\ of\\ Mormon\\ pioneers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ roots\\ in\\ Utah\\ reach\\ back\\ to\\ 1847\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Her\\ \\&ldquo\\;tribe\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ her\\ family\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ devastated\\ by\\ breast\\ cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ one\\ case\\ of\\ cancer\\ in\\ her\\ family\\ before\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mormons\\ generally\\ suffer\\ low\\ cancer\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ her\\ mother\\,\\ her\\ grandmothers\\,\\ and\\ six\\ aunts\\ have\\ had\\ mastectomies\\.\\ Seven\\ have\\ died\\.\\ The\\ two\\ remaining\\ survivors\\ have\\ just\\ completed\\ chemotherapy\\ and\\ radiation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Author\\ recalls\\ seeing\\ a\\ flash\\ of\\ light\\ in\\ the\\ desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Father\\ tells\\ her\\ about\\ a\\ test\\ bomb\\ on\\ Sept\\.\\ 7\\,\\ 1957\\ that\\ her\\ family\\ witnessed\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ driving\\ home\\ from\\ Riverside\\,\\ Calif\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ of\\ Operation\\ Blumbbob\\,\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ tests\\ from\\ Nevada\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\took\\ 14\\ years\\ for\\ mother\\ to\\ develop\\ cancer\\,\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\,\\ according\\ to\\ scientists\\,\\ that\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ develop\\ cancer\\ from\\ radiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aboveground\\ atomic\\ testing\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ Nevada\\ from\\ 1951\\-1962\\.\\ North\\ winds\\ blew\\ Utahans\\ with\\ fallout\\ and\\ left\\ hundreds\\ of\\ dead\\ sheep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ government\\ has\\ denied\\ its\\ guilt\\ in\\ cancer\\ cases\\ since\\ late\\ 1970s\\ with\\ one\\ exception\\:\\ in\\ 1984\\,\\ a\\ judge\\ awarded\\ damages\\ to\\ ten\\ plaintiffs\\,\\ marking\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ the\\ federal\\ court\\ acknowledged\\ that\\ nuclear\\ tests\\ had\\ caused\\ cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ruling\\ was\\ overturned\\ in\\ 1987\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ 1988\\,\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ refused\\ to\\ review\\ that\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1988\\,\\ Williams\\ participated\\ in\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\,\\ crossing\\ the\\ boundary\\ into\\ the\\ Nevada\\ Test\\ Site\\ and\\ getting\\ arrested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ was\\ a\\ gesture\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ the\\ Clan\\ of\\ One\\-Breasted\\ Women\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Organic\\ Machine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Part\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tells\\ how\\ the\\ Columbia\\ River\\ became\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ nuclear\\ energy\\ machine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ govt\\.\\ chose\\ Hanford\\ site\\ in\\ WA\\ to\\ produce\\ plutonium\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ sparse\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ then\\ populated\\ the\\ region\\ with\\ thousands\\ of\\ employees\\,\\ families\\,\\ town\\ of\\ 50\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\destroyed\\ town\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ determined\\ town\\ was\\ too\\ close\\ to\\ reactors\\ to\\ be\\ safe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\,\\ the\\ region\\ remained\\ populated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Managers\\,\\ technicians\\,\\ scientists\\ \\&ldquo\\;obfuscated\\&hellip\\;lied\\&hellip\\;deceived\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ dangerous\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Plutonium\\ guarded\\ American\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Release\\ of\\ chemicals\\,\\ including\\ iodine\\ 131\\,\\ certainly\\ killed\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;These\\ deaths\\ were\\ planned\\ because\\ the\\ releases\\ were\\ planned\\,\\ although\\ the\\ planners\\ never\\ intended\\ to\\ kill\\ individual\\ victims\\.\\ They\\ acted\\ for\\ a\\ greater\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ M\\.\\ Findlay\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Magic\\ Lands\\:\\ Western\\ Cityscapes\\ and\\ American\\ Culture\\ After\\ 1940\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disneyland\\ was\\ created\\ in\\ an\\ idealized\\ West\\.\\ It\\ built\\ upon\\ old\\ images\\ and\\ then\\ cultivated\\ new\\ ones\\,\\ transporting\\ its\\ vision\\ of\\ culture\\ from\\ West\\ to\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Version\\ western\\ autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perfectly\\ planned\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\suburban\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Supposed\\ to\\ be\\ timeless\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ its\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Enshrined\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ stood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61630\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\competition\\ with\\ the\\ Soviets\\ in\\ productivity\\,\\ in\\ space\\,\\ in\\ ways\\ of\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represented\\ new\\ western\\ service\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ then\\ defeated\\ that\\ image\\ by\\ propagating\\ \\&ldquo\\;individualism\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ West\\ in\\ Frontierland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&ldquo\\;Controlled\\ Western\\ Environment\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Balanced\\ against\\ \\&ldquo\\;dirtiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Coney\\ Island\\,\\ NY\\,\\ distastefulness\\ of\\ New\\ Orleans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ wholesome\\ family\\ experience\\;\\ screeners\\ kept\\ out\\ \\&ldquo\\;hippies\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;undesirables\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Race\\ relations\\ inside\\ theme\\ park\\ \\&ldquo\\;were\\ far\\ from\\ futuristic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Ex\\.\\ Aunt\\ Jemima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Pancake\\ House\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Came\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ intriguing\\ model\\ of\\ urban\\ design\\ \\(suburbs\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/12\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mining\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discovery\\ of\\ gold\\ in\\ California\\,\\ Jan\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1848\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overview\\:\\ discovery\\,\\ verification\\ \\(letters\\,\\ media\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Beale\\ spreads\\ word\\ back\\ east\\,\\ people\\ come\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;49\\&hellip\\;\\ eventually\\ 300\\,000\\ people\\ come\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leaving\\ Home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ national\\ story\\,\\ men\\ leaving\\ as\\ if\\ to\\ war\\,\\ people\\ affected\\ back\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Getting\\ to\\ Mines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\to\\ California\\:\\ overland\\,\\ around\\ Cape\\,\\ across\\ isthmus\\ of\\ panama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ Yukon\\:\\ over\\ the\\ Chilkoot\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Urbanization\\:\\ supply\\ posts\\,\\ San\\ Francisco\\,\\ Sacramento\\,\\ Denver\\,\\ Auroria\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ merchants\\,\\ casino\\ owners\\,\\ suppliers\\ get\\ the\\ richest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ Mining\\ Camps\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ become\\ urban\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Social\\ World\\ of\\ the\\ Camps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Demographics\\:\\ very\\ diverse\\ \\(Chinese\\,\\ Mexican\\,\\ white\\,\\ some\\ slaves\\,\\ Indians\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\transethnic\\/racial\\ partnerships\\ early\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ cooperation\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ necessary\\,\\ racial\\ lines\\ once\\ again\\ divide\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gender\\:\\ in\\ 1850\\,\\ Cali\\ population\\ is\\ 92\\.5\\%\\ male\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ crisis\\ of\\ masculinity\\,\\ anxious\\ about\\ doing\\ domestic\\ work\\,\\ away\\ from\\ families\\,\\ women\\ in\\ mines\\ usually\\ Indian\\/Mexican\\,\\ changes\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ lady\\ \\(see\\ Shirley\\ letters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Social\\ Organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\gender\\ roles\\ taken\\ away\\ \\(ref\\.\\ Johnson\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Domestic\\ Diggings\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\try\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ recreate\\ family\\ kinship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ travel\\ with\\ other\\ men\\ in\\ family\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;company\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ transcontinental\\ gossip\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ labor\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\domestic\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commercialization\\ of\\ domestic\\ duties\\ \\(women\\ in\\ mines\\ made\\ mad\\ \\$\\ \\-\\-\\ restaurants\\,\\ prostitution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ did\\ Chinese\\ and\\ Mexican\\ men\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ of\\ Placer\\ Mining\\ \\(for\\ test\\,\\ could\\ reference\\ letter\\ from\\ Placerville\\ gold\\ miner\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\ one\\ has\\ mining\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\started\\ with\\ panning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ developed\\ more\\ efficient\\ means\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;cradles\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\?\\?\\?\\ \\(not\\ sure\\ of\\ name\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\snow\\ melt\\-off\\,\\ water\\ is\\ freezing\\ ass\\ cold\\,\\ averaged\\ only\\ 10\\ cents\\/bucket\\ and\\ it\\ got\\ increasingly\\ hard\\ to\\ find\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ Mines\\ and\\ Mining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Law\\ \\&\\;\\ Access\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\physical\\ punishment\\,\\ hanging\\/executions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\harsher\\ on\\ foreigners\\,\\ US\\ access\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foreign\\ Miners\\ Tax\\ 1850\\ \\=\\ \\$20\\,\\ drives\\ foreigners\\ out\\ of\\ mines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capital\\ \\&\\;\\ Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\claims\\ become\\ very\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mining\\ goes\\ underground\\,\\ need\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ \\$\\ \\(shaft\\,\\ hydrolic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ mid\\-1850s\\ eastern\\ investors\\ and\\ industrial\\ mining\\ moves\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ men\\ go\\ home\\ as\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Repercussions\\ \\&\\;\\ Legacies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gold\\ Rush\\ Legacies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ redistribution\\ of\\ population\\,\\ California\\ becomes\\ an\\ anglo\\ state\\,\\ American\\ laws\\/values\\ move\\ west\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 17\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ Federal\\ Control\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Territorial\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Northwest\\ Ordinance\\ of\\ 1787\\ \\(reviewed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kansas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polygamy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mormon\\ War\\,\\ 1857\\-1858\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ West\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sectional\\ Politics\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ West\\&mdash\\;revisited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Battles\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kansas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ Territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ in\\ National\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Territorial\\ Governments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ Territories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Creation\\ of\\ New\\ Territories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Alaska\\,\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Territorial\\ Officials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Federal\\ Appointees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corruption\\-\\-Territorial\\ Rings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Persistence\\ of\\ the\\ Territorial\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Utah\\,\\ 1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oklahoma\\,\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arizona\\ \\&\\;\\ New\\ Mexico\\,\\ 1912\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alaska\\,\\ 1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ First\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Insecure\\ Expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Credit\\ Mobilier\\,\\ 1864\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Big\\ 4\\ of\\ the\\ Central\\ Pacific\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Land\\ Distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adjudicating\\ Mexican\\ and\\ Spanish\\ Land\\ Grants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homestead\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Grant\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mining\\ Act\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Desert\\ Land\\ Act\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Timber\\ and\\ Stone\\ Act\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\,\\ 1901\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Conquest\\ and\\ Indian\\ Survival\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\:\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Rachel\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 19\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideology\\ and\\ Past\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Vanishing\\ Indians\\-\\ not\\ vanishing\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ pushed\\ out\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Removal\\-\\ forced\\ into\\ Oklahoma\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trail\\ of\\ Tears\\,\\ 1838\\-1839\\-\\ from\\ Georgia\\ to\\ Oklahoma\\ 1\\/8\\ die\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ Encroachment\\ and\\ the\\ Federal\\ Response\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\A\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Collapse\\ of\\ Permanent\\ Indian\\ Territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ The\\ Overland\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ Gold\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Reservation\\ System\\ \\(US\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shift\\ from\\ Sovereignty\\ to\\ Wardship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Origins\\ of\\ the\\ Reservation\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Treaties\\ \\&\\;\\ Land\\ Cessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Military\\ Conquest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Failure\\ of\\ Federal\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Southwest\\ \\(Different\\ kind\\ of\\ warfare\\ w\\/\\ raiders\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Navajos\\-\\ 1863\\ Carson\\ in\\ Mexico\\ Scorch\\ Earth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Apaches\\-\\ Geronimo\\ still\\ raid\\ cross\\ border\\ \\(taken\\ to\\ Florida\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Great\\ Plains\\-\\ West\\ \\(Expanding\\ nations\\ run\\ into\\ each\\ other\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1864\\ San\\ Creek\\ Massacre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dakota\\ and\\ Boozman\\ Trail\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Persistence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/31\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extracting\\ Western\\ Resources\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\:\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Rachel\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 31\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ of\\ Mining\\:\\ Revisited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ Corporate\\ Mining\\ Capitalist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Gold\\ is\\ gone\\,\\ now\\ look\\ for\\ base\\ metals\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Copper\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Bisbee\\,\\ Arizona\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ie\\.\\ Butte\\,\\ Montana\\ \\(Northern\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ fields\\ of\\ exploration\\ in\\ the\\ West\\-\\ California\\ and\\ Texas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Buffalo\\ Hides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cattle\\ Ranching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trail\\ Drives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Texas\\ Longhorns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ Ranching\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Open\\ Range\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boom\\ \\&\\;\\ Bust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consolidation\\ and\\ Enclosure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Barbed\\ wire\\,\\ 1874\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Range\\ Wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Western\\ Limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Market\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Populism\\ and\\ the\\ Plight\\ of\\ Western\\ Farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ Grange\\ of\\ Patrons\\ of\\ Husbandry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Farmers\\&rsquo\\;\\ Alliance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Party\\,\\ 1890s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\11\\/2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\,\\ Class\\,\\ Land\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1641\\:\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Rachel\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 2\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Farmland\\ \\&\\;\\ Farm\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ideology\\ of\\ Independent\\ Farming\\ \\&\\;\\ Free\\ Land\\:\\ Revisited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Populism\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Plight\\ of\\ Western\\ Farmers\\&mdash\\;Again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Plight\\ of\\ Western\\ Farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Origins\\ of\\ Agribusiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ Bonanza\\ Farms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Land\\ Reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Persistence\\ of\\ Family\\ Farms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Triumph\\ of\\ Agribusiness\\ in\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wage\\ Work\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Working\\ Conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Little\\ Chance\\ of\\ Economic\\ Advancement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dual\\ Labor\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Occupational\\ Segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dual\\ Wage\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Racial\\ \\&\\;\\ Ethnic\\ Divisions\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Class\\ Consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Racial\\ Divides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ Anti\\-Chinese\\ Campaigns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anti\\-coolie\\ Clubs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dennis\\ Kearney\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Workingmen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethnic\\ Divides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Denial\\ about\\ the\\ Permanence\\ of\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unionization\\ \\&\\;\\ Class\\ Conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Individual\\ Unions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Butte\\ Miners\\ Union\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\ \\(WFM\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Cripple\\ Creek\\,\\ Colorado\\,\\ 1903\\-1904\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\International\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ \\(IWW\\)\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Wobblies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Bisbee\\ Deportation\\,\\ Arizona\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demise\\ of\\ Labor\\ Radicalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ie\\.\\ Centralia\\ Massacre\\,\\ 1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cities\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Introduction\\:\\ Region\\ of\\ Cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Already\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ cities\\,\\ and\\ west\\ \\(and\\ rest\\ of\\ us\\)\\ becoming\\ ever\\ more\\ urban\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\,\\ as\\ people\\ are\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ farms\\ and\\ into\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ More\\ people\\ live\\ in\\ cities\\ of\\ 10000\\ or\\ more\\ in\\ west\\ than\\ in\\ any\\ other\\ region\\ except\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\northeast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Cities\\ also\\ becoming\\ more\\ powerful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ The\\ Origins\\ of\\ the\\ Urban\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Urban\\ outposts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ 19th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Mining\\ camps\\ with\\ high\\ concentrations\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Also\\ supply\\ centers\\ like\\ Sacramento\\ and\\ Denver\\ \\-\\ also\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ mining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Shipping\\ points\\ \\-\\ Wichita\\,\\ KS\\,\\ Dodge\\ City\\,\\ Abeline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\.\\ Chicago\\ \\-\\ not\\ really\\ in\\ West\\ but\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ western\\ farm\\ areas\\ were\\ dependent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\ things\\ happening\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vi\\.\\ San\\ Francisco\\ \\-\\ first\\ real\\ western\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Started\\ during\\ the\\ gold\\ rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Developmnet\\ in\\ san\\ fran\\ of\\ elite\\ set\\ of\\ capital\\,\\ which\\ capitalist\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\then\\ use\\ to\\ control\\ other\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vii\\.\\ Seattle\\ and\\ Denver\\ also\\ growing\\ a\\ bit\\ after\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\ Dallas\\ 43000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1900\\,\\ to\\ over\\ 100000\\ in\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\viii\\.\\ Gradual\\ urban\\ growth\\ going\\ on\\ throughout\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Urban\\ areas\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ power\\ of\\ centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Manufacturing\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Los\\ Angeles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Urban\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Boosters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Aim\\ is\\ to\\ grow\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Promotion\\ in\\ SoCal\\ in\\ late\\ 19th\\ and\\ early\\ 20th\\ cent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Distribute\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ promotional\\ materials\\ talking\\ about\\ great\\ climate\\,\\ leisurly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lifestyle\\,\\ draws\\ on\\ romanticism\\ of\\ mission\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Start\\ labeling\\ fruit\\ crates\\ that\\ are\\ distrib\\ to\\ rest\\ of\\ nation\\ that\\ promote\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\image\\ of\\ beautiful\\,\\ sunny\\,\\ pastoral\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\.\\ Rose\\ Parade\\,\\ 1890\\,\\ Pasadena\\ hunt\\ club\\ \\-\\ wanted\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wonderful\\ weather\\ was\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vi\\.\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Land\\ sales\\ boom\\,\\ 1888\\ bust\\ \\-\\ over\\ next\\ 2\\ years\\,\\ prices\\ fall\\ by\\ 50\\%\\,\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pick\\ up\\ again\\ a\\ bit\\ in\\ 1890s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vii\\.\\ Also\\,\\ City\\ governments\\ start\\ workign\\ with\\ boosters\\ to\\ have\\ big\\ expositions\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\draw\\ ppls\\ attention\\ to\\ advantages\\ of\\ various\\ cities\\ \\(Seattle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Alaska\\-Yukon\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pacific\\ Exposition\\,\\ 1909\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ The\\ Economics\\ of\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ More\\ to\\ how\\ city\\ grows\\ then\\ the\\ Chamber\\ of\\ Commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Railroads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Very\\ important\\ to\\ growth\\ of\\ cities\\ \\-\\ could\\ determine\\ whether\\ city\\ lived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\or\\ died\\.\\ You\\ need\\ transportation\\ links\\ more\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\ in\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ 1881\\ S\\.\\ Pacific\\ RR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ 1887\\ \\[\\?\\?\\]\\ other\\ rr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ So\\ two\\ rrs\\,\\ and\\ a\\ rate\\ war\\ \\-\\ very\\ cheap\\ tickets\\ from\\ midwest\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Land\\ Speculation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Creates\\ great\\ individual\\ wealth\\ in\\ cities\\,\\ and\\ can\\ turn\\ cities\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\financial\\ centers\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\financial\\ centers\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ RE\\ investors\\ would\\ come\\ in\\,\\ buy\\ up\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ land\\,\\ and\\ divide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\up\\ and\\ sell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Create\\ whole\\ new\\ towns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ William\\ A\\.\\ Garland\\ \\-\\ subdivided\\ and\\ sold\\ westlake\\,\\ hermosa\\ park\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beverly\\ hills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Hollywood\\ \\-\\ started\\ selling\\ tracts\\ in\\ early\\ 20th\\ cent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Hollywood\\ sign\\ \\-\\ 1923\\ \\-\\ land\\ promotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\)\\ Two\\ main\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Makes\\ land\\ speculators\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ money\\ \\-\\ harry\\ chandler\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\harrison\\ gray\\ otis\\,\\ henry\\ huntington\\,\\ anyone\\ important\\ in\\ early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LA\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Also\\ responsible\\ for\\ sprawl\\ of\\ LA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\)\\ All\\ people\\ buying\\ land\\ and\\ selling\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ no\\ centralized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\planning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\)\\ Trolley\\ lines\\-\\ pacific\\ Electric\\ railway\\ etc\\ \\(red\\ car\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\)\\ Henry\\ huntington\\ owned\\ lines\\ \\-\\ and\\ where\\ he\\ owned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lines\\,\\ people\\ could\\/would\\ settle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\)\\ He\\ also\\ owned\\ electric\\ company\\ \\-\\ so\\ could\\ also\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Varied\\ a\\ lot\\ depending\\ on\\ what\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ LA\\-\\ Movie\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Film\\ makers\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ NJ\\,\\ migrated\\ there\\ because\\ you\\ can\\ film\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\outside\\ year\\-round\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ varied\\ terrain\\ around\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Close\\ to\\ mexican\\ border\\ \\-\\ thomas\\ edison\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ owns\\ all\\ movie\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\equipt\\ patents\\,\\ others\\ start\\ making\\ illegally\\,\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ escape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\easily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Oil\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Manufacturing\\ \\-\\ because\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ consumers\\ and\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ close\\.\\ In\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\interwar\\ years\\,\\ becomes\\ major\\ manufacturing\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Managing\\ Urban\\ Growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Early\\ on\\,\\ very\\ much\\ grown\\ by\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ In\\ early\\ 20th\\ cent\\,\\ part\\ of\\ larger\\ progressive\\ movement\\,\\ people\\ partner\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\ to\\ help\\ organize\\,\\ manage\\,\\ beautify\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Begin\\ to\\ bring\\ in\\ urban\\ planners\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ organize\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Reorg\\ city\\ streets\\ for\\ traffic\\,\\ parks\\ and\\ beautification\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Almost\\ every\\ western\\ city\\ has\\ these\\ planners\\,\\ and\\ usu\\ by\\ eastern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\planners\\ \\(Frederick\\ Law\\ Olmsted\\ in\\ LA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ In\\ general\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ manage\\ to\\ actually\\ action\\ the\\ plans\\ because\\ very\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ All\\ these\\ things\\ require\\ enhanced\\ municipal\\ government\\ that\\ has\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ tax\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ transformation\\ between\\ the\\ relationship\\ btw\\ individuals\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ As\\ taxes\\ come\\ in\\,\\ the\\ cities\\ are\\ becoming\\ more\\ powerful\\ and\\ more\\ able\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ shape\\ the\\ environment\\ around\\ them\\ \\(LA\\ and\\ water\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Cities\\ became\\ central\\ figures\\ in\\ shaping\\ western\\ history\\ and\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Demographics\\ of\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Urban\\ growth\\ is\\ about\\ people\\,\\ and\\ accumulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Immigrants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ From\\ europe\\,\\ Asia\\ and\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Similar\\ to\\ whats\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ NE\\ \\-\\ lots\\ people\\ emigrating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ In\\ 1880\\,\\ SF\\ has\\ highest\\ \\%\\ of\\ foreign\\ born\\ people\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Tend\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ ethnic\\ enclaves\\-\\ for\\ ex\\,\\ SF\\ Chinatown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ gave\\ pl\\ ability\\ to\\ share\\ language\\,\\ experience\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\commonality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Also\\ major\\ places\\ of\\ oppression\\ \\(all\\ chinese\\ in\\ SF\\ required\\ to\\ live\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\chinatown\\ for\\ \\&\\#39\\;sanitation\\&\\#39\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Rural\\ to\\ urban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Actually\\ at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ more\\ single\\ women\\ moving\\ to\\ western\\ cities\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\y\\ g\\ g\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Sort\\ of\\ a\\ reversal\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ mining\\ city\\ pattern\\ \\-\\ by\\ 1880s\\,\\ native\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\born\\ women\\ outnumber\\ native\\ born\\ men\\ in\\ western\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Not\\ sure\\ why\\-\\ some\\ because\\ escaping\\ domestic\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cities\\ offer\\ economic\\ activities\\ not\\ available\\ to\\ rural\\ women\\ in\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Initially\\ pretty\\ homogeneous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Largely\\ white\\-\\ midwesterners\\.\\ Some\\ intellectual\\ literature\\ criticizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ for\\ being\\ dull\\,\\ all\\ the\\ same\\,\\ zombies\\,\\ etc\\ \\-\\ not\\ dynamic\\ cultural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\scene\\ in\\ s\\.\\ cali\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Recreating\\ midwest\\ transplanted\\ with\\ suburban\\ housing\\ in\\ 1920s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Also\\ stick\\ together\\ \\-\\ form\\ \\&\\#39\\;state\\ clubs\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\-\\ Iowa\\ club\\ of\\ Pasadena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Increasing\\ diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ After\\ 1910\\-\\ mex\\ revolution\\-\\ mexican\\ immigration\\ increases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Af\\-ams\\ also\\ moving\\ to\\ the\\ west\\.\\ Great\\ Migration\\ not\\ just\\ south\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\north\\ \\-\\ some\\ to\\ west\\ as\\ well\\.\\ 1910\\-8000\\ 1930\\-40000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Chinese\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ the\\ west\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\congregating\\ in\\ cities\\ \\(not\\ allowed\\ to\\ immigrate\\ anymore\\,\\ because\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\chinese\\ exclusion\\ act\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ 15\\%\\ of\\ pop\\ are\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ by\\ 1930\\.\\ \\(1910\\=6\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Racial\\ Discrimination\\ and\\ Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ The\\ white\\ midwestern\\ pop\\ not\\ so\\ happy\\ about\\ growing\\ diversity\\-\\ discrim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Anti\\ Chinese\\ riots\\ througout\\ late\\ 19th\\ c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ 1920s\\-\\ growth\\ of\\ KKK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Mostly\\ rural\\ but\\ growing\\ interest\\ in\\ suburban\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Very\\ accepted\\ and\\ public\\ in\\ white\\ communities\\-\\ aura\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\respectability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ But\\ still\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ violence\\/intimidation\\ we\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Residential\\ segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Informally\\ \\-\\ people\\ moving\\ into\\ areas\\ where\\ others\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\would\\ be\\ intimidated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Also\\ formal\\ restrictive\\ covenants\\ \\-\\ house\\ could\\ legally\\ only\\ be\\ sold\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WASPs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Racial\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ A\\ few\\ major\\ outbreaks\\ in\\ \\&\\#39\\;southern\\&\\#39\\;\\ part\\ of\\ west\\ \\-\\ OK\\,\\ TX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Tulsa\\,\\ 1921\\ \\-\\ 30\\ deaths\\,\\ 1000\\ homes\\ destroyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ this\\ week\\ \\-\\ about\\ water\\ and\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ section\\ thanksgiving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Urban\\ Demands\\ and\\ the\\ Consumption\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/9\\/05\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Urban\\ Demands\\ and\\ the\\ Consumption\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Intro\\:\\ Los\\ Angeles\\ and\\ Water\\ \\&\\;\\ Power\\ in\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Reisner\\ article\\ \\-\\ Lipincott\\,\\ Eaton\\,\\ Mulholland\\,\\ schemed\\ to\\ get\\ all\\ water\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Owens\\ valley\\ to\\ Los\\ Angeles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Mulholland\\ builds\\ engineering\\ marvel\\ \\-\\ a\\ huge\\ aquaduct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Cross\\ 223\\ miles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ Owens\\ valley\\,\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ agro\\ area\\,\\ basically\\ is\\ so\\ dry\\ it\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\.\\ Mulholland\\&\\#39\\;s\\ St\\.\\ Francis\\ dam\\ collapses\\,\\ and\\ he\\ goes\\ away\\ feeling\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ failure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vi\\.\\ Indicative\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ drive\\ for\\ water\\ would\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ do\\ \\-\\ violent\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tense\\ confrontations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vii\\.\\ Wealth\\ generation\\ through\\ auspices\\ of\\ serving\\ public\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\viii\\.\\ Idea\\ that\\ nature\\ can\\ be\\ mastered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Remaking\\ Urban\\ Landscapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Making\\ a\\ Port\\ for\\ LA\\ at\\ San\\ Pedro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ San\\ Pedro\\ \\-\\ wants\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\,\\ deep\\ water\\ port\\.\\ Totally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reconstructs\\ coastline\\,\\ brings\\ rail\\ down\\ to\\ it\\ \\_\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ very\\ much\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\constructed\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Then\\,\\ early\\ 20th\\ c\\.\\ LA\\ annexes\\ San\\ Pedro\\ \\-\\-\\ expanding\\ in\\ tentacle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fashion\\ to\\ incorporate\\ land\\ that\\ it\\ needs\\ and\\ control\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ San\\ Pedro\\ connects\\ to\\ Pacific\\ and\\ Panama\\ Canal\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Regrading\\ Seattle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Almost\\ has\\ too\\ much\\ water\\ \\-\\ enclosed\\,\\ and\\ is\\ also\\ very\\ hilly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Decide\\ to\\ take\\ down\\ the\\ hills\\ \\-\\ Thompson\\ says\\ will\\ remove\\ 14mm\\ cubic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yards\\ of\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ will\\ dump\\ land\\ in\\ the\\ water\\ to\\ make\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Water\\ for\\ San\\ Francisco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Hetch\\ Hetchy\\ Valley\\ in\\ Sierras\\ \\-\\ want\\ to\\ put\\ a\\ reservoir\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Leads\\ to\\ big\\ debate\\ btw\\ city\\ of\\ SF\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ want\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\preserve\\ the\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Finally\\,\\ SF\\ wins\\,\\ build\\ dam\\ and\\ valley\\ fills\\ up\\.\\ And\\ even\\ today\\ 80\\%\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SF\\ water\\ from\\ Hetch\\ Hetchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Reclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;Reclaiming\\&\\#39\\;\\ Arid\\ Lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ People\\ in\\ 19th\\ and\\ early\\ 20th\\ c\\ looked\\ out\\ on\\ lands\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wanted\\ to\\ change\\ them\\ so\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ better\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ First\\,\\ through\\ private\\ local\\ and\\ state\\ irrigation\\ efforts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Virtually\\ imposs\\ for\\ independent\\ farmer\\ to\\ irrigate\\ himself\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\requires\\ large\\,\\ organized\\ effort\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Mormons\\ are\\ the\\ first\\ models\\ of\\ how\\ this\\ can\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Soon\\,\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ efforts\\ are\\ in\\ financial\\ trouble\\ because\\ they\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\expect\\ more\\ people\\ to\\ come\\ in\\ and\\ use\\ the\\ water\\ then\\ actually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\happens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Many\\,\\ like\\ Calexico\\ flood\\ channel\\,\\ are\\ built\\ without\\ adequate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\safe\\ guards\\ \\-\\-\\ creates\\ Salton\\ Sea\\ as\\ entire\\ flow\\ of\\ Colorado\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\river\\ flows\\ into\\ the\\ valley\\ irrigation\\ canals\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Development\\ Company\\ then\\ has\\ to\\ sell\\ out\\ to\\ Southern\\ Pacific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\railroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ And\\ after\\ fixing\\ everything\\,\\ do\\ create\\ really\\ good\\ farmland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Local\\ and\\ state\\ govts\\ start\\ doing\\ this\\ a\\ little\\ too\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Federal\\ Reclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ 1902\\ Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Creates\\ reclamation\\ fund\\,\\ financed\\ by\\ sale\\ of\\ public\\ lands\\ in\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Semester\\ Page\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\western\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Includes\\ limitation\\ that\\ anyone\\ getting\\ fed\\ irrigation\\ water\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\only\\ have\\ 160\\ acres\\ of\\ land\\ \\-\\ trying\\ to\\ instill\\ small\\ agrarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mentality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Bureau\\ of\\ Reclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Comes\\ out\\ of\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Classic\\ example\\ of\\ progressive\\ era\\ management\\ \\-\\ professional\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\scientific\\ management\\,\\ highly\\ utilitarian\\.\\ Engineers\\ surveying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\west\\ to\\ decide\\ what\\ best\\ and\\ most\\ efficient\\ uses\\ of\\ western\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\water\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ But\\ also\\ subject\\ to\\ political\\ pressures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ By\\ 1906\\,\\ almost\\ every\\ western\\ state\\ has\\ some\\ project\\ going\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\)\\ Water\\ should\\ be\\ expensive\\ \\-\\ its\\ very\\ expensive\\ to\\ move\\ water\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\but\\ fed\\ government\\ pays\\ \\-\\ so\\ huge\\ subsidies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\f\\)\\ And\\ actually\\,\\ people\\ ignore\\ the\\ land\\ limit\\,\\ so\\ fed\\ basically\\ ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\up\\ subsidizing\\ huge\\ agrobussiness\\ in\\ west\\,\\ esp\\ in\\ places\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imperial\\ Valley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Federal\\ control\\ of\\ western\\ lands\\ and\\ the\\ uses\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Forest\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Tied\\ to\\ water\\ supply\\ \\-\\ early\\ protection\\ from\\ government\\ need\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\protect\\ the\\ watershed\\ so\\ water\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flow\\ down\\ too\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Harrison\\ and\\ Clevelend\\,\\ 1890\\-\\ first\\ federal\\ forests\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ But\\ 1897\\,\\ gave\\ secretary\\ of\\ interior\\ power\\ to\\ go\\ in\\ a\\ manage\\ use\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\western\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ Gifford\\ Pinchot\\ \\-\\ becomes\\ director\\ in\\ 1898\\ of\\ forest\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Hugely\\ expands\\ amount\\ of\\ lands\\ conserved\\,\\ and\\ how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\government\\ uses\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ First\\ of\\ \\&\\#39\\;conservationists\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ Progressive\\/scientific\\ management\\ \\-\\ brings\\ people\\ trained\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yale\\ school\\ of\\ forestry\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ \\-\\ sets\\ up\\ grazing\\ fees\\,\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ timbering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\)\\ System\\ of\\ managing\\ and\\ alloting\\ who\\ uses\\ forests\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\)\\ Idea\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ manage\\ forests\\ for\\ their\\ use\\ \\-\\ not\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\protecting\\ them\\ so\\ they\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\)\\ Leads\\ to\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ conflict\\ with\\ local\\ government\\ and\\ citizens\\ who\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\want\\ to\\ use\\ forest\\ service\\ land\\ for\\ local\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Eventually\\ big\\ biz\\ comes\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ forestry\\ \\-\\ pay\\ grazing\\ fees\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\both\\ parties\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ forests\\ in\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\possible\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ National\\ Parks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ These\\ are\\ different\\ \\-\\ protected\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ 1874\\ Yosemite\\ set\\ aside\\,\\ then\\ 1872\\ Yellowstone\\ National\\ park\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ These\\ places\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ pretty\\ useless\\ and\\ rugged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ Hetch\\ Hetchy\\ vs\\ Yellowstone\\ \\-\\ equally\\ \\&\\#39\\;beautiful\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\-\\ but\\ if\\ useful\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\it\\ gets\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Preservationists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Unlike\\ conservationists\\,\\ think\\ that\\ nature\\ should\\ be\\ preserved\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nature\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ And\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ monumental\\ areas\\.\\ Thinks\\ all\\ can\\ help\\ the\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\condition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ John\\ Muir\\ is\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ This\\ debate\\ between\\ people\\ who\\ think\\ nature\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ vs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\protected\\ goes\\ until\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Mount\\ Reinier\\,\\ Glacier\\ National\\ Park\\ \\=\\ victories\\ of\\ preservationists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hetch\\ Hetchy\\,\\ Olympic\\ National\\ Park\\ are\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/21\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\WWII\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Govt\\ deficit\\ quadrupled\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mobilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\pearl\\ harbor\\ Dec\\.\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1941\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fleet\\ in\\ Hawaii\\ sign\\ of\\ western\\ imperialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defending\\ the\\ Pacific\\ Coast\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bases\\ in\\ Cali\\ and\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mobilizing\\ troops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Federal\\ Investment\\ \\&\\;\\ War\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ the\\ West\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ location\\,\\ weather\\,\\ available\\ land\\,\\ cheap\\ hydro\\-electric\\ power\\,\\ successful\\ lobbying\\ by\\ westerners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ Investment\\:\\ Defense\\ Plant\\ Corporation\\ \\(DPC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ Industry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ CA\\ benefits\\ most\\,\\ gets\\ 1\\/10\\ Fed\\ \\$\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Building\\ the\\ Atomic\\ Bomb\\:\\ Manhattan\\ Project\\ \\(Oppenheimer\\,\\ Bohr\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ Los\\ Alamos\\ NM\\ \\(secret\\ lab\\)\\,\\ Hanford\\ WA\\ \\(produce\\ plutonium\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\armaments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aircraft\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shipyards\\ \\(Henry\\ J\\.\\ Kaiser\\,\\ Richmond\\ CA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\ \\&\\;\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\War\\ Production\\:\\ \\ \\;craft\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ assembly\\ line\\,\\ skilled\\ labor\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ unskilled\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\increased\\ demands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\migration\\ 1940\\-1950\\ 8\\ million\\ migrate\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diversity\\ in\\ the\\ workforce\\:\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agricultural\\ Labor\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Bracero\\ Program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emergency\\ Farm\\ Labor\\ Program\\,\\ aka\\ Bracero\\ Program\\,\\ 1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\increased\\ demand\\ for\\ American\\ wheat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rain\\ returns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\need\\ cheap\\ labor\\:\\ Bracero\\ Program\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ we\\ need\\ Mexican\\ immigration\\ labor\\,\\ Mexicans\\ got\\ higher\\ wages\\ than\\ in\\ mexico\\,\\ but\\ still\\ poor\\ living\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/23\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Social\\ Transformations\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Question\\ of\\ Equality\\ in\\ Wartime\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Diversification\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ Workforce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ turn\\ to\\ them\\ as\\ male\\ labor\\ force\\ drops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Challenges\\ gender\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ but\\ women\\ still\\ responsible\\ for\\ domestic\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ turn\\ over\\,\\ especially\\ for\\ women\\ with\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Minorities\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ high\\ demand\\ for\\ labor\\ in\\ war\\ industries\\,\\ black\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\African\\ Amer\\.\\ Mostly\\ to\\ CA\\,\\ still\\ limits\\ on\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\begin\\ to\\ organize\\ nationally\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Double\\ V\\ campaign\\:\\ against\\ facism\\ abroad\\ and\\ racism\\ at\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Army\\ still\\ segregated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ victories\\:\\ Exec\\ Order\\ 8022\\,\\ Fair\\ Employment\\ Practices\\ Committee\\ \\(FEPC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indians\\:\\ reservations\\ in\\ significant\\ \\#s\\;\\ lose\\ some\\ collective\\ identity\\,\\ but\\ access\\ better\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 24, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Study_Guide_His_1641.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 01:17:04.607422+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Medicine and Society - Midterm 2 Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "medicine", "society"], "text": null, "id": 76, "html": null, "course_id": 32, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Midterm_Study_Guide_II.doc", "desc": "Midterm 2 Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Fairy Tales and Fantasy Literature - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "folklore", "mythology", "fairy-tales"], "text": null, "id": 78, "html": "\\\\\\Chit\\_Lit\\_Study\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{max\\-width\\:496\\.8pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:10pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c16\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Midterm\\ Study\\ Guide\\ 2009\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Choose\\ 3\\ variants\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ explain\\ how\\ each\\ version\\ reflects\\ a\\ different\\ historical\\ or\\ cultural\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ fairy\\ tales\\.\\ \\(MOLLY\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Source\\:\\ The\\ Classic\\ Fairy\\ Tales\\ edited\\ by\\ Maria\\ Tatar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oral\\ tale\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Story\\ of\\ Grandmother\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(told\\ in\\ 1885\\)\\ \\(Tatar\\ 10\\-11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Fairy\\ tales\\ used\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ roots\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;peasant\\ culture\\ relatively\\ uninhibited\\ in\\ its\\ expressive\\ energy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 3\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\They\\ were\\ told\\ orally\\ by\\ peasant\\ laborers\\ and\\ workers\\ to\\ pass\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ typically\\ \\&ldquo\\;fast\\-paced\\ narratives\\ with\\ heavy\\ doses\\ of\\ burlesque\\ comedy\\,\\ melodramatic\\ action\\,\\ scatological\\ humor\\,\\ and\\ free\\-wheeling\\ violence\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ oral\\ tale\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Story\\ of\\ Grandmother\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ collected\\ by\\ French\\ folklorist\\ Paul\\ Delarue\\ in\\ 1885\\,\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ fairy\\ tale\\ in\\ this\\ oral\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*This\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\ reflects\\ the\\ ribaldry\\ and\\ coarseness\\ of\\ such\\ peasant\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ girl\\ \\(who\\ is\\ not\\ called\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ such\\ red\\ riding\\ wear\\)\\ ends\\ up\\ drinking\\ the\\ blood\\ and\\ eating\\ the\\ flesh\\ of\\ her\\ grandmother\\ at\\ the\\ urging\\ of\\ the\\ wolf\\ \\(disguised\\ as\\ the\\ grandmother\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ calls\\ her\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;slut\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ doing\\ so\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ girl\\ performs\\ a\\ striptease\\ for\\ the\\ wolf\\ at\\ his\\ command\\,\\ throwing\\ her\\ clothes\\ into\\ the\\ fire\\ one\\ by\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ the\\ girl\\ is\\ devious\\:\\ she\\ tricks\\ the\\ wolf\\ into\\ letting\\ her\\ go\\ by\\ saying\\ she\\ needs\\ to\\ relieve\\ herself\\,\\ and\\ she\\ runs\\ away\\,\\ fooling\\ the\\ wolf\\ and\\ escaping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Charles\\ Perrault\\ \\(1697\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Perrault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ LRRH\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ this\\ peasant\\ tradition\\.\\ Perrault\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ cleaned\\ up\\ LRRH\\ for\\ French\\ society\\ in\\ his\\ time\\,\\ eliminating\\ vulgarities\\ and\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ mainstream\\ citizens\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Gone\\ are\\ the\\ references\\ to\\ bodily\\ functions\\,\\ the\\ racy\\ double\\ entendres\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gaps\\ in\\ narrative\\ logic\\.\\ As\\ Delarue\\ points\\ out\\,\\ Perrault\\ removed\\ those\\ elements\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ shocked\\ the\\ society\\ of\\ his\\ epoch\\ with\\ their\\ cruelty\\ \\(the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ devouring\\ of\\ the\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flesh\\ and\\ blood\\)\\,\\ their\\ inanity\\ \\(the\\ choice\\ between\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ needles\\ and\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ pins\\)\\,\\ or\\ their\\ \\&lsquo\\;impropriety\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ about\\ her\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hairy\\ body\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LRRH\\ is\\ also\\ changed\\ from\\ a\\ trickster\\ to\\ a\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ girl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ Perrault\\ implicitly\\ and\\ explicitly\\ teaches\\ lessons\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ readers\\ through\\ his\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*Analysis\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\ \\(Tatar\\ 11\\-13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perrault\\ makes\\ LRRH\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prettiest\\ you\\ can\\ imagine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ adored\\ by\\ all\\,\\ playing\\ up\\ her\\ idyllic\\ beauty\\ and\\ innocence\\ \\(11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ LRRH\\ her\\ name\\ and\\ trademark\\ red\\ riding\\ hood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inserts\\ implicit\\ lesson\\ as\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poor\\ child\\,\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ dangerous\\ to\\ stop\\ and\\ listen\\ to\\ wolves\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LRRH\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exclamations\\ are\\ lacking\\ the\\ improper\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hairy\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Normative\\ words\\ are\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ wolf\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wicked\\ wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ explicit\\ moral\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;From\\ this\\ story\\ one\\ learns\\ that\\ children\\&hellip\\;\\ are\\ wrong\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ just\\ anyone\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Little\\ Girl\\ and\\ the\\ Wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ James\\ Thurber\\ \\(1940\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Thurber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ story\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ a\\ relatively\\ recent\\ version\\ of\\ LRRH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Reflecting\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ a\\ reaction\\ against\\ the\\ moralizing\\,\\ heavy\\-handed\\ narratives\\ of\\ past\\ fairy\\ tales\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*It\\ riffs\\ on\\ the\\ ridiculousness\\ of\\ the\\ premise\\ of\\ LRRH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Even\\ in\\ a\\ nightcap\\ a\\ wolf\\ does\\ not\\ look\\ any\\ more\\ like\\ your\\ grandmother\\ than\\ the\\ Metro\\-Goldwyn\\ lion\\ looks\\ like\\ Calvin\\ Coolidge\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*It\\ parodies\\ Perrault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moralistic\\ tone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\With\\ the\\ explicit\\ moral\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ fool\\ little\\ girls\\ nowadays\\ as\\ it\\ used\\ to\\ be\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*And\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ it\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ ribaldry\\ of\\ the\\ peasant\\ tale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ turns\\ the\\ little\\ girl\\ \\(who\\,\\ interestingly\\,\\ like\\ the\\ oral\\ tale\\ is\\ not\\ called\\ LRRH\\)\\ back\\ into\\ a\\ trickster\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ a\\ violent\\ one\\ at\\ that\\&mdash\\;she\\ \\&ldquo\\;took\\ an\\ automatic\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ basket\\ and\\ shot\\ the\\ wolf\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ its\\ irreverent\\ violence\\,\\ Thurber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tale\\ is\\ almost\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ vulgar\\ and\\ entertaining\\ peasant\\ tale\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ moralizing\\ and\\ patronizing\\ Perraultian\\ version\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Analyze\\ the\\ passage\\ below\\ from\\ Andersen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Red\\ Shoes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ connect\\ one\\ aspect\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ one\\ other\\ work\\ read\\ this\\ term\\ \\(primary\\ or\\ secondary\\ literature\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ dance\\,\\ dance\\ in\\ your\\ red\\ shoes\\ until\\ you\\ become\\ red\\ and\\ thin\\.\\ \\ \\;Dance\\ till\\ the\\ skin\\ on\\ your\\ face\\ turns\\ yellow\\ and\\ clings\\ to\\ your\\ bones\\ as\\ if\\ you\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\were\\ a\\ skeleton\\.\\ \\ \\;Dance\\ you\\ shall\\ from\\ door\\ to\\ door\\,\\ and\\ when\\ you\\ pass\\ a\\ house\\ where\\ proud\\ and\\ vain\\ people\\ live\\,\\ there\\ you\\ shall\\ knock\\ on\\ the\\ door\\ so\\ they\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;will\\ see\\ you\\ and\\ fear\\ your\\ fate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ passage\\ slightly\\ contradicts\\ Michael\\ Foucault\\&\\#39\\;s\\ discussion\\ of\\ punishment\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\ Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\,\\ for\\ Karen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ punishment\\ is\\ both\\ corporeal\\ and\\ for\\ public\\ display\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ damning\\ for\\ her\\ soul\\.\\ Foucault\\ argues\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ punishment\\ was\\ intended\\ to\\ equal\\ the\\ crime\\ and\\ be\\ put\\ on\\ public\\ display\\,\\ but\\ gradually\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ crime\\ have\\ moved\\ to\\ a\\ hidden\\ and\\ mentally\\ difficult\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ case\\ Karen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ dancing\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ crossover\\ between\\ Foucault\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bodily\\ punishment\\ and\\ punishment\\ of\\ the\\ conscious\\,\\ for\\ dancing\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ painful\\ action\\,\\ yet\\ an\\ eternity\\ of\\ dancing\\ is\\ a\\ devastating\\ fate\\ for\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ Karen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ punishment\\ does\\ fall\\ into\\ Foucault\\&\\#39\\;s\\ description\\ of\\ punishment\\ having\\ \\"\\;a\\ slackening\\ hold\\ on\\ the\\ body\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\,\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ Foucault\\&\\#39\\;s\\ argument\\ derives\\ from\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ display\\ of\\ torture\\,\\ which\\ is\\ certainly\\ not\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ Karen\\ who\\ must\\ reveal\\ herself\\ to\\ \\"\\;proud\\ and\\ vain\\ people\\.\\.\\.so\\ they\\ will\\ see\\ \\[her\\]\\ and\\ fear\\ \\[her\\]\\ fate\\"\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ Karen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ punishment\\ remains\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ display\\ of\\ punishment\\.\\ Andersen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ description\\ involves\\ both\\ forms\\ of\\ Foucault\\&\\#39\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ punishment\\:\\ both\\ that\\ of\\ public\\ display\\,\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ repetitive\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ dance\\ implies\\ the\\ inescapable\\ eternity\\ of\\ Karen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discuss\\ how\\ Elaine\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ on\\ vivacity\\ might\\ help\\ explain\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ us\\ mentally\\ when\\ we\\ read\\ the\\ passage\\ below\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ description\\,\\ on\\ a\\ second\\ reading\\,\\ once\\ we\\ are\\ aware\\ that\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ affiliated\\ with\\ evil\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ few\\ snowflakes\\ were\\ still\\ falling\\ outside\\,\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ them\\&mdash\\;the\\ largest\\ of\\ all\\&mdash\\;landed\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ flowerboxes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ snowflake\\ grew\\ and\\ grew\\ until\\ suddenly\\ it\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ woman\\ wearing\\ a\\ dress\\ made\\ of\\ white\\ gossamer\\ so\\ fine\\ and\\ sheer\\ that\\ it\\ looked\\ like\\ millions\\ of\\ sparkling\\ snowflakes\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ both\\ beautiful\\ and\\ elegant\\ but\\ made\\ of\\ ice\\,\\ dazzling\\,\\ sparkling\\ ice\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ yet\\ she\\ was\\ alive\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ eyes\\ glittered\\ like\\ two\\ bright\\ stars\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ nothing\\ peaceful\\ or\\ calm\\ about\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ nodded\\ toward\\ the\\ window\\ and\\ beckoned\\ with\\ her\\ hand\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ passage\\ from\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ ties\\ into\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notions\\ of\\ the\\ instructional\\ character\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ and\\ specifically\\ narratives\\.\\ Scarry\\ asserts\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ verbal\\ arts\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ vivacity\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ world\\,\\ they\\ must\\ somehow\\ imitate\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ real\\ life\\ perceptions\\(this\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;givenness\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ While\\ daydreaming\\ takes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ volition\\ on\\ our\\ part\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ details\\ clearly\\ and\\ create\\ realistic\\ imagined\\ perceptions\\,\\ good\\ narratives\\ take\\ the\\ reigns\\ and\\ provide\\ instructions\\ for\\ us\\ that\\ imitate\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ real\\ perceptions\\.\\ Page\\ 21\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ gives\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ this\\.\\ The\\ author\\ writes\\ the\\ narrative\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ almost\\ insert\\ little\\ directions\\ into\\ it\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ writing\\ naturally\\ directs\\ your\\ attention\\ to\\ different\\ things\\.\\ This\\ all\\ makes\\ us\\ feel\\ as\\ if\\ we\\ receive\\ objects\\,\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ there\\ for\\ the\\ taking\\.\\ To\\ create\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ kinetic\\ occlusion\\ is\\ also\\ used\\ by\\ authors\\ as\\ this\\ can\\ create\\ sense\\ of\\ solidity\\(which\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ real\\ by\\ reading\\ audiences\\)\\.\\ Kinetic\\ occlusion\\ is\\ achieved\\ when\\ one\\ object\\ moves\\ past\\ another\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ momentary\\ obstruction\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ solidity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ reading\\ this\\ passage\\ from\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ instructional\\ nature\\ of\\ narratives\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ quite\\ clearly\\.\\ Readers\\ are\\ brought\\ from\\ one\\ image\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ quite\\ easily\\,\\ eventually\\ focusing\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\ Instructions\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ sprinkled\\ throughout\\ this\\ short\\ passage\\,\\ directing\\ the\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ picture\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ of\\ snow\\ falling\\,\\ to\\ focusing\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ snow\\ flake\\ falling\\ on\\ a\\ flower\\ box\\,\\ to\\ watching\\ it\\ grow\\ larger\\ and\\ larger\\,\\ to\\ observing\\ the\\ woman\\ and\\ her\\ fine\\ dress\\,\\ to\\ seeing\\ her\\ bright\\ eyes\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ to\\ her\\ whole\\ body\\,\\ beckoning\\ Kay\\.\\ The\\ reader\\ gets\\ a\\ pretty\\ clear\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ through\\ the\\ directions\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ narrative\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ scene\\ that\\ is\\ very\\ vivid\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ much\\ like\\ real\\ perception\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ kinetic\\ occlusion\\ and\\ solidity\\ also\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\ here\\,\\ though\\ in\\ a\\ somewhat\\ different\\ way\\ than\\ is\\ shown\\ in\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ examples\\.\\ When\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;largest\\ of\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ snowflakes\\ falls\\ and\\ lands\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ the\\ flower\\ box\\,\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ solidity\\ is\\ created\\ as\\ one\\ object\\ lands\\ and\\ rests\\ on\\ another\\.\\ This\\ only\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ vivacity\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ easiest\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ imagine\\ things\\ are\\ a\\ bit\\ hazy\\ or\\ transparent\\,\\ which\\ is\\ played\\ upon\\ by\\ Andersen\\ in\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ dress\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ gossamer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Knowing\\ that\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ affiliated\\ with\\ evil\\ changes\\ this\\ all\\ slightly\\.\\ The\\ directing\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\ could\\ become\\ a\\ bit\\ more\\ apparent\\ with\\ this\\ knowledge\\,\\ making\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ feel\\ entranced\\ by\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ powerful\\ grip\\ on\\ Kay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ instructive\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ mimics\\ this\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ something\\ beautiful\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ sinister\\ in\\ this\\ transfixion\\ when\\ you\\ know\\ the\\ figure\\ is\\ evil\\.\\ This\\ is\\ especially\\ apparent\\ when\\ the\\ author\\ focuses\\ the\\ reader\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ Queen\\ which\\ was\\ neither\\ peaceful\\ nor\\ calm\\.\\ The\\ whole\\ sense\\ of\\ beauty\\ itself\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ described\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ second\\ nature\\ once\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ evil\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ last\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ beckoning\\ Kay\\ with\\ her\\ hand\\ becomes\\ sinister\\ as\\ well\\,\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ she\\ has\\ evil\\ intentions\\ in\\ transfixing\\ Kay\\ and\\ beckoning\\ him\\ to\\ come\\ with\\ her\\.\\ Overall\\,\\ the\\ first\\ reading\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ elicits\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ beauty\\,\\ with\\ distinct\\,\\ vivid\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ as\\ fostered\\ through\\ a\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ methods\\ described\\ by\\ Scarry\\,\\ while\\ the\\ second\\ adds\\ another\\ layer\\ of\\ understanding\\ to\\ this\\ direction\\,\\ making\\ the\\ reader\\ feel\\ more\\ controlled\\ and\\ also\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ evil\\ lying\\ behind\\ the\\ beauty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;Contrast\\ Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ briefly\\ with\\ Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\ and\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ know\\ of\\ the\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ books\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ kinds\\ of\\ strategies\\ does\\ Seuss\\ use\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curiosity\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ read\\ words\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ get\\ children\\ started\\ on\\ reading\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ Books\\,\\ Sally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Popular\\ basal\\ readers\\ written\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ William\\ S\\.\\ Gray\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Used\\ to\\ teach\\ children\\ to\\ read\\ from\\ the\\ 1930\\ through\\ the\\ 1970s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ books\\ relied\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\ language\\ approach\\ to\\ reading\\ and\\ repetition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\ phrase\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oh\\,\\ see\\.\\ Oh\\,\\ see\\ Jane\\.\\ Funny\\,\\ funny\\ Jane\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Suess\\-produced\\ counter\\ narrative\\-Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inane\\ repetition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Potent\\ cocktail\\ of\\ desires\\ and\\ fears\\ of\\ every\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disciplined\\ vocabulary\\-348\\ words\\-cant\\ go\\ beyond\\&hellip\\;\\ stay\\ within\\ limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\236\\ words\\ within\\ vocabulary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\ syllable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\.5\\ yrs\\ to\\ write\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;being\\ lost\\ with\\ a\\ witch\\ in\\ a\\ tunnel\\ of\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\versus\\ Goodnight\\ Moon\\-\\ 1\\ morning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anarchy\\ and\\ discipline\\ \\&ndash\\;bound\\ to\\ eachother\\-linked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bump\\ throws\\ switch\\-child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\?\\ Or\\ choreographed\\ by\\ adults\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Introduce\\ child\\ to\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Included\\ alphabet\\,\\ vowels\\,\\ consonants\\,\\ double\\ letters\\ and\\ syllabariums\\ of\\ two\\ letters\\ to\\ six\\ letter\\ syllables\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contained\\ religious\\ maxims\\,\\ woodcuts\\,\\ alphabetical\\ assistants\\,\\ acronyms\\,\\ catechisms\\ and\\ moral\\ lessons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Themes\\ of\\ discipline\\ and\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rudolf\\ Flesher\\,\\ Why\\ Johnny\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Read\\ \\(1955\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Those\\ horrible\\,\\ stupid\\,\\ emasculated\\,\\ pointless\\,\\ tasteless\\ little\\ readers\\,\\ the\\ stuff\\ and\\ guff\\ about\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ or\\ Alice\\ and\\ Jerry\\ visiting\\ the\\ farm\\ and\\ having\\ birthday\\ parties\\ and\\ seeing\\ animals\\ in\\ the\\ zoo\\ and\\ going\\ through\\ dozens\\ and\\ dozens\\ of\\ totally\\ unexciting\\ middle\\-class\\,\\ middle\\-income\\,\\ middle\\-I\\.Q\\.\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activities\\ that\\ offer\\ opportunities\\ for\\ reading\\ \\&lsquo\\;Look\\,\\ look\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;Yes\\,\\ yes\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;Come\\,\\ come\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;See\\ the\\ funny\\,\\ funny\\ animals\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puritan\\ primers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-1\\-5\\ syllable\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Biblical\\ quotations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Not\\ intended\\ to\\ delight\\ the\\ child\\,\\ but\\ intended\\ to\\ instruct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Depicts\\ ordinary\\,\\ \\"\\;middle\\-class\\,\\ middle\\-income\\,\\ middle\\-IQ\\"\\;\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Used\\ only\\ 236\\ words\\ so\\ that\\ 5\\-year\\ olds\\ could\\ understand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ words\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ syllable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Embraces\\ mayhem\\ and\\ uses\\ humor\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ reader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;Something\\ went\\ BUMP\\!\\ \\ \\;How\\ that\\ bump\\ made\\ us\\ jump\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Foucault\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ modern\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;born\\ of\\ regulations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Trace\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ this\\ concept\\ to\\ John\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Locke\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ English\\ 17th\\ Century\\ Philosopher\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ defining\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ maintained\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ born\\ without\\ innate\\ ideas\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;tabula\\ rasa\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ were\\ therefore\\ able\\ to\\ author\\ their\\ own\\ souls\\ and\\ identities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michel\\ Foucault\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ French\\ 20th\\ century\\ philosopher\\,\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ critic\\ of\\ social\\ institutions\\ \\(in\\ Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\ the\\ social\\ institutions\\ are\\ really\\ the\\ legal\\ and\\ penal\\ systems\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ extension\\ we\\ could\\ consider\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ institution\\ which\\ ties\\ in\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Some\\ Thoughts\\ Concerning\\ Education\\,\\ John\\ Locke\\ outlines\\ detailed\\ instructions\\ for\\ parents\\ which\\ he\\ judges\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ for\\ the\\ breeding\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ gentleman\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ While\\ his\\ guidelines\\ touch\\ on\\ everything\\ from\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ fruit\\,\\ to\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ stools\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ learning\\ to\\ swim\\,\\ they\\ focus\\ most\\ decidedly\\ on\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Locke\\ believes\\ that\\ man\\ is\\ born\\ without\\ innate\\ ideas\\.\\ His\\ notion\\ of\\ tabula\\ rasa\\ not\\ only\\ implies\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ but\\ also\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ author\\ their\\ own\\ identity\\ and\\ ultimately\\ craft\\ their\\ own\\ soul\\.\\ Michel\\ Foucault\\ believed\\ that\\ modern\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;born\\ of\\ regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ work\\ Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\ Foucault\\ examines\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ discipline\\ from\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;gloomy\\ festival\\ of\\ punishment\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ age\\ of\\ sobriety\\&rdquo\\;\\ defined\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ morality\\ concerning\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ punishing\\.\\ He\\ illuminates\\ this\\ transition\\ with\\ the\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ a\\ brutal\\ public\\ execution\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\ with\\ a\\ stale\\ and\\ tempered\\ prison\\ schedule\\ from\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\.\\ Foucault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ was\\ no\\ doubt\\ inspired\\ by\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ earlier\\ writings\\.\\ The\\ former\\ bases\\ his\\ analysis\\ of\\ punishment\\ on\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ self\\-determined\\ soul\\ and\\ argues\\ that\\ as\\ punishment\\ evolved\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 18th\\/early\\ 19th\\ centuries\\ punishment\\ was\\ redirected\\ from\\ addressing\\ the\\ body\\ to\\ confronting\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ This\\ process\\ coincided\\ with\\ changes\\ in\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\,\\ which\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 19th\\ century\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ menacing\\ works\\ of\\ earlier\\ times\\,\\ such\\ as\\ A\\ Token\\ for\\ Children\\,\\ and\\ focused\\ instead\\ on\\ moral\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ establishes\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ discipline\\ on\\ which\\ Foucault\\ builds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;As\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ lies\\ chiefly\\ in\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ endure\\ hardships\\,\\ so\\ also\\ does\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Link\\ to\\ Bettelheim\\ who\\ thinks\\ that\\ exposing\\ children\\ to\\ violence\\ through\\ literature\\ is\\ cathartic\\ and\\ character\\-building\\,\\ that\\ it\\ teaches\\ them\\ to\\ cope\\ later\\ in\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Great\\ mistake\\ parent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ make\\ with\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\ \\à\\;\\ Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mind\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ made\\ obedient\\ to\\ discipline\\,\\ and\\ pliant\\ to\\ reason\\,\\ when\\ at\\ first\\ it\\ was\\ most\\ tender\\,\\ most\\ easy\\ to\\ be\\ bowed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Ex\\:\\ Should\\ the\\ Darling\\&rsquo\\;s\\ have\\ coddled\\ their\\ children\\ less\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ used\\ to\\ submit\\ his\\ will\\ to\\ the\\ reason\\ of\\ others\\,\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ young\\,\\ will\\ scarce\\ hearken\\ or\\ submit\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ reason\\,\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ of\\ an\\ age\\ to\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Worth\\ noting\\ that\\ in\\ discussing\\ discipline\\ in\\ education\\ Locke\\ was\\ not\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ physical\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ usual\\ lazy\\ and\\ short\\ way\\ \\(of\\ disciplining\\ the\\ child\\)\\ by\\ chastisement\\ and\\ the\\ rod\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ instrument\\ of\\ government\\ that\\ tutors\\ generally\\ know\\ or\\ ever\\ think\\ of\\,\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ unfit\\ of\\ any\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ education\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foucault\\ views\\ punishment\\ as\\ a\\ complex\\ social\\ function\\ that\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ cultural\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ of\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ social\\ institutions\\ on\\ our\\ development\\ of\\ self\\ \\à\\;\\ for\\ example\\ how\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ punishment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ early\\ 17th\\ century\\:\\ \\ \\;criminals\\ guilty\\ of\\ egregious\\ crimes\\ endured\\ public\\ humiliation\\ and\\ \\ \\;bodily\\ torture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;use\\ of\\ public\\ torture\\ as\\ spectacle\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ criminals\\ effected\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ including\\ children\\ \\(recall\\ that\\ Andersen\\ watched\\ an\\ execution\\ as\\ a\\ school\\ boy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Children\\ grew\\ up\\ acutely\\ aware\\ moral\\ decay\\ and\\ crime\\ corresponded\\ to\\ an\\ equally\\ savage\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ body\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ target\\ of\\ torture\\ and\\ the\\ entire\\ community\\ witnessed\\ the\\ punishment\\ exacted\\ in\\ real\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Spectacles\\ of\\ persecution\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ instruction\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ living\\ lesson\\ in\\ the\\ museum\\ of\\ order\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ public\\ execution\\ started\\ to\\ lose\\ its\\ effectiveness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ A\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ punishment\\ emerged\\-\\ a\\ regime\\ of\\ atonement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ gloomy\\ festival\\ of\\ punishment\\ was\\ dying\\ out\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Punishment\\ became\\ more\\ hidden\\ and\\,\\ hence\\,\\ more\\ abstract\\ from\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Moral\\ and\\ religious\\ rectification\\ played\\ a\\ bigger\\ role\\ in\\ reforming\\ criminals\\ \\(think\\ of\\ the\\ connection\\ to\\ Locke\\ here\\,\\ the\\ primacy\\ of\\ discipline\\ and\\ morality\\ and\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Notion\\ of\\ soul\\ and\\ cure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ publicity\\ associated\\ with\\ crime\\ became\\ the\\ trial\\ and\\ sentence\\ not\\ the\\ punishment\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ age\\ of\\ sobriety\\ in\\ punishment\\ instead\\ focused\\ on\\ positively\\ reforming\\ the\\ criminal\\?s\\ soul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ both\\ enlightenment\\ \\(Locke\\)\\ and\\ post\\-modern\\ \\(Foucault\\)\\ philosophy\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ pivotal\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(FOR\\ FULL\\ DISCLOSURE\\:\\ this\\ section\\ is\\ an\\ edited\\ version\\ of\\ an\\ essay\\ that\\ I\\ read\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ Logan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ guides\\ but\\ I\\ thought\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ clear\\ and\\ comprehensive\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ disciplinary\\ edge\\ to\\ children\\?s\\ literature\\ illuminates\\ society\\?s\\ outlook\\ on\\ deviance\\ and\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hans\\ Christian\\ Andersen\\,\\ who\\ witnessed\\ public\\ executions\\ as\\ a\\ child\\,\\ utilized\\ both\\ models\\ of\\ punishment\\ that\\ Foucault\\ examines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ his\\ fairy\\ tale\\,\\ The\\ Little\\ Red\\ Shoes\\.\\ Andersen\\ uses\\ Karen\\?s\\ vain\\ love\\ of\\ her\\ red\\ shows\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ sinful\\ pride\\.\\ Her\\ public\\ punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ of\\ mortification\\ and\\ humiliation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ belongs\\ in\\ the\\ old\\ realm\\ of\\ physical\\ castigation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ While\\ Karen\\ pays\\ dearly\\ for\\ her\\ little\\ red\\ shoes\\,\\ her\\ example\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ strike\\ a\\ cord\\ with\\ the\\ docile\\,\\ obedient\\ child\\ reading\\ the\\ story\\.\\ Seeing\\ Karen\\?s\\ downfall\\,\\ the\\ child\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ later\\ model\\ of\\ punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\ regulation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Andersen\\?s\\ dual\\ perspective\\ on\\ punishment\\ and\\ his\\ deliberate\\ use\\ on\\ punishment\\ to\\ teach\\ a\\ moral\\ lesson\\ show\\ an\\ evolution\\ in\\ disciplinary\\ messages\\ within\\ children\\?s\\ literature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ A\\ similar\\ lesson\\ is\\ taught\\ in\\ the\\ Brothers\\ Grimm\\?s\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\ and\\ Hans\\ Christian\\ Andersen\\?s\\ The\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\.\\ In\\ both\\ fairy\\ tales\\,\\ children\\ suffer\\ public\\ humiliation\\ but\\ triumph\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ their\\ journey\\.\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\ face\\ abandonment\\ by\\ the\\ parents\\.\\ The\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ enters\\ the\\ human\\ world\\ an\\ enchanting\\ girl\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ mute\\.\\ Their\\ struggles\\ to\\ overcome\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;punishments\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ their\\ ultimate\\ triumphs\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ disciplinary\\ edge\\ of\\ Children\\?s\\ literature\\.\\ Notably\\,\\ the\\ Brothers\\ Grimm\\ were\\ written\\ well\\ before\\ Andersen\\?s\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ Consider\\ concluding\\ on\\ the\\ note\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;curiosity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Curiosity\\ in\\ children\\ is\\ but\\ an\\ appetite\\ after\\ knowledge\\ and\\ therefore\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ encouraged\\ in\\ them\\,\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ sign\\,\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ great\\ instrument\\ nature\\ has\\ provided\\ to\\ remove\\ that\\ ignorance\\ they\\ were\\ born\\ with\\ and\\ which\\,\\ without\\ this\\ busy\\ inquisitiveness\\,\\ will\\ make\\ them\\ dull\\ and\\ useless\\ creatures\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Foucault\\:\\ consider\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ Foucault\\ believes\\ mold\\ the\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\:\\ think\\ of\\ everything\\ from\\ Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ to\\ Peter\\ and\\ Wendy\\ and\\ Pan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Labyrinth\\ \\à\\;\\ all\\ the\\ journey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ children\\ take\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ curiosity\\.\\ How\\ does\\ this\\ relate\\ to\\ discipline\\?\\ Are\\ they\\ authoring\\ their\\ own\\ souls\\,\\ as\\ Locke\\ might\\ suggest\\,\\ by\\ indulging\\ their\\ curiosity\\ or\\ are\\ they\\ breaking\\ free\\ from\\ Foucault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;How\\ does\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;anamorphic\\ stain\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Holbein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ The\\ Ambassadors\\ manifest\\ itself\\ in\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ or\\ in\\ Goodnight\\ Moon\\?\\ \\ \\;Identify\\ specific\\ textual\\ moments\\ and\\ explain\\ why\\ they\\ might\\ escape\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ambassadors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Features\\ two\\ men\\ who\\ radiate\\ confidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ \\"\\;anamorphic\\ stain\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ a\\ skull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ skull\\ is\\ a\\ memento\\ mori\\ \\-\\ a\\ reminder\\ of\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Death\\ is\\ omnipresent\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charlotte\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Web\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Though\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ children\\&\\#39\\;s\\ story\\,\\ theme\\ of\\ death\\ plays\\ a\\ prominent\\ role\\,\\ even\\ from\\ the\\ very\\ first\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;Where\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Papa\\ going\\ with\\ that\\ ax\\?\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Death\\ is\\ omnipresent\\,\\ though\\ sometimes\\ unnoticed\\ by\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Spiderwebs\\ are\\ death\\ traps\\,\\ though\\ Charlotte\\&\\#39\\;s\\ web\\ saves\\ Wilbur\\.\\ Webs\\ also\\ produce\\ life\\ \\(egg\\ sacs\\)\\ \\(womb\\/tomb\\ theme\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goodnight\\ moon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Though\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ children\\&\\#39\\;s\\ story\\,\\ theme\\ of\\ death\\ lies\\ just\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Goodnight\\ \\=\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Intricate\\ details\\ hidden\\ from\\ a\\ child\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-No\\ parent\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ only\\ an\\ \\"\\;old\\ lady\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Time\\ ticks\\ on\\ relentlessly\\ \\(7\\:00\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ 8\\:10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ room\\ grows\\ darker\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ moon\\ is\\ rising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\ \\;Choose\\ two\\ scenes\\ of\\ reading\\,\\ storytelling\\,\\ or\\ writing\\ in\\ books\\ we\\ have\\ read\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ significance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Class\\ started\\ out\\ with\\ oral\\ stories\\,\\ folklore\\ \\à\\;\\ can\\ discuss\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ storytelling\\ around\\ the\\ fire\\,\\ keeping\\ the\\ stories\\ alive\\,\\ this\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;verbal\\ pornography\\&rdquo\\;\\ very\\ graphic\\,\\ violent\\ stories\\,\\ not\\ really\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stories\\;\\ contained\\ some\\ moral\\;\\ when\\ told\\ around\\ the\\ fire\\,\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ different\\ versions\\ of\\ each\\ story\\;\\ storytelling\\ important\\ to\\ every\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Peter\\ Pan\\ \\à\\;\\ Wendy\\ is\\ taken\\ for\\ her\\ storytelling\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ to\\ be\\ their\\ mother\\;\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ storytelling\\ is\\ a\\ characteristic\\ of\\ parenting\\,\\ or\\ mothers\\,\\ and\\ is\\ something\\ good\\ mothers\\ do\\ for\\ their\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ Wendy\\ starts\\ telling\\ stories\\ about\\ their\\ mothers\\ during\\ their\\ stay\\ in\\ Neverland\\ and\\ so\\ this\\ also\\ connects\\ story\\-telling\\ with\\ parents\\;\\ every\\ generation\\ of\\ girls\\ in\\ Wendy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ then\\ go\\ with\\ Peter\\ back\\ to\\ Neverland\\ for\\ some\\ time\\ every\\ spring\\ \\(except\\ when\\ he\\ forgets\\)\\ and\\ tells\\ him\\ stories\\ about\\ himself\\,\\ the\\ eternal\\ child\\ \\à\\;\\ this\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ their\\ being\\ his\\ mother\\ \\(they\\ also\\ clean\\ for\\ him\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Flowers\\ in\\ The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ flowers\\ that\\ speak\\ poetry\\ posing\\ alternate\\ possibilities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Tiger\\ Lily\\ it\\ tells\\ a\\ horrific\\ story\\ coming\\ from\\ a\\ beautiful\\ flower\\,\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ embodiment\\ here\\ of\\ both\\ horror\\ \\&\\;\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ morning\\ glory\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ a\\ beautiful\\ woman\\ waiting\\ for\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ come\\,\\ although\\ the\\ reason\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ daisy\\ and\\ they\\ hyacinths\\ tell\\ beautiful\\ stories\\,\\ but\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ sad\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ stories\\ make\\ Gerda\\ very\\ sad\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ the\\ buttercup\\,\\ which\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\ full\\ of\\ gold\\ and\\ beauty\\,\\ makes\\ Gerda\\ sad\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ grandmother\\ and\\ she\\ realizes\\ that\\ her\\ own\\ grandmother\\ must\\ be\\ missing\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ are\\ all\\ sad\\ stories\\ coming\\ from\\ such\\ beautiful\\ flowers\\ which\\ previously\\ had\\ brought\\ Gerda\\ so\\ much\\ joy\\,\\ and\\ she\\ had\\ loved\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ hearing\\ their\\ stories\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ she\\ must\\ leave\\ and\\ she\\ runs\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ garden\\ and\\ continues\\ on\\ her\\ way\\ to\\ find\\ Kai\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ flowers\\&rsquo\\;\\ stories\\ emphasize\\ a\\ key\\ element\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\:\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ horror\\ can\\ be\\ intertwined\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ a\\ parallel\\ to\\ these\\ flowers\\ in\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ very\\ beautiful\\ and\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ attract\\ Kai\\ with\\ her\\ beauty\\,\\ but\\ she\\ is\\ very\\ evil\\,\\ cold\\,\\ and\\ deadly\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ he\\ stays\\ with\\ her\\ too\\ long\\,\\ his\\ heart\\ will\\ turn\\ to\\ ice\\ and\\ he\\ will\\ die\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ flowers\\ present\\ a\\ similar\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ seemingly\\ very\\ nice\\ witch\\:\\ there\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ good\\ intentions\\ here\\ and\\ she\\ intends\\ to\\ keep\\ Gerda\\ forever\\ because\\ she\\ has\\ always\\ wanted\\ a\\ girl\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ actually\\ going\\ to\\ help\\ Gerda\\ find\\ her\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ are\\ 3\\ examples\\ of\\ scenes\\ with\\ outlined\\ answers\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Peter\\ and\\ Wendy\\:\\ Wendy\\ telling\\ bedtime\\ stories\\ to\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Solidifies\\ her\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ The\\ boys\\ look\\ up\\ to\\ her\\ like\\ their\\ own\\ mothers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ She\\ tells\\ stories\\,\\ shows\\ her\\ knowledge\\,\\ makes\\ her\\ seem\\ older\\ and\\ more\\ experienced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Is\\ Wendy\\ appropriate\\ as\\ a\\ mother\\ to\\ these\\ boys\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Facilitates\\ the\\ maturity\\ process\\ \\à\\;\\ telling\\ these\\ stories\\ makes\\ Wendy\\ \\&ldquo\\;grow\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ more\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ As\\ Wendy\\ tells\\ the\\ stories\\ and\\ experiences\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;adventures\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ Peter\\ and\\ the\\ Boys\\,\\ she\\ matures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Subtly\\ reminds\\ the\\ Boys\\ of\\ life\\ away\\ from\\ Neverland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Tells\\ stories\\ from\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Talks\\ to\\ her\\ brothers\\ about\\ their\\ parents\\,\\ testing\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ remember\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ writing\\ exam\\ questions\\ on\\ the\\ slates\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ color\\ were\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\?\\ Describe\\ Father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laugh\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Peter\\ and\\ Wendy\\:\\ Wendy\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ and\\ Neverland\\ to\\ her\\ daughter\\/granddaughters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Continues\\ the\\ legend\\:\\ makes\\ Peter\\ return\\ for\\ future\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ As\\ long\\ as\\ children\\ believe\\,\\ Peter\\ will\\ come\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ long\\ as\\ children\\ are\\ gay\\ and\\ innocent\\ and\\ heartless\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Without\\ Wendy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ retelling\\ of\\ the\\ legend\\,\\ would\\ Neverland\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;exist\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ This\\ form\\ of\\ storytelling\\ mirrors\\ that\\ of\\ cultures\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Legends\\ are\\ passed\\ on\\ as\\ a\\ method\\ of\\ preservation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ The\\ method\\ of\\ storytelling\\ as\\ relationship\\ bonding\\ between\\ mother\\ and\\ daughter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ young\\ mermaid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(it\\ never\\ says\\ Ariel\\ in\\ the\\ story\\)\\ older\\ sisters\\ tell\\ her\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ These\\ stories\\ fuel\\ her\\ desire\\ to\\ venture\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ world\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Without\\ the\\ vivid\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\ would\\ have\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ desire\\/be\\ less\\ mystified\\ about\\ her\\ birthday\\ rite\\ of\\ passage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ The\\ parallel\\ of\\ storytelling\\ and\\ the\\ curiosity\\ of\\ the\\ unknown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ The\\ stories\\ enhance\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ The\\ stories\\ from\\ her\\ sisters\\ eventually\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ demise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Without\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\,\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\ would\\ never\\ have\\ fallen\\ in\\ love\\/made\\ a\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ sea\\ witch\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ lost\\ her\\ tongue\\/would\\ not\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ watch\\ her\\ love\\ marry\\ another\\ girl\\/she\\ would\\ have\\ secured\\ her\\ immortal\\ soul\\ and\\ still\\ live\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ storytelling\\,\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\ is\\ sentenced\\ to\\ a\\ life\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;daughter\\ of\\ the\\ air\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(at\\ least\\ for\\ 300\\ years\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ In\\ the\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\,\\ unlike\\ in\\ other\\ stories\\,\\ the\\ storytelling\\ is\\ actually\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ tragedy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ 8\\.\\ \\ \\;Choose\\ two\\ works\\ covered\\ in\\ class\\ so\\ far\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ relation\\ in\\ each\\ between\\ motherhood\\ and\\ storytelling\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ are\\ questions\\ of\\ generation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ biological\\ and\\ literary\\-creative\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ explored\\ in\\ the\\ stories\\ literature\\ we\\ have\\ encountered\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peter\\ \\&\\;\\ Wendy\\ \\-\\ Chapter\\ XI\\ \\&\\;\\ XVII\\ \\-\\ This\\ story\\ is\\ perfect\\ for\\ this\\ question\\ since\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ theme\\.\\ The\\ dichotomy\\ of\\ the\\ biological\\ and\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ is\\ also\\ explored\\ through\\ Wendy\\,\\ who\\ serves\\ as\\ both\\ roles\\.\\ She\\ is\\ the\\ metaphorical\\,\\ appointed\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\ in\\ Neverland\\ and\\ later\\ on\\ she\\ is\\ the\\ biological\\ mother\\ to\\ Jane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wendy\\ as\\ the\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\;\\ Wendy\\ rarely\\ goes\\ above\\ ground\\ b\\/c\\ she\\ is\\ busy\\ cooking\\/darning\\ socks\\/sewing\\;\\ much\\ of\\ this\\ time\\ is\\ spent\\ doing\\ pretend\\ household\\ duties\\,\\ but\\ it\\ takes\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ her\\ time\\ nonetheless\\;\\ Wendy\\ tells\\ the\\ boys\\ a\\ good\\ night\\ story\\ most\\ nights\\ before\\ they\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\;\\ the\\ night\\ of\\ their\\ kidnapping\\ she\\ tells\\ them\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ her\\,\\ John\\ and\\ Michael\\;\\ Peter\\ hates\\ this\\ story\\ but\\ all\\ the\\ boys\\ love\\ it\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Darling\\ children\\ came\\ to\\ Neverland\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ and\\ then\\ returned\\ home\\ to\\ their\\ welcoming\\ parents\\;\\ this\\ story\\ leads\\ to\\ John\\,\\ Michael\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ Lost\\ Boys\\ wanting\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Darling\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wendy\\ grows\\ up\\ and\\ becomes\\ a\\ real\\ mother\\;\\ she\\ tells\\ her\\ daughter\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ in\\ Neverland\\ as\\ a\\ child\\;\\ Jane\\,\\ the\\ daughter\\,\\ has\\ to\\ reassure\\ Wendy\\ that\\ her\\ childhood\\ stories\\ were\\ true\\,\\ that\\ she\\ actually\\ could\\ fly\\,\\ etc\\.\\;\\ Wendy\\ has\\ these\\ storytelling\\ sessions\\ before\\ Jane\\ goes\\ to\\ sleep\\;\\ by\\ teaching\\ Jane\\ about\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ and\\ Neverland\\,\\ Wendy\\ indirectly\\ creates\\ the\\ possibility\\ for\\ Jane\\ to\\ fly\\ away\\ with\\ Peter\\;\\ this\\ cyclical\\ relationship\\ continues\\ for\\ generations\\,\\ as\\ Jane\\ tells\\ her\\ daughter\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ Jane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ leaves\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ \\-\\ Chapter\\ 8\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ literary\\/metaphorical\\ mother\\ to\\ Wilbur\\ in\\ this\\ novel\\.\\ Fern\\ also\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ to\\ Wilbur\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ storytelling\\ theme\\ linked\\ with\\ Fern\\ so\\ this\\ answer\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ Charlotte\\.\\ Wilbur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biological\\ mother\\ is\\ never\\ mentioned\\.\\ After\\ Templeton\\ brings\\ Charlotte\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;radiant\\&rdquo\\;\\ cut\\-out\\ from\\ the\\ soap\\ flake\\ box\\,\\ Wilbur\\ asks\\ Charlotte\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ a\\ bed\\-time\\ story\\.\\ Charlotte\\ tells\\ Wilbur\\ 2\\ stories\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cousin\\ catches\\ a\\ fish\\ in\\ her\\ web\\;\\ struggles\\ for\\ hours\\ to\\ wrangle\\ it\\ in\\;\\ eventually\\ succeeds\\ 2\\)\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ other\\ cousin\\ is\\ an\\ aeronaut\\,\\ who\\ can\\ lay\\ on\\ her\\ back\\,\\ shoot\\ a\\ web\\-balloon\\ into\\ the\\ air\\,\\ and\\ then\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ fly\\/float\\ away\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ cited\\ by\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ nonsense\\.\\ \\ \\;Cite\\ two\\ instances\\ of\\ nonsense\\ in\\ Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ function\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\,\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ Syntactic\\ Structures\\,\\ writes\\ perhaps\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ nonsense\\ sentences\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ From\\ a\\ linguistic\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ this\\ sentence\\ is\\ syntactically\\ correct\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ two\\ adjectives\\ that\\ describe\\ the\\ subject\\ \\&ldquo\\;ideas\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ verb\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;sleep\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ adverb\\ modifying\\ the\\ verb\\.\\ While\\ the\\ syntax\\ is\\ correct\\,\\ the\\ sentence\\ is\\ utterly\\ ungrammatical\\ because\\ the\\ semantics\\ are\\ completely\\ not\\ interpretable\\.\\ The\\ sentence\\ is\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Nonsense\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\ \\(or\\ arguably\\ perhaps\\ has\\ meaning\\ through\\ its\\ lack\\ of\\ meaning\\)\\.\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\ defines\\ nonsense\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ the\\ richness\\ of\\ imagination\\ in\\ its\\ lawless\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Indeed\\,\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ understand\\ \\&ldquo\\;nonsense\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Lewis\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\,\\ there\\ are\\ countless\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ nonsense\\.\\ Perhaps\\ Carroll\\,\\ in\\ writing\\ this\\ novel\\,\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ child\\ good\\-sense\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ was\\ compelled\\ to\\ present\\ nonsense\\ to\\ these\\ child\\ readers\\.\\ Nonsense\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ quite\\ contradictory\\ and\\ arbitrary\\.\\ Carroll\\ did\\ not\\ create\\ nonsense\\ in\\ Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ purely\\ to\\ entertain\\;\\ instead\\,\\ perhaps\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ nonsense\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ readers\\ find\\ deeper\\ levels\\ of\\ sense\\ within\\ the\\ text\\.\\ Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ meaning\\ \\(with\\ various\\ allegories\\ imposing\\ a\\ heavy\\-handed\\ meaning\\ on\\ the\\ reader\\)\\,\\ while\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ seems\\ to\\ resist\\ meaning\\ in\\ its\\ disconnect\\ and\\ pure\\ absurdity\\.\\ Alice\\,\\ at\\ one\\ point\\,\\ even\\ comments\\ on\\ nonsensical\\ nature\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ I\\ had\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ my\\ own\\,\\ everything\\ would\\ be\\ nonsense\\.\\ Nothing\\ would\\ be\\ what\\ it\\ is\\,\\ because\\ everything\\ would\\ be\\ what\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ And\\ contrary\\ wise\\,\\ what\\ is\\,\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\.\\ And\\ what\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\,\\ it\\ would\\.\\ You\\ see\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Looking\\ specifically\\ at\\ the\\ text\\,\\ in\\ chapter\\ two\\ of\\ Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\,\\ The\\ Pool\\ of\\ Tears\\,\\ Alice\\ at\\ a\\ loss\\ for\\ who\\ she\\ is\\ any\\ longer\\,\\ confused\\ by\\ what\\ she\\ knows\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\.\\ She\\ says\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\[I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ I\\ cant\\ be\\ Mabel\\,\\ for\\ I\\ know\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ things\\,\\ and\\ she\\ oh\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ such\\ a\\ very\\ little\\!\\ Besides\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ she\\,\\ and\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ I\\,\\ and\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\,\\ how\\ puzzling\\ it\\ all\\ is\\!\\]\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ try\\ if\\ I\\ know\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ I\\ used\\ to\\ know\\.\\ Let\\ me\\ see\\:\\ four\\ times\\ five\\ is\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ for\\ times\\ six\\ is\\ thirteen\\,\\ and\\ four\\ times\\ seven\\ is\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\!\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ get\\ to\\ twenty\\ at\\ that\\ rate\\.\\ \\(p\\.16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Martin\\ Gardner\\,\\ in\\ The\\ Annotated\\ Alice\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ Alice\\ will\\ never\\ reach\\ 20\\ because\\ the\\ traditional\\ multiplication\\ table\\ stops\\ with\\ multiples\\ of\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ system\\ Alice\\ is\\ using\\,\\ 4\\ times\\ 12\\ will\\ be\\ 19\\.\\ While\\ this\\ point\\ is\\ valid\\,\\ the\\ entirety\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ is\\ still\\ completely\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Clearly\\ her\\ math\\ skills\\ are\\ incorrect\\,\\ and\\ she\\ continues\\ to\\ mess\\ up\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ geography\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ paragraph\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Paris\\ is\\ the\\ capital\\ of\\ Rome\\&mdash\\;No\\!\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ wrong\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Alice\\ is\\ clearly\\ speaking\\ nonsense\\ in\\ this\\ paragraph\\,\\ yet\\ she\\ expresses\\ her\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ For\\ Alice\\,\\ this\\ functions\\ to\\ make\\ things\\ more\\ curious\\,\\ confusing\\,\\ and\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Math\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ what\\ she\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\,\\ as\\ she\\ botches\\ her\\ multiplication\\.\\ In\\ Wonderland\\,\\ Alice\\ cannot\\ fit\\ her\\ experiences\\ into\\ a\\ logical\\ framework\\ that\\ she\\ can\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\;\\ instead\\,\\ countless\\ desires\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ are\\ frustrated\\ by\\ Wonderland\\.\\ Carroll\\ shares\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ understanding\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ expressing\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ exist\\ not\\ only\\ for\\ Alice\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Life\\ can\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ be\\ utterly\\ senseless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ nonsense\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ chapter\\ ten\\ of\\ Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\,\\ The\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\.\\ The\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ Gryphon\\,\\ after\\ demonstrating\\ to\\ Alice\\ the\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\,\\ ask\\ her\\ enthusiastically\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ adventures\\ from\\ that\\ day\\.\\ Alice\\,\\ when\\ asked\\ by\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ to\\ sing\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ sluggard\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ begins\\ to\\ sing\\ a\\ completely\\ nonsensical\\ verse\\ \\(as\\ the\\ Lobster\\-Quadrille\\ was\\ stuck\\ in\\ her\\ head\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Lobster\\:\\ I\\ heard\\ him\\ declare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;You\\ have\\ baked\\ me\\ too\\ brown\\,\\ I\\ must\\ sugar\\ my\\ hair\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ As\\ a\\ duck\\ with\\ his\\ eyelids\\,\\ so\\ he\\ with\\ his\\ nose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trims\\ his\\ belt\\ and\\ his\\ buttons\\,\\ and\\ turns\\ out\\ his\\ toes\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(p\\.82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ both\\ the\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ nonsense\\ in\\ her\\ words\\,\\ Alice\\,\\ in\\ despair\\,\\ wonders\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;anything\\ would\\ ever\\ happen\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ way\\ again\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ nonsense\\ functions\\ for\\ both\\ the\\ reader\\ and\\ for\\ Alice\\.\\ For\\ Alice\\,\\ her\\ words\\ and\\ actions\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\ only\\ add\\ to\\ her\\ own\\ confusion\\.\\ It\\ is\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ curious\\(er\\!\\)\\ for\\ Alice\\,\\ and\\ she\\ has\\ become\\ frustrated\\ by\\ these\\ puzzles\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ encountering\\.\\ She\\ cries\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ things\\ will\\ ever\\ make\\ sense\\ again\\.\\ On\\ a\\ quite\\ different\\ note\\,\\ again\\,\\ this\\ nonsense\\ perhaps\\ functions\\ to\\ speak\\ about\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ Carroll\\ may\\ be\\ pointing\\ out\\ that\\ life\\ has\\ no\\ clear\\ path\\ or\\ solution\\,\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ oftentimes\\ serve\\ to\\ frustrate\\/disturb\\ our\\ expectations\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Alice\\ thought\\ this\\ song\\ she\\ sang\\ to\\ be\\ familiar\\,\\ she\\ sang\\ a\\ new\\,\\ nonsensical\\,\\ and\\ absurd\\ verse\\.\\ Even\\ when\\ people\\ encounter\\ familiar\\ and\\ explainable\\ troubles\\ and\\ tribulations\\,\\ life\\ can\\ alter\\ these\\ seemingly\\ understood\\ factors\\;\\ life\\ can\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ be\\ completely\\ illogical\\ and\\ confusing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*EXTRA\\ THOUGHT\\*Looking\\ specifically\\ at\\ lines\\ of\\ particular\\ language\\ in\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\,\\ it\\ is\\ interesting\\ how\\ he\\ plays\\ on\\ multiple\\ meanings\\ of\\ words\\,\\ or\\ uses\\ puns\\,\\ to\\ bring\\ deeper\\ meaning\\ to\\ those\\ words\\ throughout\\ the\\ text\\.\\ Alice\\ often\\ exclaims\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Curious\\ and\\ curiouser\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ Her\\ language\\ echoes\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ her\\ experiences\\,\\ as\\ both\\ expand\\ beyond\\ the\\ ordinary\\ convention\\.\\ Nonsense\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ endless\\ possibilities\\ associated\\ with\\ nonsense\\,\\ are\\ expressed\\ through\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manipulation\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ thus\\.\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ how\\ Lewis\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ nonsense\\ to\\ communicate\\ very\\ important\\ concepts\\ about\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ Alice\\ is\\ oftentimes\\ frustrated\\ by\\ this\\ nonsense\\ and\\ cannot\\ seem\\ to\\ grasp\\ it\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ often\\ frustrated\\ and\\ unable\\ to\\ grasp\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ seemingly\\ senseless\\ happenings\\ in\\ life\\.\\ Perhaps\\,\\ Alice\\ concluded\\ everything\\ she\\ had\\ encountered\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ properly\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ when\\ she\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ atom\\ of\\ meaning\\ in\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wonderland\\ may\\ resist\\ meaning\\,\\ or\\ it\\ may\\ function\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ even\\ greater\\ and\\ more\\ impressionable\\ messages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OUTLINE\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Noam\\ Chomsky\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Correct\\ syntax\\;\\ ungrammatical\\ semantics\\:\\ this\\ sentence\\ cannot\\ be\\ interpreted\\/understood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Immanuel\\ Kant\\ defines\\ nonsense\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ the\\ richness\\ of\\ imagination\\ in\\ its\\ lawless\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Multiplication\\ Table\\,\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ The\\ Pool\\ of\\ Tears\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Let\\ me\\ see\\:\\ four\\ times\\ five\\ is\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ for\\ times\\ six\\ is\\ thirteen\\,\\ and\\ four\\ times\\ seven\\ is\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\!\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ get\\ to\\ twenty\\ at\\ that\\ rate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Alice\\ is\\ clearly\\ speaking\\ nonsense\\ in\\ this\\ paragraph\\,\\ yet\\ she\\ expresses\\ her\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Function\\ for\\ Alice\\:\\ This\\ makes\\ things\\ more\\ curious\\,\\ confusing\\,\\ and\\ nonsensical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Function\\ for\\ Reader\\:\\ Carroll\\ shares\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ understanding\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ expressing\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ exist\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Life\\ can\\ be\\ utterly\\ senseless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Song\\ for\\ the\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ Gryphon\\,\\ Chapter\\ 10\\ The\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Lobster\\:\\ I\\ heard\\ him\\ declare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;You\\ have\\ baked\\ me\\ too\\ brown\\,\\ I\\ must\\ sugar\\ my\\ hair\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ duck\\ with\\ his\\ eyelids\\,\\ so\\ he\\ with\\ his\\ nose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trims\\ his\\ belt\\ and\\ his\\ buttons\\,\\ and\\ turns\\ out\\ his\\ toes\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(p\\.82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ nonsense\\ in\\ her\\ words\\,\\ and\\ Alice\\,\\ in\\ despair\\,\\ wonders\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;anything\\ would\\ ever\\ happen\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ way\\ again\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Function\\ for\\ Alice\\:\\ understanding\\ now\\ nonsensical\\ everything\\ is\\,\\ esp\\.\\ in\\ Wonderland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Function\\ for\\ Reader\\:\\ The\\ nonsense\\ perhaps\\ functions\\ to\\ speak\\ about\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ as\\ some\\ things\\ in\\ life\\ we\\ cannot\\ interpret\\ or\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\.\\ Some\\ things\\ we\\ might\\ have\\ thought\\ we\\ understood\\ can\\ change\\ in\\ an\\ instant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Lewis\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ nonsense\\ to\\ communicate\\ very\\ important\\ concepts\\ about\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wonderland\\ may\\ either\\ \\(or\\ both\\?\\)\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Resist\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Bring\\ about\\ even\\ greater\\ and\\ more\\ impressionable\\ messages\\ about\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Extra\\ Thoughts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Steven\\ Pinker\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Time\\ flies\\ like\\ an\\ arrow\\ \\/\\ Fruit\\ lies\\ like\\ a\\ banana\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ park\\ in\\ driveways\\ and\\ drive\\ on\\ parkways\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;KING\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;IMPORTANT\\,\\ UNIMPORTANT\\,\\ UNIMPORTANT\\,\\ IMPORTANT\\&rdquo\\;\\ meaning\\ has\\ no\\ significance\\;\\ he\\ only\\ cared\\ about\\ what\\ word\\ sounded\\ best\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\*SONG\\ IN\\ CHAPTER\\ 12\\:\\ \\(King\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ piece\\ of\\ evidence\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ heard\\ yet\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ BUT\\ IT\\ IS\\ COMPLETELY\\ RESISTANT\\ TO\\ INTERPRETATION\\:\\ nothing\\ behind\\ the\\ pronouns\\&hellip\\;no\\ context\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Alice\\ interjects\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ atom\\ of\\ meaning\\ in\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\They\\ told\\ me\\ you\\ had\\ been\\ to\\ her\\,\\/And\\ mentioned\\ me\\ to\\ him\\:\\/She\\ gave\\ me\\ a\\ good\\ character\\,\\/\\ But\\ said\\ I\\ could\\ not\\ swim\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Function\\:\\ to\\ show\\ us\\ that\\ Wonderland\\ simply\\ resists\\ meaning\\,\\ and\\ is\\ completely\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ interpreted\\.\\ We\\ could\\ apply\\ this\\ understanding\\ to\\ life\\&hellip\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Georges\\ de\\ la\\ Tour\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Education\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ painted\\ around\\ 1650\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(Figure\\ 1\\)\\ \\ \\;What\\ concepts\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ might\\ help\\ you\\ analyze\\ this\\ work\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ a\\ child\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ sense\\ of\\ wonder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Joy\\ untouched\\ by\\ sadness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Energy\\ and\\ exuberance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ of\\ self\\-consciousness\\,\\ fearlessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Irreverence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Trust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Innocence\\,\\ ignorance\\ of\\ the\\ bad\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Freedom\\ from\\ responsibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Imagingation\\,\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\-believe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Education\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ implies\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ childhood\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ the\\ child\\ is\\ being\\ shown\\ a\\ book\\ by\\ an\\ adult\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ child\\ is\\ doused\\ in\\ light\\ \\(she\\ appears\\ slightly\\ angelic\\)\\ representing\\ her\\ innocence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ adult\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ covered\\ in\\ shadow\\,\\ showing\\ both\\ her\\ knowledge\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ bad\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ her\\ tainted\\ view\\ on\\ life\\ itself\\ \\(loss\\ of\\ innocence\\/naivety\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Somber\\ expressions\\ give\\ the\\ impression\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ reading\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ their\\ time\\&mdash\\;the\\ first\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\ \\(around\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ this\\ painting\\)\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ all\\ aimed\\ to\\ teach\\ the\\ reader\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ piously\\ and\\ to\\ die\\ piously\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ written\\ about\\ different\\ deaths\\ of\\ children\\ to\\ teach\\ them\\ piety\\,\\ submissiveness\\,\\ and\\ obedience\\ \\(think\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ of\\ James\\ Janeway\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Token\\ for\\ Children\\,\\ which\\ illustrates\\ the\\ happy\\ deaths\\ of\\ several\\ children\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ this\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ probable\\ contents\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ adult\\ are\\ reading\\ together\\,\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ why\\ they\\ both\\ appear\\ solemn\\ and\\ not\\ happy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Jenny\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ image\\ represents\\ the\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;luminous\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;the\\ child\\ is\\ bathed\\ in\\ light\\ and\\ touching\\/associated\\ with\\ flame\\ vs\\.\\ adult\\ mostly\\ in\\ shadow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ image\\ title\\ ties\\ in\\ to\\ the\\ luminous\\ child\\ concept\\ as\\ well\\&mdash\\;it\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purity\\ by\\ calling\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;Education\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ specifically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ ties\\ in\\ to\\ early\\ Puritan\\ texts\\ for\\ children\\ and\\ their\\ conception\\ of\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\ as\\ lessons\\ on\\ piety\\ and\\ submission\\&mdash\\;the\\ text\\ looks\\ potentially\\ Biblical\\;\\ the\\ child\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ submissive\\ position\\ to\\ the\\ adult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ relates\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ children\\ as\\ blank\\ slates\\&mdash\\;she\\ is\\ receiving\\ her\\ education\\ from\\ the\\ adult\\ and\\ she\\ appears\\ docile\\ and\\ receptive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\significantly\\,\\ this\\ relates\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ adult\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;governor\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ child\\&mdash\\;again\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ authority\\,\\ obedience\\,\\ and\\ submission\\ represented\\ in\\ positioning\\ of\\ adult\\ and\\ child\\:\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ are\\ cast\\ down\\ in\\ submission\\ and\\ obedience\\,\\ and\\ the\\ adult\\ is\\ looking\\ down\\ at\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ the\\ instructor\\ and\\ superior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ poster\\ printed\\ below\\ \\(Figure\\ 2\\)\\ for\\ a\\ film\\ called\\ Innocence\\.\\ How\\ would\\ you\\ \\&ldquo\\;read\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ lettering\\,\\ the\\ setting\\,\\ and\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ children\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ praise\\ the\\ innate\\ innocence\\ of\\ children\\ as\\ youth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ prized\\ possession\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ noun\\ can\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ carefree\\ attitude\\,\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ poster\\ by\\ the\\ children\\ playing\\ whimsically\\ with\\ ribbons\\ and\\ a\\ swing\\.\\ The\\ children\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ engaging\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ which\\ may\\ tie\\ in\\ their\\ innocence\\ to\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\ and\\ independence\\ from\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ others\\.\\ The\\ setting\\ is\\ a\\ green\\ park\\ or\\ a\\ clearing\\,\\ symbolizing\\ that\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ children\\ is\\ natural\\ since\\ they\\ are\\ playing\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ rays\\ of\\ sunlight\\ streaming\\ down\\ onto\\ the\\ kids\\ have\\ a\\ heavenly\\ aspect\\ to\\ them\\,\\ as\\ though\\ the\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ are\\ being\\ blessed\\ by\\ a\\ higher\\ power\\.\\ They\\ are\\ wearing\\ white\\,\\ often\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ purity\\,\\ which\\ is\\ often\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ lettering\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ itself\\ is\\ detailed\\ and\\ decorated\\,\\ further\\ showing\\ off\\ the\\ attractive\\ power\\ of\\ this\\ concept\\.\\ Innocence\\ is\\ an\\ elusive\\ quality\\,\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ lost\\ too\\ early\\ in\\ life\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ captured\\ forever\\ in\\ a\\ film\\ and\\ its\\ poster\\ reflects\\ the\\ attitude\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocence\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ adults\\ look\\ back\\ on\\ with\\ fond\\ memories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ Provide\\ a\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fantasy\\ Land\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Walt\\ Disney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Magic\\ Kingdom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;Here\\ is\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ imagination\\,\\ hopes\\ and\\ dreams\\.\\ In\\ this\\ timeless\\ land\\ of\\ enchantment\\,\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ chivalry\\,\\ magic\\,\\ and\\ make\\-believe\\ are\\ reborn\\,\\ and\\ fairy\\ tales\\ come\\ true\\.\\ Fantasyland\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ the\\ young\\ at\\ heart\\,\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ believe\\ that\\ when\\ you\\ wish\\ upon\\ a\\ star\\,\\ your\\ dreams\\ come\\ true\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Walt\\ Disney\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bump\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;ETERNITY\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Castle\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Terrific\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ single\\ words\\ used\\ to\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;magic\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ literature\\,\\ each\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Describe\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ two\\ of\\ those\\ words\\ are\\ invoked\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ importance\\ in\\ each\\ text\\.\\ \\(BEAU\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personally\\,\\ given\\ this\\ question\\ I\\ would\\ answer\\ by\\ using\\ Terrific\\ and\\ Eternity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terrific\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ \\(EB\\ White\\)\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\ writes\\ Terrific\\ in\\ her\\ web\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\ of\\ Wilbur\\ becomes\\ terrific\\.\\ People\\ are\\ inspired\\ by\\ the\\ web\\,\\ which\\ they\\ attribute\\ entirely\\ to\\ Wilbur\\ \\-\\ his\\ life\\ is\\ saved\\ and\\ people\\ are\\ infatuated\\ with\\ this\\ terrific\\ pig\\.\\ This\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ John\\ Austin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ Performativity\\,\\ where\\ certain\\ words\\ actually\\ change\\ reality\\.\\ Once\\ Charlotte\\ spells\\ out\\ terrific\\,\\ Wilbur\\ becomes\\ terrific\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ and\\ he\\ acknowledges\\ himself\\ as\\ terrific\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bump\\ \\-\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ \\(Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\)\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Something\\ went\\ BUMP\\!\\ and\\ that\\ made\\ us\\ jump\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ as\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;bump\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ this\\ story\\.\\ As\\ far\\ as\\ I\\ can\\ tell\\,\\ bump\\ signifies\\ the\\ exciting\\/surprising\\ entrance\\ of\\ the\\ Cat\\ into\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eternity\\ \\-\\ The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ \\(HCA\\)\\ \\-\\ Eternity\\ is\\ what\\ Kai\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ spell\\ with\\ the\\ pieces\\ of\\ ice\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ freed\\ from\\ the\\ snow\\ queen\\.\\ He\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ spell\\ this\\ out\\,\\ but\\ once\\ Gerda\\ arrives\\ and\\ saves\\ him\\ with\\ her\\ love\\,\\ the\\ ice\\ shards\\ start\\ dancing\\ around\\ with\\ Gerda\\ and\\ Kai\\.\\ The\\ ice\\ shards\\ get\\ tired\\ of\\ dancing\\ and\\ fall\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ to\\ spell\\ out\\ \\&ldquo\\;eternity\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Kai\\ had\\ been\\ freed\\ by\\ Gerda\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\,\\ but\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ were\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ stop\\ this\\,\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ obliged\\ to\\ led\\ him\\ go\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ironic\\ that\\ the\\ word\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ spell\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;eternity\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ since\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ forever\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ spell\\ it\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Castle\\ \\-\\ Atonement\\ \\-\\ I\\ assume\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ refering\\ to\\ this\\ quote\\ from\\ Atonement\\ that\\ the\\ Prof\\ mentioned\\ in\\ lecture\\.\\ If\\ so\\,\\ this\\ is\\ referring\\ essentially\\ to\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ Vivacity\\,\\ where\\ the\\ vivid\\ description\\ of\\ an\\ image\\ will\\ paint\\ a\\ clear\\ picture\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;By\\ means\\ of\\ inking\\ symbols\\ onto\\ a\\ page\\,\\ she\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ sent\\ thoughts\\ and\\ feelings\\ from\\ her\\ mind\\ to\\ her\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ magical\\ process\\,\\ so\\ commonplace\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ stopped\\ to\\ wonder\\ at\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Reading\\ a\\ sentence\\ and\\ understanding\\ it\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ You\\ saw\\ the\\ word\\ castle\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ there\\,\\ seen\\ from\\ some\\ distance\\,\\ with\\ woods\\ in\\ high\\ summer\\ spread\\ before\\ it\\,\\ the\\ air\\ bluish\\ and\\ soft\\ with\\ smoke\\ rising\\ from\\ the\\ blacksmith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forge\\,\\ and\\ a\\ cobbled\\ road\\ twisting\\ away\\ into\\ the\\ green\\ shade\\&hellip\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ Define\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;mimesis\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ explain\\ how\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ writers\\ we\\ have\\ read\\ this\\ term\\ reflects\\ on\\ the\\ concept\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mimesis\\ is\\ a\\ Greek\\ word\\ used\\ by\\ Plato\\ to\\ mean\\ imitation\\,\\ or\\ art\\&\\#39\\;s\\ efforts\\ to\\ represent\\ reality\\ \\(mime\\ comes\\ from\\ it\\)\\.\\ Professor\\ Tatar\\ used\\ the\\ word\\ when\\ she\\ talked\\ about\\ mirrors\\,\\ reflection\\,\\ and\\ representation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mimesis\\:\\ imitative\\ representation\\ of\\ reality\\ in\\ art\\ or\\ literature\\.\\ Your\\ mind\\ imitates\\ the\\ actual\\ experience\\ of\\ sensing\\ something\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ concept\\ was\\ discussed\\ by\\ Elaine\\ Scarry\\,\\ who\\ wrote\\ that\\ our\\ imagination\\ is\\ directed\\ to\\ imitate\\ things\\ with\\ perceptual\\ mimesis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ usually\\ through\\ the\\ instruction\\ of\\ writers\\.\\ She\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ note\\ how\\ an\\ author\\ creates\\ solidity\\ through\\ kinetic\\ occlusion\\ and\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ touch\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ actual\\ work\\ that\\ we\\ read\\ which\\ clearly\\ uses\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ mimesis\\,\\ or\\ imitation\\,\\ is\\ Andersen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ mirrors\\ that\\ are\\ present\\ throughout\\ the\\ text\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ reflection\\/representation\\ and\\ even\\ distortion\\ of\\ reality\\ \\(like\\ the\\ troll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mirror\\,\\ which\\ presents\\ a\\ grotesque\\ reality\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\magnifying\\ the\\ flaws\\ in\\ everything\\)\\.\\ Mirrors\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ perspective\\ on\\ the\\ self\\,\\ but\\ also\\ serve\\ as\\ an\\ abstraction\\ as\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ self\\-division\\ occurs\\ when\\ one\\ looks\\ into\\ a\\ mirror\\.\\ Mimesis\\ is\\ the\\ effort\\ of\\ art\\ to\\ represent\\ reality\\,\\ and\\ a\\ twisted\\ representation\\ of\\ reality\\ is\\ what\\ occurs\\ with\\ the\\ glass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\shards\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fairy\\ tales\\ are\\ noted\\ to\\ take\\ their\\ listeners\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ what\\ with\\ implicit\\ morals\\ and\\ all\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ literary\\ tales\\ such\\ as\\ Andersen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ works\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ reveal\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ their\\ characters\\,\\ and\\ really\\ reflect\\ on\\ their\\ thoughts\\ and\\ emotions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ Set\\ in\\ Mumbai\\,\\ Slumdog\\ Millionaire\\ suggests\\ in\\ its\\ title\\ the\\ rags\\-to\\-riches\\ theme\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ other\\ fairy\\-tale\\ subtexts\\ manifest\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ film\\ or\\ novel\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Generally\\-\\ children\\ losing\\ their\\ parents\\ and\\ having\\ loss\\ of\\ innocence\\ is\\ a\\ general\\ theme\\ in\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Maman\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ child\\ beggars\\ resembles\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Hansel\\ \\&\\;\\ Gretel\\;\\ Maman\\ and\\ the\\ witch\\ draw\\ the\\ children\\ in\\ with\\ food\\ and\\ cokes\\ \\(gingerbread\\/edible\\ house\\ with\\ candy\\)\\ and\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ getting\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ slums\\ by\\ singing\\,\\ but\\ really\\ they\\ just\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ witch\\ just\\ wants\\ to\\ feed\\ the\\ kids\\ to\\ fatten\\ them\\ up\\ to\\ eat\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Little\\ Match\\ Girl\\-\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ shoes\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ scenes\\ of\\ his\\ childhood\\,\\ neither\\ does\\ he\\;\\ the\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ Latika\\ is\\ standing\\ outside\\ in\\ the\\ rain\\ is\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ the\\ little\\ match\\ girl\\ sitting\\ outside\\ in\\ the\\ snow\\ longing\\ for\\ warmth\\;\\ this\\ longing\\ for\\ more\\/family\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ both\\ \\(although\\ in\\ India\\,\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ much\\ longing\\ for\\ warmth\\ but\\ rather\\ love\\ and\\ dry\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Red\\ Shoes\\-\\ shoes\\ are\\ a\\ temptation\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ mobility\\,\\ although\\ in\\ Slumdog\\,\\ the\\ shoes\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ downfall\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ mobility\\,\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fairy\\-tale\\ type\\ love\\-\\ found\\ one\\ princess\\ and\\ keeps\\ chasing\\ her\\;\\ above\\ the\\ world\\ love\\;\\ this\\ is\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ because\\ Gerda\\ \\ \\;searches\\ everywhere\\ to\\ find\\ Kai\\,\\ even\\ goes\\ to\\ asking\\ every\\ random\\ person\\ if\\ they\\ have\\ seen\\ her\\ like\\ Gerda\\ asking\\ in\\ the\\ castle\\ for\\ Kai\\;\\ this\\ long\\ treacherous\\ journey\\ that\\ a\\ child\\ endures\\ for\\ the\\ love\\/friend\\ in\\ life\\;\\ a\\ child\\ taking\\ on\\ a\\ long\\ adventure\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ lost\\ a\\ loved\\ one\\;\\ Jamal\\ is\\ never\\ going\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ hope\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ find\\ Latika\\,\\ and\\ he\\ will\\ find\\ her\\ somehow\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ he\\ never\\ loses\\ the\\ child\\-like\\ innocence\\ and\\ belief\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ her\\ \\(even\\ though\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ movie\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ adolescent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Daphne\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adults\\ vs\\.\\ Children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Set\\ upon\\ a\\ familiar\\ premise\\:\\ two\\ children\\ \\(Jamal\\ and\\ Samil\\-\\-brothers\\)\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ lacking\\ parents\\ or\\ guardians\\.\\ \\(Father\\ absent\\,\\ mother\\ murdered\\ early\\ in\\ film\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ countless\\ fairytales\\:\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\;\\ Little\\ Match\\ Girl\\;\\ Cinderella\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ of\\ adult\\ supervision\\ allows\\ for\\ a\\ greater\\ level\\ of\\ agency\\ of\\ the\\ child\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Kids\\ must\\ fend\\ for\\ themselves\\,\\ begging\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Found\\ and\\ taken\\ in\\ by\\ gangsters\\ who\\ train\\ street\\ kids\\ to\\ beg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Adults\\ who\\ present\\ themselves\\ as\\ friendly\\/good\\ or\\ appear\\ beautiful\\ \\(Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\-\\-witch\\,\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\-\\-wolf\\)\\ but\\ are\\ actually\\ evil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ndash\\;The\\ gangsters\\ end\\ up\\ blinding\\ some\\ children\\ so\\ they\\ will\\ make\\ more\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reinforces\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ lost\\ in\\ adulthood\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ suggests\\ that\\ children\\ should\\ not\\ always\\ trust\\ adults\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Quest\\/Search\\ for\\ the\\ true\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ common\\ theme\\ in\\ fairy\\ tales\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Jamal\\ spends\\ the\\ whole\\ movie\\ trying\\ to\\ reunite\\ with\\ Latika\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ whole\\ reason\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ the\\ Millionaire\\ show\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Also\\ present\\ in\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ \\(her\\ sacrifices\\ for\\ the\\ Prince\\)\\,\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ \\(Greta\\&rsquo\\;s\\ search\\ for\\ Kay\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;16\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dear\\,\\ dear\\!\\ How\\ queer\\ everything\\ is\\ today\\!\\ And\\ yesterday\\ things\\ went\\ on\\ just\\ as\\ usual\\.\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ changed\\ in\\ the\\ night\\?\\ Let\\ me\\ think\\:\\ was\\ I\\ the\\ same\\ when\\ I\\ got\\ up\\ this\\ morning\\?\\ I\\ almost\\ think\\ I\\ can\\ remember\\ feeling\\ a\\ little\\ different\\.\\ But\\ if\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ not\\ the\\ same\\,\\ the\\ next\\ question\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;Who\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ am\\ I\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ Ah\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ great\\ puzzle\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Using\\ this\\ passage\\ as\\ your\\ point\\ of\\ departure\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ how\\ identity\\ is\\ an\\ unstable\\ category\\ in\\ Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Nonsensical\\ events\\ and\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ speak\\ without\\ nonsense\\ create\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ identity\\ in\\ Alice\\ when\\ she\\ is\\ in\\ Wonderland\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ very\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ not\\ being\\ herself\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ she\\ measures\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ she\\ begins\\ to\\ doubt\\ that\\ she\\ could\\ possibly\\ be\\ herself\\,\\ she\\ first\\ looks\\ at\\ her\\ hair\\ \\(representative\\ of\\ her\\ outer\\ appearance\\)\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ who\\ she\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ decides\\ that\\ she\\ still\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ hair\\,\\ so\\ she\\ must\\ be\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ then\\ begins\\ to\\ recite\\ lessons\\ because\\ she\\ thinks\\ of\\ herself\\ as\\ clever\\,\\ so\\ if\\ she\\ can\\ still\\ remember\\ her\\ lessons\\,\\ she\\ must\\ definitely\\ be\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ cannot\\ however\\ say\\ her\\ lessons\\ correctly\\,\\ and\\ this\\ causes\\ her\\ to\\ seriously\\ doubt\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ decides\\ that\\ if\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ herself\\,\\ she\\ must\\ be\\ Mabel\\ because\\ Mabel\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ clever\\,\\ and\\ so\\ since\\ she\\ is\\ saying\\ nonsense\\ instead\\ of\\ her\\ proper\\ lessons\\,\\ she\\ must\\ instead\\ be\\ Mabel\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ passages\\ suggests\\ that\\ identity\\ is\\ a\\ characteristic\\ determined\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ part\\ by\\ outside\\ factors\\ rather\\ than\\ from\\ a\\ person\\ him\\/herself\\;\\ because\\ things\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;queer\\&rdquo\\;\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;Things\\ acting\\ strangely\\ around\\ her\\,\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ she\\ expects\\ them\\ to\\ act\\ means\\ that\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ something\\ wrong\\ with\\ her\\,\\ and\\ Alice\\ assumes\\ that\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ herself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Altogether\\,\\ Alice\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ what\\ to\\ call\\ herself\\ \\(whether\\ Alice\\ or\\ Ada\\ or\\ Mabel\\ than\\ with\\ who\\ she\\ really\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ things\\ she\\ considers\\ are\\ her\\ ability\\ to\\ recite\\ and\\ her\\ outward\\ appearance\\,\\ which\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ most\\ fundamental\\ aspects\\ of\\ a\\ person\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ concern\\ for\\ a\\ loss\\ o\\ identity\\ is\\ also\\ brought\\ up\\ when\\ Alice\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ shrinking\\ away\\ altogether\\ when\\ she\\ drinks\\ the\\ draught\\ or\\ takes\\ a\\ bite\\ from\\ the\\ mushroom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.\\ In\\ his\\ preface\\ to\\ The\\ Wizard\\ of\\ Oz\\,\\ L\\.\\ Frank\\ Baum\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;horrible\\ and\\ blood\\-curdling\\ incident\\ devised\\ by\\ \\[authors\\ of\\ fairy\\ tales\\]\\ to\\ point\\ a\\ fearsome\\ moral\\ to\\ each\\ tale\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Discuss\\ two\\ such\\ incidents\\ in\\ fairy\\ tales\\ and\\ show\\ how\\ they\\ point\\ a\\ moral\\,\\ or\\ fail\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ugly\\ Duckling\\ \\-\\ HCA\\ \\-\\ This\\ story\\ has\\ a\\ strange\\ moral\\/intended\\ moral\\,\\ as\\ HCA\\ attempts\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ get\\ what\\ you\\ want\\.\\ He\\ praises\\ piety\\ and\\ inaction\\,\\ as\\ the\\ ugly\\ duckling\\ does\\ nothing\\ to\\ improve\\ his\\ life\\.\\ This\\ implies\\ that\\ suffering\\ is\\ good\\,\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ one\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ be\\ patient\\ and\\ good\\ things\\ will\\ happen\\.\\ He\\ denounces\\ vanity\\ and\\ pride\\ by\\ making\\ the\\ ugly\\ duckling\\ humble\\ when\\ its\\ ugly\\ and\\ when\\ its\\ a\\ beautiful\\ swan\\.\\ In\\ this\\ story\\,\\ everything\\ is\\ fated\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ that\\ the\\ individual\\ can\\ do\\ to\\ affect\\ his\\ life\\ \\-\\ dangerous\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ subtle\\ racial\\ undertones\\ in\\ this\\ story\\,\\ where\\ white\\ is\\ good\\/desired\\/beautiful\\ and\\ black\\/not\\-white\\ is\\ lowly\\/ugly\\/degrading\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Little\\ Match\\ Girl\\ \\-\\ HCA\\ \\-\\ This\\ story\\ also\\ strongly\\ encourages\\ piety\\ and\\ suffering\\.\\ By\\ submitting\\ oneself\\ and\\ not\\ aspiring\\ for\\ a\\ better\\ life\\,\\ one\\ will\\ be\\ rewarded\\.\\ The\\ match\\ girl\\ freezes\\ death\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ pretty\\ gruesome\\ way\\ to\\ die\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fairy\\ tale\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ death\\ can\\ been\\ seen\\ as\\ salvation\\,\\ since\\ she\\ no\\ longer\\ has\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ terrible\\ situation\\ that\\ was\\ her\\ life\\.\\ However\\,\\ she\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ able\\ to\\ persevere\\ through\\ the\\ difficult\\ times\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ times\\ when\\ even\\ your\\ best\\ effort\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\ enough\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ Set\\ in\\ Mumbai\\,\\ Slumdog\\ Millionaire\\ suggests\\ in\\ its\\ title\\ the\\ rags\\-to\\-riches\\ theme\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ other\\ fairy\\-tale\\ subtexts\\ manifest\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ film\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ novel\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Adults\\ vs\\.\\ Children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Set\\ upon\\ a\\ familiar\\ premise\\:\\ two\\ children\\ \\(Jamal\\ and\\ Samil\\-\\-brothers\\)\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ lacking\\ parents\\ or\\ guardians\\.\\ \\(Father\\ absent\\,\\ mother\\ murdered\\ early\\ in\\ film\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ countless\\ fairytales\\:\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\;\\ Little\\ Match\\ Girl\\;\\ Cinderella\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ of\\ adult\\ supervision\\ allows\\ for\\ a\\ greater\\ level\\ of\\ agency\\ of\\ the\\ child\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Kids\\ must\\ fend\\ for\\ themselves\\,\\ begging\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Found\\ and\\ taken\\ in\\ by\\ gangsters\\ who\\ train\\ street\\ kids\\ to\\ beg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Adults\\ who\\ present\\ themselves\\ as\\ friendly\\/good\\ or\\ appear\\ beautiful\\ \\(Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\-\\-witch\\,\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\-\\-wolf\\)\\ but\\ are\\ actually\\ evil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ndash\\;The\\ gangsters\\ end\\ up\\ blinding\\ some\\ children\\ so\\ they\\ will\\ make\\ more\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reinforces\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ lost\\ in\\ adulthood\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ suggests\\ that\\ children\\ should\\ not\\ always\\ trust\\ adults\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Quest\\/Search\\ for\\ the\\ true\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ common\\ theme\\ in\\ fairy\\ tales\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Jamal\\ spends\\ the\\ whole\\ movie\\ trying\\ to\\ reunite\\ with\\ Latika\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ whole\\ reason\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ the\\ Millionaire\\ show\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Also\\ present\\ in\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ \\(her\\ sacrifices\\ for\\ the\\ Prince\\)\\,\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ \\(Greta\\&rsquo\\;s\\ search\\ for\\ Kay\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&lsquo\\;Oh\\,\\ good\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ said\\ Wilbur\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&lsquo\\;I\\ knew\\ you\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ forsake\\ me\\ just\\ when\\ I\\ need\\ you\\ most\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ All\\ that\\ day\\ Wilbur\\ stayed\\ inside\\,\\ taking\\ life\\ easy\\ in\\ the\\ straw\\.\\ \\ \\;Charlotte\\ rested\\ and\\ ate\\ a\\ grasshopper\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ knew\\ that\\ she\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ Wilbur\\ much\\ longer\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ she\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ drop\\ everything\\ and\\ build\\ the\\ beautiful\\ little\\ sac\\ that\\ would\\ hold\\ her\\ eggs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Identify\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ passage\\ above\\ that\\ reflect\\ larger\\ themes\\ in\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beauty\\ and\\ Horror\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Typically\\,\\ childhood\\ literature\\ provides\\ us\\ with\\ examples\\ of\\ beautiful\\ evil\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ is\\,\\ evil\\ characters\\ who\\ appear\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\(The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ this\\ theme\\ is\\ turned\\ on\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Animals\\ typically\\ viewed\\ as\\ gross\\ or\\ scary\\ are\\ portrayed\\ as\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wilbur\\,\\ a\\ pig\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;terrific\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;radiant\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Charlotte\\,\\ a\\ spider\\,\\ is\\ the\\ heroine\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ depicted\\ as\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sac\\ of\\ spider\\ eggs\\ \\(repulsive\\ to\\ some\\)\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\ \\;Eating\\ a\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ normal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overall\\ theme\\ of\\ friendship\\ and\\ loyalty\\ breaking\\ boundaries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mortality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Charlotte\\ and\\ Wilbur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friendship\\ is\\ inextricably\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ imminent\\ threat\\ of\\ death\\ for\\ Wilbur\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wilbur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ anxiety\\ and\\ fears\\ about\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ calm\\ acceptance\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ impending\\ death\\.\\ The\\ anti\\-climactic\\ nature\\ of\\ her\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ upside\\:\\ renewal\\ of\\ life\\ thru\\ the\\ egg\\ sac\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Power\\ of\\ Words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ save\\ Wilbur\\.\\ \\ \\;Words\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ tool\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Resonates\\ with\\ the\\ child\\ reading\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ White\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ transform\\ the\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinion\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ horror\\ and\\ our\\ perceptions\\ of\\ pigs\\ and\\ spiders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Life\\ and\\ Death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ Cycles\\:\\ Throughout\\ the\\ story\\,\\ death\\ is\\ characterized\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ natural\\ cycle\\.\\ The\\ narrator\\ continually\\ pays\\ close\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ changing\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\ and\\ transformations\\ that\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ pastoral\\ environment\\.\\ In\\ the\\ above\\ passage\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ starkly\\ juxtaposes\\ life\\ and\\ death\\ while\\ positioning\\ each\\ as\\ inevitable\\ parts\\ of\\ existence\\.\\ Charlotte\\ eats\\ \\(kills\\)\\ a\\ grasshopper\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ survive\\,\\ and\\ she\\ knows\\ that\\ she\\ too\\ will\\ die\\ soon\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;she\\ knew\\ that\\ she\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ Wilbur\\ much\\ longer\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Contrasting\\ these\\ references\\ to\\ death\\,\\ the\\ spider\\ anticipates\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ beautiful\\ little\\ sac\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ will\\ produce\\ new\\ life\\.\\ The\\ web\\ itself\\ embodies\\ this\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ death\\:\\ the\\ web\\ is\\ beautiful\\ and\\ has\\ life\\-saving\\ powers\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ deadly\\ for\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prey\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generations\\:\\ In\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\,\\ death\\ is\\ positioned\\ as\\ inevitable\\,\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ necessary\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ life\\.\\ Again\\ and\\ again\\,\\ Charlotte\\ appears\\ at\\ peace\\ with\\ her\\ own\\ impending\\ death\\ \\(even\\ in\\ this\\ passage\\,\\ she\\ \\&ldquo\\;rests\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ notions\\ of\\ replacement\\ and\\ regeneration\\ are\\ especially\\ emphasized\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ story\\,\\ when\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\,\\ their\\ children\\,\\ etc\\.\\ all\\ follow\\ a\\ pattern\\ that\\ \\(we\\ assume\\)\\ will\\ repeat\\ endlessly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friendship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\This\\ passage\\ also\\ represents\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ friendship\\ that\\ exists\\ between\\ Charlotte\\ and\\ Wilbur\\.\\ Wilbur\\ depends\\ on\\ Charlotte\\,\\ whose\\ words\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ bring\\ out\\ his\\ inner\\ qualities\\ and\\ eventually\\ save\\ his\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Through\\ their\\ friendship\\,\\ we\\ see\\ Charlotte\\ as\\ a\\ character\\ of\\ action\\.\\ Even\\ as\\ she\\ nears\\ death\\,\\ the\\ spider\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;drop\\ everything\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ heregg\\ sac\\.\\ She\\ thinks\\ while\\ Wilbur\\ \\&ldquo\\;takes\\ life\\ easy\\ in\\ the\\ straw\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Charlotte\\ is\\ committed\\ to\\ her\\ work\\;\\ she\\ is\\ an\\ artist\\ who\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ agent\\ of\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ themes\\:\\ life\\ and\\ death\\,\\ natural\\ cycles\\,\\ seasons\\,\\ beauty\\ and\\ destruction\\,\\ generations\\,\\ renewal\\,\\ salvation\\,\\ friendship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Peter\\ did\\ not\\ compete\\.\\ For\\ one\\ thing\\ he\\ despised\\ all\\ mothers\\ except\\ Wendy\\,\\ and\\ for\\ another\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ boy\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ who\\ could\\ neither\\ write\\ nor\\ spell\\;\\ not\\ the\\ smallest\\ word\\.\\ He\\ was\\ above\\ all\\ that\\ sort\\ of\\ thing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ is\\ Peter\\ \\&ldquo\\;above\\ all\\ that\\ sort\\ of\\ thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ explain\\ why\\ his\\ lack\\ of\\ literacy\\ might\\ be\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Peter\\ \\=\\ icon\\ of\\ purity\\,\\ innocence\\,\\ vulnerability\\ \\(but\\ also\\ seductive\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Peter\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ can\\ fly\\ \\(suggests\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ freedom\\)\\,\\ never\\ dies\\ or\\ gets\\ older\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Competing\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ examination\\ questions\\ Wendy\\ set\\ out\\ \\(initially\\ just\\ for\\ Michael\\ and\\ John\\)\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ remember\\ their\\ parents\\.\\ John\\ \\&\\;\\ Michael\\ had\\ started\\ to\\ forget\\ about\\ them\\,\\ so\\ Wendy\\ makes\\ up\\ these\\ exams\\ with\\ questions\\ like\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Which\\ was\\ taller\\,\\ Father\\ or\\ Mother\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ help\\ jog\\ their\\ memory\\.\\ The\\ other\\ kids\\ insisted\\ on\\ joining\\ in\\,\\ too\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ competition\\.\\ That\\ Peter\\ refuses\\ to\\ join\\ in\\ on\\ these\\ exams\\ shows\\ his\\ lack\\ of\\ dependence\\ on\\ or\\ desire\\ for\\ parents\\,\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ never\\ had\\ parents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Also\\,\\ practically\\ god\\-like\\ \\(mix\\ of\\ Pan\\,\\ Hermes\\,\\ Dionysus\\,\\ Adonis\\,\\ Narcissus\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Icarus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Test\\-taking\\ also\\ another\\ systematic\\ thing\\&mdash\\;Peter\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ any\\ human\\ world\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;He\\ could\\ eat\\,\\ really\\ eat\\,\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ game\\,\\ but\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ stodge\\ just\\ to\\ be\\ stodgy\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ most\\ children\\ like\\ better\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\;\\ the\\ next\\ best\\ thing\\ being\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(86\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Make\\-believe\\ was\\ so\\ real\\ to\\ him\\ that\\ during\\ a\\ meal\\ you\\ could\\ see\\ him\\ getting\\ rounder\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(86\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Reading\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ substantiating\\ things\\ or\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ real\\,\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ comprehending\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ and\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ adhering\\ to\\ a\\ system\\ imposed\\ by\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ Peter\\ can\\ do\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ does\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ above\\ the\\ law\\&mdash\\;he\\ lives\\ by\\ his\\ own\\ law\\.\\ If\\ he\\ could\\ read\\ and\\ write\\ and\\ understand\\ a\\ human\\ alphabet\\,\\ then\\ he\\ would\\ implicitly\\ be\\ obeying\\ human\\ laws\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Reading\\,\\ writing\\,\\ spelling\\=\\ all\\ skills\\ that\\ require\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ by\\ someone\\ \\?\\ since\\ Peter\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ things\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ never\\ been\\ taught\\/had\\ to\\ be\\ teached\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Literacy\\ suggests\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ order\\&mdash\\;would\\ go\\ against\\ Peter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nonsensical\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Only\\ when\\ Hook\\ was\\ hidden\\ from\\ them\\ did\\ curiosity\\ loosen\\ the\\ limbs\\ of\\ the\\ boys\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ rush\\ to\\ the\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ crocodile\\ climbing\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ they\\ got\\ the\\ strangest\\ surprise\\ of\\ this\\ Night\\ of\\ Nights\\;\\ for\\ it\\ was\\ no\\ crocodile\\ that\\ was\\ coming\\ to\\ their\\ aid\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ Peter\\.\\ He\\ signed\\ to\\ them\\ not\\ to\\ give\\ vent\\ to\\ any\\ cry\\ of\\ admiration\\ that\\ might\\ rouse\\ suspicion\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ went\\ on\\ ticking\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explain\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ for\\ understanding\\ and\\ consolidating\\ Peter\\ Pan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Peter\\ Pan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Innocence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ of\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Tragedy\\&mdash\\;he\\ is\\ gay\\ and\\ innocent\\ and\\ heartless\\ \\(he\\ can\\ never\\ love\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ so\\ young\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ playing\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ crocodile\\ is\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ all\\,\\ the\\ crocodile\\ represents\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ mortality\\ for\\ Hook\\ \\(the\\ ticking\\ of\\ the\\ clock\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ time\\ till\\ death\\ notification\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ also\\ represents\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ mortality\\ because\\ he\\ causes\\ everyone\\ to\\ realize\\ they\\ must\\ at\\ some\\ point\\ grow\\ up\\ \\(he\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ boy\\ who\\ never\\ grows\\ up\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ it\\ is\\ highly\\ arguable\\ to\\ claim\\ that\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ affect\\ on\\ Hook\\ that\\ the\\ crocodile\\ has\\ because\\ they\\ both\\ represent\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ for\\ him\\ \\(albeit\\ Peter\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ universal\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ the\\ crocodile\\ is\\ singular\\ to\\ Hook\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ last\\ sentence\\ \\&ldquo\\;Then\\ he\\ went\\ on\\ ticking\\&rdquo\\;\\ also\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ this\\ issue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ticking\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ crocodile\\ that\\ makes\\ it\\ obvious\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ clock\\ counting\\ down\\ to\\ Hook\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ \\&ldquo\\;ticking\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ is\\ thus\\ acting\\ as\\ a\\ clock\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ and\\ therefore\\ elucidating\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ his\\ own\\ identity\\ \\(young\\,\\ innocent\\,\\ heartless\\)\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ grown\\ up\\ or\\ must\\ grow\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Another\\ way\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ passage\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ actual\\ actions\\ presented\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ passage\\,\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ is\\ saving\\ the\\ other\\ children\\ from\\ the\\ Pirates\\ and\\ death\\ \\(aka\\ the\\ realities\\ of\\ a\\ grown\\ up\\ life\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Peter\\,\\ in\\ a\\ general\\ sense\\,\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ savior\\ of\\ children\\ because\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;rescues\\&rdquo\\;\\ them\\ from\\ growing\\ up\\ by\\ taking\\ them\\ to\\ Neverland\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ scene\\,\\ by\\ rescuing\\ the\\ lost\\ boys\\ and\\ the\\ Darlings\\,\\ Peter\\ is\\ preventing\\ them\\ from\\ experiencing\\ that\\ understanding\\ which\\ most\\ defines\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ adulthood\\ and\\ childhood\\,\\ death\\,\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ acting\\ again\\ as\\ the\\ savior\\ of\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\ Discuss\\ myth\\-making\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ read\\ this\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Claude\\ Levi\\ Strauss\\ \\=\\ bricoleur\\ \\(person\\ who\\ uses\\ bricolage\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;tinkering\\&rdquo\\;\\/cultural\\ myth\\-making\\/\\ rearranging\\ in\\ new\\ combinations\\ \\&\\;\\ cultural\\ contexts\\;\\ characteristic\\ of\\ mythical\\ thought\\ which\\ expresses\\ itself\\ through\\ heterogeneous\\ but\\ limited\\ repertoire\\ of\\ oddments\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ fundamental\\ aspect\\ of\\ human\\ intellectual\\ activity\\,\\ and\\ all\\ societies\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ create\\ their\\ myths\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-example\\:\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ collection\\ of\\ cultural\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Christian\\ association\\:\\ Simon\\ Peter\\,\\ who\\ stands\\ for\\ both\\ betrayal\\ and\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Pagan\\ associations\\:\\ Pan\\,\\ who\\ indulges\\ in\\ pastoral\\ delights\\ and\\ is\\ half\\-man\\/half\\-goat\\;\\ Hermes\\,\\ the\\ trickster\\ w\\/\\ the\\ mercurial\\ temperament\\;\\ Dionysus\\,\\ who\\ represents\\ ecstasy\\,\\ inspiration\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ intoxication\\;\\ Adonis\\,\\ who\\ represents\\ beauty\\ \\(Peter\\ arouses\\ erotic\\ fascination\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ girls\\)\\,\\ Narcissus\\,\\ who\\ represents\\ self\\-love\\ and\\ egocentricity\\;\\ and\\ Icarus\\,\\ who\\ flies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Wikipedia\\ on\\ Levi\\-Strauss\\ \\&\\;\\ bricolage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ structuralist\\ approach\\ to\\ myth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\ sees\\ a\\ basic\\ paradox\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ myth\\.\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ mythical\\ stories\\ are\\ fantastic\\ and\\ unpredictable\\:\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ myth\\ seems\\ completely\\ arbitrary\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ myths\\ from\\ different\\ cultures\\ are\\ surprisingly\\ similar\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ it\\ would\\ seem\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ myth\\ anything\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ happen\\.\\ \\[\\&hellip\\;\\]\\ But\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ this\\ apparent\\ arbitrariness\\ is\\ belied\\ by\\ the\\ astounding\\ similarity\\ between\\ myths\\ collected\\ in\\ widely\\ different\\ regions\\.\\ Therefore\\ the\\ problem\\:\\ If\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ myth\\ is\\ contingent\\ \\[i\\.e\\.\\,\\ arbitrary\\]\\,\\ how\\ are\\ we\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ myths\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ so\\ similar\\?\\[7\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\ proposed\\ that\\ universal\\ laws\\ must\\ govern\\ mythical\\ thought\\ and\\ resolve\\ this\\ seeming\\ paradox\\,\\ producing\\ similar\\ myths\\ in\\ different\\ cultures\\.\\ Each\\ myth\\ may\\ seem\\ unique\\,\\ but\\ he\\ proposed\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ just\\ one\\ particular\\ instance\\ of\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\ of\\ human\\ thought\\.\\ In\\ studying\\ myth\\,\\ L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\ tries\\ \\"\\;to\\ reduce\\ apparently\\ arbitrary\\ data\\ to\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ order\\,\\ and\\ to\\ attain\\ a\\ level\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ necessity\\ becomes\\ apparent\\,\\ underlying\\ the\\ illusions\\ of\\ liberty\\"\\;\\.\\[8\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\,\\ \\"\\;mythical\\ thought\\ always\\ progresses\\ from\\ the\\ awareness\\ of\\ oppositions\\ toward\\ their\\ resolution\\"\\;\\.\\[9\\]\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ myths\\ consist\\ of\\ \\(1\\)\\ elements\\ that\\ oppose\\ or\\ contradict\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ other\\ elements\\ that\\ \\"\\;mediate\\"\\;\\,\\ or\\ resolve\\,\\ those\\ oppositions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\ \\ \\;Explain\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ airplane\\ and\\ the\\ dough\\ in\\ Maurice\\ Sendak\\&rsquo\\;s\\ In\\ the\\ Night\\ Kitchen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ remember\\ being\\ terrified\\ of\\ death\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ think\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ children\\ are\\,\\ but\\ I\\ was\\ scared\\ because\\ I\\ heard\\ talk\\ of\\ it\\ all\\ around\\ me\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;Certainly\\ my\\ parents\\ were\\ afraid\\ I\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ survive\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Maurice\\ Sendak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ terribly\\ afraid\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ hell\\,\\ you\\ see\\,\\ and\\ I\\ was\\ afraid\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ sleep\\ in\\ case\\ I\\ burnt\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ suppose\\,\\ you\\ know\\,\\ I\\ was\\ brought\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ old\\ way\\ of\\ hell\\-fire\\ and\\ all\\ that\\,\\ and\\ being\\ a\\ very\\ imaginative\\ child\\ I\\ was\\ terrified\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ sleep\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ tried\\ not\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\ and\\ used\\ to\\ get\\ hysterical\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Maude\\ Bains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;For\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ I\\ used\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ bed\\ early\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\,\\ when\\ I\\ had\\ put\\ out\\ my\\ candle\\,\\ my\\ eyes\\ would\\ close\\ so\\ quickly\\ that\\ I\\ had\\ no\\ even\\ time\\ to\\ say\\ to\\ myself\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ falling\\ asleep\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;And\\ half\\ an\\ hour\\ later\\ the\\ thought\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ time\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\ would\\ awaken\\ me\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;My\\ sight\\ would\\ return\\ and\\ I\\ would\\ be\\ astonished\\ to\\ find\\ myself\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ darkness\\,\\ pleasant\\ and\\ restful\\ enough\\ for\\ my\\ eyes\\,\\ but\\ even\\ more\\ perhaps\\ for\\ my\\ mind\\,\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ appeared\\ incomprehensible\\,\\ without\\ a\\ cause\\,\\ something\\ dark\\ indeed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Marcel\\ Proust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;My\\ bedroom\\ became\\ the\\ fixed\\ point\\ on\\ which\\ my\\ melancholy\\ and\\ anxious\\ thoughts\\ were\\ centered\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Margaret\\ Atwood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Airplane\\ becomes\\ a\\ vehicle\\ of\\ escape\\ that\\ allows\\ Mickey\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ and\\ conquer\\ this\\ fear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\ \\ \\;Discuss\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ supervision\\,\\ policing\\,\\ and\\ monitoring\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ philosophers\\ or\\ historians\\ of\\ childhood\\ read\\ this\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Locke\\:\\ Some\\ Thoughts\\ Concerning\\ Education\\ \\(overview\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;New\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\:\\ The\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tabula\\ rasa\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ blank\\ slate\\,\\ does\\ not\\ contain\\ any\\ previous\\ knowledge\\ or\\ innate\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;How\\ to\\ educate\\ the\\ mind\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ healthy\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ virtuous\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ choice\\ of\\ an\\ appropriate\\ academic\\ curriculum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Major\\ claims\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ education\\ makes\\ the\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;empty\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ filled\\ by\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;association\\ of\\ ideas\\&rdquo\\;\\ made\\ when\\ younger\\ are\\ more\\ significant\\ than\\ those\\ made\\ later\\ in\\ life\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ \\&ldquo\\;sound\\ mind\\ in\\ a\\ sound\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\ and\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ supervision\\/parenting\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Parents\\ should\\ watch\\ over\\ their\\ children\\ closely\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ discover\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;aptitudes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Parents\\ should\\ nurture\\ their\\ own\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interests\\ rather\\ than\\ force\\ them\\ to\\ pursue\\ activities\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Carefully\\ nurture\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ \\&ldquo\\;habits\\&rdquo\\;\\ before\\ pursuing\\ their\\ academic\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Locke\\ was\\ a\\ trained\\ physician\\,\\ makes\\ sense\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ point\\ out\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ needs\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ idea\\ is\\ very\\ pervasive\\ even\\ today\\:\\ many\\ people\\ still\\ support\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ nutrition\\ and\\ sleep\\ for\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Children\\ should\\ be\\ exposed\\ to\\ harsh\\ environments\\ when\\ young\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prepare\\ them\\ for\\ later\\ life\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ be\\ exposed\\ to\\ cold\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prepare\\ them\\ for\\ winter\\)\\ \\à\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;bodies\\ will\\ endure\\ anything\\ that\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\ they\\ are\\ accustomed\\ to\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Much\\ specific\\ advice\\ given\\ for\\ situations\\ \\(keep\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feet\\ wet\\,\\ bed\\ linens\\,\\ sleeping\\ regimens\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Parents\\ should\\ address\\ children\\ as\\ reasonable\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;They\\ should\\ attempt\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;habit\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ think\\ rationally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Habit\\ \\>\\;\\ rule\\:\\ children\\ should\\ internalize\\ the\\ habit\\ of\\ thinking\\ rationally\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ memorizing\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ list\\ of\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ \\(such\\ as\\ sweets\\ or\\ beatings\\)\\ turn\\ children\\ into\\ sensualists\\ rather\\ than\\ rationalists\\ \\(bad\\)\\ children\\ should\\ value\\ reason\\ over\\ passion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Locke\\ wants\\ children\\ to\\ become\\ adults\\ as\\ quickly\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ duty\\ to\\ teach\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ become\\ rational\\ adults\\;\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ duty\\ to\\ educate\\ their\\ children\\ and\\ teach\\ them\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ rational\\ manner\\ consistently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Parents\\ and\\ teachers\\ must\\ teach\\ children\\ how\\ to\\ learn\\ and\\ to\\ enjoy\\ learning\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Children\\ should\\ first\\ be\\ taught\\ to\\ write\\ and\\ speak\\ fluently\\ in\\ their\\ native\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ education\\ Locke\\ advises\\ contains\\ not\\ only\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ sciences\\ but\\ also\\ practical\\ professional\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ Michel\\ de\\ Certeau\\ proposes\\ one\\ model\\ of\\ reading\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bricolage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Demonstrate\\ how\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\ might\\ operate\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bricoleur\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ texts\\ read\\ this\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ term\\ bricoleur\\,\\ defined\\ by\\ Levi\\-Strauss\\,\\ is\\ an\\ author\\ who\\ uses\\ multiple\\ different\\ pieces\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ materials\\ from\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ sources\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ new\\ and\\ revised\\ version\\ of\\ this\\ information\\ and\\ materials\\.\\ Bricolage\\ literally\\ translates\\ to\\ \\"\\;tinkering\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ child\\ reader\\ as\\ bricoleur\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ child\\&\\#39\\;s\\ use\\ and\\ aquisition\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ reading\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ a\\ child\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ bricoleur\\ after\\ reading\\ a\\ text\\,\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ different\\ words\\ and\\ materials\\ from\\ the\\ text\\ and\\ use\\ them\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ way\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ language\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\,\\ there\\ is\\ great\\ opportunity\\ for\\ a\\ child\\ to\\ operate\\ as\\ bricoleur\\ due\\ to\\ Carroll\\&\\#39\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ words\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ homonyms\\ in\\ the\\ conversations\\ between\\ characters\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;axes\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;axis\\"\\;\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ opens\\ the\\ child\\&\\#39\\;s\\ mind\\ to\\ the\\ multiple\\ meanings\\ that\\ are\\ possible\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ words\\/things\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ the\\ child\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ use\\ of\\ language\\ can\\ take\\ similar\\ words\\ that\\ he\\ hears\\ and\\ apply\\ new\\ meanings\\;\\ become\\ a\\ bricoleur\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Charlotte\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Web\\,\\ Charlotte\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ bricolage\\ because\\ the\\ words\\ she\\ puts\\ in\\ her\\ web\\ to\\ describe\\ Wilbur\\ are\\ taken\\ from\\ other\\ things\\ that\\ Charlotte\\ sees\\/hears\\ around\\ the\\ farm\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ Charlotte\\&\\#39\\;s\\ character\\ reveals\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ take\\ seemingly\\ insignificant\\ things\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ turn\\ them\\ into\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ significance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\ How\\ might\\ the\\ term\\ metanarrative\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ useful\\ tool\\ for\\ thinking\\ about\\ literature\\ for\\ children\\?\\ \\ \\;Discuss\\ two\\ texts\\ in\\ your\\ response\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ prefix\\ meta\\ means\\ \\"\\;beyond\\"\\;\\ and\\ is\\ here\\ used\\ to\\ mean\\ \\"\\;about\\"\\;\\,\\ and\\ a\\ narrative\\ is\\ a\\ story\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ a\\ metanarrative\\ is\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ a\\ story\\,\\ encompassing\\ and\\ explaining\\ other\\ \\&\\#39\\;little\\ stories\\&\\#39\\;\\ within\\ totalizing\\ schemes\\.\\ Within\\ the\\ stories\\ we\\ have\\ read\\,\\ Andersen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ especially\\,\\ social\\ heritage\\ and\\ culturally\\ reinforced\\ moral\\ messages\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ metanarratives\\.\\ They\\ are\\ enabled\\ to\\ be\\ metanarratives\\ because\\ of\\ Western\\ cultural\\ assumptions\\ about\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\.\\ In\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ stories\\ that\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ moral\\ message\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Red\\ Shoes\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Little\\ Mermaid\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ even\\ \\&ldquo\\;Wizard\\ of\\ Oz\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Where\\ the\\ Wild\\ Things\\ Are\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ metanarrative\\ that\\ forms\\ the\\ outcomes\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ serves\\ to\\ uphold\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ will\\ prevail\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ what\\ I\\ see\\ as\\ the\\ metanarrative\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wizard\\ of\\ Oz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Where\\ the\\ Wild\\ Things\\ Are\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ place\\ like\\ home\\;\\ while\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ amazing\\ experiences\\ in\\ far\\ off\\ lands\\,\\ your\\ home\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ your\\ home\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ where\\ a\\ child\\ belongs\\.\\ Other\\ examples\\ are\\ in\\ Andersen\\ and\\ Hoffmann\\,\\ the\\ metanarratives\\ in\\ these\\ are\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ about\\ obedience\\ and\\ discipline\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 33, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Chit_Lit_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The US in the 1960s - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history"], "text": null, "id": 65, "html": "\\\\\\studyguidehist1672\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c23\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c20\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Elaine\\ Tyler\\ May\\:\\ Cold\\ War\\-Warm\\ Hearth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Starts\\ with\\ recap\\ of\\ consensus\\ of\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nuclear\\ family\\,\\ tells\\ about\\ a\\ LIFE\\ story\\ about\\ a\\ honeymoon\\ in\\ a\\ nuclear\\ bunker\\ for\\ two\\ weeks\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;unbroken\\ togetherness\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ image\\ of\\ family\\ togetherness\\ within\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ the\\ thick\\-walled\\ shelter\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ reassuring\\ one\\ to\\ Americans\\ at\\ the\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demographically\\ Americans\\ were\\ more\\ eager\\ to\\ make\\ families\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ creating\\ baby\\ boom\\,\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ prosperity\\ and\\ peace\\,\\ and\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ normalcy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ of\\ babyboom\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ 60s\\/70s\\ and\\ created\\ the\\ counter\\ culture\\,\\ highest\\ divorce\\ rate\\ and\\ lowest\\ birth\\ rate\\ so\\ far\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ like\\ grandparents\\ who\\ also\\ had\\ lowest\\ birthrate\\ and\\ highest\\ divorce\\ rate\\ of\\ their\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ that\\ solidarity\\ at\\ home\\ was\\ in\\ reaction\\ to\\ challenges\\ abroad\\ from\\ cold\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nixon\\/Kruschev\\ debated\\ over\\ merits\\ of\\ US\\/Soviet\\ system\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ tv\\ sets\\ and\\ dishwashers\\ not\\ missiles\\ or\\ governmental\\ structures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ debate\\ helped\\ give\\ Nixon\\ his\\ national\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reading\\ shifts\\ to\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ covering\\ men\\ and\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;organization\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\ works\\ in\\ a\\ large\\ corporation\\ with\\ little\\ autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ are\\ also\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ either\\ menial\\ and\\ subordinate\\ jobs\\ in\\ greater\\ numbers\\ than\\ before\\ or\\ are\\ full\\ time\\ homemakers\\ who\\ appreciate\\ their\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ in\\ the\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adjusted\\ to\\ the\\ nuclear\\ threat\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ disregard\\ it\\,\\ rather\\ just\\ buried\\ it\\ in\\ their\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homes\\ filled\\ with\\ marriage\\ and\\ children\\ were\\ their\\ defense\\ against\\ the\\ coldness\\ of\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ war\\ deaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ this\\ move\\ from\\ the\\ ethnic\\ based\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ nuclear\\ family\\,\\ and\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ have\\ adult\\ groups\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ community\\ that\\ ethnicities\\ once\\ held\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ tendency\\ to\\ trust\\ a\\ larger\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ and\\/or\\ experts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ trust\\ in\\ experts\\ gave\\ them\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ nuclear\\ families\\ were\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ questions\\ and\\ uncertainties\\ posed\\ by\\ foreign\\ affairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ trend\\ in\\ surveys\\ of\\ married\\ couples\\ that\\ marriage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benefits\\ outweighed\\ its\\ sacrifices\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ stability\\ meaning\\ more\\ than\\ financial\\ independence\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ attitude\\ of\\ worthwhile\\ sacrifice\\ did\\ not\\ continue\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\,\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ mvements\\ of\\ the\\ 60s\\ were\\ from\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ values\\ of\\ domesticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ideology\\ of\\ the\\ Liberal\\ Consensus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;Godfrey\\ Hodgson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\liberal\\ consensus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;system\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ beliefs\\,\\ widespread\\ acceptance\\,\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ optimism\\,\\ problems\\ are\\ solvable\\,\\ occurred\\ from\\ mid\\ 1950s\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ period\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;age\\ of\\ consensus\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Americans\\ in\\ this\\ period\\ accepted\\ the\\ same\\ system\\ of\\ assumptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-American\\ capitalism\\ abolished\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ and\\ now\\ everyone\\ in\\ America\\ is\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ the\\ country\\ is\\ approaching\\ economic\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-entrance\\ into\\ intellectual\\ age\\,\\ university\\ enrollments\\ multiplying\\ in\\ years\\ after\\ WWII\\,\\ endowments\\ accumulated\\,\\ federal\\ and\\ state\\ funds\\ became\\ available\\,\\ salaries\\ and\\ status\\ of\\ professors\\ rose\\ \\(for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ academic\\ life\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ and\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;in\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ Americans\\ were\\ worried\\ about\\ themselves\\ \\(health\\ and\\ status\\)\\,\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ end\\ they\\ were\\ worried\\ about\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ nuclear\\ war\\ with\\ Russia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Two\\ faces\\ of\\ the\\ consensus\\ mood\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;1\\.\\ confident\\ to\\ the\\ verge\\ of\\ complacency\\ about\\ the\\ perfectibility\\ of\\ American\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ anxious\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ paranoia\\ about\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ communism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Domestic\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\/early\\ 60s\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ should\\ seek\\ better\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ while\\ keeping\\ its\\ guard\\ up\\ and\\ seeking\\ to\\ contain\\ communism\\&mdash\\;this\\ was\\ common\\ ground\\ \\(consensus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-disagreement\\ over\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ US\\ should\\ support\\ the\\ UN\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-disagreement\\ over\\ level\\ of\\ foreign\\ aid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-disagreement\\ over\\ speed\\ of\\ space\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Historical\\ contributing\\ factors\\ to\\ consensus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-new\\ prosperity\\ calmed\\ the\\ class\\ antipathies\\ of\\ the\\ depression\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-sense\\ of\\ an\\ enemy\\ at\\ the\\ gate\\ strengthened\\ national\\ unity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-American\\,\\ democratic\\,\\ free\\-enterprise\\ system\\ creates\\ abundance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-production\\/economic\\ growth\\ better\\ meets\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ needs\\,\\ social\\ conflict\\ over\\ resources\\ becomes\\ obsolete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-therefore\\,\\ a\\ natural\\ harmony\\ of\\ interests\\ in\\ society\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-social\\ problems\\ are\\ addressed\\ just\\ like\\ industrial\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ feels\\ a\\ responsibility\\ to\\ bring\\ this\\ system\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;In\\ 1956\\,\\ Rockefeller\\ brothers\\ organized\\ a\\ special\\ studies\\ project\\,\\ bringing\\ together\\ a\\ team\\ of\\ diagnosticians\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;meet\\ and\\ examine\\ the\\ most\\ critical\\ problems\\ facing\\ the\\ nation\\ over\\ the\\ next\\ ten\\ to\\ fifteen\\ years\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Discovered\\ that\\ the\\ shared\\ assumptions\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ governmental\\ and\\ business\\ elite\\ were\\ very\\ similar\\.\\ The\\ underlying\\ tone\\ was\\ the\\ struggle\\ with\\ Soviet\\ danger\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Eisenhower\\ administration\\ made\\ official\\ report\\ on\\ the\\ national\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ got\\ together\\ a\\ panel\\ of\\ economists\\,\\ findings\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ Rockefeller\\ report\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ perfectible\\ America\\ threatened\\ from\\ without\\ by\\ the\\ Communist\\ serpent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;This\\ guy\\ sums\\ it\\ up\\ nicely\\:\\ Fred\\ Freed\\,\\ TV\\ producer\\ NBC\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;in\\ 1961\\ we\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ consensus\\ society\\.\\ Those\\ were\\ the\\ days\\ of\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\.\\ There\\ was\\ an\\ enemy\\ outside\\,\\ the\\ communists\\,\\ Nikita\\ Khrushchev\\,\\ the\\ red\\ Chinese\\&hellip\\;back\\ then\\ there\\ was\\ general\\ agreement\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ about\\ what\\ was\\ right\\ and\\ what\\ was\\ wrong\\ about\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Nobody\\ really\\ questioned\\ the\\ system\\&hellip\\;we\\ had\\ a\\ common\\ set\\ of\\ beliefs\\ and\\ common\\ values\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Affluent\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ part\\ one\\ of\\ Chapter\\ 21\\,\\ Galbraith\\ makes\\ his\\ overarching\\ argument\\ for\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ what\\ he\\ terms\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ balance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ poverty\\ in\\ public\\ services\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ lack\\ of\\ good\\ schools\\,\\ highways\\,\\ parks\\,\\ libraries\\,\\ hospitals\\ etc\\,\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ downfall\\ of\\ our\\ affluent\\ society\\ \\(originally\\ written\\ in\\ 1958\\)\\ and\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ eliminate\\ the\\ poverty\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ sector\\ we\\ will\\ see\\ even\\ more\\ growth\\ and\\ employment\\ that\\ is\\ sustainable\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ period\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ Galbraith\\ essentially\\ argues\\ two\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ he\\ distinguishes\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ public\\ and\\ private\\ goods\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ conclusions\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;functions\\ accrue\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ because\\,\\ as\\ a\\ purely\\ technical\\ matter\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ alternative\\ to\\ public\\ management\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ anything\\ that\\ is\\ public\\ is\\ public\\ because\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exploit\\ it\\ to\\ make\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ purse\\ by\\ the\\ legislature\\ in\\ our\\ \\&ldquo\\;affluent\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ become\\ so\\ complex\\ and\\ intertwined\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ hurting\\ the\\ growth\\ and\\ maintenance\\ of\\ public\\ services\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ in\\ which\\ legislators\\ must\\ find\\ a\\ need\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ transfer\\ resources\\ for\\ public\\ uses\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ finds\\ this\\ absurd\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;fewer\\ automobiles\\ would\\ be\\ purchased\\ than\\ at\\ present\\ were\\ it\\ necessary\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ positive\\ case\\ for\\ their\\ purchase\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ a\\ case\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ for\\ schools\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ thinks\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ worry\\ less\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;wasting\\&rdquo\\;\\ money\\ on\\ schools\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ goods\\ because\\ he\\ sees\\ that\\ terminology\\ as\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ paradox\\ as\\ schools\\ only\\ serve\\ a\\ positive\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galbraith\\ then\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ balance\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ so\\ important\\ to\\ him\\,\\ that\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ should\\ create\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ proportional\\ income\\ tax\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ explicity\\ states\\ that\\ this\\ must\\ be\\ accomplished\\ by\\ relying\\ on\\ personal\\ and\\ corporate\\ income\\ taxes\\,\\ for\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ calls\\ for\\ politics\\ to\\ be\\ put\\ aside\\ \\(easier\\ said\\ then\\ done\\)\\ and\\ says\\ the\\ only\\ hope\\ is\\ that\\ politicians\\,\\ especially\\ liberals\\,\\ can\\ separate\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ equality\\ \\(when\\ are\\ the\\ rich\\ too\\ rich\\)\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ social\\ balance\\,\\ because\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ latter\\ is\\ by\\ far\\ the\\ more\\ important\\ question\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ ends\\ this\\ section\\ with\\ an\\ important\\ statement\\ directed\\ at\\ politicians\\ and\\ partisans\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ rational\\ liveral\\,\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ will\\ resist\\ tax\\ reduction\\,\\ even\\ that\\ which\\ ostensibly\\ favors\\ the\\ porr\\,\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\,\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ reason\\,\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ hesitate\\ to\\ accept\\ increases\\ that\\ are\\ neutral\\ as\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ income\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Essentially\\,\\ liberals\\ should\\ abandaon\\ their\\ beliefs\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ serve\\ social\\ balance\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ smart\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Galbraith\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galbraith\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ sales\\ tax\\ on\\ a\\ state\\ and\\ local\\ level\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ assure\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ this\\ makes\\ sense\\ because\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ affluent\\ in\\ privately\\ produces\\ good\\ and\\ poor\\ in\\ public\\ services\\,\\ therefore\\ take\\ from\\ the\\ former\\ and\\ provide\\ to\\ the\\ latter\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ section\\ he\\ addresses\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ sales\\ tax\\ is\\ not\\ proportional\\ and\\ therefore\\ would\\ hurt\\ poor\\ people\\ more\\ than\\ rich\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ necessary\\ sacrifice\\,\\ because\\ if\\ social\\ balance\\ is\\ reached\\ then\\ poverty\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ can\\ be\\ eliminated\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ if\\ schools\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ services\\ are\\ increased\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ poor\\ people\\ because\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ better\\ educated\\ and\\ more\\ capable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ and\\ VI\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ sections\\ argues\\ more\\ concretely\\ why\\ sales\\ tax\\ is\\ a\\ viable\\ option\\,\\ not\\ really\\ important\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ just\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ above\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ that\\ neither\\ liberals\\ or\\ conservatives\\ have\\ seen\\ this\\ yet\\ but\\ they\\ should\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ section\\ addresses\\ when\\ will\\ we\\ know\\ when\\ society\\ has\\ reached\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ has\\ no\\ real\\ good\\ answer\\ but\\ instead\\ says\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ balanced\\ and\\ this\\ should\\ be\\ reason\\ enough\\ to\\ strive\\ for\\ balance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ chapter\\ Galbraith\\ looks\\ at\\ poverty\\ in\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\,\\ explains\\ its\\ nature\\,\\ explains\\ how\\ to\\ rid\\ the\\ society\\ of\\ it\\ and\\ attempts\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ it\\ has\\ persisted\\ and\\ why\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ disgrace\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ opens\\ by\\ explaining\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ poverty\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ case\\ poverty\\,\\ which\\ he\\ explains\\ as\\ individual\\ poverty\\,\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ certain\\ malfunction\\ in\\ an\\ individual\\ \\(mental\\ illness\\,\\ alchoholism\\ etc\\)\\ in\\ an\\ otherwise\\ affluent\\ and\\ well\\ functioning\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;Galbraith\\ is\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ poverty\\ and\\ claims\\ it\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ inevitable\\ and\\ not\\ worrisome\\ to\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ type\\ of\\ poverty\\ is\\ insular\\ poverty\\,\\ which\\ manifests\\ itself\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;island\\ of\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ concentrated\\ poverty\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ south\\ Bronx\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ Galbraith\\,\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ characteristics\\ of\\ this\\ insular\\ poverty\\ are\\ the\\ forces\\ which\\ keep\\ it\\ going\\ consistently\\ from\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ forces\\ are\\,\\ Race\\,\\ poor\\ educational\\ facilities\\,\\ disintegration\\ of\\ families\\ leaving\\ single\\ parent\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ because\\ of\\ these\\ factors\\,\\ insular\\ poverty\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ solved\\ simply\\ by\\ a\\ general\\ increase\\ in\\ affluence\\ of\\ society\\ or\\ a\\ general\\ increase\\ in\\ income\\ across\\ a\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Galbraith\\ then\\ addresses\\ why\\ this\\ insular\\ poverty\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ bigger\\ political\\ issues\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ because\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\ where\\ the\\ poor\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ large\\ mobilizing\\ factor\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ essentially\\ political\\ suicide\\ for\\ a\\ politician\\ to\\ invest\\ heavily\\ in\\ protecting\\ the\\ very\\ poor\\ and\\ their\\ interests\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ he\\ says\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ align\\ safely\\ with\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ a\\ poor\\ society\\ in\\ which\\ your\\ political\\ power\\ would\\ come\\ from\\ feeding\\ the\\ mouths\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ in\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\ you\\ hurt\\ yourself\\ by\\ being\\ morally\\ conscious\\ and\\ helping\\ the\\ poor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Galbraith\\ then\\ offers\\ his\\ solution\\ to\\ insular\\ poverty\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ immediately\\ throws\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ the\\ old\\ solution\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;helping\\ people\\ help\\ themselves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ counterproductive\\ and\\ has\\ not\\ shown\\ results\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ elimate\\ poverty\\ efficiently\\,\\ we\\ must\\,\\ indeed\\,\\ invest\\ more\\ than\\ proportionately\\ in\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ there\\ that\\ high\\ quality\\ schools\\,\\ strong\\ health\\ services\\,\\ special\\ provision\\ for\\ nutrition\\ and\\ recreation\\ are\\ most\\ needed\\ to\\ compensate\\ for\\ the\\ very\\ low\\ investment\\ which\\ families\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ offspring\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ poor\\ communities\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ cycle\\ of\\ poverty\\.\\ \\ \\;Essentially\\ he\\ again\\ argues\\ that\\ investing\\ in\\ social\\ balance\\ will\\ eliminate\\ poverty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Galbraith\\ wraps\\ up\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ poverty\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ remarkable\\,\\ because\\ some\\ countries\\ are\\ poor\\ and\\ therefore\\ cannot\\ avoid\\ it\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ he\\ says\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ an\\ affluent\\ society\\,\\ that\\ poverty\\ only\\ exists\\ because\\ people\\ are\\ too\\ comfortable\\ and\\ used\\ to\\ turning\\ a\\ blind\\ eye\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ eliminated\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ remarkable\\ that\\ it\\ exists\\ but\\ disgraceful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Balance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ using\\ investment\\ in\\ public\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ such\\ as\\ schools\\ and\\ hospitals\\ and\\ health\\ care\\ programs\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ eliminate\\ poverty\\ within\\ affluent\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insular\\ Poverty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ poverty\\ that\\ exists\\ amongst\\ many\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ concentrated\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\ include\\ the\\ South\\ Bronx\\,\\ Puerto\\ rico\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ West\\ Virginia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ this\\ all\\ fits\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ that\\ Professor\\ McGirr\\ had\\ us\\ read\\ this\\ book\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ realize\\ how\\ people\\ were\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ its\\ economy\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ reading\\ Galbraith\\ it\\ becomes\\ very\\ apparent\\ that\\ he\\ forsaw\\ endless\\ growth\\ and\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ the\\ affluent\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Professor\\ McGirr\\ probably\\ wanted\\ us\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ this\\ mentally\\ led\\ people\\ to\\ start\\ thinking\\ about\\ new\\ things\\,\\ like\\ Galbraith\\ does\\ with\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ poverty\\ in\\ a\\ unique\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ also\\ led\\ to\\ people\\ thinking\\ about\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ etc\\,\\ which\\ in\\ part\\ helped\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ unique\\ environment\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ luck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coming\\ of\\ Age\\ in\\ Mississippi\\:\\ Chapters\\ 10\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 10\\-17\\ are\\ devoted\\ to\\ Anne\\ Moody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ years\\ in\\ high\\ school\\,\\ and\\ chapters\\ 18\\-20\\ begin\\ to\\ cover\\ her\\ years\\ in\\ college\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ fifteen\\ years\\ old\\ when\\ I\\ began\\ to\\ hate\\ people\\ \\(p136\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\High\\ school\\ begins\\ with\\ Anne\\ changing\\ her\\ name\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Essie\\ Mae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(which\\ her\\ mother\\ still\\ calls\\ her\\)\\ to\\ Anne\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ lives\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\,\\ stepfather\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Raymond\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ siblings\\ throughout\\ high\\ school\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Drew\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mississippi\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ shocked\\ by\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emmitt\\ Till\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ teenager\\ from\\ Chicago\\ who\\ was\\ brutally\\ lynched\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mississippi\\ Delta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;near\\ the\\ small\\ town\\ of\\ Drew\\ in\\ Sunflower\\ County\\.\\ His\\ murder\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ events\\ which\\ energized\\ the\\ nascent\\ American\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ main\\ suspects\\ for\\ the\\ crime\\ were\\ acquitted\\,\\ a\\ federal\\ investigation\\ into\\ his\\ murder\\ was\\ initiated\\ in\\ 2004\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ killed\\ because\\ he\\ allegedly\\ whistled\\ at\\ a\\ white\\ woman\\ in\\ a\\ drugstore\\,\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 14\\,\\ which\\ was\\ Anne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ age\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Anne\\ describes\\ how\\ this\\ event\\ causes\\ her\\ to\\ become\\ angry\\,\\ not\\ only\\ at\\ the\\ white\\ people\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ black\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ Delta\\ for\\ not\\ rising\\ up\\ against\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ significant\\ moment\\ of\\ her\\ life\\ because\\ it\\ begins\\ to\\ fuel\\ her\\ wish\\ to\\ take\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ through\\ Till\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ that\\ Anne\\ first\\ hears\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NAACP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ working\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miss\\ Burke\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;Miss\\ Burke\\ is\\ a\\ white\\ woman\\ for\\ whom\\ Anne\\ does\\ housework\\,\\ and\\ she\\ would\\ often\\ try\\ to\\ provoke\\ Anne\\ into\\ breaking\\ the\\ stone\\-like\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\ that\\ her\\ mother\\ tells\\ her\\ to\\ keep\\ at\\ work\\,\\ for\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ take\\ much\\ to\\ cause\\ the\\ white\\ people\\ of\\ this\\ area\\ to\\ snap\\ at\\ a\\ black\\ person\\ simply\\ for\\ stating\\ an\\ opinion\\.\\ \\ \\;Miss\\ Burke\\ would\\ sometimes\\ have\\ Anne\\ over\\ while\\ she\\ was\\ having\\ guild\\ meetings\\ with\\ other\\ white\\ women\\ of\\ Drew\\,\\ simply\\ so\\ that\\ Anne\\ could\\ hear\\ the\\ threats\\ against\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ black\\ girl\\,\\ and\\ in\\ hopes\\ that\\ she\\ would\\ spread\\ the\\ word\\ to\\ her\\ black\\ friends\\ and\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Anne\\ also\\ tutored\\ Miss\\ Burke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wayne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ his\\ friends\\ at\\ math\\,\\ all\\ of\\ whom\\ became\\ quite\\ close\\ friends\\ despite\\ their\\ races\\.\\ \\ \\;Wayne\\,\\ however\\,\\ does\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ use\\ Anne\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ angering\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ sitting\\ very\\ close\\ to\\ her\\ and\\ seemingly\\ threatening\\ to\\ become\\ involved\\ with\\ her\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ Anne\\ understandably\\ uncomfortable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ common\\ trait\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ uncovered\\ in\\ this\\ section\\,\\ which\\ involves\\ affairs\\ between\\ married\\ white\\ men\\ and\\ single\\ white\\ women\\,\\ whom\\ would\\ often\\ do\\ housework\\ for\\ the\\ white\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ well\\-described\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bess\\ and\\ Fox\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p137\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ Anne\\ describes\\ it\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ these\\ affairs\\ did\\ not\\ end\\ in\\ divorce\\,\\ but\\ sometimes\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ job\\ or\\ the\\ unwillingness\\ for\\ the\\ black\\ teen\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ cruelty\\ to\\ blacks\\ is\\ well\\ documented\\ in\\ this\\ section\\,\\ including\\ the\\ beating\\ of\\ Anne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jerry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ he\\ picked\\ up\\ a\\ lift\\ from\\ the\\ local\\ Sheriff\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cassidy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ burning\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Taplin\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ home\\ while\\ they\\ were\\ all\\ still\\ inside\\.\\ \\ \\;Anne\\ is\\ open\\ about\\ how\\ these\\ acts\\ of\\ brutality\\ affected\\ her\\ deeper\\ and\\ deeper\\ after\\ incident\\,\\ sometimes\\ resulting\\ in\\ her\\ trying\\ extra\\ hard\\ at\\ school\\ and\\ extracurricular\\ activities\\,\\ especially\\ basketball\\ \\(which\\ also\\ provided\\ her\\ with\\ a\\ scholarship\\ for\\ college\\)\\,\\ more\\ to\\ prove\\ herself\\ more\\ intelligent\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ black\\ people\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Uncle\\ Tom\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\ who\\ would\\ either\\ accept\\ things\\ for\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ were\\ or\\ cooperate\\ with\\ the\\ white\\ people\\ than\\ to\\ strive\\ to\\ succeed\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ point\\,\\ however\\,\\ where\\ she\\ does\\ lose\\ this\\ drive\\ out\\ of\\ pure\\ emotional\\ exhaustion\\,\\ only\\ to\\ regain\\ it\\ once\\ she\\ gets\\ to\\ college\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Natchez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ then\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tougaloo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ summers\\ before\\ college\\ \\(and\\ during\\)\\,\\ Anne\\ goes\\ to\\ New\\ Orleans\\ to\\ make\\ money\\,\\ living\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sister\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Celia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ she\\ works\\ unknowingly\\ as\\ a\\ scab\\ at\\ a\\ chicken\\ factory\\ under\\ completely\\ miserable\\ conditions\\,\\ then\\ she\\ gets\\ a\\ job\\ washing\\ dishes\\ \\(and\\ eventually\\ waitressing\\)\\ at\\ a\\ restaurant\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maple\\ Hill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ cast\\ of\\ characters\\ including\\ two\\ transvestites\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ her\\ coworkers\\ she\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ Orleans\\ social\\ scene\\ and\\ eventually\\ with\\ the\\ New\\ Orleans\\ chapter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\CORE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Anne\\ attends\\ a\\ school\\ in\\ Centreville\\,\\ where\\ she\\ learns\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Samuel\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Quinn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ condemned\\ by\\ the\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ principal\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mr\\.\\ Willis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ this\\,\\ Anne\\ writes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ death\\ brought\\ back\\ memories\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ killings\\,\\ beatings\\ and\\ abuses\\ inflicted\\ upon\\ Negroes\\ by\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ lay\\ in\\ bed\\ for\\ two\\ days\\ after\\ his\\ death\\ recalling\\ the\\ Taplin\\ burning\\,\\ Jerry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beating\\,\\ Emmett\\ Till\\&rsquo\\;s\\ murder\\,\\ and\\ working\\ for\\ Miss\\ Burke\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ hated\\ myself\\ and\\ every\\ Negro\\ in\\ Centreville\\ for\\ not\\ putting\\ a\\ stop\\ to\\ the\\ killings\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ putting\\ up\\ a\\ fight\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ stop\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ thought\\ of\\ waging\\ a\\ war\\ in\\ protest\\ against\\ the\\ killings\\ all\\ by\\ myself\\,\\ if\\ no\\ one\\ else\\ would\\ help\\ \\(pp202\\-203\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ after\\ that\\ she\\ estranges\\ herself\\ from\\ her\\ mother\\ and\\ Raymond\\ and\\ moves\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ her\\ father\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Woodville\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ enjoys\\ the\\ warmth\\ of\\ their\\ household\\ and\\ attends\\ Johnson\\ High\\ School\\ where\\ she\\ becomes\\ a\\ favorite\\ of\\ the\\ basketball\\ coach\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dunbar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ graduates\\ and\\ attends\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Natchez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ miserable\\,\\ and\\ then\\ moves\\ on\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tougaloo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Chapter\\ 20\\ ends\\ with\\ Anne\\ just\\ about\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ NAACP\\ chapter\\ at\\ Tougaloo\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ writes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ more\\ I\\ remembered\\ the\\ killings\\,\\ beatings\\,\\ and\\ intimidations\\,\\ the\\ more\\ I\\ worried\\ what\\ might\\ possibly\\ happen\\ to\\ me\\ or\\ my\\ family\\ if\\ I\\ joined\\ the\\ NAACP\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ I\\ knew\\ I\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ join\\,\\ anyway\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ had\\ wanted\\ to\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ \\(p269\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chafe\\,\\ Civilities\\ and\\ Civil\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Civilities\\ and\\ Civil\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ H\\.\\ Chafe\\,\\ Chapters\\ 2\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chafe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ civil\\ rights\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Greensboro\\,\\ North\\ Carolina\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ not\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Deep\\ South\\ and\\ not\\ often\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ sentence\\ as\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ southern\\ cities\\ which\\ were\\ more\\ famous\\ areas\\ for\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ like\\ Montgomery\\ and\\ Birmingham\\,\\ Greensboro\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ crucial\\ area\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ host\\ of\\ the\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;largest\\ civil\\ rights\\ protests\\ ever\\ to\\ occur\\ in\\ North\\ Carolina\\ \\(118\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Long\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ liberal\\ city\\ by\\ blacks\\,\\ whites\\,\\ and\\ northerners\\,\\ Chafe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ looks\\ to\\ point\\ that\\ such\\ left\\-leaning\\ tendencies\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ translate\\ into\\ blacks\\ gaining\\ equal\\ rights\\ as\\ whites\\ very\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ he\\ explains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blacks\\ wanted\\ to\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ good\\ faith\\ of\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ after\\ frustration\\ reached\\ a\\ peak\\ did\\ overt\\ rebellion\\ occur\\,\\ to\\ be\\ followed\\ again\\ by\\ quiet\\ patience\\ when\\ promises\\ of\\ change\\ were\\ offered\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ rebellion\\ would\\ rise\\ once\\ more\\,\\ set\\ in\\ motion\\ by\\ yet\\ another\\ betrayal\\ of\\ promises\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ the\\ crisis\\ \\(110\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ summary\\ of\\ each\\ individual\\ chapter\\ will\\ explain\\ the\\ events\\ that\\ help\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ pendulum\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ Chafe\\ just\\ mentioned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Moderation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ spring\\ of\\ 1954\\,\\ everyone\\ applauds\\ liberal\\ Greensboro\\ when\\ it\\ decides\\ to\\ go\\ along\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brown\\ vs\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ passes\\ a\\ resolution\\ to\\ desegregate\\ the\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ little\\ progress\\ is\\ every\\ really\\ made\\,\\ as\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ members\\ actually\\ support\\ Chairman\\ Ed\\ Hudgins\\&rsquo\\;\\ draft\\ of\\ a\\ compliance\\ issue\\ on\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ businessmen\\,\\ religious\\ leaders\\,\\ and\\ other\\ North\\ Carolinians\\ also\\ worked\\ to\\ forestall\\ any\\ real\\ action\\,\\ as\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ stalled\\ in\\ forcing\\ the\\ South\\ to\\ take\\ decisive\\ action\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brown\\<\\/span\\>\\\\¸\\;\\ frustrating\\ black\\ citizens\\.\\ \\ \\;Governor\\ Luther\\ Hodges\\ does\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ job\\ of\\ holding\\ off\\ black\\ demands\\,\\ as\\ he\\ creates\\ the\\ Pearsall\\ Committee\\,\\ which\\ essentially\\ did\\ nothing\\,\\ got\\ the\\ Pupil\\ Assignment\\ Act\\ passed\\,\\ which\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ actually\\ have\\ the\\ proper\\ components\\ to\\ enforce\\ desegregation\\,\\ and\\ managed\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ NAACP\\ fearful\\ that\\ conservative\\ elements\\ like\\ the\\ KKK\\ were\\ threatening\\ to\\ gain\\ more\\ support\\ if\\ he\\ actually\\ tried\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ of\\ substance\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ the\\ Pearsall\\ Plan\\ was\\ passed\\ which\\ also\\ did\\ nothing\\,\\ but\\ was\\ widely\\ accepted\\ by\\ people\\ as\\ a\\ progressive\\ measure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;With\\ Hodges\\ and\\ other\\ leaders\\ failing\\ to\\ deliver\\ on\\ promises\\,\\ the\\ grass\\-roots\\ protests\\ from\\ blacks\\ begin\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ early\\ protest\\ came\\ during\\ Hodges\\&rsquo\\;\\ visit\\ to\\ the\\ North\\ Carolina\\ Agricultural\\ and\\ Technical\\ College\\ \\(A\\&\\;T\\)\\ in\\ Greensboro\\ in\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\.\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ thereafter\\,\\ black\\ leaders\\ started\\ protesting\\ against\\ highly\\ visible\\ things\\,\\ like\\ the\\ great\\ disparity\\ in\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ gyms\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ their\\ demands\\ growing\\,\\ the\\ schools\\ began\\ to\\ grant\\ token\\ desegregation\\ before\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ 1957\\-58\\ school\\ year\\,\\ and\\ admitted\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ black\\ students\\ to\\ the\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\ their\\ efforts\\ were\\ praised\\ for\\ being\\ so\\ progressive\\,\\ but\\ still\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ black\\ leaders\\&rsquo\\;\\ demands\\.\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ things\\ were\\ about\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ head\\,\\ as\\ it\\ became\\ clear\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;North\\ Carolina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ progressivism\\ consisted\\ primarily\\ of\\ its\\ shrewdness\\ in\\ opposing\\ racial\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(70\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ Sit\\-Ins\\ Begin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;What\\ makes\\ Greensboro\\ so\\ famous\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ famous\\ sit\\-ins\\ begin\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ this\\ subject\\ which\\ Chafe\\ devotes\\ most\\ of\\ this\\ chapter\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;Begun\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ the\\ sit\\-in\\ movement\\ came\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ heels\\ of\\ the\\ blacks\\&rsquo\\;\\ general\\ frustration\\ in\\ desegregating\\ the\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ there\\ were\\ small\\ victories\\ and\\ some\\ students\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ transfer\\ schools\\,\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ much\\ actual\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\,\\ black\\ leaders\\ decided\\ to\\ turn\\ their\\ focus\\ towards\\ businesses\\,\\ who\\ they\\ hoped\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ change\\ if\\ they\\ hit\\ them\\ where\\ it\\ hurt\\ most\\:\\ their\\ wallets\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ so\\ on\\ February\\ 1\\,\\ 1960\\,\\ four\\ students\\ from\\ A\\&\\;T\\ sat\\ down\\ at\\ the\\ lunch\\ counter\\ at\\ the\\ Woolworth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ downtown\\ Greensboro\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ movement\\ quickly\\ snowballed\\,\\ and\\ an\\ organizational\\ structure\\ to\\ keep\\ up\\ the\\ sit\\-ins\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ sprang\\ up\\,\\ paralyzing\\ Woolworths\\ and\\ other\\ later\\ targets\\ of\\ the\\ sit\\-ins\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ harassed\\,\\ violence\\ never\\ erupted\\,\\ and\\ the\\ protest\\ came\\ to\\ a\\ temporary\\ halt\\ thanks\\ to\\ the\\ negotiations\\ of\\ the\\ Greensboro\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ College\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Chancellor\\ Gordon\\ Blackwell\\,\\ who\\ got\\ the\\ blacks\\ to\\ stand\\ down\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ business\\ leader\\ named\\ Edward\\ Zane\\ then\\ took\\ over\\ as\\ the\\ primary\\ negotiator\\,\\ but\\ failed\\ in\\ actually\\ persuading\\ the\\ white\\ business\\ leaders\\ to\\ desegregate\\ their\\ stores\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ his\\ failure\\,\\ the\\ demonstrations\\ continued\\ on\\ April\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ time\\,\\ there\\ were\\ also\\ protests\\ were\\ held\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ sit\\-ins\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ the\\ demonstrations\\ took\\ their\\ tole\\,\\ forcing\\ the\\ principal\\ eight\\ downtown\\ stores\\ to\\ give\\ into\\ the\\ pressure\\ they\\ faced\\ from\\ the\\ black\\ students\\,\\ concerned\\ citizens\\,\\ and\\ the\\ larger\\ parent\\ corporation\\ which\\ feared\\ embarrassment\\ from\\ the\\ whole\\ issue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ desegregating\\ measure\\ was\\ praised\\ by\\ all\\,\\ but\\ ended\\ the\\ general\\ civility\\ that\\ had\\ existed\\ between\\ the\\ whites\\ and\\ black\\ leaders\\ up\\ until\\ this\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ A\\ Time\\ of\\ Testing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ 1960\\,\\ John\\ F\\.\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ Terry\\ Sanford\\ were\\ elected\\ as\\ the\\ president\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ governor\\ of\\ North\\ Carolina\\,\\ respectively\\,\\ giving\\ a\\ much\\ clearer\\ support\\ of\\ enlightened\\ liberalism\\ from\\ the\\ voters\\.\\ \\ \\;Sanford\\ quickly\\ went\\ to\\ work\\ to\\ actually\\ help\\ end\\ the\\ inequality\\ among\\ the\\ races\\,\\ and\\ encouraged\\ black\\ protests\\ to\\ help\\ garner\\ support\\ for\\ his\\ efforts\\,\\ since\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ Carolinian\\ government\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ him\\ any\\ real\\ power\\ to\\ enact\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Greensboro\\,\\ black\\ leaders\\ started\\ advocating\\ for\\ the\\ desegregation\\ of\\ entire\\ stores\\,\\ school\\ districts\\,\\ hospitals\\,\\ and\\ other\\ areas\\,\\ but\\ were\\ again\\ met\\ with\\ resistance\\.\\ \\ \\;Frustration\\ grew\\,\\ and\\ protests\\ picked\\ up\\ in\\ earnest\\ again\\ in\\ late\\ summer\\ of\\ 1962\\,\\ with\\ a\\ focus\\ growing\\ on\\ the\\ school\\ system\\ this\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ at\\ this\\ decisive\\ point\\ that\\ Chafe\\ ends\\ this\\ segment\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ the\\ white\\ leaders\\ were\\ following\\ a\\ similar\\ pattern\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ by\\ taking\\ efforts\\ to\\ stall\\ any\\ actual\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ time\\ this\\ delay\\ took\\ its\\ form\\ in\\ the\\ Human\\ Relations\\ Commission\\,\\ which\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ study\\ and\\ solve\\ problems\\ of\\ racial\\ problems\\,\\ but\\ in\\ reality\\ did\\ nothing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ this\\ chapter\\,\\ activists\\ from\\ Greensboro\\ start\\ to\\ protest\\ and\\ hold\\ demonstrations\\ in\\ large\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ to\\ give\\ you\\ an\\ idea\\,\\ within\\ eighteen\\ days\\,\\ there\\ were\\ 2000\\ activists\\ assaulted\\ and\\ at\\ one\\ point\\,\\ over\\ 1400\\ black\\ protestors\\ were\\ arrested\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ gathered\\ to\\ protest\\ segregation\\ in\\ Greensboro\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chafe\\ notes\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ NAACP\\ began\\ to\\ question\\ everything\\,\\ which\\ led\\ students\\ and\\ other\\ activists\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ and\\ question\\ the\\ authority\\.\\ \\ \\;Chafe\\ goes\\ on\\ and\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ different\\ protests\\ that\\ occurred\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ were\\ violent\\,\\ where\\ they\\ blocked\\ entrances\\ of\\ local\\ businesses\\ that\\ were\\ still\\ segregated\\ and\\ force\\ the\\ Mayor\\ Schenck\\ and\\ other\\ city\\ leaders\\ to\\ start\\ making\\ changes\\.\\ \\ \\;Moreover\\,\\ student\\ demonstrators\\ tried\\ sit\\ ins\\ where\\ they\\ sat\\ in\\ theatres\\ and\\ refused\\ to\\ leave\\ unless\\ they\\ were\\ integrated\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ way\\,\\ their\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ pack\\ the\\ jails\\,\\ exhaust\\ the\\ city\\,\\ and\\ force\\ city\\ officials\\ to\\ make\\ changes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ situation\\ in\\ the\\ jails\\ got\\ so\\ bad\\ that\\ 100\\ jailers\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ share\\ 2\\ beds\\ and\\ 2\\ bathrooms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ they\\ forced\\ the\\ Mayor\\ to\\ speak\\ out\\ against\\ segregation\\ and\\ gave\\ businesses\\ one\\ week\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ his\\ request\\ for\\ desegregation\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ black\\ community\\ agreed\\ to\\ suspend\\ demonstrations\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ mixed\\ results\\.\\ \\ \\;25\\%\\ of\\ the\\ restaurants\\ were\\ now\\ open\\ to\\ blacks\\ and\\ motels\\ and\\ theaters\\ started\\ doing\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ gave\\ no\\ support\\ to\\ desegregation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rate\\ of\\ progress\\ lagged\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ pace\\ set\\ by\\ other\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ took\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ the\\ 1964\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ almost\\ a\\ year\\ later\\,\\ that\\ Greensboro\\ reached\\ the\\ same\\ degree\\ of\\ integration\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mayor\\ Schenck\\-\\ mentioned\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Thomas\\-\\ CORE\\ leader\\,\\ led\\ protests\\ and\\ first\\ sit\\ in\\ at\\ Greensboro\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\ a\\ major\\ player\\ in\\ ending\\ segregation\\ in\\ Greensboro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Generation\\ gap\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ younger\\ activists\\ thought\\ that\\ merely\\ sitting\\ down\\ with\\ white\\ leaders\\ solved\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ students\\,\\ negotiation\\ meant\\ little\\ if\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ anything\\ concrete\\ that\\ developed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Older\\ activists\\ questioned\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ worth\\ it\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ jail\\ and\\ put\\ their\\ own\\ bodies\\ on\\ the\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ local\\ black\\ pastors\\ seemed\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ wear\\ and\\ tear\\ on\\ their\\ churches\\ than\\ about\\ winning\\ the\\ struggle\\ \\(students\\ thought\\ about\\ picketing\\ prestigious\\ black\\ churches\\ who\\ were\\ unwilling\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effective\\ grassroots\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ Mayor\\ Schenck\\ forced\\ business\\ to\\ integrate\\,\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easier\\ said\\ then\\ done\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ I\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ Greensboro\\ businesses\\ were\\ integrating\\ really\\ slowly\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ verbal\\ protest\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ useless\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ force\\ change\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ change\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ when\\ the\\ Mayor\\ forces\\ businesses\\ to\\ integrate\\,\\ nothing\\ really\\ happens\\ unless\\ the\\ people\\ themselves\\ mobilize\\ and\\ protest\\ until\\ something\\ is\\ done\\ permanently\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;After\\ the\\ sit\\ ins\\ and\\ demonstrations\\,\\ restaurants\\ and\\ motels\\ began\\ to\\ integrate\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ larger\\ dilemma\\ of\\ structural\\ and\\ institutional\\ racism\\ remained\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ instance\\,\\ black\\ Greensboro\\ lacked\\ decent\\ apartments\\ and\\ general\\ city\\ upkeep\\ \\(paving\\ streets\\,\\ housing\\ improvements\\)\\ that\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ seemed\\ to\\ enjoy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ school\\ system\\ continued\\ to\\ be\\ segregated\\,\\ as\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ board\\ was\\ dominated\\ by\\ white\\ corporate\\ racists\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ students\\ living\\ next\\ to\\ black\\ students\\ were\\ provided\\ with\\ buses\\ so\\ that\\ children\\ could\\ attend\\ predominantly\\ white\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ 1000\\ black\\ students\\ attended\\ integrated\\ schools\\-\\ a\\ number\\ that\\ is\\ significantly\\ below\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ other\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ school\\ board\\ defended\\ themselves\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ housing\\ problem\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ educational\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ black\\ students\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ white\\ schools\\ if\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ areas\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Chafe\\ counters\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ from\\ 1914\\ to\\ 1929\\ there\\ had\\ been\\ city\\ ordinances\\ prohibiting\\ blacks\\ from\\ living\\ in\\ certain\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;When\\ blacks\\ did\\ cross\\ the\\ boundary\\ and\\ live\\ in\\ white\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ the\\ KKK\\ harassed\\ and\\ threatened\\ to\\ kill\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Chafe\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ segregation\\ issues\\ were\\ all\\ interconnected\\.\\ \\ \\;Segregation\\ in\\ education\\ facilities\\ was\\ reinforced\\ by\\ segregation\\ in\\ housing\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Dorsett\\-\\ led\\ the\\ KKK\\ resurgence\\ in\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lisa\\ McGirr\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Suburban\\ Warriors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 1\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orange\\ County\\ was\\ the\\ suburban\\ heartland\\ that\\ was\\ the\\ birthing\\ ground\\ of\\ a\\ powerful\\ grassroots\\ political\\ movement\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ revitalized\\ and\\ military\\ Right\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fueled\\ by\\ politics\\ of\\ antistatism\\,\\ virulent\\ anticommunism\\,\\ and\\ strict\\ normative\\ conservatism\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ middle\\ class\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ of\\ Orange\\ County\\ rose\\ to\\ object\\ the\\ perceived\\ threats\\ of\\ communism\\ and\\ liberalism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\They\\ forged\\ study\\ groups\\,\\ multiplied\\ chapter\\ of\\ national\\ right\\-wing\\ organizations\\ and\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ voices\\ heard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ Orange\\ County\\ become\\ so\\ supportive\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ region\\ had\\ become\\ extremely\\ affluent\\ and\\ prosperous\\ due\\ to\\ large\\ military\\ corporations\\ that\\ had\\ established\\ themselves\\.\\ This\\ in\\ turn\\ brought\\ entrepreneurs\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ success\\ and\\ prosperity\\ reaffirmed\\ in\\ many\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ dream\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ individualism\\ and\\ independence\\ from\\ government\\ red\\ tape\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rapid\\ growth\\ had\\ deepened\\ and\\ magnified\\ the\\ social\\ strains\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\ But\\ this\\ had\\ happened\\ in\\ many\\ other\\ areas\\ as\\ well\\.\\ In\\ Orange\\ County\\,\\ it\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ successes\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ militaristic\\,\\ anticommunist\\ ethos\\ linked\\ to\\ prosperity\\ that\\ cemented\\ the\\ conservative\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\James\\ B\\.\\ Utt\\ was\\ elected\\ as\\ Orange\\ County\\&rsquo\\;s\\ congressional\\ representative\\ and\\ preached\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ staunch\\ Protestant\\ moralism\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ libertarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orange\\ County\\,\\ and\\ Southern\\ California\\ in\\ general\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ against\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ collectivism\\:\\ federal\\ regulations\\,\\ the\\ welfare\\ state\\ and\\ liberal\\ political\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ people\\ drew\\ on\\ the\\ legacy\\ of\\ 1950s\\ McCarthyism\\ for\\ their\\ anticommunist\\ language\\,\\ targets\\ and\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ movements\\ of\\ South\\ California\\ did\\ not\\ reflect\\ the\\ broader\\ vibrant\\ national\\ liberal\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\June\\ 24\\,\\ 1960\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ first\\ sparks\\ of\\ grassroots\\ mobilization\\ ignited\\ when\\ Joel\\ Dvorman\\,\\ held\\ a\\ meeting\\ in\\ his\\ backyard\\ for\\ the\\ Orange\\ County\\ chapter\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Civil\\ Liberties\\ Union\\ \\(ACLU\\)\\.\\ Reaction\\ against\\ this\\ liberal\\ meeting\\ spread\\ throughout\\ the\\ county\\ thanks\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ James\\ Wallace\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ sign\\ of\\ the\\ mobilization\\ of\\ anti\\ liberal\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ sleeping\\ Giant\\ is\\ awakening\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Men\\ and\\ Women\\ \\&hellip\\;are\\ pledging\\ a\\ fight\\ to\\ victory\\ for\\ God\\ and\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Victories\\ across\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ conservative\\ activity\\ quickened\\ throughout\\ the\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ John\\ Birch\\ Society\\ which\\ by\\ the\\ early\\ 1960s\\ had\\ 300\\ chapters\\ in\\ California\\ and\\ an\\ estimated\\ membership\\ of\\ 60\\.000\\.\\ Robert\\ Welch\\ formed\\ the\\ party\\ with\\ the\\ intent\\ of\\ generating\\ a\\ national\\ membership\\ of\\ anticommunists\\ who\\ would\\ help\\ in\\ the\\ struggle\\ to\\ shift\\ the\\ political\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ resurgence\\ of\\ grassroots\\ mobilization\\ on\\ the\\ Right\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ conservative\\ political\\ power\\ and\\ influence\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ level\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Bee\\ Gathright\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brownie\\ leader\\,\\ mother\\ of\\ three\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Held\\ a\\ meeting\\ in\\ a\\ school\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ could\\ listen\\ to\\ a\\ speaker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ when\\ I\\ discovered\\ I\\ was\\ conservative\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ attended\\ study\\ groups\\ and\\ eventually\\ joined\\ a\\ conservative\\ Republican\\ volunteer\\ organization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ working\\ against\\ Nixon\\ she\\ put\\ her\\ heart\\ and\\ soul\\ into\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presidential\\ campaign\\ in\\ 1964\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ story\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ solid\\ middle\\ class\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ central\\ beneficiaries\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;affluent\\ society\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walter\\ Knott\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Key\\ financier\\ of\\ anti\\-communist\\ schools\\ and\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ continued\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ fostering\\ of\\ grassroots\\ conservatism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ Grassroots\\ Goldwater\\ Campaign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\California\\ Republican\\ Assembly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;formed\\ in\\ 1930s\\ to\\ bypass\\ a\\ state\\ law\\ prohibiting\\ endorsement\\ of\\ candidates\\ by\\ county\\ and\\ state\\ central\\ committees\\ in\\ party\\ primaries\\,\\ conservative\\ activisits\\ had\\ gained\\ support\\ over\\ moderate\\ Republicans\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ they\\ met\\ March\\ 1964\\ to\\ choose\\ a\\ slate\\ of\\ leaders\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ year\\ and\\ to\\ endorse\\ a\\ presidential\\ candidate\\ \\(Goldwater\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Nolan\\ Frizzelle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ elected\\ president\\ of\\ the\\ organization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1962\\ still\\ too\\ weak\\ \\:\\ failed\\ to\\ get\\ Joe\\ Shell\\ for\\ GOP\\ governor\\ nomination\\ \\(Nixon\\ wins\\ instead\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ party\\ passes\\ opposition\\ to\\ John\\ Birch\\ Society\\,\\ meaning\\ many\\ conservative\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mobilize\\ for\\ Nixon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conservatives\\ form\\ a\\ separate\\ endorsing\\ organization\\ in\\ 1963\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\United\\ Republicans\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;under\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bruce\\ Reagan\\,\\ joseph\\ Crosby\\,\\ and\\ Joe\\ Shell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ 1964\\,\\ try\\ again\\ to\\ get\\ CRA\\ to\\ endorse\\ conservative\\ candidates\\,\\ succeed\\,\\ endorsed\\ Goldwater\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ adopt\\ several\\ new\\ platforms\\/principles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sharon\\ Declaration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ adopted\\ by\\ CRA\\,\\ founding\\ document\\ of\\ William\\ Buckley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oung\\ Americans\\ for\\ Freedom\\-\\ affirm\\ commitment\\ to\\ economic\\ freedom\\,\\ states\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ destruction\\ of\\ international\\ communism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ stresses\\ ambivalence\\ toward\\ popular\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Factors\\ influencing\\ mobilization\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\:\\ conservatives\\&rsquo\\;\\ lack\\ of\\ influence\\ in\\ Washington\\,\\ Eisenhowers\\ triumph\\,\\ Joseph\\ McCarthy\\ had\\ been\\ censured\\,\\ growing\\ rights\\-based\\ liberalism\\ \\(Freedom\\ Rides\\,\\ sit\\ ins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ there\\ had\\ been\\ previous\\ mobilizations\\ in\\ the\\ past\\:\\ CA\\ conservatives\\ had\\ challenged\\ Earl\\ Warren\\,\\ conservative\\ Senator\\ William\\ Knowland\\ got\\ the\\ nomination\\ for\\ governor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Birch\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;under\\ leadership\\ of\\ Republican\\ Robert\\ Welch\\,\\ dedicated\\ to\\ infiltrating\\ the\\ party\\,\\ play\\ key\\ roles\\ in\\ GOP\\ activism\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ a\\ journal\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Opinion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ is\\ how\\ moderate\\ Republcians\\,\\ the\\ Left\\,\\ and\\ Democratic\\ liberals\\ characterize\\ the\\ conservative\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ more\\ radical\\ calls\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;impeach\\ Earl\\ Warren\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;get\\ the\\ US\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ UN\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ But\\ most\\ conservatives\\ are\\ not\\ members\\,\\ even\\ though\\ many\\ perceive\\ the\\ organization\\ as\\ loyal\\ and\\ patriotic\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ values\\ of\\ conservatives\\ that\\ mesh\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ society\\:\\ anticommunism\\,\\ laissze\\ faire\\ economics\\,\\ staunch\\ moralism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Howard\\ Jarvis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ failed\\ to\\ unseat\\ Senator\\ Thomas\\ Kuchel\\ organized\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conservative\\ Party\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;later\\ in\\ 1962\\,\\ believing\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ possible\\ for\\ conservatives\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ GOP\\ nomination\\ for\\ president\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goldwater\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ stepped\\ down\\ to\\ Nixon\\ in\\ 1960\\ election\\,\\ but\\ then\\ conservatives\\ mobilized\\ undr\\ \\&ldquo\\;Draft\\ Goldwater\\ Movement\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ organized\\ \\&ldquo\\;National\\ Draft\\ Goldwater\\ Committee\\&rdquo\\;\\ drew\\ on\\ local\\ conservative\\ networks\\,\\ especially\\ successful\\ in\\ old\\ South\\ because\\ Goldwater\\ opposed\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Bill\\ 1963\\ and\\ was\\ pro\\-states\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ appeal\\:\\ entrepreneurial\\ individualism\\,\\ reference\\ to\\ West\\ as\\ reflective\\ of\\ true\\ American\\ values\\,\\ militant\\ anticommunism\\,\\ willigness\\ to\\ use\\ low\\-yield\\ nuclear\\ weapons\\,\\ stress\\ on\\ moralism\\ for\\ religious\\ conservatives\\,\\ opinion\\ for\\ states\\&rsquo\\;rights\\ and\\ against\\ government\\ collectivism\\.\\ \\ \\;Pillars\\ of\\ support\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ books\\ and\\ pamphlets\\ including\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conscience\\ of\\ a\\ Conservative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(2\\)Conservtive\\ leaers\\ hold\\ events\\ to\\ drum\\ up\\ support\\-\\ Walter\\ Knott\\ has\\ kickoff\\ on\\ Knott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Barry\\ Farm\\,\\ ppl\\ like\\ John\\ Wayne\\ and\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\ \\(3\\)religious\\ leaders\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Clergymen\\ for\\ Social\\ and\\ Political\\ Conservatism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;formed\\ \\(4\\)the\\ press\\:\\ libertarian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Register\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(daily\\ newspaper\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goldwater\\ beats\\ Rockefeller\\ in\\ primary\\:\\ 51\\.6\\%\\ to\\ 48\\.4\\%\\,\\ loses\\ national\\ election\\ to\\ LBH\\ 61\\%\\ to\\ 39\\%\\ \\(most\\ decisive\\ victory\\ ever\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Conservative\\ Worldview\\ at\\ the\\ Grassroots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ understand\\ appeal\\ in\\ the\\ values\\,\\ fears\\,\\ prejudices\\ of\\ the\\ community\\,\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ political\\/psychological\\ assessments\\ that\\ people\\ had\\ done\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Republican\\ concerns\\ of\\ limited\\ spending\\ and\\ increased\\ federal\\ power\\ compounded\\ when\\ JFK\\ bring\\ liberal\\ vision\\ to\\ White\\ House\\,\\ building\\ on\\ New\\ Deal\\ legacy\\ Far\\-reaching\\ social\\/cultural\\ changes\\ frightening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Staunch\\ libertarianism\\ in\\ Orange\\ County\\,\\ the\\ weekly\\ newspaper\\ of\\ most\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Register\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ libertarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ fear\\ of\\ distant\\ national\\ elites\\ and\\ concentrations\\ of\\ state\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Combined\\ with\\ somewhat\\ incompatiable\\ social\\ conservatism\\,\\ articulate\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ US\\ as\\ fundamentally\\ Christian\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ also\\ wary\\ of\\ state\\ power\\ and\\ technocratic\\ solutions\\,\\ but\\ socially\\ normative\\,\\ not\\ objecting\\ on\\ grounds\\ of\\ individual\\ liberty\\,\\ rather\\ on\\ decline\\ of\\ morality\\ and\\ righteous\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lieral\\ emphasis\\ on\\ personal\\ rights\\/freedom\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ anarchy\\ because\\ it\\ correlatedto\\ social\\ permissiveness\\ and\\ disorder\\.\\ \\ \\;Critical\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Griswold\\ v\\.\\ Connecticut\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(right\\ to\\ sexual\\ privacy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Granville\\ Knight\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;leader\\ of\\ CA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Birch\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fusionism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Prof\\.\\ McGirr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ word\\ for\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ libertarianism\\ and\\ social\\ conservatism\\ that\\ defined\\ the\\ conservative\\ Republican\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anticommunism\\ galvanizes\\ conservatives\\ \\(real\\ struggle\\ between\\ US\\ and\\ USSR\\,\\ material\\ dependence\\ of\\ Orange\\ County\\ on\\ military\\/industrial\\ complex\\,\\ for\\ libertarians\\ communism\\ s\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ for\\ religious\\ conservatives\\,\\ its\\ denies\\ god\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberal\\ anticommunism\\ in\\ diplomacy\\/negotiations\\,\\ foreign\\ aid\\ programs\\,\\ multilateral\\ action\\,\\ United\\ Nations\\,\\ also\\ called\\ for\\ disarmament\\ though\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ conservatives\\ these\\ aid\\ communism\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ use\\ United\\ Nations\\ as\\ mobilizing\\ force\\-\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ government\\ centralization\\ made\\ by\\ distant\\ powerful\\ elites\\,\\ includes\\ communist\\/socialis\\ t\\ countries\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ international\\ understandings\\ celebrates\\ cultural\\/moral\\ relativism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ closer\\ to\\ home\\ use\\ schools\\:\\ curriculum\\,\\ textbook\\ literature\\,\\ social\\ activities\\ of\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ another\\ arm\\ of\\ the\\ state\\,\\ feared\\ brainwashing\\ children\\:\\ mobilizes\\ both\\ social\\/religious\\ conservatives\\ and\\ libertarians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parents\\ form\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Citizens\\ for\\ Fundamental\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;t\\ promote\\ teaching\\ of\\ fundamental\\ values\\ in\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ attack\\ on\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\:\\ expresses\\ segregationist\\/racist\\ sentiments\\,\\ also\\ states\\ rights\\,\\ anticommunism\\ \\(saw\\ it\\ as\\ Communist\\ plot\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ Americans\\ Hate\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ CHAPTERS\\ 6\\ \\-\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.J\\.\\ Dionne\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ SIX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THESIS\\:\\ By\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ traditional\\ and\\ libertarian\\ conservatives\\ united\\ under\\ a\\ fusionist\\ conservatism\\ that\\ supported\\ free\\-markets\\ and\\ traditional\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\End\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ solidified\\ new\\ deal\\ liberalism\\,\\ and\\ much\\ to\\ the\\ chagrin\\ of\\ conservatives\\,\\ Americans\\ accepted\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ role\\ as\\ legitimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conservatives\\ were\\ uncomfortable\\ with\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ old\\ hierarchies\\ and\\ decidedly\\ against\\ the\\ newly\\ powerful\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ early\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ the\\ conservative\\ group\\ faced\\ a\\ fundamental\\ problem\\:\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ clear\\ body\\ of\\ conservative\\ doctrine\\.\\ Conservatives\\ were\\ reactionaries\\ \\(against\\ Roosevelt\\,\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ conservative\\ thinkers\\ who\\ helped\\ shape\\ conservative\\ thought\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ William\\ F\\.\\ Buckley\\,\\ Friedrich\\ A\\.\\ von\\ Hayek\\,\\ Richard\\ Weaver\\,\\ and\\ Russell\\ Kirk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayek\\:\\ For\\ Hayek\\,\\ democratic\\ socialism\\ was\\ an\\ impossibility\\,\\ he\\ advocated\\ a\\ libertarian\\ free\\-market\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ intellectual\\ rebirth\\ of\\ free\\-market\\ conservatism\\ was\\ made\\ easier\\ as\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ faded\\ into\\ the\\ past\\.\\ The\\ social\\ revolution\\ that\\ occurred\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ made\\ capitalism\\ an\\ increasingly\\ appealing\\ idea\\.\\ The\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ home\\ ownership\\ and\\ higher\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ GI\\ Bill\\&mdash\\;these\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ and\\ previously\\ nonexistent\\ constituency\\ for\\ free\\-market\\ ideas\\,\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ new\\ middle\\ class\\ owed\\ much\\ to\\ the\\ benevolent\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ Orange\\ County\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ government\\ involvement\\ created\\ this\\ new\\ conservative\\ middle\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Weaver\\ declared\\ conservatism\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ paradigm\\ of\\ essences\\ toward\\ which\\ the\\ phenomenology\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ in\\ continuing\\ approximation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ conservatism\\ was\\ a\\ movement\\ that\\ would\\ put\\ into\\ place\\ objective\\ standards\\ for\\ human\\ conduct\\ and\\ criteria\\ for\\ the\\ judgment\\ of\\ theories\\ and\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Russell\\ Kirk\\:\\ Kirk\\ argued\\ against\\ those\\ who\\ saw\\ liberalism\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ valid\\ American\\ tradition\\,\\ that\\ conservatism\\ had\\ redefined\\ the\\ American\\ experiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kirk\\ laid\\ out\\ six\\ canons\\ of\\ conservatism\\ that\\ were\\ important\\ signposts\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ conservative\\ doctrine\\,\\ including\\ the\\ belief\\ of\\ natural\\ law\\ which\\ rules\\ society\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ conscience\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ contradiction\\ within\\ post\\-war\\ conservative\\ thought\\:\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ battle\\ between\\ libertarians\\ and\\ traditionalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Buckley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ National\\ Review\\ helped\\ to\\ forge\\ the\\ marriage\\ of\\ conservative\\ thought\\.\\ The\\ National\\ Review\\ saw\\ its\\ task\\ as\\ battling\\ against\\ such\\ an\\ unprincipled\\ pursuit\\ of\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ primary\\ architect\\ of\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ traditional\\ and\\ libertarian\\ conservative\\ thought\\ was\\ Frank\\ Meyer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meyer\\:\\ Fusionism\\ \\(this\\ new\\ brand\\ of\\ conservatism\\)\\ meant\\ utilizing\\ libertarian\\ means\\ in\\ a\\ conservative\\ society\\ for\\ traditionalist\\ ends\\.\\ This\\ concept\\ was\\ held\\ together\\ by\\ anticommunism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ conservatism\\ seemed\\ to\\ promise\\ hope\\ for\\ the\\ old\\ isolationist\\ right\\.\\ But\\ Buckley\\ and\\ the\\ editors\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Review\\ ensured\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ isolationism\\.\\ For\\ them\\,\\ it\\ was\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ wage\\ war\\ against\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ communism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ conservatives\\,\\ internationalism\\ was\\ really\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ nationalism\\.\\ Conservative\\ anticommunists\\ were\\ mistrustful\\ of\\ international\\ organizations\\ and\\ advocated\\ an\\ American\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fusionist\\ conservatives\\ leaned\\ heavily\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ free\\-market\\ conservatives\\,\\ but\\ those\\ who\\ espoused\\ the\\ fusionist\\ cause\\ as\\ their\\ own\\ fell\\ back\\ constantly\\ on\\ traditionalist\\ thinking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ critique\\ of\\ fusionist\\ conservatism\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ more\\ an\\ artificial\\ compromise\\ than\\ a\\ genuinely\\ coherent\\ philosophical\\ system\\.\\ Libertarians\\ opposed\\ the\\ willingness\\ of\\ Buckley\\ to\\ subordinate\\ concern\\ for\\ civil\\ liberties\\ to\\ the\\ struggle\\ against\\ communism\\ and\\ they\\ opposed\\ the\\ National\\ Review\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emphasis\\ on\\ tradition\\ and\\ its\\ mistrust\\ of\\ reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ contradictions\\ of\\ fusionism\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\ later\\ on\\,\\ by\\ the\\ early\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ conservatives\\ now\\ had\\ a\\ working\\ philosophy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ SEVEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THESIS\\:\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ showed\\ that\\ conservatives\\ had\\ an\\ important\\ national\\ voice\\,\\ although\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ decade\\,\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ found\\ their\\ voice\\ in\\ Nixon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conservative\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ can\\ be\\ characterized\\ under\\ the\\ slogan\\:\\ Moderate\\ Republicanism\\.\\ Eisenhower\\ epitomized\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ modern\\ republicanism\\,\\ which\\ was\\ difficult\\ to\\ define\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ Eisenhower\\ had\\ a\\ driving\\ philosophy\\,\\ it\\ was\\ that\\ moderate\\ brand\\ of\\ conservatism\\ best\\ defined\\ as\\ prudence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arthur\\ Larson\\ \\(name\\ is\\ not\\ important\\)\\ described\\ a\\ Republican\\ philosophy\\ that\\ was\\ willing\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ terms\\ with\\ what\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\ had\\ wrought\\,\\ while\\ opposing\\ its\\ excesses\\.\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ accepted\\ that\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\ were\\ irreversible\\.\\ In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ modern\\ republicanism\\ that\\ dominated\\ politics\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ was\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ an\\ idea\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ instinct\\ or\\ a\\ balancing\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Given\\ this\\ limbo\\ of\\ Republicanism\\,\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ wonder\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ such\\ an\\ explosive\\ appeal\\ to\\ Barry\\ Goldwater\\,\\ especially\\ considering\\ his\\ slogan\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ choice\\,\\ not\\ an\\ echo\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ conservatism\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ lost\\ cause\\.\\ Fusionism\\ had\\ largely\\ united\\ the\\ conservative\\ factions\\,\\ and\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\ election\\ opened\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ a\\ conservative\\ challenge\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conservatives\\ also\\ had\\ Barry\\ Goldwater\\ and\\ F\\.\\ Clifton\\ \\(Cliff\\)\\ White\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ was\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chief\\ strategist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Federation\\ of\\ Young\\ Republicans\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ this\\ organization\\ that\\ provided\\ the\\ skeleton\\ for\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ conservative\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\White\\ and\\ Goldwater\\ loyalists\\ saw\\ the\\ potential\\ of\\ a\\ middle\\-class\\ conservative\\ politics\\ of\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ basically\\ satisfied\\ with\\ consensus\\ politics\\,\\ where\\ did\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conservative\\ insurgency\\ come\\ from\\?\\ JFK\\ in\\ 1960\\ campaigned\\ that\\ the\\ days\\ of\\ passion\\ were\\ over\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ thirst\\ and\\ restlessness\\ in\\ late\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\.\\ The\\ launch\\ of\\ sputnik\\ also\\ made\\ Americans\\ feel\\ that\\ something\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ done\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ uneasiness\\ with\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ not\\ only\\ created\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\,\\ but\\ also\\ created\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ right\\,\\ the\\ flip\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ coin\\ of\\ middle\\-class\\ protest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ Goldwater\\ emphasized\\ freedom\\,\\ he\\ also\\ emphasized\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ fusionism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ equation\\,\\ virtue\\.\\ As\\ John\\ Steinbeck\\ sensed\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ restlessness\\ stemmed\\ in\\ part\\ from\\ its\\ sense\\ that\\ modernity\\ had\\ undermined\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ morality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ was\\ nothing\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ moral\\ crusade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ on\\ civil\\ rights\\ reflected\\ his\\ views\\ on\\ property\\ rights\\.\\ The\\ federal\\ government\\ could\\ not\\ tell\\ individuals\\ whom\\ to\\ hire\\ or\\ whom\\ they\\ must\\ allow\\ into\\ their\\ restaurants\\.\\ The\\ issue\\ should\\ be\\ one\\ for\\ the\\ states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conservatism\\ gave\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ a\\ philosophical\\ toehold\\ it\\ had\\ lacked\\ before\\.\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ were\\ anti\\-Goldwater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ in\\ the\\ 1964\\ election\\,\\ right\\-wing\\ enthusiasts\\ were\\ justified\\ in\\ their\\ overall\\ elation\\ in\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ campaign\\.\\ They\\ had\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ wing\\ is\\ a\\ formidable\\ force\\ in\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ immediate\\ aftermath\\ of\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ campaign\\ gave\\ Modern\\ Republicans\\ some\\ hope\\.\\ By\\ carrying\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ in\\ 1964\\,\\ the\\ Goldwater\\ conservatives\\ had\\ already\\ frightened\\ the\\ moderates\\ and\\ liberals\\ into\\ a\\ new\\ respect\\ for\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essentially\\ centrist\\ posture\\.\\ Likewise\\,\\ by\\ rebuilding\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ 1966\\ elections\\,\\ the\\ moderates\\ scared\\ the\\ conservatives\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ appreciate\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ save\\ them\\ from\\ someone\\ far\\ more\\ liberal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ some\\ efforts\\ to\\ remake\\ the\\ party\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ liberal\\ voice\\.\\ Jacob\\ K\\ Javits\\ attempted\\ to\\ rescue\\ an\\ older\\ Republican\\ tradition\\ of\\ nationalism\\&mdash\\;that\\ is\\ a\\ preference\\ for\\ national\\ interests\\ over\\ state\\ or\\ regional\\ interests\\.\\ The\\ Ripon\\ Society\\ argued\\ against\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ normalizing\\ relations\\ with\\ China\\ and\\ for\\ more\\ progressive\\ taxes\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ These\\ attempts\\,\\ however\\,\\ were\\ largely\\ ignored\\,\\ and\\ the\\ party\\ found\\ its\\ moderate\\ voice\\ in\\ Nixon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ south\\,\\ southern\\ conservatives\\ realized\\ that\\ after\\ Goldwater\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\,\\ a\\ national\\ campaign\\ needed\\ to\\ sound\\ more\\ moderate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Nixon\\ record\\ had\\ the\\ potential\\ of\\ putting\\ substance\\ on\\ the\\ bones\\ of\\ Modern\\ Republicanism\\.\\ Nixon\\ opened\\ relations\\ with\\ Communist\\ China\\;\\ he\\ created\\ the\\ Occupational\\ Safety\\ and\\ Health\\ Administration\\,\\ revenue\\ sharing\\,\\ etc\\.\\ On\\ domestic\\ issues\\,\\ many\\ of\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\-term\\ initiatives\\ were\\ astoundingly\\ liberal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revenue\\ sharing\\ for\\ example\\ was\\ a\\ liberal\\ program\\ with\\ a\\ conservative\\ bent\\.\\ Revenue\\ sharing\\ took\\ a\\ chunk\\ of\\ federal\\ tax\\ revenues\\ and\\ returned\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ states\\ and\\ cities\\ to\\ spend\\ as\\ they\\ wished\\.\\ It\\ gave\\ concrete\\ support\\ to\\ the\\ decentralist\\ theme\\ conservatives\\ had\\ been\\ pushing\\ for\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nixon\\ would\\ also\\ propose\\ liberal\\ ideas\\ but\\ not\\ actually\\ push\\ them\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ win\\ favor\\ from\\ both\\ liberals\\ and\\ conservatives\\.\\ The\\ Family\\ Assistance\\ Plan\\ promised\\ a\\ minimum\\ payment\\,\\ but\\ Nixon\\ did\\ not\\ campaign\\ for\\ this\\ plan\\,\\ and\\ it\\ got\\ bogged\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ issue\\ after\\ issue\\,\\ Nixon\\ positioned\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ well\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ of\\ where\\ anyone\\ expected\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ later\\.\\ And\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ he\\ kept\\ the\\ Republican\\ right\\ in\\ check\\.\\ However\\ on\\ issues\\ that\\ would\\ later\\ define\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\ politics\\&mdash\\;race\\,\\ student\\ disorders\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ issues\\&mdash\\;Nixon\\ was\\ thoroughly\\ conservative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watergate\\ destroyed\\ Richard\\ Nixon\\ and\\ ended\\ what\\ chance\\ there\\ was\\ that\\ Nixon\\ could\\ lay\\ the\\ groundwork\\ for\\ a\\ reinvigorated\\ Modern\\ Republicanism\\.\\ Gerald\\ Ford\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ in\\ 1976\\ signaled\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Modern\\ Republicanism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\ Is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\:\\ From\\ Port\\ Huron\\ to\\ the\\ Siege\\ of\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Out\\ of\\ Apathy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ book\\ is\\ set\\ up\\ as\\ an\\ explanation\\ of\\ the\\ roots\\ of\\ the\\ student\\ movement\\&rsquo\\;s\\ height\\ in\\ 1968\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ climaxed\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\ of\\ Chicago\\ had\\ begun\\&hellip\\;a\\ decade\\ before\\ in\\ dormitories\\ and\\ classrooms\\ of\\ college\\ campuses\\ across\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ book\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\ is\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\University\\ of\\ Michigan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crucial\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ for\\ student\\ activists\\ to\\ critique\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ meet\\ and\\ come\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&ldquo\\;multiversity\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ mammoth\\ institution\\ catering\\ to\\ a\\ multiplicity\\ of\\ constitutents\\,\\ from\\ freshmen\\ in\\ Ann\\ Arbor\\ to\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\ in\\ Washington\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Research\\ directed\\ by\\ foreign\\ policy\\ goals\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ size\\ due\\ to\\ post\\-baby\\ boom\\ rush\\ of\\ students\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;unprecedented\\ affluence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ of\\ consensus\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Michigan\\ school\\ participated\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;celebration\\ of\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\,\\ the\\ faith\\ in\\ social\\ engineering\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Student\\ activists\\ tapped\\ into\\ avant\\ garde\\ culture\\ of\\ marginalized\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haber\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;beat\\&rdquo\\;\\ culture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ p\\.\\ 39\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Alan\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;resident\\ activist\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ U\\ Michigan\\,\\ Ann\\ Arbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wanted\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ major\\ problems\\ of\\ society\\ \\(arms\\ race\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ racism\\,\\ students\\&rsquo\\;\\ discontents\\ on\\ campus\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ found\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ DEMOCRACY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ worked\\ via\\ SLID\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Student\\ League\\ for\\ Industrial\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\student\\ branch\\ of\\ LID\\,\\ which\\ had\\ a\\ rich\\ history\\ in\\ American\\ socialism\\ \\(not\\ communism\\!\\ They\\ wanted\\ to\\ distance\\ themselves\\ from\\ communism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;pragmatic\\ radicalism\\&hellip\\;strong\\ ties\\ with\\ liberals\\ and\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nationally\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ SLID\\ foundered\\,\\ but\\ at\\ Michigan\\ Haber\\ helped\\ it\\ thrive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\emphasized\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ students\\:\\ saw\\ the\\ campus\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ laboratory\\ where\\ students\\ test\\ ideas\\ and\\ techniques\\ which\\ are\\ later\\ used\\ in\\ all\\ areas\\ of\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\very\\ inspired\\ by\\ Greensboro\\ sit\\-ins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ evidence\\ of\\ DIRECT\\ ACTION\\ and\\ true\\ commitment\\;\\ he\\ created\\ \\&ldquo\\;sympathy\\ pickets\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ Michigan\\ to\\ stand\\ in\\ solidarity\\ with\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sponsored\\ a\\ conference\\ on\\ human\\ rights\\ that\\ discussed\\ how\\ to\\ connect\\ intellectual\\ projects\\ with\\ direct\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\his\\ deep\\ concern\\ was\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Instead\\ of\\ being\\ regarded\\ as\\ an\\ edn\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ direct\\ action\\ should\\ become\\ the\\ pretext\\ for\\ \\&lsquo\\;a\\ deeper\\ appraisal\\ of\\ social\\ problems\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ drawing\\ on\\ the\\ North\\ student\\&rsquo\\;s\\ special\\ talent\\ for\\ \\&lsquo\\;discussion\\,\\ research\\ and\\ debate\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(40\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sharon\\ Jeffrey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ activist\\,\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Editor\\ of\\ the\\ Michigan\\ Daily\\,\\ student\\ newspaper\\,\\ and\\ recruited\\ by\\ Haber\\ and\\ Jeffrey\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ them\\ at\\ SLID\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Two\\:\\ On\\ the\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SUMMARY\\ \\-\\-\\ Hayden\\ as\\ the\\ self\\-consciously\\ constructed\\ \\&ldquo\\;archetype\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ student\\ radical\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(42\\)\\;\\ the\\ image\\ constructed\\ through\\ his\\ WRITINGS\\,\\ which\\ were\\ sort\\ of\\ evangelical\\ attempts\\ to\\ convert\\ Northern\\ college\\ students\\ into\\ activists\\ by\\ portraying\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ battle\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ in\\ romanticized\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entrenched\\ in\\ the\\ beat\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ descirbes\\ himself\\ as\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;totally\\ enamored\\ of\\ James\\ Dean\\,\\ motorcycles\\,\\ and\\ t\\-shirts\\ and\\ Levi\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ beer\\ parties\\ and\\ getting\\ involved\\ in\\ sort\\ of\\ the\\ fringe\\,\\ bohemian\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ campus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jack\\ Kerouac\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;inspires\\ him\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ road\\ trip\\ to\\ Berkeley\\ in\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trip\\ to\\ Berkeley\\ 1960\\ gets\\ him\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ student\\ movement\\ there\\,\\ inspiring\\ him\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ committed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looked\\ at\\ SLATE\\,\\ Berkeley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ student\\ political\\ party\\,\\ which\\ was\\ organizing\\ against\\ anti\\-Communist\\ HUAC\\ hearings\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ disloyalty\\ and\\ subversion\\ in\\ the\\ Bay\\ Area\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protestors\\ against\\ HUAC\\ investigation\\ attacked\\ by\\ police\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Friday\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ May\\ 13\\,\\ 1960\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sparking\\ more\\ protests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ many\\ simultaneous\\ and\\ similar\\ things\\ going\\ on\\ at\\ different\\ campuses\\ to\\ create\\ sense\\ of\\ momentum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Then\\ went\\ to\\ Los\\ Angeles\\,\\ Democratic\\ Convention\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;joined\\ the\\ picket\\ line\\ outside\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ activists\\ advocating\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ strong\\ civil\\ rights\\ plank\\ in\\ the\\ Party\\ platform\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Becoming\\ more\\ political\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ journalst\\ but\\ a\\ participant\\ in\\ protests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liked\\ Adlai\\ Stevenson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;intellectual\\ seriousness\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ criticized\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;fuzzy\\ image\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ he\\ liked\\ Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;glamour\\ and\\ guile\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ suggested\\ he\\ lacked\\ substance\\&hellip\\;\\ question\\:\\ how\\ to\\ combine\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ Student\\ Association\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;funded\\ and\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ CIA\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ radicals\\ in\\ check\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;militantly\\ anti\\-Communist\\ youth\\ organization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ paradoxically\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ forum\\ for\\ student\\ radicals\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;air\\&hellip\\;ideas\\ and\\ win\\&hellip\\;converts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(49\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SNCC\\ was\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ it\\,\\ an\\ inspiration\\ to\\ Hayden\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;existential\\ commitment\\&rdquo\\;\\ its\\ members\\ had\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Back\\ at\\ Michigan\\,\\ Hayden\\ created\\ VOICE\\,\\ student\\ political\\ party\\ modeled\\ after\\ SLATE\\,\\ and\\ also\\ used\\ writing\\ to\\ publicize\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\ across\\ country\\ via\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Once\\ convinced\\ to\\ join\\ by\\ Sharon\\ and\\ Haber\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hayden\\ became\\ the\\ official\\ SDS\\ liaison\\ to\\ the\\ Southern\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saw\\ SNCC\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ cutting\\ edge\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ the\\ moral\\ vanguard\\&mdash\\;the\\ young\\ people\\ showing\\ white\\ students\\ cloistered\\ on\\ college\\ campuses\\ the\\ real\\ meaning\\ of\\ courage\\,\\ commitment\\,\\ and\\ democratic\\ responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ therefore\\ wrote\\ about\\ it\\ n\\ \\&ldquo\\;romanticized\\&rdquo\\;\\ terms\\ \\(60\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ convey\\ to\\ students\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ the\\ importance\\ and\\ power\\ and\\ magic\\ of\\ direct\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ actually\\ did\\ inspire\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\,\\ who\\ read\\ his\\ pamphlets\\ and\\ letters\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motivated\\ by\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;middle\\-class\\ emptiness\\ of\\ alienation\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ feel\\ fulfilled\\,\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ community\\ with\\ purpose\\ \\(59\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Three\\:\\ Politics\\ and\\ Vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SUMMARY\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ About\\ SDS\\ growing\\ as\\ an\\ organization\\.\\ Against\\ previous\\ leftist\\ groups\\,\\ which\\ obsessed\\ with\\ distinguishing\\ themselves\\ from\\ Communists\\,\\ Hayden\\ and\\ Haber\\ wanted\\ to\\ leave\\ SDS\\ open\\ to\\ many\\ positions\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[B\\]oth\\ thought\\ that\\ SDS\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ open\\,\\ undoctrinaire\\ forum\\ for\\ expressing\\ the\\ widest\\ possible\\ range\\ of\\ progressive\\ political\\ views\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haber\\ tries\\ to\\ resolve\\ tension\\ between\\ LID\\ and\\ SDS\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ LID\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;pragmatic\\ caution\\&rdquo\\;\\ born\\ of\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ Communist\\ fervor\\ and\\ dogmatism\\ versus\\ SDS\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;impatient\\ activism\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ SDS\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ intellectual\\ center\\ able\\ to\\ give\\ educational\\ service\\ to\\ action\\ groups\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ educate\\ activists\\ about\\ the\\ intellectual\\ background\\ of\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ action\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ against\\ old\\ model\\ that\\ emphasized\\ due\\-paying\\ membership\\ as\\ very\\ important\\,\\ Haber\\ wants\\ to\\ open\\ SDS\\ up\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ seminar\\ model\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ anyone\\ can\\ listen\\ and\\ all\\ students\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ especially\\ those\\ who\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ members\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ are\\ the\\ target\\ audience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ resolves\\ by\\ making\\ non\\-dogmatism\\ the\\ resounding\\ dogma\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ vision\\ of\\ democracy\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ dogma\\,\\ not\\ even\\ a\\ clear\\-cut\\ doctrine\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ promise\\ ofpolitical\\ debate\\ and\\ shared\\ discovery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ brought\\ together\\ many\\ already\\ existing\\ student\\ political\\ groups\\ across\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ there\\ were\\ turf\\ wars\\,\\ as\\ with\\ the\\ conflict\\ between\\ LID\\ leader\\ Michael\\ Harrington\\-idolizing\\ group\\ of\\ students\\ who\\ also\\ wanted\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ SDS\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ by\\ 1961\\ they\\ all\\ ame\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ conference\\ in\\ Ann\\ Arbor\\ where\\ optimism\\ and\\ common\\ ground\\ ruled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decided\\ to\\ write\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ political\\ manifesto\\ of\\ the\\ Left\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ 1962\\&hellip\\;\\ Hayden\\ would\\ author\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 4\\-6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\C\\.\\ Wright\\ Mills\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;prophet\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;master\\ thinker\\ behind\\ a\\great\\ deal\\ of\\ what\\ Haber\\ and\\ Hayden\\ were\\ saying\\ and\\ doing\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\New\\ Left\\;\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ modern\\ American\\ society\\,\\ immorality\\ of\\ power\\and\\ the\\ powerlessness\\ of\\ individuals\\;\\ greatly\\ affected\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Powerless\\ People\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Mills\\&rsquo\\;\\ essay\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ intellectuals\\must\\ respond\\ to\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ big\\ organizations\\ \\(encouraged\\ individualism\\ because\\of\\ corruption\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arnold\\ Kaufman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ one\\ of\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ professors\\,\\ used\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;participatory\\democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ society\\ in\\ which\\ every\\ associate\\ assumed\\ a\\direct\\ responsibility\\ for\\ citizens\\ \\(differs\\ from\\ a\\ representative\\ system\\)\\,\\advocated\\ increased\\ participation\\ to\\ revitalize\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Port\\ Huron\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ SDS\\ convention\\ on\\ June\\ 12\\,\\ 1962\\ at\\ which\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manifesto\\ was\\ approved\\;\\ only\\ 59\\ participants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michael\\ Harrington\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ AFL\\-CIO\\,\\ supported\\ socialism\\ and\\ felt\\ threatened\\ by\\ the\\ radical\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ SDS\\;\\ openly\\ criticized\\ the\\ manifesto\\ upon\\ arriving\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ \\(dramatic\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ convention\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Progressive\\ Youth\\ Organizing\\ Committee\\ \\(YPSL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Communist\\-sponsored\\ youth\\ group\\ that\\ replaced\\ the\\ Labor\\ Youth\\ League\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\ \\&\\;\\ Paul\\ Booth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ president\\ and\\ vice\\ president\\ of\\ SDS\\ following\\ the\\ ratification\\ of\\ the\\ manifesto\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Important\\ facts\\/notes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ looked\\ to\\ Mills\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ and\\ Haber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ regarding\\ the\\ New\\Left\\;\\ Mills\\ encouraged\\ individualism\\,\\ feared\\ that\\ the\\ democratic\\ spirit\\ was\\ at\\ risk\\in\\ America\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ was\\ destroying\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ classical\\democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mills\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ student\\ activism\\ within\\ the\\movement\\ \\(beginning\\ of\\ the\\ manifesto\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ forced\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ manifesto\\ without\\ Mills\\&rsquo\\;\\ help\\ due\\ to\\ his\\ death\\ in\\March\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ first\\ based\\ the\\ manifesto\\ on\\ Kaufman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideal\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\as\\ a\\ complement\\ to\\ representative\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\ main\\ topics\\ in\\ first\\ draft\\ of\\ manifesto\\:\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ modern\\ society\\,\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ large\\ corporations\\,\\ mass\\ society\\,\\ totalitarianism\\,\\ Third\\ World\\ revolutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ acknowledged\\ the\\ self\\-interested\\ nature\\ of\\ men\\,\\ making\\ America\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;inactive\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ the\\ republic\\ it\\ was\\ originally\\ created\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ and\\ Haber\\ both\\ shared\\ an\\ aversion\\ to\\ dogma\\ and\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ notion\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ open\\-ended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ spring\\ of\\ 1962\\,\\ Hayden\\ advocated\\ direct\\ action\\ by\\ the\\ SDS\\ rather\\ than\\ endless\\ debates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ SDS\\ convention\\,\\ Steve\\ Max\\ and\\ Jim\\ Brooks\\ proposed\\ that\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drafts\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;values\\&rdquo\\;\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ section\\ to\\ the\\ manifesto\\;\\ Hayden\\ strongly\\ opposed\\ splitting\\ it\\ into\\ 2\\ sections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ participants\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ only\\ expected\\ to\\ draft\\ a\\ document\\ that\\ would\\ affect\\ the\\ way\\ people\\ thought\\;\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ expect\\ to\\ spawn\\ a\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ draft\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ was\\ different\\ from\\ previous\\ outline\\ \\-\\ focused\\ on\\ politics\\,\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ the\\ colonial\\ revolution\\,\\ civil\\ rights\\ students\\,\\ labor\\,\\ values\\,\\ and\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ climax\\ of\\ the\\ educational\\ conference\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\ came\\ with\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ a\\ panel\\ consisting\\ of\\ Michael\\ Harrington\\ and\\ Donald\\ Slaiman\\ \\(of\\ the\\ AFL\\-CIO\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ openly\\ criticized\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Old\\ Radicals\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ manifesto\\;\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ the\\ Old\\ Left\\ in\\ any\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ a\\ manifesto\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ new\\ spirit\\ began\\ to\\ crystallize\\ at\\ the\\ convention\\ \\(democracy\\ came\\ to\\ life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ agreed\\ that\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ manifesto\\ needed\\ to\\ clearly\\ state\\ the\\ SDS\\&rsquo\\;\\ anti\\-Communist\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debate\\ between\\ Haber\\ and\\ Harrington\\ continued\\ throughout\\ the\\ convention\\,\\ forced\\ to\\ compromise\\ in\\ final\\ draft\\ of\\ manifesto\\ regarding\\ Communism\\ sections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sharon\\ Jeffrey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ accomplished\\ organizers\\ of\\ the\\ SDS\\;\\ very\\ active\\ \\&\\;\\ radical\\;\\ believed\\ SDS\\ had\\ to\\ shift\\ from\\ an\\ intellectual\\ to\\ an\\ active\\ movement\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ERAP\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\(Economic\\ Research\\ and\\ Action\\ Project\\)\\ SDS\\ project\\ established\\ in\\ Sept\\.\\,\\ 1963\\,\\ advocated\\ direct\\ action\\ and\\ direct\\ democracy\\;\\ created\\ with\\ money\\ from\\ the\\ UAW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\$5000\\ donation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Al\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ director\\ of\\ ERAP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carl\\ Wittman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ SDS\\ spokesperson\\,\\ interested\\ in\\ developing\\ a\\ national\\ strategy\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ experiences\\ as\\ a\\ spokesperson\\ in\\ Chester\\;\\ realized\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ poor\\ whites\\/blacks\\;\\ collaborated\\ with\\ Hayden\\ on\\ a\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;An\\ Interracial\\ Movement\\ of\\ the\\ Poor\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Wittman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paper\\;\\ emphasized\\ need\\ for\\ organization\\ \\(students\\ to\\ organize\\ poor\\ whites\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;forge\\ an\\ explosive\\ radical\\ coalition\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ caused\\ ERAP\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ organizing\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Near\\ West\\ Side\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ poor\\ area\\ of\\ Cleveland\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ first\\ ERAP\\ program\\ was\\ launched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ facts\\/notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ had\\ financial\\ ties\\ with\\ LID\\ \\(League\\ for\\ Industrial\\ Democracy\\)\\ and\\ therefore\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ cautious\\ and\\ avoid\\ creating\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ insurgency\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ began\\ to\\ doubt\\ whether\\ universities\\ were\\ the\\ appropriate\\ place\\ to\\ begin\\ social\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Al\\ Haber\\ strongly\\ opposed\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Wittman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ \\(as\\ proposed\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Interracial\\ Movement\\ of\\ the\\ Poor\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haber\\ lost\\ in\\ debate\\ against\\ Hayden\\ at\\ 1963\\ convention\\;\\ was\\ replaced\\ as\\ ERAP\\ president\\ by\\ Rennie\\ Davis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LBJ\\ advocated\\ anti\\-poverty\\ programs\\,\\ made\\ SDS\\ activism\\ a\\ legitimate\\ counterpart\\ to\\ government\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ ERAP\\ project\\ in\\ Cleveland\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Near\\ West\\ Side\\;\\ another\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ summer\\ of\\ 1965\\,\\ SDS\\ severely\\ changed\\ and\\ divided\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ longer\\ young\\ intellectuals\\,\\ more\\ activists\\ preparing\\ to\\ invade\\ impoverished\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ Potter\\ elected\\ new\\ president\\ of\\ SDS\\ in\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cleveland\\ project\\ successful\\ because\\ it\\ allowed\\ the\\ poor\\ to\\ organize\\ themselves\\ into\\ a\\ national\\ conference\\,\\ won\\ concessions\\ on\\ school\\ lunch\\ programs\\ for\\ welfare\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1965\\,\\ most\\ ERAP\\ programs\\ shut\\ down\\ due\\ to\\ tensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ War\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;last\\ straw\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ created\\ urgency\\ to\\ organize\\ against\\ it\\,\\ questioned\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ it\\ eventually\\ failed\\,\\ the\\ ERAP\\ programs\\ had\\ a\\ decisive\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\;\\ ideals\\ and\\ methods\\ continued\\ in\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ which\\ was\\ only\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ The\\ PHS\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ 1962\\ by\\ a\\ student\\ group\\ \\(SDS\\)\\ of\\ about\\ 60\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ theoretical\\ declaration\\ aimed\\ at\\ bettering\\ America\\ by\\ encouraging\\ people\\ to\\ meet\\ their\\ greatest\\ individual\\ potential\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ PHS\\ argues\\ for\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ to\\ avoid\\ bureaucratic\\ breakdowns\\ within\\ the\\ political\\ systems\\.\\ \\ \\;PHS\\ is\\ a\\ complaint\\ on\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Regarding\\ society\\,\\ it\\ calls\\ for\\ individualism\\ within\\ an\\ active\\ democratic\\ system\\;\\ regarding\\ government\\,\\ it\\ calls\\ for\\ an\\ active\\ hands\\-on\\ government\\ that\\ provides\\ social\\ welfare\\ programs\\.\\ \\ \\;PHS\\ also\\ is\\ weary\\ of\\ anti\\-Communism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ writers\\ are\\ pro\\-democratic\\,\\ but\\ argue\\ that\\ extreme\\ anti\\-Communism\\ undermines\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ also\\ pacifists\\,\\ but\\ the\\ statement\\ was\\ written\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ protest\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Themes\\:\\ \\ \\;Participatory\\ Democracy\\ Government\\ Social\\ Aid\\ SDS\\ \\(student\\ movements\\,\\ which\\ were\\ sparked\\ by\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\)\\ New\\ Left\\ \\(Democrats\\ NOT\\ socialists\\/communists\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Bright\\ Shining\\ Lie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neil\\ Sheehan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pages\\ 269\\-331\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Written\\ by\\ a\\ journalist\\ for\\ The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Bright\\ Shining\\ Lie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ missteps\\ and\\ failures\\ at\\ every\\ level\\ of\\ American\\ leadership\\ during\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheehan\\ specifically\\ follows\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lieutenant\\ Colonel\\ John\\ Paul\\ Vann\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ was\\ never\\ blinded\\ by\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rsquo\\;\\ successful\\ past\\,\\ and\\ was\\ always\\ willing\\ to\\ criticize\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ these\\ particular\\ pages\\,\\ Sheehan\\ highlights\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ battle\\ at\\ Ap\\ Bac\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ decisive\\ 1963\\ battle\\ during\\ the\\ war\\ that\\ was\\ misrepresented\\ to\\ American\\ government\\ and\\ people\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\ this\\ battle\\ was\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ because\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ presence\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ escalated\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ not\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ reporters\\ sent\\ there\\ yet\\ to\\ cover\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ big\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(269\\-70\\)\\.The\\ troops\\ made\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ mistakes\\ during\\ this\\ battle\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ overall\\ lack\\ of\\ communication\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ worst\\ and\\ most\\ humiliating\\ defeat\\ ever\\ inflicted\\ on\\ the\\ Saigon\\ side\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ dramatic\\ illumination\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ flaws\\ in\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ armed\\ forces\\ \\(278\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ \\(South\\ Vietnam\\)\\ against\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ \\(DRVN\\ or\\ North\\ Vietnam\\)\\ and\\ the\\ National\\ Liberation\\ Front\\ \\(Viet\\ Cong\\)\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ latter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ association\\ with\\ communism\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ you\\ get\\ it\\,\\ the\\ battle\\ was\\ bad\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Anyway\\,\\ the\\ reporters\\ spoke\\ to\\ Vann\\ about\\ the\\ Ap\\ Bac\\,\\ and\\ he\\ told\\ them\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;miserable\\ damn\\ performance\\&rdquo\\;\\ off\\ the\\ record\\,\\ however\\ anyone\\ who\\ knew\\ him\\ basically\\ could\\ tell\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ said\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;President\\ Kennedy\\ read\\ the\\ newspaper\\ articles\\ about\\ this\\ miserable\\ performance\\ and\\ demanded\\ an\\ explanation\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ instead\\ of\\ telling\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ the\\ generals\\&mdash\\;most\\ notably\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\General\\ Paul\\ Harkins\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\insisted\\ that\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ had\\ actually\\ won\\ the\\ battle\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ even\\ tried\\ to\\ fire\\ Vann\\ for\\ a\\ while\\,\\ but\\ was\\ convinced\\ not\\ to\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ draw\\ even\\ more\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Vann\\ loudly\\ denied\\ being\\ the\\ source\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ mollify\\ tensions\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sheehan\\ emphasizes\\ in\\ these\\ pages\\ the\\ absurdity\\ of\\ Harkins\\ delusion\\ about\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ was\\ he\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ winning\\ battles\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ outcome\\ would\\ be\\ positive\\,\\ but\\ he\\ actually\\ believed\\ it\\,\\ which\\ was\\ scarier\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheehan\\ himself\\ asks\\ Harkins\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ the\\ truth\\ off\\ the\\ record\\ \\(he\\ still\\ answers\\ the\\ battle\\ was\\ a\\ success\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ quotes\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ expressing\\ shock\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ government\\ was\\ so\\ naive\\ to\\ believe\\ these\\ claims\\ \\(308\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheehan\\ specifically\\ attributes\\ the\\ disillusion\\ of\\ the\\ leadership\\ on\\ so\\ many\\ levels\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;disease\\ of\\ victory\\ \\(285\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ arose\\ from\\ the\\ victories\\ in\\ WWII\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ writes\\ that\\ U\\.S\\.\\ generals\\ did\\ not\\ enter\\ any\\ battle\\ thinking\\ that\\ their\\ soldiers\\ lives\\ might\\ be\\ lost\\ in\\ vain\\ or\\ carelessly\\ because\\ they\\ always\\ assumed\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ win\\.\\ \\ \\;Anyway\\,\\ Vann\\ did\\ put\\ together\\ an\\ extensive\\ critical\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ report\\ and\\ encouraged\\ Harkins\\ to\\ submit\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;fail\\ report\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ the\\ latter\\ did\\ not\\ happen\\.\\ \\ \\;Higher\\ ups\\ in\\ Washington\\ only\\ glazed\\ over\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ document\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ essentially\\ blinded\\ by\\ positive\\ reports\\ from\\ Harkins\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ good\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ song\\ he\\ publishes\\ on\\ 306\\.\\ \\ \\;Anyway\\,\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ basically\\ gives\\ repeated\\ examples\\ of\\ how\\ JFK\\ and\\ all\\ these\\ important\\ people\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ war\\ is\\ going\\ extremely\\ well\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ absurd\\ thought\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ also\\ prematurely\\ optimistic\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ consider\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ make\\ any\\ predictions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ notable\\ moments\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\/communism\\ fear\\ influence\\:\\ 320\\,\\ 315\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JFK\\ reaction\\ to\\ articles\\ by\\ Sheehan\\ and\\ other\\ reporters\\:\\ 318\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ about\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ and\\ Vann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\:\\ 316\\-17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;By\\ 1963\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ had\\ potentially\\ furnished\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ Communists\\ with\\ enough\\ weapons\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ army\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ capable\\ of\\ challenging\\ and\\ defeating\\ ARVN\\ \\(308\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Bright\\ Shining\\ Lie\\ pgs\\ 331\\-end\\ of\\ Book\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\April\\ 1963\\,\\ Vann\\ turns\\ over\\ command\\ of\\ the\\ advisory\\ detachment\\ to\\ successor\\ and\\ plans\\ to\\ head\\ home\\ after\\ short\\ stay\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ Talked\\ to\\ Sheehan\\ \\(going\\ on\\ 1\\ month\\ leave\\ in\\ US\\)\\ on\\ the\\ airplane\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ US\\.\\.\\.Vann\\ explained\\ how\\ the\\ Army\\ was\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ about\\ to\\ let\\ Harkins\\ push\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ living\\ in\\ El\\ Paso\\,\\ Vann\\ moved\\ family\\ to\\ Washington\\ DC\\.\\ Discussion\\ of\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ crisis\\ of\\ 1963\\ \\(forbade\\ the\\ flying\\ of\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ flag\\ on\\ Buddha\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bday\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Ngo\\ Dinhs\\ attacked\\ Buddhists\\ and\\ claimed\\ they\\ were\\ communist\\ supporters\\.\\ \\ \\;Ngo\\ Dinhs\\ recognized\\ that\\ publicity\\ of\\ attacks\\ was\\ bad\\,\\ so\\ tried\\ to\\ scare\\ reporters\\ away\\.\\ In\\ 1963\\,\\ Vann\\ went\\ to\\ Pentagon\\ to\\ be\\ debriefed\\ but\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ him\\,\\ so\\ he\\ did\\ it\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ telling\\ officers\\ of\\ his\\ final\\ report\\,\\ February\\ 8\\ message\\,\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ account\\,\\ and\\ documentation\\ to\\ substantiate\\ his\\ arguments\\&hellip\\;gradually\\ worked\\ up\\ the\\ Army\\ hierarchy\\ \\(see\\ IDs\\)\\.\\ Vann\\ debriefed\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\ \\(Krulak\\/Taylor\\ supported\\ Harkins\\ though\\ so\\ debriefing\\ campaign\\ failed\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ canceled\\ it\\)\\.\\ Vann\\ retired\\ 1963\\,\\ raising\\ admiration\\ for\\ his\\ moral\\ courage\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ though\\ he\\ retired\\,\\ Vann\\ missed\\ the\\ Army\\ and\\ regretted\\ leaving\\,\\ felt\\ rejected\\ in\\ Denver\\.\\ \\ \\;Viet\\ Cong\\ dismantle\\ American\\ stockades\\.\\ Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\ Jr\\.\\ replaces\\ Frederick\\ Nolting\\ as\\ ambassador\\.\\ \\ \\;School\\ riots\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ against\\ Diem\\.\\ McNamara\\ and\\ Taylor\\ sent\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ report\\ back\\ to\\ Kennedy\\ that\\ military\\ still\\ making\\ great\\ progress\\ and\\ war\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ won\\ by\\ 1965\\.\\ JFK\\ assassinated\\ after\\ the\\ November\\ Honolulu\\ conference\\ by\\ Lee\\ Harvey\\ Oswald\\,\\ causing\\ LBJ\\ to\\ inherit\\ presidency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ IDs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUANG\\ DUC\\-\\ Buddhist\\ monk\\ who\\ burned\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MALCOM\\ BROWNE\\-\\ took\\ photo\\ of\\ Quang\\ Duc\\ that\\ astonished\\ the\\ American\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LANSDALE\\-\\ Air\\ Force\\ general\\ who\\ Vann\\ briefed\\ \\,\\ Vann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hero\\,\\ in\\ disfavor\\ with\\ circle\\ of\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MAJ\\.\\ GEN\\.\\ HAROLD\\ JOHNSON\\-Army\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assistant\\ deputy\\ chief\\ of\\ staff\\ for\\ operations\\ who\\ listened\\ to\\ Vann\\ then\\ sent\\ him\\ to\\ Gen\\.\\ BARKSDALE\\ HAMLETT\\ who\\ arranged\\ for\\ Vann\\ to\\ brief\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\ on\\ July\\ 8\\,\\ 1963\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VICTOR\\ KRULAK\\-\\ briefed\\ the\\ Joint\\ Chiefs\\ of\\ Staff\\,\\ said\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ proliferating\\ like\\ Vann\\ had\\ said\\,\\ was\\ alerted\\ to\\ Vann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ to\\ discredit\\ Harkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HENRY\\ CABOT\\ LODGE\\-\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XA\\ LOI\\ PAGODA\\-\\ raid\\ on\\ this\\ famous\\ pagoda\\ by\\ ARVN\\ troops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THICH\\ TRI\\ QUANG\\-the\\ most\\ militant\\ Buddhist\\ leader\\ who\\ organized\\ the\\ first\\ protest\\ meeting\\ in\\ Hue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BRAVO\\ TWO\\-\\ Nov\\.\\ 1\\,\\ 1963\\ storming\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Police\\ headquarters\\ by\\ Saigon\\ marines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MADAME\\ NHU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Miller\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Democracy\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\ Ch\\.\\ 11\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chp\\ 11\\:\\ A\\ Leader\\ in\\ Search\\ of\\ Legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Students\\ for\\ a\\ Democratic\\ Society\\ \\(SDS\\)\\ grows\\ significantly\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ but\\ maintains\\ its\\ domestic\\ focus\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ it\\ grows\\ larger\\,\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ and\\ limitations\\ of\\ its\\ original\\ message\\ \\(key\\:\\ participatory\\ democracy\\)\\ causes\\ problems\\ and\\ divisions\\ within\\ the\\ group\\,\\ especially\\ between\\ the\\ old\\ \\(esp\\ Paul\\ Booth\\)\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ members\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Tradition\\ of\\ Debs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ Booth\\,\\ VP\\ of\\ SDS\\,\\ helped\\ change\\ PREP\\ \\(Peace\\ Research\\ and\\ Education\\ Project\\)\\ from\\ an\\ internal\\ forum\\ for\\ foreign\\ policy\\ analysis\\ into\\ activism\\&mdash\\;militant\\ tactics\\&mdash\\;mass\\ organizing\\ shifting\\ military\\ workers\\ \\(like\\ engineers\\)\\ into\\ other\\ industries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Efforts\\ made\\ impossible\\ by\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reinvigoration\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;military\\-industrial\\ complex\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Secret\\ of\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\LBJ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Gulf\\ of\\ Tonkin\\ Speech\\ August\\ 4\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ communist\\ attack\\ on\\ innocent\\ American\\ ships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ US\\ involvement\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;prevent\\ further\\ aggression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ pushes\\ for\\ general\\ protest\\ in\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\.\\ F\\.\\ Stone\\ publishes\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ speech\\ suggesting\\ that\\ Communists\\ had\\ been\\ provoked\\&mdash\\;inspired\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seeds\\ of\\ later\\ protests\\ on\\ margins\\:\\ experts\\ affiliated\\ with\\ the\\ Institute\\ for\\ Policy\\ Study\\ with\\ critical\\ working\\ papers\\ on\\ Vietnam\\,\\ Communist\\ Party\\,\\ Marxist\\-Leninist\\ splinter\\ groups\\,\\ veteran\\ pacifists\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Liberation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;magazine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mainstream\\ \\(SANE\\)\\ less\\ responsive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Booth\\ determined\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ to\\ protest\\ Vietnam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zen\\ Koans\\ and\\ New\\ Recruits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ National\\ Council\\,\\ December\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conflicts\\ between\\ factions\\ within\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Steve\\ Max\\ \\(with\\ Political\\ Education\\ Project\\/PEP\\)\\ supported\\ LBJ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reelection\\&mdash\\;his\\ electoral\\ strategy\\ decisively\\ rejected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opponent\\ in\\ debate\\:\\ Tom\\ Hayden\\&mdash\\;had\\ grown\\ more\\ radical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Debate\\ complicated\\ by\\ new\\ members\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Jeffrey\\ Shero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\unaware\\ of\\ groups\\ commitment\\ to\\ pluralism\\ and\\ experimentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\uninitiated\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ tolerant\\ and\\ skeptical\\ kind\\ of\\ radicalism\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ birthright\\ of\\ SDS\\ at\\ Port\\ Huron\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Birth\\ of\\ the\\ Anti\\-War\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\at\\ Council\\,\\ SDS\\ narrowly\\ votes\\ to\\ sponsor\\ a\\ march\\ on\\ Washington\\ in\\ protest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Decide\\ to\\ keep\\ demands\\/goals\\ ambiguous\\&mdash\\;did\\ not\\ present\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ administrations\\ Vietnam\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Escalation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\tense\\ relations\\ btwn\\ SDS\\ and\\ mainstream\\ peace\\ movement\\/older\\ peace\\ activists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\concerned\\ about\\ associations\\ with\\ Marxist\\-Leninists\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ clear\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ march\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\eventually\\ support\\ the\\ march\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\anti\\-war\\ sentiments\\ intensifies\\ in\\ universities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LBJ\\ increases\\ ground\\ troops\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ April\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\ oppose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LBJ\\ makes\\ a\\ speech\\ to\\ John\\ Hopkins\\ University\\&mdash\\;in\\ defense\\ of\\ adding\\ more\\ troops\\ but\\ supporting\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ international\\ discussions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\support\\ for\\ the\\ march\\ grows\\ because\\ debate\\ between\\ the\\ generations\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ First\\ March\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\April\\ 17\\,\\ 1965\\ Washington\\ DC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\success\\-15\\,000\\ people\\ show\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\speeches\\ by\\ SNCC\\ field\\-worker\\ Bob\\ Parris\\,\\ I\\.\\ F\\.\\ Stone\\,\\ Staughton\\ Lynd\\,\\ Senator\\ Ernest\\ Gruening\\ \\(WY\\)\\ who\\ had\\ initially\\ opposed\\ increased\\ US\\ involvement\\,\\ Paul\\ Potter\\ discussed\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ system\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;ambiguous\\ on\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symbolizes\\ great\\ change\\ in\\ SDS\\&mdash\\;support\\ by\\ young\\ radicals\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;a\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ chiliastic\\ hope\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Revolutionary\\ Symbolism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Following\\ the\\ march\\,\\ SDS\\ decided\\ to\\ create\\ more\\ community\\-organizing\\ projects\\,\\ including\\ ones\\ with\\ an\\ anti\\-war\\ focus\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ main\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ retrospect\\,\\ Booth\\ regrets\\ not\\ establishing\\ SDS\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ organizational\\ leader\\ in\\ the\\ anti\\-war\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Media\\ Images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Coverage\\ of\\ SDS\\ increases\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ march\\,\\ spreading\\ the\\ message\\ and\\ work\\ of\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ York\\ Times\\ spreads\\ message\\ that\\ SDS\\ is\\ mostly\\ about\\ domestic\\ problems\\&mdash\\;they\\ are\\ anti\\-war\\ because\\ it\\ detracts\\ from\\ their\\ work\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Anti\\-Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\500\\ people\\ attended\\ the\\ annual\\ SDS\\ convention\\ in\\ June\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rise\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ convention\\ was\\ the\\ conversation\\,\\ not\\ workshops\\ discussing\\ working\\ papers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ radical\\&mdash\\;new\\ SDS\\ members\\ not\\ well\\ read\\ in\\ Marxism\\ and\\ they\\ consider\\ the\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ living\\ document\\&rdquo\\;\\ open\\ to\\ revision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Internal\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\question\\ of\\ what\\ political\\ structure\\ SDS\\ should\\ have\\&mdash\\;dislike\\ of\\ hierarchy\\,\\ elitism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;despite\\ its\\ deepening\\ experimental\\ commitment\\ to\\ direct\\ democracy\\,\\ SDS\\ could\\ not\\ guarantee\\ that\\ participation\\ would\\ be\\ equally\\ open\\ to\\ every\\ member\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\problem\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;organizational\\ elite\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(Tom\\ Hayden\\,\\ Paul\\ Booth\\)\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ ideals\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chaos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\experiment\\ in\\ office\\ democracy\\ a\\ disaster\\&mdash\\;nobody\\ got\\ anything\\ done\\ \\(like\\ processing\\ mail\\)\\ at\\ the\\ national\\ SDS\\ office\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\debate\\ and\\ confusion\\ within\\ SDS\\ abt\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jeffrey\\ Shero\\ \\(newer\\ member\\ and\\ VP\\)\\ wanted\\ to\\ decentralize\\ SDS\\ with\\ regional\\ offices\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ national\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ confusion\\ about\\ basic\\ ideas\\ and\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ SDS\\&mdash\\;what\\ exactly\\ does\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ mean\\?\\ \\ \\;Issues\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ glossed\\ over\\ in\\ the\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\ causing\\ trouble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Btwn\\ Jeff\\ Shero\\ and\\ Paul\\ Booth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Booth\\ recognize\\ that\\ quaker\\-style\\ meetings\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shero\\ \\&ldquo\\;feared\\ that\\ any\\ consolidation\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\ would\\ rob\\ the\\ Movement\\ of\\ its\\ cutting\\ edge\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Red\\-Baiting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ publicity\\ \\(CBS\\ does\\ a\\ sympathetic\\ story\\ on\\ middle\\ class\\ kids\\ in\\ rebellion\\ against\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\)\\ turns\\ negative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Members\\ of\\ congress\\ and\\ media\\ attack\\ SDS\\ as\\ an\\ Anti\\-draft\\ group\\ in\\ league\\ with\\ communists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Booth\\ managed\\ to\\ spread\\ positive\\ image\\ of\\ SDS\\ spreading\\ democracy\\ in\\ slums\\ of\\ America\\ to\\ stop\\ negative\\ publicity\\ and\\ bolster\\ allies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\In\\ Search\\ of\\ Legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ Booth\\ attacked\\ within\\ SDS\\ for\\ press\\ conference\\&mdash\\;undemocratic\\ leadership\\/\\ de\\ facto\\ representation\\ undermines\\ \\&ldquo\\;authenticity\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ for\\ SDS\\ to\\ live\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ democracy\\ but\\ Booth\\ thinks\\ that\\ group\\ to\\ large\\ to\\ have\\ every\\ decision\\ be\\ a\\ consensus\\&mdash\\;should\\ reinstitution\\ officer\\ accountability\\ mechanisms\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ have\\ representatives\\ to\\ say\\ something\\ and\\ people\\ can\\ control\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ saying\\,\\ but\\ Booth\\ recognizes\\ that\\ people\\ wish\\ that\\ leadership\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Like\\ a\\ Rolling\\ Stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ very\\ confused\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;10\\,000\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characterized\\ by\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Like\\ a\\ Rolling\\ Stone\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;Blowing\\ in\\ the\\ Wind\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;hostility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tolerance\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ SDS\\ is\\ dead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\An\\ Ending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\December\\ conference\\ confirmed\\ confusion\\ about\\ its\\ direction\\ rather\\ than\\ solved\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Port\\ Huron\\ Statement\\ offered\\ no\\ answers\\ since\\ it\\ was\\ so\\ vague\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conflict\\ btwn\\ Shero\\ and\\ Booth\\ strongest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Booth\\:\\ democractic\\ nat\\&rsquo\\;l\\ organization\\ for\\ structure\\,\\ orderly\\ administration\\,\\ representative\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shero\\:\\ abolish\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Honesty\\,\\ guts\\,\\ local\\ initiative\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ fuel\\ the\\ movement\\,\\ not\\ leadership\\ and\\ discipline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ tensions\\ within\\ the\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Booth\\ left\\ SDS\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ generation\\ of\\ radicals\\&mdash\\;an\\ ending\\ for\\ the\\ veterans\\/old\\ guard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SDS\\ grows\\ to\\ 100\\,000\\ by\\ 1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Still\\ plagued\\ with\\ problems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demonstrations\\ and\\ marches\\ on\\ college\\ campuses\\ and\\ in\\ city\\ streets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Full\\ of\\ young\\ radicals\\ commited\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;participatory\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ democracy\\ of\\ individual\\ participation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chp\\ 12\\:\\ A\\ Moralist\\ in\\ Search\\ of\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\ because\\ a\\ symbol\\/spokesman\\ of\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ revolution\\ in\\ the\\ years\\ following\\ 1965\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ identified\\ with\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ Communists\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ experiences\\ with\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ oppressed\\ in\\ the\\ ghettos\\ of\\ Newark\\,\\ NJ\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ and\\ more\\ young\\ people\\ were\\ inspired\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;debate\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\,\\ the\\ wrongs\\ of\\ government\\ policy\\,\\ the\\ duties\\ of\\ citizenship\\,\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ authority\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ revolution\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Wager\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ finished\\ his\\ last\\ major\\ intellectual\\ work\\:\\ thesis\\ on\\ C\\ Wright\\ Mills\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idealistic\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ democratic\\ hope\\ was\\ at\\ hand\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;a\\ different\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ willing\\ to\\ wager\\ on\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Let\\ the\\ People\\ Decide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ERAP\\ project\\ in\\ Newark\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ not\\ so\\ interested\\ in\\ organizing\\ students\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Willing\\ to\\ polarize\\ friends\\ because\\ of\\ passionate\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Other\\ Side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interested\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ months\\ of\\ protest\\&mdash\\;focused\\ on\\ Newark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Invited\\ to\\ join\\ a\\ Communist\\ historian\\ and\\ Staughton\\ Lynd\\,\\ a\\ radical\\ \\(but\\ not\\ communist\\)\\ friend\\ to\\ Hanoi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revelation\\:\\ Socialism\\ in\\ action\\ works\\,\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ Hayden\\ saw\\ in\\ N\\ Vietnam\\&mdash\\;believed\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ preserve\\ their\\ freedom\\ and\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Saw\\ Vietnamese\\ living\\ under\\ the\\ bombs\\ as\\ setting\\ a\\ standard\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;morality\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\A\\ Socialism\\ in\\ the\\ Heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wrote\\ a\\ book\\ with\\ Lynd\\ on\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experience\\ in\\ Hanoi\\ convinced\\ Hayden\\ that\\ he\\ found\\ a\\ good\\ model\\ for\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ organization\\ in\\ N\\ Vietnam\\&mdash\\;embraced\\ guerrilla\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ visited\\ at\\ the\\ peak\\ of\\ the\\ Communist\\ Party\\ trying\\ to\\ mobilize\\ the\\ entire\\ population\\ to\\ withstand\\ total\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ambition\\ Unbound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ went\\ on\\ lecture\\ circuits\\ after\\ book\\,\\ but\\ stayed\\ in\\ the\\ Newark\\ area\\&mdash\\;community\\ organizer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drifted\\ away\\ from\\ SDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growing\\ political\\ power\\ on\\ his\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Fire\\ This\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Riot\\ in\\ black\\ ghetto\\ in\\ Newark\\ July\\ 12\\,\\ 1967\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ American\\ form\\ of\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\&mdash\\;wrote\\ about\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ Review\\ of\\ Books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Violence\\ alone\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ society\\&mdash\\;need\\ politics\\ and\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ fascination\\ with\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\ entered\\ American\\ intellectual\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Fantasies\\ of\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Detroit\\ riots\\ followed\\ Newark\\&mdash\\;guerilla\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ dropped\\ more\\ bombs\\ on\\ Vietnam\\ bolstering\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolutionary\\ zeal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ blended\\ seamlessly\\ in\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ All\\ Viet\\ Cong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ became\\ more\\ involved\\ in\\ anti\\-war\\ efforts\\ instead\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ community\\ organizer\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ ghetto\\&mdash\\;received\\ criticism\\ from\\ advocates\\ of\\ black\\ power\\ after\\ riots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traveled\\ with\\ a\\ delegation\\ to\\ Czechoslovakia\\ to\\ meet\\ with\\ Vietnamese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vietnamese\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ NLF\\ was\\ in\\ final\\ victory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ solidarity\\ with\\ Viet\\ Cong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Rituals\\ of\\ Confrontation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ March\\ on\\ the\\ Pentagon\\ Oct\\ 12\\,\\ 1967\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\100\\,000\\ participants\\&mdash\\;pacifists\\,\\ militants\\,\\ religious\\ and\\ radical\\ groups\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\power\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ acted\\ out\\&mdash\\;no\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\In\\ Search\\ of\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Administrative\\ Committee\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Mobilization\\ meets\\ in\\ December\\ 1967\\ to\\ decide\\ on\\ action\\ for\\ the\\ Democratic\\ convention\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Huge\\ disagreements\\&mdash\\;too\\ many\\ interest\\ groups\\ want\\ different\\ things\\ \\(pacifists\\,\\ advocates\\ of\\ aggressive\\ direct\\ action\\,\\ liberals\\ concerned\\ about\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ sympathyzers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ and\\ Rennie\\ plan\\ to\\ organize\\ a\\ demonstration\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;act\\ out\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ dramatically\\ and\\ with\\ a\\ literal\\ effect\\ of\\ influencing\\ the\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Should\\ be\\ non\\-violent\\ and\\ legal\\ and\\ appeal\\ to\\ different\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intended\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;delegitimate\\ Democratic\\ party\\ and\\ build\\ support\\ for\\ independent\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ oppose\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Critics\\ within\\ SDS\\ wanted\\ draft\\ resistance\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ focus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yippies\\ \\(Youth\\ International\\ Party\\)\\ want\\ aggressive\\ street\\ action\\ in\\ Chicago\\ \\(blend\\ pot\\ and\\ politics\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shadow\\ Ambassador\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ recognizes\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ leaders\\ for\\ organization\\ and\\ to\\ create\\ continuity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leading\\ split\\ existence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncompromising\\ outsider\\&rdquo\\;\\/insurgent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insider\\&mdash\\;shadow\\ ambassador\\,\\ more\\ practical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meeting\\ with\\ Robert\\ Kennedy\\ \\(the\\ senator\\ opposed\\ the\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ advocated\\ \\&ldquo\\;unconditional\\ bombing\\ halt\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\H\\ liked\\ RFK\\ for\\ his\\ potential\\ to\\ create\\ social\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tet\\ Offensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\70\\,000\\ Communist\\ troops\\ attacked\\ more\\ that\\ 100\\ cities\\ and\\ towns\\ in\\ S\\ Vietnam\\ including\\ Saigon\\&mdash\\;Hayden\\ hopes\\ that\\ this\\ will\\ encourage\\ peace\\ negotiations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Facing\\ Reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\growing\\ sense\\ of\\ crisis\\&mdash\\;for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ Americans\\ realize\\ defeat\\ is\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ killed\\ April\\ 1968\\&mdash\\;riots\\ in\\ DC\\ and\\ other\\ US\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bringing\\ the\\ War\\ Home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Students\\ at\\ Columbia\\ took\\ over\\ university\\ buildings\\&mdash\\;established\\ \\&ldquo\\;communes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ arrested\\ as\\ a\\ commune\\ leader\\&mdash\\;most\\ students\\ politically\\ undereducated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\student\\ strike\\ was\\ a\\ strict\\ hierarchy\\ despite\\ feeling\\ of\\ participatory\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tears\\ of\\ Rage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\RFK\\ killed\\ June\\ 1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\ for\\ Hayden\\&mdash\\;RFK\\ had\\ been\\ representative\\ of\\ democratic\\ idealism\\ and\\ direct\\ action\\&mdash\\;had\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ unite\\ poor\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;lost\\ promise\\ of\\ liberalism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Democracy\\ Is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Young\\ radicals\\ want\\ revolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ lost\\ hope\\ in\\ reform\\ at\\ Convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\encouraged\\ resistance\\ to\\ armed\\ troops\\ in\\ Chicago\\ and\\ CIA\\ infiltrators\\ among\\ demonstrators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sovereignty\\ of\\ the\\ people\\:\\ mass\\ demonstration\\ and\\ small\\ guerrilla\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Struggle\\ Begins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dispute\\ within\\ the\\ Mobilization\\ \\(group\\ sponsoring\\ demonstration\\ with\\ Hayden\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ wanted\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;community\\ of\\ risk\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ strengthen\\ their\\ commitment\\ stopping\\ the\\ war\\ under\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ lives\\ \\(mayor\\ Daley\\ called\\ armed\\ troops\\ into\\ the\\ city\\ in\\ preparation\\ for\\ protestors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confrontation\\ with\\ cops\\ in\\ Lincoln\\ Park\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\ before\\ convention\\ and\\ throughout\\ the\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ adopts\\ disguises\\ to\\ avoid\\ arrest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ disorder\\ in\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Whole\\ World\\ is\\ Watching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Mobilization\\ Committee\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legal\\ demonstration\\ attracted\\ 10\\,000\\ \\(not\\ the\\ hoped\\ or\\ 300\\,000\\)\\ and\\ heavily\\ policed\\ by\\ armed\\ National\\ Guardsmen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ told\\ everyone\\ to\\ break\\ into\\ small\\ bands\\ to\\ infiltrate\\ and\\ disrupt\\ the\\ city\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ tear\\ gas\\,\\ etc\\,\\ innocent\\ people\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hear\\ him\\ and\\ whole\\ group\\ wanders\\ to\\ the\\ designated\\ rally\\ spot\\,\\ surrounded\\ by\\ police\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Police\\ attack\\ and\\ the\\ protestors\\ fall\\ apart\\ but\\ they\\ chant\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ whole\\ world\\ is\\ watching\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ TV\\ cameras\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Incognito\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chicago\\ demonstration\\ a\\ success\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Left\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Party\\&mdash\\;delegitimated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demonstrators\\ united\\ under\\ battle\\&mdash\\;new\\ sense\\ of\\ courage\\ and\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raised\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ prolonging\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brought\\ New\\ Left\\ to\\ complete\\ public\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ praised\\ demonstrators\\&mdash\\;uses\\ the\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ people\\ saw\\ of\\ him\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ an\\ accurate\\ representation\\&mdash\\;his\\ larger\\ sense\\ of\\ political\\ purpose\\ melted\\ away\\ and\\ people\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ his\\ vision\\ of\\ democracy\\ and\\ the\\ moral\\ element\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ Americans\\ unsympathetic\\ with\\ demonstrators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Testimony\\ before\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Un\\-American\\ Activities\\ December\\ 1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confusion\\ over\\ Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ democracy\\&mdash\\;says\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ democratic\\ system\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\,\\ exemplified\\ by\\ such\\ a\\ committee\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Violence\\ justified\\?\\ Hayden\\ claims\\ defensive\\ for\\ survival\\ reasons\\,\\ but\\ author\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;constructive\\ purpose\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\/fantasies\\ of\\ revolution\\ grew\\ more\\ radical\\ but\\ confused\\&mdash\\;longtime\\ hopes\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ modern\\ day\\ revolutionary\\ Continental\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indicted\\ of\\ conspiracy\\ to\\ start\\ Chicago\\ riots\\ with\\ Rennie\\ Davis\\,\\ Dave\\ Dellinger\\ \\(of\\ the\\ Mobilization\\)\\,\\ Abbie\\ Hoffman\\,\\ Jared\\ Rubin\\ \\(Yippies\\)\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ constantly\\ argued\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ conspired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ had\\ lost\\ respect\\,\\ excessively\\ defiant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lost\\ intellectual\\ credentials\\ to\\ become\\ advocate\\ and\\ practitioner\\ of\\ direct\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ moral\\ model\\&mdash\\;hypocritical\\:\\ overly\\ ambitious\\,\\ egotistical\\ and\\ independent\\ in\\ social\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ Left\\&mdash\\;more\\ prominent\\,\\ but\\ self\\-destructing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ and\\ more\\ participants\\ \\(rebellious\\ youth\\)\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ really\\ fighting\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ New\\ Left\\ becomes\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mass\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Direct\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ had\\ transformed\\ from\\ community\\ organizing\\ to\\ taunting\\ police\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SDS\\ collapsed\\ in\\ 1969\\&mdash\\;taken\\ over\\ by\\ Progressive\\ Labor\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Small\\ group\\ survived\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Weatherman\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paramilitary\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayden\\ recoiled\\ at\\ their\\ cold\\ hatred\\&mdash\\;spirit\\ of\\ SDS\\ had\\ gotten\\ out\\ of\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hayden\\ lost\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ revolutionary\\ zeal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refused\\ to\\ avoid\\ trial\\ and\\ go\\ underground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Returned\\ to\\ his\\ political\\ side\\ which\\ saved\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ longer\\ the\\ activist\\,\\ the\\ Weathermen\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ listen\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 31\\,\\ 2005\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democracy\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Streets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Conclusion\\:\\ A\\ Collective\\ Dream\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\ just\\ a\\ summary\\/reflection\\ on\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sixties\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ span\\ of\\ time\\ but\\ a\\ collective\\ spirit\\ BUT\\ spirit\\ of\\ ecstatic\\ freedom\\ impossible\\ to\\ sustain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ had\\ search\\ for\\ participatory\\ democracy\\ produced\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Killings\\ at\\ Kent\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ went\\ on\\ for\\ several\\ years\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Preoccupation\\ with\\ war\\ protest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inability\\ to\\ agree\\ on\\ what\\ institutions\\ were\\ appropriate\\ for\\ participatory\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Successes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affected\\ the\\ tone\\ of\\ American\\ political\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raised\\ fundamental\\ questions\\ about\\ nature\\,\\ limits\\ of\\ democracy\\ in\\ modern\\ industrial\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ scientist\\ Samuel\\ Huntington\\ said\\ the\\ Movement\\ resulted\\ in\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strained\\ fiscal\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weakened\\ military\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ popular\\ skepticism\\ about\\ legitimate\\ aspects\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Called\\ for\\ more\\ tough\\-minded\\ approach\\ to\\ government\\ \\(which\\ was\\ seen\\ under\\ Reagan\\ administration\\,\\ when\\ neo\\-conservatives\\ reaped\\ benefits\\ of\\ aims\\ of\\ New\\ Left\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legacy\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fusion\\ of\\ democratic\\ ideals\\ with\\ self\\-actualization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ feminism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opening\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ arena\\ so\\ that\\ alternatives\\ to\\ capitalism\\ can\\ be\\ imagined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collapse\\ of\\ system\\ of\\ segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Students\\ become\\ a\\ political\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ an\\ agenda\\-changed\\ sense\\ of\\ politics\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ did\\ the\\ New\\ Left\\ fall\\ apart\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inability\\ to\\ extend\\ its\\ middle\\-class\\ base\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delusions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolutionary\\ apocalypse\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Failure\\ to\\ develop\\ durable\\ organizational\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SDS\\ trying\\ too\\ many\\ things\\ at\\ once\\ \\(student\\ group\\,\\ anti\\-war\\ organization\\,\\ and\\ party\\ of\\ New\\ Left\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ for\\ more\\ capable\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ for\\ more\\ sharply\\ defined\\ theory\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grasp\\ of\\ political\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-destructive\\ self\\-righteousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impatience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;breakaway\\ experiences\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(317\\)\\-political\\ and\\ cultural\\ moments\\ when\\ boundaries\\ melted\\ away\\ and\\ it\\ seemed\\ as\\ if\\ anything\\ could\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midwest\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(321\\)\\-training\\ arm\\ of\\ Citizen\\ Action\\,\\ a\\ national\\ federation\\ of\\ grass\\-roots\\ citizen\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Campaign\\ for\\ Economic\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(renamed\\ Campaign\\ California\\)\\-\\ network\\ of\\ grass\\-roots\\ citizen\\-action\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ People\\ \\(what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ after\\ the\\ Movement\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tom\\ Hayden\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-sense\\ of\\ identity\\ shaken\\ after\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ Movement\\;\\ moved\\ to\\ Venice\\,\\ turned\\ away\\ from\\ Ireland\\,\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talked\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ in\\ ten\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ returned\\ to\\ California\\ where\\ he\\ wrote\\ a\\ book\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ American\\ genocide\\,\\ helped\\ start\\ the\\ Indochina\\ peace\\ campaign\\ to\\ cut\\ off\\ American\\ aid\\ to\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;Learned\\ from\\ Vietnamese\\ propaganda\\ that\\ American\\ people\\ fundamentally\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ Booth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-gave\\ up\\ on\\ efforts\\ to\\ convince\\ SDS\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ structure\\ and\\ discipline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sharon\\ Jeffrey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-drifted\\ away\\ from\\ radical\\ politics\\ \\(alienated\\ by\\ growing\\ violence\\ of\\ the\\ Movement\\)\\;\\ began\\ studying\\ techniques\\ of\\ self\\-actualization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dick\\ Flacks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-remained\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ the\\ Sixties\\,\\ understanding\\ the\\ era\\ through\\ intellectual\\ work\\ at\\ University\\ of\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Al\\ Haber\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-still\\ an\\ ardent\\ activist\\,\\ organizing\\ peace\\ protests\\,\\ antiapartheid\\ rallies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bob\\ Ross\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-associate\\ professor\\ at\\ Clark\\ University\\,\\ co\\-authored\\ a\\ book\\ presenting\\ a\\ new\\ model\\ of\\ international\\ capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Steve\\ Max\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-activist\\ in\\ stimulating\\ \\&ldquo\\;resurgent\\ pupulism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ full\\-time\\ organizer\\ and\\ curriculum\\ director\\ for\\ the\\ Midwest\\ Academy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Eyes\\ on\\ the\\ Prize\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Reader\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ Time\\ to\\ Break\\ Silence\\&rdquo\\;\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ antiwar\\ speech\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ expresses\\ his\\ disapproval\\ of\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ involvement\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ silence\\ is\\ betrayal\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ the\\ difficulties\\ of\\ speaking\\ out\\ against\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\ and\\ conforming\\ to\\ the\\ surrounding\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ notes\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\ that\\ a\\ significant\\ number\\ of\\ religious\\ leaders\\ have\\ condemned\\ an\\ event\\,\\ suggesting\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ spirit\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ rising\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ addresses\\ the\\ criticism\\ that\\ peace\\ and\\ civil\\ rights\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mix\\,\\ responding\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ making\\ a\\ plea\\ to\\ his\\ nation\\,\\ not\\ any\\ other\\,\\ for\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ lists\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ reasons\\ for\\ opposing\\ the\\ war\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ is\\ that\\ shifting\\ focus\\ to\\ the\\ war\\ took\\ energy\\ away\\ from\\ helping\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\ \\;Secondly\\,\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ sending\\ poor\\ men\\ to\\ fight\\ in\\ disproportionate\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ King\\ says\\ that\\ social\\ change\\ comes\\ most\\ meaningfully\\ through\\ non\\-violent\\ action\\ \\(which\\ Vietnam\\ certainly\\ was\\ not\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\King\\ also\\ speaks\\ out\\ sympathetically\\ toward\\ war\\-torn\\ Vietnam\\,\\ and\\ how\\ America\\ almost\\ forced\\ the\\ NLF\\ into\\ existence\\ by\\ permitting\\ the\\ repression\\ and\\ cruelty\\ of\\ Diem\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ looking\\ at\\ our\\ actions\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ enemy\\,\\ King\\ says\\,\\ we\\ can\\ realize\\ our\\ own\\ shortcomings\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ expresses\\ his\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ troops\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lastly\\,\\ King\\ suggests\\ five\\ government\\ actions\\:\\ 1\\.\\ End\\ all\\ Bombing\\;\\ 2\\.\\ Declare\\ unilateral\\ cease\\-fire\\ to\\ hopefully\\ open\\ lines\\ of\\ communication\\ for\\ negotiation\\;\\ 3\\.\\ Curtail\\ military\\ build\\-up\\ in\\ Thailand\\ and\\ interference\\ in\\ Laos\\ to\\ prevent\\ other\\ Southeast\\ Asian\\ battlegrounds\\;\\ 4\\.\\ Accept\\ that\\ the\\ NLF\\ has\\ substantial\\ influence\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ thus\\ must\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ negotiations\\;\\ and\\ 5\\.\\ Set\\ a\\ date\\ to\\ remove\\ all\\ foreign\\ troops\\ from\\ Vietnam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Don\\ Duncan\\ \\"\\;The\\ Whole\\ Thing\\ was\\ a\\ Lie\\!\\"\\;\\,\\ 1966\\ The\\ \\&\\#39\\;60s\\ papers\\,\\ pg\\ 286\\-309\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Duncan\\ is\\ writing\\ about\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ Special\\ Forces\\ during\\ Vietnam\\.\\ Joined\\ in\\ 1959\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ \\"\\;a\\ militant\\ anti\\-Communist\\"\\;\\ and\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ about\\ the\\ threat\\.\\ His\\ training\\ at\\ Fort\\ Bragg\\ involves\\ learning\\ \\"\\;about\\"\\;\\ Soviet\\ torture\\,\\ and\\ complains\\ that\\ the\\ army\\ \\"\\;condemns\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ guerrilla\\ for\\ supposedly\\ doing\\ those\\ very\\ things\\"\\;\\ that\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ teaching\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ Also\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ continuing\\ racism\\.\\ They\\ are\\ teaching\\ the\\ men\\ to\\ \\"\\;organize\\ guerrilla\\ movements\\ in\\ foreign\\ countries\\"\\;\\ and\\ THE\\ ENEMY\\ is\\ clearly\\ communism\\ and\\ communist\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;Arrives\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ \\(Saigon\\)\\ \\-\\ struck\\ by\\ the\\ \\"\\;confusion\\,\\ noise\\,\\ smells\\,\\ people\\ \\-\\ almost\\ overwhelming\\"\\;\\,\\ notes\\ poverty\\,\\ cultural\\ differences\\ and\\ the\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ Americans\\.\\ Also\\ struck\\ by\\ unanimous\\ contempt\\ for\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ within\\ the\\ unit\\ he\\ joins\\,\\ wonders\\ why\\ they\\ are\\ supporting\\ such\\ a\\ supposedly\\ corrupt\\,\\ cowardly\\ government\\.\\ the\\ reply\\ is\\ because\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ anti\\-Communist\\.\\ There\\ is\\ little\\ interaction\\ between\\ Americans\\ and\\ the\\ average\\ Vietnamese\\,\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ it\\ is\\ with\\ people\\ dependent\\ on\\ Americans\\ for\\ their\\ money\\,\\ so\\ will\\ say\\ anything\\,\\ and\\ he\\ evaluates\\ the\\ country\\ by\\ American\\ opinions\\ rather\\ than\\ actual\\ observation\\.\\ Americans\\ hated\\ by\\ Vietnamese\\,\\ making\\ the\\ same\\ mistakes\\ as\\ the\\ french\\:\\ \\"\\;arrogance\\,\\ disrespect\\,\\ rudeness\\,\\ prejudice\\ and\\ ignorance\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ if\\ a\\ Vietnamese\\ is\\ nice\\,\\ he\\ is\\ suspected\\ of\\ being\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ spy\\.\\ \\ \\;Signs\\ up\\ for\\ Project\\ Delta\\,\\ a\\ classified\\ project\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Laos\\ and\\ find\\ out\\ more\\ about\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\,\\ after\\ 2\\.5\\ months\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ Not\\ a\\ success\\.\\ Driven\\ by\\ US\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ not\\ by\\ helping\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\.\\ 6\\ out\\ of\\ 40\\ \\"\\;dedicated\\ volunteers\\"\\;\\ returned\\.\\ Confirmed\\ many\\ doubts\\ about\\ importance\\ of\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Mihn\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Next\\ mission\\ in\\ Viet\\ Cong\\-held\\ area\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ \\-\\ checking\\ out\\ a\\ plantation\\.\\ Went\\ in\\ with\\ a\\ team\\,\\ found\\ various\\ abandoned\\ posts\\ then\\ at\\ the\\ central\\ headquarters\\,\\ unexpectedly\\ found\\ a\\ whole\\ battalion\\ of\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ armed\\,\\ in\\ uniform\\,\\ but\\ just\\ relaxing\\ \\-\\ unique\\ situation\\ to\\ find\\.\\ Radios\\ out\\ to\\ have\\ US\\ troops\\ landed\\ to\\ surround\\ the\\ plantation\\ to\\ get\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ flat\\ fields\\ as\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ bombed\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ area\\,\\ but\\ plan\\ is\\ badly\\ botched\\.\\ First\\,\\ planes\\ fly\\ over\\ for\\ 45\\ minutes\\,\\ so\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ are\\ alerted\\ and\\ flee\\ from\\ headquarters\\ into\\ the\\ fields\\.\\ Then\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ have\\ dispersed\\ around\\ plantation\\,\\ and\\ bombing\\ is\\ disorganized\\,\\ Duncan\\ is\\ worried\\ about\\ them\\ being\\ hit\\ themselves\\.\\ US\\ headquarters\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\,\\ Duncan\\ notes\\ it\\ as\\ \\"\\;a\\ dazzling\\ exhibition\\ of\\ flying\\ \\-\\ worthless\\ \\-\\ but\\ impressive\\"\\;\\.\\ Finally\\ US\\ team\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ chopper\\.\\ Officials\\ estimated\\ 250\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ killed\\ by\\ bombs\\ on\\ first\\ day\\,\\ Duncan\\ estimates\\ maybe\\ 6\\.\\ no\\ real\\ military\\ significance\\ to\\ the\\ bombing\\,\\ not\\ effective\\ in\\ anything\\ but\\ very\\ concentrated\\ areas\\ \\(villages\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Questions\\ the\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ because\\ \\"\\;one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ axioms\\ one\\ learns\\ about\\ unconventional\\ warfare\\ is\\ that\\ no\\ insurgent\\ or\\ guerrilla\\ movement\\ can\\ endure\\ without\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ people\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ obviously\\ there\\ is\\ support\\ if\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ \\"\\;can\\ maneuver\\ and\\ live\\ under\\ the\\ very\\ noses\\ of\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ troops\\"\\;\\.\\ Decides\\ that\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ are\\ pro\\-Viet\\ Cong\\ and\\ anti\\-Saigon\\,\\ and\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ position\\ \\"\\;We\\ are\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ sympathy\\ with\\ the\\ aspirations\\ and\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ people\\,\\"\\;\\ was\\ a\\ lie\\.\\ If\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ lie\\,\\ how\\ many\\ other\\ are\\ there\\?\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;While\\ in\\ Vietnam\\,\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ ha\\ obviously\\ gained\\ in\\ strength\\,\\ \\"\\;the\\ more\\ troops\\ and\\ money\\ we\\ poured\\ in\\,\\ the\\ more\\ people\\ hated\\ us\\"\\;\\.\\ Questions\\ whether\\ \\"\\;communism\\ is\\ spreading\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ our\\ involvement\\ or\\ because\\ of\\ it\\.\\"\\;\\ Points\\ out\\ that\\ while\\ \\"\\;The\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ might\\ sleep\\ in\\ \\[villagers\\]\\ houses\\,\\ the\\ government\\ troops\\ ransacked\\ them\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;Decides\\ \\"\\;The\\ whole\\ thing\\ was\\ a\\ lie\\.\\ We\\ weren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ preserving\\ freedom\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ freedom\\ to\\ preserve\\.\\ To\\ voice\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ meant\\ jail\\ or\\ death\\.\\.\\.\\ It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ democracy\\ we\\ brought\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ \\-\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ anti\\-communism\\.\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ I\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ think\\ Vietnam\\ will\\ be\\ better\\ off\\ under\\ Ho\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brand\\ of\\ communism\\.\\ But\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ for\\ me\\ or\\ my\\ government\\ to\\ decide\\.\\ That\\ decision\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\"\\;\\.\\ Appreciates\\ student\\ protesters\\ because\\ they\\ oppose\\ people\\ dying\\ for\\ a\\ lie\\ and\\ corrupting\\ democracy\\,\\ while\\ it\\ took\\ him\\ 10\\ years\\ in\\ the\\ army\\ to\\ learn\\ this\\ lesson\\.\\ \\ \\;TERMS\\ \\(not\\ terribly\\ important\\)\\ Special\\ Forces\\*\\ \\-\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ men\\ very\\ dedicated\\ to\\ fighting\\ communism\\,\\ trained\\ to\\ organize\\ guerrilla\\ movements\\ in\\ foreign\\ countries\\.\\ In\\ Vietnam\\,\\ contempt\\ for\\ Vietnamese\\.\\ \\ \\;ARVN\\ \\(Army\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\)\\ \\-\\ considered\\ \\"\\;cowardly\\"\\;\\ by\\ other\\ Special\\ Forces\\ men\\,\\ probably\\ supplying\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ with\\ many\\ of\\ their\\ weapons\\,\\ commit\\ many\\ atrocities\\ \\(not\\ portrayed\\ well\\)\\ \\ \\;LLDB\\ \\(Luc\\ Luong\\ Dac\\ Biet\\ \\-\\ Vietnamese\\ Special\\ Forces\\)\\ \\-\\ \\"\\;rotten\\,\\ corrupt\\,\\ cowardly\\"\\;\\,\\ terrorize\\ villages\\ \\ \\;Project\\ Delta\\ \\-\\ classified\\ project\\ within\\ Special\\ Forces\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Laos\\ and\\ \\"\\;to\\ try\\ and\\ find\\ the\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\ trail\\ and\\ gather\\ info\\ on\\ traffic\\,\\ troops\\,\\ weapons\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\ Made\\ up\\ of\\ 40\\ volunteers\\,\\ only\\ 6\\ not\\ killed\\ or\\ captured\\.\\ Driven\\ by\\ US\\ self\\-interest\\.\\ To\\ many\\,\\ confirmed\\ that\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\&\\#39\\;s\\ involvement\\ exaggerated\\,\\ most\\ weapons\\ coming\\ from\\ ARVN\\ and\\ by\\ sea\\,\\ and\\ most\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ actually\\ from\\ the\\ South\\,\\ not\\ imported\\ from\\ the\\ North\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;The\\ Fort\\ Hood\\ Three\\:\\ The\\ Case\\ of\\ the\\ Three\\ GIs\\ Who\\ Said\\ \\"\\;No\\"\\;\\ to\\ the\\ War\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ \\-\\ Three\\ Speeches\\"\\;\\ Pvt\\.\\ Dennis\\ Mora\\,\\ Pvt\\.\\ David\\ Samas\\ and\\ PFC\\ James\\ Johnson\\ \\-\\ read\\ at\\ a\\ press\\ conference\\ June\\ 30\\,\\ 1966\\ The\\ \\&\\#39\\;60s\\ Papers\\,\\ pg\\ 301\\-309\\ \\ \\;Are\\ taking\\ a\\ stand\\ against\\ the\\ war\\ which\\ they\\ consider\\ \\"\\;immoral\\,\\ illegal\\ and\\ unjust\\"\\;\\ and\\ are\\ asking\\ to\\ not\\ be\\ sent\\ to\\ Vietnam\\.\\ They\\ represent\\ a\\ cross\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ \\(Af\\ Am\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\,\\ Lithuanian\\/Italian\\)\\ and\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ many\\ other\\ GIs\\.\\ They\\ believe\\ it\\ is\\ evident\\ that\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ support\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ and\\ want\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ Ky\\.\\ Everyone\\ realizes\\ the\\ war\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ ever\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ \\"\\;won\\"\\;\\,\\ but\\ most\\ soldiers\\ just\\ put\\ it\\ off\\ and\\ talk\\ themselves\\ into\\ it\\ \\-\\ but\\ these\\ three\\ decided\\ to\\ \\"\\;stand\\ up\\ and\\ fight\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ is\\ right\\"\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Dennis\\ Mora\\ statement\\ \\(Puerto\\ Rican\\)\\ \\(main\\ point\\:\\ thinks\\ should\\ be\\ spending\\ effort\\ on\\ War\\ on\\ Poverty\\,\\ not\\ Vietnam\\)\\ Active\\ in\\ the\\ peace\\ movement\\ before\\ he\\ was\\ drafted\\.\\ Believes\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ genocide\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ Viet\\ Cong\\ holds\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ the\\ outsider\\.\\ His\\ main\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ war\\ is\\ \\"\\;a\\ colossal\\ waste\\ of\\ resources\\ which\\ are\\ needed\\ here\\ at\\ home\\"\\;\\ for\\ the\\ War\\ on\\ Poverty\\,\\ which\\ he\\ thus\\ sees\\ as\\ a\\ joke\\.\\ He\\ talks\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ experience\\ growing\\ up\\ in\\ Spanish\\ Harlem\\ fighting\\ poverty\\ and\\ racism\\.\\ He\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ war\\ fought\\ for\\ industry\\ and\\ corporations\\,\\ with\\ no\\ end\\ in\\ sight\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\ Samas\\ \\(Lithuanian\\ and\\ Italian\\)\\ \\(speech\\ was\\ prepared\\ for\\ a\\ July\\ 7th\\ meeting\\ but\\ Samas\\ was\\ taken\\ by\\ military\\ police\\ just\\ before\\ it\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ read\\,\\ so\\ his\\ wife\\ read\\ the\\ draft\\ on\\ his\\ behalf\\)\\ \\(main\\ point\\:\\ thinks\\ Peace\\ activists\\ need\\ to\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ GI\\ and\\ show\\ popular\\ support\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ war\\)\\ Has\\ also\\ always\\ been\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ war\\,\\ but\\ just\\ made\\ his\\ feelings\\ public\\ at\\ June\\ 30th\\ press\\ conference\\.\\ Talks\\ about\\ the\\ result\\ \\-\\ hiding\\ out\\,\\ being\\ followed\\,\\ police\\ calling\\ his\\ parents\\ and\\ feeding\\ them\\ lies\\ about\\ him\\ being\\ in\\ danger\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ tool\\ of\\ the\\ Communists\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ his\\ address\\.\\ But\\ he\\ says\\ they\\ will\\ fight\\ back\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ peace\\ movements\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ disconnected\\ from\\ the\\ soldier\\ so\\ the\\ soldier\\ sees\\ them\\ as\\ against\\ him\\,\\ whereas\\ they\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ reach\\ out\\ and\\ offer\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ GI\\ and\\ bring\\ him\\ home\\,\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ Reminds\\ them\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ only\\ depend\\ on\\ this\\ legal\\ action\\,\\ the\\ public\\ must\\ voice\\ their\\ opinions\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;James\\ Johnson\\ \\(African\\ American\\)\\ \\(again\\ prepared\\ for\\ July\\ 7th\\ meeting\\ but\\ seized\\,\\ so\\ speech\\ was\\ read\\ by\\ his\\ brother\\)\\ \\(main\\ point\\:\\ thinks\\ should\\ be\\ spending\\ effort\\ on\\ Civil\\ Rights\\,\\ not\\ in\\ Vietnam\\)\\ Again\\,\\ always\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ war\\,\\ spent\\ much\\ time\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ but\\ was\\ told\\ he\\ was\\ being\\ paid\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ soldier\\,\\ not\\ a\\ politician\\.\\ Lists\\ off\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ learned\\ the\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ was\\ lying\\ about\\,\\ like\\ that\\ the\\ Saigon\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\ was\\ not\\ actually\\ elected\\ by\\ the\\ people\\,\\ General\\ Ky\\ \\(current\\ dictator\\)\\ lists\\ Hitler\\ as\\ his\\ hero\\,\\ peace\\ offers\\ from\\ North\\ Vietnam\\ were\\ rejected\\ by\\ the\\ US\\.\\ Compares\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnmese\\ plight\\ to\\ the\\ Civil\\ Right\\ movement\\ \\-\\ both\\ just\\ are\\ groups\\ who\\ want\\ representation\\ in\\ their\\ government\\.\\ Argues\\ that\\ \\"\\;it\\ is\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ Negro\\ realizes\\ that\\ his\\ strength\\ can\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ much\\ better\\ use\\ right\\ here\\ at\\ home\\"\\;\\ because\\ as\\ of\\ now\\,\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ 2\\:1\\ black\\:white\\ soldiers\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ not\\ being\\ treated\\ any\\ better\\ at\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carle\\ Oglesby\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Revolted\\"\\;\\ in\\ The\\ Sixties\\ Papers\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 318\\-334\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ paper\\,\\ Oglesby\\ attempts\\ to\\ humanize\\ rebels\\ in\\ general\\,\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ implicitly\\ complicate\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ \\"\\;right\\"\\;\\ in\\ its\\ military\\ involvement\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ He\\ starts\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ rebel\\ is\\ much\\ like\\ myself\\.\\.\\.\\ He\\ is\\ politically\\ extraordinary\\.\\ That\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ psychologically\\ so\\"\\;\\ \\(320\\)\\.\\ He\\ paints\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ rebel\\ as\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ has\\ realized\\ fully\\ the\\ injustices\\ perpetrated\\ on\\ him\\ by\\ society\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ these\\ injustices\\ are\\ not\\ random\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ \\"\\;whole\\ system\\"\\;\\ that\\ controls\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ its\\ members\\ \\(323\\)\\.\\ This\\ realization\\ creates\\ a\\ mindset\\ in\\ which\\ incremental\\ change\\ is\\ unacceptable\\;\\ the\\ rebel\\&\\#39\\;s\\ desire\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ from\\ injustice\\ causes\\ him\\ to\\ become\\ an\\ \\"\\;incorrigible\\ absolutist\\ who\\ has\\ replaces\\ all\\ \\&\\#39\\;problems\\&\\#39\\;\\ with\\ the\\ one\\ grand\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ system\\ is\\ an\\ error\\"\\;\\ \\(324\\)\\.\\ Oglesby\\ also\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ that\\ drives\\ men\\ to\\ violent\\ revolution\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ particular\\ ideology\\;\\ Communism\\ per\\ se\\ does\\ not\\ drive\\ men\\ to\\ revolt\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ total\\ change\\ that\\ motivates\\ rebels\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ developing\\ this\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ rebel\\ as\\ a\\ normal\\ man\\ driven\\ to\\ extremes\\ by\\ an\\ unjust\\ society\\,\\ Oglesby\\ calls\\ into\\ question\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ \\"\\;our\\ enemies\\ must\\ be\\ unjust\\,\\ stupid\\,\\ dishonest\\,\\ craven\\,\\ and\\ wrong\\"\\;\\ \\(319\\)\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ as\\ he\\ says\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ article\\:\\ \\"\\;The\\ rebel\\ is\\ the\\ man\\ for\\ whom\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ decreed\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ way\\ out\\.\\ The\\ rebel\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ man\\ whom\\ America\\ has\\ called\\ \\&\\#39\\;the\\ Communist\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ taken\\ as\\ her\\ enemy\\.\\ The\\ man\\ whom\\ America\\ now\\ claims\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ kill\\"\\;\\ \\(333\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 26, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/studyguidehist1672_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Purusits of Happiness - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "happiness"], "text": null, "id": 66, "html": "\\\\\\Hist\\_B\\-40\\_Final\\_Exam\\_Study\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=m0tazYRimFnV1hoGKbgtnw\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c32\\{max\\-width\\:511\\.2pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:49\\.5pt\\ 50\\.4pt\\ 49\\.5pt\\ 50\\.4pt\\}\\.c30\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c36\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c7\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c34\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c33\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c25\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c16\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c11\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c10\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c37\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-bottom\\:13pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Final\\ Exam\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ Studies\\ B\\-40\\:\\ Pursuits\\ of\\ Happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1763\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\End\\ of\\ the\\ seven\\ years\\&rsquo\\;\\ war\\,\\ proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ \\(removed\\ France\\ from\\ American\\ land\\)\\.\\ Some\\ argue\\ was\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ war\\.\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Paris\\ caused\\ France\\ to\\ leave\\ North\\ America\\-\\ British\\ gain\\ North\\ American\\ territories\\.\\ British\\ have\\ accrued\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ debt\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ taxation\\ issues\\.\\ Felt\\ the\\ colonists\\ benefited\\ from\\ the\\ war\\ a\\ lot\\ so\\ naturally\\ they\\ should\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ war\\.\\ Smallpox\\.\\ Pontiac\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rebellion\\.\\ Pontiac\\ is\\ a\\ Delaware\\ leader\\-\\ first\\ war\\ for\\ American\\ independence\\,\\ coalition\\ of\\ native\\ American\\ tribes\\ fighting\\ for\\ independence\\ against\\ the\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pontiac\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Paris\\,\\ signed\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ France\\ ignored\\ its\\ North\\ American\\ Allies\\ and\\ divided\\ up\\ the\\ continent\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\.\\ The\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ however\\,\\ expected\\ the\\ English\\ to\\ continue\\ the\\ custom\\ of\\ lavishing\\ gifts\\ to\\ prove\\ sincerity\\.\\ This\\ was\\ not\\ unrealistic\\;\\ they\\ had\\ seen\\ the\\ vast\\ amount\\ of\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ English\\ were\\ even\\ wealthier\\ than\\ the\\ French\\.\\ They\\ were\\ unaware\\ that\\ the\\ English\\ wealth\\ had\\ been\\ mostly\\ credit\\.\\ What\\ Native\\ Americans\\ did\\ not\\ expect\\ to\\ see\\ was\\ the\\ British\\ occupation\\ of\\ the\\ string\\ of\\ French\\ forts\\ that\\ taken\\.\\ This\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Great\\ Britain\\ had\\ virtually\\ cut\\ off\\ their\\ supply\\ of\\ powder\\ and\\ lead\\,\\ convinced\\ them\\ that\\ what\\ the\\ Redcoat\\ said\\ and\\ did\\ were\\ two\\ different\\ things\\.\\ The\\ British\\ had\\ some\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Military\\ Governor\\ Jeffery\\ Amherst\\ did\\ not\\ see\\ a\\ reason\\ for\\ negotiations\\ because\\ he\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ viewed\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ subjugated\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ lost\\ a\\ war\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ subjects\\.\\ London\\ fully\\ expected\\ that\\ with\\ the\\ war\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conclusion\\,\\ expenses\\ would\\ fall\\.\\ Amherst\\ operated\\ under\\ the\\ philosophy\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ duty\\ to\\ help\\ these\\ conquered\\ people\\ learn\\ to\\ be\\ responsible\\ citizens\\ who\\ stood\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ Empire\\.\\ These\\ ancient\\ inhabitants\\,\\ who\\ had\\ never\\ even\\ considered\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ obeisance\\ to\\ the\\ French\\,\\ could\\ only\\ conclude\\ that\\ this\\ new\\ English\\ father\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ things\\ occurred\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ rebellion\\.\\ One\\ was\\ nature\\;\\ famine\\ and\\ disease\\ rampaged\\ through\\ the\\ Indian\\ population\\ creating\\ fear\\ and\\ discontent\\.\\ Secondly\\,\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ prophet\\ named\\ Neolin\\ preached\\ the\\ powerful\\ message\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ Great\\ Spirit\\ Father\\ needed\\ to\\ forsake\\ the\\ white\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ They\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ purify\\ the\\ hallowed\\ ground\\ that\\ their\\ Father\\ had\\ given\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ man\\.\\ The\\ great\\ Indian\\ Ottowa\\ Chief\\ Pontiac\\ believed\\ Neolin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ message\\ and\\ issued\\ a\\ challenge\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ his\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ short\\ order\\ Pontiac\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ organize\\ the\\ Native\\ North\\ Americans\\ as\\ never\\ before\\.\\ They\\ swept\\ down\\ in\\ coordinated\\ attacks\\ and\\ seized\\ no\\ less\\ than\\ 10\\ forts\\ in\\ the\\ Great\\ Lakes\\,\\ Ohio\\ Valley\\,\\ Illinois\\ territory\\ and\\ Pennsylvania\\.\\ They\\ laid\\ siege\\ to\\ Forts\\ Detroit\\,\\ Pitt\\ and\\ Niagara\\;\\ all\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ summer\\.\\ London\\ hurried\\ to\\ finalize\\ legislation\\ that\\ would\\ ease\\ the\\ violence\\.\\ On\\ October\\ 7\\,\\ the\\ Proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ set\\ the\\ boundary\\ between\\ Colonial\\ and\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ the\\ line\\ traversing\\ the\\ ridge\\ of\\ the\\ Appalachian\\ Mountains\\.\\ This\\,\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ wavering\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ Indian\\ Union\\ brought\\ about\\ the\\ Treaty\\ at\\ Fort\\ Niagara\\ that\\ ended\\ the\\ rebellion\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ Act\\ of\\ Parliament\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ major\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\ just\\ 12\\ years\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gift\\-giving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\refer\\ to\\ Calloway\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ traders\\ offered\\ gifts\\ to\\ Native\\ Americans\\ during\\ the\\ Seven\\ Year\\&\\#39\\;s\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ exchange\\ kept\\ an\\ amicable\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ and\\ the\\ French\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ tradition\\ discontinued\\ when\\ English\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ French\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ took\\ place\\ between\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ eventually\\ this\\ gift\\-giving\\ receded\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ gift\\-giving\\ became\\ problematic\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indians\\ expected\\ the\\ British\\ to\\ lubricate\\ their\\ diplomacy\\ with\\ gifts\\,\\ as\\ the\\ French\\ had\\ done\\,\\ but\\ Britain\\,\\ on\\ the\\ brink\\ of\\ financial\\ ruin\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ expensive\\ war\\ it\\ had\\ ever\\ fought\\,\\ cut\\ back\\ on\\ expensive\\ gift\\ giving\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Calloway\\ 67\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ end\\ of\\ gift\\-giving\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ Pontiac\\&rsquo\\;s\\ War\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Calloway\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ Franklin\\ had\\ put\\ his\\ finger\\ on\\ the\\ root\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ three\\ months\\ earlier\\ when\\ he\\ urged\\ Britain\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ giving\\ gifts\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ Indians\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(67\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Page\\ 67\\ provides\\ a\\ good\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rage\\ Militaire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Rage\\ Militaire\\,\\ as\\ the\\ French\\ call\\ a\\ passion\\ for\\ arms\\,\\ has\\ taken\\ possession\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ Continent\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Royster\\ 25\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Somewhat\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ commitment\\ to\\ American\\ independence\\,\\ which\\ grew\\ during\\ the\\ war\\,\\ this\\ sentiment\\ vanished\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 1776\\ and\\ never\\ returned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Loudest\\ moments\\ were\\ in\\ 1775\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exemplified\\ by\\ militia\\ drills\\ to\\ prepare\\ for\\ armed\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ on\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ replaced\\ the\\ militia\\ at\\ the\\ focal\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ determination\\ to\\ surpass\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Desired\\ to\\ replace\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ dumb\\ show\\ with\\ only\\ practical\\ drills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rage\\ was\\ only\\ popular\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ militia\\ seemed\\ a\\ realistic\\ way\\ to\\ defend\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Whitefield\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Whitefield\\ \\(1714\\ \\-\\ 1770\\)\\ was\\ an\\ Anglican\\ itinerant\\ minister\\ whose\\ preaching\\ in\\ America\\ triggered\\ the\\ Christian\\ revivals\\ a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Great\\ Awakening\\,\\"\\;\\ during\\ which\\ people\\ divided\\ into\\ Old\\ Lights\\ and\\ New\\ Lights\\ and\\ stirred\\ up\\ religious\\ choice\\.\\ Thousands\\ of\\ enthusiasts\\ came\\ to\\ hear\\ him\\ speak\\.\\ In\\ his\\ autobiography\\,\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ recollects\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ attended\\ a\\ revival\\ meeting\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\ in\\ 1739\\ and\\ was\\ greatly\\ impressed\\ with\\ Whitefield\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ draw\\ huge\\ crowds\\.\\ Despite\\ being\\ a\\ deist\\ himself\\ and\\ valuing\\ reason\\ over\\ emotion\\,\\ Franklin\\ admired\\ Whitefield\\.\\ Whitefield\\ was\\ also\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ preach\\ to\\ the\\ enslaved\\.\\ Phillis\\ Wheatley\\ wrote\\ a\\ poem\\ in\\ his\\ memory\\ after\\ he\\ died\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ term\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ luxury\\ goods\\ that\\ were\\ imported\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\ from\\ Britain\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ derisive\\ label\\ meant\\ to\\ characterize\\ these\\ goods\\ as\\ frivolous\\ and\\ unnecessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\America\\ was\\ dependent\\ on\\ foreign\\ markets\\ for\\ certain\\ luxury\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ had\\ used\\ luxury\\ goods\\ as\\ visual\\ signifiers\\ of\\ their\\ wealth\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ portraits\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ term\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ course\\ reading\\ by\\ T\\.\\ H\\.\\ Breen\\,\\ Breen\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ Americans\\ \\&ldquo\\;could\\ communicate\\ their\\ political\\ grievances\\ through\\ goods\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ could\\ make\\ political\\ statements\\ through\\ what\\ they\\ did\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ consume\\,\\ had\\ economic\\ ways\\ of\\ expressing\\ their\\ solidarity\\ through\\ boycotts\\,\\ non\\-consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consumer\\ goods\\ became\\ politicized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colonists\\ resisted\\ British\\ taxes\\ through\\ boycotts\\ and\\ pacts\\ of\\ non\\-consumption\\,\\ they\\ pledged\\ not\\ to\\ buy\\ certain\\ goods\\ from\\ Britain\\,\\ though\\ usually\\ made\\ exceptions\\ for\\ necessary\\ goods\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ make\\ on\\ their\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discourse\\ from\\ the\\ Great\\ Awakening\\ and\\ other\\ religious\\ groups\\ and\\ enlightenment\\ thinkers\\ who\\ privileged\\ reason\\ all\\ contributed\\ to\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ restraint\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ going\\ without\\ luxury\\ goods\\,\\ particularly\\ British\\ luxury\\ goods\\,\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ show\\ personal\\ virtue\\ and\\ restraint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ The\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\&rdquo\\;\\ represents\\ the\\ politicization\\ of\\ consumer\\ goods\\ during\\ the\\ period\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\,\\ a\\ politicization\\ which\\ both\\ helped\\ bring\\ the\\ American\\ people\\ together\\ and\\ voice\\ opposition\\ to\\ British\\ taxation\\ policies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stamp\\ Act\\ Riots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Throughout\\ British\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\,\\ colonial\\ taxation\\ had\\ been\\ effective\\ way\\ to\\ generate\\ revenue\\ for\\ Great\\ Britain\\,\\ even\\ though\\ opposition\\ already\\ occurred\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\ in\\ 1765\\ by\\ the\\ Parliament\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ direct\\ attempt\\ to\\ impose\\ taxation\\ on\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\ and\\ was\\ an\\ effort\\ of\\ Britain\\ to\\ reduce\\ their\\ debt\\ incurred\\ during\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ required\\ all\\ legal\\ documents\\ to\\ carry\\ a\\ tax\\ stamp\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ met\\ resistance\\ unseen\\ by\\ prior\\ taxation\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ resistance\\ included\\ all\\ colonial\\ assemblies\\ sending\\ petitions\\ of\\ protest\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ Congress\\ petitioning\\ Parliament\\ and\\ the\\ King\\ to\\ repeal\\ the\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;Local\\ colonial\\ protests\\,\\ led\\ by\\ colonial\\ merchants\\ and\\ landowners\\,\\ created\\ a\\ coalition\\ within\\ the\\ colonies\\ extending\\ from\\ New\\ England\\ to\\ Georgia\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ associations\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Sons\\ of\\ Liberty\\ believed\\ that\\ no\\ taxes\\ should\\ be\\ imposed\\ upon\\ colonists\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\ and\\ spawned\\ greater\\ rebellions\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ protests\\ often\\ turned\\ violent\\ and\\ destructive\\ through\\ mass\\ involvement\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ caused\\ tax\\ distributors\\ to\\ eventually\\ resign\\ their\\ commissions\\ thus\\ causing\\ the\\ taxes\\ to\\ never\\ be\\ effectively\\ collected\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Act\\ was\\ eventually\\ repealed\\ on\\ March\\ 18\\,\\ 1765\\ but\\ the\\ parliament\\ continued\\ to\\ affirm\\ its\\ power\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ colonies\\ through\\ its\\ passing\\ of\\ the\\ Declaratory\\ Act\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ continuation\\ of\\ incidents\\ continued\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ concerns\\ which\\ furthered\\ the\\ alignment\\ of\\ the\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\ towards\\ a\\ unified\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberty\\ Trees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ famous\\ elm\\ tree\\ that\\ was\\ in\\ Boston\\ in\\ the\\ days\\ before\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ rallying\\ point\\ for\\ the\\ growing\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ England\\ In\\ following\\ years\\ almost\\ every\\ American\\ town\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ Liberty\\ Tree\\&mdash\\;a\\ symbol\\ of\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ individual\\ liberty\\ and\\ resistance\\ to\\ tyranny\\.\\ \\(remember\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bostonians\\ Paying\\ the\\ Excise\\ Man\\&mdash\\;tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\ tax\\ collector\\ under\\ liberty\\ tree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Boston\\ Liberty\\ Tree\\ originated\\ when\\ the\\ Sons\\ of\\ Liberty\\ hung\\ effigies\\ of\\ two\\ tax\\ collectors\\ from\\ said\\ tree\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protest\\ the\\ stamp\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ tree\\ was\\ positioned\\ such\\ that\\ whenever\\ someone\\ entered\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Boston\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ walk\\ by\\ and\\ see\\ the\\ tree\\,\\ thereby\\ warning\\ them\\ of\\ the\\ town\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sentiments\\ toward\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ British\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Townshend\\ Acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ series\\ of\\ acts\\ passed\\ beginning\\ in\\ 1767\\ by\\ the\\ Parliament\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ colonies\\ in\\ North\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\ was\\ to\\ raise\\ revenue\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ governors\\ and\\ judges\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ independent\\ of\\ colonial\\ control\\,\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ more\\ effective\\ means\\ of\\ enforcing\\ compliance\\ with\\ trade\\ regulations\\,\\ to\\ punish\\ the\\ province\\ of\\ New\\ York\\ for\\ failing\\ to\\ comply\\ with\\ the\\ 1765\\ Quartering\\ Act\\,\\ and\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ precedent\\ that\\ the\\ British\\ Parliament\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\ met\\ with\\ resistance\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ prompting\\ the\\ occupation\\ of\\ Boston\\ by\\ British\\ troops\\ in\\ 1768\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ Boston\\ Massacre\\ of\\ 1770\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ influential\\ colonial\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\ was\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ twelve\\ essays\\ by\\ John\\ Dickinson\\ entitled\\ \\"\\;Letters\\ from\\ a\\ Farmer\\ in\\ Pennsylvania\\"\\;\\,\\ which\\ began\\ appearing\\ in\\ December\\ 1767\\.\\ Eloquently\\ articulating\\ ideas\\ already\\ widely\\ accepted\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ Dickinson\\ argued\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ difference\\ between\\ \\"\\;internal\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;external\\"\\;\\ taxes\\,\\ and\\ that\\ any\\ taxes\\ imposed\\ on\\ the\\ colonies\\ by\\ Parliament\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ raising\\ a\\ revenue\\ were\\ unconstitutional\\.\\ Dickinson\\ warned\\ colonists\\ not\\ to\\ concede\\ to\\ the\\ taxes\\ just\\ because\\ the\\ rates\\ were\\ low\\,\\ since\\ this\\ would\\ set\\ a\\ dangerous\\ precedent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Merchants\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ smugglers\\,\\ organized\\ economic\\ boycotts\\ to\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ their\\ British\\ counterparts\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ repeal\\ of\\ the\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\.\\ Boston\\ merchants\\ organized\\ the\\ first\\ non\\-importation\\ agreement\\,\\ which\\ called\\ for\\ merchants\\ to\\ suspend\\ importation\\ of\\ certain\\ British\\ goods\\ effective\\ 1\\ January\\ 1769\\.\\ Merchants\\ in\\ other\\ colonial\\ ports\\,\\ including\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ and\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ eventually\\ joined\\ the\\ boycott\\.\\ In\\ Virginia\\,\\ the\\ non\\-importation\\ effort\\ was\\ organized\\ by\\ George\\ Washington\\ and\\ George\\ Mason\\.\\ When\\ the\\ Virginia\\ House\\ of\\ Burgesses\\ passed\\ a\\ resolution\\ stating\\ that\\ Parliament\\ had\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ tax\\ Virginians\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\,\\ Governor\\ Lord\\ Botetourt\\ dissolved\\ the\\ assembly\\.\\ The\\ members\\ met\\ at\\ Raleigh\\ Tavern\\ and\\ adopted\\ a\\ boycott\\ agreement\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;Association\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ act\\ directly\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ occupation\\ of\\ Boston\\ by\\ British\\ troops\\ to\\ maintain\\ order\\ after\\ several\\ riots\\ broke\\ out\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ Boston\\ tea\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Townshend\\ duty\\ on\\ tea\\ was\\ retained\\ when\\ the\\ 1773\\ Tea\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\,\\ which\\ allowed\\ the\\ East\\ India\\ Company\\ to\\ ship\\ tea\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ The\\ Boston\\ Tea\\ Party\\ soon\\ followed\\,\\ which\\ set\\ the\\ stage\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tarring\\ and\\ Feathering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ powerful\\ revolt\\ tactic\\ used\\ by\\ patriots\\ to\\ torture\\ and\\ intimidate\\ tax\\ collectors\\;\\ Author\\ Irvin\\ refers\\ to\\ tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\ in\\ this\\ quote\\:\\ \\"\\;by\\ participating\\ in\\ a\\ shared\\ ritual\\,\\ patriots\\.\\.\\.began\\ to\\ perceive\\ that\\ theirs\\ was\\ a\\ common\\ cause\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ cartoon\\,\\ called\\ \\"\\;The\\ Bostonians\\ Paying\\ the\\ Excise\\ Man\\"\\;\\ featured\\ in\\ London\\ in\\ 1774\\ was\\ shown\\ in\\ class\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/upload\\.wikimedia\\.org\\/wikipedia\\/commons\\/9\\/9a\\/1774\\_lynching\\.jpg\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ practice\\ commonly\\ done\\ by\\ the\\ Liberty\\ Tree\\ Boys\\,\\ and\\ others\\ to\\ tax\\ collectors\\.\\ It\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ humiliate\\ and\\ drive\\ its\\ victims\\ from\\ the\\ town\\.\\ It\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ scare\\ people\\ into\\ supporting\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ cause\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ mob\\ tactic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homespun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ very\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\ during\\ boycotts\\ and\\ protests\\ of\\ British\\ taxation\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ self\\-reliance\\ of\\ the\\ colonies\\ and\\ to\\ avoid\\ British\\ taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ consumption\\,\\ particularly\\ consumption\\ of\\ British\\ cloth\\,\\ had\\ been\\ driving\\ the\\ British\\ economy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ boycotting\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ exert\\ pressure\\ on\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homespun\\ cloth\\ tended\\ to\\ be\\ cheaper\\ and\\ coarser\\ than\\ British\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wearing\\ homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ patriotism\\ and\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ pride\\ for\\ some\\ colonists\\,\\ people\\ who\\ still\\ wore\\ more\\ luxurious\\ imported\\ fabrics\\ were\\ criticized\\ for\\ being\\ frivolous\\,\\ were\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ loyalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Still\\,\\ even\\ during\\ boycotts\\,\\ many\\ colonists\\ had\\ wardrobes\\ compiled\\ from\\ pieces\\ that\\ were\\ both\\ homespun\\ and\\ imported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spinning\\ parties\\ were\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ get\\ publicly\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ effort\\ and\\ to\\ drum\\ up\\ patriotism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ before\\ the\\ boycotts\\,\\ it\\ made\\ economic\\ sense\\ for\\ Americans\\ to\\ utilize\\ homespun\\ cloth\\,\\ so\\ they\\ gradually\\ had\\ begun\\ replacing\\ imports\\ with\\ locally\\ made\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shirts\\ could\\ be\\ made\\ of\\ cheap\\ homespun\\ linen\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ collar\\ and\\ cuffs\\ \\(parts\\ that\\ were\\ visible\\ under\\ a\\ coat\\)\\ were\\ made\\ of\\ better\\ quality\\ linen\\ it\\ would\\ still\\ look\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ Homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ way\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ discontent\\ with\\ Britain\\ and\\ assert\\ the\\ independence\\ and\\ patriotism\\ of\\ the\\ colonists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Boston\\ Massacre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Boston\\ Massacre\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ several\\ events\\ that\\ turned\\ colonial\\ sentiment\\ against\\ British\\ rule\\.\\ Each\\ of\\ these\\ events\\ followed\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ Britain\\ asserting\\ its\\ control\\,\\ and\\ the\\ colonists\\ chafing\\ under\\ the\\ increased\\ regulation\\.\\ Events\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Tea\\ Act\\ and\\ the\\ ensuing\\ Boston\\ Tea\\ Party\\ were\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ crumbling\\ relationship\\ between\\ Britain\\ and\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ While\\ it\\ took\\ five\\ years\\ from\\ the\\ Massacre\\ to\\ outright\\ revolution\\,\\ it\\ foreshadowed\\ the\\ violent\\ rebellion\\ to\\ come\\.\\ It\\ also\\ demonstrated\\ how\\ British\\ authority\\ galvanized\\ colonial\\ opposition\\ and\\ protest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refers\\ to\\ an\\ incident\\ involving\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ five\\ civilians\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ British\\ troops\\ on\\ March\\ 5\\,\\ 1770\\,\\ the\\ legal\\ aftermath\\ of\\ which\\ helped\\ spark\\ the\\ rebellion\\ in\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ colonies\\ in\\ America\\,\\ which\\ culminated\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\ A\\ tense\\ situation\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ heavy\\ British\\ military\\ presence\\ in\\ Boston\\ boiled\\ over\\ to\\ incite\\ brawls\\ between\\ soldiers\\ and\\ civilians\\ and\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ troops\\ discharging\\ their\\ muskets\\ after\\ being\\ attacked\\ by\\ a\\ rioting\\ crowd\\.\\ Three\\ civilians\\ were\\ killed\\ at\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ shooting\\,\\ and\\ two\\ died\\ after\\ the\\ incident\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crispus\\ Attucks\\ is\\ rumored\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ shot\\,\\ who\\ was\\ an\\ African\\ American\\ sailor\\ in\\ the\\ crowd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Which\\ side\\ started\\ the\\ massacre\\ is\\ not\\ entirely\\ clear\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ crowd\\ of\\ 300\\-400\\ people\\ gathered\\ around\\ yelling\\ at\\ the\\ soldiers\\ guarding\\ the\\ state\\ house\\,\\ whether\\ the\\ soldiers\\ were\\ struck\\ first\\ or\\ fired\\ first\\ is\\ unknown\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ that\\ is\\ known\\ is\\ that\\ five\\ citizens\\ were\\ killed\\,\\ and\\ the\\ soldiers\\ were\\ tried\\.\\ \\ \\;John\\ Adams\\ was\\ the\\ attorney\\ for\\ the\\ soldiers\\,\\ which\\ gave\\ him\\ incredible\\ notoriety\\,\\ whether\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\.\\ \\ \\;Adams\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ 8\\ soldiers\\ off\\ with\\ a\\ simple\\ manslaughter\\ charge\\,\\ which\\ established\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ a\\ fair\\ and\\ impartial\\ trial\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Citizen\\-soldier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ agreed\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ soldier\\ would\\ return\\ to\\ civil\\ society\\ after\\ defeating\\ the\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ in\\ the\\ service\\ he\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ soldier\\ yet\\ would\\ not\\ serve\\ the\\ army\\ before\\ all\\ others\\ by\\ issuing\\ or\\ obeying\\ orders\\ that\\ violated\\ civil\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ revolutionaries\\ expected\\ that\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ citizen\\-soldier\\ would\\ lead\\ him\\ to\\ surpass\\ his\\ mercenary\\,\\ brutalized\\ enemies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ he\\ fought\\ to\\ preserve\\ his\\ standing\\ as\\ a\\ citizen\\ against\\ those\\ who\\ would\\ make\\ him\\ a\\ slave\\,\\ his\\ pride\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\ would\\ help\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ stronger\\ than\\ his\\ opponents\\ in\\ combat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soldiers\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ independent\\ choice\\ as\\ the\\ citizens\\;\\ had\\ to\\ follow\\ orders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ HE\\ was\\ a\\ soldier\\,\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ always\\ conduct\\ himself\\ as\\ civilian\\ citizens\\ might\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Camp\\ followers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Large\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ army\\ camps\\ who\\ accompanied\\ husbands\\ or\\ were\\ simply\\ women\\ set\\ adrift\\ in\\ the\\ maelstrom\\ of\\ war\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ \\(Masquerade\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Representative\\ passage\\ from\\ Masquerade\\ page\\ 10\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;several\\ thousand\\ women\\ were\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ army\\.\\ In\\ 1782\\,\\ when\\ Sampson\\ entered\\ an\\ army\\ of\\ about\\ 11\\,ooo\\ at\\ West\\ Point\\,\\ a\\ \\"\\;Return\\ of\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ children\\ in\\ the\\ several\\ regiments\\"\\;\\ accounted\\ for\\ 4o5\\ women\\.\\ \\"\\;Camp\\ followers\\"\\;\\ was\\ their\\ derogatory\\ name\\,\\ but\\ as\\ their\\ importance\\ grew\\ on\\ him\\,\\ George\\ Washington\\ called\\ them\\ \\"\\;Women\\ of\\ the\\ army\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ historian\\ Holly\\ A\\.\\ Mayer\\ sums\\ up\\ their\\ roles\\:\\ \\"\\;They\\ cooked\\ the\\ food\\,\\ did\\ the\\ wash\\,\\ mended\\ clothing\\,\\ took\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ sick\\ and\\ wounded\\,\\ helped\\ their\\ fellow\\ women\\,\\ lay\\ with\\ men\\,\\ and\\ then\\ bore\\ and\\ raised\\ their\\ children\\.\\"\\;\\ Indeed\\,\\ eighteenth\\-century\\ armies\\ could\\ not\\ function\\ without\\ such\\ women\\.\\ Occasionally\\,\\ a\\ camp\\ follower\\ fought\\ alongside\\ her\\ partner\\.\\ Decades\\ later\\,\\ \\"\\;Molly\\ Pitcher\\"\\;\\ was\\ a\\ generic\\ name\\ for\\ several\\ women\\ attached\\ to\\ artillery\\ units\\ who\\ replaced\\ their\\ fallen\\ husbands\\ at\\ their\\ cannons\\.\\ Other\\ women\\ took\\ over\\ more\\ prosaic\\ military\\ chores\\,\\ like\\ Sarah\\ Osborn\\,\\ who\\ on\\ one\\ occasion\\ put\\ on\\ her\\ husband\\&\\#39\\;s\\ overcoat\\,\\ shouldered\\ his\\ gun\\,\\ and\\ took\\ his\\ place\\ on\\ sentinel\\ duty\\.\\ Such\\ women\\,\\ unlike\\ most\\ women\\ warriors\\,\\ were\\ visibly\\ female\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ had\\ camp\\ followers\\ as\\ well\\,\\ often\\ escaped\\ slaves\\,\\ which\\ they\\ used\\ in\\ smallpox\\ schemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ July\\ 13\\,\\ 1781\\,\\ General\\ Alexander\\ Leslie\\ outlined\\ his\\ plan\\ in\\ a\\ letter\\ \\ \\;to\\ Cornwallis\\.\\ \\"\\;Above\\ 700\\ Negroes\\ are\\ come\\ down\\ the\\ River\\ in\\ the\\ Small\\ Pox\\,\\"\\;\\ he\\ wrote\\.\\ \\"\\;I\\ shall\\ distribute\\ them\\ about\\ the\\ Rebell\\ Plantations\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\ Even\\ if\\ they\\ pardoned\\ their\\ actions\\ by\\ saying\\ they\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ support\\ so\\ many\\ camp\\ followers\\,\\ British\\ officers\\ were\\ inevitably\\ aware\\ that\\ sick\\ African\\ Americans\\ might\\ communicate\\ smallpox\\ to\\ the\\ enemy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Fenn\\ 132\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Valley\\ Forge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Winter\\ of\\ 1777\\-78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ winter\\ encampment\\ of\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ since\\ it\\ had\\ begun\\ to\\ recruit\\ men\\ routinely\\ for\\ three\\ years\\ or\\ the\\ duration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ winter\\ encampment\\ of\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ that\\ accomplished\\ substantial\\ training\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ winter\\ encampment\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ army\\ suffered\\ severe\\ and\\ general\\ hardship\\ due\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Currency\\ depreciation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poorly\\ organized\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Significance\\:\\ test\\ of\\ national\\ survival\\ amid\\ hardships\\ caused\\ in\\ large\\ part\\ by\\ fellow\\ revolutionaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ facts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\8\\-10\\ men\\ deserted\\ every\\ day\\ \\(Royster\\ 196\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Site\\ of\\ many\\ bloody\\ duels\\ between\\ officers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baron\\ Van\\ Steuben\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\May\\ 5\\,\\ 1778\\:\\ Friedrich\\ Wilhelm\\ August\\ Heinrich\\ Ferdinand\\,\\ Baron\\ von\\ Steuben\\,\\ was\\ named\\ inspector\\ general\\ of\\ the\\ Army\\ of\\ the\\ Unites\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ months\\ before\\ his\\ appointment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Served\\ as\\ a\\ volunteer\\ training\\ officer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Best\\ way\\ for\\ a\\ foreign\\ officer\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ paying\\ job\\ from\\ Congress\\ was\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ need\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Personal\\ efforts\\ on\\ the\\ parade\\ ground\\,\\ book\\ of\\ Regulations\\,\\ and\\ his\\ supervision\\ of\\ an\\ inspectorate\\ at\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ command\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ introduced\\ a\\ new\\ attitude\\ toward\\ discipline\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ degree\\ of\\ economy\\ into\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Succeeded\\ Conway\\,\\ who\\ resigned\\ as\\ inspector\\ general\\,\\ upon\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resignation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sympathetic\\ insight\\ and\\ aloof\\ rigor\\ allowed\\ him\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ public\\ spirit\\ that\\ kept\\ soldiers\\ in\\ service\\ and\\ helped\\ him\\ to\\ deflect\\ or\\ overcome\\ their\\ resistance\\ to\\ working\\ together\\ under\\ orders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worked\\ directly\\ with\\ men\\,\\ not\\ through\\ sergeants\\ as\\ predecessors\\ did\\,\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ drills\\ designed\\ to\\ increase\\ their\\ courage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polly\\ Baker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polly\\ Baker\\ was\\ a\\ pseudonym\\ used\\ by\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ in\\ 1747\\.\\ He\\ published\\ a\\ speech\\ by\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Polly\\ Baker\\ which\\ deals\\ with\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ put\\ on\\ trial\\ for\\ having\\ an\\ illegitimate\\ child\\.\\ The\\ speech\\ pointed\\ out\\ the\\ unfairness\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ judicial\\ system\\ charging\\ women\\ for\\ having\\ illegitimate\\ children\\ while\\ not\\ charging\\ the\\ fathers\\.\\ It\\ was\\ common\\ for\\ writers\\ and\\ journalists\\ to\\ use\\ false\\ names\\ when\\ they\\ published\\ their\\ writings\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\,\\ and\\ Franklin\\ used\\ many\\ aliases\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ ideas\\ throughout\\ his\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ easily\\ explained\\ by\\ the\\ God\\-as\\-a\\-clockmacker\\ concept\\;\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ supreme\\ and\\ natural\\ being\\ that\\ created\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ proceed\\ to\\ meddle\\ in\\ affairs\\ of\\ human\\ life\\.\\ Deism\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ Enlightenment\\ philosophy\\.\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\ wrote\\ in\\ his\\ autobiography\\:\\ \\"\\;Some\\ books\\ against\\ Deism\\ fell\\ into\\ my\\ hands\\;\\ they\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ substance\\ of\\ sermons\\ preached\\ at\\ Boyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lectures\\.\\ It\\ happened\\ that\\ they\\ wrought\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ me\\ quite\\ contrary\\ to\\ what\\ was\\ intended\\ by\\ them\\;\\ for\\ the\\ arguments\\ of\\ the\\ Deists\\,\\ which\\ were\\ quoted\\ to\\ be\\ refuted\\,\\ appeared\\ to\\ me\\ much\\ stronger\\ than\\ the\\ refutations\\;\\ in\\ short\\,\\ I\\ soon\\ became\\ a\\ thorough\\ Deist\\.\\ My\\ arguments\\ perverted\\ some\\ others\\,\\ particularly\\ Collins\\ and\\ Ralph\\;\\ but\\ each\\ of\\ them\\ having\\ afterwards\\ wrong\\&\\#39\\;d\\ me\\ greatly\\ without\\ the\\ least\\ compunction\\,\\ and\\ recollecting\\ Keith\\&\\#39\\;s\\ conduct\\ towards\\ me\\ \\(who\\ was\\ another\\ freethinker\\)\\ and\\ my\\ own\\ towards\\ Vernon\\ and\\ Miss\\ Read\\,\\ which\\ at\\ times\\ gave\\ me\\ great\\ trouble\\,\\ I\\ began\\ to\\ suspect\\ that\\ this\\ doctrine\\,\\ tho\\&\\#39\\;\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ true\\,\\ was\\ not\\ very\\ useful\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;having\\ succeeded\\ in\\ life\\ unaided\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ \\"\\;self\\-made\\ man\\"\\;\\ in\\ this\\ course\\ includes\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ \\(refer\\ to\\ Masquerade\\)\\ and\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ \\(refer\\ to\\ his\\ autobiography\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Franklin\\ was\\ largely\\ responsible\\ for\\ incorporating\\ this\\ quality\\ into\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ American\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Franklin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autobiography\\ touts\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ rise\\ from\\ a\\ normal\\ Boston\\ family\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ men\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ his\\ day\\:\\ a\\ diplomat\\,\\ inventor\\,\\ politician\\,\\ and\\ author\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ that\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ rise\\ was\\ possible\\ became\\ a\\ defining\\ feature\\ of\\ American\\ life\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ later\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ American\\ Dream\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;While\\ in\\ other\\ countries\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ status\\ at\\ birth\\ determined\\ their\\ status\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ their\\ life\\,\\ Franklin\\ and\\ others\\ proved\\ that\\ in\\ America\\ one\\ could\\ climb\\ the\\ ranks\\ through\\ hard\\ work\\ and\\ virtue\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ represented\\ a\\ cultural\\ break\\ from\\ Britain\\ and\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ American\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scottish\\ Enlightenment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hume\\,\\ Smith\\,\\ Hutcheson\\ were\\ important\\ thinkers\\;\\ communitarianism\\ \\(the\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ in\\ a\\ moral\\ sense\\ is\\ a\\ feeling\\ for\\ other\\ people\\)\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ theme\\;\\ noted\\ in\\ class\\ while\\ discussing\\ Jefferson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ \\"\\;pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\"\\;\\ in\\ place\\ of\\ \\"\\;property\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\ \\-\\ some\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ just\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ copy\\ Locke\\ all\\ the\\ way\\,\\ others\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ chose\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ Scottish\\ Enlightenment\\ idea\\ of\\ communitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Despotism\\ of\\ the\\ Petticoat\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Refers\\ to\\ womens\\&\\#39\\;\\ sexual\\ power\\ over\\ men\\;\\ the\\ phrase\\ was\\ used\\ by\\ John\\ Adams\\ in\\ his\\ correspondence\\ with\\ Abigail\\:\\ \\"\\;We\\ have\\ only\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ masters\\,\\ and\\ rather\\ than\\ give\\ up\\ this\\,\\ which\\ would\\ completely\\ subject\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ despotism\\ of\\ the\\ petticoat\\,\\ I\\ hope\\ General\\ Washington\\ and\\ all\\ our\\ brave\\ heroes\\ would\\ fight\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adams\\ and\\ others\\ who\\ would\\ have\\ employed\\ this\\ phrase\\ were\\ likely\\ responding\\ to\\ a\\ growing\\ sentiment\\ among\\ women\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ especially\\ well\\-educated\\ women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ become\\ painfully\\ aware\\ of\\ their\\ subjugation\\ to\\ men\\,\\ and\\ some\\ even\\ likened\\ their\\ situation\\ to\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ was\\ flying\\ around\\,\\ men\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ growing\\ a\\ bit\\ wary\\ of\\ yet\\ another\\ insurrection\\:\\ that\\ of\\ their\\ women\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Simon\\ Cognew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Simon\\ Cognew\\ was\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ whose\\ tribe\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;commonly\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ South\\ Shore\\ Indians\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ inhabited\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ eastern\\ Massachusetts\\ including\\ Cape\\ Cod\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ Bay\\ Colony\\ continually\\ encroached\\ on\\ their\\ land\\ \\(bequeathed\\ to\\ them\\ on\\ November\\ 20\\,\\ 1666\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Mass\\ Bay\\ Colony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ General\\ Court\\ refused\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ Cognew\\ wrote\\ a\\ petition\\ to\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ his\\ petition\\ he\\ describes\\ in\\ detail\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ tribe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ land\\ and\\ asks\\ the\\ king\\ to\\ intervene\\ directly\\ on\\ their\\ behalf\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ describes\\ his\\ attempted\\ abduction\\ into\\ slavery\\ \\(in\\ which\\ a\\ ship\\ master\\ told\\ Cognew\\ that\\ his\\ vessel\\ was\\ bound\\ for\\ England\\ but\\ in\\ fact\\ endeavored\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Indies\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Luckily\\ for\\ Cognew\\ they\\ were\\ shipwrecked\\ off\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ Hispaniola\\,\\ where\\ he\\ and\\ others\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ crew\\ of\\ an\\ English\\ war\\ ship\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;Cognew\\ describes\\ that\\ when\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;made\\ his\\ case\\ \\(the\\ plight\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ Shore\\ Indians\\)\\ known\\ to\\ Admiral\\ Coates\\ \\[the\\ master\\ of\\ his\\ ship\\,\\ we\\ assume\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ was\\ discharged\\ from\\ service\\ and\\ sent\\ by\\ a\\ merchant\\ ship\\ to\\ England\\,\\ where\\,\\ we\\ assume\\,\\ he\\ writes\\ this\\ petition\\ to\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ language\\ herein\\ is\\ highly\\ respectful\\ and\\ performative\\ of\\ his\\ subordination\\ to\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ uses\\ language\\ like\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Your\\ Petitioner\\ therefore\\ humbly\\ submits\\ himself\\ to\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Royal\\ Goodness\\ and\\ Justice\\ and\\ humbly\\ prays\\ that\\ Your\\ Majesty\\ would\\ be\\ graciously\\ pleased\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ hard\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ said\\ Indians\\ into\\ your\\ Royal\\ consideration\\ \\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ full\\ petition\\ can\\ be\\ read\\ on\\ the\\ course\\ website\\.\\ \\ \\;Go\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Syllabus\\ and\\ Course\\ Readings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Course\\ Documents\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(at\\ bottom\\ of\\ page\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Readings\\ for\\ Week\\ Beginning\\ Oct\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;petition\\.pdf\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elopement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;to\\ run\\ off\\ secretly\\ to\\ be\\ married\\,\\ usually\\ without\\ the\\ consent\\ or\\ knowledge\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Read\\ elopement\\ notices\\,\\ or\\ advertisements\\ in\\ class\\;\\ these\\ ads\\ were\\ written\\ by\\ husbands\\ of\\ eloped\\ wives\\;\\ by\\ advertising\\ such\\ a\\ familial\\ issue\\,\\ husband\\ hopes\\ to\\ ruin\\ his\\ ex\\-wife\\&\\#39\\;s\\ reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refer\\ to\\ lecture\\ 10\\/7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ this\\ course\\,\\ elopement\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ have\\ to\\ involve\\ getting\\ married\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ elopement\\ notices\\ \\(Go\\ to\\ course\\ website\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Syllabus\\ and\\ Course\\ Readings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Course\\ Documents\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Readings\\ for\\ Week\\ Beginning\\ Oct\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;swords\\ ads\\.pdf\\)\\,\\ elopement\\ meant\\ that\\ a\\ wife\\ had\\ run\\ away\\ from\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ often\\ absconding\\ with\\ household\\ goods\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ customary\\,\\ when\\ this\\ happened\\,\\ for\\ husbands\\ to\\ publish\\ ads\\ in\\ the\\ local\\ newspaper\\ announcing\\ their\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;elopement\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ describing\\ in\\ detail\\ all\\ goods\\ that\\ she\\ stole\\ when\\ she\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ ads\\ resemble\\ runaway\\ slave\\ ads\\ in\\ their\\ content\\ and\\ tone\\:\\ they\\ often\\ describe\\ what\\ she\\ has\\ with\\ her\\,\\ and\\ they\\ warn\\ others\\ not\\ to\\ harbor\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ slave\\ ads\\,\\ though\\,\\ they\\ stress\\ the\\ shame\\ that\\ the\\ runaway\\ has\\ incurred\\ upon\\ herself\\ and\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;loving\\&rdquo\\;\\ husband\\ and\\ entreat\\ her\\ to\\ return\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ ads\\,\\ however\\,\\ seek\\ only\\ to\\ damage\\ the\\ reputation\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\ wives\\ would\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ad\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ rebuttal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Series\\ of\\ paintings\\ by\\ William\\ Hogarth\\ \\ \\;printed\\ in\\ 1735\\.\\ The\\ series\\ shows\\ the\\ decline\\ and\\ fall\\ of\\ Tom\\ Rakewell\\,\\ the\\ spendthrift\\ son\\ and\\ heir\\ of\\ a\\ rich\\ merchant\\,\\ who\\ comes\\ to\\ London\\,\\ wastes\\ all\\ his\\ money\\ on\\ luxurious\\ living\\,\\ prostitution\\ and\\ gambling\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ consequence\\ is\\ imprisoned\\ in\\ the\\ Fleet\\ Prison\\ and\\ ultimately\\ Bedlam\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ paintings\\ depict\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ a\\ harlot\\ to\\ disrupt\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ public\\ sexual\\ feelings\\ and\\ the\\ proper\\ high\\-class\\ sentimentality\\,\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ luxurious\\ living\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Simon\\ Cognew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;freedom\\ from\\ arbitrary\\ or\\ despotic\\ government\\ or\\ control\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liberty\\ is\\ a\\ theme\\ throughout\\ this\\ course\\ and\\ throughout\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ ran\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ masters\\/plantations\\ to\\ gain\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\British\\ \\(Dunmore\\)\\ tried\\ to\\ use\\ freeing\\ of\\ slaves\\ as\\ advantage\\ against\\ colonists\\;\\ it\\ brought\\ opportunity\\ for\\ slaves\\ to\\ become\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ field\\ of\\ social\\ medicine\\ seeks\\ to\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ understand\\ how\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ conditions\\ impact\\ health\\,\\ disease\\ and\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ medicine\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ foster\\ conditions\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ understanding\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ healthier\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ idea\\ particularly\\ applies\\ to\\ the\\ argument\\ for\\/against\\ inoculation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\:\\ Because\\ inoculation\\ gives\\ people\\ a\\ less\\ severe\\ strain\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\,\\ this\\ would\\ inevitably\\ save\\ more\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\:\\ Because\\ the\\ poor\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\ the\\ inoculation\\ \\(or\\ the\\ work\\ they\\ would\\ miss\\ because\\ of\\ it\\)\\,\\ it\\ is\\ unfair\\ to\\ inoculate\\ anyone\\ because\\ the\\ disease\\ would\\ still\\ spread\\,\\ except\\ those\\ without\\ the\\ inoculation\\ would\\ still\\ get\\ the\\ normal\\ version\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Born\\ in\\ 1745\\ in\\ a\\ suburb\\ of\\ Philadelphia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1760\\ he\\ received\\ a\\ five\\-year\\ degree\\ from\\ Princeton\\,\\ then\\ studied\\ medicine\\ at\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Edinburgh\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\ in\\ 1769\\ when\\ he\\ opened\\ a\\ medical\\ practice\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ professor\\ of\\ Chemistry\\ at\\ Penn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ was\\ selected\\ to\\ attend\\ the\\ provincial\\ conference\\ to\\ send\\ delegates\\ to\\ the\\ Continental\\ Congress\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ appointed\\ to\\ represent\\ Pennsylvania\\ at\\ the\\ Continental\\ Congress\\ and\\ signed\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1777\\ he\\ became\\ surgeon\\-general\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ department\\ of\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\.\\ Conflicts\\ with\\ the\\ Army\\ Medical\\ service\\,\\ specifically\\ with\\ Dr\\.\\ William\\ Shippen\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ led\\ to\\ Rush\\&\\#39\\;s\\ resignation\\ in\\ 1778\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rush\\ spoke\\ out\\ about\\ removal\\ of\\ Washington\\ as\\ general\\ after\\ several\\ defeats\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Rush\\ ultimately\\ regretted\\ speaking\\ out\\ against\\ Washington\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ amends\\ with\\ the\\ hero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rush\\ was\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ abolitionist\\ movie\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1766\\ when\\ Rush\\ set\\ out\\ for\\ his\\ studies\\ in\\ Edinburgh\\,\\ was\\ outraged\\ by\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ 100\\ slave\\ ships\\ in\\ Liverpool\\ harbor\\.\\ As\\ a\\ prominent\\ Presbyterian\\ doctor\\ and\\ professor\\ of\\ chemistry\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ he\\ provided\\ a\\ bold\\ and\\ respected\\ voice\\ against\\ slave\\ trade\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ ignored\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ highlight\\ of\\ his\\ involvement\\ in\\ abolishing\\ slavery\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ pamphlet\\ he\\ wrote\\ that\\ appeared\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ Boston\\,\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ in\\ 1773\\ entitled\\ \\"\\;An\\ Address\\ to\\ the\\ Inhabitants\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ Settlements\\ in\\ America\\,\\ upon\\ Slave\\-Keeping\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ this\\ first\\ of\\ his\\ many\\ attacks\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ evils\\ of\\ his\\ day\\,\\ he\\ not\\ only\\ assailed\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ but\\ the\\ entire\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Rush\\ argued\\ scientifically\\ that\\ Negroes\\ were\\ not\\ by\\ nature\\ intellectually\\ or\\ morally\\ inferior\\.\\ Any\\ apparent\\ evidence\\ to\\ the\\ contrary\\ was\\ only\\ the\\ perverted\\ expression\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ which\\ \\"\\;is\\ so\\ foreign\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\,\\ that\\ the\\ moral\\ faculties\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ understanding\\ are\\ debased\\,\\ and\\ rendered\\ torpid\\ by\\ it\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harry\\ Washington\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Harry\\ Washington\\ was\\ a\\ slave\\ belonging\\ to\\ General\\ George\\ Washington\\ who\\ defected\\ after\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Proclamation\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ belonged\\ to\\ a\\ company\\ in\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\ called\\ the\\ Black\\ Pioneers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ George\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slave\\.\\ He\\ went\\ to\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\ for\\ his\\ freedom\\ with\\ many\\ other\\ slaves\\.\\ He\\ went\\ to\\ Africa\\ \\(Sierra\\ Leone\\)\\ with\\ many\\ other\\ slaves\\.\\ Did\\ not\\ succeed\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Forgotten\\ Fifth\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nash\\ reorients\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ early\\ America\\,\\ and\\ reveals\\ the\\ perilous\\ choices\\ of\\ the\\ founding\\ fathers\\ that\\ shaped\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#39\\;s\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;Nash\\ tells\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ fervor\\ arousing\\ a\\ struggle\\ for\\ freedom\\ that\\ spiraled\\ into\\ the\\ largest\\ slave\\ rebellion\\ in\\ American\\ history\\,\\ as\\ blacks\\ fled\\ servitude\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ the\\ British\\,\\ who\\ promised\\ freedom\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ military\\ service\\.\\ The\\ Revolutionary\\ Army\\ never\\ matched\\ the\\ British\\ offer\\,\\ and\\ most\\ histories\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ have\\ ignored\\ this\\ remarkable\\ story\\.\\ The\\ conventional\\ wisdom\\ says\\ that\\ abolition\\ was\\ impossible\\ in\\ the\\ fragile\\ new\\ republic\\.\\ Nash\\,\\ however\\,\\ argues\\ that\\ an\\ unusual\\ convergence\\ of\\ factors\\ immediately\\ after\\ the\\ war\\ created\\ a\\ unique\\ opportunity\\ to\\ dismantle\\ slavery\\.\\ The\\ founding\\ fathers\\&\\#39\\;\\ failure\\ to\\ commit\\ to\\ freedom\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ waning\\ of\\ abolitionism\\ just\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ reached\\ its\\ peak\\.\\ In\\ the\\ opening\\ decades\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ as\\ Nash\\ demonstrates\\,\\ their\\ decision\\ enabled\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ white\\ supremacy\\ to\\ take\\ root\\,\\ and\\ with\\ it\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ an\\ irreparable\\ national\\ fissure\\.\\ The\\ moral\\ failure\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ was\\ paid\\ for\\ in\\ the\\ 1860s\\ with\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ 600\\,000\\ Americans\\ killed\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Harris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involved\\ in\\ the\\ burning\\ of\\ the\\ hated\\ British\\ revenue\\ schooner\\,\\ HMS\\ Gaspee\\,\\ by\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ patriots\\ in\\ 1772\\ as\\ \\&\\#39\\;America\\&\\#39\\;s\\ First\\ Blow\\ for\\ Freedom\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Harris\\ was\\ a\\ North\\ Carolina\\ private\\ \\(nothing\\ more\\ than\\ what\\ is\\ already\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ guide\\,\\ not\\ in\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ most\\ that\\ I\\ found\\ on\\ google\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virginia\\,\\ November\\,\\ 1775\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ November\\ of\\ 1775\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\,\\ the\\ Royal\\ Governor\\ in\\ Virginia\\,\\ issued\\ a\\ proclamation\\ that\\ all\\ able\\ bodied\\ males\\ who\\ fought\\ for\\ the\\ Loyalist\\ cause\\ would\\ be\\ granted\\ freedom\\.\\ This\\ was\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ desperation\\ as\\ the\\ rebels\\ \\(Americans\\)\\ had\\ taken\\ virtual\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ only\\ a\\ 300\\ man\\ army\\ remained\\ there\\ under\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ command\\.\\ More\\ than\\ 800\\ runaways\\ joined\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Loyalist\\ forces\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ proclamation\\.\\ This\\ collection\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ proclamation\\ is\\ particularly\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ course\\ as\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ colonies\\ vulnerability\\ when\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ population\\ within\\ the\\ states\\ and\\ displayed\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ mobilized\\ to\\ rebellion\\.\\ Many\\ loyalist\\ slave\\ owners\\ in\\ Virginia\\ lost\\ runaways\\ to\\ the\\ proclamation\\ and\\ were\\ unhappy\\ with\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ move\\-\\ fearing\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ massive\\ slave\\ rebellion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Virginia\\ Declaration\\ was\\ Virginia\\&\\#39\\;s\\ quick\\ response\\ to\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ proclamation\\.\\ The\\ VA\\ Declaration\\ said\\ that\\ offering\\ freedom\\ to\\ slaves\\ struck\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ VA\\ society\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ runaways\\ could\\ face\\ the\\ death\\ penalty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evacuation\\ of\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ November\\ 25\\,\\ 1983\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ Troops\\ and\\ Loyalist\\ refugees\\ sailed\\ from\\ New\\ York\\ Harbor\\ for\\ England\\.\\ The\\ Union\\ Jack\\ was\\ promptly\\ stripped\\ from\\ all\\ the\\ flag\\ poles\\ and\\ replaced\\ with\\ the\\ Stars\\ and\\ Stripes\\.\\ The\\ Evacuation\\ was\\ negotiated\\ by\\ General\\ Washington\\ and\\ Sir\\ Guy\\ Carleton\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ Commander\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ forces\\ in\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Evacuation\\ was\\ controversial\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ British\\ shipped\\ out\\ not\\ only\\ their\\ troops\\ and\\ Loyalist\\ refugees\\ from\\ the\\ colonies\\ but\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ who\\ had\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ British\\ ranks\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Osnabrug\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Osnaburg\\ cloth\\ was\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ cheap\\,\\ inexpensive\\ and\\ coarse\\ linen\\.\\ \\ \\;Slave\\ clothing\\ was\\ often\\ made\\ of\\ osnaburg\\ cloth\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ frequently\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Runaway\\ Ads\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Described\\ in\\ Shane\\ and\\ Graham\\ White\\ reading\\,\\ page\\ 153\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Type\\ of\\ cloth\\ that\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ slaves\\;\\ very\\ cheap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\,\\ coarse\\ cotton\\ in\\ a\\ plain\\ weave\\,\\ for\\ grain\\ sacks\\ and\\ sportswear\\ and\\ also\\ finished\\ into\\ cretonne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ African\\ American\\ woman\\ who\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ first\\ published\\ African\\ American\\ poet\\;\\ her\\ masters\\ lived\\ in\\ Boston\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ they\\ ones\\ who\\ taught\\ her\\ to\\ write\\.\\ her\\ writing\\ refuted\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ African\\ Americans\\ were\\ intellectually\\ inferior\\;\\ some\\ believed\\ that\\ her\\ poems\\ were\\ in\\ fact\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ white\\ person\\ and\\ published\\ under\\ her\\ name\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ point\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Was\\ slave\\ in\\ Boston\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ poet\\.\\ She\\ was\\ brought\\ from\\ Africa\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ eight\\,\\ and\\ was\\ bought\\ by\\ a\\ family\\ \\(Wheatly\\)\\ that\\ taught\\ her\\ how\\ to\\ write\\.\\ She\\ was\\ acclaimed\\ nationwide\\ and\\ was\\ popular\\ especially\\ during\\ the\\ revoltion\\.\\ She\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ on\\ Various\\ Subjects\\:\\ Religious\\ and\\ Moral\\ She\\ was\\ also\\ praised\\ by\\ George\\ Wahsington\\.\\ She\\ was\\ eventually\\ let\\ go\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whiskey\\ Rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ farmers\\ in\\ PA\\ distilled\\ their\\ surplus\\ wheat\\ into\\ whiskey\\ to\\ make\\ money\\,\\ but\\ a\\ 1791\\ excise\\ tax\\ on\\ whiskey\\ seriously\\ hurt\\ the\\ market\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tensions\\ flared\\ into\\ a\\ rebellion\\ of\\ these\\ frontier\\ farmers\\ in\\ 1794\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ frontier\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ safety\\ valve\\,\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ discontented\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ and\\ be\\ farther\\ from\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Washington\\ demonstrated\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ and\\ his\\ power\\ as\\ commander\\ in\\ chief\\ of\\ the\\ army\\ by\\ calling\\ in\\ troops\\ to\\ put\\ down\\ the\\ rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ established\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ government\\ and\\ helped\\ contain\\ the\\ energies\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wanted\\ people\\ to\\ get\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ nation\\ through\\ voting\\ and\\ the\\ political\\ process\\ rather\\ than\\ fighting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ Whiskey\\ Rebellion\\ helped\\ with\\ the\\ reestablishment\\ of\\ order\\ after\\ the\\ Revolution\\ by\\ demonstrating\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ and\\ asserting\\ that\\ tactics\\ of\\ mob\\ violence\\ would\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ an\\ effective\\ political\\ tool\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philip\\ Freneau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\American\\ poet\\ and\\ nationalist\\ during\\ Revolutionary\\ era\\ \\(1752\\-1832\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ known\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ Poet\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrote\\ many\\ anti\\-British\\ pieces\\,\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ capture\\ and\\ detention\\ by\\ British\\ for\\ six\\ weeks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chosen\\ by\\ James\\ Madison\\ and\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ head\\ the\\ National\\ Gazette\\,\\ which\\ criticized\\ federalists\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ Washington\\ administration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrote\\ poem\\,\\ American\\ Liberty\\,\\ A\\ Poem\\,\\ see\\ Royster\\ p\\.112\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helped\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ frame\\ a\\ petition\\ to\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Representatives\\ and\\ published\\ a\\ poem\\ in\\ tribute\\ to\\ her\\,\\ see\\ Young\\ p\\.\\ 191\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1787\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Delegates\\ begin\\ arriving\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ new\\ Constitution\\ for\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ delegates\\ begin\\ to\\ convene\\ a\\ Constitutional\\ Convention\\ intended\\ to\\ amend\\ the\\ Articles\\ of\\ Confederation\\.\\ However\\,\\ a\\ new\\ Constitution\\ for\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ eventually\\ produced\\.\\ George\\ Washington\\ presides\\ over\\ the\\ Convention\\.\\ The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Congress\\ enacts\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Ordinance\\ establishing\\ governing\\ rules\\ for\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Territory\\.\\ It\\ also\\ establishes\\ procedures\\ for\\ the\\ admission\\ of\\ new\\ states\\ and\\ limits\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hopi\\ pueblo\\ of\\ Oraibi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oraibi\\ is\\ a\\ village\\ in\\ Arizona\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Hopis\\ were\\ the\\ native\\ Americans\\ of\\ that\\ village\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Franciscan\\ missionary\\,\\ Francisco\\ Tomas\\ Garces\\ approached\\ Oraibi\\ in\\ 1776\\ in\\ service\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ crown\\,\\ he\\ sought\\ to\\ open\\ a\\ road\\ between\\ Oraibi\\ and\\ Alta\\,\\ California\\ and\\ he\\ also\\ hoped\\ to\\ bring\\ Christianity\\ to\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ instill\\ hospitality\\ toward\\ the\\ Spaniards\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ received\\ no\\ hospitality\\ upon\\ his\\ arrival\\ and\\ was\\ strongly\\ urged\\ by\\ the\\ Hopi\\ to\\ leave\\ immediately\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Pox\\ Americana\\,\\ 135\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Shay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rebellions\\ was\\ an\\ armed\\ uprising\\ in\\ Massachusetts\\ from\\ 1786\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1787\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ led\\ by\\ Daniel\\ Shay\\ and\\ he\\ commanded\\ a\\ militia\\ formed\\ of\\ those\\ known\\ as\\ Shaysites\\ or\\ Regulators\\,\\ mostly\\ composed\\ of\\ farmers\\ angered\\ by\\ the\\ financially\\ troubling\\ taxation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rebellion\\ included\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ Springfield\\ armory\\/court\\ which\\ controlled\\ the\\ processing\\ of\\ financial\\ confiscations\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pay\\ their\\ taxes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rebellion\\ ended\\ with\\ the\\ Shaysites\\ being\\ fined\\,\\ imprisoned\\,\\ or\\ sentenced\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1788\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ general\\ pardon\\ and\\ all\\ but\\ two\\ rebels\\ had\\ their\\ verdict\\ reversed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rebellion\\ caused\\ a\\ reevaluation\\ of\\ the\\ Articles\\ of\\ Confederation\\ and\\ helped\\ create\\ the\\ Constitutional\\ Convention\\ which\\ began\\ in\\ May\\,\\ 1787\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pennsylvania\\,\\ 1788\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ 1788\\ Act\\ in\\ Pennsylvania\\ cleared\\ up\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ loopholes\\ of\\ the\\ state\\&\\#39\\;s\\ 1780\\ Act\\ providing\\ for\\ the\\ gradual\\ abolition\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ The\\ 1780\\ regulations\\ said\\ that\\ no\\ child\\ born\\ in\\ PA\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\ and\\ that\\ those\\ born\\ to\\ slaves\\ would\\ be\\ servants\\ until\\ 28\\ years\\ of\\ age\\ and\\ then\\ granted\\ freedom\\.\\ It\\ also\\ called\\ for\\ the\\ gradual\\ emancipation\\ of\\ all\\ slaves\\.\\ These\\ regulations\\ were\\ circumvented\\ by\\ certain\\ slave\\ owners\\ and\\ the\\ 1788\\ Act\\ filled\\ the\\ loopholes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ other\\ states\\ like\\ Massachusetts\\ were\\ moving\\ towards\\ abolition\\ through\\ judicial\\ processes\\,\\ Pennsylvania\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ state\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ through\\ legislation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Francis\\ Hopkinson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pennsylvanian\\ native\\,\\ studied\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ridiculed\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ loyalist\\ sympathizers\\ with\\ political\\ satires\\ through\\ works\\ including\\ \\"\\;A\\ Pretty\\ Story\\"\\;\\ \\(relationship\\ between\\ GB\\ and\\ colonies\\)\\ and\\ \\"\\;Battle\\ of\\ the\\ Kegs\\"\\;\\ \\(satire\\ taunting\\ the\\ British\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delegate\\ to\\ Continental\\ Congress\\,\\ Declaration\\ signer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advocate\\ of\\ federal\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ credit\\ for\\ designing\\ American\\ flag\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Written\\ by\\ Royall\\ Tyler\\,\\ a\\ New\\ England\\ lawyer\\ and\\ former\\ officer\\ belonging\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ wealthiest\\ and\\ most\\ influential\\ families\\ of\\ the\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ performed\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ 1787\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ American\\ play\\ ever\\ performed\\ in\\ public\\ by\\ company\\ of\\ professional\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Popular\\ among\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expresses\\ political\\ and\\ ideological\\ concerns\\ about\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#39\\;s\\ republic\\ character\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ central\\ theme\\ is\\ conflict\\ between\\ virtue\\ and\\ luxury\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ is\\ New\\ York\\ upper\\-class\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mary\\ Wollstonecraft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ 18th\\ century\\ British\\ writer\\,\\ philosopher\\,\\ and\\ feminist\\.\\ Published\\ Vindication\\ of\\ the\\ Rights\\ of\\ Woman\\ \\(1797\\)\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ makes\\ a\\ plea\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ take\\ personal\\ action\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ throw\\ off\\ \\"\\;slavish\\ dependence\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;slavish\\ obedience\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ stood\\ on\\ the\\ most\\ radical\\ and\\ liberal\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ feminism\\ spectrum\\ and\\ was\\ an\\ anathema\\ to\\ conservative\\ federalists\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ Herman\\ Mann\\,\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ biographer\\,\\ had\\ read\\ Wollstonecraft\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Vindication\\ and\\ was\\ conscious\\ of\\ the\\ inequality\\ in\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ women\\,\\ and\\ took\\ it\\ into\\ account\\ when\\ writing\\ Sampson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ biography\\ and\\ lecture\\ speeches\\ to\\ avoid\\ resemblance\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ infamous\\ and\\ controversial\\ Wollstonecraft\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;moral\\ excellence\\"\\;\\;\\ theme\\ throughout\\ the\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ term\\ is\\ mentioned\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ adjectives\\ describing\\ a\\ good\\ Republican\\ citizen\\ \\(refer\\ to\\ lecture\\ 11\\/20\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonists\\ strived\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ \\"\\;virtue\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ that\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\ lived\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ \\"\\;virtue\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ defined\\ by\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Silence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Speak\\ not\\ but\\ what\\ may\\ benefit\\ others\\ or\\ yourself\\;\\ avoid\\ trifling\\ conversation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sincerity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Use\\ no\\ hurtful\\ deceit\\;\\ think\\ innocently\\ and\\ justly\\,\\ and\\,\\ if\\ you\\ speak\\,\\ speak\\ accordingly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Wrong\\ none\\ by\\ doing\\ injuries\\,\\ or\\ omitting\\ the\\ benefits\\ that\\ are\\ your\\ duty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chastity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Rarely\\ use\\ venery\\ but\\ for\\ health\\ or\\ offspring\\,\\ never\\ to\\ dullness\\,\\ weakness\\,\\ or\\ the\\ injury\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ or\\ another\\&\\#39\\;s\\ peace\\ or\\ reputation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Imitate\\ Jesus\\ and\\ Socrates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virtue\\-\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Temperance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Eat\\ not\\ to\\ dullness\\;\\ drink\\ not\\ to\\ elevation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Order\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Let\\ all\\ your\\ things\\ have\\ their\\ places\\;\\ let\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ your\\ business\\ have\\ its\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Resolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Resolve\\ to\\ perform\\ what\\ you\\ ought\\;\\ perform\\ without\\ fail\\ what\\ you\\ resolve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frugality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Make\\ no\\ expense\\ but\\ to\\ do\\ good\\ to\\ others\\ or\\ yourself\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ waste\\ nothing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moderation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Avoid\\ extremes\\;\\ forbear\\ resenting\\ injuries\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ you\\ think\\ they\\ deserve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Lose\\ no\\ time\\;\\ be\\ always\\ employed\\ in\\ something\\ useful\\;\\ cut\\ off\\ all\\ unnecessary\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cleanliness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Tolerate\\ no\\ uncleanliness\\ in\\ body\\,\\ clothes\\,\\ or\\ habitation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tranquility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Be\\ not\\ disturbed\\ at\\ trifles\\,\\ or\\ at\\ accidents\\ common\\ or\\ unavoidable\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Errata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Errata\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ that\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ indicate\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ errors\\ in\\ a\\ written\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ apologize\\ but\\ I\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ how\\ this\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ben\\ Franklin\\ calls\\ his\\ blunders\\ errata\\.\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ his\\ autobiography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Female\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Written\\ by\\ Herman\\ Mann\\ with\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Published\\ in\\ 1797\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Described\\ by\\ Young\\ in\\ Masquerade\\ to\\ be\\ \\"\\;part\\ memoir\\,\\ part\\ novel\\,\\ part\\ factual\\,\\ in\\ good\\ part\\ fantasy\\"\\;\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ was\\ presented\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ American\\ Heroine\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cites\\ many\\ distortions\\ by\\ Mann\\,\\ including\\ Sampson\\ in\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Yorktown\\,\\ which\\ took\\ place\\ before\\ her\\ enlistment\\,\\ also\\ fantasizes\\ adventures\\ among\\ western\\ Indians\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Hudson\\ Valley\\,\\ Mann\\ eventually\\ confesses\\ that\\ he\\ wishes\\ it\\ were\\ better\\ researched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ borrows\\ from\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ other\\ works\\,\\ including\\ The\\ Female\\ Soldier\\;\\ The\\ Surprising\\ Life\\ and\\ Adventures\\ of\\ Hannah\\ Snell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emphasizes\\ patriotism\\ and\\ a\\ \\"\\;framing\\ moment\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ lovely\\ young\\ woman\\ of\\ good\\ character\\ could\\ do\\ something\\ unusual\\ because\\ her\\ country\\ needed\\ her\\,\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ feminine\\ \\(Prof\\.\\ Ulrich\\,\\ from\\ lecture\\ Dec\\.\\ 2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ were\\ published\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amazon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Originally\\ referred\\ to\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ female\\ warriors\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ South\\ America\\,\\ but\\ later\\ drawn\\ upon\\ to\\ make\\ political\\ statements\\.\\ In\\ 18th\\ century\\ America\\,\\ an\\ Amazon\\ could\\ be\\ women\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ \\(literal\\ meaning\\)\\.\\ In\\ a\\ broader\\ sense\\,\\ it\\ refers\\ to\\ females\\ who\\ step\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ gender\\ role\\ and\\ take\\ on\\ male\\ attributes\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ good\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Abigail\\ Adams\\ in\\ 1776\\ had\\ pledged\\ that\\ women\\ would\\ \\"\\;become\\ a\\ Race\\ of\\ Amazons\\"\\;\\ if\\ men\\ were\\ all\\ called\\ to\\ battle\\ and\\ America\\ was\\ still\\ attacked\\.\\ Examples\\ of\\ amazons\\:\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\,\\ Hannah\\ Snell\\,\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ Iraq\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hannah\\ Snell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ woman\\ who\\ fought\\ for\\ the\\ British\\ army\\ in\\ King\\ George\\&rsquo\\;s\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ became\\ a\\ popular\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ during\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\,\\ her\\ likeness\\ \\(a\\ drawing\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ in\\ a\\ dress\\ and\\ tri\\-corner\\ hat\\ holding\\ a\\ gun\\ and\\ a\\ powder\\ horn\\)\\ was\\ often\\ used\\ by\\ printers\\ on\\ broadsides\\ and\\ pamphlets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ image\\ was\\ often\\ used\\ on\\ printed\\ materials\\ that\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ directly\\ related\\ to\\ Snell\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ printers\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ many\\ woodcuts\\ to\\ choose\\ from\\,\\ so\\ they\\ reused\\ images\\,\\ might\\ put\\ her\\ image\\ on\\ something\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hannah\\ Snell\\ is\\ also\\ loosely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ popular\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ Amazons\\,\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ ancient\\ woman\\ worriers\\ who\\ had\\ their\\ own\\ all\\-female\\ society\\ and\\ were\\ legendary\\ for\\ being\\ terrifying\\ fighters\\.\\ During\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\,\\ women\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ or\\ otherwise\\ stepped\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ normal\\ female\\ sphere\\ were\\ likened\\ to\\ Amazons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ During\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\,\\ Hannah\\ Snell\\ became\\ an\\ iconic\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ bravely\\ broke\\ free\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ female\\ sphere\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ a\\ noble\\ cause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Masterless\\ Woman\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Masterless\\ Woman\\ is\\ a\\ phrase\\ that\\ Alfred\\ Young\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ term\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ before\\ Sampson\\ joined\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ she\\ was\\ an\\ independent\\,\\ single\\ female\\ with\\ her\\ own\\ income\\ and\\ therefore\\ she\\ was\\ \\&lsquo\\;masterless\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prudence\\ Punderson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prudence\\ Punderson\\ \\(1758\\-1784\\)\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ Preston\\,\\ CT\\.\\ Her\\ needlework\\,\\ done\\ before\\ her\\ marriage\\,\\ is\\ titled\\ \\"\\;The\\ First\\,\\ Second\\ and\\ Last\\ Scenes\\ of\\ Mortality\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ represents\\ three\\ stages\\ of\\ life\\:\\ infancy\\,\\ womanhood\\,\\ and\\ death\\.\\ The\\ scene\\ features\\ the\\ furnishings\\ of\\ a\\ wealthy\\ CT\\ drawing\\ room\\,\\ an\\ African\\ American\\ servant\\ \\(the\\ \\"\\;wench\\ Jenny\\,\\"\\;\\ who\\ was\\ included\\ as\\ property\\ in\\ her\\ father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ will\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ coffin\\ which\\ alludes\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Clarissa\\ Harlowe\\,\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ resisted\\ evil\\ suitors\\ and\\ struggled\\ between\\ tyranny\\ and\\ anarchy\\.\\ Her\\ embroidery\\ symbolizes\\ Prudence\\&\\#39\\;s\\ struggle\\ over\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ marry\\ the\\ man\\ she\\ loves\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ patriot\\/congregationalist\\,\\ which\\ her\\ Loyalist\\ father\\ does\\ not\\ approve\\ of\\.\\ It\\ represents\\ the\\ personal\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ religious\\ dilemma\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ right\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ohio\\ Valley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ war\\,\\ the\\ Ohio\\ Valley\\ represented\\ the\\ western\\ boundary\\ of\\ available\\ land\\ for\\ colonists\\,\\ land\\ speculators\\ and\\ the\\ British\\.\\ The\\ Proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ set\\ the\\ Appalachians\\ as\\ the\\ western\\ boundary\\ of\\ the\\ colonies\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ Crown\\&\\#39\\;s\\ effort\\ to\\ maintain\\ good\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ after\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Paris\\.\\ In\\ subsequent\\ years\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ Revolution\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\ became\\ the\\ borderline\\ of\\ land\\ available\\ to\\ colonists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ both\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ Americans\\ maintained\\ a\\ neutral\\ position\\ with\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\ indians\\-\\ later\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ British\\ armed\\ many\\ native\\ Americans\\ along\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\ and\\ sent\\ them\\ on\\ raiding\\ parties\\ into\\ Ohio\\ and\\ neighboring\\ state\\ towns\\.\\ This\\ led\\ to\\ much\\ strife\\ and\\ fighting\\ between\\ stationed\\ continental\\ army\\ troops\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ and\\ the\\ British\\ troops\\ in\\ Detroit\\ and\\ the\\ indians\\ between\\ who\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ Crown\\-\\ these\\ conflicts\\ played\\ out\\ along\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\ war\\ the\\ British\\ signed\\ these\\ lands\\ over\\ to\\ the\\ Americans\\ yet\\ did\\ not\\ put\\ any\\ provisions\\ into\\ the\\ treaty\\ regarding\\ their\\ allies\\ \\(the\\ indians\\)\\ claim\\ to\\ lands\\ along\\ the\\ Ohio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Land\\ speculators\\ from\\ the\\ east\\ savored\\ this\\ land\\ and\\ moved\\ west\\.\\ The\\ indians\\ there\\ were\\ pushed\\ west\\ by\\ white\\ settlers\\ but\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Indian\\ Wars\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ hold\\ as\\ much\\ land\\ as\\ possible\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tanigrhisson\\ \\(half\\ king\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ May\\ of\\ 1754\\,\\ George\\ Washington\\ marched\\ several\\ hundred\\ troops\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ forts\\ near\\ the\\ Great\\ Lakes\\ and\\ the\\ forks\\ of\\ the\\ Ohio\\ river\\ to\\ protect\\ Virginia\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interests\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ French\\ sent\\ Ensign\\ Jumonville\\ up\\ from\\ Fort\\ Duquesne\\ to\\ warn\\ them\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;Tanighrisson\\ alerted\\ Washington\\ to\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ French\\ party\\,\\ guided\\ him\\ to\\ their\\ camp\\,\\ and\\ encouraged\\ him\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ surprise\\ attack\\.\\ \\ \\;Washington\\ did\\ just\\ that\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ May\\ 28\\,\\ 1754\\,\\ wounding\\ Jumonville\\ before\\ he\\ could\\ explain\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ come\\ on\\ a\\ diplomatic\\ mission\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ French\\ called\\ for\\ a\\ ceasefire\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ parley\\ with\\ their\\ assailants\\,\\ but\\ Tanighrisson\\ cut\\ off\\ the\\ chances\\ for\\ a\\ diplomatic\\ resolution\\ by\\ bashing\\ in\\ Jumonville\\&\\#39\\;s\\ skull\\ and\\ washing\\ his\\ hands\\ in\\ the\\ dead\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brains\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ but\\ 21\\ men\\ were\\ killed\\.\\ Tanighrisson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ act\\ triggered\\ events\\ that\\ ranged\\ unimaginably\\ far\\ beyond\\ his\\ control\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ French\\ counterattack\\ quickly\\ escalated\\ into\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ Indian\\ War\\,\\ which\\ spread\\ to\\ Europe\\ as\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\&\\#39\\;\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ 1763\\ France\\&\\#39\\;s\\ empire\\ lay\\ in\\ ruins\\ and\\ Britain\\ was\\ in\\ at\\ least\\ theoretical\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ eastern\\ half\\ of\\ North\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sally\\ Hemings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\American\\ slave\\ owned\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ half\\ sister\\ of\\ Jefferson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ Martha\\,\\ and\\ also\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ had\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ extent\\ of\\ interracial\\ interactions\\ between\\ whites\\ and\\ their\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ emancipated\\ Sally\\ Hemings\\&\\#39\\;\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relationship\\ with\\ Jefferson\\ became\\ public\\ in\\ early\\ 19th\\ century\\ \\(James\\ Aiken\\,\\ Newburyport\\,\\ \\"\\;outed\\"\\;\\ the\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ Lecture\\ 11\\/25\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Jefferson\\ Puzzle\\ for\\ more\\ evidence\\ of\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cumberland\\ Gap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ mountain\\ pass\\ across\\ the\\ Appalachians\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ Kentucky\\,\\ Tennessee\\,\\ and\\ Virginia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ American\\ history\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ symbolize\\ an\\ opening\\ between\\ European\\ and\\ North\\ American\\ settlements\\,\\ it\\ became\\ iconic\\ soon\\ after\\ the\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crossing\\ the\\ gap\\ violated\\ old\\ British\\ proclamation\\ lines\\ that\\ restricted\\ settlement\\,\\ so\\ crossing\\ the\\ gap\\ also\\ reinforced\\ that\\ Americans\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ subject\\ to\\ British\\ authority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1852\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daniel\\ Boone\\ Escorting\\ Settlers\\ Through\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ this\\ was\\ painted\\,\\ the\\ US\\ already\\ had\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ territory\\ of\\ the\\ continental\\ US\\,\\ but\\ was\\ still\\ struggling\\ with\\ the\\ Indians\\ for\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ Daniel\\ Boone\\ as\\ a\\ border\\ figure\\,\\ a\\ transitional\\ figure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ is\\ wearing\\ a\\ European\\ hat\\,\\ a\\ buckskin\\ coat\\,\\ Indian\\ leggings\\ and\\ moccasins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boone\\ was\\ born\\ a\\ Quaker\\ in\\ PA\\ in\\ 1734\\,\\ but\\ his\\ family\\ was\\ expelled\\ from\\ the\\ Quaker\\ meeting\\ because\\ their\\ children\\ married\\ non\\-Quakers\\,\\ they\\ ended\\ up\\ moving\\ around\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boone\\ went\\ on\\ long\\ hunts\\ every\\ year\\ to\\ help\\ sustain\\ the\\ family\\,\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\ and\\ then\\ became\\ a\\ professional\\ hunter\\,\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ brought\\ him\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ Indians\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ occasionally\\ captured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ Transylvania\\ Company\\ bought\\ Kentucky\\ from\\ a\\ Cherokee\\ \\(though\\ the\\ Cherokee\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ own\\ the\\ land\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\)\\,\\ he\\ then\\ sold\\ this\\ land\\ to\\ settlers\\ and\\ had\\ Boone\\ build\\ a\\ road\\ through\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boone\\ brought\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ other\\ families\\ over\\ the\\ Gap\\,\\ they\\ settled\\ Boonesborough\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Turner\\ Thesis\\ \\(which\\ posits\\ American\\ history\\ as\\ an\\ ever\\-moving\\ frontier\\)\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\,\\ Turner\\ talks\\ about\\ civilization\\ progressing\\ through\\ the\\ gap\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wildlife\\,\\ to\\ Indians\\,\\ to\\ trader\\/hunters\\,\\ to\\ cattle\\ herders\\,\\ to\\ farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ natural\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Americas\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ Bone\\ Lick\\ \\=\\ a\\ salt\\ lick\\ at\\ a\\ bend\\ in\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\ \\(in\\ what\\ is\\ today\\ Kentucky\\)\\,\\ was\\ very\\ boggy\\ and\\ many\\ animals\\ got\\ stuck\\ in\\ the\\ boggy\\ soil\\ and\\ were\\ fossilized\\ there\\;\\ a\\ mastodon\\ skeleton\\ was\\ found\\ at\\ Big\\ Bone\\ Lick\\ and\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ proof\\ that\\ the\\ Americas\\ could\\ sustain\\ large\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ The\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\ was\\ a\\ mountain\\ pass\\ that\\ connected\\ the\\ original\\ British\\ settlements\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ west\\ and\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ symbolize\\ the\\ American\\ potential\\ for\\ expansion\\ and\\ progress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethiopian\\ regiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\ was\\ comprised\\ of\\ roughly\\ 800\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ in\\ Virginia\\ under\\ the\\ command\\ of\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\-\\ VA\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Royal\\ Governor\\.\\ These\\ slaves\\ came\\ together\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ 1775\\ Proclamation\\ that\\ all\\ able\\ bodied\\ males\\ who\\ served\\ the\\ loyalist\\ cause\\ in\\ the\\ military\\ would\\ be\\ granted\\ freedom\\.\\ \\(see\\ VA\\,\\ November\\ 1775\\ id\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ regiment\\ was\\ hastily\\ trained\\ and\\ fought\\ alongside\\ British\\ Regulars\\.\\ At\\ Kemp\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Landing\\,\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ forces\\ \\(Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\ plus\\ British\\ Regulars\\)\\ beat\\ the\\ rebel\\ forces\\.\\ They\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ be\\ beaten\\ at\\ Great\\ Bridge\\ by\\ the\\ rebel\\ troops\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smallpox\\ took\\ a\\ harsh\\ toll\\ on\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 1776\\,\\ 300\\ slaves\\ and\\ the\\ British\\ regulars\\ sailed\\ for\\ New\\ York\\ with\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#1\\:\\ Who\\ won\\ and\\ who\\ lost\\ the\\ American\\ revolution\\?\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\,\\ define\\ your\\ terms\\,\\ create\\ an\\ argumentative\\ and\\ arguable\\ thesis\\ and\\ support\\ it\\ with\\ examples\\ from\\ primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ sources\\.\\ \\;Although\\ you\\ need\\ not\\ discuss\\ every\\ possible\\ angle\\ on\\ this\\ question\\,\\ a\\ good\\ answer\\ will\\ note\\ change\\ over\\ time\\ and\\ variation\\ among\\ regions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ elements\\:\\ \\"\\;Founding\\ Fathers\\,\\"\\;\\ Loyalists\\,\\ runaway\\ slave\\ ads\\,\\ women\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quakers\\,\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ readings\\:\\ runaway\\ slave\\/wife\\ ads\\,\\ Wood\\,\\ Masquerade\\,\\ Calloway\\,\\ Royster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THESIS\\:\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ history\\ declares\\ the\\ Revolution\\ as\\ a\\ victory\\ for\\ all\\ Americans\\,\\ it\\ ultimately\\ succeeded\\ in\\ completely\\ liberating\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ individuals\\:\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ The\\ premise\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\&mdash\\;why\\ did\\ it\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ contingency\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ The\\ French\\ and\\ Indian\\ War\\ created\\ an\\ antagonistic\\ relationship\\ between\\ American\\ colonists\\ and\\ British\\ soldiers\\.\\ Without\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ common\\ enemy\\,\\ the\\ Americans\\ found\\ much\\ at\\ fault\\ with\\ their\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-they\\ were\\ being\\ taxed\\ for\\ the\\ F\\+I\\ War\\ despite\\ their\\ lack\\ of\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-The\\ Proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ restricted\\ their\\ movements\\ into\\ a\\ territory\\ that\\ they\\ thought\\ could\\ rightfully\\ be\\ theirs\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ chance\\ to\\ \\(mention\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ DEFINITE\\ losers\\ in\\ this\\ aspect\\&mdash\\;source\\:\\ Calloway\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-a\\ sum\\ of\\ situations\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ became\\ increasingly\\ evident\\ to\\ them\\ that\\ the\\ rights\\ that\\ the\\ \\"\\;founding\\ fathers\\"\\;\\&mdash\\;basically\\ moderately\\ well\\-off\\,\\ well\\-educated\\ men\\&mdash\\;deemed\\ people\\ of\\ their\\ position\\ deserved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;self\\-made\\"\\;\\ individual\\-a\\ \\"\\;winning\\ element\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ The\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\ created\\ the\\ opportunity\\ for\\ individuals\\ to\\ redefine\\ themselves\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ egalitarian\\ setting\\.\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ individuals\\ who\\ took\\ this\\ opportunity\\ to\\ seize\\ more\\ attention\\ than\\ normally\\ would\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ someone\\ of\\ his\\ position\\.\\ It\\ might\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ mention\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ tone\\ between\\ his\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ autobiography\\ and\\ the\\ second\\.\\ Also\\,\\ mention\\ his\\ methodical\\ pursuit\\ of\\ redefinition\\.\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ Gannett\\ is\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;b\\.\\ Who\\ joined\\ the\\ army\\?\\ Poor\\ men\\ with\\ little\\ land\\,\\ seeing\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ advance\\ themselves\\.\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ victory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Sources\\:\\ Royster\\,\\ Masquerade\\ \\(Young\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HOWEVER\\,\\ as\\ Royster\\ suggests\\,\\ the\\ issues\\ of\\ back\\ pay\\ and\\ the\\ difficulties\\ many\\ had\\ with\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ more\\ well\\-off\\ officers\\ in\\ the\\ army\\.\\ To\\ what\\ degree\\ were\\ old\\ societal\\ divisions\\ maintained\\ or\\ altered\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ war\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Freedom\\ of\\ Expression\\-\\ For\\ some\\ the\\ Revolution\\ resulted\\ in\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ liberate\\ themselves\\ from\\ their\\ traditional\\ roles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Women\\ were\\ temporarily\\ released\\ from\\ their\\ customary\\ roles\\ and\\ could\\ evoke\\ revolutionary\\ rhetoric\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ liberty\\.\\ Evidence\\:\\ runaway\\ wife\\ ads\\&mdash\\;they\\ increasingly\\ took\\ control\\ of\\ their\\ position\\ and\\ justified\\ it\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\"\\;rights\\"\\;\\ of\\ persons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Abigail\\ Adams\\ ran\\ the\\ family\\ farm\\ and\\ other\\ women\\ participated\\ more\\ freely\\ in\\ commercial\\ life\\.\\ For\\ sources\\,\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ readings\\ on\\ commercial\\ life\\ in\\ colonial\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Also\\,\\ women\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ adapt\\ their\\ domestic\\ habits\\ to\\ become\\ expressions\\ of\\ patriotism\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ spinning\\ parties\\ were\\ had\\ and\\ homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ a\\ popular\\ method\\ to\\ show\\ their\\ support\\ \\ \\;\\(look\\ at\\ Pruitt\\ reading\\,\\ spinning\\ articles\\,\\ Sentiments\\ of\\ An\\ American\\ Woman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ despite\\ this\\ temporary\\ release\\,\\ eventually\\ women\\ were\\ relegated\\ to\\ their\\ domestic\\ roles\\ and\\ such\\ liberties\\ were\\ deemed\\ improper\\.\\ AND\\ remember\\ who\\ eventually\\ had\\ their\\ voices\\ directly\\ heard\\ within\\ the\\ Constitution\\ \\(the\\ rich\\,\\ educated\\,\\ white\\ males\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\.\\ Representation\\ in\\ the\\ Constitution\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ sort\\ of\\ representation\\ as\\ that\\ which\\ the\\ Americans\\ had\\ rebelled\\ against\\.\\ While\\ their\\ interests\\ were\\ more\\ directly\\ represented\\ than\\ under\\ British\\ rule\\,\\ many\\ Americans\\ still\\ were\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-mention\\ debates\\ from\\ Constitutional\\ Conventions\\ \\(3\\/5ths\\ Compromise\\,\\ bicameral\\ legislature\\,\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ new\\ government\\ resembled\\ that\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\,\\ enfranchisement\\&mdash\\;how\\ long\\ it\\ took\\ for\\ property\\ requirements\\ to\\ disappear\\,\\ freed\\ slaves\\/women\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ vote\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-Also\\,\\ writers\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ group\\ that\\ we\\ mentioned\\ before\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-Evidence\\ for\\ this\\ point\\ comes\\ from\\ Gordon\\ Wood\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ Constitution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*For\\ conclusion\\:\\ \\ \\;develop\\ personal\\ opinion\\,\\ based\\ on\\ these\\ points\\ of\\ evidence\\,\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ victors\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ and\\ to\\ what\\ degree\\ it\\ successfully\\ accomplished\\ its\\ goals\\.\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ argument\\ for\\ varying\\ degrees\\ of\\ success\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ chronological\\ scope\\ of\\ your\\ essay\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ term\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ more\\ are\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ of\\ victors\\,\\ while\\ on\\ a\\ larger\\ scale\\,\\ fewer\\ groups\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ \\"\\;won\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ America\\ won\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ However\\,\\ both\\ Britain\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ suffered\\ great\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Americans\\ won\\ by\\ gaining\\ not\\ only\\ their\\ independence\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ new\\ ideals\\ and\\ social\\ orders\\ which\\ transformed\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ social\\ orders\\,\\ hierarchies\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ sides\\ lost\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ economic\\ cost\\ and\\ lives\\ that\\ were\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ revolution\\ divided\\ the\\ colonists\\ by\\ forcing\\ the\\ colonists\\ to\\ pick\\ sides\\ b\\/w\\ loyalist\\ and\\ patriots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ brought\\ the\\ deadly\\ disease\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\ to\\ the\\ forefront\\ which\\ was\\ detrimental\\ to\\ Americans\\ much\\ more\\ so\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ to\\ Europeans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ also\\ allowed\\ for\\ medical\\ advancement\\ like\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ inoculation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ brought\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ slavery\\ to\\ the\\ forefront\\ after\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proclamation\\ in\\ 1776\\ to\\ free\\ slaves\\ who\\ joined\\ the\\ British\\ Army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ this\\,\\ Washington\\ allowed\\ African\\ Americans\\ to\\ serve\\ in\\ the\\ patriot\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ altered\\ gender\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amazons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deborah\\ Samson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lady\\ Liberty\\ as\\ a\\ fighting\\ symbol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Camp\\ followers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ common\\ man\\ was\\ glorified\\ during\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ben\\ Franklin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Americans\\ faced\\ many\\ challenges\\ while\\ gaining\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Localism\\ vs\\.\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difficulty\\ n\\ Congress\\ supplying\\ an\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ local\\ interest\\ vs\\.\\ national\\ unity\\ solve\\ these\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonists\\ were\\ afraid\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\ central\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ revolution\\ radicalized\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ the\\ interest\\ and\\ prosperity\\ of\\ ordinary\\ people\\,\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ was\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\:\\ African\\ American\\ Slave\\ and\\ Native\\ Americans\\ also\\ suffered\\ great\\ losses\\,\\ much\\ more\\ losses\\ than\\ benefits\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ important\\ points\\/battle\\ of\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ revolution\\ was\\ sparked\\ b\\/c\\ Brittan\\ started\\ taxing\\ the\\ colonists\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ pay\\ off\\ the\\ huge\\ debts\\ incurred\\ during\\ the\\ 7yr\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ British\\ drove\\ George\\ Washington\\ out\\ of\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ in\\ 1776\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Americans\\ had\\ little\\ hope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burgoyne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surrender\\ at\\ Saratoga\\,\\ 1777\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ war\\,\\ the\\ Americans\\ now\\ had\\ hope\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ actually\\ win\\ the\\ war\\,\\ the\\ British\\ feeling\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ fighting\\ a\\ way\\ 3\\,000\\ miles\\ away\\ from\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Britain\\ did\\ not\\ cut\\ commercial\\ ties\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ after\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\though\\ the\\ Americans\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ rebellious\\,\\ Britain\\ still\\ saw\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ value\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wood\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ American\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pretty\\ much\\ just\\ states\\ the\\ facts\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ from\\ before\\ the\\ war\\,\\ to\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ to\\ the\\ after\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discussion\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ b\\/w\\ nationalism\\ and\\ localism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radicalism\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Benjamin\\ Rush\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ Method\\ for\\ Inoculating\\ for\\ Small\\ Pox\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elizabeth\\ Fenn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pox\\ Americana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Young\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masquerade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lectures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.16\\-Boycotts\\,\\ Riots\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Coming\\ of\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ revolution\\ divided\\ the\\ colonists\\ with\\ practices\\ such\\ as\\ tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.23\\-Liberty\\ and\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.4\\-Amazons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.30\\-Franklin\\ as\\ an\\ Archetypal\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ showed\\ Franklin\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ glorified\\ self\\-made\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#2\\:\\ Slavery\\ was\\ legal\\ in\\ all\\ thirteen\\ of\\ the\\ colonies\\ that\\ broke\\ away\\ from\\ England\\ in\\ 1776\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ slavery\\&mdash\\;as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ reality\\&mdash\\;shape\\ public\\ events\\ and\\ private\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ imperial\\ conflict\\,\\ the\\ war\\ for\\ independence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ nation\\?\\ Support\\ your\\ answer\\ with\\ specific\\ details\\ drawn\\ from\\ materials\\ you\\ have\\ encountered\\ this\\ semester\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ Major\\ Points\\ to\\ Consider\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Colonists\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ slavery\\ an\\ egregious\\ injustice\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ socially\\ bred\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ hierarchical\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Colonists\\ generally\\ viewed\\ slavery\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ order\\ of\\ a\\ monarchical\\ society\\ and\\ as\\ an\\ aspect\\ of\\ general\\ brutality\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ pre\\-modern\\ times\\;\\ slavery\\ originally\\ regarded\\ as\\ most\\ base\\ and\\ degraded\\ status\\ in\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ many\\ ranks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Few\\ people\\ questioned\\ the\\ inequalities\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ order\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ order\\ they\\ had\\ ever\\ known\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Jean\\ Lee\\)\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;slavery\\ was\\ a\\ fundamental\\,\\ acceptable\\,\\ thoroughly\\ American\\ institution\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Philip\\ Morgan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ simply\\ did\\ not\\ view\\ slaves\\ as\\ humans\\&mdash\\;hence\\ the\\ trading\\,\\ auctioning\\,\\ etc\\.\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rinah\\ a\\ Negro\\ Wench\\ big\\ with\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;a\\ sullen\\ Slut\\ but\\ easily\\ kept\\ down\\ if\\ you\\ exert\\ your\\ Authority\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(33\\ in\\ Calloway\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ assault\\ of\\ slave\\ women\\ by\\ white\\ masters\\;\\ violators\\ rarely\\ punished\\,\\ slave\\ viewed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;damaged\\&rdquo\\;\\ property\\ at\\ best\\.\\ A\\ lot\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;unleashed\\ deep\\-seated\\ anxieties\\ and\\ attitudes\\ about\\ interracial\\ sex\\,\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ power\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Calloway\\ 33\\)\\ especially\\ concerning\\ black\\ men\\ who\\ forced\\ themselves\\ onto\\ white\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Adams\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;our\\ struggle\\ has\\ loosened\\ the\\ bands\\ of\\ Government\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ his\\ statement\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ independent\\ and\\ dependent\\ people\\,\\ a\\ social\\ order\\ in\\ which\\ certain\\ individuals\\ need\\ others\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ function\\ effectively\\ in\\ society\\;\\ like\\ women\\,\\ slaves\\ are\\ just\\ different\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ require\\ inclusion\\ in\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ dependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ colonists\\ were\\ implicated\\ in\\ African\\ slavery\\,\\ a\\ national\\ institution\\ that\\ benefited\\ nearly\\ every\\ white\\ American\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\/5\\ of\\ 2\\.5\\ million\\ American\\ population\\ \\(so\\ 500\\,000\\)\\ was\\ enslaved\\ in\\ 1776\\.\\ Virginia\\ had\\ most\\ slaves\\ \\(20\\,000\\,\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ population\\)\\;\\ though\\ most\\ of\\ slaves\\ held\\ by\\ southerners\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ a\\ large\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ north\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ But\\ there\\ existed\\ an\\ obvious\\&mdash\\;and\\ unsettling\\&mdash\\;contradiction\\ between\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ and\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1776\\,\\ nearly\\ every\\ American\\ leader\\ knew\\ that\\ its\\ continued\\ existence\\ violated\\ everything\\ the\\ Revolution\\ was\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\July\\ 4\\,\\ 1776\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ delegates\\ approved\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\;\\ reign\\ of\\ George\\ III\\ aimed\\ to\\ establish\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ Tyranny\\ over\\ these\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Congress\\ removed\\ a\\ quarter\\ of\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ original\\ draft\\,\\ including\\ a\\ passage\\ blaming\\ George\\ III\\ for\\ horrors\\ of\\ slave\\ trade\\&mdash\\;South\\ Carolina\\ and\\ Georgia\\ objected\\ to\\ passage\\ and\\ some\\ northern\\ delegates\\ were\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;little\\ tender\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\ because\\ though\\ colonists\\ had\\ very\\ few\\ slaves\\ themselves\\,\\ states\\ had\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;pretty\\ considerable\\ carriers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolutionary\\ Americans\\ sought\\ to\\ fight\\ what\\ they\\ perceived\\ to\\ be\\ enslavement\\ under\\ the\\ British\\ monarchy\\.\\ Thomas\\ Paine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ American\\ Crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Dec\\.\\ 1776\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Britain\\,\\ with\\ an\\ army\\ to\\ enforce\\ her\\ tyranny\\,\\ has\\ declared\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ right\\ \\(not\\ only\\ to\\ tax\\)\\ but\\ to\\ bind\\ us\\ in\\ all\\ cases\\ whatsoever\\,\\ and\\ if\\ being\\ bound\\ in\\ that\\ manner\\,\\ is\\ not\\ slavery\\,\\ then\\ is\\ there\\ not\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\ slavery\\ on\\ earth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Revolutionary\\ Americans\\ also\\ understood\\ slavery\\&mdash\\;George\\ Washington\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ crisis\\ is\\ arrived\\ when\\ we\\ must\\ assert\\ our\\ rights\\&hellip\\;till\\ custom\\&hellip\\;will\\ make\\ us\\ as\\ tame\\ and\\ abject\\ slaves\\,\\ as\\ the\\ blacks\\ we\\ rule\\ over\\ with\\ such\\ arbitrary\\ sway\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ The\\ Revolution\\ represented\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ mass\\ slave\\ rebellion\\ in\\ American\\ history\\,\\ initiated\\ the\\ first\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\,\\ produced\\ the\\ first\\ reconstruction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gary\\ Nash\\:\\ slavery\\ debate\\ did\\ not\\ begin\\ in\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ but\\ during\\ the\\ Revolution\\;\\ running\\ away\\ was\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ first\\ massive\\ slave\\ revolt\\ in\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ slave\\ rebellion\\ asserted\\ itself\\ through\\ running\\ away\\,\\ legal\\ efforts\\ to\\ change\\ laws\\ or\\ use\\ laws\\ to\\ win\\ freedom\\,\\ and\\ the\\ written\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Runaway\\ slaves\\ faced\\ corporal\\ punishment\\,\\ dismemberment\\ or\\ branding\\,\\ and\\ being\\ sold\\ at\\ public\\ auctions\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ harbored\\ or\\ assisted\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ were\\ subject\\ to\\ fines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ used\\ British\\ army\\ as\\ opportunity\\ for\\ freedom\\;\\ British\\ army\\ was\\ perhaps\\ the\\ greatest\\ single\\ instrument\\ of\\ emancipation\\ in\\ America\\ until\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\;\\ freed\\ tens\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ slaves\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ England\\;\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ war\\,\\ British\\ settled\\ former\\ slaves\\ in\\ Canada\\,\\ West\\ Indies\\,\\ and\\ other\\ parts\\;\\ in\\ 1783\\,\\ when\\ British\\ evacuated\\ NY\\,\\ they\\ took\\ about\\ 1000\\ runaway\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ number\\ of\\ runaways\\ from\\ Washington\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Harry\\ Washington\\,\\ who\\ worked\\ at\\ Mt\\.\\ Vernon\\ to\\ join\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Groups\\ used\\ legal\\ actions\\ and\\ money\\ to\\ free\\ slaves\\;\\ many\\ freedom\\ suits\\ during\\ 1760s\\&mdash\\;ex\\-slave\\ sues\\ for\\ his\\ right\\ to\\ free\\ status\\ in\\ court\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ my\\ master\\ freed\\ me\\ before\\ his\\ death\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phillis\\ Wheatley\\&mdash\\;prodigy\\ slave\\ poet\\ who\\ wrote\\ for\\ liberty\\ against\\ oppression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peculiar\\ style\\ of\\ clothing\\ with\\ African\\ influences\\ \\(from\\ the\\ reading\\)\\;\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ slaves\\&rsquo\\;\\ independence\\ from\\ inevitable\\ cultural\\ subordination\\ involved\\ in\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ The\\ concepts\\ of\\ freedom\\ and\\ liberty\\ during\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\ had\\ great\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ chattel\\ slavery\\,\\ which\\ would\\ undergo\\ great\\ reevaluation\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Admittedly\\,\\ the\\ Revolution\\ did\\ not\\ eradicate\\ the\\ enslavement\\ of\\ half\\ million\\ blacks\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ more\\ black\\ slaves\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ era\\ than\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ verge\\ of\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Revolution\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ helping\\ to\\ eventually\\ end\\ slavery\\ in\\ America\\ by\\ ending\\ a\\ social\\ and\\ intellectual\\ environment\\ that\\ had\\ permitted\\ slavery\\ to\\ persist\\ without\\ any\\ serious\\ questioning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Republican\\ citizenship\\ brought\\ into\\ question\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;personal\\ dependency\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ its\\ history\\,\\ America\\ had\\ to\\ face\\ slavery\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ commonplace\\ practice\\,\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ aberration\\,\\ or\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;peculiar\\ institution\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ requiring\\ justification\\;\\ slavery\\ became\\ a\\ contradiction\\&mdash\\;how\\ could\\ Americans\\ fight\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ liberty\\ while\\ enslaving\\ blacks\\ themselves\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ways\\ Revolution\\ worked\\ to\\ weaken\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\:\\ 1774\\,\\ Continental\\ Congress\\ urged\\ abolishment\\ of\\ slave\\ trade\\ \\(6\\ northern\\ states\\ followed\\ suit\\)\\;\\ 1775\\,\\ Philadelphia\\ Quakers\\ formed\\ first\\ antislavery\\ society\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ other\\ similar\\ societies\\ emerged\\ elsewhere\\;\\ during\\ war\\,\\ Congress\\,\\ northern\\ states\\,\\ and\\ MD\\ freed\\ slaves\\ who\\ enlisted\\ in\\ their\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1804\\,\\ every\\ northern\\ state\\ committed\\ itself\\ to\\ emancipation\\ in\\ some\\ form\\;\\ number\\ of\\ free\\ blacks\\ in\\ North\\ had\\ grown\\ from\\ several\\ hundred\\ in\\ 1770\\ to\\ nearly\\ 50\\,000\\ by\\ 1810\\;\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ leaders\\ disapproved\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ assumed\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ die\\ away\\ \\(obviously\\ not\\ the\\ case\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\See\\ for\\ More\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Franklin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Address\\ to\\ the\\ Public\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(219\\ in\\ Franklin\\ autobiography\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Slavery\\ is\\ such\\ an\\ atrocious\\ debasement\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ that\\ its\\ very\\ extirpation\\,\\ if\\ not\\ performed\\ with\\ solicitous\\ care\\,\\ may\\ sometimes\\ open\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ serious\\ evils\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ has\\ made\\ quick\\ assimilation\\ difficult\\ through\\ the\\ subversion\\ of\\ mindset\\;\\ consequently\\,\\ the\\ ex\\-slave\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ and\\ may\\ prove\\ \\&ldquo\\;prejudicial\\ to\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Society\\ should\\ instruct\\ and\\ advise\\ ex\\-slaves\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ the\\ exercise\\ and\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ civil\\ liberty\\,\\ to\\ promote\\ in\\ them\\ habits\\ of\\ industry\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ all\\,\\ slavery\\ is\\ counter\\-productive\\,\\ and\\ reduces\\ humans\\ to\\ a\\ useless\\,\\ unhappy\\ brute\\ that\\ cannot\\ really\\ contribute\\ to\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\ The\\ war\\ for\\ independence\\ caused\\ Americans\\ to\\ question\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ dependent\\ relationships\\,\\ with\\ slavery\\ as\\ the\\ dominant\\ metaphor\\ for\\ such\\ relationships\\.\\ Because\\ people\\ had\\ questioned\\ and\\ often\\ condemned\\ these\\ relationships\\ slavery\\ became\\ a\\ divisive\\ issue\\ following\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ compared\\ dependency\\ on\\ luxury\\ with\\ slavery\\,\\ and\\ urged\\ people\\ against\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(T\\.H\\.\\ Breen\\)\\:\\ Colonists\\ viewed\\ tea\\,\\ considered\\ a\\ luxury\\,\\ as\\ a\\ badge\\ of\\ slavery\\ symbolizing\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ the\\ introduction\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ tyrant\\ then\\ the\\ virtuous\\ heart\\ can\\ bind\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Tis\\ vices\\ only\\ can\\ enslave\\ the\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ barters\\ country\\,\\ honor\\,\\ faith\\,\\ to\\ save\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ life\\,\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ free\\ in\\ person\\,\\ is\\ a\\ slave\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ he\\,\\ enchain\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ imprison\\&rsquo\\;d\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ he\\ be\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ lifts\\ his\\ arm\\ for\\ liberty\\,\\ is\\ free\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\,\\ 8\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ passage\\,\\ Rowson\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ vices\\,\\ like\\ love\\ of\\ luxury\\,\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fetnah\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ characters\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ wish\\ for\\ liberty\\&hellip\\;\\ is\\ the\\ poor\\ bird\\ that\\ is\\ confined\\ in\\ a\\ cage\\&hellip\\;\\ consoled\\ for\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ its\\ freedom\\.\\ No\\!\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ its\\ prison\\ is\\ of\\ golden\\ wire\\,\\ its\\ food\\ delicious\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ overwhelm\\&rsquo\\;d\\ with\\ caresses\\,\\ its\\ little\\ heart\\ still\\ pants\\ for\\ liberty\\:\\ gladly\\ would\\ it\\ seek\\ the\\ fields\\ of\\ air\\,\\ and\\ even\\ perched\\ upon\\ a\\ naked\\ bough\\,\\ exulting\\,\\ carol\\ forth\\ its\\ song\\,\\ nor\\ once\\ regret\\ the\\ splendid\\ house\\ of\\ bondage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\,\\ 13\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ people\\ compared\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dependence\\ on\\ men\\ with\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mary\\ Wollstonecraft\\ compared\\ women\\ who\\ remain\\ dependent\\ on\\ men\\,\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ comfort\\ and\\ luxury\\,\\ are\\ in\\ effect\\,\\ slaves\\.\\ She\\ argues\\ that\\ women\\ should\\ become\\ free\\ through\\ education\\ and\\ cultivation\\ of\\ reason\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\ 11\\/20\\/08\\,\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\.\\ Ulrich\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ race\\ slavery\\ and\\ sex\\/gender\\ slavery\\ come\\ together\\ in\\ many\\ documents\\ \\(Lecture\\ 11\\/20\\/08\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ compared\\ the\\ colonists\\ dependence\\ on\\ England\\ with\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ one\\ colonist\\ asks\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Who\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ a\\ man\\,\\ but\\ would\\ rather\\ forego\\ the\\ elegancies\\ and\\ luxuries\\ of\\ life\\,\\ than\\ entail\\ slavery\\ on\\ his\\ unborn\\ posterity\\ till\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ time\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Breen\\,\\ 98\\-99\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breen\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ writes\\ that\\ many\\ colonists\\ viewed\\ tea\\ as\\ a\\ badge\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ This\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ the\\ boycotts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ Because\\ slavery\\ had\\ been\\ such\\ a\\ dominant\\ metaphor\\,\\ which\\ stood\\ so\\ strongly\\ against\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ worldview\\,\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ divisive\\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ the\\ Northwest\\ ordinance\\ prohibits\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ newly\\ purchased\\ territories\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ shall\\ be\\ neither\\ slavery\\ nor\\ involuntary\\ servitude\\ in\\ the\\ said\\ territory\\,\\ otherwise\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ punishment\\ of\\ crimes\\ whereof\\ the\\ party\\ shall\\ have\\ been\\ duly\\ convicted\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Provided\\,\\ always\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ That\\ any\\ person\\ escaping\\ into\\ the\\ same\\,\\ from\\ whom\\ labor\\ or\\ service\\ is\\ lawfully\\ claimed\\ in\\ any\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ States\\,\\ such\\ fugitive\\ may\\ be\\ lawfully\\ reclaimed\\ and\\ conveyed\\ to\\ the\\ person\\ claiming\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ labor\\ or\\ service\\ as\\ aforesaid\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Northwest\\ Ordinance\\,\\ Article\\ 6\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Constitution\\ of\\ 1808\\ promised\\ to\\ end\\ international\\ importation\\ of\\ slaves\\ \\(Wood\\,\\ 128\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1804\\,\\ every\\ Northern\\ state\\ had\\ committed\\ itself\\ to\\ emancipation\\ in\\ one\\ form\\ or\\ another\\ \\(Wood\\,\\ 128\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gordon\\ Wood\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Now\\,\\ however\\,\\ republican\\ citizenship\\ suddenly\\ brought\\ into\\ question\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ personal\\ dependency\\.\\ For\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ their\\ history\\ Americans\\ were\\ compelled\\ to\\ confront\\ the\\ slavery\\ in\\ their\\ midst\\ as\\ an\\ aberration\\,\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;peculiar\\ institution\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\,\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ to\\ retain\\ it\\ to\\ explain\\ and\\ justify\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Wood\\,\\ 127\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ readings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\ \\(Breen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\ \\(Rowson\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ American\\ Revolution\\ \\(Wood\\)\\ pages\\ 126\\-129\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rebel\\ against\\ Rebel\\ \\(Holton\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Northwest\\ Ordinance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#3\\:\\ On\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ learned\\ this\\ semester\\ about\\ competing\\ ideas\\ about\\ happiness\\,\\ write\\ a\\ detailed\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Reuben\\ Barn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ watercolor\\ of\\ the\\ Bennett\\ Family\\ of\\ Poland\\,\\ a\\ small\\ town\\ in\\ Maine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(overleaf\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ slide\\ under\\ \\&lsquo\\;slideshow\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;miscellaneous\\&rsquo\\;\\ on\\ our\\ website\\)\\.\\ Support\\ your\\ interpretation\\ with\\ details\\ from\\ lectures\\,\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ other\\ visual\\ images\\ encountered\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/my\\.harvard\\.edu\\/icb\\/icb\\.do\\?keyword\\=k40043\\&\\;pageid\\=icb\\.page188005\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ONE\\ THING\\ TO\\ NOTE\\:\\ It\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ tell\\ in\\ the\\ watercolor\\ the\\ exact\\ date\\ they\\ were\\ married\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ 1772\\ or\\ 1779\\.\\ This\\ makes\\ a\\ big\\ difference\\ when\\ analyzing\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ This\\ watercolor\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ family\\ during\\ the\\ Revolution\\,\\ and\\ how\\ families\\ became\\ more\\ united\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ adversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ family\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\ bodin\\:\\ A\\ household\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ a\\ master\\,\\ wife\\ and\\ 3\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ were\\ there\\ no\\ slaves\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ often\\ in\\ paintings\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prudence\\ punderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ needlework\\,\\ george\\ washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slave\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ his\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incredible\\ that\\ all\\ their\\ children\\ survived\\ for\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Or\\ did\\ they\\?\\ Was\\ \\ \\;one\\ or\\ more\\ added\\ in\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ a\\ whole\\ family\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ different\\ sort\\ of\\ marriage\\ \\-\\ equality\\ between\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ stand\\ in\\ equal\\ proportion\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ hold\\ each\\ other\\ \\-\\ the\\ husband\\ rests\\ his\\ hand\\ on\\ her\\ belly\\ \\-\\ is\\ she\\ pregnant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ hume\\:\\ marriage\\ should\\ be\\ equal\\ between\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Francis\\ Hutchinson\\ \\-\\ marriage\\ \\=\\ reciprocal\\ relationship\\ of\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ whole\\ family\\ is\\ linked\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opposite\\ from\\ Abigail\\ adams\\ who\\,\\ though\\ a\\ strong\\ woman\\,\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ completely\\ respected\\ by\\ her\\ husband\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ married\\ in\\ 1779\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Significant\\ because\\ lots\\ of\\ families\\ had\\ babies\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\ \\(masquerade\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ did\\ they\\ wait\\ so\\ long\\ to\\ get\\ married\\?\\ Perhaps\\ delayed\\ by\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Would\\ also\\ suggest\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ lower\\ class\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ much\\ less\\ acceptable\\ for\\ socially\\ respectable\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ 9\\ kids\\ in\\ 15\\ years\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ children\\ very\\ early\\ on\\ \\-\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ only\\ 18\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ only\\ 22\\ \\-\\ showed\\ how\\ the\\ unstability\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ situation\\ forced\\ people\\ to\\ start\\ their\\ lives\\ early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ they\\ were\\ married\\ in\\ 1772\\,\\ then\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ even\\ more\\ true\\ \\(though\\ it\\ would\\ rule\\ out\\ the\\ children\\ born\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ the\\ tranquility\\ of\\ private\\ life\\ and\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ particularly\\ wealthy\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wear\\ fancy\\ clothes\\,\\ only\\ very\\ simple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ look\\ like\\ 1768\\ paul\\ revere\\ painting\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\ oct\\.\\ 13\\)\\,\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ like\\ jeremiah\\ lee\\ or\\ john\\ hancock\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ do\\ not\\ display\\ wealth\\,\\ or\\ workmanship\\,\\ just\\ the\\ closeness\\ of\\ their\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ see\\ the\\ strain\\ on\\ them\\,\\ do\\ not\\ look\\ particularly\\ happy\\,\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ hardships\\ of\\ life\\ \\(and\\ the\\ revolution\\?\\)\\ on\\ their\\ faces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lean\\ on\\ each\\ other\\ for\\ moral\\ support\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ two\\ eldest\\ children\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ have\\ their\\ heads\\ bowed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yet\\ the\\ sense\\ you\\ get\\ from\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ togetherness\\,\\ not\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ watercolor\\ in\\ general\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\ simple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Their\\ dress\\,\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ color\\,\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ any\\ setting\\/background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nothing\\ gives\\ off\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ grandeur\\ or\\ wealth\\,\\ everything\\ points\\ to\\ them\\ not\\ being\\ very\\ well\\ off\\/lower\\ social\\ standing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Especially\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\painting\\ also\\ seems\\ to\\ serve\\ two\\ purposes\\:\\ a\\ family\\ portrait\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ family\\ tree\\ \\(all\\ of\\ the\\ dates\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ family\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ that\\ unique\\,\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ anything\\ is\\ too\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ ordinary\\ at\\ first\\ glance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ seem\\ to\\ just\\ be\\ a\\ mother\\ and\\ father\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nothing\\ like\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ Hannah\\ snell\\,\\ where\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ living\\ contradiction\\,\\ everything\\ here\\ is\\ relatively\\ typical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\lectures\\ used\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sept\\.\\ 25\\ \\-\\ defining\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\oct\\.\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\oct\\.\\ 9\\ \\-\\ sex\\ and\\ sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\oct\\.\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dec\\.\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dec\\.\\ 4\\-\\ prudence\\ punderson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ lecture\\ on\\ family\\?\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ I\\ had\\ it\\ in\\ my\\ notes\\,\\ only\\ the\\ one\\ on\\ marriage\\,\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ it\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ to\\ add\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\prudence\\ punderson\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ Washington\\ family\\ \\-\\ by\\ Edward\\ savage\\ 1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paul\\ revere\\ 1768\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\john\\ hancock\\/jeremiah\\ lee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\masquerade\\ also\\ useful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 29\\,\\ 2008\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ learned\\ this\\ semester\\ about\\ competing\\ ideas\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ write\\ a\\ detailed\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Reuben\\ Barn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ watercolor\\ of\\ the\\ Bennett\\ Family\\ of\\ Poland\\,\\ a\\ small\\ town\\ in\\ Maine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(overleaf\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ slide\\ under\\ \\&lsquo\\;slideshow\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;miscellaneous\\&rsquo\\;\\ on\\ our\\ website\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Support\\ your\\ interpretation\\ with\\ details\\ from\\ lectures\\,\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ other\\ visual\\ images\\ encountered\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ an\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ problem\\ \\(1700s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philosophical\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ conflict\\ between\\ long\\ term\\ and\\ short\\ term\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ expressed\\ in\\ close\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ look\\ up\\ \\&ldquo\\;happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Oxford\\ dictionary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Good\\ fortune\\ or\\ luck\\ in\\ life\\ or\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ affair\\;\\ success\\,\\ prosperity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Success\\ in\\ the\\ Bennett\\ family\\,\\ number\\ of\\ children\\ as\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ bounty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hap\\ \\-\\ event\\,\\ synonym\\ for\\ luck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Related\\ to\\ mishap\\,\\ haphazard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ good\\ luck\\,\\ hoping\\ for\\ best\\,\\ happens\\ to\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ read\\ about\\ bad\\ things\\ happening\\ in\\ Calloway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Security\\ and\\ happiness\\ \\-\\ hoping\\/you\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ abrupt\\ end\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ or\\ providence\\ determines\\ outcome\\;\\ we\\ can\\ pray\\ to\\ God\\ in\\ this\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ state\\ of\\ pleasurable\\ content\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ which\\ results\\ from\\ success\\ or\\ the\\ attainment\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ considered\\ good\\ \\-\\ can\\ be\\ pursued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ \\.\\ Successful\\ or\\ felicitous\\ aptitude\\,\\ fitness\\,\\ suitability\\,\\ or\\ appropriateness\\;\\ felicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 1764\\ Gazette\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Observe\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jefferson\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ Union\\ be\\ appropriate\\ when\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ an\\ obsession\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Enlightenment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ownership\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ houses\\ is\\ fundamental\\ to\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\ and\\ it\\ leads\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Territory\\ ownership\\ between\\ Spanish\\,\\ French\\,\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ownership\\ of\\ Americans\\ vs\\.\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daniel\\ Boone\\ and\\ moving\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unlike\\ George\\ Washington\\,\\ whose\\ family\\ and\\ property\\ are\\ depicted\\ in\\ a\\ portrait\\,\\ the\\ Bennett\\ family\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ members\\ and\\ its\\ members\\ only\\,\\ not\\ by\\ land\\ or\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;I\\ can\\ truly\\ say\\ I\\ had\\ rather\\ be\\ at\\ Mount\\ Vernon\\ with\\ a\\ friend\\ or\\ two\\ about\\ me\\ than\\ to\\ be\\ attended\\ at\\ the\\ seat\\ of\\ government\\ by\\ the\\ officers\\ of\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ representatives\\ of\\ every\\ power\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Washington\\ to\\ David\\ Stuart\\,\\ 1790\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Statement\\ by\\ victorious\\ leader\\ of\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ pomp\\,\\ the\\ turmoil\\,\\ the\\ bustle\\ and\\ splendor\\ of\\ office\\ have\\ drawn\\ but\\ deeper\\ sighs\\ for\\ the\\ tranquil\\ and\\ irresponsible\\ occupations\\ of\\ private\\ life\\,\\ for\\ the\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ an\\ affectionate\\ intercourse\\ with\\ you\\,\\ my\\ neighbors\\ and\\ friends\\,\\ and\\ the\\ endearments\\ of\\ family\\ love\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ the\\ Citizens\\ of\\ Albemarle\\ County\\,\\ 1809\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ craves\\ interpersonal\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Barn\\ portrait\\ in\\ that\\ interpersonal\\ relationship\\ between\\ spouses\\ and\\ between\\ siblings\\ define\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ members\\ are\\ arm\\-in\\-arm\\ suggesting\\ their\\ closeness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genteel\\ culture\\ becomes\\ middle\\ class\\ culture\\ idealized\\ tranquil\\ landscapes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Household\\,\\ family\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;private\\ affections\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ Jefferson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ traveling\\ through\\ the\\ Shenadoah\\ Valley\\ in\\ 1760\\,\\ Andrew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Burnaby\\ wrote\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ could\\ not\\ but\\ reflect\\ with\\ pleasure\\ on\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ these\\ people\\;\\ and\\ think\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\ happiness\\ in\\ this\\ life\\,\\ that\\ they\\ enjoy\\ it\\.\\ Far\\ from\\ the\\ bustle\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ they\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ delightful\\ climate\\,\\ and\\ richest\\ soil\\ imaginable\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ In\\ perfect\\ liberty\\:\\ they\\ are\\ ignorant\\ of\\ want\\,\\ and\\ acquainted\\ with\\ but\\ few\\ vices\\.\\ Their\\ inexperience\\ of\\ the\\ elegancies\\ of\\ life\\ precludes\\ any\\ regret\\ that\\ they\\ possess\\ not\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ enjoying\\ them\\:\\ but\\ they\\ possess\\ what\\ many\\ princes\\ would\\ give\\ half\\ their\\ dominions\\ for\\,\\ health\\,\\ content\\,\\ and\\ tranquility\\ of\\ mind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Idea\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ not\\ solely\\ defined\\ by\\ animate\\ objects\\ and\\ wealth\\,\\ but\\ by\\ content\\ family\\ and\\ tranquility\\ as\\ Barn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ would\\ suggest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1763\\-1775\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Think\\ of\\ George\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ in\\ 7\\ Years\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GW\\ is\\ a\\ land\\ surveyor\\ and\\ spectator\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ his\\ portrait\\,\\ GW\\ and\\ family\\ are\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ map\\.\\ \\ \\;GW\\ is\\ grounded\\ in\\ private\\ aspect\\ of\\ his\\ home\\ while\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ globe\\ and\\ a\\ map\\ from\\ which\\ he\\ chooses\\ land\\ and\\ derives\\ happiness\\ from\\ material\\.\\ In\\ the\\ background\\,\\ there\\ is\\ open\\ air\\ and\\ land\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;about\\ expansion\\ and\\ his\\ place\\ on\\ world\\ stage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ drives\\ the\\ 7\\ years\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ too\\ many\\ British\\ people\\ so\\ they\\ set\\ up\\ lots\\ of\\ land\\ for\\ everyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\:\\ A\\ Philosophical\\ Concept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ Treatises\\ on\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Essay\\ Concerning\\ human\\ Understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1690\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Francis\\ Hutcheson\\ \\(1694\\-1746\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Inquiry\\ into\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ our\\ ideas\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ virtue\\ \\(1726\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Age\\ of\\ Enlightenment\\Is\\ it\\ enough\\ to\\ pursue\\ individual\\ happiness\\ or\\ is\\ common\\ good\\ important\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ liberty\\ of\\ rationale\\ choices\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ true\\ happiness\\,\\ lamp\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ what\\ will\\ be\\ long\\ term\\ good\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ short\\-term\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;God\\ gave\\ two\\ commandments\\&rdquo\\;\\ said\\ to\\ Adam\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Earth\\ is\\ yours\\,\\ dominion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\ with\\ the\\ sweat\\ of\\ your\\ brow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ apply\\ labor\\ to\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\English\\ worked\\ on\\ land\\ they\\ though\\ Indians\\ did\\ not\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ through\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Bennett\\ family\\ portrait\\ is\\ a\\ display\\ of\\ all\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;Happiness\\ can\\ be\\ attained\\ through\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;offspring\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ portrait\\ caption\\ says\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ spouses\\&rsquo\\;\\ liberty\\ in\\ pursuing\\ a\\ family\\ size\\ of\\ 9\\ throughout\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ Era\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ challenges\\ associated\\ with\\ boycotts\\ of\\ British\\ goods\\ and\\ luxuries\\ and\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ a\\ consistent\\ and\\ supportive\\ monarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;Property\\ is\\ not\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ portrait\\;\\ the\\ family\\ is\\ emphasized\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ clothing\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ view\\ here\\ as\\ property\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ styled\\ similarly\\,\\ each\\ individual\\ has\\ a\\ unique\\ accent\\ to\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ clothing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clothing\\ is\\ obviously\\ different\\ in\\ patterns\\ but\\ even\\ the\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ black\\ outfits\\ have\\ slight\\ differences\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ property\\ as\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ personality\\ and\\ uniqueness\\;\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ Era\\ find\\ happiness\\ in\\ separating\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ is\\ a\\ renaissance\\ woman\\,\\ taking\\ on\\ roles\\ unusual\\ for\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ is\\ a\\ Renaissance\\ Man\\,\\ inventing\\ and\\ producing\\ for\\ the\\ New\\ World\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#4\\:\\ Write\\ a\\ detailed\\ interpretation\\ of\\ John\\ Trumbull\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ A\\ good\\ answer\\ will\\ consider\\ particular\\ details\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ general\\ themes\\,\\ and\\ will\\ situate\\ the\\ painting\\ in\\ the\\ cultural\\ and\\ social\\ history\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ America\\.\\ You\\ can\\ find\\ the\\ image\\ at\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.mfa\\.org\\/collections\\/search\\_art\\.asp\\?recview\\=true\\&\\;id\\=34260\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ Background\\ of\\ Trumbull\\:\\ Trumbull\\ learned\\ from\\ Benjamin\\ West\\ how\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ history\\ painter\\.\\ They\\ would\\ insert\\ factually\\ accurate\\ details\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Trumbull\\ was\\ present\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\ \\(1775\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Comparisons\\ in\\ style\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ West\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Wolfe\\ \\(1771\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ Background\\ about\\ Joseph\\ Warren\\:\\ \\ \\;Warren\\ was\\ a\\ popular\\ physician\\ who\\ advocated\\ inoculation\\ and\\ cleanliness\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ became\\ politically\\ involved\\ and\\ promoted\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ 1760s\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ commissioned\\ as\\ a\\ general\\ on\\ 1775\\,\\ but\\ since\\ his\\ term\\ did\\ not\\ begin\\ until\\ after\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\,\\ he\\ was\\ fighting\\ as\\ a\\ volunteer\\ in\\ the\\ ranks\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ this\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bunker\\ Hill\\ \\(June\\ 17\\,1775\\)\\ took\\ place\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ waning\\.\\ The\\ Rage\\ Militaire\\ had\\ vanished\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 1776\\ \\(Royster\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ a\\ few\\ heroes\\ were\\ highly\\ regarded\\ for\\ their\\ courage\\ to\\ readily\\ go\\ into\\ fight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bunker\\ Hill\\,\\ though\\ a\\ loss\\ for\\ the\\ colonists\\,\\ marks\\ the\\ greatest\\ losses\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Bunker\\ Hill\\ has\\ been\\ celebrated\\ as\\ a\\ victory\\ as\\ it\\ entered\\ popular\\ tales\\ about\\ the\\ mite\\ of\\ the\\ inexperienced\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ against\\ experienced\\ troops\\ and\\ deplete\\ their\\ numbers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;memory\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ about\\ how\\ future\\ generations\\ shaped\\ how\\ the\\ Revolution\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ remembered\\.\\ \\ \\;Trumbull\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dramatic\\ painting\\ would\\ have\\ contributed\\ to\\ these\\ resolute\\ patriotic\\ sentiments\\ as\\ the\\ colonists\\ wave\\ their\\ flag\\ with\\ pride\\ and\\ fend\\ off\\ the\\ encircling\\ British\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Details\\ in\\ the\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ was\\ fought\\ by\\ citizen\\-soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Blue\\ revolutionaries\\ on\\ the\\ left\\:\\ all\\ wearing\\ different\\ clothing\\ while\\ a\\ uniform\\ mass\\ of\\ red\\ is\\ charging\\ upon\\ them\\.\\ Relates\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ colonists\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ standing\\ army\\ before\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ had\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ \\ \\;\\(filled\\ with\\ volunteers\\ who\\ served\\ short\\ terms\\,\\ often\\ of\\ only\\ one\\ year\\)\\ and\\ local\\ militias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ Coats\\:\\ all\\ wearing\\ white\\ wigs\\:\\ gives\\ the\\ impression\\ they\\ are\\ wiser\\ and\\ richer\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ the\\ revolutionaries\\ are\\ these\\ young\\ men\\ with\\ loose\\ brown\\ hair\\,\\ poorer\\ and\\ commoners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ coats\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ all\\ brandishing\\ swords\\,\\ while\\ one\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\ has\\ his\\ bayonet\\ pointed\\ at\\ the\\ stomach\\ of\\ Warren\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ revolutionaries\\ all\\ have\\ rifles\\-\\-\\-much\\ less\\ elegant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ colonists\\ and\\ red\\ coats\\ have\\ fallen\\,\\ but\\ the\\ subject\\ and\\ the\\ lighting\\ are\\ focused\\ are\\ upon\\ the\\ white\\ glowing\\ body\\ of\\ Warren\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warren\\ is\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ patriot\\:\\ fighting\\ for\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ cause\\ even\\ before\\ battle\\ broke\\ out\\;\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ a\\ superior\\ position\\ in\\ society\\ \\(a\\ doctor\\ and\\ soon\\-to\\-be\\ general\\)\\ fighting\\ alongside\\ the\\ other\\ men\\ as\\ a\\ normal\\ volunteer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ opposing\\ flags\\ waving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\:\\ a\\ slave\\ standing\\ behind\\ the\\ colonist\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trumbull\\ showing\\ that\\ blacks\\ did\\ fight\\?\\ \\ \\;H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ holding\\ a\\ rifle\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ dressed\\ differently\\:\\ in\\ earthy\\ tones\\ and\\ brown\\.\\ \\ \\;Direct\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ dandy\\ soldier\\ standing\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ him\\ with\\ the\\ ruffled\\ shirt\\,\\ the\\ tilted\\ hat\\,\\ the\\ clean\\ breaches\\,\\ and\\ the\\ feather\\ in\\ his\\ hat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stance\\ of\\ the\\ Americans\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ British\\:\\ self\\-preservation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ soldiers\\ are\\ mostly\\ leaning\\ forward\\ in\\ an\\ attacking\\ position\\ while\\ American\\ soldiers\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ defensive\\ stance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ on\\ the\\ defensive\\;\\ opposing\\ tyranny\\ both\\ politically\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ battle\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ John\\ Trumbull\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ illustrative\\ of\\ several\\ important\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\ in\\ its\\ particular\\ details\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ general\\ themes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Background\\ Information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\John\\ Trumbull\\ Background\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Trumbull\\ was\\ a\\ soldier\\ in\\ 1775\\ during\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ Harvard\\ graduate\\ and\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ governor\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ left\\ the\\ army\\ after\\ he\\ felt\\ a\\ potential\\ appointment\\ insulted\\ his\\ honor\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ London\\,\\ where\\ he\\ met\\ Benjamin\\ West\\,\\ a\\ historical\\ painter\\.\\ West\\ taught\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ historical\\ painter\\ and\\ he\\ imitated\\ West\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ from\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\,\\ June\\ 1775\\:\\ \\(wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;took\\ place\\ on\\ June\\ 17\\,\\ 1775\\ on\\ Breed\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hill\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Siege\\ of\\ Boston\\ during\\ the\\ American\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\.\\ General\\ Israel\\ Putnam\\ was\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ forces\\,\\ while\\ Major\\-General\\ William\\ Howe\\ commanded\\ the\\ British\\ forces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ night\\ of\\ June\\ 16\\,\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ intelligence\\ that\\ the\\ British\\ were\\ soon\\ to\\ attempt\\ the\\ capture\\ of\\ undefended\\ high\\ ground\\ around\\ Boston\\,\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ stealthily\\ occupied\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\ and\\ Breed\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hill\\.\\ The\\ British\\ mounted\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ those\\ positions\\ the\\ following\\ day\\.\\ After\\ two\\ assaults\\ on\\ the\\ Colonial\\ lines\\ were\\ repulsed\\ with\\ significant\\ British\\ casualties\\,\\ the\\ British\\ finally\\ captured\\ the\\ positions\\ on\\ the\\ third\\ assault\\,\\ after\\ the\\ defenders\\ ran\\ out\\ of\\ ammunition\\.\\ The\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ retreated\\ over\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\ to\\ Cambridge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ result\\ was\\ a\\ victory\\ for\\ the\\ British\\,\\ they\\ suffered\\ their\\ greatest\\ losses\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ war\\:\\ over\\ 800\\ wounded\\ and\\ 226\\ killed\\,\\ including\\ a\\ notably\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ officers\\.\\ Their\\ immediate\\ objective\\ \\(the\\ capture\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\)\\ was\\ achieved\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ significantly\\ alter\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ siege\\.\\ It\\ did\\,\\ however\\,\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ relatively\\ inexperienced\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ were\\ willing\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ to\\ experienced\\ troops\\ in\\ a\\ pitched\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ MFA\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hill\\,\\ 17\\ June\\ 1775\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\ subject\\ that\\ Trumbull\\ completed\\.\\ Joseph\\ Warren\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ players\\ in\\ the\\ events\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ outbreak\\ of\\ war\\.\\ A\\ popular\\ and\\ innovative\\ physician\\,\\ Warren\\ plunged\\ into\\ politics\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1760s\\.\\ He\\ accepted\\ a\\ commission\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ general\\ on\\ June\\ 14\\,\\ 1775\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ as\\ a\\ volunteer\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ killed\\ three\\ days\\ later\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\General\\ Themes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accurate\\ representation\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ fought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indian\\,\\ Black\\,\\ Poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MA\\ Soldiers\\/\\ New\\ England\\-\\ disreputable\\ because\\ so\\ many\\ black\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\George\\ Washington\\ ordered\\ no\\ enlisting\\ of\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ to\\ rescind\\ orders\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fill\\ quotas\\-\\ many\\ freemen\\ volunteered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Savagery\\ of\\ British\\-\\ stabbing\\ dead\\ man\\,\\ American\\ comrade\\ staving\\ off\\ further\\ bayonet\\ attack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\&\\#39\\;s\\ heroism\\ \\-captured\\ the\\ imagination\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ public\\,\\ popular\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Composition\\ like\\ Benjamin\\ West\\&\\#39\\;s\\ iconic\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Wolfe\\ \\(1771\\)\\-\\ immortalize\\ and\\ memorialize\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Particular\\ Details\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uniforms\\ for\\ British\\,\\ Varied\\ uniforms\\/\\ outfits\\ for\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Younger\\ Americans\\,\\ Older\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rifleman\\-\\ from\\ backcountry\\ Virginia\\,\\ more\\ accurate\\ than\\ a\\ musket\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dramatic\\ skyline\\ with\\ light\\ focusing\\ on\\ Warren\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lamentation\\ of\\ Christ\\-\\ bayonets\\ in\\ center\\ of\\ page\\ form\\ cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actual\\ participants\\,\\ both\\ American\\ and\\ British\\,\\ in\\ the\\ surrounding\\ fray\\ are\\ recognizable\\ as\\ portraits\\,\\ including\\ William\\ Howe\\,\\ Henry\\ Clinton\\,\\ and\\ William\\ Prescott\\ \\(who\\ allegedly\\ gave\\ the\\ order\\ to\\ his\\ American\\ soldiers\\ not\\ to\\ fire\\ until\\ \\"\\;you\\ see\\ the\\ whites\\ of\\ their\\ eyes\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 27, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Hist_B-40_Final_Exam_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "French Body Image - Note 3", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "architecture", "body-image"], "text": null, "id": 46, "html": "\\\\\\HAA174s\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_3\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c29\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c30\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c17\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c26\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Wendesday\\,\\ November\\:\\ \\ \\;Working\\ Bodies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 11\\/7\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bodies\\ on\\ the\\ barricades\\\\Nanine\\ Villain\\,\\ \\"\\;Liberty\\"\\;\\ \\(1793\\-94\\)\\ \\-\\ Vizelle\\The\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ revolt\\.\\ \\Contingency\\ and\\ appropriateness\\ \\(decorum\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ a\\ contemporary\\ boy\\ is\\ modeled\\ to\\ represent\\ history\\?\\ What\\ kind\\ of\\ body\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ such\\ an\\ ideal\\?\\ How\\ do\\ gender\\ and\\ class\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ here\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Why\\ was\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\ most\\ often\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ ideals\\ rather\\ than\\ actions\\?\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Delacroix\\,\\ \\"\\;Liberty\\ leading\\ the\\ people\\"\\;\\ \\(1830\\)\\2nd\\ French\\ revolution\\,\\ the\\ day\\ which\\ marks\\ the\\ revolt\\ of\\ the\\ Parisian\\ masses\\ at\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ Bourbon\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ monarchy\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\Happy\\ revolution\\,\\ produced\\ by\\ social\\ consensus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Idea\\ of\\ the\\ barricade\\ as\\ a\\ visualization\\ of\\ the\\ revolt\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ crowd\\ being\\ led\\ by\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ liberty\\.\\ The\\ painting\\ was\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ social\\ consensus\\ of\\ the\\ revolt\\ through\\ the\\ inclusion\\ of\\ representatives\\ from\\ each\\ social\\ strata\\ \\(idea\\ of\\ the\\ type\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\Symbolic\\ combination\\ of\\ actors\\ representing\\ different\\ groups\\ of\\ society\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ popular\\ way\\ of\\ representing\\ the\\ revolution\\ \\(see\\ Thiebaut\\,\\ \\"\\;Paris\\ fighting\\"\\;\\ \\(1831\\)\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\Delacroix\\ however\\ is\\ different\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ includes\\ not\\ only\\ he\\ register\\ of\\ the\\ real\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ imaginary\\ \\(figure\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\ as\\ Liberty\\)\\.\\ \\This\\ picture\\ was\\ very\\ controversial\\,\\ both\\ politically\\ and\\ aesthetically\\.\\ It\\ was\\ bought\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ not\\ shown\\ in\\ public\\ for\\ quite\\ a\\ while\\.\\ It\\ was\\ politically\\ disturbing\\ because\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ revolt\\ became\\ \\"\\;too\\ revolting\\"\\;\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ pic\\ was\\ finished\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ it\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ too\\ bloody\\ and\\ gross\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\It\\ was\\ also\\ provocative\\ because\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ reasons\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ official\\ commission\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ revolution\\ \\(Schnetz\\,\\ \\"\\;Fight\\ for\\ the\\ hotel\\ de\\ Ville\\"\\;\\,\\ 1834\\)\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ composition\\.\\ The\\ barricade\\ in\\ Delacroix\\ is\\ threatening\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ Schnetz\\ one\\ is\\ set\\ sideways\\,\\ is\\ harmless\\ for\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\ There\\ is\\ moreover\\ no\\ allegorical\\ figure\\ involved\\,\\ and\\ no\\ woman\\ for\\ that\\ matter\\.\\ There\\&\\#39\\;\\ re\\ still\\ some\\ types\\.\\ Language\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ also\\ different\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Delacroix\\ the\\ bodies\\ are\\ undignified\\,\\ undressed\\.\\ \\Delacroix\\ shows\\ motion\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ thrust\\ of\\ people\\ moving\\ forward\\.\\ \\Figure\\ of\\ liberty\\ is\\ very\\ resonant\\ of\\ the\\ republican\\ aesthetic\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ specific\\ woman\\ marching\\ together\\ with\\ her\\ companions\\ forward\\,\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ \\"\\;real\\ allegory\\"\\;\\.\\ Delacroix\\ drew\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ work\\,\\ his\\ own\\ \\"\\;Greece\\ expiring\\ on\\ the\\ ruins\\ of\\ Missolonghi\\"\\;\\ \\(1826\\)\\.\\ Greece\\ is\\ here\\ represented\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ allegorical\\ and\\ real\\;\\ she\\ appeals\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\ using\\ her\\ body\\,\\ representing\\ herself\\ as\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ vulnerable\\ and\\ sexually\\ charged\\.\\ That\\ both\\ paintings\\ were\\ connected\\ is\\ shown\\ by\\ an\\ earlier\\ sketch\\,\\ \\"\\;Sketch\\ for\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ liberty\\ \\(with\\ crown\\)\\"\\;\\,\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ personification\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ Paris\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\Unlike\\ David\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Sabine\\ women\\"\\;\\,\\ the\\ woman\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ metaphorical\\ but\\ real\\,\\ a\\ recognizable\\ women\\ from\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\ because\\ of\\ her\\ dress\\,\\ dirty\\ body\\,\\ unshaven\\ armpits\\.\\ See\\ Delaporte\\,\\ \\"\\;Parisian\\ women\\"\\;\\ for\\ the\\ participation\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ revolution\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ none\\ of\\ them\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ represented\\ as\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ action\\.\\ The\\ very\\ format\\ \\(vignette\\)\\ reassures\\ the\\ marginal\\ presence\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ Delacroix\\&\\#39\\;s\\ liberty\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ action\\.\\ She\\ is\\ recognized\\ by\\ the\\ critics\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;liberty\\ of\\ the\\ people\\"\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ liberty\\ per\\ se\\,\\ recognized\\ as\\ a\\ class\\ specific\\ idea\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\ being\\ both\\ socially\\ and\\ aesthetically\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\,\\ even\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ her\\ sexuality\\.\\ This\\ combination\\ of\\ class\\-specificity\\ and\\ sexuality\\ makes\\ her\\ a\\ disturbing\\ figure\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ is\\ her\\ body\\ marked\\ as\\ sexually\\ specific\\,\\ but\\ she\\ becomes\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ erotic\\ energy\\.\\ Combination\\ of\\ sexually\\ charged\\ woman\\ with\\ male\\ carnage\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ controversy\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Grandville\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ revolution\\ of\\ 1830\\,\\ the\\ people\\ won\\ the\\ victory\\,\\ the\\ gentlemen\\ share\\ the\\ spoils\\"\\;\\ \\(1831\\)\\Represents\\ the\\ corruption\\ setting\\ in\\ immediately\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\\\Francois\\ Rude\\,\\ \\"\\;La\\ Marsellaise\\ of\\ the\\ departure\\ of\\ the\\ Volunteers\\ of\\ 1792\\"\\;\\ \\(1833\\-36\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sculptural\\ relief\\ \\Similarly\\ aggressive\\ vision\\ of\\ femininity\\ and\\ the\\ political\\ idea\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\Decorates\\ the\\ arc\\ of\\ Triomph\\,\\ was\\ originally\\ made\\ to\\ represent\\ Napoleon\\&\\#39\\;s\\ glory\\ as\\ a\\ monarch\\ who\\ defended\\ Liberty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ is\\ the\\ 1st\\ revolution\\ \\(1789\\)\\.\\ \\Allegorical\\ female\\ figure\\ that\\ personifies\\ liberty\\ in\\ antique\\ disguise\\.\\ She\\ represents\\ both\\ Athena\\ and\\ Nike\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ She\\ is\\ shown\\ as\\ very\\ energetic\\,\\ her\\ face\\ is\\ very\\ aggressive\\ and\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ persistent\\ social\\ tradition\\ in\\ sculpture\\ of\\ representing\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ Liberty\\ \\(see\\ Cavelier\\,\\ \\"\\;Truth\\"\\;\\ 1849\\-53\\)\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ an\\ idealized\\ female\\ body\\.\\ Static\\ idealized\\ nudes\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ threatening\\ the\\ political\\ or\\ aesthetic\\ assumptions\\ of\\ the\\ times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Marselleise\\ was\\ different\\ from\\ this\\ idea\\ but\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ entirely\\ uncontroversial\\&hellip\\;\\ she\\ is\\ animated\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ her\\ face\\ that\\ differentiates\\ her\\ from\\ the\\ classic\\ static\\ representation\\ of\\ liberty\\.\\ \\Differently\\ from\\ Delacroix\\,\\ however\\,\\ this\\ representatio\\ stays\\ solely\\ on\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ imaginary\\,\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ mix\\ with\\ the\\ lower\\ people\\.\\ She\\ is\\ also\\ completely\\ dressed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Delacroix\\,\\ \\"\\;Still\\ life\\"\\;\\ \\(1848\\)\\Disengagement\\ with\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\ \\Is\\ the\\ violence\\ of\\ fruit\\ an\\ allegory\\ though\\?\\Delacroix\\&\\#39\\;s\\ refusal\\ to\\ engagement\\.\\ \\\\Cover\\ of\\ \\"\\;La\\ Republique\\,\\ journal\\ du\\ matin\\"\\;\\\\ \\;Uses\\ the\\ image\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ actual\\ woman\\ is\\ represented\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ barricade\\.\\ Woman\\ participating\\ in\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\\\Honore\\ Daumier\\,\\ \\"\\;Republic\\"\\;\\ \\(painted\\ sketch\\)\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ allegory\\ used\\ by\\ Delacroix\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ she\\ is\\ seated\\,\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ barricade\\,\\ and\\ her\\ body\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ her\\ maternal\\ function\\.\\ Alligned\\ with\\ the\\ representations\\ of\\ charity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\She\\ also\\ represents\\ the\\ socially\\ circumscribed\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\,\\ who\\ were\\ legally\\ and\\ financially\\ dependant\\ on\\ their\\ husbands\\.\\ \\In\\ featuring\\ the\\ republic\\ as\\ a\\ mother\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ whole\\ function\\ of\\ representing\\ the\\ woman\\ as\\ something\\ socially\\ acceptable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Daumier\\&\\#39\\;s\\ attitude\\ to\\ women\\ is\\ very\\ specific\\ \\(see\\ \\"\\;Les\\ Divorceuses\\"\\;\\ 1848\\,\\ a\\ caricature\\ of\\ wome\\ trying\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ divorce\\)\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ typology\\ to\\ critique\\ aspects\\ within\\ society\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ changes\\ he\\ criticizes\\ is\\ the\\ desire\\ of\\ women\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ position\\ in\\ society\\.\\ It\\ was\\ difficult\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ accept\\ social\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\See\\ also\\ \\"\\;The\\ blue\\ stockings\\:\\ neglectful\\ mothers\\"\\;\\ \\(1844\\)\\,\\ where\\ the\\ literary\\ aspirations\\ of\\ women\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ for\\ the\\ household\\,\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\This\\ vision\\ of\\ Liberty\\ is\\ femininity\\ placed\\ in\\ its\\ rightful\\ role\\.\\ \\New\\ politically\\ engaged\\ iconography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Daumier\\,\\ \\"\\;Uprising\\"\\;\\ \\(1852\\-58\\)\\Realism\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ political\\ engagement\\ as\\ a\\ self\\-conscious\\ laboratory\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ very\\ self\\-conscious\\ style\\,\\ a\\ search\\ for\\ a\\ strategy\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ which\\ political\\ ideals\\ might\\ be\\ illustrated\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\Contrast\\ with\\ the\\ romantic\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ by\\ Delacroix\\.\\ \\Daumier\\ inherits\\ the\\ gesticulating\\ body\\,\\ but\\ erases\\ for\\ it\\ the\\ allegorical\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Interest\\ in\\ reality\\ as\\ what\\ it\\ is\\,\\ but\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ constructed\\ by\\ the\\ artist\\ \\(Daumier\\ for\\ instance\\ crops\\ the\\ scene\\ as\\ he\\ wishes\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Daumier\\&\\#39\\;s\\ composition\\ is\\ rather\\ flat\\,\\ and\\ retains\\ only\\ the\\ contours\\ of\\ his\\ figures\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ he\\ wishes\\ to\\ expose\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ his\\ composition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Meissonier\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ barricade\\,\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\"\\;\\ \\(1850\\-51\\)\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Absence\\ of\\ the\\ allegorical\\ dimension\\.\\ \\His\\ image\\ is\\ not\\ one\\ of\\ sympathy\\,\\ yet\\ one\\ of\\ warning\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ \\(he\\ was\\ a\\ civil\\ guard\\)\\.\\ \\Since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ personification\\ or\\ allegory\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ certain\\ ambiguity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Daumier\\,\\ \\"\\;Rue\\ Transnonain\\"\\;\\(1834\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ litograph\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Illustration\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ about\\ 8\\ men\\ and\\ a\\ woman\\ and\\ children\\ where\\ the\\ soldiers\\ entered\\ and\\ massacred\\ in\\ retribution\\ for\\ the\\ revolt\\.\\ \\Visual\\ reportage\\ very\\ carefully\\ staged\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ insistent\\ refusal\\ to\\ idealize\\,\\ representation\\ of\\ indignity\\,\\ refusal\\ to\\ apply\\ ennobling\\ formulas\\ or\\ aggrandizing\\ schemes\\.\\ \\Refusal\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ picture\\ any\\ other\\ meaning\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\Body\\ used\\ for\\ political\\ representations\\,\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;noble\\ body\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ November\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ List\\ \\#13\\:\\ Working\\ Bodies\\ \\(11\\/7\\/07\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Political\\ themes\\ in\\ art\\ linked\\ to\\ 1848\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ on\\ Millet\\ and\\ Degas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aesthetic\\ dimension\\ and\\ ideological\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Millet\\ devoted\\ to\\ rural\\ labor\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Winnower\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Salon\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\1848\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Person\\ doing\\ manually\\ what\\ machines\\ came\\ to\\ do\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ labor\\ which\\ person\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ with\\ skill\\ and\\ habit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bodily\\ type\\,\\ does\\ not\\ focus\\ on\\ his\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Textures\\ add\\ real\\ element\\ to\\ his\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dressed\\ in\\ similar\\ way\\ as\\ Liberty\\ is\\ dressed\\ in\\ Delacroix\\ \\(SL\\#12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ heroic\\ action\\,\\ ensconced\\ in\\ ritual\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ universalized\\&hellip\\;\\ specific\\ textures\\,\\ tools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Figure\\ of\\ the\\ peasant\\ introduced\\ into\\ the\\ Salon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Horrifies\\ the\\ bourgeois\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;Rugged\\,\\ ferocious\\,\\ crude\\"\\;\\ dry\\ painting\\ technique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ different\\ body\\ than\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ been\\ seen\\ in\\ bourgeouis\\ typologies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ kind\\ of\\ style\\/new\\ technique\\:\\ dry\\ oil\\ w\\/o\\ turpentine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kind\\ of\\ provocation\\,\\ both\\ aesthetic\\ and\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(2\\)\\ \\*Millet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sower\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1850\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sowing\\ the\\ winter\\ wheat\\,\\ which\\ happens\\ in\\ November\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warmly\\ dressed\\,\\ straw\\ on\\ legs\\ for\\ warmth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ peasant\\ in\\ the\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ from\\ Winnower\\:\\ dynamic\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Situated\\ in\\ space\\,\\ moving\\ forward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Read\\ as\\ powerful\\,\\ even\\ threatening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ subjectivity\\,\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hat\\ pulled\\ over\\ face\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ anonymous\\,\\ threatening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ pictorial\\ language\\,\\ resonated\\ with\\ contemporaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;Vicious\\-looking\\ laborer\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discussed\\ as\\ group\\ that\\ needed\\ improved\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ considered\\ violent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peasants\\ as\\ a\\ threatening\\ group\\ on\\ the\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Millet\\ was\\ originally\\ a\\ wealthy\\ peasant\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;when\\ grown\\ moved\\ outside\\ Paris\\ near\\ Fointainbleau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painted\\ those\\ poorer\\ than\\ he\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depicted\\ flat\\ landscape\\ of\\ Fontainbleau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Faggot\\ gatherers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1850\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gathered\\ wood\\ on\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ property\\ became\\ legally\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peasant\\ responded\\ with\\ fires\\,\\ social\\ tension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circular\\ arrangement\\ of\\ wood\\,\\ people\\:\\ unity\\,\\ continuity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parallel\\ between\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bodies\\ and\\ wood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effort\\ visible\\ in\\ bent\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Man\\ with\\ a\\ Ho\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1860\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Laborer\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ dignified\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stupefied\\ glance\\:\\ half\\ hard\\-working\\ laborer\\,\\ half\\ village\\ idiot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gerard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Isabey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1797\\ shows\\ contrast\\,\\ expected\\ dignified\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(6\\)\\ \\*\\<\\/span\\>\\Gleaners\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Salon\\ 1857\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ famous\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gleaned\\ grain\\ after\\ harvesters\\ had\\ gone\\ over\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Used\\ to\\ be\\ expected\\,\\ became\\ bureaucratized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reversing\\ hierarchies\\:\\ harvesters\\ in\\ background\\,\\ women\\ are\\ given\\ prominent\\ foreground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(7\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gleaners\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(painted\\ study\\)\\ shows\\ experiment\\ of\\ showing\\ harvesters\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Final\\ version\\ introduces\\ larger\\ distance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ represents\\ women\\ as\\ having\\ a\\ solemn\\ rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ aestheticization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dignified\\ portrayal\\ is\\ not\\ new\\:\\ \\(8\\)\\ Louis\\ Le\\ Nain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Peasants\\&\\#39\\;\\ Meal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1642\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ peasant\\ family\\ sitting\\ down\\ to\\ meal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Specific\\ individuals\\,\\ faces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Millet\\ differs\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ providing\\ us\\ with\\ any\\ subjectivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tendency\\ to\\ slightly\\ aestheticize\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rhythm\\,\\ classical\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hearkens\\ \\(9\\)\\ Michaelangelo\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Persian\\ Sybil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ The\\ Sistine\\ Chapel\\,\\ monumental\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Millet\\ wanted\\ to\\ position\\ himself\\ politically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ as\\ a\\ socialist\\,\\ but\\ as\\ having\\ biblical\\ dimensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Leopold\\ L\\.\\ Robet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pilgrims\\ returning\\ from\\ the\\ feast\\ of\\ Madonna\\ dell\\&\\#39\\;Arco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1830s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethnographic\\ gaze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jovial\\,\\ beautiful\\ girls\\ and\\ boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contrasting\\ picturesque\\ body\\/scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Which\\ representation\\ is\\ fairer\\?\\ \\;\\ Better\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pictorial\\ disruption\\ of\\ myth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(11\\)\\ \\*Edgar\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ Ironing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1873\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marks\\ advent\\ of\\ new\\ style\\&hellip\\;impressionism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\ associated\\ with\\ impressionism\\,\\ but\\ stood\\ somewhat\\ apart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depiction\\ of\\ modern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\urban\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Laundress\\ as\\ modern\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\ painted\\ washers\\ for\\ 30\\ years\\ starting\\ late\\ 1860s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\ entirely\\ devoted\\ to\\ her\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shown\\ against\\ the\\ whiteness\\ of\\ the\\ linen\\ she\\&\\#39\\;s\\ just\\ ironed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Starkly\\ silhouetted\\,\\ \\"\\;contre\\ jour\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;Profile\\ perdue\\"\\;\\ creates\\ quality\\ of\\ private\\ body\\ in\\ past\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(12\\)\\ Watteau\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sketches\\ of\\ Women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Heads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ no\\ sense\\ of\\ illusiveness\\,\\ rather\\ specificity\\ of\\ physical\\ action\\/conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ differentiation\\ between\\ her\\ clothing\\ and\\ her\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(13\\)\\ Peloq\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Parisian\\ Laundresses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ Amusant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ deal\\ of\\ sexual\\ fantasy\\ around\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Description\\ of\\ loose\\ morals\\,\\ sexual\\ availability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(14\\-15\\)\\ Caricatured\\ images\\ like\\ personification\\ of\\ Paris\\ as\\ giant\\ scary\\ woman\\ eating\\ innocent\\ girls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(16\\)\\ Anonymous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ironer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\c\\.\\ 1850\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explicit\\ sexual\\ availability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(17\\)\\ Menta\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ironer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sexual\\ availability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Same\\ in\\ \\(18\\)\\ Caraud\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lady\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Maid\\ ironing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ sexual\\,\\ somewhat\\ less\\ explicit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(19\\)\\ Degas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ironer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Provocative\\ gaze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ in\\ a\\ surrounding\\ of\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disorients\\ our\\ gaze\\,\\ does\\ not\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ her\\ body\\ as\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ focus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(20\\)\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Laundress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1873\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ironer\\ is\\ hot\\,\\ has\\ taken\\ off\\ her\\ shirt\\/exposed\\ her\\ breasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Renders\\ heaviness\\ of\\ her\\ task\\,\\ materiality\\ of\\ her\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ as\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ fiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(21\\)\\ \\*\\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ laundresses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ boredom\\ of\\ laundress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Complicates\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ laundress\\ as\\ a\\ sexual\\ fiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ up\\ on\\ moral\\ component\\ of\\ labor\\:\\ \\(22\\)\\ Daumier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Heavy\\ Burden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(23\\)\\ \\*Gustave\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Floorscrapers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ version\\:\\ \\(24\\)\\ 1876\\,\\ private\\ collection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rare\\ image\\ of\\ male\\ working\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Work\\ as\\ a\\ spectacle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ not\\ the\\ work\\ is\\ important\\,\\ but\\ the\\ physical\\ appearance\\/definition\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muscles\\ there\\,\\ but\\ never\\ any\\ sweat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ November\\ 14\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Fashion\\ and\\ Modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ talked\\ about\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;Considered\\ 2\\ different\\ approaches\\ 2\\ labor\\ as\\ a\\ subject\\ o\\ representation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Milles\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Gleaners\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ Laundresses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1894\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Milles\\&rsquo\\;\\ approach\\:\\ \\ \\;pictorial\\ respect\\,\\ associated\\,\\ combined\\ w\\ aesthetication\\.\\ \\ \\;Enobling\\ dimension\\ o\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\ deliberately\\ was\\ less\\ respectful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ talked\\ o\\ different\\ social\\ n\\ political\\ approaches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ move\\ 2\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Elegant\\ Life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Ahhhhhhhh\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ concerned\\ w\\ relation\\ bw\\ fashion\\ n\\ modernity\\,\\ a\\ close\\ relation\\ which\\ is\\ more\\ obvious\\ in\\ French\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\mode\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\modernite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ notable\\ fashion\\ critic\\ n\\ advocate\\ o\\ modernity\\:\\ \\ \\;Baudelaire\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ privileged\\ source\\ o\\ information\\ 4ambitious\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artists\\ who\\ wanted\\ their\\ wrk\\ advanced\\,\\ ambitious\\,\\ modern\\ o\\ its\\ own\\ times\\&hellip\\;needed\\ his\\ support\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baudelaire\\ in\\ 2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\ sought\\ 2establish\\ fashion\\ as\\ the\\ new\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ bound\\ 2teh\\ contigent\\,\\ transient\\,\\ n\\ ephemeral\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2\\ eternal\\,\\ lasting\\,\\ n\\ unviersial\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wanted\\ beaut\\\\y\\ 2have\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ essential\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ present\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ view\\ opposed\\ the\\ academic\\ doctrine\\,\\ caught\\ up\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ w\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ htep\\ ast\\ n\\ the\\ privileging\\ o\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Baudelaire\\ wanted\\ 2exist\\ in\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constantin\\ Guys\\ was\\ his\\ example\\ o\\ the\\ ideally\\ modern\\ artist\\,\\ a\\ pntr\\ o\\ manners\\ rather\\ than\\ history\\,\\ producer\\ o\\ small\\ sketches\\ that\\ registered\\ the\\ fleeting\\ impression\\ o\\ life\\ that\\ could\\ b\\ glimpsed\\ by\\ someone\\ strolling\\ about\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fashion\\ 4Baudeliare\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ matter\\ o\\ simple\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dressing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ a\\ matter\\ o\\ appearances\\ following\\ the\\ commercial\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ something\\ more\\ educated\\ conceptually\\&hellip\\;a\\ sign\\ o\\ its\\ time\\,\\ a\\ pattern\\,\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ ideal\\ that\\ needs\\ 2b\\ released\\ from\\ the\\ grain\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ indelible\\ mark\\ o\\ presentness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;fashion\\ needs\\ 2b\\ an\\ education\\ o\\ the\\ moral\\ n\\ aesthetic\\ feeling\\ o\\ our\\ times\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ so\\,\\ in\\ Guys\\,\\ what\\ he\\ appreciates\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ simply\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ fashionably\\ dressed\\ ppl\\,\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ owman\\ here\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\une\\ elegante\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Constantin\\ Guys\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carriage\\ in\\ Bois\\ de\\ Boulogne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ water\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Guys\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Promenade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ink\\ \\&\\;\\ water\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Fashinoable\\ Woman\\ \\(Une\\ Elegante\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ water\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ rather\\ a\\ pnt\\ o\\ view\\ form\\ which\\ this\\ body\\ is\\ framed\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presented\\ as\\ a\\ fleeting\\ impression\\,\\ from\\ the\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Her\\ face\\ \\=\\ invisible\\,\\ she\\ fills\\ up\\ the\\ whole\\ drawing\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ her\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\movement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ Guys\\ stresses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ contingency\\ that\\ Guys\\ embraced\\ here\\ n\\ which\\ Baud\\ appreciated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contingency\\ \\=\\ problem\\/challenge\\ 4revolutionary\\ artists\\,\\ but\\ here\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ very\\ principle\\ o\\ art\\ making\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fashion\\ as\\ aesthetic\\ ideal\\,\\ paradigm\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ simply\\ appearances\\,\\ si\\ what\\ Baud\\ sees\\ in\\ Guys\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baud\\ elevates\\ Guys\\ 2exagerrated\\ prominence\\,\\ probly\\ just\\ 2make\\ his\\ pnt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ there\\ were\\ more\\ significant\\ artists\\ than\\ Guys\\ who\\ were\\ doing\\ something\\ similar\\,\\ but\\ w\\ pigment\\ n\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Baud\\ supported\\ them\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ significant\\ was\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Edouard\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Music\\ in\\ the\\ Tuilleries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ his\\ project\\ 2document\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\ \\(Absynthe\\ drinker\\)\\,\\ Manet\\ turned\\ form\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ underprivelleged\\,\\ the\\ jobless\\ drifter\\,\\ 2the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ elegant\\ crowd\\ gather\\ in\\ Tuilleries\\ 2listen\\ 2music\\ 2x\\/wk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ imptnt\\ ppl\\ who\\ wanted\\ 2b\\ seen\\ in\\ this\\ fashionable\\ part\\ o\\ Paris\\ would\\ gather\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ this\\ Is\\ what\\ Manet\\ is\\ depicting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ thematics\\ o\\ looking\\ \\(detail\\ o\\ men\\ looking\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ making\\ his\\ pntg\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ product\\ o\\ a\\ fleeting\\ observation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ pulls\\ this\\ off\\ actually\\.\\ \\ \\;Sweet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ differs\\ from\\ a\\ longer\\ tradition\\ o\\ paying\\ attn\\ 2looking\\ in\\ public\\ space\\,\\ which\\ was\\ linked\\ 2the\\ new\\ imptnce\\ o\\ fashion\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debucourt\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Promenade\\ in\\ Palais\\-Royal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1797\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everyone\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ everyone\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;Various\\ optical\\ devices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compared\\ 2this\\,\\ Manet\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ depicting\\ a\\ situation\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\regard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ translating\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ look\\ on2\\ the\\ formal\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2convey\\ the\\ idea\\ thru\\ the\\ manner\\ o\\ pntg\\,\\ the\\ composition\\,\\ n\\ thru\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ renders\\ the\\ body\\,\\ especially\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ conveys\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\spectacularity\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ condition\\ o\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\,\\ he\\ also\\ differs\\ from\\ the\\ long\\ academic\\ tradition\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sabines\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1799\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ Sabines\\ had\\ a\\ similar\\ problem\\ confotned\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ in\\ Manet\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ body\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ crowd\\,\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ o\\ collectivity\\,\\ is\\ what\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2address\\,\\ but\\ Manet\\ does\\ it\\ differently\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ feels\\ a\\ need\\ 2organize\\ the\\ crowd\\ n\\ give\\ it\\ a\\ formal\\ quality\\,\\ interrupted\\ around\\ the\\ woman\\,\\ the\\ pregnant\\ moment\\ o\\ the\\ ocmposiiont\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ is\\ staged\\ insuch\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ it\\ emphasaizes\\ its\\ own\\ function\\ as\\ an\\ agent\\ o\\ a\\ narrative\\,\\ n\\ as\\ an\\ agent\\ o\\ signification\\,\\ an\\ autonomous\\ vehicle\\ thru\\ wihcih\\ meaning\\ could\\ b\\ conveyed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Manet\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ different\\,\\ anti\\-narrative\\ approach\\ 2the\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ r\\ gathered\\ 2gether\\,\\ n\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ them\\ from\\ a\\ distance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ composed\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntd\\,\\ emphasizes\\ this\\ sense\\ o\\ contingency\\,\\ o\\ randomness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 2say\\ tho\\ that\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ composition\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ different\\ from\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ traditionally\\ understood\\ as\\ composition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Check\\ out\\ this\\ topographical\\ view\\ o\\ a\\ similar\\ composition\\ somewhere\\ else\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\W\\.\\ Measom\\ after\\ Gustave\\ Janet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bois\\ de\\ Boulogne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1859\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ crowd\\ is\\ arranged\\ 2imply\\ progression\\ in\\ the\\ landscape\\.\\ Topography\\ is\\ given\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ know\\ where\\ u\\ are\\.\\ \\ \\;Things\\ proceed\\ very\\ clearly\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ the\\ movement\\ o\\ discreet\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\,\\ tho\\,\\ organizes\\ his\\ group\\ differtnetly\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ shows\\ how\\ crowded\\ the\\ situation\\ is\\,\\ but\\ also\\ organizes\\ it\\ differently\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ understanding\\ o\\ composition\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ narrative\\,\\ but\\ htat\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ its\\&rsquo\\;\\ not\\ structured\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\structured\\ acc\\ 2the\\ idea\\ o\\ rhythm\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ is\\ understood\\ formally\\,\\ but\\ also\\ thematically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rhythm\\ o\\ verticals\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ top\\-hatted\\ gentlemen\\ dressed\\ in\\ black\\,\\ n\\ the\\ curvieleear\\ o\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bodies\\,\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bodies\\,\\ n\\ chairs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ kidn\\ o\\ staccato\\ is\\ what\\ Manet\\ uses\\ here\\ 2organize\\ his\\ view\\ in\\ some\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ implies\\ his\\ approach\\ is\\ also\\ one\\ that\\ conveys\\ contingency\\ on\\ the\\ very\\ level\\ o\\ technique\\,\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ conveys\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ some\\ individuals\\ articipating\\ in\\ this\\ concert\\ who\\ were\\ well\\-known\\.\\ \\ \\;Among\\ them\\ Manet\\ himself\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ his\\ brother\\ in\\ the\\ center\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ detail\\ o\\ this\\ one\\ group\\ features\\ Charles\\ Baudelaire\\ himself\\!\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ only\\ infer\\ from\\ this\\ detail\\ bc\\ otherwise\\ the\\ physiognomy\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ given\\ 2us\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ blurriness\\,\\ fleeting\\ nature\\ o\\ the\\ imageo\\ \\ \\;the\\ body\\ is\\ what\\ interests\\ our\\ friend\\ Manet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ embracing\\ here\\ the\\ position\\ defined\\ by\\ Baud\\ among\\ others\\ o\\ the\\ city\\ stroller\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneuer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ avid\\ observer\\,\\ for\\ hwom\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ endless\\ source\\ o\\ pleasure\\ \\&ldquo\\;2enroll\\ in\\ the\\ multitidue\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Fascinating\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MAnet\\ conveys\\ that\\ here\\,\\ both\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ general\\ view\\,\\ the\\ composition\\,\\ but\\ also\\ locally\\ in\\ the\\ approach\\ 2the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ other\\ things\\ r\\ pntd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ other\\ detail\\ showa\\ woman\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ gentleman\\ is\\ bowing\\ 2her\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ pntd\\ here\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ there\\,\\ but\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ movement\\,\\ o\\ air\\,\\ which\\ is\\ given\\ pictorial\\ substance\\ here\\ n\\ conveys\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ immediacy\\ o\\ this\\ situation\\,\\ o\\ contingency\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ from\\ the\\ position\\ o\\ the\\ stroller\\,\\ someone\\ who\\ walks\\ by\\ n\\ looks\\ at\\ things\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ casual\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ trying\\ 2learn\\ what\\ he\\ sees\\,\\ but\\ simply\\ 2observe\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ this\\ mode\\ o\\ rendering\\ the\\ body\\ conveys\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ b\\ wrong\\ 2think\\ o\\ this\\ image\\ as\\ simply\\ based\\ on\\ perception\\,\\ as\\ the\\ registration\\ o\\ what\\ he\\ sees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\out\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ almost\\ never\\ the\\ case\\ w\\ any\\ artist\\,\\ n\\ especially\\ not\\ w\\ Manet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Manet\\,\\ as\\ contingent\\ as\\ his\\ vision\\ is\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ filtered\\ thru\\ the\\ mediation\\ o\\ popular\\ culture\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Boulevard\\ culture\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ culture\\ o\\ entertainment\\,\\ n\\ o\\ illustrations\\ n\\ visual\\ imagery\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ press\\,\\ such\\ as\\&hellip\\;fashion\\ plates\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ devoted\\ 2htel\\ ife\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ effect\\ o\\ this\\ mediation\\ o\\ Boulevard\\ culture\\,\\ the\\ mediated\\ nature\\ o\\ artistic\\ nature\\ such\\ as\\ Manet\\,\\ was\\ the\\ emergence\\ o\\ altogether\\ new\\ types\\ o\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pntgs\\ that\\ mixed\\ the\\ established\\ genre\\ o\\ pntgs\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\remember\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ o\\ genres\\ w\\ history\\ pntg\\ at\\ the\\ top\\,\\ religious\\ spntg\\ n\\ landscapes\\ n\\ still\\ lifes\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ o\\ the\\ hierarchy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ were\\ distinct\\ genres\\,\\ defined\\ w\\/in\\ artistic\\ hierarchy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ is\\ the\\ emergence\\ o\\ types\\ o\\ pntgs\\ like\\ these\\ 2\\ that\\ cross\\ the\\ boundaries\\ o\\ genres\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Street\\ singer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\,\\ Boston\\ MFA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ \\&ldquo\\;Street\\ Singer\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Manet\\ brings\\ element\\ o\\ portrait\\ 2a\\ genre\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ temporal\\ in\\-between\\ here\\ where\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ caught\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ smudges\\ o\\ her\\ dress\\ signify\\ this\\ sense\\ o\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ shown\\ in\\ b\\/w\\ 2genres\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ genre\\ scene\\,\\ but\\ handled\\ like\\ a\\ portrait\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ its\\ monumental\\ scale\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ focused\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ figure\\ posed\\ frontally\\ for\\ Manet\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ model\\ who\\ posed\\ 4Olympia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ engaging\\ w\\ a\\ certain\\ tradition\\ o\\ representation\\,\\ mainly\\,\\ urban\\ typologies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ thesep\\ ntgs\\ undermine\\ distinctions\\ established\\ by\\ hierarchy\\ o\\ genres\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Philipon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Madame\\ of\\ the\\ sausages\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1828\\-30\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ typifies\\ the\\ approach\\ defined\\ a\\ couple\\ lectures\\ before\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ she\\ does\\ defines\\ who\\ she\\ is\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coy\\,\\ pretty\\ as\\ she\\ sets\\ her\\ hot\\ dogsi\\ n\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ suggestive\\ of\\ other\\ charms\\ being\\ on\\ sale\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Implicit\\ sexuality\\ to\\ her\\ meal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philipon\\ does\\ engage\\ w\\ the\\ type\\ here\\,\\ a\\ certain\\ figure\\ who\\ represents\\ an\\ occupation\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\ diffuses\\ the\\ type\\ w\\ thes\\ sense\\ o\\ contingency\\,\\ threshold\\.\\ \\ \\;Sh\\&rsquo\\;esn\\ ot\\ 2b\\ placed\\ somewhere\\ firmly\\ n\\ remain\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ also\\ the\\ whole\\ dimension\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ might\\ be\\ something\\ that\\ happens\\ 2this\\ single\\ woman\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ where\\ women\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ walk\\ unattended\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ti\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ information\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ constructs\\ for\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ image\\ Manet\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ producing\\ on\\ commission\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ o\\ a\\ gif\\ that\\ Manet\\ is\\ offering\\ 2this\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ woman\\ 4whom\\ a\\ specific\\ model\\ posed\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ 2\\ Mme\\ Gaudibert\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Claude\\ Monet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mme\\ Gaudibert\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1868\\,\\ Louvre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ wife\\ o\\ a\\ wealthy\\ merchant\\ from\\ the\\ Arbres\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ strange\\ portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meant\\ 2secure\\ likeness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ staged\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dress\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ immediacy\\ o\\ her\\ pose\\.\\ \\ \\;Caught\\ between\\ something\\,\\ from\\ the\\ table\\ where\\ she\\ has\\ just\\ deposted\\ gloves\\ and\\ her\\ hat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ element\\ o\\ narrative\\ being\\ introduced\\ here\\,\\ or\\ genre\\,\\ or\\ anecdote\\.\\ \\ \\;Infusing\\,\\ diffusing\\,\\ eroding\\,\\ the\\ obudnary\\ o\\ portraiture\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ her\\ pose\\,\\ Mme\\ Gaudibert\\ is\\ staged\\ just\\ like\\ models\\ in\\ fashion\\ illustrations\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clearly\\ the\\ mediation\\ about\\ which\\ we\\ talked\\ earlier\\ htat\\ Monet\\ is\\ using\\ in\\ producing\\ his\\ portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ transgression\\ o\\ genres\\ is\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ this\\,\\ a\\ kingd\\ o\\ new\\ pictorial\\ ambition\\,\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ both\\ Manet\\ n\\ Monet\\ projects\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ the\\ blur\\ the\\ distinctions\\ bw\\ specific\\ genres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ 2better\\ understand\\ this\\ code\\,\\ this\\ transgression\\,\\ professor\\ wants\\ 2give\\ us\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ devlopmetn\\ o\\ portraiture\\&hellip\\;some\\ othe\\ most\\ specific\\ transformations\\,\\ that\\ were\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ move\\ back\\ 2the\\ origins\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ portrait\\,\\ which\\ r\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\,\\ as\\ many\\ things\\ linked\\ 2modernity\\ r\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\La\\ Mode\\ Illustree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\,\\ colored\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Antoine\\ Vestier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Jean\\-Henri\\ Maser\\,\\ Chevalier\\ de\\ la\\ Tude\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1789\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ the\\ origin\\ o\\ modern\\ portrait\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ can\\ b\\ situated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ portrait\\ here\\ o\\ Antoine\\ Vesigee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ dude\\ was\\ an\\ aristocrat\\ imprsiioned\\ in\\ the\\ Bastille\\ 4writing\\ monarchic\\ pamphlets\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ escaped\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ latter\\ on\\ which\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ holding\\ his\\ hand\\ indicates\\ this\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ 2commemorate\\ his\\ escape\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ which\\ was\\ his\\ cause\\,\\ la\\ Tude\\ commissioned\\ this\\ portrait\\ o\\ himself\\,\\ w\\ an\\ attribute\\ oa\\ new\\ kind\\:\\ \\ \\;Bastille\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ psion\\ being\\ demolished\\ in\\ the\\ background\\,\\ 2which\\ he\\ points\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ here\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ takes\\ on\\ increased\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ source\\ o\\ his\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ in\\ the\\ frame\\ o\\ reference\\ othe\\ body\\:\\ \\ \\;o\\ the\\ nature\\ o\\ the\\ attribute\\ n\\ its\\ relation\\ 2the\\ sitter\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ attribute\\ here\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ one\\ o\\ social\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ his\\ hobby\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ historical\\ reference\\ 2which\\ this\\ private\\ person\\ links\\ n\\ defines\\ himself\\ thru\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ featured\\ here\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ o\\ historical\\ experience\\,\\ by\\ which\\ this\\ person\\ ffeels\\ the\\ need\\ 2define\\ himself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ really\\ different\\ approach\\ 2portraiture\\,\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ known\\ until\\ then\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Le\\ Brun\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chancellor\\ Seguier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1661\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ epitomizes\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;portrait\\ d\\ parade\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ official\\ portrait\\&hellip\\;the\\ portrait\\ performs\\ the\\ function\\ o\\ situating\\ the\\ sitter\\ socially\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ function\\ is\\ 2mark\\ the\\ position\\ o\\ this\\ individual\\ in\\ his\\ imptnce\\ in\\ the\\ court\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ everything\\ in\\ the\\ portrait\\,\\ beginning\\ w\\ his\\ clothes\\ n\\ ending\\ w\\ his\\ clonelike\\ patrons\\ echoing\\ the\\ umbrella\\ above\\,\\ it\\ all\\ stands\\ 4thie\\ prestige\\ o\\ this\\ individual\\,\\ which\\ the\\ portrait\\ is\\ oveying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ 2note\\ is\\ that\\ although\\ both\\ portraits\\ feature\\ attributes\\,\\ the\\ function\\/relation\\ 2the\\ sitter\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Metaphor\\ n\\ autonomy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Metaphor\\ \\=\\ figure\\ o\\ speech\\ that\\ operates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Jean\\-Louis\\ Laneuville\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Barere\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1793\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Barere\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ speakers\\,\\ deputies\\ 2the\\ national\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ body\\ serves\\ here\\ as\\ the\\ means\\ o\\ representation\\ o\\ new\\ public\\ authority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ featured\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ body\\,\\ standing\\ in\\ a\\ pose\\ that\\ seems\\ quite\\ natural\\,yet\\ dignified\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dressed\\ simply\\,\\ not\\ wearing\\ a\\ wig\\ \\(important\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ dress\\ is\\ modest\\,\\ except\\ 4the\\ vest\\ that\\ seems\\ quite\\ prominent\\ in\\ its\\ redness\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ 1793\\,\\ b4\\ the\\ terror\\,\\ so\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ evoke\\ what\\ it\\ could\\ evoke\\ 1\\ yr\\ afterwards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ psychological\\ rpesensce\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ recognizes\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ kidn\\ o\\ metanymic\\ attribute\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ something\\ that\\ stands\\ 4him\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\&rsquo\\;\\ something\\ that\\ he\\ does\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ o\\ these\\ portraits\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ imptnce\\ o\\ Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ who\\ was\\ key\\ 4the\\ development\\ o\\ modern\\ portrait\\ early\\ on\\,\\ but\\ who\\ also\\ produced\\ 2paradigmatic\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ subject\\ form\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ a\\ new\\ middle\\ class\\ oburgeois\\ subject\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monsieur\\ Seriziat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Sal\\.\\ Of\\ 1795\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mme\\ Seriziat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Louvre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ his\\ sister\\ n\\ rother\\ in\\ law\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntd\\ right\\ after\\ he\\ returned\\ form\\ prison\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ both\\ cases\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ the\\ portrait\\ 2secure\\ likeness\\,\\ but\\ also\\ 2convey\\ the\\ identity\\ o\\ the\\ sitter\\.\\ \\ \\;Primarily\\ thru\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ minimum\\ attributes\\ that\\ serve\\ 2position\\ that\\ body\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ imptnce\\ w\\/in\\ society\\,\\ but\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ place\\ in\\ society\\ defined\\ by\\ gender\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\ category\\ 4this\\ pair\\ o\\ portrait\\,\\ where\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ man\\ n\\ woman\\ r\\ shown\\ 2b\\ distinct\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\,\\ both\\ portraits\\ evoke\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ nature\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ \\=\\ country\\ gentleman\\,\\ dressed\\ up\\ according\\ 2lates\\ fashion\\:\\ \\ \\;suede\\ breaches\\,\\ boots\\,\\ thoroughly\\ starched\\ high\\ nck\\ tie\\,\\ n\\ tophat\\ w\\ discreet\\ revolutionary\\ sign\\:\\ \\ \\;tricolor\\ caucade\\ which\\ defines\\ him\\ as\\ republican\\,\\ but\\ in\\ much\\ less\\ ostentatious\\ manner\\ than\\ some\\ other\\ dude\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wearing\\ his\\ fashion\\ w\\ degree\\ o\\ casualness\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ elite\\ man\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worry\\ about\\ his\\ clothes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ pose\\ is\\ very\\ relaxed\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ leg\\ is\\ thrown\\ over\\ the\\ thigh\\ o\\ his\\ other\\ leg\\,\\ n\\ he\\ holds\\ a\\ whip\\ indiciating\\ horse\\ riding\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ whip\\,\\ tho\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arranged\\ compositionally\\ so\\ as\\ 2rhyme\\ w\\ landscape\\,\\ which\\ conveys\\ mastery\\ not\\ only\\ o\\ horses\\ but\\ w\\ his\\ relation\\ 2the\\ entire\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ woman\\,\\ tho\\,\\ is\\ dressed\\ vyer\\ simply\\ w\\ the\\ directoire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ individuals\\ whose\\ personal\\ characeristics\\,\\ facts\\ o\\ sexual\\ difference\\,\\ r\\ interpreted\\ socially\\,\\ acc\\.\\ 2where\\ men\\ n\\ women\\ belong\\ in\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\J\\.M\\.Nattier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mme\\ Bonnier\\ de\\ la\\ Mosson\\ as\\ Dianna\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1742\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ different\\ form\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ disguise\\ that\\ was\\ so\\ often\\ embraced\\ by\\ Rococo\\ women\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;Mythology\\ images\\ allowed\\ them\\ 2display\\ their\\ bodies\\ n\\ 2take\\ on\\ different\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;None\\ o\\ this\\ happens\\ in\\ David\\ where\\ the\\ naked\\ individual\\ n\\ how\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ addressed\\ is\\ offered\\ 2view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mme\\ Verniac\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1799\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ owman\\ is\\ arranged\\ as\\ a\\ monumental\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ echoes\\ the\\ chair\\,\\ shawl\\ entwines\\ her\\ body\\,\\ conveying\\ volume\\.there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ abstract\\ formal\\ beauty\\ here\\ that\\ has\\ nothing\\ 2do\\ w\\ something\\ I\\ forget\\ she\\ just\\ said\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elisabeth\\ Vigee\\-Lebrun\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\Mme\\ de\\ Stael\\ as\\ Corinne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1807\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ illustration\\ o\\ different\\ type\\ o\\ portrait\\:\\ \\ \\;representation\\ o\\ individual\\ as\\ creativegenius\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shown\\ here\\ as\\ heroine\\ in\\ her\\ immensely\\ popular\\ novel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ dresses\\ her\\ up\\ as\\ Corinne\\ n\\ features\\ her\\ in\\ landscape\\ that\\ performs\\ different\\ fucniton\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ naturalize\\ her\\ role\\ defined\\ by\\ gender\\,\\ but\\ creates\\ a\\ setting\\ 4her\\ creative\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ improvising\\,\\ holding\\ a\\ lyre\\ like\\ a\\ something\\,\\ improvising\\ a\\ poem\\,\\ defining\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ creative\\ woman\\,\\ that\\ she\\ was\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ gaze\\ upward\\ shows\\ her\\ caught\\ ina\\ moment\\ o\\ instpiration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landscape\\ has\\ her\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ sublime\\ n\\ eternal\\.\\ \\ \\;Imposing\\,\\ statuesque\\,\\ though\\ not\\ idealized\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ the\\ gap\\ in\\ herteeth\\!\\ \\ \\;Not\\ the\\ prettiest\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ best\\ friends\\ w\\ some\\ woman\\ who\\ was\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Double\\ chin\\,\\ teeth\\ gap\\,\\ shown\\ w\\ frankness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Jean\\-Auguste\\-Dominique\\ Ignres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mme\\ Sabine\\ Riviere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1805\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ emerges\\ from\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ invention\\,\\ is\\ a\\ whole\\ mode\\ o\\ portrayal\\ used\\ by\\ many\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ shown\\ by\\ pupil\\ o\\ David\\&hellip\\;Ingres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mme\\ Riviere\\ \\=\\ wife\\ o\\ Napoleonic\\ official\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ portraits\\ engage\\ in\\ the\\ formula\\ established\\ by\\ the\\ serisia\\.\\ \\ \\;Illustratedby\\ very\\ different\\ social\\ ideals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ who\\ gain\\ prominence\\ n\\ economic\\ wealth\\ thru\\ an\\ association\\ w\\ napoleon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ picking\\ up\\ on\\ what\\ was\\ established\\ by\\ David\\ in\\ his\\ portrait\\ o\\ Mme\\ somebody\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ much\\ older\\ sister\\ o\\ Delacroix\\ actually\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ingres\\ picks\\ up\\ that\\ model\\ o\\ a\\ owman\\ ddrssed\\ in\\ fashionable\\ clothing\\,\\ w\\ a\\ scarf\\ that\\ defines\\ her\\ presence\\ here\\ ina\\ different\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ in\\ a\\ sculptural\\ presence\\,\\ but\\ flat\\,\\ elegant\\ distrubitno\\ o\\ shapes\\ that\\ wraps\\ around\\ her\\ n\\ rests\\ on\\ ths\\ cushion\\ o\\ the\\ sofa\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ represents\\ confidence\\,\\ ease\\.\\ \\ \\;Leaning\\ on\\ softness\\ o\\ the\\ cushions\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ almost\\ palpable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Veil\\ draped\\ over\\ cusions\\.\\ \\ \\;Visual\\ pattern\\ o\\ which\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ part\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ body\\ flattened\\ n\\ regularized\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ oval\\ eyes\\ repating\\ other\\ ovals\\ in\\ thep\\ ntg\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ the\\ pattern\\ o\\ the\\ shawl\\ that\\ Ingres\\ renders\\ w\\ great\\ accuracy\\ n\\ pleasure\\,\\ indulging\\ in\\ production\\ o\\ sumptuousness\\ in\\ fashion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\M\\.\\ Philipert\\ Riviere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Her\\ husband\\ shown\\ in\\ a\\ rectangle\\,\\ nto\\ an\\ oval\\.\\ \\ \\;Subtle\\ elemtns\\ o\\ his\\ wealth\\.\\ \\ \\;Gold\\ trinkets\\,\\ references\\ 2his\\ hobbies\\ n\\ pleasures\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ reads\\ Rousseau\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ presence\\ o\\ someobyd\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ print\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ describes\\ this\\ private\\ individual\\,\\ shown\\ in\\ similar\\ way\\ to\\ how\\ Raphael\\ showed\\ the\\ pope\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rapheael\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pope\\ Julius\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attn\\ 2ringed\\ hands\\ n\\ ealth\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ \\(Riviere\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ have\\ here\\ a\\ return\\ 2wealth\\ n\\ prestige\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ bodily\\ presence\\ that\\ this\\ man\\ emphasizes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mlle\\ Carolien\\ Riviere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Daughter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formula\\ o\\ renaissance\\ image\\,\\ illustrated\\ here\\,\\ is\\ adopted\\ by\\ Ingres\\,\\ 2depict\\ this\\ young\\ woman\\ standing\\ against\\ a\\ landscape\\,\\ w\\ the\\ format\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ echoing\\ the\\ circular\\ shape\\ o\\ canvasses\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ how\\ ingres\\ pays\\ attn\\ 2the\\ attributes\\ o\\ this\\ owman\\,\\ the\\ strange\\,\\ snaky\\ ermine\\ o\\ the\\ fur\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ enormous\\ hand\\,\\ sense\\ o\\ distortion\\,\\ which\\ swe\\ saw\\ in\\ the\\ obelisk\\.\\ \\ \\;Small\\ as\\ the\\ head\\ is\\ n\\ tightly\\ n\\ neatly\\ rendered\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ n\\ its\\ hair\\,\\ but\\ her\\ hair\\ has\\ a\\ simlaar\\ snaky\\ ermine\\ presence\\ o\\ the\\ thing\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ holding\\ in\\ her\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ almost\\ exchangeable\\ w\\ the\\ clothing\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wearing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ context\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ the\\ development\\ o\\ the\\ portraiture\\&hellip\\;we\\ need\\ 2situate\\ the\\ expierments\\ o\\ early\\ impressionists\\ w\\ portraiture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Monet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Camille\\ Monet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unlike\\ Ingres\\ or\\ David\\ or\\ Vestier\\,\\ for\\ Monet\\,\\ what\\ counts\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ past\\,\\ but\\ different\\ kidsn\\ o\\ pressures\\.\\ \\ \\;Pressures\\ o\\ other\\ forms\\ o\\ representation\\ which\\ r\\ being\\ developed\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forms\\ o\\ popular\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ fashion\\ inllustraiton\\,\\ other\\ types\\ o\\ images\\ in\\ the\\ press\\,\\ n\\ also\\ something\\ not\\ menteiond\\ till\\ now\\:\\ \\ \\;photography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ posed\\ particular\\ challenge\\ for\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ privileged\\ means\\ o\\ securing\\ likeness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claude\\ REutlinger\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ the\\ entertainer\\ Theresa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ photograph\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2put\\ the\\ long\\ story\\ in\\ a\\ nutshell\\,\\ the\\ pressure\\ o\\ portraiture\\ was\\ 2invite\\ the\\ artist\\ 2reinvent\\ the\\ portrait\\ so\\ it\\ shows\\ a\\ fnctn\\ outside\\ just\\ capturing\\ likeness\\.\\ \\ \\;Artist\\ has\\ 2do\\ something\\ other\\ than\\ what\\ a\\ photographer\\ can\\ so\\ easily\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ 2give\\ a\\ psychological\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\,\\ romanticism\\,\\ lyricism\\,\\ n\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ htreat\\ o\\ pressure\\ o\\ popular\\ forms\\ o\\ poluar\\ culture\\,\\ b\\/w\\ which\\ the\\ portrait\\ genre\\ is\\ now\\ squeezed\\ n\\ sandwiched\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ w\\/parrott\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1866\\,\\ MOMA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ genre\\/portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;Critics\\ recognized\\ this\\ sandwiched\\ status\\ o\\ portraiture\\,\\ the\\ challenge\\ posed\\ by\\ portraiture\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ n\\ they\\ talked\\ about\\ it\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ the\\ threat\\ o\\ vulgarity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ avoided\\ vulgarity\\ n\\ was\\ recognized\\ 4it\\,\\ such\\ that\\ a\\ critic\\ writing\\ about\\ this\\ pntg\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ u\\ see\\ a\\ fashionable\\ woman\\ dressed\\ in\\ this\\ pink\\ gown\\,\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ the\\ stiches\\ in\\ the\\ gown\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ the\\ commodity\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ the\\ artist\\ interposing\\ his\\ vision\\ bw\\ u\\ n\\ the\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sense\\ o\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ 2see\\ the\\ details\\ o\\ the\\ dress\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ expanse\\ o\\ light\\ pinkness\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ one\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ artist\\ escaped\\ commodificaiton\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ hteh\\ artist\\ stages\\ the\\ attribute\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ speaks\\ o\\ nothing\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ enigmatic\\ attribute\\ that\\ Manet\\ stages\\ as\\ a\\ reference\\ 2himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ manet\\ n\\ Monet\\,\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ escape\\ the\\ traps\\ o\\ 2different\\ kinds\\ o\\ challenges\\,\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\ 2walkstraight\\ ahead\\ on\\ a\\ hair\\ balanced\\ on\\ lyricism\\ n\\ vulgarity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Someone\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ walk\\ that\\ thin\\ line\\ but\\ plunges\\ int2\\ the\\ literalness\\ associated\\ w\\ fashion\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*James\\ Jacques\\ Tissot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ of\\ Fashion\\ \\(La\\ Mondaine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ artist\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ artist\\ who\\ works\\ in\\ London\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ here\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ a\\ woman\\ wrapped\\ in\\ feathers\\/laces\\/satin\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ allows\\ u\\ 2count\\ the\\ stitches\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ literal\\ rendition\\ o\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Features\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ Parisienne\\,\\ a\\ type\\,\\ being\\ established\\/redefined\\ by\\ the\\ media\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ clip\\ from\\ a\\ newspaper\\&hellip\\;women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faces\\ being\\ lined\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ tower\\,\\ standing\\ for\\ face\\ fream\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tissot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Political\\ Woman\\ \\(L\\&rsquo\\;Ambiteuse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ 1883\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ as\\ type\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bridesmaid\\ \\(La\\ demoiselle\\ d\\&rsquo\\;honneur\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ can\\ see\\ her\\ in\\ the\\ manican\\ appearance\\ o\\ l\\&rsquo\\;ambiteuse\\&hellip\\;fashion\\ is\\ taken\\ literally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ coyrefeerence\\ to\\ a\\ bridesmaid\\ flirting\\ w\\ the\\ groom\\.\\ \\ \\;Reinforcing\\ the\\ most\\ fascile\\ associations\\ one\\ can\\ have\\&hellip\\;w\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ this\\ note\\,\\ we\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ get\\ a\\ clear\\ sense\\ o\\ this\\ lecture\\&rsquo\\;\\ main\\ idea\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\fashion\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ clothes\\,\\ but\\ 2an\\ aesthetic\\ challenge\\ that\\ not\\ everyone\\ responded\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ November\\ 19\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Body\\ and\\ Class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Review\\:\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ modernity\\ \\(c\\.1860\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ideal\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\imperative\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ render\\ the\\ key\\ aspect\\ of\\ modern\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ new\\ urban\\ themes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;music\\ at\\ the\\ Tuilleries\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ kinds\\ of\\ fashionable\\ bodies\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\body\\ experienced\\ in\\ the\\ crowd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ a\\ hybrid\\ of\\ genre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Urban\\ experience\\ in\\ Paris\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ body\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;modernization\\ of\\ Paris\\ in\\ 1800s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Done\\ by\\ Haussmann\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Straightening\\ of\\ the\\ streets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boulevards\\ were\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ culture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ boulevard\\ culture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ emerged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\ alter\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ body\\ functioned\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cafes\\,\\ boulevards\\,\\ shops\\,\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ entertainment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ kinds\\ of\\ bodily\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strollers\\ and\\ travelers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entertainers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lookers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Gustave\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ pont\\ de\\ L\\&rsquo\\;Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[The\\ Bridge\\ of\\ Europe\\]\\,\\ 1876\\,\\ Geneva\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\GC\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ had\\ this\\ outward\\ pull\\,\\ like\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ was\\ a\\ magnet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ plunging\\/zooming\\ structure\\ defined\\ by\\ this\\ beam\\ o\\ the\\ bridge\\,\\ by\\ which\\ a\\ pensive\\ worker\\ is\\ shown\\ 2b\\ looking\\/thinking\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ wrkr\\ bc\\ he\\ wears\\ the\\ typical\\ smock\\ o\\ a\\ wrkr\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ spatial\\ tension\\ bw\\ this\\ wrkr\\ n\\ the\\ bourgeois\\ inhiabtants\\ behind\\ him\\,\\ w\\ the\\ elegant\\ lady\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Caillebotte\\ himself\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ next\\ 2the\\ lady\\ n\\ the\\ top\\ hat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ visual\\ dynamic\\ is\\ reinforced\\ by\\ the\\ dog\\ walking\\ backwards\\,\\ indicating\\ the\\ thrust\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ then\\ an\\ actual\\ character\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Pont\\ d\\&rsquo\\;L\\&rsquo\\;europe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ pntg\\ o\\ this\\ bridge\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Again\\ the\\ structural\\ relationship\\ focusedo\\ n\\ thte\\ bridge\\ n\\ the\\ human\\ figures\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ vision\\ not\\ plunging\\,\\ but\\ lateral\\ n\\ surface\\ oriented\\,\\ moving\\ one\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Cinematic\\ in\\ its\\ quality\\ o\\ being\\ a\\ frame\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ caught\\ n\\ is\\ intercepting\\ w\\ the\\ person\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ whose\\ face\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ tension\\ brought\\ aobut\\ by\\ the\\ new\\ urban\\ architecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Transformation\\ by\\ Ausman\\ of\\ Paris\\,\\ u\\ get\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ aggression\\ almost\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ city\\ is\\ organizing\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ aggressively\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Claude\\ Monet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gare\\ St\\.\\ Lazare\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ kind\\ o\\ vision\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ opposite\\ o\\ Caillebotte\\.\\ \\ \\;Caillebotte\\ is\\ in2\\ space\\,\\ tension\\,\\ structure\\,\\ while\\ Monet\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ dissolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ train\\ coming\\ in\\ on\\ a\\ sunny\\ beautiful\\ day\\,\\ but\\ lots\\ o\\ mist\\ around\\ which\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ steam\\ engine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ mist\\ seems\\ 2perniciously\\ erode\\ everyting\\ around\\ it\\,\\ including\\ the\\ very\\ shape\\ o\\ the\\ engine\\ that\\ comes\\ forward\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ r\\ bodies\\ here\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ wayward\\ worker\\,\\ or\\ a\\ soldier\\,\\ n\\ there\\ r\\ other\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ put\\ forward\\ in\\ a\\ prominent\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ railroad\\ station\\ \\=\\ a\\ modern\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;Railway\\ is\\ new\\.\\ \\ \\;Steam\\ engine\\ emerged\\ in\\ 1840s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ represented\\ by\\ the\\ realists\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Honore\\ Daumier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ HTird\\ class\\ carriage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Approach\\ 2railway\\ here\\ is\\ radically\\ different\\,\\ channeled\\ thru\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ type\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daumier\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ conveying\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;class\\-ness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Space\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ train\\ where\\ ppl\\ w\\ little\\ money\\ squeeze\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ o\\ typology\\,\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\ embodied\\ by\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ is\\ unambiguously\\ class\\,\\ is\\ what\\ Daumier\\ is\\ all\\ about\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ Monet\\ is\\ oblivious\\ 2the\\ notion\\ o\\ human\\ typology\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ figures\\ r\\ not\\ characters\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ positioned\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ class\\ o\\ physiognomy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ seems\\ 2melt\\ away\\ under\\ this\\ vision\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ feleting\\ nature\\ o\\ perceptual\\ experience\\,\\ which\\ the\\ artist\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ documenting\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ on\\ the\\ left\\:\\ \\ \\;these\\ nebulous\\,\\ blotchy\\ strokes\\ that\\ he\\ uses\\ 2convey\\ the\\ setam\\,\\ but\\ also\\ look\\ how\\ he\\ pnts\\ in\\ bw\\ the\\ rails\\,\\ n\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ even\\ the\\ glass\\ obtains\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\ o\\ textrually\\ indifferent\\ quality\\,\\ o\\ a\\ similar\\ kind\\ that\\ u\\ can\\ witness\\ at\\ the\\ pntg\\ in\\ the\\ Fogg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ disfigured\\ materiality\\ is\\ what\\ epitomizes\\ modernity\\ n\\ Monet\\,\\ a\\ project\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ absent\\,\\ although\\ it\\ seems\\ thematically\\ understated\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ transformed\\ in2\\ a\\ ptn\\ o\\ view\\,\\ as\\ behind\\ it\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ secures\\ this\\ quality\\ o\\ vision\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ its\\ contingency\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ point\\ o\\ view\\,\\ the\\ perceiving\\ apparatus\\ that\\ the\\ pntr\\ identifies\\ w\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ our\\ body\\ experiences\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ perceptual\\ quality\\ o\\ this\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ in\\ 3\\ different\\ ways\\/modes\\ o\\ interpreting\\ this\\ kidn\\ o\\ shift\\ towards\\ perception\\ in\\ impressionism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ form\\ o\\ visual\\ transcription\\ o\\ transience\\,\\ movement\\,\\ contingency\\,\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ visual\\ equivalent\\ o\\ the\\ fleeting\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ external\\ world\\,\\ put\\ in2\\ pnt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ amounts\\ 2a\\ kind\\ o\\ objectivist\\,\\ dispassionate\\ observation\\,\\ which\\ could\\ b\\ likened\\ 2literary\\ trends\\ o\\ the\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;naturalism\\,\\ which\\ also\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ dispassionate\\ observation\\.\\ \\ \\;Zolar\\,\\ which\\ we\\ should\\ read\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ form\\ o\\ vision\\ as\\ a\\ signifier\\ o\\ objectivity\\,\\ o\\ dissonance\\,\\ or\\ conversely\\,\\ as\\ an\\ ultra\\-objective\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;the\\ kind\\ o\\ vision\\ a\\ camera\\ might\\ produce\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ that\\ instantaneous\\,\\ indexical\\ image\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ camera\\,\\ but\\ inscribed\\ form\\ w\\/in\\ by\\ arbitrariness\\,\\ thickness\\ o\\ pigment\\,\\ division\\ produced\\ yb\\ the\\ artist\\ not\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ romantic\\ involvement\\ or\\ anything\\ like\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\:\\ \\ \\;this\\ vision\\ emphasized\\ by\\ 2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ insists\\ on\\ this\\ vision\\ o\\ the\\ city\\ turned\\ in2\\ a\\ disfugred\\/disarticulated\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ city\\,\\ dissolved\\ n\\ disarticulated\\ by\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ vision\\ o\\ modernity\\ as\\ the\\ experience\\ that\\ blurred\\ all\\ kidns\\ o\\ distinctions\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ pictorial\\ transcription\\ o\\ this\\ economically\\ specific\\ kind\\ o\\ modern\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caillebotte\\ offers\\ the\\ opposite\\ 2Monet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ solution\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Street\\ in\\ Paris\\:\\ \\ \\;Rainy\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ new\\ bourgeois\\ quarter\\ just\\ created\\ by\\ Ausman\\.\\ \\ \\;Regularid\\,\\ bureaucratic\\ grid\\ o\\ the\\ architecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Shows\\ how\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ inserted\\ in2\\ this\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ r\\ shown\\ here\\ walking\\,\\ most\\ o\\ tehm\\ idle\\ class\\ ppl\\ dressed\\ in\\ black\\,\\ as\\ they\\ all\\ were\\ at\\ that\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Insistently\\ dispassionate\\ expressions\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sense\\ o\\ affect\\,\\ emotion\\ coveyed\\,\\ nor\\ insistence\\ on\\ physiognomies\\ meaning\\ anything\\ beyond\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ physiognomic\\ project\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rhythm\\ o\\ the\\ stones\\ defines\\ their\\ steps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Certain\\ degree\\ o\\ automatism\\ characterized\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Bodies\\ randomlyon\\ the\\ st\\.\\,\\ yet\\ choreographed\\ too\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ 2men\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ r\\ walking\\ in\\ unison\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ Caillebotte\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ 2b\\ doing\\ something\\ similar\\ 2what\\ Monet\\ was\\ doing\\:\\ \\ \\;2talk\\ about\\ the\\ quality\\ o\\ life\\,\\ which\\ may\\ seem\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ 2b\\ elegant\\ n\\ well\\ organized\\,\\ but\\ also\\ harbors\\ w\\/in\\ itself\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ autonomitism\\,\\ structure\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ taking\\ over\\ the\\ lives\\ o\\ organisms\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\ shares\\ w\\ Caillebotte\\ the\\ interest\\ in\\ spatial\\ structure\\&hellip\\;very\\ similar\\ yet\\ different\\ approach\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Edgar\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vicomte\\ Lepic\\ w\\/his\\ daughters\\ \\(Place\\ de\\ la\\ Concorde\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interesting\\ 2see\\ this\\ pntg\\ in\\ connection\\ w\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ whose\\ vision\\ I\\ sunified\\ by\\ this\\ powerful\\,\\ zooming\\ lens\\,\\ whereas\\ Degas\\ shows\\ a\\ similar\\ situation\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ highly\\ disjunctive\\ n\\ discontinuous\\.\\ \\ \\;Fragmented\\ n\\ disconnected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vicomte\\ has\\ the\\ cigar\\ stuck\\ bw\\ his\\ teeth\\ here\\,\\ walking\\ w\\ umbrella\\ under\\ his\\ arm\\ n\\ accompanied\\ by\\ his\\ 2daugthers\\ dressed\\ just\\ like\\ him\\,\\ n\\ a\\ dog\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ intercepted\\ by\\ the\\ frame\\ on\\ the\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Interesting\\ how\\ these\\ figures\\ r\\ both\\ displaced\\ 2the\\ edge\\ o\\ the\\ cameras\\,\\ they\\ may\\ diappear\\ at\\ any\\ moment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ all\\ move\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ daughter\\ n\\ Vicotme\\ seem\\ ready\\ 2collide\\,\\ bc\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ concern\\ w\\ providing\\ a\\ unity\\ 2the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ appear\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ artist\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interested\\ in\\ making\\ this\\ normal\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wants\\ 2emphasize\\ disjunction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ dispassionate\\ expression\\ on\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\,\\ like\\ a\\ dog\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obviously\\ a\\ vision\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ contingency\\ o\\ this\\ approach\\ that\\ Degas\\ shared\\ w\\ his\\ impressinosit\\ buddies\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ is\\ radically\\ anti\\-narrative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Figures\\ in\\ space\\,\\ but\\ u\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ construct\\ any\\ anecdote\\ around\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ radically\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ acidic\\ ways\\ o\\ constructing\\ a\\ narratie\\ visually\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\ as\\ a\\ mere\\ geometrical\\ accident\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radical\\ dispersal\\,\\ anti\\-narrativity\\,\\ obduration\\ o\\ all\\ traces\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;pregnant\\ moment\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Throwing\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ all\\ the\\ conventions\\ o\\ constructing\\ a\\ pntg\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ in\\ order\\ 2offers\\ something\\ more\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ tho\\,\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ artifice\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arbitrarily\\ framed\\ n\\ organized\\ by\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ deliberateness\\ which\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ contradictory\\ 2the\\ emphasis\\ on\\ naturalness\\ just\\ discussed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Friend\\ o\\ Degas\\ coined\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ pntg\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ wrote\\ a\\ text\\ on\\ Degas\\ which\\ Degas\\ probly\\ collaborated\\ w\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\ defined\\ the\\ newness\\ o\\ Degas\\ as\\ linked\\ 2the\\ idea\\ o\\ shock\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\His\\ purpose\\ was\\ 2eliminate\\ the\\ partition\\ that\\ separated\\ the\\ artist\\ from\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shock\\ was\\ the\\ quality\\ dear\\ 2Baudelaire\\,\\ who\\ talked\\ about\\ electrical\\ charge\\,\\ n\\ that\\ serves\\ here\\ in\\ Degas\\ 2create\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ relation\\ bw\\ the\\ city\\ n\\ the\\ body\\:\\ \\ \\;an\\ intimate\\ rapport\\ which\\ is\\ devoid\\ o\\ all\\ anecdotal\\ references\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\ epitomizes\\ the\\ structural\\ innovaitnos\\ 2gether\\ w\\ Caillebotte\\ insofar\\ as\\ he\\ emphasizes\\ anti\\-narrativity\\ n\\ construction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Berthe\\ Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Paris\\ seen\\ from\\ Trocadero\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Figures\\ pntd\\ w\\ dispassionate\\,\\ observatory\\ insistence\\ on\\ things\\ being\\ seen\\ as\\ they\\ are\\,\\ w\\ blurred\\ physiognomies\\ n\\ costume\\ \\(no\\ counting\\ the\\ stitches\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Girl\\ in\\ foreground\\ is\\ almost\\ just\\ a\\ smudge\\ o\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ sketchiness\\ n\\ spatial\\ compositional\\ arbirariness\\ r\\ the\\ devices\\ thru\\ which\\ Morisot\\ signals\\ the\\ quality\\ o\\ her\\ vision\\ as\\ instantaneous\\,\\ as\\ documenting\\ a\\ certain\\ momnt\\ in\\ time\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ documenting\\ a\\ moment\\ in\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ r\\ shown\\ here\\ standing\\,\\ but\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ promenade\\ is\\ implied\\ by\\ the\\ running\\ fence\\ thru\\ the\\ picture\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;circle\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ spatial\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;category\\ o\\ entertainers\\ n\\ spaces\\ o\\ entertainment\\ n\\ bodies\\ in\\ this\\ spaces\\ is\\ illustrated\\ here\\ by\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\At\\ the\\ caf\\é\\;\\-concert\\ \\&ldquo\\;Les\\ Ambassadeurs\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\-77\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pastel\\ on\\ monotype\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Song\\ of\\ the\\ Dog\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(La\\ Chanson\\ du\\ chien\\)\\,\\ 1875\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ refer\\ 2the\\ whole\\ new\\ territory\\ o\\ pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;Caf\\é\\;\\ concert\\,\\ coffee\\ shop\\ n\\ bar\\ w\\ live\\ new\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orchestra\\ pit\\,\\ huge\\ audience\\ surrounding\\ the\\ performance\\ o\\ this\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ r\\ characteriszed\\ by\\ a\\ compositional\\ instantaneity\\,\\ a\\ structural\\ innovation\\ typical\\ o\\ Degas\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ ambassadors\\ throws\\ us\\ straight\\ in2\\ the\\ image\\,\\ loking\\ from\\ the\\ upper\\ rows\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\ down\\ in2\\ the\\ orchestra\\ pit\\.\\ \\ \\;Bass\\ sticking\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ shown\\ in\\ momentary\\ gesture\\,\\ reaching\\ out\\,\\ including\\ the\\ audience\\ in\\ her\\ song\\ as\\ our\\ author\\ o\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\ put\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ whon\\:\\ \\ \\;smudginess\\ o\\ her\\ dress\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\way\\ in\\ which\\ her\\ hand\\ is\\ extended\\ by\\ globes\\ o\\ glas\\ lights\\&hellip\\;conveys\\ that\\ instantaneity\\ n\\ contingency\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gesture\\ is\\ also\\ imptnt\\ in\\ this\\ painting\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ refers\\ 2the\\ song\\ this\\ owman\\ is\\ singing\\ about\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ was\\ making\\ advances\\ but\\ who\\ was\\ told\\ off\\ by\\ here\\,\\ 2come\\ back\\ on\\ Sunday\\ when\\ the\\ couples\\ r\\ married\\ \\&ldquo\\;paws\\ off\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mimicking\\ this\\ mimickry\\ itself\\,\\ interesting\\ bc\\ it\\ gives\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ this\\ particular\\ performance\\ as\\ one\\ that\\ needs\\ 2b\\ defined\\ on\\ 2levels\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ terms\\ o\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ songs\\ that\\ were\\ sung\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ songs\\ belonged\\ 2\\ a\\ pop\\ culture\\,\\ a\\ repertoire\\ that\\ emphasized\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\,\\ o\\ women\\,\\ o\\ political\\ resonsnaces\\ \\(censorship\\ was\\ often\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ one\\ point\\ this\\ singer\\ was\\ silenced\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ whole\\ new\\ type\\ o\\ entertainment\\ that\\ had\\ nothing\\ 2do\\ w\\ high\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ new\\ commerce\\,\\ the\\ Paris\\,\\ the\\ classes\\,\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ ppl\\ wrkng\\ in\\ Departmetn\\ stores\\,\\ the\\ petit\\ bourgeois\\,\\ lower\\ bourgeoisie\\,\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ frequent\\ visitor\\ o\\ these\\ performances\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ its\\ emphasize\\ on\\ disjuctedness\\ n\\ discontinuity\\ tells\\ us\\ something\\ about\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ class\\ that\\ is\\ both\\ pleasurable\\ and\\ something\\ else\\ I\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Edouard\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bar\\ at\\ the\\ Folies\\-Bergere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ crowning\\ wrk\\ o\\ Clark\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ in\\ 2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ confronted\\ by\\ a\\ bar\\ maid\\ selling\\ drinks\\ n\\ refreshments\\,\\ n\\ whose\\ refelction\\ is\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ mirror\\.\\ \\ \\;Behind\\ her\\ is\\ a\\ crowd\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ show\\ going\\ on\\ onstage\\,\\ n\\ the\\ lights\\ that\\ define\\ this\\ space\\ along\\ w\\ the\\ chandeliers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ visual\\ discrepancies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refelciton\\ o\\ the\\ mirror\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ match\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ woman\\ is\\ shown\\ 2\\ the\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;Gentleman\\ shown\\ on\\ ly\\ in\\ the\\ mirror\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ him\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ her\\ in\\ real\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ a\\ very\\ particular\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stop\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Consolutaion\\ seller\\ at\\ the\\ Folies\\-Bergere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ caricature\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ initially\\ a\\ department\\ store\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ owner\\ o\\ the\\ space\\ removed\\ the\\ upper\\ row\\ o\\ the\\ thater\\ that\\ he\\ created\\ w\\ a\\ very\\ elaborate\\ stage\\ \\(had\\ a\\ winter\\ garden\\,\\ it\\ was\\ like\\ a\\ Disney\\ land\\ o\\ sorts\\)\\,\\ n\\ in\\ this\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\ parts\\ o\\ the\\ room\\,\\ there\\ were\\ places\\ where\\ barmaids\\ lik\\ this\\ sold\\ their\\ wares\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ space\\ o\\ promenade\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ urban\\ space\\ interiorized\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ a\\ spectacle\\ was\\ going\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ did\\ Manet\\ render\\ this\\?\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ uncertainty\\ n\\ spatial\\ inconsitency\\ that\\ was\\ disturbing\\ 2thsoe\\ who\\ saw\\ this\\ pntg\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ exhibited\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ artist\\ inserted\\ the\\ body\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ recent\\ research\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ this\\ vision\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ so\\ much\\ incorrect\\ n\\ discrepant\\,\\ but\\ just\\ misleading\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\,\\ painted\\ study\\ for\\ the\\ Bar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ woman\\ from\\ the\\ side\\,\\ so\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ sketch\\ 4the\\ pntg\\ shows\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ standing\\ someone\\ where\\ we\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ the\\ man\\,\\ ut\\ could\\ only\\ see\\ him\\ reflected\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ sketch\\ also\\ shows\\ something\\ that\\ render\\ the\\ reading\\ o\\ Clark\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\ as\\ disjointed\\ very\\ accurate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ could\\ have\\ rendered\\ the\\ woman\\ w\\ much\\ verisimilitude\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ reflected\\ boyd\\ could\\ have\\ bene\\ closer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ counter\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ more\\ askw\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ pntg\\,\\ Manet\\ erased\\ the\\ traces\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ production\\ from\\ a\\ specific\\ pont\\ o\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ made\\ the\\ counter\\ parallel\\ 2us\\,\\ creating\\ the\\ expectation\\ o\\ seeing\\ the\\ man\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ rmirror\\,\\ yet\\ he\\ rustrates\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ argument\\ constructed\\ by\\ Clark\\ around\\ the\\ spatial\\ relation\\ is\\ still\\ maintainable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clark\\ suggests\\ that\\ in\\ that\\ spatial\\ disjunction\\,\\ that\\ sense\\ o\\ detachment\\&hellip\\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ conveyed\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ only\\ the\\ nature\\ o\\ perceptual\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ pleasure\\ n\\ alienation\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hot\\,\\ yet\\ alienated\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ dispassionate\\ glance\\,\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ her\\ face\\ is\\ pntd\\,\\ the\\ mask\\ she\\ seems\\ to\\ wear\\ in\\ all\\ her\\ opacity\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ eternal\\ split\\ o\\ the\\ self\\,\\ which\\ the\\ structure\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\ in\\ Clark\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ refers\\ 2\\,\\ n\\ the\\ mask\\,\\ which\\ preventsboth\\ us\\ and\\ this\\ girl\\ from\\ accessing\\ herself\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trapeze\\ pntg\\ or\\ osmehitng\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Its\\ fragmented\\ quality\\ can\\ speak\\ 2the\\ spycholgoical\\ fragmentation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ball\\ at\\ the\\ Moulin\\ de\\ la\\ Galette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Renoir\\ produces\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;happy\\&rdquo\\;\\ vision\\ o\\ urban\\ pleasures\\ in\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ dynamically\\ organies\\ his\\ composition\\ 2match\\ the\\ dynamic\\ quality\\ o\\ his\\ subject\\:\\ \\ \\;this\\ is\\ a\\ Sunday\\ dance\\ next\\ 2an\\ old\\ windmill\\,\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ ppl\\ came\\ 2dance\\ outdoors\\,\\ n\\ where\\ impressionists\\ were\\ frequent\\ visitors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Renoirs\\ had\\ a\\ studio\\ nearby\\ in\\ order\\ 2pnt\\ this\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ he\\ tell\\ us\\,\\ n\\ how\\&rsquo\\;s\\ he\\ do\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ a\\ narrow\\ vision\\ shown\\ diagonally\\ along\\ this\\ bench\\ were\\ ppl\\ r\\ gathered\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inserting\\ us\\ in2\\ the\\ pntg\\ in\\ a\\ dynamic\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ suggests\\ thru\\ rapid\\ changing\\ o\\ scale\\ not\\ only\\ depth\\ but\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ dynamism\\ n\\ movement\\,\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ dancers\\ were\\ spiraling\\ in\\ circles\\ outwards\\ towards\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ pnts\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ 2document\\ perceptual\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ how\\ the\\ space\\ bw\\ figures\\ is\\ filled\\ w\\ the\\ same\\ brushstrokes\\ as\\ the\\ dress\\ o\\ the\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blurring\\ o\\ physiognomies\\,\\ blurring\\ o\\ whole\\ silhouettes\\,\\ stands\\ 4this\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ contingency\\ o\\ vision\\ shown\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vibrant\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ critic\\ observed\\ that\\ the\\ shimmering\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\ makes\\ one\\ think\\ \\&ldquo\\;o\\ the\\ dainty\\ Chiense\\ princess\\ described\\ by\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\,\\ her\\ greatest\\ pleasure\\ in\\ life\\ was\\ 2tear\\ up\\ satin\\ n\\ silk\\ w\\ her\\ jade\\ nails\\,\\ n\\ watch\\ the\\ colors\\ drift\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ breeze\\ like\\ so\\ many\\ butterflies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bathing\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ pleasure\\ that\\ such\\ entertainment\\ provided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ last\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ move\\ 2\\ \\&ldquo\\;high\\ entertainment\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;theater\\ n\\ ballet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rehearsal\\ of\\ the\\ ballet\\ on\\ stage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pastel\\ on\\ monotype\\.\\ \\ \\;Dancing\\ class\\ w\\ male\\ teacher\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ o\\ the\\ theater\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Whole\\ view\\ structured\\ on\\ the\\ bar\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ kind\\ o\\ interest\\ in\\ establishing\\ a\\ degree\\ o\\ peril\\ bw\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ onstage\\ n\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ responds\\ 2teh\\ regime\\ o\\ representation\\ thru\\ ballet\\ poses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ circular\\ movement\\ inscribing\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ invited\\ 2look\\ at\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ballerines\\ shown\\ in\\ these\\ poses\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ psoes\\ that\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ subsumed\\ by\\ the\\ choreographic\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ woman\\ fixes\\ hair\\,\\ another\\ stretches\\ n\\ yawns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ something\\ about\\ ballet\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ problematic\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ glowing\\ n\\ happy\\ n\\ supported\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;ms\\ more\\ ciritcal\\:\\ \\ \\;most\\ o\\ these\\ women\\ needed\\ sponsors\\ 2act\\ in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ they\\ have\\ these\\ arrogant\\ poses\\,\\ like\\ they\\ own\\ the\\ spectacle\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ women\\ were\\ refererd\\ 2\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;little\\ rats\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ballet\\ Girl\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\14\\ years\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ \\&ldquo\\;rat\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Her\\ body\\ subjmitted\\ 2\\ a\\ pose\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ striking\\ that\\ pose\\,\\ w\\ degree\\ o\\ pride\\,\\ but\\ also\\ w\\ some\\ sense\\ o\\ misery\\ n\\ squalor\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ little\\ machine\\ 4dancing\\,\\ it\\ seems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dancers\\ practicing\\ at\\ the\\ bar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insistence\\ on\\ relation\\ bw\\ vision\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ n\\ the\\ nature\\ o\\ bodily\\ training\\ going\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ inserted\\ in2\\ the\\ pntg\\ again\\ in\\ a\\ similarly\\ dynamic\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ view\\ is\\ parallel\\ 2thsi\\ rapidly\\ escaping\\ bar\\ against\\ which\\ the\\ architectures\\ o\\ these\\ bodies\\ r\\ shown\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ pntg\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ what\\ these\\ ballerines\\ r\\ doing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Auguste\\ Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Opera\\ Box\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1874\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ audience\\ o\\ spectacles\\,\\ the\\ lookers\\,\\ r\\ submitted\\ 2our\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ distribution\\ o\\ roles\\ \\(very\\ traditional\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ does\\ the\\ looking\\ w\\ his\\ opera\\ glasses\\,\\ \\=\\ subject\\ o\\ the\\ loko\\,\\ while\\ woman\\ \\=\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grandville\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Venus\\ in\\ an\\ opera\\-box\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1844\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ at\\ bar\\,\\ men\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ eyes\\ on\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ object\\ o\\ the\\ look\\ is\\ defined\\ here\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ focuses\\ our\\ attn\\ on\\ the\\ black\\ velvet\\ o\\ her\\ dress\\,\\ the\\ white\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baudelaire\\,\\ in\\ talking\\ about\\ this\\ woman\\ \\(man\\ \\=\\ brother\\ o\\ Renoir\\,\\ n\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ model\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;fish\\ face\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ Baud\\ talked\\ about\\ her\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ one\\ o\\ those\\ women\\ w\\ pearly\\ white\\ cheeks\\,\\ w\\ banal\\ passion\\ in\\ her\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;Attractive\\,\\ stupid\\,\\ delicious\\,\\ boring\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ structure\\ o\\ this\\ vision\\ enables\\ the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ incredible\\ projection\\ o\\ what\\ he\\ sees\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ lets\\ the\\ woman\\ be\\ objectified\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Mary\\ Cassatt\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\At\\ the\\ Opera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ \\=\\ a\\ certain\\ reveral\\ o\\ roles\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ caught\\ in\\ a\\ structure\\ o\\ gazes\\.\\ \\ \\;Someone\\ looks\\ at\\ her\\ from\\ another\\ balcony\\,\\ n\\ she\\ looks\\ at\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ refusal\\ 2map\\ the\\ subject\\ n\\ object\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ structure\\ o\\ vision\\ on2\\ a\\ man\\ or\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cassatt\\ offers\\ an\\ interchangeability\\.\\ \\ \\;Membership\\ in\\ a\\ network\\ in\\ which\\ life\\ itself\\ is\\ the\\ structure\\,\\ not\\ one\\ gender\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ Cassatt\\ ends\\ this\\ discussion\\ o\\ body\\ n\\ class\\ where\\ class\\ was\\ defined\\ on\\ one\\ hand\\ as\\ a\\ thematics\\,\\ n\\ overt\\ definition\\ o\\ class\\ specificity\\,\\ popular\\ culture\\ vs\\.\\ high\\ sculture\\ \\(opera\\ n\\ ballet\\)\\,\\ although\\ both\\ were\\ traversed\\ by\\ class\\ in\\ interesting\\ n\\ complex\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Class\\ as\\ structure\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ mode\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;o\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ is\\ how\\ these\\ aspects\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ 2convey\\ something\\ about\\ class\\ experience\\ that\\ can\\ to\\ be\\ produced\\ thru\\ mere\\ description\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;sex\\ and\\ money\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Realize\\,\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miss\\ Lala\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ Tisso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sporting\\ Ladies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\were\\ cancelled\\ form\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slide\\ lists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ November\\ 21\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Sex\\ and\\ Money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ talking\\ about\\ urban\\ experience\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ the\\ body\\ functioned\\ in\\ modern\\ urban\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Comparing\\ Caillebotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Streets\\ of\\ Paris\\ Rainy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ picture\\ w\\ two\\ girls\\ n\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ constructed\\ this\\ experience\\ very\\ differently\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ referred\\ 2urban\\ promenade\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ used\\ new\\ mundane\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caillebotte\\ tho\\ had\\ a\\ dynamic\\ relationship\\ bw\\ body\\ n\\ architecture\\ o\\ Paris\\&hellip\\;new\\ n\\ powerful\\ whole\\,\\ something\\ unified\\ by\\ architecture\\ o\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\ constructs\\ more\\ fragmentary\\ space\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ arbitrariness\\ o\\ vision\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ it\\ antinarrative\\,\\ disjunctivity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caillebotte\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ telling\\ a\\ story\\ either\\,\\ but\\ Degas\\ is\\ more\\ antinarrative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ class\\ in\\ relation\\ 2the\\ city\\ n\\ new\\ forms\\ o\\ popular\\ entertainment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moulin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\v\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bar\\ Made\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Representation\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ritical\\ o\\ the\\ class\\ dimension\\ o\\ entertiament\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\ as\\ spectacle\\,\\ versus\\ the\\ complicit\\ vision\\ o\\ Renoir\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ address\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\problem\\ o\\ sexuality\\ in\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;n\\ how\\ it\\ should\\ b\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;hinted\\ at\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ come\\ back\\ 2the\\ earlier\\ wrk\\ o\\ Manet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Issue\\ o\\ sexuality\\ is\\ inextricably\\ linked\\ 2the\\ problem\\ o\\ the\\ nude\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1860s\\:\\ \\ \\;many\\ artists\\ felt\\ the\\ nude\\,\\ which\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ o\\ academic\\ construction\\,\\ is\\ no\\ logner\\ adequate\\ 2use\\ in\\ the\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ modernity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ instead\\ o\\ rejecting\\ it\\ 4the\\ clothed\\ body\\,\\ Manet\\ posed\\ the\\ nude\\ as\\ a\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Edouard\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Luncheon\\ on\\ the\\ grass\\ \\(Le\\ Dejeuner\\ sur\\ l\\&rsquo\\;herbe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Sal\\.\\ Des\\ Refuses\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exhibited\\ at\\ the\\ Salon\\ of\\ the\\ refused\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ pntg\\ that\\ Manet\\ submitted\\ 2the\\ real\\ salon\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ rejected\\,\\ along\\ w\\ 3\\,000\\ others\\ among\\ 5\\,000\\ submitted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bc\\ o\\ the\\ pressure\\ o\\ public\\ opinion\\,\\ n\\ the\\ emperor\\ Napoleon\\ decided\\ 2organize\\ a\\ special\\ exhibit\\ o\\ the\\ rejections\\.\\ \\ \\;Smart\\ idea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ showed\\ 3\\ pntgs\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ caused\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\scandal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ on\\ 2\\ levels\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Its\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ modern\\ picnic\\ w\\ 2dressed\\ men\\ n\\ 2nude\\ women\\,\\ n\\ the\\ splnderous\\ still\\-life\\ spreadi\\ n\\ the\\ foreground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Its\\ disjunctive\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ theme\\ o\\ modern\\ picnic\\ shown\\ w\\ self\\-consciousness\\ about\\ the\\ juxtaposition\\ o\\ modern\\ themes\\ w\\ old\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gustave\\ Dore\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rustic\\ Pleasures\\ \\(Les\\ plaisirs\\ champetres\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modern\\ picnics\\ appeared\\ in\\ the\\ mass\\ imagery\\ quite\\ often\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ showed\\ rituals\\ o\\ life\\ n\\ leisure\\ n\\ nature\\,\\ which\\ had\\ become\\ incompatible\\ w\\ modernity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Group\\ o\\ ppl\\ trying\\ 2have\\ a\\ picnic\\ near\\ a\\ railway\\,\\ but\\ getting\\ suffocated\\ by\\ the\\ smoke\\ o\\ the\\ train\\.\\ \\ \\;Modernity\\ v\\.\\ enjoyable\\ relation\\ 2nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\,\\ tho\\,\\ raised\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ the\\ position\\ o\\ art\\ in\\ relation\\ 2the\\ experience\\ o\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ question\\ o\\ artistic\\ tradition\\ n\\ how\\ it\\ relates\\ 2certain\\ new\\ practices\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ he\\ do\\ that\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deliberately\\ mobilizing\\ the\\ traditional\\ representation\\,\\ illustrated\\ here\\ by\\ Raphael\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marcantonio\\ Raimondi\\ aft\\.\\ Raphael\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Judgment\\ of\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1510\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\ deliberately\\ quotes\\ this\\ wrk\\ in\\ order\\ 2stage\\ his\\ own\\ figures\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Luncheon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ river\\ gods\\ are\\ arranged\\ just\\ as\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ simply\\ borrowing\\ from\\ the\\ past\\,\\ but\\ trying\\ 2stage\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ could\\ help\\ represent\\ contemporary\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ specifically\\,\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ help\\ but\\ problematized\\ how\\ these\\ past\\ arts\\ related\\ 2the\\ contemporary\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dressing\\ his\\ characters\\ in\\ contemporary\\ clothing\\,\\ combining\\ them\\ w\\ a\\ nude\\,\\ then\\ identifying\\ these\\ indibudals\\ as\\ specific\\ ppl\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ man\\ in\\ his\\ brother\\,\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ his\\ brother\\-in\\ law\\,\\ a\\ sculptor\\,\\ n\\ the\\ woman\\ is\\ a\\ studio\\ model\\,\\ one\\ that\\ served\\ in\\ man\\ o\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deliberately\\ juxtaposing\\ these\\ 2levels\\ o\\ representation\\:\\ \\ \\;specific\\ ppl\\ put\\ in2\\ the\\ past\\ formula\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ quite\\ intergrated\\ w\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ staged\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ feels\\ like\\ the\\ nature\\ has\\ been\\ staged\\ around\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;Quality\\ o\\ assemblage\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ Manet\\ wants\\ 2emphasize\\ deliberately\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ your\\ run\\ othe\\ mill\\ nude\\.\\ \\ \\;Shes\\&rsquo\\;\\ real\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ real\\,\\ tho\\,\\ who\\ is\\ this\\ girl\\ who\\ sits\\ nude\\ around\\ dressed\\ men\\?\\ \\ \\;Probably\\ she\\ has\\ loose\\ morals\\,\\ but\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ sure\\ we\\ suppose\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Check\\ the\\ rolls\\ o\\ fat\\ in\\ her\\ stomach\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fleshy\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ her\\ specific\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bourgeois\\ taboo\\ was\\ to\\ not\\ show\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ n\\ flesh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ imptnt\\ aspect\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ still\\ life\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ includes\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dress\\!\\ \\ \\;So\\ we\\ know\\ she\\ had\\ clothes\\ on\\ b4\\.\\ \\ \\;n\\ her\\ clothing\\ is\\ combined\\ w\\ this\\ still\\ life\\ that\\ may\\ suggest\\ the\\ pleasures\\ o\\ consumption\\,\\ which\\ r\\ continuous\\ w\\ the\\ pleasures\\ one\\ can\\ take\\ from\\ body\\,\\ like\\ a\\ fruit\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntd\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ u\\ know\\ if\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ serious\\,\\ or\\ a\\ joke\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\[1863\\]\\,\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ pntg\\ is\\ hard\\ 2reproduce\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ Musee\\ d\\&rsquo\\;lorsay\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ icon\\ o\\ modernism\\,\\ like\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ icon\\ o\\ modern\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ might\\ b\\ the\\ single\\ most\\ imptnt\\ pntg\\ o\\ modernity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MAnet\\ showed\\ this\\ deliberately\\ w\\ a\\ poem\\ that\\ was\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ salon\\ catalog\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;when\\ wary\\ o\\ dreaming\\,\\ Olympia\\ wakes\\,\\ spring\\ opensi\\ n\\ the\\ arms\\ o\\ a\\ gentle\\ black\\ messaenger\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ slave\\&hellip\\;the\\ august\\ young\\ girl\\,\\ in\\ whom\\ the\\ fire\\ burns\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\w\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Manet\\ was\\ evoking\\ venerable\\ associatiosn\\ w\\ the\\ classical\\ tradition\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ o\\ course\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cheating\\ anyone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Olympia\\ \\=\\ favorite\\ name\\ o\\ Parisian\\ prostitutes\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ irony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;never\\ has\\ a\\ pntg\\ evoked\\ so\\ much\\ mockery\\,\\ laughter\\,\\ n\\ cat\\ calls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ critic\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ showing\\ prostitution\\ in\\ the\\ sanctum\\ o\\ official\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ how\\ MAnet\\ pntd\\ prostitution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ naked\\ body\\ addressed\\ the\\ spectactor\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ it\\ engaged\\ the\\ spectator\\ in\\ this\\ theme\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ investigations\\ o\\ prostitution\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ phenonomenon\\ had\\ begun\\ at\\ the\\ start\\ o\\ this\\ century\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ various\\ scientific\\ \\/\\ sociological\\ investigations\\ in2\\ prostitution\\,\\ hoping\\ 2understand\\ n\\ contro\\ lit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prostitution\\ \\=\\ favorite\\ subject\\ o\\ ambitious\\ writers\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ Paris\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zola\\ is\\ key\\ among\\ these\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ boundaries\\ bw\\ a\\ prostitute\\ n\\ a\\ straight\\,\\ morally\\ correct\\ woman\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ one\\ represent\\ prostitution\\ in\\ pntg\\?\\ \\ \\;One\\ way\\ is\\ illustrated\\ by\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Couture\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ courtesan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1873\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recognition\\ o\\ prostitution\\ as\\ a\\ problem\\ that\\ needs\\ 21b\\ addressed\\ by\\ art\\,\\ here\\ in\\ allegorical\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ shows\\ prostitution\\ personified\\ by\\ woman\\ in\\ a\\ carriage\\,\\ harnessed\\ 2man\\,\\ ea\\ o\\ whom\\ representas\\ a\\ different\\ kind\\ o\\ masculinity\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subject\\ 2her\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ under\\ her\\ whip\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ supposedly\\ a\\ scandalous\\ representation\\,\\ but\\ it\\ took\\ prositutiton\\ 2b\\ a\\ moral\\ problem\\,\\ one\\ 2b\\ criticized\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ as\\ a\\ moral\\ phenomenon\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ judgment\\ delivered\\ by\\ Couture\\,\\ which\\ upset\\ no\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ obvious\\ judgment\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ else\\ 2think\\ o\\ prostitution\\ then\\ as\\ something\\ condemnable\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 2judge\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2ask\\ provocative\\ questions\\,\\ that\\ Manet\\ wants\\ 2do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ provocation\\ had\\ as\\ much\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ social\\ damage\\ o\\ prostitution\\ as\\ w\\ its\\ aesthetic\\ dimension\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ formulated\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ prostitution\\ as\\ a\\ problem\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ both\\ social\\ n\\ aesthetic\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ did\\ that\\ by\\ performing\\ the\\ same\\ trick\\ as\\ he\\ did\\ in\\ the\\ luncheon\\ on\\ the\\ grass\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ subconsciously\\ engages\\ the\\ tradition\\ o\\ the\\ nude\\,\\ as\\ exemplified\\ by\\ Titian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Venus\\ of\\ Urbina\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Titian\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Venus\\ of\\ Urbino\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1538\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linen\\,\\ a\\ dowry\\&hellip\\;the\\ whole\\ scene\\ has\\ an\\ allegory\\ relating\\ 2marriage\\,\\ o\\ which\\ sensual\\ love\\ is\\ a\\ part\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MAnet\\ is\\ looking\\ clearly\\ at\\ his\\ friend\\ Titian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arranges\\ bed\\ in\\ same\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ in\\ same\\ position\\ sort\\ o\\.\\ \\ \\;body\\ o\\ MAnet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ more\\ erect\\ tho\\,\\ n\\ other\\ key\\ differences\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ Manet\\ wants\\ 2do\\ w\\ this\\ quotation\\ is\\ 2pose\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\ \\;what\\ could\\ the\\ nude\\ as\\ a\\ genre\\ do\\ in\\ 1860\\ paris\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ became\\ o\\ sensual\\ pleasure\\ n\\ love\\ 2day\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ the\\ questions\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ asking\\ by\\ borrowing\\ the\\ formula\\ from\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Olympia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ provocatively\\ awaiting\\ a\\ new\\ client\\ n\\ receiving\\ a\\ bouquet\\ o\\ flowers\\ from\\ another\\ one\\,\\ brought\\ by\\ her\\ black\\ servant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Odalisque\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1814\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ pntg\\ was\\ so\\ unacceptable\\ that\\ as\\ late\\ as\\ 1907\\,\\ when\\ Olympia\\ was\\ put\\ next\\ 2Ingre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Odalisque\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ the\\ Louvre\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ huge\\ outburst\\ at\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ clear\\ that\\ these\\ images\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bleogn\\ 2gether\\.\\ \\ \\;Manet\\ \\=\\ sacrilege\\ in\\ relation\\ 2Ingres\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ easy\\ n\\ hard\\ 2understand\\.\\ \\ \\;Odalisque\\ is\\ already\\ a\\ titliatting\\ representation\\ o\\ femininity\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ say\\ aobut\\ the\\ bourgeois\\ gaze\\,\\ n\\ how\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ingres\\ different\\ from\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Oluympia\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ flips\\ the\\ code\\ o\\ passive\\ femininity\\,\\ femininity\\ as\\ an\\ object\\ o\\ the\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MAnet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ O\\ looks\\ at\\ us\\ directly\\,\\ which\\ is\\ key2her\\ agency\\,\\ 2her\\ being\\ a\\ subject\\ who\\ looks\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ look\\&rsquo\\;s\\ passive\\ object\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ approach\\ 2pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\ makes\\ the\\ body\\ appear\\ available\\,\\ accessible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ingres\\ contains\\ thebody\\ w\\/in\\ a\\ contour\\,\\ renders\\ the\\ flesh\\ as\\ so\\ smooth\\ n\\ convincing\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ who\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ a\\ monstrous\\ anatomical\\ distortion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ also\\ uses\\ contour\\,\\ but\\ it\\ slips\\ at\\ times\\,\\ like\\ on\\ her\\ shoulder\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ creates\\ a\\ smude\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ tells\\ u\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ was\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ deliver\\ the\\ body\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ mode\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ pntg\\ was\\ delivered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ line\\ is\\ pntd\\ so\\ thickly\\ in\\ Manet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ body\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ both\\ painterly\\ n\\ flat\\.\\ \\ \\;Critics\\ complained\\ o\\ unintelligibility\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ is\\ both\\ available\\ n\\ unavailable\\.\\ \\ \\;Insofar\\ as\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ using\\ both\\ modes\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ pntg\\ raise\\ questions\\ about\\ truth\\ in\\ repsesentation\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ o\\ the\\ oscillation\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\ which\\ his\\ formal\\,\\ the\\ pictorial\\ uncertainty\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ inconsistent\\ pntg\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ moral\\ uncertitude\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ this\\ woman\\ any\\ different\\ from\\ an\\ honest\\ woman\\?\\ \\ \\;Can\\ we\\ trust\\ her\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ questions\\ r\\ huge\\ 2\\ Zola\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nana\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ 2read\\ 2get\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ investigation\\ that\\ Manet\\ is\\ conducting\\ here\\ in\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ gaze\\ that\\ ives\\ this\\ woman\\ agency\\,\\ she\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ looks\\ at\\ us\\ n\\ challenges\\ us\\,\\ the\\ situation\\ that\\ witnesses\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ seller\\ o\\ her\\ own\\ flesh\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ seems\\ 2b\\ able\\ 2decide\\ if\\ this\\ flesh\\ will\\ get\\ sold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Check\\ her\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ masterbating\\ like\\ Titian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ might\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\blocking\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;her\\ genitals\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ sold\\ here\\ is\\ sex\\,\\ not\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ she\\ strongly\\ controls\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gerome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moorish\\ Bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1870\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ black\\-white\\ skin\\ tone\\ foil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Olympia\\ also\\ has\\ the\\ trope\\ o\\ race\\,\\ but\\ the\\ black\\ woman\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ a\\ servant\\ who\\ accommodates\\ n\\ enhances\\ the\\ white\\ appeal\\ o\\ her\\ mistress\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ agent\\ o\\ financial\\ transaction\\,\\ bringing\\ in\\ the\\ flowers\\ from\\ the\\ client\\,\\ n\\ clearly\\ referring\\ 2prositution\\&rsquo\\;s\\ involvement\\ w\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ these\\ problems\\ were\\ noticed\\ by\\ contemporary\\ viewers\\ is\\ signaled\\ 2us\\ by\\ contemporary\\ images\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ cat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tail\\,\\ or\\ the\\ coal\\-seller\\ from\\ Batignolles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ caricature\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ whole\\ nother\\ commentary\\ in\\ cartoons\\ like\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ wain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dealing\\ here\\ w\\ an\\ orientalist\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ black\\ woman\\ becomes\\ monstrous\\,\\ the\\ cat\\ is\\ placed\\ right\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ Oolmpia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ where\\ her\\ gesture\\ was\\,\\ n\\ combined\\ w\\ the\\ boquet\\,\\ 2line\\ up\\ the\\ financial\\ transaction\\ w\\ wild\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ combination\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Manet\\ pnts\\ the\\ body\\ was\\ recognized\\ as\\ class\\ specific\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ obviously\\ implied\\ 2b\\ a\\ social\\ n\\ moral\\ danger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ clashed\\ w\\ what\\ a\\ nude\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\should\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\look\\ like\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Alexandre\\ Cabanel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Birth\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ the\\ officially\\ endorsed\\ use\\ o\\ the\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ iamge\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ inoccuous\\,\\ bc\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ related\\ in\\ any\\ visible\\ way\\ 2the\\ concerns\\ o\\ the\\ peasant\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ used\\ the\\ disguise\\ o\\ antiquity\\ 2sellthe\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ Cabanel\\ staged\\ his\\ Venus\\ was\\ orchestrated\\ 2produce\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ imaginary\\ procession\\ o\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ reassuring\\ wholeness\\ suggested\\ by\\ the\\ memorial\\ quality\\ o\\ her\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ floats\\ as\\ if\\ weightless\\ on\\ the\\ waves\\,\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ goddess\\ \\ \\;could\\,\\ n\\ miraculously\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ pubic\\ hair\\ on\\ her\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sense\\ o\\ fret\\ or\\ loss\\ or\\ lack\\ that\\ might\\ b\\ inspired\\ in\\ the\\ male\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ gaze\\ is\\ averted\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ looking\\ at\\ us\\ straight\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ these\\ kinds\\ o\\ pntgs\\ populated\\ the\\ French\\ salon\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(there\\ were\\ many\\)\\ were\\ shown\\ so\\ much\\&hellip\\;they\\ also\\ came\\ under\\ attack\\ by\\ progressive\\ critics\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ who\\ championed\\ realism\\,\\ who\\ continued\\ throughout\\ the\\ mid\\ n\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ 2talk\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ o\\ aesthetic\\ classical\\ tradition\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ mocked\\ pntrs\\ who\\ continued\\ such\\ empty\\ exercises\\ in\\ salaciousness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ pntd\\ out\\ the\\ incompatibility\\ bw\\ this\\ nude\\ n\\ the\\ requirements\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ Baudry\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pearl\\ and\\ a\\ wave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Critic\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;what\\ I\\ like\\ is\\ the\\ wet\\ appearance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ line\\ o\\ the\\ shoulder\\ in\\ proile\\ against\\ the\\ wave\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ how\\ much\\ more\\ at\\ ease\\ this\\ omwan\\ would\\ be\\ on\\ an\\ actual\\ sofa\\!\\ \\ \\;She\\ must\\ feel\\ ill\\ at\\ ease\\ on\\ the\\ hard\\ rock\\ near\\ scratchy\\ pebels\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ she\\ doing\\ here\\ at\\ this\\ hour\\?\\ \\ \\;Looking\\ out\\ for\\ a\\ millionaire\\ led\\ astray\\ at\\ this\\ wide\\ spot\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ critic\\ targets\\ the\\ vacuousness\\ o\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ teases\\ out\\ how\\ the\\ pntg\\ represents\\ something\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ us\\ 2recognize\\ openly\\:\\ \\ \\;sexual\\ titillation\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ pntd\\ 4the\\ sexual\\ impliations\\,\\ n\\ hiding\\ under\\ another\\ surface\\ motive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ critic\\ was\\ saying\\:\\ \\ \\;if\\ u\\ want\\ to\\ openly\\ address\\ the\\ issue\\ o\\ modern\\ sexuality\\,\\ which\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ good\\ idea\\,\\ u\\ have\\ 2do\\ it\\ openly\\,\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ form\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ using\\ antiquity\\ as\\ a\\ disguizse\\ under\\ which\\ sexuality\\ may\\ be\\ hidden\\ or\\ smuggled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baudry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pearl\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ what\\ Manet\\ was\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ last\\ pnts\\ about\\ Olympia\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;its\\ relation\\ 2other\\ media\\,\\ n\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ sex\\ n\\ money\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ body\\ stands\\ for\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ Olympia\\ marked\\ a\\ departure\\ from\\ Baudry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ n\\ Cabanel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ academic\\ tradition\\,\\ it\\ also\\ came\\ close\\ 2pornographic\\ phoographs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bracquehais\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reclining\\ nude\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ photograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ checking\\ my\\ email\\ n\\ missed\\ her\\ comments\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ relation\\ bw\\ sex\\ n\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manet\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pntr\\ 2imply\\ the\\ monetary\\ aspects\\ o\\ the\\ sexual\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ very\\ possible\\ early\\ on\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vermeer\\ van\\ Delft\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Procuress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1656\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ happens\\ by\\ the\\ mid\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ is\\ that\\ bourgeois\\ ideology\\,\\ the\\ ideology\\ o\\ bourgeois\\ life\\ n\\ morality\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ 4spelling\\ things\\ like\\ this\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ called\\ 4a\\ disguise\\ o\\ these\\ issues\\ that\\ were\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ bourgeois\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ the\\ reality\\ o\\ bourgeois\\ life\\,\\ but\\ bourgeois\\ wanted\\ 2keep\\ this\\ under\\ wraps\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ semi\\-allegorical\\ representations\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Erenest\\-Ange\\ Duez\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Splendor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1874\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ commentary\\ on\\ contemporary\\ practice\\ o\\ prostitution\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ woman\\ is\\ dressed\\ up\\,\\ but\\ the\\ disguise\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ treating\\ anyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ know\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ courtesan\\ because\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overdressed\\,\\ n\\ her\\ body\\ is\\ fatigued\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ overly\\ made\\ up\\ face\\,\\ heavy\\ eyelids\\,\\ brass\\-blonde\\-dyed\\ hair\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pretentious\\ gesture\\ w\\ which\\ she\\ holds\\ the\\ leash\\ o\\ her\\ dog\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ couture\\ n\\ the\\ whip\\ o\\ the\\ courtesan\\,\\ what\\ she\\ has\\ done\\ in\\ order\\ 2build\\ this\\ splendorous\\ appearance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ splendor\\ is\\ false\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ matched\\ w\\ misery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duez\\ is\\ critical\\,\\ but\\ like\\ Couture\\,\\ this\\ \\=\\ moral\\ critique\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ complacency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\So\\ what\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ Manet\\ comes\\ in\\ as\\ someone\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ a\\ simple\\ judgment\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ easy\\ answers\\ 2the\\ enterprise\\ o\\ Olympia\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ insistence\\ on\\ the\\ incompatibility\\ o\\ the\\ past\\ w\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ economic\\ grounding\\&hellip\\;there\\ r\\ no\\ easy\\ answers\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ y\\ it\\ proved\\ 2b\\ so\\ provocative\\ n\\ difficult\\ 2digest\\,\\ even\\ well\\ in2\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ interrogation\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ irony\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ cat\\ epitomizes\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Siesta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ monotype\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maisons\\ clos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;series\\,\\ 1879\\-80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ technique\\ is\\ really\\ crude\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ finesse\\ the\\ contours\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gestures\\ n\\ body\\ positions\\ have\\ nothing\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ tradition\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ boredom\\,\\ hands\\ n\\ legs\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;what\\ are\\ these\\ notes\\ about\\ right\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;Not\\ sure\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ commentators\\ on\\ this\\:\\ \\ \\;called\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;female\\ animals\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ vision\\ has\\ a\\ patient\\ hatred\\ o\\ women\\,\\ an\\ attendant\\ cruelty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ raise\\ questions\\ about\\ the\\ psoitiosn\\ from\\ which\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;Are\\ these\\ women\\ complacent\\?\\ \\ \\;Collaborating\\ w\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ vision\\?\\ \\ \\;submitting\\?\\ \\ \\;Or\\ they\\ just\\ caught\\ inadvertently\\ by\\ his\\ gaze\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ he\\ merely\\ someone\\ who\\ documents\\ this\\?\\ \\ \\;A\\ misogynist\\ or\\ a\\ sympathizer\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2answer\\ these\\ questions\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ point\\ o\\ the\\ rdg\\ 2day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Serious\\ client\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ flesh\\ mkt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ brothel\\ has\\ all\\ the\\ trappings\\ normally\\,\\ but\\ these\\ re\\ removed\\ by\\ Degas\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ go\\ in\\,\\ buy\\ flesh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Academy\\ of\\ the\\ Ladies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\c\\.\\ pornographic\\ illustration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Body\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ a\\ source\\ o\\ pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ debased\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ economic\\ specificity\\ o\\ this\\ debasement\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ man\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Serious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ dressed\\ fully\\,\\ walking\\ up\\ 2look\\ at\\ what\\ he\\ will\\ buy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technique\\ o\\ the\\ image\\&hellip\\;emphasis\\ on\\ crudeness\\,\\ thickness\\ w\\ which\\ he\\ tenders\\ the\\ bodies\\&rsquo\\;\\ outlines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ironic\\ oscillation\\ bw\\ flatness\\ n\\ painterliness\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ something\\ darker\\ n\\ more\\ brutal\\.\\ Not\\ the\\ irony\\ n\\ wit\\ o\\ Manet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Resting\\ on\\ the\\ bed\\,\\ Maisons\\ clos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;series\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explicitness\\ o\\ genital\\ revelation\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ striking\\ thing\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ seated\\ on\\ sofa\\,\\ reflected\\ on\\ thte\\ sofa\\,\\ or\\ someone\\ else\\ is\\ seated\\ next\\ 12her\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ dignity\\ 2her\\ position\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Hsoiwng\\ what\\ is\\ there\\ 2buy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brutality\\ w\\ cwhich\\ Degas\\ reveals\\ this\\ is\\ quite\\ striking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ back\\ 2her\\ dancers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ machine\\ 4pleasure\\ is\\ introduced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Question\\ raised\\ is\\&hellip\\;one\\ o\\ having\\ 2make\\ a\\ decision\\ about\\ the\\ position\\ from\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ produced\\:\\ \\ \\;sympathetic\\,\\ or\\ mysognistic\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critical\\ o\\ prostitution\\?\\ \\ \\;Wallowing\\ in\\ the\\ pleasure\\ o\\ baseness\\?\\ \\ \\;A\\ visual\\ perversion\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ the\\ poles\\ bw\\ which\\ the\\ discussion\\ can\\ b\\ carried\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SLIDE\\ LIST\\ \\#17\\:\\ Masculinity\\ \\(11\\/26\\/07\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ new\\ views\\ on\\ sexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ circumstances\\ for\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ recasting\\ of\\ heroic\\ nude\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ to\\ very\\ different\\ image\\ of\\ masculity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(1\\)\\ \\*Gustave\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Man\\ drying\\ himself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\ p\\.c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Masculinity\\ as\\ relational\\ concept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ masculinity\\?\\ \\;\\ How\\ is\\ understood\\?\\ \\;\\ Is\\ clear\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ but\\ historical\\ contingency\\ is\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ attempted\\ to\\ redefine\\ masculinity\\,\\ maleness\\,\\ through\\ new\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shift\\ away\\ from\\ heroism\\ \\(despite\\ heroic\\ nude\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heroism\\ displaced\\ by\\ concern\\ for\\ aesthetic\\ beauty\\,\\ sensual\\ appeal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Takes\\ defined\\ notion\\ of\\ Academic\\ art\\ and\\ recasts\\ it\\ in\\ anesthetized\\,\\ eroticized\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interest\\ in\\ reinventing\\ male\\ body\\ in\\ David\\&\\#39\\;s\\ studio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Students\\ argued\\ for\\ reinvention\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Jean\\ Broc\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Death\\ of\\ Hyacinth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1801\\,\\ MBA\\ Poitiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Openly\\ eroticized\\,\\ tender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apollo\\ accidentally\\ kills\\ lover\\ Hyacinth\\ with\\ a\\ discus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Linearity\\ of\\ spaces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ of\\ color\\ and\\ light\\,\\ highlights\\ tenderness\\ in\\ interaction\\ between\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interpretation\\:\\ liberation\\ from\\ shackles\\ of\\ heroism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Romanticism\\:\\ resurrection\\ of\\ older\\ heroic\\ masculine\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(3\\)\\ \\*Th\\é\\;odore\\ G\\é\\;ricault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Raft\\ of\\ the\\ Medusa\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1819\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ history\\ painting\\,\\ ambitious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Based\\ on\\ contemporary\\ event\\:\\ shipwreck\\ going\\ to\\ Senegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shipwrecked\\ due\\ to\\ incompetence\\ of\\ captain\\ and\\ officers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gruesome\\,\\ many\\ deaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ were\\ people\\ nominated\\ to\\ positions\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ privilege\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\é\\;ricault\\ was\\ conscious\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Male\\ body\\ used\\ to\\ create\\ crisis\\ of\\ masculinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pyramid\\ of\\ hopeful\\:\\ black\\ man\\ waving\\ to\\ ship\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expressiveness\\ of\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\ gives\\ him\\ physiognomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moment\\ of\\ heroism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heap\\ of\\ dejected\\,\\ mourning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tension\\ between\\ two\\ groups\\ energizes\\ the\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Realism\\:\\ did\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ nudity\\,\\ heroism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Daumier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Mania\\ for\\ Fine\\ Arts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ caricature\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Les\\ Pi\\è\\;ces\\ sur\\ les\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ridicules\\ inapplicability\\ of\\ male\\ heroic\\ nude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reality\\ versus\\ what\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ asked\\ to\\ reproduce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comic\\ discrepancy\\ between\\ aesthetic\\ ideal\\ and\\ actual\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ridicules\\ Academic\\ privilege\\ of\\ male\\ nude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ridicules\\ women\\,\\ unattractiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(5\\)\\ Jul\\.\\ Henriot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&\\#39\\;Aveugle\\ \\[The\\ blind\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engraving\\,\\ 1883\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Novel\\ of\\ sex\\ and\\ seduction\\,\\ popular\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protagonist\\ was\\ female\\ artist\\ who\\ hired\\ blind\\ man\\ to\\ paint\\ St\\.\\ Sebastian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ was\\ a\\ pretender\\,\\ not\\ blind\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ seduce\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Male\\ nude\\ as\\ a\\ danger\\ for\\ female\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Situation\\ of\\ posing\\ was\\ inherently\\ erotic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ad\\ for\\ \\"\\;Tabu\\,\\"\\;\\ male\\ model\\ seduces\\ female\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(6\\)\\ \\*Gustave\\ Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Stonebreakers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1851\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ lost\\,\\ exhibited\\ to\\ acclaim\\/scandal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reflects\\ realist\\ interest\\ in\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ figures\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ function\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ performing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Courbet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interest\\ in\\ materiality\\,\\ what\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ rather\\ than\\ imagined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roughness\\,\\ stiffness\\ of\\ clothing\\ is\\ conveyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caricature\\:\\ Canvas\\ of\\ trousers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;Show\\ me\\ an\\ angel\\ then\\ I\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ paint\\ one\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Withdrawal\\ of\\ subjectivity\\,\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ see\\ faces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Continuous\\ appeal\\ of\\ heroic\\ nude\\,\\ value\\ of\\ Prix\\ de\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Losing\\ validity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(7\\)\\ \\*Luc\\ Olivier\\ Merson\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Soldier\\ of\\ Marathon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Male\\ nude\\ continues\\ to\\ be\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incident\\ recorded\\ by\\ Plutarch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Soldier\\ ran\\ 26\\ miles\\ from\\ Marathon\\ to\\ Athens\\ to\\ tell\\ of\\ defeat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Despite\\ heroic\\ intentions\\,\\ slight\\ comic\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overly\\ exaggerated\\ language\\ of\\ gestures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ shows\\ no\\ weariness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Jacques\\ Henner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ finding\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ Abel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1858\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ praised\\ when\\ exhibited\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ problematic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bodies\\ rendered\\ with\\ great\\ accuracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Becomes\\ trite\\,\\ unappealing\\,\\ repetitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Impressionism\\:\\ male\\ nude\\ is\\ rare\\.\\ \\;\\ Exceptions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(9\\)\\ \\*Gustave\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Man\\ drying\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\ p\\.c\\ \\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustrates\\ habit\\ as\\ we\\ may\\ identify\\ socially\\ as\\ upper\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Few\\ Parisians\\ had\\ bathtubs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sense\\ of\\ interest\\ in\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muscularity\\,\\ hints\\ at\\ masculinity\\,\\ heroism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contemporary\\ body\\-building\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defenselessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ can\\ see\\ his\\ scrotum\\,\\ anus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ man\\ is\\ not\\ impermeable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Fr\\é\\;d\\é\\;ric\\ Bazille\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summer\\ Scene\\ \\(Men\\ Bathing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\,\\ Fogg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pleasure\\ tinged\\ by\\ hint\\ of\\ intra\\-male\\ eros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ leaning\\ against\\ a\\ tree\\ in\\ reverie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Male\\ body\\ rarely\\ depicted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bodies\\ more\\ attractive\\ to\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideology\\ of\\ masculinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mostly\\ divorced\\ from\\ notion\\ of\\ erotic\\ appeal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Impressionism\\ depicted\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ rarely\\ included\\ nudity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(11\\)\\ \\*Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Boaters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ rowing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Upper\\ class\\ men\\ dressed\\ as\\ lower\\ class\\ men\\ for\\ this\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ of\\ space\\,\\ bodies\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Express\\ effort\\ that\\ goes\\ into\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ in\\ analogous\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(12\\)\\ Berthe\\ Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Pond\\ at\\ the\\ Bois\\ de\\ Boulogne\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\,\\ NG\\ London\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ at\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Someone\\ else\\ is\\ rowing\\ for\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ of\\ class\\ distinctions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(13\\)\\ \\*Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\House\\ painters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\,\\ pc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ in\\ space\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Caillebotte\\&\\#39\\;s\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Typical\\ perspectival\\ arrangement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trying\\ to\\ establish\\ analogy\\ between\\ work\\ of\\ artist\\ and\\ house\\ painters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(14\\)\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Gardeners\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\,\\ pc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ bureaucratic\\ garden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lower\\ class\\ workers\\ seen\\ from\\ up\\ high\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(15\\)\\ \\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Young\\ man\\ at\\ his\\ window\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\,\\ p\\.c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looking\\ from\\ an\\ elite\\ interior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interior\\ linked\\ to\\ exterior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looking\\ at\\ a\\ women\\ across\\ the\\ street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ of\\ Caillebotte\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brother\\,\\ who\\ did\\ that\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\(17\\)\\ Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sister\\ at\\ the\\ window\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ looking\\ out\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ enclosure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ different\\ definition\\ of\\ window\\ view\\ based\\ on\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(16\\)\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Balcony\\,\\ Boulevard\\ Haussmann\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\,\\ pc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Listless\\,\\ bored\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fashionable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Upper\\ class\\ men\\ stop\\ dressing\\ colorfully\\ around\\ mid\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;Great\\ male\\ renunciation\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ defining\\ themselves\\ as\\ invisible\\ \\(via\\ black\\ attire\\)\\,\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ the\\ looking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(18\\)\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Jules\\ Dubois\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\,\\ pc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(19\\)\\ \\*J\\.A\\.D\\.\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\M\\.\\ Bertin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1832\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robust\\,\\ rendered\\ without\\ idealization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Particularities\\ of\\ body\\ render\\ \\"\\;fortress\\ of\\ self\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(20\\)\\ Daumier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Exhibition\\ of\\ 1859\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ lithograph\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caricature\\ of\\ how\\ not\\ everyone\\ is\\ attractive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Realism\\:\\ giving\\ up\\ on\\ idea\\ of\\ social\\ importance\\ in\\ portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Important\\ for\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(21\\)\\ \\*Gustave\\ Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Proudhon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1865\\,\\ Petit\\ Palais\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Proudhon\\ was\\ an\\ intellectual\\,\\ social\\ thinker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surrounded\\ by\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dressed\\ in\\ smock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Family\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basket\\ as\\ synectody\\ for\\ absent\\ wife\\,\\ as\\ in\\ \\(22\\)\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brutus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ detail\\ of\\ basket\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(23\\)\\ \\*Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Zola\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Surrounded\\ by\\ books\\,\\ works\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reference\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ he\\ defended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(24\\)\\ \\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Henri\\ Rouart\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Captures\\ him\\ against\\ factory\\,\\ represented\\ him\\ as\\ an\\ industrialist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heroic\\ modern\\ clothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(25\\)\\ \\*Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ambroise\\ Vollard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1908\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Important\\ character\\ in\\ artistic\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Art\\ dealer\\ lovingly\\ touching\\ sculpture\\ of\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pressure\\ of\\ modern\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(26\\)\\ \\*Adolphe\\-Eug\\è\\;ne\\ Disderi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carte\\ de\\ visite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ late\\ 1850s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(27\\)\\ Jules\\-Etienne\\ Marey\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Man\\ walking\\ clothed\\ in\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ stripes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photographic\\ experiment\\ with\\ male\\ nude\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rendering\\ movement\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/26\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ \\#17\\:\\ Masculinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Reinventing\\ masculinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Change\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ heroic\\ through\\ reinventing\\ depiction\\ of\\ masculinity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-David\\ made\\ men\\ highly\\ eroticized\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ He\\ used\\ it\\ to\\ identity\\ himself\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ masculine\\ figure\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Shift\\ in\\ aesthetic\\ understanding\\ of\\ maleness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Tenderness\\ between\\ two\\ male\\ figures\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hyacinthe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Bodies\\ something\\ from\\ Etruscan\\ vases\\:\\ linearity\\,\\ use\\ of\\ color\\ which\\ is\\ much\\ lighter\\,\\ and\\ use\\ of\\ light\\ which\\ focuses\\ interaction\\ between\\ men\\,\\ affection\\ that\\ was\\ interpreted\\ by\\ contemporary\\ sculptures\\ as\\ a\\ symptom\\ of\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ masculinity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ gesture\\ which\\ attempts\\ to\\ colonize\\ position\\ of\\ feminine\\ versus\\ masculine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Lajer\\-Burchhardt\\ is\\ skeptical\\:\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ liberation\\ from\\ shackles\\ of\\ heroism\\,\\ another\\ interpretation\\ of\\ what\\ masculinity\\ could\\ be\\.\\ Homoerotic\\ content\\ matched\\ by\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Romanticism\\:\\ attempt\\ at\\ ressurection\\ of\\ older\\ heroic\\ type\\ of\\ masculine\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Gustave\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Man\\ Drying\\ Himself\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Theodore\\ Gericault\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Raft\\ of\\ the\\ Medusa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1819\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Based\\ on\\ a\\ true\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Shipwreck\\ because\\ of\\ incompetence\\ of\\ captain\\ and\\ officers\\.\\ They\\ put\\ themselves\\ on\\ rescue\\ boats\\ first\\ intead\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\ The\\ rest\\ built\\ a\\ raft\\ to\\ save\\ themselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Raft\\ is\\ torn\\ between\\ two\\ groups\\:\\ pyramid\\ of\\ hopeful\\,\\ and\\ group\\ of\\ dejected\\ and\\ melancholy\\ who\\ are\\ dead\\ or\\ mourning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ did\\ studies\\ of\\ faces\\ of\\ black\\ men\\,\\ but\\ decided\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ back\\ who\\ is\\ leading\\ the\\ positive\\ charge\\.\\ The\\ expressiveness\\ of\\ his\\ body\\ becomes\\ the\\ meaning\\ in\\ the\\ experience\\.\\ His\\ physiognomy\\ becomes\\ his\\ potency\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Heroism\\ depicted\\ in\\ black\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Split\\ of\\ characters\\ is\\ unresolved\\ by\\ heroism\\ in\\ this\\ moment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Daumier\\:\\ characature\\ of\\ maleness\\,\\ mocking\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ contemporary\\ man\\ as\\ the\\ heroic\\ model\\.\\ He\\ did\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ heroism\\,\\ and\\ hated\\ academic\\ privilege\\ of\\ heroic\\ nude\\ defining\\ masculinity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ also\\ critiques\\ female\\ artists\\ too\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Though\\ male\\ nude\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ study\\,\\ it\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ immoral\\ for\\ a\\ woman\\ to\\ paint\\ a\\ male\\ nude\\.\\ The\\ notion\\ of\\ dangerous\\ implications\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ trope\\ of\\ art\\ and\\ writing\\ about\\ art\\ through\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Henriot\\ mocked\\ this\\ by\\ depicting\\ a\\ blind\\ man\\ being\\ painted\\ by\\ a\\ women\\,\\ he\\ actually\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ blind\\,\\ but\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\ instead\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Gustave\\ Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Stonebreakers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1851\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Realist\\ interest\\ in\\ theme\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Male\\ body\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ action\\ it\\ performs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Interest\\ in\\ materiality\\,\\ rough\\ texture\\ of\\ clothes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-We\\ do\\ not\\ see\\ their\\ faces\\,\\ withrawl\\ of\\ subjectivity\\.\\ We\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ contact\\ with\\ men\\,\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Male\\ nude\\ understood\\ traditionally\\ as\\ basis\\ of\\ academic\\ training\\ continued\\ to\\ be\\ used\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\)\\ Luc\\ Olivier\\ Merson\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Soldier\\ of\\ Marathon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Story\\ recorded\\ by\\ Plutarch\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Nude\\ related\\ with\\ no\\ traces\\ of\\ fatigue\\,\\ as\\ if\\ realism\\ never\\ happened\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-We\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ identify\\ with\\ exhausted\\ soldier\\ or\\ understand\\ his\\ incredible\\ deed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-All\\ of\\ the\\ characters\\ are\\ over\\-exaggerated\\ like\\ Le\\ Brun\\,\\ they\\ are\\ unappealing\\ and\\ comic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\)\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Man\\ Drying\\ Himself\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Body\\ is\\ strangely\\ defenseless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ is\\ a\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ man\\,\\ he\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ heroic\\,\\ beautiful\\,\\ or\\ suffering\\,\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ impermeable\\ any\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Bazille\\,\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Summer\\ Scene\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ suggests\\ inter\\-male\\ eros\\.\\ Man\\ against\\ tree\\ invites\\ gaze\\ from\\ other\\ men\\ that\\ was\\ generally\\ reserved\\ for\\ female\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\)\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Boaters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Practices\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\ rarely\\ involved\\ nudity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Body\\ of\\ exertion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Movement\\ in\\ time\\ and\\ space\\,\\ contingency\\ in\\ perception\\ of\\ both\\ male\\ and\\ female\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Rowing\\ was\\ a\\ popular\\ sport\\ of\\ upper\\ class\\ men\\ who\\ dressed\\ as\\ lower\\ class\\ men\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Looking\\ at\\ bodies\\ from\\ position\\ of\\ coxswain\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ faces\\,\\ we\\ see\\ muscles\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-In\\ contrast\\ to\\ Morisot\\ who\\ depicts\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ at\\ leisure\\,\\ someone\\ else\\ is\\ doing\\ the\\ rowing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ division\\ of\\ gender\\ and\\ gender\\ roles\\ had\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ leisure\\.\\ It\\ also\\ had\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ class\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\House\\ Painters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Men\\ in\\ space\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ project\\ of\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ painters\\ show\\ in\\ perspective\\,\\ rapid\\ vanishing\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Men\\ in\\ smocks\\,\\ on\\ ladders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Trying\\ to\\ establish\\ analogy\\ between\\ laddersa\\ dna\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ street\\,\\ and\\ through\\ it\\ a\\ connection\\ of\\ work\\ of\\ artist\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ simple\\ house\\ painter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Contrast\\ with\\ painting\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gardeners\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ estate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ beurocratic\\ garden\\,\\ saying\\ something\\ about\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Urban\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Young\\ Man\\ at\\ his\\ Window\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Representative\\ of\\ heroism\\ of\\ modern\\ life\\:\\ well\\ dressed\\,\\ listless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-See\\ only\\ his\\ back\\,\\ interior\\ of\\ apartment\\ is\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Interiorized\\ perspective\\ has\\ something\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ exterior\\ through\\ fast\\ connection\\ of\\ perspective\\ with\\ outside\\.\\ The\\ man\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ something\\,\\ a\\ woman\\ standing\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Body\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ a\\ vision\\,\\ masculinity\\ as\\ a\\ subject\\ of\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Men\\ begin\\ to\\ adopt\\ the\\ black\\ manner\\ of\\ dress\\ around\\ 1840\\&rsquo\\;s\\-50\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ male\\ renunciation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ entitlement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Universal\\ uniform\\ of\\ masculinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ is\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ does\\ the\\ looking\\ at\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ overdressed\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ looked\\ at\\/appreciated\\,\\ and\\ men\\ are\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ looking\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\)\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\M\\.\\ Bertin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1832\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Epitomy\\ of\\ romantic\\ portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Aesthetic\\ formula\\ depends\\ upon\\ psychological\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ physical\\ understanding\\/depiction\\ of\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ does\\ not\\ idealize\\ him\\,\\ but\\ he\\ does\\ give\\ him\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ miss\\ his\\ power\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ portraits\\ by\\ David\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ subtle\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-As\\ opposed\\ to\\ Daumier\\ who\\ wants\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ attractive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\)\\ Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Proudhon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Desire\\ to\\ paint\\ people\\ whose\\ relationship\\ to\\ society\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ how\\ the\\ thought\\ about\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Depicting\\ the\\ intellectual\\,\\ social\\ thinker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Surrounds\\ him\\ with\\ books\\,\\ but\\ dresses\\ him\\ in\\ workers\\ smock\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ mark\\ social\\ purpose\\ of\\ this\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ is\\ also\\ shown\\ with\\ family\\ \\(daughters\\)\\ and\\ empty\\ basket\\ with\\ stands\\ for\\ his\\ wife\\ \\(metonymy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\)\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Zola\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Writer\\,\\ journalist\\,\\ critic\\,\\ friend\\ of\\ Manet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Reference\\ to\\ Olympia\\,\\ which\\ he\\ defended\\ through\\ doctrine\\ of\\ naturalism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Relation\\ of\\ metonymy\\.\\ These\\ things\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stand\\ for\\ him\\,\\ but\\ define\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\)\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Henri\\ Rouart\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Friend\\ of\\ Degas\\,\\ he\\ served\\ under\\ him\\ in\\ Franco\\-Prussian\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Captured\\ against\\ a\\ factory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Heroically\\ modern\\ clothing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ straight\\ at\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\)\\ Renoir\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Ambroise\\ Vollard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1908\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Artist\\ dealer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Shown\\ lovingly\\ appreciating\\ sculpture\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Important\\ character\\ in\\ art\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ is\\ a\\ specific\\ individual\\,\\ not\\ a\\ business\\,\\ new\\ category\\ of\\ portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ November\\ 28\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Space\\ and\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Reminding\\ u\\ o\\ last\\ lecture\\&rsquo\\;s\\ issue\\:\\ \\ \\;masculininity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ uses\\ o\\ the\\ male\\ nude\\.\\ \\ \\;Mersin\\ illustrating\\ a\\ stale\\ exercise\\ in\\ the\\ academic\\ tradition\\,\\ producing\\ unintentionally\\ comic\\ effect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;Caillebotte\\ achieving\\ more\\ ambitious\\ invention\\ o\\ male\\ nude\\ as\\ modern\\ male\\.\\ \\ \\;Representation\\ relating\\ 2the\\ practiceso\\ hygiene\\.\\ \\ \\;Blatant\\ sexual\\ connotation\\ though\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Image\\ o\\ modern\\ man\\ as\\ an\\ erect\\ yet\\ fragile\\ n\\ defenseless\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Talked\\ about\\ changes\\ in\\ portraiture\\.\\ \\ \\;Changes\\ from\\ neoclassicism\\ to\\ impressionism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mssr\\.\\ Bartin\\ vs\\.\\ Zola\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ingres\\ subsumed\\ all\\ bodily\\ information\\ to\\ construct\\ a\\ fortress\\ o\\ the\\ self\\,\\ 2convey\\ social\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ project\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rendition\\ approach\\ to\\ Zolar\\.\\ \\ \\;Zola\\ shown\\ as\\ critic\\,\\ intellectual\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;rendered\\ here\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ intorudce\\ sense\\ o\\ interchangeability\\ bw\\ his\\ body\\ n\\ the\\ bodies\\ represented\\ around\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Having\\ discussed\\ fmeninity\\ n\\ masculinity\\ n\\ gone\\ in2\\ the\\ forbidden\\ areas\\ o\\ bourgeois\\ life\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ now\\ return\\ 2its\\ normative\\ core\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ family\\,\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ these\\ representations\\ differe\\ from\\ what\\ we\\ saw\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Specifically\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ interior\\ as\\ representation\\ o\\ interiority\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ o\\ subjectivity\\,\\ conveyed\\ above\\ all\\ by\\ relation\\ bw\\ body\\ n\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ the\\ body\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ certain\\ notions\\ o\\ interiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Edgard\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bellelli\\ Family\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1858\\-67\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degas\\ representing\\ his\\ own\\ family\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ aunt\\.\\ \\ \\;Who\\ married\\ an\\ Italian\\,\\ who\\ liked\\ to\\ call\\ himself\\ a\\ Baron\\,\\ tho\\ untrue\\ bc\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;son\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ a\\ family\\ w\\ aristocratic\\ pretensions\\:\\ \\ \\;aristocratic\\ family\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ located\\ bw\\ where\\ he\\ liete\\ aristocracy\\ resided\\,\\ n\\ a\\ standard\\ middle\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ b\\ interested\\ in\\ what\\ Degas\\ suggests\\:\\ \\ \\;that\\ the\\ space\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ only\\ a\\ container\\ o\\ social\\ beings\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ something\\ else\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ subjective\\ dimension\\ that\\ governs\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ this\\ is\\ susggested\\ thru\\ formal\\ means\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ portrait\\ \\=\\ official\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ family\\,\\ showing\\ it\\ off\\,\\ girls\\ dressed\\ in\\ their\\ Sunday\\ best\\,\\ mom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clothes\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ o\\ the\\ elegance\\ o\\ southern\\ Italian\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ could\\ wear\\ colors\\ until\\ u\\ had\\ kids\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ blackness\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Buttoned\\ up\\ dresses\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ the\\ kids\\ showed\\ off\\,\\ interior\\ filled\\ w\\ precious\\ possessions\\.\\ \\ \\;Art\\ on\\ the\\ walls\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arrangement\\ o\\ figures\\:\\ \\ \\;sense\\ o\\ display\\ underwritten\\ by\\ subterranean\\ current\\ o\\ tension\\ that\\ goes\\ against\\ the\\ grain\\ o\\ the\\ purpose\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;official\\ portrait\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scene\\ has\\ intersecting\\ pyramids\\.\\ \\ \\;Intersecting\\ provideng\\ some\\ degree\\ o\\ coherence\\,\\ but\\ also\\ being\\ diarticulated\\ by\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ pyramids\\ are\\ not\\ contained\\ all\\ 2gether\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ r\\ looking\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\ glue\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ expect\\ 2tie\\ together\\ the\\ mfaily\\ is\\ absent\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mom\\ is\\ stiff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Girls\\ look\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Father\\ is\\ turned\\ away\\ from\\ us\\!\\ \\ \\;Almost\\ locked\\ in2\\ space\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ flatness\\ o\\ the\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;Compression\\ \\ \\;o\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ get\\ the\\ impression\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trapped\\ in\\ the\\ armchair\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turning\\ away\\ towards\\ us\\,\\ but\\ not\\ making\\ himself\\ available\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ risky\\ 2over\\-interpret\\ an\\ image\\ like\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ tension\\ that\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ mapped\\ on\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ social\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ 2b\\ seen\\ as\\ pertaining\\ relative\\ 2the\\ subject\\ presence\\ o\\ the\\ individuals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Psychic\\ tension\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cross\\-section\\ of\\ the\\ Parisian\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1845\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ the\\ connection\\ bw\\ identity\\ n\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ already\\ suggested\\ in\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ in\\ the\\ cultures\\ o\\ typologies\\ n\\ panorama\\ literature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ position\\ being\\ mapped\\ on2\\ the\\ spaces\\ o\\ the\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ ppl\\ occupying\\ different\\ levels\\ o\\ the\\ house\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Diego\\ Martelli\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Weird\\ spatial\\ tension\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ look\\ athimfrom\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surrounded\\ by\\ possessions\\,\\ but\\ not\\ acnchored\\ by\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ body\\ floating\\ in\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Relation\\ bw\\ figure\\ n\\ ground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Usually\\ u\\ have\\ ground\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ then\\ figure\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ so\\ u\\ get\\ gradual\\ immersion\\ o\\ body\\ in2\\ background\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ gets\\ confused\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ traditional\\ pntg\\ spells\\ this\\ out\\ differently\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recall\\ portrait\\ o\\ Zola\\.\\ \\ \\;Surrounded\\ by\\ objects\\ that\\ define\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ writer\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ fail\\ 2challenge\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ him\\ being\\ firmly\\ anchored\\ in\\ space\\,\\ seated\\ on\\ his\\ chair\\.\\ \\ \\;Maybe\\ interchangeable\\ w\\ things\\ represented\\ about\\ him\\,\\ but\\ not\\ reducible\\ to\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Martelli\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ contingency\\ in\\ Martelli\\&rsquo\\;s\\ appearance\\:\\ \\ \\;is\\ it\\ purely\\ physical\\,\\ or\\ does\\ it\\ have\\ 2do\\ w\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ interest\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ kind\\ o\\ subjectivity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Auguste\\ Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Mme\\ Charpentier\\ w\\/her\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ \\=\\ well\\-known\\ 4running\\ political\\ magazine\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;shown\\ here\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ surroundings\\,\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ space\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ already\\ interesting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ often\\ how\\,\\ unlike\\ Ingres\\ who\\ shows\\ Msr\\.\\ Bertin\\ in\\ an\\ abstract\\ space\\,\\ impressionists\\ usually\\ present\\ ppl\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ interiors\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;japanese\\ salon\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ her\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;Oriental\\ motifs\\ o\\ her\\ screen\\,\\ bamboo\\ table\\ n\\ chair\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shown\\ seated\\ n\\ accompanied\\ by\\ her\\ 2\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Girl\\ stis\\ on\\ a\\ huge\\ dog\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ son\\ paul\\ is\\ there\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\ wears\\ long\\ hair\\ n\\ was\\ dressed\\ as\\ a\\ girl\\&hellip\\;until\\ they\\ grow\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 12\\ or\\ so\\,\\ as\\ most\\ French\\ boys\\ were\\ treated\\.\\ \\ \\;Crazy\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ approach\\ 2\\ body\\ n\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ confusion\\ that\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ rich\\ patterning\\ o\\ thep\\ ntg\\,\\ which\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ rich\\ textures\\ o\\ rm\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ incomplete\\ sketch\\ done\\ in\\ accurate\\ tones\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Pntg\\ credited\\ w\\ being\\ pntd\\ daringly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Titian\\ at\\ his\\ best\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\But\\ they\\ realized\\ the\\ woman\\ was\\ ridiculously\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\petit\\ bourgeois\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ that\\ prevents\\ us\\ from\\ reading\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ discreet\\ dislocation\\,\\ o\\ cuteness\\,\\ that\\ permeates\\ the\\ rendition\\ o\\ the\\ woman\\ w\\ her\\ kids\\.\\ \\ \\;Way\\ in\\ which\\ ultimately\\,\\ these\\ bodies\\ r\\ readable\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ in\\ Diego\\ Martelli\\.\\ \\ \\;Nor\\ is\\ it\\ as\\ tense\\ as\\ the\\ Bertelli\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ traditional\\ composition\\ o\\ figures\\ sort\\ o\\ strung\\ like\\ beads\\ on\\ this\\ line\\ that\\ traverses\\ the\\ canvas\\ n\\ establishes\\ a\\ foreground\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ slightly\\ floating\\ in\\ space\\,\\ but\\ nonetheless\\ remains\\ uneventful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ prof\\ is\\ trying\\ 2say\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ sense\\ o\\ contingency\\,\\ o\\ incompleteness\\,\\ o\\ confusion\\ that\\ Renoir\\ conveys\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ amount\\ 2anythign\\ psychic\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ quality\\ in\\ n\\ o\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*John\\ Singer\\ Sargent\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daughters\\ of\\ Edward\\ Darley\\ Boit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1882\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ so\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sargent\\ \\=\\ US\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ here\\ a\\ US\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ expatriot\\,\\ as\\ is\\ this\\ family\\,\\ who\\ lived\\ much\\ o\\ the\\ yr\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ at\\ the\\ entrance\\ o\\ a\\ sepulchral\\ interior\\,\\ where\\ 4\\ girls\\,\\ daughers\\,\\ were\\ summoned\\ 2sit\\ 4the\\ portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ obeyed\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\ seem\\ quite\\ randomly\\ scattered\\,\\ which\\ is\\ yawning\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ w\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ blackness\\,\\ interrupted\\ by\\ the\\ glint\\ o\\ light\\ back\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seems\\ discombulated\\,\\ hard\\ 2explain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Girls\\ themselves\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mary\\-Louise\\:\\ \\ \\;not\\ really\\ looking\\ at\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ melting\\ in2\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Florence\\ n\\ Jane\\:\\ \\ \\;one\\ leaning\\ against\\ huge\\ porcelain\\ Japanese\\ vase\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ very\\ fragile\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ siste\\ Jane\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ ghost\\.\\ \\ \\;Legs\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ visible\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ face\\ seems\\ ghastly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ the\\ little\\ Julia\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ us\\ n\\ acknowledging\\ our\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ innocent\\ n\\ confident\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ readings\\,\\ Dislauskas\\ offers\\ interesting\\ interpretation\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\:\\ \\ \\;seing\\ that\\ blackness\\ at\\ the\\ back\\ o\\ the\\ rm\\ as\\ not\\ only\\ physical\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ rm\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ psychic\\ space\\,\\ a\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ unknown\\,\\ which\\ may\\ b\\ interpreted\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ concerns\\ w\\ psychology\\ o\\ the\\ times\\,\\ w\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\ This\\ \\=\\ tension\\ that\\ splits\\ the\\ group\\,\\ establishing\\ relation\\ o\\ antagonism\\ bw\\ the\\ known\\ n\\ unknown\\,\\ conscious\\ n\\ unconscious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ another\\ interpretation\\ tho\\,\\ says\\ prof\\:\\ \\ \\;insisting\\ on\\ this\\ image\\ as\\ a\\ rather\\ happy\\ coexistence\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ kind\\ o\\ acceptance\\ o\\ the\\ darkness\\ w\\/in\\ oneself\\,\\ that\\ is\\ perfectly\\ accommodating\\ 4these\\ girls\\,\\ who\\ seem\\ 2b\\ existing\\ 2gether\\ w\\/it\\,\\ w\\/o\\ much\\ ado\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Jean\\-Edouard\\ Vuillard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mother\\ and\\ Sister\\ of\\ the\\ Artist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crazy\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Beautiful\\.\\ Spooky\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arbirariness\\ o\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ interesting\\,\\ tho\\,\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ patterning\\ n\\ design\\,\\ which\\ r\\ like\\ brush\\ strokes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impressionists\\ interested\\ in\\ transcription\\ o\\ the\\ real\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vuillard\\,\\ a\\ symbolist\\,\\ interested\\ in\\ seeing\\ patterning\\ as\\ meaningful\\ in\\ psychological\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Having\\ meaning\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ evident\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ question\\ o\\ surface\\,\\ but\\ a\\ question\\ o\\ what\\ this\\ surface\\ stands\\ 4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ fusion\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ introduces\\ bw\\ bodies\\ n\\ their\\ surroundings\\.\\ \\ \\;Way\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ daughter\\ is\\ inscribed\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\,\\ her\\ body\\ bent\\ by\\ the\\ space\\ somewhat\\ uncomfortably\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pattern\\ o\\ her\\ dress\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ pattern\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mother\\ seated\\ here\\ in\\ position\\ that\\ recalls\\ Msr\\.\\ Bertin\\,\\ n\\ has\\ simlar\\ function\\ o\\ conveying\\ authority\\,\\ but\\ anauthority\\ htat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complicated\\ by\\ how\\ she\\ relates\\ 2space\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carpet\\ pulled\\ up\\ from\\ underneath\\ her\\ n\\ her\\ daughter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Room\\ aqcquires\\ sense\\ o\\ imbalance\\ n\\ confusion\\,\\ which\\ the\\ chest\\ o\\ drawers\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ contributes\\ by\\ introducing\\ a\\ blocking\\ element\\ that\\,\\ spatially\\,\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ quite\\ accurate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frontal\\ orientaitn\\ o\\ the\\ woman\\ n\\ the\\ dressor\\ do\\ not\\ sync\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ asking\\ us\\ 2b\\ intereprested\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ that\\ exceeds\\ the\\ pure\\ eternal\\ quality\\ o\\ this\\ interior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ poses\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ daugher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unnatural\\ turn\\.\\ \\ \\;Tension\\ bw\\ the\\ fragile\\,bodily\\ mutilated\\ mother\\ n\\ her\\ mother\\,\\ is\\ quite\\ telling\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ one\\ step\\ further\\ in\\ the\\ intensity\\ o\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ interior\\ life\\ o\\ these\\ women\\ from\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ in\\ Renoir\\ n\\ the\\ relatin\\ he\\ constructs\\ bw\\ Mme\\.\\ Charpentier\\ n\\ her\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ spatial\\ n\\ surface\\ innovations\\ o\\ Renoir\\ that\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ how\\ he\\ renders\\ patterns\\,\\ had\\ 2b\\ quite\\ innocent\\ in\\ comparison\\ 2Vuillard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mouch\\ more\\ radical\\ experimentation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vuillard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Misia\\ and\\ Thatdee\\ Natanson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1897\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intellectuals\\,\\ socialites\\,\\ where\\,\\ if\\ we\\ think\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Belleli\\ family\\,\\ the\\ presence\\ o\\ the\\ husband\\ is\\ even\\ more\\ spectral\\.\\ \\ \\;Modual\\.\\ \\ \\;Distorted\\.\\ \\ \\;Ghastly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ in\\ foreground\\ seated\\ in\\ armchair\\ is\\ represtned\\ w\\ degree\\ o\\ subjective\\ withdrawal\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ quite\\ striking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patterning\\ o\\ the\\ floor\\ n\\ even\\ her\\ dress\\ merge\\ 2gether\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ fusion\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ quite\\ conspicuous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fusion\\,\\ tho\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ one\\ o\\ symbiosis\\ n\\ coexistence\\ n\\ friendly\\ merging\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ one\\ that\\ has\\ an\\ overtone\\ o\\ threat\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ isolation\\.\\ \\ \\;Alienation\\.\\ \\ \\;Conveyed\\ by\\ pose\\ o\\ the\\ woman\\ \\,that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ quite\\ clear\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qhat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ evident\\ in\\ all\\ tehse\\ images\\ is\\ that\\ uh\\ ave\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ interior\\ which\\ isnt\\&rsquo\\;\\ only\\ a\\ depiction\\ o\\ physical\\ space\\,\\ but\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ suggestion\\,\\ an\\ open\\ hint\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ interiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ whole\\ category\\ o\\ artists\\ who\\ pntd\\ mostly\\ materials\\,\\ not\\ just\\ by\\ choice\\ but\\ by\\ necessity\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ were\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ emerged\\ as\\ quite\\ significant\\ actors\\ on\\ the\\ artistic\\ scene\\,\\ precisely\\ in\\ impressionism\\,\\ although\\ u\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ group\\ represntations\\ o\\ artists\\ from\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Henri\\ Fantin\\-Latour\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Atelier\\ in\\ the\\ Batignolles\\ \\(Manet\\ \\&\\;\\ his\\ friends\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ 1870\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Group\\ o\\ sad\\ gentlemen\\ in\\ their\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ manly\\ uniforms\\ o\\ black\\ suits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surrounding\\ Manet\\,\\ who\\ was\\ shown\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exhibited\\ w\\ the\\ impressionists\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ their\\ riend\\ n\\ mentor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ whole\\ group\\ referred\\ 2\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;gang\\ o\\ Manet\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artists\\ mixed\\ w\\ intellectuals\\ n\\ critics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Renoir\\,\\ Zolar\\,\\ Frederic\\ Bazille\\,\\ Monet\\&hellip\\;all\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ their\\ friends\\ who\\ exhibited\\ w\\ them\\:\\ \\ \\;women\\ impressionists\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ tradition\\ o\\ representation\\ o\\ this\\ kind\\,\\ established\\ by\\ Isabey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Atelier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Artists\\ were\\ teeming\\ at\\ the\\ salon\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ democratization\\ o\\ art\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ there\\ were\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ woman\\ among\\ the\\ impressionists\\,\\ yet\\ o\\ course\\ their\\ art\\ was\\ produced\\ in\\ different\\ conditions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ limitations\\ in\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ w\\ social\\ limitations\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ modernity\\,\\ so\\ imptnt\\ 2impressionists\\,\\ was\\ gendered\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ bourgeois\\ etiquette\\ from\\ allowing\\ umarried\\ single\\ women\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ from\\ walking\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ were\\ supposed\\ 2b\\ chaperoned\\ by\\ men\\ or\\ older\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institutional\\ constraint\\ n\\ the\\ social\\ constraint\\ r\\ things\\ 2keep\\ in\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\could\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\women\\ do\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ trained\\ in\\ the\\ ecole\\ de\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ open\\ until\\ 1897\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Until\\ then\\,\\ they\\ could\\ sing\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ Louvre\\ as\\ cpyists\\ o\\ master\\ wrks\\,\\ as\\ did\\ their\\ male\\ colleagues\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ needed\\ special\\ permits\\ n\\ often\\ had\\ 2b\\ chaperoned\\ by\\ someone\\ then\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Winslow\\ Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Art\\ students\\ copying\\ at\\ the\\ Louvre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1867\\,\\ engr\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Weekly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Junaruy\\ 1868\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\ from\\ live\\ models\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ at\\ private\\ academies\\,\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Academie\\ Julien\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ in\\ private\\ studios\\ o\\ artists\\ who\\ accepted\\ women\\ among\\ their\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ options\\ were\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ one\\ has\\ 2take\\ in2\\ accnt\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ education\\ o\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ artists\\ were\\ also\\ trained\\ in\\ geometry\\ n\\ other\\ fields\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ this\\ same\\ training\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Familiarity\\ w\\ history\\ or\\ classical\\ texts\\ that\\ was\\ required\\ 4making\\ history\\ pntg\\ was\\ unavailable\\ 2women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Of\\ course\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ situation\\ fro\\ the\\ 1870s\\ on\\ was\\ different\\ insofar\\ as\\ history\\ pntg\\ was\\ being\\ redefined\\,\\ or\\ de\\-valued\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ impressionism\\ introduced\\,\\ re\\-evaluated\\,\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;minor\\ genres\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ minor\\ no\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;Landscapes\\,\\ still\\-lifes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ it\\ was\\ easier\\ 4women\\ 2practice\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ art\\,\\ n\\ women\\ were\\ definitely\\ far\\ better\\ off\\ than\\ ever\\ before\\,\\ since\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ n\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ 2b\\ able\\ to\\ pursue\\ professionally\\ their\\ interest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ degree\\ o\\ professional\\ organization\\ among\\ the\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ lobbied\\ 4equal\\ instiutaional\\ privisons\\ 4women\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ had\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ emerging\\ self\\-consiousness\\ o\\ women\\ as\\ professionals\\,\\ n\\ u\\ see\\ it\\ in\\ representations\\ o\\ women\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Marie\\ Bracquemond\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ at\\ easel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1890\\,\\ etching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insistence\\ on\\ provisinalization\\.\\ \\ \\;Hat\\ hanging\\ behind\\ easel\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ kidns\\ o\\ representations\\ served\\ 2re\\-write\\ a\\ tradition\\ persistent\\ from\\ the\\ 1840s\\,\\ o\\ caricature\\ n\\ satire\\ against\\ women\\ o\\ creative\\ ambition\\ in\\ general\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gavarni\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Women\\ Painters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1852\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Characterizes\\ women\\ by\\ bodily\\ typing\\,\\ representing\\ them\\ as\\ ugly\\ n\\ mean\\ in\\ their\\ expressions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ has\\ 2see\\ these\\ representations\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ personal\\ projections\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ but\\ as\\ manifestation\\ in\\ general\\ o\\ bourgeois\\ anxiety\\ about\\ women\\ transgressing\\ domesticity\\ n\\ motherhood\\ n\\ having\\ creative\\ aspirations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\,\\ then\\,\\ there\\ was\\ difference\\ in\\ training\\ n\\ social\\ expectaiotns\\ that\\ women\\ had\\ 2confront\\ I\\ making\\ art\\,\\ then\\ how\\ did\\ this\\ translate\\ in2\\ art\\ itself\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ it\\ different\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ questions\\ that\\ several\\ scholars\\ have\\ asked\\ themselves\\ since\\ at\\ least\\ the\\ 1880s\\ when\\ the\\ history\\ o\\ impressionism\\ began\\ 2b\\ re\\-written\\ 2include\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;spaces\\ o\\ feminity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ defined\\ as\\ different\\ form\\ their\\ impressionist\\ male\\ colleagues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ women\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ women\\ who\\ mostly\\ appear\\,\\ n\\ 2ndly\\,\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ consistently\\ devoted\\ 2different\\ kidns\\ o\\ spaces\\:\\ \\ \\;domestic\\,\\ liminal\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ outdoor\\ life\\ o\\ Paris\\ on\\ boulevards\\ or\\ caf\\é\\;\\ concerts\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ limits\\ on\\ female\\ mobility\\ in\\ social\\ space\\,\\ mentioned\\ b4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ iconographic\\ map\\ o\\ women\\ artists\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Berthe\\ Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ reveuse\\ \\(the\\ dreamer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ 2understand\\ that\\ notion\\ o\\ difference\\:\\ \\ \\;problems\\ inherent\\ in\\ that\\ notion\\ o\\ difference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Same\\ woman\\ on\\ this\\ n\\ next\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Repose\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\James\\ Tissot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Seaside\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Cleveland\\ Museum\\ of\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ our\\ fall\\ guy\\ in\\ these\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ illustrates\\ a\\ similar\\ motif\\:\\ \\ \\;woman\\ shown\\ against\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ if\\ Tissot\\ is\\ registering\\ the\\ degree\\ o\\ atmospheric\\ difference\\ around\\ the\\ feature\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ 2b\\ affecting\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ any\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ dress\\ is\\ rendered\\ w\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ accuracy\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ b4\\:\\ \\ \\;over\\-detialed\\ attn\\ 2\\ the\\ stitches\\,\\ which\\ u\\ can\\ count\\ here\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ so\\ in\\ Morrisot\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deconstructing\\ the\\ body\\ itself\\,\\ n\\ its\\ details\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ palette\\ in\\ her\\ left\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;Slashing\\ brushstrokes\\ r\\ the\\ signature\\ o\\ Morrisot\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ scene\\ in\\ the\\ interior\\,\\ in\\ the\\ salon\\,\\ n\\ one\\ reason\\ 4it\\,\\ tho\\ it\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ obvious\\ at\\ first\\,\\ is\\ that\\ some\\ women\\ actually\\ worked\\ in\\ these\\ spaces\\.\\ \\ \\;Few\\ o\\ them\\ had\\ their\\ own\\ studio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ they\\ used\\ their\\ bedrooms\\ o\\ the\\ salon\\ 4creation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Julie\\ Pradel\\ de\\ St\\.\\ Charles\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\S\\.p\\.\\ w\\/amily\\ \\&\\;\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1820\\,\\ o\\/c\\,\\ private\\ collection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interesting\\ image\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Self\\-portrait\\ w\\ her\\ family\\ n\\ her\\ works\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ woman\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ making\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ space\\ which\\ she\\ may\\ even\\ share\\ w\\ her\\ brother\\ who\\ plays\\ on\\ her\\ floor\\,\\ which\\ is\\ also\\ her\\ bedroom\\ n\\ her\\ study\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herparents\\ r\\ admiring\\ her\\ productions\\ while\\ she\\ plays\\ the\\ piano\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ indicates\\ that\\ art\\-making\\ is\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ young\\ woman\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ an\\ accomplishment\\,\\ but\\ not\\ a\\ profession\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ changes\\ when\\ women\\ like\\ Morrisot\\ start\\ 2xhibit\\ w\\ male\\ colleagues\\ n\\ start\\ receiving\\ private\\ professional\\ training\\ in\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ studio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ Morrisot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ professional\\ n\\ commercial\\ success\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;d\\ never\\ had\\ a\\ studio\\ o\\ her\\ own\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ she\\ built\\ her\\ own\\ house\\,\\ she\\ chose\\ not\\ 2construct\\ a\\ studio\\ in\\ it\\!\\ \\ \\;Not\\ even\\ a\\ room\\ o\\ her\\ own\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ worked\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ living\\ room\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ she\\ unwilling\\ 2separate\\ her\\ creativity\\ from\\ her\\ functioning\\ as\\ a\\ wife\\ n\\ mother\\,\\ something\\ male\\ artists\\ felt\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ do\\?\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nonetheless\\,\\ she\\ managed\\ 2create\\ quite\\ radical\\ n\\ advanced\\ things\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ salon\\ became\\ a\\ space\\ o\\ aesthetic\\ experimentation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ picks\\ up\\ the\\ feature\\ o\\ this\\ woman\\,\\ w\\ just\\ a\\ touch\\ o\\ pigment\\ 4her\\ eye\\ n\\ lips\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ notion\\ o\\ tonal\\ modeling\\ is\\ absent\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Insead\\,\\ there\\ r\\ discontinuous\\ marks\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ asked\\ 2produce\\ a\\ physiognomy\\,\\ n\\ they\\ do\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ woman\\ wears\\ lots\\ o\\ makeup\\ around\\ here\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;Makeup\\ plays\\ w\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ fae\\ n\\ redefines\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morrisot\\ indicating\\ that\\ the\\ studio\\ isnt\\&rsquo\\;\\ necessary\\ 4art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mary\\ Cassat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Five\\ o\\&rsquo\\;clock\\ tea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\US\\ expatriot\\ living\\ in\\ Paris\\ from\\ a\\ wealthy\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ let\\ her\\ pursue\\ her\\ dream\\ o\\ living\\ in\\ Paris\\ n\\ being\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ befriended\\ many\\ impressionists\\:\\ \\ \\;among\\ them\\,\\ Degas\\,\\ despite\\ being\\ a\\ misogynist\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ liked\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ shows\\ the\\ interior\\ o\\ her\\ own\\ house\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;Probly\\ has\\ a\\ Chiense\\ or\\ Japanese\\ porcelain\\ vase\\ mounted\\ in\\ bronze\\ on\\ the\\ chimney\\ piece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rich\\ patterning\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ sister\\ Lyvia\\ receiving\\ a\\ visitorfor\\ tea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ striking\\:\\ \\ \\;visitor\\ raising\\ her\\ cup\\ such\\ that\\ u\\ almost\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ her\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Function\\ is\\ similar\\ 2that\\:\\ \\ \\;conveys\\ sense\\ o\\ instantaneity\\.\\ \\ \\;Momentary\\ thing\\ that\\ Cassat\\ is\\ interestd\\ in\\ conveying\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ bw\\ her\\ n\\ Morrisot\\ is\\ that\\ Morrisot\\ is\\ in2\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ deconstruction\\,\\ material\\ dispersal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cassat\\ interested\\ in\\ space\\ n\\ structure\\,\\ design\\ n\\ drawing\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ contains\\ her\\ objects\\ firmly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ alters\\ these\\ in\\ order\\ 2accomodate\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ conditions\\ o\\ viewing\\,\\ affecting\\ how\\ we\\ see\\ things\\,\\ but\\ not\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ Morrisot\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ spatial\\ tension\\,\\ thursting\\ diagonals\\ through\\ the\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circularity\\ impiled\\ by\\ the\\ shape\\ o\\ the\\ tray\\,\\ which\\ we\\ see\\ form\\ above\\,\\ although\\ hwe\\ see\\ other\\ items\\ form\\ the\\ side\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dynamic\\ tsense\\ o\\ things\\ turing\\ around\\ in\\ circles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ set\\ gets\\ an\\ odd\\ prominence\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ its\\&rsquo\\;\\ a\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;actor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cassat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ very\\ original\\,\\ n\\ at\\ times\\ as\\ feminine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ms\\.\\ Cassatt\\ has\\ a\\ curiosity\\,\\ a\\ special\\ attracitno\\ 4feminine\\ nerves\\ that\\ passes\\ thru\\ her\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ description\\,\\ one\\ that\\ becomes\\ overdtermined\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ o\\ Cassatt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ must\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ femininity\\ was\\ actually\\ associated\\ w\\ impressionists\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\ was\\ often\\ differentiated\\ n\\ identified\\ by\\ acadmics\\ as\\ effeminiate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ woman\\ arits\\,\\ tho\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ significance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ must\\ b\\ aware\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ wrks\\ like\\ Cassat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ women\\ artists\\ had\\ 2bear\\ a\\ burden\\ 2differentiate\\ themselves\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ 2avoid\\ having\\ their\\ difference\\ read\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ being\\ dismissive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ seem\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ their\\ male\\ colleagues\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\ also\\ have\\ 2differentiate\\ thsmelves\\ from\\ other\\ women\\ in\\ order\\ 2prevent\\ being\\ seen\\ as\\ representing\\ some\\ kidn\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ essential\\ femininity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinguishing\\ her\\ vision\\ from\\ others\\ is\\ quite\\ clear\\ in\\ Cassatt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Other\\ examples\\ o\\ the\\ iconography\\ o\\ femininity\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Eva\\ Gonzalez\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Early\\ morning\\ toilete\\ \\(Le\\ petit\\ lever\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\,\\ private\\ collection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boucher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Toilette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1743\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ difference\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Gonzalez\\ does\\ represent\\ a\\ toilette\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ reinforcing\\ women\\ w\\ narcisstic\\ self\\-involvement\\ w\\ makeup\\,\\ toilettes\\,\\ their\\ own\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Gonzalez\\ avoids\\ these\\ connotations\\ as\\ Boucher\\ does\\ w\\ the\\ woman\\ tying\\ her\\ garter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Berthe\\ Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Psyche\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Process\\ o\\ putting\\ something\\ on\\ is\\ well\\-attended\\ to\\ here\\,\\ w\\ her\\ exposed\\ arm\\ visible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\ there\\ r\\ no\\ overt\\ sexual\\ connotations\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ Morisot\\ explores\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ relation\\ bw\\ the\\ self\\ n\\ its\\ reflection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Name\\ o\\ the\\ mirror\\.\\ \\ \\;Reinforcing\\ idea\\ that\\ sense\\ o\\ subjectivity\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refelction\\,\\ relation\\ that\\ is\\ interestingly\\ phrased\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ image\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ realistic\\,\\ but\\ something\\ like\\ a\\ construction\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ Morisot\\ is\\ interestd\\ in\\:\\ \\ \\;notion\\ o\\ self\\ not\\ as\\ sreflection\\ but\\ as\\ self\\-construction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nana\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contrast\\ that\\ image\\ 2this\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ refers\\ 2Zola\\&rsquo\\;s\\ novel\\ about\\ Nana\\,\\ when\\ she\\ dresses\\ up\\ witnessed\\ by\\ 3men\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nana\\ was\\ given\\ 2standing\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ the\\ mirror\\ n\\ admiring\\ her\\ own\\ body\\ in\\ unabashed\\ narcissism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ putting\\ on\\ makeup\\,\\ She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ home\\.\\ T\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reference\\ 2Japan\\ w\\ the\\ motif\\ o\\ the\\ crane\\,\\ which\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ \\=\\ trope\\ o\\ prostitute\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clearly\\ a\\ woman\\ shown\\ here\\ w\\ a\\ man\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ client\\.\\ \\ \\;Dressed\\ in\\ top\\ hat\\ n\\ dressed\\ up\\ insuit\\.\\ \\ \\;Obviously\\ not\\ her\\ husband\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Morisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ cardle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1873\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maternity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greeted\\ w\\ much\\ attn\\ n\\ appreciation\\ 4its\\ linear\\ modeling\\,\\ color\\ used\\ 2define\\ line\\ o\\ the\\ drape\\ over\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ face\\ n\\ body\\ r\\ rendered\\ is\\ constructed\\ thru\\ independent\\,\\ unconnected\\ burshstrokes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ 4us\\ is\\ how\\ this\\ depiction\\ refers\\ 2earlier\\ engagements\\ w\\ similar\\ subjects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marguerite\\ Gerard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Motherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1800\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morisot\\ gives\\ us\\ not\\ a\\ happy\\ mother\\ but\\ a\\ pensive\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ defined\\ by\\ her\\ refelction\\,\\ not\\ simple\\ admiration\\ or\\ enjoyment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Cassatt\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.1891\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ 2redefine\\ motherhood\\ in\\ cultural\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unusual\\ pnt\\ o\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ that\\ prevents\\ any\\ sense\\ o\\ coy\\ sentimentality\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ see\\ the\\ expressions\\ on\\ the\\ faces\\ o\\ these\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ also\\ emphasizes\\ thes\\ bodies\\ as\\ a\\ pattern\\ in\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Utamaro\\ Kitagawa\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ mother\\ bathing\\ her\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Kansas\\ City\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artists\\ were\\ already\\ collecting\\ Japanese\\ qprints\\,\\ n\\ Cassatt\\ was\\ among\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baby\\ bathing\\ her\\ son\\ here\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Japanese\\ scenes\\ interested\\ in\\ vereyday\\ life\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\ they\\ became\\ interesting\\ 4ipmressionsits\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ 4us\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ idiom\\,\\ this\\ mode\\ o\\ representation\\,\\ its\\ unusualness\\,\\ its\\ emphasis\\ on\\ textures\\&hellip\\;defamiliarizes\\ maternity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Makes\\ it\\ strange\\.\\ \\ \\;Soething\\ that\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ taken\\ 4granted\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ socially\\ given\\ position\\ 4\\ women\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ the\\ composition\\ cannot\\ b\\ taken\\ 4granted\\,\\ so\\ the\\ viewer\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ the\\ mother\\ 4granted\\,\\ so\\ in\\ that\\ sense\\ it\\ has\\ both\\ aesthetic\\ n\\ social\\ connotations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Next\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;liminal\\ spaces\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ were\\ going\\ 2return\\ 2morisot\\ n\\ her\\ balcony\\,\\ compare\\ it\\ 2Manet\\,\\ the\\ internal\\ vs\\.\\ eteral\\ position\\,\\ the\\ garden\\ as\\ an\\ external\\ space\\ that\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ figure\\ o\\ interiotiy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ return\\ 2these\\ 4images\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ o\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ December\\ 03\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Bathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ were\\ concerned\\ w\\ relationship\\ bw\\ body\\ n\\ space\\,\\ n\\ aesthetic\\ means\\ artist\\ used\\ 2construct\\ this\\,\\ which\\ conveysm\\ ore\\ than\\ just\\ the\\ interior\\,\\ but\\ certain\\ specific\\ psychological\\ notions\\ o\\ interiority\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ girls\\ were\\ composed\\ in\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ disconnection\\ from\\ us\\ n\\ from\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Presence\\ o\\ dark\\ hole\\ in\\ background\\ which\\ mayb\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ figure\\ o\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ another\\ type\\ o\\ engagement\\ that\\ Cassatt\\ typifies\\ that\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ more\\ general\\ category\\ o\\ woman\\ artist\\ who\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\had\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ pnt\\ interiors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ taken\\ 4gratned\\ by\\ them\\ tho\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cassatt\\ was\\ trying\\ 2reinvent\\ n\\ de\\-romanticize\\ the\\ theme\\ o\\ motherhood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ briefly\\ look\\ at\\ 2\\ sets\\ o\\ images\\ that\\ we\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fit\\ in\\ last\\ lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ notion\\ o\\ liminal\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morrisot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Sister\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Balcony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1868\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ artists\\ exploring\\ the\\ liminal\\,\\ but\\ differently\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morrissot\\ seeing\\ it\\ from\\ inside\\,\\ Manet\\ imagining\\ it\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\,\\ a\\ position\\ that\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ assume\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\ is\\ Morrisot\\ herself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marie\\ Braqucemont\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tea\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ pntg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Garden\\ as\\ liminal\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cassat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ structure\\ o\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Braquemont\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\ o\\ disarticulated\\ surface\\ experience\\ typical\\ o\\ impressionist\\ approach\\ 2such\\ assignments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ return\\ 2the\\ nude\\,\\ which\\ is\\ haunting\\ us\\ throughout\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gustave\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Man\\ drying\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bathing\\ naturally\\ implies\\ engagement\\ w\\ female\\ nude\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ rarely\\ shown\\ bathing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ precisely\\ the\\ theme\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ returns\\,\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ bather\\,\\ that\\ returns\\ in\\ late\\ impressionism\\,\\ in\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ several\\ artists\\,\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\ when\\ impressionism\\ was\\ hitting\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ road\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ artists\\ interpret\\ the\\ bather\\ it\\ differently\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ o\\ Degas\\,\\ late\\ Renoir\\,\\ late\\ Cezanne\\,\\ all\\ o\\ whom\\ were\\ obsessed\\ w\\ the\\ theme\\ o\\ bather\\ as\\ a\\ site\\ o\\ elaboration\\ o\\ nude\\ aesthetics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolist\\ aesthetic\\ w\\ Degas\\,\\ post\\-impressionist\\ aesthetics\\ w\\ Cezanne\\,\\ n\\ aesthetic\\ nouveau\\ academism\\ w\\ Renoir\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Edgard\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Seated\\ bather\\ drying\\ her\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\-1900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degas\\ represented\\ series\\ o\\ bathers\\ in\\ pastel\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ subject\\ he\\ was\\ most\\ interested\\ in\\,\\ evolving\\ from\\ his\\ previous\\ interest\\ in\\ urban\\ scenes\\ n\\ other\\ interior\\ scenes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ the\\ bather\\,\\ Degas\\ took\\ up\\ the\\ tradition\\ o\\ the\\ nude\\ not\\ 2make\\ art\\ modern\\ or\\ pose\\ the\\ quesitno\\ o\\ modernity\\ thru\\ it\\,\\ but\\ rather\\,\\ as\\ Carol\\ Armstrong\\ argues\\ in\\ 2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\,\\ 2withdraw\\ from\\ modernity\\ altogether\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ this\\ withdrawal\\ that\\ interests\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Antoine\\ Watteau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lady\\ at\\ her\\ toilette\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reminds\\ us\\ o\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ tradition\\ n\\ concern\\ w\\ the\\ theme\\ o\\ bathing\\,\\ w\\ which\\ Degas\\ engages\\,\\ but\\ he\\ approaches\\ it\\ w\\ a\\ different\\ set\\ o\\ formal\\ concerns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ bodily\\ procession\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enabled\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oval\\ format\\ reinforces\\ sense\\ o\\ ocular\\ access\\ we\\ have\\ 2this\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;peeping\\ tom\\&rdquo\\;\\ perspective\\ on\\ the\\ nude\\,\\ who\\ gets\\ acknowledged\\ tby\\ this\\ woman\\ as\\ she\\ lifts\\ her\\ chemise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ bathers\\ refuse\\ penetration\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ impenetrable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Materiality\\ o\\ the\\ means\\ thru\\ which\\ we\\ get\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ bathing\\ w\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ tub\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1886\\,\\ Musee\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Orsay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ 2aspects\\ could\\ b\\ observed\\ in\\ whole\\ series\\ o\\ images\\ in\\ 1880s\\ n\\ 90s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ bathing\\ in\\ a\\ shallow\\ tub\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\,\\ MMA\\ NY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unusual\\ view\\ from\\ which\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ invited\\ 2see\\ this\\ action\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pnt\\ o\\ view\\ always\\ from\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bending\\ over\\,\\ completely\\ absorbed\\ in\\ heraction\\,\\ unaware\\ o\\ our\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bathing\\ paraphernalia\\ palced\\ on\\ side\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ strokes\\ r\\ crude\\ n\\ brutal\\ n\\ visible\\,\\ as\\ r\\ his\\ color\\ experimentations\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ conveys\\ sense\\ o\\ coloristic\\ crudeness\\ which\\ is\\ deliberate\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Morning\\ bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1892\\-5\\,\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sense\\ o\\ momentariness\\ o\\ woman\\ as\\ she\\ enters\\ bathtub\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ her\\ butt\\ thighs\\,\\ part\\ o\\ her\\ back\\,\\ undistinct\\ lump\\ o\\ hair\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ face\\,\\ no\\ physiognomic\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ pntr\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ is\\ the\\ dense\\ carpet\\ o\\ strokes\\ thru\\ which\\ the\\ presence\\ o\\ this\\ body\\ is\\ secured\\ as\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\,\\ n\\ yet\\ distinct\\ from\\,\\ her\\ surroundings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ strokes\\ here\\ seem\\ seomwhat\\ arbitrary\\ in\\ the\\ color\\ n\\ livid\\ quality\\ o\\ this\\ pastel\\ is\\ what\\ one\\ would\\ want\\ 2stress\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Verging\\ on\\ abstraction\\,\\ but\\ brutal\\ in\\ quality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Degas\\ must\\ have\\ wished\\ 2take\\ revenge\\ 2hurl\\ the\\ most\\ flagrant\\ insult\\ at\\ his\\ century\\ by\\ demolishing\\ its\\ most\\ constantly\\ enshrined\\ entity\\:\\ \\ \\;woman\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ gives\\ 2her\\ a\\ special\\ accent\\ o\\ scorn\\ n\\ hate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ critic\\ Rissement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ visual\\ misogyny\\.\\ \\ \\;Mode\\ o\\ rendering\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ humiliating\\ n\\ debasing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Degas\\ debasing\\ here\\?\\ \\ \\;Who\\ is\\ the\\ woman\\ represented\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ r\\ we\\ dealing\\ w\\ exactly\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ type\\ o\\ situation\\ is\\ this\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ class\\ woman\\?\\ \\ \\;As\\ was\\ case\\ w\\ Caillebotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ man\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ questions\\ that\\ were\\ raised\\ in\\ other\\ circles\\ in\\ 1880s\\.\\ \\ \\;question\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\who\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\these\\ images\\ depicted\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ relation\\ 2Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ urban\\ realism\\ o\\ 1870s\\ was\\ really\\ key\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ having\\ her\\ hair\\ combed\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ being\\ helped\\ by\\ a\\ maid\\,\\ so\\ she\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ u\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ a\\ bourgeois\\ woman\\ in\\ the\\ nude\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ somewhere\\ in\\ bw\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ considered\\ unhealthy\\ 2bathe\\ 2often\\.\\ \\ \\;Bathing\\ was\\ recommended\\ only\\ 1x\\ \\/\\ month\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prostitutes\\,\\ tho\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\had\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\2bathe\\ daily\\.\\ \\ \\;Bathtubs\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ o\\ prostitute\\,\\ as\\ may\\ b\\ a\\ toilette\\ scene\\ like\\ this\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ courtesan\\ who\\ could\\ afford\\ 2have\\ a\\ maid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ o\\ the\\ pastels\\ spell\\ this\\ ore\\ explicitly\\ than\\ the\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Female\\ nude\\ combing\\ her\\ hair\\ \\[in\\ front\\ of\\ a\\ man\\]\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1877\\-79\\,\\ Ittleson\\ collection\\,\\ NY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clearly\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ brothel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ wears\\ black\\ stockings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fully\\ dressed\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ performing\\ sexual\\ gestures\\,\\ but\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definitely\\ a\\ prostitute\\.\\ \\ \\;Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ pnt\\ o\\ view\\ emphasizes\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ provides\\ us\\ w\\ sense\\ o\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ sense\\ o\\ possession\\ likened\\ 2the\\ male\\ client\\&rsquo\\;s\\ possession\\ o\\ the\\ prostitute\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prostitution\\ \\=\\ burning\\ subject\\ form\\ 1870s\\ onward\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ aesthetic\\ theme\\ w\\ which\\ both\\ pntrs\\,\\ writers\\,\\ artists\\ engaged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zola\\ wrote\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nana\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Rissement\\ wrote\\ novel\\ on\\ prostitutes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ prostitutes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ bathers\\ enter\\ the\\ debate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Are\\ they\\ critical\\,\\ like\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ is\\ prosititution\\ represented\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whose\\ pleasure\\ is\\ being\\ shown\\ here\\?\\ \\ \\;Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Olympia\\ raised\\ these\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ r\\ no\\ clear\\ answers\\ 2these\\ questions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ can\\ say\\,\\ tho\\,\\ that\\,\\ as\\ in\\ Manet\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ attempt\\ at\\ idealization\\ o\\ the\\ female\\ body\\ in\\ Degas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shown\\ w\\ all\\ its\\ imperfections\\,\\ in\\ positions\\ that\\ r\\ often\\ contorted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ body\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ conveyed\\ w\\ great\\ insistence\\ on\\ the\\ means\\ thru\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ fleshed\\ out\\,\\ maybe\\ even\\ more\\ so\\ than\\ in\\ Manet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Question\\ that\\ poses\\ itself\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ does\\ this\\ different\\ kind\\ o\\ procedure\\ that\\ Degas\\ illustrates\\ impact\\ the\\ scene\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ r\\ the\\ implications\\ 4the\\ meaning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ the\\ questions\\ Carol\\ Armstrong\\ tries\\ 2address\\ in\\ our\\ rdg\\,\\ but\\ w\\/o\\ returning\\ 2the\\ purely\\ formalist\\ rdg\\ o\\ these\\ canvases\\ as\\ unrelated\\ 2social\\ practices\\,\\ which\\ Eunice\\ Lypton\\ tried\\ to\\ repair\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\ in\\ Armstrong\\ puts\\ greater\\ care\\ on\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ mode\\ o\\ representati\\ noas\\ specific\\ social\\ practice\\ wrkd\\.\\ \\ \\;Problem\\ o\\ access\\ 2the\\ body\\ that\\ the\\ pntg\\ affords\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ this\\ was\\ seen\\ by\\ the\\ critic\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ it\\ was\\ seen\\ in\\ context\\ o\\ larger\\ aesthetic\\ debates\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ 1880s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4Armstrong\\,\\ misogyny\\ o\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ vision\\ was\\ inseparable\\ from\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ particular\\ kind\\ of\\ symbolism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ she\\ says\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ women\\ may\\ b\\ prostitues\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ b\\,\\ but\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Degas\\ represents\\ them\\ problematizes\\ our\\ access\\ 2their\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ aspect\\ o\\ this\\ proelm\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ what\\ this\\ pastel\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\After\\ the\\ bath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refusal\\ o\\ our\\ presence\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Refusal\\ o\\ our\\ access\\ 2the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bather\\ \\=\\ bent\\ over\\ n\\ absorbed\\ thematically\\ in\\ her\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Absorption\\,\\ obliviousness\\,\\ sense\\ o\\ screen\\ erected\\ by\\ mode\\ o\\ representation\\,\\ bw\\ her\\ n\\ us\\,\\ sense\\ o\\ retreat\\ towards\\ interiority\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ similarly\\&hellip\\;not\\ only\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ interior\\,\\ but\\ in\\ subjective\\ insightedness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rather\\ than\\ staging\\ a\\ prostitute\\ \\(if\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ she\\ is\\)\\ in\\ the\\ nude\\ bathing\\ in\\ her\\ interior\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ staging\\ that\\ problematizes\\ the\\ availability\\ o\\ her\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Place\\ de\\ la\\ concorde\\ \\(Vicomte\\ Lepic\\ \\&\\;\\ his\\ daughters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flaunt\\ her\\ body\\ as\\ did\\ Manet\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ by\\ foreclosing\\ or\\ barring\\ our\\ access\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ visual\\ negation\\,\\ which\\ has\\ 2b\\ linked\\ in\\ broader\\ aesthetic\\ sense\\ 2Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ withdrawal\\ from\\ subjects\\ o\\ exteeiority\\,\\ from\\ engagement\\ w\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ from\\ depictions\\ o\\ urbanity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ only\\ was\\ this\\ pntg\\ one\\ that\\ emphasized\\ the\\ exterior\\ life\\,\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ st\\.\\,\\ but\\ also\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ compositional\\ vectors\\ were\\ leading\\ outside\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bathing\\ images\\ r\\ the\\ opposite\\ o\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idea\\ o\\ observation\\,\\ reservation\\,\\ towards\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ negation\\.\\ \\ \\;Refusal\\ o\\ exteriority\\.\\ \\ \\;Investment\\ in\\ interior\\.\\ \\ \\;Cultivation\\ o\\ visual\\ idiosyncracies\\ n\\ visual\\ mode\\ o\\ rendering\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rissement\\ recognized\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ images\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ another\\ aesthetic\\ vision\\ altogether\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rissement\\ \\=\\ advocate\\ o\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ inteirrized\\ sensation\\.\\ \\ \\;Eccentricity\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ he\\ emphasized\\ in\\ his\\ manifesto\\,\\ a\\ novel\\ \\&ldquo\\;against\\ the\\ grain\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ an\\ optional\\ but\\ strongly\\ encouraged\\ rdg\\ 4thsi\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ it\\,\\ Rissement\\ features\\ a\\ hero\\ aristocrat\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ figure\\ o\\ a\\ paradigmatic\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ Baudelarian\\ city\\ stroller\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dweller\\ o\\ interiors\\,\\ who\\ constructs\\ 4himself\\ a\\ palace\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\,\\ where\\ he\\ gives\\ himesfl\\ 2decadent\\ pleasures\\,\\ most\\ o\\ which\\ involve\\ heightened\\ perceptions\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ eccentricity\\ is\\ pushed\\ the\\ limits\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ re\\-writing\\ the\\ real\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ o\\ decadent\\ sensual\\ pleasures\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ project\\ epitomized\\ by\\ taking\\ a\\ living\\ turtle\\ n\\ encrusting\\ its\\ shell\\ w\\ precious\\ stones\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ life\\ is\\ being\\ turned\\ in2\\ an\\ artifice\\,\\ n\\ artifice\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ aristocrat\\ cultivates\\ above\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ the\\ novel\\,\\ he\\ represents\\ an\\ aristocratic\\ anti\\-modernism\\,\\ the\\ kind\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ related\\ 2Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ o\\ bourgeois\\ physiognomy\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ turning\\ 2world\\ o\\ sensation\\,\\ interioty\\,\\ constructed\\ thru\\ strategies\\ o\\ inversion\\,\\ turning\\ inside\\ out\\,\\ de\\-naturalizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Breakfast\\ after\\ bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1894\\,\\ private\\ collection\\ \\(Mini\\ Gallery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fiction\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ n\\ the\\ bather\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ bather\\ bends\\ forward\\,\\ never\\ seeing\\ her\\ face\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Butt\\ popping\\ out\\ at\\ the\\ maid\\,\\ strange\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ from\\ circular\\ n\\ enabling\\ view\\ in\\ Gerome\\ which\\ lets\\ the\\ viewer\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ bodily\\ contortion\\ in\\ Degas\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ academic\\ projects\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ marked\\ unusually\\ by\\ kind\\ o\\ violence\\ in\\ it\\,\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ puzzling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gerome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Moorish\\ Bath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ coming\\ her\\ hair\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\,\\ Paris\\,\\ private\\ collection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rendered\\ w\\ pin\\-like\\ surface\\ strokes\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ a\\ porcupine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ surface\\ is\\ both\\ tactile\\,\\ yet\\ forbidding\\ the\\ touch\\.\\ \\ \\;Strange\\ tactility\\,\\ compared\\ to\\,\\ say\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\After\\ the\\ bath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1896\\ \\[Georges\\ Viau\\ Coll\\]\\,\\ Philadelphia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ bodily\\ contortion\\ is\\ quite\\ clear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dyring\\ herself\\ w\\ a\\ towel\\,\\ but\\ like\\ a\\ clown\\ almost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Armstrong\\ performs\\ 2interpretive\\ moves\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ go\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;these\\ contortions\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ this\\ violence\\ in\\ bodily\\ language\\,\\ may\\ have\\ something\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ discourse\\ o\\ the\\ apparent\\,\\ pathological\\ function\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ was\\ produced\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ criminal\\ n\\ proto\\-psychoanalytic\\ discourse\\ o\\ hysterical\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Broulliet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Clinical\\ lesson\\ of\\ Dr\\.\\ Charcot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ man\\ conducted\\ experiments\\ on\\ women\\ who\\ manifested\\ strange\\ bodily\\/behavioral\\ systems\\,\\ which\\ he\\ interpreted\\ as\\ a\\ dysfunction\\ rooted\\ in\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hysteria\\ \\=\\ lack\\ o\\ sexual\\ fulfillment\\ that\\ leads\\ 2psychic\\ n\\ bodily\\ dysfunction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ 4us\\ is\\ that\\ Charcot\\ constructed\\ his\\ research\\ n\\ his\\ theory\\ w\\ the\\ help\\ o\\ visual\\ images\\,\\ n\\ performances\\ involving\\ his\\ hysterics\\,\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ male\\ scientists\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ o\\ ppl\\ came\\ 2witness\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;s\\é\\;ance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ were\\ photographed\\ 2mark\\ the\\ stages\\ o\\ their\\ hysterical\\ attacks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ with\\ towel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1898\\,\\ NY\\ MMA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Excess\\ o\\ this\\ position\\ may\\ remind\\ us\\ o\\ the\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ hysterics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ project\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ omething\\ opposite\\ o\\ Charcot\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ Charcot\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ body\\ legible\\,\\ Degas\\ is\\ making\\ it\\ illegible\\ n\\ myseterious\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nnot\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ lagguage\\ that\\&rsquo\\;d\\ allow\\ u\\ 2position\\ the\\ bather\\ in\\ any\\ sense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;argument\\ o\\ Armstrong\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ formal\\ quality\\ o\\ Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ a\\ primitivism\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Courbet\\ would\\ not\\ understand\\ Degas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ primitivism\\ has\\ symbolic\\ excess\\,\\ which\\ brings\\ it\\ closer\\ 2earlier\\ masters\\ o\\ the\\ past\\,\\ like\\ Matthias\\ Grunewals\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Matthias\\ Grunewald\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crucifixion\\.\\ \\ \\;Tauberbischofsheim\\ altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1520\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grunewald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rendition\\ o\\ crucifixion\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ owunds\\,\\ the\\ decay\\,\\ the\\ abject\\ ugliness\\ o\\ it\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bound\\ on\\ deformation\\.\\ \\ \\;Cultiaiton\\ o\\ the\\ ugly\\,\\ scary\\,\\ repellant\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ kind\\ o\\ negativity\\,\\ seen\\ here\\ in\\ detail\\ o\\ the\\ feet\\ o\\ Christ\\,\\ w\\ its\\ dirty\\ nails\\,\\ blood\\,\\ nail\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ run\\ in2\\ the\\ foot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ contortions\\ o\\ Degas\\ n\\ his\\ emphasis\\ on\\ a\\ brutal\\,\\ crude\\ palette\\ have\\ something\\ 2do\\ w\\ this\\ type\\ o\\ primitivism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ it\\,\\ Degas\\ manifests\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ brand\\ o\\ symbolism\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ distinct\\ from\\ other\\ symbolists\\ doing\\ similar\\ things\\,\\ but\\ different\\ than\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ prof\\ has\\ in\\ mind\\ here\\ \\(n\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ discuss\\ symbolism\\ w\\ Gauguin\\ n\\ Van\\ Gogh\\)\\ is\\ the\\ early\\ stages\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\literary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\symbolism\\,\\ marked\\ by\\ retreat\\ fromexteriority\\,\\ invention\\ o\\ interior\\ worlds\\,\\ given\\ 2exploration\\ o\\ sensation\\,\\ connection\\ bw\\ music\\ n\\ color\\ was\\ one\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ sensation\\ was\\ explored\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iconographically\\,\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ satanic\\ n\\ demonic\\ iconography\\,\\ in\\ the\\ demonic\\ aspect\\ o\\ femininity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ symbolism\\ o\\ Degas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ We\\ have\\ a\\ vision\\ here\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ excessive\\ in\\ its\\ realism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Departing\\ from\\ impressionism\\ 2something\\ else\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brutal\\,\\ crude\\,\\ n\\ at\\ times\\ repellant\\,\\ tho\\ never\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ Grunewald\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Torso\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ in\\ sunlight\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ Degas\\,\\ Renoir\\ is\\ seeking\\ thru\\ the\\ theme\\ o\\ the\\ bather\\ a\\ way\\ out\\ o\\ impressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ artist\\ who\\ already\\,\\ during\\ height\\ o\\ impressionism\\,\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ motif\\ o\\ the\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ \\=\\ example\\ o\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ nude\\ w\\ which\\ he\\ departed\\ form\\ a\\ more\\ traditional\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ nude\\,\\ w\\ which\\ he\\ himself\\ was\\ involved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bather\\ with\\ a\\ griffon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1870\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ during\\ his\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;Cute\\ dog\\ laying\\ on\\ her\\ dress\\.\\ \\ \\;Showing\\ us\\ her\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ looked\\ at\\ by\\ another\\ woman\\ from\\ the\\ back\\,\\ as\\ if\\ configuring\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ seeing\\ her\\ from\\ the\\ back\\ ourselves\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ \\=\\ solid\\,\\ sculptural\\,\\ defined\\ by\\ traditional\\ modeling\\ that\\ gives\\ the\\ flesh\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ he\\ does\\ 5\\ yrs\\ later\\ w\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Torso\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ a\\ shift\\ towards\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ the\\ skin\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ phenomenon\\ o\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ deploys\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Nature\\ is\\ blurry\\,\\ a\\ field\\ o\\ perceptual\\ impression\\,\\ nothing\\ real\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ what\\ Renoir\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ preoject\\ diarticulates\\ discreetly\\ the\\ body\\ through\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 80s\\,\\ Renoir\\ retrenches\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ consolidates\\ the\\ obdy\\,\\ n\\ w\\ the\\ same\\ motif\\ offers\\ a\\ different\\ approach\\ 2the\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bather\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\,\\ Williamstown\\,\\ Clark\\ Institute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pnts\\ her\\ w\\/in\\ contours\\ o\\ strokes\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ body\\ is\\ more\\ like\\ that\\ earlier\\ one\\ from\\ 1870\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rendered\\ in\\ more\\ conservative\\,\\ solid\\,\\ realistic\\,\\ not\\ impressionistic\\,\\ mode\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ bodytype\\ that\\ Renoir\\ loved\\:\\ \\ \\;full\\-breasetd\\,\\ ample\\,\\ whose\\ presence\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ the\\ landscape\\ contributes\\ 2the\\ idea\\ naturalness\\,\\ contributes\\ 2the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ myth\\ o\\ bathing\\ in\\ nature\\ \\(no\\ one\\ really\\ did\\ this\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ featuring\\ here\\ a\\ bourgeois\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ woman\\,\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ reincarnation\\ o\\ mythological\\ nymph\\,\\ thru\\ which\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ femininity\\ would\\ b\\ constructed\\,\\ which\\ is\\ very\\ reassuring\\ 2Renoir\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ prof\\ wants\\ 2say\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ type\\ o\\ representation\\ is\\ almost\\ as\\ conservative\\ as\\ what\\ the\\ academics\\ were\\ doing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\,\\ Bouguerau\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Bathers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ difference\\ is\\ how\\ Renoir\\ does\\ the\\ background\\,\\ more\\ impressionistic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bouguerau\\ is\\ smoother\\ little\\ bit\\,\\ greater\\ illusion\\.\\ \\ \\;Difference\\ is\\ minimal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unlike\\ Degas\\,\\ Renoir\\ is\\ offering\\ the\\ same\\ kidn\\ o\\ access\\ 2the\\ body\\,\\ not\\ problematizing\\ it\\ in\\ any\\ way\\,\\ as\\ the\\ traditional\\ academic\\ pntr\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ large\\ achievement\\ o\\ this\\ period\\ was\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Large\\ bathers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epitome\\ o\\ Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nude\\ academism\\ is\\ mythic\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\:\\ \\ \\;thematic\\,\\ technical\\,\\ in\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thematically\\:\\ \\ \\;women\\ frolicking\\ in\\ landscape\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Obviously\\ a\\ fantasy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ r\\ their\\ bodie\\ n\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ engage\\ w\\ eo\\ w\\ kind\\ o\\ affectation\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ total\\ no\\-no\\ 2\\ an\\ early\\ impressionist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\ tried\\ 2capture\\ how\\ ppl\\ act\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Renoir\\,\\ tho\\,\\ has\\ pretension\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technically\\,\\ he\\ returns\\ 2the\\ most\\ classical\\ way\\ o\\ making\\ the\\ pntg\\:\\ \\ \\;starting\\ w\\ drawing\\ sketches\\,\\ n\\ moving\\ on2\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emphasis\\ is\\ on\\ naturalness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ uninflected\\ academism\\,\\ w\\ bodies\\ contained\\ in\\ the\\ contours\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ring\\ on\\ her\\ finger\\,\\ suggesting\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ almost\\ a\\ late\\ Renaissance\\ pntg\\ face\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2engage\\ w\\ the\\ masters\\ o\\ the\\ past\\:\\ \\ \\;Titian\\,\\ others\\,\\ who\\ were\\ engaging\\ w\\ the\\ nude\\ n\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2match\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ this\\ academic\\ exercise\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ could\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ personal\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lateness\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ desire\\ 2pursue\\ his\\ own\\ desire\\ n\\ find\\ safe\\ place\\ 4its\\ own\\ articulation\\,\\ unlike\\ Degas\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in2\\ far\\ more\\ complicated\\ interpretations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inscription\\ o\\ woman\\ in\\ nature\\:\\ \\ \\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ have\\ 2do\\ w\\ 1880s\\?\\ \\ \\;one\\ thingthat\\ comes\\ 2mind\\ is\\ this\\ \\=\\ moment\\ o\\ intense\\ suffrage\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ regressive\\ fantasy\\ o\\ where\\ women\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\really\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\belong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Large\\ bathers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1898\\-1905\\,\\ Philadelphia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ series\\ o\\ bathers\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ favorite\\ o\\ Cezanne\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ o\\ bather\\ here\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ less\\ gracious\\ than\\ Renoir\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grace\\,\\ fantasy\\ world\\,\\ is\\ very\\ far\\ from\\ Cezanne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concern\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ at\\ stake\\ here\\ \\=\\ attempt\\ 2use\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ order\\ 2cosntruct\\ different\\ architecture\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ also\\ 2\\ therefore\\ reinvent\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ rematerialize\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ signifier\\ o\\ eros\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ way\\ o\\ describing\\ the\\ erotic\\ attraction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ aspects\\ r\\ imptnt\\ 2notice\\ here\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ architecture\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ made\\ as\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ archeitctuer\\ o\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Bathers\\ arranged\\ in\\ way\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ whole\\ triangle\\ structure\\ o\\ the\\ image\\,\\ enclosure\\ thru\\ which\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ these\\ figures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ that\\ body\\ is\\ defined\\ very\\ solidly\\.\\ \\ \\;Sculptural\\.\\ No\\ grace\\ or\\ idealization\\.\\ \\ \\;Generalized\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Absolute\\ lack\\ o\\ closure\\ in\\ countour\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ contained\\.\\ \\ \\;Solid\\ n\\ sculptulral\\,\\ yet\\ paradoxically\\ fluid\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ its\\ onctours\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ instability\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ readi\\ n\\ terms\\ o\\ unclear\\ gender\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ women\\ have\\ breasts\\,\\ others\\ questionably\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ different\\ kidn\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ w\\ personal\\ n\\ ideological\\ resonance\\.\\ \\ \\;Closer\\ 2the\\ inventiveness\\ o\\ Degas\\,\\ but\\ stylistically\\ very\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Post\\-impressinoist\\ is\\ our\\ art\\-historical\\-safe\\ term\\ for\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Next\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ return\\ 2Cezanne\\ n\\ talk\\ about\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 20, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA174s_-_Class_Notes_3.doc", "desc": "Note set 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "French Body Image - Note 4", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "architecture", "body-image"], "text": null, "id": 47, "html": "\\\\\\HAA174s\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_4\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c8\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c12\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c7\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ December\\ 5\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Attentive\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ 2understand\\ the\\ differences\\ bw\\ Degas\\ n\\ Renoir\\.\\ \\ \\;Talking\\ about\\ the\\ bather\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ o\\ pntg\\ the\\ female\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degas\\&rsquo\\;\\ attempt\\ 2use\\ this\\ opportunity\\ 2pose\\ the\\ nude\\ as\\ a\\ problem\\ o\\ the\\ access\\ 2the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ 2use\\ the\\ bather\\ 2construct\\ a\\ myth\\ o\\ the\\ natural\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ step\\ back\\ 4a\\ moment\\:\\ \\ \\;reflecting\\ on\\ something\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ mentioned\\ several\\ times\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ shift\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ when\\ discussing\\ how\\ romanticism\\ changed\\ in2\\ realism\\,\\ when\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ differences\\ bw\\ the\\ ambitious\\ impressionists\\ or\\ Manet\\,\\ n\\ the\\ academics\\ like\\ Marson\\.\\ \\ \\;Differences\\ bw\\ a\\ vision\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ambitious\\ by\\ itself\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ invented\\,\\ n\\ therefore\\ anti\\=narrative\\,\\ non\\-perspectile\\,\\ vs\\.\\ Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ conditional\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ types\\ o\\ shifts\\ can\\ b\\ accntd\\ 4\\ in\\ terms\\ different\\ than\\ style\\ n\\ vision\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vision\\,\\ like\\ art\\,\\ has\\ a\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ it\\ seems\\ 2u\\ like\\ a\\ natural\\ thing\\,\\ just\\ something\\ tha\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ there\\,\\ giving\\ u\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ out\\ there\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ something\\ more\\ contingent\\ n\\ historically\\ specific\\ depending\\ on\\ how\\ ppl\\ understand\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;what\\ kind\\ o\\ models\\ 4\\ vision\\ ppl\\ have\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ kind\\ o\\ discussions\\ happen\\ around\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ what\\ kind\\ o\\ instruments\\ help\\ produce\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ understand\\ 2day\\ in\\ a\\ quick\\,\\ natural\\ history\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ that\\ will\\ draw\\ ur\\ attn\\ 2\\ a\\ major\\ shift\\ happening\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ shift\\ 2modernity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Up\\ until\\ then\\,\\ vision\\ is\\ encapsulated\\ by\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ camera\\ obscurae\\,\\ which\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ specific\\ kind\\ o\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\portable\\ camerae\\ obscurae\\,\\ mid\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\ were\\ portable\\ ones\\ like\\ this\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ stationary\\ ones\\ that\\ u\\ came\\ in2\\ use\\ inorder\\ 2experience\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ gave\\ u\\ a\\ whole\\ thru\\ which\\ vision\\ came\\,\\ relayed\\ by\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ mirrors\\.\\ \\ \\;Gave\\ u\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ outside\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ obtain\\ a\\ vision\\ o\\ the\\ outside\\,\\ produced\\ by\\ this\\ device\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Used\\ 4\\ leisure\\,\\ but\\ also\\ professional\\ draftsmen\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ model\\ thru\\ which\\ vision\\ was\\ understood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Camera\\ obscura\\,\\ 1646\\ \\(chamber\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stationary\\ one\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ understanding\\ had\\ 3\\ major\\ aspects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ thes\\ assumption\\ that\\ the\\ relation\\ bw\\ the\\ spectator\\/viewer\\ inside\\ the\\ camera\\ obscura\\ n\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ is\\ transparent\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ camera\\ obscura\\ is\\ the\\ instrument\\ that\\ produces\\ this\\ vision\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ instrument\\ that\\ produces\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ an\\ assumption\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ mediation\\,\\ that\\ vision\\ simply\\ comes\\ 2the\\ spectator\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;That\\ spectator\\ is\\ autonomous\\ n\\ eparate\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\:\\ \\ \\;spectator\\ is\\ a\\ body\\ that\\ receives\\ the\\ information\\ relayed\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ supplanted\\ by\\ mechanical\\ apparatus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ camera\\ obscura\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 3\\ most\\ imptnt\\ aspects\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ transparency\\ \\(unmediated\\ quality\\)\\,\\ interiorized\\ autonomous\\ viewer\\,\\ n\\ 3rdly\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ disembodied\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relationship\\ that\\ this\\ model\\ implied\\ bw\\ viewing\\ subject\\ n\\ the\\ object\\ may\\ b\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;scenic\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ it\\ happens\\ outside\\ ur\\ body\\,\\ as\\ a\\ production\\,\\ as\\ if\\ on\\ stage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ modernity\\:\\ \\ \\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ break\\ w\\ this\\ classical\\ mdoel\\,\\ the\\ introduction\\ o\\ the\\ embodied\\ spectator\\ comes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ one\\ hand\\:\\ \\ \\;body\\ was\\ being\\ recognized\\ in\\ the\\ spirit\\ as\\ a\\ physiologically\\ specific\\ sight\\ o\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ other\\ hand\\:\\ \\ \\;ppl\\ began\\ 2explore\\ how\\ vision\\ is\\ independently\\ produced\\,\\ not\\ entirely\\ controllable\\ by\\ the\\ body\\,\\ n\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ also\\ b\\ produced\\ outside\\ o\\ it\\ by\\ specific\\ devices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nicolas\\-Henri\\ Jacob\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eye\\ examination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1839\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experimental\\ physiologists\\ started\\ examining\\ perception\\,\\ putting\\ greater\\ emphasis\\ n\\ discovering\\ the\\ degree\\ 2which\\ perception\\ is\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ body\\ has\\ a\\ constitutive\\ role\\ in\\ perception\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ \\=\\ opaque\\ site\\ that\\ produces\\ this\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;therefore\\,\\ vision\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ entirely\\ objective\\,\\ bc\\ body\\ is\\ an\\ unreliable\\ apparatus\\,\\ n\\ an\\ inconsistent\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ tends\\ 2confuse\\ the\\ interior\\ w\\ the\\ exterior\\ visions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ the\\ whole\\ notion\\ o\\ reliability\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ that\\ was\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ the\\ camera\\ obscura\\,\\ was\\ challenged\\ n\\ undemrind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vsion\\ began\\ 2appear\\ as\\ something\\ autonomous\\ from\\ the\\ object\\!\\ \\ \\;Something\\ produced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subjectively\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ question\\ o\\ the\\ individual\\ subjective\\ experience\\,\\ which\\ is\\ physiologically\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ may\\ b\\ connected\\ 2the\\ romantics\\ o\\ subjectivity\\ o\\ vision\\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ new\\ concept\\ o\\ embodied\\ perception\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ exactly\\ the\\ body\\ produces\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;aspect\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ proliferation\\ o\\ optical\\ devices\\,\\ new\\ devices\\ o\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;devices\\ o\\ vision\\ were\\ there\\ 4a\\ long\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Glasses\\/spectacles\\,\\ 4example\\,\\ corrected\\ spectacles\\,\\ could\\ b\\ traced\\ at\\ least\\ back\\ 2the\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ alos\\ devices\\,\\ tho\\,\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ corrective\\ function\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Multiplying\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ England\\,\\ c\\.1650\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\made\\ o\\ cut\\ crystal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;pleasurable\\ spectacles\\ 4avaricious\\ persons\\ that\\ love\\ gold\\ n\\ silver\\,\\ 4one\\ piece\\ will\\ seem\\ like\\ many\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ledermuller\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Magnifying\\ glasses\\ of\\ various\\ sort\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1768\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Panorama\\ on\\ Leicster\\ Sq\\.\\,\\ London\\,\\ 1801\\ \\(view\\ o\\ entry\\ and\\ o\\ interior\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ new\\ device\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ the\\ panorama\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ look\\ inside\\ a\\ deli\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ this\\ consisted\\ o\\ was\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ panoramic\\,\\ round\\ image\\,\\ that\\ u\\ entered\\ from\\ w\\/in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Optical\\ devise\\:\\ \\ \\;portable\\ diorama\\;\\ thaumatropes\\;\\ phenakistiscope\\;\\ zootrope\\,\\ Brewster\\ stereoscope\\;\\ panoramic\\ stereoscope\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sense\\ o\\ being\\ surrounded\\.\\ \\ \\;Need\\ 2b\\ surrounded\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ breaks\\ w\\ the\\ static\\ notion\\ o\\ visual\\ experience\\ encapsulated\\ by\\ camera\\ obscura\\,\\ n\\ by\\ classical\\ pntg\\,\\ w\\ its\\ perspective\\,\\ its\\ static\\ aspect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diorama\\ moved\\ 2offer\\ ppl\\ different\\ views\\.\\ A\\ proto\\-cinematic\\ experience\\!\\ \\ \\;The\\ relation\\ o\\ the\\ static\\ image\\ 2the\\ moving\\ observer\\,\\ the\\ cinema\\ is\\ an\\ inversion\\ o\\ that\\ relationship\\,\\ bc\\ the\\ iamge\\ moves\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ spectator\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ could\\ carry\\ this\\ vision\\ around\\ w\\ the\\ diorama\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mobile\\.\\ \\ \\;Plus\\,\\ light\\ was\\ moved\\ from\\ behind\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ big\\ spatial\\ diaramas\\,\\ which\\ induced\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ tangibility\\.\\ \\ \\;Increased\\ tangibility\\.\\ \\ \\;Know\\ that\\ some\\ pntrs\\ experimented\\ w\\ this\\ earlier\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ know\\ that\\ Gainsboro\\ n\\ Jean\\-\\?Latin\\ Vuilledard\\ used\\ slides\\,\\ transparencies\\,\\ 2produce\\ their\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Gave\\ a\\ more\\ tangible\\ vision\\ bc\\ o\\ use\\ o\\ light\\ from\\ behind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ somewhat\\ different\\ tho\\ insofar\\ as\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ box\\ u\\ can\\ carry\\ w\\ u\\ n\\ use\\ according\\ 2ur\\ wish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thaumatropes\\ \\=\\ simplest\\ devices\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ explored\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\=image\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ something\\ based\\ in\\ motion\\,\\ produced\\ by\\ ani\\ mage\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stays\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ the\\ retina\\.\\ \\ \\;Thaumatrope\\ \\=\\ the\\ simplest\\ o\\ these\\.\\ \\ \\;Thauma\\ \\=\\ wonder\\.\\ \\ \\;Trope\\ \\=\\ turning\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;turning\\ wonder\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ a\\ piece\\ o\\ paper\\ in\\ the\\ shape\\ o\\ a\\ rectangle\\ or\\ circle\\,\\ w\\ strings\\ attached\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ might\\ have\\ like\\ a\\ cage\\ on\\ one\\ side\\,\\ string\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ u\\ move\\ the\\ strings\\,\\ the\\ rectangle\\ moves\\,\\ quickly\\,\\ producing\\ the\\ vision\\ o\\ fusion\\ o\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Flowers\\ in\\ the\\ vase\\.\\ \\ \\;Fusion\\ o\\ images\\ that\\ r\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phenakistiscope\\ \\=\\ wheel\\ w\\ images\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\.\\ \\ \\;Us\\ stand\\ b4\\ the\\ mirror\\,\\ turning\\ the\\ evice\\,\\ n\\ what\\ u\\ see\\ r\\ images\\ in\\ stages\\ o\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;Bird\\ flying\\.\\ \\ \\;Horse\\ galloping\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ image\\ 4fraction\\ o\\ second\\,\\ b\\ because\\ o\\ retinal\\ retention\\ o\\ image\\,\\ u\\ get\\ sense\\ omovement\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ a\\ proto\\-cinimeatic\\ device\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zootrope\\ \\=\\ similar\\ invention\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ these\\ were\\ invented\\ around\\ 1820s\\ or\\ 1830s\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ when\\ tehse\\ types\\ o\\ devices\\ proliferate\\.e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zootrope\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;wheel\\ o\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Band\\ o\\ images\\ inside\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ cylinder\\ turns\\,\\ u\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ similated\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zootrope\\ could\\ b\\ used\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ person\\ at\\ a\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ these\\ devices\\ present\\ an\\ optically\\ constructed\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ the\\ space\\ out\\ there\\ built\\ from\\ material\\ elements\\,\\ but\\ an\\ illustion\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ optically\\ constructed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brewster\\ stereoscope\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\invented\\ in\\ 1840s\\.\\ \\ \\;became\\ veritable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\craze\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ EU\\ n\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ apparatus\\ that\\ produces\\ 2tunnels\\ o\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;they\\&rsquo\\;res\\ pecific\\ images\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ thru\\ the\\ 2separate\\ tunnels\\ that\\ combined\\,\\ produced\\ an\\ effect\\ o\\ increased\\ tangibility\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ 3\\-dimensionality\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ incredibly\\,\\ almost\\ hallucinatorily\\ super\\-realistic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ illusion\\ o\\ 3\\-dimension\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ radical\\ separation\\,\\ abstraction\\ of\\ optical\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ consists\\ o\\ separating\\ ur\\ view\\,\\ tunneling\\ it\\ in2\\ 2eyes\\,\\ n\\ then\\ putting\\ it\\ 2gether\\ inside\\ this\\ device\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ 3\\-dimensional\\ solidity\\ is\\ essentially\\ an\\ illusion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Such\\ devices\\ both\\ exploited\\ n\\ helped\\ reinforce\\ the\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ perception\\ which\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ instantaneous\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ notion\\ o\\ disjunction\\ w\\/in\\ vision\\ was\\ thus\\ being\\ explored\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disjunction\\ bw\\ eye\\ n\\ object\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ observed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ imptnt\\ 4\\ reasons\\ o\\ understanding\\,\\ also\\ imptnt\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ introducing\\ new\\ type\\ o\\ visual\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ illusion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Panoramic\\ stereoscope\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\raised\\ imension\\ o\\ collective\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ were\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ devices\\ where\\ u\\ could\\ see\\ different\\ panormas\\ o\\ cities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Culture\\ o\\ illusion\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ visual\\ seduction\\,\\ on\\ pleasure\\,\\ filtered\\ thru\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ movies\\,\\ Hollywood\\ decides\\ what\\ u\\ should\\ see\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ seem\\ 2have\\ a\\ choice\\,\\ but\\ really\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ exposed\\ 2\\ acertain\\ kidn\\ o\\ visual\\ regime\\ produced\\ commercially\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ one\\ thing\\ that\\ has\\ 2b\\ raised\\ here\\,\\ which\\ complicates\\ this\\ discourse\\ n\\ device\\-based\\ history\\ o\\ it\\,\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ use\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ already\\ suggested\\ here\\ by\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ collective\\ experience\\ o\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ 2do\\ not\\ only\\ w\\ device\\,\\ but\\ what\\ kind\\ o\\ images\\ were\\ put\\ in2\\ the\\ devices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ standing\\ seteroscope\\;\\ women\\ looking\\ at\\ portable\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ can\\ ask\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ does\\ it\\ matter\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ the\\ looking\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ kind\\ o\\ images\\ could\\ b\\ looked\\ at\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ were\\ social\\ categories\\ like\\ gender\\ or\\ class\\ figuring\\ in2\\ this\\ visual\\ experience\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\ observe\\ w\\/o\\ much\\ risk\\ that\\ men\\ n\\ women\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ looking\\ at\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ stereoscopic\\ images\\:\\ \\ \\;pornography\\,\\ which\\ offered\\ whole\\ new\\,\\ n\\ more\\ tangible\\,\\ accnt\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stereoscopy\\ might\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ super\\-enhanced\\ ocular\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ frontal\\ view\\ o\\ frankly\\ exposed\\ genitals\\ o\\ this\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pornographic\\ stereoscopy\\:\\ \\ \\;front\\ view\\ \\&\\;\\ rear\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idea\\ o\\ use\\,\\ n\\ type\\ o\\ image\\ that\\ went\\ in2\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ thing\\ that\\ needs\\ 2b\\ kept\\ in\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ is\\ the\\ fact\\ o\\ photography\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ type\\ o\\ image\\ u\\&rsquo\\;r\\ looking\\ at\\ \\=\\ photograph\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ invented\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;1839\\.\\ \\ \\;invented\\ simultaneously\\ in\\ France\\ n\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daguerre\\ discovered\\ this\\ in\\ France\\.\\ \\ \\;Sold\\ his\\ idea\\ 2the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ few\\ days\\ later\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;optician\\ shops\\ were\\ crowded\\ w\\ amateur\\ pntg\\,\\ other\\ ppl\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ apparatus\\ o\\ Daugerre\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Think\\ o\\ nowdays\\ the\\ new\\ technological\\ devices\\ \\(iphone\\,\\ blackberry\\,\\ ppl\\ running\\ 2the\\ shop\\ 2get\\ it\\,\\ w\\/o\\ asking\\ themselves\\ whether\\ this\\ is\\ indeed\\ what\\ they\\ need\\.\\ \\ \\;Do\\ they\\ need\\ this\\ pleasure\\ n\\ comfort\\ n\\ consistency\\?\\)\\ \\ \\;that\\ comparison\\ is\\ good\\ bc\\ it\\ conveys\\ that\\ fascination\\ w\\ newness\\ that\\ was\\ then\\ associated\\ w\\ photography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Daumier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nadar\\ elevating\\ photography\\ to\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nadar\\ \\=\\ most\\ famous\\ photographer\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Friendly\\ caricature\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Featured\\ in\\ position\\ o\\ the\\ devil\\ from\\ the\\ panoramic\\ literature\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ sense\\ o\\ someone\\ elevated\\ above\\ the\\ city\\,\\ obtaining\\ a\\ panoramic\\ view\\ o\\ it\\,\\ but\\ ehre\\ thru\\ the\\ device\\ o\\ camera\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Invention\\ o\\ photography\\ stirred\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ o\\ enthusiasm\\ n\\ interest\\,\\ but\\ also\\ anxiety\\,\\ n\\ Baudelaire\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ very\\ anxious\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wrote\\ in\\ 1859\\ a\\ thorough\\ critique\\ o\\ photography\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;as\\ the\\ photograph\\ became\\ the\\ refuge\\ o\\ failed\\ artists\\,\\ the\\ universal\\ craze\\ assumed\\ not\\ only\\ blind\\ passion\\ n\\ imbecile\\ infatuation\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ aspect\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\revenge\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Interesting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ high\\ art\\ n\\ eroded\\ certain\\ boundaries\\ w\\/in\\ different\\ types\\ o\\ high\\ art\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ it\\ altered\\ the\\ function\\ o\\ portrait\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ also\\ offered\\ different\\ possibilities\\ o\\ the\\ use\\ o\\ the\\ image\\,\\ which\\ we\\ mentioned\\ briefly\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adolphe\\-Eugene\\ Disderi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ studio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interior\\ o\\ a\\ photographic\\ portrait\\ studio\\.\\ \\ \\;Portraits\\ n\\ visiting\\ cards\\ were\\ produced\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ offered\\ a\\ new\\ mode\\ o\\ self\\-presentation\\ 4ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ device\\ 4self\\-fashioning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disderi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carte\\ de\\ visite\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\visiting\\ card\\)\\,\\ late\\ 1850s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vaury\\ and\\ Cie\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dancer\\ Louise\\ Delossert\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ celebrity\\ setereoscope\\,\\ 1860\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Nadar\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sarah\\ Bernhardt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bernhard\\ \\=\\ famous\\ actress\\ from\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ Paris\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theater\\ producer\\ n\\ owner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sculptor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntr\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represented\\ here\\ leaning\\ against\\ a\\ vaguely\\ antique\\ prop\\,\\ in\\ clothing\\ that\\ was\\ historically\\ unspecific\\,\\ featuring\\ her\\ thru\\ formula\\ o\\ high\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\COL\\-TOC\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sarah\\ Bernhardt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ caricature\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Les\\ femmes\\ d\\&rsquo\\;aujourd\\&rsquo\\;hui\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1886\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ is\\ satrizied\\ here\\ as\\ woman\\ o\\ all\\ kinds\\ o\\ ambitiou\\,\\ but\\ whose\\ Jewish\\ identity\\ n\\ notion\\ o\\ type\\ caught\\ in\\ her\\ featuring\\ o\\ prominent\\ nose\\ in\\ profile\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ can\\ compare\\ difference\\ bw\\ caricature\\ n\\ photograph\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ misleading\\ bc\\ the\\ photograph\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ much\\ a\\ construction\\ as\\ is\\ Nattier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ construction\\ o\\ Mme\\ Bouret\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nattier\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mme\\ Bouret\\ as\\ Diana\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1745\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ illustrates\\ a\\ larger\\ practice\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ o\\ using\\ past\\ art\\ formula\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ broader\\ idea\\ about\\ photography\\ that\\ needs\\ 2b\\ kept\\ in\\ mind\\:\\ \\ \\;despite\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ mechanically\\ reproduced\\,\\ photography\\,\\ like\\ pntg\\,\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ certain\\ cultural\\ assumptions\\ about\\ notions\\ o\\ body\\,\\ feminity\\,\\ which\\ we\\ take\\ 4granted\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\indexical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nature\\ o\\ photography\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ it\\ just\\ shows\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ there\\,\\ when\\ really\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ construction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ is\\ as\\ much\\ a\\ construction\\ as\\ pntg\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ way\\ o\\ understanding\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ technological\\ advancements\\ n\\ technology\\ in\\ general\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ affecting\\ the\\ cultural\\ image\\ is\\ 2look\\ 4more\\ latent\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Courbet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ \\(The\\ Desperate\\ Man\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1843\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Paul\\ Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cezanne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ product\\ o\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ embodied\\ observer\\,\\ modern\\ observer\\,\\ that\\ prof\\ has\\ described\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ vision\\ that\\ insists\\ on\\ its\\ opticaity\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ optically\\ constructed\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ flaunts\\ its\\ status\\ as\\ such\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ evidenced\\ in\\ this\\ self\\-portrait\\,\\ which\\ can\\ b\\ compared\\ w\\ Courbet\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ here\\ distancing\\ himself\\ from\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ physiognomy\\ thru\\ its\\ pherformance\\,\\ its\\ rehearsal\\ o\\ different\\ extreme\\ emotional\\ states\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ performance\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ at\\ onece\\ romantic\\ n\\ different\\ from\\ it\\ insofar\\ as\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ self\\-conscious\\ n\\ thus\\ implies\\ notion\\ o\\ distance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cezanne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ self\\-image\\ is\\ very\\ different\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ moves\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ towards\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ body\\ is\\ represented\\,\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ bathers\\,\\ as\\ patches\\ o\\ pnt\\ applied\\ visibly\\ by\\ the\\ brush\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\:\\ \\ \\;relation\\ bw\\ that\\ body\\ n\\ what\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surrounded\\ by\\ \\(Courbet\\ had\\ abstract\\ surrounding\\)\\ is\\ also\\ interesting\\ confused\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ the\\ patterns\\ o\\ wallpaper\\ acquire\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ 3\\-diensionality\\ that\\ confuses\\ relation\\ bw\\ foreground\\ in\\ which\\ figure\\ is\\ presented\\ n\\ the\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ interpentariton\\,\\ enhanced\\ diamond\\ shapes\\ o\\ the\\ pattern\\ o\\ the\\ wallpaper\\,\\ echoed\\ yb\\ the\\ shape\\ o\\ the\\ nose\\ n\\ the\\ beard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ vision\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unglues\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ its\\ object\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ a\\ surface\\ o\\ transcription\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ in2\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ relation\\ o\\ the\\ referent\\ is\\ severed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ obdy\\ is\\ featured\\ in\\ it\\ not\\ as\\ something\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\,\\ but\\ as\\ something\\ aht\\ produces\\ that\\ ivision\\ in\\ all\\ its\\ abritrariness\\,\\ which\\ points\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ perception\\,\\ which\\ is\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ ptnrs\\&rsquo\\;\\ own\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ conveyed\\ b\\ the\\ unmerged\\ quality\\ o\\ his\\ patches\\ o\\ pigment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gradually\\ put\\ 2gether\\ which\\ reflects\\ no\\ tjust\\ the\\ mechanics\\ o\\ putting\\ pnt\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ ocnstruciton\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ his\\ perception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ also\\ available\\ in\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ favored\\ modes\\ o\\ procession\\ in\\ Cezanne\\ \\ \\;\\(bathers\\,\\ still\\-lifes\\,\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ interested\\ in\\ w\\ Cezanne\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Still\\-life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ wallpaper\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ both\\ this\\ n\\ the\\ self\\-portrait\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Motif\\ o\\ still\\-life\\ is\\ constructed\\ here\\.\\ A\\ lthough\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ obdy\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ way\\ Cezanne\\ pnts\\ it\\ makes\\ it\\ relevant\\ 2our\\ course\\,\\ bc\\ the\\ body\\ behind\\ this\\ vision\\ is\\ so\\ evidently\\ staged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ what\\ links\\ these\\ 2types\\ o\\ images\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ sense\\ o\\ spatial\\ confusion\\,\\ the\\ thickness\\ that\\ transcribes\\ the\\ still\\-life\\.\\ \\ \\;Incredibly\\ thick\\ white\\ patch\\ o\\ pnt\\ that\\ suggests\\ the\\ play\\ o\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ dark\\ vase\\ in\\ the\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2understand\\ this\\ better\\ n\\ indulge\\ in\\ a\\ contrast\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Francisco\\ de\\ Zurbaran\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Still\\-life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasizing\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ constructed\\ ness\\ n\\ opticality\\,\\ which\\ is\\ at\\ work\\ in\\ Cezanne\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zurbaran\\ produces\\ an\\ illusion\\,\\ obtained\\ by\\ staging\\ these\\ objects\\ in\\ a\\ scenic\\ mode\\ on\\ the\\ ldger\\.\\ \\ \\;Lemons\\.\\ \\ \\;Oranges\\.\\ \\ \\;Tea\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ pntd\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ subsumes\\ the\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ opacity\\ o\\ pnt\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ visible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transparent\\ 2the\\ fruit\\ that\\ Zurbaran\\ wants\\ 2convey\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\:\\ \\ \\;sense\\ o\\ spatial\\ relation\\ is\\ quite\\ clear\\.\\ \\ \\;Things\\ stand\\ on\\ the\\ ledge\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ o\\ depth\\ produced\\ quite\\ clearly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intense\\,\\ radiatn\\ fruit\\.\\ \\ \\;Contained\\ w\\/in\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ hallucinatorily\\ present\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\None\\ o\\ this\\ could\\ b\\ seen\\ in\\ Cezanne\\,\\ where\\ the\\ whole\\ space\\ is\\ confused\\ in\\ the\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thickness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;implied\\ both\\ in\\ background\\ n\\ foreground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Getting\\ u\\ attn\\ 2the\\ materiality\\ o\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ applied\\ 2the\\ canvas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\,\\ in\\ its\\ very\\ thickness\\,\\ its\\ non\\-transparency\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relation\\ that\\ holds\\ the\\ object\\ at\\ some\\ distance\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ briefly\\ 2Cahrdin\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chardin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Basket\\ of\\ Plums\\ w\\/Walnuts\\,\\ Currants\\ \\&\\;\\ Cherries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1750\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Letting\\ something\\ drop\\ of\\ the\\ ledger\\.\\ \\ \\;String\\,\\ carrots\\,\\ illusionistic\\ devices\\ suggest\\ depth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Chardin\\,\\ who\\ is\\,\\ 2b\\ sure\\,\\ pntg\\ differently\\ from\\ Zurbaran\\,\\ in\\ way\\ that\\ gives\\ u\\ some\\ sense\\ o\\ how\\ he\\ does\\ it\\,\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ devices\\,\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ renders\\ the\\ plums\\,\\ is\\ 2give\\ u\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ texture\\ o\\ the\\ pigment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ this\\:\\ \\ \\;these\\ signals\\,\\ these\\ hints\\,\\ at\\ how\\ artist\\ produces\\ his\\ vision\\,\\ is\\ subsumed\\ by\\ overriding\\ sense\\ o\\ pleasure\\ that\\ this\\ brings\\ 2ur\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ staged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4sake\\ o\\ our\\ argument\\ o\\ Cezanne\\,\\ let\\ us\\ assume\\ this\\ is\\ all\\ that\\ can\\ b\\ said\\ about\\ Chardin\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ presence\\ n\\ wholeness\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ object\\ that\\ Chardin\\ is\\ trying\\ 2stage\\ 4u\\ 2see\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ air\\ in\\ Chardin\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ breathing\\,\\ suggesting\\ by\\ presence\\ o\\ brushstrokes\\ around\\ the\\ motif\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ screen\\ is\\ what\\ Cezanne\\ focuses\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ he\\ leaves\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;Ther\\&rsquo\\;es\\ no\\ way\\ 2get\\ behind\\ it\\ 2the\\ object\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Still\\-life\\ w\\/fruit\\,\\ ginger\\ jar\\ \\&\\;\\ baseket\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\-90\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\&hellip\\;the\\ whole\\ spatial\\ structure\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ confused\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\-life\\ staged\\ as\\ a\\ motif\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ pntg\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ out\\ there\\:\\ apples\\ or\\ jars\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ arranges\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ artifice\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ that\\ pntrs\\ pnt\\ in\\ motif\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Something\\ put\\ 2gether\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ relation\\ 2this\\ motif\\ is\\ not\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ staging\\,\\ scenic\\ at\\ all\\,\\ bc\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ pulled\\ in\\ by\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ is\\ presented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Position\\ u\\ occupy\\,\\ above\\ it\\,\\ from\\ which\\ u\\ see\\ all\\ these\\ objects\\ n\\ how\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ crammed\\ n\\ pntd\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ 2do\\ w\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ objects\\ r\\ presented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refusal\\ o\\ closure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ took\\ 100\\ sessions\\ 2pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ difficulties\\ completing\\ his\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structure\\ o\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;way\\ in\\ which\\ object\\ is\\ rendered\\.\\ \\ \\;Endless\\ rebounding\\ n\\ contour\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ planes\\ intersect\\,\\ confusing\\ spatial\\ relation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ what\\ Cezanne\\ is\\ doing\\ here\\ is\\ precisely\\ what\\ is\\ connected\\ 2that\\ new\\ idea\\ o\\ an\\ embodied\\ observer\\,\\ n\\ 2the\\ concomitant\\ idea\\ o\\ vision\\ getting\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ object\\,\\ being\\ mediated\\ by\\ something\\,\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ that\\ announces\\ itself\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ u\\ r\\ looking\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ pears\\ in\\ a\\ jar\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ pntr\\ transcribing\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cezanne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Still\\-life\\ w\\/statue\\ of\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spatial\\ relations\\ r\\ even\\ more\\ unclear\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ endless\\ rebounding\\ n\\ open\\ contour\\ is\\ visible\\ in\\ this\\ lower\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ statue\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Onions\\ pntd\\ in\\ way\\,\\ as\\ r\\ apples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Above\\ all\\,\\ that\\ sense\\ o\\ space\\ that\\ we\\ assume\\ is\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ room\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ I\\&rsquo\\;s\\ puplled\\ up\\ n\\ twisted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ that\\ process\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ a\\ process\\ o\\ a\\ perceiving\\ body\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2document\\ its\\ enterprise\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ that\\ Cezanne\\ is\\ a\\ modern\\ pntr\\,\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ he\\ embodies\\ that\\ new\\ idea\\ o\\ non\\-scenic\\ vision\\,\\ a\\ vision\\ that\\ focuses\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ means\\ o\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ December\\ 10\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Suburban\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;problem\\ o\\ the\\ observer\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ modern\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ viewer\\ as\\ an\\ embodied\\ spectator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ effect\\ o\\ 2\\ developments\\ in\\ new\\ discourse\\ n\\ vision\\ n\\ new\\ technologies\\ o\\ vision\\ \\(panoramic\\ stereoscope\\)\\,\\ which\\ epitomized\\ the\\ combination\\ o\\ aspects\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vision\\ being\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ specific\\ body\\ doing\\ the\\ looking\\,\\ n\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ separation\\ n\\ indepdnence\\ from\\ that\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ photography\\ as\\ one\\ result\\ o\\ the\\ new\\ technologies\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ n\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ technology\\ entered\\ the\\ new\\ dialectical\\ dialogue\\ w\\ the\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ time\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ past\\,\\ 2convey\\ the\\ key\\ notion\\ o\\ photography\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ an\\ indexical\\ image\\,\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ refelcetion\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ out\\ there\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ a\\ physical\\ construction\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ also\\ talked\\ about\\ another\\ possibility\\ o\\ tracing\\ that\\ new\\ development\\ in\\ the\\ underestnading\\ o\\ vision\\,\\ manifest\\ in\\ Cezanne\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cezanne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ vision\\ o\\ vision\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ perceptual\\ process\\ is\\ at\\ once\\ looking\\ and\\ separate\\ from\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Aspects\\ o\\ that\\ separation\\ being\\ evident\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\ approach\\ 2the\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interpenetration\\ o\\ planes\\ n\\ shapes\\,\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ ungluing\\ o\\ markers\\ that\\ signify\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ return\\ 2the\\ body\\ in\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ o\\ pleasure\\ n\\ leisure\\ as\\ a\\ specific\\ kind\\ o\\ modern\\ practice\\,\\ a\\ practice\\ linked2\\ new\\ economic\\ n\\ topographical\\ developments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Map\\ o\\ Paris\\ w\\ suburbs\\ o\\ Paris\\:\\ \\ \\;Argenteuil\\.\\ \\ \\;Agnieres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suburbs\\:\\ \\ \\;special\\ territory\\.\\ \\ \\;Aspect\\ o\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;Inextricably\\ linked\\ 2modern\\ city\\,\\ n\\ need\\ 4different\\ pace\\ o\\ life\\ that\\ the\\ city\\ made\\ impossible\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slowing\\ down\\.\\ \\ \\;Relaxing\\.\\ \\ \\;Quiet\\ existence\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ ppl\\ needed\\ on\\ the\\ weekends\\.\\ \\ \\;Made\\ possible\\ by\\ the\\ railroads\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Development\\ was\\ accompanied\\ w\\ development\\ o\\ real\\ estate\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ buying\\ huge\\ amounts\\ o\\ land\\,\\ reselling\\ it\\ 4lots\\ o\\ money\\,\\ allowing\\ ppl\\ 2buy\\ it\\ n\\ build\\ summer\\/weekend\\ retreats\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bw\\ 1850s\\ n\\ 70s\\,\\ suburb\\ population\\ doubled\\.\\ \\ \\;Existing\\ small\\ towns\\ became\\ thriving\\.\\ \\ \\;Towns\\ like\\ Argenteuil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ it\\ was\\ emergence\\ o\\ new\\ industries\\ o\\ leisure\\:\\ \\ \\;bathing\\,\\ boating\\,\\ outdoor\\ dining\\ among\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ now\\ at\\ 2\\ pntgs\\ o\\ the\\ same\\ spot\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ frog\\ pond\\.\\ \\ \\;La\\ grenouillere\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Claude\\ Monet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Grenoiuillere\\ \\(The\\ Frog\\ Pond\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\,\\ MOMA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ pntgs\\ relate\\ the\\ body\\ 2this\\ new\\ industry\\ o\\ pleasure\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ suburbia\\,\\ which\\ these\\ new\\ pntrs\\ take\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ pnt\\ from\\ same\\ spot\\,\\ part\\ o\\ impressionist\\ fascination\\ w\\ the\\ same\\ motifs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ side\\-by\\-side\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\La\\ Grenouillere\\ was\\ a\\ bathing\\ establishment\\ on\\ the\\ Seine\\ river\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ \\=\\ fashionable\\ spot\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ meeting\\ place\\ for\\ the\\ noisy\\,\\ well\\-dressed\\ crowds\\ that\\ emigrate\\ from\\ Paris\\,\\ as\\ a\\ journalist\\ put\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Auguste\\ Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Grenouillere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\,\\ Stockholm\\,\\ Natl\\.\\ Mus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Floating\\ barges\\ enabling\\ bathing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ Napoleon\\ n\\ his\\ wife\\ visited\\ in\\ July\\ 1869\\,\\ coronating\\ the\\ spot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ wonder\\ Monet\\ n\\ Renoir\\ directed\\ their\\ gaze\\ at\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ they\\ pnt\\ the\\ spot\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Featured\\ the\\ barge\\ where\\ ppl\\ changed\\ n\\ the\\ islet\\ o\\ the\\ center\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Organizes\\ the\\ whole\\ composition\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\ centered\\ way\\ around\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ lines\\ o\\ reception\\ r\\ going\\ toward\\ this\\ islet\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ boats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ that\\ structure\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ much\\ more\\ ephemeral\\ effects\\ o\\ sun\\ n\\ temperature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ he\\ handles\\ the\\ figures\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ elegant\\ ladies\\ in\\ their\\ long\\ swimsuits\\,\\ standing\\ on\\ the\\ isle\\ together\\,\\ including\\ a\\ gentleman\\ walking\\ toward\\ them\\ on\\ the\\ foot\\ bridge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figures\\ r\\ like\\ silhouettes\\,\\ outlined\\ only\\ in\\ their\\ general\\ contours\\.\\ \\ \\;w\\/o\\ any\\ physiognomic\\ reality\\ 2them\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ even\\ textural\\ reality\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ merged\\,\\ scaled\\ 2hte\\ landscape\\,\\ merging\\ w\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ r\\ no\\ transitions\\ marked\\ firmly\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ u\\ have\\ an\\ interconnectedness\\ bw\\ bodies\\ n\\ their\\ environments\\.\\ \\ \\;Shimmering\\ unity\\ o\\ strokes\\,\\ w\\/in\\ which\\ these\\ black\\ slashes\\ these\\ ppl\\ dressedi\\ n\\ black\\ r\\ marked\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ rhythm\\ in\\ this\\ otherwise\\ shimmering\\,\\ mobile\\ composition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ overall\\ structuring\\ o\\ the\\ scene\\ is\\ reflected\\ in\\ these\\ microcosm\\ strokes\\,\\ where\\ different\\ lolors\\ r\\ left\\ unmerged\\,\\ surrounded\\ yb\\ colors\\,\\ but\\ not\\ combined\\ 2gether\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ unmerged\\ quality\\ producing\\ that\\ sense\\ o\\ connectednenss\\ bw\\ things\\ n\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Renoir\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Renoir\\ has\\ irregulat\\ access\\ 2the\\ island\\.\\ \\ \\;Asymmetrical\\ arrangement\\ o\\ tree\\ branches\\ falling\\ on\\ one\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ crowding\\.\\ \\ \\;Dresse\\ visible\\.\\ \\ \\;Latest\\ fashion\\ could\\ b\\ appreciated\\,\\ but\\ not\\ much\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Approach\\ 2strokes\\:\\ \\ \\;unmerged\\ quality\\ o\\ interconnectedness\\.\\ \\ \\;Carpet\\ o\\ strokes\\ is\\ similar\\ 2that\\ o\\ Monet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ type\\ o\\ leisure\\:\\ \\ \\;strolling\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ would\\ go\\ hiking\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\ for\\ excursions\\ 2find\\ relics\\ o\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ w\\ the\\ emergence\\ o\\ the\\ countryside\\ did\\ ppl\\ start\\ 2stroll\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\ like\\ they\\ would\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Julies\\ Pelcoq\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ la\\ Grenouillere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ engr\\.\\ In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ amusant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Monet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Poppies\\,\\ near\\ Argenteuil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1873\\,\\ Orsay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ woman\\ strolling\\ w\\ umbrella\\ in\\ sea\\ o\\ poppies\\ w\\ here\\ son\\,\\ another\\ woman\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ hill\\.\\ \\ \\;Umbrella\\ was\\ there\\ bc\\ tanning\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fashionable\\ until\\ 1890\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;as\\ a\\ true\\ Parisian\\,\\ Monet\\ brings\\ Paris\\ 2the\\ contry\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pnt\\ a\\ landscape\\ w\\/o\\ includinga\\ well\\-dressed\\ man\\ or\\ woman\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Presence\\ o\\ urban\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\ \\=\\ modern\\ leisure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ what\\ Monet\\ does\\ w\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Renders\\ landscape\\ w\\ a\\ recourse\\ 2tone\\ n\\ color\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ linear\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Through\\ varying\\ degrees\\ o\\ intensity\\ o\\ one\\ particularly\\ hue\\,\\ vermidian\\,\\ w\\/\\ which\\ he\\ pnts\\ the\\ poppies\\,\\ he\\ creates\\ a\\ recession\\ in\\ spsace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clouds\\ o\\ gray\\ n\\ purple\\ suggesting\\ both\\ the\\ coor\\ n\\ air\\ above\\ the\\ fields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ vibrato\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;Shimmering\\ effect\\ that\\ u\\ saw\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Grenouillere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ rendered\\ here\\ purely\\ through\\ chromatic\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ linear\\,\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Camile\\ Corot\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Seine\\ landscape\\ at\\ Chatou\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1855\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ different\\ than\\ how\\ someone\\ like\\ Corot\\ would\\ pnt\\ these\\ scenes\\ around\\ Paris\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ o\\ a\\ group\\ o\\ pntrs\\ that\\ pntd\\ landscapes\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ uses\\ the\\ landscape\\ as\\ a\\ setting\\ 4a\\ pastoral\\ motif\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ figures\\ involved\\ in\\ something\\ unclear\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ clear\\,\\ tho\\,\\ is\\ the\\ activity\\ is\\ timeless\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ one\\ major\\ difference\\ from\\ Monet\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ representing\\ bodies\\ in\\ contemporary\\ clothing\\,\\ clearly\\ situated\\ in\\ the\\ here\\ n\\ now\\ o\\ leisure\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;most\\ imptnt\\ difference\\:\\ \\ \\;Corot\\ is\\ like\\ Monet\\ interested\\ in\\ some\\ atmospheric\\ effects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rendering\\ the\\ flickering\\ light\\ thru\\ specs\\ o\\ whiteness\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ basically\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ scene\\ rendered\\ in\\ local\\ color\\:\\ \\ \\;color\\ that\\ renders\\ things\\ as\\ they\\ were\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2Monet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ project\\ which\\ is\\ depicting\\ how\\ things\\ appear\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ in\\ their\\ ontology\\,\\ but\\ in\\ their\\ transcience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ may\\ also\\ want\\ 2think\\ back\\ 2someone\\ like\\ Millet\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Millet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gleaners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ rarely\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ character\\ that\\ Millet\\ pntd\\ in\\ an\\ impressionist\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Peasants\\ r\\ absent\\,\\ largely\\ chased\\ away\\ by\\ the\\ suburban\\ real\\ estate\\ project\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ never\\ make\\ it\\ 2the\\ image\\,\\ n\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ radical\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;Isntead\\ o\\ Millet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rhythmic\\ composition\\ which\\ enobles\\ the\\ peasant\\,\\ Monet\\ creates\\ a\\ body\\ bobbing\\ in\\ a\\ soft\\ sea\\ o\\ poppies\\.\\ \\ \\;Soft\\ bed\\ o\\ pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;Immersion\\ o\\ body\\ inlandscape\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ o\\ tourist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monet\\ in\\ his\\ garden\\ at\\ Argenteuil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\,\\ Hartford\\,\\ WadsforD\\ Athenaeum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reminds\\ u\\ o\\ the\\ persona\\ produced\\ by\\ involvement\\ in\\ leisure\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ himself\\ as\\ man\\ o\\ leisure\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\ who\\ went\\ 2Argenteuil\\,\\ rented\\ a\\ house\\,\\ pntd\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ garden\\ in\\ his\\ casual\\ clothing\\,\\ hat\\ on\\ his\\ head\\ 2protect\\ him\\ from\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ easel\\,\\ small\\-sized\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ easily\\ transportable\\,\\ not\\ one\\ o\\ those\\ huge\\ machines\\ that\\ history\\ pntrs\\ o\\ the\\ academy\\ would\\ pnt\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ construction\\ o\\ a\\ certain\\ artifice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ relaxed\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ kind\\ o\\ tourist\\ or\\ suburban\\ character\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ his\\ older\\ colleague\\ n\\ friend\\ Manet\\ depicted\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Absinthe\\ Drinker\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1859\\.\\ \\ \\;an\\ artist\\ immersed\\ in\\ urban\\ life\\,\\ artist\\ as\\ scavenger\\.\\ \\ \\;Aligned\\ w\\ social\\ underlife\\ o\\ Paris\\ in\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ defined\\ as\\ someone\\ relating\\ in\\ particular\\ way\\ 2the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ Monet\\ offers\\ us\\,\\ or\\ Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ o\\ Monet\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ leariness\\ o\\ identity\\,\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ a\\ certain\\ dispossession\\ o\\ Manet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ artist\\ comes\\ late\\ 2the\\ artistic\\ tradition\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ has\\ little\\ 2do\\ but\\ scavenge\\ n\\ reorganize\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laredy\\ been\\ done\\,\\ instead\\ o\\ reinvineting\\ the\\ new\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ u\\ have\\ a\\ worry\\-free\\,\\ unanxious\\ character\\,\\ a\\ man\\ whose\\ relation\\ 2possession\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ very\\ place\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ pnts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Outdoor\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Luncheon\\ of\\ the\\ Boating\\ Party\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1880\\-1\\,\\ Philips\\ Coll\\.\\,\\ Washington\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comparing\\ w\\ theme\\ o\\ urban\\ leisure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Renoir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moulin\\ de\\ la\\ Galette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ site\\ o\\ recreation\\ is\\ the\\ restaurant\\ Fournaise\\,\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ o\\ the\\ Seine\\,\\ near\\ Chartout\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\View\\ downstream\\ 2the\\ Chartreuse\\ railway\\ bridge\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ a\\ sailboat\\ on\\ the\\ Seine\\,\\ giving\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ location\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ \\=\\ celebrated\\ meeting\\ place\\ o\\ the\\ oarsmen\\ o\\ the\\ Seine\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ acitivty\\ here\\ is\\ boating\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ come\\ 2this\\ spot\\ n\\ take\\ their\\ lunch\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ kidn\\ o\\ lunch\\ was\\ described\\ in\\ 1879\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Vie\\ Moderne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ a\\ journalist\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ meal\\ is\\ tumultuous\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ glasses\\ r\\ filled\\ n\\ emptied\\ w\\ dizzying\\ speed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ conversation\\ goes\\ to\\ and\\ fro\\,\\ interrupted\\ by\\ the\\ clatter\\ o\\ knives\\ n\\ forks\\ which\\ perform\\ a\\ dance\\ on\\ the\\ plates\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bottles\\ quiver\\ n\\ shake\\ on\\ the\\ tables\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ what\\ Renoir\\ pnts\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ mood\\ o\\ relaxed\\ festivity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cutlery\\,\\ quiver\\ o\\ glasses\\,\\ seen\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ pnts\\ these\\ elements\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ the\\ table\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ hangout\\ o\\ the\\ petit\\ bourgeois\\ oarsmen\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Renoir\\,\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ aristocratic\\ gathering\\,\\ which\\ is\\ masquerading\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\ is\\ dressed\\ in\\ typical\\ clothing\\ o\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Caillebotte\\,\\ the\\ pntr\\,\\ rendered\\ looking\\ much\\ younger\\ than\\ he\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ posing\\ here\\,\\ as\\ is\\ the\\ son\\ o\\ the\\ owner\\ o\\ the\\ restaurant\\ Alfonse\\ Fournaise\\ jr\\.\\,\\ standing\\ in\\ similar\\ outfit\\ next\\ 2Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ future\\ wife\\ Arlene\\ Charicot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ is\\ how\\ Renoir\\ renders\\ body\\ ehre\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ relation\\ 2his\\ earlier\\ project\\ o\\ the\\ Moulin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ atmospheric\\ effects\\,\\ but\\ his\\ body\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ much\\ firmer\\,\\ contained\\ by\\ contours\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ handling\\ is\\ tighter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ diffused\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ the\\ figures\\ r\\ far\\ more\\ individualized\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ their\\ physiognomy\\ n\\ can\\ recognize\\ their\\ faces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ play\\ o\\ light\\ is\\ o\\ key\\ interest\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confined\\ w\\/in\\ these\\ individualized\\ forms\\,there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ interesting\\ use\\ o\\ color\\ n\\ tone\\ here\\,\\ exemplified\\ by\\ the\\ detail\\ o\\ the\\ woman\\ n\\ her\\ hat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Her\\ hat\\ is\\ unmerged\\ blocks\\ o\\ pigment\\,\\ o\\ crimson\\,\\ added\\ 2\\ a\\ tonal\\ definition\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ this\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ elments\\ o\\ the\\ trimmings\\ o\\ the\\ dress\\ o\\ this\\ woman\\,\\ or\\ the\\ hat\\ o\\ this\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ tonal\\ definition\\,\\ then\\ this\\ unmerged\\ color\\ together\\ w\\ this\\ impossibly\\ unrestrained\\ exercise\\ o\\ cutenss\\ o\\ this\\ woman\\,\\ involved\\ in\\ an\\ almost\\ erotic\\ activity\\ w\\ her\\ dog\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sense\\ o\\ individuation\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Tighter\\ strokes\\,\\ crispier\\ ocntours\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ still\\,\\ a\\ total\\ refusal\\ o\\ narrativity\\ o\\ any\\ kind\\,\\ n\\ o\\ psychological\\ consequence\\ o\\ any\\ kind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tehse\\ figures\\ do\\ things\\ specific\\,\\ visible\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ here\\ covers\\ her\\ ears\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ listen\\ to\\ you\\ anymore\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ this\\ man\\,\\ or\\ if\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ adjusting\\ her\\ hat\\&hellip\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unclear\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pecific\\ situation\\ is\\ present\\ here\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ given\\ any\\ anecdotal\\ quality\\ or\\ psychological\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relation\\ bw\\ figures\\ is\\ superficial\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ commitment\\ 2story\\ o\\ any\\ kind\\ o\\ psychology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ different\\ approach\\ 2the\\ body\\ n\\ leisure\\ emerges\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ o\\ Georges\\ Seurat\\,\\ linked\\ 2impressionists\\ but\\ different\\ bc\\ he\\ was\\ engaged\\ in\\ post\\-impressionists\\,\\ a\\ term\\ created\\ by\\ British\\ critic\\.\\ \\ \\;French\\ used\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;neo\\-impressionism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ defining\\ the\\ activity\\ o\\ the\\ younger\\ group\\ that\\ emerged\\ from\\ under\\ the\\ wings\\ o\\ the\\ impressionists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ style\\ was\\ linked\\ 2the\\ mode\\ o\\ pointillism\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ 3\\ o\\ these\\ terms\\ can\\ b\\ interchangeable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Georges\\ Suertat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bathers\\ at\\ Asnieres\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\-4\\,\\ London\\,\\ National\\ Gallery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Seurat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sundayafternoon\\ at\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ Grand\\ Jatte\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1884\\-6\\,\\ Chicago\\ Art\\ Institute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;These\\ 2\\ canvases\\ were\\ probably\\ conceived\\ as\\ a\\ pair\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ smaller\\ than\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ illustrate\\ aspects\\ o\\ suburban\\ leisure\\,\\ a\\ theme\\ taken\\ straight\\ from\\ impressionism\\,\\ but\\ transformed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ left\\,\\ u\\ have\\ working\\ class\\ men\\ n\\ boys\\ relaxing\\ n\\ bathing\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ bank\\ o\\ the\\ river\\ Seine\\,\\ against\\ the\\ back\\-cloth\\ o\\ their\\ own\\ working\\ palce\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ factories\\ o\\ Clichy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ right\\ o\\ this\\ canvas\\,\\ u\\ have\\ the\\ tip\\ o\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ the\\ Grand\\ Jatte\\,\\ where\\ the\\ pntg\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ takes\\ place\\,\\ featuring\\ fashionably\\ dressed\\ petit\\ bourgeoisie\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opposite\\ banks\\ o\\ the\\ river\\,\\ w\\ ppl\\ looking\\ at\\ eo\\ wo\\ seeing\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ o\\ their\\ poses\\ r\\ reflected\\.\\ \\ \\;Boy\\ sitting\\ at\\ front\\ w\\ legs\\ bent\\,\\ n\\ gentleman\\ in\\ top\\ ht\\ in\\ similar\\ pose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Class\\ duality\\:\\ \\ \\;working\\ class\\ on\\ left\\,\\ upper\\ classes\\ on\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Class\\ disctinction\\ was\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ popular\\ imagery\\ that\\ referred\\ 2hte\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2popular\\ illustrations\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aft\\.\\ Roger\\ Jourdan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Dimanche\\,\\ L\\&rsquo\\;Illustration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 15\\ June\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aft\\.\\ Jourdan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Lundi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ Sunday\\,\\ classes\\ were\\ mixed\\ as\\ ppl\\ came\\ n\\ enjoyed\\ their\\ leisure\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ Monday\\,it\\ was\\ only\\ the\\ wrkrs\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ Seurat\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bathers\\ at\\ Asnieres\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rejected\\ from\\ Salon\\ in\\ 1884\\.\\ \\ \\;exhibited\\ independently\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ Seurat\\ intorudced\\ something\\ recognized\\ from\\ the\\ start\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ project\\ n\\ body\\ which\\ combined\\ the\\ elements\\ o\\ impressionism\\ or\\ naturalism\\,\\ inflected\\ on\\ one\\ hand\\ by\\ injection\\ o\\ Balzac\\ classicism\\ or\\ idealism\\,\\ that\\ u\\ know\\ from\\ Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Large\\ bathers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1884\\-7\\)\\ pntg\\ o\\ naked\\ women\\ in\\ triangle\\,\\ n\\ by\\ emphasis\\ on\\ new\\ technique\\:\\ \\ \\;pointillism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ pntgs\\ approach\\ background\\ in\\ impressionistic\\ fashion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figures\\ themselves\\ r\\ far\\ more\\ solidified\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ Renoir\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stock\\,\\ immobile\\ poses\\,\\ contained\\ by\\ contours\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ obviously\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ key\\ difference\\ that\\ Seurat\\ represents\\ contemporary\\ characters\\ in\\ contemporary\\ clothing\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ showing\\ something\\ verifiable\\ w\\ practices\\ o\\ leisure\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ whereas\\ Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fantasizing\\ about\\ reinventing\\ notions\\ o\\ the\\ pastoral\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1880s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ differenfces\\ in\\ technique\\.\\ \\ \\;Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ smooth\\ swaxen\\ body\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ what\\ Seurat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ working\\ his\\ way\\ 2pointillism\\,\\ which\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ develop\\ fully\\ in\\ Grand\\ Jatte\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puvis\\ de\\ Chavannes\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Doux\\ pays\\ \\(Sweet\\ or\\ Gentle\\ land\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\,\\ Bayonne\\,\\ Musee\\ Bonnat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ fantasy\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Nowhere\\ never\\ never\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ that\\ was\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ development\\,\\ engagement\\,\\ w\\ classical\\ tradition\\ by\\ pntrs\\ engaged\\ in\\ public\\ works\\,\\ who\\ tried\\ 2revive\\ mural\\ decoration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ style\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ o\\ these\\ flat\\ planes\\,\\ very\\ light\\ paette\\,\\ w\\/o\\ the\\ mobility\\ o\\ strokes\\ that\\ characterized\\ the\\ impressionists\\.\\ \\ \\;Flat\\ planes\\ o\\ color\\ n\\ static\\ composition\\ was\\ linked\\ 2this\\ mural\\ ambition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figures\\ absorbed\\ in\\ reveries\\.\\ \\ \\;Statuesque\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ relating\\ 2eo\\.\\ \\ \\;Looking\\ out\\ w\\ sense\\ o\\ being\\ immersed\\ in\\ some\\ fantasy\\ o\\ their\\ own\\,\\ while\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ helping\\ 2flesh\\ out\\ the\\ fantasy\\ o\\ this\\ never\\ never\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ quality\\ which\\ Seurat\\ shares\\ 2some\\ extent\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ reverie\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ person\\ doing\\ movement\\ is\\ the\\ little\\ boy\\ in\\ Seurat\\ in\\ the\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ remain\\ unmoved\\,\\ even\\ the\\ little\\ dog\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ is\\ tempted\\ 2say\\ that\\ this\\ fantasy\\ o\\ Seurat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ similar\\ 2that\\ o\\ Puvis\\,\\ onlyrendered\\ w\\ some\\ technical\\ differences\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ \\=\\ idle\\ o\\ creation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ one\\ can\\ also\\ see\\ this\\ as\\ image\\ in\\ which\\ degree\\ o\\ tension\\ is\\ intorudced\\ by\\ figure\\ in\\ foreground\\ n\\ the\\ factory\\ 2which\\ they\\ belong\\,\\ n\\ r\\ either\\ connected\\ or\\ disconnected\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whehter\\ these\\ figures\\ r\\ being\\ classicizd\\ by\\ the\\ solidity\\,\\ idealized\\ in2\\ a\\ harmony\\ o\\ leisure\\,\\ or\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ tension\\:\\ \\ \\;they\\ sit\\ there\\,\\ like\\ r\\ they\\ figures\\ o\\ reverie\\,\\ or\\ zombie\\ like\\ figures\\ stupefied\\ by\\ labor\\,\\ unengaged\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ relaxation\\,\\ just\\ sitting\\ there\\ n\\ being\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ decision\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ make\\ or\\ try\\ 2make\\ unless\\ we\\ perform\\ a\\ task\\ o\\ interpretation\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ question\\ \\=\\ the\\ most\\ intriguing\\ one\\:\\ \\ \\;is\\ this\\ harmonious\\ portrayal\\ o\\ leisure\\,\\ or\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ labor\\ that\\ permeates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\even\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ structures\\ o\\ leisure\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Let\\ us\\ also\\ return\\ 2technique\\,\\ which\\ is\\ quite\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ contours\\ o\\ these\\ figures\\,\\ in\\ accordance\\ w\\ Balzac\\ tradition\\,\\ r\\ contained\\ quite\\ firmly\\ by\\ the\\ contours\\ o\\ the\\ man\\ in\\ white\\ coat\\ n\\ black\\ pants\\ lying\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Far\\ greater\\ degree\\ o\\ attn\\ 2hte\\ transcient\\ dgreo\\ colors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boy\\.\\ \\ \\;Development\\ o\\ effect\\ o\\ grass\\ thru\\ these\\ intense\\,\\ obsessive\\,\\ hatched\\ strokes\\.\\ \\ \\;Hatching\\ o\\ colors\\ that\\ remain\\ unmerged\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\ see\\ it\\ best\\ around\\ his\\ own\\ signature\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ around\\ the\\ dots\\ o\\ the\\ boy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ red\\ hat\\ in\\ the\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ Seurat\\ does\\ here\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ transitional\\ canvas\\ in\\ which\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ hatchigns\\ there\\,\\ but\\ he\\ moves\\ toward\\ isolated\\ dots\\,\\ a\\ technique\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ embrace\\ fully\\ in\\ his\\ canvas\\ o\\ the\\ Grand\\ Jattes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ grand\\-scale\\ canvas\\ around\\ 2\\ or\\ 3\\ meters\\,\\ which\\ he\\ developed\\ from\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seurat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sunday\\ afternoon\\ at\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ Grande\\ Jatte\\,\\ \\(Small\\ study\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ u\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ technique\\ o\\ small\\ hatchings\\ that\\ he\\ used\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bathers\\ at\\ Asnieres\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Serves\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ o\\ defining\\ the\\ volumes\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ play\\ o\\ light\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Composition\\ was\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Situation\\ suggested\\ degree\\ o\\ episodic\\ life\\,\\ which\\ Seurat\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interested\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;so\\ he\\ embraced\\ the\\ motif\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ couple\\ looking\\ like\\ everyone\\ else\\ toward\\ the\\ liver\\ w\\ immobility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ small\\ sketch\\,\\ u\\ have\\ woman\\ looking\\ back\\ toward\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Nope\\.\\ \\ \\;Filp\\ her\\ around\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ final\\ pntg\\:\\ \\ \\;u\\ have\\ arrested\\ movement\\ w\\ skin\\ o\\ dots\\ thru\\ which\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ invited\\ 2look\\ at\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ how\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ framed\\ by\\ a\\ frame\\ o\\ dots\\!\\ \\ \\;A\\ frame\\ w\\/in\\ a\\ frame\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serves\\ as\\ a\\ margin\\ o\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ technique\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ uses\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ his\\ taking\\ up\\ w\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ color\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ newness\\ o\\ this\\ engagement\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ Seurat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interest\\ in\\ science\\,\\ his\\ desire\\ 2bring\\ art\\ closer\\ 2science\\,\\ 2marry\\ a\\ system\\ o\\ order\\ that\\ would\\ bring\\ syntax\\ n\\ matrix\\ 2what\\ impressionists\\ like\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ stream\\ o\\ unorganized\\,\\ seeimgnly\\ random\\ vision\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1839\\ publication\\:\\ \\ \\;Seurat\\ transcribed\\ this\\ text\\,\\ so\\ we\\ know\\ he\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ it\\ n\\ knew\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ treatise\\ proposed\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ relationship\\ bw\\ colors\\ as\\ as\\ imptnt\\ as\\ the\\ colos\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Especially\\ different\\ itneractinos\\ o\\ complimentary\\ colors\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ convinced\\ that\\ the\\ presence\\ o\\ one\\ color\\ evoked\\ the\\ underlife\\,\\ the\\ complementary\\ effect\\ o\\ complementary\\ colors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ color\\ on\\ one\\ canvas\\ evoked\\ the\\ presence\\,\\ visible\\ or\\ invisible\\,\\ o\\ green\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ he\\ observed\\ that\\ the\\ placement\\ o\\ darker\\ colors\\ around\\ a\\ given\\ color\\ would\\ weaken\\ the\\ intensity\\ o\\ color\\,\\ n\\ the\\ presence\\ o\\ lighter\\ colors\\ ould\\ make\\ it\\ appear\\ more\\ intense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2some\\ degree\\,\\ Seurat\\ was\\ intereted\\ in\\ this\\,\\ n\\ his\\ views\\ o\\ dots\\,\\ that\\ notion\\ o\\ relationships\\,\\ is\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ set\\ o\\ beliefs\\ about\\ color\\ was\\ drawn\\ from\\ the\\ theories\\ o\\ Charblan\\ nte\\ writings\\ o\\ Jeune\\ deLacroix\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ notion\\ o\\ broken\\ color\\,\\ n\\ the\\ specific\\ technique\\ o\\ producing\\ the\\ effect\\ by\\ a\\ combination\\ o\\ a\\ smoothly\\ pntd\\ ground\\,\\ n\\ the\\ dotted\\,\\ broken\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ what\\ secures\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ the\\ vast\\ expanse\\ o\\ greenness\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grand\\ Jatte\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ is\\ found\\ by\\ pntg\\ in\\ the\\ surface\\ w\\ an\\ array\\ o\\ greens\\.\\ \\ \\;Darker\\ n\\ lighter\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ then\\ enlivening\\ it\\ w\\ the\\ dots\\ o\\ yellow\\ \\,organe\\,\\ purple\\,\\ n\\ blue\\,\\ in\\ order\\ 2create\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ chromatic\\ light\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Champery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theories\\ on\\ color\\ were\\ involve\\ in\\ psychological\\ meanings\\ n\\ related\\ 2compsoitional\\ effect\\.\\ \\ \\;Thought\\ light\\ tone\\ evoked\\ tone\\.\\ \\ \\;Shcmatic\\ definition\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Dark\\ tone\\ \\=\\ sadness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lines\\ moving\\ downward\\.\\ \\ \\;Sadness\\,\\ or\\ inhibitory\\ mood\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ sloping\\ darkness\\,\\ thickening\\,\\ more\\ melancholy\\ mood\\ around\\ these\\ figures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ u\\ have\\ 2take\\ this\\ w\\ a\\ grain\\ o\\ salt\\,\\ that\\ ambition\\ Seurat\\ had\\ 2connect\\ his\\ wrk\\ 2science\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recall\\ Zolar\\,\\ whose\\ expiermentary\\ novel\\ he\\ likened\\ 2\\ a\\ chemist\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ study\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ ur\\ wrk\\ in\\ an\\ environment\\,\\ like\\ a\\ chemsist\\ studies\\ the\\ effects\\ o\\ chemicals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thing\\ is\\,\\ tho\\,\\ the\\ writer\\ has\\ 2write\\ his\\ novel\\!\\ \\ \\;Chemist\\ just\\ lets\\ the\\ materials\\ do\\ the\\ wrk\\ for\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntr\\,\\ similarly\\,\\ has\\ 2pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ theory\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ perfectly\\ match\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ has\\ 2\\ think\\ o\\ the\\ connection\\ bw\\ sicenc\\ n\\ pntg\\ as\\ an\\ ambition\\ o\\ Seurat\\ that\\ had\\ 2\\ goals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Darw\\ atten\\ 2hte\\ symbolic\\ resonances\\ o\\ form\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Something\\ else\\ I\\ missed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ aspects\\ o\\ pntg\\:\\ the\\ monumentality\\ n\\ status\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ particular\\ doted\\ screen\\ thru\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ invited\\ 2look\\ at\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ monumentality\\ had\\ 2sources\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ kind\\ o\\ reaching\\ back\\ 2\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piero\\ della\\ Francesca\\,\\ Arezzo\\ frescoes\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Story\\ o\\ True\\ Cross\\:\\ \\ \\;Recognition\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Wood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1452\\-66\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seurat\\ purges\\ impressionism\\ from\\ the\\ accidents\\ o\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ status\\ also\\ has\\ 2do\\,\\ tho\\,\\ w\\ the\\ immobility\\ o\\ figures\\ in\\ fashion\\ illustration\\ o\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ fashion\\ is\\ key\\ 2this\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ used\\ 2do\\ think\\ o\\ Seurat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ as\\ one\\ o\\ bourgeoisie\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ ppl\\ started\\ looking\\ more\\ at\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ realized\\ the\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ top\\ hat\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bougeois\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ small\\ clerk\\ who\\ dressed\\ in\\ a\\ cheaper\\ version\\ o\\ upper\\ bourgeoisie\\ outfit\\,\\ black\\ suit\\ n\\ top\\ hat\\,\\ bc\\ that\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\possible\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarly\\,\\ the\\ figure\\ o\\ Carnotier\\ might\\ b\\ socially\\ inferior\\,\\ or\\ maybe\\ an\\ upper\\ class\\ figure\\ like\\ Caillebotte\\ who\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ carnotier\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Mode\\ Illustree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pl\\.\\ 37\\,\\ color\\ engraving\\,\\ 1879\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rather\\ than\\ class\\,\\ what\\ we\\ may\\ have\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ artifice\\ n\\ fashion\\ as\\ one\\ its\\ tools\\.\\ \\ \\;Offers\\ possibility\\ 2self\\-construct\\ n\\ present\\ urself\\ 2society\\ as\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ aspect\\ o\\ that\\ being\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ question\\ therefore\\ is\\:\\ \\ \\;what\\ is\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ kind\\ o\\ image\\ o\\ that\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ artifice\\ is\\ being\\ offered\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ it\\ simply\\ a\\ neutral\\ registration\\ o\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;A\\ critique\\ o\\ it\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ image\\ combines\\ 2\\ aspects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ one\\ hand\\:\\ \\ \\;showing\\ degree\\ 2which\\ fashion\\ n\\ artificice\\ produce\\ sense\\ o\\ cohesion\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ palce\\ where\\ everyone\\ has\\ his\\/her\\ palce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ other\\ hadn\\:\\ \\ \\;image\\ o\\ what\\ the\\ consequence\\ o\\ dressing\\ up\\ 4show\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;Concern\\ w\\ externality\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ self\\-construciton\\.\\ \\ \\;Namely\\:\\ \\ \\;lack\\ o\\ communication\\ bw\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ separateness\\,\\ disjunction\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ can\\ assume\\ role\\ w\\/in\\ connectivity\\,\\ but\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interact\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ Seurat\\ posing\\ major\\ dilemma\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\:\\ \\ \\;cohesion\\ n\\ separatenss\\,\\ bleongin\\ n\\ alienation\\,\\ which\\ u\\ see\\ in\\ other\\ pntgs\\ o\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Next\\ time\\:\\ sculpture\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ b\\ tourists\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ o\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\ \\;Ending\\ next\\ wk\\ w\\ Van\\ Gogh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ December\\ 12\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\;new\\ forms\\ o\\ representation\\ linked\\ 2the\\ emergence\\ o\\ the\\ new\\ form\\ o\\ suburban\\ recreation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ body\\ o\\ leisure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sunday\\ afternoon\\ at\\ Grand\\ Jatte\\,\\ Renoir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ o\\ that\\ little\\ island\\ w\\ ppl\\ on\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ reminds\\ u\\ o\\ different\\ approaches\\ 2this\\ issue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;stressing\\ the\\ contignecy\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ Monet\\.\\ \\ \\;Loose\\ strokes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;grand\\ jatte\\:\\ \\ \\;opposite\\:\\ \\ \\;immobilized\\,\\ locked\\ in2\\ screen\\ o\\ dots\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ opened\\ up\\ by\\ process\\ o\\ perception\\ in\\ this\\ mode\\ o\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ the\\ hat\\ in\\ the\\ bathers\\ o\\ Asnieres\\.\\ \\ \\;Unmerged\\ dots\\ being\\ experimented\\ with\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ turn\\ 2sculpture\\ momentarily\\,\\ given\\ our\\ time\\ constraints\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sculpture\\ o\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ linked\\ 2desire\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ Rodin\\,\\ addressing\\ the\\ issue\\ o\\ symbolism\\ which\\ we\\ mentioned\\ in\\ regard\\ 2Degas\\.\\ \\ \\;Symbolism\\ as\\ style\\ that\\ engages\\ w\\ territory\\ o\\ feelings\\ n\\ senseations\\ in\\ mode\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ from\\ romantic\\ insistence\\ on\\ exteremes\\ o\\ emotion\\ or\\ psychic\\ deviation\\,\\ as\\ was\\ the\\ case\\ w\\ Gericault\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ going\\ in\\ different\\ direction\\:\\ \\ \\;exploring\\ inner\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ domain\\ unto\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ autonomous\\ world\\ being\\ discovered\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ parallels\\ the\\ new\\ science\\:\\ \\ \\;psychology\\ n\\ the\\ psyche\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ this\\ inner\\ world\\ was\\ being\\ discovered\\ as\\ being\\ ruled\\ by\\ certain\\ principles\\,\\ chief\\ among\\ them\\:\\ desire\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charcot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pupil\\ Freud\\ built\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ insights\\ o\\ hysteria\\,\\ produced\\ a\\ whole\\ new\\ discipline\\ o\\ psychoanalysis\\ that\\ dealt\\ w\\ the\\ domain\\ o\\ interiority\\,\\ w\\ which\\ symbolism\\ engaged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ shared\\ those\\ concerns\\.\\ \\ \\;Desire\\ happened\\ 2figure\\ largely\\ in\\ his\\ wrk\\ n\\ in\\ Claudel\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ discuss\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ was\\ used\\ 2represent\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ desire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Auguste\\ Rodin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Gates\\ of\\ Hell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\-1900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ his\\ major\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wrk\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cast\\ during\\ his\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Originally\\ commissioned\\ 4the\\ bldg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lifetime\\,\\ he\\ wrkd\\ on\\ the\\ doors\\ n\\ plaster\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ seen\\ by\\ many\\ ppl\\,\\ though\\ no\\ sustained\\ critical\\ response\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ form\\,\\ the\\ door\\ engaged\\ w\\ long\\ monumental\\ tradition\\ o\\ decorative\\ doors\\.\\ \\ \\;Christian\\ churches\\ go\\ back\\ 2\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ A\\.D\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ a\\ door\\ in\\ wood\\ in\\ Rome\\ that\\ goes\\ back\\ that\\ far\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ tradition\\ in\\ early\\ Christianity\\ developed\\ in\\ Renaissance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lorenzo\\ Ghiberti\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gates\\ of\\ Paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1425\\-46\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ key\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ instructive\\ to\\ see\\ this\\ comparison\\,\\ 4Rodin\\ clearly\\ engaged\\ w\\ the\\ paradigm\\ illustrated\\ by\\ Ghiberti\\ n\\ Christian\\ tradition\\,\\ but\\ he\\ twisted\\ it\\ literally\\ n\\ metaphorically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rodin\\ doen\\&rsquo\\;st\\ show\\ paradise\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ shows\\ hell\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ model\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ Bible\\ or\\ New\\ Testament\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dante\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inferno\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rodin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gates\\:\\ \\ \\;early\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beras\\ the\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ stouch\\.\\ \\ \\;Marking\\ general\\ structural\\ division\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Division\\ which\\ he\\ gives\\ up\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;Loosens\\ up\\ in\\ later\\ stages\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;3d\\ architectural\\ mode\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structure\\ breaks\\ up\\ from\\ the\\ Gilberti\\-like\\ squares\\ into\\ a\\ looser\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ structure\\ from\\ which\\ figures\\ fall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gilberti\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\ has\\ ea\\ panel\\ stand\\ 4a\\ discreet\\ narrative\\ unit\\.\\ \\ \\;Narrativity\\ \\=\\ mode\\ o\\ telling\\ a\\ story\\ through\\ cultural\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Implied\\ sense\\ o\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ sptial\\ depth\\ conveyed\\ by\\ scale\\ n\\ modeling\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ sculptural\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\,\\ less\\ sculptural\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;background\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ really\\ just\\ upper\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ panel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ these\\ sculptural\\ means\\ o\\ rendering\\ r\\ rejected\\ by\\ Rodin\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ he\\ employs\\ loose\\ structure\\ w\\/in\\ w\\ the\\ body\\ comes\\ 2the\\ fore\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ is\\ y\\ we\\ have\\ 2b\\ concerned\\ w\\ him\\ n\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structure\\ is\\ anti\\-narrative\\,\\ discontinuous\\.\\ \\ \\;Flow\\ o\\ episodes\\ is\\ conveyed\\ precisely\\ as\\ a\\ flow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bodies\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ amount\\ 2any\\ kidn\\ o\\ sequence\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ free\\ flow\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sense\\ o\\ narrative\\,\\ succession\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ whole\\ composition\\ is\\ crowned\\ by\\ the\\ figure\\ o\\ the\\ thinker\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ separated\\ from\\ it\\,\\ but\\ not\\ successfully\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ top\\,\\ the\\ figure\\ o\\ 3\\ shades\\,\\ a\\ variant\\ on\\ the\\ classical\\ motif\\ o\\ 3\\ graces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ helped\\ Rodin\\ was\\ Michelanegalo\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ definitely\\ engaged\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michelangelo\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Last\\ Judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1530s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ monumental\\ ambition\\ 2which\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ central\\.\\ \\ \\;Represents\\ symbolic\\ settling\\ o\\ account\\ w\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;Equivalent\\ bw\\ figure\\ o\\ God\\ n\\ thinker\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ notice\\ difference\\ in\\ Rodin\\ tho\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ figure\\ o\\ an\\ anonymous\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ a\\ God\\ anymore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ space\\ is\\ similar\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Michelangelo\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ defiance\\ o\\ gravity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ were\\ granted\\ salvation\\ r\\ being\\ lifted\\ up\\ on\\ one\\ side\\,\\ n\\ those\\ who\\ r\\ down\\ r\\ falling\\ down\\,\\ in\\ similar\\ way\\ 2how\\ figures\\ do\\ in\\ Rodin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Rodin\\,\\ despite\\ vertical\\ rendition\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ real\\ structure\\ like\\ in\\ Michelangelo\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ distinctions\\ o\\ the\\ saved\\ n\\ the\\ unsaved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ panels\\ represent\\ fall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ order\\ o\\ any\\ kind\\ in\\ rarnagment\\ o\\ division\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gilberti\\ had\\ a\\ loose\\ federation\\ o\\ groups\\ w\\ no\\ sequence\\ 2them\\,\\ no\\ sense\\ o\\ episodic\\ consequence\\ o\\ any\\ kind\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ climax\\,\\ either\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ flux\\,\\ 2the\\ extent\\ that\\ even\\ the\\ borders\\ do\\ not\\ contain\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ may\\ inquire\\:\\ \\ \\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ maning\\ o\\ Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ God\\,\\ n\\ this\\ scene\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ judgement\\,\\ what\\ is\\ this\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ could\\ say\\ such\\ an\\ unstructured\\,\\ uncontrollable\\ spill\\,\\ is\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ representation\\ related\\ 2the\\ figure\\ o\\ the\\ thinker\\,\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ thought\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ immediately\\ striking\\ is\\ how\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\uncontrollable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ thought\\ process\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ mental\\ activity\\,\\ it\\ lacks\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ bodily\\ interaction\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ strong\\ emotional\\,\\ sensuous\\ quality\\ 2it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ part\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ couple\\ embraces\\ hysterically\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ figures\\ not\\ only\\ fall\\ out\\ sideways\\ \\(violating\\ the\\ borders\\ n\\ divisions\\)\\,\\ but\\ also\\ outward\\.\\ \\ \\;Becoming\\ full\\ 3\\-D\\ sculpture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ o\\ the\\ episodes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\identifiable\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ tho\\,\\ r\\ sirens\\,\\ mythological\\ figures\\ w\\/o\\ clear\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Combination\\ o\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ body\\,\\ sense\\ o\\ lack\\ o\\ control\\ that\\ these\\ bodies\\ convey\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ submerged\\ in\\ this\\ sweep\\ o\\ matter\\ n\\ lava\\ that\\ goes\\ downwards\\,\\ n\\ this\\ emphasis\\ on\\ passionate\\ engagement\\ bw\\ figures\\,\\ suggests\\ this\\ 2b\\ a\\ space\\ o\\ desire\\,\\ but\\ understood\\ in\\ specific\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Desire\\ as\\ a\\ force\\ operating\\ w\\/in\\ psychic\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Conveys\\ interiority\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ notion\\ o\\ interiority\\ may\\ b\\ linked\\ 2the\\ specific\\ interrogation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ new\\ science\\ o\\ psyche\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Freud\\ insisted\\ on\\ redefining\\ human\\ nature\\ acc\\.\\ 2the\\ dark\\ forces\\,\\ 2sexuality\\,\\ as\\ the\\ governing\\ force\\ o\\ the\\ human\\ interior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Freud\\ drew\\ not\\ only\\ on\\ Charcot\\,\\ but\\ on\\ the\\ guy\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ w\\ Gericault\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Freud\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stance\\ was\\ radically\\ different\\ from\\ his\\ predecessors\\ in\\ 2\\ aspects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;remember\\ how\\ Gericault\\ n\\ someone\\ else\\ were\\ linked\\ 2the\\ legibility\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ esp\\.\\ the\\ face\\,\\ as\\ the\\ tool\\ thru\\ which\\ psyche\\ may\\ b\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ Charcot\\ believed\\ in\\ a\\ darker\\,\\ less\\ controllable\\ idea\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ still\\ possible\\ 2represnet\\ this\\ thru\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ legible\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ as\\ tool\\ o\\ diagnosis\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Freud\\,\\ tho\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ legibility\\ is\\ challenged\\ n\\ complicated\\.\\ \\ \\;Psychic\\ forces\\ appear\\ far\\ more\\ opaque\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ as\\ transparent\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ not\\ as\\ controllable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;moreover\\,\\ desire\\ emerges\\ in\\ Freud\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writing\\ as\\ a\\ principle\\ force\\ that\\ governs\\ human\\ inner\\ function\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ general\\,\\ one\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ toward\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ sexuality\\ emerges\\ as\\ imptnt\\ area\\ o\\ inquiry\\,\\ partly\\ 4\\ social\\ reasons\\ \\(think\\ o\\ the\\ phenomoennon\\ o\\ prositiution\\)\\,\\ but\\ in\\ Frued\\,\\ sexuality\\ \\=\\ psychic\\ practice\\,\\ not\\ a\\ social\\ practice\\ o\\ question\\ o\\ anatomy\\,\\ as\\ in\\ genital\\ acitivyt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ process\\ inside\\ oneself\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unconcsiousc\\.\\ \\ \\;Central\\ 2ourselves\\,\\ yet\\ difficult\\ 2access\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ challenged\\ major\\ bourgeois\\ tenants\\ o\\ morality\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ said\\ sexuality\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\central\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ humanity\\,\\ not\\ ignorable\\,\\ n\\ also\\ something\\ very\\ hard\\ 2regulate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ sexuality\\ linked\\ 2desire\\ n\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ unconscious\\ that\\ Rodin\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ 2represent\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Gates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\could\\ b\\ representation\\ o\\ psychosexual\\ process\\.\\ 3\\ aspects\\ in\\ this\\ regard\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;emphasis\\ on\\ sensuality\\,\\ which\\ si\\ different\\ than\\ other\\ sensual\\ themes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clodion\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Love\\ and\\ Pysche\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1780\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Desire\\ was\\ a\\ keytheme\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;Clodion\\ does\\ so\\ here\\,\\ thru\\ an\\ image\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ Rodin\\,\\ tho\\,\\ desire\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ matter\\ o\\ flight\\ n\\ flow\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ flow\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\catches\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ loses\\ agency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ tumultuous\\ rolling\\ down\\ o\\ the\\ lava\\ that\\ takes\\ all\\ the\\ bodies\\ w\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ in\\ the\\ margins\\ tho\\,\\ u\\ see\\ ppl\\ caught\\ in\\ this\\ flow\\,\\ losing\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;sexuality\\ becomes\\ a\\ more\\ explicitly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\carnal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Detail\\ o\\ frame\\ o\\ door\\ shows\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ penis\\,\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breasts\\.\\ \\ \\;Intensity\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ carnal\\,\\ yet\\ also\\ internally\\ driven\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\ regard\\,\\ one\\ can\\ speak\\ o\\ a\\ connection\\ bw\\ Rodin\\ n\\ a\\ larger\\ aesthetics\\,\\ w\\/in\\ which\\ nature\\,\\ including\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ emerges\\ as\\ a\\ force\\ governed\\ by\\ its\\ own\\ laws\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ rules\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ this\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ the\\ decorative\\ arts\\ o\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;Late\\ 1890s\\ n\\ turn\\ o\\ century\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tiffany\\ studios\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vVase\\ w\\/decoration\\ of\\ pendant\\ seed\\ pods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1905\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reason\\ 4this\\ is\\ that\\ Rodin\\ was\\ engaged\\ himself\\ in\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ decoration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ u\\ remember\\,\\ the\\ doors\\ were\\ supposed\\ 2figure\\ as\\ the\\ doors\\ 2the\\ museum\\ o\\ decorative\\ arts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ he\\ shares\\ w\\ Tiffany\\ is\\ the\\ belief\\/interest\\ in\\ nature\\ itself\\ as\\ a\\ dragging\\ force\\,\\ a\\ force\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\animates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\things\\ from\\ within\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ sinewy\\ vase\\ simulating\\ organic\\ growth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ what\\ Rodin\\ represents\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ showing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\human\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;nature\\,\\ sexuality\\,\\ desire\\,\\ as\\ the\\ force\\ that\\ drives\\ the\\ body\\ from\\ within\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ that\\ lack\\ o\\ control\\ may\\ b\\ linked\\ 2Freud\\,\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ ego\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ master\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ discovery\\ o\\ psychic\\ register\\ o\\ human\\ functioning\\ implies\\ a\\ disempowerment\\ that\\ was\\ difficult\\ 4his\\ contemporaries\\ 2accept\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\:\\ \\ \\;appearance\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ tension\\.\\ \\ \\;Psycho\\-neurotic\\ tension\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ Thinker\\ in\\ the\\ Gates\\ may\\ b\\ seen\\ 2refer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ placed\\ above\\ the\\ chaos\\,\\ but\\ not\\ quite\\ safe\\ n\\ secure\\ from\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ forces\\ from\\ below\\ r\\ trying\\ 2invade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ pose\\ is\\ both\\ pensive\\ n\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tense\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ conveyed\\ by\\ his\\ muscles\\ n\\ the\\ gesture\\ o\\ his\\ fist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;what\\ makes\\ my\\ thinker\\ think\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ thinks\\ not\\ only\\ w\\ his\\ brain\\,\\ his\\ knitted\\ brow\\,\\ his\\ distended\\ nostrils\\,\\ his\\ compressed\\ lips\\,\\ but\\ w\\ every\\ muscle\\ o\\ his\\ arms\\,\\ legs\\,\\ back\\,\\ wrist\\,\\ his\\ gripping\\ toes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ expressive\\ possibility\\ of\\ the\\ body\\,\\ which\\ ahs\\ 2do\\ w\\ something\\ intangible\\,\\ something\\ interior\\,\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ psyche\\,\\ w\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ psychic\\ tension\\ that\\ suddenly\\ invades\\ n\\ complicates\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ pensiveness\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ this\\ idea\\ o\\ pensiveness\\ is\\ linked\\ 2creativity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ thinker\\ obviously\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ substitute\\ o\\ the\\ creator\\ in\\ at\\ least\\ 2\\ senses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ refers\\ 2\\ Dante\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ avision\\ o\\ hell\\,\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ poetic\\ vision\\,\\ not\\ like\\ the\\ one\\ side\\ o\\ Michelangelo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fresco\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ figure\\ o\\ the\\ surrogate\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ thinker\\ \\=\\ the\\ sculptor\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\,\\ it\\ engages\\ w\\ older\\ iconography\\ o\\ the\\ pensive\\ artist\\,\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ witnessed\\ earlier\\ w\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ Delacroix\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Michelangelo\\ in\\ his\\ studio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ how\\ this\\ represented\\ an\\ important\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ complication\\ o\\ the\\ creative\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;Creativity\\ is\\ complicated\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ involves\\ stalling\\.\\ \\ \\;Thought\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ also\\ some\\ form\\ o\\ psychic\\ reaction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Melancholy\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ temperament\\ associated\\ w\\ the\\ artist\\ at\\ least\\ as\\ far\\ back\\ as\\ the\\ Renaissance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michelangelo\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ might\\ even\\ be\\ melancholy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ all\\ vague\\ n\\ thematic\\,\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ bodily\\ specificity\\,\\ the\\ material\\ specificity\\,\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ in\\ Rodin\\,\\ when\\ specific\\ aspects\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ like\\ the\\ musclar\\ tension\\ or\\ the\\ toes\\ gripping\\ the\\ rock\\ underneath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ gesture\\ conveys\\ effort\\.\\ Tension\\ within\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ physical\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ exceeds\\ physicality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ something\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;Internal\\ tension\\,\\ that\\ this\\ bodyconveys\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\,\\ n\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;aspect\\ that\\ distinguishes\\ Rodin\\ from\\ Delacroix\\&hellip\\;he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ figure\\ from\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ may\\ be\\ Dante\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autonomous\\ man\\,\\ represnting\\ Artist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ terms\\ o\\ larger\\ oeuvre\\ o\\ Rodin\\,\\ this\\ approach\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\illustrates\\ can\\ b\\ found\\ in\\ his\\ wrk\\ at\\ large\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ can\\ b\\ defined\\ as\\ entirely\\ new\\ rhetoric\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ That\\ sense\\ o\\ invention\\ is\\ clear\\ in\\ the\\ thinker\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ aspect\\ o\\ creative\\ process\\ conveyed\\ by\\ the\\ pose\\ n\\ strained\\ muscles\\.\\ \\ \\;Tyhis\\ is\\ manifest\\ in\\ his\\ wrk\\ at\\ large\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Rodin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iris\\,\\ the\\ Messenger\\ of\\ Gods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustrates\\ 2\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;Continuous\\ n\\ insistent\\ interest\\ o\\ Rodin\\ in\\ sexuality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;His\\ desire\\ 2\\ provide\\ new\\ bodily\\ rhetorics\\ 4this\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ does\\ this\\ in\\ 2\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;fragmentariness\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ headless\\ n\\ armless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ pose\\.\\ \\ \\;Highly\\ provocative\\.\\ \\ \\;Rodin\\ attained\\ this\\ pose\\ by\\ sketching\\ from\\ a\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ then\\,\\ he\\ stood\\ up\\ the\\ form\\,\\ changing\\ the\\ access\\,\\ so\\ that\\ she\\ confonrts\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ w\\ her\\ face\\ n\\ body\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ her\\ genitals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thorinw\\ her\\ sexuality\\ in\\ our\\ face\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ u\\ witness\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ rejection\\ o\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ body\\ that\\ u\\ see\\ in\\ neoclassical\\ body\\,\\ which\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;decent\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;meaningful\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ pose\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ emphatically\\ \\&ldquo\\;whole\\&rdquo\\;\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beign\\ discarded\\ by\\ Rodin\\ w\\ this\\ fragmentary\\ approach\\ 2the\\ body\\ n\\ a\\ new\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ conveys\\ a\\ new\\ notion\\ o\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ critic\\,\\ speaking\\ o\\ Rodin\\,\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;he\\ is\\ the\\ great\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penetrator\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;o\\ human\\ form\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;His\\ work\\ spoke\\ 2the\\ desire\\ 4sexual\\ penetration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rodin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Thought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[head\\ of\\ Camille\\]\\ 1886\\-95\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ image\\ o\\ thought\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ y\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physiognomy\\,\\ which\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ there\\ 2cnovey\\ facial\\ features\\,\\ 2squeeze\\ certain\\ meaning\\ from\\ it\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ 2suggest\\ an\\ intense\\ mental\\ n\\ psychological\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ clearly\\ mapped\\ on\\ any\\ physiognomically\\ arragned\\ set\\ o\\ features\\.\\ \\ \\;Project\\ o\\ physiognomy\\ in\\ favor\\ o\\ using\\ sculpture\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ 2convey\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ interior\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ strange\\ combination\\ o\\ headless\\ body\\ on\\ one\\ hand\\ n\\ bodyless\\ head\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Objectification\\ o\\ female\\ form\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ n\\ disembodiment\\ here\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Thought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\o\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ subjects\\ r\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ head\\ o\\ Camille\\ Claudel\\,\\ a\\ student\\ o\\ Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ grew\\ up\\ daughter\\ o\\ tax\\ collector\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ moved\\ around\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ early\\ on\\ she\\ was\\ determined\\ 2become\\ a\\ sculptor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ convinced\\ her\\ family\\ 2move\\ 2Paris\\ at\\ 17\\.\\ \\ \\;she\\ attended\\ a\\ top\\ school\\,\\ then\\ rented\\ a\\ studio\\ in\\ Paris\\ w\\ English\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Introduced\\ at\\ 19\\ 2\\ Rodin\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ 42\\.\\ \\ \\;she\\ became\\ his\\ most\\ ambitious\\ pupil\\,\\ studio\\ assistant\\,\\ n\\ then\\ his\\ lover\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ did\\ portraits\\ o\\ eo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Camille\\ Claudel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Auguste\\ Rodin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ front\\ view\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Physiognomic\\ authority\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ different\\ from\\ how\\ he\\ represents\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ affair\\ lasted\\ 14\\ yrs\\,\\ which\\ were\\ the\\ most\\ creative\\ in\\ Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ n\\ the\\ most\\ significant\\ 4her\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ most\\ prolific\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\,\\ when\\ she\\ became\\ independent\\ n\\ started\\ wrking\\ n\\ own\\ studio\\ n\\ pursuing\\ own\\ career\\&hellip\\;her\\ life\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ well\\ tho\\ in\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ family\\ thought\\ she\\ was\\ mentally\\ ill\\,\\ n\\ enclosed\\ her\\,\\ w\\ consent\\ o\\ her\\ brother\\ Claude\\ Claudel\\ \\(famous\\ dramatist\\)\\ in\\ a\\ mental\\ instiutiton\\,\\ where\\ she\\ stayed\\ until\\ she\\ died\\ in\\ 1943\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ b4\\ that\\,\\ she\\ managed\\ 2forge\\ a\\ successful\\ career\\,\\ which\\ was\\ really\\ hard\\ 4women\\ artists\\ 2do\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Especially\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hard\\ 4women\\ sculptors\\,\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ tradition\\ 2draw\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ female\\ famous\\ sculpture\\ was\\ Marcello\\,\\ who\\ functioned\\ under\\ male\\ psuedonymn\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\ photo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Class\\ at\\ the\\ EBA\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ reminds\\ u\\ that\\ woen\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ enter\\ the\\ academy\\ until\\ late\\,\\ n\\ their\\ presence\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ appreciated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Academic\\ Julien\\ \\[master\\ painter\\ w\\/women\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jul\\.\\ Hanriot\\,\\ ill\\.\\ To\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Aveugle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ thought\\ a\\ woman\\ working\\ w\\ a\\ model\\ was\\ dangerous\\,\\ a\\ threat\\ 2her\\ femininity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photo\\ of\\ C\\.C\\.\\ sculpting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cacountala\\,\\ La\\ Quinzaine\\ lit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ march\\ 1911\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\News\\ clipping\\ praises\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ image\\ o\\ lovers\\ embracing\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ o\\ sexuality\\ n\\ desire\\ was\\ dear\\ 2\\ her\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ 2Rodin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ projects\\ were\\ similar\\ 2Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Claudel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cacountala\\ or\\ Abandoment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\,\\ marble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rodin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eternal\\ Idol\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ interested\\ in\\ desire\\ as\\ carnal\\ activity\\ motivated\\ from\\ w\\/in\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rodin\\ has\\ man\\ drinking\\ from\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarly\\,\\ Claudel\\ has\\ man\\ rising\\ up\\ 2this\\ woman\\ who\\ abandons\\ herself\\ more\\ explicity\\ 2him\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ mutual\\ surrender\\ is\\ what\\ Claudel\\ emphasizes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ approach\\ 2woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ different\\:\\ \\ \\;notice\\ the\\ thigh\\ is\\ more\\ masculine\\ n\\ androgenous\\,\\ than\\ the\\ feminie\\ soft\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ o\\ them\\ engaged\\ in\\ that\\ issue\\ o\\ intense\\,\\ emotional\\,\\ passionate\\,\\ carnal\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ both\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ touch\\ bw\\ lovers\\ is\\,\\ in\\ some\\ sense\\,\\ an\\ indirect\\ represtnation\\ o\\ the\\ sculptor\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ caress\\.\\ \\ \\;Sexualization\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ creation\\ is\\ at\\ work\\ in\\ both\\ o\\ their\\ projects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Claudel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Age\\ of\\ maturity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1887\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Her\\ most\\ talked\\-about\\ sculpture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ could\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ thematic\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ imminent\\ breakup\\ bw\\ her\\ n\\ Rodin\\.\\ \\ \\;Camille\\ is\\ shown\\ here\\ as\\ young\\ passionate\\,\\ self\\-humiliating\\ woman\\ begging\\ the\\ man\\ 2come\\ back\\ 2\\ her\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ being\\ claimed\\ by\\ death\\,\\ in\\ whose\\ grips\\ he\\ already\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defined\\ an\\ older\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ generalizing\\ use\\ o\\ nudity\\,\\ u\\ still\\ see\\ him\\ as\\ older\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ more\\ general\\ reading\\ o\\ this\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ tension\\ bw\\ eros\\ n\\ something\\ else\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lovers\\ being\\ driven\\ apart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ also\\ a\\ psychic\\ tension\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ tehse\\ powerful\\ forces\\:\\ \\ \\;life\\/eros\\,\\ n\\ death\\,\\ pulling\\ man\\ away\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ both\\ Claudel\\ n\\ Rodin\\ r\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ issue\\ o\\ desire\\,\\ in\\ her\\ case\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ often\\ underwritten\\ by\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ loss\\,\\ which\\ differentiates\\ her\\ approach\\ 2sexuality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Such\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ o\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Claudel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Wave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1897\\-1903\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ dancing\\ in\\ the\\ sea\\ under\\ threatening\\ wave\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figures\\ themselves\\ r\\ variants\\ o\\ the\\ 3\\ graces\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claudel\\ lifts\\ that\\ model\\ n\\ situates\\ it\\ on\\ a\\ different\\ arena\\,\\ which\\ foregrounds\\ the\\ forces\\ that\\ animate\\ the\\ body\\ from\\ w\\/in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ wave\\ is\\ a\\ motif\\ probably\\ lifted\\ directly\\ from\\ a\\ Jpaanese\\ print\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Katshushika\\ Hokusai\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\36\\ views\\ of\\ Fuji\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ wave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1\\.\\ \\ \\;1820\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ really\\ popular\\ n\\ widely\\ seen\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Claudel\\ stages\\ the\\ wave\\ as\\ an\\ arena\\ o\\ human\\ action\\,\\ which\\ is\\ at\\ once\\ accommodating\\ n\\ threatening\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ seem\\ unaware\\ o\\ the\\ threat\\ 2hich\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ submitted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ rendition\\ o\\ women\\,\\ Claudel\\ may\\ have\\ drawn\\ on\\ Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ she\\ transforms\\ it\\ in2\\ a\\ very\\ different\\ format\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ really\\ small\\ piece\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ monumental\\ scale\\ o\\ Rodin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ sense\\ o\\ intimacy\\ also\\ pervades\\ another\\ work\\ o\\ hers\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Claudel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gossipers\\ \\[Chatters\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ form\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ full\\,\\ but\\ fragmentary\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ shows\\ only\\ a\\ corner\\ o\\ the\\ room\\,\\ in\\ which\\ women\\ gathered\\ 2talk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claudel\\ said\\ she\\&rsquo\\;d\\ seen\\ this\\ in\\ a\\ railway\\ carriage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ staged\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ moment\\ o\\ intimacy\\ bw\\ these\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Quite\\ unusual\\ subject\\ 4sculpture\\ n\\ its\\ genre\\-like\\ topic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ could\\ also\\ b\\ read\\ as\\ scheming\\.\\ \\ \\;Conspiracy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Ppl\\ like\\ 2see\\ this\\,\\ bc\\ Claudel\\ became\\ paranoid\\ at\\ some\\ point\\ in\\ her\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ paranoia\\ was\\ partly\\ justified\\ by\\ the\\ persecutions\\ she\\ endured\\,\\ but\\ also\\ exaggerated\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ referred\\ 2Rodin\\ as\\ her\\ persecutor\\ after\\ their\\ breakup\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ saw\\ critics\\ as\\ a\\ gang\\ o\\ Rodin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesintgly\\,\\ this\\ is\\ conveyed\\ in\\ a\\ film\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Claudel\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ all\\ linekd\\ 2a\\ spcyholgoical\\ intensity\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ psychological\\ interiority\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ interest\\ that\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ partnership\\ bw\\ these\\ 2artists\\,\\ which\\ proved\\ quite\\ productive\\ 4both\\ o\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ wk\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ another\\ partnership\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ case\\ o\\ artistic\\ camaraderie\\ bw\\ Gauguin\\ n\\ Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ next\\ time\\,\\ our\\ last\\ lecture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ December\\ 17\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;Partners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\last\\ time\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ symbolism\\ in\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\ \\;Rodin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\`1880\\-1900\\,\\ Camile\\ Claudet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Wave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\these\\ artists\\ share\\ a\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;Concern\\ w\\ subjective\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ kind\\ o\\ space\\ which\\ was\\ governed\\ by\\ principle\\ o\\ desire\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ rule\\ o\\ principle\\,\\ according\\ 2which\\ creativity\\ may\\ be\\ imageind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shared\\ a\\ non\\-mimetic\\ approach\\ 2form\\.\\ \\ \\;Representational\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ symbolic\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ also\\ different\\ from\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;Especially\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ scale\\,\\ which\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ simply\\ mean\\ size\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Question\\ o\\ approach\\ 2subjectivity\\ as\\ an\\ issue\\ involving\\ intimacy\\ 4Claudel\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ concerned\\ w\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ discuss\\ another\\ pair\\ o\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ lovers\\.\\ \\ \\;Almost\\ tho\\,\\ given\\ the\\ intensity\\ o\\ their\\ engagement\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ \\=\\ French\\ artist\\ who\\ wrkd\\ in\\ foreign\\ lands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Gogh\\ \\=\\ Dutchman\\ who\\ wrkd\\ in\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ passionately\\ close\\ friends\\.\\ \\ \\;Invovlved\\ in\\ intense\\ reciprocity\\ n\\ conflict\\ w\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ aesthetic\\ fellow\\ travelers\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ art\\ was\\ marked\\ by\\ an\\ intense\\ search\\ 4the\\ expression\\ o\\ the\\ self\\ thru\\ image\\,\\ chiefly\\ thru\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ implied\\ 4both\\ o\\ them\\ a\\ dialectic\\ bw\\ the\\ self\\ n\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ artistic\\ self\\ in\\ both\\ cases\\ was\\ hooked\\ up\\ w\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ otherness\\,\\ w\\ ea\\ o\\ them\\ interpreted\\ differently\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ aesthetics\\ n\\ politics\\ o\\ their\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Both\\ came\\ late\\ 2art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ wrkd\\ at\\ sotck\\ exchange\\ until\\ age\\ 33\\.\\ \\ \\;became\\ pntr\\,\\ trained\\ by\\ Pisaro\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ aesthetic\\ quest\\ was\\ one\\ that\\ involved\\ the\\ issue\\ o\\ the\\ supernatural\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\ Pisaro\\,\\ an\\ impressionist\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ accommodate\\ that\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ supernatural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guaguin\\ inscribing\\ himself\\ in\\ larger\\ trend\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\:\\ \\ \\;withdrawal\\ from\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ advent\\ o\\ symbolism\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ o\\ Degas\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ late\\ production\\ o\\ Renoir\\ n\\ Degas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1896\\:\\ \\ \\;Gauguin\\,\\ in\\ search\\ 4supernatural\\,\\ escape\\ from\\ city\\,\\ traveled\\ to\\ Bretagne\\.\\ \\ \\;Brittany\\.\\ \\ \\;Primitive\\,\\ unspoiled\\ civilization\\,\\ 2which\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2return\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ a\\ construction\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ his\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Breton\\ girls\\ dancing\\,\\ Pont\\-Aven\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Girls\\ dressedi\\ n\\ costumes\\ Gauguin\\ imagined\\ these\\ girls\\ wearing\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wear\\ these\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2position\\ them\\ against\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Millet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Gleaners\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1857\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Approach\\ 2peasants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ girls\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ dancing\\,\\ but\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ the\\ dance\\ is\\ hard\\ 2fathom\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ ambiguity\\ n\\ mystery\\ in\\ their\\ movement\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ strangeness\\ o\\ this\\ ritual\\&hellip\\;a\\ rthymic\\ arrangement\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ matched\\ by\\ degree\\ o\\ strangeness\\ w\\ the\\ arrangement\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ float\\ in\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ as\\ firmly\\ anchored\\ as\\ Millet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landscape\\ rendered\\ in\\ arbitrary\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ seem\\ 2b\\ in\\ country\\ road\\.\\ \\ \\;Perhaps\\ snaded\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ yellowness\\ o\\ pigment\\ has\\ nothing\\ 2do\\ w\\ description\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ color\\ that\\ stands\\ for\\ a\\ realm\\,\\ stands\\ 4something\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ rthymic\\ arrangement\\ lifts\\ them\\ in\\ circle\\ above\\ the\\ ground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ o\\ Bretagne\\ \\=\\ mythic\\ other\\,\\ alternative\\ 2civilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ search\\ 4otehrness\\ thru\\ the\\ new\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ body\\,\\ Gauguin\\ may\\ b\\ likened\\ 2Seurat\\,\\ who\\ also\\ sought\\ a\\ way\\ out\\ o\\ impressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ search\\ 4the\\ new\\ bodily\\ idiom\\ was\\,\\ like\\ Seurat\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ was\\ linked\\ 2the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Seurat\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bathers\\ at\\ Asnieres\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seurat\\ shows\\ workers\\,\\ Gauguin\\ shows\\ peasants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gauguin\\ moves\\ away\\ from\\ Seurat\\ by\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ depiction\\.\\ \\ \\;Seurat\\ wanted\\ 2create\\ live\\ thru\\ the\\ division\\ o\\ color\\ n\\ the\\ then\\ recombination\\ o\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ retina\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ interested\\ in\\ something\\ supernatural\\,\\ something\\ that\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ accommodated\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ perception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ symbolist\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ this\\ term\\ is\\ hard\\ 2grasp\\ w\\.\\ \\ \\;it\\ needs\\ some\\ explanation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compare\\ this\\ t\\ Claudel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Wave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ works\\ are\\ evocations\\ o\\ something\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ r\\ symbolists\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\-impressionism\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ term\\ that\\ incorporates\\ pretty\\ much\\ everything\\ after\\ impressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;Seurat\\ n\\ Cezanne\\ r\\ the\\ 2\\ other\\ giants\\ o\\ post\\-impressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;w\\/in\\ the\\ larger\\ category\\ o\\ post\\-impressionism\\ and\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ fauvism\\&hellip\\;w\\/in\\ that\\ category\\ Van\\ Gogh\\ n\\ Gauguin\\ r\\ representing\\ symbolism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ its\\ own\\ subculture\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ membership\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ specific\\ exhibitions\\ o\\ its\\ own\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\ \\=\\ cultural\\ phenomenon\\ n\\ trend\\ that\\ swept\\ across\\ EU\\ n\\ US\\ at\\ end\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ may\\ b\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ o\\ profound\\ disenchantment\\ o\\ young\\ ppl\\ coming\\ o\\ age\\,\\ trying\\ 2define\\ themselvese\\ as\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Disenchantmen\\ w\\ modernity\\,\\ n\\ thus\\ seeking\\ withdrawal\\ from\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ withdrawal\\ towards\\ the\\ realms\\ o\\ interiority\\,\\ the\\ subjective\\,\\ anti\\-modern\\,\\ anti\\-historical\\,\\ an\\ intensely\\ personal\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;u\\ may\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ late\\ Degas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ art\\,\\ it\\ \\=\\ Rejection\\ o\\ naturalism\\ in\\ favor\\ o\\ the\\ realm\\ o\\ the\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ not\\ the\\ classical\\ ideal\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ beauty\\ n\\ virtue\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ as\\ the\\ realm\\ o\\ new\\ spirituality\\.\\ \\ \\;Symbolist\\ pntg\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ claim\\ 2represent\\ reality\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ claimed\\ 2evoke\\ a\\ certain\\ idea\\ behind\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thematically\\ it\\ involved\\ dreams\\,\\ visions\\,\\ other\\ subjective\\ states\\.\\ \\ \\;OR\\,\\ cultural\\ realms\\ that\\ were\\ different\\ from\\ modern\\ EU\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;Cultural\\ territory\\ o\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ conceived\\ o\\ as\\ timeless\\,\\ like\\ the\\ imagined\\ Bretagne\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolists\\ disdained\\ history\\ in\\ favor\\ o\\ this\\ privacy\\ o\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formally\\,\\ it\\ amounted\\ 2very\\ restricted\\,\\ non\\-mimetic\\ category\\.\\ \\ \\;Highly\\ evocative\\.\\ \\ \\;Line\\ n\\ color\\ as\\ independent\\,\\ aspects\\ o\\ representation\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ overt\\ subject\\ matter\\ n\\ objects\\ represented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideologically\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ divergent\\ trend\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ accommodated\\ both\\ ultra\\-traditionalists\\ n\\ more\\ anarchic\\,\\ utopians\\ like\\ Gauguin\\ n\\ Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ n\\ Seurat\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\,\\ although\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ symbolist\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ a\\ post\\-impressionist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;Mingled\\,\\ paradoxically\\,\\ w\\ traditional\\ themes\\ like\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jacob\\ wrestling\\ w\\/an\\ angel\\ \\(Vision\\ after\\ the\\ sermon\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Priest\\ just\\ gave\\ sermon\\ on\\ Jacob\\ wrestling\\ \\ \\;an\\ angel\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ leaving\\ the\\ mass\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ both\\ the\\ actual\\ women\\ n\\ the\\ vision\\ in\\ their\\ heads\\:\\ \\ \\;Jacob\\ wrestling\\ w\\ the\\ angel\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ divides\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ the\\ diagonal\\ o\\ the\\ tree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pnt\\ o\\ view\\ is\\ from\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ space\\ highly\\ disjunctive\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ the\\ women\\ from\\ above\\,\\ but\\ Jacob\\ from\\ where\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ disjunctive\\ strategy\\ was\\ something\\ impressionists\\ introduced\\.\\ \\ \\;Recall\\ Degas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caf\\é\\;\\ Concerts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Degas\\ cropped\\ the\\ image\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ 2show\\ contingency\\,\\ immediacy\\ o\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Gauguin\\ the\\ emphasis\\ shifts\\ towards\\ the\\ artifice\\ o\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;the\\ idea\\ that\\ what\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ is\\ a\\ willfully\\ constructed\\ pictorial\\ realm\\ that\\ also\\ stands\\ for\\ a\\ spiritual\\ realm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ separateness\\ o\\ reality\\ from\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ is\\ thus\\ conveyed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spatial\\ organization\\ n\\ sense\\ o\\ slight\\ disjunction\\:\\ \\ \\;Gauguin\\ rkd\\ w\\ Japanese\\ prints\\ that\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ influential\\ since\\ 1850\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hokusai\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\15\\ Mudai\\ \\(Untitled\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arbitrary\\ division\\ o\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ this\\ wall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figures\\ r\\ lfited\\ upwards\\ just\\ like\\ Hokusai\\,\\ 4the\\ purpose\\ o\\ clarity\\ o\\ o\\ presentation\\,\\ which\\ Gauguin\\ picks\\ up\\ 4sybmolic\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ composition\\ accommodates\\ 2kidns\\ o\\ realms\\.\\ \\ \\;Spatial\\ incongruities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Above\\ all\\,\\ use\\ o\\ color\\ is\\ striking\\ in\\ Gauguin\\.\\ \\ \\;Color\\ used\\ arbitrarily\\,\\ not\\ a\\ means\\ o\\ describing\\ things\\ \\(tho\\ it\\ does\\ do\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ Bretagne\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faces\\ n\\ hats\\)\\,\\ but\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ field\\,\\ infused\\ by\\ redness\\ that\\ has\\ expressive\\ purpose\\ but\\ not\\ descriptive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Color\\ \\=\\ means\\ o\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Quality\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ composition\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ use\\ o\\ color\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ use\\ o\\ different\\ planes\\ flattened\\,\\ has\\ quality\\ o\\ stained\\ glass\\ window\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ more\\ general\\ terms\\,\\ what\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ witnessing\\ here\\ thru\\ religiously\\ inflected\\ theme\\ \\=\\ image\\ o\\ retreat\\ from\\ modernity\\,\\ towards\\ a\\ realm\\ conceived\\ o\\ Gauguin\\ as\\ unspoiled\\ spirituality\\ o\\ the\\ primitive\\,\\ o\\ the\\ unlearned\\ peasants\\ o\\ Bretagne\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarly\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Yellow\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Color\\ infuses\\ the\\ landscape\\.\\ \\ \\;Produces\\ that\\ vision\\ o\\ Bretagen\\ as\\ the\\ land\\ that\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Land\\ o\\ otherness\\.\\ \\ \\;Land\\ o\\ religious\\ sentiment\\ \\(not\\ really\\ Christian\\ practice\\,\\ but\\ religious\\ practice\\ whose\\ intensity\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ he\\ sees\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ his\\ use\\ o\\ color\\ conveys\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ does\\ his\\ use\\ o\\ form\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Form\\.\\ \\ \\;Resembles\\ folk\\ art\\,\\ local\\ tribal\\ tradition\\,\\ that\\ Gauguin\\ associates\\ w\\ authenticity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simplification\\ o\\ form\\ goes\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\ w\\ notion\\ o\\ spiritual\\ authenticity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ w\\ highly\\ generalized\\ physiognomies\\.\\ \\ \\;Shapes\\ o\\ bodies\\ also\\ generalized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Filled\\ in\\ by\\ flat\\ areas\\ o\\ color\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ included\\ by\\ Gauguin\\ in\\ his\\ self\\ portrait\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ w\\ Yellow\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntg\\ fnctns\\ as\\ an\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ also\\ fnctns\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ vision\\ o\\ Gauguin\\.\\ \\ \\;Nto\\ simply\\ a\\ product\\,\\ but\\ a\\ spiritual\\ product\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ image\\ o\\ introspection\\,\\ which\\ is\\ conveyed\\ thru\\ very\\ different\\ means\\,\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ romanticism\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Presumed\\ Gericault\\,\\ Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ man\\ in\\ an\\ arist\\ studio\\,\\ 1818\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Introspection\\ inscribed\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Pensive\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tools\\ o\\ meditation\\ r\\ featured\\ on\\ the\\ shelf\\ o\\ his\\ baron\\ studio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Introspection\\ \\=\\ process\\ that\\ involves\\ melancholy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ conveyed\\ thru\\ these\\ thematic\\ n\\ object\\-related\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Gauguin\\,\\ this\\ is\\ signified\\ by\\ purely\\ formal\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ incredible\\ expanse\\ o\\ blue\\ w\\ which\\ he\\ renders\\ his\\ torso\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ well\\ as\\ distortion\\,\\ visible\\ in\\ his\\ features\\,\\ disorted\\ 4expressive\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Introspection\\ \\=\\ pictorially\\ enacted\\ here\\.\\ Thru\\ use\\ o\\ color\\,\\ primtivist\\ forms\\,\\ distortion\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ thru\\ descriptive\\ bodily\\ language\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ romantic\\ example\\ o\\ the\\ presumed\\ Gericault\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Be\\ in\\ Love\\ and\\ You\\ Will\\ Be\\ Happy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1889\\-09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gauguin\\ become\\ sinterested\\ in\\ Martinique\\ symbols\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ the\\ motif\\ o\\ the\\ older\\ woman\\ that\\ will\\ appear\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Where\\ do\\ We\\ Come\\ From\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distorted\\ facial\\ features\\ o\\ artist\\,\\ sucking\\ his\\ finger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ from\\ island\\ o\\ Martinique\\,\\ where\\ he\\ went\\ in\\ 1889\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Non\\-narrative\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tell\\ story\\.\\ \\ \\;Elements\\ told\\ only\\ in\\ subjective\\ realm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ sucking\\ his\\ finger\\ makes\\ him\\ like\\ a\\ child\\ o\\ this\\ mother\\ goddess\\,\\ an\\ evocation\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ love\\,\\ which\\ was\\ dear\\ 2Gauguin\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ thru\\ love\\ that\\ a\\ redemption\\ from\\ modernity\\ could\\ b\\ achieved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ search\\ o\\ love\\ that\\ Gauguin\\ went\\ 2Tahiti\\ in\\ 1891\\,\\ stayed\\ there\\ 4\\ 5yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Tahiti\\ \\=\\ French\\ island\\ colony\\ in\\ the\\ Pacific\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ further\\ away\\ than\\ Martinique\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Became\\ land\\ o\\ intense\\ personal\\ projection\\.\\ \\ \\;Fantasy\\.\\ \\ \\;O\\ an\\ alternative\\ 2his\\ life\\.\\ Left\\ his\\ Danish\\ wife\\ n\\ their\\ children\\ 2fend\\ for\\ thesmesvles\\ in\\ Copenhagen\\,\\ n\\ he\\ reinvented\\ himself\\ personally\\ n\\ professionally\\ in\\ Tahiti\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Gauguin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\la\\ Orana\\ Maria\\ \\(We\\ greet\\ you\\,\\ Mary\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\,\\ MOMA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Guaguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ symbolism\\ emerges\\ in\\ full\\ bloom\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ w\\/in\\ which\\ the\\ visual\\ motifs\\ he\\ perceived\\ in\\ Tahiti\\ r\\ combined\\ in2\\ non\\-descriptive\\,\\ non\\-mimetic\\ vision\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ much\\ an\\ inner\\ vision\\ o\\ a\\ spirtiaully\\ inflected\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spirituality\\ conveyed\\ thru\\ Christian\\ motifs\\ here\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ title\\,\\ int\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ Mary\\,\\ n\\ in\\ pntg\\ w\\ angel\\ in\\ background\\ w\\ purple\\ wings\\ n\\ robe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christianity\\ reinvented\\ in\\ spiritual\\ terms\\,\\ but\\ above\\ all\\,\\ formal\\ terms\\,\\ thru\\ visual\\ language\\ o\\ symbolism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ is\\ flat\\.\\ \\ \\;Minimal\\ modeling\\.\\ \\ \\;Non\\-descriptive\\ quality\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Lookat\\ the\\ purple\\ path\\ on\\ which\\ tye\\&rsquo\\;re\\ walking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ space\\ n\\ depth\\ is\\ there\\,\\ but\\ counterweighed\\ by\\ flatness\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Application\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Intense\\ contrasting\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Yellow\\ n\\ purple\\,\\ that\\ obviously\\ fnctns\\ in\\ an\\ excess\\ o\\ description\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ also\\ an\\ expressive\\ quality\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ excess\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ it\\ amounts\\ 2is\\ a\\ construction\\ thru\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ native\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Native\\ as\\ an\\ alsternative\\ 2modernity\\ that\\ was\\ experienced\\ in\\ EU\\ cities\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Manao\\ tupapau\\ \\(The\\ Spirit\\ of\\ the\\ Dead\\ Watching\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conveys\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ colorful\\ fantasmagoria\\ that\\ Gauguin\\ embarked\\ upon\\ bc\\ o\\ his\\ troubles\\,\\ but\\ also\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ ethnographic\\ inspritaiont\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ethnographic\\ gaze\\,\\ which\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ world\\ exhibitions\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ feminine\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ privileged\\ signifier\\ conveying\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ ethnographically\\ based\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ return\\ 2the\\ notion\\ o\\ native\\ female\\ body\\ as\\ an\\ allegory\\ o\\ human\\ condition\\ in\\ general\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ project\\ o\\ Gauguin\\ in\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Where\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ from\\,\\ who\\ are\\ we\\,\\ where\\ are\\ we\\ going\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1898\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puvis\\ de\\ Chavaness\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Doux\\ Pays\\ \\(Gentle\\ Land\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1883\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ land\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ ne\\ ernver\\ land\\ of\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ land\\ o\\ cultural\\ alternativeness\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ the\\ golden\\ past\\ o\\ Western\\ EU\\,\\ but\\ an\\ alternative\\ 2the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ altogether\\ different\\ type\\ o\\ territory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ he\\ shares\\ w\\ Puvis\\ is\\ the\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ spread\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ forma\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Marks\\ the\\ ambition\\ behind\\ his\\ vision\\,\\ which\\ is\\ supposed\\ 2b\\ embodying\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ o\\ collective\\ ideals\\,\\ nto\\ only\\ a\\ personal\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ pictorial\\ testament\\ that\\ Gauguin\\ pntd\\ b4\\ his\\ suicidal\\ attempt\\ follwoign\\ the\\ suicide\\ attempt\\ o\\ his\\ daughter\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tried\\ 2poison\\ himself\\,\\ n\\ he\\ failed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ a\\ tremendously\\ ambitious\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ Gauguin\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hide\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;philosophical\\ work\\ comparable\\ to\\ Gospels\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ wans\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ modest\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ offered\\ something\\ similar\\ 2Gospels\\&rsquo\\;\\ ambition\\ in\\ that\\ through\\ motifs\\,\\ vaguely\\ inflected\\ thru\\ Christian\\ tradition\\ \\(woman\\ reaching\\ 4the\\ fruit\\ o\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ Eve\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thru\\ engagement\\ w\\ that\\ tradition\\ Gauguin\\ treid\\ 2create\\ a\\ different\\ image\\,\\ a\\ primtivist\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ life\\ cycle\\ without\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ sequence\\.\\ \\ \\;Spatial\\ representation\\ is\\ one\\ o\\ no\\ order\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ back\\ 2\\ Rodin\\ who\\ organizes\\ cultural\\ space\\ thru\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;spill\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Guaguin\\ has\\ more\\ static\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ still\\ a\\ similar\\ idea\\ o\\ loose\\ congregation\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ embedded\\ in\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Rich\\ vegetation\\.\\ \\ \\;Use\\ \\ \\;o\\ color\\ is\\ most\\ striking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figures\\ r\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ image\\&hellip\\;all\\ o\\ them\\ r\\ women\\&hellip\\;femininity\\ aligned\\ here\\ w\\ idea\\ o\\ nature\\ as\\ territory\\ o\\ unconstrained\\ fertility\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ r\\ also\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ primtivist\\ language\\ that\\ Gauguin\\ develosp\\ thru\\ his\\ projection\\ on\\ Tahiti\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minimalist\\ modeling\\.\\ \\ \\;Arbitrary\\ use\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Simple\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Poses\\ that\\ r\\ evocative\\ o\\ his\\ MARtiinque\\ relief\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ onctrast\\ bw\\ old\\ age\\ n\\ young\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ general\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ here\\ \\=\\ non\\-narrative\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Space\\ imbued\\ by\\ symbolist\\ aesthetics\\ based\\ in\\ loose\\ associations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ often\\,\\ musically\\ based\\ associations\\ that\\ may\\ b\\ compared\\ or\\ explained\\ thru\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;Thru\\ other\\ abstract\\ associations\\ rather\\ than\\ verbal\\/textural\\ scenarios\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ sensuous\\ surface\\ that\\ operates\\ thru\\ use\\ o\\ color\\:\\ \\ \\;nondescriptive\\ line\\,\\ flatness\\ o\\ the\\ formal\\ makeup\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ \\=\\ father\\ o\\ modern\\ primtivist\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ major\\ 4the\\ artist\\ o\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ Van\\ Gogh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Vincent\\ Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Potato\\ eaters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ reputiation\\ is\\ tremendous\\.\\ \\ \\;Mythic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hollywood\\ made\\ a\\ film\\ about\\ him\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ ptnrs\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ favorite\\ topics\\ o\\ films\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ led\\ a\\ life\\ that\\ was\\ quite\\ tragic\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ rendered\\ itself\\ 2\\ a\\ melodramatic\\ elaboration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ died\\ o\\ suicide\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\ marked\\ by\\ intense\\ search\\ for\\ vocation\\.\\ \\ \\;Born\\ the\\ son\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ village\\ o\\ successful\\ pastor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ 3\\ brothers\\ \\=\\ art\\ dealers\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ 2b\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrkd\\ as\\ one\\ for\\ 6\\ yrs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ did\\ Gauguin\\,\\ tho\\,\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2escape\\ the\\ money\\-oriented\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ ddiassatisfied\\ w\\ business\\ as\\ the\\ mode\\ o\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ started\\ reading\\ a\\ bible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ new\\ mythic\\ figure\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ as\\ disenchanted\\ modern\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1875\\,\\ he\\ attempts\\ 2become\\ a\\ preacher\\.\\ \\ \\;Becomes\\ voluntary\\ missionary\\ in\\ mining\\ village\\ in\\ southern\\ Belgium\\,\\ n\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ failure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turns\\ 2\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maintains\\ intimate\\ correspondence\\ w\\ borther\\ Theo\\,\\ his\\ moral\\ n\\ financial\\ supporter\\ throughout\\ his\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Art\\,\\ 4Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ \\=\\ way\\ o\\ worshipping\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;Means\\ o\\ spirituality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ his\\ early\\ pntg\\ where\\ he\\ tries\\ 2get\\ at\\ this\\ spirituality\\ by\\ engaging\\ w\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ peasants\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ his\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imptnt\\ picture\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ the\\ pntg\\ \\&ldquo\\;2teach\\ something\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ tried\\ 2empahsize\\ that\\ ppl\\ eating\\ potatoes\\ in\\ the\\ limelight\\ have\\ dug\\ the\\ earth\\ w\\ the\\ very\\ hands\\ they\\ put\\ in\\ the\\ dish\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ speaks\\ o\\ manual\\ labor\\ n\\ how\\ they\\ honestly\\ earned\\ their\\ food\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ wanted\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ impression\\ much\\ different\\ than\\ us\\ civilized\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ nto\\ much\\ interested\\ in\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ everyone\\ likes\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Gogh\\:\\ \\ \\;noble\\ peasant\\,\\ noble\\ by\\ his\\/her\\ lowly\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4Gauguin\\,\\ it\\ was\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;4Van\\ Gogh\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lowly\\ labor\\ that\\ serves\\ as\\ his\\ redemptive\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ terms\\ o\\ subject\\ matter\\,\\ we\\ have\\ 2evoke\\ Millet\\,\\ who\\ was\\ certainly\\ imptnt\\ 4VG\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-definition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ shares\\ w\\ Millet\\ a\\ roughness\\ o\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;an\\ attempt\\ 2translate\\ the\\ conditions\\ o\\ living\\ in2\\ pictorial\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ goes\\ further\\ htan\\ Millet\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Towards\\ expressive\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ expressive\\.\\ \\ \\;Space\\.\\ \\ \\;Figures\\.\\ \\ \\;Language\\ o\\ obdies\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reflective\\ n\\ exaggerated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Desire\\ 2express\\ something\\ beyond\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ ideal\\ o\\ deeper\\ spirituality\\ associated\\ w\\ this\\ more\\ primitive\\ n\\ simple\\ mode\\ o\\ living\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ use\\ o\\ color\\ is\\ only\\ partly\\ descriptive\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ meant\\ 2show\\ the\\ down\\-2earth\\,\\ dignity\\,\\ o\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\ \\;Crudeness\\ o\\ his\\ rendering\\ is\\ a\\ btetter\\ alternative\\ 2the\\ sophistication\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\VG\\ radically\\ changed\\ his\\ idiom\\ after\\ 3\\ yrs\\ tho\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Night\\ Caf\\é\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Change\\ produced\\ by\\ VG\\&rsquo\\;s\\ travel\\ 2tghe\\ south\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ took\\ up\\ the\\ lesson\\ o\\ imressionism\\,\\ thought\\ thru\\ it\\,\\ n\\ he\\ obviously\\.\\ \\ \\;Acquires\\ intense\\ radiance\\ that\\ has\\ nothing\\ 2do\\ w\\ perception\\ o\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ti\\ has\\ symbolic\\ purpose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ here\\ vision\\ o\\ interior\\ provincial\\ caf\\é\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ midly\\ entertaining\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reminds\\ u\\ o\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bar\\ at\\ the\\ Folies\\-Bergere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\VG\\&rsquo\\;s\\ man\\ reminds\\ u\\ o\\ Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ girl\\ w\\ his\\ impassive\\ stare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\ emphasizes\\ glamour\\ n\\ glitter\\ o\\ this\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Girl\\ is\\ alienated\\ from\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ VG\\,\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ interior\\ is\\ used\\ 2convey\\ something\\ else\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ intensity\\ o\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ emotions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ have\\ tired\\ 2express\\ here\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ caf\\é\\;\\ is\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ one\\ can\\ ruin\\ oneself\\,\\ go\\ mad\\,\\ commit\\ a\\ crime\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ wrote\\ 2his\\ brother\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pictorial\\ intensity\\ is\\ conveyed\\ by\\ formal\\ means\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expressive\\ use\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Unbroken\\ tones\\.\\ \\ \\;Redness\\ o\\ the\\ hwole\\ interior\\.\\ \\ \\;Contrasted\\ w\\ the\\ green\\ othe\\ table\\ n\\ carpet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ treid\\ 2xpress\\ the\\ terrible\\ passions\\ o\\ humanity\\ by\\ means\\ o\\ red\\ n\\ green\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ nutshell\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ his\\ idea\\ o\\ conveying\\ subjective\\ states\\ thru\\ abstract\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;Thru\\ color\\ itself\\,\\ intensity\\ is\\ conveyed\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ thru\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ obdy\\ or\\ rhetoric\\ o\\ gestures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ citron\\ color\\ o\\ the\\ lamps\\ exhoed\\ by\\ more\\ orange\\ rings\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Light\\ acquires\\ materiality\\ thru\\ 2\\ means\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thickness\\ o\\ pigment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Color\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ the\\ mode\\ in\\ which\\ VG\\ operates\\ w\\ the\\ brush\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ visible\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Rhythmization\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ intensity\\ conveyed\\ by\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ strokes\\ r\\ applied\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distortion\\.\\ \\ \\;Disjunction\\ emphasized\\ by\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Purple\\ table\\ drapery\\ emphasizes\\ disjunction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sunflowers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ 1887\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sunflowers\\ act\\ as\\ physiognomies\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ intensity\\ o\\ their\\ shapes\\.\\ \\ \\;Gesticulation\\ that\\ they\\ perform\\ w\\ their\\ petals\\ render\\ them\\ as\\ bodies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ look\\ here\\ at\\ 2versions\\ o\\ the\\ same\\ motif\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ liked\\ how\\ sunflowers\\ stood\\ 4the\\ sun\\.\\ \\ \\;they\\ stood\\ 4positive\\ emotion\\ n\\ gratitude\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\ mentioned\\ agitation\\ o\\ the\\ petals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ o\\ color\\ is\\ arbitrary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ applies\\ pigment\\ which\\ is\\,\\ clearly\\ in\\ this\\ detail\\,\\ so\\ thick\\.\\ \\ \\;Final\\ stroke\\ on\\ top\\ o\\ other\\ pigment\\ is\\ clearly\\ visible\\.\\ \\ \\;Indexical\\ mark\\ o\\ the\\ brush\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Starry\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motif\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ implied\\ by\\ the\\ instrument\\ o\\ its\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landscape\\ o\\ palce\\ in\\ South\\ France\\ where\\ artist\\ was\\ confined\\ due\\ 2his\\ illness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ renders\\ a\\ warm\\ night\\ in\\ southern\\ france\\ w\\ stars\\ sparkling\\ in\\ the\\ sky\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ formal\\ means\\ that\\ r\\ quite\\ striking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Swirling\\,\\ wartling\\,\\ masses\\ o\\ pigment\\ w\\ which\\ he\\ cnveys\\ sense\\ o\\ agitation\\ o\\ the\\ skys\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Renders\\ the\\ parting\\ o\\ the\\ skys\\ n\\ the\\ moon\\ thru\\ this\\ concentric\\ arrangement\\ o\\ strokes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Cyprus\\ tree\\ flaming\\ upwards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ othis\\ inscribed\\ by\\ the\\ subjectivity\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literally\\ putting\\ himself\\ in2\\ this\\ vision\\,\\ expanding\\ himself\\ in2\\ it\\ thru\\ his\\ strokes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sense\\ o\\ co\\-extensiveness\\ w\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ degree\\ o\\ agitation\\,\\ tho\\,\\ which\\ VG\\ often\\ spoke\\ o\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ literal\\ quality\\ in\\ one\\ o\\ hist\\ last\\ pntgs\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wheatfield\\ w\\/crows\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ body\\,\\ but\\ map\\ o\\ bodily\\ access\\,\\ but\\ one\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ uninviting\\.\\ \\ \\;Literal\\ elements\\ o\\ crows\\ flying\\ voer\\ the\\ cornfields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ u\\ enter\\ the\\ pntg\\ n\\ that\\ road\\ o\\ access\\ is\\ marked\\,\\ u\\ have\\ nowhere\\ 2go\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ dead\\-end\\ spatial\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ stroke\\ here\\,\\ unlike\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Starry\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ r\\ farm\\ ore\\ disjointed\\.\\ \\ \\;Jarring\\ pigmentations\\ o\\ disjunction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ is\\ usually\\ thought\\ 2have\\ been\\ done\\ just\\ b4\\ he\\ killed\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ mentally\\ ill\\.\\ \\ \\;Probably\\ organically\\ based\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;Epilepsy\\?\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ entered\\ in2\\ an\\ asylum\\ in\\ 1889\\,\\ then\\ released\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ lived\\ in\\ small\\ town\\.\\ \\ \\;Around\\ that\\ town\\ he\\ pntd\\ this\\ landscape\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctor\\ tried\\ 2channel\\ his\\ anxiety\\ in2\\ creativity\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ killed\\ himself\\ somewhat\\ soon\\ after\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ o\\ his\\ madness\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ u\\ have\\ 2b\\ careful\\ w\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Discntion\\ bw\\ project\\ o\\ rendering\\ landscapes\\ n\\ that\\ o\\ writing\\ urself\\ in2\\ an\\ image\\ w\\ the\\ indexical\\ marks\\ o\\ ur\\ bursh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Type\\ o\\ psychobiogrpahical\\ reading\\ that\\ maps\\ a\\ pntg\\ 2the\\ events\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ pntr\\ exists\\.\\ \\ \\;Insist\\ on\\ this\\ disctinction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ self\\-portraits\\,\\ o\\ which\\ VG\\ pntd\\ many\\ \\(38\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;28\\ o\\ them\\ pntd\\ w\\/in\\ 2yrs\\ o\\ his\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ self\\-portraits\\ have\\ 2b\\ seen\\ as\\ subjective\\ constructions\\ rather\\ than\\ depictions\\ o\\ VG\\ as\\ a\\ real\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ w\\/pipe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ was\\ going\\ thru\\ lots\\ o\\ anguish\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ close\\ friendship\\ w\\ Gauguin\\,\\ filled\\ w\\ conflict\\ tho\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ visit\\ 2brothel\\ n\\ fight\\ w\\ Gauguin\\,\\ he\\ cut\\ off\\ his\\ ear\\ n\\ sent\\ it\\ 2his\\ friend\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ gift\\ laced\\ w\\ revenge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntd\\ portrait\\ o\\ himself\\ w\\ bandage\\ right\\ after\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portrait\\ pntd\\ w\\/in\\ long\\ tradition\\ o\\ self\\-represntation\\.\\ \\ \\;Intense\\ state\\ o\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-porrait\\:\\ \\ \\;Despearate\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1843\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Courbet\\ has\\ psychic\\ intensity\\ that\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Pushingthings\\ 2extrmee\\.\\ \\ \\;Toward\\ the\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Means\\ o\\ self\\-exploration\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ also\\ performance\\ o\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ VG\\,\\ we\\ have\\ nothing\\ o\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;Physiognomic\\ calmness\\ is\\ striking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emphasis\\ shifts\\ towards\\ color\\ n\\ its\\ expressive\\ capabilities\\.\\ \\ \\;Background\\ o\\ orange\\ n\\ red\\,\\ n\\ contrast\\ bw\\ red\\ n\\ green\\ in\\ front\\,\\ which\\ was\\ so\\ dear\\ 2him\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Night\\ Caf\\é\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ the\\ means\\,\\ purely\\ formal\\ means\\,\\ thru\\ which\\ VG\\ suggests\\ an\\ intensity\\ that\\ was\\ part\\ n\\ parcel\\ o\\ his\\ project\\ in\\ this\\ portrait\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-portrait\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Gauguin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\,\\ Fogg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ construction\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ is\\ filtered\\ thru\\ Japanese\\ influences\\.\\ \\ \\;Constructing\\ himself\\ 2look\\ as\\ a\\ Japnese\\ monk\\ w\\ his\\ erased\\ skull\\.\\ \\ \\;Surrounded\\,\\ swimming\\,\\ in\\ swirl\\ o\\ malachite\\ green\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dressed\\ in\\ brown\\ jacket\\,\\ pickedu\\ p\\ inorgange\\,\\ frmaed\\ by\\ purple\\ brown\\ trimmings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ intense\\ introspection\\.\\ \\ \\;Conveyed\\ thru\\ formal\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deborah\\ Silverman\\ in\\ 2day\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ rdg\\ constructs\\ VG\\ in\\ terms\\ different\\ than\\ Gauguin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gauguin\\ \\=\\ introvert\\,\\ very\\ into\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sees\\ VG\\&rsquo\\;s\\ introspection\\ as\\ an\\ outwardness\\,\\ a\\ relatedness\\.\\ \\ \\;Strokes\\ radiating\\ outwards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ ending\\ 2the\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Giving\\ us\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ 2dramatic\\ examples\\ o\\ engagement\\ w\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ body\\ n\\ w\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ other\\,\\ construction\\ o\\ oneself\\ thru\\ the\\ other\\,\\ 2which\\ this\\ lecture\\ was\\ devoted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ January\\ 14\\,\\ 2008\\:\\ \\ \\;Final\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\rise\\ of\\ the\\ bourgeoisie\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;TJ\\ Clark\\,\\ Robert\\ Herbert\\,\\ Tamar\\ Garb\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Issue\\ of\\ class\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ bourgeoisie\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prostitute\\:\\ \\ \\;courtesan\\,\\ lower\\ class\\ one\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armstrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strategy\\ of\\ inversion\\.\\ \\ \\;Rissement\\ using\\ the\\ same\\ negation\\ in\\ his\\ writing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bertheimer\\ talks\\ about\\ capitalism\\&hellip\\;talking\\ about\\ prostitution\\ n\\ the\\ level\\ o\\ the\\ financial\\ transaction\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emphasized\\ with\\ this\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diderot\\ as\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ didactic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montagu\\ \\=\\ reference\\ to\\ legibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nochlin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;working\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grigsby\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;race\\ issues\\&hellip\\;aesthetic\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fried\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Courbet\\ and\\ self\\-presentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Riard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Relationship\\ bw\\ psychological\\ space\\ and\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 20, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA174s_-_Class_Notes_4.doc", "desc": "Note set 4"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "French Body Image - Midterm Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "architecture", "body-image"], "text": null, "id": 48, "html": "\\\\\\HAA174s\\_midterm\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c16\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c3\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\The\\ Academic\\ Body\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Jennifer\\ Montagu\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Le\\ Brun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Complete\\ Theory\\ of\\ Expression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Le\\ Brun\\ \\(LB\\)\\ gave\\ lectures\\ on\\ physiognomics\\ and\\ pathognomics\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ train\\ artists\\ to\\ use\\ these\\ systems\\ in\\ their\\ paintings\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ passions\\ in\\ a\\ legible\\ way\\ \\(Physiognomics\\ \\=\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ character\\ is\\ revealed\\ through\\ his\\ facial\\ features\\,\\ Pathognomics\\ \\=\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ facial\\ features\\ reveal\\ his\\ emotions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montagu\\ discusses\\ how\\ LB\\ defended\\ Poussin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biblical\\ painting\\ of\\ Rebecca\\ and\\ Eliezer\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ camels\\ were\\ omitted\\ from\\ the\\ painting\\ \\(and\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ actual\\ story\\)\\ bc\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ still\\ conveyed\\ a\\ specific\\ emotion\\ by\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ colors\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ painted\\ the\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ introduced\\ the\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Modes\\ to\\ the\\ Academy\\ \\(where\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ director\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ theory\\ teaches\\ different\\ modes\\ of\\ painting\\ to\\ convey\\ different\\ emotions\\ and\\ moods\\ \\(his\\ support\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ reason\\ LB\\ defended\\ Poussin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ exclude\\ the\\ ugly\\ camels\\ in\\ his\\ painting\\ which\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ depict\\ pretty\\ girls\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ advocated\\ strict\\ historical\\ accuracy\\ \\(ex\\:\\ very\\ careful\\ about\\ depicting\\ his\\ own\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ correct\\ costumes\\,\\ his\\ further\\ defense\\ of\\ Poussin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exclusion\\ of\\ the\\ camels\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ camels\\ were\\ actually\\ not\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ figures\\ on\\ the\\ bible\\ and\\ their\\ exclusion\\ demonstrated\\ the\\ real\\ distance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montagu\\ mainly\\ argues\\ that\\ LB\\ was\\ actually\\ not\\ as\\ strict\\ as\\ others\\ think\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unlike\\ other\\ art\\ instructors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ believed\\ that\\ an\\ artist\\ could\\ alter\\ some\\ details\\ if\\ the\\ alterations\\ made\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ their\\ paintings\\ more\\ clear\\.\\ He\\ therefore\\ allowed\\ for\\ some\\ artistic\\ freedom\\,\\ even\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ where\\ such\\ a\\ strong\\ emphasis\\ was\\ placed\\ on\\ historical\\ accuracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montagu\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ LB\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ facial\\ expressions\\ was\\ originally\\ his\\ own\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ took\\ scientific\\ ideas\\ and\\ Descarte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ and\\ applied\\ them\\ to\\ art\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ teach\\ how\\ to\\ portray\\ emotion\\ on\\ a\\ face\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Descartes\\ said\\ the\\ soul\\ controlled\\ the\\ reactions\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ through\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ pineal\\ gland\\.\\ LB\\ interpreted\\ this\\ to\\ mean\\ that\\ the\\ face\\ was\\ then\\ the\\ most\\ accurate\\ index\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\/soul\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ LB\\ established\\ 4\\ major\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ eyebrows\\ as\\ indicative\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ emotions\\ \\(concupiscible\\,\\ irascible\\,\\ simple\\,\\ mixed\\.\\)\\ he\\ also\\ described\\ different\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ mouth\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ conveyed\\ inner\\ emotion\\ \\(he\\ was\\ very\\ precise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ noticed\\ a\\ difference\\ btwn\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ mouth\\ to\\ convey\\ joy\\ and\\ to\\ convey\\ laughter\\.\\ These\\ 2\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ same\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ system\\ allowed\\ an\\ artist\\ to\\ convey\\ any\\ emotion\\,\\ which\\ may\\ have\\ also\\ given\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ freedom\\ of\\ expression\\.\\ LB\\ also\\ supported\\ certain\\ deviations\\ from\\ his\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ also\\ taught\\ a\\ theory\\ on\\ the\\ physical\\ similarities\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ animals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ drew\\ didactic\\ drawings\\ to\\ show\\ these\\ similarities\\.\\ He\\ supported\\ to\\ idea\\ that\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ likeness\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ animal\\ meant\\ their\\ personality\\ was\\ like\\ the\\ animal\\ they\\ looked\\ like\\ \\(so\\ a\\ man\\ that\\ looked\\ like\\ a\\ boar\\ was\\ course\\ and\\ brutal\\,\\ like\\ a\\ horse\\ was\\ intelligent\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meaning\\ was\\ assigned\\ to\\ the\\ slope\\ of\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ his\\ head\\ shape\\,\\ etc\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ physical\\ features\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ convey\\ his\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ these\\ theories\\ of\\ expression\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ history\\ painters\\ to\\ narrate\\ the\\ psychological\\ effects\\ of\\ their\\ paintings\\ and\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ viewer\\ feel\\ a\\ certain\\ emotion\\.\\ The\\ Academy\\ taught\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ was\\ for\\ a\\ painting\\ to\\ be\\ understandable\\ and\\ the\\ figures\\ to\\ be\\ totally\\ legible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Private\\ Body\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sarah\\ Cohen\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Performers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ drawings\\ and\\ paintings\\ of\\ Watteau\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ striking\\ transformation\\ of\\ aristocratic\\ performance\\ into\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ product\\ that\\ a\\ wider\\ public\\ could\\ call\\ their\\ own\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ hundreds\\ of\\ posing\\ figures\\ and\\ their\\ various\\ permutations\\,\\ Watteau\\ exploited\\ the\\ layers\\ of\\ social\\ meaning\\ and\\ suggested\\ aristocratic\\ themes\\ without\\ fixing\\ any\\ messages\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ allowing\\ for\\ various\\ interpretations\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ play\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ artifice\\ \\(deception\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Figure\\ and\\ Character\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Watteau\\ is\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nuances\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ figural\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Details\\ of\\ dress\\ are\\ subordinated\\ to\\ the\\ longer\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ posing\\ figures\\ themselves\\.\\ Long\\ sinuous\\ alignments\\ connect\\ feet\\,\\ legs\\,\\ torso\\,\\ and\\ head\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ elegant\\ twist\\ of\\ the\\ posture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drawings\\ lacking\\ in\\ a\\ scenic\\ finish\\,\\ create\\ a\\ paradox\\ of\\ a\\ naturally\\ artful\\ body\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ preoccupation\\ with\\ corporeal\\ definition\\ in\\ the\\ drawings\\,\\ with\\ emphasis\\ on\\ body\\ alignment\\,\\ contours\\,\\ and\\ shadows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ while\\ the\\ figures\\ may\\ seem\\ spontaneous\\ and\\ exact\\,\\ their\\ postures\\ may\\ actually\\ be\\ impossible\\ to\\ execute\\ given\\ the\\ contortion\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ a\\ constant\\ dialogue\\ between\\ freedom\\ and\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capitalized\\ in\\ Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ works\\ were\\ the\\ presently\\ popular\\ masquerade\\ balls\\,\\ held\\ by\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ nobility\\ in\\ Paris\\,\\ where\\ the\\ leveling\\ devices\\ of\\ costume\\ and\\ mask\\ allowed\\ commoners\\ and\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ aristocracy\\ to\\ pose\\ as\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ to\\ commingle\\ at\\ will\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ in\\ costuming\\ his\\ models\\ was\\ precisely\\ to\\ accentuate\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ artificial\\ meet\\.\\ Every\\ line\\ that\\ defines\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ its\\ costume\\ performs\\ the\\ double\\ task\\ of\\ evincing\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ physical\\ presence\\ and\\ transforming\\ that\\ physicality\\ into\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ \\&ldquo\\;characters\\&rdquo\\;\\ represent\\ different\\ states\\ of\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Arabesque\\ Couplings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arabesque\\:\\ a\\ sinuous\\,\\ spiraling\\,\\ undulating\\,\\ or\\ serpentine\\ line\\ or\\ linear\\ motif\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arabesques\\ from\\ early\\ in\\ his\\ career\\ pursued\\ social\\ interaction\\ as\\ an\\ overt\\ theme\\:\\ using\\ the\\ arabesque\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curves\\ and\\ diagonals\\ to\\ imply\\ an\\ erotic\\ bonding\\ between\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ figures\\,\\ populated\\ by\\ lovers\\,\\ animals\\,\\ comedians\\,\\ and\\ erotically\\ charged\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decorative\\ structure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bodily\\ play\\,\\ and\\ bodily\\ play\\ is\\ decoration\\.\\ Charged\\ tension\\ between\\ linear\\ system\\ and\\ space\\,\\ and\\ symmetry\\ and\\ diagonal\\ interaction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Social\\ Play\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Contredanse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\That\\ the\\ intrigue\\ boils\\ down\\ to\\ sex\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ is\\ suggested\\ through\\ the\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ heads\\ confronting\\ one\\ another\\,\\ as\\ if\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contredanse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obviously\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ performing\\ dimension\\ of\\ the\\ forms\\ he\\ was\\ working\\ with\\,\\ Watteau\\ developed\\ a\\ figural\\ language\\ whose\\ medium\\ \\(the\\ costumed\\,\\ gesturing\\ body\\)\\ paralleled\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\ and\\ whose\\ themes\\ epitomized\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ theatrical\\ preoccupations\\ of\\ his\\ era\\.\\ Decorative\\ structures\\ as\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ flirtation\\ exchange\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parting\\ question\\:\\ What\\ does\\ a\\ body\\ do\\ with\\ itself\\ to\\ present\\ a\\ distinctive\\ identity\\ to\\ the\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Erotic\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mary\\ Sheriff\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Erotics\\ of\\ Decoration\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\ was\\ a\\ decorative\\ painter\\ hired\\ by\\ wealthy\\,\\ elitist\\ private\\ patrons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ often\\ painted\\ on\\ panels\\ to\\ show\\ a\\ sequence\\ \\(like\\ his\\ Seasons\\ paintings\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Seasons\\ paintings\\ are\\ all\\ about\\ fecundity\\ \\(or\\ lack\\ of\\ fecundity\\ in\\ the\\ Winter\\ panel\\.\\)\\ While\\ Fall\\,\\ Spring\\,\\ and\\ Summer\\ present\\ a\\ fertile\\ ground\\ under\\ the\\ figure\\,\\ Winter\\ presents\\ a\\ barren\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheriff\\ compares\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ with\\ Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ndash\\;Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figures\\ are\\ often\\ engaging\\ in\\ some\\ non\\-sexual\\ activity\\ that\\ symbolizes\\ lovemaking\\ and\\ surrounded\\ by\\ erotic\\ objects\\ that\\ alluded\\ to\\ sexual\\ organs\\.\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ rustic\\ and\\ painted\\ in\\ pastures\\,\\ but\\ aritfical\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ depicts\\ peasants\\ in\\ artful\\ poses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fragonard\\ inherited\\ Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pastoral\\ mode\\ and\\ also\\ depicted\\ peasants\\ who\\ looked\\ ladylike\\,\\ graceful\\,\\ and\\ refined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figures\\ are\\ sexualized\\,\\ his\\ painting\\ contain\\ many\\ sexual\\ metaphors\\.\\ He\\ used\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fertility\\ to\\ reference\\ human\\ sexuality\\,\\ and\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ seasons\\ to\\ disguise\\ the\\ sexual\\ content\\.\\ But\\ the\\ sexual\\ undertones\\ of\\ his\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ like\\ inside\\ jokes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ decoded\\ by\\ the\\ viewer\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\.\\ Sheriff\\ even\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ F\\ paintings\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ themselves\\ are\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ joke\\ \\(the\\ look\\ sly\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ closes\\ the\\ gap\\ btwn\\ viewer\\ and\\ subject\\ bc\\ they\\ now\\ share\\ an\\ inside\\ joke\\.\\ Other\\ times\\,\\ though\\,\\ his\\ figures\\ looked\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ viewer\\ believes\\ he\\ is\\ making\\ up\\ sexual\\ content\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ really\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheriff\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ Diderot\\ disapproved\\ of\\ sexualized\\ or\\ erotic\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ phallic\\ symbols\\ in\\ his\\ paintings\\ that\\ suggest\\ the\\ dominance\\ of\\ the\\ male\\ in\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ultimately\\,\\ F\\ used\\ symbols\\ to\\ represent\\ what\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ represent\\ directly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheriff\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ pleasure\\ derived\\ from\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ from\\ what\\ the\\ painting\\ alludes\\ to\\ \\(sex\\)\\ but\\ instead\\ comes\\ from\\ recognizing\\ the\\ witty\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ F\\ disguises\\ sex\\ with\\ his\\ symbols\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ The\\ Bathers\\ also\\ combines\\ the\\ natural\\ and\\ the\\ sexual\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ different\\ from\\ his\\ other\\ painting\\ because\\ it\\ links\\ woman\\ to\\ nature\\ not\\ by\\ symbolic\\ objects\\ \\(like\\ in\\ the\\ Seasons\\ panels\\)\\ but\\ by\\ the\\ formal\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ composition\\,\\ color\\,\\ brushwork\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ figures\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ part\\ by\\ part\\ but\\ as\\ unified\\ with\\ the\\ setting\\.\\ The\\ figures\\ also\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\.\\ Sheriff\\ also\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ The\\ Bathers\\,\\ the\\ figures\\ positions\\ and\\ colors\\ mimic\\ the\\ surrounding\\ nature\\ and\\ that\\ connects\\ them\\ to\\ it\\,\\ too\\.\\ \\(Their\\ arms\\ bend\\ like\\ the\\ trees\\ and\\ reeds\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fecundity\\ is\\ reflected\\ onto\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ Sheriff\\ argues\\ that\\ nature\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ natural\\ though\\ in\\ F\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ \\(and\\ the\\ figures\\)\\ are\\ artfully\\ posed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Bathers\\ \\=\\ sexuality\\ slightly\\ more\\ overt\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ Seasons\\ panels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Bathers\\ is\\ more\\ modern\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ brushstrokes\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ painterly\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ a\\ depiction\\ of\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Moral\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emma\\ Barker\\,\\ Painting\\ and\\ Reform\\ in\\ Eighteenth\\ Century\\ France\\:\\ Greuze\\&rsquo\\;s\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Accord\\é\\;e\\ de\\ Village\\ \\(online\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1761\\ Greuze\\ had\\ his\\ first\\ success\\ with\\ the\\ unprecedentedly\\ popular\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&\\#39\\;Accord\\é\\;e\\ de\\ Village\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ painting\\ was\\ indicative\\ of\\ post\\-1750\\ Enlightenment\\ thinking\\,\\ specifically\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sensebilite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ took\\ over\\ French\\ elite\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ It\\ focused\\ on\\ utilitarian\\ reform\\ of\\ all\\ classes\\ of\\ society\\.\\ Formally\\,\\ it\\ was\\ instantly\\ legible\\ and\\ clear\\,\\ possibly\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ busy\\ Salon\\.\\ The\\ space\\ is\\ shallow\\,\\ all\\ figures\\ are\\ visible\\ and\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ front\\,\\ and\\ everyone\\ is\\ assembled\\ in\\ opposite\\ diagonals\\ from\\ the\\ bottom\\ corners\\,\\ focusing\\ attention\\ clearly\\ on\\ the\\ center\\.\\ Classic\\ tableau\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Didactically\\ sentimental\\:\\ viewer\\ identifies\\ through\\ pathos\\ and\\ understands\\ the\\ lesson\\ through\\ narrative\\ and\\ form\\.\\ Like\\ Rousseau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ accessible\\ and\\ uplifting\\ moral\\ novels\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ immense\\ machine\\,\\ concealed\\ beneath\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ noble\\ simplicity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ bride\\ in\\ particular\\ embodied\\ modest\\ love\\;\\ slightly\\ tearful\\ she\\ gently\\ held\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ her\\ fianc\\é\\;\\.\\ She\\ seduces\\ the\\ viewer\\ into\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ while\\ the\\ eye\\ then\\ \\&lsquo\\;reads\\&rsquo\\;\\ across\\ to\\ the\\ right\\,\\ finally\\ landing\\ on\\ the\\ father\\.\\ He\\ commands\\ attention\\ of\\ all\\ in\\ the\\ work\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ outside\\ the\\ work\\.\\ Respect\\ for\\ his\\ virtuous\\,\\ natural\\ patrimony\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ message\\.\\ The\\ father\\ is\\ placed\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ family\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ notary\\ and\\ governmental\\ authority\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ marriage\\ contract\\.\\ Illustrative\\ of\\ contemporary\\ desire\\ for\\ judicial\\ power\\ in\\ family\\ matters\\ and\\ domestic\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Barker\\ then\\ continues\\ into\\ a\\ long\\ economic\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ determine\\ exactly\\ what\\ role\\ the\\ farmer\\-father\\ had\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ wealthy\\,\\ hard\\-working\\ farmer\\.\\ His\\ family\\ is\\ somewhat\\ urbane\\,\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ clothing\\,\\ but\\ he\\ controls\\ his\\ own\\ land\\,\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ gun\\ on\\ his\\ wall\\.\\ The\\ rural\\ setting\\ is\\ established\\ by\\ the\\ hen\\ and\\ chicks\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ He\\ is\\ a\\ wealthy\\ laborer\\,\\ trusting\\ in\\ the\\ powers\\ of\\ the\\ crown\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ secular\\ marriage\\ contract\\.\\ Greuze\\ did\\ not\\ idealize\\ a\\ rustic\\ rural\\ setting\\,\\ showing\\ poor\\ but\\ happy\\ laborers\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ with\\ primitive\\ instruments\\.\\ He\\ supported\\ more\\ capitalistic\\ farming\\ methods\\,\\ and\\ his\\ rural\\ setting\\ is\\ a\\ profitable\\ farm\\ with\\ a\\ morally\\ advanced\\ family\\.\\ The\\ right\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ sober\\ and\\ productive\\ \\(work\\ of\\ the\\ men\\)\\ and\\ the\\ left\\ half\\ is\\ graceful\\ with\\ feminine\\ luxury\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ formally\\ successful\\ moral\\ painting\\ was\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ negotiate\\ demands\\ for\\ morality\\ and\\ self\\-interest\\ in\\ French\\ society\\ through\\ romanticized\\ rurality\\.\\ It\\ was\\ intended\\ for\\ an\\ aristocratic\\ audience\\ that\\ wanted\\ to\\ view\\ lower\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ moralistic\\ example\\ for\\ a\\ capitalist\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Moral\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Denis\\ Diderot\\,\\ The\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1765\\ \\(Greuze\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Examination\\ of\\ artist\\ Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Greuze\\ \\(1725\\-1805\\)\\.\\ First\\ he\\ looks\\ at\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Young\\ Girl\\ Crying\\ over\\ her\\ Dead\\ Bird\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ On\\ seeing\\ this\\ work\\,\\ he\\ repeatedly\\ wants\\ to\\ exclaim\\ \\&lsquo\\;Delicious\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ by\\ exulting\\ over\\ the\\ sensuous\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ composition\\,\\ and\\ then\\ continues\\ to\\ narrate\\ an\\ imagined\\ story\\ for\\ the\\ Young\\ Girl\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ criticizes\\ a\\ couple\\ flaws\\,\\ specifically\\ that\\ the\\ hand\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ an\\ older\\ teen\\ and\\ the\\ head\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ girl\\ about\\ fifteen\\ or\\ sixteen\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ two\\ important\\ analyses\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ reading\\ are\\ of\\ the\\ paired\\ sketches\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ungrateful\\ Son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bad\\ Son\\ Punished\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ first\\ depicts\\ a\\ father\\ crying\\ out\\ at\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ young\\ son\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ a\\ tumultuous\\ family\\ scene\\.\\ The\\ second\\ shows\\ the\\ son\\ returning\\ to\\ his\\ home\\ to\\ find\\ his\\ father\\ dead\\ and\\ his\\ relations\\ mourning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Diderot\\ is\\ thorough\\ in\\ his\\ description\\ of\\ these\\ works\\,\\ detailing\\ the\\ composition\\ and\\ emotive\\ effects\\ of\\ every\\ figure\\ present\\.\\ His\\ criticisms\\ center\\ around\\ painterly\\ success\\ in\\ evoking\\ emotions\\ and\\ visceral\\ sensuality\\.\\ He\\ has\\ a\\ clear\\ predilection\\ towards\\ lesson\\ paintings\\ \\(as\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ warn\\ against\\ wayward\\ sons\\)\\ and\\ ravishment\\ \\(he\\ really\\ sees\\ almost\\ every\\ female\\ character\\ as\\ a\\ sex\\-object\\)\\.\\ He\\ also\\ whole\\-heartedly\\ supports\\ the\\ somewhat\\ kitschy\\ and\\ excessive\\ pathos\\ of\\ Greuze\\&rsquo\\;s\\ specifically\\ staged\\ scenes\\ while\\ declaiming\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ public\\ taste\\ for\\ such\\ subjects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ section\\ we\\ discussed\\ how\\ Diderot\\ was\\ really\\ the\\ first\\ art\\ critic\\,\\ and\\ these\\ short\\ essays\\ come\\ from\\ his\\ examinations\\ of\\ works\\ on\\ display\\ an\\ the\\ Salon\\.\\ At\\ such\\ events\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ artists\\ would\\ cover\\ a\\ room\\ with\\ their\\ paintings\\ for\\ a\\ ticketed\\ public\\.\\ Salons\\ were\\ instrumental\\ in\\ bringing\\ art\\ to\\ a\\ wider\\ audience\\,\\ beyond\\ that\\ of\\ necessarily\\ wealthy\\ patrons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Revolutionary\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Start\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\:\\ July\\ 14\\ 1789\\,\\ Storming\\ of\\ the\\ Bastille\\-\\ Directors\\ were\\ killed\\ and\\ beheaded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Radical\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ body\\-\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ unprecedented\\ event\\ that\\ was\\ contemporary\\,\\ how\\ should\\ it\\ be\\ represented\\?\\ Past\\ important\\ events\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;history\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ themes\\ of\\ antiquity\\ could\\ be\\ applied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ effect\\:\\ primitive\\ unedited\\,\\ conveys\\ what\\ happened\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(See\\ Anon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Bastille\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ print\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ ideals\\:\\ new\\ collectivity\\,\\ the\\ republic\\,\\ togetherness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ of\\ body\\ to\\ show\\ these\\ new\\ ideals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1791\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Founding\\ moment\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\-\\ when\\ the\\ new\\ constitution\\ was\\ formed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ had\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ event\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ collectivity\\ was\\ commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ Jacobian\\ club\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ never\\ finished\\ because\\ David\\ became\\ rather\\ busy\\ as\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;official\\&rsquo\\;\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Centralized\\ space\\,\\ interior\\,\\ the\\ viewer\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ their\\ common\\ gesture\\.\\ \\(Structural\\ unity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figures\\ are\\ physically\\ and\\ emotionally\\ engaged\\ \\(it\\ can\\ be\\ read\\ in\\ their\\ gestures\\ and\\ their\\ facial\\ expressions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Broad\\ shift\\ in\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ represented\\ politically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rigaud\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Louis\\ XIV\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1701\\:\\ one\\ strong\\ figure\\,\\ looking\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ viewer\\,\\ regal\\ surroundings\\,\\ omnipotent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Group\\ of\\ individuals\\ all\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ cause\\,\\ from\\ all\\ estates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marat\\:\\ assassinated\\ in\\ 1793\\ by\\ a\\ politically\\ motivated\\ woman\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ rivals\\ of\\ the\\ Jacobian\\ club\\.\\ \\ \\;Marat\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ supporter\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ friends\\ with\\ David\\ etc\\.\\;\\ this\\ woman\\ was\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ groups\\ who\\ wanted\\ the\\ king\\ to\\ return\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\ at\\ His\\ Last\\ Breath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1793\\.\\ \\ \\;Commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ Jacobian\\ club\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showed\\ Marat\\ as\\ a\\ victim\\ justifying\\ the\\ Jacobian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ execution\\ of\\ the\\ king\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ had\\ to\\ embody\\ the\\ people\\ he\\ drew\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Andromache\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Grief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1783\\,\\ the\\ heroic\\ death\\ bed\\-\\ however\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ \\&lsquo\\;Andromache\\&rsquo\\;\\ figure\\ i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ figure\\ that\\ instructed\\ the\\ viewer\\ how\\ to\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figure\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;pieta\\&rsquo\\;\\-\\ the\\ way\\ his\\ body\\ hangs\\ limp\\,\\ idealize\\ and\\ heroic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ artists\\ were\\ inspired\\ to\\ portray\\ Marat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\.\\.\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ focus\\ on\\ Marat\\ as\\ a\\ victim\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ David\\ did\\ they\\ included\\ other\\ details\\,\\ more\\ narrative\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ in\\ the\\ Revolution\\:\\ stormed\\ Versailles\\ for\\ bread\\&hellip\\;they\\ were\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;Shown\\ as\\ heroines\\ and\\ agents\\ of\\ historical\\ action\\ \\(only\\ in\\ prints\\,\\ no\\ paintings\\)\\ See\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Triumphant\\ Return\\ of\\ French\\ Heroinse\\ from\\ Versailles\\,\\ October\\ 1789\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Female\\ body\\ represented\\ abstract\\ ideals\\ of\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1999\\:\\ \\ \\;shift\\ of\\ ideas\\ about\\ women\\ use\\ an\\ allegorical\\ scene\\ of\\ women\\ urging\\ the\\ men\\ to\\ cease\\ fighting\\ to\\ stand\\ for\\ political\\ strife\\ between\\ the\\ fractions\\ for\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ emerge\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\/composition\\,\\ standing\\ for\\ public\\ ideals\\:\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ \\(mingling\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ bodies\\:\\ heroically\\ nude\\ marked\\ shift\\ from\\ embodiment\\/commitment\\ to\\ political\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;male\\ aesthetic\\ of\\ beauty\\ w\\/\\ erotic\\ overtones\\,\\ male\\ subjectivity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Revolution\\ Glacee\\,\\ Ewa\\ Lajer\\-Burcharth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(I\\ have\\ outlined\\ it\\ by\\ section\\ 1\\-6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Exhibition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 21\\ December\\ 1799\\ independent\\ Salon\\ of\\ David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ David\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ revive\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ the\\ Greeks\\ \\(heroic\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Difference\\ of\\ the\\ sexes\\ is\\ articulate\\:\\ women\\ are\\ present\\ centrally\\,\\ men\\ have\\ an\\ erotic\\ construction\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\ wanted\\ to\\ embody\\ and\\ consolidate\\ the\\ accomplishments\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ the\\ painting\\:\\ all\\ were\\ welcome\\ to\\ attend\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ admission\\ was\\ paid\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ protecting\\ and\\ asserting\\ his\\ autonomy\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ new\\ display\\ \\(with\\ mirrors\\:\\ confusion\\ between\\ the\\ painted\\ bodies\\ and\\ the\\ visitors\\)\\ would\\ allow\\ viewers\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ work\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;sharing\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ experience\\ by\\ paying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Fleshing\\ out\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Pierre\\ Chaussard\\ claimed\\ that\\ David\\ had\\ captured\\ the\\ very\\ essence\\ of\\ bodies\\ from\\ antiquity\\.\\ \\ \\;Antiquity\\ was\\ the\\ ideal\\ for\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ Directoire\\ sought\\ to\\ present\\ itself\\ as\\ lawful\\,\\ legitimate\\ after\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;Passions\\ and\\ strong\\ emotion\\ are\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ female\\ figures\\,\\ they\\ are\\ varied\\ though\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ women\\ are\\ shown\\ as\\ intervening\\-\\ central\\.\\ The\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ male\\ body\\ \\(nude\\,\\ heroic\\,\\ monumental\\)\\ is\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ heroic\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ The\\ Viewing\\ Experience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Psyche\\ mirror\\ placed\\ directly\\ opposite\\ to\\ the\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ purposely\\ aligned\\ themselves\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ find\\ their\\ own\\ reflection\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ not\\ only\\ looking\\ for\\ themselves\\ but\\ also\\ what\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ become\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ paintings\\ were\\ ideals\\,\\ their\\ nudity\\ was\\ symbolic\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ David\\ had\\ made\\ them\\ all\\ clothes\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imperfect\\.\\ After\\ the\\ revolution\\ everyone\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;find\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;identify\\&rdquo\\;\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ The\\ Mirror\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Most\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ Terror\\ where\\ caricatures\\,\\ not\\ high\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ started\\ to\\ intervene\\ with\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ 1795\\ and\\ were\\ always\\ seen\\ as\\ incapable\\ for\\ all\\ political\\ action\\ on\\ biological\\,\\ psychological\\ and\\ moral\\ grounds\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&lsquo\\;woman\\ in\\ red\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Sabines\\:\\ represents\\ women\\ during\\ the\\ revolution\\ and\\ the\\ unruly\\,\\ excessive\\ and\\ violent\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Terror\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ The\\ Moral\\ Body\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ The\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ fused\\ with\\ moral\\ and\\ social\\ function\\ that\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ to\\ perform\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ the\\ violence\\ of\\ the\\ Terror\\/\\ Guillotine\\ the\\ ideologists\\ of\\ the\\ Directoire\\ wanted\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ place\\ an\\ enlightened\\ opinion\\/belief\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ socially\\ useful\\ figure\\:\\ morally\\ eloquent\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ female\\&rsquo\\;s\\ anatomy\\ dictated\\ her\\ social\\ use\\ i\\.e\\.\\ mother\\,\\ contained\\ within\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Model\\ mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fashionable\\ Mother\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Marriage\\ was\\ a\\ society\\ ideal\\,\\ to\\ produce\\ \\&ldquo\\;citizens\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Inter\\-male\\ desire\\ is\\ discussed\\;\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ involve\\ women\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attraction\\ to\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Revolutionary\\ Body\\,\\ Part\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\artists\\ at\\ work\\ during\\ revolutionary\\ period\\ aimed\\ to\\ convey\\ revolutionary\\ ideals\\ in\\ their\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paintings\\ communicated\\ collectivity\\ of\\ republic\\,\\ unity\\ of\\ people\\ by\\ displaying\\ collective\\ groups\\ engaged\\ in\\ unified\\ activities\\,\\ gestures\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paintings\\ of\\ current\\ events\\ emerge\\ and\\ replace\\ history\\ painting\\ as\\ chief\\ source\\ of\\ didactic\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\return\\ to\\ academic\\ notions\\ of\\ legibility\\,\\ decorum\\,\\ physiognomy\\ \\(but\\ used\\ to\\ communicate\\ power\\ of\\ people\\,\\ not\\ power\\ of\\ monarch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\polarized\\ gender\\ roles\\ \\(men\\ represent\\ public\\ power\\ and\\ concrete\\ civic\\ values\\,\\ women\\ represent\\ private\\ life\\,\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ abstract\\ ideals\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significant\\ Paintings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Oath\\ of\\ the\\ Tennis\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\ at\\ His\\ Last\\ Breath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ewa\\ Lajer\\-Burcharth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Necklines\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\explores\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ aesthetic\\ shift\\ in\\ 1795\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\exemplified\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\source\\ of\\ inspiration\\ shifts\\ from\\ Roman\\ art\\ \\(focus\\ on\\ beauty\\ and\\ social\\ coherence\\)\\ to\\ Greek\\ art\\ \\(focus\\ on\\ intensity\\,\\ drama\\,\\ conflict\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\represents\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\notions\\ of\\ gender\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolution\\ aimed\\ to\\ create\\ social\\ equality\\,\\ but\\ popular\\ perceptions\\ of\\ women\\ still\\ reduced\\ them\\ to\\ inferior\\ roles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ became\\ limited\\ to\\ childbearing\\,\\ which\\ kept\\ them\\ separate\\ from\\ politics\\ but\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ Revolution\\ by\\ providing\\ offspring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\explores\\ use\\ of\\ psych\\é\\;\\ mirror\\ in\\ presentation\\ of\\ art\\ \\(incorporated\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ involve\\ the\\ viewer\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ force\\ the\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ morals\\ upon\\ him\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Body\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Body\\:\\ Artists\\ no\\ longer\\ represent\\ themselves\\ surrounded\\ with\\ intellectual\\ objects\\ \\(Academic\\ body\\)\\ but\\ as\\ collective\\ body\\ due\\ to\\ collapse\\ of\\ Academy\\ and\\ Salon\\ becoming\\ public\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ as\\ self\\-promotional\\ fantasy\\ of\\ artistic\\ community\\ in\\ void\\ of\\ Academy\\.\\ Romanticism\\-artist\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ body\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ soul\\&mdash\\;shift\\ from\\ social\\ to\\ psychological\\.\\ \\ \\;Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Realism\\ shows\\ psychic\\ identity\\ as\\ performance\\ of\\ self\\&mdash\\;idea\\ of\\ disguise\\ as\\ terrain\\ for\\ negotiating\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;Modernist\\ concerns\\-art\\ produced\\ with\\ self\\-consciousness\\ about\\ modern\\ city\\ experience\\ and\\ instability\\ of\\ artist\\ in\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\ \\;Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Realism\\-\\"\\;Courbet\\ Early\\ Self\\-Portraits\\"\\;\\ \\;Michael\\ Fried\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fried\\ undertakes\\ to\\ situate\\ the\\ representational\\ project\\ of\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-portraits\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ understanding\\ of\\ his\\ monumentalist\\ Realist\\ pictures\\ of\\ 1848\\-51\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phenomenological\\ reading\\/Themes\\ Fried\\ touches\\ upon\\ in\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ portraits\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Engrossment\\ in\\ reverie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ The\\ Sculptor\\ \\(1844\\)\\,\\ losing\\ consciousness\\,\\ sleep\\,\\ etc\\.\\-consciousness\\ often\\ flows\\ into\\ surroundings\\.\\ \\ \\;Emphasis\\ on\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\ as\\ dilation\\ of\\ ordinary\\ waking\\ awareness\\.\\ Sleep\\ aims\\ to\\ present\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liveness\\ in\\ its\\ simplest\\ form\\-\\&ldquo\\;primordial\\ presence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peculiar\\ bodily\\ positions\\/compositional\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-viewer\\ often\\ looks\\ up\\ to\\ sitter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ from\\ below\\ \\(Wounded\\ Man\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Foreshortening\\ of\\ body\\-the\\ sitter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ body\\ is\\ foreshortened\\-he\\ occupies\\ towards\\ his\\ body\\ a\\ fixed\\ and\\ unchanging\\ point\\ of\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ as\\ object\\ actually\\ lived\\-embodied\\ body\\,\\ not\\ the\\ object\\ body\\&mdash\\;i\\.e\\.\\ Wounded\\ Man\\-body\\ as\\ object\\ obscured\\ under\\ a\\ cloak\\-possessed\\ from\\ within\\&mdash\\;body\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\actually\\ lived\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ given\\ expression\\ thru\\ the\\ hands\\ that\\ clasp\\ the\\ cloak\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ hand\\ motif\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ single\\ hand\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ passivity\\/relaxation\\ away\\ from\\ body\\,\\ as\\ if\\ hand\\ were\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ internal\\ feeling\\ brought\\ into\\ focus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ hands\\ in\\ activity\\,\\ tension\\-grasping\\,\\ clasping\\,\\ etc\\ as\\ if\\ to\\ evoke\\ a\\ sensation\\ of\\ effort\\ from\\ within\\.\\ Hand\\ as\\ locus\\ of\\ sensation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Facial\\ expressions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-all\\ are\\ uncommunicative\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;character\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;personality\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;Fried\\ suggests\\ inexpressiveness\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ evoke\\ within\\ the\\ painting\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intense\\ absorption\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ live\\ bodily\\ being\\&mdash\\;his\\ bodily\\ liveness\\&mdash\\;driven\\ to\\ express\\ through\\ the\\ self\\-portrait\\ a\\ sense\\/intuition\\/conviction\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ embodiedness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Viewer\\-Painter\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-physical\\ proximity\\ of\\ painted\\ image\\ to\\ surface\\ of\\ painting\\,\\ and\\ beyond\\ surface\\ to\\ beholder\\.\\ \\ \\;Ontological\\ impermeability\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\ surface\\ \\(The\\ Wounded\\ Man\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Framing\\-edge\\ contains\\ representation\\ and\\ keeps\\ it\\ at\\ distance\\ from\\ beholder\\.\\ Water\\ in\\ Wounded\\ Man\\ suggests\\ spilling\\ over\\ of\\ painting\\ into\\ world\\ of\\ beholder\\,\\ refusal\\ of\\ painting\\ to\\ confine\\ itself\\/its\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Bottom\\ edges\\ of\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ are\\ often\\ problematic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Preoccupation\\ with\\ nearness\\-arbitrary\\ lighting\\ in\\ Desperate\\ Man\\ thrusts\\ subject\\ towards\\ surface\\-physical\\ aggression\\ to\\ close\\ gulf\\ between\\ sitter\\ and\\ beholder\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portraits\\ seek\\ to\\ avoid\\/minimize\\ confrontation\\ between\\ sitter\\ and\\ beholder\\.\\ \\ \\;Seek\\ to\\ make\\ congruent\\ relation\\ between\\ sitter\\ and\\ beholder\\.\\ \\ \\;Courbet\\ as\\ first\\ beholder\\-conscious\\ absorption\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ bodily\\ being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historically\\ conditioned\\ pictorial\\ demands\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beholder\\-centered\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ 1840s\\ in\\ French\\ painting\\&mdash\\;imperative\\ that\\ the\\ painter\\ negate\\ or\\ neutralize\\ the\\ primordial\\ convention\\ that\\ paintings\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ beheld\\&mdash\\;that\\ he\\ manage\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ fiction\\ that\\ the\\ beholder\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Generally\\ accomplished\\ thru\\ pictorial\\ drama\\-figures\\ so\\ absorbed\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ emotionally\\-charged\\ situation\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ become\\ immured\\ in\\ world\\ of\\ painting\\ and\\ be\\ therefore\\ oblivious\\ to\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ being\\ beheld\\ from\\ an\\ outside\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Courbet\\ revokes\\ distance\\ and\\ difference\\ between\\ himself\\ and\\ representation\\ of\\ himself\\-sought\\ to\\ annul\\ his\\ presence\\/identity\\ as\\ beholder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-portrait\\ privileged\\ for\\ Courbet\\ because\\ it\\ lent\\ itself\\ to\\ his\\ efforts\\ at\\ representing\\ his\\ own\\ embodiedness\\ and\\ also\\ because\\ his\\ struggle\\ against\\ his\\ identity\\ as\\ beholder\\ found\\ a\\ counter\\-conventional\\ home\\ through\\ subversion\\ of\\ painting\\ convention\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Act\\ of\\ painting\\ called\\ to\\ attention\\ in\\ various\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ other\\ figures\\ in\\ his\\ self\\-portraits\\ are\\ not\\ quiet\\ independent\\ or\\ detached\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ambiguity\\ in\\ painter\\-beholder\\ relation\\ to\\ painting\\ before\\ him\\-painter\\ labored\\ to\\ project\\ himself\\ and\\ undo\\ metaphorics\\ of\\ possession\\,\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ separate\\ existence\\ altogether\\&mdash\\;metaphorics\\ of\\ merger\\,\\ incompleteness\\,\\ disappearance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ House\\ of\\ the\\ Soul\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Stendhal\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Salon\\ 1824\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Marie\\-Henri\\ Beyle\\ \\(penname\\ \\&ldquo\\;Stendhal\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ A\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ French\\ writer\\,\\ who\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ giving\\ acute\\ attention\\ to\\ his\\ characters\\&rsquo\\;\\ psyche\\.\\ This\\ particular\\ piece\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Salon\\ of\\ 1824\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ critical\\ review\\ of\\ various\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ that\\ were\\ on\\ display\\ in\\ the\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1824\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ public\\ frankly\\ and\\ simply\\ what\\ I\\ feel\\ about\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ pictures\\&hellip\\;I\\ will\\ give\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ my\\ particular\\ point\\ of\\ view\\.\\ My\\ aim\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ each\\ spectator\\ search\\ his\\ soul\\,\\ analyze\\ his\\ personal\\ manner\\ of\\ feeling\\,\\ and\\ come\\ in\\ this\\ manner\\ to\\ for\\ m\\ his\\ own\\ opinion\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ disabuse\\ \\[discourage\\]\\ equally\\ the\\ youthful\\ painters\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ of\\ David\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ imitation\\ of\\ Horance\\ Vernet\\,\\ that\\ is\\ my\\ second\\ aim\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ dawn\\ of\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ the\\ Fine\\ Arts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Bored\\ and\\ disgusted\\ with\\ the\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ infinite\\ patience\\,\\ and\\ with\\ brilliant\\ genius\\,\\ in\\ two\\-three\\ years\\ one\\ can\\ arrive\\ at\\ a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ conformation\\ and\\ the\\ exact\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ hundred\\ muscles\\ which\\ cover\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ and\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ reproduce\\ them\\ with\\ a\\ brush\\.\\ But\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ paint\\ the\\ passions\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ difficult\\,\\ and\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ seen\\ and\\ felt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ school\\ of\\ Davlid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\can\\ only\\ paint\\ bodies\\;\\ it\\ is\\ decidedly\\ inept\\ at\\ painting\\ souls\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ Delacroix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ a\\ feeling\\ for\\ color\\,\\ and\\ his\\ figures\\ have\\ movement\\.\\ But\\ Stendhal\\ finds\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Massacre\\ of\\ Scio\\&rdquo\\;\\ mediocre\\ through\\ insignificance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ an\\ immense\\ superiority\\ over\\ all\\ the\\ painters\\ of\\ the\\ large\\ pictures\\ which\\ paper\\ the\\ great\\ salons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Towards\\ Ingres\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Louis\\ XIII\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vow\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ very\\ dry\\ work\\,\\ and\\ borrowing\\ from\\ a\\ patchwork\\ of\\ Italian\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Madonna\\ has\\ material\\ beauty\\,\\ but\\ no\\ divine\\ beauty\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ painting\\ with\\ feeling\\ but\\ not\\ with\\ science\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ new\\ school\\ has\\ arisen\\ in\\ 18234\\ to\\ the\\ great\\ dissatisfaction\\ of\\ the\\ pupils\\ of\\ David\\.\\ Schenetz\\,\\ Delacroix\\,\\ Scheffer\\,\\ Delaroche\\,\\ and\\ Sigalon\\ have\\ had\\ the\\ insolence\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ admired\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Schnetz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pictures\\ will\\ be\\ admired\\ for\\ a\\ hundred\\ years\\.\\ No\\ similar\\ movement\\ can\\ be\\ noticed\\ in\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;So\\ much\\ the\\ better\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ cries\\ the\\ school\\ of\\ David\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;So\\ much\\ the\\ worse\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ says\\ the\\ amateur\\ who\\ leaves\\ the\\ hall\\ of\\ sculpture\\ with\\ no\\ deeply\\ felt\\ emotion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ great\\ fault\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ School\\ of\\ Painting\\ is\\ the\\ total\\ lack\\ of\\ chiaroscuro\\ that\\ also\\ ranges\\ among\\ mediocre\\ works\\ and\\ is\\ in\\ this\\ large\\ portrait\\ so\\ impatiently\\ awaited\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sabine\\ Women\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ equal\\ talent\\,\\ Vernet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ battle\\ would\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ battle\\.\\ What\\ sympathy\\ can\\ a\\ Frenchman\\ feel\\,\\ who\\ has\\ given\\ some\\ saber\\ cuts\\ in\\ his\\ life\\,\\ with\\ those\\ men\\ who\\ fight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\naked\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\House\\ of\\ the\\ Soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prendeville\\ \\"\\;Features\\ of\\ Insanity\\,\\ as\\ Seen\\ by\\ G\\é\\;ricault\\ and\\ by\\ B\\ü\\;chner\\"\\;\\ \\(online\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portraits\\ of\\ the\\ insane\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ image\\ analysis\\:\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ intensity\\ of\\ gaze\\ at\\ removed\\ object\\ creates\\ sense\\ of\\ distance\\,\\ repetition\\ of\\ subject\\ creates\\ sense\\ of\\ scientific\\ analysis\\,\\ the\\ rigid\\ detail\\ of\\ the\\ face\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ disheveled\\ clothing\\ evokes\\ focused\\ insanity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intersection\\ of\\ medical\\ and\\ history\\ paintings\\.\\ Scientific\\ medical\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ religious\\,\\ analyses\\ of\\ human\\ functioning\\ were\\ flourishing\\ after\\ the\\ Restoration\\ around\\ 1815\\,\\ and\\ medical\\ engravings\\/paintings\\ paid\\ meticulous\\ attention\\ to\\ visceral\\ detail\\.\\ David\\ took\\ history\\ painting\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ level\\ of\\ realism\\ and\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ fragile\\ human\\ body\\.\\ Gericault\\ worked\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ history\\ tradition\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ post\\-Restoration\\ generation\\ was\\ greatly\\ concerned\\ with\\ liberating\\ the\\ human\\ through\\ scientific\\ improvement\\.\\ The\\ portraits\\ struggle\\ between\\ body\\ legibility\\ for\\ the\\ audience\\ and\\ hiding\\ the\\ secrets\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\ for\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ had\\ other\\ work\\ focusing\\ on\\ urban\\ realism\\,\\ relating\\ a\\ fractured\\ society\\ and\\ portraying\\ instances\\ of\\ subjective\\ loss\\ or\\ death\\ \\(severed\\ heads\\,\\ hanging\\ of\\ unconnected\\ figures\\,\\ coal\\ wagon\\ turning\\ away\\ into\\ a\\ dark\\ tunnel\\)\\.\\ The\\ scene\\ of\\ his\\ portraits\\ immobilizes\\ the\\ sitter\\;\\ they\\ become\\ bound\\ by\\ the\\ gaze\\ of\\ the\\ viewer\\ they\\ cannot\\ meet\\.\\ Identity\\ and\\ the\\ labeling\\ of\\ their\\ illness\\ imposes\\ on\\ them\\ with\\ our\\ gaze\\.\\ They\\ stare\\ intensely\\ at\\ an\\ external\\ object\\,\\ limited\\ in\\ their\\ gaze\\,\\ but\\ resistant\\ in\\ their\\ fierocity\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ which\\ lives\\ on\\ in\\ them\\ is\\ distinct\\ not\\ only\\ from\\ the\\ labels\\ imposed\\ on\\ them\\,\\ but\\ from\\ whatever\\ public\\ and\\ familial\\ identities\\ they\\ have\\ relinquished\\ or\\ forgotten\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Long\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ playwright\\ Buchner\\ serves\\ to\\ highlight\\ Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(and\\ Balzac\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ attention\\ to\\ contemporary\\ realism\\ and\\ tinge\\ it\\ with\\ uncertainties\\ of\\ purpose\\ and\\ irrationality\\ of\\ modern\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\ the\\ works\\ are\\ tragic\\ portrayals\\ of\\ a\\ subject\\ bound\\ by\\ modern\\ existence\\.\\ Their\\ life\\ is\\ torn\\ by\\ specifically\\ post\\-Restoration\\ concerns\\ of\\ soul\\ versus\\ machine\\,\\ freedom\\ versus\\ subjection\\.\\ This\\ is\\ realism\\ purposefully\\ incompletely\\ legible\\;\\ the\\ works\\ portray\\ a\\ subject\\ hiding\\ something\\ about\\ himself\\ and\\ resisting\\ public\\ inquisition\\ and\\ labeling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\ and\\ the\\ Colonial\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Darcy\\ Grimaldo\\ Grigsby\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Revolution\\,\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\:\\ Girodet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Portrait\\ of\\ Citizen\\ Belley\\,\\ Ex\\-Repersentative\\ of\\ the\\ Colonies\\,\\ 1797\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Extremeties\\:\\ Painting\\ Empire\\ in\\ Post\\-Revolutionary\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Challenge\\ of\\ doing\\ history\\ painting\\ contemporaneously\\ with\\ events\\&mdash\\;idea\\ of\\ using\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\martyr\\-acad\\é\\;mies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ie\\,\\ martyrs\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\,\\ to\\ reconcile\\ past\\ and\\ present\\,\\ general\\ and\\ specific\\,\\ classical\\ and\\ contemporary\\,\\ history\\ painting\\ and\\ portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Question\\ of\\ how\\ permeable\\ the\\ French\\ body\\ politic\\ was\\&mdash\\;did\\ it\\ matter\\ that\\ constituents\\ all\\ looked\\ the\\ same\\,\\ or\\ was\\ heterogeneity\\ something\\ that\\ would\\ work\\&mdash\\;Grigsby\\ positions\\ this\\ work\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ ambitious\\ painted\\ response\\ to\\ these\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\ as\\ both\\ object\\ of\\ painting\\ \\(legible\\ form\\)\\ and\\ as\\ sitter\\ of\\ portrait\\ \\(subjecthood\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\ in\\ France\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Girodet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Race\\ became\\ an\\ increasingly\\ important\\ category\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\,\\ intimately\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Slavery\\ had\\ been\\ abolished\\ 8\\ months\\ before\\ execution\\ of\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Representatives\\ \\(including\\ Belley\\)\\ presented\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tricolor\\&rdquo\\;\\ flag\\,\\ representing\\ Black\\,\\ White\\,\\ and\\ Mulatto\\ elements\\ of\\ constituents\\ of\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ flag\\ provided\\ image\\ of\\ alliance\\ among\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\equal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;parts\\ of\\ constituency\\,\\ but\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ race\\ was\\ a\\ useful\\ means\\ of\\ dividing\\ people\\,\\ focus\\ on\\ skin\\ color\\&rsquo\\;s\\ irreducibility\\,\\ flag\\ acted\\ as\\ legible\\ sign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Notion\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;people\\ of\\ color\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;related\\ to\\ idea\\ that\\ race\\ was\\ aligned\\ with\\ class\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blacks\\ were\\ always\\ slaves\\,\\ whites\\ were\\ free\\,\\ but\\ person\\ of\\ color\\/mulatto\\ was\\ a\\ socio\\-economic\\ description\\ unto\\ itself\\,\\ somewhere\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ a\\ biological\\ and\\ socio\\-economic\\ term\\,\\ famously\\ difficult\\ to\\ define\\ and\\ legislate\\.\\ \\ \\;Were\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ bring\\ up\\ issue\\ of\\ enfranchisement\\,\\ this\\ was\\ foregrounded\\ over\\ issue\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ emancipation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Liberty\\/slavery\\ issue\\&mdash\\;Revolutionary\\ idea\\ of\\ liberty\\ often\\ defined\\ by\\ images\\ of\\ being\\ freed\\ from\\ theoretical\\ slavery\\,\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ difficult\\ way\\ of\\ defining\\ liberty\\ given\\ existence\\ of\\ real\\ slavery\\ in\\ colonies\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ proslavery\\ Revolutionaries\\ had\\ to\\ turn\\ to\\ notion\\ of\\ race\\/skin\\ color\\ \\(discrete\\ categories\\)\\ to\\ define\\ difference\\ and\\ legitimize\\ slavery\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ class\\/free\\ vs\\ not\\ free\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;Oppositions\\ of\\ black\\/white\\ and\\ slave\\/free\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ identical\\.\\ \\ \\;Constant\\ fear\\ of\\ slave\\ uprising\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\ and\\ identity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Origins\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ colonies\\ or\\ metropole\\:\\ \\ \\;Belley\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;men\\ of\\ color\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ him\\ positioned\\ themselves\\ as\\ having\\ origins\\ in\\ France\\,\\ France\\ as\\ the\\ fatherland\\,\\ source\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-This\\ meant\\ fighting\\ for\\ France\\ as\\ soldier\\ of\\ fatherland\\.\\ \\ \\;Issue\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ soldier\\ very\\ important\\&mdash\\;at\\ stake\\ was\\ whether\\ this\\ would\\ prevent\\ slave\\ uprising\\ or\\ make\\ issue\\ worse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\ was\\ officer\\&mdash\\;both\\ commanded\\ white\\ soldiers\\ and\\ had\\ monopoly\\ of\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Uniform\\ was\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ this\\ identity\\,\\ otherwise\\ a\\ disembodied\\,\\ abstracted\\ idea\\ of\\ slave\\ \\(as\\ was\\ usually\\ depicted\\ in\\ prints\\ of\\ abolitionists\\ etc\\)\\,\\ portraiture\\ further\\ freed\\ Belley\\ from\\ anonymity\\ of\\ generalized\\ slave\\ depiction\\.\\ \\ \\;Important\\ that\\ his\\ portrait\\ was\\ mixture\\ of\\ portrait\\ and\\ history\\ painting\\ \\(see\\ introduction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portrait\\ itself\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Raynal\\ bust\\&mdash\\;marble\\ bust\\ has\\ almost\\ lifelike\\ characteristics\\,\\ extremely\\ white\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skin\\,\\ bust\\ as\\ effigy\\ to\\ man\\ who\\ had\\ had\\ complicated\\/contradictory\\ relationship\\ to\\ issues\\ of\\ emancipation\\ and\\ the\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Lifelike\\ quality\\ points\\ to\\ his\\ almost\\ being\\ alive\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\,\\ but\\ not\\ quite\\,\\ juxtaposed\\ with\\ Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actual\\ vitality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ physiognomy\\ \\(of\\ Lavater\\ and\\ in\\ general\\)\\&mdash\\;Girodet\\ knew\\ work\\ of\\ Lavater\\,\\ but\\ not\\ likely\\ that\\ this\\ painting\\ aimed\\ at\\ participated\\ in\\ his\\ tradition\\,\\ possibly\\ shows\\ influence\\ of\\ other\\ physiognamist\\ thinkers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Challenge\\ of\\ painting\\ dark\\ skin\\ for\\ Dividian\\ portrait\\ painter\\&mdash\\;evocation\\ of\\ light\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ shadow\\ as\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ case\\ with\\ light\\ skin\\.\\ \\ \\;Critics\\ wondered\\ if\\ ideal\\ beauty\\/portrait\\ could\\ be\\ made\\ with\\ dark\\ skinned\\ sitter\\ \\(Girodet\\ and\\ Benoist\\ paintings\\ obviously\\ prove\\ them\\ wrong\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ gives\\ effect\\ of\\ sitter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autonomy\\ and\\ inscrutability\\&mdash\\;his\\ thoughts\\ are\\ important\\,\\ independent\\,\\ intellectually\\ grave\\,\\ but\\ private\\&mdash\\;in\\ contrast\\ to\\ depictions\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\ depicted\\ as\\ both\\ law\\-abiding\\ and\\ self\\-disciplined\\ \\(not\\ rebel\\ or\\ slave\\,\\ the\\ two\\ usual\\ tropes\\ used\\ to\\ depict\\/think\\ of\\ blacks\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ helped\\ by\\ depiction\\ of\\ genitals\\&mdash\\;made\\ very\\ explicit\\,\\ site\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ virility\\ held\\ in\\ check\\ by\\ self\\-discipline\\,\\ volition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Final\\ discussion\\:\\ contrast\\ between\\ way\\ Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ was\\ received\\ in\\ 1791\\ and\\ way\\ Benoist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ Negress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ received\\ in\\ 1800\\.\\ \\ \\;Revulsion\\ to\\ black\\ subject\\ more\\ bluntly\\ expressed\\ as\\ Consulate\\ moved\\ to\\ more\\ exclusionary\\ position\\,\\ eventually\\ slavery\\ re\\-legalized\\,\\ helped\\ by\\ Napoleon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ in\\ Egypt\\ and\\ Tousaint\\-L\\&rsquo\\;Ouverture\\&rsquo\\;s\\ revolt\\ in\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\/Haiti\\ \\(Belley\\ fought\\ against\\ these\\ revolutionaries\\,\\ but\\ was\\ still\\ later\\ imprisoned\\ by\\ the\\ French\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ethnographic\\ Gaze\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Race\\ as\\ visual\\ trope\\ positioned\\ under\\ white\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ \\;Colonial\\ body\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ \\&ndash\\;passive\\,\\ sexually\\ available\\,\\ or\\ violent\\.\\ \\ \\;Cultural\\ means\\ of\\ display\\ produced\\ object\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ Other\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ subjectively\\ visually\\ represented\\ under\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ being\\ scientifically\\,\\ objectively\\ shown\\ \\(think\\ of\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\ and\\ how\\ she\\ was\\ represented\\ as\\ a\\ scientific\\ \\&ldquo\\;specimen\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Ethnographic\\ gaze\\ was\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ other\\ can\\ be\\ placed\\.\\ \\ \\;Implied\\ hierarchy\\ between\\ object\\ defined\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ knowing\\ subject\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Timothy\\ Mitchell\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ World\\ as\\ Exhibition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ examines\\ what\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ exhibiting\\ at\\ France\\&rsquo\\;s\\ World\\ Exhibitions\\ says\\ about\\ the\\ modern\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;Mitchell\\ explores\\ this\\ through\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ Arab\\ writers\\,\\ who\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ an\\ ordering\\ up\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ an\\ endless\\ exhibition\\.\\ The\\ Orient\\ as\\ the\\ West\\&rsquo\\;s\\ great\\ \\&ldquo\\;external\\ reality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\World\\ Exhibition\\ in\\ Paris\\-\\ constructed\\ a\\ carefully\\ chaotic\\ Egyptian\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imported\\ 50\\ donkeys\\ from\\ Cairo\\,\\ made\\ buildings\\ dirty\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europe\\ as\\ an\\ object\\-world\\-curiosity\\ of\\ observing\\ subject\\ rendered\\ things\\ as\\ objects\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ visitor\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Le\\ spectacle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Parisian\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ set\\ the\\ world\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ picture\\;\\ arranged\\ object\\ on\\ display\\ for\\ audience\\-to\\ be\\ viewed\\,\\ investigated\\,\\ and\\ experienced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\World\\ exhibitions\\-direct\\ experience\\ of\\ object\\-world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refers\\ to\\ not\\ an\\ exhibition\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ conceived\\ and\\ grasped\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ were\\ an\\ exhibition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Machinery\\ of\\ representation\\-rendered\\ world\\ as\\ a\\ thing\\ to\\ be\\ viewed\\ and\\ thus\\ produced\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ spectacle\\ through\\ cultural\\ difference\\ and\\ imperial\\ truth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ museums\\,\\ public\\ gardens\\,\\ theater\\,\\ zoo\\&mdash\\;all\\ organized\\ under\\ European\\ system\\ as\\ signifiers\\ of\\ some\\ larger\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ was\\ realistic\\ but\\ always\\ distinguishable\\ from\\ the\\ reality\\ it\\ claimed\\ to\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Representation\\ depended\\ on\\ displacement\\ in\\ space\\ separating\\ the\\ representation\\ from\\ the\\ real\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;Representation\\ of\\ reality\\ was\\ an\\ exhibit\\ set\\ up\\ for\\ an\\ observer\\-observer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gaze\\ surrounded\\ by\\ exhibit\\ yet\\ excluded\\ from\\ its\\ careful\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ separate\\ oneself\\ from\\ world\\ and\\ render\\ it\\ as\\ object\\ of\\ representation\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ lose\\ oneself\\ within\\ object\\-world\\ and\\ experience\\ it\\ directly\\.\\ Double\\ position\\ of\\ European\\ as\\ participant\\-observer\\ in\\ world\\ exhibitions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exhibition\\ creates\\ dichotomies\\:\\ representation\\/original\\,\\ exhibit\\/external\\ reality\\ and\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Reality\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ represented\\ in\\ an\\ exhibit\\.\\ \\ \\;Reality\\ as\\ extended\\ exhibition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Commercial\\ worlds\\-in\\-miniature\\-representation\\ of\\ its\\ commodities\\.\\ Discipline\\ of\\ the\\ European\\ gaze\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ world\\ of\\ representation\\-claim\\ to\\ certainty\\ or\\ truth\\,\\ certainly\\ in\\ order\\ and\\ organization\\,\\ political\\ decidedness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Certainty\\ exists\\ as\\ determined\\ correspondence\\ btwn\\ mere\\ representations\\ and\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonial\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ exhibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ Writers\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experience\\ of\\ strangeness\\ expressed\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ forming\\ a\\ picture\\&mdash\\;need\\ to\\ step\\ back\\ and\\ draw\\/photograph\\/write\\ precisely\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ strangeness\\ of\\ another\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Pictorial\\ certainty\\ of\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ of\\ writer\\/photographer\\ visiting\\ Middle\\ East\\ was\\ not\\ take\\ accurate\\ picture\\ of\\ East\\ and\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ East\\ as\\ a\\ picture\\&mdash\\;to\\ create\\ a\\ distance\\ between\\ oneself\\ and\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ picture\\-like\\,\\ like\\ on\\ object\\ on\\ exhibit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ represent\\ something\\ as\\ Oriental\\,\\ one\\ sought\\ to\\ excise\\ totally\\ the\\ European\\ presence\\ \\(Edward\\ Said\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Ability\\ to\\ see\\ without\\ being\\ seen\\ confirmed\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ separation\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ position\\ of\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orient\\ rediscovered\\,\\ grasped\\ as\\ the\\ reoccurrence\\ of\\ a\\ picture\\ one\\ had\\ seen\\ before\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Orient\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;re\\-presentation\\&rdquo\\;\\-a\\ set\\ of\\ references\\,\\ not\\ a\\ real\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 20, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA174s_midterm.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Western Tradition - Midterm Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "western-tradition"], "text": null, "id": 50, "html": "\\\\\\FINAL\\_HAA10\\_Midterm\\_Studyguide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c53\\{max\\-width\\:496\\.8pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\ 72pt\\ 57\\.6pt\\}\\.c30\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c47\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c43\\{padding\\-left\\:24\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:58\\.5pt\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c33\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c49\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:49\\.5pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c51\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c46\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-49\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:49\\.5pt\\}\\.c42\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:29pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c50\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:65pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c52\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c45\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c24\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c48\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c18\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c15\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c39\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:9pt\\}\\.c20\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c40\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-22\\.5pt\\}\\.c23\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c55\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-72pt\\}\\.c56\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c21\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:81pt\\}\\.c36\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c32\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c57\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c34\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c54\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c44\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c38\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\LECTURES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\/23\\:\\ Sluter\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-big\\ changes\\ in\\ art\\ sometime\\ between\\ 1400\\-1500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ lot\\ of\\ movement\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ people\\ between\\ South\\ \\(Italy\\)\\ and\\ North\\ \\(Netherlands\\,\\ Germany\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-tradition\\ thought\\ of\\ art\\ movement\\ as\\ starting\\ in\\ Italy\\ and\\ then\\ spreading\\ north\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-prevalent\\ art\\ form\\ in\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;gothic\\ art\\:\\ not\\ realistic\\ art\\;\\ pictogram\\;\\ not\\ to\\ scale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Italy\\ resistant\\ to\\ gothic\\ art\\;\\ instead\\,\\ there\\ was\\ return\\ of\\ humanism\\,\\ back\\ to\\ classical\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Claus\\ Sluter\\ \\(from\\ Wikipedia\\)\\:\\ early\\ Netherlandish\\ sculpture\\ who\\ pioneered\\ northern\\ realism\\.\\ The\\ works\\ of\\ Claus\\ Sluter\\ infuse\\ realism\\ with\\ spirituality\\ and\\ monumental\\ grandeur\\.\\ His\\ influence\\ was\\ extensive\\ among\\ both\\ painters\\ and\\ sculptors\\ of\\ 15th\\-century\\ northern\\ Europe\\ \\(van\\ Eyck\\!\\)\\.\\ He\\ restored\\ the\\ monumental\\ scale\\ and\\ naturalism\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ era\\ to\\ figural\\ sculpture\\.\\ His\\ later\\ work\\ is\\ highly\\ emotional\\,\\ using\\ facial\\ expressions\\,\\ figural\\ stance\\,\\ and\\ drapery\\;\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ particularly\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ heavy\\ folds\\ of\\ cloth\\ that\\ so\\ many\\ later\\ imitators\\ draped\\ around\\ their\\ figures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(nothing\\ happened\\ in\\ lecture\\ 1\\&hellip\\;seriously\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enlightenment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ idea\\ of\\ rebirth\\ of\\ classical\\ age\\,\\ light\\ reentering\\,\\ culture\\ as\\ having\\ been\\ recovered\\ from\\ antiquity\\ \\(not\\ quite\\ right\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;middle\\ ages\\ were\\ much\\ more\\ enlightening\\ in\\ some\\ respects\\&hellip\\;great\\ deal\\ of\\ contiguity\\ from\\ antiquity\\ through\\ the\\ middle\\ ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poet\\ Virgil\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ was\\ never\\ lost\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ interesting\\ is\\ that\\ Virgil\\ is\\ nothing\\ like\\ a\\ Christian\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ texts\\ were\\ reinterpreted\\ in\\ a\\ Christian\\ fashion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Return\\ to\\ antiquity\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ an\\ abandonment\\ of\\ Christianity\\&hellip\\;important\\ to\\ understand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ book\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Presence\\ and\\ Lightness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ history\\ of\\ image\\ before\\ era\\ of\\ art\\,\\ implies\\ that\\ era\\ of\\ art\\ is\\ before\\ modern\\ times\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ we\\ start\\ in\\ 1400s\\ what\\ is\\ meant\\ by\\ that\\ is\\ that\\ before\\ that\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ an\\ activity\\ separate\\ from\\ everything\\ else\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ did\\ not\\ mean\\ what\\ we\\ mean\\ they\\ meant\\ MAKING\\ things\\&hellip\\;idea\\ of\\ an\\ artist\\,\\ a\\ person\\ whose\\ concern\\ is\\ primarily\\ to\\ make\\ things\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ interest\\ and\\ for\\ aesthetic\\ contemplation\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\ before\\ the\\ renaissance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Works\\ of\\ art\\ had\\ a\\ role\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;help\\ you\\ pray\\ or\\ something\\.\\ Idolatry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Certain\\ images\\ are\\ not\\ regarded\\ as\\ art\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ images\\ used\\ in\\ various\\ rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vasari\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ describes\\ artists\\ who\\ are\\ dead\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ edition\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;textbook\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ edition\\ he\\ introduces\\ artists\\ who\\ are\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michelangelo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shows\\ a\\ \\ \\;consciousness\\ of\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ tradition\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ western\\ tradition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Word\\ literally\\ means\\ something\\ like\\&hellip\\;what\\ is\\ passed\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involved\\ in\\ an\\ enterprise\\ that\\ involves\\ drawing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;drawing\\ means\\ just\\ that\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ means\\ intention\\ or\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drawing\\ becomes\\ thinking\\ instrument\\ of\\ all\\ these\\ artists\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ THINKING\\ VISUALLY\\ THROUGH\\ GRAPHIC\\ PROCESS\\ OF\\ DRAWING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Way\\ of\\ transmitting\\ ideas\\ from\\ one\\ person\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ whole\\ intellectual\\ framework\\ that\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ this\\ time\\ around\\ notion\\ of\\ artist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anecdotes\\ about\\ Achilles\\&hellip\\;asking\\ someone\\ with\\ shoes\\ to\\ criticize\\ his\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\APPEAL\\ OF\\ GOING\\ TO\\ EXPERTS\\ OUTSIDE\\ OF\\ ART\\ TO\\ SEE\\ IF\\ YOU\\&rsquo\\;RE\\ GETTING\\ IT\\ RIGHT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Room\\ where\\ commencement\\ takes\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DELAROCHE\\ AMPITHEATER\\ OF\\ THE\\ ECOLE\\ DES\\ BEAUX\\ ARTS\\ 1842\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antiquity\\,\\ and\\ then\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ artists\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ medieval\\ \\(by\\ middle\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ people\\ are\\ warming\\ up\\ to\\ idea\\ that\\ MA\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ so\\ bad\\ after\\ all\\ but\\ still\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ this\\ makes\\ visible\\ is\\ idea\\ that\\ art\\ has\\ a\\ history\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ history\\ which\\ is\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ will\\ be\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ art\\ is\\ translated\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ artistic\\ practice\\ is\\ learned\\ in\\ the\\ renaissance\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tradition\\ in\\ the\\ MA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Art\\ is\\ strictly\\ through\\ teaching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\ go\\ to\\ baker\\ or\\ sculptor\\ \\(grinding\\,\\ papers\\ etc\\)\\ and\\ then\\ you\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ stuff\\ \\(draw\\ figures\\ and\\ stories\\ and\\ eventually\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ one\\ your\\ own\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BACCIO\\ BARDINELLI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ACADEMY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vasalius\\ \\(1514\\ 1564\\)\\ \\ \\;De\\ Humani\\ corporis\\ fabrica\\ 1543\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ masterpiece\\ of\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HES\\ REPRESENTING\\ A\\ SKELETON\\ REALLY\\ WELL\\ but\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ a\\ whole\\ moral\\ aspect\\ independent\\ from\\ the\\ strictly\\ scientific\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ treatus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ plate\\ represents\\ the\\ muscle\\ groups\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Anatomy\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ body\\ looks\\ and\\ BUT\\ MORE\\ IMPORTANTLY\\ How\\ it\\ works\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jacques\\ Louis\\ David\\ teaching\\ studio\\ by\\ Cohereau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ Cousin\\ Book\\ of\\ Perspective\\ 1560\\&hellip\\;he\\ shows\\ diagrams\\ that\\ explain\\ how\\ you\\ do\\ a\\ proper\\ spatial\\ construction\\ on\\ the\\ plant\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whole\\ idea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treatise\\ about\\ images\\ of\\ gods\\ and\\ here\\ are\\ som\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TEACHING\\ OF\\ ART\\ BECOMES\\ MUCH\\ MORE\\ ELABORATE\\ AND\\ A\\ MUCH\\ MORE\\ INTELLECTUAL\\ PURSUIT\\ THAN\\ IT\\ HAS\\ BEEN\\ BEFORE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peroginio\\ on\\ the\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Had\\ a\\ famous\\ pupil\\ who\\ became\\ more\\ famous\\ RAPHAEL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ you\\ still\\ have\\ a\\ painter\\ assistant\\ relationship\\ where\\ Raphael\\ has\\ pretty\\ much\\ borrowed\\ the\\ composition\\ from\\ his\\ teacher\\,\\ but\\ he\\ improves\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ reverse\\ it\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ closely\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ modeled\\ on\\ the\\ statue\\ on\\ the\\ left\\&hellip\\;one\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ examples\\ of\\ ancient\\ classical\\ art\\ of\\ antiquity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CEZANNE\\ AFTER\\ DELACROIX\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.DELACROIX\\ MEDEA\\ 1834\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Never\\ studied\\ with\\ Delacroix\\ but\\ D\\ for\\ C\\ was\\ already\\ an\\ artist\\ from\\ the\\ canon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VERY\\ CONSCIOUS\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ DELACROIX\\ HIMSELF\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sort\\ of\\ aping\\ this\\ other\\ one\\ ANDREA\\ DEL\\ SARTO\\ CHARITY\\ 1517\\ \\(weaving\\ figures\\ into\\ a\\ pyramid\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Earlier\\ on\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michelangelo\\ CELING\\ SIXTINE\\ CHAPEL\\ CEILING\\ EXPULSION\\ OF\\ ADAM\\ AND\\ EVE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Painted\\ around\\ 1510\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Characteristically\\ M\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ satisfied\\ with\\ allusions\\ to\\ the\\ immediate\\ past\\&hellip\\;\\.he\\ goes\\ and\\ studies\\ something\\ from\\ 1428\\ \\(almost\\ 100\\ years\\ old\\ for\\ him\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MASSACCIO\\ BRANCACCI\\ CHAPEL\\ 1428\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ ITS\\ CLEAR\\ THAT\\ IT\\ TRANSPOSES\\ EXPRESSIVE\\ POSE\\ OF\\ ADAM\\ FROM\\ A\\ PREVIOUS\\ THING\\ \\(so\\&hellip\\;everybody\\ studies\\ something\\ that\\ came\\ before\\ and\\ uses\\ it\\ to\\ enrich\\ his\\ own\\ thing\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ new\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAA\\ is\\ about\\ continuity\\ and\\ change\\ continuity\\ and\\ progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notion\\ of\\ progress\\ modernity\\ IDEAS\\ AND\\ RULES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Printmaking\\ also\\ makes\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ \\ \\;make\\ compositions\\ or\\ designs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ great\\ difference\\ between\\ lit\\ and\\ art\\ \\(invention\\ of\\ printing\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ modern\\ era\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ time\\ you\\ have\\ printing\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ everywhere\\ \\(compositions\\ available\\ everywhere\\)\\ and\\ RAPHAEL\\ KNEW\\ THAT\\ WELL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JUDGEMENT\\ OF\\ PARIS\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ designs\\ it\\ specifically\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ print\\ \\(isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ colored\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trojan\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ human\\ body\\ and\\ beauty\\ of\\ women\\&hellip\\;demonstration\\ of\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ represent\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ Raphael\\ himself\\ has\\ a\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\ sarcophagus\\ relief\\ reset\\ at\\ the\\ Villa\\ Medici\\ in\\ Romed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peter\\ Paul\\ Rubens\\ in\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ is\\ very\\ conscious\\ of\\ his\\ model\\&hellip\\;model\\ of\\ Raphael\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ curious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ANTOINE\\ WATTEAU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Very\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ guy\\ is\\ also\\ conscsious\\ of\\ Raphael\\&rsquo\\;s\\ model\\ because\\ the\\ figure\\ is\\ facing\\ away\\ and\\ leaning\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ a\\ little\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Academic\\ painter\\&hellip\\;\\.and\\ then\\ RENOIR\\ copies\\ HIM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Edouard\\ Manet\\ Lunch\\ on\\ the\\ Grass\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Napoleon\\ III\\ decided\\ that\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ an\\ exhibition\\ where\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ turned\\ down\\ by\\ corrupt\\ jury\\ in\\ nacould\\ exhibit\\ paintings\\ tional\\ competition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\ paints\\ scandalous\\ thing\\ \\(naked\\ woman\\ in\\ presence\\ of\\ clothed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\AND\\ OMGOMGOMGOMGOMG\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HE\\ COPIED\\ THE\\ RAPHAEL\\ THING\\ ORGANIZING\\ IT\\ EXACTLY\\ LIKE\\ THE\\ RAPHAEL\\ THING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ like\\ Manet\\ say\\ no\\ we\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ who\\ really\\ get\\ Raphael\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ actually\\ studied\\ it\\ and\\ though\\ we\\ update\\ it\\ for\\ today\\ it\\ follows\\ from\\ the\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Picasso\\ Les\\ Demoiselles\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Avignon\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Group\\ of\\ women\\ presenting\\ themselves\\ in\\ fact\\ very\\ much\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ three\\ goddesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ one\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ sketches\\ you\\ have\\ these\\ male\\ figures\\ who\\ enter\\ the\\ room\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\ Sluter\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ Around\\ 1400\\:\\ The\\ Sluter\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dialogue\\ between\\ Southern\\ Europe\\ \\(Italy\\)\\ and\\ Northern\\ \\(Netherlands\\,\\ Germany\\)\\&mdash\\;France\\ in\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changes\\ seen\\ as\\ mostly\\ from\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\So\\ engrained\\ is\\ this\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ discuss\\ Donatello\\ first\\ over\\ Sluter\\ although\\ Sluter\\ was\\ first\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psalter\\ St\\.Louis\\ \\(king\\ Louis\\ IX\\)\\:\\ mid\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\(high\\ pt\\ of\\ gothic\\ art\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Italy\\ resistant\\ because\\ of\\ roman\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ornate\\ frame\\,\\ but\\ the\\ light\\ lines\\ inside\\ imply\\ clouds\\&mdash\\;the\\ outside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Story\\ of\\ Abraham\\ and\\ Isaac\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ornate\\ letter\\ B\\:\\ David\\ looking\\ out\\ castle\\ on\\ Sheeba\\,\\ David\\ praying\\ to\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Telling\\ a\\ story\\ but\\ not\\ as\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ used\\ to\\ \\(by\\ no\\ means\\ realistic\\ or\\ natural\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Simone\\ Martini\\ \\(1280\\-1344\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontispiece\\ of\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ Servius\\&rsquo\\;\\ commentary\\ on\\ Virgil\\ Belonguing\\ to\\ Petrarch\\ \\(1304\\-1374\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refers\\ to\\ the\\ 3\\ works\\ of\\ Virgil\\:\\ sheep\\,\\ farmer\\,\\ soldier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virgil\\ dressed\\ in\\ antique\\ fashion\\&mdash\\;return\\ to\\ antique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Royal\\ Front\\ Portal\\ of\\ Chapel\\&mdash\\;medival\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charterhouse\\ of\\ Champmol\\:\\ Poarch\\ 1390s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ Charles\\ IV\\ died\\,\\ his\\ succession\\ caused\\ the\\ Hundred\\ Years\\ War\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\ II\\ le\\ Bon\\ captured\\ by\\ British\\ and\\ made\\ prisoner\\ when\\ Charles\\ V\\ was\\ 19\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charles\\ V\\ really\\ reconstructed\\ the\\ kingdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charles\\ VI\\ weak\\:\\ child\\ when\\ V\\ died\\ so\\ country\\ ruled\\ mostly\\ by\\ brothers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\ duc\\ de\\ Berry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philippe\\ he\\ Hardi\\ duc\\ de\\ Bourgogne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Louis\\ duc\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Anjou\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dukes\\ of\\ Burgundy\\ and\\ Dijon\\ paid\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sculptures\\ done\\ mostly\\ by\\ Claus\\ Sluter\\ \\(trained\\ in\\ North\\ but\\ most\\ work\\ in\\ Dijon\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ originality\\ and\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sculptures\\ independent\\ from\\ architecture\\&mdash\\;no\\ longer\\ just\\ like\\ columns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overlap\\ their\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Freedom\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sculptures\\ communicate\\ with\\ one\\ another\\&mdash\\;a\\ scenario\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Center\\ \\(virgin\\ Mary\\ and\\ JC\\)\\,\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ \\(the\\ duke\\)\\,\\ on\\ right\\ \\(the\\ duchess\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Points\\ to\\ Duke\\ but\\ looks\\ at\\ Duchess\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fluidity\\:\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ all\\ facing\\ front\\ independent\\ of\\ each\\ other\\ like\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Duke\\ and\\ Duchess\\ in\\ physical\\/real\\ likeness\\ while\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Saint\\ based\\ on\\ ideal\\ types\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Less\\ concentration\\ on\\ world\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ more\\ concentration\\ on\\ human\\ world\\,\\ real\\ likeness\\,\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ humans\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Statues\\ of\\ Charles\\ V\\ and\\ Jeanne\\ de\\ Bourbon\\ 1370\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Less\\ acute\\,\\ but\\ still\\ physical\\ likeness\\ shown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Golden\\ Horse\\ 1404\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gift\\ of\\ Isabeau\\ de\\ Baviere\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\ king\\ Charles\\ VI\\ for\\ New\\ Year\\ 1504\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Art\\ but\\ also\\ like\\ treasure\\ \\(gold\\,\\ jewels\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\&mdash\\;like\\ cash\\ reserve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Given\\ to\\ a\\ pilgrimage\\ church\\ in\\ Germany\\:\\ therefore\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cash\\ it\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ of\\ gold\\,\\ pearls\\,\\ ruby\\,\\ sapphire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mary\\,\\ child\\ JC\\,\\ lamb\\ of\\ St\\.\\ John\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psalter\\ of\\ Saint\\ Louis\\:\\ Battle\\ of\\ Jericho\\ and\\ Abraham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\ of\\ Jean\\ de\\ Berry\\ \\(a\\ book\\ of\\ prayers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Duke\\ praying\\ to\\ the\\ Virgin\\ and\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duke\\ introduced\\ by\\ John\\ \\ \\;the\\ Baptist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Duke\\ is\\ portrayed\\ in\\ likeness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simpler\\ and\\ grander\\ than\\ the\\ manuscript\\ paintings\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacquemart\\ de\\ Hesdin\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carrying\\ of\\ cross\\ by\\ Christ\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Used\\ the\\ same\\ arrangement\\ as\\ Simone\\ Martini\\ sienese\\ in\\ Avignon\\ 1330s\\ \\(but\\ changed\\ details\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tres\\ riches\\ Heures\\ for\\ Jean\\ de\\ Berry\\ left\\ unfinished\\ 1416\\ by\\ Limbourgh\\ brothers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\January\\:\\ the\\ Duke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Banquet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\February\\:\\ cold\\,\\ can\\ see\\ inside\\ the\\ house\\ warming\\ themselves\\ by\\ the\\ fire\\ \\(very\\ realistic\\ depiction\\ esp\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ Psalter\\&mdash\\;showing\\ as\\ we\\ live\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boucicault\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flight\\ to\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Book\\ of\\ Hours\\ of\\ Marshal\\ Boucicault\\ c\\.1410\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Amci\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nativity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ manger\\ turned\\ around\\ for\\ the\\ images\\&mdash\\;to\\ represent\\ 3D\\ on\\ flat\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aiming\\ for\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Meeting\\ of\\ the\\ Magi\\ with\\ the\\ Chateau\\ of\\ Mehun\\-sur\\-Yevre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 4\\:\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jan\\ Van\\ Eyck\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Van\\ Eyck\\ is\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ first\\ of\\ painters\\,\\ prince\\ of\\ painters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ghent\\ Alterpiece\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Early\\ 1430s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ painting\\ that\\ has\\ his\\ name\\/dates\\,\\ Largest\\ he\\ ever\\ made\\ \\(\\~5m\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represents\\ God\\,\\ Virgin\\,\\ St\\.\\ John\\,\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\,\\ saints\\,\\ sacrificial\\ lamb\\ on\\ altar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Altar\\ with\\ iconography\\,\\ celebrates\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ understand\\ novelty\\,\\ what\\ was\\ appreciated\\ in\\ him\\ by\\ contemporaries\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ he\\ captured\\ precious\\ materials\\ and\\ texture\\,\\ gold\\ brocade\\&mdash\\;Christ\\ is\\ wearing\\ a\\ tiara\\ that\\ has\\ unpredecented\\ meticuous\\ details\\,\\ Sense\\ of\\ splendor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\JVE\\-\\ hired\\ by\\ Philip\\ of\\ Burgundy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Embroiderer\\-\\ Thierry\\ du\\ Chastel\\,\\ brought\\ to\\ burgundy\\ as\\ best\\ embroiderer\\ of\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TDC\\-\\ virtually\\ unkown\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ art\\;\\ embroidery\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ considered\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15th\\ century\\:\\ embroidered\\ art\\ sets\\ tone\\,\\ which\\ JVE\\ tried\\ to\\ match\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Altarpiece\\ had\\ two\\ panels\\:\\ Dossel\\ \\(on\\ top\\)\\ and\\ Antependium\\ \\(suspended\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Embroidery\\-\\ a\\ good\\ embroiderer\\ can\\ capture\\ almost\\ as\\ much\\ detail\\ as\\ a\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Use\\ 2\\ techniques\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Needle\\ painting\\:\\ for\\ faces\\ and\\ hands\\,\\ exposed\\ parts\\ of\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Simple\\ stitch\\,\\ very\\ densely\\ packed\\ layer\\ of\\ silk\\ over\\ underground\\ \\(linen\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ you\\ apply\\ something\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ linen\\.\\ \\ \\;Allows\\ for\\ very\\ detailed\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ St\\.\\ John\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ kinds\\ of\\ details\\ are\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;For\\ textiles\\,\\ vestments\\,\\ background\\,\\ use\\ shaded\\ gold\\.\\ \\ \\;Cover\\ lineen\\ with\\ gold\\ from\\ side\\ to\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;Use\\ silk\\.\\ \\ \\;Narrow\\ distance\\ between\\ stitches\\ so\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ gold\\ shimmers\\ through\\ \\(the\\ wider\\ the\\ distance\\,\\ the\\ more\\ gold\\,\\ light\\,\\ the\\ less\\ distance\\,\\ the\\ darker\\ it\\ is\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ this\\ technique\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ embroidery\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\ \\(moths\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Combination\\ of\\ 2\\ techniques\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;variety\\ of\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lots\\ of\\ detail\\ in\\ embroidery\\&mdash\\;tone\\ of\\ body\\,\\ muscles\\ very\\ precise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drawing\\ of\\ embroidery\\:\\ schematization\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ volume\\ has\\ been\\ attained\\.\\ \\ \\;Shows\\ direction\\ of\\ stitches\\;\\ helps\\ suggest\\ form\\ and\\ volume\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Picture\\ depends\\ on\\ shifting\\ light\\ and\\ position\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thierry\\ Du\\ Chastel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Duke\\&mdash\\;conflict\\ with\\ the\\ countess\\ of\\ Holland\\ \\à\\;\\ Duel\\.\\ \\ \\;TDC\\ asked\\ to\\ embroider\\ things\\ for\\ horses\\ for\\ duel\\ \\(never\\ happens\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Has\\ 3\\ months\\ to\\ finish\\.\\ \\ \\;Put\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ pope\\ gave\\ Philip\\ a\\ gift\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ of\\ Christ\\ bleeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sacred\\ host\\ of\\ Dijon\\-\\ both\\ this\\ and\\ embroidery\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ Order\\ of\\ the\\ Fleece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\50\\ people\\ working\\ on\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\ smaller\\ panels\\ with\\ prophests\\/apostles\\ \\+\\ 2\\ central\\ ones\\ \\=\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Every\\ panel\\ has\\ 2\\ pieces\\ \\-\\ Applique\\ \\+\\ Figure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TDC\\ did\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ main\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juxtapose\\ impage\\ of\\ trinity\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ virgin\\,\\ child\\ and\\ john\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ has\\ a\\ different\\ feel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Right\\ panel\\ \\(Virgin\\)\\=\\ 1430s\\ \\(\\?\\)\\,\\ old\\-fashioned\\ stylistically\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Left\\ panel\\=\\ on\\ cutting\\ edge\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ left\\ panel\\ really\\ good\\ to\\ accommodate\\ host\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hand\\ of\\ virgin\\-can\\ see\\ bones\\,\\ forces\\ aplied\\ to\\ womb\\,\\ extension\\ of\\ arm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christ\\ displays\\ his\\ wounds\\,\\ on\\ back\\ of\\ hand\\,\\ in\\ palm\\,\\ on\\ feet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Burgundy\\-\\ wanted\\ embroidered\\ pieces\\,\\ spent\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Actually\\,\\ painting\\ tries\\ to\\ mimic\\ effects\\ of\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\JVE\\-\\ expert\\ in\\ rendering\\ tecture\\.\\ Succeeds\\ in\\ conveying\\ the\\ wealth\\ of\\ brocade\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ is\\ cheaper\\,\\ oil\\ pigment\\ allows\\ for\\ better\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ \\ \\;Embroidery\\ was\\ medium\\ of\\ choice\\ for\\ duke\\ of\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Henri\\ du\\ chastel\\ \\-\\ embroiderer\\ or\\ the\\ duke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Juxtaposed\\ it\\ with\\ van\\ eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Depreciation\\ of\\ precious\\ materials\\ shifts\\ towards\\ the\\ appreciation\\ of\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ precious\\ materials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Suggests\\ tremendous\\ wealth\\ towards\\ a\\ fraction\\ of\\ the\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Today\\ explore\\ how\\ painting\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ outdo\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Rogier\\ van\\ der\\ weyden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Almost\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ van\\ eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Inw\\ hat\\ is\\ now\\ Belgium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ \\"\\;deposition\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ mid\\ 1430s\\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Deposition\\ of\\ christ\\ from\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Virgin\\ is\\ in\\ blue\\,\\ mary\\ magdalene\\ on\\ right\\,\\ saint\\ john\\ holding\\ christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Meant\\ to\\ be\\ representation\\ of\\ really\\ shallow\\ box\\ of\\ sorts\\ \\-\\ everyone\\ pushed\\ together\\,\\ ground\\ ends\\ at\\ edge\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ One\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ major\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Van\\ eyck\\ \\-\\ depends\\ of\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ texture\\,\\ der\\ weyden\\ \\-\\ master\\ of\\ psychological\\ death\\ and\\ movement\\ of\\ protagonist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Somehow\\ the\\ movement\\ reflects\\ their\\ inner\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ One\\ of\\ possible\\ authors\\ of\\ drawing\\ for\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Face\\ is\\ quite\\ simialr\\,\\ as\\ is\\ his\\ whole\\ body\\ very\\ close\\ in\\ idea\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ narrative\\ painting\\ vs\\ a\\ painting\\ that\\ depicts\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Trinity\\ \\-\\ high\\ practice\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ \\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Here\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ sacred\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Required\\ of\\ an\\ artist\\ in\\ 15th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Depiction\\ of\\ this\\ narratie\\ is\\ confined\\ in\\ this\\ suggestion\\ of\\ a\\ physical\\ spacve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ At\\ the\\ tangent\\ of\\ expanding\\ narrative\\ and\\ confined\\ space\\ that\\ he\\ displayed\\ his\\ genius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Skull\\,\\ hand\\ of\\ virgin\\,\\ and\\ foot\\ of\\ st\\ john\\ \\-\\ indicates\\ virgin\\ is\\ suffering\\ with\\ christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Suggest\\ deeper\\ level\\ of\\ meaning\\ nad\\ understanding\\ whether\\ they\\ are\\ there\\ or\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Magdalene\\ \\-\\ coneys\\ this\\ kidn\\ of\\ despair\\ that\\ has\\ talen\\ hold\\ of\\ her\\ \\-\\ her\\ arm\\ position\\ and\\ the\\ mantle\\ falling\\ from\\ her\\ shoulder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Virgin\\ is\\ really\\ undone\\ \\-\\ has\\ fainted\\,\\ her\\ garb\\ is\\ coming\\ apart\\,\\ her\\ hair\\ falling\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Magdalen\\ also\\ come\\ undone\\ with\\ scarf\\ falling\\ bc\\ she\\ came\\ running\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Christ\\ is\\ wearing\\ the\\ same\\ scarf\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ ruffles\\ as\\ virgina\\ nd\\ magdalene\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Mother\\ takes\\ off\\ her\\ veal\\ and\\ covers\\ him\\,\\ was\\ naked\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Blood\\ is\\ inside\\ the\\ cloth\\ \\-\\ died\\ b4\\ was\\ covered\\ by\\ magdalene\\ or\\ th\\ evirgin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Suggestion\\ of\\ narrative\\ depends\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Movement\\ is\\ impossible\\ in\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Back\\ to\\ top\\ of\\ handout\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Van\\ eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ 1434\\-1436\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Inscription\\ runs\\ around\\ painting\\,\\ mentioning\\ man\\ who\\ comissioned\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ author\\ and\\ who\\ commissioned\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Guy\\ who\\ commissioned\\ it\\ \\-\\ in\\ white\\,\\ was\\ a\\ cannon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ An\\ eclesiastical\\ bureaucrat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Kneeling\\ and\\ reintroduced\\ by\\ his\\ name\\-saint\\,\\ George\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Left\\ \\-\\ st\\ Donatian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ church\\ \\-\\ more\\ prominent\\ position\\,\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ the\\ virgin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Chartreuse\\ of\\ champmol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Duke\\ of\\ burgundy\\ kneeling\\,\\ praying\\ to\\ the\\ virginand\\ child\\,\\ introduced\\ by\\ patron\\ saint\\,\\ john\\ the\\ baptist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Iconogrpahyis\\ essentially\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Diff\\ medium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ N\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ sleuter\\,\\ figures\\ are\\ isolated\\ \\-\\ integrated\\ only\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ framework\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Van\\ eyck\\ \\-\\ hold\\ their\\ places\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Space\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ seems\\ to\\ reflect\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Commissioned\\ for\\ a\\ church\\ in\\ city\\ of\\ burge\\ that\\ no\\ longer\\ exists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Painting\\ itself\\ positions\\ the\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Code\\ of\\ arms\\ are\\ inscribed\\ in\\ the\\ frames\\ \\-\\ the\\ commissioner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Portrait\\ also\\ included\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Van\\ eyck\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ portray\\ living\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ First\\ to\\ paint\\ self\\ portrait\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Portrait\\ of\\ man\\ \\-\\ nicolo\\ albergati\\ \\-\\ painted\\ this\\ portrait\\ 3\\ yrs\\ after\\ they\\ met\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Van\\ eyck\\ made\\ drawing\\ in\\ preparation\\ for\\ portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Done\\ in\\ silver\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ In\\ the\\ margin\\ he\\ made\\ annotation\\ explaining\\ what\\ he\\ had\\ seen\\ \\-\\ eyes\\ brown\\ with\\ grey\\ rim\\ around\\ him\\ \\-\\ used\\ annotation\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ This\\ exactness\\ with\\ each\\ van\\ eyck\\ captures\\ this\\ that\\ holds\\ the\\ painting\\ together\\ and\\ makes\\ a\\ poin\\ about\\ its\\ essence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Van\\ eyck\\ always\\ observed\\ nature\\ when\\ made\\ his\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Applied\\ also\\ to\\ the\\ texture\\ of\\ the\\ objects\\ that\\ are\\ within\\ the\\ painting\\ \\-\\ for\\ example\\ cain\\ killing\\ able\\ and\\ sanson\\ killing\\ the\\ lion\\ sculptures\\ on\\ the\\ throne\\ of\\ the\\ virgin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Observation\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ This\\ realism\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ understand\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ very\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ of\\ van\\ eyck\\ \\(new\\ chapter\\ in\\ realism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Carpet\\ \\-\\ can\\ see\\ loose\\ ends\\,\\ and\\ the\\ bends\\ on\\ the\\ step\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Used\\ for\\ objects\\ like\\ the\\ capitol\\ \\-\\ would\\ expect\\ it\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Hope\\ f\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Abraham\\ \\-\\ prefiguration\\ of\\ eucharist\\ \\-\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Realism\\ in\\ garb\\ of\\ saint\\ donatian\\ \\-\\ clasp\\,\\ morse\\ holding\\ his\\ cape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Stones\\,\\ gold\\ rendered\\ with\\ such\\ precision\\ outdoing\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Can\\ distinguish\\ the\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\ layers\\ of\\ velvet\\ on\\ his\\ cape\\ as\\ well\\ \\-\\ outdoes\\ reality\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Uses\\ realism\\ to\\ underscore\\ the\\ location\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Some\\ of\\ th\\ eobjects\\ can\\ be\\ linked\\ to\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Description\\ of\\ processional\\ cross\\ is\\ simialr\\ to\\ the\\ one\\ depicted\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Depicts\\ st\\ donatian\\ not\\ only\\ with\\ his\\ picture\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ but\\ other\\ objects\\ that\\ represent\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ 4th\\ layer\\ in\\ which\\ vaneyck\\ infused\\ painting\\ with\\ realism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ How\\ realism\\ contributes\\ to\\ levels\\ of\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Sth\\ unreal\\ \\-\\ reflections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ St\\ george\\ \\-\\ military\\ saint\\,\\ a\\ knight\\ \\-\\ always\\ depicted\\ in\\ armor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Fantastic\\ armor\\ that\\ sets\\ this\\ knight\\ apart\\ from\\ the\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Interesting\\ helmet\\ with\\ funny\\ shape\\ spiraling\\ inwards\\ and\\ the\\ feathers\\ on\\ top\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ If\\ look\\ closer\\ can\\ actually\\ see\\ reflection\\ on\\ his\\ hat\\ of\\ the\\ virgin\\ and\\ christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Forges\\ link\\ btw\\ 2\\ of\\ th\\ eprotagonists\\ of\\ this\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Reflection\\ also\\ works\\ outwards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ If\\ look\\ at\\ shield\\,\\ find\\ another\\ reflection\\ \\-\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sth\\ not\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ \\-\\ suggests\\ an\\ onlooker\\ ble\\ gard\\,\\ red\\ hat\\ and\\ face\\,\\ holding\\ up\\ hands\\,\\ red\\ stockings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Wth\\ his\\ reflection\\,\\ van\\ eyck\\ dimished\\ the\\ threshold\\ btw\\ picture\\ and\\ life\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Boundary\\ neglected\\ by\\ reflection\\ on\\ his\\ shield\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ When\\ can\\ we\\ psotition\\ this\\ narrative\\ in\\ time\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ In\\ paradise\\ \\-\\ architecture\\?\\ Christ\\?\\ Intercessor\\ \\(saints\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Needs\\ aid\\ of\\ saints\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ virgin\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Is\\ it\\ representation\\ of\\ man\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ surroundings\\,\\ in\\ st\\ donatian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ church\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Not\\ really\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ It\\ represents\\ this\\ sort\\ of\\ wishful\\ thinking\\ of\\ state\\ he\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Be\\ in\\ presence\\ of\\ virign\\ and\\ through\\ her\\ get\\ access\\ to\\ her\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Van\\ eyck\\ \\-\\ evil\\ to\\ conjure\\ up\\ a\\ figure\\ that\\ represents\\ a\\ situation\\ he\\ wishes\\ for\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ the\\ presence\\ and\\ closeness\\ btw\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ wants\\ eternal\\ life\\ and\\ the\\ personw\\ ho\\ will\\ give\\ him\\ that\\ that\\ is\\ represented\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Iconography\\ here\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Van\\ eyck\\ and\\ his\\ contemporaries\\ who\\ praise\\ him\\ \\-\\ master\\ in\\ represneting\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ \\(in\\ 16th\\ century\\ his\\ is\\ just\\ possible\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Able\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ with\\ a\\ specific\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Van\\ eyck\\ is\\ completely\\ realiant\\ upon\\ the\\ observatoion\\ of\\ th\\ eworld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ The\\ book\\ he\\ is\\ holding\\ \\-\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Inerprested\\ as\\ signifiying\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ reading\\,\\ had\\ a\\ vision\\,\\ and\\ van\\ eyck\\ painted\\ that\\ vision\\ \\-\\ simplistic\\ notion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ What\\ is\\ most\\ remarkable\\ \\ \\;we\\ cannot\\ read\\ the\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Must\\ have\\ been\\ on\\ purpose\\ \\-\\ woul\\ dhave\\ been\\ easy\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ depict\\ real\\ text\\,\\ even\\ behind\\ th\\ etext\\ where\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ expected\\ for\\ the\\ tex\\ tto\\ be\\ blown\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Expression\\ of\\ the\\ idea\\ tat\\ this\\ painting\\ is\\ highly\\ reliant\\ on\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ real\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Realistic\\ notion\\,\\ idea\\ of\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Being\\ on\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ virgina\\ nd\\ saints\\ was\\ desired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\ 6\\:\\ Stephen\\ Wolohojian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maccio\\ and\\ the\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Italy\\ around\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Really\\ Rome\\ in\\ a\\ symbolic\\ and\\ literal\\ way\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\,\\ Rome\\ very\\ vibrant\\ place\\,\\ seat\\ of\\ incredible\\ power\\ of\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Florence\\:\\ 200min\\ N\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vibrant\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Giotto\\ \\(c\\.1277\\-1337\\)\\,\\ Bardi\\ Chapel\\,\\ c\\.1320\\,\\ Scenes\\ from\\ the\\ Life\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Francis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ urbanism\\ in\\ Italian\\ peninsula\\,\\ Francescan\\,\\ Dominican\\,\\ etc\\.\\ were\\ urban\\ orders\\ who\\ came\\ to\\ these\\ urban\\/mercantile\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Became\\ centers\\ to\\ show\\ off\\ oppulence\\ and\\ also\\ centers\\ for\\ showing\\ off\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expensive\\ buildings\\ to\\ build\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ kind\\ of\\ condominium\\ system\\:\\ you\\ could\\ own\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ chapel\\,\\ pay\\ for\\ its\\ upkeep\\,\\ and\\ even\\ sell\\ it\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ spaces\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ altar\\ more\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burial\\ chapels\\:\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ have\\ \\(secure\\ a\\ place\\ in\\ heaven\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Masaccio\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\)\\,\\ 1401\\-28\\/29\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transformed\\ how\\ we\\ imagined\\ painters\\&mdash\\;mutually\\ informed\\ by\\ mathematicians\\,\\ physicians\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Pisa\\ Altarpiece\\ \\(Maesta\\)\\,\\ 1426\\,\\ originally\\ in\\ Santa\\ Maria\\ del\\ Carmine\\,\\ Pisa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Central\\ image\\ of\\ Virgin\\ with\\ baby\\ Christ\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monumentality\\ of\\ Virgin\\ figure\\:\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ has\\ actual\\ weight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virgin\\ sitting\\ on\\ a\\ throne\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christ\\ taking\\ grace\\ from\\ his\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\:\\ symbolizes\\ eucharist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ squeezing\\ and\\ eating\\ grapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virgin\\ showing\\ the\\ savior\\ \\(Christ\\)\\ to\\ the\\ beholder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Light\\ being\\ broken\\ and\\ locked\\&mdash\\;shadows\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ image\\ of\\ Christ\\ on\\ cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meant\\ to\\ be\\ hung\\ above\\ the\\ Madonna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ complete\\ the\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\,\\ Masaccio\\ painted\\ Christ\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ neck\\&rdquo\\;\\ since\\ you\\ would\\ be\\ looking\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ you\\ would\\ see\\ if\\ Christ\\ were\\ hanging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Trinity\\,\\ 1426\\-27\\,\\ Florence\\,\\ Snata\\ Maria\\ Novella\\,\\ possibly\\ commissioned\\ by\\ Domenico\\ Lenzi\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mathematical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virgin\\ Mary\\ and\\ St\\.\\ John\\ on\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ base\\ of\\ cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ the\\ patrons\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ feet\\ of\\ Mary\\ and\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ chapels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dialogue\\ between\\ thesis\\ and\\ antithesis\\ playing\\ important\\ role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Your\\ presence\\ necessary\\ to\\ complete\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ looking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Lenzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ in\\ real\\ space\\,\\ and\\ then\\ beyond\\ is\\ the\\ fictional\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mathematical\\ construct\\ made\\ by\\ an\\ architect\\ in\\ 1450\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1435\\:\\ Alberti\\ theorized\\ this\\ in\\ writing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ chapel\\ built\\ 25\\ years\\ later\\ copied\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;architecture\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ and\\ actually\\ built\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roman\\ classical\\ feel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ monuments\\ serve\\ as\\ academies\\ for\\ future\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imitation\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stories\\ from\\ St\\.\\ Peter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Space\\ as\\ dynamic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stories\\ on\\ two\\ levels\\ \\(we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ focusing\\ on\\ upper\\ register\\ and\\ micracle\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Peter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\May\\ have\\ been\\ begun\\ by\\ Masolino\\ and\\ continued\\ by\\ Masaccio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ must\\ be\\ an\\ established\\ plan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ upper\\ register\\,\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ have\\ old\\ testament\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ in\\ paradise\\ painted\\ by\\ Masolino\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\except\\ for\\ the\\ darker\\ skin\\ of\\ Adam\\,\\ not\\ much\\ difference\\ in\\ anatomy\\ description\\ of\\ Eve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expulsion\\ on\\ other\\ side\\ by\\ Masaccio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Actually\\ in\\ psychological\\ turmoil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Real\\ world\\ made\\ visible\\ by\\ the\\ shadows\\:\\ these\\ figures\\ are\\ now\\ experiencing\\ our\\ real\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dialogue\\:\\ Adam\\ holding\\ his\\ head\\ \\(he\\ should\\ have\\ been\\ thinking\\)\\,\\ Eve\\ is\\ all\\ sadness\\/rage\\ \\(rethinking\\ of\\ the\\ sculpture\\ of\\ Modest\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christianity\\ looking\\ to\\ antiquity\\ for\\ inspiration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Panoramic\\ image\\ of\\ Tribute\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ telling\\ Peter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entire\\ narrative\\ set\\ on\\ one\\ stage\\ to\\ give\\ us\\ our\\ own\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scene\\ on\\ other\\ side\\ by\\ Masolino\\,\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ focus\\ useless\\ in\\ telling\\ us\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ in\\ the\\ Tribute\\ money\\ picture\\,\\ the\\ progression\\ of\\ narrative\\ clear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eyes\\ all\\ in\\ line\\,\\ and\\ heads\\ all\\ in\\ row\\&mdash\\;like\\ in\\ classic\\ roman\\ sculpture\\ panels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ wood\\&mdash\\;stump\\ infers\\ to\\ cross\\&mdash\\;completely\\ the\\ story\\ began\\ by\\ expulsion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 7\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\:\\ Art\\ and\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prof\\.\\ Frank\\ Fehrenbach\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Tuesday\\ October\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ close\\ connection\\ between\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ and\\ his\\ biography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ Vinci\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anchiano\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Father\\ was\\ a\\ notary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Was\\ very\\ close\\ to\\ ruling\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mother\\ was\\ young\\ unmarried\\ peasant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ father\\ accepted\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\ finished\\ elementary\\ school\\ but\\ never\\ went\\ to\\ middle\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ training\\ in\\ Latin\\,\\ Algebra\\,\\ Geometry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hinted\\ towards\\ a\\ very\\ strong\\ inclination\\ to\\ art\\ at\\ a\\ very\\ young\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1466\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 14\\ year\\ old\\ Leonardo\\ worked\\ in\\ famous\\ workshops\\ of\\ Florence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pope\\ John\\ XXIII\\ was\\ buried\\ in\\ Florence\\ and\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ master\\ Medici\\ was\\ commissioned\\ to\\ create\\ his\\ tomb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1481\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ accepted\\ demand\\ of\\ Medici\\ to\\ leave\\ Florence\\ and\\ go\\ to\\ Milan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sforza\\ Monument\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brought\\ Leonardo\\ closer\\ to\\ Duke\\ of\\ Milan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ Defined\\ Himself\\ as\\ a\\ creator\\ of\\ war\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Art\\ was\\ actually\\ the\\ last\\ skill\\ he\\ recognized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Digression\\ from\\ contemporary\\ expression\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;of\\ Leonardo\\ the\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\ had\\ problems\\ running\\ an\\ autonomous\\ workshop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Autonomy\\ reveals\\ his\\ need\\ to\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Escaped\\ the\\ competitive\\ spirit\\ of\\ Florence\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ Milan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ went\\ to\\ Venice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Richest\\ city\\ in\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Venice\\ had\\ no\\ charismatic\\ leader\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Led\\ to\\ Leonardo\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ Venice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1516\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Moved\\ back\\ to\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Worked\\ for\\ King\\ Francis\\ the\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ became\\ fierce\\ competitor\\ in\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1519\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ died\\ in\\ the\\ arms\\ of\\ the\\ king\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ was\\ fascinated\\ by\\ motion\\ and\\ movement\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ fascination\\ with\\ properties\\ of\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ obsessed\\ with\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scientific\\ endeavors\\,\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ explain\\ everything\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hydrology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Observations\\ of\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ fluids\\ in\\ motion\\,\\ w\\/\\ or\\ without\\ obstacles\\ and\\ denser\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anatomy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Human\\ bodies\\ complicated\\ dynamics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blood\\ flow\\,\\ muscle\\ movement\\,\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Draws\\ the\\ arm\\ and\\ neck\\ of\\ an\\ old\\ man\\ from\\ several\\ viewpoints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Embryo\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ was\\ also\\ obsessed\\ with\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Botanical\\ studies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Studies\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Optical\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Became\\ dynamics\\ of\\ space\\ and\\ reflection\\/refraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Struggles\\ for\\ years\\ to\\ understand\\ impetus\\ for\\ external\\ bodies\\ moved\\ by\\ force\\ and\\ their\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\ defines\\ painting\\ as\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painting\\ is\\ philosophy\\ because\\ it\\ deals\\ with\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ believed\\ that\\ a\\ great\\ painting\\ could\\ represent\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adoration\\ of\\ Magi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Left\\ the\\ painting\\ unfinished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ Idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pushes\\ perspective\\ elements\\ in\\ middle\\ ground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ create\\ circular\\ space\\ around\\ Madonna\\ with\\ children\\ in\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1495\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ received\\ his\\ most\\ prestigious\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ to\\ paint\\ a\\ fresco\\ of\\ a\\ great\\ battle\\ but\\ never\\ finished\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ last\\ Supper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apostles\\ after\\ he\\ has\\ just\\ told\\ them\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ betrayed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sent\\ shockwaves\\ through\\ the\\ apostles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ individuals\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ seem\\ to\\ large\\ and\\ powerful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leads\\ to\\ new\\ conception\\ of\\ monuments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ People\\ much\\ larger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perspective\\ of\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ more\\ distant\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ the\\ more\\ blue\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ painted\\ with\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ contours\\ it\\ should\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Should\\ not\\ be\\ clear\\ depiction\\ of\\ something\\ far\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sfumato\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Reduction\\ of\\ distinctive\\ contours\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reduces\\ inflammation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leads\\ to\\ much\\ more\\ realistic\\ depiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\6\\ Inerva\\ da\\ Baci\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Almost\\ full\\ faced\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;very\\ opaque\\ mood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indefinable\\ expression\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ thoughtlessness\\/sadness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oscillation\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ceceila\\ Galterani\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ a\\ smile\\ on\\ her\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mona\\ Lisa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Combination\\ of\\ interest\\ in\\ dynamics\\ and\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ facial\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ us\\ but\\ not\\ looking\\ at\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ halves\\ of\\ the\\ face\\ very\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paradoxical\\ unity\\ of\\ timelessness\\ and\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Draftsmanship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nymphia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Instability\\ of\\ attitudes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Curved\\ hatching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawing\\ became\\ an\\ experimental\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 8\\:\\ Albrecht\\ Durer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Professor\\ Joseph\\ Leo\\ Koerner\\:\\ Albrecht\\ Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Albrecht\\ Durer\\:\\ iconical\\ master\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ was\\ audacious\\ enough\\ to\\ represent\\ himself\\ as\\ Chirst\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ artist\\ before\\ him\\ had\\ so\\ global\\ a\\ reach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rhino\\ print\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ standard\\ for\\ rhinos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tehcniques\\ of\\ turning\\ vision\\ of\\ world\\ into\\ crafted\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ sending\\ pictures\\ into\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prints\\ in\\ renaissance\\ in\\ North\\:\\ how\\ paintings\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Printing\\ change\\ how\\ messages\\ both\\ verbal\\ and\\ printed\\ were\\ conveyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ first\\ artist\\ to\\ brand\\ his\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Put\\ himself\\ in\\ everything\\ he\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Always\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ self\\-portraiture\\:\\ work\\ crafter\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ skill\\ and\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speaking\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ Picasso\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ Warhol\\&rdquo\\;\\ following\\ in\\ Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ footsteps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ as\\ celebrity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nuremberg\\ had\\ been\\ central\\ to\\ German\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symbolic\\ center\\ of\\ Holy\\ Roman\\ Empire\\:\\ treasures\\ displayed\\ periodically\\ to\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ lived\\ in\\ Nuremberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ golden\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reich\\ synonymous\\ to\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treasures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hero\\ of\\ this\\ golden\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ his\\ physical\\ body\\ revered\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ saints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fellow\\ artists\\ exhumed\\ him\\ and\\ took\\ casts\\ of\\ his\\ face\\ and\\ cut\\ a\\ lock\\ of\\ his\\ hair\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ hair\\ was\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ his\\ self\\ image\\ and\\ to\\ his\\ self\\-portraits\\&mdash\\;hair\\ demonstrates\\ skill\\ in\\ texture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Supreme\\ master\\ of\\ perfect\\,\\ descriptive\\ lines\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-portraits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\About\\ 13\\ in\\ total\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nude\\ self\\-portrait\\ first\\ in\\ art\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ drawing\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ was\\ drawing\\ to\\ work\\ out\\ a\\ specific\\ posture\\&mdash\\;himself\\ as\\ a\\ convenient\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Melancoly\\:\\ during\\ the\\ period\\ seen\\ as\\ malady\\ of\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1500\\:\\ the\\ optimism\\ of\\ the\\ Northern\\ Renaissance\\ focused\\ on\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\seems\\ balanced\\ and\\ symmetrical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paints\\ him\\ front\\ and\\ center\\ instead\\ of\\ turned\\ slightly\\ so\\ that\\ could\\ present\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ fashion\\ of\\ an\\ icon\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\same\\ ideal\\ porportions\\ as\\ in\\ iconography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ changed\\ his\\ hair\\ color\\ to\\ brown\\ to\\ look\\ more\\ like\\ JC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rather\\ than\\ likening\\ himself\\ to\\ Christ\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\According\\ to\\ myth\\,\\ Christ\\ made\\ images\\ of\\ himself\\ in\\ print\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweat\\-cloth\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;the\\ true\\ image\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ the\\ reality\\ is\\ made\\ not\\ found\\&mdash\\;Northern\\ Renaissance\\ artists\\ shook\\ up\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ depicted\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ stage\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;perfect\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ tuft\\ of\\ fur\\ in\\ between\\ his\\ fingers\\ is\\ the\\ climax\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\&mdash\\;not\\ looking\\ out\\ at\\ us\\,\\ but\\ touching\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seemingly\\ directed\\ towards\\ us\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ towards\\ himself\\ inspecting\\,\\ thinking\\ of\\,\\ touching\\ himself\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Of\\ 18\\ siblings\\,\\ only\\ one\\ to\\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nuremberg\\:\\ local\\ industries\\ striving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ paper\\ mill\\ in\\ Europe\\:\\ importance\\ of\\ printing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protectionist\\ trade\\ deals\\ made\\ illegal\\ so\\ that\\ many\\ foreign\\ traders\\ came\\ \\(father\\ came\\ from\\ Hungary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Father\\ and\\ mother\\ had\\ high\\ hopes\\ for\\ him\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Father\\:\\ goldsmith\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ valued\\ worksmen\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ showed\\ precocious\\ talent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ barely\\ 13\\,\\ done\\ his\\ first\\ self\\-portrait\\ in\\ silver\\-point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1484\\:\\ done\\ \\&rdquo\\;when\\ I\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ boy\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;suggests\\ he\\ was\\ writing\\ for\\ posterity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\earliest\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drawing\\ know\\ in\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;genius\\:\\ god\\-given\\ source\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;as\\ Durer\\ himself\\ described\\ his\\ talent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Father\\ wanted\\ Durer\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ goldsmith\\,\\ but\\ let\\ him\\ be\\ an\\ apprentice\\ to\\ an\\ artist\\ with\\ the\\ biggest\\ workshop\\ in\\ Nuremberg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nuremberg\\ chronicles\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ projects\\ undertaken\\ in\\ workshop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fueled\\ Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ passion\\ in\\ collecting\\ and\\ intellectual\\ curiosity\\ of\\ world\\ around\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Went\\ on\\ to\\ Schongauer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ workshop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ learn\\ his\\ techniques\\ \\(S\\ was\\ also\\ trained\\ as\\ goldsmith\\)\\ and\\ then\\ quickly\\ surpassed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-portrait\\,\\ Hand\\-Study\\,\\ Pillow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taking\\ graphic\\ world\\ into\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2D\\ to\\ 3D\\ back\\ to\\ 2D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\travel\\ lasted\\ for\\ 4\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\important\\ lessons\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\economics\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\when\\ returned\\ home\\,\\ had\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ business\\ deals\\ of\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wife\\ came\\ with\\ 200\\ florins\\&mdash\\;small\\ fortune\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dowry\\ bought\\ him\\ workshop\\,\\ social\\ status\\ from\\ a\\ daughter\\ of\\ a\\ local\\ important\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ he\\ was\\ never\\ close\\ to\\ Agnes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Soon\\ traveled\\ to\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ able\\ to\\ merge\\ German\\ and\\ Italian\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Venice\\,\\ lodged\\ in\\ the\\ German\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Captured\\ clash\\ of\\ cultures\\ in\\ Nuremberg\\ and\\ Italian\\ Woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Italian\\ nudes\\ drew\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiemented\\ in\\ Italian\\ style\\ nudes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believed\\ that\\ Italians\\ got\\ their\\ secret\\ skills\\ from\\ antiquity\\ \\(Anceint\\ Rome\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Andrea\\ Mantega\\,\\ Dead\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drew\\ copies\\ of\\ Andrea\\ Mantega\\ but\\ also\\ made\\ it\\ his\\ own\\ by\\ making\\ lines\\ his\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Italian\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linear\\ perspective\\:\\ like\\ an\\ open\\ window\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Illustrated\\ the\\ process\\ and\\ wrote\\ instructions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Especially\\ relished\\ in\\ the\\ exceptional\\ position\\ Italian\\ artists\\ in\\ Italy\\ vs\\.\\ how\\ artists\\ treated\\ in\\ Germany\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Italy\\&mdash\\;arts\\ seen\\ as\\ liberal\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ 498\\ self\\-portrait\\ depictes\\ him\\ in\\ flowery\\ clothing\\&mdash\\;as\\ a\\ gentleman\\&mdash\\;as\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\,\\ with\\ the\\ window\\ looking\\ southward\\ toward\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Apocalypse\\ series\\ 1496\\-8\\ \\(the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ world\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ book\\ illustrated\\ by\\ a\\ famous\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ Durer\\ extremely\\ famous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Printing\\ press\\ revolutionized\\ information\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ dissemination\\ of\\ the\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ the\\ printing\\ press\\ artists\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Multiplied\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ efforts\\ and\\ his\\ audience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Invented\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;arts\\ market\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Embraced\\ the\\ new\\ invention\\ and\\ prosper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throughout\\ his\\ life\\,\\ Durer\\ was\\ plagued\\ by\\ plagarism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ monogram\\ was\\ the\\ final\\ stamp\\ of\\ his\\ fame\\&mdash\\;his\\ trademark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ his\\ greatest\\ trademark\\ was\\ himself\\&mdash\\;even\\ images\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\(this\\ one\\ is\\ of\\ him\\ suffering\\ because\\ I\\ was\\ sick\\ while\\ painting\\ this\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1505\\,\\ Venice\\ treated\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ celebrity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Went\\ to\\ Netherlands\\ to\\ sell\\ his\\ prints\\ to\\ make\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ actually\\ lost\\ money\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ less\\ practical\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ world\\ artifacts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Antwerp\\ welcomed\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ celebrity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ was\\ very\\ curious\\:\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ mythic\\,\\ the\\ novel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ to\\ submit\\ his\\ nature\\ studies\\ as\\ finished\\ works\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ prints\\ turning\\ folklore\\ into\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ focus\\ on\\ nature\\ affected\\ artists\\ after\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Animate\\ the\\ painting\\/scene\\ with\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landscape\\ as\\ the\\ central\\ of\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Durer\\,\\ art\\ and\\ science\\ were\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tried\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ secret\\ of\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thought\\ was\\ mathematical\\,\\ but\\ search\\ ended\\ with\\ no\\ resolution\\ and\\ resignation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Search\\ for\\ ideal\\ type\\:\\ like\\ Apollo\\,\\ Christian\\ myths\\ \\(transposes\\ Apollo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figure\\ into\\ Adam\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ student\\ turns\\ Adam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\ into\\ image\\ of\\ death\\ because\\ through\\ Adam\\,\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ and\\ die\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Studies\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ works\\ wit\\ measures\\ and\\ geometry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ pessimism\\ in\\ Durer\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ exhibited\\ by\\ his\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Melencolia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ described\\ himself\\ as\\ melencolic\\ as\\ geniuses\\ should\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dream\\ vision\\ of\\ apocalyptic\\ vision\\ in\\ water\\ colors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anxiety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contracted\\ malaria\\ in\\ netherlands\\ and\\ died\\ from\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paradox\\:\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ own\\ trademark\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ bigger\\ market\\ for\\ his\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ultimate\\ marvel\\ wa\\ shimself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ \\ \\;9\\:\\ Bruegel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 14\\,\\ 2008\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Professor\\ Joseph\\ Leo\\ Koerner\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\ and\\ the\\ Invention\\ of\\ Everyday\\ Life\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Peasant\\ Wedding\\,\\ 1568\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\ at\\ the\\ Foot\\ of\\ a\\ Tree\\,\\ with\\ Studies\\ of\\ the\\ Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Hand\\ and\\ Drapery\\,\\ front\\ and\\ back\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ sheet\\,\\ 1491\\-2\\,\\ pen\\ and\\ ink\\,\\ London\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Raphael\\,\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\ with\\ St\\.\\ John\\ the\\ Baptist\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1505\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Peasant\\ Dance\\,\\ 1568\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Games\\,\\ 1560\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ The\\ Tower\\ of\\ Babel\\,\\ 15590\\-60\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Peasant\\ and\\ Bird\\-Nester\\,\\ 1568\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Hunters\\ in\\ the\\ Snow\\,\\ 1565\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\ \\(and\\ Shop\\?\\)\\,\\ The\\ Fall\\ of\\ Icarus\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\ perhaps\\ transferred\\ from\\ panel\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1558\\,\\ Brussels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Magi\\ in\\ the\\ Snow\\,\\ 1563\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Wintertur\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\INTRO\\ TO\\ BRUEGAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Christ\\ Carrying\\ the\\ Cross\\,\\ 1564\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ event\\ is\\ taking\\ place\\ here\\?\\ \\-\\ We\\ know\\ a\\ biblical\\ event\\ is\\ taking\\ place\\ here\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ find\\ it\\ immediately\\ \\-\\ Where\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Waldo\\ piece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exact\\ center\\ \\-\\ Christ\\ carrying\\ the\\ cross\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mourners\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ \\-\\ stand\\ out\\ due\\ to\\ typical\\ Biblical\\ dress\\.\\ Different\\ than\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eventually\\ we\\ see\\ Golgatha\\ \\(the\\ dark\\ circle\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\ right\\)\\.\\ Dark\\ circling\\ birds\\ \\-\\ torture\\ wheel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ whole\\ process\\ of\\ discovering\\ what\\ the\\ picture\\ is\\ about\\ is\\ a\\ SLOW\\ one\\ \\-\\ the\\ story\\ Bruegal\\ paints\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ impulse\\ to\\ LOOK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impulse\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ rhymes\\ with\\ the\\ human\\ impulse\\ to\\ star\\ at\\ suffering\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ traffic\\ slowing\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ car\\ accidents\\,\\ Monty\\ Python\\ scene\\,\\ children\\ gathering\\ to\\ watch\\ Christ\\&\\#39\\;s\\ crucifixion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ story\\ is\\ told\\ through\\ a\\ formal\\ qualities\\ \\(Professor\\ calls\\ it\\ a\\ formal\\ echo\\)\\ \\-\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ \\(as\\ always\\)\\ relates\\ to\\ its\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ up\\-close\\ upper\\ right\\ corner\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\:\\ the\\ torture\\ wheel\\ matches\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ onlookers\\.\\ Cruel\\ curiousity\\ is\\ indeed\\ Christ\\&\\#39\\;s\\ torment\\,\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ physical\\ act\\ of\\ being\\ crucified\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ example\\:\\ Microscopic\\ effects\\ being\\ magnified\\.\\ \\ \\;March\\ of\\ people\\ around\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ The\\ earth\\ has\\ scars\\ from\\ this\\ march\\ \\-\\ circle\\ has\\ been\\ worn\\ down\\ \\-\\ history\\ is\\ constantly\\ being\\ repeated\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ mythical\\ story\\ \\-\\ everyday\\ life\\ \\-\\ grinding\\ indifference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\+\\ Matches\\ with\\ a\\ new\\ scientific\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ geological\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ during\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bruegal\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ extremely\\ pessimistic\\ worldview\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ he\\ get\\ here\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rogier\\ van\\ der\\ Weyden\\,\\ Descent\\ from\\ the\\ Cross\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1435\\-8\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Madrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Peasant\\ and\\ Bird\\-Nester\\,\\ 1568\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Joannes\\ and\\ Lucas\\ van\\ Doetecum\\ after\\ Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Prospectus\\ Tybertinus\\ \\(View\\ of\\ Tivoli\\)\\,\\ 1555\\-6\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Engraving\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BRUEGAL\\ BIOGRAPHY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ shady\\ biography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birth\\ myths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Option\\ 1\\:\\ Born\\ into\\ peasantry\\.\\ \\ \\;Portrays\\ peasants\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Option\\ 2\\:\\ Born\\ into\\ wealth\\.\\ Cosmopolitan\\ world\\ traveler\\.\\ Interested\\ in\\ peasantry\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ held\\ from\\ peasantry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interested\\ in\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ human\\ creativity\\ and\\ natural\\ creativity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethnographic\\ curiosity\\ or\\ curious\\ ethnographer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Peasant\\ Wedding\\,\\ 1568\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Alpine\\ Landscape\\,\\ 1553\\,\\ pen\\ and\\ brown\\ ink\\,\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Mountain\\ Landscape\\ with\\ Italian\\ Cloister\\,\\ 1552\\,\\ pen\\ and\\ brown\\ ink\\,\\ Berlin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Vie\\ of\\ Reggio\\ in\\ Calabria\\ \\(Italy\\)\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1552\\,\\ pen\\ and\\ ink\\,\\ Rotterdam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ we\\ first\\ meet\\ Bruegal\\ \\-\\ landscapes\\ of\\ a\\ world\\ traveler\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ are\\ landscapes\\ of\\ land\\ south\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ANTWERP\\ AND\\ ITS\\ IMPORTANT\\ IN\\ BRUEGAL\\&\\#39\\;S\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mechisedech\\ van\\ Hooren\\,\\ View\\ of\\ Antwerp\\,\\ 1562\\,\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frans\\ Huys\\ after\\ Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Armed\\ Three\\ Master\\ with\\ Daedalus\\ and\\ Icarus\\,\\ 1561\\-2\\,\\ engraving\\ and\\ etching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ Antwerp\\ \\-\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ the\\ trade\\ capital\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;Cultivated\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ laissez\\-faire\\.\\ \\ \\;Economic\\ connection\\ to\\ Bruegal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ art\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frans\\ Hogenberg\\,\\ World\\ Map\\,\\ hand\\-colored\\ engraving\\,\\ from\\ Abraham\\ Ortelius\\&rsquo\\;\\ Theatrum\\ Orbis\\ Terrarum\\ \\(Anterp\\ 1570\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ know\\ that\\ he\\ returned\\ to\\ Antwerp\\ around\\ 1554\\ \\-\\ dear\\ friends\\ with\\ mapmakers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Geography\\ \\-\\ creation\\ of\\ worldview\\.\\ \\ \\;Creation\\ of\\ atlases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Aertsen\\,\\ Butcher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Stall\\,\\ 1551\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Upsala\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Giorgio\\ Ghisi\\ after\\ Michelangelo\\,\\ Last\\ Judgement\\,\\ 1550\\,\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ humanism\\ in\\ action\\ in\\ Antwerp\\ \\-\\ open\\,\\ creative\\ minds\\.\\ \\ \\;Revival\\ of\\ the\\ Classics\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ of\\ large\\ scale\\ publishing\\ \\-\\ Bible\\ in\\ many\\ languages\\.\\ \\ \\;Critical\\ minds\\ at\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ 300\\ artist\\ workshps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divided\\ by\\ subject\\ matter\\:\\ portraits\\,\\ landscapes\\,\\ historical\\ art\\,\\ sausage\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bundles\\ of\\ projects\\ without\\ patrons\\ \\-\\ distancing\\ of\\ the\\ sacred\\.\\ \\ \\;Works\\ could\\ be\\ done\\ with\\ freedom\\ from\\ patron\\&\\#39\\;s\\ desires\\ \\-\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ Butcher\\&\\#39\\;s\\ stall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BRUEGAL\\ \\-\\ LANDSCAPIST\\ AND\\ IMITATOR\\ OF\\ HIERONYMOUS\\ BOSCH\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Joannes\\ and\\ Lucas\\ van\\ Doetecum\\ after\\ Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ The\\ Large\\ Alpine\\ Landscape\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1555\\-6\\,\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditional\\ strength\\ of\\ North\\ European\\ Art\\:\\ \\ \\;landscapes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ the\\ Alps\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ beautiful\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;Strange\\ \\-\\ grotesque\\.\\ \\ \\;Monsterous\\.\\ \\ \\;Related\\ to\\ sin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Lust\\,\\ 1557\\,\\ pen\\ and\\ brown\\ ink\\,\\ Brussels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ Garden\\ of\\ Delights\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1505\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panels\\,\\ Madrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bruegal\\ may\\ have\\ obtained\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ pessimistic\\ worldview\\ from\\ Bosch\\.\\ \\ \\;Disparities\\,\\ fantastical\\ creatures\\,\\ nightmares\\,\\ devilish\\ tree\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Garden\\ of\\ Delights\\ has\\ no\\ known\\ story\\ \\-\\ just\\ an\\ unbounded\\,\\ lustful\\ utopia\\,\\ a\\ \\"\\;no\\ place\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\ \\(and\\ Shop\\)\\,\\ Seven\\ Deadly\\ Sins\\ and\\ Last\\ Four\\ Things\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1490\\,\\ Madrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inscription\\:\\ \\"\\;Beware\\,\\ beware\\:\\ God\\ sees\\ all\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eye\\ of\\ God\\ \\-\\ 7\\ sins\\.\\ \\ \\;World\\ is\\ sin\\.\\ All\\ god\\ sees\\ is\\ sin\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ dead\\,\\ the\\ damned\\,\\ final\\ judgment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ viewers\\ of\\ art\\ \\-\\ we\\ are\\ being\\ watched\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\ \\(and\\ Shop\\)\\,\\ The\\ Peddler\\,\\ closed\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ Hay\\ Wain\\ Triptych\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1510\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Madrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\ \\(and\\ Shop\\)\\,\\ The\\ Hay\\ Wain\\ Triptych\\,\\ open\\ state\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1510\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Madrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\ to\\ both\\ Bosch\\ and\\ Bruegal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyday\\ life\\ is\\ shown\\ and\\ then\\ obliterated\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyman\\ \\=\\ pedler\\.\\ Hay\\ \\=\\ nothingness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pessimistic\\ worlview\\ but\\ everyday\\ life\\ has\\ an\\ important\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ Temptation\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Anthony\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1515\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panels\\,\\ Lisbon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Big\\ Fish\\ Eat\\ Little\\ Fish\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1556\\,\\ pen\\ and\\ brush\\ with\\ gray\\ and\\ blank\\ ink\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+\\ Pieter\\ van\\ der\\ Heyden\\ after\\ Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Big\\ Fish\\ Eat\\ Little\\ Fish\\,\\ 1557\\,\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ Last\\ Judgement\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1505\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panels\\,\\ Vienna\\ \\+\\ Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Triumph\\ of\\ Death\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1562\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Madrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ did\\ Bruegal\\ get\\ from\\ Bosch\\?\\ Comparison\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Macabre\\ themes\\.\\ \\ \\;Hellish\\ space\\.\\ Creatures\\,\\ devlish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ a\\ structure\\ but\\ fall\\ into\\ details\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contrast\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bosch\\:\\ framework\\:\\ a\\ sacred\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bruegal\\:\\ no\\ grand\\ framework\\.\\ Human\\ \\(not\\ cosmic\\)\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humanism\\ of\\ Bruegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religio\\ \\-\\ religion\\ has\\ human\\ bondage\\.\\ \\ \\;Gods\\ are\\ things\\ made\\,\\ not\\ discovered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Netherlandish\\ Proverbs\\,\\ 1559\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Berlin\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ MATURE\\ BRUEGAL\\ \\-\\ FOUR\\ PAINTINGS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Games\\,\\ 1560\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Battle\\ between\\ Carnival\\ and\\ Lent\\,\\ 1559\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Franz\\ Hogenberg\\,\\ Battle\\ Between\\ Carnival\\ and\\ Lent\\,\\ 1558\\,\\ etching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Dark\\ Day\\,\\ 1565\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Hunters\\ in\\ the\\ Snow\\,\\ 1565\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ Winter\\ Landscape\\ with\\ Bird\\-Trap\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\,\\ Brussels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Games\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Proverbs\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Customs\\ \\(all\\ fabricated\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Play\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Language\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Usage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developmental\\ in\\ some\\ important\\ sense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Games\\ and\\ play\\ \\:\\ first\\ step\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proverbs\\:\\ fundamental\\ language\\ of\\ our\\ worl\\.d\\ Encyclopedic\\ paintings\\.\\ Atlas\\ of\\ human\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Customs\\:\\ culture\\ in\\ an\\ active\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Stable\\ world\\ plus\\ details\\.\\ \\ \\;Collections\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Battle\\ between\\ Carnival\\ and\\ Lent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Combat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peasant\\ culture\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ how\\ peasantry\\ puts\\ together\\ its\\ spectacle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\+\\ Carnival\\:\\ fat\\ butcher\\.\\ Mask\\.\\ Jousting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\+\\ Lent\\:\\ anorexic\\ nun\\.\\ Trudging\\ peasants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amplifies\\ the\\ real\\.\\ Boy\\ \\(shoes\\,\\ eating\\,\\ marching\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breaking\\ tradition\\:\\ how\\ carnival\\ and\\ lent\\ unfold\\.\\ How\\ people\\ actually\\ behave\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boogie\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ bakery\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ devil\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ metaphysical\\ category\\ \\-\\ he\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ creation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\+\\ Tavern\\ and\\ feasting\\ versus\\ the\\ church\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ inventive\\ tradition\\.\\ Civil\\ war\\ \\-\\ humanists\\.\\ Inner\\ faith\\ is\\ true\\ but\\ customs\\ are\\ created\\ and\\ thus\\ should\\ be\\ tolerated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philosophy\\ of\\ Flanders\\.\\ \\ \\;Pluralistic\\ Philosophy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artists\\ destroyed\\ images\\ of\\ Christianity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bruegal\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\ of\\ the\\ fabricated\\ nature\\ of\\ human\\ life\\.\\ Inventor\\ of\\ the\\ human\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Places\\ the\\ human\\ on\\ a\\ gigantic\\ canvas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hunters\\ in\\ Snow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tracks\\,\\ frozen\\ ocean\\ \\-\\ accessibility\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hibernation\\ \\-\\ winter\\ makes\\ landscape\\ into\\ a\\ map\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\World\\ is\\ separated\\ from\\ us\\ \\-\\ abstraction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Winter\\ Landscape\\ with\\ Bird\\-Trap\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birds\\ and\\ figures\\ on\\ ice\\ \\-\\ same\\ size\\,\\ same\\ idea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ in\\ a\\ large\\ bird\\ trap\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bruegal\\ shows\\ us\\ the\\ mechanism\\ of\\ the\\ trap\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PAINTINGS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michelangelo\\ Buonarroti\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fall\\ and\\ Expulsion\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(from\\ the\\ Sistine\\ Chapel\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1509\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ final\\ panel\\ of\\ this\\ sequence\\ Michelangelo\\ shows\\ two\\ contrasting\\ scenes\\,\\ that\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ taking\\ fruit\\ from\\ the\\ forbidden\\ tree\\,\\ Eve\\ trustingly\\ taking\\ it\\ from\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ the\\ Serpent\\ and\\ Adam\\ eagerly\\ picking\\ it\\ for\\ himself\\;\\ and\\ their\\ banishment\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ where\\ they\\ have\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ God\\,\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ outside\\ where\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ fend\\ for\\ themselves\\ and\\ experience\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ painting\\ is\\ illustrative\\ of\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ tradition\\.\\ Michelangelo\\ was\\ clearly\\ inspired\\ by\\ Masaccio\\.\\ MASSACCIO\\ BRANCACCI\\ CHAPEL\\ 1428\\.\\ ITS\\ CLEAR\\ THAT\\ IT\\ TRANSPOSES\\ EXPRESSIVE\\ POSE\\ OF\\ ADAM\\ FROM\\ A\\ PREVIOUS\\ THING\\ \\(so\\&hellip\\;everybody\\ studies\\ something\\ that\\ came\\ before\\ and\\ uses\\ it\\ to\\ enrich\\ his\\ own\\ thing\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ new\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Masaccio\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Expulsion\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ from\\ Paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1426\\-1428\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1424\\ the\\ \\"\\;duo\\ preciso\\ e\\ noto\\"\\;\\ \\(\\"\\;well\\ and\\ known\\ duo\\"\\;\\)\\ of\\ Masaccio\\ and\\ Masolino\\ was\\ commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ powerful\\ and\\ rich\\ Felice\\ Brancacci\\ to\\ execute\\ a\\ cycle\\ of\\ frescoes\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ church\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Santa\\ Maria\\ del\\ Carmine\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Florence\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ frescoes\\ in\\ the\\ little\\ chapel\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ \\"\\;Histories\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Peter\\"\\;\\.\\ The\\ genius\\ of\\ Masaccio\\ shows\\ clearly\\ in\\ these\\ frescoes\\.\\ In\\ the\\ \\"\\;Resurrection\\ of\\ the\\ Son\\ of\\ Theophilus\\"\\;\\,\\ he\\ painted\\ a\\ pavement\\ in\\ perspective\\,\\ framed\\ by\\ large\\ buildings\\ to\\ obtain\\ a\\ depth\\ of\\ field\\ and\\ three\\-dimensional\\ space\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ figures\\ are\\ placed\\ proportionate\\ to\\ their\\ surroundings\\.\\ In\\ this\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ pioneer\\ in\\ applying\\ the\\ newly\\ discovered\\ rules\\ of\\ perspective\\.\\ When\\ it\\ was\\ cleaned\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Tommaso\\ Masaccio\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\fresco\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Expulsion\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1426\\&ndash\\;1427\\)\\ lost\\ the\\ added\\ fig\\ leaves\\.\\ Masaccio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ scenes\\ show\\ his\\ reference\\ to\\ Giotto\\ especially\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Expulsion\\ from\\ the\\ Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ depicting\\ a\\ distressed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\nude\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ had\\ a\\ huge\\ influence\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Michelangelo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pablo\\ Picasso\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Les\\ Demoiselles\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Avignon\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1907\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Young\\ Ladies\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Avignon\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\oil\\ painting\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pablo\\ Picasso\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ depicts\\ five\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\prostitutes\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\brothel\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ Aviny\\ó\\;\\ street\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Barcelona\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ The\\ eye\\-catching\\ painting\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ Picasso\\&\\#39\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\,\\ widely\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ seminal\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ development\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cubism\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ has\\ been\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ painting\\ was\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Henri\\ Matisse\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ paintings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Le\\ bonheur\\ de\\ vivre\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Blue\\ Nude\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Its\\ resemblance\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cezanne\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Les\\ Grandes\\ Baigneuses\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\El\\ Greco\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Opening\\ of\\ the\\ Fifth\\ Seal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ discussed\\ by\\ later\\ commentators\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Unidentified\\ French\\ artists\\,\\ West\\ Portal\\ of\\ Chartres\\ Cathedral\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1200\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-gothic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-column\\ statues\\ \\(Sluter\\ will\\ escape\\ this\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-statues\\ independent\\ of\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Claus\\ Sluter\\,\\ Portal\\ of\\ the\\ Cartreuse\\ of\\ Champmol\\,\\ with\\ portraits\\ of\\ Philip\\ the\\ Bold\\ and\\ Margaret\\ of\\ Flanders\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-organized\\ like\\ Chartres\\ Cathedral\\,\\ but\\ sculpture\\ very\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-statues\\ very\\ independent\\ of\\ architecture\\;\\ no\\ longer\\ columns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-statues\\ form\\ a\\ scene\\ and\\ interact\\ w\\/\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-flowing\\ drapery\\ \\(see\\ notes\\ on\\ Sluter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Duke\\ and\\ Duchess\\ realistic\\;\\ true\\ to\\ life\\ portraits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Calus\\ Sluter\\,\\ Portal\\ of\\ the\\ Chartreuse\\ of\\ Champmol\\,\\ Madonna\\ and\\ Child\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-saints\\ still\\ idealized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Virgin\\ Mary\\ gazes\\ at\\ Duchess\\,\\ but\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ Duke\\ \\(interaction\\ among\\ statues\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-lots\\ of\\ flowing\\ drapery\\ \\(see\\ notes\\ on\\ Sluter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Unidentified\\ Parisian\\ artist\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Golden\\ Horse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-gold\\ and\\ enamel\\ with\\ pearls\\ and\\ jewels\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;highly\\ valuable\\!\\;\\ similar\\ pieces\\ were\\ all\\ probably\\ melted\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-natural\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-tenderness\\ and\\ emotions\\ in\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Jacquemart\\ de\\ Hesdin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christ\\ Carrying\\ the\\ Cross\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ a\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\ made\\ for\\ Duke\\ of\\ Berry\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-manuscript\\ paintings\\ were\\ highly\\ valuable\\ at\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-artist\\ who\\ painted\\ scene\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ familiar\\ with\\ work\\ by\\ Simone\\ Martini\\ since\\ composition\\ of\\ figures\\ is\\ similar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Simone\\ Martini\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christ\\ Carrying\\ the\\ Cross\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1330s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Italian\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dense\\ and\\ energetic\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-figures\\ disproportionately\\ large\\ w\\/\\ respect\\ to\\ architecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ narrative\\ shown\\ through\\ realistic\\ details\\ and\\ strong\\ characterization\\ of\\ certain\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\ Master\\ of\\ the\\ Boucicaut\\ Hours\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flight\\ into\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ a\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\ \\(Prayerbook\\)\\,\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ Marshall\\ Boucicaut\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Light\\,\\ landscape\\ with\\ rising\\ sun\\,\\ mountains\\,\\ sheep\\,\\ fairly\\ conventional\\ trees\\ \\(not\\ like\\ squiggles\\ from\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ manuscript\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ look\\ at\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ note\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ manuscript\\,\\ the\\ painter\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ Boucicault\\ master\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\ Master\\ of\\ the\\ Boucicaut\\ Hours\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Magi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ a\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\ \\(Prayerbook\\)\\,\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ Marshall\\ Boucicaut\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\ structure\\/building\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ in\\ The\\ Nativity\\ but\\ from\\ a\\ different\\ angle\\&mdash\\;the\\ manger\\ is\\ till\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ of\\ the\\ bed\\,\\ but\\ turned\\ around\\.\\ \\ \\;Boucicaut\\ is\\ coming\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ new\\ way\\ of\\ representing\\ 3\\-D\\ space\\ on\\ a\\ plain\\ piece\\ of\\ paper\\,\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ convincing\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aiming\\ at\\ representing\\ space\\,\\ doing\\ something\\ new\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ far\\ cry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ the\\ scientific\\ perspective\\ developed\\ in\\ italy\\ 20\\-30\\ yrs\\ later\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ he\\ is\\ aiming\\ at\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ thing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\ Master\\ of\\ the\\ Boucicaut\\ Hours\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Nativity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ a\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\ \\(Prayerbook\\)\\,\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christ\\ child\\ on\\ sumptuous\\ bed\\,\\ more\\ appropriate\\ to\\ his\\ standing\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ interpretation\\ as\\ \\#12\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marshall\\ Boucicaut\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\ The\\ Limbourg\\ Brothers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\January\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Tr\\è\\;s\\ riches\\ Heures\\,\\ \\(The\\ Very\\ Rich\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\)\\,\\ made\\ for\\ Jean\\,\\ the\\ Duke\\ of\\ Berry\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1410\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Room\\ with\\ tapestries\\.\\ The\\ duke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banquet\\&mdash\\;on\\ left\\,\\ Duke\\ at\\ table\\.\\ \\ \\;Temptation\\ of\\ Christ\\ by\\ devil\\.\\ Very\\ accurate\\ depiction\\ of\\ a\\ building\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ looks\\ fantastical\\.\\ An\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ building\\ verifies\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\ The\\ Limbourg\\ Brothers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\February\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Tr\\è\\;s\\ riches\\ Heures\\,\\ \\(The\\ Very\\ Rich\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\)\\,\\ made\\ for\\ Jean\\,\\ the\\ Duke\\ of\\ Berry\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1410\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ see\\ inside\\ of\\ house\\,\\ people\\ by\\ fire\\.\\ \\ \\;Artist\\ shows\\ everything\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ break\\ if\\ you\\ compare\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ painting\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;B\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ New\\ way\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ representing\\ it\\ as\\ it\\ appears\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jan\\ and\\ Hubert\\ van\\ Eyck\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ghent\\ Altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1426\\-1435\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&bull\\;First\\ work\\ he\\ signed\\ and\\ dated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Popularized\\ use\\ of\\ oil\\ instead\\ of\\ tempera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Iconography\\ \\=\\ celebrating\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Great\\ ability\\ to\\ capture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TEXTURE\\/detail\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(enabled\\ by\\ oil\\)\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ observe\\ head\\ and\\ tiara\\/crown\\ on\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Northern\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ focuses\\ on\\ detail\\/texture\\ to\\ create\\ illusion\\ of\\ nature\\ vs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Southern\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ focuses\\ on\\ representing\\ nature\\ with\\ scientific\\ accuracy\\ \\(perspective\\ lines\\,\\ knowledge\\ of\\ anatomy\\,\\ and\\ laws\\ of\\ foreshortening\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ Influence\\ of\\ Brunelleschi\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ Netherlandish\\ polyptych\\ panel\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Panel\\ painting\\ \\ \\;layer\\ upon\\ layer\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gesso\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\primer\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;absorbent\\ primer\\ coat\\ for\\ panel\\ painting\\ with\\ tempera\\ paints\\)\\ would\\ be\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medium\\ options\\ that\\ time\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tempera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ an\\ egg\\-yolk\\ medium\\.\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ mixture\\ of\\ pigment\\ and\\ eggyolk\\,\\ the\\ paint\\ was\\ applied\\ in\\ very\\ small\\ strokes\\.\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ dries\\ quickly\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ conducive\\ to\\ mistakes\\,\\ each\\ stroke\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ perfect\\ each\\ time\\.\\ This\\ exacting\\ perfection\\ shaped\\ the\\ nature\\ and\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ produced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ colors\\,\\ which\\ are\\ painted\\ over\\ each\\ other\\,\\ resemble\\ a\\ pastel\\ when\\ unvarnished\\,\\ and\\ are\\ deeper\\ colors\\ when\\ varnished\\ tempera\\ paintings\\ rarely\\ have\\ the\\ deep\\ color\\ saturation\\ that\\ oil\\ paintings\\ can\\ achieve\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ tempera\\ colors\\ do\\ not\\ change\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 15th\\ century\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\oil\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\painting\\ was\\ developed\\.\\ allowed\\ the\\ exceptional\\ detail\\ of\\ Early\\ Netherlandish\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Note\\:\\ canvas\\ became\\ the\\ more\\ popular\\ support\\ medium\\ in\\ the\\ 16th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thierry\\ du\\ Chastel\\ and\\ collaborators\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Altarpieces\\ of\\ the\\ Order\\ of\\ the\\ Golden\\ Fleece\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ a\\ dossal\\ \\ \\;and\\ an\\ antependium\\,\\ 1432\\-1433\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&bull\\;Embroiderer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Went\\ to\\ Burgundy\\ court\\ same\\ year\\ as\\ Van\\ Eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Shading\\,\\ texture\\ and\\ detail\\ \\ \\;comparable\\ to\\ painting\\,\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ is\\ outdoes\\ it\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Techniques\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Needle\\ painting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ for\\ faces\\ and\\ hands\\ \\(closely\\ packed\\ clusters\\)\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ allows\\ for\\ greater\\ detail\\/shading\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ head\\ of\\ St\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Upper\\ body\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ his\\ head\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ super\\ detailed\\,\\ muscles\\/shading\\/tone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soft\\ facial\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Position\\ of\\ light\\ changes\\ the\\ color\\/shading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Shaded\\ gold\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Nue\\ or\\ couching\\ stitches\\)\\ \\=\\ for\\ architectural\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thorned\\ crown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Direction\\ of\\ stitches\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ help\\ suggest\\ volume\\ and\\ form\\ muscles\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ expression\\ of\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ plasticity\\ to\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ stitch\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ direction\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ changes\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ANTEPEDIUM\\ \\(silk\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&bull\\;Different\\ sewer\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ tell\\ from\\ different\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Virgin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\ is\\ wobbly\\,\\ not\\ bony\\/\\ structural\\ like\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(more\\ real\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;More\\ old\\-fashioned\\,\\ Dossal\\ is\\ more\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Referring\\ to\\ Dossal\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;These\\ copes\\ were\\ probably\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ workshop\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Thierry\\ du\\ Chastel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ an\\ embroider\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\who\\ originally\\ came\\ from\\ Paris\\.\\ The\\ vestment\\,\\ worn\\ at\\ the\\ prayer\\ services\\ of\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Golden\\ Fleece\\,\\ may\\ be\\ regarded\\ as\\ an\\ artistic\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Ghent\\ Altarpiece\\ by\\ the\\ van\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eyck\\ brothers\\,\\ completed\\ in\\ 1432\\.\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\compare\\ crowns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ The\\ figures\\ of\\ the\\ Deesis\\ on\\ the\\ hoods\\ of\\ the\\ copes\\ are\\ variations\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\corresponding\\ figures\\ on\\ the\\ open\\ Ghent\\ Altarpiece\\ probably\\ created\\ by\\ Hubert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\van\\ Eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Derivative\\ of\\ other\\ works\\ \\(Campin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Trinity\\ or\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ghent\\ altarpiece\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Actually\\,\\ no\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ embroidery\\ much\\ more\\ highly\\ regarded\\ \\(painting\\=\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ embroidery\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\*\\*\\ Shift\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chastel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\van\\ Eyck\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ shift\\ from\\ focus\\ on\\ costly\\ materials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Madonna\\ of\\ Canon\\ Joris\\ van\\ der\\ Paele\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\1434\\-1436\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&bull\\;Shift\\ from\\ focus\\ on\\ costly\\ materials\\ \\(embroidery\\)\\ to\\ REPRESENTATION\\ of\\ costly\\ materials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Van\\ Eyck\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\does\\ this\\ seamlessly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Focuses\\ on\\ texture\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ just\\ a\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Observation\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ leads\\ to\\ this\\ realism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Can\\ see\\ loose\\,\\ runny\\ ends\\ on\\ the\\ rug\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Cracks\\ of\\ the\\ rug\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ stairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;The\\ Attention\\ to\\ detail\\,\\ texture\\ and\\ lighting\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ hides\\ inconsistencies\\ in\\ space\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ instead\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\creates\\ intricate\\ relationships\\ b\\/w\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Tassels\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ great\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Has\\ coat\\ of\\ arms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Includes\\ portrait\\ of\\ patron\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\St\\ Donatian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ patron\\ of\\ his\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Materialistic\\ vision\\ of\\ religion\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ luxurious\\ cope\\ \\(costly\\ fabric\\ in\\ reality\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cheap\\ in\\ painting\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\St\\ George\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ canon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ patron\\ saint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Lifting\\ up\\ knee\\ close\\ to\\ canon\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ serves\\ to\\ explain\\ spatial\\ relationship\\ thru\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\physical\\ contact\\ b\\/w\\ the\\ figures\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Alberti\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ space\\ is\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ series\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\relationships\\ betweens\\ figures\\ and\\ objects\\)\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ EX\\:\\ carpet\\ extends\\ towards\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\viewers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Light\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\uncovers\\ even\\ more\\ details\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Can\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reflection\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ Mary\\ and\\ child\\ in\\ helmet\\ of\\ St\\.\\ George\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ forges\\ link\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\between\\ 2\\ protagonists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Reflection\\ of\\ bystander\\ in\\ shield\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ extends\\ painting\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ real\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Van\\ Eyck\\ \\=\\ master\\ of\\ pragmatic\\ fiction\\ \\(master\\ of\\ representing\\ real\\ world\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Figures\\ are\\ not\\ isolated\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ space\\,\\ like\\ in\\ Sluter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ architecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rogier\\ van\\ der\\ Weyden\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Descent\\ from\\ the\\ Cross\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Deposition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1435\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Weyden\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ master\\ of\\ psychological\\ depth\\/\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Compare\\ to\\:\\ Thierry\\ du\\ Chastel\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Altarpieces\\ of\\ the\\ Order\\ of\\ the\\ Golden\\ Fleece\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1432\\-1433\\)\\ DOSSAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Painting\\ outdoes\\ embroidery\\?\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ conjure\\ fictional\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\(silk\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Dynamic\\ pics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Movements\\ of\\ figures\\ reflect\\ inner\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Box\\ is\\ encasing\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Depiction\\ of\\ narrative\\ confined\\ in\\ suggestion\\ of\\ physical\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Tension\\ b\\/w\\ expanding\\ narrative\\ in\\ confining\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Shallow\\ space\\ emphasizes\\ intense\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 2D\\ painting\\ pretending\\ to\\ be\\ 3D\\ carved\\ altarpice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Details\\ on\\ the\\ head\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ comparable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ BUT\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chastel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christ\\ has\\ open\\ eyes\\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ living\\ entity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Weyden\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christ\\ has\\ close\\ eyes\\ \\=\\ dead\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ narrative\\/\\ historical\\ truth\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ sacrificed\\ his\\ life\\ to\\ save\\ mankind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Observe\\ the\\ skull\\,\\ and\\ details\\ on\\ foot\\ and\\ hands\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ suggest\\ that\\ Mary\\ is\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\with\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ In\\ her\\ fall\\,\\ her\\ body\\ takes\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ shape\\ as\\ her\\ son\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ implying\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\her\\ suffering\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ his\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Mary\\ Magdalene\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ posture\\ and\\ body\\ gestures\\ suggests\\ that\\ despair\\ has\\ taken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\over\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cloth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Magdalene\\ \\=\\ same\\ as\\ cloth\\ wrapped\\ around\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ When\\ Christ\\ taken\\ off\\,\\ cloth\\ was\\ then\\ wrapped\\ after\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ suggested\\ by\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\semi\\-transparency\\ of\\ the\\ cloth\\ \\(oil\\ effect\\)\\,\\ can\\ see\\ blood\\ behind\\ the\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Giotto\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Confirmation\\ of\\ the\\ Rule\\ of\\ Saint\\ Francis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1325\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;The\\ later\\ 16th\\ century\\ biographer\\ Giorgio\\ Vasari\\ says\\ of\\ him\\ \\"\\;\\.\\.\\.He\\ made\\ a\\ decisive\\ break\\ with\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\.\\.Byzantine\\ style\\,\\ and\\ brought\\ to\\ life\\ the\\ great\\ art\\ of\\ painting\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ today\\,\\ introducing\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technique\\ of\\ drawing\\ accurately\\ from\\ life\\,\\ which\\ had\\ been\\ neglected\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ two\\ hundred\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Translated\\ gothic\\ sculpture\\ onto\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Illusion\\ of\\ depth\\ on\\ flat\\ surface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Greater\\ attention\\ given\\ by\\ Giotto\\ to\\ expression\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ figures\\ and\\ the\\ simpler\\,\\ better\\ integrated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\architectural\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Depiction\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ face\\ and\\ of\\ human\\ emotion\\ in\\ both\\ expression\\ and\\ gesture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Giotto\\&\\#39\\;s\\ compositions\\ later\\ influenced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masaccio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cappella\\ Brancacci\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1424\\-27\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Florence\\,\\ Santa\\ Maria\\ del\\ Carmine\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Artists\\:\\ May\\ have\\ been\\ begun\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masolino\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Cristofano\\ di\\ Fino\\,\\ 1383\\-c\\.\\ 1440\\)\\,\\ c\\.1424\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\continued\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masaccio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1425\\-27\\.\\ \\(Later\\ damaged\\;\\ repaired\\ by\\ Filippino\\ Lippi\\ in\\ the\\ 1480s\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Patron\\:\\ generally\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ Felice\\ Brancacci\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;14th\\ C\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\still\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Churches\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ large\\ space\\ with\\ large\\ stories\\/\\ yards\\ of\\ long\\ narratives\\ being\\ worked\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(must\\ walk\\ around\\ to\\ read\\ narratives\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Used\\ symbolic\\ elements\\ to\\ display\\ narratives\\ \\(old\\ testament\\ one\\ side\\ and\\ new\\ on\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\other\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Florence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Franciscan\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Pictorial\\ decoration\\ form\\ roof\\ to\\ floor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\*Frescoes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ the\\ great\\ basilicas\\ \\(related\\ to\\ urbanism\\ and\\ the\\ bringing\\ of\\ religion\\ into\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\city\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Vast\\ expensive\\ buildings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ People\\ bought\\ chapels\\ \\(burial\\)\\ \\&\\#x1000c6\\;\\ way\\ for\\ churches\\ to\\ get\\ money\\ to\\ expand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAA\\ 10\\ Midterm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 6\\:\\ Masaccio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ My\\ lecture\\ notes\\ are\\ incorporated\\ into\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ image\\ descriptions\\.\\ However\\ I\\ will\\ give\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ presented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ The\\ images\\ for\\ this\\ lecture\\ that\\ I\\ covered\\ are\\ \\#21\\-26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Rome\\ was\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ Italy\\,\\ Catholic\\ Church\\,\\ and\\ Renaissance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Edifices\\ throughout\\ the\\ city\\ were\\ decorated\\ with\\ biblical\\ narratives\\ in\\ cyclical\\ form\\.\\ The\\ architecture\\ allowed\\ the\\ viewer\\ to\\ physically\\ walk\\/move\\ throughout\\ the\\ space\\ and\\ interact\\ with\\ the\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\ \\;Florence\\:\\ The\\ Giotto\\ Bardi\\ Chapel\\ c\\ 1320\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Franciscan\\ church\\ covered\\ in\\ frescos\\;\\ it\\ reflects\\ the\\ period\\&rsquo\\;s\\ infatuation\\ with\\ the\\ medium\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\ \\;Frescos\\ are\\ also\\ associated\\ with\\ urbanism\\=\\ During\\ this\\ time\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ movement\\ from\\ the\\ countryside\\ to\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Basilica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ There\\ was\\ often\\ a\\ divide\\ between\\ the\\ altar\\ and\\ area\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ On\\ the\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ Basilica\\ there\\ were\\ often\\ chapels\\ purchased\\ by\\ wealthy\\ families\\ that\\ were\\ used\\ for\\ burial\\,\\ masses\\,\\ and\\ other\\ religious\\ ceremonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Masaccio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ aka\\ Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\ \\(1401\\-1428\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Had\\ only\\ 4\\-5\\ years\\ of\\ work\\,\\ thus\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ limited\\ collection\\ of\\ his\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ artists\\ to\\ integrate\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ fields\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ math\\,\\ geometry\\,\\ and\\ architecture\\)\\ into\\ his\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ contributors\\ to\\ the\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Others\\ include\\ Masolino\\ and\\ Michaelangelo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ chapel\\ depicts\\ biblical\\ narratives\\ and\\ in\\ particular\\ unfolds\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Peter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Christ\\ on\\ Cross\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Distorted\\ image\\ of\\ Christ\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ appears\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ But\\ it\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ be\\ represent\\ the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perspective\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ actually\\ standing\\ below\\ the\\ cross\\ looking\\ up\\ at\\ Jesus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masolino\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Cristofano\\ di\\ Fino\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ Before\\ the\\ Fall\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 1424\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\ in\\ the\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\ that\\ depicts\\ the\\ temptation\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\,\\ located\\ on\\ the\\ upper\\ register\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adam\\ stands\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ of\\ Eve\\,\\ while\\ her\\ right\\ arm\\ is\\ wrapped\\ around\\ a\\ fig\\ tree\\.\\ The\\ devil\\ is\\ embodied\\ as\\ a\\ green\\ snake\\ with\\ a\\ human\\ head\\ and\\ is\\ entwined\\ in\\ the\\ branches\\ of\\ the\\ fig\\ tree\\.\\ The\\ fresco\\ is\\ constructed\\ around\\ a\\ center\\ point\\ towards\\ which\\ Eve\\ and\\ Adam\\ face\\.\\ The\\ figures\\ lie\\ within\\ the\\ plane\\ of\\ the\\ wall\\;\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Masolino\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ style\\ significantly\\ differs\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ Massaccio\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ idealization\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ form\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;human\\ body\\.\\ Masolino\\&rsquo\\;s\\ depiction\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ is\\ less\\ defined\\ and\\ muscular\\.\\ The\\ figures\\ express\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ emotion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masaccio\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Saint\\ Peter\\ Healing\\ with\\ his\\ Shadow\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 1426\\-1427\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\ in\\ the\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\ that\\ depicts\\ Saint\\ Peter\\ walking\\ along\\ city\\ streets\\ lined\\ with\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ crippled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Masaccio\\ carefully\\ aligns\\ the\\ shadow\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ cast\\ by\\ the\\ natural\\ light\\ entering\\ the\\ chapel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ window\\,\\ allowing\\ the\\ viewer\\ to\\ feel\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ event\\ were\\ literally\\ occurring\\ in\\ the\\ chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ perspective\\ and\\ linear\\ alignment\\ of\\ the\\ heads\\ and\\ edifices\\ creates\\ a\\ realistic\\ sense\\ of\\ depth\\ and\\ recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masaccio\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Tribute\\ Money\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 1426\\-1427\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Large\\ panoramic\\ fresco\\ in\\ the\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\ that\\ depicts\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ the\\ tax\\ collector\\ and\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ the\\ subjective\\ and\\ linear\\ focal\\ point\\ is\\ Jesus\\:\\ not\\ only\\ does\\ he\\ take\\ up\\ the\\ center\\ space\\ of\\ the\\ plane\\,\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\ within\\ the\\ image\\ converge\\ on\\ him\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ three\\ elements\\ to\\ the\\ fresco\\ \\(left\\ to\\ right\\)\\:\\ the\\ fisher\\ getting\\ the\\ coin\\ from\\ the\\ fish\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mouth\\,\\ Jesus\\ and\\ his\\ apostles\\ facing\\ the\\ tax\\ collector\\,\\ and\\ St\\.\\ Peter\\ paying\\ the\\ tax\\ collector\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ circular\\ formation\\ of\\ Jesus\\ and\\ his\\ apostles\\ gives\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ dialogue\\,\\ conference\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;logic\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ symmetry\\ and\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\,\\ including\\ the\\ drapery\\,\\ were\\ inspired\\ by\\ Romanesque\\ sculptures\\ and\\ reliefs\\.\\ Masaccio\\ took\\ the\\ stance\\ and\\ composition\\ used\\ in\\ classical\\ art\\ and\\ transposed\\ it\\ into\\ this\\ setting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masaccio\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Expulsion\\ from\\ the\\ Garden\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1426\\-1427\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\ in\\ the\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\ that\\ depicts\\ the\\ weeping\\ and\\ lamenting\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ chased\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\ by\\ an\\ angel\\ brandishing\\ a\\ sword\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ shadows\\ in\\ this\\ fresco\\ also\\ follow\\ the\\ natural\\ light\\ in\\ the\\ chapel\\,\\ allowing\\ the\\ viewer\\ to\\ feel\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ shares\\ the\\ space\\ with\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adam\\ is\\ shown\\ lamenting\\ with\\ his\\ head\\ and\\ hand\\,\\ while\\ Eve\\ is\\ portrayed\\ in\\ a\\ pose\\ inspired\\ by\\ a\\ famous\\ sculpture\\ of\\ Venus\\.\\ \\(Eve\\&rsquo\\;s\\ left\\ arm\\ covers\\ her\\ pelvis\\ while\\ her\\ right\\ arm\\ lays\\ across\\ her\\ chest\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Here\\ again\\ we\\ see\\ Masaccio\\ using\\ sculpture\\ to\\ inspire\\ his\\ work\\.\\ Interestingly\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ using\\ ancient\\ Greek\\ mythology\\ for\\ a\\ Christian\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connection\\:\\ Inspires\\ Michaelangelo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ depiction\\ of\\ the\\ Expulsion\\ \\(1509\\-10\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masaccio\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maesta\\ \\(Madonna\\ and\\ Child\\ Enthroned\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.1426\\-1427\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Centerpiece\\ of\\ the\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\;\\ placed\\ below\\ the\\ window\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ image\\ the\\ Virgin\\ sits\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ thrown\\ with\\ baby\\ Jesus\\ on\\ her\\ lap\\ and\\ angels\\ at\\ her\\ feet\\.\\ As\\ she\\ feeds\\ the\\ child\\ grapes\\,\\ she\\ is\\ simultaneously\\ offering\\ the\\ viewer\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ sits\\ on\\ a\\ throne\\ that\\ is\\ columnar\\ in\\ form\\;\\ it\\ is\\ unlike\\ traditional\\ Christian\\ thrones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ robust\\ Virgin\\ takes\\ up\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ plane\\;\\ her\\ garb\\ is\\ carefully\\ detailed\\ with\\ fluid\\ drapery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shadows\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ suggest\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ other\\ figures\\ flanking\\ on\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ her\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masaccio\\ \\(Tommaso\\ di\\ Ser\\ Giovanni\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trinity\\ with\\ the\\ Virgin\\,\\ St\\.\\ John\\ the\\ Evangelist\\,\\ and\\ Donors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1428\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\ in\\ Church\\ \\(not\\ chapel\\)\\ depicting\\ Jesus\\ on\\ the\\ crufix\\ flanked\\ by\\ St\\.\\ John\\ and\\ the\\ patrons\\ \\(common\\ theme\\)\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ At\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ fresco\\ a\\ skeleton\\ lies\\ over\\ a\\ coffin\\ with\\ an\\ engraving\\ that\\ warns\\ the\\ viewer\\ that\\ one\\ day\\ he\\ shall\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ position\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possibly\\ one\\ of\\ Masaccio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greatest\\ works\\.\\ For\\ this\\ fresco\\ he\\ collaborated\\ with\\ a\\ mathematician\\ and\\ used\\ the\\ panel\\ and\\ pinhole\\ trick\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ correct\\ perspective\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ fresco\\,\\ Masaccio\\ details\\ distinct\\ spaces\\:\\ one\\ for\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\ and\\ the\\ saints\\,\\ another\\ for\\ the\\ Donors\\,\\ and\\ another\\ for\\ the\\ skeleton\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ separate\\ the\\ human\\ world\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ the\\ donors\\ are\\ on\\ a\\ lower\\ level\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Composition\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ urges\\ the\\ viewer\\ to\\ look\\ upwards\\ towards\\ the\\ heavens\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Oil\\ on\\ Panel\\.German\\ artists\\,\\ he\\ paints\\ himself\\ as\\ Christ\\.\\ This\\ was\\ painted\\ at\\ the\\ golden\\ age\\ of\\ the\\ Renaissance\\.\\ We\\ know\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ icon\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ frontal\\ pose\\.\\ The\\ symmetrical\\ composition\\ further\\ evokes\\ a\\ religous\\ icon\\.\\ The\\ inscription\\ in\\ latin\\ names\\ himself\\ \\&ldquo\\;Albrecht\\ Durer\\ at\\ 28\\ years\\ old\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ trademark\\ symbol\\ on\\ th\\ eleft\\ side\\.\\ There\\ are\\ religious\\ undertones\\ as\\ he\\ portrays\\ himiself\\ as\\ a\\ perfect\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ maker\\ \\[think\\ of\\ veronica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cloth\\,\\ with\\ the\\ perfect\\ imprint\\ of\\ christ\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rhinoceros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1515\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Woodcut\\.\\ The\\ realism\\ in\\ which\\ German\\ painter\\ and\\ printmaker\\ Durer\\ portrayed\\ this\\ rhinocerous\\ hints\\ at\\ his\\ skill\\ and\\ training\\ in\\ draftsmanship\\.\\ This\\ image\\ was\\ a\\ widely\\ \\ \\;disseminated\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ Rhinocerous\\.\\ The\\ woodcut\\ becasem\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ rhinso\\ in\\ teh\\ mid\\-20th\\ century\\,\\ attesting\\ to\\ Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ global\\ reach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1494\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oil\\ on\\ vellum\\.\\ Albrecht\\ Durer\\ portray\\ himsel\\ with\\ realism\\ and\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ costumes\\.\\ This\\ image\\ has\\ striking\\ detail\\ of\\ his\\ hair\\ and\\ costume\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ self\\ and\\ his\\ mastery\\ of\\ self\\ portrature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ Self\\-Portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1503\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;pen\\ and\\ brush\\ in\\ black\\ ink\\,\\ with\\ white\\ on\\ green\\-grounded\\ paper\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ firs\\ known\\ nude\\ self\\ portraits\\.\\ He\\ studied\\ himself\\ and\\ used\\ his\\ own\\ pdoy\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ This\\ is\\ left\\ unfinished\\,\\ perhaps\\ signifying\\ that\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ himself\\ completely\\.\\ There\\ was\\ also\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ melancholy\\ and\\ he\\ often\\ thought\\ of\\ himself\\ as\\ having\\ this\\ deep\\ sadness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1492\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pen\\ and\\ ink\\.\\ This\\ self\\ portrait\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ he\\ uses\\ his\\ own\\ hand\\ as\\ a\\ model\\.\\ He\\ draws\\ from\\ life\\;\\ later\\ he\\ will\\ use\\ this\\ same\\ pose\\ in\\ other\\ religous\\ paintings\\ \\[Holy\\ family\\,\\ Christ\\,\\ etc\\]\\.\\ Often\\ he\\ incorporated\\ his\\ own\\ poses\\ and\\ features\\ into\\ artwork\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ his\\ process\\ of\\ studying\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ starting\\ experimental\\ point\\ fo\\ rhis\\ other\\ works\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\32\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\ at\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Thirteen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1484\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Silverpoint\\.\\ This\\ is\\ his\\ earliest\\ known\\ portrait\\ and\\ oldest\\ surviving\\ work\\.\\ It\\ shows\\ his\\ apprenticeship\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ \\[a\\ goldsmith\\]\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ because\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ same\\ pose\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ portrait\\.\\ At\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ he\\ was\\ talented\\ and\\ knew\\ how\\ to\\ draw\\,\\ as\\ draftsmenship\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ teh\\ trade\\ of\\ a\\ goldsmith\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Agnes\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\ n\\é\\;e\\ Frey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1494\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pen\\ and\\ black\\ ink\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\ which\\ he\\ presents\\ looking\\ quite\\ plain\\/uninteresting\\.\\ His\\ marriage\\ was\\ one\\ that\\ benefited\\ him\\ professionally\\ as\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ daugher\\ of\\ nobility\\.\\ He\\ gained\\ status\\ and\\ connection\\,\\ and\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ open\\ up\\ a\\ new\\ workshop\\.\\ She\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ very\\ withdrawn\\ bride\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1498\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ Durer\\ self\\ portrait\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ marks\\ his\\ portrayl\\ of\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ noble\\ person\\.\\ He\\ is\\ in\\ costume\\ and\\ the\\ background\\ seem\\ to\\ portray\\ the\\ landscape\\ of\\ the\\ south\\ \\.\\ This\\ marks\\ his\\ many\\ travels\\,\\ esepcaily\\ to\\ Venice\\ \\(Italy\\)\\ to\\ study\\ Renaissance\\ figures\\.\\ The\\ artist\\ thus\\ took\\ on\\ a\\ higher\\ role\\,\\ in\\ which\\ art\\ is\\ nobililty\\.\\ An\\ artist\\ could\\ be\\ respected\\ for\\ their\\ higher\\ status\\ as\\ exceptional\\ individuals\\ with\\ genius\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Four\\ Horsemen\\ of\\ the\\ Apocalypse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Apocalypse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;series\\,\\ 1496\\-1498\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ woodcut\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Apocalyse\\ series\\,\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ prints\\ taht\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ launch\\ his\\ career\\.\\ This\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ teh\\ first\\ books\\ publishe\\ dand\\ illustrated\\ by\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ is\\ teh\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ as\\ many\\ believed\\ the\\ world\\ would\\ end\\ in\\ 1500\\.\\ Durer\\ portrays\\ the\\ uniamiginable\\ physicality\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\ horsemen\\ from\\ descriptions\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ is\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\(Book\\ of\\ Revelations\\)\\.\\ This\\ helped\\ him\\ gain\\ notiriety\\ and\\ was\\ celebrated\\ as\\ a\\ celebrety\\ later\\ in\\ Venice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\36\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Melencolia\\ I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1514\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ print\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotions\\ and\\ psychological\\ state\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ pibolar\\.\\ The\\ other\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ print\\ points\\ at\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ his\\ melacholoy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\37\\)\\ Albrecht\\ D\\ü\\;rer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dream\\ Vision\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1523\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pen\\ and\\ ink\\ and\\ watercolor\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ page\\ from\\ Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ diary\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ accounts\\ his\\ fear\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ ending\\.\\ He\\ had\\ a\\ nightmare\\ the\\ night\\ before\\ and\\ takes\\ down\\ what\\ he\\ sees\\,\\ as\\ the\\ world\\ ending\\ in\\ a\\ flood\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ reflects\\ his\\ connection\\ with\\ his\\ personal\\ feelings\\ of\\ melancholy\\ \\.\\ He\\ used\\ his\\ diary\\ and\\ artwork\\ as\\ a\\ reflection\\ on\\ self\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\38\\)\\ Sandro\\ Botticelli\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Guiliano\\ de\\&rsquo\\;\\ Medici\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ 1476\\-77\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/upload\\.wikimedia\\.org\\/wikipedia\\/commons\\/9\\/98\\/Giuliano\\_de\\%27\\_Medici\\_by\\_Sandro\\_Botticelli\\.jpeg\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Guiliano\\ was\\ the\\ younger\\ brother\\ of\\ Lorenzo\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ ruling\\ family\\ of\\ Medici\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ families\\ in\\ the\\ noble\\ ranks\\ grew\\ tired\\ of\\ their\\ rule\\ and\\ attempted\\ to\\ overthrow\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attacked\\ Guiliano\\ at\\ a\\ church\\ mass\\ killing\\ him\\ but\\ his\\ brother\\ escaped\\ and\\ resumed\\ rule\\ of\\ Medici\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Image\\ of\\ Guiliano\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ stately\\ nobleman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dressed\\ in\\ red\\ robe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ look\\ of\\ disappointment\\ looking\\ down\\ and\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ viewer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ defined\\ face\\ with\\ medium\\ length\\ curly\\ hair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Open\\ window\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ allowing\\ some\\ light\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ the\\ room\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bird\\ perched\\ on\\ a\\ tree\\ branch\\ that\\ touches\\ the\\ windowsill\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guiliano\\ is\\ depicted\\ through\\ a\\ window\\ as\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ looking\\ into\\ his\\ personal\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\39\\)\\ Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Study\\ for\\ the\\ Sforza\\ Monument\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1494\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.davincisketches\\.com\\/viewimage\\.cfm\\?image\\=\\/Equestrian\\/Leo130\\.jpg\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\ used\\ sketches\\ to\\ experiment\\ and\\ study\\ for\\ painting\\ and\\ work\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ preparing\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sketches\\ a\\ side\\ view\\ of\\ a\\ horse\\ and\\ a\\ breast\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ horse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ makes\\ a\\ point\\ to\\ draw\\ the\\ horses\\ hind\\ legs\\ at\\ several\\ points\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ studying\\ the\\ horses\\ leg\\ position\\ as\\ it\\ moves\\ forward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Did\\ this\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ it\\ moves\\ so\\ that\\ when\\ he\\ depicts\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ actual\\ monument\\,\\ it\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ moving\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\ was\\ commissioned\\ by\\ Load\\ Ludovico\\ of\\ Milan\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ world\\&\\#39\\;s\\ largest\\ statue\\,\\ a\\ work\\ which\\ was\\ to\\ depict\\ General\\ Francesco\\ Sforza\\ mounted\\ on\\ horseback\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\)\\ Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\ Portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1515\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.aspectart\\.com\\/gfx\\/article\\_images\\/da\\_vinci\\/self\\_portrait\\_large\\.jpg\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Depicts\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ content\\ old\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\ flowing\\ hair\\ with\\ a\\ partially\\ bald\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ long\\ beard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ looks\\ to\\ be\\ staring\\ at\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Choice\\ of\\ colors\\ is\\ interestingly\\ monochromatic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Makes\\ me\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ practicing\\ with\\ this\\ self\\ portrait\\ sketch\\ for\\ a\\ larger\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ really\\ much\\ going\\ on\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\41\\)\\ Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Projects\\ for\\ Bridges\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1485\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ image\\ is\\ a\\ sketch\\ of\\ a\\ bridge\\ that\\ was\\ ahead\\ of\\ its\\ time\\ and\\ used\\ engineering\\ principles\\ which\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ this\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ bridge\\ was\\ never\\ built\\ but\\ it\\ displays\\ his\\ genius\\ in\\ the\\ engineering\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ also\\ once\\ again\\ shows\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ experimentation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ his\\ most\\ expressive\\ ways\\ of\\ doing\\ so\\ is\\ through\\ sketches\\ which\\ he\\ makes\\ popular\\ amongst\\ artists\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\)\\ Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Map\\ with\\ the\\ Planned\\ Diversion\\ of\\ Arno\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1503\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Though\\ Leonardo\\ was\\ a\\ genius\\ in\\ many\\ respects\\,\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ perfect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ map\\ was\\ created\\ as\\ a\\ project\\ in\\ which\\ Leonardo\\ was\\ going\\ divert\\ the\\ river\\ Arno\\ from\\ the\\ opposing\\ forces\\ who\\ were\\ using\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ water\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ would\\ have\\ forced\\ them\\ to\\ retreat\\ without\\ water\\ to\\ live\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Project\\ was\\ commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ king\\ as\\ he\\ believed\\ in\\ Da\\ Vinci\\&rsquo\\;s\\ engineering\\ genius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Project\\ ended\\ up\\ failing\\ miserably\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ a\\ great\\ embarrassment\\ for\\ Leonardo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\43\\)\\ Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hydrology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1495\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ a\\ sketch\\ of\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ early\\ studies\\ in\\ hydrology\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;the\\ motion\\/movement\\ of\\ fluid\\ freely\\,\\ with\\ an\\ obstacle\\,\\ and\\ dense\\ liquids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ particular\\ image\\ shows\\ two\\ streams\\ of\\ water\\ falling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ detail\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perception\\ of\\ its\\ movement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\44\\)\\ Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Adda\\ Landscape\\,\\ 1512\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ sketch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ attribute\\ is\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ flowing\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ river\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ also\\ uses\\ perspective\\ in\\ the\\ photo\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ creates\\ images\\ that\\ are\\ further\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\ as\\ much\\ smaller\\ than\\ the\\ objects\\ that\\ are\\ closer\\ to\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\45\\)\\ Leonardo\\ Da\\ Vinci\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Proportions\\ of\\ Man\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\after\\ Virtuvius\\ 1490\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Da\\ Vinci\\ was\\ actually\\ a\\ pioneer\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ physiology\\ and\\ is\\ working\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ humans\\ as\\ depicted\\ on\\ paper\\ through\\ another\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ sketches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ particular\\ sketch\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ many\\ still\\ use\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ this\\ image\\ you\\ can\\ picture\\ the\\ limbs\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ moving\\ on\\ the\\ sketch\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ drawn\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ that\\ is\\ continuous\\ and\\ would\\ follow\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ the\\ circle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Fehrenbach\\ went\\ through\\ all\\ six\\ of\\ these\\ paintings\\ quite\\ quickly\\,\\ mostly\\ as\\ examples\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ theme\\ in\\ Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ dedication\\ to\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ following\\ notes\\ might\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ each\\ work\\;\\ specifics\\ for\\ each\\ work\\ are\\ recorded\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Motion\\,\\ Movement\\,\\ Dynamics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ common\\ thread\\ throughout\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ of\\ work\\ was\\ a\\ fascination\\ with\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ defined\\ visual\\ art\\ as\\ visual\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ Leonardo\\ valued\\ painting\\ and\\ drawing\\ was\\ because\\ he\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ medium\\ that\\ could\\ capture\\ movement\\ meaningfully\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;Painting\\ is\\ philosophy\\ because\\ it\\ deals\\ with\\ motion\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ Leonardo\\,\\ static\\ painting\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ snapshot\\ but\\ a\\ dynamic\\ medium\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crucial\\ to\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ of\\ motion\\,\\ movement\\ and\\ dynamics\\ was\\ an\\ unfailing\\ dedication\\ to\\ accurate\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ thought\\ that\\ anatomy\\ and\\ movement\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ understood\\ without\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ dissected\\ dead\\ bodies\\ to\\ accurately\\ portray\\ the\\ human\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ a\\ body\\ needed\\ to\\ work\\ from\\ the\\ skeleton\\ to\\ the\\ muscles\\ to\\ the\\ skin\\ and\\ finally\\ to\\ the\\ clothes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ anatomical\\ sketches\\ essentially\\ feature\\ moment\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ was\\ essentially\\ a\\ thing\\ that\\ moves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ thought\\ that\\ character\\ manifests\\ itself\\ in\\ physical\\ features\\.\\ We\\ can\\ read\\ the\\ signs\\ of\\ human\\ bodies\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ thought\\ that\\ emotions\\ \\(which\\ were\\ also\\ movements\\)\\ left\\ marks\\ and\\ scars\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ lot\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ about\\ a\\ person\\ from\\ looking\\ at\\ their\\ anatomy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bodies\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ timeless\\ frame\\ of\\ reference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Proportions\\ of\\ a\\ Man\\ \\(after\\ Vitruvius\\)\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1490\\.\\ Page\\ from\\ sketchbook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ A\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ and\\ proportion\\,\\ and\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ two\\,\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Takes\\ on\\ a\\ cinematographical\\ look\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ portrayed\\ between\\ states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Embryological\\ Studies\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1505\\-1515\\.\\ Page\\ from\\ sketchbook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ An\\ anatomical\\ study\\ obsessed\\ with\\ movement\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Numerous\\ pictures\\ of\\ embryos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ accurate\\ drawings\\ of\\ even\\ their\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ During\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ da\\ Vinci\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Rendering\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ fetus\\,\\ as\\ he\\ imagined\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ \\&ldquo\\;lifelike\\&rdquo\\;\\ presentation\\,\\ though\\ with\\ modern\\ science\\,\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ untrue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Portrait\\ Study\\ of\\ an\\ Old\\ Man\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1505\\.\\ Page\\ from\\ sketchbook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Good\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ emotion\\ of\\ movements\\ wears\\ on\\ the\\ human\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ A\\ face\\ in\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Machinery\\ depicted\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ Shows\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ connection\\ between\\ technology\\ and\\ movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ every\\ piece\\ of\\ technology\\ is\\ a\\ potential\\ agent\\ for\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ During\\ the\\ period\\ where\\ da\\ Vinci\\ was\\ obsessed\\ with\\ human\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ He\\ was\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ and\\ nutrition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Shadows\\ created\\ by\\ shading\\ help\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ style\\ as\\ his\\ studies\\ of\\ fluid\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Anatomy\\ of\\ the\\ Arm\\ and\\ Neck\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1508\\.\\ Page\\ from\\ sketchbook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Based\\ off\\ the\\ muscles\\ of\\ a\\ 100\\ year\\ old\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Experiments\\ with\\ changing\\ view\\ points\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ the\\ muscles\\ might\\ look\\ when\\ moving\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Tried\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ as\\ growth\\,\\ metabolism\\,\\ blood\\ flow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Proportions\\ of\\ Man\\ after\\ Vitruvius\\ \\(homo\\ quadratus\\)\\ 1419\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Anatomy\\ of\\ the\\ arm\\ and\\ neck\\ 1508\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Experiments\\ of\\ changing\\ viewpoints\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ motion\\,\\ but\\ the\\ viewer\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ set\\ in\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Renderings\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Also\\ obsessed\\ with\\ the\\ growth\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ in\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Character\\ shows\\ itself\\ in\\ bodily\\ features\\ in\\ the\\ softer\\ more\\ flexible\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ bodily\\ figure\\ through\\ emotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Studies\\ of\\ the\\ Movement\\ of\\ Blood\\ in\\ the\\ Heart\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1510\\.\\ Page\\ from\\ sketchbook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Here\\,\\ the\\ organ\\ is\\ barely\\ depicted\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\ defines\\ the\\ functionality\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ for\\ Leonardo\\,\\ defines\\ the\\ heart\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Da\\ Vinci\\ tried\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ he\\ thought\\ blood\\ moved\\ through\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Each\\ small\\ detailed\\ drawing\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ is\\ his\\ attempt\\ to\\ define\\ fluid\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Linear\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ drawing\\&mdash\\;simulates\\ movement\\ through\\ curved\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Botanical\\ Study\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1505\\.\\ Page\\ from\\ sketchbook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Plants\\ were\\ also\\ objects\\ of\\ movement\\ for\\ Leonardo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Products\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ and\\ its\\ movement\\.\\ Growth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anatomy\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ plants\\ was\\ also\\ of\\ great\\ importance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\50Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Botanical\\ study\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1505\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ In\\ his\\ quest\\ to\\ learn\\ more\\ about\\ growth\\,\\ he\\ also\\ looked\\ at\\ natural\\ growth\\ in\\ branches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ curved\\ lines\\ suggest\\ movement\\ and\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\ with\\ Saint\\ Anne\\,\\ 1510\\-13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Virgin\\ with\\ Child\\ and\\ Saint\\ Anne\\,\\ 1510\\-13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Probably\\ not\\ related\\ to\\ a\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Represented\\ very\\ dynamically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ At\\ the\\ very\\ moment\\ when\\ Christ\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ separate\\ himself\\ from\\ his\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ leg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ When\\ compared\\ with\\ Masaccio\\ and\\ others\\,\\ the\\ dynamism\\ is\\ compared\\ with\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ former\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Raphael\\ followed\\ in\\ direct\\ paraphrase\\ to\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ Leonardo\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Relationship\\ between\\ color\\ and\\ perspective\\&mdash\\;the\\ bluer\\ the\\ figure\\ is\\,\\ the\\ further\\ it\\ is\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Acceptance\\ of\\ subjectivity\\ in\\ the\\ viewer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ There\\ are\\ completely\\ governed\\ by\\ scientific\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ The\\ reduction\\ of\\ distinctive\\ contours\\ transforms\\ a\\ painting\\ to\\ show\\ less\\ the\\ less\\ realistic\\ it\\ becomes\\&mdash\\;sfumato\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Used\\ to\\ depict\\ far\\ away\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ The\\ Last\\ Supper\\,\\ 1495\\-98\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ Last\\ Supper\\,\\ 1495\\-97\\,\\ Milan\\,\\ fresco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Shows\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Back\\ and\\ forth\\ of\\ movement\\ to\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ announcement\\ shows\\ the\\ division\\ among\\ the\\ apostles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Compared\\ to\\ others\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ static\\ without\\ as\\ much\\ movement\\ and\\ emotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Figures\\ seem\\ too\\ large\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Mona\\ Lisa\\,\\ 1503\\-1506\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Female\\ portraiture\\ was\\ in\\ general\\ was\\ a\\ new\\ genre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Formula\\ for\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\ in\\ profile\\ in\\ the\\ 15th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ E\\.g\\.\\ Domenico\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Early\\ portraits\\ of\\ Leonardo\\ of\\ women\\,\\ very\\ exposed\\ face\\ and\\ opaque\\ face\\ like\\ a\\ woman\\&mdash\\;strangely\\ cast\\ eyes\\ and\\ indiscriminate\\ expression\\&mdash\\;motions\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Ginevra\\ de\\ Benci\\ \\(portrait\\ of\\ some\\ lady\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Portrait\\ of\\ Cecilia\\ Gallerani\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Shows\\ her\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ beginning\\ to\\ smile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Encountering\\ another\\ presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Turned\\ 180\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Mona\\ Lisa\\&mdash\\;Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ Lady\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Looking\\ at\\ us\\,\\ but\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Traces\\ of\\ a\\ smile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Two\\ sides\\ of\\ face\\ different\\ from\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\#\\ Paining\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ unity\\ between\\ timelessness\\ and\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\54Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ Deluge\\,\\ 1517\\-1518\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Draftsman\\&mdash\\;a\\ master\\ with\\ a\\ pure\\ form\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Dancing\\ and\\ pointing\\ Nymphs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Curved\\ hatching\\ instead\\ of\\ diagonal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Study\\ of\\ \\ \\;the\\ Kneeling\\ Leda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\+\\ Shows\\ the\\ motion\\ and\\ such\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Drawing\\ became\\ an\\ experimental\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Culminated\\ in\\ deluge\\ series\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\55Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Childrens\\&rsquo\\;\\ Games\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1560\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fight\\ between\\ Carnival\\ and\\ Lent\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1559\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hunters\\ in\\ Snow\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1565\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Peasant\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1568\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Peasant\\ Wedding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1568\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Garden\\ of\\ Earthly\\ Delights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ Campin\\ and\\ Assistants\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ M\\é\\;rode\\ Altarpiece\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1425\\-28\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Triptych\\.\\ This\\ is\\ closely\\ analyzed\\ for\\ the\\ symbolism\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ picture\\ by\\ Meyer\\ Schapiro\\.\\ The\\ center\\ piece\\ is\\ \\ \\;of\\ a\\ Annunciation\\,\\ the\\ left\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ patron\\,\\ and\\ the\\ right\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ Joseph\\.\\ He\\ is\\ depicted\\ as\\ an\\ old\\ man\\ working\\ on\\ a\\ mousetrap\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ the\\ trapping\\ of\\ the\\ devil\\ through\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ Jesus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Gustave\\ Courbet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Le\\ Puits\\ Noir\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ca\\.\\ 1864\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oil\\ on\\ Canvas\\ framed\\ on\\ wood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NOTE\\:\\ THIS\\ IS\\ NOT\\ THE\\ ACTUAL\\ PAINTING\\:\\ Courbet\\ made\\ several\\ depictions\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ scene\\ from\\ different\\ angles\\.\\ I\\ put\\ this\\ slide\\ here\\ to\\ remind\\ you\\ of\\ the\\ real\\ painting\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Sackler\\.\\ They\\ look\\ very\\ similar\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ NOT\\ identical\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ piece\\ was\\ reviewed\\ in\\ section\\ during\\ the\\ week\\ of\\ medium\\ and\\ its\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ landscape\\ image\\ Courbet\\ depicts\\ a\\ winding\\ stream\\ through\\ the\\ woodlands\\/valley\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ oil\\ paint\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ natural\\ effect\\ of\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ glistening\\ water\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ shading\\ of\\ the\\ trees\\.\\ By\\ using\\ gradation\\ and\\ varying\\ the\\ detail\\ of\\ his\\ brushstrokes\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ depth\\ and\\ realism\\.\\ As\\ the\\ viewer\\ scans\\ the\\ image\\ from\\ foreground\\ to\\ background\\,\\ the\\ brush\\ strokes\\ become\\ less\\ distinguishable\\ and\\ the\\ leaves\\ and\\ trees\\ become\\ somewhat\\ muddled\\.\\ Unlike\\ other\\ mediums\\,\\ the\\ oil\\ allows\\ Courbet\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ natural\\ light\\ and\\ add\\ texture\\ to\\ the\\ image\\;\\ it\\ enables\\ him\\ to\\ manipulate\\ hue\\,\\ saturation\\,\\ and\\ value\\ much\\ more\\ easily\\ than\\ other\\ mediums\\ such\\ as\\ tempera\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\63\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bernardo\\ Daddi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christ\\ on\\ the\\ Cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 1334\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ three\\ panel\\ altarpiece\\;\\ the\\ center\\ panel\\ depicts\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ of\\ Christ\\ with\\ three\\ mourners\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ produce\\ the\\ piece\\ the\\ artist\\ had\\ to\\ carve\\ the\\ altarpiece\\,\\ prime\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ sketch\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ add\\ gold\\ leaf\\,\\ and\\ then\\ paint\\ using\\ tempera\\ \\(egg\\ based\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ has\\ a\\ matte\\ finish\\ that\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ tempera\\.\\ With\\ tempera\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ layer\\ \\(as\\ in\\ Le\\ Puits\\ Noir\\)\\ and\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ add\\ shading\\ and\\ gradation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\64\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Workshop\\ of\\ Jacob\\ de\\ Wit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autumn\\ Represented\\ by\\ Putti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 1745\\-1750\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ No\\ Image\\:\\ This\\ piece\\ hangs\\ on\\ the\\ back\\ wall\\ of\\ the\\ room\\ in\\ the\\ Sackler\\ where\\ we\\ have\\ section\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ uppermost\\ artwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ This\\ piece\\ depicts\\ a\\ scene\\ of\\ cherub\\-like\\ figures\\ as\\ they\\ prepare\\ and\\ consume\\ wine\\:\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ the\\ plane\\ there\\ is\\ set\\ of\\ dancing\\ figures\\;\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ a\\ cherub\\ sits\\ on\\ a\\ barrel\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ a\\ cherub\\ is\\ climbing\\ what\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ pit\\ for\\ stomping\\ the\\ grapes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ depiction\\ of\\ a\\ depiction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ a\\ sculpture\\.\\ This\\ parallels\\ a\\ theme\\ throughout\\ the\\ Renaissance\\:\\ Depiction\\ of\\ expensive\\ materials\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ effect\\ is\\ achieved\\ through\\ manipulation\\ of\\ the\\ shading\\,\\ saturation\\,\\ and\\ hue\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ painting\\.\\ This\\ once\\ again\\ underscores\\ how\\ oil\\ allows\\ artists\\ to\\ be\\ versatile\\ and\\ create\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ perspective\\ and\\ depth\\ effects\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\65\\.\\ Christian\\ Seybold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Portrait\\ of\\ an\\ Old\\ Woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 1749\\-1750\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ No\\ Image\\:\\ This\\ piece\\ hangs\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ wall\\ of\\ the\\ Sackler\\ section\\ room\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ oil\\ on\\ copper\\ that\\ depicts\\ the\\ portrait\\ of\\ an\\ older\\ woman\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ portrait\\,\\ most\\ likely\\ an\\ exercise\\ for\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ practiced\\ how\\ to\\ depict\\ wrinkles\\ on\\ the\\ face\\.\\ \\(The\\ giveaway\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ unflattering\\ painting\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ it\\ has\\ an\\ overall\\ appealing\\ aesthetic\\,\\ no\\ patron\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ would\\ have\\ had\\ her\\ portrait\\ done\\ with\\ so\\ many\\ wrinkles\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ The\\ oil\\ on\\ copper\\ gives\\ the\\ painting\\ a\\ unique\\ shiny\\ and\\ metallic\\ finish\\ that\\ gives\\ her\\ flesh\\ a\\ realistic\\ tone\\ and\\ glow\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Inness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\October\\ Noon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1891\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Oil\\ on\\ prepared\\ millboard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Textured\\ brushwork\\/\\ feathery\\ makes\\ scene\\ blurry\\ with\\ light\\ movement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(windy\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Layering\\ of\\ paint\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Sense\\ of\\ distance\\ large\\ landscape\\ with\\ road\\ leading\\ into\\ the\\ painting\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\ small\\ figure\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Atmospheric\\ effect\\ \\(static\\ vs\\.\\ dynamic\\ areas\\)\\ \\(detail\\ vs\\.\\ vague\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reginald\\ Marsh\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Beach\\ Scene\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1932\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mezzo\\-fresco\\ \\(lime\\ wash\\ on\\ plaster\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Fresco\\ need\\ to\\ work\\ fast\\ \\(1\\ day\\)\\ because\\ colors\\ change\\ when\\ dry\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\different\\ times\\ can\\ see\\ a\\ band\\ across\\ painting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Painting\\ into\\ plaster\\ lasts\\ longer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Big\\,\\ loose\\ brushstrokes\\ makes\\ it\\ look\\ livelier\\/windier\\ \\(sense\\ of\\ action\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ CHEAP\\ medium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jasper\\ Johns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Study\\ with\\ Two\\ Balls\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1957\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Encaustic\\ \\(hot\\ wax\\ and\\ pigment\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Newspaper\\ as\\ painting\\ surface\\ experimental\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Can\\ sense\\ tension\\ by\\ the\\ bowing\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\ next\\ to\\ balls\\ creating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pressure\\ on\\ the\\ sides\\ \\(as\\ if\\ a\\ real\\ ball\\ in\\ space\\ would\\!\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Uses\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ physics\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ realistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Plays\\ with\\ primary\\ \\/\\ secondary\\ colors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Bottom\\ not\\ finished\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unknown\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tabernacle\\ with\\ a\\ Flagellation\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\70\\ Giovanni\\ Battista\\ Piranesi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Drawbridge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\n\\.d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Josef\\ Albers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Homage\\ to\\ the\\ Square\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcantonio\\ Raimondi\\ after\\ Raphael\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Judgment\\ of\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1517\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paulus\\ Pontius\\ after\\ Rubens\\,\\ The\\ Carrying\\ of\\ the\\ Cross\\,\\ 1637\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ two\\ engravings\\ were\\ compared\\ during\\ Section\\ Four\\ to\\ highlight\\ developments\\ in\\ art\\ form\\ and\\ technique\\.\\ Raimondi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ is\\ planar\\,\\ as\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ size\\.\\ It\\ includes\\ multiple\\ scenes\\;\\ the\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ engaging\\ in\\ separate\\,\\ unrelated\\ activities\\.\\ The\\ central\\ figure\\ holding\\ up\\ a\\ cloak\\ draws\\ the\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attention\\ because\\ she\\ stands\\ alone\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ rest\\,\\ but\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ size\\ as\\ they\\ are\\.\\ The\\ figures\\ are\\ full\\-bodied\\.\\ The\\ engraving\\&rsquo\\;s\\ depth\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ visible\\,\\ horizontal\\ lines\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ Pontius\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ recedes\\:\\ the\\ figures\\ become\\ smaller\\ as\\ the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eye\\ travels\\ up\\ the\\ hill\\.\\ The\\ viewer\\ is\\ immediately\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ large\\ cross\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ engraving\\,\\ where\\ Jesus\\ is\\.\\ The\\ artist\\ uses\\ cross\\-hatching\\ to\\ show\\ both\\ depth\\ and\\ musculature\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\ and\\ figures\\.\\ The\\ engraving\\ is\\ open\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ closed\\,\\ since\\ some\\ figures\\ are\\ only\\ partly\\ within\\ the\\ frame\\.\\ Further\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ Raimondi\\ piece\\,\\ here\\ the\\ figures\\ cannot\\ be\\ separated\\;\\ a\\ unified\\ event\\ involving\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ characters\\ centered\\ upon\\ Christ\\ is\\ occurring\\.\\ The\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eye\\ also\\ cannot\\ physically\\ separate\\ the\\ figures\\;\\ they\\ intertwine\\ and\\ overlap\\,\\ unlike\\ those\\ pictured\\ by\\ Raimondi\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\READINGS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Muscipula\\ Diaboli\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Symbolism\\ of\\ the\\ Merode\\ Altarpiece\\ \\(1945\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ Meyer\\ Schapiro\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-in\\ Merode\\ Altarpice\\,\\ Joseph\\ appears\\ as\\ an\\ artisan\\ who\\ fashions\\ mousetraps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Master\\ of\\ Flemalle\\ \\(who\\ painted\\ Merode\\ Altarpiece\\)\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;unmistakable\\ disposition\\ to\\ the\\ domestic\\,\\ the\\ intimate\\ and\\ the\\ tiny\\;\\ his\\ pictures\\ represent\\ a\\ cozy\\,\\ well\\ kept\\ bourgeois\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-author\\ of\\ article\\ argues\\ that\\ mousetrap\\ has\\ a\\ deeper\\ theological\\ meaning\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ obvious\\ in\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ Christians\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-mousetrap\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ flesh\\ of\\ Christ\\ is\\ a\\ bait\\ for\\ the\\ devil\\,\\ who\\,\\ in\\ seizing\\ it\\,\\ bring\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ ruin\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-iconography\\ in\\ Annunciation\\ panel\\ further\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ as\\ a\\ theological\\ metaphor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-tiny\\ naked\\ figure\\ of\\ child\\ bearing\\ cross\\ and\\ descending\\ towards\\ Virgin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-passage\\ of\\ rays\\ through\\ glass\\=\\ miraculous\\ insemination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-door\\,\\ window\\,\\ towel\\,\\ basin\\,\\ lilies\\,\\ candle\\ all\\ hold\\ hidden\\ religious\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-so\\ altarpiece\\ contains\\ human\\ career\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ entrance\\ into\\ world\\ through\\ Virgin\\ to\\ becoming\\ bait\\ for\\ the\\ Devil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-propaganda\\ for\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ Joseph\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Joseph\\ depicted\\ as\\ old\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pointing\\ to\\ Mary\\&rsquo\\;s\\ virginity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-he\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ divine\\ plot\\ of\\ deceive\\ the\\ devil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-mice\\ were\\ also\\ considered\\ erotic\\ in\\ middle\\ ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-this\\ altarpiece\\ was\\ a\\ forerunner\\ of\\ the\\ Boschian\\ instruments\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ diabolical\\,\\ the\\ ingenious\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sinfully\\ erotic\\ are\\ combined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-those\\ w\\/\\ unchaste\\ thoughts\\ will\\ be\\ trapped\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;intrinsic\\ meaning\\:\\ new\\ awareness\\ of\\ self\\,\\ repression\\ of\\ desire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iconography\\ by\\ Panofsky\\ \\(1962\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-concerns\\ itself\\ with\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ or\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ their\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-3\\ strata\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ primary\\:\\ forms\\,\\ line\\,\\ color\\ \\(ex\\.\\ female\\ figure\\ dressed\\ in\\ white\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pre\\-iconographical\\ description\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ secondary\\:\\ motifs\\,\\ themes\\,\\ getting\\ what\\ something\\ represents\\ \\(ex\\.\\ this\\ female\\ figure\\ represents\\ Venus\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;iconographical\\ analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ intrinsic\\ meaning\\:\\ reveal\\ basic\\ attitude\\ of\\ nation\\,\\ period\\,\\ class\\,\\ or\\ religion\\ \\(ex\\.\\ this\\ depiction\\ of\\ Venus\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ Italian\\ High\\ Renaissance\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;iconographical\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ Hugo\\ van\\ der\\ Velden\\ \\(1997\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-unusual\\ iconography\\ of\\ painting\\ \\(15\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suspended\\ from\\ branch\\ of\\ tree\\)\\ was\\ derived\\ from\\ miraculous\\ image\\ which\\ was\\ held\\ in\\ high\\ esteem\\ in\\ Bruges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-painting\\ originally\\ thought\\ to\\ allude\\ to\\ Ezekiel\\ 17\\.24\\,\\ allegory\\,\\ where\\ Mary\\ is\\ described\\ metaphorically\\ as\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ God\\,\\ who\\ grafted\\ a\\ branch\\ from\\ the\\ Tree\\ of\\ Life\\ onto\\ a\\ barren\\ trunk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-van\\ der\\ Velden\\ argues\\ that\\ iconography\\ of\\ painting\\ is\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ allegory\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ symbolic\\ allusion\\ to\\ Immaculate\\ Conception\\;\\ no\\ intrinsic\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;actual\\ image\\ on\\ tree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-suggests\\ that\\ confraternity\\ of\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\ was\\ dedicated\\ to\\ a\\ miraculous\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-this\\ image\\ of\\ Mary\\ was\\ first\\ suspended\\ on\\ a\\ dry\\ \\(dead\\)\\ tree\\ when\\ it\\ produced\\ a\\ miracle\\;\\ then\\ taken\\ down\\ and\\ placed\\ on\\ altar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-very\\ typical\\ at\\ that\\ time\\ to\\ suspend\\ images\\ on\\ trees\\;\\ also\\ present\\ was\\ pagan\\ worship\\ of\\ trees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-painting\\ must\\ symbolize\\ setting\\ of\\ image\\ of\\ Mary\\ on\\ altar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-A\\ might\\ be\\ abbreviation\\ for\\ Ave\\ Maria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-A\\ could\\ also\\ signify\\ Arbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Giorgio\\ Vasari\\,\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Drawing\\ and\\ painting\\ should\\ be\\ learned\\ by\\ practicing\\ from\\ natural\\ objects\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ nude\\ figure\\ and\\ studying\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ muscles\\ and\\ such\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Good\\ methods\\ in\\ art\\&mdash\\;groups\\,\\ characterization\\ of\\ figures\\ \\(old\\ v\\.\\ Young\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Pictures\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ harmonius\\ unity\\ with\\ figures\\ that\\ are\\ further\\ away\\ receeding\\ into\\ the\\ background\\ by\\ shading\\ and\\ colour\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Fresco\\ method\\&mdash\\;done\\ while\\ the\\ plaster\\ is\\ wet\\,\\ very\\ difficult\\ and\\ exact\\ practice\\,\\ requires\\ quick\\ work\\,\\ colours\\ change\\ when\\ dry\\,\\ most\\ durable\\ of\\ all\\ methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Tempera\\&mdash\\;egg\\ paint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Gesso\\&mdash\\;coating\\ on\\ canvas\\ to\\ strengthen\\ it\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ stiff\\ to\\ paint\\ on\\&mdash\\;preps\\ the\\ canvas\\&mdash\\;usually\\ done\\ with\\ animal\\ glue\\ of\\ some\\ sort\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Oil\\ paint\\&mdash\\;oil\\ \\(linseed\\ or\\ walnut\\)\\ mixed\\ with\\ pigments\\ from\\ natural\\ materials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Painting\\ with\\ oil\\ on\\ walls\\ requires\\ coats\\ of\\ oil\\ until\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ absorb\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Painting\\ on\\ stone\\ is\\ easier\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ as\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meiss\\,\\ Light\\ and\\ Perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ was\\ most\\ known\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ linear\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ last\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ was\\ notably\\ advanced\\ in\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Fire\\ and\\ light\\ is\\ used\\ more\\ in\\ the\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ to\\ represent\\ religious\\ symbols\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ The\\ conception\\ of\\ Christ\\ is\\ often\\ depicted\\ as\\ light\\ through\\ a\\ window\\,\\ as\\ the\\ Virgin\\ was\\ likened\\ to\\ a\\ window\\ in\\ a\\ metaphor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ This\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ Merode\\ altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\:\\ Principles\\ of\\ Art\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\specific\\ \\&ldquo\\;principles\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ necessary\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ establishing\\ a\\ firm\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ classifications\\ of\\ art\\ history\\ \\(not\\ a\\ value\\ judgment\\,\\ but\\ classifications\\ of\\ style\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ must\\ interpret\\ art\\ within\\ its\\ own\\ terms\\/context\\ \\(time\\ period\\,\\ region\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-three\\ kinds\\ of\\ style\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-individual\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-national\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-time\\ period\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-though\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ for\\ even\\ artists\\ born\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ place\\ to\\ have\\ different\\ styles\\,\\ there\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;certain\\ thoughts\\ that\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ thought\\ at\\ certain\\ stages\\ of\\ development\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ so\\ Pollack\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ done\\ his\\ work\\ if\\ he\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 16th\\ century\\ Italy\\,\\ for\\ example\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Style\\ is\\ unique\\ to\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ scene\\ will\\ be\\ rendered\\ differently\\ by\\ different\\ people\\,\\ this\\ is\\ particularly\\ evident\\ when\\ the\\ subjects\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thus\\,\\ Botticelli\\ paints\\ women\\ in\\ a\\ distinctive\\ way\\,\\ and\\ color\\ and\\ line\\ are\\ often\\ distinguishable\\ between\\ different\\ artists\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-individual\\ artists\\ with\\ their\\ personal\\ styles\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ compared\\ in\\ groups\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ or\\ the\\ country\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Dutch\\ subtlety\\ vs\\.\\ Flemish\\ massiveness\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-these\\ are\\ categorizations\\ that\\ are\\ only\\ apparent\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ compare\\ larger\\ groups\\ of\\ artists\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ are\\ also\\ distinct\\ categories\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ drawn\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ time\\ period\\ \\(called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;period\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-not\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ art\\ are\\ possible\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ \\(an\\ artist\\ is\\ influenced\\ by\\ what\\ has\\ come\\ before\\ him\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-analysis\\ of\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ the\\ High\\ Renaissance\\/\\ terms\\ for\\ formal\\ analysis\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-linear\\ to\\ painterly\\ style\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-plane\\ to\\ recession\\ \\(classical\\ art\\ reduces\\ the\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ total\\ form\\ to\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ planes\\,\\ while\\ the\\ baroque\\ emphasizes\\ depth\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ closed\\ to\\ open\\ form\\ \\(classical\\ art\\ is\\ more\\ closed\\,\\ baroque\\ is\\ more\\ loose\\ and\\ open\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-multiplicity\\ to\\ unity\\ \\(in\\ classical\\ art\\,\\ the\\ single\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\ maintain\\ independence\\,\\ while\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitive\\&rdquo\\;\\ art\\ there\\ is\\ anarchy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ spectator\\ moves\\ from\\ one\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ next\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-absolute\\ vs\\.\\ relative\\ clarity\\ \\(this\\ mostly\\ refers\\ to\\ subject\\ matter\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-these\\ formal\\ terms\\ are\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ represent\\ a\\ specific\\ schema\\ within\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ talk\\ about\\ works\\ of\\ art\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ representation\\ of\\ forms\\,\\ etc\\.\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ they\\ also\\ represent\\ a\\ logical\\ progression\\ of\\ art\\ \\(linear\\ vision\\ had\\ to\\ come\\ before\\ the\\ painterly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schapiro\\:\\ Style\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ constant\\ form\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ or\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Meaning\\ for\\ different\\ people\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Archaeologist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ motif\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Historian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ essential\\ object\\ of\\ investigation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Philosopher\\ of\\ history\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ manifestation\\ of\\ culture\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Critic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ value\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Style\\ if\\ peculiar\\ to\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ a\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Style\\ refers\\ to\\ three\\ aspects\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ form\\ elements\\ or\\ motifs\\,\\ form\\ relationships\\,\\ and\\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Change\\ in\\ thinking\\ about\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ primitive\\ art\\ was\\ not\\ true\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Art\\ is\\ an\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ basic\\ unity\\ of\\ mankind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ New\\ styles\\ actually\\ recall\\ primitive\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Variation\\ within\\ style\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Another\\ exception\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ marginal\\ and\\ dominant\\ fields\\ in\\ certain\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Individuals\\ can\\ also\\ produce\\ works\\ with\\ different\\ styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ For\\ example\\,\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ man\\ in\\ different\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Group\\ style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ contains\\ elements\\ that\\ belong\\ to\\ different\\ historical\\ strata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Can\\ also\\ compare\\ styles\\ of\\ arts\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ period\\ in\\ different\\ media\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ Baroque\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Broad\\ guiding\\ idea\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;impose\\ a\\ common\\ form\\ upon\\ the\\ most\\ varied\\ contexts\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Organic\\ conception\\ of\\ style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ biological\\ growth\\ of\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Each\\ stage\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Can\\ break\\ up\\ Western\\ development\\ into\\ medieval\\ and\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Wolfflin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ five\\ pairs\\ of\\ polar\\ terms\\ through\\ which\\ he\\ defined\\ the\\ opposed\\ styles\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ period\\ \\(Renaissance\\ versus\\ Baroque\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Linear\\ versus\\ painterly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Parallel\\ versus\\ diagonal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Closed\\ versus\\ open\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Composite\\ versus\\ fused\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Clear\\ versus\\ unclear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Weaknesses\\ of\\ his\\ model\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Difficult\\ to\\ fit\\ Mannerism\\,\\ modern\\ art\\ into\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Frankl\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ model\\ of\\ development\\ which\\ combines\\ dual\\ polar\\ structure\\ with\\ cyclical\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Recurrent\\ movement\\ between\\ style\\ of\\ Being\\ and\\ style\\ of\\ Becoming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ Within\\ each\\ style\\,\\ three\\ stages\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ preclassic\\,\\ classic\\,\\ and\\ postclassic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Representation\\ of\\ natural\\ forms\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ goal\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\ of\\ many\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Riegl\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tried\\ to\\ embrace\\ artistic\\ development\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ continuous\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Move\\ from\\ representation\\ based\\ on\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ to\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ perceptual\\ field\\ as\\ distant\\ continuum\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 21, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FINAL_HAA10_Midterm_Studyguide.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Western Tradition - Reading Summaries", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "western-tradition"], "text": null, "id": 51, "html": "\\\\\\Compiled\\_HAA\\_Reading\\_Summaries\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\;height\\:11pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c34\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c32\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c36\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:11pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c5\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c26\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c35\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c6\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c27\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c19\\{height\\:11pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Gombrich\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ I\\:\\ The\\ later\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ \\ \\;Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ II\\:\\ The\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ the\\ North\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ I\\:\\ The\\ later\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ spirit\\ of\\ adventure\\ which\\ took\\ hold\\ of\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ marks\\ the\\ real\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pp\\ 247\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Artists\\ and\\ their\\ patrons\\ alike\\ realized\\ that\\ art\\ no\\ longer\\ had\\ to\\ just\\ tell\\ a\\ religious\\ story\\,\\ but\\ could\\ also\\ serve\\ to\\ depict\\ the\\ real\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ artists\\ began\\ to\\ experiment\\ and\\ search\\ for\\ new\\ effects\\ \\&\\;\\ methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ the\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\departure\\ from\\ International\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(until\\ 1400\\,\\ art\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ Europe\\ had\\ developed\\ on\\ similar\\ lines\\)\\ and\\ rise\\ of\\ increased\\ nationalism\\/regionalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ can\\ recognize\\ whether\\ a\\ fifteenth\\-century\\ picture\\ comes\\ from\\ Florence\\ or\\ Siena\\,\\ Dijon\\ or\\ Bruges\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ mixture\\ between\\ new\\ and\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ between\\ Gothic\\ traditions\\ and\\ modern\\ forms\\,\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ many\\ masters\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 1400s\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Alberti\\ used\\ classical\\ forms\\ for\\ decoration\\ of\\ a\\ traditional\\ Gothic\\ style\\ 3\\-story\\ building\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\discovery\\ of\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\.\\ Paolo\\ Uccello\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Battle\\ of\\ San\\ Romano\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(c\\.\\ 1450\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ painstaking\\ attention\\ paid\\ to\\ depicting\\ proper\\ foreshortening\\;\\ of\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ a\\ fallen\\ soldier\\ lying\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ Gombrich\\ notes\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ such\\ figure\\ had\\ been\\ painted\\ before\\ and\\,\\ though\\ it\\ looks\\ rather\\ too\\ small\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ figures\\,\\ we\\ can\\ imagine\\ what\\ a\\ stir\\ it\\ must\\ have\\ caused\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(255\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ artists\\/achievements\\ of\\ the\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Donatello\\ \\&\\;\\ Masaccio\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Florentine\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Eyck\\,\\ in\\ the\\ north\\,\\ had\\ changed\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ the\\ International\\ style\\ by\\ adding\\ more\\ details\\ from\\ observation\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ copy\\ the\\ surfaces\\ of\\ things\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ minutest\\ shade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uccello\\ rather\\ chose\\ the\\ opposite\\ approach\\.\\ By\\ means\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\ art\\ of\\ perspective\\,\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ construct\\ a\\ convincing\\ stage\\ on\\ which\\ his\\ figures\\ would\\ appear\\ solid\\ and\\ real\\.\\ But\\ he\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ learned\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ shade\\ and\\ air\\ to\\ mellow\\ the\\ harsh\\ outlines\\ of\\ a\\ strictly\\ perspective\\ rendering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treatment\\ of\\ light\\.\\ Medieval\\ artists\\ had\\ taken\\ hardly\\ any\\ notice\\ of\\ light\\;\\ their\\ flat\\ figures\\ cast\\ no\\ shadows\\.\\ Masaccio\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;been\\ a\\ pioneer\\ in\\ this\\ respect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ round\\ and\\ solid\\ figures\\ of\\ his\\ paintings\\ were\\ forcefully\\ modeled\\ in\\ light\\ and\\ shade\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Piero\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ master\\ using\\ light\\ and\\ shadow\\ to\\ give\\ figures\\ in\\ his\\ paintings\\ an\\ illusion\\ of\\ depth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ artists\\ across\\ Europe\\ were\\ applying\\ the\\ inventions\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ generation\\ of\\ Florentine\\ masters\\,\\ artists\\ became\\ increasingly\\ aware\\ of\\ new\\ problems\\ that\\ these\\ inventions\\ had\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ before\\ invention\\ of\\ perspective\\,\\ artists\\ could\\ scatter\\ their\\ figures\\ around\\ in\\ a\\ picture\\ to\\ create\\ any\\ desired\\ pattern\\,\\ but\\ when\\ the\\ new\\ concept\\ of\\ making\\ pictures\\ a\\ mirror\\ of\\ reality\\,\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ arrange\\ figures\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ easy\\ to\\ solve\\,\\ as\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ figures\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ group\\ themselves\\ harmoniously\\,\\ or\\ stand\\ out\\ clearly\\ against\\ a\\ neutral\\ background\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ problem\\ in\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ picture\\ both\\ accurate\\ in\\ draughtsmanship\\ and\\ harmonious\\ in\\ composition\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ creating\\ big\\ altar\\-paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ gradual\\ change\\ in\\ Italian\\ art\\ came\\ about\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ 1300s\\ \\&\\;\\ 1400s\\:\\ artists\\ no\\ longer\\ thought\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ conveying\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ sacred\\ story\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rather\\ it\\ could\\ now\\ serve\\ function\\ of\\ displaying\\ wealth\\ and\\ luxury\\,\\ adding\\ to\\ beauty\\ and\\ graces\\ of\\ life\\.\\ In\\ the\\ period\\ called\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\ this\\ function\\ of\\ art\\ came\\ to\\ fore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ II\\:\\ The\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ the\\ North\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ had\\ brought\\ decisive\\ change\\ in\\ HAA\\ b\\/c\\ discoveries\\ and\\ innovations\\ of\\ Brunelleschi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ generation\\ in\\ Florence\\ separated\\ Italian\\ art\\ from\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ northern\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Italians\\ \\(art\\ for\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sake\\,\\ not\\ just\\ religious\\ art\\)\\,\\ but\\ their\\ means\\ \\&\\;\\ methods\\,\\ styles\\ were\\ different\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ especially\\ in\\ architecture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ Italy\\:\\ Brunelleschi\\ put\\ end\\ to\\ Gothic\\ style\\ in\\ Florence\\ by\\ introducing\\ Renaissance\\ method\\ of\\ using\\ classical\\ motifs\\ for\\ his\\ buildings\\;\\ it\\ was\\ nearly\\ a\\ century\\ before\\ artists\\ outside\\ Italy\\ followed\\ his\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ the\\ taste\\ for\\ complicated\\ ornamentation\\ in\\ buildings\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Decorated\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ window\\ of\\ the\\ Exeter\\ Cathedral\\,\\ went\\ even\\ further\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ new\\ phase\\ of\\ French\\ Gothic\\,\\ sometimes\\ called\\ the\\ Flamboyant\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\England\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ last\\ phase\\ of\\ Gothic\\ style\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Perpendicular\\:\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ Gothic\\ style\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ go\\ out\\ of\\ fashion\\ and\\ Gombrich\\ claims\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ indications\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;even\\ without\\ the\\ direct\\ influence\\ of\\ Italy\\ the\\ architects\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ would\\ have\\ evolved\\ a\\ new\\ style\\ of\\ greater\\ simplicity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pp\\ 269\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ example\\ of\\ Perpendicular\\ style\\:\\ chapel\\ at\\ King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ College\\,\\ Cambridge\\ \\(begun\\ in\\ 1446\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ decorations\\ straight\\ lines\\ are\\ more\\ frequent\\ than\\ curves\\ and\\ arches\\ of\\ the\\ earlier\\ \\&lsquo\\;decorated\\&rsquo\\;\\ tracery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Developments\\ of\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\ in\\ the\\ countries\\ outside\\ Italy\\ runs\\ parallel\\ w\\/\\ the\\ development\\ in\\ architecture\\,\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\:\\ while\\ Italy\\ was\\ consumed\\ by\\ the\\ Renaissance\\,\\ the\\ North\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ remained\\ faithful\\ still\\ to\\ Gothic\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Despite\\ the\\ great\\ innovations\\ of\\ the\\ Van\\ Eyck\\ brothers\\ \\(in\\ the\\ North\\)\\,\\ the\\ northern\\ artists\\ of\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ did\\ not\\ use\\ mathematical\\ rules\\ of\\ perspective\\,\\ the\\ secrets\\ of\\ scientific\\ anatomy\\,\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ Roman\\ monuments\\;\\ we\\ could\\ say\\ they\\ were\\ still\\ \\&lsquo\\;medieval\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ while\\ the\\ Italians\\ entered\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;modern\\ era\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jan\\ Van\\ Eyck\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ incredible\\ attention\\ to\\ details\\,\\ textures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Northern\\ art\\,\\ which\\ was\\ less\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ attaining\\ ideal\\ harmony\\ and\\ beauty\\ than\\ Italian\\ art\\,\\ favoured\\,\\ to\\ a\\ growing\\ extent\\,\\ lifelike\\ pictures\\ of\\ the\\ daily\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rogier\\ van\\ der\\ Weyden\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Descent\\ from\\ the\\ Cross\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1435\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ Rogier\\ translated\\ main\\ ideas\\ of\\ Gothic\\ art\\ into\\ a\\ new\\,\\ lifelike\\ style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ saved\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ lucid\\ design\\ that\\ might\\ otherwise\\ have\\ been\\ lost\\ under\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ discoveries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\:\\ in\\ the\\ Descent\\,\\ Rogier\\ uses\\ stylized\\ composition\\,\\ but\\ incorporates\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attention\\ to\\ detail\\,\\ texture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Henceforward\\ northern\\ artists\\ tried\\ to\\ reconcile\\ the\\ new\\ demands\\ on\\ art\\ with\\ its\\ old\\ religious\\ purpose\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hugo\\ van\\ der\\ Goes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ foreshortening\\ in\\ paintings\\ for\\ cathedral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Germany\\,\\ mid\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ invention\\ of\\ printing\\ had\\ huge\\ effect\\ on\\ development\\ of\\ art\\,\\ and\\ later\\ printed\\ books\\ came\\ about\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\,\\ prayer\\ books\\ and\\ religious\\ images\\ were\\ printed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ woodcuts\\ \\&\\;\\ block\\-books\\ became\\ popular\\ w\\/\\ general\\ public\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sold\\ at\\ fairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Gutenberg\\ made\\ his\\ great\\ invention\\ of\\ using\\ moveable\\ letters\\ held\\ together\\ by\\ a\\ frame\\,\\ block\\-books\\ became\\ obscure\\,\\ but\\ methods\\ for\\ combining\\ wood\\-blocks\\ with\\ printed\\ text\\ became\\ popular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woodcuts\\ not\\ suitable\\ to\\ print\\ fine\\ details\\,\\ so\\ some\\ masters\\ not\\ satisfied\\ w\\/\\ them\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ resorted\\ to\\ copper\\-plate\\ engraving\\ \\(famous\\ engraver\\:\\ Martin\\ Schongauer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PRINTING\\ hastened\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ ensured\\ the\\ triumph\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Europe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ according\\ to\\ Gombrich\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ forces\\ which\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ the\\ medieval\\ art\\ of\\ the\\ North\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pp\\ 285\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Erwin\\ Panofsky\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\.\\ \\ \\;Introductory\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ Iconology\\.\\ Humanistic\\ Themes\\ in\\ the\\ Art\\ of\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Harper\\ and\\ Row\\ Publishers\\,\\ 1962\\)\\:\\ 3\\-32\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Things\\ to\\ Know\\ that\\ the\\ Review\\ Sheet\\ Mentioned\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Three\\ levels\\ of\\ Interpretations\\ and\\ their\\ meanings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ types\\ of\\ evidence\\ we\\ rely\\ on\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ Primary\\ or\\ Natural\\ Subject\\ Matter\\ and\\ Secondary\\ or\\ Conventional\\ Subject\\ Matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synthetic\\ Intuition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iconography\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concerns\\ itself\\ with\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ or\\ meaning\\ of\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ their\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ levels\\ of\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Art\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Primary\\ or\\ Natural\\ Subject\\ Matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pre\\-iconographical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\description\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subdivided\\ into\\ Factual\\ and\\ Expressional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Factual\\ meaning\\-\\ elementary\\ and\\ easily\\ understandable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ representations\\ of\\ natural\\ objects\\ such\\ as\\ humans\\,\\ animals\\,\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expressional\\ meaning\\-\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ apprehended\\ not\\ by\\ simple\\ identification\\ but\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;empathy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ mournful\\ character\\ of\\ a\\ pose\\ or\\ gesture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Equipment\\ for\\ Interpretation\\:\\ practical\\ experience\\ \\(familiarity\\ with\\ objects\\ and\\ events\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controlling\\ Principle\\ of\\ Interpretation\\:\\ History\\ of\\ style\\ \\(insight\\ into\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\,\\ under\\ varying\\ historical\\ conditions\\,\\ objects\\ and\\ events\\ were\\ expressed\\ by\\ forms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Secondary\\ or\\ Conventional\\ Meaning\\-\\ intelligible\\ instead\\ of\\ sensible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Iconographical\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ the\\ narrower\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Subject\\ matter\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ form\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ of\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\ manifested\\ in\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opposite\\ of\\ Primary\\ or\\ Natural\\ Subject\\ Matter\\ which\\ is\\ manifested\\ in\\ artistic\\ motifs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equipment\\ for\\ Interpretation\\:\\ knowledge\\ of\\ literary\\ sources\\ \\(familiarity\\ with\\ specific\\ themes\\ and\\ concepts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controlling\\ Principle\\ of\\ Interpretation\\:\\ History\\ of\\ types\\ \\(insight\\ into\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\,\\ under\\ varying\\ historical\\ conditions\\,\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\ were\\ expressed\\ by\\ objects\\ and\\ events\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intrinsic\\ Meaning\\ or\\ Content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Iconographical\\ interpretation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ a\\ deeper\\ sense\\:\\ a\\ method\\ of\\ interpretation\\,\\ which\\ arises\\ as\\ a\\ synthesis\\ rather\\ than\\ as\\ an\\ analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apprehended\\ by\\ ascertaining\\ those\\ underlying\\ principles\\ which\\ reveal\\ the\\ basic\\ attitude\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\,\\ a\\ period\\,\\ a\\ class\\,\\ a\\ religious\\ or\\ philosophical\\ persuasion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ principles\\ throw\\ light\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;compositional\\ methods\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;iconographical\\ significance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thinking\\ of\\ pure\\ forms\\,\\ motifs\\,\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\ as\\ manifestations\\ of\\ underlying\\ principles\\,\\ gives\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ discovery\\ and\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\ is\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ Iconography\\ in\\ a\\ Deeper\\ Sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\ are\\ generally\\ unknown\\ to\\ the\\ artist\\ himself\\ and\\ may\\ even\\ emphatically\\ differ\\ from\\ what\\ he\\ consciously\\ intended\\ to\\ express\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(This\\ is\\ from\\ Anna\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ guide\\&mdash\\;possibly\\ untrue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ correct\\ analysis\\ of\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\ is\\ the\\ prerequisite\\ of\\ a\\ correct\\ Iconographical\\ Interpretation\\ in\\ a\\ Deeper\\ Sense\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Intrinsic\\ Meaning\\ or\\ Content\\,\\ dealing\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\ instead\\ of\\ with\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\,\\ requires\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ familiarity\\ with\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\ as\\ transmitted\\ through\\ literary\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equipment\\ for\\ Interpretation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Synthetic\\ intuition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(familiarity\\ with\\ the\\ essential\\ tendencies\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controlling\\ Principle\\ of\\ Interpretation\\:\\ History\\ of\\ cultural\\ symptoms\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbols\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ general\\ \\(insight\\ into\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\,\\ under\\ varying\\ historical\\ conditions\\,\\ essential\\ tendencies\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\ were\\ expressed\\ by\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\,\\ the\\ Nativity\\ scene\\ with\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\ reclining\\ was\\ frequently\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ one\\,\\ which\\ portrayed\\ the\\ Virgin\\ kneeling\\ before\\ the\\ Child\\ in\\ adoration\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Compositional\\ POV\\:\\ the\\ change\\ is\\ the\\ substitution\\ of\\ a\\ triangular\\ scheme\\ for\\ a\\ rectangular\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iconographical\\ POV\\:\\ the\\ change\\ is\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ theme\\ that\\ reveals\\ an\\ emotional\\ attitude\\ peculiar\\ to\\ the\\ later\\ phases\\ of\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meyer\\ Schapiro\\,\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;Muscipula\\ diaboli\\&\\#39\\;\\:\\ The\\ Symbolism\\ of\\ the\\ M\\é\\;rode\\ Altarpiece\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;27\\.1945\\ No\\.\\ 3\\:\\ 183\\-187\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ detail\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ in\\ The\\ M\\é\\;rode\\ Altarpiece\\ \\(by\\ the\\ Master\\ of\\ Fl\\é\\;malle\\)\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ whimsical\\ invention\\ by\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Instead\\,\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ has\\ a\\ theological\\ meaning\\.\\ It\\ explains\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ incarnation\\.\\ Christ\\ appeared\\ as\\ bait\\ for\\ the\\ devil\\,\\ who\\ upon\\ seizing\\ him\\,\\ brought\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ ruin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Christians\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ would\\ have\\ understood\\ this\\ metaphor\\.\\ At\\ that\\ time\\ there\\ were\\ multiple\\ metaphors\\ that\\ were\\ meant\\ to\\ explain\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ incarnation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mousetrap\\ metaphor\\ is\\ strengthened\\ by\\ the\\ scene\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ tiny\\ naked\\ figure\\ of\\ a\\ child\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ incarnation\\ to\\ come\\.\\ The\\ cross\\ carried\\ by\\ this\\ figure\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ and\\ redemption\\.\\ The\\ rays\\ of\\ light\\ coming\\ through\\ the\\ window\\ are\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ miraculous\\ birth\\ from\\ the\\ Virgin\\ \\(miraculous\\ insemination\\)\\.\\ The\\ Virgin\\ remained\\ undamaged\\ and\\ untouched\\ while\\ acting\\ as\\ a\\ transmitter\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mystery\\ that\\ takes\\ place\\ within\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ symbolized\\ within\\ the\\ space\\ of\\ the\\ house\\.\\ Everyday\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ panel\\ have\\ a\\ hidden\\ religious\\ meaning\\,\\ focused\\ in\\ the\\ central\\ human\\ figure\\.\\ These\\ add\\ credibility\\ to\\ the\\ metaphor\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ in\\ the\\ panel\\ on\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Taken\\ together\\,\\ these\\ symbols\\ represent\\ the\\ beginning\\ and\\ end\\ of\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ on\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ depends\\ on\\ Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\,\\ whose\\ presence\\ is\\ unusual\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Annunciation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(the\\ middle\\ panel\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\His\\ presence\\ is\\ a\\ nod\\ to\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ Joseph\\,\\ who\\ believed\\ that\\ Joseph\\ should\\ be\\ elevated\\ above\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apostles\\ and\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\.\\ His\\ presence\\ gives\\ emphasis\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ family\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Further\\ meaning\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Joseph\\ is\\ represented\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ domestic\\ setting\\ \\(the\\ center\\ panel\\ also\\ contributes\\ to\\ this\\)\\.\\ Shown\\ as\\ a\\ carpenter\\,\\ he\\ is\\ interpreted\\ to\\ be\\ humble\\ and\\ moral\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Mary\\ is\\ also\\ interpreted\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ indicates\\ that\\ Joseph\\ was\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ plot\\ to\\ deceive\\ the\\ devil\\ and\\ the\\ guardian\\ of\\ the\\ mystery\\ of\\ the\\ incarnation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mousetrap\\ may\\ also\\ be\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ cleanliness\\,\\ which\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ mouse\\ is\\ a\\ creature\\ of\\ concentrated\\ erotic\\ and\\ diabolical\\ meaning\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ mousetrap\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ symbolize\\ the\\ suppression\\ of\\ sexual\\ temptation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bottom\\ Line\\:\\ The\\ many\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ interpretation\\ sustain\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ domestic\\ world\\ furnishes\\ the\\ objects\\ for\\ the\\ poetic\\ and\\ religious\\ symbols\\ of\\ Mary\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purity\\ and\\ the\\ miraculous\\ presence\\ of\\ God\\;\\ the\\ religious\\-social\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ provides\\ the\\ ascetic\\ figure\\ and\\ occupation\\ of\\ Joseph\\;\\ the\\ theologian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ metaphor\\ of\\ redemption\\,\\ the\\ mousetrap\\,\\ is\\,\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ a\\ rich\\ condensation\\ of\\ symbols\\ of\\ the\\ diabolical\\ and\\ the\\ erotic\\ and\\ their\\ repression\\;\\ the\\ trap\\ is\\ both\\ a\\ female\\ object\\ and\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ destroying\\ sexual\\ temptation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(186\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ The\\ symbolic\\ meanings\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ interpretation\\ of\\ iconography\\ in\\ the\\ deeper\\ sense\\ \\(intrinsic\\ meaning\\/content\\)\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Panofsky\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hugo\\ van\\ der\\ Velden\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ the\\ Warburg\\ and\\ Courtauld\\ Institutes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\60\\.1997\\ \\(1997\\)\\:\\ 89\\-110\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\ are\\ standing\\ in\\ the\\ fork\\ of\\ a\\ barren\\ tree\\.\\ On\\ the\\ tree\\,\\ there\\ are\\ fifteen\\ golden\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hanging\\ from\\ the\\ branches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ past\\ few\\ decades\\,\\ scholars\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ iconography\\ of\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ have\\ agreed\\ on\\ an\\ interpretation\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ painting\\ alludes\\ to\\ Ezekiel\\ 17\\.24\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ all\\ the\\ trees\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ shall\\ know\\ that\\ I\\ the\\ Lord\\ have\\ brought\\ down\\ the\\ high\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ exalted\\ the\\ low\\ tree\\:\\ and\\ have\\ dried\\ up\\ the\\ green\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ have\\ caused\\ the\\ dry\\ tree\\ to\\ flourish\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Virgin\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ image\\ derived\\ from\\ this\\ passage\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ that\\ Mary\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ performing\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ act\\ of\\ God\\ by\\ grafting\\ a\\ branch\\ from\\ the\\ Tree\\ of\\ Life\\ onto\\ a\\ barren\\ tree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ metaphor\\ was\\ only\\ depicted\\ once\\ in\\ an\\ illustration\\ in\\ a\\ book\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ few\\ similarities\\ between\\ it\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ der\\ Velden\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ iconography\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ neither\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ allegory\\ nor\\ on\\ a\\ doctrine\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Immaculate\\ Conception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ name\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\ was\\ already\\ in\\ existence\\ long\\ before\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ a\\ confraternity\\ \\(or\\ brotherhood\\)\\ that\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\ belonged\\ in\\ Bruges\\.\\ He\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ this\\ fact\\ had\\ been\\ curiously\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ der\\ Velden\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ confraternity\\ of\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\ was\\ dedicated\\ to\\ a\\ miraculous\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\.\\ He\\ believes\\ that\\ this\\ miraculous\\ image\\ of\\ Mary\\ in\\ a\\ dead\\ tree\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ sole\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ confraternity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ not\\ uncommon\\ for\\ religious\\ confraternities\\ to\\ be\\ dedicated\\ to\\ miraculous\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ many\\ were\\ dedicated\\ to\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ that\\ were\\ visions\\ knights\\ saw\\ during\\ battle\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ dedicating\\ the\\ confraternity\\ of\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\ to\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ typical\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ branches\\ must\\ have\\ had\\ some\\ meaning\\ that\\ was\\ significant\\ to\\ the\\ confraternity\\.\\ The\\ meaning\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\ over\\ time\\.\\ They\\ probably\\ mimicked\\ reality\\,\\ meaning\\ there\\ were\\ actually\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suspended\\ from\\ the\\ tree\\ in\\ the\\ chapel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essentially\\,\\ van\\ der\\ Velden\\ argues\\ that\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ painted\\ as\\ a\\ reminder\\ of\\ the\\ cult\\&rsquo\\;s\\ miraculous\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ in\\ a\\ barren\\ tree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Giorgio\\ Vasari\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vasari\\ on\\ Technique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ trans\\.\\ Louisa\\ S\\.\\ Maclehouse\\,\\ ed\\.\\ G\\.\\ Baldwin\\ Brown\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Dover\\ Publications\\,\\ Inc\\,\\ 1960\\)\\:\\ 208\\-211\\,\\ 221\\-239\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Here\\ are\\ the\\ concepts\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ reading\\,\\ as\\ outlined\\ in\\ the\\ review\\ session\\ handout\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Understand\\ the\\ key\\ components\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\&mdash\\;the\\ medium\\,\\ support\\,\\ pigment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Know\\ examples\\ of\\ these\\ components\\ and\\ their\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Know\\ the\\ following\\ kinds\\ of\\ painting\\,\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ done\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ look\\:\\ tempera\\,\\ oil\\,\\ fresco\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vasari\\ lived\\ from\\ 1511\\-1574\\,\\ so\\ bear\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ primary\\ source\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ honestly\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tons\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ draw\\ from\\ Vasari\\ in\\ writing\\ your\\ essays\\,\\ other\\ than\\ maybe\\ techniques\\ used\\ in\\ each\\ medium\\ \\(particularly\\ in\\ the\\ comparison\\ essay\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ detailed\\ and\\ kind\\ of\\ elementary\\ in\\ some\\ parts\\ \\(like\\ telling\\ you\\ that\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ should\\ be\\ proportional\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ ensuring\\ that\\ your\\ drawings\\ will\\ be\\ realistic\\ is\\ to\\ draw\\ nude\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ repeatedly\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ memorize\\ the\\ contours\\ of\\ their\\ muscles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ mediums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vasari\\ says\\ frescos\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ \\&ldquo\\;masterly\\ and\\ beautiful\\&rdquo\\;\\ form\\ of\\ art\\ because\\ they\\ require\\ the\\ artist\\ to\\ complete\\ the\\ work\\ in\\ one\\ day\\ \\(other\\ mediums\\ can\\ be\\ subsequently\\ retouched\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frescos\\ are\\ painted\\ onto\\ wet\\ plaster\\,\\ so\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ completed\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\ must\\ be\\ of\\ quick\\ and\\ sound\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ plaster\\ must\\ be\\ kept\\ moist\\ throughout\\ the\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ paints\\ must\\ be\\ earth\\-based\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ metallic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ colors\\ generally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ appear\\ the\\ same\\ shade\\ once\\ dry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tempera\\ \\(paint\\ made\\ by\\ binding\\ pigment\\ in\\ an\\ egg\\ medium\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ prime\\ with\\ gesso\\ before\\ painting\\ with\\ tempera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Holds\\ up\\ pretty\\ well\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\ \\&ldquo\\;softens\\ and\\ sweetens\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ colors\\ and\\ makes\\ them\\ more\\ delicate\\ than\\ do\\ other\\ mediums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easy\\ to\\ mix\\ colors\\ when\\ the\\ oil\\ is\\ wet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oils\\ \\&ldquo\\;impart\\ wonderful\\ grace\\ and\\ vivacity\\ and\\ vigor\\ to\\ their\\ figures\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Easily\\ transportable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ primed\\ with\\ gesso\\ \\(unless\\ they\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ transported\\,\\ as\\ gesso\\ limits\\ flexibility\\&mdash\\;still\\ primed\\ with\\ a\\ flour\\ and\\ walnut\\ oil\\ mixture\\,\\ though\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wood\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prepared\\ similarly\\ to\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ as\\ reliable\\ because\\ it\\ gets\\ worms\\ \\(obviously\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ know\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rough\\ and\\ dry\\ stones\\ soak\\ the\\ color\\ and\\ oil\\ in\\ the\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ time\\ if\\ done\\ properly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Murals\\ painted\\ on\\ a\\ dry\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ wall\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ whitened\\ \\(for\\ a\\ fresco\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\,\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ scraped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ smooth\\,\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ given\\ several\\ coats\\ of\\ oil\\ \\(a\\ form\\ of\\ priming\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Millard\\ Meiss\\,\\ \\"\\;Light\\ as\\ form\\ and\\ symbol\\ in\\ some\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ paintings\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;27\\.1945\\:\\ 175\\-181\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ discusses\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ naturalism\\ in\\ the\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ paintings\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ achieve\\ naturalism\\,\\ the\\ painter\\ used\\ perspective\\ and\\ painting\\ of\\ light\\ \\(new\\ introduction\\ in\\ this\\ century\\!\\)\\.\\ The\\ painting\\ of\\ light\\ was\\ the\\ biggest\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\.\\ The\\ painting\\ of\\ light\\ stirs\\ feelings\\ and\\ contains\\ moods\\.\\ Meiss\\ describes\\ how\\ many\\ Christian\\ mysteries\\ were\\ explained\\ by\\ metaphors\\ of\\ light\\.\\ The\\ New\\ World\\ was\\ typically\\ represented\\ as\\:\\ warm\\ sunlight\\,\\ life\\,\\ growth\\ and\\ fertility\\.\\ The\\ Old\\ World\\ was\\ typically\\ represented\\ as\\:\\ cool\\,\\ grey\\,\\ moralized\\ landscape\\.\\ Similes\\ also\\ incorporated\\ light\\:\\ sunlight\\ \\(ray\\ through\\ glass\\ window\\)\\-\\ typically\\ in\\ paintings\\ of\\ the\\ Annunciation\\ and\\/or\\ incarnation\\.\\ There\\ was\\ subtle\\ and\\ pervasive\\ symbolism\\ in\\ this\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ 3\\ rays\\ represent\\ the\\ trinity\\,\\ and\\ 7\\ rays\\ represent\\ the\\ gifts\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Ghost\\ \\(wisdom\\,\\ understanding\\,\\ counsil\\,\\ strength\\,\\ knowledge\\,\\ piety\\,\\ and\\ fear\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meiss\\ also\\ talks\\ about\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\ and\\ his\\ symbolism\\.\\ He\\ discusses\\ van\\ Eycks\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Madonna\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Berlin\\:\\ The\\ Virgin\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\.\\ The\\ Gothic\\ Cathedral\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ daylight\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ Divine\\ Light\\.\\ Behind\\ the\\ Madonna\\ is\\ a\\ choir\\ screen\\ and\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\ with\\ burning\\ light\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\-\\ it\\ is\\ artificial\\ light\\,\\ but\\ the\\ real\\ Mary\\ is\\ surrounded\\ by\\ real\\ sunlight\\.\\ This\\ work\\ recalls\\ a\\ more\\ devout\\ time\\ of\\ Christianity\\.\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ is\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ Article\\ from\\ Section\\ Leader\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\\\The\\ main\\ point\\ in\\ Millard\\ Meiss\\&rsquo\\;\\ article\\:\\ according\\ to\\ Meiss\\,\\ the\\ major\\ pictorial\\ contribution\\ of\\ Renaissance\\ painting\\,\\ besides\\ perspective\\,\\ is\\ the\\ achievements\\ in\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\light\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Both\\ perspective\\ and\\ light\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ a\\ naturalistic\\ image\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\naturalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ key\\ in\\ the\\ renaissance\\.\\ In\\ section\\,\\ we\\ saw\\ how\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ modulate\\ light\\ created\\ a\\ naturalistic\\ effect\\ in\\ Christian\\ Seybold\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Portrait\\ of\\ an\\ Old\\ Woman\\ \\(1749\\-1750\\)\\-\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ memorize\\ this\\ painting\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gombrich\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 17\\:\\ The\\ New\\ Learning\\ Spreads\\:\\ Germany\\ and\\ the\\ Netherlands\\,\\ early\\ sixteenth\\ century\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 18\\:\\ A\\ Crisis\\ of\\ Art\\:\\ Europe\\,\\ later\\ sixteenth\\ century\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Those\\ who\\ lived\\ North\\ of\\ the\\ Alps\\ noticed\\ three\\ achievements\\ of\\ the\\ Italian\\ masters\\ which\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ incorporate\\ into\\ their\\ own\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scientific\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ classical\\ forms\\ of\\ building\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Architects\\ in\\ Germany\\ held\\ onto\\ their\\ old\\ Gothic\\ style\\,\\ adding\\ the\\ classical\\ forms\\ from\\ Italy\\ haphazardly\\ into\\ Gothic\\ designs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Albrecht\\ Durer\\,\\ a\\ German\\ artist\\,\\ strove\\ to\\ understand\\ these\\ new\\ Italian\\ techniques\\ and\\ make\\ up\\ his\\ mind\\ about\\ their\\ usefulness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ large\\ woodcuts\\ illustrating\\ the\\ Revelation\\ of\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showed\\ terrifying\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ horror\\ of\\ doomsday\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ discarded\\ all\\ traditional\\ poses\\,\\ instead\\ making\\ his\\ St\\.\\ Michael\\ look\\ deadly\\ earnest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exhibited\\ his\\ mastery\\ of\\ the\\ fantastic\\ and\\ the\\ visionary\\,\\ like\\ the\\ gothic\\ artists\\ before\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ wanted\\ to\\ contemplate\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ to\\ masterfully\\ imitate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ of\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nativity\\&rdquo\\;\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\,\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ beautiful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ correct\\ proportions\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\,\\ he\\ studied\\ classical\\ writers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ experimentation\\ with\\ human\\ proportions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\&rdquo\\;\\ engraving\\ was\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ study\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ harmony\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ form\\,\\ he\\ used\\ measuring\\ with\\ a\\ compass\\ and\\ a\\ ruler\\ to\\ make\\ these\\ forms\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ symmetrical\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ serious\\ attempt\\ to\\ transplant\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ into\\ the\\ northern\\ soil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ eventually\\ achieved\\ fame\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ twas\\ attempting\\ to\\ transplant\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ in\\ northern\\ soil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ German\\ painter\\ who\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ Durer\\ for\\ greatness\\ and\\ artistic\\ power\\ is\\ Matthias\\ Grunewald\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ little\\ trace\\ left\\ of\\ him\\,\\ and\\ Grunewald\\ may\\ not\\ even\\ have\\ been\\ his\\ real\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ reason\\ we\\ know\\ so\\ much\\ about\\ Durer\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ saw\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ reformer\\ and\\ an\\ innovator\\ so\\ he\\ recorded\\ his\\ experiences\\,\\ while\\ Grunewald\\ did\\ not\\ see\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grunewald\\ only\\ made\\ use\\ of\\ Italian\\ discoveries\\ when\\ they\\ suited\\ his\\ ideas\\ of\\ what\\ art\\ should\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ did\\ not\\ search\\ for\\ hidden\\ laws\\ of\\ beauty\\,\\ his\\ only\\ aim\\ was\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ sermon\\ in\\ pictures\\,\\ to\\ proclaim\\ the\\ sacred\\ truths\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ Crucifixion\\ altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neglected\\ to\\ make\\ figures\\ in\\ correct\\ dimensions\\ as\\ Italians\\ did\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ varied\\ size\\ of\\ figures\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ importance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grunewald\\ shows\\ us\\ that\\ art\\ can\\ be\\ great\\ without\\ being\\ progressive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ third\\ famous\\ German\\ was\\ Lucas\\ Cranach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fascinated\\ by\\ the\\ northern\\ foothills\\ with\\ their\\ forests\\ and\\ romantic\\ vistas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opened\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ their\\ surroundings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Albrecht\\ Altdorfer\\ studied\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ pines\\ and\\ rocks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ of\\ his\\ watercolors\\ and\\ etchings\\ contain\\ no\\ human\\ being\\ and\\ tell\\ no\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ momentous\\ change\\,\\ as\\ it\\ showed\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ painter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skill\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Netherlands\\ artists\\ of\\ this\\ time\\ were\\ torn\\ between\\ their\\ old\\ loyalties\\ and\\ their\\ love\\ of\\ the\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ greatest\\ Netherlandish\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ period\\,\\ Hieronymous\\ Bosch\\,\\ is\\ not\\ someone\\ who\\ adopted\\ the\\ new\\ style\\ but\\ refused\\ to\\ be\\ drawn\\ into\\ the\\ new\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Famous\\ for\\ his\\ terrifying\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evident\\ in\\ his\\ work\\ Paradise\\ and\\ Hell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ an\\ artist\\ gave\\ shape\\ to\\ the\\ fears\\ that\\ had\\ haunted\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Crisis\\ of\\ Art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Europe\\,\\ Later\\ Sixteenth\\ Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Around\\ the\\ mid\\-sixteenth\\ century\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ sense\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ community\\ that\\ the\\ arts\\ had\\ reached\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ perfection\\ with\\ the\\ great\\ masters\\ like\\ Michelangelo\\,\\ Raphael\\,\\ Titian\\,\\ and\\ Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consequently\\,\\ some\\ artists\\ too\\ to\\ mere\\ imitation\\ of\\ these\\ masters\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ Mannerism\\ that\\ lacked\\ invention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Others\\,\\ conversely\\,\\ rebelled\\ against\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ art\\ was\\ at\\ a\\ standstill\\,\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ better\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ their\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exemplary\\ of\\ this\\ attitude\\ was\\ the\\ Florentine\\ sculptor\\ and\\ goldsmith\\ Benvenuto\\ Cellini\\,\\ who\\ believed\\ in\\ an\\ elevated\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ artists\\ were\\ so\\ intent\\ on\\ surpassing\\ the\\ shadow\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ masters\\ by\\ creating\\ unusual\\ images\\,\\ sometimes\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ natural\\ beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ painter\\ Tintoretto\\ tried\\ to\\ better\\ his\\ masters\\ by\\ making\\ his\\ figures\\ more\\ emotionally\\ moving\\ rather\\ than\\ simply\\ pleasing\\,\\ and\\ the\\ art\\ critic\\ Vasari\\ claimed\\ that\\ his\\ worked\\ lacked\\ finish\\ and\\ refinement\\ like\\ his\\ predecessors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tintoretto\\ wanted\\ to\\ leave\\ people\\ wondering\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ key\\ departure\\ from\\ accepted\\ standards\\ in\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\El\\ Greco\\ is\\ another\\ artist\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ stir\\ the\\ emotions\\ of\\ the\\ viewer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ north\\,\\ this\\ crisis\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ world\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ urgent\\ and\\ pronounced\\,\\ because\\ the\\ very\\ existence\\ of\\ art\\ itself\\ was\\ challenged\\ by\\ the\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ Reformation\\ movements\\ denounced\\ idolatry\\,\\ which\\ threatened\\ artists\\ since\\ their\\ main\\ object\\ of\\ employment\\ was\\ painting\\ religious\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ many\\ artists\\ increasingly\\ focused\\ on\\ book\\ illustrating\\ and\\ portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hans\\ Holbein\\ is\\ exemplary\\ of\\ this\\ shift\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Gombrich\\,\\ the\\ Netherlands\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ northern\\ country\\ were\\ art\\ fully\\ survived\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flemish\\ painters\\ increasingly\\ began\\ to\\ specialize\\ their\\ work\\ to\\ display\\ their\\ skill\\ in\\ representing\\ various\\ landscapes\\ or\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ greatest\\ shift\\ came\\ with\\ the\\ increasing\\ focus\\ on\\ portraying\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ most\\ prominently\\ in\\ Pieter\\ Bruegel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Leon\\ Battista\\ Alberti\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ trans\\.\\ Cecil\\ Grayson\\ \\(Phaidon\\,\\ 1972\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Sections\\ 27\\-29\\,\\ 33\\-45\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Circumscription\\ is\\ the\\ procedure\\ where\\ the\\ outlines\\ of\\ the\\ surfaces\\ are\\ drawn\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ enclose\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ the\\ pictorial\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Circumscription\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ delineating\\ the\\ external\\ outlines\\ on\\ the\\ painting\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;I\\ believe\\ one\\ should\\ take\\ care\\ that\\ circumscription\\ is\\ done\\ with\\ the\\ finest\\ possible\\,\\ almost\\ invisible\\ lines\\,\\ like\\ those\\ they\\ say\\ the\\ painter\\ Apelles\\ used\\ to\\ practise\\ and\\ vie\\ with\\ Protogenes\\ at\\ drawing\\.\\ Circumscription\\ is\\ simply\\ the\\ recording\\ of\\ the\\ outlines\\,\\ and\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ done\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ visible\\ line\\,\\ they\\ will\\ look\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ not\\ like\\ the\\ margins\\ of\\ surfaces\\,\\ but\\ like\\ cracks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Composition\\ is\\ the\\ procedure\\ where\\ the\\ parts\\ are\\ composed\\ together\\ in\\ the\\ picture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Composition\\ is\\ that\\ procedure\\ in\\ painting\\ whereby\\ the\\ parts\\ are\\ composed\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ picture\\.\\ The\\ great\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ is\\ the\\ \\&\\#39\\;historia\\&\\#39\\;\\;\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#39\\;historia\\&\\#39\\;\\ are\\ the\\ bodies\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ member\\,\\ and\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ member\\ is\\ a\\ surface\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ that\\ figures\\ and\\ objects\\ are\\ arranged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ great\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;historia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ story\\ should\\ be\\ created\\ through\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parts\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;historia\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ the\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ member\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ composition\\ care\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ sure\\ that\\ members\\ are\\ arranged\\ well\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ certain\\ conformity\\ to\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ should\\ conform\\ to\\ certain\\ characteristics\\ which\\ identifies\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ member\\ is\\ a\\ surface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ variety\\ in\\ a\\ picture\\,\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ attitudes\\ and\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ painter\\ should\\ be\\ intimately\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ depict\\ all\\ manner\\ of\\ complicated\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sometimes\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ laughing\\ face\\ which\\ is\\ happy\\ rather\\ than\\ one\\ which\\ looks\\ tearful\\ unless\\ one\\ is\\ very\\ skilled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ bodies\\ should\\ move\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ which\\ changes\\ position\\ has\\ seven\\ directions\\ of\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Everything\\ which\\ changes\\ position\\ has\\ seven\\ directions\\ of\\ movement\\,\\ either\\ up\\ or\\ down\\ or\\ to\\ right\\ or\\ left\\,\\ or\\ going\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\ or\\ coming\\ towards\\ us\\;\\ and\\ the\\ seventh\\ is\\ going\\ around\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\.\\ I\\ want\\ all\\ these\\ seven\\ movements\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\.\\ There\\ should\\ be\\ some\\ bodies\\ that\\ face\\ towards\\ us\\,\\ and\\ others\\ going\\ away\\,\\ to\\ right\\ and\\ left\\.\\ Of\\ these\\ some\\ parts\\ should\\ be\\ shown\\ towards\\ the\\ spectators\\,\\ and\\ others\\ should\\ be\\ turned\\ away\\;\\ some\\ should\\ be\\ raised\\ upwards\\ and\\ others\\ directed\\ downwards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ body\\ or\\ person\\ should\\ occupy\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ directions\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ movement\\ in\\ everything\\,\\ even\\ inanimate\\ objects\\ like\\ hair\\ and\\ the\\ folds\\ of\\ a\\ garment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ no\\ movement\\ should\\ be\\ too\\ drastic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Restraint\\ and\\ grace\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ emphasized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frank\\ Stella\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Caravaggio\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Working\\ Space\\.\\ The\\ Charles\\ Eliot\\ Norton\\ Lectures\\ 1983\\-4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Cambridge\\:\\ Harvard\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\ 1\\-22\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\After\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Titian\\ there\\ was\\ crisis\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ world\\:\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ heirs\\ of\\ Roman\\ classicism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caravaggio\\ stepped\\ into\\ this\\ role\\.\\ He\\ created\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ pictoriality\\ we\\ take\\ for\\ granted\\ when\\ we\\ call\\ a\\ painting\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caravaggio\\ enlarged\\ Renaissance\\ painting\\&mdash\\;he\\ added\\ an\\ immediacy\\ and\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ character\\ to\\ pictorial\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caravaggio\\ signals\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ modern\\ pictorial\\ space\\,\\ exhibiting\\ a\\ power\\ whose\\ versatility\\ and\\ vitality\\ may\\ free\\ us\\ from\\ the\\ perpetual\\ tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ soft\\ and\\ the\\ hard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ effective\\ painting\\ should\\ present\\ its\\ space\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ include\\ both\\ viewer\\ and\\ maker\\ each\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ space\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ act\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ painting\\ should\\ automatically\\ expand\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ that\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ perimeter\\ and\\ surface\\ plane\\ should\\ dissolve\\&mdash\\;Caravaggio\\ accomplished\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caravaggio\\ created\\ a\\ roundness\\ and\\ fullness\\ of\\ figure\\ and\\ atmosphere\\&mdash\\;compelling\\ realism\\.\\ A\\ sense\\ of\\ projective\\ roundness\\&hellip\\;of\\ poised\\ sphericality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ in\\ Caravaggio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ can\\ almost\\ be\\ felt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ \\"\\;Chapter\\ 19\\:\\ Vision\\ and\\ Visions\\:\\ Catholic\\ Europe\\,\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Chapter\\ 20\\:\\ The\\ Mirror\\ of\\ Nature\\:\\ Holland\\,\\ seventeenth\\ century\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GOMBRICH\\ CH\\ 19\\:\\ Vision\\ and\\ Visions\\:\\ Catholic\\ Europe\\,\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pg\\ 304\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caravaggio\\ \\(1573\\-1610\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ tired\\ of\\ Mannerism\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ friends\\ with\\ contemporary\\ artist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carracci\\ \\(1560\\-1609\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;but\\ his\\ work\\ was\\ entirely\\ different\\.\\ \\;\\ Caravaggio\\ wanted\\ truth\\ as\\ he\\ saw\\ it\\,\\ not\\ classical\\ models\\ or\\ \\"\\;ideal\\ beauty\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ He\\ did\\ away\\ w\\/convention\\ and\\ started\\ afresh\\.\\ \\;\\ Consider\\ his\\ \\"\\;Doubting\\ Thomas\\"\\;\\ \\(c\\.1600\\)\\ when\\ he\\ depicts\\ the\\ disciples\\ as\\ old\\ laborers\\,\\ common\\ people\\ instead\\ of\\ handsome\\ refined\\ figures\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ liked\\ \\"\\;naturalism\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ intending\\ to\\ copy\\ nature\\ faithfully\\.\\ \\;\\ Uncompromising\\ honesty\\,\\ no\\ manipulation\\ of\\ the\\ truth\\ for\\ aesthetics\\&\\#39\\;\\ sake\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caravaggio\\ worked\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ the\\ ctr\\ of\\ the\\ civilized\\ world\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\ in\\ Rome\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nicolas\\ Poussin\\ \\(1594\\-1665\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ Frenchman\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ convey\\ bygone\\ lands\\ of\\ innocence\\ and\\ dignity\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ painting\\ \\"\\;Et\\ in\\ Arcardia\\ ego\\"\\;\\ demonstrates\\ simplicity\\ born\\ of\\ immense\\ artistic\\ knowledge\\.\\\\The\\ Fleming\\ \\(ie\\:\\ from\\ the\\ Netherlands\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Peter\\ Paul\\ Rubens\\ \\(1577\\-1640\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;also\\ was\\ in\\ Rome\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ variegated\\ surface\\ of\\ things\\ to\\ expose\\ texture\\.\\ \\;\\ Painter\\&\\#39\\;s\\ business\\ was\\ to\\ paint\\ world\\ around\\ him\\,\\ what\\ he\\ liked\\,\\ and\\ make\\ us\\ feel\\ he\\ enjoys\\ living\\ in\\ such\\ beauty\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ makes\\ everything\\ joyfully\\ alive\\,\\ and\\ he\\ admired\\ Caravaggio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sincere\\ study\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ paintings\\ are\\ \\"\\;painterly\\"\\;\\ to\\ enhance\\ their\\ impression\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ vigor\\.\\ \\;\\ Energy\\,\\ life\\,\\ color\\ and\\ composition\\ were\\ characteristic\\ of\\ his\\ work\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ had\\ a\\ monopoly\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ artistic\\ time\\ and\\ his\\ self\\ portraits\\ show\\ he\\ was\\ aware\\ of\\ his\\ unique\\ position\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ remained\\ a\\ true\\ artist\\,\\ it\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ his\\ head\\.\\ \\;\\ Rubens\\ used\\ allegory\\ to\\ bring\\ things\\ to\\ life\\ but\\ had\\ no\\ use\\ for\\ the\\ abstract\\ and\\ \\"\\;ideal\\"\\;\\ forms\\ of\\ classical\\ beauty\\.\\\\One\\ student\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rubens\\ was\\ van\\ Dyck\\ \\(1599\\-1641\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 22\\ yrs\\ his\\ junior\\ and\\ a\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Poussin\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ learned\\ from\\ R\\ how\\ to\\ recreate\\ the\\ texture\\ of\\ things\\.\\\\Van\\ Dyck\\ met\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Diego\\ Velazquez\\ \\(1599\\-1660\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Madrid\\.\\ \\;\\ V\\ was\\ v\\.\\ impressed\\ by\\ Caravaggio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ work\\ and\\ \\"\\;naturalism\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ On\\ Rubens\\&\\#39\\;\\ suggestion\\,\\ V\\ went\\ to\\ Rome\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ masters\\.\\ \\;\\ On\\ returning\\ to\\ Spain\\ he\\ stayed\\ as\\ King\\ Philip\\ IV\\&\\#39\\;s\\ court\\ painter\\,\\ painting\\ the\\ royal\\ family\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ transformed\\ from\\ boring\\ ugly\\ people\\ to\\ fascinating\\ paintings\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ canvas\\ for\\ \\"\\;Las\\ Meninas\\"\\;\\ \\(the\\ maids\\ of\\ honor\\)\\ was\\ enormous\\ \\(10ft\\ high\\)\\ and\\ we\\ studied\\ it\\ in\\ lecture\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ child\\ is\\ the\\ king\\ and\\ queen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\ Infanta\\ Margarita\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ \\"\\;ugly\\ woman\\ and\\ dwarf\\"\\;\\ were\\ kept\\ for\\ amusement\\.\\ \\;\\ Gombrich\\ says\\ here\\ that\\ he\\ thinks\\ V\\ captured\\ a\\ moment\\ here\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ photograph\\ would\\,\\ but\\ of\\ course\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ photography\\ at\\ that\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GOMBRICH\\ CH\\ 20\\:\\ The\\ Mirror\\ of\\ Nature\\:\\ Holland\\,\\ seventeenth\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europe\\ divided\\ up\\ into\\ a\\ southern\\ Catholic\\ part\\ \\(now\\ Belgium\\)\\ and\\ a\\ northern\\ Protestant\\ part\\ \\(now\\ Holland\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ North\\ they\\ were\\ hardworking\\ parsimonious\\ men\\,\\ who\\ preferred\\ sober\\ restraint\\ and\\ had\\ to\\ paint\\ thing\\ to\\ which\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ religious\\ objection\\,\\ thus\\ they\\ painted\\ portraits\\.\\ \\;\\ Unlike\\ the\\ Renaissance\\,\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ paint\\ first\\ then\\ find\\ a\\ buyer\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ were\\ rid\\ of\\ patrons\\ who\\ interfered\\ with\\ their\\ work\\ and\\ bullied\\ them\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ now\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ buying\\ public\\,\\ stiff\\ competition\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ themselves\\ by\\ specializing\\ in\\ one\\ particular\\ genre\\ of\\ painting\\ \\(eg\\:\\ sea\\-scapes\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rembrandt\\ van\\ Rijn\\ \\(1606\\-69\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ the\\ greatest\\ painter\\ of\\ Holland\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ generation\\ younger\\ than\\ Rubens\\ and\\ 7yrs\\ younger\\ than\\ Velazquez\\ and\\ van\\ Dyck\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ left\\ an\\ amazing\\ series\\ of\\ self\\ portraits\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ brings\\ us\\ face\\ to\\ face\\ with\\ real\\ people\\.\\ \\;\\ Like\\ Shakespeare\\ he\\ brought\\ us\\ into\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ souls\\,\\ he\\ is\\ never\\ theatrical\\ he\\ just\\ seems\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ naturally\\.\\ \\;\\ Like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Durer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\before\\ him\\,\\ he\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ graphic\\ artist\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ used\\ not\\ woodcuts\\/copper\\ engravings\\ but\\ etching\\ \\(cover\\ plate\\ with\\ wax\\ and\\ draw\\ on\\ it\\ with\\ needle\\.\\ \\;\\ Put\\ plate\\ in\\ acid\\ which\\ bites\\ into\\ copper\\ where\\ wax\\ was\\ pushed\\ away\\,\\ thus\\ transfer\\ drawing\\ to\\ copper\\ plate\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ print\\ plate\\ as\\ you\\ would\\ an\\ engraving\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Like\\ Caravaggio\\ he\\ favored\\ truth\\ and\\ sincerity\\ above\\ harmony\\ and\\ beauty\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ arranged\\ his\\ groups\\ carefully\\,\\ composition\\ was\\ important\\.\\\\The\\ Dutch\\ also\\ painted\\ many\\ still\\ life\\ paintings\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ greatest\\ of\\ these\\ masters\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jan\\ Vermeer\\ van\\ Delft\\ \\(1632\\-75\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ slow\\ and\\ careful\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ paint\\ many\\ pics\\.\\ \\;\\ Most\\ of\\ them\\ show\\ domestic\\ local\\ interiors\\.\\.\\.real\\ still\\ lifes\\ w\\/human\\ beings\\.\\ \\;\\ Strange\\ and\\ powerful\\ combination\\ of\\ mellowness\\ and\\ precision\\ makes\\ his\\ work\\ unforgettable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Heinrich\\ W\\ö\\;lfflin\\,\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Principles\\ of\\ Art\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ trans\\.\\ M\\.\\ D\\.\\ Hottinger\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Dover\\ Publications\\,\\ \\;1940\\)\\:\\ vii\\-xii\\,\\ 1\\-17\\,\\ 226\\-237\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ from\\ our\\ section\\ on\\ Style\\,\\ and\\ was\\ compared\\ and\\ contrasted\\ to\\ Shapiro\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ also\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ readings\\ for\\ the\\ midterm\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ originally\\ written\\ in\\ 1915\\ by\\ the\\ German\\ Wolfflin\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ firmer\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ classifications\\ of\\ art\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ English\\ translation\\ was\\ in\\ 1932\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\ discusses\\ a\\ \\"\\;double\\ root\\ of\\ style\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ meaning\\ the\\ personal\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ vs\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ contemporary\\ school\\,\\ country\\ or\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ and\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ artistic\\ creativity\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ conditions\\ that\\ affect\\ that\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ defines\\ style\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ expression\\ of\\ temperament\\"\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\ and\\ a\\ \\"\\;mode\\ of\\ representation\\"\\;\\ \\(11\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\ states\\ one\\ can\\ also\\ define\\ art\\ by\\ contrasting\\ one\\ nationality\\ of\\ work\\ to\\ another\\ \\(eg\\:\\ Dutch\\ to\\ Flemish\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\ has\\ 5\\ pairs\\ of\\ concepts\\ acting\\ in\\ period\\ style\\ which\\ form\\ a\\ framework\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ Hist\\ of\\ Art\\ \\(pgs\\ 14\\-15\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Developments\\ of\\ style\\ and\\ methods\\ of\\ representation\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\16th\\ century\\ \\(classic\\)\\ to\\ 17th\\ century\\ \\(baroque\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Linear\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Painterly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;Plane\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;Closed\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Open\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;Multiplicity\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Unity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;Absolute\\ clarity\\ of\\ subject\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Relative\\ clarity\\ of\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ more\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Linear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(line\\ as\\ path\\ of\\ vision\\ and\\ guide\\ of\\ eye\\,\\ perception\\ of\\ object\\ by\\ its\\ tangible\\ character\\ in\\ outline\\ and\\ surfaces\\,\\ stresses\\ limits\\ of\\ things\\,\\ isolates\\ objects\\,\\ world\\ as\\ individual\\ material\\ objects\\ and\\ solid\\,\\ tangible\\ bodies\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Painterly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(gradual\\ depreciation\\ of\\ line\\,\\ abandon\\ \\"\\;tangible\\"\\;\\ design\\,\\ limitless\\ look\\ and\\ feel\\,\\ merges\\ objects\\,\\ world\\ as\\ shifting\\ semblance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Plane\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(classic\\ art\\ reduces\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ total\\ form\\ to\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ planes\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Recession\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(baroque\\ art\\ emphasises\\ depth\\,\\ eye\\ relates\\ objects\\ essentially\\ in\\ forward\\/backward\\ direction\\,\\ greater\\ power\\ to\\ relate\\ spacial\\ depth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Closed\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(classic\\ design\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\form\\ of\\ closed\\ composition\\,\\ self\\-contained\\ and\\ finite\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Open\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(relaxation\\ of\\ rules\\,\\ new\\ mode\\ of\\ representation\\,\\ loose\\ form\\ yet\\ still\\ self\\-contained\\ and\\ a\\ finite\\ whole\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Multiplicity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(single\\ parts\\ in\\ classic\\ composition\\ maintain\\ a\\ certain\\ independence\\,\\ the\\ part\\ is\\ conditioned\\ by\\ the\\ whole\\ yet\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ life\\,\\ the\\ spectator\\ presupposes\\ an\\ articulation\\,\\ a\\ progress\\ from\\ part\\ to\\ part\\ although\\ unity\\ is\\ the\\ chief\\ aim\\,\\ achieved\\ by\\ harmony\\ of\\ free\\ parts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Unity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(spectator\\ perceives\\ a\\ whole\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ parts\\,\\ unity\\ is\\ the\\ chief\\ aim\\ achieved\\ by\\ union\\ of\\ parts\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ theme\\ or\\ subordination\\ to\\ one\\ unconditioned\\ dominant\\ of\\ all\\ other\\ elements\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\(\\#5\\ is\\ a\\ similar\\ contrast\\ to\\ \\#1\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Absolute\\ Clarity\\ of\\ Subject\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(representation\\ of\\ things\\ as\\ the\\ are\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Relative\\ Clarity\\ of\\ Subject\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(representation\\ if\\ things\\ as\\ they\\ look\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ sacrifices\\ absolute\\ clarity\\,\\ explicitness\\ of\\ subject\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ sole\\ purpose\\ of\\ presentation\\,\\ composition\\/light\\/color\\ no\\ longer\\ merely\\ serve\\ to\\ define\\ form\\ but\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ life\\,\\ reality\\ is\\ now\\ beheld\\ with\\ an\\ eye\\ to\\ other\\ effects\\,\\ a\\ different\\ attitude\\ to\\ the\\ world\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Meyer\\ Schapiro\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Style\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Theory\\ and\\ Philosophy\\ of\\ Art\\:\\ Style\\,\\ Artist\\,\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ George\\ Braziller\\,\\ 1994\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ \\&ldquo\\;Style\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Schapiro\\ argues\\ for\\ a\\ broadened\\ concept\\ of\\ style\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ formal\\ components\\ of\\ a\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ are\\ inseparable\\ from\\ the\\ expressive\\ qualities\\ that\\ ultimately\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ work\\&\\#39\\;s\\ original\\ culture\\ and\\ historical\\ contexts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ styles\\ have\\ been\\ defined\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Studies\\ of\\ style\\ have\\ tended\\ \\&ldquo\\;toward\\ an\\ ever\\ stronger\\ correlation\\ of\\ form\\ and\\ expression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ of\\ past\\ styles\\ and\\ primitive\\ art\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ been\\ strongly\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ recent\\ Western\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ of\\ style\\ as\\ an\\ historical\\ phenomenon\\ must\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ stylistic\\ heterogeneity\\ and\\ variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Schapiro\\,\\ style\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\refers\\ to\\ the\\ formal\\ qualities\\ and\\ visual\\ characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ be\\ used\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ an\\ identifier\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ period\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ a\\ diagnostic\\ tool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reflects\\ the\\ economic\\ and\\ social\\ circumstances\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ artist\\ works\\ and\\ reveals\\ underlying\\ cultural\\ assumptions\\ and\\ normative\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conversely\\,\\ our\\ own\\ descriptions\\ of\\ form\\ and\\ style\\ indicate\\ our\\ period\\,\\ our\\ concerns\\,\\ and\\ our\\ biases\\;\\ the\\ way\\ art\\ historians\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ age\\ talk\\ about\\ style\\ is\\ also\\ indicative\\ of\\ their\\ cultural\\ context\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critiques\\ of\\ other\\ studies\\ of\\ style\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Those\\ that\\ focus\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\technique\\ and\\ materials\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ a\\ mathematical\\ way\\ are\\ lacking\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ require\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ vague\\ language\\ qualities\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ style\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;intersensory\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ anyway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ that\\ derive\\ style\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\content\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ work\\ are\\ not\\ applicable\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ privileged\\ content\\.\\.\\.\\ perfect\\ art\\ is\\ possible\\ in\\ any\\ subject\\ matter\\ or\\ style\\.\\.\\.\\ art\\ is\\ now\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ strongest\\ evidences\\ of\\ the\\ basic\\ unity\\ of\\ mankind\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ that\\ attempt\\ to\\ correlate\\ style\\ with\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\culture\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;dominate\\ personality\\ types\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ also\\ lacking\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ variation\\ of\\ styles\\ in\\ a\\ culture\\ of\\ group\\ is\\ often\\ considerable\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ period\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;until\\ recently\\,\\ the\\ artists\\ who\\ create\\ the\\ style\\ are\\ generally\\ of\\ another\\ mode\\ of\\ life\\ than\\ those\\ for\\ whom\\ the\\ arts\\ are\\ designed\\ and\\ whose\\ viewpoint\\,\\ interests\\,\\ and\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\ are\\ evident\\ in\\ the\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ie\\ monarchs\\,\\ aristocracies\\,\\ privileged\\ institutions\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ features\\ of\\ a\\ period\\ that\\ vary\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ what\\ is\\ constant\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ arts\\ of\\ a\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ that\\ regard\\ group\\ style\\ as\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imitation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ an\\ original\\ artist\\ do\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ one\\ artist\\ to\\ have\\ many\\ different\\ styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contemplates\\ \\&ldquo\\;explanations\\ of\\ style\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\forms\\ of\\ social\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ Marxist\\ theory\\,\\ but\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ any\\ conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schapiro\\ believes\\ that\\ style\\ should\\ encompass\\ both\\ content\\ and\\ form\\,\\ presentism\\ has\\ both\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\,\\ and\\ studying\\ a\\ culture\\&\\#39\\;s\\ or\\ period\\&\\#39\\;s\\ style\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;involve\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ its\\ cultural\\ and\\ historical\\ contexts\\ \\(namely\\ how\\ influential\\ the\\ period\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ideology\\ was\\ on\\ different\\ art\\ forms\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 23\\:\\ The\\ Age\\ of\\ Reason\\:\\ England\\ and\\ France\\,\\ eighteenth\\ century\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 24\\:\\ The\\ Break\\ in\\ Tradition\\:\\ England\\,\\ America\\ and\\ France\\,\\ late\\ eighteenth\\ and\\ early\\ nineteenth\\ centuries\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ Chapter\\ 23\\:\\ The\\ Age\\ of\\ Reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Culmination\\ of\\ Baroque\\ movement\\ in\\ Catholic\\ Europe\\ \\=\\ 1700\\;\\ Protestant\\ countries\\ refused\\ to\\ adopt\\ it\\ \\(applies\\ to\\ England\\ during\\ the\\ Restoration\\ period\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ Restoration\\ Period\\,\\ England\\ produced\\ great\\ architect\\,\\ Sir\\ Christopher\\ Wren\\ \\(1632\\-1723\\)\\;\\ he\\ rebuilt\\ churches\\ in\\ England\\ after\\ a\\ fire\\ in\\ 1666\\ \\(St\\.\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cathedral\\)\\;\\ influenced\\ by\\ Baroque\\ architecture\\ even\\ though\\ never\\ went\\ to\\ Rome\\;\\ Wren\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cathedral\\ includes\\ central\\ cupola\\,\\ flanking\\ towers\\,\\ and\\ a\\ temple\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\ to\\ frame\\ main\\ entrance\\ \\(no\\ suggestion\\ of\\ movement\\,\\ more\\ strength\\ and\\ stability\\)\\;\\ includes\\ no\\ freakish\\ or\\ fantastic\\ decorations\\ \\(strictly\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\:\\ restrained\\ and\\ sober\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ contrast\\ Catholic\\ and\\ Protestant\\ architecture\\&mdash\\;look\\ at\\ the\\ interior\\ of\\ the\\ churches\\;\\ St\\ Stephen\\ of\\ Walbrook\\ in\\ London\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\;\\ mainly\\ designed\\ as\\ hall\\ for\\ the\\ faithful\\ to\\ meet\\,\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ collect\\ thoughts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ ideal\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ palace\\ but\\ the\\ country\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;these\\ architects\\ rejected\\ the\\ Baroque\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Architects\\ of\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\ who\\ had\\ studied\\ and\\ measured\\ the\\ ruins\\ of\\ classical\\ buildings\\ with\\ scientific\\ care\\ had\\ published\\ their\\ findings\\ in\\ textbooks\\ to\\ provide\\ builders\\ and\\ craftsmen\\ with\\ patterns\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;most\\ famous\\ book\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ Andrea\\ Palladio\\ \\(considered\\ the\\ ultimate\\ authority\\ on\\ all\\ rules\\ of\\ taste\\ in\\ architecture\\ in\\ eighteenth\\-century\\ England\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\ of\\ Palladian\\ villa\\:\\ Chiswick\\ house\\ for\\ Lord\\ Burlington\\;\\ stately\\ portico\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ an\\ antique\\ temple\\;\\ against\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ Versailles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kent\\ invented\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;landscape\\ garden\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ ideal\\ surroundings\\ for\\ Palladian\\ villas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ position\\ of\\ English\\ painters\\ and\\ sculptors\\ under\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ taste\\ and\\ reason\\ was\\ not\\ always\\ enviable\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Hogarth\\:\\ felt\\ he\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ painter\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ public\\ for\\ contemporary\\ art\\ in\\ England\\;\\ create\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ painting\\ for\\ countrymen\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ planned\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ paintings\\ which\\ should\\ teach\\ the\\ people\\ the\\ rewards\\ of\\ virtue\\ and\\ the\\ wages\\ of\\ sin\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ meanings\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ are\\ clear\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ bring\\ out\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;character\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ every\\ figure\\ involved\\;\\ each\\ portion\\ reads\\ like\\ a\\ sermon\\;\\ also\\ studied\\ masters\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ their\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looking\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ rake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ progress\\:\\ the\\ rake\\ in\\ Bedlam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ crude\\ scene\\ of\\ horror\\ with\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ mad\\-people\\ represented\\ \\(religious\\ fanatic\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ cell\\ writing\\ on\\ his\\ straw\\ bed\\;\\ blind\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ paper\\ telescope\\;\\ grotesque\\ trio\\ grouped\\ round\\ the\\ staircase\\)\\;\\ shows\\ great\\ skill\\ in\\ arranging\\ his\\ groups\\ and\\ understood\\ tradition\\;\\ connoisseurs\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ him\\ seriously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sir\\ Joshua\\ Reynolds\\ \\(1732\\-92\\)\\:\\ been\\ to\\ Italy\\ and\\ studied\\ the\\ Renaissance\\;\\ made\\ his\\ career\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\ in\\ England\\ at\\ the\\ Royal\\ Academy\\ of\\ Art\\;\\ read\\ Discourses\\ and\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ pictures\\ we\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ prejudice\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;We\\ know\\ how\\ artists\\ had\\ to\\ insist\\ that\\ their\\ real\\ work\\ was\\ not\\ handiwork\\ but\\ brain\\ work\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ no\\ less\\ fit\\ to\\ be\\ received\\ into\\ polite\\ society\\ than\\ poets\\ or\\ scholars\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reynolds\\ \\=\\ intellectual\\;\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ superiority\\ of\\ history\\ painting\\;\\ when\\ painting\\ portraits\\ wanted\\ to\\ bring\\ out\\ extra\\ character\\ in\\ his\\ subjects\\;\\ when\\ painting\\ children\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ portrait\\ \\(look\\ at\\ figure\\ 305\\ on\\ page\\ 467\\&mdash\\;here\\ he\\ shows\\ the\\ touching\\ love\\ the\\ girl\\ has\\ for\\ her\\ pet\\)\\;\\ Reynolds\\ never\\ allowed\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\-matter\\ to\\ upset\\ the\\ harmony\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wallace\\ Collection\\:\\ portrait\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miss\\ Haverfield\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;where\\ the\\ little\\ girl\\ is\\ tying\\ the\\ bow\\ of\\ her\\ cape\\;\\ Reynolds\\ and\\ Gainsborough\\ were\\ rather\\ unhappy\\ to\\ be\\ smothered\\ with\\ commissions\\ for\\ portraits\\ when\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ paint\\ other\\ things\\;\\ Gainsborough\\ wanted\\ to\\ paint\\ landscapes\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ find\\ any\\ buyers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\,\\ English\\ institutions\\ and\\ English\\ taste\\ became\\ the\\ admired\\ models\\ for\\ all\\ people\\ in\\ Europe\\ who\\ longed\\ for\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ reason\\;\\ the\\ aristocrats\\ in\\ these\\ paintings\\ were\\ shown\\ as\\ mere\\ mortals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ France\\,\\ as\\ in\\ England\\,\\ the\\ new\\ interest\\ in\\ ordinary\\ human\\ beings\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ trappings\\ of\\ power\\ benefited\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ portraiture\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ Chapter\\ 24\\:\\ The\\ Break\\ in\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1492\\,\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ world\\ resulted\\ in\\ no\\ major\\ changes\\ in\\ art\\:\\ artists\\ were\\ still\\ in\\ guilds\\,\\ still\\ had\\ apprentices\\,\\ still\\ relied\\ on\\ patronage\\ from\\ the\\ wealthy\\,\\ basically\\ art\\ still\\ remained\\ a\\ leisurely\\ item\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ could\\ afford\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ have\\ reached\\ the\\ really\\ modern\\ times\\ which\\ dawned\\ when\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\ of\\ 1789\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ so\\ many\\ assumptions\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ taken\\ for\\ granted\\ for\\ hundreds\\,\\ if\\ not\\ for\\ thousands\\,\\ of\\ years\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ change\\ is\\ in\\ what\\ the\\ artist\\ understands\\ to\\ be\\ style\\;\\ Horace\\ Walpole\\ was\\ influential\\ in\\ architectural\\ style\\ in\\ England\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ \\(taste\\ for\\ the\\ quaint\\ and\\ romantic\\)\\;\\ Gothic\\ style\\ from\\ the\\ Romantic\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Chambers\\ studied\\ the\\ Chinese\\ style\\ of\\ building\\ and\\ gardening\\;\\ built\\ the\\ Chinese\\ Pagoda\\ in\\ Kew\\ Gardens\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greek\\ revival\\ during\\ the\\ Regency\\ period\\ \\(1810\\-1820\\)\\;\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Monticello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Napoleon\\ rose\\ to\\ power\\,\\ the\\ neo\\-classical\\ style\\ of\\ architecture\\ became\\ popular\\;\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ gothic\\ revival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\,\\ the\\ break\\ in\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ tradition\\ was\\ perhaps\\ less\\ immediately\\ perceptible\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ architecture\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ possibly\\ of\\ even\\ greater\\ consequence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ there\\ were\\ the\\ academies\\ \\(originates\\ from\\ the\\ Greek\\ philosopher\\ Plato\\)\\;\\ the\\ academies\\ of\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ were\\ under\\ royal\\ patronage\\,\\ to\\ manifest\\ the\\ interest\\ which\\ the\\ King\\ took\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\ of\\ his\\ realm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Annual\\ exhibitions\\:\\ social\\ events\\ that\\ formed\\ topics\\ of\\ conversation\\ in\\ polite\\ society\\;\\ artists\\ now\\ needed\\ new\\ subject\\-matter\\;\\ look\\ at\\ subjects\\ from\\ the\\ bible\\,\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ mythology\\,\\ changed\\ during\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\,\\ and\\ disregard\\ the\\ traditional\\ subject\\-matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ artist\\:\\ John\\ Singleton\\ Copley\\:\\ \\(example\\ page\\ 483\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Charles\\ I\\ demanding\\ the\\ surrender\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ impeached\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Commons\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ comparatively\\ recent\\ history\\ compared\\ to\\ other\\ things\\ of\\ the\\ time\\;\\ this\\ attempt\\ to\\ re\\-evoke\\ the\\ dramatic\\ clash\\ between\\ the\\ King\\ and\\ the\\ representatives\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ was\\ certainly\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ a\\ disinterested\\ antiquarian\\;\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ George\\ III\\ and\\ the\\ colonies\\;\\ Queen\\ told\\ him\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ picked\\ an\\ unfortunate\\ subject\\ for\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ Revolution\\ gave\\ an\\ enormous\\ impulse\\ to\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ interesting\\ history\\,\\ and\\ to\\ paintings\\ of\\ heroic\\ subject\\ \\(Copley\\ looked\\ to\\ England\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\)\\;\\ Romantic\\ strain\\ in\\ his\\ historical\\ painting\\;\\ French\\ revolutionaries\\ are\\ Greeks\\ and\\ Romans\\ reborn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\ \\=\\ official\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ government\\;\\ felt\\ like\\ they\\ were\\ living\\ in\\ heroic\\ times\\;\\ studied\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ sculpture\\ to\\ model\\ the\\ muscles\\ and\\ sinews\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Francisco\\ Goya\\:\\ same\\ culture\\ that\\ produced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\El\\ Greco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;was\\ a\\ court\\ painter\\ in\\ Madrid\\;\\ asserted\\ his\\ independence\\ of\\ the\\ conventions\\ of\\ the\\ past\\;\\ produced\\ a\\ good\\ number\\ of\\ etchings\\;\\ not\\ illustrations\\ of\\ anything\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ outstanding\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ approach\\ to\\ art\\ was\\ the\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ mystic\\ William\\ Blake\\:\\ Blake\\ forms\\ a\\ mythology\\ of\\ his\\ own\\;\\ wrapped\\ up\\ in\\ his\\ visions\\ that\\ he\\ refused\\ to\\ draw\\ from\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ relied\\ entirely\\ on\\ his\\ inner\\ eye\\;\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ artist\\ after\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ who\\ thus\\ revolted\\ against\\ the\\ accepted\\ standards\\ of\\ tradition\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ shocking\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\J\\.M\\.W\\.\\ Turner\\:\\ successful\\ artist\\ who\\ caused\\ a\\ sensation\\ in\\ the\\ royal\\ academies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ Klein\\ and\\ Henri\\ Zerner\\,\\ eds\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Italian\\ Art\\ 1500\\-1600\\.\\ \\ \\;Sources\\ and\\ Documents\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Evanston\\:\\ Northwestern\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1991\\)\\:\\ 4\\-14\\,\\ 138\\-146\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paragone\\ Debate\\:\\ sculpture\\ vs\\.\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\:\\ Treatise\\ on\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sculptors\\ experience\\ physical\\ fatigue\\,\\ are\\ wasters\\ of\\ marble\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painter\\ must\\ capture\\ 10\\ subjects\\ \\(light\\,\\ shadow\\,\\ color\\,\\ volume\\,\\ outline\\,\\ location\\,\\ distance\\,\\ nearness\\,\\ motion\\,\\ rest\\)\\,\\ whereas\\ Sculptor\\ must\\ capture\\ only\\ 5\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ painting\\ results\\ in\\ mental\\ fatigue\\.\\ Necessity\\ compels\\ the\\ mind\\ to\\ transform\\ itself\\ into\\ nature\\,\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ interpreter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tasks\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Understand\\ shadows\\,\\ 2\\)\\ Shadows\\ and\\ lights\\,\\ 3\\)\\ Perspective\\.\\ Also\\,\\ painter\\ can\\ show\\ things\\ at\\ different\\ distances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Permanence\\ can\\ be\\ equal\\ in\\ both\\ mediums\\,\\ but\\ beauty\\ is\\ not\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Varchi\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reality\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ sculpture\\,\\ skill\\ in\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bronzino\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sculpture\\:\\ Permanence\\,\\ more\\ effort\\,\\ beauty\\ from\\ all\\ sides\\,\\ ornament\\,\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\:\\ Material\\,\\ sculpture\\ is\\ a\\ craft\\ rather\\ than\\ art\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ find\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ 3\\-D\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ result\\ \\&lsquo\\;of\\ art\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michelangelo\\:\\ Sculpture\\ over\\ painting\\?\\ Brief\\,\\ curt\\,\\ and\\ sarcastic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benvenuto\\ Cellini\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Wax\\ Model\\ for\\ the\\ Perseus\\,\\ Casting\\ the\\ Perseus\\,\\ Disaster\\ into\\ Triumph\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Autobiography\\ of\\ Benvenuto\\ Cellini\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ed\\.\\ Charles\\ Hope\\,\\ trans\\.\\ John\\ Symonds\\ \\(Oxford\\:\\ Phaidon\\,\\ 1983\\)\\ 177\\-185\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dramatic\\ retelling\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;lost\\ wax\\&rdquo\\;\\ process\\ in\\ creating\\ the\\ Perseus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clay\\ core\\ approximates\\ shape\\ of\\ statue\\,\\ completed\\ with\\ a\\ layer\\ of\\ wax\\,\\ which\\ is\\ then\\ wrapped\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cloak\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ clay\\,\\ which\\ is\\ secured\\ by\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ iron\\ rods\\ and\\ circles\\.\\ One\\ heats\\ the\\ figure\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ wax\\ melts\\ and\\ runs\\ out\\ through\\ the\\ holes\\ pierced\\ in\\ the\\ cloak\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ empty\\ mold\\ is\\ baked\\ in\\ a\\ kiln\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wind\\ cooled\\ the\\ furnace\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;curdled\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ metal\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ used\\ oak\\ wood\\ to\\ heat\\ the\\ furnace\\ more\\ powerfully\\.\\ Also\\,\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ foot\\ was\\ not\\ fully\\ formed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Ivins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ Prints\\ Look\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Boston\\:\\ Beacon\\ Press\\,\\ 1943\\)\\:\\ This\\ concise\\ book\\ is\\ on\\ course\\ reserve\\ and\\ students\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ peruse\\ the\\ entire\\ volume\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\According\\ to\\ Makeda\\ \\(head\\ TF\\)\\,\\ we\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ responsible\\ for\\ knowing\\ this\\ reading\\ for\\ the\\ final\\.\\ She\\ said\\ that\\ instead\\ it\\ should\\ just\\ be\\ a\\ resource\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ distinguish\\ an\\ etching\\ from\\ an\\ engraving\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Rosen\\ and\\ Henri\\ Zerner\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Ideology\\ of\\ the\\ Licked\\ Surface\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ \\;Romanticism\\ and\\ Realism\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ The\\ Viking\\ Press\\,\\ 1984\\)\\:\\ 205\\-232\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Article\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ something\\ called\\ \\"\\;official\\"\\;\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ basically\\ works\\ commissioned\\ by\\ government\\ and\\ completed\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ These\\ were\\ fashionable\\ works\\ that\\ met\\ the\\ approbation\\ of\\ the\\ Academy\\ of\\ Fine\\ Arts\\,\\ completed\\ by\\ the\\ brilliant\\ artists\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ who\\ specialized\\ in\\ historical\\ and\\ religious\\ works\\.\\ These\\ paintings\\ by\\ the\\ \\"\\;Pompiers\\"\\;\\ soon\\ faded\\ from\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ losing\\ their\\ high\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ work\\ of\\ William\\ Bouguereau\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ blend\\ of\\ classical\\ forms\\,\\ high\\ finish\\,\\ and\\ surface\\ realism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ Pompiers\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ revive\\ \\"\\;official\\ art\\"\\;\\ by\\ painters\\ like\\ Rosenquist\\.\\ The\\ movement\\ is\\ called\\ \\"\\;New\\ Realism\\.\\"\\;\\ From\\ the\\ Luxemburg\\ exhibition\\ of\\ 1874\\,\\ Rosen\\ and\\ Zerner\\ find\\ the\\ key\\ characteristics\\ of\\ this\\ \\"\\;official\\ art\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ two\\ things\\ are\\:\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ and\\ the\\ fini\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ licked\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ subject\\ matter\\ was\\ specifically\\ focused\\ on\\ historical\\ scenes\\ \\(largely\\ from\\ ancient\\ mythology\\)\\.\\ These\\ scenes\\ are\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ grandes\\ machines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fini\\,\\ write\\ Rosen\\ and\\ Zerner\\,\\ serve\\ as\\ an\\ assurance\\ to\\ the\\ bourgeois\\ that\\ the\\ art\\ is\\ real\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ licked\\ to\\ perfection\\.\\ Today\\,\\ it\\ is\\ criticized\\ because\\ it\\ wipes\\ out\\ trace\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ painting\\.\\ Fini\\ makes\\ sure\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ is\\ the\\ focus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lorenz\\ Eitner\\,\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\G\\é\\;ricault\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\His\\ Life\\ and\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\:\\ Orbis\\ Publishers\\,\\ 1983\\)\\:\\ 158\\-180\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ is\\ almost\\ entirely\\ about\\ Gericault\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Raft\\ of\\ the\\ Medusa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ painted\\ in\\ 1818\\ in\\ France\\ \\(upon\\ his\\ return\\ from\\ Italy\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ shipwreck\\ \\(the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\)\\ goes\\ like\\ this\\:\\ In\\ 1816\\,\\ the\\ French\\ flagship\\ La\\ Medusa\\ sinks\\ carrying\\ soldier\\ and\\ settlers\\ en\\ route\\ to\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ Senegal\\.\\ This\\ is\\ largely\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ incompetence\\ of\\ the\\ captain\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ nobleman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ political\\ appointee\\.\\ There\\ are\\ only\\ six\\ lifeboats\\ so\\ about\\ 250\\ of\\ the\\ 400\\ people\\ actually\\ make\\ it\\ off\\ the\\ ship\\ onto\\ a\\ boat\\.\\ The\\ rest\\ have\\ to\\ jump\\ onto\\ a\\ makeshift\\ raft\\.\\ Those\\ 150\\ are\\ the\\ lowly\\ on\\ the\\ ship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ women\\,\\ slaves\\,\\ unranked\\ folks\\.\\ The\\ captain\\ and\\ other\\ noble\\ command\\ the\\ boats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ die\\ on\\ the\\ raft\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ incidents\\ of\\ cannibalism\\.\\ By\\ the\\ sixth\\ day\\ only\\ 28\\ people\\ survive\\ and\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ only\\ 15\\ make\\ it\\.\\ About\\ two\\ weeks\\ into\\ the\\ ordeal\\,\\ these\\ 15\\ men\\ see\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ hope\\ on\\ the\\ horizon\\.\\ They\\ are\\ saved\\ by\\ a\\ navy\\ ship\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sighting\\ of\\ the\\ Argus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;study\\ focuses\\ on\\ this\\ particular\\ episode\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ book\\ written\\ about\\ the\\ whole\\ episode\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ book\\ Gericault\\ ends\\ up\\ reading\\.\\ Gericault\\ begins\\ his\\ painting\\ by\\ completing\\ many\\ studies\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ episodes\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ This\\ includes\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mutiny\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ hangs\\ at\\ Harvard\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cannibalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ After\\ these\\ studies\\ comes\\ a\\ pen\\ and\\ pencil\\ sketch\\ of\\ the\\ final\\ product\\.\\ Now\\ Gericault\\ uses\\ studies\\ of\\ specific\\ character\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ put\\ all\\ the\\ episodes\\ together\\ without\\ making\\ the\\ piece\\ too\\ complicated\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ action\\.\\ These\\ includes\\ studies\\ of\\ the\\ man\\ lying\\ on\\ his\\ back\\ and\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ father\\ holding\\ the\\ dead\\ son\\.\\ He\\ continues\\ to\\ perfect\\ these\\ sub\\-plots\\ by\\ painting\\ oil\\ still\\ lifes\\ of\\ his\\ subjects\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ painting\\ was\\ well\\ received\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ largest\\ exhibition\\ of\\ its\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Baudelaire\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Painter\\ of\\ Modern\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\:\\ Phaidon\\ Press\\,\\ 1995\\)\\ sections\\ 1\\-4\\,\\ 9\\-13\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beauty\\,\\ fashion\\,\\ and\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beauty\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ eternal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ general\\ beauty\\ \\(that\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ painters\\,\\ poets\\)\\ and\\ particular\\ beauty\\ \\(in\\ modernity\\,\\ for\\ instance\\)\\.\\ But\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ canonical\\ beauty\\ as\\ some\\ art\\ historians\\ would\\ hold\\ it\\.\\ Because\\ in\\ every\\ beauty\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ parts\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ eternal\\,\\ timeless\\ component\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ relative\\,\\ circumstantial\\ element\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ time\\,\\ or\\ place\\,\\ or\\ specific\\ artist\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ kinds\\ of\\ beauty\\ can\\ be\\ appreciated\\ by\\ anyone\\ at\\ any\\ time\\ in\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sketch\\ of\\ Manners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ irreplaceable\\ part\\ of\\ art\\ consists\\ of\\ those\\ drawings\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ sketches\\,\\ genre\\ paintings\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genre\\ artists\\ \\(sometimes\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\observers\\,\\ philosophers\\,\\ fl\\â\\;neurs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ valuable\\ as\\ historical\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Artist\\,\\ Man\\ of\\ the\\ World\\,\\ Man\\ of\\ the\\ Crowd\\,\\ and\\ Child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ romanticized\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ mysterious\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Monsieur\\ G\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ also\\ endowed\\ with\\ an\\ artistic\\ streak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;man\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ sketches\\ are\\ imbued\\ with\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Man\\ of\\ the\\ Crowd\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ man\\ depicted\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\)\\ or\\ like\\ a\\ child\\,\\ he\\ is\\ curious\\ and\\ bewitched\\ by\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ a\\ child\\,\\ he\\ appreciates\\ color\\ and\\ form\\;\\ not\\ always\\ within\\ the\\ grip\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ his\\ mind\\ is\\ open\\ to\\ flashes\\ of\\ insight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ feels\\ perfectly\\ at\\ home\\,\\ delighted\\,\\ in\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ even\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ only\\ observing\\ and\\ not\\ participating\\ \\(he\\ is\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\who\\ takes\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\non\\-I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ observes\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ minute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Good\\ art\\ should\\ not\\ lazily\\ imitate\\ the\\ past\\,\\ ie\\ painting\\ old\\ manners\\ of\\ dress\\ \\(David\\)\\,\\ imposing\\ ideal\\ physiognomic\\ types\\ \\(Ingres\\)\\;\\ one\\ must\\ seek\\ out\\ the\\ originally\\ beautiful\\ from\\ the\\ present\\ \\(dress\\,\\ physiology\\,\\ movement\\,\\ manners\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Old\\ art\\ should\\ only\\ be\\ studied\\ for\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;logic\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;method\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ its\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Dandy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dandy\\:\\ a\\ rich\\ \\(or\\ at\\ least\\,\\ not\\ spendthrift\\)\\ young\\ gentleman\\ interested\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ personal\\ originality\\,\\ both\\ in\\ appearance\\ and\\ culture\\;\\ in\\ astonishing\\ others\\,\\ without\\ being\\ oneself\\ astonished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ an\\ aristocrat\\ \\(and\\ are\\ therefore\\ growing\\ more\\ rare\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ perfectly\\ contemporary\\ and\\ original\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ they\\ are\\ appropriate\\ artistic\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ joys\\ and\\ efforts\\/sorrows\\ of\\ man\\ \\(their\\ grace\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ pleasure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ idol\\;\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ every\\ physical\\ aspect\\ of\\ her\\ is\\ relevant\\,\\ including\\ her\\ dress\\ and\\ toilette\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ modern\\ painters\\ should\\ depict\\ them\\ woman\\ with\\ her\\ grace\\,\\ but\\ also\\ realistically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Praise\\ of\\ Cosmetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ instincts\\ of\\ man\\ are\\ generally\\ barbaric\\ or\\ unpleasant\\;\\ what\\ is\\ beautiful\\ is\\ cultural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ fashion\\ is\\ lively\\ and\\ important\\!\\ The\\ artist\\ should\\ depict\\ dress\\,\\ make\\-up\\,\\ etc\\.\\ faithfully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ and\\ Prostitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ fl\\â\\;neur\\ takes\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ women\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\ class\\ in\\ all\\ their\\ charms\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ also\\ courtesans\\ with\\ their\\ bad\\ taste\\,\\ excessive\\ fashion\\,\\ and\\ exoticness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ prostitutes\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ worthy\\ subject\\ matters\\ as\\ aristocrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carriages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Movement\\ is\\ particularly\\ interesting\\:\\ that\\ of\\ people\\,\\ horses\\,\\ means\\ of\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carriages\\ reveal\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\ class\\ but\\ also\\ exquisite\\ detail\\ \\(harnesses\\,\\ horses\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ even\\ such\\ contemporary\\ subjects\\ are\\ not\\ \\&lsquo\\;banal\\&rsquo\\;\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stephen\\ Eisenman\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Manet\\ and\\ the\\ Impressionists\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Symbolism\\ and\\ the\\ Dialectic\\ of\\ Retreat\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nineteenth\\-century\\ Art\\:\\ A\\ Critical\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\:\\ Thames\\ and\\ Hudson\\,\\ 1994\\)\\:\\ 282\\-298\\,\\ 356\\-388\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\ and\\ the\\ Impressionists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Edouard\\ Manet\\ and\\ Haussmannization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1852\\ marked\\ year\\ in\\ which\\ massive\\ public\\ work\\ projects\\ to\\ redesign\\ and\\ rebuild\\ Paris\\ were\\ implemented\\.\\ Project\\ under\\ the\\ supervision\\ of\\ Baron\\ Georges\\ Haussmann\\,\\ and\\ lasted\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ Second\\ Empire\\.\\ Improving\\ of\\ health\\ \\(new\\ water\\ and\\ sewer\\ systems\\)\\ and\\ transportation\\ \\(new\\ boulevards\\,\\ straightening\\ and\\ widening\\ of\\ old\\ ones\\,\\ lighting\\,\\ creating\\ of\\ parks\\ and\\ transportation\\ hubs\\,\\ building\\ of\\ residential\\ and\\ commercial\\ structures\\)\\.\\ Another\\ intention\\ of\\ project\\ to\\ secure\\ consent\\ and\\ obedience\\ to\\ undemocratic\\ rule\\:\\ public\\ program\\ provided\\ unemployment\\ during\\ time\\ of\\ massive\\ unemployment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\haussmannization\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Urban\\ syncretism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Architectural\\ homogeneity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ integration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Class\\ segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changeable\\ and\\ energetic\\ mien\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;blas\\é\\;\\ public\\ attitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ the\\ subculture\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;perpetual\\ idler\\,\\ browser\\,\\ or\\ window\\-shopper\\ who\\ saw\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Paris\\ as\\ a\\ spectacle\\ created\\ for\\ his\\ entertainment\\,\\ and\\ judged\\ commodities\\ to\\ be\\ icons\\ made\\ for\\ his\\ veneration\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\ adopted\\ stance\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ very\\ apparent\\ in\\ his\\ painting\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Music\\ in\\ the\\ Tuileries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ depicts\\ a\\ large\\ cross\\ section\\ of\\ Parisian\\ society\\.\\ Also\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Balcony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;reversal\\ of\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ seer\\ and\\ seen\\ is\\ effected\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Women\\ in\\ the\\ balcony\\ shifting\\ gazes\\,\\ much\\ like\\ the\\ bewildered\\ spectators\\ at\\ the\\ Salon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\ sought\\ after\\ individualism\\,\\ even\\ at\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ public\\ incomprehension\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ socio\\-political\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ very\\ uncertain\\ in\\ that\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;furtive\\ insinuation\\ into\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ crows\\,\\ and\\ his\\ deadpan\\ style\\ and\\ humor\\&rdquo\\;\\ implicated\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;thorn\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ despotic\\ regime\\.\\ But\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ also\\ an\\ eager\\ supporter\\ for\\ modernity\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ both\\ accepted\\ and\\ propagandized\\ the\\ mass\\-produced\\ clothes\\ of\\ the\\ department\\ store\\ and\\ the\\ bourgeois\\ identity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Depicts\\ a\\ naked\\ white\\ woman\\ reclining\\ on\\ a\\ bed\\ gazing\\ at\\ the\\ viewer\\,\\ and\\ a\\ clothed\\ black\\ woman\\ holding\\ a\\ bouquet\\ of\\ flowers\\ and\\ gazing\\ at\\ Olympia\\.\\ A\\ black\\ cat\\ arches\\ its\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ lower\\ right\\,\\ a\\ green\\ drape\\ is\\ drawn\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ upper\\ left\\,\\ and\\ a\\ partition\\ and\\ curtain\\ fail\\ to\\ meet\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\&mdash\\;behind\\ Olympia\\&mdash\\;permitting\\ a\\ glimpse\\ into\\ an\\ alcove\\ or\\ waiting\\ area\\ beyond\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Handling\\ of\\ paint\\ considered\\ discordant\\ because\\ of\\ rough\\ underpainting\\,\\ with\\ distinct\\ ouches\\ of\\ color\\ and\\ contrasting\\ tonality\\.\\ Refusal\\ of\\ modeling\\ and\\ subtle\\ chiaroscuro\\.\\ Posing\\ also\\ mechanically\\ composed\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Flatness\\ and\\ ungainliness\\ such\\ as\\ found\\ in\\ \\&lsquo\\;primitive\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ or\\ in\\ Epinal\\ prints\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subversion\\ of\\ the\\ genre\\ of\\ the\\ nude\\ and\\ rejection\\ of\\ popular\\ notions\\ of\\ race\\ and\\ sex\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ nude\\ genre\\ seen\\ throughout\\ art\\ history\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;different\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negress\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prostitute\\&rdquo\\;\\ seen\\ on\\ equal\\ footing\\ and\\ linked\\ by\\ their\\ common\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\d\\é\\;gen\\é\\;rescence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;could\\ only\\ be\\ considered\\ modern\\ and\\ not\\ avant\\-garde\\ because\\ done\\ within\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ nude\\ genre\\ and\\ the\\ two\\-dimensionality\\ of\\ popular\\ art\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Manet\\ painted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ an\\ indistinct\\ purpose\\,\\ social\\ class\\,\\ political\\ principle\\,\\ or\\ oppositional\\ ideology\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionist\\ and\\ the\\ Commodity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionists\\ much\\ like\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Manet\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ interested\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;freedom\\,\\ self\\-determinacy\\,\\ and\\ sensual\\ pleasure\\ that\\ constituted\\ the\\ utopian\\ legacy\\ of\\ enlightenment\\ and\\ revolution\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Because\\ of\\ their\\ subject\\ matter\\,\\ which\\ often\\ depicted\\ breakfasts\\,\\ picnics\\,\\ promenades\\,\\ holidays\\,\\ etc\\,\\ the\\ Impressionists\\ reflected\\ a\\ very\\ particular\\ idea\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ a\\ field\\ of\\ individual\\ enjoyment\\.\\ Lacked\\ the\\ world\\-historical\\ ambition\\,\\ Romantic\\ fervor\\,\\ and\\ avant\\-garde\\ convictions\\ \\ \\;of\\ the\\ two\\ previous\\ generations\\ of\\ French\\ and\\ European\\ artists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ described\\ by\\ Emile\\ Littr\\é\\;\\,\\ the\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\impression\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ pronounced\\ effect\\ which\\ exterior\\ objects\\ make\\ upon\\ the\\ sense\\ organs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ characterized\\ by\\ its\\ individuality\\ and\\ its\\ structure\\ of\\ discrete\\ colors\\ \\&ldquo\\;notes\\&rdquo\\;\\ juxtaposes\\ against\\ their\\ adjacent\\ tone\\.\\ Impressionists\\ depict\\ the\\ sensation\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ landscape\\,\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ landscape\\ itself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ technique\\ defined\\ in\\ three\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ rejection\\ of\\ chiaroscuro\\:\\ academic\\ painting\\ dependent\\ on\\ chiaroscuro\\ for\\ modeling\\ purposes\\ and\\ its\\ illusion\\ of\\ three\\-dimensionality\\.\\ Impressionists\\ rejected\\ this\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ depiction\\ of\\ the\\ interaction\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ color\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\en\\ plain\\ air\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Impressionists\\ such\\ as\\ Monet\\,\\ Pissaro\\,\\ Pierre\\ Auguste\\-Renoir\\,\\ Morisot\\,\\ and\\ Alfred\\ Sisley\\ found\\ way\\ of\\ evoking\\ interaction\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ air\\ in\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ equalizing\\ of\\ brushstrokes\\ across\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ canvas\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;individual\\ brushstrokes\\ are\\ varied\\ in\\ width\\,\\ breadth\\,\\ and\\ direction\\,\\ and\\ the\\ pictorial\\ field\\ is\\ uniformly\\ animate\\,\\ agitated\\,\\ and\\ immediate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effect\\ of\\ Impressionism\\ similar\\ to\\ effect\\ of\\ what\\ Marx\\ describes\\ as\\ commodity\\ fetishism\\,\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ repeats\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ illusion\\ for\\ reality\\ that\\ constitutes\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ commodity\\ fetishism\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Impressionist\\ art\\ represented\\ exchange\\ value\\,\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ informed\\ and\\ invigorated\\ culture\\ and\\ leisure\\ industries\\ of\\ various\\ countries\\.\\ An\\ international\\ market\\ established\\ for\\ Impressionist\\ works\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionists\\ see\\ and\\ render\\ nature\\ as\\ it\\ is\\&mdash\\;as\\ vibration\\ of\\ color\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionism\\ also\\ quite\\ subversive\\ and\\ counter\\-cultural\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ rejected\\ classical\\ tradition\\ and\\ had\\ an\\ ambition\\ to\\ reform\\ laws\\ of\\ drawing\\ and\\ color\\.\\ Preached\\ separation\\ of\\ Academy\\ and\\ State\\.\\ Even\\ dubbed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Intransigents\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionism\\ marked\\ a\\ new\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ evolution\\ of\\ France\\.\\ An\\ art\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;truth\\,\\ simplicity\\ and\\ child\\-like\\ charm\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ described\\ by\\ Mallarm\\é\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ Impressionism\\ can\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ two\\ manifestations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vaudeville\\ shows\\,\\ spectator\\ sports\\,\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fairs\\,\\ and\\ Sundays\\ in\\ the\\ country\\&mdash\\;of\\ the\\ emergent\\ culture\\ of\\ commodity\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radical\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ avant\\-garde\\,\\ which\\ rejected\\ Classical\\ mimesis\\ and\\ romantic\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Artists\\ themselves\\ rejected\\ conventional\\ nomenclature\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ Impressionists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morisot\\ and\\ Degas\\ examples\\ of\\ artists\\ who\\ rejected\\ labels\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ and\\ the\\ Dialectics\\ of\\ Retreat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modernism\\ versus\\ Symbolism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modernism\\ in\\ art\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ artists\\ to\\ connect\\ to\\ the\\ Classical\\ past\\ by\\ strengthening\\ their\\ links\\ to\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ whose\\ primary\\ interests\\ were\\ in\\ portraiture\\ and\\ landscape\\,\\ paid\\ homage\\ to\\ traditional\\ forms\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Flemish\\ and\\ Dutch\\ golden\\ Ages\\.\\ Also\\,\\ a\\ proponent\\ of\\ Wagernism\\,\\ a\\ movement\\ that\\ represented\\ the\\ long\\ sought\\ aesthetic\\ and\\ philosophical\\ unity\\ of\\ sensation\\,\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ intellection\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ his\\ abstraction\\ of\\ painting\\ via\\ introduction\\ of\\ color\\ accidentals\\ did\\ not\\ intend\\ to\\ destroy\\ art\\ of\\ portraiture\\ but\\ to\\ save\\ it\\,\\ by\\ revealing\\ it\\ once\\ more\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ of\\ revealing\\ human\\ character\\,\\ social\\ station\\,\\ and\\ expression\\ of\\ feeling\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relationship\\ between\\ expression\\ and\\ representation\\ like\\ the\\ modernist\\ project\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\:\\ complex\\ and\\ difficult\\,\\ and\\ anxious\\ about\\ how\\ work\\ could\\ be\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ both\\ modern\\ life\\ and\\ the\\ masters\\,\\ without\\ falling\\ victim\\ to\\ either\\ complete\\ abstraction\\ or\\ historicism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ some\\ of\\ Van\\ Gogh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contemporaries\\ had\\ less\\ anxiety\\ about\\ abstraction\\ and\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ subtle\\ ingenuities\\ of\\ modernism\\ were\\ useless\\ as\\ society\\ was\\ tumbling\\ towards\\ decay\\ and\\ perdition\\ anyway\\.\\ They\\ felt\\ that\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\ should\\ be\\ as\\ abstract\\ and\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Symbolist\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ for\\ they\\ felt\\ form\\ alone\\&mdash\\;line\\,\\ color\\,\\ or\\ pattern\\&mdash\\;could\\ convey\\ spiritual\\ and\\ personal\\ expression\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conceived\\ from\\ political\\ pessimism\\ and\\ detachment\\.\\ An\\ artistic\\ symptom\\ of\\ a\\ structural\\ crisis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Inward\\-direct\\ art\\,\\ anti\\-historical\\,\\ intensely\\ personal\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ even\\ confessional\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ retreat\\ but\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ European\\ mimetic\\ tradition\\.\\ Pioneered\\ art\\ of\\ sensual\\ liberation\\ and\\ personal\\ expression\\ partly\\ influenced\\ by\\ non\\-Western\\ \\&lsquo\\;primitivism\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolists\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ rigid\\ exhibitions\\,\\ or\\ a\\ coterie\\&mdash\\;simply\\ an\\ international\\ cultural\\ and\\ aesthetic\\ direction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Described\\ as\\ having\\ these\\ five\\ following\\ traits\\ by\\ Albert\\ Aurier\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ideist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ it\\ unique\\ ideal\\ will\\ be\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ Idea\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ it\\ will\\ expressed\\ this\\ idea\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ forms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synthetist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ it\\ will\\ present\\ these\\ form\\ and\\ sign\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ method\\ which\\ is\\ generally\\ understandable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subjective\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ the\\ object\\ will\\ never\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ an\\ object\\ bu\\ as\\ the\\ sign\\ of\\ an\\ idea\\ perceived\\ by\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decorative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ because\\ decorative\\ painting\\ is\\ nothing\\ other\\ than\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ art\\ at\\ once\\ subjective\\,\\ synthetic\\,\\ symbolic\\,\\ and\\ ideist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ some\\,\\ Symbolism\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Neotraditionsim\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ stressed\\ Christian\\ values\\ of\\ quietism\\,\\ piety\\,\\ asceticism\\,\\ and\\ hierarchical\\ stability\\.\\ Rejection\\ of\\ Naturalism\\ and\\ embrace\\ of\\ formal\\ abstraction\\ way\\ towards\\ new\\ felt\\ spirituality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ also\\ an\\ art\\ movement\\ of\\ creative\\ freedom\\ and\\ sensual\\ liberation\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ towards\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ anarchism\\.\\ Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ artwork\\ as\\ portrayal\\ of\\ free\\ and\\ autonomous\\ nations\\ or\\ communities\\ living\\ in\\ cooperation\\ and\\ harmony\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ Gauguin\\ and\\ Symbolism\\ in\\ Brittany\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ artwork\\ purposely\\ crude\\,\\ populist\\,\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\synthetist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ meant\\ to\\ synthesize\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ impressions\\ and\\ memories\\.\\ Most\\ noteworthy\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ left\\ largely\\ unpainted\\ and\\ unsaid\\.\\ Decorative\\,\\ pietistic\\,\\ and\\ populist\\ representations\\ of\\ Breton\\ spirituality\\ that\\ overlooked\\ the\\ modernizing\\ transformations\\ which\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ their\\ region\\ were\\ then\\ undergoing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marketing\\ of\\ Breton\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitiveness\\&rdquo\\;\\ allowed\\ for\\ touristic\\ marketing\\,\\ which\\ was\\ important\\ for\\ several\\ artists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Expression\\ of\\ indigenous\\ identities\\,\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ encouraging\\ touristic\\ consumption\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Painteres\\ such\\ as\\ Gauguin\\,\\ Ensor\\,\\ Redon\\,\\ Munch\\,\\ Vrubel\\ and\\ Hodler\\ are\\ Symoblists\\ beause\\ their\\ works\\ share\\ certain\\ formal\\ features\\:\\ flatness\\,\\ iconographic\\ features\\,\\ a\\ concern\\ with\\ dreams\\,\\ visions\\,\\ and\\ the\\ spiritual\\;\\ and\\ certain\\ ideological\\ features\\:\\ avoidance\\ of\\ contradiction\\,\\ disdain\\ for\\ history\\,\\ and\\ flight\\ from\\ modernity\\.\\ Symbolist\\ painting\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;mythical\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ functioning\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;turn\\ reality\\ inside\\ out\\,\\ empty\\ it\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ fill\\ it\\ with\\ nature\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ A\\ historical\\ amnesia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ also\\ beckons\\ a\\ new\\ order\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;political\\ future\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ anarchist\\ principles\\ of\\ mutual\\ respect\\ alongside\\ individual\\ autonomy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ posited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ensor\\ and\\ Populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Ensor\\ a\\ Belgian\\ artist\\,\\ who\\ for\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ remained\\ aloof\\ from\\ avant\\-garde\\ culture\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Long\\ live\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ and\\ ignorant\\ painting\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assimilation\\ of\\ a\\ mainly\\ Northern\\ European\\ anticlassical\\ graphic\\ tradition\\ apparent\\ in\\ his\\ extraordinary\\ and\\ bizarre\\ ething\\ entitles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iston\\,\\ Pouffamatus\\,\\ Cracozie\\ and\\ Transmouff\\,\\ Famous\\ Persian\\ Physicians\\ Examining\\ the\\ Stools\\ of\\ King\\ Darius\\ after\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Arbela\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Emulation\\ and\\ mockery\\ of\\ Nrothern\\ renaissance\\ and\\ Baroque\\ traditions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Famous\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Entry\\ of\\ Christ\\ into\\ Brussel\\ in\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ his\\ conviction\\ about\\ the\\ decadence\\ of\\ his\\ age\\.\\ Each\\ face\\ a\\ mask\\ or\\ caricature\\ and\\ grimace\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rejected\\ academicism\\ and\\ estheticism\\ by\\ recourse\\ to\\ the\\ grotesque\\ and\\ fantastic\\.\\ Very\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ Breugel\\ and\\ his\\ depictions\\ of\\ proverbs\\,\\ the\\ seven\\ deadly\\ sins\\,\\ or\\ the\\ battle\\ between\\ Carnival\\ and\\ Lent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ mature\\ works\\ not\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ an\\ integrated\\ cultural\\ whole\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ melancholic\\ reckoning\\ with\\ a\\ culture\\ in\\ ruins\\.\\ Ensor\\ had\\ an\\ ideal\\ of\\ a\\ unified\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;pure\\ and\\ natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ Belgian\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prized\\ handicraft\\,\\ exalted\\ familial\\ and\\ communal\\ bonds\\,\\ and\\ dreamed\\ of\\ a\\ pure\\ and\\ natural\\ society\\ during\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ rapid\\ industrialization\\ and\\ a\\ society\\ increasingly\\ structured\\ upon\\ a\\ cash\\ nexus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ASSHOLE\\ ALERT\\:\\ Ensor\\ a\\ misogynist\\,\\ as\\ he\\ blamed\\ women\\ \\(prevalence\\ of\\ female\\ prostitutes\\)\\ with\\ his\\ anti\\-modern\\ polemics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involvement\\ with\\ Belgian\\ socialism\\.\\ But\\ tough\\ to\\ see\\ in\\ his\\ artworks\\,\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ interpreted\\ as\\ satire\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ socialist\\ politics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paintings\\ represent\\ a\\ desiccation\\ of\\ Romantic\\ imagination\\.\\ Too\\ preoccupied\\ by\\ his\\ own\\ failure\\ to\\ achieve\\ transcendence\\.\\ Apparent\\ in\\ his\\ macabre\\ etching\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Portrait\\ in\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolist\\ Landscape\\ Painting\\:\\ Munch\\,\\ Redon\\,\\ Monet\\,\\ and\\ Hodler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ Renaissance\\,\\ landscape\\ painting\\ representative\\ not\\ only\\ of\\ physical\\ appearance\\ of\\ land\\ but\\ social\\ relations\\ between\\ humans\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ Historically\\,\\ landscape\\ painting\\ as\\ idealizing\\ and\\ inspiring\\.\\ Such\\ art\\ movements\\ as\\ realism\\ and\\ Impressionism\\ revealed\\ dialectic\\ relation\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ society\\ or\\ country\\ and\\ city\\&mdash\\;stability\\ of\\ one\\ depended\\ upon\\ stability\\ of\\ other\\.\\ So\\,\\ nature\\ continued\\ to\\ serve\\ a\\ progressive\\ function\\ for\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ end\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ dialectical\\ relation\\ severed\\ in\\ literature\\ and\\ art\\ of\\ Symbolism\\.\\ Nature\\ became\\ an\\ inviolable\\ sanctuary\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ standard\\ of\\ judgment\\.\\ B\\ö\\;cklin\\ for\\ example\\ represented\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ of\\ escape\\ or\\ eternal\\ rest\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Vita\\ Somnium\\ Breve\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Island\\ of\\ the\\ Dead\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ with\\ coming\\ disillusionment\\ about\\ personal\\ fulfillment\\ in\\ society\\,\\ nature\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ perspective\\ but\\ an\\ alternative\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Munch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;part\\ of\\ the\\ circle\\ of\\ Christiania\\ anarchists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sick\\ Child\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;an\\ indictment\\ of\\ a\\ perceived\\ social\\ and\\ culture\\ sickness\\.\\ Munch\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ sentiment\\ and\\ pathos\\.\\ In\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Voice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ series\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Frieze\\ of\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ cycles\\ of\\ life\\ via\\ natural\\ elements\\.\\ Depicted\\ simultaneous\\ fear\\ and\\ longing\\ to\\ submit\\ to\\ omniscient\\ natural\\ forces\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Odilon\\ Redon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\also\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ antagonism\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ society\\ portraying\\ humans\\ as\\ passive\\ and\\ powerless\\ objects\\ acted\\ upon\\ by\\ uncontrollable\\ natural\\ forces\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mutual\\ exaltation\\ of\\ colors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Luminosity\\ intensified\\ by\\ complements\\,\\ adjacent\\,\\ and\\ accents\\ and\\ highlights\\.\\ Induces\\ feeling\\ of\\ disorientation\\ and\\ phatasmagoria\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mikhail\\ Aleksandrovich\\ Vrubel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ rejected\\ populism\\ and\\ sentimentality\\.\\ Possessed\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;mania\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ technique\\,\\ paintings\\ densely\\ packed\\ with\\ broad\\ impastoed\\ planes\\ of\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conception\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ Symbolists\\ arose\\ from\\ desire\\ to\\ evade\\ social\\ contradiction\\,\\ history\\ and\\ contemporaneity\\,\\ and\\ to\\ evade\\ \\&ldquo\\;universalizing\\ civilization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hodler\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;disappearance\\ of\\ an\\ independent\\ peasantry\\,\\ erosion\\ of\\ cantonal\\ autarchy\\,\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ rich\\ and\\ vivid\\ \\&ldquo\\;folk\\-culture\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ concomitant\\ rise\\ of\\ a\\ tourist\\ industry\\ factors\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ segregation\\ of\\ humans\\ and\\ nature\\ in\\ landscapes\\ of\\ Hodler\\.\\ His\\ life\\ coincided\\ with\\ modernization\\ and\\ industrialization\\.\\ He\\ eliminates\\ all\\ traces\\ of\\ the\\ touristic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Incorporated\\ new\\ concept\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\parallelism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ was\\ what\\ he\\ described\\ as\\ a\\ characteristic\\ that\\ produced\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ unity\\.\\ First\\ parallel\\ landscape\\ seen\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Beech\\ Forest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Parallel\\ landscape\\ are\\ vision\\ of\\ world\\ frozen\\ in\\ time\\ and\\ space\\,\\ evacuated\\,\\ dreamlike\\,\\ lacking\\ bravura\\ facture\\ and\\ expressionistic\\ color\\ contrasts\\.\\ Renounced\\ integration\\ of\\ figures\\ and\\ buildings\\ in\\ his\\ landscapes\\.\\ Excised\\ all\\ that\\ was\\ fragmentary\\,\\ untidy\\,\\ or\\ uncontrollable\\.\\ To\\ represent\\ nature\\ and\\ society\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ decorative\\ parallels\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ unity\\ and\\ wholeness\\ of\\ art\\ a\\ substitute\\ of\\ completeness\\ and\\ social\\ integration\\ lacking\\ in\\ real\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ and\\ Symbolism\\ in\\ Tahiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauigin\\ abandoned\\ Brittant\\ and\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ island\\ colony\\ of\\ Tahiti\\.\\ Tahiti\\ both\\ a\\ personal\\ and\\ artistic\\ regression\\.\\ To\\ live\\ among\\ the\\ indigenes\\ meant\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ childhood\\,\\ or\\ in\\ Rousseauist\\ terms\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ originary\\ innocent\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Tahiti\\ both\\ a\\ dream\\-like\\ reality\\ and\\ disappointment\\,\\ because\\ native\\ selflessness\\ and\\ sexual\\ freedom\\ giving\\ ground\\ to\\ European\\ greed\\ and\\ cash\\-economy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Childhood\\ and\\ native\\ innocence\\ frequent\\ subjects\\ in\\ his\\ Tahitian\\ art\\.\\ Indigenous\\ women\\ associated\\ with\\ natural\\ fecundity\\ and\\ beneficence\\.\\ His\\ description\\ of\\ an\\ encounter\\ wit\\ a\\ Tahitian\\ woman\\ reveals\\ misogynistic\\ tendencies\\ and\\ primitivist\\ superstition\\.\\ Sexuality\\ of\\ Tahitian\\ women\\ also\\ representative\\ of\\ castration\\ and\\ death\\ of\\ males\\;\\ unholy\\ unions\\ of\\ lust\\ and\\ death\\ threatened\\ masculine\\ authority\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ erotic\\ extremism\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rodin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ and\\ sculptures\\,\\ such\\ as\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iris\\,\\ Messenger\\ of\\ the\\ Gods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ A\\ very\\ different\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ female\\ body\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;allows\\ women\\ to\\ possess\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ masculine\\ control\\ and\\ dispossession\\ in\\ Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\.\\ By\\ employing\\ Tahitian\\ language\\ in\\ titles\\ of\\ his\\ artworks\\,\\ working\\ against\\ the\\ assimilation\\ that\\ the\\ French\\ supported\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ embracing\\ culture\\ of\\ Polynesia\\,\\ Gauguin\\ expressing\\ an\\ internationalism\\ very\\ rare\\ in\\ an\\ age\\ of\\ empire\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ from\\?\\ What\\ are\\ we\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ we\\ going\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ admits\\ profound\\ uncertainties\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ cultural\\ heritage\\ and\\ posits\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ syncretic\\ and\\ international\\ culture\\.\\ Western\\ illusionism\\ juxtaposed\\ to\\ non\\-European\\ abstraction\\ and\\ painting\\.\\ Native\\ women\\ portrayed\\ as\\ intellectual\\ and\\ contemplative\\ people\\,\\ and\\ possessed\\ of\\ a\\ powerful\\ and\\ independent\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Andre\\ Breton\\ \\(founder\\ of\\ Surrealism\\)\\ and\\ L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitive\\ art\\ was\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ an\\ equilibrium\\ between\\ humans\\ and\\ nature\\ which\\ aboriginal\\ cultures\\ had\\ achieved\\ but\\ which\\ capitalism\\ destroyed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alan\\ Sekula\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ Invention\\ of\\ Photographic\\ Meaning\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Photography\\ Against\\ the\\ Grain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Halifax\\:\\ The\\ Press\\ of\\ the\\ Nova\\ Scotia\\ College\\ of\\ Art\\ and\\ Design\\,\\ 1984\\)\\:\\ 248\\-266\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sekula\\ writes\\ to\\ define\\ \\&ldquo\\;photographic\\ discourse\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ discuss\\ how\\ this\\ discourse\\ manifests\\ itself\\ in\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ argues\\ that\\ a\\ photograph\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ a\\ free\\ entity\\,\\ not\\ tied\\ to\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ argument\\ or\\ literary\\ discussion\\.\\ \\ \\;Writing\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;photographs\\ have\\ implicit\\ text\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ he\\ means\\ that\\ a\\ photograph\\ is\\ only\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ secondary\\ type\\ of\\ artwork\\ which\\ needs\\ literature\\ to\\ back\\ it\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;Further\\,\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ literature\\ typically\\ gives\\ the\\ photography\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ criticism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sekula\\ discusses\\ Steiglitz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ magazine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Camera\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ attempts\\ to\\ elevate\\ the\\ photograph\\ to\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ high\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ magazine\\,\\ individual\\ photos\\ are\\ considered\\ autonomously\\ for\\ their\\ value\\ as\\ an\\ art\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Steiglitz\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ stigma\\ of\\ photographs\\ as\\ being\\ totally\\ documentary\\ and\\ not\\ artistic\\ in\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Many\\ groups\\,\\ including\\ French\\ art\\ critics\\,\\ saw\\ journalism\\ and\\ photography\\ as\\ enemies\\ to\\ art\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ documentary\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;Sekula\\ discusses\\ the\\ two\\ poles\\ of\\ meaning\\ he\\ sees\\ in\\ photographs\\ as\\ being\\ either\\ documentary\\ or\\ artistic\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ documentary\\-type\\ photographs\\ convey\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;report\\&rdquo\\;\\ rhetoric\\ and\\ that\\ artistic\\ photos\\ convey\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;spiritual\\&rdquo\\;\\ rhetoric\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ the\\ article\\,\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ two\\ photographs\\ depicting\\ immigrants\\ departing\\ from\\ boats\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ points\\ out\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ documentary\\ and\\ artistic\\ elements\\ of\\ both\\ photos\\,\\ but\\ also\\ shows\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ have\\ some\\ of\\ both\\ types\\ of\\ interpretations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Buchloh\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Readymade\\,\\ Photography\\,\\ and\\ Painting\\ in\\ the\\ Painting\\ of\\ Gerhard\\ Richter\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Neo\\-Avantgarde\\ and\\ Culture\\ Industry\\.\\ \\ \\;Essays\\ on\\ European\\ and\\ American\\ Art\\ from\\ 1955\\-1975\\ \\(Cambridge\\:\\ MIT\\ Press\\,\\ 2000\\)\\:\\ 365\\-403\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Richter\\ painted\\ \\(amateur\\)\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Controversy\\&rdquo\\;\\ over\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ painting\\ vs\\.\\ photography\\ and\\ what\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ photography\\ \\(or\\ one\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ photography\\)\\ implicates\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ argument\\ between\\ those\\ who\\ say\\ photography\\ lacks\\ identity\\-\\ Richters\\ work\\ lacks\\ identity\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;culturalists\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ deem\\ his\\ painting\\ flexible\\ in\\ its\\ undefined\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Classification\\ of\\ Richter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ as\\ painterly\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ Richter\\,\\ photography\\ used\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;dictionary\\ of\\ culture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Photography\\ as\\ transferring\\ present\\ into\\ history\\:\\ space\\-time\\ relationship\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;instantaneous\\ in\\ space\\ and\\ past\\ in\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;this\\ creates\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ painting\\ from\\ photography\\ versus\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;Painting\\ from\\ photography\\ delivers\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;ready\\-made\\ concept\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ is\\ both\\ subjective\\ and\\ objective\\&mdash\\;painting\\ from\\ photography\\ plays\\ upon\\ this\\ contradiction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Richter\\ is\\ defined\\ rather\\ than\\ undefined\\ in\\ the\\ arbitrary\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ subjects\\ chosen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technical\\ aspect\\ of\\ representation\\-\\ a\\ painting\\ cannot\\ be\\ blurred\\-\\-\\-\\ only\\ reality\\ can\\ be\\ blurred\\&hellip\\;\\ creation\\ of\\ question\\:\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ photograph\\ that\\ is\\ blurred\\,\\ blurred\\?\\ \\ \\;Etc\\.\\ Etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Richters\\ play\\ upon\\ tensions\\ between\\ photography\\ and\\ painting\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ connect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ Rosenblum\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Modern\\ American\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Abrams\\,\\ 1999\\)\\:\\ 72\\-79\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ term\\ coined\\ in\\ 1961\\ by\\ the\\ American\\ art\\ historian\\ Robert\\ Rosenblum\\ to\\ unify\\ the\\ contrasting\\ feelings\\ of\\ vastness\\ and\\ solitude\\ evoked\\ by\\ certain\\ Abstract\\ Expressionist\\ paintings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ aesthetic\\ category\\ to\\ describe\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ reaction\\ to\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ image\\;\\ a\\ word\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ emotions\\ people\\ may\\ feel\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ Abstract\\ Expressionist\\ paintings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;provided\\ a\\ flexible\\ semantic\\ container\\ for\\ the\\ murky\\ new\\ Romantic\\ experiences\\ of\\ awe\\,\\ terror\\,\\ boundlessness\\,\\ and\\ divinity\\ that\\ began\\ to\\ rupture\\ the\\ decorous\\ confines\\ of\\ earlier\\ aesthetic\\ systems\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creating\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\ in\\ an\\ image\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ the\\ Sublime\\ can\\ be\\ attained\\ by\\ saturating\\ such\\ limitless\\ expanses\\ with\\ a\\ luminous\\,\\ hushed\\ stillness\\,\\ it\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ reached\\ inversely\\ by\\ filling\\ this\\ void\\ with\\ a\\ teeming\\,\\ unleashed\\ power\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\4\\ Key\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\ artists\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Clyfford\\ Still\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Untitled\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1958\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Jim\\ Turner\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Snowstorm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ exhibited\\ 1842\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Jackson\\ Pollock\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ 1A\\,\\ 1948\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1948\\)\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ invariably\\ evokes\\ the\\ sublime\\ mysteries\\ of\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ untamable\\ forces\\&hellip\\;\\ his\\ pictures\\ leave\\ us\\ dazzled\\ before\\ the\\ imponderables\\ of\\ galaxy\\ and\\ atom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Barnett\\ Newman\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Vir\\ Heroicus\\ Sumbilimis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1950\\-1951\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Piet\\ Mondrian\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Plastic\\ Art\\ \\&\\;\\ Pure\\ Plastic\\ Art\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ Artists\\ on\\ Art\\,\\ Ten\\ Unabridged\\ Essays\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ed\\.\\ Robert\\ L\\.\\ Herbert\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Prentice\\ Hall\\ Press\\,\\ 1964\\,\\ 1986\\)\\:\\ 114\\-130\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ influential\\ Mondrian\\ essay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ complete\\,\\ integral\\ aesthetic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Difficult\\ at\\ first\\ b\\/c\\ terms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subjectivity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\objectivity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\redefined\\ and\\ used\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;art\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ I\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ fundamentally\\ everywhere\\ but\\ two\\ diametrically\\ opposed\\ human\\ inclinations\\ always\\ included\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ direct\\ creation\\ of\\ universal\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\objective\\ representation\\ of\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ esthetic\\ expression\\ of\\ oneself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subjective\\ representation\\ of\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objective\\ beauty\\ through\\ balanced\\ form\\ and\\ color\\,\\ yet\\ also\\ attempt\\ to\\ show\\ what\\ forms\\,\\ colors\\,\\ and\\ relations\\ arouse\\ in\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\individual\\ expression\\ veils\\ pure\\ representation\\ of\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Artist\\ continually\\ struggles\\ for\\ unified\\ expression\\ through\\ balance\\ of\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ not\\ derived\\ from\\ form\\ but\\ through\\ dynamic\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ determining\\ form\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\ creates\\ relations\\ and\\ relations\\ create\\ form\\&mdash\\;no\\ precedence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Balance\\ of\\ utmost\\ importance\\ in\\ plastic\\ art\\ since\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;produced\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;constructed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Create\\ objective\\ as\\ possible\\ forms\\ and\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Universal\\ expression\\ only\\ possible\\ through\\ real\\ equation\\ of\\ the\\ universal\\ \\(objective\\)\\ and\\ the\\ individual\\ \\(subjective\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ purifying\\ its\\ plastic\\ means\\&hellip\\;2\\ main\\ tendencies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Maintain\\ figuration\\ \\(Figurative\\ art\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\complicated\\ and\\ particular\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Eliminate\\ figuration\\ \\(Non\\-figurative\\ art\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\simple\\ and\\ neutral\\ forms\\ \\(or\\ free\\ line\\ and\\ pure\\ color\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ more\\ free\\ from\\ subjective\\ than\\ figurative\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\ approximate\\ and\\ relative\\ since\\ each\\ line\\ and\\ form\\ represents\\ figure\\ \\(still\\,\\ we\\ must\\ define\\ terms\\ for\\ correct\\ use\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neutral\\ forms\\ so\\ profound\\ in\\ abstraction\\ as\\ to\\ not\\ evoke\\ feelings\\ or\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ born\\ of\\ figurative\\ art\\&mdash\\;approach\\ one\\ another\\ toward\\ mutual\\ balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ in\\ plastic\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dualism\\ in\\ art\\ only\\ relative\\ and\\ temporal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ of\\:\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;universal\\,\\ subjective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;objective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Always\\ some\\ confusion\\ with\\ objectivity\\ and\\ subjectivity\\ since\\ no\\ human\\ can\\ be\\ purely\\ objective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ inclinations\\ more\\ clearly\\ defined\\ now\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Figurative\\ \\(neutralizes\\ forms\\)\\ and\\ non\\-figurative\\ \\(creates\\ particular\\ representation\\)\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ is\\ rare\\ and\\ supreme\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Creates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\universal\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pure\\ science\\ achieves\\ practical\\ results\\ for\\ humanity\\ and\\ pure\\ art\\,\\ although\\ appearing\\ abstract\\,\\ can\\ be\\ of\\ direct\\ utility\\ for\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ law\\ of\\ equivalence\\ creates\\ dynamic\\ equilibrium\\ and\\ reveals\\ the\\ true\\ content\\ of\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subsidiary\\ \\(fixed\\)\\ laws\\:\\ govern\\ and\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ constructive\\ elements\\,\\ of\\ the\\ composition\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ inherent\\ interrelationships\\ between\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Work\\ of\\ art\\ depends\\ in\\ large\\ part\\ on\\ constructive\\ elements\\ used\\ and\\ the\\ construction\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ \\(abstract\\ expression\\)\\ not\\ a\\ step\\ back\\ to\\ primitive\\ nature\\ but\\ rather\\ recognizing\\ natural\\ laws\\ and\\ abiding\\ by\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Content\\ and\\ form\\ overemphasized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ must\\ create\\ balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Real\\ life\\:\\ mutual\\ interaction\\ of\\ two\\ oppositions\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ but\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ aspect\\ and\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Its\\ plastic\\ expression\\ is\\ universal\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intuition\\ enlightens\\ and\\ links\\ w\\/\\ pure\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ develops\\,\\ no\\ longer\\ dominated\\ by\\ instinct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Turning\\ point\\:\\ culture\\ of\\ particular\\ form\\ ending\\ and\\ culture\\ of\\ determining\\ relations\\ beginning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dynamic\\ Equilibrium\\ Law\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Task\\ of\\ art\\ to\\ destroy\\ static\\ equilibrium\\ and\\ establish\\ dynamic\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\:\\ destruction\\ of\\ particular\\ form\\ and\\ construction\\ of\\ rhythm\\ of\\ mutual\\ relationships\\,\\ of\\ mutual\\ forms\\ or\\ free\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\ expression\\ cannot\\ be\\ achieved\\ through\\ different\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Varied\\ forms\\ or\\ lines\\ achieve\\&mdash\\;in\\ form\\&mdash\\;altogether\\ different\\ degrees\\ in\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ plastic\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beginning\\ with\\ natural\\ forms\\ and\\ ending\\ with\\ most\\ abstract\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Expression\\ becomes\\ more\\ profound\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Straight\\ line\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stronger\\ and\\ more\\ profound\\ than\\ curve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\ of\\ different\\ forms\\ and\\ lines\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\very\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ fact\\ makes\\ it\\ pure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ created\\ by\\ establishment\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dynamic\\ rhythm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ determinate\\ mutual\\ relations\\ which\\ excludes\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ any\\ particular\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dynamic\\ rhythm\\ is\\ essential\\ element\\ to\\ non\\-figurative\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ rhythm\\ veiled\\ in\\ figurative\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surrealism\\ cannot\\ forgo\\ figuration\\ without\\ losing\\ descriptive\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evokes\\ sensation\\ of\\.\\.\\ sunlight\\,\\ moonlight\\,\\ joy\\,\\ sadness\\,\\ etc\\.\\ therefore\\ not\\ establishing\\ universal\\ beauty\\,\\ not\\ purely\\ abstract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deepened\\ feeling\\ and\\ thought\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ therefore\\ subjective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ essence\\ can\\ be\\ expressed\\ through\\ neutral\\ constructive\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pure\\ Art\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subject\\ is\\ never\\ an\\ additional\\ value\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ line\\,\\ the\\ color\\,\\ and\\ their\\ relations\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;bring\\ into\\ play\\ the\\ whole\\ sensual\\ and\\ intellectual\\ register\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\ life\\&hellip\\;\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ the\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Execution\\ and\\ technique\\ play\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ establishing\\ objective\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Less\\ obvious\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\,\\ the\\ more\\ objective\\ work\\ will\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ work\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ unconscious\\ b\\/c\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ individual\\ and\\ pre\\-natal\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Comes\\ from\\ pure\\ intuition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basis\\ of\\ subjective\\-objective\\ dualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diff\\ between\\ figurative\\ and\\ non\\-figurative\\ artists\\ is\\ that\\ non\\-figurative\\ \\(objective\\)\\ artist\\ frees\\ himself\\ from\\ individual\\ sentiments\\ and\\ impressions\\ from\\ outside\\,\\ breaking\\ loose\\ from\\ individual\\ inclinations\\ within\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*I\\ supposes\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ rare\\ and\\ so\\ precious\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ do\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ suppress\\ sentiment\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ himself\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ spectator\\&hellip\\;creates\\ emotion\\ through\\ his\\ adherence\\ to\\ objectivity\\ and\\ focusing\\ on\\ form\\ and\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ lines\\,\\ colors\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ art\\ is\\ for\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sake\\:\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ is\\ form\\ and\\ content\\ at\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Again\\,\\ highlights\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ construction\\ since\\ this\\ determines\\ the\\ forms\\ and\\ relationships\\ and\\ form\\=content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ subject\\ is\\ not\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ form\\,\\ as\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 21, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Compiled_HAA_Reading_Summaries.doc", "desc": "Reading Summaries"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Western Tradition - Reading Summaries", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "western-tradition"], "text": null, "id": 52, "html": "\\\\\\Compiled\\_HAA\\_Reading\\_Summaries\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c37\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:11pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c24\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c33\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c31\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c32\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\}\\.c14\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c16\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c6\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c35\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Gombrich\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ I\\:\\ The\\ later\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ \\ \\;Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ II\\:\\ The\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ the\\ North\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ I\\:\\ The\\ later\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ spirit\\ of\\ adventure\\ which\\ took\\ hold\\ of\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ marks\\ the\\ real\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pp\\ 247\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Artists\\ and\\ their\\ patrons\\ alike\\ realized\\ that\\ art\\ no\\ longer\\ had\\ to\\ just\\ tell\\ a\\ religious\\ story\\,\\ but\\ could\\ also\\ serve\\ to\\ depict\\ the\\ real\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ artists\\ began\\ to\\ experiment\\ and\\ search\\ for\\ new\\ effects\\ \\&\\;\\ methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ the\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\departure\\ from\\ International\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(until\\ 1400\\,\\ art\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ Europe\\ had\\ developed\\ on\\ similar\\ lines\\)\\ and\\ rise\\ of\\ increased\\ nationalism\\/regionalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ can\\ recognize\\ whether\\ a\\ fifteenth\\-century\\ picture\\ comes\\ from\\ Florence\\ or\\ Siena\\,\\ Dijon\\ or\\ Bruges\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ mixture\\ between\\ new\\ and\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ between\\ Gothic\\ traditions\\ and\\ modern\\ forms\\,\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ many\\ masters\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 1400s\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Alberti\\ used\\ classical\\ forms\\ for\\ decoration\\ of\\ a\\ traditional\\ Gothic\\ style\\ 3\\-story\\ building\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\discovery\\ of\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\.\\ Paolo\\ Uccello\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Battle\\ of\\ San\\ Romano\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(c\\.\\ 1450\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ painstaking\\ attention\\ paid\\ to\\ depicting\\ proper\\ foreshortening\\;\\ of\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ a\\ fallen\\ soldier\\ lying\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ Gombrich\\ notes\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ such\\ figure\\ had\\ been\\ painted\\ before\\ and\\,\\ though\\ it\\ looks\\ rather\\ too\\ small\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ figures\\,\\ we\\ can\\ imagine\\ what\\ a\\ stir\\ it\\ must\\ have\\ caused\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(255\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ artists\\/achievements\\ of\\ the\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Donatello\\ \\&\\;\\ Masaccio\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Florentine\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Eyck\\,\\ in\\ the\\ north\\,\\ had\\ changed\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ the\\ International\\ style\\ by\\ adding\\ more\\ details\\ from\\ observation\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ copy\\ the\\ surfaces\\ of\\ things\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ minutest\\ shade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uccello\\ rather\\ chose\\ the\\ opposite\\ approach\\.\\ By\\ means\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\ art\\ of\\ perspective\\,\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ construct\\ a\\ convincing\\ stage\\ on\\ which\\ his\\ figures\\ would\\ appear\\ solid\\ and\\ real\\.\\ But\\ he\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ learned\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ shade\\ and\\ air\\ to\\ mellow\\ the\\ harsh\\ outlines\\ of\\ a\\ strictly\\ perspective\\ rendering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treatment\\ of\\ light\\.\\ Medieval\\ artists\\ had\\ taken\\ hardly\\ any\\ notice\\ of\\ light\\;\\ their\\ flat\\ figures\\ cast\\ no\\ shadows\\.\\ Masaccio\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;been\\ a\\ pioneer\\ in\\ this\\ respect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ round\\ and\\ solid\\ figures\\ of\\ his\\ paintings\\ were\\ forcefully\\ modeled\\ in\\ light\\ and\\ shade\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Piero\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ master\\ using\\ light\\ and\\ shadow\\ to\\ give\\ figures\\ in\\ his\\ paintings\\ an\\ illusion\\ of\\ depth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ artists\\ across\\ Europe\\ were\\ applying\\ the\\ inventions\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ generation\\ of\\ Florentine\\ masters\\,\\ artists\\ became\\ increasingly\\ aware\\ of\\ new\\ problems\\ that\\ these\\ inventions\\ had\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ before\\ invention\\ of\\ perspective\\,\\ artists\\ could\\ scatter\\ their\\ figures\\ around\\ in\\ a\\ picture\\ to\\ create\\ any\\ desired\\ pattern\\,\\ but\\ when\\ the\\ new\\ concept\\ of\\ making\\ pictures\\ a\\ mirror\\ of\\ reality\\,\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ arrange\\ figures\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ easy\\ to\\ solve\\,\\ as\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ figures\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ group\\ themselves\\ harmoniously\\,\\ or\\ stand\\ out\\ clearly\\ against\\ a\\ neutral\\ background\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ problem\\ in\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ picture\\ both\\ accurate\\ in\\ draughtsmanship\\ and\\ harmonious\\ in\\ composition\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ creating\\ big\\ altar\\-paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ gradual\\ change\\ in\\ Italian\\ art\\ came\\ about\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ 1300s\\ \\&\\;\\ 1400s\\:\\ artists\\ no\\ longer\\ thought\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ conveying\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ sacred\\ story\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rather\\ it\\ could\\ now\\ serve\\ function\\ of\\ displaying\\ wealth\\ and\\ luxury\\,\\ adding\\ to\\ beauty\\ and\\ graces\\ of\\ life\\.\\ In\\ the\\ period\\ called\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\ this\\ function\\ of\\ art\\ came\\ to\\ fore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ Tradition\\ and\\ Innovation\\ II\\:\\ The\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ in\\ the\\ North\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ had\\ brought\\ decisive\\ change\\ in\\ HAA\\ b\\/c\\ discoveries\\ and\\ innovations\\ of\\ Brunelleschi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ generation\\ in\\ Florence\\ separated\\ Italian\\ art\\ from\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ northern\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Italians\\ \\(art\\ for\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sake\\,\\ not\\ just\\ religious\\ art\\)\\,\\ but\\ their\\ means\\ \\&\\;\\ methods\\,\\ styles\\ were\\ different\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ especially\\ in\\ architecture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ Italy\\:\\ Brunelleschi\\ put\\ end\\ to\\ Gothic\\ style\\ in\\ Florence\\ by\\ introducing\\ Renaissance\\ method\\ of\\ using\\ classical\\ motifs\\ for\\ his\\ buildings\\;\\ it\\ was\\ nearly\\ a\\ century\\ before\\ artists\\ outside\\ Italy\\ followed\\ his\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ the\\ taste\\ for\\ complicated\\ ornamentation\\ in\\ buildings\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Decorated\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ window\\ of\\ the\\ Exeter\\ Cathedral\\,\\ went\\ even\\ further\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ new\\ phase\\ of\\ French\\ Gothic\\,\\ sometimes\\ called\\ the\\ Flamboyant\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\England\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ last\\ phase\\ of\\ Gothic\\ style\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Perpendicular\\:\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ Gothic\\ style\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ go\\ out\\ of\\ fashion\\ and\\ Gombrich\\ claims\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ indications\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;even\\ without\\ the\\ direct\\ influence\\ of\\ Italy\\ the\\ architects\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ would\\ have\\ evolved\\ a\\ new\\ style\\ of\\ greater\\ simplicity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pp\\ 269\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ example\\ of\\ Perpendicular\\ style\\:\\ chapel\\ at\\ King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ College\\,\\ Cambridge\\ \\(begun\\ in\\ 1446\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ decorations\\ straight\\ lines\\ are\\ more\\ frequent\\ than\\ curves\\ and\\ arches\\ of\\ the\\ earlier\\ \\&lsquo\\;decorated\\&rsquo\\;\\ tracery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Developments\\ of\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\ in\\ the\\ countries\\ outside\\ Italy\\ runs\\ parallel\\ w\\/\\ the\\ development\\ in\\ architecture\\,\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\:\\ while\\ Italy\\ was\\ consumed\\ by\\ the\\ Renaissance\\,\\ the\\ North\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ remained\\ faithful\\ still\\ to\\ Gothic\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Despite\\ the\\ great\\ innovations\\ of\\ the\\ Van\\ Eyck\\ brothers\\ \\(in\\ the\\ North\\)\\,\\ the\\ northern\\ artists\\ of\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ did\\ not\\ use\\ mathematical\\ rules\\ of\\ perspective\\,\\ the\\ secrets\\ of\\ scientific\\ anatomy\\,\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ Roman\\ monuments\\;\\ we\\ could\\ say\\ they\\ were\\ still\\ \\&lsquo\\;medieval\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ while\\ the\\ Italians\\ entered\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;modern\\ era\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jan\\ Van\\ Eyck\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ incredible\\ attention\\ to\\ details\\,\\ textures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Northern\\ art\\,\\ which\\ was\\ less\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ attaining\\ ideal\\ harmony\\ and\\ beauty\\ than\\ Italian\\ art\\,\\ favoured\\,\\ to\\ a\\ growing\\ extent\\,\\ lifelike\\ pictures\\ of\\ the\\ daily\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rogier\\ van\\ der\\ Weyden\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Descent\\ from\\ the\\ Cross\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1435\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ Rogier\\ translated\\ main\\ ideas\\ of\\ Gothic\\ art\\ into\\ a\\ new\\,\\ lifelike\\ style\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ saved\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ lucid\\ design\\ that\\ might\\ otherwise\\ have\\ been\\ lost\\ under\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ discoveries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\:\\ in\\ the\\ Descent\\,\\ Rogier\\ uses\\ stylized\\ composition\\,\\ but\\ incorporates\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attention\\ to\\ detail\\,\\ texture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Henceforward\\ northern\\ artists\\ tried\\ to\\ reconcile\\ the\\ new\\ demands\\ on\\ art\\ with\\ its\\ old\\ religious\\ purpose\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hugo\\ van\\ der\\ Goes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ foreshortening\\ in\\ paintings\\ for\\ cathedral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Germany\\,\\ mid\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ invention\\ of\\ printing\\ had\\ huge\\ effect\\ on\\ development\\ of\\ art\\,\\ and\\ later\\ printed\\ books\\ came\\ about\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\,\\ prayer\\ books\\ and\\ religious\\ images\\ were\\ printed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ woodcuts\\ \\&\\;\\ block\\-books\\ became\\ popular\\ w\\/\\ general\\ public\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sold\\ at\\ fairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Gutenberg\\ made\\ his\\ great\\ invention\\ of\\ using\\ moveable\\ letters\\ held\\ together\\ by\\ a\\ frame\\,\\ block\\-books\\ became\\ obscure\\,\\ but\\ methods\\ for\\ combining\\ wood\\-blocks\\ with\\ printed\\ text\\ became\\ popular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woodcuts\\ not\\ suitable\\ to\\ print\\ fine\\ details\\,\\ so\\ some\\ masters\\ not\\ satisfied\\ w\\/\\ them\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ resorted\\ to\\ copper\\-plate\\ engraving\\ \\(famous\\ engraver\\:\\ Martin\\ Schongauer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PRINTING\\ hastened\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ ensured\\ the\\ triumph\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Europe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ according\\ to\\ Gombrich\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ forces\\ which\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ the\\ medieval\\ art\\ of\\ the\\ North\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pp\\ 285\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Erwin\\ Panofsky\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\.\\ \\ \\;Introductory\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ Iconology\\.\\ Humanistic\\ Themes\\ in\\ the\\ Art\\ of\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Harper\\ and\\ Row\\ Publishers\\,\\ 1962\\)\\:\\ 3\\-32\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Things\\ to\\ Know\\ that\\ the\\ Review\\ Sheet\\ Mentioned\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Three\\ levels\\ of\\ Interpretations\\ and\\ their\\ meanings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ types\\ of\\ evidence\\ we\\ rely\\ on\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ Primary\\ or\\ Natural\\ Subject\\ Matter\\ and\\ Secondary\\ or\\ Conventional\\ Subject\\ Matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synthetic\\ Intuition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iconography\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concerns\\ itself\\ with\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ or\\ meaning\\ of\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ their\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ levels\\ of\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Art\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Primary\\ or\\ Natural\\ Subject\\ Matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pre\\-iconographical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\description\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subdivided\\ into\\ Factual\\ and\\ Expressional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Factual\\ meaning\\-\\ elementary\\ and\\ easily\\ understandable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ representations\\ of\\ natural\\ objects\\ such\\ as\\ humans\\,\\ animals\\,\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expressional\\ meaning\\-\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ apprehended\\ not\\ by\\ simple\\ identification\\ but\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;empathy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ mournful\\ character\\ of\\ a\\ pose\\ or\\ gesture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Equipment\\ for\\ Interpretation\\:\\ practical\\ experience\\ \\(familiarity\\ with\\ objects\\ and\\ events\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controlling\\ Principle\\ of\\ Interpretation\\:\\ History\\ of\\ style\\ \\(insight\\ into\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\,\\ under\\ varying\\ historical\\ conditions\\,\\ objects\\ and\\ events\\ were\\ expressed\\ by\\ forms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Secondary\\ or\\ Conventional\\ Meaning\\-\\ intelligible\\ instead\\ of\\ sensible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Iconographical\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ the\\ narrower\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Subject\\ matter\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ form\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ of\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\ manifested\\ in\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opposite\\ of\\ Primary\\ or\\ Natural\\ Subject\\ Matter\\ which\\ is\\ manifested\\ in\\ artistic\\ motifs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equipment\\ for\\ Interpretation\\:\\ knowledge\\ of\\ literary\\ sources\\ \\(familiarity\\ with\\ specific\\ themes\\ and\\ concepts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controlling\\ Principle\\ of\\ Interpretation\\:\\ History\\ of\\ types\\ \\(insight\\ into\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\,\\ under\\ varying\\ historical\\ conditions\\,\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\ were\\ expressed\\ by\\ objects\\ and\\ events\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intrinsic\\ Meaning\\ or\\ Content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Iconographical\\ interpretation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ a\\ deeper\\ sense\\:\\ a\\ method\\ of\\ interpretation\\,\\ which\\ arises\\ as\\ a\\ synthesis\\ rather\\ than\\ as\\ an\\ analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apprehended\\ by\\ ascertaining\\ those\\ underlying\\ principles\\ which\\ reveal\\ the\\ basic\\ attitude\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\,\\ a\\ period\\,\\ a\\ class\\,\\ a\\ religious\\ or\\ philosophical\\ persuasion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ principles\\ throw\\ light\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;compositional\\ methods\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;iconographical\\ significance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thinking\\ of\\ pure\\ forms\\,\\ motifs\\,\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\ as\\ manifestations\\ of\\ underlying\\ principles\\,\\ gives\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ discovery\\ and\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\ is\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ Iconography\\ in\\ a\\ Deeper\\ Sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\ are\\ generally\\ unknown\\ to\\ the\\ artist\\ himself\\ and\\ may\\ even\\ emphatically\\ differ\\ from\\ what\\ he\\ consciously\\ intended\\ to\\ express\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(This\\ is\\ from\\ Anna\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ guide\\&mdash\\;possibly\\ untrue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ correct\\ analysis\\ of\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\ is\\ the\\ prerequisite\\ of\\ a\\ correct\\ Iconographical\\ Interpretation\\ in\\ a\\ Deeper\\ Sense\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Intrinsic\\ Meaning\\ or\\ Content\\,\\ dealing\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbolical\\&rdquo\\;\\ values\\ instead\\ of\\ with\\ images\\,\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ allegories\\,\\ requires\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ familiarity\\ with\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\ as\\ transmitted\\ through\\ literary\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equipment\\ for\\ Interpretation\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Synthetic\\ intuition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(familiarity\\ with\\ the\\ essential\\ tendencies\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controlling\\ Principle\\ of\\ Interpretation\\:\\ History\\ of\\ cultural\\ symptoms\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbols\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ general\\ \\(insight\\ into\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\,\\ under\\ varying\\ historical\\ conditions\\,\\ essential\\ tendencies\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\ were\\ expressed\\ by\\ specific\\ themes\\ or\\ concepts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\,\\ the\\ Nativity\\ scene\\ with\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\ reclining\\ was\\ frequently\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ one\\,\\ which\\ portrayed\\ the\\ Virgin\\ kneeling\\ before\\ the\\ Child\\ in\\ adoration\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Compositional\\ POV\\:\\ the\\ change\\ is\\ the\\ substitution\\ of\\ a\\ triangular\\ scheme\\ for\\ a\\ rectangular\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iconographical\\ POV\\:\\ the\\ change\\ is\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ theme\\ that\\ reveals\\ an\\ emotional\\ attitude\\ peculiar\\ to\\ the\\ later\\ phases\\ of\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meyer\\ Schapiro\\,\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;Muscipula\\ diaboli\\&\\#39\\;\\:\\ The\\ Symbolism\\ of\\ the\\ M\\é\\;rode\\ Altarpiece\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;27\\.1945\\ No\\.\\ 3\\:\\ 183\\-187\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ detail\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ in\\ The\\ M\\é\\;rode\\ Altarpiece\\ \\(by\\ the\\ Master\\ of\\ Fl\\é\\;malle\\)\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ whimsical\\ invention\\ by\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Instead\\,\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ has\\ a\\ theological\\ meaning\\.\\ It\\ explains\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ incarnation\\.\\ Christ\\ appeared\\ as\\ bait\\ for\\ the\\ devil\\,\\ who\\ upon\\ seizing\\ him\\,\\ brought\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ ruin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Christians\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ would\\ have\\ understood\\ this\\ metaphor\\.\\ At\\ that\\ time\\ there\\ were\\ multiple\\ metaphors\\ that\\ were\\ meant\\ to\\ explain\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ incarnation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mousetrap\\ metaphor\\ is\\ strengthened\\ by\\ the\\ scene\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ tiny\\ naked\\ figure\\ of\\ a\\ child\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ incarnation\\ to\\ come\\.\\ The\\ cross\\ carried\\ by\\ this\\ figure\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ and\\ redemption\\.\\ The\\ rays\\ of\\ light\\ coming\\ through\\ the\\ window\\ are\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ miraculous\\ birth\\ from\\ the\\ Virgin\\ \\(miraculous\\ insemination\\)\\.\\ The\\ Virgin\\ remained\\ undamaged\\ and\\ untouched\\ while\\ acting\\ as\\ a\\ transmitter\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mystery\\ that\\ takes\\ place\\ within\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ is\\ symbolized\\ within\\ the\\ space\\ of\\ the\\ house\\.\\ Everyday\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ panel\\ have\\ a\\ hidden\\ religious\\ meaning\\,\\ focused\\ in\\ the\\ central\\ human\\ figure\\.\\ These\\ add\\ credibility\\ to\\ the\\ metaphor\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ in\\ the\\ panel\\ on\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Taken\\ together\\,\\ these\\ symbols\\ represent\\ the\\ beginning\\ and\\ end\\ of\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ on\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ depends\\ on\\ Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\,\\ whose\\ presence\\ is\\ unusual\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Annunciation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(the\\ middle\\ panel\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\His\\ presence\\ is\\ a\\ nod\\ to\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ Joseph\\,\\ who\\ believed\\ that\\ Joseph\\ should\\ be\\ elevated\\ above\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apostles\\ and\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\.\\ His\\ presence\\ gives\\ emphasis\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ family\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Further\\ meaning\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Joseph\\ is\\ represented\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ domestic\\ setting\\ \\(the\\ center\\ panel\\ also\\ contributes\\ to\\ this\\)\\.\\ Shown\\ as\\ a\\ carpenter\\,\\ he\\ is\\ interpreted\\ to\\ be\\ humble\\ and\\ moral\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Mary\\ is\\ also\\ interpreted\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ indicates\\ that\\ Joseph\\ was\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ plot\\ to\\ deceive\\ the\\ devil\\ and\\ the\\ guardian\\ of\\ the\\ mystery\\ of\\ the\\ incarnation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ mousetrap\\ may\\ also\\ be\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ cleanliness\\,\\ which\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ mouse\\ is\\ a\\ creature\\ of\\ concentrated\\ erotic\\ and\\ diabolical\\ meaning\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ mousetrap\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ symbolize\\ the\\ suppression\\ of\\ sexual\\ temptation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bottom\\ Line\\:\\ The\\ many\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ interpretation\\ sustain\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ domestic\\ world\\ furnishes\\ the\\ objects\\ for\\ the\\ poetic\\ and\\ religious\\ symbols\\ of\\ Mary\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purity\\ and\\ the\\ miraculous\\ presence\\ of\\ God\\;\\ the\\ religious\\-social\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ provides\\ the\\ ascetic\\ figure\\ and\\ occupation\\ of\\ Joseph\\;\\ the\\ theologian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ metaphor\\ of\\ redemption\\,\\ the\\ mousetrap\\,\\ is\\,\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ a\\ rich\\ condensation\\ of\\ symbols\\ of\\ the\\ diabolical\\ and\\ the\\ erotic\\ and\\ their\\ repression\\;\\ the\\ trap\\ is\\ both\\ a\\ female\\ object\\ and\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ destroying\\ sexual\\ temptation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(186\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ The\\ symbolic\\ meanings\\ of\\ the\\ mousetrap\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ interpretation\\ of\\ iconography\\ in\\ the\\ deeper\\ sense\\ \\(intrinsic\\ meaning\\/content\\)\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Panofsky\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hugo\\ van\\ der\\ Velden\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ the\\ Warburg\\ and\\ Courtauld\\ Institutes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\60\\.1997\\ \\(1997\\)\\:\\ 89\\-110\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\ are\\ standing\\ in\\ the\\ fork\\ of\\ a\\ barren\\ tree\\.\\ On\\ the\\ tree\\,\\ there\\ are\\ fifteen\\ golden\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hanging\\ from\\ the\\ branches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ past\\ few\\ decades\\,\\ scholars\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ iconography\\ of\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ have\\ agreed\\ on\\ an\\ interpretation\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ painting\\ alludes\\ to\\ Ezekiel\\ 17\\.24\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ all\\ the\\ trees\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ shall\\ know\\ that\\ I\\ the\\ Lord\\ have\\ brought\\ down\\ the\\ high\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ exalted\\ the\\ low\\ tree\\:\\ and\\ have\\ dried\\ up\\ the\\ green\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ have\\ caused\\ the\\ dry\\ tree\\ to\\ flourish\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Virgin\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ image\\ derived\\ from\\ this\\ passage\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ that\\ Mary\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ performing\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ act\\ of\\ God\\ by\\ grafting\\ a\\ branch\\ from\\ the\\ Tree\\ of\\ Life\\ onto\\ a\\ barren\\ tree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ metaphor\\ was\\ only\\ depicted\\ once\\ in\\ an\\ illustration\\ in\\ a\\ book\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ few\\ similarities\\ between\\ it\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ der\\ Velden\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ iconography\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ neither\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ allegory\\ nor\\ on\\ a\\ doctrine\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Immaculate\\ Conception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ name\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\ was\\ already\\ in\\ existence\\ long\\ before\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ a\\ confraternity\\ \\(or\\ brotherhood\\)\\ that\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\ belonged\\ in\\ Bruges\\.\\ He\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ this\\ fact\\ had\\ been\\ curiously\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ der\\ Velden\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ confraternity\\ of\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\ was\\ dedicated\\ to\\ a\\ miraculous\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\.\\ He\\ believes\\ that\\ this\\ miraculous\\ image\\ of\\ Mary\\ in\\ a\\ dead\\ tree\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ sole\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ confraternity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ not\\ uncommon\\ for\\ religious\\ confraternities\\ to\\ be\\ dedicated\\ to\\ miraculous\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ many\\ were\\ dedicated\\ to\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ that\\ were\\ visions\\ knights\\ saw\\ during\\ battle\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ dedicating\\ the\\ confraternity\\ of\\ Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\ to\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ typical\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ branches\\ must\\ have\\ had\\ some\\ meaning\\ that\\ was\\ significant\\ to\\ the\\ confraternity\\.\\ The\\ meaning\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\ over\\ time\\.\\ They\\ probably\\ mimicked\\ reality\\,\\ meaning\\ there\\ were\\ actually\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suspended\\ from\\ the\\ tree\\ in\\ the\\ chapel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essentially\\,\\ van\\ der\\ Velden\\ argues\\ that\\ Petrus\\ Christus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Our\\ Lady\\ of\\ the\\ Dry\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ painted\\ as\\ a\\ reminder\\ of\\ the\\ cult\\&rsquo\\;s\\ miraculous\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ in\\ a\\ barren\\ tree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Giorgio\\ Vasari\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vasari\\ on\\ Technique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ trans\\.\\ Louisa\\ S\\.\\ Maclehouse\\,\\ ed\\.\\ G\\.\\ Baldwin\\ Brown\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Dover\\ Publications\\,\\ Inc\\,\\ 1960\\)\\:\\ 208\\-211\\,\\ 221\\-239\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Here\\ are\\ the\\ concepts\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ reading\\,\\ as\\ outlined\\ in\\ the\\ review\\ session\\ handout\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Understand\\ the\\ key\\ components\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\&mdash\\;the\\ medium\\,\\ support\\,\\ pigment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Know\\ examples\\ of\\ these\\ components\\ and\\ their\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Know\\ the\\ following\\ kinds\\ of\\ painting\\,\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ done\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ look\\:\\ tempera\\,\\ oil\\,\\ fresco\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vasari\\ lived\\ from\\ 1511\\-1574\\,\\ so\\ bear\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ primary\\ source\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ honestly\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tons\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ draw\\ from\\ Vasari\\ in\\ writing\\ your\\ essays\\,\\ other\\ than\\ maybe\\ techniques\\ used\\ in\\ each\\ medium\\ \\(particularly\\ in\\ the\\ comparison\\ essay\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ detailed\\ and\\ kind\\ of\\ elementary\\ in\\ some\\ parts\\ \\(like\\ telling\\ you\\ that\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ should\\ be\\ proportional\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ ensuring\\ that\\ your\\ drawings\\ will\\ be\\ realistic\\ is\\ to\\ draw\\ nude\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ repeatedly\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ memorize\\ the\\ contours\\ of\\ their\\ muscles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ mediums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vasari\\ says\\ frescos\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ \\&ldquo\\;masterly\\ and\\ beautiful\\&rdquo\\;\\ form\\ of\\ art\\ because\\ they\\ require\\ the\\ artist\\ to\\ complete\\ the\\ work\\ in\\ one\\ day\\ \\(other\\ mediums\\ can\\ be\\ subsequently\\ retouched\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frescos\\ are\\ painted\\ onto\\ wet\\ plaster\\,\\ so\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ completed\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\ must\\ be\\ of\\ quick\\ and\\ sound\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ plaster\\ must\\ be\\ kept\\ moist\\ throughout\\ the\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ paints\\ must\\ be\\ earth\\-based\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ metallic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ colors\\ generally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ appear\\ the\\ same\\ shade\\ once\\ dry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tempera\\ \\(paint\\ made\\ by\\ binding\\ pigment\\ in\\ an\\ egg\\ medium\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ prime\\ with\\ gesso\\ before\\ painting\\ with\\ tempera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Holds\\ up\\ pretty\\ well\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\ \\&ldquo\\;softens\\ and\\ sweetens\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ colors\\ and\\ makes\\ them\\ more\\ delicate\\ than\\ do\\ other\\ mediums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easy\\ to\\ mix\\ colors\\ when\\ the\\ oil\\ is\\ wet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oils\\ \\&ldquo\\;impart\\ wonderful\\ grace\\ and\\ vivacity\\ and\\ vigor\\ to\\ their\\ figures\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Easily\\ transportable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ primed\\ with\\ gesso\\ \\(unless\\ they\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ transported\\,\\ as\\ gesso\\ limits\\ flexibility\\&mdash\\;still\\ primed\\ with\\ a\\ flour\\ and\\ walnut\\ oil\\ mixture\\,\\ though\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wood\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prepared\\ similarly\\ to\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ as\\ reliable\\ because\\ it\\ gets\\ worms\\ \\(obviously\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ know\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rough\\ and\\ dry\\ stones\\ soak\\ the\\ color\\ and\\ oil\\ in\\ the\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ time\\ if\\ done\\ properly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Murals\\ painted\\ on\\ a\\ dry\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ wall\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ whitened\\ \\(for\\ a\\ fresco\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\,\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ scraped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ smooth\\,\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ given\\ several\\ coats\\ of\\ oil\\ \\(a\\ form\\ of\\ priming\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Millard\\ Meiss\\,\\ \\"\\;Light\\ as\\ form\\ and\\ symbol\\ in\\ some\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ paintings\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;27\\.1945\\:\\ 175\\-181\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ discusses\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ naturalism\\ in\\ the\\ fifteenth\\ century\\ paintings\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ achieve\\ naturalism\\,\\ the\\ painter\\ used\\ perspective\\ and\\ painting\\ of\\ light\\ \\(new\\ introduction\\ in\\ this\\ century\\!\\)\\.\\ The\\ painting\\ of\\ light\\ was\\ the\\ biggest\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\.\\ The\\ painting\\ of\\ light\\ stirs\\ feelings\\ and\\ contains\\ moods\\.\\ Meiss\\ describes\\ how\\ many\\ Christian\\ mysteries\\ were\\ explained\\ by\\ metaphors\\ of\\ light\\.\\ The\\ New\\ World\\ was\\ typically\\ represented\\ as\\:\\ warm\\ sunlight\\,\\ life\\,\\ growth\\ and\\ fertility\\.\\ The\\ Old\\ World\\ was\\ typically\\ represented\\ as\\:\\ cool\\,\\ grey\\,\\ moralized\\ landscape\\.\\ Similes\\ also\\ incorporated\\ light\\:\\ sunlight\\ \\(ray\\ through\\ glass\\ window\\)\\-\\ typically\\ in\\ paintings\\ of\\ the\\ Annunciation\\ and\\/or\\ incarnation\\.\\ There\\ was\\ subtle\\ and\\ pervasive\\ symbolism\\ in\\ this\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ 3\\ rays\\ represent\\ the\\ trinity\\,\\ and\\ 7\\ rays\\ represent\\ the\\ gifts\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Ghost\\ \\(wisdom\\,\\ understanding\\,\\ counsil\\,\\ strength\\,\\ knowledge\\,\\ piety\\,\\ and\\ fear\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meiss\\ also\\ talks\\ about\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\ and\\ his\\ symbolism\\.\\ He\\ discusses\\ van\\ Eycks\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Madonna\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Berlin\\:\\ The\\ Virgin\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\.\\ The\\ Gothic\\ Cathedral\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ daylight\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ Divine\\ Light\\.\\ Behind\\ the\\ Madonna\\ is\\ a\\ choir\\ screen\\ and\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\ with\\ burning\\ light\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\-\\ it\\ is\\ artificial\\ light\\,\\ but\\ the\\ real\\ Mary\\ is\\ surrounded\\ by\\ real\\ sunlight\\.\\ This\\ work\\ recalls\\ a\\ more\\ devout\\ time\\ of\\ Christianity\\.\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ is\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ Article\\ from\\ Section\\ Leader\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\\\The\\ main\\ point\\ in\\ Millard\\ Meiss\\&rsquo\\;\\ article\\:\\ according\\ to\\ Meiss\\,\\ the\\ major\\ pictorial\\ contribution\\ of\\ Renaissance\\ painting\\,\\ besides\\ perspective\\,\\ is\\ the\\ achievements\\ in\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\light\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Both\\ perspective\\ and\\ light\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ a\\ naturalistic\\ image\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\naturalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ key\\ in\\ the\\ renaissance\\.\\ In\\ section\\,\\ we\\ saw\\ how\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ modulate\\ light\\ created\\ a\\ naturalistic\\ effect\\ in\\ Christian\\ Seybold\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Portrait\\ of\\ an\\ Old\\ Woman\\ \\(1749\\-1750\\)\\-\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ memorize\\ this\\ painting\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gombrich\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 17\\:\\ The\\ New\\ Learning\\ Spreads\\:\\ Germany\\ and\\ the\\ Netherlands\\,\\ early\\ sixteenth\\ century\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 18\\:\\ A\\ Crisis\\ of\\ Art\\:\\ Europe\\,\\ later\\ sixteenth\\ century\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Those\\ who\\ lived\\ North\\ of\\ the\\ Alps\\ noticed\\ three\\ achievements\\ of\\ the\\ Italian\\ masters\\ which\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ incorporate\\ into\\ their\\ own\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scientific\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ classical\\ forms\\ of\\ building\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Architects\\ in\\ Germany\\ held\\ onto\\ their\\ old\\ Gothic\\ style\\,\\ adding\\ the\\ classical\\ forms\\ from\\ Italy\\ haphazardly\\ into\\ Gothic\\ designs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Albrecht\\ Durer\\,\\ a\\ German\\ artist\\,\\ strove\\ to\\ understand\\ these\\ new\\ Italian\\ techniques\\ and\\ make\\ up\\ his\\ mind\\ about\\ their\\ usefulness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ large\\ woodcuts\\ illustrating\\ the\\ Revelation\\ of\\ St\\.\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showed\\ terrifying\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ horror\\ of\\ doomsday\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ discarded\\ all\\ traditional\\ poses\\,\\ instead\\ making\\ his\\ St\\.\\ Michael\\ look\\ deadly\\ earnest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exhibited\\ his\\ mastery\\ of\\ the\\ fantastic\\ and\\ the\\ visionary\\,\\ like\\ the\\ gothic\\ artists\\ before\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ wanted\\ to\\ contemplate\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ to\\ masterfully\\ imitate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ of\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nativity\\&rdquo\\;\\ engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\,\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ beautiful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ correct\\ proportions\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\,\\ he\\ studied\\ classical\\ writers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ experimentation\\ with\\ human\\ proportions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\&rdquo\\;\\ engraving\\ was\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ study\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ harmony\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ form\\,\\ he\\ used\\ measuring\\ with\\ a\\ compass\\ and\\ a\\ ruler\\ to\\ make\\ these\\ forms\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ symmetrical\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ serious\\ attempt\\ to\\ transplant\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ into\\ the\\ northern\\ soil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ eventually\\ achieved\\ fame\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ twas\\ attempting\\ to\\ transplant\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ in\\ northern\\ soil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ German\\ painter\\ who\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ Durer\\ for\\ greatness\\ and\\ artistic\\ power\\ is\\ Matthias\\ Grunewald\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ little\\ trace\\ left\\ of\\ him\\,\\ and\\ Grunewald\\ may\\ not\\ even\\ have\\ been\\ his\\ real\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ reason\\ we\\ know\\ so\\ much\\ about\\ Durer\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ saw\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ reformer\\ and\\ an\\ innovator\\ so\\ he\\ recorded\\ his\\ experiences\\,\\ while\\ Grunewald\\ did\\ not\\ see\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grunewald\\ only\\ made\\ use\\ of\\ Italian\\ discoveries\\ when\\ they\\ suited\\ his\\ ideas\\ of\\ what\\ art\\ should\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ did\\ not\\ search\\ for\\ hidden\\ laws\\ of\\ beauty\\,\\ his\\ only\\ aim\\ was\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ sermon\\ in\\ pictures\\,\\ to\\ proclaim\\ the\\ sacred\\ truths\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ Crucifixion\\ altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neglected\\ to\\ make\\ figures\\ in\\ correct\\ dimensions\\ as\\ Italians\\ did\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ varied\\ size\\ of\\ figures\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ importance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grunewald\\ shows\\ us\\ that\\ art\\ can\\ be\\ great\\ without\\ being\\ progressive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ third\\ famous\\ German\\ was\\ Lucas\\ Cranach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fascinated\\ by\\ the\\ northern\\ foothills\\ with\\ their\\ forests\\ and\\ romantic\\ vistas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opened\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ their\\ surroundings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Albrecht\\ Altdorfer\\ studied\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ pines\\ and\\ rocks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ of\\ his\\ watercolors\\ and\\ etchings\\ contain\\ no\\ human\\ being\\ and\\ tell\\ no\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ momentous\\ change\\,\\ as\\ it\\ showed\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ painter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skill\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Netherlands\\ artists\\ of\\ this\\ time\\ were\\ torn\\ between\\ their\\ old\\ loyalties\\ and\\ their\\ love\\ of\\ the\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ greatest\\ Netherlandish\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ period\\,\\ Hieronymous\\ Bosch\\,\\ is\\ not\\ someone\\ who\\ adopted\\ the\\ new\\ style\\ but\\ refused\\ to\\ be\\ drawn\\ into\\ the\\ new\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Famous\\ for\\ his\\ terrifying\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evident\\ in\\ his\\ work\\ Paradise\\ and\\ Hell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ an\\ artist\\ gave\\ shape\\ to\\ the\\ fears\\ that\\ had\\ haunted\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Crisis\\ of\\ Art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Europe\\,\\ Later\\ Sixteenth\\ Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Around\\ the\\ mid\\-sixteenth\\ century\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ sense\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ community\\ that\\ the\\ arts\\ had\\ reached\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ perfection\\ with\\ the\\ great\\ masters\\ like\\ Michelangelo\\,\\ Raphael\\,\\ Titian\\,\\ and\\ Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consequently\\,\\ some\\ artists\\ too\\ to\\ mere\\ imitation\\ of\\ these\\ masters\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ Mannerism\\ that\\ lacked\\ invention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Others\\,\\ conversely\\,\\ rebelled\\ against\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ art\\ was\\ at\\ a\\ standstill\\,\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ better\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ their\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exemplary\\ of\\ this\\ attitude\\ was\\ the\\ Florentine\\ sculptor\\ and\\ goldsmith\\ Benvenuto\\ Cellini\\,\\ who\\ believed\\ in\\ an\\ elevated\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ artists\\ were\\ so\\ intent\\ on\\ surpassing\\ the\\ shadow\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ masters\\ by\\ creating\\ unusual\\ images\\,\\ sometimes\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ natural\\ beauty\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ painter\\ Tintoretto\\ tried\\ to\\ better\\ his\\ masters\\ by\\ making\\ his\\ figures\\ more\\ emotionally\\ moving\\ rather\\ than\\ simply\\ pleasing\\,\\ and\\ the\\ art\\ critic\\ Vasari\\ claimed\\ that\\ his\\ worked\\ lacked\\ finish\\ and\\ refinement\\ like\\ his\\ predecessors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tintoretto\\ wanted\\ to\\ leave\\ people\\ wondering\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ key\\ departure\\ from\\ accepted\\ standards\\ in\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\El\\ Greco\\ is\\ another\\ artist\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ stir\\ the\\ emotions\\ of\\ the\\ viewer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ north\\,\\ this\\ crisis\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ world\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ urgent\\ and\\ pronounced\\,\\ because\\ the\\ very\\ existence\\ of\\ art\\ itself\\ was\\ challenged\\ by\\ the\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ Reformation\\ movements\\ denounced\\ idolatry\\,\\ which\\ threatened\\ artists\\ since\\ their\\ main\\ object\\ of\\ employment\\ was\\ painting\\ religious\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ many\\ artists\\ increasingly\\ focused\\ on\\ book\\ illustrating\\ and\\ portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hans\\ Holbein\\ is\\ exemplary\\ of\\ this\\ shift\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Gombrich\\,\\ the\\ Netherlands\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ northern\\ country\\ were\\ art\\ fully\\ survived\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flemish\\ painters\\ increasingly\\ began\\ to\\ specialize\\ their\\ work\\ to\\ display\\ their\\ skill\\ in\\ representing\\ various\\ landscapes\\ or\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ greatest\\ shift\\ came\\ with\\ the\\ increasing\\ focus\\ on\\ portraying\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ most\\ prominently\\ in\\ Pieter\\ Bruegel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Leon\\ Battista\\ Alberti\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ trans\\.\\ Cecil\\ Grayson\\ \\(Phaidon\\,\\ 1972\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Sections\\ 27\\-29\\,\\ 33\\-45\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*Circumscription\\ is\\ the\\ procedure\\ where\\ the\\ outlines\\ of\\ the\\ surfaces\\ are\\ drawn\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ enclose\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ the\\ pictorial\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Circumscription\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ delineating\\ the\\ external\\ outlines\\ on\\ the\\ painting\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;I\\ believe\\ one\\ should\\ take\\ care\\ that\\ circumscription\\ is\\ done\\ with\\ the\\ finest\\ possible\\,\\ almost\\ invisible\\ lines\\,\\ like\\ those\\ they\\ say\\ the\\ painter\\ Apelles\\ used\\ to\\ practise\\ and\\ vie\\ with\\ Protogenes\\ at\\ drawing\\.\\ Circumscription\\ is\\ simply\\ the\\ recording\\ of\\ the\\ outlines\\,\\ and\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ done\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ visible\\ line\\,\\ they\\ will\\ look\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ not\\ like\\ the\\ margins\\ of\\ surfaces\\,\\ but\\ like\\ cracks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*Composition\\ is\\ the\\ procedure\\ where\\ the\\ parts\\ are\\ composed\\ together\\ in\\ the\\ picture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Composition\\ is\\ that\\ procedure\\ in\\ painting\\ whereby\\ the\\ parts\\ are\\ composed\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ picture\\.\\ The\\ great\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ is\\ the\\ \\&\\#39\\;historia\\&\\#39\\;\\;\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#39\\;historia\\&\\#39\\;\\ are\\ the\\ bodies\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ member\\,\\ and\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ member\\ is\\ a\\ surface\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ that\\ figures\\ and\\ objects\\ are\\ arranged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ great\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;historia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ story\\ should\\ be\\ created\\ through\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parts\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;historia\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ the\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ member\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ composition\\ care\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ sure\\ that\\ members\\ are\\ arranged\\ well\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ certain\\ conformity\\ to\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ should\\ conform\\ to\\ certain\\ characteristics\\ which\\ identifies\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ member\\ is\\ a\\ surface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ variety\\ in\\ a\\ picture\\,\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ attitudes\\ and\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ painter\\ should\\ be\\ intimately\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ depict\\ all\\ manner\\ of\\ complicated\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sometimes\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ laughing\\ face\\ which\\ is\\ happy\\ rather\\ than\\ one\\ which\\ looks\\ tearful\\ unless\\ one\\ is\\ very\\ skilled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ bodies\\ should\\ move\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ which\\ changes\\ position\\ has\\ seven\\ directions\\ of\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Everything\\ which\\ changes\\ position\\ has\\ seven\\ directions\\ of\\ movement\\,\\ either\\ up\\ or\\ down\\ or\\ to\\ right\\ or\\ left\\,\\ or\\ going\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\ or\\ coming\\ towards\\ us\\;\\ and\\ the\\ seventh\\ is\\ going\\ around\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\.\\ I\\ want\\ all\\ these\\ seven\\ movements\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\.\\ There\\ should\\ be\\ some\\ bodies\\ that\\ face\\ towards\\ us\\,\\ and\\ others\\ going\\ away\\,\\ to\\ right\\ and\\ left\\.\\ Of\\ these\\ some\\ parts\\ should\\ be\\ shown\\ towards\\ the\\ spectators\\,\\ and\\ others\\ should\\ be\\ turned\\ away\\;\\ some\\ should\\ be\\ raised\\ upwards\\ and\\ others\\ directed\\ downwards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ body\\ or\\ person\\ should\\ occupy\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ directions\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ should\\ be\\ movement\\ in\\ everything\\,\\ even\\ inanimate\\ objects\\ like\\ hair\\ and\\ the\\ folds\\ of\\ a\\ garment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ no\\ movement\\ should\\ be\\ too\\ drastic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Restraint\\ and\\ grace\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ emphasized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frank\\ Stella\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Caravaggio\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Working\\ Space\\.\\ The\\ Charles\\ Eliot\\ Norton\\ Lectures\\ 1983\\-4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Cambridge\\:\\ Harvard\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\ 1\\-22\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\After\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Titian\\ there\\ was\\ crisis\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ world\\:\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ heirs\\ of\\ Roman\\ classicism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caravaggio\\ stepped\\ into\\ this\\ role\\.\\ He\\ created\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ pictoriality\\ we\\ take\\ for\\ granted\\ when\\ we\\ call\\ a\\ painting\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caravaggio\\ enlarged\\ Renaissance\\ painting\\&mdash\\;he\\ added\\ an\\ immediacy\\ and\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ character\\ to\\ pictorial\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caravaggio\\ signals\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ modern\\ pictorial\\ space\\,\\ exhibiting\\ a\\ power\\ whose\\ versatility\\ and\\ vitality\\ may\\ free\\ us\\ from\\ the\\ perpetual\\ tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ soft\\ and\\ the\\ hard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ effective\\ painting\\ should\\ present\\ its\\ space\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ include\\ both\\ viewer\\ and\\ maker\\ each\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ space\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ act\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ painting\\ should\\ automatically\\ expand\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ that\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ perimeter\\ and\\ surface\\ plane\\ should\\ dissolve\\&mdash\\;Caravaggio\\ accomplished\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caravaggio\\ created\\ a\\ roundness\\ and\\ fullness\\ of\\ figure\\ and\\ atmosphere\\&mdash\\;compelling\\ realism\\.\\ A\\ sense\\ of\\ projective\\ roundness\\&hellip\\;of\\ poised\\ sphericality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ in\\ Caravaggio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ can\\ almost\\ be\\ felt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ \\"\\;Chapter\\ 19\\:\\ Vision\\ and\\ Visions\\:\\ Catholic\\ Europe\\,\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Chapter\\ 20\\:\\ The\\ Mirror\\ of\\ Nature\\:\\ Holland\\,\\ seventeenth\\ century\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GOMBRICH\\ CH\\ 19\\:\\ Vision\\ and\\ Visions\\:\\ Catholic\\ Europe\\,\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pg\\ 304\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caravaggio\\ \\(1573\\-1610\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ tired\\ of\\ Mannerism\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ friends\\ with\\ contemporary\\ artist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carracci\\ \\(1560\\-1609\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;but\\ his\\ work\\ was\\ entirely\\ different\\.\\ \\;\\ Caravaggio\\ wanted\\ truth\\ as\\ he\\ saw\\ it\\,\\ not\\ classical\\ models\\ or\\ \\"\\;ideal\\ beauty\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ He\\ did\\ away\\ w\\/convention\\ and\\ started\\ afresh\\.\\ \\;\\ Consider\\ his\\ \\"\\;Doubting\\ Thomas\\"\\;\\ \\(c\\.1600\\)\\ when\\ he\\ depicts\\ the\\ disciples\\ as\\ old\\ laborers\\,\\ common\\ people\\ instead\\ of\\ handsome\\ refined\\ figures\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ liked\\ \\"\\;naturalism\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ intending\\ to\\ copy\\ nature\\ faithfully\\.\\ \\;\\ Uncompromising\\ honesty\\,\\ no\\ manipulation\\ of\\ the\\ truth\\ for\\ aesthetics\\&\\#39\\;\\ sake\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caravaggio\\ worked\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ the\\ ctr\\ of\\ the\\ civilized\\ world\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\ in\\ Rome\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nicolas\\ Poussin\\ \\(1594\\-1665\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ Frenchman\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ convey\\ bygone\\ lands\\ of\\ innocence\\ and\\ dignity\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ painting\\ \\"\\;Et\\ in\\ Arcardia\\ ego\\"\\;\\ demonstrates\\ simplicity\\ born\\ of\\ immense\\ artistic\\ knowledge\\.\\\\The\\ Fleming\\ \\(ie\\:\\ from\\ the\\ Netherlands\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Peter\\ Paul\\ Rubens\\ \\(1577\\-1640\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;also\\ was\\ in\\ Rome\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ variegated\\ surface\\ of\\ things\\ to\\ expose\\ texture\\.\\ \\;\\ Painter\\&\\#39\\;s\\ business\\ was\\ to\\ paint\\ world\\ around\\ him\\,\\ what\\ he\\ liked\\,\\ and\\ make\\ us\\ feel\\ he\\ enjoys\\ living\\ in\\ such\\ beauty\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ makes\\ everything\\ joyfully\\ alive\\,\\ and\\ he\\ admired\\ Caravaggio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sincere\\ study\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ paintings\\ are\\ \\"\\;painterly\\"\\;\\ to\\ enhance\\ their\\ impression\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ vigor\\.\\ \\;\\ Energy\\,\\ life\\,\\ color\\ and\\ composition\\ were\\ characteristic\\ of\\ his\\ work\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ had\\ a\\ monopoly\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ artistic\\ time\\ and\\ his\\ self\\ portraits\\ show\\ he\\ was\\ aware\\ of\\ his\\ unique\\ position\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ remained\\ a\\ true\\ artist\\,\\ it\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ his\\ head\\.\\ \\;\\ Rubens\\ used\\ allegory\\ to\\ bring\\ things\\ to\\ life\\ but\\ had\\ no\\ use\\ for\\ the\\ abstract\\ and\\ \\"\\;ideal\\"\\;\\ forms\\ of\\ classical\\ beauty\\.\\\\One\\ student\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rubens\\ was\\ van\\ Dyck\\ \\(1599\\-1641\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 22\\ yrs\\ his\\ junior\\ and\\ a\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Poussin\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ learned\\ from\\ R\\ how\\ to\\ recreate\\ the\\ texture\\ of\\ things\\.\\\\Van\\ Dyck\\ met\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Diego\\ Velazquez\\ \\(1599\\-1660\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Madrid\\.\\ \\;\\ V\\ was\\ v\\.\\ impressed\\ by\\ Caravaggio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ work\\ and\\ \\"\\;naturalism\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ On\\ Rubens\\&\\#39\\;\\ suggestion\\,\\ V\\ went\\ to\\ Rome\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ masters\\.\\ \\;\\ On\\ returning\\ to\\ Spain\\ he\\ stayed\\ as\\ King\\ Philip\\ IV\\&\\#39\\;s\\ court\\ painter\\,\\ painting\\ the\\ royal\\ family\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ transformed\\ from\\ boring\\ ugly\\ people\\ to\\ fascinating\\ paintings\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ canvas\\ for\\ \\"\\;Las\\ Meninas\\"\\;\\ \\(the\\ maids\\ of\\ honor\\)\\ was\\ enormous\\ \\(10ft\\ high\\)\\ and\\ we\\ studied\\ it\\ in\\ lecture\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ child\\ is\\ the\\ king\\ and\\ queen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\ Infanta\\ Margarita\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ \\"\\;ugly\\ woman\\ and\\ dwarf\\"\\;\\ were\\ kept\\ for\\ amusement\\.\\ \\;\\ Gombrich\\ says\\ here\\ that\\ he\\ thinks\\ V\\ captured\\ a\\ moment\\ here\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ photograph\\ would\\,\\ but\\ of\\ course\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ photography\\ at\\ that\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GOMBRICH\\ CH\\ 20\\:\\ The\\ Mirror\\ of\\ Nature\\:\\ Holland\\,\\ seventeenth\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europe\\ divided\\ up\\ into\\ a\\ southern\\ Catholic\\ part\\ \\(now\\ Belgium\\)\\ and\\ a\\ northern\\ Protestant\\ part\\ \\(now\\ Holland\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ North\\ they\\ were\\ hardworking\\ parsimonious\\ men\\,\\ who\\ preferred\\ sober\\ restraint\\ and\\ had\\ to\\ paint\\ thing\\ to\\ which\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ religious\\ objection\\,\\ thus\\ they\\ painted\\ portraits\\.\\ \\;\\ Unlike\\ the\\ Renaissance\\,\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ paint\\ first\\ then\\ find\\ a\\ buyer\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ were\\ rid\\ of\\ patrons\\ who\\ interfered\\ with\\ their\\ work\\ and\\ bullied\\ them\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ now\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ buying\\ public\\,\\ stiff\\ competition\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ themselves\\ by\\ specializing\\ in\\ one\\ particular\\ genre\\ of\\ painting\\ \\(eg\\:\\ sea\\-scapes\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rembrandt\\ van\\ Rijn\\ \\(1606\\-69\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ the\\ greatest\\ painter\\ of\\ Holland\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ generation\\ younger\\ than\\ Rubens\\ and\\ 7yrs\\ younger\\ than\\ Velazquez\\ and\\ van\\ Dyck\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ left\\ an\\ amazing\\ series\\ of\\ self\\ portraits\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ brings\\ us\\ face\\ to\\ face\\ with\\ real\\ people\\.\\ \\;\\ Like\\ Shakespeare\\ he\\ brought\\ us\\ into\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ souls\\,\\ he\\ is\\ never\\ theatrical\\ he\\ just\\ seems\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ naturally\\.\\ \\;\\ Like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Durer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\before\\ him\\,\\ he\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ graphic\\ artist\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ used\\ not\\ woodcuts\\/copper\\ engravings\\ but\\ etching\\ \\(cover\\ plate\\ with\\ wax\\ and\\ draw\\ on\\ it\\ with\\ needle\\.\\ \\;\\ Put\\ plate\\ in\\ acid\\ which\\ bites\\ into\\ copper\\ where\\ wax\\ was\\ pushed\\ away\\,\\ thus\\ transfer\\ drawing\\ to\\ copper\\ plate\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ print\\ plate\\ as\\ you\\ would\\ an\\ engraving\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Like\\ Caravaggio\\ he\\ favored\\ truth\\ and\\ sincerity\\ above\\ harmony\\ and\\ beauty\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ arranged\\ his\\ groups\\ carefully\\,\\ composition\\ was\\ important\\.\\\\The\\ Dutch\\ also\\ painted\\ many\\ still\\ life\\ paintings\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ greatest\\ of\\ these\\ masters\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jan\\ Vermeer\\ van\\ Delft\\ \\(1632\\-75\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ slow\\ and\\ careful\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ paint\\ many\\ pics\\.\\ \\;\\ Most\\ of\\ them\\ show\\ domestic\\ local\\ interiors\\.\\.\\.real\\ still\\ lifes\\ w\\/human\\ beings\\.\\ \\;\\ Strange\\ and\\ powerful\\ combination\\ of\\ mellowness\\ and\\ precision\\ makes\\ his\\ work\\ unforgettable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Heinrich\\ W\\ö\\;lfflin\\,\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Principles\\ of\\ Art\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ trans\\.\\ M\\.\\ D\\.\\ Hottinger\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Dover\\ Publications\\,\\ \\;1940\\)\\:\\ vii\\-xii\\,\\ 1\\-17\\,\\ 226\\-237\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ from\\ our\\ section\\ on\\ Style\\,\\ and\\ was\\ compared\\ and\\ contrasted\\ to\\ Shapiro\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ also\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ readings\\ for\\ the\\ midterm\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ originally\\ written\\ in\\ 1915\\ by\\ the\\ German\\ Wolfflin\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ firmer\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ classifications\\ of\\ art\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ English\\ translation\\ was\\ in\\ 1932\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\ discusses\\ a\\ \\"\\;double\\ root\\ of\\ style\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ meaning\\ the\\ personal\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ vs\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ contemporary\\ school\\,\\ country\\ or\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ and\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ artistic\\ creativity\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ conditions\\ that\\ affect\\ that\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ defines\\ style\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ expression\\ of\\ temperament\\"\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\ and\\ a\\ \\"\\;mode\\ of\\ representation\\"\\;\\ \\(11\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\ states\\ one\\ can\\ also\\ define\\ art\\ by\\ contrasting\\ one\\ nationality\\ of\\ work\\ to\\ another\\ \\(eg\\:\\ Dutch\\ to\\ Flemish\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\ has\\ 5\\ pairs\\ of\\ concepts\\ acting\\ in\\ period\\ style\\ which\\ form\\ a\\ framework\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ Hist\\ of\\ Art\\ \\(pgs\\ 14\\-15\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Developments\\ of\\ style\\ and\\ methods\\ of\\ representation\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\16th\\ century\\ \\(classic\\)\\ to\\ 17th\\ century\\ \\(baroque\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Linear\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Painterly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;Plane\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;Closed\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Open\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;Multiplicity\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Unity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;Absolute\\ clarity\\ of\\ subject\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Relative\\ clarity\\ of\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ more\\ detail\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Linear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(line\\ as\\ path\\ of\\ vision\\ and\\ guide\\ of\\ eye\\,\\ perception\\ of\\ object\\ by\\ its\\ tangible\\ character\\ in\\ outline\\ and\\ surfaces\\,\\ stresses\\ limits\\ of\\ things\\,\\ isolates\\ objects\\,\\ world\\ as\\ individual\\ material\\ objects\\ and\\ solid\\,\\ tangible\\ bodies\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Painterly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(gradual\\ depreciation\\ of\\ line\\,\\ abandon\\ \\"\\;tangible\\"\\;\\ design\\,\\ limitless\\ look\\ and\\ feel\\,\\ merges\\ objects\\,\\ world\\ as\\ shifting\\ semblance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Plane\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(classic\\ art\\ reduces\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ total\\ form\\ to\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ planes\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Recession\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(baroque\\ art\\ emphasises\\ depth\\,\\ eye\\ relates\\ objects\\ essentially\\ in\\ forward\\/backward\\ direction\\,\\ greater\\ power\\ to\\ relate\\ spacial\\ depth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Closed\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(classic\\ design\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\form\\ of\\ closed\\ composition\\,\\ self\\-contained\\ and\\ finite\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Open\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(relaxation\\ of\\ rules\\,\\ new\\ mode\\ of\\ representation\\,\\ loose\\ form\\ yet\\ still\\ self\\-contained\\ and\\ a\\ finite\\ whole\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Multiplicity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(single\\ parts\\ in\\ classic\\ composition\\ maintain\\ a\\ certain\\ independence\\,\\ the\\ part\\ is\\ conditioned\\ by\\ the\\ whole\\ yet\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ life\\,\\ the\\ spectator\\ presupposes\\ an\\ articulation\\,\\ a\\ progress\\ from\\ part\\ to\\ part\\ although\\ unity\\ is\\ the\\ chief\\ aim\\,\\ achieved\\ by\\ harmony\\ of\\ free\\ parts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Unity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(spectator\\ perceives\\ a\\ whole\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ parts\\,\\ unity\\ is\\ the\\ chief\\ aim\\ achieved\\ by\\ union\\ of\\ parts\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ theme\\ or\\ subordination\\ to\\ one\\ unconditioned\\ dominant\\ of\\ all\\ other\\ elements\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\(\\#5\\ is\\ a\\ similar\\ contrast\\ to\\ \\#1\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Absolute\\ Clarity\\ of\\ Subject\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(representation\\ of\\ things\\ as\\ the\\ are\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Relative\\ Clarity\\ of\\ Subject\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(representation\\ if\\ things\\ as\\ they\\ look\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ sacrifices\\ absolute\\ clarity\\,\\ explicitness\\ of\\ subject\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ sole\\ purpose\\ of\\ presentation\\,\\ composition\\/light\\/color\\ no\\ longer\\ merely\\ serve\\ to\\ define\\ form\\ but\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ life\\,\\ reality\\ is\\ now\\ beheld\\ with\\ an\\ eye\\ to\\ other\\ effects\\,\\ a\\ different\\ attitude\\ to\\ the\\ world\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Meyer\\ Schapiro\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Style\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Theory\\ and\\ Philosophy\\ of\\ Art\\:\\ Style\\,\\ Artist\\,\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ George\\ Braziller\\,\\ 1994\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ \\&ldquo\\;Style\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Schapiro\\ argues\\ for\\ a\\ broadened\\ concept\\ of\\ style\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ formal\\ components\\ of\\ a\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ are\\ inseparable\\ from\\ the\\ expressive\\ qualities\\ that\\ ultimately\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ work\\&\\#39\\;s\\ original\\ culture\\ and\\ historical\\ contexts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ styles\\ have\\ been\\ defined\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Studies\\ of\\ style\\ have\\ tended\\ \\&ldquo\\;toward\\ an\\ ever\\ stronger\\ correlation\\ of\\ form\\ and\\ expression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ of\\ past\\ styles\\ and\\ primitive\\ art\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ been\\ strongly\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ recent\\ Western\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ of\\ style\\ as\\ an\\ historical\\ phenomenon\\ must\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ stylistic\\ heterogeneity\\ and\\ variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Schapiro\\,\\ style\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\refers\\ to\\ the\\ formal\\ qualities\\ and\\ visual\\ characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ be\\ used\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ an\\ identifier\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ period\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ a\\ diagnostic\\ tool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reflects\\ the\\ economic\\ and\\ social\\ circumstances\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ artist\\ works\\ and\\ reveals\\ underlying\\ cultural\\ assumptions\\ and\\ normative\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conversely\\,\\ our\\ own\\ descriptions\\ of\\ form\\ and\\ style\\ indicate\\ our\\ period\\,\\ our\\ concerns\\,\\ and\\ our\\ biases\\;\\ the\\ way\\ art\\ historians\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ age\\ talk\\ about\\ style\\ is\\ also\\ indicative\\ of\\ their\\ cultural\\ context\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critiques\\ of\\ other\\ studies\\ of\\ style\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Those\\ that\\ focus\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\technique\\ and\\ materials\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ a\\ mathematical\\ way\\ are\\ lacking\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ require\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ vague\\ language\\ qualities\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ style\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;intersensory\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ anyway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ that\\ derive\\ style\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\content\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ work\\ are\\ not\\ applicable\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ privileged\\ content\\.\\.\\.\\ perfect\\ art\\ is\\ possible\\ in\\ any\\ subject\\ matter\\ or\\ style\\.\\.\\.\\ art\\ is\\ now\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ strongest\\ evidences\\ of\\ the\\ basic\\ unity\\ of\\ mankind\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ that\\ attempt\\ to\\ correlate\\ style\\ with\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\culture\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;dominate\\ personality\\ types\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ also\\ lacking\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ variation\\ of\\ styles\\ in\\ a\\ culture\\ of\\ group\\ is\\ often\\ considerable\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ period\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;until\\ recently\\,\\ the\\ artists\\ who\\ create\\ the\\ style\\ are\\ generally\\ of\\ another\\ mode\\ of\\ life\\ than\\ those\\ for\\ whom\\ the\\ arts\\ are\\ designed\\ and\\ whose\\ viewpoint\\,\\ interests\\,\\ and\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\ are\\ evident\\ in\\ the\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ie\\ monarchs\\,\\ aristocracies\\,\\ privileged\\ institutions\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ features\\ of\\ a\\ period\\ that\\ vary\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ what\\ is\\ constant\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ arts\\ of\\ a\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ that\\ regard\\ group\\ style\\ as\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imitation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ an\\ original\\ artist\\ do\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ one\\ artist\\ to\\ have\\ many\\ different\\ styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contemplates\\ \\&ldquo\\;explanations\\ of\\ style\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\forms\\ of\\ social\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ Marxist\\ theory\\,\\ but\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ any\\ conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schapiro\\ believes\\ that\\ style\\ should\\ encompass\\ both\\ content\\ and\\ form\\,\\ presentism\\ has\\ both\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\,\\ and\\ studying\\ a\\ culture\\&\\#39\\;s\\ or\\ period\\&\\#39\\;s\\ style\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;involve\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ its\\ cultural\\ and\\ historical\\ contexts\\ \\(namely\\ how\\ influential\\ the\\ period\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ideology\\ was\\ on\\ different\\ art\\ forms\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 23\\:\\ The\\ Age\\ of\\ Reason\\:\\ England\\ and\\ France\\,\\ eighteenth\\ century\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ 24\\:\\ The\\ Break\\ in\\ Tradition\\:\\ England\\,\\ America\\ and\\ France\\,\\ late\\ eighteenth\\ and\\ early\\ nineteenth\\ centuries\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ Chapter\\ 23\\:\\ The\\ Age\\ of\\ Reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Culmination\\ of\\ Baroque\\ movement\\ in\\ Catholic\\ Europe\\ \\=\\ 1700\\;\\ Protestant\\ countries\\ refused\\ to\\ adopt\\ it\\ \\(applies\\ to\\ England\\ during\\ the\\ Restoration\\ period\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ Restoration\\ Period\\,\\ England\\ produced\\ great\\ architect\\,\\ Sir\\ Christopher\\ Wren\\ \\(1632\\-1723\\)\\;\\ he\\ rebuilt\\ churches\\ in\\ England\\ after\\ a\\ fire\\ in\\ 1666\\ \\(St\\.\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cathedral\\)\\;\\ influenced\\ by\\ Baroque\\ architecture\\ even\\ though\\ never\\ went\\ to\\ Rome\\;\\ Wren\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cathedral\\ includes\\ central\\ cupola\\,\\ flanking\\ towers\\,\\ and\\ a\\ temple\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\ to\\ frame\\ main\\ entrance\\ \\(no\\ suggestion\\ of\\ movement\\,\\ more\\ strength\\ and\\ stability\\)\\;\\ includes\\ no\\ freakish\\ or\\ fantastic\\ decorations\\ \\(strictly\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\:\\ restrained\\ and\\ sober\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ contrast\\ Catholic\\ and\\ Protestant\\ architecture\\&mdash\\;look\\ at\\ the\\ interior\\ of\\ the\\ churches\\;\\ St\\ Stephen\\ of\\ Walbrook\\ in\\ London\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\;\\ mainly\\ designed\\ as\\ hall\\ for\\ the\\ faithful\\ to\\ meet\\,\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ collect\\ thoughts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ ideal\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ palace\\ but\\ the\\ country\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;these\\ architects\\ rejected\\ the\\ Baroque\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Architects\\ of\\ the\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\ who\\ had\\ studied\\ and\\ measured\\ the\\ ruins\\ of\\ classical\\ buildings\\ with\\ scientific\\ care\\ had\\ published\\ their\\ findings\\ in\\ textbooks\\ to\\ provide\\ builders\\ and\\ craftsmen\\ with\\ patterns\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;most\\ famous\\ book\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ Andrea\\ Palladio\\ \\(considered\\ the\\ ultimate\\ authority\\ on\\ all\\ rules\\ of\\ taste\\ in\\ architecture\\ in\\ eighteenth\\-century\\ England\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\ of\\ Palladian\\ villa\\:\\ Chiswick\\ house\\ for\\ Lord\\ Burlington\\;\\ stately\\ portico\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ an\\ antique\\ temple\\;\\ against\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ Versailles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kent\\ invented\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;landscape\\ garden\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ ideal\\ surroundings\\ for\\ Palladian\\ villas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ position\\ of\\ English\\ painters\\ and\\ sculptors\\ under\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ taste\\ and\\ reason\\ was\\ not\\ always\\ enviable\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Hogarth\\:\\ felt\\ he\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ painter\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ public\\ for\\ contemporary\\ art\\ in\\ England\\;\\ create\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ painting\\ for\\ countrymen\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ planned\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ paintings\\ which\\ should\\ teach\\ the\\ people\\ the\\ rewards\\ of\\ virtue\\ and\\ the\\ wages\\ of\\ sin\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ meanings\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ are\\ clear\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ bring\\ out\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;character\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ every\\ figure\\ involved\\;\\ each\\ portion\\ reads\\ like\\ a\\ sermon\\;\\ also\\ studied\\ masters\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ their\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looking\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ rake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ progress\\:\\ the\\ rake\\ in\\ Bedlam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ crude\\ scene\\ of\\ horror\\ with\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ mad\\-people\\ represented\\ \\(religious\\ fanatic\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ cell\\ writing\\ on\\ his\\ straw\\ bed\\;\\ blind\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ paper\\ telescope\\;\\ grotesque\\ trio\\ grouped\\ round\\ the\\ staircase\\)\\;\\ shows\\ great\\ skill\\ in\\ arranging\\ his\\ groups\\ and\\ understood\\ tradition\\;\\ connoisseurs\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ him\\ seriously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sir\\ Joshua\\ Reynolds\\ \\(1732\\-92\\)\\:\\ been\\ to\\ Italy\\ and\\ studied\\ the\\ Renaissance\\;\\ made\\ his\\ career\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\ in\\ England\\ at\\ the\\ Royal\\ Academy\\ of\\ Art\\;\\ read\\ Discourses\\ and\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ pictures\\ we\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ prejudice\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;We\\ know\\ how\\ artists\\ had\\ to\\ insist\\ that\\ their\\ real\\ work\\ was\\ not\\ handiwork\\ but\\ brain\\ work\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ no\\ less\\ fit\\ to\\ be\\ received\\ into\\ polite\\ society\\ than\\ poets\\ or\\ scholars\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reynolds\\ \\=\\ intellectual\\;\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ superiority\\ of\\ history\\ painting\\;\\ when\\ painting\\ portraits\\ wanted\\ to\\ bring\\ out\\ extra\\ character\\ in\\ his\\ subjects\\;\\ when\\ painting\\ children\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ portrait\\ \\(look\\ at\\ figure\\ 305\\ on\\ page\\ 467\\&mdash\\;here\\ he\\ shows\\ the\\ touching\\ love\\ the\\ girl\\ has\\ for\\ her\\ pet\\)\\;\\ Reynolds\\ never\\ allowed\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\-matter\\ to\\ upset\\ the\\ harmony\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wallace\\ Collection\\:\\ portrait\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miss\\ Haverfield\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;where\\ the\\ little\\ girl\\ is\\ tying\\ the\\ bow\\ of\\ her\\ cape\\;\\ Reynolds\\ and\\ Gainsborough\\ were\\ rather\\ unhappy\\ to\\ be\\ smothered\\ with\\ commissions\\ for\\ portraits\\ when\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ paint\\ other\\ things\\;\\ Gainsborough\\ wanted\\ to\\ paint\\ landscapes\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ find\\ any\\ buyers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\,\\ English\\ institutions\\ and\\ English\\ taste\\ became\\ the\\ admired\\ models\\ for\\ all\\ people\\ in\\ Europe\\ who\\ longed\\ for\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ reason\\;\\ the\\ aristocrats\\ in\\ these\\ paintings\\ were\\ shown\\ as\\ mere\\ mortals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ France\\,\\ as\\ in\\ England\\,\\ the\\ new\\ interest\\ in\\ ordinary\\ human\\ beings\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ trappings\\ of\\ power\\ benefited\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ portraiture\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gombrich\\:\\ Chapter\\ 24\\:\\ The\\ Break\\ in\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1492\\,\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ world\\ resulted\\ in\\ no\\ major\\ changes\\ in\\ art\\:\\ artists\\ were\\ still\\ in\\ guilds\\,\\ still\\ had\\ apprentices\\,\\ still\\ relied\\ on\\ patronage\\ from\\ the\\ wealthy\\,\\ basically\\ art\\ still\\ remained\\ a\\ leisurely\\ item\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ could\\ afford\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ have\\ reached\\ the\\ really\\ modern\\ times\\ which\\ dawned\\ when\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\ of\\ 1789\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ so\\ many\\ assumptions\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ taken\\ for\\ granted\\ for\\ hundreds\\,\\ if\\ not\\ for\\ thousands\\,\\ of\\ years\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ change\\ is\\ in\\ what\\ the\\ artist\\ understands\\ to\\ be\\ style\\;\\ Horace\\ Walpole\\ was\\ influential\\ in\\ architectural\\ style\\ in\\ England\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ \\(taste\\ for\\ the\\ quaint\\ and\\ romantic\\)\\;\\ Gothic\\ style\\ from\\ the\\ Romantic\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Chambers\\ studied\\ the\\ Chinese\\ style\\ of\\ building\\ and\\ gardening\\;\\ built\\ the\\ Chinese\\ Pagoda\\ in\\ Kew\\ Gardens\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greek\\ revival\\ during\\ the\\ Regency\\ period\\ \\(1810\\-1820\\)\\;\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Monticello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Napoleon\\ rose\\ to\\ power\\,\\ the\\ neo\\-classical\\ style\\ of\\ architecture\\ became\\ popular\\;\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ gothic\\ revival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\,\\ the\\ break\\ in\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ tradition\\ was\\ perhaps\\ less\\ immediately\\ perceptible\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ architecture\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ possibly\\ of\\ even\\ greater\\ consequence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ there\\ were\\ the\\ academies\\ \\(originates\\ from\\ the\\ Greek\\ philosopher\\ Plato\\)\\;\\ the\\ academies\\ of\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ were\\ under\\ royal\\ patronage\\,\\ to\\ manifest\\ the\\ interest\\ which\\ the\\ King\\ took\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\ of\\ his\\ realm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Annual\\ exhibitions\\:\\ social\\ events\\ that\\ formed\\ topics\\ of\\ conversation\\ in\\ polite\\ society\\;\\ artists\\ now\\ needed\\ new\\ subject\\-matter\\;\\ look\\ at\\ subjects\\ from\\ the\\ bible\\,\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ mythology\\,\\ changed\\ during\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\,\\ and\\ disregard\\ the\\ traditional\\ subject\\-matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ artist\\:\\ John\\ Singleton\\ Copley\\:\\ \\(example\\ page\\ 483\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Charles\\ I\\ demanding\\ the\\ surrender\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ impeached\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Commons\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ comparatively\\ recent\\ history\\ compared\\ to\\ other\\ things\\ of\\ the\\ time\\;\\ this\\ attempt\\ to\\ re\\-evoke\\ the\\ dramatic\\ clash\\ between\\ the\\ King\\ and\\ the\\ representatives\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ was\\ certainly\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ a\\ disinterested\\ antiquarian\\;\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ George\\ III\\ and\\ the\\ colonies\\;\\ Queen\\ told\\ him\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ picked\\ an\\ unfortunate\\ subject\\ for\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ Revolution\\ gave\\ an\\ enormous\\ impulse\\ to\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ interesting\\ history\\,\\ and\\ to\\ paintings\\ of\\ heroic\\ subject\\ \\(Copley\\ looked\\ to\\ England\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\)\\;\\ Romantic\\ strain\\ in\\ his\\ historical\\ painting\\;\\ French\\ revolutionaries\\ are\\ Greeks\\ and\\ Romans\\ reborn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\ \\=\\ official\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ government\\;\\ felt\\ like\\ they\\ were\\ living\\ in\\ heroic\\ times\\;\\ studied\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ sculpture\\ to\\ model\\ the\\ muscles\\ and\\ sinews\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Francisco\\ Goya\\:\\ same\\ culture\\ that\\ produced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\El\\ Greco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;was\\ a\\ court\\ painter\\ in\\ Madrid\\;\\ asserted\\ his\\ independence\\ of\\ the\\ conventions\\ of\\ the\\ past\\;\\ produced\\ a\\ good\\ number\\ of\\ etchings\\;\\ not\\ illustrations\\ of\\ anything\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ outstanding\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ approach\\ to\\ art\\ was\\ the\\ English\\ poet\\ and\\ mystic\\ William\\ Blake\\:\\ Blake\\ forms\\ a\\ mythology\\ of\\ his\\ own\\;\\ wrapped\\ up\\ in\\ his\\ visions\\ that\\ he\\ refused\\ to\\ draw\\ from\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ relied\\ entirely\\ on\\ his\\ inner\\ eye\\;\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ artist\\ after\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ who\\ thus\\ revolted\\ against\\ the\\ accepted\\ standards\\ of\\ tradition\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ shocking\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\J\\.M\\.W\\.\\ Turner\\:\\ successful\\ artist\\ who\\ caused\\ a\\ sensation\\ in\\ the\\ royal\\ academies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ Klein\\ and\\ Henri\\ Zerner\\,\\ eds\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Italian\\ Art\\ 1500\\-1600\\.\\ \\ \\;Sources\\ and\\ Documents\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Evanston\\:\\ Northwestern\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1991\\)\\:\\ 4\\-14\\,\\ 138\\-146\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paragone\\ Debate\\:\\ sculpture\\ vs\\.\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\:\\ Treatise\\ on\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sculptors\\ experience\\ physical\\ fatigue\\,\\ are\\ wasters\\ of\\ marble\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painter\\ must\\ capture\\ 10\\ subjects\\ \\(light\\,\\ shadow\\,\\ color\\,\\ volume\\,\\ outline\\,\\ location\\,\\ distance\\,\\ nearness\\,\\ motion\\,\\ rest\\)\\,\\ whereas\\ Sculptor\\ must\\ capture\\ only\\ 5\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ painting\\ results\\ in\\ mental\\ fatigue\\.\\ Necessity\\ compels\\ the\\ mind\\ to\\ transform\\ itself\\ into\\ nature\\,\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ interpreter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tasks\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Understand\\ shadows\\,\\ 2\\)\\ Shadows\\ and\\ lights\\,\\ 3\\)\\ Perspective\\.\\ Also\\,\\ painter\\ can\\ show\\ things\\ at\\ different\\ distances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Permanence\\ can\\ be\\ equal\\ in\\ both\\ mediums\\,\\ but\\ beauty\\ is\\ not\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Varchi\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reality\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ sculpture\\,\\ skill\\ in\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bronzino\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sculpture\\:\\ Permanence\\,\\ more\\ effort\\,\\ beauty\\ from\\ all\\ sides\\,\\ ornament\\,\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\:\\ Material\\,\\ sculpture\\ is\\ a\\ craft\\ rather\\ than\\ art\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ find\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ 3\\-D\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ result\\ \\&lsquo\\;of\\ art\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michelangelo\\:\\ Sculpture\\ over\\ painting\\?\\ Brief\\,\\ curt\\,\\ and\\ sarcastic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benvenuto\\ Cellini\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Wax\\ Model\\ for\\ the\\ Perseus\\,\\ Casting\\ the\\ Perseus\\,\\ Disaster\\ into\\ Triumph\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Autobiography\\ of\\ Benvenuto\\ Cellini\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ed\\.\\ Charles\\ Hope\\,\\ trans\\.\\ John\\ Symonds\\ \\(Oxford\\:\\ Phaidon\\,\\ 1983\\)\\ 177\\-185\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dramatic\\ retelling\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;lost\\ wax\\&rdquo\\;\\ process\\ in\\ creating\\ the\\ Perseus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clay\\ core\\ approximates\\ shape\\ of\\ statue\\,\\ completed\\ with\\ a\\ layer\\ of\\ wax\\,\\ which\\ is\\ then\\ wrapped\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cloak\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ clay\\,\\ which\\ is\\ secured\\ by\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ iron\\ rods\\ and\\ circles\\.\\ One\\ heats\\ the\\ figure\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ wax\\ melts\\ and\\ runs\\ out\\ through\\ the\\ holes\\ pierced\\ in\\ the\\ cloak\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ empty\\ mold\\ is\\ baked\\ in\\ a\\ kiln\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wind\\ cooled\\ the\\ furnace\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;curdled\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ metal\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ used\\ oak\\ wood\\ to\\ heat\\ the\\ furnace\\ more\\ powerfully\\.\\ Also\\,\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ foot\\ was\\ not\\ fully\\ formed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Ivins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ Prints\\ Look\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Boston\\:\\ Beacon\\ Press\\,\\ 1943\\)\\:\\ This\\ concise\\ book\\ is\\ on\\ course\\ reserve\\ and\\ students\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ peruse\\ the\\ entire\\ volume\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\According\\ to\\ Makeda\\ \\(head\\ TF\\)\\,\\ we\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ responsible\\ for\\ knowing\\ this\\ reading\\ for\\ the\\ final\\.\\ She\\ said\\ that\\ instead\\ it\\ should\\ just\\ be\\ a\\ resource\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ distinguish\\ an\\ etching\\ from\\ an\\ engraving\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Rosen\\ and\\ Henri\\ Zerner\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Ideology\\ of\\ the\\ Licked\\ Surface\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ \\;Romanticism\\ and\\ Realism\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ The\\ Viking\\ Press\\,\\ 1984\\)\\:\\ 205\\-232\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Article\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ something\\ called\\ \\"\\;official\\"\\;\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ basically\\ works\\ commissioned\\ by\\ government\\ and\\ completed\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ These\\ were\\ fashionable\\ works\\ that\\ met\\ the\\ approbation\\ of\\ the\\ Academy\\ of\\ Fine\\ Arts\\,\\ completed\\ by\\ the\\ brilliant\\ artists\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ who\\ specialized\\ in\\ historical\\ and\\ religious\\ works\\.\\ These\\ paintings\\ by\\ the\\ \\"\\;Pompiers\\"\\;\\ soon\\ faded\\ from\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ losing\\ their\\ high\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ work\\ of\\ William\\ Bouguereau\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ blend\\ of\\ classical\\ forms\\,\\ high\\ finish\\,\\ and\\ surface\\ realism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ Pompiers\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ revive\\ \\"\\;official\\ art\\"\\;\\ by\\ painters\\ like\\ Rosenquist\\.\\ The\\ movement\\ is\\ called\\ \\"\\;New\\ Realism\\.\\"\\;\\ From\\ the\\ Luxemburg\\ exhibition\\ of\\ 1874\\,\\ Rosen\\ and\\ Zerner\\ find\\ the\\ key\\ characteristics\\ of\\ this\\ \\"\\;official\\ art\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ two\\ things\\ are\\:\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ and\\ the\\ fini\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ licked\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ subject\\ matter\\ was\\ specifically\\ focused\\ on\\ historical\\ scenes\\ \\(largely\\ from\\ ancient\\ mythology\\)\\.\\ These\\ scenes\\ are\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ grandes\\ machines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fini\\,\\ write\\ Rosen\\ and\\ Zerner\\,\\ serve\\ as\\ an\\ assurance\\ to\\ the\\ bourgeois\\ that\\ the\\ art\\ is\\ real\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ licked\\ to\\ perfection\\.\\ Today\\,\\ it\\ is\\ criticized\\ because\\ it\\ wipes\\ out\\ trace\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ painting\\.\\ Fini\\ makes\\ sure\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ is\\ the\\ focus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lorenz\\ Eitner\\,\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\G\\é\\;ricault\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\His\\ Life\\ and\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\:\\ Orbis\\ Publishers\\,\\ 1983\\)\\:\\ 158\\-180\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ is\\ almost\\ entirely\\ about\\ Gericault\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Raft\\ of\\ the\\ Medusa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ painted\\ in\\ 1818\\ in\\ France\\ \\(upon\\ his\\ return\\ from\\ Italy\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ shipwreck\\ \\(the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\)\\ goes\\ like\\ this\\:\\ In\\ 1816\\,\\ the\\ French\\ flagship\\ La\\ Medusa\\ sinks\\ carrying\\ soldier\\ and\\ settlers\\ en\\ route\\ to\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ Senegal\\.\\ This\\ is\\ largely\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ incompetence\\ of\\ the\\ captain\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ nobleman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ political\\ appointee\\.\\ There\\ are\\ only\\ six\\ lifeboats\\ so\\ about\\ 250\\ of\\ the\\ 400\\ people\\ actually\\ make\\ it\\ off\\ the\\ ship\\ onto\\ a\\ boat\\.\\ The\\ rest\\ have\\ to\\ jump\\ onto\\ a\\ makeshift\\ raft\\.\\ Those\\ 150\\ are\\ the\\ lowly\\ on\\ the\\ ship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ women\\,\\ slaves\\,\\ unranked\\ folks\\.\\ The\\ captain\\ and\\ other\\ noble\\ command\\ the\\ boats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ die\\ on\\ the\\ raft\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ incidents\\ of\\ cannibalism\\.\\ By\\ the\\ sixth\\ day\\ only\\ 28\\ people\\ survive\\ and\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ only\\ 15\\ make\\ it\\.\\ About\\ two\\ weeks\\ into\\ the\\ ordeal\\,\\ these\\ 15\\ men\\ see\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ hope\\ on\\ the\\ horizon\\.\\ They\\ are\\ saved\\ by\\ a\\ navy\\ ship\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sighting\\ of\\ the\\ Argus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;study\\ focuses\\ on\\ this\\ particular\\ episode\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ book\\ written\\ about\\ the\\ whole\\ episode\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ book\\ Gericault\\ ends\\ up\\ reading\\.\\ Gericault\\ begins\\ his\\ painting\\ by\\ completing\\ many\\ studies\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ episodes\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ This\\ includes\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mutiny\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ hangs\\ at\\ Harvard\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cannibalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ After\\ these\\ studies\\ comes\\ a\\ pen\\ and\\ pencil\\ sketch\\ of\\ the\\ final\\ product\\.\\ Now\\ Gericault\\ uses\\ studies\\ of\\ specific\\ character\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ put\\ all\\ the\\ episodes\\ together\\ without\\ making\\ the\\ piece\\ too\\ complicated\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ action\\.\\ These\\ includes\\ studies\\ of\\ the\\ man\\ lying\\ on\\ his\\ back\\ and\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ father\\ holding\\ the\\ dead\\ son\\.\\ He\\ continues\\ to\\ perfect\\ these\\ sub\\-plots\\ by\\ painting\\ oil\\ still\\ lifes\\ of\\ his\\ subjects\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ painting\\ was\\ well\\ received\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ largest\\ exhibition\\ of\\ its\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Baudelaire\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Painter\\ of\\ Modern\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\:\\ Phaidon\\ Press\\,\\ 1995\\)\\ sections\\ 1\\-4\\,\\ 9\\-13\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beauty\\,\\ fashion\\,\\ and\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beauty\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ eternal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ general\\ beauty\\ \\(that\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ painters\\,\\ poets\\)\\ and\\ particular\\ beauty\\ \\(in\\ modernity\\,\\ for\\ instance\\)\\.\\ But\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ canonical\\ beauty\\ as\\ some\\ art\\ historians\\ would\\ hold\\ it\\.\\ Because\\ in\\ every\\ beauty\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ parts\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ eternal\\,\\ timeless\\ component\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ relative\\,\\ circumstantial\\ element\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ time\\,\\ or\\ place\\,\\ or\\ specific\\ artist\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ kinds\\ of\\ beauty\\ can\\ be\\ appreciated\\ by\\ anyone\\ at\\ any\\ time\\ in\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sketch\\ of\\ Manners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ irreplaceable\\ part\\ of\\ art\\ consists\\ of\\ those\\ drawings\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ sketches\\,\\ genre\\ paintings\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genre\\ artists\\ \\(sometimes\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\observers\\,\\ philosophers\\,\\ fl\\â\\;neurs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ valuable\\ as\\ historical\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Artist\\,\\ Man\\ of\\ the\\ World\\,\\ Man\\ of\\ the\\ Crowd\\,\\ and\\ Child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ romanticized\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ mysterious\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Monsieur\\ G\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ also\\ endowed\\ with\\ an\\ artistic\\ streak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;man\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ sketches\\ are\\ imbued\\ with\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Man\\ of\\ the\\ Crowd\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ man\\ depicted\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\)\\ or\\ like\\ a\\ child\\,\\ he\\ is\\ curious\\ and\\ bewitched\\ by\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ a\\ child\\,\\ he\\ appreciates\\ color\\ and\\ form\\;\\ not\\ always\\ within\\ the\\ grip\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ his\\ mind\\ is\\ open\\ to\\ flashes\\ of\\ insight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ feels\\ perfectly\\ at\\ home\\,\\ delighted\\,\\ in\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ even\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ only\\ observing\\ and\\ not\\ participating\\ \\(he\\ is\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\who\\ takes\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\non\\-I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ observes\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ minute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Good\\ art\\ should\\ not\\ lazily\\ imitate\\ the\\ past\\,\\ ie\\ painting\\ old\\ manners\\ of\\ dress\\ \\(David\\)\\,\\ imposing\\ ideal\\ physiognomic\\ types\\ \\(Ingres\\)\\;\\ one\\ must\\ seek\\ out\\ the\\ originally\\ beautiful\\ from\\ the\\ present\\ \\(dress\\,\\ physiology\\,\\ movement\\,\\ manners\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Old\\ art\\ should\\ only\\ be\\ studied\\ for\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;logic\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;method\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ its\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Dandy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dandy\\:\\ a\\ rich\\ \\(or\\ at\\ least\\,\\ not\\ spendthrift\\)\\ young\\ gentleman\\ interested\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ personal\\ originality\\,\\ both\\ in\\ appearance\\ and\\ culture\\;\\ in\\ astonishing\\ others\\,\\ without\\ being\\ oneself\\ astonished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ an\\ aristocrat\\ \\(and\\ are\\ therefore\\ growing\\ more\\ rare\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ perfectly\\ contemporary\\ and\\ original\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ they\\ are\\ appropriate\\ artistic\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ joys\\ and\\ efforts\\/sorrows\\ of\\ man\\ \\(their\\ grace\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ pleasure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ idol\\;\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ every\\ physical\\ aspect\\ of\\ her\\ is\\ relevant\\,\\ including\\ her\\ dress\\ and\\ toilette\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ modern\\ painters\\ should\\ depict\\ them\\ woman\\ with\\ her\\ grace\\,\\ but\\ also\\ realistically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Praise\\ of\\ Cosmetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ instincts\\ of\\ man\\ are\\ generally\\ barbaric\\ or\\ unpleasant\\;\\ what\\ is\\ beautiful\\ is\\ cultural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ fashion\\ is\\ lively\\ and\\ important\\!\\ The\\ artist\\ should\\ depict\\ dress\\,\\ make\\-up\\,\\ etc\\.\\ faithfully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ and\\ Prostitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ fl\\â\\;neur\\ takes\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ women\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\ class\\ in\\ all\\ their\\ charms\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ also\\ courtesans\\ with\\ their\\ bad\\ taste\\,\\ excessive\\ fashion\\,\\ and\\ exoticness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ prostitutes\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ worthy\\ subject\\ matters\\ as\\ aristocrats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carriages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Movement\\ is\\ particularly\\ interesting\\:\\ that\\ of\\ people\\,\\ horses\\,\\ means\\ of\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carriages\\ reveal\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\ class\\ but\\ also\\ exquisite\\ detail\\ \\(harnesses\\,\\ horses\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61672\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ergo\\,\\ even\\ such\\ contemporary\\ subjects\\ are\\ not\\ \\&lsquo\\;banal\\&rsquo\\;\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stephen\\ Eisenman\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Manet\\ and\\ the\\ Impressionists\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Symbolism\\ and\\ the\\ Dialectic\\ of\\ Retreat\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nineteenth\\-century\\ Art\\:\\ A\\ Critical\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(London\\:\\ Thames\\ and\\ Hudson\\,\\ 1994\\)\\:\\ 282\\-298\\,\\ 356\\-388\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\ and\\ the\\ Impressionists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Edouard\\ Manet\\ and\\ Haussmannization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1852\\ marked\\ year\\ in\\ which\\ massive\\ public\\ work\\ projects\\ to\\ redesign\\ and\\ rebuild\\ Paris\\ were\\ implemented\\.\\ Project\\ under\\ the\\ supervision\\ of\\ Baron\\ Georges\\ Haussmann\\,\\ and\\ lasted\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ Second\\ Empire\\.\\ Improving\\ of\\ health\\ \\(new\\ water\\ and\\ sewer\\ systems\\)\\ and\\ transportation\\ \\(new\\ boulevards\\,\\ straightening\\ and\\ widening\\ of\\ old\\ ones\\,\\ lighting\\,\\ creating\\ of\\ parks\\ and\\ transportation\\ hubs\\,\\ building\\ of\\ residential\\ and\\ commercial\\ structures\\)\\.\\ Another\\ intention\\ of\\ project\\ to\\ secure\\ consent\\ and\\ obedience\\ to\\ undemocratic\\ rule\\:\\ public\\ program\\ provided\\ unemployment\\ during\\ time\\ of\\ massive\\ unemployment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\haussmannization\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Urban\\ syncretism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Architectural\\ homogeneity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ integration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Class\\ segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changeable\\ and\\ energetic\\ mien\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;blas\\é\\;\\ public\\ attitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ the\\ subculture\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;perpetual\\ idler\\,\\ browser\\,\\ or\\ window\\-shopper\\ who\\ saw\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Paris\\ as\\ a\\ spectacle\\ created\\ for\\ his\\ entertainment\\,\\ and\\ judged\\ commodities\\ to\\ be\\ icons\\ made\\ for\\ his\\ veneration\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\ adopted\\ stance\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ very\\ apparent\\ in\\ his\\ painting\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Music\\ in\\ the\\ Tuileries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ depicts\\ a\\ large\\ cross\\ section\\ of\\ Parisian\\ society\\.\\ Also\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Balcony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;reversal\\ of\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ seer\\ and\\ seen\\ is\\ effected\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Women\\ in\\ the\\ balcony\\ shifting\\ gazes\\,\\ much\\ like\\ the\\ bewildered\\ spectators\\ at\\ the\\ Salon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\ sought\\ after\\ individualism\\,\\ even\\ at\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ public\\ incomprehension\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ socio\\-political\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ very\\ uncertain\\ in\\ that\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;furtive\\ insinuation\\ into\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ crows\\,\\ and\\ his\\ deadpan\\ style\\ and\\ humor\\&rdquo\\;\\ implicated\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;thorn\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ despotic\\ regime\\.\\ But\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ also\\ an\\ eager\\ supporter\\ for\\ modernity\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ both\\ accepted\\ and\\ propagandized\\ the\\ mass\\-produced\\ clothes\\ of\\ the\\ department\\ store\\ and\\ the\\ bourgeois\\ identity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Depicts\\ a\\ naked\\ white\\ woman\\ reclining\\ on\\ a\\ bed\\ gazing\\ at\\ the\\ viewer\\,\\ and\\ a\\ clothed\\ black\\ woman\\ holding\\ a\\ bouquet\\ of\\ flowers\\ and\\ gazing\\ at\\ Olympia\\.\\ A\\ black\\ cat\\ arches\\ its\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ lower\\ right\\,\\ a\\ green\\ drape\\ is\\ drawn\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ upper\\ left\\,\\ and\\ a\\ partition\\ and\\ curtain\\ fail\\ to\\ meet\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\&mdash\\;behind\\ Olympia\\&mdash\\;permitting\\ a\\ glimpse\\ into\\ an\\ alcove\\ or\\ waiting\\ area\\ beyond\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Handling\\ of\\ paint\\ considered\\ discordant\\ because\\ of\\ rough\\ underpainting\\,\\ with\\ distinct\\ ouches\\ of\\ color\\ and\\ contrasting\\ tonality\\.\\ Refusal\\ of\\ modeling\\ and\\ subtle\\ chiaroscuro\\.\\ Posing\\ also\\ mechanically\\ composed\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Flatness\\ and\\ ungainliness\\ such\\ as\\ found\\ in\\ \\&lsquo\\;primitive\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ or\\ in\\ Epinal\\ prints\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subversion\\ of\\ the\\ genre\\ of\\ the\\ nude\\ and\\ rejection\\ of\\ popular\\ notions\\ of\\ race\\ and\\ sex\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ nude\\ genre\\ seen\\ throughout\\ art\\ history\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;different\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Negress\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prostitute\\&rdquo\\;\\ seen\\ on\\ equal\\ footing\\ and\\ linked\\ by\\ their\\ common\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\d\\é\\;gen\\é\\;rescence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;could\\ only\\ be\\ considered\\ modern\\ and\\ not\\ avant\\-garde\\ because\\ done\\ within\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ nude\\ genre\\ and\\ the\\ two\\-dimensionality\\ of\\ popular\\ art\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Manet\\ painted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olympia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ an\\ indistinct\\ purpose\\,\\ social\\ class\\,\\ political\\ principle\\,\\ or\\ oppositional\\ ideology\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionist\\ and\\ the\\ Commodity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionists\\ much\\ like\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flaneur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Manet\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ interested\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;freedom\\,\\ self\\-determinacy\\,\\ and\\ sensual\\ pleasure\\ that\\ constituted\\ the\\ utopian\\ legacy\\ of\\ enlightenment\\ and\\ revolution\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Because\\ of\\ their\\ subject\\ matter\\,\\ which\\ often\\ depicted\\ breakfasts\\,\\ picnics\\,\\ promenades\\,\\ holidays\\,\\ etc\\,\\ the\\ Impressionists\\ reflected\\ a\\ very\\ particular\\ idea\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ a\\ field\\ of\\ individual\\ enjoyment\\.\\ Lacked\\ the\\ world\\-historical\\ ambition\\,\\ Romantic\\ fervor\\,\\ and\\ avant\\-garde\\ convictions\\ \\ \\;of\\ the\\ two\\ previous\\ generations\\ of\\ French\\ and\\ European\\ artists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ described\\ by\\ Emile\\ Littr\\é\\;\\,\\ the\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\impression\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ pronounced\\ effect\\ which\\ exterior\\ objects\\ make\\ upon\\ the\\ sense\\ organs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ characterized\\ by\\ its\\ individuality\\ and\\ its\\ structure\\ of\\ discrete\\ colors\\ \\&ldquo\\;notes\\&rdquo\\;\\ juxtaposes\\ against\\ their\\ adjacent\\ tone\\.\\ Impressionists\\ depict\\ the\\ sensation\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ landscape\\,\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ landscape\\ itself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ technique\\ defined\\ in\\ three\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ rejection\\ of\\ chiaroscuro\\:\\ academic\\ painting\\ dependent\\ on\\ chiaroscuro\\ for\\ modeling\\ purposes\\ and\\ its\\ illusion\\ of\\ three\\-dimensionality\\.\\ Impressionists\\ rejected\\ this\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ depiction\\ of\\ the\\ interaction\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ color\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\en\\ plain\\ air\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Impressionists\\ such\\ as\\ Monet\\,\\ Pissaro\\,\\ Pierre\\ Auguste\\-Renoir\\,\\ Morisot\\,\\ and\\ Alfred\\ Sisley\\ found\\ way\\ of\\ evoking\\ interaction\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ air\\ in\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ equalizing\\ of\\ brushstrokes\\ across\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ canvas\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;individual\\ brushstrokes\\ are\\ varied\\ in\\ width\\,\\ breadth\\,\\ and\\ direction\\,\\ and\\ the\\ pictorial\\ field\\ is\\ uniformly\\ animate\\,\\ agitated\\,\\ and\\ immediate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effect\\ of\\ Impressionism\\ similar\\ to\\ effect\\ of\\ what\\ Marx\\ describes\\ as\\ commodity\\ fetishism\\,\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ repeats\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ illusion\\ for\\ reality\\ that\\ constitutes\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ commodity\\ fetishism\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Impressionist\\ art\\ represented\\ exchange\\ value\\,\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ informed\\ and\\ invigorated\\ culture\\ and\\ leisure\\ industries\\ of\\ various\\ countries\\.\\ An\\ international\\ market\\ established\\ for\\ Impressionist\\ works\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionists\\ see\\ and\\ render\\ nature\\ as\\ it\\ is\\&mdash\\;as\\ vibration\\ of\\ color\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionism\\ also\\ quite\\ subversive\\ and\\ counter\\-cultural\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ rejected\\ classical\\ tradition\\ and\\ had\\ an\\ ambition\\ to\\ reform\\ laws\\ of\\ drawing\\ and\\ color\\.\\ Preached\\ separation\\ of\\ Academy\\ and\\ State\\.\\ Even\\ dubbed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Intransigents\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impressionism\\ marked\\ a\\ new\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ evolution\\ of\\ France\\.\\ An\\ art\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;truth\\,\\ simplicity\\ and\\ child\\-like\\ charm\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ described\\ by\\ Mallarm\\é\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ Impressionism\\ can\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ two\\ manifestations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vaudeville\\ shows\\,\\ spectator\\ sports\\,\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fairs\\,\\ and\\ Sundays\\ in\\ the\\ country\\&mdash\\;of\\ the\\ emergent\\ culture\\ of\\ commodity\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radical\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ avant\\-garde\\,\\ which\\ rejected\\ Classical\\ mimesis\\ and\\ romantic\\ fantasy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Artists\\ themselves\\ rejected\\ conventional\\ nomenclature\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ Impressionists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morisot\\ and\\ Degas\\ examples\\ of\\ artists\\ who\\ rejected\\ labels\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ and\\ the\\ Dialectics\\ of\\ Retreat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modernism\\ versus\\ Symbolism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modernism\\ in\\ art\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ artists\\ to\\ connect\\ to\\ the\\ Classical\\ past\\ by\\ strengthening\\ their\\ links\\ to\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Van\\ Gogh\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ whose\\ primary\\ interests\\ were\\ in\\ portraiture\\ and\\ landscape\\,\\ paid\\ homage\\ to\\ traditional\\ forms\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Flemish\\ and\\ Dutch\\ golden\\ Ages\\.\\ Also\\,\\ a\\ proponent\\ of\\ Wagernism\\,\\ a\\ movement\\ that\\ represented\\ the\\ long\\ sought\\ aesthetic\\ and\\ philosophical\\ unity\\ of\\ sensation\\,\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ intellection\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ his\\ abstraction\\ of\\ painting\\ via\\ introduction\\ of\\ color\\ accidentals\\ did\\ not\\ intend\\ to\\ destroy\\ art\\ of\\ portraiture\\ but\\ to\\ save\\ it\\,\\ by\\ revealing\\ it\\ once\\ more\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ of\\ revealing\\ human\\ character\\,\\ social\\ station\\,\\ and\\ expression\\ of\\ feeling\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relationship\\ between\\ expression\\ and\\ representation\\ like\\ the\\ modernist\\ project\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\:\\ complex\\ and\\ difficult\\,\\ and\\ anxious\\ about\\ how\\ work\\ could\\ be\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ both\\ modern\\ life\\ and\\ the\\ masters\\,\\ without\\ falling\\ victim\\ to\\ either\\ complete\\ abstraction\\ or\\ historicism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ some\\ of\\ Van\\ Gogh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contemporaries\\ had\\ less\\ anxiety\\ about\\ abstraction\\ and\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ subtle\\ ingenuities\\ of\\ modernism\\ were\\ useless\\ as\\ society\\ was\\ tumbling\\ towards\\ decay\\ and\\ perdition\\ anyway\\.\\ They\\ felt\\ that\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\ should\\ be\\ as\\ abstract\\ and\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Symbolist\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ for\\ they\\ felt\\ form\\ alone\\&mdash\\;line\\,\\ color\\,\\ or\\ pattern\\&mdash\\;could\\ convey\\ spiritual\\ and\\ personal\\ expression\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conceived\\ from\\ political\\ pessimism\\ and\\ detachment\\.\\ An\\ artistic\\ symptom\\ of\\ a\\ structural\\ crisis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Inward\\-direct\\ art\\,\\ anti\\-historical\\,\\ intensely\\ personal\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ even\\ confessional\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ retreat\\ but\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ European\\ mimetic\\ tradition\\.\\ Pioneered\\ art\\ of\\ sensual\\ liberation\\ and\\ personal\\ expression\\ partly\\ influenced\\ by\\ non\\-Western\\ \\&lsquo\\;primitivism\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolists\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ rigid\\ exhibitions\\,\\ or\\ a\\ coterie\\&mdash\\;simply\\ an\\ international\\ cultural\\ and\\ aesthetic\\ direction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Described\\ as\\ having\\ these\\ five\\ following\\ traits\\ by\\ Albert\\ Aurier\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ideist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ it\\ unique\\ ideal\\ will\\ be\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ Idea\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ it\\ will\\ expressed\\ this\\ idea\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ forms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synthetist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ it\\ will\\ present\\ these\\ form\\ and\\ sign\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ method\\ which\\ is\\ generally\\ understandable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subjective\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ the\\ object\\ will\\ never\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ an\\ object\\ bu\\ as\\ the\\ sign\\ of\\ an\\ idea\\ perceived\\ by\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decorative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ because\\ decorative\\ painting\\ is\\ nothing\\ other\\ than\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ art\\ at\\ once\\ subjective\\,\\ synthetic\\,\\ symbolic\\,\\ and\\ ideist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ some\\,\\ Symbolism\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Neotraditionsim\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ stressed\\ Christian\\ values\\ of\\ quietism\\,\\ piety\\,\\ asceticism\\,\\ and\\ hierarchical\\ stability\\.\\ Rejection\\ of\\ Naturalism\\ and\\ embrace\\ of\\ formal\\ abstraction\\ way\\ towards\\ new\\ felt\\ spirituality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ also\\ an\\ art\\ movement\\ of\\ creative\\ freedom\\ and\\ sensual\\ liberation\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ towards\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ anarchism\\.\\ Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ artwork\\ as\\ portrayal\\ of\\ free\\ and\\ autonomous\\ nations\\ or\\ communities\\ living\\ in\\ cooperation\\ and\\ harmony\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ Gauguin\\ and\\ Symbolism\\ in\\ Brittany\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ artwork\\ purposely\\ crude\\,\\ populist\\,\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\synthetist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ meant\\ to\\ synthesize\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ impressions\\ and\\ memories\\.\\ Most\\ noteworthy\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ left\\ largely\\ unpainted\\ and\\ unsaid\\.\\ Decorative\\,\\ pietistic\\,\\ and\\ populist\\ representations\\ of\\ Breton\\ spirituality\\ that\\ overlooked\\ the\\ modernizing\\ transformations\\ which\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ their\\ region\\ were\\ then\\ undergoing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marketing\\ of\\ Breton\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitiveness\\&rdquo\\;\\ allowed\\ for\\ touristic\\ marketing\\,\\ which\\ was\\ important\\ for\\ several\\ artists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Expression\\ of\\ indigenous\\ identities\\,\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ encouraging\\ touristic\\ consumption\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Painteres\\ such\\ as\\ Gauguin\\,\\ Ensor\\,\\ Redon\\,\\ Munch\\,\\ Vrubel\\ and\\ Hodler\\ are\\ Symoblists\\ beause\\ their\\ works\\ share\\ certain\\ formal\\ features\\:\\ flatness\\,\\ iconographic\\ features\\,\\ a\\ concern\\ with\\ dreams\\,\\ visions\\,\\ and\\ the\\ spiritual\\;\\ and\\ certain\\ ideological\\ features\\:\\ avoidance\\ of\\ contradiction\\,\\ disdain\\ for\\ history\\,\\ and\\ flight\\ from\\ modernity\\.\\ Symbolist\\ painting\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;mythical\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ functioning\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;turn\\ reality\\ inside\\ out\\,\\ empty\\ it\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ fill\\ it\\ with\\ nature\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ A\\ historical\\ amnesia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ also\\ beckons\\ a\\ new\\ order\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;political\\ future\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ anarchist\\ principles\\ of\\ mutual\\ respect\\ alongside\\ individual\\ autonomy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ posited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ensor\\ and\\ Populism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Ensor\\ a\\ Belgian\\ artist\\,\\ who\\ for\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ remained\\ aloof\\ from\\ avant\\-garde\\ culture\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Long\\ live\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ and\\ ignorant\\ painting\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assimilation\\ of\\ a\\ mainly\\ Northern\\ European\\ anticlassical\\ graphic\\ tradition\\ apparent\\ in\\ his\\ extraordinary\\ and\\ bizarre\\ ething\\ entitles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iston\\,\\ Pouffamatus\\,\\ Cracozie\\ and\\ Transmouff\\,\\ Famous\\ Persian\\ Physicians\\ Examining\\ the\\ Stools\\ of\\ King\\ Darius\\ after\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Arbela\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Emulation\\ and\\ mockery\\ of\\ Nrothern\\ renaissance\\ and\\ Baroque\\ traditions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Famous\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Entry\\ of\\ Christ\\ into\\ Brussel\\ in\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ his\\ conviction\\ about\\ the\\ decadence\\ of\\ his\\ age\\.\\ Each\\ face\\ a\\ mask\\ or\\ caricature\\ and\\ grimace\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rejected\\ academicism\\ and\\ estheticism\\ by\\ recourse\\ to\\ the\\ grotesque\\ and\\ fantastic\\.\\ Very\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ Breugel\\ and\\ his\\ depictions\\ of\\ proverbs\\,\\ the\\ seven\\ deadly\\ sins\\,\\ or\\ the\\ battle\\ between\\ Carnival\\ and\\ Lent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ mature\\ works\\ not\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ an\\ integrated\\ cultural\\ whole\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ melancholic\\ reckoning\\ with\\ a\\ culture\\ in\\ ruins\\.\\ Ensor\\ had\\ an\\ ideal\\ of\\ a\\ unified\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;pure\\ and\\ natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ Belgian\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prized\\ handicraft\\,\\ exalted\\ familial\\ and\\ communal\\ bonds\\,\\ and\\ dreamed\\ of\\ a\\ pure\\ and\\ natural\\ society\\ during\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ rapid\\ industrialization\\ and\\ a\\ society\\ increasingly\\ structured\\ upon\\ a\\ cash\\ nexus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ASSHOLE\\ ALERT\\:\\ Ensor\\ a\\ misogynist\\,\\ as\\ he\\ blamed\\ women\\ \\(prevalence\\ of\\ female\\ prostitutes\\)\\ with\\ his\\ anti\\-modern\\ polemics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involvement\\ with\\ Belgian\\ socialism\\.\\ But\\ tough\\ to\\ see\\ in\\ his\\ artworks\\,\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ interpreted\\ as\\ satire\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ socialist\\ politics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paintings\\ represent\\ a\\ desiccation\\ of\\ Romantic\\ imagination\\.\\ Too\\ preoccupied\\ by\\ his\\ own\\ failure\\ to\\ achieve\\ transcendence\\.\\ Apparent\\ in\\ his\\ macabre\\ etching\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Portrait\\ in\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symbolist\\ Landscape\\ Painting\\:\\ Munch\\,\\ Redon\\,\\ Monet\\,\\ and\\ Hodler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ Renaissance\\,\\ landscape\\ painting\\ representative\\ not\\ only\\ of\\ physical\\ appearance\\ of\\ land\\ but\\ social\\ relations\\ between\\ humans\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ Historically\\,\\ landscape\\ painting\\ as\\ idealizing\\ and\\ inspiring\\.\\ Such\\ art\\ movements\\ as\\ realism\\ and\\ Impressionism\\ revealed\\ dialectic\\ relation\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ society\\ or\\ country\\ and\\ city\\&mdash\\;stability\\ of\\ one\\ depended\\ upon\\ stability\\ of\\ other\\.\\ So\\,\\ nature\\ continued\\ to\\ serve\\ a\\ progressive\\ function\\ for\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ end\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ dialectical\\ relation\\ severed\\ in\\ literature\\ and\\ art\\ of\\ Symbolism\\.\\ Nature\\ became\\ an\\ inviolable\\ sanctuary\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ standard\\ of\\ judgment\\.\\ B\\ö\\;cklin\\ for\\ example\\ represented\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ place\\ of\\ escape\\ or\\ eternal\\ rest\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Vita\\ Somnium\\ Breve\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Island\\ of\\ the\\ Dead\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ with\\ coming\\ disillusionment\\ about\\ personal\\ fulfillment\\ in\\ society\\,\\ nature\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ perspective\\ but\\ an\\ alternative\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Munch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;part\\ of\\ the\\ circle\\ of\\ Christiania\\ anarchists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sick\\ Child\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;an\\ indictment\\ of\\ a\\ perceived\\ social\\ and\\ culture\\ sickness\\.\\ Munch\\ found\\ in\\ nature\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ sentiment\\ and\\ pathos\\.\\ In\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Voice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ series\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Frieze\\ of\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ cycles\\ of\\ life\\ via\\ natural\\ elements\\.\\ Depicted\\ simultaneous\\ fear\\ and\\ longing\\ to\\ submit\\ to\\ omniscient\\ natural\\ forces\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Odilon\\ Redon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\also\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ antagonism\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ society\\ portraying\\ humans\\ as\\ passive\\ and\\ powerless\\ objects\\ acted\\ upon\\ by\\ uncontrollable\\ natural\\ forces\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mutual\\ exaltation\\ of\\ colors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Luminosity\\ intensified\\ by\\ complements\\,\\ adjacent\\,\\ and\\ accents\\ and\\ highlights\\.\\ Induces\\ feeling\\ of\\ disorientation\\ and\\ phatasmagoria\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mikhail\\ Aleksandrovich\\ Vrubel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ rejected\\ populism\\ and\\ sentimentality\\.\\ Possessed\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;mania\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ technique\\,\\ paintings\\ densely\\ packed\\ with\\ broad\\ impastoed\\ planes\\ of\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conception\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ Symbolists\\ arose\\ from\\ desire\\ to\\ evade\\ social\\ contradiction\\,\\ history\\ and\\ contemporaneity\\,\\ and\\ to\\ evade\\ \\&ldquo\\;universalizing\\ civilization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hodler\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;disappearance\\ of\\ an\\ independent\\ peasantry\\,\\ erosion\\ of\\ cantonal\\ autarchy\\,\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ rich\\ and\\ vivid\\ \\&ldquo\\;folk\\-culture\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ concomitant\\ rise\\ of\\ a\\ tourist\\ industry\\ factors\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ segregation\\ of\\ humans\\ and\\ nature\\ in\\ landscapes\\ of\\ Hodler\\.\\ His\\ life\\ coincided\\ with\\ modernization\\ and\\ industrialization\\.\\ He\\ eliminates\\ all\\ traces\\ of\\ the\\ touristic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Incorporated\\ new\\ concept\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\parallelism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ was\\ what\\ he\\ described\\ as\\ a\\ characteristic\\ that\\ produced\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ unity\\.\\ First\\ parallel\\ landscape\\ seen\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Beech\\ Forest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Parallel\\ landscape\\ are\\ vision\\ of\\ world\\ frozen\\ in\\ time\\ and\\ space\\,\\ evacuated\\,\\ dreamlike\\,\\ lacking\\ bravura\\ facture\\ and\\ expressionistic\\ color\\ contrasts\\.\\ Renounced\\ integration\\ of\\ figures\\ and\\ buildings\\ in\\ his\\ landscapes\\.\\ Excised\\ all\\ that\\ was\\ fragmentary\\,\\ untidy\\,\\ or\\ uncontrollable\\.\\ To\\ represent\\ nature\\ and\\ society\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ decorative\\ parallels\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ unity\\ and\\ wholeness\\ of\\ art\\ a\\ substitute\\ of\\ completeness\\ and\\ social\\ integration\\ lacking\\ in\\ real\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ and\\ Symbolism\\ in\\ Tahiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauigin\\ abandoned\\ Brittant\\ and\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ island\\ colony\\ of\\ Tahiti\\.\\ Tahiti\\ both\\ a\\ personal\\ and\\ artistic\\ regression\\.\\ To\\ live\\ among\\ the\\ indigenes\\ meant\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ childhood\\,\\ or\\ in\\ Rousseauist\\ terms\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ originary\\ innocent\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Tahiti\\ both\\ a\\ dream\\-like\\ reality\\ and\\ disappointment\\,\\ because\\ native\\ selflessness\\ and\\ sexual\\ freedom\\ giving\\ ground\\ to\\ European\\ greed\\ and\\ cash\\-economy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Childhood\\ and\\ native\\ innocence\\ frequent\\ subjects\\ in\\ his\\ Tahitian\\ art\\.\\ Indigenous\\ women\\ associated\\ with\\ natural\\ fecundity\\ and\\ beneficence\\.\\ His\\ description\\ of\\ an\\ encounter\\ wit\\ a\\ Tahitian\\ woman\\ reveals\\ misogynistic\\ tendencies\\ and\\ primitivist\\ superstition\\.\\ Sexuality\\ of\\ Tahitian\\ women\\ also\\ representative\\ of\\ castration\\ and\\ death\\ of\\ males\\;\\ unholy\\ unions\\ of\\ lust\\ and\\ death\\ threatened\\ masculine\\ authority\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ erotic\\ extremism\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rodin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ and\\ sculptures\\,\\ such\\ as\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iris\\,\\ Messenger\\ of\\ the\\ Gods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ A\\ very\\ different\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ female\\ body\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;allows\\ women\\ to\\ possess\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ masculine\\ control\\ and\\ dispossession\\ in\\ Gauguin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\.\\ By\\ employing\\ Tahitian\\ language\\ in\\ titles\\ of\\ his\\ artworks\\,\\ working\\ against\\ the\\ assimilation\\ that\\ the\\ French\\ supported\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ embracing\\ culture\\ of\\ Polynesia\\,\\ Gauguin\\ expressing\\ an\\ internationalism\\ very\\ rare\\ in\\ an\\ age\\ of\\ empire\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ we\\ come\\ from\\?\\ What\\ are\\ we\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ we\\ going\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gauguin\\ admits\\ profound\\ uncertainties\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ cultural\\ heritage\\ and\\ posits\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ syncretic\\ and\\ international\\ culture\\.\\ Western\\ illusionism\\ juxtaposed\\ to\\ non\\-European\\ abstraction\\ and\\ painting\\.\\ Native\\ women\\ portrayed\\ as\\ intellectual\\ and\\ contemplative\\ people\\,\\ and\\ possessed\\ of\\ a\\ powerful\\ and\\ independent\\ sexuality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Andre\\ Breton\\ \\(founder\\ of\\ Surrealism\\)\\ and\\ L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitive\\ art\\ was\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ an\\ equilibrium\\ between\\ humans\\ and\\ nature\\ which\\ aboriginal\\ cultures\\ had\\ achieved\\ but\\ which\\ capitalism\\ destroyed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alan\\ Sekula\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ Invention\\ of\\ Photographic\\ Meaning\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Photography\\ Against\\ the\\ Grain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Halifax\\:\\ The\\ Press\\ of\\ the\\ Nova\\ Scotia\\ College\\ of\\ Art\\ and\\ Design\\,\\ 1984\\)\\:\\ 248\\-266\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sekula\\ writes\\ to\\ define\\ \\&ldquo\\;photographic\\ discourse\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ discuss\\ how\\ this\\ discourse\\ manifests\\ itself\\ in\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ argues\\ that\\ a\\ photograph\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ a\\ free\\ entity\\,\\ not\\ tied\\ to\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ argument\\ or\\ literary\\ discussion\\.\\ \\ \\;Writing\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;photographs\\ have\\ implicit\\ text\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ he\\ means\\ that\\ a\\ photograph\\ is\\ only\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ secondary\\ type\\ of\\ artwork\\ which\\ needs\\ literature\\ to\\ back\\ it\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;Further\\,\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ literature\\ typically\\ gives\\ the\\ photography\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ criticism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sekula\\ discusses\\ Steiglitz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ magazine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Camera\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ attempts\\ to\\ elevate\\ the\\ photograph\\ to\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ high\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ magazine\\,\\ individual\\ photos\\ are\\ considered\\ autonomously\\ for\\ their\\ value\\ as\\ an\\ art\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Steiglitz\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ stigma\\ of\\ photographs\\ as\\ being\\ totally\\ documentary\\ and\\ not\\ artistic\\ in\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Many\\ groups\\,\\ including\\ French\\ art\\ critics\\,\\ saw\\ journalism\\ and\\ photography\\ as\\ enemies\\ to\\ art\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ documentary\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;Sekula\\ discusses\\ the\\ two\\ poles\\ of\\ meaning\\ he\\ sees\\ in\\ photographs\\ as\\ being\\ either\\ documentary\\ or\\ artistic\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ documentary\\-type\\ photographs\\ convey\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;report\\&rdquo\\;\\ rhetoric\\ and\\ that\\ artistic\\ photos\\ convey\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;spiritual\\&rdquo\\;\\ rhetoric\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ the\\ article\\,\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ two\\ photographs\\ depicting\\ immigrants\\ departing\\ from\\ boats\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ points\\ out\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ documentary\\ and\\ artistic\\ elements\\ of\\ both\\ photos\\,\\ but\\ also\\ shows\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ have\\ some\\ of\\ both\\ types\\ of\\ interpretations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Buchloh\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Readymade\\,\\ Photography\\,\\ and\\ Painting\\ in\\ the\\ Painting\\ of\\ Gerhard\\ Richter\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Neo\\-Avantgarde\\ and\\ Culture\\ Industry\\.\\ \\ \\;Essays\\ on\\ European\\ and\\ American\\ Art\\ from\\ 1955\\-1975\\ \\(Cambridge\\:\\ MIT\\ Press\\,\\ 2000\\)\\:\\ 365\\-403\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Richter\\ painted\\ \\(amateur\\)\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Controversy\\&rdquo\\;\\ over\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ painting\\ vs\\.\\ photography\\ and\\ what\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ photography\\ \\(or\\ one\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ photography\\)\\ implicates\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ argument\\ between\\ those\\ who\\ say\\ photography\\ lacks\\ identity\\-\\ Richters\\ work\\ lacks\\ identity\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;culturalists\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ deem\\ his\\ painting\\ flexible\\ in\\ its\\ undefined\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Classification\\ of\\ Richter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ as\\ painterly\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ Richter\\,\\ photography\\ used\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;dictionary\\ of\\ culture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Photography\\ as\\ transferring\\ present\\ into\\ history\\:\\ space\\-time\\ relationship\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;instantaneous\\ in\\ space\\ and\\ past\\ in\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;this\\ creates\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ painting\\ from\\ photography\\ versus\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;Painting\\ from\\ photography\\ delivers\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;ready\\-made\\ concept\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ is\\ both\\ subjective\\ and\\ objective\\&mdash\\;painting\\ from\\ photography\\ plays\\ upon\\ this\\ contradiction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Richter\\ is\\ defined\\ rather\\ than\\ undefined\\ in\\ the\\ arbitrary\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ subjects\\ chosen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technical\\ aspect\\ of\\ representation\\-\\ a\\ painting\\ cannot\\ be\\ blurred\\-\\-\\-\\ only\\ reality\\ can\\ be\\ blurred\\&hellip\\;\\ creation\\ of\\ question\\:\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ photograph\\ that\\ is\\ blurred\\,\\ blurred\\?\\ \\ \\;Etc\\.\\ Etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Richters\\ play\\ upon\\ tensions\\ between\\ photography\\ and\\ painting\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ connect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ Rosenblum\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Modern\\ American\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ Abrams\\,\\ 1999\\)\\:\\ 72\\-79\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ term\\ coined\\ in\\ 1961\\ by\\ the\\ American\\ art\\ historian\\ Robert\\ Rosenblum\\ to\\ unify\\ the\\ contrasting\\ feelings\\ of\\ vastness\\ and\\ solitude\\ evoked\\ by\\ certain\\ Abstract\\ Expressionist\\ paintings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ aesthetic\\ category\\ to\\ describe\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ reaction\\ to\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ image\\;\\ a\\ word\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ emotions\\ people\\ may\\ feel\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ Abstract\\ Expressionist\\ paintings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;provided\\ a\\ flexible\\ semantic\\ container\\ for\\ the\\ murky\\ new\\ Romantic\\ experiences\\ of\\ awe\\,\\ terror\\,\\ boundlessness\\,\\ and\\ divinity\\ that\\ began\\ to\\ rupture\\ the\\ decorous\\ confines\\ of\\ earlier\\ aesthetic\\ systems\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creating\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\ in\\ an\\ image\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ the\\ Sublime\\ can\\ be\\ attained\\ by\\ saturating\\ such\\ limitless\\ expanses\\ with\\ a\\ luminous\\,\\ hushed\\ stillness\\,\\ it\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ reached\\ inversely\\ by\\ filling\\ this\\ void\\ with\\ a\\ teeming\\,\\ unleashed\\ power\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\4\\ Key\\ Abstract\\ Sublime\\ artists\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Clyfford\\ Still\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Untitled\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1958\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Jim\\ Turner\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Snowstorm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ exhibited\\ 1842\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Jackson\\ Pollock\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ 1A\\,\\ 1948\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1948\\)\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ invariably\\ evokes\\ the\\ sublime\\ mysteries\\ of\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ untamable\\ forces\\&hellip\\;\\ his\\ pictures\\ leave\\ us\\ dazzled\\ before\\ the\\ imponderables\\ of\\ galaxy\\ and\\ atom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Barnett\\ Newman\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Vir\\ Heroicus\\ Sumbilimis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1950\\-1951\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Piet\\ Mondrian\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Plastic\\ Art\\ \\&\\;\\ Pure\\ Plastic\\ Art\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ Artists\\ on\\ Art\\,\\ Ten\\ Unabridged\\ Essays\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ed\\.\\ Robert\\ L\\.\\ Herbert\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Prentice\\ Hall\\ Press\\,\\ 1964\\,\\ 1986\\)\\:\\ 114\\-130\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ influential\\ Mondrian\\ essay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ complete\\,\\ integral\\ aesthetic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Difficult\\ at\\ first\\ b\\/c\\ terms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subjectivity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\objectivity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\redefined\\ and\\ used\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;art\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ I\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ fundamentally\\ everywhere\\ but\\ two\\ diametrically\\ opposed\\ human\\ inclinations\\ always\\ included\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ direct\\ creation\\ of\\ universal\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\objective\\ representation\\ of\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ esthetic\\ expression\\ of\\ oneself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subjective\\ representation\\ of\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objective\\ beauty\\ through\\ balanced\\ form\\ and\\ color\\,\\ yet\\ also\\ attempt\\ to\\ show\\ what\\ forms\\,\\ colors\\,\\ and\\ relations\\ arouse\\ in\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\individual\\ expression\\ veils\\ pure\\ representation\\ of\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Artist\\ continually\\ struggles\\ for\\ unified\\ expression\\ through\\ balance\\ of\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ not\\ derived\\ from\\ form\\ but\\ through\\ dynamic\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ determining\\ form\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Form\\ creates\\ relations\\ and\\ relations\\ create\\ form\\&mdash\\;no\\ precedence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Balance\\ of\\ utmost\\ importance\\ in\\ plastic\\ art\\ since\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;produced\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;constructed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Create\\ objective\\ as\\ possible\\ forms\\ and\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Universal\\ expression\\ only\\ possible\\ through\\ real\\ equation\\ of\\ the\\ universal\\ \\(objective\\)\\ and\\ the\\ individual\\ \\(subjective\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Art\\ purifying\\ its\\ plastic\\ means\\&hellip\\;2\\ main\\ tendencies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Maintain\\ figuration\\ \\(Figurative\\ art\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\complicated\\ and\\ particular\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Eliminate\\ figuration\\ \\(Non\\-figurative\\ art\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\simple\\ and\\ neutral\\ forms\\ \\(or\\ free\\ line\\ and\\ pure\\ color\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ more\\ free\\ from\\ subjective\\ than\\ figurative\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\ approximate\\ and\\ relative\\ since\\ each\\ line\\ and\\ form\\ represents\\ figure\\ \\(still\\,\\ we\\ must\\ define\\ terms\\ for\\ correct\\ use\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neutral\\ forms\\ so\\ profound\\ in\\ abstraction\\ as\\ to\\ not\\ evoke\\ feelings\\ or\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ born\\ of\\ figurative\\ art\\&mdash\\;approach\\ one\\ another\\ toward\\ mutual\\ balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ in\\ plastic\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dualism\\ in\\ art\\ only\\ relative\\ and\\ temporal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ of\\:\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;universal\\,\\ subjective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;objective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Always\\ some\\ confusion\\ with\\ objectivity\\ and\\ subjectivity\\ since\\ no\\ human\\ can\\ be\\ purely\\ objective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ inclinations\\ more\\ clearly\\ defined\\ now\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Figurative\\ \\(neutralizes\\ forms\\)\\ and\\ non\\-figurative\\ \\(creates\\ particular\\ representation\\)\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ is\\ rare\\ and\\ supreme\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Creates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\universal\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pure\\ science\\ achieves\\ practical\\ results\\ for\\ humanity\\ and\\ pure\\ art\\,\\ although\\ appearing\\ abstract\\,\\ can\\ be\\ of\\ direct\\ utility\\ for\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ law\\ of\\ equivalence\\ creates\\ dynamic\\ equilibrium\\ and\\ reveals\\ the\\ true\\ content\\ of\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subsidiary\\ \\(fixed\\)\\ laws\\:\\ govern\\ and\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ constructive\\ elements\\,\\ of\\ the\\ composition\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ inherent\\ interrelationships\\ between\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Work\\ of\\ art\\ depends\\ in\\ large\\ part\\ on\\ constructive\\ elements\\ used\\ and\\ the\\ construction\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ \\(abstract\\ expression\\)\\ not\\ a\\ step\\ back\\ to\\ primitive\\ nature\\ but\\ rather\\ recognizing\\ natural\\ laws\\ and\\ abiding\\ by\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Content\\ and\\ form\\ overemphasized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ must\\ create\\ balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Real\\ life\\:\\ mutual\\ interaction\\ of\\ two\\ oppositions\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ but\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ aspect\\ and\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Its\\ plastic\\ expression\\ is\\ universal\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intuition\\ enlightens\\ and\\ links\\ w\\/\\ pure\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ develops\\,\\ no\\ longer\\ dominated\\ by\\ instinct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Turning\\ point\\:\\ culture\\ of\\ particular\\ form\\ ending\\ and\\ culture\\ of\\ determining\\ relations\\ beginning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dynamic\\ Equilibrium\\ Law\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Task\\ of\\ art\\ to\\ destroy\\ static\\ equilibrium\\ and\\ establish\\ dynamic\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\:\\ destruction\\ of\\ particular\\ form\\ and\\ construction\\ of\\ rhythm\\ of\\ mutual\\ relationships\\,\\ of\\ mutual\\ forms\\ or\\ free\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\ expression\\ cannot\\ be\\ achieved\\ through\\ different\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Varied\\ forms\\ or\\ lines\\ achieve\\&mdash\\;in\\ form\\&mdash\\;altogether\\ different\\ degrees\\ in\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ plastic\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beginning\\ with\\ natural\\ forms\\ and\\ ending\\ with\\ most\\ abstract\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Expression\\ becomes\\ more\\ profound\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Straight\\ line\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stronger\\ and\\ more\\ profound\\ than\\ curve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\ of\\ different\\ forms\\ and\\ lines\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\very\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ fact\\ makes\\ it\\ pure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ art\\ created\\ by\\ establishment\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dynamic\\ rhythm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ determinate\\ mutual\\ relations\\ which\\ excludes\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ any\\ particular\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dynamic\\ rhythm\\ is\\ essential\\ element\\ to\\ non\\-figurative\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ rhythm\\ veiled\\ in\\ figurative\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surrealism\\ cannot\\ forgo\\ figuration\\ without\\ losing\\ descriptive\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evokes\\ sensation\\ of\\.\\.\\ sunlight\\,\\ moonlight\\,\\ joy\\,\\ sadness\\,\\ etc\\.\\ therefore\\ not\\ establishing\\ universal\\ beauty\\,\\ not\\ purely\\ abstract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deepened\\ feeling\\ and\\ thought\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ therefore\\ subjective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ essence\\ can\\ be\\ expressed\\ through\\ neutral\\ constructive\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pure\\ Art\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subject\\ is\\ never\\ an\\ additional\\ value\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ line\\,\\ the\\ color\\,\\ and\\ their\\ relations\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;bring\\ into\\ play\\ the\\ whole\\ sensual\\ and\\ intellectual\\ register\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\ life\\&hellip\\;\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ the\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Execution\\ and\\ technique\\ play\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ establishing\\ objective\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Less\\ obvious\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\,\\ the\\ more\\ objective\\ work\\ will\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-figurative\\ work\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ unconscious\\ b\\/c\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ individual\\ and\\ pre\\-natal\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Comes\\ from\\ pure\\ intuition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basis\\ of\\ subjective\\-objective\\ dualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diff\\ between\\ figurative\\ and\\ non\\-figurative\\ artists\\ is\\ that\\ non\\-figurative\\ \\(objective\\)\\ artist\\ frees\\ himself\\ from\\ individual\\ sentiments\\ and\\ impressions\\ from\\ outside\\,\\ breaking\\ loose\\ from\\ individual\\ inclinations\\ within\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*I\\ supposes\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ rare\\ and\\ so\\ precious\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ do\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ suppress\\ sentiment\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ himself\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ spectator\\&hellip\\;creates\\ emotion\\ through\\ his\\ adherence\\ to\\ objectivity\\ and\\ focusing\\ on\\ form\\ and\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ lines\\,\\ colors\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ art\\ is\\ for\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sake\\:\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ is\\ form\\ and\\ content\\ at\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Again\\,\\ highlights\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ construction\\ since\\ this\\ determines\\ the\\ forms\\ and\\ relationships\\ and\\ form\\=content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ subject\\ is\\ not\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ form\\,\\ as\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 21, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Compiled_HAA_Reading_Summaries_1.doc", "desc": "Reading Summaries"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Western Tradition - Lectures", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "western-tradition"], "text": null, "id": 54, "html": "\\\\\\The\\ Western\\ Tradition\\ \\-\\ Lectures\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c17\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:198pt\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:234pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c15\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\Intro\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Will\\ talk\\ about\\ France\\ and\\ the\\ Netherlands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditionally\\,\\ change\\ is\\ seen\\ to\\ come\\ from\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Gundrich\\ talks\\ about\\ these\\ artist\\ \\(sculptors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Donatello\\ \\(1417\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ apprentice\\ to\\ Sluter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sluter\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1400\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Want\\ to\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ miedeval\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psalter\\ of\\ Saint\\ Louis\\ \\(mid\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painted\\ for\\ king\\ of\\ France\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Louis\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elaborate\\ framework\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ light\\ squiggles\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ clouds\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ know\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ outise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Know\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ outside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Story\\ of\\ Abraham\\ being\\ asked\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ Isaac\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ the\\ other\\ slide\\ you\\ have\\ two\\ things\\ painted\\ inside\\ a\\ letter\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Story\\ of\\ King\\ David\\ \\(bad\\ moments\\ in\\ story\\ of\\ David\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ supplicating\\ to\\ god\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ realistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ way\\ out\\ of\\ scale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ servant\\ is\\ as\\ big\\ as\\ the\\ castle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simone\\ Martini\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1280\\-1344\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ north\\ and\\ big\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ North\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ artist\\ is\\ from\\ Sienna\\ \\(Italy\\)\\ but\\ moved\\ to\\ Avignon\\ in\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Petrarch\\ \\(1304\\-1374\\)\\ also\\ went\\ to\\ France\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ Pope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allusion\\ to\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 3\\ major\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ piece\\ was\\ Of\\ Servius\\&rsquo\\;\\ commentary\\ on\\ Virgil\\ and\\ belonged\\ to\\ Petrarch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perfect\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ integration\\ of\\ sculpture\\ to\\ architecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cartres\\ Cathedral\\ \\(12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ statues\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;common\\ statues\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ completely\\ integrated\\ in\\ the\\ architecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ Sluter\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ escape\\ that\\:\\ main\\ point\\ of\\ lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charterhouse\\ of\\ Champmol\\:\\ Parch\\ 1390\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dukes\\ of\\ Burgandy\\ were\\ very\\ powerful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Dynasty\\ in\\ Franch\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 100\\ Years\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\ line\\ of\\ kinds\\:\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ to\\ middle\\ of\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\St\\.\\ Louis\\ was\\ king\\ under\\ name\\ of\\ Louis\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grandson\\,\\ Charles\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ male\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cousing\\ succeeded\\ him\\ in\\ 1328\\ when\\ Charles\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decided\\ that\\ successor\\ would\\ be\\ Philip\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Close\\ relative\\,\\ direct\\ descendant\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kings\\ of\\ England\\ as\\ daughter\\ of\\ Charles\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;felt\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ heirs\\ but\\ since\\ Philip\\ the\\ 6t\\ was\\ given\\ kingship\\,\\ this\\ started\\ the\\ 100\\ Years\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ King\\,\\ Chalres\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ very\\ weak\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ young\\ when\\ Charles\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kings\\ had\\ habit\\ of\\ giving\\ big\\ chunks\\ of\\ land\\ to\\ their\\ non\\-successor\\ children\\ \\(youngest\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sustain\\ their\\ position\\ as\\ Princes\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charles\\ had\\ 3\\ brothers\\ \\(Duke\\ of\\ Auju\\,\\ burgundy\\,\\ and\\ beri\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SLUTER\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Architecture\\ a\\ little\\ like\\ a\\ gothic\\ castle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Sculpture\\ was\\ very\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sculptor\\ from\\ Netherlands\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ of\\ great\\ originality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ statues\\ are\\ very\\ independent\\ from\\ the\\ architecture\\&hellip\\;\\ no\\ longer\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ are\\ columns\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ven\\ look\\ out\\ of\\ place\\ \\ \\;b\\/c\\ they\\ overlap\\ their\\ supports\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ greater\\ freedom\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ hand\\ of\\ the\\ saint\\ who\\ introduces\\ the\\ duke\\ to\\ the\\ Virgin\\ who\\ turns\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ but\\ also\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ Dutchess\\,\\ while\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ all\\ like\\ a\\ coherent\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ fluidity\\ in\\ the\\ abundance\\ of\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Point\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ difference\\ with\\ earlier\\ sculpture\\,\\ and\\ furthermore\\ you\\ have\\ something\\ quite\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ Duke\\ of\\ Burgandy\\ is\\ clearly\\ made\\ to\\ look\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ actually\\ looks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Something\\ that\\ is\\ perfected\\ throughout\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ down\\ around\\ 1395\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ perfectly\\ clear\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ likeness\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duke\\,\\ Dutchess\\,\\ saint\\ and\\ virgin\\ still\\ ideal\\ types\\ \\(gothic\\ ideas\\ of\\ older\\ saints\\ and\\ regularly\\ faced\\ virgins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Statues\\ of\\ Charles\\ V\\ and\\ jeanne\\ De\\ Bourbon\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1370\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ already\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ tendency\\ towards\\ \\&ldquo\\;potraiture\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Golden\\ Horse\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1404\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Old\\ line\\ is\\ broken\\ and\\ new\\ line\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ B\\&hellip\\;oir\\ \\(badoir\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ great\\ interest\\ in\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ thing\\ they\\ enjoyed\\ most\\ is\\ precious\\ objects\\&hellip\\;\\ gold\\ especially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essentially\\ a\\ table\\ ornament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gift\\ of\\ wife\\ of\\ Charles\\ the\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Year\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represents\\ the\\ King\\ praying\\ to\\ virgin\\ marry\\ and\\ child\\ while\\ his\\ groom\\ is\\ waiting\\ for\\ him\\ downstairs\\ w\\/\\ his\\ horse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ of\\ solid\\ gold\\ and\\ enamel\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ pearls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ stones\\ like\\ rubies\\,\\ sapphires\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ in\\ Sluter\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ representation\\ \\(even\\ tenderness\\ in\\ the\\ virgin\\ marry\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ thing\\ that\\ was\\ highly\\ prized\\ was\\ manuscript\\ painters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psalter\\ of\\ Saint\\ Louis\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;C\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Battle\\ of\\ Jericho\\ and\\ Abraham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sounded\\ trumpets\\ and\\ God\\ intervened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ trumpets\\ destroyed\\ the\\ battlement\\ of\\ the\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ liveliness\\ \\(storytelling\\)\\ but\\ not\\ what\\ we\\ would\\ call\\ natural\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Again\\ know\\ it\\ is\\ outside\\ w\\/\\ cloudy\\ sky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biggest\\ collector\\ of\\ manuscript\\ was\\ the\\ Duke\\ of\\ Jean\\ de\\ Berry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;born\\ of\\ Charles\\ the\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slide\\:\\ Book\\ of\\ Houers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Duke\\ praying\\ to\\ the\\ Virgin\\ and\\ Child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Dukes\\ head\\ was\\ a\\ life\\ likeness\\ but\\ the\\ saints\\ are\\ obviously\\ romanticized\\ \\(idealized\\)\\ versions\\ as\\ they\\ show\\ old\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ different\\ processions\\ of\\ the\\ Duke\\ of\\ Berry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacquermart\\ de\\ Hesdin\\ from\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ Hours\\ for\\ Jean\\ de\\ Berry\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1400\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Book\\ of\\ prayers\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ calendar\\ that\\ tells\\ you\\ what\\ days\\ have\\ feast\\ on\\ each\\ day\\ and\\ have\\ the\\ prayers\\ for\\ certain\\ occastions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sione\\ Martini\\ sienese\\ in\\ Avignon\\ \\(1330s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ the\\ carrying\\ of\\ the\\ cross\\ by\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Simone\\ Martini\\ painted\\ the\\ colorful\\ version\\ in\\ avignon\\ around\\ 1330\\ and\\ about\\ 50\\ years\\ later\\ Jacemart\\ de\\ Hesdin\\ used\\ the\\ same\\ arrangement\\ although\\ he\\ changes\\ it\\ considerably\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ artists\\ working\\ for\\ Jean\\ de\\ Berry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ brothers\\:\\ Limbo\\ brothers\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ Laumbuer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hernan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ were\\ from\\ the\\ north\\ but\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ younger\\ brothers\\ were\\ apprenticed\\ w\\/\\ goldsmith\\ in\\ 1402\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ appear\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ Duke\\ of\\ Burgandy\\ around\\ 1405\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ duke\\ dies\\ in\\ 1407\\,\\ they\\ go\\ to\\ Jean\\ de\\ Berry\\ and\\ work\\ exclusively\\ with\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Special\\ relation\\ because\\ he\\ panted\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ wood\\ and\\ painted\\ it\\ to\\ look\\ exactly\\ like\\ the\\ book\\ and\\ the\\ Duke\\ accepted\\ it\\ \\(Tres\\ Riches\\ Heures\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ wanted\\ to\\ marry\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ and\\ the\\ Duke\\ had\\ the\\ young\\ lady\\ abducted\\ and\\ basically\\ given\\ to\\ Paul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ done\\ in\\ a\\ routine\\ manner\\ so\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ strong\\ tie\\ \\(personal\\ tie\\)\\ between\\ the\\ Patron\\ and\\ the\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Correctly\\ understood\\ as\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ artistry\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ were\\ starting\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ social\\ standing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boucicault\\ Book\\ of\\ Hours\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flight\\ into\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Done\\ by\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ manuscript\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ detailed\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ where\\ even\\ trees\\ are\\ conveyed\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ realistically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Book\\ of\\ hours\\ of\\ Marshal\\ Boucicault\\ \\(1410\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Magi\\ and\\ Nativity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instead\\ of\\ the\\ bed\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ bed\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ turned\\ sideways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ roof\\ also\\ shown\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trying\\ something\\ new\\:\\ trying\\ to\\ convey\\ something\\ 3\\ dimensionally\\ on\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ aiming\\ at\\ representing\\ space\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ far\\ cry\\ from\\ the\\ scientific\\ representations\\ developed\\ in\\ italy\\ about\\ 30\\ years\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Temptation\\ of\\ Christ\\ by\\ the\\ Devil\\:\\ Chateau\\ of\\ Mehun\\-sure\\-Yevre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ building\\ is\\ an\\ actual\\ building\\ and\\ is\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Temptation\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Finally\\,\\ one\\ of\\ most\\ amazing\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ calendar\\ is\\ the\\ month\\ of\\ Feb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tres\\ riches\\ Heurres\\ of\\ jean\\ de\\ Berry\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\February\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1410\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Guest\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Ghent\\ Altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ piece\\ that\\ he\\ signed\\ and\\ dated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ the\\ largest\\ work\\ he\\ ever\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ his\\ contemporaries\\ really\\ appreciated\\ that\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ capture\\ things\\&mdash\\;especially\\ precious\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ God\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ shiny\\ rag\\ and\\ a\\ gold\\ in\\ the\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ captures\\ the\\ radiance\\ and\\ brilliance\\ of\\ the\\ gems\\ and\\ colors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nothing\\ like\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ paintings\\ up\\ to\\ that\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ capture\\ of\\ color\\ and\\ texture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ did\\ this\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Held\\ a\\ position\\ at\\ the\\ court\\ of\\ Burgandy\\ \\(Duke\\ of\\ B\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ now\\ France\\,\\_\\_\\_\\_\\,\\ and\\ Netherlands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ momentous\\ change\\ that\\ came\\ from\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thierry\\ du\\ Chastel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Best\\ embroiderer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ best\\,\\ this\\ is\\ considered\\ decorative\\ art\\ if\\ art\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ time\\ though\\,\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ embroidery\\ actually\\ set\\ the\\ tone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ outdo\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Embroidery\\ is\\ silk\\ that\\ is\\ stitched\\,\\ although\\ gold\\ is\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ were\\ burnt\\ after\\ they\\ went\\ out\\ of\\ fashion\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ retrieve\\ the\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autumn\\ piece\\ in\\ 2\\ parts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dossal\\ and\\ Antependium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ by\\ T\\ du\\ C\\ for\\ Philip\\ the\\ Good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gift\\ from\\ Philip\\ to\\ a\\ knight\\ \\(order\\ of\\ knights\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ are\\ all\\ in\\ Vienna\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Volume\\,\\ shading\\,\\ detail\\,\\ these\\ were\\ all\\ a\\ good\\ match\\ and\\ some\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ this\\ line\\ of\\ work\\ outdoes\\ paintings\\ in\\ scenes\\ like\\ this\\ one\\ \\(woman\\ with\\ hands\\ up\\ wearing\\ green\\ gown\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ was\\ this\\ done\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Could\\ be\\ done\\ by\\ a\\ simple\\ stitch\\:\\ split\\ stitch\\ \\(needle\\ painting\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allows\\ for\\ a\\ very\\ detailed\\ painting\\,\\ densely\\ packed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;technique\\:\\ or\\ nue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\more\\ or\\ less\\,\\ gold\\ could\\ shimmer\\ through\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ wider\\ the\\ width\\ between\\ stiches\\,\\ the\\ lighter\\ \\(more\\ golden\\)\\ so\\ it\\ could\\ hilight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loop\\ of\\ a\\ thin\\ strip\\ of\\ gold\\ put\\ around\\ the\\ threat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ these\\ two\\ techniques\\,\\ there\\ were\\ enormous\\ varieties\\ of\\ effects\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ achieved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ central\\ panel\\,\\ this\\ shows\\ the\\ Holy\\ Trinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stands\\ out\\ because\\ by\\ far\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ embroidery\\ to\\ survive\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iconographically\\ it\\ is\\ quite\\ an\\ exceptional\\ piece\\ \\(stylistically\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ to\\ capture\\ w\\/\\ photography\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ changes\\ every\\ time\\ you\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ plasticity\\ of\\ these\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ show\\ w\\/\\ aid\\ of\\ drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ stitches\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helps\\ suggest\\ volume\\ and\\ form\\ to\\ the\\ face\\ and\\ muscles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\The\\ Madonna\\ of\\ Canon\\ Joris\\ Van\\ der\\ Paele\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whole\\ iconography\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ virgin\\ is\\ suffering\\ with\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Somehow\\ in\\ his\\ art\\,\\ all\\ the\\ details\\ suggest\\ deeper\\ levels\\ of\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Famous\\ figure\\:\\ figure\\ of\\ Magdalene\\ in\\ conveying\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ despair\\ that\\ has\\ taken\\ ahold\\ of\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mantle\\ falling\\ from\\ shoulders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hand\\ gestures\\ and\\ positioning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Swooning\\ figure\\:\\ figure\\ of\\ virgin\\ mary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ hand\\ positioning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ pale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ crying\\ and\\ very\\ pale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guard\\ coming\\ lose\\ \\(ruffles\\ on\\ her\\ head\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ figure\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ has\\ ruffles\\ just\\ like\\ virgin\\ mary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suggest\\:\\ when\\ Christ\\ was\\ taken\\ down\\,\\ the\\ virgin\\ passed\\ out\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ virgin\\ Magdalene\\ took\\ off\\ her\\ head\\ covering\\ and\\ covered\\ jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ blood\\ of\\ Christ\\ runs\\ underneat\\ the\\ cloth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Died\\ and\\ bled\\ before\\ he\\ was\\ covered\\ by\\ either\\ the\\ Magdalene\\ or\\ the\\ virgin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ how\\ a\\ painter\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ outdo\\ an\\ embroiderer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suggestion\\ of\\ narrative\\ depends\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ on\\ the\\ medium\\ of\\ oil\\ painting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transparency\\ of\\ blood\\ that\\ runs\\ underneath\\ the\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Impossible\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ embroidery\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paele\\ Madonna\\,\\ Christ\\ with\\ Parakeet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wealthy\\ man\\,\\ not\\ quite\\ a\\ priest\\ but\\ consecrated\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Introduced\\ by\\ George\\,\\ a\\ saint\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;saint\\:\\ St\\.\\ Donatian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iconography\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Sleuter\\ pieces\\ \\(statues\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ held\\ in\\ a\\ setting\\ that\\ is\\ realistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Space\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ seems\\ to\\ reflect\\ the\\ location\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ destined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Church\\ in\\ Bruge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Donatian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painting\\ itself\\ positions\\ the\\ patron\\ within\\ its\\ iconography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ that\\ established\\ foundations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coat\\ of\\ arms\\ is\\ inscribed\\ in\\ the\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ portrait\\ is\\ also\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remarkable\\ because\\ one\\ of\\ Jan\\ van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ that\\ shows\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ paint\\ living\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ first\\ to\\ convey\\ realistic\\ people\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ of\\ Niccolo\\ Albergati\\ \\(cardinal\\ from\\ Italy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ very\\ rare\\:\\ have\\ the\\ drawing\\ that\\ he\\ made\\ in\\ preparation\\ of\\ this\\ portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ light\\ because\\ done\\ in\\ silverpoint\\ on\\ prepared\\ parchment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ a\\ sketch\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ margin\\ he\\ made\\ an\\ annotation\\ writing\\ what\\ he\\ had\\ seen\\ \\&ndash\\;eyes\\ brown\\ with\\ gray\\/blue\\ rim\\,\\ purplish\\ cheeks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Applies\\ exactness\\ with\\ which\\ he\\ depicts\\ people\\ to\\ everything\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rendering\\ of\\ visible\\ world\\ that\\ holds\\ this\\ world\\ together\\ and\\ which\\ makes\\ \\ \\;point\\ about\\ its\\ essence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ difference\\ in\\ which\\ man\\,\\ child\\,\\ or\\ parakeet\\ is\\ rendered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Observed\\ nature\\,\\ etc\\ \\(all\\ his\\ subjects\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ texture\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Something\\ relatively\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rug\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Steps\\ that\\ lead\\ up\\ to\\ floor\\,\\ also\\ have\\ some\\ design\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ see\\ th\\ lose\\ ends\\ of\\ the\\ carpet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Have\\ the\\ way\\ carpet\\ splits\\ when\\ you\\ bend\\ it\\ \\(at\\ the\\ step\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capital\\ in\\ the\\ architecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Would\\ expect\\ a\\ capital\\ with\\ relief\\ but\\ instead\\ have\\ added\\ something\\ that\\ suggests\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ real\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Identifiable\\ scene\\ the\\ underscores\\ he\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hope\\ of\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ man\\ is\\ hoping\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ gain\\ eternal\\ life\\ with\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ virgin\\ mary\\,\\ Christ\\,\\ St\\.\\ George\\,\\ and\\ St\\.\\ Donatian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Precious\\ material\\ \\(dark\\ blue\\ w\\/\\ gold\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ he\\ also\\ uses\\ the\\ realistic\\ mode\\ of\\ representation\\ to\\ underscore\\ the\\ locality\\ of\\ this\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ objects\\ can\\ actually\\ be\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Donatian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ crucifix\\ \\(pros\\.\\ cross\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ armor\\ is\\ fantastic\\&mdash\\;inspired\\ by\\ classical\\ armor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helmet\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ close\\-up\\:\\ interesting\\ helmet\\ that\\ has\\ this\\ spiraling\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ see\\ reflection\\ of\\ virgin\\ mary\\ and\\ everyone\\ else\\ on\\ the\\ helmet\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ reflection\\ in\\ each\\ link\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ concavity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ reflection\\ hints\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ real\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ works\\ outwardly\\ because\\ it\\ steps\\ outside\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\ frame\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shield\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Look\\ at\\ shield\\ that\\ is\\ hanging\\ from\\ strap\\ around\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Find\\ another\\ reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Something\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ outside\\ of\\ this\\ reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Onlooker\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Continuation\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ visible\\ within\\ picture\\ an\\ what\\ we\\ experience\\ within\\ our\\ own\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hints\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ needs\\ the\\ assistance\\ of\\ saints\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ access\\ to\\ mother\\ and\\ child\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ to\\ paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ represent\\ the\\ church\\ because\\ light\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ entered\\ in\\ that\\ manner\\&mdash\\;much\\ larger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hopeful\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Would\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ namesake\\ of\\ \\_\\_\\_\\,\\ and\\ van\\ eyck\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ capacity\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ conjure\\ up\\ a\\ picture\\ that\\ depicts\\ the\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ situation\\ that\\ he\\ wishes\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structure\\ of\\ salvation\\ and\\ the\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ who\\ wishes\\ for\\ eternal\\ life\\ and\\ the\\ man\\ that\\ can\\ grant\\ him\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Van\\ Eyck\\ master\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ pragmatic\\ fiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ is\\ illegible\\ is\\ the\\ text\\ in\\ the\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ behind\\ the\\ glass\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ was\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ makes\\ clear\\ that\\ I\\ was\\ blurred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ this\\ painting\\,\\ heavy\\ reliance\\ on\\ observation\\ of\\ exterior\\ work\\,\\ is\\ suited\\ to\\ depict\\ notions\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ \\(form\\ materialistic\\ point\\ of\\ view\\)\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ materialistic\\ depiction\\ of\\ the\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Italy\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rome\\ should\\ not\\ just\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ classical\\ \\(ancient\\)\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ very\\ much\\ a\\ vibrant\\ place\\&mdash\\;pilgrimage\\,\\ seat\\ of\\ incredible\\ power\\ with\\ the\\ church\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picture\\ gives\\ a\\ rather\\ animated\\ sense\\ of\\ how\\ these\\ spaces\\ really\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Massive\\ churches\\,\\ places\\ of\\ worship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ built\\ around\\ a\\ burial\\ \\(Peter\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ large\\ and\\ cavernous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decorated\\ with\\ large\\ monumental\\ narrative\\ pictures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ not\\ only\\ had\\ real\\ experience\\ of\\ walking\\ though\\,\\ but\\ way\\ that\\ architecture\\ was\\ exposed\\ brought\\ about\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ symbolic\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Typologies\\ of\\ reading\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Old\\ testament\\ on\\ one\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ testament\\ on\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Make\\ parallel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Florence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ vibrant\\ urban\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ one\\ of\\ its\\ basilicas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bardi\\ Chapel\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Came\\ to\\ new\\ level\\ of\\ complication\\ and\\ novelty\\ during\\ early\\ Renaissance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ movement\\&mdash\\;urbanistic\\ movement\\&mdash\\;to\\ bring\\ religious\\ centers\\ to\\ urban\\ centers\\ \\(usually\\ mercantile\\ centers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Became\\ very\\ vibrant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ show\\ off\\ money\\ and\\ artists\\ could\\ be\\ in\\ active\\ dialog\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basilicas\\ were\\ simple\\,\\ architecturally\\,\\ but\\ vast\\ in\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ have\\ chapels\\ in\\ the\\ periphery\\ and\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ chapels\\ and\\ they\\ would\\ pay\\ for\\ upkeep\\,\\ and\\ could\\ even\\ sell\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ money\\ would\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ basilica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ left\\ and\\ right\\ would\\ be\\ saints\\,\\ pretty\\ iconic\\ alters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\St\\.\\ Frances\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ \\(person\\ who\\ owned\\ chapel\\ had\\ been\\ named\\ Francesco\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ people\\ wanted\\ to\\ secure\\ some\\ afterlife\\&mdash\\;place\\ in\\ heaven\\,\\ so\\ they\\ tried\\ to\\ atone\\ for\\ any\\ sin\\ by\\ resting\\ in\\ a\\ basilica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Guilty\\ of\\ using\\ others\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ wealth\\ \\(bankers\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ the\\ Day\\ of\\ Judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ side\\ you\\ enter\\ heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ side\\ you\\ are\\ banished\\ to\\ hell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ the\\ core\\ is\\ a\\ Madonna\\ on\\ a\\ panel\\ with\\ gold\\ leaf\\ behind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ painting\\ and\\ was\\ only\\ installed\\ in\\ the\\ later\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helps\\ us\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ western\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ past\\ would\\ inform\\ the\\ practice\\ and\\ how\\ these\\ spaces\\ would\\ serve\\ as\\ future\\ acadeies\\ for\\ future\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ art\\ academies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michael\\ A\\.\\ looked\\ to\\ this\\ space\\ for\\ learning\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ arrogant\\ and\\ proud\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\&rdquo\\;\\ student\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Masaccio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Born\\ around\\ 1401\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dead\\ by\\ summer\\ of\\ 1428\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ early\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ dated\\ work\\ by\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unlike\\ Van\\ Eyck\\ \\(specific\\ dates\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Window\\ of\\ 4\\-5\\ years\\ between\\ first\\ and\\ last\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Pisa\\ Altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Trinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Pisa\\ Altarpiece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapel\\ screens\\ \\(midway\\ separation\\)\\ had\\ depctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virgin\\ Mary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stone\\ throne\\ that\\ shows\\ her\\ substantial\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ physical\\ form\\ is\\ significant\\ and\\ tangible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symbolic\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ grouping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ taking\\ grapes\\ from\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Celebration\\ of\\ eucharist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ and\\ blood\\:\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ recognition\\ of\\ ourselves\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ this\\ is\\ very\\ crucial\\ when\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ works\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ introduced\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Viewer\\ share\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ the\\ completion\\ to\\ the\\ works\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ looking\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ fragment\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Presence\\ on\\ the\\ sides\\ of\\ shadows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Light\\ broken\\ and\\ blocked\\,\\ unifying\\ a\\ body\\ and\\ mass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shadow\\ gives\\ momentary\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ the\\ very\\ top\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ Christ\\ and\\ Mary\\ Magdalene\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ would\\ have\\ occurred\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ looking\\ from\\ the\\ bottom\\ up\\,\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ spot\\ where\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ comes\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mary\\ Magdalene\\ looks\\ distorted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ this\\ makes\\ sense\\ if\\ images\\ seen\\ from\\ particular\\ spot\\ within\\ the\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Makes\\ you\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ paining\\ \\(work\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Trinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\ and\\ St\\.\\ John\\ the\\ evangelist\\ on\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ front\\ you\\ have\\ two\\ kneeling\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patrons\\ of\\ this\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domenico\\ Lenzi\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ Masaccio\\ has\\ the\\ responsibility\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;build\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ to\\ produce\\ an\\ altarpiece\\ since\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ real\\ space\\ there\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ a\\ cloister\\ where\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ priests\\ lived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kind\\ of\\ a\\ ping\\ pong\\ table\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;separator\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ that\\ separated\\ the\\ spaces\\ and\\ which\\ would\\ usually\\ have\\ an\\ image\\ illustrated\\ on\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ image\\ is\\ achieved\\ by\\ setting\\ a\\ step\\ on\\ which\\ you\\ have\\ sculptures\\ of\\ the\\ patrons\\ \\(Lenzi\\ and\\ wife\\)\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ painting\\ of\\ the\\ holy\\ trinity\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ way\\ they\\ are\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ technically\\ part\\ of\\ it\\ since\\ the\\ rendition\\ of\\ the\\ holy\\ trinity\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ incorrect\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ included\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Achieved\\ by\\ using\\ mirrors\\ and\\ mathematical\\ calculations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brunelleschi\\:\\ first\\ to\\ really\\ formalize\\ this\\ practice\\ as\\ the\\ single\\-point\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spatially\\ constructs\\ the\\ painting\\ \\(fiction\\)\\ of\\ the\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Area\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ depicting\\ the\\ space\\ behind\\ Christ\\ looks\\ very\\ realistic\\ b\\/c\\ Masaccio\\ utilized\\ single\\-point\\ perspective\\ before\\ it\\ was\\ really\\ recognized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brancacci\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ on\\ upper\\ register\\&mdash\\;arch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\ of\\ Saint\\ Peter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ chapel\\ that\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ begun\\ by\\ one\\ of\\ Masaccio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ older\\ fellow\\ Masolino\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seems\\ to\\ have\\ disappeared\\ from\\ project\\ but\\ nothing\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ then\\ Brancacci\\ decided\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;spiff\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ up\\ a\\ bit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Felice\\ Brancacci\\ married\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ richest\\ banking\\ families\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Have\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ old\\ testament\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ in\\ paradise\\ before\\ The\\ Fall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Light\\ and\\ fair\\ Eve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Darker\\ Adamn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ real\\ attention\\ to\\ anatomy\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looks\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ cut\\ out\\ and\\ placed\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opposite\\ it\\ we\\ have\\ The\\ Expulsion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ expulsion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ankle\\ still\\ in\\ paradise\\ and\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ very\\ last\\ connection\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Window\\ opposite\\ the\\ painting\\ matches\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ shadows\\ that\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ cast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ known\\ re\\-births\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medici\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tax\\ Collection\\ Scene\\ \\(Mathews\\ in\\ bible\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scene\\ of\\ tax\\ being\\ collected\\ from\\ Christ\\ for\\ upkeep\\ of\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pay\\ taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Upon\\ the\\ tax\\ collectors\\ insitance\\,\\ he\\ tells\\ Peter\\ to\\ extract\\ the\\ dues\\ from\\ a\\ fish\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mouth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Picks\\ up\\ at\\ Roman\\ thing\\ called\\ isocephaly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\All\\ heads\\ line\\ up\\ in\\ same\\ row\\ and\\ the\\ eyes\\ match\\ up\\ along\\ a\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ self\\-portrait\\ in\\ red\\ chalk\\ of\\ his\\ older\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Statue\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ boy\\,\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ Leonardo\\ da\\ Vici\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ born\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\,\\ but\\ his\\ father\\ accepted\\ him\\ which\\ meant\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ stigmatized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ no\\ training\\ in\\ Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ training\\ in\\ advanged\\ geometry\\ and\\ algebra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ obstacle\\ for\\ his\\ interest\\ in\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\14\\ y\\/o\\ Leonardo\\ became\\ an\\ apprentice\\ in\\ on\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ shops\\ in\\ Florence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Florence\\ still\\ a\\ republic\\ so\\ ruled\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ bankers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beginning\\ of\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ their\\ middle\\ sized\\ bank\\ had\\ a\\ major\\ breakthrough\\ when\\ the\\ pope\\ John\\ XXIII\\ made\\ his\\ friend\\ a\\ major\\ depository\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ major\\ rebellions\\,\\ most\\ dangerous\\ in\\ 1478\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ received\\ his\\ first\\ large\\ commission\\ in\\ this\\ time\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sandro\\,\\ Botticelli\\,\\ Portrait\\ of\\ Giuliao\\ de\\ Medeci\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ 1481\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\ accepted\\ demand\\ of\\ Giuliano\\ de\\ medeci\\ to\\ leave\\ Florence\\ and\\ move\\ to\\ northern\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Realized\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ lots\\ of\\ turmoil\\ and\\ thus\\ probably\\ accepted\\ an\\ offer\\ by\\ Duke\\ of\\ Milan\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brought\\ him\\ close\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Letter\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wrote\\ letter\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ architecture\\,\\ sculpture\\,\\ and\\ listen\\ painting\\ only\\ last\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reasons\\ why\\ Leonardo\\ emphasized\\ his\\ war\\ technical\\ skills\\ was\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ interested\\ to\\ get\\ an\\ appointment\\ that\\ gave\\ him\\ all\\ the\\ freedom\\ as\\ a\\ court\\ artist\\ and\\ court\\ technician\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ courts\\ of\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ he\\ died\\ as\\ traitor\\ in\\ a\\ French\\ jail\\,\\ Lord\\ of\\ Eco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strange\\ mixture\\ of\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ offer\\ shows\\ that\\ he\\ saw\\ himself\\ as\\ universally\\ capable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ court\\ artist\\ was\\ usually\\ much\\ more\\ autonomous\\ than\\ his\\ free\\ comrade\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Enjoyed\\ relatively\\ stable\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ he\\ left\\ Milan\\ in\\ 1499\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transferred\\ 600\\ Florence\\ to\\ his\\ bank\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ than\\ the\\ yearly\\ income\\ of\\ the\\ richest\\ family\\ \\(Medeci\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rome\\,\\ Sistine\\ Chapel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ career\\ based\\ in\\ rhetorics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Praised\\ for\\ his\\ eloquence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ the\\ final\\ 19\\ years\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ he\\ looked\\ for\\ tenure\\ again\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ finding\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finally\\ found\\ Jacopo\\ de\\ Barbari\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\500\\ failies\\,\\ safe\\,\\ but\\ no\\ charismatic\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cesare\\ Borgia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ most\\ talented\\ generals\\ and\\ certainly\\ one\\ of\\ least\\ scrupulous\\ politicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ arena\\ soon\\ witnessed\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ cesare\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ wrote\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ in\\ Constantinople\\ showing\\ his\\ plans\\ for\\ building\\ bridges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ showed\\ a\\ plan\\ for\\ the\\ diversion\\ of\\ the\\ Amo\\ \\(1503\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Failed\\ miserably\\ and\\ seemed\\ to\\ have\\ hurt\\ his\\ reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\More\\ turmoil\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\at\\ 60\\ y\\/o\\,\\ he\\ was\\ reluctant\\ to\\ move\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1513\\:\\ moved\\ to\\ Rome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entered\\ household\\ of\\ Pope\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Again\\ military\\ leader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1516\\:\\ 60\\ year\\ old\\ Leonardo\\ moved\\ to\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lived\\ there\\ 3\\ years\\ with\\ Rafael\\ and\\ Michael\\ Angelo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retreat\\ to\\ Amboise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Young\\ French\\ king\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ promising\\ future\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1519\\:\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\say\\ that\\ he\\ passed\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ arms\\ of\\ the\\ King\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ Red\\ Threat\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Common\\ denominators\\ that\\ even\\ precede\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motion\\,\\ movement\\,\\ as\\ a\\ central\\ category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fascination\\ by\\ properties\\ of\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theoretically\\ and\\ practically\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ technician\\,\\ obessed\\ with\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ of\\ a\\ transitional\\ constellatio\\ of\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hydrology\\:\\ filled\\ thousands\\ of\\ pages\\ in\\ his\\ manuscript\\ regarding\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ fluids\\ in\\ motion\\ when\\ faced\\ with\\ different\\ obstacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interaction\\ of\\ fluids\\ with\\ other\\ densities\\ \\(water\\,\\ air\\)\\ and\\ with\\ different\\ fluids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anatomy\\:\\ human\\ and\\ animal\\ bodies\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ growth\\,\\ movement\\,\\ blood\\ flow\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ drawing\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ human\\ proportions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seems\\ fluid\\,\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ interest\\ in\\ dynamics\\ and\\ anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Almost\\ leads\\ to\\ experiments\\ with\\ changing\\ viewpoints\\ as\\ if\\ anatomy\\ and\\ movement\\ cannot\\ correctly\\ be\\ seen\\ without\\ the\\ viewer\\ set\\ in\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Procreation\\:\\ obsessed\\ with\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ embryo\\ and\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ \\ \\;man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ speculative\\ drawings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ almost\\ abstract\\ rendering\\ of\\ blood\\ movement\\ in\\ vessels\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Blamed\\ physiognomics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Character\\ manifests\\ itself\\ in\\ features\\ due\\ to\\ repeteadly\\ motions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Read\\ signs\\ of\\ human\\ body\\ as\\ marks\\ of\\ emotions\\ and\\ movements\\ that\\ occurred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Botanical\\ Studies\\:\\ looked\\ at\\ plants\\ and\\ their\\ growth\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ their\\ exposure\\ to\\ elements\\ such\\ as\\ water\\ and\\ sunlight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Optics\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physics\\:\\ theoretical\\ physics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Struggles\\ for\\ years\\ to\\ determine\\ laws\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Technology\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ sees\\ every\\ part\\ as\\ a\\ bearer\\ of\\ force\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defines\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ representaion\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;painting\\ is\\ philosophy\\ because\\ it\\ deals\\ with\\ motion\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\apparently\\ static\\ art\\-like\\ panting\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ represent\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ in\\ an\\ instant\\ of\\ time\\,\\ as\\ photographic\\ snapshot\\,\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ unity\\ of\\ simultaneous\\ and\\ successive\\ motions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ultimate\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ create\\ motion\\ in\\ the\\ static\\ medium\\ of\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\paradoxical\\ notion\\ of\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Magi\\,\\ 1481\\/81\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Left\\ painting\\ unfinished\\ but\\ the\\ basic\\ idea\\ is\\ pretty\\ clear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pushes\\ perspective\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ architecture\\ to\\ the\\ middle\\ ground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\-emphasis\\ in\\ perspective\\ whilethe\\ foreground\\ is\\ literally\\ packed\\ and\\ overcrowded\\ with\\ people\\ that\\ show\\ curiosity\\,\\ wonder\\,\\ tec\\.\\ Around\\ the\\ Madonna\\ with\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Encircle\\ the\\ Madonna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ emotional\\ disturbance\\ of\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ prestigious\\ commission\\ of\\ his\\ career\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fresco\\ of\\ Battle\\ of\\ Anghiari\\ in\\ Southern\\ Tuscany\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Central\\ part\\ survived\\ in\\ large\\ copies\\ and\\ engravings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leonardo\\ is\\ \\ \\;interested\\ in\\ the\\ clash\\ of\\ antagonists\\ and\\ the\\ fierceness\\ in\\ the\\ men\\ and\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ animals\\ that\\ are\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ most\\ beastly\\ magnus\\ of\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Lion\\ Hunt\\,\\ 1621\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clashing\\ focus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ of\\ people\\ followed\\ his\\ trend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ most\\ famous\\ commissions\\:\\ Last\\ Supper\\ Fresco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasized\\ very\\ moment\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ announces\\ his\\ betrayal\\ \\(Christ\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Send\\ a\\ shockwave\\ through\\ the\\ apostles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Back\\ and\\ forth\\ of\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Completely\\ different\\ world\\ from\\ previous\\ renderings\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ supper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ an\\ incoherent\\ setting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Figures\\ too\\ large\\ for\\ their\\ surrounding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increasing\\ power\\ of\\ individual\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ monumentality\\ of\\ painting\\ and\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virgin\\ with\\ Child\\ and\\ Saint\\ Anne\\,\\ 1510\\-13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ in\\ Louvre\\ in\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Probably\\ not\\ related\\ to\\ any\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worked\\ continuously\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ stable\\ composition\\ of\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ Mary\\,\\ Mary\\,\\ and\\ Christ\\ with\\ the\\ lamb\\ that\\ represents\\ future\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Separating\\ himself\\ from\\ verigin\\ mary\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ break\\ the\\ compositional\\ triangle\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ \\&ldquo\\;instant\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Order\\ vs\\.\\ dynamics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Raphael\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Madonan\\ of\\ Francois\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Almost\\ a\\ direct\\ paraphrase\\ of\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rendering\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Anne\\,\\ Mother\\,\\ and\\ Child\\ also\\ important\\ in\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ more\\ distant\\ an\\ object\\ is\\,\\ the\\ bluer\\ and\\ more\\ blurred\\ it\\ becomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Step\\ in\\ Western\\ painting\\ to\\ accept\\ subjectivity\\ in\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ less\\ the\\ more\\ realistic\\ it\\ becomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creates\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ an\\ invitation\\ to\\ imaginatively\\ approach\\ these\\ works\\ rather\\ than\\ not\\ every\\ single\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domenico\\,\\ Ghirlandaio\\,\\ 1488\\-90\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trned\\ was\\ to\\ paint\\ women\\ in\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ trend\\ moved\\ to\\ \\¾\\;\\ or\\ full\\-faced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leonardo\\ utilized\\ this\\ \\¾\\;\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motions\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ginevra\\ de\\ Benci\\,\\ 1478\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seems\\ pensive\\ but\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ sad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cecilia\\ Gallerani\\,\\ 1480\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Turning\\ around\\ almost\\ 180\\ degrees\\ and\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ shows\\ her\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ mood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ a\\ smile\\,\\ face\\ turned\\ towards\\ light\\ as\\ if\\ encountering\\ another\\ presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ lady\\ \\(Mona\\ Lisa\\)\\,\\ 1503\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epitome\\ to\\ his\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ halves\\ of\\ face\\ are\\ strongly\\ differentiated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ is\\ about\\ paradoxical\\ unity\\ of\\ timelessness\\ and\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looking\\ at\\ us\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smiling\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nymphs\\,\\ 1512\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ in\\ these\\ late\\ drawings\\ the\\ figures\\ seem\\ to\\ merge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extreme\\ sense\\ for\\ instability\\ of\\ attitudes\\ for\\ bodily\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\undistinctness\\ of\\ form\\ becomes\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawing\\ became\\ itself\\ an\\ experimental\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ culminated\\ in\\ this\\ very\\ late\\ deluge\\ series\\ around\\ 1515\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ astonishing\\ and\\ famous\\ drawings\\ of\\ Leonardo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hurricane\\,\\ 1515\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attempt\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ viewer\\ as\\ a\\ motion\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concrete\\ and\\ very\\ abstract\\ at\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Albrecth\\ Durer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\ portrait\\:\\ portrayed\\ himself\\ as\\ Jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Audacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Albrect\\ Durer\\,\\ Rhinoceros\\,\\ 1515\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ image\\ was\\ so\\ exact\\ and\\ detailed\\ that\\ I\\ was\\ utilized\\ as\\ the\\ model\\ for\\ rhinos\\ until\\ mid\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\novel\\ means\\ of\\ ending\\ pictures\\ into\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\printing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\revolution\\ about\\ how\\ pictures\\ were\\ made\\ and\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ to\\ publish\\ his\\ work\\ as\\ wood\\ cut\\ prints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hundreds\\,\\ even\\ thousands\\ of\\ identical\\ copies\\ everywhere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\printing\\ changed\\ communication\\:\\ both\\ \\ \\;verbal\\ and\\ \\_\\_\\ \\(visual\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trademarked\\ everything\\ he\\ did\\&hellip\\;\\ Durer\\ monogram\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nestled\\ within\\ the\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Branded\\ his\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ put\\ himself\\ in\\ everything\\ he\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sometimes\\ created\\ nothing\\ but\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ creator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Form\\ of\\ self\\-portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ skill\\ of\\ its\\ maker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ first\\ artist\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ kow\\ it\\ was\\ HIS\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ Picasso\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ \\_\\_\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\all\\ started\\ by\\ durer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\durer\\ lived\\ during\\ nurember\\&rsquo\\;s\\ golden\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dramatic\\ growth\\ in\\ industry\\ and\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\products\\ sent\\ throughout\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\yet\\,\\ kept\\ quintessential\\ miedevil\\ town\\ appeal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\as\\ treasure\\ of\\ roman\\ empire\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\city\\ was\\ bombed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\his\\ statue\\ narrowly\\ escaped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trated\\ as\\ a\\ saint\\,\\ venerated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lock\\ of\\ hair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\eerie\\ feeling\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ hair\\ when\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ the\\ detail\\ he\\ utilized\\ to\\ paint\\ his\\ hair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hair\\ is\\ a\\ tangled\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ with\\ its\\ own\\ probability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Eyck\\ made\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ self\\-portrait\\ with\\ mottos\\,\\ signatures\\,\\ etc\\.\\ but\\ on\\ th\\ periphery\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Own\\ nude\\ self\\-portrait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Somewhat\\ unfinished\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ whole\\ finally\\ eludes\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fades\\ away\\ at\\ the\\ limbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drew\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ drawing\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recording\\ the\\ struggle\\ of\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Utilizing\\ his\\ own\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pose\\ utilized\\ on\\ a\\ Jesus\\ painting\\ and\\ also\\ on\\ one\\ with\\ mary\\ and\\ Joseph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duerer\\ seems\\ vexed\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ and\\ who\\ he\\ really\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ centennial\\ date\\ that\\ people\\ did\\ not\\ fear\\ but\\ also\\ celebrated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\beginning\\ of\\ northern\\ renaissance\\ achieved\\ through\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ did\\ picture\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ stares\\ directly\\ out\\ at\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ looking\\ at\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Front\\ and\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wants\\ the\\ picture\\ to\\ look\\ like\\ icon\\ of\\ Jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ \\¾\\;\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ would\\ look\\ moving\\ and\\ alive\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ himself\\ same\\ ideal\\ proportions\\ as\\ Christ\\ and\\ changes\\ his\\ hair\\ and\\ beard\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ it\\ extremely\\ blasphemous\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Proof\\ of\\ his\\ piety\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ in\\ his\\ self\\-portrait\\ he\\ is\\ portraying\\ his\\ desire\\ to\\ become\\ humble\\ like\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\according\\ to\\ legend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ could\\ made\\ images\\ of\\ himself\\ without\\ utilizing\\ hands\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ artists\\ used\\ to\\ dare\\ to\\ draw\\ themselves\\ as\\ St\\.\\ Luke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\ painted\\ mother\\ and\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Earlier\\ the\\ holy\\ face\\ was\\ \\ \\;miraculous\\ because\\ he\\ did\\ it\\ without\\ hands\\ or\\ worldly\\ skill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Eyck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ showed\\ that\\ work\\ was\\ created\\,\\ not\\ found\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durer\\ goes\\ a\\ step\\ forward\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ work\\ look\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ was\\ found\\ and\\ not\\ wordly\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\20\\ years\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\painted\\ himself\\ at\\ this\\ age\\ because\\ people\\ thought\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ age\\ where\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ beautiful\\ they\\ would\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\touching\\ fur\\&hellip\\;\\ feeling\\ his\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ looking\\ out\\ at\\ us\\,\\ but\\ feeling\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\suddenly\\ when\\ we\\ thin\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ looking\\ out\\ at\\ us\\,\\ the\\ stare\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ directed\\ inward\\,\\ towards\\ the\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\into\\ mystery\\ of\\ own\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bottom\\ hand\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ painting\\ with\\ and\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ paint\\ it\\ \\ \\;but\\ shows\\ a\\ hole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\nowhere\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ painting\\ does\\ \\ \\;painting\\ seem\\ more\\ humanly\\ than\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\painting\\ disguised\\ as\\ a\\ miracle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\must\\ consider\\ his\\ originas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\born\\ in\\ parish\\ church\\ of\\ Cebil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\out\\ of\\ 18\\ brothers\\ and\\ sisters\\ was\\ only\\ to\\ survive\\ past\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\epidemics\\ frequent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\life\\ in\\ city\\ was\\ also\\ center\\ of\\ craft\\ and\\ artistry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\had\\ first\\ paper\\ mill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\crucial\\ to\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ print\\ press\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\he\\ was\\ free\\ of\\ taxes\\ and\\ regulations\\ that\\ burdened\\ other\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\protectionist\\ trade\\ guilds\\ were\\ made\\ illegal\\ so\\ foreignists\\ could\\ arrive\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\parents\\ placed\\ their\\ hopes\\ in\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\own\\ diary\\:\\ my\\ father\\ took\\ special\\ pleasure\\ in\\ me\\ because\\ he\\ saw\\ that\\ I\\ was\\ diligent\\ in\\ wanting\\ to\\ learn\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goldsmiths\\ were\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ leave\\ city\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ trade\\ secrets\\ that\\ they\\ learned\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\his\\ was\\ a\\ startingly\\ precocious\\ talent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ work\\ is\\ astonishing\\ self\\-portrait\\ at\\ age\\ of\\ 13\\ in\\ silver\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;this\\ I\\ drew\\ after\\ myself\\ from\\ a\\ mirror\\ in\\ the\\ year\\ 1484\\ when\\ I\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ boy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\added\\ words\\ in\\ 1520\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\assumed\\ posterity\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\at\\ 13\\,\\ still\\ apprentice\\ from\\ goldsmith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\father\\ during\\ same\\ period\\ also\\ does\\ self\\-portrait\\ of\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\displays\\ natural\\ gifts\\ which\\ he\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;genius\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\know\\ all\\ this\\ from\\ his\\ diaries\\ and\\ theoretical\\ writings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theoretical\\ diaries\\ unique\\ b\\/c\\ by\\ northern\\ European\\ artists\\ is\\ unheard\\ of\\ \\ \\;and\\ also\\ way\\ of\\ publishing\\ own\\ ideas\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inclined\\ more\\ to\\ painting\\ than\\ to\\ goldsmith\\ work\\,\\ regretted\\ time\\ lost\\ while\\ he\\ was\\ learning\\ to\\ goldsmith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1486\\ bound\\ to\\ apprentice\\ Michelle\\ Bolden\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ necessarily\\ talented\\ man\\ but\\ his\\ workshop\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ largest\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ printing\\ 1493\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Successful\\ painter\\,\\ collaborating\\ with\\ a\\ writer\\ and\\ printer\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ costly\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Work\\ about\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ starting\\ from\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ was\\ expanding\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1492\\:\\ first\\ \\&ldquo\\;globe\\&rdquo\\;\\ created\\ in\\ Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ city\\&hellip\\;\\ correctly\\ representing\\ what\\ Columbus\\ had\\ figured\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\also\\ displayed\\ one\\ of\\ first\\ examples\\ of\\ art\\ collecting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ earliest\\ study\\ sheets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\drawing\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ page\\ to\\ use\\ every\\ bit\\ of\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pillow\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ punched\\ and\\ wrinkles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\showing\\ shrowengower\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mastery\\ of\\ drapery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\seems\\ to\\ be\\ worried\\ how\\ hands\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ uses\\ his\\ own\\ hand\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ \\(at\\ top\\ of\\ drawing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ first\\ bit\\ of\\ nature\\ observation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ him\\ drawing\\ his\\ own\\ legs\\ from\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ travel\\ lasted\\ for\\ 4\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Journeyman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ his\\ times\\ from\\ this\\ time\\ that\\ survive\\ are\\ from\\ book\\ illustrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ his\\ return\\ from\\ Nuremburg\\ he\\ would\\ deal\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ business\\ deals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\200\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ \\(small\\ fortune\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ self\\-portrait\\ was\\ given\\ to\\ his\\ soon\\-to\\-be\\ wife\\ the\\ evening\\ before\\ the\\ wedding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;my\\ affairs\\&hellip\\;\\.as\\ ordained\\ from\\ above\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\almost\\ immediately\\ after\\ his\\ marriage\\,\\ embarked\\ on\\ voyage\\ to\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\critical\\ to\\ history\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\experiencing\\ great\\ art\\ during\\ slef\\-proclaimed\\ renaissance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\able\\ to\\ merge\\ to\\ very\\ different\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\german\\ and\\ Italian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\vies\\ he\\ painted\\ chartered\\ his\\ route\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\captured\\ town\\ in\\ medium\\ of\\ water\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bremar\\ pass\\ to\\ wards\\ outskirts\\ of\\ Venice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ of\\ landscape\\ painting\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ probably\\ seemd\\ largely\\ exotic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Germanhouse\\ where\\ he\\ lodged\\&hellip\\;\\ german\\ businessmen\\ cam\\ to\\ do\\ business\\ and\\ indulge\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ activities\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawing\\ of\\ a\\ german\\ lady\\ and\\ a\\ venitian\\ girls\\ \\(shows\\ more\\ of\\ her\\ body\\ underneath\\)\\ and\\ was\\ probably\\ a\\ prostitue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\ knew\\ some\\ of\\ secrets\\ of\\ Italian\\ newts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assumed\\ this\\ resutlsed\\ from\\ jealously\\ guarded\\ secret\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thought\\ that\\ Italians\\ got\\ secret\\ from\\ antiquity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conceived\\ of\\ own\\ achievement\\ as\\ rebirth\\ from\\ ancient\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ great\\ secret\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ and\\ that\\ was\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linear\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Invented\\ around\\ 1420\\ in\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assumes\\ we\\ gave\\ from\\ a\\ single\\ fixed\\ point\\ and\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ through\\ a\\ clear\\ viewer\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ window\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Published\\ them\\ in\\ illustrated\\ treatise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Before\\ Durer\\ Germans\\ trated\\ as\\ hand\\ workers\\ such\\ as\\ butchers\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elevated\\ to\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ nobiligy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ status\\ afforded\\ in\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\May\\ have\\ been\\ one\\ of\\ most\\ important\\ things\\ he\\ took\\ away\\ from\\ his\\ stay\\ in\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1506\\:\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ gentleman\\,\\ at\\ home\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ parasite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\portrayed\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ gentleman\\ before\\ an\\ alpine\\ view\\ which\\ made\\ signaled\\ the\\ trip\\ that\\ made\\ him\\ a\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chose\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Banked\\ on\\ expectations\\ that\\ end\\ would\\ come\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ book\\ published\\ and\\ illustratd\\ by\\ kown\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brought\\ about\\ much\\ much\\ fame\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Translates\\ visible\\ into\\ black\\ lines\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ both\\ real\\ and\\ unreal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ poor\\ horsemen\\ of\\ the\\ apocalypse\\ while\\ humanity\\ is\\ trampled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1440\\:\\ Johanes\\ Gutenburg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\information\\ rapidly\\ distributed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\before\\ Durer\\,\\ artists\\ made\\ most\\ money\\ on\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\printing\\ multipled\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ efforts\\ and\\ fame\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ would\\ sell\\ so\\ he\\ launched\\ series\\ of\\ everyday\\,\\ erotic\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\whatever\\ he\\ printed\\ sold\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\he\\ could\\ print\\ innumerable\\ copies\\ of\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\other\\ people\\ could\\ also\\ do\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mark\\ Antonio\\ Renandi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Complete\\ w\\/\\ AD\\ monogram\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PLAGIARISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sued\\ and\\ could\\ copy\\ Durer\\ but\\ not\\ his\\ monogram\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ monogram\\ is\\ a\\ truly\\ precocious\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ultimate\\ trademark\\ was\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Combination\\ of\\ self\\-portrait\\ monogram\\ and\\ signature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1511\\:\\ completed\\ altar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\at\\ base\\ of\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\tells\\ us\\ that\\ through\\ his\\ art\\ and\\ vision\\ we\\ have\\ this\\ picture\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\google\\ time\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ middle\\ ages\\,\\ curiosity\\ was\\ considered\\ vice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\print\\ of\\ monstrous\\ pig\\ turns\\ the\\ terrible\\ omen\\ into\\ a\\ visually\\ engaging\\ fact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\curiousity\\ transcends\\ mere\\ curiosity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ to\\ submit\\ his\\ nature\\ studies\\ as\\ finished\\ works\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\small\\ monogram\\ in\\ roots\\ of\\ leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\artistry\\ is\\ hidden\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\blows\\ up\\ landscape\\ with\\ painting\\ of\\ Battle\\ of\\ Alexander\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\arab\\ peninsula\\,\\ turkey\\,\\ boot\\ of\\ italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\see\\ world\\ from\\ immense\\ height\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\scientists\\ like\\ Kepler\\ cited\\ him\\ as\\ artist\\,\\ scientist\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\durer\\ tried\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ secret\\ of\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\originally\\ thought\\ secret\\ was\\ in\\ mathematics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\then\\ admitted\\ that\\ the\\ secret\\ alluded\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\transposed\\ picture\\ of\\ Apollo\\ to\\ eve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\still\\ perfect\\ figure\\ right\\ before\\ he\\ receives\\ the\\ apple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\involved\\ many\\ many\\ nature\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wrinkles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\and\\ also\\ level\\ of\\ abstraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Durer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ student\\ transforms\\ Adam\\ into\\ figure\\ of\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ makes\\ us\\ mortal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ famous\\ print\\:\\ melancholic\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Probably\\ has\\ personal\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Depressed\\ and\\ yet\\ inspired\\ at\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Before\\ him\\,\\ most\\ worked\\ in\\ service\\ of\\ religion\\ \\(Christian\\ Church\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Albert\\ worked\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ own\\ body\\,\\ but\\ still\\ fit\\ his\\ own\\ analyses\\ to\\ religious\\ objects\\ that\\ would\\ ultimately\\ be\\ utilized\\ for\\ religious\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ major\\ master\\ to\\ work\\ exclusively\\ for\\ alt\\ collectors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ single\\ altar\\ piece\\ of\\ his\\ survives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\May\\ have\\ worked\\ on\\ one\\ in\\ earlier\\ career\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ are\\ exclusively\\ forms\\ of\\ worldly\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Activities\\ of\\ normal\\ people\\&mdash\\;trivial\\ pursuits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ makes\\ them\\ look\\ perfectly\\ at\\ home\\ in\\ their\\ gallery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bruegel\\ Room\\,\\ Kunsthistorisches\\ Museum\\,\\ Vienna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ lot\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ and\\ looking\\ comes\\ easy\\ because\\ he\\ takes\\ subjects\\ from\\ everyday\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ special\\ knowledge\\ or\\ scholarly\\ expertise\\ or\\ religious\\ expertise\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peasant\\ Dance\\,\\ 1568\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Picture\\ is\\ as\\ wide\\ as\\ person\\ is\\ tall\\ to\\ give\\ us\\ space\\ to\\ step\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ first\\ monumental\\ paintings\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Games\\,\\ 1560\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Embraces\\ entire\\ town\\ but\\ also\\ landscape\\ beyond\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colossal\\ and\\ intimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Tower\\ of\\ Babel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dwarves\\ the\\ tower\\ utilizing\\ the\\ landscape\\ of\\ dizzying\\ proportions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Hunters\\ in\\ the\\ Snow\\,\\ 1565\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Specific\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ universal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Works\\ address\\ you\\ specifically\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Peasant\\ and\\ the\\ Nest\\ Robber\\ \\(1568\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\where\\ the\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ actually\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ nest\\ robber\\,\\ instructing\\ you\\ where\\ to\\ look\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landscape\\ with\\ the\\ Fall\\ of\\ Icarus\\,\\ 1558\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ hides\\ mythic\\ story\\ within\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\ turns\\ away\\ quite\\ leisurely\\ with\\ everyday\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ embeds\\ religious\\ objects\\ in\\ everyday\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Kings\\ in\\ the\\ Snow\\,\\ 1563\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ magi\\ are\\ barely\\ visible\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hides\\ the\\ biblical\\ subject\\ within\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\ by\\ literally\\ obscuring\\ the\\ scene\\ through\\ the\\ snowfall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\temporalizes\\ when\\ we\\ see\\ it\\ and\\ becomes\\ more\\ obscure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christ\\ Carrying\\ the\\ Cross\\,\\ 1564\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ largest\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picture\\ wants\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ finding\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\That\\ search\\ in\\ itself\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\&rsquo\\;s\\ principal\\ theme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ everyone\\ is\\ dressed\\ in\\ contemporary\\ garb\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Flemish\\ village\\ along\\ great\\ track\\ in\\ large\\ circle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Low\\ land\\ and\\ yet\\ peculiar\\ high\\ rock\\ formation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alos\\ figure\\ in\\ foreground\\ who\\ are\\ dressed\\ in\\ very\\ different\\ garb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ biblical\\ personage\\ garb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Makes\\ us\\ think\\ of\\ blblical\\ but\\ also\\ historical\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ that\\ biblical\\ event\\ is\\ taking\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ crucifixion\\ is\\ not\\ precisely\\ noted\\ until\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ geometric\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ pathway\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ destined\\ towards\\ the\\ circle\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\ which\\ is\\ where\\ Christ\\ will\\ be\\ crucified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Begin\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ story\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ experience\\ or\\ the\\ desire\\ and\\ instinct\\ to\\ look\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ all\\ these\\ people\\ doing\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ story\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ the\\ story\\,\\ including\\ children\\,\\ of\\ everyone\\ rushing\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ good\\ spot\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amazing\\ formal\\ distantiation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Powerful\\ formal\\ echo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thin\\ of\\ how\\ form\\ relates\\ to\\ meaning\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ wonderful\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Circle\\ of\\ onlookers\\ and\\ almost\\ immediately\\ echoed\\ by\\ the\\ wheel\\ on\\ top\\ \\(carriage\\ wheel\\ w\\/\\ a\\ crow\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Torture\\ wheel\\ where\\ bodies\\ would\\ be\\ placed\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ could\\ see\\ that\\ punishment\\ had\\ been\\ enacted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ it\\ represent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indifference\\ to\\ human\\ suffering\\ by\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ echoed\\ by\\ the\\ composition\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ march\\ of\\ people\\ around\\ a\\ central\\ pinnacle\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ not\\ only\\ going\\ to\\ watch\\ but\\ a\\ figure\\ from\\ the\\ bible\\ \\(Simon\\ the\\ sirene\\)\\ is\\ pulled\\ to\\ help\\ Christ\\ carry\\ the\\ cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Being\\ held\\ back\\ by\\ his\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ a\\ mythical\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\History\\ is\\ what\\ people\\ do\\ in\\ their\\ indifference\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinctive\\ and\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ of\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peasant\\ Wedding\\,\\ 1568\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Enters\\ world\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ a\\ traveler\\ out\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Earliest\\ extent\\ work\\ depict\\ landscapes\\ south\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ his\\ return\\ to\\ Netherlands\\ around\\ 1554\\,\\ he\\ works\\ in\\ local\\ shops\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ he\\ settled\\ in\\ Antwerp\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ city\\ of\\ Laissez\\ Faire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Praise\\ god\\ above\\ all\\ and\\ drink\\ the\\ wine\\ and\\ let\\ the\\ world\\ remain\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worldy\\ inhabitants\\ and\\ world\\ reach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Belonged\\ to\\ circile\\ of\\ learned\\ cosmopolitans\\ and\\ shipmakers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ his\\ good\\ friends\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ was\\ Abraham\\ Ortelius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ Atlas\\ was\\ a\\ gook\\ you\\ could\\ hold\\ din\\ your\\ lap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Armchair\\ traveler\\ if\\ you\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Map\\-making\\ and\\ landscape\\ making\\&mdash\\;two\\ best\\&mdash\\;were\\ good\\ friends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Meat\\ Stall\\ with\\ Holy\\ Family\\ Giving\\ Alms\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1551\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Done\\ by\\ Pieter\\ Aertsen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distances\\ the\\ biblical\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critical\\ sense\\ between\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ painting\\ about\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ old\\ form\\ of\\ painting\\ about\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Entered\\ Antwerp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ prince\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Large\\ Alpine\\ Landscape\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1555\\-56\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bruegel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Considered\\ grotesque\\ or\\ unnatural\\ before\\ due\\ to\\ large\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Garden\\ of\\ Delight\\,\\ ca\\ 1500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ title\\ attached\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monstrous\\ fantastical\\ projection\\ of\\ a\\ Utopia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ known\\ historical\\ context\\ or\\ origin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Seven\\ Deadly\\ Sins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ca\\.\\ 1480\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ that\\ the\\ bowl\\ is\\ the\\ eye\\ of\\ God\\ with\\ pupil\\ and\\ iris\\ showing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ looks\\ out\\ at\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ what\\ he\\ sees\\ is\\ sin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\World\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ world\\ that\\ Bruegel\\ will\\ cultivate\\,\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ sin\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ dite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ will\\ be\\ damned\\ and\\ few\\ will\\ be\\ saved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Come\\ to\\ the\\ picture\\ and\\ think\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ the\\ viewer\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ you\\ notice\\ it\\,\\ you\\ have\\ already\\ been\\ seen\\ and\\ judged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Haywain\\,\\ ca\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mere\\ pile\\ of\\ hay\\ that\\ everybody\\ is\\ grappling\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Points\\ out\\ that\\ we\\ all\\ grapple\\ towards\\ nothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\And\\ this\\ moves\\ us\\ towards\\ hell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conflagration\\ in\\ the\\ sky\\ towards\\ Eve\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hieronymus\\ Bosch\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Temptation\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Anthony\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\c\\.\\ 1510\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Turn\\ your\\ back\\ on\\ world\\,\\ everyday\\ life\\ is\\ nothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bruegel\\ began\\ as\\ an\\ imitator\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bruegel\\ passing\\ himself\\ off\\ as\\ Bosch\\ to\\ satisfy\\ a\\ market\\ that\\ probably\\ preferred\\ Bosch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ pictures\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bosch\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ last\\ Judgment\\ c\\.\\ 1483\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bruegel\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Triumph\\ of\\ Death\\ c\\.\\ 1562\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ that\\ the\\ general\\ themes\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ and\\ that\\ Bruegel\\ has\\ done\\ a\\ good\\ job\\ of\\ imitating\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entrance\\ of\\ evil\\ into\\ world\\ and\\ fall\\ of\\ man\\,\\ and\\ end\\ of\\ man\\ in\\ going\\ to\\ heaven\\ or\\ hell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bosch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;no\\ final\\ conclusion\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bruegel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pieter\\ Bruegel\\ the\\ Elder\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Netherlandish\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ creates\\ vast\\ surfaces\\ on\\ which\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Combines\\ landscape\\,\\ cityscape\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Battle\\ Between\\ Carnival\\ and\\ Lent\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1559\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Atlas\\ of\\ human\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Games\\:\\ separate\\ our\\ species\\,\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Verbal\\ games\\ conveying\\ elemental\\ truths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proverbs\\:\\ tie\\ between\\ knowledge\\ and\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Customs\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Play\\,\\ language\\,\\ usage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fundamental\\ subject\\ is\\ a\\ ritual\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ company\\ would\\ represent\\ lent\\ and\\ another\\ company\\ would\\ represent\\ carnival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ day\\ before\\ transition\\,\\ there\\ was\\ this\\ ritual\\ combat\\ in\\ which\\ lent\\ fights\\ with\\ carnival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attends\\ to\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ culture\\ somewhat\\ different\\ from\\ his\\ own\\,\\ peasant\\ culture\\,\\ would\\ represent\\ carnival\\ and\\ lent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ we\\ are\\ watching\\ then\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ people\\ put\\ together\\ its\\ festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Butcher\\ riding\\ the\\ barrel\\ and\\ no\\ armor\\,\\ there\\ is\\ use\\ of\\ pots\\ and\\ spit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kind\\ of\\ ethnographic\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boogeyman\\ at\\ window\\ at\\ window\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bakeries\\ who\\ were\\ dirty\\ were\\ made\\ to\\ display\\ a\\ hand\\-sown\\ boogeyman\\ to\\ warn\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ foul\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Devil\\ himself\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ metaphysical\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Devil\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ creation\\ that\\ is\\ made\\ rather\\ than\\ found\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ fiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scene\\ of\\ Lenten\\ activities\\ includes\\ all\\ these\\ uses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Covering\\ of\\ statues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1550s\\-60s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Belief\\ that\\ these\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ were\\ human\\ creations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inner\\ faith\\ is\\ true\\ but\\ religious\\ is\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brought\\ population\\ close\\ to\\ a\\ civil\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ so\\ much\\ of\\ human\\ life\\,\\ not\\ just\\ pictures\\ and\\ religion\\,\\ are\\ fabricated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dark\\ Day\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1565\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paints\\ humans\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ canvas\\ and\\ he\\ dwarves\\ them\\ by\\ painting\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ to\\ do\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ involved\\ in\\ various\\ carnival\\ activities\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ ships\\ destroyed\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hunters\\ in\\ the\\ Snow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1565\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reaches\\ Pinnacle\\ of\\ series\\ that\\ shows\\ various\\ months\\ and\\ seasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allows\\ us\\ to\\ pass\\ through\\ amazing\\ landscape\\ along\\ pleasure\\ of\\ the\\ people\\&mdash\\;skating\\ on\\ the\\ ice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Winter\\ makes\\ things\\ into\\ a\\ map\\ because\\ everything\\ is\\ frozen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Winter\\ Landscape\\ with\\ Bird\\ Trap\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1565\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hidden\\ detail\\ of\\ bird\\ trap\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crush\\ birds\\ so\\ by\\ pulling\\ stick\\ and\\ taking\\ away\\ stake\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ roast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birds\\ and\\ people\\ are\\ same\\ size\\ \\(birds\\ on\\ tree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Our\\ lives\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ fragile\\ as\\ theirs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Peter\\ Paul\\ Rubens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scholar\\,\\ Diplomat\\,\\ and\\ Artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\focusing\\ on\\ this\\ artist\\ as\\ a\\ case\\ study\\ of\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\innovations\\,\\ issues\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ is\\ western\\ tradition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boundaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\/who\\ is\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\/who\\ is\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rubens\\ is\\ in\\&hellip\\;\\ presumably\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PP\\ Rubens\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Duke\\ of\\ Lerma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1603\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Museo\\ del\\ Prado\\,\\ Madrid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ could\\ be\\ more\\ western\\ than\\ introduction\\ by\\ Spanish\\ by\\ horse\\ to\\ north\\ America\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pretty\\ horse\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lodsge\\ Lining\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1864\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ not\\ think\\ of\\ American\\ Indian\\ art\\ as\\ Western\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meanings\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ sharp\\ boundaries\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ defect\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ would\\ be\\ like\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ my\\ reading\\ lamp\\ is\\ no\\ real\\ ight\\ at\\ all\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ sharp\\ boundary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ludwig\\ Wittgenstein\\,\\ The\\ Blue\\ Book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\really\\ worth\\ considering\\ when\\ we\\ try\\ to\\ place\\ an\\ artist\\ like\\ Rubens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Probably\\ did\\ not\\ think\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\ when\\ painting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Duke\\ of\\ Lerma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Probably\\ was\\ thinking\\ of\\ Tititan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Charles\\ V\\ at\\ Muehlberg\\ \\(1548\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Picture\\ of\\ Charles\\ the\\ V\\ de\\ Medecci\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roman\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marcus\\ Aurelius\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bronze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michael\\ Angelo\\ and\\ Titian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ see\\ rubens\\ one\\ commonly\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rubens\\ appealed\\ incessantly\\ to\\ authority\\ of\\ classical\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ Michel\\ de\\ Montagene\\ acknowledge\\ in\\ his\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Of\\ Cannibals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Europeans\\ had\\ to\\ encounter\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ people\\,\\ animals\\,\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acute\\ curiosity\\ towards\\ empirically\\ apprehensible\\ \\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\.P\\.\\ Rubens\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Lion\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\1614\\-15\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Studied\\ nature\\ and\\ did\\ chalk\\ drawing\\ of\\ Lion\\ which\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ then\\ include\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\_\\_\\_\\ in\\ Lions\\ Den\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ Chinese\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1584\\ Treatise\\ on\\ constancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\younger\\ brother\\ Phillip\\ studied\\ with\\ Lipsias\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ painting\\ of\\ 4\\ men\\ that\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Four\\ Philosophers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1615\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ is\\ homage\\ to\\ Lipsias\\ and\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ intellectual\\ master\\ Seneca\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seneca\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ tutor\\ and\\ then\\ political\\ advisor\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\ Nero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\.P\\ Rubens\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dying\\ Seneca\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Then\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ build\\ himself\\ a\\ large\\ townhouse\\ he\\ placed\\ a\\ head\\ statue\\ over\\ main\\ entrance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ Seneca\\,\\ \\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rubens\\&rsquo\\;\\ philosophy\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leave\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ give\\ man\\ what\\ he\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ is\\ dearer\\ to\\ them\\ than\\ to\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Return\\ to\\ drawing\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bust\\ of\\ Pseudo\\-Seneca\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1626\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looks\\ like\\ a\\ drawing\\ and\\ a\\ statue\\ all\\ at\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Such\\ imitations\\ may\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ least\\ smell\\ like\\ stones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repeatedly\\ based\\ figures\\ on\\ his\\ studies\\ of\\ antique\\ statury\\ made\\ in\\ rome\\ an\\ delsewhere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whether\\ for\\ religious\\ purposes\\ or\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\used\\ Roman\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ for\\ his\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Descent\\ on\\ the\\ Cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\used\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Roman\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Apollo\\ Belvedere\\ for\\ his\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Council\\ of\\ the\\ Gods\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1621\\-1625\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hercules\\ Strangling\\ the\\ menmean\\ Lion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ gallery\\ on\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;floor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\P\\.P\\.\\ Rubens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Garden\\ of\\ Love\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1630\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Far\\ more\\ idiocyncratic\\ was\\ his\\ depiction\\ of\\ statues\\ in\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinction\\ between\\ life\\ and\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distinction\\ between\\ human\\ beings\\ and\\ the\\ gods\\ so\\ that\\ all\\ three\\ seem\\ to\\ inhabit\\ a\\ dream\\-lik\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ humans\\,\\ deities\\,\\ and\\ statues\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ to\\ share\\ capacities\\ for\\ \\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ his\\ artist\\ construed\\ of\\ the\\ \\_\\_\\-\\ he\\ makes\\ new\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\AH\\ FUCK\\ THIS\\,\\ LISTEN\\ TO\\ THE\\ LECTURE\\ VIDEO\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landscape\\ by\\ Moonlight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Studying\\ dam\\ Elsheimer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flight\\ into\\ Egypt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bruegel\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Watch\\ Lecture\\ Video\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ returned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Gianlorenzo\\ Bernini\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Became\\ most\\ important\\ user\\ \\(inventor\\?\\)\\ of\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ art\\ known\\ as\\ Baroque\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ on\\ two\\ self\\-portraits\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-portrait\\ \\.\\ 1635\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Damned\\ Soul\\&rdquo\\;\\ c\\.\\ 1619\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ on\\ two\\ intertwined\\ features\\ today\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bernini\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-fashioning\\ as\\ a\\ genius\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ transmit\\ literally\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essence\\ into\\ his\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Metaphysical\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ apparently\\ neutral\\ space\\,\\ he\\ built\\ the\\ radiant\\ sculture\\ through\\ the\\ manipulation\\ of\\ light\\ but\\ also\\ real\\ wind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Usually\\ designed\\ to\\ be\\ put\\ in\\ places\\ where\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ exposed\\ to\\ real\\ wind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bust\\ of\\ Francesco\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Este\\,\\ 1650\\/51\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biography\\ of\\ son\\ as\\ Bernini\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\ described\\ as\\ dark\\ hair\\ and\\ fiery\\ eyes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bernini\\ also\\ presented\\ himself\\ in\\ numerous\\ self\\-portraits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ he\\ was\\ inflamed\\ to\\ an\\ uncommon\\ degree\\ with\\ an\\ impassioned\\ ferocity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ himself\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ driven\\ by\\ this\\ fiery\\ temperament\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ was\\ capable\\ of\\ manipulating\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forces\\&hellip\\;mainly\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ papal\\ election\\ of\\ 1633\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biography\\,\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ historical\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Santa\\ Bibiana\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1624\\/26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stroked\\ the\\ stone\\ but\\ his\\ hands\\ were\\ guided\\ by\\ a\\ saint\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ saint\\ bibiana\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ execute\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ herself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Work\\ becomes\\ sacred\\ icon\\ b\\/c\\ not\\ just\\ created\\ by\\ human\\ hands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allegory\\ of\\ Truth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1646\\-52\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Created\\ most\\ beautiful\\ thigs\\ he\\ ever\\ made\\ for\\ other\\ commissioners\\ or\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ spirits\\ resisted\\ any\\ restraints\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Four\\ Rivers\\ Fountain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1648\\-51\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ water\\ came\\ rushing\\ down\\ they\\ believed\\ that\\ Bernini\\ prolonged\\ his\\ life\\ by\\ about\\ 10\\ years\\ due\\ to\\ this\\ creation\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alexander\\ VII\\.\\ Chigi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1657\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bernini\\ pointed\\ to\\ a\\ fly\\ which\\ happened\\ to\\ cross\\ the\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pointed\\ at\\ the\\ fly\\ as\\ a\\ better\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ pope\\ than\\ the\\ sculture\\ of\\ the\\ pope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Animation\\ and\\ organic\\ perfection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piazza\\ San\\ Pietro\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1657\\-67\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ square\\ was\\ created\\ with\\ stones\\ from\\ the\\ entrails\\ of\\ the\\ surrounding\\ hills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Louis\\ XIV\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1665\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Process\\ of\\ portraiture\\ is\\ implicitly\\ described\\ in\\ procreative\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\ motive\\ of\\ enlifenment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bernini\\ wanted\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ original\\ of\\ the\\ kind\\,\\ not\\ a\\ copy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\External\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ subjects\\ and\\ then\\ absorbs\\ them\\ into\\ his\\ fantasia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ddrew\\ his\\ mannerism\\,\\ movements\\,\\ etc\\.\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;pregnant\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ kind\\ and\\ created\\ it\\ out\\ of\\ marble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Louis\\ XIV\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1665\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sotne\\ is\\ treated\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ wax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Takes\\ a\\ completely\\ different\\ manipulation\\ of\\ materials\\ and\\ a\\ passionate\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ protect\\ his\\ architectural\\ maliciousness\\,\\ he\\ used\\ builder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scaffolding\\ to\\ fix\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constanza\\ Bonarelli\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apollog\\ and\\ Daphne\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1622\\/24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ create\\ cloth\\,\\ skin\\,\\ hair\\,\\ and\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ show\\ these\\ materials\\ in\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Skin\\ into\\ leaves\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ can\\ be\\ observed\\ mostly\\ at\\ beginning\\ of\\ Bernini\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\St\\.\\ Laurentius\\ on\\ the\\ Grill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1616\\/17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Between\\ life\\ and\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aeneas\\,\\ Anchises\\,\\ and\\ Ascanius\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1618\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fire\\ burns\\ playfully\\ below\\ left\\ leg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stone\\ represented\\ like\\ flesh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\artist\\ as\\ a\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ subject\\ as\\ a\\ sitter\\ and\\ the\\ painter\\ as\\ \\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mme\\ de\\ Pompadour\\ was\\ King\\ Louis\\ XV\\&rsquo\\;s\\ official\\ mistress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ had\\ 3\\ mistresses\\ before\\,\\ but\\ none\\ for\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ bourgeouise\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Groomed\\ by\\ financier\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moved\\ to\\ special\\ apartment\\ in\\ Versailles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ was\\ given\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ Marquis\\ de\\ Pompadeur\\ until\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ her\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Above\\ all\\,\\ known\\ for\\ her\\ recognition\\ and\\ interest\\ in\\ art\\ and\\ art\\ as\\ self\\-representation\\ and\\ self\\-promotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surrounded\\ by\\ the\\ attributes\\ of\\ sculptures\\ and\\ artist\\ in\\ this\\ particular\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ran\\ a\\ salon\\ in\\ her\\ house\\ that\\ was\\ attended\\ by\\ famous\\ artists\\ and\\ writers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ she\\ became\\ the\\ mistress\\ she\\ actually\\ opened\\ a\\ theatre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Pigalle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Freindship\\ and\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tried\\ to\\ install\\ her\\ family\\ in\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uncle\\,\\ father\\,\\ and\\ aunt\\ in\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ superintendent\\ of\\ the\\ buildings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ brother\\ was\\ also\\ put\\ in\\ this\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\,\\ herself\\,\\ was\\ a\\ patroness\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\ because\\ she\\ owned\\ various\\ chateau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ small\\ residences\\ that\\ were\\ decorated\\ with\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\ as\\ a\\ nobleman\\,\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ portraiture\\ reserved\\ for\\ noblemen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acknowledges\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ viewere\\ with\\ body\\ language\\ and\\ gaze\\ but\\ not\\ too\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Known\\ for\\ 3\\ kinds\\ of\\ paintings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mythological\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Usually\\ on\\ subject\\ of\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Triumph\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Erotic\\ dimension\\ of\\ the\\ encounter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ women\\ with\\ one\\ represented\\ ina\\ \\ \\;swooning\\ pose\\ with\\ a\\ dove\\ stressed\\ between\\ her\\ thighs\\ and\\ she\\ has\\ flushed\\ cheeks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ excelled\\ at\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pastorals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Invention\\ of\\ personal\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visual\\ invention\\ of\\ Boucher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autumn\\ Patoral\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ 1749\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ life\\ of\\ sheppards\\ and\\ sheppardesses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boy\\ feeding\\ grpes\\ to\\ girl\\,\\ still\\ erotic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interior\\ scenes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ putting\\ on\\ her\\ garter\\,\\ showing\\ her\\ dress\\ with\\ her\\ maid\\ helping\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showing\\ that\\ much\\ leg\\ in\\ those\\ times\\ was\\ quite\\ uncommon\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ erotic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ of\\ Mme\\ de\\ 7\\.\\ Pompadour\\ at\\ the\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1757\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ format\\ of\\ representation\\ was\\ not\\ unusual\\ for\\ royal\\ mistresses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ quite\\ dressed\\ up\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ parts\\ of\\ her\\ body\\ that\\ are\\ visible\\ remind\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ cut\\-out\\ marionettes\\ of\\ those\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ procedure\\ for\\ painting\\ this\\ portrait\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ reality\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ would\\ not\\ sit\\ for\\ it\\,\\ she\\ would\\ paint\\ her\\ face\\ and\\ hands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphais\\ on\\ attributed\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ way\\ that\\ mistresses\\ were\\ usually\\ depicted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ has\\ an\\ encyclopedia\\,\\ giuitar\\,\\ and\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ an\\ enlightened\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artist\\ goes\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ etching\\ tools\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\ and\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ that\\ is\\ under\\ the\\ table\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\\prints\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\ with\\ two\\ signatures\\:\\ boucher\\ and\\ pompadour\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\signaling\\ eh\\ contribution\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ artist\\ and\\ the\\ sitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ only\\ the\\ print\\,\\ but\\ herpahs\\ the\\ panting\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\That\\ idea\\ of\\ sitter\\ as\\ materially\\ manifested\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Re\\-enactment\\ of\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ by\\ the\\ printer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painting\\ recently\\ redated\\ for\\ 1750\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mme\\ de\\ Pompadour\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1750\\ \\(Fogg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Toilet\\:\\ woman\\,\\ while\\ making\\ herself\\ up\\,\\ would\\ speak\\ to\\ her\\ visitors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\,\\ toilet\\ would\\ be\\ somewhat\\ social\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discussions\\ that\\ were\\ considered\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ confronts\\ the\\ viewere\\ in\\ this\\ painting\\,\\ therefore\\ making\\ the\\ viewer\\ the\\ visitor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Fogg\\ painting\\,\\ the\\ focus\\ is\\ slightly\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Presented\\ ina\\ \\ \\;way\\ that\\ make\\ the\\ paitning\\ itself\\ almost\\ like\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ a\\ make\\ up\\ procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compression\\ of\\ space\\ like\\ in\\ Munich\\ portrait\\ that\\ brings\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\,\\ sitter\\,\\ to\\ the\\ surface\\ and\\ establishes\\ the\\ surface\\ itself\\ as\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ performance\\ both\\ her\\ own\\ and\\ that\\ artist\\ as\\ her\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ without\\ a\\ licence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ practice\\ of\\ women\\ making\\ themselves\\ up\\ without\\ any\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ stages\\ the\\ madamme\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ interchangeability\\ of\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ marquis\\ holds\\ the\\ brush\\ that\\ therefore\\ become\\ a\\ shifter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evokes\\ what\\ the\\ artist\\ painter\\ her\\ paitning\\ herself\\ is\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ is\\ holding\\ it\\ like\\ a\\ paintbrush\\ even\\ though\\ she\\ is\\ just\\ applying\\ blush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ rouge\\,\\ it\\ suddenly\\ becomes\\ like\\ a\\ smudge\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ conveys\\ her\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looks\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ applied\\ it\\ incorrectly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quality\\ of\\ surface\\ with\\ the\\ strokes\\ still\\ visible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looking\\ at\\ the\\ bow\\:\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ pigment\\ of\\ the\\ brush\\ has\\ dropped\\ onto\\ the\\ bow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mimicking\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\her\\ bracelet\\ somewhat\\ signals\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ king\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ expensive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cameo\\ bracelet\\ therefore\\ he\\ only\\ makes\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cameo\\ appearance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ presence\\ is\\ quite\\ subdued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ represents\\ the\\ king\\ as\\ a\\ statue\\ with\\ the\\ queen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bracelet\\ might\\ be\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ gems\\ that\\ Jacque\\ \\_\\_\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ was\\ a\\ person\\ with\\ whom\\ the\\ Queen\\ worked\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Signature\\ is\\ absent\\ from\\ the\\ bracelet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refrence\\ to\\ Mmm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ artistic\\ skills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ has\\ a\\ sketch\\ of\\ Louis\\ XV\\&rsquo\\;s\\ which\\ she\\ has\\ done\\ herself\\ and\\ which\\ was\\ actually\\ done\\ in\\ collaoration\\ with\\ Gabe\\ \\(man\\ who\\ was\\ cutting\\ stones\\ for\\ the\\ king\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bracelet\\ is\\ an\\ amalgam\\ of\\ a\\ real\\ object\\ and\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ imaginary\\ object\\ through\\ which\\ Mme\\ suggests\\ her\\ presence\\ which\\ as\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ her\\ touch\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Known\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\ has\\ produced\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ likeness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ also\\ worked\\ with\\ artist\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ right\\&hellip\\;\\ rolled\\ into\\ one\\ in\\ this\\ small\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quite\\ an\\ unusual\\ case\\ in\\ a\\ possible\\ collaboration\\ between\\ the\\ artist\\ and\\ the\\ sitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Useful\\ as\\ something\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ look\\ more\\ carefully\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ one\\ person\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ artist\\ AND\\ the\\ sitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\The\\ American\\ Sublime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Delightful\\ horror\\ that\\ overtook\\ him\\ when\\ he\\ vied\\ the\\ alps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Predicated\\ on\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ one\\ encounters\\ nature\\ most\\ forcefully\\ not\\ in\\ moments\\ of\\ understanding\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ when\\ it\\ exceeds\\ your\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ one\\ single\\ object\\ but\\ the\\ bulkness\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nature\\ exceeding\\ cognitive\\ capacity\\ of\\ the\\ observer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treatise\\ on\\ the\\ Ideas\\ of\\ the\\ Sublime\\ and\\ Beautiful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beautiful\\:\\ delicate\\,\\ gradual\\,\\ and\\ smooth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sublime\\:\\ jagged\\,\\ brutal\\,\\ and\\ extreme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Terror\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ sensory\\ experiences\\ that\\ takes\\ us\\ beyond\\ our\\ capacity\\ to\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overpowering\\ dark\\ and\\ lightness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sublime\\:\\ bold\\,\\ overhanging\\,\\ and\\ as\\ it\\ were\\ threatening\\ rocks\\,\\ thunder\\ clouds\\ moving\\,\\ hurricanes\\ with\\ all\\ the\\ devastation\\ they\\ leave\\ behind\\,\\ and\\ so\\ forth\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ dynamically\\ sublime\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Entails\\ an\\ encounter\\ with\\ our\\ vulnerability\\ with\\ natural\\ might\\ but\\ also\\ with\\ an\\ encounter\\ with\\ our\\ own\\ power\\ of\\ reason\\ which\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ natural\\ might\\ and\\ gives\\ us\\ an\\ independent\\ from\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Keeps\\ from\\ degrading\\ our\\ humanity\\ \\(reason\\ rescuses\\ the\\ sublime\\ experience\\ from\\ becoming\\ degrading\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Landscape\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\History\\ painting\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ noble\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resistance\\ in\\ states\\ to\\ hisotyr\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Vanderlyn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Left\\ US\\ in\\ 1721\\ \\(\\?\\)\\&\\#61664\\;\\ first\\ American\\ painter\\ to\\ study\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ 20\\ years\\ in\\ europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ in\\ Rome\\ he\\ painted\\ Marius\\ on\\ the\\ Ruins\\ of\\ Carthage\\ \\(1807\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Returned\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ excited\\ w\\/\\ capacities\\ as\\ a\\ history\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ not\\ terribly\\ receptive\\ to\\ these\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ Niagara\\ Falls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Landscape\\ was\\ something\\ that\\ that\\ Americas\\ had\\ in\\ abundance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romantic\\ notions\\ of\\ landscape\\ where\\ one\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ mediated\\ experience\\ w\\/\\ natural\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medicated\\ worries\\ of\\ not\\ having\\ a\\ deep\\ history\\ \\(left\\ in\\ Europe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1827\\ \\(kaaterskill\\ falls\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ohio\\ to\\ new\\ york\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ done\\ 1\\ year\\ after\\ arriving\\ in\\ NYC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\popular\\ tourist\\ sites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ added\\ gloomy\\ overhanding\\ rock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kant\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaaterskill\\ Falls\\ \\#2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ different\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ history\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ history\\ of\\ earth\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Occupied\\ central\\ place\\ in\\ middle\\ decades\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geology\\ already\\ popular\\ in\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1835\\,\\ one\\ magazine\\ suggested\\ that\\ Boston\\ had\\ become\\ gologically\\ mad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geology\\ provided\\ opportunity\\ to\\ claim\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ rich\\ history\\,\\ perhaps\\ richer\\ than\\ the\\ one\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1829\\:\\ leaves\\ NYC\\ and\\ goes\\ to\\ Europe\\ for\\ 3\\ years\\ of\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\meets\\ Turner\\ in\\ London\\ and\\ affected\\ by\\ meeting\\ w\\/\\ Turner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acquaintance\\ w\\/\\ Martin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Returns\\ to\\ NY\\ committed\\ to\\ represent\\ a\\ higher\\ form\\ of\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Entails\\ combining\\ landscape\\ painting\\ and\\ history\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affected\\ experience\\ of\\ landscape\\ can\\ be\\ wedded\\ to\\ moral\\ experience\\ eof\\ the\\ hisotircal\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rock\\ is\\ repeated\\ in\\ every\\ image\\ so\\ that\\ viewere\\ is\\ assured\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ place\\ and\\ we\\ seee\\ an\\ unfolding\\ of\\ events\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Course\\ of\\ Empire\\,\\ Savage\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Course\\ of\\ Empire\\,\\ Pastoral\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Course\\ of\\ Empire\\,\\ Consummation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Course\\ of\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Course\\ of\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allegory\\ for\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ in\\ US\\ since\\ similar\\ to\\ NY\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ singly\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Savage\\ State\\,\\ 1834\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looming\\ clouds\\,\\ very\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ sublime\\ as\\ we\\ described\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ wildness\\ which\\ exceeds\\ control\\ of\\ primitive\\ human\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pastoral\\ State\\,\\ 1834\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\World\\ quite\\ pacific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ that\\ realized\\ ideal\\ relationship\\ between\\ human\\ beings\\ and\\ the\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picture\\ of\\ keeping\\ w\\/\\ Bruks\\ idea\\ of\\ beautiful\\ rather\\ tan\\ sublime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consummation\\,\\ 1835\\-36\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ landscape\\ almost\\ completely\\ occluded\\ by\\ buildings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boulder\\ is\\ peeking\\ to\\ assure\\ us\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ same\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HEeight\\ oempire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Destruction\\,\\ 1836\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ falling\\ apart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Desolation\\,\\ 1836\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Signs\\ of\\ civilization\\ overcome\\ by\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nests\\ on\\ column\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claiming\\ everything\\ black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cole\\ was\\ actually\\ quite\\ pessimistic\\ about\\ future\\ of\\ country\\ and\\ skeptical\\ of\\ effects\\ of\\ industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pastoral\\ state\\ was\\ his\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tremendously\\ conservative\\ who\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ landed\\ aristocracy\\ and\\ egrerian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Andrew\\ Jackson\\ as\\ modern\\ day\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Landscape\\ is\\ site\\ for\\ historical\\ drama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Skies\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ expressive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geologic\\ time\\ represented\\ by\\ the\\ rocky\\ boulder\\ and\\ promontory\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ \\(time\\ of\\ earth\\ is\\ not\\ same\\ as\\ time\\ of\\ civilization\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rupture\\ between\\ human\\/historical\\ time\\ and\\ geologica\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1830\\,\\ while\\ studying\\ in\\ London\\,\\ Myell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ works\\ were\\ published\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\uniformitarianism\\:\\ morphology\\ of\\ earth\\ changed\\ not\\ by\\ sudden\\ catechlism\\ effects\\ but\\ gradual\\ everyday\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ one\\ believed\\ in\\ that\\,\\ then\\ modern\\ geology\\ sweeping\\ aside\\ of\\ what\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ biblica\\ time\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\instead\\ went\\ back\\ millions\\,\\ if\\ not\\ billions\\ of\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\because\\ rupture\\ was\\ so\\ upsetting\\,\\ great\\ efforts\\ to\\ sustain\\ biblican\\ accounts\\ of\\ geological\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rocking\\ stones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stones\\ placed\\ on\\ overhanding\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\proof\\ that\\ great\\ deluge\\ had\\ taken\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ through\\ uniformatorianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\,\\ still\\ cause\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ biblical\\ believe\\ of\\ great\\ deluge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rocking\\ stone\\ in\\ background\\ stands\\ for\\ divine\\ order\\ surviving\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sign\\ not\\ for\\ just\\ deluge\\ but\\ links\\ wrath\\ of\\ god\\ to\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ empires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ wickedness\\ and\\ bad\\ fate\\ of\\ modern\\ state\\ is\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ of\\ diving\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\While\\ cole\\ was\\ painting\\,\\ the\\ german\\ naturalist\\ karl\\ schimper\\ made\\ case\\ that\\ these\\ stones\\ had\\ been\\ left\\ in\\ glacial\\ retreat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aggasiz\\ popularized\\ this\\ view\\ that\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ 1840\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rocking\\ stone\\ a\\ precarious\\ sign\\ for\\ biblical\\ time\\ that\\ had\\ sustained\\ new\\ understanding\\ of\\ geological\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incomprehensible\\ dysjunciton\\ that\\ modterm\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ was\\ inserting\\ between\\ human\\ time\\ and\\ time\\ of\\ earth\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cole\\ exhibited\\ one\\ of\\ first\\ 2\\ paintings\\ in\\ series\\ so\\ asked\\ to\\ produce\\ different\\ painting\\ form\\ exhibition\\ and\\ to\\ take\\ break\\ from\\ painting\\ of\\ course\\ of\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ terribly\\ successful\\ with\\ single\\ paintings\\ so\\ wanted\\ to\\ paint\\ a\\ landscape\\ that\\ would\\ \\&ldquo\\;tell\\ a\\ tale\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ well\\-known\\ tourist\\ site\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ Mount\\ Holyoke\\ looking\\ down\\ at\\ a\\ bend\\ in\\ the\\ Connecticut\\ River\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oxbow\\,\\ 1833\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ subliminal\\ was\\ not\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ looking\\ down\\ at\\ a\\ river\\ form\\ atop\\ a\\ mountain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cole\\ understood\\ this\\ and\\ said\\,\\ after\\ climing\\ up\\ to\\ make\\ stuidies\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ all\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beautify\\,\\ the\\ seen\\ was\\ one\\ too\\ extended\\ and\\ math\\-like\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nevertheless\\,\\ he\\ decide\\ to\\ make\\ this\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ demand\\/desire\\ for\\ this\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ ethos\\ favoring\\ expansive\\ spaces\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ \\ \\;brought\\ under\\ optical\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Previously\\ uncontrolled\\ territories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;magisterial\\ gaze\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\imperial\\ ambitions\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ for\\ controlling\\ vast\\ lands\\ of\\ new\\ rold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\helps\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ the\\ panorama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\360\\ view\\ painted\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ large\\ cylinder\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\another\\ version\\ of\\ this\\ form\\ \\ \\;involved\\ very\\ very\\ long\\ canvas\\ that\\ was\\ unwound\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ viewers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\very\\ popular\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\to\\ do\\ so\\ in\\ ordinary\\ sized\\ canvas\\ was\\ his\\ great\\ challenge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\compress\\ the\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\can\\ see\\ this\\ solution\\ by\\ seeing\\ the\\ sketches\\ he\\ made\\ from\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\amount\\ of\\ view\\ \\(angle\\)\\ that\\ one\\ gets\\ with\\ painting\\ itself\\ goes\\ beyond\\ one\\ page\\ and\\ goes\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\what\\ he\\ did\\ was\\ he\\ squeezed\\ the\\ landscape\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ fit\\ it\\ into\\ his\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\55\\ degrees\\ of\\ arc\\ but\\ he\\ takes\\ in\\ 85\\-95\\ degrees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\really\\ pressed\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\finished\\ work\\ has\\ look\\ of\\ two\\ views\\ put\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\seem\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ two\\ different\\ landscapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\blasted\\ tree\\,\\ dark\\ clouds\\,\\ untamed\\ woods\\ \\(sublime\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\then\\ get\\ pastoral\\ state\\ on\\ the\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\he\\ had\\ finished\\ savage\\ state\\ and\\ pastoral\\ state\\ of\\ empire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\perhaps\\ trying\\ to\\ combine\\ what\\ he\\ had\\ learned\\ from\\ both\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Landscape\\ of\\ oxbow\\ has\\ cryptic\\ signs\\ of\\ religious\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ trees\\ on\\ left\\ side\\ \\(pietad\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Throwing\\ branch\\ around\\ the\\ other\\ and\\ holding\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ lap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ clearings\\ in\\ the\\ hills\\ that\\ are\\ noticibly\\ notation\\-like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resemble\\ representation\\ of\\ hebrew\\ Noah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ upside\\ down\\ representation\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\_\\_\\_\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ before\\ notion\\ of\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\ was\\ brought\\ about\\ or\\ coined\\.\\.\\ but\\ probably\\ have\\ a\\ feeling\\ similar\\ to\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picture\\ is\\ quite\\ ambigious\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ approving\\ of\\ the\\ savage\\ to\\ the\\ pastoral\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ sign\\ of\\ deluge\\ and\\ punishment\\ that\\ might\\ come\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Could\\ represent\\ savagery\\ of\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Umbrella\\ sticks\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ savage\\ part\\ and\\ kind\\ of\\ stitches\\ together\\ the\\ pastoral\\ portion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represents\\ the\\ painter\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ brought\\ the\\ two\\ together\\ \\(could\\ have\\ been\\ his\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fine\\ landscape\\ although\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ so\\ at\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Someone\\ noted\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ great\\ success\\ although\\ not\\ bad\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ try\\ this\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Born\\ 1826\\,\\ Frederic\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Learned\\ much\\ from\\ Cole\\ but\\ also\\ diverged\\ much\\ from\\ his\\ teacher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Storm\\ in\\ the\\ Mountains\\,\\ 1847\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Move\\ in\\ American\\ landscape\\ towards\\ greater\\ transparency\\ of\\ atmosphere\\ and\\ detail\\ \\(geological\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ broken\\ tree\\ was\\ signature\\ icon\\ for\\ Cole\\,\\ it\\ was\\ rendered\\ by\\ Church\\ with\\ much\\ greater\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elasticity\\ of\\ the\\ tree\\ and\\ botainical\\ specimens\\ around\\ tree\\ much\\ more\\ detailed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ scientific\\ view\\ of\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Changes\\ in\\ art\\ market\\ by\\ middle\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ buyers\\ for\\ big\\ paintings\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ capitalist\\ class\\ rather\\ than\\ aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ to\\ be\\ assured\\ that\\ they\\ wre\\ getting\\ painting\\ from\\ skilled\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Knowing\\ difference\\ form\\ one\\ plant\\ species\\ to\\ another\\ and\\ can\\ render\\ in\\ great\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Positivism\\ that\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ capitalist\\ enterprise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remarkably\\ clear\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geology\\ great\\ science\\ of\\ interest\\ in\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ but\\ then\\ botany\\ and\\ meteorology\\ great\\ interest\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humboldt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ South\\ America\\ and\\ tropics\\ in\\ turn\\ of\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encouraged\\ people\\ to\\ travel\\ and\\ take\\ detailed\\ studies\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capitalist\\ and\\ people\\ with\\ scientific\\ bent\\,\\ interest\\ very\\ similar\\ at\\ this\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Church\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Niagra\\ of\\ 1857\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ large\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ tactics\\ that\\ catapaulted\\ him\\ to\\ fame\\ and\\ fortne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ of\\ displaying\\ in\\ academy\\ of\\ design\\ he\\ created\\ a\\ separate\\ exhibition\\ by\\ itself\\ \\(single\\ one\\ picture\\ exhibition\\)\\ and\\ charged\\ for\\ admission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surrounding\\ was\\ carefully\\ constructed\\,\\ opera\\ glasses\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ they\\ left\\ they\\ could\\ buy\\ a\\ lithographic\\ copy\\ of\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ of\\ a\\ copressing\\ he\\ just\\ paints\\ a\\ much\\ wider\\ painting\\ that\\ was\\ done\\ way\\ with\\ foreground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interesting\\ because\\ foreground\\ usually\\ gives\\ details\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ transparency\\ of\\ atmosphere\\ allows\\ for\\ even\\ things\\ in\\ middle\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ clear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heart\\ of\\ the\\ Andes\\,\\ 1859\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ famous\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demonstrates\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tactic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ heed\\ Humboldt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ call\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ new\\ landscapes\\ in\\ natural\\ world\\ \\(1853\\ and\\ 1857\\)\\ and\\ makes\\ sketches\\&hellip\\;\\ comes\\ back\\ and\\ makes\\ paintings\\ of\\ these\\ exotic\\ landscapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heralded\\ as\\ bringing\\ together\\ idea\\ of\\ art\\ w\\/\\ scrutiny\\ of\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aurora\\ Borealis\\,\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\View\\ of\\ Cotopaxi\\,\\ 1857\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ visions\\ had\\ so\\ tamed\\ the\\ landscape\\ that\\ the\\ sublime\\ had\\ eradicated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visitor\\ to\\ a\\ viewing\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ noted\\ that\\ it\\ seemed\\ to\\ detract\\ from\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Niagara\\ Falls\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ control\\ fro\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ we\\ debased\\ or\\ eradicated\\ sublime\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1869\\,\\ Jackons\\ \\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\his\\ paintings\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;bold\\ and\\ effective\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ on\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ trade\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\production\\ of\\ art\\ very\\ much\\ tied\\ to\\ capitalistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ sublime\\ by\\ middle\\ decades\\ of\\ centuries\\ no\\ sublime\\ at\\ all\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ make\\ this\\ argument\\ using\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ there\\ were\\ other\\ American\\ painters\\ who\\ were\\ taking\\ a\\ different\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ less\\ on\\ compression\\ of\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ dealing\\ with\\ represeantion\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Martin\\ Johson\\ Head\\,\\ 1871\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawing\\ marsh\\ scenes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paintings\\ are\\ very\\ small\\ and\\ contemplative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looming\\ clouds\\&\\#61664\\;\\ sublime\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orchid\\ and\\ Hummingbirds\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ atmospheric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ where\\ sublime\\ really\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\ was\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ paintings\\ that\\ he\\ made\\ as\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ approached\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Coming\\ of\\ Storm\\,\\ 1859\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clarity\\ and\\ gloom\\ and\\ exigency\\ and\\ calm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Given\\ title\\ of\\ painting\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ storm\\ approach\\ but\\ the\\ foreground\\ loks\\ much\\ more\\ like\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ a\\ storm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Broken\\ board\\,\\ sail\\ out\\ on\\ rocks\\ to\\ dry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strange\\ disconnect\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ do\\ see\\ in\\ foreground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Figure\\ standing\\ on\\ sailboat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sits\\ at\\ eye\\ of\\ the\\ storm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wearing\\ exactly\\ same\\ colors\\ as\\ the\\ figure\\ standing\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ if\\ seeing\\ him\\ at\\ two\\ different\\ points\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Light\\ and\\ dark\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Between\\ middle\\ figure\\ and\\ foreground\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ middle\\ rowboat\\ as\\ the\\ rower\\ can\\ only\\ see\\ where\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ and\\ not\\ where\\ he\\ is\\ going\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Rupture\\ is\\ powerful\\ signification\\ or\\ rendering\\ of\\ the\\ sublime\\ and\\ enormous\\ landscapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\camera\\ obscura\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\light\\ entering\\ a\\ small\\ aperture\\ and\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ projected\\ if\\ the\\ inside\\ is\\ dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\modeling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\popular\\ device\\ for\\ artists\\ who\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ draw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\use\\ of\\ lens\\ to\\ concentrate\\ the\\ light\\ and\\ mirror\\ reflects\\ the\\ rays\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ turned\\ right\\-side\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ tracing\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\early\\ decades\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\became\\ interested\\ in\\ camera\\ obscura\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ tracing\\ device\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ producer\\ of\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\modern\\ popularity\\ as\\ a\\ results\\ of\\ shifting\\ tastes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\history\\ painting\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ lore\\ genre\\&\\#61664\\;\\ including\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Became\\ valuable\\ for\\ studying\\ optical\\ effects\\ and\\ seeing\\ landscapes\\ as\\ thatre\\ of\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deguerre\\ deeply\\ involved\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ helped\\ to\\ decorate\\ theatres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deguerre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Began\\ life\\ in\\ opera\\ \\(donno\\ what\\ position\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ became\\ famous\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ entrepreneur\\&hellip\\;\\ painting\\ of\\ stage\\ sets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1820\\-22\\:\\ co\\-invented\\ one\\ of\\ most\\ popular\\ forms\\ if\\ entertainment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\diarama\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\used\\ two\\ transluscent\\ screens\\ that\\ had\\ paintings\\ on\\ them\\ and\\ a\\ rotating\\ stage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\remarkable\\ light\\ effects\\ created\\ by\\ shining\\ light\\ behind\\ and\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ painitng\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\exploding\\ volcanoes\\ to\\ snow\\ storms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\proto\\-cinema\\ and\\ extremely\\ popular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\stage\\ rotates\\ and\\ viewers\\ can\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ different\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3D\\ effects\\ quite\\ extraordinary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Camera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Old\\ device\\ that\\ has\\ taken\\ on\\ new\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Light\\-sensitive\\ properties\\ of\\ certain\\ substances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiments\\ carried\\ out\\ by\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Light\\ darkened\\ silver\\ salts\\ with\\ variable\\ speed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Around\\ 1800\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wedgewood\\:\\ Silhouettes\\ made\\ on\\ glass\\ with\\ silver\\ salts\\ but\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ kept\\ in\\ the\\ dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Earliest\\ experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ camera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daguerre\\ put\\ light\\-sensitive\\ substances\\ in\\ the\\ camera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ various\\ inventors\\ had\\ discovered\\ how\\ silver\\ salts\\ could\\ be\\ desensitized\\ to\\ light\\,\\ they\\ could\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ image\\ so\\ that\\ additional\\ exposure\\ to\\ light\\ would\\ not\\ obliterate\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daguerre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Layer\\ of\\ silver\\ iodide\\ on\\ copper\\ plate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Insert\\ plate\\ in\\ camera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subject\\ to\\ be\\ photographed\\,\\ with\\ varied\\ time\\ \\(mins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remove\\ plate\\ and\\ develop\\ it\\ by\\ exposing\\ it\\ to\\ mercury\\ vapor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Later\\ fixed\\ with\\ sodium\\ hyposulfide\\ known\\ as\\ hypo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Metal\\ plate\\ was\\ a\\ unique\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Could\\ not\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ print\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Certain\\ aspects\\ unique\\ to\\ this\\ process\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Mirror\\-like\\ surface\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ certain\\ kind\\ of\\ honesty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ cheaper\\ than\\ a\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\10\\-15\\ francs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\middle\\ class\\ could\\ buy\\ one\\ if\\ they\\ saved\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\maybe\\ half\\ a\\ week\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;Extraordinarily\\ high\\ resolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\by\\ accident\\ of\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\highest\\ resolution\\ of\\ any\\ process\\ currently\\ devised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ really\\ fine\\ engraving\\ but\\ they\\ could\\ use\\ a\\ micron\\ telescope\\ or\\ magnifying\\ glass\\ to\\ see\\ extreme\\ details\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ bound\\ up\\ in\\ materials\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conformed\\ to\\ pictorial\\ western\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monocular\\,\\ immobile\\,\\ rectangular\\,\\ framed\\,\\ and\\ perspectypal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rendered\\ pictures\\ in\\ proper\\ academic\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Verical\\ lines\\ that\\ are\\ parallel\\ do\\ not\\ meet\\ and\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ vanishing\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ very\\ good\\ analogy\\ for\\ our\\ own\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Our\\ own\\ vision\\ is\\ binocular\\,\\ see\\ out\\ in\\ space\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ see\\ very\\ blurry\\ in\\ the\\ periphery\\,\\ focus\\ very\\ centralized\\ \\(rods\\ and\\ cones\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Really\\ a\\ conventional\\ representation\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ materialized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\can\\ use\\ different\\ lenses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ other\\ ways\\ however\\,\\ photography\\ was\\ revolutionary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daguerre\\ process\\ was\\ an\\ automatic\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Associated\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ of\\ social\\ leveling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fact\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ so\\ relatively\\ inexpensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pictures\\ and\\ portraits\\ suddenly\\ available\\ to\\ middle\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Camera\\ treated\\ everything\\ equally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ painting\\ Napolean\\,\\ you\\ would\\ not\\ paint\\ him\\ same\\ way\\ as\\ you\\ paint\\ his\\ attendant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ no\\ hierarchy\\ with\\ camera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sense\\ that\\ photography\\ taking\\ part\\ in\\ upheaval\\ in\\ modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Breakdown\\ of\\ social\\ barriers\\ and\\ hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Endless\\ lines\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ get\\ daguerrotype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ would\\ photography\\ change\\ rules\\ of\\ arts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ constitutes\\ picture\\ and\\ artist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ would\\ it\\ compete\\ with\\ other\\ pictures\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anxiety\\ and\\ pressing\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-definition\\ of\\ new\\ international\\ middle\\-class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sanitizing\\ of\\ imagination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narcissistic\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ only\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ own\\ picture\\ and\\ picture\\ of\\ loved\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Makers\\ of\\ paintings\\ commercially\\ threatened\\ by\\ commercial\\ photography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ medium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Understood\\ as\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ drawing\\ rather\\ than\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Non\\-chromatic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Associated\\ with\\ drawing\\ because\\ it\\ copied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\delaroche\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\measures\\ photography\\&rsquo\\;s\\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\free\\ and\\ energetic\\ modeling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\puts\\ it\\ to\\ test\\ of\\ what\\ academic\\ drawing\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ odd\\ word\\ is\\ term\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\at\\ time\\ only\\ essentially\\ a\\ biological\\ term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\star\\-fish\\ loses\\ limb\\ and\\ grows\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\used\\ this\\ somewhat\\ magical\\ and\\ mysterious\\ term\\ to\\ describe\\ photography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\likening\\ of\\ photography\\ to\\ drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\left\\ status\\ quite\\ undetermined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\studio\\ drawings\\,\\ preparatory\\ drawings\\,\\ also\\ drawings\\ of\\ fossils\\ and\\ plants\\,\\ anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\daguerrotype\\ of\\ fossils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\more\\ in\\ the\\ archival\\ mode\\ than\\ the\\ western\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\colonized\\ different\\ domains\\ of\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\takes\\ in\\ every\\ detail\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ something\\ very\\ positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\objectivity\\ of\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\more\\ problematic\\ when\\ photographs\\ heralded\\ as\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\photography\\ seen\\ as\\ merely\\ mechanical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\unthinking\\ forms\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ generally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\art\\ derived\\ from\\ mind\\ rather\\ than\\ unthinking\\ work\\ of\\ hands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\simultaneous\\ emergence\\ of\\ photographic\\ process\\ in\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Talbot\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ working\\ since\\ mid\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\ on\\ \\(1830\\&rsquo\\;s\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\ years\\ before\\ Argo\\ \\(1833\\)\\ announced\\ Daguerre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\he\\ was\\ touring\\ around\\ Europe\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ sketching\\ on\\ banks\\ of\\ Lake\\ Homo\\ or\\ Como\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\poor\\ drafts\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\greatly\\ frustrated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ he\\ used\\ a\\ camera\\ lucida\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\see\\ image\\ of\\ subject\\ on\\ piece\\ of\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\felt\\ insecurity\\ so\\ he\\ looked\\ for\\ something\\ that\\ made\\ picture\\ automatically\\ appear\\ on\\ surface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\came\\ up\\ with\\ process\\ that\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ daguerre\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\uses\\ paper\\ rather\\ than\\ metal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\paper\\ soaked\\ with\\ silver\\-salts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reversal\\ of\\ left\\ to\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ he\\ took\\ a\\ photograph\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ photograph\\,\\ it\\ would\\ reverse\\ things\\ but\\ inversion\\ of\\ lights\\ an\\ darks\\ would\\ also\\ be\\ reversed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\negative\\ and\\ positive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\describes\\ two\\ prints\\:\\ original\\ and\\ re\\-reversed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ principlal\\ advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Negative\\ positive\\ technique\\ could\\ yield\\ infinite\\ \\#\\ copies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Images\\ easy\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ because\\ non\\-reflective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ as\\ engagning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easy\\ to\\ use\\ since\\ on\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\could\\ be\\ put\\ in\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Even\\ cheaper\\ than\\ daguerrotype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Much\\ lower\\ resolution\\,\\ however\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nothing\\ but\\ smudginess\\ compared\\ to\\ daguerrotypes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Talbot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ end\\,\\ it\\ was\\ Talbot\\&rsquo\\;s\\ process\\ isn\\ 1839\\,\\ and\\ immediately\\ following\\ that\\,\\ that\\ really\\ paved\\ way\\ for\\ modern\\ photography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daguerre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faded\\ out\\ middle\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Using\\ glass\\-plate\\ negatives\\,\\ you\\ could\\ get\\ similar\\ resolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ digital\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actively\\ promoted\\ process\\ and\\ gave\\ many\\ rosey\\ and\\ quite\\ remarkably\\ pressing\\ forecasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1844\\-46\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pencil\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ book\\,\\ in\\ installments\\,\\ that\\ was\\ illustrated\\ with\\ photographs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\labor\\-saving\\ qualities\\ of\\ photography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\promotion\\ of\\ his\\ new\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\picture\\ of\\ haystack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\drawing\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ drudgery\\ and\\ photopgraphy\\ will\\ save\\ us\\ from\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\each\\ individual\\ straw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\at\\ one\\ point\\,\\ Talbot\\ says\\ photography\\ has\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\chief\\ object\\ is\\ to\\ place\\ on\\ record\\ early\\ beginnings\\ in\\ new\\ art\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ being\\ brought\\ to\\ maturity\\ by\\ British\\ talent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\clearly\\ proud\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\pride\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ art\\,\\ at\\ this\\ moment\\,\\ was\\ understood\\ to\\ combine\\ genius\\ of\\ artist\\ with\\ labor\\ of\\ the\\ hand\\ \\(labor\\+genius\\)\\ but\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ admission\\,\\ Talbot\\ had\\ eliminated\\ the\\ labor\\,\\ one\\ had\\ to\\ query\\.\\.\\ what\\ is\\ he\\ proud\\ of\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\ gets\\ credit\\ for\\ aesthetic\\ plenitude\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crucial\\ aesthetic\\ act\\ is\\ discovering\\ beauty\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ painter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eye\\ will\\ often\\ be\\ arrested\\ where\\ ordinary\\ people\\ see\\ nothing\\&hellip\\;may\\ awaken\\ a\\ train\\ of\\ thoughts\\ and\\ feelings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\art\\ function\\ of\\ eye\\ and\\ not\\ of\\ eye\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\easy\\ to\\ overlook\\ radicalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\practice\\ of\\ Victorian\\ art\\ did\\ not\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ drudgery\\.\\.\\ part\\ of\\ training\\ of\\ eye\\ was\\ to\\ practice\\ drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\later\\ in\\ pencil\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ automatic\\ mechanism\\ can\\ exceed\\ conscious\\ intentions\\ of\\ the\\ operators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\did\\ not\\ see\\ the\\ clock\\ dial\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ until\\ picture\\ was\\ developed\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\admission\\ that\\ eye\\ of\\ operator\\,\\ lacks\\ capacity\\ to\\ take\\ full\\ credit\\ for\\ visual\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rather\\ extraordinary\\ admission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\fascinated\\ but\\ also\\ anxious\\ about\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ maker\\ of\\ photograph\\ deserves\\ credit\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ meaningful\\ details\\ appear\\ by\\ accident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analogy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ notion\\ of\\ brood\\ parasite\\ may\\ be\\ appropriate\\ to\\ western\\ tradition\\ \\+\\ photography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ photography\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ child\\ of\\ the\\ western\\ tradition\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ monstrous\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rather\\ than\\ simply\\ taking\\ place\\ alongside\\ other\\ media\\,\\ photography\\ has\\ become\\ technology\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ all\\ media\\ tend\\ to\\ constitute\\ themselves\\ in\\ public\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ flesh\\ but\\ very\\ often\\,\\ we\\ are\\ doing\\ so\\ in\\ lecture\\ hall\\ or\\ exhibition\\ catalogue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Come\\ to\\ us\\ in\\ form\\ of\\ photography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cuckoo\\ tosses\\ tiny\\ birds\\ out\\ of\\ next\\,\\ photography\\ has\\ consumed\\ and\\ digested\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effect\\ of\\ photography\\ in\\ this\\ function\\,\\ as\\ reproductive\\ medium\\,\\ has\\ been\\ matter\\ of\\ considerable\\ deb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photography\\ devalues\\ here\\ and\\ now\\ of\\ artwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diespels\\ aura\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Devalues\\ authenticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Benimean\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ person\\ making\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ argue\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ circulating\\ replicas\\,\\ enhances\\ value\\/aura\\ of\\ the\\ original\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parasitic\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\photo\\-journalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ photograph\\ is\\ quite\\ exquisitely\\ constructed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\diagonal\\ of\\ flagpole\\ that\\ culminates\\ in\\ energetically\\ flanting\\ flag\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wedge\\ of\\ bodies\\,\\ taking\\ place\\ on\\ ground\\ of\\ blasted\\ ground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\resurrection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\soldiers\\ as\\ if\\ relief\\ scultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\light\\ is\\ casting\\ rather\\ dramatic\\ shadows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\seen\\ as\\ much\\ more\\ carved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\position\\ of\\ men\\ rhythmically\\ fused\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\solidarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\teamwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anonymity\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ suppression\\ of\\ individual\\ for\\ group\\ effort\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\balanced\\ by\\ individual\\ at\\ front\\ who\\ is\\ acting\\ with\\ more\\ individuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\muscular\\ strain\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ evident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ things\\ to\\ the\\ sides\\ of\\ flagpole\\ are\\ the\\ flag\\ and\\ this\\ individual\\ planting\\ the\\ pole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\same\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\man\\=flag\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Back\\ figure\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ he\\ just\\ released\\ the\\ flagpole\\ although\\ it\\ looks\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ reaching\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Glorification\\ of\\ teamwork\\ and\\ of\\ this\\ solidarity\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ effort\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenthal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ image\\ produced\\ largely\\ by\\ chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clock\\ dial\\ just\\ appeared\\ in\\ photograph\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ flag\\ raising\\ picture\\ was\\ accidental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Swung\\ camera\\ and\\ shot\\ the\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ you\\ take\\ a\\ picture\\ like\\ that\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ away\\ saying\\ you\\ got\\ a\\ great\\ shot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ results\\ of\\ lots\\ of\\ individuals\\ the\\ picture\\ was\\ seen\\ about\\ 5\\ days\\ before\\ the\\ photographer\\ ever\\ saw\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ only\\ had\\ a\\ vague\\ sense\\ of\\ pictures\\ on\\ his\\ roll\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thought\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ other\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ icons\\ of\\ photography\\ was\\ made\\ by\\ someone\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ he\\ had\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chance\\ in\\ this\\ icon\\ looks\\ like\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Something\\ maddening\\ about\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looks\\ like\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ intentionality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ insert\\ it\\ into\\ western\\ tradition\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fusing\\ bodies\\ as\\ sign\\ of\\ patriotism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Put\\ it\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ other\\ erctions\\ of\\ flags\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Usually\\ at\\ revolutionary\\ moments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1848\\ print\\ from\\ Germany\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\or\\ also\\ bearing\\ and\\ erecting\\ of\\ the\\ cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Lecture\\ \\#23\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\did\\ he\\ go\\ mad\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ interest\\ in\\ doing\\ hard\\ work\\ of\\ figuration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bodily\\ modeling\\,\\ constructing\\ human\\ figure\\ according\\ to\\ traditional\\ criteria\\ of\\ fine\\ arts\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clearly\\ departing\\ from\\ traditions\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ very\\ different\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abandoning\\ ide\\ of\\ portrait\\ as\\ enigmatic\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Challened\\ w\\/\\ question\\ of\\ what\\ happened\\ between\\ 1901\\ and\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1901\\-1902\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Picasso\\ moves\\ from\\ spectacular\\ legacy\\ of\\ bohemian\\ life\\ of\\ Paris\\ and\\ addiction\\ \\(alcohol\\ made\\ w\\/\\ Spanish\\ root\\)\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Absinthe\\ Drinker\\ \\(1901\\ spring\\ and\\ 1901\\ summer\\-fall\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bohemian\\ lifestyle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ with\\ the\\ Chignon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\suddenly\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\subject\\ is\\ displaced\\ and\\ object\\ takes\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inserts\\ sugar\\ strainer\\ as\\ if\\ found\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\glass\\ broken\\ and\\ complete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\clear\\ and\\ opaque\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1903\\,\\ Old\\ Guitar\\ Player\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\presumably\\ a\\ blind\\ guitarist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\clearly\\ emphasizing\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\identifying\\ with\\ bohemian\\ lifestyle\\ as\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ artist\\ belongs\\ in\\ that\\ moment\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guitar\\ comes\\ back\\ and\\ will\\ take\\ over\\ his\\ works\\ soon\\ after\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ heart\\ of\\ Spanish\\ tradition\\ \\&ndash\\;Flamenco\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Object\\ takes\\ over\\ space\\,\\ matter\\,\\ and\\ structure\\ of\\ spatial\\ representation\\ \\(guitar\\ representation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Choice\\ in\\ the\\ execution\\,\\ fabriction\\ and\\ material\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bohemian\\ moment\\ of\\ Picasso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arrival\\ in\\ 19\\_4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Saltimbanques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;stand\\ on\\ the\\ bench\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jump\\ on\\ the\\ bench\\ and\\ perform\\ for\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ become\\ the\\ figures\\ representative\\ of\\ that\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Space\\ between\\ city\\ and\\ poor\\ outside\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Things\\ change\\ dramatically\\,\\ due\\ to\\ encounter\\ of\\ new\\ social\\ stratum\\ that\\ included\\ Gertrude\\ Stein\\ \\(1905\\-06\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interrupts\\ the\\ painting\\ and\\ says\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Giant\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ paint\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goes\\ back\\ to\\ painting\\ in\\ the\\ fall\\ after\\ more\\ than\\ 50\\ sessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Absolutely\\ tedious\\ and\\ demanding\\ his\\ potrait\\ sitting\\ sessions\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ surplants\\ a\\ mask\\ for\\ features\\ of\\ Gertrude\\ Stein\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ happening\\ here\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ complicated\\ problem\\ being\\ introduced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ visual\\ similitude\\?\\ What\\ is\\ iconic\\ representation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ moment\\ in\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ where\\ potriture\\ is\\ coming\\ under\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\breakthrough\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perceived\\ as\\ a\\ breakdown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demoiselles\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Avignon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Probably\\ most\\ important\\ painting\\ of\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Introduced\\ what\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ as\\ modern\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Students\\ and\\ scholars\\ still\\ debating\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ cubism\\ or\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ great\\ Picasso\\ scholar\\ Leo\\ Steinberg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ that\\ does\\ depict\\ a\\ brothel\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eternal\\ prostitute\\ as\\ victim\\ of\\ male\\ gaze\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ viewer\\ and\\ confronting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ women\\ in\\ center\\ without\\ masks\\ drawn\\ as\\ if\\ done\\ by\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picasso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shift\\ into\\ Demoiselles\\ did\\ not\\ start\\ like\\ this\\.\\ Started\\ as\\ project\\ of\\ very\\ different\\ kind\\.\\ \\ \\;Initally\\ planned\\ to\\ be\\ scene\\ w\\/\\ 2\\ men\\ and\\ 5\\ women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ masks\\,\\ no\\ primativizing\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1907\\ he\\ visits\\ ethnographic\\ museum\\ and\\ looks\\ at\\ African\\ and\\ oceanographic\\ masks\\ and\\ speaks\\ of\\ moment\\ of\\ conversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exorcism\\ capacities\\ of\\ works\\ of\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exorcise\\ everything\\ that\\ is\\ evil\\ in\\ existence\\ and\\ to\\ protect\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Invests\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;magic\\ power\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ industrialization\\ had\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contradiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ reconstitute\\ cult\\ value\\ in\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ when\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ secularized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increasingly\\ scientific\\ in\\ outlook\\,\\ w\\/\\ regard\\ to\\ conception\\ of\\ color\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ been\\ analyzed\\ in\\ late\\ 1880\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Primitivism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inserts\\ masked\\ figures\\ in\\ upper\\ left\\ and\\ right\\ and\\ lower\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ repaints\\ the\\ ground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ shocked\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looks\\ like\\ cracked\\ ice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Makes\\ space\\ itself\\ a\\ palpable\\ painterly\\ matter\\ rather\\ than\\ empty\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Looked\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ had\\ swallowed\\ gasoline\\ and\\ started\\ to\\ paint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\disguised\\ and\\ covered\\ until\\ 1916\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\title\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ joke\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ brothel\\ somewhere\\ in\\ Barcelona\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ frequented\\ as\\ a\\ young\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ born\\ from\\ pure\\ genius\\,\\ also\\ born\\ from\\ dialogic\\ conversation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Archrival\\,\\ friend\\ and\\ enemy\\ had\\ preceded\\ his\\ interested\\ in\\ African\\ sculpture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HenryMatisse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Garnered\\ most\\ scandalous\\ attention\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ garner\\ at\\ the\\ Salon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brought\\ about\\ the\\ terms\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ wild\\ beasts\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painted\\ after\\ returning\\ from\\ North\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Blue\\ Nude\\,\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Makes\\ figure\\ itself\\ almost\\ explicitly\\ the\\ construct\\ of\\ the\\ projecting\\ activity\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\ and\\ spectator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distortion\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ left\\ leg\\ and\\ haunches\\,\\ acquire\\ mutli\\-valences\\ of\\ anatomical\\ ambiguity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Within\\ a\\ year\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taking\\ all\\ historical\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ Cezanne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ a\\ huge\\ discovery\\ takes\\ place\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enter\\ phase\\ probably\\ called\\ Cezannism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phase\\ when\\ Picasso\\ and\\ other\\ cubinists\\ look\\ to\\ him\\ for\\ re\\-energization\\ of\\ cubism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1907\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Secretary\\ acquires\\ 2\\ heads\\ of\\ Iberian\\ structure\\ \\(Picasso\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ stolen\\ and\\ gets\\ into\\ a\\ troublesome\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Make\\ major\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ Picasso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ non\\-egmanit\\ physiognomic\\ formations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mask\\ that\\ was\\ initially\\ in\\ possession\\ of\\ Andre\\ \\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\ of\\ how\\ African\\ sculpture\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ to\\ the\\ Demoiselles\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ not\\ know\\ if\\ Demoiselle\\ figure\\ in\\ center\\ is\\ standing\\ or\\ lying\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cannot\\ say\\ for\\ sure\\ what\\ relationship\\ exists\\ between\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figure\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ is\\ possibly\\ pulling\\ a\\ curtain\\ back\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ see\\,\\ but\\ the\\ hand\\ is\\ strangely\\ positioned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\George\\ Braque\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Large\\ Nude\\,\\ 1907\\-08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picasso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ Dryad\\ coming\\ directly\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Demoiselles\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dismantling\\ enigmatic\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Step\\ into\\ direction\\ of\\ almost\\ mechanical\\ \\(fist\\ more\\ robotic\\ on\\ the\\ right\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\ abstraction\\ or\\ shift\\ of\\ mechanization\\,\\ human\\ gains\\ features\\ of\\ technoid\\ robot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rapidly\\ transforming\\ the\\ portrait\\ as\\ well\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1909\\:\\ Clovis\\ Sagot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\emphasizing\\ of\\ pictorial\\ facture\\ \\(detailed\\ insertion\\ of\\ brush\\ stroke\\ and\\ making\\ it\\ visible\\ object\\ in\\ own\\ right\\)\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ shifting\\ from\\ physiognomic\\ likeness\\ of\\ the\\ sitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Analytic\\ Cubism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ Potrait\\ of\\ D\\.H\\.\\ Kanwiiler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Move\\ away\\ from\\ likeness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Make\\ subject\\ preceding\\ the\\ painting\\ fully\\ conscious\\ of\\ what\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernist\\ self\\-reflexivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spectator\\ and\\ subject\\ fully\\ aware\\ of\\ construction\\ of\\ image\\ fully\\ entails\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-reflexive\\ and\\ referential\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ambroise\\ Vollard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Plays\\ with\\ all\\ conventions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ generates\\ perception\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modeling\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spatial\\ recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ see\\ linear\\ definition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perpetually\\ fractured\\ and\\ ruptured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Glacial\\ surface\\ of\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Before\\:\\ academic\\ achievement\\ had\\ been\\ based\\ on\\ hiding\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defying\\ definition\\ of\\ fine\\ art\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ in\\ dialogue\\ between\\ Braque\\ and\\ Picasso\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Picasso\\ clearly\\ dominant\\ figure\\ in\\ all\\ accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\,\\ key\\ moments\\ when\\ B\\ would\\ help\\ develpment\\ and\\ they\\ would\\ work\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Right\\ Brothers\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ as\\ in\\ discovery\\ of\\ flight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ worked\\ together\\ in\\ discovery\\ of\\ cubism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Braque\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ World\\ War\\ and\\ never\\ came\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ to\\ distinguish\\ himself\\ from\\ intensifty\\ of\\ initial\\ collaboration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Betrayal\\ of\\ sorts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Portuguese\\,\\ 1911\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mechanical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ addition\\ to\\ mechanization\\ of\\ painting\\,\\ we\\ see\\ now\\ the\\ insertion\\ of\\ found\\ language\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Juxtaposes\\ man\\-made\\ sign\\ with\\ technical\\ sign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Linguistic\\ sign\\ with\\ \\_\\_\\_\\ sign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ vs\\.\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ in\\ painting\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ longer\\ to\\ be\\ distinguished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1911\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ manifest\\ examples\\ of\\ intrusion\\ of\\ language\\ in\\ their\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1912\\:\\ Notre\\ Avenir\\ est\\ dan\\ l\\&rsquo\\;Air\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\fragmentation\\ becomes\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ strategies\\ of\\ poetry\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ decades\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1912\\:\\ As\\ important\\ and\\ Demoiselles\\ by\\ Picasso\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Still\\ life\\ with\\ Chair\\ Caning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inserts\\ a\\ large\\ segment\\ of\\ mechanical\\ material\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ photographically\\ painted\\ linoleum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tacky\\ object\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ would\\ associated\\ oval\\ rope\\ frame\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;sailor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ souvenir\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carry\\ that\\ type\\ of\\ tacky\\ quality\\ that\\ Picasso\\ gives\\ it\\ by\\ using\\ this\\ but\\ also\\ with\\ the\\ insertion\\ of\\ the\\ linoleum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ as\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painting\\ becomes\\ a\\ thing\\,\\ upon\\ which\\ objects\\ are\\ displayed\\ but\\ no\\ longer\\ full\\ of\\ illusions\\ and\\ deceptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proper\\ collage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Synthetic\\ cubinism\\ emerges\\ in\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ literature\\ of\\ how\\ meaning\\ is\\ produced\\ in\\ his\\ collage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roselen\\ Krauss\\ and\\ Ebon\\ \\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Best\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trade\\ every\\ single\\ scrap\\ of\\ paper\\ that\\ enters\\ the\\ collage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;urnal\\&hellip\\;un\\ coup\\ de\\ the\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ so\\ secret\\ signal\\ that\\ he\\ sends\\ to\\ his\\ friends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symbolist\\ poetry\\ \\&hellip\\;\\.\\ How\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ maintained\\ under\\ onslaught\\ of\\ industrialized\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;1897\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ properly\\ published\\ in\\ 1914\\ or\\ maybe\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\typographical\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\image\\ and\\ text\\,\\ space\\,\\ fragmented\\ meaning\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 21, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA10_Lecture_Notes_1.doc", "desc": "Lectures"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Capitalism - Lecture Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "american-capitalism"], "text": null, "id": 68, "html": "\\\\\\Historical\\_Study\\_B49\\_\\-\\_Lecture\\_Notes\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:81pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:135pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-54pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:63pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c21\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c9\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c14\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Lectures\\ 1\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\native\\ american\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\when\\ does\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ american\\ capitalsim\\ begin\\?\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ before\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\first\\ white\\ settlers\\ arrive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\estimates\\ about\\ 50\\ million\\ ppl\\ living\\ of\\ americas\\ before\\ europeans\\ came\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\over\\.\\ \\(about\\ 70\\ million\\ in\\ europe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\aztec\\ capital\\ 250\\,000\\ ppl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\severla\\ native\\ american\\ groups\\ moved\\ beyond\\ hunter\\ gathering\\.\\ around\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\same\\ time\\,\\ hunting\\ methods\\ improve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ 1500\\ most\\ developed\\ aztecs\\ and\\ incas\\.\\ imp\\ achievements\\ in\\ astronomy\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\math\\,\\ urbanizaiton\\.\\ to\\ the\\ north\\,\\ however\\,\\ population\\ sparcer\\ and\\ tribes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\smaller\\.\\ among\\ most\\ stable\\ are\\ sioux\\ and\\ hopi\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ england\\ beginning\\ 17th\\ cenutry\\ between\\ 70\\ and\\ 100\\,000\\ ppl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\native\\ american\\ ecnomies\\ diverse\\,\\ prodcuts\\ diverse\\.\\ some\\ used\\ looms\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\weave\\ textiles\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iroquois\\ \\(new\\ york\\)\\ \\-\\ cond\\ formed\\ before\\ columbia\\ came\\.\\ 20\\-110\\,000\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lived\\ in\\ long\\ houses\\.\\ hunting\\,\\ fishing\\,\\ agriculture\\.\\ no\\ plow\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\domesticated\\ animals\\.\\ corns\\,\\ beans\\ \\,squahs\\.\\ harvest\\ nuts\\,\\ fruits\\.\\ corn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\is\\ key\\ to\\ population\\ density\\.\\ AFTER\\ EUROPEANS\\:\\ focused\\ on\\ beaver\\ furs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\brought\\ indians\\ into\\ orbit\\ of\\ european\\ economies\\.\\ made\\ themselves\\ trade\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\what\\ were\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ trade\\?\\ per\\ capita\\ wealth\\ def\\.\\ went\\ up\\.\\ however\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\not\\ evenly\\ distributed\\.\\ favored\\ ppl\\ accomodating\\ with\\ indians\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\undermined\\ chiefs\\ authority\\.\\ old\\ tribal\\ rivlaries\\ came\\ up\\ as\\ they\\ fought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\over\\ land\\ and\\ traders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pacific\\ nw\\ \\-\\ no\\ agricutlre\\.\\ gathered\\ rice\\ and\\ berries\\.\\ most\\ importantly\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hunted\\ and\\ fished\\,\\ esp\\ ocean\\ \\(salmon\\,\\ whales\\,\\ otters\\,\\ rabbits\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lots\\ of\\ free\\ time\\ as\\ most\\ food\\ for\\ year\\ could\\ be\\ gotten\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ motnhs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\these\\ tribes\\ observed\\ complex\\ hiearchy\\ of\\ status\\,\\ not\\ typical\\ of\\ most\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\egalitarian\\ tribes\\ in\\ north\\ america\\:\\ nobility\\,\\ commoners\\,\\ slaves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\division\\ and\\ specialization\\ labor\\ \\(ie\\ song\\ maker\\)\\.\\ complex\\ ceremonial\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\life\\.\\ pot\\-lucking\\ huge\\ cultural\\ deal\\.\\ giving\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ lavishnes\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reflects\\ society\\ that\\ can\\ produce\\ society\\ well\\ in\\ excess\\ of\\ everyday\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\needs\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ limited\\ emphasis\\ they\\ put\\ on\\ accumulating\\ ever\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\more\\ material\\ goods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WAT\\ SET\\ NATIVE\\ ECNOMIES\\ APART\\ FROM\\ EUOPEAN\\ ECONOMIES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\very\\ different\\ understanding\\ of\\ property\\.\\ the\\ unit\\ of\\ ownership\\ was\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hte\\ individual\\,\\ was\\ hte\\ group\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ there\\ is\\ private\\ property\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\different\\ kind\\.\\ different\\ tribes\\ did\\ fight\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ but\\ these\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\were\\ \\"\\;use\\"\\;\\ rights\\,\\ not\\ absolute\\ property\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\giving\\ acquires\\ you\\ status\\ and\\ influence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\use\\ of\\ wampam\\ as\\ a\\ currency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\main\\ thing\\ the\\ europeans\\ brought\\ over\\ was\\ disease\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\/17ish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HISTORY\\ OF\\ CAPITALISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\europe\\ not\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ china\\.\\ european\\ social\\ structures\\ not\\ easily\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\adaptable\\ to\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\ europe\\ quite\\ isolated\\.\\ china\\ get\\ raw\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\supplies\\ from\\ europe\\,\\ ship\\ better\\ goods\\ to\\ europe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economic\\ dominance\\ in\\ europe\\ imbedded\\ in\\ abillity\\ of\\ europeans\\ to\\ shift\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\global\\ networks\\,\\ esp\\ trade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\why\\ europe\\?\\ \\-\\ mercantalism\\ \\-\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ economic\\ policy\\ that\\ aims\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\creating\\ self\\ sufficient\\ systems\\ that\\ dont\\ need\\ foreign\\ powers\\.\\ control\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ prescious\\ metals\\ is\\ key\\,\\ and\\ also\\ for\\ \\*\\*SECURING\\ COLONIES\\*\\*\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\labor\\,\\ raw\\ materials\\,\\ and\\ later\\,\\ markets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\when\\ columbus\\ discovers\\,\\ its\\ during\\ renaissance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rising\\ productivity\\/poplation\\ and\\ falling\\ per\\ capita\\ wealth\\ turned\\ ppl\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\abroad\\.\\ re\\ distributed\\ wealth\\ creating\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ soial\\ inequality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\living\\ conditions\\ of\\ many\\,\\ esp\\ peasants\\,\\ got\\ worse\\.\\ farm\\ land\\ smaller\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ smaller\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\merchants\\ contributed\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\,\\ became\\ very\\ wealthy\\.\\ the\\ wealth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\their\\ accumulated\\ would\\ often\\ finance\\ overseas\\ expeditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2nd\\.\\ attitudes\\ among\\ europeans\\ about\\ wordly\\ riches\\ had\\ changed\\.\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\centurys\\ feudalism\\ is\\ the\\ shit\\.\\ born\\ into\\ classes\\.\\ for\\ elite\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accumulating\\ too\\ much\\ was\\ considered\\ over\\ reaching\\ \\(merchants\\ esp\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ it\\ was\\ sinful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cannot\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ demand\\/shortages\\ for\\ large\\ profits\\.\\ prices\\ were\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dictated\\ by\\ custom\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ occupation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\these\\ beliefs\\ began\\ to\\ erode\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ merchants\\ of\\ the\\ italian\\ city\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economic\\ center\\ of\\ europe\\ had\\ been\\ mediterranean\\ \\(italian\\,\\ roman\\ empire\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\etc\\)\\ slowly\\ shifted\\ towards\\ spain\\/portugal\\,\\ then\\ to\\ atlantic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*ADVANTAGE\\ OF\\ STATE\\ CENTRALIZED\\ CITY\\ SYSTEM\\ OPPOSED\\ TO\\ INDEPENDENT\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ITALIAN\\ CITY\\ STATES\\.\\ capitalism\\ inherently\\ makes\\ state\\ stronger\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\galleons\\ are\\ very\\ well\\ armed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ role\\ of\\ joint\\ stock\\ company\\ and\\ charter\\ company\\ \\(allows\\ heads\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\state\\ and\\ capitalists\\ to\\ merge\\)\\.\\ marine\\ insurance\\.\\ \\*\\*new\\ forms\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\banking\\,\\ book\\ keeping\\,\\ accounting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*SLAVERY\\ \\-\\ primary\\ source\\ of\\ labor\\ in\\ new\\ world\\.\\ allowed\\ to\\ extract\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\raw\\ materials\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\obstacles\\ to\\ trade\\ with\\ china\\ and\\ india\\:\\ ottomans\\ and\\ italians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\controlled\\ msot\\ of\\ the\\ easiest\\ routes\\ to\\ the\\ east\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\spanish\\ goods\\ became\\ inflated\\ and\\ made\\ imports\\ cheaper\\.\\ once\\ profitable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\businesses\\ such\\ as\\ textiles\\ became\\ bankrupt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\before\\ collapse\\,\\ however\\,\\ spanish\\ introduced\\ plantation\\ system\\ using\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\native\\ american\\ and\\ mainly\\ black\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beginning\\ in\\ early\\ 16th\\ century\\,\\ french\\ began\\ to\\ fish\\ in\\ north\\ america\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dutch\\ also\\ built\\ permeanent\\ settlements\\ in\\ north\\ america\\.\\ colonized\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\traded\\ not\\ under\\ crown\\ but\\ under\\ companies\\ operated\\ and\\ dominated\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\merchants\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ reason\\:\\ ever\\ since\\ they\\ gained\\ independence\\ from\\ spain\\,\\ the\\ united\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\provincences\\ was\\ a\\ republic\\ governed\\ by\\ merchants\\.\\ invented\\ joint\\ stock\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\company\\,\\ combining\\ business\\ capital\\ and\\ sharing\\ risks\\.\\ british\\ would\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\copy\\ this\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\porteguese\\ expelled\\ dutch\\ from\\ brazil\\,\\ english\\ expelled\\ them\\ from\\ ny\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ they\\ were\\ only\\ interested\\ in\\ trade\\,\\ dutch\\ had\\ trouble\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\maintaining\\.\\ in\\ 1588\\,\\ england\\ minor\\ power\\ in\\ world\\ and\\ in\\ america\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\real\\ expansion\\ begins\\ after\\ 1603\\.\\ english\\ companies\\ \\(london\\ company\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\protected\\ by\\ tariffs\\ and\\ englihs\\ navy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PLANTATION\\ ECONOMY\\ OF\\ SOUTHERN\\ COLONIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\unlike\\ spanish\\ and\\ portugese\\,\\ not\\ immediate\\ discovery\\ of\\ precious\\ metals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ instant\\ wealth\\.\\ wat\\ saved\\ england\\ was\\ fertility\\ along\\ eastern\\ coast\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\good\\ fishing\\ and\\ forest\\ in\\ new\\ england\\,\\ and\\ later\\ iron\\ and\\ oil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rice\\,wheat\\,\\ and\\ esp\\ indigo\\ and\\ esp\\ esp\\ tobacco\\ esp\\ good\\ in\\ american\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\soil\\.\\ these\\ commodities\\ mark\\ americas\\ place\\ in\\ global\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*ecnomoic\\ integegration\\ among\\ sections\\ of\\ america\\ not\\ great\\.\\ no\\ totoal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\national\\ economy\\.\\ each\\ section\\ focused\\ on\\ europe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\south\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ rest\\ of\\ britihs\\ north\\ america\\ please\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\grew\\ lmited\\ number\\ of\\ commerical\\ crops\\,\\ most\\ not\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\saw\\ much\\ higher\\ degree\\ of\\ commerical\\ farming\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ import\\ tobacco\\ from\\ spain\\ anymore\\,\\ \\*\\*\\*but\\ this\\ went\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\against\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ mercantalism\\*\\*\\*\\*\\.\\ granted\\ virginia\\ exclusive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rights\\ to\\ make\\ tobacco\\ in\\ north\\ america\\,\\ and\\ in\\ return\\ virigina\\ ensured\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\all\\ tobacco\\ would\\ be\\ sold\\ back\\ to\\ england\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ meant\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\other\\ markets\\ such\\ as\\ france\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sugar\\ becomes\\ principle\\ crop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\at\\ even\\ of\\ revolution\\,\\ neither\\ virginia\\ nor\\ maryland\\,\\ though\\ the\\ most\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\populous\\ and\\ wealthy\\ states\\,\\ had\\ major\\ cities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ mid\\ 18th\\ century\\,\\ however\\,\\ tobacco\\ market\\ began\\ to\\ slow\\.\\ partly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ market\\ had\\ become\\ saturated\\,\\ party\\ because\\ soil\\ was\\ exhausted\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\farmers\\ became\\ to\\ diversify\\,\\ and\\ many\\ planters\\ switched\\ to\\ wheat\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\livestock\\,\\ paving\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ hte\\ gradual\\ transition\\ to\\ cotton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rice\\ introduced\\ to\\ south\\ carolina\\ in\\ the\\ 1690s\\.\\ by\\ early\\ century\\ staple\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\crop\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ south\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ 1740s\\,\\ indigo\\ introduced\\ by\\ elizabeth\\ pignine\\.\\ indigo\\,\\ like\\ rice\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\difficult\\ to\\ cultivate\\.\\ \\*\\*\\*however\\,\\ grew\\ on\\ the\\ highlands\\ that\\ rice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\could\\ not\\ and\\ grew\\ in\\ different\\ seasons\\,\\ so\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ grown\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cucurrently\\ with\\ rice\\.\\ fabulously\\ profitable\\.\\ \\*\\*\\*\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ History\\ of\\ American\\ Capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Plantation\\ Economy\\ of\\ the\\ Southern\\ Colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ last\\ week\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ shall\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ European\\ expansion\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ Divergence\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\(GD\\=\\ i\\.e\\.\\ why\\ did\\ Europe\\ do\\ so\\ well\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ natural\\ environment\\ people\\ found\\ when\\ they\\ came\\ to\\ North\\ America\\ explains\\ part\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ stable\\ social\\ structures\\ were\\ in\\ European\\ colonies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Why\\ Europeans\\ started\\ to\\ look\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Europe\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ strengthening\\ nation\\-states\\,\\ which\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ greater\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;capabilities\\ for\\ expansion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-power\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ Mediterranean\\ to\\ the\\ Atlantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-emergence\\ of\\ large\\ group\\ of\\ landless\\ laborers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-new\\ ideas\\ emerged\\ about\\ what\\ constituted\\ worldly\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ they\\ made\\ a\\ living\\:\\ The\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-English\\ did\\ not\\ capture\\ the\\ gold\\ and\\ precious\\ metals\\ that\\ the\\ Spanish\\ and\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;had\\ found\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ this\\ did\\ encourage\\ them\\ to\\ discover\\ other\\ ways\\ to\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-New\\ ways\\ to\\ sustain\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Fertility\\ of\\ the\\ soil\\,\\ abundance\\ of\\ the\\ shipping\\ grounds\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ of\\ that\\ helped\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-British\\,\\ Dutch\\,\\ French\\ learned\\ quickly\\ how\\ to\\ derive\\ a\\ bountiful\\ harvest\\ from\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Learned\\ from\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\(importance\\ of\\ crops\\ NAs\\ harvested\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Many\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ settlers\\ engaged\\ in\\ subsistence\\ farming\\.\\ \\ \\;Sufficient\\ for\\ most\\ settlers\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;because\\ they\\ just\\ wanted\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ land\\,\\ something\\ that\\ had\\ become\\ difficult\\ for\\ them\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;in\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Wanted\\ to\\ derive\\ profits\\ from\\ the\\ land\\ and\\ send\\ them\\ back\\ to\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-With\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ precious\\ metals\\,\\ agriculture\\ became\\ key\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;plantation\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Many\\ crops\\ \\(particularly\\ rice\\,\\ wheat\\,\\ tobacco\\)\\ were\\ well\\ adapted\\ to\\ North\\ American\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;soil\\.\\ \\ \\;Led\\ to\\ first\\ sustained\\ capital\\ accumulation\\ on\\ the\\ North\\ American\\ continent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Extremely\\ important\\ mercantile\\ economy\\ of\\ the\\ Northeast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Point\\ to\\ three\\ important\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\-Colonial\\ American\\ economy\\ was\\ very\\ diverse\\ \\(different\\ crops\\ and\\ farming\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;techniques\\ of\\ each\\ geographical\\ area\\,\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ from\\ the\\ West\\ Indies\\ into\\ MA\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ ME\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\-Economic\\ integration\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ sections\\ was\\ less\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ trade\\ with\\ Europe\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;than\\ amongst\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ proto\\-national\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\-Heavily\\,\\ nearly\\ entirely\\ agricultural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Of\\ note\\,\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ most\\ human\\ beings\\ made\\ a\\ living\\ through\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;agriculture\\,\\ working\\ the\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Tobacco\\ rise\\ and\\ indigo\\ plantations\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ American\\ economy\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ was\\ the\\ South\\ Different\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Grew\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ commercial\\ crops\\,\\ most\\ of\\ them\\ not\\ food\\ crops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Emphasis\\ on\\ commercial\\ farming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Units\\ of\\ production\\ much\\ larger\\ than\\ in\\ North\\ \\(most\\ large\\ farms\\ were\\ worked\\ by\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;laborers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Drew\\ on\\ labor\\ beyond\\ the\\ family\\ \\(In\\ North\\,\\ labor\\ only\\ meant\\ to\\ feed\\ the\\ immediate\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;family\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ South\\,\\ farmers\\ used\\ as\\ much\\ labor\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ produce\\ for\\ export\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;markets\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Upper\\ South\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ all\\ started\\ with\\ tobacco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Abysmal\\ record\\ of\\ survivors\\,\\ but\\ people\\ kept\\ coming\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Tobacco\\ was\\ indigenous\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ already\\ was\\ a\\ huge\\ market\\ for\\ this\\ addictive\\ substance\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Imported\\ tobacco\\ from\\ Spain\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Mercantilism\\ rules\\:\\ everything\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ shipped\\ back\\ to\\ England\\ before\\ being\\ sent\\ elsewhere\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;Monopoly\\ on\\ tobacco\\ in\\ Virginia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Sugar\\ became\\ a\\ principal\\ crop\\.\\ \\ \\;Europeans\\ were\\ also\\ addicted\\ to\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;Europe\\ was\\ now\\ able\\ to\\ forego\\ its\\ consumption\\ constraints\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-British\\ settlers\\ in\\ VA\\ and\\ MD\\ were\\ well\\ aware\\ that\\ sugar\\ could\\ be\\ extremely\\ profitable\\.\\ \\ \\;Tobacco\\ became\\ staple\\ crop\\ of\\ upper\\ south\\.\\ \\ \\;Tobacco\\ made\\ up\\ half\\ of\\ total\\ commodity\\ exports\\ from\\ British\\ America\\ into\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ Virginias\\ would\\ grow\\ tobacco\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ so\\ profitable\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ food\\ shortage\\&mdash\\;the\\ government\\ even\\ had\\ to\\ order\\ people\\ to\\ plant\\ wheat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Headright\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ anyone\\ paying\\ his\\ own\\ way\\ to\\ Virginia\\ would\\ be\\ given\\ 50\\ acres\\ of\\ land\\ \\+\\ 50\\ acres\\/\\+pp\\.\\ \\ \\;1623\\-\\ by\\ this\\ point\\,\\ all\\ holdings\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ private\\ property\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-New\\ opportunity\\ to\\ get\\ free\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Demand\\ for\\ tobacco\\ products\\ increased\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ tobacco\\ boom\\ shaped\\ every\\ element\\ of\\ the\\ VA\\ and\\ MD\\ settlements\\.\\ Created\\ unusual\\ patterns\\ of\\ settlement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Upper\\ South\\ accounted\\ for\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ the\\ colonies\\&rsquo\\;\\ population\\,\\ but\\ no\\ urban\\ centers\\ were\\ created\\.\\ \\ \\;Extensive\\ river\\ system\\ made\\ transportation\\ system\\ unnecessary\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ rural\\ characteristics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Southern\\ colonies\\ were\\ among\\ richest\\ and\\ most\\ productive\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ by\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Farmers\\ began\\ to\\ diversify\\,\\ which\\ changed\\ the\\ patterns\\ of\\ their\\ farming\\ needs\\.\\ \\ \\;E\\.g\\.\\ Switch\\ to\\ wheat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-For\\ first\\ century\\ and\\ half\\,\\ tobacco\\ was\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lower\\ South\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Carolinas\\:\\ Lower\\ South\\&rsquo\\;s\\ success\\ was\\ more\\ mixed\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Upper\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;Rice\\ cultivation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Georgia\\:\\ subsistence\\ agriculture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\South\\ Carolina\\:\\ sugar\\ cane\\,\\ tobacco\\,\\ cotton\\,\\ grapes\\,\\ finally\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RICE\\:\\ Staple\\ crop\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1740s\\:\\ economy\\ of\\ Lower\\ South\\ further\\ boosted\\ by\\ introduction\\ of\\ indigo\\.\\ \\ \\;Indigo\\ was\\ difficult\\ to\\ cultivate\\,\\ like\\ rice\\.\\ \\ \\;Could\\ be\\ grown\\ concurrently\\ with\\ rice\\ because\\ it\\ grew\\ on\\ highlands\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ crop\\ produced\\ a\\ greater\\ profit\\ per\\ acre\\ and\\ per\\ worker\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Plenty\\ of\\ land\\,\\ but\\ dramatic\\ shortage\\ of\\ hands\\ to\\ work\\ that\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Mobilization\\ of\\ labor\\ was\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;3\\ solutions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\-indentured\\ servitude\\ \\(pay\\ for\\ passage\\ of\\ poor\\ people\\ from\\ Europe\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ America\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ in\\ return\\,\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ \\~7\\ years\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ did\\ not\\ survive\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ getting\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;better\\ in\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\-slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\-hired\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Inheritance\\ laws\\ kept\\ large\\ lands\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;Large\\ estates\\ required\\ labor\\ beyond\\ ability\\ of\\ normal\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\:\\ History\\ of\\ American\\ Capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agriculture\\ in\\ the\\ Northern\\ Colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dominant\\ way\\ of\\ mobilizing\\ labor\\ was\\ through\\ indentured\\ servitude\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ 70\\-80\\ years\\ of\\ US\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ South\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Change\\ from\\ IS\\ to\\ slavery\\ because\\ of\\ changing\\ conditions\\ in\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;Conditions\\ were\\ improving\\ there\\,\\ while\\ conditions\\ for\\ indentured\\ servants\\ i\\ North\\ American\\ were\\ deteriorating\\.\\ \\ \\;Price\\ of\\ slaves\\ dropped\\,\\ as\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ Indies\\ declined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ For\\ only\\ twice\\ or\\ three\\ times\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ IS\\,\\ they\\ could\\ purchase\\ a\\ slave\\.\\ \\ \\;Could\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ and\\ provide\\ offspring\\.\\ \\ \\;Cost\\ of\\ maintaining\\ slaves\\ also\\ cheaper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ 1666\\:\\ Bacon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rebellion\\ in\\ VA\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Southern\\ colonies\\ experienced\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ issues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ made\\ up\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ all\\ whites\\ came\\ to\\ own\\ slaves\\.\\ \\ \\;Slaveholding\\ was\\ very\\ dispersed\\ in\\ the\\ Southern\\ colonies\\ of\\ North\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ permitted\\ large\\ plantations\\ and\\ accumulation\\ of\\ untold\\ riches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Introduction\\:\\ The\\ Wealth\\ and\\ Poverty\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Mercantilism\\ and\\ New\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ How\\ was\\ the\\ North\\ Different\\:\\ Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Agricultural\\ economy\\ of\\ the\\ North\\:\\ 1774\\:\\ Southerners\\ were\\ much\\ wealthier\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ South\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ growing\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ England\\ and\\ Middle\\ Colonies\\ were\\ quite\\ fundamentally\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ South\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ less\\ prosperous\\ than\\ England\\&rsquo\\;s\\ other\\ American\\ properties\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Northern\\ colonies\\ were\\ quite\\ distinct\\ from\\ any\\ other\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highly\\ diversified\\ agricultural\\ sector\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\.\\ How\\ was\\ the\\ North\\ Different\\:\\ Details\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ absence\\ of\\ commercial\\ export\\ staples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whaling\\ \\(for\\ daily\\ needs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shipbuilding\\ \\(trained\\ NE\\ in\\ sailing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ less\\ trade\\ with\\ England\\ than\\ with\\ the\\ Southern\\ colonies\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ diversity\\ of\\ crops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Corn\\,\\ wheat\\,\\ barley\\,\\ rice\\,\\ fruit\\,\\ raised\\ livestock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ few\\ areas\\,\\ more\\ specialized\\ farming\\ arose\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ diversity\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;crops\\ was\\ the\\ issue\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Farmers\\ were\\ much\\ more\\ self\\-sufficient\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cared\\ more\\ about\\ economic\\ independence\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;maximize\\ profits\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ diversified\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ encouraged\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;development\\ of\\ a\\ merchant\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Farms\\ were\\ much\\ smaller\\ than\\ in\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ largely\\ recruited\\ from\\ family\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ wage\\ labor\\ was\\ rarer\\.\\ \\ \\;Slavery\\ never\\ became\\ a\\ core\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ like\\ likely\\ just\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ family\\ farms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ did\\ have\\ a\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ Northern\\ economy\\,\\ though\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ little\\ crop\\ rotation\\,\\ as\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;Northern\\ farmers\\ paid\\ little\\ attention\\ to\\ fertilizing\\ the\\ soil\\.\\ \\ \\;Did\\ not\\ have\\ labor\\ power\\ to\\ maintain\\ quality\\ of\\ land\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ did\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Much\\ more\\ stable\\,\\ self\\-sustaining\\ because\\ families\\,\\ not\\ single\\ men\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ families\\ mitigated\\ the\\ shortage\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Amsterdam\\,\\ Nova\\ Scotia\\,\\ New\\ England\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ gender\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structure\\ and\\ size\\ of\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;Larger\\ family\\,\\ larger\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ produced\\ goods\\ for\\ household\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;Pioneered\\ household\\ manufacture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ kind\\ of\\ small\\ firm\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\5\\.\\ How\\ capitalist\\ was\\ the\\ northern\\ countryside\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\ of\\ market\\ participation\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ questions\\ historians\\ ask\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ profit\\ maximizers\\,\\ but\\ focused\\ on\\ self\\-sufficiency\\ of\\ households\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principal\\ goal\\ was\\ independence\\ from\\ the\\ very\\ beginning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ northern\\ farmer\\,\\ in\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ another\\,\\ traded\\ goods\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utility\\ maximizers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Harder\\ to\\ judge\\ market\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ North\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Market\\ penetration\\ in\\ North\\ was\\ quite\\ limited\\ \\(25\\%\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prices\\ converged\\ rapidly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\6\\.\\ What\\ is\\ capitalism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ a\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ trade\\ commodities\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ markets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Society\\ that\\ produces\\ goods\\ principally\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ them\\ on\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Northern\\ colonies\\,\\ goods\\ were\\ produced\\ for\\ home\\ and\\ markets\\.\\ \\ \\;Complementary\\,\\ and\\ not\\ contradictory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Money\\ mediates\\ economic\\ exchanges\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capital\\ is\\ productively\\ employed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labor\\ power\\ can\\ be\\ bought\\ and\\ sold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\,\\ Northern\\ colonies\\ not\\ fully\\ capitalist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Focus\\ on\\:\\ Cities\\ \\(manufacturing\\ activities\\,\\ then\\ the\\ commercial\\ sector\\,\\ then\\ changing\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ wealth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ something\\ particular\\ to\\ capitalism\\ that\\ is\\ quite\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ economic\\ organizations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Short\\ distinction\\ between\\ plantation\\ economy\\ of\\ South\\ and\\ diversified\\ agriculture\\ at\\ core\\ of\\ colonial\\ life\\ in\\ Middle\\ Colonies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ people\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\ and\\ worked\\ in\\ farming\\ \\(80\\-90\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radical\\ shift\\ to\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ of\\ these\\ people\\ lived\\ in\\ cities\\/urban\\ areas\\.\\ \\ \\;Philadelphia\\:\\ largest\\ city\\ anywhere\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ still\\ only\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ Cambridge\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manufacturing\\:\\ kind\\ of\\ assembly\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ used\\ to\\ today\\ is\\ pretty\\ recent\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ slightly\\ over\\ 200\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ England\\,\\ this\\ expansion\\ of\\ manufacturing\\ did\\ occur\\.\\ \\ \\;Merchants\\ would\\ lend\\ their\\ equipment\\ and\\ raw\\ materials\\ to\\ peasants\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\,\\ and\\ then\\ merchants\\ would\\ pick\\ up\\ the\\ finished\\ products\\ later\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ was\\ there\\ so\\ little\\ manufacturing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dispersed\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ infrastructure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shortage\\ of\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shortage\\ of\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ profitable\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Competition\\ from\\ Britain\\ overwhelming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ manufacturing\\ they\\ could\\ beat\\ Britain\\ in\\ was\\ household\\ manufacture\\ by\\ farm\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Household\\ production\\&mdash\\;did\\ not\\ always\\ go\\ to\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ exceptions\\:\\ Shipbuilding\\ \\(easy\\ access\\ to\\ raw\\ materials\\ used\\ to\\ build\\ ships\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Merchants\\ and\\ Colonial\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\ term\\ trajectory\\ of\\ American\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ traders\\ set\\ New\\ England\\ powerfully\\ apart\\ from\\ the\\ south\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ did\\ merchants\\ do\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bought\\ and\\ sold\\ goods\\ in\\ distant\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Build\\,\\ owned\\ and\\ managed\\ ships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provided\\ banking\\ and\\ insurance\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provided\\ credit\\ for\\ agricultural\\ pursuits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eventually\\ invested\\ into\\ manufacturing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ can\\ we\\ explain\\ that\\ Northern\\ colonies\\ developed\\ such\\ a\\ distinct\\ and\\ strong\\ economy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ profit\\,\\ successful\\ entrepreneurs\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ spot\\.\\ \\ \\;Location\\,\\ location\\.\\ \\ \\;Large\\ plantations\\ could\\ ship\\ their\\ products\\ directly\\ to\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ middlemen\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;Complexity\\ of\\ New\\ England\\ economy\\ required\\ local\\ merchants\\,\\ local\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ were\\ early\\ merchant\\ firms\\ like\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Small\\,\\ very\\ personal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everybody\\ lived\\ under\\ the\\ same\\ roof\\ \\(truly\\ a\\ family\\ firm\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Firms\\ had\\ no\\ existence\\ independent\\ of\\ their\\ owner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Business\\ conducted\\ in\\ one\\ location\\ \\(volume\\ of\\ trade\\ quite\\ low\\ by\\ modern\\ day\\ standards\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diversified\\ trade\\ \\(often\\ had\\ to\\ accept\\ other\\ goods\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ goods\\,\\ like\\ a\\ bartering\\ system\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ credit\\ to\\ the\\ business\\ \\(most\\ farmers\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ cash\\ readily\\ available\\.\\ \\ \\;Cash\\ advances\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ bushels\\ of\\ corn\\ or\\ wheat\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Merchant\\/Traders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Merchants\\ were\\ ambitious\\,\\ often\\ did\\ apprenticeships\\,\\ learned\\ the\\ trade\\,\\ and\\ then\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ business\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ commercial\\ merchant\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ could\\ specialize\\ so\\ much\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fixed\\ shipping\\ schedules\\ were\\ rare\\.\\ \\ \\;Flexibility\\ was\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traders\\ also\\ accumulated\\ political\\ power\\,\\ just\\ as\\ planters\\ had\\ dominated\\ in\\ the\\ south\\.\\ \\ \\;Merchant\\ class\\ after\\ the\\ 1690s\\,\\ dominated\\ upper\\ chamber\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ lower\\ chamber\\.\\ \\ \\;Usually\\ the\\ large\\ landowners\\ of\\ Europe\\ dominated\\ government\\,\\ not\\ merchants\\.\\ \\ \\;Long\\ term\\ consequences\\:\\ created\\ legislation\\ that\\ benefited\\ merchants\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puritans\\/Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ the\\ Puritans\\,\\ trade\\ and\\ commerce\\ were\\ potentially\\ morally\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ \\;Soul\\ of\\ merchant\\ was\\ always\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ sin\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1639\\ Trial\\ of\\ Robert\\ Keyne\\-\\ put\\ his\\ self\\-interest\\ above\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ collectivity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rising\\ merchant\\ class\\ v\\.\\ religious\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Future\\ of\\ America\\ was\\ a\\ blossoming\\ capitalist\\ economy\\,\\ not\\ religious\\ regime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ merchants\\ moved\\ into\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ economy\\,\\ they\\ stood\\ ready\\ to\\ explore\\/exploit\\ the\\ word\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;Future\\ of\\ North\\ American\\ colonies\\ was\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ small\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ empire\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\North\\ America\\ as\\ a\\ Developing\\ Nation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ agricultural\\ and\\ dynamic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aggregate\\ was\\ doing\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Northern\\ merchants\\ financed\\ the\\ manufacturing\\ of\\ agricultural\\ goods\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ and\\ outside\\ of\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\significant\\ market\\ for\\ American\\ made\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Complementarity\\ between\\ production\\ of\\ goods\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\English\\ were\\ worried\\ about\\ the\\ increasing\\ independence\\ of\\ the\\ colonialists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ Revolution\\,\\ French\\ Revolution\\ and\\ Industrial\\ Revolutionn\\ was\\ a\\ heavy\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Age\\ of\\ revolution\\ unleashing\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ possibilities\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ bourgeois\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\:\\ economic\\ origin\\ and\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concerned\\ with\\ the\\ Revolution\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ it\\ affects\\ political\\ economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolution\\ was\\ primarily\\ motivated\\ by\\ economic\\ interests\\ and\\ conflicts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ focus\\ on\\ economic\\ independence\\ alone\\ as\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ revolution\\ often\\ have\\ narrow\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Narrow\\&rdquo\\;\\ economic\\ reasons\\ given\\ for\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;high\\ taxes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Doubtful\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ sole\\ reason\\.\\ \\ \\;American\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;colonists\\ actually\\ paid\\ less\\ than\\ those\\ paid\\ in\\ Britain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;restrictions\\ on\\ colonial\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Series\\ of\\ navigation\\ acts\\ that\\ restricted\\ trade\\;\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;exports\\ from\\ colonies\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ England\\ first\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Taken\\ together\\ though\\,\\ neither\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ reasons\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;were\\ excessive\\ enough\\ to\\ encourage\\ the\\ Revolution\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;though\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\high\\ debts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Perhaps\\ just\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ pay\\ back\\ debts\\,\\ especially\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;when\\ British\\ merchants\\ tried\\ to\\ recall\\ their\\ debts\\.\\ \\ \\;Revealed\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\ continued\\ dependence\\ on\\ Britain\\ for\\ credit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arguably\\,\\ on\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ economic\\ success\\ of\\ colonialists\\ encouraged\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Result\\ of\\ economic\\ prosperity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seven\\ Years\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;called\\ the\\ first\\ revolution\\ by\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\British\\ government\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ mercantilist\\ approach\\ to\\ an\\ imperialist\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1765\\ Stamp\\ Act\\;\\ Sugar\\ Act\\;\\ Tea\\ Act\\;\\ Intolerable\\ Acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Printers\\ had\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ oppose\\ these\\ acts\\ \\(e\\.g\\ joined\\ the\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ Congress\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Not\\ all\\ Americans\\ were\\ revolutionaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Merchants\\ were\\ afraid\\ it\\ would\\ disrupt\\ their\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artisans\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolution\\ was\\ rooted\\ in\\ economic\\ concerns\\,\\ although\\ not\\ the\\ small\\ concerns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Who\\ would\\ control\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ economy\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ Revolution\\ \\(lasted\\ 6\\ years\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ manufacturing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ foreign\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Cut\\ off\\ trade\\ from\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Import\\ channels\\ ruined\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Homespun\\&rdquo\\;\\ era\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Spanish\\,\\ French\\,\\ Italian\\ continued\\ to\\ trade\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;compensate\\ for\\ loss\\ of\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Continental\\ Congress\\ could\\ not\\ levy\\ taxes\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ could\\ not\\ fund\\ troops\\.\\ \\ \\;Printing\\ money\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ raise\\ funds\\.\\ \\ \\;Resulted\\ in\\ tremendous\\ inflation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Not\\ worth\\ the\\ continental\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Serious\\ shortage\\ of\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ could\\ the\\ US\\ convince\\ others\\ that\\ investments\\ in\\ their\\ colonies\\ would\\ not\\ disappoint\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ kind\\ of\\ economy\\ would\\ the\\ US\\ be\\ building\\?\\ \\ \\;Perceptive\\ Americans\\ asked\\ these\\ questions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problems\\ of\\ the\\ Young\\ Nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Huge\\ war\\ debt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Would\\ this\\ \\$\\ ever\\ be\\ paid\\ back\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Federal\\ government\\ could\\ not\\ form\\ its\\ own\\ debt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Existing\\ political\\ arrangements\\ were\\ insufficient\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;revenue\\ needed\\ to\\ pay\\ back\\ the\\ war\\ debt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Disruption\\ of\\ trade\\ links\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Destruction\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ war\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ re\\-ignite\\ economic\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defining\\ a\\ new\\ political\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 8\\:\\ History\\ of\\ American\\ Capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Political\\ Economy\\ of\\ a\\ New\\ Nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Introduction\\:\\ The\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ for\\ future\\ American\\ economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Concern\\ about\\ long\\ term\\ policy\\ making\\,\\ trajectory\\ of\\ economic\\ policy\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\,\\ and\\ who\\ controlled\\ the\\ state\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mattered\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ in\\ trajectory\\ of\\ economic\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\ term\\ impact\\ of\\ American\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ policy\\ making\\ has\\ a\\ significant\\ impact\\ on\\ future\\ economic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ property\\ rights\\ were\\ defined\\ at\\ this\\ time\\;\\ political\\ alliances\\ made\\ \\(and\\ some\\ still\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ is\\ what\\ distinguishes\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\[stable\\ political\\ regimes\\]\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forms\\ of\\ state\\ intervention\\ into\\ markets\\ also\\ changed\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ Goals\\ of\\ this\\ Lecture\\:\\ 1\\.\\ Economic\\ policies\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ government\\ 2\\.\\ Economic\\ landscape\\ into\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Alexander\\ Hamilton\\:\\ Who\\ was\\ he\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alexander\\ Hamilton\\ was\\ not\\ from\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;Was\\ from\\ the\\ West\\ Indies\\ and\\ came\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ 15\\ years\\ old\\.\\ \\ \\;Died\\ young\\,\\ in\\ a\\ duel\\ with\\ VP\\ Aaron\\ Burr\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brilliant\\;\\ influential\\ economic\\ policy\\ maker\\.\\ \\ \\;Helped\\ write\\ the\\ Constitution\\;\\ worked\\ out\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ Articles\\ of\\ Confederation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ The\\ Constitutional\\ Convention\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Constitution\\ created\\ one\\ national\\ economic\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Secretary\\ of\\ the\\ Treasury\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ domestic\\ priorities\\;\\ created\\ a\\ sweeping\\ plan\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ trajectory\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cynical\\.\\ \\ \\;Did\\ not\\ think\\ republic\\ could\\ depend\\ on\\ self\\-sacrifice\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Embraced\\ a\\ continental\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Hamilton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Report\\ on\\ the\\ Public\\ Credit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ issue\\ he\\ dealt\\ with\\ in\\ 1790\\ was\\ the\\ national\\ debt\\ after\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Presented\\ a\\ report\\ on\\ the\\ \\$54\\ million\\ debt\\.\\ \\ \\;Thought\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ should\\ fund\\ the\\ debt\\ through\\ interest\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ credit\\ worthiness\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;Did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ undermine\\ U\\.S\\.\\ credit\\ overseas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ to\\ politically\\ attach\\ people\\ with\\ money\\ and\\ capital\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goals\\ were\\ as\\ much\\ political\\ as\\ purely\\ economical\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ federal\\ debt\\ a\\ permanent\\ debt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ to\\ tie\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ Americans\\ to\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ by\\ not\\ returning\\ debts\\ to\\ Americans\\,\\ but\\ only\\ paying\\ off\\ the\\ interest\\ rates\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ they\\ would\\ support\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ want\\ it\\ to\\ succeed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ plan\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ popular\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Hamilton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Report\\ on\\ a\\ National\\ Bank\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\December\\ 1790\\:\\ Penciled\\ a\\ report\\ on\\ a\\ federally\\ chartered\\ national\\ bank\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ criticized\\ this\\ bank\\ and\\ also\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ unconstitutional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Loose\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ constitution\\ was\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Design\\ of\\ a\\ state\\ governmental\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Hamilton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Report\\ on\\ Manufactures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\December\\ 1791\\:\\ Report\\ on\\ Manufactures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wanted\\ a\\ protective\\ tariff\\ on\\ foreign\\ imports\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ lot\\ of\\ controversy\\ and\\ criticism\\ of\\ the\\ report\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ hate\\ tariffs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ saw\\ manufacturing\\ as\\ degrading\\.\\ \\ \\;Feared\\ the\\ horrors\\ of\\ factory\\ towns\\ that\\ had\\ risen\\ in\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Hamilton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Legacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Set\\ US\\ on\\ a\\ path\\ away\\ from\\ Jeffersonian\\ dream\\ of\\ an\\ agrarian\\ republic\\ with\\ yeoman\\ farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helped\\ give\\ the\\ Federal\\ government\\ capacity\\ for\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saw\\ a\\ clearly\\ capitalist\\ vision\\ for\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\8\\.\\ The\\ social\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ 1800\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Population\\ was\\ quite\\ tiny\\.\\ \\ \\;Agricultural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\/3\\ of\\ people\\ were\\ slaves\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ The\\ Impact\\ of\\ the\\ Anglo\\-French\\ Wars\\ on\\ the\\ American\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\US\\ was\\ neutral\\ in\\ these\\ wars\\.\\ \\ \\;Economically\\ advantageous\\.\\ \\ \\;Total\\ exports\\ increased\\.\\ \\ \\;Increased\\ foreign\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indirectly\\ stimulated\\ growth\\ of\\ banks\\,\\ port\\ cities\\,\\ people\\ involved\\ in\\ trade\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ York\\,\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ grew\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Accumulation\\ of\\ Capital\\ in\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Expanded\\ trade\\ helped\\ accumulation\\ of\\ capital\\,\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ financial\\ institutions\\ that\\ could\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ this\\ capital\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ securities\\ exchange\\ opened\\ in\\ 1791\\ \\(NYSE\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1793\\:\\ Eli\\ Whitney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cotton\\ Gin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ settlers\\ moved\\ west\\.\\ \\ \\;1803\\:\\ Louisiana\\ Purchase\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ The\\ Embargo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Increasingly\\,\\ British\\ and\\ France\\ would\\ harass\\ the\\ US\\ ships\\ engaged\\ in\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\,\\ Jefferson\\ imposed\\ an\\ Embargo\\ Act\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ impact\\ on\\ trajectory\\ of\\ American\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bad\\ for\\ merchants\\ and\\ shipbuilding\\ interests\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ a\\ large\\ effect\\ on\\ domestic\\ manufacturing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\ the\\ Americans\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ self\\-sufficient\\.\\ \\ \\;Were\\ able\\ to\\ accumulate\\ significant\\ amount\\ of\\ capital\\ in\\ trade\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ Anglo\\-French\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ capital\\ could\\ be\\ redirected\\ afterwards\\ to\\ other\\ investments\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ manufacturing\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ Investments\\ in\\ manufacturing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\60\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ manufacture\\;\\ artisans\\;\\ enterprises\\ with\\ master\\ artisans\\ and\\ journeymen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ large\\ scale\\ manufacturing\\ already\\ emerged\\.\\ \\ \\;Society\\ for\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ useful\\ manufactures\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ textile\\ manufacturing\\ factory\\ in\\ Patterson\\,\\ NJ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Francis\\ Cabot\\ Lowell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ Various\\ European\\ conflicts\\ helped\\ create\\ a\\ reorientation\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ economy\\ after\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;Led\\ to\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Understanding\\ the\\ British\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\ is\\ crucial\\ to\\ understanding\\ the\\ trajectory\\ of\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ human\\ history\\,\\ people\\ could\\ believe\\ that\\ economic\\ growth\\ could\\ affect\\ their\\ lifetimes\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ really\\ low\\ growth\\ rate\\ 0\\.001\\%\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ America\\ had\\ 0\\.1\\%\\ share\\ of\\ world\\ GNP\\ by\\ 1800\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ 1913\\,\\ 18\\.9\\%\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rapid\\ self\\-sustaining\\ growth\\.\\ \\ \\;Economic\\ wellbeing\\ of\\ various\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ began\\ to\\ diverge\\.\\ \\ \\;Reasons\\ attributed\\ for\\ this\\ divergence\\ are\\ debated\\&mdash\\;cultural\\,\\ structural\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explore\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\ as\\ it\\ unfolded\\ in\\ Britain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ we\\ used\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ is\\ the\\ heavy\\ focus\\ on\\ emergence\\ of\\ new\\ markets\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beckert\\:\\ what\\ we\\ actually\\ need\\ to\\ concentrate\\ on\\ is\\ global\\ markets\\ and\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ first\\,\\ capitalist\\ growth\\ fell\\ into\\ cotton\\ primarily\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industrial\\ production\\ doubled\\ in\\ England\\,\\ then\\ increased\\ by\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ 3\\.6\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Geographic\\ core\\:\\ Cheshire\\,\\ Liverpool\\,\\ Manchester\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Purchased\\ raw\\ cotton\\ and\\ brought\\ it\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ and\\ children\\ then\\ spun\\ the\\ raw\\ cotton\\ into\\ yarn\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ an\\ intensification\\ of\\ cotton\\ production\\,\\ but\\ an\\ extension\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imbalance\\ of\\ production\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;Innovation\\ for\\ spinning\\ needed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Series\\ of\\ related\\ inventions\\ tremendously\\ increased\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mechanized\\ spinning\\ by\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;Made\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ spin\\ yarn\\ faster\\ or\\ more\\ cheaply\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ two\\ factors\\ of\\ the\\ industrial\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assembled\\ in\\ a\\ predictable\\ rhythm\\&mdash\\;system\\ was\\ spectacularly\\ productive\\ and\\ profitable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Owen\\:\\ people\\ could\\ come\\ incredibly\\ rich\\ incredibly\\ fast\\ with\\ relatively\\ little\\ capital\\ investment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ growth\\ of\\ railroads\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encouraged\\ rapid\\ growth\\ of\\ other\\ kinds\\ of\\ auxiliary\\ industries\\ \\(coal\\ mining\\ and\\ iron\\ machinery\\ industry\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Britain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coal\\ was\\ plentiful\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ root\\ of\\ emergence\\ of\\ railroads\\ because\\ mines\\ used\\ to\\ use\\ stationery\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ it\\ happen\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ and\\ why\\ Britain\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Large\\ domestic\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Size\\ of\\ political\\ influence\\ of\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ middle\\ class\\ \\(nation\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;of\\ shopkeepers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Although\\ aristocratic\\,\\ Britain\\ also\\ had\\ a\\ political\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;environment\\ favorable\\ to\\ entrepreneurs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Absence\\ of\\ a\\ peasantry\\.\\ \\ \\;Capitalist\\ transformation\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;countryside\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ready\\ supply\\ of\\ labor\\ with\\ the\\ sizable\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Proto\\-industrialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Well\\ developed\\ transportation\\ infrastructure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Unusually\\ urbanized\\ country\\&mdash\\;largest\\ city\\,\\ largest\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;concentrated\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Colonial\\ markets\\ and\\ colonial\\ sources\\ for\\ raw\\ materials\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Britain\\ in\\ 1780\\ ruled\\ over\\ a\\ vast\\ colonial\\ empire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ industrial\\ revolution\\ was\\ the\\ revolutionization\\ of\\ spinning\\ cotton\\ cloth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Availability\\ of\\ markets\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ core\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Between\\ 1750\\-1769\\,\\ in\\ less\\ than\\ 20\\ years\\,\\ exports\\ of\\ British\\ cotton\\ into\\ colonies\\ increased\\ 10\\-fold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Supply\\ of\\ land\\ suddenly\\ and\\ uncharacteristically\\ had\\ become\\ very\\ elastic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ important\\ factors\\ that\\ explain\\ why\\ and\\ how\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\ came\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;Existence\\ of\\ binary\\ opposites\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ repercussions\\ for\\ the\\ new\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Age\\ of\\ the\\ industrial\\ spy\\,\\ and\\ often\\ that\\ spy\\ was\\ an\\ American\\.\\ \\ \\;Desire\\ to\\ follow\\ in\\ the\\ footsteps\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 10\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rise\\ of\\ King\\ Cotton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Midterm\\ Description\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Part\\ I\\ \\(15\\ minutes\\)\\ 4\\/8\\ Identifications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Part\\ II\\.\\ Essay\\ 35\\ minutes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;thesis\\ conveying\\ your\\ viewpoint\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Industrial\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ events\\ in\\ human\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Last\\ week\\,\\ Beckert\\ tried\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ Britain\\ and\\ why\\ then\\ \\(late\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\)\\ unless\\ you\\ consider\\ the\\ global\\ links\\ through\\ which\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\ occurred\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Demand\\ for\\ raw\\ cotton\\ in\\ India\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Systematically\\ describe\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Southern\\ plantation\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1790s\\ Prices\\ for\\ raw\\ cotton\\ expanded\\ dramatically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ this\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 1790s\\,\\ the\\ US\\ became\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brought\\ US\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ economy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cotton\\ established\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ to\\ the\\ global\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;decline\\ of\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ to\\ trade\\ because\\ of\\ Revolution\\ and\\ aftermath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Became\\ important\\ for\\ the\\ South\\ to\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tobacco\\ loses\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rice\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ grown\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\-staple\\ cotton\\ grows\\ only\\ along\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ way\\ to\\ separate\\ seed\\ from\\ fiber\\ in\\ short\\ staple\\ cotton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ bleak\\ situation\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ was\\ changed\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ events\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Long\\ staple\\ cotton\\ did\\ grow\\ along\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ North\\ America\\,\\ but\\ only\\ short\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;staple\\ could\\ be\\ grown\\ inland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ was\\ well\\-suited\\ ecologically\\ for\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ cotton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powerful\\ incentive\\ emerged\\ to\\ invent\\ a\\ new\\ mechanism\\ that\\ would\\ enable\\ them\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ seed\\ from\\ short\\-staple\\ cotton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ 1793\\:\\ Eli\\ Whitney\\ invented\\ the\\ cotton\\ gin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Made\\ one\\ person\\ 50X\\ more\\ productive\\ when\\ ginning\\ \\(cleaning\\)\\ cotton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Purchasing\\ Louisiana\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ 3\\ factors\\ would\\ also\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ ultimately\\,\\ the\\ bloodiest\\ war\\ in\\ American\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1850s\\:\\ American\\ South\\ provided\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ cotton\\ imported\\ by\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ Question\\:\\ Why\\ was\\ it\\ the\\ US\\ that\\ became\\ the\\ largest\\ provider\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ had\\ 2\\ significant\\ advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Plenty\\ of\\ land\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ emptied\\ of\\ its\\ original\\ inhabitants\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ used\\ for\\ planting\\ cotton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Plenty\\ of\\ labor\\ was\\ potentially\\ available\\ to\\ grow\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;cotton\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(decline\\ of\\ cotton\\ development\\ in\\ upper\\ south\\ meant\\ slaves\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;could\\ be\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ deep\\ south\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unique\\ combination\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ labor\\ that\\ established\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ world\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cotton\\ was\\ everywhere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;very\\ rapidly\\ dominated\\ Southern\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ cotton\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Not\\ perishable\\,\\ could\\ be\\ transported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Needs\\ little\\ capital\\ investment\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ rice\\ plantations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ grown\\ on\\ farms\\ large\\ and\\ small\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ demand\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compatible\\ with\\ the\\ growing\\ of\\ food\\ crops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;With\\ such\\ large\\ advantages\\,\\ cotton\\ spread\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ further\\ inland\\ and\\ further\\ south\\ between\\ 1820\\-1840\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ moved\\ at\\ the\\ right\\ moment\\ form\\ the\\ upper\\ south\\ to\\ lower\\ south\\ could\\ make\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jefferson\\ Davis\\&mdash\\;leader\\ of\\ the\\ Confederation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Davis\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ had\\ become\\ planter\\ aristocrats\\ in\\ just\\ one\\ generation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fewer\\ places\\/opportunities\\ as\\ great\\ as\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ for\\ young\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Relationship\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cotton\\ \\&\\;\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Resulted\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ cruel\\ most\\ inhumane\\ parts\\ of\\ American\\ history\\&mdash\\;migration\\ of\\ slaves\\ from\\ upper\\ to\\ lower\\ south\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cotton\\ reinvigorated\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enabled\\ planters\\ to\\ increase\\ number\\ of\\ acres\\ under\\ their\\ control\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tremendous\\ growth\\ of\\ internal\\ slave\\ trade\\&mdash\\;selling\\ slaves\\ from\\ the\\ upper\\ south\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ south\\ \\(demand\\ for\\ slaves\\ from\\ upper\\ south\\,\\ where\\ tobacco\\ had\\ been\\ grown\\,\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ south\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\-2\\ million\\ slaves\\ were\\ moved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ planters\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ extraordinarily\\ profitable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prices\\ for\\ slaves\\ rose\\ incredibly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whenever\\ possible\\,\\ Southern\\ planters\\ expanded\\ their\\ hold\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ capital\\ \\(slaves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ was\\ a\\ profitable\\ institution\\ for\\ white\\ planters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;but\\ does\\ that\\ mean\\ we\\ should\\ see\\ these\\ planters\\ as\\ capitalists\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\-capitalist\\ paternalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ planters\\ grew\\ wealthy\\ in\\ profits\\,\\ prestige\\,\\ and\\ power\\,\\ while\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ did\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ very\\ dominance\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ precluded\\ a\\ fully\\ capitalist\\ transformation\\.\\ \\ \\;Slavery\\ was\\ profitable\\,\\ but\\ had\\ devastating\\ consequences\\ on\\ the\\ South\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consider\\ how\\ South\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ global\\ economy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stagnant\\,\\ if\\ not\\ pure\\ decline\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1790s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\ remained\\ the\\ wealthiest\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\South\\ did\\ not\\ match\\ the\\ industrialization\\ and\\ urbanization\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ or\\ the\\ North\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ exponential\\ growth\\ in\\ US\\ cotton\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ became\\ rapidly\\ more\\ urban\\ than\\ did\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;South\\ was\\ also\\ much\\ less\\ industrialized\\&mdash\\;entire\\ output\\ in\\ 1890\\ was\\ less\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ New\\ Hampshire\\ or\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ MA\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\South\\ remained\\ independent\\ on\\ credit\\,\\ shipping\\,\\ etc\\ of\\ the\\ North\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depended\\ on\\ outside\\ businessmen\\ to\\ do\\ most\\ of\\ that\\ work\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ principal\\ task\\ was\\ just\\ to\\ consolidate\\ cotton\\ and\\ prepare\\ it\\ for\\ transport\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ not\\ develop\\ its\\ own\\ commercial\\ shipping\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ banking\\ houses\\ that\\ still\\ exist\\ today\\ helped\\ to\\ move\\ this\\ cotton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ the\\ South\\ not\\ develop\\ its\\ own\\ commerce\\ and\\ industry\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Main\\ reason\\:\\ relative\\ comparative\\ advantage\\ of\\ cotton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Southerners\\ invested\\ in\\ slaves\\ and\\ land\\,\\ so\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ immediate\\ money\\ was\\ to\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;sell\\ slaves\\,\\ while\\ expansion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industrialization\\ threatened\\ social\\ stability\\ of\\ the\\ south\\&mdash\\;slaves\\ would\\ become\\ independent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ internal\\ commerce\\ in\\ US\\ after\\ 1815\\&mdash\\;south\\ devoted\\ itself\\ to\\ creating\\ plantation\\ staples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ provided\\ South\\ with\\ transportation\\ and\\ marketing\\ services\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ region\\&rsquo\\;s\\ income\\ flowed\\ to\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ which\\ stayed\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ went\\ towards\\ land\\ development\\ only\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ the\\ South\\ diverged\\ so\\ sharply\\ from\\ the\\ North\\,\\ it\\ is\\ tempting\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ backwards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(e\\.g\\.\\ Northerners\\ would\\ say\\ they\\ worked\\ little\\,\\ had\\ little\\,\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ civilized\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Southerners\\ invested\\ in\\ cotton\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ backwards\\ or\\ traditionalist\\,\\ but\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ so\\ profitable\\.\\ \\ \\;Cotton\\ belt\\ was\\ the\\ richest\\ region\\ in\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ seeing\\ it\\ as\\ economically\\ backward\\,\\ it\\ is\\ best\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ fundamentally\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ North\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cemented\\ the\\ US\\ position\\ within\\ the\\ world\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;South\\ demand\\ for\\ foodstuffs\\ helped\\ develop\\ the\\ West\\,\\ and\\ allowed\\ places\\ like\\ NY\\ to\\ thrive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helped\\ national\\ economy\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ system\\ of\\ south\\ rested\\ ultimately\\ upon\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ public\\ policies\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;Needed\\ to\\ look\\ to\\ west\\ for\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;Southern\\ economy\\ rested\\ on\\ low\\ tariff\\ environment\\,\\ one\\ which\\ hurt\\ Northern\\ manufactures\\.\\ South\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ hold\\ onto\\ significant\\ power\\ within\\ national\\ government\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ hold\\ onto\\ its\\ power\\ \\(regarding\\ slaves\\ mainly\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ this\\ conflict\\ that\\ would\\ eventually\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ American\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preconditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ industrialization\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Merchant\\ capital\\ redirected\\ into\\ manufacturing\\ partly\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ international\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ American\\ population\\,\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ decades\\,\\ grew\\ extraordinarily\\ fast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ State\\ policies\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ protective\\ tariffs\\ on\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Improvements\\ in\\ transportation\\ infrastructure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1807\\:\\ Robert\\ Fulton\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fulton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ferry\\ in\\ 1830\\,\\ allowing\\ people\\ to\\ ship\\ things\\ down\\ river\\ and\\ ship\\ them\\ upriver\\,\\ against\\ the\\ stream\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Canals\\ were\\ extremely\\ important\\:\\ cost\\ of\\ transportation\\/shipping\\ fell\\ quite\\ dramatically\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Canals\\ were\\ constructed\\ to\\ link\\ interior\\ areas\\ to\\ the\\ coast\\,\\ like\\ the\\ Erie\\ Canal\\ of\\ 1829\\-1831\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ far\\ the\\ longest\\ Canal\\ ever\\ built\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Railroads\\ had\\ a\\ huge\\ impact\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Could\\ go\\ anywhere\\,\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ regions\\ where\\ there\\ was\\ not\\ any\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;Linked\\ isolated\\ areas\\ to\\ world\\ markets\\.\\ \\ \\;Created\\ new\\ patterns\\ of\\ economic\\ interaction\\ and\\ institutional\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ other\\ form\\ was\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ railroads\\ were\\ in\\ helping\\ to\\ industrialize\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\5\\.\\ Capitalist\\ transformation\\ of\\ countryside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Countryside\\ could\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ market\\ for\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ American\\ manufacture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\6\\.\\ Westwards\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ people\\ moved\\ west\\,\\ they\\ created\\ a\\ demand\\ for\\ manufactured\\ goods\\ for\\ agricultural\\ purposes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;7\\.\\ Urbanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\e\\.g\\.\\ New\\ York\\ City\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Manufacture\\ \\&\\;\\ Models\\ of\\ Industrialization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1850\\,\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ American\\ labor\\ force\\ was\\ engaged\\ in\\ manufacturing\\.\\ \\ \\;America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ industrial\\ revolution\\ had\\ begun\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Samuel\\ Slater\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Came\\ to\\ America\\ as\\ an\\ \\é\\;migr\\é\\;\\ that\\ received\\ money\\ from\\ America\\ for\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;having\\ knowledge\\ of\\ manufacture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slater\\ Mill\\-contracted\\ weaving\\ of\\ yarn\\ to\\ women\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ homes\\.\\ \\ \\;Created\\ a\\ cottage\\ industry\\.\\ \\ \\;Factory\\ production\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ increased\\ household\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Francis\\ Cabot\\ Lowell\\-built\\ mills\\ in\\ Waltham\\ and\\ Lowell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ was\\ new\\ about\\ the\\ Lowell\\ Mills\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Integrated\\ spinning\\ and\\ weaving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Hired\\ mostly\\ young\\,\\ single\\ women\\,\\ not\\ families\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Run\\ by\\ managers\\,\\ not\\ by\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Corporate\\ form\\ of\\ ownership\\ \\(sought\\ shares\\ \\&\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;securities\\;\\ investors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Colonial\\ shoemakers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lynn\\ Shoe\\ Factories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ task\\ of\\ making\\ shoes\\ was\\ done\\ by\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ sewed\\ the\\ shoes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonial\\ technology\\,\\ but\\ new\\ organization\\ of\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\United\\ States\\ was\\ launched\\ on\\ a\\ trajectory\\ of\\ self\\-sustaining\\ economic\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\History\\ itself\\ was\\ moving\\ faster\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ fluid\\ and\\ stable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ invention\\ of\\ wage\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ few\\ Americans\\ used\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ wages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ for\\ scarcity\\ of\\ labor\\:\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ fertile\\ farmland\\&mdash\\;if\\ wages\\ were\\ too\\ low\\,\\ people\\ would\\ just\\ become\\ farmers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ they\\ secure\\ people\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ their\\ early\\ factories\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patterns\\ of\\ Proletarianization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ farm\\ to\\ factory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ was\\ to\\ move\\ their\\ entire\\ families\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ would\\ young\\ women\\ \\&ldquo\\;mill\\ girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ want\\ to\\ leave\\ home\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Farm\\ families\\ had\\ to\\ choose\\ between\\ going\\ west\\ or\\ working\\ in\\ factories\\,\\ so\\ they\\ chose\\ factories\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transformation\\ of\\ journeymen\\ and\\ apprentice\\ artisans\\ into\\ wage\\ laborers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Outworkers\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ proletarianization\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emancipation\\,\\ 1865\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Immigration\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ immigrants\\ who\\ arrived\\ in\\ the\\ ante\\-bellum\\ area\\ came\\ from\\ Western\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ industries\\ relied\\ heavily\\ on\\ the\\ technological\\ know\\-how\\ that\\ these\\ immigrants\\ offered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ gradually\\ did\\ the\\ Irish\\ secure\\ a\\ foothold\\ in\\ American\\ industry\\ \\(digging\\ canals\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Proletarianization\\ of\\ journeymen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Instead\\ of\\ teaching\\ apprentices\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ stages\\,\\ they\\ would\\ create\\ parts\\ and\\ then\\ could\\ have\\ semi\\-skilled\\ apprentices\\ put\\ them\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narrowing\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ jobs\\.\\ \\ \\;Gulf\\ between\\ masters\\ and\\ journeymen\\ widened\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Master\\ artisans\\ became\\ entrepreneurs\\/capitalists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ immigrated\\ or\\ became\\ wage\\ laborers\\ affected\\ their\\ fates\\ and\\ viewpoints\\ greatly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collective\\ action\\ and\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ trade\\ unions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Journeymen\\ were\\ definitely\\ the\\ group\\ that\\ was\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ organize\\ into\\ trade\\ unions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1834\\:\\ They\\ formed\\ a\\ national\\ trade\\ union\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ had\\ the\\ resources\\ to\\ organize\\ effectively\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1870s\\ and\\ 1880s\\:\\ Unions\\ and\\ strikes\\ had\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ presence\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 28, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Historical_Study_B49_-_Lecture_Notes.doc", "desc": "Lecture Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide - Justice", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "study-guide"], "text": null, "id": 117, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\ \\-\\ Justice\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:85\\.7pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:49\\.7pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:193\\.7pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:54pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-indent\\:9\\.1pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:22\\.6pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-indent\\:13\\.7pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-indent\\:121\\.7pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:94\\.6pt\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:13\\.4pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORAL\\ REASONING\\ 22\\:\\ JUSTICE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ UTILITARIANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Regina\\ v\\.\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Overview\\:\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\,\\ having\\ been\\ stranded\\ at\\ sea\\ for\\ 18\\ days\\,\\ unilaterally\\ made\\ the\\ decision\\ to\\ kill\\,\\ and\\ eat\\,\\ their\\ sickly\\ cabin\\ boy\\.\\ They\\ were\\ rescued\\ 4\\ days\\ later\\.\\ Though\\ convicted\\ of\\ murder\\ \\(here\\,\\ necessity\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ defense\\)\\,\\ they\\ found\\ their\\ sentences\\ commuted\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Notes\\:\\ This\\ foundational\\ case\\ was\\ introduced\\ to\\ emphasize\\ distinctions\\ between\\ morality\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ law\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ deontological\\ \\/\\ consequentialist\\ theories\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Think\\ about\\ how\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\&rdquo\\;\\ changes\\ when\\ presented\\ with\\ such\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\situations\\ as\\ a\\ runaway\\ trolley\\ car\\,\\ or\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;over\\-enthusiastic\\&rdquo\\;\\ transplant\\ surgeon\\.\\ B\\.\\ Bentham\\ and\\ the\\ Principle\\ of\\ General\\ Utility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Overview\\:\\ An\\ act\\ is\\ right\\ insofar\\ as\\ its\\ tendency\\ to\\ augment\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\is\\ greater\\ than\\ its\\ tendency\\ to\\ diminish\\ it\\ \\(Ch\\.\\ I\\,\\ \\§\\;6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ This\\ definition\\ flows\\ naturally\\ from\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ valuable\\.\\ For\\ him\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\all\\ that\\ matters\\ is\\ maximizing\\ pleasure\\ \\/\\ minimizing\\ pain\\ \\(Ch\\.\\ I\\,\\ \\§\\;1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Here\\,\\ Bentham\\ would\\ have\\ us\\ consider\\ such\\ elements\\ as\\ intensity\\,\\ duration\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\certainty\\ \\/\\ uncertainty\\,\\ propinquity\\ \\/\\ remoteness\\,\\ fecundity\\,\\ and\\ purity\\.\\ b\\.\\ As\\ an\\ academic\\ exercise\\,\\ we\\ asked\\ questions\\ about\\ what\\ externalities\\ to\\ include\\ in\\ our\\ calculus\\.\\ Whatever\\ answer\\ we\\ now\\ think\\ appropriate\\,\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ for\\ Bentham\\,\\ his\\ audience\\ was\\ the\\ British\\ aristocracy\\,\\ and\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;community\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ the\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Whatever\\ else\\ one\\ may\\ think\\ of\\ his\\ theory\\,\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advocacy\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;common\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ refreshingly\\ egalitarian\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Objections\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Individual\\ rights\\:\\ The\\ rights\\ of\\ minorities\\ lack\\ protection\\ under\\ such\\ a\\ theory\\.\\ b\\.\\ Incommensurability\\:\\ Pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\ cannot\\ be\\ measured\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ scale\\.\\ c\\.\\ Non\\-judgmental\\:\\ Not\\ all\\ pleasures\\ are\\ equal\\ \\(pushpin\\ is\\ substantively\\ diff\\.\\ than\\ poetry\\)\\.\\ i\\.\\ In\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ final\\ critique\\,\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ Bentham\\ does\\ provide\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ attributes\\ to\\ consider\\ in\\ ranking\\ pleasure\\ \\(Ch\\.\\ IV\\,\\ \\§\\;4\\)\\,\\ though\\ their\\ ultimate\\ use\\ is\\ not\\ discussed\\.\\ C\\.\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Objectives\\:\\ Mill\\ writes\\ Utilitarianism\\ as\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ transform\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\philosophy\\ into\\ one\\ of\\ generally\\ applicability\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Rejoinders\\:\\ He\\ attempts\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ theory\\ by\\ responding\\ directly\\ to\\ its\\ critics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Individual\\ rights\\:\\ Mill\\ believes\\ people\\ are\\ \\[or\\ should\\ be\\]\\ able\\ to\\ recognize\\ and\\ respect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ so\\-called\\ inherent\\ rights\\ of\\ man\\ \\(Ch\\.\\ 5\\)\\.\\ b\\.\\ Incommensurability\\:\\ Mill\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ situations\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ non\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\issue\\,\\ as\\ human\\ experience\\ eliminates\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ calculate\\ an\\ action\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ This\\ already\\ extant\\ framework\\ is\\ the\\ distinguishing\\ feature\\ btw\\ Rule\\ \\(Mill\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ Act\\ \\(Bentham\\)\\ Utilitarianism\\.\\ c\\.\\ Non\\-judgmental\\:\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ accounts\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;higher\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lower\\&rdquo\\;\\ pleasures\\;\\ only\\ those\\ having\\ experience\\ with\\ both\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ accurately\\ evaluate\\ which\\ are\\ of\\ greater\\ value\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Though\\ here\\,\\ Mill\\ responds\\ to\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ critics\\,\\ he\\ does\\ so\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ discounts\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;unenlightened\\&rdquo\\;\\ majorities\\.\\ In\\ so\\ doing\\,\\ one\\ could\\ argue\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sacrificed\\ the\\ most\\ utilitarian\\ aspects\\ of\\ his\\ predecessor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\.\\ D\\.\\ Utilitarianism\\ Defined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Utilitarianism\\ is\\ a\\ view\\ that\\ incorporates\\ three\\ distinct\\ elements\\ \\(note\\ how\\ the\\ objections\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\this\\ theory\\ relate\\ to\\ its\\ component\\ parts\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Consequentialism\\:\\ Actions\\ should\\ be\\ judged\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ their\\ consequences\\.\\ b\\.\\ Welfarism\\:\\ All\\ moral\\ value\\ can\\ be\\ accounted\\ for\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;utility\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ c\\.\\ Sum\\-maximization\\:\\ What\\ is\\ morally\\ important\\ about\\ utility\\ is\\ its\\ total\\ amount\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ LIBERTARIANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ Utilitarianism\\,\\ Libertarianism\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ rights\\-based\\ system\\ of\\ justice\\.\\ This\\ theory\\ saves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ child\\ locked\\ away\\ in\\ Omelas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ we\\ determined\\ last\\ week\\ that\\ Utilitarians\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\.\\ \\-\\ In\\ viewing\\ persons\\ as\\ ends\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ and\\ justifying\\ redistribution\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ consent\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarians\\ draw\\ on\\ Kant\\ and\\ Locke\\,\\ respectively\\.\\ \\-\\ Libertarians\\ argue\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;so\\ strong\\ and\\ far\\-reaching\\ are\\ \\[individual\\ rights\\]\\,\\ they\\ raise\\ the\\ question\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\what\\,\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ the\\ government\\ may\\ do\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ For\\ Libertarians\\,\\ basic\\ liberties\\ risk\\ infringement\\ in\\ any\\ system\\ other\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ Minimalist\\ State\\,\\ or\\ one\\ limited\\ to\\ such\\ activities\\ as\\ national\\ defense\\,\\ the\\ enforcement\\ of\\ contracts\\,\\ and\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ Collective\\ Goods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ One\\ may\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ enlarge\\ the\\ responsibilities\\ of\\ the\\ minimalist\\ state\\ by\\ expanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\what\\ are\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ healthcare\\)\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Though\\ the\\ approach\\ in\\ \\(a\\)\\ is\\ somewhat\\ suspect\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ Libertarians\\ are\\ not\\ opposed\\ to\\ helping\\ the\\ poor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ charity\\,\\ not\\ government\\ aid\\,\\ is\\ how\\ they\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ assist\\ the\\ least\\ well\\-off\\.\\ \\-\\ Libertarians\\ believe\\ that\\ our\\ current\\ system\\ denies\\ us\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ innate\\ rights\\ in\\ three\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\principle\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Paternalistic\\ legislation\\:\\ Should\\ people\\ choose\\ to\\ risk\\ injury\\ by\\ not\\ wearing\\ a\\ seatbelt\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ made\\ a\\ criminal\\;\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ respected\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ choice\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Moral\\ legislation\\:\\ It\\ exceeds\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mandate\\ to\\ promote\\ virtue\\ in\\ citizens\\ \\(regulating\\ prostitution\\ is\\ an\\ infringement\\ on\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ certain\\ persons\\ to\\ pursue\\ the\\ vocation\\ of\\ their\\ choosing\\)\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Redistributive\\ taxation\\:\\ Though\\ some\\ level\\ of\\ taxation\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\demands\\ of\\ the\\ minimalist\\ state\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;taxation\\ of\\ earnings\\ is\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ slavery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Entitlement\\ Theory\\:\\ Relying\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;historic\\ principles\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Nozick\\ writes\\ that\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\those\\ distributions\\ that\\ comply\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ requirements\\ are\\ just\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Justice\\ in\\ Acquisition\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Holdings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(money\\,\\ property\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ are\\ initially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\acquired\\ through\\ legitimate\\ means\\.\\ ii\\.\\ Justice\\ in\\ Transfer\\:\\ Holdings\\ are\\ transferred\\ in\\ a\\ fair\\ manner\\,\\ through\\ the\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ free\\ market\\,\\ in\\ free\\ exchange\\,\\ absent\\ coercion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ As\\ monopolies\\ force\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ persons\\ in\\ the\\ marketplace\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ Libertarians\\ may\\ here\\ favor\\ government\\ regulation\\.\\ b\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ while\\ Nozick\\ is\\ comfortable\\ with\\ the\\ redistribution\\ of\\ inherited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wealth\\,\\ Friedman\\ and\\ Hayek\\ are\\ not\\.\\ c\\.\\ Foundationally\\,\\ Libertarians\\ object\\ to\\ patterned\\ distributions\\,\\ or\\ predetermined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\notions\\ about\\ what\\ distributive\\ result\\ will\\ be\\ just\\ \\(Hayek\\,\\ 87\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Practical\\ concerns\\:\\ Free\\ markets\\ release\\ individual\\ initiative\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ contribute\\ to\\ overall\\ wealth\\;\\ they\\ solve\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ social\\ placement\\,\\ and\\ any\\ attempt\\ to\\ fashion\\ end\\-state\\ results\\ has\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ high\\-level\\ coercion\\.\\ ii\\.\\ Rights\\-based\\ arguments\\:\\ Any\\ governmental\\ tinkering\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\distributional\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ liberty\\.\\ d\\.\\ Libertarians\\,\\ while\\ opposing\\ redistributions\\ of\\ income\\,\\ do\\ believe\\ that\\ fairness\\ and\\ justice\\ rest\\ on\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ equality\\.\\ They\\ require\\,\\ however\\,\\ only\\ Equality\\ of\\ Opportunity\\,\\ not\\ Equality\\ of\\ Outcome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Though\\ appealing\\,\\ the\\ challenge\\ lies\\ in\\ how\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ level\\ playing\\ field\\ without\\ infringing\\ upon\\ the\\ individual\\ liberties\\ of\\ others\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ if\\ one\\ is\\ not\\ comfortable\\ with\\ taxing\\ inheritance\\,\\ how\\ can\\ one\\ legitimately\\ say\\ that\\ starting\\ points\\ are\\ all\\ equal\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ It\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ Libertarians\\ living\\ under\\ a\\ distributive\\ regime\\ are\\ still\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\obligated\\ to\\ pay\\ taxes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Unless\\ they\\ are\\ living\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ a\\ hermit\\,\\ they\\ are\\ receiving\\ government\\ benefits\\ \\(police\\ \\/\\ fire\\ service\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ that\\ obligate\\ them\\ to\\ their\\ community\\.\\ ii\\.\\ It\\ would\\ seem\\ that\\ their\\ only\\ real\\ option\\ is\\ to\\ leave\\.\\ \\-\\ Objections\\ and\\ Rejoinders\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ The\\ relative\\ value\\ of\\ money\\ is\\ greater\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\:\\ Though\\ this\\ is\\ true\\,\\ forcing\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ encouraging\\)\\ transfers\\ of\\ wealth\\ violate\\ individual\\ freedoms\\ of\\ choice\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Assumptions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Justice\\ in\\ Acquisition\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ unrealistic\\:\\ Nozick\\,\\ in\\ proffering\\ his\\ Principle\\ of\\ Rectification\\,\\ concedes\\ that\\ this\\ will\\ sometimes\\ be\\ the\\ case\\.\\ Where\\ identified\\,\\ the\\ proper\\ amount\\ of\\ holdings\\ should\\ be\\ transferred\\ to\\ rectify\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Taxation\\ by\\ consent\\ is\\ not\\ coercion\\:\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ the\\ majority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\is\\ not\\ fit\\ to\\ legislate\\ away\\.\\ 4\\.\\ The\\ successful\\ owe\\ a\\ debt\\ to\\ the\\ society\\ that\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ prosper\\:\\ The\\ wealthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\are\\ investing\\ their\\ own\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ in\\ the\\ acquisition\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\ \\-\\ All\\ said\\,\\ the\\ principle\\ challenge\\ to\\ Libertarianism\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ very\\ right\\ of\\ self\\-possession\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ LOCKE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Second\\ Treatise\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ its\\ time\\.\\ Its\\ concern\\ with\\ concentrated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\power\\ and\\ arbitrary\\ enforcement\\ is\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ realities\\ of\\ an\\ absolute\\ monarchical\\ era\\.\\ A\\.\\ Natural\\ Rights\\ and\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\:\\ Locke\\ grounds\\ his\\ treatise\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ men\\ once\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\ \\(unlike\\ Hobbs\\,\\ Locke\\ thought\\ this\\ circumstance\\ reality\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ non\\-structured\\ anarchic\\ state\\ where\\ all\\ persons\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\ and\\ equal\\ beings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ 2\\.\\ Law\\ of\\ Nature\\:\\ While\\ the\\ above\\ state\\ lacks\\ even\\ the\\ semblance\\ of\\ authority\\,\\ persons\\ are\\ not\\ here\\ free\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ they\\ please\\.\\ They\\ are\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Nature\\,\\ which\\ secures\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Natural\\ Rights\\ to\\ pursue\\ proprius\\ \\(life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ These\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ rights\\&rdquo\\;\\ come\\ from\\ two\\ distinct\\ sources\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ God\\:\\ As\\ our\\ maker\\,\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ prior\\ possessory\\ interest\\ in\\ us\\.\\ ii\\.\\ Reason\\:\\ A\\ tougher\\ argument\\.\\ For\\ our\\ purposes\\,\\ just\\ know\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\second\\,\\ though\\ not\\ as\\ strong\\ approach\\ to\\ concluding\\ that\\ natural\\ rights\\ exist\\.\\ b\\.\\ In\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\,\\ when\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ natural\\ rights\\ have\\ been\\ violated\\,\\ it\\ is\\ permissible\\ to\\ enact\\ justice\\ \\(for\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ choose\\ to\\ write\\ on\\ the\\ moral\\ dilemma\\ of\\ SEAL\\ Team\\ 10\\,\\ note\\ that\\ this\\ action\\ is\\ justified\\ only\\ from\\ a\\ defensive\\ posture\\)\\.\\ c\\.\\ As\\ securing\\ natural\\ rights\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ state\\ is\\ difficult\\ \\(private\\ enforcement\\ leads\\ quickly\\ to\\ a\\ Hobbsian\\ State\\ of\\ War\\)\\,\\ the\\ desire\\ \\/\\ need\\ to\\ form\\ political\\ societies\\ is\\ self\\-evident\\.\\ B\\.\\ A\\ Closer\\ look\\ at\\ Property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Overview\\:\\ Locke\\ believes\\ that\\ property\\ existed\\ in\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\,\\ and\\ that\\ its\\ protection\\ was\\ the\\ principle\\ motivation\\ for\\ establishing\\ civil\\ society\\ \\(this\\ is\\ foundationally\\ important\\,\\ as\\ his\\ contemporaries\\ were\\ arguing\\ that\\ all\\ property\\ in\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\ was\\ held\\ in\\ common\\,\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ was\\ not\\ something\\ that\\ those\\ persons\\ forming\\ government\\ would\\ be\\ concerned\\ with\\ protecting\\)\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Argument\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ At\\ a\\ minimum\\,\\ each\\ man\\ owns\\ himself\\.\\ It\\ follows\\ that\\ he\\ must\\ also\\ own\\ his\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(any\\ other\\ conclusion\\ commits\\ him\\ to\\ slavery\\)\\.\\ b\\.\\ If\\ we\\ accept\\ \\(a\\)\\,\\ we\\ must\\ also\\ agree\\ that\\ mixing\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\ with\\ an\\ otherwise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\common\\ good\\ creates\\,\\ in\\ that\\ good\\,\\ a\\ possessory\\ interest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ For\\ Locke\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ provisos\\ limiting\\ what\\ one\\ can\\ take\\ from\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\communal\\ store\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ One\\ must\\ leave\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ much\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ others\\.\\ 2\\.\\ One\\ can\\ take\\ only\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ before\\ it\\ spoils\\.\\ c\\.\\ Currency\\:\\ Locke\\ writes\\ that\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ gold\\ or\\ silver\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;stand\\ in\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ usable\\ goods\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ one\\ accepts\\ coinage\\ with\\ the\\ understanding\\ that\\ someone\\ else\\ will\\ accept\\ it\\ for\\ wheat\\)\\ eliminates\\ the\\ spoilage\\ limitation\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Real\\ Property\\:\\ Because\\ land\\ is\\ a\\ limited\\ asset\\,\\ Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ only\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\those\\ able\\ to\\ put\\ it\\ to\\ its\\ best\\ possible\\ use\\ \\(a\\ Utilitarian\\ argument\\,\\ perhaps\\?\\)\\.\\ C\\.\\ Government\\ as\\ a\\ Social\\ Contract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Consent\\:\\ Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ legitimate\\ government\\ is\\ formed\\ by\\ consenting\\ persons\\ who\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\chosen\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ In\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ State\\&rsquo\\;s\\ protection\\ of\\ property\\ interests\\,\\ those\\ putting\\ on\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;bonds\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ understood\\ to\\ agree\\ to\\ majority\\ rule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ limit\\ on\\ government\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ of\\ a\\ character\\ that\\ would\\ arbitrarily\\ violate\\ the\\ natural\\ rights\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ are\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ inalienable\\ \\(consenting\\ away\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ live\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ or\\ property\\ creates\\ a\\ situation\\ worse\\ than\\ that\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\ \\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Where\\ the\\ government\\ violates\\ this\\ proviso\\,\\ Locke\\ writes\\ that\\ its\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\overthrow\\ is\\ permissible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Absent\\ this\\ circumstance\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ recourse\\ for\\ the\\ disgruntled\\ citizen\\.\\ Locke\\ writes\\ that\\ only\\ in\\ leaving\\ \\(emigrating\\)\\ can\\ one\\ break\\ the\\ tacitly\\-consented\\-to\\ social\\ contract\\.\\ b\\.\\ In\\ a\\ departure\\ from\\ Libertarian\\ reasoning\\,\\ Locke\\ believes\\ that\\ taxes\\ are\\ just\\ in\\ supporting\\ governments\\ that\\ require\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ charge\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\§\\;140\\)\\.\\ So\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ collective\\ consent\\ to\\ taxation\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ conducted\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ arbitrary\\,\\ Locke\\ is\\ comfortable\\ with\\ what\\ others\\ would\\ describe\\ as\\ an\\ unjust\\ taking\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Property\\ Rights\\:\\ Though\\ government\\ was\\ created\\ to\\ protect\\ private\\ property\\,\\ it\\ functions\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\promote\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ Sometimes\\,\\ these\\ twin\\ purposes\\ are\\ in\\ conflict\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Kilo\\ v\\.\\ City\\ of\\ New\\ London\\:\\ A\\ 2005\\ case\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ state\\,\\ through\\ eminent\\ domain\\,\\ expropriated\\ private\\ property\\,\\ then\\ sold\\ it\\ to\\ a\\ developer\\ intending\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ shopping\\ center\\ \\(this\\ action\\ was\\ supposedly\\ justified\\,\\ as\\ the\\ tax\\ revenue\\ of\\ the\\ commercial\\ enterprise\\ was\\ far\\ greater\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ at\\-issue\\ single\\ family\\ home\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Locke\\ would\\ likely\\ support\\ such\\ a\\ taking\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ arbitrary\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\relying\\ on\\ the\\ express\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ and\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;best\\ use\\&rdquo\\;\\ proviso\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ One\\ could\\ argue\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ taking\\ was\\ not\\ permissible\\,\\ as\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ representatives\\ were\\ not\\ vested\\ with\\ the\\ authority\\ to\\ decide\\ the\\ issue\\ \\(perhaps\\ a\\ referendum\\ vote\\ was\\ necessary\\)\\.\\ E\\.\\ On\\ Punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Overview\\:\\ Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ violating\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ compact\\ \\(breaking\\ the\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\set\\ forth\\ by\\ the\\ majority\\)\\,\\ offending\\ persons\\ forfeit\\ the\\ rights\\ they\\ would\\ otherwise\\ possess\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Locke\\ defends\\ capital\\ punishment\\ on\\ two\\ grounds\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Retribution\\:\\ Criminals\\ deserve\\ punishment\\.\\ ii\\.\\ Deterrence\\:\\ Using\\ utilitarian\\ arguments\\,\\ examples\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ out\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\criminals\\,\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ deter\\ others\\ from\\ similar\\ pursuits\\.\\ b\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ anti\\-Lockean\\ argument\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ never\\ permitted\\ to\\ execute\\ a\\ criminal\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ inconceivable\\ one\\ would\\ cede\\ this\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ State\\ w\\/o\\ knowledge\\ of\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;non\\-arbitrary\\&rdquo\\;\\ schemes\\ might\\ be\\ set\\ up\\ to\\ take\\ it\\ away\\.\\ F\\.\\ Johnson\\ v\\.\\ McIntosh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Overview\\:\\ This\\ 1823\\ case\\ demonstrates\\ how\\ one\\ might\\ apply\\ Lockean\\ concepts\\ to\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\contemporary\\ property\\ dispute\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Facts\\:\\ Johnson\\ and\\ McIntosh\\,\\ two\\ U\\.S\\.\\ citizens\\,\\ each\\ claimed\\ ownership\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ piece\\ of\\ land\\ in\\ Illinois\\.\\ Johnson\\ bought\\ the\\ land\\ from\\ the\\ Piankeshaw\\ Indians\\ in\\ 1775\\.\\ McIntosh\\ received\\ the\\ same\\ parcel\\ from\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ government\\ in\\ 1821\\.\\ Johnson\\ claims\\ title\\,\\ as\\ the\\ Piankeshaw\\ were\\ first\\ possessors\\;\\ McIntosh\\,\\ cas\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ the\\ successor\\ state\\ to\\ Britain\\,\\ a\\ country\\ that\\ first\\ surveyed\\ the\\ land\\ in\\ 1763\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Argument\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Johnson\\:\\ Had\\ been\\ mixing\\ his\\ labor\\ w\\/\\ the\\ land\\ long\\ before\\ McIntosh\\ laid\\ claim\\ to\\ it\\.\\ b\\.\\ McIntosh\\:\\ This\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\,\\ as\\ both\\ parties\\ are\\ U\\.S\\.\\ citizens\\ and\\ must\\ abide\\ by\\ the\\ various\\ non\\-intercourse\\ acts\\ that\\ prevent\\ individuals\\ from\\ purchasing\\ land\\ from\\ American\\ Indians\\ \\(only\\ the\\ national\\ government\\ was\\ authorized\\ to\\ conduct\\ such\\ transactions\\)\\.\\ c\\.\\ Johnson\\:\\ This\\ may\\ be\\ true\\,\\ but\\ a\\ great\\ many\\ persons\\ acquired\\ land\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Selective\\ enforcement\\ is\\ arbitrary\\,\\ and\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ Lockean\\ principles\\.\\ 4\\.\\ Holding\\:\\ Marshall\\ sided\\ with\\ McIntosh\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ said\\ American\\ Indians\\ were\\ occupants\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\land\\,\\ but\\ never\\ held\\ proper\\ title\\,\\ as\\ they\\ existed\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ MARKETS\\ AND\\ MORALS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Military\\ Service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Overview\\:\\ As\\ Utilitarian\\ \\/\\ Libertarian\\ arguments\\ are\\ somewhat\\ obvious\\,\\ I\\ will\\ stress\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\[surprising\\?\\]\\ view\\ on\\ the\\ justness\\ of\\ a\\ conscript\\ army\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Argument\\:\\ According\\ to\\ Sandel\\,\\ Locke\\ is\\ comfortable\\ with\\ a\\ draft\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ arbitrary\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\ comes\\ at\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ defense\\ force\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Here\\ lies\\ another\\ departure\\ from\\ Libertarian\\ ideals\\:\\ Whereas\\ Locke\\ originally\\ argued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ the\\ inalienable\\ rights\\ of\\ self\\-possession\\,\\ when\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\,\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ supplant\\ them\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Notes\\:\\ Within\\ this\\ framework\\,\\ we\\ analyzed\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ approaches\\ to\\ raising\\ an\\ army\\.\\ While\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\&rdquo\\;\\ answer\\,\\ most\\ students\\ felt\\ that\\ our\\ current\\ system\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ just\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Civil\\ War\\:\\ National\\ draft\\,\\ though\\ persons\\ not\\ wishing\\ to\\ serve\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\service\\ by\\ finding\\ a\\ replacement\\,\\ and\\ paying\\ a\\ \\$300\\ \\&ldquo\\;communtation\\ fee\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ b\\.\\ World\\ Wars\\:\\ National\\ draft\\;\\ there\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ any\\ exemptions\\ but\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ made\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\convincing\\ showing\\ before\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;extreme\\ hardship\\&rdquo\\;\\ review\\ board\\.\\ c\\.\\ Vietnam\\:\\ National\\ draft\\,\\ though\\ those\\ in\\ school\\,\\ or\\ working\\ in\\ certain\\ skilled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\professions\\ were\\ exempted\\.\\ d\\.\\ Iraq\\ \\/\\ Afghanistan\\:\\ All\\ volunteer\\ army\\ \\(larger\\ financial\\ incentives\\ than\\ ever\\ before\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Consider\\ whether\\ Bobbitt\\ is\\ correct\\ in\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;brought\\ full\\ circle\\ to\\ the\\ system\\ of\\ bounties\\ and\\ substitutes\\,\\ though\\ one\\ considerably\\ more\\ concealed\\ than\\ the\\ one\\ which\\ operated\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ B\\.\\ Surrogate\\ motherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Overview\\:\\ We\\ looked\\ here\\ at\\ surrogate\\ motherhood\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ Libertarian\\ arguments\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\their\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ Jersey\\ case\\,\\ In\\ re\\:\\ Baby\\ M\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Facts\\:\\ A\\ 1987\\ case\\ in\\ which\\ Elizabeth\\ Stern\\ \\(afflicted\\ with\\ multiple\\ sclerosis\\)\\ signed\\ a\\ contract\\ with\\ Mary\\ Beth\\ Whitehead\\,\\ a\\ mother\\ of\\ two\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ agreed\\ to\\ carry\\ an\\ artificially\\ inseminated\\ child\\ for\\ a\\ fee\\ of\\ \\$10\\,000\\.\\ Within\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ giving\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ Ms\\.\\ Stern\\,\\ Whitehead\\ demanded\\ her\\ back\\.\\ The\\ N\\.J\\.\\ Supreme\\ Court\\,\\ relying\\ on\\ the\\ arguments\\ below\\,\\ found\\ for\\ Ms\\.\\ Whitehead\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Arguments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Imperfect\\ information\\:\\ Whitehead\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ known\\ what\\ it\\ was\\ like\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\child\\,\\ thus\\,\\ any\\ decision\\ made\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ actual\\ birth\\ was\\ not\\ fully\\ informed\\.\\ b\\.\\ Dehumanizing\\:\\ The\\ parties\\ to\\ the\\ contract\\ have\\ commodified\\ something\\ that\\ does\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\have\\ a\\ monetary\\ value\\,\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ transaction\\ is\\ void\\ \\(human\\ life\\ is\\ priceless\\)\\.\\ 4\\.\\ Notes\\:\\ Is\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pregnancy\\ really\\ best\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;labor\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ Might\\ this\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\not\\ be\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ sort\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;commodification\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ Anderson\\ so\\ deplores\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ KANT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Kantian\\ Distinctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Analytic\\ \\/\\ Synthetic\\:\\ This\\ concerns\\ what\\ makes\\ a\\ judgment\\ true\\ of\\ false\\.\\ Analytic\\ statements\\ are\\ true\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ meanings\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ involved\\.\\ Synthetic\\ statements\\ are\\ true\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ substantive\\ sense\\;\\ they\\ are\\ judgments\\ which\\ add\\ something\\ new\\ to\\ our\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\ at\\ hand\\.\\ Kant\\ believed\\ that\\ morality\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ synthetic\\,\\ as\\ it\\ told\\ us\\ something\\ substantive\\.\\ 2\\.\\ A\\ Posterior\\ \\/\\ A\\ Priori\\:\\ This\\ concerns\\ how\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ know\\ a\\ judgment\\&rsquo\\;s\\ truth\\.\\ A\\ Posterior\\ judgments\\ are\\ those\\ known\\ only\\ through\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ A\\ Priori\\ judgments\\ are\\ independent\\ of\\ any\\ particular\\ experience\\.\\ Kant\\ believed\\ that\\ moral\\ judgments\\ must\\ of\\ the\\ latter\\ variety\\,\\ derived\\ in\\ abstraction\\ from\\ any\\ particular\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ from\\ reason\\ alone\\.\\ B\\.\\ The\\ Preface\\ to\\ the\\ Grounding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Given\\ that\\ moral\\ judgments\\ deal\\ with\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ the\\ case\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ be\\ derived\\ from\\ experience\\,\\ which\\ can\\ only\\ tell\\ us\\ how\\ things\\ are\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ moral\\ judgments\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ priori\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Kant\\ seeks\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ domain\\ of\\ laws\\ that\\ applies\\ to\\ our\\ behavior\\ as\\ rational\\ beings\\.\\ The\\ Grounding\\ is\\ thus\\ designed\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ such\\ universal\\ principles\\ \\(categorical\\ imperatives\\)\\ do\\ exist\\.\\ Such\\ imperatives\\ are\\ what\\ he\\ calls\\ morality\\.\\ C\\.\\ Section\\ I\\:\\ Transitioning\\ from\\ the\\ Rational\\ to\\ the\\ Philosophical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Purpose\\:\\ Kant\\ intends\\ to\\ analyze\\ our\\ traditional\\ notions\\ of\\ morality\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ discover\\ their\\ underlying\\ principles\\.\\ Here\\,\\ he\\ attempts\\ to\\ show\\ what\\ must\\ be\\ established\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ morality\\ is\\ possible\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Beginnings\\:\\ Kant\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ proposition\\ that\\ Good\\ Will\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ attribute\\ unconditional\\ moral\\ worth\\ \\(even\\ if\\ actions\\ originating\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ mindset\\ turn\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ unsuccessful\\,\\ value\\ cannot\\ be\\ detracted\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ viewed\\ independently\\ from\\ their\\ effects\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ project\\ becomes\\ one\\ of\\ finding\\ out\\ the\\ principle\\ upon\\ which\\ the\\ person\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ Will\\ acts\\.\\ b\\.\\ Kant\\ identifies\\ three\\ motivations\\ for\\ action\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Duty\\:\\ Performed\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ is\\ these\\ actions\\ Kant\\ feels\\ have\\ a\\ value\\ other\\ motivations\\ lack\\.\\ \\-\\ To\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ envisioned\\ distinction\\ between\\ this\\ motivation\\ and\\ those\\ that\\ follow\\,\\ he\\ gives\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ prudent\\ merchant\\.\\ ii\\.\\ Immediate\\ Inclination\\:\\ Performed\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ enjoyable\\.\\ iii\\.\\ Instrumental\\ Inclination\\:\\ Performed\\ because\\ it\\ serves\\ an\\ independent\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Controversially\\,\\ Kant\\ feels\\ that\\ actions\\ motivated\\ by\\ \\(ii\\)\\ and\\ \\(iii\\)\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\no\\ moral\\ worth\\.\\ c\\.\\ By\\ drawing\\ the\\ above\\ distinctions\\ \\(with\\ duty\\ reigning\\ supreme\\)\\,\\ Kant\\ develops\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\scheme\\ in\\ which\\ moral\\ worth\\ exists\\ only\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ respect\\ for\\ moral\\ law\\.\\ D\\.\\ Section\\ II\\:\\ Transitioning\\ from\\ Popular\\ Philosophy\\ to\\ a\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Purpose\\:\\ Kant\\ seeks\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ moral\\ law\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ practical\\ reason\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Beginnings\\:\\ Laws\\ of\\ reason\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ imperatives\\,\\ telling\\ us\\ what\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ do\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Hypothetical\\ Imperatives\\:\\ Tells\\ us\\ what\\ we\\ should\\ do\\,\\ given\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ some\\ end\\.\\ b\\.\\ Categorical\\ Imperatives\\:\\ Tells\\ us\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ unconditionally\\.\\ Given\\ that\\ morality\\ functions\\ independently\\ of\\ contingent\\ preferences\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ governed\\ by\\ this\\ latter\\ imperative\\ \\(these\\ principles\\ are\\ themselves\\ laws\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Kant\\ asserts\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ tests\\ derivable\\ from\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ that\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ identify\\ morally\\ permissible\\ acts\\ and\\ duties\\.\\ First\\ of\\ these\\ is\\ the\\ Formula\\ of\\ Universal\\ Law\\,\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ must\\ perform\\ a\\ thought\\ experiment\\ to\\ discover\\ whether\\ a\\ given\\ maxim\\ could\\ be\\ willed\\ a\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ As\\ an\\ example\\,\\ take\\ one\\ who\\ falsely\\ promises\\ to\\ pay\\ back\\ borrowed\\ money\\:\\ As\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ contradiction\\ in\\ living\\ in\\ world\\ where\\ every\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\person\\ borrowed\\ money\\ without\\ intent\\ to\\ pay\\ it\\ back\\,\\ it\\ fails\\ the\\ Groundwork\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foundational\\ test\\ and\\ is\\ thus\\ morally\\ impermissible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Perfect\\ duties\\:\\ Exist\\ where\\ contradictions\\ arise\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ universalized\\ maxim\\ \\(the\\ lying\\ promise\\)\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Imperfect\\ duties\\:\\ Exist\\ where\\ inconsistencies\\ develop\\ when\\ willing\\ that\\ an\\ acceptable\\ maxim\\ becomes\\ universal\\ law\\ \\(the\\ prosperous\\ man\\)\\.\\ ii\\.\\ Kant\\ describes\\ other\\ formulations\\ of\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ that\\ reach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ same\\ conclusions\\ as\\ the\\ more\\-familiar\\ Formula\\ of\\ Universal\\ Law\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Formula\\ of\\ Humanity\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Act\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ you\\ treat\\ humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(\\.\\.\\.\\)\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ and\\ never\\ as\\ a\\ means\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ People\\ are\\ of\\ absolute\\ value\\ and\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ sacrificed\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;relatively\\&rdquo\\;\\ valuable\\ ends\\.\\ \\-\\ Formula\\ of\\ the\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ rational\\ being\\ must\\ always\\ regard\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ legislator\\ in\\ a\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\ rendered\\ possible\\ by\\ freedom\\ of\\ the\\ will\\,\\ whether\\ as\\ member\\ or\\ sovereign\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ If\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ legislating\\ universal\\ law\\ through\\ maxims\\,\\ then\\ we\\ should\\ think\\ of\\ moral\\ motivation\\ as\\ autonomous\\ \\(Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belief\\ was\\ that\\ such\\ obligations\\ arise\\ from\\ the\\ human\\ capacity\\ for\\ self\\-direction\\)\\.\\ 2\\.\\ The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\ is\\ incredibly\\ important\\,\\ as\\ freedom\\,\\ for\\ Kant\\,\\ is\\ found\\ in\\ obeying\\ an\\ independently\\ developed\\ law\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ if\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ shown\\ that\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ genuinely\\ autonomous\\,\\ then\\ his\\ position\\ that\\ the\\ demands\\ of\\ morality\\ \\(duties\\ imposed\\ by\\ formulations\\ of\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\)\\ apply\\ to\\ all\\ rational\\ persons\\ will\\ be\\ satisfied\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ Section\\ III\\)\\.\\ E\\.\\ Section\\ III\\:\\ Transitional\\ from\\ a\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\ to\\ a\\ Critique\\ of\\ Practical\\ Reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Purpose\\:\\ Kant\\ seeks\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ all\\ rational\\ beings\\ have\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ autonomous\\ will\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\which\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ is\\ authoritative\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Beginnings\\:\\ Freedom\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ causality\\ independent\\ of\\ any\\ factors\\ extraneous\\ to\\ the\\ will\\ itself\\,\\ including\\ the\\ empirical\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;agent\\ in\\ question\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Insofar\\ as\\ human\\ action\\ meets\\ this\\ condition\\,\\ it\\ is\\ autonomous\\ \\(failure\\ would\\ make\\ it\\ heteronymous\\)\\.\\ a\\.\\ As\\ previously\\ discussed\\,\\ Kant\\ believes\\ that\\ freedom\\ from\\ inclination\\ is\\ possible\\ only\\ when\\ acting\\ out\\ of\\ duty\\ toward\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\,\\ as\\ derived\\ vis\\-\\à\\;\\-vis\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ for\\ Kant\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ analytic\\ connection\\ between\\ freedom\\,\\ autonomy\\,\\ and\\ morality\\ \\(the\\ question\\ that\\ remains\\ is\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ we\\ are\\ truly\\ free\\)\\.\\ b\\.\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defense\\ of\\ freedom\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ claim\\ that\\,\\ as\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\uncompelled\\ moral\\ choices\\,\\ we\\ are\\ rational\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Although\\ Kant\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ assumption\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ our\\ freedom\\ to\\ choose\\ between\\ different\\ options\\ contradicts\\ the\\ natural\\ necessity\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ science\\)\\,\\ he\\ states\\ that\\,\\ while\\ true\\ of\\ human\\ agents\\ insofar\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ empirical\\ world\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ true\\ of\\ them\\ when\\ choosing\\ alternatives\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;realm\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ This\\ corresponds\\ with\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ phenomenal\\ realm\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ things\\ as\\ they\\ appear\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ noumenal\\ realm\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ things\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ themselves\\)\\.\\ Though\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ knowledge\\ only\\ of\\ the\\ former\\,\\ we\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ rationally\\ choosing\\ actions\\ within\\ the\\ latter\\ \\&ldquo\\;world\\ of\\ understanding\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ standpoints\\,\\ corresponding\\ to\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ distinction\\,\\ from\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ think\\ about\\ ourselves\\,\\ that\\ are\\ essentially\\ in\\ disagreement\\,\\ but\\ are\\ somehow\\ unable\\ to\\ contradict\\ each\\ other\\ \\(think\\ of\\ the\\ dimensional\\ cube\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ we\\ must\\ think\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ both\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ understanding\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ free\\ and\\ autonomous\\ ii\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ Kant\\ does\\ not\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ explain\\ how\\ this\\ freedom\\ is\\ possible\\,\\ as\\ he\\ asserts\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ no\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ noumenal\\ realm\\.\\ He\\ simply\\ writes\\ that\\ it\\ true\\ in\\ a\\ relevant\\ sense\\,\\ though\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ cannot\\ be\\ given\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ If\\ one\\ accepts\\ this\\ account\\,\\ then\\ \\(so\\ long\\ as\\ we\\ have\\ accepted\\ Sections\\ I\\ and\\ II\\)\\ we\\ must\\ conclude\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ as\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\.\\ \\-\\ Final\\ Comments\\:\\ Relating\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ larger\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ note\\ that\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ theory\\ is\\ contractarian\\ and\\ anti\\-utilitarian\\.\\ Additionally\\ it\\ is\\ universally\\ applicability\\,\\ though\\,\\ by\\ refusing\\ to\\ trace\\ morality\\ to\\ a\\ historical\\ social\\ contract\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Locke\\)\\,\\ he\\ relies\\ on\\ implicit\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ explicit\\ consent\\.\\ For\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ an\\ even\\ more\\ tenuous\\ notion\\ of\\ contract\\ theory\\,\\ we\\ look\\ to\\ Rawls\\ and\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ hypothetical\\ consent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ RAWLS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Foundationally\\,\\ A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\ attempts\\ to\\ base\\ morality\\ on\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ agreement\\ consistent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\with\\ Kantian\\ themes\\:\\ both\\ are\\ critics\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\,\\ and\\ both\\ rely\\ on\\ non\\-historical\\ social\\ contracts\\.\\ A\\.\\ The\\ Original\\ Position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Purpose\\:\\ Rawls\\ designed\\ the\\ original\\ position\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ an\\ undesirable\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ from\\ which\\ social\\ contracts\\ were\\ traditionally\\ thought\\ to\\ arise\\ \\(the\\ principle\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ points\\ of\\ origin\\ is\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ coercion\\ in\\ the\\ latter\\)\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Definition\\:\\ As\\ a\\ thought\\ experiment\\,\\ Rawls\\ here\\ hoped\\ to\\ accurately\\ reflect\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ that\\ would\\ manifest\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ premised\\ on\\ free\\ and\\ fair\\ cooperation\\ between\\ citizens\\.\\ a\\.\\ This\\ is\\ achieved\\ through\\ the\\ placement\\ of\\ parties\\ behind\\ a\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ deprived\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ individuating\\ characteristics\\ they\\ possess\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ they\\ are\\ unaware\\ of\\ their\\ talents\\,\\ gender\\,\\ nationality\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Application\\:\\ Parties\\ adopt\\ the\\ maximin\\ rule\\,\\ making\\ choices\\ that\\ produce\\ the\\ highest\\ payoff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ the\\ worst\\ outcome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Thin\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Good\\:\\ In\\ the\\ original\\ position\\,\\ parties\\ abstractly\\ recognize\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ purposes\\,\\ and\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ certain\\ primary\\ social\\ goods\\ \\(health\\,\\ material\\ resources\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ that\\ are\\ useful\\ in\\ furthering\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ potential\\ outcomes\\.\\ It\\ is\\ with\\ this\\ limited\\ knowledge\\ that\\ rational\\ persons\\ seek\\ to\\ secure\\ the\\ right\\ \\&ldquo\\;mix\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ talents\\,\\ and\\ create\\ the\\ right\\ \\&ldquo\\;level\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ societal\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ But\\ for\\ the\\ below\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ primary\\ goods\\ would\\ otherwise\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\distributed\\ equally\\ \\(inequalities\\ exist\\ only\\ through\\ consent\\)\\.\\ B\\.\\ The\\ Principles\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Origins\\:\\ From\\ the\\ original\\ position\\,\\ Rawls\\ claims\\ that\\ parties\\ would\\ adopt\\ two\\ \\&ldquo\\;principles\\ of\\ justice\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ would\\ then\\ govern\\ the\\ assignment\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ duties\\,\\ and\\ regulate\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ advantages\\ across\\ society\\.\\ 2\\.\\ First\\ Principle\\ of\\ Justice\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Each\\ person\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ equal\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ extensive\\ scheme\\ of\\ equal\\ basic\\ liberties\\ compatible\\ with\\ a\\ similar\\ scheme\\ of\\ liberties\\ for\\ others\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Principle\\ of\\ Equal\\ Liberty\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ These\\ \\&ldquo\\;basic\\ liberties\\&rdquo\\;\\ include\\ political\\ liberty\\,\\ freedom\\ of\\ speech\\ \\/\\ assembly\\,\\ the\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ hold\\ property\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\(basically\\,\\ the\\ guarantees\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\)\\.\\ b\\.\\ As\\ this\\ principle\\ is\\ lexically\\ ordered\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ second\\,\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ violated\\,\\ though\\ it\\ many\\ be\\ necessary\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;trade\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\ liberties\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ largest\\ possible\\ system\\ of\\ rights\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Second\\ Principle\\ of\\ Justice\\:\\ Social\\ and\\ economic\\ inequalities\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ arranges\\ so\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ offices\\ are\\ open\\ to\\ everyone\\,\\ under\\ conditions\\ of\\ fair\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\;\\ b\\.\\ they\\ are\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ benefit\\ to\\ the\\ least\\ well\\-off\\ \\(the\\ Difference\\ Principle\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Here\\,\\ Rawls\\ is\\ sanctioning\\ only\\ functional\\ inequalities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ is\\ this\\ reason\\ that\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ natural\\ liberty\\ \\(discussed\\ in\\ Subsection\\ C\\)\\ is\\ unjust\\:\\ it\\ permits\\ distributive\\ shares\\ to\\ be\\ improperly\\ determined\\ by\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ factors\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ desert\\ in\\ natural\\ endowments\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Despite\\ this\\,\\ Rawls\\ recognizes\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ still\\ legitimately\\ expect\\ to\\ receive\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ their\\ efforts\\ and\\/or\\ talents\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ though\\ not\\ grounded\\ in\\ morality\\,\\ society\\ must\\ function\\ to\\ incentivize\\ behavior\\ and\\ reward\\ Legitimate\\ Expectations\\)\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Rejoinder\\:\\ The\\ Difference\\ Principle\\ works\\ only\\ if\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\members\\ of\\ society\\ are\\ risk\\ averse\\,\\ an\\ unlikely\\ reality\\.\\ C\\.\\ Distributive\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Feudal\\ Aristocracy\\:\\ Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ system\\ is\\ inherently\\ unjust\\ as\\ it\\ predetermines\\ wealth\\,\\ opportunity\\,\\ and\\ general\\ well\\-being\\ at\\ birth\\.\\ Here\\,\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ is\\ there\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ social\\ mobility\\,\\ but\\ also\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ exercise\\ personal\\ talents\\,\\ intelligence\\,\\ or\\ effort\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Pauls_Justice_Study_Guide_1.pdf", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cognitive Psychology - Lecture Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "cognitive", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 91, "html": null, "course_id": 40, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Psych_13_Lecture_Notes.doc", "desc": "Lecture Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Review of Terms - Justice", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "terms"], "text": null, "id": 118, "html": "\\\\\\Review\\ of\\ Terms\\ \\-\\ Justice\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 1\\:\\ Utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Utility\\:\\ A\\ standard\\ unit\\ of\\ measurement\\ used\\ to\\ quantify\\ the\\ pleasure\\ or\\ pain\\ caused\\ by\\ particular\\ activities\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ one\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Consequentialism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consequences\\ determine\\ morality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Benthamite\\ utilitarianism\\ \\(The\\ general\\ utilitarian\\ principle\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ must\\ maximize\\ utility\\ not\\ only\\ for\\ ourselves\\,\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\"\\;If\\ we\\ add\\ up\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ benefits\\ and\\ subtract\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ costs\\,\\ the\\ correct\\ policy\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ leaves\\ us\\ with\\ the\\ greatest\\ net\\ benefit\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Bentham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ community\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ community\\ is\\ simply\\ the\\ group\\ of\\ individuals\\ who\\ comprise\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(5\\)\\ 2\\ sovereign\\ masters\\:\\ Pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\.\\ Any\\ moral\\ system\\ must\\ take\\ account\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(6\\)\\ 3\\ \\"\\;pros\\"\\;\\ to\\ untilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Promotes\\ the\\ general\\ welfare\\,\\ the\\ collective\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Helps\\ explain\\ why\\ numbers\\ matter\\ Each\\ individual\\ counts\\ \\(2\\)\\ Non\\-judgmental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weighs\\ preferences\\ without\\ judging\\ them\\ Everyone\\&\\#39\\;s\\ preferences\\ count\\ \\(3\\)\\ Offers\\ a\\ universal\\ currency\\ of\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Single\\ scale\\ for\\ comparison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(7\\)\\ 3\\ \\"\\;counters\\"\\;\\ to\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ No\\ framework\\ for\\ individual\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ rights\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ are\\ made\\ secondary\\ to\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ \\(2\\)\\ Inability\\ to\\ place\\ a\\ value\\ on\\ all\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ human\\ life\\?\\ Numbers\\ seem\\ arbitrarily\\ assigned\\.\\ The\\ failings\\ of\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ \\(3\\)\\ Cannot\\ translate\\ all\\ values\\ onto\\ a\\ single\\ scale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ utility\\ of\\ things\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ transitive\\ Thorndike\\&\\#39\\;s\\ price\\ list\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(8\\)\\ Noble\\ v\\.\\ base\\ pleasures\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ some\\ pleasures\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ considered\\ qualitatively\\ higher\\ or\\ more\\ valuable\\.\\ Mill\\ proposes\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ experienced\\ both\\ can\\ identify\\ the\\ more\\ desirable\\ pleasures\\.\\ The\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pleasures\\ chosen\\ by\\ an\\ experienced\\ majority\\ is\\ the\\ pleasure\\ that\\ has\\ more\\ value\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(9\\)\\ Incommensurability\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ claim\\ that\\ pleasures\\ may\\ be\\ heterogeneous\\ and\\ so\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ measured\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ scale\\.\\ I\\.e\\.\\,\\ not\\ all\\ things\\ can\\ be\\ directly\\ compared\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ \\(think\\ apples\\ and\\ oranges\\,\\ or\\ love\\ and\\ admiration\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;I\\ regard\\ utility\\ as\\ the\\ ultimate\\ appeal\\ on\\ all\\ ethical\\ questions\\;\\ but\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ utility\\ in\\ the\\ largest\\ sense\\,\\ grounded\\ on\\ the\\ permanent\\ interests\\ of\\ mankind\\ as\\ a\\ progressive\\ being\\.\\"\\;\\ We\\ must\\ seek\\ out\\ those\\ actions\\ that\\ maximize\\ utility\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ utility\\ in\\ this\\ largest\\ sense\\ that\\ we\\ must\\ obey\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(11\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ community\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ community\\ is\\ the\\ collection\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ governed\\ by\\ certain\\ social\\ laws\\ and\\ are\\ granted\\ social\\ liberties\\ which\\ are\\ created\\ to\\ ensuring\\ the\\ community\\&\\#39\\;s\\ maximum\\ general\\ utility\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(12\\)\\ Role\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ experience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;It\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ human\\ being\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ pig\\ satisfied\\;\\ better\\ to\\ be\\ Socrates\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ fool\\ satisfied\\.\\ And\\ if\\ the\\ fool\\,\\ or\\ the\\ pig\\,\\ are\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ opinion\\,\\ it\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ only\\ know\\ their\\ own\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ question\\.\\"\\;\\ Education\\ and\\ experience\\ matter\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ with\\ these\\ things\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ correct\\ choices\\ or\\ discern\\ lower\\ from\\ higher\\ pleasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(13\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ derivation\\ of\\ and\\ definition\\ of\\ rights\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Justice\\ remains\\ the\\ appropriate\\ name\\ for\\ certain\\ social\\ utilities\\ which\\ are\\ vastly\\ more\\ important\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ more\\ absolute\\ and\\ imperative\\,\\ than\\ any\\ others\\ are\\ as\\ a\\ class\\.\\"\\;\\ Rights\\ are\\ those\\ rules\\ that\\ provide\\ a\\ social\\ utility\\ that\\ is\\ of\\ such\\ great\\ value\\ over\\ the\\ long\\ run\\ that\\ they\\ override\\ immediate\\ considerations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(14\\)\\ Rule\\-based\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Instead\\ of\\ simply\\ seeking\\ the\\ actions\\ that\\ allow\\ the\\ greatest\\ immediate\\ benefit\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ we\\ should\\ instead\\ seek\\ the\\ rules\\ that\\ allow\\ the\\ greatest\\ benefit\\ over\\ time\\ to\\ society\\.\\ It\\ is\\ these\\ rules\\ which\\ are\\ important\\ and\\ which\\ we\\ should\\ follow\\.\\ These\\ rules\\ create\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 2\\:\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(15\\)\\ Libertarian\\ view\\ of\\ individuals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ libertarian\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ sharply\\ contrasts\\ the\\ utilitarian\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Libertarians\\ emphasize\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ individuals\\.\\ They\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ individual\\ should\\ be\\ respected\\,\\ not\\ just\\ considered\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ community\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ individual\\ cannot\\ be\\ disadvantaged\\ for\\ the\\ sole\\ purpose\\ of\\ providing\\ another\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happiness\\.\\ Individuals\\ have\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ this\\ rights\\ trump\\ utility\\.\\ Individuals\\ are\\ proprietors\\ of\\ themselves\\,\\ so\\ they\\ own\\ themselves\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ fruit\\ of\\ their\\ labor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(16\\)\\ The\\ general\\ libertarian\\ principle\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fundamental\\ principles\\ underlying\\ libertarianism\\ are\\ the\\ inherent\\ rights\\ to\\ liberty\\ and\\ equality\\.\\ So\\ long\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ do\\ not\\ interfere\\ with\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liberty\\ \\(commitment\\ to\\ equality\\)\\,\\ he\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ live\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ whatever\\ way\\ he\\ pleases\\ \\(commitment\\ to\\ liberty\\)\\.\\ Although\\ technically\\ extending\\ to\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ force\\,\\ in\\ political\\ society\\ this\\ commitment\\ becomes\\ closely\\ aligned\\ with\\ a\\ theory\\ about\\ government\\.\\ The\\ government\\ ought\\ not\\ interfere\\ with\\ the\\ way\\ individuals\\ choose\\ to\\ live\\;\\ it\\ should\\ have\\ very\\ limited\\ control\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ preserve\\ freedom\\ and\\ avoid\\ coercion\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ libertarian\\ commitment\\ to\\ equality\\,\\ to\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ allocating\\ benefits\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ public\\ education\\)\\ these\\ benefits\\ cannot\\ be\\ allocated\\ arbitrarily\\ \\(where\\ arbitrariness\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ benefit\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(17\\)\\ Libertarian\\ theory\\ of\\ ownership\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ libertarian\\ theory\\ of\\ ownership\\ posits\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ property\\ rights\\ stemming\\ from\\ the\\ fundamental\\ principle\\ of\\ liberty\\.\\ This\\ extends\\ to\\ self\\-ownership\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ individuals\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ use\\ themselves\\,\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ ought\\ not\\ interfere\\ with\\ this\\ right\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ ownership\\ of\\ things\\,\\ though\\ the\\ libertarians\\ differ\\ on\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ acquiring\\ things\\.\\ When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ redistribution\\ of\\ either\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ time\\)\\ or\\ justly\\ acquired\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ government\\ takes\\ away\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liberty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(18\\)\\ Three\\ types\\ of\\ equality\\ \\(personal\\,\\ opportunity\\,\\ outcome\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Equality\\ of\\ outcome\\:\\ Aiming\\ for\\ everyone\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;finish\\ the\\ race\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ result\\.\\ Beyond\\ the\\ obvious\\ infringements\\ on\\ liberty\\,\\ this\\ concept\\ of\\ fairness\\ has\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ incommensurability\\ problems\\ as\\ utilitarianism\\ and\\ would\\ likely\\ eliminate\\ incentives\\ to\\ work\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ are\\ forms\\ of\\ unfairness\\,\\ including\\ the\\ inheritance\\ talents\\,\\ that\\ seem\\ absurd\\ to\\ attempt\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;level\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ You\\ would\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ have\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ best\\ education\\ to\\ those\\ children\\ who\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ least\\ intellectual\\ ability\\ or\\ the\\ best\\ athletic\\ training\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ uncoordinated\\.\\,\\ and\\ giving\\ the\\ best\\ musical\\ teaching\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ show\\ no\\ inherent\\ musical\\ ability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\:\\ Holds\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ should\\ be\\ prevented\\ from\\ pursuing\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ goals\\ by\\ arbitrary\\ obstacles\\.\\ A\\ literal\\ reading\\ of\\ this\\ might\\ make\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ impossible\\,\\ since\\ every\\ individual\\ has\\ a\\ different\\ situation\\,\\ both\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ economics\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\abilities\\.\\ But\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ represents\\;\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ means\\ that\\ no\\ arbitrary\\ factor\\,\\ such\\ as\\ race\\,\\ gender\\,\\ or\\ religion\\,\\ should\\ prevent\\ an\\ individual\\ from\\ achieving\\ those\\ positions\\ that\\ suit\\ their\\ talents\\ and\\ values\\.\\ It\\ envisions\\ a\\ meritocracy\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Freidman\\,\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ respects\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ liberties\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ legitimate\\ objective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Personal\\ equality\\:\\ Guarantees\\ all\\ persons\\ certain\\ unalienable\\ rights\\.\\ Different\\ choices\\ and\\ lifestyles\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ respected\\;\\ no\\ one\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ impose\\ their\\ values\\ on\\ others\\.\\ An\\ individual\\ is\\ free\\ to\\ act\\ however\\ he\\ pleases\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ this\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interfere\\ with\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ others\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(19\\)\\ Patterned\\ Principles\\ of\\ Justice\\/Patterned\\ Distributions\\ \\(and\\ the\\ argument\\ against\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Under\\ a\\ patterned\\ distribution\\,\\ holdings\\ are\\ distributed\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ quality\\ or\\ set\\ of\\ qualities\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ one\\ might\\ choose\\ to\\ determine\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ holdings\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ moral\\ merit\\,\\ usefulness\\ to\\ society\\,\\ production\\,\\ or\\ IQ\\.\\ Patterned\\ distributions\\ are\\ not\\ practical\\ because\\ \\(1\\)\\ we\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ everything\\ about\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ situation\\ and\\ behavior\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ factor\\ it\\ in\\,\\ including\\ information\\ that\\ we\\ could\\ not\\ possibly\\ gather\\,\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ patterned\\ distributions\\ tend\\ to\\ need\\ constant\\ realignment\\ because\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ voluntary\\ transactions\\ \\(either\\ purchases\\ or\\ gifts\\)\\ are\\ allowed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ that\\ future\\ distributions\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ be\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ pattern\\.\\ Example\\,\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\ ticket\\ sales\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ bilateral\\ and\\ unilateral\\ transfers\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ significantly\\ curtailed\\ or\\ eliminated\\.\\ This\\ is\\ both\\ impractical\\ and\\ intuitively\\ unjust\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ commercial\\ behavior\\ is\\ unavoidable\\ and\\ loving\\ behavior\\ feels\\ morally\\ valuable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(20\\)\\ Historical\\ Principles\\/Historical\\ Distributions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ principles\\ of\\ distribution\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ current\\ arrangements\\ arose\\.\\ It\\ does\\ not\\ matter\\ what\\ you\\ have\\,\\ it\\ only\\ matters\\ how\\ you\\ got\\ it\\.\\ This\\ is\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ an\\ end\\-state\\,\\ or\\ current\\ time\\-slice\\,\\ principle\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ which\\ only\\ considers\\ the\\ current\\ distribution\\ of\\ holdings\\.\\ This\\ system\\ does\\ not\\ tell\\ the\\ whole\\ story\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ people\\ came\\ about\\ their\\ money\\ seems\\ relevant\\ when\\ determining\\ the\\ justice\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\.\\ The\\ libertarians\\ propose\\ that\\ a\\ free\\ market\\ system\\ is\\ historical\\.\\ It\\ allows\\ for\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ goods\\ through\\ giving\\ gifts\\,\\ gambling\\,\\ sharing\\ income\\,\\ earning\\ money\\ in\\ the\\ stock\\ market\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Some\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\ are\\ patterned\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ within\\ a\\ company\\,\\ incomes\\ usually\\ depend\\ upon\\ contribution\\)\\,\\ but\\ this\\ patterning\\ is\\ not\\ insisted\\ upon\\,\\ it\\ has\\ naturally\\ arisen\\ and\\ may\\ also\\ pass\\ away\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(21\\)\\ Entitlement\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\States\\ that\\ a\\ distribution\\ is\\ just\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ each\\ member\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ holdings\\ that\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ possesses\\,\\ where\\ entitlement\\ to\\ any\\ holdings\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ and\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ historical\\ principle\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(22\\)\\ Justice\\ in\\ Holding\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ transfer\\ is\\ made\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ and\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ just\\.\\ Nozick\\ writes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;1\\.\\ A\\ person\\ who\\ acquires\\ a\\ holding\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\entitled\\ to\\ that\\ holding\\.\\ 2\\.\\ A\\ person\\ who\\ acquires\\ a\\ holding\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\,\\ from\\ someone\\ else\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ holding\\,\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ holding\\.\\ 3\\.\\ No\\ one\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ a\\ holding\\ except\\ by\\ \\(repeated\\)\\ applications\\ of\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(61\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(23\\)\\ Justice\\ in\\ Acquisition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ for\\ a\\ holding\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ just\\,\\ the\\ original\\ acquisition\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ just\\.\\ The\\ appropriation\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ were\\ previously\\ unheld\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ just\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ individual\\ came\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ object\\ must\\ have\\ not\\ infringed\\ on\\ the\\ liberty\\ of\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ If\\ the\\ property\\ was\\ acquired\\ without\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ forgery\\,\\ fraud\\,\\ theft\\,\\ force\\,\\ or\\ any\\ other\\ violation\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ then\\ the\\ initial\\ holding\\ is\\ just\\,\\ and\\ the\\ owner\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ do\\ whatever\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ wishes\\ with\\ the\\ property\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(24\\)\\ Justice\\ in\\ Transfer\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\ states\\ that\\ for\\ a\\ transfer\\ of\\ holdings\\ to\\ be\\ just\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ free\\ exchange\\.\\ Both\\ parties\\ must\\ consent\\ to\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ distribution\\.\\ The\\ original\\ possessor\\ of\\ the\\ holding\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ holding\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ transfer\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(25\\)\\ Principle\\ of\\ Rectification\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ holding\\ does\\ not\\ meet\\ the\\ principles\\ stated\\ in\\ 1\\.\\ Or\\ 2\\.\\ \\(see\\ \\#22\\ above\\)\\,\\ then\\ restitution\\ is\\ required\\.\\ As\\ 3\\.\\ states\\,\\ every\\ holding\\ must\\ have\\ followed\\ these\\ two\\ principles\\ throughout\\ each\\ transfer\\ and\\ initial\\ acquisition\\.\\ In\\ cases\\ where\\ these\\ principles\\ are\\ not\\ met\\,\\ Nozick\\ proposes\\ a\\ theoretical\\ principle\\ of\\ rectification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ determine\\ how\\ to\\ rectify\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ one\\ must\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ actual\\ course\\ of\\ events\\ that\\ ensued\\.\\ One\\ must\\ attempt\\ to\\ calculate\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ various\\ possible\\ situations\\ that\\ might\\ have\\ resulted\\ had\\ this\\ injustice\\ not\\ occurred\\.\\ One\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ consider\\ how\\ the\\ situations\\ of\\ others\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ each\\ possible\\ outcome\\.\\ In\\ the\\ calculation\\,\\ one\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ each\\ different\\ situations\\ and\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ each\\ different\\ outcome\\.\\ If\\ the\\ current\\ holdings\\ do\\ not\\ match\\ a\\ possible\\ outcome\\,\\ then\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ through\\ redistribution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(26\\)\\ Objection\\ to\\ Redistributive\\ Taxation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ libertarian\\ objections\\ to\\ redistributive\\ taxes\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ forced\\ labor\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ violate\\ justice\\ in\\ holdings\\.\\ Taxation\\ forcibly\\ takes\\ away\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\.\\ Because\\ labor\\ is\\ interchangeable\\ with\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ taxation\\ is\\ little\\ different\\ than\\ the\\ government\\ enslaving\\ an\\ individual\\ and\\ requiring\\ them\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ way\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ an\\ individual\\ who\\ is\\ being\\ taxed\\ does\\ not\\ own\\ himself\\.\\ This\\ contradicts\\ the\\ basic\\ human\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\,\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ we\\ wish\\,\\ short\\ of\\ harming\\ others\\.\\ It\\ also\\ violates\\ justice\\ in\\ holdings\\.\\ Under\\ a\\ Lockean\\-type\\ theory\\ of\\ acquisition\\,\\ because\\ we\\ own\\ ourselves\\,\\ we\\ also\\ own\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ our\\ labor\\.\\ It\\ is\\ improper\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ appropriate\\ that\\ property\\ without\\ a\\ voluntary\\ exchange\\.\\ This\\ only\\ applies\\ to\\ redistributive\\ taxation\\,\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\taxation\\ used\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ minimal\\ state\\ required\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ libertarian\\ freedoms\\ of\\ its\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(27\\)\\ Taxation\\ of\\ earned\\ income\\ v\\.\\ inherited\\ wealth\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ libertarian\\ case\\ against\\ the\\ taxation\\ of\\ earned\\ income\\ is\\ undisputed\\;\\ however\\,\\ libertarians\\ argue\\ both\\ ways\\ on\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ taxation\\ of\\ inherited\\ wealth\\.\\ Many\\ libertarians\\ argue\\ against\\ the\\ inheritance\\ tax\\ because\\ they\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ natural\\ right\\ to\\ property\\ extends\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ distribute\\ that\\ property\\ upon\\ death\\.\\ Some\\ believe\\ that\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ the\\ inheritance\\ was\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ and\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ the\\ recipient\\.\\ Still\\ others\\ state\\ that\\ inheriting\\ wealth\\ is\\ no\\ different\\ than\\ inheriting\\ good\\ genetics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ put\\ you\\ at\\ an\\ advantaged\\ starting\\ point\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ to\\ address\\ one\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ libertarian\\ argument\\ for\\ a\\ tax\\ on\\ inherited\\ wealth\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ income\\ is\\ unearned\\.\\ When\\ a\\ child\\ receives\\ an\\ inheritance\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ receipt\\ for\\ any\\ contribution\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ has\\ given\\ to\\ society\\,\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ is\\ simply\\ benefiting\\ from\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ others\\.\\ Because\\ you\\ have\\ not\\ put\\ any\\ labor\\ into\\ it\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ truly\\ your\\ property\\,\\ so\\ you\\ have\\ no\\ rights\\ over\\ it\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ inheritance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(28\\)\\ Minimal\\ state\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ type\\ of\\ government\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ justified\\,\\ and\\ not\\ be\\ in\\ opposition\\ with\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\,\\ is\\ a\\ minimal\\ state\\.\\ The\\ government\\ would\\ serve\\ only\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ each\\ individual\\ maintained\\ his\\ liberty\\,\\ without\\ interfering\\ with\\ the\\ liberty\\ of\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ The\\ government\\ would\\ be\\ responsible\\ for\\ enforcing\\ contracts\\,\\ protecting\\ private\\ property\\,\\ and\\ providing\\ public\\ justice\\.\\ It\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ pass\\ paternalistic\\,\\ moral\\,\\ or\\ redistributive\\ legislation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(29\\)\\ 3\\ types\\ of\\ laws\\ viewed\\ as\\ unjust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Paternalism\\:\\ These\\ laws\\,\\ such\\ mandating\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ seatbelts\\ or\\ helmets\\,\\ are\\ unjust\\ because\\ they\\ serve\\ to\\ protect\\ individuals\\ from\\ themselves\\.\\ Libertarians\\ do\\ not\\ oppose\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ seatbelts\\ or\\ helmets\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ just\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ enforce\\ these\\ laws\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ individual\\ owns\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ whatever\\ way\\ he\\ wishes\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ means\\ putting\\ himself\\ in\\ danger\\.\\ The\\ state\\ cannot\\ mandate\\ what\\ risks\\ are\\ worth\\ taking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Morality\\:\\ These\\ laws\\,\\ which\\ include\\ any\\ law\\ that\\ attempts\\ to\\ promote\\ certain\\ virtues\\,\\ are\\ unjust\\ because\\ they\\ violate\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fundamental\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\.\\ They\\ take\\ away\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ decide\\ his\\ views\\ on\\ morality\\ for\\ himself\\.\\ Individuals\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ choose\\ what\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\,\\ and\\ decide\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ based\\ upon\\ this\\ set\\ of\\ virtues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Redistribution\\:\\ These\\ laws\\ are\\ unjust\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ coercive\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ force\\ one\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ use\\ their\\ resources\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ others\\.\\ Redistributive\\ laws\\ include\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ public\\ services\\ like\\ health\\ care\\ and\\ education\\.\\ Individuals\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ choose\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ they\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ these\\ programs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 3\\:\\ Locke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(30\\)\\ Social\\ Contract\\ Theory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ that\\ moral\\ and\\ political\\ situations\\ are\\ decided\\ upon\\ by\\ a\\ contract\\ or\\ agreement\\ amongst\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ society\\.\\ For\\ Locke\\,\\ men\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ come\\ to\\ an\\ agreement\\ amongst\\ themselves\\ for\\ a\\ society\\ and\\ government\\ that\\ can\\ better\\ protect\\ their\\ rights\\,\\ such\\ as\\ property\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(31\\)\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ liberty\\ with\\ no\\ hierarchical\\ or\\ birth\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ in\\ which\\ everyone\\ is\\ free\\ and\\ equal\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ but\\ not\\ license\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ man\\ is\\ free\\ to\\ do\\ as\\ he\\ chooses\\,\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ that\\ exists\\,\\ which\\ constrains\\ what\\ man\\ can\\ do\\.\\ The\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ include\\ limits\\ on\\ the\\ appropriation\\ of\\ property\\ \\(spoilage\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\ left\\ for\\ others\\)\\ and\\ limits\\ on\\ the\\ willful\\ infringement\\ of\\ the\\ property\\ rights\\ of\\ god\\ \\(which\\ extends\\ to\\ our\\ own\\ body\\)\\ or\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(32\\)\\ State\\ of\\ War\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ state\\ of\\ force\\ or\\ a\\ declared\\ force\\ upon\\ another\\ person\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ higher\\ power\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\.\\ In\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ preserve\\ oneself\\ or\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\,\\ a\\ person\\ may\\ forcibly\\ resist\\ infringements\\ of\\ others\\ with\\ enough\\ force\\ to\\ deter\\ the\\ infringement\\.\\ The\\ continued\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ between\\ a\\ conquered\\ man\\ and\\ his\\ captor\\ is\\ what\\ produces\\ slavery\\.\\ This\\ right\\ of\\ self\\-protection\\ is\\ given\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ common\\ authority\\ once\\ society\\ is\\ formed\\.\\ This\\ protects\\ against\\ the\\ problems\\ with\\ self\\-interest\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(33\\)\\ Inalienable\\ Rights\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ever\\-present\\ rights\\ of\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ property\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ violate\\ and\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ cannot\\ give\\ away\\.\\ They\\ can\\ be\\ derived\\ from\\ God\\ \\(God\\ has\\ a\\ greater\\ property\\ in\\ us\\ than\\ we\\ do\\ and\\ thus\\ we\\ cannot\\ violate\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\)\\ or\\ reason\\ \\(if\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ truly\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ then\\ even\\ they\\ themselves\\ cannot\\ violate\\ these\\ laws\\ that\\ pertain\\ to\\ themselves\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(34\\)\\ Main\\ theory\\ of\\ private\\ property\\ \\/\\ acquisition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Initially\\,\\ all\\ things\\ are\\ held\\ in\\ common\\.\\ Private\\ property\\ can\\ arise\\ before\\ government\\ through\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ labor\\.\\ However\\,\\ a\\ man\\ can\\ only\\ claim\\ common\\ land\\ as\\ his\\ own\\ if\\ it\\ leaves\\ as\\ much\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ land\\ left\\,\\ and\\ if\\ he\\ properly\\ uses\\ his\\ property\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ does\\ not\\ allow\\ it\\ to\\ spoil\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(35\\)\\ Importance\\ of\\ money\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\ recognizes\\ that\\ persons\\ will\\ often\\ create\\ more\\ than\\ they\\ can\\ use\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ spoilage\\ Locke\\ suggests\\ trading\\ perishable\\ goods\\ for\\ nonperishable\\ ones\\.\\ Since\\ nonperishable\\ goods\\ often\\ have\\ little\\ value\\,\\ Locke\\ supports\\ assigning\\ a\\ common\\ value\\ to\\ nonperishable\\ metals\\ to\\ use\\ as\\ money\\.\\ Money\\ allows\\ man\\ to\\ own\\ more\\ property\\ than\\ she\\ can\\ use\\ while\\ also\\ avoiding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\spoilage\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ thus\\ came\\ in\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ money\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ lasting\\ thing\\ that\\ men\\ might\\ keep\\ without\\ spoiling\\,\\ and\\ that\\,\\ by\\ mutual\\ consent\\,\\ men\\ would\\ take\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ truly\\ useful\\ but\\ perishable\\ supports\\ of\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(96\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(36\\)\\ Political\\ society\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ society\\ arises\\ from\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ protect\\ private\\ property\\.\\ In\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ property\\ is\\ uncertain\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ incentive\\ to\\ take\\ from\\ the\\ weak\\.\\ The\\ distinguishing\\ features\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ society\\ are\\ consent\\,\\ the\\ abandonment\\ of\\ self\\-help\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ a\\ common\\ authority\\ to\\ decide\\ disputes\\,\\ and\\ majority\\ control\\ \\(over\\ all\\ issues\\ not\\ decided\\ by\\ the\\ inalienable\\ rights\\ of\\ man\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(37\\)\\ The\\ legislative\\ power\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ supreme\\ power\\ of\\ a\\ commonwealth\\ and\\ the\\ only\\ law\\-making\\ institution\\ of\\ a\\ society\\.\\ The\\ consent\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ give\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ legislative\\ to\\ make\\ laws\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ people\\ transfer\\ their\\ power\\,\\ and\\ only\\ the\\ power\\ that\\ they\\ have\\,\\ to\\ the\\ government\\,\\ the\\ government\\ cannot\\ do\\ anything\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ could\\ not\\ do\\ before\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ government\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ government\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ violate\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\ property\\ because\\ the\\ people\\ themselves\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ this\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(38\\)\\ Purpose\\ of\\ government\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ purpose\\ of\\ government\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ is\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ peoples\\&rsquo\\;\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ particularly\\ their\\ property\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ great\\ and\\ chief\\ end\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ of\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ uniting\\ into\\ commonwealth\\,\\ and\\ putting\\ themselves\\ under\\ government\\,\\ is\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ their\\ property\\;\\ to\\ which\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ things\\ wanting\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(109\\)\\ Government\\ also\\ provides\\ an\\ established\\ law\\,\\ a\\ known\\ and\\ impartial\\ judge\\ to\\ determine\\ differences\\ about\\ the\\ law\\,\\ and\\ punishment\\ when\\ the\\ laws\\ are\\ broken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(39\\)\\ Constraints\\ on\\ government\\ action\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ the\\ government\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ legislative\\ power\\,\\ is\\ the\\ supreme\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ society\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ things\\ that\\ it\\ cannot\\ do\\ because\\ it\\ only\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ thus\\ remains\\ constrained\\ by\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ Consequently\\,\\ \\(1\\)\\ they\\ must\\ rule\\ by\\ standing\\ laws\\ that\\ apply\\ with\\ equal\\ force\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ population\\,\\ not\\ one\\ rule\\ for\\ the\\ rich\\ and\\ another\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ for\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ an\\ absolute\\ power\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fate\\ arbitrarily\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ laws\\ must\\ be\\ designed\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ government\\ cannot\\ take\\ from\\ any\\ man\\ any\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ property\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ tax\\)\\ without\\ his\\ own\\ consent\\;\\ and\\ \\(4\\)\\ government\\ cannot\\ transfer\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ making\\ laws\\ to\\ any\\ other\\ hands\\;\\ the\\ people\\ gave\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ legislative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(40\\)\\ Dissolution\\ of\\ the\\ government\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ people\\ retain\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ dissolve\\ the\\ government\\ in\\ certain\\ cases\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ legislative\\ is\\ altered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ a\\ single\\ ruler\\ rules\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ arbitrary\\ will\\.\\ When\\ a\\ single\\ ruler\\ prevents\\ legislative\\ from\\ assembling\\ in\\ its\\ due\\ time\\.\\ When\\,\\ by\\ the\\ arbitrary\\ power\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ ruler\\,\\ the\\ ways\\ of\\ elections\\ are\\ altered\\ without\\ the\\ peoples\\&rsquo\\;\\ consent\\.\\ When\\ a\\ single\\ ruler\\ allows\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ under\\ foreign\\ rule\\.\\ When\\ the\\ legislative\\ or\\ sovereign\\ ruler\\ act\\ contrary\\ to\\ their\\ trust\\.\\ When\\ the\\ legislative\\ endeavors\\ to\\ invade\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ cases\\ are\\ a\\ breach\\ of\\ the\\ legitimate\\ ends\\ of\\ government\\ \\(see\\ \\#41\\ above\\)\\.\\ When\\ this\\ government\\ is\\ overtaken\\,\\ the\\ people\\ regain\\ their\\ political\\ power\\ that\\ they\\ gave\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ government\\,\\ and\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ once\\ again\\ consent\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ government\\.\\ However\\,\\ note\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ society\\.\\ Dissolution\\ of\\ government\\ does\\ not\\ dissolve\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(41\\)\\ Taxation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\ allows\\ taxation\\,\\ the\\ government\\ taking\\ the\\ peoples\\&rsquo\\;\\ property\\,\\ only\\ when\\ consent\\ is\\ given\\.\\ However\\,\\ contrary\\ to\\ what\\ many\\ libertarians\\ argue\\ for\\,\\ the\\ consent\\ can\\ be\\ the\\ consent\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ When\\ people\\ enter\\ into\\ a\\ society\\,\\ then\\ consent\\ to\\ be\\ ruled\\ by\\ the\\ majority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\:\\ Markets\\ and\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(42\\)\\ Informed\\ consent\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Informed\\ consent\\ is\\ a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ gives\\ voluntary\\ consent\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ clear\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ facts\\ and\\ consequences\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ decision\\.\\ Some\\ believe\\ that\\ consent\\ may\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ create\\ moral\\ obligations\\ but\\ only\\ if\\ supported\\ by\\ adequate\\ information\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(43\\)\\ Contemporaneous\\ consent\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contemporaneous\\ consent\\ stands\\ opposed\\ to\\ advance\\ consent\\.\\ It\\ is\\ consent\\ given\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ agreement\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ executed\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ certain\\ transactions\\ are\\ uniquely\\ significant\\ and\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ engaged\\ in\\ unless\\ persons\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ exchange\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ they\\ give\\ consent\\ contemporaneously\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ advance\\ consent\\ would\\ not\\ morally\\ bind\\ a\\ person\\ in\\ these\\ situations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(44\\)\\ Objection\\ from\\ commodification\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ objection\\ to\\ certain\\ types\\ of\\ agreements\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ commodifies\\,\\ makes\\ into\\ an\\ object\\,\\ something\\ that\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ commodified\\,\\ like\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\ or\\ a\\ child\\.\\ They\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ commodified\\ because\\ the\\ market\\-based\\ modes\\ of\\ valuation\\ that\\ attach\\ to\\ commodities\\ necessarily\\ devalues\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ objects\\ or\\ forms\\ of\\ labor\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ surrogacy\\ forces\\ a\\ woman\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ her\\ emotional\\ attachment\\ to\\ a\\ child\\,\\ thus\\ causing\\ her\\ pregnancy\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ alienated\\ into\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ labor\\.\\ Surrogacy\\ can\\ also\\ treat\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ an\\ object\\;\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ viewed\\ as\\ purchasing\\ a\\ child\\ from\\ the\\ surrogate\\ mother\\.\\ One\\ response\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ payment\\ is\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ child\\ or\\ the\\ emotional\\ attachment\\,\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ surrogate\\ mother\\ must\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ pregnancy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Pauls_Justice_Terms_1.pdf", "desc": "terms"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice Biography Cheat Sheet", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "biography", "cheat-sheet"], "text": null, "id": 111, "html": "\\\\\\Justice\\ Biography\\ Cheat\\ Sheet\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c1\\{text\\-align\\:right\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:167\\.3pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:204pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c10\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:54\\.7pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:118\\.1pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-indent\\:3\\.4pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-indent\\:65\\.5pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:90pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:136\\.3pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:137\\.5pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:95\\.3pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TF\\:\\ Rhett\\ Martin\\ Section\\:\\ December\\ 10\\,\\ 2007\\ Almost\\ There\\:\\ Toward\\ a\\ Synoptic\\ View\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Three\\ main\\ categories\\ of\\ contrast\\ and\\ comparison\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Rights\\ versus\\ Utility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Rights\\ Based\\ Theories\\&mdash\\;Locke\\,\\ Kant\\,\\ Nozick\\ and\\ Rawls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ thinkers\\ that\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ in\\ some\\ respects\\,\\ notably\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nozick\\ and\\ Rawls\\,\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ this\\ fundamental\\ aspect\\.\\ ii\\.\\ Utility\\&mdash\\;Bentham\\ and\\ Mill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ Mill\\ attempted\\ to\\ harmonize\\ utility\\ and\\ rights\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\explaining\\ the\\ utilitarian\\ foundations\\ of\\ rights\\.\\ b\\.\\ Liberty\\ versus\\ Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Liberty\\&mdash\\;Nozick\\ and\\ libertarians\\ ii\\.\\ Equality\\&mdash\\;Rawls\\ c\\.\\ The\\ Right\\ and\\ the\\ Good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ The\\ Right\\&mdash\\;Government\\ should\\ be\\ neutral\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ fundamental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\moral\\ and\\ religious\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Kant\\,\\ Rawls\\,\\ and\\ Nozick\\ 2\\.\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ Nozick\\ and\\ Rawls\\ are\\ in\\ agreement\\ again\\ 3\\.\\ This\\ is\\ often\\ associated\\ with\\ social\\ contract\\ theory\\,\\ and\\ generally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\takes\\ a\\ voluntarist\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\ ii\\.\\ The\\ Good\\&mdash\\;The\\ Government\\ should\\ take\\ a\\ stand\\ on\\ fundamental\\ moral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\questions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Aristotle\\,\\ utilitarians\\,\\ communitarians\\,\\ Sandel\\ 2\\.\\ Teleological\\ theories\\ fall\\ in\\ this\\ category\\.\\ 3\\.\\ This\\ view\\ often\\ \\(but\\ not\\ always\\)\\ takes\\ the\\ narrative\\ view\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\self\\.\\ 2\\)\\ Application\\ of\\ these\\ categories\\ to\\ three\\ difficult\\ political\\ controversies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Establishment\\ of\\ Religion\\ b\\.\\ Abortion\\ c\\.\\ Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Lincoln\\-Douglas\\ debates\\ 3\\)\\ The\\ ultimate\\ question\\:\\ what\\ role\\ should\\ morality\\ play\\ in\\ politics\\?\\ Is\\ there\\ Justice\\ without\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\morality\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\ Communitarian\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ equality\\ for\\ equals\\,\\ inequality\\ for\\ unequals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defines\\ justice\\ as\\ equality\\ for\\ equals\\,\\ and\\ inequality\\ for\\ unequals\\ The\\ whole\\ is\\ superior\\ to\\ the\\ part\\:\\ the\\ hand\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ useful\\ without\\ a\\ body\\ around\\ it\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ two\\ most\\ important\\ things\\ for\\ a\\ city\\ are\\ 1\\)\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ just\\,\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ good\\ soldiers\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Probably\\ for\\ taxation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Redistribution\\ Either\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ Pro\\-slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ are\\ born\\ slaves\\,\\ but\\ slavery\\ by\\ conquest\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ Abortion\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Property\\ Communitarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Affirmative\\ Action\\ Anti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ \\>\\;\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 1\\ Politics\\/Nicomachean\\ Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ The\\ polis\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ since\\ man\\ is\\ by\\ nature\\ a\\ political\\ creature\\;\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ 3\\)\\ Distribute\\ goods\\ and\\ positions\\ by\\ virtue\\;\\ best\\ flutes\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\ players\\,\\ and\\ the\\ most\\ virtuous\\ citizens\\ get\\ the\\ best\\ offices\\ since\\ virtue\\ is\\ a\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ are\\ born\\ slaves\\;\\ slavery\\ by\\ conquest\\ is\\ unjust\\.\\ Slaves\\ are\\ those\\ whose\\ physical\\ strength\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ their\\ rational\\ strength\\;\\ masters\\ are\\ those\\ whose\\ rational\\ strength\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ their\\ physical\\ strength\\ distribution\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ telos\\ of\\ the\\ good\\,\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ most\\ able\\ to\\ fulfill\\ this\\ purpose\\ should\\ have\\ the\\ good\\/office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ Aristotle\\ puts\\ the\\ polis\\ ahead\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ he\\ would\\ likely\\ say\\ that\\ peo\\-\\ ple\\ should\\ be\\ obliged\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ well\\ being\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ assuming\\ the\\ taxes\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ city\\,\\ then\\ he\\ would\\ likely\\ be\\ pro\\-tax\\.\\ If\\ the\\ taxes\\ were\\ used\\ as\\ welfare\\,\\ then\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ different\\,\\ since\\ virtue\\ and\\ goodness\\ are\\ differ\\-\\ ent\\ from\\ well\\-being\\ Believes\\ the\\ polis\\ is\\ ahead\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ so\\ he\\ would\\ likely\\ not\\ be\\ fore\\ individ\\-\\ ual\\ welfare\\ type\\ taxation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\ puts\\ individual\\ rights\\ secondary\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ \\(good\\ \\>\\;\\ right\\)\\,\\ so\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ theoretically\\ against\\ abortion\\ if\\ the\\ child\\&\\#39\\;s\\ virtue\\ could\\ benefit\\ the\\ po\\-\\ lis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ communitarian\\-type\\ thinker\\,\\ Aristotle\\ would\\ likely\\ see\\ personal\\ property\\ as\\ secondary\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ While\\ Locke\\ sees\\ property\\ protection\\ as\\ a\\ key\\ to\\ why\\ people\\ join\\ a\\ city\\,\\ Aristotle\\ sees\\ man\\ as\\ inherently\\ political\\,\\ so\\ property\\ and\\ individual\\ rights\\ are\\ not\\ such\\ big\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\ sees\\ individual\\ virtue\\ as\\ the\\ determining\\ factor\\ in\\ distribution\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ thus\\ equality\\ and\\ individual\\ rights\\ are\\ subordinate\\ to\\ creating\\ greater\\ overall\\ goodness\\ and\\ virtue\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\ This\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ redistribution\\ and\\ the\\ flute\\ exam\\-\\ ple\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\:\\ slavery\\ Nozick\\:\\ Individual\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarians\\:\\ redistribu\\-\\ tion\\/individual\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rawls\\:\\ welfare\\ \\(redistribution\\)\\,\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ initial\\ condi\\-\\ tions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polis\\ \\>\\;\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarian\\ Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Man\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ pain\\ and\\ pleasure\\ 2\\)\\ Utility\\ is\\ the\\ tendency\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ to\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ pain\\ and\\ pleasure\\ 3\\)\\ All\\ decisions\\ are\\ made\\ by\\ utility\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utility\\ is\\ valued\\ by\\ 1\\)\\ intensity\\,\\ 2\\)\\ duration\\,\\ 3\\)\\ certainty\\,\\ 4\\)\\ nearness\\/remoteness\\.\\ Dealing\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;chain\\ of\\ events\\&rdquo\\;\\ resulting\\ from\\ an\\ action\\:\\ 1\\)\\ fecundity\\:\\ the\\ chance\\ that\\ pleasure\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ more\\ pleasure\\,\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ purity\\:\\ the\\ chance\\ that\\ pleasure\\ is\\ not\\ followed\\ by\\ pain\\ To\\ disregard\\ the\\ outcome\\ and\\ its\\ impact\\ on\\ society\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ hostile\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ humanity\\ Sum\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ a\\ decision\\ across\\ everyone\\ it\\ affects\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ just\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Depends\\ If\\ taxation\\ creates\\ more\\ pleasure\\ than\\ pain\\ in\\ society\\,\\ then\\ the\\ tax\\ is\\ just\\ Redistribution\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ redistribution\\ creates\\ more\\ pleasure\\ than\\ pain\\ in\\ society\\,\\ the\\ redistribution\\ is\\ just\\ Slavery\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ slave\\ receives\\ more\\ displeasure\\ than\\ the\\ masters\\ receive\\ pleasure\\,\\ collec\\-\\ tively\\,\\ then\\ slavery\\ is\\ unjust\\ Abortion\\ Depends\\ If\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ causes\\ society\\ more\\ pain\\ than\\ pleasure\\,\\ abortion\\ is\\ just\\ Property\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Property\\ rights\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ relative\\ pleasure\\ and\\ displeasure\\ of\\ their\\ strength\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ such\\ policies\\ cause\\ the\\ minorities\\ they\\ benefit\\ more\\ pleasure\\ than\\ they\\ cause\\ pain\\ to\\ those\\ hurt\\ by\\ the\\ policy\\,\\ than\\ affirmative\\ action\\ is\\ just\\ Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarians\\/those\\ for\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ since\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ some\\ may\\ be\\ vio\\-\\ In\\-line\\ with\\ Mill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lated\\ Kant\\:\\ is\\ too\\ ad\\-hoc\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ easily\\ reasoned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\:\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ priori\\ Can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ similar\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\knowledge\\,\\ but\\ communitarian\\,\\ although\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rather\\ empirical\\ this\\ depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\measurements\\ Tensions\\ Community\\ vs\\.\\ Individual\\ \\(community\\ wins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ \\>\\;\\ right\\;\\ since\\ definitions\\ of\\ pleasure\\ an\\ pain\\,\\ as\\ measured\\ by\\ some\\ governing\\ body\\,\\ require\\ judgments\\ on\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedmans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedmans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarians\\ Free\\ to\\ Choose\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Equality\\ before\\ god\\,\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\,\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ 2\\)\\ A\\ society\\ that\\ puts\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ ahead\\ of\\ freedom\\ will\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ neither\\;\\ a\\ society\\ that\\ puts\\ freedom\\ first\\ will\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ both\\ 3\\)\\ freedom\\/equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ mean\\ diversity\\,\\ and\\ the\\ opportunity\\ for\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ disadvantaged\\ to\\ be\\-\\ come\\ tomorrow\\&\\#39\\;s\\ privileged\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equality\\ before\\ god\\:\\ each\\ person\\ has\\ unalienable\\ rights\\ and\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ serve\\ his\\ own\\ purposes\\ liberty\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ equality\\ limited\\ government\\ is\\ proper\\,\\ and\\ it\\ should\\ respect\\ individual\\ differences\\ Equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\:\\ a\\ career\\ open\\ to\\ the\\ talents\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ thatt\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ obstacles\\ to\\ achieving\\ positions\\ except\\ for\\ own\\ ability\\.\\ There\\ are\\ still\\ advantages\\ by\\ birth\\ here\\ Equality\\ of\\ outcome\\:\\ bad\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;everyone\\ should\\ finish\\ the\\ race\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ equality\\ equals\\ fair\\-\\ ness\\.\\ This\\ takes\\ away\\ personal\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ provides\\ lack\\ of\\ incentive\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Pro\\-tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ may\\ mean\\ that\\ a\\ government\\ should\\ take\\ taxes\\ to\\ create\\ basic\\ infrastructure\\ \\(education\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ disadvantaged\\ Redistribution\\ Pro\\-redistribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ redistribution\\ creates\\ equal\\ opportunity\\,\\ then\\ the\\ Friedmans\\ are\\ for\\ this\\ Slavery\\ Anti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ against\\ both\\ individual\\ rights\\ and\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ Abortion\\ \\?\\ Probably\\ pro\\,\\ since\\ this\\ is\\ individual\\ rights\\ based\\ Property\\ Strong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inequality\\ and\\ diversity\\ are\\ trademarks\\ of\\ the\\ Friedman\\ writings\\:\\ inequality\\,\\ diver\\-\\ sity\\,\\ and\\ opportunity\\ are\\ necessary\\.\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ \\?\\ This\\ may\\ boil\\ down\\ to\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ depending\\ how\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\ Rawls\\:\\ Rawls\\ is\\ more\\ for\\ equality\\ than\\ diversity\\ and\\ individuality\\ Tensions\\ Liberty\\ \\>\\;\\ Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hayek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hayek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarian\\ Equality\\,\\ Value\\,\\ and\\ Merit\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ excess\\ equality\\ destroys\\ individual\\ freedom\\/identity\\:\\ Liberty\\ \\>\\;\\ Equality\\ 2\\)\\ If\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ different\\,\\ and\\ we\\ treat\\ them\\ equally\\,\\ inequality\\ results\\:\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ obtain\\ equal\\ position\\ is\\ through\\ differential\\ treatment\\ 3\\)\\ Make\\ transfers\\ based\\ on\\ moral\\ merit\\:\\ distribution\\ should\\ not\\ interfere\\ with\\ voluntary\\ exchanges\\ and\\ goals\\;\\ if\\ you\\ give\\ the\\ state\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ redistribute\\,\\ you\\ give\\ them\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ violate\\ freedom\\.\\ The\\ state\\ will\\ ignore\\ individual\\ differences\\ and\\ is\\ incapable\\ of\\ just\\ redistribution\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ material\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ equality\\ before\\ the\\ law\\ deliberately\\ chosen\\ distribution\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ preconceived\\ notions\\ on\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ to\\ others\\ society\\ if\\ someone\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ acquire\\ additional\\ talents\\ to\\ do\\ things\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ valuable\\,\\ this\\ must\\ be\\ treat\\-\\ ed\\ as\\ a\\ communal\\ gain\\;\\ though\\ some\\ may\\ be\\ worse\\ off\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ new\\ ability\\ will\\ benefit\\ the\\ ma\\-\\ jority\\ an\\ equal\\ distribution\\ violates\\ voluntary\\ goals\\ and\\ exchanges\\ redistribution\\ is\\ only\\ good\\ for\\ those\\ in\\ extreme\\ need\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Sometimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ tax\\ the\\ rich\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ extreme\\ poor\\;\\ you\\ should\\ help\\ people\\ based\\ on\\ need\\,\\ not\\ equality\\.\\ Redistribution\\ Sometimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ extreme\\ need\\ such\\ as\\ natural\\ disaster\\ victims\\ and\\ the\\ extreme\\ poor\\ Slavery\\ Anti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ Hayek\\ emphasizes\\ individual\\ rights\\ and\\ liberties\\,\\ he\\ is\\ likely\\ anti\\-slavery\\ Abortion\\ Anti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ Hayek\\ emphasizes\\ individual\\ rights\\ and\\ liberties\\,\\ he\\ is\\ likely\\ anti\\-abortion\\ Property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strong\\ property\\ rights\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ Maybe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tensions\\ Right\\ \\>\\;\\ Good\\ Liberty\\ \\>\\;\\ Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 4\\ Individual\\ rights\\/liberties\\ out\\ weigh\\ equality\\ to\\ Hayek\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ have\\ little\\ claim\\ over\\ property\\ If\\ minorities\\ are\\ considered\\ extremely\\ disadvantaged\\,\\ then\\ this\\ welfare\\ policy\\ may\\ be\\ just\\,\\ but\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ strictly\\ for\\ equality\\ than\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ individual\\ rights\\ and\\ liberties\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ benefit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rawls\\:\\ emphasizes\\ equal\\-\\ ity\\ Any\\ theory\\ that\\ puts\\ the\\ good\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ categorical\\ imperative\\:\\ universal\\,\\ and\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ Superior\\ to\\ Hypothetical\\ imperative\\ which\\ must\\ be\\ related\\ to\\ something\\ else\\ and\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ priori\\ 2\\)\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ an\\ action\\,\\ not\\ the\\ ends\\ and\\ results\\ that\\ it\\ causes\\.\\ Prefers\\ reason\\/rationality\\ to\\ empirical\\ examples\\/acquired\\ knowledge\\ 3\\)\\ All\\ humans\\ share\\ rationality\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tries\\ to\\ use\\ reason\\,\\ not\\ knowledge\\ to\\ define\\ justice\\:\\ this\\ avoids\\ posteriori\\ reasoning\\ in\\ preference\\ of\\ a\\ priori\\ prefers\\ a\\ priori\\ reasoning\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ always\\ true\\ and\\ unwavering\\,\\ while\\ a\\ postiori\\ can\\ change\\ over\\ time\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ current\\ experience\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ means\\ not\\ the\\ end\\ Universal\\ laws\\ are\\ preferred\\,\\ and\\ are\\ always\\ valid\\.\\ Universal\\ laws\\ apply\\ to\\ all\\ rational\\ beings\\,\\ cannot\\ contradict\\ themselves\\,\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ reasoned\\ a\\ priori\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Anti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ universal\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\:\\ it\\ is\\ universal\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ progressive\\ tax\\,\\ but\\ a\\ tax\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ conclusion\\ of\\ all\\ rational\\ beings\\ Redistribution\\ Anti\\ Not\\ universal\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\:\\ Slavery\\ Anti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ universal\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\:\\ Abortion\\ Anti\\ Not\\ universal\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\:\\ Property\\ Strong\\ rights\\ cannot\\ universalize\\ the\\ necessity\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ property\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ Anti\\ Not\\ universal\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\:\\ Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\ Utilitarians\\ Aristotle\\ Communitarians\\ \\(MacIn\\-\\ tyre\\/Sandel\\)\\ Tensions\\ Right\\ \\>\\;\\ Good\\ Right\\ \\>\\;\\ Utility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarian\\ Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Man\\ originally\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\;\\ enters\\ society\\ for\\ better\\ justice\\ and\\ property\\ protection\\ 2\\)\\ Inalienable\\ rights\\:\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ property\\;\\ CONSENT\\ IS\\ KEY\\ 3\\)\\ When\\ someone\\ mixes\\ labor\\ into\\ something\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ their\\ property\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ born\\ free\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ with\\ natural\\ rights\\:\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ natural\\ liberties\\ but\\ not\\ free\\ license\\:\\ cannot\\ kill\\ yourself\\ or\\ sell\\ yourself\\ into\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ everyone\\ is\\ equal\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ harm\\ another\\ person\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\,\\ health\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ or\\ property\\;\\ if\\ someone\\ does\\,\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ where\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ judge\\ and\\ jury\\,\\ punishing\\ ac\\-\\ cording\\ to\\ the\\ severity\\ of\\ the\\ crime\\;\\ every\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ kill\\ a\\ murderer\\ Once\\ one\\ joins\\ society\\,\\ they\\ submit\\ to\\ majority\\ rule\\:\\ the\\ government\\ cannot\\ change\\ arbitrarily\\,\\ and\\ cannot\\ seize\\ property\\ without\\ just\\ compensation\\;\\ if\\ it\\ does\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ with\\ its\\ citizens\\,\\ and\\ they\\ can\\ and\\ should\\ rebel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ only\\ right\\ given\\ up\\ when\\ one\\ enters\\ society\\ is\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ judge\\ and\\ enforcer\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ only\\ slavery\\ that\\ is\\ just\\ is\\ through\\ conquest\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Depends\\ If\\ majority\\ rules\\,\\ because\\ when\\ we\\ join\\ society\\ we\\ submit\\ to\\ majority\\ rule\\ Redistribution\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\if\\ majority\\ rules\\,\\ but\\ only\\ if\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ violate\\ individual\\ and\\ property\\ rights\\ Slavery\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Through\\ conquest\\ yes\\,\\ naturally\\ no\\ Abortion\\ Against\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inalienable\\ right\\ to\\ life\\ violated\\ \\(this\\ depends\\ on\\ definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ when\\ life\\ starts\\ Property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strong\\ property\\ rights\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ Unclear\\ Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tensions\\ Liberty\\ \\>\\;\\ Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 6\\ unjust\\ seizure\\/redistribution\\ without\\ consent\\ prohibited\\;\\ when\\ you\\ mix\\ labor\\ into\\ it\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ your\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarians\\ \\(Bentham\\/MIll\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MacIntyre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MacIntyre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Communitarian\\ After\\ Virtue\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ our\\ narrative\\ 2\\)\\ cannot\\ separate\\ views\\ of\\ justice\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ 3\\)\\ Good\\ \\>\\;\\ Right\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Aristotilean\\ sense\\,\\ we\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\:\\ individuals\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ that\\ surrounds\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narrative\\ takes\\ precedence\\:\\ Kant\\&\\#39\\;s\\ killing\\ a\\ friend\\ example\\ needs\\ to\\ have\\ friendship\\ considerred\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Taxation\\ Probably\\ To\\ help\\ fellow\\ man\\ Redistribution\\ Probably\\ To\\ help\\ fellow\\ man\\ Slavery\\ No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ our\\ fellow\\ man\\ Abortion\\ \\?\\ Property\\ Depends\\ Redistribution\\ to\\ help\\ fellow\\ man\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ Depends\\ To\\ help\\ fellow\\ man\\ Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\ Individualists\\ such\\ as\\ Kant\\,\\ Rawls\\,\\ and\\ Nozick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tensions\\ Good\\ \\>\\;\\ Right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 7\\ Rawls\\&\\#39\\;\\ veil\\ of\\ igno\\-\\ rance\\ Kant\\&\\#39\\;s\\ categorical\\ impera\\-\\ tive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mill\\ Utilitarian\\ Utilitarianism\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ There\\ are\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\ 2\\)\\ aggregate\\ utility\\ takes\\ precedence\\ over\\ individual\\ preference\\ 3\\)\\ Higher\\ pleasures\\ are\\ more\\ human\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rational\\ agents\\ always\\ choose\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ over\\ lower\\ ones\\;\\ we\\ know\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ are\\ high\\-\\ er\\ because\\ people\\ will\\ always\\ choose\\ them\\ unless\\ in\\ extreme\\ cases\\ of\\ unhappiness\\ to\\ overlook\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ humans\\ seek\\ pleasure\\ does\\ not\\ do\\ justice\\ to\\ humanity\\ everything\\ is\\ reduced\\ to\\ utilitarianism\\ virtue\\ leads\\ to\\ happiness\\,\\ which\\ is\\ pleasureful\\ Higher\\ pleasures\\ such\\ as\\ wisdom\\,\\ nobility\\,\\ and\\ sophistication\\ trump\\ lower\\ ones\\ such\\ as\\ bodily\\ plea\\-\\ sures\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Depends\\ If\\ taxation\\ creates\\ more\\ pleasure\\ than\\ pain\\ in\\ society\\,\\ then\\ the\\ tax\\ is\\ just\\ Redistribution\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ redistribution\\ creates\\ more\\ pleasure\\ than\\ pain\\ in\\ society\\,\\ the\\ redistribution\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 8\\ just\\ If\\ the\\ slave\\ receives\\ more\\ displeasure\\ than\\ the\\ masters\\ receive\\ pleasure\\,\\ collec\\-\\ tively\\,\\ then\\ slavery\\ is\\ unjust\\ Abortion\\ Depends\\ If\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ causes\\ society\\ more\\ pain\\ than\\ pleasure\\,\\ abortion\\ is\\ just\\ Property\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Property\\ rights\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ relative\\ pleasure\\ and\\ displeasure\\ of\\ their\\ strength\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ Depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ such\\ policies\\ cause\\ the\\ minorities\\ they\\ benefit\\ more\\ pleasure\\ than\\ they\\ cause\\ pain\\ to\\ those\\ hurt\\ by\\ the\\ policy\\,\\ than\\ affirmative\\ action\\ is\\ just\\ Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarians\\/those\\ for\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ since\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ some\\ may\\ be\\ vio\\-\\ In\\-line\\ with\\ Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lated\\ Kant\\:\\ is\\ too\\ ad\\-hoc\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ easily\\ reasoned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ similar\\ to\\ communitarian\\,\\ although\\ this\\ depends\\ Tensions\\ Good\\ \\>\\;\\ Right\\ Communal\\ pleasure\\ \\>\\;\\ individual\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\:\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ priori\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ empirical\\ measurements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nozick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nozick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Libertarian\\ Distributive\\ Justice\\/Anarchy\\,\\ State\\,\\ and\\ Utopia\\ Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Patterned\\ redistribution\\ ignores\\ personal\\ liberty\\/property\\ rights\\ 2\\)\\ In\\ favor\\ of\\ a\\ minimal\\ state\\ \\&ldquo\\;limited\\ to\\ the\\ narrow\\ functions\\ of\\ protection\\ against\\ force\\,\\ theft\\,\\ fraud\\,\\ enforcement\\ of\\ contracts\\,\\ etc\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ 3\\)\\ People\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ what\\ they\\ have\\;\\ this\\ is\\ different\\ than\\ deserving\\ things\\ based\\ on\\ equality\\ or\\ natural\\ assets\\ Key\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minimal\\ government\\ contrary\\ to\\ Rawls\\:\\ differences\\ in\\ natural\\ assets\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ minimized\\ No\\ patterned\\ redistribution\\,\\ only\\ voluntary\\ Against\\ Rawls\\&\\#39\\;\\ difference\\ principle\\ which\\ regulates\\ for\\ natural\\ assets\\ Key\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stance\\ Rationale\\ Taxation\\ Anti\\ Taxation\\ \\=\\ slavery\\ for\\ anything\\ more\\ than\\ basic\\ protection\\ Redistribution\\ Anti\\ Violates\\ individual\\ rights\\ Slavery\\ Anti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forced\\ labor\\,\\ not\\ a\\ voluntary\\ transaction\\ Abortion\\ \\?\\ Property\\ Strong\\ rights\\ Only\\ just\\ transaction\\ is\\ voluntary\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ Unjust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\if\\ not\\ consented\\,\\ unvoluntary\\ Critics\\/At\\ Odds\\ With\\:\\ Rawls\\:\\ Nozick\\ has\\ Liberty\\ over\\ Equality\\ Utilitarians\\:\\ Nozick\\ has\\ rights\\ over\\ utility\\ Tensions\\ Liberty\\ \\>\\;\\ Equality\\ Rights\\ \\>\\;\\ Utility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Justice_Biography_Cheat_Sheet.pdf", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Ethical and Political Theory - Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "ethical", "political", "theory"], "text": null, "id": 90, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\_Reading\\_Notes\\_with\\_Nouns\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c26\\{max\\-width\\:568\\.8pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:21\\.6pt\\ 21\\.6pt\\ 21\\.6pt\\ 21\\.6pt\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c17\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:75pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:46\\.6pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:147pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c34\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c38\\{margin\\-left\\:78pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:21pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c23\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c11\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c35\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c37\\{margin\\-left\\:42pt\\}\\.c25\\{margin\\-left\\:3pt\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:19\\.6pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:111pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Ethical\\ and\\ Political\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READING\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONFUCIUS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(551\\-479\\ BCE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ the\\ golden\\ age\\ of\\ mankind\\ occurred\\ during\\ the\\ Zhou\\ dynasty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-King\\ Wen\\,\\ his\\ son\\ King\\ Wu\\,\\ and\\ Duke\\ of\\ Zhou\\,\\ were\\ virtuous\\ rulers\\ that\\ established\\ and\\ maintained\\ a\\ special\\ relationship\\ with\\ Heaven\\ by\\ properly\\ observing\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ sacred\\ practices\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rites\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Zhou\\ rulers\\ were\\ rewarded\\ with\\ the\\ Mandate\\ from\\ Heaven\\,\\ manifested\\ in\\ a\\ charismatic\\ virtue\\ \\&ldquo\\;de\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ rule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rites\\ include\\ grand\\ state\\ ceremonies\\ and\\ also\\ how\\ to\\ wear\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clothes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ were\\ many\\ local\\ rulers\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ battles\\ between\\ the\\ states\\&mdash\\;each\\ ruler\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ regain\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ other\\ states\\ and\\ start\\ the\\ next\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\ thought\\ his\\ contemporary\\ scholars\\ cared\\ more\\ about\\ selfish\\ and\\ sensual\\ desires\\ than\\ learning\\ and\\ dedicating\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ Zhou\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-According\\ to\\ Confucius\\,\\ the\\ ultimate\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ possess\\ Goodness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mastered\\ the\\ way\\ and\\ reached\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ spiritual\\ perfection\\ \\(it\\ is\\ now\\ second\\ nature\\ and\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ try\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ will\\ be\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ armies\\,\\ laws\\&hellip\\;\\ because\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ be\\ inexorably\\ drawn\\ to\\ a\\ ruler\\ with\\ true\\ Virtue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Once\\ the\\ roots\\ are\\ set\\,\\ the\\ way\\ will\\ grow\\.\\ Filial\\ piety\\ and\\ respect\\ for\\ elders\\ constitute\\ the\\ roots\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Respect\\ your\\ elders\\,\\ honor\\ the\\ dead\\,\\ and\\ complete\\ burial\\ ceremonies\\ the\\ right\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Do\\ not\\ be\\ obsessed\\ with\\ the\\ material\\ goods\\;\\ instead\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ filled\\ with\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ you\\ rule\\ with\\ virtue\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ else\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-You\\ cannot\\ go\\ astray\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ following\\ the\\ Odes\\ and\\ are\\ virtuous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ you\\ guide\\ people\\ with\\ virtue\\ and\\ keep\\ them\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ ritual\\,\\ they\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ shame\\ and\\ will\\ rectify\\ themselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-According\\ to\\ filial\\ piety\\,\\ young\\ people\\ shoulder\\ the\\ burden\\ to\\ all\\ work\\,\\ and\\ elders\\ are\\ given\\ precedence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Being\\ a\\ filial\\ son\\ and\\ a\\ good\\ brother\\ is\\ already\\ taking\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ government\\.\\ Everyone\\ needs\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ part\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ Three\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Ji\\ Family\\ has\\ more\\ dancers\\ than\\ is\\ appropriate\\,\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ virtuous\\ family\\.\\ People\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ good\\,\\ should\\ not\\ have\\ anything\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ rituals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Use\\ of\\ rituals\\ should\\ be\\ appropriate\\.\\ During\\ mourning\\ it\\ is\\ appropriate\\ to\\ be\\ extremely\\ emotional\\;\\ during\\ other\\ rituals\\ you\\ may\\ need\\ a\\ different\\ response\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Never\\ cut\\ corners\\ when\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ honoring\\ the\\ dead\\.\\ Or\\ else\\ sacrifices\\ are\\ meaningless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rituals\\ are\\ important\\ in\\ choosing\\ officials\\ and\\ for\\ leaders\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ Four\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Your\\ surroundings\\ are\\ important\\ because\\ you\\ need\\ good\\ examples\\ to\\ improve\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Those\\ who\\ are\\ good\\ feel\\ at\\ home\\ in\\ goodness\\,\\ whereas\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ wise\\ follow\\ goodness\\ because\\ they\\ feel\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ profit\\ from\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Goodness\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ everyone\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ your\\ nature\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ you\\ set\\ your\\ heart\\ upon\\ goodness\\,\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ free\\ from\\ bad\\ intentions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Be\\ filial\\ to\\ your\\ parents\\ when\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ alive\\,\\ and\\ mourn\\ for\\ 3\\ years\\ after\\ they\\ die\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ judge\\ his\\ disciples\\ as\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ principles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Empty\\ words\\ without\\ actions\\ are\\ not\\ useless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ Six\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Yan\\ Hui\\ is\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ student\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-You\\ are\\ good\\ only\\ if\\ you\\ worry\\ about\\ self\\ cultivation\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ rewards\\ for\\ being\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ you\\ are\\ good\\,\\ you\\ also\\ help\\ other\\ realize\\ goodness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ teacher\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ pay\\,\\ follows\\ what\\ he\\ loves\\,\\ and\\ teaches\\ through\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ you\\ are\\ respectful\\ but\\ lack\\ ritual\\,\\ you\\ will\\ become\\ exasperating\\;\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ careful\\ but\\ lack\\ ritual\\ you\\ will\\ become\\ timid\\;\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ courageous\\ but\\ lack\\ ritual\\ you\\ ill\\ become\\ timid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rituals\\ are\\ necessary\\ even\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ personally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ way\\ without\\ a\\ salary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Being\\ rich\\ and\\ having\\ honor\\ without\\ following\\ the\\ way\\ is\\ shameful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\ is\\ mindful\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ mourning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Self\\ cultivation\\ is\\ a\\ life\\ long\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\ showed\\ appropriate\\ behavior\\ when\\ interacting\\ with\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ rank\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\ was\\ careful\\ and\\ respectful\\ when\\ around\\ those\\ with\\ rank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ is\\ mindful\\ of\\ maintaining\\ order\\ in\\ teaching\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Yan\\ Hui\\ dies\\ and\\ Confucius\\ mourns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-You\\ cannot\\ understand\\ death\\ \\(spiritual\\ things\\)\\ even\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ mystery\\ to\\ most\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Goodness\\ is\\ restraining\\ yourself\\ and\\ returning\\ to\\ rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Though\\ Confucius\\ tells\\ people\\ different\\ things\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ he\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ rituals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Governing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sufficient\\ food\\,\\ sufficient\\ armaments\\,\\ and\\ the\\ confidence\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ Confidence\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ have\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ ruling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rectification\\ of\\ names\\ is\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Bonds\\ between\\ family\\ members\\ are\\ very\\ important\\.\\ You\\ are\\ closer\\ to\\ your\\ relatives\\ than\\ you\\ are\\ to\\ strangers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-People\\ cannot\\ be\\ judges\\ of\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ character\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Having\\ office\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ someone\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ the\\ central\\ government\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ enough\\ itself\\,\\ they\\ should\\ reduce\\ the\\ taxes\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ people\\ have\\ enough\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\ does\\ not\\ really\\ say\\ if\\ certain\\ actions\\ are\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Those\\ who\\ possess\\ Virtue\\ will\\ inevitably\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ say\\,\\ but\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ say\\ do\\ not\\ necessarily\\ possess\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kongzi\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ about\\ military\\,\\ but\\ focuses\\ his\\ effort\\ onto\\ rituals\\ and\\ offerings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Gentlemen\\ encounter\\ hardship\\ and\\ overcome\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-To\\ manage\\ a\\ state\\,\\ you\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ past\\ rituals\\ and\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ successful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Human\\ beings\\ broaden\\ the\\ way\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ broadened\\ by\\ human\\ beings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ way\\.\\ Without\\ a\\ conscious\\ effort\\,\\ nothing\\ will\\ happen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-You\\ can\\ learn\\ from\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ upright\\ and\\ true\\ and\\ intelligent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-You\\ will\\ be\\ harmed\\ by\\ friends\\ who\\ are\\ flatterers\\ or\\ liars\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Take\\ joy\\ in\\ rites\\ and\\ music\\,\\ in\\ commending\\ the\\ excellence\\ of\\ others\\,\\ or\\ possessing\\ many\\ worthy\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Gentlemen\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ awe\\ of\\ the\\ Mandate\\ of\\ heaven\\,\\ great\\ men\\,\\ and\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ sages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-By\\ nature\\,\\ people\\ are\\ similar\\;\\ they\\ diverge\\ as\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ practices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Heaven\\ never\\ has\\ to\\ say\\ anything\\ explicitly\\&hellip\\;but\\ the\\ seasons\\ still\\ change\\ and\\ everything\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\ still\\ works\\ by\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-You\\ should\\ follow\\ a\\ three\\ year\\ mourning\\ period\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ in\\ mourning\\,\\ you\\ should\\ feel\\ pain\\ in\\ those\\ 3\\ years\\ and\\ you\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ enjoy\\ life\\ anyways\\.\\ Might\\ as\\ well\\ be\\ in\\ mourning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ gentleman\\ takes\\ office\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\,\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ already\\ knows\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ realized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOUNS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(551\\-479\\ BCE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Major\\ philosopher\\ of\\ Ancient\\ china\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-believed\\ that\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ civilization\\ occurred\\ during\\ the\\ Zhou\\ dynasty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goodness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-mastered\\ through\\ the\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-you\\ are\\ good\\ when\\ you\\ have\\ reached\\ spiritual\\ perfection\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ actively\\ try\\ to\\ be\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hui\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Confucius\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ student\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Fast\\ learner\\ and\\ is\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Dies\\ young\\ and\\ Confucius\\ is\\ troubled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rituals\\ include\\ everything\\ from\\ grand\\ state\\ ceremonies\\ to\\ how\\ you\\ should\\ dress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-important\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ favor\\ of\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MOZI\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ points\\ from\\ the\\ readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mozi\\ \\(Mo\\ Di\\)\\ founder\\ of\\ \\ \\;Mohist\\ school\\ of\\ philosophy\\,\\ built\\ in\\ direct\\ opposition\\ to\\ Confucian\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overall\\,\\ readings\\ are\\ pretty\\ dull\\ and\\ repetitive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Based\\ on\\ systematic\\ analysis\\ and\\ careful\\ rationalization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ ideal\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ centralized\\,\\ orderly\\ and\\ ideologically\\ unified\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Could\\ be\\ considered\\ first\\ true\\ philosopher\\ in\\ China\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ society\\ under\\ which\\ he\\ could\\ tax\\,\\ judge\\,\\ punish\\ and\\ even\\ put\\ his\\ followers\\ to\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demanded\\ an\\ austere\\ life\\ under\\ his\\ direct\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Advocated\\ state\\ of\\ consequentialism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sought\\ to\\ maximize\\ wealth\\,\\ order\\,\\ and\\ population\\ of\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\System\\ of\\ strict\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ enforced\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mozi\\ delineated\\ three\\ criteria\\ to\\ evaluate\\ arguments\\:\\ the\\ roots\\,\\ evidence\\,\\ and\\ use\\.\\ A\\ position\\ is\\ accepted\\ if\\ one\\ can\\ trace\\ its\\ roots\\ to\\ practices\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ sages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believed\\ in\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\.\\ If\\ it\\ benefits\\ the\\ people\\ it\\ is\\ good\\,\\ if\\ it\\ harms\\ them\\ it\\ is\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Following\\ are\\ the\\ titles\\ of\\ the\\ chapters\\ from\\ the\\ readings\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ points\\ from\\ each\\ section\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Honoring\\ the\\ Worthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\System\\ of\\ honoring\\ merit\\ rather\\ than\\ birth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obeying\\ One\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Superior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Advocated\\ a\\ strong\\ chain\\ of\\ command\\ leading\\ up\\ through\\ a\\ monarch\\ and\\ resting\\ in\\ heaven\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whereas\\ in\\ early\\ Confucian\\ writings\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ figures\\ of\\ the\\ ruler\\ and\\ the\\ father\\ that\\ served\\ as\\ authority\\ models\\,\\ Mozi\\ appealed\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ authority\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(heaven\\)\\.\\ For\\ him\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ ideal\\ model\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ constant\\,\\ reliable\\,\\ objective\\,\\ measurable\\,\\ and\\ equally\\ accessible\\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impartial\\ Caring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sharply\\ criticized\\ Confucian\\ family\\ based\\ ethical\\ and\\ political\\ system\\ for\\ its\\ inherent\\ partiality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advocated\\ jian\\&\\#39\\;ai\\,\\ translated\\ \\"\\;universal\\ love\\"\\;\\,\\ or\\ \\"\\;impartial\\ care\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saw\\ central\\ ethical\\ problem\\ as\\ excessive\\ partiality\\,\\ not\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ compassion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ to\\ end\\ emotions\\,\\ attitudes\\ or\\ virtues\\ or\\ reduce\\ their\\ cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Love\\ for\\ everyone\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ treating\\ other\\ states\\,\\ families\\,\\ and\\ persons\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mozi\\ considered\\ concern\\ for\\ everyone\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ unifying\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Condemnation\\ of\\ Aggressive\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Condemned\\ attacking\\ others\\ for\\ gain\\,\\ but\\ welcomed\\ and\\ promoted\\ the\\ defense\\ of\\ territories\\ being\\ attacked\\ by\\ invaders\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Moderation\\ in\\ Expenditures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mozi\\ exhorted\\ the\\ gentleman\\ to\\ lead\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ asceticism\\ and\\ self\\-restraint\\,\\ renouncing\\ both\\ material\\ and\\ spiritual\\ extravagance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Moderation\\ in\\ Funerals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\elaborate\\ funerals\\ and\\ three\\ years\\ of\\ mourning\\ when\\ a\\ parent\\ died\\ were\\ worthless\\,\\ and\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ waste\\ of\\ resources\\ and\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heaven\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Heaven\\,\\ along\\ with\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\,\\ \\ \\;supports\\ the\\ system\\ of\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ Ghosts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Believing\\ in\\ ghosts\\ is\\ good\\ as\\ people\\ will\\ fear\\ their\\ wrath\\ if\\ they\\ behave\\ badly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Condemnation\\ of\\ Musical\\ Performances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ an\\ extravagant\\ waste\\ of\\ resources\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ stirrs\\ up\\ emotions\\ which\\ is\\ bad\\ as\\ it\\ prevents\\ one\\ from\\ making\\ rational\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Condemnation\\ of\\ Fatalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Believing\\ in\\ a\\ predetermined\\ fate\\ leads\\ to\\ laziness\\ and\\ resignation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fatalism\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ accord\\ with\\ the\\ intentions\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ sage\\ kings\\.\\ This\\ is\\ proved\\ by\\ quoting\\ ancient\\ writings\\ that\\ record\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ sage\\ kings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ real\\ existence\\ of\\ fate\\ cannot\\ be\\ proven\\ by\\ any\\ means\\.\\ It\\ cannot\\ be\\ proven\\ empirically\\ by\\ the\\ senses\\ of\\ hearing\\ and\\ sight\\,\\ for\\ no\\ one\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ time\\ to\\ the\\ present\\ could\\ testify\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ ever\\ seen\\ or\\ heard\\ directly\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\ fate\\.\\ Moreover\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ proven\\ using\\ moral\\ arguments\\ because\\ moral\\ arguments\\ require\\ the\\ nonexistence\\ of\\ fate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fatalism\\ is\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ tyrants\\,\\ used\\ by\\ bandits\\ and\\ other\\ wrongdoers\\,\\ and\\ welcomed\\ by\\ lazy\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ WORDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ very\\ important\\ terms\\ with\\ Mozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impartial\\ Caring\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\System\\ of\\ caring\\ for\\ everyone\\ equally\\.\\ No\\ favoritisms\\ of\\ any\\ sort\\.\\ Ie\\-\\ familial\\ ties\\,\\ birth\\ rights\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarian\\/Rational\\ Calculus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Careful\\ weighing\\ of\\ pros\\ and\\ cons\\ before\\ acting\\.\\ If\\ it\\ benefits\\ the\\ people\\ it\\ is\\ good\\,\\ if\\ it\\ hurts\\ them\\ it\\ is\\ bad\\.\\ Everything\\ based\\ on\\ this\\,\\ no\\ emotions\\ involved\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Was\\ Confucian\\,\\ although\\ never\\ studied\\ under\\ Confucius\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opposed\\ Mozi\\ \\(who\\ favored\\ universalistic\\ consequentialism\\)\\ and\\ Yang\\ Zhu\\ \\(who\\ emphasized\\ following\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;nature\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ idea\\ was\\ that\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ethical\\ Sprouts\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ People\\ have\\ natural\\ virtuous\\ inclinations\\ \\(in\\ this\\ way\\ agrees\\ with\\ Yang\\ Zhu\\)\\,\\ but\\ these\\ must\\ be\\ cultivated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ truth\\ is\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ will\\ be\\ unable\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ virtue\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;while\\ everyone\\ has\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ sage\\,\\ not\\ everyone\\ will\\ realize\\ this\\ ability\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believes\\ in\\ concrete\\ teaching\\ rather\\ than\\ basing\\ things\\ off\\ of\\ abstract\\ principles\\.\\ \\ \\;Favors\\ contextualized\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\King\\ Hui\\ of\\ Liang\\ asks\\ Mencius\\ how\\ to\\ profit\\ his\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Mencius\\ responds\\ that\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;profit\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ self\\ defeating\\ \\(taking\\ a\\ stab\\ at\\ Mozi\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ state\\ can\\ only\\ profit\\ when\\ it\\ places\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Ox\\ Story\\:\\ demonstrates\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ belief\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;ethical\\ sprouts\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ Xuan\\ saw\\ an\\ ox\\ about\\ to\\ be\\ slaughtered\\,\\ and\\ decided\\ to\\ spare\\ it\\ because\\ he\\ felt\\ compassion\\ for\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Mencius\\ claims\\ that\\ this\\ feeling\\ of\\ compassion\\ is\\ sufficient\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ he\\ notes\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ having\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ king\\ and\\ actually\\ acting\\ like\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ king\\,\\ one\\ should\\ make\\ sure\\ the\\ commoners\\&rsquo\\;\\ basic\\ needs\\ are\\ met\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ then\\ can\\ higher\\ goals\\ such\\ as\\ virtue\\ be\\ pursued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ king\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ king\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ he\\ fulfills\\ his\\ obligations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ who\\ violates\\ benevolence\\ should\\ be\\ called\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;thief\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;a\\ thief\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ mere\\ \\&lsquo\\;fellow\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\ \\;I\\ have\\ heard\\ of\\ the\\ execution\\ of\\ a\\ mere\\ fellow\\ \\&lsquo\\;Zhou\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ but\\ I\\ have\\ not\\ heard\\ of\\ the\\ killing\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ruler\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Essentially\\ wordplay\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\He\\ describes\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ virtue\\ as\\ having\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;floodlike\\ qi\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;one\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ fully\\ cultivated\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ unyielding\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;To\\ study\\ without\\ tiring\\ is\\ wisdom\\;\\ to\\ teach\\ without\\ wearying\\ is\\ benevolence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Well\\ Story\\:\\ Mencius\\ uses\\ this\\ story\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ natural\\ compassion\\ of\\ people\\:\\ If\\ a\\ child\\ were\\ about\\ to\\ fall\\ into\\ a\\ well\\,\\ everyone\\ watching\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ alarm\\ and\\ compassion\\-even\\ if\\ none\\ of\\ them\\ knew\\ the\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\&ldquo\\;heart\\ of\\ compassion\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ human\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ heart\\ of\\ compassion\\ is\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ benevolence\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ heart\\ of\\ deference\\ is\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ propriety\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ heart\\ of\\ approval\\ and\\ disapproval\\ is\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ wisdom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mozi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ impartial\\ care\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ only\\ natural\\ for\\ one\\ to\\ love\\ with\\ distinctions\\:\\ one\\ cares\\ more\\ about\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\ than\\ complete\\ strangers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Again\\ against\\ impartial\\ care\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ lies\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ near\\,\\ but\\ people\\ seek\\ it\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ distant\\;\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ task\\ lies\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ easy\\,\\ but\\ people\\ seek\\ it\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ difficult\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ everyone\\ would\\ treat\\ their\\ kin\\ as\\ kin\\,\\ and\\ their\\ elders\\ as\\ elders\\,\\ the\\ world\\ would\\ be\\ at\\ peace\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-like\\ Confucius\\,\\ Mencius\\ believes\\ in\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ ritual\\.\\ \\ \\;Ritual\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ regulate\\ and\\ adorn\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ ritual\\ that\\ allows\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ethical\\ sprouts\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ grow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Human\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ good\\ is\\ like\\ water\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tending\\ to\\ flow\\ downward\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ water\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ tend\\ downward\\,\\ but\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ struck\\ and\\ leap\\ up\\,\\ or\\ be\\ dammed\\ and\\ remain\\ on\\ a\\ mountaintop\\ due\\ to\\ circumstance\\,\\ much\\ like\\ our\\ good\\ nature\\ can\\ go\\ wrong\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparison\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ vegetation\\ on\\ Ox\\ Mountain\\:\\ the\\ greenery\\ there\\ was\\ natural\\ and\\ beautiful\\ until\\ it\\ was\\ all\\ cut\\ down\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ later\\ people\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ naturally\\ barren\\,\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ case\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seek\\ righteousness\\ more\\ than\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ fully\\ apply\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\ is\\ to\\ understand\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nature\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rituals\\ as\\ necessary\\ to\\ set\\ standards\\.\\ \\ \\;Standards\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ create\\ distinctions\\:\\ to\\ distinguish\\ weeds\\ from\\ grain\\,\\ glibness\\ from\\ trustworthiness\\,\\ cleverness\\ with\\ righteousness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brief\\ Summary\\ of\\ Text\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Tao\\ Te\\ Ching\\ \\(Daodejing\\)\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ Taoist\\ \\(or\\ Daoist\\)\\ text\\.\\ It\\ is\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ authored\\ by\\ Lao\\ Tzu\\ \\(Laozi\\)\\ around\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ the\\ Way\\ and\\ how\\ one\\ should\\ behave\\ with\\ the\\ knowledge\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ interconnected\\.\\ As\\ opposed\\ to\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ the\\ Way\\ is\\ described\\ more\\ as\\ constant\\ than\\ dynamic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Way\\:\\ The\\ nothingness\\.\\ The\\ Great\\.\\ The\\ One\\.\\ Everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Qi\\:\\ vital\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Summary\\ of\\ the\\ Readings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-one\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daoist\\&rdquo\\;\\ readings\\ we\\ covered\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-readings\\ involve\\ elaborate\\ puns\\,\\ fantastic\\ stories\\,\\ contradictory\\ statements\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;paradox\\ of\\ wild\\ stories\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Zhuangzi\\ brings\\ us\\ into\\ his\\ philosophy\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ lecturing\\ it\\ to\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ One\\:\\ Wandering\\ Round\\ and\\ About\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-examples\\ of\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ elaborate\\ writing\\ style\\:\\ fish\\ named\\ Minnow\\,\\ bird\\ named\\ Breeze\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Hence\\ it\\ is\\ said\\ that\\ perfect\\ people\\ have\\ no\\ self\\,\\ spiritual\\ people\\ have\\ no\\ accomplishment\\,\\ and\\ sagely\\ people\\ have\\ no\\ name\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(210\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ quote\\ encompasses\\ The\\ Way\\ as\\ Zhuangzi\\ conceived\\ of\\ it\\:\\ having\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ removing\\ your\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\&rdquo\\;\\ entirely\\ \\[\\&ldquo\\;name\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ guest\\ of\\ reality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(211\\)\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ this\\ chapter\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ also\\ introduces\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ many\\ unfortunate\\-looking\\ characters\\:\\ Shoulder\\ Dig\\,\\ Step\\ Brother\\,\\ Cramped\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Two\\:\\ On\\ Equalizing\\ Things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ focuses\\ on\\ thinking\\ in\\ a\\ relative\\,\\ not\\ absolute\\,\\ manner\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Master\\ Dapple\\ speaks\\ of\\ the\\ hearing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pipes\\ of\\ Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pipes\\ of\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ which\\ speaks\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\human\\ nature\\/self\\-cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Heaven\\ is\\ inside\\ us\\,\\ telling\\ us\\ what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ right\\ and\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ just\\ channel\\ Heaven\\.\\ \\ \\;Master\\ Dapple\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Just\\ now\\ I\\ lost\\ myself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(214\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61663\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;hence\\,\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ channel\\ Heaven\\ is\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;In\\ our\\ actions\\ we\\ take\\ the\\ self\\ on\\ faith\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ its\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ essence\\ but\\ no\\ form\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(216\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ form\\,\\ he\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;qing\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ see\\ appendix\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Readings\\ in\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ page\\ 391\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-on\\ being\\ relativistic\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ nothing\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ looked\\ at\\ that\\ way\\ \\/\\ \\&hellip\\;Only\\ as\\ I\\ know\\ things\\ myself\\ do\\ I\\ know\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(217\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Once\\ the\\ pivot\\ finds\\ its\\ socket\\ it\\ can\\ respond\\ endlessly\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(217\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ everybody\\ finds\\ their\\ own\\ socket\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-on\\ The\\ Way\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ bounded\\,\\ words\\ have\\ never\\ been\\ constant\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ If\\ you\\ could\\ know\\ the\\ unspoken\\ distinction\\,\\ as\\ he\\ says\\,\\ you\\ would\\ know\\ Heaven\\ \\(220\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ is\\ saying\\:\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ try\\ to\\ make\\ distinctions\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ try\\ to\\ bind\\ things\\ that\\ naturally\\ come\\ from\\ Heaven\\,\\ with\\ your\\ own\\ \\(relative\\)\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Three\\:\\ The\\ Key\\ to\\ Nourishing\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ focuses\\ on\\ self\\-cultivation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Life\\ is\\ bounded\\.\\ \\ \\;Knowledge\\ is\\ unbounded\\.\\ \\ \\;Using\\ the\\ bounded\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ unbounded\\ is\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ if\\ you\\ take\\ that\\ as\\ knowledge\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ dangerous\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(224\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Hence\\,\\ you\\ should\\ never\\ project\\ what\\ you\\ know\\ onto\\ what\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rely\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heavenly\\ patterns\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(225\\)\\ to\\ tell\\ you\\ what\\ you\\ should\\ be\\ doing\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\butcher\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ A\\ butcher\\ is\\ guided\\ by\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fissures\\,\\ so\\ his\\ blade\\ chops\\ smoothly\\ instead\\ of\\ going\\ against\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ he\\ claims\\ he\\ never\\ has\\ to\\ sharpen\\ his\\ blade\\ in\\ 19\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Four\\:\\ The\\ Human\\ Realm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ focuses\\ on\\ self\\-cultivation\\,\\ and\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ human\\ natures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Yan\\ Hui\\ has\\ a\\ conversation\\ with\\ Kongzi\\ about\\ visiting\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ Wei\\,\\ who\\ Yan\\ Hui\\ calls\\ a\\ careless\\ and\\ young\\ and\\ willful\\ man\\ who\\ must\\ be\\ saved\\.\\ \\ \\;Kongzi\\ criticizes\\ Yan\\ Hui\\ for\\ being\\ too\\ complex\\,\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;Complexity\\ quickly\\ becomes\\ too\\ much\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ adding\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;comprehended\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Ultimately\\,\\ Kongzi\\ tells\\ Yan\\ Hui\\ to\\ empty\\ and\\ fast\\ his\\ mind\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ achieve\\ The\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ on\\ names\\ and\\ communication\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Words\\ are\\ like\\ wind\\ and\\ waves\\.\\ \\ \\;Actions\\ fulfill\\ or\\ disappoint\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Wind\\ and\\ waves\\ are\\ easily\\ moved\\,\\ and\\ fulfillment\\ and\\ disappointment\\ easily\\ lead\\ to\\ danger\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(230\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Five\\:\\ Signs\\ of\\ Abundant\\ Virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ human\\ essence\\ and\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kongzi\\ advocates\\ keeping\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;constant\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(232\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kongzi\\ and\\ Duke\\ Ai\\ converse\\ about\\ Virtue\\ and\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Kongzi\\ describes\\ a\\ mother\\ pig\\ who\\ has\\ died\\,\\ and\\ whose\\ piglets\\ no\\ longer\\ recognize\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;form\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Virtue\\ should\\ take\\ no\\ form\\ \\(233\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Follow\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ form\\ in\\ determining\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Rights\\ and\\ wrongs\\ are\\ what\\ I\\ mean\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;essence\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ By\\ \\&lsquo\\;no\\ essence\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ I\\ mean\\ people\\ not\\ letting\\ in\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ to\\ hurt\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Follow\\ the\\ natural\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ help\\ life\\ along\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\(235\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Six\\:\\ The\\ Great\\ Ancestral\\ Teacher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;deviant\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ self\\-cultivation\\.\\ \\ \\;Ultimate\\ self\\-cultivation\\ is\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;know\\ what\\ Heaven\\ does\\ and\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ humans\\ do\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(235\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Seven\\:\\ The\\ Proper\\ Way\\ for\\ Emperors\\ and\\ Kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ advocates\\ for\\ leaders\\ to\\ take\\ everything\\ from\\ Heaven\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;just\\ be\\ empty\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ to\\ use\\ their\\ minds\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ mirrors\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Twelve\\:\\ Heaven\\ and\\ Earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Story\\ of\\ a\\ gardener\\ who\\ refuses\\ to\\ use\\ a\\ mechanical\\ sell\\-sweep\\ contraption\\,\\ because\\ he\\ says\\ with\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ cannot\\ preserve\\ your\\ simplicity\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ thus\\ achieve\\ The\\ Way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Perhaps\\ he\\ prefers\\ to\\ understand\\ Heaven\\ naturally\\,\\ without\\ mechanical\\ interference\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Thirteen\\:\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ sage\\ should\\ be\\ calm\\,\\ like\\ a\\ water\\ that\\ is\\ calm\\ enough\\ for\\ you\\ to\\ see\\ your\\ reflection\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ way\\ you\\ can\\ mirror\\ Heaven\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Fourteen\\:\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Turning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Point\\ one\\:\\ a\\ boat\\ is\\ great\\,\\ but\\ only\\ on\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ a\\ cart\\ is\\ great\\,\\ but\\ only\\ on\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Thus\\,\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ your\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;Point\\ two\\:\\ Xi\\ Shi\\ was\\ beautiful\\,\\ even\\ when\\ she\\ made\\ an\\ ugly\\ face\\ it\\ was\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ when\\ her\\ ugly\\ neighbor\\ made\\ the\\ same\\ ugly\\ face\\,\\ he\\ was\\ even\\ more\\ ugly\\ and\\ scared\\ away\\ the\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ do\\ not\\ emulate\\ what\\ others\\ do\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ achieving\\ the\\ same\\ result\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Seventeen\\:\\ Autumn\\ Floods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ reports\\ a\\ conversation\\ between\\ a\\ snake\\ and\\ a\\ millipede\\ on\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ both\\ built\\ differently\\ to\\ move\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ frog\\ and\\ the\\ turtle\\ of\\ the\\ eastern\\ sea\\,\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;forgot\\ who\\ he\\ was\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ the\\ lesson\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ never\\ forget\\ who\\ you\\ are\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Eighteen\\:\\ Perfect\\ Happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;Zhuangzi\\ does\\ not\\ mourn\\ like\\ everybody\\ else\\:\\ instead\\,\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ death\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;just\\ like\\ the\\ round\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ seasons\\:\\ spring\\,\\ summer\\,\\ fall\\,\\ and\\ winter\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Just\\ another\\ change\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ back\\ to\\ The\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Nineteen\\:\\ Penetrating\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conversation\\ between\\ Yan\\ Hui\\ and\\ Kongzi\\.\\ \\ \\;Kongzi\\ says\\ not\\ to\\ care\\ too\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ betting\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Those\\ who\\ value\\ what\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\ are\\ clumsy\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(248\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Twenty\\:\\ The\\ Mountain\\ Tree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ leaves\\ his\\ house\\ and\\ wanders\\,\\ seeing\\ many\\ creatures\\ \\&ldquo\\;forgetting\\ themselves\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ gain\\ \\(cicada\\,\\ praying\\ mantis\\,\\ magpie\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ goes\\ home\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ leave\\ the\\ house\\ for\\ three\\ days\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Twenty\\-Two\\:\\ Knowledge\\ Wandered\\ North\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ describes\\ The\\ Way\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ nowhere\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ perfect\\ Way\\ is\\ like\\ this\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(249\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Twenty\\-Three\\:\\ Mister\\ Gengsang\\ Chu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ fully\\ identified\\ with\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harmony\\ can\\ forsake\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinions\\ or\\ judgments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Twenty\\-Four\\:\\ Mister\\ Ghostless\\ Slow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ passes\\ by\\ Huizi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grave\\,\\ and\\ mourns\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Since\\ my\\ own\\ teacher\\ died\\ I\\ have\\ been\\ without\\ material\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ have\\ no\\ one\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Twenty\\-Six\\:\\ Outside\\ Things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Words\\ are\\ for\\ meaning\\:\\ when\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ got\\ the\\ meaning\\,\\ you\\ can\\ forget\\ the\\ words\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(250\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Thirty\\-Two\\:\\ Mister\\ Clampdown\\ Lie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ is\\ preparing\\ for\\ his\\ funeral\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ gives\\ his\\ body\\ back\\ to\\ nature\\ and\\ The\\ Way\\;\\ even\\ though\\ his\\ students\\ protest\\ that\\ the\\ crows\\ and\\ kites\\ will\\ eat\\ his\\ body\\ above\\ ground\\,\\ he\\ says\\ he\\ will\\ give\\ to\\ them\\ equally\\ above\\ ground\\ as\\ he\\ would\\ to\\ the\\ ants\\ and\\ crickets\\ below\\ ground\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Key\\ Terms\\ \\/\\ Important\\ Nouns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Heavenly\\ patterns\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ Heaven\\ gives\\ human\\ beings\\ their\\ common\\ human\\ natures\\,\\ wherein\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ handiwork\\ is\\ evident\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Zhuangzi\\ never\\ defines\\ this\\ term\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ it\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ make\\ yourself\\ as\\ close\\ to\\ non\\-existent\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ channel\\ Heavenly\\ patterns\\ \\(like\\ the\\ butcher\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Words\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(communication\\ and\\ words\\)\\:\\ refers\\ to\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ point\\ that\\ words\\ are\\ only\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ the\\ actions\\ that\\ must\\ support\\ them\\ \\(see\\ chapter\\ 26\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Definitions\\ from\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ Harold\\ D\\.\\ Roth\\ Translation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tao\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Way\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ ultimate\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ cosmos\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ unifying\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ can\\ be\\ experienced\\ through\\ practices\\ that\\ achieve\\ self\\-transcendence\\ \\(meditation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\ would\\ say\\ transcendence\\ of\\ earthly\\ burdens\\ and\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Inner\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ what\\ perhaps\\ differentiates\\ good\\ energy\\ from\\ bad\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ vital\\ energy\\ or\\ vital\\ breath\\ \\(also\\ defined\\ in\\ Week\\ 7\\,\\ Lecture\\ I\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ the\\ universal\\ energy\\/matter\\/fluid\\ out\\ of\\ which\\ all\\ phenomena\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\ are\\ constructed\\,\\ both\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ the\\ psychological\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\ is\\ everywhere\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ we\\ self\\-cultivate\\ and\\ obtain\\ it\\ within\\ us\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ focuses\\ on\\ how\\ one\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\respond\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\-\\ Xunzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ summaries\\:\\ p\\.\\ 255\\-309\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Readings\\ in\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ One\\:\\ An\\ exhortation\\ to\\ Learning\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Learning\\ must\\ never\\ stop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Learning\\ is\\ critical\\ for\\ humans\\ to\\ improve\\ themselves\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ who\\ makes\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ chariot\\ and\\ horses\\ has\\ not\\ thereby\\ improved\\ his\\ feet\\,\\ but\\ he\\ can\\ now\\ go\\ a\\ thousand\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\li\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\.The\\ gentleman\\ is\\ not\\ different\\ from\\ others\\ by\\ birth\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ he\\ is\\ good\\ at\\ making\\ use\\ of\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(257\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Learning\\ begins\\ with\\ classics\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ studying\\ ritual\\ \\(258\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ gentleman\\ trains\\ himself\\ to\\ love\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ Two\\:\\ Cultivating\\ oneself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ you\\ observe\\ goodness\\ in\\ others\\,\\ then\\ inspect\\ yourself\\,\\ desirous\\ of\\ studying\\ it\\.\\ When\\ you\\ observe\\ badness\\ in\\ others\\,\\ then\\ examine\\ yourself\\,\\ fearful\\ of\\ discovering\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(261\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ you\\ do\\ must\\ accord\\ with\\ ritual\\ \\(262\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Act\\ with\\ moderation\\ \\(263\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ your\\ disposition\\ accords\\ with\\ ritual\\,\\ and\\ your\\ understanding\\ is\\ just\\ like\\ your\\ teacher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ understanding\\,\\ then\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ sage\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(265\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Chapter\\ five\\:\\ Against\\ Physiognomy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;What\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ which\\ humans\\ are\\ human\\?\\ I\\ say\\:\\ It\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ distinctions\\.\\ Of\\ distinctions\\,\\ none\\ are\\ greater\\ than\\ social\\ divisions\\,\\ and\\ of\\ social\\ divisions\\,\\ none\\ are\\ greater\\ than\\ rituals\\,\\ and\\ of\\ rituals\\,\\ none\\ are\\ greater\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ sage\\-kings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(266\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ update\\ rituals\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ reject\\ the\\ later\\ kings\\ and\\ take\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ from\\ furthest\\ antiquity\\ is\\ like\\ rejecting\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ rule\\ rand\\ serving\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ruler\\&hellip\\;\\.If\\ you\\ wish\\ you\\ observe\\ a\\ thousand\\ years\\&rsquo\\;\\ time\\,\\ then\\ reckon\\ upon\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ events\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(266\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ nine\\:\\ The\\ Regulation\\ of\\ a\\ True\\ King\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\yi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ that\\ separate\\ us\\ from\\ animals\\ \\(267\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ must\\ form\\ communities\\,\\ which\\ necessitates\\ social\\ divisions\\;\\ rituals\\ govern\\ social\\ divisions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sage\\ king\\ \\&ldquo\\;observes\\ Heaven\\ above\\,\\ and\\ applies\\ this\\ knowledge\\ on\\ earth\\ below\\.\\ He\\ arranges\\ completely\\ everything\\ between\\ Heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ and\\ spreads\\ beneficence\\ over\\ the\\ ten\\ thousand\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(269\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ twelve\\:\\ The\\ Way\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ Lord\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ rules\\ are\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ order\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gentleman\\ is\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ rules\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(269\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rules\\ are\\ useless\\ without\\ the\\ gentleman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ knowledge\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ apply\\ them\\ in\\ order\\;\\ having\\ gentlemen\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ having\\ rules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ seventeen\\:\\ discourse\\ on\\ Heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ activities\\ of\\ Heaven\\ are\\ constant\\&hellip\\;if\\ you\\ respond\\ to\\ them\\ with\\ order\\,\\ then\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ fortune\\.\\ If\\ you\\ respond\\ to\\ them\\ with\\ chaos\\,\\ then\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ misfortune\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(269\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ state\\ that\\ gentlemen\\ must\\ work\\ with\\,\\ but\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ power\\ outside\\ of\\ creating\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Withrespect\\ to\\ Heaven\\,\\ focus\\ only\\ on\\ those\\ manifest\\ phenomena\\ to\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ align\\ yourself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(271\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Performing\\ the\\ rain\\ sacrifice\\ has\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ raining\\;\\ it\\ rains\\ anyway\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rain\\ sacrifice\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ getting\\ what\\ one\\ seeks\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ give\\ things\\ proper\\ form\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(272\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ Nineteen\\:\\ Discourse\\ on\\ Ritual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ desires\\ and\\ seek\\ satisfaction\\ of\\ desires\\;\\ trying\\ to\\ satisfy\\ themselves\\ creates\\ chaos\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ former\\ kings\\ hated\\ such\\ chaos\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ established\\ rituals\\ and\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ allot\\ things\\ to\\ people\\,\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ to\\ satisfy\\ their\\ seeking\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ begins\\ in\\ that\\ which\\ must\\ be\\ released\\,\\ reaches\\ full\\ development\\ in\\ giving\\ it\\ proper\\ form\\,\\ and\\ finishes\\ in\\ providing\\ it\\ satisfaction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(276\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ritual\\ refines\\ daily\\ practices\\ to\\ fulfill\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ personal\\ obligations\\&mdash\\;example\\ of\\ funeral\\ rites\\ \\(279\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Human\\ nature\\ is\\ the\\ original\\ beginning\\ and\\ the\\ raw\\ material\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wei\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;deliberate\\ effort\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;order\\ it\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ exalted\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ Twenty\\:\\ Discourse\\ on\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ cannot\\ be\\ without\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Former\\ kings\\ established\\ music\\ to\\ move\\ the\\ goodness\\ in\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hearts\\ without\\ being\\ excessive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ twenty\\-one\\:\\ Undoing\\ fixation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ rulers\\ of\\ chaotic\\ states\\&hellip\\;hate\\ what\\ they\\ consider\\ erroneous\\ views\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\&hellip\\;\\.They\\ selfishly\\ favor\\ the\\ approach\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ accumulated\\ effort\\ and\\ only\\ fear\\ to\\ have\\ it\\ disparaged\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(286\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ Mozi\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ etc\\.\\ was\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ too\\ fixated\\ in\\ their\\ philosophies\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ alternate\\ possibilities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Kongzi\\ was\\ benevolent\\,\\ wise\\,\\ and\\ was\\ not\\ fixated\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(287\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ avoid\\ fixation\\ by\\ knowing\\ the\\ Way\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;How\\ do\\ people\\ know\\ the\\ Way\\?\\ I\\ say\\:\\ It\\ is\\ with\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ heart\\ know\\ the\\ Way\\?\\ I\\ say\\:\\ It\\ is\\ through\\ emptiness\\,\\ single\\-mindedness\\,\\ and\\ stillness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(288\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ twenty\\-two\\:\\ On\\ correct\\ naming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kings\\ established\\ names\\ and\\ corresponding\\ objects\\ were\\ thus\\ distinguished\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ then\\ carefully\\ led\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ adhere\\ to\\ these\\ things\\ single\\-mindedly\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(293\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ the\\ names\\ and\\ their\\ corresponding\\ objects\\ are\\ tied\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ confused\\ fashion\\,\\ then\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ noble\\ and\\ base\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ clear\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\ and\\ the\\ unlike\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ differentiated\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(293\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Names\\ have\\ no\\ predetermined\\ appropriateness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(294\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ twenty\\-three\\:\\ Human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\.\\ Their\\ goodness\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ deliberate\\ effort\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(298\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\ because\\ people\\ are\\ fond\\ of\\ profit\\,\\ born\\ with\\ feelings\\ of\\ hate\\ and\\ dislike\\,\\ fondness\\ for\\ beautiful\\ sights\\ and\\ sounds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ if\\ people\\ follow\\ their\\ inborn\\ nature\\ and\\ dispositions\\ \\,they\\ are\\ sure\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ struggle\\ and\\ contention\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ directly\\ contradicts\\ Mengzi\\;\\ he\\ argues\\ human\\ nature\\ cannot\\ be\\ worked\\ at\\,\\ but\\ sages\\ can\\ produce\\ rituals\\ and\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ gentleman\\ is\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ petty\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ gentleman\\ exerts\\ himself\\ to\\ the\\ utmost\\ in\\ ritual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sageliness\\ develops\\ through\\ accumulation\\ of\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ twenty\\-seven\\:\\ The\\ Grand\\ digest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Through\\ ritual\\,\\ the\\ gentleman\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ roots\\ of\\ things\\ and\\ completes\\ the\\ branches\\ of\\ things\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ twenty\\-nine\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Filia\\ son\\ does\\ not\\ always\\ follow\\ orders\\;\\ three\\ specific\\ cases\\ where\\ not\\ following\\ orders\\ is\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ following\\ orders\\ endangers\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ following\\ orders\\ will\\ disgrace\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ following\\ orders\\ would\\ involve\\ doing\\ something\\ beastly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Follow\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ not\\ your\\ lord\\.\\ Follow\\ righteousness\\,\\ not\\ your\\ father\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(307\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Define\\/explain\\ important\\ nouns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Way\\:\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\ based\\ on\\ good\\ government\\,\\ ritual\\,\\ and\\ proper\\ behavior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Those\\ who\\ order\\ the\\ people\\ mark\\ out\\ the\\ Way\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Follow\\ the\\ Way\\ of\\ the\\ kings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heaven\\:\\ Heaven\\ is\\ just\\ natural\\ world\\;\\ Heaven\\ does\\ not\\ involve\\ itself\\ in\\ human\\ affairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heaven\\=Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ constant\\ and\\ acts\\ as\\ it\\ always\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ not\\ reward\\ the\\ good\\ or\\ punish\\ the\\ bad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ useless\\ to\\ speculate\\ about\\ why\\ Nature\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\ or\\ try\\ to\\ control\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ naturally\\ bad\\,\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ nature\\ as\\ a\\ moral\\ compass\\;\\ thus\\ ritual\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ order\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ all\\ people\\ have\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ achieve\\ goodness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sage\\:\\ the\\ Sage\\ is\\ the\\ utmost\\ in\\ perfecting\\ ritual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ work\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ scholar\\,\\ then\\ a\\ gentleman\\,\\ then\\ a\\ sage\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scholar\\ studies\\ the\\ Way\\ of\\ the\\ sages\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ correct\\ conduct\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ gentleman\\ knows\\ the\\ Way\\ but\\ requires\\ thinking\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ each\\ situation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sage\\ has\\ internalized\\ the\\ Way\\ through\\ ritual\\ and\\ so\\ spontaneously\\ acts\\ correctly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sage\\ kings\\ have\\ moral\\ power\\ and\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Punishments\\ are\\ not\\ necessary\\ if\\ the\\ ruler\\ has\\ sufficient\\ moral\\ authority\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\ \\&ndash\\;Book\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Summary\\ of\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\emphasis\\ on\\ strict\\,\\ clearly\\ defined\\ laws\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ people\\ from\\ going\\ astray\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ misconstruing\\ laws\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ ends\\)\\ and\\ to\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ concentrate\\,\\ become\\ more\\ efficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ main\\ goals\\ is\\ to\\ cultivate\\ the\\ wastelands\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ all\\ land\\ available\\:\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decrease\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ merchants\\ while\\ increasing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\emphasis\\ on\\ uniformity\\ \\=\\ legalism\\ rejects\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ learning\\;\\ too\\ much\\ thinking\\ translates\\ into\\ different\\ opinions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sages\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ discern\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ essential\\ to\\ life\\ \\(agriculture\\ and\\ war\\)\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ uniformity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ permanent\\ functions\\ of\\ the\\ state\\:\\ farming\\,\\ trade\\,\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\ parasitic\\ functions\\:\\ care\\ for\\ old\\ age\\,\\ living\\ on\\ others\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ love\\,\\ ambition\\ and\\ virtuous\\ conduct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\ evils\\ of\\ society\\:\\ rites\\,\\ music\\,\\ odes\\,\\ history\\,\\ virtue\\,\\ moral\\ culture\\,\\ filial\\ piety\\,\\ brotherly\\ duty\\,\\ integrity\\ and\\ sophistry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\need\\ to\\ punish\\ even\\ light\\ offences\\ harshly\\ to\\ prevent\\ future\\ disobedience\\:\\ if\\ light\\ offences\\ are\\ treated\\ lightly\\,\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ stop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\governing\\ through\\ wicked\\ people\\ leads\\ to\\ order\\ and\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\disasters\\ of\\ the\\ rulers\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ usually\\ come\\ from\\ not\\ measuring\\ their\\ territory\\ and\\ not\\ managing\\ the\\ grass\\-fields\\ and\\ uncultivated\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ people\\ are\\ stupid\\,\\ by\\ knowledge\\ one\\ may\\ rise\\ to\\ supremacy\\;\\ when\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ wise\\,\\ by\\ force\\ one\\ may\\ rise\\ to\\ supremacy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;if\\ you\\ establish\\ what\\ people\\ delight\\ in\\,\\ then\\ they\\ will\\ suffer\\ from\\ what\\ they\\ dislike\\;\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ establish\\ what\\ the\\ people\\ dislike\\,\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ happy\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ enjoy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\office\\ and\\ rank\\ come\\ only\\ from\\ military\\ merits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Important\\ Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Legalism\\ \\=\\ amoral\\ philosophy\\ that\\ began\\ with\\ Lord\\ Shang\\:\\ purpose\\ of\\ society\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ strong\\,\\ ordered\\ empire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ to\\ help\\ people\\ become\\ better\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Agriculture\\ and\\ war\\ \\=\\ 2\\ most\\ important\\ goals\\ of\\ any\\ society\\,\\ the\\ only\\ activities\\ that\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ encouraged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uniformity\\ \\(in\\ rewards\\/punishments\\,\\ in\\ thought\\)\\ \\=\\ ultimate\\ goal\\ of\\ all\\ governing\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Harsh\\)\\ Punishment\\ \\=\\ method\\ used\\ to\\ induce\\ uniformity\\/order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\ \\&ndash\\;Han\\ Feizi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rulers\\ must\\ follow\\ the\\ way\\ by\\ being\\ still\\ and\\ empty\\ so\\ ministers\\ cannot\\ seek\\ to\\ please\\ them\\ and\\ can\\ only\\ advance\\ themselves\\ through\\ merit\\ and\\ wisdom\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ rulers\\ can\\ determine\\ which\\ ministers\\ are\\ truly\\ effective\\,\\ and\\ by\\ surrounding\\ himself\\ with\\ these\\ ministers\\ becomes\\ an\\ efficient\\ ruler\\.\\ \\ \\;Rulers\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ sure\\ not\\ to\\ concede\\ any\\ of\\ their\\ powers\\ to\\ ministers\\ because\\ this\\ gives\\ the\\ ministers\\ an\\ opportunity\\ for\\ corruption\\ and\\ rebellion\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ particularly\\ true\\ of\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ through\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ that\\ rulers\\ ensure\\ proposals\\ and\\ tasks\\ are\\ the\\ same\\,\\ that\\ wise\\ ministers\\ are\\ motivated\\,\\ and\\ poor\\ ministers\\ are\\ prevented\\ from\\ corruption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\ if\\ a\\ ruler\\ tries\\ to\\ inspect\\ and\\ judge\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ officials\\,\\ he\\ will\\ waste\\ all\\ his\\ time\\ doing\\ so\\ and\\ the\\ officials\\ will\\ spend\\ most\\ of\\ their\\ time\\ preparing\\ for\\ inspections\\ and\\ not\\ performing\\ their\\ duties\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\ problem\\ is\\ establishing\\ firm\\ airtight\\ laws\\ that\\ are\\ upheld\\ throughout\\ the\\ land\\ that\\ officials\\ cannot\\ manipulate\\ or\\ bend\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ his\\ control\\ of\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ the\\ ruler\\ may\\ then\\ reward\\ those\\ who\\ follow\\ and\\ uphold\\ the\\ law\\ and\\ severely\\ punish\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ way\\ the\\ ruler\\ keeps\\ his\\ land\\ in\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ also\\ stresses\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ position\\ and\\ the\\ influence\\ that\\ comes\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ a\\ bad\\ ruler\\ has\\ a\\ high\\ ranking\\ position\\ everything\\ will\\ fall\\ into\\ disorder\\,\\ but\\ when\\ a\\ wise\\ ruler\\ holds\\ this\\ position\\ everything\\ is\\ ordered\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ wise\\ people\\ under\\ the\\ bad\\ ruler\\ the\\ state\\ will\\ be\\ disordered\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ often\\ times\\ position\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ merit\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ sages\\ or\\ truly\\ wise\\ rulers\\ only\\ come\\ about\\ every\\ once\\ in\\ a\\ while\\,\\ so\\ firm\\ sets\\ of\\ laws\\ and\\ regulations\\ must\\ be\\ put\\ into\\ place\\ so\\ that\\ even\\ when\\ mediocre\\ or\\ poor\\ rulers\\ take\\ office\\ they\\ can\\ screw\\ things\\ up\\ as\\ much\\,\\ and\\ sage\\ rulers\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ base\\ to\\ work\\ with\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ also\\ discusses\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ persuasion\\ for\\ ministers\\ and\\ tells\\ them\\ that\\ the\\ trick\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ presenting\\ an\\ argument\\ persuasively\\,\\ it\\ is\\ presenting\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ pleasing\\ to\\ the\\ ruler\\ \\(which\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ tells\\ the\\ rulers\\ not\\ to\\ let\\ their\\ desires\\ be\\ known\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ stresses\\ how\\ secrecy\\ in\\ the\\ ministers\\ projects\\ and\\ motives\\ is\\ imperative\\ and\\ how\\ all\\ arguments\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ in\\ moderation\\ so\\ as\\ not\\ to\\ turn\\ off\\ the\\ ruler\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ short\\ ministers\\ should\\ \\&ldquo\\;highlight\\ those\\ qualities\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ person\\ being\\ persuaded\\ is\\ proud\\,\\ while\\ eliminating\\ those\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ ashamed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rulers\\ should\\ also\\ understand\\ that\\ officials\\ should\\ know\\ their\\ duties\\ and\\ perform\\ them\\ and\\ not\\ perform\\ the\\ duties\\ of\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;Otherwise\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ difficult\\ to\\ maintain\\ order\\ and\\ depend\\ on\\ officials\\ to\\ perform\\ their\\ prescribed\\ duties\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ rulers\\ must\\ ensure\\ that\\ rewards\\ are\\ fitting\\ to\\ good\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ example\\ given\\ was\\ men\\ who\\ took\\ the\\ heads\\ of\\ enemies\\ in\\ battle\\ were\\ promoted\\ in\\ the\\ government\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ good\\ soldiers\\ becoming\\ ranking\\ officials\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ problematic\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ good\\ soldiers\\,\\ but\\ not\\ effective\\ officials\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ does\\ value\\ wisdom\\ and\\ morality\\ he\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ enforce\\ laws\\ than\\ moral\\ cultivation\\ because\\ some\\ people\\ will\\ only\\ respond\\ when\\ forced\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ socially\\ acceptable\\ way\\,\\ and\\ when\\ governing\\ the\\ masses\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ have\\ guidelines\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ can\\ all\\ understand\\ and\\ follow\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ best\\ done\\ through\\ a\\ definite\\ set\\ of\\ laws\\ that\\ are\\ enforced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ believed\\ rulers\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ have\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ teachings\\ and\\ methods\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ because\\ times\\ change\\ and\\ as\\ do\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ while\\ some\\ teachings\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ very\\ effective\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ blindly\\ accepted\\ in\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ only\\ accept\\ one\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Mohism\\/Confucianism\\)\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ often\\ contradictory\\ and\\ because\\ rules\\ and\\ teachings\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ consistent\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ ineffective\\ way\\ to\\ run\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ important\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ them\\ and\\ the\\ state\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ makes\\ them\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;The\\ Biography\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\"\\;\\ from\\ the\\ Shiji\\ \\(Shih\\ Chi\\)\\,\\ by\\ Sima\\ Qian\\\\(Ssu\\-ma\\ Ch\\&\\#39\\;ien\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Records\\ of\\ the\\ Grand\\ Historian\\:\\ Qin\\ Dynasty\\,\\ translated\\ by\\ Burton\\ Watson\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 89\\-99\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ was\\ Gongsun\\ Yang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Served\\ as\\ attendant\\ to\\ prime\\ minister\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ Wei\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prime\\ minister\\ gets\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tells\\ King\\ Hui\\ to\\ either\\ make\\ Gongsun\\ Yang\\ prime\\ minister\\ or\\ kill\\ him\\ because\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ talented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ tells\\ Yang\\ what\\ he\\ said\\ to\\ the\\ king\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ king\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ making\\ him\\ prime\\ minister\\,\\ so\\ he\\ should\\ run\\ away\\ before\\ he\\ is\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ leave\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Current\\ prime\\ minister\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ hears\\ that\\ Duke\\ Xiao\\ of\\ Qin\\ was\\ looking\\ for\\ talented\\ men\\ to\\ help\\ him\\ create\\ an\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ to\\ Qin\\ and\\ gets\\ an\\ interview\\ with\\ Duke\\ through\\ his\\ favorite\\ minister\\ Jing\\ Jian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Talks\\ to\\ Duke\\ about\\ the\\ ways\\ of\\ an\\ emperor\\,\\ Duke\\ is\\ completely\\ bored\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ what\\ he\\ says\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gets\\ another\\ interview\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ a\\ king\\,\\ Duke\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interested\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gets\\ another\\ interview\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ a\\ hegemon\\,\\ Duke\\ likes\\ him\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asks\\ for\\ one\\ more\\ interview\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Duke\\ is\\ so\\ interested\\ this\\ time\\ that\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ notice\\ when\\ Yang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ knees\\ are\\ on\\ his\\ mat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duke\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interested\\ in\\ becoming\\ an\\ emperor\\,\\ it\\ takes\\ too\\ long\\&hellip\\;\\ just\\ wanted\\ to\\ hear\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ state\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ Yang\\ a\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ wants\\ to\\ change\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duke\\ is\\ worried\\ about\\ people\\ criticizing\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ says\\ that\\ everyone\\ else\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ at\\ first\\ and\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worry\\ about\\ what\\ they\\ think\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ stupid\\ are\\ blind\\ even\\ to\\ things\\ already\\ done\\,\\ but\\ the\\ wise\\ can\\ spy\\ what\\ has\\ yet\\ to\\ put\\ out\\ sprouts\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ cannot\\ plan\\ with\\ the\\ people\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ an\\ affair\\,\\ one\\ can\\ only\\ rejoice\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ its\\ completion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ advisor\\ disagrees\\,\\ says\\ sages\\ make\\ the\\ old\\ laws\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ wins\\ argument\\,\\ his\\ position\\ is\\ elevated\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puts\\ people\\ into\\ groups\\ of\\ 5\\-10\\,\\ mutual\\ surveillance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ witness\\ a\\ crime\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ report\\ it\\ you\\ are\\ punished\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rewarded\\ if\\ you\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harsher\\ taxes\\,\\ harsher\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ work\\ as\\ farmers\\ or\\ weavers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Merit\\-based\\ society\\:\\ only\\ people\\ with\\ rank\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ achieved\\ military\\ merit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ make\\ people\\ trust\\ him\\,\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ pole\\ by\\ the\\ south\\ gate\\ of\\ market\\,\\ says\\ anyone\\ who\\ moves\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ north\\ gate\\ will\\ get\\ 10\\ pieces\\ of\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ are\\ suspicious\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ ups\\ it\\ to\\ 50\\ pieces\\ of\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ guy\\ moves\\ it\\,\\ he\\ is\\ paid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ make\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ deception\\ in\\ new\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Laws\\ go\\ into\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ bad\\ laws\\ at\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heir\\ apparent\\ violates\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ says\\ the\\ reason\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ the\\ laws\\ is\\ that\\ their\\ superiors\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ punish\\ the\\ heir\\ apparent\\,\\ so\\ instead\\ he\\ punishes\\ his\\ tutor\\ and\\ his\\ teacher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ people\\ followed\\ the\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ laws\\ were\\ in\\ effect\\ for\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ there\\ was\\ complete\\ order\\ in\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ say\\ how\\ great\\ the\\ laws\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ says\\ people\\ like\\ this\\ just\\ create\\ confusion\\ and\\ deports\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ borders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ says\\ anything\\ about\\ the\\ laws\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yang\\ is\\ promoted\\ again\\,\\ puts\\ more\\ laws\\ into\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Divides\\ Qin\\ into\\ districts\\ with\\ a\\ magistrate\\ for\\ each\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tutor\\ to\\ heir\\ apparent\\ breaks\\ laws\\ again\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nose\\ is\\ cut\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qin\\ becomes\\ rich\\ and\\ powerful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tells\\ Duke\\ they\\ should\\ annex\\ Wei\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wei\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kind\\ of\\ weak\\ right\\ now\\,\\ would\\ be\\ advantageous\\ if\\ they\\ win\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duke\\ says\\ go\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yang\\ leads\\ Qin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\,\\ says\\ to\\ General\\ of\\ Wei\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\:\\ We\\ were\\ friends\\ before\\,\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ meet\\ up\\ and\\ work\\ this\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ meet\\,\\ swear\\ an\\ oath\\ of\\ alliance\\,\\ drink\\ together\\,\\ but\\ Yang\\ concealed\\ troops\\ that\\ surprise\\ attacked\\ the\\ Wei\\ general\\ and\\ took\\ him\\ prisoner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ Yang\\ attacks\\ the\\ Wei\\ army\\ and\\ destroys\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\King\\ Hui\\ of\\ Wei\\ sends\\ envoy\\ offering\\ the\\ land\\ west\\ of\\ the\\ Yellow\\ River\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ peace\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ eventually\\ moves\\ the\\ capital\\ east\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Regrets\\ not\\ following\\ the\\ advice\\ of\\ his\\ prime\\ minister\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yang\\ is\\ enfeoffed\\ with\\ 15\\ towns\\ in\\ Shang\\ and\\ Yu\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gets\\ title\\ Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ prime\\ minister\\ of\\ Qin\\ for\\ 10\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruling\\ family\\ starts\\ to\\ hate\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soon\\ Duke\\ Xiao\\ dies\\,\\ heir\\ apparent\\ succeeds\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\ is\\ accused\\ of\\ plotting\\ revolt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ flees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tries\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ room\\ in\\ a\\ lodge\\,\\ but\\ owner\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recognize\\ him\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ Lord\\ Shang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\ say\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ lodge\\ anyone\\ without\\ proper\\ credentials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ to\\ Wei\\,\\ but\\ everyone\\ there\\ hates\\ him\\ and\\ sends\\ him\\ back\\ to\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Calls\\ out\\ troops\\ of\\ Shang\\ to\\ attack\\ Zheng\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\ defeats\\ him\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ killed\\,\\ eventually\\ whole\\ family\\ is\\ wiped\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grand\\ Historian\\ says\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\ was\\ cruel\\ and\\ unscrupulous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ gave\\ Duke\\ Xiao\\ empty\\ theories\\ to\\ get\\ on\\ his\\ good\\ side\\,\\ not\\ his\\ true\\ intent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actions\\ showed\\ little\\ mercy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Biography\\ of\\ Li\\ Si\\ \\(Li\\ Ssu\\)\\,\\"\\;\\ from\\ the\\ Shiji\\ \\(Shih\\ Chi\\)\\,\\ by\\ Sima\\Qian\\ \\(Ssu\\-ma\\ Ch\\&\\#39\\;ien\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Records\\ of\\ the\\ Grand\\ Historian\\:\\ Qin\\ Dynasty\\,\\ pp\\ 179\\-206\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ was\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ Xunzi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ to\\ Qin\\,\\ serves\\ prime\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Able\\ to\\ expound\\ his\\ ideas\\ to\\ King\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Says\\ that\\ King\\ should\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ weakness\\ of\\ feudal\\ lords\\ to\\ wipe\\ them\\ out\\ entirely\\ and\\ unite\\ everything\\ under\\ one\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ likes\\ his\\ idea\\,\\ promotes\\ him\\ to\\ an\\ aide\\,\\ and\\ sends\\ out\\ strategists\\ to\\ feudal\\ lords\\ to\\ bribe\\ ministers\\ of\\ feudal\\ lords\\ or\\ kill\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sends\\ generals\\ out\\ after\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ becomes\\ guest\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ then\\ ruling\\ family\\ gets\\ suspicious\\ of\\ people\\ coming\\ from\\ other\\ states\\ and\\ looking\\ for\\ positions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ to\\ promote\\ their\\ own\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Li\\ Si\\ is\\ now\\ in\\ danger\\ of\\ being\\ expelled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Writes\\ king\\ a\\ letter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ argues\\ that\\ he\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ people\\ away\\ just\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ foreign\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ past\\ kings\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ done\\ so\\ and\\ they\\ profited\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turn\\ away\\ jewels\\ and\\ goods\\ cuz\\ they\\ are\\ foreign\\,\\ certain\\ instruments\\ are\\ foreign\\ and\\ we\\ incorporate\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\About\\ 20\\ years\\ later\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ king\\ unites\\ China\\ into\\ Qin\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ is\\ chancellor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ fiefdoms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ question\\ not\\ having\\ feudal\\ lords\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ emperor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ replies\\ that\\ that\\ only\\ makes\\ the\\ empire\\ fragmented\\ and\\ confused\\,\\ each\\ ruler\\ had\\ his\\ own\\ theories\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ we\\ should\\ burn\\ all\\ books\\ except\\ those\\ about\\ medicine\\,\\ divination\\,\\ agriculture\\,\\ and\\ forestry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ does\\ so\\,\\ so\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ use\\ the\\ past\\ to\\ criticize\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ has\\ impt\\ role\\ in\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enjoys\\ lots\\ of\\ prosperity\\,\\ sons\\ \\&\\;\\ daughters\\ all\\ marry\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ emperor\\ passes\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ instructions\\ except\\ a\\ letter\\ designating\\ eldest\\ son\\ \\(Prince\\ Fusu\\)\\ as\\ his\\ heir\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ knows\\ except\\ Li\\ Si\\,\\ another\\ of\\ his\\ sons\\ \\(Huhai\\)\\,\\ and\\ chief\\ of\\ the\\ office\\ of\\ palace\\ carriage\\,\\ Zhao\\ Gao\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ the\\ royal\\ seals\\ and\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Zhao\\ Gao\\ convinces\\ the\\ other\\ two\\ to\\ claim\\ that\\ Huhai\\ is\\ the\\ heir\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ set\\ themselves\\ up\\ for\\ gain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ send\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ Fusu\\ supposedly\\ from\\ emperor\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ failure\\ and\\ he\\ should\\ commit\\ suicide\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ advisor\\ should\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Advisor\\ says\\ no\\,\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ plot\\,\\ ask\\ for\\ confirmation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fusu\\ just\\ commits\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advisor\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\,\\ so\\ messenger\\ has\\ him\\ arrested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Huhai\\ becomes\\ second\\ emperor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discontent\\ with\\ his\\ brothers\\ and\\ advisors\\ tho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ZG\\ says\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ laws\\ stricter\\,\\ punish\\ whole\\ criminal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ too\\,\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ people\\ not\\ loyal\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ him\\ alone\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\12\\ princes\\ \\&\\;\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ ministers\\ executed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Laws\\ \\&\\;\\ punishments\\ got\\ more\\ \\&\\;\\ more\\ severe\\,\\ taxes\\ harsher\\,\\ everyone\\ was\\ nervous\\,\\ lots\\ wanted\\ to\\ revolt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rebellion\\ breaks\\ out\\,\\ led\\ by\\ Chen\\ She\\ and\\ Wu\\ Guang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wu\\ Guang\\ invades\\ Li\\ Si\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ land\\,\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Li\\ Si\\ reprimanded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ writes\\ letter\\ to\\ Emperor\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ into\\ his\\ good\\ graces\\,\\ says\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ even\\ stricter\\,\\ Emperor\\ does\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Zhao\\ Gao\\ put\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ death\\ for\\ personal\\ reasons\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ Second\\ Emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reign\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ worried\\ that\\ other\\ officials\\ will\\ come\\ to\\ court\\ and\\ complain\\ about\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Advises\\ Emperor\\ to\\ kind\\ of\\ hide\\ away\\ from\\ everyone\\,\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ expose\\ any\\ weaknesses\\ by\\ making\\ public\\ mistakes\\ in\\ judgement\\,\\ only\\ waited\\ on\\ by\\ top\\ officials\\ like\\ him\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Emperor\\ does\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ decisions\\ are\\ made\\ by\\ Zhao\\ Gao\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Then\\ manipulates\\ Li\\ Si\\ to\\ make\\ Emperor\\ annoyed\\ with\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Convinces\\ Emperor\\ that\\ Li\\ Si\\ might\\ be\\ looking\\ to\\ improve\\ his\\ own\\ situation\\,\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ Wu\\ Guang\\ thing\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ wants\\ to\\ have\\ him\\ investigated\\,\\ but\\ needs\\ evidence\\ first\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ so\\ sends\\ envoys\\ to\\ look\\ into\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Li\\ Si\\ hears\\ about\\ it\\,\\ writes\\ a\\ letter\\ criticizing\\ Zhao\\ Gao\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\,\\ thinks\\ ZG\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ guy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ gets\\ arrested\\,\\ accused\\ of\\ plotting\\ rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tortured\\ into\\ false\\ confession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ commit\\ suicide\\ cuz\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ innocent\\ and\\ had\\ good\\ reputation\\ earlier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Letter\\ to\\ emperor\\ saying\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ good\\ guy\\ that\\ did\\ a\\ ton\\ for\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Zhao\\ Gao\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ emperor\\ see\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ is\\ killed\\ by\\ rebels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ZG\\ falsifies\\ report\\ so\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ he\\ commited\\ treason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ \\&\\;\\ entire\\ family\\ is\\ executed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ZG\\ becomes\\ chancellor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ powerful\\ than\\ emperor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Starts\\ to\\ manipulate\\ him\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forces\\ him\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ZG\\ takes\\ the\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ seals\\ for\\ himself\\ \\&\\;\\ tries\\ to\\ take\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ one\\ will\\ obey\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throne\\ room\\ shakes\\ 3\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Realizes\\ Heaven\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ support\\ his\\ actions\\ \\&\\;\\ calls\\ a\\ grandson\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Emperor\\ to\\ take\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grandson\\ is\\ afraid\\ and\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ state\\ affairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Says\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plots\\ to\\ have\\ ZG\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ ZG\\ comes\\ to\\ see\\ him\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ killed\\,\\ then\\ whole\\ family\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ forces\\ of\\ Pei\\ attack\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ officials\\ desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ surrenders\\,\\ is\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\End\\ of\\ Qin\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grand\\ Historian\\ remarks\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ was\\ highly\\ honored\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Understood\\ principles\\ of\\ classics\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ strive\\ for\\ enlightened\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ clung\\ to\\ his\\ title\\ by\\ flattery\\ \\&\\;\\ compliance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listened\\ to\\ ZG\\,\\ cast\\ aside\\ rightful\\ heir\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tried\\ to\\ admonish\\ only\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ too\\ late\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ loyal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Nouns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ court\\ historian\\ during\\ reign\\ of\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\,\\ writes\\ history\\ to\\ protest\\ an\\ unfair\\ punishment\\ \\(castration\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ originally\\ Gongsun\\ Yang\\,\\ he\\ became\\ the\\ prime\\ minister\\ of\\ Qin\\ under\\ Duke\\ Xiao\\,\\ and\\ changed\\ the\\ laws\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ strict\\ punishments\\ and\\ rewards\\ \\(legalism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Li\\ Si\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ chancellor\\ to\\ the\\ First\\ and\\ Second\\ Emperors\\ of\\ the\\ Qin\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qin\\ Empire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ established\\ in\\ 221\\ BCE\\ when\\ Qin\\ conquered\\ every\\ state\\ in\\ China\\ and\\ unified\\ the\\ country\\ into\\ one\\ empire\\.\\ \\ \\;Achieved\\ by\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ legalist\\ Qin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ system\\ of\\ statecraft\\,\\ requiring\\ a\\ strong\\ central\\ government\\ with\\ clearly\\ defined\\ laws\\ and\\ regulations\\ and\\ a\\ strict\\ system\\ of\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Week\\ 12\\ Reading\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.225\\-234\\,\\ 283\\-318\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Qin\\ and\\ Han\\ represent\\ original\\ \\&ldquo\\;imperial\\ age\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Qin\\ created\\ unified\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-downfall\\ of\\ Qin\\ taught\\ some\\ lessons\\:\\ terror\\ and\\ strength\\ alone\\ cannot\\ rule\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-major\\ opposition\\ to\\ Qin\\ came\\ from\\ common\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Chen\\ She\\ lead\\ first\\ major\\ revolt\\ and\\ Liu\\ Ji\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ Han\\ dynasty\\&hellip\\;abolished\\ offensive\\ laws\\ and\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-long\\,\\ slow\\ struggle\\ to\\ recover\\ under\\ Han\\;\\ revival\\ of\\ enfeoffment\\ system\\;\\ rebuilt\\ the\\ collapsed\\ central\\ government\\;\\ continued\\ efforts\\ at\\ standardization\\ \\(even\\ of\\ thought\\)\\ but\\ used\\ peaceful\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ faults\\ of\\ Qin\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\failures\\ of\\ First\\ and\\ Second\\ Emperors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ Emperor\\:\\ attempted\\ to\\ keep\\ people\\ in\\ ignorance\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;lacked\\ humaneness\\ and\\ rightness\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;preserving\\ power\\ differs\\ fundamentally\\ from\\ seizing\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\ Emperor\\:\\ had\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ empire\\ for\\ the\\ better\\ but\\ failed\\;\\ during\\ his\\ rule\\,\\ Cheng\\ She\\ and\\ Wu\\ Gang\\ lead\\ a\\ revolt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Liu\\ Bang\\:\\ humble\\ birth\\ \\(like\\ Chen\\ She\\)\\;\\ fights\\ the\\ Qin\\ until\\ it\\ falls\\ and\\ becomes\\ first\\ emperor\\ of\\ Han\\ \\(after\\ first\\ declining\\ the\\ offer\\ three\\ times\\)\\;\\ established\\ three\\-article\\ code\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ Qin\\ legal\\ code\\,\\ which\\ is\\ remembered\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ simplicity\\ \\(thought\\ in\\ reality\\ a\\ more\\ elaborate\\ code\\ was\\ established\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-concept\\ that\\ Heaven\\,\\ Earth\\ and\\ humankind\\ can\\ form\\ a\\ triad\\ is\\ basic\\ in\\ Han\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-human\\ beings\\ must\\ observe\\ and\\ comprehend\\ the\\ order\\ presided\\ over\\ by\\ Heaven\\ \\(in\\ religious\\ and\\ physical\\ sense\\)\\ and\\ must\\ attend\\ to\\ the\\ concerns\\ of\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-economic\\ welfare\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ popular\\ morality\\ \\(Mencius\\)\\&hellip\\;\\.ruler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ responsibility\\ is\\ to\\ provide\\ material\\ wealth\\ and\\ moral\\ instruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-government\\ should\\:\\ 1\\)\\ provide\\ peace\\ and\\ prosperity\\,\\ 2\\)\\ provide\\ moral\\ training\\/education\\&hellip\\;final\\ stage\\ is\\ sage\\ \\(ideally\\ should\\ become\\ emperor\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lu\\ Jia\\ and\\ Jia\\ Yi\\ helped\\ define\\ Han\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lu\\ Jia\\:\\ when\\ our\\ deeds\\ and\\ virtues\\ accord\\ with\\ Heaven\\ and\\ Earth\\,\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ emerges\\;\\ all\\ will\\ be\\ brought\\ to\\ completion\\ when\\ Heaven\\ and\\ Earth\\ interact\\ and\\ the\\ vital\\ energies\\ \\(qi\\)\\ resonate\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\ studied\\ human\\ sentiments\\ and\\ ordered\\ interpersonal\\ relationships\\;\\ corrected\\ decay\\ and\\ disorder\\;\\ curbed\\ extravagance\\,\\ rectified\\ customs\\,\\ and\\ extended\\ true\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ generations\\ became\\ self\\-indulgent\\ and\\ wicked\\;\\ forsook\\ what\\ is\\ basic\\ and\\ pursued\\ what\\ is\\ secondary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ a\\ sage\\ becomes\\ the\\ ruler\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ all\\ worthy\\ men\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ attain\\ meritorious\\ deeds\\;\\ sages\\ obey\\ heaven\\ and\\ eradicate\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ yang\\ energy\\ is\\ born\\ of\\ humaneness\\ and\\ the\\ yin\\ rhythm\\ is\\ set\\ by\\ rightness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humaneness\\ is\\ the\\ standard\\ for\\ the\\ Way\\ and\\ rightness\\ is\\ the\\ learning\\ for\\ sages\\&hellip\\;those\\ who\\ learn\\ humaneness\\ and\\ rightness\\ are\\ enlightened\\;\\ rightness\\ establishes\\ merit\\;\\ humaneness\\ brings\\ firmness\\ and\\ right\\ exertion\\ that\\ ensures\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Observe\\ recent\\ rulers\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ success\\ and\\ failure\\&hellip\\;no\\ need\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Three\\ Rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jia\\ Yi\\:\\ found\\ faults\\ of\\ Qin\\ dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Main\\ concern\\ was\\ lack\\ of\\ humaneness\\ of\\ emperors\\ \\(esp\\.\\ moral\\ degeneracy\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ Emperor\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ governemt\\;\\ prestige\\/disgrace\\ of\\ ruler\\ depends\\ upon\\ them\\&hellip\\;people\\ are\\ the\\ mandate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Punishments\\ and\\ rewards\\ must\\ be\\ meted\\ out\\ with\\ caution\\;\\ if\\ doubt\\ exists\\,\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ forgive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ honor\\ of\\ the\\ ruler\\ comes\\ from\\ endowing\\ his\\ people\\ with\\ fortune\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dong\\ Zhongshu\\:\\ sought\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ rationale\\ and\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ rulership\\ appropriate\\ to\\ new\\ circumstance\\ of\\ unified\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contribution\\ to\\ Han\\ ideal\\ of\\ rulership\\ involved\\ the\\ rejection\\ and\\ absorption\\ of\\ ideas\\,\\ principles\\,\\ and\\ techniques\\ from\\ other\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hoped\\ to\\ reform\\ imperial\\ sovereignty\\ by\\ re\\-creating\\ both\\ history\\ and\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sought\\ to\\ discredit\\ the\\ Qin\\ dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interpretation\\ of\\ Confucian\\ texts\\ delineated\\ his\\ program\\ for\\ renewed\\ kingship\\&hellip\\;focus\\ on\\ the\\ Spring\\ and\\ Autumn\\ Annals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pushed\\ for\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ text\\-based\\ ideology\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ Confucian\\ canon\\ \\(end\\ state\\ support\\ for\\ teaching\\ of\\ non\\-Confucian\\ texts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ essay\\:\\ correlates\\ conduct\\ of\\ ruler\\ with\\ Heaven\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ minister\\ with\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\ essay\\:\\ correlates\\ techniques\\ to\\ regulate\\ and\\ nourish\\ the\\ body\\ with\\ those\\ meant\\ to\\ order\\ and\\ vitalize\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruler\\ must\\ be\\:\\ attentive\\ toward\\ the\\ fundamental\\,\\ careful\\ of\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ respectful\\ of\\ the\\ small\\,\\ and\\ cautious\\ of\\ the\\ subtle\\;\\ nourishes\\ his\\ numen\\;\\ quiet\\ and\\ nonactive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruler\\=foundation\\ of\\ state\\&hellip\\;need\\ reverence\\ for\\ the\\ foundation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ transform\\ the\\ people\\;\\ if\\ foundation\\ is\\ not\\ revered\\,\\ ruler\\ lacks\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ unite\\ the\\ people\\&rarr\\;people\\ will\\ not\\ submit\\ \\(foundation\\=Heaven\\,\\ Earth\\ and\\ humankind\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruler\\ should\\ rely\\ on\\ virtue\\ to\\ administer\\ the\\ state\\&hellip\\;leads\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;spontaneous\\ reward\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ who\\ acts\\ as\\ king\\ is\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ agent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ human\\ beings\\ receive\\ their\\ live\\ from\\ Heaven\\,\\ accordingly\\ they\\ appropriate\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ humaneness\\ and\\ are\\ thereby\\ humane\\&hellip\\;principles\\ of\\ humankind\\ correspond\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\ of\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ nature\\ possesses\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ become\\ good\\,\\ but\\ it\\ could\\ not\\ do\\ so\\ without\\ the\\ transforming\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ ruler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ instruction\\&hellip\\;expanded\\ both\\ the\\ authority\\ and\\ responsibility\\ of\\ the\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ names\\&hellip\\;reveal\\ the\\ truth\\ about\\ everything\\&hellip\\;stressed\\ rectification\\ of\\ names\\ in\\ Spring\\ and\\ Autumn\\ Annals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ nature\\ cannot\\ be\\ good\\ unless\\ it\\ has\\ undergone\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Term\\ for\\ human\\=sleep\\&hellip\\;basically\\ supports\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ basics\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ but\\ we\\ need\\ education\\ to\\ wake\\ us\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;those\\ who\\ investigate\\ the\\ true\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ basic\\ substance\\ and\\ claim\\ that\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nature\\ is\\ already\\ good\\,\\ negate\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intent\\ and\\ disregard\\ the\\ duty\\ of\\ the\\ king\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Omnipotent\\ power\\ spoke\\ through\\ omens\\ to\\ awaken\\ rulers\\ who\\ strayed\\ from\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\,\\ so\\ they\\ would\\ realign\\ themselves\\ with\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ norms\\&hellip\\;straying\\ from\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ produces\\ \\&ldquo\\;deviant\\ energy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portents\\ are\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ warnings\\;\\ anomalies\\ are\\ Heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ threats\\&hellip\\;source\\ lies\\ in\\ faults\\ that\\ exist\\ within\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ humaneness\\,\\ one\\ brings\\ peace\\ and\\ security\\ to\\ others\\,\\ and\\ with\\ rightness\\ one\\ rectifies\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ enduring\\ contribution\\ to\\ Confucian\\ tradition\\:\\ model\\ of\\ sovereignty\\ that\\ rejected\\ ruler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ absolute\\ and\\ arbitrary\\ exercise\\ of\\ power\\,\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ primary\\ reliance\\ on\\ impersonal\\ laws\\,\\ while\\ emphasizing\\ his\\ indebtedness\\ to\\ Heaven\\,\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ moral\\ persuasion\\,\\ and\\ his\\ reliance\\ on\\ ritual\\ and\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suggestion\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ government\\ college\\ for\\ the\\ training\\ of\\ officials\\ in\\ which\\ Confucian\\ ideas\\ would\\ be\\ taught\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Emperor\\ Wu\\ was\\ far\\ from\\ a\\ model\\ Confucian\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Harsh\\ detailed\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\ taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extensive\\ military\\ expeditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ monopolies\\ embodied\\ specifically\\ Legalist\\ measures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\136B\\.C\\.\\:\\ set\\ up\\ imperial\\ commission\\ to\\ recover\\ classical\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Records\\ of\\ the\\ Grand\\ Historian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Po\\ Yi\\ and\\ Shu\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ story\\:\\ \\ \\;two\\ brothers\\ are\\ in\\ line\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ for\\ their\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ father\\ elects\\ that\\ the\\ younger\\ one\\,\\ Shu\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\,\\ should\\ take\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ father\\ died\\,\\ Shu\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\ said\\ his\\ brother\\ should\\ really\\ take\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ older\\ brother\\,\\ Po\\ Yi\\,\\ fled\\ the\\ country\\ rather\\ than\\ disobey\\ his\\ dead\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wishes\\.\\ \\ \\;Shu\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\ fled\\ or\\ else\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ he\\ felt\\ was\\ improper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ their\\ travels\\ they\\ run\\ into\\ King\\ Wu\\,\\ whose\\ father\\,\\ King\\ Wen\\,\\ has\\ recently\\ died\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ Wu\\ is\\ off\\ to\\ fight\\ a\\ battle\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ two\\ object\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ filial\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ go\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ mountains\\ rather\\ than\\ live\\ under\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ King\\ Wu\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ die\\ of\\ starvation\\ and\\ write\\ this\\ song\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ climb\\ this\\ western\\ hill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;And\\ pick\\ its\\ ferns\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Replacing\\ violence\\ with\\ violence\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;He\\ will\\ not\\ see\\ his\\ own\\ fault\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shen\\ Nung\\,\\ Yu\\,\\ and\\ Hsia\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Great\\ men\\ gone\\ so\\ long\\ ago\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whom\\ shall\\ we\\ turn\\ to\\ now\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ah\\&mdash\\;let\\ us\\ be\\ off\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ our\\ fate\\ has\\ run\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ is\\ twofold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ These\\ guys\\ were\\ not\\ just\\ sages\\ who\\ boldly\\ died\\ in\\ the\\ mountains\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ angry\\ and\\ bitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ scholars\\ and\\ great\\ men\\ are\\ often\\ completely\\ forgotten\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Men\\ of\\ humble\\ origin\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ narrow\\ lanes\\ strive\\ to\\ make\\ perfect\\ their\\ actions\\ and\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ name\\ for\\ themselves\\,\\ but\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ somehow\\ attach\\ themselves\\ to\\ a\\ great\\ man\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;man\\ of\\ the\\ blue\\ clouds\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ how\\ can\\ they\\ hope\\ that\\ they\\ fame\\ will\\ be\\ handed\\ to\\ posterity\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ 2\\.5\\ pages\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fairly\\ content\\-less\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tells\\ that\\ Qin\\ burned\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Odes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Documents\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ empirical\\ histories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Odes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ etc\\.\\ came\\ back\\ because\\ many\\ people\\ had\\ copies\\ of\\ them\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ histories\\ were\\ largely\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ went\\ through\\ the\\ histories\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\ suit\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Letter\\ to\\ Ren\\ An\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ is\\ writing\\ to\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ prison\\ who\\ is\\ condemned\\ to\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ offers\\ his\\ deepest\\ apologies\\ that\\ he\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ written\\ sooner\\,\\ but\\ he\\ felt\\ that\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ disfigured\\ \\(he\\ was\\ castrated\\ by\\ the\\ emperor\\)\\,\\ he\\ cannot\\ accomplish\\ what\\ was\\ requested\\ of\\ him\\,\\ to\\ recommend\\ worthy\\ men\\ for\\ higher\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ argues\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ worthless\\ because\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ accomplished\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ normal\\ things\\ associated\\ with\\ achievement\\ \\(military\\ battles\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ praises\\ his\\ former\\ co\\-worker\\,\\ Li\\ Ling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ committed\\ one\\ mistake\\,\\ and\\ all\\ in\\ the\\ court\\ wrote\\ him\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ commanded\\ 5\\,000\\ troops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ lost\\ a\\ great\\,\\ prolonged\\ battle\\ with\\ the\\ barbarians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ really\\ happened\\ in\\ history\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ describes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ barbarians\\ allowed\\ the\\ aggressive\\ army\\ to\\ over\\-pursue\\,\\ and\\ once\\ they\\ were\\ too\\ stretched\\ out\\,\\ the\\ barbarians\\ came\\ down\\ with\\ horse\\ arches\\ and\\ picked\\ off\\ soldiers\\ along\\ the\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ happened\\ on\\ multiple\\ campaigns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ stuck\\ up\\ for\\ Li\\ Ling\\ in\\ court\\,\\ but\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;misunderstood\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ castration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ high\\ hopes\\ for\\ a\\ great\\ history\\ before\\ this\\ calamity\\ came\\ upon\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ ends\\ by\\ discussing\\ how\\ all\\ men\\ break\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ trials\\ like\\ this\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ cannot\\ recommend\\ good\\ men\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ would\\ listen\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 38, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Reading_Notes_with_Nouns.doc", "desc": "Reading Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 07:03:23+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Molecules of Life - Midterm 2 Review", "tags": ["harvard", "molecules", "life"], "text": "", "id": 100, "html": "\\\\\\Sci\\_B47\\_\\-\\_Midterm\\_2\\_Notes\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{max\\-width\\:540pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:54pt\\ 36pt\\ 36pt\\ 36pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c14\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c11\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\Case\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cell\\ division\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zebrafish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moth\\ sex\\ pheromones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mice\\ pheromones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Male\\ mice\\ without\\ the\\ gene\\ that\\ codes\\ for\\ pheromone\\ recognition\\ in\\ the\\ vomeronasal\\ organ\\ \\(VNO\\)\\ lost\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ distinguish\\ men\\ from\\ women\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ their\\ instinct\\ to\\ fight\\ other\\ male\\ mice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mice\\ \\&\\;\\ Cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cells\\ derived\\ from\\ human\\ tumors\\ were\\ implanted\\ in\\ mice\\ with\\ faulty\\ immune\\ systems\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ as\\ rare\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ reconstitute\\ the\\ entire\\ hematopoietic\\ system\\,\\ so\\ could\\ a\\ rare\\ population\\ of\\ tumor\\ cells\\ reconstitute\\ breast\\,\\ bone\\,\\ ovarian\\,\\ colon\\,\\ brain\\,\\ leukemia\\,\\ and\\ many\\ other\\ cancers\\ in\\ the\\ mice\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ tumor\\ cells\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ produce\\ tumors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ Glioblastoma\\ in\\ Mice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ solid\\ tumor\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ low\\ survival\\ rate\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ placed\\ in\\ mice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brains\\,\\ reduced\\ with\\ radiation\\,\\ which\\ revealed\\ that\\ radiation\\/chemotherapy\\ treatments\\ reduce\\ tumor\\ size\\ but\\ actually\\ increase\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ to\\ other\\ cancer\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ tumor\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ sets\\ the\\ stage\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ fearsome\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ cancer\\ upon\\ relapse\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ pheromones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ woman\\ realized\\ two\\ pheromones\\ determined\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\ length\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ was\\ given\\ off\\ during\\ ovulation\\,\\ which\\ lengthened\\ the\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ was\\ given\\ off\\ during\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;follicular\\ phase\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ shortened\\ the\\ cycle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dexamethasone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ cancer\\ drug\\ that\\ cures\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exenatide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\T2\\ drug\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ saliva\\ of\\ the\\ venomous\\ Gila\\ monster\\.\\ \\ \\;Currently\\ in\\ testing\\,\\ produced\\ by\\ 2007\\ Whole\\ Genome\\ Association\\ studies\\,\\ it\\ enhances\\ beta\\ cell\\ function\\ instead\\ of\\ increasing\\ peripheral\\ tissues\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(muscle\\,\\ liver\\,\\ and\\ fat\\ tissues\\)\\ sensitivity\\ to\\ insulin\\,\\ as\\ earlier\\ drugs\\ had\\ attempted\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Furrowstatin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scalpel\\-esque\\ drug\\ that\\ only\\ interferes\\ with\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ motor\\ protein\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ final\\ stage\\ of\\ cell\\ division\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ binds\\ to\\ a\\ protein\\ \\(non\\-muscle\\ myosin\\ II\\)\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ needed\\ for\\ cleavage\\ furrow\\ contraction\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ blocks\\ this\\ protein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;pull\\ the\\ purse\\ string\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ cleavage\\ furrow\\.\\ \\ \\;Furrowstatin\\ freezes\\ the\\ action\\ while\\ preserving\\ other\\ molecules\\ and\\ functions\\ for\\ detailed\\ study\\.\\ \\ \\;Demonstrates\\ small\\ molecules\\&rsquo\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ halt\\ cells\\&rsquo\\;\\ functions\\ at\\ very\\ specific\\ moments\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Could\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ cell\\ division\\ in\\ cancer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gleevec\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ new\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ that\\ targets\\ an\\ oncogene\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ inhibits\\ the\\ protein\\ ABL\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ oncogene\\ BCR\\/ABL\\,\\ a\\ 9\\;22\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\ \\(which\\ Janet\\ Rowley\\ discovered\\)\\ that\\ causes\\ CML\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ cures\\ 100\\%\\ of\\ early\\ CML\\ cases\\ and\\ has\\ minimal\\ side\\ effects\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ effective\\ at\\ treating\\ GIST\\,\\ a\\ solid\\ gastrointestinal\\ tumor\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sarcoma\\&rdquo\\;\\ family\\ of\\ cancers\\ of\\ connective\\ tissues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Iressa\\/gefitinib\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ found\\ through\\ genomic\\ wide\\ association\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ targets\\ the\\ Epidermic\\ Growth\\ Factor\\ Receptor\\ oncogene\\,\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ present\\ in\\ Japanese\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Metformin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ most\\ effective\\ \\(which\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ saying\\ much\\)\\ T2D\\ drug\\,\\ it\\ tells\\ the\\ liver\\ to\\ stop\\ producing\\ glucose\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ liver\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ much\\ glucose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mianserin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ antidepressant\\ that\\ extended\\ the\\ life\\ span\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ normal\\ diets\\ by\\ 30\\%\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ probably\\ a\\ serotonin\\ receptor\\ antagonist\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ how\\ serotonin\\ induced\\ the\\ worms\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;feed\\ and\\ breed\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ storing\\ energy\\,\\ hunkering\\ down\\,\\ and\\ prolonging\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pioglitazone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\a\\ type\\-2\\ diabetes\\ drug\\,\\ discovered\\ randomly\\,\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ nuclear\\ hormone\\ agonist\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ increases\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ the\\ PPARy\\,\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ increases\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ underperforming\\ neuron\\ hormone\\ receptors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rapamycin\\ \\(sirolimus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecule\\ first\\ found\\ in\\ Easter\\ Island\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\,\\ it\\ can\\ induce\\ cells\\ to\\ become\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ cancer\\ drug\\ dexamethasone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Binds\\ with\\ mTOR\\,\\ protein\\ \\#2\\ in\\ the\\ Type\\-2\\ diabetes\\-related\\ glucose\\-signaling\\ \\&ldquo\\;bucket\\ brigade\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Patients\\ who\\ are\\ exposed\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ to\\ rapamycin\\ for\\ organ\\ transplants\\ or\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\ eventually\\ develop\\ symptoms\\ of\\ type\\-2\\ diabetes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Targets\\ leukemic\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ promotes\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resveratrol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ drug\\ that\\ activates\\ the\\ SIRT1\\ gene\\,\\ thus\\ inducing\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ Caloric\\ Restriciton\\ without\\ actually\\ having\\ to\\ eat\\ less\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ drug\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ potent\\,\\ but\\ new\\ drugs\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ that\\ are\\.\\ \\ \\;Mianserin\\ has\\ very\\ proven\\ effective\\ in\\ C\\.\\ elegans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sulfonylureas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ second\\ family\\ of\\ T2D\\ drugs\\,\\ discovered\\ randomly\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ protein\\ SUR1\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ humans\\ have\\ the\\ risk\\ \\&ldquo\\;E\\&rdquo\\;\\ allele\\ loacated\\ at\\ the\\ SUR1\\ site\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ theory\\,\\ it\\ should\\ work\\,\\ but\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ proven\\ very\\ effective\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taxol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ most\\ commonly\\ prescribed\\ cancer\\ drug\\ today\\,\\ useful\\ for\\ solid\\ tumors\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ molecule\\ naturally\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ Yew\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ scientists\\ have\\ created\\ enough\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ use\\ in\\ drugs\\ by\\ using\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ to\\ retrosynthesize\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genes\\ and\\ Proteins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ApoE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ human\\ population\\ has\\ 3\\ of\\ the\\ possible\\ 4\\ different\\ alleles\\ on\\ its\\ ApoE\\ gene\\.\\ \\ \\;Being\\ homozygous\\ for\\ the\\ ApoE4\\ allele\\ gives\\ you\\ a\\ 60\\-70\\%\\ risk\\ of\\ acquiring\\ Alzheimer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Disease\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ gave\\ us\\ hints\\ about\\ the\\ genetic\\ cause\\ of\\ AD\\,\\ and\\ sparked\\ a\\ search\\ for\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ inhibit\\ the\\ process\\ that\\ the\\ ApoE4\\ allele\\ supports\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ process\\ that\\ increases\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ acquiring\\ AD\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BCR\\/ABL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ fusion\\ oncogene\\ produced\\ by\\ 9\\;22\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\ in\\ CML\\.\\ \\ \\;Composed\\ of\\ two\\ normal\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ \\;Gleevec\\ inhibits\\ ABL\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ inhibits\\ BCR\\/ABL\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ cures\\ 100\\%\\ of\\ CML\\ cases\\ when\\ the\\ disease\\ is\\ diagnosed\\ in\\ its\\ earlier\\ stages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\CCR5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ mutation\\ in\\ the\\ gene\\ encoding\\ for\\ this\\ protein\\ causes\\ it\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ produced\\.\\ \\ \\;HIV\\ uses\\ CCR5\\ to\\ attach\\ to\\ and\\ then\\ enter\\ immune\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ in\\ HIV\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conquering\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DR3\\ \\&\\;\\ DR4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MHC\\ genes\\ which\\,\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ wrong\\ flavor\\,\\ makes\\ you\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ develop\\ T1\\,\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ virus\\ becomes\\ convinced\\ that\\ your\\ beta\\ cells\\ are\\ a\\ virus\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ already\\ extinguished\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\EGFR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ epidermal\\ growth\\ factor\\ receptor\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ proto\\-oncogene\\ that\\ causes\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ lung\\ cancers\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ commonly\\ found\\ in\\ non\\-smoking\\ Japanese\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\EPO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FLT3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ proto\\-oncogene\\ gene\\ unusually\\ active\\ in\\ ALL\\-\\ \\(suggesting\\ ALL\\-\\ is\\ addicted\\ to\\ its\\ oncogene\\ form\\)\\ and\\ unusually\\ inactive\\ in\\ ALL\\+\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ produces\\ kinase\\ protein\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lactase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PPARy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ protein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ underperformance\\ induces\\ type\\ 2\\ Diabetes\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ common\\ genetic\\ variant\\ \\(85\\%\\ of\\ us\\,\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ A\\ allele\\ that\\ protects\\ against\\ diabetes\\)\\ causes\\ this\\ protein\\ to\\ underpform\\.\\ \\ \\;Glitazone\\ drugs\\ bind\\ to\\ this\\ protein\\ receptor\\ and\\ increase\\ its\\ performance\\,\\ reversing\\ the\\ T2D\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SIRT1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gene\\ in\\ humans\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ manipulated\\ by\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ inhibit\\ aging\\ and\\ its\\ related\\ diseases\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knocking\\ out\\ the\\ equivalent\\ gene\\ in\\ yeast\\ abolished\\ the\\ Caloric\\ Restriction\\ effect\\ of\\ slowing\\ aging\\.\\ \\ \\;Yeast\\ without\\ the\\ SIRT1\\ gene\\ that\\ endured\\ CR\\ still\\ died\\ as\\ quickly\\ as\\ gluttonous\\ yeast\\ would\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ small\\ molecule\\ resveratrol\\ activates\\ this\\ gene\\ in\\ mice\\,\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ inducing\\ CR\\ regardless\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ eat\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ molecules\\ have\\ recently\\ been\\ found\\ that\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ potent\\ than\\ resveratrol\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\TEL\\/AML1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ most\\ common\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\,\\ it\\ occurs\\ when\\ chromosomes\\ 12\\ and\\ 21\\ fuse\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ often\\ causes\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\,\\ and\\ current\\ therapies\\ cure\\ it\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ have\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ correlations\\ between\\ genes\\ and\\ diseases\\ rapidly\\ increased\\ since\\ 2000\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mapping\\ the\\ entire\\ human\\ genome\\ \\(Human\\ Genome\\ Project\\)\\,\\ then\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ genes\\ travel\\ in\\ chunks\\ like\\ haplotypes\\ \\(HapMap\\ Project\\)\\,\\ which\\ reduced\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ polymorphisms\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ from\\ 10\\ million\\ to\\ 10\\ thousand\\,\\ then\\ discovering\\ technology\\ that\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ pinpoint\\ genes\\ in\\ individuals\\ \\(which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ learn\\ about\\ next\\ lecture\\)\\ made\\ correlating\\ genes\\ to\\ diseases\\ much\\ easier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ gene\\ mutations\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ 1\\:\\ Gene\\ mutations\\ remove\\ encoded\\ proteins\\,\\ whereas\\ small\\ molecules\\ can\\ either\\ slightly\\ cub\\ a\\ protein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activity\\ or\\ curb\\ it\\ entirely\\,\\ as\\ the\\ mutation\\ does\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ 2\\:\\ genes\\ encode\\ proteins\\ that\\ have\\ many\\ functions\\.\\ A\\ mutation\\ that\\ inactivates\\ a\\ gene\\ removes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ functions\\.\\ A\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ though\\,\\ might\\ selectively\\ only\\ eliminate\\ a\\ single\\ function\\ of\\ a\\ gene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ 3\\:\\ Modulating\\ body\\ activity\\ through\\ gene\\ mutations\\ is\\ SLOW\\.\\ It\\ takes\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ to\\ intentionally\\ and\\ successfully\\ mutate\\ certain\\ genes\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ certain\\ functions\\.\\ By\\ contrast\\,\\ modulating\\ body\\ processes\\ through\\ small\\ molecules\\ is\\ instantaneous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ 4\\:\\ Gene\\ mutations\\ are\\ irreversible\\ and\\ heritable\\.\\ Small\\ molecule\\ effects\\ are\\ reversible\\ and\\ heritable\\ \\(for\\ the\\ time\\ being\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wait\\,\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ even\\ bother\\ with\\ mutations\\?\\ Small\\ molecules\\ seem\\ like\\ they\\ can\\ do\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ enacting\\ certain\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ much\\ more\\ effectively\\.\\ Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ 5\\:\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ much\\ easier\\ to\\ know\\ exactly\\ what\\ effect\\ a\\ gene\\ mutation\\ is\\ having\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ is\\ affecting\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ That\\ makes\\ mutations\\ much\\ easier\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ and\\ learn\\ from\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ using\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecules\\ versus\\ those\\ synthesized\\ in\\ the\\ lab\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Molecules\\ synthesized\\ in\\ the\\ lab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ similarities\\ and\\ differences\\ between\\ pheromones\\ and\\ odors\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similarities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ have\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\ as\\ their\\ binding\\ partners\\ \\(but\\ the\\ GPCR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belong\\ to\\ two\\ very\\ different\\ families\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Odor\\ molecules\\ can\\ bind\\ to\\ many\\ different\\ receptors\\,\\ whereas\\ pheromones\\ only\\ bind\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pheromones\\ and\\ odorant\\ molecules\\ are\\ detected\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pheromones\\ are\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ vomeronasal\\ organ\\ \\(VNO\\)\\,\\ whereas\\ odors\\ are\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ olfactory\\ sensors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ are\\ drugs\\ beginning\\ to\\ be\\ as\\ effective\\ and\\ untoxic\\ to\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ treating\\ diseases\\ as\\ we\\ always\\ wanted\\ them\\ to\\ be\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Approaches\\ like\\ drawing\\ out\\ family\\ trees\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ specific\\ genes\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;candidate\\ gene\\ hypothesis\\&rdquo\\;\\ relied\\ on\\ bias\\,\\ previous\\ knowledge\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\ad\\ hoc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ luck\\ to\\ make\\ discoveries\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ methods\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ crack\\ complex\\ diseases\\ like\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ Alzheimer\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ and\\ T1D\\ and\\ T2D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Past\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ treated\\ all\\ cancers\\ as\\ the\\ same\\:\\ \\ \\;tumors\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ dividing\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ organized\\ by\\ their\\ location\\.\\ \\ \\;Chemotherapy\\ involved\\ dumping\\ poison\\ into\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ creating\\ a\\ race\\ between\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ cancer\\ to\\ see\\ who\\ would\\ survive\\ longest\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ poisons\\ affected\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cells\\ by\\ poking\\ holes\\ in\\ cell\\ membranes\\ or\\ damaging\\ their\\ DNA\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ approaches\\ like\\ Whole\\ Genome\\ Association\\ studies\\,\\ gene\\-chip\\ technology\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Haplotype\\ Map\\ Project\\ use\\ systematic\\,\\ unbiased\\ approaches\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ previous\\ knowledge\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ the\\ body\\,\\ diseases\\,\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ you\\ can\\ map\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genome\\ and\\ know\\ which\\ drugs\\ they\\ will\\ respond\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Today\\,\\ researchers\\ can\\ share\\ massive\\ sets\\ of\\ genotype\\ samples\\,\\ which\\ lets\\ them\\ see\\ if\\ genes\\ are\\ even\\ having\\ the\\ smallest\\ effects\\ in\\ contributing\\ to\\ a\\ complex\\ disease\\&rsquo\\;s\\ occurrence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cancer\\ today\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ wildly\\ individual\\,\\ dependent\\ on\\ different\\ oncogenes\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ organized\\ not\\ by\\ their\\ location\\,\\ but\\ by\\ their\\ origin\\,\\ which\\ is\\ now\\ discoverable\\ thanks\\ to\\ mRNA\\ analysis\\ with\\ gene\\ chip\\ microarrays\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ newest\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ are\\ very\\ specific\\ in\\ target\\ and\\ untoxic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ will\\ work\\ upon\\ the\\ knowledge\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ normal\\ adult\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ are\\ relatively\\ similar\\,\\ they\\ have\\ highly\\ idiosyncratic\\ dependencies\\ on\\ different\\ cellular\\ pathways\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ drugs\\ will\\ target\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pathways\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ not\\ the\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ cancers\\ will\\ be\\ categorized\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ pathways\\ upon\\ which\\ they\\ depend\\.\\ This\\ style\\ of\\ cancer\\ treatment\\ will\\ require\\ knowledge\\ of\\ cancer\\ genomes\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ drugs\\ that\\ target\\ the\\ proteins\\ on\\ which\\ cancers\\ are\\ dependent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ have\\ conceptions\\ of\\ cancer\\ changed\\ over\\ time\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ first\\,\\ call\\ cancers\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ same\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ tumor\\ whose\\ cells\\ ceaselessly\\ divided\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\,\\ cancers\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ infinitely\\ complex\\,\\ caused\\ by\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ genes\\ and\\ mutations\\ and\\ each\\ one\\ needing\\ a\\ different\\ remedy\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ we\\ see\\ them\\ as\\ dependent\\ on\\ roughly\\ 20\\ different\\ molecular\\ pathways\\,\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ be\\ modified\\ with\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ used\\ to\\ see\\ tumor\\ cells\\ are\\ exceptionally\\ hardy\\,\\ durable\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ we\\ realize\\ they\\ are\\ poised\\ to\\ die\\,\\ and\\ we\\ simply\\ need\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ inhibit\\ the\\ protein\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ addicted\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ melt\\ them\\ away\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ used\\ to\\ treat\\ cancer\\ with\\ chemotherapy\\ that\\ poisoned\\ both\\ cancer\\ and\\ body\\ cells\\ by\\ poking\\ holes\\ in\\ their\\ membranes\\ or\\ damaging\\ their\\ DNA\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ we\\ hope\\ to\\ treat\\ it\\ with\\ specific\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ inhibit\\ a\\ particular\\ protein\\ without\\ toxifying\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ used\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ drugs\\ that\\ killed\\ tumor\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ now\\ search\\ in\\ addition\\ for\\ drugs\\ that\\ eliminate\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;tumor\\ progenitor\\ cells\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ seeds\\ of\\ tumors\\,\\ which\\ cause\\ relapses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ characteristics\\ differentiate\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ from\\ normal\\ cells\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ types\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ both\\ differentiate\\ unceasingly\\ \\(normal\\ cells\\ stop\\ after\\ \\~30\\ divisions\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ self\\-renew\\,\\ and\\ they\\ can\\ also\\ undergo\\ asymmetric\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ which\\ initiates\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ successive\\ differentiations\\ into\\ each\\ o\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\ in\\ an\\ organ\\/body\\/tumor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ molecular\\ and\\ cellular\\ origins\\ of\\ cancer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Molecular\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cells\\ are\\ addicted\\ to\\ oncogenes\\.\\ \\ \\;Small\\ molecule\\ drugs\\ that\\ target\\ the\\ deranged\\ proteins\\ to\\ which\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ addicted\\ can\\ cause\\ these\\ tumors\\ to\\ fade\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;Success\\ has\\ been\\ seen\\ in\\ this\\ new\\ approach\\ with\\ Gleevec\\ \\(BCR\\/ABL\\ inhibitor\\)\\ and\\ CML\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ with\\ Iressa\\/gefitinib\\ \\(targets\\ the\\ the\\ EGF\\ receptor\\)\\ and\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cellular\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tumor\\ progenitor\\ cells\\ in\\ tumors\\ are\\ rare\\ cells\\ that\\ function\\ like\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ \\&ldquo\\;seeds\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ differentiate\\ unceasingly\\ and\\ undergo\\ asymmetrical\\ differentiation\\,\\ producing\\ the\\ other\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ tumor\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ these\\ cells\\ can\\ seed\\ a\\ tumor\\.\\ \\ \\;Stem\\ cells\\ and\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ dependent\\ on\\ similar\\ pathways\\ and\\ signaling\\ systems\\ that\\ work\\ like\\ a\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ in\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ rapamycin\\ on\\ hematapoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ leukemic\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ a\\ study\\ on\\ neurotransmitter\\ \\(serotonin\\ and\\ dopamine\\)\\ antagonists\\ and\\ neural\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ that\\ the\\ circuitry\\ has\\ an\\ opposite\\ effect\\ on\\ each\\ type\\ of\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Asian\\ Glow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genetic\\ inability\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ protein\\ that\\ breaks\\ down\\ ethanol\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Balancing\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ different\\ effect\\ of\\ being\\ homozygous\\ for\\ an\\ allele\\ \\(giving\\ you\\ sickle\\ cell\\)\\ and\\ heterozygous\\ for\\ that\\ allele\\ \\(making\\ you\\ resistant\\ to\\ malaria\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beta\\ Cells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ 4\\ hormone\\-producing\\ cell\\ types\\ located\\ in\\ islets\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\,\\ they\\ sense\\ glucose\\ levels\\ after\\ meals\\ and\\ release\\ insulin\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\,\\ where\\ it\\ can\\ reach\\ fat\\,\\ liver\\,\\ and\\ muscle\\ cells\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Worm\\ with\\ human\\-like\\ genome\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ illustrates\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ allocating\\ resources\\ between\\ reproduction\\ and\\ repair\\,\\ and\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ how\\ this\\ allocation\\ is\\ regulated\\ by\\ serotonin\\ \\(activates\\ feed\\ and\\ breed\\)\\ and\\ octopamine\\ \\(inhibits\\ f\\&\\;b\\,\\ thus\\ inducing\\ hunker\\ down\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Studies\\ of\\ it\\ promote\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ aging\\ is\\ a\\ regulated\\ process\\,\\ not\\ the\\ inevitable\\ consequence\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ disease\\ of\\ ceaseless\\ cell\\ proliferation\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ occurs\\ after\\ the\\ DNA\\ in\\ a\\ proto\\-oncogene\\ mutates\\,\\ perhaps\\ after\\ being\\ injured\\ from\\ radiation\\ from\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ and\\ produces\\ a\\ deranged\\ \\(either\\ inactive\\ or\\ over\\-active\\)\\ protein\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ protein\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ normally\\ occur\\ in\\ the\\ body\\,\\ but\\ a\\ dying\\ cell\\ might\\ latch\\ onto\\ it\\ and\\ prolong\\ its\\ life\\ using\\ this\\ protein\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ dying\\ cell\\ begins\\ to\\ divide\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ it\\ metastasizes\\,\\ or\\ breaks\\ off\\ from\\ its\\ location\\,\\ and\\ travels\\ through\\ the\\ body\\ before\\ lodging\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ organ\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\,\\ it\\ kills\\ a\\ person\\ through\\ organ\\ failure\\ by\\ degrading\\ the\\ organ\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ that\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ function\\ anymore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mRNA\\ reading\\ can\\ help\\ us\\ find\\ where\\ a\\ cancer\\ in\\ one\\ organ\\ might\\ have\\ originated\\ from\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ look\\ at\\ which\\ genes\\ are\\ turned\\ on\\ or\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ cancer\\,\\ discover\\ where\\ it\\ initially\\ came\\ from\\,\\ and\\ then\\ prescribe\\ a\\ drug\\ more\\ tailored\\ to\\ this\\ specific\\ kind\\ of\\ cell\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mutations\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ cancer\\ occur\\ in\\ both\\ tumor\\ suppressors\\ \\(inactivating\\)\\ and\\ oncogenes\\ \\(activating\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cancer\\ Genome\\ Atlas\\ Project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Project\\ to\\ learn\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ genes\\ that\\ harbor\\ mutations\\ in\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ requires\\ an\\ ego\\-less\\ approach\\ to\\ science\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ scientifist\\ community\\ shares\\ data\\ and\\ helps\\ each\\ other\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ totality\\ of\\ the\\ collaboration\\ far\\ outweighs\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ parts\\ of\\ each\\ scientist\\.\\ The\\ Cancer\\ Genome\\ Atlas\\ Project\\ is\\ data\\-sharing\\,\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ controversial\\ because\\ it\\ confuses\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ science\\ gets\\ funded\\.\\ Who\\ deserves\\ the\\ credit\\?\\ Who\\ deserves\\ the\\ money\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Candidate\\ Gene\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ approach\\ to\\ understanding\\ diseases\\ that\\ is\\ biased\\ by\\ the\\ very\\ hypothesis\\ it\\ relies\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ looks\\ for\\ genes\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ hypothesized\\ cause\\ of\\ a\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ recent\\ developments\\ enabled\\ breakthroughs\\ in\\ human\\ genetics\\ past\\ this\\ approach\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Determining\\ the\\ reference\\ human\\ genome\\ sequence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Determining\\ all\\ common\\ polymorphisms\\ in\\ the\\ genomes\\ of\\ humans\\ \\(recall\\ the\\ Haplotype\\ Map\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ technology\\,\\ including\\ gene\\ chips\\ and\\ mathematical\\ algorithms\\ for\\ analyzing\\ complex\\ data\\ sets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 2007\\,\\ Geneticists\\ use\\ these\\ 3\\ advances\\ in\\ a\\ process\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;whole\\ genome\\ association\\ studies\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ identify\\ susceptibility\\ genes\\ and\\ better\\ understand\\ obesity\\,\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ IBD\\,\\ and\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chromosomal\\ Translocation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ cause\\ of\\ at\\ least\\ \\½\\;\\ of\\ all\\ leukemias\\,\\ and\\ other\\ cancers\\ as\\ well\\,\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ by\\ Janet\\ Rowley\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ occurs\\ when\\ a\\ cell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chromosomes\\ become\\ mixed\\ and\\ matched\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Connectivity\\ Map\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ global\\ database\\ of\\ gene\\-expression\\ profiles\\ of\\ human\\ cells\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ cultured\\ in\\ vitro\\ and\\ systematically\\ exposed\\ to\\ small\\ bioactive\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ wil\\ enable\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ connections\\ between\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ diseases\\,\\ and\\ the\\ biological\\ pathways\\ that\\ join\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accessible\\ through\\ the\\ internet\\,\\ it\\ includes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;signatures\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ 164\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ including\\ drugs\\ approved\\ by\\ the\\ FDA\\ and\\ cells\\ from\\ diseases\\,\\ like\\ Alzheimer\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degenerative\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diseases\\ where\\ a\\ particular\\ type\\ of\\ cell\\ is\\ missing\\:\\ \\ \\;Parkinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ Alzheimer\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ certain\\ cancers\\,\\ and\\ T1D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ powerful\\ reaction\\ used\\ in\\ both\\ Nature\\ and\\ the\\ lab\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ play\\ with\\ the\\ different\\ molecules\\ and\\ atoms\\ in\\ the\\ reaction\\ with\\ predictable\\ results\\.\\ \\ \\;DOS\\,\\ Diversity\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\,\\ continually\\ recombines\\ products\\ of\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ and\\ then\\ runs\\ those\\ products\\ back\\ through\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\,\\ such\\ that\\ you\\ continually\\ compound\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ molecules\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ available\\ for\\ testing\\ afterwards\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ enables\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;needle\\ in\\ a\\ haystack\\&rdquo\\;\\ method\\ of\\ finding\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DNA\\ Variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diversity\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\ \\(DOS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Method\\ of\\ finding\\ molecules\\ designed\\ to\\ make\\ large\\ collections\\ of\\ compounds\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ useful\\,\\ then\\ to\\ sort\\ through\\ them\\ using\\ small\\ molecule\\ screening\\ to\\ identify\\ ones\\ which\\ are\\ actually\\ useful\\.\\ \\ \\;Compared\\ to\\ TOS\\,\\ it\\ requires\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ reactions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Small\\ molecule\\ screens\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ ESC\\ research\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ hope\\ to\\ identify\\ molecules\\ that\\ might\\ direct\\ the\\ differentiation\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ a\\ controller\\ manner\\ to\\ various\\ cell\\ types\\,\\ including\\ beta\\ cells\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ the\\ processes\\ of\\ finding\\ them\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inter\\ Cellular\\ Masses\\ from\\ blastocysts\\ that\\ develop\\ from\\ zygotes\\ disregarded\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ vitoro\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fertilization\\ clinics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Somatic\\ cell\\ nuclear\\ transfer\\ \\(SCNT\\)\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ method\\ through\\ which\\ Dolly\\ was\\ produced\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ entails\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Obtain\\ discarded\\ eggs\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ vitro\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fertilization\\ clinics\\,\\ or\\ unfertilized\\ donor\\ eggs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remove\\ nucleus\\ from\\ egg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Add\\ nucleus\\ of\\ a\\ tissue\\ cell\\ \\(skin\\,\\ liver\\,\\ breast\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ giving\\ the\\ cell\\ a\\ full\\ genome\\ and\\ convincing\\ it\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ fertilized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Culture\\ the\\ blastocyst\\ that\\ develops\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yamanaka\\ Approach\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Obtain\\ an\\ adult\\ cell\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ skin\\ cell\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Through\\ viruses\\ engineered\\ to\\ be\\ harmless\\,\\ add\\ four\\ protein\\ transcription\\ factors\\ that\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ cytoplasm\\ of\\ an\\ embryo\\ to\\ the\\ skin\\ cell\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ factors\\ will\\ induce\\ it\\ to\\ become\\ an\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epidermal\\ Growth\\ Factor\\ Receptor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ sits\\ in\\ the\\ membrane\\ of\\ cells\\ and\\ sticks\\ out\\,\\ waiting\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ epidermal\\ growth\\ factor\\,\\ which\\ tells\\ its\\ cell\\ to\\ divide\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ EGF\\ kinase\\ becomes\\ mutated\\ in\\ cancer\\ cells\\ it\\ causes\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ divide\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ EGF\\ in\\ the\\ bloodstream\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ process\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ cause\\ of\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ drug\\ Iressa\\/gefitinib\\ inhibits\\ the\\ mutated\\ EGFR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\ Theory\\ of\\ Aging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Begins\\ with\\ the\\ observation\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\,\\ few\\,\\ if\\ any\\,\\ organisms\\ die\\ of\\ old\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ three\\ complementary\\ notions\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ evolution\\ provides\\ for\\ aging\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Selection\\ shadow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ area\\ of\\ a\\ survival\\ curve\\ near\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ humans\\&rsquo\\;\\ lives\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ suggests\\ that\\ over\\ time\\,\\ evolutionary\\ selection\\ could\\ \\ \\;only\\ operate\\ on\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ not\\ enough\\ long\\-lived\\ individuals\\ to\\ contribute\\ significantly\\ to\\ the\\ selection\\ pool\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Antagonist\\ Pleiotropy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genes\\ with\\ bad\\ consequences\\ later\\ in\\ life\\ might\\ actually\\ get\\ selected\\ if\\ they\\ have\\ improve\\ your\\ odds\\ of\\ mating\\ earlier\\ in\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disposable\\ soma\\ \\(reproduction\\ vs\\.\\ repair\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speaks\\ to\\ the\\ tradeoff\\ between\\ passing\\ on\\ genes\\ and\\ keeping\\ the\\ organism\\ in\\ a\\ good\\ state\\ of\\ repair\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ organisms\\ have\\ limited\\ metabolic\\ resources\\ that\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ further\\ reproductive\\ success\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\repair\\ age\\-related\\ damage\\,\\ but\\ not\\ both\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ recognizes\\ that\\ environmental\\ circumstances\\ could\\ favor\\ either\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;feed\\ and\\ breed\\&rdquo\\;\\ strategy\\ or\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hunker\\ down\\ and\\ survive\\&rdquo\\;\\ strategy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Founder\\ Mutations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\mutations\\ in\\ individuals\\ that\\,\\ due\\ to\\ circumstance\\,\\ become\\ present\\ in\\ an\\ entire\\ subsequent\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ malaria\\-resistant\\ mutation\\ passed\\ his\\ gene\\ on\\ because\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ become\\ sick\\ from\\ this\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ this\\ mutation\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ being\\ homozygous\\ for\\ the\\ mutation\\,\\ which\\ gives\\ you\\ sickle\\-cell\\ anemia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genomic\\ Medicine\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ next\\ revolution\\ in\\ the\\ sciences\\,\\ following\\ the\\ industrial\\,\\ molecular\\ and\\ biological\\,\\ and\\ informational\\ revolutions\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ involves\\ using\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ tinker\\ with\\ living\\ systems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tries\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\generic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;solutions\\,\\ almost\\ like\\ a\\ general\\ formula\\,\\ to\\ solving\\ problems\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ad\\ hoc\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;solutions\\,\\ which\\ entail\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ specific\\ knowledge\\ about\\ a\\ certain\\ set\\ of\\ molecules\\ and\\ processes\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ diseased\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ began\\ around\\ 1990\\ with\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\ project\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ haplotype\\ map\\ project\\ started\\ in\\ 1995\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ 2000\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ started\\ to\\ really\\ see\\ the\\ biological\\ basis\\ of\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ roughly\\ 2005\\,\\ we\\ started\\ to\\ rethink\\ drug\\ discovery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Drugs\\ \\(not\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gila\\ Monster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ lizard\\ whose\\ saliva\\ contains\\ exenatide\\,\\ which\\ increases\\ beta\\ cells\\&rsquo\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ secrete\\ insulin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haplotype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chunks\\ of\\ DNA\\ that\\ travel\\ together\\ during\\ recombination\\.\\ \\ \\;Younger\\ polymorphisms\\ in\\ human\\ history\\ travel\\ in\\ larger\\ haplotypes\\.\\ \\ \\;Haplotype\\ size\\ helps\\ us\\ correlate\\ genes\\ and\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HapMap\\ Project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\started\\ in\\ 2002\\,it\\ \\ \\;mapped\\ out\\ humans\\&rsquo\\;\\ 10\\ million\\ common\\ SNPs\\ and\\ then\\ showed\\ the\\ haplotype\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ 10\\,000\\-100\\,000\\ SNPs\\ that\\ are\\ genetically\\ different\\ between\\ humans\\.\\ It\\ required\\ \\$100\\ million\\,\\ 270\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ 3\\ years\\ to\\ complete\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ diabetes\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ it\\ allows\\ scientists\\ to\\ take\\ 10\\,000\\ diabetics\\ and\\ 10\\,000\\ unaffected\\ diabetics\\ and\\ scan\\ in\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unbiased\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\way\\ every\\ possible\\ gene\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\ to\\ find\\ regions\\ that\\ correlate\\ with\\ diabetes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homovanilyl\\ alcohol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ compound\\ in\\ queen\\ bees\\&rsquo\\;\\ Queen\\ Mandibular\\ Pheromone\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ looks\\ just\\ like\\ dopamine\\,\\ a\\ major\\ neurotransmitter\\ in\\ our\\ brain\\ and\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Homovanilyl\\ alcohol\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ receptors\\ as\\ dopamine\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ prevents\\ aversive\\ learning\\,\\ which\\ dopamine\\ enables\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ Genome\\ Project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Provides\\ us\\ with\\ the\\ entire\\ DNA\\ script\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revealed\\ the\\ boundedness\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\,\\ allowing\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ a\\ new\\ approach\\ to\\ medicine\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ determined\\ mission\\ to\\ discover\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ modulator\\ for\\ each\\ individual\\ function\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ RNA\\ and\\ protein\\ molecules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ small\\ molecules\\ could\\ be\\ precursers\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ pharmacopoeia\\ in\\ which\\ stem\\ cells\\ are\\ instructed\\ to\\ become\\ new\\ nerve\\ or\\ heart\\ tissue\\,\\ or\\ cancer\\ cells\\ are\\ told\\ to\\ revert\\ to\\ their\\ healthy\\,\\ precursor\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insulin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hormone\\ produced\\ by\\ beta\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ tells\\ fat\\ tissue\\ not\\ to\\ produce\\ fatty\\ acids\\,\\ liver\\ tissue\\ not\\ to\\ produce\\ glucose\\,\\ and\\ muscle\\ tissues\\ to\\ accept\\ glucose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MHC\\ genes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;chromosome\\ genes\\ that\\ are\\ looked\\ at\\ when\\ determining\\ if\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\/organs\\ will\\ be\\ accepted\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ rejected\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;foreign\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ our\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ and\\ mice\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ sense\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ MHC\\ genetic\\ similarity\\ through\\ pheromone\\ sensing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Having\\ the\\ wrong\\ SNP\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ genes\\ increases\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ a\\ viral\\ infection\\ will\\ trick\\ your\\ immune\\ system\\ into\\ attacking\\ your\\ beta\\ cells\\ and\\ giving\\ you\\ T1D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Observing\\ a\\ Living\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Methods\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DNA\\ variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\RNA\\ variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scanning\\ \\&\\;\\ screening\\ small\\ molecules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parkinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caused\\ by\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ neurons\\ that\\ produce\\ dopamine\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ mice\\,\\ healthy\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ have\\ been\\ transplanted\\ into\\ mice\\ afflicted\\ with\\ Parkinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ cured\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perturbing\\ a\\ Life\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genetics\\:\\ \\ \\;look\\ at\\ mutations\\ that\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ faulty\\ \\(inactive\\ or\\ overactive\\)\\ proteins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ CCR5\\ polymorphism\\ revealed\\ to\\ us\\ both\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harmless\\ to\\ not\\ have\\ CCR5\\ protein\\,\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ protein\\ HIV\\ uses\\ to\\ enter\\ and\\ infect\\ T\\-limpho\\ site\\ cells\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chemical\\ genetics\\:\\ \\ \\;bypass\\ the\\ gene\\ by\\ starting\\ with\\ a\\ normal\\ protein\\,\\ then\\ add\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ either\\ inactivates\\ or\\ super\\-activates\\ the\\ protein\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polymorphism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ clearly\\ different\\ alleles\\ exist\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ spot\\ in\\ a\\ species\\&rsquo\\;\\ genome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retrosynthetic\\ Planning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ two\\ forms\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\taking\\ a\\ molecule\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ actually\\ break\\ it\\ down\\ into\\ the\\ starter\\ molecules\\ that\\ first\\ came\\ together\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ with\\ THC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Searching\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;starter\\&rdquo\\;\\ molecules\\ that\\ seem\\ like\\ they\\ could\\ end\\ up\\ as\\ the\\ final\\ molecule\\,\\ and\\ then\\ running\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reactions\\ on\\ them\\,\\ hoping\\ that\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ molecules\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ synthesize\\ will\\ be\\ your\\ final\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ works\\ with\\ THC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\RNA\\ Variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Measuring\\ cells\\&rsquo\\;\\ nature\\ by\\ determining\\ which\\ DNA\\ strands\\ their\\ mRNA\\ attaches\\ to\\ most\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ lets\\ us\\ pinpoint\\ specific\\ genes\\ and\\ target\\ them\\ with\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\RNA\\ expression\\,\\ read\\ through\\ microarray\\ technology\\,\\ is\\ now\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ universal\\ language\\ for\\ living\\ systems\\ and\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ we\\ create\\ a\\ large\\ enough\\ database\\ of\\ how\\ cells\\ turn\\ genes\\ on\\ or\\ off\\ with\\ mRNA\\,\\ and\\ include\\ information\\ about\\ which\\ small\\ molecules\\ inhibit\\ or\\ activate\\ these\\ genes\\,\\ then\\ finding\\ drugs\\ for\\ diseases\\ could\\ become\\ as\\ easy\\ as\\ looking\\ up\\ where\\ the\\ gene\\ meets\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ on\\ a\\ chart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serotonin\\ Receptor\\ Antagonism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ approach\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ systematic\\ study\\ using\\ high\\ throughput\\ screening\\ of\\ a\\ library\\ of\\ structurally\\ diverse\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ could\\ yield\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ inhibit\\ aging\\ and\\ its\\ diseases\\,\\ such\\ as\\ mianserin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Small\\ Molecules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Able\\ to\\ rapidly\\,\\ and\\ reversibly\\,\\ modulate\\ dynamic\\ life\\ processes\\ that\\ take\\ place\\ over\\ a\\ short\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ \\(furrowstatin\\ stopping\\ the\\ final\\ stages\\ of\\ cell\\ division\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ provide\\ to\\ life\\ processes\\ a\\ high\\-speed\\ camera\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ able\\ to\\ freeze\\-frame\\ each\\ step\\ of\\ a\\ mysterious\\ life\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stem\\ cells\\ have\\ two\\ defining\\ features\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ can\\ undergo\\ unlimited\\ rounds\\ of\\ symmetric\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ self\\-renewal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ can\\ undergo\\ asymmetric\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ initiating\\ a\\ cascade\\ of\\ differentiation\\ that\\ eventually\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ tissues\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ this\\ process\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ tissues\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Target\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\ \\(TOS\\)\\ \\(natural\\-product\\ synthesis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Key\\ strategic\\ consideration\\ in\\ TOS\\/natural\\-product\\ synthesis\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;retrosynthetic\\ analysis\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ means\\ working\\ backwards\\ from\\ a\\ complicated\\ target\\ to\\ simple\\ starting\\ materials\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TOS\\ is\\ time\\ consuming\\ and\\ laborious\\,\\ requiring\\ up\\ to\\ 100\\ chemical\\ reactions\\ and\\ several\\ years\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ specific\\ complex\\ compound\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Teratomas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Randomly\\ differentiating\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ differentiate\\ into\\ hair\\-producing\\ cells\\,\\ teeth\\ cells\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thrifty\\ Gene\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Famines\\ produced\\ humans\\ who\\ stored\\ energy\\ more\\ efficiently\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ genes\\ were\\ not\\ designed\\ to\\ for\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ era\\ of\\ ceaseless\\ amounts\\ of\\ processed\\ foods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Type\\ 1\\ Diabetes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caused\\ by\\ an\\ autoimmune\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ beta\\ cells\\ of\\ the\\ pancreas\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ a\\ failure\\ to\\ release\\ insulin\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ high\\ glucose\\ levels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ know\\ T1\\ and\\ T2\\ are\\ complex\\ diseases\\ because\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ having\\ them\\ is\\ not\\ 100\\%\\ if\\ your\\ identical\\ twin\\ has\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regenerative\\ medicine\\ could\\ restore\\ beta\\ cells\\ to\\ T1\\ patients\\,\\ but\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ available\\ islets\\ and\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ lifetime\\ of\\ immunosupression\\ theory\\ remain\\ problems\\ with\\ this\\ technique\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ approaches\\ to\\ circumvent\\ these\\ problems\\ involve\\ discovering\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ a\\ protein\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ differentiation\\ progression\\ from\\ an\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cell\\ to\\ a\\ beta\\ cell\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ approach\\ would\\ involve\\ converting\\ alpha\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ beta\\ cells\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ pancreatic\\ islets\\,\\ into\\ beta\\ cells\\ using\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ approaches\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ really\\ conceived\\ of\\ 2\\ years\\ ago\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Having\\ certain\\ alleles\\ on\\ your\\ MHC\\ genes\\ makes\\ you\\ more\\ prone\\ to\\ getting\\ T1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Type\\ 2\\ Diabetes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Associated\\ with\\ a\\ resistance\\ to\\ insulin\\ in\\ muscle\\,\\ fat\\,\\ and\\ liver\\ cells\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Several\\ drugs\\ currently\\ used\\ to\\ treat\\ T2D\\ played\\ a\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ identifying\\ genes\\ that\\ underlie\\ T2D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientists\\ initially\\ suspected\\ the\\ disease\\&rsquo\\;s\\ origins\\ lay\\ in\\ faulty\\ circuitry\\ that\\ failed\\ to\\ correctly\\ interpret\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ insulin\\.\\ \\ \\;Recent\\ approaches\\ for\\ T2D\\ therapies\\ have\\ focused\\ on\\ insulin\\ sensing\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 2007\\,\\ Whole\\ Genome\\ Association\\ studies\\ have\\ found\\ genes\\ relating\\ not\\ to\\ peripheral\\ tissues\\&rsquo\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ sense\\ glucose\\,\\ but\\ to\\ beta\\ cell\\ function\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 2000\\,\\ 2\\ genes\\ were\\ found\\ relating\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;2006\\,\\ another\\ one\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 2007\\,\\ 7\\ genes\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ associated\\ with\\ T2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ we\\ might\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ take\\ patients\\&rsquo\\;\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ have\\ them\\ undergo\\ controlled\\ small\\ molecule\\ differentiation\\ into\\ damaged\\ pancreatic\\ cells\\,\\ then\\ see\\ how\\ effective\\ different\\ drugs\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ this\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ diseased\\ tissue\\&rsquo\\;s\\ functioning\\.\\ \\ \\;Right\\ now\\,\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ cut\\ open\\ a\\ patient\\,\\ cut\\ out\\ pancreatic\\ tissue\\,\\ and\\ test\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ both\\ unethical\\ and\\ dangerous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ might\\ you\\ solve\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ randomly\\ differentiating\\ into\\ masses\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Small\\ molecule\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ differentiation\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 43, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Sci_B47_-_Midterm_2_Notes.doc", "desc": "Midterm 2 Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Ethical and Political Theory - Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "ethical", "political", "theory"], "text": null, "id": 85, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\_Lecture\\_Notes\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c41\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:220\\.7pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c33\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:239\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c34\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:222\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c42\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c47\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:147pt\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c35\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c48\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:111pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c43\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:75pt\\}\\.c45\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c40\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c38\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c44\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c39\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c27\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c46\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c29\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c19\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Ethical\\ and\\ Political\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ September\\ 24th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Biography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Born\\ below\\ the\\ aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Well\\ educated\\,\\ taught\\ how\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;good\\&rsquo\\;\\ human\\ being\\ during\\ later\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Great\\ philosopher\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ one\\ of\\ key\\ early\\ thinkers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\/philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\,\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Rituals\\;\\ focus\\ on\\ everyday\\,\\ mundane\\ gestures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Rituals\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ conventions\\ into\\ which\\ you\\ are\\ born\\;\\ that\\ you\\ simply\\ pick\\ up\\;\\ decides\\ whether\\ we\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;truly\\ great\\ human\\ beings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Purpose\\:\\ to\\ gain\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ perform\\ rituals\\,\\ what\\ each\\ ritual\\ is\\ meant\\ for\\,\\ and\\ which\\ rituals\\ are\\ most\\ important\\/relevant\\ to\\ our\\ lives\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;understanding\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ spontaneously\\ in\\ different\\ situations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sense\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ tendency\\ to\\ make\\ wrong\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Innate\\ wrong\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;act\\ well\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ to\\ decide\\ to\\ act\\ well\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;think\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ making\\ rational\\ decisions\\,\\ but\\ calculations\\ \\=\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incorrect\\ to\\ weigh\\ pros\\ and\\ cons\\ of\\ each\\ circumstance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ universal\\ guideline\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;need\\ to\\ develop\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sense\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;standards\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ sense\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ situation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ affect\\ others\\ for\\ the\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ September\\ 26th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\,\\ alone\\,\\ placed\\ rituals\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ during\\ the\\ Axial\\ Age\\ throughout\\ Eurasia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ children\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ decide\\ which\\ rituals\\ to\\ perform\\;\\ as\\ we\\ grow\\ older\\,\\ we\\ gain\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ question\\/decide\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ lifetime\\ of\\ striving\\ to\\ be\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Divine\\ Powers\\ \\&\\;\\ Ancestors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ difference\\ whether\\ you\\ believe\\ there\\ are\\ ancestral\\ spirits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;must\\ perform\\ the\\ ritual\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ lesson\\/moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;repaying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learn\\ from\\ your\\ parents\\,\\ never\\ be\\ angry\\ with\\ them\\,\\ remembering\\ where\\ you\\ came\\ from\\,\\ why\\ you\\ are\\ what\\ you\\ are\\,\\ attempting\\ to\\ grow\\ to\\ be\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Denies\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ is\\ merely\\ on\\ a\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ seemingly\\ contradictory\\ advice\\ because\\ he\\ individualizes\\ his\\ suggestions\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ pupil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Can\\ we\\ universalize\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ argument\\?\\ Any\\ human\\ ritual\\ system\\ should\\ agree\\ that\\ something\\ within\\ us\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\ grow\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ through\\ rituals\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ to\\ inherently\\ bad\\ people\\?\\ Are\\ we\\ all\\ endowed\\ with\\ potential\\ to\\ become\\ good\\?\\ \\ \\;Can\\ \\&ldquo\\;rotten\\ wood\\&rdquo\\;\\ really\\ not\\ be\\ carved\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;For\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ moral\\,\\ is\\ it\\ better\\ to\\ pretend\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\,\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ better\\ to\\ attempt\\ to\\ better\\ yourself\\ \\(perhaps\\ in\\ vain\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;week\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\-cut\\ out\\ any\\ assumptions\\ about\\ divine\\ and\\ mythical\\ world\\ view\\-\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ are\\ rituals\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\-Confucius\\ was\\ absolutely\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-cultivating\\ self\\ through\\ rituals\\ is\\ ridiculous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ need\\ something\\ that\\ it\\ implied\\ in\\ every\\ situation\\&hellip\\;Utilitarian\\ calculus\\-shows\\ us\\ that\\ benefit\\ people\\=good\\,\\ harm\\ people\\=bad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ build\\ a\\ political\\ system\\ out\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ matter\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ \\"\\;sense\\"\\;\\ of\\ goodness\\,\\ behavior\\ is\\ what\\ matters\\-calculate\\ benefit\\ and\\ harm\\,\\ incentive\\ and\\ puishment\\-this\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ world\\ operates\\ anyway\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\think\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ naturally\\ would\\,\\ it\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-make\\ no\\ cultivation\\,\\ use\\ a\\ clear\\ calculus\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ punish\\ and\\ reward\\ behavior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\impartiality\\-\\ ethical\\ decision\\,\\ apply\\ to\\ everyone\\ equally\\-this\\ requires\\ no\\ thought\\ or\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\ argument\\ against\\ this\\-this\\ is\\ acting\\ solely\\ on\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ dangerous\\,\\ everyone\\ becomes\\ \\;\\ a\\ calculation\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ help\\ anyone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\-no\\,\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ world\\ works\\,\\ you\\ should\\ organize\\ everything\\ off\\ of\\ benefit\\ and\\ harm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vs\\.\\ 3\\ year\\ mourning\\ period\\-this\\ is\\ ridiculous\\,\\ how\\ is\\ this\\ beneficial\\?\\ Calculus\\ much\\ more\\ logical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Against\\ music\\-music\\ disturbs\\ the\\ state\\-not\\ beneficial\\,\\ wants\\ a\\ strong\\ work\\ ethic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\ disagrees\\-music\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ life\\,\\ you\\ can\\ never\\ develop\\ a\\ calculus\\ for\\ your\\ life\\,\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ emotionless\\,\\ need\\ to\\ use\\ your\\ emotions\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ need\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ our\\ emotional\\ dispositions\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ our\\ rituals\\ to\\ work\\,\\ this\\ enables\\ humans\\ to\\ improve\\ at\\ responding\\ to\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\music\\ helps\\-gets\\ us\\ to\\ feel\\ emotions\\-anger\\,\\ sadness\\ etc\\.\\ develops\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\ disagrees\\!\\ Proper\\ calculus\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ emotions\\,\\ it\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ properly\\ ordered\\ society\\-emotions\\ pull\\ away\\ from\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ rational\\ decision\\(Confucius\\ argues\\ emotions\\ should\\ control\\ your\\ decisions\\)\\ cost\\ benefit\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Importance\\ of\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ ideas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Developed\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\response\\ to\\ Mohism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Advocate\\ who\\ had\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\organized\\,\\ articulate\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explains\\ how\\ Confucianism\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comparison\\ to\\ The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ use\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dialogues\\ and\\ stories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\engages\\ in\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ others\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lays\\ out\\ full\\ Confucian\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ world\\ of\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ world\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ couple\\ of\\ weeks\\ becomes\\ fully\\ formed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Former\\ enfeifed\\ have\\ become\\ de\\-facto\\ autonomous\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ rulers\\ have\\ taken\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ king\\;\\ previously\\,\\ only\\ the\\ Chou\\ kings\\ called\\ themselves\\ kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ rulers\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\ gets\\ the\\ Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ gets\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ order\\?\\ \\ \\;WHO\\ GETS\\ TO\\ RULE\\ AT\\ THE\\ END\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ goes\\ from\\ state\\ to\\ state\\ trying\\ to\\ argue\\ they\\ should\\ follow\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argues\\ to\\ rulers\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ populace\\,\\ the\\ Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\,\\ and\\ bring\\ peace\\/order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ this\\,\\ get\\ dialogues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;The\\ philosophy\\ of\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ being\\ human\\,\\ at\\ \\ \\;least\\,\\ can\\ have\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ be\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warning\\:\\ When\\ he\\ says\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ good\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ does\\ NOT\\ say\\ we\\ ARE\\ good\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ is\\ merely\\ saying\\ we\\ are\\ given\\ to\\ us\\ by\\ Heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ seed\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seed\\ just\\ like\\ a\\ plant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Will\\ grow\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ needs\\ nurture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;without\\ it\\,\\ our\\ nature\\ will\\ die\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ need\\ constant\\ nurture\\ and\\ cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ seed\\ dies\\ permanently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\ for\\ Hitler\\:\\ Would\\ encourage\\ assassination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tries\\ to\\ assume\\ there\\ is\\ goodness\\,\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ we\\ can\\ reach\\ full\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sagehood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\potential\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ why\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ all\\ sages\\?\\ \\ \\;Mencius\\ says\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ fact\\,\\ throughout\\ history\\ there\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ many\\ sages\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ there\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ who\\ are\\ actually\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explains\\ cruelty\\,\\ hatred\\,\\ and\\ evil\\ on\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ become\\ inhuman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ is\\ both\\ optimistic\\ and\\ pessimistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Optimistic\\:\\ Our\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pessimistic\\:\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exercise\\ our\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ turn\\ things\\ around\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\:\\ Encourages\\ people\\ near\\ him\\/disciples\\ to\\ get\\ on\\ path\\ of\\ goodness\\ and\\ cultivate\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ unlike\\ Confucius\\ perhaps\\ has\\ greater\\ ambition\\/political\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goes\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\convince\\ rulers\\ to\\ become\\ moral\\ exemplars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hopes\\ they\\ will\\ make\\ people\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ Confucius\\,\\ was\\ equally\\ unable\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ high\\ political\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arguments\\ Mencius\\ gives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ goes\\ from\\ court\\ to\\ court\\ and\\ says\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ great\\ dynasties\\ received\\ the\\ Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ received\\ it\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ current\\ rulers\\ think\\ it\\ went\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Current\\ rulers\\&rsquo\\;\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ past\\:\\ Political\\ maneuvering\\ leads\\ to\\ success\\,\\ then\\ Heaven\\ comes\\ and\\ bestows\\ mandate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ to\\ get\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\:\\ You\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ and\\ are\\ completely\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Every\\ single\\ founding\\ ruler\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ Mandate\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ someone\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;awakened\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Someone\\ who\\ cultivated\\ their\\ nature\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ they\\ became\\ a\\ true\\ sage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Usually\\ that\\ sage\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Usually\\ not\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ high\\ aristocratic\\ ranks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ one\\ person\\ with\\ potential\\ political\\ power\\ made\\ this\\ sage\\ a\\ sage\\ minister\\,\\ then\\ this\\ person\\ in\\ position\\ of\\ political\\ power\\ would\\ suddenly\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;politician\\&rdquo\\;\\ starts\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ sage\\ minister\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;becomes\\ more\\ moral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\,\\ people\\ follow\\ that\\ lead\\ and\\ are\\ somewhat\\ awakened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Become\\ repulsed\\ to\\ old\\,\\ evil\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turn\\ towards\\ the\\ new\\ ruler\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;new\\ ruler\\ gains\\ Mandate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ Mencius\\ is\\ ambitious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quite\\ clear\\ who\\ he\\ thinks\\ is\\ the\\ sage\\/awakened\\ man\\ \\*cough\\ cough\\ himself\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wants\\ to\\ get\\ hired\\ and\\ lead\\ the\\ moral\\ changes\\ that\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ are\\ no\\ fools\\ though\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ is\\ always\\ presented\\ as\\ the\\ winner\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ telling\\ it\\ from\\ his\\ point\\ of\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ also\\ see\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ presenting\\ radical\\ ideas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\.\\ one\\ ruler\\ notices\\ regicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sees\\ that\\ it\\ helps\\ him\\ gain\\ the\\ throne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ he\\ loses\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ he\\ can\\ get\\ killed\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ response\\:\\ NO\\,\\ NOT\\ AT\\ ALL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ king\\ by\\ definition\\ has\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ populace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regicide\\!\\ \\ \\;Nah\\.\\ \\ \\;Never\\ heard\\ of\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ only\\ heard\\ of\\ robbers\\ and\\ murderers\\ receiving\\ just\\ punishment\\,\\ but\\ never\\ of\\ a\\ king\\ being\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haha\\ Mencius\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ slick\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basically\\,\\ Mencius\\ is\\ saying\\ to\\ the\\ rulers\\ that\\ the\\ Mandate\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ populace\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ win\\ them\\ by\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ good\\,\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ rectification\\ of\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ ruler\\ should\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ proper\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ live\\ by\\ your\\ ritual\\ duty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\ is\\ basically\\ saying\\,\\ if\\ you\\ fail\\ to\\ live\\ as\\ a\\ king\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ a\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ you\\ can\\ and\\ should\\ get\\ overthrown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ critiques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sidenote\\:\\ Becomes\\ controversial\\ and\\ rather\\ high\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ critiques\\ of\\ other\\ philosophies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mohism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ everything\\ they\\ claim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohism\\ gives\\ no\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ basest\\ instincts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tries\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ do\\ good\\ as\\ defined\\ by\\ their\\ guidelines\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ best\\,\\ this\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ people\\ behaving\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ behave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ this\\ is\\ doomed\\ for\\ 2\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ they\\ are\\ led\\ to\\ behave\\ is\\ not\\ how\\ they\\ should\\ behave\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ based\\ on\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ will\\ only\\ act\\ in\\ self\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;doomed\\ because\\ you\\ are\\ killing\\ your\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ nurture\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohist\\ world\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-interested\\ people\\ building\\ states\\ appealing\\ to\\ self\\-interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ will\\ only\\ get\\ worse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ only\\ path\\ towards\\ people\\ being\\ good\\:\\ Encouraging\\,\\ inspiring\\ people\\ to\\ begin\\ path\\ towards\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goodness\\ only\\ comes\\ when\\ have\\ sense\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ calculation\\ whatsoever\\ that\\ tells\\ you\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;just\\ like\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ reading\\ of\\ The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yes\\,\\ important\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;nurture\\ ourselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ much\\ less\\ so\\ for\\ him\\ than\\ for\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\ thinks\\ ritual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ interests\\ him\\ the\\ most\\:\\ Nourishing\\ and\\ nurturing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultivate\\ yourself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideally\\ the\\ ruler\\ starts\\ the\\ whole\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;effective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basically\\ reads\\ into\\ The\\ Analects\\ a\\ very\\ different\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reads\\ into\\ it\\ a\\ political\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sees\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ nurture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ Heaven\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ gives\\ us\\ the\\ Mandate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Mandate\\ works\\ through\\ Heaven\\ giving\\ us\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ up\\ to\\ us\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ Mandate\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ overthrow\\ bad\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ follow\\ good\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ political\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ Chi\\:\\ Ruler\\ gives\\ him\\ a\\ ministerial\\ position\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highest\\ rank\\ any\\ Confucian\\ has\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dialogues\\ happen\\,\\ ruler\\ asks\\ for\\ policy\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ it\\ becomes\\ clear\\ to\\ Mencius\\ that\\ the\\ king\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ listening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defeated\\,\\ he\\ leaves\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ Chi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ disciple\\ asks\\,\\ what\\ happened\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\:\\ The\\ time\\ is\\ ripe\\,\\ overripe\\,\\ for\\ the\\ sage\\ to\\ arise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ had\\ a\\ sage\\&mdash\\;Confucius\\&mdash\\;and\\ nobody\\ listened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ new\\ sage\\ \\*cough\\ cough\\*\\ has\\ arisen\\,\\ and\\ nobody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ listening\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ whatever\\ reason\\,\\ Heaven\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ being\\ followed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ knows\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ returns\\ to\\ teaching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ from\\ this\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\/when\\ a\\ sage\\ arises\\,\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ necessarily\\ listen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ the\\ key\\ again\\ lies\\ with\\ the\\ individuals\\:\\ Will\\ they\\ follow\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ had\\ their\\ chance\\ and\\ clearly\\ have\\ it\\ now\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ nothing\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ philosophy\\ ISN\\&rsquo\\;T\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ means\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ inspired\\ to\\ be\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\,\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohist\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ accept\\ risk\\ of\\ regicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ can\\ continue\\ for\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ can\\ only\\ hope\\ the\\ future\\ will\\ have\\ another\\ sage\\,\\ and\\ maybe\\ another\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ another\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ influential\\ figures\\ in\\ Chinese\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yes\\,\\ immediate\\ political\\ failure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Having\\ failed\\,\\ he\\ raises\\ many\\ questions\\ for\\ followers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Radical\\ message\\:\\ Regicide\\ is\\ fine\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ follow\\ me\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ a\\ new\\ dynasty\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ yeah\\,\\ you\\ could\\ get\\ overthrown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Too\\ radical\\ at\\ that\\ stage\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Too\\ politically\\ stupid\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ too\\ much\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ people\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immediately\\ after\\ him\\,\\ Confucianism\\ wanes\\ in\\ political\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Politically\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ gets\\ more\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ continue\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ Confucians\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ buy\\ into\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ for\\ 200\\ years\\,\\ Confucians\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ a\\ dent\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreshadowing\\:\\ A\\ Confucian\\ named\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Xunzi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ opposition\\ to\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ like\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ must\\ be\\ FORCED\\,\\ against\\ their\\ will\\,\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ can\\ do\\ that\\ is\\ STRONG\\ STATES\\,\\ LAWS\\,\\ AND\\ REGULATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unsurprisingly\\,\\ he\\ is\\ rather\\ popular\\ with\\ the\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ Mencius\\ is\\ always\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucians\\ afterwards\\ will\\ argue\\ that\\ Mencius\\ was\\ right\\ all\\ along\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ strong\\ state\\ vision\\ is\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ Mencius\\ represents\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ radical\\ readings\\;\\ Xunzi\\ is\\ the\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ have\\ basis\\ in\\ The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ will\\ discuss\\:\\ Do\\ you\\ like\\ Mencius\\ for\\ how\\ his\\ reading\\ of\\ Confucius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\follows\\ Confucianism\\,\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\departs\\ from\\ Confucianism\\?\\ \\ \\;\\(i\\.e\\.\\ do\\ you\\ like\\ him\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ rights\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laozi\\:\\ around\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\,\\ unified\\ work\\?\\ Puett\\ says\\ yes\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ unified\\ vision\\/text\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ disparate\\ feel\\ is\\ purposeful\\ and\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ argument\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daoism\\ \\-\\ the\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\ that\\ this\\ work\\ falls\\ under\\;\\ united\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ Way\\ and\\ discussing\\ the\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ unifying\\ thing\\ between\\ the\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ makes\\ no\\ sense\\?\\ One\\ can\\ read\\ anything\\ out\\ of\\ it\\?\\ Puett\\ thinks\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ way\\?\\ The\\ text\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ define\\ it\\.\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ language\\ to\\ explain\\ it\\.\\ The\\ nothingness\\.\\ The\\ Great\\.\\ The\\ One\\.\\ A\\ set\\ of\\ terms\\ that\\ point\\ to\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ images\\ share\\ is\\ a\\ comparable\\ sense\\:\\ the\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\ Cosmologically\\,\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ everything\\ was\\ sheer\\ nothingness\\ \\(no\\ thing\\,\\ not\\ lack\\ of\\ something\\)\\ nothing\\ is\\ differentiated\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ world\\ suddenly\\ differentiated\\ \\(parallel\\ to\\ big\\ bang\\)\\.\\ This\\ differentiation\\ is\\ an\\ ongoing\\ process\\.\\ Grass\\ grows\\ and\\ grass\\ dies\\.\\ It\\ emerges\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ growing\\ and\\ getting\\ further\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ then\\ dies\\ and\\ returns\\ to\\ it\\.\\ People\\,\\ dynasties\\,\\ events\\,\\ conflicts\\ all\\ emerge\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ and\\ return\\ to\\ It\\.\\ Experientially\\,\\ we\\ are\\ experiencing\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ its\\ differentiated\\ state\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ related\\ gets\\ us\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ Everything\\ that\\ is\\ related\\ \\(in\\ that\\ its\\ differentiated\\)\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ same\\,\\ inter\\-related\\.\\ The\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ understand\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ inter\\-related\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ understand\\ things\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ does\\ this\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ anything\\?\\ If\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ case\\,\\ what\\ difference\\ does\\ it\\ make\\?\\ All\\ the\\ difference\\.\\ We\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\ consistently\\ miss\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ We\\ are\\ therefore\\ doomed\\.\\ While\\ walking\\ through\\ a\\ forest\\,\\ see\\ a\\ big\\ oak\\ tree\\.\\ You\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ strongest\\,\\ but\\ you\\ are\\ being\\ human\\ and\\ wrong\\.\\ When\\ the\\ winds\\ come\\,\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flex\\ so\\ it\\ snaps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tries\\ to\\ win\\ through\\ dominance\\.\\ The\\ strongest\\ tree\\ is\\ the\\ young\\ sapling\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flexible\\,\\ young\\,\\ supple\\,\\ soft\\ and\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ If\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ of\\ the\\ forest\\ then\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ of\\ everything\\ else\\ that\\ exists\\.\\ In\\ human\\ relations\\,\\ we\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ strongest\\,\\ the\\ most\\ dominant\\,\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ will\\ win\\;\\ in\\ wars\\,\\ conflict\\,\\ business\\.\\ Trying\\ to\\ control\\ or\\ dominate\\ surroundings\\,\\ thereby\\ removing\\ ourselves\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ path\\ to\\ destruction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ text\\ teaching\\ us\\?\\ What\\ do\\ we\\ do\\?\\ Return\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ The\\ text\\ offers\\ very\\ practical\\ advice\\.\\ Mystically\\,\\ teach\\ ourselves\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ everything\\ is\\ inter\\-related\\.\\ The\\ more\\ we\\ do\\ that\\,\\ the\\ more\\ we\\ get\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ The\\ text\\ also\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ live\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ case\\,\\ that\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\,\\ dominated\\ by\\ humans\\ that\\ live\\ as\\ the\\ text\\ instructs\\ not\\ to\\ do\\.\\ We\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ control\\ us\\,\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ \\(in\\ the\\ mundane\\ and\\ in\\ politics\\)\\.\\ This\\ text\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ overcome\\ this\\.\\ The\\ text\\ is\\ amoral\\,\\ but\\ it\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ respond\\ \\(practical\\,\\ political\\,\\ military\\,\\ martial\\ arts\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ someone\\ attacks\\ you\\,\\ by\\ definition\\,\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ aggressive\\ will\\ always\\ mean\\ they\\ will\\ over\\ reach\\ themselves\\,\\ what\\ they\\ can\\ really\\ do\\.\\ As\\ an\\ individual\\,\\ see\\ the\\ weakness\\,\\ see\\ what\\ they\\ can\\ really\\ do\\ and\\ respond\\ to\\ that\\.\\ Not\\ dominating\\ them\\,\\ but\\ responding\\ and\\ exploiting\\ their\\ weakness\\.\\ If\\ you\\ do\\ this\\,\\ you\\ will\\ wing\\ 100\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ It\\ never\\ fails\\.\\ The\\ Punch\\ example\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ text\\ was\\ written\\ during\\ the\\ Warring\\ States\\ period\\.\\ Imagine\\ that\\ your\\ neighboring\\ state\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ take\\ you\\ over\\.\\ This\\ state\\ is\\ amassing\\ army\\ \\(devote\\ all\\ their\\ resources\\)\\.\\ You\\ might\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stupid\\.\\ Let\\ them\\ do\\ it\\,\\ attack\\ you\\,\\ and\\ move\\ farther\\ and\\ farther\\ into\\ your\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cause\\ them\\ to\\ stretch\\ themselves\\ too\\ thin\\.\\ Quick\\ fast\\ guerilla\\ strikes\\.\\ Attack\\ homeland\\ and\\ supply\\ lines\\.\\ Once\\ over\\-extended\\ they\\ will\\ retreat\\,\\ then\\ you\\ attack\\ them\\.\\ The\\ state\\ will\\ fall\\.\\ Every\\ time\\ this\\ strategy\\ has\\ been\\ employed\\,\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ successful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ at\\ the\\ meeting\\,\\ and\\ someone\\ tries\\ to\\ dominate\\ the\\ competition\\?\\ Play\\ weakness\\ to\\ their\\ strength\\.\\ Respond\\ calmly\\,\\ ask\\ questions\\,\\ make\\ jokes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;you\\ win\\ the\\ room\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ your\\ intention\\ explicitly\\ known\\.\\ People\\ come\\ to\\ echo\\ your\\ sentiments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;come\\ to\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ consensus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ dominating\\ them\\,\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ you\\ will\\ fail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ text\\ trying\\ to\\ teach\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ person\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ strategy\\ text\\;\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ win\\.\\ The\\ power\\ of\\ this\\ text\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ mystical\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ politically\\ and\\ military\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puett\\ argues\\ that\\ Laozi\\ is\\ a\\ coherent\\ text\\;\\ all\\ the\\ disparate\\ pieces\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ one\\ text\\.\\ This\\ is\\ deliberate\\.\\ Everything\\ is\\ inherently\\ related\\.\\ The\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ understand\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ adhere\\ to\\ the\\ way\\.\\ Daoism\\ different\\ than\\ the\\ Analects\\ in\\ that\\ Confucianism\\ put\\ forward\\ moral\\ precepts\\ \\(sets\\ up\\ dichotomies\\,\\ differentiates\\,\\ separates\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\)\\ whereas\\ Laozi\\ is\\ completely\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ an\\ undifferentiated\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ rhetorically\\ opposed\\,\\ Daoism\\ and\\ Confucianism\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ in\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laozi\\ text\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ focused\\ on\\ self\\-interest\\ \\(how\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\,\\ but\\ an\\ amoral\\ text\\)\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ Analects\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ journey\\ toward\\ benevolence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ Use\\ of\\ the\\ Laozi\\ Text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laozi\\ suggests\\ having\\ laws\\ but\\ not\\ telling\\ the\\ population\\ what\\ the\\ laws\\ are\\,\\ so\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worm\\ around\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ Mohists\\.\\ Key\\ for\\ Laozi\\,\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\ you\\ must\\ create\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ those\\ working\\ with\\ you\\ do\\ not\\ think\\ of\\ you\\ as\\ ordering\\ them\\ around\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ what\\ you\\ ask\\ them\\ to\\ do\\ seems\\ completely\\ natural\\.\\ Use\\ of\\ brute\\ force\\ is\\ doomed\\ to\\ fail\\.\\ American\\ tax\\ policy\\,\\ like\\ any\\ American\\ policy\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ money\\ government\\ tries\\ to\\ get\\ from\\ the\\ populace\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ money\\ will\\ be\\ used\\.\\ History\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ century\\ ago\\,\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ was\\ considered\\ unconstitutional\\.\\ During\\ WWII\\,\\ after\\ Roosevelt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tax\\ increase\\ set\\ a\\ new\\ high\\,\\ then\\ Reagan\\ slashed\\ them\\,\\ now\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ arguing\\ over\\ a\\ few\\ percentage\\ points\\.\\ No\\ one\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ or\\ going\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ 80\\ or\\ 90\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;percentile\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ has\\ become\\ natural\\.\\ so\\ Roosevelt\\ was\\ an\\ extremely\\ effective\\ president\\ because\\ he\\ made\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ today\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implications\\ of\\ the\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ be\\ effective\\,\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ interconnectedness\\ of\\ things\\.\\ A\\ really\\ effective\\ ruler\\ is\\ one\\ who\\ sees\\ how\\ everything\\ is\\ interrelated\\ and\\ builds\\ his\\ policies\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ this\\.\\ We\\ see\\ small\\ similarities\\ to\\ Analects\\ and\\ strong\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ Mohists\\.\\ Like\\ Analects\\,\\ Laozi\\ says\\,\\ through\\ self\\-cultivation\\ we\\ can\\ conduct\\ ourselves\\ properly\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\ week\\,\\ the\\ second\\ great\\ Daoist\\ thinker\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\.\\ He\\ is\\ less\\ interested\\ in\\ politics\\ and\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ self\\-cultivation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 6\\:\\ The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ Spontaneity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ is\\ characterized\\ as\\ a\\ Daoist\\ along\\ with\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-believed\\ to\\ have\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\,\\ general\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Menicus\\,\\ possibly\\ also\\ the\\ Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ know\\ very\\ little\\ else\\ about\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ work\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ puns\\,\\ stories\\,\\ paradox\\,\\ and\\ contradictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ the\\ Zhuangzi\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ work\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ reason\\ it\\ is\\ written\\ this\\ way\\ \\(full\\ of\\ contradictions\\,\\ etc\\)\\:\\ Zhuangzi\\ tries\\ to\\ reenact\\ his\\ philosophy\\,\\ not\\ just\\ state\\ it\\ didactically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Laozi\\ said\\:\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\ The\\ more\\ things\\ grow\\,\\ the\\ farther\\ they\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ grass\\ growing\\ and\\ grass\\ dying\\ IS\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ endless\\ flux\\ and\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ Way\\ is\\ empirically\\ dynamic\\;\\ the\\ process\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ interesting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Everything\\ except\\ humanity\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-only\\ humans\\ tend\\ to\\ remove\\ themselves\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ our\\ minds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ mind\\ is\\ great\\,\\ but\\ we\\ misuse\\ it\\,\\ like\\ a\\ bird\\ using\\ its\\ wings\\ to\\ swim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ misuse\\ our\\ brains\\ trying\\ to\\ define\\ things\\ in\\ rigid\\ ways\\,\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ our\\ natural\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ build\\ whole\\ societies\\ and\\ philosophies\\ on\\ these\\ distinctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\,\\ you\\ can\\ just\\ leave\\ everything\\ and\\ run\\ wild\\ again\\ either\\.\\ That\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ wrong\\:\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;difference\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ human\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ is\\ ALSO\\ a\\ false\\ distinction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-having\\ a\\ society\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ problem\\;\\ lots\\ of\\ sages\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\ are\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\ if\\ society\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ the\\ solution\\ is\\ trickier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ the\\ butcher\\ finds\\ natural\\ distinctions\\ and\\ patterns\\ in\\ meat\\.\\ He\\ works\\ with\\ them\\,\\ not\\ against\\ them\\,\\ following\\ these\\ patterns\\.\\ The\\ pattern\\ is\\ different\\ with\\ each\\ piece\\ of\\ meat\\,\\ so\\ he\\ must\\ feel\\ for\\ the\\ patterns\\ each\\ time\\.\\ He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ have\\ to\\ sharpen\\ his\\ knife\\&mdash\\;his\\ work\\ is\\ spontaneous\\,\\ he\\ has\\ found\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ butcher\\ begins\\ and\\ ends\\ as\\ a\\ butcher\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ about\\ carving\\ meat\\&mdash\\;he\\ could\\ have\\ had\\ any\\ profession\\.\\ The\\ point\\ is\\ becoming\\ spontaneous\\,\\ moving\\ through\\ the\\ patterns\\ and\\ not\\ battling\\ against\\ them\\.\\ That\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\:\\ spontaneity\\ takes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\training\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-modern\\ examples\\:\\ musicians\\ practicing\\ all\\ day\\ to\\ get\\ really\\ good\\,\\ learning\\ to\\ know\\ your\\ music\\ and\\ the\\ instrument\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-same\\ with\\ sports\\,\\ you\\ do\\ lots\\ of\\ drills\\,\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ zone\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ you\\ can\\ take\\ those\\ lessons\\ from\\ recreational\\ activity\\ to\\ your\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ then\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ fully\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ like\\ Confucius\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ attacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Zhuangzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\-do\\ mundane\\ things\\ every\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-goal\\ is\\ to\\ cultivate\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-spontaneously\\ make\\ good\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-endless\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-train\\ yourself\\ to\\ be\\ spontaneous\\ and\\ therefore\\ better\\ at\\ inspiring\\ people\\ around\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ problem\\:\\ Confucius\\ dooms\\ people\\ by\\ distinguishing\\ between\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\,\\ good\\ and\\ not\\ good\\.\\ This\\ will\\ make\\ you\\ fail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\)\\:\\ What\\ if\\ a\\ Confucian\\ asked\\ Zhuangzi\\ about\\ a\\ robber\\ getting\\ good\\ at\\ robbing\\ spontaneously\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Answer\\:\\ Zhuangzi\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ by\\ definition\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ Way\\ because\\ a\\ robber\\ is\\ distinguishing\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\&rdquo\\;\\ money\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\&rdquo\\;\\ money\\.\\ He\\ will\\ never\\ become\\ spontaneous\\ because\\ of\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ philosophy\\ is\\ not\\ fully\\ based\\ on\\ good\\/bad\\,\\ yet\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ relativistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\,\\ if\\ we\\ do\\ go\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\ completely\\,\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Zhuangzi\\ celebrates\\ life\\,\\ loves\\ joyous\\ celebration\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-what\\ happens\\ when\\ you\\ must\\ face\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ all\\ humans\\ die\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ joyously\\ celebrate\\ the\\ Way\\ when\\ you\\ face\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ death\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Last\\ lecture\\:\\ have\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ exhilaration\\ in\\ your\\ work\\,\\ seeing\\ the\\ larger\\ patterns\\:\\ this\\ is\\ finding\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ But\\ most\\ people\\ fight\\ against\\ it\\ their\\ whole\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ implication\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ daily\\ life\\ we\\ see\\ things\\ through\\ a\\ restricted\\ perspective\\.\\ But\\ what\\ about\\ death\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ at\\ everyone\\ dies\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ happens\\ when\\ we\\ die\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Confucius\\ was\\ agnostic\\,\\ said\\ who\\ knows\\,\\ its\\ irrelevant\\,\\ live\\ here\\ and\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ thought\\ that\\ once\\ we\\ see\\ patterns\\ in\\ the\\ word\\,\\ we\\ see\\ larger\\ patterns\\ too\\:\\ when\\ you\\ die\\,\\ you\\ rot\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ worms\\ eat\\ you\\,\\ birds\\ eat\\ worms\\,\\ bears\\ or\\ something\\ eat\\ birds\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-eventually\\ you\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ all\\ those\\,\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ now\\ \\(in\\ life\\)\\ was\\ also\\ once\\ part\\ of\\ all\\ those\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;endless\\ of\\ flux\\ of\\ transformation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(this\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ phrases\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-everything\\ becomes\\/was\\ everything\\ else\\,\\ it\\ keeps\\ going\\ this\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ fear\\ death\\?\\ Because\\ we\\ think\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ something\\ special\\ and\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-THIS\\ IS\\ OUR\\ BIGGEST\\ MISTAKE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ does\\ not\\ necessary\\ think\\ we\\ should\\ be\\ fine\\ dying\\ young\\,\\ because\\ life\\ is\\ good\\,\\ we\\ should\\ celebrate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\ we\\ should\\ also\\ recognize\\ that\\ everything\\ that\\ lives\\,\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-things\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ end\\ when\\ they\\ die\\,\\ they\\ just\\ continue\\ in\\ the\\ endless\\ flux\\ of\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Fearing\\ death\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ extreme\\ example\\ of\\ battling\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fight\\ it\\,\\ welcome\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ fact\\,\\ dying\\ young\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ battling\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-we\\ should\\ just\\ celebrate\\ the\\ patterns\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ about\\ moral\\ ideas\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ mocks\\ Confucians\\,\\ Mohists\\.\\ They\\ are\\ so\\ silly\\,\\ they\\ go\\ on\\ and\\ on\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ saying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-with\\ regard\\ to\\ Mohists\\ with\\ their\\ clear\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ says\\ rational\\ calculus\\ or\\ absolute\\ distinctions\\ will\\ put\\ you\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-but\\ is\\ Zhuangzi\\ in\\ danger\\ of\\ becoming\\ a\\ relativist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ for\\ judgments\\:\\ look\\ at\\ everything\\ you\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-if\\ a\\ bank\\ robber\\ is\\ robbing\\ for\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ can\\ never\\ become\\ spontaneous\\ like\\ the\\ butcher\\ because\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ following\\ Zhuangzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Try\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ resonant\\,\\ see\\ how\\ your\\ actions\\ affect\\ others\\,\\ train\\ yourself\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ resonant\\ way\\ \\(this\\ brings\\ Zhuangzi\\ closer\\ to\\ Confucius\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ vs\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ and\\ use\\ similar\\ terminology\\ in\\ places\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ are\\ grouped\\ as\\ Daoists\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ quite\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Zhuangzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\-Daodejing\\ is\\ a\\ strategy\\ text\\:\\ in\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ all\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ whoever\\ is\\ most\\ in\\ touch\\ wins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-wants\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ non\\-differentiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-used\\ a\\ lot\\ in\\ military\\,\\ political\\,\\ business\\ strategy\\,\\ also\\ martial\\ arts\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\,\\ very\\ strategic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-key\\ is\\ interactions\\ and\\ harmony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-more\\ influence\\ in\\ music\\,\\ religion\\,\\ resonance\\,\\ more\\ artistic\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Yet\\ note\\ how\\ similar\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ Laozi\\,\\ and\\ Confucius\\ really\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 7\\:\\ Lecture\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 29\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\ poses\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ foundational\\ text\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ incredibly\\ influential\\ in\\ martial\\ arts\\,\\ Chinese\\ medicine\\,\\ state\\ craft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ gives\\ a\\ cosmological\\ argument\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ following\\ notion\\ that\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ translate\\ into\\ English\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Qi\\-Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ matter\\ and\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vital\\ energy\\;\\ vital\\ breathe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ energy\\ that\\ underlies\\ absolutely\\ everything\\&mdash\\;everything\\ that\\ exists\\ underlies\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\;\\ some\\ have\\ a\\ little\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ vital\\ energy\\ drives\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mundane\\ Examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\You\\ are\\ angry\\,\\ you\\ expend\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ you\\ become\\ drained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ you\\ exercise\\,\\ or\\ you\\ feel\\ exhilarated\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ sense\\,\\ you\\ feel\\ energized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ literally\\ have\\ vital\\ energy\\ in\\ you\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simply\\ put\\,\\ when\\ you\\ feel\\ energized\\ you\\ have\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ simple\\ concept\\;\\ however\\ humans\\ do\\ not\\ live\\ their\\ lives\\ by\\ these\\ guidelines\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ our\\ everyday\\ lives\\,\\ we\\ are\\ endlessly\\ draining\\ vital\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ live\\,\\ get\\ tired\\,\\ get\\ drained\\ of\\ our\\ vital\\ energy\\ and\\ DIE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\ we\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\expend\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;energy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ solve\\ this\\ problem\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ must\\ constantly\\ energize\\ ourselves\\;\\ by\\ having\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ we\\ can\\ influence\\ those\\ around\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ways\\ you\\ can\\ obtain\\ vital\\ energy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exercise\\ to\\ fill\\ yourself\\ with\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eat\\ to\\ fill\\ yourself\\ with\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breathe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ whatever\\ you\\ do\\,\\ be\\ conscious\\ of\\ the\\ vital\\ energy\\;\\ feel\\ the\\ vital\\ energy\\ in\\ your\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\If\\ one\\ does\\ this\\,\\ what\\ do\\ they\\ gain\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Do\\ this\\ and\\ everything\\ else\\ will\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Fail\\,\\ and\\ nothing\\ will\\ come\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ that\\ simple\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ do\\ this\\,\\ the\\ more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\charismatic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;you\\ will\\ become\\;\\ for\\ charisma\\ is\\ merely\\ the\\ positive\\ energy\\ you\\ release\\ into\\ your\\ environment\\ and\\ those\\ around\\ you\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ will\\ gain\\ vital\\ energy\\;\\ vital\\ energy\\ underlies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\everything\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Taoist\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ Cosmos\\:\\ Every\\ animate\\ object\\ contains\\ vital\\ energy\\;\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vital\\ essence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ everything\\ that\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ vital\\ energy\\ is\\ lost\\;\\ things\\ cease\\ to\\ live\\.\\ When\\ we\\ loose\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ we\\ die\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Literally\\ everything\\ that\\ exists\\ has\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\;\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ most\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ underlies\\ everything\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ about\\ consciousness\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ plants\\ live\\,\\ but\\ are\\ not\\ conscious\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ about\\ humans\\?\\ They\\ are\\ conscious\\,\\ but\\ not\\ that\\ conscious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vital\\ energy\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ consciousness\\ or\\ Luminosity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Numinosity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ spirit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Numinosity\\ is\\ highly\\ refined\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ our\\ power\\ over\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ being\\ human\\ means\\ having\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ unique\\ about\\ humans\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ little\\ of\\ what\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ cosmos\\:\\ Numinosity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ have\\ a\\ little\\ Numen\\ within\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animals\\ have\\ much\\ less\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dilemma\\:\\ Humans\\ have\\ vital\\ essence\\,\\ yet\\ we\\ fail\\ to\\ be\\ conscious\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ affect\\ the\\ world\\ for\\ the\\ worse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ consciousness\\ means\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ numinosity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ will\\ drain\\ us\\ of\\ our\\ vital\\ energy\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ constantly\\ energizing\\ themselves\\ will\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\numinous\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\charisma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ some\\ people\\ understand\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ while\\ others\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Some\\ people\\ have\\ more\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ in\\ a\\ literal\\ sense\\,\\ and\\ are\\ hence\\ more\\ resonant\\ with\\ their\\ surroundings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ just\\ this\\ stuff\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ we\\ breathe\\ and\\ the\\ energy\\ that\\ we\\ feel\\,\\ determines\\ our\\ luminosity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ you\\ exercise\\,\\ you\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;something\\,\\ there\\ is\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ you\\ eat\\,\\ you\\ feel\\ energized\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acupuncture\\&mdash\\;you\\ feel\\ energy\\ in\\ the\\ spot\\ where\\ the\\ needles\\ are\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ Western\\ medicine\\ is\\ using\\ this\\ technique\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ not\\ anything\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ measured\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ word\\ in\\ Western\\ medicine\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ it\\ is\\.\\ But\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\exists\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Vital\\ energy\\ precisely\\ cuts\\ across\\ a\\ Western\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Western\\ vision\\ makes\\ a\\ clear\\ distinction\\ between\\ matter\\ and\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Energy\\ in\\ matter\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\source\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vital\\ energy\\ cuts\\ across\\ this\\ distinction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Physiologically\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ through\\ exercise\\)\\ it\\ works\\.\\ So\\ it\\ does\\ exist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ issue\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ based\\ upon\\ Western\\ distinctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ the\\ text\\,\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ world\\ among\\ us\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monistic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ key\\ to\\ this\\ is\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ distinction\\ between\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\,\\ spirit\\ and\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ problem\\ of\\ human\\ consciousness\\ that\\ rules\\ a\\ material\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\,\\ all\\ Western\\ philosophies\\ built\\ on\\ human\\,\\ Western\\ thought\\ are\\ mistaken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinctions\\ do\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ difference\\ between\\ us\\ and\\ the\\ spirits\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ have\\ unrefined\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ we\\ become\\ more\\ like\\ the\\ spirits\\ above\\ or\\ more\\ like\\ MUD\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Examples\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ does\\ music\\ affect\\ us\\?\\ Vital\\ energy\\ in\\ it\\ makes\\ us\\ resonate\\ with\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ can\\ we\\ be\\ charismatic\\ and\\ effect\\ others\\?\\ Vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ cuts\\ across\\ Western\\ thought\\ with\\ one\\ exception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quantum\\ Mechanics\\,\\ contemporary\\ physics\\ is\\ now\\ finding\\ huge\\ similarities\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ discover\\ to\\ Chinese\\,\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Implications\\ for\\ how\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\:\\ Take\\ this\\ text\\ seriously\\ and\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ move\\ your\\ body\\ and\\ in\\ your\\ emotional\\ dispositions\\,\\ you\\ will\\ become\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\spirit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ you\\ do\\ on\\ a\\ moment\\ to\\ moment\\ basis\\ will\\ determine\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ lifetime\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inward\\ Training\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ do\\ on\\ a\\ mundane\\ level\\:\\ calming\\,\\ stilling\\,\\ exercising\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ \\(the\\ constant\\ way\\ you\\ move\\ your\\ body\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ not\\ get\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ anger\\ and\\ pettiness\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ daily\\ lives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constantly\\ be\\ exhilarated\\&mdash\\;that\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ energized\\ sensibility\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ cultivate\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ will\\ see\\ clearly\\,\\ hear\\ clearly\\,\\ sense\\ situations\\,\\ and\\ become\\ like\\ a\\ spirit\\&mdash\\;out\\ of\\ the\\ daily\\,\\ mundane\\,\\ routine\\ stuff\\ that\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ energy\\ and\\ cultivates\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ your\\ daily\\ life\\,\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ leader\\ and\\ affect\\ those\\ around\\ you\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ everything\\ you\\ do\\,\\ day\\ by\\ day\\,\\ can\\ result\\ in\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ or\\ spirits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 7\\:\\ Lecture\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 31\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ become\\ more\\ energized\\ you\\ realize\\ that\\ the\\ whole\\ cosmos\\ operates\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ recognize\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ things\\ work\\;\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eat\\ well\\,\\ exercise\\,\\ this\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ comes\\ a\\ mystical\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Translator\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ depicts\\ the\\ foundational\\ theory\\ of\\ Daoism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ we\\ think\\ Laoza\\ comes\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ for\\ this\\ text\\ does\\ not\\ include\\ the\\ original\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ text\\ propones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Removing\\ yourself\\ from\\ daily\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meditational\\ posture\\&mdash\\;meditating\\,\\ controlling\\ your\\ breathing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ texts\\ of\\ Daoism\\ have\\ a\\ common\\ view\\,\\ but\\ take\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ direction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ Daoism\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Are\\ there\\ similarities\\ in\\ these\\ texts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ example\\:\\ Laoza\\ linked\\ mystical\\ and\\ political\\ arguments\\ and\\ discusses\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ involved\\ in\\ this\\ \\(inner\\)\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ link\\ between\\ these\\ texts\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ way\\ you\\ go\\ about\\ your\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ how\\ you\\ eat\\ and\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ view\\ on\\ cosmology\\&mdash\\;everything\\,\\ matter\\ and\\ energy\\,\\ is\\ linked\\.\\ Mind\\ and\\ body\\ are\\ linked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ entire\\ cosmos\\ works\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ it\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Developing\\ self\\-cultivation\\ through\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\energy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ your\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ in\\ mundane\\ rituals\\,\\ you\\ must\\ cultivate\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\,\\ remove\\ yourself\\ from\\ attachments\\ \\(anxieties\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ of\\ the\\ daily\\ world\\ and\\ revamp\\ you\\ life\\ through\\ energy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ death\\ a\\ natural\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ humans\\ drain\\ all\\ their\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ loose\\ consciousness\\ and\\ become\\ slower\\,\\ sicker\\,\\ demented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ energy\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ heaven\\ and\\ we\\ become\\ less\\ luminous\\,\\ hence\\ less\\ spirited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ numen\\ \\(spirit\\)\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ cosmos\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\monistic\\ cosmology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ individual\\ lumens\\ we\\ have\\ are\\ one\\ single\\ NUMEN\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ evil\\ energy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ we\\ behave\\ badly\\,\\ we\\ drain\\ our\\ energy\\,\\ but\\ also\\ we\\ work\\ to\\ create\\ bad\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ drain\\ positive\\ energy\\ when\\ we\\ work\\ to\\ cultivate\\ the\\ bad\\ ones\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Cosmology\\&mdash\\;mundane\\ reality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ resonant\\,\\ good\\ energies\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ heavens\\,\\ and\\ bad\\ energies\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hence\\,\\ if\\ you\\ cultivate\\ yourself\\,\\ you\\ get\\ more\\ energized\\ in\\ a\\ refined\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ you\\ drain\\ good\\ energy\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ process\\ of\\ death\\,\\ your\\ good\\ energy\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ heavens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Is\\ this\\ text\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ Are\\ they\\ the\\ same\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ One\\ comes\\ after\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ cosmology\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ November\\ 5\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\,\\ the\\ next\\ major\\ thinker\\ in\\ the\\ Confucian\\ tradition\\ after\\ Mencius\\&mdash\\;these\\ two\\ will\\ become\\ the\\ poles\\ around\\ which\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ Confucian\\ tradition\\ \\(also\\ beyond\\ China\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Vietnam\\)\\ will\\ develop\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ 3rd\\ century\\ B\\.C\\.E\\.\\ He\\ knew\\ that\\ Confucius\\ failed\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ sphere\\.\\ Mencius\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ political\\ program\\ out\\ of\\ Confucian\\ thought\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ failed\\.\\ Daoism\\ then\\ arose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Things\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ too\\ good\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ Confucian\\ in\\ the\\ 3rd\\ century\\.\\ Confucius\\ is\\ revered\\,\\ but\\ other\\ thinkers\\ are\\ attacking\\ his\\ views\\.\\ Xunzi\\ sees\\ as\\ his\\ problem\\ the\\ following\\:\\ how\\ do\\ I\\ account\\ for\\ all\\ the\\ teachings\\ that\\ have\\ developed\\ since\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ time\\,\\ respond\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ convincing\\ argument\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ wrong\\ and\\ Confucianism\\ is\\ right\\,\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ politically\\ viable\\?\\ In\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ he\\ was\\ incredibly\\ successful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ outright\\ that\\ other\\ thinkers\\ are\\ wrong\\.\\ He\\ says\\ what\\ is\\ worth\\ listening\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ philosophies\\ that\\ he\\ opposes\\.\\ If\\ the\\ Mohists\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ gaining\\ an\\ audience\\,\\ why\\ is\\ that\\?\\&mdash\\;first\\ syncretistic\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ period\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ he\\ has\\ an\\ exceedingly\\ polemical\\ attack\\ against\\ Mencius\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ everything\\ Puett\\ has\\ just\\ mentioned\\.\\ Puett\\ will\\ start\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\ had\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ was\\ good\\,\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ like\\ seedlings\\&mdash\\;if\\ nurtured\\ properly\\,\\ will\\ grow\\ into\\ perfectly\\ moral\\ beings\\.\\ People\\ will\\ be\\ inherently\\ repulsed\\ by\\ a\\ bad\\ ruler\\.\\ Mencius\\ thus\\ developed\\ a\\ radical\\ political\\ philosophy\\ that\\ denied\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ institutions\\,\\ good\\ governance\\,\\ etc\\.\\ if\\ a\\ good\\ person\\ was\\ in\\ charge\\.\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ is\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ like\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ be\\ straight\\.\\ Rituals\\,\\ laws\\,\\ institutions\\&mdash\\;all\\ strong\\ forms\\ of\\ centralized\\ governance\\&mdash\\;make\\ people\\ good\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ criticizes\\ the\\ Mohists\\ for\\ thinking\\ that\\ Heaven\\ was\\ a\\ moral\\ force\\ \\(Mencius\\ thought\\ that\\ too\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ saw\\ Heaven\\ as\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\)\\&mdash\\;Heaven\\ created\\ the\\ cosmos\\,\\ and\\ along\\ with\\ Heaven\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\ help\\ regulate\\ it\\.\\ Xunzi\\ says\\ Heaven\\ is\\ just\\ natural\\ processes\\,\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ moral\\ at\\ all\\.\\ Therefore\\ all\\ of\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ Mozi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\ falls\\ apart\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sound\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ incorporate\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ positions\\,\\ but\\ Puett\\ says\\ he\\ is\\.\\ Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ change\\ of\\ seasons\\;\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ send\\ down\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\.\\ Human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ become\\ good\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ become\\ good\\?\\ Ritual\\,\\ laws\\,\\ institutions\\.\\ All\\ these\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ sages\\ \\(who\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ as\\ Xunzi\\ would\\ admit\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ contradiction\\ here\\:\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ straighten\\ ourselves\\,\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ make\\ us\\ straight\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ sages\\,\\ who\\ are\\ humans\\ who\\ trained\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ and\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ model\\ from\\ Heaven\\,\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\.\\ How\\ did\\ they\\ train\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ says\\ the\\ sages\\ used\\ the\\ faculties\\ they\\ had\\ from\\ birth\\ to\\ look\\ around\\ themselves\\,\\ see\\ the\\ problems\\ in\\ how\\ humans\\ behaved\\,\\ and\\ begin\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ training\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ creating\\ different\\ rituals\\ that\\ would\\ help\\ direct\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ selfish\\ desires\\ and\\ thus\\ start\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ becoming\\ good\\.\\ How\\ did\\ they\\ train\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ if\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ crooked\\?\\ Well\\,\\ humans\\ have\\ things\\ other\\ than\\ human\\ nature\\&mdash\\;faculties\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ properly\\ to\\ better\\ ourselves\\.\\ They\\ are\\ natural\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ they\\ are\\ from\\ Heaven\\.\\ What\\ is\\ Xunzi\\ up\\ to\\?\\ It\\ sounds\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ like\\ Mencius\\ than\\ it\\ at\\ first\\ seemed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ Mohists\\ did\\ accurately\\ see\\ problems\\ with\\ Confucius\\;\\ the\\ Daoists\\ did\\ correctly\\ see\\ problems\\ with\\ Mencius\\.\\ He\\ thinks\\ the\\ Mohists\\ are\\ on\\ to\\ something\\,\\ in\\ creating\\ an\\ institutional\\ order\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ clear\\ promotion\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ merit\\.\\ It\\ undercuts\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ political\\ power\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ birth\\.\\ The\\ Mohists\\ and\\ Mencius\\ build\\ an\\ entire\\ philosophical\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ moral\\ force\\&mdash\\;Confucius\\ was\\ agnostic\\ on\\ that\\ subject\\.\\ The\\ Daoists\\ critiqued\\ the\\ Mohist\\/Mencius\\ position\\.\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ all\\ the\\ critiques\\ are\\ correct\\.\\ He\\ attacks\\ each\\ figure\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ ones\\ have\\ attacked\\ him\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ we\\ accept\\ all\\ these\\ critiques\\,\\ do\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ base\\ from\\ which\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ entire\\ philosophical\\ vision\\?\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ yes\\,\\ and\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ incorporate\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ Daoists\\ as\\ well\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ philosophy\\ he\\ offers\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ these\\ accepted\\ critiques\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ that\\ is\\ potentially\\ moral\\ and\\ ordered\\,\\ in\\ which\\ humans\\ behave\\ well\\ towards\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ work\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ live\\,\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ construct\\.\\ Heaven\\ is\\ not\\ creating\\ it\\ for\\ us\\ or\\ guiding\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ If\\ humans\\ have\\ selfish\\ desires\\ in\\ their\\ nature\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ that\\ into\\ account\\ in\\ the\\ project\\ of\\ building\\ a\\ moral\\ order\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ too\\ idealistic\\.\\ We\\ have\\ to\\ help\\ humans\\ to\\ become\\ better\\ but\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ how\\ many\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ that\\ unless\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ \\(made\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\,\\ or\\ at\\ the\\ minimum\\ orderly\\)\\.\\ Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ project\\.\\ Morality\\,\\ ethics\\,\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ artificial\\.\\ Sages\\ created\\ the\\ tradition\\ that\\ we\\ know\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ purely\\ artificial\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ that\\ anything\\ goes\\.\\ There\\ are\\ limited\\ sorts\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ work\\ based\\ on\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ large\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ and\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ processes\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ are\\ an\\ extreme\\ limit\\ on\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ do\\.\\ Human\\ nature\\ is\\ more\\ pliable\\,\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ base\\ humans\\ are\\ very\\ selfish\\ creatures\\,\\ and\\ any\\ artificial\\ world\\ we\\ create\\ must\\ take\\ that\\ into\\ account\\.\\ We\\ have\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ ritual\\ order\\ that\\ not\\ only\\ channels\\ human\\ desires\\,\\ but\\ controls\\ them\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ become\\ moral\\ human\\ beings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rely\\ on\\ rituals\\ alone\\ or\\ assume\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ be\\ naturally\\ drawn\\ to\\ a\\ moral\\ ruler\\,\\ and\\ since\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ the\\ Mohists\\ are\\ correct\\ in\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ institutions\\.\\ Those\\ institutions\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ people\\ good\\,\\ but\\ they\\ will\\ maintain\\ order\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ selfish\\ creatures\\.\\ Centralized\\ institutions\\ create\\ bureaucracies\\ and\\ laws\\ and\\ absolute\\ standards\\ that\\ threaten\\ the\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ of\\ self\\-cultivation\\,\\ but\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ we\\ need\\ them\\ anyway\\.\\ Xunzi\\ pushes\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ alone\\ as\\ the\\ creators\\ of\\ our\\ world\\ while\\ incorporating\\ self\\-cultivation\\,\\ Mohist\\ visions\\ of\\ governance\\,\\ and\\ Daoist\\ visions\\ of\\ the\\ spontaneous\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ human\\ beings\\ properly\\ construct\\ this\\ artificial\\ world\\,\\ and\\ what\\ happens\\ if\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\?\\ We\\ end\\ up\\ destroying\\ not\\ only\\ each\\ other\\,\\ but\\ everything\\.\\ Are\\ fish\\ or\\ deer\\ or\\ birds\\ going\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ orderly\\ world\\?\\ The\\ world\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ it\\.\\ The\\ stakes\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\,\\ will\\ we\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ each\\ other\\?\\ They\\ are\\,\\ will\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ orderly\\ world\\?\\ It\\ means\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ cosmic\\ function\\.\\ The\\ world\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ b\\/c\\ otherwise\\ we\\ will\\ destroy\\ it\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ human\\ project\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ charge\\ upon\\ which\\ everything\\ depends\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ philosophies\\ find\\ ways\\ to\\ weasel\\ out\\ of\\ forcing\\ humans\\ to\\ recognize\\ what\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ do\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ too\\ easy\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ Heaven\\ will\\ tell\\ us\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ or\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ follow\\ natural\\ processes\\ or\\ that\\ we\\ just\\ have\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ bureaucratic\\ order\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ November\\ 7\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ will\\ be\\ order\\ only\\ if\\ humans\\ act\\ properly\\.\\ If\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ raising\\ the\\ stakes\\ enough\\,\\ Xunzi\\ raises\\ them\\ more\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ historical\\ context\\.\\ He\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ age\\ than\\ Confucius\\,\\ for\\ whom\\ the\\ key\\ was\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ ritual\\ system\\ which\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ pretty\\ much\\ works\\.\\ In\\ the\\ intervening\\ two\\ centuries\\,\\ things\\ have\\ changed\\.\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ world\\:\\ enfeoffed\\ rulers\\ were\\ not\\ really\\ paying\\ enough\\ tribute\\ to\\ the\\ Zhou\\ king\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ still\\ pretty\\ much\\ in\\ charge\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ world\\:\\ these\\ rulers\\ were\\ creating\\ de\\ facto\\ autonomous\\ states\\,\\ arming\\ themselves\\ for\\ war\\,\\ building\\ centralized\\ states\\.\\ In\\ such\\ a\\ world\\,\\ talking\\ about\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ rituals\\ of\\ the\\ Zhou\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ workable\\ option\\.\\ From\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perspective\\,\\ the\\ Mencian\\ solution\\ is\\ potentially\\ worse\\ \\(b\\/c\\ it\\ downplays\\ ritual\\ and\\ emphasizes\\ human\\ nature\\)\\.\\ Of\\ course\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ follow\\ you\\ if\\ you\\ say\\ \\(as\\ Mencius\\ does\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;forget\\ about\\ the\\ military\\,\\ forget\\ about\\ institutions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ create\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ new\\ order\\ in\\ general\\,\\ but\\ new\\ orders\\ as\\ times\\ change\\.\\ We\\ need\\ more\\ sages\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ ongoing\\ project\\,\\ continuing\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ creating\\ order\\ that\\ the\\ sages\\ did\\ in\\ antiquity\\.\\ We\\ must\\ endlessly\\ train\\ ourselves\\ in\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ we\\ become\\ sages\\.\\ The\\ previous\\ Confucians\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ this\\ seriously\\ enough\\.\\ If\\ we\\ must\\ become\\ sages\\,\\ how\\ does\\ this\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ humans\\ as\\ being\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ ancient\\ sages\\ create\\ rituals\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\ They\\ were\\ humans\\,\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ precedents\\ telling\\ them\\ what\\ to\\ do\\.\\ Analogy\\ of\\ craftsmanship\\:\\ they\\ did\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ a\\ potter\\ does\\ when\\ he\\ makes\\ pottery\\,\\ but\\ not\\ when\\ he\\ first\\ invented\\ ceramics\\.\\ The\\ potter\\ has\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ clay\\ and\\ needs\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ store\\ water\\ and\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ moved\\ around\\.\\ He\\ needs\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ solution\\ and\\ train\\ himself\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ problem\\ accurately\\ and\\ work\\ with\\ the\\ clay\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ pot\\ with\\ handles\\.\\ Once\\ he\\ has\\ seen\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ he\\ naturally\\ generates\\ a\\ pot\\ through\\ his\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ clay\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Xunzi\\,\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ sage\\ does\\ in\\ antiquity\\ or\\ now\\ when\\ he\\ creates\\ new\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ ethical\\ problems\\ is\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ potter\\ does\\ with\\ clay\\.\\ The\\ analogy\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ dispositions\\,\\ inclinations\\,\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ them\\,\\ we\\ interact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ certain\\ ways\\,\\ usually\\ badly\\.\\ We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ like\\ clay\\,\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ faculties\\/qualities\\.\\ A\\ sage\\ trains\\ himself\\ to\\ see\\ those\\ qualities\\ and\\ the\\ dispositions\\ of\\ humans\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ humans\\ fall\\ into\\ and\\ work\\ out\\ better\\ ways\\ for\\ humans\\ to\\ start\\ responding\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ natural\\ dispositions\\ and\\ inclinations\\.\\ Rituals\\ are\\ not\\ arbitrary\\ conventions\\,\\ but\\ constructs\\ based\\ on\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ basic\\ types\\ of\\ solutions\\ that\\ will\\ channel\\ dispositions\\ in\\ better\\ ways\\.\\ Comparative\\ anthropology\\:\\ in\\ every\\ Neolithic\\ tradition\\,\\ every\\ time\\ a\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ settle\\ down\\ and\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ consequent\\ problems\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ how\\ to\\ transport\\ water\\ and\\ grains\\,\\ they\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ solution\\:\\ pottery\\.\\ They\\ faced\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\,\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ same\\ stuff\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ them\\ \\(mud\\/clay\\)\\,\\ and\\ they\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ solution\\.\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ when\\ humans\\ face\\ similar\\ problems\\,\\ they\\ will\\ deal\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ basic\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ rituals\\ in\\ various\\ cultures\\ are\\ not\\ that\\ different\\:\\ marriage\\,\\ renewal\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ The\\ specifics\\ will\\ be\\ different\\,\\ but\\ they\\ all\\ work\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ channel\\ human\\ dispositions\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ make\\ people\\ better\\.\\ Xunzi\\ would\\ say\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\.\\ History\\ proves\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ how\\ things\\ happen\\.\\ We\\ just\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\ very\\ well\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ If\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ born\\ into\\ ritual\\ orders\\ that\\ are\\ aimed\\ at\\ making\\ us\\ better\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ better\\ or\\ see\\ that\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ rituals\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ that\\?\\ Exactly\\ as\\ the\\ potter\\ with\\ the\\ pot\\.\\ People\\ are\\ favored\\ to\\ do\\ it\\.\\ If\\ things\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\ well\\,\\ we\\ created\\ that\\ situation\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ solve\\ it\\.\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ train\\ people\\ to\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ bureaucratic\\ institutions\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ follow\\ Mencius\\ and\\ say\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\,\\ we\\ should\\ create\\ a\\ bureaucracy\\ composed\\ of\\ people\\ striving\\ to\\ be\\ sages\\.\\ This\\ actually\\ came\\ into\\ fruition\\:\\ civil\\ service\\ examination\\,\\ open\\ to\\ anyone\\,\\ that\\ tests\\ not\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ your\\ ability\\ to\\ confront\\ and\\ deal\\ with\\ problems\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ use\\ institutions\\ in\\ non\\-selfish\\ ways\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ this\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ humans\\ as\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\?\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ polemical\\ opposition\\ to\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ overly\\ generous\\ view\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ b\\/c\\ ultimately\\ it\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ people\\ would\\ not\\ actually\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ problems\\.\\ Politically\\,\\ Mencius\\ did\\ not\\ really\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ problems\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ parts\\ of\\ ourselves\\,\\ our\\ selfish\\ desires\\,\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ controlled\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\,\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ surrounded\\ by\\ people\\ simply\\ operating\\ out\\ of\\ personal\\ self\\-interest\\.\\ The\\ flip\\ side\\ of\\ that\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ yes\\,\\ we\\ have\\ these\\ selfish\\ desires\\,\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ inclinations\\ and\\ dispositions\\ and\\ faculties\\ that\\ enable\\ us\\ to\\ control\\ those\\ desires\\ and\\ to\\ become\\ sages\\ and\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ those\\ problems\\.\\ It\\ is\\ our\\ cosmic\\ necessity\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ cosmos\\ \\(Heaven\\ and\\ Earth\\)\\ need\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ If\\ we\\ fail\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ we\\ destroy\\ everything\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ a\\ powerfully\\ optimistic\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORE\\ WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\ for\\ 11\\-5\\-2007\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ and\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ become\\ two\\ poles\\ around\\ which\\ remainder\\ of\\ Confucian\\ tradition\\ develops\\:\\ From\\ now\\ on\\,\\ figures\\ define\\ themselves\\ as\\ either\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Mencian\\ line\\ or\\ the\\ Xunzi\\ line\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historical\\ context\\:\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\&mdash\\;Confucius\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ is\\ revered\\ but\\ politically\\ irrelevant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ thinks\\ Confucius\\ failed\\ in\\ making\\ a\\ political\\ program\\ as\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ politically\\ effective\\ figure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philosophical\\ precedence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ tries\\ to\\ take\\ Confucian\\ ideas\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ politically\\ viable\\ \\&ndash\\;but\\ he\\ failed\\;\\ rulers\\ did\\ not\\ really\\ listen\\ to\\ him\\,\\ even\\ though\\ one\\ ruler\\ gave\\ him\\ a\\ significant\\ political\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dao\\ De\\ Jing\\,\\ Zhuang\\ Ze\\,\\ Inward\\ Training\\:\\ give\\ a\\ different\\ philosophical\\ approach\\ than\\ Confucianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\:\\ 1\\)\\ respond\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ critics\\ effectively\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ Make\\ Confucianism\\ a\\ politically\\ viable\\ force\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ has\\ the\\ first\\ synchronistic\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ period\\ that\\ draws\\ from\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ elements\\ we\\ have\\ heard\\ of\\ so\\ far\\ \\(even\\ incorporates\\ Mohists\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attack\\ on\\ Mencius\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ thinks\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ good\\&mdash\\;nurture\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ goodness\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ sage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ can\\ overthrow\\ a\\ bad\\ ruler\\ b\\/c\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ repulsed\\ by\\ bad\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ inherently\\ drawn\\ to\\ those\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ naturally\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Develops\\ entire\\ political\\ philosophy\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ institutions\\ or\\ strong\\ forms\\ of\\ governance\\&mdash\\;simply\\ focus\\ on\\ nurturing\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heaven\\ gives\\ us\\ the\\ nature\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ which\\ makes\\ us\\ overthrow\\ bad\\ rulers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\:\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ we\\ are\\ selfish\\ creatures\\ driven\\ by\\ selfish\\ desires\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ seed\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ nurtured\\ into\\ something\\ good\\&mdash\\;humans\\ are\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\External\\ forces\\ like\\ rituals\\,\\ laws\\,\\ institutions\\,\\ strong\\ centralized\\ government\\ are\\ only\\ ways\\ to\\ force\\ population\\ into\\ being\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ critique\\:\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ idea\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ overthrowing\\ rulers\\ left\\ and\\ right\\,\\ without\\ any\\ structure\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ wrong\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Response\\ to\\ Mohists\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohists\\:\\ Heaven\\ is\\ good\\;\\ Heaven\\,\\ ghosts\\,\\ and\\ spirits\\ all\\ regulate\\ the\\ world\\;\\ by\\ recreating\\ the\\ system\\,\\ we\\ can\\ continue\\ to\\ reward\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ punish\\ the\\ bad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\:\\ Heaven\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\;\\ Heaven\\ is\\ simply\\ natural\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seasons\\ just\\ change\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ good\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ bad\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ spontaneous\\ working\\ of\\ natural\\ world\\ and\\ natural\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ all\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ create\\ strong\\ forms\\ of\\ centralized\\ governance\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ good\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ act\\ against\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Going\\ against\\ Heaven\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ b\\/c\\ heaven\\ is\\ just\\ changes\\ in\\ natural\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\ main\\ points\\ thus\\ far\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\&mdash\\;doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ send\\ rewards\\ or\\ punishments\\ to\\ humans\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ become\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ does\\ goodness\\ come\\ from\\ then\\?\\ Goodness\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ sages\\:\\ sages\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\ who\\ have\\ trained\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ really\\ awesome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ admits\\ we\\ need\\ more\\ people\\ like\\ this\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ continue\\ improving\\ humanity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contradiction\\:\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ straighten\\ ourselves\\;\\ sages\\ make\\ us\\ straight\\;\\ sages\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\ who\\ have\\ trained\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\;\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ model\\ selves\\ on\\ heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Ancient\\ Period\\:\\ sages\\ used\\ faculties\\ they\\ had\\ from\\ birth\\ to\\ look\\ around\\ themselves\\,\\ see\\ how\\ humans\\ behaved\\,\\ problems\\ in\\ that\\,\\ and\\ then\\ train\\ selves\\ through\\ good\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ change\\ themselves\\,\\ then\\ how\\ did\\ sages\\ do\\ it\\?\\ B\\/c\\ human\\ nature\\ might\\ be\\ like\\ \\ \\;crooked\\ wood\\ but\\ human\\ beings\\ have\\ other\\ faculties\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ use\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Look\\ at\\ forms\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\,\\ then\\ create\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ behaving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ all\\ the\\ dramatic\\ polemic\\ against\\ Mencius\\,\\ this\\ starts\\ to\\ sound\\ like\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ faculty\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ to\\ train\\ selves\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ human\\ beings\\;\\ these\\ faculties\\ are\\ natural\\,\\ and\\ since\\ heaven\\ is\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ these\\ faculties\\ are\\ also\\ from\\ heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\ believes\\ Mohists\\,\\ Daoists\\ \\ \\;accurately\\ saw\\ problems\\ with\\ Confucius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ Mohists\\ had\\ seen\\ Mencius\\,\\ they\\ were\\ right\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ were\\ attacking\\ Mencius\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Follow\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ view\\,\\ you\\ are\\ telling\\ rulers\\ that\\ laws\\ are\\ not\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\:\\ if\\ you\\ take\\ out\\ laws\\,\\ you\\ create\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ current\\ power\\ structures\\ continue\\&mdash\\;so\\ Mencius\\ was\\ totally\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Daoist\\ critique\\ is\\ correct\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophical\\ position\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ we\\ grant\\ all\\ the\\ critiques\\ just\\ mentioned\\,\\ we\\ now\\ have\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Build\\ up\\ a\\ full\\ system\\ that\\ accounts\\ for\\ everything\\ good\\ in\\ those\\ other\\ philosophies\\ and\\ responds\\ to\\ criticisms\\ of\\ the\\ bad\\ parts\\ of\\ Confucianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maintains\\ emphasis\\ on\\ self\\-cultivation\\ through\\ ritual\\ practice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Heaven\\ is\\ not\\ guiding\\ us\\ in\\ any\\ way\\&mdash\\;we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ base\\ our\\ actions\\ on\\ claims\\ of\\ Heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ humans\\ have\\ selfish\\ desires\\,\\ must\\ take\\ them\\ into\\ account\\ in\\ attempts\\ to\\ improve\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Must\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ limitations\\&mdash\\;people\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ orderly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Go\\ back\\ to\\ basic\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\human\\ project\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ world\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\&mdash\\;everything\\ comes\\ down\\ to\\ this\\ for\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ process\\ of\\ building\\ up\\ a\\ tradition\\ of\\ refining\\ what\\ came\\ before\\ \\(better\\ rituals\\,\\ better\\ political\\ systems\\)\\ involve\\ human\\ beings\\ looking\\ around\\,\\ seeing\\ problems\\,\\ developing\\ something\\ better\\,\\ and\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ millennium\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ moral\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ world\\ is\\ purely\\ artificial\\,\\ humans\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ construct\\ any\\ order\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ b\\/c\\ limits\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ world\\ and\\ human\\ nature\\ impose\\ limits\\&mdash\\;we\\ must\\ live\\ within\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\/c\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;\\ t\\ rely\\ on\\ ritual\\ alone\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ assume\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ drawn\\ towards\\ good\\ rulers\\;\\ therefore\\ Mohists\\ are\\ correct\\ in\\ saying\\ we\\ need\\ institutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institutions\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ people\\ good\\ or\\ moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Selfishness\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ drives\\ need\\ for\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ pushes\\ to\\ an\\ extraordinary\\ degree\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ alone\\ as\\ the\\ creators\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ we\\ live\\ in\\,\\ and\\ doing\\ so\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ builds\\ upon\\ all\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ Confucius\\,\\ while\\ incorporating\\ Mohist\\ visions\\ of\\ governance\\,\\ and\\ Daoist\\ visions\\ of\\ the\\ spontaneous\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ exist\\ is\\ artificial\\,\\ if\\ human\\ world\\ is\\ a\\ construct\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ if\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ morals\\ and\\ systems\\ of\\ government\\ are\\ not\\ given\\ to\\ us\\ by\\ higher\\ powers\\,\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ construct\\ this\\ artificial\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ continues\\&mdash\\;what\\ happens\\ if\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ construct\\ this\\ artificial\\ world\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\,\\ then\\ who\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ orderly\\ world\\?\\ The\\ world\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ kill\\ ourselves\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ too\\;\\ order\\ will\\ never\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cosmos\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ construct\\ an\\ artificial\\ world\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ human\\ project\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ human\\ project\\ that\\ everything\\ depends\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ of\\ most\\ philosophies\\ of\\ this\\ period\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ find\\ ways\\ to\\ weasel\\ out\\ of\\ forcing\\ humans\\ to\\ recognize\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ do\\&mdash\\;they\\ call\\ on\\ heaven\\ or\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ build\\ the\\ world\\ on\\ the\\ understanding\\ that\\ whatever\\ we\\ do\\ must\\ be\\ changed\\ b\\/c\\ world\\ changes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\-7\\-2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\ stated\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ ritual\\ system\\:\\ Xunzi\\ agrees\\ with\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ rituals\\ but\\ notes\\ that\\ in\\ two\\ centuries\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ changed\\ dramatically\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\,\\ kingdoms\\ constantly\\ vied\\ for\\ order\\&mdash\\;autonomous\\ rulers\\ of\\ centralized\\ states\\ at\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zhou\\ rituals\\ for\\ becoming\\ good\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ realistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Times\\ have\\ changed\\ since\\ then\\&mdash\\;we\\ need\\ to\\ invent\\ new\\ things\\ too\\,\\ so\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ invent\\ new\\ sages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ we\\ must\\ endlessly\\ train\\ ourselves\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ become\\ sages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\.e\\.\\,\\ previous\\ Confucians\\ have\\ not\\ faced\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ full\\ difficulty\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ this\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ humans\\ being\\ crooked\\ piece\\ of\\ wood\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ and\\ must\\ become\\ sages\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ ancient\\ sages\\ create\\ rituals\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\ Ancient\\ sages\\ were\\ humans\\ w\\/o\\ instructions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ analogies\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ \\(Zhuang\\ Zi\\)\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\;\\ these\\ examples\\ are\\ craftsmen\\&mdash\\;example\\,\\ potter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ potter\\ has\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ clay\\ and\\ a\\ problem\\:\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ store\\ water\\ and\\ can\\ move\\ water\\ around\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Facing\\ that\\ problem\\ and\\ with\\ his\\ given\\ resources\\ \\(clay\\)\\ he\\ comes\\ up\\ w\\/\\ a\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\?\\ By\\ training\\ himself\\&mdash\\;accurately\\ sees\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ accurately\\ sees\\ stuff\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ \\(clay\\)\\,\\ then\\ works\\ with\\ clay\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ pot\\ that\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ process\\ is\\ one\\ where\\ he\\ trains\\ himself\\ and\\ then\\ naturally\\ generates\\ a\\ pot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ apply\\ this\\ example\\?\\ The\\ way\\ sages\\ dealt\\ with\\ ethical\\ problems\\ is\\ literally\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ potter\\ does\\ with\\ pieces\\ of\\ clay\\;\\ analogy\\:\\ we\\ human\\ beings\\ have\\ dispositions\\ and\\ desires\\ and\\ inclinations\\;\\ because\\ of\\ that\\,\\ we\\ interact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ certain\\ ways\\&mdash\\;usually\\ pretty\\ badly\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ not\\ purely\\ badly\\&mdash\\;despite\\ our\\ selfish\\ desires\\ that\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ we\\ also\\ have\\ other\\ faculties\\ that\\ are\\ equally\\ human\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ are\\ like\\ clay\\&mdash\\;we\\ have\\ other\\ qualities\\;\\ sages\\ train\\ themselves\\ to\\ see\\ those\\ qualities\\,\\ see\\ the\\ dispositions\\ of\\ humans\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ foundations\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ understanding\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ humans\\ fall\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ they\\ do\\ this\\,\\ they\\ are\\ creating\\ rituals\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ convention\\,\\ but\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ actual\\ dispositions\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ sages\\ did\\ in\\ antiquity\\,\\ and\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ now\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defense\\ of\\ first\\ point\\ of\\ Xun\\ Zi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ in\\ historical\\ retrospect\\,\\ we\\ defend\\ him\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concrete\\ examples\\ from\\ comparative\\ anthropology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pottery\\:\\ in\\ every\\ Neolithic\\ tradition\\ in\\ every\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ every\\ time\\ a\\ human\\ community\\ settles\\ down\\ they\\ face\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ grain\\,\\ how\\ to\\ move\\ water\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ community\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ same\\ solutions\\&mdash\\;came\\ up\\ w\\/\\ identical\\ pots\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\ would\\ say\\ of\\ course\\ they\\ did\\ this\\!\\ They\\ had\\ same\\ problem\\ and\\ same\\ resources\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\,\\ human\\ being\\ deals\\ with\\ problem\\ in\\ same\\ basic\\ way\\;\\ that\\ this\\ occurred\\ w\\/o\\ exception\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ human\\ history\\ shows\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ on\\ to\\ something\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ a\\/b\\ ritual\\?\\ If\\ we\\ tend\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ all\\ rituals\\ in\\ cultures\\ are\\ radically\\ different\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ wrong\\&mdash\\;they\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everywhere\\,\\ humans\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ and\\ invented\\ the\\ same\\ rituals\\ \\(marriage\\,\\ funeral\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ rituals\\ channel\\ human\\ disposition\\ into\\ ways\\ that\\ make\\ us\\ better\\ human\\ beings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ around\\ and\\ see\\ that\\ some\\ rituals\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\&mdash\\;either\\ b\\/c\\ rituals\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\ or\\ b\\/c\\ times\\ have\\ changed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ ancient\\ sages\\ did\\&mdash\\;create\\ new\\ rituals\\,\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ interacting\\,\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ becoming\\ better\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\?\\ Like\\ the\\ potter\\.\\ Train\\ ourselves\\ to\\ see\\ why\\ we\\ treat\\ each\\ other\\ badly\\,\\ train\\ ourselves\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ our\\ actions\\ better\\,\\ train\\ ourselves\\ to\\ be\\ ever\\ better\\ in\\ affecting\\ others\\ for\\ the\\ better\\,\\ responding\\ to\\ situations\\,\\ ever\\ better\\ at\\ affecting\\ others\\ for\\ the\\ better\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ an\\ ordered\\ system\\?\\ There\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ options\\&mdash\\;classlessness\\,\\ strict\\ class\\ system\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;hard\\ to\\ lay\\ out\\ a\\ single\\ system\\ and\\ solving\\ one\\ problem\\ could\\ start\\ another\\ problem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ instead\\ of\\ instituting\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ system\\,\\ what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ instead\\ is\\ to\\ hone\\ ability\\ to\\ identify\\ and\\ solve\\ problems\\;\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ would\\ probably\\ advocate\\ having\\ many\\ systems\\&mdash\\;a\\ single\\ sage\\ is\\ great\\,\\ but\\ to\\ have\\ many\\ sages\\ is\\ better\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ being\\ as\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ in\\ explicit\\ polemical\\ opposition\\ to\\ Mencius\\&mdash\\;Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ view\\ was\\ way\\ too\\ generous\\ b\\/c\\ this\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ people\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ face\\ up\\ truly\\ to\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ being\\ moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ is\\ key\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ parts\\ of\\ ourselves\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ controlled\\ and\\ straightened\\;\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ likely\\ that\\ most\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\ will\\ be\\ controlled\\ by\\ people\\ operating\\ in\\ and\\ through\\ systems\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ flip\\ side\\ of\\ this\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ is\\ the\\ upside\\,\\ optimistic\\ view\\&mdash\\;yeah\\ we\\ have\\ these\\ desires\\ and\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ dominated\\ by\\ selfish\\ people\\;\\ but\\ the\\ flipside\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ inclinations\\ and\\ faculties\\ that\\ can\\ control\\ these\\ selfish\\ desires\\ and\\ also\\ enable\\ to\\ truly\\ become\\ sages\\&mdash\\;truly\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ problems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Lecture\\ Notes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Book\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\eventually\\ became\\ legalism\\:\\ new\\ theory\\ of\\ statecraft\\ \\(no\\ need\\ for\\ morality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vision\\ for\\ how\\ to\\ organize\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\book\\ written\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ BCE\\ \\(Lord\\ Shang\\ lived\\ in\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ BCE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\philosophical\\ argument\\ why\\ Lord\\ Shang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ were\\ proper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lived\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\ \\=\\ far\\ West\\ of\\ China\\,\\ off\\ on\\ fringes\\,\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ removed\\ from\\ intellectual\\ discourse\\ and\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;made\\ minister\\ of\\ Qin\\:\\ reform\\ to\\ make\\ Qin\\ most\\ powerful\\ state\\ and\\ bring\\ order\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ China\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\other\\ states\\ in\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ BCE\\ wondered\\ whether\\ they\\ should\\ try\\ to\\ stop\\ Qin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strategy\\ or\\ use\\ the\\ strategy\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\philosophy\\ defined\\ as\\ theory\\ of\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ matters\\ is\\ building\\ a\\ powerful\\,\\ orderly\\ state\\:\\ create\\ institutions\\ \\(not\\ to\\ convince\\ people\\ to\\ strive\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\ most\\ important\\ goals\\:\\ agriculture\\ and\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\related\\ b\\/c\\ agriculture\\ \\=\\ grow\\ food\\ \\=\\ state\\ should\\ run\\ agriculture\\ and\\ calculate\\ maximum\\ yields\\ from\\ each\\ region\\,\\ how\\ to\\ move\\ excess\\ around\\ \\=\\ create\\ tremendous\\ surpluses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\know\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ needed\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ fields\\ \\=\\ know\\ how\\ many\\ you\\ can\\ spare\\ to\\ put\\ in\\ factories\\ and\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ then\\ take\\ over\\ new\\ lands\\ \\=\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ powerful\\ military\\ juggernaut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ create\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\strong\\,\\ centralized\\ state\\ to\\ run\\ everything\\:\\ need\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\train\\ skilled\\ bureaucrats\\,\\ not\\ moral\\ people\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ morality\\ for\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\create\\ absolute\\ standards\\ and\\ laws\\;\\ reward\\ by\\ promotion\\,\\ punish\\ harshly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mohists\\ wrong\\ b\\/c\\ worked\\ for\\ good\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\purpose\\ \\=\\ build\\ a\\ powerful\\ state\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ why\\ order\\ will\\ be\\ good\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\institutions\\ are\\ amoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anyone\\ promoted\\ by\\ system\\ will\\ have\\ allegiance\\ to\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ train\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\:\\ moral\\ autonomy\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ question\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\ for\\ state\\ \\=\\ punished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;do\\ X\\ and\\ be\\ rewarded\\ or\\ do\\ Y\\ and\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ punished\\ beyond\\ what\\ you\\ can\\ even\\ imagine\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\scare\\ people\\ into\\ following\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\ of\\ reforms\\:\\ state\\ controlled\\ movement\\ of\\ agriculture\\ between\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Many\\ other\\ states\\ adopt\\ legalist\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\text\\ argues\\ that\\ Lord\\ Shang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\221\\ BCE\\ Qin\\ takes\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ state\\ of\\ China\\ \\=\\ beginning\\ of\\ Qin\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\causes\\ other\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ practical\\ details\\ like\\ how\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\face\\ practical\\ problem\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ w\\/an\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ worked\\ with\\ Xunzi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Does\\ a\\ ruler\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ people\\ need\\ \\=\\ Han\\ Feizi\\:\\ No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalism\\ needed\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ step\\,\\ to\\ build\\ support\\ and\\ make\\ institutions\\ operate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ need\\ to\\ truly\\ understand\\ how\\ power\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\ only\\ understood\\ institutions\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ how\\ they\\ worked\\ or\\ how\\ rulers\\ should\\ use\\ these\\ institutions\\ to\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ someone\\ did\\ understood\\ what\\ power\\ was\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Laozi\\ in\\ the\\ Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Really\\ knew\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ power\\,\\ and\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ how\\ to\\ cloak\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TO\\ point\\ where\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ realize\\ to\\ what\\ point\\ power\\ is\\ being\\ used\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\And\\ build\\ upon\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ power\\ that\\ worked\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ take\\ new\\ step\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ take\\ steps\\ to\\ truly\\,\\ truly\\ good\\ system\\ that\\ really\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ link\\ legal\\ system\\ with\\ Daodejing\\,\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ it\\ lead\\ to\\ better\\,\\ more\\ effective\\ system\\ of\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalist\\ have\\ right\\ vision\\ of\\ institutions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ awarded\\/punished\\ on\\ whether\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ \\(deterred\\ by\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ could\\ do\\ all\\ this\\ and\\ still\\ have\\ a\\ failed\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ will\\ see\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ military\\ state\\,\\ but\\ for\\ same\\ reason\\:\\ some\\ will\\ support\\,\\ some\\ oppose\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ because\\ see\\ themselves\\ under\\ powerful\\ state\\ \\(people\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ generally\\ like\\ that\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ Daodejing\\ discussed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recall\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Have\\ people\\ controlled\\ by\\ rules\\ and\\ laws\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ them\\ know\\ what\\ they\\ are\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ let\\ \\ \\;them\\ know\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ under\\ rules\\/laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\ them\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ spontaneous\\,\\ but\\ in\\ fact\\ controlled\\ by\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organize\\ system\\ but\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ a\\ military\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Create\\ Daoist\\ Utopia\\ where\\ everyone\\ is\\ following\\ spontaneous\\ way\\,\\ but\\ in\\ fact\\ are\\ simply\\ doing\\ what\\ are\\ being\\ told\\ to\\ do\\ by\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ be\\ begin\\ with\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ institutions\\,\\ but\\ what\\ really\\ need\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ is\\ the\\ ruler\\:\\ understands\\ institutions\\ and\\ let\\ them\\ work\\ without\\ people\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ controlled\\ by\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turn\\ focus\\ to\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ writing\\ written\\ as\\ advice\\ to\\ ruoelrs\\,\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\ legalist\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\And\\ when\\ he\\ does\\ so\\,\\ language\\ he\\ uses\\ is\\ language\\ from\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ to\\ a\\ ruler\\ will\\ say\\:\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ ruler\\ effective\\ your\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ ruler\\:\\ well\\,\\ you\\ do\\ what\\ Loazi\\ tells\\ you\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Be\\ empty\\,\\ still\\,\\ follow\\ the\\ way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ then\\ \\ \\;you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ an\\ effective\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ sounds\\ mystical\\,\\ then\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ explains\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ empty\\/still\\ as\\ a\\ ruler\\:\\ sit\\ there\\ as\\ a\\ ruler\\,\\ let\\ ministers\\ come\\ in\\ and\\ give\\ policy\\ advice\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\you\\ do\\ NOTHING\\,\\ nothing\\ that\\ hints\\ at\\ what\\ best\\ advice\\ you\\ think\\ it\\ is\\,\\ never\\ show\\ your\\ cards\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ should\\ say\\ to\\ win\\ \\ \\;your\\ approval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ can\\ see\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ really\\ up\\ to\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behind\\ their\\ policy\\ decisions\\,\\ to\\ see\\ which\\ ones\\ might\\ be\\ lies\\ and\\ which\\ are\\ just\\ attempts\\ to\\ help\\ themselves\\,\\ which\\ ones\\ telling\\ you\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\,\\ which\\ ones\\ actually\\ giving\\ you\\ helpful\\ advice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ through\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ getting\\ at\\;\\ and\\ will\\ know\\ which\\ one\\ to\\ keep\\/kill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ once\\ follow\\ advice\\ and\\ put\\ policies\\ into\\ action\\;\\ and\\ again\\ will\\ be\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\:\\ active\\ rulers\\ potentially\\ create\\ opposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ try\\ to\\ control\\ people\\,\\ people\\ will\\ try\\ to\\ fight\\ back\\/revolt\\;\\ so\\ no\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ do\\ the\\ policy\\,\\ but\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ policy\\ so\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ thinks\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ nothing\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ do\\ policy\\:\\ make\\ it\\ seem\\ natural\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Come\\ off\\ to\\ people\\ as\\ having\\ no\\ opinion\\,\\ not\\ engage\\ in\\ things\\:\\ but\\ secretly\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ running\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Precisely\\ because\\ seem\\ not\\ involved\\ that\\ can\\ control\\/oversee\\ everything\\;\\ And\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ fight\\ against\\ you\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ think\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ an\\ active\\ ruler\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ can\\ pull\\ this\\ off\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ will\\ have\\ all\\ these\\ institutions\\,\\ build\\ a\\ military\\ structure\\,\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ recognize\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ so\\:\\ and\\ THEN\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ in\\ control\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Way\\ to\\ build\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ state\\ is\\ simply\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Read\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Build\\ a\\ super\\ structure\\ with\\ legalist\\ set\\ of\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ anyone\\ know\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ everything\\ will\\ be\\ perfect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hanfeizi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Forget\\ about\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Support\\ legalist\\ institutions\\ \\(but\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ let\\ anyone\\ know\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ so\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Make\\ yourself\\ an\\ empty\\ Cypher\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ understands\\ or\\ knows\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\ people\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ their\\ natural\\ selves\\,\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ controlled\\ by\\ natural\\ military\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ that\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ noticed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethical\\,\\ but\\ table\\ it\\ for\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ really\\ good\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ can\\ use\\ Laozi\\,\\ rule\\ the\\ state\\ without\\ letting\\ other\\ people\\ what\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ up\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ China\\:\\ still\\ have\\ hereditary\\ monarchy\\ which\\ means\\ by\\ definition\\,\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ control\\ how\\ good\\ of\\ a\\ ruler\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ at\\ any\\ given\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ you\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ hereditary\\ monarchy\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ Laozi\\-ian\\ ruler\\ on\\ regular\\ basis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideally\\,\\ it\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ office\\,\\ because\\ whoever\\ is\\ there\\ just\\ rewards\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ punishes\\ the\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ a\\ ruler\\ who\\ can\\ rule\\ while\\ hiding\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ do\\ this\\?\\ For\\ any\\ ruler\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wise\\ enough\\ to\\ follow\\ Han\\ Feizi\\,\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ blueprint\\ to\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ not\\ just\\ writing\\ what\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ reading\\,\\ also\\ going\\ from\\ state\\ to\\ state\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ ruler\\ who\\ can\\/will\\ do\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hoping\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ minister\\,\\ guide\\ ruler\\ to\\ build\\ hidden\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ then\\ minister\\ has\\ things\\ that\\ ruler\\ needs\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\;\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ go\\ against\\ having\\ ruler\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ empty\\/still\\ and\\ kill\\ off\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ role\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ the\\ model\\ since\\ sage\\ minister\\ need\\ to\\ tell\\ ruler\\ what\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HF\\ saw\\ problem\\ and\\ attempted\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Embedded\\ in\\ very\\ writings\\ looking\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ when\\ HF\\ tells\\ a\\ ruler\\ be\\ empty\\,\\ be\\ still\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ anyone\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ anyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thinking\\;\\ but\\ goes\\ other\\ way\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ HF\\ can\\ convince\\ a\\ ruler\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ be\\ empty\\/still\\,\\ also\\ means\\ convince\\ ruler\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ interventionist\\,\\ let\\ ministers\\ make\\ policy\\ interventions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ creates\\ system\\ where\\ ministers\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ working\\/active\\ \\(rulers\\ passive\\)\\;\\ yes\\ ruler\\ will\\ implement\\ policy\\ decisions\\,\\ but\\ by\\ definition\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ ministers\\ who\\ actually\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flip\\ side\\ of\\ being\\ empty\\ and\\ not\\ do\\ anything\\,\\ but\\ leave\\ minister\\ to\\ make\\ recommendations\\ and\\ implements\\;\\ hope\\ for\\ this\\ double\\ edge\\ swords\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ ruler\\ is\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\,\\ hopefully\\ will\\ see\\ active\\ ministers\\ that\\ are\\ good\\ and\\ make\\ good\\ recommendations\\ and\\ get\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SO\\&hellip\\;system\\ of\\ HF\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ one\\ good\\ ruler\\,\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ senses\\ of\\ the\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ really\\ sees\\ what\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ up\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ be\\ a\\ really\\ dumb\\ ruler\\:\\ okay\\ too\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ and\\ listens\\ to\\ right\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ good\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruler\\ allows\\ minister\\ to\\ be\\ active\\ one\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Requires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Really\\ brilliant\\ ruler\\ or\\ a\\ really\\ DUMB\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ really\\ brilliant\\,\\ won\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ the\\ sage\\ minister\\;\\ if\\ really\\ dumb\\,\\ will\\ need\\ the\\ sage\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ scary\\ brilliance\\;\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ careful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Have\\ to\\ have\\ it\\ both\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ check\\ on\\ rulers\\ or\\ ritual\\ system\\ to\\ cultivate\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ human\\ being\\,\\ where\\ bureaucrats\\ are\\ being\\ trained\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ system\\ to\\ encourage\\ people\\,\\ ruler\\ on\\ down\\,\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comes\\ down\\ to\\ legalist\\ system\\,\\ complicated\\ relationship\\ between\\ minister\\ and\\ ruler\\ that\\ bears\\ weight\\ of\\ what\\ policy\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ heart\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ problem\\:\\ either\\ need\\ brilliant\\ or\\ really\\ stupid\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ will\\ system\\ work\\ if\\ not\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\;\\ or\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ the\\ right\\ relationship\\ between\\ ruler\\/minister\\ that\\ ou\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\=\\ philosophical\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Philosophical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ system\\ purely\\ focused\\ on\\ power\\,\\ without\\ ritual\\/goodness\\/etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ have\\ a\\ problem\\:\\ world\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ operate\\ unless\\ have\\ perfect\\ ruler\\ and\\ perfect\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HF\\ has\\ a\\ problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ state\\ is\\ tiny\\ one\\ called\\ Han\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ begin\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ to\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ he\\ gets\\ political\\ position\\:\\ both\\ for\\ sake\\ for\\ this\\ little\\ state\\ and\\ his\\ own\\ self\\ benefit\\ as\\ well\\;\\ need\\ alliance\\ between\\ his\\ own\\ state\\ and\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entails\\ him\\ going\\ to\\ Qin\\ and\\ talking\\ to\\ Qin\\ ruler\\ \\(to\\ help\\ his\\ homestate\\ of\\ Han\\,\\ of\\ course\\&hellip\\;\\)\\;\\ and\\ by\\ implication\\ gain\\ audience\\ of\\ most\\ powerful\\ ruler\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ to\\ Qin\\,\\ gains\\ audiences\\ with\\ ruler\\ of\\ Qin\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreshadowing\\ that\\ HF\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ known\\ but\\ should\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ known\\ is\\ a\\ possibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruler\\ was\\ King\\ Jung\\ of\\ Qin\\:\\ why\\ important\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ soon\\ thereafter\\,\\ this\\ king\\ would\\ be\\ ruler\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\ when\\ armies\\ are\\ unleashed\\ against\\ other\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ be\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ will\\ oversee\\ conquering\\ state\\ after\\ state\\,\\ and\\ destruction\\ of\\ all\\ remaining\\ state\\ and\\ creation\\ of\\ new\\,\\ political\\,\\ united\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ empire\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ China\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ ruler\\ that\\ creates\\ first\\ united\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ knows\\ very\\ well\\ in\\ the\\ audience\\ of\\ most\\ powerful\\ state\\,\\ and\\ that\\ those\\ armies\\ unleashed\\ could\\ ruler\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ King\\ Jung\\ not\\ an\\ idiot\\:\\ knows\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ in\\ position\\ to\\ create\\ of\\ this\\ empire\\;\\ century\\ of\\ Qin\\ institutions\\;\\ also\\ knows\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ effective\\ at\\ legitimating\\ his\\ ruler\\ if\\ wants\\ to\\ create\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Will\\ be\\ militarily\\ occupying\\ China\\,\\ and\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ generally\\ like\\ being\\ occupied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ convince\\ people\\ not\\ just\\ military\\ occupations\\:\\ have\\ a\\ ruler\\ that\\ knows\\ very\\ well\\ needs\\ to\\ understand\\ next\\ step\\ in\\ building\\ legalist\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ starts\\ talking\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ says\\,\\ I\\ have\\ the\\ philosophy\\ that\\ will\\ tell\\ you\\ exactly\\ what\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ starts\\ listening\\:\\ finally\\,\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ philosopher\\ that\\ understands\\ power\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sure\\ legalist\\ help\\ build\\ institution\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ how\\ need\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ populace\\ with\\ these\\ legalist\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ Qin\\ already\\ has\\ a\\ leading\\ philosophy\\:\\ leading\\ legalist\\ thinker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Li\\ Si\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalist\\ thinker\\ like\\ Han\\ Feizi\\,\\ but\\ also\\ an\\ old\\ classmate\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ studied\\ under\\ Xunzi\\;\\ and\\ both\\ students\\ had\\ decided\\ Xunzi\\ represented\\ old\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ of\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ decided\\ it\\ was\\ wrong\\,\\ overthrew\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ and\\ turned\\ to\\ Legalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ from\\ a\\ small\\ state\\,\\ mainly\\ worked\\ philosophically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Li\\ Si\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ as\\ main\\ minister\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ philosopher\\,\\ but\\ an\\ active\\ legalist\\ politicalist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ in\\ one\\ court\\:\\ two\\ greatest\\ thinks\\ of\\ the\\ day\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ being\\ absolutely\\ brilliant\\,\\ beginning\\ to\\ get\\ ear\\ of\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ also\\ politically\\ brilliant\\ and\\ very\\ ambitious\\,\\ not\\ pleased\\ with\\ this\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\About\\ to\\ be\\ become\\ first\\ minister\\ of\\ first\\ empire\\:\\ Hell\\ No\\!\\ \\ \\;Not\\ if\\ Li\\ Si\\ can\\ stop\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ very\\ dangerous\\ political\\ strategist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ to\\ ruler\\ and\\ says\\,\\ HF\\ is\\ brilliant\\,\\ but\\ unlike\\ me\\,\\ HF\\ is\\ employed\\ by\\ separate\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sure\\ is\\ brilliant\\,\\ but\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ trust\\ brilliant\\ people\\ like\\ this\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ using\\ \\ \\;you\\ because\\ from\\ a\\ weak\\ state\\,\\ all\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ telling\\ you\\ to\\ make\\ you\\ think\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ on\\ your\\ side\\ and\\ then\\ will\\ screw\\ you\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ultimately\\ his\\ allegiance\\ not\\ to\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ guy\\ is\\ dangerous\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ King\\ Jung\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ listened\\ to\\ Li\\ Si\\ all\\ this\\ time\\,\\ and\\ should\\ \\&ldquo\\;look\\ into\\ this\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ is\\ arrested\\ and\\ interrogated\\;\\ and\\ interrogation\\ in\\ Qin\\ means\\ being\\ tortured\\ until\\ truth\\ discovered\\ about\\ his\\ true\\ intentions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ HF\\ commits\\ suicide\\ in\\ prison\\ and\\ dies\\ in\\ prison\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Final\\ question\\:\\ Is\\ the\\ problem\\/fate\\ that\\ fell\\ on\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ telling\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ Qin\\ not\\ a\\ good\\ Legalist\\ state\\?\\ \\ \\;Innocent\\ people\\,\\ HF\\,\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ true\\ legalist\\ state\\,\\ anyone\\ doing\\ good\\ should\\ be\\ rewarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Qin\\ was\\ a\\ legalist\\ state\\;\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ legalist\\ state\\,\\ embodied\\ problems\\ of\\ any\\ legal\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ironically\\ the\\ major\\ problem\\ HF\\ trying\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ philosophically\\:\\ how\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ create\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ comes\\ down\\ to\\ relationship\\ between\\ minister\\/ruler\\,\\ with\\ no\\ emphasis\\ on\\ cultivating\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ ruler\\ hear\\ what\\ minister\\ saying\\ and\\ accept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ was\\ a\\ minister\\ that\\ convinced\\ a\\ ruler\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ the\\ Fate\\ upon\\ Feizi\\ about\\ very\\ difficulties\\ in\\ general\\ about\\ legalism\\,\\ or\\ how\\ HF\\ specifically\\ wen\\ about\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 11\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Rise\\ of\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ Lecture\\ 11\\/26\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\,\\ 11\\/28\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Full\\ century\\ into\\ reforms\\ created\\ by\\ Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goal\\:\\ create\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ after\\ state\\ falls\\ vs\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ incorporation\\ of\\ each\\ state\\,\\ more\\ \\&\\;\\ more\\ resources\\,\\ armies\\ get\\ bigger\\ \\&\\;\\ bigger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remaining\\ states\\ ally\\ w\\/each\\ other\\ in\\ last\\ ditch\\ attempt\\ to\\ not\\ fall\\ to\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ good\\ tho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\221\\ BCE\\ \\-\\ last\\ remaining\\ state\\ in\\ China\\ is\\ destroyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ Qin\\ armies\\ won\\,\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ that\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ for\\ empires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ fell\\ eventuallly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ doing\\ what\\ they\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ been\\ doing\\ while\\ conquering\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rule\\ China\\ as\\ an\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divide\\ it\\ up\\ into\\ commandery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ land\\ \\&\\;\\ resources\\ under\\ control\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Build\\ larger\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Move\\ old\\ state\\ rulers\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ local\\ states\\,\\ most\\ to\\ Qin\\ capital\\ \\-\\ destroys\\ all\\ local\\ power\\,\\ totally\\ under\\ control\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ it\\ all\\ connect\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rule\\ it\\ all\\ as\\ one\\ big\\ chunk\\,\\ rule\\ it\\ all\\ as\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roads\\ connecting\\ everything\\ are\\ built\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laws\\ passed\\ for\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eg\\ carriage\\ wheels\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ standard\\ size\\,\\ so\\ everyone\\ can\\ drive\\ on\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ is\\ unified\\,\\ everyone\\ uses\\ same\\ script\\,\\ everyone\\ can\\ understand\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ a\\ single\\,\\ unified\\ state\\ with\\ single\\,\\ unified\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ continue\\ to\\ build\\ huge\\ armies\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ reason\\ as\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ worked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ continue\\ to\\ expand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ strengthening\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ reason\\ to\\ follow\\ any\\ past\\ precedents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ to\\ call\\ ruler\\?\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Emperor\\"\\;\\ \\(literally\\,\\ \\"\\;august\\ God\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\&\\#39\\;s\\ beyond\\ mere\\ human\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ one\\ is\\ called\\ \\"\\;The\\ First\\ Emperor\\"\\;\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ claim\\ to\\ hold\\ mandate\\ of\\ God\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ another\\ dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Old\\ kings\\ had\\ to\\ have\\ mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\,\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ support\\ of\\ populus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dynastic\\ cycle\\ is\\ broken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ will\\ never\\ be\\ another\\ dynasty\\,\\ because\\ Qin\\ empire\\ will\\ be\\ around\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ philosophers\\ of\\ day\\ start\\ flocking\\ to\\ court\\,\\ telling\\ them\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ insane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ need\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ self\\-cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ moral\\ side\\ to\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\King\\ orders\\ that\\ all\\ Confucian\\ thinkers\\ will\\ be\\ buried\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ books\\ from\\ past\\ \\(except\\ those\\ dealing\\ with\\ history\\ of\\ Qin\\ state\\,\\ helpful\\ manuals\\ about\\ agriculture\\ \\&\\;\\ war\\)\\ should\\ be\\ burned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Making\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ no\\ other\\ view\\ would\\ be\\ tolerated\\ in\\ Qin\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Luckily\\ Qin\\ state\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ quite\\ as\\ powerful\\ as\\ it\\ hoped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orders\\ all\\ state\\ archives\\ to\\ be\\ burned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ private\\ collections\\ still\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ owned\\ by\\ people\\ who\\ opposed\\ Qin\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&\\#39\\;s\\ why\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ texts\\ that\\ we\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Probably\\ lost\\ a\\ huge\\ amount\\ from\\ this\\ tho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ Qin\\ state\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ happy\\ about\\ living\\ under\\ military\\ occupation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increasing\\ opposition\\ to\\ huge\\ amounts\\ of\\ grain\\ that\\ are\\ being\\ taken\\ to\\ feed\\ huge\\ armies\\ that\\ have\\ no\\ purpose\\ other\\ than\\ endless\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Little\\ local\\ rebellions\\ start\\ happening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armies\\ are\\ called\\ back\\ to\\ put\\ down\\ rebellions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ do\\ easily\\,\\ but\\ brutally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Causes\\ more\\ rebellions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armies\\ get\\ tired\\ of\\ it\\,\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\ role\\ of\\ putting\\ down\\ insurrections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ \\&\\;\\ more\\ rebellions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armies\\ are\\ marching\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ across\\ China\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ raise\\ local\\ militias\\ to\\ fight\\ Qin\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Start\\ to\\ get\\ bigger\\ and\\ bigger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Start\\ going\\ after\\ areas\\ of\\ weakness\\ \\-\\ supply\\ lines\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Just\\ what\\ old\\ philosophers\\ said\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ start\\ breaking\\ off\\ the\\ Qin\\ armies\\ \\&\\;\\ join\\ insurrections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Militias\\ start\\ taking\\ over\\ \\-\\ totally\\ ragtag\\ armies\\,\\ but\\ huge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qin\\ empire\\ is\\ in\\ complete\\ civil\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qin\\ armies\\ are\\ eventually\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ insurrections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ less\\ than\\ 20\\ years\\,\\ Qin\\ state\\ collapses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rebel\\ armies\\ take\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\206\\ BCE\\?\\ \\-\\ Qin\\ empire\\ falls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\&\\#39\\;s\\ future\\ of\\ China\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;Unclear\\&hellip\\;\\ state\\ of\\ civil\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ ragtag\\ armies\\ wins\\ the\\ day\\,\\ controls\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Declares\\ beginning\\ of\\ new\\ dynasty\\ \\(Han\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comtemporaries\\ of\\ time\\ thought\\ it\\ had\\ no\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ for\\ 4\\ cent\\,\\ builds\\ successful\\ version\\ of\\ Qin\\ empire\\ \\+\\ other\\ philosophies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imperial\\ unification\\ under\\ this\\ new\\ system\\ comes\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ norm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ Qin\\ fall\\ so\\ dramatically\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\,\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ should\\ be\\ built\\ upon\\ with\\ the\\ Qin\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ it\\ show\\ that\\ legalism\\ is\\ completely\\ wrong\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ build\\ a\\ new\\ state\\ in\\ aftermath\\ of\\ Qin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fall\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ did\\ the\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ Han\\ that\\ answered\\ these\\ Qs\\ so\\ successfully\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ couple\\ of\\ weeks\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Once\\ Qin\\ unification\\ \\&\\;\\ immediate\\ destruction\\ happens\\,\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ philosophies\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ you\\ build\\ a\\ state\\,\\ builds\\ on\\ these\\ philosophies\\,\\ do\\ it\\ practically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legalist\\ order\\ being\\ or\\ not\\ being\\ based\\ upon\\ personal\\ decision\\-making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Qin\\ \\-\\ took\\ out\\ all\\ personal\\ decision\\-making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institutions\\ are\\ so\\ strong\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ matter\\ who\\&\\#39\\;s\\ in\\ what\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ people\\ in\\ bureaucracy\\ that\\ do\\ what\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ told\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clear\\,\\ simple\\,\\ obvious\\ calculus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obvious\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ obvious\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ issue\\ for\\ Confucians\\ \\-\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ spontaneously\\ know\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ \\-\\ is\\ taken\\ off\\ the\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Han\\ Faezi\\ \\-\\ Qin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ exactly\\ right\\ for\\ everyone\\ below\\ king\\;\\ ruler\\ develops\\ techniques\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ which\\ ministers\\ are\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ systems\\ are\\ answering\\ same\\ problem\\ \\-\\ both\\ want\\ a\\ system\\ where\\ everything\\ is\\ clear\\,\\ institutionally\\ defined\\ \\-\\ take\\ out\\ human\\ decision\\-making\\ completely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ HF\\ \\-\\ ministers\\ are\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ legalist\\ thinking\\ \\-\\ ideal\\ of\\ no\\ human\\ decision\\-making\\,\\ but\\ in\\ reality\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ entirely\\ based\\ on\\ ministers\\&\\#39\\;\\/ruler\\&\\#39\\;s\\ decision\\ making\\ \\-\\ but\\ now\\ you\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ taken\\ out\\ the\\ self\\-cultivation\\ needed\\ for\\ those\\ ministers\\/ruler\\ to\\ make\\ good\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ Qin\\ empire\\ simply\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ legalist\\ state\\ where\\ you\\ try\\ to\\ take\\ personal\\ decision\\-making\\ off\\ the\\ table\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Week\\ 12\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ December\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-how\\ does\\ one\\ form\\ an\\ empire\\ that\\ will\\ actually\\ work\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Qin\\ falls\\.\\.\\.what\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ now\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ someone\\ needs\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ ruler\\ must\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ do\\ whatever\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ system\\ going\\ or\\ start\\ a\\ new\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\None\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ make\\ decisions\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ the\\ ruler\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ sage\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-you\\ need\\ ministers\\ who\\ can\\ make\\ decisions\\&hellip\\;at\\ every\\ stage\\/level\\ in\\ bureaucracy\\,\\ people\\ are\\ making\\ decisions\\ all\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\You\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;train\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ decisions\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ even\\ that\\ legalism\\ is\\ amoral\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ problem\\ alone\\ according\\ to\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Han\\ Dynasty\\:\\ faced\\ practical\\ problem\\&rarr\\;inherited\\ huge\\ empire\\ and\\ set\\ of\\ institutions\\ that\\ has\\ failed\\ miserably\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Entire\\ world\\ of\\ philosophy\\ will\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ big\\ move\\ is\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ unified\\ system\\ that\\ will\\ bring\\ the\\ people\\ together\\&hellip\\;successful\\ philosophical\\ argument\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ connect\\ all\\ the\\ existing\\ philosophies\\?\\ And\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ so\\,\\ we\\ might\\ also\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ workable\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ precisely\\ did\\ they\\ do\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lu\\ Jia\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\early\\ Confucian\\ in\\ the\\ Han\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\adviser\\ to\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ruler\\ of\\ Han\\ Dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\discusses\\ origins\\ of\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\things\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\:\\ patterns\\;\\ everything\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ vital\\ energy\\ \\(qi\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ dynamic\\ and\\ powerful\\ and\\ operates\\ on\\ basic\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\yin\\:\\ softness\\,\\ coldness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\yang\\:\\ hardness\\,\\ heat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\everything\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ interplay\\ between\\ these\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\yin\\ and\\ yang\\ are\\ categories\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Earlier\\ philosophers\\ had\\ erred\\ in\\ overly\\ focusing\\ on\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lu\\ Jia\\:\\ says\\ to\\ pull\\ everything\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ Confucian\\ synthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ problem\\ Xunzi\\ had\\ before\\&rarr\\;need\\ new\\ rituals\\,\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ statecraft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ were\\ rituals\\ initially\\ formed\\?\\&rarr\\;not\\ divine\\ commandment\\&hellip\\;they\\ were\\ created\\ by\\ people\\,\\ so\\ this\\ means\\ we\\ can\\ create\\ new\\ rituals\\,\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ trained\\ to\\ get\\ better\\ at\\ balancing\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confucius\\ was\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ both\\ incomplete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ bureaucracy\\ operate\\ following\\ an\\ Confucian\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ December\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ characters\\:\\ Lu\\ Jia\\,\\ Jia\\ Yi\\,\\ Dong\\ Zhongshu\\,\\ and\\ Wu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Legalism\\+Confucianism\\=\\ imperial\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dong\\ Zhongshu\\:\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ gets\\ the\\ integration\\ right\\ \\(all\\ previous\\ philosophies\\)\\ but\\ based\\ in\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Becomes\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ Chinese\\ state\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ 2\\,000\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ synthetic\\ view\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\ the\\ cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Relationship\\ between\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vital\\ energies\\,\\ qi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heaven\\/earth\\ potentially\\ is\\ a\\ unified\\ order\\;\\ human\\ beings\\ live\\ within\\ the\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ Xunzi\\,\\ human\\ beings\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ simply\\ live\\ between\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\&rarr\\;we\\ fundamentally\\ alter\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ live\\&hellip\\;we\\ change\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ better\\ or\\ worse\\ \\(Daoist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ could\\ destroy\\ the\\ cosmos\\ and\\ nature\\ with\\ our\\ actions\\ \\(Daoist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ we\\ bring\\ proper\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ larger\\ world\\,\\ the\\ reward\\ is\\ an\\ ordered\\ cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Daoists\\ made\\ a\\ mistake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ humans\\ do\\ what\\ Confucius\\ said\\,\\ they\\ will\\ create\\ good\\ energy\\;\\ Confucianism\\ works\\ because\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ we\\ fail\\,\\ we\\ create\\ bad\\ energies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-out\\ of\\ Xunzi\\,\\ Confucians\\ should\\ accept\\ legalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rules\\ and\\ regulations\\ that\\ apply\\ equally\\ to\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Legalism\\ had\\ a\\ deficit\\:\\ they\\ took\\ out\\ the\\ aspect\\ of\\ inspiring\\ people\\ to\\ self\\-cultivate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-you\\ will\\ never\\ have\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ will\\ tell\\ you\\ exactly\\ what\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ only\\ way\\ we\\ can\\ act\\ well\\ is\\ to\\ train\\ ourselves\\ constantly\\ to\\ be\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ need\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ institutional\\ way\\ to\\ insure\\ that\\ everyone\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ \\(common\\ person\\ or\\ person\\ in\\ power\\)\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-build\\ a\\ bureaucracy\\ base\\ upon\\ merit\\ \\(degree\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ trained\\ to\\ become\\ moral\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-emperor\\ finds\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ get\\ only\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ cultivated\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ bureaucracy\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ create\\ an\\ examination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ system\\ of\\ recommendation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Later\\ known\\ as\\ civil\\ service\\ examination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ bureaucratic\\ positions\\ obtained\\ through\\ taking\\ this\\ exam\\ \\(write\\ essays\\ and\\ poems\\;\\ think\\ of\\ solutions\\ to\\ problems\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ mobility\\ established\\;\\ divorce\\ between\\ wealth\\/birth\\ and\\ political\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ positions\\ of\\ power\\ were\\ based\\ on\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jesuits\\ go\\ to\\ China\\ and\\ see\\ their\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Voltaire\\ was\\ stunned\\ at\\ their\\ unique\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-China\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ has\\ a\\ huge\\ impact\\ on\\ European\\ political\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Emperor\\ Wu\\ begins\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ Dong\\ Zhongshu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ synthesis\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ philosophies\\ is\\ very\\ successful\\ and\\ powerful\\;\\ Confucianism\\ directly\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ new\\ things\\ added\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rarr\\;yields\\ critics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ was\\ very\\ critical\\ of\\ Wu\\ and\\ the\\ Confucian\\ synthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ History\\:\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ \\(Ssu\\-Ma\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;ien\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ weekend\\:\\ Confucianism\\ and\\ very\\ significantly\\,\\ legalism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relevance\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ successful\\ synthesis\\,\\ basis\\ for\\ imperial\\ state\\ ideology\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ millenia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ has\\ happened\\ before\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\-One\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ thinkers\\ in\\ world\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ writers\\ in\\ world\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ strong\\ philosophical\\ reason\\ for\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ turn\\ to\\ historical\\ writings\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ arguments\\:\\ in\\ short\\,\\ a\\ perfect\\ person\\ with\\ whom\\ to\\ conclude\\ the\\ semester\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lived\\ during\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Physically\\ was\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ court\\ with\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ had\\ access\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ court\\ archives\\.\\ \\ \\;Knew\\ in\\ detail\\ precisely\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ different\\ reading\\ of\\ Confucianism\\ and\\ the\\ direction\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ should\\ have\\ gone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\,\\ precisely\\,\\ did\\ this\\ recreation\\ of\\ Qin\\ empire\\ entail\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ of\\ having\\ control\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ resources\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ well\\-trained\\ army\\ and\\ achieve\\ the\\ extension\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Continuation\\/Expansion\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ during\\ the\\ Qin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\See\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ trade\\ developing\\ across\\ central\\ Asia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Formation\\ of\\ trade\\ routes\\ with\\ central\\ Asia\\ as\\ the\\ crossroads\\:\\ The\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ fact\\,\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ China\\ was\\ simply\\ known\\ as\\ silk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Emperor\\ Wu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ armies\\,\\ while\\ heading\\ south\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ northeast\\,\\ also\\ began\\ heading\\ northwest\\ into\\ Central\\ Asia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Creates\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ are\\ literally\\ traveling\\ with\\ herds\\ of\\ animals\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ type\\ of\\ warfare\\ that\\ develops\\ in\\ Central\\ Asian\\ becomes\\ radically\\ different\\ from\\ earlier\\ views\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ becomes\\ to\\ create\\ quick\\ strike\\ cavalry\\ formations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Steppe\\ region\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ disaster\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Military\\ formation\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ go\\ further\\;\\ cavalry\\ retreats\\ further\\,\\ mass\\ infantry\\ army\\ must\\ continue\\ to\\ march\\.\\ \\ \\;Need\\ supply\\ lines\\ to\\ feed\\ the\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ army\\ stops\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ supply\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Quick\\ strikes\\,\\ then\\ leaving\\.\\ \\ \\;Entire\\ armies\\ were\\ destroyed\\.\\ \\ \\;Emperor\\ Wu\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ this\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ realize\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ an\\ area\\ they\\ could\\ conquer\\ militarily\\,\\ he\\ became\\ more\\ adamant\\ and\\ intent\\ upon\\ destroying\\ the\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ and\\ more\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ Han\\ were\\ diverted\\ to\\ this\\ effort\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ decides\\ that\\ the\\ Emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policies\\ are\\ unacceptable\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faults\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ advisers\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Emperor\\ Wu\\ sees\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ traitor\\ and\\ condemns\\ him\\ to\\ a\\ terrible\\ punishment\\:\\ castration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Normally\\,\\ one\\ would\\ protest\\ the\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decree\\ with\\ suicide\\ to\\ indicate\\ your\\ feeling\\ that\\ the\\ Emperor\\ is\\ being\\ unjust\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ he\\ could\\ do\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ book\\ about\\ the\\ full\\ history\\ of\\ China\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ actually\\ have\\ a\\ descendant\\,\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ this\\ book\\,\\ which\\ could\\ potentially\\ exist\\ for\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ his\\ family\\ line\\ would\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ so\\,\\ he\\ accepts\\ the\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\From\\ this\\ biography\\,\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ happy\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Thinks\\ he\\ is\\,\\ at\\ best\\,\\ a\\ horrible\\ tyrant\\,\\ and\\ even\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ buffoon\\.\\ Critique\\ empire\\ and\\ all\\ that\\ has\\ happened\\ in\\ his\\ day\\ to\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Assumes\\ an\\ important\\ and\\ impressive\\/challenging\\ philosophical\\ undertaking\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\:\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ critique\\,\\ but\\ what\\ is\\ he\\ getting\\ at\\ precisely\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ he\\ arguing\\?\\ \\ \\;Something\\ philosophically\\ very\\ profound\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ dialogue\\,\\ the\\ court\\ has\\ heard\\ about\\ Sima\\ Qian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ write\\ this\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ high\\ minister\\ goes\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 12\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 13\\,\\ Day\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perceptive\\ reader\\ of\\ Confucius\\,\\ who\\ he\\ takes\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ abstract\\ sense\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Confucius\\,\\ good\\ people\\ are\\ rewarded\\,\\ however\\,\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ disciples\\ were\\ dying\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\,\\ the\\ question\\ was\\,\\ what\\ exactly\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ with\\ Confucianism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\ says\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ a\\ moral\\ cosmos\\ because\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ moral\\.\\ \\;\\ Good\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ rewarded\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ main\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ entire\\ system\\ was\\ that\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ Confucianism\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ in\\ place\\,\\ but\\ what\\ happened\\ during\\ the\\ times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ a\\ historical\\ background\\:\\ time\\ of\\ consolidation\\ of\\ the\\ Qin\\ empire\\.\\ \\;\\ Different\\ from\\ before\\.\\ \\;\\ Younger\\ than\\ DZH\\.\\ \\;\\ DZH\\ ideas\\ were\\ dominant\\ during\\ this\\ time\\;\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ suffered\\ from\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ Confucianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DZH\\ which\\ incorporates\\ Xunzu\\:\\ if\\ you\\ do\\ well\\,\\ you\\ create\\ a\\ harmonious\\ order\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ you\\ behave\\ badly\\,\\ you\\ generate\\ bad\\ energy\\,\\ therefore\\ affecting\\ other\\ people\\ for\\ the\\ worse\\.\\ \\;\\ Therefore\\ cosmos\\ will\\ be\\ moral\\.\\ \\;\\ Cosmos\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ X\\ bad\\ thing\\ happens\\,\\ then\\ something\\ must\\ be\\ wrong\\ with\\ the\\ imperial\\ policies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clearly\\ at\\ a\\ basic\\ level\\,\\ unity\\ is\\ being\\ created\\ because\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\ must\\ be\\ doing\\ something\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parallel\\ to\\ Mencius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ mandate\\ of\\ heaven\\:\\ every\\ individual\\ potentially\\ can\\ be\\ good\\.\\ \\;\\ With\\ a\\ good\\ ruler\\,\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ repulsed\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ is\\ antagonistic\\ to\\ this\\ view\\ that\\ things\\ are\\ directly\\ causational\\ in\\ this\\ moral\\ cosmos\\ in\\ which\\ X\\ happens\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ thinks\\ Confucian\\ imperialism\\ is\\ bad\\.\\ \\;\\ Anti\\-\\ where\\ Syncretism\\ is\\ going\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confucius\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ sage\\ of\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\&\\#39\\;s\\ courts\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ qian\\ aligns\\ himself\\ with\\ what\\ Confucius\\ is\\ saying\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ basic\\ parallel\\ is\\ that\\ Conficius\\ purports\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ transmitter\\ of\\ ancient\\ sages\\,\\ and\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ is\\ doing\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\/trying\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\ \\;\\ Aligning\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ respected\\ like\\ Confucius\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ critique\\:\\ lens\\ of\\ satire\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ chapters\\ he\\ wrote\\,\\ you\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ note\\ that\\ every\\ chapter\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ conclusion\\,\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ which\\ he\\ says\\ the\\ same\\ things\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ reason\\ why\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ satire\\ is\\ because\\ before\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ narrative\\ before\\ this\\ conclusion\\ is\\ contradictory\\ to\\ his\\ conclusion\\.\\ \\;\\ Trying\\ to\\ be\\ ironic\\.\\ \\;\\ Satire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exceedingly\\ ironic\\.\\ \\;\\ Very\\ complex\\ and\\ detailed\\ narratives\\.\\ \\;\\ Drastically\\ different\\ situations\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ the\\ stuff\\ we\\ have\\ now\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ redaction\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ had\\ before\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ he\\ saying\\ through\\ this\\ satire\\?\\ \\;\\ The\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\ is\\ good\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ has\\ to\\ happen\\,\\ but\\ he\\&\\#39\\;s\\ critiquing\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\,\\ and\\ where\\ this\\ Confucian\\ parallelism\\ is\\ going\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ writing\\ is\\ extremely\\ complex\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ mentions\\ Li\\ Zi\\,\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ directly\\ opposed\\ to\\ Li\\ Zi\\,\\ but\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ you\\ would\\ expect\\.\\ \\;\\ Li\\ Zi\\ is\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\;\\ helped\\ it\\ expand\\.\\ \\;\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ does\\ not\\ present\\ him\\ as\\ being\\ consistently\\ negative\\ because\\ Li\\ Zi\\ did\\ what\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ done\\.\\ Li\\ Zi\\ was\\ ultimately\\ wrong\\ and\\ he\\ died\\ poorly\\,\\ but\\ he\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ purely\\ wrong\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ultimately\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wrong\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puett\\ says\\ that\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ says\\ fundamental\\ problems\\ are\\ occurring\\ in\\ Confucian\\ parallelism\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ so\\ because\\ Confucian\\ imperialism\\ has\\ now\\ created\\ a\\ role\\ that\\ attempts\\ to\\ address\\ ethical\\ issues\\ in\\ a\\ syncretic\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ this\\ syncretic\\ system\\ is\\ created\\ \\(the\\ originally\\ good\\ intention\\ of\\ DZS\\)\\,\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ intent\\ is\\ lost\\ because\\ Confucius\\ believes\\ you\\ cannot\\ build\\ a\\ clear\\ cut\\ ethical\\ system\\ and\\ people\\ should\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ for\\ them\\ because\\ you\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ do\\ this\\?\\ \\;\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ Confucian\\ system\\ and\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ apply\\ it\\ here\\?\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ study\\ philosophy\\ and\\ learn\\ through\\ historical\\ studies\\.\\ \\;\\ According\\ to\\ Sima\\ Qian\\,\\ one\\ should\\ teach\\ through\\ these\\ historical\\ studies\\,\\ just\\ as\\ Confuicus\\ did\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ through\\ what\\ Confucius\\ would\\ say\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ We\\ shouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ lay\\ it\\ out\\ didactically\\/\\ impose\\ our\\ own\\ individual\\ moralities\\ upon\\ people\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ do\\ minute\\ analysis\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ practice\\ and\\ how\\ these\\ acts\\ affect\\ day\\ to\\ day\\ life\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ do\\ it\\ judgmentally\\ and\\ show\\ that\\ ethical\\ action\\ is\\ complicated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ why\\ this\\ is\\ relevant\\ is\\ because\\ in\\ an\\ increasingly\\ complex\\ world\\,\\ cosmological\\ energy\\ and\\ explaining\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ that\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ sufficient\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ should\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ early\\ Confucian\\ teachings\\ and\\ take\\ people\\ through\\ specific\\ examples\\ to\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ better\\ decisions\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DZS\\&\\#39\\;s\\ system\\ is\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ all\\ of\\ this\\,\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ Puett\\ says\\ that\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ makes\\ a\\ concession\\ that\\ Confucius\\ made\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ mistakes\\,\\ but\\ was\\ onto\\ something\\.\\ \\;\\ Similarly\\,\\ he\\ looks\\ at\\ other\\ philosophers\\ and\\ says\\ everyone\\ was\\ onto\\ something\\,\\ but\\ just\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ do\\ it\\ well\\.\\ \\;\\ Made\\ mistakes\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ wants\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ find\\ everything\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ onto\\ and\\ incorporate\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puett\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\,\\ which\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ is\\ critiquing\\ \\(grand\\ historian\\ serving\\ the\\ empire\\)\\,\\ the\\ question\\ is\\:\\ what\\ do\\ we\\ do\\?\\ \\;\\ Get\\ rid\\ of\\ system\\ now\\,\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ Zhou\\ system\\,\\ devise\\ new\\ system\\,\\ try\\ Qin\\ system\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Zhou\\ because\\ times\\ have\\ changed\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Zhou\\ dynasty\\ was\\ way\\ back\\ in\\ the\\ day\\.\\ \\;\\ No\\,\\ clearly\\ not\\.\\ \\;\\ Puett\\ is\\ adamant\\ that\\ clearly\\ not\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ Qin\\ but\\ legalism\\ is\\ not\\ inherently\\ bad\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ back\\ to\\ Confucianism\\,\\ train\\ individual\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ and\\ learn\\ systematic\\ ways\\ to\\ have\\ people\\ see\\ and\\ truly\\ look\\ at\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wrong\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ lost\\ the\\ vision\\ by\\ being\\ so\\ systematic\\.\\ \\;\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ critiques\\ all\\ ideologies\\ and\\ looks\\ at\\ what\\ we\\ lost\\.\\ \\;\\ Professor\\ Puett\\ asks\\:\\ is\\ he\\ right\\?\\ \\;\\ Are\\ you\\ convinced\\?\\ \\;\\ Too\\ subtle\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\?\\ \\;\\ So\\ complex\\ we\\ should\\ move\\ onto\\ something\\ new\\?\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 38, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Lecture_Notes.doc", "desc": "Lecture Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Hebrew Bible - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "hebrew", "bible"], "text": null, "id": 79, "html": "\\\\\\Hebrew\\_Final\\_Study\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=MSSLfUayeNh9PW3ng9UWrqo0P1CSBNc3gBWclSzSx0c\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c28\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:96\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c47\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:80\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c20\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:88\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c55\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c43\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.8pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:145\\.2pt\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c32\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.9pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:74\\.6pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:12pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c50\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.9pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:39\\.2pt\\}\\.c44\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.8pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:109\\.9pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c45\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c40\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:90pt\\}\\.c54\\{height\\:1px\\;width\\:33\\%\\}\\.c21\\{height\\:12pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c42\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c53\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c34\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c35\\{padding\\-bottom\\:14\\.2pt\\}\\.c33\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-size\\:8pt\\}\\.c49\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c52\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c46\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c24\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c39\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c37\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c25\\{color\\:\\#800000\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c48\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c30\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c38\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c51\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:6pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Lit\\ \\&\\;\\ Arts\\ C\\-70\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Essays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Essay\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evaluate\\ the\\ following\\ thesis\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Bible\\ is\\ no\\ more\\ a\\ Jewish\\ book\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ Christian\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ through\\ creative\\ interpretation\\,\\ selective\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ occasional\\ mis\\-reading\\,\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ Jewish\\ book\\ for\\ Jews\\ just\\ as\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ Christian\\ book\\ for\\ Christians\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Do\\ you\\ agree\\?\\ \\ \\;Discuss\\ several\\ examples\\ to\\ support\\ your\\ argument\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ solid\\ background\\,\\ look\\ to\\ week\\ 3\\ lectures\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ ancient\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Christian\\ interpreters\\ believe\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ Eternally\\ true\\,\\ omnisignificant\\,\\ revealed\\ by\\ God\\,\\ and\\ speaking\\ to\\ and\\ about\\ us\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Both\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ and\\ the\\ Christian\\ Bible\\ \\(of\\ both\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ and\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\)\\ include\\ the\\ first\\ 5\\ books\\,\\ the\\ Torah\\,\\ in\\ their\\ canon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ agree\\ and\\ disagree\\ on\\ various\\ points\\ of\\ exegesis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Though\\ both\\ religions\\ interpret\\ their\\ text\\ in\\ metaphorical\\ and\\ literal\\ ways\\,\\ Christian\\ exegesis\\ is\\ very\\ metaphorical\\,\\ and\\ Jewish\\ exegesis\\ \\(in\\ the\\ Midrash\\)\\ is\\ very\\ literal\\,\\ and\\ both\\ are\\ out\\ of\\ necessity\\,\\ usually\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ to\\ further\\ set\\ themselves\\ apart\\ from\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ could\\ also\\ attribute\\ this\\ to\\ political\\ reasons\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Bar\\ Kokhba\\ war\\,\\ or\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ persecuting\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ the\\ Christians\\ not\\ wanting\\ to\\ be\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ end\\ of\\ attack\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ setting\\ themselves\\ apart\\,\\ Justin\\ Martyr\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\;\\ from\\ the\\ lecture\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ key\\ passage\\:\\ The\\ Scriptures\\ are\\ ours\\,\\ not\\ yours\\:\\ Justin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\29\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jews\\ read\\ the\\ Scriptures\\,\\ but\\ while\\ Christians\\ believe\\ them\\ and\\ thus\\ make\\ them\\ their\\ own\\,\\ Jews\\ only\\ read\\ them\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ accept\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;spirit\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;Let\\ us\\ glorify\\ God\\,\\ all\\ nations\\ gathered\\ together\\;\\ for\\ He\\ has\\ also\\ visited\\ us\\.\\ Let\\ us\\ glorify\\ Him\\ by\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ glory\\,\\ by\\ the\\ Lord\\ of\\ hosts\\.\\ For\\ He\\ has\\ been\\ gracious\\ towards\\ the\\ Gentiles\\ also\\;\\ and\\ our\\ sacrifices\\ He\\ esteems\\ more\\ grateful\\ than\\ yours\\.\\ What\\ need\\,\\ then\\,\\ have\\ I\\ of\\ circumcision\\,\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ witnessed\\ to\\ by\\ God\\?\\ What\\ need\\ have\\ I\\ of\\ that\\ other\\ baptism\\,\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ baptized\\ with\\ the\\ Holy\\ Ghost\\?\\ I\\ think\\ that\\ while\\ I\\ mention\\ this\\,\\ I\\ would\\ persuade\\ even\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ possessed\\ of\\ scanty\\ intelligence\\.\\ For\\ these\\ words\\ have\\ neither\\ been\\ prepared\\ by\\ me\\,\\ nor\\ embellished\\ by\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ man\\;\\ but\\ David\\ sung\\ them\\,\\ Isaiah\\ preached\\ them\\,\\ Zechariah\\ proclaimed\\ them\\,\\ and\\ Moses\\ wrote\\ them\\.\\ Are\\ you\\ acquainted\\ with\\ them\\,\\ Trypho\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\They\\ are\\ contained\\ in\\ your\\ Scriptures\\,\\ or\\ rather\\ not\\ yours\\,\\ but\\ ours\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ we\\ believe\\ them\\;\\ but\\ you\\,\\ though\\ you\\ read\\ them\\,\\ do\\ not\\ catch\\ the\\ spirit\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Be\\ not\\ offended\\ at\\,\\ or\\ reproach\\ us\\ with\\,\\ the\\ bodily\\ uncircumcision\\ with\\ which\\ God\\ has\\ created\\ us\\;\\ and\\ think\\ it\\ not\\ strange\\ that\\ we\\ drink\\ hot\\ water\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbaths\\,\\ since\\ God\\ directs\\ the\\ government\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ on\\ this\\ day\\ equally\\ as\\ on\\ all\\ others\\;\\ and\\ the\\ priests\\,\\ as\\ on\\ other\\ days\\,\\ so\\ on\\ this\\,\\ are\\ ordered\\ to\\ offer\\ sacrifices\\;\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ righteous\\ men\\ who\\ have\\ performed\\ none\\ of\\ these\\ legal\\ ceremonies\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ are\\ witnessed\\ to\\ by\\ God\\ Himself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ text\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Christians\\ interpret\\ it\\ differently\\;\\ in\\ their\\ eyes\\,\\ they\\ are\\ interpreting\\ it\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ from\\ this\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ two\\ examples\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ use\\ to\\ illustrate\\ how\\ the\\ same\\ text\\ but\\ different\\ exegesis\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ two\\ distinct\\ religions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ talk\\ about\\ Circumcision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Genesis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ God\\ makes\\ pact\\ with\\ Abraham\\ that\\ he\\ must\\ circumcise\\ himself\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ males\\ of\\ his\\ clan\\,\\ and\\ this\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ covenant\\ through\\ the\\ ages\\.\\ \\ \\;Rabbis\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ an\\ infant\\ ritual\\ endowed\\ with\\ covenantal\\ value\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\berit\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ negotiated\\ relationship\\ between\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Isreal\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ this\\ ritual\\ of\\ covenance\\ overrides\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ circumcise\\ the\\ baby\\ boy\\ if\\ his\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ falls\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ day\\,\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ are\\ rules\\ against\\ no\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\For\\ Justin\\ Martyr\\,\\ he\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ circumcision\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bible\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ it\\ literally\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ He\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ circumcision\\ was\\ punishment\\ for\\ the\\ hardness\\ of\\ heart\\ of\\ Jews\\ \\(Justin\\ 16\\.1\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ it\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ Jeremiah\\ 25\\ that\\ the\\ circumcised\\ will\\ be\\ punished\\ by\\ the\\ uncircumcised\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ practical\\ consideration\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ allowed\\ easier\\ conversion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ into\\ a\\ Christian\\ book\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ or\\ re\\-made\\ into\\ a\\ Christian\\ book\\ is\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Mary\\ as\\ a\\ virgin\\ instead\\ of\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ giving\\ birth\\ to\\ Jesus\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Parthenos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;means\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ or\\ virgin\\.\\ \\ \\;Justin\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ made\\ a\\ mistake\\ in\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;almah\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ virgin\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ While\\ many\\ perceive\\ Judaism\\ to\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ literal\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ Christianity\\ on\\ an\\ allegorical\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ both\\ religions\\ interpret\\ some\\ texts\\ literally\\ and\\ some\\ figuratively\\ using\\ prophecy\\,\\ allegory\\ and\\ typology\\ either\\ out\\ of\\ necessity\\ or\\ just\\ out\\ of\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paragraph\\ 1\\:\\ There\\ is\\ certainly\\ basis\\ to\\ this\\ claim\\ in\\ that\\ in\\ many\\ cases\\ Jews\\ interpret\\ the\\ text\\ literally\\ whereas\\ Christians\\ interpret\\ it\\ figuratively\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Manna\\:\\ Jews\\ take\\ from\\ this\\ text\\ what\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ doing\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ \\(Exodus\\ passages\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christians\\ interpret\\ this\\ same\\ passage\\ \\(John\\ 6\\)\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ for\\ Christ\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jews\\ literally\\ take\\ the\\ prohibited\\ meats\\ as\\ animals\\ they\\ cannot\\ eat\\ whereas\\ Barnabas\\ \\(Christian\\)\\ says\\ this\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ allegory\\ for\\ people\\ you\\ should\\ avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jews\\ do\\ a\\ physical\\ circumcision\\;\\ Christians\\ prefer\\ spiritual\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jews\\ literally\\ slaughter\\ a\\ lamb\\,\\ but\\ Christians\\ see\\ the\\ paschal\\ lamb\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ for\\ Christ\\ \\(same\\ with\\ scapegoat\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ for\\ Christ\\)\\;\\ these\\ are\\ atonement\\ and\\ protective\\ sacrifices\\ for\\ Jews\\ but\\ types\\ for\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ Cohen\\ pointed\\ out\\,\\ Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ hermeneutical\\ key\\ to\\ understanding\\ the\\ Bible\\ according\\ to\\ Justin\\ \\(week\\ 4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Christians\\ also\\ have\\ other\\ instances\\ where\\ they\\ interpret\\ the\\ Bible\\ allegorically\\ \\(a\\ lot\\ in\\ Origen\\ although\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recall\\ how\\ exactly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Christians\\ use\\ typologies\\ of\\ gentiles\\ replacing\\ Jews\\ \\(week\\ 13\\,\\ wed\\.\\)\\ to\\ highlight\\ how\\ Gentiles\\ are\\ the\\ true\\ people\\ of\\ God\\ \\(supersessionism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ psalm\\ 22\\ and\\ suffering\\ servant\\ in\\ Isaiah\\ are\\ allegories\\ to\\ incorporate\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ suffering\\ into\\ the\\ messiah\\ conception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Noah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ark\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ for\\ the\\ church\\,\\ saving\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paragraph\\ 2\\:\\ But\\ sometimes\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ prevents\\ a\\ literal\\ interpretation\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contradictory\\,\\ so\\ Jews\\ adopt\\ an\\ expansive\\ exegesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ decide\\ how\\ many\\ days\\ passover\\/\\ matzah\\ festival\\ should\\ be\\ because\\ of\\ conflicting\\ accounts\\ \\(1\\ day\\ pesah\\ w\\/\\ 7\\ day\\ matzah\\ festival\\ or\\ 7\\ days\\ total\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ week\\ 7\\)\\,\\ so\\ you\\ inevitably\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interpret\\ the\\ text\\ literally\\ for\\ this\\ festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ tasks\\ can\\ you\\/\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ you\\ do\\ on\\ the\\ sabbath\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ to\\ adapt\\ to\\ modern\\ times\\ so\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ literal\\ all\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\problem\\ of\\ an\\ immutable\\ God\\ creating\\ the\\ world\\,\\ so\\ they\\ believe\\ in\\ angels\\ and\\ Logos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ believe\\ that\\ each\\ word\\ or\\ syllable\\ is\\ omnisignificant\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ interpret\\ things\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ literal\\ context\\ and\\ find\\ things\\ that\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ strictly\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ \\(like\\ how\\ the\\ rabbis\\ could\\ find\\ meaning\\ from\\ 1\\ syllable\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ feb\\ 13\\ class\\ notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ the\\ fact\\ the\\ bible\\ is\\ eternally\\ true\\ and\\ about\\ us\\ means\\ that\\ things\\ like\\ the\\ exodus\\,\\ egyptian\\ slavery\\,\\ etc\\.\\ will\\ occur\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\ in\\ a\\ paradigmatic\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paragraph\\ 3\\:\\ In\\ other\\ cases\\,\\ Jews\\ interpret\\ the\\ text\\ allegorically\\ or\\ prophetically\\ without\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ avoiding\\ contradiction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beyond\\ not\\ eating\\ the\\ non\\-kosher\\ meats\\,\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\ milk\\ and\\ meat\\ together\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ prevention\\ of\\ boiling\\ a\\ kid\\ in\\ its\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ milk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rabbinic\\ creativity\\ comes\\ out\\ in\\ midrash\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ high\\ the\\ manna\\ was\\ or\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ believe\\ in\\ physical\\ circumcision\\,\\ rabbinic\\ midrash\\ has\\ taken\\ this\\ to\\ new\\ heights\\ ascribing\\ it\\ the\\ same\\ importance\\ as\\ the\\ Sabbath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paragraph\\ 4\\:\\ Despite\\ their\\ tendency\\ to\\ interpret\\ things\\ allegorically\\,\\ typologically\\ and\\ prophetically\\,\\ the\\ Christians\\ still\\ follow\\ the\\ letter\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ in\\ some\\ regards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\early\\ Christians\\ still\\ followed\\ the\\ dietary\\ restrictions\\ against\\ blood\\ and\\ strangled\\ animals\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ reasons\\ given\\ were\\ different\\ \\(so\\ the\\ polytheists\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ the\\ wrong\\ idea\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jews\\ sometimes\\ called\\ their\\ King\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ God\\ but\\ Christianity\\ takes\\ this\\ literally\\;\\ takes\\ the\\ Septuagint\\ \\&ldquo\\;virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(maybe\\ \\&ldquo\\;young\\ woman\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Hebrew\\)\\ and\\ interprets\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ literal\\ foretelling\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ birth\\ and\\ his\\ birth\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ the\\ letter\\ of\\ the\\ scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ religions\\ are\\ also\\ awaiting\\ the\\ literal\\ return\\ of\\ a\\ messiah\\ \\(daniel\\ 7\\ and\\ Elijah\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ In\\ many\\ cases\\,\\ Jews\\ interpret\\ the\\ Bible\\ literally\\ whereas\\ Christians\\ interpret\\ it\\ figuratively\\,\\ but\\ Jews\\ also\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ non\\-literal\\ interpretation\\.\\ \\ \\;Christians\\ also\\ use\\ literal\\ interpretation\\,\\ but\\ to\\ a\\ lesser\\ extent\\ than\\ Jews\\ use\\ non\\-literal\\ interpretation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\General\\ Essay\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Prompt\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Would\\ Barnabas\\,\\ Justin\\ Martyr\\,\\ Marcion\\,\\ and\\ Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\ agree\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ statement\\ of\\ Augustine\\ \\(who\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ century\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\So\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ which\\ you\\ think\\ are\\ not\\ observed\\ by\\ Christians\\ because\\ Christ\\ destroyed\\ the\\ law\\,\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ not\\ observed\\ because\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Christ\\ fulfilled\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[see\\ Matthew\\ 5\\:17\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ very\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\intention\\ of\\ the\\ observances\\ was\\ to\\ prefigure\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Now\\ that\\ Christ\\ has\\ come\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ its\\ being\\ strange\\ or\\ absurd\\ that\\ what\\ was\\ done\\ to\\ prefigure\\ his\\ advent\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ done\\ any\\ more\\,\\ it\\ is\\ perfectly\\ right\\ and\\ reasonable\\.\\ The\\ observances\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\]\\ intended\\ to\\ prefigure\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ Christ\\ by\\ typology\\ would\\ be\\ observed\\ still\\,\\ had\\ they\\ not\\ been\\ fulfilled\\ by\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;\\[source\\:\\ Augustine\\,\\ Against\\ Faustus\\ 19\\.11\\]\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\:\\ Barnabas\\,\\ Justin\\,\\ and\\ Marcion\\ all\\ see\\ the\\ Law\\ as\\ either\\ inherently\\ bad\\ or\\ never\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ literally\\.\\ Melito\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ agrees\\ with\\ Augustine\\ and\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ Law\\ was\\ perfectly\\ good\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ in\\ time\\ but\\ has\\ been\\ rendered\\ unnecessary\\ by\\ Christ\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Barnabas\\ \\-\\ DISAGREE\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\The\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ OT\\ were\\ never\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ observed\\ literally\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Take\\ Barnabas\\&\\#39\\;\\ crude\\ allegorical\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ dietary\\ laws\\ \\(ex\\:\\ \\"\\;don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ eat\\ pork\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ \\"\\;don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ associate\\ with\\ swine\\-like\\ people\\"\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\also\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ was\\ never\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ literally\\ \\(Bacchiocchi\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Barnabas\\ outrightly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\rejects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Judaism\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ superseded\\ by\\ Christianity\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Bacchiocchi\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Barnabas\\&\\#39\\;\\ eschatological\\ Sabbath\\ \\(8th\\ day\\)\\ supersedes\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ \\(7th\\ day\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\As\\ an\\ early\\ Christian\\ writer\\,\\ Barnabas\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ Christians\\ from\\ the\\ Jews\\,\\ and\\ moving\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ to\\ Sunday\\ is\\ how\\ he\\ accomplishes\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ \\-\\ DISAGREE\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\think\\ that\\ the\\ Law\\ was\\ ever\\ something\\ good\\ or\\ required\\ by\\ God\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ it\\ was\\ something\\ meant\\ as\\ a\\ punishment\\ for\\ the\\ \\"\\;hardness\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\&\\#39\\;\\ hearts\\"\\;\\ that\\ is\\ now\\ unnecessary\\ in\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\"\\;Some\\ precepts\\ were\\ given\\ for\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ virtue\\,\\ whereas\\ other\\ commandments\\ and\\ customs\\ were\\ arranged\\ either\\ in\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ mystery\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\[or\\]\\ the\\ hardness\\ of\\ your\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ hearts\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Dialogue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\44\\.2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\same\\ idea\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Dialogue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\19\\:\\ circumcision\\ marks\\ the\\ Jews\\ for\\ suffering\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Example\\ of\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\God\\ did\\ not\\ ask\\ Adam\\,\\ Noah\\ and\\ other\\ pre\\-Abraham\\ men\\ to\\ be\\ circumcised\\,\\ yet\\ they\\ were\\ holy\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ since\\ circumcision\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\always\\ required\\ \\(even\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\before\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Jesus\\)\\,\\ it\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\be\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ really\\ required\\ by\\ God\\.\\ \\(23\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\ the\\ Law\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ that\\ was\\ good\\ up\\ until\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Jesus\\ and\\ has\\ only\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\now\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\been\\ rejected\\;\\ it\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\always\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\unnecessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\at\\ one\\ point\\ Trypho\\ asks\\ Justin\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\ if\\ he\\ \\[Trypho\\]\\ converted\\ and\\ yet\\ continued\\ to\\ practice\\ Jewish\\ Law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ says\\ that\\ Trypho\\ is\\ certainly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\allowed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ practice\\ the\\ Law\\,\\ but\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\"\\;Keeping\\ kosher\\ will\\ not\\ save\\ you\\.\\ It\\ is\\ only\\ Christ\\ who\\ saves\\ you\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ Justin\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ necessarily\\ think\\ the\\ Law\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\bad\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\just\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ use\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ required\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Justin\\ generally\\ argues\\ that\\ Christians\\ understand\\ the\\ \\"\\;spirit\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\"\\;\\ and\\ therefore\\ do\\ not\\ follow\\ it\\ literally\\ like\\ the\\ Jews\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Marcion\\ \\-\\ DISAGREE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Marcion\\&\\#39\\;s\\ argument\\ revolves\\ around\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ being\\ completely\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Old\\ Testament\\ God\\ is\\ inconsistent\\,\\ wrathful\\,\\ jealous\\,\\ and\\ genocidal\\,\\ while\\ NT\\ God\\ is\\ loving\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Marcion\\ sees\\ Christianity\\ as\\ \\"\\;free\\"\\;\\ from\\ Judaism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\All\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ can\\ be\\ completely\\ thrown\\ out\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\ \\-\\ AGREE\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Melito\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;On\\ Pascha\\"\\;\\ \\(\\"\\;On\\ the\\ Passover\\"\\;\\)\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;finished\\ project\\&rdquo\\;\\ made\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;model\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\The\\ types\\ once\\ had\\ meaning\\,\\ but\\ Melito\\ always\\ concludes\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\the\\ New\\ Testament\\ has\\ rendered\\ the\\ models\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ useless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ex\\:\\ the\\ Law\\ was\\ wonderful\\ before\\ the\\ gospel\\ was\\ brought\\ to\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\ex\\:\\ the\\ people\\ had\\ value\\ before\\ the\\ church\\ came\\ on\\ the\\ scene\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\ex\\:\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ sheep\\ as\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ was\\ once\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ now\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ salvation\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\ex\\:\\ the\\ temple\\ from\\ below\\ was\\ once\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ now\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Christ\\ from\\ above\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ Melito\\ loves\\ the\\ Jews\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ he\\ blames\\ them\\ for\\ murdering\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specific\\ Essays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specific\\ Essay\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ Logos\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ its\\ place\\ in\\ Christianity\\?\\ In\\ Judaism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ God\\ was\\ creating\\ the\\ world\\,\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ alone\\.\\ He\\ was\\ aided\\ by\\ the\\ logos\\,\\ which\\ is\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ word\\ or\\ glory\\ or\\ wisdom\\ and\\ for\\ Christians\\ this\\ is\\ embodied\\ in\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Both\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christian\\ understood\\ that\\ Wisdom\\ pre\\-existed\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ aided\\ God\\ in\\ creating\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proverbs\\ 8\\:22\\-31\\:\\ Wisdom\\ declares\\ that\\ God\\ created\\/acquired\\ her\\ first\\.\\ She\\ was\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plaything\\/architect\\/craftsman\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\amon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ notes\\ in\\ JSB\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ LORD\\ brought\\ me\\ forth\\ \\[or\\:\\ acquired\\ me\\]\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ his\\ works\\,\\ before\\ his\\ deeds\\ of\\ old\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\23\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;I\\ was\\ appointed\\ from\\ eternity\\,\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ before\\ the\\ world\\ began\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\24\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;When\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ oceans\\,\\ I\\ was\\ given\\ birth\\,\\ when\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ springs\\ abounding\\ with\\ water\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\25\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;before\\ the\\ mountains\\ were\\ settled\\ in\\ place\\,\\ before\\ the\\ hills\\,\\ I\\ was\\ given\\ birth\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\30\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Then\\ I\\ was\\ the\\ craftsman\\ at\\ his\\ side\\.\\ I\\ was\\ filled\\ with\\ delight\\ day\\ after\\ day\\,\\ rejoicing\\ always\\ in\\ his\\ presence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ Jews\\ Wisdom\\ \\=\\ Torah\\;\\ for\\ Christians\\ Wisdom\\ \\=\\ Logos\\ \\[the\\ Word\\]\\ \\=\\ Christ\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ 1\\ is\\ a\\ midrash\\ on\\ Proverbs\\ 8\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1In\\ the\\ beginning\\ was\\ the\\ Word\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Word\\ was\\ with\\ God\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Word\\ was\\ God\\.\\ 2He\\ was\\ with\\ God\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\.\\ \\;3Through\\ him\\ all\\ things\\ were\\ made\\;\\ without\\ him\\ nothing\\ was\\ made\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ made\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Middleton\\:\\ Behind\\ John\\ 1\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ speculation\\ about\\ Wisdom\\ \\=\\ Logos\\ \\=\\ Word\\ of\\ God\\,\\ \\ \\;but\\ also\\ about\\ divine\\ Glory\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\kavod\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Hebrew\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\yeqara\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Aramaic\\)\\ and\\ divine\\ presence\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;dwells\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ temple\\ or\\ community\\ \\(whence\\ the\\ post\\-biblical\\ Hebrew\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shekhinah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ too\\ connects\\ the\\ Wisdom\\ of\\ Proverbs\\ 8\\ with\\ the\\ Logos\\ \\=\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;Justin\\ 61\\.2\\:\\ I\\ shall\\ now\\ show\\ from\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ begotten\\ of\\ himself\\ a\\ certain\\ rational\\ power\\ as\\ a\\ beginning\\ before\\ all\\ creatures\\.\\ Justin\\ 62\\:\\ hence\\ the\\ plural\\ of\\ Genesis\\ 1\\:26\\ and\\ 3\\:22\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ crucial\\ problem\\ is\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ world\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ an\\ Ineffable\\,\\ Transcendent\\,\\ Immutable\\,\\ and\\ Immovable\\ God\\ create\\ the\\ world\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creation\\ implies\\ Movement\\ \\(change\\)\\ but\\ God\\ is\\ immovable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ of\\ matter\\ is\\ corruptible\\,\\ but\\ God\\ is\\ incorruptible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ God\\ be\\ understood\\ anthropomorphically\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Philo\\ argued\\ that\\ God\\ created\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ the\\ divine\\ Logos\\ \\=\\ Speech\\,\\ Reason\\,\\ often\\ mistranslated\\ \\&ldquo\\;Word\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Genesis\\ 1\\ lends\\ itself\\ to\\ this\\ philosophical\\ speculation\\,\\ since\\ the\\ main\\ verb\\ in\\ that\\ chapter\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\ said\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ mysterious\\ plural\\ of\\ Genesis\\ 1\\:26\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ God\\ said\\,\\ Let\\ us\\ make\\ Adam\\ in\\ our\\ image\\ and\\ after\\ our\\ likeness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ is\\ God\\ working\\ with\\ his\\ Logos\\,\\ so\\ says\\ Philo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Plain\\ meaning\\ probably\\:\\ God\\ speaking\\ with\\ his\\ divine\\ council\\ \\(what\\ will\\ later\\ be\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;angels\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\,\\ Jews\\ believed\\ that\\ during\\ creation\\,\\ God\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ the\\ word\\ or\\ wisdom\\ or\\ a\\ divine\\ council\\ and\\ this\\ council\\ aided\\ in\\ the\\ worlds\\ creation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ Christians\\,\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ logos\\ is\\ embodied\\ in\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ conception\\ derives\\ from\\ the\\ opening\\ of\\ the\\ Gospel\\ of\\ John\\:\\ \\"\\;In\\ the\\ beginning\\ was\\ the\\ Word\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Word\\ was\\ with\\ God\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Word\\ was\\ God\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ the\\ original\\ Greek\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Logos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ used\\,\\ and\\ in\\ theological\\ discourse\\,\\ this\\ is\\ often\\ left\\ untranslated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ 75\\:\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ God\\ is\\ Jesus\\;\\ Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ name\\ that\\ God\\ put\\ in\\ the\\ angel\\ \\(Exodus\\ 23\\:21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Would\\ Justin\\ agree\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ excerpt\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Jewish\\ People\\ And\\ Their\\ Sacred\\ Scriptures\\ In\\ The\\ Christian\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ booklet\\ issued\\ by\\ the\\ Pontifical\\ Bible\\ Commission\\ \\(the\\ Vatican\\)\\ in\\ 2001\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ Israel\\,\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\,\\ is\\ irrevocable\\:\\ it\\ preserves\\ intact\\ its\\ prerogatives\\ and\\ its\\ priority\\ status\\ in\\ history\\,\\ in\\ the\\ offer\\ of\\ salvation\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Word\\ of\\ God\\.\\ But\\ God\\ has\\ also\\ offered\\ to\\ Israel\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ covenant\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Jeremiah\\ 31\\:31\\)\\;\\ this\\ is\\ now\\ established\\ through\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ Jesus\\.\\ The\\ Church\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ Israelites\\ who\\ have\\ accepted\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\,\\ and\\ of\\ other\\ believers\\ who\\ have\\ joined\\ them\\.\\ As\\ a\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\,\\ the\\ Church\\ is\\ conscious\\ of\\ existing\\ only\\ in\\ virtue\\ of\\ belonging\\ to\\ Christ\\ Jesus\\,\\ the\\ Messiah\\ of\\ Israel\\,\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ link\\ with\\ the\\ apostles\\,\\ who\\ were\\ all\\ Israelites\\.\\ Far\\ from\\ being\\ a\\ substitution\\ for\\ Israel\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Church\\ is\\ in\\ solidarity\\ with\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ Justin\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ covenant\\&rdquo\\;\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Jeremiah\\ and\\ Ezekiel\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;established\\ through\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ covenant\\,\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ Jewish\\ community\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;old\\ Israel\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ his\\ writings\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ replacing\\ the\\ unfit\\ holders\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ covenant\\ with\\ the\\ righteous\\ Christians\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ one\\.\\ His\\ beliefs\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ solidarity\\ with\\ \\&lsquo\\;old\\&rsquo\\;\\ Israel\\ whatsoever\\,\\ but\\ instead\\,\\ opposed\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Justin\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ Pontifical\\ Bible\\ Commission\\,\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ Israel\\ is\\ surely\\ revocable\\ and\\ has\\ in\\ fact\\ already\\ been\\ revoked\\ by\\ God\\ because\\ of\\ old\\ Israel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disobedience\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ faith\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ says\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ already\\ promised\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ old\\ Israel\\:\\ You\\ do\\ not\\ tremble\\ at\\ God\\&\\#39\\;s\\ threats\\,\\ for\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ people\\ foolish\\ and\\ hard\\-hearted\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;Therefore\\,\\ behold\\,\\ I\\ will\\ proceed\\ to\\ remove\\ this\\ people\\,\\&\\#39\\;\\ saith\\ the\\ Lord\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ remove\\ them\\&\\#39\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ Deservedly\\ too\\:\\ for\\ you\\ are\\ neither\\ wise\\ nor\\ prudent\\,\\ but\\ crafty\\ and\\ unscrupulous\\;\\ wise\\ only\\ to\\ do\\ evil\\,\\ but\\ utterly\\ incompetent\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ hidden\\ counsel\\ of\\ God\\,\\ or\\ the\\ faithful\\ covenant\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\ or\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ the\\ everlasting\\ paths\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(Justin\\ 123\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Pontifical\\ Bible\\ Commission\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ Church\\ exists\\ only\\ through\\ Israel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Messiah\\ and\\ through\\ the\\ apostles\\ who\\ were\\ all\\ Israelites\\.\\ Justin\\ instead\\ fights\\ against\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ thinking\\,\\ instead\\ pushing\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ Christ\\ had\\ everything\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Israel\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ new\\ arising\\ from\\ something\\ old\\.\\ He\\ emphasizes\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pre\\-existence\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ heroes\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ knew\\ of\\ and\\ were\\ working\\ with\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ how\\ Justin\\ views\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\&rdquo\\;\\ Israelites\\ \\:\\ disobedient\\ to\\ God\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-the\\ food\\ laws\\,\\ circumcision\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ were\\ given\\ to\\ mark\\ the\\ Jews\\ \\(in\\ part\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ punish\\)\\ and\\ to\\ force\\ them\\ into\\ remembrance\\ of\\ God\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-many\\ laws\\ and\\ rituals\\ are\\ types\\ of\\ Christ\\&mdash\\;111\\.3\\ Justin\\ explains\\ how\\ the\\ pascal\\ lamb\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\(salvation\\ through\\ blood\\,\\ suffering\\ servant\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-The\\ great\\ men\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ spoke\\ with\\ Christ\\.\\ In\\ 56\\.11\\ Justin\\ explains\\ his\\ idea\\ that\\ Jesus\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ came\\ down\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ Moses\\ and\\ Abraham\\ asking\\ why\\ the\\ creator\\ God\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ would\\ come\\ down\\ himself\\ to\\ a\\ small\\ place\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Justin\\,\\ in\\ agreement\\ with\\ the\\ Pontifical\\ Bible\\ Commission\\,\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ that\\ is\\ spoken\\ of\\ in\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ is\\ established\\ through\\ Christ\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ while\\ the\\ commission\\ calls\\ this\\ covenant\\ a\\ new\\ offer\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ Israel\\ but\\ including\\ Gentiles\\ as\\ well\\ while\\ Justin\\ calls\\ this\\ a\\ replacement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ 123\\.9\\,\\ Justin\\ calls\\ Christians\\ the\\ true\\ children\\ of\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Justin\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ nation\\ that\\ God\\ promises\\ to\\ Abraham\\ in\\ Genesis\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ replacement\\ Israel\\ of\\ Christians\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ old\\ Israel\\ \\(excluding\\ Jews\\ from\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promise\\ to\\ Abraham\\.\\ They\\ are\\ more\\ like\\ Ishmael\\,\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ descendant\\ line\\ as\\ the\\ chosen\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ chosen\\&mdash\\;Justin\\ again\\ claims\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ lack\\ of\\ faith\\)\\:\\ Accordingly\\,\\ \\[God\\]\\ promises\\ to\\ \\[Abraham\\]\\ a\\ nation\\ of\\ similar\\ faith\\,\\ God\\-fearing\\,\\ righteous\\,\\ and\\ delighting\\ the\\ Father\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ you\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;in\\ whom\\ is\\ no\\ faith\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\(Justin\\ 119\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\While\\ Justin\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ Jews\\ are\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ and\\ are\\ thus\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ true\\ Israel\\,\\ he\\ does\\ claim\\ that\\ some\\ Jews\\ \\(like\\ those\\ mentioned\\ in\\ 56\\.11\\)\\ \\,\\ even\\ those\\ preceding\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arrival\\ in\\ human\\ form\\ are\\ and\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ covenant\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ chapter\\ 120\\,\\ he\\ compares\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ Abraham\\ to\\ seeds\\ and\\ sand\\:\\ most\\ are\\ like\\ sand\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;barren\\ and\\ fruitless\\,\\ much\\ in\\ quantity\\,\\ and\\ without\\ number\\ indeed\\,\\ but\\ bearing\\ no\\ fruit\\ whatever\\&rdquo\\;\\ convicted\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;bitterness\\ and\\ godlessness\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ only\\ a\\ select\\ few\\ form\\ the\\ faithful\\:\\ the\\ prophets\\ and\\ others\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ Christ\\ himself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ writings\\,\\ Justin\\ describes\\ a\\ false\\ Israel\\,\\ full\\ of\\ bitterness\\ and\\ ungodliness\\ \\(with\\ a\\ few\\ Christ\\-knowing\\ faithful\\)\\ being\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ Israel\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ covenant\\ of\\ believers\\.\\ Although\\ he\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ prophets\\,\\ writers\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ were\\ faithful\\,\\ experiencing\\ God\\ through\\ Christ\\ as\\ the\\ logos\\,\\ he\\ sees\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ people\\ as\\ not\\ being\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ true\\ Israel\\.\\ They\\ are\\ separate\\ and\\ replaced\\ and\\ can\\ only\\ receive\\ salvation\\ through\\ Christ\\.\\ This\\ is\\ significantly\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Pontifical\\ Bible\\ Commission\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ that\\ the\\ Church\\ is\\ not\\ replacing\\ Israel\\ but\\ in\\ solidarity\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specific\\ Essay\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Based\\ on\\ our\\ readings\\ from\\ Exodus\\,\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\,\\ Justin\\,\\ and\\ Melito\\,\\ explain\\ the\\ allusions\\,\\ imagery\\,\\ and\\ fundamental\\ ideas\\ of\\ this\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\ Here\\[\\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ is\\:\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\ \\ \\;is\\ the\\ true\\ Easter\\ lamb\\\\[2\\]that\\ God\\ has\\ offered\\\\[3\\]which\\ high\\ on\\ the\\ trunk\\ of\\ the\\ cross\\\\[4\\]is\\ roasted\\ in\\ burning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[literally\\:\\ hot\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\love\\,\\\\[5\\]whose\\ blood\\ marks\\ our\\ doors\\,\\\\[6\\]which\\ faith\\ holds\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ death\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ is\\,\\ through\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ Christ\\ faith\\ holds\\ death\\ at\\ bay\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\[7\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ destroyer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[literally\\:\\ strangler\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\ can\\ harm\\ us\\ no\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ short\\ excerpt\\ incorporates\\ the\\ fundamental\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ beliefs\\ while\\ describing\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ line\\ 1\\,\\ a\\ bold\\ statement\\ is\\ made\\ regarding\\ the\\ true\\ \\&ldquo\\;Easter\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;paschal\\&rdquo\\;\\ lamb\\ \\(Jesus\\ Christ\\)\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ offered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Originally\\ from\\ the\\ gospel\\ of\\ John\\-\\ Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ paschal\\ lamb\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ allusion\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ Passover\\ when\\ the\\ Israelites\\ were\\ saved\\ by\\ the\\ lambs\\ blood\\ on\\ their\\ door\\ frame\\-\\ God\\ has\\ offered\\ Jesus\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ Israelites\\ offered\\ the\\ lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lines\\ 5\\-6\\ clearly\\ shows\\ the\\ symbolic\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;blood\\ of\\ the\\ lamb\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ how\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ Exodus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Which\\ faith\\ holds\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\ has\\ saved\\ believers\\ from\\ death\\;\\ through\\ his\\ death\\,\\ all\\ sins\\ were\\ forgiven\\ and\\ everlasting\\ life\\ was\\ granted\\ to\\ thought\\ who\\ have\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ Paul\\ and\\ Justin\\ also\\ refer\\ to\\ Jesus\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pascha\\ of\\ our\\ salvation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Melito\\ also\\ describes\\ Jesus\\ as\\ both\\ mortal\\ and\\ immortal\\;\\ being\\ sacrificed\\ by\\ God\\ as\\ a\\ lamb\\ and\\ also\\ being\\ resurrected\\ as\\ God\\&mdash\\;Jesus\\ is\\ everything\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ describes\\ Easter\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ the\\ resurrection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\throughout\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ \\(Matthew\\ and\\ Luke\\ in\\ particular\\)\\ we\\ find\\ descriptions\\ of\\ the\\ Last\\ Supper\\ when\\ Jesus\\ offers\\ the\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\ as\\ his\\ own\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Line\\ 3\\ and\\ 4\\ provide\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Crucifixion\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\ and\\ the\\ true\\ meaning\\ in\\ it\\:\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\ for\\ his\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ describes\\ this\\ event\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ done\\ because\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(God\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ love\\ for\\ his\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ lines\\ are\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ literal\\:\\ Jesus\\ was\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;roasted\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ rather\\ this\\ burning\\ refers\\ to\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\-\\ it\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ fire\\ in\\ the\\ hearts\\ of\\ his\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ final\\ line\\ refers\\ to\\ death\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ destroyer\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ that\\ Jesus\\ has\\ died\\ for\\ his\\ people\\,\\ they\\ will\\ have\\ eternal\\ life\\ with\\ God\\ if\\ they\\ believe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ fundamental\\ idea\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Justin\\ and\\ Melito\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jesus\\ as\\ the\\ Pascha\\ sacrifice\\ conquered\\ death\\ to\\ give\\ eternal\\ life\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ Summaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\ for\\ Enslin\\ from\\ Lecture\\ Notes\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Our\\ sources\\ for\\ the\\ sayings\\ and\\ doings\\ of\\ Jesus\\ are\\ mainly\\ the\\ four\\ canonical\\ gospels\\ in\\ our\\ NT\\ \\(Mt\\ Mk\\ Lk\\ Jn\\)\\ which\\ were\\ written\\ 40\\-70\\ years\\ after\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ lifetime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jesus\\ was\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\eschatological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;prophet\\,\\ announcing\\ that\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ was\\ at\\ hand\\ and\\ demanding\\ repentance\\ \\(\\=\\ John\\ the\\ Baptist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;reformer\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ within\\,\\ like\\ the\\ prophets\\ of\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ did\\ not\\,\\ and\\ had\\ no\\ intention\\ to\\,\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ religion\\ or\\ a\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;church\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ did\\ not\\ depart\\ from\\ Jewish\\ practice\\ or\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Jesus\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;becomes\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\party\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ Judaism\\ after\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Described\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ Acts\\ \\(date\\ and\\ historicity\\ much\\ debated\\)\\ and\\ the\\ letters\\ of\\ Paul\\ \\(50s\\ CE\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enslin\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ group\\ in\\ Judaea\\ continues\\ the\\ basic\\ themes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Jesus\\ movement\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Outside\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Israel\\ \\(in\\ the\\ Diaspora\\)\\ the\\ incorporation\\ of\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gentiles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(non\\-Jews\\)\\ and\\ the\\ decision\\ that\\ they\\ need\\ not\\ observe\\ all\\ the\\ commandments\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\ \\(Paul\\)\\ inevitably\\ will\\ create\\ a\\ non\\-Jewish\\ society\\ and\\ a\\ non\\-Jewish\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gentile\\ Christianity\\ is\\ the\\ wave\\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ future\\,\\ and\\ this\\ Christianity\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ gospel\\ stories\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ supernatural\\ birth\\ and\\ miracles\\;\\ calling\\ Jesus\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lord\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\kyrios\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ and\\ seeing\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\ as\\ atonement\\ for\\ sin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ scholars\\ would\\ emphasize\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ Enslin\\ did\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\variety\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ earliest\\ Christianity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\By\\ \\&ldquo\\;parting\\ of\\ the\\ ways\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ mean\\ that\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ came\\ to\\ occupy\\ separate\\ social\\ space\\,\\ with\\ separate\\ institutions\\,\\ political\\ structures\\,\\ and\\ social\\ networks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ process\\,\\ not\\ an\\ event\\,\\ which\\ unfolds\\ differently\\ in\\ different\\ places\\ and\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ name\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christian\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ first\\ used\\ in\\ Antioch\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 40s\\ CE\\ according\\ to\\ Acts\\ 11\\:26\\;\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christianity\\&rdquo\\;\\ first\\ attested\\ \\ \\;in\\ Ignatius\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 120\\ CE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ Martyr\\ takes\\ the\\ separation\\ for\\ granted\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 160\\ CE\\)\\;\\ never\\ uses\\ the\\ words\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christianity\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Judaism\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ why\\)\\ but\\ regularly\\ uses\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christians\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Dialogue\\ 63\\.5\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ are\\ all\\ called\\ Christians\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jews\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Social\\ separation\\ aided\\/abetted\\ by\\ Christian\\ theological\\ tenets\\ and\\ ritual\\ practices\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Theology\\:\\ Jesus\\ as\\ Messiah\\ \\(Christ\\)\\;\\ Jesus\\ as\\ atonement\\;\\ Jesus\\ as\\ God\\,\\ Son\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ Logos\\;\\ Jesus\\ as\\ God\\ and\\ Man\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ritual\\:\\ baptism\\ and\\ communion\\;\\ principled\\ acceptance\\ of\\ some\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\ and\\ rejection\\ of\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Morton\\ S\\.\\ Enslin\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Parting\\ of\\ the\\ Ways\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Jewish\\ Quarterly\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ New\\ Ser\\.\\,\\ Vol\\.\\ 51\\,\\ No\\.\\ 3\\.\\ \\(Jan\\.\\,\\ 1961\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 177\\-197\\ \\(available\\ through\\ JSTOR\\ via\\ Hollis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ was\\ primarily\\ about\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;parting\\ of\\ the\\ ways\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ Christianity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ at\\ first\\,\\ Christianity\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;movement\\ in\\ Judaism\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ may\\ have\\ remained\\ that\\ way\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ followers\\ and\\ the\\ reactions\\ from\\ Jews\\ and\\ other\\ peoples\\ to\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\.\\ Enslin\\ argues\\ that\\ Jesus\\ himself\\ only\\ saw\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ prophet\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ later\\ followers\\ built\\ up\\ a\\ cult\\ separate\\ from\\ Judaism\\ around\\ him\\ that\\ was\\ probably\\ not\\ what\\ Jesus\\ had\\ originally\\ intended\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Both\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\ \\=\\ religion\\ of\\ revelation\\;\\ God\\ planned\\ and\\ prospered\\ the\\ religions\\ from\\ the\\ start\\ \\(Christianity\\ inherited\\ this\\ trait\\ from\\ Judaism\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ evidence\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ Jesus\\ regarded\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ message\\ was\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ long\\ delayed\\ promise\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;to\\ send\\ a\\ heavenly\\ messenger\\ to\\ baptize\\ the\\ nation\\ with\\ fire\\ and\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ final\\ judgment\\ and\\ preside\\ over\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ that\\ God\\ had\\ seen\\ fit\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ his\\ mouthpiece\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ doubtful\\ that\\ Jesus\\ saw\\ himself\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ \\&ldquo\\;establishing\\ the\\ coming\\ kingdom\\&hellip\\;Rather\\,\\ he\\ was\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prophet\\ bidding\\ men\\ prepare\\ themselves\\ against\\ the\\ day\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\>\\;\\ as\\ such\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ in\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ teaching\\ that\\ deviates\\ from\\ Jewish\\ orthodoxy\\ or\\ that\\ introduces\\ non\\-Jewish\\ ideas\\ or\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opposition\\ arose\\ to\\ Christ\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ common\\ people\\ heard\\ him\\ gladly\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ message\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ empowerment\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ the\\ descent\\ of\\ the\\ mighty\\.\\ To\\ those\\ in\\ authority\\ and\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ Jesus\\ message\\ \\&ldquo\\;was\\ a\\ most\\ unwelcome\\ and\\ dangerous\\ bit\\ of\\ rabble\\-rousing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ was\\ put\\ to\\ death\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ understood\\,\\ but\\ because\\ he\\ was\\:\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ dangerous\\ influence\\ which\\ was\\ having\\ a\\ disrupting\\,\\ even\\ sinister\\,\\ effect\\,\\ which\\ if\\ allowed\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ hand\\,\\ might\\ well\\ end\\ the\\ very\\ considerable\\ home\\ rule\\ allowed\\ by\\ Rome\\ in\\ the\\ administration\\ of\\ the\\ Province\\ of\\ Judea\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Crux\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ Christianity\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ sect\\ \\&ndash\\;Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ followers\\ disbelieved\\ his\\ verdict\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enslin\\ finds\\ it\\ incredible\\ that\\ one\\ man\\ could\\ have\\ built\\ up\\ such\\ a\\ cult\\ following\\ \\>\\;\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\ were\\ so\\ accepted\\ by\\ his\\ followers\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ take\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ defeat\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(his\\ crucifiction\\)\\ in\\ their\\ stride\\ and\\ to\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;carry\\ on\\ the\\ task\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ started\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ tales\\ of\\ supernatural\\ intervention\\ related\\ to\\ Jesus\\ are\\ consequences\\ and\\ attempts\\ of\\ followers\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;explain\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ had\\ made\\ them\\ so\\ completely\\ his\\ own\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ Jesus\\ was\\ put\\ to\\ death\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ bring\\ the\\ dawn\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ kingdom\\ \\>\\;\\ his\\ followers\\ were\\ convinced\\ that\\ God\\ had\\ sent\\ him\\ and\\ blessed\\ his\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ constantly\\ spoke\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Son\\ of\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\>\\;\\ but\\ unlikely\\ that\\ he\\ saw\\ that\\ person\\ as\\ himself\\;\\ this\\ identification\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ by\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ early\\ followers\\.\\ At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;belief\\ in\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;\\ was\\ still\\ within\\ Judaism\\ and\\ the\\ movement\\ started\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ \\(which\\ followers\\ saw\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ blessed\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ early\\ preaching\\,\\ no\\ hint\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ death\\ of\\ Jesus\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\ was\\ invested\\ with\\ any\\ special\\ potency\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ ransom\\ for\\ many\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ that\\ in\\ him\\ \\&lsquo\\;God\\ was\\ reconciling\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ himself\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ First\\ insistence\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Jesus\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;simply\\ a\\ horrible\\ crime\\,\\ one\\ more\\ act\\ of\\ infamy\\ by\\ their\\ fellow\\ Jews\\,\\ who\\ had\\ regularly\\ opposed\\ the\\ truth\\:\\ As\\ your\\ fathers\\ killed\\ the\\ prophets\\,\\ so\\ do\\ ye\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ preachings\\ from\\ Christ\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;double\\ unpopular\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ control\\,\\ both\\ politically\\ and\\ religiously\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Who\\ you\\ slew\\ God\\ raised\\ up\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ a\\ concept\\ that\\ the\\ powerful\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ taken\\ with\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ buds\\ of\\ Christianity\\;\\ the\\ accounts\\ in\\ Acts\\ \\(in\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\)\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;far\\ later\\ and\\ are\\ interpreted\\ reflections\\,\\ not\\ retouched\\ eyewitness\\ reports\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ the\\ general\\ outline\\ seems\\ clear\\:\\ clashes\\ arose\\,\\ preachers\\ were\\ arrested\\,\\ the\\ circle\\ of\\ operations\\ grew\\ larger\\ \\>\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ gradual\\ widening\\ area\\ of\\ this\\ preaching\\ was\\ in\\ no\\ small\\ part\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ growing\\ opposition\\ to\\ their\\ message\\ and\\ success\\ made\\ further\\ fields\\ seem\\ fairer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&lsquo\\;gentile\\ mission\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(of\\ spreading\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ word\\)\\ became\\ hostile\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ most\\ decidedly\\ Jews\\ \\(who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ accept\\ the\\ word\\ of\\ Jesus\\)\\ \\>\\;\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ very\\ orthodox\\ Jews\\ in\\ Jerusalem\\ became\\ increasingly\\ conservative\\ and\\ cautious\\,\\ further\\ distancing\\ them\\ from\\ the\\ Jews\\ who\\ believed\\ in\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\:\\ zealous\\ Jew\\ of\\ impeccable\\ upbringing\\;\\ was\\ distinctly\\ Jewish\\ \\(kept\\ all\\ Jewish\\ laws\\)\\ and\\ never\\ dreamed\\ of\\ turning\\ from\\ Judaism\\;\\ was\\ convinced\\ that\\ the\\ success\\ in\\ spreading\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ word\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blessing\\.\\ At\\ first\\,\\ Paul\\ thought\\ that\\ Jesus\\ was\\ blessed\\ by\\ God\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\despite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ crucified\\.\\ Later\\,\\ he\\ changed\\ his\\ views\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ Jesus\\ had\\ been\\ approved\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\because\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;he\\ had\\ been\\ crucified\\.\\ Important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lapse\\ of\\ many\\ years\\ between\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promotion\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\ \\(much\\ earlier\\)\\ and\\ the\\ writing\\ of\\ his\\ letters\\ \\>\\;\\ Paul\\ changes\\ his\\ mind\\ on\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ points\\ relating\\ to\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ despite\\ all\\ of\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promotion\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ he\\ remained\\ a\\ Jew\\.\\ For\\ him\\,\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\ was\\ greatly\\ restricted\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ Law\\ which\\ was\\ the\\ final\\ standard\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ living\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ life\\ worthy\\ of\\ one\\ in\\ Christ\\.\\ Jesus\\ was\\ accursed\\ under\\ the\\ Law\\ and\\ died\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thus\\ for\\ Christians\\,\\ the\\ Law\\ had\\ passed\\ its\\ sentence\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ subject\\ to\\ it\\.\\ However\\,\\ its\\ function\\ was\\ still\\ good\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ make\\ men\\ aware\\ of\\ their\\ plight\\,\\ the\\ Law\\ convinces\\ man\\ of\\ the\\ hopelessness\\ of\\ his\\ state\\ \\>\\;\\ makes\\ men\\ eager\\ to\\ receive\\ the\\ freedom\\ of\\ forgiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ a\\ word\\,\\ Paul\\ remained\\ in\\ essence\\ a\\ Jew\\ till\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ his\\ death\\,\\ was\\ confident\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ all\\ Israel\\ would\\ be\\ saved\\ and\\ would\\ gladly\\ have\\ relinquished\\ his\\ own\\ boon\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ his\\ fellow\\ Jews\\ come\\ the\\ sooner\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Additional\\ point\\:\\ Jesus\\ started\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ \\&lsquo\\;anointed\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ Lord\\ by\\ the\\ masses\\ \\>\\;\\ this\\ ID\\ is\\ suggestive\\ of\\ parallel\\ cults\\ that\\ other\\ non\\-Jews\\ would\\ have\\ identified\\ with\\;\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\ is\\ Lord\\&rdquo\\;\\ may\\ have\\ resonated\\ with\\ such\\ peoples\\ more\\ than\\ Paul\\ ever\\ knew\\/intended\\;\\ in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ god\\-like\\ status\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ influenced\\ by\\ a\\ belief\\ among\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ and\\ their\\ effect\\ upon\\ those\\ preaching\\ the\\ word\\ of\\ Jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tremendous\\ change\\ in\\ followers\\ of\\ Jesus\\ that\\ Enslin\\ argues\\ even\\ Jesus\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ foreseen\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ the\\ inspired\\ word\\ of\\ one\\ who\\ believed\\ himself\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prophet\\,\\ heralding\\ the\\ day\\ when\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ long\\-deferred\\ promise\\ to\\ Israel\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ consummated\\,\\ had\\ arisen\\ a\\ religion\\ of\\ salvation\\ through\\ the\\ saving\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\ into\\ fellowship\\ with\\ whom\\ one\\ comes\\ by\\ the\\ sacrament\\ of\\ baptism\\ and\\ whose\\ essence\\ one\\ shares\\ in\\ a\\ sacred\\ meal\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ understanding\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\ is\\ seeing\\ the\\ universality\\ in\\ his\\ words\\:\\ The\\ message\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ with\\ its\\ insistence\\ upon\\ repentance\\,\\ was\\ clear\\ \\(but\\ not\\ always\\ accepted\\)\\ and\\ his\\ gospels\\ were\\ broad\\ enough\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;meet\\ at\\ satisfy\\ the\\ needs\\ and\\ longings\\ of\\ every\\ human\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\ became\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ things\\ to\\ all\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Issues\\ in\\ the\\ separation\\ of\\ \\"\\;Judaism\\"\\;\\ from\\ \\"\\;Christianity\\"\\;\\ as\\ seen\\ by\\ Justin\\ Martyr\\ in\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jews\\ curse\\ Christ\\ and\\ Christians\\:\\ 16\\.4\\,\\ 93\\.4\\,\\ 96\\.2\\,\\ 133\\.6\\,\\ 137\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.4\\ \\:\\ Circumcision\\ Given\\ as\\ a\\ Sign\\,\\ That\\ the\\ Jews\\ Might\\ be\\ Driven\\ Away\\ for\\ Their\\ Evil\\ Deeds\\ Done\\ to\\ Christ\\ and\\ the\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\[referring\\ to\\ the\\ Jews\\]\\ \\&ldquo\\;Because\\ they\\ have\\ transgressed\\ against\\ Me\\,\\ and\\ despised\\ Me\\,\\ and\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ walked\\ contrary\\ to\\ Me\\,\\ I\\ also\\ walked\\ contrary\\ to\\ them\\,\\ and\\ I\\ shall\\ cut\\ them\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ their\\ enemies\\&hellip\\;For\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ recognized\\ among\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ men\\ by\\ any\\ other\\ mark\\ than\\ your\\ fleshy\\ circumcision\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ the\\ circumcision\\ that\\ God\\ wanted\\ was\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ not\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\93\\.4\\:\\ The\\ Same\\ Kind\\ of\\ Righteousness\\ Is\\ Bestowed\\ On\\ All\\.\\ Christ\\ Comprehends\\ It\\ In\\ Two\\ Precepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[Jesus\\]\\ summed\\ up\\ all\\ righteousness\\ and\\ piety\\ in\\ two\\ commandments\\.\\ They\\ are\\ these\\:\\ \\&lsquo\\;Thou\\ shalt\\ love\\ the\\ Lord\\ thy\\ God\\ with\\ all\\ thy\\ heart\\,\\ and\\ with\\ all\\ thy\\ strength\\,\\ and\\ thy\\ neighbor\\ as\\ thyself\\&hellip\\;But\\ \\[the\\ Jews\\]\\ were\\ never\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ possessed\\ of\\ friendship\\ or\\ love\\ either\\ towards\\ God\\,\\ or\\ towards\\ the\\ prophets\\,\\ or\\ towards\\ yourselves\\,\\ but\\ as\\ is\\ evident\\,\\ you\\ are\\ ever\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ idolaters\\ and\\ murderers\\ of\\ righteous\\ men\\,\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ laid\\ hands\\ even\\ on\\ Christ\\ Himself\\.\\;\\ and\\ to\\ this\\ very\\ day\\ you\\ abide\\ in\\ your\\ wickedness\\,\\ execrating\\ those\\ who\\ prove\\ that\\ this\\ man\\ who\\ was\\ crucified\\ is\\ the\\ Christ\\.\\ Nay\\,\\ more\\ than\\ this\\,\\ you\\ suppose\\ that\\ He\\ was\\ crucified\\ as\\ hostile\\ to\\ and\\ cursed\\ by\\ God\\,\\ which\\ supposition\\ is\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ your\\ most\\ irrational\\ mind\\.\\ For\\ though\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ understanding\\ that\\ this\\ man\\ is\\ Christ\\ from\\ the\\ signs\\ given\\ by\\ Moses\\,\\ yet\\ you\\ will\\ not\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ are\\ not\\ righteous\\ because\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ follow\\ the\\ precept\\ to\\ love\\ one\\ another\\,\\ given\\ by\\ God\\ and\\ Jesus\\.\\ He\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ their\\ \\&lsquo\\;wickedness\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ condemning\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ followers\\,\\ narrow\\-mindedly\\ thinking\\ that\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crucifiction\\ was\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ displeasure\\ and\\ not\\ recognizing\\ Jesus\\ as\\ Christ\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ signs\\ given\\ by\\ Moses\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\96\\.2\\:\\ That\\ Curse\\ Was\\ a\\ Prediction\\ of\\ the\\ Things\\ Which\\ The\\ Jews\\ Would\\ Do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;God\\ foretold\\ that\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ done\\ by\\ you\\ \\[the\\ killing\\ of\\ Christ\\]\\&hellip\\;yet\\ you\\ curse\\ in\\ your\\ synagogues\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ called\\ from\\ Him\\ Christians\\;\\ and\\ other\\ nations\\ effectively\\ carry\\ out\\ that\\ curse\\,\\ putting\\ to\\ death\\ those\\ who\\ simply\\ confess\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ Christians\\.\\.\\.And\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ all\\ this\\ we\\ pray\\ for\\ you\\&hellip\\;\\.For\\ He\\ taught\\ us\\ to\\ pray\\ for\\ our\\ enemies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ killing\\ of\\ Christ\\ by\\ the\\ Jews\\ was\\ foretold\\ by\\ God\\.\\ The\\ Jews\\ now\\ curse\\ the\\ Christians\\ even\\ though\\ Justin\\ implies\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ Jews\\ who\\ are\\ cursed\\ and\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;enemies\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Christians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\133\\.6\\:\\ The\\ Hard\\-Heartedness\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\,\\ For\\ Whom\\ the\\ Christians\\ Pray\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ the\\ Jews\\ witnessed\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ \\&lsquo\\;unexpected\\ and\\ marvelous\\ acts\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ the\\ Christians\\ witnessed\\,\\ the\\ Jews\\ remained\\ unconvinced\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ prophecy\\ \\>\\;\\ thus\\ proving\\ their\\ hard\\-heartedness\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ God\\,\\ knowing\\ before\\ that\\ \\[the\\ Jews\\]\\ would\\ do\\ such\\ things\\,\\ pronounced\\ this\\ curse\\ upon\\ you\\ by\\ the\\ prophet\\ Isaiah\\:\\ \\&lsquo\\;Woe\\ unto\\ their\\ soul\\!\\ They\\ have\\ devised\\ evil\\ counsel\\ against\\ themselves\\ saying\\,\\ Let\\ us\\ bind\\ the\\ righteous\\ man\\,\\ for\\ he\\ is\\ distasteful\\ to\\ us\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\137\\.2\\:\\ He\\ Exhorts\\ The\\ Jews\\ To\\ Be\\ Converted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;For\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ well\\ if\\,\\ persuaded\\ by\\ the\\ Scriptures\\,\\ you\\ are\\ circumcised\\ from\\ hard\\-heartedness\\:\\ not\\ that\\ circumcision\\ which\\ you\\ have\\ from\\ the\\ tenets\\ that\\ are\\ put\\ into\\ you\\;\\ for\\ that\\ was\\ given\\ for\\ a\\ sign\\,\\ and\\ not\\ for\\ a\\ work\\ of\\ righteousness\\,\\ as\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ compel\\ you\\ \\[to\\ admit\\]\\.\\ Assent\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ and\\ pour\\ no\\ ridicule\\ on\\ the\\ Son\\ of\\ God\\;\\ obey\\ not\\ the\\ Pharisaic\\ teachers\\,\\ and\\ scoff\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ Israel\\,\\ as\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ your\\ synagogues\\ teach\\ you\\ to\\ do\\ after\\ your\\ prayers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ God\\ and\\ Christians\\ want\\ the\\ Jews\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;see\\ the\\ light\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ convert\\ to\\ Christianity\\ \\(and\\ to\\ stop\\ making\\ life\\ hard\\ for\\/ridiculing\\ the\\ Christians\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Judaeans\\ sent\\ out\\ messengers\\:\\ 108\\,\\ 138\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\108\\:\\ The\\ Ressurrection\\ of\\ Christ\\ Did\\ Not\\ Convert\\ the\\ Jews\\,\\ But\\ Through\\ the\\ Whole\\ World\\ They\\ Have\\ Sent\\ Men\\ to\\ Accuse\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ references\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ Jonah\\ and\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ the\\ mourning\\ of\\ the\\ Ninevites\\ before\\ God\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ these\\ tales\\ gave\\ clues\\ to\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ identity\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ were\\ too\\ narrowminded\\ to\\ see\\ and\\ comprehend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\138\\:\\ Noah\\ is\\ a\\ Figure\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ Who\\ Has\\ Regenerated\\ Us\\ By\\ Water\\,\\ And\\ Faith\\,\\ And\\ Wood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;God\\ has\\ said\\ in\\ Isaiah\\ to\\ Jerusalem\\:\\ \\&lsquo\\;I\\ saved\\ thee\\ in\\ the\\ deluge\\ of\\ Noah\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ By\\ this\\ which\\ God\\ said\\ was\\ meant\\ that\\ the\\ mystery\\ of\\ saved\\ men\\ appeared\\ in\\ the\\ deluge\\.\\ For\\ righteous\\ Noah\\,\\ along\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ wife\\,\\ his\\ three\\ sons\\ and\\ their\\ wives\\,\\ being\\ eight\\ in\\ number\\,\\ were\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ eighth\\ day\\,\\ wherein\\ Christ\\ appeared\\ when\\ He\\ rose\\ from\\ the\\ dead\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jews\\ say\\ that\\ Jesus\\ was\\ a\\ magician\\:\\ 69\\.7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\69\\.7\\:\\ The\\ Devil\\,\\ Since\\ He\\ Emulates\\ The\\ Truth\\,\\ Has\\ Invented\\ Fables\\ About\\ Bacchus\\,\\ Hercules\\ and\\ Sculpius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ many\\ elements\\ of\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ life\\ and\\ resurrection\\ had\\ been\\ told\\ before\\ in\\ other\\ religions\\ with\\ other\\ gods\\ \\(including\\ Bacchus\\,\\ Hercules\\,\\ Sculapius\\)\\ \\>\\;\\ however\\,\\ these\\ tales\\ were\\ put\\ in\\ place\\ by\\ the\\ devil\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ doubt\\ Jesus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jews\\ \\&ldquo\\;dared\\ to\\ call\\ Him\\ a\\ magician\\,\\ and\\ a\\ deceiver\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ Yet\\ He\\ wrought\\ such\\ works\\,\\ and\\ persuaded\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ \\[destined\\ to\\]\\ believe\\ on\\ Him\\;\\ for\\ even\\ if\\ any\\ one\\ be\\ labouring\\ under\\ a\\ defect\\ of\\ body\\,\\ yet\\ be\\ an\\ observer\\ of\\ the\\ doctrineds\\ delivered\\ by\\ Him\\,\\ He\\ shall\\ raise\\ him\\ u\\ pat\\ His\\ second\\ advent\\ perfectly\\ sound\\,\\ after\\ He\\ has\\ made\\ him\\ immortal\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ justifies\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ acts\\ of\\ healing\\ the\\ sick\\ and\\ disabled\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ Jesus\\ rewards\\ those\\ who\\ follow\\ His\\ word\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\:\\ Justin\\ 9\\-10\\;\\ Justin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ solution\\:\\ \\;\\ 44\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\:\\ The\\ Christians\\ Have\\ Not\\ Believed\\ Groundless\\ Stories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jews\\ have\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;persuaded\\ by\\ teachers\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ understand\\ the\\ Scriptures\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\:\\ Trypho\\ Blames\\ the\\ Christians\\ For\\ This\\ Alone\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Non\\-Observance\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ asked\\ Trypho\\ if\\ Christians\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ blamed\\ for\\ anything\\ beyond\\ not\\ observing\\ the\\ Law\\,\\ not\\ being\\ circumcised\\ \\(of\\ the\\ flesh\\)\\ and\\ not\\ observing\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ as\\ the\\ Jews\\ do\\.\\ Trypho\\ asks\\ Justin\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ Christians\\ think\\ their\\ religion\\ to\\ be\\ so\\ great\\,\\ why\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ there\\ any\\ religious\\ practices\\ that\\ separate\\ Christians\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\(festivals\\,\\ Sabbaths\\,\\ rituals\\)\\.\\ Trypho\\ also\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ why\\ Christians\\ feel\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ law\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ circumcision\\,\\ when\\ God\\ has\\ clearly\\ stated\\ that\\ He\\ will\\ cut\\ off\\ the\\ soul\\ of\\ anyone\\ who\\ is\\ not\\ circumcised\\ on\\ the\\ eighth\\ day\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\44\\.2\\ \\:\\ The\\ Jews\\ In\\ Vain\\ Promise\\ Themselves\\ Salvation\\,\\ Which\\ Cannot\\ be\\ Obtained\\ Except\\ Through\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Jews\\ deceive\\ themselves\\ in\\ thinking\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ chosen\\ people\\ and\\ will\\ automatically\\ receive\\ salvation\\.\\ Justin\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ Lord\\ will\\ not\\ save\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;transgressed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Justin\\ tells\\ Trypho\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ other\\ way\\ to\\ salvation\\ other\\ than\\ through\\ becoming\\ \\&ldquo\\;acquainted\\ with\\ Christ\\,\\ to\\ be\\ washed\\ in\\ the\\ fountain\\ spoken\\ of\\ by\\ Isaiah\\ for\\ the\\ remission\\ of\\ sins\\;\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\,\\ to\\ live\\ sinless\\ lives\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ key\\ passage\\:\\ The\\ Scriptures\\ are\\ ours\\,\\ not\\ yours\\:\\ Justin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\:\\ Christ\\ Is\\ Useless\\ to\\ Those\\ Who\\ Observe\\ the\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ Justin\\ \\(and\\ Christians\\)\\ have\\ witnessed\\ Christ\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ baptized\\ by\\ the\\ Holy\\ Ghost\\ in\\ their\\ belief\\ in\\ Christ\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ circumcision\\ or\\ other\\ baptism\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ has\\ been\\ confirmed\\ in\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ by\\ David\\,\\ Isaiah\\,\\ Zecheriah\\ and\\ Moses\\,\\ books\\ that\\ both\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ see\\ as\\ holy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ posits\\ that\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ actually\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ Christians\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ \\[the\\ Christians\\]\\ believe\\ them\\;\\ but\\ you\\,\\ though\\ you\\ read\\ them\\,\\ do\\ not\\ catch\\ the\\ spirit\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ ends\\ with\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ offended\\ that\\ the\\ Christians\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ observe\\ the\\ Law\\ as\\ many\\ righteous\\ men\\ have\\ not\\ observed\\ the\\ Torah\\ Law\\ and\\ yet\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;witnessed\\ to\\ by\\ God\\ Himself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 19\\:1\\-23\\:19\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 19\\:\\ Moses\\ on\\ Mt\\.\\ Sinai\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Israelite\\ people\\ had\\ left\\ Egypt\\ and\\ entered\\ Sinai\\.\\ God\\ told\\ Moses\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ appear\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ the\\ Israelites\\ on\\ the\\ third\\ day\\.\\ Moses\\ told\\ the\\ Israelites\\ to\\ remain\\ pure\\ and\\ to\\ stay\\ away\\ from\\ Mt\\.\\ Sinai\\ until\\ that\\ day\\.\\ On\\ the\\ third\\ day\\,\\ God\\ descended\\ in\\ a\\ cloud\\ and\\ spoke\\ with\\ Moses\\ \\(on\\ top\\ of\\ Mt\\.\\ Sinai\\)\\,\\ while\\ the\\ people\\ waited\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ God\\ told\\ Moses\\ to\\ bring\\ Aaron\\ up\\ with\\ him\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 20\\:\\ The\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ delivers\\ the\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\ to\\ Moses\\.\\ God\\ tells\\ Moses\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ people\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ make\\ any\\ gods\\ or\\ altars\\ out\\ of\\ silver\\ or\\ out\\ of\\ any\\ human\\ constructed\\ earthen\\ materials\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 21\\:\\ Specific\\ Civil\\ and\\ Criminal\\ Laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rules\\ regarding\\ time\\ limits\\ on\\ slaves\\,\\ homicide\\,\\ respectful\\ treatment\\ of\\ parents\\,\\ kidnapping\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\ \\-\\ major\\ crimes\\ usually\\ punishable\\ by\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leviticus\\ 11\\;\\ 15\\;\\ 18\\;\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\:\\ The\\ Food\\ Laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Permissible\\ to\\ eat\\ anything\\ with\\ true\\ hoofs\\ AND\\ that\\ chews\\ its\\ cud\\ \\(not\\ OR\\)\\,\\ excludes\\ pigs\\ and\\ other\\ creatures\\,\\ lists\\ mammals\\,\\ sea\\ creatures\\ \\(eat\\ those\\ with\\ fins\\ and\\ scales\\)\\,\\ birds\\,\\ swarming\\ things\\ \\(with\\ jointed\\ legs\\ \\=\\ permissible\\)\\,\\ lizards\\;\\ also\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ unclean\\ by\\ touching\\ the\\ carcasses\\ of\\ unclean\\ creatures\\ or\\ those\\ that\\ have\\ died\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ \\(and\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ killed\\)\\;\\ the\\ food\\ laws\\ are\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ distinguishing\\ the\\ Israelites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 15\\:\\ Impurity\\ from\\ Bodily\\ Discharges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Having\\ sex\\,\\ any\\ sort\\ of\\ genital\\ discharge\\,\\ menstruation\\,\\ childbirth\\ \\>\\;\\ makes\\ an\\ individual\\ unclean\\,\\ must\\ cleanse\\ themselves\\,\\ wait\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ before\\ entering\\ sacred\\ spaces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 18\\:\\ Abominations\\ of\\ the\\ Canaanites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Israelites\\ are\\ instructed\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ not\\ act\\ like\\ the\\ Canaanites\\,\\ not\\ to\\ take\\ up\\ their\\ laws\\,\\ not\\ to\\ have\\ unclean\\ sexual\\ relations\\ including\\ incestuous\\ intercourse\\ with\\ close\\ family\\ members\\,\\ adulterous\\ behavior\\,\\ sex\\ with\\ a\\ menstruating\\ woman\\,\\ homosexual\\ sex\\ \\(for\\ men\\)\\,\\ beastiality\\,\\ not\\ offering\\ human\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ other\\ Gods\\;\\ the\\ Israelites\\ are\\ warned\\ not\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ these\\ behaviors\\ or\\ the\\ land\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;spit\\ them\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ God\\ indicates\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ serious\\ crimes\\ if\\ committed\\ and\\ are\\ abhorrent\\ to\\ Him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 19\\:\\ Holiness\\ of\\ Individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ is\\ holy\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worship\\ idols\\,\\ rules\\ of\\ sacrifices\\ \\(what\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ God\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\.\\ first\\ three\\ years\\ of\\ fruit\\ from\\ a\\ fruit\\ plant\\)\\,\\ no\\ theft\\ or\\ fraud\\,\\ rules\\ for\\ the\\ upholding\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ society\\,\\ love\\ your\\ fellow\\ as\\ yourself\\,\\ no\\ ghosts\\,\\ treat\\ strangers\\ kindly\\,\\ no\\ marking\\ of\\ the\\ body\\,\\ no\\ false\\ measures\\/weights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deuteronomy\\ 5\\;\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ Stating\\ of\\ the\\ Laws\\ Given\\ By\\ God\\ to\\ Moses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Israelites\\ have\\ an\\ agreement\\ with\\ God\\,\\ must\\ uphold\\ her\\ laws\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ organ\\ mission\\,\\ God\\ gave\\ Moses\\ 10\\ Commandments\\ \\(restated\\ differently\\)\\;\\ keep\\ the\\ commandments\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ covenant\\ with\\ God\\ who\\ brought\\ the\\ Israelites\\ out\\ of\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 27\\ \\:\\ Ceremonies\\ at\\ Shechem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moses\\ and\\ the\\ elders\\ spoke\\ to\\ the\\ people\\:\\ makes\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ cursed\\ behaviors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ idol\\ worship\\,\\ parental\\ insult\\,\\ unjust\\ behaviors\\,\\ inappropriate\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ \\(incest\\,\\ adultery\\,\\ bestiality\\)\\,\\ homicide\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Some\\ basic\\ Bible\\ literacy\\ \\(to\\ be\\ discussed\\ in\\ section\\)\\:\\ The\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\ and\\ Biblical\\ Law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Web\\ Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carefully\\ compare\\ the\\ two\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\ \\(Exodus\\ 20\\,\\ Deuteronomy\\ 5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ class\\ web\\ discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ two\\ accounts\\ vary\\ in\\ the\\ rationale\\ behind\\ the\\ Sabbath\\.\\ The\\ Exodus\\ account\\ asks\\ man\\ to\\ rest\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ both\\ model\\ God\\ whose\\ image\\ they\\ were\\ modeled\\ after\\.\\ The\\ verse\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ in\\ six\\ days\\ the\\ Lord\\ made\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ and\\ sea\\,\\ and\\ He\\ rested\\ on\\ the\\ seventh\\ day\\;\\ therefore\\ the\\ Lord\\ blessed\\ the\\ sabbath\\ day\\ and\\ hallowed\\ it\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ implies\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ made\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hallowed\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;blessed\\&rdquo\\;\\ day\\ by\\ not\\ corrupting\\ it\\ with\\ work\\ and\\ resting\\.\\ The\\ implication\\ is\\ that\\ man\\ ought\\ to\\ rest\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ better\\ model\\ themselves\\ after\\ God\\ and\\ avoid\\ the\\ normal\\ laborious\\ activities\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ sacrosanct\\ on\\ such\\ a\\ holy\\ day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\,\\ the\\ rationale\\ behind\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ is\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\ 5\\:15\\ which\\ says\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ remember\\ that\\ you\\ were\\ a\\ servant\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Egypt\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Lord\\ your\\ God\\ brought\\ you\\ out\\ thence\\ with\\ a\\ mighty\\ hand\\ and\\ an\\ outstretched\\ arm\\;\\ therefore\\ the\\ Lord\\ your\\ God\\ commanded\\ you\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ day\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ As\\ opposed\\ to\\ Exodus\\,\\ the\\ Deuteronomy\\ justification\\ for\\ Sabbath\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ command\\ and\\ his\\ people\\ should\\ obey\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ command\\ after\\ God\\ graciously\\ saved\\ them\\ from\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ the\\ Egyptians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ difference\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ God\\ asks\\ man\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;remember\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ in\\ Exodus\\ while\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ man\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;observe\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ Sabbath\\.\\ This\\ stood\\ out\\ for\\ me\\ since\\ remember\\ implies\\ a\\ mental\\ recreation\\ of\\ an\\ event\\ whereas\\ observe\\ implies\\ a\\ physical\\ recreation\\ of\\ an\\ event\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ one\\ remembers\\ a\\ memory\\ while\\ one\\ observes\\ a\\ current\\ act\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ this\\ difference\\ creates\\ a\\ question\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ consistency\\ of\\ the\\ authorship\\ since\\ what\\ man\\ is\\ commanded\\ to\\ do\\ on\\ his\\ day\\ of\\ rest\\ differ\\ between\\ the\\ passages\\.\\ In\\ Exodus\\,\\ man\\ may\\ remember\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ God\\ whereas\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ man\\ is\\ asked\\ to\\ observe\\,\\ thus\\ carry\\ out\\ physical\\ worship\\ towards\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ way\\ to\\ reconcile\\ the\\ three\\ differences\\ is\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ making\\ two\\ very\\ different\\ commands\\ here\\.\\ While\\ God\\ is\\ asking\\ for\\ man\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ break\\ from\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ in\\ both\\ books\\,\\ God\\ could\\ be\\ asking\\ man\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ for\\ two\\ different\\ purposes\\.\\ In\\ Exodus\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ for\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rest\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;remember\\&rdquo\\;\\ him\\ and\\ to\\ worship\\ him\\.\\ On\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ God\\ asks\\ man\\ to\\ rest\\ \\&ldquo\\;so\\ your\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ slave\\ may\\ rest\\ as\\ you\\ do\\&rdquo\\;\\ may\\ suggest\\ that\\ God\\ wants\\ all\\ the\\ creatures\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ to\\ not\\ be\\ enslaved\\ by\\ work\\,\\ just\\ as\\ his\\ people\\ were\\ by\\ the\\ Egyptians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ said\\,\\ the\\ stark\\ similarities\\ coupled\\ with\\ the\\ subtle\\ differences\\ does\\ cause\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ ask\\ whether\\ there\\ were\\ separate\\ authorships\\ and\\ whether\\ one\\ author\\ based\\ his\\ writings\\ on\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ Biblical\\ food\\ laws\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 11\\)\\ and\\ \\/or\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ prohibited\\ sexual\\ relations\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 18\\)\\ and\\/or\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ impurity\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 15\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Leviticus\\ 11\\,\\ the\\ Biblical\\ food\\ laws\\ were\\ sent\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;divine\\ will\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\ through\\ Moses\\ and\\ Aaron\\ and\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ such\\ laws\\ are\\ supposedly\\ beyond\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ and\\ known\\ only\\ to\\ God\\.\\ However\\,\\ if\\ one\\ analyzes\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ food\\ regulations\\ imposed\\ by\\ God\\,\\ there\\ are\\ certain\\ motivations\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ even\\ by\\ mere\\ mortals\\ including\\ aesthetic\\ reasons\\,\\ encouraging\\ settlement\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ geographical\\ region\\ and\\ preserving\\ the\\ Israelite\\ cultural\\ identity\\.\\ The\\ prohibition\\ of\\ eating\\ certain\\ creatures\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ from\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ perspective\\.\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;lifestyle\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ pig\\,\\ which\\ the\\ Israelites\\ were\\ prohibited\\ from\\ consuming\\,\\ was\\ slovenly\\ and\\ dirty\\.\\ This\\ way\\ of\\ living\\ is\\ certainly\\ not\\ ideal\\ and\\ most\\ societies\\ would\\ agree\\ that\\ lifestyle\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ avoided\\ if\\ one\\ wants\\ a\\ productive\\ citizenry\\.\\ If\\ the\\ Israelites\\ are\\ adhering\\ to\\ the\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ are\\ what\\ you\\ eat\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ unconsciously\\ trying\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ pig\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;lifestyle\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ avoiding\\ consumption\\ of\\ a\\ pig\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meat\\.\\ These\\ food\\ laws\\ may\\ also\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ keeping\\ the\\ Israelites\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ geographical\\ region\\.\\ If\\ the\\ animals\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ permitted\\ to\\ eat\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ raised\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ location\\,\\ or\\ if\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ unclean\\ animals\\ is\\ widespread\\ in\\ other\\ areas\\,\\ the\\ Israelites\\ may\\ choose\\ not\\ to\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chosen\\ Land\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ follow\\ their\\ prescribed\\ food\\ laws\\ there\\.\\ One\\ final\\ explanation\\ that\\ is\\ evident\\ from\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ preserving\\ the\\ Jewish\\ cultural\\ identity\\.\\ The\\ food\\ laws\\ \\(and\\ other\\ laws\\)\\ that\\ God\\ places\\ upon\\ the\\ Israelites\\ are\\ more\\ strict\\ that\\ those\\ he\\ placed\\ upon\\ all\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\ While\\ the\\ Israelites\\ must\\ follow\\ the\\ complex\\ set\\ of\\ food\\ restrictions\\,\\ humanity\\ is\\ only\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ prohibition\\ of\\ eating\\ meat\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ blood\\.\\ This\\ distinguishes\\ the\\ Israelites\\ as\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chosen\\ people\\ and\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\ Eating\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ social\\ practice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ since\\ the\\ Israelites\\ have\\ a\\ specialized\\ dietary\\ regimen\\ \\(while\\ other\\ cultures\\ do\\ not\\)\\,\\ there\\ are\\ incentives\\ for\\ Israelites\\ to\\ only\\ eat\\ with\\ other\\ Israelites\\ \\(if\\ they\\ ate\\ with\\ other\\ non\\-Israelites\\,\\ they\\ may\\ have\\ to\\ make\\ two\\ separate\\ meals\\)\\.\\ This\\ also\\ discouraged\\ inter\\-marriage\\ with\\ non\\-Israelites\\ as\\ the\\ individuals\\ within\\ the\\ household\\ would\\ have\\ different\\ diets\\ \\(and\\ food\\ procurement\\ was\\ more\\ difficult\\ in\\ ancient\\ times\\)\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ restrictive\\ food\\ laws\\ separated\\ the\\ Israelites\\ from\\ their\\ neighbors\\ and\\ discouraged\\ interaction\\ with\\ other\\ peoples\\ thus\\ insulating\\ the\\ Israelite\\ cultural\\ identity\\ and\\ heritage\\ from\\ outside\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Along\\ the\\ same\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ restrictive\\ sexual\\ laws\\ effectively\\ work\\ against\\ intermarriage\\ between\\ Jews\\ and\\ other\\ peoples\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ Law\\ provides\\ a\\ layer\\ of\\ insulation\\ between\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ preserving\\ the\\ bloodlines\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Chosen\\ People\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ command\\ \\"\\;Love\\ your\\ neighbor\\ as\\ yourself\\"\\;\\?\\ \\;\\ Does\\ the\\ context\\ help\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ commandment\\?\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 19\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ partially\\ from\\ Philip\\&rsquo\\;s\\ class\\ web\\ discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ command\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ your\\ fellow\\ as\\ yourself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 19\\:18\\)\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ its\\ immediate\\ context\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ overall\\ context\\ of\\ Leviticus\\ 19\\.\\ The\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ verses\\ immediately\\ preceding\\ verse\\ eighteen\\ invites\\ an\\ interpretation\\ that\\ departs\\ somewhat\\ from\\ a\\ traditional\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ command\\.\\ Beginning\\ in\\ verse\\ fifteen\\,\\ the\\ chapter\\ shifts\\ its\\ attention\\ from\\ general\\ rules\\ of\\ morality\\ and\\ conduct\\ to\\ issues\\ of\\ justice\\.\\ This\\ is\\ elucidated\\ by\\ the\\ translator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ footnotes\\ in\\ the\\ Jewish\\ Study\\ Bible\\;\\ the\\ alternate\\ translation\\ of\\ verse\\ sixteen\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ Israelites\\ should\\ neither\\ accuse\\ others\\ falsely\\ nor\\ stand\\ idly\\ and\\ allow\\ murderers\\ to\\ go\\ unpunished\\.\\ Along\\ similar\\ lines\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ harbor\\ hatred\\ for\\ wrongdoers\\,\\ one\\ should\\ \\&ldquo\\;reprove\\ \\[the\\ offending\\]\\ kinsman\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 19\\:17\\)\\ by\\ calling\\ his\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ offense\\.\\ When\\ done\\ forgivingly\\ and\\ without\\ malice\\,\\ this\\ action\\ is\\ a\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ man\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[l\\]ove\\ \\[his\\]\\ fellow\\ as\\ \\[himself\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 19\\:18\\)\\ by\\ granting\\ the\\ wrongdoer\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ make\\ amends\\ and\\ correct\\ his\\ ways\\.\\ While\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ directly\\ reference\\ legal\\ justice\\ like\\ the\\ previous\\ verses\\,\\ it\\ is\\ nonetheless\\ calling\\ for\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ just\\ relations\\ between\\ fellow\\ men\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ context\\ does\\ not\\ lend\\ itself\\ to\\ the\\ generalized\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ command\\ popularized\\ in\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Love\\ your\\ neighbor\\ as\\ yourself\\&rdquo\\;\\ appears\\ twice\\ in\\ Leviticus\\ 19\\.\\ First\\,\\ when\\ speaking\\ about\\ proper\\ treatment\\ of\\ kinsfolk\\ and\\ countrymen\\,\\ God\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ not\\ take\\ vengeance\\ or\\ bear\\ grudge\\ against\\ your\\ countrymen\\.\\ Love\\ your\\ fellow\\ as\\ yourself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 19\\:18\\)\\.\\ Later\\,\\ when\\ speaking\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ treat\\ strangers\\ in\\ your\\ own\\ land\\,\\ God\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ stranger\\ who\\ resides\\ with\\ you\\ shall\\ be\\ to\\ you\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ your\\ citizens\\;\\ you\\ shall\\ love\\ him\\ as\\ yourself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 19\\:34\\)\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ treating\\ others\\ as\\ one\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ be\\ treated\\ is\\ separated\\ into\\ two\\ categories\\ \\(treating\\ your\\ countrymen\\ and\\ treating\\ strangers\\)\\ it\\ follows\\ that\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ this\\ admonition\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ treat\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ people\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ comparison\\ of\\ others\\ versus\\ self\\,\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ this\\ command\\ suggests\\ that\\ treating\\ your\\ neighbor\\ with\\ kindness\\ should\\ be\\ observe\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ his\\ origin\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ final\\ message\\ in\\ both\\ cases\\ is\\ to\\ treat\\ others\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ kindness\\ that\\ you\\ would\\ appreciate\\,\\ the\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ command\\ is\\ given\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ primary\\ purpose\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ draw\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ kinsmen\\ and\\ strangers\\ in\\ your\\ land\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ subtle\\ message\\ given\\ through\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ this\\ commandment\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ obvious\\ from\\ simply\\ considering\\ the\\ statement\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ the\\ double\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ commandment\\ in\\ two\\ situations\\ emphasizes\\ its\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\ to\\ consider\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ was\\ Justin\\ Martyr\\ and\\ why\\ is\\ he\\ important\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biographical\\ details\\ scarce\\;\\ by\\ the\\ fourth\\ century\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ tradition\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ martyred\\ in\\ Rome\\ in\\ the\\ 160s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ born\\ in\\ Samaria\\ \\(in\\ Roman\\ Palaestina\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gentile\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ circumcised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Educated\\ in\\ Greek\\ philosophy\\;\\ a\\ Platonist\\;\\ opening\\ paragraphs\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ a\\ highly\\ stylized\\ educational\\ autobiography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\apologist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ author\\ of\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Apology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Justin\\ was\\ important\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\ the\\ Jew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Setting\\:\\ right\\ after\\ the\\ Bar\\ Kokhba\\ war\\ of\\ 132\\-135\\ CE\\;\\ in\\ Ephesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ work\\ in\\ early\\ Christianity\\,\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ glimpse\\ into\\ early\\ Christian\\ thought\\,\\ also\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ see\\ interactions\\ between\\ Jew\\ and\\ Christian\\ \\(rare\\ in\\ early\\ literature\\)\\ \\>\\;\\ although\\ clearly\\ biased\\ toward\\ the\\ Christian\\ side\\ as\\ written\\ by\\ Justin\\ \\(there\\ is\\ no\\ equivalent\\ Jewish\\ book\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ according\\ to\\ Justin\\ makes\\ Judaism\\ not\\-Christianity\\?\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\ is\\ working\\ out\\ the\\ Christian\\ boundary\\ with\\ Judaism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christians\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ Law\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ following\\ Jesus\\ and\\ his\\ teachings\\ is\\ sufficient\\ to\\ gain\\ favor\\ with\\ God\\;\\ higly\\ allegorical\\ reading\\ of\\ the\\ Laws\\ that\\ God\\ handed\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\/do\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ argue\\ over\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Both\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ claim\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ supporting\\ their\\ own\\ respective\\ beliefs\\ \\(which\\ many\\ times\\ are\\ clashing\\ beliefs\\)\\.\\ Christians\\ see\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\ as\\ the\\ hermeneutical\\ key\\ for\\ understanding\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ Christian\\ reading\\ is\\ more\\ allegorical\\ \\(but\\ the\\ Jews\\ see\\ allegory\\ in\\ places\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ ID\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ many\\ IDs\\ that\\ I\\ could\\ identify\\ so\\ here\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ from\\ this\\ week\\ that\\ could\\ show\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biographical\\ details\\ scarce\\;\\ by\\ the\\ fourth\\ century\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ tradition\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ martyred\\ in\\ Rome\\ in\\ the\\ 160s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ born\\ in\\ Samaria\\ \\(in\\ Roman\\ Palaestina\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gentile\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ circumcised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Educated\\ in\\ Greek\\ philosophy\\;\\ a\\ Platonist\\;\\ opening\\ paragraphs\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ a\\ highly\\ stylized\\ educational\\ autobiography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\apologist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ author\\ of\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Apology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Author\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\ the\\ Jew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Setting\\:\\ right\\ after\\ the\\ Bar\\ Kokhba\\ war\\ of\\ 132\\-135\\ CE\\;\\ in\\ Ephesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ scholarly\\ debate\\ whether\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ real\\ or\\ fictional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ scholarly\\ debate\\ whether\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ written\\ for\\ Jews\\,\\ Christians\\,\\ or\\ gentiles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Food\\ Laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ system\\ of\\ Jewish\\ food\\ rules\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kashrut\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Food\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ eaten\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kasher\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(kosher\\)\\ \\(these\\ are\\ not\\ biblical\\ terms\\)\\.\\ Food\\ laws\\ set\\ Jews\\ apart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Food\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ eaten\\ is\\ colloquially\\ known\\ by\\ the\\ Yiddish\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\treif\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ derives\\ from\\ Hebrew\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\terefah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ an\\ animal\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;torn\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;ripped\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ a\\ predator\\,\\ hence\\ forbidden\\ to\\ be\\ eaten\\ by\\ Israelites\\ \\(Exodus\\ 22\\:30\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Main\\ statement\\ of\\ food\\ laws\\ is\\ Leviticus\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ inter\\-related\\ ideas\\ here\\:\\ holiness\\ \\(holy\\ vs\\.\\ profane\\)\\ and\\ purity\\ \\(pure\\ vs\\.\\ impure\\,\\ clean\\ vs\\.\\ unclean\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\many\\ food\\ laws\\ extrapolated\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Deuteronomy\\ 14\\:21\\ moves\\ Exodus\\ 23\\:19\\ and\\ 34\\:26\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\You\\ shall\\ not\\ boil\\ a\\ kid\\ in\\ its\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ milk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ a\\ context\\ of\\ cultic\\/ritual\\ regulations\\ to\\ a\\ context\\ of\\ prohibited\\ foods\\;\\ provides\\ basis\\ for\\ rabbinic\\ idea\\ of\\ separation\\ of\\ meat\\ from\\ milk\\.\\ Good\\ example\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Non\\ literal\\ rabbinic\\ exegesis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expansive\\ exegesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ basic\\ food\\ law\\:\\ prohibition\\ of\\ eating\\ blood\\ \\(all\\ animals\\ must\\ be\\ drained\\ of\\ their\\ blood\\ before\\ eating\\)\\ \\>\\;\\ dates\\ back\\ to\\ Genesis\\,\\ but\\ also\\ repeated\\ many\\ times\\ after\\ in\\ other\\ books\\ \\-\\ The\\ prohibition\\ of\\ eating\\ blood\\ was\\ given\\ to\\ Noah\\ \\(Genesis\\ 9\\:1\\-4\\)\\,\\ hence\\ it\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ binding\\ upon\\ non\\-Israelites\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 5\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;15\\ \\(end\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;16\\,\\ 18\\,\\ 19\\,\\ 23\\,\\ 28\\-29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 15\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jewish\\ people\\ fast\\ and\\ wonder\\ why\\ God\\ does\\ not\\ take\\ notice\\.\\ His\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ their\\ fasting\\ is\\ just\\ for\\ show\\,\\ and\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ fasting\\,\\ they\\ still\\ oppress\\ others\\.\\ God\\ says\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ feed\\ the\\ hungry\\,\\ clothe\\ the\\ naked\\,\\ house\\ the\\ homeless\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Then\\,\\ they\\ will\\ experience\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ Jews\\ should\\ be\\ circumcised\\ in\\ their\\ hearts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 16\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ custom\\ of\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\ was\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ Jews\\ as\\ a\\ distinguishing\\ mark\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ punishment\\ for\\ their\\ sins\\ \\(namely\\ the\\ sin\\ of\\ killing\\ the\\ Just\\ One\\ \\(aka\\ Jesus\\)\\)\\.\\ God\\ can\\ foresee\\ all\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ so\\ he\\ knew\\ the\\ Jews\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ persecute\\ Jesus\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ they\\ were\\ given\\ the\\ punishment\\ of\\ circumcision\\ as\\ far\\ back\\ as\\ Abraham\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 18\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Christians\\ would\\ observe\\ the\\ customs\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ \\(such\\ as\\ circumcision\\ and\\ the\\ Sabbath\\)\\,\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ these\\ customs\\ were\\ imposed\\ on\\ them\\:\\ as\\ a\\ punishment\\ for\\ their\\ sins\\.\\ The\\ Christians\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ observe\\ these\\ customs\\ because\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\.\\ They\\ forgive\\ and\\ ask\\ mercy\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ harm\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 19\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jews\\ only\\ have\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\,\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ in\\ need\\ of\\ Christians\\&rsquo\\;\\ circumcision\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ Christians\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ the\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\ Theirs\\ is\\ sufficient\\.\\ If\\ circumcision\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ salvation\\,\\ God\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ created\\ Adam\\ uncircumcised\\.\\ Lot\\ and\\ Noah\\ were\\ also\\ saved\\ by\\ God\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 23\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ must\\ have\\ ordered\\ circumcision\\ and\\ other\\ rituals\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\.\\ Otherwise\\,\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ conclude\\ either\\ that\\ the\\ Christians\\&rsquo\\;\\ God\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ God\\ that\\ existed\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ or\\ that\\ God\\ does\\ not\\ wish\\ each\\ generation\\ to\\ perform\\ the\\ same\\ acts\\ of\\ righteousness\\.\\ Each\\ of\\ these\\ is\\ ridiculous\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ before\\ Abraham\\ was\\ circumcised\\,\\ he\\ was\\ blessed\\ by\\ God\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ faith\\ in\\ him\\.\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ females\\ cannot\\ be\\ circumcised\\ but\\ are\\ still\\ considered\\ good\\ means\\ that\\ circumcision\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ sign\\,\\ not\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ justification\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 28\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ is\\ pleased\\ by\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ He\\ is\\ more\\ pleased\\ by\\ good\\ deeds\\ and\\ righteousness\\ than\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\ He\\ says\\ the\\ Gentiles\\ have\\ glorified\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ and\\ honor\\ it\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Jews\\ profane\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 29\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Gentiles\\ argue\\ that\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ circumcision\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ baptized\\ in\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\.\\ The\\ Christians\\ grasp\\ the\\ true\\ meaning\\ of\\ Scripture\\,\\ while\\ the\\ Jews\\ do\\ not\\.\\ Christians\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ observe\\ the\\ Sabbath\\;\\ they\\ point\\ out\\ that\\ God\\ does\\ not\\ stop\\ controlling\\ the\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ of\\ the\\ Sabbath\\,\\ but\\ continues\\ directing\\ them\\ as\\ he\\ does\\ all\\ other\\ days\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BIBLICAL\\ READINGS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genesis\\ 17\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ term\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\berit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;covenant\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ negotiated\\ relationship\\ between\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\ \\(Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descendants\\)\\;\\ God\\ promises\\ fecundity\\ and\\ land\\,\\ demands\\ circumcision\\ in\\ return\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\ further\\ said\\ to\\ Abraham\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;As\\ for\\ you\\,\\ you\\ and\\ your\\ offspring\\ to\\ come\\ throughout\\ the\\ ages\\ shall\\ keep\\ My\\ covenant\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ shall\\ be\\ the\\ covenant\\ between\\ Me\\ and\\ you\\ and\\ your\\ offspring\\ to\\ follow\\ which\\ you\\ shall\\ keep\\:\\ every\\ male\\ among\\ you\\ shall\\ be\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ shall\\ circumcise\\ the\\ flesh\\ of\\ your\\ foreskin\\,\\ and\\ that\\ shall\\ be\\ the\\ sign\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\ between\\ Me\\ and\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(9\\-11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 12\\:43\\-50\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Lord\\ said\\ to\\ Moses\\ and\\ Aaron\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\ offering\\:\\ No\\ foreigner\\ shall\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ any\\ salve\\ a\\ man\\ has\\ brought\\ may\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\ once\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ bound\\ or\\ hired\\ laborer\\ shall\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ shall\\ be\\ eaten\\ in\\ one\\ house\\:\\ you\\ shall\\ not\\ take\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ felsh\\ outside\\ the\\ house\\;\\ nor\\ shall\\ you\\ break\\ a\\ bone\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ community\\ of\\ Israel\\ shall\\ offer\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ a\\ stranger\\ who\\ dwells\\ with\\ you\\ would\\ offer\\ the\\ Passover\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\ all\\ his\\ males\\ must\\ be\\ circumcise\\;\\ then\\ he\\ shall\\ be\\ admitted\\ to\\ offer\\ it\\;\\ he\\ shall\\ then\\ be\\ as\\ a\\ citizen\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ no\\ uncircumcised\\ person\\ may\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ shall\\ be\\ one\\ law\\ for\\ the\\ citizen\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ stranger\\ who\\ dwells\\ among\\ you\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ all\\ the\\ Israelites\\ did\\ so\\;\\ as\\ the\\ Lord\\ had\\ commanded\\ Moses\\ and\\ Aaron\\,\\ so\\ they\\ did\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deuteronomy\\ 10\\:16\\ and\\ 30\\:6\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphor\\ spun\\ out\\ of\\ physical\\ circumcision\\ is\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\;\\ foreskin\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ lips\\,\\ or\\ ears\\ blocks\\ obedience\\ to\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\;\\ either\\ God\\ \\(Deuteronomy\\ 30\\:6\\)\\ or\\ the\\ Israelite\\ \\(Deuteronomy\\ 10\\:16\\)\\ will\\ circumcise\\ the\\ Israelite\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Cut\\ away\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ thickening\\ about\\ your\\ hearts\\ and\\ stiffen\\ your\\ necks\\ no\\ more\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Deuteronomy\\ 10\\:16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Then\\ the\\ Lord\\ your\\ God\\ will\\ open\\ up\\ your\\ heart\\ and\\ the\\ hearts\\ of\\ your\\ offspring\\ to\\ love\\ the\\ Lord\\ you\\ God\\ with\\ all\\ your\\ heart\\ and\\ soul\\,\\ in\\ order\\ that\\ you\\ may\\ live\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Deuteronomy\\ 30\\:6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeremiah\\ 4\\:4\\,\\ 6\\:10\\,\\ 9\\:25\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Open\\ your\\ heats\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\ Remove\\ the\\ thickening\\ about\\ your\\ hearts\\&mdash\\;O\\ men\\ of\\ Judah\\ and\\ inhabitants\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\&mdash\\;Lest\\ My\\ wrath\\ break\\ forth\\ like\\ fire\\,\\ and\\ Burn\\,\\ with\\ none\\ to\\ quench\\ it\\,\\ Because\\ of\\ your\\ wicked\\ acts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(4\\:4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;To\\ whom\\ shall\\ I\\ speak\\,\\ Give\\ warning\\ that\\ they\\ may\\ hear\\?\\ Their\\ ears\\ are\\ blocked\\ And\\ they\\ cannot\\ listen\\.\\ See\\,\\ the\\ word\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ has\\ become\\ for\\ them\\ an\\ object\\ of\\ scorn\\;\\ they\\ will\\ have\\ none\\ of\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(6\\:10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;of\\ Egypt\\,\\ Judah\\,\\ Edom\\,\\ the\\ Ammonites\\,\\ Moab\\,\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ desert\\ dweller\\ who\\ have\\ the\\ hair\\ of\\ their\\ temples\\ clipped\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ all\\ these\\ nations\\ are\\ uncircumcised\\,\\ but\\ all\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Israel\\ are\\ uncircumcised\\ of\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(9\\:25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Luke\\ 2\\:21\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ eighth\\ day\\,\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ time\\ to\\ circumcise\\ him\\,\\ he\\ was\\ named\\ Jesus\\,\\ the\\ name\\ the\\ angel\\ had\\ given\\ him\\ before\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ conceived\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(2\\:21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ 2\\:25\\-29\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ passage\\ continues\\ to\\ discuss\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ it\\ discusses\\ the\\ outward\\ vs\\.\\ inward\\,\\ literal\\ vs\\.\\ spiritual\\ of\\ the\\ circumcision\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ the\\ metaphor\\ is\\ the\\ real\\ meaning\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ Jew\\ who\\ is\\ one\\ outwardly\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ true\\ circumcision\\ something\\ external\\ and\\ physical\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\29\\<\\/span\\>\\Rather\\,\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ a\\ Jew\\ who\\ is\\ one\\ inwardly\\,\\ and\\ real\\ circumcision\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ spiritual\\ and\\ not\\ literal\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ person\\ receives\\ praise\\ not\\ from\\ others\\ but\\ from\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(28\\-29\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ \\ \\;4\\:9\\-12\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ passage\\ gives\\ circumcision\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ a\\ sign\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ this\\ blessedness\\,\\ then\\,\\ pronounced\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ circumcised\\,\\ or\\ also\\ on\\ the\\ uncircumcised\\?\\ We\\ say\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Faith\\ was\\ reckoned\\ to\\ Abraham\\ as\\ righteousness\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\10\\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ then\\ was\\ it\\ reckoned\\ to\\ him\\?\\ Was\\ it\\ before\\ or\\ after\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ circumcised\\?\\ It\\ was\\ not\\ after\\,\\ but\\ before\\ he\\ was\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\11\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\ received\\ the\\ sign\\ of\\ circumcision\\ as\\ a\\ seal\\ of\\ the\\ righteousness\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ by\\ faith\\ while\\ he\\ was\\ still\\ uncircumcised\\.\\ The\\ purpose\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ the\\ ancestor\\ of\\ all\\ who\\ believe\\ without\\ being\\ circumcised\\ and\\ who\\ thus\\ have\\ righteousness\\ reckoned\\ to\\ them\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\12\\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ likewise\\ the\\ ancestor\\ of\\ the\\ circumcised\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ circumcised\\ but\\ who\\ also\\ follow\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ faith\\ that\\ our\\ ancestor\\ Abraham\\ had\\ before\\ he\\ was\\ circumcised\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galatians\\ 3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\,\\ it\\ is\\ discussed\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ to\\ no\\ distinctions\\ between\\ Jew\\ and\\ gentile\\&mdash\\;meaning\\ that\\ Christians\\ do\\ not\\ necessarily\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;You\\ are\\ all\\ sons\\ of\\ God\\ through\\ faith\\ in\\ Christ\\ Jesus\\,\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ you\\ who\\ were\\ baptized\\ into\\ Christ\\ have\\ clothed\\ yourselves\\ with\\ Christ\\.\\ There\\ is\\ neither\\ Jew\\ nor\\ Greek\\,\\ slave\\ nor\\ free\\,\\ male\\ nor\\ female\\,\\ for\\ you\\ are\\ all\\ one\\ in\\ Christ\\ Jesus\\.\\ If\\ you\\ belong\\ to\\ Christ\\,\\ then\\ you\\ are\\ Abraham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ seed\\,\\ and\\ heirs\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ promise\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(26\\-29\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ephesians\\ 2\\:11\\-13\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Therefore\\,\\ remember\\ that\\ formerly\\ you\\ who\\ are\\ Gentiles\\ by\\ birth\\ and\\ called\\ \\"\\;uncircumcised\\"\\;\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ call\\ themselves\\ \\"\\;the\\ circumcision\\"\\;\\ \\(that\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ by\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ men\\)\\&mdash\\;\\ emember\\ that\\ at\\ that\\ time\\ you\\ were\\ separate\\ from\\ Christ\\,\\ excluded\\ from\\ citizenship\\ in\\ Israel\\ and\\ foreigners\\ to\\ the\\ covenants\\ of\\ the\\ promise\\,\\ without\\ hope\\ and\\ without\\ God\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ But\\ now\\ in\\ Christ\\ Jesus\\ you\\ who\\ once\\ were\\ far\\ away\\ have\\ been\\ brought\\ near\\ through\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philippians\\ 3\\:2\\-7\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Watch\\ out\\ for\\ those\\ dogs\\,\\ those\\ men\\ who\\ do\\ evil\\,\\ those\\ mutilators\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\ For\\ it\\ is\\ we\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ circumcision\\,\\ we\\ who\\ worship\\ by\\ the\\ Spirit\\ of\\ God\\,\\ who\\ glory\\ in\\ Christ\\ Jesus\\,\\ and\\ who\\ put\\ no\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ flesh\\&mdash\\;\\ though\\ I\\ myself\\ have\\ reasons\\ for\\ such\\ confidence\\.\\ If\\ anyone\\ else\\ thinks\\ he\\ has\\ reasons\\ to\\ put\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ flesh\\,\\ I\\ have\\ more\\:\\ circumcised\\ on\\ the\\ eighth\\ day\\,\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\,\\ of\\ the\\ tribe\\ of\\ Benjamin\\,\\ a\\ Hebrew\\ of\\ Hebrews\\;\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ the\\ law\\,\\ a\\ Pharisee\\;\\ as\\ for\\ zeal\\,\\ persecuting\\ the\\ church\\;\\ as\\ for\\ legalistic\\ righteousness\\,\\ faultless\\.\\ But\\ whatever\\ was\\ to\\ my\\ profit\\ I\\ now\\ consider\\ loss\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colossians\\ 2\\:8\\-15\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christians\\ are\\ circumcised\\ through\\ the\\ circumcision\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;See\\ to\\ it\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ takes\\ you\\ captive\\ through\\ hollow\\ and\\ deceptive\\ philosophy\\,\\ which\\ depends\\ on\\ human\\ tradition\\ and\\ the\\ basic\\ principles\\ of\\ this\\ world\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ Christ\\.\\ For\\ in\\ Christ\\ all\\ the\\ fullness\\ of\\ the\\ Deity\\ lives\\ in\\ bodily\\ form\\,\\ and\\ you\\ have\\ been\\ given\\ fullness\\ in\\ Christ\\,\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ head\\ over\\ every\\ power\\ and\\ authority\\.\\ In\\ him\\ you\\ were\\ also\\ circumcised\\,\\ in\\ the\\ putting\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ sinful\\ nature\\,\\ not\\ with\\ a\\ circumcision\\ done\\ by\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ men\\ but\\ with\\ the\\ circumcision\\ done\\ by\\ Christ\\,\\ having\\ been\\ buried\\ with\\ him\\ in\\ baptism\\ and\\ raised\\ with\\ him\\ through\\ your\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ God\\,\\ who\\ raised\\ him\\ from\\ the\\ dead\\.\\ When\\ you\\ were\\ dead\\ in\\ your\\ sins\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ uncircumcision\\ of\\ your\\ sinful\\ nature\\,\\ God\\ made\\ you\\ alive\\ with\\ Christ\\.\\ He\\ forgave\\ us\\ all\\ our\\ sins\\,\\ 14having\\ canceled\\ the\\ written\\ code\\,\\ with\\ its\\ regulations\\,\\ that\\ was\\ against\\ us\\ and\\ that\\ stood\\ opposed\\ to\\ us\\;\\ he\\ took\\ it\\ away\\,\\ nailing\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ cross\\.\\ And\\ having\\ disarmed\\ the\\ powers\\ and\\ authorities\\,\\ he\\ made\\ a\\ public\\ spectacle\\ of\\ them\\,\\ triumphing\\ over\\ them\\ by\\ the\\ cross\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mishnah\\ and\\ Talmud\\ Nedarim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\R\\.\\ Ishmael\\ said\\:\\ great\\ is\\ \\[the\\ precept\\]\\ of\\ circumcision\\,\\ since\\ thirteen\\ covenants\\ were\\ made\\ over\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\R\\.\\ Yosi\\ \\ \\;said\\:\\ circumcision\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ precept\\,\\ for\\ it\\ overrides\\ \\[the\\ severity\\ of\\]\\ the\\ Sabbath\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rabbi\\ said\\:\\ great\\ is\\ circumcision\\,\\ for\\ \\[notwithstanding\\]\\ all\\ the\\ precepts\\ which\\ Abraham\\ fulfilled\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ designated\\ perfect\\ until\\ he\\ circumcised\\ himself\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ written\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;walk\\ before\\ me\\,\\ and\\ be\\ perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Genesis\\ 17\\:1\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ explanation\\:\\ great\\ is\\ circumcision\\,\\ since\\ but\\ for\\ it\\,\\ the\\ Holy\\ One\\,\\ Blessed\\ Be\\ He\\,\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ created\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ written\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\but\\ for\\ my\\ covenant\\ by\\ day\\ and\\ night\\,\\ I\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ appointed\\ the\\ ordinances\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Jeremiah\\ 33\\:25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Talmud\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Nedarim\\ 32a\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ taught\\:\\ Rabbi\\ said\\:\\ Great\\ is\\ circumcision\\,\\ for\\ none\\ so\\ ardently\\ busied\\ himself\\ with\\ \\[God\\&\\#39\\;s\\]\\ precepts\\ as\\ our\\ Father\\ Abraham\\,\\ yet\\ he\\ was\\ called\\ perfect\\ only\\ in\\ virtue\\ of\\ circumcision\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ written\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Walk\\ before\\ me\\ and\\ be\\ perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Genesis\\ 17\\:1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ it\\ is\\ written\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ I\\ will\\ make\\ my\\ covenant\\ between\\ me\\ and\\ thee\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Genesis\\ 17\\:2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[3\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ version\\ \\[of\\ Rabbi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ teaching\\]\\ is\\ this\\:\\ Great\\ is\\ circumcision\\,\\ for\\ it\\ counterbalances\\ all\\ the\\ \\[other\\]\\ precepts\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ written\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\For\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ these\\ words\\ I\\ have\\ made\\ a\\ covenant\\ with\\ thee\\ and\\ with\\ Israel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Exodus\\ 34\\:27\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[4\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ version\\ is\\:\\ Great\\ is\\ circumcision\\,\\ since\\ but\\ for\\ it\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ would\\ not\\ endure\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ written\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\[Thus\\ says\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\]\\ But\\ for\\ my\\ covenant\\ by\\ day\\ and\\ night\\,\\ I\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ appointed\\ the\\ ordinances\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Jeremiah\\ 33\\:25\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Pesah\\ \\(Passover\\)\\ in\\ the\\ Torah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 12\\-13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ month\\ of\\ the\\ liturgical\\ calendar\\ is\\ March\\ or\\ April\\,\\ because\\ the\\ Pesah\\ \\(Passover\\)\\ commemorates\\ the\\ Exodus\\ on\\ its\\ anniversary\\ every\\ year\\.\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\\\"\\;Passover\\"\\;\\ origin\\:\\ \\"\\;And\\ the\\ blood\\ on\\ the\\ houses\\ where\\ you\\ are\\ staying\\ shall\\ be\\ a\\ sign\\ for\\ you\\:\\ when\\ I\\ see\\ the\\ blood\\ I\\ will\\ pass\\ over\\ you\\,\\ so\\ that\\ no\\ plague\\ will\\ destroy\\ you\\ when\\ I\\ strike\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Exodus\\ 12\\:13\\)\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\From\\ the\\ JSB\\ footnote\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Preparations\\ for\\ the\\ exodus\\:\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Israel\\ is\\ to\\ prepare\\ for\\ the\\ coming\\ redemption\\ with\\ a\\ sacrificial\\ banquet\\ while\\ the\\ final\\ plague\\ is\\ occurring\\ and\\ is\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ event\\ int\\ eh\\ future\\ on\\ its\\ anniversary\\ by\\ eating\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ for\\ a\\ week\\ and\\ reenacting\\ the\\ banquet\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ banquet\\ became\\ the\\ prototype\\ of\\ the\\ postbiblical\\ Seder\\,\\ the\\ festive\\ meal\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ exodus\\ story\\ is\\ retold\\ and\\ expounded\\ each\\ year\\ to\\ this\\ day\\ on\\ the\\ holiday\\ of\\ Pesah\\ \\(Passover\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\The\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\ sacrifice\\ and\\ its\\ blood\\ \\(Exodus\\ door\\ markings\\)\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\apotropaic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ \\"\\;magically\\ protective\\,\\"\\;\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ its\\ Hebrew\\ name\\,\\ \\"\\;pesah\\,\\"\\;\\ which\\ means\\ \\"\\;protection\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\The\\ slaughter\\ and\\ eating\\ of\\ the\\ lamb\\ occurs\\ on\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ the\\ month\\ beginning\\ at\\ twilight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Eat\\ it\\ roasted\\ over\\ the\\ fire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eat\\ it\\ with\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ and\\ with\\ bitter\\ herbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ not\\ eat\\ it\\ raw\\ or\\ cook\\ it\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ with\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ any\\ is\\ left\\ by\\ morning\\,\\ burn\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ foreigner\\ shall\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ slave\\ a\\ man\\ has\\ bought\\ may\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\,\\ if\\ circumcised\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ bound\\ or\\ hired\\ laborer\\ shall\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ shall\\ be\\ eaten\\ in\\ one\\ house\\:\\ you\\ shall\\ not\\ take\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\ outside\\ the\\ house\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ shall\\ not\\ break\\ a\\ bone\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ whole\\ community\\ of\\ Israel\\ shall\\ offer\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ stranger\\ may\\ offer\\ the\\ Passover\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\ if\\ all\\ his\\ males\\ are\\ circumcised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ uncircumcised\\ person\\ may\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Duration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\"\\;In\\ the\\ first\\ month\\,\\ from\\ the\\ fourteenth\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ month\\ at\\ evening\\,\\ you\\ shall\\ eat\\ unleavened\\ bread\\ until\\ the\\ twenty\\-first\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ month\\ at\\ evening\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Exodus\\ 12\\:18\\)\\ \\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Tradition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;And\\ when\\ your\\ children\\ ask\\ you\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;What\\ do\\ you\\ mean\\ by\\ this\\ rite\\?\\&\\#39\\;\\ you\\ shall\\ say\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;It\\ is\\ the\\ Passover\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\ because\\ He\\ passed\\ over\\ the\\ houses\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\ in\\ Egypt\\ when\\ He\\ smote\\ the\\ Egyptians\\,\\ but\\ saved\\ our\\ houses\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\ \\(Exodus\\ 12\\:26\\)\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Miscellaneous\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Israelites\\ numbered\\ \\~600\\,000\\,\\ not\\ counting\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Israelites\\ lived\\ in\\ Egypt\\ for\\ exactly\\ 430\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\13\\ \\(JSB\\ footnote\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ issue\\ of\\ humans\\ and\\ domestic\\ animals\\ is\\ holy\\ and\\ reserved\\ for\\ the\\ Lord\\;\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ Him\\ \\(sacrificed\\)\\ or\\ redeemed\\ \\(another\\ animal\\ sacrificed\\ in\\ its\\ place\\,\\ its\\ neck\\ is\\ broken\\,\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ humans\\,\\ \\"\\;redeemed\\"\\;\\ by\\ a\\ priest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ \\"\\;kohen\\,\\"\\;\\ or\\ descendent\\ of\\ the\\ priestly\\ family\\,\\ is\\ given\\ 5\\ units\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ currency\\;\\ the\\ money\\ is\\ usually\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ father\\ or\\ donated\\ to\\ charity\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 23\\:14\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Reaffirmation\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\ \\(as\\ described\\ above\\)\\,\\ or\\ \\"\\;Feast\\ of\\ Unleavened\\ Bread\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\ shall\\ not\\ boil\\ a\\ kid\\ in\\ its\\ mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ milk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 34\\:18\\-26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Repeats\\ Exodus\\ 23\\:14\\-19\\,\\ but\\ specifies\\ first\\-born\\ sacrifice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Every\\ first\\ issue\\ of\\ the\\ womb\\ is\\ Mine\\,\\ from\\ al\\ your\\ livestock\\ that\\ drop\\ a\\ male\\ as\\ firstling\\,\\ whether\\ cattle\\ or\\ sheep\\.\\ \\;\\ But\\ the\\ firstling\\ of\\ an\\ ass\\ you\\ shall\\ redeem\\ with\\ a\\ sheep\\;\\ if\\ you\\ dod\\ not\\ redeem\\ it\\,\\ you\\ must\\ break\\ its\\ neck\\.\\ \\;\\ And\\ you\\ must\\ redeem\\ every\\ first\\-born\\ among\\ your\\ sons\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leviticus\\ 23\\:4\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ other\\ passages\\,\\ this\\ mentions\\ that\\ no\\ work\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ on\\ the\\ seventh\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Numbers\\ 28\\:16\\-25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Unusually\\ specific\\ demands\\ regarding\\ the\\ sacrifice\\:\\ \\"\\;\\.\\.\\.two\\ bulls\\ of\\ the\\ herd\\,\\ one\\ ram\\,\\ and\\ seven\\ yearling\\ lambs\\&mdash\\;see\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ without\\ blemish\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ meal\\ offering\\ with\\ them\\ shall\\ be\\ of\\ choice\\ flour\\ with\\ oil\\ mixed\\ in\\:\\ prepare\\ three\\-tenths\\ of\\ a\\ measure\\ for\\ a\\ bull\\,\\ two\\-tenths\\ for\\ a\\ ram\\;\\ and\\ for\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ seven\\ lambs\\ prepare\\ one\\-tenth\\ of\\ a\\ measure\\&hellip\\;\\"\\;\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\JSB\\ footnote\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Passover\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ festival\\ of\\ the\\ cultic\\ calendar\\ and\\ marks\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ barley\\ harvest\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ holy\\ day\\ on\\ which\\ the\\ Passover\\ sacrifice\\ \\(\\"\\;pesah\\"\\;\\)\\ is\\ offered\\ is\\ distinct\\ from\\ the\\ seven\\-day\\ Festival\\ of\\ Unleavened\\ Bread\\ \\(\\"\\;matzot\\"\\;\\)\\;\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ festival\\ complex\\ of\\ an\\ evening\\ festival\\ \\(Pesah\\)\\ followed\\ immediately\\ by\\ a\\ seven\\-day\\ Matzot\\ festival\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deuteronomy\\ 16\\:1\\-8\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Reaffirms\\ the\\ above\\,\\ but\\ also\\ states\\ that\\ God\\ will\\ establish\\ where\\ the\\ Passover\\ sacrifice\\ is\\ permitted\\&mdash\\;presumably\\ not\\ the\\ home\\,\\ as\\ is\\ otherwise\\ accepted\\.\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mishnah\\ Pesahim\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Provides\\ the\\ basic\\ outline\\ of\\ the\\ Seder\\:\\ Four\\ cups\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ appetizers\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ lettuce\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\haroset\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ instruction\\ \\(three\\/four\\ questions\\)\\,\\ scriptural\\ exegesis\\,\\ meal\\ \\(although\\ not\\ clear\\ in\\ the\\ Mishnah\\ when\\ exactly\\ the\\ lamb\\ is\\ eaten\\)\\,\\ hymns\\ of\\ praise\\.\\ Key\\ theological\\ ideas\\:\\ vicarious\\ experience\\-in\\ every\\ generation\\ one\\ is\\ bound\\ to\\ regard\\ himself\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ personally\\ had\\ gone\\ forth\\ from\\ Egypt\\.\\ Redemption\\ from\\ Egypt\\ prefigures\\ our\\ future\\ redemption\\.\\ Likely\\ that\\ the\\ Mishnaic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\seder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ rabbinic\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\;\\ transfer\\ the\\ Passover\\ ritual\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ home\\ from\\ the\\ central\\ shrine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ specifics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ eve\\ of\\ Passover\\,\\ can\\ not\\ eat\\ until\\ nightfall\\,\\ unless\\ reclining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ cup\\ of\\ wine\\:\\ Blessing\\ for\\ the\\ wine\\ and\\ blessing\\ for\\ the\\ day\\ \\(discrepancy\\ over\\ which\\ comes\\ first\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Appetizers\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ lettuce\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\haroset\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\ cup\\ of\\ wine\\:\\ son\\ questions\\ father\\-\\ how\\ is\\ this\\ night\\ different\\ from\\ all\\ other\\ nights\\?\\ \\(in\\ tradition\\ of\\ questioning\\ spirit\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Jewish\\ Bible\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Father\\ answers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unleavened\\ bread\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bitter\\ herbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roasted\\ meat\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dip\\ twice\\,\\ not\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ things\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ mentioned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Passover\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\God\\ passed\\ over\\ the\\ houses\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unleavened\\ Bread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Forefathers\\ redeemed\\ from\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bitter\\ herb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Egyptians\\ embittered\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Every\\ generation\\ must\\ regard\\ himself\\ as\\ personally\\ gone\\ forth\\ from\\ Egypt\\,\\ story\\ is\\ continuous\\ and\\ ever\\ present\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ it\\ is\\ duty\\ of\\ Jewish\\ people\\ to\\ praise\\ and\\ thank\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Third\\ cup\\ of\\ wine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grace\\ over\\ meals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fourth\\ cup\\ of\\ wine\\(no\\ drinking\\ between\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ cup\\ of\\ wine\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Closing\\ prayer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ end\\ with\\ Afigoman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ entertainment\\,\\ snacks\\ after\\ the\\ seder\\ is\\ finished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ afigoman\\ is\\ something\\ include\\ in\\ our\\ sedar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Piece\\ of\\ matzah\\ put\\ aside\\ for\\ later\\ and\\ then\\ reappears\\,\\ symbolizing\\ the\\ paschal\\ lamb\\,\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ redemption\\ \\=\\ messiah\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rules\\ concerning\\ those\\ who\\ fall\\ asleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Passover\\-sacrifice\\ defiles\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hands\\ after\\ midnight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ Articles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Passover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Passover\\,\\ pesach\\,\\ pesah\\,\\ Festival\\ of\\ Unleavened\\ Bread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Begins\\ on\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ Nisan\\,\\ lasts\\ one\\ week\\,\\ first\\ and\\ last\\ days\\ celebrated\\ as\\ full\\ festival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commemorates\\ exodus\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\ from\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Name\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ tenth\\ plague\\ of\\ Egypt\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ angel\\ of\\ death\\ skipped\\ over\\ the\\ houses\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ the\\ sacrificial\\ lamb\\ put\\ on\\ their\\ door\\ posts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ meal\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\ seder\\ commemorates\\ this\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ three\\ pilgrim\\ festivals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ Jews\\ obey\\ commandment\\ to\\ no\\ eat\\ leavened\\ bread\\ for\\ entire\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Passover\\ Seder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jewish\\ ritual\\ feast\\,\\ takes\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ evening\\ of\\ Passover\\ in\\ Israel\\,\\ and\\ first\\ and\\ second\\ evenings\\ in\\ the\\ Jewish\\ diaspora\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relives\\ the\\ enslavement\\ and\\ exodus\\ of\\ Israelites\\ from\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Includes\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ Haggadah\\,\\ the\\ drinking\\ of\\ four\\ cups\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ eating\\ of\\ matzah\\,\\ and\\ the\\ eating\\ of\\ symbolic\\ foods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Family\\,\\ communal\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Considered\\ a\\ mitzvah\\ \\(commandment\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Afikoman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ piece\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Matzo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\matzah\\ which\\ is\\ hidden\\ at\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\seder\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ is\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ festive\\ meal\\.\\ After\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\afikoman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ eaten\\,\\ one\\ may\\ not\\ consume\\ any\\ other\\ food\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ night\\,\\ aside\\ from\\ the\\ Third\\ and\\ Fourth\\ Cups\\ of\\ Wine\\ and\\ beverages\\ such\\ as\\ water\\ or\\ tea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maintains\\ excitement\\ and\\ interest\\ of\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ logical\\ support\\ that\\ Jesus\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ supper\\ was\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ afikoman\\ when\\ he\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;Eat\\,\\ this\\ is\\ my\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Only\\ after\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ temple\\ in\\ 70\\ C\\.E\\.\\ that\\ afikoman\\ became\\ the\\ symbolic\\ last\\ food\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ Seder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maror\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refers\\ to\\ the\\ bitter\\ herbs\\ that\\ are\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ Passover\\ seder\\.\\ The\\ word\\ derives\\ from\\ the\\ hebrew\\ word\\ for\\ \\"\\;bitter\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolizes\\ the\\ bitterness\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ certain\\ herbs\\ are\\ acceptable\\ for\\ maror\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ participant\\ makes\\ a\\ special\\ blessing\\ over\\ the\\ maror\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haggadah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traditional\\,\\ ritual\\ text\\,\\ which\\ contains\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\ seder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Means\\ \\&ldquo\\;telling\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ the\\ scriptural\\ commandment\\ to\\ each\\ Jew\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;tell\\ your\\ son\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ the\\ Jewish\\ liberation\\ from\\ slavery\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compiled\\ during\\ the\\ Mishnaic\\ and\\ Talmudic\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 8\\:\\ From\\ Pesah\\ to\\ Pasch\\,\\ from\\ Sacrifice\\ to\\ Seder\\ II\\ \\(M\\ Mar\\ 17\\ and\\ W\\ Mar\\ 19\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ Corinthians\\ 11\\:23\\-26\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ earliest\\ account\\ \\(c\\.\\ 50\\ AD\\)\\ we\\ have\\ of\\ the\\ Last\\ Supper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ I\\ received\\ from\\ the\\ Lord\\ what\\ I\\ also\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ you\\:\\ The\\ Lord\\ Jesus\\,\\ on\\ the\\ night\\ he\\ was\\ betrayed\\,\\ took\\ bread\\,\\ and\\ when\\ he\\ had\\ given\\ thanks\\,\\ he\\ broke\\ it\\ and\\ said\\,\\ \\"\\;This\\ is\\ my\\ body\\,\\ which\\ is\\ for\\ you\\;\\ do\\ this\\ in\\ remembrance\\ of\\ me\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ after\\ supper\\ he\\ took\\ the\\ cup\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\"\\;This\\ cup\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ in\\ my\\ blood\\;\\ do\\ this\\,\\ whenever\\ you\\ drink\\ it\\,\\ in\\ remembrance\\ of\\ me\\.\\"\\;\\ For\\ whenever\\ you\\ eat\\ this\\ bread\\ and\\ drink\\ this\\ cup\\,\\ you\\ proclaim\\ the\\ Lord\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\ until\\ he\\ comes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ The\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ supper\\ is\\ given\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ night\\ he\\ was\\ betrayed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ No\\ Pesah\\ or\\ Passover\\ explicitly\\ mentioned\\.\\ The\\ ritual\\ commemoration\\ of\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ linked\\ to\\ Passover\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ Corinthians\\ 5\\:7\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&hellip\\;Even\\ though\\,\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ letter\\ Paul\\ views\\ Christ\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pascha\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Get\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ yeast\\ that\\ you\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ new\\ batch\\ without\\ yeast\\&mdash\\;as\\ you\\ really\\ are\\.\\ For\\ Christ\\,\\ our\\ Passover\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\pascha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ has\\ been\\ sacrificed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gospel\\ readings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ this\\ chart\\ from\\ lecture\\ is\\ handy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\F\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Sat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Sun\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&uarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Synoptics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\14\\ \\(Last\\ supper\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\13\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\14\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chronology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ Matthew\\ 26\\:2\\,\\ 17\\-30\\,\\ in\\ the\\ equivalent\\ Mark\\ passage\\,\\ and\\ in\\ Luke\\ 22\\:14\\-20\\,\\ the\\ Last\\ Supper\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ evening\\ of\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Passover\\)\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ on\\ which\\ day\\ Christ\\ is\\ crucified\\ \\(Matt\\ 26\\:18\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ celebrate\\ the\\ Passover\\ with\\ my\\ disciples\\ at\\ your\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ John\\,\\ Jesus\\ is\\ crucified\\ on\\ Passover\\.\\ \\(Note\\:\\ no\\ disagreement\\ about\\ days\\ of\\ the\\ week\\.\\ Always\\ Friday\\ Crucifixion\\,\\ Sunday\\ Resurrection\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matthew\\ 26\\:17\\-30\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Cohen\\ sums\\ it\\ up\\ better\\ than\\ I\\ could\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Last\\ Supper\\ is\\ a\\ paschal\\ meal\\;\\ not\\ quite\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\seder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Sequence\\:\\ meal\\ \\(including\\ dipping\\)\\,\\ presumably\\ the\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\;\\ bread\\;\\ \\ \\;blessing\\;\\ wine\\;\\ give\\ thanks\\;\\ hymn\\.\\ \\[but\\ no\\ bitter\\ herbs\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Matthew\\ 26\\:23\\ Jesus\\ replied\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ one\\ who\\ has\\ dipped\\ his\\ hand\\ into\\ the\\ bowl\\ with\\ me\\ will\\ betray\\ me\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;26While\\ they\\ were\\ eating\\,\\ Jesus\\ took\\ bread\\,\\ pronounced\\ a\\ blessing\\,\\ and\\ broke\\ it\\,\\ and\\ gave\\ it\\ to\\ his\\ disciples\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Take\\ and\\ eat\\;\\ this\\ is\\ my\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;27Then\\ he\\ took\\ the\\ cup\\,\\ gave\\ thanks\\ and\\ offered\\ it\\ to\\ them\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Drink\\ from\\ it\\,\\ all\\ of\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ 28This\\ is\\ my\\ blood\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\,\\ which\\ is\\ poured\\ out\\ for\\ many\\ for\\ the\\ forgiveness\\ of\\ sins\\.\\ 29I\\ tell\\ you\\,\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ drink\\ of\\ this\\ fruit\\ of\\ the\\ vine\\ from\\ now\\ on\\ until\\ that\\ day\\ when\\ I\\ drink\\ it\\ anew\\ with\\ you\\ in\\ my\\ Father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ kingdom\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;30When\\ they\\ had\\ sung\\ a\\ hymn\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Luke\\ 22\\:14\\-20\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Last\\ Supper\\ is\\ a\\ paschal\\ meal\\;\\ not\\ quite\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\seder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Recline\\;\\ wine\\;\\ give\\ thanks\\;\\ bread\\;\\ give\\ thanks\\;\\ meal\\,\\ presumably\\ the\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\;\\ wine\\.\\ \\[but\\ no\\ bitter\\ herbs\\]\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Luke\\ 22\\:14\\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ the\\ hour\\ came\\,\\ Jesus\\ and\\ his\\ apostles\\ reclined\\ at\\ the\\ table\\.\\ 15And\\ he\\ said\\ to\\ them\\,\\ \\"\\;I\\ have\\ eagerly\\ desired\\ to\\ eat\\ this\\ Passover\\ with\\ you\\ before\\ I\\ suffer\\.\\ 16For\\ I\\ tell\\ you\\,\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ eat\\ it\\ again\\ until\\ it\\ finds\\ fulfillment\\ in\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ God\\.\\"\\;\\ 17After\\ taking\\ the\\ cup\\,\\ he\\ gave\\ thanks\\ and\\ said\\,\\ \\"\\;Take\\ this\\ and\\ divide\\ it\\ among\\ you\\.\\ 18For\\ I\\ tell\\ you\\ I\\ will\\ not\\ drink\\ again\\ of\\ the\\ fruit\\ of\\ the\\ vine\\ until\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ God\\ comes\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;19And\\ he\\ took\\ bread\\,\\ gave\\ thanks\\ and\\ broke\\ it\\,\\ and\\ gave\\ it\\ to\\ them\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\"\\;This\\ is\\ my\\ body\\ given\\ for\\ you\\;\\ do\\ this\\ in\\ remembrance\\ of\\ me\\.\\"\\;\\ 20In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ after\\ the\\ supper\\ he\\ took\\ the\\ cup\\,\\ saying\\,\\ \\"\\;This\\ cup\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ in\\ my\\ blood\\,\\ which\\ is\\ poured\\ out\\ for\\ you\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ 13\\:1\\;\\ 19\\:14\\,\\ 31\\-37\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ book\\ of\\ John\\ differs\\ significantly\\ from\\ the\\ synoptics\\ in\\ both\\ chronology\\ and\\ symbolism\\.\\ John\\ completely\\ lacks\\ a\\ ceremonial\\ last\\ supper\\ \\(remember\\,\\ in\\ John\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ last\\ meal\\ would\\ be\\ on\\ Nisan\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\.which\\ would\\ just\\ be\\ an\\ ordinary\\ meal\\)\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Jesus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ paschal\\ lamb\\.\\ He\\ is\\ slaughtered\\ by\\ Israel\\ at\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ time\\ as\\ the\\ Israelites\\ are\\ slaughtering\\ their\\ Passover\\ lambs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ idea\\ is\\ found\\ elsewhere\\ in\\ John\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ 1\\:29\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ next\\ day\\ John\\ \\[the\\ Baptist\\]\\ saw\\ Jesus\\ coming\\ toward\\ him\\ and\\ said\\,\\ \\"\\;Behold\\,\\ the\\ Lamb\\ of\\ God\\,\\ who\\ takes\\ away\\ the\\ sin\\ of\\ the\\ world\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\,\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ Christ\\ as\\ paschal\\ sacrifice\\ \\(Lamb\\ of\\ God\\)\\ and\\ as\\ atonement\\ sacrfice\\ \\(takes\\ away\\ the\\ sin\\ of\\ the\\ world\\)\\ are\\ conflated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ time\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ John\\ makes\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ body\\ and\\ the\\ blood\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Christ\\ concept\\ is\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ 6\\:52\\-58\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ we\\ read\\ for\\ the\\ manna\\ story\\.\\ Jesus\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;Whoever\\ eats\\ my\\ flesh\\ and\\ drinks\\ my\\ blood\\ will\\ have\\ eternal\\ life\\,\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ raise\\ him\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ day\\ \\(6\\:54\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ However\\,\\ scholars\\ believe\\ this\\ passage\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ interpolated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ Martyr\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ Apology\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\65\\,\\ 66\\,\\ 67\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Earliest\\ extant\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eucharist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Here\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ connction\\ to\\ Pesah\\:\\ no\\ lamb\\,\\ not\\ a\\ fixed\\ festival\\ date\\,\\ not\\ done\\ in\\ home\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ gathered\\ community\\ of\\ believers\\ every\\ Sunday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ called\\ Sunday\\,\\ all\\ who\\ live\\ in\\ cities\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ gather\\ together\\ to\\ one\\ place\\,\\ and\\ the\\ memoirs\\ of\\ the\\ apostles\\ or\\ the\\ writings\\ of\\ the\\ prophets\\ are\\ read\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ time\\ permits\\;\\ then\\,\\ when\\ the\\ reader\\ has\\ ceased\\,\\ the\\ president\\ verbally\\ instructs\\,\\ and\\ exhorts\\ to\\ the\\ imitation\\ of\\ these\\ good\\ things\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ all\\ rise\\ together\\ and\\ pray\\,\\ and\\,\\ as\\ we\\ before\\ said\\,\\ when\\ our\\ prayer\\ is\\ ended\\,\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\ and\\ water\\ are\\ brought\\,\\ and\\ the\\ president\\ in\\ like\\ manner\\ offers\\ prayers\\ and\\ thanksgivings\\,\\ according\\ to\\ his\\ ability\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ assent\\,\\ saying\\ Amen\\;\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ distribution\\ to\\ each\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ Martyr\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 40\\,\\ 11\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\John\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concept\\ of\\ Christ\\ as\\ the\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\ endures\\ in\\ the\\ Easter\\ tradition\\.\\ Justin\\ refers\\ to\\ Christ\\ as\\ the\\ type\\ for\\ the\\ lamb\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\T\\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ mystery\\,\\ then\\,\\ of\\ the\\ lamb\\ which\\ God\\ enjoined\\ to\\ be\\ sacrificed\\ as\\ the\\ passover\\,\\ was\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ Christ\\;\\ with\\ whose\\ blood\\,\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ their\\ faith\\ in\\ Him\\,\\ they\\ anoint\\ their\\ houses\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ themselves\\,\\ who\\ believe\\ on\\ Him\\.\\ \\(40\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ passover\\ was\\ Christ\\,\\ who\\ was\\ afterwards\\ sacrificed\\,\\ as\\ also\\ Isaiah\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;He\\ was\\ led\\ as\\ a\\ sheep\\ to\\ the\\ slaughter\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\(113\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\ on\\ Pascha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Interesting\\ text\\ on\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Paschal\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Few\\ bio\\ details\\&mdash\\;contemporary\\ of\\ Justin\\,\\ maybe\\ a\\ little\\ later\\ \\(around\\ 170s\\)\\ Sardis\\ is\\ in\\ modern\\-day\\ western\\ Turkey\\,\\ the\\ Roman\\ province\\ of\\ Asia\\)\\.\\ Most\\ important\\ fact\\ for\\ our\\ purposes\\:\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ quartodeciman\\&mdash\\;a\\ 14ther\\&mdash\\;meaning\\ he\\ thought\\.\\ \\(of\\ Nisan\\,\\ usually\\ a\\ full\\ moon\\)\\.\\ Thought\\ easter\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ Christian\\ Passover\\,\\ should\\ be\\ celebrated\\ when\\ the\\ Jews\\ do\\.\\ This\\ view\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ heretical\\.\\ \\(These\\ are\\ the\\ basics\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Melito\\ of\\ Sardis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Quartodecimanism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Wikipedia\\ articles\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ outline\\ you\\ can\\ use\\ for\\ the\\ Melito\\ piece\\ is\\ simply\\ the\\ Week\\ 8\\ Wednesday\\ Lecture\\.\\ It\\ gives\\ a\\ great\\ outline\\ of\\ the\\ themes\\ with\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ quotes\\ Cohen\\ cares\\ about\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Pascha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ Paschal\\ sacrifice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Same\\ idea\\ in\\ Paul\\ and\\ Justin\\;\\ Justin\\ even\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\ on\\ a\\ spit\\ has\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ cross\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ the\\ Pascha\\ of\\ our\\ salvation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\§\\;69\\-72\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;So\\ come\\ all\\ families\\ of\\ people\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ receive\\ forgiveness\\ of\\ sins\\.\\ For\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ forgiveness\\,\\ I\\ am\\ the\\ Pascha\\ of\\ salvation\\,\\ I\\ am\\ the\\ lamb\\ slaughtered\\ for\\ you\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ \\ \\;ransom\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ life\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ resurrection\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ light\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ salvation\\,\\ I\\ am\\ your\\ king\\.\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\ \\§\\;103\\ \\[Pascha\\ \\=\\ atonement\\ sacrifice\\?\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 12\\ provides\\ the\\ type\\,\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Theory\\ of\\ typology\\ \\§\\;35\\-45\\,\\ a\\ preliminary\\ sketch\\,\\ a\\ draft\\,\\ a\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ fulfillment\\ cancels\\ the\\ type\\ which\\ no\\ longer\\ has\\ meaning\\:\\ the\\ people\\,\\ the\\ law\\,\\ the\\ slaughter\\ of\\ sheep\\,\\ the\\ temple\\,\\ Jerusalem\\ \\§\\;40\\-45\\:\\ 44\\.\\ For\\ at\\ one\\ time\\ the\\ slaughter\\ of\\ sheep\\ was\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ The\\ death\\ of\\ sheep\\ once\\ was\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ salvation\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ The\\ blood\\ of\\ sheep\\ once\\ was\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Spirit\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ The\\ silent\\ lamb\\ once\\ was\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ blameless\\ Son\\.\\ The\\ temple\\ here\\ below\\ once\\ was\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Christ\\ from\\ above\\.\\ 45\\.\\ The\\ Jerusalem\\ here\\ below\\ once\\ had\\ value\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Jerusalem\\ above\\.\\ The\\ meager\\ inheritance\\ once\\ had\\ value\\;\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ without\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ abundant\\ grace\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ this\\ how\\ Justo\\ Gonzalez\\ explained\\ typology\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christ\\,\\ God\\,\\ son\\,\\ and\\ lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Melito\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ later\\ Christian\\ Christological\\ controversies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christ\\ was\\ all\\ things\\:\\ Father\\,\\ Son\\,\\ Logos\\,\\ Lamb\\,\\ God\\,\\ Man\\.\\ \\§\\;9\\:\\ He\\ is\\ everything\\:\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ judges\\ he\\ is\\ law\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ teaches\\ he\\ is\\ Logos\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ saves\\ he\\ is\\ grace\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ begets\\ he\\ is\\ Father\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ begotten\\ he\\ is\\ Son\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ suffers\\ he\\ is\\ sheep\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ buried\\ he\\ is\\ man\\,\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ comes\\ to\\ life\\ again\\ he\\ is\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Lord\\ is\\ present\\ on\\ earth\\ surrounded\\ by\\ the\\ suffering\\ one\\ \\§\\;46\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ put\\ on\\ a\\ suffering\\ one\\ and\\ comes\\ forth\\ a\\ man\\ \\§\\;66\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ came\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\aphikomenos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ from\\ heaven\\ to\\ earth\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ suffers\\,\\ and\\ has\\ clothed\\ himself\\ with\\ that\\ very\\ one\\ through\\ the\\ womb\\ of\\ a\\ virgin\\,\\ and\\ having\\ come\\ forth\\ as\\ human\\,\\ he\\ accepted\\ the\\ sufferings\\ of\\ the\\ sufferer\\ through\\ his\\ body\\ which\\ was\\ capable\\ of\\ suffering\\.\\ And\\ he\\ destroyed\\ those\\ human\\ sufferings\\ by\\ his\\ spirit\\ which\\ was\\ incapable\\ of\\ dying\\.\\ He\\ killed\\ death\\ which\\ had\\ put\\ man\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Pascha\\=suffering\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Lord\\ clothed\\ himself\\ with\\ humanity\\ \\§\\;100\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ in\\ Justin\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\ is\\ barely\\ mentioned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Israel\\ slaughters\\ the\\ Paschal\\ lamb\\ \\=\\ Christ\\ \\=\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\While\\ Israel\\ was\\ celebrating\\ the\\ Pesah\\,\\ Christ\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\:\\ \\§\\;80\\ \\(chronology\\ of\\ John\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ was\\ murdered\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\§\\;72\\,\\ 93\\,\\ 94\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Israel\\ bears\\ moral\\ responsibility\\ for\\ its\\ act\\ of\\ murder\\ \\§\\;74\\-77\\:\\ \\ \\;73\\.\\ Why\\,\\ O\\ Israel\\ did\\ you\\ do\\ this\\ strange\\ injustice\\?\\ You\\ dishonored\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ had\\ honored\\ you\\.\\ You\\ held\\ in\\ contempt\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ held\\ you\\ in\\ esteem\\.\\ You\\ denied\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ publicly\\ acknowledged\\ you\\.\\ You\\ renounced\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ proclaimed\\ you\\ his\\ own\\.\\ You\\ killed\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ made\\ you\\ to\\ live\\.\\ Why\\ did\\ you\\ do\\ this\\,\\ O\\ Israel\\?\\ 74\\.\\ Hast\\ it\\ not\\ been\\ written\\ for\\ your\\ benefit\\:\\ \\"\\;Do\\ not\\ shed\\ innocent\\ blood\\ lest\\ you\\ die\\ a\\ terrible\\ death\\"\\;\\?\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ Israel\\ admits\\,\\ I\\ killed\\ the\\ Lord\\!\\ Why\\?\\ Because\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ die\\.\\ You\\ have\\ deceived\\ yourself\\,\\ O\\ Israel\\,\\ rationalizing\\ thus\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ \\ \\;75\\.\\ It\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ suffer\\,\\ yes\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\;\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ dishonored\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\;\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ judged\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\;\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ crucified\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ you\\,\\ nor\\ by\\ your\\ right\\ hand\\.\\ 76\\.\\ O\\ Israel\\!\\ You\\ ought\\ to\\ have\\ cried\\ aloud\\ to\\ God\\ with\\ this\\ voice\\:\\ \\"\\;O\\ Lord\\,\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ your\\ Son\\ to\\ suffer\\,\\ and\\ if\\ this\\ was\\ your\\ will\\,\\ let\\ him\\ suffer\\ indeed\\,\\ but\\ not\\ at\\ my\\ hands\\.\\ Let\\ him\\ suffer\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ strangers\\.\\ Let\\ him\\ be\\ judged\\ by\\ the\\ uncircumcised\\.\\ Let\\ him\\ be\\ crucified\\ by\\ the\\ tyrannical\\ right\\ hand\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ mine\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cf\\.\\ Justin\\ 95\\.2\\-3\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ the\\ Romans\\ from\\ this\\ account\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Israel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ingratitude\\ to\\ God\\ \\§\\;78\\-92\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deicide\\:\\ God\\ has\\ been\\ murdered\\ \\§\\;96\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ one\\ who\\ hung\\ the\\ earth\\ in\\ space\\,\\ is\\ himself\\ hanged\\;\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ fixed\\ the\\ heavens\\ in\\ place\\,\\ is\\ himself\\ impaled\\;\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ firmly\\ fixed\\ all\\ things\\,\\ is\\ himself\\ firmly\\ fixed\\ to\\ the\\ tree\\.\\ The\\ Lord\\ is\\ insulted\\,\\ God\\ has\\ been\\ murdered\\,\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ Israel\\ has\\ been\\ destroyed\\ by\\ the\\ right\\ hand\\ of\\ Israel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Israel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ punishment\\:\\ Israel\\ lies\\ dead\\ \\§\\;99\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-Judaism\\ in\\ Melito\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Christian\\ Paschal\\ Haggadah\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pro\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ liturgical\\ text\\:\\ \\§\\;1\\ and\\ \\§\\;11\\:\\ Exodus\\ was\\ just\\ read\\;\\ \\§\\;12\\-31\\:\\ midrashic\\ retelling\\ of\\ Exodus\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Follows\\ the\\ Mishnaic\\ prescription\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\ lowly\\ state\\ and\\ to\\ end\\ with\\ glory\\:\\ from\\ sin\\ to\\ redemption\\,\\ from\\ Adam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fall\\ to\\ triumph\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\§\\;46\\-71\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\§\\;68\\ sounds\\ like\\ M\\.\\ Pesahim\\ 10\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\§\\;68\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ delivered\\ us\\ from\\ slavery\\ into\\ freedom\\,\\ from\\ darkness\\ into\\ light\\,\\ from\\ death\\ into\\ life\\,\\ from\\ tyranny\\ into\\ an\\ eternal\\ kingdom\\,\\ and\\ who\\ made\\ us\\ a\\ new\\ priesthood\\,\\ and\\ a\\ special\\ people\\ forever\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mishnah\\:\\[God\\]\\ brought\\ us\\ forth\\ from\\ bondage\\ into\\ freedom\\,\\ from\\ sorrow\\ into\\ joy\\,\\ from\\ mourning\\ into\\ festivity\\,\\ from\\ darkness\\ into\\ great\\ light\\,\\ and\\ from\\ servitude\\ into\\ redemption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\§\\;83\\-85\\ and\\ 87\\-88\\ sound\\ like\\ an\\ inverted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dayyenu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\87\\.\\ O\\ ungrateful\\ Israel\\,\\ come\\ here\\ and\\ be\\ judged\\ before\\ me\\ for\\ your\\ ingratitude\\.\\ How\\ high\\ a\\ price\\ did\\ you\\ place\\ on\\ being\\ created\\ by\\ him\\?\\ How\\ high\\ a\\ price\\ did\\ you\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ your\\ fathers\\?\\ How\\ high\\ a\\ price\\ did\\ you\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ descent\\ into\\ Egypt\\,\\ and\\ the\\ provision\\ made\\ for\\ you\\ there\\ through\\ the\\ noble\\ Joseph\\?\\ 88\\.\\ How\\ high\\ a\\ price\\ did\\ you\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ ten\\ plagues\\?\\ How\\ high\\ a\\ price\\ did\\ you\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ nightly\\ column\\ of\\ fire\\,\\ and\\ the\\ daily\\ cloud\\,\\ and\\ the\\ crossing\\ of\\ the\\ Red\\ Sea\\?\\ How\\ high\\ a\\ price\\ did\\ you\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ manna\\ from\\ heaven\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ water\\ from\\ the\\ rock\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ law\\ in\\ Horeb\\,\\ and\\ the\\ land\\ as\\ an\\ inheritance\\,\\ and\\ the\\ benefits\\ accorded\\ you\\ there\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ He\\ had\\ brought\\ us\\ out\\ from\\ Egypt\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ had\\ not\\ carried\\ out\\ judgments\\ against\\ them\\ Dayyenu\\,\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ sufficed\\ us\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ He\\ had\\ carried\\ out\\ judgments\\ against\\ them\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ not\\ against\\ their\\ idols\\ Dayyenu\\,\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ sufficed\\ us\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ He\\ had\\ destroyed\\ their\\ idols\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ had\\ not\\ smitten\\ their\\ first\\-born\\ Dayyenu\\,\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ sufficed\\ us\\!\\ \\[and\\ so\\ on\\ for\\ 14\\ verses\\ in\\ all\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Origins\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dayyenu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;It\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ sufficient\\ for\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ not\\ clear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jewish\\ influence\\ on\\ Christians\\,\\ or\\ Christian\\ influence\\ on\\ Jews\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ any\\ case\\ liturgical\\ summaries\\ of\\ sacred\\ history\\ are\\ common\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aphikomenos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\§\\;66\\ and\\ \\§\\;86\\ \\(This\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ came\\ to\\ you\\,\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ healed\\ your\\ suffering\\ ones\\ and\\ who\\ resurrected\\ your\\ dead\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Con\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ references\\ to\\ bread\\ \\(matzah\\)\\ or\\ wine\\ or\\ bitter\\ herbs\\ except\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ Israelite\\ celebration\\ of\\ the\\ Pesah\\ in\\ Egypt\\ in\\ \\§\\;\\ 80\\ and\\ 93\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ reference\\ to\\ Eucharist\\ or\\ to\\ any\\ other\\ ritual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ supper\\ \\(of\\ course\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ Johannine\\ chronology\\,\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ following\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ last\\ supper\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 10\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Davidic\\ King\\ and\\ Messiah\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ Samuel\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ establishes\\ his\\ \\(unconditional\\)\\ covenant\\ with\\ David\\.\\ God\\ asks\\ that\\ David\\ build\\ him\\ a\\ cedar\\ \\&ldquo\\;house\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\ God\\ promises\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ house\\ for\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ house\\ for\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ temple\\ and\\ the\\ house\\ for\\ David\\ is\\ for\\ his\\ lineage\\.\\ \\ \\;God\\ says\\ that\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ will\\ forever\\ be\\ secure\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Your\\ house\\ and\\ your\\ kingship\\ shall\\ ever\\ be\\ secure\\ before\\ you\\,\\ your\\ throne\\ shall\\ be\\ established\\ forever\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(7\\:16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 9\\:1\\-6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Text\\ read\\ as\\ referring\\ to\\ Messiah\\ by\\ both\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;For\\ a\\ child\\ has\\ been\\ born\\ to\\ us\\,\\ a\\ son\\ has\\ been\\ given\\ us\\.\\ And\\ authority\\ has\\ settled\\ on\\ his\\ shoulders\\.\\ He\\ has\\ been\\ named\\ \\&lsquo\\;The\\ Mighty\\ God\\ is\\ planning\\ grace\\&hellip\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christians\\ take\\ this\\ passage\\ as\\ referring\\ to\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ word\\ child\\/son\\ consistent\\ with\\ Christ\\ as\\ son\\ of\\ God\\,\\ additionally\\ the\\ son\\ is\\ given\\ a\\ very\\ long\\/holy\\ name\\.\\ JSB\\ note\\ says\\ parents\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ gave\\ their\\ children\\ names\\ that\\ reflected\\ the\\ god\\ they\\ believed\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 11\\:1\\-10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Text\\ describes\\ the\\ peace\\ that\\ will\\ come\\ when\\ the\\ Messiah\\ comes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contains\\ recurring\\ imagery\\ of\\ Davidic\\ dynasty\\ represented\\ as\\ a\\ shoot\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ stump\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ a\\ shoot\\ shall\\ grow\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ stump\\ of\\ Jesse\\,\\ A\\ twig\\ shall\\ sprout\\ from\\ his\\ stock\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(11\\:1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeremiah\\ 23\\:5\\-6\\,\\ 33\\:14\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Lord\\ reasserts\\ his\\ unconditional\\ protection\\ of\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ monarchy\\ in\\ Israel\\,\\ and\\ God\\ equates\\ this\\ covenant\\ with\\ the\\ covenant\\ he\\ had\\ with\\ day\\ and\\ night\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;For\\ thus\\ said\\ the\\ LORD\\:\\ There\\ shall\\ never\\ be\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ men\\ of\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ line\\ who\\ sit\\ upon\\ the\\ throne\\ of\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Israel\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(33\\:17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Psalm\\ 110\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Christian\\ interpretation\\,\\ this\\ psalm\\ is\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ Jesus\\.\\ Jews\\ tend\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ Abraham\\.\\ What\\ is\\ interesting\\ in\\ the\\ psalm\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ words\\ lord\\,\\ priest\\,\\ and\\ king\\ are\\ interchanged\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ LORD\\ talking\\ to\\ a\\ king\\/lord\\ and\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ protect\\ his\\ people\\ in\\ battle\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ are\\ a\\ priest\\ forever\\,\\ a\\ rightful\\ king\\ by\\ My\\ decree\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(110\\:4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Psalm\\ 132\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ David\\ fulfilling\\ his\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\ to\\ God\\,\\ and\\ building\\ a\\ home\\ for\\ the\\ LORD\\.\\ Interestingly\\,\\ God\\ introduces\\ stipulations\\ to\\ his\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\ to\\ always\\ protect\\ David\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ your\\ sons\\ keep\\ My\\ covenant\\ and\\ My\\ decrees\\ that\\ I\\ teach\\ them\\,\\ then\\ their\\ sons\\ also\\,\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ time\\,\\ shall\\ sit\\ upon\\ the\\ throne\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ 2\\ Samuel\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ other\\ condition\\ other\\ then\\ that\\ David\\ build\\ the\\ temple\\,\\ however\\ here\\,\\ like\\ in\\ 1\\ Kings\\,\\ there\\ are\\ conditions\\ introduced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Virgin\\ Birth\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 7\\:10\\-17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ young\\ women\\ is\\ with\\ child\\ and\\ about\\ to\\ give\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ son\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Septuagint\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ young\\ women\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;virgin\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ although\\ modern\\ scholars\\ all\\ agree\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;young\\ women\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ correct\\ reading\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ this\\ disagreement\\ is\\ led\\ Christians\\ to\\ think\\ this\\ passage\\ referred\\ to\\ Mary\\ for\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Additionally\\,\\ the\\ LORD\\ tells\\ Ahaz\\ to\\ ask\\ for\\ a\\ sign\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ unclear\\ whether\\ the\\ pregnancy\\,\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\,\\ or\\ his\\ diet\\ \\(curds\\ and\\ honey\\)\\ represent\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ sign\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mathew\\ 1\\:18\\-25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describes\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ Jesus\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ passage\\ an\\ angel\\ tells\\ Joseph\\ that\\ Mary\\ has\\ conceived\\ through\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\ \\(supporting\\ the\\ previous\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ young\\ women\\,\\ if\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ virgin\\,\\ was\\ Mary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Luke\\ 1\\:26\\-38\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Angel\\ Gabriel\\ sent\\ to\\ Mary\\,\\ foretells\\ virgin\\ birth\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ the\\ angel\\ said\\ to\\ her\\,\\ Do\\ not\\ be\\ afraid\\,\\ Mary\\,\\ you\\ have\\ found\\ favor\\ with\\ God\\.\\ You\\ will\\ be\\ with\\ child\\ and\\ give\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ son\\,\\ and\\ you\\ are\\ to\\ give\\ him\\ the\\ name\\ Jesus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1\\:30\\-31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ 43\\.3\\-8\\,\\ 66\\.1\\-67\\.3\\,\\ 71\\,\\ 77\\-78\\,\\ 84\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ reads\\ Isaiah\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;virgin\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ of\\ this\\ Justin\\ says\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ person\\ born\\ to\\ a\\ virgin\\ was\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;Trypho\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ correct\\ reading\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;young\\ women\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ Christians\\ are\\ only\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\claiming\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ miracles\\ occurred\\ when\\ really\\ Christ\\ was\\ born\\ of\\ human\\ origin\\.\\ \\ \\;Trypho\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ young\\ women\\ is\\ Hezekiah\\,\\ Justin\\ argues\\ that\\ Hezekiah\\ does\\ not\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ prophecy\\ which\\ says\\ that\\ before\\ the\\ child\\ knows\\ how\\ to\\ call\\ his\\ father\\ and\\ mother\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ shall\\ take\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ Damascus\\ and\\ the\\ spoils\\ of\\ Samaria\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ Assyria\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ at\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birth\\.\\ Trypho\\ also\\ makes\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ virgin\\ birth\\ sounds\\ a\\ lot\\ like\\ Greek\\ myths\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Two\\ Comings\\ of\\ Christ\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\:\\ 52\\-54\\,\\ 83\\,\\ 109\\-110\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Basic\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ Justin\\ believes\\ the\\ Bible\\ foretells\\ two\\ comings\\ of\\ the\\ Messiah\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ being\\ where\\ the\\ savior\\ will\\ be\\ subject\\ to\\ much\\ suffering\\ without\\ glory\\ or\\ honor\\ \\(Christ\\)\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ more\\ holy\\ \\(in\\ appearance\\)\\ one\\ who\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ heavens\\.\\ Justin\\ thinks\\ Jews\\ are\\ wrong\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ and\\ that\\ Christ\\ was\\ not\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 12\\ Reading\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Week\\ 12\\:\\ From\\ Sacrifices\\ to\\ Prayer\\ and\\ Eucharist\\ \\(W\\ Apr\\ 23\\ and\\ F\\ Apr\\ 25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\(W\\)\\ Atonement\\ through\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ animals\\:\\ Leviticus\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\God\\ instructs\\ Moses\\ on\\ how\\,\\ once\\ a\\ year\\,\\ to\\ purge\\ the\\ tabernacle\\ of\\ sins\\ and\\ impurities\\ not\\ covered\\ by\\ regular\\ atonement\\ rituals\\.\\ This\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;yom\\ hakipurim\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Day\\ of\\ Atonement\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ ritual\\ includes\\ a\\ slaughtered\\ bull\\,\\ a\\ slaughtered\\ goat\\,\\ a\\ live\\ goat\\ \\(the\\ scapegoat\\,\\ to\\ send\\ into\\ the\\ wilderness\\)\\,\\ and\\ two\\ burnt\\ offerings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(W\\)\\ Critique\\ of\\ sacrificial\\ religion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hosea\\ 6\\:6\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ I\\ desire\\ goodness\\,\\ not\\ sacrifice\\;\\ Obedience\\ to\\ God\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ burnt\\ offerings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Isaiah\\ 1\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;What\\ need\\ have\\ I\\ of\\ all\\ your\\ sacrifices\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ Says\\ the\\ LORD\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;I\\ am\\ sated\\ with\\ burnt\\ offerings\\ of\\ rams\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;and\\ 58\\;\\ Criticizes\\ prayers\\ and\\ fasts\\ which\\ have\\ selfish\\ rather\\ than\\ sacred\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jeremiah\\ 7\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;ritual\\ action\\ alone\\ is\\ insufficient\\ for\\ assuring\\ the\\ divine\\ Presence\\ at\\ the\\ Temple\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(W\\)\\ The\\ suffering\\ servant\\,\\ vicarious\\ atonement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isaiah\\ 52\\:13\\-53\\:12\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ difficult\\ and\\ contested\\ passages\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ passage\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ servant\\,\\ who\\ may\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\symbolize\\ the\\ Jewish\\ people\\,\\ who\\ suffer\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ it\\ might\\ symbolize\\ a\\ pious\\ minority\\ of\\ Jews\\ who\\ suffer\\ for\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ all\\ Jews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ Jesus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(W\\)\\ Rabbinic\\ text\\ \\(to\\ be\\ distributed\\)\\ \\[\\?\\?\\ ed\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ this\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ listed\\ in\\ the\\ readings\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(F\\)\\ Christ\\ as\\ high\\ priest\\ and\\ atonement\\ sacrifice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Letter\\ to\\ the\\ Hebrews\\ 7\\-9\\ \\(to\\ understand\\ this\\ reading\\ you\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ read\\ Psalms\\ 110\\)\\;\\ Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ high\\ priest\\.\\ Because\\ he\\ is\\ pure\\ and\\ without\\ sin\\,\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ offer\\ sacrifices\\ every\\ day\\ as\\ do\\ other\\ high\\ priests\\.\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ sets\\ people\\ free\\ from\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ covenant\\.\\ Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ mediator\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ covenant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ 13\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Isaiah\\ teaches\\ that\\ sins\\ are\\ forgiven\\ through\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\41\\.1\\-3\\ The\\ circumcision\\ that\\ started\\ with\\ Abraham\\ and\\ the\\ Sabbath\\,\\ sacrifices\\,\\ offerings\\,\\ and\\ feasts\\ that\\ started\\ with\\ Moses\\ \\(due\\ to\\ the\\ hardness\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\&rsquo\\;\\ hearts\\)\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ Jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\,\\ 115\\-117\\ Justin\\ speaks\\ of\\ the\\ unnecessariness\\ of\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(F\\)\\ Why\\ did\\ God\\ demand\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ 19\\.6\\,\\ Circumcision\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ because\\ God\\ had\\ respect\\ to\\ Abel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sacrifice\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ uncircumcised\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\22\\.1\\,\\ Food\\ laws\\ were\\ necessary\\ for\\ Jews\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ order\\ that\\ you\\ might\\ keep\\ God\\ before\\ your\\ eyes\\ while\\ you\\ ate\\ and\\ drank\\,\\ seeing\\ that\\ you\\ were\\ prone\\ and\\ very\\ ready\\ to\\ depart\\ from\\ His\\ knowledge\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\22\\.11\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(F\\)\\ The\\ two\\ goats\\ of\\ the\\ Day\\ of\\ Atonement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ 40\\.4\\ Two\\ goats\\,\\ one\\ a\\ scapegoat\\ and\\ one\\ sacrificed\\,\\ are\\ both\\ related\\ to\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;and\\ 111\\.1\\ There\\ will\\ be\\ two\\ advents\\ of\\ Christ\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ goats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(F\\)\\ Christ\\ suffers\\ for\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ humanity\\:\\ Justin\\ 94\\-96\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Christ\\ took\\ upon\\ Himself\\ the\\ curse\\ due\\ to\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 13\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Israel\\ to\\ the\\ Nations\\;\\ The\\ End\\ of\\ Days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Both\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ the\\ chosen\\ people\\,\\ but\\ Jews\\ view\\ themselves\\ more\\ as\\ an\\ ethnos\\,\\ importance\\ of\\ their\\ fathers\\ and\\ their\\ ancestors\\,\\ but\\ also\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\ in\\ determining\\ Judaism\\.\\ Gentiles\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ convert\\ to\\ find\\ favor\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ all\\ people\\ descend\\ from\\ Noah\\ and\\ is\\ enough\\ for\\ gentiles\\ to\\ behave\\ properly\\ by\\ adhering\\ to\\ Noahide\\ law\\.\\ However\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\ gentiles\\ will\\ convert\\ because\\ they\\ will\\ realize\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ God\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eschatological\\&mdash\\;dealing\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;end\\ of\\ days\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Descent\\&mdash\\;chosenness\\ based\\ on\\ ethnicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Faith\\&mdash\\;chosenness\\ based\\ on\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maimonides\\&mdash\\;12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\&mdash\\;Judaism\\ based\\ on\\ culture\\/religion\\/faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yeduda\\ ha\\ Levi\\&mdash\\;generation\\ before\\ Maimonides\\&mdash\\;Judaism\\ as\\ ethnicity\\/descent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seven\\ Noahide\\ laws\\&mdash\\;Gentiles\\ can\\ find\\ favor\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ by\\ following\\ these\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ahavah\\ Rabbah\\&mdash\\;Jewish\\ prayer\\:\\ God\\ loves\\ Israel\\,\\ Israel\\ loves\\ God\\,\\ specialness\\ of\\ Israel\\ manifest\\ through\\ Torah\\,\\ said\\ before\\ Shma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dualism\\&mdash\\;Jews\\ vs\\.\\ gentiles\\;\\ Christians\\ vs\\.\\ pagans\\/polytheists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supersessionism\\&mdash\\;Christians\\ form\\ new\\ covenant\\,\\ new\\ chosen\\ people\\,\\ replacing\\ Judaism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Verus\\ Israel\\&mdash\\;the\\ true\\ Israel\\,\\ regarding\\ theological\\ or\\ covenantal\\ continuity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bible\\ passages\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeremiah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Written\\ in\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\,\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\.\\ Speaks\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ covenant\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ interpreted\\ by\\ Christians\\ as\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ and\\ Christianity\\,\\ and\\ by\\ Jews\\ as\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ Israel\\ shall\\ no\\ longer\\ sin\\,\\ sees\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ recreation\\ of\\ humanity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ times\\ is\\ coming\\&hellip\\;when\\ I\\ will\\ make\\ a\\ new\\ covenant\\ with\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ Israel\\ and\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ Judah\\&hellip\\;I\\ will\\ put\\ my\\ Torah\\ into\\ their\\ innermost\\ being\\ and\\ inscribe\\ it\\ upon\\ their\\ hearts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ezekiel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Conflict\\ between\\ flesh\\ and\\ the\\ stone\\,\\ flesh\\ is\\ better\\.\\ Says\\ covenant\\ will\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\ but\\ humans\\ will\\ change\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ remove\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ stone\\ from\\ their\\ \\(Israelites\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\ bodies\\ and\\ give\\ them\\ a\\ heart\\ of\\ flesh\\,\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ may\\ follow\\ my\\ laws\\ and\\ faithfully\\ observe\\ my\\ rules\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isaiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Israel\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;light\\ of\\ nations\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unclear\\ what\\ this\\ means\\.\\ Describes\\ different\\ typologies\\ for\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\ to\\ gentiles\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\:\\ they\\ will\\ remain\\ gentiles\\ but\\ will\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ God\\,\\ they\\ will\\ become\\ the\\ servants\\ of\\ Israel\\,\\ they\\ will\\ attach\\ themselves\\ to\\ God\\ by\\ converting\\.\\ Also\\ fourth\\ typology\\ in\\ which\\ God\\ will\\ destroy\\ the\\ gentiles\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ wicked\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ worship\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;people\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fight\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ days\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;They\\ will\\ beat\\ their\\ swords\\ into\\ plowshares\\ and\\ their\\ spears\\ into\\ pruning\\ hooks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matthew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Parables\\ of\\ the\\ Vineyard\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ Marriage\\ Feast\\,\\ most\\ likely\\ referring\\ to\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rejection\\ of\\ Jewish\\ leadership\\ groups\\ but\\ Christians\\ interpret\\ them\\ as\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rejection\\ of\\ Jews\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ 9\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Distinction\\ between\\ Jews\\ and\\ gentiles\\ no\\ longer\\ matters\\.\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Genesis\\ 21\\:12\\ as\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ promise\\,\\ not\\ the\\ flesh\\,\\ are\\ counted\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;seed\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ are\\ thus\\ of\\ Israel\\.\\ Conflict\\ between\\ faith\\ and\\ descent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gentiles\\ who\\ have\\ faith\\ are\\ Israel\\,\\ not\\ Jews\\ without\\ faith\\.\\ However\\,\\ because\\ Paul\\ is\\ a\\ Jew\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ outright\\ that\\ God\\ rejects\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galatians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Discussion\\ of\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Christians\\,\\ those\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ are\\ the\\ real\\ Israel\\ in\\ the\\ spiritual\\ sense\\,\\ not\\ Jews\\.\\ Says\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ resurrection\\ of\\ the\\ righteous\\ Christians\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ 1000\\ years\\ in\\ the\\ rebuilt\\ city\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\ with\\ Christ\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ saints\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ everlasting\\ resurrection\\ and\\ \\ \\;judgment\\.\\ Here\\ does\\ not\\ use\\ allegory\\ or\\ symbolism\\,\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ actual\\ city\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\,\\ sounds\\ very\\ Jewish\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\119\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;By\\ faith\\ we\\ Christians\\ are\\ children\\ of\\ Abraham\\;\\ we\\ are\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ holy\\ people\\,\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chosen\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christianity\\ v\\.\\ Judaism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Jews\\ see\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ Jews\\ and\\ gentiles\\,\\ Christians\\ see\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ Christians\\ and\\ pagans\\ or\\ polytheists\\.\\ Christians\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ the\\ new\\ chosen\\ people\\,\\ the\\ true\\ Israel\\.\\ Judaism\\ is\\ ethnic\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ creation\\,\\ inward\\-looking\\,\\ while\\ Christianity\\ is\\ a\\ non\\-ethnic\\ people\\,\\ a\\ religion\\ with\\ concern\\ for\\ Others\\.\\ Judaism\\ has\\ particularism\\,\\ does\\ not\\ care\\ about\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ while\\ Christianity\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ saving\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ Gentiles\\ to\\ the\\ Israelites\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rather\\ than\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\ serving\\ as\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ delineation\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Israelites\\ are\\ forever\\ differentiated\\ from\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;nations\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ according\\ to\\ Isaiah\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ unity\\ and\\ peace\\ under\\ God\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ Isaiah\\ proclaims\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;He\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ judge\\ among\\ the\\ nations\\ And\\ arbitrate\\ for\\ the\\ many\\ peoples\\&hellip\\;Nation\\ shall\\ not\\ take\\ up\\ Sword\\ against\\ nation\\;\\ They\\ shall\\ never\\ again\\ know\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Isaiah\\ 2\\.4\\)\\.\\ Once\\ all\\ nations\\ come\\ to\\ recognize\\ god\\ as\\ the\\ omnipotent\\ authority\\,\\ they\\ will\\ simply\\ appeal\\ to\\ him\\ for\\ dispute\\ resolution\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ in\\ chapter\\ 42\\,\\ Isaiah\\ specifies\\ that\\ the\\ Israelites\\ will\\ facilitate\\-\\-or\\ even\\ be\\ the\\ too\\ for\\-\\-this\\ awakening\\ of\\ other\\ nations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ created\\ you\\,\\ and\\ appointed\\ you\\ A\\ covenant\\ people\\,\\ a\\ light\\ of\\ nations\\,\\ opening\\ eyes\\ deprived\\ of\\ light\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(42\\.7\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ Isaiah\\ makes\\ two\\ distinctions\\:\\ first\\,\\ those\\ nations\\ who\\ have\\ oppressed\\ Israel\\ will\\ instead\\ serve\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ future\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ make\\ your\\ oppressors\\ eat\\ their\\ own\\ flesh\\,\\ They\\ shall\\ be\\ drunk\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ blood\\ as\\ with\\ wine\\.\\ And\\ all\\ mankind\\ shall\\ know\\ That\\ I\\ the\\ Lord\\ am\\ your\\ Savior\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(49\\.26\\)\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ such\\ a\\ reversal\\ of\\ fortune\\ for\\ the\\ Israelites\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ other\\ nations\\ will\\ prove\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ nations\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ all\\ powerful\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ Israelites\\,\\ and\\ Israelites\\ versus\\ the\\ other\\ nations\\:\\ while\\ Isaiah\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ temple\\ will\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ house\\ of\\ prayer\\ for\\ all\\ peoples\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(56\\.7\\)\\,\\ he\\ notes\\ that\\,\\ though\\ he\\ continues\\ to\\ serve\\ the\\ Israelites\\ despite\\ some\\ being\\ sinners\\,\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ serve\\ him\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ saved\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ other\\ nations\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ such\\ unconditional\\ love\\-\\-they\\ have\\ to\\ covert\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ though\\ Israelites\\ will\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ role\\ superior\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ other\\ nations\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ unity\\ under\\ god\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ creation\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ prophesied\\ by\\ Jeremiah\\ and\\ Ezekiel\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ prophets\\ Jeremiah\\ and\\ Ezekiel\\ look\\ to\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\ will\\ be\\ reunited\\ and\\ purified\\ by\\ the\\ Lord\\ once\\ and\\ for\\ all\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ time\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Jeremiah\\&\\#39\\;s\\ prophecy\\,\\ that\\ the\\ Lord\\ will\\ \\"\\;make\\ a\\ new\\ covenant\\ with\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ Israel\\ and\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ Judah\\"\\;\\ \\(Jer\\.\\ 31\\:31\\)\\.\\ A\\ \\"\\;new\\"\\;\\ kind\\ of\\ covenant\\ is\\ emphasized\\,\\ because\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\ had\\ broken\\ the\\ divine\\ covenants\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ The\\ main\\ one\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ is\\ the\\ covenant\\ the\\ Lord\\ made\\ with\\ the\\ Israelites\\ when\\ He\\ led\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ Egypt\\ \\(Jer\\.\\ 31\\:32\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ other\\ covenants\\ could\\ be\\ the\\ one\\ given\\ to\\ and\\ broken\\ by\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ in\\ Genesis\\,\\ and\\ given\\ to\\ Noah\\ after\\ the\\ flood\\.\\ Similarly\\,\\ the\\ flood\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ \\"\\;re\\-creation\\,\\"\\;\\ as\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ purged\\ of\\ all\\ evil\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ begin\\ again\\ in\\ holiness\\.\\ The\\ \\"\\;new\\"\\;\\ creation\\,\\ however\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ an\\ irreversable\\ shift\\ \\-\\-\\ a\\ point\\ in\\ time\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ chosen\\ people\\ will\\ never\\ again\\ degenerate\\ into\\ sin\\.\\ \\"\\;For\\ I\\ will\\ forgive\\ their\\ wickedness\\ and\\ will\\ remember\\ their\\ sins\\ no\\ more\\"\\;\\ \\(Jer\\.\\ 31\\:34\\)\\.\\ The\\ new\\ covenant\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ covenant\\ not\\ only\\ of\\ words\\,\\ but\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\ The\\ new\\ creation\\ will\\ not\\ simply\\ weed\\ out\\ the\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ will\\ replace\\ the\\ hearts\\ of\\ the\\ chosen\\ people\\ \\-\\-\\ \\"\\;I\\ will\\ give\\ them\\ an\\ undivided\\ heart\\ and\\ put\\ a\\ new\\ spirit\\ in\\ them\\"\\;\\ \\(Eze\\.\\ 11\\:19\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ prophecies\\ seem\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ two\\ central\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ creation\\ and\\ covenant\\:\\ unification\\ and\\ purification\\.\\ Both\\ Jeremiah\\ and\\ Ezekiel\\ prophesy\\ God\\ bringing\\ the\\ Israelites\\,\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ the\\ nations\\,\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ homeland\\ to\\ unify\\ them\\ forever\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ prophets\\ speak\\ of\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ believers\\ will\\ sin\\ no\\ more\\,\\ being\\ forgiven\\ for\\ all\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ Christianity\\ takes\\ this\\ to\\ mean\\ that\\ Christ\\ will\\ take\\ on\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ purifying\\ and\\ unifying\\ all\\ who\\ have\\ faith\\ in\\ Him\\.\\ The\\ new\\ covenant\\ includes\\ Gentiles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ creation\\ brings\\ all\\ people\\ together\\ under\\ one\\ God\\,\\ removing\\ from\\ them\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ sin\\.\\ Judaism\\ seems\\ to\\ still\\ be\\ waiting\\ for\\ the\\ new\\ covenant\\ and\\ new\\ creation\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ still\\ involve\\ only\\ the\\ chosen\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\.\\ One\\ day\\ all\\ will\\ turn\\ to\\ God\\ and\\ be\\ without\\ sin\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Israelites\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ homeland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Romans\\ 9\\-11\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Israel\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ flesh\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\=the\\ Jews\\)\\ in\\ the\\ theological\\ order\\ now\\ that\\ Christ\\ has\\ come\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;According\\ to\\ Romans\\ 9\\-11\\,\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ Christ\\ brings\\ a\\ leveling\\ of\\ opportunity\\;\\ Jews\\ and\\ Gentiles\\ alike\\ have\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ to\\ find\\ favor\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Becoming\\ members\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chosen\\ people\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ longer\\ requires\\ belonging\\ to\\ an\\ ethnic\\ group\\ \\(Romans\\ 9\\:8\\)\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;children\\ of\\ the\\ promise\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ people\\ who\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;regarded\\ as\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Romans\\ 9\\:8\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ because\\ descent\\ no\\ longer\\ defines\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favor\\,\\ not\\ all\\ of\\ Israel\\ will\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;saved\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Romans\\ 9\\:27\\)\\.\\ Romans\\ cites\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ Isaiah\\ which\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;though\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\ be\\ like\\ the\\ sand\\ by\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ only\\ the\\ remnant\\ will\\ be\\ saved\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Romans\\ 9\\:27\\)\\.\\ Only\\ the\\ Israelites\\ who\\,\\ like\\ righteous\\ Gentiles\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;pursue\\ righteousness\\&hellip\\;that\\ is\\ by\\ faith\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;pursu\\[ing\\]\\ a\\ law\\ \\[ie\\:\\ the\\ Torah\\]\\ of\\ righteousness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Romans\\ 9\\:31\\,\\ 32\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Romans\\ 10\\ further\\ defines\\ \\&ldquo\\;righteousness\\&hellip\\;by\\ faith\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;confess\\[ing\\]\\ with\\ your\\ mouth\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Jesus\\ is\\ Lord\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ believ\\[ing\\]\\ in\\ your\\ heart\\ that\\ God\\ raised\\ him\\ from\\ the\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Romans\\ 10\\:9\\)\\.\\ This\\ redefinition\\ of\\ the\\ criteria\\ for\\ salvation\\,\\ for\\ finding\\ favor\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ God\\,\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ difference\\ between\\ Jew\\ and\\ Gentile\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ same\\ Lord\\ is\\ Lord\\ of\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Romans\\ 10\\:12\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Romans\\ 11\\ makes\\ allowance\\ for\\ the\\ Israelites\\ who\\ remain\\ \\&ldquo\\;disobedient\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ stating\\ that\\ all\\ Israelites\\ will\\ one\\ day\\ find\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ God\\.\\ The\\ errant\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ Israelite\\ population\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ a\\ lesson\\,\\ an\\ example\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ Gentiles\\,\\ who\\ may\\ then\\ come\\ to\\ find\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mercy\\.\\ In\\ this\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ disobedient\\ Gentiles\\ find\\ mercy\\,\\ Romans\\ 11\\ insists\\ that\\ Israelites\\ currently\\ disobedient\\ will\\ also\\ one\\ day\\ \\&ldquo\\;receive\\ mercy\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mercy\\ to\\ \\[the\\ Gentiles\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Romans\\ 11\\:31\\)\\.\\ A\\ metaphor\\ of\\ an\\ olive\\ tree\\,\\ which\\ may\\ have\\ new\\ or\\ old\\ branches\\ grafted\\ back\\ onto\\ it\\,\\ is\\ invoked\\;\\ it\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ again\\ of\\ the\\ leveling\\ of\\ opportunity\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ Israelites\\ are\\ not\\ punished\\ or\\ marginalized\\;\\ Romans\\ 9\\-11\\ simply\\ extends\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ gaining\\ special\\ favor\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ to\\ all\\ who\\ accept\\ Christ\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ Justin\\ \\(and\\/or\\ Barnabas\\)\\ try\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ Christians\\ are\\ the\\ new\\ people\\ of\\ God\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ has\\ many\\ justifications\\ for\\ why\\ Jews\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ Christians\\ are\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ because\\ Jews\\ persecuted\\ Christ\\ and\\ have\\ not\\ repented\\,\\ they\\ will\\ inherit\\ nothing\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 26\\)\\;\\ but\\ Christians\\ having\\ believed\\ in\\ Christ\\ and\\ repented\\ for\\ their\\ sins\\ will\\ in\\ fact\\ receive\\ the\\ holy\\ inheritance\\ of\\ God\\.\\ He\\ quotes\\ Isaiah\\ as\\ proof\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ covenant\\ with\\ Gentiles\\.\\ Justin\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ quote\\ more\\ Isaiah\\ and\\ Revelations\\ to\\ prove\\ his\\ opinion\\ that\\ Christians\\ are\\ the\\ new\\ people\\ of\\ God\\.\\ He\\ quotes\\,\\ \\"\\;They\\ shall\\ neither\\ marry\\ nor\\ be\\ given\\ in\\ marriage\\,\\ but\\ shall\\ be\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ angels\\,\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ the\\ resurrection\\"\\;\\ as\\ proof\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ God\\ of\\ the\\ resurrection\\ \\(followers\\ of\\ Christ\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ Jews\\)\\ will\\ be\\ those\\ that\\ God\\ will\\ rejoice\\ over\\ and\\ make\\ glad\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ days\\.\\ Justin\\ continues\\ his\\ argument\\ that\\ Christians\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ holy\\ people\\ promised\\ Abraham\\.\\ Selecting\\ the\\ quote\\ \\"\\;I\\ will\\ turn\\ My\\ face\\ away\\ from\\ them\\,\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ show\\ what\\ shall\\ come\\ on\\ them\\ at\\ the\\ last\\;\\ for\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ forward\\ generation\\,\\ children\\ in\\ whom\\ is\\ no\\ faith\\"\\;\\,\\ Justin\\ suggests\\ that\\ Christians\\ are\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ faith\\ like\\ Abraham\\ and\\ are\\ therefore\\ the\\ holy\\ people\\,\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ God\\,\\ the\\ true\\ Israel\\.\\ Justin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ arguments\\ are\\ numerous\\:\\ he\\ continues\\ that\\ Christians\\ are\\ more\\ faithful\\ to\\ God\\ than\\ Jews\\ and\\ Jews\\ are\\ hard\\ hearted\\.\\ Justin\\ is\\ convinced\\ and\\ presents\\ much\\ evidence\\ that\\ Christians\\ are\\ the\\ new\\ people\\ of\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\berit\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;covenant\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ appears\\ thirteen\\ times\\ in\\ Genesis\\ 17\\,\\ the\\ chapter\\ in\\ which\\ God\\ commands\\ Abraham\\ to\\ be\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\ circumcision\\ has\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ thirteen\\ covenants\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;covenant\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ verse\\ triggers\\ a\\ midrashic\\ association\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;circumcision\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ both\\ are\\ called\\ by\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\berit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\\\\\[3\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;Genesis\\ 17\\:2\\ shows\\ that\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perfection\\ \\(Genesis\\ 17\\:1\\)\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ circumcision\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\\\\\[4\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;This\\ verse\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ covenant\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\berit\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\circumcision\\)\\ equals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ these\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 36, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Hebrew_Final_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 07:03:23+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Molecules of Life - Midterm 1 Review", "tags": ["harvard", "molecules", "life"], "text": "", "id": 99, "html": "\\\\\\Sci\\_B47\\_\\-\\_Midterm\\_1\\_Notes\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c1\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:288pt\\}\\.c24\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c12\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\Case\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Extinction\\ of\\ Aversive\\ Memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aversive\\ learning\\ \\=\\ learning\\ to\\ dislike\\ something\\ unpleasant\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mice\\ genetically\\ engineered\\ to\\ lack\\ CB1\\ receptors\\ fail\\ to\\ forget\\ aversive\\ learning\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ remain\\ afraid\\ of\\ a\\ shock\\ coming\\ after\\ a\\ tone\\,\\ even\\ after\\ the\\ tone\\ has\\ been\\ played\\ extensively\\ without\\ a\\ shock\\ following\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ contrast\\,\\ those\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\CB1\\ receptors\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ realize\\ over\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ tone\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ shock\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CB1\\ agonists\\ could\\ help\\ patients\\ with\\ post\\-traumatic\\ stress\\ disorder\\,\\ phobias\\,\\ and\\ chronic\\ pain\\.\\ \\ \\;CB1\\ agonists\\ could\\ enable\\ the\\ extinction\\ of\\ inappropriate\\ responses\\ to\\ aversive\\ memories\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ memory\\ formation\\,\\ a\\ pyramidal\\ neuron\\ receives\\ an\\ input\\ from\\ cell\\ A\\ and\\ an\\ input\\ from\\ cell\\ B\\,\\ then\\ it\\ integrates\\ the\\ signals\\ and\\ passes\\ on\\ a\\ message\\ to\\ another\\ cell\\.\\ \\ \\;Input\\ from\\ A\\ inhibits\\ the\\ signal\\ \\(or\\ inspires\\ forgetting\\ of\\ an\\ experience\\)\\,\\ while\\ input\\ from\\ B\\ excites\\ it\\ \\(inspires\\ memory\\ of\\ an\\ experience\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Endocannabinoids\\ can\\ weaken\\ the\\ signals\\ that\\ are\\ sent\\ from\\ the\\ pyramidal\\ neuron\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ cells\\ that\\ are\\ sending\\ the\\ memory\\-inhibiting\\ and\\/or\\ reinforcing\\ signals\\,\\ thus\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ manipulated\\ to\\ weaken\\ memories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gay\\ Sheep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genetic\\ Studies\\ and\\ Serotonin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ with\\ more\\ stressful\\ life\\ events\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ \\/\\ attempt\\ suicide\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\especially\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;if\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;short\\&rdquo\\;\\ alleles\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ large\\ ones\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Genes\\ load\\ the\\ gun\\,\\ environment\\ pulls\\ the\\ trigger\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pseudohermaphrodites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\46\\,XY\\ males\\ born\\ with\\ ambiguous\\ external\\ genitalia\\ in\\ the\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\ were\\ raised\\ as\\ girls\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ puberty\\,\\ they\\ developed\\ a\\ typical\\ male\\ phenotype\\.\\ \\ \\;Muscles\\,\\ phallus\\,\\ no\\ breasts\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ real\\ hermaphrodites\\ because\\ they\\ only\\ had\\ male\\ sex\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ prostate\\ remains\\ small\\,\\ beard\\ growth\\ is\\ scanty\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ temporal\\ recession\\ of\\ the\\ hairline\\ or\\ acne\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ genetic\\ mutation\\ prevents\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ 5a\\-reductase\\,\\ which\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ synthesize\\ testosterone\\ into\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\,\\ which\\ develops\\ external\\ genitalia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sparked\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ drug\\ that\\ reduces\\ activity\\ of\\ 5a\\-reductase\\,\\ which\\ reduces\\ prostate\\ size\\ \\(Proscar\\)\\ and\\ male\\ pattern\\ balding\\ \\(Propecia\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Issues\\ raised\\ by\\ this\\ case\\:\\ \\ \\;informed\\ consent\\ \\(OK\\ to\\ put\\ guevedoces\\&rsquo\\;\\ pictures\\ in\\ textbooks\\ today\\?\\)\\,\\ intellectual\\ property\\,\\ nature\\ v\\.\\ nurture\\ in\\ gender\\ identity\\,\\ importance\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;lifestyle\\&rsquo\\;\\ drugs\\ \\(male\\ pattern\\ baldness\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ threaten\\ lives\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ lucrative\\)\\,\\ economics\\ of\\ drug\\ development\\ and\\ pricing\\,\\ and\\ second\\ generation\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;me\\ too\\&rsquo\\;\\ drugs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Soups\\ v\\.\\ Sparks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Otto\\ Lowei\\ in\\ 1921\\ cut\\ out\\ a\\ Vagus\\ nerve\\ from\\ one\\ frog\\ heart\\,\\ left\\ it\\ in\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ stimulated\\ the\\ heart\\ with\\ the\\ VN\\ \\ \\;electrically\\,\\ and\\ it\\ slowed\\ down\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ he\\ took\\ the\\ heart\\ fluid\\ to\\ a\\ heart\\ without\\ a\\ VN\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ proved\\ that\\ synapses\\ transmit\\ information\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;soups\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ neurotransmitters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neurotransmission\\ within\\ a\\ cell\\ is\\ electrical\\,\\ but\\ b\\/w\\ cells\\ is\\ molecular\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tadpole\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ removal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showed\\ tadpole\\ development\\ was\\ almost\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\entirely\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dependent\\ on\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Testicle\\ swapping\\ in\\ chickens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chickens\\ with\\ testicles\\,\\ regardless\\ if\\ the\\ testicles\\ were\\ transplanted\\,\\ became\\ roosters\\.\\ \\ \\;Showed\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ testosterone\\ in\\ development\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trust\\ game\\ \\-\\ Oxytocin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Investor\\ given\\ 12\\ Monetary\\ Units\\.\\ \\ \\;Trustee\\ given\\ 12\\ MU\\.\\ \\ \\;Investor\\ decides\\ how\\ much\\ MU\\ to\\ give\\ each\\ of\\ 4\\ trustees\\.\\ \\ \\;Whatever\\ he\\ gave\\,\\ though\\,\\ was\\ tripled\\.\\ \\ \\;Trustee\\ can\\ decide\\ how\\ much\\ money\\ to\\ give\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ investor\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ never\\ get\\ to\\ see\\ who\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ playing\\ with\\,\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ only\\ play\\ one\\ time\\ with\\ each\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ you\\ play\\,\\ you\\ have\\ oxytocin\\ sprayed\\ into\\ your\\ nose\\.\\ \\ \\;Inhale\\ it\\ and\\ it\\ goes\\ to\\ your\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;Half\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ with\\ the\\ oxytocin\\ spray\\ gave\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\their\\ money\\ to\\ the\\ trustee\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ players\\ were\\ told\\ the\\ trustee\\ was\\ a\\ computer\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ oxytocin\\ people\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ trust\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ oxytocin\\ inspired\\ trust\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\people\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ not\\ just\\ blind\\ trust\\ in\\ anything\\.\\ \\ \\;Oxytocin\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ inspire\\ the\\ trustee\\ to\\ pay\\ more\\ money\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ investor\\,\\ though\\;\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ inspire\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ behavior\\,\\ it\\ just\\ inspired\\ trust\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ oxytocin\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ treat\\ social\\ phobias\\ or\\ autism\\ \\(extreme\\ social\\ phobia\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Opioid\\ receptor\\ knock\\ out\\ in\\ mice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mouse\\ put\\ on\\ hot\\ plate\\,\\ wait\\ till\\ mouse\\ lifts\\ paw\\ \\/\\ jumps\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mice\\ with\\ the\\ receptor\\ who\\ are\\ given\\ morphine\\ wait\\ longer\\ to\\ jump\\ the\\ more\\ morphine\\ you\\ give\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mice\\ genetically\\ engineered\\ to\\ lack\\ morphine\\ receptors\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respond\\ to\\ morphine\\;\\ they\\ jump\\ at\\ a\\ normal\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Proves\\ our\\ brain\\ naturally\\ has\\ morphine\\ receptors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mice\\ addicted\\ to\\ morphine\\,\\ then\\ given\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\u\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\opioid\\ antagonists\\,\\ and\\ they\\ go\\ through\\ huge\\ withdrawals\\.\\ \\ \\;Overall\\ point\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\u\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-opioid\\ receptor\\ naturally\\ exists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mice\\ with\\ opioid\\ receptors\\ call\\ out\\ to\\ their\\ mothers\\ much\\ more\\ compared\\ to\\ those\\ who\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ had\\ the\\ gene\\ producing\\ this\\ receptor\\ knocked\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ It\\ might\\ encourage\\ mother\\-child\\ \\(not\\ father\\,\\ though\\)\\ bonding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Voles\\ \\(prairie\\ v\\.\\ montane\\/meadow\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prairie\\ voles\\,\\ when\\ found\\,\\ were\\ often\\ with\\ a\\ longterm\\ monogamous\\ mate\\.\\ \\ \\;Giving\\ vasopressin\\ to\\ prairie\\ voles\\ made\\ them\\ even\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;monogamous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientists\\ killed\\ voles\\,\\ chopped\\ up\\ their\\ brains\\,\\ and\\ found\\ where\\ vasopressin\\ affected\\ the\\ different\\ moles\\&rsquo\\;\\ brains\\.\\ \\ \\;Prairie\\ and\\ Meadow\\ voles\\&rsquo\\;\\ vasopressin\\ receptors\\ were\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\;\\ prairie\\ voles\\&rsquo\\;\\ receptor\\ location\\ enabled\\ them\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ vasopressin\\.\\ \\ \\;Meadow\\ voles\\ were\\ as\\ likely\\ to\\ spend\\ time\\ with\\ stranger\\ females\\ as\\ with\\ their\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mate\\,\\ because\\ their\\ vasopressin\\ receptors\\ were\\ not\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ correct\\ \\&ldquo\\;monogamous\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;Prairie\\ voles\\ stayed\\ with\\ their\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mate\\ much\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ the\\ gene\\ that\\ put\\ vasopressin\\ receptors\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ in\\ prairie\\ voles\\ was\\ put\\ into\\ meadow\\ voles\\,\\ so\\ now\\ their\\ vasopressin\\ receptors\\ would\\ be\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;monogamous\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ now\\ spent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\time\\ than\\ prairie\\ voles\\ with\\ mates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ certain\\ blips\\ in\\ DNA\\ just\\ before\\ the\\ receptor\\ gene\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ more\\ of\\ these\\ receptors\\ to\\ be\\ coded\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ more\\ vasopressin\\ receptors\\ you\\ have\\ in\\ a\\ specific\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ the\\ more\\ monogamous\\ you\\ are\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ can\\ reverse\\ \\ \\;this\\ effect\\ with\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ dopamine\\ antagonist\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ vasopressing\\ signaling\\ system\\ communicates\\ with\\ the\\ dopamine\\ signaling\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ During\\ sex\\,\\ vasopressin\\ gets\\ released\\,\\ which\\,\\ if\\ the\\ genetics\\ put\\ the\\ receptors\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ builds\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;huddling\\&rdquo\\;\\ relationship\\ b\\/w\\ voles\\.\\ \\ \\;Dopamine\\ antagonists\\ prevent\\ monogamy\\ in\\ both\\ types\\ of\\ voles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Finasteride\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ 5a\\-reductase\\ antagonist\\ that\\ stops\\ male\\ pattern\\ baldness\\ and\\ reduces\\ prostate\\ enlargement\\ during\\ aging\\ \\(a\\ cancer\\ risk\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proscar\\ and\\ Propecia\\ were\\ made\\ from\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morphine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Purified\\ alkaloid\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purified\\ by\\ removing\\ its\\ base\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;free\\ base\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formed\\ in\\ a\\ plant\\,\\ starting\\ with\\ tyrosine\\ \\(starting\\ material\\ for\\ adrenaline\\,\\ dopamine\\,\\ other\\ hormones\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Tyrosine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dopamine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MAO\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;morphine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morphine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;codeine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;heroin\\ \\(gets\\ into\\ your\\ brain\\ 100x\\ faster\\ than\\ morphine\\,\\ but\\ converted\\ back\\ into\\ morphine\\ in\\ your\\ brain\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowing\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ opioid\\ receptor\\ in\\ our\\ brain\\,\\ we\\ could\\ find\\ the\\ endogenous\\ opioid\\ ligand\\ \\(met\\-enkephalin\\)\\ made\\ by\\ our\\ brain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morphine\\ side\\ effects\\:\\ \\ \\;tolerance\\,\\ addiction\\,\\ respiratory\\ suppression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pain\\ is\\ turned\\ down\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-opioid\\ receptors\\ and\\ agonists\\ in\\ synapses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Methadone\\ \\=\\ drug\\ that\\ eases\\ people\\ off\\ heroin\\ without\\ the\\ withdrawal\\ symptoms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opioid\\ receptors\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\mu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kappa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\delta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ are\\ GPCRs\\ and\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ gene\\ duplication\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ has\\ a\\ different\\ function\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prilosec\\ \\(Nexium\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chirals\\ of\\ each\\ other\\ that\\ extend\\ patent\\-induced\\ revenues\\ for\\ drug\\ company\\.\\ \\ \\;50\\/50\\ miexture\\ of\\ enantiomers\\ \\(single\\ enantimoer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patentably\\ different\\ drugs\\ \\&ldquo\\;shown\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ 3\\%\\ better\\ after\\ 8\\ weeks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ambien\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lunesta\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prozac\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ Zoloft\\ and\\ Paxil\\,\\ an\\ SSRI\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ for\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;40\\ million\\ patients\\,\\ \\$22\\ billion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Salvarsan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cousin\\ of\\ arsenic\\,\\ cured\\ syphilis\\,\\ showed\\ how\\ drugs\\ bound\\ to\\ receptors\\ based\\ on\\ shape\\ complementarity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tamoxifen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Developed\\ as\\ a\\ morning\\-after\\ pill\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ estrogen\\ \\(estradiol\\)\\ receptor\\ antagonist\\ that\\ kills\\ estrogen\\-dependent\\ tumors\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ estrogenic\\ effects\\ on\\ bones\\ \\(increases\\ bone\\-density\\)\\ and\\ the\\ uterus\\ \\(causes\\ cancer\\)\\,\\ and\\ it\\ lowers\\ cholesterol\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ effects\\ do\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ inhibit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genes\\,\\ Proteins\\,\\ and\\ Hormones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\5a\\-reductase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\needed\\ to\\ synthesize\\ testosterone\\ into\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\,\\ which\\ develops\\ external\\ genitalia\\.\\ \\ \\;Inhibited\\ by\\ the\\ drug\\ finasteride\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adrenaline\\/epinephrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ a\\ methyl\\ group\\ \\(CH3\\)\\ that\\ noradrenaline\\ lacks\\ \\(has\\ 2\\ H\\&rsquo\\;s\\ instead\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increases\\ heart\\ rate\\,\\ relaxes\\ bronchial\\ muscles\\ \\(improving\\ breathing\\)\\,\\ adjusts\\ eyes\\ for\\ distance\\ vision\\,\\ shuts\\ down\\ some\\ psyiolgoical\\ processes\\ \\(digestion\\)\\ while\\ increasing\\ others\\ \\(breakdown\\ of\\ glycogen\\ into\\ glucose\\)\\,\\ contracts\\ the\\ sphincter\\,\\ relaxes\\ the\\ muscle\\ around\\ the\\ urinary\\ bladder\\.\\ \\ \\;Performs\\ this\\ many\\ functions\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ has\\ so\\ many\\ kinds\\ of\\ receptors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ heart\\ has\\ beta\\ receptors\\ to\\ adrenaline\\.\\ \\ \\;Beta\\ receptor\\ antagonists\\ prevent\\ angina\\,\\ in\\ which\\ hearts\\ ceaselessly\\ increase\\ in\\ size\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hormone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\neurotransmitter\\ \\(functions\\ in\\ both\\ body\\ and\\ brain\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sent\\ through\\ the\\ body\\ from\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ to\\ the\\ spinal\\ cord\\,\\ which\\ enables\\ faster\\ message\\ sending\\ \\(for\\ \\&ldquo\\;flight\\ or\\ flight\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ than\\ other\\ hormones\\ which\\ are\\ sent\\ from\\ the\\ endocrine\\ gland\\,\\ based\\ on\\ messages\\ coming\\ from\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ to\\ the\\ pituitary\\ to\\ the\\ endocrine\\ gland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\COMT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ most\\ widely\\ studied\\ gene\\ in\\ psychiatry\\,\\ it\\ inactivates\\ dopamine\\ in\\ synapses\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ versions\\ of\\ this\\ inactivator\\ are\\ more\\ effective\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ different\\ people\\ have\\ different\\ dopamine\\ levels\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ effective\\ their\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ dopamine\\ inactivator\\ is\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dopamine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ from\\ tyrosine\\.\\ \\ \\;Neurotransmitter\\,\\ rewards\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dopamine\\ antagonists\\ thought\\ to\\ maybe\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ cure\\ addictions\\ without\\ killing\\ dopamine\\ producing\\ cells\\ \\(Parkinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Disease\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Estradiol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\a\\ typically\\ \\&ldquo\\;female\\&rdquo\\;\\ hormone\\,\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ more\\ powerful\\ effect\\ on\\ inducing\\ male\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ than\\ does\\ testosterone\\.\\ It\\ is\\ believed\\ the\\ testosterone\\ might\\ transform\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ into\\ estradiol\\ before\\ it\\ produces\\ its\\ behavioral\\ effects\\.\\ \\ \\;Estrogen\\ actually\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ in\\ females\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Induces\\ ovulation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\KIT\\ gene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Benign\\ mutation\\ leads\\ to\\ harmless\\ discolorations\\ of\\ skin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Malignant\\ mutations\\,\\ though\\,\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ cancer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MAOA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gene\\ associated\\ with\\ dopamine\\ levels\\ and\\ antisocial\\ behavior\\ and\\ conduct\\ disorder\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marinol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Synthetic\\ THC\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ CB1\\ agonist\\.\\ Used\\ to\\ relieve\\ nausea\\ and\\ vomiting\\ associated\\ with\\ chemotherapy\\,\\ and\\ to\\ inspire\\ appetite\\ in\\ cancer\\ and\\ AIDS\\ patients\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Melatonin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ hormone\\ of\\ darkness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Goes\\ up\\ at\\ night\\,\\ helping\\ you\\ fall\\ asleep\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ short\\ half\\-life\\ \\(2o\\ minutes\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Japanese\\ pharmaceutical\\ company\\ made\\ remlteon\\,\\ a\\ melatonin\\ agonist\\,\\ which\\ binds\\ 3\\-6x\\ stronger\\ than\\ melatonin\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ longer\\ half\\-life\\ \\(1\\-3\\ hours\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Noradrenaline\\/norepinephrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oxytocin\\ and\\ Vasoporessin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\,\\ released\\ by\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\,\\ have\\ 9\\ amino\\ acids\\,\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ peptide\\,\\ and\\ are\\ released\\ in\\ a\\ pulsatile\\ manner\\ during\\ orgasms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oxytocin\\ \\(agonists\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\induces\\ labor\\ \\(antagonists\\ prevent\\ premature\\ birth\\)\\ in\\ pregnant\\ mothers\\.\\ \\ \\;Means\\ \\&ldquo\\;quick\\ birth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Reduces\\ blood\\ pressure\\ and\\ dilates\\ coronary\\ arteries\\,\\ induces\\ \\&ldquo\\;milk\\ letdown\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vasopressing\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;antidiuretic\\ hormone\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ raises\\ blood\\ pressure\\,\\ contracts\\ coronary\\ arteries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prodynorphin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PDYN\\ gene\\ makes\\ the\\ endogenous\\ ligands\\ for\\ opioids\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ junk\\ DNA\\ before\\ the\\ PDYN\\ gene\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ up\\-regulated\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\u\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-opioid\\ receptors\\.\\ \\ \\;20\\-30x\\ more\\ receptive\\ to\\ opioids\\ than\\ chimps\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ can\\ have\\ 1\\-4\\ copies\\ of\\ PDYN\\,\\ making\\ them\\ variously\\ receptive\\ to\\ opioids\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Progesterone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;pregnancy\\ hormone\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ signals\\ when\\ an\\ egg\\ has\\ been\\ fertilized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birth\\ control\\ pills\\ are\\ synthetic\\ molecules\\ that\\ function\\ as\\ agonists\\.\\ They\\ bind\\ to\\ progesterone\\ receptors\\ and\\ activate\\ them\\,\\ telling\\ the\\ body\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pregnant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ morning\\-after\\ pill\\ blocks\\ the\\ signal\\ from\\ progesterone\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ progesterone\\ receptor\\ antagonist\\.\\ By\\ blocking\\ the\\ signal\\ from\\ progesterone\\,\\ it\\ prevents\\ normal\\ pregnancy\\ processes\\ from\\ taking\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pseudoephedrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cold\\ medication\\ easily\\ convertible\\ into\\ methamphetamine\\ by\\ removing\\ an\\ Oxygen\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rimonabant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\CB1\\ antagonist\\ designed\\ to\\ reduce\\ appetite\\ and\\ obesity\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ high\\ blood\\ pressure\\ and\\ addictions\\ to\\ smoking\\ and\\ alcohol\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serotonin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biosynthesized\\ from\\ tryptophan\\,\\ an\\ essential\\ amino\\ acid\\.\\ \\ \\;Rare\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ but\\ works\\ throughout\\,\\ binding\\ to\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ cell\\ surface\\ receptors\\ and\\ affecting\\ nearly\\ every\\ aspect\\ of\\ human\\ function\\ from\\ breathing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;digestion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sex\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Low\\ levels\\ associated\\ with\\ high\\-risk\\ behavior\\ \\&\\;\\ suicide\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Selective\\ Serotonin\\ Reuptake\\ Inhibitors\\ \\(SSRIs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inhibits\\ the\\ reuptake\\ \\(recycling\\)\\ of\\ serotonin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Testosterone\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thyroid\\ Hormones\\:\\ The\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ important\\ metabolic\\ regulator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\T3\\ \\&\\;\\ T4\\:\\ \\ \\;thyroxine\\.\\ \\ \\;Thyroxine\\ takes\\ on\\ iodine\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ hydrophobic\\ \\(it\\ could\\ also\\ take\\ on\\ methyl\\ groups\\,\\ which\\ are\\ hydrophobic\\)\\ and\\ thus\\ able\\ to\\ penetrate\\ the\\ membrane\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ and\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ nuclear\\ hormone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sends\\ signals\\ through\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ as\\ sex\\ steroids\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\T4\\ becomes\\ T3\\ \\(loses\\ an\\ iodine\\)\\ inside\\ a\\ cell\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ receptors\\,\\ and\\ then\\ it\\ regulates\\ genes\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ turns\\ on\\ genes\\ involved\\ with\\ oxygen\\ consumption\\,\\ heat\\ production\\,\\ fetal\\ development\\,\\ heart\\ rate\\ and\\ cardiac\\ output\\,\\ bone\\ cell\\ turnover\\,\\ and\\ carbohydrate\\ and\\ lipid\\ metabolism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Without\\ enough\\ iodine\\,\\ thyroid\\ gland\\ increase\\ to\\ make\\ more\\ thyroid\\,\\ creating\\ goiters\\ \\(cretinism\\ can\\ occur\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Stymies\\ development\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Develops\\ tadpoles\\ entirely\\ into\\ frogs\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thyroid\\ stimulating\\ hormone\\ \\(TSH\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ pituitary\\ gland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thyroid\\ Releasing\\ Hormone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothalamus\\ sends\\ this\\ to\\ to\\ the\\ pituitary\\ to\\ send\\ TSH\\.\\ \\ \\;Comes\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ the\\ huddling\\ gene\\ work\\ with\\ vasopressin\\?\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;junk\\ DNA\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ neurotransmitters\\ enter\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ligand\\-gated\\ ion\\ channels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\-Protein\\ Coupled\\ Receptors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ nuclear\\ hormone\\ receptors\\ and\\ G\\-Protein\\ Coupled\\ Receptors\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nuclear\\ hormone\\ receptors\\ \\#\\ \\~\\ 50\\ and\\ are\\ intracellular\\ and\\ bind\\ to\\ steroid\\ and\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\ that\\ have\\ already\\ passed\\ through\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\GPCRs\\ \\#\\ \\~1\\,000\\ and\\ are\\ cell\\ surface\\ receptors\\ that\\ bind\\ to\\ adrenaline\\,\\ noradrenaline\\,\\ oxytocin\\,\\ and\\ vasopressin\\.\\ \\ \\;\\½\\;\\ of\\ all\\ drugs\\ target\\ GPCRs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ adrenaline\\/oxytocin\\/vasopressin\\ affect\\ a\\ cell\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ bind\\ to\\ cell\\ surface\\ GPCRs\\ that\\ send\\ a\\ message\\ into\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ regulate\\ DNA\\ expression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ steroids\\/thyroid\\ hormone\\ affect\\ a\\ cell\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ passes\\ through\\ a\\ cell\\ membrane\\ on\\ its\\ own\\,\\ binds\\ to\\ an\\ intracellular\\ receptor\\ and\\ then\\ regulates\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ DNA\\ in\\ the\\ nucleus\\,\\ usually\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ new\\ protein\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ key\\ points\\ of\\ adrenaline\\ biosynthesis\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ readily\\ available\\ amino\\ acid\\:\\ \\ \\;tyrosine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;step\\ is\\ slow\\ b\\/c\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ pathway\\ and\\ tightly\\ regulated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adrenaline\\ and\\ noradrenaline\\ are\\ chiral\\.\\ \\ \\;Amino\\ groups\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ charge\\,\\ so\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ very\\ water\\ soluble\\ \\(they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ polar\\ molecules\\,\\ which\\ is\\ good\\ in\\ water\\)\\,\\ not\\ soluble\\ in\\ the\\ fatty\\ lipid\\ bilayers\\ of\\ cells\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ an\\ amino\\ group\\ and\\ a\\ carboxyl\\ group\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amino\\ groups\\ are\\ NH3\\,\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ charge\\.\\ \\ \\;Carboxy\\ groups\\ are\\ CO2\\,\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ negative\\ charge\\.\\ \\ \\;Amino\\ groups\\ give\\ off\\ a\\ H\\ while\\ a\\ carboxyl\\ takes\\ an\\ H\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amide\\ bonds\\ are\\ dipeptide\\ bonds\\ consisting\\ of\\ an\\ amino\\ \\+\\ a\\ carboxyl\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ can\\ easily\\ add\\ and\\ subtract\\ peptides\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ ends\\ of\\ amides\\,\\ you\\ always\\ have\\ an\\ amino\\ and\\ a\\ carboxyl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ can\\ Thyroid\\ hormone\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\so\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\many\\ different\\ effects\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ receptors\\ for\\ it\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ have\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ effects\\ in\\ different\\ cells\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ can\\ breast\\ cancer\\ be\\ treated\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Estrogen\\ antagonists\\ \\(tamoxifen\\)\\ and\\/or\\ aromatase\\ inhibitors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ testosterone\\ converts\\ into\\ estradiol\\ thanks\\ to\\ the\\ protein\\ aromatase\\.\\ \\ \\;Inhibiting\\ aromatase\\ thus\\ lowers\\ estradiol\\ levels\\ and\\ helps\\ breast\\ cancers\\ that\\ are\\ dependent\\ on\\ estradiol\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ birth\\ control\\ and\\ the\\ morning\\ after\\ pill\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Birth\\ control\\ mimics\\ pregnant\\ conditions\\ in\\ an\\ unpregnant\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ progesterone\\ agonist\\,\\ which\\ binds\\ with\\ progesterone\\ receptors\\ and\\ tricks\\ the\\ body\\ into\\ thinking\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pregnant\\.\\ \\ \\;progesterone\\ prevents\\ a\\ pregnant\\ body\\ from\\ getting\\ pregnant\\ again\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ morning\\-after\\ pill\\ convinces\\ a\\ potentially\\ pregnant\\ body\\ that\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pregnant\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ progesterone\\ inhibitor\\.\\ \\ \\;Progesterone\\ is\\ needed\\ in\\ a\\ pregnant\\ body\\ to\\ promote\\ gestation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ 2\\ kinds\\ of\\ problems\\ in\\ sexual\\ development\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ in\\ biosynthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Male\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ produce\\ 5AR\\ which\\ synthesizes\\ testosterone\\ into\\ dihydrotestosterone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\CAH\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ congenital\\ adrenal\\ hyperplasia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adrenal\\ gland\\ produces\\ too\\ little\\ of\\ one\\ hormone\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ excess\\ secretion\\ of\\ androgens\\.\\ XX\\ females\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\males\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ with\\ the\\ receptor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Androgen\\ insensitivity\\ syndromes\\ \\(AIS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ androgen\\ receptors\\&hellip\\;XY\\ males\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;females\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ Central\\ Dogma\\ and\\ Dynamic\\ Information\\ Flow\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Central\\ Dogma\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\heritable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\information\\ flow\\,\\ whereas\\ dynamic\\ information\\ flow\\ deals\\ with\\ information\\ flow\\ that\\ keeps\\ living\\ systems\\ alive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ physical\\ science\\ and\\ a\\ biological\\ science\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ physical\\ science\\ deals\\ with\\ objects\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ throughout\\ the\\ universe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ biological\\ science\\ deals\\ with\\ objects\\ that\\ have\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ history\\ and\\ differ\\ because\\ of\\ that\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Evolution\\ involves\\ rounds\\ of\\ mutation\\,\\ selection\\,\\ and\\ amplification\\ without\\ a\\ plan\\ or\\ fixed\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ an\\ element\\ and\\ a\\ compound\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ element\\ cannot\\ be\\ broken\\ down\\ by\\ further\\ chemical\\ means\\,\\ whereas\\ a\\ compound\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ fixed\\ ratio\\ of\\ elements\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ when\\ Carbon\\ bonds\\ to\\ 4\\ H\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ does\\ the\\ molecule\\ form\\ a\\ tetrahedron\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ a\\ square\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ first\\ discovered\\ because\\ only\\ one\\ isomer\\ of\\ CH4\\ exists\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ there\\ were\\ 2\\,\\ CH4\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ square\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ one\\ isomer\\,\\ so\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ tetrahedron\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ this\\ shape\\ exists\\ is\\ to\\ keep\\ electrons\\ as\\ far\\ apart\\ from\\ each\\ other\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ square\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ 90\\ degrees\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;Tetrahedron\\:\\ \\ \\;109\\.5\\ degrees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trigonal\\ carbons\\,\\ with\\ a\\ double\\ bond\\,\\ flatten\\ out\\ into\\ triangles\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ major\\ factors\\ in\\ small\\ molecule\\ bonding\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shape\\ and\\ hydrogen\\ bonding\\.\\ \\ \\;Shape\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ fitting\\ like\\ puzzle\\ pieces\\.\\ \\ \\;Hydrogen\\ bonds\\ need\\ to\\ mimic\\ the\\ environment\\ of\\ water\\,\\ to\\ have\\ polar\\ groups\\,\\ that\\ dissolve\\ in\\ water\\ by\\ bonding\\ to\\ Hydrogens\\ in\\ H2O\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ necessary\\ in\\ receptors\\ for\\ bonding\\/binding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ DNA\\ replication\\ is\\ all\\ about\\:\\ \\ \\;shape\\ complementarity\\ and\\ H\\ bonding\\.\\ \\ \\;DNA\\ replication\\ revolves\\ around\\ 2\\ shapes\\,\\ big\\ and\\ small\\,\\ but\\ 4\\ types\\ of\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ \\;Shape\\ complementarity\\ coordinates\\ big\\-small\\ matchups\\,\\ and\\ hydrogen\\ bonding\\ coordinates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\small\\ bonds\\ with\\ which\\ big\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ life\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Earth\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ hugely\\ inhospitable\\ environment\\,\\ in\\ which\\ even\\ DNA\\,\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ universal\\ holder\\ of\\ heritable\\ information\\,\\ could\\ not\\ survive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Richard\\ Dawkins\\ wrote\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Selfish\\ Gene\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ introduced\\ the\\ concepts\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;replicators\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(DNA\\)\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;survival\\ machines\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(cell\\ structures\\ that\\ hold\\ DNA\\)\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ selfish\\ genes\\,\\ which\\ said\\ that\\ natural\\ selection\\ took\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\ which\\ selfishly\\ cared\\ only\\ about\\ its\\ own\\ replication\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ earliest\\ selection\\ was\\ simply\\ a\\ selection\\ of\\ stable\\ forms\\ of\\ molecules\\ and\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ unstable\\ ones\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Survival\\ of\\ the\\ Stable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Formaldehyde\\ \\(CH2O\\)\\ and\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hydrogen\\ cyanide\\,\\ HCN\\,\\ yielded\\ adenine\\ \\(pentamer\\ of\\ Hydrogen\\ cyanide\\)\\ C5H5N5\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;prebiotic\\ chemistry\\&rdquo\\;\\ reactions\\.\\ \\ \\;Adenine\\ \\=\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\ letters\\ of\\ DNA\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prebiotic\\ chemistry\\ reactions\\ caused\\ Formaldehyde\\ to\\ keep\\ yielding\\ glucose\\ \\(hexomer\\ of\\ formaldehyde\\)\\ and\\ ribose\\ \\(pentamer\\ of\\ formaldehyde\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adenine\\ \\+\\ ribose\\ \\=\\ ATP\\,\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ incorporated\\ into\\ RNA\\ and\\ DNA\\,\\ and\\ the\\ universal\\ energy\\ source\\ of\\ all\\ living\\ systems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fatty\\ acids\\ formed\\ under\\ prebiotic\\ conditions\\ in\\ geysers\\ in\\ reaction\\ to\\ carbon\\ monoxide\\ and\\ formed\\ the\\ first\\ survival\\ machines\\ for\\ replicators\\.\\ \\ \\;Geyser\\ eruptions\\ spewed\\ out\\ the\\ fatty\\ acids\\ that\\ love\\ to\\ absorb\\ ATP\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ polar\\ side\\ of\\ ATP\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ hydrophibc\\ exterior\\ of\\ the\\ fatty\\ acids\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ hydrolipid\\ parts\\ that\\ move\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ interior\\ of\\ the\\ survival\\ machine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Single\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\-off\\&rdquo\\;\\ phenomena\\ in\\ earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 6\\ billion\\ year\\ history\\ enabled\\ the\\ transitions\\ from\\ molecules\\,\\ to\\ cells\\,\\ to\\ multicelluar\\ organisms\\ \\(emergence\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ nucleus\\?\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ social\\,\\ ethical\\,\\ and\\ clinical\\ issues\\ concerning\\ personal\\ genomes\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;facebook\\-like\\&rdquo\\;\\ services\\ centered\\ on\\ our\\ genomes\\,\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/23andme\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowing\\ genetic\\ risks\\ and\\ disease\\ predispositions\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ fatalism\\ and\\ reduced\\ compliance\\ with\\ healthy\\ choices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Information\\ could\\ affect\\ ability\\ to\\ obtain\\ health\\ insurance\\ and\\ employment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;worried\\ well\\&rdquo\\;\\ might\\ seek\\ endless\\ testing\\,\\ burdening\\ the\\ health\\ care\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cool\\ Facts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\50\\%\\ of\\ our\\ genome\\ is\\ converted\\ into\\ RNA\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genes\\ comprise\\ only\\ 1\\.5\\%\\ of\\ our\\ genomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\50\\%\\ of\\ our\\ genomes\\ come\\ from\\ ancient\\ viruses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\5a\\-reductase\\ inhibitors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Finasteride\\ \\=\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ to\\ treat\\ benign\\ prostate\\ hyperplasia\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ male\\ pattern\\ baldness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anabolic\\ steroids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muscle\\-building\\ testosterone\\ receptor\\ agonists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Archibal\\ Garrod\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1875\\-1900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Studied\\ patients\\ whose\\ parents\\ were\\ cousins\\.\\ \\ \\;Studied\\ patterns\\ of\\ inheritance\\,\\ and\\ surmised\\ that\\ genes\\ coded\\ for\\ protein\\ enzyme\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\August\\ Kekule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\German\\ chemist\\ who\\ realized\\ the\\ differenced\\ between\\ compounds\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ formulas\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ atoms\\ were\\ connected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basal\\ Metabolic\\ Rate\\ \\(BMR\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amount\\ of\\ energy\\ you\\ expend\\ doing\\ nothing\\.\\ \\ \\;Thyroid\\ hormone\\ can\\ double\\ or\\ cut\\ in\\ half\\ your\\ BMR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Central\\ Dogma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universal\\ flow\\ of\\ heritable\\ information\\ in\\ living\\ systems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DNA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;RNA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Proteins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cholesterol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structural\\ small\\ molecule\\ from\\ which\\ sex\\ steroids\\ are\\ synthesized\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essential\\ \\&ldquo\\;floppy\\&rdquo\\;\\ component\\ of\\ every\\ human\\ cell\\ membrane\\,\\ balanced\\ by\\ the\\ rigidity\\ of\\ stiffer\\ steroids\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ available\\ to\\ synthesize\\ a\\ molecule\\ from\\ and\\ thus\\ send\\ a\\ message\\ with\\ that\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DNA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Replicators\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ \\;Basis\\ of\\ heritable\\ information\\ in\\ our\\ genomes\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ replication\\ is\\ fuled\\ by\\ the\\ pre\\-biotic\\ small\\ molecule\\ ATP\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dynamic\\ Information\\ Flow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Un\\-heritable\\ information\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ central\\ to\\ keeping\\ living\\ systems\\ going\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Enantiomers\\ \\(mirror\\-image\\ molecules\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ molecules\\,\\ same\\ formula\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ connectivity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Then\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ isomers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Then\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ Stereoisomers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mirror\\ images\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maybe\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\enantiomers\\ \\(chiral\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Estradiol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Far\\ more\\ effective\\ sex\\ steroid\\ at\\ activating\\ male\\ sexual\\ behavioral\\ development\\ than\\ is\\ testosterone\\.\\ \\ \\;Testosterone\\ actually\\ converts\\ into\\ estradiol\\ in\\ the\\ males\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Females\\ make\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ binds\\ estradiol\\ and\\ prevents\\ it\\ from\\ wiring\\ the\\ brain\\ as\\ a\\ sexually\\-behaving\\ male\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Complete\\ collection\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ genetics\\ in\\ an\\ organism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genomics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Combination\\ of\\ molecular\\ biology\\ and\\ information\\ science\\,\\ making\\ biology\\ into\\ information\\,\\ such\\ that\\ today\\ we\\ sequence\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genome\\ every\\ few\\ days\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ took\\ 14\\ years\\ to\\ sequence\\ the\\ first\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gregor\\ Mendel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1865\\ published\\ report\\ about\\ pea\\ plant\\ breeding\\.\\ \\ \\;Disproved\\ genetic\\ \\&ldquo\\;blending\\ theory\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ said\\ each\\ species\\ had\\ 2\\ units\\ of\\ heredity\\,\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ more\\ dominant\\,\\ and\\ only\\ one\\ would\\ be\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ Genome\\ Sequence\\ \\(many\\ have\\ come\\ about\\ since\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reference\\ sequence\\ of\\ DNA\\ constructed\\ by\\ several\\ companies\\ contracted\\ to\\ purify\\ DNA\\ of\\ 30\\ donors\\.\\ \\ \\;65\\%\\ comes\\ from\\ an\\ African\\ American\\ guy\\,\\ 30\\%\\ from\\ some\\ woman\\,\\ and\\ little\\ pieces\\ from\\ everyone\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ mosaic\\ of\\ the\\ parental\\ chromosomes\\ of\\ all\\ 30\\ participants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hyperthyroidism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Excessively\\ high\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ levels\\ lead\\ to\\ high\\ heart\\ rates\\ and\\ bugged\\-out\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;Treated\\ with\\ inhibitor\\ of\\ enzyme\\ that\\ carries\\ out\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ synthesis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ beta\\ receptor\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ good\\ effects\\ \\(losing\\ weight\\,\\ lowering\\ cholesterol\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Drugs\\ are\\ being\\ searched\\ for\\ that\\ will\\ activate\\ the\\ beta\\ receptor\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ alpha\\ receptor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ alpha\\ receptor\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ bad\\ effects\\ \\(speeding\\ up\\ heart\\ rate\\,\\ muscle\\ loss\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neurotransmission\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 3\\ Main\\ Parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biosynthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inactivation\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;destruction\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inactivating\\ enzymes\\ prevent\\ neurotransmitters\\ from\\ leaving\\ one\\ synapse\\ and\\ entering\\ another\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recycling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neurotransmitters\\ get\\ taken\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ synapse\\ and\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ presynaptic\\ cell\\,\\ to\\ be\\ repackaged\\ for\\ re\\-release\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cocaine\\ physically\\ blocks\\ the\\ re\\-uptake\\ ducts\\ in\\ the\\ presynaptic\\ cell\\,\\ thus\\ keeping\\ serotonin\\,\\ dopamine\\,\\ and\\ other\\ chemicals\\ in\\ the\\ synapses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neurotransmitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ hormone\\,\\ communicates\\ over\\ synapse\\ between\\ a\\ sending\\ cell\\ and\\ a\\ receiving\\ cell\\ by\\ binding\\ to\\ a\\ GPCR\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pituitary\\ gland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sends\\ thyroid\\ stimulating\\ hormone\\ \\(TSH\\)\\ to\\ the\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\.\\ \\ \\;T4\\ Feedback\\ loop\\ tells\\ this\\ gland\\ to\\ stop\\ producing\\ TSH\\.\\ \\ \\;Goiters\\ are\\ produced\\ when\\ a\\ thyroid\\ gland\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ produce\\ T4\\,\\ which\\ prevents\\ the\\ T4\\ feedback\\ loop\\ from\\ telling\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\ to\\ stop\\ sending\\ TSH\\ to\\ the\\ thyroid\\ gland\\.\\ \\ \\;Endless\\ TSH\\ leads\\ to\\ huge\\ thyroid\\ glands\\ \\(goiters\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PKU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disease\\ caused\\ by\\ genetic\\ mutation\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ buildup\\ of\\ enzyme\\ Phenalalyline\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ mental\\ retardation\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ PKU\\ testing\\ in\\ infancy\\ costs\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ penny\\ per\\ child\\,\\ and\\ staying\\ away\\ from\\ high\\ phenalalyline\\ diet\\ in\\ early\\ years\\ prevents\\ PKU\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ thanks\\ to\\ understanding\\ the\\ genome\\ sequence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Protein\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;bricks\\ and\\ mortars\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ molecules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retrograde\\ Signaling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Process\\ through\\ which\\ endocannabinoids\\ signal\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ \\;Endogenous\\ cannabinoid\\ ligands\\ flow\\ back\\ from\\ postsynaptic\\ cell\\ through\\ the\\ synapse\\ to\\ the\\ presynaptic\\ cell\\,\\ where\\ they\\ shut\\ down\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ certain\\ neurotransmitters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Endocannabinoids\\ down\\-regulate\\ inhibitory\\ signals\\ in\\ thinking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\RNA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ just\\ just\\ a\\ macromolecule\\ that\\ decodes\\ DNA\\ en\\ route\\ to\\ the\\ synthesis\\ of\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ also\\ realize\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ catalyst\\,\\ speeding\\ up\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reactions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plays\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ regulating\\ DNA\\ such\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ every\\ cell\\ in\\ your\\ body\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ DNA\\,\\ their\\ genes\\ are\\ differently\\ up\\-\\ and\\ down\\-regulated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Used\\ to\\ perform\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ DNA\\ and\\ proteins\\,\\ heritable\\ information\\ and\\ catalyzing\\ reactions\\.\\ \\ \\;Likely\\ eventually\\ learned\\ to\\ replace\\ an\\ OH\\ with\\ an\\ H\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ DNA\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ demise\\ in\\ this\\ role\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mRNA\\ mediates\\ the\\ process\\ through\\ which\\ 3\\ strands\\ of\\ DNA\\ code\\ for\\ each\\ protein\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hormone\\ biosynethsis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dopamine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phenylalanine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(oxidized\\)\\ tyrosine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(oxidized\\)\\ dihydroxyphenylalanine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(decarboxylated\\)\\ dopamine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(oxidized\\)\\ noradrenaline\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(methylated\\)\\ adrenaline\\.\\ \\ \\;Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;common\\ amino\\ acid\\ converted\\ to\\ neurotransmitter\\ through\\ oxidation\\,\\ decarboxylation\\,\\ and\\ methylation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serotonin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trptyophan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(hydroxylated\\)\\ 5hydroxytryptophan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(decarboxylated\\)\\ 5\\-hydroxytryptamine\\ \\=\\ serotonin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Soups\\ vs\\.\\ Sparks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Debate\\ over\\ how\\ presynaptic\\ cells\\ communicated\\ with\\ post\\-synaptic\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\THC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\CB1\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ abundant\\ receptors\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ is\\ its\\ GPCR\\ and\\ was\\ found\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ knowledge\\ that\\ pot\\ affected\\ us\\ through\\ cannabinoids\\,\\ and\\ that\\ cannabinoids\\ had\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ a\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Endogenous\\ cannabinoid\\ binds\\ to\\ CB1\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ knew\\ it\\ had\\ to\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ once\\ we\\ knew\\ CB1\\ existed\\ in\\ our\\ brains\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thyroid\\ Gland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Makes\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\,\\ the\\ primary\\ metabolic\\ hormone\\ regulator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tyrosine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ amino\\ acid\\ from\\ which\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ and\\ adrenaline\\ are\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;Too\\ polar\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ cell\\ membranes\\,\\ it\\ keeps\\ hormones\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inside\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cells\\,\\ but\\ makes\\ them\\ harder\\ to\\ access\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thyroxine\\ solves\\ its\\ hydrophobicity\\ problem\\ by\\ taking\\ on\\ either\\ an\\ amino\\ group\\ or\\ a\\ carboxyl\\ group\\ \\(\\?\\?\\?\\)\\,\\ adding\\ an\\ iodine\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ making\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ molecule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iodine\\ is\\ a\\ relatively\\ rare\\ element\\,\\ available\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ sea\\ and\\ certain\\ minerals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ is\\ a\\ review\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ said\\ in\\ class\\ on\\ the\\ different\\ stages\\ of\\ sex\\:\\ \\ \\;CAIS\\ has\\ male\\ for\\ everything\\ except\\ morphological\\ \\(I\\ may\\ have\\ mis\\ stated\\ this\\ in\\ review\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chromosomal\\ Sex\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ XX\\ or\\ XY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gonadal\\ Sex\\ \\ \\;\\-\\-\\ XY\\ forms\\ male\\ gonads\\ \\(testes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hormonal\\ Sex\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ testes\\ make\\ DHT\\,\\ AMH\\,\\ and\\ Testosterone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morphological\\ \\&ndash\\;Forms\\ depend\\ upon\\ the\\ hormones\\ to\\ develop\\ and\\ determine\\ male\\ or\\ female\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pseudohermaphroditism\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ prenatal\\ DHT\\ that\\ is\\ compensated\\ for\\ with\\ the\\ influx\\ of\\ more\\ testosterone\\ and\\ male\\ hormones\\ that\\ happens\\ at\\ puberty\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ genetic\\ disorder\\ which\\ is\\ all\\ that\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ know\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remanabont\\ is\\ a\\ cannabinoid\\ antagonist\\.\\ \\ \\;Marijuana\\ causes\\ munchies\\ when\\ it\\ activates\\ the\\ canabinoid\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ \\;Remanabont\\ stops\\ that\\ munchie\\ behavior\\ an\\ thus\\ curbs\\ eating\\ by\\ antagonizing\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ activate\\ the\\ canabinoid\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ aversive\\ memories\\ are\\ abolished\\ by\\ the\\ retrograde\\ signaling\\ in\\ cannabinoids\\ and\\ either\\ without\\ cannabinoid\\ receptors\\ as\\ in\\ a\\ knockout\\ experiment\\ or\\ with\\ a\\ cannabinoid\\ antagonist\\ the\\ aversive\\ memories\\ do\\ not\\ fade\\ as\\ fast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ will\\ explain\\ the\\ diastereomers\\ and\\ enantiomers\\ next\\ week\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ it\\ tomorrow\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ luck\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ identify\\/draw\\ chiral\\ molecules\\:\\Wikipedia\\ actually\\ has\\ a\\ pretty\\ good\\ explanation\\ of\\ chirality\\:\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Chirality\\_\\(chemistry\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\I\\ haven\\&\\#39\\;t\\ had\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ look\\ over\\ the\\ page\\ in\\ detail\\,\\ but\\ the\\ basic\\points\\ are\\ there\\ \\(and\\ you\\ can\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ 3D\\ rendering\\ in\\ the\\right\\ hand\\ panel\\.\\)\\ Ideally\\ you\\ should\\ use\\ your\\ molecular\\ modeling\\kits\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ enantiomers\\ look\\ in\\ three\\ dimensions\\.\\ The\\ more\\ you\\practice\\ drawing\\ these\\ molecules\\,\\ the\\ easier\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ to\\ identify\\them\\.\\\\2\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ neurotransmitter\\ and\\ a\\ hormone\\?\\\\(Is\\ there\\ a\\ structural\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\?\\)\\\\A\\:\\ Basically\\ the\\ difference\\ is\\ semantic\\ and\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ the\\molecule\\ is\\ released\\.\\ Hormones\\ are\\ produced\\ by\\ an\\ endocrine\\ gland\\,\\released\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\ and\\ will\\ have\\ target\\ cells\\ some\\distance\\ away\\.\\ Neurotransmitters\\ are\\ released\\ from\\ the\\ nerve\\ terminal\\in\\ response\\ to\\ an\\ electrical\\ signal\\ and\\ have\\ target\\ cells\\ immediately\\adjacent\\ \\(at\\ the\\ synapse\\.\\)\\ The\\ neurotransmitter\\ mode\\ of\\ transmission\\is\\ generally\\ faster\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ endocrine\\ transmission\\.\\ Both\\hormones\\ and\\ neurotransmitters\\ target\\ cells\\ with\\ receptors\\ and\\ may\\even\\ produce\\ similar\\ biochemical\\ responses\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\release\\ mechanism\\.\\\\Good\\ luck\\ with\\ the\\ studying\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ your\\ classmates\\ had\\ the\\ following\\ questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Q\\:\\ What\\ did\\ Stu\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ compared\\ human\\ and\\ mouse\\ said\\ that\\ our\\ genomes\\ are\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;books\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;chapters\\&rdquo\\;\\ shuffled\\ around\\?\\ What\\ do\\ we\\ mean\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;percent\\ identity\\&rsquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\:\\ Homology\\ between\\ DNA\\ sequences\\ is\\ based\\ upon\\ sequence\\ similarity\\.\\ To\\ say\\ that\\ two\\ genes\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;homologous\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ base\\ pair\\ sequences\\ \\(AT\\/GC\\)\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ \\(with\\ regions\\ of\\ identical\\ base\\ pairing\\.\\)\\ Percent\\ identity\\ simply\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ base\\ pairs\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ between\\ two\\ genes\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ quantifying\\ the\\ similarity\\ or\\ differences\\ between\\ two\\ genes\\.\\ \\(L5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Percent\\ identity\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ extended\\ to\\ describe\\ how\\ similar\\ \\(or\\ different\\)\\ entire\\ genomes\\ are\\ from\\ one\\ another\\.\\ To\\ say\\ that\\ humans\\ share\\ 89\\%\\ genome\\ identity\\ \\(or\\ similarity\\)\\ with\\ baboons\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ 89\\%\\ of\\ our\\ DNA\\ base\\ pair\\ sequence\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ baboon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Things\\ get\\ complicated\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ comparing\\ across\\ species\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ factors\\,\\ chunks\\ of\\ the\\ genome\\ might\\ get\\ switched\\ around\\ during\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ process\\.\\ Recall\\ how\\ homologous\\ chromosomes\\ can\\ interchange\\ large\\ portions\\ of\\ their\\ DNA\\ during\\ cell\\ replication\\.\\ If\\ chunks\\ of\\ the\\ genome\\ get\\ moved\\ around\\ then\\ you\\ cannot\\ compare\\ the\\ genomes\\ of\\ two\\ species\\ simply\\ by\\ lining\\ up\\ the\\ chromosomal\\ DNA\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ humans\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ region\\ of\\ DNA\\ that\\ is\\ highly\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ region\\ of\\ DNA\\ in\\ mouse\\,\\ except\\ these\\ portions\\ of\\ DNA\\ could\\ be\\ located\\ on\\ different\\ chromosomes\\.\\ These\\ \\&lsquo\\;chunks\\&rsquo\\;\\ are\\ what\\ Stu\\ refers\\ to\\ as\\ \\&lsquo\\;chapters\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Q\\:\\ In\\ the\\ diagram\\ of\\ the\\ testosterone\\-binding\\ pocket\\ in\\ Lecture\\ 3\\,\\ is\\ the\\ red\\ particle\\ a\\ donor\\ as\\ well\\ \\(is\\ it\\ an\\ O\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\:\\ Not\\ sure\\ exactly\\ which\\ oxygen\\ you\\ are\\ talking\\ about\\ here\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ oxygens\\ on\\ testosterone\\.\\ The\\ double\\ bonded\\ oxygen\\ probably\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interact\\ with\\ hydrogen\\ ions\\.\\ The\\ \\&ndash\\;OH\\ group\\ could\\ potentially\\ donate\\ a\\ hydrogen\\.\\ In\\ general\\,\\ atoms\\ are\\ color\\ coded\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carbon\\ \\=\\ black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hydrogen\\ \\=\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oxygen\\ \\=\\ red\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nitrogen\\ \\=\\ blue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Q\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ How\\ can\\ you\\ compare\\ how\\ hydrophobic\\ vs\\.\\ hydrophilic\\ a\\ molecule\\ is\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Homework\\ 1\\,\\ last\\ question\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\:\\ In\\ assessing\\ a\\ molecule\\ you\\ could\\ look\\ at\\ two\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ presence\\/number\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;polar\\&rsquo\\;\\ groups\\ such\\ as\\ NH\\,\\ COOH\\ and\\ OH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ molecule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Molecules\\ with\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ NH\\,\\ COOH\\ and\\ OH\\ \\(hydrogen\\ acceptors\\ and\\ donors\\)\\ will\\ probably\\ make\\ the\\ molecule\\ very\\ polar\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ molecule\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ slight\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\ charge\\ on\\ either\\ end\\ \\(see\\ water\\ as\\ an\\ example\\.\\)\\ Polar\\ molecules\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ water\\-soluble\\ or\\ hydrophilic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ shape\\,\\ a\\ long\\ carbon\\ chain\\ will\\ make\\ a\\ molecule\\ very\\ hydrophobic\\ \\(think\\ of\\ the\\ long\\ hydrophobic\\ tails\\ on\\ a\\ phospholipids\\ that\\ forms\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\)\\ This\\ feature\\ might\\ trump\\ hydrophilic\\ characteristics\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ amine\\ or\\ carboxyl\\ groups\\,\\ NH\\ and\\ COOH\\,\\ respectively\\.\\ Large\\ atoms\\ such\\ as\\ iodine\\ or\\ groups\\ such\\ as\\ CH3\\ \\(methyl\\ group\\)\\ will\\ also\\ increase\\ hydrophobicity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 43, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Sci_B47_-_Midterm_1_Notes.doc", "desc": "Midterm 1 Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Art and Modernity - Notes 3", "tags": ["harvard", "american-art", "modernity"], "text": null, "id": 58, "html": "\\\\\\HAA172w\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_3\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c22\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c11\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c21\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\;WAR\\,\\ MEMORY\\,\\ AND\\ THE\\ UNREPRESENTABLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\:\\ \\ \\;RECONSTRUCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\:\\ \\ \\;RETHINKING\\ THE\\ REAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ GILDED\\ AGE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\:\\ \\ \\;FORMS\\ OF\\ EXTINCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\:\\ \\ \\;FLASH\\ AND\\ FLICKER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\:\\ \\ \\;URBAN\\ SPECTACLES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ RISE\\ OF\\ THE\\ MACHINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;EXILES\\ AND\\ COSMOPLITANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\:\\ \\ \\;ACTION\\ \\/\\ ABSTRACTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;CHANCE\\ OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 24\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fifties\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ I\\ \\(Painting\\ after\\ Abstract\\ Expressionism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\AEs\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ receive\\ approval\\ o\\ mainstream\\ culture\\ that\\ artists\\ have\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ until\\ later\\ in\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ as\\ widely\\ loved\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ there\\ wrk\\ was\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ already\\ beginning\\ 2b\\ incorporated\\ in2\\ design\\ n\\ advertisements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jackson\\ Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autumn\\ Rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cecil\\ Beaton\\,\\ Fashion\\ photograph\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ March\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ mid\\ 50s\\,\\ AE\\ being\\ appropriated\\ by\\ US\\ govt\\,\\ used\\ as\\ foreign\\ policy\\ tour\\,\\ as\\ symbol\\ o\\ US\\ freedom\\ n\\ openness\\.\\ \\ \\;Toured\\ throughout\\ EU\\ in\\ 50s\\,\\ used\\ during\\ Cold\\ War\\ as\\ foreign\\ policy\\ tool\\ 2show\\ US\\ artists\\ were\\ able\\ 2express\\ themselves\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ they\\ liked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\ seen\\ as\\ symbol\\ o\\ freedom\\ rather\\ than\\ necessarily\\ an\\ enactment\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ acceptance\\ n\\ appreciation\\ \\=\\ serious\\ problem\\ 4form\\ o\\ art\\ making\\ that\\ depended\\ on\\ uncorrupted\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\ defined\\ itself\\ as\\ being\\ outside\\ explicit\\ policical\\ ideologies\\,\\ outside\\ commercial\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2have\\ this\\ photo\\ in\\ Vogue\\ was\\ sort\\ o\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AEs\\ began\\ 2have\\ 2much\\ success\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ artists\\ began\\ 2\\ \\(gasp\\!\\)\\ make\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\ died\\ in\\ 1957\\ car\\ crash\\ but\\ his\\ pntgs\\ sold\\ really\\ well\\ soon\\ after\\ his\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\ artists\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ claim\\ 2b\\ struggling\\ financially\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ started\\ tossing\\ aside\\ old\\ methods\\ n\\ using\\ AE\\ tactics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\ began\\ 2b\\ seen\\ as\\ academic\\,\\ n\\ thus\\,\\ stale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yard\\ after\\ yard\\ o\\ AE\\ begins\\ showing\\ up\\ in\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;Problematic\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ whole\\ pnt\\ o\\ AE\\ is\\ 2b\\ the\\ outsider\\ art\\ struggling\\ against\\ adversity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\ highly\\ linked\\ 2doctrine\\ o\\ spontanaeity\\,\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ pnts\\ one\\ can\\ identify\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ critics\\ wrkng\\ in\\ 1950s\\ have\\ some\\ tale\\ o\\ some\\ moment\\ at\\ which\\ they\\ realized\\ the\\ heyday\\ o\\ AE\\ was\\ over\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ moment\\:\\ \\ \\;Sandler\\,\\ a\\ critic\\,\\ in\\ 1958\\,\\ was\\ hanging\\ out\\ w\\ other\\ artists\\ n\\,\\ remembering\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;yet\\ another\\ artist\\ got\\ up\\,\\ struck\\ anguished\\ pose\\,\\ then\\ said\\,\\ when\\ I\\ pnt\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ doing\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;someone\\ in\\ the\\ crowd\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;after\\ 20\\ years\\?\\?\\!\\?\\!\\?\\!\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;he\\ was\\ made\\ a\\ fool\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ the\\ spontanaeity\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wear\\ well\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ an\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ deciding\\ what\\ 2do\\ w\\ ur\\ career\\,\\ what\\ do\\ u\\ do\\ next\\?\\ \\ \\;Where\\ do\\ u\\ go\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ 2get\\ out\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ stale\\ by\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2get\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ towering\\ shadow\\ o\\ Pollock\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hans\\ Namuth\\,\\ Photograph\\ of\\ Pollock\\ working\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artists\\ developed\\ certain\\ aspects\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ left\\ others\\ behind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ what\\ artists\\ did\\ n\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ o\\ the\\ towering\\ example\\ o\\ AE\\ w\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ all\\ struggling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ around\\ 1955\\ we\\ see\\ watershed\\ o\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ main\\ paths\\ begin\\ 2\\ b\\ traced\\.\\ \\ \\;Inheritance\\ o\\ AE\\ opening\\ up\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ bw\\ the\\ 2\\ articles\\ o\\ Clement\\ Greeberg\\ n\\ Harold\\ Rosenberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdgs\\ o\\ AE\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ era\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Full\\ Fathom\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1947\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ about\\ totally\\ different\\ lessons\\ Greenberg\\ n\\ Rosenerg\\ drew\\ form\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Both\\ ahd\\ valid\\,\\ but\\ incomplete\\ interpretations\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ opened\\ up\\ a\\ path\\ 4following\\ AE\\ 4later\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\:\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ he\\ moved\\ pntg\\ along\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;drive\\ to\\ flatness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ G\\ saw\\ in\\ Pollock\\:\\ \\ \\;interested\\ in\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ non\\-bounding\\ line\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ last\\ wk\\,\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ nonbounding\\ lines\\ adheres\\ 2the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\ instead\\ o\\ creating\\ bodies\\ n\\ contours\\ n\\ depths\\ that\\ supposedly\\ exist\\ behindthe\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ ptng\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ Pollock\\ has\\ distributed\\ the\\ marks\\ evenly\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ across\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntgs\\,\\ so\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ any\\ single\\ focus\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\ n\\ thereby\\ set\\ up\\ notions\\ o\\ hierarchy\\ n\\ notions\\ o\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\ likes\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\-overness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Frequently\\ used\\ term\\ 2describe\\ the\\ composition\\ o\\ AE\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ entire\\ pntgs\\ has\\ even\\ distribution\\ o\\ forms\\,\\ which\\ also\\ helps\\ create\\ the\\ impression\\ o\\ flatness\\ that\\ G\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ all\\ helps\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ seem\\ flat\\,\\ n\\ this\\,\\ this\\ flatness\\,\\ 4\\ G\\,\\ brings\\ pntg\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ o\\ its\\ ultimate\\ purity\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ flat\\ pntg\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ getting\\ mixed\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ arts\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ medium\\ specificity\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ ea\\ art\\ has\\ 2become\\ \\&ldquo\\;entrenched\\ in\\ its\\ area\\ o\\ competence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;G\\ interested\\ in\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rejection\\ o\\ tactility\\,\\ narrative\\ \\(2close\\ 2gtheater\\)\\,\\ 3\\-dimensionality\\ \\(2close\\ 2sculpture\\)\\,\\ the\\ essence\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ a\\ flat\\ plane\\,\\ n\\ great\\ modern\\ pntg\\ has\\ 2proclaim\\ n\\ develop\\ its\\ essence\\ as\\ a\\ flat\\ plane\\.\\ \\ \\;4G\\,\\ P\\ leads\\ the\\ way\\ 2the\\ absolute\\ refinement\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ there\\ is\\ depth\\ suggested\\ here\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ purely\\ optical\\ depth\\,\\ one\\ u\\ can\\ only\\ traverse\\ w\\ ur\\ eye\\ n\\ not\\ ur\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ G\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reading\\ o\\ Pollock\\ is\\ very\\ reductive\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ about\\ the\\ essence\\ o\\ pntg\\ n\\ avoiding\\ contamination\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ 3\\-D\\ space\\,\\ no\\ narrative\\,\\ just\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4G\\,\\ P\\ \\=\\ cog\\ in\\ great\\ wheel\\ o\\ progress\\ o\\ pntg\\ as\\ it\\ slowly\\ follows\\ its\\ drive\\ 2flatness\\ n\\ becomes\\ a\\ purely\\ flat\\ plane\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\ \\=\\ reductive\\ n\\ narrow\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ really\\ influential\\ 4pntrs\\ following\\ P\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ n\\ 60s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helen\\ Frankethaler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mountains\\ and\\ Sea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1952\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Color\\ field\\ pntrs\\ Frankenthaler\\ is\\ sometimes\\ called\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ worked\\ in\\ similar\\ way\\ 2P\\,\\ placed\\ her\\ unprimed\\ cnavases\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ wrkng\\ in\\ large\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\ had\\ different\\ approach\\ 2way\\ color\\ n\\ canvas\\ interacted\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ invented\\ new\\ process\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;soak\\ stain\\ technique\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ used\\ not\\ gloppy\\ viscous\\ house\\ pnt\\ that\\ P\\ did\\ but\\ very\\ thinned\\ down\\ oil\\ pnts\\ which\\ she\\&rsquo\\;d\\ pour\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ push\\ around\\ using\\ sponges\\,\\ in2\\ variuos\\ pools\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bc\\ pnt\\ \\=\\ very\\ thinned\\ down\\,\\ it\\ quickly\\ separated\\ in2\\ the\\ unprimed\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Turpentine\\ halo\\ around\\ the\\ bodies\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ mineral\\ pigments\\ have\\ remained\\ in\\ coherent\\ body\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ but\\ the\\ turpentine\\ separates\\ out\\ form\\ them\\,\\ creating\\ angelic\\ halo\\ behind\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ did\\ this\\ as\\ well\\,\\ but\\ F\\ took\\ that\\ aspect\\ o\\ the\\ pnt\\,\\ the\\ soaking\\ in2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ made\\ that\\ the\\ aspect\\ o\\ her\\ pntg\\ that\\ she\\ wanted\\ 2develop\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ color\\ \\=\\ totally\\ continuous\\ w\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\ in\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\,\\ so\\ no\\ longer\\ any\\ distinction\\ bw\\ canvas\\ n\\ pnt\\ in\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\ No\\ distinction\\ bw\\ \\&ldquo\\;medium\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;pnt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;canvas\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Canvas\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ support\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ becomes\\ the\\ home\\ o\\ the\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\ was\\ really\\ psyched\\ about\\ this\\ bc\\ P\\ also\\ had\\ amazingly\\ flat\\,\\ optical\\ color\\,\\ but\\ w\\ F\\,\\ color\\ becomes\\ almost\\ entirely\\ ethereal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\ said\\ about\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ more\\ closely\\ color\\ could\\ b\\ identified\\ w\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ the\\ freer\\ it\\ could\\ b\\ from\\ tactile\\ associations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morris\\ Lewis\\ \\=\\ pntr\\ in\\ Washington\\ DC\\.\\ \\ \\;Talked\\ about\\ having\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ wrkng\\ himself\\ out\\ from\\ under\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\ saw\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\,\\ he\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ bridge\\ bw\\ P\\ n\\ what\\ was\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ following\\ that\\ bridge\\,\\ he\\ made\\ images\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morris\\ Louis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Faces\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ way\\ 2do\\ anything\\ but\\ sit\\ in\\ stunned\\ silence\\ at\\ the\\ incredible\\ beauty\\ o\\ this\\ pnt\\.g\\ \\ \\;this\\ pntg\\ \\=\\ 11\\&rsquo\\;x7\\.5\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;huge\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lewis\\ moved\\ from\\ oil\\ pnts\\ 2acrylic\\,\\ changing\\ the\\ way\\ pnt\\ interacted\\ w\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ way\\ pnt\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ immediately\\ soak\\ in2\\ the\\ canvas\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ it\\ flooded\\ across\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ soak\\ in\\ as\\ quickly\\,\\ allowing\\ Morris\\ 2control\\ its\\ soaking\\ in2\\ the\\ canvas\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;Morris\\ would\\ tilt\\ it\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ flow\\ down\\,\\ so\\ u\\ get\\ this\\ river\\ like\\ motion\\ o\\ pnt\\ down\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Canvas\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flat\\ on\\ ground\\,\\ but\\ tilted\\ by\\ pntr\\ 2control\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\=\\ pnt\\ brush\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ \\(they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;veil\\ series\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ cover\\ lighter\\ colors\\ w\\ darker\\,\\ browner\\ colors\\,\\ n\\ u\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ birghtr\\ colors\\ peeking\\ out\\ from\\ the\\ veil\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ have\\ strong\\ architectural\\ structure\\ 2them\\,\\ wqhich\\ dreives\\ from\\ how\\ they\\ emerge\\ out\\ o\\ these\\ divided\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ lines\\ that\\ divided\\ it\\ in\\ half\\ r\\ marks\\ made\\ by\\ temporary\\ stretches\\ asttached\\ 2hte\\ back\\ o\\ the\\ ptgs\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ studio\\ \\=\\ 2small\\ 2make\\ pntgs\\ this\\ big\\,\\ so\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;he\\ did\\ the\\ left\\ side\\,\\ then\\ he\\ did\\ the\\ right\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ actual\\ size\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ studio\\ is\\ inscribed\\ in2\\ these\\ pntgs\\ in\\ an\\ interesting\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Louis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ 99\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ featured\\ multidirectional\\ pouring\\.\\ \\ \\;Tehse\\ pntgs\\ appear\\ as\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ expanding\\ outsward\\,\\ ut\\ they\\ were\\ produced\\ by\\ pouring\\ the\\ paint\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ toward\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Produced\\ an\\ optical\\ experience\\ ot\\ he\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ color\\ n\\ the\\ form\\ was\\ entirely\\ coterminous\\ w\\ the\\ flat\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ distinction\\ bw\\ medium\\ n\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ very\\ well\\ studied\\ in\\ thepast\\ 20\\/30\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\ has\\ been\\ out\\ o\\ favor\\ over\\ past\\ 30\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ he\\ championed\\ F\\ n\\ Louis\\,\\ their\\ wrk\\ has\\ fallen\\ out\\ o\\ favor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\ highly\\ recommends\\ looking\\ at\\ wrks\\ like\\ Louis\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ wrk\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ G\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reductive\\ reading\\ would\\ suggest\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ images\\ have\\ imptnt\\ connections\\ w\\ later\\ wrk\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\,\\ 70s\\,\\ w\\ environmental\\ art\\,\\ video\\ art\\,\\ that\\ r\\ only\\ now\\ being\\ discovered\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ we\\ move\\ from\\ color\\ field\\ pntg\\ 2\\ the\\ other\\ approach\\ 2AE\\,\\ the\\ other\\ path\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ Rosenberg\\ reading\\ parth\\ n\\ what\\ R\\ thought\\ was\\ imptnt\\ about\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ art\\ is\\ artificial\\ n\\ overgeneralized\\,\\ n\\ this\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ critical\\ apparatus\\ o\\ art\\ history\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Full\\ Fathom\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenberg\\ \\(Ro\\)\\ interested\\ that\\ P\\ creates\\ new\\ process\\ instead\\ o\\ final\\ otpical\\ product\\.\\ \\ \\;Interested\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ pntr\\ is\\ collaborating\\ w\\ the\\ materials\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sees\\ Pollock\\ expanding\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;painting\\ offers\\ its\\ hand\\ 2pantommime\\ n\\ dance\\.\\ \\ \\;Breaking\\ down\\ every\\ distinction\\ bw\\ art\\ n\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ leaves\\ the\\ door\\ open\\ 4cross\\ pollination\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\,\\ n\\ between\\ the\\ different\\ aveneues\\ o\\ art\\ that\\ G\\ was\\ so\\ interested\\ in\\ isolating\\.\\ \\ \\;Ro\\ intesterstesed\\ in\\ cross\\-pollination\\.\\ \\ \\;Interested\\ in\\ art\\ outside\\ the\\ frame\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ material\\ qualiteies\\ o\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ on\\ later\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\ in\\ his\\ rdg\\ is\\ interested\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ wrk\\ as\\ optical\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ on\\ the\\ inescapable\\ gloppy\\ materiality\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ that\\ it\\ includes\\ all\\ kinds\\ o\\ material\\ n\\ tactile\\ associations\\ on\\ its\\ very\\ surface\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ P\\ allows\\ 4a\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ o\\ something\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ receptive\\ surface\\,\\ almost\\ a\\ photographic\\ or\\ indexical\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ recedes\\ in2\\ the\\ activities\\ o\\ the\\ world\\ upon\\ it\\,\\ that\\ is\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ above\\ the\\ canvas\\ as\\ he\\ wrks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rest\\ o\\ our\\ class\\ will\\ follow\\ THIS\\ path\\ out\\ o\\ P\\:\\ \\ \\;inclusiveness\\,\\ corss\\-pollination\\ o\\ media\\,\\ 2see\\ what\\ artists\\ interested\\ in\\ TEHSE\\ aspects\\ o\\ AE\\ did\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ n\\ onward\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ra\\ noticed\\ quickly\\ about\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\,\\ seized\\ upon\\ it\\,\\ n\\ made\\ it\\ an\\ aspect\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ imptnce\\ o\\ the\\ canvasas\\ a\\ receptive\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\7\\ panel\\ version\\ done\\ in\\ 1951\\.\\ \\ \\;lets\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ pntg\\ as\\ a\\ recording\\ intsturment\\ might\\ be\\ developed\\ further\\ in\\ a\\ wrk\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ the\\ best\\,\\ purest\\ example\\ o\\ the\\ impurity\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ suggested\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ consists\\ o\\ 7\\ panels\\ joined\\ 2gether\\,\\ not\\ raw\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ pntd\\ ea\\ panel\\ w\\ white\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Experimenting\\ w\\ ideas\\ about\\ abstraction\\ n\\ receptivity\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ how\\ this\\ might\\ seem\\ 2b\\ the\\ ideal\\ pntg\\ 4G\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ pntg\\,\\ just\\ flat\\ surface\\!\\ \\ \\;Yahoo\\!\\ \\ \\;This\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ ultimate\\ in\\ a\\ reductive\\ understanding\\ o\\ pntg\\ post\\-AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\,\\ by\\ refusing\\ 2offer\\ any\\ image\\ or\\ pattern\\ o\\ their\\ own\\,\\ they\\ serve\\ as\\ receptive\\ surfaces\\ 4the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ saw\\ these\\ pntgs\\ not\\ as\\ empty\\,\\ but\\ as\\ constantly\\ n\\ shiftingly\\ full\\ w\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ r\\ happening\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ hyper\\ sensitive\\ 2their\\ own\\ surroundings\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;one\\ could\\ see\\ how\\ many\\ ppl\\ weer\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ shadows\\ cast\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ often\\ exhibited\\ in\\ gallery\\ w\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ work\\,\\ serving\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ 2the\\ other\\ pntgs\\ around\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ pntgs\\ r\\ about\\ absolute\\ vulnerability\\ 2the\\ physical\\ conditions\\ o\\ its\\ own\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;Proclaims\\ that\\ the\\ fnctn\\ o\\ art\\ is\\ not\\ 2provide\\ its\\ own\\ image\\ o\\ life\\,\\ but\\ 2provide\\ a\\ framing\\ or\\ bracketing\\ fnctn\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ \\=\\ bracketing\\ operation\\ that\\ draws\\ attn\\ 2exterior\\ life\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ pntg\\ totally\\ exposed\\ 2the\\ things\\ going\\ on\\ adjacent\\ 2it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ have\\ had\\ enormous\\ impact\\ on\\ later\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;artists\\ wrkng\\ in\\ other\\ media\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ this\\,\\ n\\ inthat\\ way\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ non\\-G\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ ppl\\ influenced\\ by\\ these\\ pntgs\\ was\\ a\\ radical\\ experimental\\ composer\\ named\\ John\\ Cage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\ at\\ Stable\\ Gallery\\ exhibition\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Cage\\ preparing\\ a\\ piano\\,\\ before\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ repeated\\ stuck\\ things\\ in2\\ the\\ piano\\ wires\\ in\\ order\\ 2make\\ new\\ sounds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cage\\,\\ upon\\ seeing\\ the\\ White\\ pntgs\\,\\ did\\ several\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Essay\\ 4our\\ rdg\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ white\\ pntgs\\ \\=\\ airports\\ 4light\\,\\ shadows\\,\\ n\\ particles\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ pntgs\\ inspired\\ him\\ 2\\ do\\ his\\ most\\ famous\\ composition\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;4\\ minutes\\ n\\ 33\\ seconds\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ musical\\ piece\\ composed\\ byCage\\ which\\ oncsists\\ o\\ a\\ pianist\\ coming\\ on2\\ a\\ stage\\,\\ sistting\\ at\\ the\\ piano\\ 4\\ the\\ duration\\ o\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ r\\ 3\\ movements\\ in\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ composer\\ opening\\ n\\ closing\\ the\\ piano\\ cover\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ wrk\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;performed\\ in\\ Woodstock\\,\\ NY\\ 1952\\,\\ in\\ auditorium\\ open\\ at\\ the\\ back\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ ppl\\ found\\ as\\ they\\ listend\\ 2the\\ piece\\,\\ was\\ not\\ that\\ the\\ picee\\ was\\ about\\ silence\\,\\ but\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ about\\ sound\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ the\\ performer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sound\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ambient\\ sounds\\ constantly\\ surrounding\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ found\\ themselves\\ suddenly\\ intensely\\ aware\\ o\\ the\\ rain\\ alling\\ outside\\,\\ the\\ wind\\ blowing\\ through\\ the\\ trees\\,\\ embarrassedly\\ aware\\ o\\ their\\ own\\ perplexed\\ mutterings\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ this\\,\\ too\\,\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ o\\ musical\\ composition\\,\\ was\\ a\\ bracketing\\ o\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Using\\ art\\ 2draw\\ attn\\ 2the\\ aspects\\ o\\ life\\ normally\\ missed\\/ignored\\,\\ particularly\\ by\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ radical\\ notion\\ o\\ art\\ as\\ something\\ not\\ meant\\ 2depict\\ the\\ world\\,\\ not\\ 2tarnscend\\ it\\,\\ but\\ 2refocus\\ attn\\ on2\\ the\\ existing\\,\\ ignored\\ aspects\\ o\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Final\\ quote\\ from\\ Cage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ alludes\\ 2the\\ fact\\ these\\ pntgs\\ were\\ seen\\ not\\ as\\ withdrawing\\,\\ but\\ as\\ incredibly\\ generous\\,\\ complex\\ baroque\\ pntgs\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ allowed\\ every\\ tiny\\ variation\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ b\\ prescribed\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ra\\ became\\ the\\ giver\\ o\\ gifts\\.\\ \\ \\;Gifts\\ r\\ ways\\ o\\ saying\\ yes\\ 2how\\ it\\ is\\,\\ a\\ holiday\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ happened\\ 2\\ Duchamp\\ n\\ the\\ Fountain\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ white\\ work\\,\\ we\\ might\\ say\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ example\\ looms\\ larger\\ n\\ larger\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ n\\ 60s\\.\\ \\ \\;in\\ Fountain\\,\\ Duchamp\\ experiemneted\\ w\\ idea\\ that\\ meaning\\ o\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ is\\ altered\\ based\\ on\\ ts\\ meaning\\ n\\ its\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ one\\ room\\,\\ ppl\\ pee\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ room\\,\\ ppl\\ gaze\\ w\\ rsepctful\\ wonder\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ suspciition\\ that\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\ granted\\ mng\\ only\\ by\\ their\\ imbeddedness\\ in\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ Paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;proclaim\\ the\\ vultneralbiltiy\\ o\\ the\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ paintings\\ like\\ Fountain\\ in\\ that\\ Ra\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ convceptual\\ aspects\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ questioning\\ n\\ thinking\\ thru\\ these\\ wrks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ the\\ 40s\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ divided\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\ bw\\ Paris\\ n\\ NYC\\,\\ returned\\ 2nyc\\ in\\ 1942\\,\\ where\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ spend\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ his\\ life\\ playing\\ chess\\ n\\ wrkng\\ on\\ art\\ that\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exhibit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ not\\ directly\\ drawing\\ upon\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ indirect\\ influence\\ on\\ Ra\\.\\ \\ \\;Ra\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ until\\ after\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ produced\\ the\\ white\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Duchamp\\ was\\ imptn\\ 4\\ Ra\\ bc\\ he\\ provided\\ endorsement\\ 4Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ questioning\\ attitude\\ o\\ art\\ that\\ came\\ b4\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Ra\\ had\\ agoodnatured\\ but\\ devastinting\\ iconoclasm\\ as\\ he\\ wrkd\\ thru\\ his\\ predecessors\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legacies\\.\\ \\ \\;Similar\\ 2Duchamp\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ like\\ Duchamp\\ n\\ Fountain\\,\\ bleived\\ the\\ work\\ o\\ art\\ was\\ changed\\ according\\ to\\ its\\ placement\\ n\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ started\\ erasing\\ his\\ own\\ drawings\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ felt\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\ enough\\ bc\\ he\\ felt\\ his\\ own\\ drawings\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 100\\%\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decided\\ he\\ needed\\ 2get\\ a\\ drawing\\ that\\ was\\ stupendous\\ enough\\ that\\ u\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ imagein\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ erased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ idolizes\\ De\\ Kooning\\ n\\ Pollock\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ a\\ drawing\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ was\\ good\\ enough\\ 2b\\ missed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ was\\ given\\ a\\ drawing\\ that\\ was\\ supposedly\\ really\\ hard\\ 2erase\\,\\ done\\ in\\ caryon\\,\\ oil\\ grease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Willieam\\ de\\ Kooning\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\-52\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Took\\ Ra\\ a\\ month\\ n\\ 40\\ erasers\\ 2erase\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ had\\ 2really\\ obeythe\\ drawing\\ beneath\\ in\\ order\\ 2\\ erase\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ erase\\ a\\ line\\,\\ u\\ have\\ 2\\ reverse\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\-drawing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ De\\ Kooning\\ also\\ becomes\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ conspicuous\\ n\\ desirable\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ it\\ was\\ erased\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ really\\ wants\\ 2know\\ what\\ it\\ looked\\ like\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ r\\ still\\ ghostly\\ marks\\ on\\ the\\ sheet\\ that\\ stubbornly\\ resisted\\ his\\ attempts\\ 2erase\\ thim\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ process\\ o\\ erasure\\ mirros\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ De\\ Kooning\\,\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ struggling\\ w\\ this\\ body\\ that\\ was\\ always\\ trying\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ n\\ make\\ itself\\ known\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ critique\\,\\ definitely\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ how\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ is\\ understood\\ after\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;Erasure\\ \\=\\ retraction\\ o\\ the\\ heroic\\,\\ impulsive\\,\\ gesture\\ associated\\ w\\ AE\\ n\\ especially\\ w\\ De\\ Kooning\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ agitation\\ o\\ the\\ AE\\ brushstroke\\ is\\ transferred\\ fro\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ marking\\ 2the\\ act\\ o\\ erasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ expression\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interior\\,\\ authentic\\ self\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ erasure\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ instead\\ o\\ its\\ proclamation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ the\\ authentic\\ personality\\ transformed\\ in2\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ anonymity\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ Johns\\ n\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Move\\ away\\ from\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;\\ unique\\ personal\\ psyche\\ 2an\\ erasure\\ o\\ the\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\&rsquo\\;\\ about\\ other\\ aspects\\ ot\\ he\\ world\\ besie\\ thearitst\\&rsquo\\;\\ own\\ nteiror\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ o\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ explored\\ aspects\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ but\\ removed\\ the\\ element\\ o\\ idnivduality\\ from\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ interested\\ in\\ exploring\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Red\\ Import\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dirt\\ Painting\\ \\(for\\ John\\ Cage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Colelction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Factum\\ I\\ and\\ Factum\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\De\\ Kooning\\,\\ \\"\\;Woman\\ I\\"\\;\\ \\(1950\\-52\\)\\ and\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\"\\;Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\"\\;\\ \\(1953\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\ wanted\\ a\\ drawing\\ good\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ missed\\,\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ experiment\\ by\\ erasing\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rauschenberg\\ produced\\ the\\ \\"\\;Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\"\\;\\ \\(1953\\)\\ and\\ considered\\ it\\ an\\ absolute\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ that\\ offer\\ both\\ a\\ tribute\\ and\\ a\\ critique\\ of\\ AE\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ tribute\\ since\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ actually\\ follow\\ the\\ original\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ drawing\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ erase\\ it\\.\\ Becomes\\ more\\ desirable\\ and\\ conspicuous\\ in\\ its\\ absence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rauschenberg\\&\\#39\\;s\\ process\\ of\\ erasure\\ mirrors\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ painting\\ for\\ De\\ Kooning\\,\\ the\\ struggle\\ with\\ a\\ body\\ attempting\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ and\\ make\\ itself\\ known\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ should\\ be\\ understood\\ after\\ AE\\.\\ The\\ struggle\\ of\\ the\\ AE\\ brushstroke\\ is\\ replaced\\ by\\ the\\ erasure\\.\\ The\\ erasure\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ presence\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ proclamation\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ internal\\ self\\.\\ Paradox\\ of\\ erasure\\ and\\ proclamation\\,\\ present\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aesthetics\\ of\\ anonymity\\.\\ Erasure\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ presence\\;\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ becomes\\ something\\ about\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ rather\\ that\\ about\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ heroic\\ individuality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\"\\;Black\\ painting\\"\\;\\ \\(1951\\,\\ \\"\\;Red\\ import\\"\\;\\ \\(1954\\)\\,\\ \\"\\;Dirt\\ painting\\"\\;\\ \\(1953\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Canvas\\ surface\\ accumulates\\ matter\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ gently\\ torn\\ and\\ piled\\ from\\ pieces\\ of\\ paper\\,\\ covered\\ in\\ paint\\ and\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ No\\ gesture\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ read\\ as\\ such\\ in\\ a\\ AE\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rips\\ and\\ tears\\ of\\ material\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ Paint\\ hasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ been\\ applied\\ in\\ an\\ expressive\\ way\\,\\ just\\ to\\ pin\\ and\\ hold\\ the\\ matter\\ to\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tactile\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ divorced\\ from\\ the\\ autographic\\ gesture\\ AE\\ painters\\ would\\ have\\ given\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Texture\\ and\\ colour\\ that\\ create\\ a\\ distance\\ material\\ collage\\,\\ not\\ an\\ automatic\\ gesture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Canvas\\ becomes\\ a\\ planting\\ ground\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\"\\;Collection\\"\\;\\ \\(1954\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Combined\\ painting\\,\\ in\\ direct\\ opposition\\ to\\ Greenberg\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ and\\ a\\ sculpture\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ Hybrid\\ between\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mass\\ reproduced\\ images\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;CHANCE\\ OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 26\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fifties\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ II\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ start\\ out\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ white\\ painting\\,\\ finish\\ w\\ his\\ experiments\\ w\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2sday\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ White\\ Paintings\\ logically\\ follow\\ from\\ AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ o\\ pntg\\ as\\ receptive\\ surface\\ that\\ captures\\ the\\ actions\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ followed\\ all\\ o\\ De\\ Kooning\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hyperbolic\\ gestures\\,\\ but\\ did\\ so\\ through\\ erasure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Red\\ Import\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monochrome\\ pntgs\\,\\ like\\ Pollock\\ pntgs\\,\\ show\\ a\\ rich\\,\\ pntrly\\ texture\\,\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\-overness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\-over\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ these\\ r\\ generated\\ thru\\ something\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ AE\\ gestures\\,\\ not\\ thru\\ a\\ process\\ evoking\\ the\\ deep\\ psychological\\ strata\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ but\\ through\\ the\\ random\\ strata\\ o\\ rags\\ n\\ other\\ pieces\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;junk\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ about\\ all\\ o\\ these\\ wrks\\ as\\ like\\ failed\\ efforts\\ 2reproduce\\ AE\\ I\\ na\\ laboratory\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;Seemingly\\ following\\ the\\ rules\\ o\\ AEm\\ but\\ coming\\ up\\ instead\\ w\\ something\\ very\\ different\\,\\ reticent\\,\\ n\\ skeptical\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ psychobiogrpahical\\ earnest\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ o\\ the\\ interior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ about\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\ as\\ a\\ lab\\ experiment\\ in\\ reproducing\\ or\\ replicating\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Best\\ example\\ o\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ pair\\ o\\ pntgs\\ done\\ in\\ 1957\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Factum\\ I\\ and\\ Factum\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ experiment\\ where\\ he\\ literally\\ tried\\ 2pnt\\ the\\ same\\ pntg\\ twice\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ this\\ pntg\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ combination\\ o\\ collage\\ n\\ pntg\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ both\\ pntgs\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ elements\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ r\\ rushstrokes\\,\\ some\\ newspaper\\ prints\\ n\\ other\\ printed\\ imagery\\ from\\ mass\\-media\\ sources\\.\\ \\ \\;Trees\\,\\ images\\ o\\ Eisenhower\\,\\ printed\\ calendars\\,\\ set\\ o\\ newspaper\\ images\\ o\\ burning\\ bldg\\,\\ a\\ letter\\ T\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ea\\ o\\ these\\ elements\\ done\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Factum\\ I\\ then\\ replicated\\ in\\ Factum\\ II\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ placed\\ replicated\\ collage\\ images\\ on\\ both\\ canvasses\\,\\ but\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tried\\ 2replicate\\ the\\ brushstrokes\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thye\\ do\\ look\\ like\\ typical\\ AE\\ gestural\\ autographic\\ mark\\ like\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ De\\ Kooning\\,\\ thye\\ look\\ like\\ pure\\ gesture\\,\\ non\\-representational\\,\\ signs\\ o\\ dripping\\ n\\ immediacy\\ n\\ spontanaeity\\,\\ having\\ all\\ the\\ signs\\ o\\ AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gestures\\&rsquo\\;\\ unique\\ records\\ o\\ the\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;s\\ individual\\ psyche\\ n\\ expressive\\ faculties\\ at\\ an\\ ygivenm\\ moent\\,\\ but\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ duplicated\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ calls\\ in2\\ question\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ unique\\ gesture\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ at\\ any\\ point\\ in\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ the\\ dripping\\ expressive\\ gesture\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ sign\\ o\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ point\\ was\\ 2see\\ what\\ the\\ difference\\ would\\ b\\ bw\\ the\\ emotional\\ content\\ o\\ one\\ pntg\\ against\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tell\\ the\\ difference\\ bw\\ them\\ after\\ I\\&rsquo\\;d\\ pntd\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\,\\ when\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ tehse\\ highly\\ complicated\\ pntgs\\,\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;Angle\\ o\\ the\\ images\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ correct\\.\\ \\ \\;Color\\ o\\ the\\ paper\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ attempts\\ 2recreate\\ them\\,\\ they\\ have\\ different\\ angles\\,\\ drip\\ patterns\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ pnt\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attributable\\ 2differences\\ in\\ RA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ state\\ when\\ he\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ attributable\\ 2chance\\!\\ \\ \\;He\\ tried\\ 2make\\ them\\ equal\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ bc\\ they\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ elements\\ that\\ were\\ outside\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ psychological\\ being\\ rather\\ than\\ inside\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repetition\\ is\\ set\\ up\\ in\\ tehse\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ relinquishes\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ pure\\ gesture\\ can\\ b\\ meek\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ says\\ these\\ images\\ r\\ no\\ different\\ than\\ what\\ u\\ can\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ newspaper\\ n\\ elsewhere\\ in\\ mass\\ image\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ does\\ preserve\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ uniqueness\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ thing\\ twice\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ gestures\\ r\\ set\\ up\\ as\\ repetitive\\ gestures\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ u\\ have\\ them\\ set\\ up\\ against\\ eo\\,\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ drawn\\ 2compare\\ the\\ details\\ n\\ differences\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ awareness\\ as\\ well\\ o\\ the\\ possibilities\\ o\\ spontanaeity\\ n\\ change\\,\\ but\\ these\\ pntgs\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ from\\ inside\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ they\\ come\\ from\\ outside\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ time\\ n\\ chance\\ can\\ affect\\ a\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ about\\ authenticity\\ n\\ specificity\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ traditional\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ how\\ minor\\ n\\ seemingly\\ chance\\ effects\\ create\\ differences\\ bw\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ r\\ part\\ o\\ essential\\ change\\ in\\ how\\ US\\ art\\ changes\\ how\\ it\\ relates\\ itself\\ 2art\\ outside\\ the\\ US\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ 2the\\ history\\ o\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ bw\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ as\\ autonomyous\\ 2one\\ o\\ it\\ being\\ contingent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\50s\\,\\ 60s\\,\\ 70s\\:\\ \\ \\;notion\\ o\\ contingency\\ o\\ art\\,\\ its\\ absolute\\ dependence\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ around\\ it\\,\\ becomes\\ foregroudned\\ among\\ Nyc\\ artists\\ n\\ those\\ from\\ elsewhere\\.\\ \\ \\;Authetnticity\\ is\\ generated\\ from\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contact\\ w\\ the\\ randomness\\ n\\ complexity\\ o\\ the\\ world\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ from\\ the\\ interior\\ doings\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ Ra\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ contingency\\,\\ n\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ picking\\ up\\ on\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\,\\ we\\ begin\\ 2see\\ all\\ kinds\\ o\\ artsts\\ doing\\ art\\ characterized\\ by\\ the\\ renunciationo\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ controlling\\ artistic\\ will\\.\\ \\ \\;Artists\\ remove\\ themselves\\ n\\ their\\ personalities\\ from\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ art\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ see\\ the\\ incorporation\\ o\\ abject\\ or\\ waste\\ materials\\ coming\\ in2\\ pntg\\,\\ sculpture\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Third\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ being\\ 2see\\ tendency\\ 2grant\\ the\\ viewer\\ a\\ far\\ more\\ active\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ meaning\\ moves\\ from\\ within\\ the\\ pntg\\ 2the\\ outside\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fourth\\:\\ \\ \\;willingness\\ 2allow\\ chance\\ processes\\ n\\ extrinsic\\ factors\\ 2affect\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ new\\ world\\ o\\ art\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ imprinting\\ itself\\ in\\ every\\ level\\ o\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ art\\,\\ we\\ also\\ see\\ a\\ new\\ level\\ o\\ the\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ on\\ FI\\ n\\ FII\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ representational\\ images\\ r\\ being\\ handled\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eisenhower\\ portraits\\,\\ trees\\,\\ burning\\ bldgs\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ NEVER\\ allowed\\ this\\ imagery\\.\\ \\ \\;Acc\\.\\ 2AE\\ pntrs\\ throughout\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\,\\ the\\ problem\\ w\\ representation\\ was\\ it\\ entailed\\ a\\ loss\\ o\\ immediacy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ image\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ the\\ image\\ points\\ 2something\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ takes\\ the\\ viewer\\ away\\ 2somethintg\\/somewhere\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ about\\ FI\\ n\\ FII\\ is\\ that\\ Ra\\,\\ like\\ other\\ artists\\ o\\ the\\ period\\,\\ is\\ trying\\ 2bring\\ images\\ back\\ in2\\ pntg\\,\\ but\\ nevertheless\\ maintaining\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ immediate\\ physical\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrk\\ o\\ art\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ an\\ experience\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ should\\ b\\ an\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Ra\\ wants\\ it\\ 2b\\ immediate\\,\\ physical\\,\\ real\\,\\ present\\,\\ but\\ nonetheless\\ maintain\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ aintiaing\\ reproductions\\ o\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ Ra\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ this\\ problem\\ n\\ finding\\ ways\\ 2allow\\ the\\ image\\ 2sit\\ in\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ n\\ not\\ lead\\ the\\ viewer\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ Eisenhower\\ having\\ his\\ phtoo\\ taken\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ very\\ material\\ piece\\ o\\ newspaper\\ from\\ the\\ world\\,\\ pasted\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ as\\ a\\ material\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ representational\\ image\\ has\\ a\\ transparency\\ where\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ thru\\ it\\ 2somewhere\\ else\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ material\\ reality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ breaking\\ down\\ our\\ tendency\\ 2look\\ thru\\ that\\ image\\ 2somewhere\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2allow\\ the\\ image\\ 2exist\\ in\\ this\\ new\\ actual\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ suppresses\\ our\\ tendency\\ 2look\\ thru\\ the\\ image\\ 2see\\ Eisenhower\\ himself\\ is\\ by\\ duplicating\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ many\\ images\\ are\\ dupilicated\\ not\\ just\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ canvas\\,\\ but\\ also\\ within\\ each\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2Eisenhowers\\,\\ 2images\\ o\\ burning\\ bldgs\\,\\ 2trees\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ forces\\ all\\ tehse\\ images\\ 2refer\\ 2\\ eo\\ across\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ ivniting\\ ea\\ one\\ 2b\\ penetrated\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ attn\\ goes\\ 2the\\ changes\\ bw\\ the\\ similar\\ images\\ across\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ not\\ looking\\ at\\ ea\\ one\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ individual\\ spatial\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ images\\ are\\ o\\ low\\ quality\\ reproduction\\,\\ which\\ brings\\ ur\\ attn\\ 2the\\ gritty\\,\\ abject\\,\\ wasted\\ quality\\ o\\ the\\ paper\\ on\\ which\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ reproduced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ 2look\\ at\\ 2\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Combine\\&rdquo\\;\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ combines\\ bc\\ they\\ combine\\ pntg\\ n\\ sculpture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Collection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Material\\ objects\\ stuck\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\ rather\\ than\\ entries\\ in2\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ spaces\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ all\\ the\\ images\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\ r\\ collaged\\ directly\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ n\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ gluing\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\ is\\ made\\ very\\ overt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Little\\,\\ mass\\-produced\\ images\\,\\ sections\\ o\\ trading\\ cards\\ n\\ cartoons\\,\\ playing\\ cards\\,\\ images\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obvious\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ glued\\ there\\ w\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ attempt\\ 2make\\ the\\ images\\ seem\\ seemlesly\\ incorporated\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ glued\\ on\\,\\ pntd\\ on\\,\\ ripped\\,\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ the\\ pntg\\ like\\ pieces\\ o\\ waste\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ 2all\\ the\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ globs\\ n\\ viscous\\ pnt\\ matter\\ throughout\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ how\\ entire\\ sheets\\ o\\ coic\\ strips\\ in\\ pntg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Satellite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(not\\ on\\ our\\ list\\)\\ have\\ been\\ glued\\ on\\,\\ pntd\\ \\ \\;on\\,\\ pntd\\ over\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ all\\ these\\ pntgs\\,\\ these\\ combines\\,\\ Ra\\ proposes\\ an\\ equivalence\\ bw\\ these\\ images\\ n\\ every\\ other\\ kidn\\ o\\ object\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ attached\\ 2the\\ surface\\ o\\ these\\ canvases\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ image\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ material\\ presence\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosalind\\ Kraus\\ has\\ called\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ materialized\\ images\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ simply\\ falat\\ fragments\\ o\\ newspaper\\,\\ pieces\\ o\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ entered\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ a\\ pntg\\ 2look\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ wanted\\ it\\ 2look\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ I\\ think\\ a\\ picture\\ is\\ more\\ real\\ when\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ it\\ looks\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ windows\\ in2\\ another\\ world\\:\\ \\ \\;they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ tables\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ immediacy\\ about\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ away\\ form\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ sit\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ as\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Thye\\&rsquo\\;re\\ like\\ readymades\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immediacy\\,\\ open\\ 2the\\ flux\\ othe\\ world\\,\\ its\\ waste\\ products\\ n\\ its\\ beautiful\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Frank\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ published\\ 1958\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ from\\ an\\ imptnt\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frank\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ that\\ tehse\\ images\\ r\\ part\\ o\\ this\\ bk\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Americans\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ \\=\\ swqiss\\ photographer\\,\\ emigrated\\ 2the\\ US\\ in\\ 1947\\.\\ \\ \\;wrkd\\ 4major\\ pictographic\\ periodicals\\ like\\ Life\\ magazine\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ o\\ the\\ photojournalist\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1955\\-6\\,\\ he\\ took\\ a\\ long\\ road\\ trip\\ thru\\ the\\ US\\,\\ took\\ thousands\\ o\\ photos\\,\\ n\\ collected\\ them\\ in2\\ a\\ set\\ o\\ 83\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ 2\\ publish\\ in\\ a\\ book\\,\\ but\\ no\\ publishers\\ would\\ take\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Published\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ france\\,\\ then\\ in\\ 1959\\ after\\ lots\\ o\\ struggle\\ he\\ got\\ it\\ published\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ like\\ this\\ were\\ bitterly\\ criticized\\,\\ described\\ as\\ being\\ sick\\,\\ erotic\\,\\ unpatriotic\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;studios\\ inattention\\ to\\ the\\ skills\\ o\\ his\\ craft\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ seemingly\\ o\\ the\\ person\\ playing\\ an\\ instrument\\,\\ but\\ the\\ human\\ head\\ has\\ been\\ preplaced\\ w\\ a\\ gaping\\,\\ uncanny\\ hole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ starlet\\ being\\ rendered\\ blurry\\ n\\ unhappy\\,\\ w\\ only\\ the\\ responsese\\ o\\ the\\ viewer\\ behind\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ goes\\ against\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ photograph\\ as\\ it\\ being\\ able\\ 2capture\\ certain\\ hierarchies\\ o\\ US\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frank\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Elevator\\,\\ Miami\\ Beach\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dorothea\\ Lange\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Migrant\\ Mother\\,\\ NIpoma\\,\\ CA\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1936\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photojournalism\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ had\\ been\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ clarity\\,\\ summation\\,\\ sense\\ in\\ which\\ photojournalist\\ is\\ supposed\\ 2go\\ out\\ n\\ capture\\ revealing\\ moments\\ that\\ synthesize\\ everything\\ going\\ on\\ outside\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ photograph\\ \\=\\ harmonious\\ fine\\ art\\ image\\ here\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Migrant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ presented\\ in\\ very\\ stable\\ composition\\,\\ parametal\\ stability\\ 2her\\ pose\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ much\\ a\\ redo\\ o\\ cenuries\\ n\\ cednturies\\ o\\ Madonna\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ see\\ her\\ baby\\ in\\ her\\ lap\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inserted\\ in2\\ long\\ history\\ o\\ revealing\\ synthetic\\ compositions\\ n\\ psoes\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ this\\ manageable\\ conceptually\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ image\\ tells\\ us\\ the\\ whole\\ story\\ o\\ the\\ dustbowl\\ n\\ the\\ economic\\ problems\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ like\\ this\\ influenced\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\magazine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ o\\ photogjournalism\\ is\\ 2summarize\\,\\ reveal\\,\\ synthesize\\ n\\ allow\\ the\\ viewer\\ 2understand\\ complex\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ grew\\ 2hate\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ single\\ phtogoraph\\ as\\ being\\ so\\ neat\\ n\\ predictable\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ felt\\ that\\ photos\\ n\\ the\\ essays\\ in2\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ palced\\ were\\ 2simple\\,\\ always\\ digesting\\ n\\ saying\\ US\\ was\\ understandable\\,\\ easy\\ 2get\\ thru\\ western\\ compositional\\ ideas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ wanted\\ 2captuer\\ the\\ elusiveness\\ o\\ the\\ US\\,\\ 2cerate\\ a\\ rapid\\/vernacular\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;capturing\\ moments\\ that\\ seemed\\ 2happen\\ in\\ bw\\ other\\ imptnt\\ moments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ \\=\\ the\\ birth\\ o\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;snapshot\\&rdquo\\;\\ aesthetic\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ that\\ fine\\ art\\ images\\ can\\ look\\ like\\ unposed\\ snapshots\\ that\\ amateurs\\ might\\ take\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ the\\ waste\\ matter\\ that\\ shows\\ up\\ in\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ were\\ the\\ areas\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ that\\ he\\ felt\\ were\\ most\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ these\\ images\\ r\\ able\\ 2\\ create\\ this\\ fragmented\\ sense\\ o\\ vsion\\:\\ \\ \\;they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ grainy\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ perfectly\\ clear\\,\\ beautiful\\,\\ fine\\ art\\ negative\\ prints\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ sense\\ that\\ these\\ photos\\ have\\ barely\\ been\\ snatched\\ form\\ the\\ darkness\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ tilted\\ off\\ o\\ the\\ perpendicular\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ verticality\\ o\\ these\\ images\\ has\\ been\\ put\\ askew\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ alos\\ have\\ registrations\\ o\\ bodies\\ moving\\ in\\ n\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ photos\\,\\ bodies\\ blocking\\ the\\ view\\,\\ this\\ giving\\ the\\ phtogorpaher\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ incident\\.\\ \\ \\;Phtoogrpaher\\ not\\ occupying\\ a\\ neutral\\,\\ objective\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ photographer\\ like\\ the\\ participants\\ is\\ encountering\\ a\\ limited\\ view\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ being\\ blocked\\ n\\ jostled\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ kidns\\ o\\ illegible\\ blurs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Real\\ world\\ in\\ Frank\\&rsquo\\;s\\ images\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ out\\ in\\ perfect\\ focus\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ missed\\ opportunities\\,\\ things\\ that\\ arne\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ seen\\.\\ \\ \\;Chance\\ moments\\,\\ missed\\ encounters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intro\\ 4this\\ book\\ written\\ by\\ Jack\\ Kerouac\\,\\ key\\ Beat\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ all\\ connected\\ 2Beat\\ poetry\\ more\\ broadly\\.\\ \\ \\;Ginsberg\\,\\ Kerouac\\,\\ started\\ including\\ low\\ n\\ vernacular\\ subject\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ start\\ writing\\ poems\\ about\\ underwear\\ in\\ supermarkets\\,\\ subverting\\ mainstream\\ imagery\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ photos\\,\\ like\\ tehsep\\ oems\\,\\ serve\\ as\\ relatively\\ indifferent\\,\\ receptive\\ surface\\ 2anythign\\ that\\ might\\ come\\ at\\ the\\ mfro\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Removing\\ sense\\ o\\ artist\\ as\\ great\\ expressive\\ creator\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ recording\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;Passive\\ acceptance\\ o\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ him\\/herself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ also\\ begins\\ 2affect\\ various\\ genres\\ o\\ performance\\ as\\ they\\ develop\\ in\\ nyc\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 50s\\ n\\ early\\ 60s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Full\\ Fathom\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allan\\ Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Yard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\ \\=\\ pntr\\,\\ started\\ in\\ nyc\\ as\\ a2nd\\ generation\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grown\\ as\\ a\\ pntr\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ o\\ the\\ AEs\\,\\ finds\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ what\\ 2do\\ w\\ his\\ inheritance\\,\\ how\\ 2b\\ an\\ original\\ artist\\ wo\\ jettisoning\\ everything\\ learned\\ by\\ the\\ AEs\\.\\ \\ \\;Knew\\ about\\ AE\\,\\ articulate\\ about\\ it\\,\\ teaching\\ Art\\ history\\ at\\ Rutgers\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ took\\ John\\ Cage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ avant\\ garde\\ compositional\\ course\\ in\\ 1957\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ leads\\ him\\ 2open\\ up\\ his\\ own\\ pntg\\ practices\\ in2\\ new\\ kidns\\ o\\ dimensions\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ much\\ trying\\ 2take\\ Pollock\\ off\\ o\\ the\\ wall\\ n\\ creating\\ this\\ receptive\\ surface\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ happens\\ in\\ 3d\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ legacy\\ o\\ Jackson\\ Pollock\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Kaprow\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ expansive\\ legacy\\ o\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ n\\ taking\\ it\\ 2the\\ enxt\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\ has\\ made\\ us\\ dazzled\\ by\\ everyday\\ life\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\ goes\\ in2\\ list\\ o\\ the\\ new\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ thinks\\ will\\ become\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ future\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;an\\ odor\\ o\\ crushed\\ strawberries\\,\\ letter\\ from\\ friend\\ or\\ billboard\\ seeling\\ draino\\,\\ endless\\ lectures\\,\\ bowler\\ hat\\,\\ all\\ become\\ materials\\ 4this\\ new\\ concrete\\ art\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ here\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ Pollock\\ opening\\ up\\ pntg\\ 2hte\\ world\\,\\ but\\ what\\ he\\ does\\ that\\ Frank\\ n\\ Ra\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ is\\ 2bring\\ Pollock\\ in2\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ sculpture\\ n\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ 2bring\\ 2literal\\ fruition\\ what\\ he\\ saw\\ as\\ latent\\ in\\ Pollock\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ notion\\ that\\ P\\ begins\\ this\\ interactive\\,\\ multi\\-sensory\\ kind\\ o\\ artwork\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ developed\\ environments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1958\\ he\\ began\\ creating\\ tehse\\ environments\\,\\ filling\\ a\\ room\\ w\\ tangles\\ o\\ scotch\\ tape\\ n\\ Christmas\\ lights\\,\\ accompanying\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\ w\\ pine\\ sceted\\ deodorant\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Apple\\ Shrine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ chicken\\ wire\\,\\ newspaper\\,\\ dangling\\ straw\\,\\ all\\ attempts\\ 2thicken\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ a\\ room\\ w\\ various\\ kinds\\ o\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Courtyard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piled\\ tires\\ in\\ a\\ courtyard\\ o\\ the\\ Martha\\ Jackson\\ gallery\\.\\ \\ \\;Visitors\\ had\\ 2walk\\ from\\ one\\ side\\ o\\ the\\ courtyard\\ 2the\\ other\\ throught\\ the\\ tires\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Challenging\\ physically\\ the\\ viewer\\ thru\\ these\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ optical\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ spaces\\ look\\ like\\&rsquo\\;s\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\,\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ tactile\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Viewer\\ forced\\ 2move\\ thru\\ the\\ installations\\ as\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ feeling\\ their\\ way\\ thru\\ the\\ pntgs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Partipant\\ forced\\ 2engage\\ tactilily\\ w\\ the\\ spaces\\.\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ becomes\\ 3d\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chicken\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ reference\\ 2AE\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Expanded\\ his\\ environemtns\\ 2what\\ he\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;happenings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ n\\ other\\ artist\\ take\\ 3d\\ idea\\ o\\ tactile\\ pntg\\ n\\ expand\\ it\\ in2\\ 4dimensions\\,\\ bringing\\ element\\ o\\ time\\ in2\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ include\\ all\\ the\\ unpredictable\\ smells\\ o\\ the\\ environment\\,\\ but\\ also\\ have\\ unpredictable\\ events\\ unfolding\\.\\ \\ \\;Events\\ initatied\\ by\\ small\\ groups\\ o\\ perofmrers\\,\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;happeners\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ n\\ they\\ were\\ usually\\ the\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ carry\\ out\\ mundane\\ tasks\\,\\ make\\ noises\\,\\ induce\\ speeches\\,\\ interact\\ w\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ 4audiences\\,\\ these\\ events\\ were\\ unpredictable\\,\\ delightful\\,\\ scary\\,\\ n\\ often\\ the\\ authorities\\ had\\ 2intervene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chicken\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ fireman\\ had\\ 2come\\ n\\ put\\ out\\ the\\ fire\\ in\\ the\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ events\\ intended\\ 2create\\ the\\ chance\\ event\\ in\\ time\\ n\\ space\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ a\\ Ra\\ pntg\\ along\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ description\\ o\\ typical\\ experience\\ in\\ a\\ happening\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;tin\\ cans\\ rattle\\,\\ u\\ stand\\ up\\ 2see\\,\\ answer\\ questions\\ from\\ shoe\\ shine\\ boys\\ n\\ old\\ ladies\\,\\ u\\ giggle\\ bc\\ u\\&rsquo\\;r\\ afraid\\,\\ suffering\\ claustrophobia\\,\\ but\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\there\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ getting\\ in2\\ the\\ act\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ become\\ all\\ the\\ rage\\ 1960\\-2\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ provoked\\ associations\\ w\\ theater\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ theater\\ relates\\ 2everyday\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ very\\ different\\ happening\\ here\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stage\\ n\\ dramatic\\ theater\\ depends\\ on\\ specific\\ framing\\ devices\\ in\\ order\\ 2shield\\ real\\ space\\ n\\ time\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ regular\\ hteater\\,\\ the\\ stage\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ audience\\ by\\ a\\ curtain\\.\\ \\ \\;Lighting\\.\\ \\ \\;Platform\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ n\\ end\\ o\\ performance\\ r\\ clearly\\ demarcated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\KAprow\\ n\\ other\\ happening\\ artists\\ r\\ abolishing\\ the\\ separation\\ o\\ the\\ performance\\ from\\ the\\ audience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jim\\ Dine\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Smiling\\ Workman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dine\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Car\\ Crash\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Reuben\\ Gallery\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ how\\ artist\\ sits\\ right\\ up\\ next\\ 2the\\ performer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Spring\\ Happening\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happenings\\ not\\ generally\\ staged\\ in\\ hteaters\\ but\\ in\\ old\\ lofts\\,\\ basements\\,\\ vacant\\ stores\\,\\ places\\ where\\ very\\ small\\ audiences\\ were\\ crammed\\ 2gether\\,\\ commingled\\ w\\ the\\ event\\ as\\ it\\ unfolded\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ other\\ spaces\\ ensured\\ a\\ tight\\ pact\\ n\\ tactile\\ immediacy\\ among\\ the\\ audience\\ n\\ w\\ the\\ performers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ loosely\\ scripted\\.\\ \\ \\;Everytime\\ they\\ were\\ performed\\ they\\ were\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Everytime\\ u\\ wnet\\ 2\\ a\\ happening\\,\\ it\\ was\\ clear\\ u\\ were\\ seening\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ done\\ that\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ 2tell\\ when\\ happening\\ began\\/ended\\.\\ \\ \\;Kaprow\\ would\\ try\\ 2make\\ it\\ impossible\\ 2determine\\ when\\ the\\ happening\\ started\\/ended\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ something\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ happening\\,\\ or\\ part\\ o\\ everyday\\ life\\?\\!\\?\\!\\?\\?\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ r\\ \\&ldquo\\;events\\ that\\,\\ put\\ simply\\,\\ happen\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kaprow\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ what\\ it\\ meant\\ 4somethign\\ just\\ 2happen\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ n\\ early\\ 60s\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ he\\ says\\ things\\ r\\ just\\ things\\ that\\ happen\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alluding\\ 2an\\ urgent\\ problem\\ o\\ the\\ time\\,\\ that\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ everyday\\ experience\\ as\\ authetnci\\ everyday\\ experience\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ being\\ surprised\\ by\\ something\\ simply\\ happening\\,\\ is\\ more\\ n\\ more\\ in\\ danger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ rising\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ every\\ conceivable\\ event\\ n\\ senseation\\ could\\ b\\ preprogrammed\\ n\\ prepackaged\\ by\\ mass\\ culture\\,\\ advertising\\ industry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Same\\ yr\\ that\\ happenings\\ r\\ becoming\\ imptnt\\ in\\ nyc\\,\\ Daniel\\ Burston\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Image\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ influential\\ bk\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ argued\\ US\\ events\\ were\\ being\\ replaced\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;pseudo\\ events\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ planned\\ events\\,\\ photo\\ ops\\,\\ that\\ might\\ appear\\ spontaneous\\ but\\ really\\ staged\\ 4later\\ reporting\\ n\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\ this\\ background\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ othe\\ staged\\ event\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ US\\ was\\ being\\ programmed\\ by\\ photo\\ ops\\ n\\ other\\ BS\\,\\ that\\ happenings\\ gave\\ audiences\\ spontaineous\\ fullness\\ o\\ experience\\ that\\ was\\ slowly\\ being\\ taken\\ from\\ US\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ postwar\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2make\\ audiences\\ feel\\ spontaneity\\?\\ \\ \\;Often\\ u\\ had\\ 2\\ make\\ audience\\ discomfort\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4example\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spring\\ Happening\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1961\\,\\ spectators\\ put\\ in\\ tiny\\ box\\ w\\ little\\ peep\\ holes\\,\\ then\\ the\\ walls\\ moved\\ n\\ the\\ ppl\\ driven\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ space\\ w\\ a\\ power\\ lawnmower\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ comes\\ thru\\ w\\ his\\ power\\ lawnmower\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ common\\.\\ \\ \\;Audience\\ not\\ granted\\ a\\ privelged\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ made\\ ucomfortable\\,\\ made\\ 2ifght\\ 4space\\,\\ forced\\ 2stand\\ on\\ boards\\ in\\ shallow\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ No\\ attempt\\ 2cater\\ 2the\\ uadience\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ 2see\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\ this\\ was\\ often\\ intentionally\\ frustrated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\&rsquo\\;s\\ phtogoraphs\\ also\\ frustrate\\ the\\ desire\\ 2see\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ was\\ deeply\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ avant\\ garde\\ dramatist\\ Artoud\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ o\\ cruelty\\.\\ \\ \\;Artoud\\ felt\\ htat\\ drastic\\ measures\\ had\\ 2b\\ taken\\ 2break\\ audiences\\ out\\ o\\ their\\ detached\\ method\\ n\\ habit\\ o\\ absorbing\\ spectacles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ theater\\ o\\ cruelty\\ forcing\\ the\\ audience\\ 2b\\ present\\ in\\ their\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ audience\\ forced\\ 2participate\\,\\ n\\ this\\ \\=\\ humorous\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ often\\ slightly\\ uncomfortable\\ n\\ even\\ sadistic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Brecht\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Three\\ Telephone\\ Events\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;POP\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ May\\ 01\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Pop\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ 1\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ obswerving\\ the\\ everyday\\ enry\\ intoth\\ e\\ world\\ of\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ 4Ra\\,\\ extrinsic\\ elements\\ outside\\ the\\ artwork\\ would\\ b\\ able\\ 2enter\\ the\\ artwork\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ constantly\\ shifting\\ shadows\\ that\\ would\\ land\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4happenings\\,\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ breakdowns\\ in\\ spatial\\ n\\ temporal\\ fram\\ that\\ allowed\\ blurring\\ in\\ the\\ happening\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ when\\ Alan\\ Kaprow\\ wants\\ 2bring\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ in2\\ the\\ artwork\\,\\ he\\ does\\ it\\ by\\ bringing\\ in\\ straps\\ o\\ junk\\,\\ other\\ material\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Creaing\\ self\\-conscious\\ n\\ uncomfortable\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\ who\\ find\\ themselves\\ a\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ also\\ talked\\ about\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ combine\\ pntgs\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Satellite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ how\\ the\\ image\\ operates\\ w\\/in\\ new\\ system\\ that\\ tries\\ 2bring\\ everyday\\ world\\ in2\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ images\\,\\ straps\\ o\\ newspaper\\ comic\\ strips\\ along\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ fnctn\\ like\\ scraps\\ o\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ that\\ have\\ entered\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ just\\ like\\ other\\ pieces\\ o\\ junk\\ that\\ might\\ find\\ themselves\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ not\\ a\\ preresentation\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ materialized\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ a\\ picture\\ 2look\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ want\\ it\\ 2ook\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ is\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Image\\ normaly\\ understood\\ as\\ regressive\\ form\\,\\ turning\\ it\\ instead\\ in2\\ a\\ piece\\ o\\ matter\\,\\ something\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ museum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alan\\ Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Spring\\ Happening\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Satellite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jasper\\ Johsn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flag\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1954\\-55\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\ trying\\ 2find\\ ways\\ 2make\\ images\\ that\\ have\\ immediacy\\ n\\ irectness\\.\\ \\ \\;Johns\\ n\\ Ra\\ were\\ partners\\,\\ close\\.\\ \\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ bldg\\.\\ \\ \\;wrkng\\ thru\\ image\\ problems\\ in\\ different\\ but\\ dovetailing\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flag\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;suggests\\ Johns\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Looks\\ like\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ picked\\ up\\ a\\ pnt\\ brush\\ 2create\\ this\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ has\\ he\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ this\\ flag\\ a\\ pntd\\ image\\ o\\ a\\ flag\\,\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ flag\\ itself\\?\\ \\ \\;Our\\ rdg\\ goes\\ in2\\ this\\ brain\\ twisting\\ in\\ great\\ detail\\.\\ \\ \\;Imptn\\ 2\\ introduce\\ this\\ oscillation\\.\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ 2create\\ a\\ pntg\\ that\\ is\\ represtnational\\,\\ but\\ has\\ immediacy\\ n\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\,\\ like\\ Ra\\,\\ is\\ continuing\\ 2wrk\\ thru\\ the\\ burden\\ o\\ AE\\ in\\ pntg\\ in\\ US\\ art\\ after\\ WWII\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ made\\:\\ \\ \\;Johns\\ does\\ them\\ w\\ \\&ldquo\\;Encaustic\\&rdquo\\;\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\ by\\ mixing\\ oil\\ pnt\\ w\\ hot\\ wax\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ randomly\\ discovered\\ this\\ technique\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ in\\ a\\ book\\ at\\ a\\ book\\ store\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ wrkng\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ ne\\ he\\ quickly\\ adopted\\ it\\ 4the\\ commentary\\ it\\ could\\ make\\ on\\ AE\\ n\\ also\\ 4its\\ beauty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encaustin\\ means\\ every\\ stroke\\ drives\\ very\\ very\\ wuickly\\,\\ asfast\\ as\\ hot\\ wax\\ congeals\\,\\ so\\ that\\ every\\ stroke\\ u\\ apply\\ 2\\ a\\ vanbas\\ simply\\ lies\\ on\\ top\\ o\\ the\\ strokes\\ beneath\\ it\\ instead\\ o\\ mixing\\ w\\ other\\ pnt\\ on\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ very\\ demanding\\ technique\\,\\ but\\ Johns\\ used\\ it\\ in\\ all\\ o\\ his\\ mid\\-late\\-50s\\ pntgs\\ which\\ r\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ the\\ pnt\\ remains\\ partially\\ transluscent\\,\\ which\\ is\\ created\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ wax\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ get\\ hints\\ o\\ the\\ archaeological\\ alyerz\\ below\\ the\\ pnt\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ pntgs\\ in\\ real\\ life\\ r\\ luscious\\ n\\ gorgeous\\,\\ which\\ the\\ encaustic\\ allows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Target\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Green\\ Target\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1958\\,\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ newspaper\\ beneath\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ u\\ get\\ imagery\\ from\\ newspaper\\ collages\\.\\ \\ \\;Cutting\\ newspaper\\ in2\\ long\\ strips\\ that\\ themselves\\ were\\ almost\\ like\\ brushstrokes\\,\\ soaking\\ them\\ in\\ wax\\,\\ then\\ pntg\\ over\\ w\\ encaustic\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ deep\\ layers\\ o\\ archaeological\\ newspaper\\ help\\ create\\ this\\ sense\\ o\\ scrappiness\\ n\\ materiality\\ bc\\ the\\ newspapesr\\ are\\ understood\\&hellip\\;gives\\ u\\ sense\\ o\\ deep\\ media\\ o\\ these\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ these\\ strange\\ unusual\\ marks\\ intersect\\ w\\ the\\ kidn\\ o\\ pntg\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ n\\ w\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ array\\ o\\ marks\\ that\\ r\\ each\\ preserved\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ giving\\ u\\ a\\ glimpse\\ o\\ the\\ built\\ up\\ marks\\ that\\ were\\ available\\ 2the\\ viewer\\ as\\ a\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bc\\ the\\ pnt\\ dries\\ so\\ quickly\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ similar\\ fetishization\\ o\\ the\\ gesture\\ where\\ every\\ gesture\\ is\\ preserved\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sense\\ o\\ rapid\\ spontaneity\\,\\ tho\\,\\ that\\ u\\ get\\ in\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ or\\ Kline\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\,\\ r\\ removed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ slow\\,\\ methodical\\,\\ obsessive\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ spontaneous\\ but\\ mechanical\\,\\ careful\\ application\\ o\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ brushstrokes\\ r\\ short\\ n\\ controlled\\.\\ \\ \\;Short\\,\\ controlled\\,\\ congealed\\ gestures\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ coolness\\.\\ H\\ te\\ pnt\\ has\\ literally\\ florzen\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ can\\ think\\ 2\\ o\\ tehse\\ pntgs\\ as\\ kidns\\ o\\ barriers\\ rather\\ than\\ invitation\\ 2the\\ emotional\\ empathy\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ feel\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ embalming\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ psychodrama\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Rdg\\ goes\\ in2\\ more\\ detail\\ about\\ this\\,\\ n\\ also\\ about\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ subject\\ matter\\ that\\ Johns\\ uses\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ Johns\\ creates\\ these\\ hybrid\\ image\\ objects\\?\\ \\ \\;These\\ things\\ that\\ r\\ both\\ objects\\ n\\ artworks\\?\\ \\ \\;Much\\ o\\ this\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ kinds\\ o\\ objects\\ he\\ chooses\\ 2create\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ presented\\ 2\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ thing\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ about\\ his\\ choice\\ o\\ subjects\\ is\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ drawn\\ from\\ culture\\ rather\\ than\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ chooses\\ subject\\ matter\\ that\\ exists\\ only\\ as\\ symbol\\ o\\ representation\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ natural\\ existence\\ in\\ this\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ represent\\ the\\ \\#7\\ on\\ canvas\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ u\\ can\\ show\\ the\\ tree\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ thigns\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ exist\\ only\\ as\\ symbols\\,\\ only\\ as\\ they\\ ar\\ represnted\\ inthis\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ he\\ avoids\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ represtnation\\ by\\ represnting\\ symbols\\,\\ not\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ subject\\ matter\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;whole\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ an\\ entire\\ flag\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ when\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flag\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ edge\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ edge\\ o\\ the\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ background\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ pntg\\ o\\ a\\ flag\\ in\\ another\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ like\\ having\\ an\\ actual\\ flag\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ u\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ o\\ his\\ pntgs\\ were\\ done\\ 2scale\\ 2create\\ that\\ sense\\ o\\ immediacy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ done\\ 2the\\ scale\\ a\\ flag\\ that\\ Johns\\ had\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ life\\,\\ so\\ u\\ can\\ read\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ real\\ flag\\,\\ not\\ a\\ representation\\ thereof\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ representation\\ is\\ already\\ flat\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Target\\,\\ flag\\,\\ numbers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ imptnt\\ moment\\ o\\ confusion\\ that\\ allows\\ these\\ pntgs\\ 2b\\ both\\ pntgs\\ n\\ objects\\ is\\ tthat\\ the\\ pntgs\\ can\\ fnctn\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ things\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ representing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ tree\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ swim\\ in\\ the\\ lake\\ in\\ a\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ u\\ can\\ hang\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntg\\ and\\ use\\ it\\ 4the\\ pledge\\ of\\ allegiance\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ throw\\ darts\\ at\\ his\\ targets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ same\\ thigns\\ Johns\\ creates\\ r\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ depicts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ saw\\ this\\ b4\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Numbers\\ in\\ Color\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1958\\-9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ represtnation\\ going\\ on\\,\\ an\\ image\\ one\\ looks\\ at\\,\\ but\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ beyond\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\-94\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntg\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ themes\\ that\\&rsquo\\;d\\ already\\ been\\ quite\\ prominent\\ in\\ US\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ about\\ the\\ ways\\ both\\ images\\ r\\ intereted\\ in\\ a\\ confusion\\ bw\\ reality\\ n\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Johns\\,\\ like\\ Haberle\\,\\ creates\\ pntgs\\ that\\ have\\ a\\ closure\\ or\\ blockage\\ o\\ interior\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ closed\\,\\ flat\\ things\\ hanging\\ on\\ a\\ wall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\ interested\\ in\\ mass\\ media\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ pntgs\\,\\ his\\ ability\\ 2create\\ images\\ that\\ fnctn\\ as\\ both\\ images\\ n\\ objects\\,\\ pick\\ up\\ on\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happening\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Peto\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mr\\.\\ Abraham\\ Willsie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rack\\ Picture\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Slate\\:\\ \\ \\;Memoranda\\,\\ Circa\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\No\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piece\\ o\\ wire\\ hanging\\ down\\ w\\ letters\\ \\&ldquo\\;No\\&rdquo\\;\\ attached\\ 2\\ it\\,\\ casting\\ shadow\\ behind\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ n\\ y\\ r\\ the\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ tactics\\ being\\ revived\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\?\\ \\ \\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ similar\\ n\\ different\\ about\\ the\\ 2bodies\\ o\\ work\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ key\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ away\\ from\\ Johns\\,\\ back\\ 2\\ Spring\\ happening\\ n\\ White\\ Target\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ these\\ artists\\ r\\ trying\\ 2break\\ down\\ the\\ boundaries\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ liberatory\\ blurring\\ had\\ a\\ lot\\ o\\ complications\\,\\ tho\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hwat\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ course\\ will\\ look\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ n\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ This\\ American\\ life\\ that\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ be\\ allowed\\ in2\\ the\\ artworld\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ everyday\\ that\\ artists\\ like\\ Ra\\ n\\ Kaprow\\ bring\\ in2\\ their\\ work\\ is\\ a\\ random\\,\\ chaotic\\ everyday\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tyructureed\\ n\\ understood\\ as\\ an\\ antidote\\ 2capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ field\\ o\\ spontanaeity\\,\\ from\\ freedom\\ n\\ rational\\ promotion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ attempt\\ 2collapse\\ art\\ n\\ life\\,\\ which\\ in\\ every\\ respect\\ was\\ an\\ attempt\\ 2find\\ a\\ space\\ outside\\ o\\ mainstream\\ culture\\,\\ consumer\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ many\\ artists\\ around\\ this\\ time\\ began\\ 2wonder\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ one\\ could\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ everyday\\ w\\/o\\ bringing\\ in\\ things\\ like\\ advertisements\\ n\\ billboards\\ n\\ consumer\\ products\\,\\ n\\ others\\ wondered\\ if\\ the\\ everyday\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ become\\ totally\\ saturated\\ by\\ consumerism\\ n\\ corporate\\ media\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ American\\ everyday\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ should\\ it\\ appear\\ in\\ art\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ every\\ day\\ life\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adslfkjasdlk\\;fjdaslkjf\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\#\\#\\#\\#\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ about\\ what\\ everyday\\ life\\ looked\\ like\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ landscape\\ dominated\\ by\\ commercial\\ effects\\,\\ dizzying\\ arrangements\\ o\\ signs\\ n\\ televions\\ n\\ radios\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2walk\\ out\\ o\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apartment\\ 2confront\\ everyday\\ life\\ wo\\ being\\ confronted\\ by\\ a\\ commercial\\ message\\ in\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ would\\ happen\\ 2the\\ critical\\ fnctn\\ o\\ art\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ allowed\\ 2expand\\ in2\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ US\\ flag\\ but\\ also\\ advertisements\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ in\\ last\\ wk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ on\\ Jackson\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legacy\\,\\ said\\ artists\\ would\\ b\\ bringing\\ in\\ a\\ billboard\\ seeling\\ draino\\.\\ \\ \\;Would\\ art\\ collapse\\ in2\\ advertising\\?\\ \\ \\;Would\\ commodities\\ become\\ art\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ big\\ question\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ early\\ 60s\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claes\\ Oldenburg\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ first\\ 2confront\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Claes\\ Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Store\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ happenings\\ were\\ famous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ rented\\ a\\ storefront\\ space\\ n\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ store\\ as\\ an\\ environment\\,\\ as\\ a\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ store\\ he\\ sold\\ actual\\ scale\\ versions\\ o\\ the\\ banal\\ commodities\\ that\\ were\\ 4sale\\ around\\ the\\ neighborhood\\.\\ \\ \\;Cigarettes\\,\\ cheeseburgers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ readymades\\,\\ but\\ were\\ made\\ by\\ hand\\ by\\ him\\ o\\ pntd\\ plaster\\ n\\ soap\\.\\ \\ \\;Stuff\\ u\\ can\\ buy\\ at\\ the\\ store\\.\\ \\ \\;Dresses\\ decpited\\ as\\ if\\ blowing\\ in\\ the\\ wind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dresses\\,\\ Blowing\\ in\\ the\\ Wind\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ photo\\ taken\\ by\\ Oldenburg\\ o\\ shop\\ near\\ his\\ own\\ lower\\ East\\ Side\\ NYC\\ store\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taking\\ things\\ that\\ can\\ b\\ sold\\ on\\ the\\ street\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ the\\ plastered\\,\\ pntd\\ objects\\ that\\ were\\ once\\ dynamnically\\ blowing\\ in\\ the\\ wind\\ but\\ now\\ fossilized\\,\\ relate\\ 2Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;Johns\\ influenced\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oldenburg\\ creates\\ fossilized\\ store\\ offerd\\ 2passers\\ by\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kids\\ form\\ the\\ area\\ would\\ sometimes\\ steal\\ things\\ from\\ the\\ store\\,\\ which\\ delighted\\ him\\,\\ thus\\ indicatinghtis\\ was\\ operating\\ like\\ a\\ regular\\ retail\\ establishment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Small\\ Yellow\\ Pie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Store\\ raised\\ uncomfortable\\ questions\\ about\\ whether\\ there\\ was\\ distinction\\ bw\\ art\\ n\\ retail\\ products\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oldenburg\\ did\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ he\\ could\\ 2make\\ the\\ distinction\\ ambiguous\\ 2say\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ another\\ whether\\ this\\ \\=\\ art\\ piece\\ or\\ retail\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ were\\ allusions\\ 2ordinary\\ manufactures\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ they\\ were\\ clearly\\ marked\\ as\\ hand\\-made\\,\\ unique\\ art\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pepsi\\-Cola\\ Sign\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ productiosn\\ were\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ key\\ eventws\\ that\\ stimulated\\ the\\ development\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;pop\\ art\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ element\\ o\\ pop\\ art\\ is\\ its\\ exploration\\ o\\ these\\ boundaries\\ n\\ questions\\ that\\ O\\&rsquo\\;s\\ store\\ raised\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ commerce\\ in\\ the\\ US\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ other\\ collapses\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ in\\ pop\\ art\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ conflations\\ bw\\ high\\ art\\ n\\ retail\\/commercial\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ store\\ retains\\ its\\ handmade\\,\\ slapdash\\ look\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ happenings\\,\\ in\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\,\\ but\\ later\\ pop\\ artists\\ tried\\ 2mix\\ retail\\ n\\ art\\ thru\\ more\\ slick\\ styles\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ commercial\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roy\\ Lichtenstein\\ with\\ his\\ Ben\\-Day\\ dot\\ stencil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lichtenstein\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Live\\ Ammo\\ \\(Blang\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lichtenstein\\ had\\ delicate\\ balance\\ bw\\ high\\ art\\ pntg\\ n\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ mechanical\\ production\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ derived\\ his\\ images\\ from\\ low\\-brow\\ advertisements\\ n\\ comic\\ books\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ pntd\\ the\\ images\\ carefully\\ by\\ hand\\,\\ but\\ did\\ it\\ thru\\ this\\ stencil\\ 2get\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ben\\-day\\&rdquo\\;\\ dots\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ dots\\ create\\ comic\\ books\\ n\\ chaeap\\ newspaper\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ a\\ stencil\\ made\\ n\\ takes\\ his\\ pnt\\ brush\\ n\\ manually\\ pnts\\ every\\ dot\\ thru\\ the\\ stencil\\ on2\\ his\\ canvases\\.\\ \\ \\;Overlap\\ o\\ confusion\\ bw\\ the\\ hand\\ made\\ n\\ the\\ machine\\ made\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ \\=\\ most\\ famous\\ artists\\ who\\ conflated\\ the\\ distinctison\\ bw\\ therpodcution\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ production\\ o\\ commodities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\ at\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Factory\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ appropriated\\ form\\ produtt\\ design\\ n\\ mass\\ media\\ journalism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Famously\\,\\ he\\ wrkd\\ in\\ a\\ studio\\ he\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;factory\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;His\\ capbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomato\\ boxes\\ r\\ his\\ wrks\\,\\ not\\ just\\ campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tamato\\ boxes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ other\\ pop\\ artists\\ followed\\ O\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lead\\ in\\ expiermenting\\ w\\ overlaps\\ bw\\ retail\\ n\\ gallery\\ spaces\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ get\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ conflating\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ factory\\ n\\ the\\ studio\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ conflation\\ bw\\ the\\ space\\ retail\\ n\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ gallery\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ galleries\\ would\\ play\\ along\\ w\\ this\\,\\ n\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ exhivbition\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ supermarket\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supermarket\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ exhibition\\ view\\,\\ Bianchini\\ Gallery\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Compelte\\ w\\ aisles\\,\\ placards\\ advertising\\ weekend\\ specials\\.\\ \\ \\;Was\\ this\\ a\\ gallery\\ or\\ a\\ grocery\\ store\\?\\ \\ \\;Tirs\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ conflation\\ bw\\ objects\\ n\\ representations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\ cans\\ r\\ actually\\ soup\\,\\ but\\ u\\ could\\ buy\\ his\\ pntgs\\ there\\ too\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ was\\ art\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ was\\ groceries\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ until\\ 1962\\ did\\ pop\\ artists\\ have\\ their\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;major\\ 1\\-person\\ shows\\ n\\ its\\ receptions\\ was\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ critics\\ at\\ first\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reception\\ o\\ pop\\ art\\ was\\ vicsiously\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tame\\ 2us\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ domesticated\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ it\\ PISSED\\ critics\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Storm\\ Door\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Superman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ review\\ by\\ Alan\\ Solomon\\ in\\ 1963\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;ugly\\ manifestations\\ o\\ the\\ worlst\\ side\\ o\\ our\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ o\\ rejecting\\ the\\ worst\\ products\\ o\\ our\\ commercial\\ world\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ turned\\ w\\ excitement\\ 2these\\ goods\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ so\\ debasing\\,\\ even\\ tho\\ art\\ falling\\ in2\\ everyday\\ life\\ was\\ appreciated\\,\\ that\\ they\\ hated\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lichtenstein\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sweet\\ Dreams\\ Baby\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\L\\ commented\\ on\\ y\\ this\\ was\\ so\\ hard\\ 2understand\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ whereas\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ w\\ soap\\ n\\ rags\\ was\\ understandable\\ 2these\\ critics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ only\\ thing\\ everyone\\ hated\\ was\\ commercial\\ art\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hilton\\ Cramer\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;pop\\ art\\ just\\ reconciles\\ us\\ 2\\ a\\ world\\ o\\ vulgarities\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ must\\ b\\ refused\\ if\\ life\\ is\\ 2b\\ defended\\ against\\ the\\ dishonesties\\ o\\ commercial\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ these\\ artists\\ were\\ raised\\ on\\ was\\ designed\\ 2protect\\ humanity\\ from\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ commercial\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Mnay\\ concerns\\ surfaced\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\/early\\ 60s\\ about\\ possibility\\ that\\ this\\ wasteland\\ o\\ tv\\ commercials\\ had\\ already\\ infiltrated\\ the\\ psyches\\ o\\ Americans\\,\\ not\\ just\\ their\\ art\\ galleries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ much\\ access\\ did\\ commercial\\ culture\\ have\\ 2these\\ last\\ spaces\\ o\\ authenticity\\ in\\ US\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growth\\ o\\ supermarket\\ shopping\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;motivation\\ esearch\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ advertising\\ research\\ that\\ looked\\ at\\ y\\ ppl\\ bought\\ what\\ they\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Advertising\\ industry\\ using\\ psychoanalytic\\ tactics\\ 2sell\\ products\\ 2US\\ consumers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Author\\ about\\ this\\ suggested\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;women\\ floated\\ through\\ supermarkets\\ in\\ trancelike\\ state\\,\\ dangerously\\ available\\ to\\ the\\ tricky\\ advertising\\ tactics\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ spector\\ o\\ the\\ commercial\\ colonization\\ o\\ the\\ psyche\\ is\\ just\\ what\\ artists\\ like\\ Warhol\\ r\\ provoking\\ n\\ exploiting\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ fear\\ they\\ see\\ in\\ US\\ culture\\,\\ n\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ addressing\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ addressed\\ this\\ fear\\ by\\ making\\ his\\ pntgs\\ allude\\ 2AE\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ model\\ o\\ the\\ psyche\\.\\ \\ \\;Pop\\ artists\\ making\\ commentary\\ n\\ raising\\ fears\\ about\\ what\\ might\\ b\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ psyche\\ by\\ using\\ AE\\ techniques\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pop\\ art\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ \\=\\ vulgarized\\ offshoot\\ o\\ AE\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;concept\\ once\\ evoked\\ by\\ AE\\ pntg\\ had\\ now\\ been\\ occupied\\ by\\ commercial\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lichtenstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\ here\\ evokes\\ all\\ the\\ impact\\ n\\ immediacy\\ n\\ heroic\\ drama\\ o\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\ like\\ Gottlieb\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ but\\ it\\ locates\\ the\\ source\\ o\\ that\\ power\\ in\\ these\\ lowbrow\\ hyperboles\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ find\\ in\\ a\\ comic\\ book\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ where\\ Gottlieb\\ would\\ find\\ them\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ the\\ primitive\\ depths\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slef\\-conscious\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ authentic\\ primal\\ force\\,\\ the\\ power\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ might\\ be\\ insperable\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ from\\ the\\ power\\ o\\ mass\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ 2kinds\\ o\\ power\\ r\\ being\\ conflated\\ in\\ pop\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adolph\\ Gottlieb\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Small\\ Burst\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dance\\ Diagram\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Here\\ is\\ a\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ spontaneity\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ n\\ giving\\ spontaneity\\ a\\ new\\ source\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ Pollocks\\&rsquo\\;\\ dance\\ like\\ motion\\ had\\ offered\\ authenticity\\,\\ contingency\\,\\ full\\-bodied\\ form\\ o\\ expressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;Always\\ changing\\,\\ always\\ autogrphaic\\,\\ working\\ from\\ deep\\ within\\ the\\ psyche\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\-fabricated\\ channels\\ o\\ motion\\ that\\ one\\ needs\\ 2follow\\ in\\ order\\ 2dance\\ ina\\ certain\\ dance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ suggesting\\ that\\ dance\\ \\=\\ something\\ u\\ can\\ buy\\ n\\ study\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ in\\ general\\ is\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ highly\\ codifeied\\ forms\\ o\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Warhol\\ showed\\ these\\ dance\\ diagram\\ pntg\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\ 2make\\ the\\ connection\\ 2Pollock\\ more\\ explicit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Namuth\\ Pollock\\ painting\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dick\\ Tracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ thinkabout\\ connection\\ 2AE\\ w\\ pop\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ how\\ savy\\ it\\ was\\ 2conflate\\ references\\ 2mass\\ consumer\\ culture\\ n\\ the\\ psyche\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;this\\ pntg\\ pntd\\ in\\ way\\ that\\ has\\ AE\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Deliberately\\ quality\\ fake\\ AE\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Drips\\ falling\\ down\\ from\\ the\\ letters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gestural\\ pnt\\ handling\\ up\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ sections\\ at\\ top\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ tehse\\ r\\ signs\\ o\\ the\\ spontaneity\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ come\\ 2associate\\ w\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;Text\\ in\\ the\\ speech\\ bubble\\ gives\\ a\\ mystic\\ infeffability\\ thru\\ the\\ rerasures\\ o\\ leters\\ that\\ Warhol\\ has\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ resemble\\ some\\ o\\ the\\ half\\-foremd\\ archetypal\\ symboslthat\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ early\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mysticism\\.\\ \\ \\;Ineffability\\.\\ \\ \\;Gesture\\.\\ \\ \\;Trance\\-like\\ treatment\\ o\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ 2see\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ mean\\?\\ \\ \\;2read\\ this\\ scubmeld\\ form\\,\\ these\\ images\\ dredged\\ up\\ from\\ the\\ deepest\\ registers\\ o\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subconscious\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ he\\ found\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ pre\\-industrial\\ Jungian\\ archetype\\,\\ but\\ Dick\\ Tracy\\ n\\ many\\ other\\ kinds\\ o\\ US\\ classics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TV\\ \\$199\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ he\\ draws\\ from\\ Jhons\\ \\&lsquo\\;archetypeal\\ drawing\\ on\\ mass\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Deep\\ inside\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntg\\ is\\ newspapers\\,\\ mass\\ culture\\,\\ not\\ the\\ psyche\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Coca\\-Cola\\ Bottles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Encaustic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Commericial\\ unconscious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;POP\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ May\\ 03\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Pop\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ 2\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Review\\ sessions\\ for\\ final\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ website\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Back\\ 2\\ pop\\,\\ where\\ we\\ left\\ off\\ on\\ Tuesday\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1938\\ 2Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TV\\ \\$199\\,\\ 1960\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Warhol\\ n\\ others\\ were\\ reinterpreting\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ collective\\ unconscious\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ deep\\ within\\ the\\ individual\\ psyche\\ was\\ something\\ profoundly\\ deep\\ n\\ human\\,\\ something\\ that\\ Pollock\\ was\\ working\\ thru\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;we\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ images\\ n\\ others\\ aluded\\ 2that\\ depth\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;Scumbled\\ pnt\\,\\ half\\-visible\\ symbols\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ultimate\\ joke\\/paradoxical\\ twist\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ symbols\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ archetypal\\ human\\ structures\\ but\\ instead\\ advertisements\\,\\ messages\\ coming\\ form\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ o\\ media\\ n\\ meass\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transfer\\ o\\ the\\ universal\\ archetype\\ o\\ something\\ in\\ the\\ collective\\ unconscious\\ 2something\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ matrix\\ o\\ the\\ consumption\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ points\\ in\\ making\\ this\\ distinction\\ is\\ 2suggest\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ just\\ more\\ shallowness\\ under\\ the\\ superficial\\ layers\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ n\\ that\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ deep\\ psyche\\ is\\ really\\ just\\ inhabited\\ by\\ further\\ flat\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ practice\\ begs\\ the\\ key\\ question\\ facing\\ all\\ Americans\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ n\\ early\\ 60s\\:\\ \\ \\;is\\ our\\ true\\ subconscious\\ inhabited\\ by\\ media\\ images\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ it\\ the\\ mass\\ media\\ that\\ inhabits\\ the\\ self\\ n\\ regulates\\ tehse\\ desires\\/behaviors\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ profound\\ questions\\ about\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ collectivity\\ n\\ universal\\ communication\\ in\\ this\\ early\\ period\\ o\\ media\\ spread\\ n\\ consumption\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 50s\\ early\\ 60s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feelings\\ were\\ hard\\ 2determine\\ about\\ this\\,\\ about\\ naything\\,\\ but\\ his\\ wrk\\ itself\\ suggested\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ psychological\\ depth\\ 2human\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ commercial\\ depth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jackson\\ Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Andy\\ Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TV\\ \\$199\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Coca\\-Cola\\ Bottles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ pntgs\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 60s\\ suggest\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ US\\ mass\\ consumption\\ n\\ its\\ symbols\\ that\\ knits\\ US\\ life\\ 2gether\\,\\ transcends\\ boundaries\\ bw\\ classes\\ n\\ different\\ types\\ o\\ ppl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ richest\\ consumers\\ buy\\ the\\ same\\ things\\ as\\ the\\ poorest\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ president\\ drinks\\ a\\ coke\\,\\ the\\ bum\\ on\\ a\\ corner\\ drinks\\ coke\\,\\ all\\ cokes\\ r\\ the\\ same\\,\\ n\\ all\\ cokes\\ are\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Unity\\ emerging\\ not\\ through\\ shared\\ sruggle\\ or\\ dialectic\\ but\\ thru\\ mass\\ production\\/consumption\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ way\\ 2find\\ universal\\ one\\-ness\\ w\\ all\\ Americans\\ was\\ thru\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhols\\ images\\ \\=\\ large\\ fields\\ o\\ repetitive\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\200\\ Soup\\ Cans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ these\\ images\\,\\ Warhols\\&rsquo\\;\\ experiments\\ w\\ the\\ commercial\\ unconscious\\ forces\\ art\\ 2recognize\\ its\\ shared\\ territory\\ w\\ advertising\\.\\ \\ \\;Warhol\\ forcing\\ art\\ 2realize\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ that\\ Coke\\ n\\ Cambpells\\ soup\\ is\\ trying\\ 2do\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ going\\ for\\ the\\ general\\ flattening\\ n\\ unviersalization\\ that\\ comes\\ thru\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ forces\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ Democratic\\ equality\\ that\\ was\\ pertinent\\ in\\ Cold\\ War\\ period\\ discussions\\ 2recognize\\ its\\ shared\\ territory\\ w\\ mass\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Freedom\\ n\\ democracy\\ o\\ American\\ life\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2that\\ behind\\ the\\ iron\\ curtain\\.\\ \\ \\;Warhol\\ suggesting\\ our\\ democratic\\ equality\\ comes\\ not\\ from\\ our\\ political\\ system\\ but\\ through\\ consumption\\,\\ this\\ leveling\\,\\ universalized\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ some\\ ways\\ we\\ might\\ say\\ these\\ pntgs\\ \\=\\ reality\\ checks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ produce\\ bracing\\ encounter\\ w\\ the\\ new\\ consumerist\\ reality\\ o\\ US\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ new\\ reality\\ is\\ not\\ reality\\ at\\ all\\,\\ n\\ in\\ some\\ ways\\ his\\ pntgs\\ explore\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ commercial\\ filter\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ that\\ prevents\\ access\\ 2anything\\ beneath\\ or\\ below\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ commercial\\ unconscious\\ Warhol\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reside\\ deeply\\ within\\ the\\ self\\ but\\ covers\\ over\\ n\\ displaces\\ some\\ kind\\ o\\ collective\\ unconsciosness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ o\\ the\\ Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\ can\\ raises\\ questions\\ o\\ interiority\\ n\\ exteriority\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ talked\\ about\\ all\\ semester\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ reasons\\ that\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncanny\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ that\\ Warhol\\ chooses\\ a\\ specific\\ subject\\ matter\\ 2experiement\\ on\\ the\\ notions\\ o\\ interiority\\ n\\ exteriority\\.\\ \\ \\;Soup\\,\\ old\\ fashioned\\,\\ reassuringly\\ honest\\ n\\ real\\ about\\ Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ yet\\,\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ fails\\ 2voke\\ the\\ homestyle\\ authenticity\\ that\\ these\\ cans\\ o\\ soup\\ might\\ want\\ us\\ 2bleieve\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ the\\ reptetitive\\ pattern\\ conveying\\ abundance\\ is\\ subtly\\ nationalized\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ it\\ resembles\\ an\\ American\\ flag\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ o\\ the\\ cans\\ asks\\ us\\ what\\ the\\ price\\ o\\ that\\ abundance\\ might\\ b\\.\\ \\ \\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ nutritional\\ value\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\?\\ \\ \\;Arrangement\\ o\\ the\\ cans\\ has\\ flat\\,\\ superficial\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ there\\ is\\ really\\ nothing\\ behind\\ or\\ in\\ these\\ cans\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ nutritional\\ play\\ on\\ exteriority\\/interiotity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throughout\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ 60s\\ he\\ experiemneted\\ w\\ ways\\ 2represent\\ the\\ consumer\\ project\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Soup\\ Cans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(32\\ canvases\\)\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ were\\ set\\ up\\ along\\ shelves\\,\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ retail\\ products\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ this\\ question\\ o\\ repetition\\ n\\ how\\ repetition\\ prevents\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ interiotiy\\ o\\ the\\ objects\\ represeneted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interested\\ in\\ the\\ numbing\\,\\ flattening\\,\\ distancing\\ effect\\ o\\ repetition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ time\\,\\ tho\\,\\ he\\ began\\ sqitching\\ 2\\ a\\ silkscreen\\ process\\ 2create\\ his\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ silk\\ screen\\ markings\\ on\\ 2\\ Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\ boxes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Silk\\ screen\\ technique\\ is\\ wha\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ used\\ 2mass\\ produce\\ T\\-shirts\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ take\\ image\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ photographically\\ reproduced\\ on2\\ a\\ screen\\ of\\ silk\\,\\ n\\ then\\ pnt\\ forced\\ through\\ the\\ screen\\ w\\ a\\ squeegee\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ marks\\ on\\ the\\ matter\\ below\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ Warhol\\ has\\ borrowed\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\ o\\ pntg\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ commercial\\ procedure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autogrpahic\\ gesture\\ which\\ was\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ totally\\ compromised\\,\\ however\\,\\ by\\ the\\ status\\ o\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ silk\\ screen\\ practice\\ as\\ mechanical\\ reproduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elvis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\ size\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ interested\\ in\\ silk\\ screen\\ technique\\ bc\\ it\\ let\\ him\\ get\\ pntrly\\ effects\\,\\ such\\ as\\ smudges\\ n\\ overlaps\\,\\ but\\ he\\ did\\ it\\ through\\ mechanical\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lichtenstein\\ was\\ also\\ concerned\\ w\\ these\\ issues\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ abstract\\ expressionist\\ gesture\\ is\\ being\\ put\\ to\\ the\\ test\\ by\\ mechanization\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jasper\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ experiments\\ w\\ the\\ gesture\\,\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experiments\\ wi\\ the\\ gesture\\,\\ n\\ Lcihttenstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ all\\ experiment\\ w\\ the\\ relationship\\ bw\\ the\\ hand\\ gesture\\ n\\ creativity\\,\\ bw\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ creating\\ accidental\\ effects\\ thru\\ the\\ hand\\ n\\ proiducingthose\\ same\\ effects\\ thru\\ mechanical\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jackie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\ also\\ interestedi\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ chance\\ n\\ randomness\\ comes\\ thru\\ mechanical\\ reproduction\\,\\ n\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sesn\\ o\\ profoucned\\ uniqueness\\ that\\ still\\ inhabits\\ his\\ reproduced\\ silk\\ screen\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ make\\ repteated\\ prints\\ o\\ the\\ same\\ image\\,\\ n\\ each\\ of\\ them\\ was\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ way\\ quite\\ unique\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ handpaint\\ the\\ images\\ before\\ silk\\ screening\\ htem\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ u\\ see\\ brushstrokes\\ in\\ the\\ blue\\ behind\\ Jackie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ image\\ appears\\ against\\ the\\ blue\\ background\\ vs\\.\\ against\\ the\\ white\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ pnt\\ registration\\,\\ giving\\ her\\ slightly\\ different\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Blue\\ image\\ has\\ blob\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ not\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ would\\ give\\ Jackie\\ sense\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ seems\\ more\\ alone\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ exploring\\ difference\\ w\\/in\\ repettion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ emotional\\ content\\ o\\ these\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Based\\ on\\ photo\\ taken\\ o\\ Jackie\\ at\\ JFK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ funeral\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ wrks\\ thru\\ test\\ here\\ o\\ the\\ status\\ o\\ portraiture\\.\\ \\ \\;Process\\ o\\ taking\\ this\\ phtoo\\ from\\ its\\ printed\\ source\\,\\ translating\\ it\\ in2\\ a\\ silk\\ screen\\,\\ reproducing\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decaying\\ from\\ its\\ original\\ sharpness\\,\\ eventually\\ toward\\ total\\ decay\\ beyond\\ recognition\\,\\ but\\ nevertheless\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ effecting\\ in\\ some\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ paly\\ bw\\ emotional\\ content\\ n\\ distance\\ in\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ image\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ how\\ far\\ an\\ image\\ can\\ decay\\ thru\\ its\\ reproduction\\ b4\\ it\\ becomes\\ something\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ o\\ his\\ silk\\ screen\\ pntgs\\,\\ especially\\ toward\\ 1963\\-4\\,\\ were\\ testing\\ this\\ relationship\\ bw\\ emotion\\,\\ affect\\,\\ reprodudction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Red\\ Disaster\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ o\\ an\\ electric\\ chair\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Red\\ Race\\ Riot\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Again\\ n\\ again\\ during\\ these\\ yrs\\ Warhol\\ creates\\ silk\\ screen\\ arrays\\ o\\ difficult\\ subject\\ matter\\,\\ no\\ where\\ does\\ this\\ become\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ it\\ does\\ I\\ na\\ sires\\ o\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;accident\\ photographs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ were\\ really\\ gory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ambulance\\ Disaster\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foot\\ and\\ Tire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ images\\ r\\ uconceivably\\ gruesome\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\ mangled\\ n\\ bent\\ by\\ the\\ rash\\.\\ \\ \\;Irony\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ an\\ ambulance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ when\\ talking\\ about\\ these\\ kinds\\ o\\ pntgs\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;when\\ u\\ see\\ a\\ gruesome\\ picture\\ over\\ n\\ over\\ again\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ any\\ effect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claiming\\ to\\ treat\\ reprition\\ as\\ anaesthesure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ more\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ the\\ more\\ meaning\\ goes\\ away\\,\\ n\\ the\\ better\\ n\\ emptier\\ u\\ feel\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claiming\\ that\\ these\\ images\\ should\\ b\\ easy\\ 2look\\ at\\ bc\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ repeated\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ culture\\ where\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ constantly\\ bombarded\\ by\\ horror\\ after\\ horror\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ might\\ think\\ o\\ the\\ reality\\ represented\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ as\\ hovering\\ bw\\ affect\\ n\\ distance\\,\\ bw\\ emotional\\ content\\ n\\ simply\\ shallow\\/superficial\\ abstraction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ reality\\ represnted\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ actually\\ be\\ terrible\\ enough\\ 2push\\ thru\\ the\\ surface\\ ot\\ he\\ pntg\\,\\ 2break\\ the\\ modern\\ viewer\\ from\\ the\\ aneasthesia\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ critics\\,\\ this\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ them\\ ost\\ ast\\ active\\ areas\\ o\\ Warhol\\ scholarship\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ disagreeo\\ n\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ say\\ the\\ pntd\\ reality\\ is\\ actually\\ terrible\\ enough\\ 2pass\\ thru\\ the\\ image\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;Othes\\ feel\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ about\\ the\\ loss\\ o\\ our\\ ability\\ 2understand\\ \\/access\\ real\\ emotion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hal\\ Foster\\ thought\\ pntgs\\ like\\ this\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ all\\ contemporary\\ life\\ mediated\\ by\\ culture\\,\\ consists\\ o\\ missed\\ encounters\\ w\\ the\\ real\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ referring\\ 2trauma\\ reactions\\ where\\ ppl\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ absorb\\ the\\ event\\ n\\ repeatedly\\ re\\-live\\ superficial\\ aspects\\ o\\ the\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ this\\ what\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ images\\ do\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Timothy\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Harvest\\ of\\ Death\\,\\ Gettysburg\\,\\ PA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ image\\ actually\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ how\\ US\\ culture\\ in\\ 1963\\ is\\ still\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ difficult\\ relatinships\\ bw\\ trauma\\,\\ affect\\,\\ n\\ reproduction\\ that\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\ was\\ already\\ approaching\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ these\\ images\\ so\\ horrific\\ 4ppl\\ was\\ bc\\ this\\ image\\ o\\ death\\ had\\ been\\ reproduced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ was\\ so\\ wrenching\\ about\\ these\\ images\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ death\\ had\\ been\\ removed\\ from\\ the\\ intimate\\,\\ private\\,\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ postmortem\\ death\\,\\ n\\ had\\ been\\ disseminated\\ throughout\\ US\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ made\\ the\\ reproduction\\ so\\ hard\\ 2\\ look\\ at\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\&hellip\\;the\\ opposite\\ was\\ true\\ in\\ Warhol\\,\\ that\\ the\\ images\\ anaestheticized\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ pop\\ art\\ helped\\ return\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ 2pntg\\,\\ but\\ that\\ culture\\ itself\\ has\\ a\\ tenuous\\ relationship\\ 2reality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pop\\ artists\\ look\\ at\\ reality\\&hellip\\;but\\ has\\ it\\ become\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ shallow\\ signs\\ n\\ informational\\ images\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ pop\\ art\\ is\\ 2b\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ realism\\,\\ it\\ has\\ 2b\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ realism\\ like\\ the\\ capitalist\\ realism\\&hellip\\;not\\ realism\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ ssense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pop\\ artists\\ constantly\\ trying\\ 2confront\\ that\\ consumer\\ culture\\ had\\ changed\\ the\\ nature\\ o\\ reality\\,\\ changed\\ how\\ perception\\ itself\\,\\ so\\ any\\ realism\\ attempting\\ 2cpature\\ it\\ had\\ 2contend\\ that\\ access\\ 2the\\ object\\,\\ 2emotion\\,\\ all\\ the\\ traditional\\ notiosn\\ o\\ objectivity\\ n\\ realism\\,\\ had\\ been\\ rewritten\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenqueist\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ overtly\\ political\\ pop\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ began\\ his\\ career\\ as\\ a\\ billboard\\ pntr\\,\\ later\\ became\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;high\\ artist\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ routeinly\\ found\\ himself\\ high\\ above\\ manhattan\\,\\ pressed\\ up\\ against\\ giant\\ billboards\\ he\\ was\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Salami\\ ads\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ consumer\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ his\\ relationship\\ 2the\\ images\\ was\\ strange\\ n\\ different\\ bc\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ proximity\\ 2them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ images\\ o\\ them\\ were\\ intimagte\\ close\\,\\ but\\ fragmented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ start\\ an\\ ad\\,\\ but\\ then\\ I\\ see\\ things\\ in\\ weird\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;Noses\\ become\\ like\\ maps\\ o\\ Yugoslavia\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ eventually\\ intuited\\ that\\ this\\ view\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ US\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ particular\\ 2billboard\\ b\\=pntrs\\ but\\ rather\\ was\\ analogous\\ 2hte\\ position\\ o\\ any\\ consumer\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ during\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ constantly\\ confronted\\ by\\ products\\,\\ images\\,\\ n\\ they\\ have\\ relationships\\ 2these\\,\\ but\\ larger\\ system\\ o\\ which\\ tehse\\ images\\ were\\ a\\ part\\ were\\ becoming\\ harder\\ n\\ harder\\ 2grasp\\.\\ \\ \\;Intensity\\,\\ but\\ also\\ confusion\\ n\\ disconnection\\ from\\ a\\ larger\\ whole\\&hellip\\;this\\ \\=\\ Rosenquist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ he\\ made\\ his\\ pntgs\\ epress\\ this\\ fragmentation\\ n\\ confusion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ Rosenquist\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\President\\ Elect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenquist\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ impossibility\\ o\\ grasping\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ individual\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Everything\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overlapped\\,\\ hard\\ 2distentangle\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ some\\ o\\ his\\ many\\ pntgs\\ that\\ show\\ pieces\\ n\\ fragments\\ o\\ consumer\\-visual\\ culture\\ n\\ turn\\ them\\ in2\\ large\\ billboards\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;consider\\ the\\ relationship\\ bw\\ these\\ images\\ own\\ perceptual\\ apparaturs\\ n\\ the\\ flood\\ o\\ imagery\\ from\\ the\\ media\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ most\\ important\\ pntg\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenquist\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\F\\-111\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ mural\\.\\ \\ \\;10\\&rsquo\\;x86\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrapped\\ around\\ 4walls\\ o\\ gallery\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Crowded\\ around\\ viewers\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ ea\\ o\\ the\\ viewers\\ was\\ forced\\ 2take\\ this\\ intense\\ proximity\\ 2the\\ images\\,\\ inability\\ 2take\\ everything\\ in\\ at\\ once\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lurking\\ behind\\ all\\ the\\ images\\ is\\ the\\ F\\-111\\,\\ US\\&rsquo\\;\\ most\\ advanced\\ figher\\ aircraft\\,\\ n\\ it\\ was\\ ptned\\ 2its\\ actual\\ size\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ admitted\\ his\\ turn\\ 2mural\\ pntg\\ was\\ devoted\\ 2\\ n\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ Mexian\\ muralists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diego\\ Rivera\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Detroit\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ north\\ wall\\,\\ 1932\\-33\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ pulls\\ from\\ his\\ scale\\,\\ n\\ his\\ intermingling\\ o\\ bodies\\ n\\ machines\\,\\ its\\ compositional\\ techniques\\,\\ n\\ its\\ political\\ content\\ n\\ political\\ mode\\ o\\ adderss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\-111\\ I\\ n1965\\ had\\ yet\\ 2go\\ in2\\ combat\\,\\ n\\ had\\ just\\ had\\ its\\ maiden\\ test\\ flight\\.\\ \\ \\;Serial\\ number\\ on\\ the\\ tail\\ shows\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ the\\ actual\\ test\\ flight\\ bomber\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ was\\ menacing\\ about\\ the\\ bomber\\ 4Rosenquist\\ was\\ its\\ overt\\ destructive\\ power\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ nearly\\ imperceptible\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ this\\ plane\\ had\\ been\\ insinuated\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ consumer\\ economy\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ ppl\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talking\\ enough\\ about\\ in\\ his\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;d\\ become\\ part\\ o\\ everyday\\ consumer\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plane\\ was\\ contributing\\ 2the\\ purchasing\\ power\\ o\\ all\\ the\\ ppl\\ who\\ helped\\ build\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ huge\\ American\\ corporations\\ were\\ also\\ major\\ defense\\ contractors\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ ppl\\ were\\ supporting\\ this\\ fire\\ bomber\\ just\\ by\\ buying\\ cars\\ or\\ simple\\ other\\ purchases\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2conceive\\ 4Rosenquist\\ was\\ how\\ military\\ production\\ is\\ inextricable\\ from\\ the\\ general\\ cornucopia\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eisenhower\\ was\\ already\\ talking\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ becoming\\ inseparable\\ from\\ the\\ broader\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Military\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;avg\\.\\ US\\ consumer\\ has\\ already\\ bought\\ these\\ airplanes\\ by\\ paying\\ taxes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Men\\ have\\ participated\\ in\\ this\\ world\\ whether\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;US\\ combat\\ troops\\ had\\ just\\ entered\\ Vietnam\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ interested\\ in\\ intersection\\ bw\\ consumer\\ behavior\\ n\\ US\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ question\\ o\\ potential\\ complicity\\,\\ notion\\ that\\ consumption\\ \\(n\\ the\\ consumption\\ o\\ art\\)\\ is\\ inextricable\\ from\\ larger\\ series\\ o\\ political\\ questions\\ n\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\-111\\ assmebled\\ from\\ 51\\ panels\\,\\ ea\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ r\\ regular\\ conavs\\.s\\ \\ \\;some\\ r\\ made\\ o\\ aluminum\\.\\ \\ \\;Ea\\ panel\\ comes\\ 2gether\\ in\\ mosaic\\ fashion\\ 2make\\ up\\ the\\ mural\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portable\\ panels\\ put\\ 2gether\\ 2create\\ this\\ larger\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Rosenqueist\\ had\\ planned\\ 2sell\\ ea\\ panel\\ individually\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ beingthat\\ ea\\ collector\\ had\\ a\\ single\\ panel\\,\\ n\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ separated\\ the\\ panel\\ from\\ its\\ larger\\ context\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ like\\ an\\ abstract\\ pntg\\ panel\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ as\\ a\\ collector\\ u\\ know\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ ensemble\\.\\ \\ \\;Constant\\ reminder\\ 2ea\\ collector\\ that\\ their\\ individual\\ act\\ o\\ consumption\\ is\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ bigger\\ picture\\,\\ a\\ picture\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ b\\ a\\ pretty\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ great\\ ironies\\ about\\ this\\ pntg\\ is\\ that\\ its\\ panels\\ were\\ ultimately\\ not\\ diserpesed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ leading\\ pop\\ collectors\\ purchased\\ the\\ entire\\ plane\\,\\ all\\ o\\ the\\ panels\\ together\\,\\ n\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\ resides\\ in\\ tact\\ in\\ the\\ MOMA\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ when\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ plane\\ now\\ at\\ MOMA\\,\\ u\\ have\\ 2get\\ back\\ in2\\ the\\ original\\ intent\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ n\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ cracks\\ bw\\ the\\ panels\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ abstract\\ sctions\\ o\\ eac\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ plane\\,\\ how\\ Rosenquist\\ was\\ after\\ this\\ illusory\\ nature\\ o\\ consumer\\ society\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2itnroduce\\ 2the\\ world\\,\\ n\\ we\\ still\\ grapple\\ w\\ this\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Winslow\\ Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\-63\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roy\\ Lichtenstein\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Torpedo\\&hellip\\;Los\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ section\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ compare\\ these\\ pnts\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ r\\ dealing\\ directly\\ w\\ things\\ like\\ the\\ intersection\\ o\\ war\\ n\\ vision\\,\\ the\\ intersection\\ o\\ vision\\ n\\ the\\ body\\,\\ relationship\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ 2\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ relatinshi\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ 2he\\ spatial\\ structure\\ o\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ section\\,\\ b\\ ready\\ 2think\\ explicitly\\ about\\ how\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ put\\ tehse\\ 2images\\ in2\\ a\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imilar\\ n\\ different\\ about\\ these\\ images\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 23, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA172w_-_Class_Notes_3.doc", "desc": "Note set 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Art and Modernity - Notes 1", "tags": ["harvard", "american-art", "modernity"], "text": null, "id": 56, "html": "\\\\\\American\\ Art\\ and\\ Modernity\\ \\-\\ Notes\\ 1\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-17\\.1pt\\;margin\\-left\\:17\\.1pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:19pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c2\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c10\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c11\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c17\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c19\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\;WAR\\,\\ MEMORY\\,\\ AND\\ THE\\ UNREPRESENTABLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Tuesday\\ 2\\/6\\/07\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Winslow\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Civil\\ War\\:\\ \\ \\;Vision\\,\\ Technology\\,\\ and\\ Modern\\ Warfare\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alan\\ Trachtenberg\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Albums\\ of\\ War\\:\\ On\\ Reading\\ Civil\\ War\\ Photographs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Representations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;9\\ \\(Winter\\ 1985\\)\\:\\ 1\\-32\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Herman\\ Melville\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Utilitarian\\ View\\ of\\ the\\ Monitor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fight\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ Homer\\,\\ Thursday\\ photography\\ n\\ print\\ media\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ 3\\ pntgs\\ very\\ closely\\ by\\ Homer\\,\\ contending\\ w\\ the\\ challenge\\ o\\ representing\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ modern\\ warfare\\.\\ \\ \\;Confronting\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ wider\\ repercussions\\ for\\ showing\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ Massachusetts\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ 2b\\ pntr\\,\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1857\\ began\\ contributing\\ illustrations\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Weekly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1859\\ moved\\ 2nyc\\ 2get\\ closer\\ 2publishing\\ houses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thourhgout\\ late\\ 1850s\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ trying\\ 2get\\ money\\ 2gether\\ 2go\\ 2europe\\.\\ \\ \\;France\\ 1866\\,\\ saw\\ Courbet\\ n\\ Manet\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ pre\\-Europe\\ pngs\\,\\ b4\\ he\\ saw\\ those\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1861\\-2\\ he\\ was\\ on\\ journalist\\-type\\ assignments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Winslow\\ Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\-3\\ \\(left\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Defiance\\:\\ \\ \\;Inviting\\ a\\ Shot\\ before\\ Petersburg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1864\\ \\(center\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Veteran\\ in\\ a\\ New\\ Field\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1865\\ \\(right\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Filling\\ Cartridges\\ at\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ Arsenal\\ at\\ Watertown\\,\\ MAsachusetts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Weekly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1861\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Done\\ just\\ b4\\ civil\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\News\\ from\\ the\\ War\\,\\ Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Weekly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wanted\\ 2b\\ more\\ than\\ journalist\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ 2b\\ artist\\,\\ which\\ meant\\ being\\ a\\ real\\ oil\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ these\\ reporting\\-like\\ journalistic\\ scenes\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ 2interpret\\ it\\ symbolically\\,\\ intellectually\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ should\\ one\\ b\\ an\\ ambitious\\ battle\\ pntr\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Trumbull\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1786\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ type\\ o\\ scene\\ pntrs\\ would\\ look\\ back\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ wanted\\ 2\\ create\\ grand\\-manner\\ history\\ pntgs\\ that\\ made\\ statements\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ that\\ came\\ w\\ war\\,\\ making\\ the\\ death\\ meaningful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ This\\ was\\ pntd\\ after\\ the\\ war\\ ended\\,\\ giving\\ retrospective\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ notice\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ decisive\\ individual\\ actions\\,\\ esp\\.\\ around\\ group\\ o\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;Trumbull\\ wants\\ 2give\\ specific\\ individuals\\ n\\ their\\ acts\\ didactic\\,\\ moral\\ meaning\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ death\\ o\\ general\\ Warren\\ is\\ being\\ linked\\ 2kind\\ o\\ universal\\ theme\\ o\\ Christian\\ sacrifice\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ grand\\ drama\\:\\ \\ \\;billowing\\ flags\\,\\ sweeping\\ composition\\.\\ Entire\\ scene\\ substantiated\\ by\\ aristocratic\\ codes\\ o\\ honor\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ someone\\ dying\\ on\\ the\\ battlefield\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ general\\ about\\ 2die\\,\\ n\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ British\\ soldier\\ looking\\ brutish\\ n\\ about\\ 2bayonet\\ the\\ guy\\ unnecessarily\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ a\\ key\\ element\\ is\\ General\\ Smalls\\ o\\ the\\ British\\ army\\ holding\\ back\\ his\\ brutish\\ soldier\\,\\ upholding\\ aristocratic\\ code\\ o\\ war\\ in\\ which\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ok\\ 2kill\\ in\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ but\\ no\\ bayoneting\\ a\\ guy\\ lying\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\All\\ kinds\\ o\\ meaning\\ is\\ produced\\ in\\ pntgs\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ carnage\\ scenes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ has\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ come\\ down\\ 2us\\ visually\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ model\\ Homer\\ used\\ 2depict\\ battle\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ images\\ look\\ nothing\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ do\\ u\\ see\\ visually\\ when\\ u\\ think\\ o\\ the\\ visual\\ war\\?\\ \\ \\;Not\\ a\\ scene\\ like\\ Trumbull\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ have\\ images\\ like\\ this\\ 2commemorate\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\?\\ \\ \\;When\\ we\\ think\\ o\\ CW\\,\\ we\\ think\\ o\\ Lincoln\\,\\ generals\\ standing\\ outside\\ tents\\,\\ photos\\ o\\ dead\\ soldiers\\,\\ but\\ no\\ grand\\ manner\\ history\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Whne\\ u\\ do\\ see\\ a\\ grand\\ manner\\ history\\ pntg\\ around\\ the\\ ivil\\ war\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ ridiculous\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Washington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jackson\\ Entering\\ Winchester\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1862\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bad\\ wooden\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ way\\ 2produce\\ this\\ pntg\\ w\\/o\\ it\\ looking\\ wooden\\ though\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ pastiche\\ o\\ stock\\ poses\\ taken\\ from\\ equestrian\\ statues\\ n\\ other\\ kinds\\ o\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\ supposedly\\ expiring\\ on\\ the\\ sts\\ o\\ Winchester\\ looks\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ stage\\ actor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ pntg\\ wrk\\?\\ \\ \\;2\\ interrelated\\ reasons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\War\\ had\\ complicated\\ n\\ new\\ relationship\\ 2visibility\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ civil\\ war\\ n\\ invisible\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Form\\ o\\ the\\ war\\,\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mechanized\\ war\\,\\ made\\ conditions\\ that\\ made\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ pntg\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;Chivalry\\,\\ hierarchy\\,\\ close\\,\\ glorious\\ hand\\-to\\-hand\\ combat\\,\\ none\\ o\\ these\\ were\\ how\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ actually\\ unfolded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Skirmish\\ in\\ the\\ Wilderness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1864\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ only\\ pntg\\ o\\ a\\ battle\\ that\\ Homer\\ produced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nothing\\ like\\ Trumbull\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ theme\\ here\\:\\ \\ \\;blindness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Blindness\\ in\\ the\\ battles\\ themselves\\ too\\,\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ wilderness\\ was\\ blinding\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ brutal\\,\\ horrible\\ battles\\.\\ \\ \\;Dense\\ brush\\,\\ maneuvering\\ was\\ impossible\\,\\ u\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ anything\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ North\\ alone\\ in\\ this\\ battle\\ lost\\ 17\\ thousand\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ burned\\ alive\\ when\\ fires\\ started\\ in\\ the\\ dense\\ underbrush\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ like\\ Vietnam\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Veterans\\ said\\ o\\ this\\ battle\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ strangest\\ n\\ most\\ indescribable\\ battle\\ in\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ man\\ saw\\.\\ \\ \\;Enemy\\ was\\ invisible\\.\\ \\ \\;Individual\\ acts\\ o\\ valor\\/heroism\\ were\\ blunted\\ bc\\ they\\ were\\ invisible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ blindness\\ is\\ inversely\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ aristocratic\\ morals\\ n\\ valor\\ that\\ was\\ recognized\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;Vision\\ becomes\\ problematic\\ in\\ these\\ battles\\ n\\ therefore\\ in\\ scenes\\ o\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Other\\ issue\\ is\\ that\\ vision\\ itself\\,\\ what\\ there\\ was\\ o\\ it\\,\\ was\\ being\\ reorganized\\ in\\ fairly\\ frightening\\ new\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sharpshooter\\ balanced\\ in\\ tree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ is\\ hard\\ 2make\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;Camoflouge\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ is\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ really\\ about\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ o\\ the\\ sharpshooter\\ but\\ at\\ heart\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ sharpshooter\\ sees\\ n\\ how\\ his\\ form\\ o\\ vision\\ reorganizes\\ the\\ understanding\\ o\\ vision\\ itself\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ sitting\\ around\\,\\ minor\\ skirmishes\\,\\ n\\ Homer\\ spent\\ a\\ lot\\ o\\ time\\ pntg\\ soldiers\\ who\\ really\\ wanted\\ things\\ 2happen\\,\\ but\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ battles\\.\\ \\ \\;Sitting\\ in\\ trenches\\ waiting\\ 4action\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ who\\ were\\ killed\\ were\\ killed\\ by\\ sharpshooters\\,\\ snipers\\.\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ o\\ decisive\\ action\\ otherwise\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Sharp\\-Shooter\\ on\\ Picket\\ Duty\\ \\(engraving\\ of\\ Sharpshooter\\)\\,\\ Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Weekly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Targets\\ could\\ be\\ hit\\ from\\ a\\ mile\\ away\\ with\\ this\\ site\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ get\\ a\\ new\\,\\ high\\-powered\\ mechanical\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;sharpshooters\\ use\\ rifles\\ not\\ muskets\\,\\ n\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;use\\ o\\ the\\ rifle\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ causes\\ instantaneous\\ kills\\.\\ \\ \\;Musket\\ bullets\\ traveled\\ slower\\,\\ u\\ could\\ maybe\\ even\\ dodge\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sharpshooters\\ were\\ set\\ apart\\ from\\ other\\ soldiers\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ privileged\\ \\/\\ elite\\ members\\ o\\ the\\ army\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ reviled\\ by\\ other\\ soldiers\\.\\ \\ \\;Seen\\ as\\ cold\\-blooded\\,\\ mechanical\\.\\ \\ \\;Killing\\ not\\ in\\ chivalric\\ fashion\\,\\ but\\ in\\ efficient\\,\\ dispassionate\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ style\\ o\\ f\\ killing\\ was\\ equated\\ w\\ murder\\,\\ not\\ acceptable\\ killing\\ in\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shot\\ came\\ from\\ nowhere\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ danger\\ in\\ trees\\ changed\\ how\\ battles\\ were\\ fought\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ were\\ forced\\ in2\\ trench\\ warfare\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ soldier\\ Homer\\ focuses\\ on\\ as\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Indicates\\ end\\ o\\ implicit\\ sociability\\ o\\ warfare\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ face\\ is\\ covered\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ o\\ anonymity\\.\\ \\ \\;Stillness\\,\\ silence\\ o\\ killer\\ denies\\ opportunity\\ 4empathetic\\ connection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scenes\\ o\\ action\\ always\\ have\\ effacement\\,\\ anonymity\\ o\\ the\\ figure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Officers\\ and\\ Turret\\ on\\ Board\\ USS\\ Monitor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ read\\ poem\\ about\\ how\\ warfare\\ becomes\\ about\\ machines\\,\\ calculations\\,\\ no\\ passion\\,\\ no\\ sociability\\.\\ \\ \\;Poem\\ is\\ by\\ Melville\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connects\\ this\\ 2loss\\ o\\ pntrly\\ images\\ n\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ room\\ 4humanity\\,\\ heroic\\ or\\ otherwise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Naval\\ battles\\ had\\ always\\ been\\ pictured\\ in\\ American\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Birch\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Engagement\\ between\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Constiution\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ Guerriere\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1813\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Naval\\ battles\\ r\\ hard\\ bc\\ the\\ 2ships\\ have\\ 2have\\ great\\ human\\ interest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ u\\ show\\ humanity\\ in\\ a\\ fight\\ bw\\ 2\\ giants\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ L\\-shape\\ as\\ Trumbull\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birch\\ had\\ various\\ techniques\\ 2make\\ this\\ look\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ heroic\\ history\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Sails\\ on\\ the\\ ships\\ fnctn\\ like\\ flapping\\ sleeves\\/hair\\,\\ humanizing\\/anthropomorphizing\\ the\\ hsip\\,\\ which\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ machine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ hte\\ monitor\\ n\\ the\\ Merrmiack\\ r\\ machines\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ a\\ disturbing\\ scene\\ from\\ robot\\ wars\\.\\ \\ \\;Featureless\\ black\\ objects\\ ramming\\ e\\/o\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ sums\\ up\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ depiction\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ do\\ u\\ make\\ heroic\\ history\\ pntg\\ o\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ when\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ large\\ iron\\ objects\\ ramming\\ in2\\ eo\\ n\\ looking\\ thru\\ rifle\\ sites\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\View\\ through\\ the\\ Scope\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(sketch\\ in\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ Goerge\\ Briggs\\,\\ 1896\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homer\\ looked\\ thru\\ a\\ scope\\ n\\ described\\ it\\ as\\ being\\ as\\ close\\ 2murder\\ as\\ anything\\ he\\ had\\ seen\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\ always\\ had\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;horror\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ sharpshooting\\ branch\\ of\\ the\\ army\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ 2intelligent\\/introspective\\ 2think\\ the\\ huge\\ changes\\ o\\ visibility\\ n\\ war\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ extend\\ 2other\\ areas\\ o\\ life\\/culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ vision\\ totally\\ cancels\\ the\\ relationship\\ bw\\ viewer\\ n\\ the\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ would\\ happen\\ 2\\ pntg\\ now\\,\\ which\\ was\\ about\\ connecting\\ viewers\\ n\\ pntrs\\?\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worried\\ about\\ he\\ fusion\\ o\\ the\\ seer\\ in2\\ the\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Is\\ this\\ a\\ human\\ thing\\,\\ or\\ r\\ we\\ becoming\\ robots\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\r\\ the\\ implications\\ 4what\\ the\\ artist\\ himelf\\ is\\ doing\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Image\\ from\\ the\\ Siege\\ o\\ Petersburg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Army\\ was\\ wearing\\ down\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ huddled\\ behind\\ trench\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Union\\ army\\ is\\ hiding\\ behind\\ a\\ wasteland\\ o\\ stumps\\,\\ throwing\\ shells\\ at\\ the\\ protagonists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ shows\\ an\\ absolute\\ wasteland\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confederate\\ soldier\\,\\ presumably\\ exasperated\\ by\\ everything\\ about\\ the\\ battle\\ \\(frustration\\ o\\ being\\ so\\ separated\\&hellip\\;this\\ is\\ trench\\ warfare\\,\\ not\\ what\\ ppl\\ r\\ used\\ 2seeing\\ in\\ war\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ jumped\\ atop\\ the\\ ramparts\\ n\\ challenged\\ the\\ union\\ troops\\ behind\\ the\\ fortifications\\ 2shoot\\ at\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Supposedly\\ this\\ happened\\ from\\ time\\ 2time\\ during\\ this\\ siege\\.\\ \\ \\;Soldier\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ was\\ certain\\ death\\&rdquo\\;\\ 2stand\\ above\\ the\\ trench\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\&rsquo\\;d\\ get\\ shot\\ in\\ the\\ head\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;South\\ was\\ more\\ about\\ old\\ codes\\ o\\ chivalry\\ n\\ courage\\.\\ \\ \\;Northerners\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ more\\ sharpshooters\\,\\ rationalized\\,\\ more\\ modern\\.\\ \\ \\;Southerners\\,\\ this\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ mythology\\ o\\ the\\ lost\\ cause\\,\\ were\\ closer\\ 2an\\ older\\,\\ aristocratic\\ way\\ o\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ behavior\\,\\ jumping\\ up\\ n\\ fighting\\ like\\ a\\ man\\,\\ challenging\\ northern\\ soldiers\\ 2\\ a\\ duel\\,\\ is\\ in\\ line\\ w\\ older\\ thinking\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ pivotal\\,\\ decisive\\ moment\\ 4\\ Homer\\.\\ \\ \\;Will\\ he\\ get\\ hit\\ by\\ the\\ sharpshooters\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ pntg\\ is\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ the\\ single\\ soldier\\ standing\\ or\\ falling\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ much\\ falls\\ or\\ stands\\ along\\ w\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entire\\ concept\\ o\\ the\\ social\\ codes\\ o\\ welfare\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ assurances\\ that\\ the\\ battlefield\\ is\\ a\\ venue\\ for\\ these\\ modes\\ o\\ sociability\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entire\\ history\\ o\\ grand\\-manner\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emmanuel\\ Leutze\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Washington\\ Crossing\\ the\\ Delaware\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1851\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ironic\\ comparison\\ being\\ made\\ bw\\ the\\ 2\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ takes\\ this\\ standard\\ pose\\ w\\ his\\ southern\\ dude\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ it\\ 2\\ Washington\\ on\\ the\\ boat\\.\\ \\ \\;Homer\\ uses\\ the\\ pose\\ in\\ ironic\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ a\\ desperate\\,\\ foolish\\ southerner\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ killed\\.\\ \\ \\;Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ individual\\ is\\ recoded\\ as\\ not\\ heroic\\ success\\,\\ but\\ piece\\ o\\ fuel\\ 2b\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ o\\ attrition\\,\\ which\\ was\\ how\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ was\\ understood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ war\\ is\\ negating\\ the\\ conditions\\ that\\ made\\ traditional\\ history\\ pntg\\ meaningful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ was\\ about\\ ppl\\ being\\ heroic\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ heroes\\ die\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ successful\\.\\ \\ \\;2b\\ visibly\\ heroic\\,\\ 2\\ b\\ a\\ figure\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ show\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ history\\ pntg\\,\\ is\\ 2b\\ exterminated\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ this\\ mode\\ o\\ pntg\\ is\\ exterminated\\ as\\ wel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ things\\ standing\\ n\\ falling\\ with\\ this\\ man\\ is\\ another\\ type\\ o\\ portrayal\\ o\\ psace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Asher\\ B\\.\\ Durand\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Progress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1853\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ what\\ scholar\\ Angela\\ Miller\\ calls\\ \\&ldquo\\;spatial\\ temporal\\ mode\\ o\\ landscape\\ pntg\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ road\\,\\ which\\ meets\\ with\\ canal\\,\\ which\\ meets\\ withrailroad\\ heading\\ in2\\ the\\ distance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2have\\ space\\ is\\ 2\\ have\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Space\\ takes\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ representational\\ crisis\\ worth\\ pointing\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Durand\\,\\ the\\ stuff\\ o\\ representational\\ pntg\\ is\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ sense\\ o\\ deep\\ depth\\ is\\ mapped\\ on2\\ time\\ in\\ predictable\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ a\\ sharpshooter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bullet\\ kills\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ other\\ technologies\\ developed\\ just\\ prior\\ 2the\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ the\\ sharpshooter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bullet\\ removes\\ the\\ guarantee\\ o\\ access\\ over\\ space\\ n\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ collapse\\ o\\ that\\ depth\\ n\\ representational\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Homer\\ hints\\ at\\ this\\ problem\\,\\ n\\ starts\\ to\\ work\\ through\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ longer\\ any\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ depth\\ o\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ an\\ implosion\\ o\\ the\\ space\\,\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ instantaneity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ 2\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ pntg\\ relates\\ 2time\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ point\\ bw\\ the\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ rifle\\ has\\ been\\ shot\\ n\\ the\\ man\\ falls\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mere\\ fractions\\ o\\ a\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ pntg\\ is\\ faster\\ than\\ any\\ photograph\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ at\\ that\\ point\\.\\ \\ \\;Photos\\ then\\ took\\ minutes\\ 2make\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edouard\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dejeuner\\ sur\\ l\\&rsquo\\;herbe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\(Luncheon\\ on\\ the\\ Grass\\)\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homer\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seen\\ this\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ 2\\ Europe\\ till\\ 1866\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ knows\\ this\\ pntg\\ is\\ modern\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ said\\ 2have\\ started\\ modern\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characteristics\\ o\\ modern\\ pntg\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sceptisism\\/doubt\\ about\\ nature\\ n\\ capacity\\ o\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ representation\\ bring\\ us\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ life\\ n\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ connection\\ bw\\ ourselves\\ n\\ the\\ pntg\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rules\\ bw\\ academics\\ n\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indepdnence\\ o\\ art\\ from\\ literary\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MAnet\\ has\\ nude\\ sitting\\ incongrusously\\ in\\ landscape\\ w\\ fully\\ dressed\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ says\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ a\\ pntg\\ sitting\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compare\\ 2\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ standing\\ southerner\\ n\\ the\\ Leutze\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Washington\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntg\\ investigates\\ its\\ own\\ premises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernist\\ pntg\\ \\=\\ the\\ road\\ 2flatness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ pntg\\ is\\ flat\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dilly\\-dally\\ in\\ long\\ depth\\/procession\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ has\\ the\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ hwo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bizarrely\\ out\\ o\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ so\\ far\\ away\\,\\ how\\&rsquo\\;s\\ she\\ look\\ o\\ close\\?\\ \\ \\;Manet\\ collapses\\ the\\ picture\\ plane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ also\\ plays\\ w\\ flattening\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ ways\\ 2flatten\\ the\\ experience\\ o\\ space\\:\\ \\ \\;doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ involve\\ abstraction\\ or\\ techniques\\ Manet\\ was\\ using\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ case\\,\\ they\\ involve\\ split\\ bw\\ space\\ n\\ time\\ that\\ was\\ becoming\\ evident\\ thru\\ new\\ relationships\\ w\\ mechanical\\ technologies\\ n\\ thatrelatinoship\\ w\\ a\\ new\\ humanist\\ warfare\\ Homer\\ was\\ starting\\ 2understand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commonly\\ said\\ that\\ civil\\ war\\ was\\ a\\ modernist\\ turning\\ point\\:\\ \\ \\;u\\ had\\ chivalry\\ n\\ heroism\\ going\\ away\\ and\\ something\\ more\\ anonyoumous\\,\\ more\\ trenchlike\\,\\ more\\ Vietnam\\ like\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ War\\ began\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ ended\\ in\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;as\\ with\\ war\\,\\ so\\ went\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ February\\ 08\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Photographic\\ War\\ and\\ the\\ Condition\\ of\\ Aftermath\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alan\\ Trachtenberg\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Albums\\ of\\ War\\:\\ On\\ Reading\\ Civil\\ War\\ Photographs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Representations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;9\\ \\(Winter\\ 1985\\)\\:\\ 1\\-32\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Herman\\ Melville\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Utilitarian\\ View\\ of\\ the\\ Monitor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fight\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ 2sday\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ W\\.\\ Homer\\ n\\ the\\ rupture\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ a\\ rupture\\ that\\ changed\\ conceptions\\ o\\ visual\\ pntg\\ n\\ how\\ its\\ understood\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ borader\\ culture\\ o\\ c\\ war\\,\\ particularly\\ at\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;Next\\ 2sday\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ reconstruction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ Winslow\\ Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Sharp\\-Shooter\\ on\\ Picket\\ Duty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(engraving\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Weekly\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ ppl\\ in\\ 1860s\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sharpshooter\\ in\\ this\\ form\\:\\ \\ \\;as\\ printed\\ reproduction\\ o\\ engraving\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ war\\,\\ engraving\\ was\\ in\\ its\\ heyday\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ attached\\ 2national\\ press\\ that\\ relied\\ heavily\\ on\\ images\\ 4sale\\ n\\ circulation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ picture\\ press\\/\\ illustrated\\ press\\ came\\ in2\\ its\\ own\\ in\\ 1850s\\ in\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;American\\ illustrated\\ weekly\\ as\\ a\\ genre\\ began\\ in\\ 1855\\,\\ 1857\\ Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ began\\&hellip\\;when\\ civil\\ war\\ began\\,\\ mass\\ audience\\ 4images\\ was\\ just\\ coming\\ in2\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ stimulated\\ huge\\ increases\\ in\\ circulation\\ 4these\\ weeklys\\.\\ \\ \\;Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ along\\ Texas\\ border\\ in\\ 1840s\\ was\\ understood\\ as\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;news\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;News\\ could\\ b\\ instantaneously\\ telegraphed\\ from\\ battle\\ 2news\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ war\\ was\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;war\\ w\\/widespread\\ visual\\ imagery\\ 4ppl\\ 2see\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ war\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;total\\ war\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ just\\ bc\\ civilians\\ were\\ attacked\\ n\\ not\\ just\\ soldiers\\,\\ but\\ also\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;war\\ 2b\\ witnessed\\ visually\\ by\\ a\\ mass\\ audience\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ photography\\ fit\\ in2\\ this\\ mass\\-communication\\ system\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\L\\.H\\.\\ Hale\\,\\ Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ woman\\,\\ daguerreotype\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1860\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photography\\ at\\ mid\\-century\\ was\\ in\\ middle\\ o\\ sea\\ change\\ in\\ way\\ it\\ was\\ produced\\ n\\ distributed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Since\\ 1830s\\,\\ most\\ common\\ form\\ Ws\\ the\\ daguerreotype\\.\\ \\ \\;Highly\\ polished\\ copper\\ sheet\\ coated\\ in\\ silver\\.\\ \\ \\;Nasty\\ process\\ w\\ iodine\\ vapor\\ n\\ mercury\\ vapor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imptnt\\ thing\\:\\ \\ \\;high\\ sheenm\\ mirror\\-like\\ surface\\ so\\ when\\ u\\ look\\ in2\\ it\\ u\\ see\\ urself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;thing\\ imptnt\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ negativej\\.\\ \\ \\;Unique\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ mass\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\:\\ \\ \\;took\\ half\\-hour\\ 2make\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ late\\ 1840s\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ shortend\\ 2\\ 5\\-8\\ seconds\\.\\ \\ \\;Still\\,\\ u\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ images\\ o\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ 1860s\\ n\\ 70s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1860s\\:\\ \\ \\;daguerreotypes\\ replaced\\ by\\ cheaper\\,\\ mass\\-reproducable\\ forms\\ o\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ late\\ daguerreotype\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1860s\\ narrative\\ where\\ pressure\\ o\\ need\\ 4mass\\ reproduction\\ crowds\\ out\\ value\\ o\\ these\\ unique\\ daguerreotype\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Gem\\ tintypes\\,\\ 1860s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Various\\ ways\\ 2replicate\\ photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Gem\\ tintype\\ \\=\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ way\\ o\\ replicating\\ photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;Special\\ camera\\ had\\ 16\\ lenses\\.\\ \\ \\;Warhol\\-like\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ negative\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ one\\ plate\\ that\\ u\\ could\\ cut\\ up\\ n\\ distribute\\ 2ur\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Glass\\ negatives\\ n\\ paper\\ prints\\ were\\ another\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allowed\\ 4endless\\ replication\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ negative\\,\\ endless\\ copies\\ on\\ paper\\.\\ \\ \\;Paper\\ photos\\ r\\ easily\\ rearranged\\ in2\\ albums\\,\\ imptnce\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ o\\ that\\ on\\ 2sday\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ portable\\,\\ packable\\,\\ mailable\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ very\\ imptnt\\ in\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Barnard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Runis\\ of\\ the\\ Railroad\\ Depot\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Charleston\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beautiful\\ photo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ photo\\ was\\ called\\ large\\ plate\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Made\\ w\\ very\\ large\\ negative\\ \\(12x15inches\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\High\\ quality\\ image\\ w\\ good\\ detail\\,\\ but\\ very\\ cumbersome\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\12x15\\ sheets\\ o\\ glass\\.\\ \\ \\;Cumbersome\\,\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ good\\ 4\\ battlefields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Matthew\\ Brady\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Magazine\\ Wharf\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\City\\ Point\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\VA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ stereograph\\,\\ 1864\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stereographs\\ \\=\\ nother\\ way\\ 2\\ make\\ pics\\.\\ \\ \\;Looking\\ in2\\ wooden\\ vewers\\ gave\\ u\\ incredible\\ \\ \\;depth\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ 2images\\ at\\ different\\ angles\\,\\ which\\ plays\\ on\\ ur\\ eye\\ 2create\\ really\\ vivid\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ vivid\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cheap\\ 2make\\ n\\ distribute\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;stereocamera\\ was\\ smaller\\,\\ cheaper\\ \\(50\\ cents\\ in\\ 1860s\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carte\\-de\\-Visite\\ portraits\\ by\\ Brady\\ studio\\,\\ 1860\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sold\\ 4\\ 25cents\\ \\/piece\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contact\\ sheet\\ of\\ portraits\\ by\\ Brady\\ Studio\\,\\ n\\.d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sequence\\ o\\ photos\\ o\\ everyone\\ who\\ came\\ in\\ 2\\ have\\ their\\ photos\\ taken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ military\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ is\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ military\\ mkt\\ 4these\\ kinds\\ o\\ photos\\ was\\ enormous\\,\\ vry\\ lucrative\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cool\\ 2have\\ ur\\ own\\ photo\\ o\\ general\\ so\\-n\\-so\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soldiers\\/generals\\ liked\\ 2have\\ their\\ photos\\ taken\\ n\\ then\\ b\\ able\\ 2send\\ them\\ back\\ home\\ 2loved\\ ones\\.\\ \\ \\;Enormous\\ sentimental\\ but\\ also\\ pecuniary\\/financial\\ operation\\ surrounding\\ the\\ creation\\ o\\ photos\\ in\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ thing\\ 2pnt\\ out\\ about\\ photos\\,\\ particularly\\ portraits\\,\\ is\\ they\\ required\\ huge\\ amounts\\ o\\ administrative\\ coordination\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ up\\ a\\ dark\\ room\\ in\\ am\\ ilitary\\ camp\\?\\ \\ \\;Keeping\\ the\\ supplies\\ coming\\ in\\ 2make\\ them\\?\\ \\ \\;The\\ flow\\ o\\ supplies\\ has\\ 2b\\ constant\\ n\\ predictable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ very\\ few\\ confederate\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ images\\ r\\ union\\-created\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ rnt\\ there\\ confederate\\ images\\?\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ the\\ confederacy\\ was\\ quickly\\ under\\ naval\\ blockade\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ supplies\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ Orleans\\ photographer\\ in\\ 1862\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ his\\ stuff\\ w\\/o\\ smuggling\\.\\ \\ \\;Dangerous\\ n\\ hard\\ business\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Camera\\ n\\ photography\\ \\=\\ just\\ one\\ o\\ new\\ technologies\\ that\\ came\\ w\\ military\\ applications\\ o\\ mass\\ armies\\ factory\\ production\\ engineering\\.\\ \\ \\;Photography\\ \\=\\ modern\\ industrial\\ form\\ o\\ war\\,\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ sharpshooter\\ n\\ the\\ Merrimack\\/monitor\\ boats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ photos\\ were\\ often\\ engraved\\ n\\ published\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Harpers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Photographers\\ n\\ sketch\\ artists\\ were\\ working\\ shoulder2shoulder\\ sending\\ back\\ images\\ 2b\\ engraved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sketching\\ had\\ advantages\\ over\\ photography\\ in\\ war\\-journalism\\.\\ \\ \\;Manual\\ sketching\\ could\\ provide\\ views\\ that\\ were\\ impossible\\ 2record\\ on\\ film\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ temporality\\ o\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Defiance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Winslow\\ Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Defiance\\:\\ \\ \\;Inviting\\ a\\ Shot\\ before\\ Petersburg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1864\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ moment\\ in\\ time\\ was\\ unabvailabe\\ 2photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ traditional\\ artist\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ able\\ 2get\\ in\\ n\\ interpret\\ n\\ reproduce\\ n\\ express\\ short\\ periods\\ o\\ time\\ has\\ an\\ advantage\\ actually\\ over\\ the\\ photographer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manual\\ artists\\ walking\\ around\\ w\\ sketch\\ pads\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ loaded\\ w\\ heavy\\ equipment\\,\\ n\\ their\\ work\\ translated\\ 2engravings\\ easier\\ oftentimes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ y\\ use\\ photos\\ at\\ all\\?\\ \\ \\;Y\\ is\\ it\\ imptnt\\ 4the\\ experience\\ o\\ the\\ war\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ photograph\\ was\\ understood\\ 2have\\ truth\\ value\\ that\\ other\\ forms\\ o\\ representation\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;photographers\\ could\\ claim\\ eye\\-witness\\ accnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photogrpaphers\\ had\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;force\\ o\\ the\\ real\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Gardner\\ called\\ text\\ reports\\ from\\ the\\ front\\ \\&ldquo\\;representations\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ photographs\\ were\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;presnentments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;They\\ had\\ presentness\\,\\ immediacy\\,\\ force\\ that\\ sketch\\ artist\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ replicate\\.\\ \\ \\;Direct\\ transcription\\ o\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Barnard\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Hell\\ Hole\\,\\ New\\ Hope\\ Church\\,\\ GA\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ 1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ photos\\ taken\\ after\\ Sherman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ march\\ thru\\ the\\ south\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ crisis\\ in\\ reproduction\\ n\\ visuality\\.\\ \\ \\;Crisis\\ bw\\ 2aims\\ o\\ representation\\ that\\ r\\ in\\ conflict\\ w\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ 2provide\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ w\\ a\\ small\\ \\&ldquo\\;t\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ o\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ truth\\ that\\ happened\\ in\\ one\\ place\\ at\\ one\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ truth\\ w\\/capital\\ \\&ldquo\\;T\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ true\\,\\ larger\\ meaning\\/themes\\ o\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ were\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ aim\\ o\\ these\\ photographers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ question\\ is\\ brought\\ up\\ in\\ Alan\\ Trachtenberg\\ rdg\\.\\ \\ \\;Can\\ these\\ 2kinds\\ o\\ truth\\ exist\\ at\\ one\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highly\\ detailed\\ original\\ form\\ o\\ truth\\ that\\ also\\ shows\\ u\\ something\\ larger\\,\\ something\\ deeper\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ photography\\ really\\ true\\?\\ \\ \\;Can\\ it\\ bring\\ home\\ the\\ real\\ meaning\\ o\\ the\\ event\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ truths\\ photographers\\ were\\ able\\ 2demonstrate\\ was\\ that\\ they\\ literally\\ missed\\ the\\ action\\ o\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Battlefield\\ photography\\ was\\ impossible\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2do\\ it\\,\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ have\\ 2\\ prepare\\ ur\\ camera\\,\\ coat\\ ur\\ plate\\ in\\ chemicals\\,\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ have\\ exposure\\ time\\ o\\ 20seconds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 5\\ minutes\\ depending\\ on\\ ur\\ light\\,\\ make\\ ur\\ exposure\\,\\ then\\ take\\ ur\\ giant\\ glass\\ plate\\ negative\\ 2ur\\ wagon\\,\\ develop\\ it\\ immediately\\ while\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ wet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ did\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ war\\ photographs\\ r\\ still\\-lives\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ orderly\\ arrangements\\ o\\ supplies\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Timothy\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wagon\\ Park\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Brandy\\ Station\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Barnard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ruins\\ of\\ the\\ Pinckney\\ Mansion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Charleston\\,\\ S\\.C\\.\\ ca\\.\\ 1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Timoth\\ H\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Harvest\\ of\\ Death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gettysburg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ PA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;photographic\\ representations\\ o\\ corpses\\ on\\ the\\ battlefield\\ ever\\ seen\\ by\\ the\\ American\\ public\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ 2talk\\ more\\ about\\ what\\ had2happen\\ 2make\\ these\\ photos\\ available\\ 2the\\ photographer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ have\\ photographer\\ sauntering\\ on2\\ the\\ battlefield\\ once\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ complicated\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ go\\ on2\\ the\\ field\\,\\ u\\ have\\ 2\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ o\\ the\\ battlel\\ \\ \\;ur\\ side\\ has\\ 2b\\ in\\ firm\\ possession\\ o\\ the\\ entire\\ battlefield\\ in\\ order\\ 2protect\\ u\\.\\ \\ \\;so\\ ur\\ tied\\ in2\\ the\\ politics\\ n\\ history\\ o\\ the\\ battle\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ battle\\ also\\ has\\ 2have\\ been\\ horrible\\ enough\\ that\\ there\\ r\\ enough\\ unburied\\ corpses\\ around\\ that\\ u\\ can\\ bury\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ photo\\ was\\ 36\\ hrs\\ after\\ the\\ battle\\ was\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;Explains\\ a\\ lot\\ o\\ the\\ bloating\\.\\ \\ \\;Took\\ 36\\ hrs\\ 2get\\ there\\ safely\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ o\\ the\\ corpses\\ had\\ been\\ buried\\ or\\ were\\ being\\ buried\\,\\ nt\\ this\\ was\\ one\\ the\\ few\\ places\\ where\\ the\\ bodies\\ were\\ still\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ had\\ 2wrk\\ quickly\\ 2get\\ to\\ the\\ corpses\\ that\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ been\\ buried\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alexander\\ Gardner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dead\\ Confederate\\ Soldier\\ in\\ a\\ Field\\ Along\\ the\\ Rose\\ Woods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Jly\\ 5\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ from\\ Gettysburg\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ images\\ were\\ engraved\\ n\\ published\\ in\\ Harper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ n\\ other\\ magazines\\.\\ \\ \\;Shown\\ at\\ Matthew\\ Brady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gallery\\ in\\ Washington\\ DC\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ flocked\\ 2these\\ photos\\,\\ which\\ were\\ shown\\ in\\ cities\\ all\\ over\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ were\\ these\\ photos\\ made\\?\\ \\ \\;\\ Hard\\ 2look\\ at\\,\\ but\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ they\\ tie\\ not\\ just\\ in2\\ history\\ o\\ war\\ n\\ human\\ bodies\\ in\\ the\\ war\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ part\\ o\\ history\\ o\\ instituationalization\\ o\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;Y\\ take\\ THIS\\ image\\?\\ \\ \\;Y\\ capture\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photographers\\ n\\ sketch\\ artists\\ r\\ wrking\\ for\\ an\\ edge\\ over\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;Photographers\\ r\\ looking\\ 4a\\ niche\\,\\ something\\ better\\ than\\ what\\ sketch\\ artists\\ \\/\\ pntrs\\ can\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ advantage\\ is\\ their\\ high\\ ground\\ o\\ being\\ able\\ 2show\\ the\\ unvarnished\\ truth\\ o\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ art\\/artifice\\ 2them\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ better\\ way\\ 2claim\\ allegiance\\ w\\ the\\ realm\\ o\\ the\\ real\\ than\\ 2show\\ the\\ truly\\ gory\\ n\\ terrible\\.\\ \\ \\;Hwo\\ in\\ their\\ right\\ mind\\ would\\ actually\\ pnt\\/draw\\ this\\ scene\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ holds\\ out\\ the\\ promise\\,\\ 2\\ use\\ Roland\\ Barthes\\&rsquo\\;\\ words\\,\\ is\\ that\\ photography\\ \\=\\ msg\\ wo\\ messenger\\.\\ \\ \\;Msg\\ wo\\ a\\ code\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ additional\\ mng\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ only\\ message\\ is\\ its\\ own\\ exactitude\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Story\\ o\\ civil\\ war\\ photography\\ becomes\\ story\\ o\\ what\\ 2do\\ w\\ these\\ images\\ once\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ beentaken\\.\\ \\ \\;Photographers\\ need\\ 2take\\ thse\\ images\\ 2prove\\ their\\ alliance\\ w\\ reality\\ n\\ direct\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ need\\ 2connect\\ htism\\ eaningless\\ mass\\ o\\ viscera\\ 2\\ a\\ true\\ higher\\ mng\\ that\\ ppl\\ usually\\ try\\ 2attach\\ 2higher\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Matthew\\ Brady\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Antietam\\ Battlefield\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ images\\ were\\ maybe\\ harder\\ 2see\\ then\\ than\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ this\\ image\\ w\\ much\\ regularity\\ 2day\\ w\\ the\\ Iraq\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ were\\ widely\\ reported\\ in\\ the\\ NYTimes\\ n\\ around\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;NYTimes\\ wrote\\ these\\ pictures\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ a\\ terrible\\ distinctness\\.\\ \\ \\;Mr\\.\\ Brady\\ has\\ brought\\ home\\ the\\ terrible\\ reailty\\ n\\ earnestness\\ o\\ war\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ basically\\ borught\\ dead\\ bodies\\ 2our\\ homes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Timothy\\ H\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Field\\ Where\\ General\\ Reynolds\\ Fell\\,\\ Gettysburg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ppl\\ looking\\ at\\ these\\ photos\\ understand\\ the\\ obides\\ might\\ as\\ well\\ have\\ been\\ delievered\\ 2the\\ homes\\ o\\ the\\ ppl\\ in\\ Washington\\ n\\ NY\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ commented\\ on\\ the\\ shock\\ o\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ direct\\ physical\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ sheer\\ gruesomeness\\ is\\ one\\ reason\\ 2look\\ at\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ there\\ r\\ other\\ reasons\\&hellip\\;let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ them\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ difficulties\\ o\\ loking\\ at\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ that\\ u\\ see\\ death\\ in\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Check\\ out\\ B\\-West\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ West\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Wolfe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1770\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ history\\ pntgs\\ r\\ titled\\:\\ \\ \\;death\\ of\\ some\\ guy\\ on\\ some\\ battlefield\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ common\\ way\\ o\\ interpreting\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Threshold\\ o\\ death\\ was\\ a\\ clich\\é\\;\\ in\\ history\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ history\\ pntg\\,\\ this\\ death\\ is\\ wrapped\\ up\\ in\\ other\\ mngs\\,\\ given\\ higher\\ mng\\ in\\ a\\ broader\\ n\\ usually\\ hopeful\\/progressive\\ narrative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ connection\\ bw\\ earth\\ n\\ heavens\\,\\ bw\\ act\\ o\\ sacrifice\\ n\\ death\\,\\ n\\ larger\\ political\\/geographical\\ struggle\\.\\ \\ \\;Fnctn\\ o\\ death\\ is\\ 2providei\\ mage\\ o\\ sacrifices\\ ppl\\ made\\ on\\ the\\ battlefield\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ dying\\ individual\\ palced\\ in\\ position\\ o\\ Christ\\ having\\ been\\ taken\\ fof\\ the\\ cross\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ man\\ is\\ being\\ equated\\ w\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sacrifice\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ array\\ o\\ holy\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;Fnctn\\ o\\ history\\ pntg\\ is\\ 2take\\ battlefield\\ deaths\\ n\\ attach\\ them\\ 2system\\ o\\ mngs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\but\\ photography\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capture\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ death\\.\\ Only\\ its\\ finality\\.\\ \\ \\;Photographers\\ can\\ only\\ anticipate\\ \\/re\\-vsiit\\ death\\,\\ never\\ capture\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ conform\\ 2tehse\\ ideals\\ o\\ heroic\\ self\\-sacrifice\\ that\\ history\\ pntg\\ provided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Trumbull\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Hill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1786\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\N\\ it\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ images\\ o\\ corpses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ wer\\ eused\\ 2\\ looking\\ at\\ images\\ o\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ Dead\\ child\\ on\\ a\\ sofa\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1855\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ Mother\\ holding\\ her\\ dead\\ child\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1845\\-55\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Post\\-mortem\\ photography\\ was\\ in\\ its\\ heyday\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ more\\ gruesome\\ pictures\\ show\\ bodies\\ decaying\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ show\\ bodies\\ lovingly\\ frmaed\\ in\\ daguerreotypes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conceit\\ in\\ all\\ these\\ images\\ is\\ that\\ bodies\\ r\\ sleeping\\.\\ \\ \\;Trope\\ o\\ death\\ as\\ sleep\\ is\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ culture\\ o\\ death\\ n\\ sentiment\\ n\\ mourning\\ that\\ existed\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ were\\ shown\\ w\\/in\\ close\\ circle\\ o\\ mourners\\ w\\/in\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Visual\\ maternal\\ culture\\ o\\ ur\\ own\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mourning\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\ was\\ melted\\,\\ softed\\,\\ more\\ pliable\\ 2God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\,\\ imptnt\\ process\\ 2go\\ thru\\ in\\ order\\ 2feel\\ benevolence\\,\\ love\\ toward\\ all\\,\\ n\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ antidote\\ 2an\\ increasingly\\ urbanized\\ culture\\ o\\ deception\\ n\\ deceipt\\.\\ \\ \\;Mourning\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ part\\ o\\ ur\\ life\\ where\\ u\\ had\\ absolutely\\ authentic\\ feelings\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ any\\ deception\\.\\ \\ \\;Mourning\\ was\\ big\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ Mother\\ holding\\ postmortem\\ daguerreotype\\ portrait\\ of\\ her\\ dead\\ child\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1848\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mom\\ holds\\ poto\\ o\\ her\\ dead\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encourages\\ bodily\\ connection\\ bw\\ dead\\ n\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ adjacency\\ n\\ closeness\\ bw\\ body\\ n\\ the\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Solidified\\ the\\ bonds\\ o\\ the\\ private\\ family\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ background\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ corpse\\,\\ in2\\ which\\ images\\ like\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suddenly\\ burst\\ in\\ the\\ 1860s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alexander\\ Gardner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Last\\ Sleep\\,\\ Gettysburg\\,\\ PA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ths\\ dead\\ soldier\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ physically\\ home\\ w\\ his\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ womn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ it\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mourn\\ over\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ photograph\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ecome\\ a\\ daguerreotype\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ infinitely\\ reproduced\\ n\\ spread\\ throughout\\ the\\ US\\,\\ publicized\\,\\ n\\ in\\ permiscuous\\ way\\ so\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ can\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ dead\\ on\\ the\\ battlefield\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ press\\ was\\ always\\ talking\\ about\\ this\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;all\\ the\\ structures\\ that\\ used\\ 2give\\ mng\\ 2the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ corpse\\ have\\ been\\ torn\\ apart\\ in\\ these\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;desacrilization\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Civil\\ war\\ era\\ o\\ mass\\-produced\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ corpse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\:\\ \\ \\;RECONSTRUCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\ 2\\/13\\/07\\ \\ \\;Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Reconstruction\\ and\\ Memory\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kirk\\ Savage\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Introduction\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Imagining\\ Emancipation\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Standing\\ Soldiers\\,\\ Kneeling\\ Slaves\\:\\ Race\\,\\ War\\,\\ and\\ Monument\\ in\\ Nineteenth\\-Century\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1997\\)\\,\\ 3\\-20\\,\\ 52\\-88\\.\\ Course\\ website\\ documents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Anon\\.\\,\\ Mother\\ holding\\ postmortem\\ daguerreotype\\ portrait\\ of\\ her\\ dead\\ child\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1848\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Timothy\\ H\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Field\\ Where\\ General\\ Reynolds\\ Fell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Gettysburg\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ become\\ easily\\ n\\ indefinitely\\ multiplied\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ available\\ 2anonymous\\ viewers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\,\\ bc\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ sold\\ by\\ photographers\\,\\ literally\\ become\\ commodities\\.\\ \\ \\;Corpses\\ become\\ commodities\\,\\ pulled\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ family\\ setting\\,\\ n\\ they\\ become\\ part\\ o\\ an\\ archive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ men\\,\\ corpses\\,\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ tragedies\\ about\\ them\\,\\ is\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ buried\\ far\\ from\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ r\\ confederate\\ soldiers\\ on\\ a\\ union\\ battlefield\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ structures\\ that\\ give\\ meaning\\ 2the\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ corpse\\ prior\\ 2the\\ civil\\ war\\ have\\ been\\ torn\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ the\\ men\\ n\\ their\\ images\\ have\\ been\\ separated\\ from\\ meaning\\ locality\\/adjacency\\ 2their\\ families\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alot\\ o\\ the\\ horror\\ associated\\ w\\ these\\ photos\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ he\\ corpses\\ but\\ about\\ the\\ action\\ o\\ photography\\ n\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ come\\ up\\ w\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ photographic\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whenever\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ thinking\\ abut\\ representational\\ images\\,\\ photographs\\ or\\ artworks\\,\\ always\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ images\\ work\\ on\\ multiplelevles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ content\\ o\\ the\\ image\\,\\ the\\ corpses\\,\\ might\\ mirror\\ various\\ anxiieteis\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ medium\\ o\\ making\\ the\\ photograph\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ can\\ the\\ content\\ relate\\ 2problems\\ surrounding\\ the\\ form\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\:\\ \\ \\;what\\ horrified\\ ppl\\ about\\ ehse\\ images\\ was\\ the\\ ultiplication\\ o\\ corpses\\ \\,\\ mass\\-death\\,\\ placelessness\\ or\\ displcament\\ o\\ the\\ corpses\\,\\ their\\ directness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multiple\\ corpses\\,\\ dipsclamenet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\overabundance\\ o\\ meaning\\ that\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mbe\\ controlled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ terms\\,\\ tho\\,\\ r\\ also\\ precisely\\ the\\ terms\\ thru\\ which\\ photography\\ itself\\ is\\ being\\ understood\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ a\\ corpse\\,\\ a\\ photograph\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ exists\\ simplyas\\ the\\ real\\.\\ There\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ comforting\\ meanings\\ attached\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ photograph\\ is\\ excessive\\.\\ \\ \\;Violent\\,\\ bc\\ on\\ each\\ occasion\\ it\\ fills\\ the\\ site\\ by\\ force\\ n\\ nothing\\ can\\ b\\ refused\\ or\\ transformed\\ by\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multiplication\\,\\ dislocation\\,\\ n\\ excess\\ r\\ part\\ o\\ photography\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ corpses\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ corpses\\,\\ tho\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ photos\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oliver\\ Holmes\\ made\\ explicit\\ analogy\\ bw\\ corpses\\ n\\ photographs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ wandering\\ thru\\ the\\ battlefields\\ looking\\ 4his\\ own\\ son\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ wounded\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ seen\\ corpses\\ like\\ this\\ himself\\ while\\ looking\\ 4his\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ son\\ lived\\,\\ but\\ seeing\\ these\\ pictures\\ months\\ later\\ powerfully\\ affected\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ his\\ desire\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bury\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;these\\ photographs\\,\\ take\\ them\\ out\\ o\\ this\\ scene\\ o\\ pure\\ visiblility\\.\\ \\ \\;4Holmes\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ making\\ this\\ connection\\.\\ \\ \\;Photographs\\ share\\ certain\\ qualities\\ w\\ the\\ corpses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\:\\ \\ \\;want\\ 2spring\\ out\\ o\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ corpse\\ n\\ the\\ photograph\\,\\ n\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ the\\ photos\\ were\\ then\\ taken\\ up\\ in2\\ structures\\ o\\ memory\\ after\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\photographs\\ became\\ embedded\\ in\\ memory\\ n\\ process\\ o\\ memorialization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\-war\\ was\\ about\\ reconstructing\\ images\\ like\\ this\\ n\\ putting\\ them\\ in2\\ arrangemnets\\,\\ attaching\\ mng\\ 2them\\ in\\ order\\ 2create\\ certain\\ kinds\\ o\\ memories\\ n\\ memorialization\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ burying\\ the\\ corpose\\ is\\ a\\ ritual\\ o\\ memory\\,\\ so\\,\\ too\\,\\ is\\ the\\ treatment\\ o\\ these\\ photographs\\ post\\-war\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\ o\\ the\\ problems\\ is\\ the\\ photos\\&rsquo\\;\\ excess\\ o\\ meaning\\ n\\ signification\\ n\\ the\\ need\\ 2control\\ that\\ 2create\\ the\\ right\\ kind\\ o\\ memory\\ o\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ we\\ see\\ photographers\\ n\\ viewers\\ attempting\\ 2manipulate\\ these\\ images\\ so\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ useful\\,\\ not\\ just\\ excessively\\ violent\\ as\\ Holmes\\ referred2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ 2\\ major\\ albums\\,\\ both\\ from\\ 1866\\:\\ \\ \\;Gardner\\,\\ n\\ Barnard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gardner\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Gardner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Photographic\\ Sketch\\-Book\\ of\\ the\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Worked\\ w\\ Timoth\\ H\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\.\\ \\ \\;Gardner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ war\\ photographs\\ were\\ distributed\\ as\\ stereogrpha\\ views\\,\\ as\\ single\\ views\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ widely\\ distributed\\ as\\ individual\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ continued\\ 2b\\ distributed\\/produced\\ as\\ single\\ views\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gardner\\ was\\ most\\ devoted\\ 2project\\ o\\ creating\\ an\\ albumb\\ w\\ a\\ meaningful\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ as\\ raw\\ journalistic\\ accnt\\,\\ but\\ 4him\\,\\ an\\ interpretation\\ o\\ what\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Published\\ in\\ 2\\ volumes\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;Actual\\ prints\\ o\\ the\\ photos\\ were\\ placed\\.\\ \\ \\;2buy\\ the\\ sketchbook\\,\\ u\\ had\\ 2subscribe\\ ahead\\ o\\ time\\ n\\ pay\\ \\$150\\,\\ huge\\ sum\\ then\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gardner\\ came\\ fro\\ mIreland\\.\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ worked\\ w\\ Matthew\\ Brady\\ in\\ Washington\\.\\ \\ \\;Quickly\\ became\\ indispensable\\ 2Brady\\,\\ directed\\ his\\ Washington\\ gallery\\.\\ \\ \\;1860s\\ he\\ left\\ n\\ started\\ his\\ own\\ group\\ o\\ photographers\\.\\ \\ \\;Became\\ the\\ official\\ photographer\\ o\\ the\\ army\\ o\\ the\\ Potomac\\.\\ \\ \\;Stole\\ some\\ o\\ Brady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ photographers\\ 2come\\ work\\ w\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leader\\ o\\ operation\\ o\\ field\\ photographers\\.\\ \\ \\;Organized\\ the\\ types\\ o\\ images\\ taken\\.\\ \\ \\;Gave\\ his\\ photographers\\ lots\\ o\\ indpenedence\\,\\ which\\ Brady\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\(which\\ let\\ him\\ steal\\ the\\ photographers\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ did\\ most\\ o\\ the\\ printing\\ of\\ the\\ photos\\ taken\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ by\\ him\\ n\\ other\\ phtogoraphers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ might\\ an\\ album\\ control\\ the\\ signification\\ o\\ photographs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Timoth\\ H\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Home\\ of\\ a\\ Rebel\\ Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ lying\\ in\\ enclave\\ w\\ rifle\\ next\\ 2him\\.\\ \\ \\;Title\\ identifies\\ him\\ as\\ sharpshooter\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ killed\\ in\\ action\\,\\ died\\ in\\ his\\ sharpshooter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nook\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gardner\\ attached\\ elaborate\\ texts\\ 2go\\ w\\ each\\ photo\\.\\ \\ \\;Gardner\\ n\\ nothers\\ soon\\ realized\\ if\\ u\\ attach\\ text\\ 2an\\ image\\,\\ u\\ can\\ tie\\ down\\ the\\ possible\\ meanings\\ o\\ the\\ photograph\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ role\\ o\\ the\\ caption\\ in\\ the\\ photo\\,\\ the\\ necessity\\ o\\ them\\ in\\ photographic\\ situations\\,\\ whenever\\ u\\ want\\ 2make\\ a\\ specific\\ statement\\ w\\ a\\ photograph\\.\\ \\ \\;Images\\ no\\ longer\\ illustrate\\ text\\,\\ but\\ text\\ illustrates\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ artist\\ found\\ a\\ lonely\\ place\\,\\ the\\ covert\\ o\\ a\\ rebel\\ sharpshooter\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ confederate\\ soldier\\ built\\ up\\ bw\\ 2huge\\ rocks\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ there\\ picked\\ off\\ our\\ officers\\.\\ \\ \\;Site\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ shows\\ how\\ our\\ sharpshooters\\ dislodged\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Sharpshooter\\ was\\ wounded\\ in\\ head\\ by\\ fragment\\ o\\ shell\\ that\\ exploded\\ over\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ laid\\ down\\ 2die\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ disordered\\ clothing\\ says\\ his\\ suffering\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ intense\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ visions\\ o\\ loved\\ ones\\ far\\ away\\ hovered\\ above\\ his\\ stony\\ pillow\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ familiar\\ voices\\ did\\ he\\ not\\ hear\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gardner\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ scene\\ 4months\\ later\\,\\ found\\ the\\ rifle\\ rusted\\ n\\ the\\ body\\ still\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gardner\\ fancies\\ himself\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ poet\\ in\\ addition\\ 2a\\ photographer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ how\\ much\\ effort\\ he\\ takes\\ 2sentimentalize\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\References\\ 2family\\,\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ displacement\\ comes\\ up\\ here\\,\\ fnctns\\ 2increase\\ sentimentality\\ o\\ the\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ lies\\ down\\ 2\\ take\\ a\\ nap\\ while\\ he\\ died\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sentimental\\ commonality\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sharpshooter\\,\\ so\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tapping\\ in2\\ the\\ fraught\\ status\\ o\\ the\\ sharpshooter\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ from\\ our\\ Winslow\\ Homer\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ is\\ the\\ sharpshooter\\ killed\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ left\\ there\\ unburied\\ 4months\\ after\\ the\\ photo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ taken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gardner\\ wants\\ 2make\\ sentimental\\ connection\\,\\ but\\ also\\ wants\\ 2add\\ justice\\ 2\\ his\\ death\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ rebel\\,\\ but\\ a\\ sharpshooter\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;no\\ burial\\ for\\ that\\ type\\ of\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ massive\\ constructions\\ that\\ go\\ in2\\ these\\ texts\\.\\ \\ \\;Online\\ u\\ see\\ the\\ captions\\ n\\ texts\\ 4\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ o\\ the\\ texts\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ match\\ the\\ photos\\,\\ n\\ Gardner\\ goes\\ 2great\\ efforts\\ 2make\\ the\\ photos\\ mean\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\ them\\ 2mean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ text\\ is\\ famous\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ only\\ image\\ in\\ the\\ series\\ that\\ was\\ already\\ captioned\\ b4\\ it\\ was\\ even\\ taken\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ taken\\ 2suggest\\ the\\ kidns\\ o\\ meanings\\ that\\ Gardner\\ already\\ attached\\ 2it\\ in\\ the\\ captions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gardner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Last\\ Sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(field\\ image\\)\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ taken\\ 6\\ or\\ seven\\ frames\\ prior\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Home\\ o\\ a\\ Rebel\\ Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Scholar\\ William\\ Frassanito\\ discovered\\ that\\ Gardner\\ n\\ his\\ crew\\ dragged\\ this\\ body\\ 40\\ yrds\\ 2\\ this\\ scene\\ b4\\ photographing\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\[William\\ Frassanito\\,\\ diagram\\ of\\ dragged\\ body\\ at\\ Gettysburg\\[\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ can\\ tell\\ by\\ the\\ title\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ already\\ thinking\\ o\\ the\\ trope\\ o\\ sleeping\\ as\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ put\\ body\\ on\\ blanket\\ n\\ dragged\\ it\\ up\\ steep\\ hill\\ n\\ put\\ the\\ body\\ in2\\ the\\ position\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Last\\ Sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frassanito\\ became\\ obsessed\\ w\\ these\\ photographs\\,\\ traced\\ every\\ step\\ n\\ sequence\\ that\\ every\\ photograph\\ was\\ taken\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ what\\ they\\ found\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ the\\ body\\ had\\ been\\ dragged\\ from\\ one\\ place\\ 2another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frassanito\\ believed\\ this\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ last\\ unburied\\ bodies\\ they\\ came\\ upon\\ in\\ Gettysburg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ taken\\ 2hrs\\ 2set\\ up\\ these\\ photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ had\\ this\\ time\\ 2manipulate\\ the\\ field\\ like\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frassanito\\ shows\\ Gardner\\ takes\\ poetic\\ license\\ but\\ also\\ fabricates\\ the\\ photos\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ soldier\\ was\\ a\\ regular\\ inantryman\\,\\ not\\ a\\ sharpshooter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Probably\\ died\\ while\\ running\\ up\\ the\\ hill\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ damn\\ Gardner\\.\\ \\ \\;Understand\\ how\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ assistants\\ were\\ looking\\ 4a\\ way\\ 2sentimentalize\\.\\ \\ \\;Gardner\\ might\\ have\\ said\\ by\\ showing\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ was\\ showing\\ the\\ real\\ truth\\ o\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Controlling\\ civil\\ war\\ meaning\\:\\ \\ \\;attaching\\ text\\,\\ gathering\\ n\\ collecting\\ photographs\\ n\\ putting\\ them\\ in2\\ narratives\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ things\\ counter\\ the\\ disarray\\ o\\ the\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Physical\\ unification\\ n\\ containment\\ o\\ the\\ photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ photographic\\ series\\:\\ \\ \\;Walker\\ Evans\\,\\ Robert\\ Frank\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ continually\\ arises\\ w\\ photography\\,\\ namely\\ that\\ history\\ escapes\\ the\\ bounds\\ o\\ the\\ single\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;W\\ history\\ pntg\\,\\ u\\ get\\ single\\ image\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ mngs\\ o\\ the\\ scene\\ r\\ compressed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\History\\ in\\ age\\ o\\ photography\\ becomes\\ series\\ o\\ disconnected\\ moments\\ that\\ then\\ need\\ 2b\\ assembled\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ new\\ industrial\\ proesses\\ that\\ were\\ changing\\ the\\ economy\\ n\\ society\\,\\ memory\\ is\\ also\\ becoming\\ something\\ that\\ happens\\ under\\ the\\ metaphor\\ o\\ assembly\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ challenge\\ of\\ history\\ becomes\\ more\\ about\\ management\\ o\\ an\\ archive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ some\\ ways\\ we\\ can\\ call\\ this\\ the\\ last\\ history\\ pntg\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ assembly\\ n\\ management\\ o\\ multiple\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\George\\ Barnard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Photographic\\ Views\\ of\\ Sherman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Campaign\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1866\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ photos\\ 1864\\-66\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\61\\ photos\\ taken\\ w\\ 12\\/15\\ inch\\ negatives\\.\\ \\ \\;Actual\\ album\\ weighed\\ 20\\ pounds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\$100\\.\\ \\ \\;only\\ 100\\-150\\ copies\\ made\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\,\\ 2\\,\\ was\\ hand\\-assembled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6100\\ prints\\ r\\ assembled\\ by\\ hand\\,\\ assembled\\ in2\\ albums\\,\\ n\\ sold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Points\\ on\\ Sherman\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sherman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ march\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ was\\ pioneer\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;total\\ war\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Thought\\ best\\ way\\ 2weaken\\ Southern\\ morale\\ was\\ 2attack\\ homes\\,\\ civilians\\,\\ destroy\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Known\\ 4intimidation\\ o\\ women\\ n\\ children\\,\\ looting\\,\\ undisciplined\\ troops\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;slash\\ n\\ burn\\&rdquo\\;\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ destroyed\\ landscapes\\ n\\ cities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Hell\\ Hole\\,\\ New\\ Hope\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ GA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tree\\ stumps\\ everywhere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ruins\\ of\\ the\\ Pinckney\\ Mansion\\,\\ Charleston\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\S\\.C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Texts\\ bound\\ in\\ separate\\ booklet\\.\\ \\ \\;Barnard\\ is\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ taking\\ these\\ photos\\ n\\ giving\\ htem\\ meaning\\ thru\\ visual\\ patterns\\ n\\ parallels\\ n\\ visual\\ comparisons\\ 2famous\\,\\ imptnt\\ previous\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trachtenberg\\ disparages\\ Barnard\\ a\\ little\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fully\\ complicit\\ w\\ Sherman\\,\\ as\\ If\\ the\\ images\\ were\\ exultation\\ o\\ destruction\\ o\\ the\\ South\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Barnard\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ Tennessee\\ tho\\ n\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ the\\ destruction\\.\\ \\ \\;Was\\ nostalgic\\ for\\ childhood\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ related\\ 2the\\ northern\\ side\\ tho\\,\\ wrkd\\ 4union\\ army\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comprehending\\ meaning\\ o\\ new\\ total\\ destruction\\ policies\\ that\\ north\\ was\\ restorting\\ 2\\ gives\\ these\\ images\\ a\\ melancholy\\ air\\ n\\ forces\\ Barnard\\ in2\\ different\\ kind\\ o\\ meaning\\ production\\ that\\ u\\ saw\\ w\\ Gardner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chattanooga\\ Valley\\ from\\ Lookout\\ Mountain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ Gardner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Barnard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ careful\\ about\\ creating\\ elaborate\\ formal\\ patterns\\ n\\ parallels\\.\\ \\ \\;Trachtenberg\\ mentions\\ this\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ take\\ an\\ image\\ from\\ one\\ position\\,\\ n\\ the\\ next\\ image\\ will\\ show\\ the\\ same\\ site\\ from\\ a\\ reverse\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ cintematic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ link\\ on\\ website\\ 2Barnard\\ album\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ how\\ he\\ moves\\ from\\ one\\ photo\\ 2the\\ next\\ n\\ places\\ them\\ in\\ succession\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ elevating\\ photography\\ 2the\\ level\\ o\\ fine\\ art\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trying\\ 2invest\\ photographs\\ w\\ qualities\\ that\\ high\\ art\\,\\ pntg\\,\\ might\\ bring\\ 2them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wants\\ 2unite\\ the\\ true\\/harmonious\\/beautiful\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Solving\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;Big\\ T\\&rdquo\\;\\ truth\\ n\\ little\\ t\\ truth\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ processes\\ this\\ thru\\ the\\ language\\ o\\ actual\\ art\\ n\\ aesthetics\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ u\\ make\\ images\\ that\\ r\\ closer\\ 2pntgs\\,\\ high\\ aesthetic\\ objects\\,\\ than\\ 2specifics\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ u\\ want\\ truth\\ in\\ these\\ images\\,\\ u\\ need\\ 2deal\\ w\\ horrible\\ aftermath\\ o\\ the\\ march\\ n\\ w\\ factuality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ \\ \\;sophisiticated\\ sense\\ o\\ form\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ direct\\ reference\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ox\\ Bow\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Attempting\\ 2recall\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ photograph\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ elevates\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ that\\ Barnard\\ has\\ shown\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2infuse\\ the\\ photo\\ w\\ conventions\\ o\\ landscape\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chattanooga\\ from\\ the\\ North\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beaitufilly\\ rhymed\\ gable\\ roves\\ w\\ the\\ mountains\\ behind\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Creates\\ sense\\ o\\ harmony\\,\\ dynamism\\ in\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Gives\\ energy\\ 2\\ photo\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mng\\ in\\ these\\ photographic\\ views\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ attempts\\ 2infuse\\ the\\ photographs\\ w\\ the\\ conventions\\ o\\ landscape\\ pntg\\ that\\ r\\ common\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ruins\\ of\\ the\\ Railroad\\ Depot\\,\\ Charleston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recalls\\ ruins\\ o\\ Roman\\ acqueducts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ showing\\ giant\\ plantation\\ homes\\ n\\ the\\ destruction\\ o\\ them\\ n\\ their\\ huge\\ columns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wants\\ 2make\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ destruction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ allusion\\ 2the\\ classical\\ world\\ is\\ commonly\\ a\\ way\\ o\\ making\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ destruction\\ o\\ the\\ period\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ well\\ known\\ that\\ the\\ fall\\ o\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\ had\\ been\\ caused\\ by\\ prid\\,e\\ injustice\\,\\ gluttony\\.\\ \\ \\;Fall\\ othe\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ was\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ jstutified\\ fall\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ failures\\ o\\ Roman\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paralell\\ that\\ Barnard\\ makes\\ bw\\ Roman\\ civilization\\ n\\ southern\\ civilization\\ was\\ common\\:\\ \\ \\;South\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ decadent\\,\\ falling\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;Making\\ these\\ connections\\ is\\ comforting\\ bc\\ it\\ lets\\ u\\ see\\ the\\ destruction\\ as\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;Comforts\\ ur\\ own\\ possible\\ complicity\\ in\\ the\\ immorality\\ destruction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Barnard\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\ w\\ Sherman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tactics\\,\\ so\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2come\\ 2terms\\ w\\ it\\ n\\ make\\ the\\ connections\\ seem\\ meaningful\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allusions\\ 2Rome\\,\\ these\\ landscape\\ scenes\\,\\ they\\ transform\\ the\\ entire\\ South\\ in2\\ a\\ melancholy\\ realm\\ completely\\ removed\\ from\\ commercial\\ vitality\\ o\\ the\\ North\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ never\\ see\\ a\\ factory\\ scene\\,\\ see\\ signs\\ o\\ industry\\ that\\ might\\ connect\\ the\\ South\\ 2the\\ North\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ south\\ becomes\\ a\\ venue\\ for\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ creating\\ it\\ so\\ overtly\\ as\\ scene\\ from\\ the\\ past\\,\\ ruins\\ o\\ the\\ melancholic\\ past\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sense\\ that\\ the\\ destruction\\ was\\ inevitable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rebel\\ Works\\ in\\ fornt\\ of\\ ATalanta\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\GA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ see\\ Barnard\\ working\\ 2create\\ meaning\\ n\\ aesthetic\\ beauty\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ o\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ images\\ r\\ printed\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ his\\ composition\\ in\\ the\\ view\\ finder\\,\\ but\\ italso\\ relates\\ 2how\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ printed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ strange\\.\\ \\ \\;Check\\ \\&lsquo\\;em\\ out\\ closely\\ online\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\View\\ of\\ Savannah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ sky\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dramaticclouds\\ hovering\\ over\\ the\\ landscape\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;Trees\\ seem\\ oddly\\ truncated\\ as\\ they\\ come\\ up\\ over\\ the\\ horizong\\.\\ \\ \\;Looks\\ like\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ved\\ been\\ shaved\\ off\\ at\\ unnatural\\ angel\\.\\ \\ \\;Odd\\ netting\\ effect\\ o\\ the\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;Horizon\\ seems\\ doubled\\,\\ or\\ off\\-register\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ we\\ actually\\ have\\ here\\ r\\ 2\\ phtoos\\.\\ \\ \\;Barnard\\ has\\ taken\\ a\\ photo\\ o\\ the\\ landscape\\ n\\ a\\ phtoo\\ o\\ a\\ different\\,\\ separate\\ sky\\,\\ n\\ double\\ exposed\\/printed\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Normally\\ photographing\\ landscape\\ like\\ this\\ w\\ this\\ technology\\,\\ getting\\ the\\ right\\ landscape\\ totally\\ washes\\ out\\ the\\ sky\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Details\\ o\\ the\\ sky\\ get\\ obliterated\\ by\\ the\\ exposure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Barnard\\ goes\\ 2great\\ effort\\ 2double\\-pritnt\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ set\\ the\\ negative\\ on\\ the\\ paper\\,\\ printed\\ the\\ landscape\\,\\ basically\\ he\\ masked\\,\\ photogaprhically\\ enlarged\\,\\ placed\\ piece\\ o\\ cardboard\\ over\\ the\\ landscape\\ at\\ tree\\ line\\,\\ printed\\ bottom\\ half\\ first\\,\\ then\\ did\\ dodging\\ w\\ the\\ light\\ 2even\\ get\\ the\\ trees\\ 2\\ look\\ remotely\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Horizon\\ lines\\ always\\ look\\ wrong\\ bc\\ they\\ had\\ 2b\\ masked\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;Cardboard\\ probably\\ shaped\\ 2fit\\ shape\\ o\\ the\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ effort\\ in2producing\\ aesthetically\\ pleasing\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;combination\\ printing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Logic\\ o\\ comparison\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assembling\\ cohesive\\ relationship\\ bw\\ higher\\ n\\ lower\\ meaning\\.\\ \\ \\;Sky\\ is\\ totally\\ different\\,\\ w\\ different\\ cloud\\ formations\\,\\ in\\ different\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gardner\\ moves\\ corposes\\ around\\.\\ \\ \\;Barnard\\ moves\\ clouds\\ around\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ tyring\\ 2find\\ higher\\ or\\ lower\\ mng\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ recognizing\\ that\\ photography\\ is\\ off\\-register\\ in\\ creating\\ meanings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Quincy\\ Adams\\ Ward\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Freedman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ about\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ does\\ problem\\ o\\ slavery\\ tie\\ in2\\ what\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ talking\\ about\\?\\ \\ \\;Specifics\\ n\\ generality\\.\\ \\ \\;Need\\ 4idealization\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ talking\\ about\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ civil\\ war\\ n\\ photography\\ exposed\\ inadequacies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Savegry\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ trying\\ 2creata\\ sculptural\\ image\\ o\\ a\\ freed\\ slave\\,\\ 2bring\\ up\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ issues\\ in\\ the\\ medium\\ o\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ no\\ accesptbale\\ precdent\\ 4creating\\ a\\ noble\\ black\\ image\\ in\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ done\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ focus\\ on\\ this\\ in\\ section\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ problem\\ o\\ race\\ n\\ how\\ it\\ ties\\ in2\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ phtoogrpay\\ in\\ reconstruction\\,\\ based\\ on\\ these\\ traumatic\\ challenges\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\:\\ \\ \\;RETHINKING\\ THE\\ REAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\ 2\\/20\\/07\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Eakins\\,\\ Photography\\,\\ and\\ Perspective\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ Leja\\,\\ \\"\\;Eakins\\ and\\ Icons\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;83\\ no\\.\\ 3\\ \\(September\\ 2001\\)\\:\\ 479\\-498\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Johanna\\ Drucker\\,\\ \\"\\;Harnett\\,\\ Haberle\\,\\ and\\ Peto\\:\\ Visuality\\ and\\ Artifice\\ among\\ the\\ Proto\\-Modern\\ Americans\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;74\\ no\\ 1\\ \\(March\\ 1992\\)\\:\\ 37\\-50\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ wk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\ is\\ short\\ but\\ complex\\ n\\ rich\\ n\\ will\\ take\\ several\\ hours\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\George\\ Barnard\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rebel\\ Works\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ Atlanta\\,\\ GA\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Photographic\\ Views\\ o\\ Sherman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Campaign\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ published\\ 1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ left\\ off\\ last\\ wk\\ talking\\ about\\ this\\ photo\\ n\\ the\\ combination\\ prints\\ Barnad\\ used\\ in\\ showing\\ Sherman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\.\\ \\ \\;Earth\\ n\\ sky\\ r\\ sewed\\ 2gether\\ from\\ different\\ photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;Combination\\ prints\\ gave\\ proper\\ exposure\\/detail\\ in\\ both\\.\\ \\ \\;Created\\ awkward\\ overlap\\ in\\ horizon\\ line\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ how\\ trees\\ become\\ truncated\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Barnard\\ attempts\\ 2create\\ a\\ unified\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ all\\ falls\\ in2\\ the\\ expression\\ o\\ doubt\\ in\\ the\\ photo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ 2convey\\ truth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ watched\\ Barnard\\ n\\ Gardner\\ attempting\\ 2reconsitute\\ that\\ truth\\ n\\ mng\\ either\\ by\\ taking\\ extraordinary\\ measures\\ 2refreence\\ previous\\ higher\\ forms\\ o\\ visual\\ mng\\ \\(history\\ pntg\\,\\ landscape\\ pntg\\)\\,\\ or\\ try\\ 2assemble\\ larger\\ truth\\ through\\ adding\\ captions\\,\\ serializing\\ n\\ annotating\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ an\\ academic\\ operation\\ o\\ aesthetics\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ 4civil\\ war\\ photographers\\ a\\ question\\ that\\ went\\ in2\\ the\\ heart\\ o\\ showing\\ the\\ war\\ itself\\:\\ \\ \\;fragmentation\\,\\ reconstruction\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;part\\ o\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ remembering\\ it\\ wa\\ analogous\\ 2reconstruction\\,\\ combining\\ parts\\ in2\\ a\\ new\\ whole\\,\\ union\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compulsion\\ toward\\ realism\\,\\ 2provide\\ authentic\\ visual\\ testimony\\ 2what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ truly\\ present\\ b4\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sense\\ the\\ photo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strict\\ visual\\ truth\\ is\\ partial\\,\\ fragmentary\\,\\ n\\ needs\\ 2b\\ assembled\\ in\\ managed\\,\\ otherwise\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inauthentic\\ and\\ unsatisfying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ pntg\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Champion\\ Single\\ Sculls\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(formerly\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Max\\ Schmitt\\ in\\ a\\ Single\\ Scull\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ 1871\\ \\ \\;LEFT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thursday\\ we\\ see\\ US\\ \\&ldquo\\;fool\\ the\\ eye\\&rdquo\\;\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ this\\ wk\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ visual\\ truth\\ n\\ the\\ awareness\\ o\\ the\\ limitations\\ o\\ showng\\ visual\\ truth\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ o\\ realistic\\ visual\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alita\\ rdg\\ uses\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;seams\\&rdquo\\;\\ 2\\ talk\\ about\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ awkward\\ areas\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ assembly\\ o\\ realism\\ becomes\\ evident\\ 2us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ start\\ out\\ w\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Starting\\ Out\\ after\\ Rail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jon\\ Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ ca\\.\\ 1890\\-94\\ RIGHT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Starting\\ Out\\ after\\ Rail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1874\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\ was\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contemporary\\.\\ \\ \\;Best\\ known\\ 4complex\\ n\\ unstinting\\ attempts\\ at\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Wants\\ new\\ ways\\ o\\ understanding\\ the\\ world\\ incorpated\\ in2\\ a\\ visual\\ medium\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ builds\\ his\\ pntgs\\ from\\ inside\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ depth\\ o\\ pntg\\ n\\ how\\ its\\ depth\\ becomes\\ evident\\ on\\ its\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ sailing\\ n\\ boating\\ works\\ r\\ based\\ on\\ mathematica\\/geometrical\\ substructures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ portraits\\ n\\ figural\\ works\\,\\ he\\ did\\ something\\ similar\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Swimming\\ Hole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Built\\ up\\ depths\\ from\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ came\\ from\\ yrs\\ o\\ study\\ o\\ anatomy\\.\\ \\ \\;Studied\\ 4yrs\\ at\\ a\\ medical\\ college\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ cadavers\\ n\\ literally\\ peeling\\ back\\ skin\\ 2see\\ underneath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Anatomical\\ cast\\ of\\ a\\ male\\ torso\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ made\\ this\\ bronze\\ cast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\ believed\\ u\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pnt\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ skin\\ w\\/o\\ understanding\\ the\\ structures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inside\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Insisted\\ he\\ students\\ study\\ n\\ work\\ from\\ live\\ models\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ led\\ 2Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ notorious\\ loin\\ cloth\\ scandal\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ had\\ 2resign\\ from\\ teaching\\ 4exposing\\ a\\ male\\ model\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genitals\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ female\\ art\\ students\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\ had\\ no\\ place\\ 4Victorian\\ prudery\\ when\\ trying\\ 2achieve\\ his\\ realist\\ project\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Mechanical\\ Drawing\\ \\(Three\\ Spirals\\)\\,\\ 1860\\-61\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ Philly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Perspective\\ drawing\\ of\\ a\\ lathe\\,\\ 1860\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;artistic\\ training\\ was\\ as\\ much\\ about\\ science\\ as\\ about\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ attended\\ central\\ high\\ school\\,\\ graduated\\ in\\ 1860\\.\\ \\ \\;notoriously\\ hard\\ school\\ 2get\\ in2\\.\\ \\ \\;school\\ famous\\ 4its\\ rigorous\\ mathematical\\ n\\ scientific\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rigorous\\ drawing\\ syle\\ also\\ taught\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Clear\\,\\ precise\\ methods\\ o\\ drawing\\ were\\ ways\\ o\\ signaling\\ clear\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Fleeting\\ optical\\ impressions\\ were\\ deemphasized\\ in\\ this\\ curriculum\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ 2know\\ an\\ object\\ in\\ all\\ its\\ dimensions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ knew\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2become\\ a\\ fine\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ high\\ school\\ he\\ started\\ 2train\\ 2b\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Took\\ courses\\ in\\ anatomy\\ 2\\ at\\ Jefferson\\ medical\\ college\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1866\\,\\ went\\ 2Paris\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;serious\\&rdquo\\;\\ artists\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Studied\\ there\\ 4\\ 4yrs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Nude\\ study\\ of\\ a\\ man\\,\\ no\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Leon\\ Gerome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kindred\\ spirit\\ 2Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ understanding\\ o\\ what\\ art\\ should\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;Gerome\\ interested\\ in\\ absolute\\ scientific\\ detail\\ n\\ accuracy\\.\\ \\ \\;Objective\\ description\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ o\\ Gerome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ were\\ history\\ pntgs\\ like\\ this\\ or\\ exotic\\ orientalizing\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ Gerome\\,\\ 2bring\\ this\\ past\\/exotic\\ reality\\ 2the\\ Parisian\\ viewer\\,\\ one\\ needed\\ meticulous\\ objective\\ realism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Eakins\\ agreed\\ n\\ was\\ ready\\ 2absorb\\ these\\ kinds\\ o\\ lessons\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Eakins\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\ recreating\\ exotic\\ locales\\ or\\ history\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ 2show\\ modern\\ everyday\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ more\\ rigorous\\ than\\ Gerome\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ only\\ came\\ 2class\\ when\\ live\\ models\\ were\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ casts\\ 4Eakins\\!\\ \\ \\;Learns\\ a\\ lot\\ from\\ Gerome\\ tho\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ 4a\\ while\\ w\\ a\\ portratist\\.\\ \\ \\;Studies\\ Spanish\\ pntg\\ in\\ Madrid\\ for\\ a\\ little\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ Biglin\\ in\\ a\\ Single\\ Scull\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1873\\-74\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ came\\ 2America\\ more\\ committed\\ 2pntg\\ objective\\ truth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conspicuous\\ in\\ letters\\ about\\ his\\ denial\\ o\\ all\\ artistic\\ artificiality\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ only\\ wants\\ objective\\,\\ real\\,\\ truth\\.\\ \\ \\;Dislikes\\ Parisian\\ fashion\\ pntrs\\ who\\ wanted\\ 2capture\\ fleeting\\ moments\\ o\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ Parisian\\ metropolis\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sees\\ imself\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ impressionists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Persepctive\\ study\\ for\\ John\\ Biglin\\ in\\ a\\ Single\\ Scull\\,\\ 1873\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\ wanted\\ 2work\\ from\\ modern\\,\\ American\\ subjects\\,\\ n\\ wanted\\ 2give\\ them\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\ o\\ treatment\\ that\\ Gerome\\ gave\\ exotic\\/historical\\ subjects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ 2show\\ new\\ n\\ modern\\ US\\ subject\\:\\ \\ \\;rowers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ series\\ o\\ pntgs\\ o\\ rowers\\ along\\ Schuylkill\\ river\\ in\\ Pennsylvania\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rowing\\ clubs\\ really\\ popular\\ in\\ 1870s\\/60s\\ in\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Attractive\\ 2Eakins\\ also\\ tho\\ bc\\ skulling\\ was\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ scientific\\ sport\\ requiring\\ lots\\ o\\ discipline\\ n\\ precise\\ technique\\,\\ which\\ Eakins\\ sees\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ found\\ skulling\\ n\\ rowing\\ gave\\ him\\ an\\ opportunity\\ 2experiment\\ w\\ scientific\\ knowledge\\ n\\ its\\ visualization\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\All\\ o\\ his\\ pictures\\ show\\ men\\ relatively\\ scantily\\ clad\\ 4their\\ day\\,\\ letting\\ him\\ show\\ muscles\\,\\ tension\\/compression\\,\\ various\\ muscular\\ precisions\\ that\\ r\\ required\\ 2do\\ well\\ in\\ this\\ sport\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ bc\\ the\\ images\\ are\\ o\\ boats\\ on\\ the\\ water\\,\\ the\\ construction\\ o\\ space\\ n\\ subject\\ matter\\ is\\ perfect\\ 4someone\\ interested\\ in\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ perfect\\ ground\\ plane\\ o\\ water\\,\\ allows\\ 4all\\ kind\\ o\\ foreshortening\\.\\ \\ \\;Perfectly\\ horizontal\\ plane\\ upon\\ which\\ objects\\ r\\ set\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ lets\\ Eakins\\ try\\ out\\ perspective\\ studies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ water\\ surface\\ is\\ occasionally\\ filled\\ w\\ ripples\\ n\\ waves\\,\\ which\\ let\\ Eakins\\ study\\ light\\ n\\ reflection\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prepatory\\ drawing\\ sees\\ him\\ work\\ thru\\ reflection\\ studies\\,\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ image\\ o\\ figure\\ doubles\\ n\\ multiplies\\ below\\ on\\ the\\ water\\ ripples\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ these\\ rowing\\ pictures\\,\\ u\\ see\\ Eakins\\ attempting\\ 2transfer\\ 3\\-d\\ reality\\ on2\\ 2dimensional\\ surface\\ in\\ perfectly\\ scientific\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ pntg\\ prefaced\\ w\\ careful\\ drawings\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntgs\\ yearn\\ 4absolute\\ internal\\ consistency\\ 2the\\ space\\ depicted\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ accused\\ o\\ being\\ ocd\\ bc\\ his\\ reflection\\ studies\\ r\\ SO\\ detailed\\.\\ \\ \\;Scholars\\ say\\ he\\ feared\\ chaos\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ 2control\\ every\\ ruffle\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ water\\ that\\ nature\\ may\\ throw\\ at\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wrote\\ that\\ students\\ need\\ \\&ldquo\\;haven\\ o\\ fear\\ o\\ the\\ accidental\\ forms\\ that\\ nature\\ might\\ throw\\ at\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ fear\\ of\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ accidental\\ forms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Pair\\-Oared\\ Shell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Perspective\\ study\\ for\\ the\\ Pair\\ Oared\\-Shell\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Again\\ u\\ see\\ him\\ bilding\\ the\\ pics\\ from\\ inside\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perfect\\ grid\\ on\\ the\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ horizontal\\ element\\ corresponds\\ 2perfect\\ distance\\ in\\ ft\\ from\\ viewer\\ 2pntd\\ subject\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ measures\\ the\\ angle\\ o\\ the\\ light\\ source\\ n\\ mathematically\\ determines\\ the\\ light\\ play\\ in\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ r\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ boats\\ according\\ 2their\\ known\\ sizes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ much\\ more\\ prepared\\ than\\ even\\ the\\ average\\ prospectively\\ astute\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ like\\ an\\ engineer\\ than\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ view\\ placed\\ Eakins\\ 37\\ ft\\ from\\ the\\ boat\\ at\\ 7\\:20\\ pm\\ in\\ July\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientific\\ method\\ n\\ the\\ focus\\ on\\ reproducibility\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perspective\\ 4Eakins\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ genetic\\ code\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ can\\ recreate\\ the\\ scene\\ 2every\\ detail\\ by\\ following\\ his\\ guidelines\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ attempt\\ 2capture\\ the\\ fullness\\ o\\ life\\ on\\ 2d\\ surface\\ w\\/o\\ losing\\ anything\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ is\\ closer\\ 2something\\ like\\ artistic\\ creationism\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2create\\ life\\ from\\ nature\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wants\\ 2keep\\ sharp\\ eye\\ on\\ nature\\ n\\ steal\\ her\\ tools\\.\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ not\\ just\\ 2imitate\\ but\\ 2simulate\\ life\\ anew\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\ at\\ each\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perspective\\ as\\ a\\ diagram\\ often\\ manifests\\ in\\ the\\ picture\\ itself\\ w\\ Eakins\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ one\\,\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ base\\ o\\ the\\ bridge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shad\\ Fishing\\ at\\ Goucester\\ on\\ the\\ Delaware\\ River\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ New\\ Jersey\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ attempts\\ 2produce\\ as\\ much\\ truth\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ he\\ wrks\\ 2incorporate\\ multiple\\ systems\\ o\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ 2do\\ so\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ constantly\\ coming\\ up\\ against\\ the\\ dis\\-unity\\ o\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ systems\\ r\\ often\\ contradicting\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ early\\ 1880s\\,\\ he\\ begins\\ 2incroprate\\ photography\\ as\\ scientific\\ tool\\ 4\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;what\\ happens\\ when\\ he\\ gets\\ hold\\ o\\ the\\ camera\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ speaks\\ 2the\\ larger\\ relationship\\ bw\\ pntg\\ n\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ started\\ looking\\ at\\ that\\ w\\ Homer\\ n\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ look\\ at\\ Eakins\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;Keep\\ file\\ in\\ ur\\ mind\\ about\\ relationship\\ bw\\ photos\\ n\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ relate\\ 2semiotic\\ images\\ later\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ thought\\ photography\\ would\\ replace\\ pntg\\ n\\ do\\ it\\ better\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ photography\\ disrupts\\ realist\\ pntg\\,\\ distorts\\ it\\ from\\ w\\/in\\.\\ \\ \\;it\\ represents\\,\\ both\\ 2\\ Homer\\ n\\ other\\ pntrs\\,\\ a\\ new\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\alien\\ form\\ o\\ vision\\ whose\\ mechanical\\ intrusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in2\\ pntg\\ has\\ positive\\ n\\ negative\\ aspects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\ so\\ interested\\ in\\ precision\\,\\ so\\ of\\ course\\ he\\ took\\ up\\ the\\ camera\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ also\\ allowd\\ him\\ an\\ ethnographic\\ investigation\\ 4him\\,\\ letting\\ him\\ observe\\ the\\ actual\\ reality\\ o\\ various\\ forms\\ o\\ life\\ n\\ motion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ precise\\ ethnographic\\ investigation\\ is\\ good\\ 4someone\\ interested\\ in\\ subtlties\\ o\\ gesture\\ n\\ motion\\ as\\ Eakins\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;Passes\\ along\\ knowledge\\ o\\ these\\ fisherman\\ that\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ been\\ produced\\ by\\ Eakins\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ fishermen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ways\\ n\\ techniques\\,\\ wants\\ 2learn\\,\\ n\\ does\\ it\\ by\\ photographing\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ eagerly\\ embraced\\ the\\ camera\\ as\\ an\\ ethnographic\\ tool\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ we\\ see\\ him\\ paying\\ the\\ price\\ 4this\\ tool\\ as\\ we\\ look\\ closer\\ at\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\ bought\\ his\\ own\\ camera\\ in\\ 1880\\,\\ 4x5\\ inch\\ dry\\ plate\\ camera\\ \\(6\\ megapixels\\,\\ not\\ 7\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Series\\ o\\ pntgs\\ showing\\ shad\\ fishing\\ grounds\\.\\ \\ \\;Experimenting\\ w\\ camera\\ as\\ kind\\ o\\ drawing\\ tool\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Camera\\ used\\ 2create\\ preliminary\\ sketches\\.\\ P\\ ntgs\\ built\\ up\\ from\\ several\\ o\\ these\\ photos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ this\\ pnt\\,\\ Shag\\ fishing\\ in\\ decline\\.\\ \\ \\;Fewer\\ fish\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ many\\ traditional\\ industries\\ in\\ decline\\ around\\ Philly\\ in\\ 1880s\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\ memorializes\\ these\\ fisherman\\,\\ understanding\\ them\\ as\\ vocation\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ passing\\ away\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ o\\ modernity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Culmination\\ o\\ all\\ o\\ his\\ experiments\\ w\\ the\\ camera\\ n\\ his\\ shad\\ fishing\\ pnts\\ was\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Mending\\ the\\ Net\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Preparatory\\ photographs\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shad\\ Fishing\\ at\\ Gloucester\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mending\\ the\\ Net\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ sitting\\ on\\ the\\ structure\\ shows\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\ u\\ have\\ this\\ modern\\ viewer\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ ethnographic\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ figures\\ taken\\ from\\ photos\\,\\ exact\\ poses\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ took\\ 18\\ photos\\ o\\ geese\\ 2get\\ proper\\ arrangement\\ in\\ his\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ earlier\\ underdrawing\\ underneath\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ prepatory\\ drawings\\ r\\ photographs\\!\\ \\ \\;Purely\\ n\\ assembled\\ image\\,\\ n\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ 2that\\ in\\ am\\ oment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fishermen\\ allayed\\ along\\ the\\ horizon\\ like\\ a\\ frieze\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ humble\\ but\\ highly\\ crafted\\ labor\\&hellip\\;mending\\ the\\ nets\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ activity\\ is\\ what\\ Eakins\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\,\\ but\\ from\\ a\\ strange\\ ethnographic\\ distance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ right\\ is\\ urban\\ spectator\\,\\ reading\\ newspaper\\ \\(nother\\ sign\\ o\\ modernity\\)\\ in\\ boater\\ hat\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ children\\ r\\ talking\\ 2the\\ shad\\ fishermen\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ have\\ a\\ toy\\ boat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Staged\\ collision\\ o\\ temporalities\\:\\ \\ \\;modern\\ v\\.\\ traditional\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\ had\\ highly\\ technical\\ method\\ o\\ incorporating\\ photographs\\ in2\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Done\\ through\\ projections\\,\\ like\\ slide\\ projections\\.\\ \\ \\;Source\\ photos\\ projected\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ traced\\ in\\ interesting\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ covered\\ in\\ bw\\ layers\\ o\\ pnt\\ w\\ tiny\\ incisions\\,\\ small\\ marks\\ made\\ w\\ needle\\ like\\ stylus\\,\\ made\\ in2\\ the\\ pnt\\ while\\ the\\ figures\\ r\\ being\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;Location\\ o\\ the\\ marks\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ red\\ marks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\EAkins\\ would\\ have\\ his\\ easel\\ set\\ up\\ w\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ had\\ magic\\ lanter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\projector\\ 2project\\ the\\ photo\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ then\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ project\\ the\\ photo\\,\\ make\\ these\\ marks\\ 2measure\\ the\\ figures\\ n\\ creae\\ these\\ exact\\ positions\\ 2get\\ the\\ proper\\ placement\\,\\ then\\ light\\ the\\ light\\ back\\ in2\\ the\\ room\\,\\ then\\ pnt\\ over\\,\\ darken\\ the\\ room\\,\\ reproject\\,\\ make\\ more\\ marks\\,\\ turn\\ off\\ lights\\,\\ pnt\\ again\\&hellip\\;\\&\\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;seems\\ like\\ cheating\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ made\\ easy\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2\\ do\\ this\\,\\ mayb\\ more\\ so\\ than\\ doing\\ it\\ free\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ draftsman\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;this\\ was\\ harder\\ n\\ more\\ difficult\\,\\ so\\ systematic\\,\\ characteristic\\ o\\ his\\ wrk\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ difficulties\\ involved\\ 2tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ just\\ that\\ the\\ process\\ is\\ hard\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ also\\ that\\ there\\ r\\ structural\\ problems\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ assembly\\ o\\ photographic\\ space\\ in2\\ a\\ consistent\\ pntd\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ he\\ nits\\ the\\ separate\\ photos\\ 2gether\\,\\ he\\ found\\ himself\\ constantly\\ struggling\\ w\\ perspective\\ consistency\\.\\ Consistency\\ o\\ light\\,\\ shadow\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\ takes\\ these\\ different\\ pnts\\ o\\ view\\ n\\ time\\ n\\ tries\\ 2blend\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ especially\\ hard\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;Cameras\\ r\\ essentially\\ machines\\ 4producing\\ linear\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;Photos\\ capture\\ absolutely\\ consisten\\ represtnations\\ o\\ perspective\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ image\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ internal\\ perspective\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Putting\\ these\\ chunks\\ 2gether\\ in2\\ single\\ pntg\\ is\\ almost\\ impossible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ Eakins\\ struggles\\ w\\ this\\ in\\ trying\\ 2create\\ perfectly\\ aligned\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tried\\ 2take\\ all\\ the\\ photos\\ from\\ similar\\ viewpoints\\,\\ but\\ every\\ movement\\ o\\ his\\ camera\\ changes\\ that\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2\\ match\\ the\\ different\\ perspective\\ structures\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ 2flatten\\ all\\ the\\ figures\\ against\\ the\\ sky\\ 2get\\ the\\ perspective\\.\\ Aligning\\ htem\\ all\\ as\\ if\\ in\\ a\\ frieze\\,\\ he\\ does\\ this\\ bc\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ place\\ them\\ all\\ in\\ persectival\\ relation\\ 2eo\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ setting\\ up\\ everyone\\ flatly\\ against\\ the\\ horizon\\,\\ again\\ u\\ see\\ flatness\\ relating\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ 2photography\\ n\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Flattening\\ them\\ all\\ against\\ blank\\ horizon\\ enables\\ them\\ 2b\\ placed\\ so\\ that\\ inconsistencies\\ r\\ less\\ obvious\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ notice\\ figure\\ groups\\ themselves\\ r\\ all\\ isolated\\ from\\ eo\\,\\ except\\ 4the\\ little\\ girl\\.\\ \\ \\;Isolating\\ each\\ figure\\ gets\\ rid\\ o\\ direct\\ conflict\\ in\\ spatial\\ constructiosn\\ w\\ eo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flat\\ light\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ avoids\\ having\\ shadows\\ that\\ r\\ inaccurate\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ each\\ person\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ set\\ o\\ shadows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flat\\ sky\\,\\ flat\\ light\\,\\ removes\\ information\\ about\\ specific\\ places\\,\\ n\\ thus\\ removes\\ conflict\\.\\ \\ \\;Dreamlike\\ quality\\ o\\ the\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ o\\ pastiche\\.\\ \\ \\;Uncanny\\ misalignment\\ o\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;Can\\ pntd\\ space\\ b\\ reassmabled\\ after\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ broken\\ up\\ in2\\ individual\\ chunks\\/shards\\ by\\ photography\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Detail\\ n\\ specificity\\ o\\ the\\ camera\\.\\ \\ \\;Rift\\ bw\\ traditional\\ notion\\ o\\ fluidness\\ o\\ space\\ n\\ now\\ this\\ parcelization\\ o\\ space\\ that\\ came\\ about\\ bc\\ o\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ parcelizes\\ the\\ world\\ in2\\ chunks\\ spatially\\ n\\ also\\ temporally\\,\\ which\\ Eakins\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ as\\ well\\ n\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ in\\ 2wks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ rich\\ pntg\\ not\\ just\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ a\\ collision\\ bw\\ modernity\\ n\\ tradition\\,\\ but\\ also\\ bc\\ that\\ collision\\ is\\ bw\\ photography\\ n\\ pntg\\,\\ all\\ this\\ in\\ one\\ canvas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Preparatory\\ photographs\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mending\\ the\\ Net\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ the\\ peer\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\n\\ how\\ the\\ perspective\\ grid\\ moves\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ thing\\ happens\\ in\\ this\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Figures\\ n\\ manipulating\\ n\\ mending\\ a\\ NET\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ Eakins\\ project\\ as\\ being\\ similar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Freakish\\ resemblance\\ bw\\ photograph\\ showing\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mending\\ the\\ Net\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;n\\ his\\ study\\ o\\ the\\ skull\\ rower\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\EAkins\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ wandering\\ around\\ Gloucester\\ n\\ looking\\ at\\ fishermen\\.\\ \\ \\;Everything\\ they\\ do\\,\\ their\\ craft\\ o\\ mending\\ the\\ net\\,\\ has\\ imptnt\\ parallelisms\\ 2his\\ own\\ craft\\,\\ w\\ their\\ perspective\\ grids\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ perspective\\ structures\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pair\\ o\\ Orange\\ Shells\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shad\\ Fishing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;have\\ in\\ the\\ Gloucester\\ pntgs\\ merged\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ water\\ like\\ prehistoric\\ monsters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Even\\ as\\ characters\\ r\\ mending\\ a\\ fishing\\ net\\,\\ Eakins\\ is\\ attempting\\ 2sew\\ 2gether\\ the\\ perspective\\ grid\\ after\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ disrupted\\ by\\ partialization\\ by\\ photography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Gross\\ Clinic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Healing\\ n\\ mending\\ relationship\\ bw\\ surface\\ n\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;Done\\ here\\ bw\\ relation\\ bw\\ surgery\\ n\\ the\\ diseased\\ infrastructure\\:\\ \\ \\;bone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ 2\\/22\\/07\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Trompe\\-l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ Leja\\,\\ \\"\\;Eakins\\ and\\ Icons\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;83\\ no\\.\\ 3\\ \\(September\\ 2001\\)\\:\\ 479\\-498\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Johanna\\ Drucker\\,\\ \\"\\;Harnett\\,\\ Haberle\\,\\ and\\ Peto\\:\\ Visuality\\ and\\ Artifice\\ among\\ the\\ Proto\\-Modern\\ Americans\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Art\\ Bulletin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;74\\ no\\ 1\\ \\(March\\ 1992\\)\\:\\ 37\\-50\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ 2sday\\ we\\ barely\\ skimmed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ career\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ covered\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ pntgs\\,\\ but\\ we\\ focused\\ on\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Mending\\ the\\ Net\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ his\\ attempt\\ 2reconstruct\\ the\\ sub\\-cutaneous\\ reality\\ o\\ what\\ he\\ saw\\ on\\ a\\ 2D\\ canvas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finding\\ a\\ way\\ o\\ pntg\\ 2D\\ flat\\ images\\ that\\ could\\ convey\\ the\\ truths\\ o\\ the\\ depths\\ o\\ the\\ objects\\ n\\ organisms\\ that\\ were\\ actually\\ being\\ represented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Gross\\ Clinic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ portrait\\ o\\ surgeon\\ Samuel\\ Gross\\ who\\ wrkd\\ in\\ Philly\\ when\\ Eakins\\ pntd\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ performing\\ a\\ surgery\\.\\ \\ \\;Action\\ portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ surgical\\ theater\\,\\ teaching\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ U\\ can\\ barely\\ see\\ the\\ tstudents\\ in\\ the\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Removing\\ bones\\ that\\ had\\ developed\\ bone\\ disease\\,\\ osteomialitus\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surgery\\ seen\\ as\\ incredibly\\ advanced\\ bc\\ u\\ could\\ save\\ the\\ limbs\\,\\ no\\ need\\ 4amputation\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ could\\ surgically\\ remove\\ just\\ portions\\ o\\ the\\ bone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gross\\ was\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ paragon\\ o\\ modern\\ surgical\\ procedure\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ primitive\\ aspects\\:\\ \\ \\;doctors\\ still\\ wore\\ black\\,\\ things\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ so\\ sanitary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ art\\ historians\\ have\\ talked\\ about\\ this\\ pntg\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;surrogation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Critics\\ say\\ Gross\\ \\=\\ surrogate\\ 4Eakins\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\ frequently\\ placed\\ himself\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Campion\\ Single\\ sculls\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1872\\ \\(detail\\ showing\\ self\\-portrait\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Portrait\\ o\\ himself\\ sculling\\,\\ n\\ he\\ signed\\ his\\ name\\ on\\ his\\ boat\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ a\\ habit\\ o\\ putting\\ himself\\ in2\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ indicated\\ the\\ depth\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ involvement\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Shows\\ his\\ desire\\ 2know\\ his\\ subjects\\ inside\\ n\\ out\\,\\ putting\\ himself\\ inside\\ the\\ scenes\\.\\ \\ \\;Conveys\\ his\\ own\\ totalizing\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ placed\\ himself\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gross\\ Clinic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bc\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ seated\\ back\\ among\\ the\\ students\\ in\\ the\\ background\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\ puts\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ audience\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ pntd\\ ppl\\ whose\\ activities\\ he\\ could\\ relate\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;both\\ he\\ n\\ Gross\\ r\\ interested\\ in\\ getting\\ beneath\\ the\\ skin\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ r\\ about\\ mending\\/healing\\,\\ as\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ on\\ Tuesday\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ associating\\ himself\\ w\\ the\\ net\\ menders\\,\\ thinking\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ practice\\ o\\ healing\\ over\\ the\\ wounds\\ the\\ realism\\ has\\ inflicted\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ new\\ methods\\ of\\ knowledge\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ translate\\ easily\\ 2pntg\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michael\\ Fried\\ n\\ others\\ have\\ argued\\ Gross\\&rsquo\\;\\ gesture\\ o\\ holding\\ the\\ scalpel\\ is\\ like\\ holding\\ a\\ pen\\/pnt\\ brush\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ own\\ wrk\\ was\\ surgical\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Detail\\ o\\ the\\ operation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ closeup\\ o\\ the\\ wound\\&hellip\\;ppl\\ could\\ barely\\ stand\\ 2look\\ at\\ this\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ the\\ reasons\\ Philly\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ college\\ had\\ the\\ pntg\\ was\\ because\\ patrons\\/museums\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stomach\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ loving\\ reproduction\\ o\\ the\\ probing\\ o\\ the\\ wound\\,\\ blood\\ everywhere\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ is\\ Eakins\\ so\\ fascinated\\ w\\ the\\ wound\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ A\\ wound\\ on\\ a\\ pntg\\ might\\ convey\\ on\\ a\\ higher\\ critical\\ level\\&hellip\\;at\\ the\\ sight\\ o\\ a\\ wound\\ that\\ the\\ connection\\ bw\\ the\\ depths\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ become\\ visible\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Wound\\ \\=\\ place\\ where\\ relationship\\ bw\\ surface\\ n\\ depth\\,\\ realism\\ n\\ knowing\\,\\ become\\ interrelated\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\ is\\ saying\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ reality\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ his\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Takes\\ extreme\\ measures\\ 2show\\ us\\ the\\ inside\\ o\\ this\\ body\\,\\ this\\ disgusting\\ gash\\ in\\ the\\ skin\\ w\\ the\\ blood\\ pouring\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ArtStorr\\:\\ \\ \\;found\\ through\\ e\\-resources\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ search\\ for\\ this\\ pntg\\ n\\ find\\ extremely\\ high\\-quality\\ online\\ reproductions\\ o\\ the\\ pntgs\\,\\ n\\ u\\ can\\ look\\ at\\ details\\ w\\ lots\\ o\\ clarity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ if\\ Eakins\\ is\\ trying\\ 2prove\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ plumb\\ the\\ depths\\ o\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ only\\ found\\ these\\ questions\\ worth\\ struggling\\ w\\ bc\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ seeing\\ n\\ knowing\\ were\\ becoming\\ separate\\ operations\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ certain\\ any\\ more\\ the\\ depths\\ o\\ reality\\ could\\ b\\ reliably\\ shown\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ a\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Surface\\ n\\ reality\\ r\\ separating\\,\\ but\\ Eakins\\ is\\ trying\\ 2mend\\ them\\ back\\ 2gether\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caravaggio\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Incredulity\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Thomas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1601\\-02\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Doubting\\ Thomas\\.\\ \\ \\;Term\\ based\\ on\\ Thomas\\ the\\ Apostle\\ who\\ doubted\\ the\\ resurrection\\ o\\ Jesus\\,\\ n\\ he\\ demanded\\ proof\\ o\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ return\\ by\\ getting\\ permission\\ 2prove\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ wounds\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ finds\\ out\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ real\\,\\ not\\ a\\ superficial\\ apparition\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michael\\ Leja\\ in\\ our\\ rdg\\ notes\\ that\\ all\\ o\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ doubts\\ were\\ practiced\\ not\\ just\\ by\\ a\\ jettisoning\\ realism\\,\\ but\\ Eakins\\ wanted\\ 2hold\\ on2\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ kept\\ representation\\ alive\\ by\\ putting\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ dissecting\\ table\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ another\\ form\\ o\\ realist\\ pntg\\,\\ or\\ hyper\\-realist\\ pntg\\,\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ that\\ also\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subjected\\ realism\\ 2an\\ extreme\\ internal\\ critique\\ about\\ its\\ possibilities\\ n\\ failures\\&hellip\\;Tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oiel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;fool\\ the\\ eye\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Michael\\ Harnett\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Old\\ Violin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1886\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1886\\ newspaper\\ writer\\ discusses\\ his\\ visit\\ 2see\\ this\\ pntg\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;so\\ real\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ guard\\ has\\ been\\ detailed\\ 2protect\\ the\\ picture\\ n\\ suppress\\ attempts\\ 2take\\ the\\ violin\\ n\\ bow\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ writer\\,\\ a\\ dobuting\\ Thomas\\,\\ was\\ allowed\\ by\\ the\\ guard\\ 2feel\\ the\\ violin\\ n\\ the\\ beautiful\\ curve\\ o\\ the\\ sheet\\ o\\ music\\,\\ n\\ determined\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ real\\ violin\\/sheet\\ o\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ pntgs\\ profoundly\\ riven\\ w\\ doubt\\ about\\ representation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ 2bring\\ reality\\ forward\\ 2the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oiel\\ \\=\\ subcategory\\ o\\ still\\-life\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ images\\ r\\ nearly\\ always\\ assemblages\\ o\\ still\\-life\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ pops\\ up\\ in\\ certain\\ cultural\\ situations\\ \\(popular\\ in\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ c\\.\\ Dutch\\ pntg\\ too\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Not\\ nearly\\ as\\ popular\\ in\\ Europe\\ as\\ in\\ US\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ learn\\ about\\ why\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ Americans\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ developed\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oiel\\ n\\ made\\ this\\ ancient\\ type\\ o\\ pntg\\ so\\ imptnt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ takes\\ representational\\ aims\\ o\\ pntg\\ 2an\\ extreme\\,\\ so\\ the\\ viewer\\ is\\ unsure\\ whether\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ a\\ pntg\\ or\\ a\\ segment\\ o\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ is\\ about\\ verisimilitude\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Meant\\ 2cause\\ lots\\ o\\ doubt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;about\\ whether\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ real\\ or\\ an\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expending\\ great\\ energy\\ on\\ depicting\\ minute\\ superficial\\ realities\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ skews\\ the\\ actual\\ depiction\\ o\\ depth\\,\\ as\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ in\\ a\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Denigrated\\ by\\ art\\ critics\\ as\\ a\\ mere\\ mechanical\\ reproduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ r\\ so\\ emphatic\\ tho\\ that\\ they\\ undo\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ say\\ ur\\&rsquo\\;\\ a\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ u\\ trick\\ ppl\\ in2\\ thinking\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ an\\ image\\ but\\ something\\ real\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;u\\ have\\ 2show\\ objects\\ at\\ their\\ actual\\ scale\\ in\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harnett\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Faithful\\ Colt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ thing\\ u\\ want\\ 2do\\ as\\ a\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ artist\\ is\\ 2choose\\ flat\\ subject\\ matter\\ n\\ have\\ shallow\\ pictorial\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ only\\ has\\ the\\ depth\\ o\\ the\\ gun\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harnett\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Card\\ Rack\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ really\\ flat\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Bulletin\\ boards\\ w\\ pieces\\ o\\ textile\\ pinned\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;one\\ o\\ the\\ attractions\\ w\\ these\\ pntgs\\ is\\ they\\ were\\ so\\ flat\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ u\\ bring\\ in\\ depth\\,\\ linear\\ perspective\\ pntgs\\ r\\ set\\ up\\ so\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ one\\ pnt\\ where\\ the\\ depth\\ makes\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ illusion\\ falls\\ apart\\ if\\ u\\ step\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\U\\ need\\ 2make\\ sure\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ perspective\\ anywhere\\ so\\ the\\ viewer\\ can\\ see\\ it\\ from\\ different\\ perspectives\\ and\\ still\\ find\\ it\\ realistic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perspectile\\ recession\\ has\\ 2b\\ blocked\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ pntgs\\ block\\ ur\\ eye\\ from\\ traveling\\ in2\\ the\\ background\\,\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;depth\\&rdquo\\;\\ o\\ t\\ hep\\ ntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Images\\ protrude\\ out\\ toward\\ viewer\\ rather\\ than\\ recessing\\ behind\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Haberle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Slate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntg\\ a\\ frame\\ around\\ ur\\ pntg\\ is\\ big\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harnett\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Old\\ Models\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ detail\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ have\\ 2erase\\ ur\\ own\\ technical\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Harnett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ evoking\\ different\\ textures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beautiful\\ rips\\ n\\ tears\\ in\\ song\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;Rust\\ n\\ splinters\\ on\\ metal\\ n\\ wood\\ surfaces\\.\\ Surface\\ o\\ image\\ is\\ glassy\\ n\\ smooth\\ like\\ a\\ photo\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brushstrokes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ slick\\ surface\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resemblance\\ 2a\\ photo\\.\\ \\ \\;Photos\\ have\\ a\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;eoil\\ quality\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;but\\ actually\\ photos\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ always\\ get\\ them\\ as\\ representations\\ o\\ other\\ realities\\,\\ not\\ the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relaties\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ proper\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;Relationship\\ bw\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;eoil\\ n\\ photography\\ is\\ interesting\\,\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ equivocal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harnett\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\After\\ the\\ Hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Putting\\ a\\ pntg\\ like\\ this\\ in\\ a\\ museum\\ gets\\ rid\\ o\\ its\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;Except\\ contemporary\\ artist\\ who\\ makes\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;eoil\\ images\\ o\\ museum\\ guards\\ n\\ puts\\ them\\ in\\ museums\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntgs\\ bought\\ up\\ by\\ the\\ truckload\\ by\\ museums\\,\\ saloons\\,\\ theaters\\,\\ high\\-class\\ bars\\.\\ \\ \\;Common\\ in\\ department\\ stores\\,\\ interesting\\ bc\\ many\\ o\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ about\\ retail\\ situations\\ n\\ objects\\ n\\ selecting\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Department\\ stores\\ r\\ just\\ being\\ developed\\ at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ huge\\ emporia\\ o\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ often\\ have\\ art\\ salons\\ where\\ u\\ can\\ rest\\ from\\ ur\\ shoppng\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;exhibited\\ at\\ Theodore\\ Stewart\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Warren\\ St\\.\\ Saloon\\,\\ upscale\\ Manhattan\\ bar\\ catering\\ 2businessmen\\.\\ \\ \\;Rich\\ woods\\ n\\ brass\\ n\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carefully\\ installed\\ behind\\ a\\ rail\\ so\\ u\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ 2\\ close\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;Dim\\ gas\\ side\\ lights\\ heightened\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ reality\\ in\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Set\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ prevent\\ close\\ inspection\\,\\ thus\\ enhancing\\ the\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;Shading\\ in\\ pntg\\ made\\ the\\ objects\\ appear\\ 2b\\ lit\\ by\\ actual\\ light\\ sources\\ in\\ the\\ bar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ ppl\\ came\\ 2see\\ the\\ image\\ n\\ see\\ how\\ real\\ it\\ looked\\.\\ \\ \\;Tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntgs\\ were\\ in\\ public\\ spaces\\,\\ making\\ viewership\\ o\\ them\\ a\\ public\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ theater\\ aspect\\ 2these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ come\\ 2look\\ at\\ the\\ pntgs\\ n\\ 2look\\ at\\ ppl\\ who\\ look\\ at\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dozens\\ o\\ newspaper\\ pieces\\ about\\ how\\ ppl\\ responded\\ 2tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ images\\ in\\ bars\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ routinely\\ tried\\ 2\\ pick\\ interact\\ w\\ n\\ touch\\ the\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Guards\\ were\\ often\\ needed\\ next\\ 2tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntgs\\ 2protect\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\London\\ correspondent\\ who\\ came\\ rom\\ Europe\\ 2see\\ the\\ pntg\\ wrote\\ ethnographic\\ piece\\ about\\ Americans\\ behavior\\ b4\\ the\\ pntgs\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;men\\ stand\\ b4\\ pntg\\ 4\\ 15minutes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\City\\ men\\ are\\ enraptured\\ w\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Love\\ the\\ details\\.\\ \\ \\;Countrymen\\,\\ esp\\.\\ from\\ Chicago\\,\\ declare\\ nobody\\ can\\ take\\ them\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;they\\ swear\\ the\\ images\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Real\\ things\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ approach\\ the\\ pntg\\ knowing\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ attempt\\ 2trick\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeils\\ often\\ set\\ up\\ as\\ spectacles\\ o\\ the\\ real\\.\\ \\ \\;Spectacles\\ o\\ illusion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;these\\ debates\\ n\\ cognitive\\ bewilderment\\ is\\ generally\\ hinging\\ around\\ just\\ a\\ few\\ o\\ the\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ often\\ had\\ micro\\-debates\\ among\\ themselves\\ aobut\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ real\\ n\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ wanted\\ 2see\\ these\\ as\\ combines\\&hellip\\;part\\ pntgs\\/part\\ sculptures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ spectrum\\ that\\ can\\ b\\ read\\ off\\ the\\ responses\\ o\\ the\\ different\\ viewers\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ Yorkers\\,\\ the\\ urbane\\,\\ who\\ r\\ used\\ 2this\\ pntg\\ n\\ living\\ in\\ urban\\ world\\,\\ stand\\ back\\ n\\ passively\\/coolly\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ brass\\ country\\ people\\ get\\ duped\\ by\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ urban\\ white\\ guys\\ have\\ it\\ figured\\ out\\,\\ but\\ women\\ n\\ ppl\\ from\\ the\\ country\\ r\\ getting\\ fooled\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ tapped\\ in2\\ complicated\\ cultural\\ gymnastics\\ surrounding\\ who\\ can\\ n\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ determine\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ real\\ n\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ false\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Just\\ at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ problems\\ o\\ fraudulent\\ advertising\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ u\\ had\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ con\\ artists\\ taking\\ advantage\\ o\\ urban\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ anonymity\\ 2dupe\\ ppl\\ out\\ o\\ their\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ American\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ tied\\ in2\\ broader\\ problems\\ o\\ perception\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ gullibility\\ training\\ 4the\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;Optimistic\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ process\\:\\ \\ \\;viewer\\ is\\ enabled\\ 2master\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Viewer\\ emerges\\ victorious\\ n\\ more\\ knowledgeable\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ o\\ being\\ confused\\ n\\ rationally\\ thinking\\ thru\\ the\\ image\\,\\ testing\\ it\\ empirically\\,\\ is\\ rehearsed\\ here\\ in\\ non\\-threatening\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ being\\ duped\\ out\\ o\\ ur\\ money\\ on\\ street\\ corner\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\&rsquo\\;re\\ learning\\ about\\ problem\\ o\\ deception\\ in\\ this\\ safe\\ space\\ inside\\ a\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ u\\ address\\ this\\ consumer\\ world\\ w\\/o\\ falling\\ prey\\ 2deception\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ aspsect\\ o\\ these\\ images\\ that\\ helps\\ them\\ serve\\ as\\ safe\\ practice\\ areas\\/spaces\\/sites\\ 4deception\\ is\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ in\\ fact\\ showing\\ contemporary\\ consumer\\ objects\\,\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ showing\\ the\\ objects\\ ppl\\ r\\ really\\ being\\ threatened\\ w\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ deceptions\\,\\ but\\ they\\ tend\\ 2b\\ nostalgic\\ n\\ old\\ familiar\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ These\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ modern\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\David\\ Lubin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\ on\\ further\\ rading\\ list\\ does\\ analysis\\ on\\ how\\ these\\ objects\\ evoke\\ a\\ nostalgia\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ modern\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Not\\ branded\\ like\\ commodities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Old\\ familiar\\ objects\\ upon\\ which\\ 2practice\\ the\\ new\\ complexities\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ 2think\\ about\\ how\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntgs\\ r\\ ways\\ o\\ rehearsing\\ contemporary\\ consumer\\ problems\\ but\\ does\\ so\\ w\\ comfortable\\ nostalgic\\ objects\\ that\\ r\\ unfortuneatly\\ being\\ phased\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parallel\\ 2broader\\ melancholy\\ about\\ the\\ capacity\\ o\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ Eakins\\,\\ these\\ images\\ r\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ shallowness\\ n\\ superficiality\\ o\\ the\\ visual\\ arts\\.\\ \\ \\;Aggressively\\,\\ violently\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ the\\ primal\\ moment\\ when\\ u\\ want\\ the\\ pntg\\ 2b\\ real\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ flat\\!\\ \\ \\;Uhhh\\!\\ \\ \\;R\\ the\\ pntrs\\ fraudulent\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ the\\ visual\\ arts\\ n\\ this\\ world\\ o\\ deception\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\-94\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discuss\\ this\\ in\\ section\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drawer\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ paper\\ objects\\ understood\\ 2have\\ been\\ pushed\\ in2\\ a\\ frame\\ that\\ was\\ pntd\\ around\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Bills\\,\\ tickets\\,\\ pieces\\ o\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ these\\ masculine\\ objects\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bank\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ this\\ fnctns\\ as\\ an\\ autobiography\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ end\\ o\\ bachelorhood\\.\\ \\ \\;Pen\\ knives\\,\\ girly\\ pictures\\.\\ \\ \\;Being\\ rudely\\ interrupted\\ by\\ image\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ to\\ name\\ baby\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Haberle\\ had\\ his\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;child\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;94\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ deeper\\ level\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ aggressive\\ blockage\\ o\\ any\\ depth\\ perception\\ or\\ curiosity\\ about\\ what\\ might\\ b\\ behind\\ the\\ drawer\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ denied\\ access\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drucker\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ this\\ talks\\ about\\ new\\ sense\\ o\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ there\\ no\\ interior\\ sense\\ anymore\\?\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ self\\ behind\\ this\\ drawer\\.\\ \\ \\;Blockage\\ o\\ interiotiy\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ a\\ lock\\ on\\ the\\ drawer\\,\\ but\\ no\\ key\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tiny\\ nail\\ on\\ side\\ indicates\\ drawer\\ has\\ been\\ nailed\\ sut\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Handle\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\ on\\ the\\ drawer\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ u\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ inside\\.\\ \\ \\;Conflation\\.\\ \\ \\;Haberle\\ directly\\ conflates\\ seeing\\ n\\ obstruction\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ spectacles\\ will\\ be\\ frustrated\\.\\ U\\ have\\ the\\ loss\\ o\\ access\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ gaining\\ o\\ access\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Frederick\\ Peto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reminiscences\\ of\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ after\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Harnett\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ GILDED\\ AGE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ February\\ 27\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\ \\&ldquo\\;Creating\\ Culture\\:\\ \\ \\;Orientalism\\ and\\ the\\ Studio\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sarah\\ Burns\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Artist\\ in\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Surfaces\\:\\ the\\ Culture\\ of\\ Display\\ and\\ the\\ Taint\\ of\\ Trade\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Inventing\\ the\\ Modern\\ Artist\\:\\ Art\\ and\\ Culture\\ in\\ Gilded\\ Age\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Yale\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1996\\)\\,\\ 46\\-76\\.\\ Course\\ website\\ documents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Susan\\ Sidlauskas\\,\\ \\"\\;Painting\\ Skin\\:\\ John\\ Singer\\ Sargent\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Madame\\ X\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;15\\ no\\ 3\\ \\(Fall\\ 2001\\)\\:\\ 8\\-33\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ wk\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ gilded\\ age\\,\\ how\\ it\\ relates\\ 2the\\ arts\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\ we\\ start\\ w\\/\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ whole\\ wk\\ \\=\\ single\\ mass\\ o\\ info\\ about\\ the\\ gilded\\ age\\,\\ not\\ so\\ perfectly\\ separated\\ by\\ lecture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\-94\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Talked\\ about\\ how\\ this\\ pntg\\ aggressively\\ blocks\\ depth\\ perception\\,\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curiosity\\ 2know\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behind\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behind\\ the\\ drawer\\,\\ n\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ suggestion\\ by\\ the\\ superficiality\\ o\\ the\\ objects\\,\\ suggesting\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ behind\\ the\\ drawer\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ bachelor\\ is\\ constituted\\ entirely\\ by\\ his\\ surface\\ interactions\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ has\\ no\\ interior\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hints\\ in\\ Haberle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ that\\ indicate\\ puns\\ on\\ inability\\ 2get\\ thru\\ 2back\\ o\\ door\\ front\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ rhymes\\ spectacles\\ at\\ top\\ rigt\\ w\\ absent\\ drawer\\ handle\\ on\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Connection\\ o\\ vision\\ \\/\\ failed\\ access\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ these\\ tropes\\ throughout\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Frederick\\ Peto\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reminiscences\\ of\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ after\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntgs\\ full\\ o\\ signs\\ o\\ blockage\\ o\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ has\\ background\\ o\\ flat\\ cabinet\\ door\\,\\ but\\ nails\\ r\\ pntd\\ throughout\\ image\\,\\ indicating\\ the\\ door\\ has\\ been\\ nailed\\ shut\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ lock\\ is\\ broken\\,\\ n\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ key\\ 2it\\ either\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\ n\\ again\\,\\ access\\ 2the\\ background\\ is\\ blocked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peto\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ in\\ 1890s\\ is\\ full\\ o\\ imagery\\ o\\ Lincoln\\,\\ which\\ raises\\ question\\ o\\ how\\ blockage\\,\\ failure\\ o\\ access\\,\\ relates\\ 2the\\ theme\\ o\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ problem\\ o\\ the\\ surface\\ might\\ relate\\ 2the\\ problem\\ o\\ memory\\,\\ start\\ thinking\\ about\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ only\\ traces\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ Lincoln\\,\\ which\\ s\\ just\\ this\\ superficial\\ surface\\ picee\\ of\\ paper\\ just\\ pineed\\ 2the\\ door\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntgs\\ relate\\ 2the\\ memory\\ o\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2continue\\ question\\ o\\ blockage\\ from\\ depth\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Michael\\ Harnett\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Still\\ Life\\ with\\ Bric\\-a\\-brac\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ o\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ suggest\\ use\\ o\\ violence\\ 2stop\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ visual\\ access\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ technically\\ a\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntg\\ bc\\ it\\ does\\ put\\ a\\ set\\ o\\ objects\\ on\\ a\\ tabletop\\ n\\ it\\ has\\ some\\ depth\\,\\ not\\ like\\ the\\ rack\\/cabinet\\ pics\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ hybrid\\ bw\\ still\\-life\\ n\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\,\\ dangerous\\ sword\\ along\\ the\\ picture\\ plane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foreground\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iconography\\ o\\ violence\\ associated\\ w\\ act\\ o\\ viewing\\,\\ penetrating\\ the\\ images\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\De\\ Scott\\ Evans\\ \\(aka\\ \\&ldquo\\;S\\.S\\.\\ David\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Free\\ Sample\\:\\ Take\\ One\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ca\\.\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ example\\ o\\ thematizing\\ o\\ violence\\ n\\ surface\\ n\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lesser\\ known\\ tromp\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Did\\ many\\ canvases\\ where\\ u\\ have\\ shallow\\ wooden\\ niche\\ set\\ up\\,\\ n\\ u\\ have\\ nuts\\ \\/\\ peanuts\\,\\ placed\\ behind\\ glass\\ plate\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ broken\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ images\\ verge\\ on\\ the\\ sadistic\\.\\ \\ \\;Card\\ tells\\ u\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ peanut\\!\\ \\ \\;But\\ u\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ cut\\ r\\ hand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ mimics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retail\\ situation\\ discussed\\ last\\ wk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(this\\ is\\ in\\ ur\\ rdg\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntgs\\ mimic\\ n\\ perform\\ same\\ dynamics\\ o\\ retail\\,\\ purchasing\\,\\ shopping\\ that\\ we\\ discussed\\ last\\ wk\\.\\ \\ \\;peanuts\\ were\\ a\\ new\\ commodity\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ were\\ really\\ interested\\ in\\ them\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ danger\\ o\\ purchasing\\,\\ being\\ sucked\\ in\\ by\\ retail\\ situations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pun\\ on\\ structre\\ o\\ the\\ display\\ o\\ pntgs\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Little\\ niche\\ w\\ wooden\\ frame\\ around\\ it\\ refers\\ 2pntgs\\ w\\ wooden\\ frames\\ n\\ plate\\ glass\\ coverings\\ over\\ shallow\\ depths\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\All\\ o\\ this\\ refers\\ 2the\\ temptation\\ o\\ pntgs\\,\\ temptation\\ o\\ depth\\ n\\ representation\\,\\ but\\ precludes\\ that\\ in\\ its\\ inherent\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Compare\\ 2Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gross\\ Clinic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ how\\&rsquo\\;d\\ u\\ talk\\ about\\ relationship\\ bw\\ images\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Eakins\\ still\\ wants\\ 2believe\\ in\\ body\\,\\ depth\\ 2pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ pntg\\,\\ tho\\,\\ makesthe\\ viewer\\ himself\\ bleed\\ hwo\\ searches\\ 4something\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ think\\ about\\ violence\\ n\\ how\\ this\\ ties\\ in2\\ surface\\ n\\ depth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ kind\\ o\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ pntg\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;stretcher\\ pntg\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peto\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Abraham\\ Wiltsie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rack\\ Picture\\,\\ 1879\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ look\\ in2\\ pntg\\ that\\ shows\\ its\\ own\\ back\\ n\\ front\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ a\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\!\\ \\ \\;Turn\\ the\\ pntg\\ around\\ 2see\\ the\\ front\\,\\ then\\ u\\ see\\ the\\ pntg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actual\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ almost\\ a\\ surreal\\ evocation\\ o\\ a\\ lack\\ o\\ space\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physical\\ space\\ sadistically\\,\\ categorically\\ kept\\ from\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jasper\\ Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\ full\\ o\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ tricks\\.\\ \\ \\;Canvas\\ turned\\ around\\ 2show\\ the\\ stretcher\\.\\ \\ \\;Drawers\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ open\\.\\ \\ \\;Problematic\\ relationships\\ bw\\ representation\\ o\\ space\\ n\\ its\\ actual\\ presence\\ b4\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\ does\\ this\\ tho\\ in\\ a\\ situation\\ where\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surrounded\\ by\\ abstraction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Slate\\:\\ Memoranda\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ happens\\ when\\ memory\\ can\\ only\\ exist\\ along\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ objects\\/things\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haberle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ about\\ his\\ memory\\ o\\ his\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ bachelor\\,\\ but\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ anything\\ more\\ \\ \\;real\\ than\\ surface\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Can\\ the\\ past\\ exist\\ as\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ a\\ 2\\-d\\ surface\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notion\\ o\\ memory\\,\\ or\\ memoranda\\,\\ which\\ is\\ announced\\ by\\ title\\ o\\ pntg\\,\\ is\\ one\\ o\\ erasure\\,\\ o\\ text\\ written\\ n\\ erased\\,\\ hard\\ 2read\\,\\ endangered\\ by\\ being\\ sperceded\\ by\\ further\\ inscriptions\\.\\ \\ \\;Metaphor\\ o\\ slate\\ as\\ metaphor\\ o\\ memory\\ was\\ something\\ Haberle\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peto\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Old\\ Time\\ Letter\\ Rack\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1894\\,\\ and\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Question\\ o\\ memory\\ becomes\\ closely\\ tied\\ in2\\ notion\\ o\\ deterioration\\ n\\ entropy\\ in\\ 1890s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ is\\ maybe\\ his\\ most\\ melancholy\\/strange\\ pic\\,\\ where\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ disillusion\\ n\\ destruction\\ o\\ information\\ n\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ full\\ o\\ refernces\\ 2disappearance\\ o\\ memory\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ few\\ legible\\ words\\.\\ \\ \\;Few\\ objects\\ identifiable\\ as\\ envelopes\\ or\\ strings\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ fading\\ image\\ o\\ Lincoln\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ strange\\ torn\\ tickets\\ n\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rack\\ itself\\,\\ the\\ ribbons\\,\\ r\\ torn\\ n\\ frayed\\,\\ coming\\ apart\\,\\ the\\ very\\ structure\\ o\\ memory\\.\\ \\ \\;Envelopes\\ r\\ blank\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ read\\ the\\ addresses\\.\\ \\ \\;Everything\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slightly\\ off\\-kilter\\.\\ \\ \\;Whole\\ pntg\\ essentially\\ w\\/o\\ message\\/meaning\\.\\ \\ \\;Pic\\ is\\ about\\ loss\\ o\\ meaning\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peto\\ works\\ thru\\ problems\\ o\\ memory\\,\\ representation\\,\\ impossibility\\ o\\ holding\\ 2gether\\ coherent\\ notion\\ o\\ space\\ n\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Late\\ pntgs\\ by\\ him\\ have\\ surrealist\\ notion\\ o\\ space\\ creeping\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;ribbon\\ nailed\\ 2backboard\\ somehow\\ creates\\ shadow\\ across\\ this\\ envelope\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ illegible\\ space\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beginning\\ 2creep\\ in2\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Break\\ down\\ o\\ intelligible\\ space\\ beginning\\ 2happen\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harnett\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Still\\ Life\\:\\ \\ \\;Five\\-Dollar\\ Bill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Money\\ became\\ imptnt\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Paper\\ currency\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ pieces\\ o\\ money\\ so\\ hyperrealistically\\ delineated\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Harnett\\ was\\ arrested\\ 4counterfeiting\\ when\\ he\\ showed\\ one\\ o\\ these\\ pntgs\\ in\\ NY\\.\\ \\ \\;Charged\\ under\\ US\\ counterfeiting\\ laws\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ question\\ o\\ falsity\\,\\ notion\\ o\\ false\\ value\\/representation\\,\\ is\\ something\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ discussing\\ throughout\\ this\\ discussion\\ o\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ questions\\ all\\ intersect\\ w\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ money\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Surface\\,\\ depth\\,\\ representation\\,\\ reality\\,\\ these\\ issues\\ all\\ surround\\ paper\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ govts\\ create\\ money\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ a\\ debate\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ money\\ stands\\ 4\\.\\ \\ \\;paper\\ money\\ u\\ hand\\ 2cashier\\ is\\ worthless\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ valuable\\ as\\ money\\ bc\\ u\\ see\\ something\\ behind\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ refers\\ 2actual\\ value\\ somewhere\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ n\\ these\\ debates\\ were\\ raging\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ if\\ the\\ money\\ would\\ b\\ backed\\ by\\ gold\\,\\ silver\\,\\ other\\ metal\\,\\ or\\ not\\ directly\\ associated\\ w\\ some\\ pile\\ o\\ money\\ somewhere\\.\\ \\ \\;Maybe\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ just\\ be\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ govt\\ that\\ backed\\ paper\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ its\\ real\\ value\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\U\\.S\\.A\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1889\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paper\\ money\\ understood\\ 2b\\ a\\ mere\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ valuable\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ stands\\ in\\ 4something\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ paper\\ money\\ analogous\\ 2artistic\\ relation\\ more\\ broadly\\:\\ \\ \\;is\\ there\\ anything\\ behind\\ our\\ money\\?\\ \\ \\;Does\\ realism\\ provide\\ access\\ 2the\\ real\\ world\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ it\\ merely\\ a\\ false\\ sign\\?\\ \\ \\;Shallow\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Changes\\ of\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ most\\ complex\\/elaborate\\ urrency\\ pntg\\ produced\\ during\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ cracked\\ magnifying\\ glass\\.\\ \\ \\;Nother\\ example\\ o\\ opitical\\ devices\\ compromised\\ somehow\\,\\ indicating\\ impossibility\\ o\\ looking\\ further\\ inward\\ in2\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haberle\\ often\\ pntd\\ small\\ tintype\\ o\\ himself\\ as\\ his\\ signature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ intended\\ 2b\\ a\\ history\\ o\\ currency\\ 1773\\-late\\ 1880s\\.\\ \\ \\;history\\ pntg\\ told\\ thru\\ currency\\,\\ full\\ o\\ old\\ n\\ new\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ notion\\ o\\ old\\ money\\ is\\ interesting\\ bc\\ notion\\ o\\ old\\ bill\\ out\\ o\\ circulation\\ addresses\\ this\\ problem\\ o\\ meaningless\\ surface\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entire\\ theme\\ o\\ worthless\\/non\\-fucntional\\ representation\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coming\\ thru\\ the\\ bills\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Implication\\ that\\ this\\ latest\\ n\\ most\\ rcent\\ bill\\ will\\ someday\\ join\\ the\\ other\\ bills\\.\\ \\ \\;Money\\,\\ value\\,\\ visual\\ representation\\,\\ contingent\\,\\ trasent\\,\\ not\\ enternal\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ meditation\\ on\\ all\\ these\\ questions\\ put\\ thru\\ the\\ question\\ o\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ we\\ see\\ money\\ conceptually\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ pntg\\ at\\ end\\ o\\ US\\&rsquo\\;\\ gilded\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ unreliability\\ o\\ representation\\ theoretically\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ about\\ the\\ superficiality\\ o\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ comment\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\ about\\ old\\ n\\ new\\ money\\,\\ which\\ referred\\ 2\\ new\\ robber\\ barrons\\ competing\\ w\\ old\\ wealth\\ o\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gilded\\ age\\ about\\ money\\,\\ wealth\\,\\ gilding\\,\\ superficiality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Morris\\ Hunt\\,\\ Marble\\ House\\,\\ Newport\\,\\ Rhode\\ Island\\,\\ 1888\\-1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\House\\ built\\ in\\ Newport\\ 4member\\ o\\ Vanderbilt\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ what\\ Gilded\\ Age\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gilded\\ age\\ variously\\ defined\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ which\\ yrs\\ ur\\ talking\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ broadly\\ understood\\ as\\ period\\ bw\\ civil\\ war\\ n\\ turn\\ o\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;after\\ civil\\ war\\&rsquo\\;s\\ open\\,\\ u\\ have\\ explosive\\ population\\ growth\\,\\ increasing\\ urbanization\\,\\ most\\ imptnly\\ u\\ see\\ after\\ the\\ War\\ ends\\,\\ n\\ largely\\ bc\\ o\\ industrialization\\ n\\ organizational\\ prowess\\ o\\ north\\ during\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ civil\\ war\\ lets\\ North\\ set\\ up\\ systems\\ o\\ transportation\\ n\\ manufacturing\\ that\\ lets\\ US\\ become\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ supreme\\ industrial\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Starts\\ 2play\\ conspicuous\\ role\\ on\\ world\\ stage\\.\\ \\ \\;Large\\ scale\\ corporate\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;Concentration\\ o\\ wealth\\ in\\ hands\\ o\\ few\\ wealthy\\ families\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ robber\\ barons\\:\\ \\ \\;vanderbilts\\,\\ Carnegies\\,\\ stanfords\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ H\\.\\ Vanderbilt\\ Residence\\,\\ 1879\\-1882\\,\\ Architects\\:\\ \\ \\;Charles\\ B\\.\\ Atwood\\ and\\ John\\ B\\.\\ Snook\\ \\(Herter\\ Brothers\\ firm\\)\\,\\ Drawing\\ Room\\,\\ Photograph\\ published\\ in\\ George\\ Sheldon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Artistic\\ Houses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ text\\ sold\\ thru\\ subscription\\.\\ \\ \\;500\\ copies\\ sold\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ would\\ this\\ photographic\\ album\\ relate\\ 2Gardners\\ n\\ Barnards\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\203\\ beautiful\\ detailed\\ photos\\ o\\ interiors\\ o\\ grand\\ gilded\\ age\\ mansions\\ o\\ new\\ wealthy\\ in\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ in\\ NY\\,\\ some\\ Boston\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ original\\ phtos\\ printed\\ in\\ copies\\ then\\ bound\\ in2\\ volumes\\ n\\ sold\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Book\\ \\=\\ quite\\ an\\ artificat\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Copy\\ in\\ fine\\ arts\\ library\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vanderbilt\\,\\ who\\ is\\ he\\,\\ who\\ could\\ make\\ this\\ room\\?\\ \\ \\;\\ Pinnacle\\ o\\ interior\\ design\\.\\ \\ \\;Business\\,\\ intense\\ concentration\\ o\\ wealth\\,\\ fear\\ o\\ empty\\ space\\ anywhere\\ in\\ interior\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vanderbilt\\ was\\ probly\\ riches\\ tman\\ in\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Inherited\\ 90\\ million\\ \\$\\ from\\ his\\ dad\\,\\ then\\ monopolized\\ railroads\\.\\ \\ \\;Died\\ w\\ \\$200\\ million\\.\\ \\ \\;Inconceivable\\ sum\\ at\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Estimated\\ in\\ Wall\\ St\\.\\ Journal\\ that\\ simply\\ on\\ his\\ interest\\ n\\ dividends\\ from\\ money\\ in\\ bank\\,\\ he\\ earned\\ \\$1200\\ \\/\\ hour\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immense\\ concentration\\ o\\ wealth\\.\\ Our\\ concern\\ is\\ how\\ this\\ relates\\ 2arts\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ does\\ so\\ directly\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ rthe\\ ppl\\ buying\\ the\\ pntgs\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ over\\ next\\ few\\ wks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ kidns\\ o\\ connections\\ bw\\ wealth\\ n\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Over\\ next\\ few\\ lectures\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ questions\\ o\\ acuiqisition\\ n\\ collecting\\,\\ n\\ also\\ way\\ that\\ these\\ figures\\ were\\ creating\\ new\\ kidns\\ o\\ contact\\ w\\ outside\\ world\\ that\\ US\\ citizens\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ had\\ prior\\ 2civil\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bc\\ o\\ US\\ ascendancy\\,\\ outside\\ world\\ becoming\\ increasingly\\ available\\ 2Americans\\.\\ \\ \\;Imports\\ coming\\ in\\ from\\ around\\ globe\\,\\ ready\\ 2b\\ collected\\/acquired\\ by\\ Americans\\ throughout\\ the\\ social\\ spectrum\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ eclectic\\ acquisition\\,\\ cramming\\ as\\ many\\ objects\\ as\\ possible\\ from\\ as\\ many\\ places\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ 2gether\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gilded\\ age\\ was\\ coined\\ as\\ a\\ term\\ by\\ Mark\\ Twain\\.\\ \\ \\;Term\\ has\\ stuck\\ bc\\ it\\ nicely\\ encapsulates\\ paradoxes\\ that\\ attended\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gild\\ in\\ oxford\\ English\\ dictionary\\ bears\\ relationship\\ 2money\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Singer\\ Sargent\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Isabella\\ Stewart\\ Gardner\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patronage\\:\\ \\ \\;cultural\\ philanthropy\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ by\\ immensely\\ wealthy\\ families\\ was\\ a\\ driving\\ engine\\ o\\ US\\ n\\ Euro\\ art\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Gardners\\ n\\ Carnegies\\ saw\\ themselves\\ as\\ philanthropists\\ inasmuch\\ as\\ they\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ their\\ duty\\ 2accumulate\\ cultural\\ capital\\ n\\ give\\ opportunities\\ 2artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ borught\\ lots\\ o\\ Euro\\ art\\ 2US\\.\\ \\ \\;Hard\\ 2see\\ Euro\\ art\\ in\\ flesh\\ b4\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ easier\\ after\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anxiety\\ about\\ new\\ money\\ among\\ these\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ made\\ rich\\ by\\ industrial\\ expansion\\ \\(railroads\\ in\\ particular\\)\\,\\ n\\ they\\ want\\ 2join\\ US\\ elite\\,\\ but\\ that\\ also\\ means\\ mimicking\\ old\\ money\\ taste\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ buy\\ pntgs\\ from\\ Europe\\ in\\ order\\ 2buy\\ heritage\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ activities\\ lead\\ 2founding\\ o\\ major\\ American\\ museums\\:\\ \\ \\;Met\\,\\ MFA\\,\\ Gardner\\ in\\ Boston\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gardner\\ stipulated\\ her\\ museum\\ not\\ b\\ changed\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ at\\ her\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Walk\\ in\\ 2day\\ n\\ its\\ like\\ a\\ time\\-capsule\\.\\ \\ \\;Full\\ o\\ cultural\\ fragments\\ from\\ Renaissance\\,\\ medieval\\,\\ n\\ Sargent\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Objects\\ hoarded\\ form\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ n\\ jumbled\\ 2gether\\ in\\ display\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Courtyard\\ of\\ Isabella\\ Stewart\\ Gardner\\ Museum\\,\\ Boston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mr\\.\\ George\\ Kemp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dining\\ Room\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Artistic\\ Houses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Darker\\ connotations\\ o\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;gilded\\ age\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Gilding\\ carries\\ connotation\\ o\\ superficiality\\,\\ dissimulation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;meaning\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;2guild\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ beauty\\ or\\ virtue\\ that\\ accumulates\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;2guild\\ \\=\\ 2adorn\\ w\\ fair\\ appearance\\,\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;2give\\ a\\ luster\\ 2things\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ mng\\ o\\ the\\ term\\ guilding\\ is\\ dissimulation\\ or\\ hiding\\,\\ n\\ it\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ connection\\ therefore\\ 2violence\\.\\ \\ \\;2guild\\ is\\ 2tone\\ down\\,\\ lessen\\ the\\ harmful\\ impact\\ o\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2cover\\ w\\ guilding\\ is\\ 2conceal\\ defects\\.\\ \\ \\;Older\\ meaning\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;2smear\\ w\\ blood\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Not\\ sure\\ how\\ that\\ one\\ relates\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ figure\\ it\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Money\\,\\ violence\\,\\ dishonesty\\&hellip\\;\\=\\ guild\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Twain\\ had\\ lots\\ o\\ doubts\\ n\\ ambivalence\\ about\\ materialism\\ o\\ gilded\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ did\\ art\\ mean\\ in\\ US\\ at\\ the\\ time\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ should\\ it\\ mean\\?\\ \\ \\;Will\\ art\\ b\\ complicit\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ rich\\ ppl\\?\\ \\ \\;Will\\ it\\ thus\\ become\\ superficial\\?\\ \\ \\;Will\\ it\\ b\\ used\\ 2cover\\ over\\ social\\ costs\\ o\\ rampant\\ acquisition\\ n\\ accumulation\\ o\\ the\\ time\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ culture\\ culture\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ exchanged\\ 4money\\ instead\\ o\\ grown\\ organically\\ from\\ within\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ These\\ r\\ common\\ questions\\ we\\ ask\\ as\\ art\\ historians\\ 2day\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ animating\\ doubt\\ w\\/in\\ our\\ own\\ field\\?\\ \\ \\;As\\ historians\\,\\ how\\ complicit\\ r\\ we\\ in\\ the\\ creation\\ o\\ these\\ problems\\?\\ \\ \\;But\\ ppl\\ were\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ this\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4next\\ few\\ minutes\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ objects\\ created\\ from\\ outside\\ the\\ US\\,\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ much\\ o\\ outside\\ world\\ was\\ collected\\ in\\ these\\ dining\\ rooms\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jean\\-Auguste\\-Dominque\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Odalizsque\\ and\\ Slave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1839\\-40\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orientalism\\ born\\ in\\ France\\ mid\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;question\\ o\\ orient\\ referred\\ not\\ 2China\\/Japan\\ as\\ 2\\ Middle\\ East\\ n\\ Islamic\\ north\\ Africa\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developed\\ as\\ sub\\-category\\ o\\ French\\ academic\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ imptnt\\ literature\\ about\\ meanings\\ o\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ things\\ 2note\\ about\\ orientalist\\ pntg\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ its\\ French\\ manifestation\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ much\\ about\\ highly\\ detailed\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;Shows\\ minute\\,\\ detailed\\ renderings\\ o\\ Islamic\\ artificats\\ n\\ architectural\\ settings\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ get\\ sense\\ thru\\ this\\ realism\\ that\\ u\\ have\\ privileged\\ glimpse\\ o\\ Islamic\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ doubt\\ about\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ just\\ giving\\ u\\ a\\ glimpse\\ o\\ this\\ world\\ o\\ harems\\ n\\ slow\\ pace\\ o\\ life\\ n\\ sex\\ n\\ richness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ process\\ involving\\ being\\ able\\ 2define\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ French\\,\\ European\\ self\\ by\\ projecting\\ aspects\\ o\\ urself\\ that\\ ur\\ uncomfortable\\ about\\ on2\\ the\\ M\\.\\ East\\.\\ \\ \\;Project\\ fantasies\\ n\\ fears\\ on2\\ the\\ world\\ o\\ Islam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ much\\ eroticism\\ in\\ the\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Nude\\ women\\ always\\ available\\ 2the\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;Self\\-respecting\\ Frenchman\\ is\\ supposed\\ 2b\\ shocked\\ my\\ moral\\ dissolution\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ intent\\ is\\ that\\ u\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ certain\\ sense\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ this\\ o\\ moral\\ superiority\\ n\\ b\\ shocked\\ by\\ Islamic\\ world\\ who\\ allows\\ this\\ display\\ o\\ flesh\\ 2take\\ place\\,\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ distance\\ urself\\ form\\ the\\ scene\\ by\\ projecting\\ ur\\ moral\\ approbrium\\ on2\\ the\\ ppl\\ pictured\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ ur\\ morally\\ censoring\\ this\\,\\ u\\ can\\ fantasize\\ about\\ his\\ stuff\\ from\\ a\\ distance\\.\\ \\ \\;Laciviousness\\ constructed\\ as\\ attribute\\ o\\ the\\ orient\\,\\ but\\ able\\ 2be\\ rehearsed\\ by\\ viewer\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ thing\\ 2pnt\\ out\\:\\ \\ \\;realism\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ choice\\ o\\ subject\\ matter\\,\\ constructed\\ Islamic\\ world\\ as\\ timless\\,\\ unchanging\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ image\\ o\\ cross\\-cultural\\ contact\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sign\\ o\\ presence\\ o\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sign\\ o\\ presence\\ o\\ colonialism\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ never\\ see\\ the\\ white\\ guys\\ in\\ the\\ pntgs\\,\\ even\\ tho\\ they\\ were\\ changing\\ N\\.\\ Africa\\ n\\ had\\ colonial\\ ambitions\\ in\\ these\\ lands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\ Leon\\ Gerome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Snake\\ Charmer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Arthur\\ Bridgman\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Siesta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ Americans\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ from\\ French\\ orientalism\\:\\ \\ \\;reclining\\ woman\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ naked\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ offering\\ herself\\ up\\ like\\ in\\ Ingres\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ less\\ comfort\\ w\\ nude\\,\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ long\\ academic\\ tradition\\ w\\ pntg\\ the\\ nude\\,\\ in\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bridgman\\ trying\\ 2sell\\ pntgs\\ in\\ north\\ America\\,\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ ankle\\ or\\ elbow\\,\\ but\\ never\\ show\\ the\\ girls\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hints\\ o\\ availability\\.\\ \\ \\;Open\\ door\\,\\ like\\ one\\ has\\ caught\\ this\\ woman\\ sleeping\\.\\ \\ \\;Fantasy\\ o\\ passive\\ female\\ enclosed\\ in\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Male\\ fantasy\\ o\\ womanhood\\,\\ bc\\ precisely\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ the\\ new\\ woman\\ is\\ being\\ born\\ in\\ US\\&hellip\\;women\\ demanding\\ more\\ access\\ 2society\\,\\ demanding\\ opportunity\\ 2escape\\ closed\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ fantasy\\ o\\ passive\\ womanhood\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ slave\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\ either\\,\\ like\\ in\\ Ingres\\.\\ \\ \\;Slavery\\ question\\ is\\ key\\ when\\ u\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ orientalism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imported\\ 2the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Post\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2much\\ o\\ a\\ reference\\ 2\\ that\\ can\\ o\\ worms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incredible\\ luxury\\ n\\ leisure\\ in\\ US\\ orientalism\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ props\\:\\ \\ \\;rich\\ fabrics\\,\\ sumptuous\\ textures\\,\\ refined\\ textiles\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ dream\\ world\\ o\\ patterns\\ n\\ objects\\,\\ textures\\ n\\ luxuries\\ that\\ become\\ real\\ subject\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ stop\\.\\ \\ \\;Next\\ week\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ superficial\\ luxury\\ o\\ orientalism\\ begins\\ 2affect\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ start\\ w\\ this\\ next\\ Sargent\\ on\\ Thursday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ March\\ 1\\,\\ 2007\\,\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Transcending\\ Matter\\:\\ \\ \\;Aestheticism\\ and\\ Abundance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sarah\\ Burns\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Artist\\ in\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Surfaces\\:\\ the\\ Culture\\ of\\ Display\\ and\\ the\\ Taint\\ of\\ Trade\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Inventing\\ the\\ Modern\\ Artist\\:\\ Art\\ and\\ Culture\\ in\\ Gilded\\ Age\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Yale\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1996\\)\\,\\ 46\\-76\\.\\ Course\\ website\\ documents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Susan\\ Sidlauskas\\,\\ \\"\\;Painting\\ Skin\\:\\ John\\ Singer\\ Sargent\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Madame\\ X\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;15\\ no\\ 3\\ \\(Fall\\ 2001\\)\\:\\ 8\\-33\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\continuing\\ from\\ last\\ wk\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\collections\\ by\\ Robber\\ Barrons\\ r\\ the\\ core\\ o\\ most\\ major\\ metropolitan\\ museums\\ along\\ the\\ East\\ Coast\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ common\\ aspect\\ o\\ the\\ collections\\:\\ \\ \\;eclecticism\\.\\ \\ \\;Frenzied\\ business\\ in\\ images\\ like\\ these\\ has\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ eclecticism\\.\\ \\ \\;Objects\\ coming\\ from\\ several\\ different\\ historical\\ periods\\ n\\ geographical\\ locations\\ n\\ styles\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ single\\ stylisitic\\/historical\\ logic\\ 2assemblages\\.\\ \\ \\;Jumbled\\ mishmash\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Henry\\ C\\.\\ Gibson\\ House\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1870\\,\\ Arichtecects\\ unknown\\,\\ Library\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Artistic\\ Houses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stuffed\\ owl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ancient\\ eastern\\ incense\\ burners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ room\\ crammed\\ w\\ vases\\ n\\ busts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Piece\\ o\\ roman\\ mosaic\\ that\\&rsquo\\;d\\ just\\ been\\ unearthed\\ through\\ excavation\\ in\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elephant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tusk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Objects\\ have\\ little\\ 2do\\ we\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;Given\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ discussing\\ orientalism\\,\\ u\\ notice\\ the\\ toothlike\\ arches\\,\\ called\\ pointed\\ horshoe\\ style\\ arches\\,\\ characterisitic\\ o\\ North\\ African\\ orientalist\\ arhictiecture\\,\\ common\\ in\\ gilded\\ age\\ mansions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orientalism\\ in\\ US\\ becamse\\ sysnyonm\\ 4luxury\\ n\\ wealth\\,\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ collecting\\ than\\ about\\ a\\ specific\\ geographical\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\ Leon\\ Gerome\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Snake\\ Charmer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gibson\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ trying\\ 2offer\\ exact\\ experience\\ from\\ Islamic\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Orientalist\\ stuff\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ o\\ many\\ signs\\ o\\ wealth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Archaeological\\ realism\\ in\\ Gerome\\,\\ trying\\ 2recreate\\ true\\ view\\ o\\ space\\ in\\ actual\\ Islamic\\ world\\&hellip\\;this\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happening\\ in\\ Gibson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ library\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ US\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;France\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ colonial\\ power\\ n\\ their\\ colonial\\ ambitions\\ in\\ North\\ Africa\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ has\\ less\\ direct\\ ambitions\\ 4the\\ Islamic\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ just\\ want\\ 2proclaim\\ power\\ n\\ industrial\\ prosperity\\,\\ ability\\ 2consume\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ products\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ interiors\\ \\=\\ global\\ bazaars\\ o\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Kind\\ o\\ like\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fairs\\ in\\ EU\\ n\\ US\\ at\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ is\\ about\\ availability\\ o\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;France\\ about\\ availability\\ o\\ flesh\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1867\\ Henry\\ James\\ wrote\\ o\\ US\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;we\\ can\\ deal\\ freely\\ w\\ forms\\ o\\ civilization\\ not\\ our\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ pick\\ n\\ choose\\ n\\ claim\\ our\\ property\\ wherever\\ we\\ find\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Arthur\\ Bridgman\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Siesta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ about\\ ethnographic\\ realism\\,\\ as\\ Gerome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\John\\ Singer\\ Sargent\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fumee\\ \\&lsquo\\;Ambre\\ Gris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Unexpected\\ Intrustion\\ \\(The\\ Turkish\\ Page\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Went\\ thru\\ lots\\ o\\ styles\\,\\ Chase\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Imptnt\\ educator\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;trained\\ many\\ key\\ US\\ artists\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ in\\ next\\ few\\ wks\\ from\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chase\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ Midwest\\,\\ went\\ 2Munich\\ 4training\\ \\(Munich\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;2Paris\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Munich\\ pntg\\ school\\:\\ \\ \\;dark\\ palate\\,\\ influence\\ o\\ Spanish\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Deep\\ colors\\,\\ rich\\ fabrics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ where\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ learn\\ about\\ impressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ deep\\ old\\-msater\\ schools\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chase\\ goes\\ 2Munich\\ w\\ several\\ other\\ American\\ pntrs\\,\\ n\\ became\\ in\\ Munich\\ interested\\ in\\ pseudo\\ Orientalist\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Never\\ visited\\ Orientalist\\ lands\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\ did\\ shop\\ 4orientalist\\ artifacts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ is\\ o\\ Turkey\\,\\ but\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pntd\\ in\\ Turkey\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ arrangement\\ o\\ studio\\ props\\,\\ including\\ the\\ stuffed\\ cockatoo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obvious\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ arrangement\\ o\\ props\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ boy\\ is\\ a\\ local\\ munich\\ apprentice\\ oft\\-used\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ at\\ the\\ academy\\.\\ \\ \\;Boy\\ has\\ a\\ tan\\ face\\,\\ white\\ skinned\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;European\\ body\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ Turkish\\ page\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ tannign\\ o\\ his\\ body\\ 2make\\ him\\ like\\ a\\ real\\ Islamic\\ boy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frank\\ Duveneck\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Turkish\\ Page\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Worked\\ from\\ same\\ arrangement\\ in\\ same\\ studio\\ as\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ attempt\\ 2create\\ an\\ actual\\ view\\ o\\ life\\ in\\ Turkey\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ self\\-consciously\\ an\\ arrangement\\ o\\ props\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Moorish\\ Warrior\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chase\\ recycles\\ props\\ w\\ no\\ shame\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ textiles\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Turkish\\ Page\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pntg\\ were\\ put\\ in2\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Artificial\\ collection\\ o\\ \\ \\;objects\\ creating\\ a\\ studio\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Totally\\ blank\\ wall\\ on\\ right\\ 4Moorish\\ warrior\\.\\ \\ \\;Textiles\\,\\ wall\\ hangings\\,\\ which\\ suddenly\\ give\\ way\\ 2blank\\ wall\\ on\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;Ptng\\ was\\ exhibited\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ as\\ finished\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ declaring\\ its\\ own\\ artifice\\,\\ bc\\ u\\ see\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ Moorish\\ world\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ where\\ it\\ ends\\ n\\ u\\ get\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ studio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chase\\ pntd\\ in\\ lower\\ corner\\ a\\ smoking\\ cigar\\,\\ one\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ cigars\\,\\ thus\\ marking\\ his\\ own\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\ as\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ u\\ see\\ foregrounding\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ abilities\\ as\\ a\\ collector\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ 2declare\\ himself\\ as\\ merely\\ archaeologist\\/documentary\\ pntr\\ like\\ Gerome\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wants\\ 2indicate\\ his\\ own\\ creativity\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Models\\ fnctn\\ as\\ props\\ 2prop\\ up\\ objects\\,\\ not\\ as\\ genuine\\ orientalist\\ figures\\,\\ as\\ French\\ pntrs\\ wanted\\ them\\ 2b\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4Chase\\,\\ u\\ see\\ developing\\ in\\ his\\ Munich\\ time\\ the\\ development\\ o\\ orientalism\\ 4him\\ as\\ an\\ arrangement\\ o\\ objects\\,\\ an\\ inversion\\ o\\ French\\ orientalism\\ n\\ what\\ Gerome\\ was\\ doing\\.\\ \\ \\;Chase\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ realist\\ like\\ Gerome\\,\\ but\\ whereas\\ in\\ Gerome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Snake\\ Charmer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;u\\ have\\ sense\\ that\\ authentic\\ artiacts\\/patterns\\ crammed\\ in2pntg\\ 2give\\ sense\\ o\\ realism\\,\\ in\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\,\\ the\\ props\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ support\\ the\\ narrative\\ as\\ the\\ narrative\\ is\\ there\\ 2support\\ the\\ props\\,\\ 2support\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ artifice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orientalism\\ served\\ as\\ springboard\\ 4his\\ later\\ career\\ in\\ NYC\\,\\ where\\ he\\ began\\ productive\\ n\\ wealthy\\ career\\ as\\ pntr\\ in\\ NYC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photograph\\ o\\ Chase\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ interested\\ in\\ self\\-presentation\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;US\\ artists\\ 2cultivate\\ mystique\\ o\\ artist\\ as\\ cosmopolitan\\ dandy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chase\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Corner\\ of\\ My\\ Studio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chase\\ returns\\ 2NYC\\ w\\ his\\ objects\\,\\ sets\\ up\\ shop\\ at\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;st\\.\\ bldg\\ which\\ waes\\ full\\ o\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ got\\ the\\ largest\\ n\\ most\\ luxurious\\ studio\\,\\ double\\ height\\,\\ big\\ skylights\\,\\ n\\ it\\ became\\ NYC\\ social\\ center\\ throughout\\ 1880s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burns\\ writes\\ about\\ role\\ this\\ studio\\ played\\ in\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\ n\\ NYC\\ artistic\\ life\\ in\\ general\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ explicitly\\ orientalist\\,\\ but\\ it\\ borrows\\ some\\ o\\ same\\ strategies\\ n\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ foreign\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Focuses\\ on\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ 2harmonize\\ n\\ create\\ aesthetic\\/artistic\\ beauty\\ from\\ great\\ m\\é\\;lange\\ o\\ objects\\ from\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ransacking\\ o\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ traditions\\.\\ \\ \\;Japanese\\ fabrics\\ hanging\\ on\\ wall\\,\\ renaissance\\ baroque\\ boudroir\\.\\ \\ \\;entire\\ space\\ covered\\ w\\ surface\\ incident\\ in\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ much\\ space\\ Chase\\ needs\\ 2pnt\\ her\\ that\\ any\\ connotations\\ that\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ carried\\ on\\ by\\ these\\ objects\\,\\ is\\ erased\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ complete\\ decontexuatualization\\ o\\ individual\\ objects\\ in\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Just\\ a\\ mishmash\\ o\\ color\\,\\ harmony\\,\\ n\\ identity\\ n\\ origins\\ o\\ objects\\ r\\ lost\\ in\\ the\\ arrangement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collapse\\ bw\\ what\\ Chase\\ is\\ doing\\ as\\ pntr\\ n\\ what\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ in\\ the\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ he\\ designed\\ n\\ maintained\\ the\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ studio\\ was\\ like\\ a\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\E\\ always\\ arranged\\ things\\ so\\ color\\ harmonies\\ wrkd\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ particular\\ about\\ how\\ light\\ fnctnd\\ in\\ the\\ studio\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ used\\ 2this\\ kind\\ o\\ interior\\ as\\ modern\\.\\ \\ \\;Late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ interiors\\ seem\\ hopeless\\ cluttered\\,\\ not\\ the\\ clean\\,\\ modern\\ interiors\\ that\\ would\\ develop\\ in\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ in\\ reaction\\ 2these\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ modernity\\ in\\ thesse\\:\\ \\ \\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ that\\ Chase\\,\\ in\\ having\\ 2grapple\\ w\\ this\\ abundant\\ material\\,\\ is\\ creating\\ heroic\\ strategy\\ o\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;Removing\\ base\\ materiality\\ o\\ everything\\ 2simple\\ play\\ o\\ lghts\\ n\\ shadows\\ 2color\\ harmonies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ related\\ 2trend\\ o\\ aestheticism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Common\\ way\\ o\\ understanding\\ modern\\ pntg\\ is\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;rei\\ nterested\\ in\\ pure\\ relationships\\ bw\\ lights\\,\\ color\\,\\ line\\,\\ light\\,\\ n\\ not\\ the\\ actual\\ content\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ depicted\\,\\ n\\ u\\ see\\ this\\ detachment\\ from\\ mng\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ \\&lsquo\\;chalkablock\\&rdquo\\;\\ images\\ work\\ through\\ strategies\\ that\\ would\\ become\\ common\\ in\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;the\\ space\\ is\\ so\\ full\\ that\\ by\\ cramming\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ material\\ in\\,\\ u\\ get\\ world\\ o\\ color\\ n\\ forms\\ n\\ ther\\&rsquo\\;es\\ no\\ way\\ 2focus\\ on\\ materiality\\ o\\ anything\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ on\\,\\ 1950s\\ abstract\\ expressionism\\ would\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\-overness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ referred\\ 2removal\\ o\\ specific\\ areas\\ o\\ focus\\ in\\ image\\,\\ removal\\ o\\ background\\/foreground\\ hierarchy\\,\\ creating\\ overall\\ welter\\ o\\ shapes\\ which\\ reduces\\ focus\\ on\\ content\\ n\\ provides\\ focus\\ on\\ just\\ the\\ materalis\\ on\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turning\\ objects\\ in2pure\\ harmonies\\ o\\ color\\ n\\ light\\ is\\ closely\\ related\\ 2intenrnational\\ trend\\ related\\ 2aestheticism\\.\\ \\ \\;Aestheticism\\ began\\ in\\ UK\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;broad\\,\\ vague\\ term\\.\\ \\ \\;Generally\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\aestheticist\\ philosophy\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ art\\ is\\ about\\ production\\ o\\ harmonies\\ o\\ pure\\ form\\ n\\ color\\,\\ elevating\\ beauty\\,\\ not\\ about\\ referring\\ 2everyday\\ life\\ or\\ narrative\\ or\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;Aestheticism\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ emptying\\ out\\ reference\\ 2real\\ world\\ n\\ bringing\\ the\\ reference\\ 2the\\ art\\ itself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ McNeill\\ Whistler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphony\\ in\\ White\\ No\\.\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ White\\ Girl\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whistler\\ was\\ an\\ American\\,\\ born\\ in\\ Lowell\\,\\ went\\ 2West\\ Point\\,\\ served\\ in\\ US\\ coasts\\ survey\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Thrown\\ out\\ o\\ West\\ Point\\.\\ \\ \\;Chose\\ 2spend\\ his\\ life\\ abroad\\ in\\ London\\/Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ is\\ this\\ an\\ aestheticist\\ pntg\\ about\\ pure\\ harmony\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ was\\ it\\ received\\?\\ \\ \\;Terribly\\.\\ \\ \\;Radical\\,\\ violent\\ kind\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whistler\\ interested\\ in\\ evacuating\\ narrative\\,\\ morality\\,\\ sentiment\\ from\\ world\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;1895\\ lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ was\\ a\\ provocateur\\,\\ loved\\ provocative\\ statements\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ 2remove\\ portrait\\ themes\\ o\\ devotion\\/love\\,\\ evacuating\\ emotion\\,\\ n\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ is\\ this\\ portrait\\ is\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ lover\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ shallow\\ space\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Curtain\\ blocks\\ recession\\ in2\\ background\\,\\ but\\ also\\ notice\\ tilt\\ o\\ the\\ floor\\ at\\ abnormal\\ angle\\.\\ \\ \\;Whole\\ pntg\\ snapped\\ 2pciture\\ plane\\,\\ 2front\\ o\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ narrow\\ range\\ o\\ color\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ bother\\ w\\ color\\ spectrum\\.\\ \\ \\;Variations\\ o\\ nwhites\\ n\\ beiges\\,\\ little\\ blue\\ n\\ red\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\,\\ tho\\,\\ a\\ white\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ reduction\\ o\\ color\\ range\\ forces\\ ur\\ attn\\ on2\\ textures\\ n\\ subtle\\ differences\\ w\\/in\\ color\\ range\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pntg\\ requires\\ u\\ 2attend\\ 2it\\ n\\ its\\ making\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Submitted\\ 2royal\\ academy\\ in\\ Lodon\\ 1862\\&hellip\\;rejected\\.\\ \\ \\;Salon\\ rejected\\ it\\ 2\\ in\\ 1863\\,\\ n\\ became\\ part\\ o\\ faous\\ Salon\\ de\\ Refusee\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rejected\\ not\\ just\\ bc\\ o\\ its\\ color\\,\\ but\\ also\\ its\\ evacuation\\ o\\ emotion\\ n\\ all\\ other\\ values\\ pntg\\ was\\ supposed\\ 2carry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eyes\\ r\\ staring\\ off\\ in2\\ space\\ blankly\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ registers\\ no\\ emotions\\ n\\ evokes\\ none\\ from\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;Whistler\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ 2read\\ in2\\ her\\ emotions\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ thru\\ in2\\ her\\ interior\\,\\ just\\ as\\ u\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ in2\\ pntg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interior\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\&rsquo\\;re\\ forced\\ 2attend\\ 2surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ n\\ all\\ his\\ use\\ o\\ details\\ o\\ color\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compare\\ this\\ Haberle\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ portrait\\ that\\ obscures\\ n\\ fights\\ the\\ pnt\\ o\\ portraiture\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ access\\ 2the\\ interior\\ o\\ this\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ provocative\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ portrait\\,\\ which\\ is\\ supposed\\ 2b\\ about\\ psychological\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ used\\ this\\ topic\\ n\\ emptied\\ it\\ o\\ its\\ meaning\\.\\ \\ \\;Subversive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whistler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\View\\ of\\ the\\ Eastern\\ Extremity\\ of\\ Anacapa\\ Island\\ from\\ the\\ Southwest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1854\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whistler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Arrangmeent\\ in\\ Gray\\ and\\ Black\\,\\ No\\.\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Mother\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1871\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insulting\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ mother\\ by\\ calling\\ her\\ an\\ arrangmenet\\ in\\ gray\\ n\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ portrait\\ \\=\\ excellent\\ example\\ o\\ calculated\\ effort\\ 2give\\ aesthetic\\ form\\ over\\ cultural\\ content\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mother\\,\\ in\\ US\\ culture\\,\\ would\\ b\\ burdened\\ w\\ sentimentality\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Whistler\\ reduces\\ her\\ 2an\\ arrangement\\ oshapes\\ n\\ colors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whistler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nocturne\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Created\\ some\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ radical\\ n\\ abstract\\ images\\ o\\ his\\ day\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ barely\\ refers\\ 2the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Exquisitely\\ arranged\\,\\ subtle\\,\\ color\\ formations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ how\\ quality\\ o\\ Nocturne\\ n\\ his\\ preference\\ 4mists\\ calls\\ up\\ harmonies\\ n\\ beauties\\ that\\ r\\ beyond\\ the\\ reach\\ o\\ the\\ material\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whistler\\ living\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;Imptnt\\ ex\\-patriot\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ came\\ 2have\\ enormous\\ influence\\ on\\ artists\\ living\\ in\\ America\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;compare\\ his\\ wrk\\ 2Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ influence\\ took\\ off\\ after\\ 1880\\ when\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ major\\ show\\ in\\ US\\ n\\ US\\ pntrs\\ could\\ look\\ at\\ all\\ his\\ wrks\\ at\\ once\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chase\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Miss\\ Dora\\ Wheeler\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\-83\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Influenced\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Arrangement\\ in\\ Grey\\ and\\ Black\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntd\\ immediately\\ after\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ shown\\ in\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whistler\\ had\\ such\\ a\\ big\\ aesthetic\\ reduction\\ influence\\ on\\ US\\ pntrs\\,\\ prof\\ suggests\\,\\ is\\ bc\\ ppl\\ were\\ looking\\ 4way\\ 2remove\\ art\\ from\\ material\\ n\\ commercial\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fine\\ 2have\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ studio\\ filled\\ w\\ objects\\ from\\ around\\ world\\,\\ but\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dangerous\\,\\ bc\\ as\\ Burns\\ discusses\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ 2close\\ 2Macy\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ like\\ sheer\\ shopping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artists\\ want\\ 2create\\ sense\\ o\\ abundance\\ n\\ beauty\\ n\\ appeal\\ 2the\\ wide\\ range\\ o\\ aesthetic\\ influences\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ absorb\\,\\ but\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ 2b\\ merely\\ collectors\\ o\\ bric\\-a\\-brac\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ they\\ softened\\ materiality\\,\\ base\\ matter\\,\\ o\\ things\\ they\\ were\\ working\\ w\\,\\ by\\ turning\\ materiality\\ in2\\ series\\ o\\ textures\\ n\\ harmonies\\ n\\ colors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntrs\\ wanted\\ refined\\ aesthetic\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ mere\\ materiality\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Whistler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ middleground\\ abstraction\\ o\\ material\\ world\\ became\\ popular\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ after\\ pntg\\ after\\ Whistler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ show\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ his\\ mother\\ w\\ women\\ sitting\\ in\\ chairs\\ w\\ oblique\\ looks\\ on\\ faces\\ against\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ referring\\ 2Whist\\&rsquo\\;ers\\ mom\\,\\ Chse\\ takes\\ these\\ fabrics\\,\\ which\\ might\\ b\\ 2much\\,\\ n\\ reduces\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whistler\\ n\\ Chase\\ both\\ trying\\ 2reduce\\ materal\\ world\\ n\\ all\\ its\\ abundance\\ 2pure\\ harmony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ end\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ imptnt\\ borrowing\\ going\\ on\\ bw\\ Western\\ artists\\ n\\ Eastern\\ traditions\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ talked\\ about\\ orientalism\\ in\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\,\\ but\\ japonism\\ was\\ also\\ big\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whistler\\,\\ Nocturne\\ in\\ Blue\\ and\\ Gold\\,\\ Old\\ Battersea\\ Bridge\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whistler\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ earliest\\ integrators\\ o\\ Japanese\\ aesthetics\\ in2\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Japonisme\\ draws\\ from\\ Western\\ trade\\ ambitions\\.\\ \\ \\;Japan\\ tried\\ self\\-conscious\\ isolationism\\,\\ until\\ 1854\\ when\\ US\\ expedition\\ 2Japan\\ forced\\ them\\ 2open\\ their\\ objects\\ 2Western\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ early\\ 1860s\\,\\ suddenly\\ Japanese\\ prints\\ n\\ objects\\ becoming\\ widely\\ available\\ throughout\\ Western\\ world\\,\\ n\\ had\\ immediate\\ impact\\ on\\ how\\ artists\\ understood\\ their\\ construction\\ o\\ their\\ own\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Japonisme\\ n\\ orientalism\\:\\ \\ \\;for\\ US\\ artists\\,\\ orientalism\\ about\\ importing\\ orientalist\\ objects\\ in2\\ pre\\-existing\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Japonisme\\,\\ Whistler\\ n\\ other\\ artists\\ use\\ Japanese\\ aesthetics\\ 2reformulate\\ western\\ notion\\ o\\ space\\ n\\ understanding\\ o\\ pntg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Japanese\\ printmakers\\ in\\ particular\\ have\\ profound\\ influence\\ on\\ western\\ pntg\\ after\\ 1860s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ n\\ US\\ artists\\ pick\\ up\\ from\\ Japanese\\ prints\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ando\\ Hiroshige\\,\\ 100\\ Famous\\ Views\\ of\\ Edo\\:\\ \\ \\;1856\\-58\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\.\\ 76\\,\\ Bamboo\\ Yards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interested\\ in\\ asymmetey\\ o\\ these\\ compositions\\.\\ \\ \\;Interest\\ in\\ abstract\\ pattern\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ tree\\ w\\ spring\\ blossoms\\ pntd\\ so\\ close\\ n\\ flat\\ 2picture\\ plane\\ that\\ it\\ almost\\ disappears\\ in2\\ abstract\\ form\\ n\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;Real\\ world\\ can\\ abstract\\ itself\\ in2\\ readable\\ patterns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pronouneced\\ flattening\\ o\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\.\\ 103\\,\\ Senju\\ Great\\ Bridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creating\\ space\\ not\\ by\\ using\\ traditional\\ linear\\ perspective\\,\\ creaing\\ space\\ that\\ recedes\\ quickly\\ in2\\ depth\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\interest\\ in\\ creating\\ perspective\\ vertically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\So\\ many\\ Japanese\\ prints\\ have\\ high\\ horizon\\ lines\\ or\\ no\\ horizon\\,\\ wher\\ u\\ have\\ vertical\\ stacking\\ on2\\ picture\\ plane\\ as\\ way\\ o\\ creating\\ illusion\\ o\\ space\\.\\ Vertical\\ format\\ o\\ page\\ itself\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ composition\\ becomes\\ beholden\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Broad\\ areas\\ o\\ strong\\,\\ unmodulated\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;General\\ interest\\ in\\ simplicity\\ n\\ exquisite\\ balance\\ o\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ affect\\ not\\ just\\ Whistler\\ but\\ other\\ artists\\ 2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\.\\ 30\\,\\ Plum\\ Estate\\,\\ Karneido\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\.\\ 48\\,\\ Suido\\ Bridge\\ and\\ Surugadai\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ LaFarge\\,\\ Hollyhocks\\ and\\ Corn\\,\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LaFarge\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ earlierst\\ artists\\ 2incorporate\\ Japanese\\ influences\\,\\ maybe\\ before\\ Whistler\\.\\ \\ \\;Stain\\ glass\\ n\\ Harvard\\ bldgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Winslow\\ Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Right\\ and\\ Left\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1909\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ wore\\ on\\,\\ he\\ became\\ profoundly\\ interested\\ in\\ treatment\\ o\\ space\\ n\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ he\\ borrows\\ extreme\\ spatial\\ collapse\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hiroshige\\ put\\ subjects\\ up\\ close\\ to\\ surface\\ o\\ pntg\\,\\ flattening\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ melds\\ interests\\ in\\ artillery\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collapse\\ o\\ spatial\\ field\\ during\\ civil\\ war\\ w\\ Japanisme\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collapse\\ o\\ space\\,\\ reduction\\ o\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Flattening\\ o\\ space\\ originally\\ explored\\ thru\\ problem\\ o\\ ballistics\\ n\\ collapse\\ o\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ gun\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ taking\\ objects\\ n\\ flattening\\ the\\ space\\ w\\ his\\ birds\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Right\\ behind\\ boat\\ is\\ a\\ man\\ n\\ hunter\\ shooting\\ at\\ the\\ ducks\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ ducks\\ hit\\ by\\ gun\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flattening\\ pattern\\ borrowed\\ from\\ Japanese\\ aesthetics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Wilmer\\ Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Recitation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ with\\ a\\ Violin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\:\\ \\ \\;FORMS\\ OF\\ EXTINCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ March\\ 06\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Exposition\\ and\\ Evolutionary\\ Thought\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ Staiti\\,\\ \\"\\;Winslow\\ Homer\\ and\\ the\\ Drama\\ of\\ Thermodynamics\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;15\\ no\\ 1\\ \\(Spring\\ 2001\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alexander\\ Nemerov\\,\\ \\"\\;Burning\\ Daylight\\:\\ Remington\\,\\ Electricity\\,\\ and\\ Flash\\ Photography\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ Nancy\\ Anderson\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Frederic\\ Remington\\:\\ The\\ Color\\ of\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2003\\)\\,\\ 78\\-95\\.\\ Course\\ website\\ documents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\William\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Corner\\ of\\ My\\ Studio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looked\\ at\\ this\\ last\\ wk\\ exploring\\ collections\\ of\\ bric\\-a\\-brac\\ in\\ homes\\ o\\ wealthy\\ Americans\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Absorption\\ o\\ disparate\\ cultures\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ by\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ also\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ Chase\\ n\\ Whistler\\ decontextualized\\ these\\ objects\\ from\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ by\\ creating\\ decorative\\ aesthetic\\ harmonies\\ irrespective\\ o\\ the\\ objects\\&rsquo\\;\\ origins\\ in\\ various\\ cultures\\ n\\ histories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attempt\\ 2create\\ harmonious\\ arrangements\\ out\\ o\\ messy\\ world\\ situations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greatest\\ arrangement\\ o\\ artifacts\\ in\\ guilded\\ age\\:\\ \\ \\;World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Exposition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Exposition\\,\\ 1893\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chicago\\,\\ Ill\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Open\\ the\\ whole\\ summer\\,\\ commemorating\\ Columbus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ landfall\\ in\\ 1492\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Real\\ purpose\\ was\\ 2commemorate\\ n\\ proclaim\\ the\\ greatness\\ o\\ US\\ as\\ new\\ industrial\\/artistic\\ power\\,\\ 2compete\\ w\\ world\\ fairs\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ success\\.\\ \\ \\;Huge\\ size\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;27\\ million\\ ppl\\ attended\\ \\(1\\/2\\ o\\ US\\ population\\ at\\ time\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Competition\\ 2hold\\ exposition\\ in\\ Chicago\\ was\\ intense\\,\\ similar\\ 2kinds\\ o\\ brouhaha\\ surrounding\\ Olympic\\ sites\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Chicago\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bid\\ bc\\ o\\ funding\\ received\\ from\\ great\\ Chicago\\ industrialists\\:\\ \\ \\;Armour\\,\\ Swift\\,\\ McCormick\\,\\ Pullman\\,\\ Field\\,\\ meatpacking\\ co\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Architectural\\ program\\:\\ \\ \\;Daniel\\ Burnham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showed\\ history\\ n\\ progress\\ o\\ all\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ guest\\ nation\\ featured\\ at\\ the\\ fair\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ bldg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\22\\,000\\ pound\\ Canadian\\ cheese\\.\\ \\ \\;30\\,000\\ pound\\ temple\\ o\\ chocolate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Grounds\\ layout\\:\\ \\ \\;Frederick\\ Law\\ Olmsted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sculptural\\ Program\\ for\\ Court\\ of\\ Honor\\:\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ St\\.\\ Gaudens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Agricultural\\ Building\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Electricity\\ Building\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tech\\ giants\\ o\\ time\\ featured\\ \\&ldquo\\;Edison\\ lights\\ tower\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Classical\\ column\\ completely\\ surrounded\\ by\\ light\\ bulbs\\.\\ \\ \\;Giant\\ light\\ bulb\\ on\\ top\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\GE\\ exhibited\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Useless\\ electrical\\ gadgets\\:\\ \\ \\;electric\\ pickpocket\\ detector\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ o\\ fascination\\ w\\ fair\\ focused\\ on\\ electricity\\ bldg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ the\\ bldgs\\ wired\\ electrically\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;time\\ so\\ many\\ bldgs\\ wired\\ at\\ once\\ n\\ brought\\ in2\\ electric\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Became\\ vision\\ o\\ large\\ scale\\ electrification\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ over\\ next\\ 2\\ decades\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anthropology\\ bldg\\ 2\\,\\ w\\ performances\\ like\\ measuring\\ all\\ the\\ fair\\ goers\\.\\ \\ \\;Statues\\ o\\ Harvard\\/Radcliffe\\ students\\ provided\\ ideal\\ fair\\ models\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hamburger\\ claimed\\ 2have\\ been\\ introduced\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Debated\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;introduced\\ here\\ or\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\ fair\\ 1904\\.\\ \\ \\;these\\ fairs\\ became\\ common\\ way\\ 2check\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ progress\\ o\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Juicyfruit\\ gum\\ made\\ its\\ debut\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\-made\\ lagoon\\,\\ plied\\ by\\ electric\\ boats\\ n\\ gondolas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ a\\ technological\\ spectacle\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ a\\ cultural\\ spectacle\\:\\ \\ \\;fine\\ arts\\ exhibition\\ had\\ 10\\,000\\ \\+\\ wrks\\ displayed\\.\\ \\ \\;Winslow\\ Homer\\ took\\ the\\ gold\\ medal\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Glass\\ chapel\\ was\\ built\\.\\ \\ \\;Stained\\ glass\\ is\\ really\\ interesting\\ n\\ imptnt\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ distinctions\\ bw\\ materiality\\ n\\ immateriality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\View\\ of\\ Court\\ of\\ Honor\\ at\\ night\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Japanese\\ Pavilion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Really\\ influential\\ among\\ many\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Frank\\ Lloyd\\ Wright\\ visisted\\ it\\ n\\ it\\ made\\ huge\\ impact\\ on\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Massachusetts\\ Pavilion\\ \\(Peabody\\ and\\ Sterns\\,\\ architects\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Every\\ state\\ n\\ nation\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ pavilion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ many\\ areas\\ o\\ contention\\ about\\ fair\\ was\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ women\\,\\ womens\\&rsquo\\;\\ arts\\ n\\ handicrafts\\,\\ was\\ concentrated\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ bldg\\&hellip\\;the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bldg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indian\\ Pavillion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Louis\\ Comfort\\ Tifany\\ studios\\,\\ Glass\\ Mosaic\\ Chapel\\,\\ Manufactures\\ and\\ Liberal\\ Arts\\ Building\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bilding\\ \\(Sophia\\ Hayden\\,\\ architect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ one\\ hand\\ ppl\\ liked\\ how\\ women\\ prominently\\ shown\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ bldg\\,\\ yet\\ it\\ also\\ separated\\ them\\ from\\ the\\ larger\\ march\\ o\\ progress\\ displayed\\ throughout\\ rest\\ o\\ exhibition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mary\\ Cassatt\\ did\\ murals\\ in\\ this\\ bldg\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Modern\\ Women\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Privileged\\ space\\,\\ center\\ o\\ exhibition\\,\\ was\\&hellip\\;the\\ court\\ of\\ honor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Daniel\\ Chester\\ French\\,\\ colossal\\ statue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ presiding\\ over\\ the\\ Court\\ of\\ Honor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ allegorical\\ sculptures\\ on\\ either\\ side\\ o\\ lagoon\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ largest\\ statue\\ ever\\ created\\ in\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Entire\\ thing\\ made\\ o\\ plaster\\,\\ covered\\ in\\ gold\\ leaf\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ intended\\ 2last\\ long\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ central\\ area\\ o\\ fair\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ referred\\ 2as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\ bc\\ architecture\\ around\\ the\\ lagoon\\ was\\ white\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;dream\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ was\\ called\\ 2\\ 4its\\ dreamlike\\ quality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perspective\\ view\\ of\\ lagoon\\ and\\ Court\\ of\\ Honor\\,\\ Louis\\ Edward\\ HIckmott\\,\\ 1894\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Burnham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ job\\ in\\ overseeing\\ architectural\\ program\\ was\\ like\\ Wlliam\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ job\\ o\\ creating\\ aesthetic\\ harmony\\ o\\ all\\ these\\ different\\ elements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burnham\\ had\\ 2take\\ huge\\ hodgepodge\\ o\\ modern\\ technology\\ n\\ knowledge\\,\\ which\\ fair\\ was\\ about\\,\\ n\\ 2create\\ aesthetic\\ unity\\ out\\ o\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ exhibit\\ bldgs\\ o\\ fair\\ would\\ b\\ understood\\ as\\ single\\ architectural\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;Single\\ complex\\ that\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ entirely\\ unified\\ by\\ the\\ planning\\ o\\ the\\ architects\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ classical\\ references\\ in\\ the\\ structures\\.\\ \\ \\;Overall\\ language\\ o\\ the\\ archictecture\\ is\\ neo\\-lcassical\\,\\ but\\ I\\ t\\ also\\ references\\ renaissance\\ n\\ classical\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;Baroque\\ chapel\\ towers\\,\\ renaissance\\ dome\\,\\ classical\\ Greek\\ pediment\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ different\\ references\\ in\\ these\\ structures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ bldg\\ has\\ columns\\ along\\ the\\ front\\.\\ \\ \\;Coluanr\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\ seems\\ 2extend\\ infinitely\\ throughout\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ architecture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chicago\\ among\\ most\\ advanced\\ cities\\ 4architectural\\ design\\.\\ \\ \\;Modern\\ architects\\ like\\ Louis\\ Sullivan\\ were\\ working\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ great\\ fire\\ had\\ destroyed\\ lots\\ o\\ modern\\ architecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Could\\ it\\ stand\\ up\\?\\ \\ \\;lots\\ o\\ cultural\\ conservatism\\ in\\ decision\\ 2use\\ these\\ structures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sullivan\\ felt\\ Burnham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ architecture\\ set\\ back\\ American\\ architecture\\ 50yrs\\ or\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;Fake\\ plastering\\ on\\ o\\ neoclassical\\ styles\\ that\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ native\\ 2US\\ or\\ imptnt\\ 4architectural\\ development\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sullivan\\ reacting\\ 2what\\ many\\ ppl\\ thought\\ were\\ poor\\ combination\\ o\\ cultures\\.\\ \\ \\;Pickpocket\\ detectors\\ amidst\\ classical\\ archirtecture\\?\\ \\ \\;Immense\\ electrical\\ strobelight\\ looking\\ down\\ on\\ renaissance\\ hodgepodge\\ o\\ reactionary\\ architecture\\?\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ ppl\\ wanted\\ 2create\\ this\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ renaissance\\ not\\ just\\ 2unify\\ everything\\,\\ but\\ bc\\ this\\ period\\ in\\ US\\ history\\ was\\ often\\ referred\\ 2as\\ the\\ American\\ renaissance\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ wanted\\ US\\ 2b\\ inheritor\\ o\\ EU\\ civilization\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ many\\ reasons\\ 2hve\\ this\\ neoclassical\\ arrangement\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ way\\ these\\ structures\\ unified\\ other\\ than\\ same\\ height\\ n\\ same\\ facades\\:\\ \\ \\;all\\ built\\ from\\ same\\,\\ impermanent\\ materials\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ marble\\,\\ but\\ staff\\,\\ a\\ material\\ ivnetned\\ in\\ France\\ that\\ was\\ just\\ plaster\\ o\\ paris\\,\\ jute\\ fiborous\\ materials\\ spread\\ over\\ wood\\ framing\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ stone\\ but\\ costs\\ 1\\/10\\ as\\ much\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ bldgs\\ pntd\\ bright\\ white\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chicago\\ had\\ 2ban\\ coal\\ burning\\ at\\ time\\ 2keep\\ the\\ city\\ looking\\ white\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ was\\ a\\ fake\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\ created\\ out\\ o\\ plasters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ upset\\ Sullivan\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ the\\ key\\ points\\ about\\ modern\\ architecture\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ involve\\ honest\\ expression\\ on\\ exterior\\ o\\ structure\\ o\\ interior\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effort\\ 2create\\ unififed\\ arhictectural\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ fair\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\enormous\\ collection\\ o\\ objets\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\,\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ need\\ 2create\\ possessive\\,\\ controlling\\ intelligence\\.\\ \\ \\;Architecture\\ seen\\ as\\ reassurances\\ o\\ unity\\ of\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arhcitecure\\ as\\ great\\ neoclassical\\ processing\\ machine\\,\\ ordering\\ data\\ 2bring\\ it\\ 2a\\ systematic\\ ordered\\ unit\\.\\ \\ \\;Need\\ 2create\\ sense\\ o\\ orderly\\ classification\\ o\\ the\\ exhibits\\ within\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;an\\ illustrated\\ encyclopedia\\ o\\ civilization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Intensive\\ ordering\\ structure\\ in\\ grand\\ court\\ n\\ main\\ bldg\\ surrounding\\ lagoons\\.\\ \\ \\;Look\\ at\\ other\\ \\½\\;\\ o\\ exhibition\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;dark\\ side\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ aka\\ \\&ldquo\\;midway\\ plaisance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overview\\ of\\ the\\ Court\\ of\\ Honor\\,\\ Charles\\ Dudley\\ Arnold\\ \\(photographer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Construction\\ view\\ of\\ horticultural\\ building\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charles\\ Yardley\\ Turner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modeling\\ the\\ First\\ Staff\\ Ornaments\\,\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Exposition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1894\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midway\\ Plaisance\\,\\ overviews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\ mile\\ long\\.\\ \\ \\;Attached\\ 2side\\ o\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;Origin\\ o\\ term\\ midway\\,\\ which\\ we\\ now\\ use\\ 2describe\\ amusement\\ parks\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\ \\;Rambunctions\\ in\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Unpredictable\\,\\ carnivalesque\\ attractions\\,\\ guilty\\ pleasure\\ o\\ it\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;white\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\ 4refined\\ learning\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ technology\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ part\\ was\\ just\\ fun\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ blocks\\ wide\\,\\ many\\ blocks\\ long\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Things\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ on\\ midway\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Congress\\ of\\ Beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Put\\ on\\ by\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ dress\\ n\\ costume\\ co\\.\\ \\ \\;40\\ women\\ from\\ 40\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ as\\ spectacle\\,\\ comparative\\ costume\\ exposition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ferriss\\ Wheel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ever\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hunter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lodge\\ \\(Theodore\\ Roosevelt\\,\\ architect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ exhibits\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ lfie\\ in\\ the\\ west\\.\\ TR\\ fancied\\ himself\\ as\\ wilderness\\ man\\ n\\ wanted\\ 2create\\ wilderness\\ lodge\\ on\\ exhibition\\ grounds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cairo\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possibly\\ most\\ popular\\ element\\ o\\ exhibition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Included\\ Turksh\\ village\\,\\ various\\ north\\ African\\ exhibits\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turkish\\ village\\ n\\ other\\ type\\ o\\ African\\ exhibits\\,\\ included\\ dancers\\ presented\\ as\\ a\\ lascivious\\ spectacle\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ cultural\\ exhibit\\.\\ \\ \\;Belly\\ dancers\\ attempted\\ 2present\\ themselves\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ long\\ cultural\\ tradition\\,\\ but\\ were\\ understood\\ lasciviously\\ instead\\.\\ \\ \\;Disturbing\\ aspects\\ o\\ orientalism\\ cmae\\ across\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinctions\\ constantly\\ made\\ bw\\ kind\\ o\\ woman\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ wnatdering\\ through\\ the\\ city\\ n\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ woman\\ performing\\ on\\ the\\ midway\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chicago\\ female\\ theater\\ critic\\:\\ \\ \\;separates\\ herself\\ from\\ woman\\ dancing\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ kind\\ o\\ body\\ different\\ from\\ her\\ own\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ capable\\ o\\ incredible\\ muscular\\ gyrations\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ watching\\ her\\ throws\\ her\\ own\\ eyes\\ out\\ o\\ whack\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Lots\\ o\\ discussion\\ o\\ distinctions\\ bw\\ American\\ modern\\ woman\\ \\(refined\\,\\ ethereal\\,\\ almost\\ entirely\\ allegorical\\ like\\ stiff\\ figure\\ sculpture\\ at\\ lagoon\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ o\\ discussion\\ o\\ women\\ produced\\ through\\ contrasts\\ at\\ fair\\:\\ \\ \\;by\\ not\\ being\\ like\\ Cairo\\ st\\.\\ dancers\\,\\ u\\ could\\ b\\ a\\ modern\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ the\\ countries\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ midway\\ were\\ presented\\ like\\ carnavlesque\\ attractions\\.\\ You\\ had\\ 2pay\\ each\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cultures\\ represented\\ on\\ midway\\ were\\ commodifying\\ n\\ selling\\ themselves\\ as\\ spectacles\\,\\ when\\ really\\ they\\ were\\ set\\ up\\ as\\ spectacles\\ by\\ the\\ fair\\ planners\\.\\ \\ \\;Cultures\\ here\\ were\\ reduced\\ 2attractions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chinese\\ Tea\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Samoan\\ Village\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ end\\ o\\ midway\\ there\\ were\\ exhibits\\ o\\ primitive\\ cultures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Penobscot\\ Indian\\ Dwellings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alaskan\\ Dwellings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\&rsquo\\;re\\ pretty\\ far\\ from\\ white\\ city\\ w\\ these\\ architectural\\ examples\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ were\\ intentionally\\ placed\\ at\\ end\\ o\\ midway\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cliff\\ Dwellings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commentators\\ often\\ noticed\\ that\\ although\\ cmidway\\ seemed\\ like\\ thrilling\\ n\\ discombobulating\\ experience\\,\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ order\\ 2it\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ subtext\\ o\\ evolution\\ was\\ running\\ through\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ lowest\\ forms\\ o\\ humanity\\ would\\ build\\ up\\ 2the\\ white\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Entire\\ midway\\ had\\ evolutionary\\ link\\ 2it\\ in\\ many\\ senses\\ headed\\ by\\ department\\ o\\ ethnology\\ o\\ the\\ fair\\.\\ \\ \\;Midway\\ seen\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ spectacle\\ but\\ as\\ demonstration\\ o\\ evolutionary\\ progress\\ o\\ mankind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midway\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sliding\\ scale\\ o\\ humanity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;u\\ start\\ at\\ white\\ city\\,\\ have\\ tutonic\\ n\\ celt\\ races\\,\\ mohammed\\ world\\,\\ then\\ descend\\ 2savage\\ races\\:\\ \\ \\;Afriacn\\ Homi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ n\\ North\\ American\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ march\\ forward\\ w\\ lower\\ peoples\\ 2the\\ top\\ o\\ humanity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Progression\\ from\\ matter\\ 2mind\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ dancer\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cario\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\st\\.\\ 2\\ allegorizaiton\\ o\\ women\\ in\\ court\\ o\\ honor\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ Cairo\\ st\\,\\ body\\ still\\ matter\\ n\\ muscles\\ n\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ in\\ court\\ o\\ honor\\ woman\\ had\\ moved\\ 2material\\,\\ gilded\\ idea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midway\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ representation\\ o\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ city\\ \\=\\ representation\\ o\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;Materiality\\ o\\ matter\\ served\\ as\\ contrast\\ 2immateriality\\ o\\ white\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ City\\&rsquo\\;s\\ architecture\\ as\\ ordering\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Architecture\\ less\\ o\\ material\\ reality\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ software\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ exists\\ only\\ 2order\\ n\\ sort\\ data\\.\\ \\ \\;Dematerializes\\ in\\ its\\ planned\\ ephemerality\\.\\ \\ \\;Unremediated\\ whiteness\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ city\\ read\\ as\\ being\\ dematerliazed\\ because\\ views\\ o\\ it\\ at\\ night\\.\\ \\ \\;Overcome\\ its\\ own\\ materiality\\,\\ logic\\ o\\ dissolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Relationship\\ 2Whistler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nocturne\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ involving\\ vagueness\\ and\\ aqueous\\ reflection\\ to\\ suggest\\ diffusion\\ n\\ immateriality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pseudo\\-science\\ o\\ evolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ efamiliarization\\ thesis\\ o\\ evolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Americans\\ were\\ taken\\ on\\ evolution\\,\\ were\\ uneasy\\ about\\ the\\ implications\\ o\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\,\\ its\\ relationship\\ 2chance\\ n\\ not\\ 2God\\.\\ \\ \\;Randomness\\ was\\ discomforting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 4Darwin\\ a\\ teleological\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ lead\\ 2specific\\ outcome\\.\\ \\ \\;Random\\,\\ violent\\ struggle\\ 4surviva\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ppl\\ uncomfortable\\ w\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ connection\\ o\\ humanity\\ 2lower\\ animals\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ come\\ from\\ them\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\James\\ McNeill\\ Whistler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nocturne\\ in\\ Blue\\ and\\ Silver\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Lagoon\\,\\ Venice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\-80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spencer\\ said\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\humans\\ always\\ propelled\\ by\\ necessary\\ force\\,\\ toward\\ higher\\ state\\,\\ n\\ higher\\ state\\ was\\ essentially\\ a\\ dematerialization\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ propelled\\ further\\ n\\ further\\ from\\ their\\ origins\\,\\ n\\ being\\ liberated\\ altogether\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Wilmer\\ Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ther\\ Hermit\\ Thrush\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1893\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ this\\ on\\ Tuesday\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dewing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ as\\ exposition\\ o\\ humanity\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dissolving\\ in2\\ aesthetic\\ harmony\\ n\\ away\\ from\\ its\\ material\\ baseness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Recitation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Classical\\ Figures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Folding\\ Screens\\)\\,\\ 1897\\/8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ March\\ 08\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Technology\\ and\\ the\\ Extinction\\ of\\ the\\ West\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ Staiti\\,\\ \\"\\;Winslow\\ Homer\\ and\\ the\\ Drama\\ of\\ Thermodynamics\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;15\\ no\\ 1\\ \\(Spring\\ 2001\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Online\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alexander\\ Nemerov\\,\\ \\"\\;Burning\\ Daylight\\:\\ Remington\\,\\ Electricity\\,\\ and\\ Flash\\ Photography\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ Nancy\\ Anderson\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Frederic\\ Remington\\:\\ The\\ Color\\ of\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2003\\)\\,\\ 78\\-95\\.\\ Course\\ website\\ documents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Midterm\\ review\\ sessions\\:\\ \\ \\;Monday\\ 7pm\\,\\ Tuesday\\ 8pm\\,\\ Sackler\\ 318\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2sday\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ City\\&rdquo\\;\\ n\\ the\\ Court\\ of\\ honor\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ talked\\ about\\ htem\\ idway\\ w\\ its\\ feris\\ wheel\\ n\\ exhibits\\ as\\ itself\\ an\\ internal\\ structure\\ w\\ its\\ internal\\ arrangement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sliding\\ scale\\ o\\ humanity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ n\\ how\\ it\\ provided\\ material\\ foil\\ 2\\&rdquo\\;white\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;s\\ immaterial\\ trasncendnece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ ppl\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ Columbian\\ expedition\\,\\ n\\ disorientation\\ o\\ so\\ many\\ kinds\\ o\\ objects\\ n\\ processes\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ looking\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ efforts\\ 2organize\\ it\\ all\\ in\\ manageable\\ way\\,\\ it\\ confused\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assumption\\ at\\ time\\ that\\ human\\ race\\ was\\ moving\\,\\ at\\ least\\ carried\\ along\\ by\\ time\\,\\ a\\ modern\\ time\\ that\\ changed\\ its\\ contents\\ as\\ it\\ moved\\ along\\.\\ \\ \\;Be\\ it\\ productive\\ force\\ that\\ creates\\ forward\\ progress\\ or\\ evolution\\,\\ but\\ also\\ sense\\ that\\ time\\ is\\ a\\ corrosive\\ fore\\ theat\\ creates\\ destruction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Which\\ direction\\ was\\ humanity\\ going\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideologies\\ o\\ progress\\,\\ but\\ also\\ prospect\\ o\\ degeneration\\/dissolution\\ o\\ humanity\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sculptor\\ Augustin\\ St\\.\\ Gaudins\\,\\ in\\ charge\\ o\\ court\\ o\\ honor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sculptures\\,\\ saying\\ man\\ has\\ no\\ idea\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ going\\.\\ \\ \\;Probably\\ somewhere\\ ehigher\\,\\ but\\ maybe\\ somewhere\\ eterrible\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ variet\\ o\\ artists\\/responses\\ 2this\\ dilemma\\ o\\ evolution\\ vs\\.\\ degeneration\\&hellip\\;temporal\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Conflict\\ in\\ air\\ about\\ evolutionary\\ processes\\,\\ changes\\ thru\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ Staiti\\ taught\\ about\\ persistent\\ doubt\\ created\\ by\\ thermodynamics\\ n\\ physics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ felt\\ universe\\ was\\ not\\ evolving\\ but\\ degenerating\\,\\ n\\ thermodynamics\\&rsquo\\;\\ inevitable\\ path\\ toward\\ stasis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\:\\ \\ \\;3\\ artsist\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Dewing\\,\\ Boston\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ pntgs\\ about\\ harmony\\ n\\ aesthetics\\ that\\ might\\ help\\ ppl\\ along\\ in\\ evolutionary\\ progressive\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Remington\\,\\ famous\\ cowboy\\ pntr\\ o\\ west\\.\\ \\ \\;Demonstrated\\ anxieties\\ about\\ one\\ thing\\ passing\\ away\\ in\\ evolution\\:\\ \\ \\;manly\\,\\ cowboy\\ style\\ virility\\,\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ things\\ becoming\\ extinct\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ evolutionary\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;n\\ the\\ plains\\ Indians\\ n\\ how\\ they\\ processed\\ the\\ closing\\ o\\ their\\ frontier\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ world\\ was\\ changing\\ more\\ drastically\\ than\\ anyone\\ who\\ came\\ 2the\\ Colubmia\\ expedition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Wilmer\\ Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Recitation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dewing\\ interested\\ in\\ transcending\\ materiality\\ as\\ sign\\ o\\ higher\\ being\\.\\ \\ \\;Dewing\\ closely\\ influenced\\ by\\ Whisterls\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wrk\\,\\ as\\ were\\ other\\ pntrs\\ at\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Dewing\\,\\ like\\ Whistler\\,\\ creates\\ images\\ where\\ figures\\ r\\ adrift\\ in\\ ambiguous\\ outdoor\\ spaces\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Close\\ range\\ o\\ color\\ arranmgents\\.\\ \\ \\;Flat\\,\\ asymmetrical\\ design\\.\\ \\ \\;Reduction\\ o\\ sharp\\ boundaries\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ also\\ see\\ in\\ Whistler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Substraction\\ o\\ distractions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Just\\ overall\\ design\\ o\\ colors\\ n\\ \\ \\;harmonies\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ like\\ Whistler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interest\\ in\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Recititation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ 2woman\\ singing\\,\\ reciting\\ vocal\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Whistler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ titles\\,\\ even\\ w\\/o\\ musical\\ subject\\,\\ were\\ musical\\ \\&ldquo\\;harmony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ black\\ n\\ gold\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Attaching\\ musical\\ connotation\\ 2his\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;Ubiquitous\\ references\\ 2harmony\\,\\ arrangmenet\\,\\ symphines\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Dewing\\ did\\ this\\ more\\ thorugh\\ subject\\ than\\ titles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ with\\ a\\ Violin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1891\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ sound\\ in\\ air\\,\\ not\\ material\\ object\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portrait\\ o\\ woman\\ holding\\ violin\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ listening\\/playing\\ music\\ \\=\\ common\\ theme\\ in\\ Dewing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\ interested\\ in\\ images\\ o\\ stringed\\ instruments\\.\\ \\ \\;Woman\\ playing\\ harp\\ at\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;Ethereal\\ women\\ dancing\\ in\\ classical\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multiply\\ nested\\ musical\\ metaphors\\ here\\ on\\ different\\ scales\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frame\\ o\\ pntg\\:\\ \\ \\;seems\\ odd\\ 2have\\ such\\ huge\\ chunk\\ o\\ wood\\ surrounding\\ pntg\\ about\\ immateriality\\.\\ \\ \\;Frame\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ w\\ Violin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ HUGE\\.\\ \\ \\;Y\\ have\\ huge\\ guilded\\ frame\\ take\\ up\\ so\\ much\\ more\\ space\\ than\\ pntg\\ itself\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ frames\\ were\\ made\\ specifically\\ 4ea\\ wrk\\ by\\ a\\ friend\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dynamics\\ bw\\ frame\\ n\\ pntg\\&hellip\\;there\\ mus\\ b\\ something\\ here\\ bc\\ Dewing\\ was\\ so\\ careful\\ about\\ having\\ his\\ frames\\ made\\ especially\\ 4his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ how\\ frame\\ participates\\ in\\ rather\\ than\\ blocks\\ the\\ transcendence\\ o\\ aesthetic\\ harmony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compare\\ instrument\\ being\\ played\\ on\\ right\\,\\ woman\\ plucking\\ on\\ white\\ strings\\&hellip\\;n\\ then\\ look\\ \\@oerall\\ pic\\,\\ wi\\ birch\\ trees\\ in\\ background\\,\\ which\\ r\\ rhymed\\/recalled\\ w\\ strings\\ o\\ harp\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Sense\\ in\\ which\\ perfectly\\ spaced\\ n\\ vertical\\ birch\\ trees\\ appear\\ 2b\\ strung\\ upon\\ the\\ frame\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ setting\\ up\\ the\\ whole\\ pntg\\ itself\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ musical\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ the\\ dancers\\ appear\\ 2b\\ plucking\\ these\\ birch\\ bark\\ strings\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ wrk\\ is\\ an\\ instrument\\,\\ a\\ material\\ matter\\,\\ that\\ produces\\ immaterial\\ effects\\ o\\ sound\\ n\\ song\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ used\\ not\\ as\\ material\\ objects\\,\\ but\\ objects\\ that\\ bridge\\ the\\ material\\ n\\ immaterial\\ worlds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dewing\\ is\\,\\ like\\ Whistler\\ n\\ other\\ pntgs\\ at\\ the\\ tiem\\,\\ wrking\\ thru\\ musical\\ metaphors\\ 2create\\ transcendence\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ White\\ Birch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1897\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ images\\ became\\ more\\ n\\ more\\ diffuse\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Aesthetic\\ harmonies\\,\\ dissolution\\ o\\ harsh\\ forms\\,\\ this\\ becomes\\ more\\ n\\ mre\\ pronounced\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ works\\ practically\\ dissolve\\ off\\ the\\ campus\\.\\ \\ \\;Figures\\ harder\\ n\\ harder\\ 2make\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lal\\ this\\ have\\ 2do\\ w\\ time\\ n\\ evolution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ 2sday\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ Dewing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ associated\\ w\\ popular\\ evolutionary\\ theory\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Americans\\ \\=\\ most\\ eager\\ listeners\\ 2\\ Spencer\\,\\ UK\\ distorter\\ o\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ said\\ Darwinism\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\=\\ chance\\ process\\,\\ but\\ constant\\ evolution\\ in2\\ higher\\ n\\ higher\\ mental\\ states\\,\\ n\\ conveniently\\,\\ the\\ higher\\ races\\ would\\ b\\ the\\ ones\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ inherit\\ this\\ evolutionary\\ progress\\ n\\ go\\ on\\ in2\\ this\\ higher\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ itself\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ less\\ n\\ less\\ imptnt\\ appendage\\,\\ mental\\ life\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ in\\ Dewing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ had\\ incredibly\\ delicate\\ n\\ attenuated\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\His\\ pntgs\\ \\&ldquo\\;served\\ call\\ forth\\ the\\ elongation\\ o\\ limbs\\ 2go\\ from\\ German\\ bucxom\\ girl\\ 2American\\ slendor\\ girl\\ o\\ next\\ generation\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ higher\\ American\\ form\\ o\\ delicate\\ n\\ attenuated\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reading\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1897\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntg\\ characterized\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ by\\ women\\ who\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ become\\ so\\ ethereal\\ they\\ can\\ barely\\ bring\\ themselves\\ 2appear\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Subject\\ matter\\ has\\ Dewing\\,\\ via\\ content\\,\\ alluding\\ 2evolutionary\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ also\\ happens\\ at\\ level\\ o\\ form\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ concerns\\ about\\ the\\ new\\ attenuated\\ American\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ higher\\ evolutionary\\ forms\\ became\\ fragile\\ n\\ had2b\\ guarded\\ against\\ the\\ shocks\\ n\\ jolts\\ o\\ city\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dewing\\ warned\\ cultural\\ elite\\ 2avoid\\ straining\\ their\\ physical\\ n\\ nervous\\ systems\\ lest\\ they\\ weaken\\ their\\ genetic\\ stock\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ should\\ acquire\\ experiences\\ o\\ harmony\\ n\\ repose\\,\\ n\\ these\\ pntgs\\ provded\\ that\\ 4ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modulation\\ o\\ tones\\,\\ muted\\ color\\,\\ avoidance\\ o\\ harsh\\/glaring\\ contrasts\\ or\\ sharp\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ about\\ depicting\\ evolution\\,\\ but\\ providing\\ therapy\\ 4viewers\\ who\\,\\ like\\ the\\ figures\\,\\ needed\\ refuge\\ from\\ material\\/modern\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dwight\\ William\\ Tryon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autumn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1893\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helping\\ the\\ nervous\\ overstrained\\ American\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ eye\\ doctors\\/neurologistsin\\ \\ \\;late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ recommended\\ taking\\ their\\ overstressed\\ eyes\\/nervous\\ systems\\ n\\ seek\\ distant\\,\\ unfocused\\ views\\ that\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ harsh\\ contrasts\\ 4the\\ eye\\.\\ \\ \\;Green\\ was\\ thought\\ 2soothe\\ the\\ eye\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ elites\\ needed\\ the\\ harmony\\ n\\ repose\\ it\\ was\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ entering\\ in2\\ the\\ state\\ o\\ transcendence\\ need\\ 2b\\ constantly\\ cared\\ 4\\ w\\ images\\ by\\ this\\ 2get\\ away\\ from\\ modern\\ world\\,\\ which\\ is\\ exactly\\ what\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\ was\\ producing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ the\\ West\\ fit\\ in2\\ this\\ narrative\\ o\\ evolution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growing\\ concern\\/nostalgia\\ about\\ what\\ was\\ being\\ left\\ behind\\ by\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ West\\ \\=\\ great\\ case\\ study\\ o\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Particularly\\ native\\ Americans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Gast\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Progress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethereal\\ woman\\,\\ but\\ not\\ meant\\ 2represetn\\ a\\ real\\ American\\.\\ \\ \\;Allegorical\\ figure\\ o\\ process\\ flying\\ across\\ plains\\.\\ \\ \\;Frontiersmen\\,\\ trains\\,\\ wagons\\ coming\\ along\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unfurling\\ telegraph\\ wire\\ as\\ she\\ moves\\ across\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ front\\ o\\ her\\ is\\ group\\ o\\ cowering\\ Natie\\ Americans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ tuypical\\ o\\ how\\ frontier\\ was\\ being\\ understood\\ in\\ middle\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;territorial\\ growth\\ o\\ US\\ speeding\\ ahead\\ incrompehensibly\\ fast\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ how\\ quickly\\ US\\ territory\\ moved\\ from\\ eastern\\ colonies\\ 2the\\ West\\ Coast\\:\\ \\ \\;50\\ yrs\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1846\\:\\ \\ \\;Northwest\\ secured\\.\\ \\ \\;1848\\:\\ \\ \\;Southwest\\ secured\\ thru\\ 2yr\\ war\\ w\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\ \\;1840s\\:\\ \\ \\;gold\\ discovered\\.\\ \\ \\;Nation\\ tripled\\ in\\ size\\,\\ n\\ West\\ settled\\ in\\ 50\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ estimated\\ 100\\ generatios\\&rsquo\\;\\ time\\ 2settle\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ took\\ 3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntgs\\ o\\ West\\ had\\ very\\ prospective\\,\\ progressive\\ tone\\.\\ \\ \\;West\\ \\=\\ something\\ lying\\ before\\ Europeans\\ n\\ Americans\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ kind\\ o\\ image\\ o\\ West\\ came\\ 2quick\\ end\\ in\\ 80s\\ n\\ early\\ 90s\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ did\\ census\\ in\\ 1880s\\ n\\ realized\\ no\\ discreet\\ frontier\\ line\\ separated\\ white\\ settlement\\ from\\ wilderness\\.\\ \\ \\;1893\\:\\ \\ \\;Chicago\\ lecture\\ closely\\ related\\ 2world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Expedition\\,\\ Frederick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\ gave\\ his\\ famous\\ frontier\\ thesis\\ speech\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ said\\ frontier\\ was\\ closed\\,\\ West\\ no\\ longer\\ this\\ perspective\\ future\\ o\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Everything\\ that\\ happened\\ there\\ was\\ going\\ 2change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ this\\ happened\\,\\ view\\ o\\ west\\ became\\ nostaligic\\,\\ elegiac\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Remington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Stranger\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1908\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ turned\\ the\\ West\\ in2\\ the\\ Old\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;Pictures\\ o\\ past\\,\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ over\\,\\ been\\ lost\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ Remington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ is\\ retrospective\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ memories\\.\\ \\ \\;Trying\\ 2recoup\\ lost\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntgs\\ exhibited\\ in\\ Manhattan\\,\\ 4ppl\\ who\\ felt\\ nostalgia\\ 4space\\ o\\ frontier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remington\\ wore\\ bowler\\ hat\\,\\ not\\ cowboy\\ hat\\.\\ \\ \\;Cowboys\\ came\\ n\\ at\\ on\\ wooden\\ saddle\\ contraption\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2pnt\\ buffalo\\,\\ he\\ went\\ 2the\\ Bronx\\ zoo\\.\\ \\ \\;Native\\ Americans\\ he\\ used\\ as\\ models\\ would\\ call\\ him\\ on\\ the\\ phone\\ when\\ they\\ came\\ over\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ complain\\ they\\ were\\ 2modernized\\ n\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ put\\ on\\ their\\ g\\-strings\\ properly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\-string\\ issue\\ is\\ imptnt\\:\\ \\ \\;Remington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concerned\\ about\\ Indians\\ becoming\\ modernized\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wants\\ 2see\\ them\\ as\\ perpetually\\ in\\ Western\\ wilderness\\ purity\\,\\ uncomfortable\\ w\\ them\\ having\\ modern\\ existence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ typical\\ o\\ how\\ Native\\ Americans\\ were\\ understood\\ in\\ American\\ culture\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emanuel\\ Leutze\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Westward\\ the\\ Course\\ of\\ Empire\\ Takes\\ its\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1861\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frederic\\ Remington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Apache\\ Medicine\\ Song\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1908\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ Remington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ or\\ all\\ other\\ mainstream\\ art\\ has\\ NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ existing\\ not\\ in\\ state\\ o\\ telephones\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ on\\ horses\\,\\ not\\ cars\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ NAs\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ past\\,\\ trapped\\ in\\ state\\ o\\ b4ness\\,\\ is\\ not\\ new\\ ay\\ o\\ understanding\\ in\\ US\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Throughout\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ NAs\\ thought\\ o\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;vanishing\\ race\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Destruction\\ o\\ NA\\ life\\ through\\ westward\\ expansion\\ o\\ US\\ territory\\ was\\ understood\\ thru\\ notion\\ o\\ NAs\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ vanishing\\ race\\.\\ \\ \\;NAs\\ understood\\ as\\ being\\ evolutionary\\ offshoot\\ o\\ mankind\\,\\ inevitably\\ doomed\\ race\\ that\\ just\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ keep\\ up\\ w\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;Couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ inhabit\\ modern\\ worl\\ o\\ present\\ as\\ were\\ Anglo\\ Americans\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ made\\ it\\ easier\\ 4\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ artists\\/\\ thinkers\\ 2feel\\ better\\ about\\ hwat\\ happened\\ 2NAs\\ in\\ territorial\\ wars\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ It\\ was\\ coded\\ as\\ being\\ inevitable\\.\\ \\ \\;Divine\\ process\\,\\ not\\ coaused\\ by\\ whites\\,\\ but\\ by\\ their\\ own\\ race\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doomedness\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allowed\\ 4romatnic\\ fade\\ out\\ from\\ American\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Allowed\\ US\\ culture\\ 2feel\\ sorry\\ but\\ not\\ guilty\\ 4what\\ happened\\ 2NAs\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ that\\ NAs\\ understand\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doomed\\ n\\ will\\ go\\ quietly\\ b4\\ proess\\ o\\ Westward\\ expansion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remington\\ uses\\ crowchin\\ pose\\ associated\\ w\\ evolutionary\\ diagrams\\,\\ where\\ monkey\\ goes\\ 2\\ man\\,\\ crouch\\ 2standing\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;Remingtone\\ coding\\ eovoultionary\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\:\\ \\ \\;NAs\\ put\\ in2\\ past\\ tense\\.\\ \\ \\;Pronounced\\ temporal\\ disjunction\\ bw\\ white\\ n\\ NA\\ civilization\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ the\\ images\\ fail\\ 2come\\ 2terms\\ w\\ is\\ that\\ NAs\\ might\\ b\\ participants\\ in\\ modernity\\,\\ not\\ just\\ foils\\ 4it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ Remington\\ images\\ that\\ show\\ NAs\\ in\\ modernity\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ actually\\ existing\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ always\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ way\\ 2see\\ NAs\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ modernity\\ is\\ 2look\\ at\\ their\\ own\\ artwork\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lok\\ at\\ them\\ 4next\\ 20\\ minutes\\ o\\ this\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ Earle\\ Fraser\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\End\\ of\\ the\\ Trail\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1894\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sculpture\\ o\\ Indian\\ on\\ horse\\ w\\ head\\ hanging\\ down\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\ \\(Lakota\\)\\,\\ Miwatani\\ Society\\ Officer\\ on\\ Horseback\\;\\ Okicinitawa\\ Counts\\ Coup\\ on\\ Crow\\,\\ 1880\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Counting\\ Coup\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ tapping\\ enemy\\ on\\ shoulder\\ w\\ stick\\.\\ \\ \\;Tap\\ enemy\\ on\\ shoulder\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ he\\ fights\\,\\ you\\ fight\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ he\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ you\\ win\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ have\\ long\\ history\\,\\ plains\\ indians\\&rsquo\\;\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ drew\\ n\\ pntd\\ on\\ hides\\ 4centuries\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ different\\ materials\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;paper\\,\\ pens\\,\\ pencils\\,\\ materials\\ introduced\\ by\\ white\\ traders\\/explorers\\.\\ \\ \\;Explorers\\ would\\ travel\\ west\\ w\\ ledger\\ books\\ n\\ drawing\\ books\\,\\ n\\ NAs\\ used\\ these\\ as\\ media\\ 4their\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tradition\\ o\\ creating\\ these\\ scenes\\ was\\ very\\ gendered\\.\\ \\ \\;men\\ showed\\ pictographic\\ scenes\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ made\\ abstract\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ images\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ r\\ made\\ by\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ 2Remington\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ r\\ native\\ American\\ male\\ version\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ war\\ scenes\\,\\ lots\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;Counting\\ Coups\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ records\\ o\\ personal\\ triumphs\\ in\\ warrior\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ memorialized\\ on\\ paper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Books\\ often\\ carried\\ in2\\ battle\\ by\\ NAs\\,\\ against\\ other\\ NAs\\ or\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ were\\ sometimes\\ among\\ the\\ plunder\\ taken\\ from\\ fallen\\ NA\\ soldiers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ soldiers\\ stole\\ them\\ n\\ sold\\ them\\,\\ white\\ viewers\\ liked\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NAs\\ also\\ made\\ them\\ 2distribute\\ them\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\,000s\\ n\\ 1\\,000s\\ still\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ made\\ on\\ top\\ o\\ existing\\ accnts\\,\\ suchas\\ storekeeper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ledger\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bound\\ ledger\\,\\ inventory\\,\\ accnt\\ books\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ drawings\\ done\\ over\\ signs\\ o\\ westward\\ expansion\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plains\\ artsts\\ liked\\ these\\ bks\\ bc\\ theywere\\ portable\\,\\ easier\\ 2get\\ than\\ hides\\,\\ easier\\ 2get\\ line\\ n\\ detail\\ n\\ color\\ than\\ hides\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Black\\ Hawk\\ \\(Lakota\\)\\,\\ Crow\\ Men\\ in\\ Ceremonial\\ Dress\\,\\ 1880\\-81\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vibrant\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Strong\\ interest\\ in\\ pattern\\.\\ \\ \\;Lavish\\ detail\\ expended\\ on\\ depiction\\ o\\ weapons\\ n\\ dress\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ interest\\ in\\ individuated\\ facial\\ portraiture\\.\\ \\ \\;Plains\\ Indian\\ tradition\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ careful\\ attn\\ 2outward\\ signs\\ o\\ identity\\,\\ specific\\ ways\\ o\\ wearing\\ hair\\,\\ pntg\\ the\\ body\\,\\ not\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ face\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ the\\ images\\ would\\ inspire\\ American\\ modern\\ ptnrs\\ 20yrs\\ later\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ artists\\ r\\ using\\ the\\ face\\ in\\ certain\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ o\\ interest\\ in\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ is\\ Lakota\\,\\ drew\\ Crow\\ men\\ in\\ ceremonial\\ dress\\.\\ \\ \\;Crow\\ were\\ enemies\\ o\\ Lakota\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ Hawk\\ interested\\ in\\ depicting\\ other\\ tribes\\/groups\\ that\\ surrounded\\ him\\ in\\ his\\ life\\ on\\ the\\ plains\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ these\\ potratis\\ o\\ other\\ plains\\ Indians\\.\\ \\ \\;Careful\\ 2delineate\\ what\\ 4him\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ hve\\ been\\ strange\\ traditions\\ like\\ pompadours\\ balls\\ on\\ heads\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;hair\\ extensions\\ woven\\ in2existing\\ ahir\\,\\ all\\ have\\ bandolier\\ bags\\ w\\ distinctive\\ designs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ about\\ this\\ pntg\\ is\\ it\\ shows\\ ethnographic\\ impulse\\ on\\ part\\ o\\ native\\ American\\ artists\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ always\\ think\\ o\\ enthnogrpahy\\ as\\ whitem\\ an\\&rsquo\\;s\\ possession\\,\\ done\\ 2exploit\\ n\\ other\\ native\\ Americans\\,\\ but\\ NAs\\ did\\ this\\ 2eo\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ that\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ effects\\ o\\ Western\\ expansion\\,\\ o\\ the\\ mythical\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ Indian\\,\\ is\\ that\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ total\\ homogenization\\ o\\ NA\\ life\\ on\\ the\\ plains\\ n\\ throughout\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;feather\\-bonneted\\ warrior\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ THE\\ Indian\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Howling\\ Wolf\\ \\(Cheyenne\\)\\,\\ Dance\\ Society\\ Members\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Making\\ Medicine\\ \\(Cheyenne\\)\\,\\ Drawings\\ of\\ Fort\\ Marion\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1875\\-78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1875\\,\\ lots\\ o\\ Indians\\ imprisoned\\ in\\ Florida\\ 4\\ 3yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Guy\\ in\\ charge\\ o\\ prison\\ interested\\ in\\ rehabilitation\\ experiment\\.\\ \\ \\;Gave\\ them\\ all\\ notebooks\\,\\ drawing\\ paper\\,\\ pens\\,\\ caryons\\,\\ n\\ they\\ were\\ encouraged\\ 2produce\\ the\\ images\\,\\ which\\ were\\ sold\\ 2tourists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Fort\\ Marion\\ was\\ the\\ place\\ in\\ FLA\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\ see\\ Making\\ Medicine\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ regimnatiton\\ that\\ prisoners\\ have\\ been\\ subjected\\ 2\\,\\ compared\\ 2profound\\ differentiation\\ allowed\\ 2Crow\\ images\\ as\\ u\\ saw\\ in\\ Lakota\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Explores\\ how\\ NAs\\ had\\ been\\ strippedo\\ \\ \\;their\\ individual\\ selves\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ kind\\ o\\ images\\ shows\\ all\\ the\\ tumultuous\\ changes\\ resulting\\ from\\ contact\\ w\\ whites\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ fantasy\\ that\\ NAs\\ have\\ dissolved\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ HERE\\!\\ \\ \\;Confronting\\ white\\ captors\\,\\ existing\\ along\\ w\\ US\\ society\\ in\\ complicated\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inspection\\ of\\ Indian\\ Prisoners\\,\\ Fort\\ Marion\\,\\ Fal\\.\\,\\ 1876\\-77\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Making\\ Medicine\\,\\ Indian\\ Prisoners\\ and\\ Ladies\\&rsquo\\;\\ Archery\\ Club\\,\\ 1876\\-77\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prisoners\\ instructed\\ 2help\\ ladies\\ in\\ archery\\.\\ \\ \\;Couple\\ sitting\\ by\\ n\\ watching\\ w\\ tremendous\\ dog\\.\\ \\ \\;View\\ over\\ ramparts\\ o\\ prison\\ in2\\ sea\\ below\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ only\\ 2arrows\\ have\\ come\\ near\\ the\\ target\\.\\ \\ \\;Everyone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arrows\\ lie\\ on\\ ground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MM\\,\\ Indian\\ Prisoners\\ at\\ Fort\\ Marion\\ Being\\ Photographed\\,\\ 1876\\-77\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indian\\ prisoners\\ lined\\ up\\ like\\ targets\\,\\ having\\ thir\\ photos\\ taken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charged\\ empty\\ space\\ across\\ which\\ photo\\ will\\ b\\ taken\\.\\ \\ \\;Carefully\\ composed\\,framed\\ by\\ image\\ o\\ walls\\ surrounding\\ scene\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Washee\\ \\(Cheyenne\\)\\,\\ Scout\\ and\\ a\\ lady\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1887\\,\\ from\\ Fort\\ Reno\\ Scout\\ Ledger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NAs\\ live\\ in\\ present\\ in\\ this\\ time\\ frame\\,\\ while\\ white\\ images\\ o\\ NAs\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ recruited\\ scouts\\ from\\ Navajo\\ n\\ Arapajo\\ tribes\\ 2serve\\ as\\ scouts\\ 4US\\ army\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ allowed\\ 2keep\\ their\\ hair\\ long\\,\\ have\\ teepee\\ camp\\ n\\ live\\ w\\ their\\ families\\,\\ n\\ they\\ had\\ lots\\ o\\ duties\\ similar\\ 2pre\\-reservation\\ times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scout\\ courting\\ lady\\ at\\ hte\\ fort\\.\\ \\ \\;Indicates\\ shift\\ in\\ subject\\ matter\\ o\\ plains\\ Indian\\ drawing\\ n\\ content\\,\\ alogn\\ w\\ not\\ only\\ changes\\ in\\ society\\,\\ but\\ also\\ changes\\ in\\ medium\\.\\ \\ \\;Use\\ o\\ peortable\\ ledger\\ books\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anon\\ \\(Cheyenne\\)\\,\\ From\\ Fort\\ Reno\\ Scout\\ Ledger\\,\\ Courtship\\ scene\\,\\ 1906\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Courtship\\ as\\ conquest\\.\\ \\ \\;Becomes\\ war\\ accomplishment\\ in\\ many\\ drawings\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditional\\ 2have\\ courting\\ w\\ young\\ man\\ n\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ allowed\\ 2leave\\ site\\ o\\ their\\ elders\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ o\\ 2ppl\\ rapped\\ in\\ blanket\\ is\\ courtship\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ detail\\ lavished\\ on\\ feet\\,\\ hem\\ o\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skirt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ drawings\\ about\\ male\\ prowess\\.\\ \\ \\;Scouting\\ ledgers\\ served\\ no\\ pornographically\\,\\ but\\ as\\ lascivious\\ images\\ scouts\\ could\\ pass\\ along\\ among\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ courting\\ scenes\\ on\\ public\\ large\\ traditional\\ hide\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ discussion\\ o\\ their\\ exploits\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ courtship\\ content\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thse\\ drawings\\ tell\\ us\\ a\\ different\\ story\\ about\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntd\\ in\\ ledger\\ books\\,\\ which\\ might\\ be\\ most\\ imptnt\\ piece\\ o\\ evidenc\\ 2think\\ about\\ these\\ as\\ images\\ o\\ modernity\\ n\\ NAs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ o\\ horses\\ trotting\\ across\\ ledger\\ lines\\ attest\\ wo\\ question\\ 2new\\ ground\\ o\\ west\\,\\ space\\ o\\ west\\ after\\ west\\&rsquo\\;s\\ closing\\ frontier\\,\\ is\\ space\\ o\\ administration\\,\\ o\\ calculation\\,\\ o\\ measuredness\\,\\ federally\\ administered\\ n\\ supplied\\ n\\ railroaded\\ n\\ telegraphed\\ n\\ economized\\ n\\ governed\\ by\\ military\\ bureaucracy\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ figures\\ have\\ been\\ described\\ as\\ field\\ o\\ calculations\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ modernity\\ became\\.\\ \\ \\;Space\\ becomes\\ rationalized\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ true\\ 1890s\\ west\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Remington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Last\\ Stand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remington\\ captures\\ field\\ o\\ measuredness\\,\\ n\\ his\\ despictions\\ o\\ old\\ west\\ r\\ reactiosn\\ 2that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evolution\\ toward\\ transcendent\\ n\\ immaterial\\ world\\ pushed\\ by\\ Dewing\\?\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ like\\ Remington\\ found\\ this\\ emasculating\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ anxiety\\ about\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ vanishing\\:\\ \\ \\;not\\ just\\ frontiers\\,\\ but\\ virile\\ male\\ cowboys\\ who\\ know\\ how\\ 2use\\ a\\ gun\\ n\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sit\\ around\\ playing\\ the\\ piano\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ stand\\ motif\\ is\\ common\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fight\\ for\\ the\\ Water\\ Hole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1901\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ea\\ pntg\\ wrking\\ thru\\ theme\\ o\\ virile\\ white\\ men\\ abot\\ 2b\\ moved\\ out\\ o\\ existence\\.\\ \\ \\;Symbolic\\ reflection\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ happening\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ r\\ becoming\\ factory\\ wrkrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Tight\\ clusters\\ o\\ figuresi\\ n\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;West\\ in\\ this\\ image\\ is\\ a\\ space\\ in\\ which\\ bubbles\\ o\\ virility\\ r\\ about\\ 2b\\ popped\\.\\ \\ \\;Space\\ o\\ implosion\\ 4these\\ gifigures\\,\\ n\\ Remington\\ wrks\\ thru\\ that\\ problem\\ in\\ his\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Loss\\ o\\ virile\\ manhood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacob\\ Riis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\All\\ Night\\ two\\-cent\\ restaurant\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Bend\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ the\\ Other\\ Half\\ Lives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ from\\ the\\ Night\\ Herd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ o\\ night\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edward\\ Porter\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Coney\\ Island\\ at\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tension\\ bw\\ images\\ at\\ night\\ in\\ East\\ vs\\.\\ images\\ at\\ night\\ in\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;Remington\\ keeps\\ modernity\\ out\\ but\\ fails\\ 2do\\ so\\ in\\ certain\\ sense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ March\\ 12\\,\\ 2007\\ Midterm\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kirk\\ Savage\\ rdg\\.\\ \\ \\;Trachtenberg\\ reading\\ on\\ Civil\\ War\\ photography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rdg\\ relationship\\ 2\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Columbia\\ Expedition\\.\\ \\ \\;Alexander\\ Nemerov\\ rdg\\ on\\ electricity\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Burning\\ Daylight\\&rdquo\\;\\ chapter\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ city\\ was\\ totally\\ electrified\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Architecture\\ o\\ white\\ city\\ is\\ soft\\,\\ meant\\ 2organize\\,\\ like\\ software\\ on\\ a\\ computer\\.\\ \\ \\;Meant\\ to\\ sort\\ out\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ white\\,\\ bourgeois\\,\\ American\\,\\ n\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ non\\-white\\,\\ primitive\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Other\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Singer\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1872\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Leja\\ talks\\ about\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Leja\\ talks\\ about\\ frame\\ n\\ music\\ notes\\ on\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\ designs\\ things\\ 2excess\\ such\\ that\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\ 2do\\ overflows\\ on2\\ the\\ frame\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ kno\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ singing\\ bc\\ o\\ frame\\ n\\ conductor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Madame\\ X\\ also\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Burns\\ n\\ Slvaskas\\ rdgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\:\\ \\ \\;FLASH\\ AND\\ FLICKER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ March\\ 13\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Chronophootgraphy\\,\\ Cinema\\,\\ and\\ Vaudeville\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tom\\ Gunning\\,\\ \\"\\;The\\ Cinema\\ of\\ Attractions\\:\\ Early\\ Film\\,\\ Its\\ Spectator\\ and\\ the\\ Avant\\-Garde\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ Thomas\\ Elsaesser\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Early\\ Cinema\\:\\ Space\\,\\ Frame\\,\\ Narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(BFI\\ Publishing\\,\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ 56\\-62\\.\\ Course\\ website\\ documents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Eadweard\\ Muybridge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Galloping\\ Horse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\still\\ photography\\ attempting\\ 2study\\ motion\\ was\\ imptnt\\ precedent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muybridge\\ from\\ UK\\,\\ studying\\ in\\ California\\.\\ \\ \\;1872\\ approached\\ by\\ Leland\\ Stanford\\,\\ former\\ governor\\ o\\ California\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muybridge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Gallery\\,\\ Stanford\\ Home\\,\\ San\\ Francisco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\ 1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muybridge\\ commissioned\\ by\\ Stanford\\ 2shoot\\ horses\\ while\\ moving\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2develop\\ shutter\\ speed\\ fast\\ enough\\ 2capture\\ something\\ wrkng\\ so\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ photos\\ interrupted\\ by\\ scandal\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ was\\ accused\\ but\\ acquitted\\ o\\ murdering\\ his\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finally\\ designed\\ an\\ unheard\\ o\\ shutter\\ that\\ wrked\\ at\\ 1\\/1000\\ o\\ a\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lined\\ up\\ shutters\\ along\\ horse\\ track\\.\\ \\ \\;12\\ cameras\\ each\\ attached\\ 2horse\\ in\\ its\\ path\\,\\ everytime\\ it\\ hit\\ a\\ string\\ a\\ photo\\ was\\ taken\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;photograph\\ that\\ shows\\ object\\ moving\\ at\\ high\\ speed\\ in\\ all\\ o\\ its\\ regular\\ stages\\ in\\ its\\ progression\\ thru\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ previous\\ images\\ o\\ horses\\ had\\ been\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ him\\,\\ horses\\ r\\ pntd\\ correctly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cover\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Scientific\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ October\\ 19\\,\\ 1878\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Buchana\\ Read\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sheridan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ride\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1869\\-71\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frederic\\ Remington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dismounted\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Fourth\\ Trooper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Moving\\ the\\ Lead\\ Horses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edgar\\ Degas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Race\\ Horses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ in\\ EU\\ u\\ see\\ scientific\\ pntg\\ o\\ horses\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ excuses\\ 4pntg\\ bad\\ horses\\ after\\ Muybridge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Eakins\\,\\ models\\ of\\ horses\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ May\\ Morning\\ in\\ the\\ Park\\ \\(the\\ Fairman\\ Rogers\\ Four\\-in\\-Hand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1946\\ bronze\\ casts\\ from\\ wax\\ models\\ made\\ in\\ 1879\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ May\\ Morning\\ in\\ the\\ Pak\\ \\(The\\ Fiarman\\ Rogers\\ Four\\-in\\-Hand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\-80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muybridge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Animal\\ Locomotion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 11\\ volumes\\,\\ 1887\\,\\ photographs\\ taken\\ 1872\\-85\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(man\\ jumping\\ hurdle\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Improvements\\ 2Muybridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ technology\\&hellip\\;increasing\\ number\\ o\\ cameras\\ n\\ angle\\ o\\ cameras\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muybridge\\ made\\ 100\\,000\\ such\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animal\\ Locomotion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ behemoth\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ grid\\ in\\ the\\ background\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ kinds\\ o\\ measurements\\ everywhere\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(man\\ performing\\ handstands\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(woman\\ emptying\\ bucket\\ of\\ water\\ on\\ companion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ an\\ interesting\\ narrative\\ between\\ left\\-most\\ image\\ n\\ right\\-most\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eakins\\ interested\\ in\\ seeing\\ Muybridge\\ studies\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\ o\\ muscles\\ in\\ bodies\\ during\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paradox\\ about\\ these\\ images\\ tho\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ fluid\\ motion\\ occurring\\ in\\ this\\ episode\\ \\(literally\\,\\ the\\ water\\)\\,\\ is\\ actually\\ cornered\\,\\ gridded\\,\\ sliced\\,\\ analyzed\\ from\\ every\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ fluid\\ motion\\,\\ but\\ everything\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chopped\\ up\\ n\\ regimented\\.\\ \\ \\;Tiny\\ still\\ pieces\\ o\\ fluidity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Eakins\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\ n\\ Muybridge\\ wrkng\\ closely\\ during\\ these\\ yrs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eains\\,\\ Motion\\ study\\:\\ \\ \\;History\\ of\\ a\\ Jump\\,\\ with\\ annotations\\ by\\ Muybridge\\,\\ 1884\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\ interested\\ in\\ different\\ kidn\\ o\\ chronophotograph\\,\\ which\\ showed\\ successive\\ stages\\ o\\ movements\\ superimposed\\ in2\\ eo\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ frame\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2Muybridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ horizontally\\ arranged\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Multiple\\ exposure\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ negative\\,\\ overlap\\ of\\ the\\ stages\\ o\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Motion\\ study\\:\\ \\ \\;pole\\ vaulting\\,\\ 1884\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ looked\\ earlier\\ at\\ images\\ o\\ Civil\\ War\\ that\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capture\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ activity\\ in\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Civil\\ War\\ period\\,\\ ppl\\ wanted\\ 2delve\\ in2the\\ heart\\ o\\ life\\ n\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ till\\ late\\ 1870s\\ early\\ 1880s\\ tho\\,\\ can\\ photography\\ live\\ up\\ 2its\\ promise\\ o\\ capturing\\ moments\\ in\\ motion\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ could\\ now\\ avoid\\ this\\ condition\\ o\\ being\\ stuck\\ in\\ the\\ aftermath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photography\\ can\\ finally\\ move\\ w\\ the\\ speed\\ o\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ this\\ really\\ the\\ case\\ tho\\?\\ \\ \\;Hmmmm\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ images\\ show\\ motion\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\ stop\\ it\\!\\ \\ \\;They\\ dno\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capture\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ destroy\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ time\\ as\\ a\\ continuum\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ phenomenologit\\ talking\\ about\\ how\\ motion\\ ophtoography\\ destroys\\ motion\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;athlete\\ in\\ motion\\ forever\\ frozen\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ thaw\\ him\\ out\\ by\\ multiplying\\ the\\ glimpses\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ rationalization\\ o\\ movement\\ freezes\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capture\\ continuity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ Motion\\ Study\\:\\ \\ \\;male\\ nude\\ running\\,\\ 1885\\,\\ Chronophotograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anonymous\\,\\ Porttrait\\ of\\ James\\ Taylor\\,\\ soldier\\ and\\ artist\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1890s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bric\\-a\\-brac\\.\\ \\ \\;Surrounded\\ himself\\ w\\ memories\\ o\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ how\\ these\\ hardened\\ artifacts\\ o\\ past\\ life\\ that\\ soldiers\\&rsquo\\;\\ trying\\ 2reanimate\\ might\\ also\\ b\\ related\\ 2how\\ chronophotogrpahy\\ wrks\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ artifacts\\ o\\ motion\\.\\ \\ \\;Can\\ tehse\\ artifacts\\ b\\ reanimated\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Swimming\\ Hole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leja\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\ shows\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ discomfort\\ w\\ chronophotography\\.\\ \\ \\;Leja\\ talks\\ about\\ strange\\ discontinuity\\ o\\ the\\ temporal\\ frames\\ that\\ Eakins\\ uses\\ in\\ this\\ iamge\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ created\\ imgae\\ w\\ several\\ different\\ shutter\\ speeds\\ at\\ once\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ spokes\\ o\\ the\\ wheels\\,\\ on\\ the\\ carriage\\ r\\ blurred\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wants\\ the\\ image\\ stopped\\ enough\\ 2b\\ analyed\\,\\ but\\ he\\ wants\\ 2blur\\ them\\ 2recreate\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Swimming\\ Hole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1883\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parametal\\ structure\\ o\\ bodies\\ recalls\\ his\\ own\\ photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transforming\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ chronophotograph\\ n\\ reenlivening\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ figures\\ take\\ on\\ attributes\\ o\\ motion\\ u\\ see\\ in\\ a\\ chronophotograph\\.\\ \\ \\;Motion\\ incorporated\\ in2larger\\ narrative\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Restoring\\ continuity\\ 2tehse\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;Creating\\ cinema\\/film\\,\\ 2which\\ we\\ move\\ on\\ right\\ now\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muybridge\\,\\ Woman\\ Pirouetting\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Animal\\ Locomootion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dickson\\,\\ W\\.K\\.L\\.\\,\\ Edison\\ Kinetscopic\\ Record\\ of\\ a\\ Sneeze\\,\\ 1894\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ 2recapture\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dickson\\ and\\ Heise\\,\\ still\\ from\\ film\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Annabelle\\ Butterfly\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pnt\\ is\\ hand\\-colored\\,\\ as\\ many\\ films\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ were\\.\\ \\ \\;Hand\\-coloring\\ required\\ coloring\\ every\\ single\\ piece\\ o\\ the\\ film\\.\\ \\ \\;Enormous\\ effort\\,\\ even\\ tho\\ the\\ film\\ was\\ short\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ n\\ how\\ this\\ dress\\ fnctns\\ in\\ animation\\ o\\ figures\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Interesting\\ 2note\\ that\\ large\\ percentage\\ o\\ early\\ films\\ done\\ by\\ Edison\\ involved\\ dances\\ like\\ this\\ w\\ voluminous\\ billows\\ o\\ cloth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ were\\ especially\\ attractive\\ 2filmmakers\\.\\ \\ \\;Films\\ had\\ flicker\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ could\\ see\\ jerkiness\\ o\\ separate\\ images\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ pulled\\ through\\ cinematic\\ device\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fabric\\ helps\\ mend\\ that\\ disjunction\\ in\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Yards\\ o\\ fabric\\ amplify\\ a\\ fluidity\\ o\\ the\\ motion\\ o\\ the\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;Fabric\\ creates\\ spatial\\ continuity\\.\\ \\ \\;Exaggerates\\ connection\\ bw\\ different\\ kinds\\ o\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;Billows\\ o\\ fabric\\ provide\\ information\\ about\\ where\\ her\\ body\\ has\\ been\\ n\\ where\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\.\\ \\ \\;Fabric\\ gives\\ fluidity\\ 2what\\ would\\ be\\ jerkety\\ picture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edison\\ seized\\ on\\ these\\ famous\\ dances\\ 2amplify\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ truth\\ o\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ 2talk\\ about\\ how\\ cinema\\ was\\ seen\\ in\\ its\\ early\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ 2\\ movies\\ like\\ 2day\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ Kinetoscope\\ images\\,\\ 1894\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Device\\ invented\\ by\\ Edison\\ n\\ his\\ associate\\ WKL\\ Dickson\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;way\\ cinema\\ was\\ popularized\\ n\\ brought\\ 2the\\ ppl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Film\\ shown\\ in\\ little\\ box\\,\\ n\\ person\\ stands\\ above\\ it\\ n\\ looks\\ in2\\ peep\\ hole\\ while\\ film\\ moves\\ on\\ elaborate\\ pulley\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Film\\ cranked\\ along\\ manually\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ private\\ viewing\\ experiences\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ like\\ 2day\\ where\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ that\\ happens\\ in\\ public\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Private\\ viwing\\ acts\\.\\ \\ \\;Earliest\\ films\\ were\\ racy\\.\\ \\ \\;Films\\ o\\ undressing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vitascope\\:\\ \\ \\;point\\ at\\ which\\ projected\\ film\\ was\\ introduced\\.\\ \\ \\;Film\\ introduced\\ w\\/in\\ already\\ existing\\ scheme\\ o\\ entertainment\\ in\\ cities\\,\\ like\\ Vaudeville\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Automatic\\ Vaudeville\\,\\ 48\\ East\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;St\\.\\,\\ New\\ York\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1903\\-5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edison\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Greatest\\ Marvel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ poster\\,\\ 1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edwin\\ S\\.\\ Porter\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Coney\\ Island\\ at\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ film\\ still\\,\\ 1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2things\\ had\\ 2happen\\ 2make\\ vaudeville\\ a\\ great\\ middle\\ class\\ phenomenon\\ o\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;electricity\\.\\ \\ \\;Vaudevill\\ depended\\ on\\ electricity\\,\\ which\\ had\\ already\\ changed\\ way\\ urban\\ life\\ was\\ understood\\ in\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;Urban\\ night\\ was\\ previously\\ avoided\\ at\\ all\\ costs\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;respectful\\&rdquo\\;\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ walking\\ unescorted\\ were\\ assumed\\ 2b\\ prostitutes\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ assumed\\ 2b\\ looking\\ for\\ prostitutes\\,\\ or\\ gamblers\\.\\ \\ \\;Electricity\\ made\\ night\\ accessible\\ 2middle\\ classes\\,\\ opened\\ night\\ as\\ public\\ space\\,\\ not\\ private\\ seedy\\ locale\\.\\ \\ \\;Considered\\ 2b\\ healthy\\ alternative\\ 2domestic\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ hearth\\ 4urban\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;sanitation\\ o\\ mass\\ public\\ spectacle\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ 2cater\\ 2family\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;Morally\\ unobjectionable\\,\\ n\\ vaudeville\\ provides\\ that\\ kind\\ o\\ commentary\\.\\ \\ \\;Distinguished\\ from\\ burlesque\\ theater\\,\\ titillating\\ striptease\\ theater\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ actively\\ encouraged\\ 2attend\\ vaudeville\\ productions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eerett\\ Shinnn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Girl\\ in\\ Red\\ on\\ Stage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\ 1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shinn\\ pays\\ attn\\ 2what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ audience\\,\\ not\\ on\\ stage\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ in\\ audience\\ not\\ escorted\\ by\\ men\\?\\!\\?\\ \\ \\;Crazy\\ b4\\ 1890s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\signs\\ in\\ dressing\\ rooms\\ warned\\ actors\\ against\\ words\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;liar\\,\\ slob\\,\\ son\\ of\\ a\\ gun\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\&rsquo\\;s\\ women\\ n\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creation\\ o\\ mss\\ middle\\-class\\ public\\ nighttime\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shinn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Footlight\\ Flirtation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ \\=\\ short\\.\\ \\ \\;Assumed\\ short\\ attn\\ span\\.\\ \\ \\;Bald\\ displays\\ o\\ talent\\/oddity\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ given\\ night\\ had\\ musclemen\\,\\ acrobats\\,\\ comedians\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Always\\ in\\ these\\ acts\\ a\\ need\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\grab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ spectator\\,\\ 2get\\ immediate\\ response\\,\\ 2reassert\\ connection\\ bw\\ audience\\ n\\ performer\\ in\\ vaudeville\\ acts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ kinds\\ o\\ audience\\ participation\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ always\\ getting\\ up\\ in\\ middle\\ o\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Shinn\\ shows\\ woman\\ getting\\ up\\ 2walk\\ out\\ in\\ middle\\ o\\ performance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustrated\\ song\\ slide\\ for\\ song\\ dated\\ 1908\\ \\(lantern\\ slide\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notion\\ o\\ illustrated\\ song\\&hellip\\;whole\\ audience\\ did\\ sing\\ along\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ kinds\\ o\\ participation\\ n\\ direct\\ interaction\\ bw\\ viewer\\ n\\ performer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cinema\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;films\\ were\\ just\\ vaudeville\\ acts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Read\\ Gunning\\ carefully\\ about\\ how\\ connections\\ bw\\ vaudeville\\ n\\ cinema\\ involved\\ narrative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dickson\\ for\\ Edison\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Annabelle\\ Serpentine\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ film\\ still\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edison\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Maria\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ Edison\\ laboratory\\ in\\ West\\ Orange\\,\\ NJ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porter\\ for\\ Edison\\,\\ Trapeze\\ Disrobing\\ Act\\,\\ film\\ still\\,\\ 1901\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Porter\\ for\\ Edison\\,\\ Smashing\\ a\\ Jersey\\ Mosquito\\,\\ film\\ still\\,\\ 1902\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\:\\ \\ \\;URBAN\\ SPECTACLES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ RISE\\ OF\\ THE\\ MACHINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;EXILES\\ AND\\ COSMOPLITANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\:\\ \\ \\;ACTION\\ \\/\\ ABSTRACTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;CHANCE\\ OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;POP\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 23, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA172w_-_Class_Notes_1.doc", "desc": "Note set 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Ethical and Political Theory - Questions -", "tags": ["harvard", "ethical", "political", "theory"], "text": null, "id": 88, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\_Discussion\\_Questions\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c36\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c32\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c30\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c11\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c31\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c35\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c37\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c38\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c21\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c10\\{color\\:\\#008080\\}\\.c34\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Ethical\\ and\\ Political\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DISCUSSION\\ QUESTIONS\\ \\&\\;\\ SECTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ genre\\,\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ text\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ In\\ your\\ opinion\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ possible\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ presenting\\ philosophical\\ positions\\ in\\ this\\ manner\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Dialogue\\.\\ Conversational\\,\\ simple\\ language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;easier\\ to\\ relate\\ to\\ everyday\\ life\\ and\\ every\\ type\\ or\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ are\\ the\\ themes\\ of\\ ethics\\ and\\ politics\\ related\\ in\\ the\\ text\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ central\\ concepts\\ used\\ to\\ articulate\\ these\\ themes\\?\\ Are\\ ethics\\ and\\ politics\\ the\\ overriding\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ are\\ there\\ other\\ themes\\ that\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Politics\\ linked\\ directly\\ with\\ ethics\\.\\ Virtue\\ \\>\\;\\ punishment\\ and\\ regulations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ \\"\\;Filial\\ son\\ and\\ good\\ brother\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ government\\ \\(2\\.21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ If\\ everyone\\ were\\ following\\ rituals\\,\\ natural\\ order\\ would\\ fall\\ into\\ place\\ without\\ need\\ of\\ a\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ 2\\.3\\ \\-\\-\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ leader\\ \\(not\\ necessarily\\ government\\)\\ to\\ guide\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ 8\\.9\\,\\ 11\\.26\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ need\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ a\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ ritual\\ \\(li\\)\\ and\\ goodness\\ \\(ren\\)\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ ritual\\ and\\ the\\ ordering\\ of\\ the\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relevant\\ passages\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\:\\ 3\\.3\\ \\(supports\\ rituals\\ including\\ music\\)\\,\\ 3\\.4\\ \\(better\\ to\\ be\\ spare\\)\\,\\ 3\\.15\\,\\ 3\\.19\\ \\(lord\\ should\\ employ\\ ministers\\ with\\ ritual\\)\\.\\ 12\\.1\\,\\ 14\\.41\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goodness\\:\\ 1\\.3\\ \\(clever\\ tongue\\ and\\ fine\\ appearance\\ \\=\\ goodness\\)\\,\\ 3\\.3\\,\\ 4\\.1\\,\\ 4\\.3\\ \\(truly\\ able\\ to\\ love\\/despise\\ others\\;\\ sense\\ of\\ understanding\\/distinction\\ between\\ opposites\\)\\,\\ 4\\.5\\ \\(achievement\\ \\&\\;\\ failure\\ the\\ same\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ manner\\)\\,\\ 4\\.6\\ \\(there\\ is\\ NO\\ ONE\\ completely\\ devoted\\ to\\ goodness\\/completely\\ good\\)\\,\\ 8\\.7\\ \\(struggles\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\)\\,\\ 12\\.1\\,\\ 12\\.22\\ \\(altruistic\\)\\,\\ 13\\.19\\,\\ 17\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Through\\ practicing\\ daily\\ ritual\\ one\\ will\\ develop\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ places\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Way\\ of\\ Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ have\\ in\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ Confucius\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ Confucius\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ do\\ all\\ people\\ have\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ become\\ good\\?\\ In\\ chapter\\ 5\\.10\\,\\ Confucius\\ states\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rotten\\ wood\\ cannot\\ be\\ carved\\ and\\ a\\ wall\\ of\\ dung\\ cannot\\ be\\ plastered\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Is\\ goodness\\ only\\ for\\ aristocrats\\?\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ think\\ through\\ these\\ issues\\,\\ you\\ may\\ find\\ it\\ helpful\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ key\\ terms\\ used\\ by\\ Confucius\\ when\\ speaking\\ about\\ how\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inherent\\ substance\\ can\\ be\\ transformed\\ by\\ ethical\\ self\\-cultivation\\.\\ These\\ include\\ the\\ terms\\ \\&ldquo\\;nature\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(xing\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;native\\ substance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(zhi\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ refinement\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(wen\\)\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ relations\\ between\\ these\\ three\\ terms\\?\\ Some\\ relevant\\ passages\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ consideration\\:\\ 6\\.18\\,\\ 12\\.8\\,\\ 15\\.18\\,\\ 15\\.38\\,\\ 17\\.2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ If\\ we\\ always\\ dwell\\ among\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ good\\,\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ help\\ others\\?\\ \\(p\\.\\ 10\\;\\ 4\\.1\\)\\;\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ receive\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ transmit\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ stay\\ with\\ good\\ to\\ receive\\,\\ but\\ then\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ know\\ when\\ you\\ can\\ start\\ transmitting\\?\\ Isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ claiming\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ good\\ enough\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ being\\ not\\ good\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ goodness\\ and\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\ \\-\\ Discussion\\ Questions\\ \\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;How\\ is\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ \\"\\;impartiality\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;impartial\\ caring\\"\\;\\ \\(jian\\&\\#39\\;ai\\)\\similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;\\ notion\\ of\\ Goodness\\ \\(ren\\)\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ the\\ two\\ concepts\\differ\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ advocates\\ \\"\\;impartiality\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ treating\\ everyone\\ equally\\,\\ not\\ applying\\ any\\ \\form\\ of\\ favoritism\\,\\ even\\ to\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ family\\.\\ His\\ reasoning\\ behind\\ this\\ is\\rationally\\ calculated\\ \\?\\ if\\ you\\ treat\\ another\\ person\\&\\#39\\;s\\ parents\\ well\\ out\\ of\\impartiality\\,\\ then\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ they\\ will\\ treat\\ your\\ own\\ parent\\&\\#39\\;s\\ well\\.\\ His\\ notion\\ \\of\\ impartial\\ caring\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ Goodness\\ in\\ that\\ both\\ideas\\ encourage\\ benevolence\\ \\(treating\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ treated\\yourself\\.\\)\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ Confucius\\ emphasizes\\ throughout\\ The\\ Analects\\ \\\\"\\;filial\\ piety\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;respect\\ for\\ elders\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ encouragement\\ of\\equal\\ treatment\\ to\\ everyone\\.\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ state\\/society\\ for\\ Mozi\\,\\ and\\ how\\ did\\ society\\ come\\ \\into\\ being\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ valuable\\ in\\ society\\ determined\\?\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ what\\ ways\\ is\\ \\this\\ process\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Analects\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ For\\ Mozi\\,\\ the\\ state\\ should\\ implement\\ a\\ reward\\/punishment\\ system\\ \\(laws\\)\\.\\ He\\believes\\ this\\ creates\\ order\\ and\\ promotes\\ good\\ behavior\\ and\\ prevents\\ bad\\behavior\\.\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ benevolent\\ person\\ should\\ rule\\ the\\ state\\ \\and\\ determine\\ societal\\ standards\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\.\\ \\(He\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ what\\created\\ order\\ in\\ ancient\\ times\\.\\)\\ These\\ standards\\ are\\ decided\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\a\\ rational\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ criteria\\ Mozi\\ uses\\ to\\ determine\\ \\whether\\ or\\ not\\ something\\ is\\ good\\ are\\:\\ if\\ it\\ increases\\ the\\ population\\,\\ if\\ it\\brings\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ government\\,\\ if\\ it\\ helps\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Both\\ Confucius\\ and\\Mozi\\ agree\\ that\\ the\\ state\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ruler\\ is\\ obligated\\ to\\ lead\\ his\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\,\\ \\but\\ they\\ disagree\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Confucius\\ opposes\\ a\\ clear\\-cut\\ legal\\ system\\to\\ influence\\ morality\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ laws\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ cause\\ someone\\ to\\internalize\\ morality\\,\\ but\\ Mozi\\ does\\ believe\\ in\\ laws\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ rationally\\ \\determine\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ good\\ and\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bad\\.\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ rituals\\?\\ How\\ do\\ rituals\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ spirits\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ self\\-cultivation\\ through\\ ritual\\ is\\ useless\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\developing\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ \\(which\\ is\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ Confucius\\.\\)\\ Instead\\ he\\ \\advocates\\ a\\ rational\\ calculus\\ of\\ benefits\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ you\\ cannot\\ build\\a\\ political\\ order\\ out\\ of\\ practicing\\ rituals\\.\\ However\\,\\ Mozi\\ argues\\ for\\ the\\practice\\ of\\ rituals\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ spirits\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ performing\\ \\these\\ rituals\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ effect\\ on\\ people\\ \\?\\ if\\ people\\ perform\\ sacrificial\\offerings\\ for\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\ and\\ maintain\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ them\\ then\\,\\ Mozi\\argues\\,\\ this\\ will\\ bring\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ by\\ scaring\\ people\\ into\\ being\\ \\punished\\ for\\ being\\ bad\\ \\(by\\ the\\ spirits\\)\\.\\ But\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ other\\ rituals\\,\\such\\ as\\ music\\ listening\\ and\\ lavish\\ funerals\\/prolonged\\ mourning\\ are\\ wasteful\\rituals\\ with\\ no\\ utilitarian\\ benefit\\.\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Mozi\\ devotes\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ effort\\ to\\ the\\ analysis\\ and\\ explication\\ of\\ \\historical\\ texts\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ in\\ the\\ Mozi\\,\\ and\\ what\\is\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ bases\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ arguments\\ on\\ historical\\ examples\\ and\\ past\\ figures\\.\\ He\\ \\uses\\ history\\ to\\ justify\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ implement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ such\\ as\\ impartiality\\ and\\the\\ rejection\\ of\\ lavish\\ funerals\\ and\\ prolonged\\ mourning\\ periods\\.\\ For\\ Mozi\\,\\ the\\past\\ informs\\ the\\ present\\ because\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\ was\\ \\the\\ right\\ way\\.\\ It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ be\\ manipulating\\history\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ support\\ and\\ fit\\ in\\ with\\ his\\ philosophy\\.\\ \\(He\\ presents\\ certain\\events\\ as\\ historical\\ facts\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ actually\\ happened\\.\\)\\ \\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Scholarship\\ on\\ early\\ Chinese\\ thought\\ often\\ credits\\ the\\ followers\\ of\\ Mozi\\ with\\the\\ development\\ of\\ systematic\\ logic\\ and\\ science\\.\\ How\\ would\\ Mozi\\ understand\\ what\\is\\,\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\,\\ termed\\ \\"\\;logic\\"\\;\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ \\which\\ the\\ followers\\ of\\ Mozi\\ identify\\ problems\\ and\\ attempt\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\solutions\\?\\ Pay\\ particular\\ attention\\ to\\ chapter\\ 35\\.\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Again\\,\\ Mozi\\ uses\\ a\\ rational\\,\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\ solutions\\ to\\problems\\.\\ He\\ simply\\ weighs\\ out\\ how\\ beneficial\\ something\\ is\\,\\ and\\ is\\ more\\ \\\\"\\;logical\\"\\;\\ while\\ Confucius\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ more\\ emotional\\.\\ He\\ also\\ explains\\ in\\detail\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ assess\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ and\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bad\\ by\\ using\\ the\\ 3\\ gauges\\:\\precedence\\ \\(from\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\)\\,\\ evidence\\ \\(if\\ people\\ have\\ heard\\/seen\\ it\\ be\\ \\done\\)\\,\\ and\\ application\\ \\(implement\\ it\\ as\\ state\\ policy\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ it\\ is\\beneficial\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\ Section\\ Questions\\:\\1\\.\\ Mencius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ human\\ nature\\-\\-seeds\\ that\\ represent\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\,\\ but\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ nurtured\\ by\\ good\\ environment\\.\\ knows\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ because\\ of\\ past\\ sage\\ kings\\.\\ differs\\ from\\ confucius\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ the\\ people\\ around\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ doing\\ good\\ \\(ie\\ practicing\\ rituals\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ emphasis\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ you\\ practicing\\ rituals\\ to\\ be\\ good\\.\\ Mozi\\ has\\ the\\ completely\\ opposite\\ view\\-\\-human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\ and\\ need\\ laws\\ with\\ set\\ punishment\\ and\\ reward\\ system\\ to\\ keep\\ order\\.\\ \\\\2\\.\\ the\\ government\\ \\(ie\\ ruler\\)\\ sets\\ the\\ example\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ helps\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ good\\ environment\\ for\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;seeds\\"\\;\\ to\\ be\\ nurtured\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ does\\ Mencius\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ critiques\\ leveled\\ by\\ Mozi\\ against\\ Confucius\\?\\ Why\\ does\\ he\\ become\\ more\\ specific\\ in\\ his\\ directives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Straight\\ from\\ the\\ book\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 117\\)\\:\\ \\"\\;Mengzi\\ uses\\ his\\ particular\\ conception\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ both\\ Mohism\\ and\\ Yangism\\.\\ \\;\\ As\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\,\\ Mengzi\\ agrees\\ with\\ the\\ Yangists\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ a\\ nature\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ follow\\,\\ but\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Yangists\\ have\\ supplied\\ an\\ impoverished\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ contents\\ of\\ that\\ nature\\.\\ \\;\\ Against\\ the\\ Mohists\\,\\ Mengzi\\ argues\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ order\\ of\\ development\\ of\\ human\\ compassion\\,\\ and\\ that\\,\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ psychological\\ fact\\,\\ humans\\ must\\ learn\\ to\\ love\\ members\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ family\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ learn\\ to\\ love\\ strangers\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;7A15\\,\\ 7A45\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Some\\ Mohists\\ in\\ Mengzi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ era\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ conceded\\ this\\ point\\,\\ but\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ compassion\\ cultivated\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ should\\ be\\ extended\\ outward\\ to\\ love\\ everyone\\ equally\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ Mengzi\\ claims\\ that\\,\\ given\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ our\\ compassion\\ develops\\ out\\ of\\ love\\ of\\ kin\\,\\ any\\ effort\\ to\\ love\\ everyone\\ equally\\ violates\\ our\\ naturally\\ greater\\ compassion\\ for\\ family\\ members\\.\\ \\;\\ Finally\\,\\ Mengzi\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ base\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\li\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;benefit\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;profit\\,\\"\\;\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ profit\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ kingdom\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ will\\ be\\ self\\-defeating\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1A1\\)\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Basically\\,\\ Mencius\\ uses\\ his\\ personal\\ view\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ Mohists\\:\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ the\\ innate\\ ability\\ to\\ be\\ good\\/righteous\\/benevolent\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ volition\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ seek\\ for\\ within\\ themselves\\,\\ within\\ their\\ hearts\\,\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ obtained\\ from\\ doctrines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;4\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ continuities\\ and\\ discontinuities\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ between\\ the\\ ideas\\ articulated\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ those\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ On\\ what\\ points\\ did\\ Mencius\\ build\\ on\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;\\ paradigm\\,\\ where\\ did\\ he\\ depart\\ from\\ it\\,\\ and\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Mengzi\\ was\\ a\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ Confucian\\ thinker\\,\\ and\\ above\\ all\\,\\ he\\ championed\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ central\\ idea\\ of\\ individual\\ cultivation\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ philosophical\\ underpinning\\ gives\\ his\\ rhetoric\\ a\\ numinous\\ and\\ majestic\\ form\\,\\ as\\ he\\ frequently\\ draws\\ on\\ ambiguous\\ metaphorical\\ language\\ and\\ makes\\ romantic\\ claims\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ heart\\ of\\ compassion\\ is\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ benevolence\\"\\;\\ \\(130\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Above\\ all\\,\\ Mengzi\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ ideal\\ pervasion\\ of\\ \\"\\;benevolence\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;righteousness\\"\\;\\ into\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ advises\\ King\\ Hui\\,\\ \\"\\;Let\\ Your\\ Majesty\\ say\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;Benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\,\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ all\\,\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ the\\ principal\\ importance\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ abstract\\ dispositions\\ \\(118\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ the\\ implications\\ of\\ his\\ rhetorical\\ campaign\\ for\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ are\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ creating\\ a\\ political\\ society\\ where\\ people\\ are\\ nice\\ and\\ just\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\;\\ More\\ so\\ than\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Mengzi\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ order\\,\\ unity\\,\\ and\\ livelihood\\ of\\ the\\ population\\&mdash\\;similar\\ to\\ Mozi\\,\\ though\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ foundational\\ focus\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ discusses\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ not\\ as\\ arbitrary\\ lofty\\ ideals\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ preconditions\\ a\\ pragmatic\\ vision\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ explains\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\ that\\ a\\ political\\ precondition\\ of\\ benevolence\\ would\\ increase\\ the\\ wealth\\ and\\ livelihood\\ of\\ his\\ state\\ by\\ causing\\ \\"\\;all\\ under\\ Heaven\\ who\\ serve\\ others\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ their\\ place\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ court\\,\\ those\\ who\\ plough\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ plough\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fields\\,\\ merchants\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ place\\ their\\ goods\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ markets\\"\\;\\ \\(122\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Whereas\\ Mengzi\\ criticizes\\ King\\ Hui\\&\\#39\\;s\\ concern\\ for\\ profiting\\ his\\ state\\ \\(117\\-118\\)\\,\\ his\\ criticism\\ is\\ merely\\ a\\ superficial\\ rhetorical\\ device\\ aimed\\ at\\ romanticizing\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\.\\ \\;\\ As\\ his\\ counsel\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\ demonstrates\\,\\ Mengzi\\ in\\ reality\\ is\\ wholly\\ concerned\\ with\\ profiting\\ his\\ society\\,\\ with\\ meeting\\ the\\ pragmatic\\ needs\\ of\\ his\\ people\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ also\\ rhetorically\\ romanticizes\\ emotional\\ considerations\\ with\\ his\\ description\\ of\\ and\\ advocacy\\ for\\ a\\ \\"\\;heart\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ unfeeling\\ toward\\ others\\,\\"\\;\\ but\\ his\\ interest\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ itself\\ but\\ rather\\ lies\\ in\\ its\\ ability\\ of\\ \\"\\;bringing\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\"\\;\\ \\(129\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Similar\\ to\\ his\\ advice\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\,\\ this\\ excerpt\\ shows\\ a\\ more\\ evident\\ concern\\ for\\ pragmatic\\ issues\\ than\\ is\\ visible\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ despite\\ his\\ pragmatic\\ concerns\\,\\ Mengzi\\ does\\ not\\ sacrifice\\ the\\ Confucian\\ ideals\\ of\\ righteousness\\ and\\ benevolence\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ view\\ of\\ goodness\\&mdash\\;more\\ specifically\\,\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\&mdash\\;as\\ the\\ precondition\\ for\\ ideal\\ political\\ society\\ combined\\ with\\ his\\ belief\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ capable\\ of\\ this\\ goodness\\ fashions\\ his\\ perspective\\ on\\ suitable\\ governance\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ establishing\\ the\\ ideal\\ political\\ society\\ is\\ an\\ organic\\ form\\ of\\ governance\\ based\\ on\\ bringing\\ all\\ within\\ society\\ under\\ a\\ truly\\ benevolent\\ and\\ righteous\\ ruler\\.\\ \\;\\ But\\ despite\\ his\\ pragmatic\\ concerns\\,\\ for\\ Mengzi\\,\\ a\\ truly\\ benevolent\\ and\\ righteous\\ ruler\\ will\\ never\\ sacrifice\\ these\\ ideals\\,\\ as\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ \\"\\;if\\ any\\ could\\ obtain\\ all\\ under\\ Heaven\\ by\\ performing\\ one\\ unrighteous\\ deed\\,\\ or\\ killing\\ one\\ innocent\\ person\\,\\ he\\ would\\ not\\ do\\ it\\"\\;\\ \\(129\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ declares\\,\\ \\"\\;Life\\ is\\ something\\ I\\ desire\\;\\ righteousness\\ is\\ also\\ something\\ I\\ desire\\&hellip\\;\\[but\\]\\ If\\ I\\ cannot\\ have\\ both\\,\\ I\\ will\\ forsake\\ life\\ and\\ select\\ righteousness\\,\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ the\\ paramount\\ importance\\ of\\ forms\\ of\\ goodness\\ in\\ Mengzi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ \\(150\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ For\\ Mengzi\\,\\ because\\ goodness\\ is\\ the\\ essential\\ precondition\\,\\ suitable\\ governance\\ requires\\ unadulterated\\ upholding\\ of\\ goodness\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ leaders\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Laozi\\,\\ how\\ would\\ a\\ proper\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ inform\\ human\\ actions\\?\\ Or\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ for\\ one\\ who\\ understood\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ how\\ would\\ s\\/he\\ act\\ and\\ what\\ might\\ s\\/he\\ achieve\\ accordingly\\?\\ What\\ does\\ the\\ author\\ mean\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;non\\-action\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Words\\ cannot\\ describe\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ but\\ Laozi\\ tries\\ nonetheless\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ confused\\ in\\ that\\ polar\\ opposites\\ grow\\ from\\ it\\,\\ seemingly\\ contradictory\\ but\\ really\\ not\\.\\ Grass\\ grows\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ and\\ returns\\ to\\ it\\.\\ Everything\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ A\\ proper\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ would\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ related\\ and\\ inter\\-connected\\.\\ We\\ should\\ behave\\ accordingly\\ by\\ taking\\ into\\ account\\ everything\\ we\\ do\\ effects\\ everything\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ political\\ vision\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ would\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daoist\\&rdquo\\;\\ government\\ be\\ like\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ few\\ laws\\.\\ See\\ Chapter\\ 80\\;\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ simplicity\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ over\\-extend\\ yourself\\,\\ non\\-progressive\\-\\-goes\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ constancy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ are\\ civilization\\ \\(or\\ human\\ artifice\\)\\ and\\ nature\\ \\(ziran\\)\\ viewed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ history\\ for\\ humankind\\?\\ How\\ are\\ these\\ ideas\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ in\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\ have\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Civilization\\ is\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ nature\\;\\ it\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ progression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ statement\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ great\\ Way\\ is\\ abandoned\\,\\ there\\are\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ \\/\\ When\\ wisdom\\ and\\ intelligence\\ come\\ forth\\,\\there\\ is\\ great\\ hypocrisy\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\ \\;\\(18\\)\\ How\\ is\\ this\\ an\\ explicit\\ critique\\ of\\ the\\ Confucian\\ position\\?\\ How\\ can\\ the\\ abandonment\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ termed\\ \\&rdquo\\;virtue\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ other\\ contexts\\ be\\ construed\\ as\\ beneficial\\ \\(19\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ would\\ you\\ begin\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rhetoric\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;especially\\ considering\\ the\\ rhetorical\\ structures\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ employed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mozi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ poignantly\\ expressing\\ the\\ superficial\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ conventional\\ \\(as\\ expressed\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 11\\)\\,\\ what\\ do\\ the\\ rhetorical\\ devices\\ specific\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;accomplish\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Daodejing\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ seemingly\\ unrelated\\,\\ short\\,\\ poetic\\ chapters\\.\\ They\\ are\\ highly\\ contradictory\\.\\ This\\ goes\\ against\\ the\\ conventional\\ essay\\-like\\,\\ cause\\-effect\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ Mozi\\ and\\ Mengzi\\.\\ This\\,\\ however\\,\\ amplifies\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ Daodejing\\,\\ using\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\.\\ It\\ is\\ disparate\\,\\ paradoxical\\,\\ but\\ all\\ interrelated\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ coherent\\,\\ but\\ non\\-prescriptive\\,\\ argument\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ femininity\\ portrayed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ gender\\ here\\ differ\\ from\\ the\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Femininity\\ is\\ portrayed\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ light\\.\\ Characteristics\\ associated\\ with\\ womanhood\\ are\\ lauded\\.\\ Suppleness\\ and\\ \\ \\;flexibility\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ young\\ sapling\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ snap\\ in\\ during\\ the\\ storm\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ myriad\\ things\\.\\ Calmness\\ is\\ a\\ beneficial\\ characteristic\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ negotiation\\ and\\ martial\\ arts\\.\\ No\\ other\\ texts\\,\\ until\\ discussions\\ of\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\,\\ really\\ address\\ gender\\ issues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kongzi\\ and\\ Mengzi\\ used\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\ as\\ their\\ exemplars\\ of\\ sagehood\\.\\ Who\\ does\\ Zhuangzi\\ hold\\ up\\ as\\ paradigms\\ for\\ proper\\ living\\?\\ Why\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ these\\ figures\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ butcher\\ is\\ the\\ clearest\\ example\\ of\\ someone\\ Zhuangzi\\ holds\\ up\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ sagehood\\.\\ He\\ probably\\ chose\\ a\\ slightly\\ shocking\\ profession\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ spontaneity\\ in\\ whatever\\ it\\ is\\ we\\ do\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ model\\ ourselves\\ after\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ fight\\ the\\ Way\\ but\\ rather\\ work\\ with\\ it\\:\\ not\\ fearing\\ death\\,\\ not\\ forcing\\ distinctions\\,\\ and\\ simply\\ reveling\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ pattern\\ of\\ things\\.\\ He\\ is\\ especially\\ scornful\\ of\\ mourning\\,\\ which\\ he\\ sees\\ as\\ pointless\\ and\\ unnecessarily\\ restricting\\.\\ In\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worldview\\,\\ death\\ and\\ birth\\ are\\ equally\\ glorious\\;\\ we\\ should\\ not\\ mourn\\ one\\ while\\ celebrating\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ Zhuangzi\\ and\\ Laozi\\ will\\ later\\ be\\ classified\\ together\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daoist\\&rdquo\\;\\ thinkers\\,\\ one\\ can\\ observe\\ significant\\ differences\\ in\\ their\\ respective\\ philosophies\\.\\ Broadly\\ speaking\\,\\ what\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;following\\ the\\ Dao\\&rdquo\\;\\ entail\\ in\\ the\\ two\\ texts\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ similarities\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ philosophers\\,\\ and\\ where\\ are\\ they\\ different\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\See\\ end\\ of\\ Lecture\\ 2\\ notes\\.\\ Besides\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ chart\\,\\ Laozi\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ completely\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ says\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ always\\ inside\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ but\\ may\\ not\\ realize\\ it\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\ does\\ not\\ discuss\\ \\&ldquo\\;winning\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ all\\,\\ while\\ Laozi\\ places\\ quite\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ emphasis\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ beat\\ your\\ opponent\\ \\(going\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ strategic\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ Daodejing\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ Zhuangzian\\ ethics\\ absolutely\\ relativistic\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ are\\ all\\ moral\\ values\\ and\\ positions\\ equally\\ valid\\&mdash\\;thereby\\ making\\ moral\\ judgment\\ impossible\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ on\\ what\\ foundation\\ does\\ he\\ make\\ moral\\ judgment\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ language\\ play\\ in\\ moral\\ judgment\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethics\\ are\\ not\\ relativistic\\.\\ His\\ moral\\ system\\ is\\ based\\ not\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;goodness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;harmony\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ his\\ analogue\\ to\\ virtue\\.\\ So\\,\\ in\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ system\\,\\ views\\ that\\ accord\\ with\\ the\\ natural\\ patterns\\ in\\ nature\\ are\\ better\\.\\ With\\ regard\\ to\\ language\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ writes\\ that\\ words\\ are\\ for\\ the\\ meaning\\:\\ once\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ meaning\\,\\ we\\ can\\ forget\\ the\\ words\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ language\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ help\\ grasp\\ moral\\ judgments\\,\\ but\\ should\\ not\\ play\\ a\\ direct\\ role\\ in\\ actually\\ forming\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;wandering\\ at\\ ease\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(or\\ simply\\ \\&ldquo\\;wandering\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ a\\ central\\ motif\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\?\\ Besides\\ looking\\ for\\ specific\\ usages\\ of\\ the\\ term\\,\\ how\\ does\\ the\\ imagery\\ Zhuangzi\\ employs\\ also\\ relate\\ to\\ this\\ motif\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ uses\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ wordplay\\ and\\ strange\\ stories\\ in\\ his\\ writing\\.\\ This\\ sort\\ of\\ imagination\\ demonstrates\\ spontaneity\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ No\\ matter\\ how\\ hard\\ you\\ try\\ to\\ understand\\ life\\,\\ you\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\,\\ and\\ the\\ made\\-up\\ terms\\ and\\ names\\ are\\ an\\ illustration\\ of\\ this\\ idea\\,\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ mental\\ wandering\\.\\ Wandering\\ by\\ definition\\ means\\ you\\ have\\ no\\ set\\ destination\\,\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ the\\ Zhuangzian\\ idea\\ of\\ not\\ knowing\\ the\\ meaning\\ on\\ life\\ and\\ not\\ trying\\ too\\ hard\\ to\\ find\\ it\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ just\\ follow\\ life\\ where\\ it\\ takes\\ you\\,\\ and\\ by\\ following\\ these\\ natural\\ patterns\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ discovered\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ specific\\ guidelines\\ for\\ inner\\ cultivation\\ are\\ provided\\ in\\ the\\ text\\?\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ what\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ them\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ successful\\ inner\\ cultivation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ cast\\ off\\ sorrow\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ joy\\,\\ anger\\,\\ desire\\,\\ profit\\ seeking\\.\\/\\ Your\\ mind\\ will\\ just\\ revert\\ to\\ equanimity\\.\\/The\\ true\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\(III\\.6\\-8\\.pp50\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cultivate\\ your\\ mind\\,\\ make\\ your\\ thoughts\\ tranquil\\/\\ And\\ the\\ Way\\ can\\ thereby\\ be\\ attained\\&rdquo\\;\\(V\\.13\\-14\\ pp54\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Reverently\\ be\\ aware\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Way\\]\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ waver\\,\\/\\ And\\ you\\ will\\ daily\\ renew\\ your\\ inner\\ power\\,\\/\\ Thoroughly\\ understand\\ all\\ under\\ the\\ heavens\\,\\&hellip\\;\\/To\\ reverently\\ bring\\ forth\\ the\\ effulgence\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Way\\]\\:\\/\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;inward\\ attainment\\&rdquo\\;\\(XVI\\.9\\-13\\.pp76\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ is\\ this\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ it\\ relate\\ to\\ this\\ particular\\ practice\\ of\\ inner\\ cultivation\\?\\ \\&hellip\\;How\\ does\\ this\\ help\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\?\\ Does\\ the\\ successful\\ cultivation\\ of\\ one\\ naturally\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ successful\\ cultivation\\ of\\ the\\ other\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ distant\\ from\\ us\\;\\/\\ When\\ people\\ attain\\ it\\ they\\ are\\ sustained\\/\\ That\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ separated\\ from\\ us\\;\\/\\ When\\ people\\ accord\\ with\\ it\\ they\\ are\\ harmonious\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(V\\.5\\-6\\.pp54\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ answer\\ resides\\ in\\ the\\ calmness\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\/\\ When\\ your\\ mind\\ is\\ well\\ ordered\\,\\ your\\ senses\\ are\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\(XIV\\.\\ 9\\-10\\.pp72\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;As\\ for\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\:\\/\\ The\\ heavens\\ bring\\ forth\\ their\\ vital\\ essence\\,\\/\\ The\\ earth\\ brings\\ forth\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\/\\ These\\ two\\ combine\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ person\\.\\/\\ When\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ harmony\\ there\\ is\\ vitality\\&hellip\\;\\/Just\\ let\\ a\\ balanced\\ and\\ aligned\\ \\[breathing\\]\\ fill\\ your\\ chest\\/\\ And\\ it\\ will\\ swirl\\ and\\ blend\\ within\\ your\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\(XXI\\.\\ 1\\-5\\,\\ 10\\-11\\,\\ pp86\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ your\\ body\\ is\\ not\\ aligned\\,\\ \\/\\ The\\ inner\\ power\\ will\\ not\\ come\\.\\/\\ When\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ tranquil\\ within\\,\\/\\ Your\\ mind\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ well\\ ordered\\.\\/\\ Align\\ your\\ body\\,\\ assist\\ the\\ inner\\ power\\,\\/Then\\ it\\ will\\ gradually\\ come\\ on\\ its\\ own\\&rdquo\\;\\(XI\\.\\ 1\\-6\\,\\ pp66\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ Daodejing\\ and\\/or\\ Zhuangzi\\?\\ In\\ this\\ text\\,\\ what\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ One\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\?\\ Why\\ will\\ this\\ enable\\ one\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ master\\ for\\ the\\ myriad\\ things\\?\\ Relatedly\\,\\ what\\ does\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;numious\\&rdquo\\;\\ mean\\ in\\ this\\ text\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ vital\\ essence\\ of\\ all\\ things\\:\\/\\ It\\ is\\ that\\ brings\\ them\\ to\\ life\\.\\/\\ It\\ generates\\ the\\ five\\ grains\\ below\\/\\ And\\ becomes\\ the\\ constellated\\ stars\\ above\\.\\/\\ When\\ flowing\\ amid\\ the\\ heavens\\ and\\ the\\ earth\\/\\ We\\ call\\ it\\ ghostly\\ and\\ numious\\.\\/\\ When\\ stored\\ within\\ the\\ chests\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\/\\ We\\ call\\ them\\ sages\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(I\\.1\\-8\\.pp\\ 46\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ numinous\\ \\[mind\\]\\ naturally\\ residing\\ within\\;\\/\\ One\\ moment\\ it\\ goes\\,\\ the\\ next\\ it\\ comes\\,\\/\\ And\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ conceive\\ of\\ it\\.\\/\\ If\\ you\\ lose\\ it\\ you\\ are\\ inevitably\\ disordered\\;\\/\\ If\\ you\\ attain\\ it\\ you\\ are\\ inevitably\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\(XIII\\.1\\-5\\.pp70\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Do\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ as\\ drastically\\ different\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ texts\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\?\\ Is\\ self\\-cultivation\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Neiye\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;divorced\\ from\\ social\\ engagement\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ cultivated\\ person\\ and\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;With\\ a\\ well\\-ordered\\ mind\\ within\\ you\\,\\/\\ Well\\-ordered\\ words\\ issue\\ forth\\ from\\ your\\ mouth\\,\\/\\ And\\ well\\-ordered\\ tasks\\ are\\ imposed\\ upon\\ others\\.\\/\\ Then\\ all\\ under\\ the\\ heavens\\ will\\ be\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(X\\.1\\-4\\.pp64\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ Eight\\:\\ Morality\\ as\\ Human\\ Artifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ \\(Hs\\ü\\;n\\ Tzu\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Readings\\ in\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 255\\-309\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ human\\ propriety\\ play\\ for\\ Xunzi\\?\\ Is\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ natural\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ external\\ or\\ internal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ritual\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ restraint\\ \\(Ivanhoe\\ and\\ Norden\\,\\ 256\\)\\.\\ Ritual\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\,\\ who\\ established\\ them\\ to\\ prevent\\ chaos\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ allot\\ things\\ to\\ people\\,\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ to\\ satisfy\\ their\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(274\\;\\ see\\ also\\ 300\\)\\.\\ The\\ three\\ roots\\ of\\ ritual\\ are\\ Heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ ancestors\\,\\ and\\ rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\ \\(275\\-276\\)\\.\\ Rituals\\ are\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ human\\ propriety\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rituals\\ are\\ the\\ great\\ divisions\\ in\\ the\\ proper\\ model\\ for\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(258\\)\\.\\ Distinctions\\ \\(such\\ as\\ not\\ just\\ having\\ a\\ father\\ and\\ son\\,\\ as\\ among\\ animals\\,\\ but\\ an\\ intimate\\ relationship\\ between\\ them\\)\\ are\\ what\\ make\\ us\\ human\\,\\ and\\ rituals\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ those\\ distinctions\\ \\(266\\)\\.\\ Social\\ divisions\\,\\ of\\ which\\ ritual\\ is\\ the\\ best\\,\\ separate\\ us\\ from\\ the\\ beasts\\,\\ and\\ standards\\ or\\ righteousness\\ must\\ applied\\ in\\ creating\\ those\\ divisions\\ \\(267\\)\\.\\ Ritual\\ makes\\ human\\ efforts\\ productive\\ and\\ effective\\ \\(262\\)\\ and\\ corrects\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ person\\ \\(264\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ criticizes\\ Mozi\\ for\\ rejecting\\ ritual\\ \\(264\\)\\ and\\ for\\ not\\ establishing\\ differences\\ \\(274\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ ritual\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ accomplish\\ its\\ intended\\ concrete\\ goal\\ \\(for\\ instance\\,\\ one\\ can\\ perform\\ the\\ rain\\ sacrifice\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ rain\\ \\[272\\]\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ gives\\ things\\ their\\ proper\\ form\\.\\ Ritual\\ provides\\ a\\ middle\\ way\\ to\\ check\\ the\\ excesses\\ of\\ emotional\\ responses\\ to\\ death\\ or\\ love\\ \\(280\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ criticizes\\ Mozi\\ for\\ advocating\\ a\\ short\\ mourning\\ period\\ \\(282\\)\\.\\ NB\\ the\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ filial\\ son\\ should\\ disobey\\ orders\\ and\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ \\(306\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;correcting\\ names\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(zhengming\\)\\ relate\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethical\\ and\\ political\\ thought\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correcting\\ names\\ is\\ pertinent\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emphasis\\ on\\ distinctions\\ and\\ propriety\\.\\ Xunzi\\ defines\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ terms\\ in\\ life\\ \\(262\\-263\\)\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ lead\\ others\\ along\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ is\\ called\\ \\&lsquo\\;teaching\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ prescribes\\ the\\ remedies\\ for\\ excesses\\ \\(263\\)\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ overly\\ deep\\ thinking\\,\\ simplify\\ it\\ with\\ easy\\ goodness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ These\\ remedies\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ nourish\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ He\\ puts\\ great\\ emphasis\\ on\\ social\\ distinctions\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ naming\\ of\\ those\\ distinctions\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ who\\ can\\ use\\ these\\ to\\ serve\\ his\\ parents\\ is\\ called\\ filial\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(268\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ stresses\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ not\\ seek\\ to\\ blur\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ mark\\ of\\ the\\ sage\\ not\\ to\\ seek\\ to\\ understand\\ Heaven\\ \\(270\\)\\.\\ In\\ his\\ discourse\\ on\\ Heaven\\,\\ he\\ includes\\ a\\ typical\\ series\\ of\\ definitions\\ \\(271\\)\\ to\\ advance\\ his\\ teachings\\.\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ divine\\ and\\ human\\ affairs\\ underlies\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ natural\\ omens\\ and\\ disasters\\ that\\ always\\ occur\\ \\(272\\)\\.\\ The\\ kings\\ set\\ names\\ for\\ things\\ and\\ thus\\ made\\ distinctions\\ \\(292\\-293\\)\\.\\ People\\ were\\ honest\\,\\ because\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ disorder\\ the\\ correct\\ names\\ \\(293\\)\\.\\ Now\\,\\ the\\ confusion\\ about\\ names\\ mirrors\\ the\\ confusion\\ about\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\ \\(293\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\?\\ In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ goodness\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\He\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ inherently\\ evil\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ humans\\ must\\ practice\\ ritual\\ \\(which\\ is\\ external\\ to\\ their\\ nature\\)\\ to\\ become\\ good\\.\\ People\\,\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ at\\ birth\\,\\ differentiate\\ themselves\\ through\\ learning\\ \\(257\\)\\.\\ Learning\\ begins\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ reciting\\ the\\ classics\\ and\\ studying\\ ritual\\ \\(258\\)\\.\\ One\\ must\\ find\\ the\\ right\\ teacher\\,\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;rituals\\ and\\ music\\ provide\\ proper\\ models\\ but\\ give\\ no\\ precepts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(259\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ teacher\\ can\\ correct\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\ of\\ ritual\\ \\(264\\)\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ Daoists\\,\\ Xunzi\\ sees\\ \\&ldquo\\;ritual\\ and\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\yi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ Heaven\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ it\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(267\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;deliberate\\ effort\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wuwei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;non\\-action\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Daoists\\)\\,\\ must\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ the\\ raw\\ material\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ unify\\ things\\.\\ Goodness\\ stems\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;deliberate\\ effort\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(298\\)\\,\\ which\\ comes\\ through\\ learning\\ and\\ working\\ \\(299\\)\\,\\ not\\ from\\ nature\\.\\ People\\ can\\ become\\ good\\ when\\ the\\ have\\ teachers\\ and\\ proper\\ models\\ \\(298\\-299\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ innate\\ human\\ disposition\\ to\\ like\\ benefit\\ and\\ desire\\ gain\\,\\ but\\ ritual\\ and\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ can\\ change\\ that\\ \\(301\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ explicitly\\ defines\\ himself\\ against\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ idea\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ good\\ \\(299\\-302\\)\\.\\ The\\ sage\\ who\\ created\\ ritual\\ and\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ potter\\ who\\ mixes\\ clay\\ and\\ produced\\ objects\\ \\(303\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anyone\\ on\\ the\\ streets\\ could\\ become\\ a\\ Yu\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(304\\)\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ anyone\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ sage\\ through\\ accumulation\\ of\\ learning\\ \\(305\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ metaphors\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ use\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ self\\-cultivation\\?\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ compare\\ to\\ those\\ used\\ by\\ Mencius\\ or\\ Confucius\\?\\ Who\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ adheres\\ more\\ closely\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ them\\ depart\\ from\\ his\\ teaching\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ process\\ of\\ learning\\ is\\ like\\ bending\\ and\\ steaming\\ wood\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ straight\\ \\(256\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ uses\\ the\\ metaphors\\ of\\ controlling\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ nourishing\\ the\\ heart\\ \\(263\\)\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ metaphors\\ of\\ craftsmanship\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ carpenter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ square\\ and\\ the\\ ink\\-line\\ \\(277\\)\\.\\ The\\ heart\\ must\\ achieve\\ emptiness\\,\\ single\\-mindedness\\,\\ and\\ stillness\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ Way\\ \\(288\\)\\.\\ The\\ human\\ heart\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ pan\\ of\\ water\\:\\ if\\ one\\ sets\\ it\\ straight\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ move\\ it\\,\\ the\\ dirty\\ parts\\ will\\ settle\\ to\\ the\\ bottom\\,\\ and\\ the\\ clear\\ parts\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ top\\ \\(290\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ heart\\ is\\ the\\ craftsman\\ and\\ overseer\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ the\\ warp\\ and\\ pattern\\ of\\ good\\ order\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(296\\)\\.\\ The\\ bad\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ like\\ blunt\\ metal\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ honed\\ and\\ grinded\\ \\(298\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORE\\ WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\ for\\ Week\\ 8\\,\\ Xunzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ play\\ for\\ Xunzi\\?\\ Is\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ natural\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ external\\ or\\ internal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\ propriety\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ order\\ people\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Humans\\ are\\ born\\ having\\ desires\\&hellip\\;the\\ former\\ kings\\ hated\\ such\\ chaos\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ established\\ rituals\\ and\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ allot\\ things\\ to\\ people\\,\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ desires\\ and\\ to\\ satisfy\\ their\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ rituals\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ roots\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ has\\ three\\ roots\\:\\ Heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ are\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ life\\.\\ Forefathers\\ and\\ ancestors\\ are\\ the\\ roots\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kind\\.\\ Rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\ are\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ order\\&hellip\\;Ritual\\ serves\\ Heaven\\ above\\ and\\ earth\\ below\\,\\ it\\ honors\\ forefathers\\ and\\ ancestors\\,\\ and\\ it\\ exalts\\ rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(275\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sage\\ Kings\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puett\\ said\\ in\\ lecture\\ that\\ people\\ need\\ to\\ observe\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ constantly\\ refine\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\ propriety\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ quality\\:\\ humans\\ require\\ a\\ teacher\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ Way\\&mdash\\;p\\.\\ 259\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ learning\\,\\ nothing\\ is\\ more\\ expedient\\ than\\ to\\ draw\\ near\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ person\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ correct\\ your\\ person\\.\\ The\\ teacher\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ correct\\ your\\ practice\\ of\\ ritual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ \\&lsquo\\;correcting\\ names\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(zhengming\\)\\ relate\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethical\\ and\\ political\\ thought\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Names\\ are\\ not\\ intrinsic\\ to\\ the\\ object\\ but\\ once\\ they\\ are\\ conventionally\\ agreed\\ upon\\,\\ to\\ change\\ them\\ is\\ wrong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ serve\\ to\\ communicate\\,\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;name\\ games\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ other\\ paradoxes\\ should\\ be\\ eliminated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creating\\ names\\ \\&ldquo\\;confuses\\ people\\ and\\ causes\\ them\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ much\\ disputation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(279\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sage\\ kings\\ made\\ names\\&mdash\\;292\\;\\ these\\ names\\ were\\ fixed\\ and\\ the\\ corresponding\\ objects\\ were\\ thus\\ distinguished\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ thing\\ Confucius\\ would\\ do\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ correct\\ names\\&mdash\\;see\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Son\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ son\\,\\ father\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ father\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acknowledges\\ that\\ standards\\ of\\ communication\\ are\\ arbitrary\\,\\ but\\ recognizes\\ that\\ there\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ order\\&mdash\\;so\\ even\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ defined\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ order\\ and\\ collectively\\ understand\\ that\\ order\\ is\\ necessary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ names\\ as\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ social\\ consensus\\;\\ Confucius\\ talks\\ about\\ names\\ that\\ are\\ handed\\ down\\ from\\ antiquity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ \\&ldquo\\;predetermined\\ appropriateness\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ he\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ dichotomies\\ \\(ugly\\ vs\\.\\ beautiful\\,\\ bad\\ vs\\.\\ good\\)\\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ even\\ talking\\ about\\ abstract\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\,\\ but\\ he\\ uses\\ words\\ to\\ differentiate\\ states\\;\\ goodness\\ and\\ badness\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ political\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\&mdash\\;not\\ so\\ much\\ judging\\ a\\ moral\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ using\\ word\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\?\\ In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ goodness\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bad\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;amorality\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ being\\ inherently\\ evil\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ naturally\\ desire\\ profit\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ other\\ materialistic\\ things\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Following\\ these\\ natural\\ desires\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;inborn\\ nature\\ and\\ dispositions\\&rdquo\\;\\ creates\\ disorder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ contradiction\\ to\\ Menzi\\,\\ who\\ says\\ that\\ learning\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ manifest\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ their\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ says\\ that\\ learning\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ your\\ basic\\ nature\\&mdash\\;there\\ is\\ division\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ deliberate\\ effort\\-299\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deliberate\\ effort\\ through\\ ritual\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ create\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\,\\ which\\ cultivates\\ goodness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ metaphors\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ use\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ self\\-cultivation\\?\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ compare\\ to\\ those\\ used\\ by\\ Mencius\\ or\\ Confucius\\?\\ Who\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ adheres\\ more\\ closely\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ them\\ depart\\ from\\ his\\ teachings\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deliberateness\\:\\ emphasizes\\ process\\ of\\ activity\\&mdash\\;the\\ potter\\,\\ the\\ carpenter\\ \\(277\\)\\,\\ other\\ craft\\ examples\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Student\\ and\\ teachers\\ are\\ both\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ their\\ roles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Menzi\\:\\ being\\ more\\ natural\\ about\\ cultivating\\ self\\;\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ emphasizes\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\:\\ Gentleman\\ identifies\\ rituals\\ and\\ internalizes\\ them\\;\\ every\\ little\\ movement\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ slight\\,\\ was\\ always\\ perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\P\\.\\ 259\\:\\ connects\\ to\\ analects\\;\\ distinguish\\ between\\ whether\\ learning\\ is\\ real\\ and\\ actions\\ follow\\ it\\ or\\ whether\\ learning\\ is\\ just\\ pointless\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ of\\ just\\ dialoguing\\,\\ your\\ learning\\ must\\ have\\ action\\ and\\ meaning\\&mdash\\;understand\\ what\\ stillness\\ and\\ emptiness\\ mean\\ through\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Major\\ metaphor\\:\\ crooked\\ wood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Crooked\\ wood\\ must\\ await\\ steaming\\ and\\ straightening\\ on\\ the\\ shaping\\ frame\\,\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ straight\\.\\ Blunt\\ metal\\ must\\ await\\ honing\\ and\\ grinding\\,\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ sharp\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\.\\ 299\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ teachers\\ to\\ shape\\ you\\ and\\ act\\ as\\ models\\ \\(299\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ ritual\\ to\\ enforce\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ vision\\ of\\ statecraft\\ put\\ forth\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Book\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ law\\ play\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ law\\ come\\ from\\,\\ and\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ it\\ based\\?\\ Does\\ ritual\\ have\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\101\\ prosperity\\ defined\\ as\\ war\\ and\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\103\\,\\ 104\\ create\\ single\\-mindedness\\,\\ build\\ uniformity\\ and\\ consolidation\\ \\(rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ give\\ uniformity\\ of\\ purpose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\96\\ force\\ the\\ lazy\\/idle\\ to\\ work\\ by\\ removing\\ others\\ \\(force\\ people\\ into\\ agriculture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ rituals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rites\\ as\\ 1\\ of\\ 10\\ evils\\ \\(108\\)\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ dissipations\\ \\(111\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\At\\ one\\ point\\ the\\ text\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Do\\ not\\ allow\\ merchants\\ to\\ buy\\ grain\\ nor\\ farmers\\ to\\ sell\\ grain\\.\\ If\\ farmers\\ may\\ not\\ sell\\ their\\ grain\\,\\ then\\ the\\ lazy\\ and\\ inactive\\ ones\\ will\\ exert\\ themselves\\ and\\ be\\ energetic\\;\\ and\\,\\ if\\ merchants\\ may\\ not\\ buy\\ grain\\,\\ then\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ particular\\ joy\\ over\\ abundant\\ years\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ a\\ society\\ without\\ \\&ldquo\\;buying\\ and\\ selling\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ what\\ occupation\\(s\\)\\ can\\ people\\ hold\\?\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ state\\ enforce\\ this\\ situation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ must\\ work\\ to\\ sustain\\ themselves\\ \\=\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;depend\\ on\\ others\\&\\#39\\;\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\agriculture\\ can\\ bring\\ waste\\ lands\\ under\\ cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ it\\ is\\ forbidden\\ to\\ sell\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ no\\ purpose\\ to\\ stealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\98\\ remove\\ music\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ concentrate\\ on\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\99\\ remove\\ patrons\\ for\\ criminals\\ \\(no\\ food\\,\\ no\\ petitions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ society\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ vision\\ discussed\\ in\\ question\\ one\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ role\\ does\\ morality\\ play\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\purpose\\ of\\ society\\ is\\ to\\ conquer\\ other\\ lands\\,\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\ prosperity\\ \\-\\ also\\ see\\ question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ role\\ for\\ morality\\ \\(also\\ see\\ lecture\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\111\\ governing\\ through\\ the\\ wicked\\ creates\\ order\\ and\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\,\\ the\\ past\\ has\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ reference\\ point\\ for\\ the\\ present\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ history\\ put\\ forth\\ in\\ this\\ text\\?\\ How\\ do\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ present\\?\\ How\\ is\\ this\\ both\\ similar\\ and\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\95\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ necessity\\ to\\ imitate\\ antiquity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duke\\ Hsiao\\:\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plans\\ should\\ be\\ directed\\ by\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\104\\ Odes\\ and\\ History\\ are\\ useless\\ in\\ the\\ practical\\ sense\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ kings\\ made\\ people\\ turn\\ back\\ to\\ war\\ and\\ agriculture\\ during\\ Tang\\ and\\ Wu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\emphasizes\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ change\\ strategies\\ for\\ governing\\ \\(Zhuangzian\\ flexibility\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\re\\-interprets\\ Laozian\\ paradoxes\\:\\ by\\ aiming\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ virtuous\\,\\ one\\ only\\ makes\\ criminals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rejects\\ importance\\ of\\ ritual\\ found\\ in\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ synthesize\\ and\\ critique\\ the\\ positions\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ earlier\\ figures\\ we\\ have\\ read\\?\\ \\ \\;One\\ obvious\\ thing\\ to\\ consider\\ is\\ that\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ was\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ Xunzi\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ did\\ he\\ learn\\ from\\ his\\ master\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ did\\ he\\ reject\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ seems\\ to\\ combine\\ Doaism\\ and\\ Mohism\\ by\\ teaching\\ that\\ rulers\\ should\\ be\\ still\\ and\\ empty\\,\\ following\\ the\\ way\\,\\ and\\ this\\ will\\ better\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ firm\\ set\\ of\\ rules\\ and\\ well\\ ordered\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Han\\ Feizi\\ clearly\\ used\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ technique\\ of\\ finding\\ the\\ valuable\\ parts\\ of\\ other\\ philosophies\\ and\\ combining\\ them\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ made\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ realizing\\ when\\ certain\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\ were\\ out\\-dated\\ and\\ no\\ longer\\ pertinent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ offering\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ certain\\ to\\ succeed\\&rdquo\\;\\ given\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ tendencies\\ of\\ humans\\,\\ and\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\ have\\ different\\ customs\\;\\ the\\ new\\ and\\ the\\ old\\ require\\ different\\ preparations\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(340\\)\\.\\ Does\\ his\\ presentation\\ of\\ a\\ way\\,\\ which\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ argue\\ would\\ be\\ effective\\ at\\ any\\ time\\,\\ contradict\\ his\\ claim\\ that\\ past\\ ways\\ do\\ not\\ fit\\ in\\ present\\ circumstances\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ is\\ his\\ argument\\ consistent\\ with\\ his\\ project\\?\\ Does\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ saying\\ contradict\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personally\\ I\\ think\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ is\\ not\\ contradicting\\ himself\\ here\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ offering\\ a\\ more\\ abstract\\ method\\ of\\ running\\ a\\ state\\ and\\ not\\ specific\\ instructions\\ for\\ how\\ rulers\\ should\\ react\\ in\\ certain\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sets\\ of\\ rules\\,\\ rewards\\,\\ punishments\\,\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ make\\-up\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ could\\ all\\ change\\ drastically\\ but\\ be\\ implemented\\ with\\ his\\ same\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ think\\ he\\ purposefully\\ created\\ his\\ way\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ manner\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ modified\\ to\\ better\\ suit\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ Sima\\ Qian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\ and\\ Li\\ Si\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Sima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ narrative\\,\\ what\\ did\\ these\\ figures\\ do\\ to\\ merit\\ this\\ judgment\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\According\\ to\\ his\\ conclustions\\,\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ bad\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Were\\ only\\ looking\\ to\\ promote\\ their\\ own\\ well\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;strive\\ for\\ enlightened\\ government\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ repairing\\ the\\ ruler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defects\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(206\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ supported\\ harsh\\ rules\\ and\\ punishments\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ his\\ narrative\\ suggests\\ that\\ maybe\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 100\\%\\ bad\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ doing\\ what\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ done\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(esp\\ for\\ Li\\ Si\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ almost\\ feels\\ like\\ the\\ good\\ guy\\ in\\ his\\ story\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ Sima\\ Qian\\,\\ writing\\ history\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ simply\\ a\\ recounting\\ of\\ past\\ events\\.\\ How\\ is\\ writing\\ history\\ a\\ moral\\ practice\\ for\\ Sima\\ Qian\\?\\ How\\ does\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ relate\\ to\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ cultivation\\ in\\ the\\ present\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Finds\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ unconditional\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\ to\\ be\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ writing\\ history\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easy\\ for\\ events\\ and\\ people\\ to\\ get\\ classified\\ as\\ strictly\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ look\\ at\\ Qin\\ empire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ were\\ doing\\ what\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ difficult\\ Warring\\ States\\ period\\,\\ so\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ that\\ their\\ harsh\\ rule\\ was\\ just\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ had\\ some\\ good\\ results\\,\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ Confucius\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ correct\\ course\\ of\\ action\\,\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ when\\ you\\ write\\ history\\,\\ you\\ are\\ taking\\ a\\ stance\\ on\\ events\\,\\ and\\ should\\ take\\ all\\ the\\ circumstances\\ into\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ helps\\ an\\ individual\\ self\\-cultivate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analyzing\\ how\\ people\\ act\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ past\\ judgmentally\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ helps\\ you\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ new\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ more\\ familiar\\ you\\ are\\ with\\ the\\ correct\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ in\\ past\\ events\\,\\ the\\ better\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ correct\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 38, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Discussion_Questions_2.doc", "desc": "Discussion Questions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Ethical and Political Theory - Questions -", "tags": ["harvard", "chinese", "classical", "ethical", "political", "theory"], "text": null, "id": 83, "html": "\\\\\\Chinese\\ Ethical\\ and\\ Political\\ Theory\\ \\-\\ Questions\\ \\-\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c32\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c39\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c29\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c37\\{text\\-align\\:center\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c12\\{color\\:\\#008080\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c20\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c38\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c34\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.c40\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c35\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Ethical\\ and\\ Political\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DISCUSSION\\ QUESTIONS\\ \\&\\;\\ SECTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ genre\\,\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ text\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ In\\ your\\ opinion\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ possible\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ presenting\\ philosophical\\ positions\\ in\\ this\\ manner\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Dialogue\\.\\ Conversational\\,\\ simple\\ language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;easier\\ to\\ relate\\ to\\ everyday\\ life\\ and\\ every\\ type\\ or\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ are\\ the\\ themes\\ of\\ ethics\\ and\\ politics\\ related\\ in\\ the\\ text\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ central\\ concepts\\ used\\ to\\ articulate\\ these\\ themes\\?\\ Are\\ ethics\\ and\\ politics\\ the\\ overriding\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ are\\ there\\ other\\ themes\\ that\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Politics\\ linked\\ directly\\ with\\ ethics\\.\\ Virtue\\ \\>\\;\\ punishment\\ and\\ regulations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ \\"\\;Filial\\ son\\ and\\ good\\ brother\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ government\\ \\(2\\.21\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ If\\ everyone\\ were\\ following\\ rituals\\,\\ natural\\ order\\ would\\ fall\\ into\\ place\\ without\\ need\\ of\\ a\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ 2\\.3\\ \\-\\-\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ leader\\ \\(not\\ necessarily\\ government\\)\\ to\\ guide\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ 8\\.9\\,\\ 11\\.26\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ need\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ a\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ ritual\\ \\(li\\)\\ and\\ goodness\\ \\(ren\\)\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ ritual\\ and\\ the\\ ordering\\ of\\ the\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relevant\\ passages\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\:\\ 3\\.3\\ \\(supports\\ rituals\\ including\\ music\\)\\,\\ 3\\.4\\ \\(better\\ to\\ be\\ spare\\)\\,\\ 3\\.15\\,\\ 3\\.19\\ \\(lord\\ should\\ employ\\ ministers\\ with\\ ritual\\)\\.\\ 12\\.1\\,\\ 14\\.41\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goodness\\:\\ 1\\.3\\ \\(clever\\ tongue\\ and\\ fine\\ appearance\\ \\=\\ goodness\\)\\,\\ 3\\.3\\,\\ 4\\.1\\,\\ 4\\.3\\ \\(truly\\ able\\ to\\ love\\/despise\\ others\\;\\ sense\\ of\\ understanding\\/distinction\\ between\\ opposites\\)\\,\\ 4\\.5\\ \\(achievement\\ \\&\\;\\ failure\\ the\\ same\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ manner\\)\\,\\ 4\\.6\\ \\(there\\ is\\ NO\\ ONE\\ completely\\ devoted\\ to\\ goodness\\/completely\\ good\\)\\,\\ 8\\.7\\ \\(struggles\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\)\\,\\ 12\\.1\\,\\ 12\\.22\\ \\(altruistic\\)\\,\\ 13\\.19\\,\\ 17\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ Through\\ practicing\\ daily\\ ritual\\ one\\ will\\ develop\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ places\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Way\\ of\\ Heaven\\&rdquo\\;\\ have\\ in\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ Confucius\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ Confucius\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ do\\ all\\ people\\ have\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ become\\ good\\?\\ In\\ chapter\\ 5\\.10\\,\\ Confucius\\ states\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rotten\\ wood\\ cannot\\ be\\ carved\\ and\\ a\\ wall\\ of\\ dung\\ cannot\\ be\\ plastered\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Is\\ goodness\\ only\\ for\\ aristocrats\\?\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ think\\ through\\ these\\ issues\\,\\ you\\ may\\ find\\ it\\ helpful\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ key\\ terms\\ used\\ by\\ Confucius\\ when\\ speaking\\ about\\ how\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inherent\\ substance\\ can\\ be\\ transformed\\ by\\ ethical\\ self\\-cultivation\\.\\ These\\ include\\ the\\ terms\\ \\&ldquo\\;nature\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(xing\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;native\\ substance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(zhi\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ refinement\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(wen\\)\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ relations\\ between\\ these\\ three\\ terms\\?\\ Some\\ relevant\\ passages\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ consideration\\:\\ 6\\.18\\,\\ 12\\.8\\,\\ 15\\.18\\,\\ 15\\.38\\,\\ 17\\.2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ If\\ we\\ always\\ dwell\\ among\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ good\\,\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ help\\ others\\?\\ \\(p\\.\\ 10\\;\\ 4\\.1\\)\\;\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ receive\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ transmit\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ stay\\ with\\ good\\ to\\ receive\\,\\ but\\ then\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ know\\ when\\ you\\ can\\ start\\ transmitting\\?\\ Isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ claiming\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ good\\ enough\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ being\\ not\\ good\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ goodness\\ and\\ evil\\ in\\ the\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\ \\-\\ Discussion\\ Questions\\ \\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;How\\ is\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ \\"\\;impartiality\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;impartial\\ caring\\"\\;\\ \\(jian\\&\\#39\\;ai\\)\\similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;\\ notion\\ of\\ Goodness\\ \\(ren\\)\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ the\\ two\\ concepts\\differ\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ advocates\\ \\"\\;impartiality\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ treating\\ everyone\\ equally\\,\\ not\\ applying\\ any\\ \\form\\ of\\ favoritism\\,\\ even\\ to\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ family\\.\\ His\\ reasoning\\ behind\\ this\\ is\\rationally\\ calculated\\ \\?\\ if\\ you\\ treat\\ another\\ person\\&\\#39\\;s\\ parents\\ well\\ out\\ of\\impartiality\\,\\ then\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ they\\ will\\ treat\\ your\\ own\\ parent\\&\\#39\\;s\\ well\\.\\ His\\ notion\\ \\of\\ impartial\\ caring\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ Goodness\\ in\\ that\\ both\\ideas\\ encourage\\ benevolence\\ \\(treating\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ treated\\yourself\\.\\)\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ Confucius\\ emphasizes\\ throughout\\ The\\ Analects\\ \\\\"\\;filial\\ piety\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;respect\\ for\\ elders\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ encouragement\\ of\\equal\\ treatment\\ to\\ everyone\\.\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ state\\/society\\ for\\ Mozi\\,\\ and\\ how\\ did\\ society\\ come\\ \\into\\ being\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ valuable\\ in\\ society\\ determined\\?\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ what\\ ways\\ is\\ \\this\\ process\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Analects\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ For\\ Mozi\\,\\ the\\ state\\ should\\ implement\\ a\\ reward\\/punishment\\ system\\ \\(laws\\)\\.\\ He\\believes\\ this\\ creates\\ order\\ and\\ promotes\\ good\\ behavior\\ and\\ prevents\\ bad\\behavior\\.\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ benevolent\\ person\\ should\\ rule\\ the\\ state\\ \\and\\ determine\\ societal\\ standards\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\.\\ \\(He\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ what\\created\\ order\\ in\\ ancient\\ times\\.\\)\\ These\\ standards\\ are\\ decided\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\a\\ rational\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ criteria\\ Mozi\\ uses\\ to\\ determine\\ \\whether\\ or\\ not\\ something\\ is\\ good\\ are\\:\\ if\\ it\\ increases\\ the\\ population\\,\\ if\\ it\\brings\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ government\\,\\ if\\ it\\ helps\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Both\\ Confucius\\ and\\Mozi\\ agree\\ that\\ the\\ state\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ruler\\ is\\ obligated\\ to\\ lead\\ his\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\,\\ \\but\\ they\\ disagree\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Confucius\\ opposes\\ a\\ clear\\-cut\\ legal\\ system\\to\\ influence\\ morality\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ laws\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ cause\\ someone\\ to\\internalize\\ morality\\,\\ but\\ Mozi\\ does\\ believe\\ in\\ laws\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ rationally\\ \\determine\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ good\\ and\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bad\\.\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ Mozi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ rituals\\?\\ How\\ do\\ rituals\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ spirits\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ self\\-cultivation\\ through\\ ritual\\ is\\ useless\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\developing\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ \\(which\\ is\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ Confucius\\.\\)\\ Instead\\ he\\ \\advocates\\ a\\ rational\\ calculus\\ of\\ benefits\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ you\\ cannot\\ build\\a\\ political\\ order\\ out\\ of\\ practicing\\ rituals\\.\\ However\\,\\ Mozi\\ argues\\ for\\ the\\practice\\ of\\ rituals\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ spirits\\ because\\ he\\ believes\\ performing\\ \\these\\ rituals\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ effect\\ on\\ people\\ \\?\\ if\\ people\\ perform\\ sacrificial\\offerings\\ for\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\ and\\ maintain\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ them\\ then\\,\\ Mozi\\argues\\,\\ this\\ will\\ bring\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ by\\ scaring\\ people\\ into\\ being\\ \\punished\\ for\\ being\\ bad\\ \\(by\\ the\\ spirits\\)\\.\\ But\\ Mozi\\ believes\\ that\\ other\\ rituals\\,\\such\\ as\\ music\\ listening\\ and\\ lavish\\ funerals\\/prolonged\\ mourning\\ are\\ wasteful\\rituals\\ with\\ no\\ utilitarian\\ benefit\\.\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Mozi\\ devotes\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ effort\\ to\\ the\\ analysis\\ and\\ explication\\ of\\ \\historical\\ texts\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ in\\ the\\ Mozi\\,\\ and\\ what\\is\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\?\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Mozi\\ bases\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ arguments\\ on\\ historical\\ examples\\ and\\ past\\ figures\\.\\ He\\ \\uses\\ history\\ to\\ justify\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ implement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ such\\ as\\ impartiality\\ and\\the\\ rejection\\ of\\ lavish\\ funerals\\ and\\ prolonged\\ mourning\\ periods\\.\\ For\\ Mozi\\,\\ the\\past\\ informs\\ the\\ present\\ because\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\ was\\ \\the\\ right\\ way\\.\\ It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ note\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ be\\ manipulating\\history\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ support\\ and\\ fit\\ in\\ with\\ his\\ philosophy\\.\\ \\(He\\ presents\\ certain\\events\\ as\\ historical\\ facts\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ actually\\ happened\\.\\)\\ \\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Scholarship\\ on\\ early\\ Chinese\\ thought\\ often\\ credits\\ the\\ followers\\ of\\ Mozi\\ with\\the\\ development\\ of\\ systematic\\ logic\\ and\\ science\\.\\ How\\ would\\ Mozi\\ understand\\ what\\is\\,\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\,\\ termed\\ \\"\\;logic\\"\\;\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ \\which\\ the\\ followers\\ of\\ Mozi\\ identify\\ problems\\ and\\ attempt\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\solutions\\?\\ Pay\\ particular\\ attention\\ to\\ chapter\\ 35\\.\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Again\\,\\ Mozi\\ uses\\ a\\ rational\\,\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\ solutions\\ to\\problems\\.\\ He\\ simply\\ weighs\\ out\\ how\\ beneficial\\ something\\ is\\,\\ and\\ is\\ more\\ \\\\"\\;logical\\"\\;\\ while\\ Confucius\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ more\\ emotional\\.\\ He\\ also\\ explains\\ in\\detail\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ assess\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ and\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bad\\ by\\ using\\ the\\ 3\\ gauges\\:\\precedence\\ \\(from\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\)\\,\\ evidence\\ \\(if\\ people\\ have\\ heard\\/seen\\ it\\ be\\ \\done\\)\\,\\ and\\ application\\ \\(implement\\ it\\ as\\ state\\ policy\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ it\\ is\\beneficial\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\ Section\\ Questions\\:\\1\\.\\ Mencius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ human\\ nature\\-\\-seeds\\ that\\ represent\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\,\\ but\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ nurtured\\ by\\ good\\ environment\\.\\ knows\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ because\\ of\\ past\\ sage\\ kings\\.\\ differs\\ from\\ confucius\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ the\\ people\\ around\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ doing\\ good\\ \\(ie\\ practicing\\ rituals\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ emphasis\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ you\\ practicing\\ rituals\\ to\\ be\\ good\\.\\ Mozi\\ has\\ the\\ completely\\ opposite\\ view\\-\\-human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\ and\\ need\\ laws\\ with\\ set\\ punishment\\ and\\ reward\\ system\\ to\\ keep\\ order\\.\\ \\\\2\\.\\ the\\ government\\ \\(ie\\ ruler\\)\\ sets\\ the\\ example\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ helps\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ good\\ environment\\ for\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;seeds\\"\\;\\ to\\ be\\ nurtured\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ does\\ Mencius\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ critiques\\ leveled\\ by\\ Mozi\\ against\\ Confucius\\?\\ Why\\ does\\ he\\ become\\ more\\ specific\\ in\\ his\\ directives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Straight\\ from\\ the\\ book\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 117\\)\\:\\ \\"\\;Mengzi\\ uses\\ his\\ particular\\ conception\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ both\\ Mohism\\ and\\ Yangism\\.\\ \\;\\ As\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\,\\ Mengzi\\ agrees\\ with\\ the\\ Yangists\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ a\\ nature\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ follow\\,\\ but\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Yangists\\ have\\ supplied\\ an\\ impoverished\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ contents\\ of\\ that\\ nature\\.\\ \\;\\ Against\\ the\\ Mohists\\,\\ Mengzi\\ argues\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ order\\ of\\ development\\ of\\ human\\ compassion\\,\\ and\\ that\\,\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ psychological\\ fact\\,\\ humans\\ must\\ learn\\ to\\ love\\ members\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ family\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ learn\\ to\\ love\\ strangers\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;7A15\\,\\ 7A45\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Some\\ Mohists\\ in\\ Mengzi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ era\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ conceded\\ this\\ point\\,\\ but\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ compassion\\ cultivated\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ should\\ be\\ extended\\ outward\\ to\\ love\\ everyone\\ equally\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ Mengzi\\ claims\\ that\\,\\ given\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ our\\ compassion\\ develops\\ out\\ of\\ love\\ of\\ kin\\,\\ any\\ effort\\ to\\ love\\ everyone\\ equally\\ violates\\ our\\ naturally\\ greater\\ compassion\\ for\\ family\\ members\\.\\ \\;\\ Finally\\,\\ Mengzi\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ base\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\li\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;benefit\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;profit\\,\\"\\;\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ profit\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ kingdom\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ will\\ be\\ self\\-defeating\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1A1\\)\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Basically\\,\\ Mencius\\ uses\\ his\\ personal\\ view\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ Mohists\\:\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ the\\ innate\\ ability\\ to\\ be\\ good\\/righteous\\/benevolent\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ volition\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ seek\\ for\\ within\\ themselves\\,\\ within\\ their\\ hearts\\,\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ obtained\\ from\\ doctrines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;4\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ continuities\\ and\\ discontinuities\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ between\\ the\\ ideas\\ articulated\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ those\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ On\\ what\\ points\\ did\\ Mencius\\ build\\ on\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;\\ paradigm\\,\\ where\\ did\\ he\\ depart\\ from\\ it\\,\\ and\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Mengzi\\ was\\ a\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ Confucian\\ thinker\\,\\ and\\ above\\ all\\,\\ he\\ championed\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ central\\ idea\\ of\\ individual\\ cultivation\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ philosophical\\ underpinning\\ gives\\ his\\ rhetoric\\ a\\ numinous\\ and\\ majestic\\ form\\,\\ as\\ he\\ frequently\\ draws\\ on\\ ambiguous\\ metaphorical\\ language\\ and\\ makes\\ romantic\\ claims\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ heart\\ of\\ compassion\\ is\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ benevolence\\"\\;\\ \\(130\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Above\\ all\\,\\ Mengzi\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ ideal\\ pervasion\\ of\\ \\"\\;benevolence\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;righteousness\\"\\;\\ into\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ advises\\ King\\ Hui\\,\\ \\"\\;Let\\ Your\\ Majesty\\ say\\,\\ \\&\\#39\\;Benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\,\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ all\\,\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ the\\ principal\\ importance\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ abstract\\ dispositions\\ \\(118\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ the\\ implications\\ of\\ his\\ rhetorical\\ campaign\\ for\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ are\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ creating\\ a\\ political\\ society\\ where\\ people\\ are\\ nice\\ and\\ just\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\;\\ More\\ so\\ than\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Mengzi\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ order\\,\\ unity\\,\\ and\\ livelihood\\ of\\ the\\ population\\&mdash\\;similar\\ to\\ Mozi\\,\\ though\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ foundational\\ focus\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ discusses\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ not\\ as\\ arbitrary\\ lofty\\ ideals\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ preconditions\\ a\\ pragmatic\\ vision\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ explains\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\ that\\ a\\ political\\ precondition\\ of\\ benevolence\\ would\\ increase\\ the\\ wealth\\ and\\ livelihood\\ of\\ his\\ state\\ by\\ causing\\ \\"\\;all\\ under\\ Heaven\\ who\\ serve\\ others\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ their\\ place\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ court\\,\\ those\\ who\\ plough\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ plough\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fields\\,\\ merchants\\ to\\ all\\ want\\ to\\ place\\ their\\ goods\\ in\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&\\#39\\;s\\ markets\\"\\;\\ \\(122\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Whereas\\ Mengzi\\ criticizes\\ King\\ Hui\\&\\#39\\;s\\ concern\\ for\\ profiting\\ his\\ state\\ \\(117\\-118\\)\\,\\ his\\ criticism\\ is\\ merely\\ a\\ superficial\\ rhetorical\\ device\\ aimed\\ at\\ romanticizing\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\.\\ \\;\\ As\\ his\\ counsel\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\ demonstrates\\,\\ Mengzi\\ in\\ reality\\ is\\ wholly\\ concerned\\ with\\ profiting\\ his\\ society\\,\\ with\\ meeting\\ the\\ pragmatic\\ needs\\ of\\ his\\ people\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ also\\ rhetorically\\ romanticizes\\ emotional\\ considerations\\ with\\ his\\ description\\ of\\ and\\ advocacy\\ for\\ a\\ \\"\\;heart\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ unfeeling\\ toward\\ others\\,\\"\\;\\ but\\ his\\ interest\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ itself\\ but\\ rather\\ lies\\ in\\ its\\ ability\\ of\\ \\"\\;bringing\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\"\\;\\ \\(129\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Similar\\ to\\ his\\ advice\\ to\\ King\\ Xuan\\,\\ this\\ excerpt\\ shows\\ a\\ more\\ evident\\ concern\\ for\\ pragmatic\\ issues\\ than\\ is\\ visible\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ despite\\ his\\ pragmatic\\ concerns\\,\\ Mengzi\\ does\\ not\\ sacrifice\\ the\\ Confucian\\ ideals\\ of\\ righteousness\\ and\\ benevolence\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ view\\ of\\ goodness\\&mdash\\;more\\ specifically\\,\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\&mdash\\;as\\ the\\ precondition\\ for\\ ideal\\ political\\ society\\ combined\\ with\\ his\\ belief\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ capable\\ of\\ this\\ goodness\\ fashions\\ his\\ perspective\\ on\\ suitable\\ governance\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ establishing\\ the\\ ideal\\ political\\ society\\ is\\ an\\ organic\\ form\\ of\\ governance\\ based\\ on\\ bringing\\ all\\ within\\ society\\ under\\ a\\ truly\\ benevolent\\ and\\ righteous\\ ruler\\.\\ \\;\\ But\\ despite\\ his\\ pragmatic\\ concerns\\,\\ for\\ Mengzi\\,\\ a\\ truly\\ benevolent\\ and\\ righteous\\ ruler\\ will\\ never\\ sacrifice\\ these\\ ideals\\,\\ as\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ \\"\\;if\\ any\\ could\\ obtain\\ all\\ under\\ Heaven\\ by\\ performing\\ one\\ unrighteous\\ deed\\,\\ or\\ killing\\ one\\ innocent\\ person\\,\\ he\\ would\\ not\\ do\\ it\\"\\;\\ \\(129\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Mengzi\\ declares\\,\\ \\"\\;Life\\ is\\ something\\ I\\ desire\\;\\ righteousness\\ is\\ also\\ something\\ I\\ desire\\&hellip\\;\\[but\\]\\ If\\ I\\ cannot\\ have\\ both\\,\\ I\\ will\\ forsake\\ life\\ and\\ select\\ righteousness\\,\\"\\;\\ indicating\\ the\\ paramount\\ importance\\ of\\ forms\\ of\\ goodness\\ in\\ Mengzi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ \\(150\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ For\\ Mengzi\\,\\ because\\ goodness\\ is\\ the\\ essential\\ precondition\\,\\ suitable\\ governance\\ requires\\ unadulterated\\ upholding\\ of\\ goodness\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ leaders\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Laozi\\,\\ how\\ would\\ a\\ proper\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ inform\\ human\\ actions\\?\\ Or\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ for\\ one\\ who\\ understood\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ how\\ would\\ s\\/he\\ act\\ and\\ what\\ might\\ s\\/he\\ achieve\\ accordingly\\?\\ What\\ does\\ the\\ author\\ mean\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;non\\-action\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Words\\ cannot\\ describe\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ but\\ Laozi\\ tries\\ nonetheless\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ confused\\ in\\ that\\ polar\\ opposites\\ grow\\ from\\ it\\,\\ seemingly\\ contradictory\\ but\\ really\\ not\\.\\ Grass\\ grows\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ and\\ returns\\ to\\ it\\.\\ Everything\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ A\\ proper\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\ would\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ related\\ and\\ inter\\-connected\\.\\ We\\ should\\ behave\\ accordingly\\ by\\ taking\\ into\\ account\\ everything\\ we\\ do\\ effects\\ everything\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ political\\ vision\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ would\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daoist\\&rdquo\\;\\ government\\ be\\ like\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ few\\ laws\\.\\ See\\ Chapter\\ 80\\;\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ simplicity\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ over\\-extend\\ yourself\\,\\ non\\-progressive\\-\\-goes\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ constancy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ are\\ civilization\\ \\(or\\ human\\ artifice\\)\\ and\\ nature\\ \\(ziran\\)\\ viewed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ history\\ for\\ humankind\\?\\ How\\ are\\ these\\ ideas\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ in\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\ have\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Civilization\\ is\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ nature\\;\\ it\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ progression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ statement\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ great\\ Way\\ is\\ abandoned\\,\\ there\\are\\ benevolence\\ and\\ righteousness\\ \\/\\ When\\ wisdom\\ and\\ intelligence\\ come\\ forth\\,\\there\\ is\\ great\\ hypocrisy\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\ \\;\\(18\\)\\ How\\ is\\ this\\ an\\ explicit\\ critique\\ of\\ the\\ Confucian\\ position\\?\\ How\\ can\\ the\\ abandonment\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ termed\\ \\&rdquo\\;virtue\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ other\\ contexts\\ be\\ construed\\ as\\ beneficial\\ \\(19\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ would\\ you\\ begin\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rhetoric\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;especially\\ considering\\ the\\ rhetorical\\ structures\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ employed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mozi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mengzi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ poignantly\\ expressing\\ the\\ superficial\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ conventional\\ \\(as\\ expressed\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 11\\)\\,\\ what\\ do\\ the\\ rhetorical\\ devices\\ specific\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;accomplish\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Daodejing\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ seemingly\\ unrelated\\,\\ short\\,\\ poetic\\ chapters\\.\\ They\\ are\\ highly\\ contradictory\\.\\ This\\ goes\\ against\\ the\\ conventional\\ essay\\-like\\,\\ cause\\-effect\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ Mozi\\ and\\ Mengzi\\.\\ This\\,\\ however\\,\\ amplifies\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ Daodejing\\,\\ using\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\.\\ It\\ is\\ disparate\\,\\ paradoxical\\,\\ but\\ all\\ interrelated\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ coherent\\,\\ but\\ non\\-prescriptive\\,\\ argument\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ femininity\\ portrayed\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ gender\\ here\\ differ\\ from\\ the\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Femininity\\ is\\ portrayed\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ light\\.\\ Characteristics\\ associated\\ with\\ womanhood\\ are\\ lauded\\.\\ Suppleness\\ and\\ \\ \\;flexibility\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ young\\ sapling\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ snap\\ in\\ during\\ the\\ storm\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ myriad\\ things\\.\\ Calmness\\ is\\ a\\ beneficial\\ characteristic\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ negotiation\\ and\\ martial\\ arts\\.\\ No\\ other\\ texts\\,\\ until\\ discussions\\ of\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\,\\ really\\ address\\ gender\\ issues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kongzi\\ and\\ Mengzi\\ used\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\ as\\ their\\ exemplars\\ of\\ sagehood\\.\\ Who\\ does\\ Zhuangzi\\ hold\\ up\\ as\\ paradigms\\ for\\ proper\\ living\\?\\ Why\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ these\\ figures\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ butcher\\ is\\ the\\ clearest\\ example\\ of\\ someone\\ Zhuangzi\\ holds\\ up\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ sagehood\\.\\ He\\ probably\\ chose\\ a\\ slightly\\ shocking\\ profession\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ spontaneity\\ in\\ whatever\\ it\\ is\\ we\\ do\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ model\\ ourselves\\ after\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ fight\\ the\\ Way\\ but\\ rather\\ work\\ with\\ it\\:\\ not\\ fearing\\ death\\,\\ not\\ forcing\\ distinctions\\,\\ and\\ simply\\ reveling\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ pattern\\ of\\ things\\.\\ He\\ is\\ especially\\ scornful\\ of\\ mourning\\,\\ which\\ he\\ sees\\ as\\ pointless\\ and\\ unnecessarily\\ restricting\\.\\ In\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worldview\\,\\ death\\ and\\ birth\\ are\\ equally\\ glorious\\;\\ we\\ should\\ not\\ mourn\\ one\\ while\\ celebrating\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ Zhuangzi\\ and\\ Laozi\\ will\\ later\\ be\\ classified\\ together\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daoist\\&rdquo\\;\\ thinkers\\,\\ one\\ can\\ observe\\ significant\\ differences\\ in\\ their\\ respective\\ philosophies\\.\\ Broadly\\ speaking\\,\\ what\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;following\\ the\\ Dao\\&rdquo\\;\\ entail\\ in\\ the\\ two\\ texts\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ similarities\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ philosophers\\,\\ and\\ where\\ are\\ they\\ different\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\See\\ end\\ of\\ Lecture\\ 2\\ notes\\.\\ Besides\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ chart\\,\\ Laozi\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ completely\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ says\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ always\\ inside\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ but\\ may\\ not\\ realize\\ it\\.\\ Zhuangzi\\ does\\ not\\ discuss\\ \\&ldquo\\;winning\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ all\\,\\ while\\ Laozi\\ places\\ quite\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ emphasis\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ beat\\ your\\ opponent\\ \\(going\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ strategic\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ Daodejing\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ Zhuangzian\\ ethics\\ absolutely\\ relativistic\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ are\\ all\\ moral\\ values\\ and\\ positions\\ equally\\ valid\\&mdash\\;thereby\\ making\\ moral\\ judgment\\ impossible\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ on\\ what\\ foundation\\ does\\ he\\ make\\ moral\\ judgment\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ language\\ play\\ in\\ moral\\ judgment\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethics\\ are\\ not\\ relativistic\\.\\ His\\ moral\\ system\\ is\\ based\\ not\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;goodness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;harmony\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ his\\ analogue\\ to\\ virtue\\.\\ So\\,\\ in\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ system\\,\\ views\\ that\\ accord\\ with\\ the\\ natural\\ patterns\\ in\\ nature\\ are\\ better\\.\\ With\\ regard\\ to\\ language\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ writes\\ that\\ words\\ are\\ for\\ the\\ meaning\\:\\ once\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ meaning\\,\\ we\\ can\\ forget\\ the\\ words\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ language\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ help\\ grasp\\ moral\\ judgments\\,\\ but\\ should\\ not\\ play\\ a\\ direct\\ role\\ in\\ actually\\ forming\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;wandering\\ at\\ ease\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(or\\ simply\\ \\&ldquo\\;wandering\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ a\\ central\\ motif\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\?\\ Besides\\ looking\\ for\\ specific\\ usages\\ of\\ the\\ term\\,\\ how\\ does\\ the\\ imagery\\ Zhuangzi\\ employs\\ also\\ relate\\ to\\ this\\ motif\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ uses\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ wordplay\\ and\\ strange\\ stories\\ in\\ his\\ writing\\.\\ This\\ sort\\ of\\ imagination\\ demonstrates\\ spontaneity\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ No\\ matter\\ how\\ hard\\ you\\ try\\ to\\ understand\\ life\\,\\ you\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\,\\ and\\ the\\ made\\-up\\ terms\\ and\\ names\\ are\\ an\\ illustration\\ of\\ this\\ idea\\,\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ mental\\ wandering\\.\\ Wandering\\ by\\ definition\\ means\\ you\\ have\\ no\\ set\\ destination\\,\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ the\\ Zhuangzian\\ idea\\ of\\ not\\ knowing\\ the\\ meaning\\ on\\ life\\ and\\ not\\ trying\\ too\\ hard\\ to\\ find\\ it\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ just\\ follow\\ life\\ where\\ it\\ takes\\ you\\,\\ and\\ by\\ following\\ these\\ natural\\ patterns\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ discovered\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ specific\\ guidelines\\ for\\ inner\\ cultivation\\ are\\ provided\\ in\\ the\\ text\\?\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ what\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ them\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ successful\\ inner\\ cultivation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ cast\\ off\\ sorrow\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ joy\\,\\ anger\\,\\ desire\\,\\ profit\\ seeking\\.\\/\\ Your\\ mind\\ will\\ just\\ revert\\ to\\ equanimity\\.\\/The\\ true\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\(III\\.6\\-8\\.pp50\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cultivate\\ your\\ mind\\,\\ make\\ your\\ thoughts\\ tranquil\\/\\ And\\ the\\ Way\\ can\\ thereby\\ be\\ attained\\&rdquo\\;\\(V\\.13\\-14\\ pp54\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Reverently\\ be\\ aware\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Way\\]\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ waver\\,\\/\\ And\\ you\\ will\\ daily\\ renew\\ your\\ inner\\ power\\,\\/\\ Thoroughly\\ understand\\ all\\ under\\ the\\ heavens\\,\\&hellip\\;\\/To\\ reverently\\ bring\\ forth\\ the\\ effulgence\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Way\\]\\:\\/\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;inward\\ attainment\\&rdquo\\;\\(XVI\\.9\\-13\\.pp76\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ is\\ this\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ it\\ relate\\ to\\ this\\ particular\\ practice\\ of\\ inner\\ cultivation\\?\\ \\&hellip\\;How\\ does\\ this\\ help\\ you\\ understand\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\?\\ Does\\ the\\ successful\\ cultivation\\ of\\ one\\ naturally\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ successful\\ cultivation\\ of\\ the\\ other\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ distant\\ from\\ us\\;\\/\\ When\\ people\\ attain\\ it\\ they\\ are\\ sustained\\/\\ That\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ separated\\ from\\ us\\;\\/\\ When\\ people\\ accord\\ with\\ it\\ they\\ are\\ harmonious\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(V\\.5\\-6\\.pp54\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ answer\\ resides\\ in\\ the\\ calmness\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\/\\ When\\ your\\ mind\\ is\\ well\\ ordered\\,\\ your\\ senses\\ are\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\(XIV\\.\\ 9\\-10\\.pp72\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;As\\ for\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\:\\/\\ The\\ heavens\\ bring\\ forth\\ their\\ vital\\ essence\\,\\/\\ The\\ earth\\ brings\\ forth\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\/\\ These\\ two\\ combine\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ person\\.\\/\\ When\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ harmony\\ there\\ is\\ vitality\\&hellip\\;\\/Just\\ let\\ a\\ balanced\\ and\\ aligned\\ \\[breathing\\]\\ fill\\ your\\ chest\\/\\ And\\ it\\ will\\ swirl\\ and\\ blend\\ within\\ your\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\(XXI\\.\\ 1\\-5\\,\\ 10\\-11\\,\\ pp86\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ your\\ body\\ is\\ not\\ aligned\\,\\ \\/\\ The\\ inner\\ power\\ will\\ not\\ come\\.\\/\\ When\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ tranquil\\ within\\,\\/\\ Your\\ mind\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ well\\ ordered\\.\\/\\ Align\\ your\\ body\\,\\ assist\\ the\\ inner\\ power\\,\\/Then\\ it\\ will\\ gradually\\ come\\ on\\ its\\ own\\&rdquo\\;\\(XI\\.\\ 1\\-6\\,\\ pp66\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ Daodejing\\ and\\/or\\ Zhuangzi\\?\\ In\\ this\\ text\\,\\ what\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ One\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\?\\ Why\\ will\\ this\\ enable\\ one\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ master\\ for\\ the\\ myriad\\ things\\?\\ Relatedly\\,\\ what\\ does\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;numious\\&rdquo\\;\\ mean\\ in\\ this\\ text\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ vital\\ essence\\ of\\ all\\ things\\:\\/\\ It\\ is\\ that\\ brings\\ them\\ to\\ life\\.\\/\\ It\\ generates\\ the\\ five\\ grains\\ below\\/\\ And\\ becomes\\ the\\ constellated\\ stars\\ above\\.\\/\\ When\\ flowing\\ amid\\ the\\ heavens\\ and\\ the\\ earth\\/\\ We\\ call\\ it\\ ghostly\\ and\\ numious\\.\\/\\ When\\ stored\\ within\\ the\\ chests\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\/\\ We\\ call\\ them\\ sages\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(I\\.1\\-8\\.pp\\ 46\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ numinous\\ \\[mind\\]\\ naturally\\ residing\\ within\\;\\/\\ One\\ moment\\ it\\ goes\\,\\ the\\ next\\ it\\ comes\\,\\/\\ And\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ conceive\\ of\\ it\\.\\/\\ If\\ you\\ lose\\ it\\ you\\ are\\ inevitably\\ disordered\\;\\/\\ If\\ you\\ attain\\ it\\ you\\ are\\ inevitably\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\(XIII\\.1\\-5\\.pp70\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Do\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ as\\ drastically\\ different\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ texts\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\?\\ Is\\ self\\-cultivation\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Neiye\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;divorced\\ from\\ social\\ engagement\\?\\ If\\ not\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ cultivated\\ person\\ and\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;With\\ a\\ well\\-ordered\\ mind\\ within\\ you\\,\\/\\ Well\\-ordered\\ words\\ issue\\ forth\\ from\\ your\\ mouth\\,\\/\\ And\\ well\\-ordered\\ tasks\\ are\\ imposed\\ upon\\ others\\.\\/\\ Then\\ all\\ under\\ the\\ heavens\\ will\\ be\\ well\\ ordered\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(X\\.1\\-4\\.pp64\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ Eight\\:\\ Morality\\ as\\ Human\\ Artifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ \\(Hs\\ü\\;n\\ Tzu\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Readings\\ in\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 255\\-309\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ human\\ propriety\\ play\\ for\\ Xunzi\\?\\ Is\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ natural\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ external\\ or\\ internal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ritual\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ restraint\\ \\(Ivanhoe\\ and\\ Norden\\,\\ 256\\)\\.\\ Ritual\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ sage\\ kings\\,\\ who\\ established\\ them\\ to\\ prevent\\ chaos\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ allot\\ things\\ to\\ people\\,\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ to\\ satisfy\\ their\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(274\\;\\ see\\ also\\ 300\\)\\.\\ The\\ three\\ roots\\ of\\ ritual\\ are\\ Heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ ancestors\\,\\ and\\ rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\ \\(275\\-276\\)\\.\\ Rituals\\ are\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ human\\ propriety\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rituals\\ are\\ the\\ great\\ divisions\\ in\\ the\\ proper\\ model\\ for\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(258\\)\\.\\ Distinctions\\ \\(such\\ as\\ not\\ just\\ having\\ a\\ father\\ and\\ son\\,\\ as\\ among\\ animals\\,\\ but\\ an\\ intimate\\ relationship\\ between\\ them\\)\\ are\\ what\\ make\\ us\\ human\\,\\ and\\ rituals\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ those\\ distinctions\\ \\(266\\)\\.\\ Social\\ divisions\\,\\ of\\ which\\ ritual\\ is\\ the\\ best\\,\\ separate\\ us\\ from\\ the\\ beasts\\,\\ and\\ standards\\ or\\ righteousness\\ must\\ applied\\ in\\ creating\\ those\\ divisions\\ \\(267\\)\\.\\ Ritual\\ makes\\ human\\ efforts\\ productive\\ and\\ effective\\ \\(262\\)\\ and\\ corrects\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ person\\ \\(264\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ criticizes\\ Mozi\\ for\\ rejecting\\ ritual\\ \\(264\\)\\ and\\ for\\ not\\ establishing\\ differences\\ \\(274\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ ritual\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ accomplish\\ its\\ intended\\ concrete\\ goal\\ \\(for\\ instance\\,\\ one\\ can\\ perform\\ the\\ rain\\ sacrifice\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ rain\\ \\[272\\]\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ gives\\ things\\ their\\ proper\\ form\\.\\ Ritual\\ provides\\ a\\ middle\\ way\\ to\\ check\\ the\\ excesses\\ of\\ emotional\\ responses\\ to\\ death\\ or\\ love\\ \\(280\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ criticizes\\ Mozi\\ for\\ advocating\\ a\\ short\\ mourning\\ period\\ \\(282\\)\\.\\ NB\\ the\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ filial\\ son\\ should\\ disobey\\ orders\\ and\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ \\(306\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;correcting\\ names\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(zhengming\\)\\ relate\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethical\\ and\\ political\\ thought\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Correcting\\ names\\ is\\ pertinent\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emphasis\\ on\\ distinctions\\ and\\ propriety\\.\\ Xunzi\\ defines\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ terms\\ in\\ life\\ \\(262\\-263\\)\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ lead\\ others\\ along\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ is\\ called\\ \\&lsquo\\;teaching\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ prescribes\\ the\\ remedies\\ for\\ excesses\\ \\(263\\)\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ overly\\ deep\\ thinking\\,\\ simplify\\ it\\ with\\ easy\\ goodness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ These\\ remedies\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ nourish\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ He\\ puts\\ great\\ emphasis\\ on\\ social\\ distinctions\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ naming\\ of\\ those\\ distinctions\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ who\\ can\\ use\\ these\\ to\\ serve\\ his\\ parents\\ is\\ called\\ filial\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(268\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ stresses\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ not\\ seek\\ to\\ blur\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ mark\\ of\\ the\\ sage\\ not\\ to\\ seek\\ to\\ understand\\ Heaven\\ \\(270\\)\\.\\ In\\ his\\ discourse\\ on\\ Heaven\\,\\ he\\ includes\\ a\\ typical\\ series\\ of\\ definitions\\ \\(271\\)\\ to\\ advance\\ his\\ teachings\\.\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ divine\\ and\\ human\\ affairs\\ underlies\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ natural\\ omens\\ and\\ disasters\\ that\\ always\\ occur\\ \\(272\\)\\.\\ The\\ kings\\ set\\ names\\ for\\ things\\ and\\ thus\\ made\\ distinctions\\ \\(292\\-293\\)\\.\\ People\\ were\\ honest\\,\\ because\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ disorder\\ the\\ correct\\ names\\ \\(293\\)\\.\\ Now\\,\\ the\\ confusion\\ about\\ names\\ mirrors\\ the\\ confusion\\ about\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\ \\(293\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\?\\ In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ goodness\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\He\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ inherently\\ evil\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ humans\\ must\\ practice\\ ritual\\ \\(which\\ is\\ external\\ to\\ their\\ nature\\)\\ to\\ become\\ good\\.\\ People\\,\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ at\\ birth\\,\\ differentiate\\ themselves\\ through\\ learning\\ \\(257\\)\\.\\ Learning\\ begins\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ reciting\\ the\\ classics\\ and\\ studying\\ ritual\\ \\(258\\)\\.\\ One\\ must\\ find\\ the\\ right\\ teacher\\,\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;rituals\\ and\\ music\\ provide\\ proper\\ models\\ but\\ give\\ no\\ precepts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(259\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ teacher\\ can\\ correct\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\ of\\ ritual\\ \\(264\\)\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ Daoists\\,\\ Xunzi\\ sees\\ \\&ldquo\\;ritual\\ and\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\yi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ Heaven\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ it\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(267\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;deliberate\\ effort\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wuwei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;non\\-action\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Daoists\\)\\,\\ must\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ the\\ raw\\ material\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ to\\ unify\\ things\\.\\ Goodness\\ stems\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;deliberate\\ effort\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(298\\)\\,\\ which\\ comes\\ through\\ learning\\ and\\ working\\ \\(299\\)\\,\\ not\\ from\\ nature\\.\\ People\\ can\\ become\\ good\\ when\\ the\\ have\\ teachers\\ and\\ proper\\ models\\ \\(298\\-299\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ innate\\ human\\ disposition\\ to\\ like\\ benefit\\ and\\ desire\\ gain\\,\\ but\\ ritual\\ and\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ can\\ change\\ that\\ \\(301\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ explicitly\\ defines\\ himself\\ against\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ idea\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ good\\ \\(299\\-302\\)\\.\\ The\\ sage\\ who\\ created\\ ritual\\ and\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ potter\\ who\\ mixes\\ clay\\ and\\ produced\\ objects\\ \\(303\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anyone\\ on\\ the\\ streets\\ could\\ become\\ a\\ Yu\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(304\\)\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ anyone\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ sage\\ through\\ accumulation\\ of\\ learning\\ \\(305\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ metaphors\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ use\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ self\\-cultivation\\?\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ compare\\ to\\ those\\ used\\ by\\ Mencius\\ or\\ Confucius\\?\\ Who\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ adheres\\ more\\ closely\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ them\\ depart\\ from\\ his\\ teaching\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ process\\ of\\ learning\\ is\\ like\\ bending\\ and\\ steaming\\ wood\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ straight\\ \\(256\\)\\.\\ Xunzi\\ uses\\ the\\ metaphors\\ of\\ controlling\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ nourishing\\ the\\ heart\\ \\(263\\)\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ metaphors\\ of\\ craftsmanship\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ carpenter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ square\\ and\\ the\\ ink\\-line\\ \\(277\\)\\.\\ The\\ heart\\ must\\ achieve\\ emptiness\\,\\ single\\-mindedness\\,\\ and\\ stillness\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ Way\\ \\(288\\)\\.\\ The\\ human\\ heart\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ pan\\ of\\ water\\:\\ if\\ one\\ sets\\ it\\ straight\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ move\\ it\\,\\ the\\ dirty\\ parts\\ will\\ settle\\ to\\ the\\ bottom\\,\\ and\\ the\\ clear\\ parts\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ top\\ \\(290\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ heart\\ is\\ the\\ craftsman\\ and\\ overseer\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ the\\ warp\\ and\\ pattern\\ of\\ good\\ order\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(296\\)\\.\\ The\\ bad\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ like\\ blunt\\ metal\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ honed\\ and\\ grinded\\ \\(298\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORE\\ WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\ for\\ Week\\ 8\\,\\ Xunzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ play\\ for\\ Xunzi\\?\\ Is\\ ritual\\ propriety\\ natural\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ external\\ or\\ internal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\ propriety\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ order\\ people\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Humans\\ are\\ born\\ having\\ desires\\&hellip\\;the\\ former\\ kings\\ hated\\ such\\ chaos\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ established\\ rituals\\ and\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ allot\\ things\\ to\\ people\\,\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ desires\\ and\\ to\\ satisfy\\ their\\ seeking\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ rituals\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ roots\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ has\\ three\\ roots\\:\\ Heaven\\ and\\ earth\\ are\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ life\\.\\ Forefathers\\ and\\ ancestors\\ are\\ the\\ roots\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kind\\.\\ Rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\ are\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ order\\&hellip\\;Ritual\\ serves\\ Heaven\\ above\\ and\\ earth\\ below\\,\\ it\\ honors\\ forefathers\\ and\\ ancestors\\,\\ and\\ it\\ exalts\\ rulers\\ and\\ teachers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(275\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sage\\ Kings\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puett\\ said\\ in\\ lecture\\ that\\ people\\ need\\ to\\ observe\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ constantly\\ refine\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritual\\ propriety\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ quality\\:\\ humans\\ require\\ a\\ teacher\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ Way\\&mdash\\;p\\.\\ 259\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ learning\\,\\ nothing\\ is\\ more\\ expedient\\ than\\ to\\ draw\\ near\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ person\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ correct\\ your\\ person\\.\\ The\\ teacher\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ correct\\ your\\ practice\\ of\\ ritual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ \\&lsquo\\;correcting\\ names\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(zhengming\\)\\ relate\\ to\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethical\\ and\\ political\\ thought\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Names\\ are\\ not\\ intrinsic\\ to\\ the\\ object\\ but\\ once\\ they\\ are\\ conventionally\\ agreed\\ upon\\,\\ to\\ change\\ them\\ is\\ wrong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ serve\\ to\\ communicate\\,\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;name\\ games\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ other\\ paradoxes\\ should\\ be\\ eliminated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creating\\ names\\ \\&ldquo\\;confuses\\ people\\ and\\ causes\\ them\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ much\\ disputation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(279\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sage\\ kings\\ made\\ names\\&mdash\\;292\\;\\ these\\ names\\ were\\ fixed\\ and\\ the\\ corresponding\\ objects\\ were\\ thus\\ distinguished\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ thing\\ Confucius\\ would\\ do\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ correct\\ names\\&mdash\\;see\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Son\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ son\\,\\ father\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ father\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acknowledges\\ that\\ standards\\ of\\ communication\\ are\\ arbitrary\\,\\ but\\ recognizes\\ that\\ there\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ order\\&mdash\\;so\\ even\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ defined\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ order\\ and\\ collectively\\ understand\\ that\\ order\\ is\\ necessary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ names\\ as\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ social\\ consensus\\;\\ Confucius\\ talks\\ about\\ names\\ that\\ are\\ handed\\ down\\ from\\ antiquity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ \\&ldquo\\;predetermined\\ appropriateness\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ he\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ dichotomies\\ \\(ugly\\ vs\\.\\ beautiful\\,\\ bad\\ vs\\.\\ good\\)\\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ even\\ talking\\ about\\ abstract\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\,\\ but\\ he\\ uses\\ words\\ to\\ differentiate\\ states\\;\\ goodness\\ and\\ badness\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ political\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\&mdash\\;not\\ so\\ much\\ judging\\ a\\ moral\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ using\\ word\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\?\\ In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ cultivate\\ goodness\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bad\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;amorality\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ being\\ inherently\\ evil\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ naturally\\ desire\\ profit\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ other\\ materialistic\\ things\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Following\\ these\\ natural\\ desires\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;inborn\\ nature\\ and\\ dispositions\\&rdquo\\;\\ creates\\ disorder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ contradiction\\ to\\ Menzi\\,\\ who\\ says\\ that\\ learning\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ manifest\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ their\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ says\\ that\\ learning\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ your\\ basic\\ nature\\&mdash\\;there\\ is\\ division\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ deliberate\\ effort\\-299\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deliberate\\ effort\\ through\\ ritual\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ create\\ standards\\ of\\ righteousness\\,\\ which\\ cultivates\\ goodness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ metaphors\\ does\\ Xunzi\\ use\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ self\\-cultivation\\?\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ compare\\ to\\ those\\ used\\ by\\ Mencius\\ or\\ Confucius\\?\\ Who\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ adheres\\ more\\ closely\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ teachings\\?\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ see\\ them\\ depart\\ from\\ his\\ teachings\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deliberateness\\:\\ emphasizes\\ process\\ of\\ activity\\&mdash\\;the\\ potter\\,\\ the\\ carpenter\\ \\(277\\)\\,\\ other\\ craft\\ examples\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Student\\ and\\ teachers\\ are\\ both\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ their\\ roles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Menzi\\:\\ being\\ more\\ natural\\ about\\ cultivating\\ self\\;\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ emphasizes\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\:\\ Gentleman\\ identifies\\ rituals\\ and\\ internalizes\\ them\\;\\ every\\ little\\ movement\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ slight\\,\\ was\\ always\\ perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\P\\.\\ 259\\:\\ connects\\ to\\ analects\\;\\ distinguish\\ between\\ whether\\ learning\\ is\\ real\\ and\\ actions\\ follow\\ it\\ or\\ whether\\ learning\\ is\\ just\\ pointless\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ of\\ just\\ dialoguing\\,\\ your\\ learning\\ must\\ have\\ action\\ and\\ meaning\\&mdash\\;understand\\ what\\ stillness\\ and\\ emptiness\\ mean\\ through\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Major\\ metaphor\\:\\ crooked\\ wood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Crooked\\ wood\\ must\\ await\\ steaming\\ and\\ straightening\\ on\\ the\\ shaping\\ frame\\,\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ straight\\.\\ Blunt\\ metal\\ must\\ await\\ honing\\ and\\ grinding\\,\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ sharp\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\.\\ 299\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ teachers\\ to\\ shape\\ you\\ and\\ act\\ as\\ models\\ \\(299\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ ritual\\ to\\ enforce\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ vision\\ of\\ statecraft\\ put\\ forth\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Book\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ law\\ play\\?\\ Where\\ does\\ law\\ come\\ from\\,\\ and\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ it\\ based\\?\\ Does\\ ritual\\ have\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\101\\ prosperity\\ defined\\ as\\ war\\ and\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\103\\,\\ 104\\ create\\ single\\-mindedness\\,\\ build\\ uniformity\\ and\\ consolidation\\ \\(rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ give\\ uniformity\\ of\\ purpose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\96\\ force\\ the\\ lazy\\/idle\\ to\\ work\\ by\\ removing\\ others\\ \\(force\\ people\\ into\\ agriculture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ rituals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rites\\ as\\ 1\\ of\\ 10\\ evils\\ \\(108\\)\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ dissipations\\ \\(111\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\At\\ one\\ point\\ the\\ text\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Do\\ not\\ allow\\ merchants\\ to\\ buy\\ grain\\ nor\\ farmers\\ to\\ sell\\ grain\\.\\ If\\ farmers\\ may\\ not\\ sell\\ their\\ grain\\,\\ then\\ the\\ lazy\\ and\\ inactive\\ ones\\ will\\ exert\\ themselves\\ and\\ be\\ energetic\\;\\ and\\,\\ if\\ merchants\\ may\\ not\\ buy\\ grain\\,\\ then\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ particular\\ joy\\ over\\ abundant\\ years\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ a\\ society\\ without\\ \\&ldquo\\;buying\\ and\\ selling\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ what\\ occupation\\(s\\)\\ can\\ people\\ hold\\?\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ state\\ enforce\\ this\\ situation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ must\\ work\\ to\\ sustain\\ themselves\\ \\=\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;depend\\ on\\ others\\&\\#39\\;\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\agriculture\\ can\\ bring\\ waste\\ lands\\ under\\ cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ it\\ is\\ forbidden\\ to\\ sell\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ no\\ purpose\\ to\\ stealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\98\\ remove\\ music\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ concentrate\\ on\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\99\\ remove\\ patrons\\ for\\ criminals\\ \\(no\\ food\\,\\ no\\ petitions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ society\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ vision\\ discussed\\ in\\ question\\ one\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ role\\ does\\ morality\\ play\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\purpose\\ of\\ society\\ is\\ to\\ conquer\\ other\\ lands\\,\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\ prosperity\\ \\-\\ also\\ see\\ question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ role\\ for\\ morality\\ \\(also\\ see\\ lecture\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\111\\ governing\\ through\\ the\\ wicked\\ creates\\ order\\ and\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\,\\ the\\ past\\ has\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ reference\\ point\\ for\\ the\\ present\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ history\\ put\\ forth\\ in\\ this\\ text\\?\\ How\\ do\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ present\\?\\ How\\ is\\ this\\ both\\ similar\\ and\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ texts\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\95\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ necessity\\ to\\ imitate\\ antiquity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duke\\ Hsiao\\:\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plans\\ should\\ be\\ directed\\ by\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\104\\ Odes\\ and\\ History\\ are\\ useless\\ in\\ the\\ practical\\ sense\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ kings\\ made\\ people\\ turn\\ back\\ to\\ war\\ and\\ agriculture\\ during\\ Tang\\ and\\ Wu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\emphasizes\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ change\\ strategies\\ for\\ governing\\ \\(Zhuangzian\\ flexibility\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\re\\-interprets\\ Laozian\\ paradoxes\\:\\ by\\ aiming\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ virtuous\\,\\ one\\ only\\ makes\\ criminals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rejects\\ importance\\ of\\ ritual\\ found\\ in\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ synthesize\\ and\\ critique\\ the\\ positions\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ earlier\\ figures\\ we\\ have\\ read\\?\\ \\ \\;One\\ obvious\\ thing\\ to\\ consider\\ is\\ that\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ was\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ Xunzi\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ did\\ he\\ learn\\ from\\ his\\ master\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ did\\ he\\ reject\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ seems\\ to\\ combine\\ Doaism\\ and\\ Mohism\\ by\\ teaching\\ that\\ rulers\\ should\\ be\\ still\\ and\\ empty\\,\\ following\\ the\\ way\\,\\ and\\ this\\ will\\ better\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ firm\\ set\\ of\\ rules\\ and\\ well\\ ordered\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Han\\ Feizi\\ clearly\\ used\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ technique\\ of\\ finding\\ the\\ valuable\\ parts\\ of\\ other\\ philosophies\\ and\\ combining\\ them\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ made\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ realizing\\ when\\ certain\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\ were\\ out\\-dated\\ and\\ no\\ longer\\ pertinent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ offering\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ certain\\ to\\ succeed\\&rdquo\\;\\ given\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ tendencies\\ of\\ humans\\,\\ and\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\,\\ he\\ suggests\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ present\\ have\\ different\\ customs\\;\\ the\\ new\\ and\\ the\\ old\\ require\\ different\\ preparations\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(340\\)\\.\\ Does\\ his\\ presentation\\ of\\ a\\ way\\,\\ which\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ argue\\ would\\ be\\ effective\\ at\\ any\\ time\\,\\ contradict\\ his\\ claim\\ that\\ past\\ ways\\ do\\ not\\ fit\\ in\\ present\\ circumstances\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ is\\ his\\ argument\\ consistent\\ with\\ his\\ project\\?\\ Does\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ saying\\ contradict\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personally\\ I\\ think\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ is\\ not\\ contradicting\\ himself\\ here\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ offering\\ a\\ more\\ abstract\\ method\\ of\\ running\\ a\\ state\\ and\\ not\\ specific\\ instructions\\ for\\ how\\ rulers\\ should\\ react\\ in\\ certain\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sets\\ of\\ rules\\,\\ rewards\\,\\ punishments\\,\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ make\\-up\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ could\\ all\\ change\\ drastically\\ but\\ be\\ implemented\\ with\\ his\\ same\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ think\\ he\\ purposefully\\ created\\ his\\ way\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ manner\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ modified\\ to\\ better\\ suit\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ Sima\\ Qian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\ and\\ Li\\ Si\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Sima\\&rsquo\\;s\\ narrative\\,\\ what\\ did\\ these\\ figures\\ do\\ to\\ merit\\ this\\ judgment\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\According\\ to\\ his\\ conclustions\\,\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ bad\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Were\\ only\\ looking\\ to\\ promote\\ their\\ own\\ well\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;strive\\ for\\ enlightened\\ government\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ repairing\\ the\\ ruler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defects\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(206\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ supported\\ harsh\\ rules\\ and\\ punishments\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ his\\ narrative\\ suggests\\ that\\ maybe\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 100\\%\\ bad\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ doing\\ what\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ done\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(esp\\ for\\ Li\\ Si\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ almost\\ feels\\ like\\ the\\ good\\ guy\\ in\\ his\\ story\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ Sima\\ Qian\\,\\ writing\\ history\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ simply\\ a\\ recounting\\ of\\ past\\ events\\.\\ How\\ is\\ writing\\ history\\ a\\ moral\\ practice\\ for\\ Sima\\ Qian\\?\\ How\\ does\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ relate\\ to\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ cultivation\\ in\\ the\\ present\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Finds\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ unconditional\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\ to\\ be\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ writing\\ history\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easy\\ for\\ events\\ and\\ people\\ to\\ get\\ classified\\ as\\ strictly\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ look\\ at\\ Qin\\ empire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ were\\ doing\\ what\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ difficult\\ Warring\\ States\\ period\\,\\ so\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ that\\ their\\ harsh\\ rule\\ was\\ just\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ had\\ some\\ good\\ results\\,\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ Confucius\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ correct\\ course\\ of\\ action\\,\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ when\\ you\\ write\\ history\\,\\ you\\ are\\ taking\\ a\\ stance\\ on\\ events\\,\\ and\\ should\\ take\\ all\\ the\\ circumstances\\ into\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ helps\\ an\\ individual\\ self\\-cultivate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analyzing\\ how\\ people\\ act\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ past\\ judgmentally\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ helps\\ you\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ new\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ more\\ familiar\\ you\\ are\\ with\\ the\\ correct\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ in\\ past\\ events\\,\\ the\\ better\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ correct\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 38, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Discussion_Questions.doc", "desc": "Discussion Questions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Art and Modernity - Notes 2", "tags": ["harvard", "american-art", "modernity"], "text": null, "id": 57, "html": "\\\\\\HAA172w\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c8\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c10\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c4\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\;WAR\\,\\ MEMORY\\,\\ AND\\ THE\\ UNREPRESENTABLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\:\\ \\ \\;RECONSTRUCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\:\\ \\ \\;RETHINKING\\ THE\\ REAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ GILDED\\ AGE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\:\\ \\ \\;FORMS\\ OF\\ EXTINCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\:\\ \\ \\;FLASH\\ AND\\ FLICKER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\:\\ \\ \\;URBAN\\ SPECTACLES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ March\\ 20\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Urban\\ Spectacles\\:\\ \\ \\;Jacob\\ Riis\\,\\ the\\ Ash\\ Can\\ School\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Armory\\ Show\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Online\\ includes\\ website\\ 4armour\\ show\\&hellip\\;part\\ o\\ our\\ official\\ rdg\\ 4this\\ wk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wk\\:\\ \\ \\;urban\\ space\\ n\\ interaction\\ o\\ gazes\\ w\\/in\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ artist\\ contended\\ w\\ new\\ urban\\ space\\ n\\ interactions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B4\\ that\\,\\ wrapping\\ up\\ early\\ cinema\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\W\\.K\\.L\\.\\ Dickson\\ for\\ the\\ Edison\\ Company\\,\\ still\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Annabelle\\ Butterfly\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Last\\ wk\\ we\\ introduced\\ early\\ cinema\\,\\ talked\\ about\\ inseparability\\ o\\ film\\ n\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gunning\\ called\\ Cinema\\ o\\ Attractions\\ n\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ properties\\ o\\ vaudeville\\ determined\\ how\\ film\\ was\\ understood\\ n\\ produced\\,\\ notably\\ in\\ its\\ copying\\ vaudeville\\ w\\ its\\ fragmentary\\,\\ unrelated\\ acts\\,\\ direct\\ address\\ 2the\\ spectator\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Film\\ had\\ little\\ interest\\ in\\ developing\\ elaborate\\ plot\\ lines\\ that\\ we\\ now\\ tie\\ 2cinematic\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edison\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Maria\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ Edison\\ laboratory\\ in\\ West\\ Orange\\,\\ NJ\\,\\ 1893\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ film\\ lab\\ at\\ his\\ large\\ lab\\ o\\ inventions\\.\\ \\ \\;Covered\\ in\\ black\\ siding\\ 2prevent\\ any\\ light\\ from\\ getting\\ in2\\ the\\ studio\\.\\ \\ \\;Looks\\ like\\ the\\ monitor\\/Merrimack\\,\\ iron\\ clad\\ warship\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ where\\ most\\ early\\ films\\ were\\ produced\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Annabelle\\ Butterfly\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ filled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ short\\ acts\\ set\\ up\\ againt\\ black\\ background\\ on\\ small\\ stage\\,\\ filmed\\ in\\ one\\ shot\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ editing\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ Muybridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motion\\ studies\\.\\ \\ \\;Setting\\ human\\ body\\ against\\ black\\ background\\ n\\ watching\\ it\\ move\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ as\\ film\\ developed\\ in\\ yrs\\ following\\ 1890s\\,\\ it\\ had\\ more\\ elaborate\\ scenery\\.\\ \\ \\;Interest\\ in\\ shock\\ n\\ spectacle\\ rather\\ than\\ narrative\\ development\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edwin\\ S\\.\\ Porter\\ for\\ Edison\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Smashing\\ a\\ Jersey\\ Mosquito\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ film\\ still\\,\\ 1902\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mosquito\\ is\\ up\\ on\\ top\\ left\\ o\\ pic\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ white\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Porter\\ for\\ Edison\\,\\ still\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ HAappened\\ on\\ Twenty\\-third\\ Street\\,\\ New\\ York\\ City\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1901\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Porter\\ n\\ Dickson\\ wrkd\\ 4Edison\\,\\ making\\ his\\ films\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ magic\\,\\ visual\\ tricks\\,\\ slapstick\\,\\ not\\ development\\ o\\ elaborate\\ stories\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;st\\.\\ film\\ has\\ qualities\\ o\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;Long\\ shot\\ o\\ ppl\\ walking\\ down\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stl\\ toward\\ camera\\,\\ but\\ when\\ woman\\ steps\\ on\\ crate\\,\\ narrative\\ energy\\ o\\ film\\ is\\ destroyed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narrative\\ is\\ usually\\ only\\ used\\ in\\ these\\ 2provide\\ a\\ foil\\ for\\ what\\ film\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ about\\,\\ eruptive\\ moment\\ o\\ spectacle\\,\\ stimulation\\ n\\ shock\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gunning\\ describes\\ how\\ wal\\ o\\ this\\ is\\ about\\ creating\\ active\\ circuit\\ bw\\ audience\\ n\\ performer\\ on\\ film\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dickson\\ for\\ Edison\\,\\ still\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Annabelle\\ Serpentine\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ films\\ r\\ all\\ about\\ direct\\ address\\ 2audience\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ is\\ creating\\ relationships\\ 2audience\\,\\ seeking\\ recognition\\ n\\ astonishment\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ Spectacle\\,\\ stimulation\\,\\ shock\\,\\ instead\\ o\\ narrative\\ absorption\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gunning\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;cinema\\ moves\\ outward\\ toward\\ the\\ spectator\\ instead\\ o\\ having\\ viewer\\ move\\ in2\\ its\\ own\\ internal\\ narrative\\ development\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ element\\ o\\ form\\ o\\ astonishment\\ \\ \\;is\\ kidn\\ o\\ friction\\ I\\ thereby\\ allows\\ between\\ representation\\ n\\ actual\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ u\\ go\\ 2movies\\,\\ ur\\ contending\\ w\\ 2different\\ forms\\ o\\ duration\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ those\\ universes\\ \\=\\ actual\\/spectatorial\\ world\\,\\ time\\ in\\ universe\\ in\\ which\\ u\\ as\\ viewr\\ exist\\.\\ \\ \\;Time\\ u\\ were\\ in\\ when\\ u\\ went\\ in2\\ the\\ cinema\\,\\ still\\ living\\ in\\ ur\\ own\\ universe\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ in\\ cinema\\,\\ ur\\ confronted\\ w\\ diegetic\\ duration\\,\\ which\\ refers\\ 2time\\ in\\ universe\\ when\\ film\\ exists\\.\\ \\ \\;Whenever\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ a\\ cinema\\,\\ u\\ have\\ these\\ 2kidns\\ o\\ duration\\ that\\ r\\ coming\\ in2\\ play\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ Hollywood\\ narrative\\ film\\ has\\ ur\\ own\\ duration\\ left\\ behind\\ at\\ door\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ want\\ 2b\\ absorbed\\ in2\\ flow\\ o\\ time\\ on\\ screen\\,\\ in2\\ fictionary\\ u\\ iverse\\ o\\ the\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;Ur\\ absorbed\\ in2\\ other\\ world\\ n\\ leave\\ ur\\ own\\ body\\ behind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ part\\ o\\ excitement\\,\\ fragmentation\\ o\\ representational\\ space\\ in\\ cinema\\ was\\ part\\ o\\ tis\\ excitement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ ppl\\ seek\\ this\\ kind\\ o\\ experience\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ o\\ the\\ century\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illustrated\\ song\\ slide\\ for\\ song\\ dated\\ 1908\\ \\(lantern\\ slide\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ showed\\ in\\ bw\\ several\\ different\\ films\\,\\ or\\ bw\\ film\\ n\\ vaudeville\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ would\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ on\\ screen\\ while\\ doing\\ audience\\ sing\\ along\\,\\ watching\\ in\\ direct\\ way\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2imagine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experience\\ o\\ being\\ part\\ o\\ an\\ audience\\ like\\ this\\ was\\ electric\\,\\ charged\\,\\ n\\ ppl\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ 2ignore\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ sitting\\ in\\ an\\ udience\\ 2gether\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ new\\ experience\\ 4urban\\ entertainment\\ at\\ turn\\ o\\ century\\.\\ \\ \\;Act\\ o\\ watching\\ became\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ whole\\ constitution\\ o\\ mass\\ audience\\ that\\ we\\ understand\\ 2day\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ formation\\ at\\ this\\ particular\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ n\\ exciting\\ 4ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Cinema\\ derives\\ from\\ n\\ \\ \\;in\\ turn\\ addresses\\ new\\ forms\\ o\\ urban\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ just\\ about\\ interesting\\ technological\\ relationship\\ bw\\ stillness\\ n\\ continuity\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ o\\ devlopmetn\\ o\\ urban\\ experience\\ very\\ directly\\ in\\ this\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vaudeville\\,\\ film\\,\\ all\\ these\\ entertainments\\ wrking\\ thru\\ kineticism\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Place\\ 2come\\ 2experience\\ new\\ confusion\\ n\\ chaos\\ o\\ urban\\ existence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiencing\\ kinteticism\\ o\\ modern\\ life\\ in\\ comprehensible\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ often\\ discussed\\ in\\ early\\ film\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ like\\ walking\\ thru\\ an\\ urban\\ city\\ st\\,\\ but\\ in\\ safe\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;Film\\ n\\ mass\\ entertainment\\ reflecting\\ on\\ outside\\ world\\ but\\ doing\\ so\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ mutes\\ the\\ real\\ dangers\\ n\\ concerns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Descriptions\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\ in\\ this\\ period\\ in\\ general\\ emphasize\\ experience\\ o\\ arousal\\,\\ commotion\\,\\ instability\\,\\ frenentic\\ n\\ disjointed\\ pace\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\,\\ discontinuity\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\,\\ impossibility\\ o\\ concentrating\\ on\\ any\\ particular\\ thing\\ when\\ ur\\ surrounded\\ by\\ plate\\ glass\\ windows\\ fll\\ o\\ merchandise\\,\\ examples\\ o\\ dense\\ urbanity\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ 2day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kalaeidescopic\\ experience\\ o\\ gazing\\ n\\ looking\\ at\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1903\\ book\\:\\ \\ \\;metropolis\\ n\\ mental\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrote\\ that\\ city\\ producedrapid\\ crowding\\ o\\ changing\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Unexpectedness\\ o\\ onrushing\\ sensations\\.\\ \\ \\;Experience\\ o\\ modernity\\ undestsood\\ as\\ experience\\ o\\ sensation\\,\\ unexpectedness\\,\\ n\\ this\\ was\\ all\\ being\\ processed\\ through\\ film\\ during\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\:\\ \\ \\;talk\\ about\\ how\\ these\\ seame\\ experiences\\ were\\ also\\ processed\\ in\\ pntg\\ at\\ turn\\ o\\ century\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ happening\\ in\\ other\\ arc\\ in\\ particular\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ explain\\ crowding\\ o\\ images\\?\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ seeing\\ its\\ effects\\ on\\ other\\ kinds\\ o\\ pntgs\\ indirectly\\.\\ \\ \\;Recall\\ these\\ responses\\ 2this\\ new\\ experience\\ o\\ discontinuous\\ urban\\ life\\ n\\ frenetic\\ excitement\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frederic\\ Remington\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ from\\ the\\ Night\\ Herd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reacts\\ against\\ urban\\ environment\\ nostalgically\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ pntrs\\ try\\ 2forge\\ unity\\ n\\ harmony\\ from\\ new\\ world\\ understood\\ 2b\\ discontinuous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Wilmer\\ Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ White\\ Birch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1896\\-99\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dewing\\ tries\\ 2provide\\ rest\\ cure\\ from\\ frenetic\\ energy\\ o\\ cities\\ n\\ urban\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Profoundly\\ urban\\ pntgs\\ even\\ tho\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ trying\\ not\\ 2b\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Urban\\ world\\ provides\\ dialectical\\ charge\\ 2much\\ o\\ pntg\\ o\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ur\\ not\\ consciously\\ trying\\ 2get\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ 2methods\\ o\\ capturing\\ the\\ city\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;particular\\ brand\\ o\\ mrealism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;thru\\ use\\ o\\ modernist\\ pntg\\ techniques\\ that\\ themselves\\ involve\\ discontinuous\\ forms\\ o\\ chaotic\\ arrangements\\ o\\ lines\\ n\\ colors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Bellows\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lone\\ Tenement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1909\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntgs\\ that\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ described\\ themselves\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;realist\\ pntgs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Realist\\ n\\ modernist\\,\\ both\\ models\\ o\\ approaching\\ urban\\ experience\\,\\ understoodthsmeslves\\ 2b\\ revolutionary\\ n\\ radical\\,\\ although2day\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ Bellows\\ style\\ as\\ less\\ radical\\,\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ radical\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bellows\\ came\\ down\\ from\\ the\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ full\\ o\\ images\\ o\\ detritist\\,\\ waste\\,\\ things\\ thrown\\ away\\ not\\ just\\ on\\ st\\.s\\,\\ but\\ thrown\\ out\\ o\\ proper\\ realm\\ o\\ academic\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Realists\\ wanted\\ 2show\\ the\\ beautiful\\ n\\ the\\ ugly\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ 2capture\\ confrontation\\,\\ not\\ just\\ perfect\\ order\\ like\\ Dewing\\ or\\ Whistler\\ followers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ 2demosntrate\\ raw\\ power\\ o\\ city\\ that\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ reformed\\,\\ harmonized\\,\\ vaporizd\\ in\\ ways\\ w\\&rsquo\\;eve\\ come\\ 2see\\ it\\ pntd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ increases\\ in\\ immigration\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ tis\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ o\\ the\\ century\\ usually\\ meant\\ NYC\\,\\ but\\ not\\ always\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ epicenter\\ o\\ urban\\ explorations\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ focus\\ almost\\ entirely\\ on\\ urban\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ led\\ by\\ Robert\\ Henri\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;hen\\-rye\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ figures\\ in\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ group\\ were\\ Bellows\\,\\ William\\ Glackens\\,\\ Everett\\ Shinn\\,\\ John\\ Sloan\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ interested\\ in\\ avoidance\\ o\\ sentiment\\ n\\ harmony\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ wanted\\ 2show\\ hard\\ facts\\ about\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ n\\ next\\ pntg\\ show\\ these\\ hard\\ facts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bwllows\\ contending\\ w\\ miniaturization\\ o\\ human\\ film\\,\\ dwarfed\\ by\\ massive\\ urban\\ objects\\:\\ \\ \\;tenement\\ trapped\\ under\\ immense\\ bridge\\ built\\ across\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bellows\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Penn\\ Station\\ Excavations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\ 1906\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ typical\\ o\\ what\\ Ash\\ Can\\ scene\\ wanted\\ 2pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Typical\\ that\\ Ash\\ Can\\ pntrs\\ pnt\\ penn\\ station\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ this\\ immense\\ hole\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ \\ \\;Gaping\\ hole\\,\\ being\\ ripped\\ apart\\,\\ looking\\ like\\ a\\ ruin\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ pnt\\ that\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ station\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ its\\ finished\\ form\\:\\ \\ \\;perfect\\ roman\\ bldg\\,\\ shown\\ in\\ McKim\\ n\\ such\\&rsquo\\;\\ pictures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ interested\\ in\\ classical\\ soaring\\ space\\ that\\ was\\ penn\\ station\\&rsquo\\;s\\ finished\\ bldg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\McKim\\,\\ Mead\\,\\ and\\ White\\,\\ Pennsylvania\\ Station\\,\\ 1906\\-1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refers\\ 2\\ World\\ Fair\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;White\\ City\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ whole\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\ tho\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Henri\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ice\\ Floe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1902\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Henri\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\57\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Street\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1902\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Henri\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cumulus\\ Clouds\\,\\ East\\ River\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1901\\-02\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bellows\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cliff\\ Dwellers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1913\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ attractions\\ at\\ \\&ldquo\\;Midway\\ Plaisance\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ World\\ Fair\\&hellip\\;he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ referring\\ 2manhattan\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primitive\\ conditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bellows\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Stag\\ at\\ Sharkey\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1909\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boxing\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ these\\ pntrs\\ interested\\ in\\ direct\\ expression\\ on\\ canvas\\ o\\ the\\ raw\\,\\ attractive\\,\\ violent\\ energy\\ o\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trying\\ 2capture\\ the\\ truth\\ o\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;impression\\,\\ seizing\\ that\\ impression\\,\\ translating\\ it\\ in2\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ picking\\ up\\ their\\ techniques\\ thru\\ urban\\ sensationalism\\ journalism\\,\\ which\\ was\\ part\\ o\\ mass\\ media\\ o\\ major\\ cities\\ since\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacob\\ Riis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\All\\ night\\ two\\ cent\\ restaurant\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Bend\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ the\\ Other\\ Half\\ Lives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Riis\\ was\\ imptnt\\ in\\ defining\\ way\\ that\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ seedier\\ side\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\ half\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ understood\\ in\\ turn\\ o\\ century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Riis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Five\\ Cents\\ a\\ Spot\\:\\ \\ \\;Unauthorized\\ Lodgings\\ in\\ Bayard\\ St\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ the\\ Other\\ Half\\ Lives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Riis\\ part\\ o\\ long\\ history\\ o\\ sensationalism\\ journalism\\ in\\ NYC\\.\\ \\ \\;Came\\ from\\ Denmark\\.\\ \\ \\;Struggled\\ out\\ o\\ poverty\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Became\\ police\\ reporter\\.\\ \\ \\;Running\\ around\\ city\\ picking\\ up\\ on\\ crimes\\ n\\ other\\ misfortunes\\ nm\\ ishaps\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tradition\\ o\\ journalistic\\ sensationalism\\ throughout\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ this\\ class\\ in\\ photographers\\ like\\ WiiJii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Riis\\ \\=\\ formal\\ innovator\\ in\\ picturing\\ part\\ o\\ city\\ not\\ available\\ 2eyes\\ o\\ middle\\ class\\ who\\ were\\ geographically\\ n\\ socially\\ separated\\ from\\ difficult\\,\\ dangerous\\,\\ poor\\ slums\\ tey\\ knew\\ existed\\ but\\ never\\ entered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Riis\\ tried\\ in\\ reformist\\ mindset\\ 2open\\ these\\ views\\ 2the\\ middle\\ class\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ would\\ support\\ housing\\ reforms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ create\\ certain\\ effects\\ that\\ would\\ b\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ other\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ all\\ relied\\ on\\ Riis\\ producing\\ surprise\\ tactics\\.\\ \\ \\;Involved\\ him\\ bursting\\ in2\\ dark\\ unlit\\ rooms\\ in\\ middle\\ o\\ night\\,\\ lighting\\ his\\ magnesium\\ flare\\,\\ n\\ all\\ this\\ happened\\ b4\\ his\\ subjects\\ could\\ compose\\ themselves\\ literally\\ n\\ figurally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ y\\ his\\ faces\\ seem\\ bleary\\,\\ half\\-awake\\.\\ \\ \\;Subjects\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ given\\ agency\\ in\\ the\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;Shocking\\ surprise\\ thru\\ which\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nemerov\\ made\\ these\\ connectison\\ bw\\ Riis\\&rsquo\\;s\\ photographs\\ n\\ Remington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ animals\\ surprised\\ at\\ the\\ watering\\ hole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surprise\\ goes\\ 2the\\ detriment\\ o\\ the\\ subjects\\ who\\ appear\\ trapped\\ in\\ small\\ spaces\\,\\ deprived\\ o\\ any\\ sense\\ that\\ they\\ might\\ b\\ able\\ 2help\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ paradoxes\\ is\\ that\\ although\\ these\\ r\\ intedned\\ 2produce\\ reform\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ like\\ policeman\\ raids\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Close\\ perspective\\ o\\ his\\ pics\\ is\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ other\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Randomness\\,\\ chaos\\ shown\\ is\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ reason\\ they\\ r\\ n\\ seem\\ very\\ authentic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Around\\ this\\ period\\ u\\ begin\\ 2see\\ in\\ US\\ n\\ in\\ Schilling\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flash\\ photographs\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ a\\ few\\ randomly\\ scattered\\ pieces\\ o\\ trash\\,\\ objects\\,\\ chaotically\\ disposed\\ around\\ picture\\ plane\\,\\ r\\ a\\ sign\\ o\\ authenticity\\ n\\ truth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Riis\\ is\\ responsible\\ 4producing\\ that\\ kidn\\ o\\ rhetoric\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ pntrs\\ never\\ went\\ this\\ far\\ in2\\ the\\ dark\\ side\\ o\\ NYC\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ borriwng\\ form\\ this\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traveling\\ around\\ the\\ city\\,\\ finding\\ scenes\\ that\\ would\\ shock\\ middle\\ class\\ viewers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Old\\ master\\ pntrs\\ were\\ also\\ devoted\\ 2gritty\\ realism\\.\\ \\ \\;Goya\\,\\ others\\&hellip\\;from\\ these\\ pntrs\\ they\\ picked\\ up\\ certain\\ pntg\\ techniques\\ that\\ also\\ conveyed\\ authetniticity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Henri\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Girl\\ in\\ a\\ Green\\ Coat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ n\\.d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ detail\\ shows\\ kind\\ o\\ plate\\ application\\ that\\ Henri\\ n\\ other\\ Ash\\ Can\\ ptnrs\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;Broadly\\ applied\\ pnt\\ \\ \\;conveys\\ rawness\\ n\\ immediacy\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\ they\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ refined\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ careful\\ misty\\ harmony\\.\\ \\ \\;Need\\ 2convey\\ authenticity\\ not\\ in\\ just\\ subject\\ matter\\ but\\ also\\ chaotic\\ n\\ random\\ application\\ o\\ chunks\\ o\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;aposto\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ that\\ pntr\\ is\\ able\\ 2express\\ a\\ notion\\ o\\ spontanaeity\\ thru\\ use\\ o\\ rapid\\ brush\\ strokes\\,\\ highly\\ frated\\,\\ emotional\\ brushstrokes\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ 2that\\ w\\ abstract\\ expressionism\\ in\\ a\\ coupel\\ wks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ influence\\ on\\ Ash\\ Can\\ pntrs\\:\\ \\ \\;French\\ pntg\\ o\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\&hellip\\;it\\ was\\ 20\\ yrs\\ old\\ by\\ time\\ Ash\\ Can\\ pntrs\\ picked\\ this\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ pntrs\\ famous\\ 4new\\ approach\\ 2urban\\ gritty\\ relatiy\\,\\ not\\ their\\ pntg\\ technique\\,\\ which\\ was\\ actually\\ really\\ conservative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edouard\\ Manet\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Bar\\ at\\ the\\ Folles\\-Bergere\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1881\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ pntrs\\ borrowed\\ form\\ Manet\\ 2express\\ difficulties\\ n\\ disjunctions\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ pntrs\\ did\\ sometimes\\ show\\ upper\\ middle\\ class\\ life\\,\\ but\\ always\\ w\\ a\\ certain\\ edge\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ maybe\\ manet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notion\\ o\\ social\\ dislocation\\ in\\ urban\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ French\\ pntrs\\ exploring\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ image\\,\\ there\\ is\\ certainly\\ an\\ appeal\\ 2glitter\\ n\\ elaborate\\ beauty\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ but\\ also\\ sense\\ o\\ anomi\\,\\ dislocation\\,\\ isolation\\ o\\ all\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ this\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Girl\\ behind\\ bar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dazed\\ expression\\ indicates\\ her\\ perceptual\\ n\\ emotional\\ absence\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ full\\ o\\ non\\-sensical\\ n\\ impossible\\ mirror\\ reflections\\,\\ which\\ hrefer\\ 2dispalcement\\ that\\ was\\ part\\ o\\ urban\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ self\\ fragmented\\ in2\\ series\\ o\\ kalaeidoscoppic\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ o\\ upper\\ classes\\ focused\\ on\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ isolation\\ from\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ the\\ dark\\ side\\ o\\ upper\\ middle\\ class\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Glackens\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chez\\ Mouqiuin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mary\\ Cassatt\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\At\\ the\\ Opera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\ \\(MFA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ excitement\\ o\\ gazes\\ n\\ gazing\\ practices\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picking\\ up\\ from\\ earlier\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Mary\\ Cassatt\\ sets\\ this\\ pntg\\ at\\ opera\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ pntgs\\ influential\\ on\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;Cassatt\\ was\\ American\\ pntr\\ living\\ in\\ EU\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ closely\\ associated\\ w\\ various\\ French\\ impressionists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ spaces\\,\\ like\\ this\\ one\\,\\ r\\ bristling\\ w\\ gazes\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ looking\\ at\\ eo\\ n\\ being\\ looked\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ 2ppl\\ understood\\ 2b\\ escoted\\ by\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;Illegal\\ flirtaiotn\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ looking\\ at\\ eo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ kidns\\ o\\ interactions\\,\\ exciting\\,\\ slightly\\ incorrect\\ interactions\\,\\ wqwere\\ what\\ ppl\\ were\\ understanding\\ about\\ the\\ world\\ o\\ vaudeville\\ n\\ cinema\\,\\ so\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\ reason\\ pntgs\\ like\\ Cassat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ became\\ such\\ imptnt\\ models\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Sloan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Movies\\,\\ Five\\ Cents\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ interactions\\ o\\ the\\ gaze\\ were\\ becoming\\ conspicuous\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Vaudeville\\ n\\ cinema\\ were\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;forms\\ o\\ theatrical\\ enteratainment\\ attended\\ by\\ unescorted\\ middle\\ class\\ owmne\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ could\\ go\\ out\\ n\\ attend\\ movies\\ w\\ friends\\ in\\ way\\ u\\ could\\ never\\ do\\ b4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ opportunitites\\ 4unsupervised\\ encounters\\ bw\\ sexes\\,\\ but\\ tehse\\ encounters\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ taint\\ o\\ vice\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ 20\\ yrs\\ earlier\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ could\\ walk\\ unescorted\\ by\\ men\\ on\\ the\\ sts\\.\\ \\ \\;Do\\ that\\ 20\\ yrs\\ ago\\ n\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ prostitute\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Excitement\\,\\ new\\ world\\ o\\ gazes\\ n\\ looking\\ that\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ pntrs\\ r\\ interested\\ in\\ looking\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ look\\ at\\ tehse\\ women\\,\\ but\\ they\\ loko\\ back\\ at\\ u\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ attempting\\ 2negotitate\\ discontinuity\\ o\\ urban\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Constant\\ manipulation\\ o\\ thesmes\\ o\\ looking\\ n\\ gazing\\ in\\ n\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ picture\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ there\\ were\\ other\\ approaches\\ 2\\ problem\\ o\\ discontinuity\\ o\\ urban\\ experience\\,\\ tho\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ Stella\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Painting\\ Battle\\ o\\ Lgiths\\,\\ Coney\\ Island\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1913\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ see\\ shift\\ o\\ vision\\ n\\ dynamism\\ o\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ pntrs\\ who\\ were\\ wrkng\\ 2take\\ notion\\ o\\ fragmentation\\ o\\ vision\\ n\\ social\\ existence\\,\\ taking\\ new\\ idea\\ o\\ dynamism\\ o\\ social\\ life\\,\\ n\\ applying\\ its\\ effects\\,\\ allowing\\ new\\ urban\\ effets\\ 2affect\\ eintegrity\\ o\\ urban\\ representation\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Disitnegraiton\\ o\\ objects\\ n\\ space\\ that\\ we\\ understood\\ 2exist\\ in\\ realist\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntrs\\ who\\ took\\ these\\ tsteps\\ into\\ Modernist\\ pntg\\ w\\ capital\\ M\\,\\ do\\ it\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ o\\ Atlantic\\.\\ \\ \\;Kidns\\ o\\ movements\\ that\\ r\\ producing\\ images\\ like\\ this\\&hellip\\;but\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ how\\ these\\ things\\ were\\ done\\ in\\ US\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Stella\\ is\\ an\\ American\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;Immigrated\\ from\\ Italy\\.\\ \\ \\;Developed\\ his\\ style\\ out\\ o\\ his\\ experience\\ in\\ NYC\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrkd\\ a\\ lot\\ w\\ topic\\ o\\ Brooklyn\\ Bridge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2orient\\ u\\ w\\ pntg\\ like\\ this\\,\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ step\\ back\\ w\\ quick\\ tutorial\\ on\\ EU\\ pntg\\ stuyles\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cubism\\:\\ \\ \\;cubism\\ \\=\\ complicated\\ n\\ imptn\\ movement\\ in\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ could\\ spend\\ a\\ hwole\\ semester\\ on\\ 1910\\ n\\ 2pntrs\\,\\ but\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ 2\\ 2minutes\\ on\\ cubism\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everett\\ Shinn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Girl\\ in\\ Red\\ on\\ Stage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pablo\\ Picasso\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Daniel\\-Henry\\ Kahnweiler\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cubism\\ developed\\ in\\ France\\ in\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;decade\\ o\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ largely\\ by\\ Picasso\\ n\\ Geroges\\ Braque\\.\\ \\ \\;Cubism\\:\\ \\ \\;multiple\\ viewpoints\\ vohering\\ in\\ single\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ like\\ this\\ allows\\ multiple\\ different\\ angles\\ o\\ view\\ on\\ this\\ figure\\&hellip\\;portrait\\ man\\ sitting\\ by\\ table\\ w\\ drinking\\ glass\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ u\\ see\\ same\\ face\\ or\\ eye\\ from\\ 2different\\ angles\\,\\ smashed\\ 2gether\\ in\\ different\\ space\\ on\\ this\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ perspectives\\ understood\\ 2have\\ been\\ derived\\ from\\ different\\ moments\\ o\\ viewing\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ u\\ sw\\ this\\ glass\\ from\\ one\\ angle\\ at\\ one\\ moment\\ n\\ another\\ angle\\ at\\ another\\ moment\\,\\ n\\ all\\ those\\ moments\\ understood\\ 2come\\ 2gether\\ in\\ this\\ one\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Compression\\ o\\ different\\ spaces\\ n\\ times\\ on\\ same\\ canvas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ about\\ this\\ in\\ relation\\ 2Eakins\\:\\ \\ \\;mending\\ the\\ net\\.\\ \\ \\;Eakins\\ saw\\ how\\ modernity\\ forced\\ multiple\\ viewpoints\\ on2\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Picasso\\ n\\ other\\ cubists\\ let\\ that\\ fragmentation\\ o\\ vision\\ occur\\ at\\ same\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;Destruction\\ o\\ contour\\,\\ o\\ outline\\ o\\ objects\\ in\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ NOT\\ an\\ abstract\\ pntg\\!\\ \\ \\;Image\\ o\\ man\\ sitting\\ at\\ table\\ w\\ still\\ life\\ n\\ glass\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ nonetheless\\ taking\\ radical\\ liberties\\ w\\ notion\\ o\\ outline\\ o\\ this\\ man\\ n\\ figures\\ in\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contour\\ broken\\ up\\ so\\ background\\ n\\ foreground\\ are\\ lamost\\ totally\\ ill\\-lighted\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ bleed\\ in2\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;Foreground\\ n\\ background\\ become\\ indistinguishable\\ in\\ pntgs\\ like\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Planar\\ fragmentation\\,\\ reduction\\ o\\ contour\\,\\ all\\ o\\ these\\ linked\\,\\ interior\\ n\\ exterior\\ o\\ figure\\,\\ linked\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;passage\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ term\\ developed\\ by\\ Cezanne\\ 2indicate\\ bleeding\\ 2gether\\ o\\ objects\\ understood\\ 2exist\\ in\\ different\\ spatial\\ planes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ concerning\\ background\\/foreground\\ flipping\\:\\ \\ \\;space\\ n\\ mass\\ become\\ indistinguishable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ kidn\\ o\\ cubism\\ developed\\ by\\ Picasso\\ is\\ developing\\ not\\ out\\ o\\ desire\\ 2indicate\\ urban\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Coming\\ out\\ still\\ life\\ tradition\\.\\ \\ \\;Taking\\ still\\ life\\ arrangmenets\\ o\\ objects\\ on\\ tables\\ n\\ the\\ portraiture\\ tradition\\ n\\ breaking\\ them\\ apart\\ through\\ cubist\\ techniques\\.\\ \\ \\;Dynamization\\ o\\ what\\ was\\ always\\ understood\\ as\\ still\\ form\\:\\ \\ \\;portraiture\\ n\\ still\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ pntrs\\,\\ understanding\\ Pics\\&rsquo\\;\\ lesson\\,\\ quickly\\ realized\\ this\\ painterly\\ fragmentation\\ would\\ also\\ b\\ handy\\ 4depiction\\ n\\ analysis\\ o\\ motion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ good\\ 4dynamic\\ still\\ lives\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ good\\ 2analyze\\ n\\ depict\\ objects\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marcel\\ Duchamp\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ Descending\\ a\\ Staircase\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ no\\.2\\,\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ imptnt\\ pntgs\\ 2suggest\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ came\\ 2US\\ soon\\ after\\ pntg\\ this\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Heavily\\ influenced\\ by\\ artists\\ n\\ practitioners\\ in\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Learned\\ from\\ cubism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ 2depict\\ objects\\ in\\ shifting\\ planes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ makes\\ this\\ leap\\ from\\ cubist\\ still\\ life\\ 2\\ pseudo\\ cubist\\ \\&ldquo\\;motion\\-life\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ bc\\ he\\ spent\\ a\\ lot\\ o\\ time\\ looking\\ at\\ our\\ friend\\ Eadweard\\ Muybridge\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Understanding\\ this\\ fragmentation\\ o\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ r\\ 2images\\ from\\ Muybridge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ studies\\ o\\ animal\\ motion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eadweard\\ Muybridge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ Descending\\ a\\ Stairway\\ and\\ Turning\\ Around\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Animal\\ Locomotion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1887\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clear\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ descent\\ n\\ ascent\\ n\\ its\\ connection\\ 2\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ has\\ mechanized\\ n\\ fragmented\\ motion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ ur\\ reading\\ this\\ wk\\&hellip\\;think\\ about\\ how\\ splash\\ that\\ this\\ pntg\\ made\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ shown\\ at\\ armory\\ show\\ o\\ 1913\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quick\\ background\\ tidbits\\&hellip\\;aspects\\ o\\ rdg\\ will\\ be\\ confusing\\,\\ but\\ it\\ gets\\ clear\\ w\\ coming\\ lectures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armory\\ show\\ \\=\\ place\\ where\\ this\\ pntg\\ enters\\ US\\ n\\ its\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\ \\;Officially\\ known\\ as\\ international\\ exhibition\\ o\\ modern\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ \\¾\\;\\ wrks\\ shown\\ at\\ armory\\ show\\ shown\\ by\\ US\\ pntrs\\,\\ large\\ percentage\\ were\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ far\\ most\\ vividly\\ remembered\\ as\\ exhibition\\ in\\ which\\ Americans\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ 2deal\\ on\\ large\\ scale\\ w\\ sudden\\ influx\\/influence\\ o\\ EU\\ modernist\\ pntg\\ like\\ Picassos\\,\\ Braques\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ introduced\\ 2US\\ suddenly\\.\\ \\ \\;Became\\ topic\\ o\\ conversation\\ n\\ had\\ immense\\ impact\\ on\\ further\\ development\\ o\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;300\\,000\\ ppl\\ saw\\ armory\\ show\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ wk\\:\\ \\ \\;armory\\ show\\,\\ then\\ Steevlitz\\ circle\\,\\ important\\ modernist\\ something\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Muybridge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ Woman\\,\\ Basket\\ on\\ Had\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Animal\\ Locomotion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1887\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Giacomo\\ Balla\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dynamism\\ of\\ a\\ Dog\\ on\\ a\\ Leash\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\:\\ \\ \\;URBAN\\ SPECTACLES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ March\\ 22\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Stieglitz\\ Circle\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ start\\ 3\\-lecture\\ series\\ on\\ modern\\ American\\ art\\ in\\ \\&lsquo\\;teens\\ n\\ \\&lsquo\\;20s\\.\\ \\ \\;all\\ tied\\ 2gether\\ by\\ question\\ running\\ through\\ modern\\ painting\\:\\ \\ \\;relationship\\ bw\\ mechanical\\ n\\ natural\\,\\ relationship\\ bw\\ mechanical\\ n\\ spiritual\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ in\\ teens\\ n\\ 20s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rdg\\ has\\ 2wks\\&rsquo\\;\\ worth\\ o\\ material2cover\\ on\\ teens\\ n\\ 20s\\,\\ so\\ rdg\\ this\\ wk\\ includes\\ lots\\ o\\ information\\ that\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ become\\ clearer\\ in\\ relation\\ 2next\\ wk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ next\\ few\\ wks\\ all\\ speak\\ 2eo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ \\&ldquo\\;Stieglitz\\ Circle\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ \\=\\ group\\ o\\ NYC\\ n\\ EU\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;teens\\.\\ \\ \\;Thursday\\ we\\ learned\\ about\\ armory\\ show\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marcel\\ Duchamp\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ Descending\\ a\\ Staircase\\,\\ no\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Armory\\ show\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;time\\ radical\\,\\ abstract\\ pntg\\ had\\ been\\ shown\\ in\\ NYC\\/USA\\.\\ \\ \\;Alfred\\ Stieglitz\\ had\\ quietly\\ been\\ holding\\ abstract\\,\\ avant\\-garde\\ exhibitions\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ his\\ gallery\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ othe\\ artists\\ associated\\ w\\ his\\ gallery\\ were\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ armory\\ show\\,\\ n\\ they\\ caused\\ almost\\ as\\ big\\ a\\ fuss\\ at\\ Marcel\\ Duchamp\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kenyon\\ Cox\\ singled\\ out\\ pntgs\\ like\\ this\\ o\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ the\\ worst\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ totally\\ abandoned\\ representational\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Accused\\ o\\ totally\\ destroying\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ pntrs\\ had\\ been\\ developing\\ ways\\ 2produce\\ the\\ total\\ destruction\\ o\\ art\\ b4\\ this\\,\\ but\\ armory\\ show\\ made\\ this\\ more\\ obvious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stieglitz\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marsden\\ Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Abstraction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1913\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edward\\ Steichen\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alfred\\ Stieglitz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1915\\,\\ photograph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stieglitz\\ \\=\\ photographer\\,\\ not\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;Instrumental\\ in\\ development\\ o\\ various\\ kidns\\ o\\ new\\ photographic\\ expression\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Along\\ w\\ Edward\\ Steichen\\,\\ started\\ 1905\\ gallery\\ which\\ later\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;291\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ its\\ address\\ on\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ave\\.\\ \\ \\;showed\\ mostly\\ photos\\ at\\ first\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alfred\\ Stieglitz\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Old\\ and\\ New\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1910\\,\\ photogravure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Old\\ homes\\ in\\ front\\,\\ new\\ bldg\\ in\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ began\\ 2focus\\ on\\ contemporary\\ pntg\\ n\\ sculpture\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ photography\\ alone\\,\\ n\\ it\\ became\\ USA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epicenter\\ o\\ modern\\ art\\ 1905\\-armory\\ show\\ \\(Date\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\291\\ \\=\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;US\\ gallery\\ 2show\\ Rodin\\,\\ Matisse\\,\\ Henri\\ Rousseau\\,\\ Bercuzzi\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;EU\\ modernists\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ showed\\ em\\ all\\ 2USA\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stieglitz\\ showed\\ American\\ artists\\ closely\\ involved\\ w\\ EU\\ modernism\\ during\\ these\\ yrs\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paris\\ 1907\\&hellip\\;Picasso\\ n\\ Matisse\\ develop\\ their\\ breakthroughs\\ o\\ abstraction\\ o\\ color\\ n\\ form\\ in\\ new\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gertrude\\ Stein\\ n\\ her\\ brother\\ Leo\\ hold\\ salons\\,\\ places\\ 4US\\ n\\ EU\\ artists\\ 2meet\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ artists\\ taking\\ pntg\\ classes\\ w\\ Matisse\\,\\ talking\\ 2Picasso\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ focuses\\ on\\ these\\ artists\\ in\\ his\\ NYC\\ gallery\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ artists\\ wrkng\\ in\\ US\\ n\\ US\\ artists\\ wrking\\ in\\ EU\\,\\ sending\\ things\\ back\\ 2Stieglitz\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ traveling\\ constantly\\ bw\\ EU\\ n\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arthur\\ G\\.\\ Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Abstraction\\ No\\.\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1910\\-11\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ wood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stieglitz\\ gallery\\ \\=\\ oasis\\ 4US\\ artists\\ forming\\ their\\ own\\ abstract\\ styles\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Center\\ o\\ moral\\ n\\ financial\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ largest\\ small\\ room\\ o\\ its\\ kind\\ in\\ the\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ 291\\.\\ \\ \\;palce\\ where\\ most\\ imptnt\\ new\\ developments\\ in\\ art\\ could\\ b\\ found\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ unique\\ laboratory\\ 4development\\ o\\ modern\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ this\\ happened\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ was\\ prevalent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Georgia\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keefe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Special\\ No\\.\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1915\\,\\ charcoal\\ on\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Bellows\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\New\\ York\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1911\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ school\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Max\\ Weber\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1913\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stieglitz\\ school\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sharp\\ division\\ bw\\ realist\\ strain\\ \\(Ash\\ Can\\)\\ n\\ abstract\\ strain\\ \\(Stieglitz\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ larger\\,\\ better\\ publicized\\ exhibitions\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ circle\\ kept\\ 2itself\\,\\ maintaining\\ \\&ldquo\\;elite\\ atelier\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ create\\ a\\ contrast\\ bw\\ forms\\ o\\ pntg\\ w\\/o\\ there\\ being\\ some\\ kidn\\ o\\ similarity\\ bw\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ n\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ interested\\ in\\ gaining\\ an\\ authenticity\\ in\\ their\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ thru\\ gritty\\ subject\\ matter\\&hellip\\;notion\\ o\\ authenticity\\ n\\ the\\ real\\ through\\ depiction\\ o\\ chaos\\.\\ \\ \\;Direct\\,\\ brutal\\ use\\ o\\ gesture\\ n\\ pnt\\ on\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ Stieglitz\\ n\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ have\\ distaste\\ 4\\ old\\,\\ warmed\\ over\\ formulas\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ superficiality\\,\\ guilded\\ age\\ corruption\\.\\ \\ \\;Liked\\ Getting\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ o\\ NYC\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ addressed\\ ppl\\ marginalized\\ by\\ capitalistic\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ depicts\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ lower\\ Manhattan\\.\\ \\ \\;Poor\\ life\\ \\=\\ authentic\\ life\\ 2Ash\\ Can\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stieglitz\\ school\\ interested\\ in\\ primitivism\\,\\ art\\ o\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Types\\ o\\ art\\ not\\ seen\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;high\\ class\\&rdquo\\;\\ pntg\\ galleries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ groups\\ want\\ 2reform\\ the\\ way\\ art\\ is\\ understood\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ the\\ differenfces\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ celebrates\\ collective\\ identity\\ o\\ all\\ its\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ committed\\ 2representation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ democratic\\ in\\ their\\ eyes\\.\\ \\ \\;Henri\\ n\\ other\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ happy\\ 2antagonize\\ art\\ establishment\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ want\\ 2b\\ comprehensible\\ 2the\\ masses\\.\\ \\ \\;Avg\\ person\\ in\\ st\\.\\ whom\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ pntg\\,\\ should\\ b\\ able\\ 2understand\\ their\\ wrk\\,\\ they\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stieglitz\\ circle\\ has\\ sense\\ that\\ new\\ kind\\ o\\ abstract\\ confusing\\ difficult\\ pntg\\ is\\ created\\ 4\\ an\\ elite\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ elite\\,\\ they\\ mean\\ enlightened\\ audience\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ rich\\ n\\ elite\\,\\ tho\\ it\\ often\\ was\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ referred\\ 2rarified\\ form\\ o\\ sensitibilty\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ who\\ had\\ profound\\ aesthetic\\ sense\\&hellip\\;ability\\ 2distinguish\\ bw\\ fine\\ grain\\ differences\\ bw\\ color\\ n\\ light\\,\\ able\\ 2look\\ carefully\\ at\\ fine\\ aesthetic\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stieglitz\\ circle\\ more\\ open\\ 2EU\\ influences\\ than\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ left\\:\\ \\ \\;another\\ artist\\ associated\\ w\\ Stieglitz\\ school\\&hellip\\;John\\ Marin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Marin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brooklyn\\ Bridge\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1912\\,\\ watercolor\\ and\\ charcoal\\ on\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stieglitz\\ circle\\ principles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ interested\\ in\\ creating\\ single\\ style\\ 2which\\ every\\ artist\\ would\\ maintain\\ a\\ connection\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ ways\\ o\\ rendering\\ urban\\ form\\ in\\ tehse\\ 2pntgs\\ show\\ Stieglitz\\ school\\ embraces\\ many\\ ways\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ HAVE\\ 2b\\ absolutely\\ abstract\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ artists\\ sometimes\\ did\\ reprentational\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ key\\ 4them\\ was\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ find\\ individual\\ teruth\\ in\\ each\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;Individualism\\ \\=\\ very\\ imptnt\\ 4Stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ saw\\ the\\ individualism\\,\\ absolute\\ singularity\\ o\\ each\\ artist\\,\\ as\\ hedge\\ against\\ the\\ conformity\\ n\\ smiiliarty\\ created\\ in\\ mass\\-rpoduction\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ ppl\\ not\\ corrupted\\ by\\ ethos\\ o\\ mass\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;Pipe\\ dream\\,\\ yea\\,\\ but\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ Stieglitz\\ considered\\ 2b\\ his\\ own\\ mission\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lyrical\\,\\ mystical\\ expression\\ o\\ common\\ forces\\ that\\ weave\\ throughout\\ material\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Trying\\ 2get\\ beyond\\ the\\ merely\\ visible\\ forms\\ o\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Insistence\\ on\\ primacy\\ o\\ feeling\\ over\\ logic\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ sense\\ both\\ in\\ how\\ Stieglitz\\ handled\\ his\\ exhibitions\\&hellip\\;true\\ art\\ is\\ inimical\\ 2language\\,\\ a\\ rational\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ one\\ reason\\ abstraction\\ so\\ appealing\\&hellip\\;abstraction\\ \\=\\ sense\\ in\\ which\\ ur\\ wrking\\ outside\\ recognizable\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;2get\\ out\\ o\\ recognizable\\ forms\\,\\ u\\ have\\ 2get\\ out\\ o\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\&rsquo\\;re\\ wrking\\ beyond\\ structures\\ or\\ language\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\&rsquo\\;d\\ all\\ this\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ we\\ get\\ here\\?\\ \\ \\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ go\\ back\\ 2late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ desire\\ 4harmony\\ behind\\/beneath\\ the\\ material\\ was\\ already\\ standard\\ in\\ US\\ thru\\ wrks\\ like\\ Dewing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ n\\ Whistler\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ particularly\\ thru\\ influence\\ o\\ aestheticism\\ n\\ Japanese\\ prints\\,\\ having\\ 2do\\ we\\ 1890s\\ desire\\ 2wrk\\ thru\\ problem\\ o\\ material\\ abundance\\ n\\ get\\ beneath\\ material\\ particulars\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Wilmer\\ Dewing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ White\\ Birch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1896\\-99\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Corner\\ of\\ My\\ Studio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1885\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ Stieglitz\\ school\\ pntrs\\ like\\ Hartley\\ absorbed\\ Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emphasis\\ on\\ harmonies\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ Chase\\ continues\\ as\\ educator\\ throughout\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ n\\ many\\ artists\\ r\\ studying\\ under\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\ have\\ battery\\ o\\ new\\ techniques\\ 2apply\\ 2Chase\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ o\\ color\\ harmony\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\ r\\ willing\\ 2use\\ new\\ techniques\\ developed\\ from\\ cinema\\,\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ chronophotographs\\,\\ Muybridge\\&hellip\\;importing\\ these\\ formal\\ connections\\ in2their\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ Stieglitz\\ u\\ talk\\ about\\ American\\ aestheticism\\&hellip\\;Chase\\,\\ Dewing\\,\\ Whistler\\,\\ \\+\\ Parisan\\ abstraction\\ \\=\\ Stieglitz\\ Circle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aight\\,\\ back\\ 2Paris\\&hellip\\;let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ learn\\ the\\ basic\\ vocab\\ needed\\ 2understand\\ abstract\\ pntgs\\ by\\ Hartley\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cubism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pablo\\ Picasso\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Daniel\\-Henry\\ Kahnweiler\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ talkedabout\\ cubism\\ on\\ Thursday\\.\\ \\ \\;Talked\\ about\\ how\\ cubism\\ interested\\ in\\ breakage\\ o\\ contour\\ around\\ multiple\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Pictorial\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Shallow\\,\\ overlapping\\,\\ faceted\\ planes\\.\\ \\ \\;Reduction\\ o\\ distinctions\\ bw\\ space\\ n\\ mass\\,\\ background\\ n\\ foreground\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fauvism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Henri\\ Matisse\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Musique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Matisse\\ \\=\\ most\\ imptnt\\ Fauvist\\&hellip\\;term\\ applied\\ 2group\\ o\\ pntrs\\ wrking\\ in\\ EU\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\-oughts\\ n\\ early\\ \\&lsquo\\;teens\\.\\ \\ \\;Shrill\\ colors\\ applied\\ directly\\ 2canvas\\,\\ unmixed\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ carefully\\ combined\\ on\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ palatte\\.\\ \\ \\;Straight\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ tube\\,\\ directly\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ color\\ straight\\ out\\ o\\ tube\\ n\\ on2\\ canvas\\ is\\ something\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ often\\ as\\ ptnrs\\ try\\ 2use\\ pnt\\ in\\ directly\\ expressive\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ attempt\\ 2find\\ careful\\ naturalism\\ o\\ the\\ forms\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Matisse\\ creates\\ the\\ figures\\ not\\ so\\ they\\ look\\ like\\ photographically\\ rendered\\ ppl\\,\\ but\\ so\\ color\\ n\\ line\\ out\\ o\\ which\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ created\\ makes\\ direct\\ appeal\\ 2viewers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Color\\ n\\ line\\ used\\ 2do\\ job\\ that\\ representation\\ tricks\\ were\\ used\\ 2do\\ the\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Fauvists\\ interested\\ in\\ exploring\\ way\\ that\\ reds\\ tend\\ 2advance\\ toward\\ viewer\\ whereas\\ blues\\ recede\\&hellip\\;having\\ color\\ alone\\ take\\ the\\ place\\ o\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ interested\\ in\\ exploring\\ optical\\ vibrations\\&hellip\\;bright\\ colors\\ placed\\ in\\ adjacent\\ positions\\.\\ What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ is\\ 2keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ fauvism\\ is\\ experimenting\\ in\\ new\\ ways\\ w\\ direct\\ color\\ n\\ direct\\ color\\ as\\ expressive\\ means\\ on\\ canvs\\.\\ \\ \\;Fauvists\\ lived\\ for\\ short\\ period\\,\\ but\\ made\\ dramati\\ effect\\,\\ livening\\ up\\ modern\\ palette\\.\\ \\ \\;Fauvists\\ gave\\ Americans\\ their\\ new\\ palette\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\&hellip\\;EU\\ had\\ trend\\ toward\\ spiritual\\ abstraction\\,\\ which\\ is\\ indebted\\ 2Whistler\\ n\\ Dewing\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spiritual\\ Abstraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wassily\\ Kandinsky\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Improvisation\\ \\#28\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1912\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kandinsky\\ \\=\\ Russian\\ pntr\\ moved\\ in\\ 1909\\ in2\\ direclty\\ abstract\\ pntgs\\ based\\ on\\ musical\\ themes\\.\\ \\ \\;Titled\\ them\\ on\\ improvisations\\ n\\ musical\\ things\\,\\ just\\ like\\ Whistler\\ 20\\ yrs\\ earlier\\,\\ n\\ related\\ 2what\\ Dewing\\ was\\ doing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kandinsky\\ interested\\ in\\ harmonies\\,\\ vibrations\\ beneath\\ the\\ material\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ pntgs\\ intended\\ 2make\\ direct\\ appeals\\ 2feeling\\ w\\/o\\ diverting\\ it\\ thru\\ direct\\ representational\\ content\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ mediated\\ thru\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kandinsky\\ had\\ enormous\\ influence\\ on\\ pntrs\\ like\\ Georgia\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keefe\\ n\\ Stieglitz\\ Circle\\.\\ \\ \\;Stieglitz\\ Circle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journal\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Camera\\ Work\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ looking\\ 4ways\\ 2think\\ about\\ color\\ n\\ line\\,\\ making\\ visual\\ art\\ directly\\ expressive\\ in\\ the\\ abstract\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ music\\ can\\ b\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Futurism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Giacomo\\ Balla\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dynamism\\ of\\ a\\ Dog\\ on\\ a\\ Leash\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Futurism\\ developed\\ in\\ Italy\\.\\ \\ \\;Interested\\ in\\ speed\\ n\\ dynamic\\ movmenet\\ as\\ it\\ can\\ b\\ depicted\\ in\\ a\\ static\\ form\\ like\\ a\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interested\\ in\\ violence\\.\\ \\ \\;Militant\\ quality\\ about\\ them\\,\\ like\\ manifestos\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interested\\ in\\ celebrating\\ modern\\ urban\\ life\\,\\ wo\\ regard\\ 4the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ what\\ if\\ the\\ past\\ is\\ destroyed\\?\\ \\ \\;Ring\\ leader\\ wrote\\ in\\ his\\ manifeso\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;roaring\\ automobile\\,\\ sounds\\ like\\ a\\ machine\\ gun\\,\\ is\\ more\\ beautiful\\ than\\ a\\ classical\\ sculpture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Embracing\\ modern\\ dynamism\\,\\ rejcting\\ old\\ classical\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Umberto\\ Boccioni\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dynamism\\ of\\ a\\ Soccer\\ Player\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duchamp\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ dynamism\\ thru\\ faceting\\ n\\ repetition\\ o\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Interesting\\ formula\\ 4understnading\\ Duchamp\\ n\\ cubusim\\&hellip\\;approach\\ 2dyanimc\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\OK\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arthur\\ G\\.\\ Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nature\\ Symbolized\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1911\\,\\ pastel\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ following\\ pntrs\\ incorporate\\ ALL\\ o\\ the\\ trends\\,\\ combining\\ them\\ as\\ they\\ see\\ fit\\ in\\ innovating\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ imptnt\\ 2use\\ vocab\\ 2describe\\ early\\ US\\ modernism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Team\\ of\\ Horses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1911\\,\\ pastel\\ on\\ linen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dove\\ heavily\\ invested\\ in\\ organic\\ form\\ n\\ organic\\ geometry\\.\\ \\ \\;Descrirbed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;organic\\ abstraction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ creating\\ these\\ pntgs\\,\\ they\\ were\\ performative\\,\\ o\\ records\\ o\\ his\\ expierences\\ in\\ the\\ landscape\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ walk\\ out\\ in2\\ a\\ landscape\\,\\ choose\\ most\\ significant\\/characteristic\\ 3\\ colors\\,\\ n\\ work\\ them\\ up\\ in2\\ abstractions\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ refer\\ 2\\ an\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ picture\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ color\\ n\\ line\\ that\\ get\\ total\\ compositional\\ authority\\ in\\ these\\ images\\,\\ n\\ not\\ represtnational\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Dove\\ looking\\ 4way\\ 2express\\ organic\\ inner\\ structure\\ o\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ which\\ he\\ felt\\ was\\ always\\ propelled\\ in2\\ rhythmic\\ patterns\\ n\\ forms\\ o\\ energy\\ thru\\ internal\\ forces\\,\\ internal\\ living\\ forces\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ accidental\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2focus\\ on\\ internal\\,\\ organic\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ question\\ o\\ organic\\ force\\ is\\ becoming\\ embattled\\ as\\ it\\ comes\\ in2\\ competition\\ w\\ mechanical\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ u\\ see\\ machines\\ producing\\ energy\\ n\\ objects\\ everywhere\\!\\ \\ \\;Repetitiont\\ becomes\\ mechanical\\ notion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dove\\ wants\\ 2take\\ energy\\ n\\ propulsion\\ n\\ put\\ them\\ back\\ where\\ they\\ belong\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ organic\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Back\\ inside\\ natural\\ forms\\,\\ not\\ something\\ just\\ stamped\\ mechanically\\ on2\\ forms\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ organic\\ n\\ mechanistic\\ relationship\\ comes\\ back\\ in\\ 1920s\\ n\\ 30s\\&hellip\\;Lousi\\ Mumford\\ distinguished\\ in\\ his\\ writings\\ bw\\ organic\\ n\\ mechanistic\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Organic\\ comes\\ from\\ within\\ like\\ a\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;Mechanical\\ form\\ as\\ something\\ applied\\ from\\ without\\ on2\\ preexisting\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;Dove\\ interested\\ in\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ procreative\\ force\\,\\ wants\\ 2distinguish\\ from\\ technological\\ mass\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ theme\\ is\\ echoed\\&hellip\\;distinction\\ bw\\ interiority\\ n\\ exteriority\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ distinction\\ seen\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ n\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\ re\\-routed\\ in2\\ this\\ question\\ o\\ organic\\ vs\\.\\ mechanical\\.\\ \\ \\;Access\\ 2the\\ interior\\ o\\ things\\,\\ bc\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ interior\\ o\\ things\\,\\ whereas\\ mechanical\\ form\\ is\\ applied\\ from\\ without\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ reason\\ Dove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ n\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntgs\\ r\\ interesting\\,\\ complex\\,\\ n\\ ambivalent\\ is\\ that\\ evne\\ tho\\ Dove\\ tries\\ 2express\\ organic\\ immediacy\\ o\\ life\\ coming\\ from\\ within\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ able\\ 2do\\ that\\ thru\\ visual\\ models\\ derived\\ from\\ technology\\ n\\ visual\\ technologies\\ during\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ \\=\\ good\\ case\\ study\\ 4howeverm\\ uch\\ u\\ want\\ 2oppose\\ the\\ mechanical\\,\\ it\\ still\\ seeps\\ in2\\ ur\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ uses\\ dynamic\\,\\ repeating\\,\\ progressing\\ forms\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ already\\ seen\\ in\\ chronophotography\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ way\\ o\\ expressing\\ motion\\ n\\ dynamism\\ comes\\ from\\ photography\\,\\ which\\ si\\ a\\ mechanical\\ way\\ o\\ seeing\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ he\\ has\\ access\\ 2imagining\\ n\\ accessing\\ these\\ organic\\ forms\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vocabulary\\ o\\ itnerpentetraion\\ n\\ movement\\ comes\\ from\\ chronophotograpyhy\\ n\\ futurism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\River\\ bottom\\:\\ \\ \\;Siler\\,\\ Ochre\\,\\ Carmien\\,\\ Green\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1920\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ other\\ forms\\ he\\ explores\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\ come\\ not\\ just\\ chronophotogrpahy\\ but\\ also\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ scientific\\ vision\\:\\ \\ \\;microstopy\\,\\ n\\ mathematical\\ operations\\ being\\ done\\ on\\ natural\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ u\\ see\\ volumes\\,\\ roulettes\\,\\ serated\\ forms\\&hellip\\;u\\ see\\ elipises\\,\\ radial\\ symmetries\\,\\ that\\ r\\ only\\ becoming\\ visible\\ now\\ bc\\ o\\ mathetmatical\\ images\\ published\\ in\\ science\\ magazines\\,\\ bc\\ o\\ microscopy\\&hellip\\;these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ about\\ organic\\ world\\,\\ but\\ Dove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ 2picture\\ these\\ inner\\ forms\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ ability\\ 2access\\ scientific\\ visions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ sound\\ from\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Sound\\ references\\ throughout\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ 4Dove\\,\\ sound\\ \\=\\ just\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ instances\\ o\\ propagation\\ o\\ force\\ in\\ nature\\ that\\ he\\ wants\\ 2explore\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ iamge\\ menat\\ 2invoke\\ bottom\\ o\\ river\\,\\ or\\ action\\ o\\ wave\\ upon\\ surface\\ o\\ sand\\/silt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fog\\ Horns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1929\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ r\\ equivalent\\ 2the\\ sound\\ waves\\ o\\ \\ \\;fog\\ horn\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sea\\ Gull\\ Motive\\ \\(Sea\\ Thunder\\,\\ or\\ The\\ Wave\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1928\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fields\\ of\\ Grain\\ as\\ Seen\\ from\\ Train\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1931\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Profoundly\\ organic\\ refernec\\ in\\ the\\ wrk\\&hellip\\;almost\\ representational\\.\\ \\ \\;Natural\\ plant\\ forms\\ n\\ their\\ propagation\\,\\ but\\ seen\\ from\\ a\\ train\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Georgia\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Specail\\ No\\.l\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1914\\,\\ charcoal\\ on\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\u\\ see\\ same\\ interactions\\ o\\ nature\\ n\\ mechanical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ beginning\\ o\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\.\\ \\ \\;Did\\ abstract\\ pntgs\\ very\\ early\\ on\\ in\\ Western\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studied\\ w\\ Chase\\,\\ just\\ like\\ Hartley\\.\\ \\ \\;Went\\ 2\\ 291\\ gallery\\ 2see\\ EU\\ n\\ US\\ pntrs\\ there\\ as\\ she\\ developed\\ as\\ artist\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ steeped\\ in\\ Kandinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ n\\ writings\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Around\\ 1915\\,\\ worked\\ on\\ these\\ huge\\ charcoal\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stieglitz\\ taken\\ w\\ her\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Put\\ them\\ up\\ wo\\ her\\ permission\\.\\ \\ \\;Battle\\ o\\ wills\\ bw\\ her\\ n\\ Stieglitz\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ they\\ got\\ married\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Red\\ Poppy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1927\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ppl\\ think\\ this\\ is\\ all\\ she\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;Nope\\.\\ \\ \\;Actually\\ abstravct\\ at\\ first\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ wk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\ goes\\ in2\\ detail\\ about\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keefe\\ n\\ association\\ w\\ nature\\ n\\ the\\ organic\\.\\ \\ \\;Talks\\ about\\ problems\\ o\\ being\\ organic\\ abstractionist\\ when\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ woman\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rdg\\ focuses\\ on\\ how\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ different\\ 4woman\\ 2b\\ organic\\ abstractionist\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ 4a\\ man\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\&hellip\\;look\\ at\\ her\\ pntgs\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ focus\\ directly\\ on\\ organic\\ forms\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ look\\ at\\ her\\ city\\ views\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Petunias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1925\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ haroard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\New\\ York\\ with\\ Moon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1925\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ Dove\\,\\ she\\ was\\ compelled\\ 2use\\ mechanical\\ visions\\/systems\\ 2suggest\\ something\\ beyond\\ the\\ mechanical\\/technological\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ o\\ her\\ city\\ pntgs\\ have\\ a\\ profoundly\\ spiritual\\ quality\\ 2them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ tend\\ 2look\\ UP\\ in2\\ the\\ sky\\&hellip\\;thus\\ spiritual\\ content\\.\\ \\ \\;Clouds\\ n\\ moon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ specifically\\ r\\ ways\\ that\\ light\\ is\\ preresnted\\ in\\ tese\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ bldgs\\ r\\ leaning\\ in2\\ a\\ point\\ high\\ above\\.\\ \\ \\;Geometrically\\ related\\ 2pnt\\ beyond\\ the\\ picture\\ plane\\,\\ beyond\\ daily\\ worldly\\ vision\\ below\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Halos\\ built\\ around\\ electric\\ lights\\ in\\ theimages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ images\\ r\\ profoundly\\ technological\\ n\\ modern\\ n\\ worldly\\ but\\ also\\ suggesting\\ spiritual\\ energy\\ behind\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;Kandinsky\\ affected\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ w\\ her\\ as\\ in\\ Dove\\ is\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ getting\\ at\\ the\\ spiritual\\ in\\ art\\ thru\\ the\\ machine\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ around\\ the\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;Thru\\ mechanical\\ vision\\ 2get\\ this\\ spirituality\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ invasion\\ o\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;Infusion\\ o\\ modernity\\ w\\ spirituality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ photographic\\ technology\\ n\\ brining\\ u\\ in2\\ the\\ practice\\ o\\ pntg\\ in\\ this\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\ chronophotogrpay\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ doing\\ interesting\\ things\\ w\\ lenses\\&hellip\\;using\\ certain\\ kinds\\ o\\ photographic\\ lenses\\ n\\ distortions\\ that\\ photographic\\ lenses\\ produce\\ in\\ the\\ imagery\\&hellip\\;usingthose\\ as\\ spiritual\\ strategy\\ or\\ bechicle\\.\\ \\ \\;Interestd\\ in\\ lesne\\ distortion\\,\\ optics\\&hellip\\;even\\ her\\ flower\\ pntgs\\ r\\ deeply\\ photographic\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ she\\ crops\\ images\\ looking\\ like\\ she\\ did\\ it\\ w\\ macro\\ lense\\&hellip\\;extreme\\ close\\ ups\\ inspired\\ by\\ photographic\\ lclose\\ up\\ n\\ use\\ o\\ different\\ lenses\\ in\\ these\\ periods\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throughout\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ overlap\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Malfunctions\\ o\\ lense\\ that\\ can\\ occur\\ in\\ phtoogrpahy\\ miprot\\ themselves\\ in2\\ her\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shelton\\ with\\ Sunspots\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1926\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alluding\\ 2notion\\ o\\ flare\\ when\\ light\\ washes\\ everything\\ out\\ when\\ u\\ take\\ a\\ picture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Things\\ appear\\ spiritual\\,\\ but\\ the\\ vision\\ is\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ machine\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\City\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1926\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exploring\\ conversion\\,\\ which\\ happens\\ in\\ hotos\\ where\\ bldgs\\ converge\\ 2\\ a\\ pnt\\ when\\ u\\ take\\ a\\ picture\\.\\ \\ \\;Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ like\\ this\\ so\\ conspicuously\\ when\\ u\\ just\\ look\\ up\\ in2\\ the\\ sky\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ perspective\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ machine\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ wk\\:\\ \\ \\;Hartley\\,\\ problem\\ o\\ world\\ war\\ I\\ n\\ its\\ relationship\\ 2\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ RISE\\ OF\\ THE\\ MACHINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 03\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;New\\ York\\ Dada\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Amelia\\ Jones\\ rdg\\ \\=\\ tricky\\,\\ but\\ also\\ \\=\\ primary\\ topic\\ o\\ discussion\\ in\\ section\\ this\\ wk\\.\\ \\ \\;Helen\\ Molesworth\\ \\=\\ curator\\ o\\ contemporary\\ art\\ at\\ Fogg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ 2syllabus\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ new\\ rdg\\ next\\ wk\\.\\ \\ \\;use\\ time\\ 4paper\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\B4\\ spring\\ break\\:\\ \\ \\;discussing\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\.\\.artists\\ like\\ Dove\\ n\\ Hartley\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arthur\\ Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Abstraction\\ No\\.\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1910\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\ used\\ abstraction\\ 2define\\ n\\ evoke\\ universal\\ forces\\ n\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;Forces\\ beyond\\ the\\ specificity\\ o\\ the\\ mundane\\&hellip\\;the\\ material\\ world\\ o\\ these\\ images\\ used\\ as\\ distant\\ reference\\ 2larger\\ forces\\ that\\ permeate\\ all\\ o\\ creation\\ n\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ acc\\.\\ 2stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marsden\\ Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Abstraction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1913\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hartley\\ on\\ edge\\ o\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\&hellip\\;not\\ central\\ 2that\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ him\\ as\\ transitional\\ figure\\ bw\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ n\\ New\\ York\\ dada\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Hartley\\ later\\ became\\ more\\ identified\\ w\\ NY\\ Dada\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ Dada\\ treatment\\ o\\ organic\\ n\\ mechanical\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ it\\ bcame\\ a\\ traumatic\\ n\\ conspicuous\\ issue\\ during\\ n\\ after\\ World\\ War\\ I\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ we\\ get\\ in2\\ Francis\\ Picabia\\ n\\ Duchamp\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hartley\\ went\\ 2nyc\\ in\\ 1909\\,\\ studied\\ w\\ William\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\.\\ \\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ Paris\\ 4\\ 1yr\\,\\ 1913\\ moved\\ 2Berlin\\,\\ made\\ works\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Warriors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1913\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moved\\ 2\\ Berlin\\ bc\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ comfortable\\ there\\ than\\ in\\ Paris\\ or\\ nyc\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ gay\\.\\ \\ \\;Better\\ organized\\ gay\\ community\\ in\\ Berlin\\ than\\ anywhere\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Berlin\\ n\\ Germany\\ had\\ vibrant\\ community\\ o\\ modern\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ met\\ Kandinsky\\ in\\ Berlin\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ o\\ vibrant\\ community\\ o\\ artists\\&hellip\\;community\\ o\\ gay\\ artists\\ n\\ colleagues\\ who\\ were\\ imptnt\\ 2him\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\ thing\\ fascinated\\ him\\ about\\ life\\ in\\ Berlin\\,\\ tho\\ made\\ him\\ uneasy\\:\\ \\ \\;male\\ oriented\\ culture\\ o\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ war\\ was\\ being\\ built\\ up\\ in\\ Germany\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Build\\ up\\ 2war\\ associated\\ w\\ cult\\ o\\ male\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;Build\\ up\\ o\\ German\\ war\\ machine\\ was\\ full\\ o\\ military\\ pageants\\,\\ parades\\,\\ row\\ after\\ row\\ o\\ men\\ in\\ shining\\ armor\\&hellip\\;elaborate\\ spectacle\\ o\\ male\\ heroism\\ n\\ bodily\\ strength\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4artist\\ interestd\\ in\\ colors\\ n\\ surfaces\\ n\\ patterns\\,\\ these\\ war\\ spectacles\\ engaged\\ Hartley\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ he\\ was\\ in\\ Germany\\ in\\ the\\ leadup\\ 2WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ returned\\ 2nyc\\ in\\ 1915\\ as\\ war\\ came\\ closer\\ n\\ closer\\ n\\ it\\ became\\ harder\\ n\\ harder\\ 4his\\ patrons\\ 2send\\ him\\ money\\ in\\ Berlin\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ rejoined\\ the\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ in\\ NYc\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ suspicious\\ o\\ his\\ pntgs\\ bc\\ they\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ pro\\-German\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ they\\ were\\ bc\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ so\\ invigorated\\ by\\ this\\ environment\\ in\\ Germany\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ immediately\\ became\\ politicized\\ in\\ Germany\\.\\ \\ \\;Nyc\\ n\\ rest\\ o\\ US\\ was\\ becoming\\ virulently\\ nationalist\\ n\\ anti\\-german\\ throughout\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;Towns\\ o\\ streets\\ o\\ Germanic\\ heritage\\ started\\ 2anglicize\\ their\\ names\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sauerkraut\\ renamed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;liberty\\ cabbage\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ 2b\\ int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ artist\\ in\\ nyc\\ at\\ this\\ time\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Hartley\\ returned\\ 2nyc\\ n\\ showed\\ these\\ war\\ pntgs\\,\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;War\\ series\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ he\\ called\\ it\\,\\ he\\ wasreally\\ evasive\\ in\\ his\\ statements\\ about\\ the\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ German\\ Officer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ forms\\ r\\ only\\ those\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ observed\\ casually\\ day2day\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ hidden\\ symbolism\\.\\ \\ \\;Things\\ under\\ observation\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ pictures\\ o\\ what\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\,\\ merely\\ consultations\\ o\\ the\\ eye\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ best\\ kniown\\ o\\ his\\ pntgs\\,\\ in\\ this\\ series\\ o\\ war\\ related\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intensely\\ colorful\\ pntg\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ fauvism\\ as\\ we\\ discussed\\ last\\ wk\\,\\ so\\ intense\\ strong\\ primary\\ colors\\,\\ modulated\\ brushwork\\,\\ borrowing\\ from\\ cubist\\ still\\-life\\ compositions\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ we\\ see\\ difference\\ from\\ his\\ purely\\ abstract\\ pntgs\\ o\\ b4\\:\\ \\ \\;u\\ see\\ symbols\\,\\ so\\ the\\ pntgs\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;emblematic\\ abstractions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Buildup\\ of\\ symbols\\ w\\ their\\ own\\ fragmentary\\ mng\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hartley\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ w\\ soldier\\ Carl\\ Von\\ Friberg\\.\\ \\ \\;Friberg\\ was\\ killed\\ on\\ western\\ front\\ in\\ 1914\\.\\ \\ \\;this\\ became\\ on\\ o\\ the\\ defining\\ tragedies\\ o\\ Hartley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ can\\ hardly\\ be\\ claimed\\ 2b\\ just\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;consultation\\ o\\ the\\ eye\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ death\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ most\\ pathetic\\ sacrifice\\ o\\ our\\ time\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ acc\\.\\ 2\\ Hartley\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ this\\ fnctn\\ as\\ a\\ portrait\\?\\ \\ \\;Any\\ reference\\ 2Friberg\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ symbol\\ or\\ a\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;K\\ v\\ F\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ bottom\\ corner\\ were\\ his\\ initials\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;24\\&rdquo\\;\\ refers\\ 2hsi\\ age\\ at\\ time\\ o\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;4\\&rdquo\\;\\ refers\\ 2his\\ regiment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;triangle\\ \\=\\ his\\ military\\ medal\\ which\\ he\\ earned\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ only\\ remaining\\ traces\\ o\\ Friberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ living\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Symbolic\\ reference\\ 2Friberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Remnant\\ o\\ anthropomorphism\\.\\ \\ \\;Iron\\ cross\\ hanging\\ up\\ toward\\ top\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ in\\ what\\ would\\ b\\ roughly\\ the\\ area\\ o\\ the\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neck\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Star\\ at\\ bottom\\ refers\\ 2spur\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ on\\ soldiers\\&rsquo\\;\\ foot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rough\\ anthropomorphic\\ arrangement\\ o\\ symbols\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ he\\ continued\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ this\\ theme\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Painting\\ No\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1914\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ symbolic\\,\\ emblematic\\ portrait\\ o\\ Friberg\\,\\ u\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ anthropomorphic\\ organization\\ becomes\\ less\\ n\\ less\\ recognizable\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Emblems\\ r\\ more\\ scattered\\,\\ moving\\ out\\ toward\\ the\\ edges\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ referring\\ only\\ 2the\\ flat\\ shape\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\ itself\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ 2a\\ kind\\ o\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Whereas\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Portrait\\ o\\ a\\ German\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ obdy\\ is\\ contained\\ by\\ a\\ contour\\ outline\\,\\ \\ \\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;background\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ pntg\\,\\ the\\ emblems\\ move\\ 2edge\\ o\\ pntg\\ n\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\ mortem\\ image\\,\\ but\\ also\\ profoundly\\ detached\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ seem\\ 2ask\\:\\ \\ \\;is\\ this\\ all\\ Friberg\\ was\\?\\ \\ \\;Where\\ is\\ the\\ body\\ o\\ the\\ lost\\ one\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ can\\ we\\ get\\ at\\ it\\ through\\ tehse\\ symbols\\ which\\ r\\ connected\\ 2the\\ body\\ 2qwhich\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ supposed\\ 2b\\ referring\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Military\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1914\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ the\\ question\\ o\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ o\\ whether\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ anything\\ behind\\ the\\ symbols\\.\\ \\ \\;Portrait\\ as\\ series\\ o\\ fragments\\ o\\ intersection\\ o\\ life\\ w\\ pop\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ indiviidaulity\\ emerged\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ n\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ Hartley\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frightening\\ thought\\ that\\ man\\ \\=\\ nothing\\ but\\ sum\\ o\\ paper\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ von\\ Friberg\\ anything\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ state\\ symbols\\ that\\ define\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ o\\ the\\ German\\ military\\ that\\ define\\ him\\ in\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2what\\ degree\\ r\\ these\\ lost\\ n\\ destroyed\\ male\\ bodies\\ ever\\ present\\ as\\ something\\ unique\\ n\\ individual\\?\\ \\ \\;R\\ they\\ always\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ world\\ o\\ symbols\\ n\\ exchange\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ think\\ o\\ these\\ pntgs\\ as\\ being\\ intensely\\ emotional\\,\\ trying\\ 2recreate\\ emotional\\ connection\\ 2the\\ lost\\ body\\ o\\ Friberg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uniform\\ as\\ symbol\\ o\\ mass\\ acculturation\\,\\ n\\ turn\\ that\\ in2\\ something\\ deeply\\ personal\\.\\ \\ \\;Art\\ historian\\ Bruce\\ Robertson\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;his\\ memorials\\ 2Friberg\\ plunder\\ state\\ power\\ n\\ eroticize\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ was\\ destroyed\\ by\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Tenuous\\ balance\\ bw\\ attempt\\ at\\ emotional\\ connection\\,\\ n\\ the\\ necessary\\ detachment\\ o\\ the\\ symbol\\,\\ which\\ is\\ understood\\ as\\ flat\\ n\\ impenetrable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ private\\ n\\ emotional\\ tragedy\\ becomes\\ lal\\ the\\ more\\ severe\\ 4Hartley\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolism\\ not\\ just\\ connected\\ 2war\\,\\ loss\\,\\ state\\ power\\,\\ but\\ also\\ 2issue\\ o\\ code\\ n\\ symbol\\ in\\ homosexual\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ this\\ when\\ we\\ come\\ 2\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ Johns\\,\\ n\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ question\\ o\\ how\\ one\\ represents\\ homosexual\\ desire\\ during\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;how\\ 2represnt\\ a\\ loved\\ male\\ body\\ when\\ that\\ love\\ is\\ impermissible\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Camoflauge\\ o\\ gay\\ experience\\,\\ portraits\\ as\\ mask\\,\\ reveaels\\ need\\ 4\\ coding\\,\\ but\\ also\\ tragedy\\ o\\ coding\\ n\\ reducing\\ the\\ body\\ 2these\\ 2D\\ codes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Peto\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Old\\-Time\\ Letter\\ Rack\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1894\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Georgia\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\,\\ New\\ York\\ Street\\ with\\ Moon\\,\\ 1925\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hartley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ relates\\ 2question\\ o\\ organic\\ n\\ mechanical\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hartley\\ conflates\\ man\\ n\\ machine\\,\\ suggesting\\ failure\\ o\\ consummation\\,\\ hard\\ n\\ empty\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hartley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ o\\ machine\\ \\=\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\ n\\ other\\ Stieglizt\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Oganic\\ ehthos\\ cjoins\\ machine\\ n\\ organic\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ urban\\ pntgs\\ have\\ forms\\ o\\ modernity\\,\\ bldgs\\ n\\ street\\ lights\\,\\ these\\ forms\\ o\\ modernity\\ in\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ n\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\ lead\\ 2intersection\\ w\\ higher\\ forms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hartley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relation\\ 2man\\ n\\ machine\\ is\\ more\\ blunt\\,\\ uncomplicated\\,\\ n\\ uncomfortable\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ one\\ reason\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ totally\\ comfortable\\ in\\ the\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ wrk\\ fit\\ more\\ clearly\\ w\\ other\\ group\\ o\\ artsts\\:\\ \\ \\;NYDadaists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(NYD\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Baroness\\ Elsa\\ von\\ Freytag\\-Loringhoven\\,\\ New\\ York\\,\\ 1915\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ real\\ german\\ barronness\\ who\\ came\\ 2live\\ in\\ nyc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Man\\ Ray\\,\\ photograph\\ of\\ Marcel\\ Ducamp\\ as\\ Rrose\\ Selavy\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1920\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transvestitee\\ character\\ Rrose\\ Selavy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Couple\\ wrds\\ about\\ Dada\\:\\ \\ \\;Dada\\ refers\\ 2int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ group\\ o\\ artists\\ o\\ which\\ nyc\\ artists\\ were\\ just\\ a\\ single\\ branch\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ refer\\ 2themselves\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ny\\ branch\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ ironically\\ poking\\ fun\\ at\\ corporations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dada\\ formed\\ in\\ protest\\ 2\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;Group\\ o\\ artists\\ wrkng\\ against\\ what\\ rationality\\ n\\ mechanical\\ progress\\ had\\ brought\\ 2the\\ US\\ n\\ EU\\:\\ \\ \\;10\\ million\\ deaths\\ in\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dada\\ signifies\\ meaninglessness\\ itself\\,\\ infantile\\ repetition\\ o\\ syllables\\.\\ \\ \\;Intl\\ mobement\\.\\ \\ \\;Berlin\\,\\ Zurich\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ tied\\ 2gether\\ as\\ network\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ o\\ correspondence\\ bw\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ intlism\\ \\=\\ reaction\\ against\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ supranational\\,\\ or\\ anti\\-national\\,\\ against\\ the\\ patriotic\\ nationalism\\ that\\ they\\ thought\\ destroyed\\ the\\ EU\\ community\\ n\\ led\\ 2the\\ automatic\\ escalation\\ o\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baroness\\ Elsa\\ \\=\\ figurehead\\ 4Dada\\ movement\\ in\\ NYC\\ n\\ its\\ claims\\ 4irrationality\\ n\\ provocation\\.\\ \\ \\;Well\\ known\\ 4her\\ outrageous\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;Made\\ headdresses\\ made\\ out\\ o\\ bird\\ cages\\.\\ \\ \\;Carried\\ around\\ plaster\\ cast\\ o\\ a\\ penis\\ 2schock\\ old\\ ladies\\ in\\ nyc\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ outrageous\\ behavior\\ became\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ understanding\\ o\\ Dada\\,\\ but\\ w\\/in\\ Dada\\ the\\ Dadaists\\ understood\\ there\\ were\\ imptnt\\ conceptual\\ breaking\\ downs\\ o\\ understandings\\ about\\ not\\ only\\ machines\\ but\\ also\\ art\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gendered\\ antics\\ o\\ Dadaists\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photograph\\ of\\ Francis\\ Picabia\\ at\\ the\\ beach\\,\\ n\\.d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reacting\\ 2society\\ that\\ created\\ wwi\\ was\\ 2break\\ down\\ the\\ gender\\ divisions\\ that\\ had\\ created\\ the\\ masculine\\ escalation\\ 2war\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ gendered\\ personae\\ were\\ often\\ androgynous\\.\\ \\ \\;Breaking\\ down\\ the\\ masculine\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elsa\\ von\\ Freytag\\-Loringhoven\\ and\\ Morton\\ Schamberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\God\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piece\\ o\\ plumbing\\ screwed\\ 2piece\\ o\\ wood\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Francis\\ Picabia\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fiance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1915\\-17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ this\\ wrk\\ n\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\God\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\equate\\ machines\\ w\\ spiritual\\ or\\ organic\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ one\\ \\=\\ Mechanical\\ drawing\\ o\\ gear\\ labeled\\ as\\ fianc\\é\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ 2wrks\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ mechanical\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ organic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ address\\ differences\\ bw\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ or\\ Arronsberg\\/Dada\\ circles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ friendly\\ w\\ eo\\,\\ but\\ set\\ up\\ polarity\\ bw\\ eo\\ that\\ helped\\ define\\ each\\ group\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ more\\ clearly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Picabia\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Daughter\\ Born\\ without\\ a\\ Mother\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1916\\-17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ o\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ wrks\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;mechanomorphs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Name\\ that\\ Picabia\\ invented\\ 4images\\ like\\ this\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;hybrid\\ machine\\ bodies\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ another\\ name\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conflation\\ o\\ body\\ n\\ machine\\ not\\ 2strengthen\\ the\\ organic\\ but\\ 2demote\\ it\\ 2something\\ less\\ than\\ human\\.\\ \\ \\;Alien\\,\\ thru\\ its\\ associations\\ 2the\\ mechanical\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Picabia\\ has\\ a\\ different\\ tone\\ than\\ the\\ Dove\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picabia\\ has\\ sterility\\ in\\ his\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Read\\ in2\\ the\\ ghastly\\ lighting\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ the\\ sharp\\ shadows\\ that\\ Picabia\\ includes\\ in\\ this\\ image\\ in\\ relation\\ 2Amelia\\ Jones\\&rsquo\\;\\ desciussion\\ in\\ the\\ rdg\\.\\ \\ \\;Ghastly\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ microscopic\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ kidns\\ o\\ disconnected\\ connectors\\ on\\ this\\ piece\\ o\\ machinery\\.\\ \\ \\;Inoperable\\ or\\ compromised\\ machine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Title\\ itself\\ refers\\ not\\ 2fertility\\,\\ but\\ 2break\\ in\\ organic\\ reproduction\\:\\ \\ \\;daughter\\ born\\ w\\/o\\ a\\ mother\\!\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ in\\ which\\ fertility\\ contrastsed\\ w\\ sterility\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arthur\\ Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nature\\ Symbolized\\,\\ no\\.\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dove\\ has\\ mechanical\\ ways\\ o\\ seeing\\.\\ \\ \\;Cronophotogrpahy\\,\\ scientific\\ illustration\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ tehse\\ mechanical\\ ways\\ o\\ seeing\\ r\\ transformed\\ n\\ abstracted\\.\\ \\ \\;Mechanical\\ element\\ used\\ 2suggest\\ organic\\ power\\ or\\ fertility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vibrancy\\ n\\ force\\ associated\\ w\\ fertility\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ o\\ these\\ pntrs\\ wrkng\\ in\\ nyc\\ at\\ same\\ time\\,\\ consciously\\ wrkng\\ against\\ eo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conflations\\ o\\ the\\ mechanical\\ n\\ the\\ organic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dove\\ has\\ the\\ imptnce\\ o\\ the\\ expressive\\ mark\\&hellip\\;the\\ expressive\\ mark\\ expressing\\ something\\ unique\\ about\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intner\\ being\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picabia\\ \\=\\ the\\ opposite\\:\\ \\ \\;cold\\,\\ impersonal\\ style\\ o\\ mechanical\\ drawing\\ 2take\\ himself\\ n\\ his\\ own\\ expressivity\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ equation\\.\\ \\ \\;Adopting\\ his\\ images\\ from\\ mechanical\\ manuals\\ or\\ equipment\\ manuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eakins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Perspective\\ Drawing\\ of\\ a\\ Lathe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ own\\ technical\\ training\\ in\\ high\\ school\\ in\\ Philladelphia\\.\\ \\ \\;Picabia\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ this\\ tradition\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ authentic\\ selfhood\\ or\\ creative\\ originality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Picabia\\ associates\\ the\\ machine\\ w\\ femininity\\,\\ even\\ tho\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ machinery\\ was\\ associated\\ w\\ masculine\\ power\\ n\\ strength\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Dada\\ artists\\ try\\ 2break\\ the\\ connection\\ bw\\ mechanism\\ n\\ masculine\\ strength\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ opposite\\ is\\ true\\ bw\\ masculinity\\ n\\ machines\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exposing\\ the\\ extent\\ 2which\\ machines\\,\\ far\\ from\\ being\\ allies\\ o\\ masculine\\ identity\\,\\ r\\ actually\\ threatening\\ masculine\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ era\\ o\\ suffragism\\ beginning\\ in\\ nyc\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photo\\ o\\ German\\ soldier\\ w\\ horses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\German\\ soldier\\ n\\ his\\ horses\\ wearing\\ gas\\ masks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dada\\ group\\ more\\ likely\\ 2tie\\ in2\\ this\\ expierence\\ o\\ the\\ organic\\ n\\ the\\ mechanical\\ than\\ is\\ the\\ Stieglitz\\ group\\:\\ \\ \\;they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ openly\\ exploring\\ howthe\\ mechanical\\ destroys\\ the\\ human\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Rational\\ instruments\\ o\\ mankind\\ being\\ used\\ 2destory\\ an\\ entire\\ generation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ new\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ being\\ distributed\\ in\\ WWI\\ has\\ ghastly\\ deformities\\ o\\ ppl\\ coming\\ back\\ from\\ the\\ front\\ w\\ traumatic\\ physical\\ n\\ mental\\ wounds\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;shell\\ shock\\&rdquo\\;\\ emerges\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ physically\\,\\ they\\ have\\ these\\ robot\\-like\\ appendages\\.\\ \\ \\;Creepy\\ conflation\\ bw\\ man\\ n\\ machines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dada\\ artists\\ also\\ responding\\ 2US\\ attitude\\ toward\\ machines\\ in\\ \\&lsquo\\;teens\\ n\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ great\\ era\\ o\\ electricity\\,\\ sky\\ scrapers\\,\\ plumbing\\ in\\ USA\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ artists\\ coming\\ 2nyc\\ from\\ EU\\ 2escape\\ the\\ war\\ see\\ all\\ this\\ as\\ amazing\\.\\ \\ \\;Duchamp\\:\\ \\ \\;US\\ plumbing\\ n\\ bridges\\ \\=\\ their\\ best\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ mechanical\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ was\\ it\\ doing\\ 2US\\?\\ \\ \\;They\\ had\\ affection\\ 4\\ skyscrapers\\ n\\ plumbing\\ n\\ bridges\\,\\ but\\ also\\ had\\ devastating\\ commentary\\ on\\ what\\ these\\ machines\\ were\\ doing\\ 2Americans\\,\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ soldiers\\ but\\ the\\ citizens\\ surrounded\\ by\\ mechanical\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interested\\ in\\ how\\ dependence\\ on\\ machines\\ became\\ obvious\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\ n\\ emasculated\\,\\ made\\ ppl\\ ineffectual\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technophelia\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ embraced\\ n\\ satiriced\\ by\\ Dada\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ just\\ Picabia\\ in\\ his\\ conflation\\ o\\ women\\ n\\ machine\\,\\ where\\ he\\ commented\\ on\\ eroticization\\ o\\ machines\\ n\\ consumer\\ products\\ made\\ 2b\\ desirable\\ in\\ this\\ capitalistic\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;Bodies\\ becoming\\ conflated\\ w\\ machines\\ on\\ level\\ o\\ desire\\ n\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ the\\ Dadaists\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ r\\ also\\ Native\\ American\\ artists\\ who\\ r\\ thinking\\ thru\\ the\\ status\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rube\\ Goldberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Now\\ you\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ tie\\ a\\ full\\-dress\\ tie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ o\\ Rube\\ Goldberg\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ machine\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unnecessarily\\ complex\\ \\ \\;n\\ counterproductive\\.\\ \\ \\;Elaborate\\ contrapations\\ that\\ perform\\ simple\\ tasks\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ contraption\\ labeled\\,\\ n\\ says\\ how\\ each\\ stage\\ works\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\RG\\ not\\ connected\\ 2Dadaists\\,\\ but\\ has\\ the\\ ironic\\ conflation\\ o\\ the\\ mechanical\\ w\\ the\\ organic\\.\\ \\ \\;Dependence\\ upon\\ machines\\ leading\\ 2loss\\ o\\ manual\\ skikll\\ n\\ mastery\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ then\\ the\\ final\\ stap\\ is\\ throwing\\ the\\ tie\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ n\\ grabbing\\ the\\ readymade\\ tie\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Marcel\\ Duchamp\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ Descending\\ a\\ Staircase\\,\\ no\\.\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1912\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Nude\\ Descending\\ a\\ Staircase\\ Man\\ Surveys\\ Us\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ New\\ York\\ Tribune\\,\\ 1915\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Following\\ splash\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;made\\ at\\ armory\\ show\\ in\\ 1913\\,\\ n\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ 2escape\\ the\\ war\\ situation\\ in\\ EU\\,\\ Duchamp\\ moved\\ 2nyc\\ in\\ 1915\\,\\ stayed\\ thru\\ 1923\\,\\ then\\ thru\\ 2the\\ end\\ o\\ his\\ life\\ n\\ became\\ associated\\ w\\ US\\ art\\ in\\ general\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ \\=\\ star\\ o\\ Dada\\ group\\ \\/\\ Aaronsberg\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ famous\\ in\\ Paris\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ catapoulted\\ 2fame\\ in\\ Nyc\\ after\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nude\\ Descending\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Assailed\\ by\\ reporters\\ right\\ after\\ he\\ got\\ off\\ the\\ ship\\ from\\ France\\ n\\ stepped\\ in2\\ nyc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ most\\ lasting\\ imptnce\\ on\\ development\\,\\ not\\ just\\ on\\ US\\ art\\ but\\ on\\ all\\ modern\\ art\\ o\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\ is\\ the\\ figure\\ that\\ took\\ the\\ irreverent\\ wit\\ o\\ the\\ Dada\\ circle\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ applied\\ these\\ 2\\ Dada\\ principles\\ 2hte\\ idea\\ o\\ art\\ itself\\ \\.\\ \\ \\;if\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ core\\ o\\ humanity\\ was\\ being\\ eviscerated\\ in\\ modern\\ society\\,\\ how\\ would\\ art\\ fnctn\\ then\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ about\\ art\\ taken\\ for\\ granted\\ Duchamp\\ challenged\\ or\\ inverted\\ during\\ his\\ nyc\\ yrs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Typically\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ provoke\\ a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ some\\ piety\\ or\\ assumption\\ o\\ art\\ would\\ be\\ made\\ visible\\ even\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ compromised\\ by\\ a\\ mechanical\\ element\\ or\\ detachment\\ in\\ his\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Known\\ 4totally\\ desanctifying\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Duchamp\\,\\ Fountain\\,\\ 1917\\ \\(1964\\ replica\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Readymades\\ as\\ key\\ example\\ o\\ Duchamp\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ relationship\\ o\\ organic\\ n\\ the\\ mechanical\\.\\ \\ \\;Key\\ move\\ that\\ imptnt\\ afterlife\\ in\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ considered\\ himself\\ conceptual\\ artist\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2retinal\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interested\\ in\\ art\\ that\\ gets\\ at\\ key\\ philosophical\\/conceptual\\ problems\\ n\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ 2society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ wrk\\ \\=\\ attempt\\ 2define\\ n\\ challenge\\ the\\ boundaries\\ o\\ art\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ becomes\\ common\\ 2conceptual\\ art\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ century\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Began\\ working\\ on\\ readymades\\ still\\ in\\ France\\ in\\ 1913\\,\\ but\\ redoubled\\ his\\ efforts\\ once\\ he\\ got\\ 2nyc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumer\\ situation\\ in\\ nyc\\,\\ n\\ situation\\ in\\ nyc\\ as\\ cornucopia\\ o\\ consumer\\ objects\\,\\ helped\\ him\\ 2refine\\ his\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ readymade\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Readymade\\ \\=\\ preexisting\\ object\\,\\ manufactured\\ object\\,\\ deemed\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ simply\\ by\\ being\\ nominated\\ as\\ such\\ by\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ says\\ urinal\\ \\=\\ art\\,\\ because\\ he\\ says\\ so\\,\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Element\\ o\\ each\\ othe\\ readymades\\,\\ in\\ which\\ functionatility\\ o\\ object\\ is\\ destroyed\\ in\\ its\\ transition\\ 2a\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Hat\\ rack\\ hung\\ upside\\ down\\ from\\ ceiling\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ value\\ o\\ object\\ inverted\\ as\\ it\\ becomes\\ aesthetic\\ object\\ in\\ a\\ museum\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duchamp\\,\\ Hat\\ Rack\\,\\ 1917\\ \\(1964\\ replica\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alfred\\ Stieglitz\\,\\ Fountain\\,\\ 1917\\ \\(photo\\ of\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fountain\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ most\\ famous\\ photograph\\ o\\ the\\ fountain\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ part\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;society\\ o\\ independent\\ artists\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ held\\ exhibition\\ in\\ which\\ anyone\\ who\\ submitted\\ wrk\\ would\\ be\\ allowed\\ a\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ decided\\ 2submit\\ the\\ urinal\\,\\ signing\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;R\\ Mutt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ bc\\ he\\ purchased\\ it\\ from\\ Mutt\\ iron\\ works\\ in\\ nyc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ his\\ submission\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ even\\ society\\ o\\ independent\\ artists\\ refused\\ 2exhibit\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\,\\ Aaronsberg\\,\\ resigned\\ from\\ society\\,\\ creating\\ successfully\\ scandalous\\ story\\.\\ \\ \\;Fountain\\ was\\ successful\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ rejected\\ from\\ this\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;whether\\ Mr\\.\\ Mutt\\ w\\ his\\ own\\ hands\\ made\\ the\\ fountain\\ or\\ not\\ has\\ no\\ imptnce\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ chose\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ thought\\ 4that\\ object\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ futher\\ elaboration\\ on\\ imptnce\\ o\\ readymade\\ n\\ its\\ meaning\\ 4\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ 1930s\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ RISE\\ OF\\ THE\\ MACHINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 05\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Machine\\ Age\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Marcel\\ Duchamp\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fountain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ original\\ readymade\\,\\ 2use\\ an\\ oxymoronic\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bought\\ this\\ from\\ Mutt\\ ironworks\\,\\ signed\\ it\\ R\\.\\ Mutt\\,\\ entered\\ it\\ in2\\ jury\\-free\\ exhibition\\,\\ had\\ it\\ rejected\\ by\\ institution\\ directors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ model\\ upon\\ which\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ readymade\\ in\\ a\\.\\ history\\ has\\ been\\ founded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Readymade\\ definition\\:\\ \\ \\;preexisting\\ object\\ deemed\\ a\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ simply\\ by\\ being\\ nominated\\ as\\ such\\ by\\ an\\ artist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ readymade\\,\\ functionality\\ o\\ original\\ object\\ is\\ denied\\ through\\ the\\ transition\\ 2\\ a\\ piece\\ o\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ wrk\\ shares\\ in\\ some\\ o\\ the\\ other\\ NYDada\\ themes\\ discussed\\ on\\ 2sday\\:\\ \\ \\;uncomfortable\\ conflation\\ bw\\ body\\ n\\ machine\\,\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ Picabia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ fountain\\ evokes\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ bodily\\ functions\\,\\ simply\\ by\\ being\\ a\\ urinal\\,\\ n\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ biomorphic\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Mechanical\\ object\\,\\ but\\ w\\ curving\\ shapes\\ associated\\ w\\ organic\\ objects\\ n\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;Organic\\ shape\\ o\\ it\\ was\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ critics\\,\\ referring\\ 2this\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Buddha\\ o\\ the\\ bathroom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Article\\ posed\\ dilemma\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;Richard\\ Mutt\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\,\\ describing\\ rejection\\ by\\ jury\\ n\\ the\\ reasons\\ behind\\ the\\ rejection\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;they\\ say\\ any\\ artist\\ paying\\ \\$6\\ may\\ exhibit\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ w\\/o\\ discussion\\ Richard\\ Mutt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ piece\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ shown\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\?\\ \\ \\;Some\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ plagiarism\\,\\ just\\ a\\ plain\\ piece\\ o\\ plumbing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;2which\\ Duchamp\\ responded\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;whether\\ Mr\\.\\ Mutt\\ w\\/\\ his\\ own\\ hands\\ made\\ the\\ fountain\\ or\\ not\\ has\\ no\\ imptnce\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ chose\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Took\\ an\\ ordinary\\ article\\ o\\ life\\ n\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ thought\\ 4that\\ object\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2key\\ elements\\ o\\ the\\ readymade\\ pulled\\ out\\ from\\ this\\ quote\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;readymade\\ signaled\\ monumental\\ shift\\ in\\ history\\ o\\ western\\ art\\ from\\ autonomy\\ 2contingency\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ that\\ an\\ object\\ could\\ have\\ a\\ new\\ thought\\ 4\\ it\\ indicates\\ that\\ mng\\ o\\ art\\ object\\ is\\ fungible\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ context\\ in2\\ which\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ brought\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ crucial\\ shift\\ from\\ understanding\\ o\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ having\\ internal\\ meaning\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proper\\,\\ essential\\,\\ 2itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Shift\\ from\\ art\\ object\\ being\\ autonomous\\,\\ 2new\\ suspicion\\ that\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\ r\\ what\\ they\\ r\\ only\\ because\\ o\\ the\\ mng\\ that\\ their\\ context\\ gives\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ difference\\ bw\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ n\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ art\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ an\\ intrinsic\\ difference\\ bw\\ this\\ kidn\\ o\\ porcelain\\ object\\ n\\ another\\ \\&ldquo\\;fine\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ porcelain\\ object\\,\\ but\\ simply\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ placement\\ n\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ art\\ gains\\ meaning\\ w\\/in\\ its\\ position\\ in\\ instiutional\\ frameworks\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ gave\\ birth\\ 2the\\ institutional\\ ritique\\ n\\ how\\ artworks\\ gain\\ meaning\\ rom\\ their\\ surroundings\\ that\\ dominated\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\:\\ \\ \\;notion\\ that\\ Duchamp\\ is\\ signaling\\ the\\ end\\ o\\ the\\ model\\ o\\ artistic\\ genius\\ as\\ being\\ tied\\ 2handicraft\\/manual\\ skill\\,\\ from\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ a\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ as\\ something\\ \\&ldquo\\;original\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ absolutely\\ unique\\.\\ \\ \\;Duchamp\\ takes\\ handicraft\\ n\\ originality\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ equation\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ that\\ by\\ appropriating\\ this\\ mass\\-produced\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ reason\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ taken\\ the\\ artistic\\ handiwork\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ equation\\ is\\ 2take\\ questions\\ away\\ from\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;\\ handicraft\\ n\\ skill\\ 2look\\ purely\\ at\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ makes\\ the\\ blasphemous\\ statement\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ might\\ as\\ well\\ be\\ a\\ machine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ rejoinder\\ in\\ the\\ blind\\ man\\ article\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ plumbing\\,\\ not\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Duchamp\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;as\\ for\\ plumbing\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obsurd\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ only\\ art\\ America\\ has\\ given\\ us\\ is\\ its\\ plumbing\\ n\\ its\\ bridges\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ this\\ say\\ US\\ artists\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ the\\ ppl\\ who\\ make\\ bridges\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ jab\\ at\\ Stieglitz\\ n\\ ppl\\ who\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ so\\ imptnt\\ w\\ their\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ also\\ speaks\\ 2the\\ complexity\\ o\\ the\\ landscape\\,\\ a\\ modern\\,\\ built\\ up\\ mechanical\\ landscape\\ in\\ many\\ respects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ status\\ o\\ all\\ things\\ American\\ n\\ mechanical\\ during\\ n\\ after\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;Fountain\\ seen\\ by\\ Duchamp\\ as\\ an\\ American\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ piece\\ o\\ plumbing\\ that\\ signifies\\ Americcanness\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ other\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Widespread\\ fascination\\ among\\ EU\\ intellectuals\\ w\\ US\\ plumbing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ as\\ Dada\\ was\\ skeptical\\ o\\ mechanization\\ in\\ EU\\,\\ there\\ was\\ sense\\ that\\ US\\ mechanisms\\ could\\ b\\ understood\\ by\\ other\\ understanding\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ ppl\\ could\\ treat\\ their\\ own\\ modern\\ landscape\\ in\\ a\\ new\\,\\ different\\ way\\ than\\ EU\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alfred\\ Stieglitz\\,\\ photo\\ of\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Foutain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ printed\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Blind\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ no\\.\\ 2\\,\\ Mayh\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ Stella\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\New\\ York\\ Interpreted\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Bridge\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1922\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ o\\ Stella\\&rsquo\\;s\\ many\\ Broklyn\\ Bridge\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Italian\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;Typical\\ o\\ immigrant\\ pntrs\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ the\\ brigde\\,\\ the\\ skyscraper\\,\\ n\\ plumbing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ different\\ from\\ war\\-torn\\ fields\\ o\\ EU\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ haven\\ from\\ the\\ war\\,\\ not\\ destroyed\\ 2same\\ extent\\ as\\ had\\ EU\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Power\\ n\\ prosperity\\ o\\ US\\ during\\ n\\ after\\ WWI\\ presented\\ stark\\ contast\\ 2\\ EU\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ EU\\ ppl\\ returning\\ 2US\\ as\\ new\\ utopia\\,\\ area\\ o\\ cultural\\ prosperity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 20s\\ \\=\\ period\\ known\\ in\\ French\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ fad\\ o\\ Americanisme\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ EU\\ crazy\\ 4\\ US\\ cinema\\,\\ jazz\\,\\ advertising\\,\\ photography\\.\\ \\ \\;Fascination\\ w\\ the\\ American\\ new\\ woman\\,\\ US\\ adverstising\\,\\ bold\\/brash\\ US\\ cultural\\ exports\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ had\\ several\\ impacts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\:\\ \\ \\;shifting\\ status\\ o\\ US\\ ex\\-patriot\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gerald\\ Murphy\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Razor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1922\\-24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Murphy\\ had\\ compound\\ in\\ Paris\\ where\\ he\\ lived\\ hedonistic\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ a\\ villa\\ associated\\ w\\ American\\ products\\,\\ culture\\,\\ n\\ man\\ y\\ many\\ EU\\ artists\\ came\\ by\\ 2\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;glamorous\\&rdquo\\;\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;Picasso\\ n\\ his\\ mother\\ would\\ often\\ stop\\ by\\,\\ go\\ w\\ Murphy\\ 2\\ beachside\\ engagements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Murphy\\ not\\ trained\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ an\\ heir\\ 2a\\ wealthy\\ manufacturing\\ fortune\\.\\ \\ \\;Produced\\ these\\ pop\\-like\\ pntgs\\ o\\ US\\ products\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ n\\ these\\ were\\ really\\ popular\\ in\\ France\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Razor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;shows\\ 3\\ US\\ products\\ popular\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Matches\\,\\ a\\ pen\\,\\ n\\ a\\ razor\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ branded\\ US\\ products\\,\\ embracing\\ US\\ advertising\\ culture\\,\\ n\\ appropriating\\ the\\ style\\ o\\ contemporary\\ billboards\\:\\ \\ \\;flat\\,\\ stylized\\.\\ \\ \\;Products\\ take\\ over\\ entire\\ canvass\\ on\\ this\\ huge\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;Resolutely\\ flat\\,\\ no\\ modeling\\ whatsoever\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ pntr\\ Leget\\ commented\\ on\\ these\\ pntgs\\,\\ saying\\ looking\\ at\\ this\\ wrk\\ was\\ like\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ movie\\ screen\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ EU\\ pntrs\\ saw\\ the\\ prosperity\\ n\\ the\\ safety\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ \\(safety\\ matches\\)\\ as\\ an\\ opposite\\ 2EU\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dangerous\\,\\ destroyed\\ landscape\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ relate\\ 2\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\ US\\ pop\\ pntg\\ like\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ n\\ Lichtenstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\?\\ \\ \\;we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ wks\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Murphy\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Villa\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ and\\ gold\\ leaf\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1924\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Church\\ Street\\ El\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1920\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ elevated\\ railroad\\ track\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edward\\ Steichen\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Maypole\\ \\(Empire\\ State\\ Building\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ multiple\\ exposure\\ photograph\\,\\ 1932\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ image\\ n\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Church\\ Street\\ El\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bracket\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ indicate\\ the\\ common\\ interests\\ o\\ this\\ period\\:\\ \\ \\;flappers\\,\\ jazz\\,\\ period\\ o\\ significant\\ excess\\,\\ sexual\\ liberation\\ among\\ women\\,\\ art\\ deco\\,\\ immense\\ skyscraper\\ bldg\\ boom\\ in\\ nyc\\.\\ \\ \\;Christler\\ bldg\\,\\ other\\ iconic\\ skyscrapers\\ built\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Machine\\ age\\,\\ optimism\\,\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2think\\ about\\ the\\ legacy\\ o\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fountain\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ onward\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Uper\\ Deck\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1929\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ 60s\\,\\ Duchamp\\ finally\\ has\\ retrospective\\ US\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;Took\\ till\\ then\\ 4him\\ 2b\\ fully\\ absorbed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Until\\ then\\,\\ his\\ readymade\\ lessons\\ were\\ partially\\ picked\\ up\\ in\\ pntg\\ by\\ artists\\ like\\ Sheeler\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ all\\ aspects\\ o\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Responses\\ 2trauma\\ o\\ WWI\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ significantly\\ embodied\\ in\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ readymades\\ were\\ varied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ trauma\\ o\\ WWI\\ was\\ sublimated\\ in2organic\\ pntgs\\ like\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\,\\ like\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ urban\\ n\\ floral\\ images\\,\\ Stieglitz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ n\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\,\\ were\\ all\\ trying\\ 2take\\ the\\ mechanical\\ n\\ incorporate\\ it\\ in2\\ a\\ more\\ spiritual\\ philosophy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\:\\ \\ \\;notion\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ as\\ machine\\ is\\ significantly\\ embraced\\,\\ yet\\ some\\ o\\ the\\ darkest\\ challenges\\ 2the\\ very\\ practice\\ o\\ pntg\\ n\\ artistanship\\ r\\ not\\ fully\\ embraced\\.\\ \\ \\;Movmenet\\ called\\ precisionism\\,\\ o\\ which\\ Sheeler\\ \\=\\ primary\\ example\\,\\ in\\ which\\ notion\\ o\\ mechanical\\ is\\ embraced\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ n\\ optimistic\\ strategy\\ o\\ production\\ in\\ pntgs\\ n\\ photographs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Precisionism\\ n\\ its\\ more\\ optimistic\\,\\ balanced\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\ in\\ America\\,\\ is\\ part\\ o\\ something\\ happening\\ on\\ a\\ more\\ worldwide\\ scale\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ call\\ to\\ order\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ which\\ tere\\ was\\ an\\ attempt\\ 2bring\\ about\\ a\\ monumental\\,\\ classical\\ stability\\ 2the\\ arts\\,\\ 2\\ repress\\ n\\ sublimate\\ the\\ challenges\\ that\\ WWI\\ had\\ caused\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immense\\ desire\\ 2go\\ back\\ 2something\\ more\\ classicizing\\,\\ safe\\,\\ stable\\,\\ in\\ the\\ machine\\,\\ n\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ in\\ Sheeler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ Untitled\\ \\(Ford\\ Plant\\,\\ River\\ Rouge\\)\\,\\ photographs\\,\\ 1927\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michigan\\ River\\ rouge\\ Ford\\ Plant\\ photos\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\ \\=\\ interesting\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ studied\\ w\\ William\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\.\\ \\ \\;Started\\ out\\ in\\ Arronsburg\\ circle\\ n\\ NYDada\\,\\ associated\\ w\\ n\\ admired\\ Duchamp\\,\\ butr\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ as\\ ironic\\ n\\ negative\\ about\\ the\\ machine\\ as\\ Duchamp\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ interested\\ in\\ phtoogrpahy\\.\\ \\ \\;Started\\ out\\ as\\ pictorialist\\ photographer\\,\\ artist\\ interested\\ in\\ fuzzy\\ imagery\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ often\\ see\\ in\\ Stieglitz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrks\\,\\ but\\ rejected\\ fuzzy\\,\\ soft\\ notion\\ o\\ photography\\,\\ 4what\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Straight\\ photography\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ these\\ precise\\,\\ sharp\\ images\\ that\\ helped\\ him\\ capture\\ the\\ landscape\\ o\\ the\\ factory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ focused\\ on\\ trains\\,\\ bridges\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hired\\ 2do\\ ad\\ campaign\\ 4\\ Ford\\ company\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ use\\ o\\ Ford\\ here\\ should\\ ring\\ all\\ kidns\\ o\\ bells\\ 4u\\.\\ \\ \\;one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ figures\\ in\\ US\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ bc\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ revolutionized\\ assembly\\ procedures\\ n\\ modenried\\ the\\ manufacturing\\ system\\,\\ o\\ much\\ o\\ the\\ modernity\\ that\\ was\\ surrounding\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ Detroit\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ confluence\\ n\\ profusion\\ o\\ the\\ objects\\ from\\ assembly\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plant\\ that\\ Sheeler\\ photographed\\ was\\ 100\\ acres\\ o\\ plot\\,\\ 93\\ miels\\ o\\ railroad\\ track\\ running\\ through\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ never\\ see\\ an\\ overview\\ photo\\ o\\ the\\ whole\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ spent\\ 6\\ full\\ wks\\ there\\,\\ photographing\\ 4\\ advertising\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ isolates\\,\\ separates\\ the\\ different\\ parts\\ o\\ the\\ plant\\ in\\ these\\ photographs\\,\\ so\\ that\\ each\\ aspect\\ o\\ the\\ plant\\ has\\ this\\ incredibly\\ strong\\,\\ graphic\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ the\\ strong\\ shapes\\,\\ the\\ X\\ shape\\,\\ thse\\ strong\\ eritcals\\,\\ create\\ a\\ modern\\/modernist\\ graphic\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ picture\\ plane\\,\\ n\\ refer\\ 2the\\ actual\\ world\\ o\\ the\\ palnt\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ overall\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;Interestd\\ in\\ creating\\ these\\ little\\ modern\\ icons\\,\\ each\\ w\\ its\\ own\\ massive\\ n\\ monumental\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ interested\\ in\\ an\\ overview\\ o\\ the\\ plant\\ n\\ looking\\ at\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ wrking\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Isolating\\,\\ framing\\,\\ n\\ creaingthese\\ incredible\\ graphic\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ sperate\\ parts\\ o\\ the\\ plant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ taking\\ all\\ these\\ photos\\,\\ some\\ used\\ by\\ Ford\\ for\\ ads\\,\\ he\\ continued\\ 2b\\ compelled\\ by\\ what\\ he\\ learned\\ there\\ by\\ mass\\-production\\,\\ assembly\\,\\ the\\ production\\ line\\ at\\ the\\ Ford\\ plant\\,\\ n\\ began\\ 2think\\ about\\ how\\ his\\ own\\ wrk\\ might\\ echo\\ what\\ he\\ learned\\ at\\ the\\ Ford\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inasmuch\\ as\\ the\\ Ford\\ photos\\ r\\ mechanical\\ images\\&hellip\\;4\\ yrs\\ later\\,\\ he\\ created\\ pntgs\\ o\\ th\\ same\\ plant\\ from\\ his\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ trying\\ thru\\ these\\ pntgs\\ 2incorporate\\ the\\ mass\\ production\\ ethos\\ in2\\ his\\ method\\ o\\ wrkng\\ as\\ a\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Took\\ slides\\ o\\ the\\ photos\\,\\ projected\\ them\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ just\\ like\\ Eakins\\ did\\ in\\ his\\ early\\ 1880s\\ pntgs\\,\\ n\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2\\ totally\\ eliminate\\ the\\ spontaneous\\ expression\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\,\\ n\\ 2create\\ as\\ little\\ personal\\ linterference\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ mechanical\\ transcription\\ in\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ radical\\ mechanization\\ o\\ the\\ practice\\ o\\ pntg\\ 4this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvs\\,\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;American\\ Landscape\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Calling\\ this\\ a\\ landscape\\ calls\\ attn\\ 2this\\ as\\ new\\ mechanical\\ landscape\\ that\\ replaces\\ the\\ previously\\ existing\\ arcadian\\,\\ pastoral\\ landscape\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ all\\ elements\\ o\\ natural\\ landscape\\,\\ but\\ all\\ rigidly\\ controlled\\ n\\ naturalized\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ calling\\ this\\ a\\ landscape\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ anti\\-landscape\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mountain\\ ranges\\ o\\ material\\ just\\ dumped\\ about\\ by\\ cranes\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ o\\ natural\\ river\\ u\\ have\\ man\\-made\\ conal\\ used\\ 2bring\\ ships\\ thru\\ the\\ plant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ o\\ pathways\\,\\ u\\ have\\ railroads\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ironic\\,\\ but\\ 4Sheeler\\ it\\ \\=\\ celebratory\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ landscape\\ having\\ become\\ productive\\ n\\ mechanid\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Classic\\ Landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1931\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ human\\ figures\\ r\\ all\\ removed\\ form\\ the\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ assembly\\ line\\ laborers\\.\\ This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ documentary\\ photograph\\ o\\ labor\\ practices\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ evacuates\\ signs\\ o\\ human\\ labor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2create\\ eternalizing\\ monumental\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ factory\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ about\\ its\\ day2day\\ operations\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ pntgs\\ accused\\ o\\ blindness\\ 2the\\ labor\\ realities\\ in\\ factories\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\.\\ \\ \\;similar\\ 2how\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ cut\\ out\\ n\\ isolate\\ various\\ sections\\ o\\ the\\ factory\\ n\\ shot\\ show\\ them\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ broader\\ wrking\\ situation\\ populated\\ full\\ o\\ human\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ Landscape\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\owned\\ by\\ relative\\ o\\ Easil\\ Ford\\ today\\,\\ bc\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ very\\ friendly\\ 2Ford\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interests\\ 2day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ Eakins\\&rsquo\\;\\ phtoo\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mending\\ the\\ Net\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Wants\\ 2reveal\\ the\\ rational\\ order\\ n\\ workmanships\\ o\\ US\\ society\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ opposite\\ o\\ Eakins\\,\\ who\\ translated\\ photography\\ in2\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ all\\ about\\ how\\ hard\\ it\\ was\\ 2wrestle\\ these\\ photographic\\ bits\\ in2\\ a\\ created\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;4Sheeler\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2erase\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ Warhol\\ would\\ say\\ 30\\ yrs\\ later\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ want\\ 2b\\ a\\ machine\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Precisionist\\ pntgs\\ tend\\ 2have\\ a\\ starkly\\ modern\\ view\\ o\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ impersonal\\,\\ mechanical\\ use\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ r\\ not\\ the\\ gestural\\ brushstrokes\\ that\\ indicate\\ the\\ presence\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ Rejection\\ o\\ emotional\\ excess\\ n\\ sentimentalism\\ that\\ was\\ associated\\ w\\ the\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ have\\ a\\ vacuum\\ like\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ air\\.\\ \\ \\;Eeryhing\\ is\\ absolutely\\ clear\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ detail\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ throughout\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ N\\ o\\ atmospheric\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ have\\ a\\ crystalline\\ atmosphere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ eternal\\,\\ o\\ a\\ world\\ somehow\\ greater\\ than\\,\\ not\\ inhabited\\ by\\ everyday\\ humans\\,\\ had\\ a\\ religious\\ quality\\ 4artists\\ like\\ Sheeler\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ religion\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\ in\\ the\\ machine\\ age\\&hellip\\;many\\ pntrs\\ from\\ 20s\\ wrking\\ w\\ mechanical\\ subject\\ matter\\ make\\ the\\ metaphor\\ 4the\\ machine\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\ n\\ other\\ precisionists\\ saw\\ the\\ machine\\ as\\ offering\\ hope\\ 4more\\ productive\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ amnesia\\ about\\ what\\ happened\\ 2this\\ \\&ldquo\\;rational\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;Machine\\ \\=\\ religious\\ artifiact\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stella\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\New\\ York\\ Interpreted\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(five\\ panels\\)\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1920\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ Stella\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Coney\\ Island\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;isdynamic\\,\\ related\\ 2the\\ futurist\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;Stella\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ have\\ seized\\ up\\,\\ become\\ more\\ structured\\,\\ less\\ futurous\\,\\ less\\ aobut\\ het\\ organic\\ swirl\\ o\\ motion\\,\\ more\\ about\\ a\\ fractured\\,\\ crystalline\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ landscape\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ wrk\\,\\ if\\ it\\ has\\ religious\\ suggestions\\,\\ borrows\\ them\\ form\\ gothic\\ arches\\ in\\ the\\ Brooklyn\\ Bridge\\,\\ borrowing\\ them\\ by\\ using\\ thiese\\ heaven\\-ward\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ cables\\ curinv\\ up\\ in2\\ the\\ sky\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wrks\\ w\\ background\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ n\\ his\\ pntgs\\ have\\ oblique\\ refernces\\ 2Italian\\ renaissance\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ \\=\\ modern\\ altarpiece\\ 2Nyc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hung\\ in\\ multi\\-panel\\ composition\\ w\\ 5\\ pntsgs\\ side\\ by\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multi\\-panel\\ pntg\\ is\\ much\\ lie\\ ka\\ religious\\ altar\\ piece\\ at\\ this\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ o\\ bridge\\.\\ \\ \\;Overt\\ religious\\ reference\\ beginning\\ 2creep\\ in2\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hugh\\ Ferriss\\,\\ illustration\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metropolis\\ of\\ Tomorrow\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1929\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ have\\ polytheistic\\ n\\ ancient\\ religions\\ being\\ evoked\\.\\ \\ \\;Incredible\\ drawing\\,\\ emphasizes\\ futuristic\\ giganticism\\ n\\ power\\ o\\ the\\ nyc\\ skyline\\.\\ \\ \\;Idealized\\ n\\ futuristic\\ urban\\ structures\\ that\\ owe\\ as\\ much\\ 2mesopotamian\\ n\\ Egyptian\\ forms\\ as\\ they\\ do\\ 2\\ Chrsitian\\ forms\\ o\\ transcendence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Demuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Incense\\ of\\ a\\ New\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1921\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Might\\ also\\ look\\ at\\ pntr\\ Charles\\ Demuth\\ in\\ this\\ regard\\.\\ \\ \\;Demuth\\ also\\ studied\\ w\\ William\\ Merritt\\ Chase\\ b4\\ becoming\\ precisionist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Started\\ out\\ in\\ circle\\ o\\ NYDadaists\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ quite\\ as\\ gung\\-ho\\ as\\ Sheeler\\ was\\ about\\ US\\ machines\\,\\ but\\ did\\ feel\\ that\\ spirituality\\ o\\ these\\ machines\\ was\\ difficult\\ 2ignore\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ pntgs\\ wrk\\ thru\\ that\\ connection\\ that\\ was\\ becoming\\ part\\ o\\ US\\ parlance\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ industrial\\ images\\ o\\ water\\ containers\\,\\ grain\\ elevators\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;smoke\\ stacks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turns\\ this\\ in2\\ eclesiastical\\ image\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;d\\ normally\\ be\\ ugly\\ scene\\ o\\ steel\\ yard\\ n\\ smoke\\.\\ \\ \\;Billowing\\ smoke\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ incense\\,\\ religious\\ form\\ o\\ smo\\,e\\,\\ something\\ u\\ might\\ get\\ in\\ a\\ church\\ instead\\ o\\ in\\ a\\ steelyard\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transformed\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ made\\ it\\ look\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ piece\\ o\\ stained\\ galss\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ get\\ fasceted\\,\\ shattered\\ looks\\ in\\ his\\ pngs\\ that\\ refer\\ 2stained\\ glass\\,\\ the\\ arched\\ window\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\ \\=\\ a\\ religious\\ reference\\,\\ n\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;chalice\\ in\\ the\\ bottom\\ right\\ o\\ the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ interested\\ in\\ equating\\ US\\ architecture\\ w\\ the\\ great\\ monuments\\ o\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Great\\ Figure\\ \\(I\\ Saw\\ the\\ Figure\\ 5\\ in\\ Gold\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1928\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ composition\\ board\\,\\ 1927\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ his\\ most\\ imptnt\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Sets\\ up\\ equation\\ bw\\ these\\ grain\\ elevators\\ n\\ tpyramids\\.\\ \\ \\;Emphasis\\ on\\ stability\\,\\ monumentality\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ pntgs\\ that\\,\\ in\\ its\\ fractured\\ space\\,\\ does\\ draw\\ upon\\ cubism\\ n\\ futurism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ where\\ Demuth\\ n\\ others\\ learn\\ 2take\\ pictorial\\ space\\ n\\ turn\\ it\\ in2\\ fractured\\ planes\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ the\\ dynamism\\ hs\\ been\\ taken\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ futuirms\\ n\\ the\\ cubism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ governing\\ metaphor\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ crystalline\\ sieing\\ up\\ o\\ space\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ dynamic\\ moving\\ o\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ odn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ jumbling\\ o\\ views\\ that\\ dynamize\\ n\\ fracture\\ the\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vision\\ locking\\ in\\ n\\ reassembling\\ itself\\ in\\ tehse\\ pntsgs\\.\\ Broken\\ mirror\\ putting\\ itself\\ back\\ 2gether\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ o\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ solid\\,\\ monumental\\ kind\\ o\\ modernity\\ 4\\ a\\ new\\ era\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ kind\\ o\\ US\\ modernity\\,\\ like\\ what\\ we\\ saw\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fountain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Both\\ making\\ claims\\ aobut\\ the\\ USness\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\.\\ \\ \\;4Duchamp\\,\\ something\\ very\\ US\\ about\\ the\\ readymade\\,\\ the\\ urinal\\,\\ plubming\\ \\,\\ electricity\\,\\ egningeering\\,\\ all\\ o\\ these\\ \\=\\ aspects\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ in\\ particular\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ what\\ relation\\ bw\\ memory\\ n\\ history\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ might\\ we\\ read\\ history\\ n\\ memory\\ in2\\ the\\ Fountain\\ n\\ Demuth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Ehypt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ tounatins\\&rsquo\\;\\ relationship\\ 2that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ think\\ o\\ fountains\\ as\\ historical\\ monuments\\.\\ \\ \\;EU\\ monuments\\ r\\ historical\\ monuments\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ naming\\ it\\ fountain\\,\\ he\\ thrust\\ this\\ in2diret\\ comparison\\ w\\ EU\\ fountains\\ n\\ fountain\\ memorials\\.\\ \\ \\;Brings\\ in\\ thematics\\ o\\ memory\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suggests\\ in\\ sense\\ that\\ plumbing\\ \\=\\ US\\ version\\ o\\ public\\ space\\ n\\ public\\ memory\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ course\\,\\ not\\ same\\ as\\ EU\\ fountain\\,\\ bc\\ in\\ this\\ fountain\\ that\\ memory\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ something\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ 2b\\ flushed\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ toilet\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ fountain\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ version\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ memorial\\ will\\ be\\ constantly\\ flushed\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ public\\ memory\\ is\\ contantly\\ being\\ flushed\\ away\\,\\ but\\ constatntly\\ being\\ renewed\\.\\ \\ \\;Refers\\ 2US\\ connectiedness\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ curious\\ lack\\ o\\ memory\\ in\\ US\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ frightened\\ n\\ fascinated\\ EUs\\ about\\ US\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ culture\\ seemed\\ 2offer\\ way\\ o\\ forgetting\\ what\\ just\\ happened\\ in\\ WWI\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ culture\\ seen\\ as\\ subjected\\ 2ocnstnat\\ flushing\\ n\\ renewal\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ culture\\ had\\ sense\\ o\\ refreshing\\ newness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ newness\\ also\\ related\\ 2idea\\ o\\ immediacy\\.\\ \\ \\;Freedom\\ from\\ entrenched\\ EU\\ traditions\\ tha\\ EU\\ artists\\ were\\ trying\\ 2avoid\\.\\ \\ \\;Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ monument\\ \\=\\ ironic\\ monument\\ 2forgetfullness\\,\\ hygiene\\,\\ constant\\ renewal\\,\\ constantly\\ in\\ flux\\ n\\ w\\/o\\ the\\ baggae\\ o\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demuth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ 2the\\ modern\\:\\ \\ \\;wants\\ 2explore\\ the\\ USness\\ o\\ modernity\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ 2erase\\ history\\ in\\ doing\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;Atmepting\\ thru\\ precisionist\\ techniques\\ 12create\\ sense\\ o\\ true\\ permanence\\.\\ \\ \\;Wants\\ 2eteranlize\\,\\ take\\ new\\ sleek\\ modern\\ forms\\ n\\ make\\ one\\ believe\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ here\\ forever\\ n\\ will\\ b\\ here\\ forever\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ scale\\ o\\ grain\\ silos\\,\\ reference\\ 2pyramids\\,\\ is\\ about\\ creating\\ a\\ history\\ 4\\ modenrism\\,\\ particularly\\ a\\ US\\ history\\ o\\ modnerizsm\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ we\\ have\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ particularly\\ US\\ form\\ o\\ modern\\ architecture\\ seen\\ as\\ comfortably\\ modern\\,\\ locking\\ in2\\ modern\\ vocabulary\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ if\\ all\\ o\\ modernism\\ had\\ been\\ derived\\ form\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4Demuth\\ n\\ other\\ preicionists\\,\\ interested\\ in\\ capturing\\ a\\ history\\ 4modernism\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ landscape\\,\\ creaintg\\ grain\\ siols\\ that\\ r\\ eternal\\,\\ pnymenoci\\ objects\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ this\\ wrking\\ thru\\ othterp\\ ntgs\\ in\\ Demuth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Demuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Buildings\\,\\ Lancaster\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ board\\,\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tower\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ watercolor\\ on\\ paper\\,\\ 1920\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Here\\ he\\ wrks\\ thru\\ peculiarly\\ US\\ fit\\:\\ \\ \\;thefit\\ o\\ US\\ history\\ w\\ modern\\ pntg\\ styles\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ all\\ o\\ his\\ pntgs\\ obviously\\ were\\ ealing\\ w\\ these\\ modern\\ vernacular\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ historical\\ US\\ vernacular\\ forms\\ partiuclary\\ this\\ colonial\\ architecture\\ that\\&rsquo\\;sp\\ rofundly\\ familiar\\ 2all\\ o\\ us\\ in\\ Cambridge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\20s\\:\\ \\ \\;part\\ o\\ this\\ modern\\,\\ forward\\ looking\\ age\\,\\ but\\ also\\ \\=\\ era\\ o\\ colonial\\ revival\\.\\ \\ \\;Immense\\ intersest\\ in\\ New\\ Englaand\\ colonial\\ objects\\,\\ furniture\\,\\ architecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Coolonoial\\ objects\\ seemed\\ interesting\\ bc\\ they\\ noticed\\ affinity\\ bw\\ clean\\ functional\\ machine\\ age\\ modern\\ forms\\ n\\ the\\ clean\\ simple\\ functional\\ style\\ o\\ early\\ US\\ antiques\\,\\ which\\ ahad\\ a\\ clarity\\ n\\ honesty\\ about\\ them\\ that\\ went\\ well\\ w\\ modernist\\ machine\\ aesthetic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clean\\ white\\ church\\ spires\\ jutting\\ aagaints\\ the\\ sky\\.\\ \\ \\;Clean\\ susterity\\,\\ disturst\\ o\\ superfluities\\ that\\ were\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Barn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ photograph\\,\\ 1916\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ see\\ this\\ operating\\ in\\ Sheeler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ overlap\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ n\\ the\\ historical\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheeler\\,\\ like\\ Demuth\\,\\ took\\ on\\ nationalist\\ historical\\ project\\ in\\ his\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ trying\\ 2create\\ history\\ 4modernisms\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coming\\ out\\ o\\ earlier\\ US\\ vernacular\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Home\\,\\ Sweet\\ Home\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1931\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pntd\\ in\\ his\\ South\\ Salom\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;Renowned\\ 4his\\ collection\\ o\\ early\\ American\\ antiques\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ as\\ he\\ ptngs\\ model\\ A\\ factories\\,\\ he\\ collects\\ models\\ o\\ odler\\ US\\ manufactures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shaker\\ table\\ n\\ bench\\.\\ Shakers\\ understood\\ as\\ proto\\-mnodernists\\ designers\\ bc\\ their\\ furniture\\ was\\ so\\ clean\\ n\\ modern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\ owned\\ this\\ chari\\ from\\ 1800\\.\\ \\ \\;floors\\ covered\\ in\\ historical\\ carpets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ this\\ set\\ in2\\ spaecf\\ that\\ has\\ modern\\,\\ streamlined\\ furnace\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ the\\ fireplace\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ has\\ been\\ boarded\\ up\\ as\\ an\\ indication\\ o\\ the\\ modernity\\ o\\ the\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ historical\\ n\\ new\\ streamlined\\ modern\\ American\\ objects\\ n\\ appliances\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ way\\ Sheeler\\ pnts\\ this\\ pntg\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ the\\ colonial\\ objects\\ n\\ the\\ furnace\\,\\ the\\ patterns\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\ r\\ geometric\\,\\ planar\\ in\\ their\\ construction\\.\\ \\ \\;Interesting\\ 2see\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ Sheeler\\ equates\\ the\\ flatness\\ o\\ modern\\ pntg\\ w\\ the\\ kidns\\ o\\ flatness\\ o\\ patterns\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ in\\ this\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Fusing\\ the\\ traition\\ o\\ flatness\\ n\\ the\\ modern\\.\\ \\ \\;Folk\\ tetiles\\ like\\ the\\ rugs\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\ here\\ understood\\ 2create\\ sense\\ o\\ optical\\ oscillation\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ way\\ their\\ abstract\\ patterns\\ wrkd\\ on\\ the\\ eye\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spatial\\ oscillations\\ in\\ modern\\ pntg\\ itself\\ were\\ simlir\\ 2the\\ patterns\\ o\\ nthe\\ rugs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pattesrn\\ on\\ the\\ rugs\\ were\\ obth\\ advancing\\ n\\ receding\\,\\ confused\\ in\\ their\\ direction\\.\\ \\ \\;Calling\\ attn\\ 2their\\ own\\ faltness\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\ treating\\ these\\ rugs\\ as\\ if\\ their\\ own\\ abstract\\ sensibility\\ was\\ right\\ at\\ home\\ w\\/in\\ this\\ modner\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ whole\\ space\\ socilalates\\ uncertainly\\.\\ \\ \\;Recessional\\ signals\\ o\\ objects\\ around\\ the\\ room\\ compromised\\ by\\ cropping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ table\\ at\\ front\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ at\\ table\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\&rsquo\\;\\ awedge\\ coming\\ up\\ agiants\\ the\\ picture\\ plane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chair\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arm\\ rail\\ on\\ ar\\ sie\\ is\\ far\\ longer\\ than\\ arm\\ on\\ near\\ side\\ o\\ chair\\.\\ \\ \\;Tha\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ the\\ opposite\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;d\\ you\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ normal\\ perspective\\ al\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Chari\\ twisintg\\ unnaturally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Staircase\\ refuses\\ 2reced\\ in32\\ back\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Floor\\ tils\\ in\\ the\\ image\\,\\ allowing\\ abstract\\ rugs\\ 2b\\ tilted\\ up\\ toward\\ front\\ op\\ icture\\ plane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ about\\ vernacular\\ o\\ these\\ abstractions\\ n\\ the\\ spatial\\ plays\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ becoming\\ more\\ common\\ in\\ modern\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ coming\\ home\\ o\\ modernism\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ if\\ machine\\ age\\ n\\ its\\ modern\\ forms\\ had\\ founds\\ its\\ true\\ home\\ in\\ these\\ US\\ origins\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ pntg\\ \\=\\ US\\ heritage\\ o\\ modernism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narrow\\,\\ specific\\ idea\\ o\\ what\\ US\\ origins\\ n\\ heritage\\ truly\\ r\\.\\ \\ \\;true\\ origins\\ o\\ US\\ modernism\\ r\\ only\\ about\\ shaker\\ furniture\\,\\ New\\ England\\ angtiques\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ about\\ Native\\ American\\,\\ African\\,\\ Spanish\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ r\\ they\\ connected\\ 2modernity\\?\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ that\\ next\\ wk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;EXILES\\ AND\\ COSMOPLITANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 10\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Murals\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ wk\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ 30s\\,\\ or\\ the\\ Depression\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\ we\\ focus\\ on\\ public\\ murals\\,\\ then\\ Thursday\\ on\\ EU\\ exiles\\ wrkng\\ in\\ US\\,\\ n\\ African\\ American\\ art\\,\\ n\\ the\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\ \\ \\;Public\\ murals\\ might\\ seem\\ like\\ narrow\\ topic\\,\\ but\\ it\\ epitomized\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ factors\\ led\\ 2public\\ murals\\&rsquo\\;\\ imptnce\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ a\\ few\\ imptnt\\ ones\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ 1\\,000s\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ public\\ spaces\\ around\\ the\\ US\\:\\ \\ \\;museums\\,\\ federal\\ bldgs\\ like\\ post\\ offices\\.\\ \\ \\;Esp\\.\\ in\\ the\\ Midwest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ factors\\ contributed\\ 2the\\ shift\\ from\\ easel\\ pntg\\ 2the\\ imptnce\\ o\\ public\\ murals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Response\\ 2the\\ Depression\\:\\ \\ \\;1929\\ led\\ 2immense\\ unemployment\\,\\ collapse\\ o\\ US\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;Led\\ 2various\\ reactions\\ against\\ economic\\ elitism\\,\\ against\\ privatized\\ nature\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ easel\\ pntg\\,\\ as\\ practiced\\ by\\ groups\\ like\\ the\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\,\\ which\\ was\\ 2elitist\\,\\ focused\\ on\\ precious\\ objects\\ accessible\\ financially\\ n\\ theoretically\\ only\\ 2the\\ elite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ increasing\\ interest\\ in\\ collective\\ forms\\ o\\ art\\ meant\\ 2b\\ seen\\/understood\\ by\\ large\\ \\#\\&rsquo\\;s\\ o\\ ppl\\ who\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ art\\ experts\\.\\ \\ \\;Legibility\\ is\\ big\\ 4murals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imptnt\\ developments\\ in\\ aesthetic\\ philosophy\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ idea\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;Art\\ as\\ experience\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ was\\ being\\ promoted\\ by\\ John\\ Duey\\,\\ influential\\ philosopher\\ n\\ author\\ o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Art\\ as\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;published\\ in\\ 1934\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duey\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ part\\ o\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ entire\\ community\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ existing\\ separately\\ from\\ that\\ community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intensification\\ o\\ everyday\\ life\\ rather\\ than\\ something\\ set\\ away\\ from\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Museum\\ art\\ failed\\ 2satisfy\\ aesthetic\\ needs\\ o\\ indidivdual\\ ppl\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ art\\ as\\ expression\\ o\\ individual\\ creator\\.\\ \\ \\;Interested\\ in\\ exploring\\ how\\ art\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ daily\\ ritual\\ o\\ broader\\ symbolic\\ life\\ o\\ groups\\ o\\ ppl\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ it\\ was\\ part\\ o\\ daily\\ ritual\\,\\ it\\ zhould\\ be\\ tied\\ 2public\\ places\\ n\\ landscapes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\70s\\:\\ \\ \\;conceptual\\ art\\ brought\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ museums\\ n\\ in2\\ the\\ rituals\\ o\\ daily\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diego\\ Rivera\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Detroit\\ Industray\\ urals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1932\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ Diego\\ Rivera\\.\\ \\ \\;River\\ part\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;Los\\ Tres\\ Grandes\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Three\\ Big\\ Ones\\.\\ \\ \\;Mexicans\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ 3pntrs\\,\\ along\\ w\\ Mexican\\ mural\\ pntrs\\,\\ developed\\ out\\ o\\ Mexican\\ revolution\\,\\ which\\ overthrew\\ a\\ corrupt\\ regime\\ 2install\\ a\\ reformed\\ govt\\.\\ \\ \\;hugely\\ traumatic\\ period\\ in\\ Mexican\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;2million\\ ppl\\ died\\,\\ 13\\%\\ o\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reform\\ govt\\ invested\\ in\\ declaration\\ o\\ public\\ bldgs\\ throughout\\ Mexico\\ City\\ n\\ the\\ country\\,\\ 2create\\ new\\ nataionlist\\ narratives\\ that\\ heroicized\\ socialist\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ effort\\ helped\\ ppl\\ like\\ Rivera\\ 2hone\\ the\\ mural\\ craft\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ artists\\ emigrated\\ 2the\\ US\\ as\\ Mexican\\ govt\\ pulled\\ back\\ support\\ 4Mexican\\ pntrs\\ doing\\ murals\\,\\ but\\ also\\ bc\\ there\\ was\\ huge\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ Mexican\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ Mexican\\ muralists\\ came\\ 2US\\,\\ changed\\ history\\ o\\ US\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ who\\ wrkd\\ on\\ murals\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ I\\ nthe\\ 1930s\\ was\\ given\\ a\\ pamphlet\\ on\\ Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ technique\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\ had\\ a\\ distinguished\\ artistic\\ education\\.\\ \\ \\;Studied\\ all\\ the\\ imptnt\\ modernist\\ movements\\ coming\\ out\\ o\\ EU\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rivera\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ Martin\\ Luis\\ Guzman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1915\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ demonstrates\\ that\\ he\\ knows\\ his\\ modernism\\ well\\,\\ particularly\\ his\\ cubism\\,\\ synthetic\\ cubism\\ ehre\\.\\ \\ \\;Emphasis\\ on\\ flattening\\,\\ surface\\ pattern\\,\\ breaking\\ up\\ o\\ forms\\,\\ interlocking\\ planes\\ in\\ cubic\\ spatial\\ construction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ modern\\ techniques\\ learned\\ from\\ EU\\ pntg\\ would\\ find\\ their\\ way\\ in2\\ his\\ murals\\.\\ \\ \\;Look\\ at\\ this\\ study\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ North\\ n\\ South\\ walls\\ o\\ this\\ mural\\ face\\ eo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ he\\ came\\ 2US\\ in\\ 30s\\,\\ commissioned\\ by\\ Easil\\ Ford\\ 2create\\ series\\ o\\ murals\\ 2document\\ Ford\\.\\ \\ \\;Commissioned\\ by\\ Ford\\ 2create\\ epic\\ cycle\\ o\\ industrial\\ production\\ in\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ funny\\ place\\ 4it\\:\\ \\ \\;an\\ interior\\ garden\\ courtyard\\ in\\ Renaissance\\-inspired\\ museum\\ bldg\\.\\ \\ \\;u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ expect\\ a\\ more\\ Renaissance\\ mural\\ bc\\ Rivera\\ studied\\ the\\ renaissance\\ so\\ seriously\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ question\\ u\\ should\\ b\\ bothered\\ by\\:\\ \\ \\;y\\ would\\ straight\\ capitalist\\ like\\ Ford\\ commission\\ socialist\\ murla\\ artist\\ 2heroicize\\ industrial\\ production\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ created\\ PR\\,\\ which\\ was\\ imptnt\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ Depression\\,\\ which\\ was\\ blamed\\ on\\ the\\ excess\\ o\\ capitalism\\ n\\ greed\\.\\ \\ \\;Fords\\,\\ Rockefellers\\,\\ trying\\ 2show\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ so\\ greedy\\ n\\ r\\ sort\\ o\\ enlightened\\ capitalists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ some\\ complicated\\ North\\/South\\ America\\ Mexico\\/US\\ relationships\\ informing\\ the\\ embrace\\ o\\ the\\ muralists\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\US\\ industrialists\\ hold\\ oil\\ interests\\ in\\ Mexico\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ responding\\ 2threat\\ that\\ oil\\ industry\\ in\\ Mexico\\ would\\ be\\ nationalized\\.\\ \\ \\;Industrialists\\ tyring\\ 2court\\ favor\\ w\\ Mexican\\ govt\\ by\\ supporting\\ its\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ diplomacy\\ where\\ htye\\ impress\\ Mexican\\ govt\\ by\\ hiring\\ their\\ favorite\\ mural\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ o\\ cultural\\/polticial\\ operation\\ behind\\ the\\ production\\ \\ \\;othese\\ murals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ whole\\ mural\\ done\\ in\\ true\\ frescoe\\ technique\\,\\ which\\ is\\ really\\ labor\\-intensive\\.\\ \\ \\;Requires\\ 3\\ different\\ coats\\ o\\ plaster\\,\\ on\\ the\\ spot\\ preparation\\ o\\ pigments\\,\\ transfer\\ o\\ design\\ on2\\ the\\ wall\\,\\ application\\ o\\ pigment\\ all\\ has\\ 2b\\ done\\ while\\ plaster\\ I\\ still\\ wet\\.\\ \\ \\;Takes\\ lots\\ o\\ careful\\ planning\\ ahead\\ o\\ time\\,\\ but\\ lots\\ o\\ ability\\ also\\ 2wrk\\ w\\ drawing\\ plaster\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Rivera\\ felt\\ this\\ process\\ mirrored\\ the\\ constant\\,\\ closely\\-timed\\ wrk\\ that\\ automobile\\ wrkers\\ endured\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ factories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ n\\ South\\ walls\\ r\\ narrative\\ panels\\ surmounted\\ by\\ allegorical\\ figureso\\ n\\ top\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ Wall\\ shows\\ iron\\ wrk\\,\\ South\\ wall\\ shows\\ finished\\ product\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ he\\ waves\\ 2gether\\ complex\\ actions\\ o\\ manufacturing\\ process\\ in2\\ unified\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ this\\ happens\\ in\\ huge\\ sprawling\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ think\\ in\\ detail\\ about\\ the\\ stylistic\\ n\\ philsoopsophical\\ aspects\\ o\\ the\\ murals\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rivera\\,\\ fresco\\ study\\ for\\ Detroit\\ Indsutry\\ Murals\\,\\ 1932\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rivera\\ has\\ taken\\ what\\ he\\ learned\\ from\\ cubism\\ n\\ applied\\ it\\ 2the\\ great\\ machine\\ forms\\ o\\ the\\ factories\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ depicting\\ in\\ the\\ Detroit\\ Industry\\ Murals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spent\\ the\\ 20s\\ largely\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ where\\ he\\ studed\\ Italian\\ Renaissance\\ frescoes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ studies\\ the\\ massive\\,\\ solid\\ contours\\ o\\ pre\\-Columbian\\ monumental\\ art\\ in\\ Mexico\\ n\\ South\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Demuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1927\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fender\\-Stampign\\ Press\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rivera\\ \\=\\ closet\\ precisionist\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ Demuth\\,\\ interested\\ in\\ notion\\ o\\ weighty\\,\\ emphatic\\,\\ monumental\\ notion\\ o\\ modernity\\ n\\ the\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;Rivera\\ making\\ distinctions\\ bw\\ machine\\ n\\ monumental\\ notions\\ o\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claiming\\ that\\ US\\ history\\ n\\ vernacular\\ envioronment\\ is\\ directly\\ connected\\ 2modernity\\,\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ same\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imptnt\\ 2know\\ that\\ 4Demuth\\,\\ the\\ America\\ he\\ talks\\ o\\ is\\ the\\ US\\ America\\,\\ Midwest\\,\\ the\\ cities\\,\\ then\\ ational\\ version\\ o\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Rivera\\,\\ when\\ talking\\ about\\ America\\ connected\\ 2modernism\\,\\ \\=\\ a\\ more\\ hemispheric\\ notion\\ o\\ North\\ n\\ South\\ America\\ combined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ trend\\ in\\ 30s\\,\\ pan\\-Americanism\\,\\ ways\\ North\\ n\\ South\\ America\\ can\\ b\\ brought\\ 2gether\\ in2\\ one\\ total\\ hemispheric\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Rivera\\ explicitly\\ looking\\ back\\ not\\ just\\ 2\\ EU\\ n\\ Norht\\ American\\ models\\,\\ but\\ 2\\ pre\\-Columbian\\ models\\ o\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Coatlicue\\,\\ Aztec\\,\\ 1300\\-1500\\ A\\.D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fender\\-Stamping\\ Press\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;looks\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ Aztec\\.\\ \\ \\;Pre\\-Colombian\\ civilization\\ is\\ lurking\\ behind\\ the\\ machines\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ fusing\\ Ancient\\ American\\ n\\ modern\\ American\\ culture\\ in\\ these\\ machines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Classic\\ Landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ oil\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ 1931\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rivera\\ loved\\ machinery\\ like\\ any\\ precisionist\\,\\ much\\ like\\ Sheeler\\ in\\ that\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;Rivera\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ beauty\\ in\\ an\\ electrical\\ plant\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ redundant\\ Baroque\\ imitations\\ o\\ EU\\ architecture\\ that\\ have\\ contaminated\\ the\\ soil\\ o\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ factores\\ provide\\ fresh\\ connection\\ 2modernism\\ that\\ Baroque\\ architecture\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ machine\\,\\ in\\ modernity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unlike\\ Sheeler\\,\\ this\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\ n\\ his\\ love\\ o\\ machinery\\ is\\ viewed\\ thru\\ socialist\\ sensibility\\ that\\ Sheeler\\ pntg\\ lacks\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheeler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ is\\ viewing\\ the\\ same\\ plant\\!\\ \\ \\;But\\ much\\ different\\ views\\ u\\ get\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ Rivera\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ status\\ n\\ place\\ o\\ the\\ wrkr\\ in\\ n\\ amongthe\\ machinery\\ at\\ the\\ river\\ rouge\\ plant\\.\\ \\ \\;Sheeler\\ has\\ pristein\\,\\ wrkr\\-free\\ environment\\ that\\ de\\-emphasizes\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ labor\\ n\\ movement\\,\\ giving\\ classic\\,\\ pristine\\,\\ crystalline\\ view\\ o\\ the\\ machinery\\ n\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ underlying\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ automobiles\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ also\\ have\\ much\\ different\\ space\\ in\\ Rivera\\:\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crowded\\ w\\ ppl\\ n\\ machines\\ teeming\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Sheeler\\ is\\ about\\ precise\\,\\ an\\-atmospheric\\ emptiness\\ in\\ the\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\,\\ bc\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ relationship\\ bw\\ machines\\ n\\ production\\ n\\ human\\ bodies\\,\\ is\\ also\\ more\\ realistic\\ about\\ wrkng\\ conditions\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ factories\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ heroicizing\\ the\\ wrkrs\\,\\ showing\\ hteir\\ stoicism\\,\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\ pntg\\ this\\ during\\ desperate\\ situation\\ 4wrkrs\\ in\\ US\\:\\ \\ \\;wrkrs\\ on\\ strike\\ in\\ US\\ at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ n\\ Ford\\ refusing\\ 2recognize\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ desperate\\ time\\ 2walk\\ in\\ n\\ give\\ images\\ o\\ wrkrs\\ wrkng\\ in\\ Ford\\ plant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ difference\\ in\\ how\\ Sheeler\\ n\\ Rivera\\ treat\\ history\\ n\\ narrative\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Providing\\ full\\ history\\ o\\ production\\ lets\\ Rivera\\ give\\ more\\ complex\\ narrative\\ than\\ Sheeler\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2stop\\ time\\,\\ create\\ eternal\\ lock\\ on\\ temporality\\ in\\ the\\ image\\,\\ but\\ Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ showing\\ the\\ labor\\ n\\ difficulty\\,\\ the\\ steps\\ gone\\ thru\\ 2create\\ an\\ autombilie\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ putting\\ human\\ labor\\ in2\\ the\\ factory\\,\\ Rivera\\ wrks\\ against\\ Sheeler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vision\\ directly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ claim\\ o\\ capitalism\\:\\ \\ \\;from\\ Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Capital\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ the\\ labor\\ that\\ goes\\ in2\\ producing\\ the\\ commodity\\ gets\\ effaced\\,\\ forgotten\\ in\\ this\\ system\\ o\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ providing\\ history\\ o\\ production\\,\\ Rivera\\ looking\\ at\\ social\\ model\\ o\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ its\\ relationship\\ 2the\\ production\\ o\\ commodities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\ rejects\\ the\\ story\\ o\\ this\\ struggle\\ that\\ goes\\ in2making\\ a\\ product\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\ gives\\ viewer\\ fully\\ integrated\\ perspective\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ automobile\\ is\\ produced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entire\\ Fordist\\ integration\\ o\\ all\\ the\\ stages\\ o\\ the\\ manufacturing\\ process\\ in\\ one\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ contemplate\\ the\\ entire\\ history\\ o\\ the\\ production\\ in\\ this\\ one\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ shows\\ Rivera\\ giving\\ sereise\\ o\\ intricate\\ relationships\\ o\\ how\\ factory\\ wrk\\ is\\ done\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ mural\\ is\\ all\\ abourt\\ ribbons\\ o\\ conveyor\\ belts\\ n\\ pieces\\ o\\ steel\\,\\ moving\\ from\\ one\\ frame\\ 2another\\,\\ all\\ aobut\\ connections\\ n\\ understanding\\ how\\ one\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ factory\\ connects\\ 2another\\,\\ leads\\ 2another\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complicated\\ 2see\\ how\\ them\\ ural\\ wrks\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ viewer\\ gests\\ the\\ overall\\ view\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ precisely\\ the\\ overall\\ ivew\\ that\\ Sheeler\\ effaces\\ w\\ his\\ independent\\ views\\,\\ formally\\ beautiful\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ but\\ w\\ no\\ information\\ about\\ how\\ they\\ connect\\ 2eo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ individual\\ easel\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Rivera\\,\\ n\\ murals\\ w\\ extra\\ space\\,\\ literally\\ connects\\ the\\ different\\ processes\\ 2gether\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ giving\\ the\\ public\\ the\\ overall\\ view\\ that\\ would\\ previously\\ only\\ be\\ held\\ by\\ Ford\\ executives\\,\\ by\\ overseers\\,\\ giving\\ public\\ view\\ o\\ entire\\ production\\ o\\ automobile\\,\\ whereas\\ perspective\\ o\\ single\\ wrkr\\ in\\ this\\ factory\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ broad\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ th\\ e\\ critiques\\ o\\ factory\\ production\\ during\\ Fordism\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ perspective\\ on\\ the\\ picture\\ was\\ so\\ small\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrkr\\ stuck\\ on\\ assembly\\ line\\,\\ turning\\ same\\ bolt\\ overn\\ \\ \\;over\\,\\ no\\ sense\\ o\\ overall\\ process\\ o\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Rivera\\ tries\\ 2bring\\ in\\ this\\ overseeing\\ 2\\ a\\ public\\ audience\\ \\,taking\\ it\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ sole\\ possession\\ o\\ the\\ managerial\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ not\\ \\=\\ simple\\ narrative\\ o\\ how\\ cars\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ just\\ left\\ 2\\ right\\,\\ single\\ linear\\ progression\\,\\ but\\ narrative\\ that\\ can\\ b\\ read\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ directions\\ all\\ at\\ once\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Follow\\ piece\\ o\\ rock\\ thru\\ history\\ o\\ creation\\ o\\ automobile\\.\\ \\ \\;Grand\\ allegory\\ o\\ geological\\ sources\\ o\\ automobiles\\.\\ \\ \\;Giant\\ hands\\ holding\\ limestone\\,\\ coal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Viewer\\ always\\ asked\\ 2look\\ upwards\\,\\ sideways\\,\\ right\\-2lieft\\,\\ left\\-2right\\,\\ n\\ 2construct\\ own\\ narrative\\ out\\ o\\ this\\ series\\ o\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\large\\ epic\\ narrative\\ constructison\\ allowed\\ 4more\\ complex\\ reading\\ n\\ understaning\\ visually\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheeler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\ only\\ lets\\ u\\ look\\ down\\ the\\ railroad\\ track\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ much\\.\\ M\\ urals\\ on\\ other\\ hand\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ u\\ 2take\\ particular\\ path\\ thru\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\&rsquo\\;re\\ required\\ 2particpate\\ in\\ the\\ creation\\ o\\ the\\ history\\ o\\ these\\ automobiles\\ as\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\ also\\ indicates\\ displeasure\\ w\\ what\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ Ford\\ Factory\\ by\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pnt\\ a\\ labor\\ strike\\ while\\ the\\ Ford\\ family\\ pays\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ tehse\\ r\\ all\\ ways\\ o\\ indicating\\ ceratin\\ critique\\ o\\ system\\ o\\ machinery\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ portrait\\ in\\ the\\ wall\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ foreman\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ this\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ specific\\ portrait\\ o\\ the\\ floor\\ manager\\ that\\ was\\ there\\ when\\ Rivera\\ was\\ wrkng\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ infamous\\ for\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;speed\\-ups\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ routinely\\ implement\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ conveyor\\ belts\\ would\\ just\\ movem\\ ore\\ quickly\\ during\\ speed\\-ups\\.\\ \\ \\;Scary\\!\\ \\ \\;This\\ portrait\\ became\\ symbol\\ o\\ difficult\\ relationp\\ bw\\ machine\\ n\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Charlie\\ Chaplin\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Modern\\ Times\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1936\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secene\\ had\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;speed\\-up\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;crystallized\\ relationship\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\ bw\\ wrker\\ n\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;Conveys\\ the\\ oppression\\ o\\ the\\ wrkr\\ who\\,\\ bc\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2slow\\,\\ gets\\ fed\\ in2\\ the\\ gears\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\,\\ n\\ it\\ also\\ feeds\\ fantasy\\ o\\ insubordination\\ that\\ Rivera\\,\\ however\\ slightly\\,\\ contributes\\ 2\\ w\\ his\\ rather\\ nasty\\ portrait\\ o\\ the\\ foreman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ these\\ assembly\\ lines\\,\\ wrkrs\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ talk\\ 2eo\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sitting\\ ever\\.\\ \\ \\;Anyone\\ \\&ldquo\\;wasting\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ labeled\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;time\\ stealer\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ indicating\\ that\\ Ford\\ even\\ owned\\ ur\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Foremen\\ in\\ complete\\ control\\ o\\ tehse\\ floors\\,\\ n\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ Rivera\\ refers\\ 2in\\ this\\ portrait\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ still\\,\\ Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ series\\ o\\ murals\\ have\\ a\\ basic\\ optimism\\ about\\ the\\ machine\\ that\\ man\\ n\\ machine\\,\\ definitely\\ man\\,\\ can\\ wrk\\ 2gether\\ n\\ b\\ productive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4Rivera\\,\\ the\\ problems\\ in\\ capitalist\\ production\\ have\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ foremen\\,\\ not\\ the\\ machines\\ themselves\\ as\\ much\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\ trying\\ 2show\\ utopian\\ image\\ o\\ man\\ n\\ machine\\ working\\ 2gether\\ productively\\ if\\ they\\ can\\ just\\ get\\ around\\ tehse\\ foremen\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ basic\\ optimism\\ about\\ the\\ machine\\ n\\ the\\ power\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\,\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ optimism\\ about\\ machine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ 2hurl\\ civilization\\ in\\ positive\\ direction\\&hellip\\;we\\ seei\\ mage\\ after\\ image\\ o\\ machines\\ morphing\\ huma\\ nwrkrs\\ in\\ images\\ o\\ the\\ 30s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Margaret\\ Bourke\\-White\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wind\\ Tunnel\\ Construction\\,\\ For\\ Peck\\ Dam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Montana\\,\\ 1936\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beautiful\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ r\\ right\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ o\\ pessimism\\ n\\ optimism\\.\\ \\ \\;Frightening\\ image\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrkr\\ entrapped\\ by\\ gigantic\\ wind\\-tunnel\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ a\\ beauty\\ imbued\\ in2\\ the\\ machines\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Largely\\ bc\\ o\\ Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ temperament\\:\\ \\ \\;he\\ was\\ looking\\ towards\\ machinery\\ n\\ the\\ modern\\ as\\ way\\ o\\ berakign\\ out\\ o\\ old\\ colonialist\\ monuments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ Mexican\\ murlaists\\ had\\ different\\ views\\ o\\ the\\ machine\\,\\ n\\ some\\ were\\ far\\,\\ far\\ more\\ pessimistic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jose\\ Clemente\\ Orozco\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Epic\\ of\\ American\\ Civilization\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Dartmouth\\,\\ 1932\\-34\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ installed\\ in\\ Baker\\ Library\\ Resrve\\ Room\\ at\\ Dartmouth\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ 3\\,000\\ square\\ feet\\.\\ \\ \\;Took\\ 3\\ yrs\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Detroit\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mural\\ took\\ 8\\ months\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ a\\ huge\\ battery\\ o\\ assistants\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ assistants\\ would\\ become\\ imptnt\\ US\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orozco\\ wrkd\\ w\\/o\\ any\\ help\\,\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ just\\ another\\ strange\\ pairing\\ o\\ client\\ n\\ patron\\?\\ \\ \\;Not\\ socialist\\ artist\\ meets\\ giant\\ capitalist\\ corporation\\,\\ here\\,\\ but\\ socialist\\ artist\\ o\\ Mexican\\ revolution\\ meeting\\ staid\\ New\\ England\\ college\\,\\ as\\ far\\ removed\\ from\\ Mexican\\ insurgency\\ as\\ u\\ can\\ imagine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ here\\ strange\\ misfit\\ bw\\ client\\ n\\ patron\\.\\ \\ \\;Orozco\\ wildly\\ supported\\ by\\ president\\ n\\ faculty\\ o\\ Dartmouth\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ his\\ views\\ n\\ his\\ claims\\ 2produce\\ this\\ special\\ epic\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ alumni\\ that\\ detested\\ his\\ socialist\\ views\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ any\\ rate\\&hellip\\;Orozco\\ fnctns\\ here\\ borrowing\\ from\\ pre\\-Columbian\\ not\\ 2suggest\\ stable\\ past\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ Rivera\\ did\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ interested\\ in\\ different\\ pre\\-Columbian\\ heritage\\:\\ \\ \\;violent\\ sacrifice\\ n\\ suffering\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orozco\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Ancient\\ Human\\ Sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orozco\\ sees\\ in\\ modernism\\ the\\ violence\\ o\\ the\\ ancient\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ 2make\\ series\\ o\\ elaborate\\ connectiosn\\ bw\\ human\\ sacrifice\\ o\\ the\\ Aztecs\\ n\\ human\\ sacrifice\\ perpetrated\\ by\\ modern\\ industrial\\ nations\\ sending\\ their\\ humans\\ out\\ 2b\\ slaughtered\\ in\\ wars\\ n\\ factories\\.\\ \\ \\;Moderni\\ industrial\\ civilization\\ just\\ eating\\ young\\ ppl\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ incredibly\\ dark\\ mural\\ cycle\\.\\ \\ \\;Difficult\\ 2image\\ sitting\\ there\\ n\\ calmly\\ reading\\ a\\ book\\ with\\ tehse\\ murals\\ surroudnign\\ u\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orozco\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Arrival\\ o\\ Cortez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orozco\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Gods\\ o\\ the\\ Modern\\ World\\:\\ \\ \\;Stillborn\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demonstration\\ 4him\\ o\\ the\\ sterility\\ n\\ meaninglessness\\ o\\ modern\\ university\\ education\\.\\ \\ \\;Skeleton\\ giving\\ birth\\ 2\\ skeleton\\ baby\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ discussing\\ here\\ how\\ dead\\ knowledge\\ continually\\ passed\\ down\\ in\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ thought\\ historical\\ world\\ needed\\ 2b\\ reenlivened\\ than\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ taught\\ in\\ universities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ fact\\,\\ Dartmouth\\ president\\ had\\ been\\ calling\\ 4education\\ 2prepare\\ ppl\\ for\\ living\\ modern\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ so\\ much\\ history\\ n\\ dead\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ adminsitartion\\ permitted\\ n\\ supported\\ Orozco\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inflammatory\\,\\ negative\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Actually\\,\\ this\\ went\\ beyond\\ their\\ wishes\\,\\ but\\ oh\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ intensely\\ dark\\ view\\ o\\ relationship\\ bw\\ history\\ n\\ the\\ modern\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ many\\ positive\\ images\\ produced\\ out\\ o\\ this\\ mural\\ from\\ Orozco\\&rsquo\\;s\\ point\\ o\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ interested\\ in\\ carefully\\ bounded\\ contour\\ forms\\ o\\ Rivera\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ wrk\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ 2b\\ more\\ expressionistic\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ bold\\ brushstrokes\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Shard\\-like\\ pntg\\ where\\ u\\ have\\ these\\ sharp\\,\\ interlocking\\ forms\\ in\\ the\\ murals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ way\\ 4him\\ 2release\\ his\\ own\\ brushstroke\\ from\\ the\\ slavery\\ o\\ the\\ mechanical\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ \\=\\ artistic\\ moveon\\ his\\ part\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ again\\ n\\ again\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Back\\ 2\\ Rivera\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 2\\ wks\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ Pollock\\,\\ who\\ launched\\ US\\ art\\ in2\\ world\\ discussion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ close\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ Rivera\\ n\\ thinking\\ about\\ things\\ in\\ promonotory\\ way\\&hellip\\;issues\\ in\\ mural\\ pntg\\ that\\ come\\ up\\ again\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Murals\\ r\\ monuematal\\ in\\ size\\.\\ \\ \\;Kind\\ o\\ pntg\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ environmentally\\ embedded\\,\\ site\\-specific\\,\\ not\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ one\\ can\\ take\\ detached\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ embedded\\ n\\ environmentally\\ scaled\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ o\\ these\\ part\\ o\\ abstract\\ expressionists\\&rsquo\\;\\ rhetoric\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ that\\ ancient\\ n\\ modern\\ r\\ interspersed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ancient\\ \\=\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\,\\ informing\\ it\\ at\\ every\\ level\\,\\ not\\ speararted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interaction\\ n\\ sense\\ o\\ transformative\\ action\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\ that\\ becomes\\ imptnt\\ later\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ o\\ this\\ happening\\ in\\ shallow\\,\\ modern\\ space\\ where\\ energy\\ expands\\ itself\\ along\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;4the\\ most\\ part\\,\\ Rivera\\ is\\ about\\ arraying\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ teeming\\ forms\\ along\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ a\\ mural\\ n\\ indicating\\ energy\\ n\\ motion\\ in\\ that\\ sense\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finally\\:\\ \\ \\;Mexican\\ nationalism\\,\\ sense\\ that\\ US\\ modernity\\ built\\ from\\ otherworldly\\ traditions\\:\\ \\ \\;pre\\-Columbian\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ sense\\ in\\ all\\ o\\ these\\ mural\\ pntgs\\:\\ \\ \\;part\\ o\\ this\\ comes\\ from\\ socialist\\ views\\,\\ reaction\\ against\\ elitism\\,\\ but\\ basic\\ assumption\\ that\\ art\\ can\\ in\\ fact\\ have\\ direct\\ physical\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ viewer\\ n\\ can\\ directly\\ change\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ viewer\\ thinks\\ n\\ fnctns\\ in\\ life\\,\\ can\\ carry\\ social\\ releveance\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ will\\ come\\ up\\ both\\ on\\ Thursday\\ n\\ next\\ wk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ Baare\\ Turnbull\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Loading\\ Cattle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ study\\ for\\ Jackson\\,\\ Missouri\\ Post\\ office\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1939\\-43\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warren\\ Hunter\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\South\\ Texas\\ Panorama\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Alice\\,\\ Tecas\\ post\\ office\\,\\ 1939\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jerry\\ Bywaters\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lumber\\ Manufacturing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Trinity\\,\\ Texas\\ post\\ office\\,\\ 1941\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gertrude\\ Goodrich\\,\\ Production\\ \\(Mural\\ study\\ for\\ Buchanan\\,\\ Michigan\\ post\\ office\\)\\,\\ 1941\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Los\\ Tres\\ Grandes\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;Jose\\ Clemente\\ Orozco\\,\\ David\\ Alfaro\\ Siquieros\\,\\ Diego\\ Rivera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;EXILES\\ AND\\ COSMOPLITANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 12\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Thirties\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ II\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ wk\\ we\\ compared\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fountain\\ 2Demuth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ put\\ forth\\ historical\\ \\[philosophy\\ in\\ relation\\ 2\\ modernism\\.\\ \\ \\;Duchamp\\,\\ by\\ naming\\ his\\ fountain\\ fountain\\,\\ thrusted\\ his\\ wrk\\ in2\\ comparisons\\ w\\ EU\\ fountains\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ if\\ this\\ \\=\\ memorial\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ hygienic\\ memorial\\,\\ 2the\\ flushing\\ away\\ o\\ history\\,\\ 2rejuvenation\\,\\ 2forgetting\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;2Duchamp\\,\\ USA\\ is\\ constantly\\ in\\ flux\\,\\ wo\\ the\\ baggage\\ o\\ history\\ that\\ many\\ EU\\ artists\\ were\\ trying\\ 2do\\ away\\ w\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ also\\ talked\\ about\\ artistsli\\ ke\\ Demuth\\ haddifferent\\ idea\\ about\\ modernism\\ n\\ history\\ r\\ related\\.\\ \\ \\;Modernity\\ seen\\ 2b\\ deeply\\ ruited\\ in\\ US\\ traditions\\,\\ history\\ o\\ US\\ landscape\\,\\ n\\ its\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fountain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charles\\ Demuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1927\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Charles\\ Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Home\\ Sweet\\ Home\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1931\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\ wrkd\\ this\\ ptng\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ machine\\ age\\ n\\ its\\ associated\\ modern\\ forms\\ o\\ art\\,\\ cubism\\,\\ were\\ seen\\ 2have\\ come\\ home\\ n\\ found\\ their\\ true\\ home\\ here\\ in\\ USA\\,\\ found\\ their\\ true\\ USA\\ origins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ Demuth\\ n\\ Sheeler\\ claimed\\ a\\ modernist\\ heritage\\ 4USA\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ rethinking\\ o\\ history\\ o\\ modernism\\ so\\ it\\ could\\ b\\ seen\\ 2derive\\ from\\ USA\\ history\\,\\ not\\ French\\ history\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ common\\ way\\ o\\ seeing\\ heritage\\ o\\ modernism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ way\\ o\\ taking\\ genesis\\ o\\ modernism\\ out\\ o\\ exclusive\\ possession\\ o\\ ppl\\ like\\ Picasso\\ n\\ Manet\\,\\ n\\ handing\\ it\\ over\\ 2\\ USA\\ ppl\\ like\\ the\\ Shakers\\,\\ 2use\\ agricultural\\ vernacular\\ o\\ Sheeler\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reappropriation\\ o\\ modernism\\.\\ \\ \\;Multiple\\ strains\\ o\\ historical\\ thought\\ running\\ thruought\\ public\\ art\\ o\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;lots\\ o\\ groups\\ making\\ claim\\ on\\ modernism\\,\\ doing\\ it\\ thru\\ wrk\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diego\\ Rivera\\ in\\ his\\ Detroit\\ industry\\ murals\\ did\\ this\\,\\ fused\\ machines\\ w\\ pre\\-Columbian\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;Fusing\\ modernity\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ hemisphere\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rivera\\,\\ Sheeler\\,\\ Demuth\\,\\ taking\\ stylistic\\ operations\\ in\\ art\\:\\ \\ \\;fractured\\/dynamic\\ forms\\,\\ reduction\\ in\\ distinctions\\ bw\\ foreground\\ n\\ background\\,\\ applying\\ this\\ 2grad\\ historical\\ epics\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ just\\ tradition\\ o\\ modern\\ EU\\ art\\ from\\ which\\ much\\ o\\ this\\ was\\ claimed\\ 2b\\ formally\\ derivitave\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ wanted\\ 2contribute\\ 2new\\ modern\\ sensibility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2Day\\ we\\ turn\\ 2other\\ mural\\ project\\ by\\ Aaron\\ Douglas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aaron\\ Douglas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aspects\\ of\\ Negro\\ Life\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1934\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Douglas\\ trying\\ to\\ include\\ African\\ American\\ art\\ among\\ the\\ precursors\\ o\\ modern\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Negro\\ in\\ an\\ African\\ Setting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ introductory\\ panel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Profile\\,\\ elongated\\ forms\\ o\\ bodies\\ in\\ his\\ images\\,\\ all\\ related\\ 2specific\\ styles\\ o\\ Egyptian\\ representation\\,\\ n\\ therefore\\ 4\\ Douglass\\ a\\ claiming\\ o\\ Afircan\\ heritage\\ 4modernism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demuth\\ had\\ his\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\ \\;Douglas\\ had\\ his\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ documentary\\ image\\ o\\ Egyptian\\ reliefs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ very\\ decorative\\ about\\ how\\ tehse\\ images\\ r\\ created\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ formal\\ patterns\\,\\ the\\ flat\\ use\\ o\\ silhouettes\\ in\\ the\\ profiles\\&hellip\\;creates\\ sens\\ o\\ tapestry\\.\\ \\ \\;Vibrancy\\ o\\ form\\ n\\ color\\ is\\ huge\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ kidn\\ o\\ image\\ referred\\ 2\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Afro\\-Deco\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ o\\ its\\ strong\\ decorative\\ qualities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ said\\ o\\ African\\ art\\:\\ \\ \\;while\\ speaking\\ o\\ resources\\ o\\ racial\\ art\\,\\ the\\ richest\\ vein\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ o\\ the\\ portrait\\,\\ but\\ the\\ limitless\\ wealth\\ o\\ decorative\\ n\\ purely\\ symbolic\\ material\\ so\\ abundant\\ African\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ every\\ way\\ that\\ these\\ images\\ can\\ b\\ said\\ 2relate\\ 2western\\ modernism\\,\\ artists\\ wrkng\\ in\\ Harlem\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ r\\ also\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;well\\,\\ this\\ also\\ relates\\ 2oru\\ African\\ roots\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demuth\\ attempted\\ 2connect\\ modernism\\ 2previous\\ cultural\\ strands\\ 2claim\\ place\\ in\\ international\\ modernism\\ among\\ many\\ kidns\\ o\\ traditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ question\\ o\\ the\\ primitive\\ in\\ an\\ image\\ likethis\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ problem\\ the\\ primtivie\\ is\\ used\\ here\\,\\ but\\ its\\&rsquo\\;\\ dangerous\\ 2use\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ primitive\\ was\\ understood\\ in\\ minds\\ o\\ mainstream\\ US\\ as\\ backgward\\.\\ \\ \\;Blacks\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ 2b\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ nearly\\ constant\\ aspect\\ o\\ discussions\\ about\\ modern\\ art\\ during\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\ is\\ its\\ fascination\\ w\\ the\\ primitive\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ comes\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ in\\ their\\ attempt\\ 2get\\ at\\ basic\\ primitive\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\,\\ throughout\\ his\\ notions\\ o\\ abstraction\\ as\\ connected\\ 2deep\\ ancestral\\ roots\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fascinated\\ w\\ the\\ primitive\\.\\ \\ \\;Certain\\ ppl\\ w\\/in\\ modern\\ tradition\\ r\\ seen\\ as\\ being\\ closer\\ 2the\\ essential\\ rhythms\\ o\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernity\\ always\\ glancing\\ at\\ the\\ pre\\-modern\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ this\\ iamge\\ raises\\ all\\ kidns\\ o\\ problems\\ about\\ whether\\ blacks\\ r\\ understood\\ 2b\\ primitive\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ figuresi\\ n\\ this\\ pntg\\ r\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ art\\ interested\\ in\\ this\\ primitivity\\.\\ \\ \\;Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\,\\ jazz\\ in\\ general\\,\\ wildly\\ popular\\ in\\ Manhattan\\ bc\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ seen\\ as\\ sources\\ o\\ rejuventation\\,\\ inspiration\\,\\ escapism\\ from\\ modernity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Primtivie\\ always\\ understood\\ in\\ relation\\ 2modernity\\ n\\ urbanity\\.\\ \\ \\;Primitive\\ becomes\\ object\\ o\\ desire\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ notion\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ desire\\ 4something\\ prior\\ 2modernity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ split\\ bw\\ modern\\ n\\ primtivie\\ begins\\ 2create\\ serious\\ difficulties\\ 4some\\ artists\\,\\ specifically\\ those\\ o\\ color\\ or\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ do\\ black\\ or\\ women\\ artists\\ do\\ when\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ already\\ seen\\ as\\ primitive\\ by\\ culture\\ at\\ large\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\ faced\\ this\\ problem\\ directly\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ the\\ Wagner\\ article\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ talked\\ about\\ way\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ abstract\\ pntgs\\ were\\ received\\ by\\ NYC\\ art\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Read\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Unbelievable\\ quotes\\ said\\ about\\ O\\&rsquo\\;KEeffe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ direct\\ transcriptions\\ o\\ womanhood\\,\\ as\\ if\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\ just\\ oozed\\ her\\ womanhood\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ had\\ no\\ agency\\ in\\ making\\ tese\\ images\\,\\ no\\ distance\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ critical\\ distance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ art\\ seen\\ 2have\\ inherently\\ musical\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ blacks\\ could\\ never\\ b\\ seen\\ as\\ artists\\,\\ but\\ seen\\ as\\ just\\ oozing\\ out\\ this\\ primitive\\ musical\\ essence\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ puts\\ black\\ n\\ female\\ artists\\ in\\ certain\\ position\\ o\\ power\\ bc\\ white\\ artists\\ looking\\ 4way\\ 2access\\ other\\ side\\ o\\ modernity\\ that\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ limiting\\ 4the\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ difference\\ bw\\ being\\ feminine\\ n\\ being\\ feminizing\\.\\ \\ \\;O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\ wrks\\ thru\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\ tries\\ 2solve\\ this\\ problem\\ w\\ incredibly\\ advanced\\ modern\\ abstract\\ pntgs\\,\\ but\\ every\\ time\\ she\\ turns\\ around\\,\\ everyone\\ says\\ oh\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ so\\ womanly\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ backs\\ away\\ from\\ that\\ 2claim\\ rational\\ distance\\ form\\ what\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ by\\ turning\\ 2representation\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ making\\ her\\ wrks\\ represtnations\\,\\ her\\ wrks\\ can\\ b\\ understood\\ outside\\ o\\ this\\ object\\,\\ working\\ on\\ the\\ represtnation\\ o\\ exterior\\ object\\,\\ than\\ simply\\ on\\ immediately\\ expressive\\ abstraction\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ representation\\ allows\\ her\\ 2step\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ images\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ flowers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ outrageously\\ feminine\\ qualities\\ o\\ tehse\\ images\\ r\\ masquerades\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ images\\ o\\ femininity\\,\\ but\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ femininity\\ in\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ this\\ in\\ Douglas\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ Douglas\\&rsquo\\;\\ own\\ primitivism\\ coming\\ out\\ in2\\ his\\ murals\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ primtivie\\ as\\ object\\,\\ as\\ notion\\ that\\ someone\\ can\\ comment\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;Douglas\\ separates\\ himself\\ in\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\ does\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;Look\\ more\\ carefully\\ at\\ Douglas\\&rsquo\\;\\ murals\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ iamge\\ o\\ the\\ deep\\ south\\,\\ this\\ slavery\\,\\ has\\ stereotypical\\ image\\ o\\ natural\\ n\\ primitivemuscial\\ harmony\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ part\\ o\\ some\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ visous\\ stereotypes\\ o\\ slave\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;Douglas\\ allows\\ us\\ 2\\ see\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ Idyll\\ of\\ the\\ Deep\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ stylized\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ color\\ restricts\\,\\ closely\\ harmonized\\ palette\\ o\\ colors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Closely\\ harmonized\\ group\\ o\\ browns\\ blues\\ n\\ purples\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ the\\ figures\\ presented\\ in\\ strict\\ profile\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ conveyed\\ in\\ silhouette\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entire\\ mural\\ cycle\\ interlocked\\ w\\ abstract\\ geometries\\ w\\ various\\ interlocking\\ n\\ propagating\\ forms\\ moving\\ over\\ n\\ under\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ lots\\ o\\ target\\ forms\\ like\\ the\\ dude\\ w\\ his\\ arms\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rays\\ o\\ light\\ come\\ in\\ n\\ intersect\\ these\\ other\\ propagating\\ forms\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;monumental\\ dynamism\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ other\\ mural\\ projects\\ from\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\ already\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ image\\ o\\ body\\ being\\ taken\\ down\\ after\\ a\\ lynching\\.\\ \\ \\;Douglas\\ lets\\ primitive\\ reach\\ in2\\ his\\ images\\,\\ but\\ always\\ w\\ a\\ distance\\,\\ removing\\ himself\\ from\\ merely\\ primitive\\ attitudes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ constant\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Writer\\ Langston\\ Hughes\\ broke\\ from\\ his\\ patron\\ who\\ always\\ wanted\\ him\\ 2write\\ wrks\\ that\\ channeled\\ his\\ inner\\ African\\.\\ \\ \\;Hughes\\:\\ \\ \\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ not\\ Africa\\!\\ \\ \\;I\\ like\\ Africa\\!\\ \\ \\;But\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ Chicago\\!\\ \\ \\;Harlem\\!\\ \\ \\;I\\ only\\ like\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ Africa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ r\\ showing\\ themselves\\ 2b\\ modern\\ Americans\\ whose\\ relationship\\ 2primitive\\ African\\ culture\\ is\\ as\\ distanced\\ as\\ anyone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ appeal\\ throughout\\ the\\ Harlem\\ Renaissace\\ n\\ in\\ these\\ murals\\ 2\\ the\\ urban\\ black\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ o\\ urban\\ black\\ America\\ is\\ one\\ not\\ o\\ primtiivsim\\ but\\ o\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prosperous\\,\\ glamorous\\,\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ the\\ jazz\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ Slavery\\ through\\ Reconstruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emergence\\ o\\ wrks\\ like\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\&hellip\\;Douglas\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\ part\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ Negro\\ Movement\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ in\\ the\\ USA\\,\\ also\\ part\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ flowering\\ o\\ culture\\ in\\ Harlem\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Negro\\ movement\\ describes\\ vigorous\\ cultural\\ production\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\ in\\ the\\ cities\\,\\ attempting\\ 2define\\ a\\ particularly\\ black\\,\\ urban\\ aesthetic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ concerned\\ about\\ how\\ Afircan\\ Americans\\ could\\&hellip\\;they\\ wanted\\ 2create\\ their\\ own\\ aesthetic\\,\\ n\\ there\\ was\\ ltos\\ o\\ debate\\ about\\ how\\ best\\ 2do\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;Relationship\\ bw\\ traditional\\ Africans\\ n\\ mainstream\\ Americanculture\\&hellip\\;how\\ 2\\ negotiate\\ these\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ cultural\\ event\\ needed\\ 2b\\ explained\\ 2understand\\ the\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Great\\ Migration\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ referring2period\\ around\\ 1913\\ until\\ WWII\\ when\\ 10s\\ o\\ thousands\\ o\\ blacks\\ migrated\\ north\\ from\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ o\\ these\\ southern\\ blacks\\ were\\ poor\\ sharecroppers\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ reduced\\ 2near\\ starvation\\ by\\ feudal\\ systems\\ o\\ labor\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ where\\ they\\ were\\ basically\\ peons\\ w\\ no\\ ability\\ 2maintain\\ a\\ standard\\ o\\ living\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2many\\ ppl\\ in\\ the\\ South\\,\\ great\\ migration\\ \\=\\ chance\\ 2earn\\ better\\ wages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Harlem\\ \\=\\ primary\\ destination\\ 4great\\ migration\\.\\ \\ \\;Had\\ largest\\ black\\ population\\ bw\\ the\\ wars\\ o\\ all\\ the\\ cities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ all\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ series\\ o\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\ that\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ displacement\\ n\\ migration\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ o\\ ppl\\ in\\ 30s\\ being\\ forced\\ 2move\\ their\\ lives\\.\\ \\ \\;Artworks\\ depicting\\ this\\ move\\ had\\ an\\ epic\\ quality\\ to\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Migration\\ \\=\\ primary\\ theme\\ o\\ 30s\\,\\ n\\ displacement\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ great\\ migration\\ led\\ 2immense\\ concentration\\ in\\ Harlem\\ o\\ blacks\\ o\\ all\\ kidns\\&hellip\\;brilliant\\ artists\\,\\ writers\\,\\ political\\ leaders\\ in\\ Harlem\\ in\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ created\\ flowering\\ o\\ jazz\\,\\ music\\,\\ literature\\,\\ photography\\,\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Harlem\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ n\\ special\\ place\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\,\\ also\\ major\\ destination\\ 4whites\\ who\\ went\\ 2harlem\\ 2see\\ jazz\\ clubs\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ \\=\\ multimedia\\ renaissance\\ in\\ Harlem\\,\\ as\\ r\\ all\\ renaissances\\ prof\\ supposes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Song\\ of\\ the\\ Towers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Last\\ image\\ from\\ the\\ 4\\ mural\\ cycle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ pntg\\ n\\ form\\ were\\ developed\\ in\\ this\\ wrk\\ in\\ other\\ pntgs\\ in\\ Harlem\\ Renaissance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ factors\\ contributed\\ 2this\\ wrk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ form\\ n\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ EU\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ embrace\\ o\\ African\\ American\\ n\\ Caribbean\\ artists\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ o\\ EU\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jazz\\ is\\ wildly\\ embraced\\ by\\ EUs\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Americanisme\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ discussed\\ last\\ wk\\.\\ \\ \\;it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seen\\ as\\ black\\ art\\,\\ but\\ as\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ different\\ from\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ seen\\ in\\ th\\ US\\,\\ where\\ it\\ was\\ associated\\ w\\ just\\ the\\ black\\ community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duke\\ Ellington\\ went\\ to\\ EU\\,\\ found\\ himself\\ much\\ more\\ famous\\ in\\ EU\\ than\\ in\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ imtpnt\\ 4many\\ black\\ cultural\\ figures\\,\\ artists\\,\\ intellectuals\\,\\ n\\ writers\\ whotraveled\\ 2EU\\.\\ \\ \\;Thye\\ saw\\ EU\\ intellectuals\\ placing\\ themselves\\ at\\ center\\ o\\ US\\ culture\\,\\ n\\ it\\ helped\\ renew\\ sense\\ o\\ black\\ culture\\ as\\ being\\ central\\ to\\ US\\,\\ n\\ gave\\ it\\ sense\\ o\\ being\\ central\\ not\\ just\\ 2US\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ also\\ 2the\\ world\\ in\\ general\\ n\\ 2\\ the\\ modernism\\ that\\ was\\ defining\\ it\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Black\\ literati\\ settled\\ in\\ Harlem\\:\\ \\ \\;Locke\\ \\=\\ leading\\ strategist\\ o\\ new\\ negro\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;Harvard\\ trained\\.\\ \\ \\;Rhodes\\ scholar\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ time\\ o\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\ he\\ wrkd\\ as\\ professor\\ o\\ philosophy\\ at\\ Howard\\ Unviersity\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ many\\ figures\\ bringing\\ back\\ this\\ new\\ view\\ from\\ EU\\,\\ new\\ centralization\\ o\\ black\\ culture\\ from\\ EU\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ he\\ called\\ 4specific\\ style\\ n\\ black\\ sensibility\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ grappled\\ openly\\ in\\ his\\ writings\\ about\\ what\\ kind\\ o\\ art\\ that\\ might\\ b\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ Locke\\:\\ \\ \\;what\\ that\\ menat\\,\\ what\\ had\\ 2b\\ done\\ 2create\\ black\\ form\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ art\\ history\\,\\ was\\ 2turn\\ 2African\\ art\\ as\\ the\\ source\\ o\\ it\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;African\\ art\\ was\\ 4new\\ negro\\ artists\\ what\\ classical\\ art\\ from\\ Greece\\/Rome\\ was\\ 4western\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\,\\ 2\\,\\ also\\ seen\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ move\\ 2another\\ continent\\ o\\ Africa\\,\\ not\\ just\\ in2\\ the\\ cultural\\ past\\ o\\ blacks\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ way\\ o\\ drawing\\ upon\\ the\\ presence\\ o\\ African\\ art\\ that\\ was\\ already\\ very\\ imptnt\\ in\\ western\\ art\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ n\\ others\\ knew\\ that\\ African\\ art\\ sat\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ Western\\ European\\ modernism\\:\\ \\ \\;Picasso\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Demoiselles\\ D\\&rsquo\\;Avignon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ pntg\\ we\\ see\\ last\\ stage\\ o\\ mural\\ cycle\\ where\\ Douglas\\ indicates\\ endpoint\\ o\\ great\\ migration\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\ man\\ identified\\ as\\ jazz\\ musician\\ by\\ his\\ saxophone\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ distance\\ is\\ statue\\ o\\ liberty\\ n\\ giant\\ NYC\\ skyscrapers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Musciain\\ standing\\ on\\ this\\ giant\\ mechanical\\ cog\\-wheel\\ that\\ functions\\ as\\ kidn\\ o\\ treadmill\\.\\ \\ \\;Standing\\ on\\ giant\\ cog\\ that\\ fnctns\\ as\\ treadmill\\ while\\ other\\ man\\ is\\ about\\ 2fall\\ down\\ indicates\\ that\\ Douglas\\&rsquo\\;\\ epic\\ story\\ o\\ liberation\\ n\\ progress\\ questions\\ the\\ very\\ status\\ o\\ migration\\,\\ suggesting\\ the\\ southern\\ black\\ migrant\\ in2\\ the\\ cities\\&hellip\\;how\\ far\\ is\\ he\\ really\\ getting\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ this\\ beacon\\ o\\ hope\\ literally\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ hope\\ is\\ represnted\\ by\\ the\\ saxophone\\,\\ visual\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Douglas\\ sees\\ the\\ arts\\,\\ specific\\ 2\\ African\\ American\\ heritage\\,\\ as\\ hope\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ this\\ b4\\ where\\ musical\\ form\\ overlaps\\ visual\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Douglas\\ does\\ this\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Rhythms\\ n\\ improvisations\\ o\\ jazz\\.\\ \\ \\;Concentric\\ circles\\&hellip\\;propagation\\ o\\ forms\\ that\\ r\\ related\\ 2a\\ musical\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ o\\ these\\ r\\ part\\ o\\ this\\ notion\\ amongthe\\ new\\ Negro\\ movement\\ that\\ artists\\ should\\ look\\ 2forms\\ like\\ jazz\\ rather\\ than\\ EU\\ forms\\ 2create\\ their\\ models\\ o\\ visual\\ expression\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Douglas\\,\\ cover\\ illustrations\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1926\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Douglas\\ commissioned\\ by\\ federal\\ funding\\ source\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;federal\\ arts\\ project\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;understand\\ the\\ imptnce\\ o\\ federal\\ funding\\ 4the\\ art\\ world\\ thrugout\\ US\\ in\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;federal\\ arts\\ project\\ part\\ o\\ Roosevelt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ new\\ deal\\.\\ \\ \\;Huge\\ set\\ o\\ public\\ wrks\\ projects\\ created\\ 2give\\ unemployed\\ wrk\\ during\\ the\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ wrks\\ projects\\ included\\ things\\ like\\ damns\\ n\\ roads\\,\\ but\\ also\\ art\\ projects\\.\\ \\ \\;Large\\ scale\\ federal\\ patronage\\ o\\ the\\ arts\\ during\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ groups\\ distributed\\ funds\\ 2artists\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ these\\ administrations\\ \\=\\ part\\ o\\ attempt\\ 2put\\ artists\\ 2wrk\\,\\ 2keep\\ artists\\ afloat\\ during\\ the\\ Depression\\,\\ but\\ also\\ 2keep\\ postivie\\ imagery\\ around\\ 2create\\ sense\\ o\\ national\\ purpose\\ n\\ pull\\ ppl\\ out\\ o\\ economic\\ stagnation\\ o\\ the\\ Depression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\James\\ Van\\ Der\\ Zee\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Couple\\ with\\ a\\ Cadillac\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1932\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Der\\ Zee\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ Couple\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1929\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ 2actively\\ create\\ image\\ o\\ Harlem\\ that\\ suited\\ the\\ new\\ negro\\ way\\ o\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ wanted\\ 2pronoucne\\ n\\ celebrate\\ a\\ new\\ middle\\ class\\ in\\ Harlem\\.\\ \\ \\;VDZ\\ thought\\ it\\ his\\ duty\\ 2create\\ as\\ many\\ images\\ o\\ this\\ class\\ as\\ possible\\ in\\ order\\ 2overcome\\ stereotypical\\ imagery\\ o\\ blacks\\ as\\ poor\\,\\ servants\\,\\ rural\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\VDZ\\ thought\\ these\\ images\\ would\\ provide\\ imptnt\\ self\\ image\\ 4ppl\\ in\\ Harlem\\ n\\ 2provide\\ shock\\ 2ppl\\ in\\ outside\\ world\\ n\\ make\\ them\\ reconsider\\ their\\ notion\\ o\\ blacks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pablo\\ Picasso\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Les\\ Demoiselles\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Avignon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1907\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\African\\ masks\\ led\\ Picasso\\ 2different\\ understanding\\ o\\ space\\,\\ inspired\\ him\\ 2develop\\ his\\ own\\ planar\\ faceting\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ \\=\\ model\\ 4Picasso\\ o\\ move\\ toward\\ abstraction\\ o\\ human\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;Picasso\\ deeply\\ indebted\\ 2African\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Balcks\\ in\\ EU\\ seeing\\ this\\ as\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ core\\ o\\ modernism\\.\\ \\ \\;EUs\\ not\\ just\\ interested\\ in\\ jazz\\,\\ but\\ all\\ along\\ indebted\\ 2African\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4Locke\\,\\ 2claim\\ Africa\\ as\\ source\\ was\\ not\\ just\\ 2claim\\ cultural\\ heritage\\,\\ but\\ also\\ 2reclaim\\ African\\ art\\ from\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ EU\\ art\\ where\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ 4a\\ while\\ already\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ cmae\\ 2\\ Harlem\\ in\\ 1924\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\ met\\ various\\ collectors\\ o\\ African\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arthur\\ Dove\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fog\\ Horns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1929\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ shows\\ that\\ Douglas\\,\\ even\\ tho\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ connecting\\ this\\ propagation\\ o\\ form2\\ Afircan\\ American\\ form\\ art\\,\\ jazz\\,\\ is\\ picking\\ up\\ on\\ current\\ forms\\ o\\ Western\\ pntg\\ like\\ Dove\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claiming\\ these\\ forms\\ 4an\\ African\\ American\\ source\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ Stieglitz\\ circle\\ artists\\ inspired\\ by\\ jazz\\.\\ \\ \\;Made\\ images\\ o\\ sound\\ like\\ Dove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ were\\ explicitly\\ related\\ 2the\\ rhythm\\ o\\ jazz\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Douglas\\,\\ again\\,\\ is\\ reclaiming\\ African\\ Americna\\ cultural\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Georgia\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Keeffe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ Iris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1926\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Van\\ Der\\ Zee\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dancer\\,\\ Harlem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1925\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federally\\ funded\\ post\\ office\\ murals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\James\\ Baare\\ Turnbull\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Loading\\ Cattle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ study\\ for\\ Jackson\\,\\ Missouri\\ Posti\\ Office\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1839\\-43\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bw\\ 1933\\ n\\ end\\ o\\ WWII\\,\\ govt\\ paid\\ 4\\ 18\\,000\\ scultprues\\,\\ 108\\,000\\ pntgs\\,\\ 2\\ million\\ posters\\,\\ 500\\,000\\ photos\\&hellip\\;massive\\ group\\ o\\ US\\ visual\\ art\\ from\\ 30s\\ funded\\ from\\ federal\\ sources\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marvin\\ Beerbohm\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pioneer\\ Farmers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Way\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ r\\ 2\\ post\\ office\\ murals\\,\\ out\\ o\\ 1\\,000s\\ commissioned\\ by\\ federal\\ govt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ o\\ artist\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ survived\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ \\ \\;Midwest\\ full\\ o\\ these\\ murals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ \\&ldquo\\;WPA\\&rdquo\\;\\ murals\\ have\\ a\\ blank\\ spot\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ front\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ created\\ from\\ same\\ place\\ in\\ post\\ offices\\,\\ just\\ over\\ the\\ post\\ master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ door\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ his\\ door\\ fit\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;these\\ r\\ all\\ part\\ o\\ post\\ offices\\ that\\ were\\ replicated\\ throughout\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ all\\ ahd\\ their\\ own\\ individual\\ mural\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ engaged\\ its\\ own\\ local\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jerry\\ Bywatesr\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lumbger\\ Maufacturing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ o\\ tehm\\ have\\ a\\ debt\\ 2Diego\\ Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ close\\ w\\ words\\ on\\ the\\ WPA\\ n\\ its\\ effect\\ on\\ US\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thses\\ murals\\ seen\\ as\\ really\\ restrictive\\.\\ \\ \\;Artists\\ chosen\\ by\\ community\\ figures\\,\\ n\\ they\\ tended\\ 2have\\ propagandistic\\ quality\\ about\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ o\\ them\\,\\ n\\ Douglas\\ murals\\ r\\ similar\\ 2this\\,\\ have\\ healthy\\/productive\\ male\\ wrkrs\\ n\\ supportive\\ female\\ wives\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ positive\\ n\\ optimistic\\ 4most\\ part\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ gender\\ bending\\.\\ \\ \\;WPA\\ leader\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;our\\ wrks\\ should\\ exude\\ same\\ feeling\\ I\\ get\\ when\\ I\\ smell\\ a\\ fresh\\ ear\\ o\\ corn\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ imptnt\\ 2talk\\ about\\ positive\\ aspects\\ o\\ WPA\\ n\\ federal\\ funding\\:\\ \\ \\;opened\\ up\\ opportunities\\ 4women\\ artiests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gertrude\\ Goodrich\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Production\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ mural\\ study\\ for\\ Buchanan\\,\\ Michigan\\ Post\\ Office\\,\\ 1941\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opportunites\\ 4middle\\ class\\ artists\\ who\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ never\\ had\\ access\\ 2gallery\\ system\\.\\ N\\ they\\ got\\ weekly\\ wage\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ kept\\ them\\ alive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jackson\\ Pollock\\ was\\ literally\\ fed\\ by\\ the\\ federal\\ govt\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\,\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ never\\ become\\ the\\ artist\\ he\\ became\\ wo\\ this\\ federal\\ patronage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\WPA\\ allowed\\ US\\ artists\\ 2think\\ about\\ themselves\\ as\\ key\\ aprts\\ o\\ US\\ economy\\,\\ wrkrs\\ like\\ any\\ other\\ kind\\ o\\ wrkr\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ that\\ come\\ 2fruition\\ next\\ wk\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ wk\\:\\ \\ \\;abstract\\ expressionism\\,\\ at\\ last\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\:\\ \\ \\;ACTION\\ \\/\\ ABSTRACTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 17\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Abstract\\ Expressionism\\,\\ Part\\ I\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ wk\\,\\ abstract\\ expressionism\\ \\(AE\\)\\ both\\ days\\.\\ \\ \\;2day\\ we\\ jump\\ right\\ in\\,\\ 2Pollock\\.\\ \\ \\;Get\\ across\\ main\\ pnts\\ o\\ AE\\ n\\ Pollock\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\ \\=\\ Pollock\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ terrible\\ in\\ digital\\ reproductions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jackson\\ Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Lavender\\ Mist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aka\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lavender\\ Mist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ o\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ signature\\ drip\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;skein\\ pntgs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Pntg\\ is\\ enormous\\,\\ 7\\&rsquo\\;\\ x\\ 10\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lines\\ n\\ pools\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ pixels\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ various\\ colors\\ o\\ enamel\\ pnt\\,\\ aluminum\\,\\ enamel\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Looks\\ like\\ mist\\ o\\ color\\ rather\\ than\\ pile\\ o\\ viscous\\ pnt\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ it\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ subvert\\ basic\\ assumptions\\ about\\ what\\ a\\ pntg\\ really\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hans\\ Namuth\\,\\ Photographs\\ of\\ Pollock\\ working\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Canvas\\ not\\ prepared\\,\\ stretched\\ on\\ easel\\ parallel\\ 2standing\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ \\ \\;Unprimed\\ canvas\\,\\ untreated\\.\\ \\ \\;Canvas\\ tacked\\ on2\\ the\\ studio\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ a\\ brush\\ 2touch\\ n\\ dab\\ pnt\\ on2\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ takes\\ primarily\\ mixing\\ sticks\\ that\\ come\\ w\\ cans\\ o\\ house\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Mixing\\ sticks\\ or\\ old\\ hardened\\ pnt\\ brushes\\.\\ \\ \\;Dipping\\ in2\\ bucket\\,\\ flinging\\/dripping\\ pnt\\ on2\\ canvas\\ from\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ direct\\ connection\\ bw\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\ n\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bw\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hand\\ n\\ canvas\\,\\ pnt\\ has\\ 2make\\ unescorted\\ journey\\ thru\\ air\\ b4\\ it\\ lands\\ on\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ pntd\\ from\\ sketches\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ from\\ prior\\,\\ conceptualized\\ plan\\.\\ But\\ it\\ \\=\\ thoughtful\\ n\\ conceptualized\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ not\\ premeditated\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ 2develop\\ his\\ pntg\\ while\\ wrkng\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ use\\ o\\ a\\ palette\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ use\\ o\\ tubes\\ o\\ artist\\ colors\\.\\ \\ \\;Materials\\ placed\\ on\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ house\\ pnts\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ collection\\ o\\ cans\\ o\\ pnt\\ behind\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ 2the\\ art\\ store\\ 4his\\ supplies\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ r\\ industrial\\ n\\ house\\ enamels\\ being\\ taken\\ directly\\ from\\ the\\ can\\ n\\ put\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ we\\ think\\ o\\ oil\\ pnt\\,\\ we\\ think\\ o\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ substance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ think\\ o\\ oil\\ pnt\\ as\\ elastic\\,\\ having\\ certain\\ viscosity\\,\\ very\\ malleable\\ substance\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ when\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ representational\\ pntg\\,\\ these\\ r\\ the\\ qualities\\ o\\ pnt\\ that\\ allow\\ the\\ pnt\\ itself\\ 2disappear\\ n\\ turn\\ in2\\ that\\ which\\ it\\ represents\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pnt\\ is\\ intended\\ 2get\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ way\\ n\\ turn\\ in2\\ a\\ horse\\,\\ a\\ nude\\,\\ whatever\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ properties\\ o\\ oil\\ pnt\\ have\\ been\\ treasured\\ 4centuries\\ precisely\\ 4their\\ capacity\\ 2get\\ ou\\ o\\ the\\ way\\ o\\ the\\ representational\\ program\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Pollocks\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntgs\\,\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happening\\.\\ \\ \\;Pnt\\ is\\ allowed\\ 2just\\ b\\ pnt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Details\\:\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1949\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ see\\ pnt\\ as\\ pnt\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ glorious\\,\\ unapologetic\\ way\\,\\ more\\ than\\ we\\&rsquo\\;d\\ seen\\ in\\ any\\ other\\ Western\\ pntg\\ tradition\\ 4\\ 5\\ centuries\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ bending\\ the\\ pnt\\ 2his\\ wishes\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collaborating\\ w\\ the\\ pnt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ physical\\ qualities\\ n\\ letting\\ them\\ have\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ contributing\\ 2the\\ direct\\ qualities\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ about\\ the\\ loopy\\,\\ goopy\\ stuffness\\ o\\ pnt\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ this\\ pntg\\ is\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ stuffness\\ is\\ given\\ a\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ composition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ u\\ get\\ close\\ 2\\ a\\ P\\ pntg\\,\\ u\\ have\\ a\\ misty\\ quality\\,\\ but\\ get\\ closer\\ 2\\ a\\ P\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ confronted\\ almost\\ on\\ molecular\\ level\\ w\\ series\\ o\\ transformations\\ that\\ the\\ pnt\\ undergoes\\ bc\\ o\\ its\\ properties\\ when\\ it\\ hits\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ how\\ the\\ aluminum\\ color\\ pnt\\ has\\ wrinkled\\ after\\ it\\ hit\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ it\\ dries\\,\\ it\\ wrinkles\\,\\ leaving\\ minitature\\ topography\\/landscape\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ puddling\\,\\ coagulation\\,\\ rivering\\,\\ physical\\,\\ almost\\ volcanic\\ physical\\ processes\\ going\\ on\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ 11A\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Black\\ pnt\\ on\\ white\\ cnavsa\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ else\\ often\\ discussed\\ about\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ is\\ the\\ complexities\\ n\\ radical\\ shifts\\ in\\ pntg\\ announced\\ by\\ the\\ particular\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ uses\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Line\\ has\\ been\\ essential\\ part\\ o\\ western\\ pntg\\,\\ o\\ all\\ representation\\ indeed\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ is\\ all\\ about\\ line\\,\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ ocmpeltely\\ non\\-referential\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harder\\ 2have\\ a\\ non\\-referentail\\ line\\ than\\ u\\ think\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ lines\\ r\\ simply\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Lines\\ on\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ used\\ 2evoke\\ or\\ bound\\ some\\ representational\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ themselves\\ only\\,\\ themselves\\ alone\\.\\ \\ \\;Lines\\ used\\ normally\\ 2separate\\ shapes\\,\\ foreground\\ from\\ background\\,\\ notion\\ o\\ subdivisions\\ n\\ boundaries\\ in\\ space\\,\\ even\\ in\\ abstract\\ pntgs\\ 2this\\ time\\ 4the\\ most\\ part\\,\\ line\\ had\\ been\\ used\\ as\\ contour\\ or\\ boundary\\,\\ creating\\ different\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arshile\\ Gorky\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Betrothal\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1947\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gorky\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ pre\\-cursor\\ 2AE\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ wrk\\ \\=\\ earlier\\ than\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ similar\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Flowing\\,\\ loopy\\ line\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ made\\ by\\ dripping\\ tho\\,\\ but\\ by\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ profoundly\\ abstract\\,\\ but\\ the\\ lines\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\ r\\ used\\ 2create\\ these\\ separately\\ colored\\ areas\\,\\ bounded\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ contour\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\ is\\ removing\\ even\\ that\\ abstract\\ fnctn\\ o\\ line\\ 2be\\ simply\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ does\\ several\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ just\\ achieving\\ further\\ abstraction\\.\\ \\ \\;Taking\\ line\\ away\\ as\\ contour\\ is\\ producing\\ line\\ as\\ an\\ absolute\\ abstraction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ also\\ changes\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ understand\\ space\\ in\\ this\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ taking\\ lines\\ simply\\ as\\ lines\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ new\\ space\\ here\\,\\ a\\ complete\\ dissolution\\ o\\ figure\\ n\\ ground\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autumn\\ Rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clement\\ Greenberg\\ makes\\ a\\ big\\ deal\\ about\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ create\\ a\\ space\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ merely\\ optical\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ huge\\ area\\ o\\ debate\\ in\\ P\\ studies\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ the\\ space\\ really\\ optical\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ Greenberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saying\\ is\\ that\\ P\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ using\\ line\\ 2create\\ bounded\\ objects\\ n\\ thereby\\ suggesting\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ space\\ that\\ we\\ inhabit\\ in\\ our\\ daily\\ lives\\,\\ namely\\ the\\ space\\ 4objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Greenberg\\ says\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ taking\\ away\\ o\\ bounded\\ objects\\ n\\ leaving\\ lines\\ simply\\ as\\ an\\ atmospheric\\ space\\,\\ Greenberg\\ argues\\ that\\ P\\ is\\ making\\ a\\ new\\ purely\\ optical\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ r\\ profoundly\\ spatial\\,\\ but\\ not\\ spatial\\ in\\ a\\ representational\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ a\\ sense\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ physically\\ shallow\\ but\\ optically\\ infinite\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sublime\\,\\ atmospheric\\ quality\\ 2the\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ o\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ titles\\ alludes\\ 2this\\ new\\,\\ boundless\\,\\ sublime\\,\\ bodyless\\ space\\,\\ both\\ in\\ pntgs\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lavendar\\ Mist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;n\\ otherp\\ ntgs\\ that\\ allude\\ 2the\\ great\\ depths\\ o\\ the\\ ocean\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Full\\ Fathom\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1947\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ pntg\\ titles\\ refer\\ 2infintie\\ space\\/depth\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ his\\ use\\ o\\ line\\ as\\ line\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Simply\\ creating\\ layers\\ o\\ spatial\\ suggestion\\ that\\ allows\\ these\\ blind\\ spaces\\ 2open\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ line\\ is\\ expressive\\ line\\,\\ not\\ representational\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ how\\ the\\ lines\\ express\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ speed\\ or\\ slowness\\.\\ \\ \\;Looking\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ u\\ see\\ how\\ different\\ lines\\ r\\ added\\ 2create\\ different\\ expressions\\ o\\ speed\\ o\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ puddle\\ black\\ lines\\ have\\ slowness\\ 2them\\,\\ while\\ the\\ thinner\\ lines\\ express\\ a\\ relationship\\ 2speed\\ n\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ o\\ say\\,\\ in\\ futurist\\ pntg\\ or\\ representational\\ images\\ o\\ motion\\,\\ instead\\ o\\ drawing\\ blurred\\ forms\\ 2express\\ speed\\,\\ the\\ speed\\ is\\ literally\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\ as\\ a\\ record\\ o\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ he\\ threw\\ it\\ down\\ quick\\,\\ or\\ slow\\,\\ n\\ the\\ thickness\\ o\\ the\\ line\\ reveals\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cinematic\\ qualitiy\\ 2P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrkng\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ o\\ picture\\ o\\ man\\ w\\ arms\\ n\\ legs\\,\\ we\\ have\\ instead\\ the\\ traces\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arms\\ moving\\ in\\ real\\ space\\ over\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ the\\ traces\\ o\\ his\\ legs\\ pivoting\\ around\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Self\\-portrait\\ in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ bc\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ his\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ representing\\ his\\ own\\ body\\,\\ he\\ creates\\ a\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ movement\\ o\\ his\\ body\\,\\ his\\ ligaments\\,\\ his\\ bones\\,\\ his\\ hands\\ n\\ elbow\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ entire\\ body\\ used\\ 2create\\ this\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ this\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follw\\ our\\ usual\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\ at\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ imagine\\ pntr\\ standing\\ next\\ 2an\\ easel\\,\\ making\\ delicate\\ motions\\ w\\ the\\ wrist\\,\\ but\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ as\\ full\\-body\\ experience\\ 4the\\ pntr\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\ brings\\ in2\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ pntg\\ things\\ that\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ normally\\ used\\ in\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ choreographic\\,\\ dance\\ quality\\ 2his\\ wrks\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ photos\\ n\\ the\\ films\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ standard\\ publicity\\ line\\ when\\ the\\ film\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pollock\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\came\\ out\\ 10\\ yrs\\ ago\\&hellip\\;Ed\\ Harris\\ who\\ played\\ Pollock\\ spent\\ 5\\ yrs\\ practicing\\ playing\\ P\\ in\\ order\\ 2\\ do\\ it\\ just\\ how\\ he\\ did\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ specifically\\ choreographed\\,\\ dance\\ like\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ here\\ 2think\\ about\\ the\\ pntgs\\ not\\ as\\ pntgs\\ but\\ as\\ choreographies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dance\\&hellip\\;another\\ thing\\ coming\\ in\\ is\\ chance\\/accident\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ lot\\ o\\ that\\ coming\\ in\\ thru\\ how\\ the\\ pnt\\ hits\\ the\\ canvas\\ n\\ then\\ behaves\\ afterwards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ detail\\ o\\ \\#10\\.\\ \\ \\;gap\\ bw\\ end\\ o\\ Pollocks\\&rsquo\\;\\ stick\\.\\ \\ \\;Pnt\\ travels\\ unescorted\\ thru\\ air\\ b4\\ reaching\\ painterly\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ that\\ gap\\ comes\\ other\\ forces\\ over\\ which\\ P\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ control\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gravity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elasticity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ world\\ o\\ physics\\ outside\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ n\\ the\\ pnt\\ r\\ all\\ given\\ a\\ hand\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ final\\ pntg\\ looks\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ total\\ control\\ is\\ relinquished\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ will\\ the\\ pnt\\ behave\\ once\\ it\\ hits\\ other\\ pnt\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ already\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;Chance\\ effects\\ allowed\\ 2enter\\ in2\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artist\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bending\\ the\\ materials\\ 2his\\ will\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collaborating\\ w\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imptnt\\ that\\ P\\ uses\\ unprimed\\ canvases\\,\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ next\\ wk\\.\\ \\ \\;this\\ means\\ that\\ when\\ P\\ puts\\ first\\ line\\/blob\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ the\\ pnt\\ itself\\ as\\ it\\ ages\\ will\\ break\\ in2\\ its\\ oil\\ n\\ mineral\\ parts\\,\\ oil\\ separating\\ from\\ minerals\\,\\ making\\ oily\\ shadow\\ along\\ the\\ edge\\ o\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Entire\\ level\\ o\\ interaction\\ bw\\ the\\ material\\ o\\ the\\ pnt\\ n\\ the\\ material\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ which\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ normally\\ permitted\\ in\\ making\\ an\\ oil\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Oil\\ canvases\\ prepared\\ carefully\\ so\\ that\\ tehse\\ events\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ chance\\,\\ o\\ control\\,\\ o\\ choreographic\\ direction\\,\\ but\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ total\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ image\\ or\\ the\\ arrangement\\ o\\ pnt\\ over\\ the\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ art\\ in\\ 50s\\/60s\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ retreat\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ allows\\ the\\ world\\ 2have\\ a\\ hand\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ think\\ o\\ abstraction\\ as\\ being\\ inverted\\,\\ retreated\\ form\\ o\\ art\\,\\ but\\ this\\ abstraction\\ allows\\ the\\ world\\ in2\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ new\\ idea\\ o\\ what\\ a\\ pntg\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ as\\ receptive\\ surface\\ where\\ the\\ activities\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ n\\ the\\ world\\ deposit\\ themselves\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ thinking\\ o\\ it\\ as\\ something\\ planned\\ n\\ created\\ as\\ a\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ pntg\\ becomes\\ an\\ arena\\ in\\ which\\ to\\ act\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reading\\,\\ referring\\ 2P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntgs\\ \\=\\ membranes\\ that\\ receive\\ the\\ activities\\ transpring\\ above\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ like\\ phtoogarphs\\ in\\ that\\ photos\\ act\\ 2register\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happening\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ indexical\\ quality\\ in\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ capturing\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ exists\\ adjacent\\ 2the\\ canvas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\ will\\ remain\\ an\\ orientation\\ pnt\\ 4us\\ as\\ we\\ move\\ thru\\ 2the\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ semester\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ introduction\\ orients\\ us\\ 2the\\ key\\ aspects\\ o\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;P\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ only\\ abstraction\\ expressionist\\ pntr\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ good\\ intro\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Read\\ the\\ reading\\ carefully\\ about\\ P\\,\\ his\\ reception\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ some\\ o\\ his\\ influences\\,\\ n\\ the\\ major\\ debates\\ that\\ have\\ bubbled\\ up\\ around\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ wrk\\ like\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\&rsquo\\;d\\ we\\ get\\ here\\?\\ \\ \\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ see\\&hellip\\;from\\ WPA\\ murals\\ 2this\\ in\\ a\\ short\\ 10\\-15\\ yrs\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ lecture\\ n\\ next\\ one\\ about\\ Post\\ War\\ Expressionist\\ pntg\\,\\ which\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ called\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ School\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ a\\ school\\ w\\ a\\ consistent\\ style\\/manifesto\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ all\\ AE\\ pntrs\\ \\=\\ new\\ Yorkers\\.\\ \\ \\;Anyway\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lee\\ Krasner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Composition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1949\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ was\\ married\\ 2\\ P\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ De\\ Kooning\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pretty\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talk\\ about\\ these\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ just\\ going\\ 2process\\ them\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ minds\\ n\\ see\\ similarities\\ n\\ differences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Franz\\ Kline\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monitor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Diebenkorn\\,\\ Untitled\\,\\ 1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ pretty\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wrkd\\ in\\ Albequerque\\,\\ not\\ NYC\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mark\\ Rothko\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Center\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pretty\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ the\\ lack\\ o\\ busy\\ gestural\\ pntg\\,\\ but\\ still\\ understood\\ 2b\\ AE\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Philip\\ Guston\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Altar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ like\\ these\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ tehse\\ pntgs\\ pink\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ intentional\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Other\\ colors\\ show\\ up\\ 2\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subconscious\\ effort\\ on\\ Prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ 2convey\\ the\\ bodily\\ immediacy\\ o\\ AE\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ the\\ commentary\\ on\\ tragedies\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ n\\ the\\ relationship\\ 2blood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ these\\ pntrs\\ born\\ around\\ 1905\\.\\ \\ \\;formative\\ yrs\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\,\\ reach\\ their\\ maturity\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\/40s\\/50s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ worst\\ time\\ 2reach\\ ur\\ productive\\ yrs\\,\\ bc\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ confronted\\ historically\\ on\\ the\\ world\\ stage\\ w\\ epic\\ disaster\\ after\\ epic\\ disaster\\.\\ \\ \\;Theire\\ lives\\ defined\\ by\\ WWI\\ \\(barbarism\\ n\\ rationality\\ brought\\ in\\ the\\ inescapable\\ juxtaposition\\)\\,\\ the\\ Depression\\ \\(grinding\\ poverty\\ nationwide\\)\\,\\ WWII\\,\\ then\\ liberation\\ o\\ concentration\\ camps\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ WWII\\,\\ total\\ loss\\ o\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ machine\\ n\\ rational\\ civilization\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ o\\ the\\ managerial\\ n\\ businesslike\\ way\\ o\\ the\\ murder\\ o\\ the\\ Jews\\ in\\ Germany\\ occurred\\.\\ \\ \\;Intensely\\ anti\\-rational\\,\\ anti\\-mechanical\\ quality\\ o\\ the\\ pntgs\\ in\\ AE\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ after\\ that\\ u\\ have\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ n\\ the\\ constant\\ threat\\ o\\ nuclear\\ apocalypse\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ all\\ these\\ pntrs\\ r\\ struggling\\ w\\ WWI\\,\\ WWII\\,\\ Depression\\,\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ at\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ r\\ inescapable\\ contexts\\ o\\ these\\ wrks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Total\\ lack\\ o\\ faith\\ in\\ rationality\\,\\ the\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ see\\,virtually\\ overnight\\,\\ that\\ the\\ machine\\ disappears\\ from\\ prominent\\ high\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Precisionism\\ n\\ its\\ deriviatves\\ no\\ logner\\ have\\ a\\ prominent\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ wart\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ irony\\ is\\ off\\-limtis\\ 4at\\ least\\ 15\\ yrs\\ after\\ WWII\\.\\ \\ \\;Irony\\ exists\\ from\\ advanced\\ pntg\\ in\\ nyc\\ at\\ this\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\ is\\ deadly\\ earnest\\ n\\ serious\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ jokes\\ about\\ American\\ plumbing\\.\\ \\ \\;Exit\\ o\\ these\\ mechanical\\ themes\\ from\\ US\\ pntg\\ after\\ WWII\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ b\\ back\\ tho\\,\\ w\\ artists\\ like\\ Jasper\\ Johns\\ n\\ pop\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ 40s\\ n\\ 50s\\ artists\\?\\ \\ \\;Nope\\.\\ \\ \\;Serious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transitions\\ that\\ led\\ 2\\ last\\ wk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ 2\\ P\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mural\\ pntg\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sheeler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Duchamp\\,\\ Fountain\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diego\\ Rivera\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Detroit\\ Industry\\ Murals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ North\\ wall\\ 1932\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Rivera\\ lecture\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ similarities\\ bw\\ Rivera\\ n\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;P\\ n\\ other\\ AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drew\\ heavily\\ on\\ Mexican\\ n\\ US\\ mural\\ pntg\\ o\\ 1930s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Storr\\ rdg\\ details\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;Read\\ that\\ carefully\\ bc\\ Stor\\ does\\ what\\ many\\ schiolars\\ failed\\ 2do\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ which\\ is\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Big\\ 3\\&rdquo\\;\\ n\\ goes\\ in2\\ detail\\ about\\ how\\ Mexican\\ pntg\\ was\\ formative\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ AE\\ was\\ developed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artists\\ like\\ P\\ r\\ taking\\ values\\ n\\ ideas\\ from\\ mural\\ pntg\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epic\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Rivera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ had\\ epic\\ ambitions\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ tried\\ 2capture\\ entire\\ span\\ o\\ time\\ in\\ this\\ mural\\.\\ \\ \\;Time\\ n\\ space\\ n\\ geological\\ origins\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ automobile\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ all\\ crammed\\ in2\\ one\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ how\\ Pollock\\ n\\ other\\ AE\\ pntrs\\ alluded\\ 2mythic\\ forces\\ in\\ their\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ take\\ from\\ mural\\ pntrs\\ this\\ sense\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;high\\ seriousness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ borrow\\ from\\ materials\\ o\\ Mexican\\ muralists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ interested\\ in\\ borrowing\\ the\\ monumental\\ size\\ n\\ the\\ direct\\ physical\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ viewer\\ that\\ these\\ murals\\ had\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\P\\ studied\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\ w\\ US\\ pntr\\ famous\\ 4his\\ pmurals\\:\\ \\ \\;Thomas\\ Hart\\ Bneton\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Convergence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1952\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tomas\\ Hart\\ Benton\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Arts\\ of\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1932\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ o\\ mural\\ cycle\\ that\\ originally\\ commissioned\\ 2decorate\\ reading\\ rm\\ o\\ Whitney\\ museum\\.\\ \\ \\;Benton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ called\\ US\\ scene\\ pntg\\,\\ regionalist\\ mural\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ ea\\ o\\ his\\ murals\\ a\\ celebration\\ o\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Description\\ o\\ life\\ in\\ America\\ outside\\ the\\ elite\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ contortions\\ n\\ interweavings\\ o\\ limbs\\ in\\ Benton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ weaves\\ figures\\ across\\ the\\ surfaces\\ o\\ the\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ o\\ abrubt\\ n\\ dizzying\\ spatial\\ shift\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aerial\\ view\\ o\\ card\\ game\\ 2\\ view\\ o\\ outside\\ rodeo\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cinematic\\ shifting\\ o\\ space\\ abrubtly\\ n\\ dizzyingly\\.\\ \\ \\;Writhing\\ royling\\ figurative\\ limbs\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ again\\ in\\ AE\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Going\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1934\\-35\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\P\\ directly\\ evolving\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ or\\ another\\ out\\ o\\ this\\ US\\ mural\\ pntg\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;P\\ studied\\ 4\\ several\\ yrs\\ in\\ nyc\\ w\\ Benton\\ in\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;interested\\ in\\ dynamic\\ compositions\\.\\ \\ \\;Benton\\ gave\\ him\\ training\\ in\\ EU\\ art\\ n\\ strategies\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mural\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ actually\\ a\\ mural\\ tho\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntd\\ on\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;19\\&rsquo\\;\\ x\\ 8\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntd\\ 4\\ Peggy\\ Guggenheim\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ kidn\\ o\\ representational\\ US\\ mural\\ pntg\\ which\\ seems\\ antithetical\\ 2what\\ AEs\\ were\\ doing\\,\\ u\\ can\\ see\\ where\\ P\\ selectively\\ borrows\\ from\\ Benton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ dynamic\\ nundulating\\ rhythms\\.\\ \\ \\;Interested\\ in\\ cinematic\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entering\\ in2\\ the\\ pntg\\ thru\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Cinematic\\ dynamism\\.\\ \\ \\;Baroque\\ energy\\ about\\ the\\ mural\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ drip\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ traditional\\ wrk\\ in\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oeuvre\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ aerovesque\\ lines\\ n\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;Transition\\ bw\\ Benton\\ n\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ later\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ only\\ pntd\\ out\\ similarities\\ bw\\ Benton\\ n\\ P\\.\\ \\ \\;but\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ n\\ P\\ not\\ taking\\ from\\ representational\\ imagery\\ n\\ mural\\ pntg\\ n\\ WPA\\ pntsg\\ o\\ 1930s\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ outright\\,\\ overt\\,\\ political\\ orientation\\ that\\ we\\ had\\ in\\ the\\ earlier\\ murals\\.\\ \\ \\;Along\\ w\\ the\\ refutation\\ o\\ rationality\\ n\\ the\\ machine\\ emerged\\ a\\ different\\ attitude\\ toward\\ the\\ relationship\\ bw\\ pntg\\ n\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;Various\\ reasons\\ 4\\ this\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ basic\\ political\\ orientations\\ that\\ help\\ u\\ understand\\ AE\\ after\\ WWII\\:\\ \\ \\;socialist\\,\\ n\\ outright\\ communist\\ attitude\\ behind\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ about\\ making\\ specific\\ didactiv\\ statements\\ that\\ can\\ b\\ read\\ by\\ viewers\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ after\\ WWII\\ begins\\ 2get\\ in2gear\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2b\\ a\\ card\\-carrying\\ n\\ optimistic\\ socialist\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ or\\ anywhere\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ust\\ bc\\ communists\\ r\\ increasingly\\ persecuted\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ bc\\ socialism\\ is\\ increasingly\\ associated\\ w\\ totalitarianism\\ n\\ some\\ unpleasant\\ political\\ outcomes\\ in\\ EU\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ associated\\ w\\ communism\\ as\\ benevolent\\ n\\ activist\\ form\\ o\\ politics\\ b4\\ Hitler\\ n\\ Stalin\\.\\ \\ \\;Afterwards\\ it\\ became\\ hard\\ 2automatically\\ assume\\ that\\ a\\ socialist\\ ideology\\/country\\ was\\ humanitarian\\ or\\ forward\\ looking\\ in\\ any\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stalin\\ routinely\\ massacring\\ his\\ own\\ ppl\\,\\ n\\ he\\ became\\ associated\\ w\\ socialism\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ socialists\\ backed\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ overt\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ equally\\ problematic\\ 2associate\\ w\\ the\\ right\\ wing\\ tho\\,\\ bc\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ Hitler\\ dwelled\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\,\\ as\\ a\\ pntr\\,\\ 2create\\ represtnational\\ images\\ o\\ politics\\ that\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ really\\ problematic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ also\\ meant\\ 4\\ pntrs\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ wanted\\ 2avoid\\ creating\\ associations\\ w\\ Hitler\\ or\\ Stalin\\,\\ w\\ left\\/right\\ totalitarian\\ extremes\\,\\ they\\ also\\ had\\ 2renounce\\ realism\\ bc\\ Hitler\\ n\\ Stalin\\ were\\ instituationalizing\\ realist\\ pntg\\ as\\ the\\ style\\ o\\ pntg\\ o\\ his\\ regimes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figuration\\,\\ realism\\ becomes\\ associated\\ w\\ totalitarianism\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ reason\\ we\\ see\\ abstraction\\ become\\ so\\ imptnt\\ 4artists\\ is\\ bc\\ it\\ allows\\ evasion\\.\\ \\ \\;Abstraction\\ nbecomes\\ associated\\ w\\ freedom\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Pntrs\\ had\\ 2avoid\\ left\\ n\\ right\\ extremes\\ both\\ seen\\ as\\ totalitarian\\ n\\ murderist\\,\\ n\\ their\\ realist\\ programs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ pntrs\\ moved\\ 2abstraction\\ that\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\ not\\ depoliticized\\,\\ but\\ whose\\ politics\\ was\\ more\\ subconvsioucs\\ than\\ directly\\ didactic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aight\\.\\ \\ \\;Final\\ 2\\ minutes\\.\\ \\ \\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ media\\ becoming\\ synthesized\\ in\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ turning\\ back\\ 2EU\\ trends\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expressionism\\ in\\ AE\\ is\\ drawing\\ form\\ artists\\ like\\ Kandinsky\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wassily\\ Kandinsky\\,\\ Composition\\ IV\\,\\ 1911\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ we\\ say\\ pntr\\ \\=\\ AE\\,\\ what\\ we\\ mean\\ by\\ expressionism\\ is\\ largely\\ developed\\ out\\ o\\ Kandinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theories\\ on\\ expressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kandinsky\\ felt\\ a\\ pntg\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ a\\ picture\\ outside\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ but\\ a\\ sizemogram\\,\\ direct\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ inner\\ feelings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ immediacy\\ o\\ presentation\\ is\\ what\\ expressionism\\ meant\\ 4these\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ lines\\ r\\ literally\\ speed\\ n\\ movement\\ in\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ coming\\ directly\\ from\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ n\\ as\\ we\\ see\\ Thursday\\,\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ psyche\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ pntg\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\=\\ picture\\ o\\ an\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ IS\\ an\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ expressionist\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ Thursday\\,\\ we\\ look\\ in2\\ what\\ was\\ bewing\\ expressed\\ in\\ the\\ AE\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Andre\\ Masson\\,\\ Automatic\\ Drawing\\,\\ 1924\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Picasso\\,\\ Portrait\\ of\\ Daniel\\-Henry\\ Kahnweiler\\,\\ 1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Terms\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Autographic\\ gesture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Automatism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collective\\ unconscious\\ \\/\\ Carl\\ Jung\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\-overness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Skein\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\:\\ \\ \\;ACTION\\ \\/\\ ABSTRACTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 19\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Abstract\\ Expressionism\\,\\ Part\\ 2\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2sday\\,\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ multiple\\ artistic\\ origins\\ o\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ status\\ as\\ expressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;Comparing\\ it\\ 2\\ Kandinsky\\ from\\ the\\ 19\\-teens\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ o\\ tradition\\ that\\ stretches\\ back\\ at\\ least\\ 2Kandinsky\\ where\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ umediated\\ form\\ o\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ a\\ picture\\ o\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ a\\ picture\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ representation\\,\\ but\\ a\\ presentation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ unmediated\\ quality\\ of\\ AE\\ is\\ key\\ ehre\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2day\\ we\\ move\\ along\\ n\\ talk\\ about\\ not\\ just\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ expressionism\\,\\ but\\ what\\ was\\ being\\ expressed\\ n\\ how\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unconscious\\ is\\ being\\ expressed\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ offer\\ 4the\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ about\\ psychological\\ content\\ o\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inner\\ being\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How2do\\ this\\?\\ \\ \\;2express\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\ \\ \\;Y\\?\\ \\ \\;let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ how\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ is\\ that\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unconscious\\,\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deepest\\ psychological\\ levels\\,\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ waiting\\ down\\ there\\ waiting\\ 2b\\ transferred\\ in2\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ difficult\\ struggle\\ that\\ takes\\ lots\\ o\\ effort\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ unconscious\\ n\\ the\\ possibility\\/impossibility\\ o\\ bringing\\ it\\ in2\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hans\\ Namuth\\,\\ Photograph\\ of\\ Pollock\\ working\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wassily\\ Kandinsky\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Composition\\ IV\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1911\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Andre\\ Masson\\,\\ automatic\\ drawing\\,\\ 1924\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ back\\ 2surrealism\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ in2\\ all\\ its\\ ins\\ n\\ outs\\ n\\ how\\ it\\ impacted\\ the\\ AEs\\,\\ but\\ there\\ r\\ some\\ imptnt\\ pnts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Surrealism\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ dominant\\ artistic\\ tendencies\\ in\\ EU\\ in\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surrealists\\ aiming\\ 2break\\ EU\\ culture\\ out\\ o\\ its\\ rationalism\\,\\ its\\ worship\\ o\\ objectivity\\ n\\ science\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ produced\\ directly\\ by\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\ \\ \\;Trying\\ 2create\\ images\\ outside\\ the\\ constraints\\ o\\ logic\\,\\ reason\\,\\ editing\\ processes\\ o\\ the\\ conscious\\ mind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ understood\\ 2b\\ bubbling\\ up\\,\\ unmediated\\,\\ from\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ 40s\\,\\ surrealists\\ petered\\ out\\,\\ n\\ they\\ moved\\ 2nyc\\ as\\ WWII\\ threatened\\.\\ \\ \\;Dali\\,\\ Masson\\,\\ Max\\ Ernst\\,\\ moved\\ 2nyc\\ in\\ late\\ 30s\\ n\\ early\\ 40s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ brought\\ their\\ ideas\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ unconscious\\ is\\ 2b\\ tapped\\ 2nyc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 20s\\,\\ they\\ thought\\ u\\ could\\ make\\ a\\ direct\\ record\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coming\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ unconscious\\ if\\ u\\ really\\ opened\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ wanted\\ images\\ free\\ o\\ conscious\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;Automatic\\ drawing\\ n\\ another\\ technique\\ were\\ about\\ making\\ images\\ w\\/o\\ preconception\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;attain\\ the\\ most\\ passive\\/receptive\\ state\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;Write\\ quickly\\ w\\ no\\ preconceived\\ subject\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ quickly\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ want\\ to\\ reread\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ drawings\\ were\\ made\\ entirely\\ in\\ the\\ present\\,\\ not\\ subject\\ 2further\\ revision\\ by\\ the\\ conscious\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ Pollock\\ n\\ other\\ AEs\\ took\\ from\\ this\\ example\\ was\\ the\\ imptnce\\ o\\ the\\ un\\-premeditated\\.\\ \\ \\;Lack\\ of\\ premeditation\\ had\\ a\\ connextion\\ to\\ the\\ deepest\\ levels\\ o\\ the\\ self\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ attempt\\ 2loosen\\ the\\ conscious\\ control\\ o\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;Artists\\ attempting\\ 2act\\ as\\ a\\ conduit\\ 4\\ urges\\,\\ images\\ that\\ r\\ bubbling\\ up\\ from\\ below\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ thing\\ they\\ took\\ from\\ this\\,\\ n\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ common\\ attributes\\ o\\ expressionism\\,\\ is\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ autographic\\ gesture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Franz\\ Kline\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monitor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Energetic\\,\\ slashing\\ pnt\\ strokes\\,\\ or\\ graffiti\\ like\\ material\\ slashes\\ n\\ dashes\\ o\\ pnt\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ Diebenkorn\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Diebenkorn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Untitled\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1946\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Automatism\\-derived\\ notion\\ that\\ these\\ gashes\\ n\\ slashes\\ o\\ pnt\\ r\\ themselves\\ creating\\ a\\ direct\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ psychic\\ makeup\\ \\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ authentic\\ expressions\\ o\\ the\\ interior\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ first\\,\\ wrk\\ o\\ AEs\\ was\\ closer\\ 2\\ Masson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ automatic\\ drawing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\,\\ untitled\\ psychoanalytic\\ drawing\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1939\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ back\\ up\\ 10\\-15\\ yrs\\ from\\ Pollock\\ pntgs\\ that\\ we\\ saw\\ last\\ wk\\,\\ the\\ drip\\ pntgs\\,\\ skein\\ pntgs\\ produced\\ 1947\\-50\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prior\\ 2that\\ he\\ was\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ several\\ stages\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ around\\ 1941\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ originally\\ the\\ AEs\\ thought\\ they\\ found\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ depths\\ o\\ their\\ psyches\\&hellip\\;2\\ main\\ pnts\\ about\\ AE\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ they\\ found\\ in\\ their\\ subconscious\\ was\\ both\\ individual\\ n\\ also\\ universal\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ struggling\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ bodies\\ n\\ minds\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ also\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ collective\\ unconscious\\ that\\ all\\ ppl\\ shared\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ space\\,\\ the\\ content\\ is\\ understood\\ 2b\\ graphic\\ n\\ symbolic\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ symbols\\,\\ o\\ incomprehensible\\ writings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ u\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;see\\ nyc\\ artists\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ surrealists\\,\\ psychoanalytic\\ pntg\\,\\ u\\ see\\ a\\ lot\\ o\\ snippets\\ o\\ symbolic\\ forms\\,\\ spirals\\,\\ circles\\,\\ miscellaneous\\ kinds\\ o\\ seemingly\\ ancient\\,\\ symbolic\\ forms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ main\\ contexts\\ 4this\\ understanding\\ comes\\ from\\ Carl\\ Jung\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ writings\\ translated\\ n\\ widely\\ read\\ throughout\\ US\\ in\\ 40s\\.\\ \\ \\;one\\ o\\ his\\ primary\\ pnts\\ was\\ that\\ deep\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ psyche\\,\\ there\\ were\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ totemic\\,\\ archetypal\\ symbols\\ shared\\ by\\ all\\ cultures\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ spiral\\ pops\\ up\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ for\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;Universal\\ urges\\,\\ fears\\,\\ terrors\\ shared\\ by\\ all\\ human\\ kind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ symbols\\ r\\ ways\\ 4everyone\\ 2come\\ 2terms\\ w\\ these\\ deep\\ urges\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jung\\ writes\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;collective\\ unconscious\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ universal\\ human\\ language\\ o\\ dreams\\,\\ myths\\,\\ symbols\\ shared\\ by\\ all\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ aspect\\ o\\ Jung\\&rsquo\\;s\\ psychoanalysis\\ is\\ that\\ if\\ u\\ get\\ deep\\ enough\\ in2\\ ur\\ roiling\\ primitive\\ energies\\,\\ u\\ can\\ tap\\ in2\\ this\\ space\\ that\\ everyone\\ shares\\ on\\ a\\ primitive\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;w\\/in\\ each\\ individual\\ there\\ \\=\\ archareological\\ storehouse\\ that\\ represents\\ the\\ entire\\ history\\ o\\ the\\ human\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ means\\ that\\ a\\ nyc\\ 40s\\ ptnr\\ undergoing\\ automatic\\ gesture\\ n\\ wrkng\\ in\\ surrealist\\ vein\\ to\\ produce\\ unconscious\\ imagery\\,\\ the\\ spitting\\ out\\ o\\ unconscious\\ imagery\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ an\\ individual\\ gesture\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ method\\ o\\ speaking\\ 4the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collective\\ unconscious\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ understood\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ might\\ be\\ individuals\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ but\\ our\\ unconscious\\ elements\\ connect\\ us\\ on\\ another\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ forms\\ o\\ behavior\\ like\\ politics\\ became\\ increasingly\\ difficult\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ a\\ socialist\\ wo\\ aligning\\ w\\ Stalin\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ right\\-wing\\ w\\/o\\ being\\ Hitler\\ fascist\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ collective\\ unconscious\\ became\\ attractive\\ in\\ late\\ 30s\\ n\\ 40s\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ o\\ uniting\\ w\\ everyone\\ wo\\ getting\\ entangled\\ in\\ politics\\ n\\ being\\ either\\ left\\-wing\\ or\\ right\\-wing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marsden\\ Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ German\\ Officer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ Hartley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ symbols\\,\\ such\\ as\\ military\\ insignia\\,\\ flags\\,\\ patterns\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ r\\ understood\\ as\\ having\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\,\\ being\\ pinned\\ on2\\ the\\ self\\ o\\ the\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Hartley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ anxiety\\ o\\ the\\ emptiness\\ o\\ these\\ symbols\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ odn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ connect\\ 2this\\ lost\\ body\\ behind\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ mngs\\ r\\ as\\ dead\\ 4Hartley\\ as\\ Von\\ Freiberg\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ symbol\\ is\\ fraught\\ w\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ failure\\,\\ loss\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ symbol\\ is\\ superficial\\,\\ attached\\ 2the\\ outside\\,\\ not\\ organically\\ connected\\ 2the\\ inner\\ body\\ n\\ soul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hartley\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Indian\\ Compsoition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ also\\ made\\ native\\ American\\ scenes\\ filled\\ w\\ classic\\ native\\ American\\ symbosl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hartley\\,\\ when\\ pntg\\ these\\,\\ saw\\ these\\ 2as\\ being\\ elegiac\\ 4a\\ NA\\ civilization\\ that\\ he\\ thought\\ \\&ldquo\\;had\\ been\\ completed\\,\\ as\\ he\\ saw\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\?\\)\\/\\ \\ \\;remnant\\ o\\ something\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ passed\\,\\ gone\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ about\\ mourning\\,\\ hollow\\ sehlls\\ o\\ the\\ absent\\ ppl\\ 2whom\\ they\\ were\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;connected\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ AEs\\,\\ we\\ see\\ different\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ symbol\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ primitive\\ symbol\\ as\\ outside\\ the\\ modern\\ west\\.\\ \\ \\;2AEs\\,\\ these\\ symbols\\ in\\ HArltey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ r\\ very\\ much\\ still\\ alive\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ NAs\\ but\\ in\\ all\\ o\\ humanity\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ symbols\\ r\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ organic\\ life\\ o\\ humans\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ similarities\\ bw\\ these\\ 2pntgs\\,\\ flat\\ overlap\\ o\\ symbosl\\,\\ visual\\ patterning\\ o\\ writing\\ n\\ pictographic\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ different\\ writing\\ informs\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adolph\\ Gottlieb\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pictograph\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1946\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\AEs\\ borrowing\\ heavily\\ from\\ NA\\ imagery\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ o\\ world\\ heritage\\ o\\ living\\,\\ unconscious\\ energy\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ tapping\\ in2\\ in\\ this\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ 40s\\ in\\ nyc\\,\\ artists\\ visit\\ the\\ museum\\ o\\ natural\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\,\\ comprehensive\\ exhibitiosn\\ in\\ the\\ 40s\\ had\\ a\\ huge\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ development\\ o\\ pntg\\ in\\ the\\ 40s\\,\\ particularly\\ show\\ held\\ in\\ MOMA\\ featuring\\ NA\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;Every\\ artist\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ discuss\\ wnet\\ 2this\\ show\\ n\\ saved\\ articles\\ about\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ influence\\ on\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tlingit\\ \\(Chilkat\\)\\ blanket\\,\\ late\\ nineteenth\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ blanket\\ intended\\ 2b\\ worn\\ as\\ a\\ cloak\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ notion\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ cloak\\,\\ when\\ worn\\,\\ proclaims\\ ancestry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gottlieb\\ does\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ w\\ his\\ symbols\\:\\ \\ \\;claiming\\ overall\\ ancestry\\ thru\\ the\\ symbols\\ in\\ his\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolic\\ forms\\ compartmentalized\\ in2\\ this\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;Gottlieb\\ owned\\ one\\ o\\ tehse\\ blankets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studying\\ NA\\ masks\\,\\ rock\\ art\\,\\ pottery\\,\\ carvings\\.\\ \\ \\;AEs\\ interested\\ in\\ NA\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\ bc\\ it\\ allowed\\ them\\ 2borrow\\ symbology\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ expression\\ o\\ universal\\ unconscious\\,\\ but\\ also\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ uniquely\\ American\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ 40s\\ looking\\ 4ways\\ 2produce\\ grand\\,\\ unifying\\ pntgs\\,\\ but\\ also\\ wanted\\ 2break\\ from\\ EU\\.\\ \\ \\;NA\\ imagery\\ n\\ references\\ let\\ them\\ solve\\ both\\ problems\\,\\ 2b\\ universal\\ n\\ American\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\ also\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ NA\\ pntrs\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ hid\\ the\\ NA\\ rdg\\ under\\ his\\ bed\\,\\ not\\ wanting\\ ppl\\ 2realize\\ his\\ direct\\ sources\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ frequently\\ visited\\ the\\ museum\\ o\\ natural\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ impressed\\ at\\ the\\ Indian\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ by\\ a\\ demonstration\\ o\\ Navajo\\ sand\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Navajo\\ sandpainting\\,\\ mid\\-twentieth\\ century\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carefully\\ dribbling\\ snad\\ through\\ the\\ air\\ in2\\ these\\ patterns\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ influence\\ on\\ Pollock\\ as\\ he\\ moved\\ 2the\\ floor\\ based\\ pntg\\ technique\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ties\\ bw\\ NAs\\ n\\ AEs\\ r\\ infinite\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ we\\ only\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ indebted\\ 2\\ Northwest\\ NA\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whirling\\ composition\\ related\\ 2the\\ whilring\\ dances\\ o\\ inuit\\ shamuns\\ in\\ various\\ rituals\\.\\ \\ \\;Arguments\\ that\\ vertical\\ format\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ borrowed\\ frm\\ the\\ stacked\\ n\\ interlocking\\ figures\\ on\\ totem\\ poles\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jose\\ Clemente\\ Orozco\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Totem\\ Poles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Epico\\ f\\ American\\ civilization\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ 1932\\-34\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ Pollock\\ saw\\ this\\ mural\\ at\\ Dartmouth\\ n\\ was\\ influenced\\ by\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ borrowings\\ from\\ NA\\ symbosl\\ n\\ forms\\ can\\ go\\ on\\ indefinitely\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ w\\&rsquo\\;ere\\ not\\ going\\ 2decode\\ every\\ symbolic\\ reference\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\&rsquo\\;d\\ go\\ counter\\ 2the\\ meaning\\ o\\ these\\ symbosl\\ as\\ pntrs\\ like\\ Pollock\\ n\\ Gottlieb\\ put\\ them\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ also\\ looked\\ \\,tho\\,\\ 2African\\,\\ phoenecian\\,\\ pre\\-Columbian\\,\\ Greek\\ sources\\.\\ \\ \\;Wide\\ range\\ o\\ sources\\,\\ which\\ \\=\\ the\\ pnt\\ o\\ the\\ collective\\ unconscious\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ about\\ the\\ NAs\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ ALL\\ the\\ ppl\\ o\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ images\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ meant\\ 2b\\ decoded\\,\\ legible\\ in\\ direct\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Gottlieb\\ based\\ loosely\\ on\\ spiral\\ motifs\\ from\\ \\#\\ o\\ cultures\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ 2create\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;atmosphere\\ o\\ symbolic\\ meaning\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ primitive\\ atmosphere\\,\\ but\\ not\\ specific\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ wanted\\ 2free\\-associate\\ until\\ the\\ images\\ would\\ bubble\\ up\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\ 4him\\.\\ \\ \\;Never\\ specifically\\ created\\ out\\ o\\ specific\\ traditions\\,\\ but\\ through\\ process\\ o\\ free\\ association\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ about\\ not\\ producing\\ clear\\,\\ decodable\\ texts\\,\\ but\\ about\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Confronting\\ the\\ colelcttive\\ unconscious\\,\\ bringing\\ it\\ up\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ allowing\\ conduit\\ 2appear\\ bw\\ conscious\\ n\\ unconscious\\ minds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ these\\ pictures\\ represnted\\ clear\\ set\\ o\\ meanings\\,\\ then\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ related\\ 2the\\ unconscious\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ b\\ perfectly\\ conscious\\,\\ able\\ 2b\\ discussed\\ rationally\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ lack\\ o\\ specificity\\ o\\ the\\ symbosl\\ that\\ keeps\\ the\\ circuit\\ 2the\\ unconscious\\ open\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ alluding\\ 2\\ a\\ collective\\ unconscious\\ n\\ a\\ world\\ o\\ universal\\ symbols\\,\\ but\\ not\\ allowing\\ them\\ 2rise\\ up\\ in2\\ a\\ conscious\\ reading\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keeping\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ their\\ ucnoinscoius\\ energy\\ open\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ image\\ o\\ process\\,\\ not\\ product\\.\\ \\ \\;Way\\ o\\ thinking\\ about\\ pntg\\ as\\ a\\ constant\\ struggle\\ bw\\ conscious\\ n\\ unconscious\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ notion\\ that\\ artists\\ n\\ others\\ should\\ constantly\\ struggle\\ w\\ their\\ unconscious\\ might\\ seem\\ esoteric\\ n\\ related\\ 2highbrow\\ psychoanlysis\\ 2us\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ popular\\ notion\\ throughout\\ the\\ 40s\\ n\\ 50s\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Film\\ still\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Forbidden\\ Planet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\ \\(dir\\.\\ Fred\\ Wilcox\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 40s\\ n\\ 50s\\,\\ across\\ wide\\ spectrum\\ from\\ film\\ 2pop\\ psychology\\ 2illustrations\\ 2high\\ art\\,\\ this\\ notion\\ that\\ modern\\ man\\,\\ as\\ man\\ was\\ now\\ called\\ after\\ WWII\\,\\ was\\ constantly\\ having\\ 2grapple\\ w\\ universal\\ forces\\ that\\ were\\ shaping\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ recognition\\ that\\ in\\ ancient\\ culture\\,\\ the\\ individual\\ had\\ been\\ integrated\\ thru\\ these\\ ritual\\,\\ symbolic\\ movements\\ in\\ these\\ cultures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernity\\ was\\ thought\\ 2lack\\ such\\ a\\ healing\\ process\\.\\ The\\ individual\\ 2internally\\ divided\\,\\ lacking\\ necessary\\ ritual\\ connectsion\\ 2the\\ suboncionsious\\ mind\\ n\\ collective\\ unconscious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ society\\ could\\ break\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ repression\\ that\\ modernity\\ ahd\\ subjected\\ it\\ 2\\,\\ leading\\ 2social\\ horros\\ like\\ WWII\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ bc\\ the\\ modern\\ society\\ had\\ become\\ fragmented\\,\\ 2rational\\,\\ bc\\ ppl\\ no\\ longer\\ were\\ in\\ touch\\ w\\ their\\ unconscious\\ energies\\,\\ so\\ they\\ broke\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forbidden\\ Planet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\about\\ a\\ planet\\ once\\ inhabited\\ by\\ enormously\\ rational\\ ppl\\,\\ able\\ 2build\\ a\\ machine\\ that\\ turned\\ thoughts\\ in2\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ u\\ had\\ 2do\\ was\\ think\\ something\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ happen\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ o\\ building\\ a\\ desk\\,\\ n\\ boom\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ built\\ n\\ existing\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ u\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ day\\,\\ they\\ turned\\ on\\ the\\ machine\\,\\ able\\ 2create\\ matter\\,\\ but\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ forgotten\\ about\\ their\\ subconscious\\ minds\\,\\ illustrated\\ here\\,\\ became\\ actualized\\ n\\ destroyed\\ civilization\\ on\\ the\\ planet\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ common\\ way\\ o\\ understanding\\ the\\ fissure\\ bw\\ conscious\\ n\\ uncosnciosu\\ minds\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ o\\ pop\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ purpose\\ o\\ art\\ is\\ 2reestablish\\ lost\\ contact\\ w\\ the\\ primoridial\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;Trying\\ 2bring\\ t2the\\ unconscious\\ mind\\ lost\\ inherent\\ connections\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;one\\ must\\ constantly\\ grapple\\ w\\ tehse\\ unconscious\\ forces\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ was\\ most\\ imptnt\\ was\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ images\\,\\ not\\ the\\ depiction\\ o\\ unconscious\\ forces\\,\\ but\\ the\\ ocnstantsy\\ n\\ elemental\\ quality\\ o\\ the\\ endless\\ struggle\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ struggle\\,\\ than\\ about\\ the\\ unconscious\\,\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ explains\\ many\\ later\\ works\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\ toward\\ ocmpelte\\ abstraction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Going\\ West\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1934\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autumn\\ Rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ dates\\ r\\ guesses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notion\\ o\\ collective\\ unconscious\\,\\ o\\ surrealist\\ automatism\\&hellip\\;we\\ see\\ thse\\ artists\\ shifting\\ toward\\ mythical\\ themes\\/symbols\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ they\\ move\\ on2\\ total\\ abstraction\\.\\ \\ \\;Forms\\ better\\ able\\ 2convey\\ the\\ constant\\ universal\\ energies\\ o\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\ \\ \\;Moving\\ from\\ partially\\ integrated\\ sea\\ o\\ symbols\\ 2totally\\ abstract\\ evocation\\,\\ simply\\ o\\ these\\ energies\\,\\ battles\\ bw\\ the\\ unconscious\\ n\\ onscious\\ minds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mark\\ Rothko\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Subway\\ Scene\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rothoko\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crucifix\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1941\\-42\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rothoko\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Center\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ 3\\ images\\,\\ 2\\,\\ start\\ w\\ images\\ o\\ life\\ on\\ subway\\ life\\,\\ 2\\ the\\ crucifix\\,\\ image\\ o\\ universal\\ problem\\ o\\ sacrifice\\.\\ \\ \\;Basic\\ myth\\ 4Rothko\\ that\\ helps\\ him\\ work\\ thru\\ these\\ symbols\\ n\\ themes\\,\\ n\\ on2\\ the\\ 50s\\ w\\ the\\ abstract\\ colorfield\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rothko\\&rsquo\\;s\\ abstractions\\ doing\\ much\\ o\\ the\\ same\\ wrk\\,\\ but\\ totally\\ divested\\ o\\ specific\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;Creating\\ kind\\ o\\ live\\,\\ ongoing\\,\\ pulsating\\ contact\\ w\\ that\\ depth\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ w\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gottlieb\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Untitled\\ \\(Box\\ and\\ sea\\ objects\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1940\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gottlieb\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pictograph\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1946\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gottlieb\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Blast\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\G\\ also\\ makes\\ transition\\ from\\ pictograph\\ 2\\ the\\ general\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ basic\\ enegergies\\ bw\\ the\\ unconscious\\ n\\ conscious\\ minds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ all\\ abstract\\ expressionist\\ pntrs\\ moved\\ totally\\ in2\\ abstraction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ de\\ Kooning\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\-52\\ \\(with\\ stages\\ o\\ f\\ the\\ painting\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\De\\ Kooning\\ best\\ showed\\ the\\ struggle\\ to\\ get\\ in\\ touch\\ w\\ the\\ unconscious\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Series\\ o\\ stages\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\ this\\ over\\ the\\ 2\\ yrs\\ that\\ it\\ took\\ him\\ 2decide\\ on\\ this\\,\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ as\\ being\\ his\\ final\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ violent\\ struggle\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ that\\ de\\ Kooning\\ goes\\ through\\ in\\ this\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woman\\ looks\\ sweet\\ like\\ woman\\ from\\ cosmetics\\ ad\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ at\\ end\\ she\\ has\\ this\\ monstrous\\ face\\ on\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ 50s\\ woman\\ n\\ an\\ archaic\\,\\ primitive\\,\\ fertility\\ goddess\\.\\ \\ \\;Ptng\\ this\\ becomes\\ process\\ o\\ battling\\ bw\\ pntr\\ n\\ the\\ archaic\\ principle\\ o\\ feminity\\ n\\ fertility\\.\\ \\ \\;Universal\\ symbol\\ that\\ woman\\ was\\ for\\ femininity\\ n\\ fertility\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ emerges\\ form\\ the\\ canvas\\ here\\ as\\ if\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fighting\\ off\\ de\\ Kooning\\ from\\ the\\ depths\\ o\\ the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Struggle\\ bw\\ conscious\\ n\\ unconscious\\ minds\\ happens\\ across\\ the\\ picture\\ plain\\,\\ struggle\\ bw\\ abstraction\\ n\\ rperesnetaiton\\,\\ visibility\\ n\\ invisibility\\,\\ bw\\ pntr\\ n\\ convtent\\ that\\ makes\\ itself\\ felt\\ n\\ seen\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\De\\ Kooning\\ rarely\\ got\\ in2\\ total\\ abstraction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\De\\ Kooning\\,\\ some\\ white\\ pntg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ the\\ teeth\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ imagery\\ trying\\ 2get\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ AE\\ relate\\ 2the\\ social\\/potliical\\ universe\\ o\\ its\\ time\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tehse\\ images\\ o\\ women\\,\\ 4ex\\,\\ makes\\ one\\ wonder\\ what\\ it\\ menat\\ 4\\ actual\\ women\\ o\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ many\\ o\\ whom\\ were\\ ery\\ disturbed\\ by\\ this\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hans\\ Namuth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Williem\\ and\\ Elaine\\ de\\ Kooning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ this\\ AE\\ notion\\ o\\ primitive\\,\\ o\\ the\\ fmeminine\\,\\ the\\ Other\\,\\ mean\\ 4ppl\\ who\\ were\\ living\\ in\\ nyc\\ n\\ were\\ women\\ n\\ associated\\ w\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitive\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ other\\ cultures\\ at\\ this\\ time\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elaine\\ de\\ Kooning\\ \\=\\ pntr\\,\\ AE\\ pntr\\,\\ but\\ u\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ probly\\ never\\ seen\\ her\\ pntgs\\ or\\ heard\\ o\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\ Lee\\ Krasner\\,\\ also\\ a\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ about\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lee\\ Krasner\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Squares\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1948\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\ ha\\&rsquo\\;vent\\ seen\\ her\\ pntgs\\,\\ but\\ u\\ have\\ seen\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;y\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ potliical\\ implications\\.\\ \\ \\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ start\\ w\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ they\\ given\\ the\\ same\\ reocnigiont\\ as\\ their\\ husbands\\,\\ as\\ AEs\\,\\ male\\ figures\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ were\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ complicated\\ question\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ it\\ seems\\ on\\ one\\ level\\ that\\ AE\\ should\\ b\\ kind\\ o\\ pntg\\ all\\ about\\ universality\\.\\ \\ \\;Opening\\ up\\ world\\ o\\ western\\ pntg\\ 2\\ presences\\ from\\ outside\\ the\\ modern\\ western\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\:\\ \\ \\;space\\ outside\\ modern\\ western\\ world\\ becomes\\ something\\ that\\ exists\\ behind\\ the\\ canvas\\ n\\ below\\ the\\ conscious\\ mind\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ w\\ which\\ the\\ AE\\ artists\\ were\\ understood\\ 2bstruggling\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ borught\\ up\\ from\\ the\\ depths\\,\\ combined\\ w\\ conscious\\ thought\\ in\\ order\\ 2particpate\\ in\\ the\\ necessary\\ healing\\ ritual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ it\\ mean\\ when\\ the\\ culture\\ at\\ large\\ basically\\ understands\\ them\\ 2b\\ not\\ standing\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ but\\ back\\ there\\,\\ in\\ tehse\\ roiling\\,\\ primtivei\\ psychic\\ depths\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ do\\ the\\ the\\ struggle\\ when\\ women\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ pntrs\\ o\\ theimages\\,\\ but\\ r\\ the\\ archaic\\ n\\ primtivie\\ force\\ that\\ needs\\ 2b\\ battled\\ against\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ w\\ black\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Krasner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ has\\ only\\ recently\\ been\\ studied\\ among\\ art\\ historians\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ 2b\\ neglected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hale\\ Woodruff\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Afro\\ Emblems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Y\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ heared\\ o\\ these\\ pntrs\\ or\\ seen\\ their\\ pntgs\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\ created\\ impossible\\ situation\\ 4\\ artists\\ 2closely\\ associated\\ w\\ tehse\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitive\\ cultures\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ were\\ part\\ o\\ this\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntrs\\ like\\ Krasner\\ n\\ Woodruff\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ able\\ 2attain\\ the\\ same\\ heroic\\ status\\ as\\ pntrs\\ like\\ Pollock\\ n\\ de\\ Kooning\\ bc\\ they\\ werne\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seen\\ as\\ engaging\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ unconscious\\ struggle\\.\\ \\ \\;Woddruff\\ n\\ Krasner\\ were\\ already\\ close\\ 2this\\ unconscious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Graham\\ talks\\ about\\ artist\\ like\\ Picasso\\,\\ Pollock\\,\\ who\\ were\\ able\\ 2show\\ ease\\ o\\ acess\\ 2the\\ unconscious\\,\\ the\\ same\\ ease\\ o\\ access\\ as\\ have\\ the\\ primitive\\ artists\\,\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ consiocus\\ intelligence\\.\\ \\ \\;Primtivie\\ artists\\,\\ bc\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ the\\ unconscious\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ conscious\\ rational\\ distance\\ that\\ forces\\ them\\ 2have\\ this\\ dialiectic\\ struggle\\ w\\ the\\ work\\,\\ so\\ artists\\ who\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;\\ EU\\ or\\ men\\ tried\\ 2become\\ AEs\\ n\\ used\\ their\\ own\\ heritage\\,\\ they\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ doing\\ what\\ came\\ naturally\\,\\ not\\ given\\ the\\ same\\ credit\\ 4having\\ the\\ intellectual\\ skills\\ 2maniupulate\\ symbols\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ o\\ primtiivsim\\ in\\ modern\\ pntg\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ gone\\ away\\ when\\ u\\ get\\ 2AEs\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ the\\ heroic\\ whitem\\ ale\\ artist\\ understood\\ 2have\\ the\\ necessary\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ uncosnciosu\\ symbols\\ 2create\\ the\\ ongoing\\ heroic\\ struggle\\ w\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Next\\ wek\\:\\ \\ \\;move\\ 2the\\ 60s\\:\\ \\ \\;Johns\\,\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Autographic\\ gesture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Surrealist\\ automatism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collective\\ unconscious\\ \\/\\ Carl\\ Jung\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\-overness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;CHANCE\\ OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;CHANCE\\ OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;POP\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;POP\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 23, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA172w_-_Class_Notes_2.doc", "desc": "Note set 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Ethical and Political Theory - Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "ethical", "political", "theory"], "text": null, "id": 89, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\_Lecture\\_Notes\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c30\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:220\\.7pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c24\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:239\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c26\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:222\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c46\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c40\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c9\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c5\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c43\\{margin\\-left\\:111pt\\}\\.c35\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c41\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c31\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c34\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c44\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c42\\{margin\\-left\\:147pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c6\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c17\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\}\\.c38\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c39\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c36\\{margin\\-left\\:75pt\\}\\.c32\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c23\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c37\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ Classical\\ Chinese\\ Ethical\\ and\\ Political\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ September\\ 24th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Biography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Born\\ below\\ the\\ aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Well\\ educated\\,\\ taught\\ how\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;good\\&rsquo\\;\\ human\\ being\\ during\\ later\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Great\\ philosopher\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ one\\ of\\ key\\ early\\ thinkers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\/philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\,\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Rituals\\;\\ focus\\ on\\ everyday\\,\\ mundane\\ gestures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Rituals\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ conventions\\ into\\ which\\ you\\ are\\ born\\;\\ that\\ you\\ simply\\ pick\\ up\\;\\ decides\\ whether\\ we\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;truly\\ great\\ human\\ beings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Purpose\\:\\ to\\ gain\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ perform\\ rituals\\,\\ what\\ each\\ ritual\\ is\\ meant\\ for\\,\\ and\\ which\\ rituals\\ are\\ most\\ important\\/relevant\\ to\\ our\\ lives\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;understanding\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ spontaneously\\ in\\ different\\ situations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sense\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ tendency\\ to\\ make\\ wrong\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Innate\\ wrong\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;act\\ well\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ to\\ decide\\ to\\ act\\ well\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;think\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ making\\ rational\\ decisions\\,\\ but\\ calculations\\ \\=\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incorrect\\ to\\ weigh\\ pros\\ and\\ cons\\ of\\ each\\ circumstance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ universal\\ guideline\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;need\\ to\\ develop\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sense\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;standards\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ sense\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ situation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ affect\\ others\\ for\\ the\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ September\\ 26th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\,\\ alone\\,\\ placed\\ rituals\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ during\\ the\\ Axial\\ Age\\ throughout\\ Eurasia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ children\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ decide\\ which\\ rituals\\ to\\ perform\\;\\ as\\ we\\ grow\\ older\\,\\ we\\ gain\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ question\\/decide\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ lifetime\\ of\\ striving\\ to\\ be\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Divine\\ Powers\\ \\&\\;\\ Ancestors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ difference\\ whether\\ you\\ believe\\ there\\ are\\ ancestral\\ spirits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;must\\ perform\\ the\\ ritual\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ lesson\\/moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;repaying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learn\\ from\\ your\\ parents\\,\\ never\\ be\\ angry\\ with\\ them\\,\\ remembering\\ where\\ you\\ came\\ from\\,\\ why\\ you\\ are\\ what\\ you\\ are\\,\\ attempting\\ to\\ grow\\ to\\ be\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Denies\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ is\\ merely\\ on\\ a\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ seemingly\\ contradictory\\ advice\\ because\\ he\\ individualizes\\ his\\ suggestions\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ pupil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Can\\ we\\ universalize\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ argument\\?\\ Any\\ human\\ ritual\\ system\\ should\\ agree\\ that\\ something\\ within\\ us\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\ grow\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ goodness\\ through\\ rituals\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ to\\ inherently\\ bad\\ people\\?\\ Are\\ we\\ all\\ endowed\\ with\\ potential\\ to\\ become\\ good\\?\\ \\ \\;Can\\ \\&ldquo\\;rotten\\ wood\\&rdquo\\;\\ really\\ not\\ be\\ carved\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;For\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ moral\\,\\ is\\ it\\ better\\ to\\ pretend\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\,\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ better\\ to\\ attempt\\ to\\ better\\ yourself\\ \\(perhaps\\ in\\ vain\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;week\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\-cut\\ out\\ any\\ assumptions\\ about\\ divine\\ and\\ mythical\\ world\\ view\\-\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ are\\ rituals\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\-Confucius\\ was\\ absolutely\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-cultivating\\ self\\ through\\ rituals\\ is\\ ridiculous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ need\\ something\\ that\\ it\\ implied\\ in\\ every\\ situation\\&hellip\\;Utilitarian\\ calculus\\-shows\\ us\\ that\\ benefit\\ people\\=good\\,\\ harm\\ people\\=bad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ build\\ a\\ political\\ system\\ out\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ matter\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ \\"\\;sense\\"\\;\\ of\\ goodness\\,\\ behavior\\ is\\ what\\ matters\\-calculate\\ benefit\\ and\\ harm\\,\\ incentive\\ and\\ puishment\\-this\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ world\\ operates\\ anyway\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\think\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ naturally\\ would\\,\\ it\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-make\\ no\\ cultivation\\,\\ use\\ a\\ clear\\ calculus\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ punish\\ and\\ reward\\ behavior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\impartiality\\-\\ ethical\\ decision\\,\\ apply\\ to\\ everyone\\ equally\\-this\\ requires\\ no\\ thought\\ or\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\ argument\\ against\\ this\\-this\\ is\\ acting\\ solely\\ on\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ dangerous\\,\\ everyone\\ becomes\\ \\;\\ a\\ calculation\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ help\\ anyone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\-no\\,\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ world\\ works\\,\\ you\\ should\\ organize\\ everything\\ off\\ of\\ benefit\\ and\\ harm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vs\\.\\ 3\\ year\\ mourning\\ period\\-this\\ is\\ ridiculous\\,\\ how\\ is\\ this\\ beneficial\\?\\ Calculus\\ much\\ more\\ logical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Against\\ music\\-music\\ disturbs\\ the\\ state\\-not\\ beneficial\\,\\ wants\\ a\\ strong\\ work\\ ethic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confucius\\ disagrees\\-music\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ life\\,\\ you\\ can\\ never\\ develop\\ a\\ calculus\\ for\\ your\\ life\\,\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ emotionless\\,\\ need\\ to\\ use\\ your\\ emotions\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ need\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ our\\ emotional\\ dispositions\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ our\\ rituals\\ to\\ work\\,\\ this\\ enables\\ humans\\ to\\ improve\\ at\\ responding\\ to\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\music\\ helps\\-gets\\ us\\ to\\ feel\\ emotions\\-anger\\,\\ sadness\\ etc\\.\\ develops\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mozi\\ disagrees\\!\\ Proper\\ calculus\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ emotions\\,\\ it\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ properly\\ ordered\\ society\\-emotions\\ pull\\ away\\ from\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ rational\\ decision\\(Confucius\\ argues\\ emotions\\ should\\ control\\ your\\ decisions\\)\\ cost\\ benefit\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Importance\\ of\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ ideas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Developed\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\response\\ to\\ Mohism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Advocate\\ who\\ had\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\organized\\,\\ articulate\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explains\\ how\\ Confucianism\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comparison\\ to\\ The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ use\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dialogues\\ and\\ stories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\engages\\ in\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ others\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lays\\ out\\ full\\ Confucian\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ world\\ of\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ world\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ couple\\ of\\ weeks\\ becomes\\ fully\\ formed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Former\\ enfeifed\\ have\\ become\\ de\\-facto\\ autonomous\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ rulers\\ have\\ taken\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ king\\;\\ previously\\,\\ only\\ the\\ Chou\\ kings\\ called\\ themselves\\ kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ these\\ rulers\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\ gets\\ the\\ Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ gets\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ order\\?\\ \\ \\;WHO\\ GETS\\ TO\\ RULE\\ AT\\ THE\\ END\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ goes\\ from\\ state\\ to\\ state\\ trying\\ to\\ argue\\ they\\ should\\ follow\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argues\\ to\\ rulers\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ populace\\,\\ the\\ Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\,\\ and\\ bring\\ peace\\/order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ this\\,\\ get\\ dialogues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;The\\ philosophy\\ of\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ being\\ human\\,\\ at\\ \\ \\;least\\,\\ can\\ have\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ be\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warning\\:\\ When\\ he\\ says\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ good\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ does\\ NOT\\ say\\ we\\ ARE\\ good\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ is\\ merely\\ saying\\ we\\ are\\ given\\ to\\ us\\ by\\ Heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ seed\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seed\\ just\\ like\\ a\\ plant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Will\\ grow\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ needs\\ nurture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;without\\ it\\,\\ our\\ nature\\ will\\ die\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ need\\ constant\\ nurture\\ and\\ cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ seed\\ dies\\ permanently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\ for\\ Hitler\\:\\ Would\\ encourage\\ assassination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tries\\ to\\ assume\\ there\\ is\\ goodness\\,\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ we\\ can\\ reach\\ full\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sagehood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\potential\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ why\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ all\\ sages\\?\\ \\ \\;Mencius\\ says\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ fact\\,\\ throughout\\ history\\ there\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ many\\ sages\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ there\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ who\\ are\\ actually\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explains\\ cruelty\\,\\ hatred\\,\\ and\\ evil\\ on\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ become\\ inhuman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ is\\ both\\ optimistic\\ and\\ pessimistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Optimistic\\:\\ Our\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pessimistic\\:\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exercise\\ our\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ turn\\ things\\ around\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\:\\ Encourages\\ people\\ near\\ him\\/disciples\\ to\\ get\\ on\\ path\\ of\\ goodness\\ and\\ cultivate\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ unlike\\ Confucius\\ perhaps\\ has\\ greater\\ ambition\\/political\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goes\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\convince\\ rulers\\ to\\ become\\ moral\\ exemplars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hopes\\ they\\ will\\ make\\ people\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ Confucius\\,\\ was\\ equally\\ unable\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ high\\ political\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arguments\\ Mencius\\ gives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ goes\\ from\\ court\\ to\\ court\\ and\\ says\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ great\\ dynasties\\ received\\ the\\ Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ received\\ it\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ current\\ rulers\\ think\\ it\\ went\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Current\\ rulers\\&rsquo\\;\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ past\\:\\ Political\\ maneuvering\\ leads\\ to\\ success\\,\\ then\\ Heaven\\ comes\\ and\\ bestows\\ mandate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ to\\ get\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\:\\ You\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ and\\ are\\ completely\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Every\\ single\\ founding\\ ruler\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ Mandate\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ someone\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;awakened\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Someone\\ who\\ cultivated\\ their\\ nature\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ they\\ became\\ a\\ true\\ sage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Usually\\ that\\ sage\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Usually\\ not\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ high\\ aristocratic\\ ranks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ one\\ person\\ with\\ potential\\ political\\ power\\ made\\ this\\ sage\\ a\\ sage\\ minister\\,\\ then\\ this\\ person\\ in\\ position\\ of\\ political\\ power\\ would\\ suddenly\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;politician\\&rdquo\\;\\ starts\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ sage\\ minister\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;becomes\\ more\\ moral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\,\\ people\\ follow\\ that\\ lead\\ and\\ are\\ somewhat\\ awakened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Become\\ repulsed\\ to\\ old\\,\\ evil\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turn\\ towards\\ the\\ new\\ ruler\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;new\\ ruler\\ gains\\ Mandate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ Mencius\\ is\\ ambitious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quite\\ clear\\ who\\ he\\ thinks\\ is\\ the\\ sage\\/awakened\\ man\\ \\*cough\\ cough\\ himself\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wants\\ to\\ get\\ hired\\ and\\ lead\\ the\\ moral\\ changes\\ that\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ are\\ no\\ fools\\ though\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ is\\ always\\ presented\\ as\\ the\\ winner\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ telling\\ it\\ from\\ his\\ point\\ of\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ also\\ see\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ presenting\\ radical\\ ideas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\.\\ one\\ ruler\\ notices\\ regicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sees\\ that\\ it\\ helps\\ him\\ gain\\ the\\ throne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ he\\ loses\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ he\\ can\\ get\\ killed\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ response\\:\\ NO\\,\\ NOT\\ AT\\ ALL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ king\\ by\\ definition\\ has\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ populace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regicide\\!\\ \\ \\;Nah\\.\\ \\ \\;Never\\ heard\\ of\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ only\\ heard\\ of\\ robbers\\ and\\ murderers\\ receiving\\ just\\ punishment\\,\\ but\\ never\\ of\\ a\\ king\\ being\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haha\\ Mencius\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ slick\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basically\\,\\ Mencius\\ is\\ saying\\ to\\ the\\ rulers\\ that\\ the\\ Mandate\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ populace\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ win\\ them\\ by\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ good\\,\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ rectification\\ of\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ ruler\\ should\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ proper\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ live\\ by\\ your\\ ritual\\ duty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\ is\\ basically\\ saying\\,\\ if\\ you\\ fail\\ to\\ live\\ as\\ a\\ king\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ a\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ you\\ can\\ and\\ should\\ get\\ overthrown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ critiques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sidenote\\:\\ Becomes\\ controversial\\ and\\ rather\\ high\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ critiques\\ of\\ other\\ philosophies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mohism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ everything\\ they\\ claim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohism\\ gives\\ no\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ basest\\ instincts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tries\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ do\\ good\\ as\\ defined\\ by\\ their\\ guidelines\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ best\\,\\ this\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ people\\ behaving\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ behave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ this\\ is\\ doomed\\ for\\ 2\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ they\\ are\\ led\\ to\\ behave\\ is\\ not\\ how\\ they\\ should\\ behave\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ based\\ on\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ will\\ only\\ act\\ in\\ self\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;doomed\\ because\\ you\\ are\\ killing\\ your\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ nurture\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohist\\ world\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-interested\\ people\\ building\\ states\\ appealing\\ to\\ self\\-interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ will\\ only\\ get\\ worse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ only\\ path\\ towards\\ people\\ being\\ good\\:\\ Encouraging\\,\\ inspiring\\ people\\ to\\ begin\\ path\\ towards\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goodness\\ only\\ comes\\ when\\ have\\ sense\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ calculation\\ whatsoever\\ that\\ tells\\ you\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;just\\ like\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ reading\\ of\\ The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yes\\,\\ important\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;nurture\\ ourselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ much\\ less\\ so\\ for\\ him\\ than\\ for\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\ thinks\\ ritual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ interests\\ him\\ the\\ most\\:\\ Nourishing\\ and\\ nurturing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultivate\\ yourself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideally\\ the\\ ruler\\ starts\\ the\\ whole\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;effective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basically\\ reads\\ into\\ The\\ Analects\\ a\\ very\\ different\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reads\\ into\\ it\\ a\\ political\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sees\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ nurture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ Heaven\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ gives\\ us\\ the\\ Mandate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Mandate\\ works\\ through\\ Heaven\\ giving\\ us\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ up\\ to\\ us\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ Mandate\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ overthrow\\ bad\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ follow\\ good\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ political\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ Chi\\:\\ Ruler\\ gives\\ him\\ a\\ ministerial\\ position\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highest\\ rank\\ any\\ Confucian\\ has\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dialogues\\ happen\\,\\ ruler\\ asks\\ for\\ policy\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ it\\ becomes\\ clear\\ to\\ Mencius\\ that\\ the\\ king\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ listening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defeated\\,\\ he\\ leaves\\ the\\ kingdom\\ of\\ Chi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ disciple\\ asks\\,\\ what\\ happened\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\:\\ The\\ time\\ is\\ ripe\\,\\ overripe\\,\\ for\\ the\\ sage\\ to\\ arise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ had\\ a\\ sage\\&mdash\\;Confucius\\&mdash\\;and\\ nobody\\ listened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ new\\ sage\\ \\*cough\\ cough\\*\\ has\\ arisen\\,\\ and\\ nobody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ listening\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ whatever\\ reason\\,\\ Heaven\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ being\\ followed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ knows\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ returns\\ to\\ teaching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ from\\ this\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\/when\\ a\\ sage\\ arises\\,\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ necessarily\\ listen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ the\\ key\\ again\\ lies\\ with\\ the\\ individuals\\:\\ Will\\ they\\ follow\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ had\\ their\\ chance\\ and\\ clearly\\ have\\ it\\ now\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ nothing\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ philosophy\\ ISN\\&rsquo\\;T\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ means\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ inspired\\ to\\ be\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\,\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohist\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ accept\\ risk\\ of\\ regicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ can\\ continue\\ for\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ can\\ only\\ hope\\ the\\ future\\ will\\ have\\ another\\ sage\\,\\ and\\ maybe\\ another\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ another\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ influential\\ figures\\ in\\ Chinese\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yes\\,\\ immediate\\ political\\ failure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Having\\ failed\\,\\ he\\ raises\\ many\\ questions\\ for\\ followers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Radical\\ message\\:\\ Regicide\\ is\\ fine\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ follow\\ me\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ a\\ new\\ dynasty\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ yeah\\,\\ you\\ could\\ get\\ overthrown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Too\\ radical\\ at\\ that\\ stage\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Too\\ politically\\ stupid\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ too\\ much\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ people\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immediately\\ after\\ him\\,\\ Confucianism\\ wanes\\ in\\ political\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Politically\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ gets\\ more\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rulers\\ continue\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ Confucians\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ buy\\ into\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ for\\ 200\\ years\\,\\ Confucians\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ a\\ dent\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreshadowing\\:\\ A\\ Confucian\\ named\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Xunzi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ opposition\\ to\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ like\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ must\\ be\\ FORCED\\,\\ against\\ their\\ will\\,\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ can\\ do\\ that\\ is\\ STRONG\\ STATES\\,\\ LAWS\\,\\ AND\\ REGULATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unsurprisingly\\,\\ he\\ is\\ rather\\ popular\\ with\\ the\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ Mencius\\ is\\ always\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucians\\ afterwards\\ will\\ argue\\ that\\ Mencius\\ was\\ right\\ all\\ along\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ strong\\ state\\ vision\\ is\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ Mencius\\ represents\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ radical\\ readings\\;\\ Xunzi\\ is\\ the\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ have\\ basis\\ in\\ The\\ Analects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ will\\ discuss\\:\\ Do\\ you\\ like\\ Mencius\\ for\\ how\\ his\\ reading\\ of\\ Confucius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\follows\\ Confucianism\\,\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\departs\\ from\\ Confucianism\\?\\ \\ \\;\\(i\\.e\\.\\ do\\ you\\ like\\ him\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ rights\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laozi\\:\\ around\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\,\\ unified\\ work\\?\\ Puett\\ says\\ yes\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ unified\\ vision\\/text\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ disparate\\ feel\\ is\\ purposeful\\ and\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ argument\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daoism\\ \\-\\ the\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\ that\\ this\\ work\\ falls\\ under\\;\\ united\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ Way\\ and\\ discussing\\ the\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ unifying\\ thing\\ between\\ the\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ makes\\ no\\ sense\\?\\ One\\ can\\ read\\ anything\\ out\\ of\\ it\\?\\ Puett\\ thinks\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ way\\?\\ The\\ text\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ define\\ it\\.\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ language\\ to\\ explain\\ it\\.\\ The\\ nothingness\\.\\ The\\ Great\\.\\ The\\ One\\.\\ A\\ set\\ of\\ terms\\ that\\ point\\ to\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ images\\ share\\ is\\ a\\ comparable\\ sense\\:\\ the\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\ Cosmologically\\,\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ everything\\ was\\ sheer\\ nothingness\\ \\(no\\ thing\\,\\ not\\ lack\\ of\\ something\\)\\ nothing\\ is\\ differentiated\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ world\\ suddenly\\ differentiated\\ \\(parallel\\ to\\ big\\ bang\\)\\.\\ This\\ differentiation\\ is\\ an\\ ongoing\\ process\\.\\ Grass\\ grows\\ and\\ grass\\ dies\\.\\ It\\ emerges\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ growing\\ and\\ getting\\ further\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ then\\ dies\\ and\\ returns\\ to\\ it\\.\\ People\\,\\ dynasties\\,\\ events\\,\\ conflicts\\ all\\ emerge\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\ and\\ return\\ to\\ It\\.\\ Experientially\\,\\ we\\ are\\ experiencing\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ its\\ differentiated\\ state\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ related\\ gets\\ us\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ Everything\\ that\\ is\\ related\\ \\(in\\ that\\ its\\ differentiated\\)\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ same\\,\\ inter\\-related\\.\\ The\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ understand\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ inter\\-related\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ understand\\ things\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ does\\ this\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ anything\\?\\ If\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ case\\,\\ what\\ difference\\ does\\ it\\ make\\?\\ All\\ the\\ difference\\.\\ We\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\ consistently\\ miss\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ We\\ are\\ therefore\\ doomed\\.\\ While\\ walking\\ through\\ a\\ forest\\,\\ see\\ a\\ big\\ oak\\ tree\\.\\ You\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ strongest\\,\\ but\\ you\\ are\\ being\\ human\\ and\\ wrong\\.\\ When\\ the\\ winds\\ come\\,\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flex\\ so\\ it\\ snaps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tries\\ to\\ win\\ through\\ dominance\\.\\ The\\ strongest\\ tree\\ is\\ the\\ young\\ sapling\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flexible\\,\\ young\\,\\ supple\\,\\ soft\\ and\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ If\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ of\\ the\\ forest\\ then\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ of\\ everything\\ else\\ that\\ exists\\.\\ In\\ human\\ relations\\,\\ we\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ strongest\\,\\ the\\ most\\ dominant\\,\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ will\\ win\\;\\ in\\ wars\\,\\ conflict\\,\\ business\\.\\ Trying\\ to\\ control\\ or\\ dominate\\ surroundings\\,\\ thereby\\ removing\\ ourselves\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ path\\ to\\ destruction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ text\\ teaching\\ us\\?\\ What\\ do\\ we\\ do\\?\\ Return\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ The\\ text\\ offers\\ very\\ practical\\ advice\\.\\ Mystically\\,\\ teach\\ ourselves\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ everything\\ is\\ inter\\-related\\.\\ The\\ more\\ we\\ do\\ that\\,\\ the\\ more\\ we\\ get\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ The\\ text\\ also\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ live\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ case\\,\\ that\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\,\\ dominated\\ by\\ humans\\ that\\ live\\ as\\ the\\ text\\ instructs\\ not\\ to\\ do\\.\\ We\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ control\\ us\\,\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ \\(in\\ the\\ mundane\\ and\\ in\\ politics\\)\\.\\ This\\ text\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ overcome\\ this\\.\\ The\\ text\\ is\\ amoral\\,\\ but\\ it\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ respond\\ \\(practical\\,\\ political\\,\\ military\\,\\ martial\\ arts\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ someone\\ attacks\\ you\\,\\ by\\ definition\\,\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ aggressive\\ will\\ always\\ mean\\ they\\ will\\ over\\ reach\\ themselves\\,\\ what\\ they\\ can\\ really\\ do\\.\\ As\\ an\\ individual\\,\\ see\\ the\\ weakness\\,\\ see\\ what\\ they\\ can\\ really\\ do\\ and\\ respond\\ to\\ that\\.\\ Not\\ dominating\\ them\\,\\ but\\ responding\\ and\\ exploiting\\ their\\ weakness\\.\\ If\\ you\\ do\\ this\\,\\ you\\ will\\ wing\\ 100\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ It\\ never\\ fails\\.\\ The\\ Punch\\ example\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ text\\ was\\ written\\ during\\ the\\ Warring\\ States\\ period\\.\\ Imagine\\ that\\ your\\ neighboring\\ state\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ take\\ you\\ over\\.\\ This\\ state\\ is\\ amassing\\ army\\ \\(devote\\ all\\ their\\ resources\\)\\.\\ You\\ might\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stupid\\.\\ Let\\ them\\ do\\ it\\,\\ attack\\ you\\,\\ and\\ move\\ farther\\ and\\ farther\\ into\\ your\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cause\\ them\\ to\\ stretch\\ themselves\\ too\\ thin\\.\\ Quick\\ fast\\ guerilla\\ strikes\\.\\ Attack\\ homeland\\ and\\ supply\\ lines\\.\\ Once\\ over\\-extended\\ they\\ will\\ retreat\\,\\ then\\ you\\ attack\\ them\\.\\ The\\ state\\ will\\ fall\\.\\ Every\\ time\\ this\\ strategy\\ has\\ been\\ employed\\,\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ successful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ at\\ the\\ meeting\\,\\ and\\ someone\\ tries\\ to\\ dominate\\ the\\ competition\\?\\ Play\\ weakness\\ to\\ their\\ strength\\.\\ Respond\\ calmly\\,\\ ask\\ questions\\,\\ make\\ jokes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;you\\ win\\ the\\ room\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ your\\ intention\\ explicitly\\ known\\.\\ People\\ come\\ to\\ echo\\ your\\ sentiments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;come\\ to\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ consensus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ dominating\\ them\\,\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ you\\ will\\ fail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ text\\ trying\\ to\\ teach\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ person\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ strategy\\ text\\;\\ teaches\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ win\\.\\ The\\ power\\ of\\ this\\ text\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ mystical\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ politically\\ and\\ military\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puett\\ argues\\ that\\ Laozi\\ is\\ a\\ coherent\\ text\\;\\ all\\ the\\ disparate\\ pieces\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ one\\ text\\.\\ This\\ is\\ deliberate\\.\\ Everything\\ is\\ inherently\\ related\\.\\ The\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ understand\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ adhere\\ to\\ the\\ way\\.\\ Daoism\\ different\\ than\\ the\\ Analects\\ in\\ that\\ Confucianism\\ put\\ forward\\ moral\\ precepts\\ \\(sets\\ up\\ dichotomies\\,\\ differentiates\\,\\ separates\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\)\\ whereas\\ Laozi\\ is\\ completely\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ an\\ undifferentiated\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Though\\ rhetorically\\ opposed\\,\\ Daoism\\ and\\ Confucianism\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ in\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laozi\\ text\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ focused\\ on\\ self\\-interest\\ \\(how\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\,\\ but\\ an\\ amoral\\ text\\)\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ Analects\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ journey\\ toward\\ benevolence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ Use\\ of\\ the\\ Laozi\\ Text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laozi\\ suggests\\ having\\ laws\\ but\\ not\\ telling\\ the\\ population\\ what\\ the\\ laws\\ are\\,\\ so\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worm\\ around\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ Mohists\\.\\ Key\\ for\\ Laozi\\,\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\ you\\ must\\ create\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ those\\ working\\ with\\ you\\ do\\ not\\ think\\ of\\ you\\ as\\ ordering\\ them\\ around\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ what\\ you\\ ask\\ them\\ to\\ do\\ seems\\ completely\\ natural\\.\\ Use\\ of\\ brute\\ force\\ is\\ doomed\\ to\\ fail\\.\\ American\\ tax\\ policy\\,\\ like\\ any\\ American\\ policy\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ money\\ government\\ tries\\ to\\ get\\ from\\ the\\ populace\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ money\\ will\\ be\\ used\\.\\ History\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ century\\ ago\\,\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ was\\ considered\\ unconstitutional\\.\\ During\\ WWII\\,\\ after\\ Roosevelt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tax\\ increase\\ set\\ a\\ new\\ high\\,\\ then\\ Reagan\\ slashed\\ them\\,\\ now\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ arguing\\ over\\ a\\ few\\ percentage\\ points\\.\\ No\\ one\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ or\\ going\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ 80\\ or\\ 90\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;percentile\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ has\\ become\\ natural\\.\\ so\\ Roosevelt\\ was\\ an\\ extremely\\ effective\\ president\\ because\\ he\\ made\\ federal\\ income\\ tax\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ today\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implications\\ of\\ the\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ be\\ effective\\,\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ interconnectedness\\ of\\ things\\.\\ A\\ really\\ effective\\ ruler\\ is\\ one\\ who\\ sees\\ how\\ everything\\ is\\ interrelated\\ and\\ builds\\ his\\ policies\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ this\\.\\ We\\ see\\ small\\ similarities\\ to\\ Analects\\ and\\ strong\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ Mohists\\.\\ Like\\ Analects\\,\\ Laozi\\ says\\,\\ through\\ self\\-cultivation\\ we\\ can\\ conduct\\ ourselves\\ properly\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\ week\\,\\ the\\ second\\ great\\ Daoist\\ thinker\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\.\\ He\\ is\\ less\\ interested\\ in\\ politics\\ and\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ self\\-cultivation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 6\\:\\ The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ Spontaneity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ is\\ characterized\\ as\\ a\\ Daoist\\ along\\ with\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-believed\\ to\\ have\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\,\\ general\\ contemporary\\ of\\ Menicus\\,\\ possibly\\ also\\ the\\ Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ know\\ very\\ little\\ else\\ about\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ work\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ puns\\,\\ stories\\,\\ paradox\\,\\ and\\ contradictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ the\\ Zhuangzi\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ work\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ reason\\ it\\ is\\ written\\ this\\ way\\ \\(full\\ of\\ contradictions\\,\\ etc\\)\\:\\ Zhuangzi\\ tries\\ to\\ reenact\\ his\\ philosophy\\,\\ not\\ just\\ state\\ it\\ didactically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Laozi\\ said\\:\\ The\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ state\\.\\ The\\ more\\ things\\ grow\\,\\ the\\ farther\\ they\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\ for\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ grass\\ growing\\ and\\ grass\\ dying\\ IS\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ Way\\ is\\ everything\\ in\\ endless\\ flux\\ and\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ Way\\ is\\ empirically\\ dynamic\\;\\ the\\ process\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ interesting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Everything\\ except\\ humanity\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-only\\ humans\\ tend\\ to\\ remove\\ themselves\\ from\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ our\\ minds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ mind\\ is\\ great\\,\\ but\\ we\\ misuse\\ it\\,\\ like\\ a\\ bird\\ using\\ its\\ wings\\ to\\ swim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ misuse\\ our\\ brains\\ trying\\ to\\ define\\ things\\ in\\ rigid\\ ways\\,\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ our\\ natural\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ build\\ whole\\ societies\\ and\\ philosophies\\ on\\ these\\ distinctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\,\\ you\\ can\\ just\\ leave\\ everything\\ and\\ run\\ wild\\ again\\ either\\.\\ That\\ would\\ still\\ be\\ wrong\\:\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;difference\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ human\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ is\\ ALSO\\ a\\ false\\ distinction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-having\\ a\\ society\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ problem\\;\\ lots\\ of\\ sages\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\ are\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\ if\\ society\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ the\\ solution\\ is\\ trickier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ the\\ butcher\\ finds\\ natural\\ distinctions\\ and\\ patterns\\ in\\ meat\\.\\ He\\ works\\ with\\ them\\,\\ not\\ against\\ them\\,\\ following\\ these\\ patterns\\.\\ The\\ pattern\\ is\\ different\\ with\\ each\\ piece\\ of\\ meat\\,\\ so\\ he\\ must\\ feel\\ for\\ the\\ patterns\\ each\\ time\\.\\ He\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ have\\ to\\ sharpen\\ his\\ knife\\&mdash\\;his\\ work\\ is\\ spontaneous\\,\\ he\\ has\\ found\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ butcher\\ begins\\ and\\ ends\\ as\\ a\\ butcher\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ about\\ carving\\ meat\\&mdash\\;he\\ could\\ have\\ had\\ any\\ profession\\.\\ The\\ point\\ is\\ becoming\\ spontaneous\\,\\ moving\\ through\\ the\\ patterns\\ and\\ not\\ battling\\ against\\ them\\.\\ That\\ is\\ the\\ Way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\:\\ spontaneity\\ takes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\training\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-modern\\ examples\\:\\ musicians\\ practicing\\ all\\ day\\ to\\ get\\ really\\ good\\,\\ learning\\ to\\ know\\ your\\ music\\ and\\ the\\ instrument\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-same\\ with\\ sports\\,\\ you\\ do\\ lots\\ of\\ drills\\,\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ zone\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ you\\ can\\ take\\ those\\ lessons\\ from\\ recreational\\ activity\\ to\\ your\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ then\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ fully\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ like\\ Confucius\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ attacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Zhuangzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\-do\\ mundane\\ things\\ every\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-goal\\ is\\ to\\ cultivate\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-spontaneously\\ make\\ good\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-endless\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-train\\ yourself\\ to\\ be\\ spontaneous\\ and\\ therefore\\ better\\ at\\ inspiring\\ people\\ around\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ problem\\:\\ Confucius\\ dooms\\ people\\ by\\ distinguishing\\ between\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\,\\ good\\ and\\ not\\ good\\.\\ This\\ will\\ make\\ you\\ fail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\)\\:\\ What\\ if\\ a\\ Confucian\\ asked\\ Zhuangzi\\ about\\ a\\ robber\\ getting\\ good\\ at\\ robbing\\ spontaneously\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Answer\\:\\ Zhuangzi\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ by\\ definition\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ Way\\ because\\ a\\ robber\\ is\\ distinguishing\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\&rdquo\\;\\ money\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\&rdquo\\;\\ money\\.\\ He\\ will\\ never\\ become\\ spontaneous\\ because\\ of\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ philosophy\\ is\\ not\\ fully\\ based\\ on\\ good\\/bad\\,\\ yet\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ relativistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\,\\ if\\ we\\ do\\ go\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\ completely\\,\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Zhuangzi\\ celebrates\\ life\\,\\ loves\\ joyous\\ celebration\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-what\\ happens\\ when\\ you\\ must\\ face\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ all\\ humans\\ die\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ joyously\\ celebrate\\ the\\ Way\\ when\\ you\\ face\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ death\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Last\\ lecture\\:\\ have\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ exhilaration\\ in\\ your\\ work\\,\\ seeing\\ the\\ larger\\ patterns\\:\\ this\\ is\\ finding\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ But\\ most\\ people\\ fight\\ against\\ it\\ their\\ whole\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ implication\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ daily\\ life\\ we\\ see\\ things\\ through\\ a\\ restricted\\ perspective\\.\\ But\\ what\\ about\\ death\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ at\\ everyone\\ dies\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ happens\\ when\\ we\\ die\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Confucius\\ was\\ agnostic\\,\\ said\\ who\\ knows\\,\\ its\\ irrelevant\\,\\ live\\ here\\ and\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ thought\\ that\\ once\\ we\\ see\\ patterns\\ in\\ the\\ word\\,\\ we\\ see\\ larger\\ patterns\\ too\\:\\ when\\ you\\ die\\,\\ you\\ rot\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ worms\\ eat\\ you\\,\\ birds\\ eat\\ worms\\,\\ bears\\ or\\ something\\ eat\\ birds\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-eventually\\ you\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ all\\ those\\,\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ now\\ \\(in\\ life\\)\\ was\\ also\\ once\\ part\\ of\\ all\\ those\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;endless\\ of\\ flux\\ of\\ transformation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(this\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ phrases\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-everything\\ becomes\\/was\\ everything\\ else\\,\\ it\\ keeps\\ going\\ this\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ fear\\ death\\?\\ Because\\ we\\ think\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ something\\ special\\ and\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-THIS\\ IS\\ OUR\\ BIGGEST\\ MISTAKE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ does\\ not\\ necessary\\ think\\ we\\ should\\ be\\ fine\\ dying\\ young\\,\\ because\\ life\\ is\\ good\\,\\ we\\ should\\ celebrate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\ we\\ should\\ also\\ recognize\\ that\\ everything\\ that\\ lives\\,\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-things\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ end\\ when\\ they\\ die\\,\\ they\\ just\\ continue\\ in\\ the\\ endless\\ flux\\ of\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Fearing\\ death\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ extreme\\ example\\ of\\ battling\\ the\\ Way\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fight\\ it\\,\\ welcome\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ fact\\,\\ dying\\ young\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ battling\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-we\\ should\\ just\\ celebrate\\ the\\ patterns\\ of\\ the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ about\\ moral\\ ideas\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\ mocks\\ Confucians\\,\\ Mohists\\.\\ They\\ are\\ so\\ silly\\,\\ they\\ go\\ on\\ and\\ on\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ saying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-with\\ regard\\ to\\ Mohists\\ with\\ their\\ clear\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\,\\ Zhuangzi\\ says\\ rational\\ calculus\\ or\\ absolute\\ distinctions\\ will\\ put\\ you\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-but\\ is\\ Zhuangzi\\ in\\ danger\\ of\\ becoming\\ a\\ relativist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Zhuangzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ for\\ judgments\\:\\ look\\ at\\ everything\\ you\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-if\\ a\\ bank\\ robber\\ is\\ robbing\\ for\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ can\\ never\\ become\\ spontaneous\\ like\\ the\\ butcher\\ because\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ following\\ Zhuangzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Try\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ resonant\\,\\ see\\ how\\ your\\ actions\\ affect\\ others\\,\\ train\\ yourself\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ resonant\\ way\\ \\(this\\ brings\\ Zhuangzi\\ closer\\ to\\ Confucius\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zhuangzi\\ vs\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ and\\ use\\ similar\\ terminology\\ in\\ places\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ are\\ grouped\\ as\\ Daoists\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ quite\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Zhuangzi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\-Daodejing\\ is\\ a\\ strategy\\ text\\:\\ in\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ all\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ the\\ Way\\,\\ whoever\\ is\\ most\\ in\\ touch\\ wins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-wants\\ the\\ Way\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ non\\-differentiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-used\\ a\\ lot\\ in\\ military\\,\\ political\\,\\ business\\ strategy\\,\\ also\\ martial\\ arts\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\,\\ very\\ strategic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-key\\ is\\ interactions\\ and\\ harmony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-more\\ influence\\ in\\ music\\,\\ religion\\,\\ resonance\\,\\ more\\ artistic\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Yet\\ note\\ how\\ similar\\ Zhuangzi\\,\\ Laozi\\,\\ and\\ Confucius\\ really\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 7\\:\\ Lecture\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 29\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\ poses\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ foundational\\ text\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ incredibly\\ influential\\ in\\ martial\\ arts\\,\\ Chinese\\ medicine\\,\\ state\\ craft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ gives\\ a\\ cosmological\\ argument\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ following\\ notion\\ that\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ translate\\ into\\ English\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Qi\\-Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ matter\\ and\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vital\\ energy\\;\\ vital\\ breathe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ energy\\ that\\ underlies\\ absolutely\\ everything\\&mdash\\;everything\\ that\\ exists\\ underlies\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\;\\ some\\ have\\ a\\ little\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ vital\\ energy\\ drives\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mundane\\ Examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\You\\ are\\ angry\\,\\ you\\ expend\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ you\\ become\\ drained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ you\\ exercise\\,\\ or\\ you\\ feel\\ exhilarated\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ sense\\,\\ you\\ feel\\ energized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ literally\\ have\\ vital\\ energy\\ in\\ you\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simply\\ put\\,\\ when\\ you\\ feel\\ energized\\ you\\ have\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ simple\\ concept\\;\\ however\\ humans\\ do\\ not\\ live\\ their\\ lives\\ by\\ these\\ guidelines\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ our\\ everyday\\ lives\\,\\ we\\ are\\ endlessly\\ draining\\ vital\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ live\\,\\ get\\ tired\\,\\ get\\ drained\\ of\\ our\\ vital\\ energy\\ and\\ DIE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\ we\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\expend\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;energy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ solve\\ this\\ problem\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ must\\ constantly\\ energize\\ ourselves\\;\\ by\\ having\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ we\\ can\\ influence\\ those\\ around\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ways\\ you\\ can\\ obtain\\ vital\\ energy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exercise\\ to\\ fill\\ yourself\\ with\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eat\\ to\\ fill\\ yourself\\ with\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;i\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breathe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ whatever\\ you\\ do\\,\\ be\\ conscious\\ of\\ the\\ vital\\ energy\\;\\ feel\\ the\\ vital\\ energy\\ in\\ your\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\If\\ one\\ does\\ this\\,\\ what\\ do\\ they\\ gain\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Do\\ this\\ and\\ everything\\ else\\ will\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Fail\\,\\ and\\ nothing\\ will\\ come\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ that\\ simple\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ do\\ this\\,\\ the\\ more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\charismatic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;you\\ will\\ become\\;\\ for\\ charisma\\ is\\ merely\\ the\\ positive\\ energy\\ you\\ release\\ into\\ your\\ environment\\ and\\ those\\ around\\ you\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ will\\ gain\\ vital\\ energy\\;\\ vital\\ energy\\ underlies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\everything\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Taoist\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ Cosmos\\:\\ Every\\ animate\\ object\\ contains\\ vital\\ energy\\;\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vital\\ essence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ everything\\ that\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ vital\\ energy\\ is\\ lost\\;\\ things\\ cease\\ to\\ live\\.\\ When\\ we\\ loose\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ we\\ die\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Literally\\ everything\\ that\\ exists\\ has\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\;\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ most\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ underlies\\ everything\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ about\\ consciousness\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ plants\\ live\\,\\ but\\ are\\ not\\ conscious\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ about\\ humans\\?\\ They\\ are\\ conscious\\,\\ but\\ not\\ that\\ conscious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vital\\ energy\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ consciousness\\ or\\ Luminosity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Numinosity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ spirit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Numinosity\\ is\\ highly\\ refined\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ our\\ power\\ over\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ being\\ human\\ means\\ having\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ unique\\ about\\ humans\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ little\\ of\\ what\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ cosmos\\:\\ Numinosity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ have\\ a\\ little\\ Numen\\ within\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animals\\ have\\ much\\ less\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dilemma\\:\\ Humans\\ have\\ vital\\ essence\\,\\ yet\\ we\\ fail\\ to\\ be\\ conscious\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ affect\\ the\\ world\\ for\\ the\\ worse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ consciousness\\ means\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ numinosity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ will\\ drain\\ us\\ of\\ our\\ vital\\ energy\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ constantly\\ energizing\\ themselves\\ will\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\numinous\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\charisma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ some\\ people\\ understand\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ while\\ others\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Some\\ people\\ have\\ more\\ vital\\ energy\\,\\ in\\ a\\ literal\\ sense\\,\\ and\\ are\\ hence\\ more\\ resonant\\ with\\ their\\ surroundings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ just\\ this\\ stuff\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ we\\ breathe\\ and\\ the\\ energy\\ that\\ we\\ feel\\,\\ determines\\ our\\ luminosity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ you\\ exercise\\,\\ you\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;something\\,\\ there\\ is\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ you\\ eat\\,\\ you\\ feel\\ energized\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acupuncture\\&mdash\\;you\\ feel\\ energy\\ in\\ the\\ spot\\ where\\ the\\ needles\\ are\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ Western\\ medicine\\ is\\ using\\ this\\ technique\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ not\\ anything\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ measured\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ word\\ in\\ Western\\ medicine\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ it\\ is\\.\\ But\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\exists\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Vital\\ energy\\ precisely\\ cuts\\ across\\ a\\ Western\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Western\\ vision\\ makes\\ a\\ clear\\ distinction\\ between\\ matter\\ and\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Energy\\ in\\ matter\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\source\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vital\\ energy\\ cuts\\ across\\ this\\ distinction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Physiologically\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ through\\ exercise\\)\\ it\\ works\\.\\ So\\ it\\ does\\ exist\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ issue\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ based\\ upon\\ Western\\ distinctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ the\\ text\\,\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ world\\ among\\ us\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Monistic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ key\\ to\\ this\\ is\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ distinction\\ between\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\,\\ spirit\\ and\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ problem\\ of\\ human\\ consciousness\\ that\\ rules\\ a\\ material\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\,\\ all\\ Western\\ philosophies\\ built\\ on\\ human\\,\\ Western\\ thought\\ are\\ mistaken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinctions\\ do\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ difference\\ between\\ us\\ and\\ the\\ spirits\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ have\\ unrefined\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ we\\ become\\ more\\ like\\ the\\ spirits\\ above\\ or\\ more\\ like\\ MUD\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Examples\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ does\\ music\\ affect\\ us\\?\\ Vital\\ energy\\ in\\ it\\ makes\\ us\\ resonate\\ with\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ can\\ we\\ be\\ charismatic\\ and\\ effect\\ others\\?\\ Vital\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ cuts\\ across\\ Western\\ thought\\ with\\ one\\ exception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quantum\\ Mechanics\\,\\ contemporary\\ physics\\ is\\ now\\ finding\\ huge\\ similarities\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ discover\\ to\\ Chinese\\,\\ vital\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Implications\\ for\\ how\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\:\\ Take\\ this\\ text\\ seriously\\ and\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ move\\ your\\ body\\ and\\ in\\ your\\ emotional\\ dispositions\\,\\ you\\ will\\ become\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\spirit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ you\\ do\\ on\\ a\\ moment\\ to\\ moment\\ basis\\ will\\ determine\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ lifetime\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inward\\ Training\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ do\\ on\\ a\\ mundane\\ level\\:\\ calming\\,\\ stilling\\,\\ exercising\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ \\(the\\ constant\\ way\\ you\\ move\\ your\\ body\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ not\\ get\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ anger\\ and\\ pettiness\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ daily\\ lives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constantly\\ be\\ exhilarated\\&mdash\\;that\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ energized\\ sensibility\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ cultivate\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ will\\ see\\ clearly\\,\\ hear\\ clearly\\,\\ sense\\ situations\\,\\ and\\ become\\ like\\ a\\ spirit\\&mdash\\;out\\ of\\ the\\ daily\\,\\ mundane\\,\\ routine\\ stuff\\ that\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ energy\\ and\\ cultivates\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ your\\ daily\\ life\\,\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ leader\\ and\\ affect\\ those\\ around\\ you\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ everything\\ you\\ do\\,\\ day\\ by\\ day\\,\\ can\\ result\\ in\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ or\\ spirits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 7\\:\\ Lecture\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 31\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ become\\ more\\ energized\\ you\\ realize\\ that\\ the\\ whole\\ cosmos\\ operates\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ recognize\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ things\\ work\\;\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eat\\ well\\,\\ exercise\\,\\ this\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ comes\\ a\\ mystical\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Translator\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ depicts\\ the\\ foundational\\ theory\\ of\\ Daoism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Although\\ we\\ think\\ Laoza\\ comes\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ for\\ this\\ text\\ does\\ not\\ include\\ the\\ original\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ text\\ propones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Removing\\ yourself\\ from\\ daily\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meditational\\ posture\\&mdash\\;meditating\\,\\ controlling\\ your\\ breathing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ texts\\ of\\ Daoism\\ have\\ a\\ common\\ view\\,\\ but\\ take\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ direction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ Daoism\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Are\\ there\\ similarities\\ in\\ these\\ texts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ example\\:\\ Laoza\\ linked\\ mystical\\ and\\ political\\ arguments\\ and\\ discusses\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ involved\\ in\\ this\\ \\(inner\\)\\ transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ link\\ between\\ these\\ texts\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ way\\ you\\ go\\ about\\ your\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ how\\ you\\ eat\\ and\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ view\\ on\\ cosmology\\&mdash\\;everything\\,\\ matter\\ and\\ energy\\,\\ is\\ linked\\.\\ Mind\\ and\\ body\\ are\\ linked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ entire\\ cosmos\\ works\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ it\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Developing\\ self\\-cultivation\\ through\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\energy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ your\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ in\\ mundane\\ rituals\\,\\ you\\ must\\ cultivate\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\,\\ remove\\ yourself\\ from\\ attachments\\ \\(anxieties\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ of\\ the\\ daily\\ world\\ and\\ revamp\\ you\\ life\\ through\\ energy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ death\\ a\\ natural\\ state\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ humans\\ drain\\ all\\ their\\ energy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ loose\\ consciousness\\ and\\ become\\ slower\\,\\ sicker\\,\\ demented\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ energy\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ heaven\\ and\\ we\\ become\\ less\\ luminous\\,\\ hence\\ less\\ spirited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ numen\\ \\(spirit\\)\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ cosmos\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\monistic\\ cosmology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ individual\\ lumens\\ we\\ have\\ are\\ one\\ single\\ NUMEN\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ evil\\ energy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ we\\ behave\\ badly\\,\\ we\\ drain\\ our\\ energy\\,\\ but\\ also\\ we\\ work\\ to\\ create\\ bad\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ drain\\ positive\\ energy\\ when\\ we\\ work\\ to\\ cultivate\\ the\\ bad\\ ones\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Cosmology\\&mdash\\;mundane\\ reality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ resonant\\,\\ good\\ energies\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ heavens\\,\\ and\\ bad\\ energies\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hence\\,\\ if\\ you\\ cultivate\\ yourself\\,\\ you\\ get\\ more\\ energized\\ in\\ a\\ refined\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ you\\ drain\\ good\\ energy\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ process\\ of\\ death\\,\\ your\\ good\\ energy\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ heavens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Is\\ this\\ text\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Way\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ Are\\ they\\ the\\ same\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ One\\ comes\\ after\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ cosmology\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ November\\ 5\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\,\\ the\\ next\\ major\\ thinker\\ in\\ the\\ Confucian\\ tradition\\ after\\ Mencius\\&mdash\\;these\\ two\\ will\\ become\\ the\\ poles\\ around\\ which\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ Confucian\\ tradition\\ \\(also\\ beyond\\ China\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Vietnam\\)\\ will\\ develop\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ 3rd\\ century\\ B\\.C\\.E\\.\\ He\\ knew\\ that\\ Confucius\\ failed\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ sphere\\.\\ Mencius\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ political\\ program\\ out\\ of\\ Confucian\\ thought\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ failed\\.\\ Daoism\\ then\\ arose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Things\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ too\\ good\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ Confucian\\ in\\ the\\ 3rd\\ century\\.\\ Confucius\\ is\\ revered\\,\\ but\\ other\\ thinkers\\ are\\ attacking\\ his\\ views\\.\\ Xunzi\\ sees\\ as\\ his\\ problem\\ the\\ following\\:\\ how\\ do\\ I\\ account\\ for\\ all\\ the\\ teachings\\ that\\ have\\ developed\\ since\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ time\\,\\ respond\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ convincing\\ argument\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ wrong\\ and\\ Confucianism\\ is\\ right\\,\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ politically\\ viable\\?\\ In\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ he\\ was\\ incredibly\\ successful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ outright\\ that\\ other\\ thinkers\\ are\\ wrong\\.\\ He\\ says\\ what\\ is\\ worth\\ listening\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ philosophies\\ that\\ he\\ opposes\\.\\ If\\ the\\ Mohists\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ gaining\\ an\\ audience\\,\\ why\\ is\\ that\\?\\&mdash\\;first\\ syncretistic\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ period\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ he\\ has\\ an\\ exceedingly\\ polemical\\ attack\\ against\\ Mencius\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ everything\\ Puett\\ has\\ just\\ mentioned\\.\\ Puett\\ will\\ start\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mencius\\ had\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ was\\ good\\,\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ like\\ seedlings\\&mdash\\;if\\ nurtured\\ properly\\,\\ will\\ grow\\ into\\ perfectly\\ moral\\ beings\\.\\ People\\ will\\ be\\ inherently\\ repulsed\\ by\\ a\\ bad\\ ruler\\.\\ Mencius\\ thus\\ developed\\ a\\ radical\\ political\\ philosophy\\ that\\ denied\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ institutions\\,\\ good\\ governance\\,\\ etc\\.\\ if\\ a\\ good\\ person\\ was\\ in\\ charge\\.\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ is\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ like\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ be\\ straight\\.\\ Rituals\\,\\ laws\\,\\ institutions\\&mdash\\;all\\ strong\\ forms\\ of\\ centralized\\ governance\\&mdash\\;make\\ people\\ good\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ criticizes\\ the\\ Mohists\\ for\\ thinking\\ that\\ Heaven\\ was\\ a\\ moral\\ force\\ \\(Mencius\\ thought\\ that\\ too\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ saw\\ Heaven\\ as\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\)\\&mdash\\;Heaven\\ created\\ the\\ cosmos\\,\\ and\\ along\\ with\\ Heaven\\ ghosts\\ and\\ spirits\\ help\\ regulate\\ it\\.\\ Xunzi\\ says\\ Heaven\\ is\\ just\\ natural\\ processes\\,\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ moral\\ at\\ all\\.\\ Therefore\\ all\\ of\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ Mozi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\ falls\\ apart\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sound\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ incorporate\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ positions\\,\\ but\\ Puett\\ says\\ he\\ is\\.\\ Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ change\\ of\\ seasons\\;\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ send\\ down\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\.\\ Human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ become\\ good\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ become\\ good\\?\\ Ritual\\,\\ laws\\,\\ institutions\\.\\ All\\ these\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ sages\\ \\(who\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ as\\ Xunzi\\ would\\ admit\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ contradiction\\ here\\:\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ straighten\\ ourselves\\,\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ make\\ us\\ straight\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ sages\\,\\ who\\ are\\ humans\\ who\\ trained\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ and\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ model\\ from\\ Heaven\\,\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\.\\ How\\ did\\ they\\ train\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ says\\ the\\ sages\\ used\\ the\\ faculties\\ they\\ had\\ from\\ birth\\ to\\ look\\ around\\ themselves\\,\\ see\\ the\\ problems\\ in\\ how\\ humans\\ behaved\\,\\ and\\ begin\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ training\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ creating\\ different\\ rituals\\ that\\ would\\ help\\ direct\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ selfish\\ desires\\ and\\ thus\\ start\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ becoming\\ good\\.\\ How\\ did\\ they\\ train\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ if\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ crooked\\?\\ Well\\,\\ humans\\ have\\ things\\ other\\ than\\ human\\ nature\\&mdash\\;faculties\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ properly\\ to\\ better\\ ourselves\\.\\ They\\ are\\ natural\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ they\\ are\\ from\\ Heaven\\.\\ What\\ is\\ Xunzi\\ up\\ to\\?\\ It\\ sounds\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ like\\ Mencius\\ than\\ it\\ at\\ first\\ seemed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ Mohists\\ did\\ accurately\\ see\\ problems\\ with\\ Confucius\\;\\ the\\ Daoists\\ did\\ correctly\\ see\\ problems\\ with\\ Mencius\\.\\ He\\ thinks\\ the\\ Mohists\\ are\\ on\\ to\\ something\\,\\ in\\ creating\\ an\\ institutional\\ order\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ clear\\ promotion\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ merit\\.\\ It\\ undercuts\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ political\\ power\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ birth\\.\\ The\\ Mohists\\ and\\ Mencius\\ build\\ an\\ entire\\ philosophical\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ moral\\ force\\&mdash\\;Confucius\\ was\\ agnostic\\ on\\ that\\ subject\\.\\ The\\ Daoists\\ critiqued\\ the\\ Mohist\\/Mencius\\ position\\.\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ all\\ the\\ critiques\\ are\\ correct\\.\\ He\\ attacks\\ each\\ figure\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ ones\\ have\\ attacked\\ him\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ we\\ accept\\ all\\ these\\ critiques\\,\\ do\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ base\\ from\\ which\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ entire\\ philosophical\\ vision\\?\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ yes\\,\\ and\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ incorporate\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ Daoists\\ as\\ well\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ philosophy\\ he\\ offers\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ these\\ accepted\\ critiques\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ that\\ is\\ potentially\\ moral\\ and\\ ordered\\,\\ in\\ which\\ humans\\ behave\\ well\\ towards\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ work\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ live\\,\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ construct\\.\\ Heaven\\ is\\ not\\ creating\\ it\\ for\\ us\\ or\\ guiding\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ If\\ humans\\ have\\ selfish\\ desires\\ in\\ their\\ nature\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ that\\ into\\ account\\ in\\ the\\ project\\ of\\ building\\ a\\ moral\\ order\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ too\\ idealistic\\.\\ We\\ have\\ to\\ help\\ humans\\ to\\ become\\ better\\ but\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ how\\ many\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ that\\ unless\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ \\(made\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\,\\ or\\ at\\ the\\ minimum\\ orderly\\)\\.\\ Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ project\\.\\ Morality\\,\\ ethics\\,\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ artificial\\.\\ Sages\\ created\\ the\\ tradition\\ that\\ we\\ know\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ purely\\ artificial\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ that\\ anything\\ goes\\.\\ There\\ are\\ limited\\ sorts\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ work\\ based\\ on\\ nature\\ in\\ the\\ large\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ and\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ processes\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ are\\ an\\ extreme\\ limit\\ on\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ do\\.\\ Human\\ nature\\ is\\ more\\ pliable\\,\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ base\\ humans\\ are\\ very\\ selfish\\ creatures\\,\\ and\\ any\\ artificial\\ world\\ we\\ create\\ must\\ take\\ that\\ into\\ account\\.\\ We\\ have\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ ritual\\ order\\ that\\ not\\ only\\ channels\\ human\\ desires\\,\\ but\\ controls\\ them\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ become\\ moral\\ human\\ beings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rely\\ on\\ rituals\\ alone\\ or\\ assume\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ be\\ naturally\\ drawn\\ to\\ a\\ moral\\ ruler\\,\\ and\\ since\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ the\\ Mohists\\ are\\ correct\\ in\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ institutions\\.\\ Those\\ institutions\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ people\\ good\\,\\ but\\ they\\ will\\ maintain\\ order\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ selfish\\ creatures\\.\\ Centralized\\ institutions\\ create\\ bureaucracies\\ and\\ laws\\ and\\ absolute\\ standards\\ that\\ threaten\\ the\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ of\\ self\\-cultivation\\,\\ but\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ we\\ need\\ them\\ anyway\\.\\ Xunzi\\ pushes\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ alone\\ as\\ the\\ creators\\ of\\ our\\ world\\ while\\ incorporating\\ self\\-cultivation\\,\\ Mohist\\ visions\\ of\\ governance\\,\\ and\\ Daoist\\ visions\\ of\\ the\\ spontaneous\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ human\\ beings\\ properly\\ construct\\ this\\ artificial\\ world\\,\\ and\\ what\\ happens\\ if\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\?\\ We\\ end\\ up\\ destroying\\ not\\ only\\ each\\ other\\,\\ but\\ everything\\.\\ Are\\ fish\\ or\\ deer\\ or\\ birds\\ going\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ orderly\\ world\\?\\ The\\ world\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ it\\.\\ The\\ stakes\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\,\\ will\\ we\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ each\\ other\\?\\ They\\ are\\,\\ will\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ orderly\\ world\\?\\ It\\ means\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ cosmic\\ function\\.\\ The\\ world\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ b\\/c\\ otherwise\\ we\\ will\\ destroy\\ it\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ human\\ project\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ charge\\ upon\\ which\\ everything\\ depends\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ philosophies\\ find\\ ways\\ to\\ weasel\\ out\\ of\\ forcing\\ humans\\ to\\ recognize\\ what\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ do\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ too\\ easy\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ Heaven\\ will\\ tell\\ us\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ or\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ follow\\ natural\\ processes\\ or\\ that\\ we\\ just\\ have\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ bureaucratic\\ order\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 78\\:\\ November\\ 7\\,\\ 2007\\ Lecture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ will\\ be\\ order\\ only\\ if\\ humans\\ act\\ properly\\.\\ If\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ raising\\ the\\ stakes\\ enough\\,\\ Xunzi\\ raises\\ them\\ more\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ historical\\ context\\.\\ He\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ age\\ than\\ Confucius\\,\\ for\\ whom\\ the\\ key\\ was\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ ritual\\ system\\ which\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ pretty\\ much\\ works\\.\\ In\\ the\\ intervening\\ two\\ centuries\\,\\ things\\ have\\ changed\\.\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ world\\:\\ enfeoffed\\ rulers\\ were\\ not\\ really\\ paying\\ enough\\ tribute\\ to\\ the\\ Zhou\\ king\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ still\\ pretty\\ much\\ in\\ charge\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ world\\:\\ these\\ rulers\\ were\\ creating\\ de\\ facto\\ autonomous\\ states\\,\\ arming\\ themselves\\ for\\ war\\,\\ building\\ centralized\\ states\\.\\ In\\ such\\ a\\ world\\,\\ talking\\ about\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ rituals\\ of\\ the\\ Zhou\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ workable\\ option\\.\\ From\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perspective\\,\\ the\\ Mencian\\ solution\\ is\\ potentially\\ worse\\ \\(b\\/c\\ it\\ downplays\\ ritual\\ and\\ emphasizes\\ human\\ nature\\)\\.\\ Of\\ course\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ follow\\ you\\ if\\ you\\ say\\ \\(as\\ Mencius\\ does\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;forget\\ about\\ the\\ military\\,\\ forget\\ about\\ institutions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ create\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ new\\ order\\ in\\ general\\,\\ but\\ new\\ orders\\ as\\ times\\ change\\.\\ We\\ need\\ more\\ sages\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ ongoing\\ project\\,\\ continuing\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ creating\\ order\\ that\\ the\\ sages\\ did\\ in\\ antiquity\\.\\ We\\ must\\ endlessly\\ train\\ ourselves\\ in\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ we\\ become\\ sages\\.\\ The\\ previous\\ Confucians\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ this\\ seriously\\ enough\\.\\ If\\ we\\ must\\ become\\ sages\\,\\ how\\ does\\ this\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ humans\\ as\\ being\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ ancient\\ sages\\ create\\ rituals\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\ They\\ were\\ humans\\,\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ precedents\\ telling\\ them\\ what\\ to\\ do\\.\\ Analogy\\ of\\ craftsmanship\\:\\ they\\ did\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ a\\ potter\\ does\\ when\\ he\\ makes\\ pottery\\,\\ but\\ not\\ when\\ he\\ first\\ invented\\ ceramics\\.\\ The\\ potter\\ has\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ clay\\ and\\ needs\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ store\\ water\\ and\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ moved\\ around\\.\\ He\\ needs\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ solution\\ and\\ train\\ himself\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ problem\\ accurately\\ and\\ work\\ with\\ the\\ clay\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ pot\\ with\\ handles\\.\\ Once\\ he\\ has\\ seen\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ he\\ naturally\\ generates\\ a\\ pot\\ through\\ his\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ clay\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Xunzi\\,\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ sage\\ does\\ in\\ antiquity\\ or\\ now\\ when\\ he\\ creates\\ new\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ ethical\\ problems\\ is\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ potter\\ does\\ with\\ clay\\.\\ The\\ analogy\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ dispositions\\,\\ inclinations\\,\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ them\\,\\ we\\ interact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ certain\\ ways\\,\\ usually\\ badly\\.\\ We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ like\\ clay\\,\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ faculties\\/qualities\\.\\ A\\ sage\\ trains\\ himself\\ to\\ see\\ those\\ qualities\\ and\\ the\\ dispositions\\ of\\ humans\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ humans\\ fall\\ into\\ and\\ work\\ out\\ better\\ ways\\ for\\ humans\\ to\\ start\\ responding\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ natural\\ dispositions\\ and\\ inclinations\\.\\ Rituals\\ are\\ not\\ arbitrary\\ conventions\\,\\ but\\ constructs\\ based\\ on\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ basic\\ types\\ of\\ solutions\\ that\\ will\\ channel\\ dispositions\\ in\\ better\\ ways\\.\\ Comparative\\ anthropology\\:\\ in\\ every\\ Neolithic\\ tradition\\,\\ every\\ time\\ a\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ settle\\ down\\ and\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ consequent\\ problems\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ how\\ to\\ transport\\ water\\ and\\ grains\\,\\ they\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ solution\\:\\ pottery\\.\\ They\\ faced\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\,\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ same\\ stuff\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ them\\ \\(mud\\/clay\\)\\,\\ and\\ they\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ solution\\.\\ Xunzi\\ thinks\\ when\\ humans\\ face\\ similar\\ problems\\,\\ they\\ will\\ deal\\ with\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ basic\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xunzi\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ rituals\\ in\\ various\\ cultures\\ are\\ not\\ that\\ different\\:\\ marriage\\,\\ renewal\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ The\\ specifics\\ will\\ be\\ different\\,\\ but\\ they\\ all\\ work\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ channel\\ human\\ dispositions\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ make\\ people\\ better\\.\\ Xunzi\\ would\\ say\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\.\\ History\\ proves\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ how\\ things\\ happen\\.\\ We\\ just\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\ very\\ well\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ If\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ born\\ into\\ ritual\\ orders\\ that\\ are\\ aimed\\ at\\ making\\ us\\ better\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ better\\ or\\ see\\ that\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ rituals\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ that\\?\\ Exactly\\ as\\ the\\ potter\\ with\\ the\\ pot\\.\\ People\\ are\\ favored\\ to\\ do\\ it\\.\\ If\\ things\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\ well\\,\\ we\\ created\\ that\\ situation\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ solve\\ it\\.\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ train\\ people\\ to\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ bureaucratic\\ institutions\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ follow\\ Mencius\\ and\\ say\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\,\\ we\\ should\\ create\\ a\\ bureaucracy\\ composed\\ of\\ people\\ striving\\ to\\ be\\ sages\\.\\ This\\ actually\\ came\\ into\\ fruition\\:\\ civil\\ service\\ examination\\,\\ open\\ to\\ anyone\\,\\ that\\ tests\\ not\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ your\\ ability\\ to\\ confront\\ and\\ deal\\ with\\ problems\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ use\\ institutions\\ in\\ non\\-selfish\\ ways\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ this\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ humans\\ as\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\?\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ polemical\\ opposition\\ to\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ overly\\ generous\\ view\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ b\\/c\\ ultimately\\ it\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ people\\ would\\ not\\ actually\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ problems\\.\\ Politically\\,\\ Mencius\\ did\\ not\\ really\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ problems\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ parts\\ of\\ ourselves\\,\\ our\\ selfish\\ desires\\,\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ controlled\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\,\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ surrounded\\ by\\ people\\ simply\\ operating\\ out\\ of\\ personal\\ self\\-interest\\.\\ The\\ flip\\ side\\ of\\ that\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ yes\\,\\ we\\ have\\ these\\ selfish\\ desires\\,\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ inclinations\\ and\\ dispositions\\ and\\ faculties\\ that\\ enable\\ us\\ to\\ control\\ those\\ desires\\ and\\ to\\ become\\ sages\\ and\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ those\\ problems\\.\\ It\\ is\\ our\\ cosmic\\ necessity\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ cosmos\\ \\(Heaven\\ and\\ Earth\\)\\ need\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ If\\ we\\ fail\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ we\\ destroy\\ everything\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ a\\ powerfully\\ optimistic\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORE\\ WEEK\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\ for\\ 11\\-5\\-2007\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ and\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ become\\ two\\ poles\\ around\\ which\\ remainder\\ of\\ Confucian\\ tradition\\ develops\\:\\ From\\ now\\ on\\,\\ figures\\ define\\ themselves\\ as\\ either\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Mencian\\ line\\ or\\ the\\ Xunzi\\ line\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historical\\ context\\:\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\&mdash\\;Confucius\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ is\\ revered\\ but\\ politically\\ irrelevant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ thinks\\ Confucius\\ failed\\ in\\ making\\ a\\ political\\ program\\ as\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ politically\\ effective\\ figure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Philosophical\\ precedence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ tries\\ to\\ take\\ Confucian\\ ideas\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ politically\\ viable\\ \\&ndash\\;but\\ he\\ failed\\;\\ rulers\\ did\\ not\\ really\\ listen\\ to\\ him\\,\\ even\\ though\\ one\\ ruler\\ gave\\ him\\ a\\ significant\\ political\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dao\\ De\\ Jing\\,\\ Zhuang\\ Ze\\,\\ Inward\\ Training\\:\\ give\\ a\\ different\\ philosophical\\ approach\\ than\\ Confucianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\:\\ 1\\)\\ respond\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rsquo\\;\\ critics\\ effectively\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ Make\\ Confucianism\\ a\\ politically\\ viable\\ force\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ has\\ the\\ first\\ synchronistic\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ period\\ that\\ draws\\ from\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ elements\\ we\\ have\\ heard\\ of\\ so\\ far\\ \\(even\\ incorporates\\ Mohists\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attack\\ on\\ Mencius\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mencius\\ thinks\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ good\\&mdash\\;nurture\\ the\\ sprout\\ of\\ goodness\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ sage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ can\\ overthrow\\ a\\ bad\\ ruler\\ b\\/c\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ repulsed\\ by\\ bad\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ inherently\\ drawn\\ to\\ those\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ naturally\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Develops\\ entire\\ political\\ philosophy\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ institutions\\ or\\ strong\\ forms\\ of\\ governance\\&mdash\\;simply\\ focus\\ on\\ nurturing\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heaven\\ gives\\ us\\ the\\ nature\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ which\\ makes\\ us\\ overthrow\\ bad\\ rulers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\:\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ we\\ are\\ selfish\\ creatures\\ driven\\ by\\ selfish\\ desires\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ seed\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ nurtured\\ into\\ something\\ good\\&mdash\\;humans\\ are\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\External\\ forces\\ like\\ rituals\\,\\ laws\\,\\ institutions\\,\\ strong\\ centralized\\ government\\ are\\ only\\ ways\\ to\\ force\\ population\\ into\\ being\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ critique\\:\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ idea\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ overthrowing\\ rulers\\ left\\ and\\ right\\,\\ without\\ any\\ structure\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ wrong\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Response\\ to\\ Mohists\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mohists\\:\\ Heaven\\ is\\ good\\;\\ Heaven\\,\\ ghosts\\,\\ and\\ spirits\\ all\\ regulate\\ the\\ world\\;\\ by\\ recreating\\ the\\ system\\,\\ we\\ can\\ continue\\ to\\ reward\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ punish\\ the\\ bad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\:\\ Heaven\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\;\\ Heaven\\ is\\ simply\\ natural\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seasons\\ just\\ change\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ good\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ bad\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ spontaneous\\ working\\ of\\ natural\\ world\\ and\\ natural\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ all\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ create\\ strong\\ forms\\ of\\ centralized\\ governance\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ good\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ act\\ against\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Going\\ against\\ Heaven\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ b\\/c\\ heaven\\ is\\ just\\ changes\\ in\\ natural\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\ main\\ points\\ thus\\ far\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\&mdash\\;doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ send\\ rewards\\ or\\ punishments\\ to\\ humans\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ become\\ good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ does\\ goodness\\ come\\ from\\ then\\?\\ Goodness\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ sages\\:\\ sages\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\ who\\ have\\ trained\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ really\\ awesome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ admits\\ we\\ need\\ more\\ people\\ like\\ this\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ continue\\ improving\\ humanity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contradiction\\:\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ bad\\;\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ straighten\\ ourselves\\;\\ sages\\ make\\ us\\ straight\\;\\ sages\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\ who\\ have\\ trained\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ good\\;\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ model\\ selves\\ on\\ heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Ancient\\ Period\\:\\ sages\\ used\\ faculties\\ they\\ had\\ from\\ birth\\ to\\ look\\ around\\ themselves\\,\\ see\\ how\\ humans\\ behaved\\,\\ problems\\ in\\ that\\,\\ and\\ then\\ train\\ selves\\ through\\ good\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ change\\ themselves\\,\\ then\\ how\\ did\\ sages\\ do\\ it\\?\\ B\\/c\\ human\\ nature\\ might\\ be\\ like\\ \\ \\;crooked\\ wood\\ but\\ human\\ beings\\ have\\ other\\ faculties\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ use\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Look\\ at\\ forms\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\,\\ then\\ create\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ behaving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ all\\ the\\ dramatic\\ polemic\\ against\\ Mencius\\,\\ this\\ starts\\ to\\ sound\\ like\\ Mencius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ faculty\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ to\\ train\\ selves\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ human\\ beings\\;\\ these\\ faculties\\ are\\ natural\\,\\ and\\ since\\ heaven\\ is\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ these\\ faculties\\ are\\ also\\ from\\ heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\ believes\\ Mohists\\,\\ Daoists\\ \\ \\;accurately\\ saw\\ problems\\ with\\ Confucius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ Mohists\\ had\\ seen\\ Mencius\\,\\ they\\ were\\ right\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ were\\ attacking\\ Mencius\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Follow\\ Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ view\\,\\ you\\ are\\ telling\\ rulers\\ that\\ laws\\ are\\ not\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\:\\ if\\ you\\ take\\ out\\ laws\\,\\ you\\ create\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ current\\ power\\ structures\\ continue\\&mdash\\;so\\ Mencius\\ was\\ totally\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Daoist\\ critique\\ is\\ correct\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophical\\ position\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ we\\ grant\\ all\\ the\\ critiques\\ just\\ mentioned\\,\\ we\\ now\\ have\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Build\\ up\\ a\\ full\\ system\\ that\\ accounts\\ for\\ everything\\ good\\ in\\ those\\ other\\ philosophies\\ and\\ responds\\ to\\ criticisms\\ of\\ the\\ bad\\ parts\\ of\\ Confucianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maintains\\ emphasis\\ on\\ self\\-cultivation\\ through\\ ritual\\ practice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Heaven\\ is\\ not\\ guiding\\ us\\ in\\ any\\ way\\&mdash\\;we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ base\\ our\\ actions\\ on\\ claims\\ of\\ Heaven\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ humans\\ have\\ selfish\\ desires\\,\\ must\\ take\\ them\\ into\\ account\\ in\\ attempts\\ to\\ improve\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Must\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ limitations\\&mdash\\;people\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ orderly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Go\\ back\\ to\\ basic\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\human\\ project\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ world\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\&mdash\\;everything\\ comes\\ down\\ to\\ this\\ for\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ process\\ of\\ building\\ up\\ a\\ tradition\\ of\\ refining\\ what\\ came\\ before\\ \\(better\\ rituals\\,\\ better\\ political\\ systems\\)\\ involve\\ human\\ beings\\ looking\\ around\\,\\ seeing\\ problems\\,\\ developing\\ something\\ better\\,\\ and\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ millennium\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ moral\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ world\\ is\\ purely\\ artificial\\,\\ humans\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ construct\\ any\\ order\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ b\\/c\\ limits\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ world\\ and\\ human\\ nature\\ impose\\ limits\\&mdash\\;we\\ must\\ live\\ within\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\/c\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;\\ t\\ rely\\ on\\ ritual\\ alone\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ assume\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ drawn\\ towards\\ good\\ rulers\\;\\ therefore\\ Mohists\\ are\\ correct\\ in\\ saying\\ we\\ need\\ institutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institutions\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ people\\ good\\ or\\ moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Selfishness\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ drives\\ need\\ for\\ order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ pushes\\ to\\ an\\ extraordinary\\ degree\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ alone\\ as\\ the\\ creators\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ we\\ live\\ in\\,\\ and\\ doing\\ so\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ builds\\ upon\\ all\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ Confucius\\,\\ while\\ incorporating\\ Mohist\\ visions\\ of\\ governance\\,\\ and\\ Daoist\\ visions\\ of\\ the\\ spontaneous\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ exist\\ is\\ artificial\\,\\ if\\ human\\ world\\ is\\ a\\ construct\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ if\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ morals\\ and\\ systems\\ of\\ government\\ are\\ not\\ given\\ to\\ us\\ by\\ higher\\ powers\\,\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ construct\\ this\\ artificial\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Xunzi\\ continues\\&mdash\\;what\\ happens\\ if\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ construct\\ this\\ artificial\\ world\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\,\\ then\\ who\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ orderly\\ world\\?\\ The\\ world\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ kill\\ ourselves\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ too\\;\\ order\\ will\\ never\\ exist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cosmos\\ needs\\ us\\ to\\ construct\\ an\\ artificial\\ world\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ human\\ project\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ human\\ project\\ that\\ everything\\ depends\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ of\\ most\\ philosophies\\ of\\ this\\ period\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ find\\ ways\\ to\\ weasel\\ out\\ of\\ forcing\\ humans\\ to\\ recognize\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ do\\&mdash\\;they\\ call\\ on\\ heaven\\ or\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ build\\ the\\ world\\ on\\ the\\ understanding\\ that\\ whatever\\ we\\ do\\ must\\ be\\ changed\\ b\\/c\\ world\\ changes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\-7\\-2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Confucius\\ stated\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ ritual\\ system\\:\\ Xunzi\\ agrees\\ with\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ rituals\\ but\\ notes\\ that\\ in\\ two\\ centuries\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ changed\\ dramatically\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Xunzi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\,\\ kingdoms\\ constantly\\ vied\\ for\\ order\\&mdash\\;autonomous\\ rulers\\ of\\ centralized\\ states\\ at\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zhou\\ rituals\\ for\\ becoming\\ good\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ realistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Times\\ have\\ changed\\ since\\ then\\&mdash\\;we\\ need\\ to\\ invent\\ new\\ things\\ too\\,\\ so\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ invent\\ new\\ sages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ we\\ must\\ endlessly\\ train\\ ourselves\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ become\\ sages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\.e\\.\\,\\ previous\\ Confucians\\ have\\ not\\ faced\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ full\\ difficulty\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ this\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ humans\\ being\\ crooked\\ piece\\ of\\ wood\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ and\\ must\\ become\\ sages\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ ancient\\ sages\\ create\\ rituals\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\ Ancient\\ sages\\ were\\ humans\\ w\\/o\\ instructions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ analogies\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ \\(Zhuang\\ Zi\\)\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\;\\ these\\ examples\\ are\\ craftsmen\\&mdash\\;example\\,\\ potter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ potter\\ has\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ clay\\ and\\ a\\ problem\\:\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ store\\ water\\ and\\ can\\ move\\ water\\ around\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Facing\\ that\\ problem\\ and\\ with\\ his\\ given\\ resources\\ \\(clay\\)\\ he\\ comes\\ up\\ w\\/\\ a\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\?\\ By\\ training\\ himself\\&mdash\\;accurately\\ sees\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ accurately\\ sees\\ stuff\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ \\(clay\\)\\,\\ then\\ works\\ with\\ clay\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ pot\\ that\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ process\\ is\\ one\\ where\\ he\\ trains\\ himself\\ and\\ then\\ naturally\\ generates\\ a\\ pot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ apply\\ this\\ example\\?\\ The\\ way\\ sages\\ dealt\\ with\\ ethical\\ problems\\ is\\ literally\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ potter\\ does\\ with\\ pieces\\ of\\ clay\\;\\ analogy\\:\\ we\\ human\\ beings\\ have\\ dispositions\\ and\\ desires\\ and\\ inclinations\\;\\ because\\ of\\ that\\,\\ we\\ interact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ certain\\ ways\\&mdash\\;usually\\ pretty\\ badly\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ not\\ purely\\ badly\\&mdash\\;despite\\ our\\ selfish\\ desires\\ that\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ be\\ good\\,\\ we\\ also\\ have\\ other\\ faculties\\ that\\ are\\ equally\\ human\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ are\\ like\\ clay\\&mdash\\;we\\ have\\ other\\ qualities\\;\\ sages\\ train\\ themselves\\ to\\ see\\ those\\ qualities\\,\\ see\\ the\\ dispositions\\ of\\ humans\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ foundations\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ understanding\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ humans\\ fall\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ they\\ do\\ this\\,\\ they\\ are\\ creating\\ rituals\\&mdash\\;it\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ convention\\,\\ but\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ actual\\ dispositions\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ sages\\ did\\ in\\ antiquity\\,\\ and\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ now\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defense\\ of\\ first\\ point\\ of\\ Xun\\ Zi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ in\\ historical\\ retrospect\\,\\ we\\ defend\\ him\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concrete\\ examples\\ from\\ comparative\\ anthropology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pottery\\:\\ in\\ every\\ Neolithic\\ tradition\\ in\\ every\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ every\\ time\\ a\\ human\\ community\\ settles\\ down\\ they\\ face\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ grain\\,\\ how\\ to\\ move\\ water\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ community\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ same\\ solutions\\&mdash\\;came\\ up\\ w\\/\\ identical\\ pots\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Xun\\ Zi\\ would\\ say\\ of\\ course\\ they\\ did\\ this\\!\\ They\\ had\\ same\\ problem\\ and\\ same\\ resources\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\,\\ human\\ being\\ deals\\ with\\ problem\\ in\\ same\\ basic\\ way\\;\\ that\\ this\\ occurred\\ w\\/o\\ exception\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ human\\ history\\ shows\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ on\\ to\\ something\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ a\\/b\\ ritual\\?\\ If\\ we\\ tend\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ all\\ rituals\\ in\\ cultures\\ are\\ radically\\ different\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ wrong\\&mdash\\;they\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everywhere\\,\\ humans\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ and\\ invented\\ the\\ same\\ rituals\\ \\(marriage\\,\\ funeral\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ rituals\\ channel\\ human\\ disposition\\ into\\ ways\\ that\\ make\\ us\\ better\\ human\\ beings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ around\\ and\\ see\\ that\\ some\\ rituals\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ working\\&mdash\\;either\\ b\\/c\\ rituals\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\ or\\ b\\/c\\ times\\ have\\ changed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ ancient\\ sages\\ did\\&mdash\\;create\\ new\\ rituals\\,\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ interacting\\,\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ becoming\\ better\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\?\\ Like\\ the\\ potter\\.\\ Train\\ ourselves\\ to\\ see\\ why\\ we\\ treat\\ each\\ other\\ badly\\,\\ train\\ ourselves\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ our\\ actions\\ better\\,\\ train\\ ourselves\\ to\\ be\\ ever\\ better\\ in\\ affecting\\ others\\ for\\ the\\ better\\,\\ responding\\ to\\ situations\\,\\ ever\\ better\\ at\\ affecting\\ others\\ for\\ the\\ better\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ an\\ ordered\\ system\\?\\ There\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ options\\&mdash\\;classlessness\\,\\ strict\\ class\\ system\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;hard\\ to\\ lay\\ out\\ a\\ single\\ system\\ and\\ solving\\ one\\ problem\\ could\\ start\\ another\\ problem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ instead\\ of\\ instituting\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ system\\,\\ what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ instead\\ is\\ to\\ hone\\ ability\\ to\\ identify\\ and\\ solve\\ problems\\;\\ Xun\\ Zi\\ would\\ probably\\ advocate\\ having\\ many\\ systems\\&mdash\\;a\\ single\\ sage\\ is\\ great\\,\\ but\\ to\\ have\\ many\\ sages\\ is\\ better\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ being\\ as\\ crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ forced\\ into\\ being\\ straight\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ in\\ explicit\\ polemical\\ opposition\\ to\\ Mencius\\&mdash\\;Mencius\\&rsquo\\;\\ view\\ was\\ way\\ too\\ generous\\ b\\/c\\ this\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ people\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ face\\ up\\ truly\\ to\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ being\\ moral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crooked\\ pieces\\ of\\ wood\\ is\\ key\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ parts\\ of\\ ourselves\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ controlled\\ and\\ straightened\\;\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ likely\\ that\\ most\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\ will\\ be\\ controlled\\ by\\ people\\ operating\\ in\\ and\\ through\\ systems\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ flip\\ side\\ of\\ this\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ is\\ the\\ upside\\,\\ optimistic\\ view\\&mdash\\;yeah\\ we\\ have\\ these\\ desires\\ and\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ dominated\\ by\\ selfish\\ people\\;\\ but\\ the\\ flipside\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ inclinations\\ and\\ faculties\\ that\\ can\\ control\\ these\\ selfish\\ desires\\ and\\ also\\ enable\\ to\\ truly\\ become\\ sages\\&mdash\\;truly\\ face\\ up\\ to\\ problems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Lecture\\ Notes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Book\\ of\\ Lord\\ Shang\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\eventually\\ became\\ legalism\\:\\ new\\ theory\\ of\\ statecraft\\ \\(no\\ need\\ for\\ morality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vision\\ for\\ how\\ to\\ organize\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\book\\ written\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ BCE\\ \\(Lord\\ Shang\\ lived\\ in\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ BCE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\philosophical\\ argument\\ why\\ Lord\\ Shang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ were\\ proper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lived\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\ \\=\\ far\\ West\\ of\\ China\\,\\ off\\ on\\ fringes\\,\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ removed\\ from\\ intellectual\\ discourse\\ and\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;made\\ minister\\ of\\ Qin\\:\\ reform\\ to\\ make\\ Qin\\ most\\ powerful\\ state\\ and\\ bring\\ order\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ China\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\other\\ states\\ in\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ BCE\\ wondered\\ whether\\ they\\ should\\ try\\ to\\ stop\\ Qin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strategy\\ or\\ use\\ the\\ strategy\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\philosophy\\ defined\\ as\\ theory\\ of\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ matters\\ is\\ building\\ a\\ powerful\\,\\ orderly\\ state\\:\\ create\\ institutions\\ \\(not\\ to\\ convince\\ people\\ to\\ strive\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\ most\\ important\\ goals\\:\\ agriculture\\ and\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\related\\ b\\/c\\ agriculture\\ \\=\\ grow\\ food\\ \\=\\ state\\ should\\ run\\ agriculture\\ and\\ calculate\\ maximum\\ yields\\ from\\ each\\ region\\,\\ how\\ to\\ move\\ excess\\ around\\ \\=\\ create\\ tremendous\\ surpluses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\know\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ needed\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ fields\\ \\=\\ know\\ how\\ many\\ you\\ can\\ spare\\ to\\ put\\ in\\ factories\\ and\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ then\\ take\\ over\\ new\\ lands\\ \\=\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ powerful\\ military\\ juggernaut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ create\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\strong\\,\\ centralized\\ state\\ to\\ run\\ everything\\:\\ need\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\train\\ skilled\\ bureaucrats\\,\\ not\\ moral\\ people\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ morality\\ for\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\create\\ absolute\\ standards\\ and\\ laws\\;\\ reward\\ by\\ promotion\\,\\ punish\\ harshly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mohists\\ wrong\\ b\\/c\\ worked\\ for\\ good\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\purpose\\ \\=\\ build\\ a\\ powerful\\ state\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ why\\ order\\ will\\ be\\ good\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\institutions\\ are\\ amoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anyone\\ promoted\\ by\\ system\\ will\\ have\\ allegiance\\ to\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ train\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ moral\\:\\ moral\\ autonomy\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ question\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ act\\ for\\ state\\ \\=\\ punished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;do\\ X\\ and\\ be\\ rewarded\\ or\\ do\\ Y\\ and\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ punished\\ beyond\\ what\\ you\\ can\\ even\\ imagine\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\scare\\ people\\ into\\ following\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\ of\\ reforms\\:\\ state\\ controlled\\ movement\\ of\\ agriculture\\ between\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Many\\ other\\ states\\ adopt\\ legalist\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\text\\ argues\\ that\\ Lord\\ Shang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\221\\ BCE\\ Qin\\ takes\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ state\\ of\\ China\\ \\=\\ beginning\\ of\\ Qin\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\causes\\ other\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ practical\\ details\\ like\\ how\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\face\\ practical\\ problem\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ w\\/an\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ worked\\ with\\ Xunzi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Does\\ a\\ ruler\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ people\\ need\\ \\=\\ Han\\ Feizi\\:\\ No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalism\\ needed\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ step\\,\\ to\\ build\\ support\\ and\\ make\\ institutions\\ operate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ need\\ to\\ truly\\ understand\\ how\\ power\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lord\\ Shang\\ only\\ understood\\ institutions\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ how\\ they\\ worked\\ or\\ how\\ rulers\\ should\\ use\\ these\\ institutions\\ to\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ someone\\ did\\ understood\\ what\\ power\\ was\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Laozi\\ in\\ the\\ Daodejing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Really\\ knew\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ power\\,\\ and\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ how\\ to\\ cloak\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TO\\ point\\ where\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ realize\\ to\\ what\\ point\\ power\\ is\\ being\\ used\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\And\\ build\\ upon\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ power\\ that\\ worked\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ take\\ new\\ step\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ take\\ steps\\ to\\ truly\\,\\ truly\\ good\\ system\\ that\\ really\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ link\\ legal\\ system\\ with\\ Daodejing\\,\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ it\\ lead\\ to\\ better\\,\\ more\\ effective\\ system\\ of\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalist\\ have\\ right\\ vision\\ of\\ institutions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ awarded\\/punished\\ on\\ whether\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ \\(deterred\\ by\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ could\\ do\\ all\\ this\\ and\\ still\\ have\\ a\\ failed\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ will\\ see\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ military\\ state\\,\\ but\\ for\\ same\\ reason\\:\\ some\\ will\\ support\\,\\ some\\ oppose\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ because\\ see\\ themselves\\ under\\ powerful\\ state\\ \\(people\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ generally\\ like\\ that\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ Daodejing\\ discussed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recall\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Have\\ people\\ controlled\\ by\\ rules\\ and\\ laws\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ them\\ know\\ what\\ they\\ are\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ let\\ \\ \\;them\\ know\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ under\\ rules\\/laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\ them\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ spontaneous\\,\\ but\\ in\\ fact\\ controlled\\ by\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organize\\ system\\ but\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ a\\ military\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Create\\ Daoist\\ Utopia\\ where\\ everyone\\ is\\ following\\ spontaneous\\ way\\,\\ but\\ in\\ fact\\ are\\ simply\\ doing\\ what\\ are\\ being\\ told\\ to\\ do\\ by\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ be\\ begin\\ with\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ institutions\\,\\ but\\ what\\ really\\ need\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ is\\ the\\ ruler\\:\\ understands\\ institutions\\ and\\ let\\ them\\ work\\ without\\ people\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ controlled\\ by\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turn\\ focus\\ to\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ writing\\ written\\ as\\ advice\\ to\\ ruoelrs\\,\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\ legalist\\ rulers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\And\\ when\\ he\\ does\\ so\\,\\ language\\ he\\ uses\\ is\\ language\\ from\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ to\\ a\\ ruler\\ will\\ say\\:\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ ruler\\ effective\\ your\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ ruler\\:\\ well\\,\\ you\\ do\\ what\\ Loazi\\ tells\\ you\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Be\\ empty\\,\\ still\\,\\ follow\\ the\\ way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ then\\ \\ \\;you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ an\\ effective\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ sounds\\ mystical\\,\\ then\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ explains\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ empty\\/still\\ as\\ a\\ ruler\\:\\ sit\\ there\\ as\\ a\\ ruler\\,\\ let\\ ministers\\ come\\ in\\ and\\ give\\ policy\\ advice\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\you\\ do\\ NOTHING\\,\\ nothing\\ that\\ hints\\ at\\ what\\ best\\ advice\\ you\\ think\\ it\\ is\\,\\ never\\ show\\ your\\ cards\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ should\\ say\\ to\\ win\\ \\ \\;your\\ approval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ can\\ see\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ really\\ up\\ to\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behind\\ their\\ policy\\ decisions\\,\\ to\\ see\\ which\\ ones\\ might\\ be\\ lies\\ and\\ which\\ are\\ just\\ attempts\\ to\\ help\\ themselves\\,\\ which\\ ones\\ telling\\ you\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\,\\ which\\ ones\\ actually\\ giving\\ you\\ helpful\\ advice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ through\\ what\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ getting\\ at\\;\\ and\\ will\\ know\\ which\\ one\\ to\\ keep\\/kill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ once\\ follow\\ advice\\ and\\ put\\ policies\\ into\\ action\\;\\ and\\ again\\ will\\ be\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\:\\ active\\ rulers\\ potentially\\ create\\ opposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ try\\ to\\ control\\ people\\,\\ people\\ will\\ try\\ to\\ fight\\ back\\/revolt\\;\\ so\\ no\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ do\\ the\\ policy\\,\\ but\\ do\\ it\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ policy\\ so\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ thinks\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ nothing\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ do\\ policy\\:\\ make\\ it\\ seem\\ natural\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Come\\ off\\ to\\ people\\ as\\ having\\ no\\ opinion\\,\\ not\\ engage\\ in\\ things\\:\\ but\\ secretly\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ running\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Precisely\\ because\\ seem\\ not\\ involved\\ that\\ can\\ control\\/oversee\\ everything\\;\\ And\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ fight\\ against\\ you\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ think\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ an\\ active\\ ruler\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ can\\ pull\\ this\\ off\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ will\\ have\\ all\\ these\\ institutions\\,\\ build\\ a\\ military\\ structure\\,\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ recognize\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ so\\:\\ and\\ THEN\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ in\\ control\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Way\\ to\\ build\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ state\\ is\\ simply\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Read\\ Laozi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Build\\ a\\ super\\ structure\\ with\\ legalist\\ set\\ of\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ anyone\\ know\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ everything\\ will\\ be\\ perfect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hanfeizi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Forget\\ about\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Support\\ legalist\\ institutions\\ \\(but\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ let\\ anyone\\ know\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ so\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Make\\ yourself\\ an\\ empty\\ Cypher\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ understands\\ or\\ knows\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\ people\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ their\\ natural\\ selves\\,\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ controlled\\ by\\ natural\\ military\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ that\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ noticed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ethical\\,\\ but\\ table\\ it\\ for\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ really\\ good\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ can\\ use\\ Laozi\\,\\ rule\\ the\\ state\\ without\\ letting\\ other\\ people\\ what\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ up\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ China\\:\\ still\\ have\\ hereditary\\ monarchy\\ which\\ means\\ by\\ definition\\,\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ control\\ how\\ good\\ of\\ a\\ ruler\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ at\\ any\\ given\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ you\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ hereditary\\ monarchy\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ Laozi\\-ian\\ ruler\\ on\\ regular\\ basis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideally\\,\\ it\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ office\\,\\ because\\ whoever\\ is\\ there\\ just\\ rewards\\ the\\ good\\ and\\ punishes\\ the\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ a\\ ruler\\ who\\ can\\ rule\\ while\\ hiding\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ do\\ this\\?\\ For\\ any\\ ruler\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wise\\ enough\\ to\\ follow\\ Han\\ Feizi\\,\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ blueprint\\ to\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ not\\ just\\ writing\\ what\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ reading\\,\\ also\\ going\\ from\\ state\\ to\\ state\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ ruler\\ who\\ can\\/will\\ do\\ what\\ he\\ wants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hoping\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ minister\\,\\ guide\\ ruler\\ to\\ build\\ hidden\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ then\\ minister\\ has\\ things\\ that\\ ruler\\ needs\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\;\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ that\\ go\\ against\\ having\\ ruler\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ empty\\/still\\ and\\ kill\\ off\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ role\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ the\\ model\\ since\\ sage\\ minister\\ need\\ to\\ tell\\ ruler\\ what\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HF\\ saw\\ problem\\ and\\ attempted\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Embedded\\ in\\ very\\ writings\\ looking\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ when\\ HF\\ tells\\ a\\ ruler\\ be\\ empty\\,\\ be\\ still\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ anyone\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ anyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thinking\\;\\ but\\ goes\\ other\\ way\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ HF\\ can\\ convince\\ a\\ ruler\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ be\\ empty\\/still\\,\\ also\\ means\\ convince\\ ruler\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ interventionist\\,\\ let\\ ministers\\ make\\ policy\\ interventions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ creates\\ system\\ where\\ ministers\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ working\\/active\\ \\(rulers\\ passive\\)\\;\\ yes\\ ruler\\ will\\ implement\\ policy\\ decisions\\,\\ but\\ by\\ definition\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ ministers\\ who\\ actually\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flip\\ side\\ of\\ being\\ empty\\ and\\ not\\ do\\ anything\\,\\ but\\ leave\\ minister\\ to\\ make\\ recommendations\\ and\\ implements\\;\\ hope\\ for\\ this\\ double\\ edge\\ swords\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ ruler\\ is\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\,\\ hopefully\\ will\\ see\\ active\\ ministers\\ that\\ are\\ good\\ and\\ make\\ good\\ recommendations\\ and\\ get\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\SO\\&hellip\\;system\\ of\\ HF\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ one\\ good\\ ruler\\,\\ empty\\ and\\ still\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ senses\\ of\\ the\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ really\\ sees\\ what\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ up\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\ be\\ a\\ really\\ dumb\\ ruler\\:\\ okay\\ too\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ and\\ listens\\ to\\ right\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ good\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruler\\ allows\\ minister\\ to\\ be\\ active\\ one\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Requires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Really\\ brilliant\\ ruler\\ or\\ a\\ really\\ DUMB\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ really\\ brilliant\\,\\ won\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ the\\ sage\\ minister\\;\\ if\\ really\\ dumb\\,\\ will\\ need\\ the\\ sage\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ scary\\ brilliance\\;\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ careful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Have\\ to\\ have\\ it\\ both\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ check\\ on\\ rulers\\ or\\ ritual\\ system\\ to\\ cultivate\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ human\\ being\\,\\ where\\ bureaucrats\\ are\\ being\\ trained\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ system\\ to\\ encourage\\ people\\,\\ ruler\\ on\\ down\\,\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comes\\ down\\ to\\ legalist\\ system\\,\\ complicated\\ relationship\\ between\\ minister\\ and\\ ruler\\ that\\ bears\\ weight\\ of\\ what\\ policy\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ heart\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ problem\\:\\ either\\ need\\ brilliant\\ or\\ really\\ stupid\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ will\\ system\\ work\\ if\\ not\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\;\\ or\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ the\\ right\\ relationship\\ between\\ ruler\\/minister\\ that\\ ou\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\=\\ philosophical\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Philosophical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ system\\ purely\\ focused\\ on\\ power\\,\\ without\\ ritual\\/goodness\\/etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ have\\ a\\ problem\\:\\ world\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ operate\\ unless\\ have\\ perfect\\ ruler\\ and\\ perfect\\ minister\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HF\\ has\\ a\\ problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ state\\ is\\ tiny\\ one\\ called\\ Han\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ begin\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ to\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ he\\ gets\\ political\\ position\\:\\ both\\ for\\ sake\\ for\\ this\\ little\\ state\\ and\\ his\\ own\\ self\\ benefit\\ as\\ well\\;\\ need\\ alliance\\ between\\ his\\ own\\ state\\ and\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Entails\\ him\\ going\\ to\\ Qin\\ and\\ talking\\ to\\ Qin\\ ruler\\ \\(to\\ help\\ his\\ homestate\\ of\\ Han\\,\\ of\\ course\\&hellip\\;\\)\\;\\ and\\ by\\ implication\\ gain\\ audience\\ of\\ most\\ powerful\\ ruler\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ to\\ Qin\\,\\ gains\\ audiences\\ with\\ ruler\\ of\\ Qin\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreshadowing\\ that\\ HF\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ known\\ but\\ should\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ known\\ is\\ a\\ possibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruler\\ was\\ King\\ Jung\\ of\\ Qin\\:\\ why\\ important\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ soon\\ thereafter\\,\\ this\\ king\\ would\\ be\\ ruler\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\ when\\ armies\\ are\\ unleashed\\ against\\ other\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ be\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ will\\ oversee\\ conquering\\ state\\ after\\ state\\,\\ and\\ destruction\\ of\\ all\\ remaining\\ state\\ and\\ creation\\ of\\ new\\,\\ political\\,\\ united\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ empire\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ China\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ ruler\\ that\\ creates\\ first\\ united\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ knows\\ very\\ well\\ in\\ the\\ audience\\ of\\ most\\ powerful\\ state\\,\\ and\\ that\\ those\\ armies\\ unleashed\\ could\\ ruler\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ King\\ Jung\\ not\\ an\\ idiot\\:\\ knows\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ in\\ position\\ to\\ create\\ of\\ this\\ empire\\;\\ century\\ of\\ Qin\\ institutions\\;\\ also\\ knows\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ effective\\ at\\ legitimating\\ his\\ ruler\\ if\\ wants\\ to\\ create\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Will\\ be\\ militarily\\ occupying\\ China\\,\\ and\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ generally\\ like\\ being\\ occupied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ convince\\ people\\ not\\ just\\ military\\ occupations\\:\\ have\\ a\\ ruler\\ that\\ knows\\ very\\ well\\ needs\\ to\\ understand\\ next\\ step\\ in\\ building\\ legalist\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ starts\\ talking\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ says\\,\\ I\\ have\\ the\\ philosophy\\ that\\ will\\ tell\\ you\\ exactly\\ what\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ starts\\ listening\\:\\ finally\\,\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ philosopher\\ that\\ understands\\ power\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sure\\ legalist\\ help\\ build\\ institution\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ how\\ need\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ populace\\ with\\ these\\ legalist\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ Qin\\ already\\ has\\ a\\ leading\\ philosophy\\:\\ leading\\ legalist\\ thinker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Li\\ Si\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalist\\ thinker\\ like\\ Han\\ Feizi\\,\\ but\\ also\\ an\\ old\\ classmate\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ studied\\ under\\ Xunzi\\;\\ and\\ both\\ students\\ had\\ decided\\ Xunzi\\ represented\\ old\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ of\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ decided\\ it\\ was\\ wrong\\,\\ overthrew\\ Confucian\\ vision\\ and\\ turned\\ to\\ Legalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ from\\ a\\ small\\ state\\,\\ mainly\\ worked\\ philosophically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Li\\ Si\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ as\\ main\\ minister\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ philosopher\\,\\ but\\ an\\ active\\ legalist\\ politicalist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ in\\ one\\ court\\:\\ two\\ greatest\\ thinks\\ of\\ the\\ day\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Han\\ Feizi\\ being\\ absolutely\\ brilliant\\,\\ beginning\\ to\\ get\\ ear\\ of\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Li\\ Si\\ also\\ politically\\ brilliant\\ and\\ very\\ ambitious\\,\\ not\\ pleased\\ with\\ this\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\About\\ to\\ be\\ become\\ first\\ minister\\ of\\ first\\ empire\\:\\ Hell\\ No\\!\\ \\ \\;Not\\ if\\ Li\\ Si\\ can\\ stop\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ very\\ dangerous\\ political\\ strategist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ to\\ ruler\\ and\\ says\\,\\ HF\\ is\\ brilliant\\,\\ but\\ unlike\\ me\\,\\ HF\\ is\\ employed\\ by\\ separate\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sure\\ is\\ brilliant\\,\\ but\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ trust\\ brilliant\\ people\\ like\\ this\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ using\\ \\ \\;you\\ because\\ from\\ a\\ weak\\ state\\,\\ all\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ telling\\ you\\ to\\ make\\ you\\ think\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ on\\ your\\ side\\ and\\ then\\ will\\ screw\\ you\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ultimately\\ his\\ allegiance\\ not\\ to\\ state\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ guy\\ is\\ dangerous\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ King\\ Jung\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ listened\\ to\\ Li\\ Si\\ all\\ this\\ time\\,\\ and\\ should\\ \\&ldquo\\;look\\ into\\ this\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HF\\ is\\ arrested\\ and\\ interrogated\\;\\ and\\ interrogation\\ in\\ Qin\\ means\\ being\\ tortured\\ until\\ truth\\ discovered\\ about\\ his\\ true\\ intentions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ HF\\ commits\\ suicide\\ in\\ prison\\ and\\ dies\\ in\\ prison\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Final\\ question\\:\\ Is\\ the\\ problem\\/fate\\ that\\ fell\\ on\\ Han\\ Feizi\\ telling\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ Qin\\ not\\ a\\ good\\ Legalist\\ state\\?\\ \\ \\;Innocent\\ people\\,\\ HF\\,\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ true\\ legalist\\ state\\,\\ anyone\\ doing\\ good\\ should\\ be\\ rewarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Qin\\ was\\ a\\ legalist\\ state\\;\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ legalist\\ state\\,\\ embodied\\ problems\\ of\\ any\\ legal\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ironically\\ the\\ major\\ problem\\ HF\\ trying\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ philosophically\\:\\ how\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ create\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ comes\\ down\\ to\\ relationship\\ between\\ minister\\/ruler\\,\\ with\\ no\\ emphasis\\ on\\ cultivating\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ ruler\\ hear\\ what\\ minister\\ saying\\ and\\ accept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ was\\ a\\ minister\\ that\\ convinced\\ a\\ ruler\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ the\\ Fate\\ upon\\ Feizi\\ about\\ very\\ difficulties\\ in\\ general\\ about\\ legalism\\,\\ or\\ how\\ HF\\ specifically\\ wen\\ about\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 11\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Rise\\ of\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ Lecture\\ 11\\/26\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\,\\ 11\\/28\\/07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Full\\ century\\ into\\ reforms\\ created\\ by\\ Lord\\ Shang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goal\\:\\ create\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ after\\ state\\ falls\\ vs\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ incorporation\\ of\\ each\\ state\\,\\ more\\ \\&\\;\\ more\\ resources\\,\\ armies\\ get\\ bigger\\ \\&\\;\\ bigger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remaining\\ states\\ ally\\ w\\/each\\ other\\ in\\ last\\ ditch\\ attempt\\ to\\ not\\ fall\\ to\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ good\\ tho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\221\\ BCE\\ \\-\\ last\\ remaining\\ state\\ in\\ China\\ is\\ destroyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ Qin\\ armies\\ won\\,\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ that\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ for\\ empires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ fell\\ eventuallly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ doing\\ what\\ they\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ been\\ doing\\ while\\ conquering\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rule\\ China\\ as\\ an\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divide\\ it\\ up\\ into\\ commandery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ land\\ \\&\\;\\ resources\\ under\\ control\\ of\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Build\\ larger\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Move\\ old\\ state\\ rulers\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ local\\ states\\,\\ most\\ to\\ Qin\\ capital\\ \\-\\ destroys\\ all\\ local\\ power\\,\\ totally\\ under\\ control\\ of\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ it\\ all\\ connect\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rule\\ it\\ all\\ as\\ one\\ big\\ chunk\\,\\ rule\\ it\\ all\\ as\\ Qin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roads\\ connecting\\ everything\\ are\\ built\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laws\\ passed\\ for\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eg\\ carriage\\ wheels\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ standard\\ size\\,\\ so\\ everyone\\ can\\ drive\\ on\\ roads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ is\\ unified\\,\\ everyone\\ uses\\ same\\ script\\,\\ everyone\\ can\\ understand\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Created\\ a\\ single\\,\\ unified\\ state\\ with\\ single\\,\\ unified\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ continue\\ to\\ build\\ huge\\ armies\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ reason\\ as\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ worked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ continue\\ to\\ expand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ strengthening\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ reason\\ to\\ follow\\ any\\ past\\ precedents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ to\\ call\\ ruler\\?\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Emperor\\"\\;\\ \\(literally\\,\\ \\"\\;august\\ God\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\&\\#39\\;s\\ beyond\\ mere\\ human\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ one\\ is\\ called\\ \\"\\;The\\ First\\ Emperor\\"\\;\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ claim\\ to\\ hold\\ mandate\\ of\\ God\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ another\\ dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Old\\ kings\\ had\\ to\\ have\\ mandate\\ of\\ Heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\,\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ support\\ of\\ populus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dynastic\\ cycle\\ is\\ broken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ will\\ never\\ be\\ another\\ dynasty\\,\\ because\\ Qin\\ empire\\ will\\ be\\ around\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ philosophers\\ of\\ day\\ start\\ flocking\\ to\\ court\\,\\ telling\\ them\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ insane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confucians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ need\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ self\\-cultivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ moral\\ side\\ to\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\King\\ orders\\ that\\ all\\ Confucian\\ thinkers\\ will\\ be\\ buried\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ books\\ from\\ past\\ \\(except\\ those\\ dealing\\ with\\ history\\ of\\ Qin\\ state\\,\\ helpful\\ manuals\\ about\\ agriculture\\ \\&\\;\\ war\\)\\ should\\ be\\ burned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Making\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ no\\ other\\ view\\ would\\ be\\ tolerated\\ in\\ Qin\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Luckily\\ Qin\\ state\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ quite\\ as\\ powerful\\ as\\ it\\ hoped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orders\\ all\\ state\\ archives\\ to\\ be\\ burned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ private\\ collections\\ still\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ owned\\ by\\ people\\ who\\ opposed\\ Qin\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&\\#39\\;s\\ why\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ texts\\ that\\ we\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Probably\\ lost\\ a\\ huge\\ amount\\ from\\ this\\ tho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ Qin\\ state\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ happy\\ about\\ living\\ under\\ military\\ occupation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increasing\\ opposition\\ to\\ huge\\ amounts\\ of\\ grain\\ that\\ are\\ being\\ taken\\ to\\ feed\\ huge\\ armies\\ that\\ have\\ no\\ purpose\\ other\\ than\\ endless\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Little\\ local\\ rebellions\\ start\\ happening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armies\\ are\\ called\\ back\\ to\\ put\\ down\\ rebellions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ do\\ easily\\,\\ but\\ brutally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Causes\\ more\\ rebellions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armies\\ get\\ tired\\ of\\ it\\,\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\ role\\ of\\ putting\\ down\\ insurrections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ \\&\\;\\ more\\ rebellions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Armies\\ are\\ marching\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ across\\ China\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ raise\\ local\\ militias\\ to\\ fight\\ Qin\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Start\\ to\\ get\\ bigger\\ and\\ bigger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Start\\ going\\ after\\ areas\\ of\\ weakness\\ \\-\\ supply\\ lines\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Just\\ what\\ old\\ philosophers\\ said\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ start\\ breaking\\ off\\ the\\ Qin\\ armies\\ \\&\\;\\ join\\ insurrections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Militias\\ start\\ taking\\ over\\ \\-\\ totally\\ ragtag\\ armies\\,\\ but\\ huge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qin\\ empire\\ is\\ in\\ complete\\ civil\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Qin\\ armies\\ are\\ eventually\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ insurrections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ less\\ than\\ 20\\ years\\,\\ Qin\\ state\\ collapses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rebel\\ armies\\ take\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\206\\ BCE\\?\\ \\-\\ Qin\\ empire\\ falls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\&\\#39\\;s\\ future\\ of\\ China\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;Unclear\\&hellip\\;\\ state\\ of\\ civil\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ ragtag\\ armies\\ wins\\ the\\ day\\,\\ controls\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Declares\\ beginning\\ of\\ new\\ dynasty\\ \\(Han\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comtemporaries\\ of\\ time\\ thought\\ it\\ had\\ no\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ for\\ 4\\ cent\\,\\ builds\\ successful\\ version\\ of\\ Qin\\ empire\\ \\+\\ other\\ philosophies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imperial\\ unification\\ under\\ this\\ new\\ system\\ comes\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ norm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ did\\ Qin\\ fall\\ so\\ dramatically\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\,\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ should\\ be\\ built\\ upon\\ with\\ the\\ Qin\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ it\\ show\\ that\\ legalism\\ is\\ completely\\ wrong\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ build\\ a\\ new\\ state\\ in\\ aftermath\\ of\\ Qin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fall\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ did\\ the\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ Han\\ that\\ answered\\ these\\ Qs\\ so\\ successfully\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Next\\ couple\\ of\\ weeks\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Once\\ Qin\\ unification\\ \\&\\;\\ immediate\\ destruction\\ happens\\,\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ philosophies\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ you\\ build\\ a\\ state\\,\\ builds\\ on\\ these\\ philosophies\\,\\ do\\ it\\ practically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legalist\\ order\\ being\\ or\\ not\\ being\\ based\\ upon\\ personal\\ decision\\-making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Qin\\ \\-\\ took\\ out\\ all\\ personal\\ decision\\-making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Institutions\\ are\\ so\\ strong\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ matter\\ who\\&\\#39\\;s\\ in\\ what\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ people\\ in\\ bureaucracy\\ that\\ do\\ what\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ told\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clear\\,\\ simple\\,\\ obvious\\ calculus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obvious\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ obvious\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ issue\\ for\\ Confucians\\ \\-\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ spontaneously\\ know\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ \\-\\ is\\ taken\\ off\\ the\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Han\\ Faezi\\ \\-\\ Qin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ exactly\\ right\\ for\\ everyone\\ below\\ king\\;\\ ruler\\ develops\\ techniques\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ which\\ ministers\\ are\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ systems\\ are\\ answering\\ same\\ problem\\ \\-\\ both\\ want\\ a\\ system\\ where\\ everything\\ is\\ clear\\,\\ institutionally\\ defined\\ \\-\\ take\\ out\\ human\\ decision\\-making\\ completely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ HF\\ \\-\\ ministers\\ are\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ legalist\\ thinking\\ \\-\\ ideal\\ of\\ no\\ human\\ decision\\-making\\,\\ but\\ in\\ reality\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ entirely\\ based\\ on\\ ministers\\&\\#39\\;\\/ruler\\&\\#39\\;s\\ decision\\ making\\ \\-\\ but\\ now\\ you\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ taken\\ out\\ the\\ self\\-cultivation\\ needed\\ for\\ those\\ ministers\\/ruler\\ to\\ make\\ good\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ Qin\\ empire\\ simply\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ legalist\\ state\\ where\\ you\\ try\\ to\\ take\\ personal\\ decision\\-making\\ off\\ the\\ table\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Week\\ 12\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ December\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-how\\ does\\ one\\ form\\ an\\ empire\\ that\\ will\\ actually\\ work\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Qin\\ falls\\.\\.\\.what\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ now\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ someone\\ needs\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ ruler\\ must\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ do\\ whatever\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ system\\ going\\ or\\ start\\ a\\ new\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\None\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ make\\ decisions\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ the\\ ruler\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ sage\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-you\\ need\\ ministers\\ who\\ can\\ make\\ decisions\\&hellip\\;at\\ every\\ stage\\/level\\ in\\ bureaucracy\\,\\ people\\ are\\ making\\ decisions\\ all\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\You\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;train\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ decisions\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ even\\ that\\ legalism\\ is\\ amoral\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ problem\\ alone\\ according\\ to\\ Confucius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Han\\ Dynasty\\:\\ faced\\ practical\\ problem\\&rarr\\;inherited\\ huge\\ empire\\ and\\ set\\ of\\ institutions\\ that\\ has\\ failed\\ miserably\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Entire\\ world\\ of\\ philosophy\\ will\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ big\\ move\\ is\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ unified\\ system\\ that\\ will\\ bring\\ the\\ people\\ together\\&hellip\\;successful\\ philosophical\\ argument\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ connect\\ all\\ the\\ existing\\ philosophies\\?\\ And\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ so\\,\\ we\\ might\\ also\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ workable\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ precisely\\ did\\ they\\ do\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lu\\ Jia\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\early\\ Confucian\\ in\\ the\\ Han\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\adviser\\ to\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ruler\\ of\\ Han\\ Dynasty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\discusses\\ origins\\ of\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\things\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\:\\ patterns\\;\\ everything\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ vital\\ energy\\ \\(qi\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ dynamic\\ and\\ powerful\\ and\\ operates\\ on\\ basic\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\yin\\:\\ softness\\,\\ coldness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\yang\\:\\ hardness\\,\\ heat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\everything\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ interplay\\ between\\ these\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\yin\\ and\\ yang\\ are\\ categories\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Earlier\\ philosophers\\ had\\ erred\\ in\\ overly\\ focusing\\ on\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lu\\ Jia\\:\\ says\\ to\\ pull\\ everything\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ Confucian\\ synthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ problem\\ Xunzi\\ had\\ before\\&rarr\\;need\\ new\\ rituals\\,\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ statecraft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ were\\ rituals\\ initially\\ formed\\?\\&rarr\\;not\\ divine\\ commandment\\&hellip\\;they\\ were\\ created\\ by\\ people\\,\\ so\\ this\\ means\\ we\\ can\\ create\\ new\\ rituals\\,\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ trained\\ to\\ get\\ better\\ at\\ balancing\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Inward\\ Training\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confucius\\ was\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ both\\ incomplete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ bureaucracy\\ operate\\ following\\ an\\ Confucian\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ December\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ characters\\:\\ Lu\\ Jia\\,\\ Jia\\ Yi\\,\\ Dong\\ Zhongshu\\,\\ and\\ Wu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Legalism\\+Confucianism\\=\\ imperial\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dong\\ Zhongshu\\:\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ gets\\ the\\ integration\\ right\\ \\(all\\ previous\\ philosophies\\)\\ but\\ based\\ in\\ Confucianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Becomes\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ Chinese\\ state\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ 2\\,000\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ synthetic\\ view\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\ the\\ cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Relationship\\ between\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vital\\ energies\\,\\ qi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heaven\\/earth\\ potentially\\ is\\ a\\ unified\\ order\\;\\ human\\ beings\\ live\\ within\\ the\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ Xunzi\\,\\ human\\ beings\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ simply\\ live\\ between\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\&rarr\\;we\\ fundamentally\\ alter\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ live\\&hellip\\;we\\ change\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ better\\ or\\ worse\\ \\(Daoist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ could\\ destroy\\ the\\ cosmos\\ and\\ nature\\ with\\ our\\ actions\\ \\(Daoist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ we\\ bring\\ proper\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ larger\\ world\\,\\ the\\ reward\\ is\\ an\\ ordered\\ cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Daoists\\ made\\ a\\ mistake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ humans\\ do\\ what\\ Confucius\\ said\\,\\ they\\ will\\ create\\ good\\ energy\\;\\ Confucianism\\ works\\ because\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ we\\ fail\\,\\ we\\ create\\ bad\\ energies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-out\\ of\\ Xunzi\\,\\ Confucians\\ should\\ accept\\ legalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rules\\ and\\ regulations\\ that\\ apply\\ equally\\ to\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Legalism\\ had\\ a\\ deficit\\:\\ they\\ took\\ out\\ the\\ aspect\\ of\\ inspiring\\ people\\ to\\ self\\-cultivate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-you\\ will\\ never\\ have\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ will\\ tell\\ you\\ exactly\\ what\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ only\\ way\\ we\\ can\\ act\\ well\\ is\\ to\\ train\\ ourselves\\ constantly\\ to\\ be\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ need\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ institutional\\ way\\ to\\ insure\\ that\\ everyone\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ \\(common\\ person\\ or\\ person\\ in\\ power\\)\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-build\\ a\\ bureaucracy\\ base\\ upon\\ merit\\ \\(degree\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ trained\\ to\\ become\\ moral\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-emperor\\ finds\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ get\\ only\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ cultivated\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ bureaucracy\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ create\\ an\\ examination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ system\\ of\\ recommendation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Later\\ known\\ as\\ civil\\ service\\ examination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ bureaucratic\\ positions\\ obtained\\ through\\ taking\\ this\\ exam\\ \\(write\\ essays\\ and\\ poems\\;\\ think\\ of\\ solutions\\ to\\ problems\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ mobility\\ established\\;\\ divorce\\ between\\ wealth\\/birth\\ and\\ political\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ positions\\ of\\ power\\ were\\ based\\ on\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jesuits\\ go\\ to\\ China\\ and\\ see\\ their\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Voltaire\\ was\\ stunned\\ at\\ their\\ unique\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-China\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ has\\ a\\ huge\\ impact\\ on\\ European\\ political\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Emperor\\ Wu\\ begins\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ Dong\\ Zhongshu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ synthesis\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ philosophies\\ is\\ very\\ successful\\ and\\ powerful\\;\\ Confucianism\\ directly\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ new\\ things\\ added\\ to\\ Confucius\\&rarr\\;yields\\ critics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ was\\ very\\ critical\\ of\\ Wu\\ and\\ the\\ Confucian\\ synthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ History\\:\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ \\(Ssu\\-Ma\\ Ch\\&rsquo\\;ien\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Last\\ weekend\\:\\ Confucianism\\ and\\ very\\ significantly\\,\\ legalism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relevance\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ successful\\ synthesis\\,\\ basis\\ for\\ imperial\\ state\\ ideology\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ millenia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ has\\ happened\\ before\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\-One\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ thinkers\\ in\\ world\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ writers\\ in\\ world\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ strong\\ philosophical\\ reason\\ for\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ turn\\ to\\ historical\\ writings\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ arguments\\:\\ in\\ short\\,\\ a\\ perfect\\ person\\ with\\ whom\\ to\\ conclude\\ the\\ semester\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lived\\ during\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Physically\\ was\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ court\\ with\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ had\\ access\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ court\\ archives\\.\\ \\ \\;Knew\\ in\\ detail\\ precisely\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Very\\ different\\ reading\\ of\\ Confucianism\\ and\\ the\\ direction\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ should\\ have\\ gone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\,\\ precisely\\,\\ did\\ this\\ recreation\\ of\\ Qin\\ empire\\ entail\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ of\\ having\\ control\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ resources\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ well\\-trained\\ army\\ and\\ achieve\\ the\\ extension\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Continuation\\/Expansion\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ during\\ the\\ Qin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\See\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ trade\\ developing\\ across\\ central\\ Asia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Formation\\ of\\ trade\\ routes\\ with\\ central\\ Asia\\ as\\ the\\ crossroads\\:\\ The\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ fact\\,\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ China\\ was\\ simply\\ known\\ as\\ silk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Emperor\\ Wu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ armies\\,\\ while\\ heading\\ south\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ northeast\\,\\ also\\ began\\ heading\\ northwest\\ into\\ Central\\ Asia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Creates\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ are\\ literally\\ traveling\\ with\\ herds\\ of\\ animals\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ type\\ of\\ warfare\\ that\\ develops\\ in\\ Central\\ Asian\\ becomes\\ radically\\ different\\ from\\ earlier\\ views\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ becomes\\ to\\ create\\ quick\\ strike\\ cavalry\\ formations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Steppe\\ region\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ disaster\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Military\\ formation\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ go\\ further\\;\\ cavalry\\ retreats\\ further\\,\\ mass\\ infantry\\ army\\ must\\ continue\\ to\\ march\\.\\ \\ \\;Need\\ supply\\ lines\\ to\\ feed\\ the\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ army\\ stops\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ supply\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Quick\\ strikes\\,\\ then\\ leaving\\.\\ \\ \\;Entire\\ armies\\ were\\ destroyed\\.\\ \\ \\;Emperor\\ Wu\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ this\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ realize\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ an\\ area\\ they\\ could\\ conquer\\ militarily\\,\\ he\\ became\\ more\\ adamant\\ and\\ intent\\ upon\\ destroying\\ the\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ and\\ more\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ Han\\ were\\ diverted\\ to\\ this\\ effort\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ decides\\ that\\ the\\ Emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ policies\\ are\\ unacceptable\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faults\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ advisers\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Emperor\\ Wu\\ sees\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ traitor\\ and\\ condemns\\ him\\ to\\ a\\ terrible\\ punishment\\:\\ castration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Normally\\,\\ one\\ would\\ protest\\ the\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decree\\ with\\ suicide\\ to\\ indicate\\ your\\ feeling\\ that\\ the\\ Emperor\\ is\\ being\\ unjust\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ he\\ could\\ do\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ book\\ about\\ the\\ full\\ history\\ of\\ China\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ actually\\ have\\ a\\ descendant\\,\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ this\\ book\\,\\ which\\ could\\ potentially\\ exist\\ for\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ his\\ family\\ line\\ would\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ so\\,\\ he\\ accepts\\ the\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\From\\ this\\ biography\\,\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ happy\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Thinks\\ he\\ is\\,\\ at\\ best\\,\\ a\\ horrible\\ tyrant\\,\\ and\\ even\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ buffoon\\.\\ Critique\\ empire\\ and\\ all\\ that\\ has\\ happened\\ in\\ his\\ day\\ to\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Assumes\\ an\\ important\\ and\\ impressive\\/challenging\\ philosophical\\ undertaking\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Question\\:\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ critique\\,\\ but\\ what\\ is\\ he\\ getting\\ at\\ precisely\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ he\\ arguing\\?\\ \\ \\;Something\\ philosophically\\ very\\ profound\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ dialogue\\,\\ the\\ court\\ has\\ heard\\ about\\ Sima\\ Qian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ write\\ this\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ high\\ minister\\ goes\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 12\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 13\\,\\ Day\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perceptive\\ reader\\ of\\ Confucius\\,\\ who\\ he\\ takes\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ abstract\\ sense\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Confucius\\,\\ good\\ people\\ are\\ rewarded\\,\\ however\\,\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ disciples\\ were\\ dying\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\,\\ the\\ question\\ was\\,\\ what\\ exactly\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ with\\ Confucianism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Professor\\ Puett\\ says\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ a\\ moral\\ cosmos\\ because\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ moral\\.\\ \\;\\ Good\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ rewarded\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ main\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ entire\\ system\\ was\\ that\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ Confucianism\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ in\\ place\\,\\ but\\ what\\ happened\\ during\\ the\\ times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ a\\ historical\\ background\\:\\ time\\ of\\ consolidation\\ of\\ the\\ Qin\\ empire\\.\\ \\;\\ Different\\ from\\ before\\.\\ \\;\\ Younger\\ than\\ DZH\\.\\ \\;\\ DZH\\ ideas\\ were\\ dominant\\ during\\ this\\ time\\;\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ suffered\\ from\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ Confucianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DZH\\ which\\ incorporates\\ Xunzu\\:\\ if\\ you\\ do\\ well\\,\\ you\\ create\\ a\\ harmonious\\ order\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ you\\ behave\\ badly\\,\\ you\\ generate\\ bad\\ energy\\,\\ therefore\\ affecting\\ other\\ people\\ for\\ the\\ worse\\.\\ \\;\\ Therefore\\ cosmos\\ will\\ be\\ moral\\.\\ \\;\\ Cosmos\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ energy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ X\\ bad\\ thing\\ happens\\,\\ then\\ something\\ must\\ be\\ wrong\\ with\\ the\\ imperial\\ policies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clearly\\ at\\ a\\ basic\\ level\\,\\ unity\\ is\\ being\\ created\\ because\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\ must\\ be\\ doing\\ something\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parallel\\ to\\ Mencius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ mandate\\ of\\ heaven\\:\\ every\\ individual\\ potentially\\ can\\ be\\ good\\.\\ \\;\\ With\\ a\\ good\\ ruler\\,\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ repulsed\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ is\\ antagonistic\\ to\\ this\\ view\\ that\\ things\\ are\\ directly\\ causational\\ in\\ this\\ moral\\ cosmos\\ in\\ which\\ X\\ happens\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\ thinks\\ Confucian\\ imperialism\\ is\\ bad\\.\\ \\;\\ Anti\\-\\ where\\ Syncretism\\ is\\ going\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confucius\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ sage\\ of\\ Emperor\\ Wu\\&\\#39\\;s\\ courts\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ qian\\ aligns\\ himself\\ with\\ what\\ Confucius\\ is\\ saying\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ basic\\ parallel\\ is\\ that\\ Conficius\\ purports\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ transmitter\\ of\\ ancient\\ sages\\,\\ and\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ is\\ doing\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\/trying\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\ \\;\\ Aligning\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ respected\\ like\\ Confucius\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sima\\ Qian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ critique\\:\\ lens\\ of\\ satire\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ chapters\\ he\\ wrote\\,\\ you\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ note\\ that\\ every\\ chapter\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ conclusion\\,\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ which\\ he\\ says\\ the\\ same\\ things\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ reason\\ why\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ satire\\ is\\ because\\ before\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ narrative\\ before\\ this\\ conclusion\\ is\\ contradictory\\ to\\ his\\ conclusion\\.\\ \\;\\ Trying\\ to\\ be\\ ironic\\.\\ \\;\\ Satire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exceedingly\\ ironic\\.\\ \\;\\ Very\\ complex\\ and\\ detailed\\ narratives\\.\\ \\;\\ Drastically\\ different\\ situations\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ the\\ stuff\\ we\\ have\\ now\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ redaction\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ had\\ before\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ he\\ saying\\ through\\ this\\ satire\\?\\ \\;\\ The\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\ is\\ good\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ has\\ to\\ happen\\,\\ but\\ he\\&\\#39\\;s\\ critiquing\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\,\\ and\\ where\\ this\\ Confucian\\ parallelism\\ is\\ going\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ writing\\ is\\ extremely\\ complex\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ mentions\\ Li\\ Zi\\,\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ directly\\ opposed\\ to\\ Li\\ Zi\\,\\ but\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ you\\ would\\ expect\\.\\ \\;\\ Li\\ Zi\\ is\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\;\\ helped\\ it\\ expand\\.\\ \\;\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ does\\ not\\ present\\ him\\ as\\ being\\ consistently\\ negative\\ because\\ Li\\ Zi\\ did\\ what\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ done\\.\\ Li\\ Zi\\ was\\ ultimately\\ wrong\\ and\\ he\\ died\\ poorly\\,\\ but\\ he\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ purely\\ wrong\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ultimately\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wrong\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puett\\ says\\ that\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ says\\ fundamental\\ problems\\ are\\ occurring\\ in\\ Confucian\\ parallelism\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ so\\ because\\ Confucian\\ imperialism\\ has\\ now\\ created\\ a\\ role\\ that\\ attempts\\ to\\ address\\ ethical\\ issues\\ in\\ a\\ syncretic\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ this\\ syncretic\\ system\\ is\\ created\\ \\(the\\ originally\\ good\\ intention\\ of\\ DZS\\)\\,\\ Confucius\\&\\#39\\;s\\ intent\\ is\\ lost\\ because\\ Confucius\\ believes\\ you\\ cannot\\ build\\ a\\ clear\\ cut\\ ethical\\ system\\ and\\ people\\ should\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ for\\ them\\ because\\ you\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ do\\ this\\?\\ \\;\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ Confucian\\ system\\ and\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ apply\\ it\\ here\\?\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ study\\ philosophy\\ and\\ learn\\ through\\ historical\\ studies\\.\\ \\;\\ According\\ to\\ Sima\\ Qian\\,\\ one\\ should\\ teach\\ through\\ these\\ historical\\ studies\\,\\ just\\ as\\ Confuicus\\ did\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ through\\ what\\ Confucius\\ would\\ say\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ We\\ shouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ lay\\ it\\ out\\ didactically\\/\\ impose\\ our\\ own\\ individual\\ moralities\\ upon\\ people\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ do\\ minute\\ analysis\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ practice\\ and\\ how\\ these\\ acts\\ affect\\ day\\ to\\ day\\ life\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ should\\ do\\ it\\ judgmentally\\ and\\ show\\ that\\ ethical\\ action\\ is\\ complicated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ why\\ this\\ is\\ relevant\\ is\\ because\\ in\\ an\\ increasingly\\ complex\\ world\\,\\ cosmological\\ energy\\ and\\ explaining\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ that\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ sufficient\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ should\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ early\\ Confucian\\ teachings\\ and\\ take\\ people\\ through\\ specific\\ examples\\ to\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ better\\ decisions\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DZS\\&\\#39\\;s\\ system\\ is\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ all\\ of\\ this\\,\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ Puett\\ says\\ that\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ makes\\ a\\ concession\\ that\\ Confucius\\ made\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ mistakes\\,\\ but\\ was\\ onto\\ something\\.\\ \\;\\ Similarly\\,\\ he\\ looks\\ at\\ other\\ philosophers\\ and\\ says\\ everyone\\ was\\ onto\\ something\\,\\ but\\ just\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ do\\ it\\ well\\.\\ \\;\\ Made\\ mistakes\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ wants\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ find\\ everything\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ onto\\ and\\ incorporate\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puett\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\,\\ which\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ is\\ critiquing\\ \\(grand\\ historian\\ serving\\ the\\ empire\\)\\,\\ the\\ question\\ is\\:\\ what\\ do\\ we\\ do\\?\\ \\;\\ Get\\ rid\\ of\\ system\\ now\\,\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ Zhou\\ system\\,\\ devise\\ new\\ system\\,\\ try\\ Qin\\ system\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Zhou\\ because\\ times\\ have\\ changed\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Zhou\\ dynasty\\ was\\ way\\ back\\ in\\ the\\ day\\.\\ \\;\\ No\\,\\ clearly\\ not\\.\\ \\;\\ Puett\\ is\\ adamant\\ that\\ clearly\\ not\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ Qin\\ but\\ legalism\\ is\\ not\\ inherently\\ bad\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goes\\ back\\ to\\ Confucianism\\,\\ train\\ individual\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ and\\ learn\\ systematic\\ ways\\ to\\ have\\ people\\ see\\ and\\ truly\\ look\\ at\\ what\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wrong\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ lost\\ the\\ vision\\ by\\ being\\ so\\ systematic\\.\\ \\;\\ Sima\\ Qian\\ critiques\\ all\\ ideologies\\ and\\ looks\\ at\\ what\\ we\\ lost\\.\\ \\;\\ Professor\\ Puett\\ asks\\:\\ is\\ he\\ right\\?\\ \\;\\ Are\\ you\\ convinced\\?\\ \\;\\ Too\\ subtle\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\?\\ \\;\\ So\\ complex\\ we\\ should\\ move\\ onto\\ something\\ new\\?\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 38, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Lecture_Notes_1.doc", "desc": "Lecture Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 01:17:04.607422+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Medicine and Society - Midterm 1 Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "medicine", "society"], "text": null, "id": 75, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\_Study\\_Guide\\_I\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:143\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c21\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:126\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c19\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:77\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c24\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:95\\.3pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:110\\.7pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c29\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:198pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:234pt\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c15\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c26\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c11\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c28\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c9\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\COLONIAL\\ IMPACTS\\ ON\\ NA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NA\\ killed\\ by\\ childhood\\ diseases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ measles\\,\\ mumps\\,\\ chicken\\ pox\\,\\ small\\ pox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\100\\ million\\ NA\\ at\\ time\\ of\\ contact\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 200yrs\\.\\ Later\\ \\=\\ 2\\ million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ such\\ high\\ death\\ rates\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Malnutrition\\,\\ lowered\\ immunity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;hungry\\ periods\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ anticipated\\ shortages\\ in\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virgin\\ soil\\ epidemic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Europeans\\ previously\\ exposed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colonial\\ perspectives\\ on\\ epidemic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Divine\\ act\\ \\-\\ justification\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Bradford\\:\\ NA\\ being\\ cleared\\ out\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NA\\ perspectives\\ on\\ epidemic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wrath\\ of\\ their\\ god\\,\\ stunned\\ acquiescence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apostasy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ catastrophic\\ loss\\ of\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COLONIAL\\ LIFE\\ \\(ENVIRONMENT\\ \\+\\ HEALTH\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beginnings\\ of\\ Demography\\ \\(17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edward\\ Wigglesworth\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Collected\\ data\\ for\\ life\\ insurance\\ policy\\ for\\ wives\\ to\\ recruit\\ more\\ Europeans\\ to\\ the\\ Americas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ England\\:\\ life\\ expectancy\\ \\=\\ 35\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Errors\\:\\ assumed\\ deaths\\/year\\ were\\ characteristic\\ of\\ whole\\ population\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ many\\ per\\ age\\ group\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ Data\\ \\(accounting\\ for\\ childhood\\ mortality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ past\\ 20\\ could\\ live\\ to\\ 70\\;\\ Women\\ past\\ 20\\ could\\ live\\ to\\ 60\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dramatic\\ population\\ growth\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\x2\\ in\\ 25\\ years\\;\\ x10\\ in\\ 75\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\death\\ rate\\ was\\ lower\\ than\\ birth\\ rate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compared\\ to\\ England\\:\\ fewer\\ children\\,\\ later\\ marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\child\\ mortality\\ dropped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\land\\:\\ densely\\ populated\\ area\\ \\=\\ high\\ death\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Preoccupation\\ with\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puritan\\:\\ riddled\\ with\\ sin\\,\\ predestined\\ fates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ funeral\\ homes\\,\\ death\\ is\\ prevalent\\ and\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burial\\ grounds\\ in\\ center\\ of\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Health\\ conditions\\ for\\ Colonists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hard\\ labor\\ clearing\\ land\\,\\ long\\ voyage\\:\\ vitamin\\ deficiency\\,\\ crowd\\ diseases\\:\\ diarrhea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ death\\ rate\\ blamed\\ on\\ different\\ environments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Climate\\ \\&\\#8710\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tropical\\,\\ hot\\ climate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Southern\\ colonies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ malaria\\ \\(SC\\:\\ slaves\\ outlive\\ colonists\\ due\\ to\\ AA\\ sickle\\ cell\\ carrier\\ \\=\\ resistant\\ to\\ malaria\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ PERCEPTION\\:\\ cities\\ are\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ \\&\\#8710\\;\\ DEMOGRAPHY\\ from\\ original\\ settlements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ settle\\ near\\ rivers\\ and\\ swamps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\&\\#8710\\;\\ MATERIAL\\ BURDEN\\:\\ radical\\ increase\\ in\\ Malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ \\&\\#8710\\;\\ PERCEPTION\\:\\ swamps\\ are\\ dangerous\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ settle\\ cultivated\\ land\\ is\\ healthier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ \\&\\#8710\\;\\ DEMOGRAPHY\\:\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ swamps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ \\&\\#8710\\;\\ MATERIAL\\ BURDEN\\:\\ decrease\\ in\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\period\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\seasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\~1\\ year\\)\\:\\ reduced\\ work\\,\\ excess\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\body\\ changes\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ back\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Body\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ Spaniard\\&rsquo\\;s\\/natives\\ \\(fluid\\ and\\ dynamic\\ view\\ of\\ race\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Skin\\ color\\,\\ physiology\\,\\ passions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NATIVE\\ AMERICAN\\ THERAPEUTICS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\associated\\ with\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\greater\\/lesser\\ spirits\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\taboos\\/offended\\ spirits\\ lead\\ to\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\shaman\\ \\(powwow\\)\\:\\ rid\\ patients\\ of\\ evil\\ spirits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\kept\\ information\\ to\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ admitted\\ to\\ the\\ belief\\ aspect\\ of\\ their\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theory\\:\\ balance\\ with\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Practice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emetics\\,\\ diaphoretics\\,\\ purges\\,\\ laxatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Skilled\\ with\\ traumatic\\ injuries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herbal\\ remedies\\,\\ animal\\ oils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Placebo\\ effect\\:\\ shared\\ beliefs\\ btw\\ patient\\ and\\ shaman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COLONIAL\\ THERAPEUTICS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Not\\ a\\ bounded\\ profession\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wide\\ range\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;doctors\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ apothecaries\\,\\ surgeons\\,\\ midwives\\,\\ surgeons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Varied\\ degrees\\ of\\ experience\\ and\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctors\\ have\\ little\\ influence\\ on\\ therapeutics\\ \\(hard\\ to\\ spread\\ knowledge\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theory\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\4\\ Humors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Earth\\,\\ water\\,\\ fire\\,\\ air\\;\\ Blood\\,\\ bile\\,\\ phlegm\\,\\ water\\;\\ Hot\\,\\ cold\\,\\ humid\\,\\ dry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Balance\\ \\=\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Miasma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ spread\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comes\\ from\\ rotting\\ biological\\ matter\\ and\\ evaporation\\ from\\ stagnant\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ ontology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ diseases\\ could\\ morph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Practice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ balance\\ humors\\:\\ put\\ in\\ or\\ take\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Purging\\,\\ laxatives\\,\\ sweating\\,\\ diuretics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Source\\ of\\ authority\\ of\\ doctor\\:\\ give\\ drug\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ produce\\ reaction\\ predicted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heroics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ extreme\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Debate\\ over\\ how\\ much\\ blood\\ letting\\ is\\ enough\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Home\\ remedies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ empirical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ phone\\ tree\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ family\\,\\ neighbors\\,\\ local\\ social\\ practitioners\\,\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Case\\:\\ Small\\ pox\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epidemic\\ \\@\\ height\\:\\ Aug\\.\\ 1721\\:\\ 10\\%\\ \\ \\;dead\\;\\ 50\\%\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biological\\ effects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Skin\\ pitted\\,\\ blindness\\,\\ disfigurement\\ puss\\-filled\\ blisters\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ week\\ infection\\ period\\ \\(could\\ spread\\ with\\ out\\ knowing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epidemic\\ in\\ colonies\\,\\ endemic\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\7\\ in\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ high\\ mortality\\ for\\ colonists\\ and\\ NA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treatment\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inoculation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(early\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\ has\\ the\\ authority\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religious\\ leaders\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cotton\\ Mather\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;only\\ Satan\\ would\\ oppose\\ saving\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puritan\\ Minister\\,\\ advocated\\ inoculation\\ \\(sited\\ success\\ in\\ China\\ and\\ Africa\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Hand\\ not\\ God\\ provided\\ inoculation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Against\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\ should\\ decide\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ leaders\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Zabyol\\ Boylston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tested\\ on\\ his\\ slaves\\ and\\ sons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dr\\.\\ William\\ Douglass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Criticizes\\ Boylston\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;could\\ destroy\\ this\\ new\\ profession\\ of\\ doctors\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Iatrogenesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ doctor\\ causes\\ the\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ do\\ you\\ measure\\ efficacy\\?\\ \\(2\\%\\ of\\ 300\\ inoculated\\ died\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rise\\ of\\ population\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ moves\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legislation\\ describing\\ when\\ inoculation\\ is\\ legal\\ \\(only\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ epidemic\\ crises\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quarantine\\:\\ hold\\ ships\\,\\ island\\ for\\ side\\,\\ hang\\ red\\ flag\\ outside\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deliberate\\ communication\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1763\\ uprising\\:\\ colonists\\ give\\ NA\\ blankets\\ from\\ small\\ pox\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ Revolution\\:\\ 1777\\ Washington\\ delays\\ campaign\\ to\\ inoculate\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vaccination\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conferred\\ immunity\\ from\\ animal\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edward\\ Jenner\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ healed\\ pox\\ marks\\ on\\ milkmaids\\&rsquo\\;\\ hands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Waterhouse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ vaccinate\\ servant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sent\\ him\\ to\\ hospital\\ to\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sought\\ monopoly\\ fro\\ vaccine\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ PROFESSIONALS\\ AND\\ THE\\ QUACKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Samuel\\ Thompson\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\mother\\ died\\ of\\ consumption\\;\\ he\\ blames\\ regular\\ doctor\\ for\\ her\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\studied\\ herbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lobelia\\ \\=\\ emetic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disease\\ caused\\ by\\ lack\\ of\\ heat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Removal\\ by\\ steam\\ bath\\,\\ red\\ peppers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ body\\ \\=\\ stove\\ pipe\\;\\ healing\\ \\=\\ clear\\ soot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NO\\ bleeding\\ because\\ it\\ eliminates\\ fever\\ which\\ is\\ natural\\ defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arrested\\ for\\ killing\\ someone\\ with\\ lobelia\\;\\ acquitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accused\\ by\\ regular\\ doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everyman\\ His\\ Own\\ Doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Essential\\ appeal\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ doctor\\ required\\:\\ heroics\\ required\\ doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Herbal\\ remedies\\ are\\ readily\\ available\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implicit\\ critique\\ of\\ regular\\ medicine\\:\\ can\\ I\\ trust\\ this\\ unknown\\ doctor\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reduce\\ their\\ monopoly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bring\\ home\\ \\(to\\ women\\)\\ medical\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ knowledge\\ vs\\.\\ Elite\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Simplified\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Buchan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ medical\\ journal\\/handbook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Simplicity\\ of\\ language\\,\\ make\\ info\\.\\ accessible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ treatments\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serious\\ cases\\ see\\ doctors\\ for\\ heroics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medicine\\ should\\ be\\ preventative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Silvester\\ Graham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concerned\\ with\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sexual\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;masturbation\\ epidemic\\ in\\ young\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advocate\\ of\\ abstinence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opponent\\ of\\ calomel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homeopathy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ complementary\\ disease\\ treatment\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ patient\\ is\\ give\\ in\\ minute\\ doses\\ of\\ natural\\ drugs\\ that\\ in\\ \\ \\;larger\\ doses\\ would\\ produce\\ symptoms\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Founded\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Samuel\\ Hahremann\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(mid\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trained\\ in\\ traditional\\ medical\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discovers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\principle\\ of\\ similars\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;when\\ treating\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principle\\ of\\ infinitesimals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Get\\ to\\ know\\ patient\\:\\ wholism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Popular\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ not\\ taste\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Urban\\ women\\:\\ felt\\ attended\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therapeutic\\ Nihilism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Skepticism\\ of\\ all\\ styles\\ of\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vis\\ medicatrix\\ natural\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\trust\\ in\\ the\\ healing\\ power\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patient\\ can\\ get\\ better\\ without\\ a\\ doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Regulars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rationalisitic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ humors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ monistic\\:\\ one\\ disease\\,\\ many\\ manifestations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ Heroic\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ bleeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ calomel\\;\\ mineral\\ treatments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ drive\\ towards\\ medical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Licensing\\ \\(fails\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Medical\\ Societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ no\\ legitimate\\ \\(state\\ supported\\ \\)\\ control\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Thompsonians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ disease\\ \\=\\ loss\\ of\\ heat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Hippocratic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ herbal\\:\\ anti\\-mineral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ easily\\ obtainable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ sweating\\ purges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ NO\\ bleeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ initially\\ anti\\-institution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ later\\:\\ some\\ drive\\ to\\ legitimacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Homeopaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ principle\\ of\\ similars\\ \\+\\ infinitesimals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ serial\\ dilutions\\ of\\ medicines\\ that\\ reproduce\\ the\\ systems\\ experienced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ smallest\\ doses\\ \\=\\ most\\ effective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vis\\ medicorus\\ naturi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ drive\\ to\\ legitimate\\ complexity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ requires\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ herbs\\ and\\ the\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ body\\ of\\ knowledge\\ is\\ no\\ immediately\\ accessible\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ complex\\ and\\ not\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ being\\ kept\\ secret\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ Marketplace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ could\\ separate\\ practice\\ coexist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limited\\ access\\ to\\ doctors\\ \\(explains\\ Thomspon\\ \\+\\ Buchan\\ popularity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Antiexpertise\\ sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transportation\\ \\+\\ commodity\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ pill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ legitmate\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ATTEMPTS\\ AT\\ REGULATION\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ Schools\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Apprenticeship\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Daily\\ activities\\ for\\ the\\ doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Few\\ books\\ to\\ read\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Follow\\ master\\ on\\ rounds\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1800\\:\\ 100\\ doctors\\ in\\ US\\ had\\ attended\\ European\\ Medical\\ School\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ monistic\\,\\ theoretical\\,\\ humeral\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Penn\\ Medical\\ School\\ \\(1765\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ Morgan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Faculty\\ \\=\\ Edinburough\\ graduates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harvard\\ Medical\\ School\\ \\(1783\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Warren\\ \\=\\ surgeon\\ \\+\\ Erin\\ Dexter\\ \\=\\ no\\ degrees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MUST\\ HAVES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clinical\\ facilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prior\\ knowledge\\ of\\ latin\\,\\ greek\\,\\ French\\,\\ math\\,\\ and\\ natural\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Curriculum\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anatomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Material\\ medica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ properties\\ of\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Botony\\,\\ physiology\\,\\ pathology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clinical\\ practice\\ in\\ hospitals\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DID\\ NOT\\ HAVE\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Specialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surgery\\ \\(rung\\ below\\ doctors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Funding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supported\\ by\\ students\\ paying\\ for\\ individual\\ tickets\\ to\\ lectures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lowered\\ standards\\ and\\ work\\ loads\\ to\\ keep\\ students\\ enrolled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\ year\\ program\\ \\=\\ 1\\ year\\ repeated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hard\\ to\\ rescind\\ degree\\ despite\\ inexperience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jacksonian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;period\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Enlightenment\\ view\\:\\ obtain\\ obscure\\ bodies\\ of\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mistrust\\ of\\ expertise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fear\\ of\\ monopolies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ eliminate\\ licensing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experience\\ Needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dissection\\ \\=\\ key\\ experience\\ with\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1788\\:\\ NYC\\:\\ protects\\ bodies\\ from\\ medical\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rise\\ of\\ doctors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\ change\\ in\\ scientific\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ transportation\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ urbanization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ open\\ up\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cities\\ become\\ larger\\ \\+\\ denser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctor\\ are\\ more\\ accessible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ \\&\\#8710\\;\\:\\ \\@\\ home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indirect\\ cost\\ declines\\:\\ see\\ larger\\ \\#\\ of\\ patients\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increased\\ direct\\ competition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ need\\ for\\ corporate\\ control\\ \\(AMA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Specialization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ big\\ enough\\ market\\ to\\ specialize\\ and\\ make\\ enough\\ \\$\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ RISE\\ OF\\ HOSPITALS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alms\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Model\\ for\\ orphanages\\,\\ prisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Care\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ helpless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ enter\\ voluntarily\\:\\ sign\\ of\\ loss\\ of\\ connection\\ to\\ society\\ \\+\\ family\\/friends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Considered\\ by\\ elite\\ society\\ to\\ be\\ for\\ immoral\\ \\+\\ destitute\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ unworthy\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ Boston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Find\\ place\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\worthy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ respectable\\ but\\ able\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;voluntary\\ hospital\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contributions\\ of\\ philanthropists\\ \\(Mass\\ General\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christian\\ fellowship\\ \\+\\ stewardship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serve\\ social\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opportunity\\ for\\ physicians\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Architecture\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grand\\,\\ symmetrical\\,\\ statehouse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strict\\ rules\\ about\\ who\\ to\\ take\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;boarders\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;inmates\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ one\\ with\\ infections\\ diseases\\,\\ no\\ incurable\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ morally\\ worthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Admitted\\ patients\\ stayed\\ only\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ months\\ then\\ returned\\ to\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Written\\ application\\ \\(MGH\\)\\ to\\ trustees\\/visiting\\ committee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Get\\ recommendation\\ from\\ upper\\ elite\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ diet\\,\\ rest\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vis\\ medacatrix\\ natural\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ therapeutics\\ are\\ secondary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\ is\\ in\\ charge\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resident\\ physician\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ years\\ living\\ at\\ hospital\\,\\ low\\ pay\\,\\ good\\ experience\\,\\ gain\\ distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ visit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ senior\\ physician\\ in\\ community\\ shows\\ up\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ patients\\ and\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concerns\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Might\\ die\\ in\\ hospitals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fear\\ of\\ being\\ experimented\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fear\\ of\\ infection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contagen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ specific\\ vector\\ but\\ thing\\ can\\ be\\ transmitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zymotic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ putrefying\\ matter\\ enters\\ air\\ and\\ gets\\ transmitted\\ through\\ morbid\\ exhalation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pavillion\\ style\\ hospital\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ need\\ windows\\ circulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Begin\\ to\\ look\\ more\\ like\\ factories\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dispensaries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ outpatient\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treat\\ ambutory\\ patients\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ admitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Single\\ employee\\:\\ house\\ physician\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rise\\ in\\ centrality\\ of\\ hospital\\ \\+\\ dramatic\\ population\\ increase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1787\\ \\=\\ 4\\ million\\ people\\;\\ civil\\ war\\ \\=\\ 32\\ million\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1800\\:\\ 6\\%\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ towns\\;\\ 1860\\:\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ towns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Urban\\,\\ heterogeneous\\,\\ dependent\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serve\\ certain\\ ethnic\\/racial\\ constituency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fear\\ of\\ overcrowding\\ \\(late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ BIRTH\\ AND\\ RISE\\ OF\\ THE\\ MENTAL\\ ASYLUM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Theories\\ on\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disease\\ but\\ with\\ physical\\ manifestations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Szasz\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mental\\ illness\\ does\\ not\\ exists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ label\\ certain\\ behaviors\\ that\\ exist\\ in\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vulnerability\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ control\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Curiosity\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regard\\ insane\\ as\\ exotic\\/like\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ example\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Samuel\\ Coolidge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(mid\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ Boston\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Graduated\\ from\\ Harvard\\ 1738\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ became\\ school\\ master\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;thoroughly\\ insane\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distracted\\ and\\ unruly\\ student\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fired\\ from\\ library\\ job\\ for\\ being\\ insolent\\,\\ cursing\\,\\ drinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Banished\\ from\\ Cambridge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ test\\:\\ asked\\ to\\ recite\\ scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kinda\\ stayed\\ near\\ by\\ \\=\\ moving\\ from\\ home\\ to\\ home\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Set\\ up\\ by\\ selectmen\\/\\ town\\ managers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Provided\\ for\\ \\$\\$\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ medical\\ treatment\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ how\\ doe\\ we\\ manage\\ Coolidge\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ threat\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tracking\\ roots\\ of\\ Mental\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\General\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religious\\ anxiety\\,\\ masturbation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blows\\ to\\ the\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Too\\ much\\ studying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ stability\\ from\\ living\\ in\\ developing\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edward\\ Jarvis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ statistics\\ to\\ evaluate\\ rise\\ in\\ mental\\ illness\\;\\ stressed\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theories\\ of\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monistic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Restore\\ balance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ melancholia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ insufficient\\ brain\\ activity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Somatic\\ disorder\\ expressed\\ in\\ bodily\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physical\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Benjamin\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subdue\\ lunatics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heavy\\ restraints\\,\\ copious\\ bleeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pay\\ fee\\ to\\ see\\ insane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phillippe\\ Pinel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ western\\ Europe\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotional\\ forces\\ causes\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Treatment\\ of\\ the\\ psychological\\ origins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kirkbride\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recreate\\ a\\ stable\\,\\ disciplined\\,\\ respectful\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Optimistic\\ phase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Take\\ people\\ out\\ environment\\ that\\ causes\\ their\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Milieu\\ therapy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ regular\\ routine\\,\\ work\\,\\ neatness\\;\\ counteract\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Set\\ away\\ from\\ city\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Originally\\ served\\ few\\ \\#\\ of\\ people\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ return\\ them\\ to\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Development\\ of\\ cities\\ leads\\ to\\ rise\\ in\\ patient\\ \\#s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Became\\ custodial\\ \\+\\ imprisonment\\ rational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ built\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ public\\ representation\\ of\\ aid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therapeutic\\ benefit\\?\\ Or\\ social\\ intolerance\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\1832\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\1849\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Disease\\ Etiology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Atmospheric\\ and\\ miasmal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ bred\\ by\\ filth\\,\\ predisposition\\ for\\ the\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ non\\ contagious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ no\\ ontology\\ \\(disease\\ can\\ morph\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ monistic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Pseudogerm\\ theory\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;portable\\&rdquo\\;\\ disease\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\micro\\-organismic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\germ\\ theory\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ Snow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ by\\ products\\ of\\ disease\\ process\\ transferred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Religious\\ causation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Wrath\\ of\\ god\\ on\\ predisposed\\ \\=\\ judgment\\ \\(almost\\ a\\ primary\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\more\\ of\\ a\\ secondary\\ cause\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ God\\ create\\ micro\\-organisms\\ which\\ attack\\ indignant\\:\\ still\\ a\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\God\\ is\\ secondary\\ if\\ not\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Medical\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Heroic\\:\\ megadoses\\ of\\ calomel\\,\\ bleeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ real\\ consensus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Homeopathic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ physician\\ has\\ fallen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Preventative\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Council\\ of\\ hygiene\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ permanent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clean\\ up\\ \\=\\ effective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Medical\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Attempt\\ to\\ clean\\ cities\\ \\(fail\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Temporary\\ health\\ boards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ political\\ restraints\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ avoid\\ commercial\\ loss\\ before\\ declaring\\ epidemic\\ and\\ establish\\ quarantine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Makeshift\\ hospitals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;public\\ is\\ resistant\\ to\\ them\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ stigma\\ and\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ infection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disorganized\\,\\ health\\ boards\\ are\\ still\\ temporary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implement\\ quarantine\\ earlier\\ \\(still\\ fails\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carte\\ Blanche\\ give\\ to\\ Board\\ \\(still\\ fails\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Public\\ Health\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Immorality\\ \\=\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ provides\\ predisposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ alcoholism\\,\\ sexual\\ promiscuity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;working\\ poor\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ temperate\\,\\ ideal\\ \\=\\ the\\ mechanic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poor\\ \\=\\ oppressed\\ and\\ put\\ into\\ conditions\\ which\\ cause\\ the\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Still\\ strong\\ morality\\-health\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RACE\\,\\ MEDICINE\\,\\ AND\\ SCIENCE\\:\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ authority\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Themes\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\character\\ of\\ AA\\ health\\ care\\ and\\ health\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Character\\ of\\ scientific\\ racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ of\\ Slavery\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anxiety\\ over\\ their\\ economic\\ investment\\ \\(Murrel\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fear\\ of\\ infection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fear\\ they\\ would\\ fake\\ it\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plantations\\ have\\ full\\ time\\ nurse\\/midwives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Injuries\\ cared\\ for\\,\\ garments\\ to\\ protect\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ have\\ separate\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Want\\ to\\ avoid\\ remedies\\ given\\ by\\ overseers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ avoid\\ heroics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Want\\ to\\ use\\ their\\ own\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Separate\\ religion\\/\\ therapeutics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\25\\%\\ higher\\ death\\ rate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\12\\%\\ lower\\ life\\ expectancy\\ \\~\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ far\\ from\\ working\\ class\\ whites\\ in\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\/10\\ of\\ live\\ births\\ dead\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infanticide\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1790\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1860\\:\\ 70\\,000\\ deaths\\ due\\ to\\ smothering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overwork\\?\\ Neglect\\?\\ Sudden\\ infant\\ death\\ syndrome\\?\\ \\(2\\-4\\ months\\;\\ rarer\\ in\\ summers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ women\\ worked\\ up\\ to\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;month\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ poor\\ nutrition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SCIENTIFIC\\ RACISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Attempts\\ to\\ legitimize\\ slavery\\;\\ inferiority\\ based\\ on\\ biological\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ those\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ equality\\ believed\\ in\\ inferiority\\ of\\ intellect\\ \\(Ben\\ Franklin\\,\\ Abe\\ Lincoln\\,\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ study\\ of\\ differences\\ in\\ human\\ and\\ animal\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monogenism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ humans\\ come\\ from\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Samuel\\ Stanhope\\ Smith\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\African\\ degeneracy\\ based\\ on\\ geographical\\ differences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hope\\ that\\ black\\ can\\ return\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polygenism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ bible\\ is\\ allegorical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ human\\ races\\ are\\ different\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lewis\\ Agassi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;splitter\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fears\\ of\\ intermarriage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ enfeeblement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morton\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ student\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Collect\\ skulls\\:\\ rank\\ races\\ by\\ skull\\ size\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ brain\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fill\\ in\\ with\\ white\\ mustard\\ seed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ measure\\ cubic\\ dimension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Hard\\ science\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;data\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Skulls\\ of\\ man\\ and\\ inferior\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ AA\\ on\\ bottom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\REALITY\\:\\ no\\ difference\\ in\\ size\\ of\\ skulls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\FRAUD\\?\\ Force\\ of\\ a\\ prioi\\ assumptions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Josehia\\ Nott\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\niggerology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anxiety\\ over\\ hybridity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;search\\ for\\ scientific\\ background\\ to\\ refrain\\ from\\ intermarriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cartwright\\ follower\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implications\\ for\\ slave\\ healthcare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diesthetia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ inadequate\\ breathing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explains\\ child\\ like\\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ push\\ them\\ too\\ hard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Insensitive\\ to\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drepedomania\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ insane\\ desire\\ to\\ run\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1859\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Origins\\ of\\ Species\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ preservation\\ of\\ favored\\ species\\ for\\ origins\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frederick\\ Hoffman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\statistician\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Race\\ traits\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inferior\\ organisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immorality\\ \\=\\ race\\ trait\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ syphillus\\,\\ consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traced\\ out\\ ultimate\\ decline\\ of\\ race\\ without\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WOMEN\\,\\ MEDICINE\\,\\ AND\\ SCIENCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\WOMEN\\:\\ Major\\ role\\ of\\ cycles\\ of\\ pregrancy\\ \\+\\ birth\\ \\(white\\:\\ 7\\;\\ slave\\:\\ 10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motherhood\\ \\=\\ essential\\ aspect\\ of\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ maternal\\ deaths\\:\\ 1\\/30\\ could\\ die\\ from\\ childbirth\\ in\\ lifetime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frailer\\,\\ smaller\\ skulls\\,\\ different\\ nervous\\ system\\,\\ emotional\\,\\ anxious\\,\\ prisoner\\ to\\ morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stronger\\ in\\ morals\\ than\\ men\\;\\ men\\ are\\ strong\\ in\\ politics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Education\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Education\\ is\\ intolerable\\ in\\ female\\ underdeveloped\\ brains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Site\\ Darwin\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;biological\\ determinism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reduce\\ difference\\ in\\ social\\ status\\ to\\ biological\\ roots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ \\&ldquo\\;can\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rdquo\\;\\ practice\\ medicine\\:\\ saves\\ jobs\\ for\\ men\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biology\\ sets\\ limits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ should\\ study\\ 1\\/3\\ less\\ than\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ colleges\\ need\\ gym\\,\\ recreation\\,\\ rest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edward\\ Clark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limited\\ about\\ of\\ vital\\ energy\\ in\\ the\\ female\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\ steals\\ energy\\ from\\ uterus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medical\\ training\\ \\=\\ desensitization\\ \\=\\ bad\\ mothers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ need\\ to\\ stay\\ home\\ to\\ control\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ immorality\\ and\\ animalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Feminine\\ lifestyle\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Corsets\\,\\ late\\ nights\\,\\ at\\ balls\\;\\ lack\\ of\\ physical\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nurturing\\ quality\\ is\\ ideal\\ for\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inappropriateness\\ of\\ intimacy\\ of\\ medical\\ exam\\ by\\ male\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ should\\ have\\ female\\ doctors\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ educate\\ them\\ without\\ destroying\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ are\\ committing\\ race\\ suicide\\:\\ reducing\\ their\\ fertility\\ by\\ educating\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remain\\ in\\ obstetrics\\,\\ gynecology\\,\\ public\\ health\\,\\ pediatrics\\:\\ NURTURING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elizabeth\\ Blackwell\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\first\\ female\\ physician\\;\\ studied\\ at\\ Geneva\\ Medical\\ College\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alfred\\ Galay\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ are\\ unfit\\ for\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uncertainty\\ of\\ rational\\ judgment\\,\\ hesitancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\AMA\\ advocating\\ antiabortion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nature\\ of\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;voluntary\\ motherhood\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ medical\\ authority\\ to\\ gain\\ stature\\ in\\ moral\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 32, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Midterm_Study_Guide_I.doc", "desc": "Midterm 1 Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 18:35:06.652243+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Metaphysical Lecture Notes lecture 1", "tags": ["notes", "metaphysical"], "text": null, "id": 72, "html": "\\\\\\April\\_4\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c3\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\April\\ 4\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphysical\\ Poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ TEST\\ \\(out\\ of\\ 30\\ points\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\ five\\ point\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Short\\ answers\\&hellip\\;\\ 4\\-5\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;10\\ points\\ on\\ short\\ questions\\&hellip\\;\\ one\\ word\\ answers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Possible\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Who\\ wrote\\ this\\ poem\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Was\\ Donne\\ the\\ same\\ person\\ when\\ he\\ wrote\\ the\\ first\\ anniversary\\ and\\ the\\ second\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ metaphysical\\ selfhood\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(probably\\ not\\ a\\ one\\ point\\ question\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-For\\ whom\\ are\\ the\\ Anneversaries\\ written\\?\\ \\ \\;Elizabeth\\ Drury\\&hellip\\;\\ written\\ for\\ the\\ parents\\ actually\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-First\\ anniversary\\ addressed\\ to\\ the\\ world\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ second\\ to\\ his\\ soul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Which\\ English\\ poet\\ did\\ Donne\\ act\\ against\\,\\ why\\,\\ what\\ are\\ his\\ characteristics\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Spenser\\,\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-What\\ was\\ Donne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religion\\?\\ \\ \\;Roman\\ Catholic\\&hellip\\;then\\,\\ an\\ Anglican\\ priest\\ \\(the\\ dean\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cathedral\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-St\\.\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ the\\ great\\ Cathedral\\ of\\ London\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Where\\ did\\ Donne\\ go\\ to\\ school\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Oxford\\&hellip\\;\\ specifically\\,\\ Hart\\ Hall\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ avoid\\ chapel\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Recusant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\ somebody\\ who\\ does\\ not\\ go\\ to\\ mass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ never\\ got\\ a\\ degree\\,\\ because\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ subscribe\\ to\\ the\\ 39\\ articles\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ of\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Catholics\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ degrees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Where\\ did\\ he\\ go\\ after\\ University\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Lincoln\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Inn\\&hellip\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ Inns\\ at\\ Court\\ \\(technically\\ a\\ law\\ school\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-There\\ he\\ wrote\\ poetry\\,\\ worked\\ connections\\,\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ gentleman\\&hellip\\;\\ there\\ was\\ almost\\ no\\ study\\ of\\ law\\ actually\\ done\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Donne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ military\\ experience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ sailed\\ on\\ the\\ two\\ expeditions\\ of\\ the\\ Earle\\ of\\ Essex\\ in\\ battles\\ against\\ Spain\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ Cadiz\\ and\\ the\\ Azore\\ Islands\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ was\\ a\\ gentleman\\ adventurer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-two\\ famous\\ poems\\:\\ THE\\ STORM\\ and\\ THE\\ CALM\\ written\\ during\\ the\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Military\\ service\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ was\\ a\\ common\\ soldier\\ in\\ the\\ army\\&hellip\\;\\ He\\ fought\\ in\\ the\\ Netherlands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ saw\\ little\\ action\\ until\\ he\\ made\\ some\\ for\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ military\\ pervades\\ his\\ mentality\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ power\\ for\\ Donne\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ the\\ Metaphysical\\ poets\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ metaphysicals\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Term\\ used\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ Johnson\\ in\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Life\\ of\\ Cooley\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(sp\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ other\\ school\\ is\\ the\\ Cavalier\\ poets\\ \\(Johnson\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-so\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ a\\ violation\\ to\\ include\\ Johnson\\ in\\ this\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ third\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ school\\ \\(very\\ rarely\\ read\\)\\ was\\ the\\ Neo\\-Spenserian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-William\\ Drummond\\ of\\ Hawthorndon\\ \\(was\\ a\\ member\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Johnson\\ showed\\ him\\ the\\ true\\ avant\\-garde\\ style\\ in\\ his\\ visit\\ to\\ Scotland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Giles\\ and\\ Phineas\\ Fletcher\\ \\(two\\ brothers\\ and\\ members\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Donne\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\coterie\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Meaning\\ that\\ his\\ poems\\ were\\ unpublished\\&hellip\\;\\ just\\ circulated\\ among\\ his\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poems\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Johnson\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;An\\ epistle\\ to\\ a\\ friend\\ to\\ persuade\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;To\\ Penshurst\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Cary\\ Morrison\\ ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Donne\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ second\\ anniversary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ first\\ Elegy\\:\\ The\\ bracelet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Storm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Calm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Donne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bracelet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-There\\ is\\ the\\ whole\\ situation\\ of\\ having\\ to\\ melt\\ down\\ the\\ 12\\ coins\\ \\(Angels\\)\\ to\\ remake\\ a\\ bracelet\\ of\\ his\\ girlfriend\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ lost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ fallen\\ angels\\ and\\ righteous\\ angels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Metaphysical\\ question\\ of\\ change\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-When\\ the\\ coins\\ are\\ changed\\,\\ melted\\&hellip\\;\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ something\\ different\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ something\\ \\(substance\\ rather\\ than\\ form\\)\\ remains\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-That\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ metaphysical\\ distinction\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\matter\\ and\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ distinction\\ held\\ its\\ place\\ until\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ chemistry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Substance\\ \\(etymologically\\&hellip\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ which\\ stands\\ below\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\:\\ that\\ is\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ shape\\ or\\ form\\ that\\ is\\ imposed\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ with\\ an\\ angel\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ essence\\ through\\ and\\ through\\&hellip\\;\\ thus\\ the\\ coins\\ can\\ never\\ lose\\ their\\ angelic\\ presence\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ form\\ changes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ worldview\\ was\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ innate\\ metaphysical\\ substance\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ substance\\ and\\ form\\ distinction\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ Aristotle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ form\\ is\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ humans\\ give\\ form\\ to\\ something\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-we\\ shape\\ or\\ fashion\\ something\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ are\\ serious\\ metaphysical\\ questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-What\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ for\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ what\\ it\\ is\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ there\\ only\\ a\\ matter\\ for\\ distinction\\?\\ \\ \\;He\\ plays\\ with\\ these\\ questions\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ben\\ Johnson\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\To\\ Penshurst\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ metaphysical\\ question\\:\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ an\\ architectural\\ structure\\ and\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\home\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ notion\\ of\\ place\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ personal\\ history\\ \\(a\\ charged\\ psychic\\ energy\\ that\\ one\\ associates\\ with\\ a\\ place\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ matter\\/form\\ distinction\\ is\\ less\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Instead\\,\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ draw\\ forth\\ an\\ essence\\ from\\ the\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-When\\ all\\ the\\ peasants\\ come\\ in\\ \\(clown\\ \\=\\ a\\ migrant\\ worker\\&hellip\\;\\ farmer\\ \\=\\ the\\ landowner\\ \\[high\\ social\\ status\\]\\)\\ and\\ voluntarily\\ pay\\ tribute\\ to\\ the\\ lord\\ by\\ sending\\ money\\,\\ food\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;ripe\\&rdquo\\;\\ daughters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ compares\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ripe\\&rdquo\\;\\ daughters\\ to\\ pares\\ or\\ plums\\ \\(the\\ fruit\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;An\\ emblem\\ of\\ themselves\\ in\\ plum\\ or\\ pare\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ ripe\\ fruit\\ represents\\&hellip\\;\\ their\\ parents\\ have\\ sent\\ them\\ with\\ that\\ fruit\\ to\\ bear\\ that\\ message\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ fruit\\ that\\ they\\ carry\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ as\\ their\\ own\\ readiness\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ that\\ fruit\\ and\\ reproduce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-there\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ character\\ to\\ this\\ symbol\\&hellip\\;\\ a\\ mystification\\ of\\ fertility\\ in\\ the\\ earth\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ social\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ inherently\\ social\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ most\\ important\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ welcomed\\ is\\ King\\ James\\ \\(hierarchy\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ lady\\ was\\ away\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ comfortably\\ accommodated\\ without\\ difficulty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ virtue\\ of\\ high\\ housewifery\\ made\\ this\\ possible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Does\\ Penshurst\\ have\\ a\\ presence\\?\\ \\ \\;A\\ presence\\ like\\ those\\ gold\\ coins\\ \\(angels\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-What\\ troubles\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ Penshurst\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ intrusion\\ onto\\ the\\ disharmony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Is\\ Penshurst\\ the\\ house\\,\\ the\\ stream\\,\\ the\\ woods\\,\\ the\\ fields\\,\\ the\\ visit\\ of\\ King\\ James\\ \\(no\\&hellip\\;\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ entire\\ gestalt\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ place\\&hellip\\;\\ a\\ distribution\\ geographically\\ and\\ temporally\\ that\\ combines\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ place\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-It\\ requires\\ a\\ god\\-like\\ exteriority\\ to\\ comprehend\\ the\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Penshurst\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ single\\ thing\\&hellip\\;\\ instead\\,\\ Penshurst\\ is\\ the\\ managing\\ of\\ interactions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Breeding\\ is\\ essential\\ for\\ this\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Presence\\ for\\ Johnson\\ is\\ a\\ mystery\\&hellip\\;\\ manners\\,\\ arts\\,\\ and\\ arms\\ \\(nobility\\)\\ are\\ all\\ mysteries\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cary\\ Morrison\\ Ode\\ \\(p\\.\\ 211\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ notion\\ of\\ presence\\ arises\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ ritual\\ of\\ dining\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Presence\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ immediate\\ physical\\ but\\ Johnson\\ elevates\\ the\\ presence\\ into\\ complex\\ social\\ relations\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-simply\\ calling\\ a\\ life\\ good\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ long\\ is\\ a\\ vulgar\\ approach\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ best\\ life\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ has\\ proportion\\,\\ relationship\\,\\ and\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Perfect\\ \\(etymologically\\&hellip\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;built\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ through\\,\\ pursued\\ to\\ an\\ end\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ teleological\\ notion\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 31, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/April_4.doc", "desc": "Classnotes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Medicine and Society - Midterm 2 Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "medicine", "society"], "text": null, "id": 77, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\_Study\\_Guide\\_II\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c34\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:24pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c46\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\;padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c36\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c50\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0\\.7pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c53\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\}\\.c48\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:75pt\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c20\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\;text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c40\\{padding\\-left\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\;text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c32\\{padding\\-left\\:30pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c41\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:81pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c29\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:27pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c38\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c52\\{margin\\-left\\:81pt\\}\\.c43\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c35\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c42\\{padding\\-left\\:3pt\\}\\.c13\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c33\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.c47\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c9\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c25\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c51\\{padding\\-left\\:48pt\\}\\.c44\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c39\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:57pt\\}\\.c55\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c49\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c54\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\History\\ Study\\ A34\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trans\\-Atlantic\\ Epidemiology\\ \\(Sept\\.\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Disease\\ and\\ Social\\ Order\\ in\\ America\\:\\ Perceptions\\ and\\ Expectations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ E\\.\\ Rosenberg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Available\\ in\\ source\\ pack\\:\\ pg\\.\\ 1\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 1\\ Reading\\:\\ Trans\\-Atlantic\\ Epidemiology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\:\\ Appropriate\\ social\\ response\\ to\\ disease\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Are\\ diseases\\ simply\\ labels\\ for\\ social\\ deviance\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*Is\\ homosexuality\\ a\\ disease\\?\\ Premenstrual\\ syndrome\\ in\\ women\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Main\\ theme\\:\\ disease\\ only\\ exists\\ when\\ society\\ acknowledges\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Presumed\\ because\\ disease\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ phenomenon\\ until\\ it\\ is\\ somehow\\ presumed\\ as\\ existing\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;disease\\ is\\ constructed\\ not\\ discovered\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenberg\\ sees\\ the\\ physician\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ actor\\ attempting\\ to\\ legitimize\\ professional\\,\\ class\\ or\\ gender\\ interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AIDS\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ model\\ because\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ interaction\\ between\\ biological\\ and\\ social\\ factors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ new\\ knowledge\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ disease\\ is\\ more\\ ambiguous\\ instead\\ of\\ less\\ ambiguous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\:\\ Men\\ of\\ Good\\ Will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Men\\ of\\ good\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ 1930s\\ and\\ 1940s\\ shared\\ an\\ optimistic\\ faith\\ in\\ science\\ and\\ medicine\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;more\\ humane\\,\\ healthy\\ and\\ enlightened\\ society\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prominent\\ man\\ of\\ good\\ will\\:\\ Henry\\ Sigerist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saw\\ disease\\ as\\ an\\ actual\\ pathological\\ phenomenon\\;\\ not\\ simply\\ a\\ social\\ construct\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ his\\ contemporaries\\ regardless\\ of\\ political\\ affiliation\\ believed\\ that\\ science\\ would\\ improve\\ mankind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Science\\ could\\ be\\ misused\\ as\\ the\\ Nazi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ did\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ \\&lsquo\\;false\\ priests\\ of\\ a\\ true\\ religion\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ religion\\ being\\ eugenics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reformers\\ of\\ Sigerist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ generation\\:\\ disease\\ often\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ social\\ arrangements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Health\\ was\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ home\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Health\\ can\\ be\\ achieved\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ high\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\,\\ in\\ which\\ good\\ medical\\ care\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ essential\\ elements\\&rdquo\\;\\(3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ generation\\ does\\ not\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ optimism\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ of\\ good\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\:\\ Evolving\\ Concepts\\ of\\ Disease\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1800\\ sickness\\ conceived\\ in\\ individual\\ terms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disease\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ unbalanced\\ state\\ within\\ an\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;There\\ were\\ no\\ rigid\\ boundaries\\ between\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\ or\\ between\\ individual\\ and\\ environment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ explanations\\ for\\ diseases\\,\\ even\\ epidemic\\ diseases\\ were\\ always\\ material\\ and\\ rationalistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ norms\\ explained\\ why\\ the\\ drunkard\\,\\ financial\\ speculator\\ and\\ glutton\\ succumbed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cholera\\,\\ which\\ Rosenberg\\ compares\\ to\\ modern\\ day\\ AIDS\\,\\ was\\ linked\\ to\\ social\\ norms\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ reducing\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ randomness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ medical\\ thinkers\\ believed\\ the\\ specific\\ cause\\ of\\ disease\\ would\\ always\\ be\\ beyond\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ understanding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ time\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ increasing\\ divide\\ between\\ the\\ lay\\ people\\ and\\ medical\\ professionals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sickness\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;discrete\\ material\\ phenomenon\\,\\ best\\ understood\\ by\\ the\\ tools\\ of\\ science\\ and\\ best\\ treated\\ by\\ individuals\\ who\\ had\\ mastered\\ those\\ tools\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lay\\ people\\ have\\ increasing\\ faith\\ in\\ medicine\\:\\ medical\\ discoveries\\ became\\ front\\-page\\ news\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ field\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scholarship\\ now\\ seen\\ also\\ through\\ lab\\ research\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ tendency\\ of\\ society\\ to\\ define\\ deviance\\ as\\ the\\ consequence\\ of\\ disease\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ a\\ disease\\/deviance\\ when\\ can\\ blame\\ heredity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\:\\ Contradictions\\ and\\ Crisis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;widely\\ perceived\\ area\\ social\\ tension\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychiatry\\ lacks\\ mechanism\\ specific\\ understanding\\ of\\ syndromes\\ it\\ treats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ tensions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relationship\\ between\\ medical\\ men\\,\\ patients\\ and\\ health\\ insurance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inability\\ to\\ reduce\\ all\\ diseases\\ to\\ discrete\\,\\ specific\\ definitions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ meaning\\ of\\ disease\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theme\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ \\ \\;the\\ meaning\\ of\\ disease\\-has\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ decade\\ become\\ more\\ rather\\ than\\ less\\ ambiguous\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ with\\ cholera\\:\\ much\\ talk\\ about\\ predisposition\\ due\\ to\\ poverty\\ and\\ all\\ social\\ ills\\;\\ the\\ mid\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Americans\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ regimen\\:\\ diet\\ and\\ exercise\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\:\\ Conclusion\\:\\ The\\ Social\\ Construction\\ of\\ AIDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\AIDS\\ appeared\\ like\\ cholera\\:\\ we\\ were\\ completely\\ unprepared\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ society\\ frames\\ illness\\:\\ finding\\ reasons\\ to\\ exempt\\ and\\ reassure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ response\\ reflects\\ the\\ fragmentation\\ of\\ society\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religious\\ cause\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\ is\\ telling\\ us\\ to\\ halt\\ promiscuity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ look\\ to\\ medical\\ authorities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ knowledge\\ of\\ AIDS\\ changes\\ so\\ do\\ choices\\ and\\ perceptions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medicine\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ disease\\ is\\ viewed\\ reflects\\ various\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ within\\ which\\ it\\ occurs\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Crosby\\,\\ Alfred\\ \\&ldquo\\;Virgin\\ Soil\\ Epidemics\\ s\\ \\ \\;factor\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Jennifer\\ Neeper\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Jones\\,\\ David\\ \\&ldquo\\;Virgin\\ Soils\\ Revisited\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Native\\ American\\ therapeutics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Decimation\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Indian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Population\\ declined\\ by\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ 95\\%\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ century\\ after\\ Columbus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mortality\\ from\\ smallpox\\,\\ measles\\,\\ tuberculosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ McNeill\\ and\\ Alfred\\ W\\ Crosby\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;inevitable\\ result\\ of\\ contact\\ between\\ disease\\-experienced\\ Old\\ World\\&hellip\\;and\\ \\&ldquo\\;virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ populations\\ of\\ the\\ Americas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;immunologic\\ inadequacy\\ \\&ldquo\\;neither\\ immune\\ or\\ genetic\\ resistance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crosby\\ emphasized\\ environment\\ over\\ genetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\REVISIT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specific\\ effect\\ of\\ genetic\\ predisposition\\ is\\ unknowable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ dependent\\ on\\ physical\\,\\ economic\\,\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ environments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;immunologically\\ naive\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;but\\ could\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ genetic\\ handicaps\\ \\(racial\\)\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ exposure\\ to\\ diseases\\ as\\ children\\,\\ or\\ effects\\ of\\ colonization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ chaos\\ of\\ encounter\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ accepted\\ the\\ natural\\ selection\\ view\\ \\-\\ New\\ World\\ populations\\ \\&ldquo\\;had\\ not\\ been\\ selected\\ over\\ time\\ for\\ resistance\\ to\\ these\\ diseases\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jared\\ Diamond\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ history\\ followed\\ from\\ geography\\ and\\ race\\ had\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ about\\ environmental\\ differences\\,\\ but\\ over\\ time\\ these\\ differences\\ manifested\\ themselves\\ in\\ immune\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Epidemics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;independent\\ of\\ human\\ intention\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Euroamericans\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ beneficiaries\\ of\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ tens\\ of\\ millions\\ of\\ Indians\\;\\ Africans\\ were\\ enslaved\\ and\\ brought\\ to\\ the\\ Americas\\ to\\ provide\\ labor\\ as\\ Indians\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virgin\\ soil\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mitigating\\ guilt\\ onto\\ or\\ away\\ from\\ American\\ Indians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Purity\\ infiltrated\\ and\\ destroyed\\ by\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Makes\\ 4\\ basic\\ claims\\ \\:\\ 1\\.\\)\\ many\\ American\\ Indians\\ died\\ 2\\.\\)\\ they\\ died\\ of\\ European\\ diseases\\ 3\\.\\)\\ they\\ had\\ not\\ be\\ previously\\ exposed\\ 4\\.\\)\\ cause\\ and\\ effect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;virginity\\ left\\ them\\ vulnerable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Massive\\ mortality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ colonists\\ estimated\\ 90\\-95\\%\\ \\-\\ exact\\ numbers\\ unknown\\,\\ but\\ definitely\\ \\&ldquo\\;unprecedented\\/overwhelming\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Countless\\ were\\ killed\\ through\\ war\\,\\ starvation\\,\\ neglect\\,\\ and\\ hunting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ largely\\ by\\ germs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ Indians\\ lived\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;disease\\ free\\ paradise\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hunted\\ large\\ mammals\\ to\\ extinction\\&hellip\\;so\\ if\\ first\\ Natives\\ were\\ bad\\ hunters\\,\\ the\\ descendents\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;domesticate\\ the\\ indigenous\\ American\\ horse\\ and\\ camel\\,\\ providing\\ them\\ with\\ an\\ invisible\\ arsenal\\ of\\ microbes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HOWEVER\\,\\ these\\ notions\\ were\\ weakened\\ by\\ skeletal\\ analysis\\.\\ American\\ Indians\\ pre\\-Columbus\\ seemed\\ spared\\ from\\ ravages\\ of\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delves\\ into\\ technical\\ components\\ of\\ immunity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\,\\ all\\ of\\ it\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ statements\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ immunity\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ comparisons\\ of\\ American\\ Indians\\ to\\ those\\ afflicted\\ with\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ has\\ no\\ substance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CONLUSION\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ virgin\\ soil\\ epidemics\\ may\\ have\\ arisen\\ due\\ to\\ forces\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ poverty\\,\\ malnutrition\\,\\ environmental\\ stress\\,\\ dislocation\\,\\ and\\ social\\ disparity\\&hellip\\;need\\ to\\ replace\\ claims\\ of\\ no\\ immunity\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;heterogeneous\\ analyses\\ that\\ situate\\ the\\ mortality\\ of\\ the\\ epidemics\\ in\\ specific\\ social\\ and\\ environmental\\ contexts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Sept\\ 18\\,\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ ideas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Throughout\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ history\\ we\\ will\\ study\\ in\\ this\\ class\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ decline\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ deaths\\ from\\ disease\\ due\\ to\\ several\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Change\\ in\\ living\\ style\\ and\\ hygiene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tuberculosis\\ has\\ died\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Better\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industrial\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Epidemiological\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Age\\ expectancy\\ is\\ increasing\\ in\\ the\\ US\\;\\ not\\ long\\ ago\\ less\\ than\\ 4\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ was\\ over\\ 65\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ estimated\\ that\\ in\\ 2010\\,\\ more\\ than\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ will\\ be\\ over\\ 65\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Primary\\ causes\\ of\\ disease\\ in\\ 200\\ were\\ tobacco\\ and\\ poor\\ diet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Stigmatized\\ diseases\\ include\\ AIDS\\,\\ polio\\,\\ head\\ lice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Although\\ hospitals\\ are\\ common\\ now\\,\\ an\\ estimated\\ \\$10\\,000\\,000\\ is\\ spent\\ out\\ of\\ pocket\\ on\\ alternative\\ treatments\\ for\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ respond\\ when\\ people\\ get\\ sick\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ when\\ they\\ get\\ sick\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ they\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ doctor\\ or\\ seek\\ other\\ care\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ would\\ we\\ characterize\\ doctor\\/patient\\ relationships\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ are\\ some\\ people\\ more\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ disease\\ and\\ others\\ more\\ resilient\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ disease\\ in\\ a\\ culture\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Sept\\ 20\\,\\ 2006\\-11\\-02\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ ideas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Venn\\ diagram\\ of\\ three\\ overlapping\\ circles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Burden\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biomedicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ People\\ get\\ sick\\ because\\ of\\ macroparasitism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Example\\ of\\ stigmatized\\ disease\\:\\ head\\ lice\\ \\(can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fly\\ or\\ jump\\,\\ so\\ direct\\ contact\\ is\\ necessary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Humans\\&rsquo\\;\\ susceptibility\\ to\\ disease\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ many\\ factors\\,\\ including\\ stress\\ levels\\;\\ throughout\\ history\\,\\ people\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ organisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Diseases\\ can\\ be\\ passed\\ by\\ droplets\\ from\\ nose\\/mouth\\,\\ mosquitoes\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\,\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ fairly\\ isolated\\ people\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ possible\\ that\\ when\\ they\\ crossed\\ over\\ the\\ Bering\\ Strait\\,\\ the\\ microorganisms\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ survived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Virgin\\ Soil\\ Epidemics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ cultures\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ Native\\ Americans\\)\\ never\\ before\\ exposed\\ to\\ certain\\ organisms\\ are\\ incredibly\\ vulnerable\\ when\\ they\\ come\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ recognized\\ in\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\ in\\ the\\ Bacteriological\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Case\\ study\\:\\ Chicken\\ Pox\\.\\ \\ \\;1950s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ someone\\ got\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ neighborhood\\,\\ children\\ were\\ encouraged\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ contract\\ it\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;1995\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ vaccine\\ came\\ out\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ unclear\\ how\\ long\\ this\\ will\\ last\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1616\\-1619\\:\\ Cape\\ Cod\\ to\\ Maine\\:\\ epidemic\\ known\\ as\\ plague\\ \\(chicken\\ pox\\ or\\ shingles\\?\\)\\,\\ and\\ very\\ few\\ Native\\ Americans\\ survived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Infectious\\ diseases\\ are\\ often\\ caused\\ by\\ and\\ also\\ aggravate\\ nutrition\\,\\ making\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ get\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Throughout\\ history\\,\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;hungry\\ periods\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ people\\ knew\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ enough\\ to\\ eat\\,\\ so\\ disease\\ was\\ more\\ prevalent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ William\\ Bradford\\ and\\ the\\ colonists\\ explained\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ God\\ clearing\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\)\\ Colonial\\ Therapeutics\\ \\(Sept\\.\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Christianson\\,\\ E\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Medicine\\ In\\ New\\ England\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Neil\\ Chandra\\ Murthy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ulrich\\,\\ Laurel\\ Thatcher\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Midwife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Tale\\:\\ The\\ Life\\ of\\ Martha\\ Ballard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Pgs\\.\\ 3\\-40\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Tim\\ Schmidt\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laurel\\ T\\.\\ Ulrich\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Midwive\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Tale\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pages\\ 40\\-72\\ \\(sarah\\ lieber\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ is\\ an\\ outline\\ of\\ the\\ important\\ key\\ themes\\ in\\ this\\ reading\\ passage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Midwifery\\ as\\ an\\ extensive\\,\\ complex\\ role\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Martha\\ Ballard\\ not\\ only\\ performed\\ deliveries\\,\\ but\\ also\\ made\\ general\\ medical\\ calls\\,\\ prepared\\ bodies\\ for\\ burial\\,\\ dispensed\\ medications\\ to\\ people\\,\\ prepared\\ balms\\ and\\ herbs\\ for\\ people\\,\\ managed\\ and\\ treated\\ her\\ own\\ family\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ providing\\ an\\ important\\ chronicle\\ of\\ her\\ town\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ulrich\\ discusses\\ how\\ in\\ western\\ tradition\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ midwife\\ has\\ inspired\\ some\\ fear\\ and\\ disdain\\ \\(p\\.\\ 46\\)\\.\\ Doctors\\ might\\ have\\ dismissed\\ midwives\\ for\\ their\\ lack\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ Ulrich\\ argues\\ that\\ in\\ early\\ colonialism\\,\\ midwives\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;she\\ writes\\ \\&ldquo\\;Midwives\\ and\\ nurses\\ mediated\\ the\\ mysteries\\ of\\ birth\\,\\ procreation\\,\\ illness\\,\\ and\\ death\\.\\ They\\ touched\\ the\\ untouchable\\,\\ handled\\ excrement\\ and\\ vomit\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ milk\\,\\ swaddled\\ the\\ dead\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ newborn\\.\\ They\\ brewed\\ medicines\\ from\\ plants\\ and\\ roots\\,\\ and\\ presided\\ over\\ neighborhood\\ gatherings\\ of\\ women\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 47\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ only\\ male\\ physicians\\ were\\ identified\\ by\\ the\\ label\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Doctor\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Ulrich\\ thinks\\ to\\ call\\ female\\ practice\\ of\\ medicine\\ \\&ldquo\\;folk\\ medicine\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;domestic\\ medicine\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ misguided\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;it\\ fails\\ to\\ reflect\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ female\\ practices\\ of\\ healing\\ \\(p\\.\\ 61\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*essentially\\,\\ midwives\\ are\\ important\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ many\\ roles\\ they\\ fulfill\\ in\\ community\\.\\ Plus\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ doing\\ what\\ perhaps\\ other\\ medical\\ providers\\ \\(like\\ physicians\\)\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ do\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ burying\\ the\\ dead\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martha\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ as\\ herbalist\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;her\\ references\\ reflect\\ the\\ practices\\ of\\ English\\ botanic\\ medicine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Martha\\ administered\\ herbs\\ internally\\ as\\ teas\\,\\ decoctions\\,\\ syrups\\,\\ pills\\,\\ clisters\\,\\ vapors\\,\\ and\\ smoke\\ and\\ externally\\ in\\ poultices\\,\\ plasters\\,\\ blisters\\,\\ cataplasms\\,\\ baths\\,\\ ointments\\,\\ and\\ salves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 50\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctrine\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;signatures\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Martha\\ uses\\ saffron\\,\\ a\\ yellow\\ plant\\,\\ to\\ treat\\ jaundice\\ because\\ it\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ obvious\\ cure\\ for\\ yellow\\ skin\\.\\ We\\ discussed\\ this\\ same\\ principle\\ that\\ influenced\\ colonial\\ therapeutics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Empiricism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Ulrich\\ describes\\ Martha\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;empiric\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;a\\ person\\ unconcerned\\ with\\ theory\\.\\ Her\\ own\\ descriptions\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ her\\ most\\ immediate\\ concern\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ her\\ patients\\ feel\\ better\\&hellip\\;Beyond\\ the\\ physical\\ comfort\\ of\\ hot\\ tea\\ or\\ a\\ soothing\\ syrup\\ was\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ an\\ idea\\:\\ Nature\\ offered\\ solutions\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ problems\\.\\ Remedies\\ for\\ illness\\ could\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\ world\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ itself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 53\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ humoralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ emphasis\\ on\\ expulsion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;pukes\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;purges\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ were\\ thought\\ to\\ have\\ cured\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\entire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\organism\\,\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ gastrointestinal\\ system\\,\\ since\\ all\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ were\\ considered\\ related\\ \\(p\\.\\ 54\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ therapies\\:\\ Festering\\ \\(55\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;application\\ of\\ local\\ irritants\\ so\\ that\\ skin\\ would\\ blister\\ and\\ release\\ watery\\ discharge\\.\\ All\\ these\\ external\\ remedies\\ were\\ though\\ to\\ treat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\internal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\problems\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bloodletting\\ \\(56\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;she\\ notes\\ how\\ the\\ doctors\\ \\(Page\\ and\\ Colman\\ specifically\\)\\ bled\\ their\\ patients\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relations\\ b\\/w\\ multiple\\ health\\ care\\ providers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Martha\\ mentions\\ her\\ relations\\ to\\ other\\ town\\ healers\\ including\\ the\\ physicians\\ Daniel\\ Condy\\,\\ Samuel\\ Colman\\ \\(1780s\\)\\,\\ Benjamin\\ Page\\ \\(1791\\)\\ and\\ Benjamin\\ Vaughan\\ \\(1796\\)\\ \\(p\\.\\ 48\\-9\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Martha\\ was\\ respectful\\,\\ even\\ deferential\\,\\ toward\\ the\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\,\\ but\\ the\\ world\\ she\\ described\\ was\\ sustained\\ by\\ women\\&hellip\\;dozens\\ of\\ others\\,\\ the\\ midwives\\,\\ nurses\\,\\ afternurses\\,\\ servants\\,\\ watchers\\,\\ etc\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 49\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*these\\ references\\ to\\ other\\ health\\ care\\ providers\\ are\\ important\\ b\\/c\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ heterogeneity\\ of\\ care\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martha\\ mentions\\ physicians\\ in\\ her\\ accounts\\ but\\ infrequently\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ makes\\ sense\\ according\\ to\\ Ulrich\\ because\\ doctors\\ really\\ were\\ only\\ part\\-time\\ physicians\\.\\ Daniel\\ Cony\\ was\\ a\\ land\\ proprietor\\ and\\ politician\\ as\\ well\\ \\(p\\.\\ 59\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ most\\ successful\\ Kennebec\\ physicians\\ were\\ Federalist\\ gentleman\\,\\ organizers\\ of\\ agricultural\\ societies\\,\\ builders\\ of\\ bridges\\,\\ incorporators\\ of\\ banks\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(60\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ medicine\\ vs\\.\\ professional\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Ulrich\\ thinks\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ of\\ describing\\ what\\ was\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;lay\\ medicine\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;folk\\ medicine\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ by\\ calling\\ it\\ social\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Social\\ healers\\,\\ were\\ so\\ closely\\ identified\\ with\\ their\\ public\\ we\\ can\\ hardly\\ find\\ them\\.\\ Professionals\\ cultivated\\ regional\\ or\\ cosmopolitan\\ networks\\,\\ joining\\ occupational\\ associations\\.\\ Social\\ healers\\ developed\\ personal\\ affiliations\\ and\\ built\\ local\\ reputations\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 61\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*Social\\ medicine\\ was\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ encouraged\\ the\\ free\\ flow\\ of\\ information\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ spread\\ and\\ democratization\\ of\\ medical\\ practice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ social\\ construction\\ of\\ healing\\ allowed\\ the\\ free\\ flow\\ of\\ information\\ from\\ one\\ level\\ to\\ another\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 64\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Connection\\ b\\/w\\ birth\\ and\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ p\\.\\ 40\\ \\&ldquo\\;Equally\\ important\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ \\[Martha\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chronicle\\]\\ connects\\ birth\\ and\\ death\\ with\\ ordinary\\ life\\.\\ Few\\ medical\\ histories\\,\\ even\\ today\\,\\ do\\ that\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ theme\\ ties\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ class\\ about\\ the\\ pervasiveness\\ of\\ death\\ during\\ the\\ colonial\\ period\\.\\ Death\\ was\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Burials\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ social\\ custom\\.\\ People\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ seeing\\ dead\\ bodies\\ everywhere\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ on\\ view\\ of\\ death\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Puritans\\ and\\ Calvins\\ believed\\ in\\ predetermination\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;death\\ as\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ People\\ were\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ put\\ on\\ earth\\ to\\ die\\.\\ These\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ about\\ death\\ explain\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ reactions\\ colonists\\ had\\ towards\\ the\\ pervasiveness\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;p\\.\\ 42\\:\\ Henry\\ Sewall\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reaction\\ to\\ his\\ 6\\-month\\ old\\ baby\\ dying\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ in\\ his\\ diary\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ an\\ excellent\\ thing\\ is\\ the\\ grace\\ of\\ submission\\!\\.\\.\\.How\\ happy\\ to\\ feel\\ the\\ temper\\ of\\ holy\\ Job\\&hellip\\;Whom\\ the\\ lord\\ loveth\\ he\\ chasteneth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ might\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ these\\ religious\\ convictions\\ assuaged\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ fears\\ colonists\\ had\\ about\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;potential\\ coping\\ mechanism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hallowell\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;This\\ community\\ was\\ a\\ relatively\\ healthy\\ place\\ compared\\ to\\ other\\ colonial\\ communities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Death\\ rate\\ \\=\\ 15\\ per\\ thousand\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;only\\ half\\ of\\ that\\ recorded\\ for\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ seaports\\ like\\ Salem\\ and\\ Boston\\&rdquo\\;\\ p\\.\\ 45\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ in\\ fertility\\:\\ every\\ year\\ the\\ town\\ had\\ 4\\ times\\ as\\ many\\ births\\ as\\ deaths\\.\\ Even\\ in\\ the\\ sick\\ seasons\\ \\(like\\ summers\\)\\,\\ fertility\\ rates\\ were\\ high\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epidemic\\ diseases\\ reported\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summer\\ of\\ 1787\\:\\ scarlet\\ fever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pp353\\-363\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Medicinal\\ Ingredients\\ Mentioned\\ in\\ Martha\\ Ballard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Diary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ulrich\\ explains\\ that\\ Martha\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pharmacopoeia\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ ascertain\\ completely\\ because\\ she\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ write\\ everything\\ down\\,\\ and\\ because\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ commonplace\\ herbs\\ and\\ foods\\ that\\ she\\ might\\ have\\ used\\ in\\ non\\-medicinal\\ ways\\ could\\ also\\ have\\ been\\ used\\ medicinally\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ Ulrich\\ uses\\ contemporary\\ sources\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Martha\\&rsquo\\;s\\ explicit\\ references\\ to\\ devise\\ this\\ appendix\\.\\ \\ \\;Ulrich\\ attempts\\ \\(again\\,\\ with\\ some\\ guesswork\\)\\ to\\ distinguish\\ wild\\ and\\ cultivated\\ plants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ulrich\\ gives\\ an\\ extensive\\ list\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ plants\\,\\ purchased\\ medicines\\,\\ and\\ miscellaneous\\ ingredients\\ that\\ Martha\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ important\\ points\\ of\\ the\\ appendix\\ are\\,\\ I\\ think\\,\\ that\\ the\\ important\\ points\\ are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Martha\\ gathered\\ and\\ prepared\\ many\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ medicines\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ she\\ \\&ldquo\\;sett\\ Cammomile\\ roots\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;gathered\\ my\\ Cammomile\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;gave\\ her\\ some\\ Cammomile\\ \\&\\;\\ Camphor\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ Martha\\ for\\ her\\ medicinal\\ preparations\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mrs\\ Nason\\ Calld\\ in\\ to\\ get\\ some\\ Dock\\ root\\ for\\ the\\ itch\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medicines\\ might\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ ointments\\,\\ poultices\\,\\ or\\ oral\\ medication\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martha\\ bought\\ most\\ imported\\ medicine\\ from\\ Dr\\.\\ Colman\\,\\ and\\ bought\\ or\\ borrowed\\ a\\ little\\ from\\ Dr\\.\\ Cony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Josselyn\\,\\ John\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ New\\-England\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rarities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\ Abraham\\ Alvarez\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Zeisberger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\History\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ American\\ Indians\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1779\\-80\\)\\ Eva\\ Schiltz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ piece\\ is\\ a\\ primary\\ source\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ missionary\\ about\\ the\\ habits\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ health\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Native\\ Americans\\ are\\ more\\ subject\\ to\\ disease\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ extremely\\ healthy\\ and\\ fit\\ other\\ than\\ disease\\ until\\ old\\ age\\,\\ when\\ normal\\ old\\ age\\ afflictions\\ \\(lameness\\,\\ deafness\\,\\ blindness\\,\\ rheumatism\\)\\ set\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ diseases\\ that\\ affect\\ them\\:\\ sores\\,\\ chills\\,\\ fever\\,\\ dysentery\\,\\ hemorrhage\\,\\ gastrointestinal\\ thanks\\ to\\ diet\\,\\ venereal\\ diseases\\,\\ smallpox\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Zeisberger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinion\\,\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ well\\ for\\ the\\ sick\\:\\ cause\\ a\\ sick\\ person\\ to\\ lie\\ on\\ a\\ hard\\ bed\\ and\\ restrict\\ their\\ diet\\.\\ The\\ Indian\\ doctors\\ are\\,\\ in\\ his\\ words\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ better\\ than\\ charlatans\\&rdquo\\;\\ without\\ any\\ real\\ ability\\ or\\ skill\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ occupation\\ for\\ making\\ money\\ \\(no\\ treatment\\ unless\\ payment\\ first\\)\\.\\ The\\ medicine\\ men\\ he\\ claims\\ are\\ often\\ men\\ too\\ old\\ to\\ hunt\\.\\ Treatment\\ often\\ consisted\\ of\\ ceremony\\&mdash\\;breathing\\ on\\ the\\ patient\\,\\ persuasion\\ of\\ the\\ patient\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ heal\\ usually\\ in\\ what\\ seems\\ like\\ madness\\ to\\ an\\ outsider\\,\\ ore\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;deceptive\\ performance\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Other\\ treatments\\ that\\ seem\\ strange\\ to\\ Zeisberger\\ are\\ sweatbaths\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\,\\ however\\,\\ are\\ quite\\ skilled\\ in\\ various\\ forms\\ of\\ healing\\.\\ They\\ have\\ a\\ considerable\\ knowledge\\ of\\ roots\\ and\\ herbs\\ passed\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ usually\\ right\\ before\\ death\\.\\ Roots\\ and\\ herbs\\ for\\ medicinal\\ purposes\\ are\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Beson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;usually\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ concoction\\ of\\ pounded\\ roots\\ and\\ herbs\\.\\ A\\ Beson\\ prepared\\ by\\ oneself\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ effect\\.\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ also\\ skilled\\ at\\ treating\\ external\\ injuries\\,\\ especially\\ from\\ snake\\ bites\\,\\ broken\\ bones\\,\\ self\\-repair\\ of\\ dislocated\\ joints\\.\\ They\\ also\\ used\\ heroic\\ treatments\\,\\ which\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ was\\ considered\\ good\\ medicine\\:\\ blood\\ letting\\ and\\ cupping\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Zeisberger\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ great\\ fear\\ of\\ death\\ and\\ will\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ prevent\\ it\\:\\ consulting\\ doctors\\,\\ taking\\ any\\ medicine\\ prescribed\\,\\ taking\\ any\\ procedure\\ suggested\\,\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ therapy\\ ends\\ up\\ causing\\ more\\ illness\\.\\ But\\,\\ as\\ he\\ concludes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Indians\\ have\\ strong\\ constitutions\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ suffer\\ permanent\\ injury\\ from\\ the\\ unwise\\ treatment\\ of\\ their\\ doctors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Account\\ of\\ the\\ History\\,\\ Manners\\,\\ and\\ Customs\\ of\\ the\\ Indian\\ Nations\\,\\ Who\\ Once\\ Inhabited\\ Pennsylvania\\ and\\ the\\ Neighbouring\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rev\\.\\ John\\ Heckewelder\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1819\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Primary\\ source\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ missionary\\,\\ remember\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ showing\\ that\\ the\\ NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religious\\ practices\\ are\\ unfounded\\.\\ \\ \\;Various\\ times\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ a\\ Christian\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ cures\\ them\\ of\\ disease\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mostly\\ caused\\ by\\ vice\\ or\\ disorder\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ makes\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ jugglers\\ and\\ physicians\\ \\(superstitious\\ and\\ not\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Influences\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ thought\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\:\\ stagnant\\ water\\ causes\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Shows\\ that\\ therapies\\ are\\ actually\\ quite\\ similar\\ between\\ NA\\ and\\ colonies\\:\\ both\\ use\\ emetics\\,\\ cathartics\\,\\ blood\\ letting\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\ Sections\\ describing\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\(NA\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bodily\\ Constitution\\ and\\ Diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\NA\\ generally\\ strong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Carry\\ heavy\\ things\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Happis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ rests\\ on\\ breast\\ \\(men\\)\\ or\\ forehead\\ \\(women\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ whites\\ at\\ manual\\ labor\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\ as\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ substantial\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intemperate\\ manner\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eating\\ to\\ excess\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Going\\ long\\ periods\\ w\\/o\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christian\\ Indians\\ who\\ labor\\ regularly\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ this\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Before\\ white\\ contact\\ claim\\ to\\ have\\ lived\\ longer\\ than\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ardent\\ spirits\\&rdquo\\;\\ lead\\ to\\ vices\\ bring\\ disorders\\ unknown\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corrupted\\ by\\ venereal\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ live\\ in\\ vice\\ live\\ longer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ has\\ same\\ effect\\ as\\ on\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NA\\ Women\\ not\\ as\\ prolific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;vicious\\ and\\ dissolute\\&rdquo\\;\\ life\\ due\\ to\\ liquor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christian\\ NA\\ women\\ who\\ live\\ \\&ldquo\\;regular\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breast\\ feed\\ longer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Take\\ care\\ of\\ deformed\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pulmonary\\ consumptions\\,\\ fluxes\\,\\ fevers\\,\\ rheumatisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Due\\ to\\ the\\ life\\ lead\\,\\ hardships\\,\\ and\\ type\\ of\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bilious\\ fevers\\ when\\ near\\ stagnant\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Too\\ many\\ watery\\ vegetables\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yellow\\ vomit\\ kills\\ many\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worms\\ in\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ eating\\ green\\ corn\\,\\ beans\\,\\ squashes\\ and\\ melons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ suffer\\ from\\ gout\\,\\ gravel\\,\\ scrofula\\,\\ rickets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consumptions\\ due\\ to\\ liquor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Numbers\\ visibly\\ decrease\\ due\\ to\\ vice\\,\\ not\\ attack\\ by\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remedies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Materia\\ Medica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ consists\\ of\\ roots\\ and\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ to\\ tell\\ strangers\\ their\\ properties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tree\\ bark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prepared\\ w\\/\\ superstitious\\ practices\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ anti\\-witchcraft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attribute\\ natural\\ deaths\\ to\\ sorcerers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\medicine\\ against\\ them\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\some\\ physicians\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ many\\ superstitious\\ practices\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ physicians\\ and\\ surgeons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\emetics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ water\\ drawn\\ up\\ stream\\,\\ cathartics\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\fevers\\ and\\ poisons\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ use\\ emetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rheumatism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bleeding\\ and\\ sweating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commonly\\ use\\ sweat\\ ovens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ place\\ people\\ go\\ for\\ medical\\ relief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sometimes\\ administer\\ medicines\\ while\\ in\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\men\\ use\\ them\\ once\\ or\\ twice\\ a\\ week\\,\\ women\\ use\\ less\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\tells\\ story\\ of\\ man\\ who\\ stayed\\ too\\ long\\ in\\ sweat\\ oven\\,\\ became\\ sick\\ but\\ then\\ recovered\\ and\\ became\\ stronger\\ than\\ ever\\,\\ living\\ to\\ old\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physicians\\ and\\ Surgeons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;good\\ and\\ honest\\ practitioners\\&rdquo\\;\\ cure\\ disease\\ and\\ wounds\\ using\\ natural\\ remedies\\ w\\/o\\ superstition\\ \\(except\\ drawing\\ water\\ from\\ streams\\)\\,\\ different\\ from\\ jugglers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;more\\ free\\ from\\ fanciful\\ theories\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ any\\ other\\ nation\\ upon\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;science\\&rdquo\\;\\ founded\\ in\\ observation\\,\\ experience\\ and\\ efficacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Physicians\\ of\\ both\\ sexes\\,\\ work\\ hard\\ to\\ acquire\\ medical\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Always\\ carry\\ medicines\\ on\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ prescribe\\ excessive\\ doses\\ of\\ medicines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heckewelder\\ testifies\\ to\\ their\\ efficacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Female\\ physicians\\ good\\ at\\ helping\\ wives\\ of\\ missionaries\\ with\\ feminine\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ good\\ with\\ external\\ wounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Every\\ warrior\\ has\\ some\\ medical\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\[can\\ cure\\ any\\ external\\ wound\\ if\\ not\\ fatal\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tells\\ story\\ of\\ NA\\ man\\ who\\ was\\ shot\\ but\\ traveled\\ a\\ long\\ distance\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ a\\ surgeon\\ who\\ healed\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doctors\\ or\\ Jugglers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;professional\\ imposters\\&rdquo\\;\\ acquire\\ reputation\\ of\\ superior\\ knowledge\\ and\\ supernatural\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claim\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ cure\\ diseases\\ and\\ counteract\\ supernatural\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Know\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ roots\\ like\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rank\\ higher\\ than\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Say\\ that\\ certain\\ disorders\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ cured\\ by\\ physicians\\ and\\ must\\ resort\\ to\\ supernatural\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paid\\ a\\ large\\ fee\\:\\ proportional\\ to\\ efficacy\\ of\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Correlation\\ between\\ diagnosis\\ of\\ supernatural\\ cause\\ and\\ wealth\\ of\\ patient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therapy\\ includes\\ \\&ldquo\\;frightful\\ dress\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ gesticulations\\,\\ breathing\\ on\\ patient\\,\\ sprinkling\\ medicines\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therapies\\ continue\\ if\\ desired\\ until\\ person\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ money\\ or\\ until\\ deemed\\ incurable\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ somehow\\ the\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fault\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\ the\\ patient\\ still\\ recovers\\ afterward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Describes\\ frightful\\ dress\\ that\\ juggler\\ wears\\,\\ and\\ conversation\\ with\\ NA\\ about\\ juggler\\,\\ NA\\ says\\ that\\ white\\ men\\ would\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ sorcerers\\ among\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ jugglers\\ say\\ they\\ have\\ supernatural\\ knowledge\\,\\ bring\\ down\\ rain\\,\\ make\\ love\\ potions\\,\\ also\\ paid\\ fees\\ for\\ services\\,\\ similar\\ rituals\\,\\ tells\\ story\\ of\\ man\\ who\\ did\\ ritual\\ for\\ rain\\,\\ Heckewelder\\ thinks\\ he\\ watches\\ for\\ signs\\ of\\ rain\\ and\\ then\\ does\\ the\\ ritual\\ when\\ rain\\ is\\ coming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Superstition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Despite\\ strength\\ against\\ hardships\\,\\ only\\ weakness\\ superstition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attribute\\ many\\ diseases\\ and\\ disorders\\ to\\ supernatural\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ well\\ they\\ mechanism\\ say\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;deadening\\ substance\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ discharged\\ by\\ sorcerer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heckewelder\\ says\\ it\\ works\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ imagination\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ stricken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tells\\ story\\:\\ a\\ sorcerer\\ said\\ to\\ his\\ acquaintance\\ that\\ the\\ secret\\ of\\ sorcery\\ was\\ exciting\\ fear\\ and\\ suspicion\\,\\ and\\ creating\\ a\\ strong\\ belief\\ in\\ magical\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tells\\ another\\ story\\ that\\ a\\ Quaker\\ tried\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ NA\\ beliefs\\ by\\ letting\\ the\\ sorcerers\\ try\\ to\\ supernaturally\\ hurt\\ him\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ one\\ claimed\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ only\\ hurt\\ bad\\ men\\,\\ the\\ other\\ that\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ because\\ the\\ salt\\ that\\ he\\ ate\\ prevented\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ excuses\\ were\\ enough\\ for\\ the\\ NA\\ and\\ the\\ demonstration\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Sept\\.\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sept\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\ kmaguire\\@fas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\,\\ September27th\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Native\\ American\\ Therapeutics\\ \\(Kara\\ Kaufman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thoughts\\ about\\ when\\ we\\ can\\ consider\\ medicine\\ as\\ starting\\ to\\ work\\:\\ advent\\ of\\ antibiotics\\;\\ earlier\\,\\ maybe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vaccines\\;\\ Native\\ American\\ remedies\\,\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ are\\ still\\ used\\,\\ even\\ in\\ FDA\\ approved\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Societies\\ organize\\ themselves\\ around\\ therapeutic\\ systems\\:\\ How\\ do\\ experts\\ explain\\ disease\\?\\ How\\ do\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ ill\\ use\\ physicians\\/healers\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Process\\ of\\ health\\-seeking\\ behavior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\ in\\ societies\\,\\ linked\\ with\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ expertise\\ and\\ authority\\ of\\ doctors\\/healers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ our\\ society\\,\\ we\\ assume\\ a\\ level\\ of\\ expertise\\ and\\ training\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ our\\ doctor\\ personally\\,\\ unlike\\ many\\ earlier\\ therapeutic\\ systems\\ \\(where\\ credentials\\ were\\ much\\ looser\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ acquaintance\\ with\\ the\\ patient\\ was\\ important\\)\\;\\ with\\ the\\ title\\ M\\.D\\.\\ we\\ assume\\ a\\ level\\ of\\ training\\ and\\ will\\ do\\ things\\ based\\ on\\ that\\ trust\\ that\\ in\\ other\\ situations\\ would\\ be\\ inappropriate\\ \\(disrobe\\,\\ allow\\ another\\ to\\ touch\\ us\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medicine\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ treatment\\,\\ but\\ everything\\ that\\ happens\\ within\\ our\\ health\\-seeking\\ framework\\ \\(reassurance\\,\\ even\\ just\\ prescriptions\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\(ex\\.\\ The\\ effect\\ of\\ just\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\naming\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ disease\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ to\\ successful\\/effective\\ therapeutics\\ is\\ that\\ patient\\ and\\ physician\\ share\\ beliefs\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ predict\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ a\\ drug\\ gives\\ patient\\ confidence\\ in\\ his\\/her\\ ability\\ to\\ heal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ Native\\ American\\ medicine\\ closely\\ tied\\ with\\ religious\\ belief\\;\\ great\\ and\\ lesser\\ spirits\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ever\\-present\\ and\\ easily\\ offended\\ \\(the\\ breaking\\ of\\ any\\ taboos\\ could\\ bring\\ on\\ bodily\\ discomfort\\ or\\ disease\\)\\;\\ medicine\\ man\\ \\(shaman\\)\\&rsquo\\;s\\ job\\ was\\ to\\ use\\ sorcery\\ to\\ subdue\\ the\\ evil\\ spirit\\ and\\ relieve\\ the\\ patient\\;\\ accomplished\\ this\\ by\\ interviewing\\ the\\ patient\\,\\ then\\ coming\\ back\\ with\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ ritualistic\\ and\\ herbal\\ remedies\\ \\(all\\ kinds\\ of\\ stuff\\:\\ antiseptics\\,\\ narcotics\\,\\ diuretics\\,\\ purgants\\,\\ etc\\.\\;\\ and\\ particularly\\ good\\ with\\ traumatic\\ injury\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ largely\\ dependent\\ on\\ colonist\\ reports\\ of\\ Native\\ American\\ medicine\\;\\ there\\ is\\ evidence\\ of\\ colonists\\ consulting\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\(for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\local\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cures\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\local\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\diseases\\)\\ with\\ some\\ white\\ doctors\\ even\\ living\\ in\\ Native\\ American\\ society\\ and\\ learning\\ those\\ cures\\ etc\\.\\ \\(some\\ of\\ which\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ be\\ passed\\ into\\ the\\ colonial\\ mainstream\\ of\\ healing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concept\\ of\\ balance\\ of\\ nature\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ philosophy\\ of\\ harmony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Faith\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ efficacy\\ of\\ these\\ cures\\;\\ for\\ colonists\\,\\ coming\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ land\\ signaled\\ the\\ necessity\\ for\\ a\\ new\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\local\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ regime\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ their\\ faith\\;\\ and\\ now\\,\\ looking\\ back\\,\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ some\\ toxicological\\/quantifiable\\ pharmacological\\ qualities\\ of\\ the\\ herbs\\ etc\\.\\ used\\ as\\ Native\\ American\\ medicines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sickness\\ \\(pathological\\)\\ as\\ distinct\\ from\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prevalent\\ thought\\ \\(characteristic\\ of\\ Native\\ American\\ therapeutics\\)\\ that\\ sickness\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ some\\ action\\,\\ causal\\ relationship\\ between\\ wrongdoing\\ and\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ then\\ happens\\ to\\ a\\ therapeutic\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ new\\ disease\\?\\ The\\ healer\\ had\\ great\\ power\\,\\ and\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ induce\\ bodily\\ change\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ new\\ diseases\\ foiled\\ their\\ power\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ does\\ this\\ do\\ to\\ the\\ system\\?\\ Their\\ system\\ depends\\ heavily\\ on\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\ and\\ ecology\\:\\ many\\ tribes\\ attributed\\ disease\\ to\\ the\\ animal\\ world\\ and\\ spirits\\;\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ onslaught\\ of\\ the\\ catastrophic\\ diseases\\,\\ over\\-hunting\\ happened\\,\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ holy\\ war\\,\\ perhaps\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ they\\ were\\ usually\\ very\\ careful\\ not\\ to\\ do\\.\\ This\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ therapeutic\\ system\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contemporary\\ analogue\\:\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ and\\ its\\ effect\\ on\\ our\\ therapeutic\\ system\\;\\ we\\ called\\ it\\ untreatable\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ skepticism\\ about\\ western\\ medicine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ heal\\/treat\\/reassure\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Apostasy\\:\\ theological\\ term\\ meaning\\ a\\ catastrophic\\ collapse\\ of\\ belief\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Native\\ American\\ population\\ at\\ large\\ held\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ done\\ something\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Failure\\ of\\ reassurance\\ at\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ a\\ trusted\\ therapeutic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\)\\ Environment\\ and\\ Health\\ \\(Oct\\.\\ 2\\ and\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)Kupperman\\,\\ K\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fear\\ of\\ Hot\\ Climates\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ Pichamol\\ Jirapinyo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)Merrens\\,\\ H\\.\\ Roy\\ and\\ George\\ D\\.\\ Terry\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dying\\ in\\ paradise\\:\\ Malaria\\,\\ Mortality\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Perceptual\\ Environment\\ in\\ South\\ Carolina\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1984\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Victoria\\ Illyinsky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Time\\ Period\\ Studied\\:\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\North\\ American\\ colonies\\,\\ particularly\\ S\\.C\\.\\ and\\ the\\ Chesapeake\\ Regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Purpose\\:\\ The\\ authors\\ recognize\\ that\\ little\\ work\\ has\\ been\\ done\\ studying\\ this\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ NA\\ colonies\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ self\\ and\\ environmental\\ \\&ldquo\\;perception\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ colonists\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ their\\ therapeutic\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Argument\\ summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ the\\ initial\\ period\\ of\\ settlement\\,\\ S\\.C\\.\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ paradise\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ tropical\\ weather\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ time\\,\\ however\\,\\ as\\ more\\ colonists\\ died\\ and\\ as\\ malaria\\ took\\ a\\ toll\\,\\ residents\\ became\\ more\\ skeptical\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ initial\\ optimism\\ may\\ have\\ heightened\\ the\\ disappointment\\ and\\ even\\ worsened\\ the\\ secondary\\ stage\\ health\\ problems\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ the\\ area\\ was\\ first\\ being\\ colonized\\,\\ promotional\\ literature\\ extolled\\ the\\ health\\ and\\ environmental\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ land\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;felicitous\\&rdquo\\;\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\:\\ climate\\,\\ soil\\,\\ plants\\,\\ animals\\-\\ all\\ useful\\.\\ The\\ weather\\ was\\ ideal\\;\\ even\\ the\\ natives\\ seemed\\ healthy\\!\\ \\ \\;The\\ agricultural\\ conditions\\ were\\ also\\ perfect\\;\\ crops\\ would\\ flourish\\!\\ The\\ legend\\ thrived\\ and\\ although\\ the\\ authors\\ do\\ not\\ point\\ out\\ a\\ direct\\ correlation\\ between\\ migration\\ and\\ propaganda\\,\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ little\\ intersection\\ between\\ reality\\ and\\ perception\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ perception\\ was\\ propagated\\ by\\ spring\\ weather\\ pleasantness\\ and\\ initial\\ beauty\\ of\\ S\\.C\\.\\ post\\ sea\\ travel\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ time\\ and\\ among\\ later\\ settlers\\,\\ there\\ was\\ less\\ attraction\\ and\\ reduced\\ optimism\\.\\ The\\ heat\\ was\\ excessive\\ and\\ the\\ mosquitoes\\ everywhere\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ this\\ signs\\,\\ colonists\\ were\\ surprised\\ by\\ the\\ outbreak\\ of\\ malaria\\.\\ \\ \\;Mortality\\ rate\\ was\\ high\\,\\ especially\\ among\\ the\\ children\\ and\\ the\\ elderly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ mortality\\ rate\\ decreased\\,\\ however\\,\\ with\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ authors\\ argue\\ this\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ perception\\:\\ they\\ at\\ first\\ thought\\ the\\ swampy\\ areas\\ were\\ healthful\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ low\\-countries\\ and\\ towards\\ the\\ sea\\ \\(Charleston\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ on\\ higher\\ elevations\\.\\ So\\,\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ perception\\ led\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ recognition\\ that\\ resulted\\ in\\ different\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ better\\ health\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Finally\\,\\ the\\ unhealthiness\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;man\\-induced\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ environmentally\\ determined\\.\\ \\ \\;Goals\\ and\\ behavior\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ blamed\\ more\\ than\\ weather\\ and\\ climate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Flagg\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Far\\ West\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Nitin\\ Kumar\\ Ahuja\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flagg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ piece\\ is\\ a\\ primary\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ sickness\\ associated\\ with\\ particular\\ environmental\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ selection\\ in\\ the\\ sourcebook\\ accounts\\ the\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ observations\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\ in\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ forest\\ near\\ the\\ Mississippi\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ area\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ having\\ low\\ exposure\\ to\\ sunlight\\,\\ a\\ large\\ amount\\ of\\ standing\\ water\\ and\\ unnaturally\\ rich\\ soil\\,\\ which\\ the\\ author\\ assumes\\ to\\ exude\\ poisonous\\ vapors\\ \\(miasma\\)\\ into\\ the\\ air\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;floating\\ pestilence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flagg\\ posits\\ that\\ these\\ environmental\\ conditions\\ contribute\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\ health\\ of\\ inhabitants\\ of\\ the\\ area\\,\\ sickness\\ that\\ includes\\ \\&ldquo\\;bilious\\ intermittents\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;pleurisies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ mostly\\ fevers\\ agues\\ leading\\ to\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ offers\\ prophylactic\\ advice\\ to\\ new\\ inhabitants\\ of\\ the\\ West\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ the\\ recent\\ emigrant\\ avoid\\ the\\ chill\\,\\ heavy\\ night\\-dews\\ and\\ the\\ sickening\\ sultriness\\ of\\ the\\ noontide\\ sun\\;\\ provide\\ a\\ close\\ dwelling\\,\\ well\\ situated\\ and\\ ventilated\\,\\ and\\ invariably\\ wear\\ thicker\\ clothing\\ at\\ night\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ day\\,\\ and\\ he\\ may\\ live\\ on\\ as\\ long\\ and\\ as\\ healthily\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ as\\ in\\ his\\ native\\ village\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Flint\\,\\ T\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ History\\ and\\ Geography\\ of\\ the\\ Mississippi\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Pichamol\\ Jirapinyo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Oct\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(oct\\.2\\ NO\\ CLASS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oct\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Dawn\\ Mackey\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\)\\ Un\\/orthodox\\ Medicine\\ \\(Oct\\.\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Paul\\ Starr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Social\\ Transformation\\ of\\ American\\ Medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\(Catriona\\ McGovern\\)\\ AMAZING\\ JOB\\ BABE\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ One\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Medicine\\ in\\ a\\ Democratic\\ Culture\\:\\ 1760\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1850\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ Two\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Market\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Between\\ 1760\\ and\\ 1850\\,\\ the\\ conflicts\\ within\\ and\\ between\\ three\\ equally\\ important\\ spheres\\ of\\ practice\\,\\ domestic\\ medicine\\,\\ professional\\ medicine\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lay\\ or\\ popular\\ medicine\\ reflected\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ conflict\\ between\\ a\\ democratic\\ culture\\ and\\ a\\ stratified\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ move\\ towards\\ the\\ professionalization\\ of\\ medicine\\ was\\ blocked\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Popular\\ resistance\\ \\(political\\,\\ cultural\\,\\ social\\ climate\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ formation\\ of\\ an\\ elite\\ profession\\ with\\ a\\ monopoly\\ of\\ practice\\ in\\ which\\ members\\ were\\ clearly\\ demarcated\\ and\\ awarded\\ exclusive\\ privileges\\ offended\\ the\\ Jacksonian\\ ideology\\ of\\ democracy\\ and\\ egalitarianism\\;\\ Americans\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ practice\\ medicine\\ as\\ an\\ inalienable\\ liberty\\ comparable\\ to\\ religious\\ freedom\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democratization\\ of\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ distrust\\ of\\ elite\\:\\ Every\\ sphere\\ of\\ social\\ life\\ obeyed\\ principles\\ of\\ natural\\ reason\\ that\\ were\\ intelligible\\ to\\ ordinary\\ men\\ of\\ common\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;Insofar\\ as\\ medicine\\ was\\ valid\\ and\\ useful\\,\\ it\\ also\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ plain\\ and\\ simple\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ appearance\\ of\\ complexity\\ was\\ an\\ imposition\\ by\\ a\\ self\\-interested\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditions\\ of\\ material\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;improvisation\\,\\ self\\-direction\\,\\ belief\\ in\\ power\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ common\\-sense\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;American\\ culture\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;ingrained\\ self\\-reliance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Internal\\ division\\ \\(competition\\,\\ dissension\\,\\ contempt\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Doctors\\ question\\ the\\ efficacy\\ and\\ safety\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ therapeutic\\ remedies\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ begin\\ to\\ proclaim\\ the\\ healing\\ powers\\ of\\ nature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Therapeutic\\ nihilism\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ According\\ to\\ Jacob\\ Bigelow\\,\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ unbiased\\ opinion\\ of\\ most\\ medical\\ men\\ of\\ sound\\ judgment\\ and\\ long\\ experience\\ that\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ death\\ and\\ disaster\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ would\\ be\\ less\\,\\ if\\ all\\ disease\\ were\\ left\\ to\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Starr\\ 55\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guides\\ to\\ Domestic\\ Medicine\\ published\\ even\\ by\\ doctors\\,\\ such\\ as\\ William\\ Buchan\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Efforts\\ to\\ establish\\ boundaries\\ and\\ thus\\ elevate\\ and\\ bound\\ the\\ profession\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ medical\\ schools\\,\\ licensure\\,\\ or\\ societies\\ were\\ undermined\\ by\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ capitalistic\\ competition\\ among\\ the\\ founders\\ of\\ such\\ establishment\\ whose\\ behavior\\ was\\ dictated\\ by\\ their\\ individual\\ financial\\ interests\\,\\ which\\ correlated\\ with\\ decreasing\\ quality\\ and\\ lowering\\ their\\ standards\\ for\\ a\\ diploma\\/license\\/membership\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ broader\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ supply\\ of\\ physicians\\ was\\ unrestricted\\ by\\ significant\\ institutional\\ barriers\\ to\\ entry\\.\\ \\ \\;Between\\ 1790\\ and\\ 1850\\,\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ growth\\ of\\ physicians\\ exceeded\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ per\\ doctors\\ dropped\\ from\\ about\\ 950\\ to\\ 600\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\External\\ Competition\\ from\\ Lay\\ healers\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ popularity\\ and\\ strength\\ of\\ lay\\ healers\\ derives\\ from\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ period\\,\\ which\\ are\\ presented\\ in\\ this\\ outline\\,\\ but\\ clearly\\,\\ medical\\ professionals\\ will\\ have\\ less\\ authority\\ and\\ patronage\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ other\\ practitioners\\ around\\ who\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ effective\\ and\\ whose\\ ethos\\ are\\ more\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ the\\ popular\\ climate\\ of\\ egalitarianism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inhospitable\\ economic\\ and\\ demographic\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ is\\ typical\\ of\\ preindustrial\\ societies\\,\\ the\\ low\\ levels\\ of\\ real\\ income\\ and\\ the\\ geography\\ of\\ rural\\ life\\ meant\\ low\\ use\\ of\\ professional\\ services\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ practice\\ offered\\ too\\ little\\ a\\ financial\\ return\\ for\\ many\\ doctors\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ a\\ lengthy\\ professional\\ education\\ for\\ state\\ legislatures\\ to\\ require\\ one\\;\\ these\\ conditions\\ thus\\ prevented\\ doctors\\ from\\ becoming\\ highly\\ qualified\\ for\\ their\\ work\\,\\ which\\ will\\ in\\ turn\\ lower\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ professional\\ treatment\\ and\\ further\\ lower\\ economic\\ incentives\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctors\\ could\\ not\\ support\\ themselves\\ solely\\ from\\ medical\\ practice\\ and\\ had\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ second\\ occupation\\ to\\ remain\\ financially\\ viable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Families\\ could\\ not\\ afford\\ physician\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fees\\ not\\ because\\ the\\ fees\\ were\\ so\\ high\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ because\\ the\\ indirect\\ cost\\ of\\ medical\\ services\\ was\\ exorbitant\\ to\\ both\\ parties\\ \\(doctor\\ and\\ patient\\)\\ owing\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ cost\\ of\\ transportation\\ and\\ the\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ summon\\ a\\ doctor\\ and\\ then\\ reach\\ a\\ patient\\ in\\ a\\ heavily\\ rural\\ society\\ lacking\\ modern\\ transportation\\ and\\ communication\\ methods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ at\\ relatively\\ short\\ distances\\,\\ the\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ price\\ due\\ to\\ travel\\ and\\ opportunity\\ costs\\ exceeded\\ the\\ physician\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ordinary\\ fee\\;\\ at\\ a\\ distance\\ of\\ 5\\-10\\ miles\\,\\ the\\ mileage\\ charges\\ typically\\ amounted\\ to\\ 4\\-5X\\ the\\ basic\\ fee\\ for\\ a\\ visit\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;More\\ egalitarian\\,\\ but\\ less\\ equal\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ Jacksonian\\ period\\,\\ when\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ democracy\\ shaped\\ the\\ common\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavior\\,\\ wealth\\ and\\ power\\ became\\ more\\ highly\\ concentrated\\ among\\ fewer\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impossible\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ profession\\ in\\ a\\ fluid\\,\\ rapidly\\ expanding\\ society\\ with\\ little\\ centralized\\ government\\ and\\ no\\ effective\\ gatekeepers\\ of\\ status\\,\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ aristocratic\\ elite\\,\\ as\\ existed\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ inefficacy\\ of\\ treatment\\ \\&ndash\\;as\\ articulated\\ by\\ professional\\ doctors\\ \\(see\\ internal\\ division\\)\\,\\ as\\ perceived\\ by\\ the\\ public\\,\\ and\\ as\\ reflected\\ the\\ true\\ limitations\\ of\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ until\\ the\\ scientific\\ advances\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 1800s\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ first\\,\\ medical\\ advances\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ reliance\\ on\\ statistical\\ methods\\ revealed\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;therapeutic\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ medicine\\ in\\ the\\ era\\ \\(55\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Paris\\ between\\ 1800\\ and\\ 1830\\,\\ great\\ medical\\ progress\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ decisive\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ vague\\ systems\\ of\\ classical\\ medicine\\,\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ modern\\ clinical\\ methods\\,\\ and\\ a\\ transformation\\ of\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ medial\\ thought\\:\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ rather\\ than\\ dogmatic\\ assertions\\ of\\ personal\\ or\\ traditional\\ authority\\ became\\ the\\ grounds\\ for\\ assessing\\ truth\\.\\ \\ \\;Early\\ empirical\\ investigations\\ showed\\ the\\ therapeutic\\ poverty\\ of\\ contemporary\\ medicine\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ social\\ medicine\\ and\\ preventative\\ hygiene\\,\\ with\\ physicians\\ stressing\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ social\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ causation\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ Emphasis\\ on\\ localized\\ pathology\\ called\\ attention\\ to\\ specific\\ organs\\,\\ which\\ aroused\\ interest\\ in\\ medical\\ instrumentation\\ and\\ provided\\ foci\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ medical\\ specialties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1820s\\-1830s\\:\\ Americans\\ went\\ to\\ Paris\\,\\ and\\ brought\\ back\\ French\\ therapeutic\\ skepticism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;therapeutic\\ nihilism\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ healing\\ powers\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ shift\\ toward\\ less\\ violent\\ remedies\\,\\ decline\\ of\\ heroic\\ treatment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eventually\\,\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ science\\ reestablished\\ the\\ cultural\\ authority\\ of\\ medicine\\ by\\ restoring\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ its\\ legitimate\\ complexity\\,\\ which\\ implies\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ bounded\\ medical\\ profession\\ because\\ no\\ longer\\ did\\ people\\ believe\\ that\\ any\\ man\\ could\\ be\\ his\\ own\\ doctor\\ and\\ that\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ lay\\ within\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ every\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ common\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ localized\\ pathology\\ and\\ modern\\ techniques\\ of\\ clinical\\ examination\\ in\\ the\\ 1830s\\ in\\ Europe\\ made\\ it\\ difficult\\ for\\ physicians\\ to\\ continue\\ refusing\\ to\\ perform\\ any\\ manual\\ procedures\\,\\ which\\ meant\\ that\\ the\\ traditional\\ separation\\ of\\ classification\\ between\\ physicians\\,\\ surgeons\\,\\ and\\ apothecaries\\ had\\ become\\ almost\\ obsolete\\ in\\ Britain\\ by\\ 1847\\;\\ however\\ these\\ distinctions\\ had\\ never\\ been\\ well\\ delineated\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Buchan\\ \\-\\ Domestic\\ Medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\published\\ 1771\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\ \\=\\ guide\\ to\\ domestic\\ practice\\ with\\ a\\ remarkably\\ political\\ and\\ practical\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\clear\\ lucid\\ everyday\\ language\\,\\ no\\ Latin\\ or\\ technical\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\set\\ forth\\ current\\ knowledge\\ on\\ disease\\ and\\ attacked\\ concept\\ of\\ disease\\ as\\ mystery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ lies\\ within\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ ordinary\\ people\\ to\\ treat\\ and\\ prevent\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ influential\\ book\\ of\\ its\\ kinds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\General\\ exposition\\ of\\ the\\ causes\\ and\\ prevention\\ of\\ disease\\ and\\ a\\ detailed\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ symptoms\\ and\\ treatment\\ of\\ specific\\ disorders\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Professional\\ knowledge\\ and\\ training\\ were\\ unneeded\\ in\\ treating\\ most\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physicians\\ should\\ be\\ consulted\\ when\\ needed\\,\\ but\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ needed\\ very\\ rarely\\.\\ \\ \\;Ordinary\\ people\\ are\\ fully\\ competent\\ to\\ treat\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Professional\\ knowledge\\ and\\ training\\ were\\ unneeded\\ in\\ treating\\ most\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Skeptical\\ about\\ value\\ and\\ safety\\ of\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emphasized\\ diet\\ and\\ simply\\ preventative\\ measures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exercise\\,\\ fresh\\ air\\,\\ simple\\ regimen\\,\\ cleanliness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Naturalistic\\,\\ secular\\ view\\ of\\ disease\\ perfectly\\ complemented\\ his\\ desire\\ to\\ democratize\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ \\(nothing\\ secret\\,\\ occult\\;\\ no\\ magic\\,\\ no\\ witchcraft\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Welsey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ founder\\ of\\ English\\ Methodism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Primitive\\ Physic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Expressly\\ encouraged\\ greater\\ autonomy\\ in\\ caring\\ for\\ illness\\ and\\ denounced\\ doctors\\ for\\ concocting\\ complicated\\ theories\\ to\\ confuse\\ ordinary\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inventory\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ ancient\\ cures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctors\\ were\\ engaged\\ in\\ deception\\ and\\ fraud\\:\\ they\\ cloaked\\ simple\\ concepts\\ in\\ technical\\,\\ unintelligible\\ terms\\ in\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ knowledge\\ secret\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moral\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ causes\\ and\\ incidence\\ of\\ disease\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ immorality\\ and\\ sin\\ are\\ predisposing\\ cause\\ of\\ illness\\;\\ prayer\\ was\\ an\\ appropriate\\ but\\ insufficient\\ response\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ development\\ of\\ religious\\ thought\\ \\(Protestantism\\ says\\ no\\ to\\ magical\\ practices\\)\\,\\ not\\ medical\\ progress\\,\\ brought\\ about\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ magic\\ in\\ healing\\ and\\ other\\ areas\\ of\\ life\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Rosenburg\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;traced\\ the\\ complex\\ interplay\\ of\\ moral\\ and\\ naturalistic\\ conceptions\\ of\\ disease\\ causation\\ in\\ his\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1832\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ public\\ took\\ illness\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ displeasure\\ and\\ a\\ warning\\ to\\ the\\ dissolute\\;\\ thus\\,\\ although\\ cholera\\ obeyed\\ natural\\ laws\\,\\ it\\ was\\ sent\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ punish\\ sin\\.\\ \\ \\;President\\ Jackson\\,\\ however\\,\\ rejected\\ the\\ call\\ for\\ officially\\ sponsored\\ prayer\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ epidemic\\ as\\ unconstitutional\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ cholera\\ epidemic\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1849\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;demonstrated\\ that\\ American\\ society\\ was\\ radically\\ changing\\ its\\ conception\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ epidemic\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1866\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ public\\ health\\ methods\\ and\\ organization\\ were\\ forefront\\,\\ while\\ religious\\ authority\\ no\\ longer\\ figured\\ prominently\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professional\\ Medicine\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Americans\\ regarded\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ practiced\\ medicine\\ as\\ doctors\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ manner\\ of\\ people\\ took\\ up\\ medicine\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\ and\\ appropriated\\ the\\ title\\ doctor\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ common\\ for\\ the\\ clergy\\ to\\ combine\\ medical\\ and\\ religious\\ services\\ to\\ their\\ congregation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ boundaries\\ between\\ profession\\ and\\ trade\\ were\\ blurred\\.\\ \\ \\;Gradually\\ those\\ who\\ practiced\\ medicine\\ began\\ to\\ practice\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ primary\\ role\\,\\ and\\ by\\ 1750\\,\\ they\\ had\\ emerged\\ as\\ a\\ corporate\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;Increasingly\\ Americans\\ who\\ had\\ served\\ an\\ apprenticeship\\ should\\ a\\ medical\\ education\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ and\\ then\\ came\\ back\\ wanting\\ the\\ standards\\ and\\ dignity\\ possessed\\ by\\ European\\ physicians\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ first\\ wave\\ of\\ professionalization\\,\\ which\\ coincided\\ with\\ a\\ growing\\ separation\\ of\\ medicine\\ from\\ religion\\,\\ began\\ around\\ 1750\\,\\ best\\ exemplified\\ by\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ medical\\ schools\\ \\(College\\ of\\ Philadelphia\\ \\(UPenn\\)\\,\\ 1765\\,\\ John\\ Morgan\\)\\,\\ medical\\ societies\\ \\(New\\ Jersey\\,\\ 1766\\)\\,\\ and\\ agitation\\ for\\ protective\\ medical\\ legislature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Of\\ 3500\\-4000\\ \\&ldquo\\;doctors\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Revolutionary\\ America\\,\\ 400\\ have\\ formal\\ medical\\ training\\ and\\ 200\\ have\\ degree\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ professional\\ elite\\ was\\ concentrated\\ almost\\ entirely\\ in\\ the\\ larger\\ cities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apprenticeship\\ is\\ the\\ principal\\ form\\ of\\ medical\\ training\\ in\\ the\\ colonial\\ period\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ firm\\ standards\\,\\ not\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ professional\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\-style\\ hierarchy\\ requires\\ aristocratic\\ patronage\\,\\ legal\\ protection\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ basis\\ for\\ aristocratic\\ personality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ boundaries\\ of\\ a\\ medical\\ profession\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ determined\\ based\\ on\\ any\\ of\\ three\\ criteria\\:\\ a\\ medical\\ school\\ diploma\\,\\ a\\ license\\,\\ and\\/or\\ membership\\ in\\ a\\ medical\\ society\\;\\ however\\,\\ in\\ colonial\\ America\\,\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ regulations\\ that\\ set\\ a\\ base\\-line\\ standard\\ for\\ entering\\ the\\ medical\\ practice\\;\\ any\\ person\\ could\\ acquire\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ certifications\\,\\ or\\ any\\ pretense\\ to\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ certifications\\,\\ and\\ claim\\ as\\ much\\ medical\\ authority\\ as\\ any\\ other\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ competition\\ between\\ and\\ within\\ the\\ groups\\,\\ without\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ diffusion\\ and\\ degradation\\ of\\ emblems\\ of\\ status\\,\\ led\\ to\\ inflation\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ doctor\\ and\\ erosion\\ of\\ quality\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ contempt\\ for\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;In\\ seeking\\ to\\ raise\\ their\\ status\\ individually\\,\\ physicians\\ undermined\\ it\\ collectively\\ \\(Starr\\ 44\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Proprietary\\ Medical\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rapidly\\ proliferated\\ following\\ the\\ War\\ of\\ 1812\\.\\ \\ \\;Typically\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ physicians\\,\\ seeking\\ financial\\ reward\\ \\(direct\\ compensation\\ from\\ student\\ fees\\ for\\ classes\\ and\\ private\\ tutorials\\)\\ and\\ increased\\ professional\\ prestige\\,\\ approached\\ a\\ local\\ college\\ with\\ a\\ proposal\\ for\\ a\\ school\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\5\\-7\\ professors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Term\\ \\=\\ 3\\-4\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ years\\ in\\ which\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(graded\\ curriculum\\ \\=\\ 1850\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theoretical\\ Requirements\\ for\\ MD\\:\\ Latin\\,\\ natural\\ and\\ experimental\\ philosophy\\,\\ three\\ years\\ apprenticeship\\,\\ attendance\\ of\\ two\\ terms\\,\\ passing\\ of\\ all\\ exams\\,\\ thesis\\,\\ 21\\ years\\,\\ but\\ Unrestrained\\ competition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;length\\ of\\ term\\ kept\\ at\\ minimal\\ level\\,\\ requirements\\ sacrificed\\,\\ student\\ fees\\ driven\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diploma\\ \\=\\ license\\ to\\ practice\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ licensure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;first\\ law\\ calling\\ for\\ examining\\ and\\ licensing\\ of\\ doctors\\,\\ and\\ fining\\ of\\ the\\ unlicenced\\ was\\ passed\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ 1760\\;\\ power\\ vested\\ in\\ city\\ officials\\;\\ exempted\\ any\\ already\\-practicing\\ unlicensed\\;\\ never\\ enforced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ societies\\ given\\ licensing\\ authority\\ after\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ a\\ boundary\\ was\\ also\\ ineffective\\,\\ but\\ persisted\\ because\\ in\\ individual\\ immediate\\ interests\\ of\\ involved\\ parties\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\ standard\\ set\\ for\\ education\\ or\\ achievement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ power\\ given\\ to\\ rescind\\ a\\ license\\ once\\ awarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ provision\\ for\\ enforcement\\ against\\ unlicensed\\ practitioners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ serious\\ penalties\\ were\\ imposed\\ for\\ violating\\ law\\ \\(\\ blocked\\ from\\ courts\\ to\\ recover\\ debts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;demand\\ payment\\ in\\ advance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\license\\ \\=\\ official\\ certificate\\ that\\ is\\ more\\ convincing\\ than\\ nothing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\license\\ \\=\\ money\\ to\\ society\\ or\\ licensing\\ authority\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ legislatures\\ were\\ still\\ enacting\\ licensing\\ laws\\ in\\ the\\ 1820s\\,\\ but\\ began\\ rescinding\\ them\\ in\\ quick\\ succession\\ \\(gone\\ by\\ mid\\-century\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ opinion\\ had\\ never\\ allowed\\ licensing\\ to\\ become\\ exclusive\\,\\ and\\ repeal\\ only\\ ratified\\ a\\ judgment\\ passed\\ by\\ society\\ at\\ large\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ fundamentally\\ destroyed\\ licensure\\ was\\ the\\ suspicion\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ favor\\ rather\\ than\\ competence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ Societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sought\\ to\\ isolate\\ quacks\\ by\\ denying\\ them\\ all\\ consultations\\ with\\ regular\\ physicians\\;\\ anyone\\ who\\ conferred\\ with\\ them\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ subject\\ to\\ penalties\\,\\ such\\ as\\ expulsion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ tried\\ to\\ develop\\ uniform\\ fee\\ schedules\\ to\\ discourage\\ price\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ they\\ insist\\ on\\ high\\ standards\\,\\ membership\\ is\\ small\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\unable\\ to\\ isolate\\ quacks\\ or\\ control\\ price\\ cutting\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ they\\ admit\\ large\\ numbers\\,\\ diminishes\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ means\\ to\\ induce\\ compliance\\ and\\ participation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Result\\:\\ membership\\ is\\ low\\,\\ dues\\ unpaid\\,\\ rules\\ ignored\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ preferred\\ statues\\ were\\ continually\\ invaded\\ by\\ the\\ lower\\ ranks\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\ as\\ schools\\ multiplied\\,\\ societies\\ became\\ less\\ exclusion\\,\\ and\\ licenses\\ became\\ easier\\ to\\ acquire\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ attempt\\ to\\ set\\ boundaries\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ only\\ blurred\\ them\\ further\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Morgan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\established\\ the\\ first\\ medical\\ school\\ in\\ America\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\College\\ of\\ Philadelphia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(UPenn\\)\\ in\\ 1765\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Called\\ for\\ separation\\ of\\ physic\\ \\(elite\\)\\ from\\ surgery\\ \\(craft\\)\\ and\\ pharmacy\\ \\(trade\\)\\ and\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ proper\\ professional\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ medicine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Originally\\ offered\\ both\\ bachelors\\ and\\ doctoral\\ degree\\ in\\ medicine\\ \\(but\\ those\\ who\\ acquired\\ their\\ bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ degree\\ never\\ came\\ back\\ because\\ a\\ certificate\\ of\\ any\\ sort\\ was\\ more\\ than\\ sufficient\\ to\\ practice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\College\\ of\\ Philadelphia\\ set\\ standards\\ for\\ all\\ medical\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1789\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ eliminated\\ the\\ bac\\;\\ only\\ prerequisites\\ for\\ the\\ Md\\ \\=\\ one\\ course\\ in\\ natural\\ and\\ experimental\\ philosophy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Believed\\ there\\ was\\ one\\ disease\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ one\\ remedy\\:\\ total\\ body\\ depletion\\ with\\ blood\\-letting\\,\\ emetics\\,\\ cathartics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heroic\\ therapy\\ of\\ this\\ kind\\ dominated\\ American\\ medical\\ practice\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ decades\\ of\\ 1800s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daniel\\ Drake\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ notable\\ physicians\\ of\\ the\\ Midwest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ William\\ Shippen\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ obstetrician\\ in\\ colonies\\ in\\ 1763\\,\\ representing\\ shift\\ from\\ midwives\\ to\\ doctors\\,\\ which\\ first\\ started\\ among\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ urban\\ middle\\ classes\\ \\(midwives\\&rsquo\\;\\ decline\\ began\\ in\\ 1700\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ there\\ was\\ some\\ moral\\ opposition\\ to\\ male\\ physicians\\ attending\\ childbirth\\,\\ well\\-to\\-do\\ women\\ had\\ come\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ physicians\\&rsquo\\;\\ claims\\ of\\ superior\\ skill\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultural\\ sedimentation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\refers\\ to\\ the\\ observation\\ that\\ the\\ theories\\ and\\ remedies\\ of\\ learned\\ traditions\\ filter\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ low\\ classes\\,\\ where\\ they\\ remain\\ even\\ after\\ the\\ learned\\ have\\ abandoned\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Folk\\ medicine\\ and\\ lay\\ healing\\ typically\\ include\\ ideas\\ and\\ practices\\ taken\\ over\\ from\\ professional\\ and\\ authoritative\\ sources\\,\\ but\\ the\\ transfers\\ went\\ in\\ both\\ directions\\,\\ as\\ some\\ important\\ remedies\\,\\ such\\ as\\ smallpox\\ inoculation\\ and\\ cinchona\\ \\(quinine\\)\\ were\\ derived\\ from\\ folk\\ cultures\\,\\ and\\ lay\\ competition\\ created\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ professionals\\ to\\ abandon\\ heroic\\ practices\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lay\\/Popular\\ Medicine\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomsonian\\ Medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ major\\ organized\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ in\\ early\\ 1800s\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\New\\ Englander\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Samuel\\ Thomson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;led\\ a\\ radical\\ movement\\ of\\ botanic\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1809\\,\\ after\\ a\\ patient\\ died\\,\\ he\\ was\\ accused\\ of\\ murder\\ by\\ a\\ doctor\\,\\ but\\ was\\ tried\\ and\\ acquitted\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ trial\\ attracted\\ public\\ attention\\ to\\ his\\ ideas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1813\\,\\ he\\ obtains\\ a\\ patent\\ from\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ for\\ his\\ system\\ of\\ botanic\\ medicine\\,\\ enabling\\ him\\ both\\ to\\ sell\\ rights\\ for\\ use\\ of\\ his\\ methods\\ and\\ to\\ claim\\ official\\ endorsement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1822\\:\\ published\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\New\\ Guide\\ to\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ followers\\,\\ who\\ were\\ organized\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;friendly\\ botanic\\ societies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ mostly\\ rural\\,\\ held\\ conventions\\,\\ and\\ published\\ journals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sold\\ 100\\,\\ 0000\\ family\\ rights\\;\\ half\\ of\\ Ohio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ population\\ were\\ adherents\\ by\\ his\\ estimate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ disease\\ was\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ one\\ general\\ cause\\ \\(cold\\)\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ removed\\ by\\ one\\ general\\ remedy\\ \\(heat\\)\\,\\ which\\ could\\ be\\ restored\\ by\\ clearing\\ the\\ system\\ of\\ all\\ obstructions\\,\\ so\\ the\\ stomach\\ could\\ digest\\ food\\ and\\ generate\\ hear\\,\\ or\\ else\\ indirectly\\ by\\ causing\\ perspiration\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principal\\ medications\\:\\ lobelia\\ inflate\\ \\(violent\\ emetic\\)\\,\\ red\\ pepper\\,\\ steam\\ and\\ hot\\ baths\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vigorously\\ opposed\\ all\\ the\\ mineral\\ remedies\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ ideology\\ informed\\ the\\ movement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ writing\\ contrasted\\ common\\ sense\\ with\\ arcane\\,\\ professional\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evinced\\ a\\ supreme\\ faith\\ I\\ the\\ simplicity\\ and\\ accessibility\\ of\\ valid\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medicine\\,\\ like\\ religion\\ and\\ government\\,\\ had\\ been\\ shrouded\\ in\\ unnecessary\\ obscurity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Declared\\ sympathy\\ with\\ the\\ laboring\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sought\\ to\\ overthrow\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ priests\\,\\ lawyers\\ and\\ doctors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ similar\\ system\\ to\\ the\\ dominant\\ authorities\\:\\ Pathology\\ was\\ systemic\\ rather\\ than\\ local\\;\\ one\\ disease\\ and\\ one\\ remedy\\,\\ depletion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contradictions\\:\\ conducted\\ by\\ its\\ founder\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ profit\\ and\\ under\\ protection\\ of\\ a\\ patent\\;\\ professionalism\\ vs\\.\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medical\\ schools\\ represented\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ Thomson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ followers\\ to\\ solidify\\ their\\ own\\ social\\ position\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ temptation\\ of\\ professionalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thomson\\ died\\ 1843\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ movement\\ divided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Independent\\ Thomsonians\\ established\\ a\\ medical\\ college\\ in\\ Cincinnati\\ before\\ being\\ absorbed\\ into\\ another\\ botanic\\ sect\\,\\ the\\ Eclectics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sylvester\\ Graham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 1830s\\,\\ this\\ health\\ reformer\\ advocated\\ a\\ lighter\\ vegetarian\\ diet\\,\\ regular\\ bathing\\,\\ abstention\\ from\\ alcohol\\ and\\ coffee\\,\\ and\\ the\\ popularization\\ of\\ knowledge\\ about\\ physiology\\ and\\ hygiene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ found\\ more\\ sympathy\\ among\\ the\\ irregulars\\ who\\ practiced\\ with\\ roots\\ and\\ herbs\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ broad\\ alliance\\ linking\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ and\\ protests\\ against\\ the\\ regular\\ profession\\ and\\ its\\ stringent\\ remedies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ market\\ for\\ medical\\ care\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ consolidation\\ of\\ authority\\ in\\ a\\ bounded\\ medical\\ profession\\,\\ derived\\ from\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diminished\\ state\\ involvement\\:\\ Particularly\\ after\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ licensure\\ in\\ the\\ 1830s\\ and\\ 1840s\\,\\ the\\ state\\ had\\ almost\\ nothing\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ private\\ transactions\\ between\\ medical\\ practitioners\\ and\\ their\\ patients\\ before\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decreased\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ in\\ caring\\ for\\ the\\ sick\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Urbanization\\,\\ resulting\\ from\\ population\\ increases\\ and\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ canals\\,\\ steamboats\\ and\\ railroads\\,\\ decreased\\ the\\ distance\\ between\\ patients\\ and\\ doctors\\,\\ thus\\ decreasing\\ the\\ opportunity\\ and\\ travel\\ costs\\ of\\ seeking\\ care\\ from\\ a\\ professional\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ proportion\\ of\\ Americans\\ living\\ in\\ communities\\ \\>\\;2500\\ went\\ from\\ 15\\%\\ in\\ 1800\\ to\\ 46\\%\\ in\\ 1910\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctors\\ moved\\ to\\ cities\\ more\\ rapidly\\ that\\ the\\ population\\/\\:\\ between\\ 1870\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ physicians\\ per\\ 100\\,000\\ grew\\ from\\ 177\\ to\\ 241\\ in\\ large\\ cities\\ while\\ it\\ fell\\ from\\ 160\\ to\\ 152\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(overall\\,\\ growing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reduced\\ travel\\ time\\ owing\\ to\\ technological\\ advances\\ cut\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ medical\\ care\\ and\\ raised\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ physicians\\&rsquo\\;\\ services\\ by\\ increasing\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ doctors\\&rsquo\\;\\ time\\ available\\ for\\ contact\\ with\\ patients\\;\\ these\\ changes\\ put\\ medical\\ care\\ within\\ the\\ income\\ range\\ of\\ more\\ people\\ and\\ increased\\ the\\ productivity\\ of\\ physicians\\ by\\ 300\\%\\ from\\ 1850\\-1940\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Telephone\\ \\(1870\\)\\ eliminated\\ time\\ spent\\ by\\ patient\\ tracking\\ down\\ doctor\\ on\\ foot\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Automobile\\ \\(1890s\\)\\ cut\\ the\\ time\\ required\\ for\\ house\\ calls\\ in\\ half\\ according\\ to\\ physicians\\ surveyed\\ between\\ 1906\\ and\\ 1912\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Improved\\ efficacy\\ of\\ treatment\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ isolation\\ of\\ medical\\ practice\\;\\ more\\ rapid\\ intervention\\ in\\ emergencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychological\\ effect\\:\\ improved\\ access\\ brought\\ greater\\ dependency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Growing\\ concentration\\ of\\ patients\\ in\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insane\\ Asylums\\:\\ Purely\\ proprietary\\ asylums\\ open\\ in\\ the1820s\\;\\ the\\ psychiatric\\ profession\\ emerges\\ in\\ the1840s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Urbanization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;higher\\ concentrations\\ of\\ the\\ insane\\,\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ informal\\ controls\\,\\ and\\ a\\ greater\\ demand\\ for\\ order\\ and\\ security\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greater\\ optimism\\ about\\ the\\ plasticity\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\;\\ broader\\ religious\\ and\\ ideological\\ currents\\ in\\ American\\ society\\ favored\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\ of\\ positive\\ effort\\ to\\ cure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ rise\\ of\\ hospitals\\ was\\ a\\ key\\ precondition\\ for\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ sovereign\\ profession\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(72\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1873\\:\\ fewer\\ than\\ 200\\;\\ 1920\\:\\ more\\ than\\ 6000\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Less\\ labor\\ power\\ and\\ physical\\ space\\ at\\ home\\ to\\ attend\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Separation\\ of\\ work\\ from\\ residence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Urban\\ growth\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ higher\\ property\\ values\\,\\ forced\\ many\\ families\\ to\\ abandon\\ private\\ house\\ for\\ apartments\\ in\\ multifamily\\ dwellings\\,\\ which\\ limited\\ physical\\ space\\ to\\ accommodate\\ the\\ ill\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industrialization\\ and\\ high\\ geographic\\ mobility\\ meant\\ that\\ the\\ conjugal\\ family\\ became\\ more\\ isolated\\ from\\ the\\ threads\\ of\\ kinship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Significant\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ upper\\-class\\ households\\ due\\ to\\ decline\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ domestic\\ servants\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ kids\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increase\\ in\\ unattached\\ individuals\\ living\\ alone\\ in\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dangers\\ of\\ infection\\ in\\ general\\ hospitals\\ retarded\\ their\\ growth\\ \\(asylums\\ grew\\ first\\)\\ until\\ the\\ reforms\\ in\\ hospital\\ hygiene\\ and\\ advent\\ of\\ antiseptic\\ surgery\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increase\\ in\\ physician\\ income\\ relative\\ to\\ population\\ at\\ large\\ meant\\ that\\ patients\\ had\\ an\\ increased\\ incentive\\ to\\ substitute\\ their\\ own\\ travel\\ time\\ for\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ doctors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\)\\ Buchan\\,\\ William\\.\\ Domestic\\ Medicine\\ Or\\,\\ A\\ Treatise\\ on\\ the\\ Prevention\\ and\\ Cure\\ of\\ Diseases\\ By\\ Regimen\\ and\\ Simple\\ Medicines\\ \\(Exeter\\:\\ J\\.B\\.\\ Williams\\,\\ 1839\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ iii\\-xvii\\,\\ 52\\-55\\,\\ 348\\-351\\.\\ \\(Jessica\\ Pang\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theme\\ and\\ also\\ thesis\\:\\ Great\\ example\\ of\\ Unorthodox\\ Medicine\\ \\(Response\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\therapeutic\\ nihilism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ skepticism\\ towards\\ regular\\ physicians\\ and\\ their\\ heroic\\ efforts\\)\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ cure\\ of\\ disease\\ is\\ doubtless\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ great\\ importance\\;\\ but\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ health\\ is\\ still\\ greater\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.XV\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Democratization\\ of\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ needed\\ \\(religion\\,\\ law\\,\\ philosophy\\,\\ Natural\\ History\\ already\\ democratized\\&mdash\\;that\\ is\\,\\ universally\\ studied\\ or\\ not\\ hidden\\ from\\ the\\ public\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\General\\ education\\ of\\ medicine\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medicine\\ and\\ administration\\ of\\ drugs\\ often\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heroic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ pharmaceutical\\ actions\\ have\\ had\\ little\\ success\\ because\\ used\\ in\\ ignorance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ rely\\ too\\ much\\ on\\ professional\\ medicine\\ and\\ should\\ rely\\ on\\ themselves\\ a\\ bit\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patients\\ themselves\\ know\\ how\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ feeling\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ be\\ well\\ informed\\ because\\ ignorance\\ is\\ very\\ dangerous\\ \\(also\\ re\\:\\ quackery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Critical\\ view\\ of\\ physicians\\;\\ People\\ must\\ be\\ accountable\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ physicians\\ have\\ no\\ flexibility\\ in\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ sense\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ preventative\\ measure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vis\\ medicatrix\\ naturea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ healing\\ powers\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ given\\ the\\ chance\\ the\\ body\\ will\\ heal\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diet\\,\\ Air\\,\\ Exercise\\,\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ very\\ important\\ \\(key\\ tenet\\ \\;\\:\\ moderation\\ is\\ good\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paying\\ attention\\ to\\ these\\ things\\ will\\ keep\\ one\\ in\\ good\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\ of\\ recommendations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sunlight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ posture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reading\\ out\\ loud\\ \\(but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ study\\ too\\ much\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Horse\\ back\\ riding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ diet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Open\\ air\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cold\\ bath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ recommendations\\ not\\ medicinal\\ cures\\ but\\ excellent\\ for\\ general\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ know\\ some\\ general\\ techniques\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ an\\ emergency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctor\\ and\\ patient\\ relationship\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ open\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\True\\ physicians\\ should\\ be\\ very\\ candid\\ about\\ their\\ techniques\\ and\\ knowledge\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ distinguish\\ themselves\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\quacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ physicians\\ write\\ their\\ prescriptions\\ legibly\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ are\\ at\\ a\\ great\\ disadvantage\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\elitist\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ be\\ compared\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Thomsonian\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ both\\ promoted\\ dissemination\\ of\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ public\\,\\ and\\ do\\-it\\-yourself\\ medicine\\.\\ \\ \\;Thomson\\,\\ however\\,\\ was\\ reacting\\ against\\ regular\\ physicians\\ and\\ the\\ organized\\ profession\\,\\ and\\ Buchan\\ was\\ exactly\\ that\\&mdash\\;a\\ very\\ well\\ educated\\ regular\\ physician\\ from\\ Scotland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1769\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;William\\ Buchan\\ writes\\ first\\ edition\\ of\\ Domestic\\ Medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1839\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Domestic\\ Medicine\\ \\(Newer\\ edition\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Cassedy\\,\\ C\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Why\\ Self\\-Help\\?\\ Americans\\ Alone\\ with\\ Their\\ Diseases\\ \\(1800\\-1850\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\(Hkorre\\@fas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-internal\\ factors\\:\\ convenience\\,\\ family\\ \\&\\;\\ social\\ habits\\,\\ individual\\ or\\ group\\ principles\\ \\(31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;external\\ factors\\:\\ necessary\\:\\ geographical\\ isolation\\,\\ expenses\\,\\ inadequate\\ supply\\ or\\ performance\\ of\\ medical\\ profession\\ \\ \\;\\(31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\believed\\ most\\ people\\ lived\\ close\\ enough\\ to\\ train\\ individual\\ to\\ get\\ medical\\ attention\\ \\(31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ physicians\\ from\\ Europe\\ along\\ with\\ new\\ American\\ physicians\\ grew\\ fast\\ enough\\ to\\ keep\\ up\\ with\\ population\\ \\(31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ history\\ of\\ \\"\\;doctors\\ on\\ horseback\\"\\;\\ bringing\\ medicine\\ to\\ the\\ rural\\ areas\\ \\(32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\whole\\ towns\\ and\\ villages\\ without\\ professional\\ medical\\ care\\ in\\ 17th\\ and\\ 18\\ century\\ \\(33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\some\\ towns\\ advertise\\ for\\ doctors\\ \\(33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ young\\ doctors\\ drawn\\ to\\ urban\\ areas\\ \\(33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ medical\\ specialization\\:\\ best\\ done\\ in\\ cities\\ \\(33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ turn\\ to\\ alternative\\ practitioners\\ \\(33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\creates\\ movement\\ toward\\ self\\-medicine\\ \\(33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Medical\\ Association\\ try\\ to\\ gather\\ evidence\\ showing\\ some\\ consequences\\ of\\ self\\-medicine\\ and\\ resorting\\ to\\ quacks\\ \\(34\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1840s\\ child\\ deaths\\ because\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ use\\ of\\ professional\\ doctors\\ \\(34\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-reasons\\ for\\ use\\ of\\ alternative\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ personal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;expenses\\,\\ preference\\ for\\ eclectic\\ medicine\\,\\ switching\\ of\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ medical\\ profession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lack\\ of\\ medical\\ authority\\ and\\ certainty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\increase\\ in\\ physicians\\ and\\ medical\\ school\\ cause\\ a\\ decline\\ in\\ medical\\ quality\\ \\(35\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ medical\\ schools\\ mostly\\ out\\ to\\ make\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\problems\\ in\\ distribution\\ of\\ medical\\ professionals\\ \\(36\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ surplus\\ in\\ cities\\ but\\ not\\ enough\\ in\\ rural\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\some\\ urge\\ young\\ physicians\\ to\\ go\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\excess\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ cities\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ public\\ institutions\\ made\\ it\\ hard\\ for\\ a\\ physician\\ to\\ serve\\ the\\ poor\\ AND\\ make\\ a\\ living\\ \\(37\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ few\\ who\\ did\\ were\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ keep\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ population\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\distractions\\ to\\ doctors\\ in\\ the\\ cities\\ \\-\\ other\\ professions\\ on\\ the\\ side\\,\\ leadership\\ roles\\ in\\ the\\ community\\,\\ politics\\,\\ teaching\\ \\(38\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ moved\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ always\\ had\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ new\\ doctor\\ \\(39\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ traveling\\ sick\\ had\\ to\\ wait\\ until\\ they\\ got\\ to\\ their\\ destination\\ \\(40\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ permanent\\ population\\ and\\ their\\ physicians\\ hardened\\ to\\ the\\ suffering\\ of\\ the\\ migrants\\ \\(40\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ traveling\\ people\\ had\\ to\\ carry\\ remedies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ organized\\ groups\\ that\\ brought\\ a\\ physician\\ faired\\ much\\ better\\ \\(41\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\"\\;seasoning\\"\\;\\ at\\ the\\ destination\\:\\ large\\ numbers\\ died\\ as\\ people\\ get\\ used\\ to\\ disease\\ and\\ find\\ local\\ remedies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ doctors\\ had\\ to\\ travel\\ without\\ all\\ their\\ medical\\ supplies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ to\\ do\\ between\\ doctors\\ visits\\?\\ \\(45\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ let\\ nature\\ take\\ its\\ course\\,\\ take\\ whatever\\ medicine\\ available\\,\\ even\\ perform\\ surgery\\ on\\ each\\ other\\ \\(45\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-Help\\ books\\ \\(45\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ increase\\ in\\ quick\\ transportation\\,\\ communication\\,\\ and\\ mail\\ and\\ better\\ literacy\\ made\\ medical\\ books\\ easily\\ attainable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ doctors\\ found\\ it\\ very\\ profitable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ introduction\\ of\\ medical\\ journals\\ and\\ personal\\ hygiene\\ books\\ \\(46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ drugs\\ and\\ medical\\ equipment\\ easily\\ obtainable\\ for\\ the\\ average\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\quinine\\ treats\\ malarial\\ fevers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ some\\ people\\ think\\ all\\ they\\ need\\ is\\ the\\ medicine\\,\\ not\\ the\\ physician\\ \\(46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\individualist\\ spirit\\ enhanced\\ by\\ the\\ literature\\ and\\ politics\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ \\(47\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Drake\\,\\ D\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Practical\\ Essays\\ on\\ Medical\\ Education\\ and\\ the\\ Medical\\ Profession\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Emily\\ McCoy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ The\\ Code\\ of\\ Ethics\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Medical\\ Association\\:\\ \\[of\\ the\\ Duties\\ of\\ Physicians\\ to\\ Their\\ Patients\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Obligations\\ of\\ Patients\\ to\\ Their\\ Physicians\\]\\,\\ 1848\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Peter\\ Assante\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ This\\ primary\\ source\\ establishes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\ of\\ the\\ patient\\/physician\\ relationship\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ way\\,\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;code\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ guide\\ to\\ how\\ to\\ most\\ fully\\ assume\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ patient\\ or\\ the\\ doctor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doctor\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Being\\ a\\ doctor\\ is\\ a\\ life\\ long\\ service\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ profession\\ that\\ is\\ served\\ in\\ good\\ conscience\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ civil\\ servant\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ virtuous\\ contributor\\ of\\ society\\ that\\ provides\\ an\\ invaluable\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ should\\ willingly\\ administer\\ to\\ the\\ sick\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;uniting\\ tenderness\\ with\\ firmness\\,\\ condescension\\ with\\ authority\\,\\ as\\ to\\ inspire\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ their\\ patients\\ with\\ gratitude\\,\\ respect\\,\\ and\\ confidence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(27\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctors\\ should\\ build\\ a\\ trust\\ relationship\\ with\\ their\\ patients\\ through\\ their\\ selfless\\ acts\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ personal\\ visits\\)\\,\\ their\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ constitution\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ better\\ treat\\ them\\,\\ and\\ impacting\\ their\\ lives\\ in\\ a\\ meaningful\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ caution\\ here\\ that\\ doctors\\ should\\ never\\ give\\ bad\\ news\\ on\\ the\\ prognosis\\ of\\ the\\ patient\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ severity\\ of\\ the\\ impact\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ one\\ call\\ tell\\ those\\ connected\\ to\\ family\\ members\\ or\\ better\\ yet\\,\\ defer\\ the\\ announcement\\ of\\ the\\ news\\ to\\ someone\\ of\\ lower\\ status\\ within\\ the\\ office\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ nurse\\,\\ just\\ someone\\ besides\\ the\\ doctor\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ doctors\\ are\\ always\\ seem\\ as\\ people\\ of\\ good\\ news\\,\\ healing\\,\\ and\\ one\\ that\\ a\\ patient\\ should\\ not\\ fear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ physician\\ so\\ hold\\ never\\ abandon\\ a\\ patient\\ even\\ if\\ their\\ prognosis\\ is\\ gloomy\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ he\\ should\\ remain\\ a\\ comforting\\ force\\ by\\ alleviating\\ pain\\ and\\ other\\ symptoms\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Patient\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ importantly\\,\\ patients\\ should\\ only\\ select\\ doctors\\ that\\ are\\ fully\\ accredited\\ and\\ REAL\\ DOCTORS\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ plug\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ patients\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ compelled\\ to\\ seek\\ those\\ who\\ perform\\ \\&ldquo\\;quackery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ physician\\ should\\ be\\ virtuous\\ in\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patients\\ should\\ confide\\ in\\ the\\ doctor\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ care\\ of\\ himself\\ and\\ family\\ because\\ only\\ by\\ knowing\\ more\\ about\\ them\\,\\ can\\ he\\ successfully\\ treat\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Be\\ honest\\ and\\ build\\ a\\ friendship\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ patient\\ should\\ not\\ worry\\ the\\ doctor\\ with\\ details\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ pertain\\ to\\ disease\\ \\(business\\ friendship\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Never\\ question\\ a\\ doctor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ one\\ wants\\ to\\ dismiss\\ their\\ doctor\\,\\ they\\ should\\ state\\ their\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ makes\\ the\\ patient\\/doctor\\ relationship\\ a\\ contractual\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Physicians\\ should\\ treat\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ first\\ legitimates\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ contains\\ members\\ that\\ are\\ most\\ pure\\ of\\ character\\ and\\ high\\ moral\\ standard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ must\\ remain\\ temperate\\ in\\ all\\ situations\\;\\ they\\ should\\ do\\ their\\ jobs\\ well\\,\\ and\\ should\\ not\\ show\\ off\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ discourages\\ self\\-advertisement\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ no\\ patents\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ MD\\ profession\\ is\\ a\\ shared\\ profession\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ doctors\\ and\\ family\\ members\\ should\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ free\\ health\\ services\\ from\\ other\\ MD\\ professionals\\.\\ \\ \\;Doctors\\ should\\ depend\\ on\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ share\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ doctor\\ can\\ take\\ a\\ break\\ if\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ vacation\\,\\ family\\ drama\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ consultations\\,\\ patients\\ and\\ doctors\\ should\\ have\\ an\\ open\\ relationship\\ with\\ regards\\ to\\ how\\ they\\ address\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;Make\\ patients\\ feel\\ comfortable\\ to\\ be\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ two\\ doctors\\ are\\ handling\\ the\\ consultation\\,\\ make\\ sure\\ to\\ never\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ patient\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ patient\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physicians\\ should\\ be\\ on\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Avoid\\ theoretical\\ discussions\\ with\\ patients\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ disagreement\\ on\\ the\\ prognosis\\ of\\ a\\ patient\\ among\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ physicians\\,\\ the\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ prevails\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physician\\ and\\ public\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\MDs\\ are\\ good\\ citizens\\ of\\ society\\,\\ who\\ never\\ cease\\ to\\ educate\\ the\\ people\\ on\\ better\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ must\\ possess\\ all\\ knowledge\\ of\\ all\\ things\\ \\&ldquo\\;health\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ their\\ town\\ and\\ be\\ an\\ unfailing\\ resource\\ to\\ the\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ martyrs\\,\\ for\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ pestilence\\,\\ they\\ must\\ face\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ coming\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ a\\ diseased\\ person\\,\\ and\\ cure\\ as\\ many\\ people\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;even\\ at\\ the\\ jeopardy\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ lives\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(41\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ special\\ exemptions\\:\\ \\ \\;they\\ cannot\\ serve\\ on\\ a\\ jury\\,\\ the\\ army\\/militia\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ obliged\\ to\\ enlighten\\ the\\ public\\ as\\ to\\ those\\ that\\ practice\\ quackery\\ and\\ discourage\\ the\\ public\\ from\\ seeking\\ such\\ services\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ public\\ must\\ respect\\/trust\\ doctors\\,\\ deferring\\ to\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ defense\\ vs\\.\\ using\\ other\\ resources\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Numbers\\,\\ Ronald\\ L\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fall\\ and\\ Rise\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Medical\\ Profession\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Diane\\ Uree\\ Kim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Oct\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(oct\\.\\ 9\\ NO\\ CLASS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ October\\ 11\\ \\(Ryan\\ McCaffrey\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-Heroic\\ practice\\ important\\:\\ without\\ formal\\ education\\,\\ demonstrable\\ ability\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ gain\\ trust\\ from\\ patients\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Small\\ pox\\ was\\ endemic\\ \\(stable\\ rate\\ in\\ population\\)\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ but\\ epidemic\\ \\(occurring\\ periodically\\)\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ 7\\ epidemics\\ during\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ high\\ mortality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Common\\ practice\\ in\\ Constantinople\\ was\\ to\\ spread\\ puss\\ from\\ sores\\ on\\ healthy\\ individual\\ to\\ inoculate\\.\\ Puritan\\ minister\\ Mather\\ learned\\ of\\ this\\,\\ and\\ urged\\ inoculation\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ found\\ ships\\ coming\\ into\\ Boston\\ were\\ small\\ pox\\ infested\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Mather\\ thought\\ the\\ church\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ charge\\.\\ One\\ young\\ doctor\\,\\ Boylston\\ takes\\ up\\ his\\ challenge\\ and\\ tries\\ inoculation\\ on\\ his\\ slaves\\ and\\ children\\ and\\ becomes\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ the\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Iatrogenesis\\&rdquo\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ doctor\\-induced\\ diseases\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ notion\\ that\\ a\\ doctor\\ could\\ be\\ held\\ responsible\\ for\\ a\\ disease\\,\\ which\\ fueled\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ small\\ pox\\ inoculation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Dr\\.\\ Douglas\\ opposed\\ inoculations\\ and\\ he\\ had\\ many\\ followers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-By\\ June\\ 1721\\,\\ small\\ pox\\ becomes\\ an\\ epidemic\\ in\\ Boston\\.\\ Harvard\\ closes\\.\\ Boylston\\ inoculates\\ Mather\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\,\\ Samuel\\,\\ a\\ Harvard\\ student\\,\\ in\\ August\\.\\ Samuel\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ son\\ to\\ survive\\ Mather\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ puritans\\ thought\\ that\\ small\\ pox\\ inoculation\\ was\\ interfering\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\.\\ Mather\\ preached\\ that\\ Boston\\ must\\ be\\ filled\\ with\\ Satan\\ to\\ allow\\ such\\ beliefs\\.\\ Both\\ the\\ religious\\ and\\ medical\\ communities\\ were\\ up\\ in\\ arms\\.\\ Mather\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\ was\\ fire\\-bombed\\.\\ But\\ Mather\\ continued\\ to\\ reason\\ that\\ if\\ God\\ provides\\ the\\ mean\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ epidemic\\,\\ society\\ should\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-At\\ end\\ of\\ epidemic\\,\\ 10\\ percent\\ of\\ Boston\\ had\\ died\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Similarities\\ to\\ today\\:\\ debate\\ in\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ over\\ providing\\ clean\\ needles\\ to\\ IV\\ drug\\ users\\,\\ or\\ current\\ debate\\ over\\ whether\\ to\\ provide\\ condoms\\ to\\ Africans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Small\\ pox\\ brought\\ in\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ number\\ counting\\.\\ Found\\ that\\ only\\ 2\\ \\%\\ of\\ Boylston\\&rsquo\\;s\\ patients\\ had\\ died\\,\\ very\\ low\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-This\\ was\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ secular\\ empiricism\\ in\\ American\\ medicine\\,\\ which\\ would\\ later\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ gain\\ more\\ momentum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Opposition\\ to\\ inoculations\\ continues\\ through\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ By\\ mid\\ century\\,\\ many\\ colonies\\ pass\\ laws\\ banning\\ inoculation\\ unless\\ under\\ times\\ of\\ declared\\ epidemics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Ben\\ Franklin\\ is\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ statistics\\ and\\ supports\\ inoculation\\ after\\ losing\\ son\\ to\\ small\\ pox\\ in\\ 1735\\.\\ John\\ Adams\\ also\\ a\\ strong\\ advocate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Small\\ pox\\ in\\ war\\:\\ Indian\\ uprising\\ in\\ 1763\\&mdash\\;Gen\\.\\ Amherst\\ gives\\ small\\ pox\\ blankets\\ to\\ Indians\\.\\ American\\ Revolution\\&mdash\\;10\\,000\\ Union\\ soldiers\\ died\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\ in\\ 1776\\,\\ the\\ next\\ year\\ Washington\\ had\\ the\\ entire\\ army\\ inoculated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Today\\ we\\ call\\ inoculations\\ vaccinations\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vacca\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(cows\\)\\.\\ Physicians\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ notices\\ small\\ pox\\-like\\ scares\\ on\\ women\\ who\\ milk\\ cows\\.\\ They\\ were\\ probably\\ from\\ \\&lsquo\\;cow\\ pox\\&rsquo\\;\\&mdash\\;a\\ disease\\ much\\ less\\ serious\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ yet\\ still\\ provides\\ immunity\\ to\\ small\\ pox\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Vaccine\\ sent\\ to\\ HMS\\ doctor\\,\\ Benjamin\\ Waterhouse\\,\\ who\\ tried\\ to\\ obtain\\ a\\ monopoly\\ on\\ its\\ distribution\\,\\ so\\ he\\ was\\ dismissed\\ by\\ Harvard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Small\\ pox\\ completely\\ eradicated\\ by\\ 1999\\.\\ It\\ only\\ exists\\ in\\ vials\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Russia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\)\\ Public\\ Health\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ \\(Oct\\.\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Rosenberg\\,\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\ Pgs\\ 1\\-13\\ \\(Tracy\\ Bjelland\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cholera\\ was\\ the\\ classic\\ epidemic\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ first\\ appeared\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1832\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ spread\\ to\\ almost\\ every\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ throughout\\ the\\ century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ flourished\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\larger\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;such\\ as\\ NYC\\,\\ Chicago\\,\\ and\\ Cincinnati\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cholera\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ thrive\\ without\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\presence\\ of\\ filth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ dirt\\,\\ not\\ to\\ mention\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ trade\\ and\\ transportation\\-both\\ hugely\\ facilitated\\ the\\ contagion\\ of\\ cholera\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cholera\\ pandemics\\ were\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\transitory\\ phenomenon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ last\\ only\\ a\\ short\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cholera\\ was\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ demise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ epidemics\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ provided\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ impetus\\ \\ \\;\\ needed\\ to\\ overcome\\ centuries\\ of\\ governmental\\ inertia\\ and\\ indifference\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ problems\\ of\\ public\\ health\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Survivors\\ of\\ the\\ epidemic\\ could\\ not\\ easily\\ forget\\;\\ the\\ symptoms\\ were\\ astonishing\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Onset\\ marked\\ by\\ diarrhea\\,\\ acute\\ spasmodic\\ vomiting\\,\\ and\\ painful\\ cramps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consequent\\ dehydration\\,\\ often\\ accompanied\\ by\\ cyanosis\\,\\ gives\\ to\\ the\\ sufferer\\ a\\ characteristic\\ and\\ disquieting\\ appearance\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ face\\ blue\\ and\\ pinched\\,\\ his\\ extremities\\ cold\\ and\\ darkened\\,\\ the\\ skin\\ of\\ his\\ hands\\ and\\ feet\\ drawn\\ and\\ puckered\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ sufferers\\ could\\ be\\ dead\\ within\\ the\\ day\\,\\ sometimes\\ within\\ hours\\ of\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ symptoms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ first\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1883\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ the\\ organism\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Vibrio\\ comma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ that\\ caused\\ Cholera\\ was\\ isolated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Koch\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ isolated\\ it\\,\\ while\\ he\\ was\\ directing\\ a\\ scientific\\ commission\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cholera\\ was\\ found\\ to\\ kill\\ roughly\\ half\\ of\\ those\\ infected\\ if\\ untreated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ could\\ be\\ spread\\ along\\ any\\ pathway\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ digestive\\ tract\\(\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ is\\ would\\ produce\\ the\\ disease\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ typhoid\\ in\\ this\\ respect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncooked\\ foods\\ or\\ unwashed\\ hands\\ were\\ frequently\\ responsible\\ for\\ its\\ transmission\\(\\ think\\ of\\ similarity\\ to\\ Typhoid\\ Mary\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transmission\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ and\\ most\\ severe\\ cholera\\ epidemics\\ was\\ sewage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-contaminated\\ water\\ supplies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\,\\ it\\ was\\ never\\ epidemic\\ in\\ this\\ country\\ it\\ appeared\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ five\\ times\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1832\\-34\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1849\\-1854\\ \\(no\\ twelve\\ month\\ period\\ passed\\ without\\ its\\ appearance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1866\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\During\\ the\\ 34\\ yrs\\ between\\ 1832\\ and\\ 1866\\ a\\ magnitude\\ of\\ changes\\ were\\ effected\\ in\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ striking\\ changes\\ in\\ America\\ during\\ this\\ time\\ was\\ the\\ dissipation\\ of\\ the\\ piety\\ still\\ so\\ characteristic\\ of\\ many\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Age\\ of\\ Jackson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ changes\\ in\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Habits\\ of\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patterns\\ of\\ rhetoric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ more\\ critical\\ and\\ empirical\\ temper\\ had\\ begun\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ abstract\\ rationalism\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\ day\\.\\ In\\ medicine\\ for\\ example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thoughtful\\ physicians\\ scorned\\ concepts\\ which\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ epressed\\ in\\ tables\\ and\\ \\%s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ skeptical\\ disavowed\\ traditional\\ therapy\\ and\\ relied\\ upon\\ the\\ bodies\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\ \\;natural\\ powers\\ to\\ triumph\\ over\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\&ldquo\\;positivistic\\&rdquo\\;\\ temper\\ of\\ thought\\ and\\ expression\\ infiltrated\\ the\\ pulpit\\ and\\ editorial\\ page\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ laboratory\\ and\\ consultation\\ room\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1866\\ Cholera\\ had\\ become\\ the\\ consequence\\ of\\ remedial\\ faults\\ in\\ sanitation\\.\\ A\\ transition\\ from\\ what\\ had\\ been\\ defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ scourge\\ of\\ the\\ sinful\\ to\\ many\\ American\\ in\\ 1832\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1832\\ ministers\\ encouraged\\ morality\\ upon\\ their\\ congregations\\ as\\ a\\ guarantor\\ of\\ health\\,\\ HOWEVER\\,\\ in\\ 1866\\ their\\ forward\\-looking\\ counterpart\\ endorsed\\ sanitary\\ reform\\ as\\ a\\ necessary\\ prerequisite\\ to\\ moral\\ improvement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ means\\ of\\ improving\\ public\\ health\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clean\\ streets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Airy\\ apartments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ pure\\ supply\\ of\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1866\\ advocates\\ for\\ this\\ public\\ health\\ reform\\ could\\ substantiate\\ their\\ claims\\ by\\ referring\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ Snow\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;findings\\ that\\ cholera\\ was\\ spread\\ through\\ a\\ contaminated\\ water\\ supply\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1832\\ America\\ was\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ land\\ of\\ health\\,\\ by\\ 1866\\ this\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1832\\ when\\ Americans\\ awaited\\ cholera\\,\\ they\\ reassured\\ themselves\\ by\\ thoughts\\ that\\ this\\ disease\\ only\\ affected\\ the\\ filthy\\,\\ hungry\\,\\ and\\ ignorant\\;\\ by\\ 1866\\ they\\ realized\\ that\\ nobody\\ was\\ exempt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ majority\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ focused\\ mainly\\ on\\ New\\ York\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\ pgs\\.\\ 13\\-40\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Pimkwam\\ Jaru\\-ampornpan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\ pgs\\.\\ 40\\-65\\ \\(\\ Allegra\\ Lichauco\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ I\\,\\ Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Justice\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cholera\\ reinforced\\ convictions\\ of\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consequence\\ of\\ sin\\,\\ any\\ imprudence\\ or\\ excess\\ could\\ provoke\\ an\\ attack\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ those\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;irregular\\&rdquo\\;\\ habits\\ had\\ anything\\ to\\ fear\\ from\\ the\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ faithful\\ person\\ died\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\,\\ it\\ arose\\ suspicion\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ unknown\\ secrets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ the\\ religious\\,\\ Cholera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ function\\ was\\ to\\ wipe\\ away\\ the\\ unrighteous\\ scum\\ from\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ punishments\\ for\\ not\\ observing\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medical\\ society\\ began\\ to\\ incorporate\\ secular\\ ideas\\ as\\ well\\,\\ even\\ though\\ cholera\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ sent\\ by\\ God\\,\\ religious\\ followers\\ dispensed\\ with\\ fasting\\ because\\ physicians\\ recommended\\ they\\ avoid\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cholera\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ caused\\ by\\ filth\\ and\\ intemperance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ people\\ called\\ for\\ a\\ national\\ fast\\ day\\,\\ but\\ Jackson\\ disagreed\\;\\ clear\\ conflicts\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\/church\\ and\\ state\\ existed\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ general\\ population\\ believed\\ that\\ science\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ laws\\ laid\\ down\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Or\\ Man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Injustice\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cholera\\ was\\ a\\ disease\\ of\\ the\\ intemperate\\,\\ vulgar\\,\\ vicious\\ and\\ indolent\\ poor\\ and\\ many\\ believed\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ large\\ middle\\ class\\ would\\ escape\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ suffer\\ from\\ cholera\\ was\\ socially\\ inexcusable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ poor\\ suffered\\ due\\ to\\ unhygienic\\,\\ crowded\\ lodging\\ and\\ water\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ epidemic\\ revealed\\ squalid\\ conditions\\ and\\ that\\ poverty\\,\\ destitution\\ and\\ ignorance\\ must\\ end\\;\\ it\\ seemed\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ indictment\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ which\\ allowed\\ it\\ to\\ exist\\&hellip\\;consequence\\ of\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chronic\\ inhumanity\\ to\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Irish\\,\\ African\\ Americans\\ and\\ other\\ immigrants\\ were\\ hit\\ the\\ hardest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ Americans\\ believed\\ cholera\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ immigration\\,\\ thus\\ new\\ immigrants\\ found\\ doors\\ closed\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ were\\ a\\ subject\\ of\\ pity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\ pgs\\.\\ 65\\-82\\ \\(Jillian\\ Rosengard\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ p\\.\\ 65\\-82\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Medical\\ Profession\\ I\\:\\ 1832\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-physicians\\ confident\\ that\\ cholera\\ was\\ a\\ manageable\\ disease\\ if\\ treated\\ promptly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-treatments\\:\\ bloodletting\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\calomel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ rubbing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-more\\ radical\\:\\ tobacco\\ smoke\\ enemas\\,\\ electric\\ shock\\,\\ saline\\ injections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-there\\ were\\ never\\ enough\\ physicians\\ to\\ treat\\ cholera\\ victims\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\quacks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;flourished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-many\\ feared\\ physicians\\ and\\ treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;hid\\ their\\ symptoms\\ to\\ avoid\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-many\\ physicians\\ fled\\ the\\ city\\ when\\ epidemic\\ struck\\,\\ others\\ tried\\ to\\ profit\\ from\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-several\\ doctors\\ became\\ cholera\\ victims\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-many\\ physicians\\ were\\ eager\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Daniel\\ Drake\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ among\\ the\\ first\\ physicians\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ cholera\\ did\\ not\\ only\\ claim\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ immoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-p\\.\\ 70\\-72\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Thomsonians\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;There\\ was\\ no\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ for\\ a\\ privileged\\ and\\ monopolistic\\ class\\ of\\ physicians\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Thomsonianism\\ most\\ popular\\ among\\ rural\\ and\\ lower\\-class\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-wealthy\\ and\\ educated\\ trusted\\ trained\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-suspected\\ causes\\ of\\ disease\\:\\ marshy\\ land\\,\\ filth\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ ventilation\\,\\ poor\\ diet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-many\\ believed\\ that\\ prayer\\ and\\ faith\\ were\\ effective\\ forms\\ of\\ prevention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-few\\ physicians\\ believed\\ cholera\\ to\\ be\\ contagious\\,\\ rather\\ believed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\miasma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-unlike\\ small\\ pox\\,\\ cholera\\ could\\ be\\ contracted\\ more\\ than\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-at\\ this\\ time\\ doctors\\ believed\\ in\\ only\\ 2\\ explanations\\ for\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ disease\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-contagionism\\ or\\ atmospheric\\ theory\\ \\(miasma\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-some\\ attributed\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ cholera\\ to\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-debate\\ over\\ possible\\ quarantine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-difficult\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ building\\ to\\ rent\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ cholera\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-difficult\\ to\\ find\\ nurses\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\ pgs\\.\\ 82\\-98\\ \\(Folsade\\ Odeniyi\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cholera\\ Years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ Aldermen\\ and\\ Cholera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Events\\ like\\ the\\ cholera\\ epidemic\\ require\\ money\\,\\ resources\\,\\ organization\\,\\ and\\ effective\\ leadership\\ of\\ governments\\,\\ something\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ not\\ available\\ during\\ the\\ epidemic\\ of\\ 1832\\.\\ Instead\\ during\\ the\\ peak\\ of\\ cholera\\ epidemic\\ temporary\\ committees\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ brave\\ community\\ members\\ assumed\\ leadership\\ when\\ the\\ epidemic\\ declined\\,\\ the\\ committees\\ disappeared\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ was\\ conscious\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ it\\ should\\ have\\ to\\ fill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-it\\ began\\ to\\ take\\ what\\ preventative\\ measure\\ it\\ could\\ almost\\ a\\ year\\ before\\ the\\ disease\\ crossed\\ the\\ Atlantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-the\\ board\\ organized\\ a\\ committee\\ to\\ gather\\ information\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-urged\\ the\\ national\\ government\\ to\\ send\\ a\\ medical\\ commission\\ to\\ Europe\\ and\\ enforced\\ quarantine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Board\\ had\\ an\\ important\\ committee\\ comprised\\ of\\ prominent\\ physicians\\ that\\ made\\ key\\ decisions\\ in\\ fighting\\ the\\ epidemic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Board\\ also\\ had\\ an\\ executive\\ committee\\ which\\ was\\ integral\\ in\\ the\\ executions\\ of\\ board\\ decisions\\ and\\ supervised\\ the\\ purchases\\ and\\ distribution\\ of\\ supplies\\ to\\ the\\ hospitals\\ and\\ dispensaries\\ the\\ hiring\\ and\\ firing\\ of\\ doctors\\ and\\ nurses\\ among\\ other\\ tasks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wards\\ were\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ administration\\;\\ physicians\\ and\\ dispensaries\\ were\\ assigned\\ wards\\ for\\ each\\ ward\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ alderman\\,\\ assistant\\ alderman\\ who\\ organized\\ and\\ supervised\\ sanitation\\ policies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Because\\ the\\ council\\ men\\ were\\ elected\\ officials\\ before\\ health\\ wardens\\,\\ nepotism\\ and\\ political\\ consideration\\ influenced\\ medical\\ appointments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Prevention\\ was\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ caring\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ had\\ fallen\\ ill\\,\\ so\\ the\\ first\\ acknowledge\\ duty\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ clean\\ and\\ purify\\ streets\\ and\\ houses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ poor\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ saved\\ by\\ depopulating\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worst\\ slums\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Board\\ suffered\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-inaccuracy\\ of\\ reports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-inefficiency\\ in\\ implementing\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-complaints\\ of\\ dissatisfied\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-mismanagement\\ of\\ finances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\ pgs\\.\\ 101\\-120\\ \\(Rachel\\ Johnson\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ THE\\ EPIDEMIC\\:\\ 1849\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cholera\\ came\\ to\\ New\\ York\\ on\\ December\\ 1\\,\\ 1849\\,\\ onboard\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ York\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ full\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ deceased\\ and\\ many\\ sick\\ victims\\ \\(331\\ total\\)\\.\\ With\\ the\\ disease\\ rampant\\ across\\ Europe\\ and\\ now\\ more\\,\\ faster\\ trans\\-Atlantic\\ shipping\\ than\\ in\\ 1832\\,\\ it\\ was\\ once\\ again\\ only\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ time\\ before\\ cholera\\ reached\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ports\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ October\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;medically\\ sophisticated\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ American\\ cities\\ observed\\ \\&ldquo\\;tainted\\ air\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ foretold\\ an\\ epidemic\\ \\(102\\)\\.\\ Boards\\ of\\ Health\\ and\\ other\\ medical\\ councils\\ began\\ preparations\\ by\\ December\\,\\ and\\ official\\ medical\\ reports\\ on\\ cholera\\ were\\ printed\\ in\\ newspapers\\:\\ reassuringly\\,\\ they\\ expounded\\ on\\ the\\ increased\\ immunity\\ bestowed\\ by\\ prudence\\ and\\ temperance\\;\\ offered\\ a\\ popular\\ new\\ theory\\ that\\ cholera\\ only\\ thrived\\ in\\ areas\\ founded\\ on\\ limestone\\ \\(thus\\ protecting\\ granite\\-based\\ New\\ England\\)\\;\\ and\\ above\\ all\\,\\ stressed\\ the\\ firm\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ was\\ naturally\\ protected\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ most\\ prosperous\\,\\ pious\\,\\ and\\ enlightened\\ of\\ nations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ reality\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ medical\\ thinkers\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ was\\ that\\ cities\\ were\\ lacking\\ in\\ clean\\ and\\ abundant\\ water\\ and\\ sanitation\\,\\ unable\\ to\\ dispose\\ properly\\ of\\ waste\\,\\ and\\ run\\ rampant\\ by\\ pigs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ infected\\ immigrants\\ were\\ immediately\\ quarantined\\ in\\ hastily\\ prepared\\ wards\\ on\\ Staten\\ Island\\,\\ where\\ many\\ more\\ became\\ sick\\ and\\ died\\ before\\ January\\.\\ As\\ some\\ managed\\ to\\ escape\\ to\\ New\\ York\\,\\ the\\ first\\ cholera\\ cases\\ appeared\\,\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ Academy\\ of\\ Medicine\\ and\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ held\\ special\\ meetings\\:\\ the\\ board\\ authorized\\ the\\ mayor\\ to\\ clean\\ the\\ streets\\,\\ and\\ called\\ for\\ cholera\\ hospitals\\.\\ But\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ winter\\,\\ most\\ \\ \\;people\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ begin\\ to\\ worry\\ immediately\\&mdash\\;though\\ the\\ South\\,\\ with\\ milder\\ winter\\ temperatures\\,\\ was\\ already\\ experiencing\\ onset\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\ stemming\\ from\\ New\\ Orleans\\.\\ By\\ the\\ time\\ cholera\\ cases\\ were\\ reported\\ on\\ May\\ 15\\ on\\ Orange\\ Street\\ \\(in\\ Five\\ Points\\,\\ the\\ red\\-light\\ district\\)\\,\\ no\\ cholera\\ hospitals\\ existed\\:\\ no\\ building\\ owners\\ \\(or\\ even\\ shipowners\\)\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ offer\\ their\\ property\\,\\ out\\ of\\ fear\\ of\\ later\\ association\\ with\\ disease\\&mdash\\;a\\ problem\\ that\\ many\\ cities\\ would\\ face\\.\\ The\\ first\\ hospital\\ was\\ finally\\ established\\ on\\ May\\ 16\\ on\\ the\\ second\\ floor\\ of\\ a\\ tavern\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ four\\ more\\ in\\ public\\ schools\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ disease\\ spread\\ from\\ Five\\ Points\\.\\ The\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ was\\ called\\ upon\\ to\\ act\\,\\ and\\ by\\ June\\ implemented\\ its\\ first\\ actual\\ anticholera\\ program\\,\\ including\\ rules\\ forbidding\\ fruit\\/veggie\\/fish\\ cart\\ sales\\ and\\ ordering\\ the\\ immediate\\ cleaning\\ of\\ filthy\\ tenements\\;\\ it\\ also\\ chose\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sanatory\\ Committee\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ composed\\ of\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ members\\ and\\ three\\ prominent\\ physicians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ Yorkers\\&rsquo\\;\\ response\\ consisted\\ of\\ flight\\ to\\ the\\ countryside\\,\\ medication\\ by\\ calomel\\ and\\ laudanum\\ \\(also\\ used\\ in\\ 1832\\)\\ plus\\ the\\ newer\\ remedies\\ of\\ sulphur\\ pills\\ and\\ camphor\\ \\&ldquo\\;segars\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ religious\\ appeal\\:\\ people\\ returned\\ to\\ church\\ after\\ long\\ absences\\ and\\ June\\ 28\\ was\\ set\\ aside\\ as\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ fasting\\ and\\ prayer\\.\\ But\\ in\\ general\\,\\ clergymen\\ thought\\ moral\\ fear\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ nearly\\ widespread\\ enough\\&mdash\\;theaters\\ and\\ grogshop\\ remaining\\ open\\ a\\ key\\ piece\\ of\\ evidence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fear\\ that\\ summer\\ weather\\ would\\ fuel\\ the\\ disease\\ came\\ true\\ in\\ July\\,\\ when\\ the\\ case\\ rate\\ suddenly\\ and\\ quickly\\ began\\ to\\ rise\\.\\ As\\ businesses\\ and\\ churches\\ closed\\ and\\ people\\ fled\\,\\ the\\ municipal\\ structure\\ managed\\ to\\ do\\ basically\\ nothing\\.\\ Unable\\ to\\ properly\\ wield\\ its\\ broad\\ and\\ vague\\ powers\\ and\\ faced\\ with\\ generally\\ careless\\,\\ corrupt\\ alderman\\ and\\ lots\\ of\\ conflict\\ between\\ different\\ bureaucratic\\ arms\\,\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ finally\\ resorted\\ just\\ to\\ asking\\ clergymen\\ to\\ urge\\ congregations\\ to\\ take\\ sanitary\\ measures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ thought\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ viewed\\ proper\\ sanitation\\ as\\ the\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ factor\\ in\\ preventing\\ and\\ controlling\\ cholera\\ spread\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ almost\\ impossible\\ to\\ achieve\\.\\ The\\ contract\\ system\\ of\\ street\\ cleaning\\ was\\ an\\ utter\\ failure\\,\\ leaving\\ piles\\ of\\ waste\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;permanent\\ menace\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ New\\ Yorkers\\;\\ dead\\ bodies\\ were\\ improperly\\ disposed\\ of\\;\\ and\\ the\\ Sanitory\\ Committee\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ handle\\ the\\ pig\\ problem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ as\\ in\\ 1832\\,\\ by\\ August\\,\\ the\\ disease\\ began\\ to\\ rapidly\\ decline\\ and\\ businessmen\\ again\\ filled\\ the\\ city\\ \\(where\\ trade\\ had\\ been\\ almost\\ completely\\ at\\ a\\ halt\\)\\;\\ 5\\,000\\ total\\ had\\ died\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ transportation\\ by\\ steamer\\,\\ railroad\\,\\ and\\ gold\\-fever\\ migration\\ westward\\ spread\\ cholera\\ to\\ hundreds\\ of\\ towns\\ and\\ cities\\,\\ including\\ the\\ even\\ more\\ primitive\\,\\ much\\ more\\ vulnerable\\ Western\\ cities\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ tiniest\\,\\ most\\ distant\\ towns\\.\\ Everywhere\\ proper\\ medical\\ administration\\ and\\ legislation\\ was\\ lacking\\.\\ When\\ officials\\ proved\\ incompetent\\,\\ citizens\\ often\\ stepped\\ in\\,\\ distributing\\ food\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ money\\ and\\ lime\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\ \\(often\\ in\\ collaboration\\ with\\ churches\\)\\,\\ and\\ founding\\ orphanages\\ for\\ newly\\ dependent\\ children\\ \\(many\\ run\\ by\\ Roman\\ Catholics\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\,\\ cholera\\ was\\ ever\\ more\\ firmly\\ associated\\ with\\ vice\\,\\ and\\ vice\\ with\\ poverty\\.\\ Cases\\ of\\ cholera\\ among\\ the\\ upper\\ classes\\ were\\ persistently\\ ignored\\,\\ while\\ hospitals\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;pest\\ houses\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ lower\\-class\\ vices\\ like\\ terrible\\ sanitation\\ and\\ alcoholism\\ were\\ still\\ popularly\\ accepted\\ reasons\\ for\\ contracting\\ the\\ sickness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\&rdquo\\;\\ pgs\\.\\ 120\\-151\\ \\(\\ Allie\\ Rosene\\-\\ Mirvis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1849\\:\\ Religion\\,\\ Science\\ and\\ Progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ pious\\ believed\\ that\\ cholera\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;chastisement\\ appropriate\\ to\\ a\\ nation\\ sunk\\ in\\ materialism\\ and\\ sin\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(121\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-To\\ the\\ freethinkers\\,\\ religion\\ was\\ a\\ cause\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ cholera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ orthodox\\ believed\\ cholera\\ was\\ a\\ direct\\ punishment\\ from\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Even\\ the\\ most\\ orthodox\\ believed\\ in\\ second\\ causes\\,\\ that\\ even\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ were\\ determined\\ by\\ set\\ rules\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ people\\ were\\ predisposed\\ to\\ cholera\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-To\\ freethinkers\\,\\ cholera\\ resulted\\ from\\ injustice\\ in\\ society\\ rather\\ than\\ sins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1849\\:\\ The\\ Nature\\ of\\ Poverty\\ and\\ the\\ Prevention\\ of\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-To\\ most\\ Americans\\,\\ poverty\\ \\=\\ moral\\,\\ not\\ social\\ phenomenon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-However\\,\\ disease\\ had\\ become\\ more\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\ than\\ in\\ 1832\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Immigration\\ was\\ a\\ permanent\\ threat\\ to\\ American\\ institutions\\.\\ \\(They\\ meant\\ both\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ disease\\ but\\ also\\ less\\ room\\ for\\ other\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\ almshouses\\ and\\ hospitals\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Disease\\,\\ most\\ Americans\\ believed\\,\\ was\\ but\\ an\\ item\\ in\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ immigrants\\&rsquo\\;\\ misfortunes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(141\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Cities\\ were\\ unnatural\\ and\\ immoral\\;\\ they\\ bred\\ disease\\ and\\ crime\\,\\ attracted\\ the\\ vicious\\,\\ and\\ corrupted\\ the\\ virtuous\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(142\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Statistics\\ showed\\ that\\ the\\ bad\\ air\\ of\\ cities\\ shortened\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Science\\ had\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ malignant\\ epidemics\\ could\\ be\\ prevented\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ responsibility\\ of\\ the\\ legal\\ guardians\\ of\\ public\\ health\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ prevented\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(146\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Sanitary\\ boards\\ prompted\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ cleaner\\ for\\ moral\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Physicians\\ were\\ experiencing\\ a\\ growing\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ specificity\\,\\ though\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ communicability\\,\\ of\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\*\\*Cholera\\ still\\ was\\ a\\ judgement\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\ pgs\\.\\ 151\\-172\\ \\(\\ Haoqi\\ Zhang\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IX\\.\\ The\\ Medical\\ Profession\\ II\\\\Medical\\ Profession\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Tools\\ \\-\\ about\\ the\\ same\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Status\\ \\-\\ lower\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;ideas\\,\\ habits\\ of\\ thought\\ \\-\\ began\\ to\\ change\\\\Basic\\ Approach\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Try\\ to\\ find\\ premonitory\\ symptoms\\ \\-\\ to\\ anticipate\\ and\\ cure\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Heroic\\ treatment\\ still\\ happened\\ \\(calomel\\ widespread\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Alternative\\ medicine\\ \\(152\\)\\ \\-\\ sulphur\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(patients\\ died\\ either\\ way\\)\\\\Public\\ realize\\ that\\ statistics\\ are\\ meaningful\\,\\ but\\ doctors\\ still\\felt\\ like\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ regardless\\\\Status\\ of\\ Profession\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Search\\ for\\ alternatives\\ \\-\\ hydropathic\\,\\ homeopathic\\,\\ botanical\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;View\\ of\\ doctors\\ by\\ public\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Sentiments\\ saw\\ doctors\\ as\\ ill\\-educated\\ and\\ unethical\\ quacks\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Poor\\ medical\\ school\\ education\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;poor\\ \\"\\;dignity\\,\\ bearing\\,\\ and\\ ethics\\ \\(156\\)\\"\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;practice\\ of\\ average\\ physician\\ \\(nonstandard\\,\\ harsh\\ drugs\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(public\\ believed\\ specific\\ remedy\\ for\\ specific\\ disease\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\=\\>\\;\\ More\\ than\\ anything\\,\\ failed\\ to\\ produce\\ results\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\Response\\ to\\ distrust\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Americans\\ must\\ study\\ health\\ and\\ disease\\ themselves\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Look\\ into\\ patent\\ medicines\\ and\\ alternative\\ treatments\\ \\(clergy\\ \\ \\;\\supported\\ this\\)\\\\Why\\ did\\ alternative\\ treatments\\ all\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\ gain\\ support\\ from\\ public\\?\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Imperfect\\ state\\ of\\ medical\\ profession\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;America\\ changed\\ \\-\\ idea\\ of\\ equalitarianism\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Against\\ exclusion\\,\\ sectarianism\\,\\ Jacksonian\\ America\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Ask\\ for\\ remove\\ of\\ \\"\\;discriminatory\\"\\;\\ medical\\ legislation\\ \\(161\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Support\\ for\\ homeopathy\\,\\ hydropathy\\ \\(161\\-2\\)\\\\Struggles\\ between\\ physicians\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Public\\ health\\ efforts\\ slowed\\ by\\ conflict\\ between\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\physicians\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ regular\\ physician\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\,\\ America\\ had\\ \\"\\;become\\ the\\ allies\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\quackery\\ and\\ humbug\\"\\;\\ \\(164\\)\\ \\<\\;\\-\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ lack\\ of\\ trust\\ in\\ regular\\ \\ \\;\\physicians\\\\By\\ 1849\\,\\ most\\ physicians\\ think\\ cholera\\ is\\ specific\\ disease\\ caused\\ by\\ \\ \\;\\a\\ specific\\ poison\\ \\<\\;\\-\\ but\\ many\\ still\\ could\\ not\\ drop\\ idea\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\environment\\ affecting\\ disease\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Atmosphere\\ \\-\\ doctors\\ asked\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ precise\\ than\\ just\\ saying\\ \\ \\;\\atmosphere\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Morality\\ \\-\\ \\"\\;peace\\ with\\ God\\"\\;\\\\Statistics\\ show\\ disease\\ increased\\ during\\ cholera\\ years\\ \\(sees\\ like\\ \\ \\;\\atmosphere\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ scapegoat\\)\\\\Still\\ question\\ over\\ whether\\ cholera\\ is\\ contagious\\,\\ but\\ by\\ 1849\\ seemed\\ \\ \\;\\all\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ \\"\\;portable\\.\\"\\;\\\\Idea\\ that\\ disease\\ caused\\ by\\ microscopic\\ organism\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;fungoid\\ theory\\ \\-\\ caused\\ by\\ fungus\\ whose\\ spores\\ are\\ carried\\ through\\ \\ \\;\\the\\ atmosphere\\ \\(moving\\ toward\\ germ\\ theory\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\=\\>\\;\\ most\\ medical\\ professionals\\ still\\ think\\ this\\ is\\ unproven\\ \\(if\\ not\\ \\ \\;\\bizarre\\)\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;ferment\\ theory\\ \\-\\ fermentation\\ in\\ atmosphere\\ and\\ also\\ consistent\\ with\\ \\ \\;\\micro\\-organism\\ theory\\\\conclusion\\:\\Still\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ was\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ \\ \\;\\the\\ belief\\ about\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\ on\\ the\\ doctor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ end\\.\\ The\\ \\ \\;\\public\\ appears\\ more\\ critical\\,\\ and\\more\\ fixed\\ upon\\ efficacy\\ and\\ statistics\\ as\\ a\\ judgement\\ criteria\\ for\\ \\ \\;\\the\\ medical\\profession\\.\\ While\\ the\\ response\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ at\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\doctors\\ to\\ cure\\ the\\ disease\\ was\\ to\\ switch\\ to\\ alternative\\ treatment\\,\\ \\ \\;\\the\\ focus\\ on\\ efficiency\\ by\\ the\\ public\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ advances\\ \\ \\;\\doctors\\ made\\ towards\\ understanding\\ the\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\ pg\\.s\\ 175\\-192\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\X\\.\\ AMERICA\\ AFTER\\ THE\\ WAR\\ \\(Rosenberg\\ 175\\-192\\)\\ \\ \\;Carina\\ Martin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ period\\ after\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ was\\ marked\\ by\\ drastic\\ changes\\ in\\ city\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inhabitants\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tenements\\ were\\ in\\ a\\ particularly\\ bad\\ condition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ war\\ intensified\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ material\\ progress\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rise\\ in\\ materialism\\/immorality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increasing\\ gulf\\ between\\ the\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\ as\\ old\\ bonds\\ of\\ tradition\\,\\ origin\\,\\ and\\ religion\\ were\\ forgotten\\ led\\ to\\ class\\ hostility\\/warfare\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growing\\ health\\ movements\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ city\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decrease\\ in\\ morality\\ \\(particularly\\ in\\ urban\\ settings\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\City\\ poor\\ were\\ completely\\ alienated\\ from\\ religion\\ and\\ its\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evangelical\\ churches\\ were\\ for\\ the\\ rich\\ could\\ afford\\ pew\\ rent\\ and\\ fine\\ clothing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ piety\\ among\\ reinforced\\ notion\\ that\\ poverty\\ was\\ not\\ accidental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Condescending\\ attitudes\\ of\\ the\\ rich\\ only\\ reinforced\\ poor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hostility\\ towards\\ organized\\ religion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ turned\\ almost\\ exclusive\\ to\\ the\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ but\\ still\\ many\\ were\\ not\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Methodists\\ and\\ Protestants\\ had\\ few\\ tenement\\ dwellers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immigration\\ was\\ at\\ an\\ all\\-time\\ high\\;\\ crucial\\ to\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ \\&ldquo\\;undesirable\\&rdquo\\;\\ elements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ particularly\\ disapproved\\ of\\ the\\ Irish\\ but\\ accepted\\ German\\ and\\ Scandinavian\\ immigrants\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ were\\ though\\ to\\ be\\ religion\\ and\\ hardworking\\ and\\ supported\\ ideals\\ of\\ liberty\\ \\(unlike\\ Irish\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Though\\ important\\ for\\ industrial\\ growth\\,\\ \\ \\;housing\\ for\\ immigrants\\ was\\ a\\ serious\\ challenge\\ \\ \\;\\(many\\ epidemics\\ started\\ in\\ crowded\\ slums\\ and\\ then\\ spread\\ to\\ more\\ affluent\\ areas\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Draft\\ Riots\\ of\\ 1863\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ York\\ was\\ extremely\\ crowded\\ and\\ the\\ living\\ conditions\\ were\\ dangerous\\;\\ there\\ were\\ periodic\\ outbreaks\\ of\\ typhoid\\,\\ dysentery\\,\\ and\\ typhus\\ and\\ the\\ death\\ rates\\ was\\ high\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quarantines\\ did\\ not\\ help\\ with\\ cholera\\;\\ more\\ sanitation\\ was\\ required\\ and\\ before\\ warmer\\ weather\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Group\\ of\\ NY\\ Physicians\\ and\\ conducted\\ a\\ sanitary\\ survey\\ of\\ city\\ in\\ 1864\\;\\ presented\\ results\\ to\\ Citizen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Association\\ which\\ then\\ created\\ a\\ Council\\ of\\ Hygiene\\ and\\ a\\ Council\\ on\\ Law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;confirmed\\ conditions\\ were\\ appalling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ February\\ the\\ public\\ health\\ bill\\ was\\ passed\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;\\ An\\ Act\\ to\\ Create\\ a\\ Metropolitan\\ Sanitary\\ District\\ And\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ Therein\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ board\\ created\\ to\\ oversee\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sanitary\\ conditions\\ included\\ a\\ president\\,\\ police\\ commissioners\\,\\ health\\ officers\\ of\\ the\\ port\\,\\ and\\ physicians\\;\\ granted\\ sweeping\\ powers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reflected\\ influence\\ of\\ European\\ discoveries\\ and\\ achievements\\ in\\ new\\ science\\ of\\ public\\ health\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rosenberg\\,\\ C\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\"\\;\\ pgs\\.\\ 192\\-225\\ \\(Preeti\\ Mukundan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\)\\ The\\ Metropolitan\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\,\\ in\\ 1866\\,\\ faced\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ removing\\ filth\\ from\\ city\\ and\\ among\\ them\\ keeping\\ cholera\\ in\\ check\\-\\ first\\ time\\ American\\ community\\ organized\\ itself\\ to\\ conquer\\ an\\ epidemic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Exact\\ methods\\ of\\ investigation\\&rdquo\\;\\ used\\ during\\ cholera\\ epidemics\\ of\\ 1849\\ and\\ 1854\\ showed\\ that\\ cholera\\ was\\ caused\\ by\\ poison\\ in\\ diarrhoeal\\ and\\ vomited\\ fluids\\ of\\ infected\\ persons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1849\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Snow\\ argued\\ that\\ cholera\\ was\\ a\\ contagious\\ disease\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ poison\\ reproducing\\ itself\\ in\\ the\\ bodies\\ of\\ the\\ victims\\-\\ through\\ poisons\\ found\\ in\\ excreta\\ and\\ vomit\\-\\ usually\\ spread\\ through\\ contaminated\\ water\\ supply\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ people\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ composed\\ fanciful\\ etiologies\\ of\\ cholera\\-\\ but\\ the\\ main\\ problem\\ was\\ to\\ prove\\ it\\-\\ which\\ Dr\\.\\ Snow\\ did\\ using\\ the\\ data\\ from\\ the\\ two\\ water\\ sources\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctors\\ still\\ had\\ trouble\\ understanding\\ that\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ cholera\\ can\\ only\\ happen\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ poison\\/organism\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ excreta\\-\\ many\\ still\\ find\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ a\\ specific\\ disease\\ could\\ be\\ caused\\ only\\ be\\ a\\ specific\\ poison\\ or\\ micro\\-organism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ 1866\\,\\ there\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ small\\ minority\\ \\(about\\ one\\ in\\ seven\\)\\ of\\ physicians\\ who\\ believed\\ in\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;germ\\ theory\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ other\\ than\\ these\\ theories\\,\\ the\\ greatest\\ interest\\ to\\ the\\ physicians\\ of\\ 1866\\ were\\ the\\ practical\\ implications\\ of\\ Dr\\.\\ Snow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\-\\ boiling\\ drinking\\ water\\ or\\ disinfecting\\ clothing\\ and\\ bedding\\-\\ easy\\ for\\ board\\ of\\ health\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strict\\ quarantine\\ orders\\ were\\ put\\ into\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legal\\ obstacles\\:\\ The\\ health\\ board\\ tried\\ hiring\\ contractors\\ to\\ fulfill\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ contracts\\ to\\ sanitize\\/clean\\ city\\&hellip\\;\\ but\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ work\\ because\\ the\\ contracts\\ were\\ considered\\ as\\ political\\ rewards\\ rather\\ than\\ commercial\\ obligations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ new\\ authoritarian\\ policies\\ of\\ the\\ Health\\ Board\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ place\\ this\\ strict\\ organization\\ was\\ difficult\\ to\\ justify\\-\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ population\\ of\\ poor\\ and\\ immigrant\\ people\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;these\\ arguments\\ only\\ confirmed\\ the\\ fears\\ of\\ conservative\\ Americans\\,\\ already\\ feeling\\ misgivings\\ about\\ immigrants\\ and\\,\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ cases\\,\\ already\\ questioning\\ the\\ viability\\ of\\ democracy\\ itself\\.\\ It\\ seemed\\ to\\ them\\ that\\ every\\ step\\ toward\\ efficient\\ and\\ responsible\\ government\\ was\\ opposed\\ by\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ ignorance\\ and\\ immorality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(209\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ essence\\ of\\ this\\ chapter\\ is\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ amazing\\ achievement\\ of\\ the\\ Metropolitan\\ Board\\ in\\ turning\\ away\\ the\\ Cholera\\ epidemic\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ congested\\ city\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sanitary\\ commissions\\ and\\ boards\\ of\\ health\\ throughout\\ the\\ nation\\ were\\ created\\,\\ activated\\,\\ or\\ refurbished\\.\\ None\\,\\ however\\,\\ were\\ endowed\\ with\\ the\\ broad\\ powers\\ of\\ the\\ Metropolitan\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\;\\ none\\ were\\ staffed\\ by\\ medical\\ personnel\\ as\\ competent\\,\\ energetic\\,\\ and\\ well\\ informed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(211\\)\\.\\ That\\ disease\\ could\\ be\\ prevented\\-\\ lesson\\ learned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\II\\)\\ The\\ Gospel\\ of\\ Public\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ not\\ until\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ the\\ converting\\ ordinance\\,\\ the\\ germ\\ theory\\,\\ that\\ most\\ physicians\\ completely\\ accepted\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ specific\\ disease\\ entities\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ absolute\\ distinction\\ between\\ physical\\ and\\ psychic\\ maladies\\.\\ \\(medical\\ profession\\ in\\ transition\\ in\\ 1866\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Small\\ pox\\=\\ cured\\ by\\ vaccination\\;\\ Cholera\\=\\ cured\\ by\\ disinfection\\ and\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lesson\\ learned\\ is\\ that\\ those\\ diseases\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ cured\\ must\\ be\\ prevented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cholera\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ had\\ brought\\ about\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ public\\ health\\ reforms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ spiritual\\ had\\ become\\ increasingly\\ indistinct\\-\\ The\\ failure\\ of\\ fulfilling\\ religious\\ responsibilities\\ had\\ become\\ more\\ apparent\\ during\\ cholera\\ times\\.\\ Science\\ had\\ provided\\ appropriate\\ forms\\ of\\ reform\\-\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ strategy\\ for\\ their\\ attainment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ in\\ 1866\\,\\ dying\\ of\\ cholera\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ moral\\ indiscretion\\-\\ and\\ poverty\\ was\\ still\\ very\\ much\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ moral\\ failings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\ in\\ 1866\\ stated\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cholera\\ is\\ especially\\ the\\ punishment\\ of\\ neglect\\ of\\ sanitary\\ laws\\;\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ curse\\ of\\ the\\ dirty\\,\\ the\\ intemperate\\,\\ and\\ the\\ degraded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Status\\ of\\ medical\\ profession\\ in\\ 1866\\:\\ not\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ it\\ was\\ 17\\ years\\ before\\-\\ the\\ average\\ physician\\ was\\ still\\ poorly\\ educated\\ and\\ not\\ overly\\ genteel\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Even\\ more\\ important\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ dispenser\\ of\\ nostrums\\ only\\ a\\ bit\\ less\\ heroic\\ than\\ those\\ prescribed\\ by\\ his\\ teachers\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(222\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ medical\\ practice\\ began\\ evolving\\ during\\ this\\ time\\.\\ The\\ remedies\\ of\\ physicians\\ become\\ less\\ traumatic\\-\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ traumatic\\ mainly\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ discouraging\\ experience\\ of\\ cholera\\-\\ a\\ more\\ traumatic\\ practice\\ gave\\ more\\ hope\\ for\\ effectiveness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ soon\\,\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ increasing\\ mildness\\ in\\ practices\\-\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ competition\\ of\\ doctors\\ with\\ other\\ attractive\\ therapies\\ such\\ as\\ homeopaths\\,\\ hydropaths\\,\\ eclectics\\,\\ and\\ botanics\\-\\ regardless\\ of\\ their\\ actual\\ effectiveness\\.\\ If\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ heal\\,\\ at\\ least\\ the\\ treatments\\ were\\ pleasant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cholera\\ Years\\ pgs\\.\\ 226\\-234\\ MISSING\\ \\(Jennifer\\ X\\.\\ Cai\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Nott\\,\\ Josiah\\ C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sketch\\ of\\ the\\ Epidemic\\ of\\ Yellow\\ Fever\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ MISSING\\ \\(William\\ Bailey\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Leavitt\\,\\ Judith\\ W\\.\\ \\"\\;Politics\\ and\\ Public\\ Health\\:\\ Smallpox\\ in\\ Milwaukee\\,\\ 1884\\-1895\\,\\"\\;\\ reprinted\\ from\\ Leavitt\\ and\\ Numbers\\,\\ editors\\,\\ Sickness\\ and\\ Health\\ in\\ America\\,\\ 2nd\\ Edition\\ \\(Madison\\:\\ University\\ of\\ Wisconsin\\ Press\\,\\ 1985\\)\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 372\\-384\\.\\ SOURCEBOOK\\.\\ \\(\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Peter\\ Assante\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;This\\ piece\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ stands\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ Charles\\ Rosenberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ cholera\\ epidemic\\ in\\ NYC\\ lead\\ the\\ strengthening\\ of\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ 34\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ example\\,\\ public\\ health\\ capitalizes\\ on\\ the\\ despair\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ structure\\ that\\ people\\ validate\\ and\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ he\\ Leavitt\\ article\\,\\ she\\ shows\\ how\\ smallpox\\ in\\ Milwaukee\\ made\\ the\\ Public\\ Health\\ System\\ weaker\\ \\(1894\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ message\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ take\\ a\\ city\\ being\\ inflicted\\ with\\ an\\ epidemic\\ to\\ turn\\ to\\ public\\ health\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ politics\\ plays\\ a\\ huge\\ role\\ in\\ how\\ public\\ health\\ is\\ received\\ in\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ government\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ you\\,\\ or\\ disapprove\\ of\\ you\\ being\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ position\\ of\\ power\\ \\(because\\ they\\ wanted\\ somebody\\ else\\ there\\,\\ or\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ you\\ fit\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ position\\)\\,\\ they\\ make\\ it\\ very\\ hard\\ for\\ you\\ to\\ get\\ any\\ work\\ done\\ once\\ you\\ are\\ on\\ office\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ example\\,\\ as\\ exemplified\\ in\\ this\\ article\\,\\ highlights\\ the\\ potency\\ of\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ its\\ effects\\ on\\ the\\ general\\ public\\,\\ ending\\ with\\ an\\ overall\\ message\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ public\\ health\\ to\\ effectively\\ change\\ the\\ societal\\ perception\\ of\\ health\\,\\ they\\ must\\ provide\\ a\\ horizontal\\ unifying\\ front\\,\\ teaming\\ up\\ with\\ their\\ potential\\ opponents\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ advocacy\\ groups\\,\\ the\\ government\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ long\\ and\\ short\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ here\\ is\\ that\\,\\ Walter\\ Kempster\\ was\\ appointed\\ Head\\ Commissioner\\ of\\ the\\ Milwaukee\\ Health\\ Department\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ many\\ politicians\\ on\\ the\\ Common\\ Council\\ had\\ not\\ wanted\\ him\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ position\\,\\ they\\ fueled\\ a\\ growing\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ Health\\ Department\\,\\ who\\ were\\ trying\\ to\\ contain\\ the\\ smallpox\\ epidemic\\ that\\ broke\\ out\\ in\\ 1894\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ people\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ their\\ political\\ leaders\\,\\ were\\ convinced\\ that\\ Kempster\\ was\\ only\\ making\\ the\\ epidemic\\ worse\\,\\ and\\ wanted\\ him\\ overthrown\\/prosecuted\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ accused\\ among\\ other\\ things\\,\\ of\\ forcing\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ homes\\,\\ and\\ placing\\ them\\ in\\ highly\\ contagious\\ \\&ldquo\\;hospitals\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ made\\ them\\ sicker\\ \\(thought\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;They\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ hospital\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Health\\ Department\\ had\\ no\\ intention\\ of\\ saving\\ them\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ true\\,\\ the\\ Health\\ Department\\ never\\ effectively\\ conveyed\\ the\\ message\\ that\\ such\\ institutions\\ were\\ built\\ to\\ protect\\ them\\,\\ thereby\\ losing\\ the\\ public\\ trust\\ in\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ contain\\ the\\ growing\\ smallpox\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ people\\ got\\ their\\ wish\\ in\\ 1895\\ and\\ Kempster\\ was\\ dismissed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Tomes\\,\\ Nancy\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Generous\\ Confidence\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Jackie\\ Hsieh\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Superintendents\\ of\\ mental\\ asylums\\ were\\ concerned\\ with\\ details\\ of\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ architecture\\ and\\ structure\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ study\\/treatment\\ of\\ mental\\ disease\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ \\*David\\ Rothman\\ Discovery\\ of\\ the\\ Asylum\\*argues\\ that\\ 19th\\ century\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ reformers\\ believed\\ architecture\\ to\\ be\\ important\\ because\\ traditional\\ methods\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ of\\ social\\ control\\ were\\ failing\\à\\;\\ \\"\\;\\*moral\\ architecture\\"\\;\\*\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Rothman\\ fails\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ these\\ asylum\\ doctors\\ were\\ \\"\\;\\*moral\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ entrepreneurs\\"\\;\\*\\ struggling\\ to\\ establish\\ their\\ own\\ legitimacy\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Gerald\\ Grob\\ wrote\\ about\\ asylum\\ doctors\\ using\\ hospital\\ forms\\ to\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ advance\\ claims\\ of\\ power\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ In\\ early\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ the\\ asylum\\ was\\ not\\ an\\ established\\ icon\\ in\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ public\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ convinced\\ that\\ insanity\\ was\\ a\\ curable\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ disease\\ especially\\ in\\ such\\ mental\\ hospitals\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ This\\ was\\ especially\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ private\\ establishments\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;because\\ they\\ depended\\ on\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ attract\\ well\\ paying\\ clients\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(The\\ impressive\\ structure\\ would\\ draw\\ them\\ in\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ However\\,\\ paying\\ customers\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ public\\ state\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;asylums\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ \\*Thomas\\ Story\\ Kirkbride\\ \\*was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ thirteen\\ founders\\ of\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Association\\ of\\ Medical\\ Superintendents\\ of\\ American\\ Asylums\\ for\\ the\\ Insane\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ He\\ reassured\\ families\\ and\\ friends\\ of\\ the\\ mentally\\ ill\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ encouraged\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ their\\ patronage\\ to\\ the\\ asylum\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ created\\ the\\ blueprint\\ for\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ perfect\\ asylum\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Headed\\ the\\ Pennsylvania\\ Hospital\\ for\\ the\\ Insane\\ and\\ wrote\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;book\\ that\\ cause\\ d\\ other\\ mental\\ hospitals\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ be\\ built\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;according\\ to\\ his\\ plan\\ \\(the\\ \\"\\;\\*kirkbride\\ plan\\*\\"\\;\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Details\\ were\\ important\\:\\ from\\ window\\ design\\ to\\ arrangement\\ of\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;tables\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ a\\ strong\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ \\"\\;moral\\ architecture\\"\\;\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;wished\\ to\\ project\\ a\\ therapeutic\\ effect\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Wrote\\ \\*Annual\\ Reports\\*\\ that\\ summarized\\ his\\ therapeutic\\ vision\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;that\\ justified\\ his\\ philosophy\\ on\\ asylum\\ construction\\ and\\ design\\.\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Nature\\ of\\ insanity\\:\\ \\ \\;functional\\ disease\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ did\\ not\\ discuss\\ the\\ biological\\ pathology\\.\\ \\ \\;Diseases\\ were\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ not\\ hereditary\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Insanity\\ was\\ not\\ exclusive\\ to\\ the\\ educated\\ or\\ wealthy\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ in\\ fact\\ he\\ emphasized\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ cultured\\ an\\ individual\\,\\ the\\ more\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ vulnerable\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ mental\\ disease\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Causes\\ of\\ mental\\ disease\\:\\ \\ \\;grief\\,\\ mental\\ anxiety\\,\\ ill\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ health\\,\\ unemployment\\,\\ and\\ masturbation\\&hellip\\;\\ etc\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Patient\\ must\\ be\\ treated\\ in\\ hospital\\,\\ not\\ at\\ home\\!\\!\\!\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Classification\\:\\ assured\\ family\\ members\\ that\\ chronic\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ cases\\ and\\ recent\\ cases\\ would\\ be\\ separated\\ \\(by\\ mental\\ state\\and\\ by\\ social\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ traits\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Assured\\ families\\ that\\ entertainments\\ and\\ comfortable\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ accommodations\\ would\\ be\\ provided\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ list\\ grew\\ longer\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ and\\ longer\\ each\\ year\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ He\\ also\\ wrote\\ that\\ the\\ patients\\ would\\ be\\ given\\ the\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ perfect\\ attention\\;\\ high\\ standards\\ would\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ select\\ attendants\\.\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Many\\ thought\\ putting\\ all\\ patients\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ place\\ would\\ make\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;them\\ contaminate\\ each\\ other\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ instead\\,\\ the\\ patients\\ helped\\ each\\ other\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ recognize\\ their\\ mental\\ problems\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Disadvantages\\ however\\,\\ resulted\\ form\\ the\\ mingling\\ of\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ sexes\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Work\\ from\\ the\\ ground\\ up\\:\\ \\ \\;location\\ \\(outside\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ but\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;secluded\\)\\à\\;style\\ of\\ building\\ \\(avoid\\ looking\\ like\\ a\\ prison\\)\\ \\à\\;interior\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(cheerfulness\\,\\ just\\ like\\ exterior\\)\\ \\à\\;\\ \\*the\\ Kirkbride\\ plan\\=\\ Linear\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\*\\ \\(wings\\ radiating\\ from\\ center\\ section\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ wards\\ had\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;unobstructed\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ gardens\\/grounds\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ The\\ linear\\ plan\\ also\\ allowed\\ maximum\\ separation\\ between\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ wards\\.\\ \\ \\;Male\\ and\\ female\\ patients\\ had\\ separate\\ wings\\.\\ \\ \\;Staircases\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ were\\ established\\ to\\ provide\\ minimum\\ contact\\ with\\ other\\ wards\\.\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Detail\\ to\\ windows\\ and\\ doors\\:\\ \\ \\;fear\\ of\\ patients\\ escaping\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ suicide\\,\\ or\\ being\\ locked\\ in\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ The\\ \\"\\;one\\-man\\ rule\\"\\;\\ stated\\ that\\ the\\ asylum\\ superintendent\\ had\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;to\\ have\\ complete\\ authority\\ over\\ his\\ staff\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ Board\\ of\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Mangers\\ were\\ there\\ to\\ reassure\\ the\\ community\\ that\\ absolute\\ power\\ was\\ not\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;misused\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Wanted\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ \\*generous\\ confidence\\*\\ in\\ which\\ family\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;members\\ would\\ be\\ comforted\\ of\\ their\\ fears\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ created\\ an\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;idyllic\\ hospital\\ life\\ that\\ essentially\\ was\\ not\\ plausible\\ in\\ practice\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;he\\ never\\ actually\\ achieved\\ his\\ perfect\\ plan\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ His\\ experiences\\ were\\ shared\\ by\\ all\\ asylum\\ superintendents\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;was\\ hard\\ to\\ maintain\\ absolutism\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ family\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;and\\ friends\\ of\\ patients\\ was\\ always\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ asylum\\ still\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;represented\\ a\\ better\\ resort\\ than\\ home\\ treatment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Oct\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oct\\.\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\ Jessica\\ Berger\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dualities\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\regular\\ v\\.\\ non\\-regular\\/eclectic\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\heterodoxical\\ therapeutic\\ systems\\ \\(more\\ than\\ one\\ approach\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\orthodox\\ v\\.\\ unorthodox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\scientific\\ v\\.\\ unscientific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theoretical\\ v\\.\\ empirical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BIMODAL\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\what\\ works\\ and\\ what\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\?\\ \\ \\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ know\\ when\\ levels\\ of\\ training\\ \\&\\;\\ regulations\\ are\\ so\\ varied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\attribution\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\quackery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;separates\\ mainstream\\ from\\ alternative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Samuel\\ Thompson\\ \\(New\\ Hampshire\\ farmer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\well\\-known\\ botanical\\ healer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\skeptical\\ of\\ regular\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interested\\ in\\ herbs\\ \\&\\;\\ studied\\ with\\ an\\ \\&lsquo\\;expert\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lobelia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ pukeweed\\,\\ gagroot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;powerful\\ emetic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thompson\\ decided\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ gift\\ \\&\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ catalogue\\ of\\ his\\ remedies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Skeptical\\ of\\ bleeding\\ to\\ cure\\ fevers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ to\\ promote\\ heat\\ to\\ cure\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ accused\\ of\\ murder\\ by\\ using\\ lobelia\\ \\&\\;\\ steambaths\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ acquitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patented\\ his\\ guide\\ to\\ health\\ \\&\\;\\ became\\ very\\ wealthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ was\\ this\\ so\\ popular\\ compared\\ to\\ conventional\\ medical\\ treatment\\ \\&\\;\\ training\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\so\\ accessible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\local\\ \\&\\;\\ domestic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\puts\\ trust\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ hands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cheap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\uses\\ common\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\evoked\\ healing\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ \\(had\\ some\\ level\\ of\\ success\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\many\\ of\\ Thompson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ followers\\ started\\ their\\ own\\ medical\\ schools\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ approve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Worcester\\ Beach\\:\\ fought\\ against\\ elite\\ professions\\ \\(including\\ medicine\\,\\ law\\,\\ etc\\)\\ which\\ he\\ said\\ were\\ trying\\ to\\ gain\\ monopolies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Sylvester\\ Graham\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ concerned\\ about\\ diet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;said\\ diet\\,\\ abstinence\\,\\ and\\/or\\ marriage\\ could\\ curb\\ sexual\\ \\&lsquo\\;perversion\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;invented\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;graham\\ cracker\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ diet\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-calomel\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hydropathy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\water\\ cures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;popular\\ with\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homeopathy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\centered\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\practiced\\ by\\ highly\\ trained\\,\\ elite\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\founded\\ by\\ a\\ German\\ doctor\\ Samuel\\ Hahnemann\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interested\\ in\\ treatment\\ for\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ certain\\ bark\\ contained\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\quinine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ was\\ a\\ treatment\\ for\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ took\\ it\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sick\\ and\\ showed\\ symptoms\\ of\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\develops\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ an\\ effective\\ treatment\\ for\\ a\\ disease\\ will\\ cause\\ those\\ symptoms\\ if\\ a\\ healthy\\ person\\ takes\\ the\\ medicine\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\principle\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;similars\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ appropriate\\ dosage\\ is\\ very\\ small\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\principle\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;infinitesimals\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ more\\ dilute\\ the\\ drug\\ the\\ more\\ effective\\ because\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ very\\ sensitive\\ when\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\homeopathy\\ preached\\ that\\ doctors\\ must\\ be\\ very\\ familiar\\ and\\ even\\ friendly\\ with\\ their\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\allopathy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\what\\ Hahnemann\\ \\&\\;\\ homeopaths\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ regular\\ medicine\\ \\(considered\\ an\\ insulting\\ term\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ assaulting\\,\\ disease\\-focused\\,\\ and\\ uncaring\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\all\\ forms\\ of\\ medicine\\ claim\\ they\\ are\\ scientific\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ others\\ are\\ non\\-scientific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Oliver\\ Wendell\\ Holmes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Harvard\\ Med\\ grad\\,\\ mid\\ 1850s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therapeutic\\ nihilism\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\skepticism\\ of\\ all\\ mainstream\\ treatments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vis\\ medicatrix\\ naturae\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;healing\\ power\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ people\\ improve\\ without\\ any\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oct\\.\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MISSING\\(\\ Kristen\\ Lynch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\)\\ Gender\\ and\\ Race\\ \\(Oct\\.\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Clarke\\,\\ Edward\\ H\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Sex\\ in\\ Education\\,\\ A\\ Fair\\ Chance\\ For\\ Girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Of\\ the\\ three\\ body\\ systems\\ \\(nutritive\\,\\ nervous\\ and\\ reproductive\\)\\ only\\ the\\ reproductive\\ system\\ differs\\ between\\ the\\ sexes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Intellectual\\ power\\,\\ the\\ correlation\\ and\\ measure\\ of\\ cerebral\\ structure\\ and\\ metamorphosis\\,\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ equal\\ development\\ in\\ both\\ sexes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ equal\\ potential\\ for\\ intellectual\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ divided\\ into\\ 3\\ periods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;birth\\ to\\ menarche\\,\\ menarche\\ to\\ menopause\\ and\\ menopause\\ to\\ death\\ \\(though\\ Clarke\\ does\\ not\\ use\\ these\\ exact\\ terms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clarke\\ considers\\ the\\ boundaries\\ between\\ these\\ phases\\ to\\ be\\ critical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ children\\,\\ boys\\ and\\ girls\\ are\\ almost\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ maturity\\,\\ the\\ sexes\\ diverge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ old\\ age\\,\\ the\\ sexes\\ become\\ very\\ similar\\ once\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Onset\\ of\\ a\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ period\\/development\\ of\\ her\\ reproductive\\ system\\ coincides\\ with\\ a\\ girls\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ healthy\\ development\\ of\\ ovaries\\/start\\ of\\ period\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\,\\ must\\ occur\\ during\\ a\\ specific\\ window\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ these\\ reproductive\\ functions\\ are\\ not\\ established\\ during\\ this\\ time\\ period\\,\\ the\\ probably\\ never\\ will\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ can\\ bear\\ physical\\ activity\\ less\\ effectively\\ than\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;An\\ abnormal\\ method\\ of\\ study\\ and\\ work\\ may\\ and\\ does\\ open\\ the\\ flood\\-gates\\ of\\ the\\ system\\,\\ and\\,\\ by\\ letting\\ blood\\ out\\,\\ lets\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ evil\\ in\\.\\ Let\\ us\\ now\\ look\\ at\\ another\\ phase\\;\\ for\\ menorhagia\\ and\\ its\\ consequences\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ punishments\\ that\\ girls\\ receive\\ for\\ being\\ educated\\ and\\ worked\\ just\\ like\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(78\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overwork\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ amenorrhea\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regimen\\ that\\ requires\\ girls\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;walk\\,\\ work\\,\\ stand\\,\\ study\\,\\ recite\\ and\\ dance\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ as\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ cause\\ damage\\ to\\ their\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Case\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Miss\\ D\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ studied\\ at\\ Vassar\\ college\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;overstudied\\/overworked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;painful\\ menstration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ammenorhea\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;advancing\\ invalidism\\ \\&ldquo\\;pale\\,\\ hysterical\\,\\ nervous\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Conclusion\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;arrest\\ of\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ reproductive\\ apparatus\\ at\\ a\\ stage\\ when\\ the\\ development\\ was\\ nearly\\ complete\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;she\\ would\\ never\\ reach\\ her\\ full\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ requirement\\ of\\ society\\ for\\ girls\\ to\\ get\\ an\\ education\\ conflicts\\ with\\ the\\ requirement\\ of\\ Nature\\ to\\,\\ during\\ that\\ same\\ time\\ period\\,\\ complete\\ the\\ development\\/maturation\\ of\\ the\\ reproductive\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)Jackson\\,\\ Mercy\\ Bisbee\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sex\\ and\\ Education\\&rdquo\\;\\ MISSING\\ \\(\\ kmaguire\\@fas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Moratz\\-Sanchez\\.\\ \\"\\;Bringing\\ Science\\ into\\ the\\ Home\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Historical\\ Context\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\-1847\\:\\ Geneva\\ Medical\\ College\\ votes\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ allow\\ female\\ students\\\\(faculty\\ oppose\\ but\\ students\\ support\\ the\\ idea\\)\\\\-Elizabeth\\ Blackwell\\:\\ first\\ female\\ student\\ at\\ Geneva\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Geneva\\ stops\\ accepting\\ \\women\\ after\\ she\\ earns\\ her\\ degree\\\\-several\\ medical\\ colleges\\ founded\\ to\\ train\\ exclusively\\ women\\\\-growth\\ of\\ popular\\ health\\ crusade\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ women\\ have\\ a\\ prominent\\ role\\ in\\ healthcare\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Arguments\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ opposed\\ female\\ medical\\ professionals\\:\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-women\\ will\\ neglect\\ their\\ child\\-rearing\\ duties\\\\-we\\ need\\ women\\ at\\ home\\ to\\ keep\\ men\\ and\\ children\\ moral\\ in\\ an\\ immoral\\ and\\ brutal\\world\\\\-teaching\\ women\\ medicine\\ is\\ an\\ affront\\ to\\ female\\ modesty\\\\-women\\ have\\ inferior\\ minds\\ and\\ bodies\\ \\(based\\ on\\ Clarke\\&\\#39\\;s\\ writings\\)\\\\-female\\ doctors\\ are\\ an\\ economic\\ threat\\ \\(taking\\ men\\&\\#39\\;s\\ jobs\\)\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Arguments\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ supported\\ female\\ medical\\ professionals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\-if\\ modesty\\ is\\ an\\ issue\\,\\ then\\ men\\ shouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ be\\ examining\\ women\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ we\\ need\\ to\\train\\ women\\ to\\ examine\\ women\\\\-Clarke\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ physical\\ inferiority\\ of\\ women\\ are\\ totally\\ wrong\\;\\ God\\made\\ women\\ strong\\ enough\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ the\\ duties\\ of\\ motherhood\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ other\\forms\\ of\\ work\\\\-women\\ are\\ morally\\ superior\\ to\\ men\\ and\\ are\\ natural\\ healers\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ can\\ make\\ a\\significant\\ contribution\\ to\\ medicine\\ \\(minister\\ to\\ body\\ and\\ spirit\\)\\\\-medical\\ competence\\ will\\ make\\ women\\ better\\ mothers\\\\\\~\\<\\/span\\>\\much\\ of\\ the\\ debate\\ centered\\ around\\ what\\ was\\ best\\ for\\ society\\ morally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ McHatton\\,\\ Henry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sexual\\ Status\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Past\\ and\\ Present\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(kara\\ kaufman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Begins\\ by\\ qualifying\\ data\\ as\\ solely\\ derived\\ from\\ personal\\ observation\\ \\(his\\ own\\ and\\ his\\ friends\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deals\\ with\\ Southern\\ plantations\\ pre\\-1865\\ and\\ Cuban\\ plantations\\ pre\\-1877\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comments\\ extensively\\ on\\ the\\ measures\\ taken\\ to\\ ensure\\ healthy\\ conditions\\ on\\ plantations\\ in\\ general\\ for\\ slaves\\ \\(cleanliness\\,\\ isolation\\ from\\ other\\ plantations\\,\\ nutritious\\ food\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\;\\ particularly\\ notes\\ the\\ infirmary\\ where\\ any\\ slaves\\ at\\ all\\ ill\\ would\\ receive\\ ample\\ medical\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ South\\:\\ marriage\\ was\\ encouraged\\ by\\ masters\\,\\ ceremonies\\ were\\ held\\,\\ and\\ fidelity\\ was\\ enforced\\,\\ again\\ by\\ masters\\ \\(no\\ divorce\\ allowed\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thus\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ venereal\\ diseases\\ was\\ low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Cuba\\:\\ slaves\\ lived\\ separated\\ by\\ sex\\;\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ petition\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ their\\ chosen\\ partner\\,\\ and\\ could\\ then\\ end\\ that\\ relationship\\ and\\ choose\\ another\\ one\\ at\\ will\\;\\ if\\ venereal\\ disease\\ was\\ discovered\\,\\ that\\ slave\\ and\\ all\\ they\\ had\\ had\\ intercourse\\ with\\ were\\ quarantined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ both\\ the\\ above\\ two\\ situations\\,\\ McHatton\\ notes\\ the\\ low\\ incidence\\ of\\ lapses\\ in\\ virtue\\ and\\ the\\ low\\ incidence\\ of\\ spread\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ freedom\\,\\ former\\ slaves\\ flocked\\ to\\ cities\\,\\ where\\ their\\ living\\ conditions\\,\\ according\\ to\\ McHatton\\ were\\ much\\ worse\\ \\(crowded\\,\\ longer\\ hours\\,\\ and\\,\\ due\\ to\\ low\\ wages\\,\\ inferior\\ nutrition\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ calls\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;negroes\\&rdquo\\;\\ nomadic\\ by\\ nature\\,\\ citing\\ their\\ loose\\ sexual\\ habits\\ and\\ refusal\\ to\\ partake\\ of\\ any\\ treatment\\ as\\ the\\ causes\\ for\\ the\\ incredibly\\ high\\ rate\\ of\\ venereal\\ disease\\ to\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ black\\ populations\\ of\\ cities\\;\\ he\\ also\\ makes\\ mention\\ of\\ the\\ lowering\\ of\\ morals\\ found\\ in\\ these\\ now\\-prostitutes\\ and\\ criminals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Murrell\\,\\ Thomas\\ W\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Syphilis\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ Negro\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Kara\\ kaufman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Murrell\\ begins\\ by\\ asserting\\ that\\ diseases\\ must\\ be\\ studied\\ within\\ the\\ population\\ at\\ hand\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;negroes\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ because\\ the\\ effect\\ will\\ be\\ unique\\ to\\ that\\ sociological\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comparison\\ of\\ the\\ negro\\ in\\ 1859\\ \\(enslaved\\,\\ a\\ property\\ investment\\,\\ forced\\ care\\ of\\ masters\\ ensured\\ clean\\ housing\\ and\\ good\\ health\\ care\\)\\ to\\ him\\ of\\ 1909\\ \\(a\\ free\\ agent\\,\\ but\\ with\\ no\\ idea\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ care\\ for\\ himself\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ temptation\\ \\(alcohol\\,\\ sex\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ leaving\\ no\\ money\\ for\\ proper\\ bodily\\ care\\,\\ infecting\\ others\\ with\\ venereal\\ disease\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birth\\ rates\\,\\ which\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ higher\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ whites\\,\\ decreased\\ after\\ emancipation\\;\\ incidence\\ of\\ insanity\\ increased\\;\\ morality\\ decreased\\ \\(based\\ on\\ Murrell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ observations\\ of\\ the\\ low\\ percentage\\ of\\ his\\ black\\ patients\\ who\\ were\\ virgins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marriage\\ sometimes\\ not\\ legalized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cohabitation\\ with\\ multiple\\ partners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spread\\ of\\ venereal\\ disease\\ due\\ to\\:\\ lack\\ of\\ sexual\\ self\\-control\\,\\ disbelief\\ in\\ diseases\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ obvious\\ to\\ the\\ senses\\,\\ low\\ morals\\ \\(acceptance\\ of\\ prostitution\\ and\\ adultery\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\ of\\ infection\\:\\ generally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ through\\ with\\ treatments\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ \\(only\\ until\\ visible\\ symptoms\\ cured\\)\\ so\\ spread\\ it\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ actually\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ it\\;\\ insanity\\ has\\ resulted\\ in\\ many\\ cases\\ \\(his\\ examples\\ of\\ insanity\\ include\\:\\ rape\\ of\\ a\\ white\\ woman\\ by\\ a\\ black\\ man\\;\\ and\\ seduction\\ of\\ a\\ white\\ man\\ by\\ a\\ black\\ woman\\)\\;\\ symptoms\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ intense\\ for\\ blacks\\,\\ largely\\ because\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ complete\\ treatments\\ and\\ are\\ affected\\ by\\ relapses\\ \\(all\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ tertiary\\ stages\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\,\\ sometimes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Treatment\\:\\ Negro\\ patients\\ are\\ unwilling\\ to\\ undertake\\ treatments\\ that\\ are\\ painful\\,\\ and\\ basically\\ scare\\ tactics\\ must\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ ensure\\ they\\ take\\ their\\ medications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mass\\ movement\\ to\\ the\\ North\\ following\\ emancipation\\ changed\\ socio\\-political\\ distribution\\;\\ the\\ race\\ is\\ changing\\ rapidly\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ predict\\ its\\ evolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ however\\ unless\\ we\\ want\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ driven\\ to\\ ruin\\,\\ Murrell\\ claims\\,\\ specifically\\ targeted\\ paternalistic\\ laws\\ must\\ be\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Brandt\\,\\ Alan\\ M\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Racism\\ and\\ Research\\:\\ The\\ Case\\ of\\ the\\ Tuskegee\\ Syphilis\\ Study\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(estacoy\\@fas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\ initially\\ done\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;determine\\ the\\ natural\\ course\\ of\\ untreated\\ latent\\ syphilis\\ in\\ black\\ males\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ they\\ were\\ undergoing\\ the\\ experiment\\,\\ the\\ men\\ did\\ not\\ receive\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ USPHS\\ sought\\ to\\ prevent\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ more\\ than\\ 100\\ died\\ directly\\ from\\ the\\ lesions\\ caused\\ by\\ syphilis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ethnically\\ unjustified\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ the\\ panel\\ held\\ this\\ thought\\ about\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ panel\\ actually\\ misconstrued\\ information\\ and\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ values\\ are\\ directly\\ connected\\ with\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Racism\\ and\\ Medical\\ Opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Darwinism\\ provided\\ the\\ new\\ rational\\ for\\ American\\ racism\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pg\\.\\ 392\\-\\ primitive\\ people\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ complex\\ society\\,\\ this\\ included\\ blacks\\,\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ future\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ so\\ disease\\ ridden\\,\\ dirty\\ and\\ infected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Science\\ was\\ then\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ to\\ promote\\ these\\ ideas\\-\\ they\\ supposedly\\ proved\\ this\\ racism\\ and\\ these\\ judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negro\\ was\\ the\\ lowest\\ species\\ in\\ the\\ Darwin\\ hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Excessive\\ sexual\\ desires\\ make\\ them\\ a\\ menace\\ to\\ the\\ white\\ race\\-\\ enfeeblement\\ of\\ the\\ younger\\ generation\\ through\\ interracial\\ couples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;lust\\ and\\ immorality\\,\\ unstable\\ families\\,\\ and\\ reversion\\ to\\ barbaric\\ tendencies\\ made\\ blacks\\ susceptible\\ to\\ venereal\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Freedom\\ caused\\ their\\ deterioration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ thought\\ was\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ ever\\ attempt\\ to\\ receive\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syphilis\\ contributed\\ to\\ increased\\ insanity\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Origins\\ of\\ the\\ Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\With\\ the\\ Julius\\ Rosenwald\\ Fund\\ other\\ studies\\ were\\ conducted\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ syphilis\\ among\\ blacks\\ and\\ explore\\ possibilities\\ for\\ mass\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ study\\ concluded\\ that\\ mass\\ treatment\\ could\\ be\\ successfully\\ implemented\\ among\\ rural\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ironic\\-\\ these\\ findings\\ were\\ ignored\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Clark\\-\\ just\\ wanted\\ to\\ observe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seen\\ as\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;nature\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wanted\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ not\\ being\\ treated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ the\\ disease\\ effected\\ people\\ in\\ everyday\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ trying\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ treated\\-\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ treat\\ people\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;spontaneous\\ cure\\&rdquo\\;\\ theory\\ formed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Controversy\\ over\\ what\\ was\\ worse\\:\\ the\\ disease\\ or\\ the\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ an\\ article\\ written\\ by\\ USPHS\\ before\\ the\\ experiment\\ calling\\ for\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believed\\ that\\ this\\ experiment\\ was\\ natural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ the\\ experiment\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ blacks\\ would\\ not\\ look\\ for\\ treatment\\ anyway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Selecting\\ the\\ Subjects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ intention\\ of\\ providing\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\ to\\ test\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ wrong\\ in\\ thinking\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ had\\ sought\\ treatment\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ they\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ to\\ treat\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ infected\\ but\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ way\\ to\\ entice\\ the\\ subjects\\ was\\ to\\ offer\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ did\\ not\\ tell\\ the\\ subjects\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ any\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;bad\\ blood\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ men\\ were\\ eager\\ for\\ treatment\\,\\ so\\ they\\ fell\\ for\\ the\\ ploy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clark\\ feared\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ experiment\\ if\\ they\\ disclosed\\ any\\ information\\ to\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contradicted\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ blacks\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attempt\\ to\\ receive\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ men\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ under\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;we\\ have\\ no\\ further\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ subjects\\ until\\ they\\ die\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Needed\\ autopsies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ the\\ subjects\\ know\\ they\\ were\\ performing\\ autopsies\\ on\\ their\\ bodies\\ after\\ they\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ USPHS\\ made\\ the\\ experiment\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Healthy\\ men\\ were\\ controls\\-\\ if\\ they\\ became\\ ill\\,\\ they\\ just\\ put\\ them\\ into\\ the\\ other\\ group\\ of\\ subjects\\ \\(a\\ no\\ no\\ in\\ science\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gave\\ the\\ healthy\\ men\\ aspirin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Continued\\ their\\ deception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Promised\\ to\\ cover\\ burial\\ expenses\\-\\ cultural\\ boost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Found\\ that\\ cardiovascular\\ disease\\ was\\ promoted\\ by\\ syphilis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\30\\ percent\\ of\\ test\\ group\\ died\\ from\\ no\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ not\\ allow\\ ANYONE\\ to\\ receive\\ any\\ type\\ of\\ treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ health\\ boards\\ went\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ worried\\ if\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ some\\ people\\ did\\ receive\\ treatment\\,\\ if\\ it\\ screwed\\ up\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HEW\\ Final\\ Report\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Two\\ issues\\ brought\\ up\\:\\ was\\ it\\ justified\\ and\\ had\\ the\\ men\\ given\\ their\\ informed\\ consent\\?\\ Should\\ penicillin\\ have\\ been\\ given\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ assumption\\ was\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ real\\ treatment\\ before\\ penicillin\\;\\ however\\,\\ arsenotherapy\\ had\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provision\\ of\\ any\\ medication\\ would\\ have\\ violated\\ the\\ attempt\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ HEW\\ report\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ men\\ had\\ been\\ lied\\ to\\ about\\ receiving\\ treatment\\ the\\ whole\\ time\\ during\\ the\\ experiment\\ makes\\ us\\ question\\ their\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overlooked\\ was\\ the\\ racism\\ involved\\ with\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;well\\ intentioned\\ but\\ misguided\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ experiment\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\ is\\ that\\ penicillin\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ of\\ no\\ value\\ so\\ the\\ fact\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ given\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ study\\ reveals\\ the\\ beliefs\\ within\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ blacks\\,\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ experiment\\ had\\ been\\ reported\\ and\\ no\\ on\\ was\\ against\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(pg\\ 401\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ study\\ revealed\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ pathology\\ of\\ racism\\ than\\ anything\\ about\\ syphilis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ that\\ science\\ is\\ a\\ value\\ free\\ discipline\\ must\\ be\\ rejected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oct\\.\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Hospital\\ \\(\\ htsim\\@fas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ one\\ was\\ sick\\,\\ one\\ might\\ seek\\ care\\ in\\ a\\ diversity\\ of\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sectarian\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sets\\ up\\ a\\ bimodal\\ aspect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Late\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ first\\ hospitals\\ were\\ built\\ to\\ be\\ distinctive\\ \\(alms\\ house\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mostly\\ built\\ in\\ urban\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Targeted\\ chronically\\ ill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Place\\ of\\ last\\ resort\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ cities\\&rsquo\\;\\ helpless\\,\\ deprived\\,\\ disabled\\,\\ and\\ alienated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ entered\\ the\\ alms\\ house\\ voluntarily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ institutions\\ like\\ orphanages\\,\\ were\\ built\\ like\\ the\\ alms\\ houses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Institutions\\ were\\ highly\\ stigmatized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Viewed\\ by\\ elite\\ society\\ as\\ being\\ institutions\\ of\\ being\\ virtual\\ disorder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ for\\ the\\ destitute\\ and\\ immoral\\ \\(got\\ there\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ blame\\ and\\ fault\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Invention\\ of\\ Voluntary\\ hospitals\\ \\(for\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ worthy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contributions\\ were\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Were\\ supported\\ by\\ philanthropists\\,\\ not\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Architecture\\ of\\ new\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ attractive\\,\\ austere\\ and\\ welcoming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ to\\ grand\\ state\\ houses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ for\\ the\\ elite\\ who\\ became\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hospitals\\ were\\ not\\ just\\ serving\\ the\\ worthy\\ poor\\,\\ but\\ beneficial\\ to\\ the\\ elite\\ and\\ philanthropists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ so\\,\\ hospitals\\ were\\ still\\ best\\ to\\ avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Potentially\\ expensive\\,\\ demoralizing\\,\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ pauperization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\May\\ draw\\ public\\ to\\ immorality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Dispenseries\\ \\(Alternative\\ Hospitals\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ admitted\\ to\\ a\\ hospital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ had\\ small\\ injuries\\,\\ quick\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Normally\\ only\\ a\\ house\\ physician\\ \\(smallpox\\ vaccinations\\,\\ tooth\\ pulled\\,\\ minor\\ surgeries\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physicians\\ who\\ wanted\\ experience\\ could\\ get\\ it\\ in\\ dispensaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\General\\ hospitals\\ \\(1840s\\-1850s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ unusual\\ for\\ patients\\ to\\ stay\\ for\\ 6\\ months\\-\\ a\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Would\\ not\\ admit\\ those\\ with\\ infectious\\ disease\\,\\ or\\ incurable\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ would\\ they\\ admit\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ MGH\\,\\ you\\ needed\\ a\\ written\\ application\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Letters\\ would\\ go\\ to\\ lay\\ trustees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patient\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ approved\\ by\\ the\\ board\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ partially\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ medical\\ institution\\,\\ but\\ one\\ for\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\,\\ sickness\\ was\\ viewed\\ as\\ an\\ imbalance\\,\\ and\\ going\\ to\\ an\\ alms\\ house\\ might\\ be\\ perpetual\\ immorality\\ \\(hence\\,\\ illness\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ elite\\ general\\ hospitals\\ would\\ prevent\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ the\\ unworthy\\ from\\ tainting\\ the\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patients\\ were\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ boarders\\ or\\ inmates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ with\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Much\\ like\\ the\\ social\\ welfare\\ houses\\,\\ they\\ were\\ overwhelmed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ regimented\\,\\ communal\\ life\\ on\\ the\\ ward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ surgeries\\,\\ if\\ any\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anxiety\\ about\\ hospitals\\ because\\ people\\ died\\ there\\,\\ might\\ be\\ subject\\ to\\ experimentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ ways\\ for\\ a\\ physician\\ to\\ gain\\ distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ afford\\ to\\ become\\ residents\\ \\(reside\\ in\\ the\\ hospitals\\)\\ for\\ 2\\ years\\ to\\ learn\\,\\ since\\ it\\ had\\ low\\ to\\ little\\ pay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medical\\ school\\ trainees\\ were\\ more\\ apt\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;experiment\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;kill\\&rdquo\\;\\ their\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extremely\\ unhygienic\\ \\(Rats\\ loose\\)\\ and\\ close\\ contagions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Any\\ ailment\\ could\\ turn\\ to\\ one\\ that\\ was\\ contagious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diseases\\ were\\ Zymotic\\-\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ putrefying\\ matter\\ that\\ could\\ then\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ air\\ and\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morbid\\ exhalation\\:\\ the\\ very\\ breathing\\ in\\ these\\ close\\ quarters\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ for\\ hospitals\\ to\\ be\\ clean\\ and\\ germ\\-free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fear\\ of\\ developing\\ \\&ldquo\\;hospital\\ disease\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ hospitalisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ for\\ circulation\\ so\\ that\\ air\\ could\\ be\\ clean\\ and\\ ventilated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ looked\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ like\\ factories\\ by\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dramatic\\ rise\\ of\\ hospitals\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ \\(because\\ of\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ population\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1787\\:\\ 4\\ million\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ war\\:\\ 32\\ million\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mid\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ Many\\ religious\\ and\\ racial\\ groups\\ started\\ hospitals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Oct\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ Gallegos\\@fas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ Study\\ A\\-34\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 25\\,\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 10\\:\\ The\\ Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Mental\\ Asylum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ General\\ Hospital\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Medical\\ Schools\\ and\\ Hospitals\\ of\\ today\\ have\\ antecedents\\ in\\ 18\\/19\\ c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Institutions\\ adjust\\ to\\ advancing\\ knowledge\\ base\\ both\\ in\\ attitude\\ and\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mental\\ Illness\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Where\\ does\\ mental\\ illness\\ fit\\ into\\ themes\\ and\\ t0pics\\ discussed\\ in\\ course\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ does\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ view\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ etc\\,\\ apply\\ to\\ mental\\ illness\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Today\\ hospitals\\ have\\ wards\\ specific\\ for\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-In\\ past\\,\\ a\\ huge\\ amount\\ of\\ interest\\ was\\ placed\\ in\\ establishing\\ hospitals\\ solely\\ based\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Mental\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Is\\ treatment\\ of\\ mental\\ disease\\ therapeutic\\ or\\ confining\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Psychiatry\\ has\\ helped\\ define\\ role\\ of\\ state\\ in\\ mental\\ behavior\\/responsibility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Labeling\\ theory\\ become\\ very\\ prominent\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ studying\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thomas\\ Szasz\\ presented\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ mental\\ illness\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ is\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ behaviors\\ and\\ societies\\ then\\ decide\\ which\\ behaviors\\ they\\ devalue\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\label\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Why\\ does\\ mental\\ illness\\ discomfort\\ us\\ more\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ disease\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ characteristically\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Behavior\\ that\\ arises\\ from\\ mental\\ illness\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ having\\ no\\ social\\ meaning\\ or\\ reference\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-supernatural\\ explanations\\ arose\\ to\\ explain\\ \\(satanic\\,\\ possession\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ question\\ arose\\ to\\ the\\ responsibility\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ for\\ their\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-what\\ is\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ volition\\ and\\ self\\ control\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Samuel\\ Coolidge\\,\\ Harvard\\ 1738\\,\\ becomes\\ school\\ master\\ in\\ Watertown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-known\\ by\\ all\\ as\\ thoroughly\\ insane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-as\\ a\\ student\\ was\\ \\&lsquo\\;distracted\\ and\\ unruly\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-was\\ dismissed\\ as\\ library\\ worker\\ in\\ Cambridge\\ because\\ of\\ disrespectful\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-was\\ banished\\ from\\ Cambridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-was\\ forced\\ to\\ undergo\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;proverb\\&rsquo\\;\\ test\\ by\\ reading\\ scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-orientation\\ was\\ decided\\ by\\ a\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ proverb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-had\\ no\\ means\\ of\\ support\\;\\ men\\ in\\ Watertown\\ took\\ up\\ collections\\ to\\ aid\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ does\\ his\\ treatment\\ reflect\\ understanding\\ of\\ mental\\ illness\\ in\\ 18c\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-selectmen\\ felt\\ political\\ responsibility\\ since\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ their\\ town\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-no\\ physician\\ was\\ called\\ in\\ to\\ examine\\ him\\;\\ secular\\ expertise\\ was\\ applied\\ to\\ justify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-less\\ of\\ an\\ idea\\ to\\ remove\\ him\\,\\ instead\\ how\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-those\\ that\\ knew\\ him\\ exhibited\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ tolerance\\ for\\ his\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-those\\ deemed\\ \\&lsquo\\;furiously\\ insane\\&rsquo\\;\\ would\\ be\\ removed\\ to\\ alms\\ houses\\ or\\ prisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-by\\ late\\ 18c\\ early\\ 19c\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ push\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ therapeutic\\ system\\ for\\ mentally\\ ill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Benjamin\\ Rush\\ advocated\\ techniques\\ to\\ subdue\\ \\&lsquo\\;lunatics\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-application\\ of\\ heroic\\ efforts\\ to\\ overcome\\ mental\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-bleeding\\,\\ restraints\\,\\ drugging\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ was\\ a\\ drive\\ to\\ incorporate\\ mental\\ illness\\ into\\ explanatory\\ models\\ that\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Mental\\ disease\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ applicable\\ to\\ a\\ dependence\\ on\\ equilibrium\\ \\(humoral\\ theory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ Emotional\\ imbalance\\ or\\ shock\\ could\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ somatic\\ \\(bodily\\)\\ mental\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-emotion\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ linked\\ to\\ bodily\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Felipe\\ Pinel\\-\\ one\\ of\\ most\\ influential\\ in\\ mental\\ insanity\\ study\\;\\ emphasized\\ emotional\\ forces\\ as\\ cause\\ of\\ mental\\ disease\\.\\ Pressure\\ on\\ the\\ mind\\ would\\ cause\\ psychological\\ and\\ physical\\ symptoms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Physicians\\ begin\\ to\\ chronicle\\ possible\\ causes\\:\\ emotional\\ shock\\,\\ excessive\\ study\\,\\ masturbation\\,\\ political\\ fury\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Americanism\\ held\\ lack\\ of\\ stability\\ and\\ therefore\\ made\\ Americans\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ mental\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ superintendent\\ of\\ Mental\\ Asylums\\ did\\ not\\ necessarily\\ need\\ a\\ medical\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Society\\ at\\ present\\ provided\\ more\\ opportunity\\ for\\ failure\\ which\\ would\\ shatter\\ a\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Edward\\ Jarvis\\-\\ early\\ psychiatrist\\ in\\ MA\\;\\ saw\\ medicine\\ as\\ way\\ to\\ climb\\ social\\ ladder\\,\\ did\\ not\\ like\\ slow\\ result\\,\\ therefore\\ changed\\ to\\ mental\\ study\\ which\\ was\\ up\\ and\\ coming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-striving\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ disappointment\\ and\\ therefore\\ put\\ person\\ at\\ risk\\ for\\ mental\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Physicians\\ were\\ very\\ hopeful\\ circa\\ 1820\\-1830\\ to\\ build\\ institutions\\ to\\ treat\\ insanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thomas\\ Kirkbride\\ was\\ a\\ foundational\\ asylum\\ superintendent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-argued\\ that\\ mental\\ asylum\\ should\\ be\\ appealing\\ and\\ comfortable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ idea\\ of\\ mental\\ institution\\ was\\ to\\ take\\ patient\\ out\\ of\\ pathological\\ society\\ that\\ was\\ ailing\\ them\\ and\\ bring\\ to\\ an\\ area\\ where\\ debilitating\\ influences\\ of\\ society\\ were\\ lacking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-would\\ give\\ structure\\ in\\ form\\ of\\ set\\ schedule\\ to\\ counteract\\ the\\ imbalance\\ of\\ society\\ that\\ had\\ afflicted\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ patients\\ felt\\ abandoned\\ and\\ left\\ behind\\ by\\ their\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Architecture\\ of\\ mental\\ asylums\\ depicted\\ their\\ notion\\ of\\ structured\\ moral\\ treatment\\ and\\ prowess\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Intense\\ growth\\ in\\ populace\\ made\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ fulfill\\ special\\ treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-too\\ much\\ demand\\ and\\ not\\ enough\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ push\\ for\\ states\\ to\\ found\\ government\\ run\\ asylums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Dorothy\\ Dix\\-\\&lsquo\\;must\\ find\\ humane\\ methods\\ of\\ care\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Should\\ mental\\ hospitals\\ have\\ intent\\ of\\ treating\\ the\\ ill\\ or\\ quarantining\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Because\\ of\\ high\\ demand\\,\\ institutions\\ became\\ prison\\-like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\)\\ Therpeutic\\ Revolutions\\ \\(Nov\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)Warner\\,\\ J\\.H\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ From\\ Specificity\\ \\ \\;to\\ Universalism\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\ Bharat\\ Das\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Leupp\\,\\ Constance\\ S\\.\\ and\\ Hendrick\\,\\ Burton\\ J\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Twilight\\ Sleep\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Douglas\\ Duquette\\ \\(duquett\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ technique\\ to\\ induce\\ \\&ldquo\\;painless\\ birth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(called\\ D\\ä\\;mmerschlaf\\,\\ or\\ twilight\\ sleep\\)\\ developed\\ in\\ Freiburg\\,\\ Germany\\ by\\ a\\ Dr\\.\\ Gauss\\ using\\ scopolamine\\ and\\ morphine\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ the\\ technique\\ itself\\ was\\ developed\\ in\\ around\\ 1906\\,\\ the\\ article\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ 1915\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ notable\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ frequent\\ emphasis\\ that\\ the\\ procedure\\ must\\ be\\ done\\ with\\ great\\ care\\,\\ with\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ medical\\ personnel\\ in\\ attendance\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ doctor\\ who\\ does\\ not\\ strictly\\ follow\\ the\\ proper\\ procedure\\ can\\ overdose\\ the\\ patient\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ delirious\\ mothers\\ and\\ asphyxiated\\ babies\\ \\(though\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ asserted\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ babies\\ are\\ revived\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;Bad\\ practice\\ of\\ the\\ technique\\ initially\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ blamed\\ for\\ the\\ initial\\ bad\\ attitude\\ toward\\ and\\ failure\\ of\\ the\\ technique\\,\\ while\\ once\\ doctors\\ began\\ training\\ in\\ Freiburg\\,\\ Germany\\,\\ it\\ began\\ to\\ take\\ greater\\ hold\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ also\\ notable\\ that\\ the\\ drug\\ treatment\\ is\\ contrasted\\ from\\ an\\ anaesthetic\\,\\ which\\ is\\ designed\\ to\\ render\\ the\\ patient\\ both\\ physically\\ and\\ mentally\\ unconscious\\;\\ rather\\ the\\ scopolamine\\-morphine\\ treatment\\ is\\ an\\ analgesic\\/amnesic\\ treatment\\,\\ made\\ to\\ lessen\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ the\\ mother\\ and\\ immediately\\ make\\ her\\ forget\\ whatever\\ pain\\ she\\ has\\ experienced\\ \\(thus\\ eliminating\\ the\\ memory\\ or\\ lingering\\ of\\ pain\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;This\\ method\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ important\\ in\\ reducing\\ anxiety\\ before\\ birth\\,\\ both\\ for\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ time\\ but\\ also\\ for\\ later\\ times\\ because\\ a\\ woman\\ will\\ not\\ remember\\ an\\ unpleasant\\ birth\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ so\\ will\\ not\\ fear\\ future\\ births\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ touted\\ for\\ reducing\\ post\\-birth\\ shock\\,\\ which\\ both\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ mental\\ experiences\\ of\\ pain\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ induced\\ in\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Points\\ of\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ technique\\ would\\ only\\ be\\ available\\ to\\ the\\ very\\ wealthy\\,\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ well\\ equipped\\ hospitals\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ personnel\\ and\\ attention\\ required\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ specified\\ not\\ only\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ pure\\,\\ stable\\ preparation\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ but\\ also\\ that\\ the\\ dosage\\ should\\ be\\ carefully\\ monitored\\ as\\ every\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\ varied\\ in\\ intensity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Women\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ doctors\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ technique\\ once\\ they\\ had\\ heard\\ of\\ its\\ development\\,\\ showing\\ an\\ interesting\\ patient\\-doctor\\ dynamic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ long\\-term\\ affects\\ on\\ either\\ mothers\\ or\\ babies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ a\\ case\\ study\\ of\\ 83\\ births\\,\\ there\\ are\\ 2\\ deaths\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ no\\ connected\\ with\\ the\\ drug\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(34\\)\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ mention\\ the\\ causes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ authors\\ predict\\ this\\ technique\\ will\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[lessen\\]\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ artificially\\ induced\\ abortions\\,\\ because\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ lessened\\ fear\\ of\\ motherhood\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ children\\ of\\ intelligent\\ families\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ should\\ \\&ldquo\\;produce\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ offspring\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(36\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Post\\-birth\\ anxiety\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ primarily\\ affect\\ \\&ldquo\\;women\\ of\\ delicate\\ nervous\\ organization\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(162\\)\\ specifically\\ because\\ they\\ fixate\\ on\\ the\\ pain\\ which\\ will\\ surely\\ accompany\\ their\\ inevitable\\ next\\ birth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Technical\\ terms\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;blue\\ babies\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ones\\ born\\ with\\ breathing\\ difficulties\\ due\\ to\\ morphine\\ overdose\\)\\:\\ oligopnea\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;mild\\ stage\\ of\\ breathlessness\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ asphyxia\\ \\(presumably\\ complete\\ breathlessness\\ in\\ this\\ case\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\As\\ anaesthesia\\ is\\ touted\\ for\\ modernizing\\ surgery\\,\\ this\\ technique\\ is\\ predicted\\ to\\ modernize\\ birthing\\ techniques\\,\\ replacing\\ \\&ldquo\\;ignorant\\ midwives\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[s\\]uperstitious\\ grandmothers\\ and\\ half\\-crazed\\ husbands\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(164\\)\\ with\\ well\\-trained\\ and\\ surgically\\ skilled\\ physicians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dr\\.\\ Gauss\\ is\\ later\\ described\\ as\\ experimenting\\ \\(with\\ little\\ success\\)\\ of\\ finding\\ a\\ standardized\\ dosage\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;fourth\\-class\\ citizens\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ resistance\\ to\\ this\\ surgical\\ technique\\ is\\ compared\\ to\\ that\\ to\\ ovariotomy\\ \\(surgical\\ removal\\ of\\ afflicated\\ ovaries\\,\\)\\ showing\\ some\\ reluctance\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ medical\\ experiments\\ and\\ advances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Pernick\\,\\ Martin\\ S\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ The\\ Calculus\\ of\\ Suffering\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-century\\ Surgery\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\ Craig\\ Gorin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Oct\\.\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ Nov\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oct\\.\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MISSING\\-Shivani\\ Ghoshal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nov\\.\\ 1s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sketch\\ of\\ the\\ Epidemic\\ of\\ Yellow\\ Fever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\J\\.C\\.\\ Nott\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ shall\\ not\\ attempt\\ a\\ perfect\\ picture\\,\\ but\\ will\\ only\\ touch\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\those\\ points\\ which\\ caught\\ my\\ eye\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\en\\ passant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Yellow\\ fever\\ of\\ 1847\\ \\=\\ ephemeral\\ epidemic\\ \\(mild\\ and\\ manageable\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nott\\ stresses\\ that\\ two\\ diseases\\ possessing\\ similar\\ symptoms\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ suggest\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ Britain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ typhoid\\ fever\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ American\\ yellow\\ fever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\ of\\ diseases\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;eruptive\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;eruptions\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ most\\ cases\\ enable\\ us\\ to\\ distinguish\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\ of\\ fevers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ symptoms\\ in\\ common\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lacking\\ in\\ strong\\ diagnostic\\ signs\\ and\\ thus\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;eruptive\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artificial\\ stimulants\\ such\\ as\\ opium\\ act\\ on\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ similar\\ to\\ these\\ fevers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ symptoms\\ are\\ observed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ complication\\ of\\ delineating\\ between\\ specific\\ types\\ of\\ fever\\,\\ since\\ generic\\ symptoms\\ appear\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ triggers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nott\\ dismisses\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ weather\\ has\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ susceptibility\\ to\\ certain\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yellow\\ fever\\ was\\ documented\\ to\\ persists\\ even\\ through\\ \\&ldquo\\;excessive\\ rains\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(summer\\ season\\ was\\ unusually\\ cool\\ and\\ temperate\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mobile\\ of\\ 1847\\ deemed\\ \\&ldquo\\;mild\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Progressed\\ very\\ slowly\\ throughout\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 1847\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ patients\\ diagnosed\\ with\\ the\\ fever\\ survived\\ \\(during\\ a\\ true\\ epidemic\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ patients\\ perish\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deaths\\ did\\ not\\ exceed\\ 1\\ in\\ 15\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ more\\ commonly\\ robust\\ figures\\ of\\ 1\\ in\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disease\\ was\\ confined\\ to\\ new\\ comers\\ who\\ had\\ not\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;acclimated\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(example\\ of\\ natural\\ inoculation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disease\\ showed\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;strong\\ analogy\\ with\\ the\\ habits\\ of\\ insect\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Commenced\\ early\\,\\ ran\\ its\\ course\\,\\ and\\ ended\\ long\\ before\\ frost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ no\\ weather\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;stop\\ animal\\ and\\ vegetable\\ decomposition\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(absence\\ of\\ miasmas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crosby\\,\\ A\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Virgin\\ Soil\\ Epidemics\\ as\\ a\\ Factor\\ in\\ the\\ Aboriginal\\ Depopulation\\ in\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Article\\ concerned\\ with\\ disease\\ in\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Few\\ \\&ldquo\\;pure\\ Indians\\ and\\ Eskimos\\ alive\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(289\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Virgin\\ Soil\\ epidemics\\ are\\ those\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ populations\\ at\\ risk\\ have\\ had\\ no\\ previous\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ diseases\\ that\\ strike\\ them\\ and\\ are\\ therefore\\ immunologically\\ almost\\ defenseless\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ Smallpox\\,\\ measles\\,\\ malaria\\,\\ yellow\\ fever\\ unknown\\ in\\ Pre\\-Columbian\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ that\\ thesis\\ \\(NOT\\ his\\ own\\)\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ that\\ epidemics\\ have\\ been\\ chiefly\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ awesome\\ diminution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lots\\ of\\ statistical\\ data\\ \\(as\\ one\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ 1738\\,\\ smallpox\\ destroyed\\ half\\ the\\ Cherokees\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ exists\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ aborigines\\ offered\\ so\\ little\\ resistance\\&hellip\\;susceptibility\\ long\\ attributed\\ to\\ special\\ weakness\\ on\\ their\\ part\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(291\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\C\\.\\ says\\ that\\ modern\\ medical\\ data\\ on\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\(NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ do\\ not\\ sustain\\ this\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ that\\ smallpox\\ killed\\ many\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Union\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ too\\,\\ but\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vaccinated\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;while\\ NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ had\\ not\\&mdash\\;completely\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\virgin\\ soil\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crosby\\ gives\\ brief\\ acknowledgement\\ of\\ \\(warfare\\,\\ murder\\,\\ dispossession\\,\\ and\\ interbreeding\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ Europeans\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;dire\\ influence\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ situation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ 2\\ main\\ reasons\\ for\\ massive\\ losses\\:\\ 1\\)\\ nature\\ of\\ disease\\(s\\)\\ 2\\)\\ how\\ societies\\ reacted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ factor\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mortality\\ rates\\ rise\\ sharply\\ when\\ several\\ virgin\\ soil\\ epidemics\\ strike\\ at\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Virgin\\ Soil\\ epidemics\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ especially\\ deadly\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ immune\\ in\\ the\\ afflicted\\ population\\ and\\ so\\ nearly\\ everyone\\ gets\\ sick\\ at\\ once\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(295\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ factor\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reaction\\:\\ customs\\ and\\ religions\\ provided\\ little\\ help\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ anecdote\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ accept\\ treatment\\ from\\ a\\ Euro\\.\\ Doctor\\ and\\ suffered\\ in\\ greater\\ numbers\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ their\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ practice\\ quarantine\\ of\\ the\\ sick\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;such\\ ignorance\\ of\\ danger\\ of\\ infection\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leads\\ to\\ fatalism\\ or\\ frenzied\\ behavior\\,\\ often\\ abandoning\\ the\\ afflicted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ turned\\ to\\ killing\\ whites\\,\\ but\\ many\\ more\\ replied\\ by\\ killing\\ each\\ other\\ \\(298\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Whether\\ the\\ Europeans\\ and\\ Africans\\ came\\ to\\ the\\ native\\ Americans\\ in\\ war\\ or\\ peace\\,\\ they\\ always\\ brought\\ death\\ with\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(299\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Cholera\\ Years\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\.\\ 226\\-234\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ not\\ until\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ that\\ cholera\\ invaded\\ the\\ Western\\ Hemisphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ as\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ mystery\\ as\\ the\\ plague\\ because\\ doctors\\ in\\ 1832\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ resources\\ significantly\\ more\\ advanced\\ than\\ during\\ medieval\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ by\\ 1866\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ shift\\ in\\ medical\\ advancement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ achievement\\ of\\ the\\ Metropolitan\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\ in\\ 1866\\ had\\ a\\ huge\\ significance\\;\\ America\\ realized\\ it\\ was\\ like\\ other\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cholera\\ in\\ 1866\\ was\\ a\\ social\\ problem\\;\\ in\\ 1832\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ moral\\ dilemma\\;\\ disease\\ had\\ become\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interaction\\ with\\ his\\ environment\\;\\ it\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ an\\ incident\\ in\\ moral\\ choice\\ and\\ spiritual\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ clergymen\\ were\\ beginning\\ to\\ think\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ pragmatic\\ goals\\ and\\ environmental\\ causation\\,\\ although\\ traditional\\ values\\ were\\ not\\ easily\\ discarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientific\\ values\\ and\\ habits\\ had\\ assumed\\ a\\ new\\ prominence\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ mind\\,\\ especially\\ through\\ the\\ Board\\ of\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Progressivism\\:\\ membership\\ in\\ a\\ profession\\ or\\ education\\ \\(and\\ not\\ necessarily\\ birth\\)\\ guaranteed\\ a\\ secure\\ social\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drake\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Practical\\ Essays\\ on\\ Medical\\ Education\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ has\\ two\\ main\\ parts\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ selection\\ and\\ preparatory\\ education\\ of\\ pupils\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ medical\\ colleges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ selection\\ and\\ preparatory\\ education\\ of\\ pupils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Drake\\ notes\\ that\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ occupations\\,\\ non\\ require\\ greater\\ talent\\ of\\ knowledge\\ than\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ where\\ a\\ physician\\ serves\\ multiple\\ roles\\ \\(physician\\,\\ surgeon\\,\\ and\\ apothecary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ laments\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ profession\\ is\\ currently\\ full\\ of\\ recruits\\ who\\ are\\ often\\ deficient\\ in\\ ability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Drake\\ tells\\ us\\ what\\ characteristics\\ he\\ believes\\ a\\ boy\\ should\\ posses\\ before\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-boys\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ feeble\\ frame\\ and\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ sound\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-they\\ must\\ have\\ vigorous\\ and\\ inquiring\\ minds\\ and\\ want\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-students\\ should\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ only\\ of\\ sound\\ understanding\\,\\ but\\ imbued\\ with\\ ambition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-a\\ temperament\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;industry\\ and\\ perseverance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ boy\\ should\\ have\\ parents\\ who\\ are\\ wealthy\\ enough\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ambitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Drake\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ downfalls\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\ are\\ that\\ feeble\\ minded\\ boys\\ are\\ dedicated\\ to\\ its\\ study\\ and\\ that\\ another\\ evil\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\ is\\ that\\ somehow\\ inferior\\ physicians\\ succeed\\ in\\ acquiring\\ business\\ and\\ popularity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ progress\\ and\\ rate\\ of\\ discovery\\ in\\ the\\ profession\\ is\\ being\\ hindered\\ by\\ a\\ deficiency\\ of\\ talent\\.\\ Many\\ people\\ get\\ medical\\ licenses\\ but\\ few\\ ever\\ contribute\\ anything\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ notes\\ that\\ although\\ medicine\\ is\\ a\\ learned\\ profession\\,\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ devote\\ itself\\ to\\ making\\ sure\\ its\\ students\\ and\\ practitioners\\ are\\ proficient\\ in\\ spelling\\,\\ grammar\\,\\ arithmetic\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Drake\\ feels\\ that\\ other\\ basic\\ knowledge\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ medicine\\ and\\ other\\ disciplines\\ are\\ interrelated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ physician\\ who\\ is\\ ignorant\\ of\\ Greek\\ and\\ Latin\\ appears\\,\\ in\\ Drake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ defective\\ and\\ uncultivated\\ regardless\\ of\\ his\\ abilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Drake\\ mentions\\ what\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ pre\\-med\\ type\\ curriculum\\,\\ which\\ should\\ establish\\ habits\\ early\\ and\\ generate\\ a\\ love\\ of\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-he\\ closes\\ the\\ essay\\ noting\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\,\\ out\\ to\\ improve\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ 2\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Medical\\ Colleges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-medical\\ colleges\\&rsquo\\;\\ importance\\ was\\ established\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ but\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ increased\\ their\\ number\\ dramatically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Drake\\ notes\\ that\\ medical\\ schools\\ can\\ be\\ improved\\ upon\\ in\\ several\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ number\\ of\\ professors\\ should\\ be\\ increased\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ suggests\\ 8\\ professors\\.\\ They\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ elected\\ for\\ terms\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ indefinitely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ curriculum\\ should\\ cover\\ anatomy\\,\\ \\ \\;institutes\\ of\\ medicine\\,\\ practice\\ of\\ medicine\\ and\\ clinical\\ cases\\,\\ surgery\\,\\ material\\ medica\\,\\ chemistry\\ and\\ pharmacy\\,\\ obstetrics\\,\\ and\\ medical\\ jurisprudence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-he\\ does\\ not\\ agree\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ topics\\ of\\ lectures\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\ year\\ are\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ wants\\ students\\ to\\ reach\\ different\\ stages\\ of\\ study\\ as\\ they\\ progress\\ through\\ the\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-he\\ views\\ the\\ short\\ sessions\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ schools\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;evil\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ advocates\\ for\\ longer\\ ones\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ student\\ will\\ have\\ enough\\ time\\ to\\ digest\\ the\\ material\\.\\ He\\ suggests\\ 6\\ month\\ long\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ notes\\ that\\ experiments\\ and\\ demonstrations\\ are\\ crucial\\ to\\ every\\ medical\\ institution\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ main\\ focal\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ states\\ that\\ examinations\\ in\\ lecture\\ are\\ sometimes\\ useless\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ used\\ purely\\ to\\ preoccupy\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ class\\.\\ He\\ notes\\ that\\ examinations\\ are\\ valuable\\,\\ but\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Medical\\ professors\\ should\\ be\\ men\\ of\\ learning\\,\\ but\\ the\\ lecture\\ room\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ place\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ delve\\ into\\ their\\ own\\ personal\\ book\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Medical\\ schools\\ allow\\ students\\ to\\ matriculate\\ at\\ any\\ time\\ within\\ the\\ first\\ month\\ of\\ a\\ course\\&mdash\\;this\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ so\\,\\ as\\ they\\ fall\\ behind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Students\\ should\\ be\\ well\\ behaved\\ in\\ lecture\\ and\\ should\\ prepare\\ in\\ advance\\.\\ They\\ should\\ take\\ notes\\ and\\ be\\ attentive\\,\\ but\\ careful\\ not\\ to\\ take\\ too\\ difficult\\ a\\ load\\ of\\ courses\\ in\\ their\\ first\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Students\\ should\\ attend\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ health\\,\\ with\\ a\\ proper\\ diet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;there\\ is\\ an\\ additional\\ summary\\ by\\ drake\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ which\\ includes\\ the\\ following\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-4\\ years\\ of\\ medical\\ school\\ is\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-a\\ student\\ must\\ be\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-every\\ student\\ must\\ do\\ a\\ thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-moral\\ character\\ is\\ a\\ necessity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-summer\\ lectures\\ are\\ encouraged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Sex\\ and\\ Education\\"\\;\\ by\\ M\\.B\\.\\ Jackson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thanks\\ Dr\\.\\ Clarke\\ for\\ drawing\\ attention\\ to\\ issue\\ of\\ co\\-education\\ BUT\\ his\\ arguments\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ hold\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ supporting\\ his\\ theory\\ that\\ female\\ biology\\ limits\\ a\\ girl\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ education\\,\\ his\\ arguments\\ delegitimize\\ his\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Where\\ Clarke\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ accomplished\\ professor\\ Elina\\ Carnaro\\ was\\ educated\\ like\\ a\\ boy\\,\\ Jackson\\ contends\\ that\\ this\\ interpretation\\ is\\ ridiculous\\ \\-\\-\\ \\"\\;No\\ woman\\ would\\ have\\ thought\\ that\\ her\\ life\\ was\\ a\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\,\\ her\\ way\\ of\\ study\\ a\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ study\\,\\ or\\ that\\ in\\ acquiring\\ six\\ languages\\ she\\ could\\ ignore\\ her\\ own\\ organization\\"\\;\\ \\(151\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ A\\ woman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ struggle\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ equality\\ NOT\\ to\\ have\\ men\\ dictate\\ what\\ she\\ should\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Clarke\\ ignores\\ that\\ boys\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ development\\ and\\ that\\ like\\ girls\\,\\ boys\\ require\\ care\\ during\\ this\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Clarke\\ also\\ says\\ that\\ women\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ complete\\ a\\ coed\\ college\\ class\\ without\\ overwhelming\\ their\\ intellectual\\ capabilities\\ and\\ then\\ continues\\ with\\ what\\ \\"\\;train\\ of\\ evils\\"\\;\\ would\\ follow\\ \\(153\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ o\\ BUT\\ Jackson\\ counters\\ that\\ this\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ prove\\ anything\\;\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ basis\\ behind\\ this\\ particular\\ point\\ of\\ Clarke\\&\\#39\\;s\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ makes\\ Clarke\\ a\\ \\"\\;better\\ judge\\ of\\ what\\ \\[women\\]\\ can\\ bear\\ than\\ they\\ are\\ themselves\\"\\;\\ \\(154\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Jackson\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ Clarke\\&\\#39\\;s\\ admission\\ that\\ women\\ are\\ the\\ intellectual\\ equals\\ of\\ men\\ yet\\ demonstrative\\ to\\ what\\ women\\ are\\ accustomed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Jackson\\ also\\ looks\\ forward\\ to\\ the\\ day\\ when\\ man\\ will\\ finally\\ realize\\ that\\ woman\\ is\\ equally\\ capable\\;\\ this\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ significant\\ step\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ direction\\,\\ Jackson\\ says\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-According\\ to\\ Jackson\\,\\ Clarke\\ makes\\ it\\ seem\\ as\\ if\\ man\\ were\\ made\\ superior\\ to\\ woman\\ and\\ that\\ woman\\ were\\ made\\ so\\ imperfectly\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ duty\\ to\\ direct\\ her\\ in\\ \\"\\;what\\ she\\ must\\ do\\ and\\ how\\ she\\ must\\ live\\ \\(155\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ But\\ Jackson\\ contends\\ that\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ nothing\\ wrong\\ in\\ assuming\\ that\\ woman\\ has\\ been\\ created\\ just\\ as\\ man\\ has\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Jackson\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ take\\ issue\\ with\\ Clarke\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ \\"\\;host\\ of\\ ills\\ that\\ women\\ are\\ suffering\\ from\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ in\\ America\\;\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ certainly\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ charged\\ to\\ co\\-education\\"\\;\\ \\(156\\)\\.\\ There\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ enough\\ evidence\\ for\\ anyone\\ to\\ draw\\ any\\ conclusions\\,\\ Jackson\\ says\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Once\\ women\\ are\\ treated\\ by\\ women\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ healther\\ race\\ of\\ women\\,\\ Jackson\\ says\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Clarke\\ argues\\ that\\ because\\ a\\ a\\ woman\\ grows\\ more\\ rapidly\\ than\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ a\\ shorter\\ period\\ of\\ time\\,\\ she\\ won\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ power\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ academic\\ tasks\\ required\\ of\\ a\\ boy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\*\\ Jackson\\ counters\\ that\\ this\\ rapid\\ growth\\ allows\\ for\\ woman\\ to\\ endure\\ childbirth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Clarke\\ argues\\ that\\ no\\ \\"\\;organ\\ or\\ function\\"\\;\\ can\\ ever\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ disability\\/source\\ of\\ weakness\\,\\ yet\\ contradicts\\ himself\\ when\\ he\\ tries\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ woman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ incapabilities\\ occur\\ because\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ functions\\ of\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jackson\\:\\ \\"\\;The\\ trouble\\ with\\ the\\ Doctor\\ is\\,\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ pet\\ theory\\ that\\ women\\ must\\ not\\ do\\ mental\\ or\\ physical\\ work\\ during\\ certain\\ periods\\;\\ and\\ so\\ he\\ attributes\\ all\\ disease\\ in\\ women\\ to\\ failure\\ in\\ securing\\ this\\ rest\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ be\\ want\\ of\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ ovaries\\,\\ hemorrhages\\,\\ or\\ disease\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\"\\;\\ \\(162\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sex\\ in\\ Education\\,\\ A\\ Fair\\ Chance\\ For\\ Girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ By\\ E\\.\\ Clarke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Of\\ the\\ three\\ body\\ systems\\ \\(nutritive\\,\\ nervous\\ and\\ reproductive\\)\\ only\\ the\\ reproductive\\ system\\ differs\\ between\\ the\\ sexes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Intellectual\\ power\\,\\ the\\ correlation\\ and\\ measure\\ of\\ cerebral\\ structure\\ and\\ metamorphosis\\,\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ equal\\ development\\ in\\ both\\ sexes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ equal\\ potential\\ for\\ intellectual\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ divided\\ into\\ 3\\ periods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;birth\\ to\\ menarche\\,\\ menarche\\ to\\ menopause\\ and\\ menopause\\ to\\ death\\ \\(though\\ Clarke\\ does\\ not\\ use\\ these\\ exact\\ terms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clarke\\ considers\\ the\\ boundaries\\ between\\ these\\ phases\\ to\\ be\\ critical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ children\\,\\ boys\\ and\\ girls\\ are\\ almost\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ maturity\\,\\ the\\ sexes\\ diverge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ old\\ age\\,\\ the\\ sexes\\ become\\ very\\ similar\\ once\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Onset\\ of\\ a\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ period\\/development\\ of\\ her\\ reproductive\\ system\\ coincides\\ with\\ a\\ girls\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ healthy\\ development\\ of\\ ovaries\\/start\\ of\\ period\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\,\\ must\\ occur\\ during\\ a\\ specific\\ window\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ these\\ reproductive\\ functions\\ are\\ not\\ established\\ during\\ this\\ time\\ period\\,\\ the\\ probably\\ never\\ will\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ can\\ bear\\ physical\\ activity\\ less\\ effectively\\ than\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;An\\ abnormal\\ method\\ of\\ study\\ and\\ work\\ may\\ and\\ does\\ open\\ the\\ flood\\-gates\\ of\\ the\\ system\\,\\ and\\,\\ by\\ letting\\ blood\\ out\\,\\ lets\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ evil\\ in\\.\\ Let\\ us\\ now\\ look\\ at\\ another\\ phase\\;\\ for\\ menorhagia\\ and\\ its\\ consequences\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ punishments\\ that\\ girls\\ receive\\ for\\ being\\ educated\\ and\\ worked\\ just\\ like\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(78\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overwork\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ amenorrhea\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regimen\\ that\\ requires\\ girls\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;walk\\,\\ work\\,\\ stand\\,\\ study\\,\\ recite\\ and\\ dance\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ as\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ cause\\ damage\\ to\\ their\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Miss\\ D\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ studied\\ at\\ Vassar\\ college\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;overstudied\\/overworked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;painful\\ menstration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ammenorhea\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;advancing\\ invalidism\\ \\&ldquo\\;pale\\,\\ hysterical\\,\\ nervous\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Conclusion\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;arrest\\ of\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ reproductive\\ apparatus\\ at\\ a\\ stage\\ when\\ the\\ development\\ was\\ nearly\\ complete\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;she\\ would\\ never\\ reach\\ her\\ full\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ requirement\\ of\\ society\\ for\\ girls\\ to\\ get\\ an\\ education\\ conflicts\\ with\\ the\\ requirement\\ of\\ Nature\\ to\\,\\ during\\ that\\ same\\ time\\ period\\,\\ complete\\ the\\ development\\/maturation\\ of\\ the\\ reproductive\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Summary\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Medicine\\ in\\ New\\ England\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Eric\\ Christianson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ essay\\ contrasts\\ the\\ medical\\ practice\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\ with\\ the\\ therapeutic\\ system\\ of\\ Old\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OLD\\ ENGLAND\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\From\\ 1600\\-1700\\,\\ the\\ exploding\\ population\\ of\\ Britain\\ coupled\\ with\\ opportunist\\ and\\ optimist\\ views\\ about\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ caused\\ many\\ businessmen\\ and\\ religious\\ reformers\\ to\\ seek\\ a\\ new\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ Americas\\.\\ As\\ these\\ English\\ people\\ left\\ for\\ America\\,\\ they\\ took\\ their\\ medical\\ practices\\ with\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Big\\ city\\ life\\ in\\ England\\ \\(like\\ London\\)\\ was\\ full\\ of\\ endemic\\ and\\ epidemic\\ diseases\\ \\(smallpox\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ endemic\\,\\ bubonic\\ plague\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ epidemic\\)\\.\\ Countryside\\ living\\ was\\ much\\ healthier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therapeutic\\ system\\ in\\ England\\:\\ There\\ were\\ many\\ \\&lsquo\\;healers\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(physicians\\,\\ surgeons\\,\\ apothecaries\\,\\ nurses\\,\\ midwives\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ But\\ toward\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ the\\ Kings\\ of\\ England\\ granted\\ charters\\ that\\ made\\ physicians\\,\\ surgeons\\,\\ and\\ apothecaries\\ the\\ main\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ therapeutic\\ system\\.\\ Physicians\\ rose\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ ladder\\,\\ with\\ surgeons\\ and\\ apothecaries\\ under\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physicians\\,\\ surgeons\\,\\ and\\ apothecaries\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ own\\ divisions\\ and\\ had\\ unique\\ contributions\\ to\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\ However\\,\\ surgeons\\ and\\ apothecaries\\ would\\ often\\ perform\\ physician\\-like\\ functions\\ \\(claiming\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ prescriptions\\ and\\ therefore\\ they\\ know\\ what\\ to\\ do\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physicians\\ took\\ legal\\ action\\ against\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Physicians\\ were\\ minorities\\ because\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ healers\\.\\ Physicians\\ formed\\ guilds\\/corporations\\ to\\ regulate\\ and\\ professionalize\\ their\\ practice\\.\\ Surgeons\\ and\\ apothecaries\\ formed\\ guilds\\ to\\ help\\ educate\\ students\\ in\\ their\\ fields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hospitals\\ were\\ often\\ places\\ used\\ to\\ teach\\ students\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ become\\ physicians\\,\\ surgeons\\,\\ or\\ apothecaries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medical\\ practice\\ differed\\ very\\ little\\ from\\ ancient\\ Greece\\/Rome\\.\\ Medical\\ practice\\ focused\\ on\\:\\ listening\\ to\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descriptions\\ of\\ symptoms\\,\\ observing\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ appearance\\/behavior\\,\\ and\\ examining\\ the\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therapeutic\\ approach\\ based\\ on\\ Galen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Principles\\.\\ \\(natural\\ balance\\ dictated\\ by\\ right\\ amounts\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ humors\\&mdash\\;yellow\\ bile\\,\\ blood\\,\\ phlegm\\,\\ and\\ black\\ bile\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Must\\ combat\\ illness\\ with\\ doing\\ the\\ OPPOSITE\\ to\\ restore\\ balance\\ \\(feverish\\ patients\\ \\=\\ cooling\\ regimen\\ or\\ bleed\\ them\\ to\\ release\\ excess\\ heat\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NEW\\ ENGLAND\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Exponential\\ growth\\ in\\ population\\ from\\ 1600s\\ to\\ 1700s\\ \\(many\\ cities\\ like\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ Boston\\,\\ and\\ New\\ York\\,\\ rivaled\\ some\\ cities\\ of\\ Europe\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ colonial\\ period\\,\\ population\\ was\\ very\\ homogenous\\&mdash\\;most\\ people\\ came\\ from\\ East\\ Anglia\\ in\\ England\\.\\ Mass\\ exodus\\ of\\ Puritans\\ \\(instigated\\ by\\ the\\ clergy\\)\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ New\\ England\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ came\\ to\\ America\\ were\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;common\\ sort\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ people\\ who\\ hold\\ every\\ day\\ jobs\\ like\\ farmers\\,\\ laborers\\,\\ artisans\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ England\\ was\\ overwhelmingly\\ rural\\,\\ despite\\ being\\ extremely\\ populated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\ expectancy\\ for\\ males\\ in\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\ exceeded\\ their\\ English\\ counterparts\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ 10\\ years\\.\\ Early\\ marriage\\ age\\ \\(25\\ men\\/22\\ women\\ in\\ America\\ vs\\.\\ 27\\ men\\/25\\ women\\ in\\ England\\)\\ meant\\ larger\\ families\\ and\\ greater\\ population\\ growth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonists\\ brought\\ with\\ them\\ smallpox\\,\\ diphtheria\\,\\ scarlet\\ fever\\,\\ and\\ measles\\.\\ But\\ high\\ mortality\\ from\\ intestinal\\ and\\ respiratory\\ problems\\ \\(pneumonia\\,\\ TB\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smallpox\\ epidemics\\ came\\ in\\ bouts\\ and\\ killed\\ many\\ colonists\\ in\\ Boston\\ \\(half\\ of\\ Boston\\&rsquo\\;s\\ population\\ died\\ in\\ 1721\\ when\\ inoculation\\ first\\ was\\ introduced\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ population\\ density\\ meant\\ disease\\ could\\ easily\\ spread\\.\\ However\\,\\ New\\ England\\ was\\ healthier\\ than\\ Old\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ colonial\\ times\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ regulation\\ of\\ health\\ care\\ field\\.\\ Anyone\\ who\\ said\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;doctor\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ a\\ doctor\\.\\ Training\\ to\\ become\\ doctors\\ was\\ mainly\\ done\\ through\\ apprenticeships\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ ship\\ companies\\ required\\ that\\ there\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ trained\\ surgeons\\ on\\ board\\ going\\ to\\ America\\.\\ So\\ some\\ surgeons\\ like\\ Giles\\ Heale\\ came\\ to\\ America\\ just\\ for\\ the\\ journey\\ and\\ returned\\ back\\ to\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ actually\\ med\\-school\\ trained\\ physicians\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ were\\ med\\-school\\ trained\\ \\(like\\ Robert\\ Child\\)\\ would\\ often\\ not\\ practice\\ and\\ worry\\ about\\ professional\\/business\\ opportunities\\/gains\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1649\\,\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ Bay\\ Colony\\ government\\ passed\\ a\\ law\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ \\&lsquo\\;doctor\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ The\\ law\\ endorsed\\ the\\ apprenticeship\\ system\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apprenticeship\\ system\\ in\\ New\\ England\\ mirrored\\ the\\ therapeutic\\ system\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ English\\ countryside\\.\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;doctor\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ basically\\ a\\ general\\ practitioner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Law\\ was\\ unenforceable\\,\\ so\\ many\\ self\\-styled\\ \\&ldquo\\;doctors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doctors\\ rarely\\ worked\\ full\\-time\\.\\ They\\ did\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ other\\ things\\&mdash\\;business\\,\\ government\\,\\ etc\\.\\ They\\ moved\\ out\\ to\\ other\\ areas\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ clientele\\,\\ land\\,\\ and\\ security\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ doctors\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ attend\\ college\\ and\\ almost\\ no\\ one\\ possessed\\ M\\.D\\.s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exception\\:\\ Thomas\\ Bullfinch\\ Sr\\.\\ went\\ to\\ England\\ and\\ France\\ to\\ learn\\ medicine\\ in\\ med\\ schools\\ and\\ he\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ America\\ to\\ practice\\ medicine\\.\\ Bullfinch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ \\(Thomas\\ Bullfinch\\ Jr\\.\\)\\ went\\ to\\ Scotland\\ to\\ acquire\\ an\\ M\\.D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Schools\\ in\\ America\\ \\(like\\ Harvard\\)\\ were\\ established\\ mainly\\ to\\ train\\ ministers\\,\\ not\\ lawyers\\ or\\ physicians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apprenticeships\\ for\\ surgeons\\ and\\ apothecaries\\ in\\ Massachusetts\\ lasted\\ for\\ only\\ 1\\ year\\,\\ while\\ apprenticeships\\ in\\ England\\ lasted\\ for\\ 7\\ years\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ societies\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ drew\\ doctors\\ who\\ were\\ apprentice\\ trained\\ \\(and\\ a\\ few\\ who\\ studied\\ abroad\\ to\\ become\\ MDs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medical\\ societies\\ were\\ very\\ popular\\ in\\ colonial\\ Massachusetts\\.\\ The\\ goals\\ of\\ these\\ societies\\ were\\:\\ 1\\)\\ to\\ propose\\ minimum\\ requirements\\ for\\ medical\\ practice\\,\\ 2\\)\\ to\\ improve\\ public\\ image\\ of\\ doctors\\,\\ 3\\)\\ self\\-improvement\\.\\ Modeled\\ after\\ London\\&rsquo\\;s\\ guilds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ Jepson\\ called\\ for\\ more\\ training\\ beyond\\ apprenticeships\\ in\\ medical\\ societies\\.\\ So\\ he\\ started\\ sharing\\ books\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1738\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ William\\ Douglass\\ wanted\\ the\\ medical\\ societies\\ to\\ repress\\ quackery\\.\\ Quest\\ to\\ professionalize\\ medical\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\,\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ regulation\\ of\\ medical\\ profession\\ was\\ urgent\\.\\ John\\ Warren\\ formed\\ the\\ Boston\\ Medical\\ Society\\,\\ demanding\\ apprenticeship\\ PLUS\\ medical\\/bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ degree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Precursors\\ to\\ hospital\\ in\\ America\\ were\\ the\\ almshouses\\,\\ pesthouses\\,\\ and\\ poorhouses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ a\\ person\\ got\\ sick\\,\\ the\\ family\\ called\\ EVERYBODY\\ with\\ medical\\ knowledge\\:\\ midwives\\,\\ nurses\\,\\ grocers\\,\\ neighbor\\,\\ doctor\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ of\\ the\\ products\\ used\\ to\\ heal\\ were\\ imported\\ from\\ Europe\\ \\(many\\ believed\\ that\\ most\\ native\\ plants\\ to\\ America\\ were\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ cure\\ disease\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 32, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Midterm_Study_Guide_II_1.doc", "desc": "Midterm 2 Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Extra Final Review - Justice", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "study-guide"], "text": null, "id": 119, "html": "\\\\\\Extra\\ Final\\ Review\\ \\-\\ Justice\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c30\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{margin\\-left\\:3pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-355\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:355\\.5pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-319\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:319\\.5pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:128\\.2pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c32\\{padding\\-left\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:21pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c28\\{color\\:\\#008000\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c19\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\THE\\ SIMPLEST\\ AND\\ BEST\\ JUSTICE\\ REVIEW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Look\\ at\\ Study\\ Guide\\ \\&ldquo\\;Review\\_Sheets\\_Composite\\&rdquo\\;\\ For\\ more\\ help\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\UTILITARIANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Utilitarianism\\ is\\ teleological\\,\\ as\\ it\\ measures\\ the\\ moral\\ quality\\ of\\ actions\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ the\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ deontological\\ ethical\\ theories\\ that\\ measure\\ moral\\ quality\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ motives\\ of\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ acts\\ \\(Kant\\/Rawls\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ measure\\ of\\ judgment\\ of\\ moral\\ actions\\ is\\ utility\\,\\ defined\\ as\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ pleasure\\ minus\\ pain\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ moral\\ worth\\ of\\ an\\ act\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ utility\\ associated\\ with\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morally\\ right\\ actions\\ are\\ those\\ that\\ produce\\ the\\ most\\ happiness\\ to\\ humanity\\ at\\ large\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ greatest\\ happiness\\ principle\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Bentham\\)\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utilitarianism\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ exponents\\ are\\ two\\ English\\ philosophers\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\,\\ Introduction\\ to\\ the\\ Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\ \\(1780\\/89\\)\\ and\\ John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\,\\ Utilitarianism\\,\\ 1863\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ balance\\ of\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\ is\\ the\\ criterion\\ of\\ moral\\ rightness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defined\\ utility\\ as\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ things\\ or\\ actions\\ promote\\ the\\ general\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ morally\\ obligatory\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ produces\\ the\\ greatest\\ amount\\ of\\ happiness\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ of\\ people\\,\\ happiness\\ being\\ determined\\ by\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ pleasure\\ and\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basis\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Every\\ action\\ taken\\ is\\ only\\ for\\ some\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Addresses\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\:\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ \\(such\\ as\\ those\\ that\\ enhance\\ knowledge\\ and\\ learning\\)\\ should\\ be\\ valued\\ and\\ chosen\\ more\\ highly\\ than\\ baser\\ pleasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ quite\\ compatible\\ with\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ utility\\ to\\ recognize\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ some\\ kinds\\ of\\ pleasures\\ are\\ more\\ desirable\\ and\\ more\\ valuable\\ than\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Of\\ two\\ pleasures\\,\\ if\\ there\\ be\\ one\\ to\\ which\\ all\\ or\\ almost\\ all\\ who\\ have\\ experience\\ of\\ both\\ give\\ a\\ decided\\ preference\\,\\ irrespective\\ of\\ any\\ feeling\\ or\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ prefer\\ it\\,\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ desirable\\ pleasure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Mill\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;Actions\\ are\\ right\\ in\\ proportion\\ as\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ promote\\ happiness\\,\\ wrong\\ as\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ reverse\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Mill\\,\\ 7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ morality\\ and\\ that\\ people\\ only\\ desire\\ happiness\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ utility\\ and\\ that\\ individual\\ rights\\ exist\\ only\\ because\\ they\\ produce\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Preference\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ you\\ weigh\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;higher\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;lower\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ places\\ no\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ Rights\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ must\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ distinct\\ persons\\&hellip\\;\\ individual\\ preference\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\LIBERTARIANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Basic\\ principles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fundamental\\ categorical\\ rights\\:\\ liberty\\ and\\ self\\-possession\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ right\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-utilitarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liberty\\ and\\ freedom\\ trump\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Redistribution\\ through\\ taxation\\ is\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ forced\\ labor\\,\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ objective\\ means\\ of\\ assessing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\merit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ point\\ in\\ deliberating\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ redistribute\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ to\\ discuss\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ each\\ according\\ to\\ his\\ \\_\\_\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ inherently\\ unjust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ distribution\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;fairness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ useful\\ traits\\,\\ is\\ arbitrary\\;\\ however\\,\\ because\\ no\\ person\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ judge\\ the\\ correct\\ distribution\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ people\\ deserve\\/are\\ entitled\\ to\\ what\\ they\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ just\\ society\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ structured\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ preferred\\ end\\ result\\ \\(of\\ equality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Therefore\\ the\\ state\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cannot\\ pass\\ laws\\ to\\ protect\\ people\\ against\\ themselves\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ paternalistic\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ seat\\ belt\\ law\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ enact\\ moral\\ legislation\\ or\\ impose\\ virtues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ tax\\ for\\ redistributive\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedman\\ \\&ldquo\\;Free\\ to\\ Choose\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ is\\ in\\ clear\\ conflict\\ with\\ liberty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;No\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\arbitrary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;obstacles\\ should\\ prevent\\ people\\ from\\ achieving\\&hellip\\;\\ not\\ birth\\,\\ nationality\\,\\ color\\,\\ sex\\,\\ religion\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Personal\\ equality\\,\\ equality\\ before\\ God\\ and\\ before\\ the\\ law\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;compatible\\ with\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Majority\\ cannot\\ rule\\ for\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nozick\\ \\&ldquo\\;Anarchy\\,\\ State\\ and\\ Utopia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Entitlement\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ and\\ transfer\\ will\\ ensure\\ justice\\ of\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historical\\ principles\\ of\\ distribution\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ entitlement\\ theory\\)\\ are\\ preferred\\ over\\ patterned\\,\\ or\\ structured\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taxation\\ is\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ forced\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\View\\ on\\ Locke\\:\\ Nozick\\ asks\\ what\\ the\\ limits\\ are\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ mixing\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\ to\\ gain\\ property\\.\\ Does\\ just\\ the\\ added\\ value\\ become\\ property\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lockean\\ proviso\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ for\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hayek\\ \\&ldquo\\;Equality\\,\\ Value\\ and\\ Merit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Equality\\ before\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ justifiable\\ equality\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ supremacy\\ of\\ individual\\ liberty\\;\\ men\\ are\\ not\\ created\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ inequality\\ is\\ ok\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ grounds\\ for\\ taxation\\ for\\ redistribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inequality\\ is\\ arbitrary\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ central\\ regulator\\ to\\ decide\\ how\\ to\\ redistribute\\ because\\ no\\ human\\ group\\ would\\ be\\ capable\\ of\\ doing\\ so\\ according\\ to\\ merit\\ \\(since\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ quantified\\)\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ moral\\ argument\\ for\\ redistribution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\LOCKE\\&rsquo\\;S\\ THEORIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-different\\ types\\ of\\ power\\:\\ for\\ example\\,\\ paternal\\,\\ master\\ over\\ slave\\,\\ political\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-political\\ power\\:\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ and\\ execute\\ laws\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ commonwealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 2\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\State\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\ of\\ perfect\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ equality\\ in\\ which\\ men\\ may\\ do\\ as\\ they\\ please\\;\\ however\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ license\\:\\ not\\ acceptable\\ to\\ abuse\\ others\\ or\\ self\\,\\ because\\ all\\ are\\ property\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ sovereign\\ master\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-right\\ of\\ self\\-preservation\\:\\ everyone\\ has\\ right\\ to\\ seek\\ punishment\\ for\\ transgressors\\ of\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-government\\ needed\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;restrain\\ the\\ partiality\\ and\\ violence\\ of\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(absolute\\ monarchy\\ do\\ not\\ qualify\\ as\\ civil\\ government\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 3\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\State\\ of\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;state\\ of\\ enmity\\ and\\ destruction\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-different\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ that\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ lacks\\ an\\ authority\\ figure\\,\\ and\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ involves\\ unwarranted\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ consent\\ to\\ society\\ and\\ thus\\ leave\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ usually\\ to\\ avoid\\ state\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 4\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-natural\\ liberty\\:\\ right\\ to\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-social\\ liberty\\:\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ government\\ by\\ laws\\ made\\ by\\ legislative\\ power\\ \\(with\\ consent\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\\\-because\\ cannot\\ give\\ consent\\ to\\ enslave\\ oneself\\,\\ slavery\\ is\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 5\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Property\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ for\\ common\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-individual\\ property\\ consists\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ body\\ and\\ that\\ which\\ he\\/she\\ mixes\\ labor\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-cannot\\ take\\ property\\ if\\ you\\ will\\ waste\\ it\\ or\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\,\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ left\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;labour\\ \\&hellip\\;puts\\ the\\ greatest\\ part\\ of\\ value\\ upon\\ land\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-existence\\ of\\ money\\:\\ excess\\ property\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\ for\\ money\\ \\(won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spoil\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 7\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-conjugal\\ society\\:\\ first\\ \\&ldquo\\;society\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-separate\\ from\\ political\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-civil\\ society\\:\\ gives\\ legislative\\ body\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ and\\ enforce\\ laws\\,\\ with\\ public\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-absolute\\ monarchy\\ is\\ inconsistent\\:\\ no\\ one\\ authoritative\\ body\\ above\\ all\\ as\\ equals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 8\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-beginning\\ a\\ political\\ society\\:\\ united\\ group\\ of\\ men\\ that\\ consent\\ to\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ in\\ their\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-counterargument\\:\\ no\\ precedence\\?\\ \\ \\;origins\\ of\\ governments\\ \\(even\\ absolute\\ monarchies\\)\\ began\\ this\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-counterargument\\:\\ if\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ society\\,\\ not\\ free\\ to\\ begin\\ new\\ one\\?\\ children\\ may\\ choose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 9\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-state\\ of\\ nature\\ lacks\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;established\\,\\ settled\\,\\ known\\ law\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ known\\ and\\ indifferent\\ judge\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;power\\ to\\ back\\ and\\ support\\ the\\ sentence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-upon\\ entering\\ a\\ society\\,\\ give\\ up\\ \\&ldquo\\;doing\\ whatsoever\\ he\\ though\\ for\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ himself\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;power\\ to\\ punish\\ crimes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 10\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-commonwealth\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;any\\ independent\\ community\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-choose\\ form\\ of\\ government\\:\\ democracy\\,\\ oligarchy\\,\\ or\\ monarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 11\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-legislative\\ power\\:\\ preservation\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\;\\ laws\\ apply\\ equally\\ to\\ everyone\\;\\ cannot\\ take\\ property\\ away\\ from\\ anyone\\ without\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-taxes\\ okay\\ with\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ consent\\;\\ only\\ legislators\\ have\\ consent\\ to\\ make\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 18\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-tyranny\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;exercise\\ of\\ power\\ beyond\\ right\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ allowed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ 19\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-dissolution\\ of\\ government\\:\\ legislative\\ is\\ changed\\ without\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-people\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ judge\\ for\\ whether\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ is\\ protecting\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Additional\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ differences\\ with\\ Libertarians\\:\\ \\ \\;Locke\\ wrote\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ monarchy\\,\\ while\\ Libertarians\\ wrote\\ in\\ opposition\\ Communism\\;\\ Libertarians\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ overall\\ consent\\ to\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ for\\ Libertarians\\,\\ a\\ poor\\ majority\\ cannot\\ tax\\ a\\ rich\\ minority\\)\\;\\ Locke\\ does\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ complete\\ self\\-possessions\\ \\(talks\\ of\\ God\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\KANT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Groundwork\\ of\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ An\\ action\\ has\\ moral\\ worth\\ only\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ done\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\duty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ For\\ Kant\\,\\ the\\ highest\\ form\\ of\\ moral\\ excellence\\ is\\ an\\ action\\ done\\ out\\ of\\ duty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ action\\ done\\ from\\ duty\\ has\\ its\\ moral\\ worth\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ purpose\\ to\\ be\\ attained\\ by\\ it\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ maxim\\ according\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ determined\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Actual\\ effects\\,\\ and\\ even\\ intended\\ effects\\,\\ do\\ not\\ confer\\ moral\\ worth\\.\\ Ends\\ should\\ be\\ totally\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ an\\ action\\,\\ motive\\ is\\ what\\ matters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Duty\\ is\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ done\\ out\\ of\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Kant\\ attempts\\ to\\ call\\ attention\\ to\\ that\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\capacity\\ to\\ influence\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ without\\ calling\\ on\\ inclinations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Acting\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ frees\\ the\\ individual\\ from\\ responsibility\\ over\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ his\\ actions\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ murderer\\ at\\ the\\ door\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hypothetical\\ imperatives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ conditional\\ on\\ the\\ agent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ having\\ certain\\ contingent\\ ends\\ \\(If\\ X\\,\\ then\\ Y\\)\\.\\ Kant\\ believes\\ that\\ moral\\ imperatives\\ do\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ conditional\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\ Imperative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ independent\\ of\\ any\\ end\\,\\ it\\ is\\ purely\\ formal\\,\\ telling\\ us\\ to\\ conform\\ our\\ actions\\ to\\ some\\ law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ There\\ is\\ thus\\ only\\ one\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\:\\ Act\\ only\\ according\\ to\\ that\\ maxim\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ will\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\.\\ Ask\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ if\\ everyone\\ did\\ that\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ Certain\\ maxims\\ cannot\\ be\\ universal\\ laws\\.\\ We\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ two\\ distinct\\ cases\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Contradictions\\ in\\ conception\\.\\ If\\ it\\ were\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ permissible\\ to\\ act\\ on\\ the\\ maxim\\,\\ then\\ the\\ action\\ would\\ fail\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ its\\ intended\\ end\\ \\(such\\ as\\ lying\\ promises\\&mdash\\;as\\ making\\ promises\\ depends\\ on\\ a\\ norm\\ of\\ trust\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Contradictions\\ in\\ the\\ will\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ maxim\\ cannot\\ be\\ willed\\ to\\ be\\ universal\\ law\\.\\ We\\ cannot\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ will\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ be\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ realization\\ of\\ our\\ ends\\ is\\ put\\ in\\ doubt\\ by\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ the\\ means\\ we\\ commonly\\ need\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Perfect\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;command\\ and\\ forbid\\ specific\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ To\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\:\\ do\\ not\\ commit\\ suicide\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ To\\ others\\:\\ do\\ not\\ lie\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VIII\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Imperfect\\ duties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;assign\\ us\\ ends\\,\\ but\\ leave\\ us\\ latitude\\ in\\ deciding\\ how\\ to\\ pursue\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ To\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\:\\ cultivate\\ your\\ talents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ To\\ others\\:\\ be\\ beneficent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IX\\.\\ Humanity\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ Each\\ person\\ regards\\ his\\ own\\ rational\\ nature\\&mdash\\;his\\ power\\ to\\ set\\ ends\\ for\\ himself\\&mdash\\;as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ we\\ should\\ consider\\ ourselves\\ as\\ belonging\\ to\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ each\\ individual\\ is\\ both\\ lawgiver\\ and\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ One\\ should\\ not\\ treat\\ another\\ individual\\ merely\\ as\\ a\\ means\\,\\ as\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\ only\\ as\\ required\\ by\\ other\\ ends\\.\\ A\\ person\\ is\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ treated\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ possibly\\ consent\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\X\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ give\\ law\\ to\\ oneself\\,\\ practical\\ self\\-government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Linked\\ to\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\ implicitly\\,\\ which\\ tells\\ you\\ to\\ act\\ only\\ on\\ laws\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ give\\ to\\ yourself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XI\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Heteronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ allowing\\ things\\ outside\\ of\\ myself\\ to\\ guide\\ my\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;According\\ to\\ Kant\\,\\ heteronomy\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ all\\ spurious\\ principles\\ of\\ action\\.\\ Starting\\ from\\ a\\ distinct\\,\\ external\\ value\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ imperative\\ is\\ conditioned\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ cannot\\ command\\ morally\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XII\\.\\ A\\ free\\ will\\ is\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ level\\ practical\\ principle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Because\\ our\\ will\\ is\\ free\\ \\(not\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ so\\,\\ but\\ we\\ believe\\ it\\ be\\ so\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ making\\ moral\\ decisions\\)\\,\\ we\\ are\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Contrasts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Consequentialist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Kantian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morality\\ \\ \\;\\ \\[Motives\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Duty\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Inclination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Freedom\\ \\[Determination\\ of\\ will\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Autonomous\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Heteronomous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reason\\ \\[Imperatives\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Categorical\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hypothetical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\RAWLS\\ \\(Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Original\\ Position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothetical\\ contract\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ chose\\ moral\\ principles\\ by\\ which\\ everyone\\ should\\ live\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Veil\\ of\\ Ignorance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\everyone\\ under\\ this\\ veil\\,\\ so\\ no\\ one\\ has\\ special\\ interests\\,\\ strengths\\,\\ weaknesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ one\\ knows\\ what\\ their\\ position\\ in\\ society\\ or\\ talents\\ will\\ be\\ when\\ veil\\ is\\ lifted\\ so\\ principles\\ agreed\\ to\\ would\\ be\\ fair\\ for\\ everyone\\ because\\ people\\ would\\ fear\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ poor\\,\\ minority\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Purer\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ purer\\ procedural\\ justice\\,\\ more\\ pure\\ than\\ any\\ actual\\ contract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ maxims\\ chosen\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\each\\ person\\ should\\ have\\ an\\ equal\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ extensive\\ scheme\\ of\\ equal\\ basic\\ liberties\\ compatible\\ with\\ a\\ similar\\ scheme\\ of\\ liberties\\ for\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\~\\ rights\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ limited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\equality\\ between\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ preferred\\;\\ inequality\\ must\\ be\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ Difference\\ Principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\ as\\ a\\ race\\ metaphor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MERITOCRATIC\\ \\(NO\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ enough\\ because\\ even\\ if\\ everyone\\ starts\\ race\\ at\\ same\\ point\\ those\\ with\\ natural\\ talent\\ will\\ win\\,\\ this\\ system\\ gets\\ rid\\ of\\ social\\ contingencies\\ but\\ not\\ natural\\ ones\\ which\\ are\\ equally\\ arbitrary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\EGALITARIAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ necessarily\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\let\\ the\\ race\\ take\\ place\\ without\\ interference\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hold\\ back\\ the\\ most\\ talented\\,\\ let\\ the\\ fastest\\ runner\\ win\\)\\ BUT\\ winnings\\ must\\ be\\ shared\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ so\\ that\\ inequalities\\ help\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ disadvantaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ object\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ deserves\\ greater\\ natural\\ capacity\\ or\\ social\\ advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ incentives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\most\\ talented\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ incentive\\ to\\ cultivate\\ talents\\ if\\ winnings\\ are\\ shared\\ equally\\ among\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\winners\\ get\\ rewards\\ so\\ incentives\\ remain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\BUT\\ must\\ recognize\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ winnings\\ are\\ just\\ incentives\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ winners\\ are\\ not\\ morally\\ deserving\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\ REDISTRIBUTIVE\\ TAXES\\ cannot\\ be\\ disputed\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ deserves\\ the\\ money\\ they\\ make\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ effort\\ one\\ puts\\ into\\ cultivating\\ talents\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\effort\\ is\\ arbitrary\\,\\ based\\ on\\ upbringing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\ ex\\:\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ students\\ in\\ Justice\\ are\\ first\\ born\\ child\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rejects\\ desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\qualities\\ that\\ a\\ society\\ values\\ are\\ arbitrary\\ \\(a\\ matter\\ of\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ possess\\ talent\\ that\\ society\\ values\\,\\ then\\ entitled\\ to\\ more\\ but\\ NOT\\ deserving\\ of\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Objections\\ to\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ egalitarian\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\risk\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ room\\ for\\ freedom\\;\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ others\\.\\ Lib\\ argument\\ of\\ society\\ taking\\ away\\ something\\ you\\ have\\ earned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ motivation\\ for\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ egalitarianism\\ give\\ no\\ regard\\ to\\ effort\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ say\\ even\\ work\\ ethic\\ is\\ arbitrary\\ \\(I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ reset\\ the\\ system\\ each\\ generation\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ some\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ advantages\\ of\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ someone\\ is\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ wealthy\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Are\\ you\\ going\\ to\\ trace\\ back\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ money\\ was\\ acquired\\ morally\\?\\ \\ \\;Do\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ do\\ so\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ someone\\ is\\ a\\ virtuoso\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ born\\ with\\ zero\\ talent\\ but\\ their\\ parents\\ taught\\ them\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ worked\\ extremely\\ hard\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ kids\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ it\\ wrong\\ to\\ allow\\ that\\ child\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ his\\ instrument\\ playing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ARISTOTLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Central\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JUSTICE\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ FIT\\,\\ TELOS\\,\\ and\\ HONOR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ propriety\\,\\ a\\ pre\\-established\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ good\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Every\\ possession\\ has\\ a\\ double\\ use\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ the\\ one\\ being\\ proper\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ not\\ proper\\ to\\ the\\ thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 46\\ \\/\\ 1257a5\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Telos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ inherent\\ purpose\\ of\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ matter\\ of\\ moral\\ desert\\;\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ due\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flute\\-player\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;equality\\ in\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ things\\ and\\ inequality\\ in\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ overlooked\\&hellip\\;aggrandizement\\ in\\ flutes\\ is\\ not\\ granted\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ better\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ will\\ not\\ play\\ the\\ flute\\ better\\ \\[on\\ this\\ account\\]\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ one\\ who\\ is\\ preeminent\\ in\\ the\\ work\\ that\\ preeminence\\ in\\ the\\ instruments\\ should\\ be\\ granted\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 104\\ \\/\\ 1282b130\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inequality\\ is\\ natural\\,\\ and\\ must\\ be\\ accounted\\ for\\ upon\\ considering\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ flutes\\ should\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-players\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ those\\ who\\ can\\ best\\ satisfy\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ considerations\\ not\\ directly\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ specific\\ good\\ being\\ distributed\\ should\\ be\\ disregarded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ City\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Priority\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ \\(Bk\\.\\ 1\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ man\\ cannot\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ without\\ the\\ city\\;\\ man\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ city\\ is\\ thus\\ prior\\ by\\ nature\\ to\\ the\\ household\\ and\\ to\\ each\\ of\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ whole\\ must\\ of\\ necessity\\ be\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ part\\;\\ for\\ if\\ the\\ whole\\ \\[body\\]\\ is\\ destroyed\\ there\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ foot\\ or\\ a\\ hand\\&hellip\\;\\ Everything\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ task\\ and\\ power\\,\\ and\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ these\\ respects\\ it\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ spoken\\ of\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 37\\ \\/\\ 1253a20\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;one\\ ought\\ not\\ even\\ consider\\ that\\ a\\ citizen\\ belongs\\ to\\ himself\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ all\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ city\\;\\ for\\ each\\ individual\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 228\\ \\/\\ 1337a25\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ city\\ and\\ the\\ regime\\ \\(Bk\\.\\ 3\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ equality\\ for\\ equals\\;\\ political\\ office\\ distributed\\ to\\ the\\ politically\\ virtuous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;those\\ regimes\\ which\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ advantage\\ are\\ correct\\ regimes\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ unqualifiedly\\ just\\&hellip\\;the\\ city\\ is\\ a\\ partnership\\ of\\ free\\ persons\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 95\\ \\/\\ 1279a15\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;justice\\ is\\ held\\ to\\ be\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\,\\ but\\ for\\ equals\\ and\\ not\\ for\\ all\\;\\ and\\ inequality\\ is\\ held\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ and\\ is\\ indeed\\,\\ but\\ for\\ unequals\\ and\\ not\\ for\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 97\\ \\/\\ 1280a10\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;those\\ who\\ contribute\\ most\\ to\\ a\\ partnership\\ of\\ this\\ sort\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\ or\\ greater\\ in\\ freedom\\ and\\ family\\ but\\ unequal\\ in\\ political\\ virtue\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 99\\ \\/\\ 1281a1\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ regime\\ \\(Bk\\.\\ 7\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ best\\ regime\\ supports\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ both\\ separately\\ for\\ each\\ individual\\ and\\ in\\ common\\ for\\ cities\\ is\\ that\\ accompanied\\ by\\ virtue\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 198\\ \\/\\ 1323b40\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relative\\ Significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Teleology\\ v\\.\\ Deontology\\ \\(consequences\\ v\\.\\ will\\/motive\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ posteriori\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\v\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ priori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Teleology\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Moral\\ judgment\\ derived\\ from\\ purpose\\/ends\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Mill\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deontology\\ abstracts\\ from\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ just\\ act\\ implies\\ a\\ just\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Kant\\,\\ Rawls\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distinction\\ from\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ good\\ person\\ is\\ the\\ happy\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Living\\ the\\ good\\ life\\,\\ however\\,\\ implies\\ having\\ learned\\ to\\ find\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ sorts\\ of\\ things\\,\\ and\\ to\\ find\\ painful\\ those\\ things\\ that\\ properly\\ pain\\ the\\ good\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unlike\\ utilitarianism\\,\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teleology\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ de\\ facto\\ judgment\\ of\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ objections\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ something\\ is\\ not\\ always\\ clear\\ and\\ its\\ perception\\ is\\ subjective\\.\\ \\ \\;Asserted\\ purposes\\ may\\ be\\ inconsistent\\ and\\ incompatible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/THE_SIMPLEST_AND_BEST_JUSTICE_REVIEW_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Exam Review", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "review"], "text": null, "id": 122, "html": "\\\\\\Exam\\ Review\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:308\\.4pt\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:336\\.5pt\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Final\\ Exam\\ Study\\ Sheet\\ History\\ 1641\\:\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\ Professor\\ Rachel\\ St\\.\\ John\\ Fall\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ Essay\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ these\\ 10\\ possible\\ essay\\ questions\\,\\ 4\\ will\\ appear\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ Of\\ those\\ 4\\,\\ you\\ will\\ choose\\ 2\\ on\\ which\\ to\\ write\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ preparing\\ for\\ and\\ writing\\ the\\ exam\\,\\ you\\ should\\ think\\ broadly\\&mdash\\;both\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ material\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ questions\\ will\\ ask\\ you\\ to\\ synthesize\\ materials\\ drawn\\ from\\ the\\ span\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ stretching\\ from\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ Europeans\\ in\\ the\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\century\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ and\\ from\\ lectures\\ to\\ course\\ readings\\.\\ This\\ does\\ NOT\\ mean\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ attempt\\ to\\ summarize\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\ in\\ responding\\ to\\ each\\ question\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ each\\ response\\ should\\ provide\\ a\\ clear\\ argument\\ \\(expressed\\ in\\ a\\ thesis\\ statement\\)\\,\\ be\\ clearly\\ organized\\,\\ and\\ use\\ specific\\ examples\\ drawn\\ from\\ throughout\\ the\\ course\\ and\\ from\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ course\\ materials\\&mdash\\;lectures\\,\\ texts\\,\\ and\\,\\ if\\ appropriate\\,\\ films\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ while\\ you\\ are\\ encouraged\\ to\\ prepare\\ outlines\\,\\ thesis\\ statements\\,\\ and\\ examples\\ ahead\\ of\\ time\\,\\ you\\ will\\ NOT\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ bring\\ books\\ or\\ notes\\ with\\ you\\ to\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ For\\ this\\ reason\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ incorporate\\ direct\\ quotes\\ or\\ to\\ cite\\ the\\ page\\ number\\ or\\ lecture\\ dates\\ of\\ the\\ sources\\ for\\ your\\ examples\\.\\ However\\,\\ you\\ should\\ be\\ as\\ specific\\ as\\ possible\\ in\\ your\\ examples\\ mentioning\\ specific\\ people\\,\\ events\\,\\ dates\\,\\ texts\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ whenever\\ appropriate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ have\\ any\\ questions\\ about\\ the\\ format\\ or\\ requirements\\ of\\ the\\ exam\\ or\\ the\\ wording\\ of\\ individual\\ questions\\ be\\ sure\\ to\\ contact\\ Professor\\ St\\.\\ John\\ \\(stjohn\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\)\\ or\\ Louis\\ Hyman\\ \\(lhyman\\@gmail\\.com\\)\\ before\\ the\\ exam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ What\\ we\\ now\\ know\\ as\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\ has\\ not\\ always\\ been\\ American\\.\\ How\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ West\\ become\\ American\\?\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ become\\ American\\?\\ Consider\\ territory\\,\\ government\\,\\ culture\\,\\ society\\,\\ and\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Historian\\ Patricia\\ Nelson\\ Limerick\\ wrote\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ is\\ a\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ a\\ place\\ undergoing\\ conquest\\ and\\ never\\ fully\\ escaping\\ its\\ consequences\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ To\\ what\\ extent\\ is\\ this\\ quote\\ an\\ accurate\\ description\\ of\\ western\\ history\\?\\ How\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;conquest\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ useful\\ concept\\ for\\ understanding\\ western\\ history\\ from\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ Europeans\\ through\\ the\\ late\\ 20th\\ century\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Popular\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\-century\\ West\\ have\\ most\\ often\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\archetypes\\ of\\ self\\-made\\ men\\ and\\ lone\\ gunmen\\,\\ however\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ has\\ more\\ often\\ been\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ partnerships\\,\\ families\\,\\ and\\ unions\\.\\ Focusing\\ on\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ westward\\ migration\\ and\\ mining\\,\\ discuss\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ community\\ and\\ collective\\ action\\ in\\ the\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ How\\ did\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ western\\ expansion\\ draw\\ on\\,\\ challenge\\,\\ and\\ strengthen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\different\\ constructions\\ of\\ masculine\\ identity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ How\\ have\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ categories\\ defined\\ western\\ history\\ and\\ limited\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ability\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\ to\\ access\\ opportunities\\ in\\ the\\ West\\?\\ You\\ will\\ want\\ to\\ consider\\ policies\\ and\\ practices\\ involving\\ some\\ or\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ following\\:\\ employment\\,\\ housing\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ and\\ military\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ From\\ horses\\ to\\ highways\\,\\ western\\ history\\ has\\ been\\ shaped\\ by\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ important\\ and\\ changing\\ role\\ of\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ transportation\\ in\\ shaping\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\ and\\,\\ particularly\\,\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ East\\.\\ Use\\ at\\ least\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ possible\\ examples\\:\\ horses\\,\\ ships\\,\\ overland\\ trails\\,\\ railroads\\,\\ and\\ highways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ How\\ did\\ homesteading\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ the\\ Homestead\\ Act\\ in\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ suburbs\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\ reflect\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ independence\\ and\\ ownership\\ in\\ western\\ and\\ American\\ history\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ prominence\\ of\\ images\\ of\\ western\\ wilderness\\ and\\ rural\\ areas\\,\\ the\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ been\\ a\\ predominantly\\ urban\\ region\\&mdash\\;particularly\\ in\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\century\\.\\ How\\ have\\ cities\\ defined\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ West\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ How\\ have\\ struggles\\ over\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ rivers\\ shaped\\ western\\ history\\?\\ In\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\responding\\ to\\ this\\ question\\,\\ be\\ sure\\ to\\ consider\\ Elliot\\ West\\&rsquo\\;s\\ The\\ Contested\\ Plains\\:\\ Indians\\,\\ Goldseekers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Rush\\ to\\ Colorado\\,\\ Richard\\ White\\&rsquo\\;s\\ The\\ Organic\\ Machine\\:\\ The\\ Remaking\\ of\\ the\\ Columbia\\ River\\,\\ Marc\\ Reisner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Red\\ Queen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ lectures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Historian\\ Richard\\ White\\ wrote\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ American\\ West\\,\\ more\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ is\\ a\\ creation\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ of\\ individual\\ or\\ local\\ efforts\\,\\ but\\ of\\ federal\\ efforts\\.\\ More\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ region\\,\\ the\\ West\\ has\\ been\\ historically\\ a\\ dependency\\ of\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ How\\ did\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ federal\\ government\\ shape\\ western\\ history\\ during\\ the\\ 19th\\ and\\ 20th\\ centuries\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\ and\\ Images\\ for\\ Short\\ Identifications\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Of\\ these\\ 75\\ terms\\ and\\ 9\\ images\\,\\ 10\\ terms\\ and\\ 4\\ images\\ will\\ appear\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ Of\\ those\\,\\ you\\ will\\ choose\\ 4\\ terms\\ and\\ 1\\ image\\ for\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ need\\ to\\ briefly\\ \\(in\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ 3\\-4\\ sentences\\)\\ identify\\ it\\ and\\ describe\\ its\\ significance\\ to\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ West\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Alvar\\ Nu\\ñ\\;\\é\\;z\\ Cabeza\\ de\\ Vaca\\ 2\\.\\ Francisco\\ V\\á\\;squez\\ de\\ Coronado\\ 3\\.\\ Pueblo\\ Revolt\\ of\\ 1680\\ 4\\.\\ Louisiana\\ Purchase\\,\\ 1803\\ 5\\.\\ Lewis\\ \\&\\;\\ Clark\\ Expedition\\,\\ 1804\\-1806\\ 6\\.\\ Zebulon\\ Pike\\ 7\\.\\ Fur\\ Trade\\ 8\\.\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Trail\\ 9\\.\\ Manifest\\ Destiny\\ 10\\.\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ 11\\.\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Guadalupe\\ Hidalgo\\,\\ 1848\\ 12\\.\\ Gadsden\\ Purchase\\,\\ 1853\\ 13\\.\\ John\\ C\\.\\ Fr\\é\\;mont\\ 14\\.\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Surveys\\,\\ 1853\\-1855\\ 15\\.\\ Overland\\ Trails\\ 16\\.\\ The\\ Oregon\\ Trail\\ 17\\.\\ Brigham\\ Young\\ 18\\.\\ California\\ Gold\\ Rush\\ 19\\.\\ Pacific\\ Railroad\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\ 20\\.\\ First\\ Transcontinental\\ Railroad\\ 21\\.\\ Homestead\\ Act\\,\\ 1862\\ 22\\.\\ Reservation\\ System\\ 23\\.\\ Frontier\\ 24\\.\\ Frederick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\ 25\\.\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\ Cody\\ and\\ the\\ Wild\\ West\\ 26\\.\\ Domesticity\\ 27\\.\\ Paternalism\\ 28\\.\\ Richard\\ Henry\\ Pratt\\ and\\ the\\ Carlisle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indian\\ School\\ in\\ Pennsylvania\\ 29\\.\\ Ghost\\ Dance\\ 30\\.\\ Wounded\\ Knee\\,\\ 1890\\ 31\\.\\ Dawes\\ Act\\,\\ 1887\\ 32\\.\\ Trail\\ Drives\\ 33\\.\\ Open\\ Range\\ Ranching\\ 34\\.\\ Occupational\\ Segregation\\ 35\\.\\ Dual\\ Wage\\ System\\ 36\\.\\ Anti\\-coolie\\ Clubs\\ 37\\.\\ Chinese\\ Exclusion\\ Act\\,\\ 1882\\ 38\\.\\ Western\\ Federation\\ of\\ Miners\\ \\(WFM\\)\\ 39\\.\\ International\\ Workers\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ \\(IWW\\)\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Wobblies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\.\\ Henry\\ E\\.\\ Huntington\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Pacific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Electric\\ Railway\\ \\&ldquo\\;Red\\ Cars\\&rdquo\\;\\ 41\\.\\ Newlands\\ Reclamation\\ Act\\,\\ 1902\\ 42\\.\\ Reclamation\\ Service\\ 43\\.\\ Repatriation\\ 44\\.\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ 45\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Okies\\&rdquo\\;\\ 46\\.\\ John\\ Steinbeck\\ 47\\.\\ Dorothea\\ Lange\\ 48\\.\\ Federal\\ Emergency\\ Relief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Administration\\ \\(FERA\\)\\ 49\\.\\ Agricultural\\ Adjustment\\ Administration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(AAA\\)\\ 50\\.\\ Civilian\\ Conservation\\ Corps\\ \\(CCC\\)\\ 51\\.\\ Boulder\\ Dam\\,\\ aka\\ Hoover\\ Dam\\ 52\\.\\ Grand\\ Coulee\\ Dam\\ 53\\.\\ Indian\\ Reorganization\\ Act\\,\\ 1934\\ 54\\.\\ Attack\\ on\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\,\\ December\\ 7\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1941\\ 55\\.\\ Los\\ Alamos\\,\\ New\\ Mexico\\ 56\\.\\ Hanford\\,\\ Washington\\ 57\\.\\ Henry\\ J\\.\\ Kaiser\\ 58\\.\\ Emergency\\ Farm\\ Labor\\ Program\\&mdash\\;aka\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bracero\\ Program\\ 59\\.\\ Sleepy\\ Lagoon\\,\\ 1942\\ 60\\.\\ Zoot\\ Suit\\ Riots\\,\\ 1943\\ 61\\.\\ Japanese\\ Internment\\ 62\\.\\ Executive\\ Order\\ 9066\\ 63\\.\\ National\\ Interstate\\ and\\ Defense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Highway\\ Act\\,\\ 1956\\ 64\\.\\ Nevada\\ Test\\ Site\\ 65\\.\\ Disneyland\\ 66\\.\\ The\\ Sunbelt\\ 67\\.\\ Suburbs\\ 68\\.\\ Federal\\ Housing\\ Administration\\ \\(FHA\\)\\ 69\\.\\ Lakewood\\ Company\\ 70\\.\\ Stanford\\ Industrial\\ Park\\ 71\\.\\ Watts\\ Riot\\,\\ 1965\\ 72\\.\\ Sagebrush\\ Rebellion\\ 73\\.\\ Chicano\\ Movement\\ 74\\.\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\ 75\\.\\ Immigration\\ Act\\ of\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;American\\ Progress\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(John\\ Gast\\,\\ 1872\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Miners\\ in\\ the\\ Sierras\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Charles\\ Christian\\ Nahl\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1851\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anti\\-Chinese\\ Cartoon\\,\\ c\\.1870s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ Lakota\\ Boys\\&mdash\\;before\\ and\\ after\\ their\\ arrival\\ at\\ Carlisle\\ Indian\\ School\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1880\\-1900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advertisement\\ for\\ Buffalo\\ Bill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Wild\\ West\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1890s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lone\\ Dog\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Winter\\ Count\\,\\ 1800\\-1870\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Destitute\\ Pea\\ Pickers\\ in\\ California\\.\\ Mother\\ of\\ Seven\\ Children\\.\\ Age\\ Thirty\\-Two\\.\\ Nipomo\\,\\ California\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Dorothea\\ Lange\\,\\ February\\,\\ 1936\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lakewood\\,\\ California\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Percentage\\ of\\ public\\ lands\\ by\\ state\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 24, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Final_Exam_Study_Guide_-_Hist_1641.pdf", "desc": "Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "study-guide", "heroes", "greek"], "text": null, "id": 124, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c15\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:20pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:143\\.8pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:37\\.4pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ L\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ITERATURE\\ AND\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RTS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\-14\\ THE\\ CONCEPT\\ OF\\ THE\\ HERO\\ IN\\ GREEK\\ CIVILIZATION\\ A\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\ FOR\\ FALL\\ 2005\\ \\(1\\/10\\/2006\\ VERSION\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Editor\\:\\ Edward\\ Thai\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributors\\:\\ Pilar\\ Adams\\,\\ Marc\\ Bhargava\\,\\ Tracy\\ Britt\\,\\ Neha\\ Chauhan\\,\\ Michael\\ Chow\\,\\ Charlie\\ Frogner\\,\\ Alex\\ Furer\\,\\ Chris\\ Lawton\\,\\ Anna\\ Lonyai\\,\\ Dan\\ Lorenz\\,\\ Avner\\ May\\,\\ Maria\\ Nardell\\,\\ Chris\\ Newman\\,\\ Andrew\\ Paik\\,\\ Jonathan\\ Paul\\,\\ Caitlynn\\ Ramsey\\,\\ Surajit\\ Saha\\,\\ Sarah\\ Selim\\,\\ Chelsey\\ Simmons\\,\\ Tony\\ Tornaritis\\,\\ Dan\\ Tsai\\,\\ Kate\\ Walro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distribution\\ of\\ this\\ packet\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ editor\\ and\\ contributors\\ is\\ strictly\\ prohibited\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TABLE\\ OF\\ CONTENTS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Table\\ of\\ Contents\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ Notes\\ 2\\-60\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ Iliad\\ Books\\ 1\\-4\\ 2\\ Books\\ 5\\-8\\ 4\\ Books\\ 9\\-12\\ 6\\ Books\\ 13\\-16\\ 8\\ Books\\ 17\\-20\\ 10\\ Books\\ 21\\-24\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ Odyssey\\ Books\\ 1\\-6\\ 18\\ Books\\ 7\\-12\\ 21\\ Books\\ 13\\-18\\ 24\\ Books\\ 19\\-24\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Proclus\\,\\ The\\ Epic\\ Cycle\\ 29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alcman\\,\\ Partheneion\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poems\\ of\\ Sappho\\ 33\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pindar\\,\\ Pythian\\ 8\\ 35\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hymn\\ to\\ Demeter\\ 36\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hymn\\ to\\ Aphrodite\\ 38\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aeschylus\\,\\ Oresteia\\ Agamemnon\\ 39\\ Libation\\ Bearers\\ 40\\ Eumenides\\ 42\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aeschylus\\,\\ Seven\\ Against\\ Thebes\\ 44\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Herodotus\\,\\ Histories\\ Books\\ 1\\-6\\ 45\\ Books\\ 7\\-9\\ 48\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sophocles\\,\\ Oedipus\\ Tyrannos\\ 50\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sophocles\\,\\ Oedipus\\ at\\ Colonus\\ 52\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Euripides\\,\\ Hippolytus\\ 54\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Euripides\\,\\ Bacchae\\ 55\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plato\\,\\ Apology\\ 56\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plato\\,\\ Phaedo\\ 58\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Section\\ Notes\\ 61\\-64\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ Iliad\\,\\ Books\\ 1\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\:\\ Alexander\\ Furer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 1\\ The\\ first\\ scroll\\ starts\\ by\\ an\\ exposition\\ by\\ a\\ muse\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ intrigue\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ the\\ Anger\\ of\\ Achilles\\,\\ touching\\ on\\ how\\ his\\ anger\\ was\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ many\\ Achaeans\\.\\ The\\ quarrel\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ Agamemnon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(commander\\ in\\ chief\\ of\\ the\\ Achaean\\ army\\)\\ dishonoring\\ of\\ a\\ priest\\ of\\ Apollo\\,\\ Chrys\\ê\\;s\\,\\ whose\\ daughter\\ \\(Chryseis\\)\\ had\\ been\\ captured\\ by\\ the\\ Achaeans\\.\\ The\\ priest\\ had\\ brought\\ a\\ ransom\\ \\(apoina\\)\\ to\\ buy\\ back\\ his\\ daughter\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ scepter\\.\\ All\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ wanted\\ to\\ respect\\ the\\ priest\\&rsquo\\;s\\ request\\,\\ except\\ for\\ Agamemnon\\,\\ who\\ had\\ taken\\ the\\ priest\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ as\\ his\\ prize\\.\\ He\\ sent\\ the\\ priest\\ away\\ with\\ venomous\\ words\\.\\ The\\ priest\\ prayed\\ for\\ vengeance\\ and\\ Apollo\\ responds\\ by\\ killing\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ with\\ his\\ bow\\.\\ On\\ the\\ tenth\\ day\\,\\ Achilles\\ called\\ an\\ assembly\\ together\\.\\ The\\ seer\\ Calchas\\ reveals\\ to\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ their\\ suffering\\ and\\ tells\\ them\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ deaths\\ is\\ to\\ return\\ Chrys\\ê\\;s\\ without\\ ransom\\ and\\ to\\ perform\\ a\\ sacrifice\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ is\\ angered\\ for\\ he\\ prefers\\ Chryseis\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ wife\\ \\(because\\ his\\ prize\\ is\\ younger\\)\\,\\ but\\ consents\\ to\\ give\\ her\\ up\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ prize\\,\\ Briseis\\.\\ Achilles\\,\\ angered\\ by\\ Agamemnon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greed\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ disrespect\\ towards\\ him\\,\\ declares\\ that\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ people\\ will\\ return\\ home\\ to\\ Phthia\\.\\ Athena\\ barely\\ stops\\ Achilles\\ from\\ drawing\\ his\\ sword\\,\\ telling\\ him\\ that\\ Agamemnon\\ will\\ surely\\ pay\\ for\\ his\\ hubris\\.\\ The\\ old\\ and\\ wise\\ Nestor\\ finally\\ talks\\ them\\ both\\ out\\ of\\ overly\\ rash\\ action\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ calm\\ them\\ down\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chryseis\\ was\\ quickly\\ sent\\ back\\ to\\ her\\ father\\ on\\ a\\ boat\\ captained\\ by\\ Odysseus\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ hecatomb\\ \\(sacrifice\\)\\,\\ but\\ after\\ all\\ the\\ ritual\\ cleansing\\ was\\ finished\\,\\ Agamemnon\\ acted\\ upon\\ his\\ threat\\ to\\ take\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ prize\\.\\ As\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ messengers\\ had\\ taken\\ Briseis\\,\\ Achilles\\ prays\\ to\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ Thetis\\,\\ to\\ punish\\ Agamemnon\\.\\ His\\ mother\\,\\ to\\ whom\\ Zeus\\ owed\\ a\\ favor\\,\\ agrees\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ gods\\ to\\ aid\\ the\\ Trojans\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ as\\ per\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ request\\ when\\ he\\ returns\\ from\\ a\\ feast\\ among\\ the\\ Ethiopians\\ in\\ twelve\\ days\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meanwhile\\,\\ Chryseis\\ was\\ returned\\ to\\ her\\ father\\ who\\ asks\\ Apollo\\ to\\ remove\\ his\\ plague\\ on\\ the\\ Achaeans\\.\\ The\\ god\\ helps\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ return\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ acquiescence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ gods\\ return\\,\\ Zeus\\ agrees\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ Trojans\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ anger\\ this\\ will\\ arouse\\ in\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Hera\\ \\(who\\ immediately\\ finds\\ out\\ and\\ reprimands\\ him\\)\\.\\ Hephaestus\\,\\ Hera\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\,\\ persuades\\ her\\ not\\ to\\ plunge\\ the\\ gods\\ into\\ conflict\\ over\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ mortals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zeus\\,\\ to\\ fulfill\\ his\\ promise\\,\\ sends\\ Agamemnon\\ a\\ false\\ dream\\.\\ The\\ dream\\ appeared\\ as\\ Nestor\\,\\ and\\ told\\ the\\ commander\\ in\\ chief\\ to\\ take\\ arms\\ immediately\\ for\\ Hera\\ has\\ convinced\\ all\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ support\\ her\\ side\\ \\(the\\ Achaeans\\)\\.\\ When\\ Agamemnon\\ recounts\\ his\\ dream\\ to\\ his\\ counsel\\,\\ they\\ all\\ believe\\ the\\ message\\ and\\ prepare\\ for\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agamemnon\\ decides\\ to\\ test\\ his\\ troops\\,\\ telling\\ them\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ returning\\ home\\ after\\ a\\ fruitless\\ war\\.\\ To\\ his\\ dismay\\,\\ the\\ warriors\\ eagerly\\ run\\ to\\ their\\ ships\\.\\ Hera\\,\\ seeing\\ this\\,\\ tells\\ Athena\\ to\\ talk\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ departure\\.\\ The\\ goddess\\ finds\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ their\\ flight\\ is\\ cowardly\\.\\ Odysseus\\ relays\\ the\\ message\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ kings\\,\\ convincing\\ them\\ all\\ to\\ stay\\ and\\ fight\\.\\ He\\ reminds\\ them\\ of\\ an\\ omen\\ that\\ Calchas\\ read\\ which\\ predicted\\ that\\ nine\\ years\\ would\\ pass\\ before\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Troy\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ they\\ had\\ subsequently\\ taken\\ an\\ oath\\ to\\ continue\\ the\\ fight\\ until\\ the\\ city\\ had\\ fallen\\.\\ This\\ restores\\ courage\\ in\\ the\\ Achaean\\ camp\\,\\ and\\ they\\ decide\\ to\\ stay\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ toil\\ \\(ponos\\)\\ they\\ have\\ endured\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nestor\\ advises\\ Agamemnon\\ to\\ organize\\ his\\ warriors\\ by\\ city\\ and\\ clan\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ fight\\ amongst\\ their\\ friends\\ and\\ kin\\.\\ Homer\\ then\\ proceeds\\ to\\ catalog\\ the\\ army\\,\\ undoubtedly\\ a\\ device\\ to\\ please\\ his\\ audience\\.\\ His\\ list\\ singles\\ out\\ the\\ bravest\\,\\ Achilles\\,\\ and\\ Ajax\\ among\\ them\\.\\ Zeus\\ then\\ informs\\ the\\ Trojans\\ of\\ the\\ imminent\\ attack\\,\\ and\\ Homer\\ lists\\ their\\ ranks\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ march\\ towards\\ Troy\\,\\ they\\ meet\\ Paris\\ \\(Alexander\\)\\ who\\ comes\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ bravest\\ of\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ to\\ a\\ duel\\.\\ Menelaos\\,\\ the\\ king\\ from\\ whom\\ Paris\\ stole\\ Helen\\,\\ came\\ forward\\,\\ and\\ Paris\\,\\ intimidated\\ and\\ afraid\\,\\ ran\\ back\\ to\\ hide\\ in\\ the\\ Trojan\\ ranks\\.\\ Hektor\\,\\ his\\ brother\\,\\ reprimands\\ Paris\\ for\\ his\\ cowardice\\.\\ Ashamed\\,\\ Paris\\ agrees\\ to\\ fight\\ a\\ duel\\ with\\ Menelaos\\ which\\ would\\ end\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ establish\\ peace\\.\\ The\\ winner\\ would\\ have\\ Helen\\ as\\ his\\ wife\\.\\ Menelaos\\ accepts\\ these\\ terms\\.\\ The\\ goddess\\ Iris\\ fetches\\ Helen\\ to\\ watch\\ over\\ the\\ battle\\.\\ Priam\\ asks\\ Helen\\ to\\ name\\ certain\\ Achaean\\ war\\ heroes\\.\\ She\\ identifies\\ Agamemnon\\,\\ Odysseus\\,\\ and\\ Ajax\\ among\\ others\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ and\\ Priam\\ take\\ a\\ vow\\ to\\ honor\\ the\\ agreement\\,\\ and\\ Priam\\ leaves\\,\\ afraid\\ of\\ seeing\\ the\\ imminent\\ fight\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ fight\\ starts\\,\\ Paris\\ is\\ quickly\\ in\\ trouble\\,\\ and\\ escapes\\ only\\ with\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ Aphrodite\\,\\ who\\ brings\\ him\\ to\\ his\\ room\\.\\ She\\ then\\ summons\\ Helen\\,\\ who\\ berates\\ him\\ for\\ his\\ cowardice\\,\\ then\\ lies\\ down\\ with\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ battlefield\\,\\ both\\ parties\\ search\\ for\\ Paris\\.\\ Unable\\ to\\ find\\ him\\,\\ Agamemnon\\ declares\\ Menelaos\\ the\\ winner\\ and\\ demands\\ the\\ return\\ of\\ Helen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ gods\\ argue\\ over\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ right\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ after\\ the\\ duel\\.\\ Zeus\\ believes\\ that\\ Menelaos\\ has\\ won\\ the\\ battle\\ and\\ suggests\\ that\\ Menelaos\\ can\\ take\\ Helen\\ back\\.\\ Hera\\ and\\ Athena\\ are\\ unhappy\\ with\\ this\\ outcome\\ as\\ they\\ want\\ nothing\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ Troy\\.\\ Zeus\\ orders\\ Athena\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ Trojans\\ break\\ their\\ oath\\ of\\ peace\\,\\ and\\ Athena\\ happily\\ obliges\\.\\ She\\ convinces\\ Pandaros\\ to\\ shoot\\ Menelaos\\ with\\ an\\ arrow\\.\\ Athena\\ deflects\\ the\\ arrow\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ strikes\\ Menelaos\\ lightly\\,\\ without\\ killing\\ him\\,\\ giving\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ a\\ pretext\\ for\\ restarting\\ the\\ war\\.\\ While\\ Menelaos\\ is\\ cared\\ for\\ by\\ a\\ surgeon\\,\\ Agamemnon\\ persuades\\ his\\ men\\ to\\ fight\\,\\ challenging\\ their\\ pride\\ or\\ recounting\\ the\\ deeds\\ of\\ their\\ fathers\\.\\ A\\ bloody\\ battle\\ ensues\\,\\ with\\ no\\ major\\ characters\\ wounded\\.\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ Great\\ Ajax\\ kill\\ many\\ Trojans\\,\\ bringing\\ themselves\\ much\\ kleos\\.\\ The\\ gods\\ get\\ involved\\ as\\ Athena\\ helps\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ and\\ Apollo\\ helps\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ this\\ bloody\\ battle\\,\\ all\\ hopes\\ of\\ a\\ truce\\ are\\ lost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Themes\\/Points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Book\\ 1\\:\\ Exposition\\ of\\ the\\ intrigue\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ o\\ Does\\ not\\ center\\ on\\ the\\ war\\.\\ The\\ war\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ o\\ One\\ must\\ obey\\ certain\\ appropriate\\ codes\\ of\\ conduct\\ or\\ else\\ risk\\ angering\\ the\\ gods\\ o\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ anger\\ at\\ getting\\ his\\ prize\\ taken\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Removal\\ of\\ a\\ tangible\\ form\\ of\\ kleos\\,\\ extreme\\ disrespect\\ o\\ Agamemnon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hubris\\ leads\\ him\\ to\\ indirectly\\ cause\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ many\\ Achaeans\\.\\ o\\ The\\ gods\\ are\\ also\\ subject\\ to\\ human\\ emotions\\ and\\ bickering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Book\\ 2\\:\\ Preparing\\ for\\ battle\\ o\\ The\\ gods\\&rsquo\\;\\ meddling\\ and\\ scheming\\ causes\\ more\\ death\\ o\\ Fleeing\\ to\\ the\\ ships\\ is\\ an\\ indication\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Low\\ morale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ The\\ suffering\\ that\\ the\\ troops\\ have\\ endured\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ few\\ years\\ \\(which\\ makes\\ the\\ eventual\\ victory\\ all\\ the\\ sweeter\\)\\ o\\ A\\ convincing\\ speaker\\ \\(Odysseus\\,\\ Nestor\\)\\ can\\ rally\\ people\\ around\\ him\\,\\ overcoming\\ bad\\ morale\\ o\\ The\\ catalog\\ of\\ the\\ army\\ is\\ a\\ rhetoric\\ device\\ to\\ pique\\ the\\ listeners\\&rsquo\\;\\ interest\\,\\ arousing\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ pride\\ when\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ town\\ is\\ named\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Book\\ 3\\:\\ Duel\\ between\\ Paris\\ and\\ Menelaos\\ o\\ Paris\\&rsquo\\;\\ cowardice\\ is\\ contrasted\\ with\\ Hector\\&rsquo\\;s\\ courage\\ o\\ Both\\ Trojans\\ and\\ Achaeans\\ are\\ relieved\\ to\\ hear\\ that\\ the\\ duel\\ may\\ end\\ the\\ war\\.\\ o\\ Paris\\ retreats\\ to\\ his\\ marriage\\ bed\\ while\\ the\\ Trojans\\ are\\ fighting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Contributes\\ to\\ the\\ Trojan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loathing\\ of\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ He\\ is\\ almost\\ the\\ anti\\-hero\\ o\\ Helen\\ acknowledges\\ her\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ carnage\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ take\\ it\\ lightly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Book\\ 4\\:\\ First\\ battle\\ depicted\\ o\\ Neither\\ side\\ is\\ demonized\\.\\ Both\\ sides\\ suffer\\ immensely\\ from\\ the\\ fight\\.\\ o\\ Garnering\\ of\\ kleos\\ by\\ the\\ heroes\\.\\ Each\\ will\\ have\\ his\\ time\\,\\ but\\ Achilles\\ will\\ have\\ several\\ books\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ Iliad\\,\\ Books\\ 5\\-8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\:\\ Tracy\\ Britt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 5\\ Athena\\ puts\\ valor\\ into\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ Diomedes\\,\\ allowing\\ him\\ the\\ braveness\\ to\\ attack\\ and\\ kill\\ all\\ that\\ come\\ in\\ his\\ way\\.\\ She\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ when\\ Aphrodite\\ is\\ placed\\ in\\ his\\ way\\ he\\ should\\ attack\\,\\ but\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ not\\ attack\\ any\\ other\\ gods\\.\\ Diomedes\\ takes\\ his\\ new\\ strength\\ and\\ courage\\ and\\ proceeds\\ to\\ kill\\ many\\ Trojans\\.\\ He\\ first\\ attacks\\ Pandarus\\ and\\ valiantly\\ slays\\ him\\,\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ attacks\\ Aeneas\\.\\ Aeneas\\&rsquo\\;\\ mother\\,\\ Aphrodite\\,\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ her\\ son\\,\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ similarly\\ attacks\\ her\\.\\ Wounded\\,\\ Aphrodite\\ retreats\\ back\\ to\\ Mount\\ Olympus\\,\\ where\\ Zeus\\ scolds\\ her\\ and\\ indicates\\ that\\ she\\ should\\ no\\ longer\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ battles\\.\\ Meanwhile\\,\\ on\\ the\\ battlefield\\,\\ Apollo\\ comes\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ Aphrodite\\,\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ challenges\\ him\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Diomedes\\ violates\\ his\\ pact\\ with\\ Athena\\,\\ and\\ Apollo\\ takes\\ Aeneas\\ away\\ to\\ safety\\.\\ In\\ his\\ place\\,\\ Apollo\\ leaves\\ a\\ body\\,\\ which\\ incites\\ the\\ Trojans\\ to\\ battle\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ persuading\\ Ares\\,\\ god\\ of\\ war\\,\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ fight\\.\\ With\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ Ares\\,\\ Hektor\\ continues\\ to\\ attack\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ are\\ stunned\\ by\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ the\\ mortal\\/god\\ duo\\.\\ At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ both\\ Hektor\\ and\\ Odysseus\\ kill\\ many\\ men\\ on\\ each\\ opposing\\ side\\,\\ and\\ the\\ battle\\ escalates\\.\\ The\\ Trojans\\ begin\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ winning\\ edge\\ in\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ but\\ at\\ this\\ point\\,\\ Hera\\ and\\ Athena\\ plead\\ to\\ Zeus\\ to\\ let\\ them\\ intervene\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ and\\ he\\ grants\\ them\\ their\\ wish\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ Athena\\ begins\\ to\\ battle\\ again\\ with\\ Diomedes\\,\\ and\\ she\\ now\\ allows\\ him\\ to\\ attack\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ not\\ just\\ Aphrodite\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ he\\ even\\ challenges\\ Ares\\ and\\ wounds\\ the\\ god\\.\\ Ares\\ retreats\\ to\\ Mount\\ Olympus\\ and\\ complains\\ to\\ Zeus\\ of\\ the\\ unfairness\\,\\ but\\ Zeus\\ blames\\ the\\ injury\\ on\\ Ares\\ and\\ indicates\\ that\\ he\\ in\\ fact\\ deserved\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 6\\ After\\ the\\ battle\\ that\\ ensued\\ in\\ book\\ 5\\ with\\ the\\ involvement\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ book\\ 6\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\ leaving\\ the\\ battlefield\\ and\\ the\\ mortals\\ once\\ again\\ control\\ it\\.\\ With\\ the\\ gods\\ absent\\,\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ begin\\ to\\ overpower\\ the\\ Trojans\\ once\\ again\\.\\ The\\ Trojans\\ begin\\ to\\ retreat\\ and\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ pursue\\,\\ and\\ Agamemnon\\ pushes\\ his\\ men\\ to\\ continue\\ the\\ battle\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ worry\\ themselves\\ with\\ ransoms\\ or\\ fallen\\ weapons\\,\\ but\\ rather\\,\\ they\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ killing\\ and\\ pursuing\\ the\\ enemies\\.\\ As\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ begin\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ Trojans\\,\\ the\\ Trojans\\ get\\ worried\\ and\\ Helenus\\,\\ a\\ soothsayer\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ Hektor\\ retreat\\ to\\ the\\ city\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ women\\ to\\ pray\\ for\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Hektor\\ does\\ as\\ he\\ is\\ told\\,\\ and\\ he\\ goes\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ women\\ and\\ asks\\ them\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ temple\\ of\\ Athena\\ and\\ pray\\.\\ Hektor\\ also\\ visits\\ his\\ brother\\,\\ Paris\\,\\ who\\ has\\ withdrawn\\ from\\ battle\\.\\ With\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ Helen\\,\\ the\\ two\\ scold\\ Paris\\ for\\ his\\ lack\\ of\\ courage\\ and\\ unwillingness\\ to\\ fight\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ he\\ agrees\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ battle\\.\\ Hektor\\ goes\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ prior\\ to\\ departing\\ and\\ he\\ finds\\ her\\ at\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wall\\ with\\ his\\ infant\\ child\\.\\ Hektor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\,\\ Andromache\\ is\\ lamenting\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ is\\ angry\\ with\\ him\\ for\\ his\\ inevitable\\ fate\\ of\\ death\\.\\ Hektor\\,\\ distraught\\ because\\ he\\ knows\\ he\\ must\\ leave\\,\\ battle\\,\\ and\\ die\\,\\ holds\\ his\\ son\\ for\\ one\\ last\\ time\\.\\ This\\ scene\\ proves\\ quite\\ important\\ as\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ lament\\ that\\ a\\ woman\\ has\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\ when\\ he\\ leaves\\ her\\ alone\\ to\\ die\\ in\\ battle\\ for\\ kleos\\.\\ Hektor\\ then\\ rejoins\\ his\\ brother\\ Paris\\,\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ return\\ to\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 7\\ Paris\\ and\\ Hector\\ return\\ to\\ battle\\ with\\ renewed\\ determination\\,\\ and\\ Glaucos\\,\\ too\\,\\ fights\\ fiercely\\.\\ Seeing\\ their\\ strength\\,\\ Athena\\ comes\\ down\\ from\\ Olympus\\ to\\ aid\\ the\\ Achaeans\\.\\ Apollo\\ intercepts\\ her\\,\\ proposing\\ that\\ they\\ bring\\ about\\ peace\\ for\\ a\\ day\\.\\ He\\ proposes\\ that\\ Hector\\ call\\ for\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ to\\ meet\\ him\\ is\\ single\\ combat\\.\\ Athena\\ agrees\\,\\ and\\ Apollo\\ proposes\\ the\\ idea\\ to\\ Hector\\.\\ Hector\\ comes\\ between\\ the\\ ranks\\ and\\ gives\\ the\\ command\\ for\\ his\\ men\\ to\\ seat\\ themselves\\,\\ and\\ Agamemnon\\ does\\ likewise\\ with\\ the\\ Achaean\\ soldiers\\.\\ Hector\\ proposes\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ meet\\ him\\ in\\ single\\ combat\\.\\ The\\ loser\\ will\\ be\\ stripped\\ of\\ his\\ armor\\,\\ which\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ trophy\\ for\\ the\\ victor\\,\\ but\\ the\\ body\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ proper\\ respect\\ and\\ burial\\.\\ No\\ one\\ meets\\ the\\ challenge\\ initially\\,\\ so\\ Menelaus\\ takes\\ the\\ offer\\.\\ Homer\\ reveals\\ here\\ that\\ Menelaus\\ would\\ certainly\\ have\\ died\\ if\\ Agamemnon\\ had\\ not\\ interceded\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ convinces\\ his\\ brother\\ that\\ to\\ fight\\ Hector\\ is\\ madness\\,\\ and\\ Menelaus\\ sits\\ down\\.\\ Nestor\\ scolds\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ telling\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ valor\\ from\\ the\\ days\\ of\\ his\\ youth\\,\\ and\\ in\\ response\\ nine\\ men\\ step\\ forward\\:\\ Agamemnon\\,\\ Diomedes\\,\\ the\\ two\\ Aeantes\\,\\ Idomenus\\,\\ Meriones\\,\\ Eurypylos\\,\\ Thoas\\,\\ and\\ Odysseus\\.\\ Nestor\\ has\\ them\\ throw\\ lots\\,\\ and\\ Great\\ Ajax\\ wins\\.\\ After\\ trading\\ words\\,\\ Hector\\ and\\ Ajax\\ fight\\.\\ The\\ two\\ men\\ fight\\ fiercely\\,\\ and\\ Ajax\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ winning\\,\\ but\\ the\\ fight\\ is\\ stopped\\ by\\ the\\ heralds\\ Idaios\\ and\\ Talthybios\\,\\ messengers\\ of\\ Zeus\\ and\\ of\\ mortals\\.\\ They\\ argue\\ that\\ night\\ is\\ falling\\ and\\ that\\ Zeus\\ loves\\ both\\ men\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ the\\ duel\\ should\\ stop\\.\\ The\\ two\\ men\\ stop\\ fighting\\,\\ trade\\ gifts\\,\\ and\\ return\\ to\\ their\\ sides\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ night\\,\\ after\\ sacrifices\\ and\\ feasting\\,\\ Nestor\\ suggests\\ that\\ they\\ burn\\ their\\ dead\\ and\\ build\\ fortifications\\.\\ Among\\ the\\ Trojans\\,\\ Antenor\\ tells\\ Paris\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ give\\ back\\ Helen\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ treasures\\ he\\ stole\\ from\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ Menelaus\\.\\ Paris\\ refuses\\,\\ suggesting\\ instead\\ that\\ he\\ give\\ back\\ the\\ treasures\\ he\\ stole\\ from\\ Menelaus\\ \\(except\\ for\\ Helen\\)\\ plus\\ other\\ valuables\\ from\\ among\\ his\\ own\\ goods\\.\\ Priam\\ wants\\ to\\ send\\ messengers\\ relaying\\ Paris\\&\\#39\\;\\ offer\\ and\\ also\\ asking\\ for\\ a\\ temporary\\ truce\\ so\\ that\\ both\\ sides\\ can\\ bury\\ their\\ dead\\.\\ In\\ the\\ morning\\,\\ the\\ herald\\ Idaeus\\ carries\\ out\\ Priam\\&\\#39\\;s\\ orders\\.\\ Diomedes\\ responds\\ that\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ should\\ not\\ accept\\ Paris\\&\\#39\\;\\ gifts\\&lsaquo\\;even\\ if\\ he\\ should\\ offer\\ Helen\\.\\ The\\ Trojans\\ must\\ die\\.\\ The\\ troops\\ cry\\ out\\ their\\ agreement\\ with\\ him\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ heeds\\ his\\ men\\ but\\ grants\\ the\\ temporary\\ truce\\.\\ Both\\ sides\\,\\ with\\ great\\ sorrow\\,\\ bury\\ their\\ dead\\.\\ The\\ Achaeans\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ truce\\ and\\ build\\ a\\ great\\ wall\\,\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ ditch\\ and\\ a\\ line\\ of\\ sharpened\\ stakes\\,\\ and\\ on\\ Olympus\\ Poseidon\\ objects\\ that\\ in\\ building\\ the\\ wall\\ they\\ have\\ dedicated\\ no\\ offering\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ Zeus\\ promises\\ him\\ that\\ once\\ the\\ war\\ is\\ over\\ Poseidon\\ can\\ destroy\\ the\\ wall\\.\\ That\\ night\\,\\ shipments\\ of\\ wine\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ from\\ Euneus\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Jason\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ drink\\.\\ Zeus\\ plans\\ horror\\ for\\ them\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ can\\ feel\\ it\\.\\ They\\ pour\\ wine\\ in\\ offering\\ to\\ Zeus\\ and\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ celebrate\\ freely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 8\\ Zeus\\ calls\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ assembly\\ and\\ warns\\ them\\ not\\ to\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ Trojan\\ War\\;\\ any\\ god\\ who\\ does\\ so\\ will\\ be\\ hurled\\ into\\ Tartarus\\,\\ a\\ deep\\ pit\\ far\\ below\\ Hades\\.\\ Zeus\\ himself\\ descends\\ to\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ watches\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ and\\ at\\ midday\\ he\\ shifts\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ war\\ to\\ favor\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ He\\ also\\ throws\\ his\\ lightning\\ and\\ terrifies\\ the\\ Achaean\\ soldiers\\,\\ who\\ begin\\ to\\ retreat\\.\\ Nestor\\ becomes\\ stuck\\ when\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ horses\\ drawing\\ his\\ chariot\\ has\\ been\\ wounded\\,\\ and\\ Hector\\ closes\\ in\\ for\\ the\\ kill\\.\\ Diomedes\\ sees\\ Nestor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ plight\\ and\\ calls\\ to\\ the\\ fleeing\\ Odysseus\\,\\ who\\ does\\ not\\ heed\\ him\\.\\ Diomedes\\ rescues\\ Nestor\\,\\ taking\\ him\\ into\\ his\\ own\\ chariot\\ and\\ trusting\\ Nestor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ horses\\ to\\ two\\ henchmen\\.\\ The\\ two\\ men\\ charge\\ Hector\\,\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ spears\\ Hector\\&\\#39\\;s\\ chariot\\ driver\\.\\ Hector\\ finds\\ a\\ new\\ charioteer\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ great\\ warriors\\ seem\\ prepared\\ to\\ clash\\,\\ but\\ Zeus\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lightning\\ strikes\\ the\\ ground\\ between\\ them\\.\\ Nestor\\ tells\\ Diomedes\\ that\\ Zeus\\ clearly\\ no\\ longer\\ favors\\ him\\,\\ and\\ they\\ must\\ flee\\.\\ Diomedes\\ is\\ anxious\\ about\\ fleeing\\ from\\ Hector\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ persuaded\\ by\\ Nestor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ arguments\\.\\ Zeus\\ sends\\ thundering\\ signs\\ from\\ the\\ mountain\\ of\\ Ida\\ to\\ let\\ the\\ Trojans\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ tide\\ of\\ war\\ favors\\ them\\.\\ Hector\\ calls\\ out\\ to\\ his\\ men\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ they\\ shall\\ overcome\\ the\\ fortifications\\ and\\ burn\\ the\\ ships\\ of\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ but\\ first\\ they\\ must\\ win\\ Nestor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ shield\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ armor\\.\\ Hera\\,\\ watching\\ from\\ Olympus\\,\\ is\\ angered\\,\\ but\\ she\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ persuade\\ Poseidon\\ that\\ the\\ gods\\ should\\ unite\\,\\ overrule\\ Zeus\\,\\ and\\ aid\\ the\\ Achaeans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hector\\ is\\ raging\\ forward\\,\\ pinning\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ behind\\ their\\ own\\ fortifications\\,\\ and\\ Agamemnon\\,\\ stirred\\ by\\ Hera\\,\\ tries\\ to\\ rally\\ the\\ troops\\.\\ The\\ commander\\-in\\-chief\\ is\\ horrified\\ by\\ the\\ defeats\\ being\\ dealt\\ to\\ his\\ men\\,\\ and\\ prays\\,\\ weeping\\,\\ to\\ Zeus\\.\\ Zeus\\ heeds\\ his\\ prayer\\,\\ sending\\ an\\ eagle\\ with\\ a\\ fawn\\ in\\ its\\ talons\\.\\ The\\ fawn\\ releases\\ the\\ eagle\\ by\\ the\\ altar\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ built\\ for\\ Zeus\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ take\\ heart\\ and\\ turn\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Teucer\\,\\ Great\\ Ajax\\&\\#39\\;s\\ half\\-brother\\ and\\ master\\ archer\\,\\ strikes\\ down\\ warrior\\ after\\ warrior\\ with\\ his\\ arrows\\,\\ taking\\ occasional\\ shelter\\ behind\\ his\\ brother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ massive\\ shield\\.\\ He\\ cannot\\ hit\\ Hector\\,\\ however\\,\\ though\\ he\\ kills\\ Hector\\&\\#39\\;s\\ chariot\\ driver\\.\\ Hector\\ leaps\\ down\\ and\\ throws\\ a\\ great\\ rock\\ at\\ Teucer\\,\\ injuring\\ him\\ badly\\.\\ With\\ Great\\ Ajax\\ providing\\ cover\\,\\ he\\ is\\ carried\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ ships\\.\\ Hector\\ drives\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ back\\ behind\\ their\\ fortifications\\ again\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hera\\ fumes\\ with\\ Athena\\ over\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ and\\ Athena\\ tells\\ Hera\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ both\\ prepare\\ for\\ battle\\.\\ As\\ they\\ come\\ down\\ from\\ Olympus\\,\\ Zeus\\ sends\\ Iris\\ to\\ warn\\ them\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ turn\\ back\\,\\ Zeus\\ will\\ harm\\ Athena\\ horribly\\.\\ Hera\\ speaks\\ first\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ goddesses\\ should\\ leave\\ the\\ mortals\\ to\\ their\\ fate\\ rather\\ than\\ allow\\ an\\ immortal\\ to\\ be\\ harmed\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ return\\,\\ grieving\\ for\\ the\\ men\\ whom\\ they\\ cannot\\ help\\.\\ Zeus\\ returns\\ to\\ Olympus\\ also\\,\\ where\\ Hera\\ and\\ Athena\\ sit\\ apart\\ and\\ plan\\ pain\\ for\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Hera\\ and\\ Zeus\\ exchange\\ harsh\\ words\\,\\ but\\ Zeus\\ promises\\ that\\ Hector\\ will\\ have\\ even\\ greater\\ victory\\ until\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Patroclus\\ stirs\\ Achilles\\ to\\ rejoin\\ the\\ fight\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Night\\ falls\\,\\ and\\ Hector\\ proposes\\ that\\ they\\ light\\ fires\\ and\\ watch\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ attack\\ them\\ if\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ escape\\.\\ The\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ should\\ light\\ fires\\ and\\ keep\\ careful\\ watch\\ as\\ well\\,\\ because\\ the\\ army\\ will\\ be\\ camped\\ on\\ the\\ field\\.\\ Hector\\ is\\ sure\\ that\\ the\\ next\\ day\\ will\\ bring\\ great\\ victories\\,\\ including\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Diomedes\\.\\ The\\ Trojans\\ sacrifice\\ oxen\\ and\\ sheep\\,\\ but\\,\\ unbeknownst\\ to\\ the\\ Trojans\\,\\ the\\ gods\\ do\\ not\\ partake\\ of\\ the\\ offerings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ Iliad\\,\\ 9\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\:\\ Caitlynn\\ Ramsey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ starts\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ worry\\ among\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ for\\ they\\ are\\ losing\\ the\\ battle\\ with\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ \\(the\\ son\\ of\\ Atreus\\)\\ is\\ crying\\ and\\ calls\\ all\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ together\\.\\ Diomedes\\ pretty\\ much\\ calls\\ him\\ a\\ coward\\,\\ telling\\ Agamemnon\\ he\\ can\\ go\\ home\\ if\\ he\\ wants\\,\\ but\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ stay\\ on\\ and\\ fight\\.\\ They\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ feast\\,\\ and\\ Nestor\\ tells\\ Agamemnon\\ to\\ give\\ back\\ Briseis\\ to\\ Achilles\\,\\ who\\ he\\ dishonored\\ when\\ he\\ took\\ her\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ agrees\\,\\ and\\ offers\\ 7\\ tripods\\,\\ ten\\ talents\\ of\\ gold\\,\\ iron\\ cauldrons\\,\\ horses\\,\\ women\\ from\\ lesbos\\,\\ Briseis\\,\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ daughters\\,\\ and\\ 7\\ cities\\.\\ Phoenix\\,\\ Ajax\\,\\ and\\ Odysseus\\ go\\ to\\ ask\\ Achilles\\ if\\ he\\ will\\ fight\\.\\ When\\ they\\ arrive\\ Achilles\\ is\\ playing\\ a\\ lyre\\ \\(important\\ in\\ class\\ cause\\ its\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ a\\ expert\\ lyre\\ player\\ that\\ Achilles\\ killed\\ at\\ a\\ wedding\\?\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ exactly\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ Nagy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notes\\.\\)\\ Patroklos\\ is\\ with\\ Achilles\\.\\ Odysseus\\ offers\\ Achilles\\ the\\ exchange\\,\\ and\\ Achilles\\ refuses\\ and\\ says\\ he\\ is\\ leaving\\ tomorrow\\ with\\ his\\ men\\ and\\ ships\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Phthia\\.\\ He\\ talks\\ here\\ about\\ if\\ he\\ either\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ his\\ nostos\\ or\\ his\\ kelos\\.\\ Phoenix\\,\\ who\\ raised\\ Achilles\\,\\ pleads\\ with\\ him\\ by\\ telling\\ him\\ a\\ story\\ illustrating\\ that\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ the\\ honor\\ later\\.\\ Take\\ it\\ w\\/gifts\\ and\\ then\\ battle\\.\\ Achilles\\ says\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ honor\\.\\ They\\ go\\ back\\ and\\ tell\\ Agamemnon\\ that\\ Achilles\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ helping\\,\\ and\\ they\\ decide\\ they\\ can\\ fight\\ on\\ w\\/out\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agamemnon\\ and\\ Menelaos\\ \\(brothers\\)\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sleep\\.\\ They\\ go\\ and\\ wake\\ Nestor\\,\\ Diomedes\\ \\(son\\ of\\ Tydeus\\)\\,\\ Ajax\\,\\ and\\ Odysseus\\.\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ go\\ to\\ spy\\ on\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Athena\\ aids\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ Diomedes\\,\\ for\\ they\\ pray\\ to\\ her\\.\\ The\\ Trojans\\ also\\ sent\\ Dolon\\ out\\ to\\ spy\\ on\\ the\\ Achaeans\\.\\ He\\ runs\\ into\\ Diomedes\\ and\\ Odysseus\\ who\\ get\\ info\\ on\\ the\\ Trojans\\ and\\ their\\ plans\\,\\ Diomedes\\ kills\\ him\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ said\\ they\\ would\\ not\\.\\ Diomedes\\ and\\ Odyssues\\ go\\ and\\ come\\ upon\\ Rhesus\\,\\ who\\ has\\ horses\\ with\\ him\\.\\ They\\ kill\\ him\\ and\\ 12\\ Thracian\\ warriors\\ and\\ take\\ the\\ horses\\.\\ Apollo\\ is\\ mad\\ that\\ Athena\\ helped\\ them\\.\\ They\\ go\\ back\\,\\ give\\ Nestor\\ the\\ horses\\,\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ Athena\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ battles\\ begin\\ the\\ following\\ morning\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ kills\\ many\\ in\\ battle\\.\\ He\\ kills\\ Antimakhos\\&rsquo\\;\\ sons\\ cause\\ their\\ father\\ had\\ almost\\ killed\\ Menelaos\\ and\\ Odysseus\\ when\\ they\\ came\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ envoys\\.\\ Many\\ Trojans\\ fled\\ Agamemnon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rage\\.\\ Zeus\\ tells\\ Iris\\ to\\ tell\\ Hektor\\ to\\ not\\ fight\\ until\\ Agamemnon\\ is\\ wounded\\.\\ Ko\\ö\\;n\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Antenor\\,\\ wounds\\ Agamemnon\\ in\\ the\\ arm\\,\\ because\\ he\\ killed\\ his\\ brother\\ Iphidamas\\.\\ But\\ Agamemnon\\ keeps\\ fighting\\ and\\ kills\\ Ko\\ö\\;n\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ then\\ retreats\\ cause\\ his\\ arm\\ hurts\\ so\\ bad\\.\\ Hektor\\ sees\\ this\\ and\\ prods\\ on\\ the\\ Trojans\\ and\\ begins\\ to\\ fight\\ himself\\.\\ He\\ slays\\ 8\\ cheiftains\\ in\\ his\\ first\\ hour\\ of\\ battle\\.\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ decide\\ to\\ hold\\ off\\ Hektor\\.\\ Zues\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ either\\ side\\ have\\ the\\ advantage\\.\\ They\\ both\\ fight\\ Hektor\\,\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ nearly\\ kills\\ him\\,\\ but\\ he\\ jumps\\ back\\ into\\ a\\ crowd\\.\\ Paris\\ shoots\\ Diomedes\\ in\\ the\\ foot\\.\\ Diomedes\\ insults\\ him\\ calling\\ him\\ a\\ seducer\\ and\\ a\\ girl\\.\\ Diomedes\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ ships\\.\\ Odysseus\\ is\\ alone\\ and\\ gets\\ surrounded\\.\\ They\\ all\\ attack\\ him\\,\\ but\\ he\\ knows\\ his\\ hr\\.\\ of\\ telos\\ has\\ not\\ come\\ and\\ fights\\ on\\.\\ He\\ is\\ injured\\ and\\ calls\\ for\\ help\\.\\ Ajax\\ is\\ told\\ by\\ Menelaos\\ to\\ go\\ with\\ him\\ to\\ help\\ Odysseus\\.\\ Zeus\\ makes\\ Ajax\\ scared\\ and\\ retreat\\.\\ They\\ all\\ go\\ to\\ help\\ Ajax\\ now\\,\\ who\\ is\\ injured\\.\\ All\\ the\\ while\\ Achilles\\ is\\ watching\\ from\\ the\\ stern\\ of\\ his\\ ship\\.\\ He\\ tells\\ Patroklos\\ who\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;look\\ like\\ Ares\\ himself\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ here\\ indeed\\ was\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ ill\\ that\\ presently\\ befell\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(foreshadowing\\)\\.\\ He\\ tells\\ Patroklos\\ to\\ ask\\ Nestor\\ who\\ is\\ coming\\ off\\ the\\ battle\\ hurt\\.\\ Patroklos\\ finds\\ out\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ Machaon\\ \\(the\\ dr\\)\\ who\\ is\\ hurt\\.\\ Nestor\\ lists\\ all\\ the\\ wounded\\ men\\,\\ but\\ wonders\\ why\\ Achilles\\ cares\\ \\(Odysseus\\,\\ Diomedes\\,\\ Agamemnon\\,\\ Euryplus\\ etc\\)\\.\\ Then\\ Nestor\\ begins\\ a\\ micro\\ narrative\\.\\ He\\ tells\\ of\\ how\\ he\\ killed\\ Itymoneus\\ in\\ Elis\\ and\\ drove\\ all\\ his\\ many\\ spoils\\ to\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Neleus\\.\\ He\\ then\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ the\\ Epeians\\ by\\ the\\ Pylians\\,\\ and\\ says\\ how\\ instead\\ of\\ getting\\ valor\\ w\\/him\\ comrades\\,\\ Achilles\\ keeps\\ it\\ all\\ for\\ himself\\.\\ Then\\ Nestor\\ reminds\\ Patroklos\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ older\\ than\\ Achilles\\ and\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ give\\ him\\ good\\ advice\\,\\ like\\ his\\ father\\ told\\ him\\ to\\,\\ because\\ Achilles\\ will\\ listen\\ to\\ him\\.\\ IF\\ he\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fight\\,\\ Nestor\\ says\\ that\\ Patroklos\\ should\\ wear\\ his\\ armor\\ and\\ fight\\.\\ Then\\ Patroklos\\ runs\\ back\\ to\\ tell\\ Achilles\\ what\\ happened\\ and\\ cuts\\ out\\ an\\ arrow\\ from\\ Eurypylus\\&rsquo\\;\\ thigh\\,\\ for\\ the\\ other\\ drs\\ \\(one\\ is\\ hurt\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ fighting\\)\\ are\\ busy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 12\\ The\\ Achaeans\\ have\\ a\\ trench\\ and\\ a\\ wall\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ their\\ ships\\,\\ but\\ when\\ they\\ built\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ offer\\ hecatombs\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ so\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ last\\.\\ The\\ Trojan\\ horses\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cross\\ the\\ trench\\ at\\ first\\ though\\.\\ They\\ decide\\ to\\ launch\\ a\\ foot\\ attack\\ after\\ Polydama\\&rsquo\\;s\\ urging\\ to\\ Hektor\\.\\ The\\ Achaeans\\ meet\\ them\\ at\\ the\\ wall\\ to\\ fight\\ though\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ Trojans\\ see\\ a\\ sign\\ from\\ heaven\\-\\ an\\ eagle\\ to\\ their\\ left\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ red\\ snake\\ in\\ its\\ talons\\.\\ The\\ snake\\ is\\ still\\ alive\\ and\\ bites\\ the\\ bird\\ on\\ the\\ neck\\ and\\ breast\\,\\ and\\ the\\ eagle\\ lets\\ it\\ go\\.\\ Polydamas\\ warns\\ Hektor\\ of\\ this\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ sign\\ shows\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ win\\.\\ Hektor\\ says\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ put\\ their\\ trust\\ in\\ Zeus\\.\\ Zeus\\ then\\ helps\\ the\\ Trojans\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ wall\\.\\ Some\\ scale\\ the\\ wall\\ while\\ others\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ gates\\.\\ Hektor\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ other\\ side\\.\\ And\\ the\\ Danaans\\ flee\\ to\\ their\\ ships\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Themes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Memn\\ê\\;mai\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;total\\ recall\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ Phoenix\\ recalls\\ his\\ micro\\ narrative\\ in\\ IX\\ 527\\-528\\.\\ Here\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ has\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\old\\ story\\ in\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ signifying\\ the\\ recall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ainos\\ authoritative\\ utterance\\ for\\ and\\ by\\ social\\ group\\;\\ praise\\;\\ fable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ klea\\ andr\\ô\\;n\\ \\(glories\\ of\\ heroes\\)\\ of\\ IX\\ 524\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ narrative\\ again\\ that\\ is\\ totally\\ recalled\\ by\\ Phoenix\\ for\\ Achilles\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ philoi\\.\\ The\\ ainos\\ is\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;index\\&rdquo\\;\\ word\\ here\\ like\\ once\\ upon\\ a\\ time\\.\\ Here\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ have\\ an\\ old\\ story\\ in\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ similar\\.\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ kela\\ and\\ô\\;n\\ runs\\ parallel\\ to\\ the\\ glory\\ in\\ Sappho\\ 44\\ of\\ Hektor\\ and\\ Andromache\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ note\\ the\\ ascending\\ scale\\ of\\ affection\\ in\\ the\\ Meleager\\ story\\ of\\ Nestor\\ which\\ starts\\ at\\ line\\ 528\\.\\ \\(elders\\,\\ priests\\,\\ father\\,\\ sisters\\,\\ mother\\,\\ companions\\ \\(hetairoi\\)\\)\\.\\ These\\ are\\ his\\ philos\\,\\ just\\ like\\ those\\ who\\ visit\\ Achilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ notice\\ the\\ similarity\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Meleager\\ to\\ Achille\\&rsquo\\;s\\ story\\.\\ Meleager\\ stays\\ home\\ with\\ his\\ wife\\ Kleopatra\\.\\ Achilles\\ stays\\ home\\ with\\ Patroklos\\-\\ are\\ they\\ similar\\ roles\\?\\ This\\ possible\\ love\\ connection\\ is\\ not\\ noted\\ in\\ the\\ Iliad\\.\\ Patroklos\\ is\\ more\\ close\\ to\\ Achilles\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ die\\ for\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ illustrates\\ how\\ spying\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ resorted\\ to\\ because\\ Achilles\\ refuses\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ Achaeans\\.\\ It\\ also\\ illustrates\\ the\\ extremity\\ of\\ heroes\\,\\ when\\ Dolon\\ is\\ killed\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ told\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ harmed\\ if\\ he\\ gives\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ Diomedes\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ Trojan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Line\\ 218\\-227\\ is\\ a\\ micronarrative\\ told\\ by\\ the\\ muses\\ \\(who\\ inspired\\ ritual\\ retelling\\ of\\ stories\\)\\.\\ Here\\ the\\ micronarrative\\ is\\ important\\,\\ for\\ this\\ hero\\ has\\ just\\ died\\.\\ He\\ left\\ his\\ honeymoon\\ to\\ go\\ and\\ fight\\ at\\ Troy\\.\\ Many\\ would\\ think\\ that\\ silly\\,\\ yet\\ he\\ has\\ achieved\\ his\\ kleos\\ in\\ fighting\\ at\\ Troy\\ and\\ lives\\ on\\ in\\ this\\ micronarrative\\,\\ so\\ the\\ death\\ was\\ worth\\ it\\,\\ for\\ he\\ lives\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ spoken\\ word\\ of\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ Greek\\ song\\ culture\\ in\\ general\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 11\\ also\\ foreshadows\\ Patroklos\\&rsquo\\;\\ becoming\\ Achiles\\&rsquo\\;\\ ritual\\ substitute\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 12\\ The\\ main\\ importance\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ s\\ê\\;ma\\ or\\ sign\\ from\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ This\\ is\\ interesting\\ because\\ Hektor\\ ignores\\ it\\.\\ Typically\\ ignoring\\ a\\ sign\\ from\\ the\\ gods\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ downfall\\ of\\ an\\ army\\.\\ Yet\\ Zeus\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ help\\ Hektor\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ wall\\.\\ Perhaps\\ though\\,\\ the\\ sign\\ is\\ still\\ valid\\,\\ for\\ the\\ Trojans\\ do\\ eventually\\ lose\\.\\ Other\\ than\\ that\\,\\ this\\ book\\ was\\ short\\ and\\ mainly\\ just\\ a\\ report\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ died\\ in\\ battle\\,\\ which\\ achieves\\ their\\ kleos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homer\\,\\ Iliad\\,\\ Book\\ 13\\-16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\:\\ Daniel\\ Lorenzana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 13\\ begins\\ with\\ Zeus\\ diverting\\ his\\ attention\\ elsewhere\\ after\\ aiding\\ Hektor\\ in\\ breaking\\ through\\ the\\ Achaean\\ gates\\.\\ Content\\ that\\ the\\ battle\\ is\\ now\\ going\\ as\\ he\\ desires\\,\\ he\\ leaves\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ suspect\\ that\\ other\\ gods\\ will\\ help\\ either\\ side\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poseidon\\,\\ however\\,\\ has\\ been\\ watching\\ the\\ battle\\ and\\ pitying\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ decides\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ their\\ aid\\.\\ He\\ takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ seer\\ Calchas\\ and\\ encourages\\ the\\ two\\ Ajaxes\\,\\ telling\\ them\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ take\\ a\\ stand\\ together\\ they\\ can\\ drive\\ back\\ Hektor\\,\\ even\\ in\\ his\\ rage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ajax\\ Oileus\\ realizes\\ what\\ has\\ happened\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ of\\ them\\ go\\ and\\ encourage\\ the\\ great\\ Achaean\\ warriors\\ who\\ form\\ a\\ wall\\-like\\ formation\\ to\\ meet\\ Hektor\\.\\ In\\ the\\ ensuing\\ battle\\,\\ Poseidon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grandson\\,\\ Amphimakos\\,\\ is\\ killed\\ and\\ Poseidon\\ is\\ further\\ angered\\.\\ Poseidon\\ then\\ takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ Thoas\\,\\ an\\ honored\\ king\\,\\ and\\ encourages\\ Idomeneus\\,\\ chief\\ of\\ Cretans\\,\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ fighting\\.\\ Idomeneus\\ does\\ so\\,\\ along\\ the\\ way\\ runs\\ into\\ Meriones\\,\\ to\\ whom\\ he\\ offers\\ a\\ spear\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ go\\ out\\ into\\ battle\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ side\\,\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Ajaxes\\ and\\ Teucer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Despite\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ Poseidon\\ and\\ the\\ heroes\\ he\\ has\\ inspired\\,\\ the\\ battle\\ still\\ goes\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ plan\\ of\\ Zeus\\.\\ Poseidon\\ will\\ only\\ oppose\\ indirectly\\,\\ encouraging\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ while\\ in\\ human\\ form\\ but\\ not\\ actively\\ taking\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ battle\\ itself\\.\\ Idomeneus\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ kill\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ Trojan\\ warriors\\,\\ including\\ Asios\\,\\ the\\ commander\\ who\\ would\\ not\\ dismount\\ as\\ Hektor\\ ordered\\ in\\ scroll\\ 12\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ descriptions\\ of\\ individual\\ confrontations\\,\\ including\\ one\\ centering\\ on\\ Idomeneus\\ and\\ Aeneus\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ one\\ between\\ Meriones\\ and\\ Adamas\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Asios\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ left\\ wing\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ which\\ the\\ narrative\\ has\\ been\\ following\\,\\ the\\ tide\\ is\\ turning\\ to\\ favor\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Poseidon\\.\\ In\\ the\\ center\\ section\\ where\\ Hektor\\ is\\,\\ the\\ Trojans\\ are\\ not\\ faring\\ well\\ either\\ and\\ Polydamas\\ suggests\\ a\\ retreat\\.\\ Hektor\\ agrees\\ but\\ when\\ he\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ side\\ to\\ deliver\\ the\\ order\\ he\\ finds\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ Trojans\\ are\\ missing\\ and\\ after\\ a\\ confrontation\\ with\\ Ajax\\ decides\\ to\\ continue\\ the\\ fight\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 14\\ opens\\ with\\ Nestor\\ \\&ldquo\\;sitting\\ over\\ his\\ wine\\&rdquo\\;\\ back\\ with\\ the\\ Achaean\\ ships\\.\\ He\\ hears\\ the\\ noise\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ and\\ upon\\ seeing\\ how\\ badly\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ are\\ faring\\,\\ goes\\ to\\ see\\ Agamemnon\\.\\ Nestor\\ finds\\ Agamemnon\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;wounded\\ kings\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ Odysseus\\ and\\ Diomedes\\.\\ Homer\\ describes\\ the\\ cramped\\ arrangement\\ of\\ the\\ beached\\ ships\\,\\ which\\ are\\ in\\ two\\ rows\\ and\\ presumably\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ Trojan\\ attack\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agamemnon\\ takes\\ a\\ bleak\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ claiming\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;others\\ of\\ the\\ Achaeans\\,\\ like\\ Achilles\\,\\ are\\ in\\ anger\\ with\\ me\\ that\\ they\\ refuse\\ to\\ fight\\ by\\ the\\ sterns\\ of\\ our\\ ships\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Nestor\\ agrees\\ that\\ the\\ situation\\ is\\ bad\\ and\\ Agamemnon\\ proposes\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ ships\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ water\\ and\\ flee\\ by\\ night\\.\\ Odysseus\\ angrily\\ attacks\\ this\\ idea\\ and\\ Agamemnon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\ in\\ general\\.\\ Diomedes\\,\\ after\\ stating\\ his\\ lineage\\ for\\ legitimacy\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ they\\ go\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ battlefield\\ to\\ encourage\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ cannot\\ fight\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poseidon\\ takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ an\\ old\\ man\\ and\\ tells\\ Agamemenon\\ that\\ one\\ day\\ the\\ Trojans\\ will\\ fall\\ nd\\ then\\ utters\\ a\\ battle\\ cry\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ that\\ of\\ nine\\ or\\ ten\\ thousand\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ puts\\ fresh\\ courage\\ in\\ the\\ hearts\\ of\\ the\\ Achaean\\ fighters\\.\\ Hera\\ sees\\ this\\ and\\ is\\ pleased\\ but\\ tries\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ further\\ distract\\ Zeus\\,\\ finally\\ settling\\ on\\ trying\\ to\\ seduce\\ him\\ and\\ putting\\ him\\ to\\ sleep\\.\\ After\\ cleaning\\ and\\ dressing\\ herself\\,\\ she\\ goes\\ to\\ Aphrodite\\ and\\ lies\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ love\\ charm\\ that\\ she\\ says\\ is\\ to\\ solve\\ a\\ quarrel\\ between\\ Okeanos\\(father\\ of\\ all\\)\\ and\\ Tethys\\.\\ She\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ Sleep\\ and\\ asks\\ him\\ to\\ put\\ Zeus\\ to\\ sleep\\ while\\ he\\ is\\ with\\ her\\.\\ First\\ she\\ offers\\ him\\ a\\ gold\\ stool\\ made\\ by\\ Hephaestus\\,\\ at\\ which\\ he\\ balks\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ afraid\\ of\\ Zeus\\&rsquo\\;\\ anger\\.\\ She\\ then\\ offers\\ him\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ Graces\\,\\ Pasithea\\,\\ in\\ marriage\\ and\\ he\\ accepts\\.\\ She\\ then\\ seduces\\ Zeus\\ on\\ Ida\\ and\\ he\\ falls\\ asleep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ he\\ is\\ asleep\\,\\ Poseidon\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ fearful\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ battle\\ directly\\ and\\ he\\ rushes\\ to\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ aid\\,\\ telling\\ them\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ largest\\ shield\\ possible\\ and\\ then\\ leads\\ the\\ Achaean\\ force\\ to\\ face\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Hektor\\ tries\\ to\\ kill\\ Ajax\\ with\\ his\\ spear\\ but\\ he\\ fails\\ and\\ as\\ he\\ is\\ retreating\\,\\ Ajax\\ wounds\\ him\\ with\\ a\\ boulder\\.\\ The\\ fighting\\ continues\\ with\\ victories\\ and\\ boasting\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\.\\ Homer\\ then\\ invokes\\ the\\ muses\\ and\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ successes\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ Ajaxes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 15\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ retreat\\ of\\ the\\ Trojans\\ and\\ Zeus\\ waking\\ from\\ his\\ sleep\\ and\\ seeing\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ with\\ Poseidon\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Upon\\ seeing\\ Hektor\\ wounded\\,\\ he\\ threatens\\ Hera\\,\\ who\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ she\\ had\\ no\\ part\\ or\\ council\\ in\\ Poseidon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\.\\ Zeus\\ then\\ sends\\ Iris\\ to\\ tell\\ Poseidon\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ fighting\\ and\\ Apollo\\ to\\ revive\\ Hektor\\.\\ Poseidon\\ is\\ reluctant\\ to\\ leave\\ but\\ is\\ convinced\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ and\\ leaves\\.\\ Apollo\\ encourages\\ Hektor\\ and\\ gives\\ him\\ strength\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ battle\\.\\ Thoas\\ realizes\\ that\\ a\\ god\\ is\\ helping\\ Hektor\\ and\\ convinces\\ the\\ Achaean\\ commanders\\ to\\ send\\ the\\ main\\ forces\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ ships\\,\\ leave\\ only\\ the\\ elites\\ to\\ fight\\ of\\ the\\ Trojans\\.\\ Apollo\\ strikes\\ fear\\ in\\ the\\ hearts\\ of\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ and\\ after\\ some\\ time\\ their\\ forces\\ collapse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seeing\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ fleeing\\,\\ Hektor\\ rallies\\ the\\ Trojans\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ Apollo\\ leads\\ the\\ Trojans\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ Achaean\\ compound\\.\\ Nestor\\ prays\\ to\\ Zeus\\ for\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ the\\ ships\\ and\\ he\\ answers\\ with\\ a\\ thunderbolt\\.\\ This\\,\\ however\\,\\ only\\ encourages\\ the\\ Trojans\\ more\\ and\\ they\\ attack\\ even\\ more\\ intensely\\.\\ Patroklos\\ becomes\\ alarmed\\ and\\ runs\\ to\\ Achilles\\ try\\ and\\ convince\\ him\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hektor\\ and\\ Ajax\\ engage\\ in\\ combat\\ on\\ a\\ ship\\ but\\ neither\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ upper\\ hand\\.\\ Ajax\\ then\\ kills\\ Caletor\\,\\ a\\ cousin\\ of\\ Hektor\\ and\\ Hektor\\ responds\\ by\\ killing\\ Lykophron\\ a\\ therapon\\ of\\ Ajax\\.\\ Ajax\\ calls\\ on\\ Teucer\\ to\\ attack\\ Hektor\\ with\\ his\\ bow\\,\\ but\\ once\\ he\\ does\\ so\\,\\ Zeus\\ snaps\\ his\\ bowstring\\.\\ Teucer\\ then\\ dons\\ his\\ armor\\ and\\ upon\\ seeing\\ this\\,\\ Hektor\\ encourages\\ the\\ Trojans\\ onward\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ that\\ Zeus\\ is\\ on\\ their\\ side\\.\\ Hektor\\ then\\ leads\\ a\\ renewed\\ assault\\ of\\ the\\ Achaean\\ ships\\ and\\ is\\ successful\\ until\\ Ajax\\ rallies\\ the\\ Achaeans\\.\\ Ajax\\ tells\\ the\\ Achaeans\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ kleos\\ in\\ fleeing\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ fight\\ for\\ their\\ children\\,\\ wives\\,\\ property\\ and\\ parents\\.\\ Hektor\\ calls\\ for\\ fire\\ to\\ be\\ brought\\ to\\ set\\ the\\ ships\\ alight\\,\\ but\\ Ajax\\ kills\\ all\\ Trojans\\ who\\ try\\ to\\ set\\ the\\ ships\\ on\\ fire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 16\\ opens\\ with\\ Patroklos\\ begging\\ Achilles\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ battle\\.\\ When\\ Achilles\\ still\\ refuses\\,\\ Patroklos\\ asks\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ wear\\ his\\ armor\\ and\\ return\\ to\\ battle\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ Trojans\\ will\\ mistake\\ him\\ for\\ Achilles\\ and\\ flee\\.\\ In\\ doing\\ this\\,\\ we\\ are\\ told\\ that\\ Patroklos\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;suing\\ for\\ his\\ destruction\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ Achilles\\ agrees\\ to\\ it\\,\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ return\\ once\\ he\\ has\\ driven\\ the\\ Trojans\\ from\\ the\\ ships\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ this\\ is\\ happening\\,\\ Ajax\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ retreat\\ after\\ Hektor\\ breaks\\ his\\ spear\\ and\\ the\\ Trojans\\ set\\ fire\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ Achaean\\ ships\\.\\ Patroklos\\ sees\\ this\\ fire\\ and\\ arms\\ himself\\ with\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ armor\\ except\\ his\\ spear\\,\\ which\\ is\\ too\\ heavy\\ for\\ anyone\\ save\\ Achilles\\.\\ Achilles\\ then\\ tells\\ Automedon\\ to\\ prepare\\ his\\ two\\ immortal\\ horses\\ and\\ rallies\\ his\\ men\\ to\\ fight\\ with\\ Patroklos\\.\\ After\\ sending\\ them\\ off\\,\\ he\\ returns\\ to\\ his\\ tent\\ to\\ pray\\ to\\ Zeus\\ for\\ their\\ success\\ and\\ safety\\.\\ We\\ are\\ told\\ that\\ Zeus\\ will\\ grant\\ part\\ of\\ this\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Initially\\,\\ the\\ Trojans\\ believe\\ that\\ Patroklos\\ is\\ Achilles\\ and\\ they\\ begin\\ to\\ flee\\ as\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ men\\ set\\ upon\\ them\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ letting\\ them\\ flee\\,\\ Patroklos\\ cuts\\ off\\ their\\ escape\\ and\\ kills\\ as\\ many\\ as\\ he\\ can\\.\\ Upon\\ seeing\\ this\\,\\ Sarpedon\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Zeus\\,\\ challenges\\ Patroklos\\.\\ Zeus\\ considers\\ saving\\ him\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ Sarpedon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fate\\ to\\ die\\ at\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ Patroklos\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ killed\\,\\ but\\ while\\ dying\\,\\ gives\\ an\\ inspiring\\ speech\\ to\\ his\\ brother\\ Glaukos\\ asking\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ continue\\ fighting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Glaukos\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ Hektor\\ and\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ in\\ grief\\ they\\ lead\\ a\\ charge\\ to\\ reclaim\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ armor\\ of\\ Sarpedon\\.\\ The\\ Achaeans\\ eventually\\ win\\ the\\ fight\\ over\\ Sarpedon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ armor\\,\\ but\\ Zeus\\ orders\\ Apollo\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ prepare\\ it\\ for\\ burial\\ in\\ Lycia\\.\\ Patroklos\\ continues\\ to\\ raze\\ the\\ Trojan\\ forces\\ and\\ even\\ charges\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ the\\ city\\,\\ only\\ being\\ stopped\\ by\\ Apollo\\ who\\ warns\\ him\\ to\\ draw\\ back\\.\\ Apollo\\ then\\ goads\\ Hektor\\ into\\ attacking\\ Patroklos\\.\\ On\\ the\\ first\\ pass\\,\\ Patroklos\\ kills\\ Cebriones\\,\\ Hektor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ charioteer\\.\\ The\\ Achaeans\\ win\\ the\\ fight\\ over\\ Cebriones\\ body\\ and\\ Patroklos\\ continues\\ to\\ slay\\ the\\ Trojans\\ until\\ Apollo\\ attacks\\ him\\,\\ knocking\\ off\\ his\\ helmet\\ and\\ armor\\.\\ Seeing\\ this\\,\\ Euphorobos\\ strikes\\ Patroklos\\ with\\ a\\ spear\\ and\\ Hektor\\ finishes\\ him\\ off\\.\\ While\\ dying\\,\\ Patroklos\\ warns\\ Hektor\\ of\\ his\\ impending\\ death\\ by\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ hand\\.\\ Hektor\\ dismisses\\ this\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ capture\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ chariot\\ driven\\ by\\ Automedon\\ who\\ flees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 48, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/heroes_guide_2006-01-10.pdf", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Complete Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "classics", "augustus"], "text": null, "id": 126, "html": "\\\\\\Complete\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c57\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:224\\.3pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c51\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:264\\.3pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c30\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:264\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c45\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:224\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c40\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:223pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c53\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:223\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c49\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:223\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c17\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:224\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c59\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:224\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c31\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:222\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c41\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:263\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c48\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:263pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c35\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:264\\.5pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c39\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:264\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c50\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:263\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c58\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c38\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c29\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c52\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c55\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c24\\{line\\-height\\:2\\.0\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c47\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.6pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:9pt\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c46\\{margin\\-right\\:37\\.4pt\\;margin\\-left\\:22\\.3pt\\}\\.c44\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c34\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c10\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c56\\{margin\\-right\\:37\\.4pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:22\\.5pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c15\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-right\\:37\\.5pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c16\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c27\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c54\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c33\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c37\\{text\\-indent\\:22\\.5pt\\}\\.c32\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c42\\{padding\\-left\\:3pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c43\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Master\\ Rome\\ Review\\ As\\ Of\\ 6\\:00pm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\clair\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Readings\\ for\\ Lecture\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Catullus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(SB\\ 147\\-149\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pages\\ 147\\-149\\:\\ Poems\\ of\\ C\\.\\ Valerius\\ Catullus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CATULLUS\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ good\\ provincial\\ family\\ and\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Poets\\ \\(poetae\\ novi\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ the\\ best\\ known\\ of\\ a\\ circle\\ of\\ friends\\ with\\ similar\\ literary\\ aims\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ will\\ include\\ the\\ important\\ poems\\ on\\ these\\ pages\\;\\ the\\ ones\\ you\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ will\\ include\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ the\\ important\\ lines\\ and\\ briefly\\ describe\\ each\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 29\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Cocksucker\\ Romulus\\,\\ will\\ you\\ stand\\ for\\ this\\?\\ \\/\\ Then\\ you\\&\\#39\\;re\\ a\\ filthy\\ glutton\\ and\\ a\\ gambler\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ reveals\\ Catullus\\&\\#39\\;\\ irreverence\\ towards\\ Roman\\ lore\\/tradition\\.\\ It\\ also\\ shows\\,\\ as\\ Prof\\.\\ Tarrant\\ said\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ \\"\\;scorn\\ for\\ vulgar\\ subjects\\"\\;\\ like\\ historical\\ epic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 93\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;I\\ am\\ not\\ too\\ keen\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ please\\ you\\,\\ Caesar\\,\\ \\/\\ or\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ you\\&\\#39\\;re\\ a\\ white\\ man\\ or\\ a\\ black\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ entire\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;Prof\\.\\ Tarrant\\ uses\\ it\\ to\\ show\\ one\\ extreme\\ of\\ Roman\\ poetry\\,\\ which\\ was\\ usually\\ characteristic\\ of\\ Catullus\\&\\#39\\;\\ verse\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ striking\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ \\"\\;new\\"\\;\\ Catullus\\&\\#39\\;\\ poetry\\ was\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ earlier\\,\\ longer\\ verse\\ of\\ past\\ poets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 95\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;At\\ last\\ my\\ Cinna\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Smyrna\\ has\\ appeared\\,\\ nine\\ harvests\\ \\/\\ and\\ nine\\ winters\\ since\\ it\\ was\\ begun\\!\\ \\/\\ Hortnsius\\ meanwhile\\ in\\ just\\ a\\ single\\ \\[year\\ \\/\\ can\\ spew\\]\\ a\\ half\\ a\\ million\\ \\[lines\\ of\\ trash\\]\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ shows\\ how\\ Catullus\\ detested\\ the\\ hack\\ poets\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ put\\ the\\ time\\ into\\ constructing\\ thoughtful\\,\\ tight\\ verse\\.\\ He\\ championed\\ small\\,\\ personal\\ verse\\ for\\ the\\ elite\\ few\\ rather\\ than\\ long\\,\\ simple\\-minded\\ verse\\ for\\ the\\ general\\ audience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ V\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\"\\;Give\\ me\\ a\\ thousand\\ kisses\\,\\ then\\ a\\ hundred\\,\\ \\/\\ then\\ a\\ second\\ thousand\\,\\ then\\ a\\ second\\ hundred\\,\\ \\/\\ then\\ yet\\ another\\ thousand\\,\\ then\\ a\\ hundred\\ \\/\\ Then\\,\\ when\\ we\\ have\\ made\\ up\\ many\\ thousands\\ \\/\\ we\\ will\\ wreck\\ the\\ count\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ Catullus\\&\\#39\\;\\ love\\ poems\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ one\\ addresses\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Lesbia\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ intensely\\ personal\\ aspect\\ of\\ his\\ poetry\\,\\ his\\ reliance\\ on\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julius\\ Ceasar\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(SB\\ 64\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julius\\ Caesar\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Civil\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Caesar\\ criticizes\\ Pompey\\ for\\ telling\\ his\\ soldiers\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ tried\\ for\\ peaceful\\ ends\\,\\ when\\ he\\ has\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Crastinus\\ vows\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ Caesar\\ so\\ well\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ thanked\\,\\ whether\\ alive\\ or\\ dead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Only\\ 300\\ of\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soldiers\\ died\\,\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ 15\\,000\\ of\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;Caesar\\ wins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sallust\\ \\(SB\\ 59\\-64\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sallust\\:\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ Conspiracy\\ of\\ Catiline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lucius\\ Catilina\\ is\\ an\\ evil\\,\\ covetous\\,\\ violent\\,\\ eloquent\\ and\\ indiscrete\\ young\\ noble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Catiline\\ tried\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ state\\ by\\ driving\\ out\\ Lucius\\ Sulla\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Now\\ on\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ History\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ trojans\\ \\(Romulus\\)\\ and\\ aborigines\\ founded\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ subject\\ to\\ greedy\\ attacks\\,\\ but\\ always\\ win\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-At\\ first\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ feeble\\ monarchy\\,\\ which\\ gave\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ 2\\ per\\ year\\ consulship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ histories\\ are\\ few\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ because\\ every\\ able\\ man\\ was\\ a\\ soldier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Romans\\ were\\ frugal\\,\\ religious\\ and\\ loyal\\,\\ until\\ the\\ wealth\\ from\\ Carthage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fall\\ came\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Honest\\ men\\ were\\ corrupted\\ by\\ power\\ and\\ money\\,\\ now\\ driven\\ by\\ self\\-interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Now\\ Catiline\\ addresses\\ his\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ long\\ will\\ brave\\ and\\ loyal\\ men\\ pay\\ taxes\\ to\\ greedy\\ kings\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ promises\\ to\\ fight\\ with\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ soldier\\ and\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ live\\ and\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sallust\\:\\ Sempronia\\,\\ A\\ description\\ of\\ her\\ as\\ a\\ conspirator\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Beautiful\\,\\ well\\-read\\,\\ able\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ lyre\\ and\\ dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Possesses\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;tools\\ of\\ debauchery\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ caring\\ not\\ for\\ her\\ honor\\,\\ and\\ seeking\\ out\\ sexual\\ partners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ woman\\ of\\ wit\\ and\\ charm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sallust\\:\\ \\ \\;Comparison\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ To\\ Cato\\ the\\ Younger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Julius\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Benefaction\\ and\\ generosity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Gentleness\\ and\\ compassion\\,\\ good\\ natured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Offers\\ refuge\\ and\\ kindness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Works\\ hard\\,\\ sleeps\\ little\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cato\\ the\\ Younger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Morally\\ upright\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Austere\\,\\ steadfast\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Prefers\\ to\\ scourge\\ the\\ guilty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Works\\ on\\ self\\-control\\ and\\ integrity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucan\\ \\(SB\\ 82\\-84\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucan\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Civil\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Note\\:\\ Lucan\\ is\\ pro\\-Republic\\ and\\ anti\\-Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ trouble\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ triumvarate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rome\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ a\\ brother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-After\\ Julia\\,\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ and\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\,\\ dies\\ the\\ fight\\ begins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-If\\ she\\ had\\ lived\\,\\ the\\ war\\ might\\ never\\ have\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Pompey\\ fought\\ because\\ of\\ pride\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ greatness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Pompey\\ was\\ older\\ and\\ lazy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Caesar\\ fought\\ because\\ he\\ would\\ accept\\ no\\ superior\\ nor\\ his\\ orders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Caesar\\ is\\ ambitious\\ and\\ quick\\ to\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ people\\ had\\ become\\ rich\\ and\\ greedy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ elections\\ were\\ dirty\\ and\\ quarrelsome\\ every\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suetonius\\ \\(SB\\ 97\\-99\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suetonius\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Assassination\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ was\\ rightfully\\ killed\\ as\\ he\\ took\\ too\\ many\\ honors\\ and\\ titles\\.\\ \\ \\;Abuse\\ of\\ power\\ killed\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rise\\ in\\ respect\\ when\\ the\\ senate\\ came\\ to\\ honor\\ him\\,\\ something\\ he\\ criticized\\ Aquila\\ for\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ were\\ rumors\\ that\\ he\\ planned\\ to\\ move\\ the\\ capital\\,\\ leaving\\ Italy\\ poor\\ and\\ barren\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Brutus\\ and\\ Cassius\\ led\\ a\\ conspiracy\\ of\\ 60\\ men\\ against\\ him\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ decided\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\ on\\ the\\ Ides\\ of\\ March\\ in\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meeting\\ hall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-That\\ day\\,\\ despite\\ signs\\ warning\\ him\\ and\\ feeling\\ ill\\,\\ Brutus\\ convinced\\ him\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ meeting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cimber\\ grabbed\\ him\\ while\\ Casca\\ stabbed\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ then\\ stabbed\\ 23\\ total\\ times\\ and\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Before\\ dying\\ he\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;Kai\\ su\\ teknon\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(and\\ you\\,\\ my\\ son\\)\\ to\\ Brutus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Calpurnia\\ requests\\ that\\ his\\ will\\ be\\ read\\ at\\ the\\ home\\ of\\ Marc\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ leaves\\ \\½\\;\\ of\\ his\\ state\\ and\\ his\\ own\\ title\\ to\\ Octavius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ leaves\\ Pinarus\\ and\\ Pedius\\ 1\\/8\\ of\\ his\\ estate\\ each\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ leaves\\ his\\ gardens\\ and\\ a\\ sum\\ of\\ money\\ to\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lauren\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Notes\\ for\\ Rome\\ Study\\ Group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livy\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Death\\ of\\ Cicero\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(SB\\ 58\\-59\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-This\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ favorable\\ account\\ of\\ Cicero\\ and\\ an\\ unfavorable\\ one\\ of\\ Antony\\ by\\ extension\\ in\\ the\\ retelling\\ of\\ the\\ events\\ surrounding\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Cicero\\.\\ Basically\\ Cicero\\ was\\ murdered\\ by\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soldiers\\ because\\ Cicero\\ attacked\\ Antony\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ through\\ oratory\\ and\\ through\\ written\\ statements\\.\\ Livy\\ paints\\ Cicero\\ as\\ a\\ great\\ man\\ who\\ was\\ unjustly\\ killed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quote\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ head\\ was\\ struck\\ off\\.\\ But\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ enough\\ for\\ the\\ soldiers\\ and\\ their\\ stupid\\ cruelty\\.\\ They\\ cut\\ off\\ his\\ hands\\ as\\ well\\,\\ cursing\\ them\\ for\\ having\\ written\\ attacks\\ on\\ Antony\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Declamations\\,\\ Freedom\\ of\\ Speech\\ before\\/during\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Velleius\\ Paterculus\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Origin\\ of\\ Octavius\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(SB\\ 77\\-80\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ favorable\\ account\\ of\\ Octavian\\ basically\\ telling\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ his\\ initial\\ rise\\ to\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nephew\\,\\ but\\ more\\ like\\ an\\ adopted\\ son\\ by\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 18\\.\\ His\\ parents\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;jealous\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ he\\ took\\ on\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ after\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Standout\\ Quote\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;and\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ his\\(Octavian\\)\\ entering\\ the\\ city\\ \\(after\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\)\\ there\\ was\\ seen\\ around\\ his\\ head\\ the\\ orb\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ with\\ a\\ circle\\ about\\ it\\,\\ colored\\ like\\ the\\ rainbow\\,\\ which\\ seemed\\ thereby\\ to\\ place\\ a\\ crown\\ on\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ one\\ destined\\ soon\\ for\\ greatness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\,\\ the\\ early\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Battle\\ at\\ Actium\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ favorable\\ account\\ of\\ Caesar\\ in\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ actium\\ between\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Antony\\.\\ This\\ passage\\ accents\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cowardice\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;lack\\ of\\ manhood\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clemency\\.\\ Ceasar\\ is\\ praised\\ for\\ ending\\ the\\ civil\\ wars\\,\\ and\\ returning\\ peace\\ and\\ prosperity\\ to\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quote\\<\\/span\\>\\s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Caesar\\ and\\ Antony\\ led\\ out\\ their\\ fleets\\ and\\ fought\\,\\ one\\ for\\ the\\ safety\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ for\\ the\\ ruin\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Antony\\ chose\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ commander\\ of\\ the\\ fleeing\\ queen\\ rather\\ than\\ of\\ his\\ fighting\\ soldiers\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ nothing\\ that\\ men\\ can\\ desire\\ from\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ nothing\\ the\\ gods\\ can\\ grant\\ men\\,\\ nothing\\ that\\ wish\\ can\\ conceive\\ \\&hellip\\;\\,\\ which\\ Augustus\\ after\\ his\\ return\\ did\\ not\\ bestow\\ upon\\ the\\ state\\,\\ the\\ Roman\\ people\\,\\ and\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Actium\\,\\ Peace\\/Order\\/Prosperity\\ in\\ Rome\\ during\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nicolaus\\ of\\ Damascus\\ \\&ldquo\\;Life\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(SB\\ 65\\-69\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Nic\\ was\\ educated\\,\\ worked\\ for\\ Herod\\ I\\ of\\ Judea\\,\\ taught\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\,\\ after\\ Actium\\ switched\\ his\\ support\\ to\\ Augustus\\ and\\ wrote\\ a\\ biography\\ about\\ the\\ early\\ life\\ IN\\ GREEK\\ possibly\\ to\\ spread\\ positive\\ image\\ of\\ Augustus\\ to\\ Greek\\ speaking\\ people\\.\\ It\\ features\\ accounts\\ of\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overprotective\\ mother\\,\\ his\\ closeness\\ with\\ Caesar\\ \\(a\\ trip\\ to\\ Spain\\ is\\ mentioned\\)\\,\\ his\\ sadness\\ over\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ and\\ rise\\ to\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;He\\ was\\ protected\\ by\\ the\\ watchful\\ and\\ unremitting\\ care\\ of\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ also\\ prudent\\ himself\\ since\\ he\\ was\\ now\\ advancing\\ beyond\\ boyhood\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;his\\ country\\ was\\ on\\ his\\ side\\ and\\ was\\ summoning\\ him\\ to\\ claim\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ honors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ rightly\\,\\ too\\ \\,\\ since\\ both\\ by\\ nature\\ and\\ by\\ law\\ the\\ rule\\ belonged\\ to\\ him\\,\\ as\\ the\\ nearest\\ relative\\ and\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adopted\\ son\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ image\\ in\\ the\\ Greek\\ world\\,\\ Augustus\\ early\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plutarch\\ and\\ Dio\\ \\(SB\\ 133\\-142\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dio\\ Cassius\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ of\\ Rome\\,\\ Book\\ 50\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ pro\\ Antony\\ retelling\\ that\\ we\\ have\\.\\ Highlights\\ include\\ a\\ conference\\ where\\ Antony\\ knew\\ that\\ defeat\\ was\\ eminent\\ and\\ after\\ listening\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ ideas\\ decided\\ to\\ have\\ his\\ fleet\\ return\\ to\\ Egypt\\,\\ not\\ in\\ cowardice\\,\\ but\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ choice\\.\\ There\\ were\\ also\\ portends\\ which\\ warned\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\ that\\ the\\ outcome\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ favorable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cleopatra\\ prevailed\\ with\\ the\\ proposal\\ that\\ garrisons\\ be\\ left\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ best\\ defensive\\ positions\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ army\\ should\\ return\\ to\\ Egypt\\ with\\ Antony\\ and\\ herself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Actium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plutarch\\ \\&ldquo\\;Life\\ of\\ Antony\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ pro\\-Caesar\\ account\\ of\\ Actium\\.\\ It\\ emphasizes\\ how\\ Caesar\\ was\\ outmanned\\ by\\ Antony\\ but\\ still\\ prevailed\\.\\ Also\\ it\\ shows\\ Antony\\ as\\ a\\ terrible\\ military\\ leader\\,\\ not\\ focusing\\ on\\ his\\ strong\\ land\\ troops\\,\\ leaving\\ his\\ loyal\\ soldiers\\,\\ fighting\\ at\\ sea\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ at\\ a\\ HUGE\\ disadvantage\\ etc\\.\\ Basically\\ it\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ advice\\ of\\ Cleopatra\\,\\ Antony\\ marched\\ his\\ fleet\\ into\\ certain\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\ do\\ you\\ distrust\\ this\\ sword\\ and\\ these\\ wounds\\ and\\ instead\\ put\\ your\\ hopes\\ in\\ rotten\\ timbers\\?\\ Antony\\ made\\ no\\ reply\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;those\\ who\\ heard\\ the\\ news\\ at\\ first\\ could\\ not\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ really\\ gone\\ off\\,\\ leaving\\ behind\\ nineteen\\ legions\\ and\\ 12\\,000\\ cavalry\\,\\ all\\ undefeated\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Actium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ Epodes\\ \\&ldquo\\;Epode\\ 7\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(SB\\ 171\\-172\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Short\\ poem\\ were\\ basically\\ Horace\\ is\\ critiquing\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Has\\ not\\ enough\\ Latin\\ blood\\ been\\ poured\\ on\\ fields\\ and\\ Neptune\\&rsquo\\;s\\ waves\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Nor\\ wolf\\ nor\\ lion\\ knows\\ the\\ custom\\,\\ they\\ never\\ turn\\ on\\ their\\ own\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Civil\\ wars\\,\\ Poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ critiques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Epode\\ 16\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ longer\\ prose\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ critique\\ on\\ Civil\\ wars\\.\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ Romans\\ abandon\\ Rome\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;collapsing\\ from\\ her\\ own\\ strength\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ return\\ when\\ times\\ are\\ better\\,\\ or\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ city\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ much\\ like\\ Aeneas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Another\\ generation\\ is\\ now\\ being\\ ground\\ up\\ by\\ civil\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;Perhaps\\-\\ as\\ would\\ be\\ wise\\-\\ you\\ all\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ the\\ better\\ part\\ seek\\ to\\ escape\\ these\\ ills\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\civil\\ wars\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Propertius\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ Gallus\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(SB\\ 189\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ speaker\\,\\ the\\ deceased\\ \\&\\#39\\;Gallus\\&\\#39\\;\\ referred\\ to\\ in\\ line\\ 7\\,\\ is\\ addressing\\ a\\ fellow\\-soldier\\ who\\ escaped\\ from\\ the\\ siege\\ of\\ Perusia\\ \\(modern\\ Perugia\\)\\ during\\ the\\ battle\\ between\\ Octavian\\ \\(later\\ Augustus\\)\\ and\\ L\\.\\ Antonius\\ \\(Mark\\ Antony\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brother\\)\\ in\\ 41\\ BC\\.\\ The\\ address\\ to\\ a\\ passer\\-by\\ is\\ a\\ typical\\ format\\ for\\ a\\ tomb\\-inscription\\,\\ exploiting\\ the\\ pathos\\ \\(as\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\)\\ whereby\\ the\\ deceased\\ reveals\\ his\\ \\(or\\ her\\)\\ own\\ identity\\ to\\ posterity\\.\\ In\\ the\\ last\\ part\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ his\\ sister\\ to\\ know\\ he\\ is\\ dead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;let\\ her\\ \\(sister\\)\\ know\\,\\ whatever\\ bones\\ she\\ finds\\ spread\\ on\\ the\\ Tuscan\\ hills\\,\\ that\\ these\\ belong\\ to\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;You\\ there\\,\\ soldier\\,\\ running\\ to\\ avoid\\ your\\ comrades\\ fate\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Birthplace\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ cast\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ reply\\ to\\ a\\ question\\ from\\ Propertius\\&\\#39\\;\\ friend\\ \\&\\#39\\;Tullus\\&\\#39\\;\\ about\\ his\\ place\\ of\\ origin\\.\\ Propertius\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ fertile\\ plain\\ of\\ Umbria\\ beneath\\ the\\ hill\\-town\\ of\\ Perusia\\ \\(modern\\ Perugia\\)\\,\\ probably\\ from\\ the\\ adjacent\\ hill\\-town\\ of\\ Asisium\\ \\(modern\\ Assisi\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Whence\\ my\\ family\\,\\ of\\ what\\ rank\\,\\ what\\ household\\ gods\\ are\\ mine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ ask\\ this\\,\\ Tullus\\,\\ in\\ long\\ friendship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Course\\ Wide\\ Tie\\-Ins\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Elegy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\olurunn\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Readings\\ for\\ Lecture\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suetonius\\ \\(SB\\ 100\\-32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Deified\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Outline\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-4\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ ANCESTRY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\-8\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ BOYHOOD\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\:\\ How\\ he\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ \\`Caesar\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\-19\\ THE\\ CIVIL\\ WARS\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\:\\ Augustus\\ and\\ Antony\\:\\ Mutina\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\:\\ Hirtius\\ and\\ Pansa\\:\\ suspicion\\ of\\ foul\\ play\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\:\\ 43\\ B\\.C\\.\\:\\ Octavian\\ abandons\\ the\\ Optimate\\ faction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\:\\ The\\ Second\\ Triumvirate\\:\\ Philippi\\ \\(42\\ B\\.C\\.\\)\\ Proscriptions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\:\\ 40\\ B\\.C\\.\\:\\ Perusia\\ \\(15\\:\\ \\`Arae\\ Perusinae\\&\\#39\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\:\\ 38\\-36\\ B\\.C\\.\\:\\ Sicily\\:\\ Sextius\\ Pompeius\\ and\\ Lepidus\\ Naulochus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\:\\ 31\\ B\\.C\\.\\ September\\ 2\\:\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\:\\ Antonius\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\:\\ Conspiracies\\ and\\ rebellions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\-25\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ FOREIGN\\ WARS\\ AND\\ MILITARY\\ POLICY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\:\\ Wars\\ Augustus\\ fought\\ in\\ person\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\:\\ Wars\\ fought\\ by\\ proxy\\ \\(legati\\)\\.\\ Frontier\\ policy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\:\\ Peace\\:\\ The\\ Temple\\ of\\ Janus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\:\\ Triumphs\\ and\\ Disasters\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\:\\ Military\\ Discipline\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\:\\ Slaves\\ in\\ the\\ military\\:\\ military\\ rewards\\.\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ caution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\-28\\ AUGUSTUS\\ AND\\ THE\\ CONSTITUTION\\:\\ THE\\ \\`PRINCIPATE\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\:\\ The\\ consulships\\ \\(31\\-23\\,\\ 12\\,\\ 5\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\:\\ The\\ triumvirate\\.\\ Tribunicia\\ potestas\\.\\ Censorships\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\:\\ Augustus\\ and\\ the\\ Republic\\.\\ The\\ new\\ regime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\-34\\ SOCIAL\\ AND\\ RELIGIOUS\\ AFFAIRS\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\:\\ Public\\ works\\ in\\ Rome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\:\\ Social\\ Services\\:\\ fires\\ and\\ floods\\,\\ road\\ repair\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\:\\ Religious\\ Policy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\32\\:\\ Brigandage\\.\\ Legal\\ Reforms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\:\\ Augustus\\ as\\ judge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\:\\ Moral\\ legislation\\.\\ Concern\\ over\\ the\\ birth\\ rate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\-42\\ POLITICAL\\ REFORMS\\:\\ SENATE\\,\\ EQUESTRIAN\\ ORDER\\,\\ THE\\ PEOPLE\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\:\\ Lectio\\ Senatus\\.\\ Legislative\\ procedures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\36\\:\\ Official\\ bureaucratic\\ procedures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\37\\:\\ Senatorial\\ committees\\.\\ Revival\\ of\\ the\\ censorship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\38\\:\\ Military\\ service\\ for\\ senators\\ and\\ equites\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\39\\:\\ Revision\\ of\\ the\\ Roll\\ of\\ the\\ Equestrian\\ Order\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\:\\ The\\ Populus\\:\\ grain\\ dole\\,\\ elections\\,\\ citizenship\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\41\\:\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ generosity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\:\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ moderation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\43\\-45\\ POLICY\\ ON\\ PUBLIC\\ SPECTACLES\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\43\\:\\ Shows\\ given\\ by\\ Augustus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\44\\:\\ Legislation\\ on\\ public\\ spectacles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\45\\:\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ personal\\ tastes\\.\\ Actors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\46\\-50\\ ITALIAN\\ AND\\ IMPERIAL\\ POLICY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\46\\:\\ Colonies\\ in\\ Italy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\47\\:\\ Provincial\\ policies\\:\\ Imperial\\ visitations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\48\\:\\ Client\\ Kingdoms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\49\\:\\ Imperial\\ troops\\.\\ The\\ cursus\\ publicus\\.\\ Military\\ treasury\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\50\\:\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ signet\\ ring\\.\\ The\\ Sphinx\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\51\\-60\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ PUBLIC\\ VIRTUES\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\51\\:\\ Clementia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\52\\:\\ Reverentia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\53\\:\\ Civilitas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\54\\:\\ Tolerantia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\55\\:\\ Treatment\\ of\\ Opposition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\56\\:\\ Humanitas\\.\\ Behavior\\ in\\ Comitia\\ \\&\\;\\ Courts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\57\\:\\ Equestrians\\ and\\ the\\ Plebs\\:\\ Affection\\ for\\ Augustus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\58\\:\\ Pater\\ Patriae\\ \\(2\\ B\\.C\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\59\\:\\ Prayers\\ for\\ his\\ long\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\60\\:\\ Gratitude\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ Client\\ Kings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\61\\-67\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ FAMILY\\ AND\\ HOUSEHOLD\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\61\\:\\ His\\ mother\\ \\(Atia\\)\\ and\\ sister\\ \\(Octavia\\ Minor\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\62\\:\\ His\\ Wives\\ \\(Scribonia\\,\\ Livia\\ Drusilla\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\63\\:\\ Julia\\ his\\ daughter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\64\\:\\ His\\ grandchildren\\ \\(Gaius\\,\\ Lucius\\,\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\,\\ Agrippina\\ Major\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\65\\:\\ Family\\ Disasters\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\66\\:\\ His\\ close\\ friends\\:\\ Salvidienus\\,\\ Gallus\\,\\ Agrippa\\,\\ Maecenas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\67\\:\\ Slaves\\ and\\ freedmen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\68\\-83\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ PERSONAL\\ HABITS\\ AND\\ PRIVATE\\ LIFE\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\68\\:\\ Charges\\ of\\ effeminacy\\ and\\ homosexuality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\69\\:\\ Charges\\ of\\ adultery\\ and\\ loose\\ living\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\70\\:\\ A\\ blasphemous\\ banquet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\71\\:\\ Summary\\ of\\ his\\ vices\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\72\\:\\ His\\ houses\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ of\\ \\`simplicity\\&\\#39\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\73\\:\\ Furniture\\ and\\ clothing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\74\\:\\ Entertainment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\75\\:\\ Holidays\\ and\\ feast\\ days\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\76\\:\\ Food\\ and\\ appetite\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\77\\:\\ Drink\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\78\\:\\ Sleep\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\79\\:\\ Personal\\ appearance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\80\\:\\ Intimate\\ details\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\81\\:\\ Health\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\82\\:\\ Personal\\ care\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\83\\:\\ Exercise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\84\\-89\\ AUGUSTUS\\ AS\\ A\\ MAN\\ OF\\ LETTERS\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\84\\:\\ Oratory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\85\\:\\ Written\\ works\\:\\ prose\\ and\\ verse\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\86\\:\\ Style\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\87\\:\\ Peculiarities\\ of\\ expression\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\88\\:\\ Grammar\\;\\ secret\\ code\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\89\\:\\ Greek\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\90\\-96\\ PERSONAL\\ RELIGION\\ IN\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ LIFE\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\90\\:\\ Lightning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\91\\:\\ Dreams\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\92\\:\\ Omens\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\93\\:\\ Attitude\\ to\\ foreign\\ cults\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\94\\:\\ Omens\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ birth\\ and\\ destiny\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\95\\:\\ Omens\\ of\\ his\\ youth\\ and\\ public\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\96\\:\\ Omens\\ of\\ his\\ battles\\ and\\ victory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\97\\-101\\ AUGUSTUS\\&\\#39\\;\\ DEATH\\,\\ BURIAL\\,\\ AND\\ DEIFICATION\\ \\(A\\.D\\.14\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\97\\:\\ Omens\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\98\\:\\ Cause\\ of\\ death\\.\\ The\\ last\\ journey\\ to\\ Nola\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\99\\:\\ The\\ deathbed\\ and\\ last\\ words\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\100\\:\\ His\\ burial\\,\\ honors\\,\\ and\\ deification\\ ceremony\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\101\\:\\ His\\ will\\,\\ bequests\\,\\ and\\ final\\ instructions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Res\\ Gestae\\ \\(SB\\ 70\\-75\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ autobiography\\ which\\ Augustus\\ had\\ cast\\ in\\ bronze\\ and\\ put\\ on\\ columns\\ in\\ a\\ memorial\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ Augustus\\ describes\\ his\\ many\\ accomplishments\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ mainly\\ focuses\\ on\\ his\\ military\\ victories\\,\\ his\\ generosity\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Rome\\,\\ his\\ clemency\\ toward\\ prisoners\\ of\\ war\\,\\ and\\ the\\ many\\ titles\\ which\\ he\\ received\\ and\\ declined\\ from\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ mentions\\ his\\ family\\ only\\ to\\ boost\\ his\\ honor\\ \\(talking\\ about\\ his\\ deceased\\ sons\\,\\ who\\ took\\ a\\ place\\ in\\ government\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ only\\ 14\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ important\\ is\\ what\\ he\\ leaves\\ out\\:\\ he\\ gives\\ no\\ recognition\\ to\\ Agrippa\\ for\\ his\\ help\\ in\\ the\\ battles\\ he\\ won\\,\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ mention\\ his\\ wives\\ or\\ daughter\\ Julia\\ at\\ all\\,\\ and\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ mention\\ how\\ cruel\\ he\\ often\\ was\\ to\\ his\\ prisoners\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ begins\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ at\\ 19\\ years\\ old\\,\\ when\\ \\"\\;I\\ liberated\\ the\\ Republic\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ oppressed\\ at\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ a\\ faction\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ does\\ not\\ mention\\ his\\ actual\\ family\\ background\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tacitus\\ \\(SB\\ 88\\-96\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tacitus\\:\\ The\\ Annals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tacitus\\ spares\\ no\\ biting\\ criticism\\ in\\ his\\ accounting\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ days\\ of\\ Augustus\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ Tiberius\\.\\ \\ \\;Tacitus\\ briefly\\ passes\\ over\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ascent\\ to\\ power\\ and\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ made\\ the\\ nobles\\ of\\ Rome\\ into\\ \\"\\;slaves\\"\\;\\ through\\ his\\ consolidation\\ of\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;Tacitus\\ then\\ describes\\ the\\ in\\-family\\ struggle\\ of\\ power\\,\\ including\\ Livia\\&\\#39\\;s\\ work\\ in\\ binding\\ Augustus\\ to\\ her\\ influence\\ \\(Tacitus\\ makes\\ the\\ accusation\\ that\\ Livia\\ had\\ Lucius\\ and\\ Gaius\\ killed\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Tacitus\\ describes\\ Livia\\ as\\ having\\ a\\ \\"\\;lack\\ of\\ feminine\\ control\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;Tacitus\\ describes\\ how\\ Tiberius\\ came\\ in\\ when\\ Augustus\\ was\\ killed\\ \\(described\\ by\\ Prof\\.\\ Tarrant\\ in\\ lecture\\)\\,\\ and\\ how\\ Tacitus\\ had\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\ \\(who\\ was\\ in\\ exile\\)\\ killed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ text\\ \\ \\;then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ describe\\ how\\ Tacitus\\ had\\ Augustus\\ buried\\ \\(wanting\\ to\\ avoid\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ excess\\ of\\ Julius\\ Ceasar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ burial\\)\\ and\\ how\\ Tacitus\\ consolidated\\ his\\ power\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ which\\ again\\ submitted\\ itself\\ to\\ slavery\\ under\\ its\\ new\\ ruler\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syme\\ \\(SB\\ 269\\-278\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Princeps\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Jan\\.\\ 13\\,\\ 27\\ B\\.C\\.\\ Augustus\\ resigns\\ his\\ powers\\.\\ The\\ senate\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ him\\ to\\ abandon\\ his\\ rule\\,\\ so\\ grants\\ him\\ a\\ special\\ commission\\ of\\ a\\ province\\.\\ The\\ senate\\ gives\\ him\\ a\\ new\\ name\\,\\ \\"\\;Augustus\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ While\\ supposedly\\ relinquishing\\ power\\,\\ Augustus\\ was\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ monarch\\ and\\ almost\\ had\\ absolute\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Augustus\\ was\\ not\\ willing\\ to\\ accept\\ power\\ that\\ ran\\ against\\ the\\ \\"\\;mos\\ maiorum\\"\\;\\ or\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ By\\ \\"\\;auctoritas\\,\\"\\;\\ the\\ system\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ tradition\\ whereby\\ the\\ senate\\ and\\ statesmen\\ have\\ power\\,\\ was\\ the\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ Augustus\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ ruler\\ above\\ all\\.\\ Senior\\ statesmen\\ were\\ called\\ \\"\\;princeps\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ Augustus\\ ranked\\ first\\ among\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ What\\ happened\\ on\\ Jan\\.\\ 13\\ was\\ not\\ deception\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\.\\ The\\ senate\\ knew\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\,\\ and\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ ensure\\ the\\ peace\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ Rome\\,\\ they\\ acted\\ in\\ the\\ manner\\ that\\ they\\ did\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zanker\\ \\(SB\\ 89\\-100\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ celebration\\ of\\ his\\ victory\\ at\\ Actium\\ was\\ over\\,\\ Octavian\\ faced\\ a\\ new\\ challenge\\-\\ res\\ publica\\ restitute\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ saved\\ the\\ republic\\ but\\ now\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ restore\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tried\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ aristocracy\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ bring\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ given\\ awards\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ corona\\ civica\\,\\ clipeus\\ virtutis\\ \\(honorific\\ shield\\)\\,\\ oak\\ wreaths\\ \\(given\\ for\\ rescuing\\ a\\ comrade\\ in\\ battle\\)\\,\\ and\\ laurel\\ wreaths\\ and\\ branches\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ had\\ an\\ added\\ significance\\ for\\ Octavian\\ who\\ had\\ laurel\\ trees\\ on\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ entrance\\ of\\ his\\ house\\,\\ connecting\\ himself\\ to\\ Apollo\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ his\\ successors\\,\\ the\\ oak\\ wreath\\ became\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ power\\,\\ removed\\ from\\ its\\ original\\ intention\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ clipeus\\ virtutis\\ documented\\ the\\ achievements\\ of\\ a\\ hero\\ but\\ eventually\\ evolved\\ to\\ contain\\ the\\ qualities\\ a\\ Senate\\ thought\\ the\\ ruler\\ should\\ have\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ ruler\\ viewed\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ victory\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ signal\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ god\\ given\\ right\\ to\\ rule\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ being\\ honored\\ with\\ the\\ title\\ Augustus\\,\\ he\\ proceeded\\ to\\ change\\ his\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ sculptures\\ his\\ figure\\ was\\ formed\\ in\\ the\\ Classical\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ arrogance\\ of\\ Octavian\\ was\\ transformed\\ into\\ dignified\\ calmness\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ disproportional\\ features\\ have\\ been\\ turned\\ into\\ an\\ artificial\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ with\\ near\\ perfect\\ symmetry\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ new\\ portrait\\ looked\\ nothng\\ like\\ Augustus\\ but\\ it\\ provided\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ dignified\\ ruler\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ public\\ received\\ all\\ this\\ enthusiastically\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ promote\\ his\\ own\\ image\\,\\ Augustus\\ allowed\\ the\\ general\\ public\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ for\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 6\\ and\\ 7\\ Readings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Velleius\\ Paterculus\\ on\\ disgrace\\ of\\ Julia\\ \\(SB\\ 80\\-81\\)\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ describes\\ Julia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adultery\\ as\\ the\\ turmoil\\ in\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ household\\ in\\ 2BC\\ amidst\\ the\\ excitement\\ of\\ the\\ dedication\\ of\\ Mars\\ Ultor\\.\\ Augustus\\ treated\\ the\\ men\\ that\\ were\\ caught\\ with\\ surprising\\ kindness\\-\\ showing\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\clementia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ This\\ fits\\ into\\ the\\ course\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ Augustus\\ has\\ with\\ his\\ family\\ in\\ his\\ quest\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ successor\\.\\ His\\ daughter\\ Julia\\ is\\ his\\ main\\ hope\\ for\\ an\\ heir\\,\\ but\\ that\\ role\\ she\\ is\\ cast\\ in\\ causes\\ her\\ to\\ rebel\\ and\\ shame\\ her\\ father\\.\\ Especially\\ considering\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ strong\\ efforts\\ towards\\ promoting\\ morality\\ and\\ strong\\ family\\/marriage\\ bonds\\,\\ Julia\\ was\\ a\\ huge\\ disappoint\\ to\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seneca\\ on\\ disgrace\\ of\\ Julia\\ \\(SB\\ 87\\-88\\)\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ passage\\ describes\\ the\\ same\\ exile\\ of\\ Julia\\ but\\ from\\ a\\ vantage\\ point\\ of\\ 50yrs\\ after\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\.\\ Seneca\\ looks\\ more\\ at\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ actual\\ events\\ that\\ occurred\\.\\ Seneca\\ criticizes\\ Augustus\\ for\\ making\\ the\\ matter\\ public\\ due\\ to\\ his\\ uncontrollable\\ anger\\.\\ Augustus\\ is\\ quoted\\ as\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;none\\ of\\ this\\ would\\ have\\ happened\\ to\\ me\\ if\\ Agrippa\\ and\\ Maecenas\\ had\\ been\\ alive\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ thus\\ this\\ passage\\ also\\ shows\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ closeness\\ to\\ these\\ two\\ men\\ and\\ his\\ inability\\ to\\ replace\\ them\\ throughout\\ his\\ rule\\.\\ They\\ were\\ both\\ strong\\ candidates\\ to\\ become\\ his\\ successor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Velleius\\ Paterculus\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Augustus\\ \\(SB\\ 81\\)\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\There\\ are\\ various\\ stories\\ told\\ about\\ what\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ last\\ words\\ were\\.\\ In\\ this\\ account\\,\\ Augustus\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ declared\\ that\\ his\\ mind\\ was\\ at\\ ease\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ ready\\ to\\ meet\\ his\\ fate\\ knowing\\ that\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;beloved\\&rdquo\\;\\ Tiberius\\ would\\ be\\ his\\ successor\\.\\ This\\ account\\ is\\ clearly\\ biased\\ towards\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ leadership\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tacitus\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Augustus\\ \\(SB\\ 90\\-93\\)\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ account\\ describes\\ the\\ expected\\ foul\\ play\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\.\\ Livia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ guards\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ watched\\ Augustus\\ very\\ carefully\\ until\\ the\\ simultaneous\\ reports\\ were\\ announced\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ that\\ Augustus\\ had\\ passed\\ away\\ and\\ that\\ Tiberius\\ was\\ the\\ new\\ ruler\\.\\ Livia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ambition\\ can\\ be\\ played\\ up\\ when\\ commenting\\ on\\ this\\ reading\\-\\ her\\ patience\\ with\\ Augustus\\ and\\ seeming\\ subservience\\,\\ coupled\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ she\\ would\\ pave\\ the\\ trail\\ for\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;empress\\&rdquo\\;\\ after\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tristia\\ \\(SB\\ 238\\)\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\written\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ovid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ opening\\ poem\\ of\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;sorrowful\\ poems\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\ Ovid\\ is\\ speaking\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ poetry\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ sending\\ back\\ to\\ Rome\\ \\(from\\ exile\\)\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ conveys\\ his\\ frustration\\ of\\ being\\ in\\ exile\\ and\\ his\\ desire\\ for\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ Augustus\\ and\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ his\\ own\\ existence\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ list\\ of\\ transformations\\ described\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;joyful\\ in\\ other\\ times\\,\\ now\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ tears\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ poem\\ ties\\ in\\ with\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ society\\ as\\ he\\ truly\\ saw\\ it\\ and\\ the\\ punishment\\ he\\ received\\ for\\ doing\\ so\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zanker\\ \\(215\\-223\\)\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\After\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ rapid\\ and\\ dramatic\\ change\\,\\ Rome\\ had\\ reached\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ equilibrium\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ maintained\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ Julian\\ family\\ ruled\\ and\\ thus\\ Augustus\\ sought\\ to\\ promote\\ his\\ successors\\ successfully\\.\\ Finding\\ a\\ suitable\\ heir\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ main\\ concerns\\ as\\ he\\ got\\ older\\.\\ Gaius\\ and\\ Lucius\\ were\\ shown\\ on\\ coins\\ and\\ groomed\\ for\\ succession\\ years\\ in\\ advance\\.\\ The\\ boys\\ were\\ also\\ honored\\ on\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ and\\ they\\ occupy\\ a\\ prominent\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ procession\\.\\ Particularly\\ striking\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ oldest\\ boy\\ \\(Gaius\\)\\ clutches\\ the\\ toga\\ of\\ Agrippa\\.\\ Both\\ boys\\ receive\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\principes\\ iuventutis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ had\\ no\\ real\\ political\\ significance\\ but\\ soon\\ became\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ official\\ title\\ for\\ successors\\ to\\ the\\ throne\\.\\ Both\\ were\\ portrayed\\ idealized\\ like\\ Augustus\\.\\ While\\ alive\\ they\\ were\\ elevated\\ into\\ high\\ positions\\ and\\ after\\ death\\ they\\ became\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ national\\ myth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ They\\ received\\ triumphal\\ arches\\,\\ altars\\,\\ public\\ buildings\\,\\ and\\ temples\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Callimachus\\ and\\ Gallus\\ \\(SB\\ 150\\ and\\ 152\\)\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Callimachus\\ poem\\ is\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ the\\ prologue\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aetia\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ Gallus\\ passage\\ is\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ fragments\\ from\\ elegiac\\ poems\\.\\ Callimachus\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ speaks\\ to\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ tread\\ a\\ new\\ path\\ and\\ Gallus\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\ praises\\ Augustus\\.\\ Callimachus\\ was\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ poets\\&rdquo\\;\\ along\\ with\\ Catullus\\ and\\ Pollio\\ and\\ they\\ sought\\ to\\ bring\\ personal\\ fulfillment\\ to\\ the\\ forefront\\ of\\ poetry\\ writing\\.\\ Gallus\\ was\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\ with\\ Virgil\\ and\\ Horace\\.\\ They\\ valued\\ the\\ personal\\ as\\ well\\,\\ but\\ they\\ all\\ lived\\ through\\ the\\ civil\\ wars\\ and\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ political\\ pressures\\ that\\ the\\ first\\ generation\\ did\\ not\\ have\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slides\\ from\\ Lecture\\ \\#21\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ entire\\ lecture\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ roll\\ of\\ religion\\-\\ describing\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ seeing\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Religious\\ practices\\ and\\ rituals\\ were\\ pervasive\\ in\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ most\\ Romans\\.\\ Roman\\ religion\\ was\\ described\\ by\\ a\\ plurality\\ of\\ gods\\ with\\ no\\ fixed\\ canon\\-\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ household\\ and\\ family\\ gods\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\lares\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ and\\ spirits\\ of\\ ancestors\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\manes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ All\\ important\\ tasks\\ were\\ accompanied\\ by\\ prayer\\ and\\ ritual\\.\\ Use\\ this\\ overview\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ to\\ put\\ slides\\ 1\\-3\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 1\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Detail\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lararium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ Pompeii\\.\\ 63\\-79\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Illustrated\\ manuscript\\ of\\ Virgil\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Aeneas\\ is\\ visited\\ by\\ the\\ Penates\\ at\\ night\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 3\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;West\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\:\\ Aeneas\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ the\\ Penates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 4\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Coins\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ issued\\ just\\ prior\\ to\\ his\\ emergence\\ as\\ sole\\ ruler\\,\\ 48\\ BC\\.\\ Obverse\\:\\ religious\\ implements\\,\\ vanquished\\ enemy\\.\\ Reverse\\:\\ elephant\\ and\\ chariot\\.\\ This\\ coin\\ speaks\\ to\\ the\\ desire\\ of\\ emperors\\ to\\ associate\\ themselves\\ with\\ the\\ divine\\ and\\ with\\ religious\\ imagery\\ as\\ initiated\\ by\\ Caesar\\.\\ Direct\\ association\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\ and\\ religion\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ an\\ enhancement\\ and\\ substantiation\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ prestige\\.\\ Play\\ up\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ initiation\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ portrayal\\ of\\ leadership\\ and\\ the\\ resulting\\ trail\\ he\\ blazed\\ for\\ Augustus\\ to\\ follow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 5\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Gemma\\ Augustea\\,\\ a\\ large\\ cameo\\ depicting\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ imperial\\ family\\,\\ Augustus\\ at\\ center\\ right\\ \\(Roma\\ at\\ center\\)\\.\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 182\\-\\ Directly\\ from\\ Zanker\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Augustus\\ is\\ enthroned\\,\\ like\\ Jupiter\\,\\ beside\\ Roma\\.\\ He\\ holds\\ the\\ lituus\\ as\\ token\\ of\\ military\\ high\\ command\\,\\ for\\ the\\ princes\\ before\\ him\\ wage\\ wars\\ under\\ his\\ orders\\.\\ Behind\\ the\\ throne\\,\\ personifications\\ of\\ the\\ peaceful\\ and\\ joyous\\ earth\\.\\ Below\\,\\ Roman\\ soldiers\\ and\\ personifications\\ of\\ auxiliaries\\ with\\ subjugated\\ barbarians\\.\\ ca\\ 10\\ AD\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 231\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ religious\\ imagery\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ Augustus\\ and\\ his\\ rule\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jon\\ Chrispin\\ Lecture\\ 8\\ and\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ \\(SB\\ 170\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-From\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Epodes\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ simple\\ poem\\ written\\ by\\ Horace\\ about\\ his\\ friend\\ Maecenas\\ who\\ goes\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ war\\ to\\ fight\\ along\\ side\\ Caesar\\ \\(Augustus\\)\\ in\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\.\\ Horace\\ speaks\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ grief\\ and\\ loneliness\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ face\\ while\\ his\\ friend\\ is\\ away\\.\\ He\\ wonders\\ whether\\ he\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\should\\ continue\\ living\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ leisure\\ or\\ whether\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;bear\\ these\\ hardships\\ with\\ a\\ ready\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\will\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Horace\\ admits\\ to\\ be\\ peace\\ loving\\ and\\ weak\\,\\ but\\ promises\\ to\\ be\\ there\\ for\\ his\\ friend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ will\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ seek\\ favor\\ with\\ his\\ friend\\ and\\ will\\ not\\ fear\\ any\\ dangers\\ that\\ lie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ahead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epodes\\ are\\ a\\ very\\ simplistic\\ and\\ informal\\ style\\ of\\ writing\\ used\\ by\\ Horace\\ is\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beginning\\ of\\ his\\ literary\\ career\\.\\ Epodes\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ lower\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ cursus\\ honorum\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ soon\\ began\\ to\\ upgrade\\ his\\ style\\ to\\ the\\ lyrical\\ poetry\\ of\\ Odes\\.\\ Horace\\ was\\ part\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ next\\ generation\\ of\\ writers\\ \\(along\\ with\\ Virgil\\ and\\ Gallus\\)\\ after\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ poets\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\consisted\\ of\\ Catullus\\,\\ Cinna\\ and\\ Calvus\\.\\ The\\ era\\ was\\ dominated\\ by\\ poets\\ seeking\\ high\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\personal\\ goals\\ such\\ as\\ reaching\\ the\\ canon\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ limited\\ in\\ their\\ range\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\topics\\ and\\ ideas\\ for\\ fear\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ offending\\ the\\ Augustan\\ regime\\.\\ They\\ had\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ portray\\ politically\\ accepted\\ views\\ while\\ maintaining\\ their\\ poetic\\ integrity\\.\\ This\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\depicted\\ in\\ the\\ above\\ Epode\\,\\ as\\ Horace\\,\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ peaceful\\ man\\,\\ supports\\ Maecenas\\ who\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\goes\\ on\\ to\\ fight\\ along\\ side\\ Caesar\\.\\ This\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ once\\ fought\\ against\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Philippi\\.\\ Epodes\\ were\\ an\\ abusive\\ style\\ on\\ personal\\,\\ erotic\\ and\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subjects\\.\\ They\\ were\\ written\\ in\\ either\\ iambics\\ \\(a\\ metrical\\ foot\\ consisting\\ of\\ one\\ short\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\syllable\\ followed\\ by\\ one\\ long\\ syllable\\ or\\ of\\ one\\ unstressed\\ syllable\\ followed\\ by\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stressed\\ syllable\\)\\,\\ or\\ iambics\\ in\\ combination\\ with\\ dactyls\\ \\(a\\ metrical\\ foot\\ consisting\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\one\\ long\\ and\\ two\\ short\\ syllables\\ or\\ of\\ one\\ stressed\\ and\\ two\\ unstressed\\ syllables\\)\\.\\ Horace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\was\\ born\\ in\\ 65\\ B\\.C\\.\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ highly\\ educated\\ man\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ humble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beginning\\.\\ He\\ lived\\ and\\ fought\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ wars\\ along\\ side\\ Brutus\\ and\\ Cassius\\.\\ He\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\would\\ befriends\\ Virgil\\ and\\ joins\\ his\\ circle\\ which\\ included\\ Maecenas\\,\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\domestic\\ advisor\\,\\ and\\ who\\ ultimately\\ became\\ their\\ patronage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ \\(SB\\,\\ 174\\-177\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Satire\\ 5\\,\\ Satire\\ 2\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Satires\\ \\(Sermons\\ or\\ conversations\\)\\ were\\ the\\ lowest\\ style\\ of\\ writing\\ and\\ Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\first\\ work\\ of\\ poetry\\.\\ They\\ were\\ informal\\ and\\ consisted\\ of\\ a\\ hexameter\\ \\(a\\ line\\ of\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\consisting\\ of\\ six\\ metrical\\ feet\\)\\ style\\ of\\ writing\\.\\ Horace\\ himself\\ criticized\\ them\\ for\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\unpolished\\ nature\\ and\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ Satires\\.\\ They\\ were\\ personal\\ poems\\ and\\ satirical\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nature\\ of\\ contemporary\\ society\\.\\ In\\ Book\\ 1\\ Satire\\ 5\\,\\ Horace\\ writes\\ about\\ a\\ journey\\ he\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\takes\\ with\\ Heliodorus\\,\\ a\\ Greek\\ professor\\ in\\ rhetoric\\,\\ where\\ me\\ meets\\ up\\ with\\ Maecenas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ Virgil\\.\\ They\\ stay\\ at\\ an\\ Inn\\ where\\ they\\ tell\\ tales\\ and\\ interact\\ with\\ the\\ local\\ people\\.\\ It\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\seems\\ like\\ a\\ vacation\\ at\\ a\\ bar\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ reads\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ short\\ story\\ with\\ some\\ funny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lines\\ about\\ how\\ Horace\\ stayed\\ up\\ for\\ a\\ women\\ who\\ stood\\ him\\ up\\,\\ and\\ once\\ he\\ fell\\ asleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ \\&ldquo\\;soiled\\&rdquo\\;\\ himself\\ after\\ a\\ wet\\ dream\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;keyed\\ up\\ for\\ sex\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Satire\\ 2\\.6\\ depicts\\ Horace\\ in\\ his\\ Sabine\\ farm\\,\\ where\\ he\\ goes\\ away\\ and\\ reflects\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ political\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ He\\ speaks\\ of\\ how\\ he\\ never\\ committed\\ and\\ sins\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ of\\ this\\ he\\ writes\\ a\\ prayer\\ to\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Dawn\\,\\ Janus\\ and\\ speaks\\ of\\ all\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\responsibilities\\,\\ and\\ burdens\\ that\\ is\\ on\\ his\\ shoulders\\.\\ He\\ speaks\\ of\\ his\\ friendship\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maecenas\\ and\\ wonders\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ countryside\\,\\ when\\ can\\ I\\ see\\ your\\ face\\ again\\?\\ When\\ can\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\leave\\ this\\ day\\-to\\-day\\ fatigue\\,\\ forget\\ it\\ like\\ a\\ dream\\,\\ and\\ spend\\ my\\ time\\ with\\ ancient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\books\\,\\ in\\ sleep\\ in\\ lazing\\ days\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ As\\ Maecenas\\ being\\ the\\ patron\\ of\\ Horace\\,\\ Horace\\ had\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\great\\ ties\\ and\\ responsibilities\\ with\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\.\\ This\\ Satire\\ gives\\ a\\ worm\\&rsquo\\;s\\-eye\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\view\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ aspect\\ and\\ lifestyle\\ in\\ Rome\\ during\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\ to\\ Virgil\\ \\&\\;\\ Horace\\ \\(SB\\ 23\\-26\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Life\\ of\\ Virgil\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lived\\ from\\ 70\\ to\\ 19\\ BC\\,\\ little\\ is\\ known\\ about\\ his\\ real\\ life\\.\\ Was\\ first\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\poetry\\ world\\ through\\ Catullus\\ \\(1st\\ generation\\ poet\\)\\.\\ Pollio\\ was\\ his\\ first\\ patron\\ followed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ Maecenas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Works\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogues\\ \\-\\ collection\\ of\\ 10\\ poems\\,\\ Hellenistic\\ influenced\\,\\ very\\ beautiful\\ Georgics\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\didactic\\ poem\\ on\\ farming\\ and\\ animals\\.\\ Also\\ Hellenistic\\ based\\ Aeneid\\ \\-\\ epic\\ on\\ founding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ Rome\\,\\ Homeric\\ in\\ style\\,\\ shows\\ influence\\ of\\ every\\ major\\ Greek\\ or\\ Roman\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Aeneid\\ is\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ key\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ Augustan\\ era\\ because\\ it\\ encompasses\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\many\\ styles\\ and\\ discusses\\ the\\ founding\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Life\\ of\\ Horace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lived\\ from\\ 65\\ to\\ 8\\ BC\\.\\ From\\ a\\ humble\\ background\\,\\ fought\\ with\\ Brutus\\ against\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Philippi\\.\\ Was\\ introduced\\ to\\ Maecenas\\,\\ his\\ patron\\,\\ through\\ Virgil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Satire\\:\\ personal\\,\\ satiric\\ poems\\ on\\ contemporary\\ society\\.\\ Based\\ on\\ Greek\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epodes\\:\\ Personally\\ addressed\\ to\\ Maecenas\\,\\ abusive\\,\\ personal\\ poems\\ focused\\ on\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subjects\\ like\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Actium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Odes\\ 1\\-III\\ \\-\\ based\\ off\\ Sappho\\,\\ includes\\ the\\ Cleopatra\\ ode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epistles\\:\\ in\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ letters\\ between\\ friends\\,\\ talks\\ about\\ literature\\ and\\ poetry\\ writing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ most\\ quoted\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dareema\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mores\\ Maiorum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ slogan\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mores\\ Maiorum\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ customs\\ of\\ the\\ ancestors\\,\\ evoked\\ these\\ following\\ virutes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Simplicity\\ and\\ self\\-sufficiency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ strict\\ upbringing\\ and\\ moral\\ code\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Order\\ and\\ subservience\\ within\\ the\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diligence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bravery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Although\\ Rome\\ and\\ its\\ values\\ were\\ receding\\ rapidly\\,\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ necessity\\ or\\ Moral\\ renewal\\ was\\ firmly\\ rooted\\.\\ It\\ was\\ thought\\ that\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ ancestral\\ values\\ would\\ heal\\ the\\ body\\ politic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Legislation\\ on\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Godlessness\\ and\\ immorality\\ were\\ considered\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ evils\\.\\ Immorality\\ was\\ regarded\\ as\\ the\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ Augustus\\ believed\\ he\\ could\\ bring\\ about\\ a\\ fundamental\\ change\\ and\\ through\\ rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ improve\\ sexual\\ ethics\\ and\\ inspire\\ upper\\-class\\ Romans\\ to\\ produce\\ more\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Program\\ for\\ pietas\\ in\\ 29\\/28\\ B\\.C\\.\\:\\ first\\ unsuccessful\\ attempt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laws\\ on\\ Marriage\\ and\\ Morals\\ of\\ 18\\ B\\.C\\.\\:\\ ideological\\ preparation\\ for\\ the\\ Secular\\ Festival\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ year\\.\\ The\\ key\\ aspects\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ program\\ of\\ renewal\\ were\\ the\\ Leges\\ Iuliae\\.\\ The\\ Leges\\ Iuliae\\ prescribed\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Criminal\\ prosecution\\ for\\ adultery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ penalties\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ remained\\ unmarried\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rewards\\ and\\ privileges\\ for\\ parents\\ of\\ several\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ especially\\ fertile\\ woman\\ received\\ statue\\ and\\ an\\ old\\ codger\\ and\\ all\\ 61\\ of\\ his\\ descendants\\ were\\ officially\\ received\\ on\\ the\\ Capitol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poets\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ contribute\\ to\\ this\\ campaign\\ and\\ show\\ how\\ closely\\ the\\ dawning\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ age\\ was\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ and\\ necessitated\\ improved\\ moral\\ conduct\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ this\\ program\\ was\\ a\\ failure\\,\\ Augustus\\ identified\\ with\\ this\\ program\\ fully\\.\\ That\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ lashed\\ out\\ against\\ his\\ daughter\\ and\\ granddaughter\\.\\ Their\\ loose\\ living\\ hit\\ him\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ most\\ vulnerable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imagery\\ for\\ themes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ the\\ moral\\ marriage\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ blessings\\ of\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ara\\ Pacis\\-\\ \\(few\\)\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ imperial\\ family\\ were\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Glass\\ medallions\\-\\ images\\ of\\ imperial\\ princes\\ and\\ their\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Princeps\\ as\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\ offered\\ himself\\ as\\ the\\ greatest\\ example\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ his\\ private\\ life\\ and\\ public\\ appearance\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ constant\\ advertisement\\ of\\ the\\ mores\\ maiorum\\.\\ His\\ public\\ style\\ had\\ a\\ winning\\ simplicity\\ and\\ dignity\\.\\ He\\ always\\ displayed\\ discipline\\ and\\ self\\-control\\.\\ Visitors\\ to\\ his\\ home\\ commented\\ on\\ its\\ simplicity\\ and\\ old\\-fashioned\\ modesty\\.\\ It\\ was\\ said\\ that\\ Augustus\\ himself\\ melted\\ down\\ the\\ last\\ gold\\ dinner\\ plate\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ granddaughter\\ sewed\\ his\\ toga\\ by\\ hand\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ take\\ note\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\,\\ although\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ luxury\\,\\ he\\ retained\\ the\\ entire\\ island\\ of\\ Capri\\ as\\ his\\ private\\ refuge\\ and\\ had\\ hundreds\\ of\\ imperial\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ modesty\\ and\\ simplicity\\ of\\ the\\ princep\\&rsquo\\;s\\ style\\ are\\ most\\ evident\\ wth\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ honors\\ he\\ continually\\ received\\.\\ From\\ ca\\.\\ 20\\ B\\.C\\.\\ virtually\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ monuments\\ erected\\ in\\ his\\ honor\\ had\\ a\\ votive\\ or\\ religious\\ character\\.\\ Modesty\\ is\\ also\\ found\\ in\\ architecture\\ \\(i\\.e\\ the\\ modest\\ proportions\\ of\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ Augustae\\,\\ 13\\-9\\ B\\.C\\,\\ the\\ Ara\\ Fortunis\\ Reducis\\,\\ 19\\ B\\.C\\.\\)\\.\\ This\\ same\\ modesty\\ is\\ also\\ seen\\ in\\ portraits\\ created\\ around\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Secular\\ Games\\.\\ More\\ marked\\ facial\\ features\\ appear\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ portraits\\ in\\ place\\ of\\ the\\ artfully\\ constructed\\ countenance\\ and\\ deliberately\\ classicistic\\ forms\\ of\\ the\\ years\\ around\\ 27\\ B\\.C\\.\\ His\\ hair\\ is\\ more\\ realistic\\ and\\,\\ although\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ agelessness\\ of\\ the\\ face\\ is\\ preserved\\,\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ that\\ of\\ an\\ aloof\\,\\ eternally\\ youthful\\ hero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Toga\\ and\\ Stola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Augustus\\ succeeded\\ in\\ making\\ the\\ toga\\ kind\\ of\\ unofficial\\ Roman\\ state\\ dress\\ and\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ proper\\ attitude\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ Augustus\\ and\\ his\\ advisors\\,\\ the\\ toga\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ Republic\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ a\\ Greek\\ himation\\)\\ was\\ replaced\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ elaborate\\ and\\ fashionable\\ model\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ had\\ to\\ worn\\ with\\ sinus\\ and\\ balteus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Its\\ symbolic\\ meaning\\ became\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ its\\ functional\\ aspect\\ or\\ outward\\ appearance\\.\\(Freedmen\\ often\\ wore\\ togas\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ their\\ citizenship\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Augustus\\ took\\ pains\\ to\\ revive\\ this\\ dress\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ commanded\\ that\\ the\\ aediles\\ allow\\ no\\ one\\ into\\ the\\ Forum\\ or\\ its\\ vicinity\\ unless\\ he\\ had\\ removed\\ his\\ cloak\\ and\\ wore\\ a\\ toga\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Same\\ rule\\ applied\\ in\\ the\\ theater\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;True\\ Romans\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ full\\ citizen\\ rights\\ and\\ clad\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\togati\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;received\\ privileges\\ at\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ grain\\ and\\ handouts\\ of\\ money\\ in\\ theaters\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ bolster\\ their\\ pride\\ of\\ belonging\\ to\\ the\\ poplulus\\ Romanus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mariied\\ women\\ had\\ a\\ special\\ form\\ of\\ dress\\,\\ the\\ stola\\,\\ a\\ long\\ sleeveless\\ overgarment\\ with\\ narrow\\ shoulders\\.\\ It\\ became\\ a\\ signal\\ of\\ female\\ virtue\\ and\\ modesty\\.\\ For\\ the\\ dignified\\ matron\\,\\ wearing\\ the\\ stola\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ an\\ honor\\ but\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;protection\\ from\\ unwanted\\ attentions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agulnik\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rome\\ Study\\ Group\\ \\#\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Odes\\&mdash\\;30\\-23\\ BC\\ \\(SB\\ 178\\-185\\)\\&mdash\\;I\\ wrote\\ my\\ essay\\ on\\ this\\,\\ so\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ making\\ some\\ statements\\ about\\ the\\ whole\\ work\\ as\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ poems\\ in\\ our\\ sourcebook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-general\\ ideas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-many\\ poems\\ address\\ Maecenas\\,\\ Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ patron\\,\\ or\\ more\\ specifically\\ his\\ connection\\ to\\ Augustus\\,\\ who\\ provided\\ the\\ money\\ for\\ his\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ clear\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ literary\\ patronage\\&mdash\\;no\\ longer\\ individual\\ rich\\ patron\\,\\ but\\ one\\ main\\ man\\ \\(Augustus\\)\\ who\\ sponsored\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-mixture\\ of\\ private\\ life\\ with\\ public\\,\\ often\\ uses\\ personal\\ examples\\ to\\ convey\\ general\\ themes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ Odes\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ lyric\\,\\ which\\ is\\ traditionally\\ a\\ form\\ for\\ love\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;lighter\\&rsquo\\;\\ ideas\\ than\\ epic\\,\\ and\\ Horace\\ is\\ very\\ aware\\ of\\ this\\ fact\\&mdash\\;often\\ mentions\\ that\\ some\\ topics\\ are\\ above\\ him\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ more\\ suited\\ to\\ discuss\\ matters\\ of\\ love\\ an\\ human\\ relations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-does\\ contain\\ strong\\ political\\ messages\\,\\ however\\&mdash\\;\\ \\(II\\.\\ 2\\)\\ attacks\\ the\\ current\\ state\\ of\\ Rome\\&mdash\\;too\\ much\\ warfare\\ and\\ death\\ around\\ him\\,\\ Rome\\ is\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ endless\\ battle\\ and\\ deserted\\ by\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ Horace\\ rejects\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ topic\\,\\ asking\\ the\\ Muse\\ to\\ lead\\ him\\ to\\ poems\\ of\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ the\\ poets\\ of\\ this\\ age\\,\\ Horace\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ completely\\ reject\\ politics\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ all\\ too\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ effect\\ things\\ like\\ civil\\ war\\ can\\ have\\ on\\ the\\ average\\ Roman\\,\\ even\\ in\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ directly\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ struggle\\ at\\ hand\\ \\(Horace\\ grew\\ up\\ during\\ civil\\ war\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-great\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ frailty\\ of\\ life\\,\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ quickly\\ be\\ taken\\ away\\ from\\ us\\,\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ must\\ enjoy\\ every\\ moment\\ as\\ we\\ live\\ it\\,\\ without\\ trying\\ to\\ predict\\ or\\ plan\\ for\\ the\\ distant\\ future\\ \\(enjoy\\ the\\ time\\ you\\ have\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ regret\\ what\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rejects\\ the\\ riches\\ some\\ man\\ want\\&mdash\\;Horace\\ prefers\\ the\\ simple\\ life\\ and\\ thinks\\ only\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ content\\ with\\ what\\ they\\ have\\ can\\ ever\\ be\\ really\\ happy\\ \\(III\\.1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-his\\ work\\,\\ because\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ immortal\\,\\ makes\\ him\\ immortal\\,\\ divine\\ as\\ well\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ not\\ wholly\\ die\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(III\\.30\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-poems\\ \\(examples\\,\\ not\\ all\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-I\\.1\\:\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Maecenas\\,\\ most\\ of\\ poem\\ describes\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ what\\ makes\\ their\\ lives\\ complete\\&mdash\\;chariot\\ racing\\,\\ wine\\,\\ hunting\\,\\ fighting\\ as\\ a\\ soldier\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\,\\ however\\,\\ on\\ Horace\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ defines\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ person\\,\\ what\\ he\\ strives\\ for\\,\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ prize\\ for\\ poets\\,\\ the\\ crown\\ of\\ ivy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Horace\\ suggests\\ that\\ his\\ work\\ gives\\ him\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ divinity\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;makes\\ me\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ these\\ lines\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;And\\ should\\ you\\ rank\\ my\\ song\\ with\\ the\\ masters\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ I\\ shall\\ walk\\ tall\\,\\ my\\ head\\ will\\ touch\\ stars\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ if\\ people\\ consider\\ Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ cannon\\ of\\ Greek\\ lyrical\\ poetry\\,\\ Horace\\ will\\ become\\ divine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-I\\.4\\:\\ Describes\\ the\\ onset\\ of\\ spring\\,\\ the\\ festivities\\,\\ then\\ reminds\\ Sestius\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ of\\ life\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ little\\,\\ no\\ long\\-term\\ plans\\ are\\ allowed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Death\\ can\\ close\\ in\\ at\\ any\\ moment\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ all\\ enjoy\\ life\\ as\\ we\\ live\\ it\\,\\ for\\ it\\ can\\ soon\\ be\\ gone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-I\\.5\\:\\ To\\ Pyrrha\\,\\ a\\ woman\\ Horace\\ often\\ writes\\ to\\,\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ boy\\ she\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ beautiful\\ for\\ and\\ how\\ she\\ will\\ eventually\\ betray\\ him\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;woe\\ to\\ those\\ innocents\\ you\\ dazzle\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\,\\ like\\ the\\ sailor\\ who\\ survives\\ a\\ storm\\ and\\ hangs\\ his\\ wet\\ clothes\\ in\\ Neptune\\&rsquo\\;s\\ temple\\ \\(the\\ god\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\)\\,\\ Horace\\ also\\ was\\ caught\\ in\\ the\\ storm\\ of\\ Pyrrha\\,\\ an\\ lived\\ to\\ tell\\ about\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ kind\\ of\\ playful\\ love\\ poem\\ about\\ the\\ cruelty\\ of\\ the\\ opposite\\ sex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-I\\.9\\:\\ \\ \\;Do\\ your\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;leave\\ all\\ the\\ rest\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\,\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;let\\ be\\ what\\ comes\\ tomorrow\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ enjoy\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;Take\\ opportunities\\ as\\ they\\ come\\,\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ gain\\ pleasure\\ from\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-III\\.6\\:\\ About\\ the\\ moral\\ decay\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ example\\ of\\ wife\\ who\\ practices\\ adultery\\ right\\ under\\ her\\ husbands\\ nose\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ from\\ parents\\ like\\ these\\ were\\&rdquo\\;\\ Romans\\ made\\,\\ Horace\\ says\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ generations\\ are\\ decaying\\ as\\ time\\ goes\\ on\\,\\ each\\ child\\ being\\ worse\\ than\\ his\\ parents\\,\\ and\\ this\\ explains\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recent\\ military\\ defeats\\.\\ \\ \\;Rome\\ must\\ become\\ morally\\ sound\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Propertius\\&mdash\\;30\\-15\\ BC\\ \\(SB\\ 190\\-194\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-poems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.15\\:\\ even\\ gods\\ are\\ caught\\ in\\ love\\ by\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ one\\ they\\ want\\,\\ so\\ men\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ try\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ temptations\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ everyone\\ listened\\ to\\ love\\ and\\ its\\ pleasures\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ wars\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;our\\ bones\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ tossed\\ in\\ Actium\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ only\\ have\\ a\\ short\\ time\\ of\\ light\\,\\ so\\ we\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ waste\\ it\\ \\(death\\ can\\ come\\ any\\ time\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.3\\:\\ Apollo\\ came\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ said\\ he\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;take\\ a\\ stab\\ at\\ epic\\ song\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ instead\\,\\ stick\\ to\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ good\\ at\\&mdash\\;love\\.\\ \\ \\;Muses\\ give\\ people\\ different\\ gifts\\ in\\ art\\,\\ and\\ to\\ him\\,\\ the\\ muse\\ says\\ to\\ forget\\ about\\ war\\ and\\ adventure\\,\\ focus\\ instead\\ on\\ the\\ instruction\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ pleasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.3\\:\\ letter\\ of\\ a\\ wife\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\ who\\ is\\ at\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Says\\ she\\ misses\\ him\\ but\\ begs\\ him\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;preserve\\ the\\ sacred\\ compact\\ of\\ my\\ bed\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;shows\\ an\\ echoing\\ of\\ Augustan\\ values\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ suggests\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ the\\ constant\\ wars\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ distant\\ lands\\ helped\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ sanctity\\ of\\ marriage\\ because\\ husbands\\ could\\ cheat\\ on\\ and\\ forget\\ about\\ their\\ wives\\ while\\ away\\ in\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virgil\\ Eclogues\\ \\(43\\-37\\ BC\\)\\ and\\ Georgics\\ \\(35\\-29\\ BC\\)\\ \\(SB\\ 153\\-169\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Virgil\\ is\\ a\\ second\\ generation\\ poet\\,\\ so\\ his\\ work\\ \\(especially\\ these\\ earlier\\ works\\)\\ show\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ this\\ period\\ \\(this\\ also\\ applies\\ to\\ Horace\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ feature\\ of\\ this\\ period\\:\\ encounter\\ of\\ new\\ poetic\\ ambitions\\/priorities\\ with\\ political\\ events\\.\\ Poets\\&\\#39\\;\\ enhanced\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ preference\\ for\\ the\\ private\\ and\\ personal\\ over\\ public\\ themes\\ potentially\\ in\\ conflict\\ with\\ traditional\\ Roman\\ expectation\\ that\\ poetry\\ should\\ praise\\ great\\ men\\,\\ now\\ inevitably\\ drawn\\ into\\ partisan\\ conflict\\.\\ Can\\ not\\ take\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ complete\\ rejection\\ of\\ Roman\\ politics\\ that\\ Catullus\\ takes\\ because\\ these\\ poets\\ were\\ completely\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ civil\\ war\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ politics\\ really\\ does\\ affect\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ Roman\\ citizens\\,\\ even\\ ones\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ involved\\ in\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ why\\ politics\\ often\\ slips\\ into\\ these\\ works\\,\\ even\\ when\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ avoid\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\:\\ Example\\ of\\ farmer\\ driven\\ off\\ from\\ land\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ victorious\\ soldier\\,\\ one\\ farmer\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ Rome\\ to\\ plead\\ for\\ his\\ land\\ and\\ got\\ it\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Personal\\ experience\\ transmuted\\ into\\ stylized\\ form\\,\\ blending\\ of\\ biographical\\ and\\ poetic\\ elements\\;\\ pastoral\\ mode\\ allows\\ freedom\\ of\\ comment\\ because\\ nothing\\ said\\ applies\\ directly\\ to\\ current\\ situation\\ \\(can\\ get\\ away\\ with\\ indirect\\ criticism\\ of\\ Rome\\ and\\ politics\\ since\\ not\\ directly\\ addressing\\ it\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ that\\ war\\ hurts\\ so\\ many\\ Romans\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ criticism\\ of\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ hidden\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;see\\ where\\ civil\\ dissension\\ has\\ brought\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ generally\\ shows\\ the\\ trend\\ of\\ these\\ poets\\ to\\ present\\ differing\\ viewpoints\\ in\\ the\\ work\\&mdash\\;both\\ characters\\ have\\ different\\ perceptions\\ of\\ Rome\\ \\(one\\ grateful\\,\\ other\\ lamenting\\ his\\ loss\\)\\,\\ and\\ neither\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ \\&lsquo\\;right\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\:\\ \\ \\;Same\\ idea\\ of\\ pastoral\\ poem\\,\\ farmers\\ kicked\\ off\\ their\\ land\\ so\\ remembering\\ old\\ times\\ when\\ there\\ was\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ of\\ differing\\ viewpoints\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ a\\ pessimistic\\ idea\\ of\\ eclogues\\ 1\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\&lsquo\\;winner\\&rsquo\\;\\ here\\,\\ only\\ loss\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Georgics\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-second\\ book\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ so\\ more\\ complex\\ \\(the\\ progression\\ in\\ Virgils\\ work\\ that\\ eventually\\ reaches\\ the\\ epic\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-focus\\ on\\ world\\ of\\ nature\\ puts\\ contemporary\\ events\\ in\\ broader\\ context\\,\\ didactic\\ mode\\ permits\\ poet\\-as\\-teacher\\ to\\ speak\\ with\\ authority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\:\\ Public\\ events\\ seen\\ from\\ poets\\&\\#39\\;\\ private\\ perspective\\.\\ Countryside\\ as\\ a\\ poetic\\/moral\\ norm\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ life\\ everything\\ is\\ perfect\\ there\\,\\ shows\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ Rome\\ \\(ironically\\,\\ not\\ actually\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ city\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Profession\\ of\\ loyalty\\ to\\ poetry\\ and\\ the\\ ideal\\ world\\ of\\ the\\ farmer\\,\\ rejection\\ of\\ political\\ life\\,\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ occupies\\ a\\ place\\ not\\ only\\ independent\\ of\\ the\\ political\\,\\ but\\ implicitly\\ superior\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ other\\ poems\\ as\\ well\\,\\ and\\ present\\ in\\ Horace\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\:\\ \\ \\;Polite\\ refusal\\ to\\ provide\\ traditional\\ forms\\ of\\ poetic\\ celebration\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ many\\ topics\\ to\\ discuss\\ that\\ Virgil\\ chooses\\ to\\ put\\ off\\ flattering\\ Caesar\\ till\\ later\\&mdash\\;there\\ is\\ still\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ general\\,\\ these\\ poets\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ flatter\\ their\\ patron\\ \\(usually\\ Augustus\\)\\ because\\ they\\ realized\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ negative\\ sides\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ choices\\ he\\ makes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\21\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Detail\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lararium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ Pompeii\\.\\ 63\\-79\\ AD\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Painting\\ from\\ household\\ showing\\ people\\ worshiping\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lares\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(also\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\&mdash\\;the\\ household\\ gods\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ gods\\ represented\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ \\(sometimes\\ ancestors\\)\\,\\ and\\ their\\ job\\ was\\ to\\ look\\ over\\ and\\ protect\\ the\\ household\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ dedicated\\ worship\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;highlights\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ religious\\ themes\\ in\\ this\\ period\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ did\\ not\\ necessarily\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ gods\\ \\(this\\ was\\ never\\ required\\)\\,\\ but\\ had\\ do\\ be\\ dutiful\\ in\\ their\\ worship\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ belief\\ that\\ mattered\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\res\\ sacrae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(lit\\.\\ \\"\\;sacred\\ matters\\"\\;\\)\\ part\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mos\\ maiorum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ To\\ Romans\\,\\ religion\\ was\\ like\\ a\\ bargain\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\&mdash\\;I\\ worship\\ you\\ and\\ you\\ do\\ this\\ for\\ me\\,\\ or\\ protect\\ me\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ while\\ many\\ probably\\ did\\ not\\ \\&lsquo\\;take\\ the\\ gods\\ seriously\\&rsquo\\;\\ after\\ hearing\\ myths\\ about\\ their\\ often\\ human\\ reactions\\ and\\ behavior\\,\\ all\\ felt\\ their\\ duty\\ to\\ worship\\ them\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\,\\ if\\ they\\ did\\ exist\\,\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ elicit\\ their\\ anger\\.\\ \\ \\;Worship\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ necessary\\ act\\ to\\ gain\\ social\\ respect\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ and\\ although\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;were\\ private\\ gods\\,\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ respected\\ thing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\21\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Illustrated\\ manuscript\\ of\\ Virgil\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Aeneas\\ is\\ visited\\ by\\ the\\ Penates\\ at\\ night\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Image\\ from\\ the\\ illustrated\\ Virgil\\ showing\\ him\\ being\\ visited\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(household\\ gods\\)\\ of\\ his\\ household\\ that\\ he\\ brought\\ with\\ him\\ in\\ his\\ journeys\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ scene\\ \\(implied\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\)\\ when\\ they\\ warn\\ him\\ about\\ the\\ attack\\ on\\ Troy\\ and\\ tell\\ him\\ he\\ must\\ leave\\ with\\ the\\ people\\&mdash\\;the\\ message\\ that\\ allows\\ for\\ his\\ and\\ the\\ Latins\\&rsquo\\;\\ survival\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ here\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ full\\ filing\\ their\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;worship\\ bargain\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\ \\;As\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ worship\\ to\\ Romans\\ was\\ like\\ making\\ a\\ bargain\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\&mdash\\;I\\ worship\\ you\\ and\\ you\\ help\\ me\\ and\\ look\\ over\\ me\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Pius\\&rdquo\\;\\ Aeneas\\,\\ who\\ always\\ looked\\ after\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ has\\ earned\\ their\\ protection\\ in\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ trouble\\&mdash\\;they\\ warn\\ him\\ about\\ future\\ danger\\ and\\ tell\\ him\\ what\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ reward\\ for\\ his\\ piety\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ general\\ though\\,\\ this\\ represents\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ their\\ worship\\,\\ and\\ how\\ important\\ this\\ was\\ to\\ Roman\\ society\\ as\\ judged\\ by\\ its\\ constant\\ mention\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\21\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\West\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\:\\ Aeneas\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ the\\ Penates\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Another\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ piety\\ of\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ his\\ dedication\\ to\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(household\\ gods\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ on\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ that\\ shows\\ Aeneas\\ sacrificing\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ he\\ landed\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ that\\ would\\ later\\ become\\ Rome\\ \\(the\\ temple\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;take\\ up\\ residence\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ Aeneas\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ pius\\ Roman\\,\\ he\\ does\\ as\\ he\\ should\\ and\\ brings\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ the\\ way\\ through\\ his\\ journey\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ sacrifice\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ thanking\\ them\\ for\\ their\\ advice\\ \\(see\\ previous\\ slide\\)\\ and\\ their\\ general\\ protection\\ of\\ his\\ well\\-being\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ on\\ this\\ particular\\ moment\\ in\\ Aeneas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\&mdash\\;his\\ piety\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;highlights\\ exactly\\ how\\ important\\ Romans\\ felt\\ worship\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ be\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ many\\ ways\\ Aeneas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ piety\\&mdash\\;not\\ his\\ strength\\,\\ bravery\\,\\ or\\ leadership\\&mdash\\;is\\ his\\ most\\ respected\\ quality\\,\\ and\\ the\\ focus\\ Virgil\\ places\\ on\\ this\\ demonstrates\\ its\\ importance\\ in\\ Roman\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ worship\\ \\(not\\ belief\\)\\ in\\ the\\ gods\\ that\\ made\\ a\\ good\\ Roman\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;were\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ that\\ worship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\21\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Coins\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ issued\\ just\\ prior\\ to\\ his\\ emergence\\ as\\ sole\\ ruler\\,\\ 48\\ BC\\.\\ Obverse\\:\\ religious\\ implements\\,\\ vanquished\\ enemy\\.\\ Reverse\\:\\ elephant\\ and\\ chariot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Coins\\ of\\ Ceasar\\ show\\ his\\ reference\\ to\\ religion\\ to\\ promote\\ his\\ self\\-image\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ religious\\ offices\\ \\(the\\ augur\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lituus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;curved\\ stick\\)\\ as\\ indications\\ of\\ his\\ ruler\\ qualities\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ signs\\ of\\ a\\ defeated\\ enemy\\.\\ \\ \\;Apparently\\ success\\ in\\ battle\\ and\\ a\\ connection\\ to\\ religion\\ were\\ both\\ equally\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ Romans\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ describing\\ himself\\ as\\ both\\ a\\ victor\\ and\\ a\\ religious\\ leader\\,\\ Ceasar\\ is\\ preparing\\ Rome\\ for\\ his\\ rise\\ to\\ power\\ by\\ giving\\ Romans\\ an\\ impression\\ of\\ his\\ \\&lsquo\\;ruling\\ credentials\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ general\\,\\ this\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ Roman\\ focus\\ on\\ public\\ worship\\ of\\ the\\ god\\.\\ \\ \\;Public\\ religion\\ was\\ essential\\ to\\ Roman\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Prayer\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ secured\\ the\\ good\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ toward\\ Rome\\,\\ and\\ also\\ unified\\ the\\ community\\ and\\ demonstrated\\ its\\ continuity\\ of\\ its\\ present\\ with\\ its\\ past\\.\\ \\"\\;Separation\\ of\\ church\\ and\\ state\\"\\;\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ incomprehensible\\ to\\ Romans\\,\\ who\\ saw\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ religion\\ as\\ a\\ job\\ for\\ those\\ in\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\21\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\The\\ Gemma\\ Augustea\\,\\ a\\ large\\ cameo\\ depicting\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ imperial\\ family\\,\\ Augustus\\ at\\ center\\ right\\ \\(Roma\\ at\\ center\\)\\.\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 182\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Depiction\\ of\\ the\\ Imperial\\ family\\,\\ with\\ Augustus\\ sitting\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ divinity\\,\\ Roma\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ inherent\\ connection\\ between\\ power\\ and\\ divinity\\ in\\ Rome\\ \\(as\\ seen\\ by\\ the\\ eventual\\ deification\\ of\\ emperors\\ after\\ their\\ death\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Romans\\ did\\ not\\ think\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ a\\ single\\,\\ absolute\\,\\ and\\ totally\\ \\"\\;other\\"\\;\\ deity\\,\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ pluralistic\\ sense\\.\\ For\\ them\\ \\"\\;a\\ god\\"\\;\\ is\\ a\\ being\\ that\\ acts\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ or\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ certain\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\ The\\ line\\ between\\ human\\ and\\ divine\\ was\\ not\\ sharply\\ fixed\\ and\\ not\\ unbridgeable\\&mdash\\;it\\ was\\ possible\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\earn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;divine\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ body\\ of\\ religious\\ doctrine\\ allowed\\ for\\ individuals\\ to\\ aspire\\ to\\ divinity\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ this\\ in\\ mind\\,\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ emperors\\ and\\ divinity\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ understand\\.\\ \\ \\;Emperors\\ like\\ Augustus\\ had\\ enormous\\ power\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ alter\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&mdash\\;putting\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ position\\ as\\ their\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ a\\ god\\,\\ someone\\ who\\ has\\ power\\ to\\ create\\ effects\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ special\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ required\\ him\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ special\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ ensure\\ his\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ survival\\&mdash\\;if\\ Rome\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ power\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ specially\\ favored\\ by\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ emperor\\ represents\\ Rome\\,\\ he\\ must\\ be\\ on\\ close\\ terms\\ with\\ divinity\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ thinking\\,\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ Augustus\\ was\\ often\\ linked\\ with\\ that\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Samimi\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gioacchino\\ Curiale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Section\\ Assignment\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.Mark\\ Antony\\ is\\ merely\\ a\\ drunken\\ pirate\\ enthralled\\ by\\ the\\ lascivious\\ Eastern\\ strumpet\\-queen\\ Cleopatra\\!\\ Let\\ all\\ decent\\ men\\ rally\\ to\\ the\\ defense\\ of\\ our\\ beloved\\ Rome\\!\\ Only\\ the\\ virtuous\\ and\\ noble\\ Octavian\\ can\\ adequately\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ a\\ better\\ age\\ and\\ a\\ renewed\\ Republic\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Who\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ offered\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ the\\ crown\\ three\\ times\\?\\ Who\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ maliciously\\ turned\\ the\\ mob\\ against\\ our\\ old\\ companions\\ Brutus\\ and\\ Cassius\\?\\ Who\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ proscribed\\ our\\ friends\\ and\\ our\\ families\\?\\ Who\\ is\\ the\\ traitor\\ to\\ Rome\\ who\\ flees\\ like\\ a\\ coward\\ to\\ his\\ Egyptian\\ queen\\?\\ Who\\ now\\ menaces\\ the\\ Roman\\ tradition\\ and\\ civilization\\?\\ The\\ criminal\\ is\\ Mark\\ Anthony\\.\\ Octavian\\ has\\ made\\ public\\ this\\ traitor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ As\\ we\\,\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Rome\\ can\\ clearly\\ see\\,\\ he\\ has\\ sold\\ out\\ his\\ country\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ does\\ he\\ turn\\ on\\ us\\ and\\ ask\\ to\\ be\\ buried\\ in\\ Egypt\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ buried\\ with\\ Cleopatra\\,\\ his\\ evil\\ queen\\.\\ He\\ has\\ forsaken\\ his\\ Roman\\ country\\ and\\ Roman\\ wife\\ for\\ an\\ Egyptian\\ country\\ and\\ Egyptian\\ wife\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ will\\ not\\ bow\\ to\\ a\\ half\\-man\\ and\\ his\\ Egyptian\\ whore\\.\\ I\\ will\\ fight\\ against\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ I\\ would\\ sooner\\ see\\ my\\ beloved\\ Rome\\ under\\ Greek\\ rule\\ than\\ Egyptian\\!\\ Who\\ among\\ you\\ will\\ stand\\ with\\ me\\?\\ You\\ men\\ of\\ valor\\ and\\ pietas\\ must\\ rise\\ and\\ defeat\\ the\\ Eastern\\ hoard\\.\\ This\\ very\\ moment\\ Antony\\,\\ the\\ traitor\\,\\ assembles\\ a\\ mighty\\ foreign\\ navy\\ to\\ crush\\ his\\ former\\ patria\\.\\ With\\ Eastern\\ and\\ enemy\\ kings\\ backing\\ him\\,\\ he\\ plans\\ to\\ make\\ us\\ his\\ slaves\\.\\ As\\ we\\ quibble\\,\\ his\\ strength\\ waxes\\ and\\ ours\\ wanes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;I\\ recall\\ the\\ proscriptions\\.\\ Do\\ you\\?\\ Who\\ among\\ us\\ did\\ not\\ fear\\ being\\ penned\\ out\\ of\\ existence\\?\\ If\\ Antony\\,\\ the\\ traitor\\,\\ is\\ allowed\\ to\\ succeed\\,\\ then\\ our\\ bloody\\ heads\\ will\\ decorate\\ the\\ forum\\.\\ Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ forget\\ Cicero\\.\\ Our\\ children\\ will\\ be\\ enslaved\\.\\ Our\\ wives\\ will\\ be\\ turned\\ out\\ as\\ prostitutes\\.\\ Our\\ homes\\ will\\ be\\ burned\\.\\ Our\\ legacy\\,\\ our\\ gloria\\ will\\ be\\ nothing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Who\\ can\\ defend\\ us\\?\\ Who\\ will\\ rescue\\ the\\ Republic\\?\\ Who\\ will\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ victory\\?\\ Octavian\\ is\\ the\\ man\\.\\ He\\ has\\ the\\ money\\,\\ the\\ reputation\\,\\ the\\ lineage\\,\\ and\\ friends\\ to\\ defeat\\ Antony\\.\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ just\\ praise\\ Octavian\\ because\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ knight\\,\\ let\\ us\\ consider\\ what\\ he\\ has\\ done\\.\\ He\\ has\\ exposed\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treachery\\ and\\ countered\\ it\\ by\\ building\\ his\\ Mausoleum\\.\\ He\\ is\\ completing\\ the\\ temple\\ to\\ his\\ father\\.\\ His\\ most\\ desperate\\ wish\\ is\\ to\\ restore\\ the\\ Republic\\ and\\ end\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decadence\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ defeated\\ with\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Roman\\ austerity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Anyone\\ who\\ does\\ not\\ support\\ Octavian\\ must\\ support\\ Antony\\,\\ and\\ anyone\\ who\\ supports\\ Antony\\ is\\ an\\ enemy\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elder\\ Seneca\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;A\\ key\\ source\\ on\\ Roman\\ Declamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oration\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ Roman\\ public\\ life\\.\\ A\\ good\\ politician\\ who\\ desired\\ gloria\\ and\\ auctoritas\\ need\\ to\\ speak\\ well\\.\\ Remember\\ that\\ Augustus\\ used\\ to\\ write\\ out\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ speeches\\ before\\ he\\ presented\\ them\\.\\ Augustus\\ also\\ trivialized\\ this\\ long\\ held\\ practice\\ by\\ standardizing\\ the\\ oratory\\ training\\ and\\ having\\ exercises\\ deal\\ with\\ strange\\ topics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Controversia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Students\\ were\\ givent\\ he\\ facts\\ of\\ a\\ legal\\ dispute\\,\\ often\\ lurid\\ or\\ strange\\.\\ They\\ then\\ had\\ to\\ present\\ a\\ speech\\ arguing\\ for\\ one\\ side\\ or\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ Tyrannicide\\ the\\ Pirates\\ Let\\ Go\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suasoria\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ student\\ was\\ to\\ offer\\ advice\\ to\\ a\\ famous\\ person\\ of\\ mythology\\ or\\ history\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ Cicero\\ debating\\ whether\\ to\\ burn\\ his\\ speeches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ section\\ goes\\ through\\ several\\ examples\\ of\\ oration\\ given\\ by\\ youths\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ story\\.\\ The\\ key\\ was\\ that\\ improvisation\\,\\ originality\\,\\ and\\ style\\ earned\\ the\\ students\\ points\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ gave\\ standard\\ responses\\ were\\ not\\ considered\\ exceptional\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ the\\ students\\ debated\\ laws\\,\\ the\\ intentions\\ of\\ those\\ laws\\ and\\ who\\ the\\ laws\\ actually\\ affected\\.\\ Fabricating\\ extraneous\\ information\\ in\\ the\\ orations\\ seems\\ okay\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ makes\\ for\\ a\\ good\\ ending\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ thing\\ to\\ know\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tyrannicide\\ the\\ Pirates\\ Let\\ Go\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\,\\ a\\ man\\ killed\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ brothers\\ a\\ tyrant\\.\\ He\\ caught\\ the\\ other\\ brother\\ in\\ adultery\\ and\\ killed\\ him\\ despite\\ the\\ pleas\\ of\\ his\\ father\\.\\ Captured\\ by\\ pirates\\,\\ he\\ wrote\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ asking\\ about\\ a\\ ransom\\.\\ The\\ father\\ wrote\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ the\\ pirates\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ give\\ them\\ double\\ if\\ they\\ cut\\ off\\ his\\ sons\\&rsquo\\;\\ hands\\.\\ The\\ pirates\\ let\\ him\\ go\\.\\ The\\ father\\ in\\ now\\ in\\ need\\;\\ the\\ son\\ is\\ not\\ supporting\\ him\\.\\ Discuss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ students\\ also\\ discuss\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ Circero\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Antony\\ promises\\ to\\ spare\\ Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ if\\ he\\ burns\\ his\\ writings\\:\\ Cicero\\ deliberates\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ solution\\ is\\ that\\ Cicero\\ will\\ lose\\ his\\ eternal\\ life\\,\\ which\\ is\\ writing\\ give\\ him\\.\\ Antony\\ may\\ take\\ his\\ life\\,\\ but\\ Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gloria\\ will\\ live\\ on\\.\\ To\\ destroy\\ the\\ works\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ destroy\\ Cicero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Eulogy\\ of\\ Turia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Found\\ on\\ an\\ inscription\\.\\ Dedicated\\ to\\ Turia\\ by\\ her\\ husband\\ Vespillo\\,\\ because\\ she\\ saved\\ his\\ life\\ during\\ the\\ proscriptions\\.\\ \\~8\\-2\\ B\\.C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Her\\ parents\\ were\\ murdered\\,\\ but\\ she\\ fought\\ for\\ justice\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;So\\ zealously\\ did\\ you\\ perform\\ this\\ pious\\ duty\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Marriages\\ of\\ such\\ long\\ duration\\,\\ not\\ dissolved\\ by\\ divorce\\,\\ but\\ terminated\\ by\\ death\\ alone\\,\\ are\\ indeed\\ rare\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 41\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Your\\ domestic\\ qualities\\,\\ your\\ modesty\\,\\ deference\\,\\ affability\\,\\ your\\ amiable\\ disposition\\,\\ your\\ faithful\\ attendance\\ to\\ your\\ weaving\\,\\ unsuperstitious\\ religion\\,\\ inconspicuous\\ elegance\\,\\ modest\\ simplicity\\ of\\ attire\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clemency\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loyalty\\ and\\ \\ \\;money\\ saved\\ him\\.\\ She\\ hid\\ him\\ in\\ her\\ house\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ wanted\\ children\\,\\ but\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ them\\.\\ The\\ wife\\ offered\\ to\\ divorce\\ him\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ children\\.\\ He\\ refused\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;was\\ so\\ inflamed\\ with\\ anger\\ that\\ he\\ lost\\ his\\ senses\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ He\\ loved\\ her\\ and\\ refused\\ to\\ divorce\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Husband\\ wishes\\ that\\ he\\ died\\ first\\.\\ He\\ adopts\\ the\\ girl\\ his\\ wife\\ wanted\\ to\\ adopt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ speech\\ will\\ be\\ that\\ you\\ deserved\\ everything\\ and\\ that\\ I\\ was\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ give\\ you\\ everything\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tacitus\\ \\&ldquo\\;Honors\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pg\\.\\ 96\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Senate\\ proposes\\ to\\ give\\ Livia\\ \\(Augusta\\)\\ honors\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ title\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mother\\ of\\ her\\ Country\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ an\\ altar\\ of\\ adoption\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Declaring\\ that\\ official\\ compliments\\ to\\ women\\ must\\ be\\ kept\\ within\\ bounds\\&hellip\\;he\\ regarded\\ the\\ elevation\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ as\\ lowering\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ status\\,\\ he\\ declined\\ to\\ allow\\ her\\ even\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ lictor\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\ gives\\ Germanicus\\ Caesar\\ proconsular\\ powers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tiberius\\ too\\ elections\\ away\\ from\\ people\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ complain\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ people\\ did\\ not\\ protest\\ the\\ withdrawal\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ except\\ with\\ idle\\ murmurs\\;\\ and\\ the\\ senate\\,\\ relieved\\ from\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ buying\\ or\\ begging\\ votes\\,\\ gladly\\ enough\\ embraced\\ the\\ change\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tiberius\\ could\\ appoint\\ 4\\ candidates\\ without\\ rejection\\ or\\ debate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 252\\-253\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Epigram\\ of\\ Augustus\\ on\\ Fulvia\\ \\(Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\ in\\ 41\\ BC\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excerpt\\ from\\ an\\ epigram\\ by\\ Octavian\\ that\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;generally\\ regarded\\ as\\ authentic\\&rdquo\\;\\ quoting\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ foul\\ language\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Mark\\ Antony\\ fucks\\ Glaphyra\\.\\ \\ \\;Worse\\ luck\\,\\/\\ His\\ Fulvia\\ in\\ spite\\ wants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\me\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ fuck\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ pretends\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ Fulvia\\ is\\ furious\\ with\\ Antony\\ having\\ an\\ affair\\ with\\ the\\ Queen\\ of\\ Cappodocia\\ in\\ Asia\\ Minor\\ and\\ wants\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ at\\ him\\ by\\ sleeping\\ with\\ Octavian\\,\\ but\\ Octavian\\ implies\\ he\\ finds\\ her\\ repulsive\\ and\\ would\\ rather\\ make\\ war\\ than\\ love\\ to\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sexual\\ invectives\\ on\\ sling\\ bullets\\ from\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ siege\\ of\\ Fulvia\\ and\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\,\\ Lucius\\,\\ in\\ Perugia\\ in\\ 41\\ B\\.C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Yo\\,\\ cocksucker\\ Octavian\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Destination\\:\\ Fulvia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cunt\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Hey\\ Fulvia\\ and\\ baldy\\ Lucius\\:\\ open\\ wide\\ behind\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ coming\\ in\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anecdotes\\ of\\ Julia\\ from\\ a\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ AD\\ aristocratic\\ dinner\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ never\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ lacking\\ a\\ witty\\ response\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ day\\ Julia\\ visited\\ her\\ father\\ wearing\\ a\\ sexy\\ dress\\,\\ the\\ next\\ day\\,\\ a\\ conservative\\ one\\,\\ and\\ when\\ Augustus\\ commented\\ on\\ the\\ improvement\\,\\ she\\ said\\ she\\ dressed\\ that\\ day\\ for\\ her\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ the\\ previous\\ day\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Augustus\\ remarked\\ about\\ the\\ inappropriateness\\ of\\ being\\ seen\\ in\\ a\\ crowd\\ of\\ young\\ men\\ at\\ a\\ gladiatorial\\ show\\ while\\ Livia\\ sat\\ with\\ distinguished\\ older\\ men\\,\\ Julia\\ retorted\\ that\\ her\\ companions\\ would\\ be\\ old\\ one\\ day\\,\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ make\\ sure\\ her\\ children\\ were\\ Agrippa\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ she\\ would\\ only\\ \\&ldquo\\;take\\ on\\ a\\ passenger\\ when\\ the\\ ship\\ is\\ fully\\ loaded\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(SB\\ 254\\-257\\)\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ Decline\\ and\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\(Ch\\ 3\\)\\ \\(Edward\\ Gibbon\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ triumvirate\\ collapsed\\ and\\ Octavian\\ took\\ over\\,\\ he\\ inherited\\ a\\ corrupt\\,\\ monarchical\\ system\\ where\\ a\\ ruling\\ tyrant\\ had\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\,\\ finance\\,\\ and\\ army\\,\\ had\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ clergy\\,\\ and\\ had\\ destroyed\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ and\\ inflated\\ it\\ with\\ unworthy\\ members\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ quietly\\ convinced\\ some\\ senators\\ to\\ leave\\,\\ expelled\\ a\\ few\\,\\ and\\ increased\\ the\\ financial\\ status\\ required\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ senator\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ then\\ said\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ restore\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\ a\\ decent\\ resistance\\ the\\ crafty\\ tyrant\\ submitted\\ to\\ the\\ orders\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\;\\ and\\ consented\\ to\\ receive\\ the\\ government\\ of\\ the\\ provinces\\,\\ and\\ the\\ general\\ command\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ armies\\,\\ under\\ the\\ well\\-known\\ names\\ of\\ Proconsul\\ and\\ Imperator\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ passage\\ next\\ describes\\ how\\ soldiers\\,\\ etc\\ were\\ rewarded\\ by\\ placing\\ them\\ as\\ governors\\ of\\ conquered\\ lands\\ and\\ how\\ Octavian\\ always\\ delegated\\ this\\ power\\ to\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ or\\ praetors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(SB\\ 214\\-227\\)\\ Ars\\ Amatoria\\ Book\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ instructing\\ the\\ men\\ how\\ to\\ woo\\ girls\\,\\ Ovid\\ turns\\ and\\ basically\\ coaches\\ the\\ girls\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ attractive\\ and\\ what\\ men\\ are\\ looking\\ for\\ and\\ tells\\ them\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Do\\ not\\ deny\\ to\\ your\\ men\\ pleasures\\ their\\ eagerness\\ craves\\.\\/\\ \\ \\;They\\ will\\ deceive\\ you\\ at\\ last\\,\\ but\\ what\\ have\\ you\\ lost\\ by\\ it\\?\\ Nothing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Even\\ though\\ he\\ says\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arming\\ the\\ girls\\ now\\ after\\ helping\\ the\\ guys\\,\\ his\\ instructions\\ are\\ still\\ given\\ from\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perspective\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ telling\\ them\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ please\\ their\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ tells\\ them\\ that\\ while\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ still\\ young\\ and\\ attractive\\ to\\ rejoice\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ fun\\ while\\ \\[they\\]\\ may\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ speaking\\ to\\ an\\ upper\\-class\\ audience\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ of\\ his\\ instructions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flaunt\\ wealth\\ with\\ too\\ much\\ jewelry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fix\\ your\\ hair\\ so\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ becoming\\ for\\ your\\ faces\\ \\(p216\\ of\\ SB\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wear\\ dark\\ gray\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ fair\\ complexion\\;\\ if\\ dark\\-complexioned\\,\\ wear\\ white\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bathe\\,\\ shave\\,\\ brush\\ teeth\\,\\ go\\ easy\\ on\\ perfume\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ put\\ on\\ makeup\\ in\\ public\\&mdash\\;prepare\\ yourself\\ where\\ men\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ and\\ just\\ show\\ them\\ the\\ finished\\ product\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hide\\ physical\\ imperfections\\ or\\ unshapeliness\\ but\\ flaunt\\ it\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ nice\\ figure\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;let\\ the\\ robe\\ fall\\ from\\ the\\ shoulders\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\ SB\\ 218\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laugh\\ in\\ a\\ feminine\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Posture\\ is\\ important\\;\\ walk\\ in\\ an\\ elegant\\ way\\,\\ not\\ taking\\ too\\ big\\ of\\ steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learn\\ poetry\\,\\ song\\,\\ and\\ dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\ the\\ man\\ win\\ when\\ you\\ play\\ games\\ \\(220\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visit\\ the\\ theater\\ and\\ stadiums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Be\\ gracious\\ to\\ poets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reply\\ to\\ love\\ letters\\ after\\ a\\ short\\ delay\\ \\(221\\)\\;\\ you\\ can\\ use\\ invisible\\ ink\\ \\(milk\\)\\ \\(224\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Mix\\ in\\ a\\ little\\ rebuff\\,\\ once\\ in\\ a\\ while\\,\\ with\\ your\\ fun\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(223\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ things\\ too\\ easy\\:\\ place\\ a\\ servant\\ guarding\\ your\\ door\\ and\\ make\\ him\\ climb\\ into\\ your\\ room\\ through\\ a\\ window\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drink\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ drunk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coax\\,\\ flatter\\,\\ tease\\ \\(226\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stella\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\,\\ Fasti\\ p\\.\\ 228\\-237\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ following\\ discussion\\ on\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ diff\\.\\ phenomena\\ in\\ the\\ months\\ of\\ Jan\\.\\,\\ May\\,\\ and\\ April\\ reveal\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\ of\\ story\\ telling\\,\\ and\\ of\\ using\\ the\\ myths\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ real\\ manifestations\\.\\ While\\ the\\ stories\\ are\\ laden\\ with\\ minor\\ details\\,\\ the\\ basic\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ primarily\\,\\ Jupiter\\,\\ Janus\\,\\ Romulus\\ and\\ Remus\\,\\ bequeath\\ to\\ humans\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ significant\\ days\\ by\\ their\\ actions\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Humbly\\ asks\\ reader\\ to\\ indulge\\ what\\ he\\ terms\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;modest\\ tribute\\&rdquo\\;\\ directed\\ to\\ Germanicus\\ Caesar\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ days\\,\\ and\\ casts\\ a\\ special\\ glance\\ to\\ those\\ days\\ made\\ notable\\ by\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ deeds\\.\\ Poem\\ is\\ intensely\\ complimentary\\ in\\ tone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describes\\ why\\ Romulus\\ assigns\\ months\\ as\\ he\\ did\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ claims\\ first\\ month\\ went\\ to\\ Mars\\ b\\/c\\ was\\ Romulus\\&rsquo\\;\\ father\\,\\ second\\ to\\ Venus\\,\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ third\\ to\\ the\\ elders\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explains\\ the\\ proper\\ behavior\\ for\\ a\\ given\\ day\\.\\ On\\ legal\\ holidays\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ whether\\ they\\ are\\ half\\-day\\ or\\ full\\ day\\ observances\\,\\ one\\ does\\ not\\ go\\ to\\ court\\,\\ and\\ must\\ offer\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ instead\\.\\ There\\ are\\ designated\\ days\\ for\\ holding\\ elections\\,\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ marketplace\\,\\ etc\\.\\ He\\ makes\\ mention\\ of\\ three\\ holidays\\,\\ Italian\\ Helends\\,\\ Ides\\,\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ None\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worship\\?\\,\\ after\\ which\\ Romans\\ suffer\\ a\\ harsh\\ period\\,\\ for\\ these\\ are\\ days\\ that\\ have\\ some\\ curse\\ on\\ them\\ \\(p\\.\\ 229\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ mentioning\\ these\\ special\\ days\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ particular\\ yearly\\ holidays\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ January\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Janus\\,\\ the\\ persona\\ for\\ January\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;herald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ happy\\ year\\ from\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ day\\ is\\ a\\ joyful\\ one\\,\\ full\\ with\\ the\\ prospects\\ of\\ the\\ coming\\ year\\.\\ Ovid\\ uses\\ lots\\ of\\ shining\\,\\ bright\\ light\\ imagery\\ to\\ relay\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ newness\\ implicit\\ to\\ this\\ day\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;flickering\\ radiance\\ to\\ the\\ buildings\\&rsquo\\;\\ tops\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(SB\\ 229\\,\\ p\\.\\ 30\\ ln\\.\\ 43\\)\\.\\ All\\ is\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ Roman\\,\\ indeed\\,\\ he\\ writes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Welcome\\,\\ happy\\ day\\,\\ and\\ many\\ happy\\ returns\\,\\ fit\\ object\\ for\\ worship\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ rule\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(ln\\.\\ 51\\-2\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\ April\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ speaks\\ of\\ Menron\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saffron\\ mother\\ noticing\\ a\\ bull\\,\\ which\\ could\\ be\\ Europa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bull\\,\\ or\\ Io\\ the\\ cow\\.\\ The\\ significance\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ pulls\\ in\\ references\\ to\\ this\\ famous\\ Metamorphoses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\ April\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ indulging\\ Pales\\&rsquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ ritual\\.\\ Shepard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ to\\ tend\\ diligently\\ to\\ their\\ sheepfolds\\ onto\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ pampering\\ them\\.\\ They\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ say\\ a\\ prayer\\ that\\ prevents\\ harm\\ from\\ befalling\\ the\\ cattle\\ and\\ the\\ Shepard\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;May\\ I\\ milk\\ full\\ udders\\,\\ may\\ I\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\ on\\ cheese\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(230\\,\\ 1p\\.\\ 135\\ ln\\.\\ 729\\)\\ Ovid\\ gets\\ very\\ specific\\ and\\ advises\\ that\\ the\\ prayer\\ be\\ said\\ \\ \\;4\\ times\\ facing\\ the\\ east\\.\\ Very\\ superstitious\\,\\ and\\ with\\ much\\ attention\\ given\\ to\\ minor\\ details\\.\\ Next\\ the\\ Shepard\\ is\\ to\\ drink\\ milk\\ and\\ then\\ to\\ light\\ his\\ straw\\ in\\ fire\\.\\ Ovid\\ theorizes\\ that\\ the\\ fire\\ purifies\\ all\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ original\\ practice\\ is\\ somehow\\ tied\\ to\\ Romulus\\ and\\ Remus\\&rsquo\\;\\ farming\\ techniques\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\ April\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\,\\ Ovid\\ moves\\ to\\ Vinalia\\,\\ alias\\ Venus\\ Erycina\\,\\ the\\ god\\ to\\ which\\ \\&lsquo\\;licensed\\ girls\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(read\\ prostitutes\\)\\ admire\\ and\\ draw\\ their\\ strength\\ from\\.\\ Venus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ festival\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ by\\ Vinalia\\ from\\ a\\ fight\\ between\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ Mezentius\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Mezentius\\ was\\ defeated\\ by\\ Jupiter\\,\\ and\\ in\\ return\\,\\ the\\ lands\\ repeated\\ bountiful\\ vines\\ where\\ his\\ \\ \\;body\\ fell\\.\\ The\\ holiday\\ which\\ is\\ ultimately\\ Jupiter\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ was\\ therefore\\ identified\\ \\ \\;by\\ vines\\,\\ hence\\ Vinalia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\ April\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walking\\ along\\,\\ Ovid\\ happens\\ upon\\ a\\ village\\ where\\ a\\ flamen\\ named\\ Quirinus\\ supplicates\\ to\\ an\\ entity\\ he\\ calls\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rough\\ Rust\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ assuming\\ rust\\ is\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ detrimental\\ agent\\ to\\ the\\ growing\\ of\\ the\\ crops\\,\\ because\\ he\\ begs\\ it\\ not\\ to\\ disturb\\ the\\ peaceful\\ farmlands\\ and\\ soon\\-to\\-be\\-plentiful\\ harvest\\.\\ He\\ ends\\ the\\ prayer\\ with\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ a\\ dog\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ again\\,\\ we\\ see\\ Ovid\\ use\\ a\\ tactic\\ common\\ to\\ his\\ work\\.\\ He\\ relays\\ a\\ story\\ narrated\\ by\\ another\\ character\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ broaden\\ the\\ prospective\\ offered\\ in\\ the\\ work\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\ April\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ day\\ Vesta\\ is\\ welcomed\\ into\\ the\\ palace\\ of\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;kinsman\\ Augustus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Has\\ trouble\\ offering\\ exact\\ origin\\ of\\ for\\ month\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\,\\ however\\ he\\ offers\\ the\\ explanation\\ of\\ Polyhymnia\\ of\\ Themis\\ and\\ her\\ plight\\ in\\ Olympus\\ under\\ a\\ very\\ hierarchal\\ system\\ of\\ seating\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ day\\,\\ like\\ many\\ others\\,\\ belongs\\ to\\ Jupiter\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ Amalthaea\\,\\ a\\ Cretan\\ Naiad\\ tried\\ to\\ hide\\ him\\ away\\ but\\ succeeded\\ only\\ in\\ \\ \\;breaking\\ her\\ horns\\ which\\ were\\ then\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ stars\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ night\\,\\ the\\ stars\\ outline\\ Chiron\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shape\\,\\ whose\\ son\\ Hyas\\ \\(grandson\\ of\\ Ocean\\)\\ transformed\\ him\\ to\\ posterity\\ by\\ encircling\\ his\\ body\\ with\\ stars\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\,\\ 6\\ May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cryptic\\ messages\\ about\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;curving\\ Lyre\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;half\\ of\\ Scorpio\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ nightly\\ conformations\\ of\\ the\\ stars\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\ May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ day\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ soon\\ to\\ be\\ lost\\ ritual\\ for\\ the\\ ancestors\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ remember\\ it\\,\\ go\\ through\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ movements\\ involving\\ washings\\ and\\ chanting\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ wishes\\ the\\ ancestral\\ spirits\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;be\\ gone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ While\\ Ovid\\ cannot\\ offer\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ day\\,\\ he\\ does\\ talk\\ about\\ how\\ it\\ too\\ originated\\ from\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ Remus\\ by\\ Romulus\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\-11\\ May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Boeotian\\ Orion\\ constellation\\ came\\ from\\ an\\ old\\ man\\,\\ Hyrieus\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ hospitality\\ to\\ Jupiter\\.\\ In\\ return\\ he\\ was\\ granted\\ a\\ wife\\ and\\ son\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ called\\ Urion\\ \\(became\\ Orion\\)\\.\\ When\\ Orion\\ saved\\ Apollo\\ and\\ Diane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ from\\ being\\ bitten\\ by\\ a\\ scorpion\\,\\ Latona\\ put\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ stars\\ as\\ a\\ reward\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\ May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marks\\ the\\ time\\ that\\ Orion\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ stars\\ retreat\\ from\\ the\\ skies\\,\\ as\\ Mars\\,\\ the\\ Avenger\\ has\\ arrived\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Birthday\\ Honors\\ for\\ Augustus\\ p\\.\\ 244\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 11\\ A\\.D\\.\\,\\ the\\ Narbonensians\\ honored\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ birthday\\ with\\ well\\ wishes\\ that\\ his\\ divine\\ spirit\\ will\\ survive\\ into\\ perpetuity\\.\\ The\\ Narbonensians\\ followed\\ a\\ practice\\ on\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ b\\-day\\ wherein\\ they\\ worship\\ at\\ an\\ altar\\,\\ and\\ make\\ sacrifices\\ in\\ his\\ honor\\.\\ ON\\ other\\ important\\ days\\ in\\ the\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ ex\\.\\ The\\ kelands\\ of\\ January\\ \\(Jan\\.\\ 7\\)\\,\\ incense\\ and\\ wine\\ are\\ officered\\.\\ Note\\ how\\ similar\\ these\\ practices\\ are\\ to\\ those\\ made\\ for\\ gods\\.\\ Indeed\\ the\\ populace\\ specifies\\ that\\ the\\ altar\\ is\\ to\\ resemble\\ that\\ of\\ Diana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ on\\ the\\ Aventine\\ Hill\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\ in\\ Heaven\\ \\ \\;p\\.\\ 245\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ following\\ is\\ a\\ satirical\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ plight\\ in\\ heaven\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ discussion\\ concerned\\ whether\\ Claudius\\ \\ \\;should\\ be\\ admitted\\ into\\ heaven\\ as\\ a\\ god\\ \\(that\\ Aug\\.\\ is\\ there\\ assumes\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ already\\ one\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ sending\\ Claudius\\ from\\ the\\ room\\,\\ the\\ moderator\\ of\\ sort\\,\\ Jupiter\\ allows\\ ppl\\ to\\ voice\\ their\\ opinions\\.\\ Father\\ Janus\\ begins\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ no\\ ordinary\\ person\\ should\\ e\\ allowed\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ god\\.\\ The\\ implication\\ being\\ that\\ Claudius\\&rsquo\\;\\ deeds\\ are\\ not\\ outstanding\\ enough\\ to\\ warrant\\ the\\ honor\\.\\ He\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ offer\\ a\\ lasting\\ practice\\,\\ in\\ which\\ humans\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ eaters\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ not\\ qualify\\ for\\ deification\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Vica\\ Pota\\,\\ Diespiter\\,\\ who\\ was\\ collaborating\\ with\\ Hercules\\,\\ reasoned\\ that\\ Claudius\\ should\\ become\\ a\\ god\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ noble\\ lineage\\ from\\ the\\ Augustan\\ line\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thus\\ thru\\ such\\ plodding\\,\\ Hercules\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ convince\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ ppl\\ to\\ vote\\ for\\ Claudius\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ turn\\ came\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;speaking\\ with\\ eloquence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ writer\\ is\\ obviously\\ a\\ huge\\ supporter\\ of\\ the\\ empower\\.\\ Always\\ playing\\ the\\ victim\\ \\,\\ Augustus\\ acts\\ indignant\\ that\\ after\\ all\\ the\\ great\\ things\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ done\\ in\\ his\\ lifetime\\,\\ this\\ matter\\ should\\ be\\ discussed\\ as\\ it\\ was\\.\\ He\\ claims\\ to\\ \\ \\;be\\ too\\ choked\\ up\\ to\\ speak\\ and\\ leaves\\ the\\ stage\\ to\\ Messala\\ Corvinus\\.\\ He\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ charges\\ of\\ Claudius\\&rsquo\\;\\ being\\ a\\ cold\\-hearted\\ murdered\\ are\\ completely\\ true\\,\\ at\\ which\\ point\\ Claudius\\,\\ who\\ has\\ returned\\,\\ retorts\\ that\\ he\\ Cornivus\\ is\\ also\\ murder\\.\\ The\\ end\\ result\\ is\\ that\\ Jupiter\\ finds\\ Claudius\\ guilty\\,\\ decides\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ god\\,\\ and\\ furthermore\\,\\ will\\ be\\ punished\\ for\\ his\\ deeds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Religious\\ Ideas\\ p\\.\\ 251\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ brief\\ caricatures\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ tell\\ us\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ strong\\ desire\\ to\\ really\\ believe\\ in\\ their\\ existence\\,\\ to\\ call\\ upon\\ them\\ for\\ help\\,\\ and\\ to\\ integrate\\ them\\ into\\ important\\ aspects\\ of\\ your\\ life\\.\\ The\\ Gods\\ in\\ return\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ appreciate\\ the\\ sacrifices\\,\\ deference\\,\\ and\\ respect\\ given\\ by\\ supplicants\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Elder\\ Cato\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advises\\ that\\ one\\ pray\\ to\\ Janus\\ and\\ Jupiter\\,\\ and\\ outlines\\ what\\ the\\ prayer\\ should\\ entail\\.\\ Basic\\ request\\ is\\ that\\ farm\\ be\\ preserved\\,\\ and\\ purified\\,\\ and\\ prosperous\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cicero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relays\\ C\\.Cotta\\,\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ Platonic\\ school\\ of\\ philosophy\\.\\ He\\ questions\\ existence\\ of\\ gods\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ accepted\\ publicly\\,\\ as\\ a\\ priest\\,\\ he\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ convinced\\ that\\ they\\ really\\ do\\ exist\\ on\\ a\\ real\\ and\\ basic\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ gods\\ are\\ more\\ conventional\\ than\\ realistic\\,\\ and\\ this\\ speaker\\ seems\\ a\\ bit\\ frustrated\\ at\\ the\\ superficiality\\ of\\ it\\ all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cicero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Uses\\ example\\ of\\ Jews\\ to\\ relate\\ how\\ its\\ ok\\ that\\ each\\ different\\ areas\\ practice\\ diff\\.\\ religions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Acts\\ of\\ the\\ Apostle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ brief\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ anger\\ incited\\ when\\ Demiterius\\,\\ a\\ craftsmen\\ of\\ Diana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ told\\ his\\ fellow\\ men\\ of\\ the\\ trade\\ that\\ Paul\\ threatened\\ to\\ diminish\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ their\\ head\\ deity\\.\\ Their\\ responses\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ if\\ Diana\\ to\\ the\\ Ephesians\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Metamorphoses\\:\\ Mother\\ of\\ Iphis\\ invokes\\ Isis\\&rsquo\\;\\ help\\,\\ and\\ Isis\\ responds\\ \\ \\;that\\ while\\ she\\ is\\ worship\\ worldwide\\,\\ she\\ will\\ help\\ this\\ woman\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ her\\ lifelong\\ serve\\ and\\ gratitude\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metamorphoses\\ Book\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obviously\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ this\\ book\\ is\\ Virgil\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ significant\\ to\\ the\\ class\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ works\\ of\\ Roman\\ mythologies\\ all\\ compiled\\ together\\ and\\ also\\ shows\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ Roman\\ poetic\\ tradition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phaethon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Phaethon\\ goes\\ to\\ visit\\ Phoebus\\ \\(the\\ sun\\ god\\)\\,\\ who\\ his\\ mother\\ has\\ told\\ him\\ is\\ really\\ his\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ prove\\ to\\ Phaethon\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ his\\ father\\,\\ Phoebus\\ grants\\ him\\ any\\ favor\\.\\ \\ \\;Phaethon\\ asks\\ to\\ drive\\ the\\ chariot\\ and\\ horses\\ that\\ pull\\ the\\ sun\\ across\\ the\\ sky\\ and\\ Phoebus\\ really\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ it\\ to\\ him\\ because\\ he\\ knows\\ that\\ Phaethon\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ drive\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;What\\ you\\ want\\,\\ my\\ son\\,\\ is\\ dangerous\\;\\ you\\ ask\\ for\\ power\\ beyond\\ your\\ strength\\ and\\ years\\;\\ your\\ lot\\ is\\ mortal\\,\\ but\\ what\\ you\\ ask\\ beyond\\ the\\ lot\\ of\\ mortals\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;Unfortunately\\ a\\ promise\\ is\\ a\\ promise\\ and\\ Phoebus\\ grants\\ Phaethon\\ his\\ wish\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ things\\ go\\ ridiculously\\ wrong\\ because\\ Phoebus\\ cannot\\ control\\ the\\ wild\\ horses\\ and\\ has\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ the\\ chariot\\ is\\ traveling\\ so\\ close\\ to\\ earth\\,\\ everything\\ is\\ burning\\ up\\ and\\ turning\\ to\\ ashes\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ stop\\ the\\ chariot\\,\\ Jove\\ hurls\\ a\\ thunderbolt\\ at\\ it\\ and\\ destroys\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Four\\ sisters\\ of\\ Phaethon\\ lament\\ him\\ and\\ are\\ turned\\ into\\ trees\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ cousin\\ \\(Cygnus\\)\\ is\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ swan\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ lamentations\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ gods\\ convince\\ Phoebus\\ to\\ drive\\ the\\ chariot\\ again\\,\\ but\\ he\\ extremely\\ bitter\\ and\\ angry\\ at\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ in\\ Arcady\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Jove\\ is\\ checking\\ out\\ the\\ damage\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ kingdoms\\ when\\ he\\ sees\\ a\\ beautiful\\ nymph\\ in\\ Arcadia\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ literally\\ thinks\\ to\\ himself\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Juno\\ will\\ never\\ catch\\ me\\ here\\,\\ or\\ if\\ she\\ does\\,\\ well\\,\\ well\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ worth\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;So\\ he\\ disguises\\ himself\\ as\\ Diana\\,\\ eventually\\ reveals\\ himself\\ and\\ then\\ rapes\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ nymph\\ rejoins\\ the\\ hunting\\ party\\,\\ but\\ since\\ Diana\\ is\\ a\\ virgin\\,\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ notice\\ the\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ changed\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Juno\\ holds\\ off\\ revenge\\ until\\ the\\ nymph\\ gives\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ son\\,\\ Arcas\\.\\ \\ \\;Juno\\ turns\\ the\\ nymph\\ into\\ a\\ bear\\ and\\ lives\\ that\\ way\\ for\\ 15\\ years\\ until\\ her\\ son\\ is\\ hunting\\,\\ finds\\ her\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ kill\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Taking\\ pity\\ on\\ his\\ illegitimate\\ family\\,\\ Jove\\ whirls\\ them\\ up\\ to\\ heaven\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;set\\ them\\ together\\ there\\,\\ as\\ neighboring\\ constellations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\(I\\ think\\ this\\ explains\\ Ursa\\ Major\\ and\\ Minor\\,\\ maybe\\ Orion\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ the\\ Raven\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Raven\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ white\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Apollo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bird\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ his\\ talking\\ caused\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ changed\\ to\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ sends\\ him\\ to\\ spy\\ on\\ a\\ beautiful\\ girl\\,\\ Coronis\\ of\\ Larissa\\,\\ and\\ he\\ learns\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ beautiful\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ chaste\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ flies\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ master\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ that\\,\\ but\\ is\\ warned\\ by\\ a\\ gossiping\\ crow\\ that\\ chattering\\ never\\ helps\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ is\\ angry\\ at\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bad\\ reputation\\ and\\ kills\\ her\\ with\\ an\\ arrow\\.\\ \\ \\;Before\\ she\\ dies\\ however\\,\\ she\\ tells\\ Apollo\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ carrying\\ a\\ child\\ so\\ he\\ has\\ now\\ committed\\ a\\ double\\ murder\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Apollo\\ turns\\ the\\ raven\\ black\\ in\\ his\\ anger\\ and\\ then\\ mourns\\ the\\ girl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Ocyrhoe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ BUT\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ dead\\ and\\ Apollo\\ takes\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ the\\ centaur\\,\\ Chiron\\,\\ to\\ care\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;Chiron\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ Ocyrhoe\\,\\ comes\\ to\\ visit\\ and\\ is\\ moved\\ by\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\,\\ but\\ warns\\ the\\ child\\ that\\ he\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ immortal\\ forever\\ and\\ basically\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ miserable\\ fate\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ of\\ her\\ prophecy\\ and\\ messing\\ with\\ fate\\,\\ Ocyrhoe\\ is\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ horse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mercury\\ and\\ Battus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Apollo\\ was\\ hiding\\ in\\ Elis\\ mourning\\ over\\ the\\ girl\\ and\\ pretending\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ shepherd\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ so\\ distracted\\ that\\ he\\ lets\\ his\\ cattle\\ wander\\ away\\ and\\ Mercury\\ steals\\ and\\ hides\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ only\\ person\\ who\\ sees\\ the\\ theft\\ is\\ Battus\\,\\ an\\ old\\ servant\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ keep\\ him\\ quiet\\,\\ Mercury\\ gives\\ him\\ a\\ bull\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ old\\ man\\,\\ Mercury\\ returns\\ in\\ disguise\\,\\ asks\\ him\\ about\\ the\\ cattle\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ old\\ man\\ tells\\ him\\ about\\ Mercury\\,\\ the\\ god\\ reveals\\ himself\\ and\\ turns\\ the\\ old\\ man\\ into\\ a\\ stone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mercury\\,\\ Herse\\,\\ and\\ Aglauros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Flying\\ around\\,\\ Mercury\\ sees\\ Herse\\,\\ a\\ lovely\\ girl\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ follows\\ her\\ to\\ her\\ house\\ where\\ she\\ lives\\ with\\ two\\ other\\ girls\\ in\\ three\\ chambers\\.\\ \\ \\;Pandrosos\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ right\\-hand\\,\\ Herse\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ and\\ Aglauros\\ on\\ the\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Aglauros\\ sees\\ Mercury\\ coming\\ and\\ demands\\ and\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ visit\\.\\ \\ \\;Mercury\\ tells\\ her\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ messenger\\ sent\\ to\\ get\\ Herse\\,\\ but\\ Aglauros\\ denies\\ Mercury\\ entrance\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ because\\ Minerva\\ sees\\ this\\ and\\ remembers\\ that\\ Aglauros\\ has\\ wronged\\ her\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ so\\ Minerva\\ decides\\ this\\ girl\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ House\\ of\\ the\\ Goddess\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Envy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Minerva\\ travels\\ to\\ Envy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dark\\ and\\ scary\\ house\\ and\\ asks\\ her\\ to\\ poison\\ Aglauros\\.\\ \\ \\;Envy\\ travels\\ to\\ Athens\\,\\ poisons\\ Aglauros\\&rsquo\\;\\ heart\\ with\\ envy\\ of\\ her\\ sister\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happy\\ marriage\\ to\\ Mercury\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ she\\ just\\ shrivels\\ up\\ and\\ dies\\ because\\ envy\\ has\\ eaten\\ away\\ at\\ her\\ soul\\ and\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Jove\\ has\\ Mercury\\ drive\\ a\\ herd\\ of\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ Sidon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cattle\\ to\\ the\\ seashore\\ so\\ he\\ can\\ hide\\ amongst\\ them\\ and\\ spy\\ on\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beautiful\\ daughter\\ who\\ always\\ takes\\ walks\\ along\\ the\\ seashore\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ daughter\\ sees\\ Jove\\ disguised\\ as\\ a\\ bull\\ and\\ brings\\ him\\ flowers\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ gradually\\ loses\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ fear\\ and\\ eventually\\ rides\\ on\\ his\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Jove\\ \\(still\\ disguised\\)\\ starts\\ swimming\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ ocean\\ and\\ she\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prisoner\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slides\\ from\\ Lecture\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slides\\ 11\\.2\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 11\\.6\\ are\\ all\\ illustrations\\ from\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-century\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ Aeneid\\.\\ \\ \\;Readers\\ in\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\ would\\ have\\ read\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ on\\ 12\\ different\\ scrolls\\,\\ which\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ cumbersome\\.\\ \\ \\;Illustrated\\ manuscripts\\ \\(like\\ the\\ slides\\ that\\ we\\ have\\)\\ were\\ only\\ meant\\ for\\ the\\ extremely\\ wealthy\\ citizens\\ and\\ were\\ very\\ valuable\\.\\ \\ \\;Slide\\ 11\\.1\\ pictures\\ Virgil\\ next\\ to\\ his\\ work\\ and\\ was\\ found\\ in\\ an\\ illustrated\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ Ecologue\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ box\\ where\\ the\\ scrolls\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ kept\\ on\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ other\\ illustrations\\ of\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ are\\ not\\ significant\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ what\\ they\\ show\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Tarrant\\ was\\ just\\ trying\\ to\\ show\\ us\\ what\\ an\\ ancient\\ illustrated\\ manuscript\\ might\\ have\\ looked\\ like\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ slides\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Skillrud\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\ Metamorphosis\\ Book\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cadmus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ when\\ you\\ rearrange\\ the\\ letters\\ you\\ spell\\ Sadmuc\\&hellip\\;what\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cadmus\\ was\\ sent\\ out\\ by\\ his\\ father\\,\\ king\\ of\\ Sidon\\,\\ to\\ find\\ his\\ sister\\,\\ Europa\\.\\ Their\\ father\\ was\\ so\\ distraught\\ over\\ his\\ daughter\\&\\#39\\;s\\ kidnapping\\ that\\ he\\ threatened\\ Cadmus\\ with\\ exile\\ if\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ find\\ her\\.\\ Cadmus\\,\\ knowing\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ never\\ trace\\ where\\ Jove\\ had\\ taken\\ the\\ girl\\,\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ oracle\\ of\\ Apollo\\ and\\ asked\\ where\\ he\\ should\\ make\\ his\\ new\\ home\\.\\ The\\ god\\ told\\ him\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ meet\\ a\\ cow\\ that\\ had\\ never\\ borne\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ a\\ yoke\\ or\\ plough\\,\\ and\\ if\\ Cadmus\\ followed\\ that\\ cow\\ to\\ where\\ she\\ laid\\ down\\,\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ where\\ he\\ should\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ city\\.\\ Cadmus\\ did\\ as\\ Apollo\\ told\\ him\\,\\ and\\ everything\\ went\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ prophecy\\.\\ When\\ Cadmus\\ and\\ his\\ henchmen\\ reached\\ the\\ spot\\ upon\\ which\\ he\\ planned\\ to\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ city\\,\\ he\\ sent\\ his\\ men\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ to\\ find\\ water\\ for\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ Jove\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ woods\\,\\ a\\ giant\\ snake\\ guarding\\ the\\ stream\\ killed\\ his\\ men\\.\\ After\\ they\\ had\\ not\\ come\\ back\\ for\\ a\\ while\\,\\ Cadmus\\ went\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ them\\.\\ He\\ found\\ their\\ slain\\ bodies\\ and\\ the\\ great\\ serpent\\,\\ and\\ after\\ a\\ great\\ struggle\\,\\ Cadmus\\ killed\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ He\\ stood\\ staring\\ at\\ the\\ snake\\ when\\ Athene\\ descended\\ and\\ told\\ him\\ not\\ to\\ stare\\ at\\ the\\ snake\\ and\\ warned\\ that\\ one\\ day\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ snake\\ as\\ well\\.\\ She\\ told\\ him\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ serpent\\&\\#39\\;s\\ teeth\\ and\\ sow\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ He\\ followed\\ her\\ instructions\\ and\\ where\\ he\\ had\\ sown\\ the\\ teeth\\,\\ full\\-grown\\,\\ armed\\ men\\ rose\\ from\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ Frightened\\,\\ he\\ raised\\ his\\ weapons\\,\\ but\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ spoke\\ out\\ against\\ civil\\ strife\\.\\ With\\ that\\,\\ the\\ men\\ began\\ to\\ slaughter\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ all\\ were\\ killed\\ but\\ five\\ who\\ formed\\ a\\ peace\\ pact\\ at\\ Athene\\&\\#39\\;s\\ order\\.\\ These\\ five\\ men\\ became\\ the\\ heads\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ aristocratic\\ families\\ of\\ Thebes\\,\\ and\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ how\\ Thebes\\ was\\ founded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diana\\ and\\ Acteon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;just\\ when\\ you\\ thought\\ being\\ a\\ deer\\ was\\ cool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thebes\\ grew\\ into\\ a\\ strong\\ city\\ and\\ Cadmus\\ had\\ wed\\ Harmonia\\ \\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ Mars\\ and\\ Venus\\ \\.\\ Life\\ was\\ good\\ until\\ an\\ unfortunate\\ accident\\ caused\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Actaeon\\ \\,\\ Cadmus\\&\\#39\\;\\ grandson\\.\\ One\\ day\\ the\\ young\\ Actaeon\\ was\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ hunting\\ when\\ he\\ got\\ lost\\.\\ He\\ wandered\\ through\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ stumbled\\ upon\\ Diana\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bathing\\ pool\\ and\\ accidentally\\ saw\\ her\\ naked\\ form\\.\\ Furious\\ at\\ his\\ invasion\\,\\ Diana\\ turned\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ deer\\.\\ His\\ own\\ hounds\\ ripped\\ him\\ apart\\,\\ and\\ only\\ his\\ death\\ satisfied\\ Diana\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fury\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Boy\\ does\\ she\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Semele\\ and\\ Bacchus\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ birth\\ of\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ drunken\\ god\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cadmus\\&\\#39\\;\\ family\\ was\\ not\\ finished\\ with\\ their\\ grief\\ yet\\ because\\ his\\ daughter\\,\\ Semele\\ was\\ Jove\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lover\\ and\\ had\\ conceived\\ his\\ child\\.\\ Juno\\ was\\ jealous\\ and\\ decided\\ to\\ punish\\ the\\ proud\\ girl\\ by\\ tricking\\ her\\.\\ Juno\\ disguised\\ herself\\ as\\ Semele\\&\\#39\\;s\\ nurse\\.\\ She\\ convinced\\ the\\ girl\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ Jove\\ himself\\ who\\ came\\ to\\ her\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ her\\ child\\ was\\ to\\ ask\\ him\\ to\\ appear\\ to\\ her\\ in\\ all\\ his\\ glory\\ as\\ a\\ god\\,\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ he\\ appeared\\ to\\ Juno\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ making\\ love\\.\\ Semele\\ agreed\\ with\\ the\\ plan\\ and\\ then\\ asked\\ Jove\\ for\\ an\\ unnamed\\ favor\\ to\\ prove\\ his\\ love\\.\\ He\\ vowed\\ on\\ the\\ river\\ Styx\\ to\\ give\\ her\\ anything\\ she\\ wanted\\,\\ and\\ when\\ she\\ made\\ her\\ request\\,\\ he\\ could\\ do\\ nothing\\ but\\ fulfill\\ it\\ despite\\ its\\ fateful\\ consequences\\.\\ So\\ Jove\\ called\\ upon\\ the\\ thunder\\ and\\ lightning\\ that\\ were\\ in\\ his\\ command\\ and\\ came\\ to\\ Semele\\ in\\ all\\ his\\ divine\\ power\\,\\ but\\ her\\ mortal\\ frame\\ was\\ destroyed\\ by\\ his\\ powerful\\ divinity\\ and\\ she\\ died\\.\\ Jove\\ took\\ the\\ partly\\ formed\\ child\\ from\\ her\\ womb\\ and\\ sewed\\ it\\ into\\ his\\ thigh\\ until\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ term\\.\\ That\\ is\\ how\\ Bacchus\\ was\\ born\\.\\ Jove\\ gave\\ the\\ baby\\ to\\ Semele\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sister\\ to\\ be\\ raised\\,\\ and\\ she\\ gave\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ nymphs\\ of\\ Nysa\\ after\\ she\\ had\\ nursed\\ him\\ during\\ his\\ infancy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Woah\\ is\\ it\\ late\\ and\\ I\\ sure\\ am\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tiresias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juno\\ and\\ Jove\\ were\\ playfully\\ arguing\\ about\\ whether\\ love\\ was\\ better\\ for\\ men\\ or\\ women\\.\\ Jove\\ believed\\ that\\ it\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ for\\ women\\,\\ and\\ Juno\\ disagreed\\,\\ so\\ they\\ called\\ on\\ Tiresias\\ \\.\\ The\\ old\\ man\\ was\\ the\\ expert\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\ because\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ been\\ born\\ a\\ man\\,\\ but\\ when\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ one\\ day\\ hit\\ mating\\ snakes\\ with\\ a\\ stick\\,\\ he\\ was\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ Years\\ later\\ he\\ came\\ across\\ the\\ snakes\\ again\\ and\\ hit\\ them\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ transformed\\ back\\ into\\ a\\ man\\.\\ Tiresias\\ sided\\ with\\ Jove\\ in\\ the\\ argument\\,\\ and\\ Juno\\ wrathfully\\ blinded\\ him\\.\\ To\\ make\\ up\\ for\\ Juno\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cruelty\\,\\ and\\ since\\ he\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ break\\ her\\ spell\\,\\ Jove\\ gave\\ him\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ prophecy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narcissus\\ and\\ Echo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;echo\\&hellip\\;echo\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ to\\ seek\\ Tiresias\\&\\#39\\;\\ guidance\\ was\\ a\\ water\\ nymph\\ enquiring\\ about\\ her\\ son\\&\\#39\\;s\\ future\\.\\ Tiresias\\ told\\ her\\ that\\ her\\ son\\,\\ Narcissus\\ \\,\\ would\\ live\\ a\\ long\\ and\\ happy\\ life\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ himself\\.\\ When\\ Narcissus\\ was\\ 16\\,\\ he\\ was\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ a\\ nymph\\,\\ Echo\\ \\,\\ saw\\ him\\.\\ She\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ him\\,\\ but\\ she\\ could\\ not\\ call\\ out\\ to\\ him\\ because\\ Juno\\ had\\ reduced\\ her\\ powers\\ of\\ speech\\ to\\ only\\ repetition\\ because\\ the\\ nymph\\ used\\ to\\ stall\\ her\\ with\\ conversation\\ while\\ Jove\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ nymphs\\ escaped\\ from\\ her\\.\\ So\\ when\\ Narcissus\\ called\\ out\\ to\\ his\\ friends\\,\\ Echo\\ answered\\ him\\ with\\ the\\ last\\ words\\ that\\ he\\ cried\\.\\ The\\ played\\ the\\ game\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ intrigued\\,\\ so\\ she\\ ran\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ cover\\ of\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ wrapped\\ her\\ arms\\ around\\ him\\,\\ but\\ he\\ pushed\\ her\\ away\\.\\ He\\ rejected\\ her\\,\\ and\\ she\\ was\\ so\\ crushed\\,\\ that\\ she\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ pined\\ away\\ until\\ all\\ that\\ was\\ left\\ of\\ her\\ was\\ her\\ voice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narcissus\\ was\\ scornful\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ loved\\ him\\,\\ and\\ one\\ day\\ a\\ rejected\\ lover\\ wished\\ that\\ the\\ boy\\ would\\ know\\ the\\ sting\\ of\\ unattainable\\ love\\.\\ Not\\ long\\ after\\ that\\,\\ Narcissus\\ saw\\ his\\ own\\ reflection\\ in\\ a\\ pool\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ fell\\ helplessly\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ it\\.\\ But\\ each\\ time\\ he\\ reached\\ out\\ to\\ hold\\ it\\ or\\ kiss\\ it\\,\\ it\\ slipped\\ away\\ from\\ him\\.\\ He\\ pined\\ away\\ for\\ this\\ evasive\\ love\\ until\\ he\\ realized\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ reflection\\.\\ Distraught\\ at\\ the\\ impossibility\\ of\\ ever\\ reaching\\ the\\ object\\ that\\ he\\ loved\\ so\\ dearly\\,\\ the\\ boy\\ died\\.\\ When\\ the\\ nymphs\\ came\\ to\\ bury\\ his\\ body\\,\\ they\\ found\\ only\\ the\\ flower\\ that\\ now\\ bears\\ his\\ name\\,\\ the\\ narcissus\\,\\ a\\ little\\ yellow\\ flower\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yo\\,\\ uh\\,\\ my\\ lead\\ broke\\ so\\ can\\ I\\ borrow\\ your\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pentheus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ \\ \\;I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ give\\ it\\ right\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bacchus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pentheus\\ was\\ a\\ skeptical\\ man\\ who\\ doubted\\ Tiresias\\&\\#39\\;\\ prophecies\\,\\ so\\ when\\ the\\ blind\\ man\\ foretold\\ that\\ Pentheus\\ would\\ disrespect\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ Bacchus\\ as\\ a\\ god\\ and\\ be\\ ripped\\ apart\\ by\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ mother\\ and\\ sisters\\ for\\ his\\ faithlessness\\,\\ Pentheus\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ believe\\ him\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ skeptical\\ man\\ was\\ angry\\ at\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ Thebes\\ rushed\\ around\\ in\\ drunken\\ frenzies\\ in\\ their\\ worship\\ of\\ Bacchus\\.\\ He\\ set\\ out\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ Bacchus\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ real\\ god\\,\\ so\\ he\\ sent\\ his\\ men\\ out\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ imposter\\.\\ When\\ they\\ returned\\,\\ they\\ had\\ only\\ a\\ follower\\ of\\ the\\ cult\\,\\ and\\ before\\ Pentheus\\ sentenced\\ him\\ to\\ death\\,\\ he\\ asked\\ him\\ who\\ he\\ was\\ and\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ from\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ man\\ was\\ Acoetes\\,\\ a\\ helmsman\\ aboard\\ the\\ ship\\ that\\ tried\\ to\\ kidnap\\ Bacchus\\.\\ Acoetes\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ man\\ among\\ the\\ crew\\ who\\ believed\\ that\\ Bacchus\\ was\\ a\\ god\\ and\\ refused\\ to\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ kidnapping\\.\\ When\\ Bacchus\\ turned\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ crew\\ to\\ dolphins\\,\\ he\\ spared\\ Acoetes\\.\\ The\\ man\\ then\\ became\\ Bacchus\\&\\#39\\;\\ follower\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pentheus\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ believe\\ the\\ story\\,\\ and\\ so\\ he\\ sent\\ the\\ man\\ to\\ prison\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\.\\ While\\ the\\ instruments\\ of\\ torture\\ were\\ being\\ prepared\\,\\ Acoetes\\&\\#39\\;\\ cell\\ was\\ magically\\ opened\\ and\\ his\\ chains\\ unlocked\\.\\ Furious\\,\\ Pentheus\\ set\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ himself\\ to\\ find\\ and\\ capture\\ the\\ false\\ god\\.\\ When\\ he\\ stepped\\ into\\ a\\ clearing\\,\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Bacchus\\ cult\\,\\ including\\ his\\ own\\ mother\\ and\\ sisters\\ attacked\\ him\\.\\ Bacchus\\ had\\ infected\\ them\\ with\\ madness\\ that\\ made\\ Pentheus\\ appear\\ a\\ boar\\ to\\ them\\,\\ and\\ though\\ the\\ man\\ called\\ out\\ for\\ help\\,\\ he\\ received\\ no\\ mercy\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ worshippers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 14\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ statue\\ sculpted\\ out\\ of\\ marble\\ by\\ Bernini\\ in\\ 1624\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ depicts\\ the\\ goddess\\ Apollo\\ chasing\\ after\\ the\\ nymph\\ Daphne\\,\\ as\\ she\\ morphs\\ into\\ a\\ laurel\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ literary\\ reference\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ from\\ Book\\ 1\\ of\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Metamorphosis\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\ for\\ Daphne\\ never\\ faded\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ always\\ portrayed\\ as\\ wearing\\ a\\ laurel\\ wreath\\ around\\ his\\ head\\,\\ to\\ show\\ his\\ dedication\\ to\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Previously\\ his\\ head\\ wreath\\ was\\ oak\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ statue\\ shows\\ how\\ influential\\ the\\ Metamorphosis\\ was\\ on\\ art\\ and\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ notice\\ that\\ Daphne\\ does\\ not\\ instantaneously\\ change\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ her\\ hair\\,\\ fingers\\ and\\ feet\\ first\\,\\ and\\ the\\ bark\\ that\\ is\\ wrapping\\ up\\ around\\ her\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ may\\ be\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ gods\\ did\\ not\\ always\\ get\\ what\\ they\\ want\\.\\ \\ \\;Romantic\\ sculpture\\ for\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ its\\ true\\ form\\ Possibly\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ Augustus\\ the\\ divine\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ patron\\ god\\ was\\ Apollo\\,\\ stating\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ always\\ get\\ what\\ he\\ most\\ loves\\ or\\ desires\\ most\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ also\\ possibly\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ laurel\\ wreath\\ that\\ appeared\\ in\\ coinage\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ frescoed\\*\\ panels\\ of\\ a\\ Pompeii\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ left\\ is\\ a\\ portrait\\ of\\ Narcissus\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ is\\ the\\ painting\\ of\\ Pyramus\\ and\\ Thisbe\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ paintings\\ are\\ stories\\ from\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Metamorphosis\\,\\ Narcissus\\&rsquo\\;\\ from\\ Book\\ 3\\ and\\ Pyramus\\&rsquo\\;\\ from\\ Book\\ 4\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ works\\ once\\ again\\ show\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ Metamorphosis\\&rsquo\\;\\ effect\\ on\\ art\\,\\ but\\ also\\ how\\ its\\ influence\\ and\\ lessons\\ have\\ spread\\ into\\ domestic\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ of\\ these\\ paintings\\ are\\ rather\\ Romantic\\ for\\ they\\ show\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ natural\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*fres\\·\\;co\\ n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\ painting\\ on\\ a\\ wall\\ or\\ ceiling\\ made\\ by\\ brushing\\ watercolors\\ onto\\ fresh\\ damp\\ plaster\\,\\ or\\ onto\\ partly\\ dry\\ plaster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ technique\\ or\\ method\\ of\\ painting\\ on\\ fresh\\ plaster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\24\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;republican\\&rdquo\\;\\ Napoleon\\ by\\ Ingres\\ painted\\ around\\ 1803\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ Augustus\\,\\ Napoleon\\ used\\ Republican\\ forms\\ to\\ legitimize\\ his\\ rule\\,\\ which\\ in\\ his\\ case\\ later\\ became\\ openly\\ imperial\\.\\ \\ \\;Napoleon\\ used\\ lots\\ of\\ similar\\ romantic\\ architecture\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\grands\\ boulecards\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;similar\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ road\\ layout\\ as\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ built\\ many\\ great\\ fountains\\,\\ a\\ roman\\ trait\\ and\\ also\\ used\\ many\\ obelisks\\ to\\ mark\\ nodal\\ points\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\ Chapter\\ 4\\ \\&\\;\\ 3\\ slides\\ from\\ lecture\\ 22\\ \\(22\\.1\\-22\\.3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 4\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Daughters\\ of\\ Minyas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ Pentheus\\ had\\ been\\ shown\\ the\\ penalty\\ of\\ his\\ skepticism\\,\\ not\\ all\\ the\\ Thebians\\ complied\\ when\\ Bacchus\\&\\#39\\;\\ priest\\ declared\\ a\\ feast\\ day\\ and\\ ordered\\ the\\ women\\ to\\ put\\ away\\ their\\ work\\ and\\ worship\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ wine\\.\\ The\\ daughters\\ of\\ Minyas\\ refused\\ to\\ leave\\ their\\ weaving\\ or\\ allow\\ their\\ servant\\ women\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ festival\\.\\ To\\ pass\\ the\\ time\\,\\ they\\ decided\\ to\\ tell\\ stories\\ to\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ first\\ daughter\\ began\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ Pyramus\\ and\\ Thisbe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pyramus\\ and\\ Thisbe\\ were\\ neighbors\\ in\\ ancient\\ Babylon\\,\\ and\\ their\\ homes\\ were\\ separated\\ by\\ a\\ large\\,\\ brick\\ wall\\.\\ Although\\ they\\ loved\\ one\\ another\\,\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ marry\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ disagreement\\ between\\ their\\ fathers\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ talked\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ through\\ a\\ narrow\\ chink\\ in\\ the\\ wall\\.\\ They\\ decided\\ to\\ meet\\ one\\ night\\ at\\ Ninus\\&\\#39\\;\\ tomb\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ outside\\ Babylon\\.\\ While\\ Thisbe\\ waited\\ for\\ her\\ lover\\,\\ a\\ lioness\\ came\\ to\\ the\\ nearby\\ stream\\,\\ and\\ it\\ frightened\\ Thisbe\\ away\\.\\ When\\ she\\ fled\\,\\ she\\ dropped\\ her\\ shawl\\ and\\ the\\ lioness\\ ripped\\ it\\ with\\ her\\ bloody\\ jaws\\ and\\ then\\ left\\ the\\ stream\\.\\ Pyramus\\ came\\ to\\ Ninus\\&\\#39\\;\\ tomb\\ and\\ found\\ his\\ love\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ripped\\,\\ bloody\\ shawl\\ and\\ assumed\\ that\\ she\\&\\#39\\;d\\ been\\ killed\\ by\\ a\\ lion\\.\\ He\\ killed\\ himself\\ with\\ his\\ sword\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ his\\ love\\.\\ Thisbe\\ soon\\ returned\\ and\\ found\\ Pyramus\\ slain\\ there\\,\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ killed\\ herself\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Their\\ blood\\ changed\\ the\\ color\\ of\\ the\\ mulberry\\ tree\\ under\\ which\\ they\\ lay\\.\\ The\\ berries\\ changed\\ from\\ white\\ to\\ burgundy\\ from\\ the\\ lovers\\&\\#39\\;\\ blood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Sun\\ in\\ Love\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ of\\ Minyas\\&\\#39\\;\\ daughters\\ began\\ her\\ story\\ about\\ when\\ the\\ sun\\ god\\,\\ Phoebus\\,\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Leucothoe\\.\\ Apparently\\ Phoebus\\ had\\ seen\\ Mars\\ and\\ Venus\\ having\\ an\\ affair\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ sun\\ god\\ took\\ it\\ upon\\ himself\\ to\\ tell\\ Venus\\&\\#39\\;\\ husband\\,\\ Vulcan\\,\\ that\\ his\\ wife\\ was\\ cheating\\ on\\ him\\.\\ Vulcan\\ forged\\ a\\ bronze\\ chain\\ that\\ was\\ so\\ thin\\ it\\ was\\ invisible\\ to\\ the\\ naked\\ eye\\ and\\ placed\\ it\\ around\\ Venus\\&\\#39\\;\\ bed\\.\\ When\\ she\\ and\\ Mars\\ were\\ in\\ bed\\ together\\ again\\,\\ the\\ chain\\ snared\\ them\\.\\ Vulcan\\ brought\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ gods\\ of\\ Olympus\\ in\\ to\\ see\\ Venus\\ and\\ Mars\\ in\\ their\\ shame\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gods\\ made\\ fun\\ of\\ them\\ for\\ it\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ afterward\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venus\\ plotted\\ her\\ revenge\\ against\\ Phoebus\\,\\ and\\ she\\ made\\ him\\ fall\\ hopelessly\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Leucothoe\\.\\ To\\ get\\ the\\ girl\\,\\ he\\ disguised\\ himself\\ as\\ her\\ mother\\ and\\ went\\ into\\ her\\ room\\.\\ When\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ sent\\ all\\ the\\ servants\\ away\\,\\ he\\ revealed\\ himself\\ to\\ her\\.\\ At\\ first\\ she\\ was\\ frightened\\,\\ but\\ then\\ she\\ was\\ flattered\\ that\\ the\\ god\\ was\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\,\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ did\\ not\\ fight\\ off\\ his\\ advances\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Clytie\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ girl\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ rejected\\ by\\ Phoebus\\,\\ was\\ jealous\\,\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ spread\\ the\\ word\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ god\\&\\#39\\;s\\ affair\\ with\\ Leucothoe\\.\\ The\\ girl\\&\\#39\\;s\\ father\\ was\\ so\\ ashamed\\ that\\ he\\ buried\\ his\\ daughter\\ alive\\ for\\ her\\ unchaste\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ Phoebus\\ could\\ not\\ save\\ her\\ from\\ the\\ burial\\ or\\ revive\\ her\\ lifeless\\ body\\.\\ So\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ prepared\\ for\\ burial\\,\\ he\\ poured\\ nectar\\ on\\ her\\ body\\ and\\ she\\ became\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\frankincense\\ bush\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clytie\\ pined\\ away\\ for\\ Phoebus\\,\\ who\\ would\\ have\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ her\\.\\ She\\ sat\\ for\\ nine\\ days\\ in\\ a\\ field\\ where\\ she\\ could\\ watch\\ her\\ love\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daily\\ journey\\ across\\ the\\ sky\\.\\ She\\ wasted\\ away\\ with\\ longing\\ and\\ turned\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\a\\ violet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Salmacis\\ and\\ Hermaphroditus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ of\\ Minyas\\&\\#39\\;\\ daughters\\ told\\ this\\ story\\.\\ Salmacis\\ was\\ a\\ water\\ nymph\\ who\\ was\\ gathering\\ flowers\\ near\\ her\\ pool\\ when\\ she\\ saw\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hermaphroditus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;one\\ day\\.\\ She\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Mercury\\ and\\ Venus\\,\\ but\\ Hermaphroditus\\ denied\\ her\\ advances\\.\\ She\\ pretended\\ to\\ leave\\ him\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\,\\ and\\ soon\\ he\\ was\\ swimming\\ naked\\ in\\ her\\ pool\\ of\\ water\\.\\ She\\ dove\\ in\\ with\\ him\\ and\\ wrapped\\ herself\\ around\\ him\\ as\\ he\\ struggled\\ to\\ get\\ away\\.\\ She\\ said\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ never\\ be\\ separated\\ again\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gods\\ granted\\ her\\ wish\\.\\ The\\ two\\ fused\\ into\\ one\\ being\\,\\ and\\ Hermaphroditus\\ was\\ now\\ half\\-man\\,\\ half\\-woman\\.\\ Distraught\\ at\\ his\\ emasculation\\,\\ he\\ begged\\ his\\ parents\\ to\\ make\\ any\\ man\\ that\\ bathed\\ in\\ Salmacis\\&\\#39\\;\\ pool\\ turn\\ half\\-man\\ and\\ half\\-woman\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Daughters\\ of\\ Minyas\\ Transformed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ Daughters\\ of\\ Minyas\\ spent\\ the\\ festival\\ day\\ working\\,\\ they\\ heard\\ a\\ loud\\ clamor\\ outside\\ their\\ home\\.\\ While\\ they\\ hovered\\ inside\\ in\\ fear\\,\\ the\\ weaving\\ they\\ had\\ done\\ turned\\ to\\ ivy\\ vines\\ and\\ their\\ yarn\\ became\\ grapevines\\.\\ Then\\ shadows\\ of\\ beasts\\ and\\ monsters\\ prowled\\ around\\ the\\ room\\ and\\ the\\ house\\ began\\ to\\ shake\\.\\ The\\ girls\\ cowered\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ corner\\ trying\\ to\\ hide\\,\\ but\\ they\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ hide\\ from\\ Bacchus\\.\\ As\\ they\\ hid\\ there\\,\\ they\\ turned\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bats\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Athamas\\ and\\ Ino\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Athamas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Ino\\ became\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ Juno\\&\\#39\\;s\\ scorn\\ because\\ Ino\\ had\\ been\\ Bacchus\\&\\#39\\;\\ surrogate\\ mother\\ after\\ Juno\\ had\\ his\\ biological\\ mother\\,\\ Semele\\,\\ destroyed\\.\\ Juno\\ decided\\ to\\ use\\ madness\\,\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ Bacchus\\,\\ to\\ exact\\ her\\ revenge\\.\\ She\\ went\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ gates\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\the\\ Underworld\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ found\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Furies\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ aide\\ her\\ revenge\\ against\\ Cadmus\\&\\#39\\;\\ family\\.\\ Juno\\ sent\\ Tisiphone\\ to\\ infect\\ Ino\\ and\\ her\\ husband\\ with\\ madness\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ destroy\\ their\\ children\\ and\\ themselves\\.\\ The\\ vile\\ Fury\\ wrapped\\ herself\\ in\\ a\\ cloak\\ of\\ human\\ gore\\ and\\ with\\ snakes\\ wrapped\\ around\\ her\\ arms\\ and\\ in\\ her\\ hair\\;\\ she\\ went\\ to\\ Ino\\&\\#39\\;s\\ palace\\.\\ Both\\ Ino\\ and\\ her\\ husband\\ were\\ terrified\\ when\\ they\\ saw\\ Tisiphone\\,\\ but\\ they\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ escape\\.\\ She\\ took\\ snakes\\ from\\ her\\ hair\\ and\\ threw\\ them\\ at\\ the\\ couple\\.\\ The\\ snakes\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ bite\\,\\ however\\.\\ They\\ breathed\\ a\\ poisonous\\ breath\\ on\\ the\\ couple\\ and\\ infected\\ their\\ minds\\ with\\ frenzied\\ madness\\.\\ Athamas\\ trapped\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ small\\ sons\\ in\\ a\\ net\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ animals\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ bashed\\ the\\ baby\\&\\#39\\;s\\ head\\ on\\ a\\ granite\\ stone\\.\\ Ino\\,\\ calling\\ out\\ Bacchus\\&\\#39\\;\\ name\\,\\ grabbed\\ their\\ other\\ son\\ and\\ ran\\ away\\ to\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ a\\ cliff\\ with\\ him\\.\\ The\\ sharp\\ rocks\\ below\\ did\\ not\\ prevent\\ her\\ jump\\ from\\ the\\ cliff\\,\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ and\\ her\\ son\\ would\\ have\\ perished\\ if\\ Ino\\&\\#39\\;s\\ grandmother\\,\\ Venus\\,\\ had\\ not\\ intervened\\.\\ She\\ asked\\ Neptune\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ immortal\\,\\ and\\ so\\ he\\ did\\.\\ The\\ attendant\\&\\#39\\;s\\ of\\ Ino\\&\\#39\\;s\\ house\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ woman\\ had\\ been\\ made\\ immortal\\,\\ though\\,\\ and\\ when\\ they\\ saw\\ her\\ footsteps\\ continuing\\ to\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ the\\ cliff\\,\\ they\\ cursed\\ Juno\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cruel\\ punishment\\ and\\ mourned\\ their\\ mistress\\.\\ Juno\\ heard\\ them\\ and\\ punished\\ them\\ for\\ their\\ insurrection\\ against\\ her\\ by\\ turning\\ them\\ to\\ stone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ Cadmus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Cadmus\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ were\\ besieged\\ by\\ grief\\ with\\ the\\ news\\ of\\ Ino\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\.\\ After\\ the\\ string\\ of\\ misfortune\\ their\\ family\\ had\\ run\\ into\\ in\\ Thebes\\,\\ the\\ city\\ Cadmus\\ founded\\,\\ he\\ and\\ Harmonia\\ left\\ the\\ city\\.\\ The\\ two\\ were\\ talking\\ of\\ earlier\\ times\\ when\\ Cadmus\\ said\\,\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;Was\\ that\\ a\\ sacred\\ snake\\ \\/\\ My\\ spear\\ transfixed\\ when\\ I\\ had\\ made\\ my\\ way\\ \\/\\ From\\ Sidon\\&\\#39\\;s\\ walls\\ and\\ scattered\\ on\\ the\\ soil\\ \\/\\ The\\ serpent\\&\\#39\\;s\\ teeth\\,\\ those\\ seeds\\ of\\ magic\\ power\\?\\ \\/\\ If\\ it\\ is\\ he\\ the\\ jealous\\ gods\\ avenge\\,\\ With\\ wrath\\ so\\ surely\\ aimed\\,\\ I\\ pray\\ that\\ I\\ \\/\\ May\\ be\\ a\\ snake\\ and\\ stretch\\ along\\ the\\ ground\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Book\\ 4\\ \\-\\-\\ The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ Cadmus\\,\\ line\\ 571\\-6\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;No\\ sooner\\ had\\ he\\ said\\ the\\ words\\,\\ than\\ he\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ His\\ wife\\,\\ terrified\\ to\\ lose\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ cried\\ out\\ as\\ she\\ let\\ him\\ coil\\ around\\ her\\ neck\\ that\\ she\\,\\ too\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ Within\\ moments\\,\\ she\\ had\\ been\\ transformed\\ as\\ well\\,\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ went\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ nearby\\ and\\ bothered\\ man\\ no\\ more\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perseus\\ and\\ Andromeda\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Perseus\\,\\ whose\\ mother\\,\\ Danae\\,\\ was\\ impregnated\\ by\\ Jove\\ in\\ a\\ shower\\ of\\ golden\\ rain\\,\\ flew\\ over\\ the\\ earth\\ with\\ Medusa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ severed\\ head\\ in\\ his\\ hands\\.\\ Drops\\ of\\ blood\\ that\\ fell\\ into\\ Libya\\ turned\\ into\\ deadly\\ snakes\\ that\\ remain\\ in\\ the\\ desert\\ to\\ this\\ day\\.\\ Blown\\ around\\ the\\ earth\\ three\\ times\\,\\ Perseus\\ landed\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Atlas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ rest\\ and\\ take\\ off\\ the\\ winged\\ sandals\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ borrowed\\ from\\ Mercury\\ and\\ the\\ nymphs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Atlas\\ was\\ a\\ giant\\ who\\ ruled\\ the\\ farthest\\ lands\\ and\\ seas\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ His\\ land\\ was\\ covered\\ with\\ golden\\ orchards\\ and\\ numerous\\ herds\\.\\ When\\ Perseus\\ introduced\\ himself\\ as\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Jove\\,\\ Atlas\\ mistook\\ him\\ for\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Jove\\ prophesied\\ to\\ steal\\ the\\ Golden\\ Fleece\\ from\\ his\\ orchard\\.\\ To\\ protect\\ his\\ treasure\\,\\ Atlas\\ tried\\ to\\ send\\ Perseus\\ away\\,\\ but\\ Perseus\\ would\\ not\\ give\\ up\\.\\ He\\ showed\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ Medusa\\ to\\ Atlas\\,\\ and\\ it\\ turned\\ the\\ giant\\ into\\ a\\ mountain\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Perseus\\ began\\ his\\ flight\\ over\\ earth\\ again\\,\\ he\\ saw\\ Andromeda\\ chained\\ to\\ a\\ rock\\ by\\ the\\ sea\\.\\ He\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ and\\ flew\\ down\\ to\\ where\\ she\\ was\\ and\\ asked\\ her\\ why\\ she\\ was\\ there\\.\\ She\\ bashfully\\ and\\ tearfully\\ explained\\ that\\ her\\ mother\\ had\\ bragged\\ about\\ her\\ own\\ beauty\\ so\\ much\\ that\\ she\\ had\\ roused\\ the\\ jealousy\\ of\\ the\\ Nerieds\\.\\ To\\ please\\ them\\,\\ Neptune\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ flood\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ but\\ the\\ oracle\\ of\\ Jupiter\\ said\\ that\\ Neptune\\ would\\ be\\ appeased\\ if\\ Andromeda\\ was\\ chained\\ to\\ a\\ rock\\ by\\ the\\ sea\\ as\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ the\\ sea\\ monster\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ monster\\ approached\\,\\ Perseus\\ struck\\ a\\ deal\\ with\\ her\\ parents\\ that\\ if\\ he\\ saved\\ her\\ from\\ the\\ monster\\,\\ he\\ would\\ marry\\ her\\ and\\ inherit\\ their\\ lands\\.\\ They\\ agreed\\,\\ and\\ he\\ defeated\\ the\\ sea\\ monster\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ he\\ wrapped\\ Medusa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ head\\ in\\ seaweed\\ to\\ protect\\ it\\,\\ and\\ it\\ turned\\ the\\ seaweed\\ into\\ rock\\.\\ That\\&\\#39\\;s\\ how\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\coral\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ formed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perseus\\ made\\ three\\ altars\\ and\\ three\\ sacrifices\\ \\-\\-\\ one\\ to\\ Mercury\\,\\ one\\ to\\ Jove\\,\\ and\\ one\\ to\\ Athene\\ \\-\\-\\ for\\ their\\ assistance\\ in\\ his\\ battles\\ against\\ Medusa\\,\\ Atlas\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sea\\ monster\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Back\\ at\\ Cepheus\\&\\#39\\;\\ palace\\,\\ Perseus\\ and\\ Andromeda\\ were\\ married\\.\\ After\\ the\\ happy\\ ceremony\\,\\ Perseus\\&\\#39\\;\\ father\\-in\\-law\\ asked\\ him\\ how\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ gotten\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ Medusa\\,\\ and\\ so\\ Perseus\\ told\\ the\\ story\\.\\ He\\&\\#39\\;d\\ stolen\\ the\\ one\\ eye\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Graie\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sisters\\,\\ Medusa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ guardians\\,\\ shared\\ between\\ them\\.\\ Then\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ gone\\ to\\ Medusa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lair\\ and\\ lopped\\ off\\ her\\ head\\ while\\ she\\ slept\\.\\ He\\ never\\ looked\\ directly\\ at\\ Medusa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ head\\,\\ but\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ see\\ her\\,\\ he\\ looked\\ at\\ her\\ reflection\\ in\\ his\\ bronze\\ shield\\.\\ Out\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\ that\\ poured\\ from\\ her\\ body\\ when\\ Perseus\\ beheaded\\ her\\ sprung\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pegasus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ his\\ human\\ brother\\,\\ Chrysaor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Turquoise\\ cameo\\ of\\ Livia\\ and\\ Tiberius\\.\\ 14\\-19\\ AD\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Museum\\ of\\ Fine\\ Arts\\,\\ Boston\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ cameo\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ auctoritas\\ exercised\\ by\\ the\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ shows\\ a\\ strong\\ mother\\ figure\\ influencing\\ a\\ future\\ leading\\ man\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;Livia\\ schemed\\ to\\ bring\\ Tiberius\\ to\\ power\\,\\ which\\ could\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ mother\\ doing\\ everything\\ she\\ could\\ to\\ advance\\ her\\ own\\ power\\ through\\ Tiberius\\.\\ \\ \\;Livia\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\ woman\\ who\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ wield\\ much\\ power\\ indirectly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coin\\ of\\ Mark\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ portrayals\\ of\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavia\\ held\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavian\\ together\\,\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ their\\ political\\ ties\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ a\\ mediator\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ lecture\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Upheavals\\ of\\ civil\\ war\\ produce\\ a\\ drastic\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ visibility\\ of\\ women\\;\\ shortly\\ after\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\,\\ women\\ are\\ featured\\ in\\ visual\\ media\\ in\\ quite\\ new\\ ways\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ coins\\ celebrating\\ marriage\\ of\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavia\\;\\ interesting\\ parallels\\ with\\ Hellenistic\\ monarchs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ role\\ has\\ not\\ changed\\&ndash\\;they\\ are\\ still\\ seen\\ as\\ acting\\ in\\ concert\\ with\\ men\\ and\\ under\\ their\\ direction\\&ndash\\;but\\ they\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ general\\ loosening\\ of\\ traditional\\ limits\\ on\\ personal\\ display\\ Caesar\\ set\\ in\\ motion\\.\\ Interesting\\ that\\ Antony\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ several\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ visibility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucretia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;See\\ summary\\ of\\ Rape\\ of\\ Lucretia\\.\\ \\ \\;Lucretia\\ is\\ shown\\ here\\ about\\ to\\ take\\ her\\ own\\ life\\ after\\ having\\ been\\ disgraced\\ by\\ rape\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ honorable\\ female\\ behavior\\ in\\ her\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;From\\ lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;Livy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Lucretia\\:\\ her\\ rape\\ by\\ Tarquin\\ emblematic\\ of\\ Rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ oppression\\ by\\ kings\\;\\ her\\ self\\-definition\\ as\\ a\\ faithful\\ wife\\,\\ her\\ choice\\ of\\ death\\ over\\ living\\ with\\ dishonor\\ the\\ ultimate\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ male\\ ideal\\ for\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Fighting\\ of\\ Perseus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perseus\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ between\\ him\\ and\\ Phineus\\ for\\ Phineus\\&rsquo\\;\\ betrothed\\ wife\\,\\ Andromeda\\.\\ \\ \\;Perseus\\ actually\\ saved\\ the\\ wife\\ for\\ Phineus\\,\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ try\\ to\\ save\\ her\\,\\ so\\ Perseus\\ thinks\\ she\\ is\\ his\\ now\\,\\ cuz\\ she\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ dead\\ otherwise\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ battle\\;\\ tons\\ and\\ tons\\ of\\ people\\ die\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ dudes\\,\\ too\\ many\\ names\\ to\\ mention\\ in\\ a\\ summary\\,\\ basically\\ all\\ just\\ listed\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;Phineus\\ was\\ cowardly\\,\\ not\\ advancing\\,\\ just\\ throwing\\ javelin\\.\\ \\ \\;Perseus\\ was\\ fighting\\ bravely\\,\\ but\\ he\\ knew\\ his\\ strength\\ would\\ eventually\\ fail\\ him\\,\\ so\\ he\\ called\\ out\\ to\\ his\\ allies\\ to\\ turn\\ their\\ heads\\,\\ and\\ used\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ medusa\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ had\\ slain\\ earlier\\.\\ \\ \\;Lots\\ of\\ people\\ start\\ to\\ turn\\ to\\ stone\\ and\\ die\\,\\ Phineus\\ surrenders\\ to\\ Perseus\\,\\ tries\\ not\\ to\\ look\\,\\ but\\ Perseus\\ makes\\ him\\ look\\,\\ Phineus\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;Perseus\\ then\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ ancestral\\ city\\ with\\ his\\ new\\ bride\\ and\\ drove\\ out\\ Proetus\\,\\ his\\ brother\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minerva\\ Visits\\ the\\ Muses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minerva\\ leaves\\ her\\ watch\\ of\\ Perseus\\ to\\ visit\\ the\\ Muses\\ at\\ Helicon\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ muses\\ home\\ is\\ very\\ beautiful\\,\\ nice\\ stream\\ in\\ it\\ that\\ inspires\\ poetry\\.\\ \\ \\;Pierid\\ sisters\\ challenged\\ muses\\ to\\ poetry\\ contest\\,\\ whoever\\ loses\\ would\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ leave\\ there\\,\\ nymphs\\ judged\\.\\ \\ \\;Pierid\\ song\\ is\\ about\\ Giants\\ battling\\ Gods\\,\\ calls\\ Gods\\ cowards\\-\\ they\\ will\\ lose\\.\\ \\ \\;Muses\\ start\\,\\ first\\ is\\ Calliope\\,\\ she\\ sings\\ of\\ Rape\\ of\\ Proserpine\\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ Jove\\ and\\ Ceres\\,\\ wife\\ of\\ Pluto\\.\\ \\ \\;Proserpine\\ born\\ to\\ Jove\\ and\\ Ceres\\ Goddess\\ of\\ Harvest\\.\\ \\ \\;Pluto\\ struck\\ by\\ Cupid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arrow\\ for\\ Proserpine\\,\\ he\\ steals\\ her\\,\\ takes\\ her\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\,\\ unwillingly\\.\\ \\ \\;Cyane\\ a\\ water\\ nymph\\ tried\\ to\\ block\\ Pluto\\ but\\ was\\ unsuccessful\\,\\ she\\ became\\ really\\ sad\\ and\\ cried\\ her\\ body\\ away\\ into\\ a\\ river\\.\\ \\ \\;Ceres\\ was\\ pissed\\ when\\ she\\ found\\ out\\ after\\ seeing\\ Proserpine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scarf\\ in\\ Cyane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pool\\,\\ she\\ destroys\\ crops\\ of\\ Sicily\\,\\ she\\ goes\\ to\\ Jove\\ asks\\ to\\ get\\ her\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ she\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ because\\ she\\ has\\ eaten\\ food\\ of\\ Hades\\-\\ seven\\ pomegranate\\ seeds\\,\\ seen\\ by\\ Ascalaphus\\,\\ who\\ told\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Proserpine\\ turned\\ Ascalaphus\\ into\\ owl\\,\\ bringer\\ of\\ bad\\ news\\ to\\ punish\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Proserpine\\ can\\ spend\\ half\\ time\\ in\\ Hades\\,\\ half\\ above\\,\\ this\\ is\\ cause\\ of\\ seasons\\.\\ \\ \\;Next\\ muse\\ tells\\ of\\ Arethusa\\,\\ who\\ told\\ Ceres\\ that\\ she\\ had\\ seen\\ Proserpine\\ as\\ Queen\\ of\\ Hades\\;\\ she\\ was\\ water\\ nymph\\ and\\ huntress\\ in\\ Diana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cult\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ day\\ she\\ swam\\ in\\ stream\\,\\ it\\ was\\ Alpheus\\,\\ he\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\ gained\\ human\\ form\\ and\\ chased\\ her\\ till\\ she\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ run\\.\\ \\ \\;Arethusa\\ began\\ to\\ sweat\\ and\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ stream\\,\\ Alpheus\\ then\\ became\\ a\\ river\\ again\\ and\\ joined\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ they\\ had\\ sweet\\ raunchy\\ river\\ sex\\,\\ the\\ best\\ kind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(just\\ kidding\\)\\ \\ \\;Diana\\ created\\ riverbed\\ to\\ let\\ Arethusa\\ go\\ to\\ sacred\\ area\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ she\\ ended\\ up\\ next\\ to\\ Cyane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pool\\.\\ \\ \\;Next\\ poem\\ about\\ Triptolemus\\,\\ Ceres\\&rsquo\\;\\ helper\\,\\ who\\ planted\\ seeds\\ and\\ stuff\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ king\\ tried\\ to\\ kill\\ her\\ and\\ take\\ credit\\,\\ so\\ Ceres\\ turned\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ lynx\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ muses\\ were\\ declared\\ winners\\ by\\ Nymphs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Pierids\\ were\\ pissed\\,\\ so\\ Muses\\ turned\\ them\\ into\\ Magpies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ listening\\ to\\ story\\ from\\ Muses\\,\\ Athene\\ told\\ story\\ of\\ how\\ Arachne\\,\\ another\\ impudent\\ mortal\\.\\ \\ \\;Arachne\\ was\\ really\\ good\\ at\\ weaving\\,\\ and\\ she\\ challenged\\ Athene\\ to\\ a\\ weaving\\ contest\\.\\ \\ \\;Before\\ the\\ contest\\,\\ Athene\\ appeared\\ before\\ Arachne\\ as\\ an\\ old\\ woman\\ to\\ warn\\ her\\ against\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Arachne\\ would\\ have\\ none\\ of\\ thtat\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ had\\ the\\ contest\\,\\ Arachne\\ wove\\ scene\\ of\\ delinquency\\ of\\ Gods\\,\\ Athene\\ wove\\ scene\\ of\\ Gods\\ punishing\\ mortals\\.\\ \\ \\;Athene\\ could\\ find\\ nothing\\ wrong\\ with\\ Arachne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\,\\ so\\ she\\ got\\ pissed\\ and\\ almost\\ killed\\ Arachne\\,\\ Arachne\\ tried\\ to\\ hang\\ herself\\,\\ instead\\ Athene\\ pitied\\ her\\ and\\ turned\\ her\\ into\\ a\\ spider\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Niobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IN\\ Thebes\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ wealthy\\ women\\ named\\ Niobe\\,\\ who\\ had\\ many\\ children\\ and\\ boasted\\ of\\ being\\ better\\ than\\ Latona\\,\\ mother\\ of\\ Apollo\\ and\\ Diana\\.\\ \\ \\;Latona\\ was\\ pissed\\,\\ sent\\ Apollo\\ and\\ Diana\\ to\\ kill\\ all\\ of\\ Latona\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sons\\,\\ they\\ did\\,\\ Niobe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ husband\\ commit\\ suicide\\,\\ but\\ NIobe\\ still\\ bragged\\ cuz\\ she\\ still\\ had\\ 7\\ daughters\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ Latona\\ turned\\ her\\ to\\ stone\\ and\\ placed\\ her\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ a\\ mountain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ story\\ was\\ when\\ Latona\\ was\\ in\\ Lycia\\,\\ she\\ tried\\ to\\ drink\\ water\\ cuz\\ she\\ was\\ thirsty\\,\\ but\\ the\\ peasants\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ her\\ and\\ kicked\\ up\\ mud\\ so\\ it\\ was\\ undrinkable\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ this\\ she\\ turned\\ them\\ into\\ frogs\\.\\ \\ \\;Marsyas\\,\\ a\\ satyr\\ challenged\\ Apollo\\ to\\ a\\ pipe\\ contest\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ won\\ and\\ punished\\ Marsyas\\ violently\\,\\ and\\ Marsyas\\ became\\ the\\ river\\ formed\\ from\\ the\\ tears\\ of\\ his\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Thebes\\,\\ after\\ Niobe\\,\\ Pelops\\ felt\\ pity\\ for\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Pelops\\ father\\,\\ Tantalus\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ Gods\\ by\\ killing\\ his\\ son\\ Pelops\\ and\\ serving\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ meal\\ to\\ the\\ Gods\\.\\ \\ \\;Pelops\\&rsquo\\;\\ shoulder\\ was\\ accidentally\\ eaten\\ by\\ Ceres\\ because\\ she\\ was\\ careless\\ from\\ being\\ sad\\ about\\ Proserpine\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Gods\\ gave\\ Pelops\\ an\\ ivory\\ shoulder\\ and\\ put\\ him\\ back\\ to\\ life\\,\\ while\\ they\\ put\\ Tantalus\\ in\\ the\\ underworld\\,\\ making\\ him\\ always\\ hungry\\ and\\ thirsty\\,\\ while\\ placing\\ fruit\\ and\\ food\\ that\\ is\\ always\\ just\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Tereus\\,\\ Procne\\,\\ and\\ Philomela\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ Athens\\ was\\ at\\ war\\,\\ and\\ Tereus\\&rsquo\\;\\ army\\ saved\\ Athens\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ Procne\\ was\\ wed\\ to\\ Tereus\\ as\\ thanks\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ Thrace\\ together\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ Procne\\ missed\\ her\\ sister\\ Philomela\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Tereus\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ get\\ Philomela\\,\\ but\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ Pandion\\ was\\ reluctant\\ to\\ let\\ her\\ go\\ but\\ he\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ Tereus\\ got\\ back\\ he\\ took\\ Philomela\\ and\\ raped\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Philomela\\ was\\ angry\\ and\\ said\\ she\\ would\\ tell\\ everyone\\ about\\ what\\ happened\\,\\ so\\ Tereus\\ cut\\ off\\ her\\ tongue\\ and\\ hid\\ her\\ away\\ where\\ no\\ one\\ could\\ find\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Philomela\\ wove\\ the\\ story\\ and\\ eventually\\ Procne\\ saw\\ it\\ and\\ was\\ pissed\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ when\\ she\\ went\\ out\\ to\\ worship\\ Bacchus\\,\\ she\\ rescued\\ her\\ sister\\,\\ then\\ they\\ killed\\ Tereus\\&rsquo\\;\\ son\\,\\ cooked\\ him\\ and\\ served\\ him\\ for\\ dinner\\ to\\ Tereus\\.\\ \\ \\;Tereus\\ called\\ for\\ his\\ son\\,\\ then\\ Philomela\\ came\\ out\\ with\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ son\\ \\(Itys\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Tereus\\ chased\\ them\\ to\\ kill\\ them\\,\\ Philomela\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ nightingale\\,\\ Procne\\ a\\ swallow\\,\\ Tereus\\ a\\ hoopoe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\ to\\ recognize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 5\\ and\\ 6\\ are\\ all\\ about\\ Pietas\\,\\ mortals\\ challenging\\ Gods\\ always\\ a\\ bad\\ thing\\,\\ they\\ always\\ lose\\ and\\ are\\ punished\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\njerath\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 7\\:\\ Medea\\ and\\ Jason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jason\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ Argonauts\\ came\\ to\\ Colchis\\ to\\ claim\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Golden\\ Fleece\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ king\\ set\\ up\\ two\\ impossible\\ tasks\\ for\\ the\\ Jason\\ to\\ do\\ before\\ he\\ could\\ win\\ the\\ Fleece\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Medea\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ king\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Jason\\.\\ Betraying\\ her\\ father\\,\\ she\\ used\\ the\\ magic\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hecate\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ help\\ the\\ Argonaut\\ perform\\ the\\ feats\\.\\ When\\ he\\ got\\ the\\ Fleece\\,\\ Jason\\ left\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ took\\ her\\ with\\ him\\,\\ as\\ he\\ had\\ promised\\ he\\ would\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ Thessaly\\.\\ As\\ a\\ favor\\ to\\ her\\ beloved\\ Jason\\,\\ Medea\\ used\\ her\\ magic\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ father\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Aeson\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ younger\\.\\ She\\ mixed\\ a\\ potion\\ of\\ youth\\ and\\ emptied\\ the\\ old\\ king\\&\\#39\\;s\\ veins\\ of\\ his\\ blood\\.\\ When\\ she\\ refilled\\ his\\ body\\ with\\ the\\ potion\\,\\ he\\ was\\ younger\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medea\\ left\\ her\\ home\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pelias\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pretending\\ that\\ she\\ and\\ Jason\\ weren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ getting\\ along\\.\\ Pelias\\&\\#39\\;\\ daughters\\ welcomed\\ and\\ befriended\\ her\\,\\ but\\ all\\ along\\ she\\ was\\ plotting\\.\\ She\\ told\\ them\\ how\\ she\\&\\#39\\;d\\ made\\ Aeson\\ young\\ again\\,\\ and\\ so\\ Pelias\\&\\#39\\;\\ daughters\\ asked\\ her\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ their\\ father\\.\\ She\\ showed\\ them\\ the\\ ritual\\ with\\ a\\ sheep\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ see\\ how\\ she\\ refilled\\ the\\ animal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ emptied\\ veins\\ with\\ the\\ youth\\ potion\\.\\ When\\ she\\ performed\\ the\\ rite\\ on\\ Pelias\\,\\ she\\ asked\\ his\\ daughters\\ to\\ drain\\ the\\ blood\\ from\\ his\\ body\\,\\ and\\ he\\ awoke\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ cutting\\ him\\.\\ Medea\\ let\\ him\\ die\\,\\ leaving\\ his\\ daughters\\ as\\ his\\ murderers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medea\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ Corinth\\ where\\ Jason\\ had\\ a\\ new\\ wife\\.\\ She\\ burned\\ the\\ palace\\ and\\ killed\\ the\\ children\\ that\\ she\\ had\\ borne\\ to\\ him\\.\\ Then\\ she\\ rode\\ away\\ on\\ a\\ chariot\\ drawn\\ by\\ dragons\\ and\\ married\\ Aegeus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Theseus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;came\\ to\\ Athens\\ and\\ met\\ with\\ King\\ Aegeus\\,\\ the\\ king\\ not\\ realizing\\ that\\ Theseus\\ was\\ his\\ son\\.\\ Medea\\ made\\ up\\ an\\ evil\\ potion\\ that\\ would\\ poison\\ him\\,\\ and\\ as\\ Theseus\\ went\\ to\\ drink\\,\\ Aegeus\\ recognized\\ his\\ son\\&\\#39\\;s\\ royal\\ crest\\ and\\ knocked\\ the\\ cup\\ from\\ his\\ hand\\.\\ Medea\\ fled\\,\\ and\\ Aegeus\\ declared\\ a\\ feast\\ day\\ to\\ celebrate\\ Theseus\\&\\#39\\;\\ return\\.\\ They\\ told\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ hero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ feats\\ and\\ welcomed\\ him\\ to\\ Athens\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Minos\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;threatened\\ war\\ against\\ Athens\\ in\\ retribution\\ for\\ his\\ son\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\.\\ He\\ had\\ made\\ alliances\\ with\\ many\\ armies\\,\\ but\\ the\\ army\\ of\\ Aegina\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ join\\ his\\ forces\\ because\\ the\\ king\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Aeacus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ allied\\ with\\ Athens\\.\\ So\\ as\\ Minos\\&\\#39\\;\\ Cretan\\ ships\\ were\\ leaving\\ Aegina\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cephalus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;came\\ to\\ seek\\ help\\ for\\ Athens\\.\\ Aeacus\\ agreed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cephalus\\ asks\\ why\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ young\\ men\\ in\\ Aegina\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ known\\ there\\ years\\ before\\ were\\ missing\\.\\ Aeacus\\ told\\ him\\ of\\ the\\ plague\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Juno\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ sent\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ named\\ for\\ her\\ rival\\,\\ Aegina\\,\\ Aeacus\\&\\#39\\;\\ mother\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Jove\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ despair\\ at\\ the\\ destruction\\ the\\ plague\\ had\\ reeked\\ on\\ the\\ city\\&\\#39\\;s\\ population\\,\\ Aeacus\\ had\\ asked\\ Jove\\ for\\ help\\.\\ He\\ said\\,\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;Grant\\,\\ \\/\\ Thous\\ best\\ of\\ sires\\,\\ so\\ many\\ citizens\\ \\/\\ To\\ me\\ and\\ stock\\ again\\ my\\ empty\\ walls\\!\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Book\\ 7\\ \\-\\-\\ Minos\\,\\ Aeacus\\,\\ The\\ Plague\\ at\\ Aegina\\,\\ and\\ The\\ Myrmidons\\,\\ line\\ 26\\-8\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Standing\\ beneath\\ an\\ oak\\,\\ Jove\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sacred\\ tree\\,\\ he\\ saw\\ a\\ line\\ of\\ ants\\ and\\ wished\\ that\\ their\\ great\\ number\\ could\\ repopulate\\ his\\ city\\.\\ The\\ tree\\ began\\ to\\ shake\\ and\\ bend\\.\\ In\\ a\\ dream\\ that\\ night\\,\\ the\\ ants\\ turned\\ to\\ men\\,\\ and\\ when\\ Aeacus\\ awoke\\,\\ the\\ dream\\ had\\ come\\ true\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ that\\ story\\,\\ Cephalus\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ went\\ to\\ bed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ following\\ morning\\,\\ Cephalus\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ woke\\ before\\ Aeacus\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ king\\&\\#39\\;s\\ youngest\\ son\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Phocus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ talked\\ with\\ them\\.\\ The\\ boy\\ noticed\\ Cephalus\\&\\#39\\;\\ javelin\\ and\\ asked\\ him\\ where\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ gotten\\ it\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ sore\\ subject\\ with\\ Cephalus\\,\\ he\\ told\\ the\\ boy\\ the\\ story\\ behind\\ the\\ javelin\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cephalus\\ married\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Procris\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ two\\ months\\ after\\ they\\ were\\ married\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Dawn\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;kidnapped\\ him\\ from\\ the\\ woods\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ hunting\\.\\ Cephalus\\ pined\\ away\\ for\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ and\\ so\\ Dawn\\ let\\ him\\ go\\,\\ but\\ warned\\ him\\ that\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ be\\ sorry\\.\\ From\\ her\\ warning\\,\\ Cephalus\\ believed\\ that\\ Procris\\ had\\ been\\ unfaithful\\ to\\ him\\ while\\ he\\ was\\ gone\\ or\\ that\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ He\\ decided\\ to\\ disguise\\ himself\\ and\\ test\\ her\\ faithfulness\\,\\ and\\ Dawn\\ changed\\ his\\ features\\ so\\ that\\ Procris\\ wouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ recognize\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ Although\\ Cephalus\\ found\\ Procris\\ pining\\ away\\,\\ he\\ kept\\ his\\ disguise\\ and\\ tempted\\ her\\.\\ She\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ give\\ in\\,\\ but\\ he\\ kept\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ her\\.\\ Finally\\ she\\ faltered\\ in\\ her\\ fidelity\\,\\ and\\ he\\ revealed\\ himself\\.\\ She\\ fled\\ their\\ home\\ in\\ anger\\ and\\ joined\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Diana\\&\\#39\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cult\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ as\\ a\\ huntress\\.\\ Cephalus\\ finally\\ apologized\\ to\\ her\\ and\\ she\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ him\\ giving\\ him\\ the\\ javelin\\ that\\ Diana\\ had\\ given\\ her\\ and\\ a\\ hunting\\ hound\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ hound\\ was\\ so\\ great\\ that\\ he\\ almost\\ caught\\ the\\ great\\ fox\\ that\\ plagued\\ Thebes\\.\\ Just\\ before\\ the\\ hound\\&\\#39\\;s\\ teeth\\ caught\\ the\\ fox\\,\\ Jove\\ changed\\ both\\ the\\ fox\\ and\\ the\\ dog\\ to\\ marble\\ out\\ of\\ some\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ that\\ determined\\ that\\ two\\ creatures\\ so\\ equally\\ great\\ should\\ not\\ destroy\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ Cephalus\\ and\\ Procris\\ were\\ happy\\ together\\.\\ Each\\ day\\ he\\ would\\ go\\ hunting\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\,\\ and\\ when\\ his\\ hunting\\ was\\ done\\,\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ lie\\ down\\ in\\ a\\ clearing\\ and\\ let\\ the\\ breeze\\ soothe\\ him\\.\\ Someone\\ overheard\\ him\\ calling\\ out\\ to\\ zephyr\\,\\ the\\ breeze\\,\\ and\\ thought\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ having\\ an\\ affair\\ with\\ a\\ nymph\\ named\\ zephyr\\.\\ The\\ eavesdropper\\ told\\ Procris\\ about\\ zephyr\\,\\ and\\ she\\ had\\ to\\ see\\ for\\ herself\\ that\\ her\\ husband\\ was\\ cheating\\ on\\ her\\,\\ so\\ she\\ followed\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ woods\\ the\\ next\\ morning\\.\\ When\\ he\\ called\\ out\\ to\\ zephyr\\,\\ she\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ nearby\\,\\ and\\ her\\ movement\\ made\\ a\\ noise\\.\\ Cephalus\\ thought\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ dangerous\\ animal\\ and\\ threw\\ his\\ javelin\\ into\\ the\\ brush\\.\\ He\\ heard\\ Procris\\ cry\\ out\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ stabbed\\ his\\ wife\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ with\\ the\\ javelin\\ she\\&\\#39\\;d\\ given\\ him\\.\\ She\\ asked\\ him\\ not\\ to\\ marry\\ zephyr\\ and\\ he\\ realized\\ the\\ misunderstanding\\.\\ Although\\ he\\ explained\\ the\\ mistake\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ bandage\\ her\\ wound\\,\\ she\\ died\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slides\\ 24\\.1\\-24\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\24\\.1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\"\\;republican\\"\\;\\ Napoleon\\,\\ by\\ Ingres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Napoleon\\ evokes\\ Roman\\ models\\,\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ as\\ much\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ as\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\ \\;Napoleon\\ enters\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ consul\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ use\\ of\\ Republican\\ ideas\\ to\\ legitimize\\ his\\ rule\\,\\ but\\ Napoleon\\ later\\ is\\ open\\ about\\ being\\ an\\ imperial\\ ruler\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ painting\\ likens\\ Napoleon\\ to\\ the\\ Augustus\\ of\\ Prima\\ Porta\\ in\\ its\\ stance\\ and\\ look\\ \\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\24\\.2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\The\\ Arch\\ of\\ Constantine\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ focal\\ point\\ for\\ a\\ military\\ parade\\ under\\ Mussolini\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supposedly\\ a\\ lot\\ buried\\ under\\ boulevard\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\24\\.3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Proposed\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ Berlin\\ after\\ Nazi\\ victory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mussolini\\ was\\ a\\ duce\\ of\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ Augustan\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ refurbished\\ and\\ \\ \\;highlighted\\ ancient\\ monuments\\,\\ grandiose\\ plans\\ for\\ neo\\-Roman\\ buildings\\,\\ Latin\\ inscriptions\\ evoking\\ antique\\ dignity\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ had\\ a\\ passion\\ for\\ rebuilding\\ on\\ a\\ colossal\\ scale\\ as\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ picture\\ on\\ the\\ left\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\24\\.4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Proposal\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Die\\ Halle\\ der\\ Partei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ attached\\ mausoleum\\ for\\ Hitler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hitler\\ was\\ similar\\ to\\ Augustus\\ in\\ several\\ ways\\&mdash\\;he\\ like\\ Augustus\\ replaced\\ a\\ weakened\\ republican\\ government\\ with\\ an\\ autocracy\\ legitimized\\ by\\ constitutional\\ forms\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ aimed\\ at\\ totally\\ reshaping\\ culture\\ and\\ society\\,\\ promising\\ national\\ renewal\\ and\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ traditional\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ opposed\\ by\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ established\\ elite\\,\\ but\\ enjoyed\\ great\\ popular\\ favor\\,\\ which\\ he\\ strengthened\\ by\\ cunningly\\ using\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ admired\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\ for\\ the\\ world\\ empire\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ build\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\24\\.5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Hitler\\ gazing\\ lovingly\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ Berlin\\ with\\ classically\\ influenced\\ monuments\\ proposed\\ for\\ post\\-war\\ Berlin\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\24\\.6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Hitler\\ visiting\\ the\\ Colosseum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sarokhan\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ book\\ IX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Achelous\\ and\\ Hercules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Achelous\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;told\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Theseus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ his\\ men\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ his\\ battle\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hercules\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Achelous\\ and\\ Hercules\\ were\\ fighting\\ over\\ Deianira\\.\\ Achelous\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ human\\ form\\,\\ but\\ he\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ outmatch\\ Hercules\\,\\ so\\ he\\ changed\\ to\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ From\\ the\\ snake\\,\\ he\\ transformed\\ himself\\ to\\ a\\ bull\\,\\ and\\ Hercules\\ pinned\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ and\\ broke\\ off\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ horns\\.\\ The\\ broken\\ horn\\ was\\ made\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\cornucopia\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ his\\ water\\ nymphs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theseus\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ left\\ Achelous\\&\\#39\\;\\ cave\\ the\\ next\\ morning\\ and\\ Achelous\\ turned\\ back\\ into\\ water\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hercules\\,\\ Nessus\\,\\ and\\ Deianira\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Hercules\\ was\\ taking\\ his\\ wife\\ to\\ his\\ home\\ in\\ Tiryns\\,\\ they\\ came\\ to\\ a\\ swollen\\ river\\.\\ Nessus\\,\\ a\\ centaur\\,\\ offered\\ to\\ help\\ Hercules\\ get\\ Deianira\\ across\\ the\\ river\\.\\ Hercules\\ swam\\ across\\ and\\ heard\\ Deianira\\ yelling\\ for\\ him\\.\\ Assuming\\ that\\ the\\ centaur\\ was\\ kidnapping\\ her\\ to\\ rape\\ her\\,\\ Hercules\\ shot\\ him\\ with\\ an\\ arrow\\ tipped\\ with\\ Hydra\\&\\#39\\;s\\ poison\\.\\ The\\ centaur\\,\\ seeking\\ vengeance\\,\\ gave\\ his\\ shirt\\ covered\\ in\\ Hydra\\&\\#39\\;s\\ poison\\ to\\ Deianira\\ and\\ told\\ her\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ talisman\\ that\\ would\\ renew\\ love\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Years\\ later\\,\\ when\\ Hercules\\ had\\ completed\\ his\\ labors\\ and\\ was\\ still\\ far\\ from\\ home\\,\\ Deianira\\ heard\\ from\\ \\"\\;Rumour\\ who\\ talks\\ and\\ loves\\ to\\ tangle\\ true\\ \\/\\ With\\ false\\,\\ and\\ from\\ near\\ nothing\\ flourishes\\ \\/\\ On\\ her\\ own\\ lies\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ Hercules\\,\\ Nessus\\,\\ and\\ Deianira\\,\\ line\\ 141\\-3\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ his\\ heart\\ had\\ been\\ captured\\ by\\ another\\ woman\\.\\ She\\ sent\\ him\\ the\\ shirt\\ not\\ realizing\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ poisoned\\.\\ Hercules\\,\\ unaware\\ of\\ its\\ taint\\,\\ wore\\ the\\ shirt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Death\\ and\\ Apotheosis\\ of\\ Hercules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ shirt\\ destroyed\\ Hercules\\&\\#39\\;\\ mortal\\ body\\ and\\ he\\ suffered\\ awfully\\ from\\ Hydra\\&\\#39\\;s\\ poison\\.\\ He\\ ran\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ built\\ a\\ funeral\\ pyre\\ for\\ himself\\ and\\ climbed\\ atop\\ the\\ flames\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Jove\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;allowed\\ the\\ mortal\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ son\\ to\\ burn\\ away\\ and\\ then\\ made\\ him\\ a\\ god\\ and\\ placed\\ him\\ among\\ the\\ stars\\.\\ Alcmena\\ talked\\ to\\ Iole\\,\\ Hercules\\&\\#39\\;\\ pregnant\\ mistress\\,\\ about\\ her\\ son\\&\\#39\\;s\\ birth\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Birth\\ of\\ Hercules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alcmena\\ had\\ a\\ difficult\\ time\\ delivering\\ Hercules\\ because\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Juno\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wanted\\ to\\ punish\\ her\\ rival\\ for\\ Jove\\&\\#39\\;s\\ attention\\.\\ For\\ seven\\ days\\ and\\ nights\\,\\ Alcmena\\ suffered\\ in\\ labor\\.\\ The\\ goddess\\ of\\ birth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ilithya\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ had\\ been\\ bribed\\ by\\ Juno\\ to\\ block\\ the\\ birth\\.\\ When\\ Alcmena\\&\\#39\\;s\\ servant\\,\\ Galanthis\\,\\ saw\\ the\\ goddess\\ sitting\\ outside\\ Alcmena\\&\\#39\\;s\\ room\\ with\\ her\\ legs\\ crossed\\ and\\ her\\ fingers\\ laced\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ birth\\,\\ the\\ servant\\ girl\\ told\\ her\\ to\\ congratulate\\ Alcmena\\ on\\ her\\ new\\ son\\.\\ Shocked\\ that\\ the\\ woman\\ had\\ given\\ birth\\ when\\ the\\ goddess\\ had\\ been\\ preventing\\ it\\,\\ Ilithyia\\ stood\\ up\\.\\ When\\ her\\ legs\\ were\\ uncrossed\\ and\\ her\\ fingers\\ unlaced\\,\\ Alcmena\\ delivered\\ Hercules\\.\\ Ilithyia\\ turned\\ the\\ servant\\ into\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\weasel\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ her\\ trickery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Dryope\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iole\\ told\\ Alcmena\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ her\\ sister\\,\\ Dryope\\,\\ who\\ was\\ transformed\\ to\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\lotus\\ tree\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ unwittingly\\ picking\\ blossoms\\ from\\ a\\ tree\\ that\\ had\\ once\\ been\\ a\\ nymph\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Iolaus\\ and\\ the\\ Sons\\ of\\ Callirhoe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ women\\ were\\ drying\\ their\\ tears\\,\\ Iolaus\\,\\ once\\ Hercules\\&\\#39\\;\\ charioteer\\,\\ approached\\ much\\ younger\\ than\\ he\\ once\\ was\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hebe\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ transformed\\ his\\ age\\ and\\ taken\\ the\\ years\\ removed\\ from\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ added\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ Callirhoe\\ so\\ that\\ they\\&\\#39\\;d\\ reach\\ adolescence\\ faster\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ other\\ gods\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ mortal\\ favorites\\ younger\\,\\ too\\,\\ but\\ Jove\\ insisted\\ that\\ such\\ things\\ were\\ ruled\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\the\\ Fates\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ not\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ The\\ gods\\ gave\\ in\\ to\\ Jove\\&\\#39\\;s\\ argument\\,\\ and\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ mortals\\ were\\ restored\\ to\\ youth\\,\\ including\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Minos\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;whose\\ great\\ strength\\ had\\ declined\\ with\\ his\\ age\\.\\ His\\ lands\\ had\\ been\\ threatened\\ by\\ Miletus\\,\\ but\\ then\\ the\\ younger\\ man\\ had\\ gone\\ to\\ Asia\\ to\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ city\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cyanee\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ nymph\\,\\ gave\\ birth\\ to\\ his\\ twins\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Byblis\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Caunus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Asia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Byblis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Byblis\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\ brother\\,\\ Caunus\\,\\ and\\ she\\ tried\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ feeling\\ because\\ she\\ knew\\ that\\ incest\\ was\\ wrong\\.\\ But\\ soon\\ her\\ feelings\\ got\\ the\\ better\\ of\\ her\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ wrote\\ him\\ a\\ letter\\ telling\\ him\\ how\\ she\\ felt\\ and\\ hoping\\ that\\ he\\ felt\\ the\\ same\\.\\ He\\ was\\ revolted\\ by\\ the\\ idea\\,\\ and\\ when\\ Byblis\\ wouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ give\\ up\\ her\\ pursuit\\,\\ he\\ left\\ home\\.\\ He\\ went\\ to\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ city\\,\\ and\\ when\\ she\\ tried\\ to\\ follow\\ him\\,\\ she\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ find\\ him\\.\\ She\\ sat\\ down\\ by\\ a\\ stream\\ a\\ cried\\ for\\ so\\ long\\ that\\ a\\ wood\\ nymph\\ turned\\ her\\ into\\ a\\ spring\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Iphis\\ and\\ Ianthe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crete\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ impressed\\ with\\ Byblis\\&\\#39\\;\\ transformation\\ if\\ they\\ hadn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ been\\ so\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ change\\ wrought\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Iphis\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ligdus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Telethusa\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ child\\.\\ Ligdus\\ thought\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ child\\ was\\ a\\ girl\\,\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ could\\ not\\ afford\\ to\\ keep\\ it\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ poor\\.\\ Telethusa\\ could\\ not\\ convince\\ him\\ otherwise\\.\\ While\\ she\\ slept\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Isis\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;appeared\\ in\\ her\\ dream\\ and\\ told\\ Telethusa\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ child\\.\\ Telethusa\\ gave\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ girl\\,\\ but\\ only\\ she\\ and\\ the\\ nurse\\ knew\\ the\\ child\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sex\\.\\ Her\\ husband\\ named\\ the\\ baby\\ Iphis\\,\\ and\\ the\\ child\\ was\\ raised\\ as\\ a\\ boy\\.\\ Iphis\\ was\\ betrothed\\ to\\ Ianthe\\,\\ a\\ girl\\ she\\ loved\\,\\ but\\ Iphis\\ was\\ sad\\.\\ She\\ knew\\ that\\ a\\ marriage\\ between\\ two\\ girls\\ would\\ never\\ work\\.\\ Telethusa\\ and\\ her\\ daughter\\ prayed\\ to\\ Isis\\ to\\ help\\ them\\,\\ and\\ the\\ girl\\ was\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ boy\\.\\ Iphis\\ and\\ Ianthe\\ were\\ married\\ and\\ their\\ marriage\\ was\\ blessed\\ by\\ the\\ gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\ Review\\,\\ 14\\.3\\-14\\.4\\,\\ 19\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bernini\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Apollo\\ and\\ Daphne\\"\\;\\ \\(1624\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.2\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Frescoed\\ panels\\ from\\ a\\ dining\\ room\\ in\\ a\\ villa\\ in\\ Pompeii\\ showing\\ Narcissus\\ \\(left\\)\\ and\\ Pyramus\\ and\\ Thisbe\\ \\(right\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.3\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Abduction\\ of\\ Europa\\,\\ by\\ Titian\\ \\(1559\\-1562\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ statue\\ \\(14\\.1\\)\\ and\\ paintings\\ are\\ all\\ scenes\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ three\\ chapters\\ of\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Each\\ expresses\\ a\\ common\\ theme\\ found\\ within\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ stories\\ within\\ these\\ chapters\\:\\ a\\ god\\ sees\\ and\\ rapes\\ a\\ nymph\\ \\(theme\\ as\\ told\\ by\\ Tarrant\\ in\\ lecture\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Apollo\\ is\\ shot\\ by\\ Cupid\\ to\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Daphne\\,\\ but\\ she\\ is\\ shot\\ by\\ an\\ arrow\\ to\\ make\\ her\\ scorn\\ all\\ men\\.\\ He\\ tries\\ to\\ woo\\ her\\,\\ then\\ gives\\ up\\ and\\ chases\\ her\\.\\ In\\ a\\ plea\\ for\\ safety\\ she\\ has\\ the\\ river\\ of\\ her\\ father\\ save\\ her\\ by\\ transforming\\ her\\ into\\ a\\ laurel\\ tree\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ reason\\ Apollo\\ wears\\ a\\ crown\\ of\\ laurels\\.\\ This\\ sculpture\\ portrays\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ pursuit\\ and\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ Daphne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transformation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.2\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Narcissus\\ was\\ a\\ handsome\\ boy\\ with\\ whom\\ the\\ nymph\\ Echo\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\.\\ Echo\\ was\\ cursed\\ by\\ Juno\\ to\\ repeat\\ the\\ last\\ words\\ she\\ has\\ heard\\ after\\ she\\ had\\ protected\\ unfaithful\\ Jove\\ by\\ keeping\\ the\\ goddess\\ occupied\\ with\\ small\\ talk\\.\\ Narcissus\\ turned\\ Echo\\ away\\ and\\ she\\ fled\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ eventually\\ deteriorated\\ into\\ just\\ a\\ voice\\ which\\ repeated\\ the\\ last\\ things\\ it\\ heard\\.\\ Narcissus\\,\\ for\\ his\\ constant\\ rejection\\ of\\ lovers\\,\\ was\\ cursed\\.\\ This\\ curse\\ made\\ him\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ his\\ reflection\\ in\\ a\\ pool\\ of\\ water\\,\\ to\\ be\\ ever\\ unsatisfied\\ with\\ a\\ love\\ which\\ could\\ not\\ reciprocate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Pyramus\\ and\\ Thisbe\\ were\\ lovers\\ who\\ ran\\ away\\ as\\ their\\ parents\\ did\\ not\\ condone\\ affair\\.\\ Thisbe\\ ran\\ to\\ the\\ woods\\ to\\ wait\\ for\\ Pyramus\\ and\\ a\\ lioness\\ mangled\\ the\\ veil\\ she\\ wore\\ while\\ she\\ escaped\\ safely\\.\\ Pyramus\\ found\\ the\\ veil\\ and\\ committed\\ suicide\\ in\\ his\\ sorrow\\.\\ When\\ Thisbe\\ realized\\ what\\ had\\ happened\\,\\ she\\ committed\\ suicide\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Their\\ blood\\ stained\\ a\\ mulberry\\ tree\\,\\ which\\ is\\ supposedly\\ why\\ it\\ turns\\ red\\ as\\ it\\ ripens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.3\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jove\\ takes\\ on\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ a\\ bull\\ to\\ deceive\\ Europa\\.\\ Once\\ he\\ persuades\\ her\\ to\\ get\\ on\\ his\\ back\\,\\ he\\ takes\\ her\\ away\\.\\ This\\ portrayal\\ depicts\\ the\\ involvement\\ of\\ Cupid\\ and\\ similar\\ angels\\ and\\ is\\ especially\\ provocative\\ with\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 14\\.3\\ express\\ one\\ particular\\ perspective\\,\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ Shifting\\ perspectives\\ is\\ a\\ motif\\ found\\ within\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ this\\ perspective\\ changes\\ in\\ Books\\ 7\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 10\\ when\\ the\\ subject\\ changes\\ to\\ woman\\ facing\\ conflicts\\ between\\ love\\ and\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ morality\\.\\ Tarrant\\ believes\\ this\\ juxtaposition\\ makes\\ room\\ for\\ variation\\ and\\ highlights\\ what\\ is\\ unique\\ to\\ each\\ episode\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 14\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brueghl\\ is\\ a\\ painter\\ from\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ and\\ Flemish\\,\\ so\\ clearly\\ not\\ a\\ Roman\\ and\\ clearly\\ not\\ ancient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ this\\ particular\\ painting\\ depicts\\ a\\ mythological\\ scene\\ \\(the\\ fall\\ of\\ Icarus\\)\\ and\\ shows\\ us\\ how\\ far\\-reaching\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Roman\\ mythology\\ traveled\\;\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ favorite\\ subject\\ of\\ painters\\ in\\ the\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ contrast\\ the\\ slide\\ with\\ Roman\\ wall\\ paintings\\,\\ because\\ while\\ Brueghl\\ depicts\\ a\\ Roman\\ mythological\\ scene\\ \\(common\\ in\\ wall\\ paintings\\)\\ the\\ perspective\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ realistic\\ than\\ the\\ skewed\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ period\\ and\\ the\\ proportions\\ of\\ the\\ figures\\ match\\ up\\ correctly\\ in\\ Brueghl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.2\\ Bronze\\ statue\\ \\(Greek\\)\\ of\\ a\\ youth\\ pressed\\ into\\ service\\ as\\ a\\ candelabrum\\.\\ From\\ a\\ Roman\\ villa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ lecture\\ notes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ prominent\\ element\\ in\\ domestic\\ art\\ are\\ mythological\\ scenes\\ relating\\ to\\ \\"\\;classic\\"\\;\\ literary\\ texts\\:\\ Homer\\,\\ Virgil\\,\\ Ovid\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ of\\ Augustan\\ appropriation\\ of\\ classical\\ Greek\\ culture\\ in\\ Roman\\ terms\\,\\ analogy\\ to\\ domestic\\ use\\ of\\ figures\\ from\\ classical\\ Greek\\ art\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Greek\\ figures\\ from\\ all\\ three\\ periods\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ archaic\\,\\ classical\\,\\ Hellenistic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ Roman\\ private\\ dwellings\\,\\ but\\ wall\\ paintings\\ were\\ a\\ more\\ common\\ means\\ of\\ decorating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.3\\ Pompeii\\ wall\\-painting\\ of\\ Perseus\\&rsquo\\;\\ rescue\\ of\\ Andromeda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Taken\\ from\\ House\\ of\\ Amandus\\ in\\ Pompeii\\,\\ and\\ similar\\ in\\ theme\\ to\\ a\\ painting\\ at\\ the\\ villa\\ of\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ of\\ popular\\ mythological\\ scenes\\ made\\ into\\ domestic\\ art\\&mdash\\;i\\.e\\.\\ those\\ that\\ appear\\ in\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ or\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;classical\\&rdquo\\;\\ texts\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ described\\ in\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(102\\-105\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ popular\\ technique\\ for\\ mythological\\ depictions\\:\\ multiple\\ vantages\\ and\\ scenes\\ meshed\\ into\\ one\\,\\ arranged\\ radially\\ about\\ the\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ central\\ figure\\&mdash\\;in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ Andromeda\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.4\\ Sacro\\-idyllic\\ wall\\-painting\\ from\\ the\\ villa\\ of\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\ at\\ Boscotrecase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ idealized\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ countryside\\ graced\\ by\\ religious\\ motifs\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;usually\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ small\\ shrines\\ \\[\\<\\/span\\>\\aedicula\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\ to\\ rustic\\ deities\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(see\\ pillar\\-pedestal\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Such\\ paintings\\ often\\ showed\\ villa\\ scenes\\ like\\ that\\ appearing\\ in\\ the\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ long\\ artistic\\ and\\ literary\\ tradition\\ \\(dating\\ from\\ Hellenistic\\ period\\)\\ associated\\ the\\ countryside\\ with\\ moral\\ purity\\ against\\ the\\ corruption\\ of\\ urban\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\svanderw\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orpheus\\ and\\ Eurydice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orpheus\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\ to\\ rescue\\ his\\ love\\ Eurydice\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ his\\ beautiful\\ lyre\\ music\\ and\\ mournful\\ song\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ convince\\ Pluto\\ to\\ let\\ him\\ take\\ her\\ back\\.\\ Pluto\\ agrees\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ Orpheus\\ does\\ not\\ look\\ back\\ to\\ see\\ her\\ shade\\ following\\ him\\ until\\ he\\ crosses\\ the\\ river\\ Avernus\\.\\ He\\ eventually\\ looks\\,\\ compelled\\ by\\ his\\ love\\,\\ and\\ she\\ fades\\ away\\.\\ He\\ roams\\ the\\ earth\\ for\\ the\\ remainder\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ sorrow\\,\\ refusing\\ to\\ take\\ another\\ woman\\ \\(taking\\ little\\ boys\\ instead\\&hellip\\;\\ sick\\ fuck\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cyparissus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cyparissus\\ befriends\\ a\\ sacred\\ stag\\ of\\ the\\ nymphs\\ but\\ kills\\ it\\ accidentally\\.\\ In\\ mourning\\ he\\ wishes\\ to\\ die\\ and\\ Apollo\\ transforms\\ him\\ into\\ the\\ sorrowful\\ cypress\\,\\ the\\ tree\\ of\\ mourning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ganymede\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ falls\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ a\\ little\\ boy\\ \\(another\\ sick\\ fuck\\)\\ and\\ transforms\\ himself\\ into\\ an\\ eagle\\ to\\ carry\\ off\\ the\\ boy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apollo\\ and\\ Hyacinthus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apollo\\ and\\ Hyacinthus\\ have\\ a\\ discus\\ throwing\\ competition\\.\\ Apollo\\ throws\\ a\\ discus\\,\\ and\\ Hyacinthus\\,\\ attempting\\ to\\ retrieve\\ it\\,\\ is\\ struck\\ by\\ it\\ and\\ dies\\.\\ Apollo\\,\\ sorrowful\\,\\ transforms\\ his\\ friend\\ into\\ a\\ flower\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ai\\ Ai\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ petals\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ say\\,\\ Greek\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ incidents\\ of\\ Venus\\&rsquo\\;\\ Anger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ daughters\\ of\\ a\\ town\\ called\\ Amathus\\ murdered\\ their\\ guests\\.\\ Venus\\ transformed\\ them\\ into\\ bulls\\ as\\ punishment\\,\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ big\\ women\\ by\\ nature\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Venus\\ transformed\\ the\\ Propoetides\\ into\\ whores\\,\\ and\\ their\\ shamelessness\\ hardened\\ them\\ until\\ they\\ transformed\\ into\\ rocks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pygmalion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shocked\\ by\\ the\\ vices\\ of\\ women\\,\\ Pygmalion\\ swears\\ them\\ off\\.\\ Instead\\ he\\ carves\\ a\\ woman\\ from\\ stone\\.\\ He\\ falls\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ it\\ and\\ Venus\\ transforms\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ living\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cinyras\\ and\\ Myrrha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myrrha\\ is\\ really\\ fucked\\ up\\ so\\ she\\ falls\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ he\\ father\\ Cinyras\\.\\ At\\ one\\ point\\ her\\ hearts\\ torture\\ leads\\ her\\ to\\ attempt\\ suicide\\.\\ With\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ a\\ nurse\\,\\ she\\ fools\\ him\\ and\\ sleeps\\ with\\ him\\.\\ After\\ several\\ occasions\\ of\\ not\\ realizing\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banging\\ his\\ daughter\\,\\ he\\ calls\\ for\\ lights\\ and\\ sees\\ it\\ is\\ his\\ daughter\\.\\ She\\ flees\\ and\\ asks\\ the\\ gods\\ for\\ punishment\\ and\\ is\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ myrrh\\ tree\\.\\ The\\ son\\ of\\ Myrrha\\ and\\ her\\ father\\,\\ Adonis\\,\\ is\\ born\\ from\\ the\\ tree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adonis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cupid\\ makes\\ Venus\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Adonis\\ and\\ tells\\ him\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ how\\ he\\ should\\ not\\ hunt\\ fierce\\ animals\\ \\(tigers\\,\\ wolves\\,\\ etc\\)\\ because\\ they\\ could\\ fight\\ back\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venus\\ tells\\ Adonis\\ the\\ Story\\ of\\ Atlanta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Atlanta\\ is\\ told\\ by\\ an\\ oracle\\ not\\ to\\ marry\\.\\ So\\ every\\ suitor\\ she\\ challenges\\ to\\ a\\ running\\ race\\;\\ if\\ one\\ beats\\ her\\,\\ the\\ two\\ will\\ marry\\,\\ otherwise\\ he\\ will\\ die\\.\\ Many\\ die\\ and\\ then\\ Hippomenes\\ tries\\.\\ Venus\\ gives\\ him\\ three\\ golden\\ apples\\ to\\ distract\\ Atlanta\\ during\\ the\\ race\\.\\ He\\ throws\\ each\\ one\\ and\\ she\\ leaves\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ get\\ them\\.\\ He\\ wins\\ and\\ they\\ get\\ married\\,\\ but\\ he\\ forgets\\ to\\ thank\\ Venus\\ so\\ she\\ turns\\ them\\ into\\ lions\\ after\\ they\\ have\\ sex\\ in\\ a\\ sacred\\ cave\\ with\\ lion\\-like\\ fierceness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fate\\ of\\ Adonis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adonis\\ does\\ not\\ heed\\ Venus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ earlier\\ advice\\ and\\ hunts\\ a\\ boar\\.\\ It\\ kills\\ him\\ and\\ she\\ transforms\\ him\\ into\\ an\\ anemone\\,\\ the\\ wind\\-flower\\ which\\ shakes\\ its\\ petals\\ off\\ too\\ early\\,\\ as\\ Adonis\\ died\\ too\\ early\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Head\\ of\\ Livia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-\\ shows\\ the\\ breaking\\ of\\ tradition\\ \\(only\\ men\\)\\ \\ \\;with\\ woman\\ being\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-\\ classical\\ features\\ \\ \\;\\(smooth\\ features\\,\\ orderly\\ hair\\)\\ suggests\\ she\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ traditional\\ role\\ a\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ despite\\ this\\ classical\\ representation\\,\\ she\\ is\\ anything\\ but\\ traditional\\.\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ influence\\ she\\ held\\ not\\ a\\ traditional\\ role\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.2\\ Marble\\ Head\\ of\\ Livia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ represented\\ to\\ look\\ similar\\ to\\ goddess\\ ceres\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(hair\\,\\ headdress\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ again\\,\\ this\\ representation\\ stresses\\ her\\ traditional\\ role\\ \\(though\\ only\\ a\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.3\\ Detail\\ of\\ wall\\ painting\\ at\\ the\\ villa\\ of\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\ at\\ Boscotrecase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ suggested\\ to\\ be\\ julia\\ \\(augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ her\\ images\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ livia\\,\\ exploit\\ status\\ rather\\ than\\ hide\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ her\\ adulterous\\ activity\\ led\\ to\\ pro\\ marriage\\,\\ anti\\ adultery\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.4\\ Small\\ intaglio\\ of\\ Julia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ portrayed\\ as\\ attractive\\,\\ untamed\\,\\ and\\ free\\ \\(not\\ livia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tradition\\ portrayal\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ represents\\ more\\ publicizing\\ of\\ family\\ life\\,\\ a\\ theme\\ seen\\ with\\ livia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ her\\ dishonorable\\ exile\\ showed\\ augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.5\\ Bust\\ of\\ Antonia\\ the\\ Younger\\.\\ Daughter\\ of\\ Mark\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ role\\ of\\ heir\\ producer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ ironically\\ her\\ close\\ relations\\ are\\ are\\ descendents\\ of\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.6\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ breaking\\ tradition\\ with\\ women\\ in\\ public\\ space\\ \\(again\\,\\ a\\ emphasis\\ on\\ family\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ representation\\ of\\ gaius\\ and\\ lucius\\ \\(dead\\)\\ shows\\ belief\\ that\\ children\\ are\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.7\\ No\\ label\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ represents\\ equal\\ footing\\ of\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ not\\ representative\\ of\\ roman\\ values\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ perhaps\\ etruscan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sashley\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Book\\ XII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*The\\ Invasion\\ of\\ Troy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Greeks\\ have\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ getting\\ to\\ Troy\\ because\\ the\\ Gods\\ \\(Neptune\\ and\\ Diana\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ against\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conjuring\\ storms\\ and\\ winds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ serpent\\ eats\\ nine\\ birds\\ and\\ Calchas\\ the\\ augur\\ foretells\\ that\\ Greece\\ will\\ win\\ in\\ nine\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ finally\\ decide\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ a\\ virgin\\ to\\ Diana\\,\\ but\\ she\\ relents\\ and\\ causes\\ cloud\\ and\\ mist\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ virgin\\,\\ Iphigenia\\,\\ can\\ be\\ replaced\\ with\\ a\\ deer\\.\\ Pacified\\,\\ the\\ goddess\\ allows\\ the\\ Greeks\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ Troy\\,\\ but\\ the\\ goddess\\ Rumor\\ gets\\ it\\ around\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ coming\\ so\\ the\\ Trojans\\ are\\ ready\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Achilles\\ fights\\ Cygnus\\,\\ whose\\ body\\ is\\ impervious\\ to\\ the\\ spear\\.\\ Achilles\\ eventually\\ strangles\\ him\\,\\ but\\ Cygnus\\&rsquo\\;\\ father\\,\\ Neptune\\,\\ turns\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ swan\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Nestor\\ Tells\\ the\\ Story\\ of\\ Caeneus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;300\\ year\\ old\\ Nestor\\ remembers\\ another\\ warrior\\ who\\ was\\ impervious\\ to\\ spears\\.\\ Caeneus\\ was\\ originally\\ a\\ beautiful\\ girl\\,\\ Caenis\\.\\ Neptune\\ raped\\ her\\ and\\ offered\\ her\\ whatever\\ she\\ wanted\\ afterward\\.\\ To\\ protect\\ herself\\ from\\ such\\ treatment\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ she\\ asked\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ man\\.\\ Neptune\\ obliged\\ and\\ also\\ told\\ the\\ new\\ man\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;should\\ never\\ fall\\ by\\ any\\ thrust\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Nestor\\ Goes\\ On\\ and\\ On\\ with\\ the\\ Story\\ of\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ the\\ Centaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Centarus\\ were\\ invited\\ to\\ the\\ wedding\\ of\\ Ixion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ and\\ Hippodame\\,\\ but\\ they\\ got\\ rowdy\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ ravish\\ the\\ bride\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ women\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ multi\\-page\\ graphic\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ violence\\ ensuing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caeneus\\ is\\ seemingly\\ unkillable\\ so\\ the\\ Centarus\\ uproot\\ the\\ whole\\ forest\\ and\\ bury\\ him\\ under\\ it\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ Caeneus\\ was\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ golden\\-winged\\ bird\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Nestor\\ is\\ Asked\\ Why\\ He\\ Omitted\\ Hercules\\ and\\ Explains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Hercules\\ killed\\ all\\ 11\\ of\\ Nestor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brothers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neptune\\ hates\\ Achilles\\ for\\ killing\\ Cygnus\\ and\\ sends\\ Apollo\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\.\\ Apollo\\ helps\\ Paris\\ shoot\\ Achilles\\,\\ an\\ ignominious\\ end\\,\\ to\\ be\\ killed\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ womanly\\ man\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;coward\\ and\\ seducer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Achilles\\ body\\ was\\ burned\\ so\\ now\\ he\\ is\\ just\\ dust\\,\\ but\\ his\\ glory\\ fills\\ all\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metamorphoses\\ Chapter\\ 13\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ajax\\ and\\ Ulysses\\ and\\ the\\ arms\\ of\\ Achilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Begins\\ with\\ declamation\\-like\\ oratories\\ from\\ Ajax\\ and\\ Ulysses\\ before\\ the\\ Greek\\ soldiers\\ and\\ generals\\,\\ each\\ claiming\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ get\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ armor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ajax\\ begins\\,\\ describing\\ how\\ he\\ was\\ shortchanged\\ in\\ battle\\ by\\ Ulysses\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ more\\ worthy\\ by\\ birth\\ \\(his\\ father\\ was\\ Telamon\\,\\ who\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;took\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ Troy\\ with\\ Hercules\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;third\\ in\\ line\\ from\\ Jove\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Ajax\\ also\\ calls\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ more\\ valor\\ on\\ the\\ battlefield\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Ajax\\ makes\\ the\\ mistake\\ of\\ appealing\\ to\\ the\\ soldiers\\,\\ who\\ have\\ no\\ say\\ in\\ the\\ decision\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ he\\ is\\ just\\ not\\ as\\ experienced\\ an\\ orator\\ as\\ Ulysses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ulysses\\ addresses\\ the\\ generals\\,\\ among\\ whom\\ he\\ ranked\\,\\ and\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ eloquent\\ than\\ Ajax\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ he\\ alone\\ brought\\ down\\ Thebes\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ crediting\\ himself\\ for\\ convincing\\ Agamemnon\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ his\\ own\\ daughter\\ Diana\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ \\(as\\ the\\ oracle\\ dictated\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ calm\\ the\\ winds\\ so\\ their\\ ships\\ could\\ begin\\ the\\ voyage\\.\\ \\ \\;Ulysses\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Troy\\,\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ diplomatic\\ strengths\\,\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ his\\ emotional\\ support\\ for\\ Agamemnon\\ during\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ daughter\\,\\ make\\ him\\ more\\ worthy\\ than\\ the\\ low\\-class\\,\\ all\\-brawn\\-and\\-no\\-brain\\ Ajax\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;As\\ a\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ captain\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ a\\ rower\\,\\ as\\ a\\ leader\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ his\\ soldier\\,\\ so\\ do\\ I\\ outrank\\ you\\,\\ Ajax\\;\\ in\\ my\\ make\\-up\\ knowledge\\ governs\\ brute\\ force\\,\\ and\\ therein\\ lies\\ my\\ talent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ when\\ Achilles\\ died\\,\\ it\\ was\\ he\\ himself\\ who\\ carried\\ his\\ body\\,\\ and\\ so\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ full\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ armor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ulysses\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ armor\\.\\ \\ \\;Ajax\\ killed\\ himself\\ in\\ defiance\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ only\\ he\\ could\\ subdue\\ himself\\.\\ The\\ hyacinth\\ grew\\ to\\ honor\\ his\\ loss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Fall\\ of\\ Troy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ oracle\\ said\\ that\\ Troy\\ would\\ fall\\ only\\ when\\ the\\ statue\\ of\\ Athene\\ had\\ been\\ removed\\ and\\ when\\ Hydra\\&\\#39\\;s\\ arrows\\ rained\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ city\\.\\ Ulysses\\ retrieved\\ the\\ statues\\ and\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ where\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ left\\ Philoctetes\\,\\ the\\ keeper\\ of\\ the\\ arrows\\.\\ Once\\ these\\ things\\ were\\ done\\,\\ Troy\\ fell\\ and\\ the\\ men\\ were\\ all\\ killed\\.\\ The\\ Greeks\\ burned\\ the\\ city\\,\\ and\\ captured\\ the\\ women\\ to\\ take\\ back\\ to\\ Greece\\ as\\ slaves\\.\\ \\ \\;Hecuba\\,\\ wife\\ of\\ Priam\\ and\\ mother\\ of\\ Hector\\ and\\ Paris\\,\\ was\\ among\\ the\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hecuba\\,\\ Polyxena\\,\\ and\\ Polydorus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Priam\\ had\\ sent\\ his\\ youngest\\ son\\,\\ Polydorus\\,\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ Thrace\\ with\\ Polymestor\\.\\ When\\ Polymestor\\ learned\\ of\\ Troy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fall\\,\\ he\\ killed\\ Polydorus\\ and\\ kept\\ the\\ gold\\ that\\ Priam\\ had\\ given\\ the\\ boy\\.\\ He\\ threw\\ the\\ body\\ into\\ the\\ ocean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agamemnon\\ and\\ the\\ Greeks\\ stopped\\ in\\ Thrace\\ during\\ a\\ storm\\ and\\ Achilles\\&\\#39\\;\\ ghost\\ appeared\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ demanded\\ that\\ Polyxena\\,\\ Priam\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ be\\ sacrificed\\ in\\ his\\ honor\\.\\ The\\ girl\\ went\\ to\\ her\\ death\\ bravely\\,\\ and\\ Hecuba\\ mourned\\ her\\ daughter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;He\\ who\\ destroyed\\ your\\ many\\ brothers\\,\\ he\\ destroyed\\ you\\,\\ Achilles\\,\\ doom\\ of\\ Troy\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ my\\ bereaver\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ when\\ Paris\\&\\#39\\;\\ arrows\\ and\\ Phoebus\\&\\#39\\;\\ felled\\ him\\,\\ now\\ for\\ sure\\,\\ I\\ said\\,\\ we\\ need\\ not\\ fear\\ Achilles\\:\\ now\\ again\\ I\\ had\\ to\\ fear\\ him\\:\\ in\\ the\\ sepulchre\\,\\ his\\ ashes\\ raged\\ against\\ our\\ race\\;\\ entombed\\,\\ we\\ felt\\ him\\ as\\ our\\ foe\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ him\\ I\\ bore\\ my\\ children\\!\\ Mighty\\ Ilium\\ lies\\ low\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ tragedy\\ our\\ nation\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ruin\\ reached\\ its\\ end\\;\\ but\\ end\\ it\\ has\\.\\ For\\ me\\ alone\\ Troy\\ lives\\;\\ my\\ woes\\ stream\\ on\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Achilles\\ had\\ killed\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ children\\ except\\ Polydorus\\.\\ His\\ life\\ was\\ her\\ salvation\\ until\\ she\\ found\\ his\\ body\\ on\\ the\\ shore\\.\\ Plotting\\ her\\ revenge\\ against\\ Polymestor\\,\\ she\\ tricked\\ him\\ into\\ meeting\\ her\\ under\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ giving\\ him\\ more\\ gold\\ for\\ Polydorus\\.\\ When\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ Thrace\\ met\\ with\\ her\\,\\ she\\ clawed\\ his\\ eyes\\ out\\.\\ The\\ Thracians\\ attacked\\ her\\ for\\ injuring\\ their\\ king\\,\\ and\\ she\\ was\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ dog\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Memnon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ many\\ pitied\\ Hecuba\\,\\ a\\ lesser\\-known\\ goddess\\,\\ Aurora\\,\\ mourned\\ her\\ son\\,\\ Memnon\\.\\ He\\&\\#39\\;d\\ been\\ killed\\ by\\ Hercules\\,\\ and\\ she\\ asked\\ Jove\\ that\\ Memnon\\ be\\ remembered\\ in\\ some\\ immortal\\ way\\.\\ So\\ Jove\\ took\\ the\\ smoke\\ from\\ his\\ funeral\\ pyre\\ and\\ created\\ a\\ flock\\ of\\ birds\\ that\\ divided\\ and\\ battled\\ each\\ other\\ until\\ they\\ fell\\ into\\ the\\ ashes\\ from\\ which\\ they\\&\\#39\\;d\\ been\\ born\\.\\ Each\\ year\\ the\\ birds\\ fight\\ in\\ memory\\ of\\ Memnon\\ and\\ his\\ mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ tears\\ of\\ mourning\\ are\\ dewdrops\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Pilgramage\\ of\\ Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aeneas\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ other\\ Trojan\\ men\\ escaped\\ the\\ city\\ and\\ set\\ sail\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ land\\ where\\ they\\ hoped\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ new\\ Troy\\.\\ They\\ stopped\\ at\\ Delos\\ and\\ King\\ Anius\\ welcomed\\ them\\.\\ He\\ told\\ them\\ how\\ his\\ son\\ had\\ gone\\ to\\ found\\ Andros\\ and\\ his\\ daughters\\ had\\ been\\ given\\ a\\ gift\\ that\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ turn\\ all\\ they\\ touched\\ to\\ corn\\,\\ wine\\,\\ or\\ palm\\ oil\\.\\ Agamemnon\\ had\\ kidnapped\\ them\\ and\\ they\\ escaped\\ to\\ their\\ brother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ island\\.\\ But\\ when\\ Agamemnon\\ threatened\\ Anius\\&\\#39\\;\\ son\\ with\\ war\\,\\ he\\ turned\\ his\\ sisters\\ over\\ to\\ the\\ Greek\\.\\ The\\ girls\\ asked\\ Bacchus\\ for\\ help\\,\\ and\\ he\\ made\\ them\\ doves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ next\\ day\\ Aeneas\\ went\\ to\\ Apollo\\&\\#39\\;s\\ oracle\\ and\\ was\\ told\\ to\\ \\"\\;seek\\ \\/\\ Their\\ ancient\\ mother\\ and\\ ancestral\\ shores\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;So\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ set\\ out\\ for\\ Italy\\ and\\ their\\ next\\ stop\\ was\\ a\\ land\\ near\\ Scylla\\,\\ a\\ man\\-eating\\ monster\\,\\ and\\ Charybdis\\,\\ a\\ whirlpool\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scylla\\ had\\ once\\ been\\ a\\ beautiful\\ girl\\ pursued\\ by\\ many\\ suitors\\ before\\ she\\ was\\ transformed\\ to\\ a\\ monster\\.\\ She\\&\\#39\\;d\\ been\\ friends\\ with\\ the\\ sea\\-nymph\\,Galatea\\.\\ \\ \\;Galatea\\ had\\ told\\ Scylla\\ all\\ about\\ her\\ problems\\ with\\ Polyphemus\\,\\ the\\ Cyclops\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Acis\\ and\\ Galatea\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galatea\\ loved\\ Acis\\,\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ a\\ river\\,\\ and\\ Polyphemus\\ loved\\ Galatea\\.\\ One\\ day\\ Polyphemus\\ was\\ singing\\ of\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ Galatea\\ and\\ her\\ indifference\\ to\\ him\\.\\ He\\ sang\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;Why\\ prefer\\ you\\ Acis\\&\\#39\\;\\ arms\\ to\\ mine\\?\\ \\/\\ Acis\\ may\\ please\\ himself\\ and\\ please\\,\\ alas\\,\\ \\/\\ You\\,\\ Galatea\\.\\ Give\\ me\\ but\\ the\\ chance\\,\\ \\/\\ He\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ find\\ my\\ strength\\ no\\ smaller\\ than\\ my\\ size\\.\\ \\/\\ I\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ gouge\\ his\\ living\\ guts\\,\\ I\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ rend\\ his\\ limbs\\ \\/\\ And\\ strew\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ sea\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ finished\\ his\\ song\\,\\ he\\ caught\\ his\\ love\\ with\\ Acis\\.\\ She\\ fled\\ to\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Cyclops\\ crushed\\ Acis\\ with\\ a\\ huge\\ rock\\.\\ Galatea\\ changed\\ her\\ dead\\ love\\ to\\ a\\ river\\ god\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ she\\ told\\ Scylla\\ the\\ story\\,\\ Galatea\\ and\\ the\\ sea\\-nymphs\\ swam\\ away\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scylla\\ and\\ Glaucus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scylla\\ walked\\ along\\ the\\ beach\\ and\\ Glaucus\\ came\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ water\\.\\ He\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ fisherman\\,\\ but\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ been\\ transformed\\ to\\ a\\ merman\\ and\\ made\\ a\\ sea\\-god\\.\\ He\\ was\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Scylla\\,\\ but\\ she\\ scorned\\ his\\ advances\\,\\ so\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ Circe\\ for\\ help\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ Circe\\&\\#39\\;s\\ palace\\,\\ Glaucus\\ explained\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ Scylla\\ to\\ love\\ him\\.\\ Circe\\ offered\\ herself\\ to\\ him\\,\\ but\\ Glaucus\\ wanted\\ only\\ Scylla\\.\\ So\\ Circe\\ mixed\\ up\\ a\\ potion\\ and\\ crossed\\ the\\ water\\ to\\ the\\ cove\\ where\\ Scylla\\ liked\\ to\\ swim\\.\\ When\\ Scylla\\ waded\\ into\\ the\\ water\\,\\ she\\ saw\\ the\\ heads\\ of\\ many\\ fierce\\ dogs\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ She\\ ran\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ and\\ saw\\ that\\ from\\ the\\ waist\\ down\\ her\\ body\\ had\\ been\\ transformed\\ to\\ several\\ rings\\ of\\ dogs\\&\\#39\\;\\ heads\\.\\ She\\ stayed\\ in\\ that\\ cove\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ sea\\-monster\\.\\ She\\ picked\\ men\\ from\\ Ulysses\\&\\#39\\;\\ ship\\ and\\ ate\\ them\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ at\\ Circe\\ because\\ she\\ loved\\ Ulysses\\.\\ Eventually\\ she\\ was\\ transformed\\ from\\ a\\ monster\\ to\\ a\\ rocky\\ crag\\ and\\ she\\ stood\\ across\\ from\\ Charybdis\\,\\ the\\ whirlpool\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Book\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scylla\\ and\\ Glaucus\\ Cont\\&rsquo\\;d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\At\\ Circe\\&\\#39\\;s\\ palace\\,\\ Glaucus\\ \\(now\\ a\\ sea\\ god\\)\\ explains\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ Scylla\\ to\\ love\\ him\\.\\ Circe\\ offers\\ herself\\,\\ but\\ Glaucus\\ wants\\ only\\ Scylla\\.\\ So\\ Circe\\ mixes\\ up\\ a\\ potion\\ and\\ crossed\\ the\\ water\\ to\\ the\\ cove\\ where\\ Scylla\\ likes\\ to\\ swim\\.\\ When\\ Scylla\\ wades\\ into\\ the\\ water\\,\\ she\\ sees\\ the\\ heads\\ of\\ many\\ fierce\\ dogs\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ She\\ runs\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ and\\ sees\\ that\\ from\\ the\\ waist\\ down\\ her\\ body\\ has\\ been\\ transformed\\ to\\ rings\\ of\\ dogs\\&\\#39\\;\\ heads\\.\\ She\\ stays\\ in\\ that\\ cove\\ and\\ becomes\\ a\\ sea\\-monster\\.\\ She\\ picks\\ men\\ from\\ Ulysses\\&\\#39\\;\\ ship\\ and\\ eats\\ them\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ at\\ Circe\\ because\\ she\\ loved\\ Ulysses\\.\\ Eventually\\ she\\ is\\ transformed\\ from\\ a\\ monster\\ to\\ a\\ rocky\\ crag\\ and\\ she\\ stands\\ across\\ from\\ Charybdis\\,\\ the\\ whirlpool\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Pilgrimage\\ of\\ Aeneas\\ Resumed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Aeneas\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ sail\\ past\\ Scylla\\ and\\ Charybdis\\ and\\ on\\ to\\ Libya\\ where\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Dido\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;killed\\ herself\\ when\\ Aeneas\\ left\\ her\\.\\ From\\ there\\,\\ the\\ Trojans\\ make\\ their\\ way\\ to\\ Cumae\\ where\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sibyl\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;led\\ Aeneas\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Underworld\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ see\\ his\\ father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ghost\\.\\ From\\ there\\,\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ reach\\ Caieta\\ where\\ they\\ found\\ Macareus\\,\\ who\\&\\#39\\;d\\ sailed\\ with\\ Ulysses\\.\\ Macareus\\ sees\\ Achaemenides\\,\\ a\\ fellow\\ Greek\\,\\ alive\\ on\\ a\\ Trojan\\ ship\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Achaemenides\\ Tells\\ His\\ Story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Acheamenides\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ been\\ left\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ where\\ Cyclops\\ lived\\ after\\ Ulysses\\ had\\ put\\ his\\ one\\ eye\\ out\\.\\ He\\ hid\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ in\\ fear\\ until\\ another\\ ship\\ came\\ by\\ and\\ took\\ him\\ aboard\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Macareus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ another\\ shipmate\\,\\ tells\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ sailed\\ on\\ with\\ Ulysses\\ when\\ his\\ men\\ opened\\ the\\ bag\\ of\\ wind\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Aeolus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ set\\ their\\ journey\\ back\\ and\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ danger\\.\\ The\\ ship\\ came\\ to\\ Lestrygonian\\ Lamus\\,\\ and\\ Macareus\\ was\\ sent\\ to\\ their\\ king\\,\\ Antiphates\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ his\\ two\\ companions\\ was\\ caught\\ and\\ eaten\\.\\ The\\ king\\ and\\ mob\\ tried\\ to\\ sink\\ the\\ ships\\,\\ and\\ one\\ escaped\\.\\ Macareus\\ warns\\ Aeneas\\ to\\ avoid\\ Circe\\.\\ He\\ then\\ tells\\ how\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ Circe\\ transformed\\ to\\ a\\ swine\\ with\\ a\\ magic\\ drink\\ while\\ they\\ were\\ on\\ her\\ island\\.\\ Only\\ Eurylochus\\ was\\ not\\ transformed\\ because\\ he\\ refused\\ the\\ potion\\.\\ He\\ was\\ only\\ changed\\ back\\ to\\ human\\ form\\ because\\ Ulysses\\ married\\ Circe\\ and\\ asked\\ for\\ his\\ men\\&\\#39\\;s\\ recovery\\ as\\ his\\ wedding\\ gift\\.\\ The\\ crew\\ stayed\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ for\\ a\\ year\\,\\ and\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ how\\ Macareus\\ learned\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Picus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Picus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\King\\ Picus\\,\\ Saturn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\,\\ was\\ the\\ young\\ ruler\\ of\\ Latium\\,\\ and\\ his\\ heart\\ belonged\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Canens\\,\\ the\\ Singing\\ Girl\\.\\ Circe\\ saw\\ the\\ king\\ hunting\\ one\\ day\\ and\\ desired\\ his\\ love\\.\\ She\\ created\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ a\\ boar\\ running\\ into\\ the\\ thick\\ woods\\,\\ and\\ he\\ followed\\ the\\ mirage\\.\\ Then\\ she\\ made\\ the\\ sky\\ dark\\ and\\ presented\\ herself\\ to\\ him\\.\\ He\\ turned\\ her\\ down\\ because\\ he\\ loved\\ Canens\\,\\ and\\ Circe\\ turned\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\woodpecker\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ She\\ also\\ changed\\ his\\ comrades\\ into\\ beasts\\.\\ His\\ wife\\ searched\\ everywhere\\ for\\ him\\,\\ but\\ finally\\ exhausted\\,\\ she\\ sat\\ down\\ and\\ wept\\ until\\ she\\ disappeared\\.\\ After\\ a\\ year\\ on\\ Circe\\&\\#39\\;s\\ island\\,\\ Macareus\\ said\\ that\\ Ulysses\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ left\\.\\ Macareus\\ stayed\\ at\\ Caieta\\ because\\ he\\ feared\\ the\\ journey\\ home\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Pilgrimage\\ of\\ Aeneas\\ Resumed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Aeneas\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ left\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ headed\\ for\\ Latium\\ where\\ Aeneas\\ won\\ the\\ throne\\ and\\ a\\ princess\\ bride\\ after\\ defeating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Turnus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ a\\ war\\.\\ Turnus\\ sought\\ help\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\Diomede\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ sending\\ Venulus\\ to\\ Arpi\\,\\ but\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ get\\ it\\ b\\/c\\ Diomede\\ had\\ no\\ warriors\\ left\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narrative\\ of\\ Diomedes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diomedes\\&rsquo\\;\\ men\\ were\\ driven\\ to\\ Caphereus\\,\\ the\\ summit\\ of\\ woes\\.\\ Venus\\ drove\\ him\\ from\\ home\\ in\\ Argos\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ wound\\ he\\ gave\\ her\\.\\ Acmon\\ roused\\ Venus\\&rsquo\\;\\ anger\\,\\ and\\ he\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ bird\\,\\ like\\ a\\ swan\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Return\\ of\\ Venulus\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Resumption\\ of\\ the\\ Wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venulus\\ journeyed\\ back\\.\\ He\\ saw\\ nymphs\\ and\\ mocked\\ them\\;\\ they\\ turned\\ him\\ into\\ an\\ olive\\ tree\\.\\ Turnus\\ tried\\ to\\ burn\\ Aeneas\\&\\#39\\;\\ fleet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cybele\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ however\\,\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ let\\ the\\ ships\\ burn\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ made\\ of\\ wood\\ from\\ her\\ forest\\.\\ She\\ spoke\\ and\\ storms\\ came\\.\\ The\\ ships\\ turned\\ into\\ sea\\-nymphs\\ that\\ steadied\\ ships\\ during\\ storms\\.\\ The\\ nymphs\\,\\ however\\,\\ hated\\ Greeks\\ and\\ refused\\ to\\ hold\\ their\\ ships\\.\\ War\\ went\\ on\\.\\ Turnus\\ fell\\,\\ and\\ so\\ did\\ Ardea\\,\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ashes\\,\\ a\\ heron\\ flew\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Deification\\ of\\ Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Aeneas\\&\\#39\\;\\ victory\\ over\\ Turnus\\,\\ all\\ the\\ gods\\ were\\ appeased\\.\\ Venus\\ asked\\ Jove\\ to\\ make\\ her\\ son\\ immortal\\,\\ and\\ so\\ it\\ was\\.\\ Aeneas\\&\\#39\\;\\ descendants\\ ruled\\ Latium\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Legendary\\ History\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Aeneas\\,\\ Iulus\\ \\(Ascanius\\)\\ ruled\\ the\\ Latin\\ state\\.\\ Then\\ several\\ kings\\,\\ including\\ Tiberinus\\ \\(who\\ drowned\\,\\ hence\\ the\\ Tiber\\)\\,\\ who\\ bore\\ Remulus\\ and\\ Acrota\\.\\ Lightning\\ killed\\ Remulus\\,\\ and\\ Acrota\\ turned\\ power\\ over\\ to\\ Aventinus\\,\\ after\\ whom\\ a\\ hill\\ is\\ named\\.\\ Procas\\ reigned\\,\\ and\\ Pomona\\ tended\\ her\\ gardens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pomona\\ and\\ Vertumnus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Pomona\\ was\\ a\\ wood\\ nymph\\.\\ She\\ would\\ let\\ no\\ one\\ enter\\ without\\ her\\ permission\\,\\ and\\ she\\ especially\\ had\\ no\\ interest\\ in\\ men\\.\\ Vertumnus\\ loved\\ Pomona\\,\\ and\\ he\\ disguises\\ himself\\ to\\ enter\\ her\\ garden\\.\\ As\\ an\\ old\\ woman\\,\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ convince\\ Pomona\\ to\\ marry\\ Vertumnus\\,\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ the\\ changing\\ seasons\\,\\ and\\ he\\ warned\\ her\\ that\\ Venus\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;hates\\ a\\ stony\\ heart\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\ To\\ further\\ prove\\ the\\ point\\ he\\ told\\ Pomona\\ a\\ story\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Iphis\\ and\\ Anaxarete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anaxarete\\ the\\ princess\\ shunned\\ Iphis\\&rsquo\\;\\ true\\ love\\ until\\ he\\ killed\\ himself\\.\\ When\\ she\\ saw\\ the\\ funeral\\,\\ she\\ turned\\ to\\ marble\\.\\ After\\ his\\ story\\,\\ which\\ has\\ no\\ effect\\,\\ Pomona\\ agrees\\ to\\ marry\\ Vertumnus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ Early\\ Roman\\ History\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amulius\\ rules\\,\\ but\\ Romulus\\ restores\\ the\\ throne\\ to\\ his\\ grandfather\\,\\ Numitor\\.\\ Then\\ in\\ a\\ battle\\ with\\ the\\ Sabines\\,\\ Juno\\ unlocks\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ gates\\ of\\ Rome\\ to\\ let\\ the\\ enemy\\ in\\.\\ Venus\\ sees\\ the\\ open\\ gate\\ and\\ makes\\ water\\ nymphs\\ find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ close\\ it\\ because\\ she\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ undo\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ another\\ god\\.\\ The\\ naiads\\ put\\ yellow\\ sulfur\\ under\\ the\\ spring\\ and\\ made\\ the\\ fountain\\ water\\ hot\\.\\ After\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ rule\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ Tatius\\ and\\ then\\ to\\ R\\.\\ Mars\\ asks\\ Jove\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ son\\ immortal\\,\\ and\\ so\\ R\\ is\\ made\\ so\\.\\ His\\ new\\ name\\ is\\ Quirinus\\.\\ His\\ wife\\,\\ Hersilia\\,\\ mourns\\ for\\ him\\,\\ and\\ when\\ Juno\\ sends\\ Iris\\ down\\ to\\ console\\ her\\,\\ she\\ expresses\\ her\\ desire\\ to\\ see\\ R\\.\\ Iris\\ takes\\ her\\ there\\,\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ made\\ immortal\\ and\\ called\\ Hora\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slides\\ 24\\.1\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\"\\;republican\\"\\;\\ Napoleon\\,\\ by\\ Ingres\\.\\ Napoleon\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ image\\ by\\ later\\ rulers\\.\\ Napoleon\\ took\\ the\\ title\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ consul\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ legitimize\\ his\\ rule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Arch\\ of\\ Constantine\\ is\\ the\\ focal\\ point\\ for\\ a\\ military\\ parade\\ under\\ Mussolini\\.\\ He\\ declared\\ a\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;Augustan\\ Age\\,\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\ w\\/restoration\\ of\\ ancient\\ monuments\\,\\ plans\\ for\\ neo\\-Roman\\ buildings\\,\\ Latin\\ inscriptions\\ evoking\\ antiquity\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ Tarrington\\ suggests\\ M\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ Nero\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proposed\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ Berlin\\ after\\ Nazi\\ victory\\.\\ Hitler\\ has\\ several\\ parallels\\ to\\ Augustus\\.\\ He\\ Replaced\\ weakened\\ republican\\ government\\ with\\ an\\ autocracy\\ legitimized\\ by\\ constitutional\\ forms\\ \\(innovative\\ tradition\\)\\.\\ He\\ aimed\\ for\\ a\\ total\\ reshaping\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ culture\\.\\ He\\ was\\ opposed\\ by\\ the\\ established\\ elite\\,\\ but\\ supported\\ by\\ populace\\.\\ Augustan\\ city\\ layout\\:\\ a\\ space\\ for\\ imperial\\ messages\\.\\ Long\\ boulevard\\ with\\ government\\ building\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ as\\ focal\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ guide\\ summaries\\ for\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Metamorphoses\\ Chapter\\ 13\\ and\\ Livy\\ \\(SB\\ 48\\-59\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metamorphoses\\ Book\\ 15\\ basmith\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Numa\\ and\\ the\\ Foundation\\ of\\ Crotona\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Numa\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ nominated\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ throne\\ after\\ Romulus\\ died\\.\\ He\\ had\\ once\\ been\\ to\\ Crotona\\ and\\ had\\ learned\\ of\\ its\\ founding\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Myscelus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ dreams\\ urging\\ him\\ to\\ leave\\ his\\ homeland\\,\\ which\\ was\\ treason\\.\\ When\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ leave\\ to\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ city\\,\\ he\\ was\\ put\\ on\\ trial\\ for\\ treason\\.\\ He\\ appealed\\ to\\ Hercules\\,\\ the\\ god\\ who\\ had\\ urged\\ him\\ to\\ leave\\.\\ Hercules\\ changed\\ the\\ pebbles\\ that\\ represented\\ the\\ verdict\\ from\\ black\\,\\ which\\ meant\\ guilty\\,\\ to\\ white\\,\\ which\\ meant\\ innocence\\.\\ Myscelus\\ then\\ founded\\ Crotona\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;interweaving\\ myths\\:\\ Romulus\\,\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ Rome\\ w\\/\\ Numa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Doctrines\\ of\\ Pythagoras\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pythagoras\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ Samian\\ living\\ in\\ Rome\\ in\\ a\\ self\\-imposed\\ exile\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ thinker\\,\\ and\\ he\\ taught\\ that\\ eating\\ meat\\ was\\ wrong\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ transmigration\\ of\\ souls\\,\\ or\\ reincarnation\\.\\ He\\ believed\\ that\\ because\\ souls\\ were\\ immortal\\,\\ they\\ changed\\ form\\ over\\ and\\ over\\,\\ and\\ by\\ eating\\ meat\\,\\ men\\ could\\ be\\ eating\\ a\\ relative\\.\\ He\\ also\\ believed\\ that\\ death\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ feared\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ change\\ from\\ one\\ life\\ form\\ to\\ another\\.\\ \\"\\;There\\ is\\ no\\ death\\ \\-\\-\\ no\\ death\\,\\ but\\ only\\ change\\ \\/\\ And\\ innovation\\;\\ what\\ men\\ call\\ birth\\ \\/\\ Is\\ but\\ a\\ different\\ new\\ beginning\\;\\ death\\ \\/\\ Is\\ but\\ to\\ cease\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ same\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Book\\ 15\\-\\-The\\ Doctrines\\ of\\ Pythagoras\\,\\ line\\ 72\\-5\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Death\\ even\\ sometimes\\ created\\ life\\,\\ as\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\phoenix\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ rises\\ from\\ the\\ ashes\\ of\\ its\\ father\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;didactic\\&rdquo\\;\\ poetry\\-\\ teaching\\ noble\\ Romans\\ about\\ certain\\ practices\\ to\\ follow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ Numa\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Numa\\ learned\\ these\\ principles\\ and\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ rule\\ the\\ Latium\\ realm\\ until\\ his\\ death\\.\\ When\\ he\\ died\\,\\ his\\ wife\\ went\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ to\\ mourn\\,\\ and\\ her\\ cries\\ disturbed\\ Diana\\&\\#39\\;s\\ shrine\\.\\ Theseus\\&\\#39\\;\\ son\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hippolytus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ ease\\ her\\ suffering\\ by\\ telling\\ her\\ of\\ his\\ troubles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hippolytus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hippolytus\\ explains\\ how\\ he\\ was\\ framed\\ for\\ incestuous\\ seduction\\ by\\ his\\ stepmother\\,\\ and\\ so\\ he\\ was\\ exiled\\ from\\ his\\ home\\.\\ On\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ land\\ he\\ was\\ driving\\ his\\ chariot\\ near\\ the\\ ocean\\ and\\ a\\ horned\\ bull\\ rose\\ from\\ the\\ water\\.\\ His\\ frightened\\ horses\\ went\\ crazy\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ tangled\\ in\\ the\\ reins\\.\\ He\\ was\\ dragged\\ to\\ death\\,\\ but\\ Aesculapius\\ restored\\ him\\ to\\ life\\.\\ Apollo\\ changed\\ the\\ young\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ name\\ to\\ Virbius\\ so\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ would\\ be\\ jealous\\ that\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ been\\ given\\ a\\ second\\ life\\.\\ Virbius\\ became\\ a\\ local\\ deity\\ who\\ tends\\ Diana\\&\\#39\\;s\\ shrine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hippolytus\\&\\#39\\;\\ story\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ quiet\\ Numa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ any\\,\\ so\\ Diana\\ made\\ the\\ woman\\ dissolve\\ into\\ a\\ pool\\ of\\ water\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;story\\ of\\ Hippolytus\\ in\\ line\\ w\\/\\ Pythagorrean\\ belief\\ in\\ reincarnation\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;metamorphoses\\ in\\ this\\ story\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suffering\\ whereas\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ punishment\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ reward\\ in\\ glorification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cipus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ prophet\\ sprung\\ from\\ a\\ clod\\ of\\ dirt\\ taught\\ the\\ Etruscans\\ to\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ future\\.\\ When\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cipus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;discovered\\ horns\\ on\\ his\\ head\\,\\ he\\ looked\\ into\\ the\\ future\\ and\\ learned\\ the\\ he\\ could\\ be\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ Latium\\ if\\ he\\ hurried\\.\\ Cipus\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ the\\ responsibility\\ of\\ the\\ job\\,\\ so\\ he\\ hid\\ his\\ horns\\ beneath\\ a\\ laurel\\ wreath\\ and\\ spoke\\ to\\ the\\ people\\.\\ He\\ warned\\ them\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ king\\,\\ a\\ horned\\ man\\,\\ would\\ make\\ them\\ all\\ slaves\\ unless\\ he\\ was\\ driven\\ from\\ the\\ city\\.\\ The\\ people\\ looked\\ around\\ trying\\ to\\ discover\\ whom\\ he\\ meant\\.\\ He\\ revealed\\ his\\ horns\\ and\\ was\\ debarred\\ from\\ the\\ city\\.\\ But\\ the\\ senators\\ gave\\ him\\ as\\ much\\ land\\ as\\ he\\ could\\ plow\\ in\\ a\\ day\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ happy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aesculapius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ plague\\ infected\\ Rome\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ people\\ turned\\ to\\ Apollo\\,\\ but\\ he\\ directed\\ them\\ to\\ his\\ son\\.\\ They\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ shrine\\ of\\ Epidaurus\\,\\ and\\ the\\ god\\ accompanied\\ them\\ back\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ great\\ snake\\.\\ He\\ arrived\\ in\\ Rome\\ and\\ eased\\ the\\ city\\&\\#39\\;s\\ suffering\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;importance\\ of\\ the\\ dependence\\ of\\ Roman\\ citizens\\ on\\ the\\ gods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ story\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ fable\\ \\(didactic\\?\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;worship\\ and\\ revere\\ the\\ gods\\ because\\ only\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ divine\\ power\\ to\\ ensure\\ social\\ oder\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Apotheosis\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Julius\\ Caesar\\&\\#39\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;greatness\\ made\\ him\\ worthy\\ of\\ divinity\\.\\ Venus\\ saw\\ the\\ plots\\ against\\ Caesar\\,\\ but\\ she\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ change\\ his\\ fate\\.\\ She\\ sent\\ him\\ omens\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ still\\ assassinated\\,\\ and\\ Jove\\ let\\ her\\ make\\ his\\ spirit\\ a\\ star\\ so\\ that\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ have\\ immortality\\.\\ Jove\\ foresaw\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Augustus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Emperors\\,\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ prosperous\\ reign\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;first\\ time\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ is\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Ovid\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ again\\,\\ Ovid\\ is\\ rewriting\\ history\\ and\\ he\\ places\\ this\\ story\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Metamorphoses\\ so\\ that\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legacies\\ will\\ reach\\ mythical\\ proportions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Also\\,\\ this\\ story\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ powerful\\ propaganda\\ for\\ the\\ Augustan\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epilogue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\ states\\ that\\ his\\ lines\\ shall\\ live\\ long\\ after\\ he\\&\\#39\\;s\\ gone\\,\\ and\\ with\\ them\\,\\ his\\ fame\\ will\\ also\\ live\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ how\\ much\\ Ovid\\ wanted\\ to\\ follow\\ in\\ the\\ footsteps\\ of\\ Virgil\\ without\\ copying\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ he\\ undersatnds\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\,\\ in\\ just\\ like\\ how\\ Homer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ works\\ had\\ already\\ endured\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ centuries\\,\\ so\\ too\\ would\\ his\\ works\\ endure\\ for\\ centuries\\ to\\ come\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ his\\ life\\ is\\ mortal\\,\\ he\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ connect\\ to\\ the\\ immortal\\ world\\ of\\ the\\ divinity\\ in\\ that\\ his\\ poetry\\ will\\ last\\ forever\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summaries\\ from\\ Neeta\\ Lal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ summary\\ 89\\-96\\:\\ Tacitus\\,\\ The\\ Annals\\ Book\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tacitus\\&rsquo\\;\\ Annals\\ was\\ an\\ annalistic\\ history\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ His\\ first\\ six\\ books\\ cover\\ events\\ from\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Augustus\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Tiberius\\,\\ and\\ he\\ mentions\\ this\\ early\\ on\\ in\\ Book\\ 1\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hence\\ it\\ is\\ my\\ design\\ to\\ treat\\ a\\ small\\ part\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ reign\\,\\ then\\ the\\ principiate\\ of\\ Tiberius\\ and\\ its\\ sequel\\,\\ without\\ anger\\ and\\ without\\ partiality\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ that\\ he\\ notes\\ he\\ will\\ speak\\ without\\ partiality\\,\\ because\\ actually\\,\\ he\\ was\\ actually\\ a\\ very\\ partial\\ writer\\,\\ as\\ comes\\ across\\ when\\ he\\ makes\\ judgments\\ about\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ by\\ mentioning\\ Rome\\ was\\ ruled\\ by\\ kings\\,\\ then\\ continues\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ and\\ how\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;opposition\\:\\ the\\ boldest\\ spirits\\ had\\ succumbed\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ discusses\\ how\\ Augustus\\ consolidated\\ his\\ power\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ his\\ relationships\\ with\\ people\\ and\\ his\\ choosing\\ of\\ successors\\.\\ A\\ good\\ instance\\ of\\ his\\ lack\\ of\\ partiality\\ is\\ when\\ he\\ states\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ first\\ crime\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ principate\\ was\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Indeed\\,\\ he\\ does\\ point\\ a\\ finger\\ at\\ the\\ principate\\ and\\ Augustus\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;incredible\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ have\\ brought\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ a\\ grandchild\\ in\\ order\\ tos\\ ecure\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ a\\ stepson\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ hypocrisy\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ and\\ how\\ consuls\\,\\ senators\\ and\\ kinghts\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;rushing\\ into\\ slavery\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ spends\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ time\\ after\\ discussing\\ the\\ funeral\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ honors\\ to\\ be\\ bestowed\\ on\\ him\\,\\ including\\ cremation\\ in\\ the\\ Forum\\,\\ military\\ protection\\ to\\ ensure\\ a\\ peaceful\\ burial\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ take\\ home\\ message\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ his\\ debate\\ on\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ rule\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ real\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Republic\\ or\\ merely\\ a\\ cloak\\,\\ a\\ fa\\ç\\;ade\\.\\ This\\ is\\ proabably\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ look\\ for\\.\\ He\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ was\\ much\\ talk\\ of\\ Augustus\\ himself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ And\\ then\\ he\\ discusses\\ how\\ some\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ was\\ law\\ for\\ Roman\\ citizens\\,\\ respect\\ for\\ allied\\ communities\\ and\\ the\\ capital\\ had\\ been\\ embellished\\ with\\ remarkable\\ splendor\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ was\\ said\\ that\\ filial\\ duty\\ and\\ the\\ critical\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ stake\\ had\\ been\\ used\\ merely\\ as\\ a\\ cloak\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ passage\\ talks\\ about\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ funeral\\,\\ and\\ then\\ focuses\\ on\\ Tiberius\\ and\\ ensuing\\ changes\\,\\ which\\ I\\ would\\ not\\ focus\\ on\\.\\ However\\,\\ just\\ to\\ know\\,\\ he\\ mentions\\ under\\ Tiberius\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ elections\\ were\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ transferred\\ from\\ the\\ Campus\\ to\\ the\\ senate\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pages\\ 97\\-99\\:\\ The\\ Assassination\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ from\\ Suetonius\\&rsquo\\;\\ Life\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ the\\ layout\\ is\\ short\\ paragraphs\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;chapters\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\ with\\ parenthetical\\ numbering\\ for\\ each\\ one\\.\\ This\\ passage\\ starts\\ with\\ 76\\ and\\ goes\\ through\\ 83\\.\\ Suetonius\\ is\\ very\\ partial\\,\\ and\\ discusses\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ negative\\ light\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ abused\\ his\\ power\\ and\\ was\\ rightly\\ killed\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ accepted\\ excessive\\ honors\\,\\ which\\ he\\ names\\.\\ He\\ notes\\ that\\ he\\ provoked\\ the\\ greatest\\ \\&ldquo\\;ill\\-will\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ Senate\\ one\\ day\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ bring\\ him\\ splendid\\ honors\\ and\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;rise\\ in\\ courtesty\\ to\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ discusses\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;even\\ more\\ arrogant\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ he\\ returneed\\ to\\ Rome\\,\\ he\\ stripped\\ two\\ tribunes\\ of\\ their\\ power\\ because\\ they\\ ordered\\ the\\ laurel\\ wreaths\\ on\\ his\\ statue\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ off\\.\\ He\\ realized\\ that\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ kingship\\ might\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;given\\ a\\ hostile\\ reception\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Suetonius\\ continues\\ mentioning\\ similar\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ also\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ populace\\ was\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;happy\\ with\\ the\\ current\\ affairs\\&hellip\\;secretly\\ and\\ openly\\ critizicing\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tyrranical\\ rule\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ then\\ mentions\\ the\\ Senators\\ and\\ assassination\\ of\\ Ceasar\\ at\\ the\\ Theater\\ on\\ the\\ Ides\\ of\\ March\\.\\ The\\ last\\ sections\\,\\ he\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ assaination\\ in\\ more\\ deatil\\ and\\ the\\ warnings\\ and\\ poor\\ health\\ of\\ Caesar\\.\\ Look\\ for\\ details\\ about\\ how\\ Cesar\\ was\\ killed\\ including\\ his\\ mentiong\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ you\\ too\\,\\ my\\ son\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ Brutus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Not\\ hard\\ to\\ recognize\\,\\ due\\ to\\ subject\\ matter\\ and\\ extreme\\ partiality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ Ode\\ III\\.13\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Odes\\ were\\ dealing\\ with\\ personal\\ themes\\,\\ religious\\ hyms\\,\\ reflections\\ on\\ life\\,\\ mellow\\ wisdom\\,\\ and\\ life\\ to\\ be\\ short\\ and\\ enjoyed\\,\\ also\\ includes\\ love\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ first\\ one\\ mentions\\ the\\ Fountain\\ of\\ Bandusia\\,\\ and\\ he\\ makes\\ it\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ peace\\,\\ freshness\\,\\ prosperity\\,\\ in\\ sharp\\ contrast\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ wearied\\ oxen\\ from\\ uner\\ plough\\ and\\ flocks\\ from\\ long\\ days\\&rsquo\\;\\ wanderings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Short\\,\\ and\\ not\\ mentioned\\ in\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.30\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ one\\ is\\ more\\ important\\.\\ He\\ opens\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ memorial\\ is\\ done\\:\\ it\\ will\\ outlast\\ bronze\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ taller\\ than\\ the\\ Pyramids\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ was\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\.\\ Horace\\ uses\\ the\\ poem\\ to\\ hopefully\\ gain\\ immortal\\ status\\,\\ just\\ as\\ monuments\\ were\\ so\\ crucial\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ scene\\.\\ This\\ short\\ Ode\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ new\\ power\\ of\\ poetry\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ immortalize\\ a\\ man\\.\\ He\\ notes\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ not\\ wholly\\ die\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.7\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\.\\ He\\ talks\\ about\\ nature\\ and\\ changing\\ seasons\\ and\\ also\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ all\\ die\\,\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aeneas\\ has\\ gone\\ with\\ lordly\\ Tullus\\ and\\ Ancus\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ will\\ \\&ldquo\\;lapse\\ to\\ dust\\ and\\ shade\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ basically\\ discusses\\ death\\ and\\ how\\ one\\ is\\ judged\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ by\\ Minos\\ hands\\,\\ and\\ how\\ nothing\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;bear\\ you\\ back\\ to\\ us\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Odes\\ Book\\ 2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ talks\\ about\\ civil\\ warfar\\ since\\ metellus\\ was\\ consul\\,\\ and\\ notes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;doomed\\ alliances\\ of\\ triumvirs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ seems\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ situation\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;our\\ fields\\ are\\ rich\\ with\\ Roman\\ corpses\\,\\ not\\ one\\ lacks\\ graces\\ to\\ speak\\ against\\ our\\ impious\\ battles\\,\\ even\\ Parthia\\ can\\ hear\\ the\\ ruin\\ of\\ the\\ West\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ suggests\\ we\\ go\\ look\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;music\\ in\\ a\\ jollier\\ key\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Addressed\\ to\\ Pompeius\\.\\ Horace\\ fought\\ with\\ Pompey\\ against\\ Octavian\\ at\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Phillipi\\.\\ He\\ basically\\ mentions\\ this\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ two\\ once\\ beat\\ a\\ swift\\ retreat\\ together\\ upon\\ Phillipi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ field\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ feels\\ nostalgic\\ about\\ their\\ friendship\\,\\ and\\ notes\\ \\it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sheer\\ joy\\ to\\ throw\\ sanity\\ overboard\\ when\\ a\\ dear\\ friend\\&rsquo\\;s\\ restored\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Maybe\\ he\\ is\\ indiciating\\ in\\ a\\ subtle\\ way\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ content\\ with\\ Augustus\\ and\\ the\\ principate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ Epistles\\ 1\\.3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ letter\\ addressed\\ to\\ Julius\\ Florus\\.\\ Look\\ for\\ Horace\\ asking\\ questions\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;who\\ has\\ taken\\ on\\ the\\ writing\\ of\\ the\\ res\\ gestae\\,\\ and\\ who\\ perpetuates\\ his\\ wars\\ and\\ peace\\ far\\ into\\ the\\ future\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ Augustus\\.\\ Look\\ for\\ letter\\,\\ many\\ questions\\ asked\\ of\\ his\\ friend\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sextus\\ Propertius\\,\\ Elegies\\:\\ I\\.6\\ To\\ Tullus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ talks\\ with\\ Tullus\\ about\\ why\\ he\\ cannot\\ explore\\ the\\ Driatic\\ or\\ scale\\ Caucasian\\ heights\\,\\ because\\ his\\ clinging\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ hold\\ me\\ back\\&hellip\\;His\\ mistress\\ is\\ named\\ Cynthia\\.\\ He\\ is\\ almost\\ teasing\\ his\\ friend\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ lover\\ has\\ a\\ hard\\ and\\ difficult\\ life\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ is\\ soft\\ and\\ pampered\\.\\ There\\ is\\ great\\ irony\\ here\\.\\ He\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ soldier\\ \\&ldquo\\;your\\ youthful\\ years\\ have\\ had\\ no\\ time\\ to\\ spare\\ for\\ love\\ our\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arms\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ your\\ care\\ and\\ may\\ that\\ bruels\\ boy\\ not\\ load\\ the\\ toils\\ I\\ bear\\ on\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Basically\\ \\&ldquo\\;lov\\ is\\ the\\ warfare\\ fate\\ would\\ have\\ me\\ bear\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.21\\ On\\ Gallus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ If\\ the\\ soldier\\ dies\\,\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;owns\\ the\\ Tuscan\\ hills\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Negative\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ short\\,\\ not\\ mentioned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.22\\ The\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birthpalce\\ Epilogue\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\,\\ negative\\ reaction\\ to\\ war\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;Our\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ common\\ grave\\,\\ those\\ emany\\ deaths\\ in\\ Italy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worst\\ hour\\,\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ discord\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.15\\:\\ A\\ glorious\\ night\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ would\\ be\\ easy\\ to\\ recognize\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ overtly\\ sexual\\ and\\ political\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Actium\\.\\ He\\ personifies\\ Actium\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ describes\\ an\\ almost\\ sexual\\ encounter\\ with\\ \\&lsquo\\;her\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ He\\ ends\\ noting\\ that\\ while\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ then\\ while\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ light\\,\\ must\\ not\\ neglect\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ joys\\&rdquo\\;\\ noting\\ that\\ an\\ alternative\\ lifestyle\\ is\\ much\\ desired\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Propertius\\ 3\\.3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ basicallya\\ whimsical\\ handling\\ of\\ Callimachen\\ \\&ldquo\\;poetic\\ imitation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Callimuchus\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ great\\ model\\ for\\ Propertius\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ he\\ rejects\\ war\\ topics\\ for\\ love\\,\\ noting\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ should\\ be\\ happy\\ to\\ be\\ drawn\\ by\\ snow\\ white\\ swans\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ fearsome\\ hroses\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ leading\\ you\\ to\\ war\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Propertius\\ 4\\.3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ with\\ a\\ wife\\ addressing\\ her\\ husband\\ who\\ is\\ away\\ at\\ war\\.\\ She\\ is\\ upset\\ about\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ and\\ notes\\ her\\ dedication\\ and\\ loyalty\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\&rdquo\\;\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ girl\\ is\\ grateful\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ safe\\ return\\.\\ This\\ almost\\ seems\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ domesticate\\ war\\,\\ as\\ she\\ weaves\\ cloakes\\ for\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ kisses\\ weapons\\ left\\ behind\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wwashing\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wwashing\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zanker\\ \\(1\\-31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ of\\ Rome\\ very\\ grateful\\ for\\ the\\ contributions\\ Augustus\\ had\\ made\\ in\\ turning\\ Rome\\ from\\ civil\\ war\\ and\\ turmoil\\ to\\ 45\\ years\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ security\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ Augustus\\ died\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ senators\\ introduced\\ a\\ resolution\\ to\\ designate\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ lifetime\\ as\\ the\\ Saeculum\\ Augustum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ Hellenization\\ and\\ absorption\\ of\\ Greece\\&rarr\\;\\ Roman\\ administration\\ threatened\\ with\\ collapse\\ because\\ of\\ expansion\\ and\\ growth\\ of\\ factions\\,\\ which\\ happened\\ in\\ civil\\ war\\ btwn\\.\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Pompey\\ then\\ btwn\\.\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavian\\,\\ social\\ and\\ class\\ distinctions\\ became\\ more\\ malleable\\ and\\ Hellenist\\ art\\ seeped\\ into\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ppl\\ looked\\ for\\ reasons\\ for\\ dislocation\\ that\\ occurred\\ as\\ the\\ empire\\ expanded\\ \\-believed\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ rejection\\ of\\ gods\\ and\\ ancestors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ cultural\\ reforms\\ fit\\ in\\ here\\ as\\ he\\ attempted\\ complete\\ moral\\ revival\\;\\ achieved\\ a\\ turnaround\\ in\\ public\\ thinking\\ and\\ veneration\\ for\\ divine\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Program\\ of\\ reforms\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ required\\ a\\ new\\ visual\\ language\\ and\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\visual\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\-reflects\\ a\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inner\\ life\\ and\\ gives\\ insight\\ into\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ values\\ and\\ imagination\\ not\\ available\\ in\\ literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Power\\ of\\ imagery\\ is\\ reciprocal\\;\\ presenter\\ of\\ image\\ influenced\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ they\\ influence\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Through\\ visual\\ imagery\\ a\\ new\\ mythology\\ of\\ Rome\\ and\\ new\\ ritual\\ of\\ power\\ created\\ for\\ the\\ emperor\\;\\ myth\\ perpetuated\\ and\\ transcended\\ reality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conflict\\ and\\ Contradiction\\ in\\ Imagery\\ of\\ the\\ Dying\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ form\\ of\\ Hellenistic\\ statue\\ was\\ very\\ foreign\\ to\\ Roman\\ tradition\\ when\\ it\\ began\\ to\\ infiltrate\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hellenistic\\ statues\\ were\\ often\\ in\\ nude\\ form\\ celebrating\\ the\\ ruler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ superhuman\\ strength\\ and\\ power\\;\\ this\\ was\\ consistent\\ with\\ praising\\ the\\ divine\\ ruler\\ cults\\ present\\ in\\ Greek\\ cities\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ prestige\\ of\\ Hellenistic\\ kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ nude\\ pose\\ is\\ borrowed\\ from\\ statues\\ of\\ gods\\ and\\ heroes\\;\\ hence\\ it\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ heroic\\ nude\\ form\\,\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ shock\\ to\\ Romans\\ at\\ first\\ as\\ most\\ Roman\\ people\\ saw\\ nudity\\ as\\ expression\\ of\\ shamelessness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Standard\\ in\\ the\\ republic\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ togate\\ statue\\ \\(with\\ toga\\ on\\)\\ which\\ was\\ sober\\ and\\ egalitarian\\ style\\ reflecting\\ the\\ strict\\ power\\ structure\\ and\\ sharing\\ of\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Separation\\ between\\ domestic\\ and\\ military\\,\\ so\\ military\\ leaders\\ not\\ try\\ to\\ convert\\ military\\ glory\\ to\\ political\\ power\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ every\\ honoree\\ including\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ military\\ to\\ be\\ dressed\\ in\\ the\\ republican\\ toga\\,\\ not\\ the\\ splendid\\ glorified\\ equestrian\\ form\\ of\\ Hellenistic\\ kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sulla\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ whom\\ Senate\\ erected\\ official\\ equestrian\\ monument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Private\\ individuals\\ did\\ set\\ up\\ Hellenistic\\ statues\\ earlier\\ however\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lifestyle\\ of\\ Philhellenic\\ Romans\\ a\\ challenge\\ to\\ traditionalists\\;\\ and\\ even\\ when\\ laws\\ were\\ made\\ to\\ contain\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Rome\\ Hellenization\\ still\\ spread\\ to\\ the\\ countryside\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ wealthy\\,\\ noble\\ Romans\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ the\\ East\\ had\\ probably\\ been\\ revered\\ there\\ as\\ kings\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ probably\\ spread\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ Hellenizing\\ and\\ heroizing\\ leaders\\ and\\ generals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ imagery\\ suffered\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;incongruities\\ of\\ style\\,\\ overburdened\\ symbolism\\,\\ ambiguity\\ and\\ obscurity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ honorary\\ statue\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ contradictions\\ between\\ form\\ and\\ function\\ and\\ clash\\ 2\\ value\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poses\\ of\\ Hellenistic\\ ruler\\ superhuman\\ in\\ stature\\ but\\ in\\ Rome\\ most\\ of\\ leaders\\,\\ even\\ great\\ ones\\,\\ had\\ to\\ step\\ down\\ after\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ principate\\ no\\ standard\\ model\\ of\\ portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ content\\ to\\ be\\ recognized\\ as\\ really\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nude\\ bronze\\ not\\ widely\\ accepted\\ so\\ a\\ new\\ style\\ of\\ characterizing\\ individuals\\ arose\\ and\\ portraiture\\ began\\ to\\ capture\\ well\\ the\\ personality\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\;\\ which\\ happened\\ as\\ well\\ at\\ no\\ other\\ time\\ in\\ ancient\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Combo\\ of\\ physical\\ physiognomies\\ with\\ heroic\\ bodies\\ points\\ up\\ discrepancy\\ between\\ rhetoric\\ and\\ real\\ accomplishment\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ statues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\individuality\\ in\\ facial\\ features\\ but\\ heroic\\ body\\ \\&rarr\\;Pompey\\ borrowed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\anastole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(upswept\\ hair\\)\\ from\\ Alexander\\ the\\ Great\\ as\\ marker\\ of\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ More\\ grand\\ self\\ celebration\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ individual\\ minting\\ official\\ took\\ more\\ liberties\\ with\\ representations\\ of\\ coins\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ Augustan\\ age\\ putting\\ family\\ lineages\\ and\\ relationships\\ to\\ gods\\ on\\ coins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\During\\ Augustan\\ age\\ all\\ coins\\ celebrated\\ him\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;republic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disintegration\\ of\\ Roman\\ society\\ led\\ to\\ self\\-promotion\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ baker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomb\\ celebrating\\ success\\ as\\ baker\\ and\\ grandiose\\ monuments\\ erected\\ by\\ aristocracy\\ for\\ family\\ even\\ when\\ did\\ nothing\\ special\\ to\\ distinguish\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Architecturally\\ Rome\\ was\\ an\\ amalgamation\\ of\\ styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ separation\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\;\\ villas\\ versus\\ crowded\\ apartment\\ blocks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Population\\ explosion\\ in\\ Rome\\ led\\ to\\ housing\\ shortage\\ and\\ speculation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ lived\\ on\\ narrow\\ streets\\ in\\ unstable\\ buildings\\ capable\\ of\\ collapse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ Gracchan\\ period\\ \\(131\\-121\\ BC\\)\\ needed\\ repairs\\ of\\ public\\ buildings\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ reasonable\\ infrastructure\\ neglected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Senate\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ replicate\\ Hellenistic\\ style\\ with\\ public\\ forums\\ and\\ baths\\ and\\ generals\\ built\\ for\\ self\\ aggrandizement\\ so\\ no\\ pub\\ bldg\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Public\\&rdquo\\;\\ building\\ was\\ done\\ by\\ aristocrats\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ divinities\\ but\\ adopting\\ so\\ many\\ greek\\ characteristics\\ that\\ some\\,\\ like\\ Cato\\,\\ were\\ afraid\\ Greece\\ was\\ taking\\ over\\ Rome\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caesar\\ and\\ Pompey\\ created\\ new\\ phase\\ in\\ public\\ building\\ with\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theatre\\ and\\ the\\ Forum\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\;\\ public\\ spaces\\ but\\ forum\\ used\\ by\\ Caesar\\ to\\ proclaim\\ superhuman\\ status\\(lineage\\ to\\ Venus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ stability\\ could\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ Rome\\ during\\ uncertain\\ time\\ of\\ republic\\ because\\ of\\ dissolution\\ of\\ society\\ into\\ self\\ aggrandizement\\ and\\ personal\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ other\\ areas\\ and\\ countryside\\ hellenization\\ and\\ creation\\ of\\ public\\ space\\ has\\ already\\ occurred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ villa\\ became\\ more\\ common\\ and\\ the\\ contrast\\ of\\ relaxation\\ and\\ duty\\/political\\ life\\ in\\ Rome\\ brought\\ about\\ an\\ ideology\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Villas\\ went\\ from\\ place\\ of\\ relaxation\\ to\\ blatant\\ show\\ of\\ wealth\\ in\\ the\\ Greek\\ style\\ devoid\\ of\\ roman\\ thinkers\\,\\ gods\\ and\\ things\\ roman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\World\\ of\\ pleasure\\ removed\\ from\\ political\\ responsibilities\\,\\ wealthy\\ even\\ began\\ to\\ dress\\ Greek\\ when\\ reading\\ Plato\\ at\\ their\\ villas\\ etc\\.\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ shed\\ everything\\ Roman\\ \\~world\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\otium\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Under\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ empire\\ roman\\ political\\ imagery\\ entered\\ the\\ private\\ sphere\\ and\\ turn\\ back\\ to\\ Roman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 50, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/2007_Complete_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Statistics ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 103, "html": "pdf", "course_id": 45, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Parzen_Stat104_Syllabus_Spring2012.pdf", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice Old Exams", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "old-exams"], "text": null, "id": 114, "html": "\\\\\\Justice\\ Old\\ Exams\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:107\\.4pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c17\\{max\\-width\\:498\\.6pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:110\\.8pt\\ 56\\.7pt\\ 56\\.7pt\\ 56\\.7pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:35\\.4pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:71\\.4pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c14\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c16\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\Matt\\ Schindel\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Final\\ Exam\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\January\\ 14\\,\\ 2008\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Joel\\ Pollak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moral\\ Reasoning\\ 22\\:\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\Fall\\ 2002\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ does\\ Kant\\ maintain\\ that\\ empirical\\ principles\\ are\\ unsuited\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ morality\\?\\ How\\ would\\ mill\\ respond\\,\\ who\\ is\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\tries\\ to\\ use\\ reason\\,\\ not\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ empirical\\,\\ at\\ best\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ examples\\,\\ and\\ at\\ worst\\ we\\ see\\ what\\ not\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ what\\ people\\ do\\ in\\ practice\\ you\\ get\\ conflict\\,\\ and\\ Kant\\ wants\\ one\\ coherent\\ idea\\ of\\ morality\\ without\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\responds\\ directly\\ to\\ Kant\\:\\ says\\ that\\ Kant\\ does\\ in\\ fact\\ refer\\ to\\ empirical\\ situations\\;\\ when\\ you\\ deal\\ with\\ consequences\\,\\ you\\ actually\\ are\\ not\\ strictly\\ using\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ kants\\ attack\\ on\\ empirical\\ morality\\ applies\\ to\\ all\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ priori\\ principles\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ different\\ ideas\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ and\\ that\\ kant\\ has\\ not\\ solved\\ anything\\,\\ but\\ has\\ rather\\ reframed\\ it\\ into\\ thought\\ instead\\ of\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Me\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Give\\ opinion\\,\\ but\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ show\\ what\\ you\\ know\\.\\ Weigh\\ what\\ they\\ say\\,\\ choose\\ one\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\,\\ should\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-players\\ receive\\ the\\ best\\ flutes\\?\\ How\\ does\\ Aristotle\\ apply\\ this\\ theory\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ to\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ offices\\,\\ honors\\,\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\All\\ the\\ stuff\\ listed\\ in\\ the\\ question\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ political\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\-part\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\why\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\ players\\ deserve\\ the\\ best\\ flutes\\?\\ Why\\ is\\ this\\ a\\ just\\ distribution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aristotle\\ defines\\ justice\\ as\\ giving\\ equal\\ things\\ to\\ equals\\,\\ and\\ giving\\ more\\ things\\ to\\ people\\ that\\ are\\ better\\.\\ P\\ 292\\-293\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ based\\ on\\ birth\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\different\\ from\\ rawls\\:\\ justice\\ as\\ fairness\\&mdash\\;this\\ is\\ not\\ key\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ reason\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\ players\\ get\\ the\\ best\\ flutes\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ telos\\ \\(purpose\\)\\ of\\ the\\ flute\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ played\\ well\\.\\ Each\\ good\\ must\\ be\\ distributed\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ use\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ it\\ was\\ designed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ this\\ apply\\ to\\ distributive\\ justice\\?\\ How\\ does\\ aristotle\\ apply\\ this\\ theory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ give\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ best\\ at\\ contributing\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ the\\ most\\ political\\ rights\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\freedom\\ and\\ wealth\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ apply\\ to\\ flutes\\ but\\ may\\ be\\ political\\ rights\\;\\ free\\ birth\\ and\\ wealth\\ may\\ contribute\\ to\\ governance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ important\\ thing\\ for\\ a\\ successful\\ city\\ are\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ just\\ and\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ good\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ does\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ limit\\ what\\ government\\ can\\ legitimately\\ do\\?\\ Does\\ the\\ natural\\ right\\ to\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\ mean\\ that\\ government\\ may\\ not\\ tax\\ its\\ citizens\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ does\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ limit\\ what\\ government\\ can\\ legitimately\\ do\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\why\\/how\\ we\\ enter\\ society\\:\\ Locke\\ says\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ free\\,\\ and\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ when\\ we\\ enter\\ a\\ political\\ society\\ we\\ retain\\ our\\ natural\\ rights\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ we\\ enter\\ political\\ society\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ problems\\,\\ like\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ impartial\\ justice\\;\\ meaning\\ insecure\\ property\\,\\ state\\ of\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ right\\ given\\ up\\ is\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ judge\\ and\\ enforcer\\ of\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ rebel\\ against\\ a\\ government\\ that\\ violates\\ its\\ trust\\.\\ When\\ a\\ government\\ is\\ arbitrarily\\ changed\\,\\ such\\ as\\ when\\ the\\ king\\ takes\\ power\\ from\\ the\\ parliament\\,\\ then\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ been\\ dissolved\\ and\\ people\\ can\\ replace\\ that\\ government\\.\\ Also\\,\\ unjust\\ seizure\\ of\\ property\\ puts\\ the\\ government\\ at\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ with\\ the\\ people\\.\\ Law\\ of\\ nature\\ says\\ these\\ two\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ the\\ natural\\ right\\ to\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\ mean\\ that\\ government\\ may\\ not\\ tax\\ its\\ citizens\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\pages\\ 102\\,\\ 111\\-113\\:\\ when\\ you\\ join\\ a\\ society\\,\\ you\\ consent\\ to\\ majority\\ rule\\.\\ If\\ the\\ majority\\ agrees\\ to\\ a\\ tax\\,\\ you\\ must\\ obey\\ that\\ law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ are\\ limits\\:\\ government\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ arbitrarily\\ take\\ property\\ \\(can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ just\\ rule\\ by\\ decree\\)\\,\\ must\\ do\\ it\\ according\\ to\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ what\\ grounds\\ do\\ Hayek\\ and\\ Rawls\\ reject\\ merit\\ or\\ desert\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\?\\ Are\\ they\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hayek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\from\\ passage\\:\\ hayek\\ says\\ that\\ what\\ we\\ get\\ is\\ totally\\ independent\\ of\\ morality\\.\\ Hints\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\principle\\ that\\ decides\\ distributive\\ justice\\ is\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ do\\ to\\ other\\ people\\.\\ Not\\ merit\\,\\ but\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ point\\:\\ corrective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\measures\\ by\\ the\\ government\\ violates\\ peoples\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ This\\ is\\ like\\ Nozick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ passage\\:\\ you\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ deserve\\ natural\\ talents\\,\\ inheritance\\,\\ and\\ work\\ ethic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(socially\\ conditioned\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Hayek\\-\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ deserve\\ what\\ you\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\under\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ we\\ would\\ not\\ distribute\\ based\\ on\\ moral\\ merit\\,\\ because\\ we\\ would\\ likely\\ benefit\\ from\\ more\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\justice\\ as\\ desert\\ \\=\\ justice\\ as\\ entitlement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\agree\\ with\\ Hayek\\ that\\ team\\ that\\ wins\\ doesnt\\ deserve\\ to\\ win\\,\\ but\\ won\\ based\\ on\\ merit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Agree\\:\\ Distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ is\\ independent\\ of\\ morality\\,\\ they\\ both\\ also\\ agree\\ this\\ is\\ okay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Are\\ they\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ground\\ opinion\\ in\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\talk\\ about\\ while\\ they\\ agree\\,\\ they\\ disagree\\ about\\ what\\ should\\ be\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rawls\\ is\\ disturbed\\,\\ and\\ wants\\ to\\ minimize\\ inequality\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inequalities\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;benefit\\ disadvantaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hayek\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ inequality\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ those\\ in\\ extreme\\ need\\ such\\ as\\ victims\\ of\\ disasters\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\could\\ say\\ both\\ are\\ wrong\\,\\ and\\ that\\ aristotle\\ is\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Kant\\,\\ is\\ it\\ wrong\\ to\\ lie\\,\\ even\\ to\\ a\\ murderer\\ looking\\ for\\ his\\ victim\\?\\ How\\ persuasive\\ do\\ you\\ find\\ Kant\\&\\#39\\;s\\ argument\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\why\\ wrong\\ to\\ lie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\by\\ lying\\,\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ acting\\ on\\ a\\ universal\\ maxim\\/categorical\\ imperative\\.\\ you\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ will\\ that\\ everyone\\ would\\ lie\\ to\\ help\\ a\\ friend\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ helping\\ a\\ friend\\ hurts\\ humanity\\.\\ Believes\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ duty\\ under\\ all\\ circumstances\\ to\\ be\\ truthful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\you\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ consequences\\:\\ by\\ lying\\,\\ a\\ friend\\ might\\ get\\ killed\\ if\\ he\\ snuck\\ out\\ the\\ back\\,\\ and\\ then\\ you\\ could\\ be\\ civilly\\ liable\\.\\ By\\ telling\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ you\\ are\\ of\\ no\\ fault\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\general\\ value\\ of\\ truthfulness\\ as\\ a\\ duty\\;\\ any\\ sound\\ law\\ would\\ admit\\ truthfulness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\do\\ you\\ find\\ this\\ persuasive\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\-don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ write\\ just\\ an\\ opinion\\,\\ but\\ take\\ a\\ position\\ and\\ base\\ it\\ on\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\kant\\ is\\ wrong\\ b\\/c\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ analysis\\ suggests\\ saving\\ a\\ human\\ life\\ is\\ advantageous\\,\\ and\\ killing\\ is\\ disadvantageous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MacIntyre\\/sandel\\:\\ pg\\ 332\\:\\ kant\\ might\\ be\\ right\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ rational\\ logic\\/categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ but\\ what\\ about\\ loyalty\\ to\\ friend\\ that\\ precedes\\ stuff\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ friend\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ my\\ personal\\ narrative\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Even\\ if\\ kant\\ is\\ right\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ logic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ good\\?\\ Answer\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ Rawls\\ and\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ following\\:\\ Aristotle\\,\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ or\\ Sandel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ rawls\\ mean\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\ is\\ arguing\\ for\\ the\\ liberal\\ \\(rights\\ oriented\\ view\\)\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ view\\,\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ communitarian\\ view\\ that\\ puts\\ the\\ good\\ first\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ believe\\ in\\ rights\\ \\(Rawls\\,\\ Kant\\,\\ Nozick\\,\\ Hayek\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ fundamental\\ moral\\ unit\\ is\\ the\\ indivindual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ believe\\ in\\ good\\ \\(Aristotle\\,\\ MacIntyre\\)\\ thinks\\ that\\ community\\ comes\\ first\\.\\ This\\ implies\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ need\\ to\\ sacrafice\\ individual\\ rights\\ for\\ collective\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\=based\\ on\\ reason\\,\\ rawls\\=consent\\ \\(individual\\ views\\ based\\ on\\ individual\\ stuff\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\communitarian\\ views\\ get\\ moral\\ guidance\\ from\\ something\\ else\\ \\(MacIntyre\\ uses\\ narrative\\&mdash\\;guiding\\ moral\\ choices\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rawls\\ is\\ defending\\ the\\ priority\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rawls\\ says\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ put\\ good\\ first\\,\\ we\\ may\\ have\\ competing\\ goods\\,\\ because\\ not\\ everyone\\ agrees\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ good\\ should\\ be\\.\\ Utilitarians\\ for\\ example\\ are\\ oriented\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\(pleasure\\)\\ which\\ contrasts\\ with\\ Aristotle\\ who\\ believes\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ happiness\\/moral\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rawls\\ also\\ says\\ that\\ putting\\ good\\ first\\ violates\\ choice\\,\\ and\\ violates\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ individuals\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ critique\\ of\\ communitarians\\:\\ that\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ individual\\ distinctions\\ is\\ dehumanizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ good\\ is\\ potentially\\ unfair\\&mdash\\;how\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ Aristotle\\,\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ or\\ Sandel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aristotle\\:\\ we\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ give\\ people\\ rights\\ without\\ reason\\,\\ and\\ the\\ society\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ political\\ society\\ is\\ the\\ good\\ life\\.\\ the\\ good\\ life\\ requires\\ maximized\\ happiness\\.\\ By\\ putting\\ the\\ right\\ before\\ the\\ good\\,\\ people\\ might\\ choose\\ whats\\ best\\ for\\ them\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\MacIntyre\\:\\ we\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ think\\ outside\\ our\\ narratives\\.\\ Even\\ when\\ we\\ think\\ we\\ are\\ choosing\\ between\\ rights\\,\\ we\\ are\\ actually\\ weighing\\ goods\\.\\ Our\\ morals\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ our\\ community\\/experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sandel\\:\\ rawls\\ is\\ okay\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ moral\\ experiences\\ that\\ we\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ actually\\ had\\.\\ In\\ real\\ life\\ the\\ choices\\ we\\ make\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ values\\ and\\ experiences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fall\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ what\\ grounds\\ does\\ Mill\\ defend\\ this\\ claim\\?\\ Are\\ these\\ grounds\\ consistent\\ with\\ utilitarianism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ this\\ consistent\\ with\\ utilitarianism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kant\\:\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ consistent\\ because\\ he\\ has\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ distinguish\\,\\ unless\\ somehow\\ you\\ make\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ priori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ categorical\\ choice\\.\\ Mill\\ must\\ be\\ making\\ the\\ choice\\ based\\ on\\ prior\\ idea\\ of\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ being\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mill\\ admits\\ that\\ you\\ need\\ a\\ certain\\ nobleness\\ of\\ character\\ to\\ choose\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ over\\ lower\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\,\\ must\\ legislators\\ concern\\ themselves\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ end\\ or\\ aim\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ good\\ life\\ is\\ directed\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ Is\\ he\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\,\\ must\\ legislators\\ concern\\ themselves\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ end\\ or\\ aim\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ good\\ life\\ is\\ directed\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ aristotle\\,\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ good\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\city\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ individual\\;\\ thus\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ laws\\ that\\ make\\ the\\ city\\ great\\.\\ To\\ make\\ the\\ city\\ great\\,\\ you\\ must\\ make\\ sure\\ everyone\\ is\\ virtuous\\ and\\ make\\ rules\\ to\\ promote\\ this\\.\\ The\\ person\\ who\\ does\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ ruler\\,\\ who\\ is\\ ideally\\ the\\ most\\ virtuous\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ the\\ best\\ teachers\\ of\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ he\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\nozick\\ \\(libertarian\\ view\\)\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ should\\ just\\ prevent\\ me\\ from\\ being\\ robbed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\utilitarian\\:\\ if\\ its\\ good\\ that\\ the\\ legislature\\ preach\\ the\\ good\\,\\ then\\ this\\ is\\ fine\\.\\ Fundamentally\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ legislature\\ for\\ the\\ utilitarian\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ moral\\ role\\,\\ but\\ a\\ role\\ of\\ measuring\\ pleasure\\/pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rawls\\:\\ aristotle\\ is\\ not\\ right\\-\\ since\\ we\\ cannot\\ agree\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ good\\ is\\,\\ the\\ state\\ cannot\\ tell\\ us\\.\\ we\\ should\\ find\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ common\\ consensus\\,\\ but\\ not\\ bring\\ them\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ realm\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ consensus\\ is\\ reach\\ \\(should\\ not\\ kill\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ questions\\ of\\ good\\/morality\\ should\\ be\\ set\\ aside\\&mdash\\;this\\ is\\ after\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ established\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ Mill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Kant\\ correct\\?\\ Does\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ implicitly\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ promoting\\ the\\ collective\\ interest\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mill\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ Kant\\&\\#39\\;s\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ is\\ reduced\\ to\\ utilitarianism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ this\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\kant\\ rejects\\ the\\ hypothetical\\ imperative\\:\\ one\\ that\\ seeks\\ an\\ end\\.\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ Says\\ that\\ hypothetical\\ is\\ not\\ morally\\ superior\\ to\\ categorical\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ is\\ it\\ not\\ ideal\\ to\\ act\\ on\\ hypothetical\\:\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ acting\\ to\\ achieve\\ something\\,\\ the\\ thing\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ achieve\\ is\\ higher\\ than\\ you\\.\\.\\.kant\\ says\\ that\\ categorical\\ is\\ better\\ because\\ if\\ you\\ try\\ to\\ fulfill\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ humanity\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ you\\ are\\ completely\\ free\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seems\\ that\\ mill\\ is\\ not\\ right\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\ kant\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ collective\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\humanity\\ is\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ itself\\,\\ because\\ humanity\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ reason\\,\\ and\\ reason\\ is\\ what\\ separates\\ us\\ from\\ animals\\.\\ reason\\ is\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ implicitly\\ rely\\ on\\ promoting\\ the\\ collective\\ interest\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\general\\ form\\ of\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ act\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ will\\ that\\ your\\ act\\ becomes\\ a\\ universal\\ maxim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\specific\\ form\\:\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ always\\ treat\\ humanity\\ as\\ an\\ end\\,\\ never\\ solely\\ as\\ a\\ mean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nothing\\ about\\ collective\\ interest\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Compare\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ Locke\\ on\\ slavery\\:\\ under\\ what\\ conditions\\ does\\ each\\ consider\\ slavery\\ just\\?\\ Does\\ their\\ defense\\ of\\ slavery\\ reflect\\ a\\ defect\\ in\\ their\\ political\\ theories\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\believes\\ some\\ people\\ are\\ naturally\\ slaves\\,\\ but\\ sees\\ unjust\\ slavery\\ too\\ \\(this\\ is\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ taken\\ captive\\ in\\ war\\ and\\ made\\ slaves\\;\\ generals\\ are\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ slaves\\)\\.\\ Slavery\\ through\\ conquest\\ is\\ wrong\\,\\ but\\ natural\\ slavery\\ is\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Locke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\opposite\\ of\\ aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\everyone\\ born\\ free\\,\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ natural\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ just\\ slavery\\ is\\ slavery\\ through\\ conquest\\,\\ since\\ you\\ can\\ never\\ agree\\ to\\ make\\ yourself\\ a\\ slave\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\locke\\ wrote\\ part\\ of\\ s\\.\\ carolina\\ constitution\\ that\\ allowed\\ for\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ defense\\ of\\ slavery\\ reflect\\ defect\\ in\\ political\\ theories\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\yes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\aristotle\\:\\ only\\ slaves\\ are\\ naturally\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ conquering\\ is\\ not\\,\\ but\\ problem\\ is\\ he\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ give\\ room\\ for\\ social\\ mobility\\.\\ gives\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ connect\\ education\\ and\\ social\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\locke\\:\\ talks\\ about\\ freedom\\/consent\\:\\ if\\ you\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ consent\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ slave\\,\\ but\\ how\\ is\\ this\\ different\\ than\\ conquering\\?\\ Mite\\ vs\\.\\ right\\?\\ Doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ this\\ undo\\ his\\ theory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\To\\ what\\ extent\\ should\\ we\\ abstract\\ from\\ our\\ particular\\ roles\\,\\ identities\\,\\ and\\ attachments\\ when\\ thinking\\ about\\ justice\\?\\ You\\ may\\,\\ but\\ need\\ not\\ refer\\ to\\ Rawls\\ and\\ MacIntyre\\ in\\ your\\ answer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\:\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\two\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ are\\ all\\ fundamentally\\ equal\\ with\\ equal\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\any\\ inequalities\\ should\\ be\\ to\\ the\\ greatest\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ least\\ advantageous\\ \\(all\\ offices\\ open\\ to\\ people\\ according\\ to\\ talents\\:\\ assumes\\ meritocracy\\/inequality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\admits\\ that\\ veil\\ is\\ hypothetical\\,\\ but\\ describes\\ what\\ would\\ we\\ consent\\ to\\ if\\ we\\ were\\ not\\ selfishly\\ focussed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ say\\ rawls\\ argues\\ this\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ identity\\/narrative\\;\\ assumes\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ equally\\ rational\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ actually\\ hold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MacIntyre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\our\\ narrative\\ forms\\ our\\ outlook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ does\\ he\\ mean\\ by\\ narratives\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ affect\\ our\\ choices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ always\\ caught\\ in\\ some\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\,\\ choosing\\ between\\ one\\ good\\ and\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ say\\ that\\ we\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ completely\\ abstract\\ ourselves\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ preclude\\ reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ just\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ rich\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ poor\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Have\\ an\\ argument\\ and\\ back\\ it\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Libertarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nozick\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\taxation\\ \\=\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\friedmans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;contrast\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ \\(pro\\)\\ and\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ \\(con\\)\\:\\ could\\ approve\\ of\\ tax\\ if\\ it\\ improved\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\,\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ achieve\\ quality\\ of\\ outcome\\.\\ \\if\\ you\\ put\\ equality\\ over\\ freedom\\,\\ you\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ neither\\,\\ because\\ once\\ you\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ violate\\ freedom\\,\\ you\\ will\\ never\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ inequality\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hayek\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;okay\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ rich\\ to\\ help\\ extreme\\ poor\\:\\ better\\ to\\ help\\ people\\ based\\ on\\ need\\,\\ not\\ equality\\ because\\ if\\ you\\ give\\ the\\ state\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ redistribute\\,\\ you\\ give\\ them\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ violate\\ freedom\\.\\ state\\ will\\ ignore\\ individual\\ differences\\ and\\ is\\ incapable\\ of\\ just\\ redistribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\yes\\:\\ if\\ it\\ maximizes\\ overall\\ welfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\:\\ if\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aristotilian\\/sandel\\:\\ the\\ reason\\ we\\ tax\\ the\\ rich\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ poor\\ might\\ have\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ economics\\/fairness\\,\\ but\\ might\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ community\\ fairness\\.\\ since\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ community\\,\\ and\\ share\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fall\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Does\\ Mill\\ succeed\\ in\\ showing\\ that\\ utilitarianism\\ can\\ provide\\ an\\ adequate\\ account\\ of\\ justice\\ and\\ rights\\?\\ Answer\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ critics\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ we\\ have\\ read\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Does\\ Mill\\ succeed\\ in\\ showing\\ that\\ utilitarianism\\ can\\ provide\\ an\\ adequate\\ account\\ of\\ justice\\ and\\ rights\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\mill\\ critiques\\ kant\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mill\\ critiques\\ rights\\ based\\:\\ we\\ have\\ rights\\ to\\ suggest\\ something\\ that\\ society\\ believes\\ we\\ should\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ good\\:\\ a\\ right\\ is\\ something\\ society\\ allows\\ me\\ to\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mill\\ defines\\ right\\ as\\ something\\ thats\\ in\\ the\\ best\\ interest\\ of\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ we\\ feel\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ right\\ that\\ is\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\;\\ not\\ like\\ other\\ choices\\ that\\ are\\ in\\ common\\ interest\\ because\\ people\\ feel\\ particularly\\ strong\\&mdash\\;we\\ get\\ so\\ much\\ utility\\ from\\ rights\\ that\\ people\\ treat\\ them\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ we\\ try\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ using\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ priori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ something\\ else\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ agree\\ on\\ what\\ those\\ rights\\ are\\;\\ just\\ as\\ with\\ kant\\ we\\ cannot\\ agree\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Answer\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ critics\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ we\\ have\\ read\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\critics\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\utilitarianism\\ can\\ violate\\ individual\\ rights\\:\\ ie\\.\\ majority\\ decides\\ to\\ kill\\ minority\\&mdash\\;libertarian\\ \\(lockean\\ argument\\)\\.\\ everyone\\ is\\ born\\ with\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ but\\ mill\\ allows\\ for\\ these\\ natural\\ rights\\ to\\ be\\ trampled\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\kant\\:\\ mill\\ oversimplifies\\ utilitarianism\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ really\\ thinking\\ about\\ a\\ moral\\ good\\ when\\ he\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ greatest\\ good\\.\\ but\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ collective\\ removes\\ the\\ autonomy\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Kant\\ and\\ rawls\\ critique\\ utilitarianism\\ because\\ it\\ takes\\ away\\ the\\ distinctiveness\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Rawls\\ weighs\\ consent\\ heavily\\;\\ utilitarian\\ thought\\ allows\\ majority\\ to\\ rule\\ minority\\ without\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aristotle\\/communitarians\\:\\ individual\\ rights\\ secondary\\ to\\ individual\\ goods\\,\\ virtue\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ important\\ ones\\:\\ libertarians\\ \\(including\\ locke\\)\\ and\\ kant\\ because\\ of\\ natural\\ human\\ rights\\ may\\ be\\ violated\\,\\ and\\ that\\ utilitarianism\\ does\\ not\\ deliver\\ what\\ it\\ promises\\ \\(kant\\)\\,\\ since\\ it\\ sneaks\\ in\\ prior\\ moral\\ judgments\\,\\ not\\ just\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\.\\ Kant\\ also\\ thinks\\ that\\ utilitarianism\\ is\\ empirical\\ since\\ he\\ wants\\ a\\ categorical\\ imperative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Is\\ discrimination\\ always\\ unjust\\?\\ Answer\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ philosophers\\ or\\ issues\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Aristotle\\:\\ based\\ on\\ telos\\;\\ equality\\ for\\ equals\\ and\\ inequality\\ for\\ unequals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rawls\\:\\ gender\\ is\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\,\\ thus\\ we\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ discriminate\\,\\ but\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ it\\ is\\ okay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Say\\ whatever\\,\\ but\\ mention\\ aristotle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ I\\ have\\ a\\ natural\\ right\\ to\\ property\\,\\ and\\ if\\ this\\ right\\ limits\\ what\\ a\\ legitimate\\ government\\ may\\ do\\ to\\ me\\,\\ on\\ what\\ grounds\\ \\(if\\ any\\)\\ may\\ the\\ government\\ take\\ my\\ property\\ through\\ taxation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ question\\ has\\ been\\ on\\ three\\ different\\ exams\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ideas\\ about\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ are\\ all\\ born\\ naturally\\ free\\ and\\ equal\\,\\ and\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ rights\\ to\\ our\\ own\\ property\\ because\\ we\\ mix\\ our\\ labor\\ with\\ it\\,\\ and\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ plenty\\ to\\ go\\ around\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ taking\\ it\\ from\\ anyone\\ else\\ \\(nozick\\ builds\\ on\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\why\\ enter\\ political\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\problem\\ of\\ law\\ enforcement\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ independent\\ judiciary\\.\\ State\\ of\\ war\\ provides\\ for\\ arbitrary\\ justice\\.\\ Man\\ enters\\ society\\ to\\ end\\ conflict\\ and\\ for\\ impartial\\ justice\\ and\\ protection\\ of\\ property\\.\\ in\\ political\\ society\\ we\\ keep\\ all\\ natural\\ rights\\ except\\ justice\\ system\\;\\ we\\ also\\ agree\\ to\\ abide\\ by\\ majority\\ rule\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ says\\ the\\ government\\ cannot\\ arbitrarily\\ take\\ from\\ you\\.\\ but\\ if\\ a\\ law\\ is\\ passed\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ property\\,\\ that\\ is\\ okay\\ \\(this\\ is\\ implied\\,\\ not\\ said\\)\\.\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ if\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ just\\ if\\ the\\ only\\ purpose\\ is\\ redistribution\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ On\\ this\\,\\ Nozick\\ says\\ no\\,\\ Rawls\\ says\\ yes\\,\\ Friedmans\\ say\\ depends\\ on\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ etc\\.\\ Hayek\\ says\\ maybe\\:\\ based\\ on\\ circumstances\\,\\ Sandel\\ says\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ our\\ connection\\ to\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\what\\ limits\\ of\\ government\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Kant\\,\\ do\\ these\\ formulations\\ amount\\ to\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ moral\\ principle\\?\\ Is\\ he\\ right\\?\\ Answer\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ examples\\ Kant\\ offers\\:\\ preserving\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\,\\ keeping\\ promises\\,\\ cultivating\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ talents\\,\\ helping\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\why\\ do\\ they\\ amount\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\:\\ establishes\\ what\\ a\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ does\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ explains\\ what\\ a\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ is\\.\\ the\\ reason\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ is\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ rational\\ people\\.\\ Each\\ of\\ us\\ is\\ acting\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ legislator\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ universalizing\\ a\\ maxim\\ is\\ making\\ a\\ law\\ that\\ applies\\ to\\ humanity\\.\\ The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\ is\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ obeying\\ laws\\ that\\ we\\ ourselves\\ have\\ made\\.\\ All\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ rational\\,\\ and\\ you\\ cannot\\ will\\ to\\ disregard\\ your\\ own\\ rationality\\,\\ since\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ other\\ people\\ and\\ you\\ share\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wrong\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ maxim\\:\\ cannot\\ universalize\\ maxim\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ kill\\ themselves\\.\\ this\\ isabsurd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\second\\ maxim\\:\\ by\\ killing\\ yourself\\ all\\ you\\ are\\ thinking\\ about\\ is\\ reducing\\ suffering\\.\\ This\\ is\\ acting\\ on\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ imperative\\,\\ and\\ treating\\ yourself\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ not\\ an\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lying\\ promise\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ maxim\\:\\ cannot\\ universalize\\ the\\ maxim\\ to\\ break\\ a\\ promise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\second\\ maxim\\:\\ you\\ cannot\\ break\\ a\\ promise\\ because\\ you\\ are\\ using\\ the\\ person\\ you\\ made\\ a\\ promise\\ to\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ In\\ this\\ example\\ you\\ are\\ using\\ them\\ to\\ get\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultivating\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ talents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ maxim\\:\\ you\\ can\\ refuse\\ to\\ cultivate\\ your\\ talents\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ fine\\.\\ Kant\\ says\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ universalize\\ this\\ and\\ society\\ survives\\.\\ you\\ will\\ never\\ choose\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ rational\\ being\\.\\ you\\ could\\ never\\ rationally\\ choose\\ to\\ ignore\\ your\\ reason\\ and\\ your\\ rationality\\/reason\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ your\\ talent\\.\\ You\\ cannot\\ as\\ a\\ rational\\ choice\\ say\\ that\\ people\\ not\\ cultivate\\ their\\ talents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\second\\ maxim\\:\\ if\\ you\\ treat\\ humanity\\ as\\ an\\ end\\,\\ then\\ you\\ would\\ want\\ people\\ to\\ cultivate\\ their\\ talents\\.\\ This\\ is\\ about\\ promoting\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ humanity\\ as\\ an\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helping\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ maxim\\:\\ you\\ could\\ universalize\\ this\\ and\\ life\\ would\\ go\\ on\\,\\ but\\ again\\ everyone\\ needs\\ help\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ irrational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\second\\ maxim\\:\\ as\\ a\\ rational\\ being\\,\\ you\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ promote\\ humanity\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ would\\ prefer\\ to\\ help\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ summary\\,\\ kant\\ needs\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ both\\ rational\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ universalized\\.\\ Humanity\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ treating\\ other\\ human\\ beings\\ as\\ rational\\ beings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\,\\ is\\ the\\ polis\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\?\\ Who\\,\\ among\\ the\\ philosophers\\ we\\ have\\ read\\,\\ offers\\ the\\ strongest\\ case\\ against\\ this\\ claim\\?\\ Who\\ is\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\,\\ is\\ the\\ polis\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\man\\ is\\ by\\ nature\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\,\\ and\\ we\\ naturally\\ gravitate\\ towards\\ the\\ city\\;\\ your\\ identity\\ comes\\ from\\ your\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ whole\\ is\\ superior\\ to\\ the\\ part\\:\\ like\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ superior\\ to\\ the\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ individual\\ is\\ not\\ self\\-sufficient\\.\\ he\\ says\\ anyone\\ who\\ is\\ completely\\ sefl\\-sufficient\\ should\\ be\\ kicked\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Who\\,\\ among\\ the\\ philosophers\\ we\\ have\\ read\\,\\ offers\\ the\\ strongest\\ case\\ against\\ this\\ claim\\?\\ Who\\ is\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Locke\\-\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ free\\ rights\\,\\ we\\ must\\ consent\\ to\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ polis\\.\\ Locke\\ has\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ showing\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\ over\\ monarchies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ strongest\\ argument\\ for\\ this\\ clam\\,\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ strongest\\ argument\\ against\\ it\\?\\ Which\\ do\\ you\\ find\\ more\\ persuasive\\?\\ Moral\\ discussions\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\libertarians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rawls\\:\\ bracket\\ arguments\\ about\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Against\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sandel\\:\\ we\\ cannot\\ actually\\ bracket\\ these\\ things\\ because\\ people\\ argue\\ over\\ it\\ in\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MacIntyre\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aristotle\\:\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ political\\ life\\ is\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Do\\ television\\ talk\\-show\\ hosts\\ deserve\\ to\\ make\\ more\\ money\\ than\\ school\\ teachers\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\deserve\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rawls\\ vs\\.\\ nozick\\:\\ do\\ people\\ deserve\\ what\\ they\\ get\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ get\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ disagreements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\yes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\aristotle\\:\\ if\\ he\\ believed\\ talk\\ show\\ hosts\\ educated\\ society\\ about\\ virtue\\ more\\ than\\ teachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\utilitarianism\\:\\ society\\ gets\\ greater\\ pleasure\\ out\\ of\\ this\\.\\ BUT\\ is\\ this\\ a\\ higher\\ or\\ lower\\ pleasure\\.\\ Television\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ higher\\ pleasure\\ and\\ school\\ a\\ lower\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Differentiate\\ by\\ TV\\ show\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rawls\\:\\ deserves\\ it\\,\\ not\\ desert\\ in\\ a\\ moral\\ sense\\,\\ but\\ has\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ expectations\\ in\\ a\\ career\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ morally\\ deserve\\ what\\ we\\ have\\,\\ yet\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ is\\ arbitrary\\.\\ so\\ maybe\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ entitled\\ to\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ due\\ to\\ natural\\ talent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nozick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\me\\ having\\ a\\ natural\\ talent\\,\\ although\\ arbitrary\\,\\ still\\ entitles\\ me\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ this\\.\\ This\\ is\\ different\\ than\\ what\\ we\\ deserve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Football\\ \\(title\\ says\\ it\\ all\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\patriots\\ best\\ football\\ team\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ deserve\\ to\\ be\\ super\\ bowl\\ champions\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ they\\ lose\\,\\ and\\ san\\ diego\\ wins\\,\\ san\\ diego\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ win\\,\\ they\\ went\\ through\\ the\\ motion\\,\\ have\\ the\\ title\\,\\ and\\ won\\ the\\ super\\ bowl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Review_Session_-_Old_Exam_Reviews.doc", "desc": "old exams"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:59:54.512296+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cognitive Psychology - Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "cognitive", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 92, "html": null, "course_id": 40, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Psych_13_Lecture_Notes_1.doc", "desc": "Lecture Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 07:03:23.517009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Medical Detectives - Final Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "medical", "detectives"], "text": null, "id": 94, "html": "\\\\\\Medical\\ Detectives\\ \\-\\ Final\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:99\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c12\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:99pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:center\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c8\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c0\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c17\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c9\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c16\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\QR50\\:\\ MEDICAL\\ DETECTIVES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ for\\ Final\\ Exam\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Courtesy\\ of\\ Obi\\ Ugwu\\-Oju\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QR50\\ Fall\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Outbreak\\ investigations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Steps\\ in\\ conducting\\ an\\ outbreak\\ investigation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Control\\ the\\ Spread\\ of\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Identify\\ Route\\ of\\ Transmission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Find\\ Causal\\ Agent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Present\\ a\\ report\\ of\\ case\\ to\\ prevent\\ future\\ outbreaks\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\check\\ on\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Simone\\ said\\ \\(Case\\ Definition\\,\\ Baseline\\ Rate\\,\\ Gather\\ Data\\ About\\ Possible\\ Exposures\\,\\ Tabulate\\ Data\\ \\(cross\\-reference\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ they\\ had\\ in\\ common\\)\\,\\ Formulate\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Attack\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Attack\\ Rate\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ of\\ people\\ at\\ risk\\ in\\ whom\\ a\\ certain\\ illness\\ develops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Total\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ at\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Food\\ Specific\\ AR\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ ate\\ a\\ certain\\ food\\ \\&\\;\\ became\\ ill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Total\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ ate\\ the\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Epidemic\\ curves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Epidemic\\ Curve\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ the\\ times\\ of\\ onset\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ ways\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ curves\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cumulative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Total\\ number\\ of\\ cases\\ calculated\\ by\\ days\\ passed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Incidence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Number\\ of\\ cases\\ on\\ specific\\ day\\ \\(on\\ day\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Case\\ study\\:\\ John\\ Snow\\ and\\ Cholera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ 1854\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ Cholera\\ break\\ out\\ in\\ London\\.\\ There\\ were\\ 500\\ deaths\\ in\\ 10\\ days\\ within\\ 250m\\.\\ At\\ first\\ local\\ know\\-it\\-alls\\ thought\\ cholera\\ was\\ being\\ spread\\ through\\ the\\ air\\ based\\ on\\ elevation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;September\\ 3\\,\\ 1854\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ JOHN\\ SNOW\\ tests\\ the\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 7\\,\\ 1854\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Snow\\ testifies\\ \\(his\\ water\\ related\\ case\\)\\ that\\ victims\\ all\\ drank\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ pump\\,\\ and\\ something\\ was\\ inside\\ the\\ water\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 8\\,\\ 1854\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Snow\\ removes\\ handle\\ from\\ Broad\\ St\\.\\ Pump\\.\\ Kisses\\ babies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Study\\ Designs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Ecologic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Studies\\ done\\ by\\ nations\\ \\(never\\ known\\ on\\ an\\ individual\\ basis\\ of\\ what\\ happens\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Cross\\-sectional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ that\\ takes\\ a\\ slice\\ through\\ the\\ population\\ at\\ ONE\\ point\\ in\\ time\\ and\\ collects\\ data\\ on\\ risk\\ factors\\ and\\ disease\\ at\\ ONE\\ point\\ in\\ time\\ \\(Good\\ for\\ characteristics\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ change\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Prospective\\ cohort\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ concurrent\\ or\\ longitudinal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assessing\\ healthy\\ population\\ and\\ following\\ them\\ going\\ into\\ the\\ future\\ until\\ the\\ disease\\ develops\\ or\\ until\\ the\\ study\\ ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Retrospective\\ cohort\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ historical\\ or\\ nonconcurrent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Using\\ historical\\ data\\ and\\ collecting\\ information\\ on\\ past\\ records\\ and\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COHORT\\ DESIGNS\\ COMPARE\\ EXPOSED\\ TO\\ UNEXPOSED\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ Case\\-control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examining\\ the\\ possible\\ relation\\ of\\ an\\ exposure\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ disease\\,\\ identify\\ individuals\\ with\\ disease\\ \\(cases\\)\\ and\\ for\\ purposes\\ of\\ comparison\\,\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ without\\ disease\\ \\(controls\\)\\ to\\ test\\ exposure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\f\\.\\ RCT\\ \\(an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\interventional\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;study\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ study\\ that\\ tells\\ people\\ exactly\\ what\\ to\\ do\\.\\ Helps\\ eliminate\\ confounding\\ variables\\ that\\ happen\\ with\\ observational\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\You\\ can\\ only\\ randomize\\ exposures\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ sure\\ do\\ harm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Randomization\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ drugs\\ and\\ testing\\ \\(use\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\placebos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compliance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ do\\ people\\ stick\\ to\\ the\\ study\\?\\ Will\\ they\\ \\(if\\ not\\ told\\ to\\ eat\\ candy\\)\\,\\ occasionally\\ do\\ shrooms\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\RCTs\\ deal\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\double\\-blind\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(both\\ patient\\ \\&\\;\\ investigator\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ who\\ receives\\ drug\\ or\\ placebo\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\interim\\ study\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(making\\ sure\\ study\\ is\\ safe\\ for\\ patients\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stopping\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(if\\ two\\ groups\\ diverge\\ too\\ much\\,\\ the\\ point\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ proven\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helinski\\ Declaration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ MUST\\ provide\\ best\\ treatment\\ to\\ study\\ subjects\\ \\(in\\ interventions\\)\\ EVEN\\ IN\\ CONTROL\\ GROUPS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Informed\\ consent\\ is\\ good\\ enough\\ for\\ drug\\ or\\ placebo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intention\\-to\\-Treat\\ Analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ counting\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ intended\\ to\\ have\\ one\\ treatment\\ with\\ that\\ treatment\\ on\\ not\\ the\\ one\\ they\\ actually\\ received\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Measures\\ of\\ Disease\\ Frequency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Prevalence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ of\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;at\\ one\\ point\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Total\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Cumulative\\ incidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ of\\ new\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;over\\ a\\ defined\\ period\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Total\\ population\\ AT\\ RISK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Incidence\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ of\\ new\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Total\\ person\\-time\\ of\\ observation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Measures\\ of\\ Association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rate\\ ratio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Risk\\ ratio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Odds\\ ratio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Attributable\\ risk\\ and\\ attributable\\ risk\\ percent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ Population\\ attributable\\ risk\\ and\\ population\\ attributable\\ risk\\ percent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ Sampling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Normal\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Standard\\ error\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Variance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Small\\ sample\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Case\\ study\\:\\ Preterm\\ birth\\ and\\ breast\\ cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ Chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\f\\.\\ Calculation\\:\\ how\\ to\\ compute\\ 95\\%\\ confidence\\ interval\\ for\\ the\\ mean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ Statistical\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Measures\\ of\\ statistical\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ P\\-value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\-value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ probability\\ of\\ obtaining\\ a\\ result\\ as\\ extreme\\ or\\ more\\ extreme\\ than\\ the\\ one\\ observed\\ and\\ outcome\\ were\\ unrelated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\ \\<\\;\\ 0\\.05\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ statistically\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;0\\.05\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ statistically\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Confidence\\ interval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confidence\\ interval\\ shows\\ range\\ of\\ possible\\ values\\ of\\ true\\,\\ underlying\\ measures\\ \\(even\\ though\\ p\\-value\\ is\\ seen\\ more\\ in\\ studies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\95\\%\\ Confidence\\ Interval\\ \\(THAT\\ DOES\\ NOT\\ INCLUDE\\ 1\\)\\ is\\ statistically\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\ Misclassification\\ of\\ exposure\\ and\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Differential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Detection\\ bias\\&mdash\\;Estrogen\\ and\\ endometrial\\ cancer\\ case\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Detection\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ misclassification\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\ which\\ is\\ different\\ for\\ the\\ exposed\\ and\\ the\\ unexposed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Recall\\ bias\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ Reporting\\ Bias\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recall\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ misclassification\\ of\\ the\\ exposure\\ \\/\\ misclassification\\ is\\ different\\ for\\ people\\ with\\ and\\ without\\ exposure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Interviewer\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Interviewer\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ interviewer\\ asks\\ questions\\ that\\ foster\\ false\\ responses\\ and\\ false\\ characterizations\\ of\\ exposures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Non\\-differential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Misclassification\\ is\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ proportion\\ for\\ exposed\\ and\\ unexposed\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ How\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ bias\\ is\\ differential\\ or\\ non\\-differential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ How\\ do\\ differential\\ and\\ non\\-differential\\ misclassification\\ affect\\ measures\\ of\\ association\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VIII\\.\\ Confounding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Definition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Confounding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ confounder\\ is\\ a\\ third\\ variable\\ that\\ is\\ unequally\\ distributed\\ among\\ the\\ exposed\\ and\\ unexposed\\ groups\\.\\ Confounder\\ associated\\ with\\ exposure\\ and\\ disease\\ outcome\\ \\&\\;\\ cannot\\ be\\ in\\ causal\\ pathway\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ How\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ it\\ exists\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\ confounding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Multiplying\\ the\\ associations\\ of\\ the\\ Exposure\\ to\\ Disease\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Confounder\\ to\\ the\\ Exposure\\ will\\ give\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\ confounding\\ answer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ How\\ to\\ minimize\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ design\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Randomization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Taking\\ a\\ random\\ slice\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ will\\ generally\\ help\\ avoid\\ confounding\\,\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ reference\\ population\\ is\\ overrepresented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Matching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\ many\\ cases\\ you\\ get\\,\\ you\\ match\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ control\\ that\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Restriction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ allow\\ certain\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ study\\.\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ generalization\\ though\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ How\\ to\\ minimize\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Stratification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Direct\\ standardization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adjusted\\ rate\\ \\=\\ rate\\ observed\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ population\\ \\*\\ standard\\ population\\ weights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Indirect\\ standardization\\ \\(SMR\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Standardized\\ Mortality\\ Ratio\\ \\=\\ Observed\\ Cases\\ \\/\\ Expected\\ Cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ expected\\ number\\ of\\ cases\\ is\\ calculated\\ by\\ applying\\ the\\ rates\\ from\\ the\\ standard\\ population\\ to\\ the\\ study\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IX\\.\\ Biases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Selection\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Case\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Health\\ Initiative\\ and\\ the\\ Nurses\\&rsquo\\;\\ Health\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Detection\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Case\\ study\\:\\ Estrogen\\ and\\ endometrial\\ cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Recall\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Interviewer\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\X\\.\\ Causal\\ Inference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Hill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ causal\\ criteria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strength\\ of\\ the\\ association\\ \\/\\ consistency\\ upon\\ repetition\\ \\/\\ specificity\\ \\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\time\\ sequence\\ \\(the\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ holds\\ effective\\ today\\:\\ exposure\\ has\\ to\\ occur\\ before\\ the\\ disease\\ \\(sometimes\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ establish\\ time\\ sequence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\/\\ biologic\\ gradient\\:\\ dose\\-response\\ relation\\ \\/\\ biologic\\ plausibility\\ \\/\\ coherence\\ of\\ explanation\\ \\/\\ experimental\\ evidence\\ \\/\\ analogy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remember\\ causal\\ pies\\?\\ Find\\ the\\ similar\\ exposure\\ in\\ the\\ pies\\ and\\ test\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ The\\ counterfactual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Counterfactual\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Ideally\\,\\ one\\ person\\ being\\ exposed\\ than\\ unexposed\\.\\ Seeing\\ what\\ the\\ exposure\\ does\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Case\\ study\\:\\ Jim\\ and\\ the\\ aspirin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ DAGs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Confounder\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ cause\\ of\\ exposure\\ and\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XI\\.\\ Risk\\ prediction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Population\\-based\\ prevention\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ High\\-risk\\ prevention\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Individual\\ risk\\ prediction\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XII\\.\\ Screening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ good\\ screening\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Acceptable\\ by\\ population\\,\\ non\\-invasive\\,\\ safe\\,\\ simple\\ \\&\\;\\ easy\\ to\\ learn\\,\\ quick\\ to\\ administer\\,\\ inexpensive\\,\\ results\\ read\\ fast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ good\\ disease\\ for\\ screening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treatable\\,\\ benefits\\ of\\ early\\ detection\\,\\ high\\ prevalence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Calculations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Sensitivity\\,\\ specificity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sensitivity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ percent\\ \\(property\\ of\\ the\\ test\\)\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ test\\ positive\\ THAT\\ HAVE\\ THE\\ DISEASE\\ over\\ total\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ have\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specificity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ percent\\ \\(property\\ of\\ the\\ test\\)\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ test\\ negative\\ THAT\\ DO\\ NOT\\ HAVE\\ THE\\ DISEASE\\ over\\ total\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ have\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Immutable\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ screening\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ alter\\ sensitivity\\ and\\ specificity\\ by\\ changing\\ the\\ cutoff\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ test\\.\\ However\\,\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ one\\ is\\ always\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Positive\\ and\\ negative\\ predictive\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ Predictive\\ Value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ percent\\ \\(property\\ of\\ the\\ test\\)\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ test\\ positive\\ who\\ have\\ the\\ disease\\ over\\ EVERYONE\\ WHO\\ TESTED\\ POSITIVE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negative\\ Predictive\\ Value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ percent\\ \\(property\\ of\\ the\\ test\\)\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ test\\ negative\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ disease\\ over\\ EVERYONE\\ WHO\\ TESTED\\ NEGATIVE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ \\=\\ Induration\\ \\>\\;\\ 5\\ mm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\TB\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Yes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\TB\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ No\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\TST\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\99\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\42\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\TST\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Negative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\858\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Total\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\100\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\Sensitivity\\ \\=\\ 99\\/100\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Specificity\\ \\=\\ 858\\/900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PV\\+\\ \\=\\ 99\\ \\/\\ \\(99\\ \\+\\ 42\\)\\ \\=\\ 70\\%\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;PV\\-\\ \\=\\ 858\\/\\(858\\ \\+\\ 1\\)\\ \\=\\ 99\\.9\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Biases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ Lead\\-time\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ may\\ appear\\ that\\ cases\\ detected\\ by\\ screening\\ have\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\longer\\ survival\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;than\\ those\\ not\\ detected\\ by\\ screening\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\However\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ thefact\\ that\\ screen\\-detected\\ cases\\ are\\ identified\\ EARLIER\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ Length\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cases\\ detected\\ by\\ screening\\ tend\\ to\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ progressing\\ more\\ slowly\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ better\\ prognosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iii\\.\\ Volunteer\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ persons\\ who\\ voluntarily\\ get\\ screened\\ may\\ differ\\ from\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\.\\ They\\ are\\ probably\\ more\\ health\\ conscious\\ \\/\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ selection\\ bias\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XIII\\.\\ Infectious\\ disease\\,\\ SARS\\ and\\ Influenza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Basic\\ reproductive\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ respond\\ to\\ and\\ control\\ an\\ outbreak\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XIV\\.\\ Survival\\ Analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Life\\ tables\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Kaplan\\-Meier\\ Curves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ exact\\ than\\ life\\ tables\\:\\ New\\ interval\\ started\\ at\\ each\\ event\\.\\ Each\\ tmie\\ somebody\\ dies\\,\\ new\\ interval\\ starts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XV\\.\\ Effect\\ modification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Definition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effect\\ Modification\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ difference\\ in\\ association\\ between\\ exposure\\ and\\ outcome\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ a\\ third\\ variable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ How\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ it\\ exists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ confounder\\,\\ stratum\\-specific\\ Odds\\ Ratios\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ stratum\\-specific\\ OR\\ are\\ different\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(so\\ there\\ is\\ effect\\ modification\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Case\\ study\\:\\ MTHFR\\ genotype\\ and\\ Maternal\\ folate\\ intake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Gene\\-environment\\ interaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 41, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Studying_for_QR50_FINAL.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 07:03:23.517009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Medical Detectives - Quiz Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "medical", "detectives"], "text": null, "id": 95, "html": "\\\\\\Medical\\ Detectives\\ \\-\\ Quiz\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c13\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c10\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c8\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\Concepts\\ in\\ Public\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epidemiology\\,\\ Biostatistics\\,\\ Biology\\,\\ Medicine\\,\\ Health\\ Policy\\,\\ Social\\ Behavior\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goals\\ of\\ Public\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prevention\\ or\\ effective\\ control\\ of\\ disease\\ in\\ populations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ID\\ risk\\ factors\\ for\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reduce\\ Human\\ Suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reduce\\ the\\ Global\\ Burden\\ of\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epidemiology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ frequency\\,\\ distribution\\,\\ and\\ determinants\\ of\\ disease\\ in\\ humans\\ \\(a\\ fundamental\\ science\\ in\\ public\\ health\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tools\\ in\\ Public\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Populations\\ \\(Target\\ population\\,\\ study\\ population\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distributions\\ \\(Disease\\,\\ health\\ statistics\\ \\/\\ risk\\ factors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Statistics\\ \\(Comparisons\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Causal\\ Interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Policy\\ \\(Recommendations\\,\\ behavioral\\ changes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cholera\\ \\(yeah\\ you\\ know\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cholera\\ epidemic\\ in\\ London\\ \\(500\\ deaths\\ in\\ 10\\ days\\ within\\ 250m\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ first\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ elevation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\September\\ 3\\,\\ 1854\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Snow\\ tests\\ the\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\September\\ 7\\,\\ 1854\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ John\\ Snow\\ testifies\\ \\(his\\ water\\ related\\ case\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\September\\ 8\\,\\ 1854\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Snow\\ removes\\ handle\\ of\\ the\\ Broad\\ St\\.\\ Pump\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Challenges\\ in\\ Public\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Global\\ Health\\ Challenges\\:\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\,\\ Obesity\\,\\ Depression\\/Mental\\ Health\\,\\ Reproductive\\ Health\\,\\ Malaria\\,\\ Tuberculosis\\,\\ Major\\ childhood\\ infection\\ diseases\\,\\ Cancer\\,\\ Cardiovascular\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ Risk\\ Factors\\:\\ Water\\ contamination\\,\\ sanitation\\,\\ air\\ pollution\\ \\/\\ Malnutrition\\,\\ micronutrient\\ deficiencies\\,\\ tobacco\\,\\ alcohol\\,\\ diet\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ physical\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Global\\ Burden\\ of\\ Disease\\ Study\\:\\ International\\ estimates\\ of\\ mortality\\ by\\ disease\\,\\ International\\ estimates\\ of\\ disease\\ incidence\\,\\ Estimates\\ of\\ fraction\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ disability\\ attributable\\ to\\ ten\\ major\\ risk\\ factors\\,\\ Projections\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ disability\\ by\\ cause\\,\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developed\\ regions\\ account\\ for\\ 11\\.6\\%\\ of\\ the\\ worldwide\\ burden\\ from\\ all\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\ and\\ disability\\,\\ and\\ account\\ for\\ 90\\.2\\%\\ of\\ health\\ care\\ expenditure\\ worldwide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leading\\ Causes\\ of\\ Death\\ Worldwide\\ in\\ 1990\\:\\ Ischemic\\ heart\\ disease\\,\\ Cerebrovascular\\ disease\\,\\ Lower\\ respiratory\\ infections\\,\\ Diarrheal\\ disease\\,\\ Perinatal\\ disorders\\,\\ Chronic\\ obstructive\\ pulmonary\\ disease\\,\\ Tuberculosis\\,\\ Measles\\,\\ Road\\-traffic\\ accidents\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disability\\-adjust\\ life\\ year\\ \\=\\ DALY\\ \\(Loss\\ of\\ Healthy\\ Life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Probably\\ Tested\\ on\\ Stuff\\ \\:\\-D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Surveys\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ process\\ of\\ obtaining\\ information\\ with\\ questionnaires\\ \\(subject\\ to\\ sampling\\ error\\ and\\ bias\\ because\\ of\\ question\\ wording\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gallup\\ is\\ a\\ lead\\ polling\\ company\\ for\\ many\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cross\\-Sectional\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Take\\ a\\ slice\\ through\\ the\\ population\\ at\\ ONE\\ point\\ in\\ time\\ \\&\\;\\ Collect\\ Data\\ on\\ risk\\ factors\\ and\\ disease\\ at\\ ONE\\ point\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PREVALENCE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\number\\ of\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\at\\ one\\ point\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\total\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\CUMULATIVE\\ INCIDENCE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\number\\ of\\ new\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\over\\ a\\ defined\\ period\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ total\\ population\\ AT\\ RISK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NHANES\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ National\\ Health\\ and\\ Nutrition\\ Examination\\ Survey\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nationwide\\ probability\\ sample\\ of\\ approximately\\ 32\\,000\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SAMPLE\\ VARIANCE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sum\\ of\\ \\(individual\\ measures\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mean\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(n\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\STANDARD\\ DEVIATION\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\&\\#61654\\;\\(sample\\ variance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Standard\\ deviation\\ \\=\\ the\\ square\\ root\\ of\\ the\\ sample\\ variance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\68\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ observations\\ fall\\ within\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1\\ SD\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ mean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\95\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ observations\\ fall\\ within\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\2\\ SD\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ mean\\ \\(exactly\\ 1\\.96\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\99\\.7\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ observations\\ fall\\ within\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\3\\ SD\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ mean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Standard\\ Error\\ of\\ the\\ Sample\\ Mean\\:\\ Measure\\ of\\ the\\ variability\\ of\\ sample\\ means\\ \\(repeated\\ sampling\\)\\,\\ Measure\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ of\\ the\\ sample\\ mean\\,\\ precision\\ with\\ which\\ a\\ sample\\ mean\\ estimates\\ reference\\ population\\ mean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\STANDARD\\ ERROR\\ OF\\ SAMPLE\\ MEAN\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Estimated\\ Standard\\ Deviation\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#61654\\;\\(number\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ sample\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(estimated\\ SD\\ \\/\\ square\\ root\\ of\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ sample\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sample\\ Standard\\ Deviation\\ reflects\\ variability\\ among\\ individuals\\,\\ while\\ Sample\\ Standard\\ Error\\ reflects\\ precision\\ in\\ which\\ sample\\ mean\\ estimates\\ reference\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confidence\\ Intervals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Defines\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ values\\ within\\ which\\ the\\ true\\ mean\\ of\\ the\\ study\\ population\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ lie\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\95\\%\\ C\\.I\\.\\ \\=\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Sample\\ Mean\\ \\&\\#61617\\;\\ \\(1\\.96\\ \\*\\ Standard\\ Error\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Factors\\ affecting\\ the\\ width\\ of\\ a\\ CI\\:\\ Sample\\ Size\\,\\ Standard\\ Error\\,\\ Standard\\ Deviation\\ \\(reflects\\ variability\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\-Value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ probability\\ of\\ obtaining\\ a\\ result\\ as\\ extreme\\ or\\ more\\ extreme\\ than\\ the\\ one\\ observed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\ \\ \\;\\<\\;\\ \\ \\;0\\.05\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;statistically\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\ \\>\\;\\=\\ 0\\.05\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;not\\ statistically\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relative\\ Risk\\ \\=\\ 1\\.0\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relative\\ Risk\\ \\<\\;\\ 1\\.0\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ decreased\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relative\\ Risk\\ \\>\\;\\ 1\\.0\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ increased\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\95\\%\\ CI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ DOES\\ NOT\\ INCLUDE\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Statistically\\ Significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Small\\ sample\\ sizes\\ can\\ give\\ misleading\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Example\\:\\ False\\ study\\ that\\ women\\ born\\ before\\ 33\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;gestational\\ week\\ run\\ a\\ substantially\\ increased\\ risk\\ of\\ breast\\ cancer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ecologic\\ \\(International\\)\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ studies\\ done\\ by\\ nations\\ \\(never\\ known\\ on\\ an\\ individual\\ basis\\ what\\ happens\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ecologic\\ Fallacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Wrong\\ conclusion\\ from\\ an\\ ecologic\\ studies\\.\\ \\(Like\\ testing\\ people\\ from\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ countries\\ and\\ getting\\ false\\ info\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Migrant\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Studying\\ immigration\\ of\\ people\\ moving\\ from\\ countries\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ prevalence\\ to\\ one\\ with\\ an\\ opposite\\ prevalence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\OBSERVATIONAL\\ STUDIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ecologic\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ international\\ correlation\\ \\(total\\ population\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cross\\-Sectional\\ Studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Study\\ at\\ one\\ particular\\ time\\;\\ slice\\ of\\ population\\ for\\ taking\\ data\\ on\\ risk\\ factors\\ and\\ disease\\ \\[INCIDENCE\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\-Control\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Time\\ vs\\.\\ Exposure\\ with\\ cases\\ and\\ controls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cohort\\ Studies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Assess\\ healthy\\ population\\ and\\ follow\\ them\\ \\(some\\ require\\ diseases\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prospective\\ Cohort\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ From\\ time\\ going\\ into\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Retrospective\\ Cohort\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Going\\ into\\ the\\ past\\.\\ Sampled\\ by\\ exposure\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Case\\ Control\\ vs\\.\\ Cohort\\ Retrospective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Case\\ Control\\:\\ Having\\ disease\\ or\\ not\\ and\\ going\\ back\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cohort\\ Retro\\:\\ Looking\\ at\\ disease\\ with\\ relevant\\ exposure\\ to\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\-Control\\ used\\ more\\ because\\ cohort\\ prospective\\ is\\ too\\ time\\ consuming\\ and\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\INTERVENTIONAL\\ STUDIES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Randomized\\ Clinical\\ Trial\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ tell\\ people\\ what\\ to\\ d\\.\\ Helps\\ eliminate\\ confounding\\ variables\\ that\\ happen\\ with\\ observational\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Random\\ means\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ \\/\\ You\\ can\\ only\\ randomize\\ exposures\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ sure\\ do\\ harm\\ \\/\\ Randomization\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ drugs\\ and\\ testing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Double\\-Blind\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Both\\ patient\\ and\\ investigator\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ if\\ they\\ received\\ drug\\ or\\ placebo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helsinki\\ Declaration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Must\\ provide\\ best\\ treatment\\ to\\ study\\ subjects\\ \\(even\\ in\\ control\\ group\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informed\\ consent\\ is\\ good\\ enough\\ to\\ justify\\ placebo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\-threatening\\ diseases\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ tested\\ against\\ placebo\\,\\ like\\ in\\ AZT\\ \\(AIDS\\)\\ case\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Compliance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ People\\ might\\ fail\\ with\\ the\\ orders\\ that\\ test\\ told\\ them\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ might\\ drop\\ out\\ of\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intention\\-to\\-Treat\\ Analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ counting\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ intended\\ to\\ have\\ one\\ treatment\\ with\\ that\\ treatment\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ one\\ they\\ actually\\ received\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 41, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Studying_for_QR50_Quiz.doc", "desc": "Quiz Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "List of Concepts - Justice", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "concepts"], "text": null, "id": 115, "html": "\\\\\\List\\ of\\ Concepts\\ \\-\\ Justice\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c5\\{color\\:\\#000099\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#000099\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ Review\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Martin\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Neill\\,\\ December\\ 2002\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ reviewing\\ the\\ material\\ before\\ the\\ Final\\ Examination\\,\\ you\\ should\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ ideas\\ and\\ concepts\\.\\ \\This\\ is\\ not\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ exhaustive\\ list\\,\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ helpful\\ in\\ structuring\\ your\\ thoughts\\ about\\ the\\ material\\.\\ \\Naturally\\,\\ the\\ very\\ best\\ way\\ of\\ coming\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ possible\\ understanding\\ of\\ this\\ material\\ is\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ texts\\ themselves\\.\\ \\Bear\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ probably\\ pay\\ special\\ attention\\ to\\ our\\ 5\\ major\\ thinkers\\:\\that\\ is\\,\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Locke\\,\\ Kant\\,\\ Mill\\ and\\ Rawls\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Political\\ Liberalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ where\\ you\\ feel\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ write\\ a\\ few\\ sentences\\ on\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ topics\\,\\ you\\ should\\ be\\ well\\ on\\ your\\ way\\ to\\ mastery\\ of\\ this\\ material\\.\\ \\My\\ single\\ biggest\\ piece\\ of\\ advice\\,\\ at\\ this\\ stage\\,\\ and\\ now\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\ all\\ the\\ material\\ for\\ the\\ course\\,\\ is\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ connections\\ between\\ all\\ the\\ theories\\.\\ \\By\\ seeing\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ argue\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ where\\ they\\ might\\ agree\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THEORY\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Bentham\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ general\\ utilitarian\\ principle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ social\\ decision\\-making\\ under\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ His\\ idea\\ of\\ man\\ being\\ under\\ the\\ soverignty\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;two\\ sovereign\\ masters\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Pleasure\\ as\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ The\\ issue\\ of\\ commensurability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ With\\ regards\\ to\\ Mill\\ \\&\\;\\ Bentham\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(A\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ families\\ of\\ objections\\ to\\ utilitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Incommensurability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Higher\\/Lower\\ Pleasures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(B\\)\\ Remember\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ as\\ involving\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Consequentialism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ right\\ as\\ determined\\ by\\ bringing\\ about\\ good\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Welfarism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ utility\\/happiness\\ as\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Sum\\-maximization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ deliberately\\ ignores\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ separateness\\ of\\ persons\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Mill\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Utilitarianism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(i\\)\\ Be\\ aware\\ of\\ where\\ Mill\\ departs\\ from\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;commensurability\\&rsquo\\;\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(iv\\)\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utilitarian\\ justification\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(v\\)\\ Act\\-utilitarianism\\ vs\\ Rule\\-utilitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Nozick\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Anarchy\\,\\ State\\ and\\ Utopia\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;patterned\\&rsquo\\;\\ distributions\\ and\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ just\\ acquisitions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Different\\ assumptions\\ about\\ the\\ individual\\ made\\ by\\ utilitarians\\ and\\ libertarians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ argument\\ for\\ why\\ taxation\\ amounts\\ to\\ forced\\ labour\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\(Michael\\ Jordan\\)\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ conception\\ of\\ self\\-ownership\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ libertarian\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;Lockean\\ proviso\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(5\\)\\ Locke\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Differences\\ from\\ libertarianism\\.\\ Why\\ Locke\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ libertarian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ from\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ to\\ civil\\ society\\ and\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;State\\ of\\ War\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Property\\ rights\\,\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ property\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\ law\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;tacit\\ consent\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ provisos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ much\\ and\\ as\\ good\\ left\\ for\\ others\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ and\\ function\\ of\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ His\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ and\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(6\\)\\ Markets\\ and\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ money\\ is\\ a\\ suitable\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ all\\ commodities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Are\\ markets\\ suitable\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ of\\ distribution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Limits\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ property\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ consent\\,\\ and\\ of\\ contracts\\.\\ Conditions\\ under\\ which\\ a\\ contract\\ is\\ enforceable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Anderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ market\\ transactions\\ as\\ undermining\\ social\\ understandings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Kimbrell\\:\\ organ\\-selling\\ as\\ violating\\ bodily\\ integrity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ notion\\ that\\ some\\ contracts\\ might\\ be\\ exploitative\\,\\ even\\ if\\ consensual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(7\\)\\ Kant\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\.\\ Its\\ various\\ formulations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ hypothetical\\ imperatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ categorical\\ and\\ consequentialist\\ moral\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ duty\\ vs\\ mere\\ inclination\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ concept\\ of\\ freedom\\ as\\ autonomy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ How\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;categorical\\ imperative\\ test\\&rsquo\\;\\ functions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ following\\ Kantian\\ concepts\\ should\\ all\\ make\\ some\\ sense\\ to\\ you\\:\\ prudence\\;\\ autonomy\\;\\ inclination\\;\\ heteronomy\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Categorical\\ Imperative\\;\\ respect\\;\\ law\\;\\ will\\;\\ hypothetical\\ imperative\\;\\ freedom\\;\\ happiness\\;\\ action\\;\\ The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\;\\ maxim\\;\\ Reason\\;\\ duty\\;\\ right\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ maxim\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ as\\ the\\ action\\ \\+\\ the\\ purpose\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ performed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ Good\\ Will\\ as\\ the\\ highest\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dualisms\\ \\(autonomy\\ vs\\ heteronomy\\,\\ categorical\\ vs\\ hypothetical\\,\\ sensible\\ vs\\ intelligible\\,\\ duty\\ vs\\ inclination\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ line\\ up\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(8\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ contractarian\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ Original\\ Position\\ and\\ the\\ Veil\\ of\\ Ignorance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ Two\\ Principles\\ of\\ Justice\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Equal\\ Basic\\ Liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2a\\.\\ Fair\\ Equality\\ of\\ Opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 2b\\.\\ The\\ Difference\\ Principle\\ \\(maximin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;reflective\\ equilibrium\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Some\\ things\\ being\\ \\&lsquo\\;arbitrary\\ from\\ a\\ moral\\ point\\ of\\ view\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ \\(the\\ self\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ Right\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ contrast\\ between\\ \\&lsquo\\;entitlements\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\&rsquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&lsquo\\;moral\\ desert\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ Natural\\ talents\\ as\\ collective\\ assets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ 5\\-stage\\ diagram\\ discussed\\ in\\ section\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(1\\)\\ Feudal\\ Aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ Natural\\ Liberty\\ \\(libertarianism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ Liberal\\ Equality\\ \\(meritocracy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ \\(with\\ rewards\\ for\\ effort\\,\\ due\\ to\\ desert\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(5\\)\\ Democratic\\ Equality\\ without\\ Desert\\ \\(Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;social\\ primary\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xii\\)\\ The\\ restriction\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(9\\)\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Dworkin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ merit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Dworkin\\,\\ and\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ self\\-understanding\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ using\\ people\\ as\\ means\\ instead\\ of\\ ends\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ embodying\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ attitude\\,\\ or\\ as\\ failing\\ to\\ treat\\ people\\ as\\ equals\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ Dworkin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ equal\\ treatment\\ vs\\.\\ equal\\ outcomes\\.\\ Rejection\\ of\\ desert\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&lsquo\\;acceptance\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;rejection\\&rsquo\\;\\ letter\\:\\ the\\ relation\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Aristotle\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Politics\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ deontological\\ and\\ teleological\\ theories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ Man\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ state\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ citizenship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ His\\ account\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\&rsquo\\;\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ Good\\ Life\\,\\ and\\ of\\ Happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;telos\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ a\\ person\\,\\ activity\\ or\\ institution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(viii\\)\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ Aristotle\\.\\ The\\ specificity\\ of\\ virtue\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ particular\\ kinds\\ of\\ person\\ or\\ activity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ix\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ natural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(x\\)\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ to\\ promote\\ \\&lsquo\\;living\\ well\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(xi\\)\\ Determinations\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ involving\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(11\\)\\ Communitarianism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Obligations\\ of\\ Community\\ or\\ Solidarity\\ \\(Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ type\\-3\\ obligations\\,\\ where\\ type\\-1\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;General\\ Obligations\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ type\\-2\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;Contractual\\ or\\ Consensual\\ or\\ Voluntarist\\&rsquo\\;\\ obligations\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ liberal\\ \\(voluntarist\\)\\ self\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ communitarian\\ \\(narrative\\,\\ embedded\\)\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ to\\ its\\ ends\\ and\\ its\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ Right\\ to\\ the\\ Good\\ in\\ liberalism\\ and\\ in\\ communitarianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(12\\)\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;After\\ Virtue\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ narrative\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;teleological\\ unity\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ communal\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ MacIntyre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Aristotelianism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(13\\)\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ The\\ self\\ as\\ partly\\ constituted\\ by\\ its\\ attachments\\ and\\ commitments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Moral\\ and\\ political\\ obligations\\ can\\ be\\ generated\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ these\\ \\&lsquo\\;constitutive\\&rsquo\\;\\ attachments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ Arguments\\ against\\ the\\ Rawlsian\\/Kantian\\ \\&lsquo\\;unencumbered\\ self\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(14\\)\\ Walzer\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ methodology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ interpreting\\ \\&lsquo\\;shared\\ understandings\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ Walzer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ welfare\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(15\\)\\ Rawls\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Political\\ Liberalism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(i\\)\\ Justice\\ as\\ fairness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(ii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;fact\\ of\\ reasonable\\ pluralism\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iii\\)\\ The\\ \\&lsquo\\;idea\\ of\\ an\\ overlapping\\ consensus\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(iv\\)\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ neutrality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Between\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\(in\\ TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Between\\ comprehensive\\ religious\\,\\ moral\\ or\\ philosophical\\ doctrines\\ \\(PL\\ only\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(v\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;public\\ reason\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vi\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ fair\\ system\\ of\\ co\\-operation\\ between\\ people\\ regarded\\ as\\ reasonable\\ and\\ rational\\,\\ free\\ and\\ equal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(vii\\)\\ The\\ three\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;political\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ Limited\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ society\\ \\(TJ\\ \\&\\;\\ PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ Independent\\ of\\ any\\ comprehensive\\ doctrine\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ Reliant\\ on\\ ideas\\ which\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;implicit\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ political\\ culture\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(PL\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(vii\\)\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Rawls\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ bracketing\\ grave\\ moral\\ questions\\ \\(Lincoln\\-Douglas\\,\\ Abortion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Reasonable\\ Pluralism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(C\\)\\ The\\ objection\\ to\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Liberal\\ Public\\ Reason\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ last\\ word\\ of\\ advice\\:\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ unhelpful\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ notions\\ \\(some\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ abstract\\)\\ just\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ theory\\.\\ \\Thus\\,\\ thinking\\ about\\ specific\\ examples\\ is\\ of\\ immense\\ value\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ seeing\\ how\\ these\\ different\\ theories\\ work\\,\\ and\\ in\\ rendering\\ them\\ vivid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ do\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ which\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ discussing\\ this\\ semester\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXAMPLES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Queen\\ vs\\.\\ Dudley\\ \\&\\;\\ Stephens\\ \\(the\\ lifeboat\\ case\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Trolley\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Enthusiastic\\ Transplant\\ Doctor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Simpsons\\ vs\\ Shakespeare\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ \\/\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Civil\\ War\\ military\\ draft\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Baby\\ M\\ \\&\\;\\ commercial\\ surrogacy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Organ\\-selling\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Nozick\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\&\\#39\\;Tale\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\&\\#39\\;\\Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Shopkeeper\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Lying\\ to\\ the\\ Murderer\\ at\\ the\\ Door\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Bill\\ Clinton\\ and\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Kant\\ on\\ Sex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bakke\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Hopwood\\ vs\\ University\\ of\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;Proxy\\ War\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ University\\ Rejection\\ and\\ Acceptance\\ Letters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Casey\\ Martin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ golf\\ cart\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Callie\\ Smartt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cherleading\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Nazis\\ in\\ Skokie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\MLK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ march\\ from\\ Selma\\ to\\ Montgomery\\,\\ AL\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Gay\\ Marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/List_of_Concepts_-_Justice_1.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Main Ideas in Justice", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "main-ideas"], "text": null, "id": 116, "html": "\\\\\\Main\\ Ideas\\ in\\ Justice\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:80\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c38\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:123\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c21\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:196\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c45\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c42\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c31\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c39\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-10\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:46\\.8pt\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9\\.4pt\\;margin\\-left\\:46\\.8pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9\\.4pt\\;margin\\-left\\:9\\.4pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c0\\{text\\-align\\:center\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c44\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18\\.7pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18\\.7pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c37\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c40\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c36\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c34\\{padding\\-left\\:0\\.7pt\\}\\.c43\\{margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c47\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:12pt\\}\\.c46\\{margin\\-left\\:74\\.8pt\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c16\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:21pt\\}\\.c49\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c13\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c50\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:57pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c48\\{margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Utilitarianism\\ Outline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Basic\\ Concept\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utility\\:\\ happiness\\;\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarianism\\:\\ Right\\ and\\ wrong\\ defined\\ as\\ maximizing\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Definition\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ qualitative\\ distinction\\.\\ Only\\ number\\ and\\ intensity\\ matters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Two\\ Main\\ Objections\\ to\\ Utilitarianism\\ and\\ Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Attempt\\ to\\ Resuscitate\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ It\\ simply\\ aggregates\\ all\\ values\\ and\\ translates\\ them\\ into\\ dollar\\ terms\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ It\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\assumes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ all\\ values\\ are\\ translatable\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ uniform\\ measure\\ of\\ values\\.\\ This\\ assumption\\ is\\ questionable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Bentham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ utilitarianism\\ often\\ refuses\\ to\\ make\\ qualitative\\ distinction\\,\\ and\\ just\\ aggregates\\ preferences\\ and\\ interests\\ without\\ looking\\ at\\ what\\ those\\ preferences\\ are\\ for\\ and\\ how\\ worthy\\ they\\ are\\.\\ Why\\ should\\ society\\ honor\\ the\\ mere\\ intensity\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ preferences\\ however\\ base\\ or\\ unworthy\\ these\\ preferences\\ may\\ be\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Response\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ human\\ being\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ pig\\ satisfied\\;\\ better\\ to\\ be\\ Socrates\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ fool\\ satisfied\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ an\\ unquestionable\\ fact\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equally\\ acquainted\\ with\\ and\\ equally\\ capable\\ of\\ appreciating\\ and\\ enjoying\\ both\\ do\\ give\\ a\\ most\\ marked\\ preference\\ to\\ the\\ manner\\ of\\ existence\\ which\\ employs\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\higher\\ faculties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Further\\ consideration\\:\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Is\\ this\\ persuasive\\?\\ Simpson\\ vs\\.\\ Shakespeare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Utilitarianism\\ does\\ not\\ take\\ seriously\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ fails\\ to\\ respect\\ individual\\ rights\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\:\\ justice\\ and\\ individual\\ rights\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Justice\\ is\\ a\\ name\\ for\\ certain\\ moral\\ requirements\\ which\\,\\ regarded\\ collectively\\,\\ stand\\ higher\\ in\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ social\\ utility\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ of\\ more\\ paramount\\ obligation\\,\\ than\\ any\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Individual\\ rights\\ are\\ sacred\\,\\ privileged\\ and\\ prior\\,\\ and\\ justice\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ traded\\ off\\ for\\ lesser\\ things\\.\\ But\\ the\\ reason\\ is\\ ultimately\\,\\ Mill\\ claims\\,\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ reason\\:\\ they\\ are\\ considered\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\ interests\\ of\\ human\\ kind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Further\\ consideration\\:\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ What\\ if\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ case\\ where\\ we\\ make\\ an\\ exception\\ and\\ violate\\ individual\\ rights\\ but\\ it\\ will\\ make\\ people\\ better\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ is\\ it\\ just\\ then\\ to\\ use\\ people\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Suppose\\ the\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\ works\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\,\\ such\\ that\\ respecting\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ making\\ everybody\\ better\\ off\\.\\ Is\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ reason\\,\\ or\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\,\\ to\\ respect\\ people\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Proof\\ of\\ Principle\\ of\\ Utility\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ utilitarian\\ doctrine\\ is\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ desirable\\,\\ and\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ sole\\ evidence\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ produce\\ that\\ anything\\ is\\ desirable\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ do\\ actually\\ desire\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ objection\\ to\\ empirical\\ proof\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Empirical\\ principles\\ are\\ wholly\\ unsuited\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ moral\\ laws\\&hellip\\;\\ The\\ principle\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ happiness\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ objectionable\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Other\\ Objections\\ Mill\\ Considers\\ and\\ Responds\\ to\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ It\\ supposes\\ that\\ life\\ has\\ no\\ higher\\ end\\ than\\ pleasure\\,\\ no\\ better\\ and\\ nobler\\ object\\ of\\ desire\\ and\\ pursuit\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ doctrine\\ worthy\\ only\\ of\\ swine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ Better\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ human\\ being\\ dissatisfied\\ than\\ a\\ pig\\ satisfied\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Many\\ who\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ the\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ occasionally\\ postpone\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ temptation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Happiness\\ is\\ unattainable\\.\\ What\\ right\\ does\\ one\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ happy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ The\\ hero\\ or\\ the\\ martyr\\ resigns\\ entirely\\ his\\ own\\ portion\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ or\\ the\\ chances\\ of\\ it\\,\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ something\\ which\\ he\\ prizes\\ more\\ than\\ his\\ individual\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Utilitarian\\ standard\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ right\\ in\\ conduct\\ only\\ concerns\\ the\\ agent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ disinterested\\ character\\ is\\ too\\ high\\ for\\ humanity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ It\\ is\\ often\\ affirmed\\ that\\ utilitarianism\\ renders\\ men\\ cold\\ and\\ unsympathizing\\;\\ that\\ it\\ makes\\ them\\ regard\\ only\\ the\\ dry\\ and\\ hard\\ consideration\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ actions\\,\\ not\\ taking\\ the\\ qualities\\ from\\ which\\ those\\ actions\\ emanate\\ into\\ their\\ moral\\ judgment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Utility\\ is\\ often\\ summarily\\ stigmatized\\ as\\ an\\ immoral\\ doctrine\\ by\\ giving\\ it\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;expediency\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ would\\ often\\ be\\ expedient\\ to\\ tell\\ a\\ lie\\,\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ getting\\ over\\ some\\ momentary\\ embarrassment\\,\\ or\\ attaining\\ some\\ object\\ immediately\\ useful\\ to\\ ourselves\\ or\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ There\\ is\\ not\\ time\\,\\ previous\\ to\\ action\\,\\ for\\ calculating\\ and\\ weighing\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ any\\ line\\ of\\ conduct\\ on\\ the\\ general\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Libertarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Basic\\ Principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basis\\ of\\ libertarian\\ argument\\ is\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ self\\-possession\\ \\(also\\ refer\\ to\\ Locke\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individuals\\ have\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ to\\ right\\ to\\ live\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ freely\\&mdash\\;provided\\ that\\ we\\ respect\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ right\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Society\\ must\\ be\\ formed\\ as\\ to\\ avoid\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ the\\ ideal\\ form\\ of\\ government\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;minimal\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ paternalistic\\ legislation\\ that\\ seeks\\ to\\ protect\\ people\\ from\\ themselves\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ seat\\-belt\\ laws\\,\\ helmet\\ laws\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ morals\\ legislation\\ that\\ attempts\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ redistribution\\ of\\ income\\/wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Redistribution\\ of\\ income\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Redistribution\\ in\\ effect\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\ that\\ lays\\ claim\\ to\\ personal\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Nozick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Only\\ a\\ minimal\\ state\\ is\\ justified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distributive\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distribution\\ is\\ not\\ central\\,\\ done\\ by\\ agreements\\ between\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ we\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ justice\\ in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nozick\\ believes\\ in\\ an\\ entitlement\\ conception\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisitions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ original\\ acquisition\\ of\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ transfer\\ of\\ holdings\\ between\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ acquire\\ a\\ holding\\ through\\ the\\ above\\ principles\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ these\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ these\\ principles\\ are\\ violated\\,\\ people\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rectification\\ of\\ injustice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ holdings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ dimensions\\ of\\ distributive\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\ vs\\ End\\-Result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Historical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\how\\ a\\ holding\\ came\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Past\\ circumstances\\ create\\ entitlements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\End\\-Result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ the\\ holding\\ looks\\ like\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structurally\\ identical\\ distributions\\ are\\ equally\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patterned\\ vs\\ Non\\-patterned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ system\\ is\\ patterned\\ if\\ the\\ distribution\\ is\\ made\\ according\\ relative\\ to\\ some\\ factor\\ or\\ weighted\\ set\\ of\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ unpatterned\\ distributions\\ that\\ coincidentally\\ correlate\\ according\\ to\\ some\\ factor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ wealth\\ in\\ a\\ capitalist\\ society\\ correlates\\ with\\ intelligence\\,\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ distribute\\ wealth\\ to\\ smart\\ people\\)\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ the\\ whole\\ situation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gifts\\,\\ luck\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Historical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\End\\-Result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Patterned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Distribution\\ according\\ to\\ moral\\ merit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Egalitarian\\,\\ Utilitarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Not\\ Patterned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Libertarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Random\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\ a\\ society\\ to\\ be\\ free\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ deviate\\ from\\ any\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ example\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ arrive\\ at\\ some\\ pattern\\,\\ then\\ people\\ voluntarily\\ choose\\ to\\ give\\ Wilt\\ more\\ money\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ enjoy\\ his\\ basketball\\ skills\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ trade\\ does\\ not\\ change\\ the\\ holdings\\ of\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;parties\\,\\ and\\ everyone\\ is\\ made\\ better\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ choice\\ will\\ always\\ cause\\ society\\ to\\ deviate\\ from\\ any\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ patterned\\ system\\ would\\ require\\ continual\\ intervention\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taxation\\ is\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ forced\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ take\\ n\\ hours\\ worth\\ of\\ income\\ from\\ a\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ forcing\\ them\\ to\\ work\\ n\\ hours\\ longer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consider\\ choice\\ between\\ labor\\ and\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tax\\ only\\ effects\\ those\\ who\\ choose\\ extra\\ labor\\,\\ ie\\ those\\ who\\ prefer\\ goods\\ over\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ would\\ be\\ illegitimate\\ to\\ tax\\ leisure\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ accept\\ a\\ tax\\ on\\ income\\ just\\ because\\ somebody\\ has\\ different\\ preferences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Property\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ property\\ right\\ means\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ choose\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ your\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\End\\-result\\ principles\\ give\\ people\\ a\\ claim\\ on\\ the\\ total\\ social\\ output\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seizing\\ the\\ output\\ of\\ somebody\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ having\\ ownership\\ in\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ conflicts\\ with\\ the\\ Lockean\\ principle\\ of\\ self\\-ownership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emmigration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consider\\ a\\ country\\ with\\ some\\ welfare\\ system\\ where\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ opt\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ allow\\ emigration\\,\\ this\\ in\\ effect\\ does\\ allow\\ people\\ to\\ opt\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ you\\ also\\ justify\\ kidnapping\\ people\\ to\\ forcefully\\ immigrate\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lockean\\ Acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Property\\ rights\\ originate\\ in\\ mixing\\ your\\ labor\\ with\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ true\\ because\\ self\\-ownership\\ means\\ you\\ own\\ your\\ own\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labor\\ improves\\ things\\,\\ and\\ you\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ value\\ you\\ create\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ true\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ left\\ for\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ if\\ this\\ ever\\ does\\ not\\ hold\\,\\ you\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ previous\\ acquisition\\ took\\ away\\ something\\ valuable\\ from\\ the\\ later\\ person\\ who\\ was\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ keep\\ arguing\\ back\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ no\\ private\\ property\\ leaves\\ others\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nozick\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ benefits\\ from\\ private\\ property\\ \\(better\\ efficiency\\,\\ productivity\\,\\ etc\\)\\ satisfy\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;enough\\ and\\ as\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ proviso\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Friedmans\\:\\ Equality\\ of\\ Opportunity\\ v\\.\\ Equality\\ of\\ Outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Claim\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ secure\\ liberty\\,\\ whereas\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ threatens\\ individual\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ for\\ the\\ Friedmans\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\une\\ carri\\è\\;re\\ ouverte\\ aux\\ talents\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(a\\ career\\ open\\ to\\ talent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ equal\\ under\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ individual\\ must\\ be\\ regarded\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ right\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ free\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Equality\\ of\\ outcome\\,\\ defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;fair\\ shares\\ for\\ all\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Laws\\ that\\ promote\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ interfere\\ with\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pursuit\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Practical\\ considerations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ what\\ people\\ receive\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ fairness\\,\\ who\\ decides\\ what\\ is\\ fair\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ it\\ even\\ possible\\ to\\ achieve\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Granted\\,\\ life\\ is\\ not\\ fair\\ in\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ income\\,\\ talent\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ nonetheless\\,\\ we\\ as\\ a\\ society\\ benefit\\ from\\ this\\ unfairness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ favor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ laws\\ that\\ grant\\ everyone\\ an\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ to\\ compete\\ in\\ the\\ market\\ for\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;laws\\ that\\ promote\\ one\\ group\\ over\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ context\\,\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ \\(NOT\\ equality\\ of\\ outcomes\\)\\ appropriately\\ respects\\ individual\\ liberty\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ legitimate\\ object\\ of\\ public\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Terminology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Discussion\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ formal\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ and\\ substantive\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ people\\ are\\ treated\\ equally\\ under\\ the\\ law\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ anti\\-discrimination\\ laws\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Substantive\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ people\\ in\\ actuality\\ have\\ equal\\ opportunities\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ affirmative\\ action\\,\\ public\\ education\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claim\\ that\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ threatens\\ individual\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Critique\\ of\\ Social\\ Security\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\SS\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ minimal\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ idea\\ for\\ individuals\\ to\\ save\\ during\\ their\\ working\\ years\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ personal\\ liberty\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ set\\ aside\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ their\\ earnings\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ retirement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saving\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ volition\\,\\ NOT\\ coercion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Hayek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Liberty\\ includes\\ equality\\ of\\ general\\ rules\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ conduct\\;\\ to\\ legislate\\ beyond\\ this\\ violates\\ individual\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ people\\ are\\ inherently\\ different\\,\\ if\\ we\\ treat\\ them\\ equally\\,\\ it\\ will\\ inevitable\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ unequal\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ ensure\\ equality\\ of\\ result\\ is\\ to\\ treat\\ individuals\\ differently\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unequally\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ what\\ emerges\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ material\\ equality\\ and\\ equality\\ before\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\On\\ Distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Unjust\\ to\\ impose\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ distribution\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ upon\\ preconceived\\ notions\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\,\\ ought\\ to\\ consider\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moral\\ merit\\,\\ and\\ make\\ transfers\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ deserving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Permissible\\ for\\ an\\ individual\\ to\\ acquire\\ additional\\ talents\\ to\\ obtain\\ more\\ valuable\\ things\\ because\\ these\\ talents\\ benefit\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ achieve\\ an\\ equal\\ distribution\\ of\\ goods\\ without\\ interfering\\ with\\ voluntary\\ exchanges\\ and\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moreover\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ disconnect\\ between\\ value\\ and\\ merit\\ in\\ a\\ free\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Material\\ rewards\\ to\\ not\\ necessarily\\ correlate\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ conceive\\ of\\ as\\ merit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\On\\ Family\\,\\ Inheritance\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ proponents\\ of\\ redistribution\\ complain\\ that\\ individuals\\ born\\ to\\ particular\\ families\\ possess\\ certain\\ advantages\\,\\ but\\ these\\ same\\ people\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ use\\ qualities\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ acquires\\ due\\ to\\ innate\\ talent\\ are\\ socially\\ beneficial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ those\\ useful\\ qualities\\ due\\ to\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ familial\\ background\\ are\\ treated\\ differently\\ from\\ those\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ natural\\ talents\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarly\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ disadvantage\\ to\\ society\\ of\\ some\\ being\\ born\\ to\\ wealthy\\ families\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ to\\ encourage\\ parents\\ to\\ endow\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\ with\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\ \\(morals\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ knowledge\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wealth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enforcing\\ equality\\ of\\ education\\ prevents\\ some\\ children\\ from\\ getting\\ the\\ better\\ education\\ they\\ otherwise\\ might\\ have\\ received\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tanuj\\ Parikh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;political\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ right\\ of\\ making\\ laws\\ with\\ penalties\\ of\\ death\\,\\ and\\ consequently\\ all\\ less\\ penalties\\,\\ for\\ the\\ regulating\\ and\\ preserving\\ of\\ property\\,\\ and\\ of\\ employing\\ the\\ common\\-wealth\\ from\\ foreign\\ injury\\;\\ and\\ all\\ this\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ public\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ to\\ understand\\ political\\ power\\ properly\\,\\ we\\ must\\ first\\ consider\\ what\\ state\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ naturally\\ in\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ state\\ of\\ perfect\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ state\\ of\\ equality\\;\\ all\\ power\\ and\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ reciprocal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ license\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ person\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;destroy\\ himself\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Governed\\ by\\ Law\\ of\\ Nature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reason\\ dictates\\ that\\ everyone\\ being\\ equal\\ means\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ harm\\ another\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ health\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ or\\ possessions\\;\\ also\\,\\ since\\ rights\\ are\\ unalienable\\,\\ I\\ cannot\\ harm\\ myself\\ \\(violate\\ my\\ own\\ rights\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ reason\\ to\\ impinge\\ on\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ is\\ to\\ deliver\\ justice\\ on\\ an\\ offender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ execute\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ upon\\ any\\ offenders\\,\\ but\\ within\\ \\&ldquo\\;calm\\ reason\\ and\\ conscience\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ receive\\ reparation\\ or\\ instill\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ restraint\\ in\\ other\\ potential\\ offenders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Punishment\\ \\=\\ lawfully\\ doing\\ harm\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locke\\ defends\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ argument\\ with\\ example\\ about\\ a\\ foreigner\\ being\\ punished\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ \\(\\§\\;\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reparation\\ can\\ be\\ demanded\\ by\\ an\\ injured\\ party\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ just\\ doling\\ out\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ man\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ kill\\ a\\ murderer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transgressors\\ should\\ receive\\ punishments\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ how\\ bad\\ their\\ crime\\ was\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ war\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ force\\ or\\ a\\ declared\\ design\\ of\\ force\\,\\ upon\\ another\\ person\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ common\\ superior\\ on\\ earth\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ for\\ relief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ state\\ of\\ enmity\\ and\\ destruction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ person\\ who\\ attempts\\ to\\ put\\ another\\ man\\ under\\ his\\ absolute\\ power\\ places\\ himself\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anyone\\ who\\ would\\ take\\ away\\ the\\ freedom\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ must\\ be\\ looked\\ on\\ as\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ of\\ war\\ allows\\ you\\ to\\ murder\\ a\\ thief\\ because\\ you\\ two\\ are\\ now\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ actual\\ force\\ is\\ over\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ ends\\ between\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ end\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ is\\ a\\ principle\\ reason\\ men\\ organize\\ into\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ liberty\\ of\\ man\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ from\\ any\\ superior\\ power\\ on\\ earth\\ and\\ have\\ only\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ law\\ to\\ govern\\ his\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ liberty\\ of\\ man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ to\\ be\\ under\\ no\\ legislative\\ power\\,\\ but\\ the\\ one\\ established\\ by\\ consent\\ in\\ the\\ common\\-wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Freedom\\ of\\ men\\ under\\ government\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ common\\ standing\\ rule\\ for\\ everyone\\ to\\ live\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ man\\ cannot\\ enslave\\ himself\\ to\\ another\\ any\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ can\\ take\\ his\\ own\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Perfect\\ condition\\ of\\ Slavery\\ \\=\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ continued\\ between\\ a\\ lawful\\ conqueror\\ and\\ captive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ gave\\ land\\ to\\ all\\ men\\ to\\ use\\ in\\ common\\,\\ but\\ also\\ gave\\ them\\ reason\\ to\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ advantage\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ convenience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ everything\\ in\\ nature\\ is\\ given\\ in\\ common\\ to\\ everyone\\,\\ there\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ appropriate\\ them\\ some\\ way\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ beneficial\\ to\\ one\\ specific\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ private\\ property\\ arises\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Everyone\\ owns\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyone\\ owns\\ his\\ own\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whatever\\ is\\ mixed\\ with\\ labor\\ becomes\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ one\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ enough\\,\\ and\\ as\\ good\\,\\ left\\ in\\ common\\ for\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Everyone\\ has\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ as\\ much\\ property\\ as\\ he\\ can\\ ascertain\\ without\\ wasting\\ it\\ \\=\\ spoilage\\;\\ God\\ has\\ given\\ us\\ the\\ earth\\ to\\ enjoy\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ we\\ cannot\\ waste\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ anything\\ that\\ is\\ wasted\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ an\\ one\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ share\\ and\\ belongs\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Property\\ in\\ land\\ is\\ established\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ has\\ claim\\ to\\ as\\ much\\ land\\ as\\ one\\ tills\\,\\ plants\\,\\ improves\\,\\ cultivates\\,\\ and\\ can\\ use\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ \\(\\§\\;\\ 32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Money\\ is\\ a\\ lasting\\ thing\\ people\\ can\\ keep\\ without\\ spoiling\\,\\ and\\ that\\ by\\ mutual\\ consent\\ people\\ would\\ take\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ truly\\ useful\\,\\ but\\ perishable\\ supports\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Money\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ fairly\\ possess\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ himself\\ can\\ use\\ the\\ product\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Man\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ inclinations\\ from\\ God\\ to\\ form\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ society\\ was\\ between\\ man\\ and\\ wife\\ \\(conjugal\\ society\\)\\,\\ then\\ parent\\ and\\ children\\,\\ then\\ master\\ and\\ servant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ cannot\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ any\\ part\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Political\\ society\\ arises\\ from\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ preserve\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Those\\ in\\ a\\ civil\\ society\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ united\\ together\\ and\\ have\\ established\\ common\\ law\\ and\\ judicature\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\,\\ with\\ authority\\ to\\ decide\\ controversies\\ and\\ punish\\ offenders\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Power\\ of\\ making\\ laws\\ \\=\\ common\\-wealth\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ regulate\\ what\\ punishment\\ shall\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ each\\ transgression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Power\\ of\\ war\\ and\\ peace\\ \\=\\ power\\ to\\ punish\\ any\\ injury\\ done\\ unto\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ common\\-wealth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Legislative\\ and\\ executive\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ society\\ \\=\\ judge\\ by\\ the\\ standing\\ laws\\,\\ how\\ far\\ offenses\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\ when\\ committed\\ within\\ the\\ commonwealth\\ and\\ to\\ decide\\ how\\ far\\ injuries\\ from\\ without\\ are\\ to\\ vindicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Political\\ \\/\\ civil\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ everyone\\ is\\ united\\ as\\ to\\ quit\\ every\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ executive\\ powers\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ resign\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ public\\;\\ this\\ moves\\ men\\ from\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ into\\ a\\ commonwealth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ absolute\\ monarchy\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ civil\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ man\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\ may\\ be\\ exempted\\ from\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shaina\\ Trotta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Locke\\ \\-\\ Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 9\\,\\ 10\\,\\ 11\\,\\ 18\\,\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Ends\\ of\\ Political\\ Society\\ and\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ their\\ freedom\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ society\\ is\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ their\\ lives\\,\\ liberties\\,\\ and\\ estates\\,\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;property\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ protected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Men\\ enter\\ into\\ society\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ certain\\ things\\ that\\ will\\ allow\\ their\\ property\\ to\\ be\\ protected\\,\\ but\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ they\\ must\\ relinquish\\ their\\ natural\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ society\\,\\ men\\ are\\ provided\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ established\\,\\ settled\\,\\ known\\ law\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ known\\ and\\ indifferent\\ judge\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;power\\ to\\ back\\ and\\ support\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Society\\ uses\\ these\\ three\\ elements\\ to\\ work\\ towards\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ maintaining\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ peace\\,\\ safety\\,\\ and\\ public\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Men\\ must\\ in\\ exchange\\ transfer\\ their\\ two\\ main\\ powers\\ to\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ to\\ do\\ whatever\\ he\\ wants\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ impose\\ on\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ freedom\\ is\\ given\\ up\\ to\\ be\\ regulated\\ by\\ laws\\ made\\ by\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ to\\ punish\\ those\\ who\\ commit\\ crimes\\ against\\ him\\ is\\ given\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Forms\\ of\\ a\\ Common\\-wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ initially\\ forming\\ a\\ society\\,\\ the\\ majority\\ selects\\ what\\ type\\ of\\ government\\ they\\ would\\ prefer\\ to\\ be\\ governed\\ by\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ democracy\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ retain\\ legislative\\ powers\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ oligarchy\\ requires\\ them\\ to\\ submit\\ their\\ legislative\\ power\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ monarchy\\ requires\\ them\\ to\\ give\\ their\\ power\\ to\\ one\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ majority\\ always\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ change\\ whatever\\ type\\ of\\ government\\ is\\ selected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ the\\ term\\ commonwealth\\,\\ Locke\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ to\\ exist\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Extent\\ of\\ the\\ Legislative\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\ considers\\ the\\ legislative\\ power\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ legislative\\ power\\ is\\ in\\ place\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ laws\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ and\\ approved\\ of\\ by\\ this\\ legislative\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;Every\\ person\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ obey\\ laws\\ made\\ by\\ this\\ legislative\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ is\\ limited\\ in\\ that\\ its\\ laws\\ must\\ apply\\ equally\\ to\\ everyone\\,\\ and\\ be\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ legislative\\ body\\ cannot\\ raise\\ taxes\\ on\\ the\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\,\\ transfer\\ its\\ power\\ to\\ anyone\\ else\\,\\ or\\ oppose\\ the\\ majority\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 18\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ Tyranny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ tyranny\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ exercise\\ of\\ power\\ beyond\\ right\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ fair\\ ruler\\ will\\ always\\ operate\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ legislative\\ body\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ tyrannical\\ ruler\\ breaks\\ the\\ laws\\ and\\ acts\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ purposes\\.\\ \\ \\;Any\\ executive\\ power\\ that\\ no\\ longer\\ works\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ is\\ a\\ tyranny\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ there\\ are\\ reasons\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ quickly\\ oppose\\ their\\ tyrannical\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ some\\ countries\\,\\ the\\ monarch\\ himself\\ is\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ sacred\\ and\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ he\\ does\\,\\ he\\ is\\ still\\ free\\ from\\ question\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ people\\ may\\ also\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ laws\\ will\\ prevent\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ force\\ or\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ afraid\\ that\\ their\\ attempt\\ at\\ removing\\ their\\ government\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ successful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 19\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Of\\ the\\ Dissolution\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ can\\ be\\ dissolved\\ when\\ a\\ foreign\\ power\\ invades\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ able\\ to\\ remain\\ as\\ one\\ whole\\ and\\ independent\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ a\\ government\\ no\\ longer\\ works\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ dissolved\\ and\\ then\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ dissolved\\,\\ the\\ people\\ can\\ then\\ create\\ a\\ legislative\\ body\\ that\\ works\\ for\\ their\\ benefit\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allowance\\ does\\ not\\ lead\\ to\\ government\\ constantly\\ being\\ overthrown\\ because\\ people\\ are\\ reluctant\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ ways\\,\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ mistreated\\ they\\ will\\ rebel\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ system\\ is\\ in\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ system\\ allows\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ legislative\\ body\\ without\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;Locke\\ also\\ states\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ rebel\\ against\\ oppression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Locke\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ get\\ to\\ decide\\ if\\ a\\ leader\\ has\\ abused\\ his\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ society\\ is\\ still\\ in\\ place\\,\\ the\\ powers\\ given\\ to\\ it\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ cannot\\ be\\ taken\\ back\\,\\ and\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ government\\ exists\\,\\ the\\ power\\ given\\ to\\ it\\ by\\ the\\ society\\ cannot\\ be\\ taken\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ government\\ or\\ society\\ must\\ be\\ completely\\ dissolved\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ new\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ben\\ Milder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\:\\ Section\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\All\\ Kant\\ does\\ is\\ basically\\ state\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ takes\\ you\\ through\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ case\\ studies\\ and\\ examples\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ help\\ you\\ better\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ is\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ Kant\\ is\\ NOT\\ doing\\ is\\ proving\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\.\\ We\\ just\\ use\\ common\\ thinking\\ about\\ morality\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ what\\ this\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\ starts\\ out\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ concept\\ of\\ good\\ will\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ will\\ is\\ good\\ just\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ will\\ Kant\\ is\\ describing\\ is\\ self\\-contained\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ utilitarian\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ larger\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;Utilitarian\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ good\\ will\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ is\\ the\\ outcome\\ \\(consequentiality\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Kant\\ that\\ says\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ is\\ your\\ motivation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ unsuccessful\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ thought\\ that\\ counts\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ theory\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\deontological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ moral\\ actions\\ is\\ duty\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Types\\ of\\ Action\\ Motivations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Duty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ action\\ done\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inclination\\ to\\ achieve\\ an\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Action\\ done\\ because\\ you\\ like\\ doing\\ good\\ deeds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Action\\ done\\ because\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\ or\\ harmed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Special\\ case\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doing\\ good\\ because\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ incentive\\ to\\ do\\ bad\\ \\(no\\ moral\\ judgment\\ made\\)\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ right\\ actions\\ must\\ be\\ performed\\ according\\ to\\ duty\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ a\\ special\\ value\\ that\\ actions\\ from\\ other\\ motivations\\ do\\ not\\ have\\;\\ only\\ type\\ one\\ is\\ moral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ shopkeeper\\ acting\\ fairly\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ reputation\\ is\\ not\\ acting\\ morally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Altruists\\,\\ who\\ act\\ not\\ out\\ of\\ duty\\ but\\ sympathy\\,\\ have\\ no\\ moral\\ worth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ duty\\ is\\ operative\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ misanthrope\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ that\\ person\\ helps\\ other\\ people\\,\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ duty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moral\\ worth\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ of\\ duty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\ Section\\:\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Goals\\ of\\ Second\\ Section\\:\\ show\\ why\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ is\\ supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\,\\ and\\ determining\\ whether\\ it\\ applies\\ to\\ rational\\ beings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ Types\\ of\\ Imperatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Hypothetical\\ imperatives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ use\\ instrumental\\ reason\\.\\ \\ \\;IF\\ you\\ want\\ X\\,\\ then\\ do\\ Y\\.\\2\\.\\ Categorical\\ imperative\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ without\\ reference\\ to\\ any\\ further\\ purpose\\.\\ \\ \\;Concerned\\ with\\ form\\ and\\ principle\\ which\\ follows\\;\\ imperative\\ of\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ Formula\\ of\\ universal\\ law\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Act\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ maxim\\ \\(principle\\)\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ will\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ way\\ you\\ can\\ determine\\ is\\ try\\ to\\ universalize\\ the\\ maxim\\ upon\\ which\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ about\\ to\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;Bad\\ maxims\\ would\\ undermine\\ themselves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ we\\ know\\ false\\ promises\\ are\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reason\\ you\\ should\\ universalize\\ to\\ test\\ your\\ maxim\\ is\\ to\\ see\\ whether\\ you\\ are\\ privileging\\ your\\ particular\\ needs\\ and\\ desires\\ over\\ everybody\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ you\\ act\\ on\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ laws\\,\\ you\\ have\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;ought\\&rdquo\\;\\ statement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ ought\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ class\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\ says\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ always\\ acted\\ on\\ reason\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;d\\ always\\ act\\ according\\ to\\ objective\\ necessity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ tells\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ something\\,\\ and\\ that\\ thing\\ is\\ objectively\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ we\\ know\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ subject\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ reason\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ desires\\ and\\ inclinations\\ that\\ come\\ out\\ there\\.\\ The\\ moral\\ laws\\ are\\ not\\ objectively\\ necessary\\ for\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Other\\ Formulations\\ of\\ the\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\:\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Form\\ of\\ humanity\\ \\(most\\ important\\)\\:\\ I\\ ought\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ will\\ use\\ the\\ humanity\\ in\\ myself\\ and\\ others\\ not\\ merely\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rational\\ beings\\ have\\ dignity\\,\\ worthy\\ of\\ reverence\\ and\\ respect\\.\\ \\ \\;Act\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ you\\ always\\ treat\\ humanity\\,\\ whether\\ in\\ your\\ own\\ person\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ person\\ of\\ any\\ other\\,\\ never\\ simply\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ but\\ always\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ times\\ as\\ an\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ ends\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Humans\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ as\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\ Form\\ \\-\\ People\\ legislate\\ universal\\ law\\ via\\ maxims\\;\\ humans\\ must\\ act\\ as\\ autonomous\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ Kant\\ has\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ autonomous\\ beings\\,\\ which\\ would\\ prove\\ his\\ Categorical\\ Imperative\\ applies\\ to\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kant\\ Outline\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\K\\.\\ Sloan\\ Strike\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intent\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grounding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ categorization\\ of\\ rational\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ formal\\ cognition\\:\\ only\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ rational\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ material\\ cognition\\:\\ concerned\\ with\\ some\\ object\\;\\ something\\ beyond\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Within\\ material\\ cognition\\,\\ there\\ are\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ freedom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Both\\ of\\ these\\ have\\ pure\\ and\\ empirical\\ parts\\.\\ Pure\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ reason\\ alone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\ priori\\)\\,\\ while\\ empirical\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ experience\\ \\(a\\ posteriori\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ for\\ us\\ act\\ morally\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ acting\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ law\\,\\ understanding\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ acting\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ we\\ are\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ acting\\ out\\ of\\ conformity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Our\\ actions\\ are\\ not\\ truly\\ moral\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ done\\ without\\ a\\ moral\\ motivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ moral\\ law\\ is\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ free\\ will\\ \\(with\\ what\\ one\\ ought\\ to\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ metaphysics\\ of\\ morals\\ goes\\ beyond\\ the\\ empirical\\ part\\&hellip\\;\\ it\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\.\\ His\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Grounding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ foundation\\ for\\ his\\ future\\ work\\ \\(Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\)\\ by\\ defining\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Third\\ Section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ order\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ Kant\\ must\\ now\\ show\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ autonomous\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ must\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ rational\\ beings\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ autonomous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-We\\ are\\ always\\ caught\\ between\\ two\\ realms\\/worlds\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Phenomenal\\ \\(sensible\\)\\-\\ We\\ are\\ objects\\ in\\ this\\ realm\\,\\ as\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ imperatives\\ that\\ nature\\ gives\\ us\\.\\ We\\ are\\ trapped\\ by\\ our\\ senses\\/pain\\ and\\ pleasure\\ \\(we\\ eat\\ because\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ hungry\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ We\\ are\\ not\\ acting\\ autonomously\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ being\\ influenced\\ by\\ outside\\ forces\\.\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exists\\ solely\\ in\\ this\\ realm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Noumenal\\ \\(intelligible\\)\\-\\ We\\ are\\ subjects\\ rather\\ than\\ objects\\ in\\ this\\ intelligible\\ realm\\.\\ We\\ act\\ according\\ to\\ laws\\ that\\ we\\ give\\ ourselves\\,\\ and\\ act\\ autonomously\\ and\\ rationally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ says\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ both\\ realms\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ good\\ decision\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ both\\ worlds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ order\\ to\\ act\\ rationally\\ and\\ autonomously\\,\\ we\\ must\\ exist\\,\\ at\\ least\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\,\\ within\\ the\\ noumenal\\ world\\.\\ However\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ only\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ noumenal\\ world\\ and\\ ignore\\ the\\ phenomenal\\ completely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Our\\ freedom\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ our\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\&hellip\\;\\ if\\ we\\ existed\\ exclusively\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\,\\ then\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ completely\\ free\\ and\\ autonomous\\ beings\\,\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ existed\\ exclusively\\ in\\ the\\ sensible\\ world\\,\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ cause\\ and\\ effect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Our\\ freedom\\ is\\ a\\ priori\\ because\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ us\\ by\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capable\\ of\\ existing\\ solely\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\,\\ as\\ we\\ must\\ continue\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ sensible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-However\\,\\ he\\ admits\\ that\\ he\\ cannot\\ absolutely\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ existing\\ in\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ is\\ no\\ way\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\know\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ we\\ are\\ rational\\ beings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ autonomous\\ and\\ recognize\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ act\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ a\\ Supposed\\ Right\\ to\\ Lie\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ response\\ to\\ critics\\ of\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ Kant\\ addresses\\ a\\ tough\\ situation\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ prove\\ his\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ following\\ situation\\ is\\ proposed\\:\\ A\\ murderer\\ comes\\ to\\ your\\ door\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ yours\\,\\ who\\ he\\ means\\ to\\ kill\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ friend\\ is\\ hiding\\ in\\ your\\ house\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ lie\\ to\\ the\\ murderer\\ and\\ save\\ your\\ friend\\,\\ or\\ do\\ you\\ tell\\ the\\ truth\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Some\\ people\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ murderer\\ is\\ not\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ so\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ deserve\\ the\\ truth\\ and\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ act\\ accordingly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ says\\ that\\ to\\ most\\ people\\ the\\ issue\\ is\\ not\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ murderer\\ deserves\\ the\\ truth\\.\\ What\\ is\\ considered\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ happen\\ to\\ their\\ friend\\ \\(consequentialist\\ mentality\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ because\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ stepping\\ outside\\ your\\ moral\\ boundaries\\ \\(by\\ lying\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ save\\ your\\ friend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\,\\ losing\\ your\\ autonomy\\,\\ is\\ more\\ tragic\\ than\\ your\\ friend\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ says\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ be\\ truthful\\ \\(honest\\)\\ in\\ all\\ declarations\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ is\\ a\\ sacred\\ and\\ absolutely\\ commanding\\ decree\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ limited\\ by\\ no\\ expediency\\,\\"\\;\\ including\\ human\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ does\\ say\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ save\\ your\\ friend\\ without\\ abandoning\\ your\\ morals\\/autonomy\\.\\ You\\ can\\ say\\ something\\ true\\ that\\ the\\ murderer\\ might\\ interpret\\ differently\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ lying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ key\\ is\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ without\\ the\\ intent\\ to\\ mislead\\,\\ because\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ immoral\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ must\\ choose\\ your\\ truth\\ carefully\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Critics\\ say\\ that\\ creative\\ truth\\ telling\\ is\\ no\\ different\\ than\\ lying\\ because\\ they\\ both\\ mislead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kant\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ moral\\ difference\\ between\\ lying\\ and\\ telling\\ a\\ truth\\ that\\ misleads\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ consequences\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Lectures\\ on\\ Ethics\\:\\ Duties\\ Towards\\ the\\ Body\\ in\\ Respect\\ to\\ Sexual\\ Impulse\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kant\\ begins\\ by\\ explaining\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ human\\ love\\ and\\ a\\ love\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ purely\\ of\\ sexual\\ desire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ desire\\ used\\ without\\ love\\ is\\ immoral\\ because\\ it\\ treats\\ someone\\ else\\ as\\ an\\ object\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ argues\\ that\\ sexuality\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ inclination\\ that\\ one\\ person\\ has\\ for\\ another\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ inclination\\ that\\ one\\ has\\ for\\ the\\ sex\\ of\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ nature\\ is\\ sacrificed\\ to\\ pure\\ sexual\\ desire\\.\\ This\\ makes\\ man\\ an\\ animal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ desire\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ man\\ has\\ by\\ nature\\,\\ so\\ should\\ it\\ be\\ alright\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ exploit\\ that\\/is\\ prostitution\\ wrong\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ argue\\ that\\ prostitution\\ is\\ wrong\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ consequences\\ that\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ practice\\,\\ but\\ Kant\\ is\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ consequences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\,\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ prostitution\\ is\\ wrong\\ because\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ own\\ ourselves\\.\\ Because\\ prostitution\\ makes\\ you\\ an\\ object\\,\\ it\\ puts\\ your\\ humanity\\ at\\ risks\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ your\\ status\\ as\\ an\\ autonomous\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ human\\ body\\ is\\ not\\ separable\\ from\\ the\\ self\\/\\ the\\ autonomous\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ to\\ surrender\\ part\\ of\\ yourself\\ is\\ to\\ surrender\\ all\\ of\\ yourself\\,\\ as\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ being\\ is\\ unity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ says\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ marriage\\ is\\ different\\ because\\ you\\ surrender\\ all\\ of\\ yourself\\ to\\ your\\ spouse\\ and\\ they\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ \\ \\;\\(zero\\ sum\\)\\,\\ so\\ each\\ wins\\ themselves\\ back\\ No\\ one\\ is\\ being\\ taken\\ advantage\\ of\\ or\\ being\\ treated\\ as\\ an\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ within\\ this\\ union\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ is\\ sex\\ morally\\ permissible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ a\\ man\\ is\\ married\\ to\\ multiple\\ women\\?\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ polygamy\\ is\\ not\\ moral\\ because\\ the\\ exchange\\ is\\ not\\ equal\\.\\ A\\ man\\ surrendering\\ himself\\ to\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ woman\\ means\\ that\\ each\\ woman\\ gains\\ less\\ than\\ she\\ is\\ yielding\\.\\ She\\ should\\ be\\ entitled\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ spouse\\ if\\ she\\ is\\ surrendering\\ all\\ of\\ herself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 7\\,\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ II\\:\\ Institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 4\\ \\(Equal\\ Liberty\\)\\ Sec\\.\\ 40\\:\\ Kantian\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Justice\\ as\\ Fairness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Some\\ of\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ principles\\ come\\ from\\ Kant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morality\\ from\\ rational\\ choice\\,\\ people\\ should\\ still\\ be\\ acting\\ autonomously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\-\\ principles\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ acceptable\\ to\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Original\\ position\\-\\ how\\ Rawls\\ conceives\\ the\\ moral\\ legislation\\ in\\ which\\ Kantian\\ society\\ must\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Principles\\ of\\ justice\\ \\=\\ categorical\\ imperatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autonomy\\ from\\ men\\ acting\\ freely\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ acknowledge\\ original\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kantian\\ Interpretation\\-\\ not\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doctrine\\,\\ but\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ fairness\\,\\ abandons\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dualisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 5\\ \\(Distributive\\ Shares\\)\\ Sec\\.\\ 41\\:\\ The\\ Concept\\ of\\ Justice\\ in\\ a\\ Political\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ how\\ the\\ 2\\ principles\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ social\\ system\\ helps\\ to\\ shape\\ the\\ desires\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\,\\ including\\ economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contract\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\ imposes\\ limits\\ on\\ the\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\-\\ puts\\ constraints\\ on\\ some\\ institutions\\ and\\ requires\\ some\\ other\\ ones\\ to\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ as\\ fairness\\ not\\ dependent\\ on\\ current\\ wants\\ and\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ advances\\ in\\ an\\ authoritarian\\ institution\\ at\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ of\\ basic\\ freedom\\ are\\ not\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unanimity\\ possible\\ through\\ original\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ Sec\\ 47\\:\\ Precepts\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Transfers\\ and\\ benefits\\ from\\ public\\ goods\\ should\\ overall\\ benefit\\ least\\ well\\ off\\ while\\ maintaining\\ equal\\ liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distributive\\ justice\\-\\ contains\\ lots\\ of\\ procedural\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distributions\\ not\\ made\\ according\\ to\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ wants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ fair\\ wages\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Using\\ Common\\ sense\\ precepts\\,\\ somewhat\\ arbitrary\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ follow\\ concurrently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ each\\ according\\ to\\ his\\ contribution\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ each\\ according\\ to\\ his\\ effort\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subordinate\\ to\\ first\\ principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Which\\ ones\\ are\\ valued\\ the\\ most\\ depends\\ on\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 48\\:\\ Legitimate\\ Expectations\\ and\\ Moral\\ Desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tendency\\ to\\ want\\ distributions\\ to\\ be\\ according\\ to\\ moral\\ desert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ to\\ distinguish\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\ from\\ moral\\ desert\\,\\ in\\ just\\ scheme\\,\\ only\\ get\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concept\\ of\\ moral\\ worth\\ secondary\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ game\\,\\ the\\ losers\\ may\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\deserve\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ win\\,\\ but\\ not\\ entitled\\ to\\ championship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unequal\\ distributions\\ help\\ cover\\ costs\\ of\\ training\\,\\ attract\\ people\\ to\\ needed\\ positions\\ in\\ a\\ just\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Part\\ III\\:\\ Ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Ch\\.\\ 7\\ \\(Goodness\\ as\\ Rationality\\)\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 68\\:\\ Several\\ Contrasts\\ between\\ the\\ Right\\ and\\ the\\ Good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Compares\\ right\\ and\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ good\\-\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ unanimity\\ in\\ rational\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Within\\ justice\\ constraints\\,\\ people\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ follow\\ inclinations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ one\\ person\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ for\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\:\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ good\\:\\ evaluation\\ may\\ depend\\ on\\ needing\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ facts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ and\\ making\\ just\\ institutions\\ not\\ dependent\\ on\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\ \\(The\\ Good\\ of\\ Justice\\)\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 79\\:\\ The\\ Ideal\\ of\\ Social\\ Union\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ two\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ give\\ a\\ reference\\ point\\ for\\ evaluating\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Private\\ society\\:\\ each\\ has\\ own\\ end\\,\\ institutions\\ have\\ no\\ inherent\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ w\\/private\\ \\=\\ each\\ person\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ everything\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ must\\ choose\\ which\\ abilities\\ to\\ encourage\\,\\ work\\ together\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ connected\\ through\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ every\\ animal\\ achieves\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ similar\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ social\\ union\\ has\\ a\\ shared\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Regulated\\ by\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ well\\-ordered\\ society\\ \\=\\ one\\ that\\ follows\\ justice\\ as\\ fairness\\ \\(social\\ union\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ person\\ following\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ like\\ Kingdom\\ of\\ Ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ not\\ eliminate\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ achieve\\ more\\ working\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 84\\:\\ Hedonism\\ as\\ a\\ Method\\ of\\ Choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rawls\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Hedonism\\:\\ trying\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ dominant\\-end\\ conception\\ of\\ deliberation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ human\\ life\\ guided\\ by\\ reason\\,\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ dominant\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pleasure\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ only\\ plausible\\ dominant\\ end\\,\\ basically\\ like\\ utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ pleasure\\ is\\ not\\ actually\\ a\\ plausible\\ dominant\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ decide\\ when\\ pleasures\\ conflict\\?\\ Problem\\ of\\ plurality\\ of\\ ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ dominant\\ end\\ that\\ coincides\\ with\\ our\\ judgments\\ of\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teleological\\ doctrines\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 85\\:\\ The\\ Unity\\ of\\ the\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Need\\ a\\ solution\\ to\\ problem\\ of\\ choice\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ hedonism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ personality\\ has\\ 2\\ capacities\\:\\ conception\\ of\\ good\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ dominant\\-end\\ conception\\:\\ pleasure\\ of\\ self\\ or\\ of\\ group\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ maximized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ priority\\ of\\ right\\:\\ individuals\\ can\\ and\\ do\\ choose\\ their\\ final\\ ends\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\-\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ uniquely\\ determined\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 86\\:\\ The\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ Sense\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sense\\ of\\ Justice\\ \\=\\ an\\ effective\\ desire\\ to\\ apply\\ and\\ act\\ from\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ in\\ a\\ well\\-ordered\\ society\\ should\\ want\\ to\\ affirm\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ only\\ shift\\ human\\ desires\\ gradually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ well\\-ordered\\ society\\,\\ bonds\\ between\\ people\\ extend\\ widely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ should\\ want\\ to\\ act\\ justly\\ as\\ free\\ and\\ rational\\ beings\\ \\(Kantian\\ interpretation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ wanting\\ to\\ preserve\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ rational\\,\\ still\\ can\\ suffer\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ may\\ not\\ consider\\ an\\ affirmation\\ of\\ their\\ sense\\ of\\ justice\\ a\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ just\\ to\\ force\\ these\\ people\\ to\\ comply\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yes\\,\\ since\\ principles\\ of\\ right\\ and\\ justice\\ are\\ collectively\\ rational\\,\\ interest\\ of\\ each\\ that\\ everyone\\ else\\ complies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ agree\\ to\\ penalties\\ for\\ not\\ complying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 9\\,\\ Sec\\.\\ 87\\:\\ Concluding\\ Remarks\\ of\\ Justification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basically\\ a\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ arguments\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aristotle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Book\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Teleological\\ v\\.\\ Deontological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;telos\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;end\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;result\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\teleological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ morality\\ based\\ on\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ is\\ right\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;deon\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;obligation\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\deontological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ morality\\ based\\ on\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ is\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ from\\ last\\ 2002\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exam\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;2\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;When\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ flute\\-players\\ are\\ equal\\ in\\ their\\ art\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reason\\ why\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\those\\ of\\ them\\ who\\ are\\ better\\ born\\ should\\ have\\ better\\ flutes\\ given\\ to\\ them\\;\\ for\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ play\\ any\\ better\\ on\\ the\\ flute\\,\\ and\\ the\\ superior\\ instrument\\ should\\ be\\ reserved\\ for\\ him\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ superior\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(Aristotle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1282b\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\,\\ should\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-players\\ receive\\ the\\ best\\ flutes\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\ does\\ Aristotle\\ apply\\ this\\ theory\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ to\\ the\\ allocation\\ of\\ offices\\,\\ honors\\,\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;utilitarian\\!\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ pleasing\\ music\\ will\\ be\\ heard\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ flute\\ to\\ be\\ played\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;telos\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ flute\\ is\\ be\\ played\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Telos\\ of\\ Humans\\:\\ Man\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Nature\\:\\&ldquo\\;all\\ things\\ derive\\ their\\ essential\\ character\\ from\\ their\\ function\\ and\\ capacity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ individual\\ is\\ not\\ self\\-sufficient\\ when\\ isolated\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\therefore\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ city\\ exists\\ by\\ nature\\ and\\&hellip\\;is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;polis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Men\\ have\\ a\\ capacity\\ for\\ language\\ and\\ rationale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Naturally\\,\\ therefore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ telos\\ of\\ man\\ involves\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ these\\ capacities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;rationale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;polis\\ \\+\\ rationale\\ \\=\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\ on\\ politics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;United\\ States\\:\\ fair\\ framework\\ of\\ rights\\ with\\ no\\ determinate\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;opportunity\\ to\\ choose\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Aristotle\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;laws\\ meant\\ to\\ cultivate\\ good\\ character\\ in\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ is\\ already\\ determined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;dependent\\ on\\ class\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Modern\\ constitutions\\ v\\.\\ Ancient\\ constitutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Class\\ structure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Polis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Good\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ male\\ is\\ naturally\\ fitter\\ to\\ command\\ than\\ the\\ female\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ principle\\ of\\ rule\\ and\\ subordination\\ in\\ nature\\ at\\ large\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Some\\ men\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ give\\ direction\\ and\\ others\\ to\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ thus\\ clear\\ that\\,\\ just\\ as\\ some\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ free\\,\\ so\\ others\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ these\\ latter\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ slavery\\ is\\ both\\ beneficial\\ and\\ just\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Polis\\ is\\ then\\ a\\ collaboration\\ of\\ slaves\\ and\\ masters\\,\\ tradesmen\\ and\\ merchants\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\foreigners\\ and\\ aristocracy\\,\\ whose\\ ultimate\\ telos\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Book\\ III\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Preview\\:\\ good\\ life\\-\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;aristoi\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;best\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ allowed\\ the\\ leisure\\ to\\ engage\\ their\\ higher\\ faculties\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lesser\\ Point\\ of\\ Book\\ I\\:\\ 8\\,9\\:\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ household\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ providing\\ that\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ good\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ amount\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ finite\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\however\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ introduction\\ of\\ currency\\ coupled\\ with\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ physical\\ enjoyment\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;which\\ seems\\ to\\ rest\\ on\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ acquisition\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;has\\ led\\ men\\ to\\ occupy\\ themselves\\ wholly\\ with\\ making\\ money\\ \\(1257b\\~50\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\ better\\ highlights\\ what\\ Aristotle\\ was\\ getting\\ at\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ II\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;moral\\ virtue\\ comes\\ about\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ habit\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\none\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ virtues\\ arises\\ in\\ us\\ by\\ nature\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ adapted\\ by\\ nature\\ to\\ receive\\ them\\,\\ and\\ are\\ made\\ perfect\\ by\\ habit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\becoming\\ just\\ or\\ unjust\\,\\ brave\\ or\\ cowardly\\,\\ moderate\\ or\\ excessive\\ is\\ an\\ exercise\\ of\\ habit\\,\\ and\\ as\\ an\\ issue\\ of\\ habit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;it\\ is\\ easier\\ for\\ the\\ just\\,\\ brave\\,\\ and\\ temperate\\ to\\ remain\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ products\\ of\\ our\\ upbringing\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;brought\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ way\\ from\\ our\\ very\\ youth\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;legislators\\ make\\ the\\ citizens\\ good\\ by\\ forming\\ habits\\ in\\ them\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ this\\ that\\ a\\ good\\ constitution\\ differs\\ from\\ a\\ bad\\ one\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ X\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Is\\ Pleasure\\ Good\\ or\\ Bad\\ or\\ What\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Some\\ people\\ say\\ pleasure\\ is\\ good\\ and\\ all\\ thing\\ aim\\ toward\\ it\\ \\(Eudoxus\\)\\ and\\ others\\ say\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ good\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ pleasure\\&hellip\\;for\\ the\\ good\\ cannot\\ become\\ more\\ desirable\\ by\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ anything\\ to\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Plato\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ same\\ proportion\\ is\\ not\\ found\\ in\\ all\\ things\\,\\ nor\\ a\\ single\\ proportion\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ but\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ relaxed\\ and\\ yet\\ persist\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ point\\,\\ and\\ it\\ may\\ differ\\ in\\ degree\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ case\\ of\\ pleasure\\ also\\ may\\ therefore\\ be\\ of\\ this\\ kind\\&hellip\\;They\\ say\\,\\ too\\,\\ that\\ pain\\ is\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ according\\ to\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ pleasure\\ is\\ replenishment\\.\\ But\\ these\\ experiences\\ are\\ bodily\\&hellip\\;for\\ pleasures\\ of\\ learning\\ and\\,\\ among\\ the\\ sensuous\\ pleasures\\,\\ those\\ of\\ smell\\,\\ and\\ also\\ many\\ sounds\\ and\\ sights\\,\\ and\\ memories\\ and\\ hopes\\,\\ do\\ not\\ presuppose\\ pain\\&hellip\\;if\\ things\\ are\\ pleasant\\ to\\ people\\ of\\ vicious\\ constitution\\,\\ we\\ must\\ not\\ suppose\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ pleasant\\ to\\ others\\ than\\ these\\,\\ just\\ as\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ reason\\ so\\ about\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ wholesome\\ or\\ sweet\\ or\\ bitter\\ to\\ sick\\ people\\&hellip\\;there\\ are\\ many\\ things\\ we\\ should\\ bre\\ keen\\ about\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ brought\\ no\\ pleasure\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ seeing\\,\\ remembering\\,\\ knowing\\,\\ possessing\\ the\\ virtues\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ pleasures\\ necessarily\\ do\\ accompany\\ these\\,\\ that\\ makes\\ no\\ odds\\;\\ we\\ should\\ choose\\ these\\ even\\ if\\ no\\ pleasure\\ resulted\\&hellip\\;neither\\ is\\ pleasure\\ the\\ good\\ nor\\ is\\ all\\ pleasure\\ desirable\\,\\ and\\ that\\ some\\ pleasures\\ are\\ desirable\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ differing\\ in\\ kind\\ or\\ in\\ their\\ sources\\ from\\ others\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ayla\\ Bloomberg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justice\\ Aristotle\\ Book\\ III\\ Outline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ city\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ city\\ is\\ a\\ body\\ of\\ citizens\\ organized\\ by\\ a\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Who\\ is\\ a\\ citizen\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Citizenship\\ is\\ not\\ granted\\ only\\ to\\ someone\\ residing\\ in\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ citizen\\ is\\ one\\ who\\ participates\\ directly\\ in\\ the\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ positions\\ should\\ be\\ rotated\\ and\\ some\\ should\\ have\\ limited\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ constitution\\ defines\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ citizen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Citizenship\\ is\\ not\\ passed\\ down\\ through\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regardless\\ of\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\,\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ citizen\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ hold\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ city\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Territory\\ and\\ population\\ of\\ a\\ city\\ do\\ not\\ define\\ the\\ city\\ because\\ these\\ things\\ may\\ change\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ city\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ its\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ its\\ composition\\ is\\ different\\,\\ the\\ compound\\ becomes\\ a\\ different\\ compound\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 1276b1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Citizens\\ differ\\ from\\ one\\ another\\ in\\ virtue\\,\\ but\\ their\\ purpose\\/role\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ the\\ same\\-\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ their\\ association\\ which\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ constitution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ thus\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ citizen\\ without\\ possessing\\ the\\ excellence\\ by\\ which\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 4\\,\\ 1276b34\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ good\\ ruler\\ and\\ a\\ good\\ man\\ is\\ practical\\ wisdom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Occupations\\ of\\ manual\\ laborers\\ must\\ remain\\ separate\\ from\\ tasks\\ performed\\ by\\ the\\ good\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ citizen\\ is\\ free\\ from\\ the\\ necessary\\ tasks\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ ruler\\ must\\ learn\\ by\\ being\\ ruled\\ and\\ the\\ excellence\\ of\\ a\\ citizen\\ involves\\ having\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ rule\\ over\\ free\\ men\\ from\\ both\\ points\\ of\\ view\\ \\[ruling\\ and\\ being\\ ruled\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 4\\,\\ 1277b7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ manual\\ laborers\\ be\\ citizens\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ citizen\\ of\\ excellence\\&hellip\\;can\\ only\\ be\\ achieved\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ free\\ from\\ the\\ necessary\\ tasks\\ of\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 5\\,\\ 1278a8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ citizen\\ depends\\ in\\ part\\ on\\ the\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ shows\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ several\\ kinds\\ of\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Citizenship\\ is\\ granted\\ if\\ one\\ can\\ serve\\ in\\ offices\\ of\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ a\\ constitution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ constitutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ organization\\ of\\ a\\ city\\,\\ in\\ respect\\ of\\ its\\ offices\\ generally\\,\\ but\\ especially\\ in\\ respect\\ of\\ that\\ particular\\ office\\ which\\ is\\ sovereign\\ in\\ all\\ issues\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 6\\,\\ 1278b6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ constitution\\ involves\\ the\\ different\\ branches\\ of\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ chief\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ is\\ the\\ good\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Just\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;ts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kingship\\-\\ looks\\ to\\ common\\ interest\\ among\\ monarchial\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aristocracy\\-\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ people\\ seek\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ for\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constitutional\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\(polity\\)\\-\\ masses\\ govern\\ the\\ city\\ with\\ a\\ view\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Unjust\\ forms\\ of\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ benefit\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tyranny\\ \\(perversion\\ of\\ kingship\\)\\-\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ by\\ single\\ person\\ directed\\ to\\ interest\\ of\\ that\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oligarchy\\ \\(perversion\\ of\\ Aristocracy\\)\\-\\ directed\\ to\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ well\\-to\\-do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\ \\(perversion\\ of\\ polity\\)\\-\\ directed\\ to\\ interest\\ of\\ poor\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collaboration\\ on\\ the\\ Constitutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Oligarchy\\-\\ a\\ constitution\\ under\\ which\\ the\\ rich\\,\\ being\\ few\\ in\\ number\\,\\ hold\\ public\\ offices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\-\\ a\\ constitution\\ under\\ which\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ being\\ many\\ in\\ number\\,\\ hold\\ public\\ offices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ and\\ Oligarchial\\ Conceptions\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ means\\ equality\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inequality\\ is\\ just\\,\\ but\\ only\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ unequal\\,\\ not\\ for\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ determine\\ who\\ is\\ equal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ determining\\ factor\\,\\ such\\ as\\ wealth\\,\\ of\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ \\(the\\ telos\\ of\\ the\\ city\\)\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;a\\ city\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ association\\ for\\ residence\\ on\\ a\\ common\\ site\\,\\ or\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ preventing\\ mutual\\ injustice\\ and\\ easy\\ exchange\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 1280b929\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Those\\ who\\ contribute\\ most\\ to\\ this\\ association\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\ to\\ them\\ \\(or\\ even\\ greater\\)\\ in\\ free\\ birth\\ and\\ descent\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 1281a2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ person\\ or\\ body\\ of\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ sovereign\\ in\\ a\\ city\\?\\ \\(I\\.e\\.\\ rich\\,\\ poor\\,\\ one\\ person\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ political\\ positions\\ are\\ not\\ rotated\\ then\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ deprived\\ of\\ honor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ person\\ or\\ body\\ of\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ sovereign\\ because\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ is\\ affected\\ by\\ their\\ innate\\ beliefs\\/feelings\\/opinions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ only\\ law\\ should\\ be\\ sovereign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Should\\ the\\ people\\ at\\ large\\ be\\ sovereign\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\If\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ men\\ each\\ has\\ his\\ share\\ of\\ goodness\\ and\\ wisdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ should\\ elect\\ officials\\ and\\ examine\\ their\\ conduct\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ their\\ tenure\\ of\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Above\\ all\\,\\ rightly\\ constituted\\ laws\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ final\\ sovereign\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ authority\\ should\\ only\\ apply\\ to\\ cases\\ which\\ cannot\\ be\\ covered\\ by\\ the\\ general\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ what\\ criterion\\ are\\ people\\ considered\\ equal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ end\\ in\\ view\\ is\\ the\\ greatest\\ good\\ and\\ the\\ good\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ to\\ be\\ pursued\\&hellip\\;justice\\ consists\\ in\\ what\\ tends\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 12\\,\\ 1282b14\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ determine\\ who\\ is\\ equal\\ depends\\ on\\ their\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flute\\ player\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;those\\ who\\ are\\ better\\ at\\ the\\ job\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ the\\ better\\ supply\\ of\\ tools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ constitutes\\ a\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ society\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ virtue\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ goodness\\ in\\ matters\\ of\\ common\\ concern\\ and\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ just\\ basis\\ for\\ determining\\ who\\ should\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;equally\\ right\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ city\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\ The\\ citizen\\ is\\,\\ in\\ general\\,\\ one\\ who\\ shares\\ in\\ the\\ civic\\ life\\ of\\ ruling\\ and\\ being\\ ruled\\ in\\ turn\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Politics\\,\\ III\\,\\ 13\\,\\ 1283b27\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legislation\\ is\\ limited\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\ in\\ birth\\ and\\ capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ individual\\ far\\ superior\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ made\\ king\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Communitarianism\\:\\ \\ \\;Sandel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Introduction\\ \\-\\ Sandel\\ challenges\\ the\\ deontological\\ liberalism\\ of\\ Kant\\ and\\ Rawls\\,\\ who\\ argue\\ that\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ can\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ established\\ prior\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sociological\\ objection\\ is\\ that\\ neutrality\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ and\\ any\\ conception\\ of\\ right\\ must\\ reflect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\some\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unique\\ conception\\ of\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ that\\ Kant\\ says\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ good\\,\\ he\\ is\\ asserting\\ a\\ possible\\ formulation\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ that\\ the\\ individual\\ must\\ come\\ before\\ all\\ other\\ concerns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Sandel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Humean\\ objection\\ states\\ that\\ a\\ prior\\ and\\ independent\\ self\\ can\\ operate\\ outside\\ of\\ its\\ empirical\\ surroundings\\ in\\ real\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ contrast\\,\\ Rawls\\ places\\ individuals\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ position\\ to\\ determine\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ predicated\\ on\\ human\\ circumstances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Justice\\ and\\ the\\ Moral\\ Subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ Rawls\\&rsquo\\;\\ original\\ position\\ must\\ either\\ consider\\ some\\ generally\\ accepted\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Sociological\\ objection\\)\\,\\ or\\ must\\ be\\ predicated\\ on\\ arbitrary\\ initial\\ assumptions\\ which\\ render\\ this\\ formulation\\ of\\ justice\\ impractical\\ \\(Humean\\ objection\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Also\\,\\ one\\ cannot\\ derive\\ justice\\ from\\ the\\ original\\ position\\ without\\ considering\\ the\\ self\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ends\\ and\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ separate\\ oneself\\ from\\ societal\\ values\\ and\\ obligations\\ is\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;radically\\ situated\\&rdquo\\;\\ self\\ which\\ is\\ too\\ abstract\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ any\\ practical\\ use\\ in\\ determining\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Conclusion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ We\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ our\\ communities\\ \\(family\\,\\ school\\,\\ country\\,\\ etc\\)\\ and\\ have\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ better\\ these\\ communities\\.\\ \\ \\;Failing\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ and\\ neglecting\\ our\\ attachments\\ implies\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ moral\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ decisions\\ we\\ make\\ are\\ entirely\\ bound\\ up\\ in\\ their\\ impact\\ on\\ these\\ communities\\ because\\ our\\ memberships\\ are\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ by\\ accepting\\ our\\ \\&ldquo\\;enlarged\\ self\\-understanding\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ our\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ larger\\ societal\\ context\\,\\ we\\ strive\\ to\\ improve\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ that\\ we\\ share\\ with\\ others\\ like\\ ourselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Morality\\ and\\ the\\ Liberal\\ Ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Communitarians\\ support\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ and\\ question\\ the\\ liberal\\ claim\\ of\\ the\\ priority\\ of\\ right\\ over\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Kantian\\ defense\\ of\\ liberalism\\ is\\ flawed\\ because\\ we\\ cannot\\ determine\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\acts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ morally\\ permissible\\ without\\ some\\ prior\\ conception\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Individuals\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ their\\ role\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ life\\,\\ not\\ solely\\ as\\ independent\\ moral\\ agents\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ communities\\ have\\ defined\\ our\\ lives\\ so\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ implicated\\ in\\ the\\ purposes\\ and\\ end\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similarly\\,\\ policies\\ must\\ be\\ evaluated\\ on\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ better\\ society\\,\\ not\\ only\\ on\\ their\\ intent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Alasdair\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Virtues\\,\\ Unity\\ of\\ Life\\,\\ and\\ Concept\\ of\\ a\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Components\\ of\\ human\\ life\\ usually\\ separated\\ by\\ social\\ sciences\\ and\\ philosophers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-work\\ v\\.\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-public\\ v\\.\\ private\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ separation\\ dilutes\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ who\\ we\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ there\\ cannot\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ sharp\\ separation\\&hellip\\;between\\ the\\ individual\\ or\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ plays\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;a\\ self\\ separated\\ from\\ its\\ roles\\&hellip\\;loses\\ that\\ arena\\ of\\ social\\ relationships\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Aristotelian\\ virtues\\ function\\ if\\ they\\ function\\ at\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Virtue\\ must\\ be\\ demonstrable\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ components\\,\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;comparative\\ advantage\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-bravery\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ is\\ a\\ virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-professional\\ skill\\ is\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Self\\ must\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ constituted\\ largely\\ by\\ narrative\\ or\\ setting\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ situated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-belief\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;concomitant\\ concept\\ of\\ selfhood\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\ whose\\ unity\\ resides\\ in\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ a\\ narrative\\ which\\ links\\ birth\\ to\\ life\\ to\\ death\\ as\\ narrative\\ beginning\\ to\\ middle\\ to\\ end\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ part\\ of\\ self\\ which\\ is\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ narrative\\ transcends\\ both\\ temporal\\ and\\ spatial\\ bounds\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Narrative\\ determines\\ what\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intentions\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-for\\ example\\,\\ if\\ ask\\ what\\ man\\ is\\ doing\\ in\\ yard\\,\\ possible\\ accurate\\ responses\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;Digging\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Gardening\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Taking\\ exercise\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Preparing\\ for\\ winter\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pleasing\\ his\\ wife\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-truly\\ correct\\ answer\\ relies\\ upon\\ what\\ his\\ intentions\\ are\\&mdash\\;which\\ are\\ primary\\ and\\ which\\ are\\ secondary\\,\\ whether\\ his\\ goals\\ are\\ long\\-\\ or\\ short\\-term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-behavior\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ fully\\ understood\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ setting\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ agent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;we\\.\\.cannot\\ characterize\\ intentions\\ independently\\ of\\ the\\ settings\\ which\\ make\\ these\\ intentions\\ intelligible\\ both\\ to\\ agents\\ and\\ to\\ themselves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-an\\ individual\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ why\\ he\\ acts\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ that\\ relates\\ to\\ his\\ narrative\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;No\\ individual\\ can\\ operate\\ as\\ a\\ truly\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\&rdquo\\;\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-much\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ do\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ what\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ have\\ done\\ that\\ have\\ put\\ us\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-accordingly\\,\\ an\\ individual\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ sole\\ author\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ narrative\\,\\ but\\ can\\ rather\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;co\\-author\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ enter\\ upon\\ a\\ stage\\ which\\ we\\ did\\ not\\ design\\ and\\ we\\ find\\ ourselves\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ of\\ our\\ making\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ necessarily\\ determined\\ by\\ factors\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ control\\,\\ established\\ by\\ generations\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-each\\ person\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ bearer\\ of\\ tradition\\ insofar\\ as\\ he\\ acts\\ according\\ to\\ certain\\ modes\\ of\\ understanding\\,\\ values\\,\\ and\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ established\\ by\\ generations\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ search\\ for\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ good\\ is\\ generally\\ and\\ characteristically\\ conducted\\ within\\ a\\ context\\ defined\\ by\\ those\\ traditions\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ part\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Each\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ present\\ is\\ defined\\ critically\\ by\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ pasts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Connection\\ to\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ narratives\\ are\\ interlocking\\,\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ must\\ see\\ ourselves\\ as\\ constantly\\ moving\\ toward\\ some\\ communal\\ telos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ work\\ together\\ towards\\ some\\ shared\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ story\\-telling\\ animal\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ role\\ to\\ play\\ that\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ his\\ personal\\ narrative\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ understand\\ our\\ role\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ we\\ are\\ perceived\\ by\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ community\\,\\ and\\ on\\ our\\ \\&ldquo\\;quest\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ must\\ see\\ where\\ we\\ fit\\ into\\ that\\ community\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ truly\\ understand\\ who\\ we\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ Walzer\\,\\ Excerpts\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goods\\ have\\ social\\ meanings\\ and\\ are\\ critical\\ to\\ social\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-all\\ distributions\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ patterned\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ shared\\ conceptions\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ goods\\ are\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ for\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;6\\ propositions\\ to\\ theory\\ of\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ All\\ goods\\ with\\ which\\ distributive\\ justice\\ is\\ concerned\\ are\\ social\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ items\\ that\\ have\\ value\\ across\\ society\\,\\ and\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;idiosyncratic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\value\\ such\\ as\\ sentimentality\\ and\\ other\\ privately\\ valued\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-goods\\ have\\ different\\ meanings\\ in\\ different\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ People\\ take\\ on\\ identities\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ conceive\\ and\\ create\\,\\ then\\ possess\\ and\\ employ\\ social\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ have\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ relationships\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ set\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ this\\ relationship\\ helps\\ to\\ characterize\\ who\\ they\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ non\\-abstract\\ single\\ set\\ of\\ primary\\ goods\\ conceivable\\ across\\ all\\ moral\\ and\\ material\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-even\\ goods\\ that\\ are\\ deemed\\ by\\ one\\ society\\ as\\ necessary\\ may\\ be\\ rejected\\ or\\ ignored\\ by\\ a\\ different\\ society\\,\\ as\\ goods\\ \\&ldquo\\;carry\\ different\\ meanings\\ in\\ different\\ places\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\)\\ The\\ meaning\\ of\\ goods\\ determine\\ their\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-distributive\\ schemes\\ are\\ arranged\\ according\\ to\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ good\\,\\ and\\ what\\ allocation\\ of\\ goods\\ is\\ optimal\\ toward\\ that\\ end\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-certain\\ tradable\\ goods\\ \\(like\\ bodies\\ in\\ prostitution\\)\\ are\\ barred\\ from\\ transfer\\ strictly\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ social\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Social\\ meanings\\ are\\ historical\\ in\\ character\\;\\ and\\ so\\ distributions\\,\\ and\\ just\\ and\\ unjust\\ distributions\\,\\ change\\ over\\ time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-distributions\\ will\\ fluctuate\\ as\\ social\\ valuations\\ of\\ particular\\ goods\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ When\\ meanings\\ are\\ distinct\\,\\ distributions\\ must\\ be\\ autonomous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ relative\\ wealth\\ of\\ goods\\ in\\ one\\ sphere\\ should\\ not\\ determine\\ the\\ allocation\\ that\\ a\\ person\\ receives\\ in\\ a\\ separate\\ sphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Medical\\ care\\ as\\ an\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ prevailing\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ justice\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ American\\ government\\ should\\ fund\\ programs\\ like\\ Medicaid\\ or\\ Medicare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ reflects\\ a\\ communitarian\\ movement\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ step\\ in\\ and\\ provide\\ public\\ services\\ when\\ lives\\ are\\ at\\ stake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;all\\ that\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ make\\ \\(universal\\ healthcare\\)\\ morally\\ necessary\\ is\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;want\\&rsquo\\;\\ so\\ widely\\ and\\ deeply\\ felt\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ plausible\\ be\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ generally\\ the\\ want\\ not\\ of\\ this\\ or\\ that\\ person\\ alone\\ but\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ generally\\&mdash\\;a\\ \\&lsquo\\;human\\ want\\&rsquo\\;\\ even\\ though\\ culturally\\ shaped\\ and\\ stressed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ wealthy\\ can\\ get\\ treatment\\ more\\ readily\\ than\\ the\\ poor\\ reflects\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;proposition\\ of\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ that\\ spheres\\ should\\ not\\ overlap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-attitudes\\ towards\\ healthcare\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ history\\,\\ and\\ the\\ demanded\\ distribution\\ of\\ such\\ reflects\\ the\\ changing\\ social\\ importance\\ of\\ healthcare\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Relativity\\ and\\ the\\ Non\\-Relativity\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-VERY\\ IMPT\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ given\\ society\\ is\\ just\\ if\\ its\\ substantive\\ life\\ is\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\&mdash\\;that\\ is\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ faithful\\ to\\ the\\ shared\\ understandings\\ of\\ the\\ members\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;Every\\ substantive\\ account\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ is\\ a\\ local\\ account\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;We\\ are\\ \\(all\\ of\\ us\\)\\ culture\\-producing\\ creatures\\;\\ we\\ make\\ and\\ inhabit\\ meaningful\\ worlds\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Justice\\ is\\ rooted\\ in\\ the\\ distinct\\ understandings\\ of\\ places\\,\\ honors\\,\\ jobs\\,\\ things\\ of\\ all\\ sorts\\,\\ that\\ constitute\\ a\\ shared\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ override\\ those\\ understandings\\ is\\ \\(always\\)\\ to\\ act\\ unjustly\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Basically\\,\\ justice\\ requires\\ that\\ one\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ meaning\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ distribute\\ these\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ these\\ social\\ conceptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ right\\ is\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ good\\,\\ as\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ right\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ discovering\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ community\\ and\\ acting\\ with\\ the\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ in\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ is\\ a\\ teleological\\ theory\\ in\\ that\\ justice\\ is\\ defined\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ goals\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ particular\\ role\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ plays\\ in\\ aiding\\ the\\ collective\\ pursuit\\ of\\ those\\ goals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Main_Ideas_-_Outlines_MASTER.doc", "desc": "main ideas"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Sourcebook summaries", "tags": ["harvard", "classics", "augustus"], "text": null, "id": 130, "html": "\\\\\\Sourcebook\\ summaries\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:9pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:2\\.2pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c19\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c16\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Source\\ Book\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 50\\-64\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livy\\ From\\ the\\ Founding\\ of\\ the\\ City\\,\\ Book\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Livy\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ hard\\ to\\ identify\\,\\ because\\ I\\ think\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ Sourcebook\\ who\\ wrote\\ extensively\\ on\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ subjects\\ below\\ in\\ early\\ Roman\\ history\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Introduction\\ talks\\ about\\ Livy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ uncertainty\\ as\\ to\\ whether\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Rome\\ adequately\\.\\ He\\ mentions\\ how\\ the\\ known\\ history\\ of\\ Rome\\ has\\ greatly\\ increased\\ in\\ quantity\\ in\\ more\\ recent\\ times\\,\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ intends\\ to\\ focus\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ facts\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ than\\ the\\ political\\ turmoil\\ of\\ contemporary\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;Livy\\ says\\ that\\ ancient\\ history\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ tainted\\ by\\ myth\\ and\\ legends\\ of\\ divinity\\,\\ but\\ he\\ means\\ to\\ attach\\ no\\ particular\\ significance\\ to\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ life\\ and\\ moral\\ of\\ early\\ Rome\\,\\ and\\ how\\ men\\ established\\ and\\ enlarged\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ current\\ situation\\ of\\ greed\\ and\\ immorality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Founding\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Livy\\ writes\\ that\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ Antenor\\ were\\ spared\\ death\\ in\\ the\\ Trojan\\ war\\ by\\ the\\ Achivi\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ long\\ advocated\\ peace\\ and\\ the\\ return\\ of\\ Helen\\.\\ \\ \\;Antenor\\ sailed\\ the\\ Adriatic\\ with\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ followers\\ and\\ established\\ a\\ new\\ district\\ called\\ Troy\\.\\ \\ \\;Aeneas\\,\\ guided\\ by\\ fate\\,\\ traveled\\ from\\ Macedonia\\ to\\ Sicily\\ to\\ Laurentum\\,\\ where\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ people\\ settled\\,\\ calling\\ it\\ Troy\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ Latinus\\ and\\ the\\ natives\\ attacked\\ Aeneas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ group\\ soon\\ after\\ it\\ landed\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ account\\ says\\ Latinus\\ was\\ defeated\\ and\\ made\\ peace\\ and\\ alliance\\ with\\ Aeneas\\,\\ while\\ the\\ other\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ leaders\\ met\\ before\\ the\\ fighting\\ and\\ Latinus\\ was\\ so\\ moved\\ by\\ Aeneas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ story\\ that\\ he\\ pledged\\ his\\ friendship\\ right\\ there\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ peoples\\ lived\\ happily\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;Aeneas\\ married\\ Latinus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ Lavinia\\,\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ son\\ by\\ her\\ called\\ Ascanius\\.\\ \\ \\;Later\\,\\ the\\ Trojans\\ and\\ Latins\\ were\\ attacked\\ by\\ the\\ Rutulians\\ by\\ King\\ Turnus\\,\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ betrothed\\ to\\ Lavinia\\ before\\ Aeneas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arrival\\.\\ \\ \\;Turnus\\ lost\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ but\\ Latinus\\ was\\ killed\\ in\\ the\\ fighting\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Turnus\\ left\\ to\\ gather\\ reinforcements\\ form\\ the\\ Etruscans\\,\\ Aeneas\\ appealed\\ to\\ the\\ Latins\\ and\\ took\\ on\\ their\\ name\\ as\\ a\\ show\\ of\\ solidarity\\ between\\ the\\ Trojans\\ and\\ Latins\\ against\\ all\\ enemies\\.\\ \\ \\;United\\,\\ Aeneas\\ led\\ his\\ people\\ to\\ victory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romulus\\ and\\ Remus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Twin\\ brothers\\ Romulus\\ and\\ Remus\\ wanted\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ city\\ near\\ where\\ they\\ grew\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ drew\\ upon\\ different\\ local\\ tribes\\ and\\ peoples\\ \\(Albans\\ and\\ Latins\\)\\ for\\ their\\ citizens\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ their\\ plans\\ were\\ interrupted\\ by\\ their\\ greed\\ and\\ lust\\ for\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ age\\,\\ they\\ decided\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ wait\\ for\\ a\\ sign\\ from\\ their\\ gods\\ as\\ to\\ whom\\ the\\ city\\ would\\ be\\ named\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;Remus\\,\\ at\\ the\\ Aventine\\,\\ was\\ visited\\ first\\ by\\ six\\ vultures\\,\\ but\\ Romulus\\,\\ on\\ Palatine\\ hill\\,\\ was\\ then\\ visited\\ by\\ twelve\\ vultures\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ claimed\\ that\\ his\\ sign\\ gave\\ made\\ him\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ ensuing\\ argument\\,\\ Remus\\ was\\ killed\\,\\ and\\ the\\ city\\ \\(Rome\\)\\ was\\ named\\ for\\ Romulus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hercules\\ and\\ Cacus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ thing\\ Romulus\\ did\\ as\\ king\\ was\\ to\\ fortify\\ the\\ Palatine\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ made\\ sacrificial\\ offerings\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ Alban\\ customs\\,\\ but\\ followed\\ different\\ rituals\\ in\\ homage\\ to\\ Hercules\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\,\\ as\\ the\\ story\\ goes\\,\\ Hercules\\ was\\ once\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ driving\\ his\\ beautiful\\ cattle\\ near\\ the\\ Tiber\\ River\\,\\ when\\ he\\ fell\\ asleep\\ after\\ eating\\ and\\ drinking\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ local\\ shepherd\\ named\\ Cacus\\ say\\ the\\ cattle\\ and\\ made\\ up\\ his\\ mind\\ to\\ steal\\ some\\ of\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ cleverly\\ lead\\ the\\ stolen\\ cattle\\ into\\ their\\ hiding\\ place\\ backwards\\,\\ which\\ fooled\\ Hercules\\ for\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ he\\ woke\\ up\\ and\\ started\\ his\\ search\\,\\ but\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ cows\\ mooed\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ minute\\,\\ and\\ Hercules\\ dashed\\ over\\,\\ clubbed\\ Cacus\\,\\ and\\ took\\ his\\ cows\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ man\\ who\\ controlled\\ the\\ region\\ in\\ those\\ days\\,\\ Evander\\,\\ heard\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ recognized\\ Hercules\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ told\\ was\\ destined\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ nation\\ on\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ dedicated\\ an\\ altar\\ on\\ that\\ spot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Rome\\ had\\ become\\ powerful\\ enough\\ to\\ defend\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ women\\,\\ the\\ city\\ was\\ in\\ danger\\ of\\ dying\\ out\\ after\\ another\\ generation\\.\\ \\ \\;Romulus\\ sent\\ envoys\\ out\\ to\\ neighboring\\ cities\\ with\\ requests\\ for\\ intermarriage\\,\\ asserting\\ that\\ Rome\\ would\\ one\\ day\\ be\\ great\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ needn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fear\\ sending\\ their\\ people\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ envoys\\ were\\ met\\ with\\ refusal\\ everywhere\\ they\\ went\\.\\ \\ \\;Romulus\\ decided\\ to\\ hold\\ games\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ Neptune\\ and\\ invited\\ people\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ to\\ attend\\ and\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ celebrations\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ people\\ came\\,\\ they\\ were\\ very\\ impressed\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ city\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ Sabines\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ everyone\\ was\\ distracted\\ by\\ the\\ games\\,\\ the\\ Roman\\ men\\ ran\\ around\\ and\\ seized\\ all\\ the\\ young\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Needless\\ to\\ say\\,\\ the\\ festival\\ ended\\ and\\ the\\ parents\\ were\\ angry\\.\\ \\ \\;Romulus\\ went\\ amongst\\ the\\ maidens\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ get\\ them\\ to\\ calm\\ down\\ and\\ accept\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;dearest\\ privilege\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ promised\\ that\\ the\\ men\\ would\\ be\\ good\\ husbands\\ and\\ compensate\\ for\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loss\\ of\\ home\\ and\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ the\\ men\\ wooed\\ the\\ women\\,\\ explaining\\ that\\ they\\ acted\\ as\\ they\\ did\\ out\\ of\\ passion\\ and\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rape\\ of\\ Lucretia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ Roman\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greed\\ had\\ left\\ him\\ impoverished\\,\\ and\\ he\\ sought\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ wealth\\ to\\ strengthen\\ his\\ treasury\\ and\\ appease\\ the\\ people\\,\\ who\\ were\\ upset\\ with\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ failed\\ to\\ sack\\ Ardea\\,\\ so\\ his\\ men\\ set\\ up\\ an\\ encampment\\ around\\ the\\ city\\ and\\ waited\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ young\\ officers\\,\\ including\\ prince\\ Sextus\\ Tarquinius\\ and\\ Collatinus\\,\\ consequently\\ had\\ some\\ free\\ time\\,\\ and\\ they\\ started\\ talking\\ about\\ how\\ great\\ their\\ wives\\ were\\.\\ \\ \\;Collatinus\\ claimed\\ his\\ wife\\ Lucretia\\ was\\ by\\ far\\ the\\ best\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ the\\ men\\ then\\ decided\\ to\\ go\\ home\\ to\\ their\\ wives\\ and\\ see\\ for\\ themselves\\ which\\ one\\ reacted\\ most\\ favorably\\ upon\\ seeing\\ them\\ home\\ from\\ battle\\ unexpectedly\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ found\\ Lucretia\\ dutifully\\ occupied\\ and\\ full\\ of\\ womanly\\ virtues\\,\\ and\\ Collatinus\\ was\\ proven\\ right\\,\\ but\\ Tarquiius\\,\\ upon\\ seeing\\ her\\,\\ had\\ an\\ evil\\ desire\\ to\\ rape\\ Lucretia\\.\\ \\ \\;Tarquinius\\ went\\ back\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ later\\ and\\ attacked\\ Lucretia\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ day\\ she\\ sent\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ her\\ father\\ in\\ Rome\\ and\\ husband\\ to\\ come\\ quickly\\ with\\ a\\ trusty\\ friend\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ they\\ arrived\\,\\ she\\ told\\ them\\ what\\ happened\\ and\\ made\\ them\\ promise\\ to\\ seek\\ revenge\\ and\\ then\\ killed\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;Collatinus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\ Brutus\\ removed\\ the\\ knife\\ from\\ Lucretia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chest\\ and\\ vowed\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ monarchy\\ in\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;Brutus\\ then\\ summoned\\ public\\ support\\ for\\ a\\ fight\\ against\\ the\\ king\\ and\\ raised\\ a\\ small\\ army\\ to\\ march\\ against\\ the\\ camp\\ at\\ Ardea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Meaning\\ of\\ Rome\\ to\\ a\\ Roman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livy\\ speech\\ of\\ Camillus\\ in\\ 390\\ B\\.C\\.\\ when\\ Romans\\ debated\\ moving\\ to\\ Veii\\ after\\ the\\ sack\\ of\\ Rome\\ by\\ the\\ Gauls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Camillus\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ city\\ had\\ simply\\ burnt\\ down\\,\\ the\\ people\\ would\\ not\\ just\\ leave\\ for\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ appeals\\ to\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ love\\ of\\ their\\ homeland\\ and\\ warns\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ homesick\\ if\\ they\\ go\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ natural\\ resources\\ are\\ still\\ abundant\\ thanks\\ to\\ their\\ location\\,\\ and\\ argues\\ the\\ location\\ is\\ meant\\ for\\ a\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ Camillus\\ warns\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ Rome\\ that\\ was\\ blessed\\ by\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ people\\ go\\ elsewhere\\,\\ their\\ luck\\ will\\ not\\ follow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livy\\ The\\ Death\\ of\\ Cicero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livy\\ describes\\ how\\ Cicero\\ left\\ Rome\\ as\\ Antony\\ approached\\,\\ certain\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ target\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ fled\\ to\\ his\\ villa\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\,\\ and\\ then\\ finally\\ to\\ another\\ house\\,\\ from\\ which\\ he\\ planned\\ to\\ board\\ a\\ ship\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ every\\ time\\ his\\ ship\\ tried\\ to\\ leave\\ port\\,\\ the\\ winds\\ forced\\ it\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\ giving\\ up\\,\\ he\\ returned\\ to\\ his\\ villa\\ to\\ await\\ death\\,\\ offering\\ his\\ neck\\ when\\ the\\ soldiers\\ came\\,\\ and\\ getting\\ his\\ head\\ chopped\\ off\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ hands\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soldiers\\ brought\\ Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ back\\ to\\ Antony\\,\\ who\\ had\\ it\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ rostra\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livy\\ also\\ wrote\\ an\\ epitaph\\ on\\ Cicero\\,\\ remarking\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ man\\,\\ who\\ lived\\ to\\ a\\ relatively\\ long\\ age\\ and\\ accomplished\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ his\\ misfortune\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ of\\ Octavian\\,\\ public\\ and\\ private\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cicero\\ was\\ at\\ first\\ distrustful\\ of\\ Octavian\\ and\\ condescending\\ toward\\ one\\ so\\ young\\ with\\ such\\ large\\ ambitions\\;\\ but\\ so\\ great\\ was\\ his\\ loathing\\ for\\ Antony\\ that\\ Cicero\\ began\\ to\\ see\\ Octavian\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ hope\\ for\\ saving\\ the\\ Republic\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ for\\ his\\ part\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ astutely\\ played\\ up\\ to\\ Cicero\\,\\ flattering\\ his\\ sense\\ of\\ importance\\ and\\ pretending\\ to\\ value\\ his\\ advice\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ private\\ correspondence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Letters\\ written\\ from\\ Cicero\\ to\\ Atticus\\ from\\ April\\ to\\ November\\ 44\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ comes\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ Cicero\\ and\\ seek\\ his\\ advice\\,\\ convincing\\ Cicero\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ the\\ boy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ total\\ devotion\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ uncertain\\ about\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ youth\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ worries\\ about\\ how\\ he\\ might\\ react\\ if\\ given\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ of\\ his\\ doubts\\ are\\ fueled\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ was\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\ \\;Cicero\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ to\\ raise\\ armies\\ and\\ make\\ war\\ with\\ Antony\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ detailing\\ the\\ frequent\\ correspondence\\ he\\ receives\\ from\\ Octavian\\ asking\\ for\\ input\\ and\\ assistance\\.\\ \\ \\;Cicero\\ also\\ receives\\ a\\ letter\\ from\\ Brutus\\,\\ who\\ remarks\\ that\\ he\\ fears\\ Octavian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ public\\ \\&ldquo\\;Phillipic\\&rdquo\\;\\ oration\\ against\\ Antony\\,\\ delivered\\ January\\ 1st\\ 43\\ B\\.C\\.\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ public\\,\\ Cicero\\ had\\ nothing\\ but\\ praise\\ for\\ Octavian\\,\\ proclaiming\\ that\\ the\\ gods\\ must\\ have\\ chosen\\ him\\ as\\ the\\ savior\\ of\\ the\\ republic\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ willfully\\ advocates\\ honor\\ and\\ praise\\ for\\ the\\ young\\ man\\ while\\ denouncing\\ Antony\\ and\\ arguing\\ that\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ youth\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ counted\\ against\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Cicero\\ vouches\\ for\\ Octavian\\ again\\,\\ saying\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definitely\\ not\\ like\\ his\\ father\\ Caesar\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ wants\\ only\\ to\\ restore\\ the\\ republic\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ calls\\ on\\ the\\ senate\\ to\\ grant\\ Octavian\\ Imperium\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ Readings\\ pp\\.\\ 64\\-75\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Correspondence\\ With\\ M\\.\\ Brutus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ April\\ of\\ 43\\,\\ Cicero\\ writes\\ to\\ M\\.\\ Brutus\\,\\ speaking\\ about\\ the\\ young\\ Octavian\\ who\\ has\\ just\\ become\\ the\\ heir\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\.\\ He\\ sees\\ that\\ the\\ boy\\ is\\ bright\\ and\\ has\\ great\\ potential\\,\\ but\\ he\\ desires\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ part\\ in\\ guiding\\ the\\ young\\ patrician\\ who\\ has\\ so\\ much\\ going\\ for\\ him\\.\\ Here\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ legacy\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ lives\\ on\\ in\\ Octavius\\,\\ but\\ other\\ Roman\\ leaders\\,\\ particularly\\ Catiline\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ boy\\ gaining\\ too\\ much\\ power\\ too\\ soon\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ concerned\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ abuse\\ this\\ power\\ and\\ threaten\\ the\\ Republic\\ as\\ his\\ predecessor\\ perhaps\\ did\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ month\\ later\\ \\(in\\ May\\ of\\ 43\\)\\,\\ M\\.\\ Brutus\\ replied\\ to\\ Cicero\\ in\\ offense\\ to\\ Octavius\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ boy\\ gains\\ too\\ much\\ power\\ with\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ \\(namely\\ Cicero\\)\\,\\ then\\ he\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ seek\\ more\\ power\\ because\\ he\\ will\\ think\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ Senators\\ in\\ his\\ back\\ pocket\\.\\ Once\\ again\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ powerful\\ Romans\\ who\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ preserve\\ tradition\\ are\\ fearful\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ power\\ Octavius\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ have\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sallust\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Selections\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Conspiracy\\ of\\ Cailine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(43\\-42\\ BC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sallust\\ gives\\ a\\ short\\ history\\ of\\ Rome\\ that\\ is\\ even\\ more\\ moralistic\\ than\\ Livy\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ condemning\\ avarice\\,\\ personal\\ ambition\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ vices\\ increase\\,\\ culminating\\ in\\ the\\ conspiracy\\ of\\ Cataline\\,\\ a\\ nobleman\\ who\\ is\\ clever\\ and\\ skilled\\ but\\ very\\ hungry\\ for\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Portrait\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ conspirators\\,\\ the\\ lady\\ Semporina\\&rdquo\\;\\ shows\\ another\\ decadent\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ skilled\\ and\\ clever\\,\\ but\\ immodest\\ and\\ immoral\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ contrast\\,\\ Sallust\\ praises\\ both\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Cato\\,\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ great\\ for\\ different\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ long\\ list\\,\\ eg\\ \\&ldquo\\;Caesar\\ was\\ considered\\ great\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ benefactions\\ and\\ lavish\\ generosity\\,\\ Cato\\ for\\ the\\ uprightness\\ of\\ his\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julius\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(45\\-44\\ BC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ autobiographical\\,\\ but\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ selection\\ we\\ have\\ describes\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ of\\ Pompey\\ at\\ Pharsalus\\ \\(48\\ BC\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ serves\\ to\\ portray\\ Caesar\\ as\\ a\\ successful\\ general\\,\\ but\\ a\\ peace\\-loving\\ one\\,\\ no\\ warmonger\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ shows\\ his\\ gratitude\\ for\\ the\\ bravery\\ of\\ his\\ troops\\,\\ and\\ one\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ named\\ Crastinus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nicolaus\\ of\\ Damascus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Life\\ of\\ Augustus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(late\\ 20s\\ BC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ approving\\ biography\\ of\\ Augustus\\ by\\ an\\ advisor\\ to\\ King\\ Herod\\ of\\ Judea\\.\\ \\ \\;May\\ have\\ been\\ commissioned\\ by\\ Herod\\ to\\ gain\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ favor\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ our\\ selection\\ focuses\\ on\\ his\\ early\\ life\\ and\\ emphasizes\\ his\\ close\\ relationship\\ with\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ and\\ his\\ decision\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ and\\ his\\ adoption\\ as\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ asks\\ many\\ different\\ people\\ for\\ advice\\ and\\ ultimately\\ decides\\ to\\ heed\\ the\\ calls\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ change\\ his\\ name\\ to\\ Caesar\\,\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ play\\ for\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SourceBook\\ 76\\-82\\:\\ \\Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ Res\\ Gestae\\ \\This\\ text\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ list\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ good\\ things\\ that\\ Augustus\\ did\\ for\\ his\\ people\\ throughout\\ his\\ lifetime\\ \\(19\\-76\\)\\.\\ In\\ this\\ text\\,\\ he\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ change\\ traditional\\ practices\\ extensively\\ and\\ carefully\\ avoids\\ non\\-constitutional\\ offices\\ so\\ as\\ not\\ to\\ fall\\ into\\ the\\ same\\ trap\\ his\\ father\\ did\\.\\ More\\ obviously\\,\\ he\\ constantly\\ describes\\ the\\ honors\\ that\\ \\*other\\*\\ people\\ gave\\ him\\ \\(ie\\-\\"\\;The\\ dictatorship\\ was\\ offered\\ to\\ me\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\)\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ much\\ everybody\\ appreciated\\ his\\ work\\ and\\ he\\ uses\\ exact\\ numbers\\/amounts\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ listing\\ more\\ accurate\\ and\\ believable\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ \\"\\;About\\ 500\\,000\\ Roman\\ citizens\\ were\\ under\\ oath\\ to\\ me\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ really\\ easy\\ to\\ recognize\\ this\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ boastful\\ tone\\,\\ all\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ person\\,\\ and\\ describes\\ acheivements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 83\\-93\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Velleius\\ Paterculus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Great\\ praise\\ for\\ Augustus\\ overall\\ and\\ written\\ in\\ third\\ person\\ in\\ sections\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ family\\ values\\ displayed\\ after\\ death\\ of\\ uncle\\.\\ Many\\ friends\\ to\\ greet\\ Augustus\\ upon\\ return\\ to\\ Rome\\.\\ Risk\\-taker\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ assuming\\ the\\ Caesar\\ name\\ despite\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ pressure\\ to\\ not\\ do\\ so\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Actium\\:\\ Cleopatra\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;fleeing\\ queen\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Antony\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;coward\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ later\\ commit\\ suicide\\.\\ Augustus\\ displayed\\ clemency\\ in\\ victory\\.\\ After\\ returning\\ to\\ Rome\\,\\ Augustus\\ crushed\\ Lepidus\\&rsquo\\;\\ assassination\\ plot\\ quickly\\ preventing\\ any\\ type\\ of\\ civil\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ rule\\ \\=\\ time\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ prosperity\\.\\ Revised\\ Senate\\ and\\ refused\\ dictatorship\\ despite\\ pleas\\ from\\ Senate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Disgrace\\ of\\ Julia\\:\\ she\\ misused\\ her\\ power\\ and\\ fortune\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Death\\ of\\ Augustus\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ divine\\ soul\\ yielded\\ up\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Civil\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Lucan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Civil\\ war\\ between\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Pompey\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ greed\\ and\\ desire\\ for\\ power\\.\\ Lucan\\ criticizes\\ the\\ triumvirate\\ by\\ stating\\ \\&ldquo\\;Three\\ united\\ for\\ ruin\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;Caesar\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ endure\\ a\\ superior\\,\\ nor\\ Pompey\\ an\\ equal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Lucan\\ is\\ especially\\ critical\\ of\\ Caesar\\,\\ his\\ despotic\\ nature\\ and\\ his\\ need\\ to\\ use\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Lucan\\ is\\ pro\\-Republican\\ and\\ criticizes\\ the\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\ for\\ not\\ settling\\ for\\ peace\\ and\\ prosperity\\ but\\ constantly\\ seeking\\ to\\ expand\\ and\\ fight\\ more\\ wars\\ \\(fortune\\,\\ greed\\,\\ need\\ for\\ power\\ and\\ extravagance\\ being\\ ulterior\\ motives\\ for\\ war\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 94\\-105\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tacitus\\:\\ The\\ Annals\\ Book\\ I\\ \\(Note\\:\\ if\\ Tacitus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ test\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ from\\ the\\ Annals\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;starts\\ with\\ general\\ Roman\\ history\\ since\\ Brutus\\ as\\ first\\ consul\\,\\ quickly\\ to\\ Aug\\.\\ as\\ princeps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;declares\\ he\\ will\\ remain\\ impartial\\ in\\ describing\\ end\\ of\\ Aug\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;says\\ nobility\\ accepts\\ \\&ldquo\\;slavery\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ rule\\&mdash\\;sacrifice\\ freedom\\ for\\ comfort\\ \\(theme\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;boldest\\ spirits\\&rdquo\\;\\ died\\ in\\ battle\\ or\\ through\\ proscriptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;talks\\ about\\ Marcellus\\,\\ Gaius\\ and\\ Lucius\\ \\(and\\ treachery\\ of\\ stepmother\\ Livia\\)\\ and\\ promise\\ of\\ these\\ youths\\,\\ but\\ all\\ die\\&hellip\\;\\ comes\\ down\\ to\\ Tiberius\\ Nero\\,\\ adopted\\ as\\ son\\ of\\ A\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Agrippa\\ Postumus\\ banished\\,\\ later\\ killed\\ by\\ Tiberius\\ and\\ mom\\ because\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ Tib\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;few\\ remained\\ who\\ remember\\ anything\\ but\\ Aug\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rule\\ \\[passage\\ used\\ on\\ old\\ test\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Tiberius\\ is\\ experienced\\ but\\ Tacitus\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ him\\ much\\&mdash\\;nor\\ his\\ mom\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ her\\ feminine\\ lack\\ of\\ control\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;when\\ Aug\\ dying\\,\\ talk\\ of\\ successors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Tiberius\\ first\\ in\\ power\\,\\ defers\\ something\\ to\\ Senate\\&mdash\\;warned\\ against\\ doing\\ so\\ \\(shows\\ lack\\ of\\ power\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Debate\\ over\\ Aug\\:\\ \\ \\;overlooked\\ Lepidus\\/Antony\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;organized\\ state\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;some\\ say\\ he\\ let\\ people\\ worship\\ him\\ too\\ much\\,\\ erected\\ statues\\ celebrating\\ self\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;Tiberius\\ shaky\\ from\\ start\\&mdash\\;Senate\\ proposes\\ adding\\ \\&ldquo\\;Son\\ of\\ Julia\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ his\\ title\\,\\ but\\ he\\ thinks\\ connection\\ with\\ woman\\ will\\ lower\\ his\\ status\\ \\(jealous\\ of\\ her\\ too\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ role\\ of\\ females\\ in\\ the\\ age\\&mdash\\;didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ her\\ getting\\ too\\ much\\ recognition\\,\\ although\\ the\\ Senate\\ praised\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ recognize\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tries\\ to\\ be\\ even\\-handed\\ \\(vs\\.\\ Suetonius\\ who\\ gives\\ all\\ the\\ dirt\\,\\ and\\ Paterculus\\ who\\ sucks\\ up\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ portrays\\ him\\ as\\ loving\\ Tiberius\\ and\\ hearing\\ his\\ voice\\ on\\ his\\ deathbed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\historical\\ account\\ in\\ prose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suetonius\\:\\ The\\ Assassination\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ \\ \\;\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Life\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Csr\\.\\ abused\\ power\\&mdash\\;rightly\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Took\\ lots\\ of\\ honors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;provoked\\ ill\\-will\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rise\\ in\\ respect\\ of\\ Senate\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arrogant\\-\\ people\\ wonder\\ if\\ he\\ aspired\\ to\\ Kingship\\,\\ though\\ he\\ denied\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Senate\\ finally\\ come\\ together\\ to\\ conspire\\ vs\\.\\ Csr\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ides\\ of\\ March\\ at\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meeting\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supposedly\\ lots\\ of\\ warning\\ signs\\ of\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ he\\ realized\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\,\\ Csr\\.\\ pulled\\ up\\ his\\ toga\\,\\ covered\\ his\\ legs\\ to\\ die\\ more\\ respectable\\ death\\,\\ possibly\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;and\\ you\\ too\\,\\ my\\ son\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ Brutus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ will\\,\\ Csr\\.\\ adopts\\ Gaius\\ Octavuis\\ \\(Augustus\\)\\ as\\ his\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suetonius\\ generally\\ gives\\ all\\ the\\ dirt\\ on\\ people\\ and\\ lots\\ of\\ little\\ seemingly\\ insignificant\\ details\\&mdash\\;if\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heard\\ it\\,\\ he\\ reports\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ Caesar\\ probably\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ on\\ test\\,\\ but\\ could\\ be\\,\\ especially\\ part\\ about\\ adopting\\ Augustus\\ in\\ his\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 106\\-122\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suetonius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Life\\ of\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Family\\ Octavii\\ was\\ supposedly\\ pretty\\ powerful\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Velitrae\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ busy\\ street\\ was\\ named\\ \\&ldquo\\;Octavian\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;An\\ altar\\ was\\ built\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;Octavius\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;One\\ successful\\ leader\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ Octavii\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\,\\ Augustus\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ long\\ family\\ line\\ of\\ senators\\ and\\ municipal\\ town\\ leaders\\ \\(supposedly\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ family\\ was\\ also\\ wealthy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ what\\ most\\ people\\ believed\\,\\ and\\ what\\ Augustus\\ wanted\\ them\\ to\\ believe\\.\\ \\ \\;Mark\\ Antony\\ said\\ that\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ paternal\\ ancestors\\ were\\ freedman\\ and\\ moneychangers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ father\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ also\\ called\\ Gaius\\ Octavius\\ was\\ a\\ successful\\ leader\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ money\\ changer\\,\\ because\\ he\\ had\\ so\\ much\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ military\\ leader\\,\\ and\\ even\\ Cicero\\ admonished\\ another\\ senator\\ and\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ like\\ Octavius\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ was\\ related\\ to\\ Pompey\\ the\\ Great\\ on\\ his\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\,\\ but\\ Mark\\ Antony\\ tried\\ to\\ ridicule\\ him\\ too\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ his\\ maternal\\ great\\-grandfather\\ came\\ from\\ Africa\\ and\\ owned\\ a\\ bakeshop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ very\\ important\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;Supposedly\\,\\ an\\ adulterer\\ got\\ of\\ easy\\ because\\ he\\ owned\\ the\\ spot\\ where\\ Augustus\\ was\\ born\\,\\ so\\ the\\ senators\\ did\\ indeed\\ consecrate\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ estate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ still\\ go\\ to\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ former\\ nursery\\ for\\ purification\\ and\\ meditation\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ man\\ tried\\ to\\ sleep\\ there\\,\\ but\\ was\\ thrown\\ out\\ and\\ killed\\ \\&ldquo\\;by\\ a\\ mysterious\\ force\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ was\\ originally\\ given\\ the\\ surname\\ Thurinus\\,\\ because\\ his\\ dad\\ had\\ a\\ great\\ victory\\ near\\ Thurii\\.\\ \\ \\;Mark\\ Antony\\ made\\ fun\\ of\\ him\\ for\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Later\\,\\ Augustus\\ took\\ the\\ name\\ Gaius\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ later\\,\\ some\\ Senators\\ suggested\\ he\\ be\\ named\\ Romulus\\,\\ but\\ one\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ called\\ Augustus\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ new\\ and\\ more\\ honorable\\ title\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ dad\\ died\\ when\\ Augustus\\ was\\ four\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ 16\\,\\ he\\ received\\ military\\ honors\\ at\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ African\\ triumph\\ \\(even\\ though\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ fight\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ Spain\\,\\ where\\ Caesar\\ was\\,\\ where\\ Caesar\\ acknowledged\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ potential\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ Caesar\\ was\\ killed\\,\\ Augustus\\ took\\ over\\ his\\ estate\\,\\ then\\ helped\\ rule\\ the\\ country\\ with\\ Antony\\ and\\ Lepidus\\,\\ then\\ with\\ only\\ Antony\\,\\ then\\ by\\ himself\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 44\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ \\ \\;Suetonius\\ says\\ here\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ cover\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ life\\ by\\ topic\\,\\ not\\ by\\ chronology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ details\\ the\\ military\\ campaigns\\ shortly\\ following\\ the\\ assassination\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ these\\ was\\ the\\ persecution\\ of\\ the\\ assassins\\ of\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ was\\ an\\ attempted\\ assassination\\ by\\ Augustus\\ of\\ Mark\\ Antony\\.\\ \\ \\;Obviously\\ he\\ failed\\ and\\ was\\ found\\ out\\,\\ but\\ this\\ lead\\ to\\ his\\ forming\\ an\\ army\\ to\\ protect\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ ran\\ for\\ the\\ tribune\\ of\\ the\\ plebs\\,\\ since\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ had\\ died\\ recently\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ sided\\ with\\ the\\ nobles\\ against\\ Antony\\,\\ seeing\\ in\\ them\\ a\\ potential\\ ally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ is\\ detailed\\ the\\ suspicion\\ that\\ Augustus\\ might\\ have\\ killed\\ off\\ then\\-consuls\\ Hirtius\\ and\\ Pansa\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ armies\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ learned\\ that\\ Antony\\ had\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ Lepidus\\,\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ were\\ forming\\ good\\ ties\\ with\\ other\\ leaders\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ then\\ split\\ ties\\ with\\ the\\ nobles\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ politicians\\ were\\ thinking\\ of\\ ways\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ him\\,\\ but\\ he\\ instead\\ banished\\ the\\ nobles\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ on\\ the\\ Senate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ graces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ triumvirate\\ defeated\\ the\\ assassins\\ at\\ Philippi\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ was\\ particularly\\ cruel\\ in\\ punishing\\ the\\ enemies\\ of\\ Caesar\\ \\(various\\ examples\\ are\\ here\\,\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ interested\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ is\\ also\\ detailed\\ the\\ difficulty\\ between\\ awarding\\ soldiers\\ and\\ appeasing\\ landowners\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ Lucius\\ Antonius\\ tried\\ to\\ start\\ a\\ revolution\\,\\ but\\ was\\ starved\\ out\\ and\\ defeated\\ by\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ conquered\\ Perusia\\,\\ and\\ was\\ again\\ excessively\\ cruel\\ in\\ his\\ punishment\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ one\\ example\\,\\ he\\ sacrificed\\ 300\\ men\\ to\\ the\\ Deified\\ Julius\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ started\\ another\\ war\\ in\\ Sicily\\ against\\ Sextus\\ Pompey\\,\\ which\\ he\\ eventually\\ won\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ account\\ \\(Mark\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ cowardly\\,\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ military\\ victory\\ was\\ only\\ due\\ to\\ Agrippa\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ accounts\\ say\\ Augustus\\ lead\\ the\\ fleet\\ bravely\\,\\ defying\\ the\\ storm\\ which\\ was\\ raging\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ Marcus\\ Lepidus\\,\\ bolstered\\ by\\ victory\\ and\\ 20\\ legions\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ claim\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ place\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ Augustus\\ stripped\\ him\\ of\\ his\\ legions\\ and\\ banished\\ him\\ to\\ Circei\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ is\\ when\\ he\\ broke\\ of\\ relations\\ with\\ Mark\\ Antony\\,\\ read\\ all\\ the\\ stuff\\ about\\ Mark\\ Antony\\ betraying\\ Rome\\ \\(wanting\\ to\\ be\\ buried\\ in\\ Egypt\\,\\ leaving\\ his\\ estate\\ to\\ his\\ children\\ by\\ Cleopatra\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Antony\\ was\\ defeated\\ at\\ Actium\\ and\\ fled\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ caught\\ up\\,\\ and\\ Antony\\ tried\\ to\\ reconcile\\ their\\ differences\\,\\ but\\ Augustus\\ forced\\ him\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ Cleopatra\\ alive\\,\\ but\\ she\\ killed\\ herself\\ with\\ an\\ asp\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ them\\ buried\\ in\\ the\\ tomb\\ they\\ had\\ built\\,\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ also\\ killed\\ young\\ Antony\\,\\ the\\ elder\\ of\\ Fulvia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sons\\,\\ and\\ also\\ killed\\ the\\ child\\ of\\ Cleopatra\\ by\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ \\(INTERESTING\\!\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ raised\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ offspring\\ as\\ his\\ own\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ paid\\ homage\\ to\\ the\\ corpse\\ of\\ Alexander\\ the\\ Great\\,\\ made\\ Egypt\\ into\\ just\\ a\\ province\\,\\ and\\ founded\\ a\\ city\\ called\\ Nicopolis\\ near\\ Actium\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ is\\ detailed\\ many\\ revolutions\\ and\\ outbreaks\\ with\\ Augustus\\ suppressed\\ ahead\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ leaders\\ were\\ mainly\\ unimportant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ lead\\ only\\ two\\ foreign\\ wars\\ in\\ person\\:\\ at\\ Dalmatia\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ Cantabrians\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ wars\\ he\\ carried\\ out\\ through\\ his\\ generals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ fought\\ against\\ many\\ invaders\\,\\ and\\ drove\\ them\\ all\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;But\\ he\\ never\\ made\\ war\\ on\\ any\\ nation\\ without\\ just\\ and\\ due\\ cause\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ so\\ far\\ from\\ desiring\\ to\\ increase\\ his\\ dominion\\ or\\ his\\ military\\ glory\\ at\\ any\\ cost\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;His\\ main\\ method\\ of\\ prevention\\ was\\ taking\\ women\\ as\\ hostages\\,\\ and\\ then\\ selling\\ them\\ if\\ the\\ men\\ did\\ anything\\ naughty\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ was\\ the\\ fame\\ of\\ his\\ moderation\\ that\\ ambassadors\\ from\\ India\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ Scythians\\ sued\\ for\\ his\\ friendship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ important\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ two\\ major\\ defeats\\,\\ those\\ of\\ Lollius\\ and\\ Varus\\,\\ both\\ in\\ Germany\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ supposedly\\ greatly\\ saddened\\ by\\ these\\ losses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ demanded\\ extreme\\ discipline\\ from\\ his\\ army\\,\\ and\\ was\\ very\\ strict\\ in\\ applying\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Read\\ this\\ chapter\\ for\\ more\\ details\\,\\ although\\ many\\ details\\ seem\\ unimportant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ encouraged\\ formal\\ distance\\ between\\ soldiers\\ and\\ citizens\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ gave\\ prizes\\ generously\\,\\ but\\ more\\ often\\ valuable\\ prizes\\ than\\ honorable\\ ones\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ never\\ gave\\ prizes\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ had\\ won\\ victories\\ themselves\\,\\ since\\ he\\ said\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ give\\ themselves\\ prizes\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ preferred\\ caution\\ to\\ haste\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;More\\ haste\\,\\ less\\ speed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ received\\ offices\\ and\\ honors\\ before\\ the\\ usual\\ age\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ for\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ one\\ time\\,\\ when\\ senators\\ hesitated\\ to\\ grant\\ him\\ consulship\\,\\ his\\ centurion\\ threatened\\ them\\,\\ and\\ they\\ gave\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\.\\ \\ \\;Supposedly\\,\\ Augustus\\ was\\ very\\ cruel\\ and\\ arbitrary\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ triumvirate\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ examples\\ are\\ here\\,\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ want\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ twice\\ thought\\ of\\ restoring\\ the\\ republic\\,\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ after\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ Antony\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ weariness\\ of\\ the\\ lingering\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ definitely\\ had\\ good\\ intentions\\ for\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\,\\ not\\ least\\ among\\ them\\ the\\ beautifying\\ of\\ Rome\\ itself\\ with\\ many\\ construction\\ projects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ built\\ a\\ lot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ started\\ a\\ fire\\-prevention\\ program\\ by\\ using\\ night\\ watchmen\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ rebuildt\\ roads\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ assumed\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\potifex\\ maximus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Lepidus\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ burned\\ many\\ prophetic\\ writings\\,\\ only\\ saving\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ raised\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ priests\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ started\\ instituting\\ many\\ laws\\ involving\\ moral\\ reform\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\32\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ there\\ were\\ lots\\ of\\ brigands\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ stop\\ this\\ Augustus\\ has\\ soldiers\\ patrol\\ the\\ roads\\,\\ and\\ settled\\ many\\ lingering\\ land\\ disputes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\.\\ \\ \\;Augustus\\ himself\\ was\\ the\\ judge\\ for\\ many\\ cases\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ all\\ of\\ them\\,\\ he\\ was\\ conscientious\\ and\\ lenient\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ enacted\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ moral\\ laws\\ \\(on\\ extravagance\\,\\ adultery\\,\\ chastity\\,\\ bribery\\,\\ marriage\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ trimmed\\ down\\ the\\ senate\\,\\ since\\ Antony\\ had\\ previously\\ packed\\ it\\ with\\ ill\\-suited\\ supporters\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ each\\ of\\ these\\,\\ he\\ still\\ allowed\\ them\\ the\\ privileges\\ of\\ being\\ senator\\,\\ but\\ stripped\\ them\\ of\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\36\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ instituted\\ various\\ political\\ changes\\.\\ \\ \\;Big\\ among\\ them\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ notes\\ of\\ senatorial\\ meetings\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ to\\ be\\ published\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\37\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ encouraged\\ more\\ political\\ participation\\,\\ such\\ as\\ by\\ renewing\\ the\\ office\\ of\\ censor\\,\\ increasing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ praetors\\,\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ have\\ two\\ other\\ consuls\\ \\(in\\ addition\\ to\\ himself\\)\\ instead\\ of\\ just\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Interestingly\\ enough\\,\\ many\\ people\\ objected\\,\\ so\\ he\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ having\\ only\\ one\\ other\\ consul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\38\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ honored\\ martial\\ prowess\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ encouraged\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ senators\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\39\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ important\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ reorganized\\ community\\ lines\\ a\\ low\\ \\(think\\ gerrymandering\\,\\ but\\ without\\ the\\ corruption\\ involved\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ wary\\ of\\ granting\\ Roman\\ citizenship\\ to\\ non\\-Romans\\,\\ since\\ he\\ thought\\ that\\ Roman\\ blood\\ was\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;pure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\41\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ generous\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ gave\\ away\\ lots\\ of\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ times\\ of\\ scarcity\\,\\ he\\ gave\\ away\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ did\\ not\\ donate\\ just\\ for\\ popularity\\,\\ since\\ when\\ people\\ demanded\\ un\\-promised\\ goods\\,\\ he\\ reprimanded\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\ had\\ promised\\ stuff\\,\\ he\\ delivered\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ saw\\ that\\ his\\ donations\\ of\\ food\\ were\\ hurting\\ the\\ farmers\\,\\ so\\ afterward\\ he\\ paid\\ more\\ attention\\ to\\ helping\\ the\\ farmers\\ maintain\\ their\\ livelihoods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\43\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ gave\\ lots\\ of\\ public\\ shows\\,\\ four\\ times\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ name\\ and\\ 23\\ times\\ in\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ evidence\\ from\\ here\\ closely\\ parallels\\ the\\ evidence\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Read\\ for\\ more\\ details\\ about\\ the\\ specific\\ games\\ if\\ you\\ wish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\44\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ began\\ regulating\\ the\\ games\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ was\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ seating\\ \\(men\\ could\\ not\\ sit\\ with\\ women\\,\\ women\\ could\\ hardly\\ watch\\ any\\ games\\ at\\ all\\,\\ senators\\ go\\ the\\ first\\ row\\,\\ married\\ men\\ got\\ their\\ own\\ special\\ section\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ special\\ note\\ is\\ how\\ he\\ discouraged\\ women\\ from\\ attending\\ the\\ shows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\45\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ honored\\ actors\\,\\ but\\ made\\ sure\\ their\\ conduct\\ was\\ good\\,\\ or\\ he\\ had\\ them\\ punished\\ and\\ often\\ banished\\.\\ \\ \\;Suetonius\\ notes\\ here\\ that\\ he\\ may\\ have\\ professed\\ such\\ love\\ for\\ shows\\ since\\ many\\ people\\ disliked\\ Caesar\\ for\\ generally\\ ignoring\\ them\\,\\ even\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ sitting\\ in\\ the\\ theatre\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\46\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ expanded\\ Italy\\ by\\ 28\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\47\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ more\\ political\\ reorganization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\48\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ good\\ relations\\ with\\ both\\ neighboring\\ and\\ conquered\\ kingdoms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\49\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ distributed\\ military\\ forces\\ throughout\\ the\\ provinces\\,\\ and\\ regulated\\ their\\ pay\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\50\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ of\\ importance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Augustus\\ was\\ supposedly\\ lenient\\ and\\ moderate\\ in\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ decisions\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ here\\ for\\ examples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 123\\-138\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Life\\ of\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Suetonius\\ \\(52\\-101\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Remember\\ that\\ Suetonius\\ was\\ writing\\ biography\\ and\\ not\\ history\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Stylistic\\ point\\:\\ \\ \\;note\\ that\\ Suetonius\\ frequently\\ uses\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ did\\ x\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ did\\ y\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ formula\\ for\\ writing\\ about\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Suetonius\\ progresses\\ chronologically\\ through\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birth\\ until\\ his\\ becoming\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ adopted\\ heir\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ he\\ says\\ he\\ will\\ take\\ up\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ by\\ themes\\ or\\ topics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ themes\\ are\\ identified\\ here\\ in\\ bold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Clemency\\ and\\ moderation\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\pardoned\\ people\\;\\ did\\ not\\ like\\ it\\ when\\ people\\ called\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lord\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ called\\ each\\ Senator\\ by\\ name\\ without\\ a\\ prompter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Admiration\\ of\\ the\\ people\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\given\\ the\\ title\\ Father\\ of\\ his\\ Country\\;\\ he\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Having\\ attained\\ my\\ highest\\ hopes\\,\\ Fathers\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ what\\ more\\ have\\ I\\ to\\ ask\\ of\\ the\\ immortal\\ gods\\ than\\ that\\ I\\ may\\ retain\\ this\\ same\\ unanimous\\ approval\\ of\\ yours\\ to\\ the\\ very\\ end\\ of\\ my\\ life\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(58\\)\\ The\\ people\\ raised\\ money\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ statue\\ to\\ Musa\\,\\ the\\ physician\\ whose\\ care\\ helped\\ A\\.\\ recover\\ from\\ a\\ dangerous\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Family\\/personal\\ life\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Scribonia\\-\\ first\\ wife\\;\\ had\\ daughter\\ Julia\\;\\ with\\ Livia\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ children\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Sex\\ life\\/Sexual\\ indiscretions\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\labeled\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;effeminate\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Sextus\\ Pompey\\;\\ homosexual\\ relations\\?\\ \\ \\;Committed\\ adultery\\,\\ Antony\\ accuses\\ him\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;screwing\\&rdquo\\;\\ every\\ women\\ in\\ sight\\;\\ gambling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Temperance\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ he\\ lived\\ in\\ moderation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;He\\ disliked\\ large\\ and\\ sumptuous\\ country\\ palaces\\,\\ actually\\ razing\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ the\\ one\\ which\\ his\\ granddaughter\\ Julia\\ had\\ built\\ on\\ a\\ lavish\\ scale\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(72\\)\\;\\ ate\\ in\\ moderation\\,\\ had\\ simple\\ funrniture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Health\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ had\\ birthmarks\\,\\ callouses\\,\\ and\\ various\\ illnesses\\;\\ always\\ cold\\ and\\ wore\\ heavy\\ togas\\;\\ liked\\ to\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Education\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\studied\\ oratory\\ and\\ liberal\\ studies\\;\\ wrote\\ prose\\,\\ had\\ an\\ elegant\\ style\\ of\\ speaking\\;\\ used\\ favorite\\ expressions\\ when\\ speaking\\,\\ spelled\\ phonetically\\ instead\\ of\\ sticking\\ to\\ rules\\,\\ excelled\\ in\\ Greek\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Religion\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\superstitious\\,\\ wore\\ a\\ sealskin\\,\\ paid\\ attention\\ to\\ his\\ dreams\\;\\ respected\\ some\\ foreign\\ traditions\\ that\\ were\\ ancient\\ and\\ well\\-established\\ but\\ hated\\ the\\ rest\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Omens\\ that\\ occurred\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birth\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\divined\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ wars\\ beforehand\\;\\ his\\ death\\ and\\ deification\\ were\\ also\\ predictable\\;\\ he\\ died\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ room\\ as\\ his\\ father\\ Octavious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Written\\ orders\\ that\\ A\\.\\ left\\ behind\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;He\\ gave\\ orders\\ that\\ his\\ daughter\\ and\\ granddaughter\\ Julia\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ put\\ in\\ his\\ Mausoleum\\,\\ if\\ anything\\ befell\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ rolls\\ he\\ included\\ directions\\ for\\ his\\ funeral\\;\\ in\\ the\\ second\\,\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ had\\ accomplished\\,\\ which\\ he\\ desired\\ to\\ have\\ cut\\ upon\\ bronze\\ tablets\\ and\\ set\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ entrance\\ to\\ the\\ Mausoleum\\;\\ in\\ the\\ third\\,\\ a\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ empire\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(101\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 139\\-143\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Plutarch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Life\\ of\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Covers\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Relatively\\ sympathetic\\ to\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Lots\\ of\\ personal\\ details\\ about\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Loyalty\\ to\\ friends\\,\\ soldiers\\&rsquo\\;\\ loyalty\\ to\\ him\\,\\ love\\ of\\ Cleopatra\\,\\ how\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\ argued\\,\\ how\\ the\\ waiting\\ women\\ persuaded\\ them\\ to\\ talk\\/eat\\/sleep\\ together\\ after\\ fighting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 144\\-151\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Dio\\ Cassius\\&rsquo\\;\\ History\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Covers\\ first\\ the\\ Senate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Augustus\\ and\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movements\\ before\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ causes\\ and\\ pretexts\\ for\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Goes\\ into\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Actium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Dwells\\ on\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ actual\\ fighting\\ to\\ convey\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ immediacy\\ and\\ pathos\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Defense\\ of\\ the\\ Poet\\ Archias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Cicero\\ \\(SB\\ pp\\.\\ 152\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 154\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Cicero\\ defends\\ the\\ Greek\\ poet\\,\\ Archias\\,\\ to\\ a\\ Roman\\ jury\\ and\\ points\\ out\\ the\\ intellectual\\ and\\ social\\ value\\ of\\ Archias\\&rsquo\\;\\ poetry\\.\\ Cicero\\ claims\\ his\\ devotion\\ to\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ an\\ intellectual\\ pursuit\\ that\\ was\\ not\\ necessarily\\ in\\ high\\ favor\\ among\\ Romans\\.\\ In\\ defense\\,\\ Cicero\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ spends\\ studying\\ poetry\\ and\\ literary\\ pursuits\\ such\\ as\\ Archias\\&rsquo\\;\\ poetry\\ actually\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\serves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Roman\\ public\\ by\\ making\\ him\\ a\\ better\\ speaker\\.\\ While\\ others\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;advancing\\ their\\ own\\ personal\\ affairs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Cicero\\ is\\ honing\\ his\\ oratory\\ skills\\ through\\ literary\\ study\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ may\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ the\\ disposal\\ of\\ \\[his\\]\\ friends\\ whenever\\ prosecutions\\ have\\ placed\\ them\\ in\\ danger\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Literature\\ had\\ taught\\ Cicero\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ morality\\ and\\ decency\\ in\\ life\\.\\ He\\ claims\\ that\\,\\ aside\\ from\\ its\\ social\\ value\\,\\ literature\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ appropriate\\ leisurely\\ pursuit\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ enjoyable\\ for\\ all\\ ages\\ and\\ places\\.\\ Cicero\\ also\\ claims\\ that\\ poets\\ are\\ motivated\\ by\\ their\\ inherent\\ talent\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ sort\\ of\\ divine\\ spark\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ bestows\\ upon\\ them\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;holy\\&rdquo\\;\\ status\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ respected\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ other\\ cultures\\.\\ Literature\\/\\ Poetry\\ is\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ achieving\\ everlasting\\ glory\\ and\\ Cicero\\ urges\\ the\\ jury\\ to\\ consider\\ extending\\ the\\ fame\\ of\\ Rome\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ if\\ our\\ actions\\ are\\ worldwide\\ in\\ their\\ scope\\,\\ we\\ must\\ desire\\ that\\ our\\ glory\\ and\\ reputation\\ extend\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ our\\ military\\ might\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ notes\\ that\\ historians\\ have\\ accompanied\\ great\\ rulers\\ on\\ their\\ exploits\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ record\\ achievements\\ for\\ posterity\\ and\\ so\\ must\\ Rome\\ \\(and\\ Cicero\\ himself\\)\\ embrace\\ poetry\\ and\\ poets\\ like\\ Archias\\ to\\ achieve\\ immortal\\ glory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Features\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\enlightened\\ traditionalist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ toward\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\stresses\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\social\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;value\\ of\\ Archias\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ commemorate\\ the\\ achievements\\ of\\ Rome\\ \\(and\\ of\\ Cicero\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rhetorical\\ presentation\\ of\\ arguments\\ in\\ defense\\ of\\ Archias\\ and\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poems\\ of\\ Catullus\\ \\(SB\\ pp\\.\\ 155\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 157\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 29\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\blames\\ Mamurra\\ \\(decadent\\ friend\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ representative\\ Caesar\\ by\\ extension\\)\\ for\\ gluttonous\\,\\ arrogant\\ conquest\\ of\\ lands\\ that\\ once\\ belonged\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;farthest\\ Britain\\ and\\ to\\ Long\\-haired\\ Gaul\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\demands\\ whether\\ \\&ldquo\\;cocksucker\\ Romulus\\&rdquo\\;\\ will\\ let\\ such\\ greed\\ and\\ lust\\ for\\ land\\ stand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\scorn\\ of\\ political\\ sphere\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ indication\\ of\\ Catullus\\&rsquo\\;\\ preference\\ for\\ personal\\ poetry\\ rather\\ than\\ public\\-oriented\\ rhetoric\\;\\ characteristic\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Neoteroi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;New\\ Poets\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 93\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\does\\ not\\ care\\ to\\ please\\ or\\ know\\ about\\ Caesar\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ again\\,\\ disrespect\\ toward\\ political\\ figure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 95\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\defends\\ and\\ praises\\ his\\ colleague\\,\\ Cinna\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poem\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Smyrna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compares\\ Cinna\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ poem\\ \\(which\\ took\\ 9\\ harvests\\ and\\ 9\\ winters\\)\\ to\\ Hortensius\\&rsquo\\;\\ half\\ a\\ million\\ lines\\ of\\ trash\\ that\\ took\\ only\\ a\\ year\\ to\\ write\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ smaller\\,\\ more\\ personable\\ poems\\ will\\ outlast\\ \\&ldquo\\;bloated\\&rdquo\\;\\ epic\\ poems\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ by\\ Antimachus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultivation\\ of\\ small\\ poetic\\ forms\\,\\ scorn\\ for\\ \\"\\;vulgar\\"\\;\\ subjects\\ or\\ genres\\ \\(such\\ as\\ historical\\ epic\\)\\;\\ critical\\ view\\ of\\ traditional\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ genres\\,\\ looking\\ to\\ later\\ and\\ contemporary\\ Greek\\ ideas\\ about\\ poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poetry\\ composed\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\ is\\ preferred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 96\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\poem\\ consoling\\ Catullus\\&rsquo\\;\\ friend\\,\\ Calvus\\,\\ about\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Quintilia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\assures\\ Calvus\\ that\\ his\\ wife\\ rejoiced\\ in\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ her\\ more\\ than\\ she\\ lamented\\ her\\ untimely\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\emotional\\ depth\\ of\\ poem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ focused\\ on\\ personal\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\love\\ \\=\\ serious\\ topic\\ worthy\\ of\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ pet\\ sparrow\\ of\\ Catullus\\&rsquo\\;\\ sweetheart\\ \\(Lesbia\\)\\ has\\ died\\,\\ causing\\ much\\ grief\\ to\\ her\\ owner\\ and\\ Catullus\\ by\\ extension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Catullus\\ curses\\ the\\ darkness\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\ and\\ death\\ for\\ consuming\\ beautiful\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Small\\-scale\\,\\ personal\\ theme\\;\\ not\\ large\\-scale\\,\\ epic\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\to\\ Lesbia\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;let\\ us\\ live\\,\\ let\\ us\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\carpe\\ diem\\ attitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\love\\ is\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ serious\\ theme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 32\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\imploring\\ Ipsitilla\\ to\\ ready\\ herself\\ for\\ an\\ afternoon\\ tryst\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;nine\\ consecutive\\ copulations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 49\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\praises\\ Marcus\\ Tullius\\ \\(Cicero\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ eloquent\\ of\\ the\\ descendants\\ of\\ Romulus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\twisted\\ compliment\\ to\\ Cicero\\ with\\ some\\ modesty\\ on\\ Catullus\\&rsquo\\;\\ part\\,\\ who\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ much\\ indeed\\ the\\ worst\\ poet\\ of\\ all\\ as\\ you\\ \\[Cicero\\]\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ advocate\\ of\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ 50\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Catullus\\ commemorates\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ leisure\\ and\\ verse\\ writing\\ and\\ the\\ pain\\ he\\ feels\\ at\\ his\\ friend\\,\\ Licinius\\&rsquo\\;\\ departure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extreme\\ enthusiasm\\ and\\ drama\\ surrounds\\ Catullus\\&rsquo\\;\\ verse\\ writing\\ and\\ Licinius\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;wit\\ and\\ pleasantry\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aetia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;Causes\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ by\\ Callimachus\\ \\(SB\\ p\\.\\ 158\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\champions\\ refined\\,\\ learned\\ poetry\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ verbose\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;love\\ the\\ clear\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ cicada\\,\\ not\\ the\\ ass\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\[\\]\\ noise\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;feed\\ the\\ animal\\ for\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ be\\ as\\ fat\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ but\\,\\ friend\\,\\ keep\\ your\\ Muse\\ slender\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hellenistic\\ epigrams\\ on\\ Works\\ of\\ Art\\ \\(SB\\ p\\.\\ 159\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poseidippos\\ of\\ Pella\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ statue\\ of\\ Philitas\\ \\(another\\ Hellenistic\\ poet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\highlights\\ the\\ realism\\ of\\ the\\ statue\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;size\\ and\\ appearance\\ pursuing\\ normal\\ human\\ dimensions\\,\\ mixing\\ in\\ nothing\\ of\\ the\\ heroic\\ in\\ his\\ image\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\emphasizes\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\age\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;old\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ imply\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gravitas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ cured\\ of\\ snakebite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\again\\,\\ realism\\ of\\ the\\ statue\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ remnant\\ of\\ a\\ man\\,\\ a\\ mere\\ bag\\ of\\ bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(nothing\\ heroic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leonidas\\ of\\ Tarentum\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ a\\ cow\\ by\\ the\\ sculptor\\ Myron\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\realism\\ of\\ the\\ cow\\ straight\\ from\\ the\\ herd\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antipater\\ of\\ Sidon\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ same\\ cow\\,\\ same\\ realism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cornelius\\ Gallus\\ \\(SB\\ p\\.\\ 160\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\exorbitantly\\ praises\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ and\\ his\\ accomplishments\\ for\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decries\\ Lycoris\\ \\(pseudonym\\ for\\ Cytheris\\,\\ mistress\\ of\\ Mark\\ Antony\\)\\ for\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;wickedness\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\palpable\\ political\\ undercurrent\\ in\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virgil\\ Eclogues\\ \\(SB\\ pp\\.\\ 160\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 168\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogue\\ 6\\ \\(opening\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\instead\\ of\\ touting\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ rulers\\ and\\ battles\\,\\ Apollo\\-induced\\ inspiration\\ motivated\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;dally\\ in\\ lightweight\\ pastoral\\ verse\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\detachment\\ from\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ current\\ situation\\/\\ principate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dwells\\ in\\ pastoral\\ scenes\\ and\\ personal\\ friendship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ page\\ could\\ charm\\ Apollo\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ page\\ inscribed\\ to\\ Varus\\ \\(friend\\ of\\ Virgil\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogue\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dialogue\\ between\\ 2\\ shepherds\\,\\ Tityrus\\ \\(usually\\ seen\\ as\\ Virgil\\ himself\\)\\ and\\ Meliboeus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\personal\\ experience\\ transmuted\\ into\\ stylized\\ form\\,\\ blending\\ of\\ biographical\\ and\\ poetic\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ political\\ reality\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\:\\ while\\ Meliboeus\\ is\\ compelled\\ to\\ flee\\ his\\ native\\ land\\ because\\ of\\ civil\\ dissension\\,\\ Tityrus\\ can\\ compose\\ poetry\\ and\\ enjoy\\ the\\ leisure\\ granted\\ him\\ by\\ a\\ god\\ \\(Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ estate\\ restored\\ by\\ Octavian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\"\\;loser\\"\\;\\ Meliboeus\\ given\\ at\\ least\\ as\\ much\\ sympathy\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;winner\\"\\;\\ Tityrus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\glorifies\\ Rome\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ symbol\\ of\\ freedom\\,\\ city\\ that\\ towers\\ over\\ all\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\refusal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ provide\\ traditional\\ forms\\ of\\ poetic\\ celebration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogue\\ 4\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\puts\\ aside\\ pastoral\\ leisure\\ and\\ discusses\\ theme\\ \\&ldquo\\;worthy\\ of\\ a\\ consul\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Asinius\\ Pollio\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\prophesies\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ a\\ boy\\ who\\ will\\ be\\ born\\ into\\ greatness\\ \\(perhaps\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ what\\ turned\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ girl\\ to\\ Scribonia\\,\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ wife\\;\\ or\\ the\\ offspring\\ between\\ Octavia\\ and\\ Marc\\ Antony\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ symbol\\ of\\ reconciliation\\;\\ or\\ Pollio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Pollio\\ himself\\ sought\\ to\\ reconcile\\ Octavian\\ and\\ Marc\\ Antony\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lucina\\,\\ goddess\\ who\\ presides\\ over\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogue\\ 9\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dialogue\\ between\\ Lycidas\\ and\\ Moeris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moeris\\&rsquo\\;\\ farm\\ has\\ been\\ taken\\ over\\ by\\ an\\ outsider\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ poetry\\ stands\\ no\\ chance\\ against\\ the\\ arms\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ to\\ first\\ Eclogue\\ \\-\\ more\\ pessimistic\\ counterweight\\ to\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\allusion\\ to\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ comet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogue\\ 10\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\tribute\\ to\\ Gallus\\,\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\ and\\ fellow\\ poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\love\\-\\ poem\\ with\\ pastoral\\ themes\\ about\\ Lycoris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ 169\\-181\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virgil\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Georgics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ earlier\\ didactic\\ poetry\\ \\(after\\ his\\ pastoral\\ Eclogues\\)\\ which\\ still\\ focuses\\ on\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ puts\\ events\\ in\\ a\\ broader\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;Virgil\\ praises\\ the\\ countryside\\ as\\ a\\ poetic\\ and\\ moral\\ norm\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ didactic\\ poetry\\,\\ which\\ was\\ borrowed\\ from\\ the\\ Greeks\\;\\ the\\ poet\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ teacher\\,\\ and\\ speaks\\ with\\ authority\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ best\\ and\\ worthwhile\\ in\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.1\\-42\\:\\ Virgil\\ uses\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ pastoral\\ imagery\\ \\(soil\\,\\ vines\\,\\ cattle\\,\\ flock\\,\\ bees\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ to\\ wonder\\ at\\ how\\ the\\ gods\\ and\\ nature\\ bring\\ forth\\ abundance\\ and\\ make\\ the\\ farmer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ honorable\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ it\\ begins\\ talking\\ about\\ Caesar\\,\\ wondering\\ how\\ his\\ character\\ will\\ turn\\ out\\ to\\ be\\;\\ how\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ worshiped\\,\\ how\\ his\\ ambitions\\ will\\ be\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ hopes\\ Caesar\\ will\\ not\\ succumb\\ to\\ his\\ ambition\\ to\\ rule\\,\\ and\\ asks\\ that\\ he\\ may\\ be\\ overlooked\\ with\\ other\\ rustics\\ and\\ avoid\\ the\\ turmoil\\ and\\ chaos\\ of\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.463\\-512\\:\\ Virgil\\ writes\\ about\\ the\\ echoes\\ of\\ war\\ scenes\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ countryside\\,\\ personifying\\ the\\ horror\\ and\\ bloodshed\\ of\\ warfare\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ control\\ between\\ Brutus\\ and\\ Cassius\\ and\\ Octavian\\ and\\ Antony\\ immediately\\ after\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assassination\\.\\ \\ \\;Virgil\\ laments\\ the\\ bloodshed\\ of\\ Roman\\ ranks\\ fighting\\ amongst\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wonders\\ at\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ and\\ wrong\\ are\\ jumbled\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ war\\,\\ and\\ is\\ sad\\ that\\ poughs\\ have\\ been\\ abandoned\\ for\\ arms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.490\\-542\\:\\ Virgil\\ professes\\ his\\ loyalty\\ to\\ poetry\\ and\\ farming\\,\\ as\\ the\\ true\\ sources\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ rejects\\ the\\ political\\ life\\ and\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ laments\\ bloodshed\\ and\\ suffering\\,\\ and\\ wishes\\ for\\ a\\ nostalgic\\ age\\ of\\ simplicity\\ and\\ peace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.1\\-48\\:\\ Virgil\\ recounts\\ how\\ many\\ poets\\ have\\ already\\ written\\ about\\ everything\\,\\ but\\ wishes\\ for\\ his\\ own\\ fame\\ someday\\ through\\ the\\ glorious\\ and\\ incredible\\ poetic\\ account\\ of\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ glory\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ promise\\ was\\ eventually\\ fulfilled\\ with\\ the\\ Aeneid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.559\\-566\\:\\ Virgil\\ humbly\\ describes\\ his\\ own\\ peaceful\\ existence\\ as\\ poet\\ \\(playing\\ with\\ pastoral\\ poetry\\ and\\ in\\ youth\\ bold\\)\\ while\\ Caesar\\ is\\ thundering\\ around\\ dispensing\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Epode\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1\\:\\ This\\ poem\\ is\\ about\\ his\\ friend\\/patron\\ Maecenas\\,\\ who\\ is\\ to\\ go\\ off\\ to\\ Actium\\ to\\ fight\\ with\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\ \\;Horace\\ laments\\ his\\ leaving\\,\\ offers\\ his\\ own\\ \\(peace\\-loving\\ and\\ weak\\)\\ service\\,\\ and\\ hopes\\ his\\ friend\\ will\\ return\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ motivation\\ is\\ to\\ win\\ favor\\,\\ not\\ to\\ gain\\ riches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epode\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;7\\:\\ In\\ response\\ to\\ renewed\\ civil\\ war\\ between\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavian\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ anguished\\;\\ Horace\\ rages\\ against\\ the\\ senseless\\ bloodshed\\ of\\ Romans\\ against\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ mourns\\ for\\ the\\ future\\ or\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Epode\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;16\\:\\ Horace\\ is\\ angry\\ that\\ Rome\\,\\ which\\ survived\\ so\\ many\\ babarian\\ invasions\\,\\ will\\ finally\\ succumb\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ hand\\ \\(civil\\ war\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ would\\ rather\\ flee\\ to\\ the\\ ocean\\,\\ and\\ escape\\ the\\ turmoil\\,\\ than\\ watch\\ mighty\\ Rome\\ fall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ 182\\-195\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ Satires\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Satires\\ all\\ bear\\ the\\ common\\ thread\\ of\\ idealizing\\ country\\ life\\ over\\ city\\ or\\ civic\\ life\\.\\ The\\ country\\ life\\ he\\ speaks\\ of\\ he\\ has\\ experienced\\ through\\ the\\ generosity\\ of\\ Maecenas\\,\\ a\\ patron\\ and\\ political\\ advisor\\ of\\ Augustus\\ who\\ provided\\ Horace\\ land\\ and\\ a\\ house\\ in\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ I\\,\\ Satire\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ book\\ of\\ Satires\\,\\ published\\ in\\ 25\\ BC\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ his\\ travels\\ from\\ Rome\\ to\\ Brundisium\\.\\ He\\ was\\ traveling\\ as\\ a\\ companion\\ in\\ the\\ suite\\ of\\ his\\ noble\\ patrons\\,\\ on\\ an\\ embassy\\ to\\ arrange\\ terms\\ between\\ Octavian\\ and\\ Mark\\ Antony\\.\\ There\\ is\\ nothing\\ salient\\ about\\ this\\ piece\\,\\ although\\ the\\ mention\\ of\\ his\\ dirty\\ dream\\ may\\ catch\\ you\\ by\\ surprise\\.\\ It\\ basically\\ describes\\ travels\\ with\\ his\\ companions\\ and\\ the\\ lavish\\ feasting\\ they\\ did\\ on\\ their\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Satires\\ 2\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ peace\\ is\\ much\\ denser\\ and\\ filled\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ pastoral\\ bliss\\.\\ Horace\\ rejects\\ city\\ life\\,\\ rejoicing\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;leave\\ the\\ rat\\ race\\ far\\ behind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ opens\\ with\\ 2\\-3\\ paragraphs\\ of\\ gratitude\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ thanks\\ the\\ gods\\ \\(stand\\ ins\\ for\\ Maecenas\\,\\ perhaps\\)\\ for\\ what\\ he\\ has\\ received\\.\\ He\\ is\\ apparently\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ bequest\\ he\\ has\\ received\\ from\\ Maecenas\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;I\\ prayed\\ for\\ this\\,\\ a\\ bit\\ or\\ land\\,\\ not\\ big\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ likely\\ refers\\ to\\ Maecenas\\ when\\ praying\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ best\\ god\\-friend\\ and\\ chief\\ protector\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ describe\\ how\\ life\\ works\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ the\\ frenetic\\ and\\ crowded\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ courts\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ witness\\.\\ He\\ has\\ no\\ desire\\ to\\ battle\\ the\\ crowds\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ when\\ a\\ voice\\ tellingly\\ states\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ shove\\ the\\ world\\ aside\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Maecenas\\ you\\ must\\ get\\ to\\,\\ if\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ one\\ inside\\ your\\ head\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ assents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ speaks\\ of\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ Maecenas\\,\\ describing\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ lapdog\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;even\\ now\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ just\\ the\\ one\\ he\\ takes\\ on\\ carriage\\-trips\\,\\ the\\ one\\ he\\ trusts\\ to\\ tell\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ time\\ is\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Can\\ the\\ Thracian\\ give\\ the\\ Arab\\ a\\ good\\ fight\\ inside\\ the\\ ring\\?\\.\\.\\.And\\ other\\ treasures\\ safe\\ to\\ drop\\ into\\ a\\ leaky\\ ear\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\ he\\ laments\\ his\\ time\\ away\\ from\\ his\\ country\\ home\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ countryside\\&hellip\\;when\\ can\\ I\\ see\\ your\\ face\\ again\\?\\ When\\ can\\ I\\ leave\\ this\\ day\\-to\\-day\\ fatigue\\,\\ forget\\ it\\ like\\ a\\ dream\\,\\ \\ \\;and\\ spend\\ my\\ time\\ with\\ ancient\\ books\\,\\ in\\ sleep\\,\\ in\\ lazing\\ days\\?\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ is\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ serenity\\,\\ describing\\ his\\ removal\\ from\\ the\\ city\\ as\\ an\\ estrangement\\ from\\ its\\ corrupt\\ values\\ and\\ materialism\\.\\ He\\ is\\ described\\ philosophizing\\ with\\ his\\ friends\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;whether\\ we\\ make\\ our\\ friends\\ for\\ our\\ own\\ gain\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Satire\\,\\ I\\ think\\,\\ is\\ when\\ he\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ mouse\\ and\\ city\\ mouse\\.\\ After\\ the\\ country\\ mouse\\ gives\\ the\\ city\\ mouse\\ the\\ best\\ treatment\\ he\\ can\\ afford\\,\\ himself\\ eating\\ grasses\\ while\\ he\\ gives\\ his\\ guest\\ the\\ tasty\\ morsels\\,\\ the\\ two\\ go\\ into\\ the\\ palace\\ where\\ the\\ city\\ life\\ dwells\\.\\ In\\ the\\ city\\ mouse\\&rsquo\\;s\\ home\\,\\ they\\ feed\\ on\\ scraps\\ from\\ last\\ night\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banquet\\ and\\ recline\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;ivory\\ couches\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ in\\ flash\\,\\ they\\ are\\ noisily\\ pursued\\ by\\ humans\\ trying\\ to\\ catch\\ them\\,\\ clamoring\\ in\\ a\\ scene\\ that\\ scares\\ the\\ mice\\ to\\ death\\.\\ The\\ country\\ mouse\\ then\\ concludes\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ life\\ is\\ not\\ for\\ me\\:\\ my\\ woods\\ and\\ den\\ are\\ safe\\ from\\ traps\\ like\\ this\\&mdash\\;I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ please\\ myself\\ with\\ vetch\\,\\ however\\ crude\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Selections\\ from\\ Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Odes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MENTIONED\\ IN\\ LECTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ is\\ addressing\\ Maecenas\\,\\ goes\\ through\\ what\\ various\\ people\\ set\\ as\\ their\\ goals\\ in\\ life\\:\\ athletic\\ greatness\\,\\ political\\ ambition\\,\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ the\\ hunter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ catch\\,\\ etc\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ states\\ clearly\\ his\\ goal\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\:\\ the\\ lofty\\ aim\\ of\\ having\\ his\\ poem\\ put\\ with\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ Grecian\\ masters\\,\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ CANONICAL\\ poet\\,\\ perhaps\\ literally\\ in\\ the\\ library\\ at\\ the\\ Temple\\ of\\ Apollo\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;As\\ for\\ me\\,\\ the\\ prize\\ for\\ poets\\,\\ the\\ crown\\ of\\ ivy\\,\\ makes\\ me\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\&hellip\\;I\\ am\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ crowd\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;And\\ should\\ you\\ rank\\ my\\ songs\\ with\\ the\\ masters\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ I\\ shall\\ walk\\ tall\\,\\ my\\ head\\ will\\ touch\\ stars\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Follows\\ transition\\ from\\ winter\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;spring\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ carpe\\ diem\\,\\ love\\ while\\ you\\ can\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;all\\ of\\ life\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ little\\,\\ no\\ long\\-term\\ plans\\ are\\ allowed\\.\\ Soon\\ night\\ and\\ half\\-remembered\\ shapes\\ and\\ drab\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ odd\\ poem\\&hellip\\;I\\ think\\ Horace\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ Pyrrha\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ Deucalion\\ and\\ Pyrrha\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ creation\\ or\\ the\\ flood\\.\\ Overall\\,\\ if\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ proclaiming\\ the\\ superficiality\\ and\\ deceptive\\ nature\\ of\\ love\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Poor\\ lover\\!\\ Times\\ untold\\ he\\ will\\ lament\\ your\\ light\\ capricious\\ loyalties\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Woe\\ to\\ those\\ innocents\\ you\\ dazzle\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MENTIONED\\ IN\\ LECTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\States\\ his\\ non\\-intention\\ to\\ become\\ an\\ epic\\ poet\\-\\ love\\ and\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enjoyments\\ are\\ his\\ subjects\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;No\\ epic\\ grandeur\\,\\ Agrippa\\,\\ will\\ I\\ attempt\\&hellip\\;Achilles\\&rsquo\\;\\ moods\\ and\\ tantrums\\&hellip\\;are\\ too\\ lofty\\ subjects\\ for\\ me\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basic\\ message\\:\\ have\\ more\\ fun\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worry\\ about\\ anything\\.\\ All\\ is\\ fated\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ Gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Pour\\ the\\ four\\ year\\ vintage\\ out\\ with\\ a\\ freer\\ hand\\&hellip\\;Leave\\ all\\ the\\ rest\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Let\\ be\\ what\\ comes\\ tomorrow\\,\\ reckoning\\ pure\\ gain\\ from\\ whatever\\ gift\\ of\\ days\\ your\\ fortune\\ yields\\,\\ and\\ in\\ youth\\ be\\ not\\ disdainful\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ all\\ its\\ sweetness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MENTIONED\\ IN\\ LECTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Embodies\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ carpe\\ diem\\ \\(in\\ fact\\,\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ that\\ oft\\-quoted\\ phrase\\)\\-\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ shortest\\ of\\ Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;short\\ and\\ sweet\\,\\ like\\ life\\-\\ thus\\,\\ it\\ conveys\\ its\\ message\\ in\\ both\\ form\\ and\\ content\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ put\\ off\\ pleasure\\ in\\ life\\,\\ enjoy\\ it\\ now\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poem\\ is\\ both\\ a\\ philosophy\\ and\\ a\\ seduction\\ tool\\:\\ in\\ it\\,\\ he\\ is\\ directly\\ addressing\\ a\\ woman\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ convincing\\ her\\ to\\ yield\\ to\\ Horace\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advances\\ \\(life\\ is\\ short\\,\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ get\\ it\\ on\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ask\\,\\ Leuconoe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\[woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\]\\&mdash\\;we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ supposed\\ to\\ know\\&mdash\\;what\\ end\\ the\\ gods\\ have\\ set\\ for\\ me\\,\\ for\\ you\\,\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ trying\\ out\\ astrologers\\&rsquo\\;\\ calculations\\.\\ Better\\ by\\ far\\ to\\ ensure\\ whatever\\ comes\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;be\\ sensible\\,\\ filter\\ your\\ wine\\ and\\ drink\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;While\\ we\\ talk\\,\\ jealous\\ time\\ has\\ already\\ fled\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\PLUCK\\ THIS\\ DAY\\,\\ and\\ put\\ not\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ one\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ yet\\ to\\ come\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ the\\ world\\,\\ since\\ it\\ expresses\\ a\\ very\\ non\\-materialistic\\ message\\ and\\ begins\\ with\\ Horace\\ declaring\\ himself\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ priest\\ of\\ the\\ Muses\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ chants\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ young\\ men\\ and\\ maidens\\ poems\\ that\\ have\\ never\\ been\\ heard\\ before\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ His\\ message\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ take\\ on\\ the\\ pastoral\\ ideal\\ that\\ basically\\ states\\ that\\ greed\\ will\\ do\\ nothing\\ for\\ you\\ or\\ will\\ undo\\ you\\,\\ palaces\\ never\\ warmed\\ anyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\ or\\ relieved\\ them\\ from\\ his\\ troubles\\,\\ anxiety\\ and\\ danger\\ will\\ reach\\ you\\ wherever\\ you\\ are\\,\\ so\\ why\\ should\\ I\\ give\\ up\\ my\\ pastoral\\ ideal\\?\\ Meanwhile\\,\\ while\\ you\\ build\\ your\\ palaces\\,\\ you\\ infringe\\ upon\\ nature\\ and\\ do\\ it\\ an\\ injustice\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ fish\\ feel\\ the\\ waters\\ shrink\\ as\\ the\\ pilings\\ of\\ stone\\ are\\ laid\\ in\\ the\\ depths\\&hellip\\;toss\\ rubble\\ in\\ under\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ master\\ who\\ loathes\\ the\\ land\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ only\\ is\\ materialism\\ ideologically\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ pastoral\\ ideal\\,\\ but\\ its\\ execution\\ actually\\ physically\\ destroys\\ the\\ pasture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ should\\ I\\ pursue\\ wealth\\ and\\ material\\ goods\\?\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ man\\ who\\ longs\\ for\\ just\\ enough\\ is\\ never\\ disturbed\\ by\\ the\\ turbulent\\ ocean\\,\\ not\\ by\\ the\\ storm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wild\\ attack\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MENTIONED\\ IN\\ LECTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ titled\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Moral\\ Decline\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ decries\\ the\\ impiety\\ of\\ Romans\\ who\\ have\\ let\\ the\\ temples\\ and\\ images\\ of\\ gods\\ to\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;filthy\\ with\\ blackening\\ smoke\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(interesting\\ pitting\\ of\\ piety\\ against\\ non\\-pastoralism\\ and\\ urban\\-development\\-\\ Rome\\ is\\ SUFFERING\\ FOR\\ IMPIETY\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;neglected\\,\\ the\\ gods\\ have\\ brought\\ many\\ sorrows\\ to\\ suffering\\ Italy\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ the\\ corruption\\ has\\ begun\\ with\\ the\\ family\\ unit\\ and\\ flowed\\ out\\ from\\ there\\:\\\\&ldquo\\;Breeder\\ of\\ vices\\,\\ our\\ age\\ has\\ polluted\\ first\\ marriage\\ vows\\ and\\ the\\ children\\ and\\ the\\ home\\:\\ from\\ this\\ spring\\,\\ a\\ river\\ of\\ ruin\\ has\\ flooded\\ our\\ country\\ and\\ our\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ young\\ wife\\ scours\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parties\\ for\\ young\\ lovers\\ and\\ indiscriminately\\ commits\\ adultery\\,\\ in\\ an\\ overt\\ fashion\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;She\\ hastily\\ gives\\ forbidden\\ thrills\\ when\\ the\\ lights\\ go\\ out\\&hellip\\;her\\ husband\\ there\\ and\\ knowing\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ parents\\ like\\ these\\,\\ ignoble\\ generations\\ of\\ Romans\\ are\\ born\\,\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ heroic\\ citizens\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ From\\ this\\ we\\ get\\ the\\ message\\ that\\ perhaps\\ it\\ is\\ time\\,\\ which\\ corrupts\\ all\\ things\\,\\ that\\ also\\ corrupts\\ the\\ morals\\ and\\ values\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ people\\-\\ thesis\\:\\ TIME\\ LEADS\\ TO\\ DEGENERATION\\ OF\\ ALL\\ THINGS\\,\\ INCLUDING\\ SCRUPLES\\ AND\\ GOODNESS\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ does\\ time\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decaying\\ leave\\ undiminished\\?\\ Our\\ parent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ age\\,\\ worse\\ that\\ their\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ brought\\ forth\\ us\\,\\ who\\ are\\ still\\ worse\\,\\ who\\ soon\\ will\\ breed\\ descendants\\ even\\ more\\ degenerate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ ode\\ to\\ a\\ spring\\,\\ the\\ Fountain\\ of\\ Bandusia\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;sets\\ free\\ the\\ wearied\\ oxen\\ from\\ under\\ plough\\,\\ and\\ flocks\\ from\\ long\\ days\\&rsquo\\;\\ wandering\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ reiteration\\ of\\ the\\ pastoral\\ ideal\\ focusing\\ on\\ one\\ specific\\ entity\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ fountain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.30\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MENTIONED\\ IN\\ LECTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\My\\ memorial\\ is\\ done\\:\\ it\\ will\\ outlast\\ bronze\\,\\ it\\ is\\ taller\\ that\\ the\\ Pyramids\\&rsquo\\;\\ royal\\ mounds\\,\\ and\\ not\\ rain\\ and\\ corrosion\\,\\ not\\ raging\\ Northwind\\ can\\ tear\\ it\\ down\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ statement\\ of\\ multiple\\ ideas\\ and\\ recurring\\ themes\\ in\\ the\\ course\\:\\ 1\\)\\ my\\ poetry\\ is\\ a\\ monument\\,\\ like\\ an\\ architectural\\ one\\ or\\ greater\\/more\\ lasting\\ 2\\)\\ my\\ poetry\\ is\\ immortal\\ and\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ so\\ am\\ I\\ 3\\)\\ my\\ poetry\\ is\\ empowering\\ and\\ will\\ spread\\ my\\ fame\\ beyond\\ all\\ generations\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ themes\\ tie\\ in\\ to\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mention\\ of\\ a\\ similar\\ immortality\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Metamorphoses\\ or\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recognition\\ of\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ memorial\\ to\\ Marcellus\\,\\ mentioned\\ in\\ book\\ 6\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ of\\ LITERATURE\\ AS\\ MONUMENT\\ runs\\ through\\ all\\ three\\ of\\ these\\ pieces\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ moves\\ from\\ pastoral\\ idealization\\ to\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ shortness\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ inevitability\\/power\\ of\\ death\\-\\ no\\ man\\ can\\ be\\ saved\\ from\\ death\\ by\\ his\\ wealth\\ or\\ earthly\\ powers\\,\\ no\\ measure\\ of\\ those\\ things\\ can\\ bring\\ a\\ man\\ back\\ to\\ life\\-he\\ mentions\\ great\\ men\\ who\\ have\\ passed\\ away\\ as\\ if\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ greats\\ die\\,\\ then\\ we\\ certainly\\ do\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;we\\ go\\ down\\ where\\ good\\ Aeneas\\ is\\ gone\\,\\ with\\ lordly\\ Tullus\\ and\\ Ancus\\,\\ we\\ lapse\\ to\\ dust\\ and\\ shade\\.\\ Who\\ knows\\ if\\ the\\ lofty\\ gods\\ will\\ add\\ a\\ span\\ of\\ tomorrow\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ summed\\ today\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Not\\ birth\\,\\ nor\\ eloquent\\ tongue\\,\\ my\\ friend\\,\\ nor\\ upright\\ mind\\ will\\ bear\\ you\\ back\\ to\\ us\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;notice\\ the\\ mention\\ of\\ oratory\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;eloquent\\ tongue\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ things\\ a\\ person\\ could\\ have\\ going\\ for\\ them\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\,\\ Odes\\ Book\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-encapsulates\\ the\\ regret\\ behind\\ Pyrrhic\\ victory\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Our\\ fields\\ are\\ rich\\ with\\ Roman\\ Corpses\\;\\ not\\ one\\ lacks\\ graves\\ to\\ speak\\ against\\ our\\ impious\\ battles\\.\\ Even\\ Parthia\\ can\\ hear\\ the\\ ruin\\ of\\ the\\ West\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leads\\ into\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ that\\ being\\ sick\\ of\\ war\\ only\\ leads\\ you\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ pastoral\\ ideal\\,\\ seize\\ this\\ day\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ have\\ some\\ fun\\ themes\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ my\\ laurel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shade\\ stretch\\ out\\ the\\ bones\\ that\\ long\\ campaigns\\ have\\ made\\ weary\\.\\ Your\\ wine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ waiting\\ for\\ years\\:\\ no\\ hesitating\\!\\ Fill\\ up\\ the\\ polished\\ goblets\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ with\\ memory\\-drowning\\ Massic\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 196\\-209\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\:\\ Epistles\\,\\ 1\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ took\\ up\\ this\\ new\\ style\\ of\\ verse\\ letters\\ to\\ friends\\ after\\ writing\\ Books\\ 1\\-3\\ of\\ Odes\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ poetically\\ advanced\\ as\\ the\\ Odes\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ philosophical\\ in\\ nature\\ so\\ they\\ were\\ still\\ considered\\ a\\ worthy\\ pursuit\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ theme\\ is\\ friendship\\,\\ as\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ this\\ letter\\ to\\ Julius\\ Flores\\.\\ \\ \\;Horace\\ questions\\ Florus\\ about\\ Claudius\\&rsquo\\;\\ pursuits\\ and\\ his\\ own\\ ventures\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ manages\\ to\\ sneak\\ in\\ a\\ couple\\ lines\\ about\\ how\\ composing\\ poetry\\ is\\ the\\ worthiest\\ pursuit\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Propertius\\,\\ Elegies\\ \\(example\\ of\\ third\\ generation\\ of\\ poets\\ during\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ lifetime\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.6\\ To\\ Tullus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ not\\ born\\ for\\ praise\\,\\ not\\ born\\ to\\ carry\\ arms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ the\\ warfare\\ fate\\ would\\ have\\ me\\ bear\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deals\\ with\\ the\\ domina\\ Cynthia\\.\\ \\ \\;About\\ the\\ speaker\\ as\\ a\\ lover\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ warrior\\,\\ the\\ very\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ the\\ third\\ generation\\ of\\ poets\\,\\ who\\ became\\ militarity\\ disengaged\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ write\\ themselves\\ as\\ enslaved\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\ \\(very\\ un\\-Roman\\ in\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ political\\ engagement\\ of\\ the\\ man\\,\\ military\\ service\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ Roman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\autoritas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Tells\\ Tullus\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ my\\ clinging\\ mistress\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ that\\ hold\\ me\\ back\\ \\[from\\ war\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.21\\ On\\ Gallus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.22\\ The\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birthplace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ two\\ poems\\ which\\ deal\\ critically\\ with\\ Rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ civil\\ wars\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ one\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ a\\ dying\\ soldier\\ speaking\\ to\\ a\\ fellow\\ soldier\\ who\\ is\\ about\\ to\\ escape\\,\\ telling\\ him\\ to\\ let\\ his\\ \\(the\\ escaping\\ soldier\\&\\#39\\;s\\)\\ sister\\ that\\ Gallus\\ \\(the\\ dying\\ solider\\)\\ has\\ been\\ killed\\ by\\ \\"\\;some\\ unknown\\ hand\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ second\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ mourns\\ his\\ family\\:\\ \\"\\;you\\ left\\ my\\ kinsman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ scattered\\ limbs\\ to\\ lie\\ and\\ rot\\ \\/\\ you\\ spare\\ no\\ soil\\ to\\ hide\\ the\\ wretch\\&\\#39\\;s\\ bones\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ speaker\\ is\\ speaking\\ to\\ a\\ friend\\,\\ but\\ a\\ friend\\ who\\ has\\ become\\ an\\ enemy\\ in\\ war\\ it\\ seems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\ 15\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ Glorious\\ Night\\ \\(190\\-191\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ a\\ Propertius\\ Love\\ Elegy\\ that\\ Tarrant\\ called\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ overt\\ both\\ in\\ sexual\\ and\\ political\\ terms\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ begins\\ by\\ him\\ getting\\ it\\ on\\ in\\ a\\ bed\\ with\\,\\ we\\ assume\\,\\ his\\ mistress\\ Cynthia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ answer\\ his\\ own\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ good\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ waste\\ love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pleasure\\ in\\ blind\\ groping\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ includes\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ response\\ referencing\\ Actium\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Now\\ if\\ everyone\\ longed\\ to\\ pass\\ their\\ lives\\ this\\ ways\\,\\ and\\ lie\\/\\ with\\ limbs\\ weighed\\ down\\ by\\ drafts\\ of\\ unmixed\\ wine\\,\\/\\ there\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ no\\ wounding\\ swords\\,\\ no\\ mighty\\ battleships\\,\\/\\ our\\ bones\\ would\\ be\\ tossed\\ in\\ Actium\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sea\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;alternative\\ lifestyle\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ he\\ proposes\\,\\ which\\ would\\ prevent\\ any\\ suffering\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Propertius\\ 3\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whimsical\\ handling\\ of\\ Callimechean\\ \\&ldquo\\;poetic\\ initiation\\&rdquo\\;\\ theme\\.\\ \\ \\;Suggests\\ Propertius\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ play\\ with\\ the\\ poetic\\ conventions\\ to\\ which\\ he\\ subscribes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ such\\ a\\ stream\\ to\\ you\\,\\ you\\ silly\\ fool\\?\\ Who\\ said\\/you\\ should\\ take\\ a\\ stab\\ at\\ epic\\ songs\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ obvious\\ that\\ the\\ elegiac\\ form\\ is\\ counter\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ an\\ epic\\,\\ similar\\ image\\ as\\ the\\ road\\ less\\ traveled\\ by\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ write\\ elegy\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ subscribe\\ to\\ previous\\ conventions\\ and\\ the\\ cursus\\ honorum\\ of\\ poetry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*note\\ the\\ elegiac\\ couplet\\,\\ makes\\ such\\ poems\\ easy\\ to\\ identify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Propertius\\ 4\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Propertius\\&rsquo\\;\\ last\\ book\\,\\ a\\ new\\ departure\\ showing\\ desire\\ to\\ write\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ ambitious\\ form\\,\\ combining\\ Roman\\ content\\ and\\ callimichean\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ poem\\ Roman\\ military\\ themes\\ are\\ domesticated\\ and\\ eroticized\\ n\\ letter\\ of\\ wife\\ to\\ absent\\ soldier\\ husband\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;if\\ I\\ can\\ call\\ you\\ mine\\,\\ you\\ are\\ so\\ often\\ gone\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ GIRL\\ IS\\ GRATEFUL\\ FOR\\ HER\\ HUSBAND\\&rsquo\\;S\\ SAFE\\ RETURN\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tibullus\\,\\ Elegies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ how\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ rich\\ if\\ you\\ battle\\ for\\ it\\,\\ but\\ he\\ would\\ rather\\ be\\ poor\\ and\\ relaxed\\ and\\ inactive\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ the\\ frail\\,\\ helpless\\,\\ dreamy\\ ever\\-yearning\\ lover\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\domina\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Delia\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;What\\ pleasure\\ lying\\ there\\ to\\ hear\\ the\\ wind\\/and\\ hold\\ a\\ mistress\\ close\\ in\\ soft\\ embrace\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ perish\\ all\\ the\\ gold\\,\\ every\\ emerald\\ in\\ the\\ world\\/sooner\\ than\\ any\\ girl\\ weep\\ at\\ my\\ voyaging\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ elegy\\ puts\\ Tibullus\\&rsquo\\;\\ patron\\ M\\.\\ Valerius\\ Messalla\\ as\\ the\\ antirole\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\,\\ conquering\\ hero\\ vs\\.\\ enslaved\\ lover\\.\\ Also\\ idealizes\\ countryside\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;hold\\ vast\\ acres\\ of\\ uncultivated\\ land\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sulpicia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Her\\ six\\ poems\\ preserved\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ M\\.\\ Vallerius\\ Messalla\\ Corvinus\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ third\\ generation\\ poets\\,\\ she\\ writes\\ of\\ an\\ elicit\\ affair\\,\\ except\\ her\\ is\\ with\\ a\\ man\\,\\ Cerinthus\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ poems\\ are\\ short\\ like\\ Cataluus\\ more\\ than\\ Propertius\\ or\\ Tibullus\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ obvious\\ to\\ identify\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ short\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\,\\ Amores\\ \\(light\\ poems\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Love\\ elegy\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\domina\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Corinna\\,\\ they\\ have\\ sex\\ in\\ the\\ afternoon\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;she\\ fought\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ wished\\ to\\ lose\\,\\ before\\ too\\ long\\ I\\ won\\ with\\ her\\ consent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Although\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ paint\\ a\\ clear\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ enslaved\\ man\\ that\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ much\\ love\\ elegy\\,\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ the\\ power\\ that\\ the\\ woman\\ has\\ over\\ the\\ man\\.\\ Tarrant\\ calls\\ it\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ coolly\\ calculated\\ afternoon\\ encounter\\ with\\ his\\ mistress\\ Corinna\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Example\\ of\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cool\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ elegy\\,\\ almost\\ mocking\\ it\\,\\ unromantic\\ detatchment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ insanely\\ logical\\ proof\\ that\\ every\\ lover\\ is\\ a\\ soldier\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ lovers\\ are\\ soldiers\\ and\\ serve\\ in\\ Cupid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ camp\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Example\\ of\\ his\\ twist\\ on\\ the\\ basic\\ elegies\\ of\\ Tibullus\\ and\\ Propertius\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ very\\ overt\\ in\\ its\\ un\\-Roman\\ stance\\ of\\ the\\ elegiac\\ poet\\ as\\ a\\ lover\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ fighter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Source\\ Book\\ p\\ 225\\-238\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ars\\ Amatoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Book\\ III\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ars\\ Amatoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;describes\\ how\\ women\\ can\\ attract\\ men\\,\\ and\\ that\\ love\\ needs\\ \\&ldquo\\;art\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ To\\ get\\ men\\,\\ women\\ should\\ make\\ themselves\\ look\\ pretty\\ \\(clothing\\,\\ makeup\\,\\ etc\\)\\;\\ be\\ well\\-read\\ and\\ talented\\;\\ have\\ elegance\\ and\\ taste\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ drunk\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ trust\\ other\\ girls\\;\\ cheat\\ on\\ your\\ husband\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\;\\ and\\ last\\ but\\ not\\ least\\,\\ look\\ attractive\\ during\\ sex\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ fake\\,\\ then\\ fake\\ really\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ idea\\:\\ this\\ is\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ controversial\\ book\\ that\\ parodies\\ men\\,\\ women\\,\\ and\\ sex\\.\\ Possible\\ quotes\\ from\\ Book\\ III\\ would\\ be\\ anything\\ that\\ sounds\\ like\\ advice\\ to\\ women\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ catch\\ a\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ p\\.\\ 239\\-252\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fasti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Books\\ 1\\,\\ 4\\ and\\ 5\\ \\(SB\\ 239\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prof\\.\\ Tarrant\\ gives\\ this\\ overview\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Fasti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ aetiological\\ poem\\ on\\ the\\ Roman\\ Calendar\\,\\ originally\\ planned\\ to\\ comprise\\ 12\\ books\\ \\(one\\ for\\ each\\ month\\)\\ and\\ written\\ \\(apparently\\)\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ contemporaneously\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ like\\ the\\ latter\\,\\ the\\ work\\ was\\ left\\ incomplete\\ when\\ Ovid\\ went\\ into\\ exile\\,\\ though\\ parts\\ were\\ subsequently\\ revised\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ books\\ 1\\-6\\ \\(Jan\\.\\-June\\)\\ survive\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ characterized\\ as\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ least\\ successful\\ work\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Fasti\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\represents\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ attempt\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ truly\\ \\&lsquo\\;Augustan\\&rsquo\\;\\ poem\\:\\ Roman\\ historical\\ and\\ antiquarian\\ themes\\ are\\ here\\ adorned\\ with\\ Hellenistic\\ learning\\ and\\ contemporary\\ allusions\\ glorifying\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pax\\ Augusta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fasti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ easily\\ identifiable\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ emphasis\\ on\\ dates\\,\\ rituals\\,\\ and\\ astrological\\ symbols\\,\\ especially\\ because\\ the\\ Sourcbook\\ only\\ contains\\ the\\ first\\ bit\\ of\\ January\\ \\(bk\\ 1\\)\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ April\\ and\\ May\\ \\(bks\\ 4\\ and\\ 5\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Titles\\ within\\ books\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;23\\ April\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;25\\ April\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lines\\ of\\ latin\\ poetry\\ are\\ long\\ and\\ regular\\,\\ taking\\ up\\ exactly\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ English\\ text\\ each\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ovid\\ gives\\ this\\ line\\ of\\ explanation\\ in\\ his\\ introduction\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ arms\\ be\\ a\\ theme\\ for\\ others\\,\\ mine\\ is\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ altars\\/and\\ the\\ days\\ he\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ ritual\\ year\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biggest\\ story\\ occurs\\ on\\ 21\\ April\\,\\ when\\ Ovid\\ first\\ describes\\ the\\ festival\\ of\\ Pales\\ \\(kindly\\ Pales\\,\\ indulge\\ me\\ as\\ I\\ sing\\ of\\ your\\ pastoral\\ rites\\)\\ with\\ details\\ of\\ ritual\\ sacrifices\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\ fumigant\\ will\\ be\\ blood\\ of\\ horse\\ and\\ ash\\ of\\ calf\\;\\/the\\ third\\ ingredient\\ is\\ a\\ tough\\ bean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ empty\\ stalk\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ then\\ with\\ accompanying\\ prayers\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;may\\ I\\ milk\\ full\\ udders\\,\\ may\\ I\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\ on\\ cheese\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Ovid\\ then\\ meditates\\ on\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ the\\ festival\\,\\ telling\\ a\\ story\\ by\\ which\\ Romulus\\ took\\ control\\ of\\ Rome\\ not\\ by\\ killing\\ his\\ brother\\ but\\ by\\ augury\\.\\ \\ \\;Remus\\ jumped\\ over\\ the\\ walls\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ their\\ ineffectiveness\\ and\\ was\\ accidently\\ killed\\.\\ \\ \\;Romulus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mourning\\ for\\ him\\ founded\\ the\\ festival\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ city\\ arose\\ \\(who\\ could\\ have\\ believed\\ this\\ prediction\\?\\)\\/destined\\ to\\ trample\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ conquest\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;That\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ furthest\\ Ovid\\ ever\\ strays\\ from\\ listing\\ dates\\ and\\ rituals\\ in\\ this\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tristia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;sorrowful\\ poems\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\(SB\\ 249\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ sourcebook\\ gives\\ only\\ the\\ first\\ poem\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tristia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;books\\,\\ written\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exile\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ books\\ are\\ addressed\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\,\\ and\\ other\\ \\(unnamed\\)\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Details\\ of\\ the\\ only\\ poem\\ we\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ addressed\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ poetry\\ itself\\ \\(first\\ line\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Little\\ book\\,\\ you\\ will\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ city\\ without\\ me\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ovid\\ instructs\\ his\\ book\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;careful\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;timid\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ city\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ obeisance\\ to\\ Augustus\\,\\ and\\ tells\\ it\\ to\\ distance\\ itself\\ from\\ his\\ other\\ works\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ essentially\\ begging\\ forgiveness\\ from\\ Augustus\\ and\\ the\\ gods\\ in\\ an\\ extremely\\ humble\\ manner\\,\\ in\\ the\\ introduction\\ to\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ poems\\ that\\ expound\\ the\\ miseries\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ exile\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ an\\ easily\\ recognizable\\ and\\ fairly\\ self\\-explanatory\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Elder\\ Seneca\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Declamations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ A\\.\\ Controversia\\ 1\\.7\\,\\ The\\ Tyrannicide\\ the\\ Pirates\\ Let\\ Go\\.\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\,\\ Children\\ must\\ support\\ their\\ parents\\,\\ or\\ be\\ imprisoned\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ assignment\\ Roman\\ schoolboys\\ would\\ have\\ had\\,\\ in\\ which\\ students\\ are\\ given\\ the\\ facts\\ of\\ a\\ legal\\ dispute\\ and\\ have\\ to\\ speak\\ arguing\\ one\\ side\\ or\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Elder\\ Seneca\\ gives\\ us\\ both\\ the\\ problem\\ and\\ a\\ detailed\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ debated\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ problem\\ is\\ short\\ enough\\ that\\ I\\ will\\ transcribe\\ it\\ here\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ man\\ killed\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ brothers\\,\\ a\\ tyrant\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ caught\\ the\\ other\\ brother\\ in\\ adultery\\ and\\ killed\\ him\\ despite\\ the\\ pleas\\ of\\ his\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;Captured\\ by\\ pirates\\,\\ he\\ wrote\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ asking\\ about\\ a\\ ransom\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ father\\ wrote\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ the\\ pirates\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ give\\ them\\ double\\ if\\ they\\ cut\\ off\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hands\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ pirates\\ let\\ him\\ go\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ father\\ is\\ now\\ in\\ need\\;\\ the\\ son\\ is\\ not\\ supporting\\ him\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ debate\\ goes\\ on\\ for\\ two\\ an\\ a\\ half\\ pages\\,\\ exhibiting\\ some\\ fine\\ Roman\\ rhetoric\\,\\ but\\ it\\ again\\ is\\ easily\\ recognized\\ by\\ frequent\\ references\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ p\\.\\ 253\\-264\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seneca\\:\\ Declamation\\ B\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Suasoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Antony\\ Promises\\ to\\ Spare\\ Cicero\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Life\\ if\\ he\\ Burns\\ his\\ Writings\\:\\ Cicero\\ Deliberates\\ whether\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ \\(SB\\ 253\\-4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\(This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ rhetorical\\ exercise\\ taught\\ during\\ Augustan\\ times\\.\\ This\\ selection\\ excerpts\\ the\\ advice\\ two\\ students\\ offered\\ to\\ Cicero\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ Student\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ put\\ up\\ with\\ Antony\\,\\ giving\\ in\\ to\\ him\\ this\\ time\\ will\\ only\\ mean\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ find\\ another\\ excuse\\ to\\ kill\\ you\\ later\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Giving\\ in\\ to\\ Antony\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ ultimate\\ defeat\\&mdash\\;it\\ would\\ mean\\ disavowing\\ your\\ genius\\ and\\ your\\ past\\,\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ two\\ things\\ Antony\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ you\\,\\ only\\ you\\ can\\ surrender\\ to\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ under\\ Caesar\\&mdash\\;a\\ just\\ ruler\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worth\\ staying\\ alive\\,\\ but\\ why\\ live\\ just\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\ to\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cruel\\ despotism\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ Student\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ disavow\\ your\\ past\\ wisdom\\ and\\ achievements\\,\\ after\\ all\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ done\\!\\ If\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ killed\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ buried\\ alongside\\ the\\ greatest\\ men\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pardon\\ would\\ be\\ equivalent\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;purchasing\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ one\\ man\\ at\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ a\\ public\\ loss\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Death\\ is\\ inevitable\\ and\\ natural\\,\\ you\\ said\\ so\\ yourself\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ to\\ die\\ is\\ the\\ end\\ set\\ by\\ nature\\,\\ not\\ a\\ punishment\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claim\\ your\\ freedom\\,\\ die\\,\\ and\\ make\\ Antony\\ guiltier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\ in\\ Heaven\\,\\ \\(Satire\\ by\\ Seneca\\ the\\ younger\\ after\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Claudius\\&mdash\\;54\\ A\\.D\\.\\)\\ \\(SB\\ 256\\-7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Scene\\ is\\ an\\ assembly\\ of\\ Gods\\ on\\ Olympus\\,\\ Augustus\\ among\\ them\\.\\ They\\ debate\\ whether\\ to\\ let\\ in\\ Claudius\\,\\ who\\ was\\ nominated\\ by\\ Hercules\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ god\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deliberation\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ Roman\\ Senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ opinion\\ was\\ spoke\\ by\\ Janus\\:\\ Once\\ being\\ a\\ god\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ thing\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cheapened\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ handed\\ out\\ to\\ too\\ many\\.\\ Solution\\ is\\ \\ \\;to\\ ban\\ mortals\\ from\\ becoming\\ Gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diespiter\\ spoke\\ next\\-\\ Claudius\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ Augustus\\ by\\ blood\\,\\ therefore\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ deified\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wiser\\ than\\ all\\ the\\ mortals\\,\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ let\\ in\\ to\\ challenge\\ Romulus\\ to\\ a\\ turnip\\ eating\\ contest\\ \\(allusion\\ to\\ a\\ satiric\\ description\\ of\\ deified\\ Romulus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\ then\\ spoke\\:\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ civil\\ wars\\ just\\ so\\ Claudius\\ could\\ go\\ executing\\ people\\ without\\ a\\ just\\ trial\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ MY\\ descendents\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ worthy\\ of\\ entrance\\ into\\ the\\ Gods\\.\\ Who\\ will\\ worship\\ him\\,\\ anyways\\?\\!\\!\\ Claudius\\ should\\ be\\ punished\\ according\\ to\\ due\\ process\\ of\\ law\\ for\\ those\\ he\\ killed\\,\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ kicked\\ out\\ of\\ Olympus\\ and\\ heaven\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gods\\ vote\\ to\\ kick\\ out\\ Claudius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Roman\\ Funeral\\ Eulogy\\ \\(The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Eulogy\\ of\\ Turia\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\(SB\\ 258\\-60\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Funeral\\ Eulogy\\ written\\ by\\ Consul\\ Lucretius\\ Vespillo\\ for\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ who\\ saved\\ him\\ during\\ the\\ proscriptions\\ of\\ 42\\ BC\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Praises\\ her\\ piety\\ following\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ her\\ family\\ because\\ she\\ relentlessly\\ pursued\\ the\\ guilty\\ and\\ brought\\ them\\ to\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ marriage\\ was\\ unique\\-\\ long\\,\\ ended\\ by\\ death\\,\\ not\\ divorce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ praises\\ her\\ virtues\\ as\\ a\\ wife\\:\\ modesty\\,\\ deference\\,\\ affability\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;attendance\\ to\\ your\\ weaving\\&rdquo\\;\\ religion\\,\\ elegance\\ and\\ simplicity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ had\\ a\\ big\\ inheritance\\,\\ he\\ thanks\\ her\\ for\\ letting\\ him\\ manage\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helped\\ her\\ female\\ daughters\\ and\\ nieces\\ get\\ married\\ by\\ paying\\ for\\ their\\ dowries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helped\\ him\\ escape\\ by\\ selling\\ her\\ jewels\\,\\ hid\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ roof\\ of\\ her\\ bedroom\\&mdash\\;a\\ very\\ brave\\ and\\ dangerous\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ rescuing\\ him\\,\\ she\\ endured\\ the\\ taunts\\ of\\ Marcus\\ Lepidus\\,\\ when\\ she\\ asked\\ him\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;rehabilitate\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ reputation\\ of\\ her\\ husband\\ who\\ was\\ then\\ revealed\\ as\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ tried\\ to\\ kill\\ her\\ husband\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\,\\ she\\ was\\ too\\ old\\ to\\ bear\\ kids\\,\\ offered\\ to\\ leave\\ her\\ husband\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ marry\\ a\\ younger\\ woman\\,\\ he\\ refused\\,\\ and\\ adopted\\ a\\ daughter\\ after\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Texts\\ Illustrating\\ Roman\\ Religious\\ Ideas\\ \\(Lecture\\ XXI\\)\\ \\(SB\\ 262\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Elder\\ Cato\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Agriculture\\,\\ 141\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ purify\\ land\\,\\ pray\\ to\\ Janus\\ and\\ Jupiter\\ with\\ wine\\,\\ ask\\ for\\ Father\\ Mars\\ to\\ have\\ mercy\\ and\\ ward\\ off\\ destruction\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ permit\\ a\\ good\\ harvest\\.\\ Then\\ sacrifice\\ a\\ few\\ livestock\\ to\\ Mars\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cicero\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Nature\\ of\\ the\\ Gods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ figure\\ out\\ nature\\ of\\ gods\\,\\ first\\ must\\ determine\\ if\\ they\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difficult\\ to\\ know\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ they\\ exist\\ for\\ sure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ as\\ a\\ high\\ priest\\ \\(pontifex\\)\\,\\ it\\ would\\ make\\ it\\ very\\ nice\\ to\\ know\\ gods\\ exist\\,\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ but\\ wonder\\ sometimes\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ gods\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cicero\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ defense\\ of\\ Flaccus\\,\\ 59\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ state\\ has\\ own\\ religious\\ practices\\,\\ Rome\\ has\\ its\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jerusalem\\ and\\ the\\ Jews\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ Roman\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ have\\ rebelled\\ and\\ been\\ crushed\\,\\ the\\ gods\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ favor\\ the\\ Jews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acts\\ of\\ the\\ Apostles\\ \\(from\\ the\\ Bible\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Delivered\\ as\\ a\\ rabble\\-roulsing\\ speech\\ by\\ Demetrius\\,\\ a\\ silversmith\\)\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ angry\\ at\\ St\\.\\ Paul\\,\\ who\\ denounces\\ the\\ Gods\\ he\\ makes\\ as\\ false\\ idols\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ made\\ by\\ hand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ threatens\\ his\\ livelihood\\ as\\ a\\ silversmith\\,\\ and\\ also\\ disrespects\\ Diana\\ and\\ diminishes\\ her\\ prestige\\ in\\ Asia\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ appeal\\ to\\ Isis\\:\\ from\\ Apuleius\\&rsquo\\;s\\ novel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Golden\\ Ass\\ \\(160\\-80\\ AD\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;compare\\ to\\ similar\\ scenes\\ in\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Metamorphoses\\ in\\ Book\\ 9\\ \\(p\\.\\ 229\\-233\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\queen\\ of\\ heaven\\,\\ whoever\\ you\\ may\\ be\\,\\ Ceres\\,\\ Venus\\,\\ Diana\\,\\ Proserpina\\,\\ whoever\\,\\ protect\\ me\\,\\ and\\ strengthen\\ me\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ my\\ fallen\\ fortune\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Isis\\ Replies\\:\\ I\\ have\\ answered\\ your\\ prayers\\.\\ I\\ am\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ all\\ universe\\.\\ My\\ one\\ person\\ manifests\\ all\\ gods\\ and\\ goddesses\\.\\ I\\ will\\ save\\ you\\,\\ lead\\ you\\ to\\ heaven\\,\\ where\\ you\\ will\\ worship\\ me\\ alone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Shows\\ significance\\ of\\ Isis\\-worship\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ state\\ religion\\ of\\ Rome\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\AN\\ Epigram\\ of\\ Augustus\\ on\\ Fulvia\\ \\(SB\\ 263\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Written\\ by\\ Martial\\ in\\ 100\\ AD\\,\\ he\\ replies\\ to\\ an\\ imagined\\ reader\\ shocked\\ by\\ Martial\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ profanity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martial\\,\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Grim\\ censor\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;bad\\ language\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ quotes\\ an\\ epigram\\ of\\ Octavian\\ written\\ in\\ 41\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Octavian\\ pretends\\ that\\ Fulvia\\ \\(wife\\ of\\ Antony\\)\\ is\\ angry\\ at\\ Antony\\ for\\ an\\ affair\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ having\\ and\\ asks\\ Octavian\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ affair\\ with\\ her\\ for\\ revenge\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ Fulvia\\ in\\ spite\\,\\ wants\\ me\\ to\\ fight\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ big\\ fan\\ of\\ the\\ idea\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fuck\\ or\\ fight\\!\\ She\\ says\\.\\ Well\\,\\ even\\ more\\/\\ Than\\ life\\ to\\ me\\&rsquo\\;s\\ my\\ precious\\ cock\\.\\ To\\ war\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Invective\\ from\\ the\\ Siege\\ of\\ Perugia\\ \\(SB\\ 263\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Inscriptions\\ on\\ lead\\ sling\\ bullets\\ left\\ over\\ from\\ Siege\\ of\\ Perugia\\ in\\ which\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ trapped\\ Fulvia\\,\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\ inside\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Yo\\,\\ cocksucker\\ Octavian\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Destination\\:\\ Fulvia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cunt\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hey\\ fulvia\\ and\\ baldy\\ Lucious\\:\\ open\\ wide\\ behind\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ comin\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ Romans\\ were\\ vulgar\\ sons\\ o\\&rsquo\\;\\ Bitches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anecdotes\\ of\\ Julia\\ \\(SB\\ 263\\-4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Stories\\ about\\ Julia\\ told\\ in\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuryAD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ was\\ 37\\ when\\ she\\ disgraced\\ herself\\.\\ Dual\\ aspect\\ of\\ her\\ character\\:\\ both\\ learned\\ and\\ studious\\,\\ with\\ good\\ will\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ lived\\ fast\\ and\\ loose\\ with\\ companions\\ and\\ parties\\.\\ Augustus\\ tried\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ her\\ as\\ free\\ spirited\\ but\\ innocent\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ 2\\ spoiled\\ daughters\\:\\ The\\ Republic\\ and\\ Julia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Julia\\ wears\\ a\\ sexy\\ dress\\ one\\ day\\,\\ and\\ a\\ modest\\ one\\ the\\ next\\ when\\ seeing\\ Augustus\\,\\ noting\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;today\\ I\\ dressed\\ for\\ my\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ but\\ yesterday\\ for\\ my\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plain\\ life\\,\\ noting\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ forgets\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Caesar\\,\\ but\\ I\\ remember\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ p\\.\\ 265\\-279\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ Decline\\ and\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ Edward\\ Gibbon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Every\\ barrier\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ constitution\\ had\\ been\\ leveled\\ by\\ the\\ vast\\ ambition\\ of\\ the\\ dictator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ Augustus\\ professed\\ himself\\ as\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ his\\ country\\,\\ he\\ destroyed\\ the\\ independence\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ state\\ where\\ the\\ legislative\\ power\\ is\\ nominated\\ by\\ the\\ executive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ dangerous\\ to\\ trust\\ the\\ sincerity\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ but\\ to\\ distrust\\ it\\ was\\ still\\ more\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ constitutional\\ for\\ the\\ general\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ armies\\ to\\ receive\\ and\\ exercise\\ an\\ authority\\ almost\\ despotic\\ over\\ the\\ soldiers\\,\\ the\\ enemies\\,\\ and\\ the\\ subjects\\ of\\ the\\ republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ customary\\ for\\ the\\ Senate\\ to\\ blend\\ the\\ ceremonies\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apotheosis\\ with\\ his\\ funeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ death\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ was\\ ever\\ before\\ his\\ eyes\\,\\ as\\ although\\ he\\ crafted\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ liberty\\ for\\ the\\ people\\,\\ he\\ lavished\\ wealth\\ and\\ honors\\ on\\ his\\ favored\\ friends\\,\\ some\\ of\\ whom\\ where\\ the\\ eventual\\ conspirators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ period\\ in\\ history\\ which\\ brought\\ the\\ most\\ happiness\\ and\\ prosperity\\ for\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Domitian\\ to\\ the\\ accession\\ of\\ Commodus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ almost\\ superfluous\\ to\\ enumerate\\ the\\ unworthy\\ successors\\ of\\ Augustus\\:\\ the\\ dark\\ and\\ unrelenting\\ Tiberius\\,\\ the\\ furious\\ Caligula\\,\\ the\\ stupid\\ Claudius\\,\\ the\\ profligate\\ and\\ cruel\\ Nero\\,\\ the\\ beastly\\ Vitellus\\,\\ and\\ the\\ timid\\ inhuman\\ Domitian\\ are\\ condemned\\ to\\ everlasting\\ infamy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ the\\ knowledge\\ and\\ free\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ Romans\\,\\ when\\ tyrants\\ ruined\\ the\\ Roman\\ legacy\\,\\ the\\ extent\\ of\\ their\\ empire\\ left\\ them\\ no\\ place\\ of\\ refuge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\,\\ pp\\ 280\\-295\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Princeps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ pretty\\ jargon\\-heavy\\ historical\\ account\\ of\\ Octavian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ and\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ power\\ after\\ Octavian\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;giving\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ power\\ after\\ his\\ consulship\\ was\\ only\\ true\\ in\\ name\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ public\\ and\\ senate\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ him\\ as\\ emperor\\ and\\ at\\ their\\ service\\,\\ but\\ he\\ thought\\ it\\ time\\ to\\ step\\ down\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Romulus\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ considered\\ as\\ a\\ title\\ to\\ honor\\ him\\ with\\,\\ but\\ that\\ connoted\\ kingship\\,\\ absolute\\ power\\,\\ and\\ murder\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ founding\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ that\\ name\\ was\\ tossed\\ out\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ had\\ a\\ special\\ affinity\\ to\\ authority\\,\\ precedence\\,\\ transition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mos\\ maiorum\\ for\\ short\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ very\\ amenable\\ to\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Augustus\\ would\\ accept\\ no\\ position\\ that\\ seemed\\ in\\ contradiction\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;mos\\ maioru\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\ was\\ different\\ than\\ Pompeius\\ Magnus\\,\\ a\\ power\\ hungry\\,\\ quasi\\-dictatorial\\ leader\\ in\\ Rome\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ consul\\ three\\ times\\ until\\ 52\\ BC\\,\\ even\\ without\\ a\\ colleague\\ at\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\.\\ was\\ more\\ aware\\ of\\ keeping\\ appearances\\,\\ and\\ would\\ not\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ remind\\ people\\ of\\ earlier\\ dictators\\ of\\ that\\ sort\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ power\\ of\\ Augustus\\ led\\ writers\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ avoid\\ saying\\ anything\\ negative\\ about\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;father\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ power\\ after\\ and\\ in\\ between\\ his\\ consulships\\ was\\ mainly\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\auctoritas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ influence\\ that\\ by\\ custom\\ belonged\\ to\\ senior\\ statesman\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\principes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ of\\ which\\ A\\.\\ was\\ the\\ greatest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ of\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ provinces\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Asia\\ and\\ Africa\\ \\-\\ were\\ so\\ large\\,\\ they\\ were\\ ruled\\ by\\ proconsuls\\ who\\ had\\ consular\\ rank\\ in\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\.\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ point\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\novi\\ homines\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;got\\ experience\\ in\\ government\\-\\ they\\ could\\ work\\ their\\ way\\ up\\ to\\ proconsul\\ pretty\\ quickly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ shared\\ the\\ consulship\\ with\\ A\\.\\ over\\ the\\ years\\ played\\ a\\ much\\ smaller\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ decisions\\ than\\ A\\.\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ paper\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ is\\ a\\ truly\\ Roman\\ epic\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;instinct\\ with\\ a\\ Roman\\ sensibility\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Aeneas\\ shows\\ pietas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ awareness\\ and\\ acceptance\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;laborious\\&rdquo\\;\\ fate\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ Italy\\.\\ \\ \\;Aeneas\\ is\\ not\\ your\\ typical\\ Greek\\ adventurer\\-\\ he\\ takes\\ on\\ his\\ mission\\ out\\ of\\ duty\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ not\\ personally\\ happy\\ with\\ his\\ mission\\,\\ but\\ recognizes\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ of\\ fate\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ shows\\ less\\ passion\\ than\\ Greek\\ heroes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Aeneid\\ is\\ moving\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ us\\ loneliness\\,\\ suffering\\ and\\ defeat\\.\\ \\ \\;Aeneas\\ finally\\ wins\\ and\\ founds\\ Rome\\,\\ but\\ at\\ a\\ huge\\ cost\\ to\\ himself\\-\\ he\\ loses\\ all\\ personal\\ attachments\\ except\\ to\\ his\\ son\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poem\\ ends\\ with\\ no\\ sense\\ of\\ triumph\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ awareness\\ that\\ Aeneas\\ has\\ fulfilled\\ his\\ destiny\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ Roman\\ history\\ via\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ is\\ not\\ propaganda\\ \\(it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ list\\ what\\ Rome\\ achieved\\)\\ nor\\ sentimental\\ \\(the\\ cost\\ of\\ such\\ achievement\\ is\\ not\\ focused\\ on\\ either\\.\\)\\ Virgil\\ rather\\ reflects\\ an\\ overall\\ sense\\ of\\ Pyrrhic\\ victory\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ spirit\\ which\\ has\\ defined\\ Rome\\ and\\ Romans\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ending\\ is\\ not\\ optimistic\\ but\\ rather\\ somber\\,\\ with\\ a\\ memorial\\ of\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nephew\\ Marcellus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 296\\-305\\:\\ Poetry\\ and\\ Power\\:\\ Virgil\\&\\#39\\;s\\ poetry\\ in\\ contemporary\\ context\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virgil\\ was\\ very\\ closely\\ connected\\ with\\ political\\ figures\\ \\(Augustus\\,\\ Maecenas\\)\\ and\\ his\\ poetry\\ is\\ political\\,\\ though\\ it\\ maintains\\ a\\ certain\\ distance\\ from\\ realities\\ that\\ give\\ them\\ ambivalent\\ or\\ multivocal\\ viewpoints\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beginnings\\ of\\ Roman\\ poetry\\ was\\ political\\,\\ though\\ the\\ new\\ poets\\ \\(esp\\.\\ Catullus\\)\\ challenged\\ that\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ new\\ personal\\,\\ refined\\ poetry\\.\\ \\ \\;Virgil\\ started\\ off\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ poet\\,\\ though\\ he\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ Aeneid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eclogues\\:\\ Poems\\ allude\\ to\\ Caesar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ assassination\\ and\\ deification\\ \\(5\\)\\,\\ to\\ land\\ confiscations\\ after\\ Philippi\\ \\(1\\,\\ 9\\)\\,\\ to\\ the\\ pact\\ of\\ Brundisium\\ \\(4\\)\\,\\ but\\ each\\ is\\ transformed\\ into\\ pastoral\\ terms\\ that\\ soften\\ and\\ distance\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ no\\ strong\\ indication\\ of\\ partisanship\\ \\(Octavian\\ vs\\.\\ Antony\\)\\,\\ and\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\ viewpoints\\ are\\ equally\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ linear\\ \\"\\;plot\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ arrangements\\ of\\ the\\ poems\\,\\ so\\ different\\ readings\\ can\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Georgics\\:\\ Even\\ harder\\ to\\ write\\ because\\ partisanship\\ was\\ \\"\\;required\\"\\;\\ during\\ the\\ 30s\\,\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\ between\\ Octavian\\ and\\ Antony\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ avoids\\ the\\ recent\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(1\\)\\ and\\ \\(3\\)\\ picture\\ Octavian\\ as\\ a\\ god\\-to\\-be\\,\\ but\\ the\\ overall\\ mood\\ is\\ still\\ colored\\ by\\ uncertainty\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ is\\ all\\-powerful\\,\\ but\\ how\\ will\\ he\\ use\\ that\\ power\\?\\ \\ \\;These\\ are\\ poems\\ about\\ farming\\,\\ but\\ the\\ earth\\ is\\ sometimes\\ abundant\\ and\\ other\\ times\\ futile\\-\\-negative\\ and\\ positive\\ coexist\\.\\ \\ \\;Makes\\ a\\ promise\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ Octavian\\,\\ but\\ them\\ defers\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ Aeneid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aeneid\\:\\ At\\ 3\\ points\\,\\ there\\ are\\ prophetic\\ visions\\ that\\ reveal\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ recent\\ past\\ or\\ present\\ of\\ Virgil\\&\\#39\\;s\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allows\\ for\\ connections\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ between\\ the\\ heroic\\ and\\ Augustan\\ spheres\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ all\\ three\\ prophecies\\ are\\ told\\ not\\ by\\ him\\ \\(the\\ author\\)\\ but\\ by\\ others\\ \\(Jupiter\\,\\ Anchises\\,\\ Vulcan\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Aeneas\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ character\\ independent\\ of\\ Augustus\\ \\(Dido\\ links\\ him\\ to\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ last\\ 6\\ books\\ on\\ the\\ war\\ betwen\\ the\\ Trojans\\ and\\ the\\ Latins\\ are\\ supposedly\\ references\\ to\\ the\\ Iliad\\ of\\ Homer\\,\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ tell\\ of\\ a\\ civil\\ war\\ \\(like\\ the\\ ones\\ Rome\\ went\\ through\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ Republic\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ feeling\\ of\\ triumph\\ in\\ these\\ battles\\ and\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ revulsion\\ at\\ war\\ that\\ should\\ never\\ have\\ happened\\.\\ \\ \\;Losses\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ are\\ treated\\ with\\ sympathy\\,\\ and\\ Aeneas\\&\\#39\\;s\\ killing\\ of\\ Turnus\\ is\\ quite\\ savage\\ and\\ a\\ depressing\\ ending\\.\\ \\ \\;Pyrrhic\\ victory\\-\\-sense\\ of\\ quiet\\ despair\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ faith\\ in\\ Rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ future\\?\\ \\ \\;Either\\ way\\,\\ poem\\ is\\ ambivalent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\ basically\\,\\ Virgil\\ does\\ praise\\ Augustus\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ \\"\\;client\\"\\;\\ and\\ had\\ freedom\\ in\\ expressing\\ his\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ wanted\\ \\(non\\-panegyric\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ contemporaries\\ at\\ that\\ time\\ were\\ also\\ very\\ uncertain\\ about\\ Rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ future\\,\\ so\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ natural\\ that\\ these\\ aspects\\ come\\ out\\ in\\ his\\ poems\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ to\\ how\\ Virgil\\ is\\ read\\ in\\ modern\\ day\\,\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ Augustus\\ is\\ portrayed\\-\\-an\\ enlightened\\ ruler\\ or\\ a\\ despotic\\ tyrant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\ 306\\-320\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Emperor\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ World\\ \\(31BC\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 337AD\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ Fergus\\ Miller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cornelius\\ Fronto\\ makes\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ attempts\\ which\\ survive\\ in\\ the\\ literature\\ to\\ define\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ duties\\ and\\ functions\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Therefore\\ consider\\ whether\\ in\\ this\\ second\\ category\\ of\\ duties\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ eloquence\\ should\\ be\\ included\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ the\\ duties\\ of\\ emperors\\ are\\:\\ to\\ urge\\ necessary\\ steps\\ in\\ the\\ senate\\;\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ people\\ on\\ very\\ many\\ matters\\ in\\ public\\ meetings\\;\\ to\\ correct\\ the\\ injustices\\ of\\ the\\ law\\;\\ to\\ send\\ letters\\ to\\ all\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ globe\\;\\ to\\ bring\\ compulsion\\ to\\ bear\\ on\\ kings\\ of\\ foreign\\ nations\\;\\ to\\ repress\\ by\\ their\\ edicts\\ the\\ faults\\ of\\ the\\ provincials\\,\\ give\\ praise\\ to\\ good\\ actions\\,\\ quell\\ the\\ seditious\\ and\\ terrify\\ the\\ fierce\\ ones\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ these\\ are\\ assuredly\\ things\\ to\\ be\\ achieved\\ by\\ words\\ and\\ letters\\.\\ \\ \\;Will\\ you\\ therefore\\ not\\ practice\\ a\\ skill\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ will\\ be\\ of\\ great\\ service\\ to\\ you\\ on\\ so\\ many\\ and\\ such\\ important\\ occasions\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eloquentia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ seen\\ as\\ something\\ practices\\ by\\ the\\ emperor\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ the\\ expectation\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\eloquentia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ emperor\\ should\\ be\\ his\\ own\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ Nero\\ had\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ speeches\\ written\\ by\\ Seneca\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ Nero\\ onward\\,\\ many\\ emperors\\ began\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ speeches\\ written\\ by\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constantine\\ was\\ a\\ notable\\ exception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emperors\\ were\\ judged\\ partly\\ on\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ give\\ orations\\,\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ upper\\-class\\ educational\\ emphasis\\ on\\ oratory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imperial\\ pronouncements\\ could\\ take\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\edictum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subscription\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\constitutio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Miller\\ does\\ not\\ define\\ these\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provincial\\ governors\\ often\\ wrote\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\ to\\ inquire\\ about\\ judicial\\ matters\\,\\ and\\ they\\ would\\ take\\ no\\ action\\ until\\ hearing\\ back\\ from\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ public\\ roles\\ were\\ of\\ the\\ utmost\\ importance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Business\\ began\\ before\\ dawn\\ and\\ only\\ lasted\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ received\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\libelli\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(embassies\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ festivals\\ were\\ important\\ opportunities\\ for\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ for\\ they\\ provided\\ the\\ major\\ context\\ for\\ his\\ most\\ direct\\ interactions\\ with\\ the\\ public\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;The\\ reception\\ of\\ embassies\\ and\\ handling\\ of\\ correspondence\\ was\\ closely\\ linked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Embassy\\ appears\\ before\\ emperor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emperor\\ issues\\ his\\ ruling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;follow\\-up\\ letter\\ to\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Handling\\ correspondence\\ was\\ an\\ overwhelming\\ job\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ an\\ emperor\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ complete\\ letter\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ hand\\ it\\ had\\ either\\ to\\ belong\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ an\\ entirely\\ private\\ correspondence\\,\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ deliberate\\ indication\\ of\\ special\\ goodwill\\ or\\ favor\\,\\ or\\ a\\ formal\\ diplomatic\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ persons\\ who\\ were\\ not\\ senators\\ or\\ equestrian\\ officials\\ could\\ write\\ letters\\ to\\ the\\ emperors\\ or\\ receive\\ letters\\ from\\ them\\,\\ that\\ was\\ a\\ rare\\ and\\ signal\\ honor\\,\\ which\\ they\\ would\\ often\\ advertise\\ either\\ verbally\\ of\\ on\\ inscriptions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Embassies\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ make\\ suitable\\ orations\\ before\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ after\\ finally\\ receiving\\ a\\ hearing\\ before\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cognitiones\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legal\\ hearings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ dispute\\ between\\ embassies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ the\\ convention\\,\\ at\\ least\\ into\\ the\\ later\\ second\\ century\\,\\ that\\ emperors\\ ought\\ at\\ least\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ compose\\ their\\ own\\ letters\\ and\\ edicts\\,\\ as\\ they\\ should\\ their\\ own\\ speeches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ normal\\ practice\\ for\\ an\\ emperor\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ complete\\ official\\ correspondence\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ hand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperors\\ would\\ sometimes\\ \\&lsquo\\;subscribe\\&rsquo\\;\\ a\\ letter\\ by\\ adding\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ not\\ a\\ signature\\,\\ but\\ a\\ greeting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ thus\\ quite\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ emperor\\ was\\ both\\ in\\ principle\\ and\\ in\\ practice\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ imperial\\ letters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ question\\ cannot\\ rest\\ there\\,\\ however\\,\\ for\\ the\\ emperor\\ did\\ not\\ work\\ in\\ isolation\\,\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ surrounded\\ him\\ cannot\\ but\\ have\\ had\\ some\\ influence\\ on\\ the\\ content\\ and\\ composition\\ of\\ his\\ letters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ do\\ not\\ hear\\ of\\ imperial\\ \\&lsquo\\;secretaries\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ free\\ birth\\ concerned\\ with\\ pronouncements\\ in\\ Greek\\ until\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ Claudius\\;\\ and\\ in\\ neither\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ cases\\ is\\ the\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ title\\ entirely\\ clear\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Letter\\-writing\\ has\\ a\\ close\\ connection\\ with\\ rhetoric\\,\\ and\\ correct\\ classical\\ vocabulary\\ is\\ importance\\ in\\ both\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legal\\ sources\\ occasionally\\ indicate\\ that\\ imperial\\ letters\\ to\\ Greek\\ cities\\ or\\ provincial\\ councils\\ were\\ written\\ in\\ Greek\\,\\ or\\ quote\\ from\\ rescripts\\ in\\ Greek\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ very\\ beginning\\,\\ the\\ giving\\ of\\ justice\\ was\\ an\\ essential\\ element\\ in\\ the\\ role\\ played\\ by\\ the\\ emperors\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ essentially\\ routine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Source\\ Book\\ \\(pg\\ 321\\-340\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Between\\ Republic\\ and\\ Empire\\:\\ Interpretations\\ of\\ Augustus\\ and\\ His\\ Principate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ there\\ was\\ some\\ evidence\\ of\\ opposition\\ to\\ Augustus\\ found\\ through\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ individuals\\ like\\ V\\.\\ Paterculus\\,\\ Pliny\\ the\\ Elder\\,\\ Tacitus\\,\\ Suetonius\\,\\ and\\ Dio\\ Cassius\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ opposition\\ manifested\\ itself\\ in\\ two\\ forms\\:\\ political\\ and\\ intellectual\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ political\\ side\\ were\\ those\\ whose\\ family\\ glory\\ had\\ been\\ denied\\ \\(M\\.\\ Lepidus\\)\\,\\ those\\ whose\\ ambitions\\ were\\ unacceptable\\ \\(Gallus\\ and\\ Crassus\\)\\,\\ and\\ those\\ whose\\ opposition\\ was\\ indicative\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ struggles\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Palastrevolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ struggle\\ to\\ control\\ and\\ influence\\ succession\\ and\\ all\\ connected\\ with\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;within\\ the\\ imperial\\ family\\ and\\ were\\ later\\ denounced\\ \\(the\\ elder\\ and\\ younger\\ Julia\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ the\\ Senate\\ resisted\\ Augustus\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ his\\ purges\\ \\(decreasing\\ size\\ of\\ Senate\\)\\,\\ assumption\\ of\\ extraordinary\\ offices\\ by\\ Augustus\\ or\\ his\\ associated\\,\\ and\\ resisted\\ any\\ legislation\\ that\\ negatively\\ affected\\ social\\ or\\ financial\\ privileges\\ of\\ the\\ senators\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ intellectual\\ side\\ were\\ detractors\\ like\\ orators\\ and\\ historians\\ who\\ constituted\\ both\\ the\\ intellectual\\ and\\ political\\ forces\\ in\\ the\\ Augustan\\ Age\\ \\(participated\\ in\\ active\\ historiography\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ prominent\\ example\\ of\\ individual\\ who\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ oratory\\,\\ closely\\ connected\\ to\\ republican\\ and\\ senatorial\\ traditions\\,\\ and\\ had\\ social\\ prominence\\ was\\ Asinius\\ Pollio\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ although\\ some\\ evidence\\ of\\ opposition\\ to\\ Augustus\\,\\ it\\ was\\ grounded\\ in\\ very\\ little\\ actual\\ historical\\ evidence\\ and\\ more\\ on\\ speculation\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ why\\ was\\ there\\ very\\ little\\ resistance\\ to\\ Augustus\\?\\ \\ \\;Because\\ everyone\\ appreciated\\ peace\\ and\\ were\\ tired\\ after\\ years\\ of\\ civil\\ strife\\,\\ situations\\ of\\ many\\ nobility\\ improved\\ with\\ Augustus\\,\\ obvious\\ that\\ Augustus\\ was\\ tackling\\ and\\ solving\\ sources\\ of\\ dissatisfaction\\,\\ and\\ rivalries\\ re\\-emerged\\ among\\ Senators\\ so\\ difficult\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ united\\ opposition\\ to\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Identify\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Talks\\ about\\ potential\\ sources\\ of\\ opposition\\ to\\ Augustus\\ and\\ then\\ later\\ says\\ that\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ information\\ to\\ support\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Ends\\ with\\ reasons\\ why\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ opposed\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Source\\ Book\\ \\(342\\-349\\)\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Simon\\ Price\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rituals\\ and\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\:\\ Why\\ was\\ the\\ Roman\\ Emperor\\ treated\\ like\\ a\\ god\\ in\\ the\\ Greek\\ cults\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ in\\ Asia\\ Minor\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Answer\\:\\ The\\ imperial\\ cult\\ enabled\\ Greek\\ provinces\\ to\\ concretely\\ define\\ their\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\ in\\ the\\ familiar\\ terms\\ of\\ religious\\ traditions\\.\\ \\ \\;Religion\\,\\ just\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ politics\\,\\ was\\ concerned\\ with\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\,\\ it\\ provided\\ an\\ apt\\ medium\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ foreign\\ \\(Roman\\)\\ rule\\ that\\ dominated\\ in\\ Greek\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Price\\ contends\\ that\\ with\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ Christianity\\ within\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\,\\ the\\ problem\\ has\\ been\\ misinterpreted\\ as\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ religion\\ and\\ politics\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ cult\\ being\\ reduced\\ to\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ political\\ honors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drawing\\ on\\ anthropological\\ studies\\,\\ Price\\ examines\\ how\\ the\\ Greek\\ cults\\ associated\\ the\\ Emperor\\ with\\ their\\ subjection\\ to\\ the\\ external\\ power\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ initially\\ summarizes\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ cult\\ was\\ deeply\\ rooted\\ in\\ Greek\\ cities\\ in\\ the\\ rituals\\ of\\ temples\\,\\ images\\ and\\ sacrifices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ the\\ incorporation\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\ into\\ the\\ traditional\\ religious\\ system\\ was\\ blatant\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ festivals\\,\\ temples\\,\\ sacrifices\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\ he\\ contends\\ that\\ this\\ incorporation\\ was\\ facilitated\\ by\\ Greek\\ polytheism\\ and\\ anthropomorphism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ Price\\,\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ imperial\\ cult\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ not\\ only\\ traditional\\ Greek\\ religious\\ system\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ the\\ Greek\\ political\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ comparative\\ material\\ from\\ Africa\\ and\\ Cambodia\\,\\ Price\\ claims\\ that\\ religion\\,\\ just\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ politics\\,\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ imperial\\ cult\\ essentially\\ created\\ a\\ relationship\\ between\\ subject\\ and\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hence\\,\\ the\\ system\\ of\\ ritual\\ was\\ carefully\\ structured\\ to\\ diagram\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ power\\ between\\ the\\ gods\\ and\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ and\\ subsequently\\,\\ the\\ emperor\\ and\\ his\\ subjects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divine\\ ritual\\ enabled\\ Greek\\ provinces\\ to\\ construct\\ a\\ tangible\\ reality\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\ and\\ the\\ emperor\\ who\\ presided\\ above\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\S\\.B\\.\\ pp\\ 350\\-365\\:\\ Religions\\ of\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\secondary\\ source\\,\\ thus\\ NO\\ passage\\ from\\ this\\ will\\ come\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ But\\ info\\ contained\\ may\\ be\\ useful\\ for\\ the\\ essay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Early\\ Empire\\ emaphsizes\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ Roman\\ religious\\ traditions\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ books\\ on\\ religious\\ law\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ published\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\.\\ B\\.C\\.\\ \\(prev\\.\\ reserved\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ priestly\\ colleges\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Horace\\ \\(in\\ 20s\\ B\\.C\\.\\)\\ associates\\ decline\\/troubles\\ in\\ Rome\\ w\\/\\ religious\\ neglect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ name\\ Augustus\\ taken\\ from\\ an\\ epithet\\ meaning\\ \\&ldquo\\;consecrated\\ by\\ augures\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ show\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ auspicy\\ for\\ the\\ founding\\ of\\ a\\ better\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Lares\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;household\\ gods\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ but\\ better\\ described\\ as\\ ancient\\ deities\\,\\ seen\\ by\\ some\\ writers\\ as\\ the\\ deified\\ spirits\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\ held\\ position\\ of\\ priesthood\\ only\\ in\\ Rome\\ itself\\.\\ Gradually\\ accumulated\\ membership\\ of\\ all\\ 4\\ major\\ priestly\\ colleges\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pontifex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\augur\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\quindecimvir\\ sacris\\ faciundis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\septemvir\\ epulonum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(in\\ Republic\\,\\ extremely\\ unusual\\ for\\ anyone\\ to\\ hold\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ major\\ priest\\ hood\\.\\ Augustus\\ breaks\\ this\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\ begins\\ tradition\\ of\\ accumulating\\ priestly\\ offices\\ for\\ the\\ emperors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ image\\ as\\ priest\\ \\(w\\/\\ veiled\\ toga\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lituus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ ceremonial\\ staff\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ uses\\ the\\ positions\\ to\\ introduce\\ religious\\ reform\\;\\ from\\ 12B\\.C\\.\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ Roman\\ religion\\ had\\ a\\ head\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Priesthoods\\ were\\ prestigious\\ and\\ held\\ for\\ life\\:\\ they\\ were\\ eagerly\\ sought\\.\\ BUT\\ restrictions\\ \\(laws\\ mandating\\ actions\\ like\\ a\\ limits\\ on\\ \\#\\ of\\ days\\ allowed\\ outside\\ Rome\\)\\ made\\ it\\ somewhat\\ less\\ attractive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Augustus\\ relaxes\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\.\\ Also\\ Vestal\\ Virgins\\ get\\ special\\ privileges\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ special\\ theater\\ seats\\)\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ position\\ more\\ attractive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Sourcebook\\ Reading\\ pg\\.\\ 366\\-380\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Replacing\\ of\\ Roman\\ Religion\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ article\\ focuses\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ restructuring\\ of\\ the\\ religious\\ system\\ around\\ the\\ person\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ describes\\ several\\ ways\\ that\\ Augustus\\ and\\ others\\ manipulated\\ religious\\ traditions\\ and\\ skewed\\ the\\ religious\\ views\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ emperor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Augustus\\ built\\/restored\\ approximately\\ 100\\ temples\\ during\\ his\\ rule\\,\\ notably\\ the\\ Temple\\ of\\ Apollo\\ on\\ the\\ Palatine\\ and\\ the\\ Temple\\ of\\ Mars\\ the\\ Avenger\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ of\\ these\\ temples\\ created\\ associations\\ between\\ Augustus\\/his\\ achievements\\ and\\ these\\ gods\\,\\ drawing\\ Augustus\\ closer\\ to\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\ and\\ closer\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ divine\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\ changed\\ the\\ traditions\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Saecular\\ games\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ include\\ more\\ rituals\\ that\\ were\\ religious\\ and\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ traditions\\ were\\ adopted\\ and\\ provided\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ subsequent\\ celebrations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ his\\ lifetime\\,\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\numen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ divine\\ power\\,\\ was\\ worshipped\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ but\\ he\\ himself\\ was\\ not\\ worshipped\\ or\\ considered\\ divine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ standards\\ set\\ forth\\ by\\ Augustus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ created\\ divine\\ associations\\ but\\ not\\ divine\\ assumptions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ were\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ model\\ to\\ judge\\ his\\ successors\\&rsquo\\;\\ actions\\,\\ and\\ over\\-assumption\\ of\\ divine\\ status\\ \\(as\\ for\\ Caligula\\ and\\ Commodus\\)\\ was\\ not\\ appreciated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ pp\\ 381\\-397\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Roman\\ Marriage\\:\\ Iusti\\ Coniuges\\ From\\ the\\ Time\\ of\\ Cicero\\ to\\ the\\ Time\\ of\\ Ulpian\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treggiari\\ agrees\\ with\\ Williams\\ who\\ in\\ 1958\\ defined\\ the\\ Roman\\ ideals\\ of\\ \\ \\;a\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conduct\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;faithfulness\\ to\\ one\\ man\\ \\[her\\ husband\\,\\ presumably\\]\\&hellip\\;\\ obedience\\ to\\ a\\ husband\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ the\\ marriage\\-bond\\ conceived\\ of\\ as\\ eternal\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ A\\ wife\\ should\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\morigera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Plautus\\ and\\ Catullus\\:\\ dutifully\\ submissive\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treggiari\\ infers\\ what\\ husbands\\ valued\\ in\\ their\\ wives\\ by\\ surveying\\ the\\ epitaphs\\ they\\ typically\\ had\\ written\\ on\\ their\\ wives\\ tombstones\\.\\ She\\ concludes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ most\\ striking\\ result\\ is\\ that\\ while\\ generally\\ deserving\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\bene\\ merens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ or\\ moral\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\sanctissima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\optima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ conduct\\ is\\ stressed\\ for\\ wives\\,\\ the\\ affection\\ which\\ they\\ inspire\\ or\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ held\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\carissima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dulcissima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ specific\\ virtues\\ such\\ as\\ chastity\\ or\\ faithfulness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Virtues\\ related\\ to\\ sexual\\ fidelity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Chastity\\ in\\ women\\ \\(adj\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\castissima\\,\\ pudica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ was\\ highly\\ valued\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ abstaining\\ from\\ pre\\-marital\\ sexual\\ relations\\ and\\ adultry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chastity\\ was\\ a\\ requisite\\ of\\ good\\ reputation\\ for\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ but\\ the\\ chastity\\ of\\ his\\ wife\\ did\\ not\\ reflect\\ either\\ way\\ on\\ the\\ reputation\\ of\\ the\\ husband\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ in\\ many\\ other\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Univirae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ women\\ who\\ only\\ married\\ one\\ husband\\ \\(ie\\,\\ did\\ not\\ remarry\\ after\\ divorce\\ or\\ in\\ windowhood\\)\\ were\\ particularly\\ hihgly\\ regarded\\ \\(ex\\:\\ Only\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\univirae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;could\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ the\\ goddess\\ Pudicitia\\ or\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pronubae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ weddings\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monogamy\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ women\\ was\\ also\\ valued\\.\\ Ex\\:\\ Catullus\\ laments\\ that\\ Lesbia\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ content\\ with\\ Catullus\\ alone\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ men\\,\\ things\\ were\\ a\\ little\\ different\\.\\ While\\ a\\ man\\ was\\ considered\\ fortunate\\ to\\ have\\ one\\ wife\\ in\\ his\\ lifetime\\,\\ he\\ was\\ generally\\ expected\\ \\(and\\ unless\\ he\\ already\\ had\\ enough\\ hiers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\demanded\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Augustan\\ legislation\\)\\ to\\ remarry\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ divorce\\ or\\ his\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ monogamy\\ for\\ men\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ high\\ priority\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ rare\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ was\\ praised\\ for\\ his\\ fidelity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ practice\\,\\ however\\,\\ Roman\\ society\\ expected\\ widows\\ and\\ female\\ divorcees\\ to\\ remarry\\,\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ even\\ the\\ common\\ practice\\ among\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\ Faith\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\fides\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fides\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;includes\\ sexual\\ fidelity\\,\\ it\\ also\\ encompasses\\ the\\ broader\\ reciprocal\\ loyalty\\ and\\ trust\\ meant\\ to\\ exist\\ between\\ wives\\ and\\ husbands\\.\\ It\\ paralled\\ the\\ generally\\ premium\\ placed\\ by\\ Romans\\ on\\ such\\ reciprocal\\ loyalties\\,\\ as\\ between\\ patrons\\ and\\ clients\\ or\\ patrons\\ and\\ freedmen\\.\\ Ex\\:\\ magnanimity\\ shown\\ by\\ Scipio\\ Africanus\\&rsquo\\;\\ wife\\ Aemilia\\ when\\ the\\ former\\ had\\ an\\ affair\\ with\\ the\\ latter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ maid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ in\\ part\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;economic\\ interdependence\\ of\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ the\\ wife\\ was\\ guardian\\ of\\ the\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\,\\ including\\ his\\ house\\ and\\ sometimes\\ even\\ his\\ business\\ interests\\,\\ and\\ the\\ husband\\ kept\\ the\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dowry\\ in\\ trust\\ for\\ her\\ and\\ their\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\ Respect\\ and\\ Cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Obsequium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ owed\\ by\\ son\\ to\\ parent\\ or\\ freedman\\ to\\ patron\\,\\ but\\ was\\ thought\\ particularly\\ appropriate\\ to\\ a\\ wife\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Co\\-operation\\ rather\\ than\\ obedience\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ key\\ meaning\\ \\[of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\obsequium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\]\\ in\\ usage\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ wife\\ who\\ accomodated\\ herself\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wishes\\ was\\ not\\ simply\\ obeying\\:\\ her\\ attitude\\ might\\ be\\ mre\\ subtle\\,\\ reasoned\\,\\ and\\ gracious\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;superior\\&rsquo\\;\\ party\\ in\\ a\\ relationship\\ might\\ also\\ permit\\ himself\\ to\\ practice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\obsequium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;without\\ obsequiousness\\ and\\ loss\\ of\\ face\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ rare\\,\\ the\\ term\\ was\\ occasionally\\ applied\\ to\\ a\\ good\\ husband\\ showing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\obsequium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ his\\ wife\\.\\ Plautus\\ even\\ describes\\ Jupiter\\ as\\ being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\obsequens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ Alcmena\\ in\\ bed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\ Kindness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Affection\\/kindness\\/sweetness\\ and\\ dutifulness\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spouse\\ was\\ valued\\ in\\ both\\ wives\\ and\\ husbands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Comitas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[couteousness\\,\\ kindness\\,\\ obligingness\\]\\ relieved\\ what\\ might\\ otherwise\\ be\\ the\\ excessive\\ austerity\\ of\\ a\\ virtuous\\ wife\\&hellip\\;\\ But\\ the\\ line\\ between\\ affability\\ and\\ dangerous\\ charm\\ might\\ be\\ difficult\\ to\\ draw\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Ex\\:\\ Tacitus\\ criticies\\ Livia\\ for\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ gracious\\ than\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ old\\ days\\ thought\\ proper\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\ Husbands\\ and\\ Wives\\ in\\ the\\ Inscriptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ were\\ praised\\ for\\ virtues\\ in\\ the\\ home\\,\\ like\\ thrift\\ and\\ industry\\ \\(of\\ the\\ latter\\ spinning\\ wool\\ and\\ sewing\\ was\\ an\\ example\\ and\\ symbol\\)\\,\\ while\\ men\\ were\\ honored\\ for\\ deeds\\ and\\ conduct\\ outside\\ of\\ \\ \\;the\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ affection\\ and\\ even\\ romance\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ Romn\\ marriage\\ was\\ reflected\\ in\\:\\ epitaphs\\ lamenting\\ that\\ the\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\ were\\ separated\\ by\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ and\\ expressing\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ death\\ would\\ come\\ soon\\ to\\ the\\ surviving\\ partner\\;\\ the\\ more\\ frequent\\ emphasis\\ on\\ affection\\,\\ love\\ and\\ concordance\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ deceased\\ spouse\\&rsquo\\;s\\ virtuous\\ behavior\\;\\ the\\ highly\\ personalized\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ epitaphs\\ \\(ex\\:\\ the\\ husband\\ who\\ spelt\\ out\\ his\\ wives\\ names\\ in\\ the\\ initials\\ of\\ the\\ dozen\\ lines\\ of\\ a\\ poem\\ or\\ the\\ wife\\ who\\ noted\\ that\\ prayed\\ that\\ she\\ and\\ her\\ husband\\ would\\ be\\ reunited\\ in\\ her\\ dreams\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treggiari\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;hypotheses\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ the\\ inscriptions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ reader\\ of\\ the\\ inscription\\ \\&ldquo\\;was\\ expected\\ to\\ accept\\ as\\ normal\\ and\\ desirable\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ a\\ particularly\\ close\\ relationship\\ between\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Descriptions\\ of\\ marital\\ relations\\ are\\ vague\\,\\ but\\ when\\ descriptive\\ focus\\ on\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conduct\\ toward\\ family\\ and\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ place\\ among\\ his\\ peers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Although\\ some\\ epithets\\ suggest\\ the\\ subordinate\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\,\\ these\\ are\\ balanced\\ by\\ similar\\ usage\\ about\\ husbands\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ qualities\\ praised\\ are\\ reciprocal\\.\\ Wives\\ are\\ often\\ though\\ of\\ as\\ partners\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\sociae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ which\\ might\\ but\\ need\\ not\\ imply\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ \\(like\\ the\\ occasional\\ husband\\)\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\compares\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ must\\ imply\\ equality\\,\\ at\\ least\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ effort\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ not\\ just\\ on\\ spouse\\&rsquo\\;s\\ morals\\ but\\ the\\ love\\ they\\ shared\\ and\\ which\\ inspired\\ the\\ surviving\\ spouse\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ sexes\\ expressed\\ \\&ldquo\\;passionate\\ gried\\ and\\ romantic\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Faithfulness\\ to\\ death\\ was\\ an\\ accepted\\ ideal\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ remarriage\\ are\\ mixed\\:\\ when\\ survivors\\ have\\ not\\ remarried\\ they\\ often\\ express\\ revulsion\\ at\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ marrying\\ another\\;\\ in\\ other\\ cases\\,\\ when\\ the\\ deceased\\ partner\\ had\\ been\\ previousy\\ married\\,\\ he\\/she\\ is\\ praised\\ for\\ devotion\\ shown\\ to\\ their\\ second\\ spouse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Williams\\ idea\\ of\\ of\\ monogamous\\ union\\ until\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ one\\ spouse\\ is\\ in\\ evidence\\ as\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ wifely\\ subordination\\ yet\\ the\\ latter\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ modified\\ by\\ ideas\\ about\\ reciprocity\\ and\\ an\\ almost\\ equal\\ partnership\\ of\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\ Partnership\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Societas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wives\\ shared\\ in\\ their\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\,\\ the\\ fortune\\ and\\ setbacks\\ of\\ the\\ family\\,\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ status\\ and\\ even\\,\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\,\\ his\\ political\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\ Agreement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harmony\\ and\\ concordance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ foundation\\ of\\ mutual\\ affection\\,\\ deference\\ and\\ consideration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ was\\ the\\ ideal\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ Suetonius\\ makes\\ much\\ signifiigance\\ of\\ Tiberius\\ increasingly\\ refusing\\ to\\ share\\ a\\ bed\\ with\\ Julia\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ their\\ early\\ harmony\\.\\ Tacitus\\ claims\\ that\\ because\\ his\\ in\\-laws\\ Domitia\\ Decidiana\\ and\\ Agricola\\ always\\ put\\ eachother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interests\\ before\\ their\\ own\\,\\ their\\ marriage\\ was\\ harmonius\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VIII\\ Romantic\\ Feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plutarch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Amatorius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ defense\\ of\\ romantic\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ tombstone\\ inscriptions\\ seem\\ to\\ point\\ to\\ such\\ hallmarks\\ of\\ romantic\\ love\\ as\\ idealization\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ partner\\,\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ lifelong\\ love\\,\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ couple\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sexual\\ relationship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IX\\ Husbands\\ and\\ Wives\\ in\\ Literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ 24\\ letters\\ we\\ have\\ written\\ by\\ Cicero\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ Terentia\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;full\\ of\\ affectionate\\ praise\\ and\\ often\\ discussing\\ practical\\ matters\\,\\ on\\ which\\ she\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ up\\ her\\ own\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ four\\ of\\ these\\ letters\\ written\\ in\\ 58\\ BC\\ immediately\\ before\\ he\\ left\\ Italy\\ and\\ went\\ into\\ exile\\,\\ Cicero\\ variously\\ inquires\\ about\\ how\\ Terentia\\ has\\ been\\ watching\\ over\\ their\\ finances\\ and\\ laments\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ not\\ write\\ as\\ frequently\\ as\\ he\\ would\\ like\\ because\\ he\\ becomes\\ upset\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\ to\\ her\\.\\ He\\ says\\ at\\ one\\ point\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ thing\\ I\\ do\\ know\\,\\ if\\ I\\ have\\ you\\ I\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ feel\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ over\\ for\\ me\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ calls\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;my\\ light\\,\\ my\\ longing\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Treggiari\\ notes\\ that\\ Cicero\\ uses\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ singular\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ when\\ taking\\ blame\\,\\ but\\ otherwise\\ uses\\ the\\ first\\-person\\ plural\\ to\\ discuss\\ their\\ common\\ plight\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ letters\\ from\\ Augustus\\ to\\ Livia\\ survive\\,\\ quoted\\ by\\ Suetonius\\.\\ They\\ are\\ also\\ affectionate\\ and\\ make\\ frequent\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ first\\-person\\ plural\\.\\ Notably\\,\\ Augustus\\ is\\ consulting\\ with\\ Livia\\ in\\ these\\ letters\\ on\\ her\\ opinion\\ concerning\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ their\\ grandson\\ Claudius\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ public\\ career\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ epistles\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ from\\ exile\\ \\(intended\\ for\\ publication\\)\\ Ovid\\ refers\\ to\\ her\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ light\\,\\ his\\ excellent\\ or\\ dear\\ or\\ dutiful\\ or\\ loving\\ wife\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ laments\\ being\\ deprived\\ of\\ her\\,\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ thinks\\ of\\ her\\ daily\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Similar\\ stuff\\ on\\ Pliny\\&rsquo\\;s\\ letters\\ to\\ and\\ about\\ his\\ wife\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ verse\\ letter\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Statius\\ praises\\ her\\ faithfulness\\ to\\ and\\ concern\\ for\\ him\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ his\\ first\\ love\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ bound\\ to\\ her\\ forever\\.\\ He\\ even\\ rejoices\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;broken\\ him\\ in\\ like\\ a\\ horse\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treggiari\\ comments\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ impossible\\ in\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ letters\\ from\\ husbands\\ to\\ wives\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ domineering\\ tone\\ that\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ original\\ patriarchal\\ institutions\\ might\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ expect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Literary\\ examples\\:\\ a\\ fictional\\ letter\\ by\\ Propertius\\ from\\ a\\ wife\\ to\\ her\\ soldier\\ husband\\ promising\\ chastity\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ hardhsips\\ worthwhile\\.\\ Lucan\\ dramatizes\\ the\\ parting\\ of\\ Pompey\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ Cornelia\\ when\\ the\\ former\\ departed\\ for\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Pharsalus\\.\\ Cornelia\\ becomes\\ frenzied\\ and\\ twice\\ faints\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rhetoriticians\\ noted\\ the\\ intense\\ love\\ of\\ newlyweds\\ and\\ argued\\ that\\ husbands\\ and\\ wives\\ who\\ love\\ eachother\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\ have\\ a\\ better\\ chance\\ of\\ a\\ lasting\\ marriage\\ then\\ couples\\ forced\\ to\\ marry\\ eachother\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ permance\\:\\ Catullus\\ wanted\\ his\\ affair\\ with\\ Lesbia\\ to\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\perpetuum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ Cicero\\ wanted\\ to\\ die\\ in\\ his\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Growing\\ individualism\\ in\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\ may\\ be\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ increasing\\ emphasis\\ on\\ romance\\ in\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ essential\\ Roman\\ theme\\ was\\ that\\ marriage\\ was\\ perpetual\\ until\\ death\\.\\ It\\ demanded\\ loyalty\\,\\ sexual\\ fideltity\\ \\(at\\ lesat\\ from\\ the\\ wife\\)\\,\\ respect\\,\\ and\\ consideration\\ for\\ each\\ other\\.\\ The\\ well\\-spring\\ of\\ these\\ was\\ love\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ conclusion\\,\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ particular\\ \\(though\\ not\\ entirey\\ original\\)\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ marriage\\ was\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faithfulness\\ to\\ one\\ man\\,\\ the\\ eternity\\ of\\ the\\ bond\\,\\ and\\ the\\ partnership\\ of\\ the\\ couple\\.\\ Subordination\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\,\\ I\\ would\\ argue\\,\\ was\\ not\\ essential\\ or\\ important\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Cicero\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 398\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 408\\:\\ Sexual\\ Morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Double\\ standard\\:\\ It\\ was\\ acceptable\\ for\\ men\\ partake\\ in\\ premarital\\ intercourse\\,\\ and\\ even\\ extramarital\\ relations\\,\\ but\\ the\\ same\\ did\\ not\\ apply\\ to\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Roman\\ nobility\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ Republic\\ tolerated\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ sexual\\ license\\ for\\ married\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\,\\ especially\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\-class\\,\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ virginity\\ until\\ marriage\\,\\ and\\ avoid\\ extramarital\\ relationships\\ following\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Aside\\:\\ Lucretia\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ ideal\\ woman\\,\\ because\\ she\\ wanted\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ set\\ the\\ appropriate\\ example\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ affairs\\ with\\ mistresses\\ were\\ the\\ subjects\\ of\\ poetry\\ by\\ Ovid\\,\\ Propertius\\ and\\ Catullus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Source\\ Book\\ p\\ 409\\-425\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Roman\\ Mother\\ by\\ Susanne\\ Dixon\\ \\(SB\\ pg\\.\\ 409\\-419\\)\\ \\\\*exploring\\ the\\ effect\\ the\\ Augustan\\ marriage\\ laws\\ had\\ on\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ the\\ \\Roman\\ mother\\ in\\ the\\ Augustan\\ period\\ and\\ beyond\\*\\ \\\\Key\\ Term\\ \\ius\\ liberorum\\-\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ marriage\\ laws\\,\\ details\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ debated\\,\\ but\\ the\\ \\basic\\ effect\\/goal\\ of\\ them\\ is\\ clear\\:\\ as\\ it\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ \\Rome\\,\\ it\\ punished\\ those\\ with\\ no\\ children\\ \\(made\\ it\\ hard\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ inherit\\ \\possessions\\,\\ and\\ placed\\ them\\ under\\ continual\\ tutelage\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ awarded\\ those\\ \\with\\ children\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ kids\\ they\\ had\\(the\\ more\\ the\\ better\\,\\ \\full\\ rights\\ given\\ to\\ women\\ with\\ four\\ children\\ or\\ more\\)\\ \\\\MAIN\\ POINT\\ \\:\\ \\1\\.\\ Traditional\\ notion\\ of\\ motherhood\\ continued\\&mdash\\;\\ Motherhood\\,\\ in\\ Augustan\\ period\\ \\and\\ afterward\\,\\ was\\ celebrated\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ always\\ been\\&mdash\\;\\ mothers\\ received\\ prestige\\ \\and\\ maternal\\ fulfillment\\&mdash\\;with\\ the\\ added\\ incentive\\ of\\ recognition\\ from\\ the\\ \\emperor\\ through\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ ius\\ liberorum\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ in\\ the\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\ were\\ \\still\\ celebrated\\ for\\ their\\ role\\ as\\ mothers\\ of\\ present\\ emporers\\ and\\ heirs\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;In\\ \\other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ women\\ of\\ the\\ ruling\\ houses\\ served\\ as\\ reminders\\ of\\ dynastic\\ \\continuity\\ and\\ of\\ an\\ emperor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pietas\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(416\\)\\ \\2\\.\\ Augustan\\ marriage\\ legislation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ effect\\&mdash\\;while\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ increase\\ the\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;birthrate\\ of\\ the\\ senatorial\\ and\\ equestrian\\ class\\&rdquo\\;\\(416\\)\\,\\ and\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ had\\ \\any\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ occurrence\\ of\\ adultery\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ideals\\ of\\ conjugal\\ love\\ and\\ \\\\(nuclear\\)\\ family\\ life\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ adopted\\ within\\ the\\ upper\\ classes\\&rdquo\\;\\ maybe\\ \\in\\ response\\ to\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ insistence\\ on\\ these\\ ideals\\,\\ and\\ maybe\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ \\natural\\ continuance\\ of\\ these\\ traditional\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\3\\.\\ FINALLY\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ most\\ women\\,\\ motherhood\\ probably\\ remained\\ a\\ significant\\ \\aspiration\\ and\\ experience\\ regardless\\ of\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ enforced\\ by\\ the\\ ius\\ \\liberorum\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\Basically\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ Augustan\\ legislation\\ was\\ a\\ bit\\ iffy\\&mdash\\;because\\ \\some\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ ius\\ liberorum\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ prestige\\ and\\ \\influence\\,\\ while\\ others\\ \\(like\\ freedwomen\\,\\ who\\ probably\\ needed\\ ius\\ liberorum\\ \\most\\)\\ found\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ acquire\\,\\ and\\ still\\ others\\ fulfilled\\ the\\ \\requirements\\ for\\ ius\\ liberorum\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ claim\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ sum\\ effect\\ of\\ ius\\ \\liberorm\\ on\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ mother\\ is\\ negligible\\&mdash\\;the\\ changes\\ that\\ \\occurred\\ in\\ the\\ notions\\ toward\\ Roman\\ motherhood\\,\\ or\\ rather\\ the\\ continuing\\ of\\ \\the\\ ideals\\ of\\ Roman\\ motherhood\\ as\\ it\\ were\\,\\ could\\ be\\ just\\ that\\&mdash\\;a\\ continuing\\ \\growth\\ of\\ traditional\\ ideals\\ as\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ legislation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\\\The\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ Augustae\\ \\\\This\\ article\\ highlights\\ interesting\\ and\\ important\\ points\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ when\\ \\looking\\ at\\ the\\ ara\\ pacis\\ \\(a\\.p\\.\\)\\ \\:\\ \\\\*\\&rdquo\\;The\\ primary\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ altar\\ \\[is\\]\\ that\\ peace\\ leads\\ to\\ growth\\ and\\ \\rebirth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(421\\,\\ author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinion\\)\\*\\ \\\\*the\\ north\\ and\\ south\\ walls\\ are\\ processions\\ both\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ west\\ end\\ \\\\*counterpart\\ to\\ the\\ ara\\ pacis\\ in\\ greek\\ world\\ is\\ the\\ Parthenon\\:\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-parthenon\\ has\\ a\\ general\\ procession\\,\\ whereas\\ ara\\ pacis\\ has\\ a\\ religious\\ \\procession\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;illustrates\\ \\&ldquo\\;Roman\\ desire\\ for\\ specificity\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ earlier\\ taste\\ for\\ \\verisitic\\ portraiture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\-a\\.p\\.\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;consciously\\ classicizing\\ style\\ that\\ emulates\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ \\Parthenon\\ frieze\\&rdquo\\;\\(421\\)\\ \\\\*augustus\\ is\\ leading\\ in\\ a\\ religious\\ act\\&mdash\\;debated\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ sacrifice\\,\\ or\\ \\augural\\ ceremony\\&mdash\\;and\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\,\\ augustus\\ is\\ not\\ singled\\ out\\ but\\ represented\\ \\as\\ first\\ among\\ equals\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\*the\\ whole\\ family\\ is\\ there\\-\\-\\-augustus\\,\\ agrippa\\,\\ livia\\,\\ drusus\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\\\-\\&ldquo\\;never\\ before\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ relief\\ have\\ men\\ been\\ depicted\\ with\\ their\\ wives\\ and\\ \\children\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\-children\\ are\\ there\\ to\\ advertise\\ heirs\\,\\ and\\ to\\ illustrate\\ importance\\ of\\ \\children\\ to\\ Augustus\\&mdash\\;had\\ marriage\\ legislation\\ to\\ promote\\ prod\\.\\ Of\\ children\\ \\\\*west\\ and\\ east\\ sides\\&mdash\\;scenes\\&mdash\\;\\ \\1\\.\\ aeneas\\ making\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ penates\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;aeneas\\&rsquo\\;\\ presence\\ suggests\\ augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\divine\\ descent\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;aeneas\\ is\\ in\\ roughly\\ the\\ same\\ position\\ as\\ augustus\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\association\\ between\\ aeneas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ iulus\\,\\ and\\ augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ sons\\ \\2\\.\\ mars\\ with\\ romulus\\ and\\ remus\\&mdash\\;badly\\ damaged\\,\\ but\\ can\\ tell\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mars\\ by\\ his\\ \\shield\\,\\ and\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;symbolizes\\ the\\ war\\ by\\ which\\ Augustus\\ brought\\ peace\\ to\\ Rome\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\3\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;earth\\/italy\\/venus\\/pax\\/ilia\\(debated\\)\\ as\\ a\\ matronly\\ woman\\ with\\ 2\\ babies\\ \\surrounded\\ by\\ symbols\\ of\\ fertility\\ and\\ growth\\&hellip\\;peace\\ brigns\\ properity\\ and\\ time\\ \\for\\ planting\\ and\\ harvesting\\ and\\ the\\ security\\ to\\ raise\\ children\\ and\\ plan\\ for\\ the\\ \\future\\ through\\ the\\ peace\\ brought\\ to\\ italy\\ by\\ augustus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\4\\.\\ goddess\\ Roma\\ w\\/\\ honos\\,\\ and\\ virtus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ serve\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ welcome\\ the\\ arrival\\ to\\ Rome\\ of\\ \\the\\ victorious\\ emperor\\,\\ namely\\ Augustus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\*author\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ talk\\ in\\ detail\\ about\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ a\\.p\\.\\ in\\ \\terms\\ of\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ set\\ up\\,\\ and\\ underlying\\ message\\ of\\ links\\ between\\ male\\ \\characters\\&mdash\\;perhaps\\ too\\ detailed\\ for\\ this\\ outline\\,\\ but\\ is\\ interesting\\ and\\ could\\ \\be\\ helpful\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ on\\ pages\\ 424\\ to\\ 425\\,\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\:426\\-444\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cult\\ and\\ sculpture\\:\\ sacrifice\\ in\\ the\\ ara\\ pacis\\ augustae\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Article\\ explores\\ the\\ sacrificial\\ implications\\ of\\ an\\ important\\ site\\ for\\ sacrificial\\ cult\\ in\\ Rome\\.\\ Sacrificial\\ ritual\\ not\\ only\\ defined\\ the\\ relation\\ of\\ Romans\\ to\\ their\\ gods\\,\\ but\\ also\\ established\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ social\\ relations\\.\\ The\\ interpretation\\ that\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ is\\ merely\\ recording\\ a\\ procession\\ in\\ history\\ \\(namely\\ the\\ procession\\ at\\ the\\ dedication\\ of\\ the\\ altar\\)\\ is\\ too\\ simplistic\\ \\(according\\ to\\ the\\ author\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;As\\ Zanker\\ says\\:\\ the\\ sculpture\\ elevates\\ the\\ scene\\ beyond\\ historical\\ occasion\\ into\\ a\\ timeless\\ sphere\\;\\ not\\ all\\ figures\\ depicted\\ were\\ actually\\ in\\ Rome\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ dedication\\.\\ Significantly\\,\\ only\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ men\\ have\\ portrait\\ features\\,\\ while\\ the\\ rest\\ have\\ idealized\\ faces\\ that\\ conceal\\ their\\ individual\\ identity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\While\\ the\\ author\\ agrees\\ with\\ Zanker\\,\\ he\\ makes\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ \\(when\\ viewed\\ by\\ Roman\\ people\\)\\ created\\ a\\ cultural\\ dialogue\\ with\\ ancient\\ viewers\\.\\ Roman\\ viewers\\ did\\ not\\ simply\\ see\\ images\\ of\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ that\\ onc\\ happened\\;\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ cultural\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ themselves\\ became\\ involved\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ process\\ which\\ included\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sacrifice\\ Aeneas\\ made\\ long\\ ago\\,\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ Augustus\\ and\\ the\\ Senate\\ made\\ when\\ the\\ altar\\ was\\ dedicated\\,\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ that\\ emperor\\ and\\ people\\ would\\ be\\ making\\ every\\ year\\,\\ and\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ that\\ the\\ viewer\\ himself\\ might\\ have\\ participated\\ in\\ \\(in\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ future\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ deep\\ paradox\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\while\\ sacrifice\\ held\\ out\\ a\\ promise\\ of\\ divine\\ blessing\\ and\\ fruitfulness\\ and\\ life\\,\\ it\\ simultaneously\\ denied\\/undermined\\ these\\ benefits\\ by\\ the\\ death\\ and\\ blood\\-spilling\\ and\\ skills\\ through\\ which\\ man\\ approached\\ god\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ nature\\ and\\ importance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\viewing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ images\\ on\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Topography\\,\\ politics\\ and\\ sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theme\\ of\\ sacrifice\\ very\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ Roman\\ state\\ cult\\.\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ located\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ gigantic\\ solarium\\ of\\ Augustus\\;\\ during\\ the\\ Autumn\\ Equinox\\,\\ which\\ was\\ also\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ s\\ birthday\\,\\ the\\ shadow\\ of\\ the\\ obelisk\\ went\\ in\\ the\\ Altar\\ of\\ Peace\\.\\ Cannot\\ separate\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ from\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ Horologium\\ and\\ the\\ whole\\ Campus\\ Martius\\ \\(including\\ the\\ Mausoleum\\ and\\ Ustrinum\\ of\\ Augustus\\)\\.\\ Wondering\\ what\\ the\\ heck\\ all\\ these\\ words\\ mean\\?\\ see\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\-scf\\.usc\\.edu\\/\\~cipolla\\/campus\\.htm\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ara\\ Pacis\\,\\ prime\\ site\\ of\\ sacrificial\\ cult\\,\\ always\\ bore\\ the\\ visual\\ and\\ symbolic\\ reminder\\ that\\ its\\ sacrifice\\ had\\ a\\ socio\\-political\\ orientation\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ other\\ Augustan\\ altars\\,\\ the\\ reliefs\\ represented\\ Aeneas\\,\\ Mars\\ with\\ the\\ twins\\,\\ Italia\\,\\ and\\ Roma\\ all\\ point\\ to\\ myths\\ propagated\\ under\\ the\\ Principate\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ the\\ deity\\ the\\ sacrifice\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ directed\\ towards\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ deity\\ was\\ left\\ ambiguous\\.\\ Could\\ have\\ been\\ Pax\\ herself\\,\\ Mars\\ \\(patron\\ deity\\ of\\ the\\ Campus\\ Martius\\)\\,\\ and\\ Augustus\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ The\\ altar\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aeneas\\ pouring\\ libations\\ to\\ the\\ Penates\\,\\ being\\ located\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\ wall\\ of\\ the\\ altar\\ \\(at\\ the\\ entrance\\)\\,\\ not\\ only\\ represents\\ the\\ original\\ sacrifice\\,\\ but\\ also\\ represents\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\ the\\ sacrificial\\ act\\ which\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ inside\\.\\ The\\ original\\ sacrifice\\ represents\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ which\\ the\\ altar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sacrifices\\ uphold\\ and\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ ancestry\\ of\\ Augustus\\ who\\,\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ account\\,\\ restored\\ the\\ nation\\ \\(RGI\\)\\,\\ the\\ city\\ \\(RG19\\-20\\)\\,\\ and\\ was\\ voted\\ this\\ very\\ altar\\ by\\ the\\ city\\ and\\ nation\\ in\\ gratitude\\ \\(RG12\\)\\.\\ Marks\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ \\&\\#39\\;origin\\&\\#39\\;\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ present\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ eternal\\ repetition\\ of\\ sacred\\ action\\ within\\ this\\ particular\\ space\\.\\ The\\ relief\\ never\\ actually\\ represents\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ nor\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ happening\\;\\ its\\ reference\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ act\\ is\\ portrays\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ always\\ a\\ gap\\ \\(temporal\\ and\\ spatial\\)\\ between\\ image\\ and\\ what\\ it\\ refers\\ to\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ of\\ \\"\\;deferral\\"\\;\\ is\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ sow\\ being\\ living\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ pre\\-sacrifice\\ \\-\\-\\ represents\\ the\\ perpetual\\ incompleteness\\ of\\ sacrificial\\ action\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ The\\ sacrificial\\ processions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ processions\\ on\\ the\\ long\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ exterior\\ walls\\ are\\ interrupted\\ by\\ the\\ panels\\ of\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ Mars\\ with\\ Romulus\\ and\\ Remus\\.\\ Feeling\\ of\\ discontinuity\\.\\.\\.\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ frieze\\ itself\\ is\\ ambiguous\\ and\\ is\\ open\\ to\\ participants\\&\\#39\\;\\ interpretation\\,\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ frieze\\ are\\ lost\\ \\(creating\\ gaps\\)\\.\\.\\.\\ these\\ gaps\\ and\\ discontinuities\\ are\\ completed\\ in\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ sacrifice\\.\\ \\(weird\\,\\ weird\\ interpretation\\ by\\ the\\ author\\)\\.\\ The\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ gap\\ \\-\\-\\ of\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ as\\ the\\ guarantee\\ of\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ \\-\\-\\ is\\ built\\ into\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ sacrifice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Sacrifice\\ and\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Death\\ is\\ everywhere\\ in\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ \\-\\-\\ skulls\\ of\\ dead\\ cows\\,\\ garlands\\ are\\ images\\ of\\ paterae\\ or\\ sacrifical\\ vessels\\;\\ also\\ vines\\ etc\\.\\ show\\ the\\ fruitfulness\\ of\\ life\\ bought\\ at\\ the\\ ritual\\ cost\\ of\\ death\\ \\(Italia\\ scene\\)\\.\\ The\\ garlands\\ hang\\ from\\ the\\ skulls\\ \\-\\-\\ visual\\ pun\\ for\\ the\\ garlands\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\depending\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ the\\ skulls\\.\\ Also\\ \\-\\-\\ live\\ cows\\,\\ skull\\ of\\ cows\\,\\ etc\\,\\ is\\ a\\ visual\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ reciprocity\\ of\\ sacrifice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horace\\ writes\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carmen\\ Saeculare\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\"\\;Whatever\\ he\\ of\\ Ancises\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ Venus\\&\\#39\\;\\ pure\\ blood\\ \\(a\\ warrior\\ hearetofore\\,\\ now\\ lenient\\ to\\ the\\ fallen\\ foe\\)\\ entreats\\ of\\ you\\ with\\ white\\ bulls\\,\\ grant\\ him\\ his\\ prayers\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ image\\ of\\ blood\\ \\-\\-\\ which\\ echoes\\ references\\ to\\ war\\ the\\ sacrificial\\ slaughter\\,\\ is\\ transferred\\ to\\ the\\ Princeps\\ upon\\ whom\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ these\\ acts\\ depends\\;\\ to\\ be\\ Augustus\\ is\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ blood\\ \\(in\\ both\\ the\\ kin\\ and\\ carnage\\ senses\\ of\\ the\\ word\\)\\,\\ and\\ upon\\ the\\ Augustan\\ blood\\ of\\ divine\\ progeniture\\,\\ war\\,\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ rests\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ golden\\ age\\ of\\ Augustan\\ plenty\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ from\\ Horace\\:\\ \\"\\;Now\\ Fatih\\,\\ and\\ Peace\\,\\ and\\ Honor\\,\\ and\\ pristine\\ Modesty\\,\\ and\\ Manhood\\ neglected\\,\\ dare\\ to\\ return\\,\\ and\\ blessed\\ Plenty\\ appears\\ with\\ her\\ laden\\ horn\\.\\"\\;\\ Augustan\\ plenty\\ rests\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ of\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ Concluding\\ remarks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\ says\\ that\\ Zanker\\ too\\ much\\ focuses\\ on\\ everything\\ from\\ the\\ Augustan\\ period\\ as\\ being\\ Augustan\\ propaganda\\.\\ Yet\\ author\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ is\\ very\\ ambivalent\\ and\\ contradictory\\ \\(not\\ straightforwardly\\ propagandic\\)\\.\\ Was\\ the\\ Principate\\ as\\ overwhelming\\ an\\ ideological\\ phenomenon\\ as\\ Zanker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ thesis\\ suggests\\?\\ Author\\:\\ the\\ prime\\ position\\ of\\ sacrifice\\ in\\ Roman\\ religious\\ ideology\\ provided\\ the\\ dynamic\\ which\\ gave\\ the\\ imperial\\ image\\ its\\ power\\,\\ but\\ that\\ the\\ gaps\\,\\ deferral\\ and\\ ambivalences\\ implicit\\ in\\ Roman\\ sacrifice\\ had\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ undermine\\ the\\ imperial\\ image\\ from\\ within\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 445\\-448\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\Modern\\ poems\\ about\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ period\\.\\ \\\\Anna\\ Akhmatova\\:\\ Cleopatra\\.\\ \\This\\ short\\ poem\\ describes\\ Cleopatra\\&\\#39\\;s\\ desperate\\ love\\ for\\ Antony\\.\\ Interestingly\\,\\ it\\ shows\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ in\\ great\\ despair\\ but\\ emphasized\\ her\\ composure\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ \\(\\"\\;no\\ trembling\\ of\\ the\\ hand\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ To\\ recognize\\,\\ one\\ might\\ notice\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ verse\\ and\\ describes\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\.\\ The\\ contrast\\ between\\ strength\\ and\\ love\\ is\\ probably\\ unique\\ to\\ this\\ poem\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\\\C\\.P\\.\\ Cafavy\\:\\ In\\ a\\ Township\\ of\\ Asia\\ Minor\\.\\ \\This\\ somewhat\\ funny\\ poem\\ describes\\ how\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ cared\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ victor\\ in\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Actium\\.\\ The\\ author\\ says\\ that\\ whatever\\ poetry\\ is\\ written\\ to\\ congratulate\\ one\\ party\\ can\\ be\\ quickly\\ changed\\ to\\ congratulate\\ the\\ other\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ war\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ irony\\ and\\ repetition\\ here\\,\\ as\\ he\\ states\\ \\"\\;To\\ the\\ victor\\,\\ the\\ most\\ glorious\\,\\ unsurpassed\\ in\\ all\\ acts\\ of\\ war\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\ and\\ says\\ it\\ will\\ \\"\\;fit\\ beautifully\\"\\;\\ if\\ you\\ just\\ replace\\ the\\ names\\ to\\ fit\\ the\\ outcome\\.\\ The\\ same\\ poetry\\ can\\ be\\ written\\ to\\ fit\\ either\\ victor\\-\\-no\\ one\\ will\\ notice\\ or\\ care\\.\\ Another\\ way\\ to\\ recognize\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ notice\\ that\\ he\\ uses\\ quotes\\ within\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ another\\ poem\\ being\\ edited\\.\\ \\\\Ezra\\ Pound\\.\\ \\Top\\:\\ This\\ is\\ pretty\\ funny\\.\\ It\\ describes\\ the\\ \\"\\;gulf\\"\\;\\ between\\ Homer\\ and\\ Virgil\\.\\ It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ conversation\\,\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ Virgil\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ even\\ tell\\ that\\ Aeneas\\ is\\ the\\ hero\\,\\ but\\ thinks\\ instead\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ priest\\.\\ \\(from\\ a\\ book\\ written\\ by\\ Pound\\)\\ \\Bottom\\:\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ short\\ ranking\\ of\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ Roman\\ writers\\ and\\ states\\ what\\ Pound\\ thinks\\ of\\ them\\.\\ It\\ can\\ be\\ recognized\\ by\\ the\\ short\\,\\ choppy\\ sentences\\ and\\ listing\\ of\\ their\\ qualities\\.\\ For\\ example\\:\\ \\"\\;Catullus\\ \\[matters\\]\\ most\\.\\ Martial\\ somewhat\\.\\.\\.\\ Virgil\\ is\\ a\\ second\\-rater\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\ etc\\.\\ \\(from\\ a\\ personal\\ letter\\)\\.\\ \\\\W\\.H\\.\\ Auden\\:\\ Secondary\\ Epic\\.\\ \\Here\\ is\\ another\\ guy\\ who\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ impressed\\ by\\ Virgil\\.\\ In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ he\\ is\\ talking\\ TO\\ Virgil\\ \\(a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ recognize\\)\\ and\\ telling\\ him\\ why\\ his\\ poetry\\ is\\ a\\ failure\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ first\\ his\\ rhetorical\\ use\\ of\\ fortune\\ tellers\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ future\\ \\(like\\ how\\ the\\ shield\\ made\\ for\\ Aeneas\\ had\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ Rome\\ written\\ on\\ it\\ from\\ Aeneas\\&\\#39\\;\\ time\\ through\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Augustus\\)\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ this\\ foresight\\ technique\\ somewhat\\ frequently\\ in\\ his\\ writing\\,\\ and\\ this\\ author\\ writes\\ that\\ \\"\\;hidsight\\ as\\ foresight\\ makes\\ no\\ sense\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ asks\\ why\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ tell\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ history\\,\\ through\\ to\\ the\\ 1900s\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ and\\ why\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ Aeneas\\ ask\\ \\"\\;What\\ next\\?\\"\\;\\.\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ Anchises\\ was\\ not\\ convicing\\,\\ because\\ since\\ he\\ had\\ such\\ foresight\\,\\ why\\ would\\ be\\ stop\\ telling\\ the\\ future\\ at\\ Augustus\\?\\ Bascially\\,\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ technique\\ of\\ using\\ history\\ as\\ future\\ was\\ a\\ pretty\\ bad\\ idea\\.\\ He\\ repeats\\ \\"\\;No\\,\\ Virgil\\,\\ No\\"\\;\\ two\\ times\\ and\\ ask\\ questions\\ throughout\\ the\\ poem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 50, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/2007_Sourcebook_Summary.doc", "desc": "notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Complete Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "oeb-114"], "text": null, "id": 131, "html": "\\\\\\Complete\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:90pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:54pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\:\\ Chondrichthyes\\ Diversity\\ of\\ methods\\ of\\ embryonic\\ nutrition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Chondrichthyes\\-\\ cartilaginous\\ fish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Have\\ large\\ eggs\\,\\ low\\ fecundity\\.\\ o\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\ o\\ Wide\\ range\\ of\\ viviparity\\,\\ ovoviviparity\\,\\ lecithotropic\\ viviparity\\,\\ yolk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dependent\\ viviparity\\,\\ placental\\ viviparity\\,\\ etc\\.\\ o\\ Include\\:\\ Batoid\\ fishes\\ \\(rays\\,\\ skates\\)\\,\\ sharks\\,\\ chimeras\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Claspers\\-\\ used\\ by\\ chondrychthes\\ males\\ to\\ deliver\\ sperm\\ into\\ female\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reproductive\\ tract\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Tanning\\-\\ oxidative\\ crosslinking\\ of\\ proteins\\ that\\ results\\ in\\ toughening\\ of\\ the\\ egg\\-\\ cases\\.\\ These\\ are\\ tough\\ but\\ permeable\\.\\ Delivery\\ of\\ oxygen\\ to\\ the\\ egg\\ was\\ a\\ predecessor\\ to\\ viviparity\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Chimeras\\ \\(Ratfish\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Oviparous\\,\\ some\\ viviparous\\ fossils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Batoid\\ fishes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Skates\\ are\\ oviparous\\ o\\ Sawfish\\,\\ guitarfish\\,\\ electric\\ rays\\,\\ rays\\ are\\ viviparous\\ o\\ Rays\\-\\ lay\\ 1\\-2\\ eggs\\ per\\ day\\,\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ eggs\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ length\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ breeding\\ season\\.\\ o\\ Guitarfish\\-ovovivparity\\,\\ 6\\/litter\\.\\ o\\ True\\ rays\\-\\ small\\ eggs\\,\\ uterolactation\\ feeds\\ embryos\\.\\ Litter\\ of\\ 1\\-15\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gestation\\ of\\ 2\\-4\\ months\\.\\ Less\\ yolk\\ in\\ egg\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ uterlactation\\.\\ Incl\\ sting\\ ray\\,\\ manta\\ ray\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Cownosed\\ ray\\-\\ has\\ 3000x\\ weight\\ gain\\,\\ 11\\-12\\ month\\ gestation\\,\\ can\\ live\\ 30\\-100\\ years\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ start\\ reproducing\\ till\\ 20\\-30\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Shell\\ gland\\-\\ gland\\ in\\ reproductive\\ system\\ of\\ batoid\\ fishes\\ that\\ secretes\\ shell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\around\\ egg\\.\\ Egg\\ then\\ retained\\ or\\ laid\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Ovoviviparity\\-\\ yolk\\-based\\ viviparity\\.\\ Develop\\ within\\ eggs\\ that\\ remain\\ within\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\ up\\ until\\ they\\ hatch\\ or\\ are\\ about\\ to\\ hatch\\.\\ This\\ strategy\\ of\\ birth\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ ovoviviparity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ vivipary\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ embryo\\ develops\\ within\\ the\\ mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ embryos\\ of\\ viviparous\\ species\\,\\ ovoviviparous\\ embryos\\ are\\ nourished\\ by\\ the\\ egg\\ yolk\\ rather\\ than\\ by\\ the\\ mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\ does\\ provide\\ gas\\ exchange\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Lecithotrophic\\ viviparity\\-\\ yolk\\ based\\ viviparity\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Uterolactation\\-\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Trophonemata\\-\\ uterine\\ villi\\ that\\ secrete\\ milk\\ for\\ uterolactation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Sharks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Multiple\\ origins\\ of\\ viviparity\\,\\ litters\\ of\\ 1\\-300\\ o\\ Spiny\\ dogfish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Ovoviviparity\\=lecithotropic\\ viviparity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Highly\\ vascularized\\ uterine\\ mucosa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 40\\%\\ weight\\ loss\\ in\\ utero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 23\\ month\\ gest\\;\\ 7\\ pups\\/litter\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Lamniform\\ sharks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ All\\ have\\ Oophagy\\ o\\ No\\ uterine\\ compartments\\ o\\ Produce\\ eggs\\ all\\ through\\ pregnancy\\,\\ and\\ fetuses\\ eat\\ unfertilized\\ eggs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Litters\\ 2\\-18\\,\\ gest\\ 1\\ year\\/\\ o\\ Embryo\\ in\\ pic\\ has\\ large\\ yolkfilled\\ stomach\\ o\\ Sandtiger\\ shark\\ \\(a\\ lamniform\\ shark\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Intrauterine\\ embryonic\\ cannibalism\\&mdash\\;only\\ 1\\ survives\\ per\\ uterus\\&rarr\\;\\ 2\\ per\\ gest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 9\\-12\\ month\\ gest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Oophagy\\ and\\ adelphophagy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 25\\,000x\\ weight\\ gain\\ in\\ utero\\,\\ eat\\ 17\\,000\\ eggs\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Carcharhiniformes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Largest\\ order\\ of\\ sharks\\ o\\ Multiple\\ reproductive\\ models\\:\\ oviparity\\ \\+\\/\\-\\ egg\\ retention\\,\\ yolk\\-dependent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\viviparity\\,\\ placental\\ viviparity\\.\\ o\\ Chain\\ dogfish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Oviparous\\ without\\ egg\\ retention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Sperm\\ viable\\ for\\ 2\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 2\\ eggs\\/15\\ days\\,\\ with\\ 256\\ day\\ development\\.\\ Total\\ 24\\ eggs\\/\\ season\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ A\\ lot\\ of\\ sharks\\ have\\ sperm\\ storage\\.\\ You\\ can\\ estimate\\ how\\ many\\ males\\ a\\ female\\ mates\\ with\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ testes\\ size\\.\\ o\\ Catsharks\\-some\\ of\\ these\\ complete\\ most\\ of\\ development\\ in\\ utero\\,\\ but\\ lay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\eggs\\ before\\ hatching\\ o\\ Tiger\\ shark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Yolk\\ dependent\\ viviparity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 13\\-16\\ mo\\ gestation\\,\\ 10\\-82\\ pups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Each\\ pup\\ in\\ own\\ vascularized\\ compartment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Yolk\\ sac\\ does\\ not\\ form\\ a\\ placenta\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Carcharinid\\ \\(requiem\\ sharks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Each\\ embryo\\ in\\ own\\ uterine\\ compartment\\ o\\ Most\\ have\\ large\\ yolk\\-filled\\ eggs\\ o\\ Yolk\\ sac\\ forms\\ a\\ placenta\\ after\\ yolk\\ is\\ depleted\\.\\ o\\ 10x\\ weight\\ gain\\ in\\ utero\\ o\\ Atlantic\\ sharpnose\\ shark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ These\\ a\\ re\\ placental\\ requiem\\ sharks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Placenta\\ includes\\ egg\\ envelope\\ o\\ Spadenose\\ shark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Extreme\\ example\\ of\\ placental\\ nutrition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Placental\\ barrier\\ lacks\\ egg\\ envelope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 50\\,000x\\ weight\\ gain\\ in\\ utero\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Evolution\\ of\\ oophagy\\ in\\ sharks\\&mdash\\;has\\ evolved\\ independently\\ in\\ lamniforms\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\carcharhiniformes\\,\\ and\\ orectoloboforms\\.\\ Primary\\ determinant\\ of\\ litter\\ size\\ is\\ number\\ of\\ eggs\\ ovulated\\ and\\ filled\\ with\\ yolk\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Thorson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ rule\\ \\&ndash\\;see\\ wikipedia\\.\\ Its\\ for\\ invertebrates\\,\\ but\\ I\\ thought\\ I\\ remembered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\something\\ similar\\ from\\ class\\?\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Main\\ point\\:\\ different\\ methods\\ of\\ embryonic\\ nutrition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 4\\-Teleosts\\:\\ Bony\\ Fishes\\ Diversity\\ of\\ degree\\ and\\ type\\ of\\ parental\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Rayfinned\\ fishes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Include\\ bowfin\\,\\ sturgeon\\,\\ bichirs\\,\\ paddlefish\\,\\ and\\ gar\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ teleosts\\ o\\ All\\ except\\ teleosts\\ are\\ freshwater\\ fish\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Reproduction\\ in\\ teleosts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Do\\ not\\ have\\ oviducts\\-\\ hollow\\ ovaries\\ replace\\ oviduct\\ o\\ Chorion\\ depositin\\ in\\ follicle\\.\\ Different\\ from\\ amnionte\\ chorion\\ in\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ origin\\.\\ Tough\\ around\\ embryo\\.\\ o\\ Meroblastic\\ cleavage\\ of\\ egg\\ o\\ Eggs\\ small\\,\\ up\\ to\\ 25\\ mm\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Paternal\\ care\\ in\\ teleosts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Most\\ marine\\ \\(salt\\ water\\)\\ ones\\ have\\ pelagic\\ eggs\\.\\ Only\\ some\\ marine\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\guard\\ eggs\\ o\\ Freshwater\\ ones\\ have\\ domercile\\ eggs\\,\\ and\\ egg\\ guarding\\ is\\ common\\ o\\ Paternal\\ care\\ is\\ more\\ common\\ than\\ maternal\\ o\\ Only\\ 3\\%\\ of\\ species\\ have\\ internal\\ fertilization\\ o\\ Only\\ 2\\%\\ of\\ species\\ have\\ viviparity\\ o\\ Many\\ many\\ independent\\ origins\\ of\\ vivparity\\,\\ maternal\\ care\\,\\ and\\ paternal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\care\\ from\\ ancestral\\ state\\ of\\ external\\ fertilization\\ with\\ no\\ parental\\ care\\.\\ None\\ with\\ internal\\ fertilization\\ have\\ paternal\\ care\\.\\ See\\ diagram\\ with\\ numbers\\ in\\ packet\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Parental\\ guarding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Gunnel\\/butter\\-fish\\-curls\\ around\\ eggs\\ to\\ protect\\ them\\.\\ Pick\\ out\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ones\\,\\ but\\ have\\ reduced\\ opportunity\\ to\\ feed\\ o\\ Mouth\\ brooding\\ ciclets\\-\\ they\\ hold\\ the\\ developing\\ fry\\ in\\ their\\ mouths\\.\\ Examples\\ of\\ male\\,\\ female\\,\\ and\\ biparental\\.\\ There\\ are\\ parasitic\\ fish\\ that\\ sneak\\ their\\ eggs\\ in\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ risk\\ with\\ male\\ mouth\\ feeders\\&mdash\\;they\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ well\\ fed\\,\\ or\\ they\\ might\\ eat\\ the\\ eggs\\.\\ o\\ Sticklebacks\\-Oviparous\\ with\\ paternal\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Nest\\ site\\ for\\ ovaposition\\.\\ Female\\ lays\\ eggs\\ and\\ leaves\\,\\ then\\ male\\ comes\\ back\\ and\\ fertilizes\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ There\\ are\\ some\\ territorial\\ fish\\ who\\ will\\ come\\ and\\ fertilize\\ eggs\\ before\\ other\\ males\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ There\\ are\\ female\\ mimics\\ who\\ will\\ act\\ opportunistically\\ to\\ fertilize\\ the\\ eggs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Paternal\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Nest\\ building\\ and\\ nest\\ guarding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Fanning\\ of\\ eggs\\ with\\ pectoral\\ fins\\ to\\ keep\\ water\\ moving\\ across\\ them\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Removal\\ of\\ diseased\\ eggs\\,\\ breeding\\ males\\ lose\\ \\&ldquo\\;condition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Breeding\\ males\\ have\\ reduced\\ survival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Males\\ sometime\\ eat\\ eggs\\ in\\ own\\ nest\\ \\(trade\\-off\\&mdash\\;sacrifice\\ some\\ percent\\ of\\ offspring\\ to\\ hopefully\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ care\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 100\\-300\\ eggs\\/clutch\\,\\ female\\ produces\\ multiple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Nests\\ may\\ contain\\ multiple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Males\\ \\&ldquo\\;steal\\&rdquo\\;\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Males\\ \\&ldquo\\;steal\\&rdquo\\;\\ eggs\\ from\\ other\\ nests\\&mdash\\;b\\/c\\ additional\\ food\\,\\ and\\ because\\ females\\ prefer\\ nests\\ with\\ eggs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Females\\ prefer\\ nests\\ with\\ more\\ eggs\\ because\\ that\\ means\\ the\\ male\\ did\\ not\\ eat\\ them\\,\\ and\\ that\\ another\\ female\\ chose\\ him\\,\\ so\\ he\\ must\\ be\\ worth\\ something\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Viviparity\\ in\\ teleosts\\:\\ Scorpaenidae\\ \\(scorpion\\ fish\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\ common\\ o\\ Viviparity\\ present\\ in\\ sebastes\\ \\(3\\ species\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Comparison\\ of\\ oviparous\\ species\\ and\\ viviparous\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Helicolenus\\ dactylopterus\\ \\(oviparous\\ \\+\\ internal\\ fertilization\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 10\\,00\\-100\\,000\\ eggs\\ per\\ season\\,\\ sperm\\ viable\\ for\\ 10\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\&mdash\\;eggs\\ with\\ early\\ embryos\\ found\\ in\\ ovaries\\,\\ eggs\\ with\\ late\\ embryos\\ in\\ ocean\\ o\\ Sebastes\\ \\(viviparous\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Rockfish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Long\\ lived\\,\\ 30\\-100\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ High\\ fecundity\\,\\ up\\ to\\ 5\\,000\\,000\\ eggs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Gestation\\ in\\ ovarian\\ lumen\\-cavity\\ of\\ ovary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Primary\\ lecithotropic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 1\\-2\\ month\\ gestation\\,\\ then\\ pelagic\\ larvae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Oviparous\\ species\\ reach\\ same\\ stage\\ of\\ development\\ in\\ 5\\-10\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\&mdash\\;these\\ have\\ pelagic\\ eggs\\.\\ The\\ advantage\\ of\\ viviparity\\ is\\ reduced\\ predation\\.\\ In\\ oviparous\\ fish\\ they\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ predation\\,\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ strong\\ selection\\ for\\ rapid\\ development\\ after\\ release\\ o\\ Zoarcidae\\ \\(oviparous\\ except\\ for\\ 3\\ Zoarces\\ species\\,\\ who\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\independent\\ origin\\ of\\ viviparity\\)\\&mdash\\;eel\\ pouts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Macrozoarces\\ \\(oviparous\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Zoarces\\ \\(viviparous\\)\\ o\\ Embiotocidae\\ \\(surfperch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Micrometrus\\ minimus\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Domercile\\-\\ sink\\ to\\ bottom\\ of\\ ocean\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Peleagic\\-\\ float\\ around\\ in\\ ocean\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Meroblastic\\ cleavage\\-\\ cell\\ division\\ without\\ cytokenesis\\?\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Ovaposition\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Ovarian\\ lumen\\-\\ hollow\\ ovary\\ which\\ takes\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ uterus\\?\\&mdash\\;Intraluminal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gestation\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Teleost\\-\\ one\\ class\\ of\\ the\\ Actinopterygii\\ \\(ray\\-finned\\ fishes\\)\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Sebastes\\-genus\\ of\\ scorpionfish\\ that\\ are\\ viviparous\\,\\ widely\\ radiated\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pacific\\,\\ over\\ 100\\ species\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Trophotaenia\\-\\ feeding\\ threads\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Main\\ point\\:\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ parental\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\-\\ Atherinimorphs\\:\\ Diversity\\ of\\ methods\\ of\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Atherinimorph\\-\\ type\\ of\\ fish\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Synaphomorphies\\-\\ traits\\ that\\ show\\ monophyleticness\\ of\\ group\\.\\ Shared\\ derived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\character\\.\\ Does\\ not\\ provide\\ proof\\ of\\ closeness\\ of\\ relationship\\,\\ but\\ it\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ relationship\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Demersal\\ eggs\\-\\ sink\\ to\\ bottom\\ of\\ ocean\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Intramittent\\ organ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Atherinomorph\\ synaphomorphies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Demersal\\ eggs\\ with\\ chorionic\\ filaments\\ and\\ oil\\ droplets\\ o\\ Spermatogonie\\ restricted\\ to\\ distal\\ end\\ of\\ testis\\ tubules\\ o\\ Spawing\\ clasp\\-\\ make\\ hold\\ on\\ to\\ female\\ with\\ fins\\ o\\ Various\\ skeletal\\ structures\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ The\\ testis\\ of\\ the\\ atherinomorphs\\ are\\ very\\ organized\\,\\ and\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ conveyer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\belt\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ other\\ teleosts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Various\\ methods\\ of\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Fundus\\ heteroclitus\\&mdash\\;has\\ a\\ spawning\\ clasp\\.\\ External\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Holds\\ onto\\ female\\,\\ they\\ both\\ release\\ egg\\ and\\ sperm\\ at\\ same\\ time\\,\\ depositing\\ egg\\ in\\ mollusk\\ shells\\ in\\ low\\ tide\\ zone\\.\\ o\\ Zenarchopterus\\ robertsi\\-\\ internal\\ fertilization\\ and\\ viviparity\\.\\ They\\ have\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gonopodium\\ \\(modified\\ anal\\ fin\\)\\ o\\ Phallostethid\\ males\\-oviparous\\.\\ Have\\ priapium\\ \\(modified\\ pelvic\\ girdle\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ delivery\\ of\\ sperm\\.\\ o\\ Horaaichthys\\ setnai\\-\\ oviparous\\.\\ Gonopodoium\\.\\ o\\ Gambusia\\-\\ have\\ painful\\ looking\\ spawining\\ clasps\\ o\\ Tomerus\\ gracilis\\-\\ oviparous\\,\\ one\\ egg\\ per\\ day\\.\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovaries\\ contain\\ eggs\\ with\\ embryos\\.\\ Males\\ have\\ modified\\ anal\\ fin\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ swung\\ forward\\.\\ The\\ gravid\\ female\\ carries\\ eggs\\ in\\ her\\ ovaries\\.\\ The\\ modified\\ anal\\ fin\\ has\\ complex\\ terminal\\ modifications\\.\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Importance\\ of\\ the\\ spawing\\ clasp\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Predecessor\\ of\\ internal\\ fertilization\\ o\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\ is\\ good\\ because\\ females\\ can\\ release\\ large\\ eggs\\,\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\few\\ of\\ them\\.\\ Males\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ hang\\ around\\ as\\ long\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Sneak\\ copulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ In\\ Tomerus\\ gracilis\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ accounts\\ of\\ sneak\\ copulation\\,\\ male\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\coming\\ up\\ behind\\ female\\ and\\ thrusting\\ his\\ gonapodium\\ in\\ her\\.\\ Also\\ in\\ Gambusia\\ holbrooki\\ o\\ Poecilia\\ reticulate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Have\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ mating\\ displays\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Sigmoidal\\ display\\-\\ Male\\ display\\,\\ then\\ female\\ allows\\ mating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Sneak\\ copulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Sigmoidal\\ display\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ common\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ predator\\,\\ sneak\\ copulation\\ is\\ more\\ common\\ when\\ predator\\ is\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Male\\ can\\ avoid\\ predator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Decrease\\ cost\\ to\\ male\\ and\\ female\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Saves\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Female\\ attention\\ on\\ predator\\ is\\ taken\\ advantage\\ of\\ by\\ male\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8213\\;\\ Cypriodont\\ phylogeny\\&mdash\\;origins\\ of\\ internal\\ fertilization\\ and\\ viivparity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Cypriodonts\\ are\\ subgroup\\ of\\ atherinomorphs\\ o\\ Have\\ 4\\ independent\\ origins\\ of\\ internal\\ fertilization\\ o\\ 3\\ independent\\ origins\\ of\\ viviparity\\.\\ o\\ Kryptoblebias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Self\\ fertilizing\\&mdash\\;hermaphroditic\\ in\\ Florida\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Multiple\\ highly\\ inbred\\ genotypes\\ in\\ florida\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Isolated\\ hermaphrodites\\ lay\\ fertile\\ eggs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Genetic\\ evidence\\ for\\ outcrossing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Hermaphrodites\\ and\\ males\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Genetic\\ evidence\\ for\\ outcrossing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Males\\ make\\ only\\ sperm\\,\\ hermaphrodites\\ have\\ ovatestis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Own\\ eggs\\ and\\ sperm\\ fertilize\\.\\ Fish\\ can\\ become\\ nearly\\ clonal\\ lineages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ \\(aside\\:\\ Used\\ in\\ toxicology\\,\\ but\\ should\\ you\\ use\\ genetically\\ diverse\\ or\\ homogenous\\ lineages\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Oviparous\\ with\\ a\\ functional\\ ovitestis\\ o\\ Goodeidae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Restricted\\ to\\ Mexican\\ plateau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\ and\\ viviparity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Anal\\ fin\\ of\\ male\\ is\\ little\\ modified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Gestation\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ ovarian\\ lumen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Some\\ species\\ have\\ trophotaenia\\&mdash\\;feeding\\ threads\\ which\\ are\\ embryonic\\ extensions\\ of\\ the\\ hindgut\\.\\ These\\ vary\\ among\\ species\\ in\\ ability\\ to\\ take\\ up\\ large\\ molecules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Some\\ reports\\ of\\ adelphophagy\\ o\\ Anablepidae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Tubular\\ gonopodium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Sperm\\ are\\ free\\ rather\\ than\\ bundled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Couple\\ different\\ locations\\ of\\ gestation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Within\\ follicle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Within\\ ovarian\\ lumen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Follicular\\ and\\ ovarian\\ fluids\\ are\\ ingested\\ via\\ mouth\\ and\\ absorbed\\ in\\ gut\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ They\\ are\\ the\\ 4\\ eyed\\ fish\\.\\.\\.dunno\\ why\\ o\\ Poecilidae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Guppies\\ and\\ mosquitofish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Internal\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Nontubular\\ gonopodium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Sperm\\ transferred\\ in\\ bundles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Gestation\\ within\\ follicle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Overlapping\\ broods\\ \\(superfetation\\&mdash\\;care\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ litter\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ with\\ different\\ rate\\ of\\ development\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Variation\\ in\\ degree\\ of\\ matrotrophy\\&mdash\\;different\\ ways\\ of\\ post\\ ovulatory\\ provisioning\\ of\\ offspring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Important\\ concept\\:\\ An\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ broods\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ eggs\\ per\\ brood\\,\\ so\\ ultimately\\ they\\ end\\ up\\ producing\\ the\\ same\\ number\\ of\\ eggs\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ time\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Important\\ concept\\:\\ Increase\\ in\\ egg\\ weight\\ to\\ birth\\ weight\\ implies\\ a\\ high\\ degree\\ of\\ matrotrophy\\,\\ but\\ a\\ decrease\\ implies\\ not\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ matrotrophy\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Superfetation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Possible\\ that\\ superfetation\\ arises\\ from\\ competiton\\ by\\ sperm\\ to\\ fertilize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\eggs\\ first\\.\\ Fertilization\\ of\\ multiple\\ broods\\ at\\ time\\ before\\ eggs\\ fully\\ yolked\\ o\\ Next\\ batch\\ of\\ eggs\\ is\\ fertilixed\\ before\\ previous\\ brood\\ has\\ compelted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gestation\\.\\ o\\ Once\\ you\\ have\\ early\\ fertilization\\,\\ you\\ get\\ selection\\ refucing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ embryos\\.\\ Decrease\\ in\\ clutch\\ size\\ as\\ the\\ female\\ produces\\ more\\ clutches\\ a\\ t\\ a\\ time\\ \\&\\#8213\\;\\ Matrotrophy\\ index\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ ratio\\ of\\ the\\ dry\\ weight\\ at\\ birth\\ to\\ dry\\ weight\\ at\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 6\\:\\ For\\ both\\ Gynogenesis\\ and\\ Hybridogenesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-species\\ co\\-exist\\ with\\ related\\ sexual\\ species\\ \\-orginated\\ in\\ groups\\ where\\ males\\ were\\ not\\ choosy\\ and\\ mated\\ by\\ surprise\\ Gynogenesis\\:\\ sperm\\ do\\ not\\ contribute\\ genes\\ to\\ offspring\\.\\ Offspring\\ are\\ clones\\ of\\ mother\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Females\\ are\\ parasitic\\ on\\ sperm\\ of\\ sexual\\ males\\.\\ \\-evolutionary\\ constraint\\&mdash\\;requires\\ sperm\\ to\\ activate\\ eggs\\ \\-EX\\:\\ Poecilia\\ Formosa\\ \\(Guppies\\)\\:\\ all\\ females\\,\\ sexual\\ parasite\\ on\\ males\\ of\\ Poecilia\\ mexicana\\ and\\ Poecilia\\ latipinna\\ MECHANISM\\ \\(P\\.2monacha\\-lucida\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Triploid\\&rarr\\;MML\\ undergoes\\ mitosis\\ without\\ division\\ creates\\ MMMMLL\\ \\-pairing\\ of\\ sister\\ chromosomes\\ \\-normal\\ meiosis\\:\\ MMMMLL\\&rarr\\;\\ MML\\ \\-activation\\ of\\ egg\\ by\\ sperm\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ contribute\\ to\\ genome\\ of\\ egg\\ EX\\:\\ Ambystoma\\ spp\\.\\ \\(mole\\ salamander\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-2n\\,\\ 3n\\,\\ 4n\\,\\ 5n\\ gynogenetic\\ linages\\ \\-gynogenesis\\ at\\ low\\ temperatures\\,\\ male\\ genomes\\ eliminated\\ \\-karyogamy\\ \\(genetic\\ fusion\\ eggs\\,\\ not\\ eliminating\\ male\\,\\ so\\ then\\ ploidy\\ increases\\ by\\ one\\ chromosome\\)\\ at\\ high\\ temperatures\\ \\-gynogenetic\\ mtDNAs\\ are\\ all\\ closely\\ related\\ regardless\\ of\\ nuclear\\ genotype\\ suggesting\\ that\\ mtDNA\\ lineage\\ is\\ over\\ 5\\ million\\ years\\ old\\.\\ Hybridogenesis\\:\\ All\\ offspring\\ are\\ hybrids\\ and\\ female\\,\\ paternal\\ chromosomes\\ are\\ not\\ transmitted\\ to\\ eggs\\,\\ so\\ eggs\\ contain\\ only\\ maternal\\ genes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ hemiclonal\\ lineage\\&mdash\\;half\\ genes\\ are\\ cloned\\ and\\ passed\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-EX\\.\\ P\\.monacha\\-lucida\\.\\ \\(found\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-hybridogenetic\\&mdash\\;all\\ female\\ \\(see\\ above\\)\\,\\ P\\.lucida\\ chromosomes\\ are\\ eliminated\\ from\\ eggs\\ during\\ early\\ oogenesis\\ \\(sexual\\ parasite\\ of\\ P\\.lucida\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ hybridogenesis\\ was\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ only\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ having\\ P\\.monacha\\ and\\ P\\.lucida\\ together\\-\\-\\-when\\ P\\.monacha\\ and\\ P\\.monacha\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ recombination\\ between\\ maternal\\ chromosomes\\.\\ \\-MECHANISM\\ \\(specifically\\ explained\\ with\\ P\\.monacha\\ \\(f\\)\\ and\\ P\\.lucida\\ \\(m\\)\\&rarr\\;P\\.monacha\\-lucida\\ offspring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-unipolar\\ spindle\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ 2\\ poles\\)\\ attaches\\ M\\ chromosomes\\ \\-L\\ chromosomes\\ scattered\\ in\\ cytoplasm\\ \\(not\\ attached\\ to\\ spindle\\)\\ \\-separation\\ of\\ M\\ chromatids\\ at\\ meiosis\\ II\\ \\-egg\\ nucleus\\ receives\\ only\\ M\\ chromosomes\\ \\-fertilization\\ of\\ egg\\ by\\ P\\.lucida\\ sperm\\&rarr\\;recreates\\ hybrid\\ offspring\\.\\ P\\.monacha\\-lucida\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-not\\ just\\ a\\ single\\ clonal\\ orgin\\&rarr\\;mtDNAs\\ of\\ hybrids\\ are\\ diverse\\ WHO\\ \\(genes\\)\\ is\\ more\\ fit\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-female\\ of\\ hybrid\\ since\\ maternal\\ genes\\ are\\ in\\ all\\ offspring\\ and\\ paternal\\ genes\\ in\\ none\\ Why\\ do\\ P\\.lucida\\ males\\ continue\\ to\\ mate\\ with\\ P\\.monacha\\ and\\ hybrids\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-female\\ respond\\ differently\\ or\\ perhaps\\ result\\ of\\ males\\ not\\ being\\ choosy\\.\\ Same\\ patterns\\ observed\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ P\\.\\ monacha\\ and\\ P\\.occidentalis\\ with\\ hybrid\\&mdash\\;P\\.m\\-\\ occidentalis\\ When\\ look\\ in\\ different\\ regions\\ there\\ are\\ different\\ patterns\\ of\\ mtDNA\\.\\ In\\ the\\ northern\\ most\\ area\\,\\ single\\ P\\.\\ monacha\\ mtDNA\\ clone\\.\\ In\\ the\\ middle\\ area\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ single\\ mtDNA\\ clone\\ older\\ than\\ 100\\,000\\ generations\\.\\ In\\ the\\ south\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ mtDNA\\ clones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-assumed\\ that\\ P\\.monacha\\ used\\ to\\ found\\ in\\ all\\ rivers\\ but\\ became\\ extinct\\ in\\ North\\ \\-Hybrids\\ also\\ became\\ extinct\\ until\\ just\\ one\\ lineage\\ left\\ \\-Or\\:\\ female\\ onacha\\(founder\\ effect\\)\\ took\\ genes\\ to\\ new\\ are\\ a\\ allowing\\ for\\ new\\ clone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ambystoma\\ spp\\.\\ \\(mole\\ salamander\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-2n\\,\\ 3n\\,\\ 4n\\,\\ 5n\\ gynogenetic\\ linages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 7\\ Amphibians\\:\\ caecilians\\,\\ frogs\\ and\\ salamanders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-characteristically\\ have\\ large\\ yolky\\ egg\\ Caecilians\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHARACTERISTICS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-legless\\,\\ all\\ have\\ internal\\ fertilization\\,\\ oviparous\\ females\\ guard\\ eggs\\,\\ many\\ species\\ are\\ viviparous\\ \\(multiple\\ orgins\\)\\ Oviparous\\ species\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Ichthyophis\\ \\(fish\\ snake\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-eggs\\ laid\\ underground\\.\\ Female\\ looses\\ weight\\ during\\ brooding\\,\\ large\\ clutch\\ \\(22\\-58\\)\\.\\ Larger\\ females\\ produce\\ bigger\\ clutch\\ and\\ larger\\ larvae\\ \\-Boulengera\\ taitanus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-brooding\\ females\\ develop\\ special\\ thick\\ skin\\ and\\ hatchlings\\ feed\\ on\\ mothers\\&rsquo\\;\\ skin\\ Vivaporous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-oral\\ ingesting\\ of\\ uterine\\ fluids\\ \\(nutrious\\)\\ \\-fetal\\ teeth\\ rasp\\ oviduct\\ wall\\ tryplonectids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-larval\\ gills\\ form\\ a\\ placenta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-also\\ observed\\ oophagy\\ \\(egg\\ eating\\)\\ and\\ adelphophagy\\ \\(brother\\ eating\\)\\ Salamanders\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHARACTERISTICS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-external\\ fertilization\\:\\ males\\ guard\\ eggs\\ \\-internal\\ fertilization\\:\\ females\\ guard\\ eggs\\ \\-single\\ origin\\ of\\ vivaparity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Salamandroidea\\:\\ spermatophores\\ with\\ internal\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-paved\\ way\\ for\\ prolonged\\ egg\\ retention\\ \\(vivaparity\\)\\ in\\ S\\.\\ luschani\\,\\ S\\.\\ salamandra\\,\\ and\\ S\\.\\ atra\\ Mertiensiella\\ caucasia\\:\\ oviparous\\;\\ internal\\ fertilization\\ S\\.luschani\\:\\ viviparous\\;\\ preliminary\\ evidence\\ of\\ oophagy\\,\\ two\\ offspring\\ fully\\ metaphorphed\\ S\\.\\ salamandra\\:\\ \\(fire\\ salamander\\)\\:\\ variable\\ reproductive\\ modes\\,\\ sometimes\\ adelphophagy\\,\\ oophagy\\,\\ most\\ development\\ occurs\\ in\\ uterus\\ \\(3\\-9\\ mos\\)\\,\\ dev\\.\\ from\\ yolk\\ reserves\\ S\\.\\ atra\\:\\ 50\\ eggs\\ per\\ oviduct\\,\\ only\\ one\\ fertilized\\ egg\\ in\\ each\\ oviduct\\.\\ 2\\-\\ 4yrs\\ gestation\\,\\ older\\ fetuses\\ eat\\ oviduct\\ epithelium\\ Frogs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ have\\ external\\ fertilization\\ \\(amplexis\\:\\ female\\ releases\\ eggs\\ and\\ male\\ fertilizes\\ them\\)\\ \\-Vivaparity\\ in\\ Eleutherodactylus\\ \\(largest\\ genus\\ of\\ vertebrates\\)\\ jasperi\\ and\\ Nectophrynoides\\ \\(genus\\)\\ Eleutherodactylus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-direct\\ development\\ from\\ eggs\\,\\ no\\ tadpole\\ stage\\,\\ gills\\ reduces\\/absent\\,\\ membranous\\,\\ vascualrized\\ tail\\ forms\\ respiratory\\ membrane\\ in\\ egg\\ \\(acts\\ as\\ extra\\ membrane\\ for\\ gas\\ exchange\\)\\ \\-E\\.coqui\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-oviparous\\ frog\\,\\ amplexus\\ for\\ 7\\-10hrs\\,\\ large\\ eggs\\,\\ dev\\.\\ in\\ less\\ than\\ month\\ \\-Male\\ tends\\ 1\\-3\\ clutches\\ and\\ delivers\\ water\\ to\\ eggs\\,\\ increase\\ in\\ embryo\\ wet\\ mass\\,\\ parental\\ care\\ is\\ essential\\!\\ If\\ no\\ care\\,\\ then\\ they\\ dehydrate\\ and\\ die\\ \\-E\\.\\ jasperi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-probably\\ extinct\\ \\-lecithotrophic\\ vivaparity\\ \\(yolk\\ source\\ of\\ nutrients\\,\\ not\\ mother\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nectophyrnoides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Includes\\ both\\ vivparous\\ and\\ oviparous\\ forms\\.\\ \\-Viviparous\\ form\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-N\\.\\ occidentalis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-embyos\\ free\\ in\\ uterine\\ lumen\\,\\ ingest\\ uterine\\ milk\\,\\ no\\ placental\\ structures\\,\\ gestation\\ 9ms\\,\\ yolok\\ poor\\ eggs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 8\\ \\-Frogs\\ continued\\:\\ Demonstrates\\ how\\ parental\\ behavior\\ affects\\ survival\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Osteocephalus\\ oophagus\\&mdash\\;Pair\\ returns\\ every\\ 5\\-7\\ days\\ to\\ spawn\\,\\ and\\ older\\ tadpoles\\ eat\\ fertilized\\ eggs\\.\\ Unprovisioned\\ tadpoles\\ starve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Osteophilus\\ brunneeus\\:\\ early\\ clutches\\ are\\ fertilized\\ and\\ later\\ clutches\\ are\\ used\\ as\\ food\\ for\\ larvae\\,\\ unprovisioned\\ tadpoles\\ starve\\ \\-not\\ all\\ have\\ post\\ zygotic\\ parental\\ care\\:\\ Kurixalus\\ idiootocus\\ \\-Kurixalus\\ eiffingeri\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-male\\ hydrates\\ eggs\\,\\ female\\ lays\\ trophic\\ eggs\\ to\\ feed\\ off\\ of\\,\\ tadpoles\\ have\\ beak\\,\\ large\\ gut\\ for\\ egg\\ eating\\ \\-Dendobatidae\\ \\(poison\\ arrow\\ frogs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-toxins\\ from\\ diet\\ of\\ ants\\ and\\ mites\\ \\-sm\\.\\ Clutches\\ of\\ terrestrial\\ eggs\\ \\(tended\\ by\\ paretnst\\)\\ \\-tadpoles\\ carried\\ to\\ water\\ on\\ back\\ of\\ male\\ \\-egg\\ and\\ larval\\ cannibalism\\ is\\ common\\ \\-Dendrobates\\ auratus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-males\\ defend\\ territories\\,\\ possibly\\ with\\ multiple\\ clutches\\ \\-males\\ tend\\ eggs\\,\\ moisten\\ them\\,\\ and\\ carries\\ them\\ to\\ pool\\ after\\ hatching\\ \\-females\\ try\\ to\\ exclude\\ other\\ females\\ from\\ territory\\ and\\ eat\\ other\\ females\\&rsquo\\;\\ eggs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Dendrobates\\ pumilio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-males\\ defend\\ territory\\,\\ female\\ carries\\ tadpole\\ individually\\ to\\ leaf\\ axil\\ and\\ feeds\\ with\\ trophic\\ eggs\\ \\-Dendrobates\\ vanzolinii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-each\\ frog\\ has\\ unique\\ color\\ pattern\\ \\-territorial\\ monogamous\\ pair\\ \\-tree\\ hollow\\ contains\\ single\\ tadpole\\ \\-second\\ tadpole\\ to\\ new\\ hollow\\,\\ fed\\ by\\ mum\\ with\\ eggs\\ \\-Rhheobactrachus\\ silus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-extinct\\ \\-mother\\ swallows\\ eggs\\ and\\ young\\ develop\\ in\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stomach\\ \\-Assa\\ darlingtoni\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-female\\ remain\\ until\\ hatching\\,\\ larvae\\ enter\\ male\\ inguinal\\ pouches\\ \\-no\\ well\\ developed\\ mouth\\ or\\ color\\ in\\ tadpoles\\ since\\ not\\ feeding\\ and\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rhinoderma\\ rufum\\ \\(Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ frog\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-terrestrial\\ eggs\\,\\ taken\\ into\\ vocal\\ sac\\ after\\ 8\\ days\\,\\ partial\\ development\\ \\-male\\ releases\\ eggs\\ into\\ water\\,\\ where\\ finish\\ dev\\.\\ \\-Rhinoderma\\ dawinii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-large\\ terrestrial\\ eggs\\,\\ eggs\\ taken\\ into\\ vocal\\ sacs\\ \\-gestation\\ in\\ vocal\\ sac\\ \\-monogamous\\ in\\ a\\ breeding\\ season\\.\\ \\-Non\\-oviductal\\ gestation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alytes\\ Male\\ Hind\\ legs\\ Rheobatrachus\\ Female\\ Stomach\\ Assa\\ Male\\ Groin\\ Rhinoderma\\ Male\\ Vocal\\ sacs\\ Pipa\\ Female\\ Back\\ Hemiphractinae\\ Female\\ Back\\ Dendrobatidae\\ Either\\ sex\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 51, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Complete_study_guide_for_OEB_114.pdf", "desc": "everything you need for oeb 114"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Practice Questions", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 132, "html": "\\\\\\Practice\\ Questions\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:24pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:74\\.6pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-indent\\:3\\.4pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Safe\\ Practice\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fill\\-ins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ figuring\\ out\\ where\\ one\\ word\\ ends\\ and\\ the\\ next\\ begins\\ during\\ speech\\ perception\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nouns\\ that\\ denote\\ particular\\ objects\\ are\\ called\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ nouns\\,\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ singular\\ or\\ plural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ meaningless\\ units\\ of\\ sound\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ speech\\ are\\ called\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Words\\ have\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ categories\\ that\\ determine\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ combined\\ to\\ make\\ up\\ meaningful\\ sentences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matching\\ strategy\\ describes\\ a\\ strategy\\ of\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ conclusions\\ when\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;match\\&rdquo\\;\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problem\\ solving\\ shortcuts\\,\\ or\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ are\\ widely\\ used\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ sometimes\\ lead\\ to\\ systematic\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ in\\ judgment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ A\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ theory\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ should\\ think\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ correct\\ conclusion\\ most\\ often\\,\\ but\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ theory\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ actually\\ think\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ People\\ typically\\ try\\ to\\ solve\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ problems\\ by\\ transforming\\ them\\ into\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ problems\\ by\\ adding\\ constraints\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ A\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ is\\ a\\ quick\\ but\\ approximate\\ way\\ of\\ solving\\ a\\ problem\\ whereas\\ a\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ is\\ a\\ slow\\ and\\ accurate\\ way\\ of\\ solving\\ a\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kosslyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ map\\ task\\ supports\\ the\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ representation\\ of\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ lobe\\ is\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ purely\\ spatial\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Brooks\\ interference\\ task\\ shows\\ that\\ mental\\ scanning\\ is\\ both\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ and\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ speech\\ sounds\\ actually\\ vary\\ along\\ a\\ continuum\\,\\ adults\\ tend\\ to\\ perceive\\ them\\ categorically\\.\\ Describe\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ suggesting\\ that\\ newborns\\ innately\\ recognize\\ the\\ same\\ distinctions\\ between\\ phonemes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Give\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ linguistic\\ slip\\ \\(or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Spoonerism\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ explain\\ its\\ implications\\ for\\ our\\ mental\\ representations\\ of\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\ one\\ way\\ that\\ language\\ influences\\ performance\\ on\\ a\\ nonlinguistic\\ task\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrast\\ the\\ behaviorist\\ and\\ cognitive\\ views\\ of\\ how\\ grammar\\ is\\ learned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Give\\ one\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ cautious\\ when\\ interpreting\\ cross\\-linguistic\\ studies\\ on\\ how\\ language\\ affects\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;motherese\\&rdquo\\;\\ play\\ in\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\ acquisition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ several\\ known\\ cases\\ of\\ individuals\\ who\\ were\\ deprived\\ of\\ early\\ language\\ input\\.\\ Compare\\ the\\ language\\ acquisition\\ of\\ Isabelle\\,\\ who\\ was\\ introduced\\ to\\ language\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 6\\,\\ and\\ Chelsea\\,\\ who\\ was\\ first\\ exposed\\ to\\ language\\ at\\ 31\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suppose\\ a\\ black\\ patch\\ is\\ projected\\ to\\ your\\ left\\ eye\\ and\\ a\\ white\\ patch\\ is\\ projected\\ to\\ your\\ right\\ eye\\.\\ What\\ would\\ you\\ consciously\\ perceive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ aphasia\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describe\\ what\\ the\\ availability\\ heuristic\\ is\\ and\\ explain\\ why\\ it\\ sometimes\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\ biased\\ judgments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explain\\ the\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ the\\ difference\\ reduction\\ method\\ and\\ the\\ means\\-end\\ analysis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ search\\ heuristics\\ help\\ you\\ solve\\ anagrams\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describe\\ experimental\\ evidence\\ supporting\\ the\\ usefulness\\ of\\ analogies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describe\\ some\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ against\\ verbal\\ encoding\\ of\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrast\\ the\\ analogical\\ and\\ propositional\\ representations\\ of\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ there\\ evidence\\ for\\ a\\ double\\ dissociation\\ between\\ imagery\\ and\\ perception\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ what\\ is\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ Sets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Visual\\ Imagery\\ In\\ the\\ Island\\ Scanning\\ task\\,\\ Kosslyn\\ had\\ participants\\ memorize\\ a\\ map\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ asked\\ them\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ mental\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ map\\ and\\ scan\\ from\\ one\\ location\\ to\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ What\\ did\\ he\\ find\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ How\\ did\\ he\\ interpret\\ this\\ finding\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ What\\ is\\ one\\ alternate\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ finding\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Describe\\ a\\ study\\ which\\ you\\ believe\\ rules\\ out\\ this\\ alternate\\ interpretation\\.\\ Make\\ sure\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ was\\ manipulated\\,\\ what\\ was\\ measured\\ and\\ what\\ the\\ finding\\ was\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ 100\\ college\\ students\\ are\\ given\\ the\\ following\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bob\\ says\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ a\\ card\\ has\\ an\\ even\\ number\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ then\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ consonant\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Which\\ cards\\ would\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ turn\\ over\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ if\\ Bob\\&rsquo\\;s\\ statement\\ is\\ true\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\ D\\ 4\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ logically\\ correct\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ how\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ students\\ will\\ give\\ this\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ card\\ or\\ cards\\ will\\ the\\ other\\ students\\ say\\ should\\ be\\ turned\\ over\\?\\ Why\\?\\ \\(2pts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Now\\ 100\\ new\\ students\\ are\\ given\\ this\\ problem\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ Canadian\\ passport\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\then\\ you\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ tourist\\ visa\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ Which\\ passports\\ must\\ be\\ checked\\ to\\ verify\\ this\\ rule\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canada\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\France\\ visa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ logically\\ correct\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ how\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ students\\ will\\ give\\ this\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ two\\ distinct\\ theories\\ which\\ explain\\ why\\ performance\\ might\\ be\\ different\\ on\\ these\\ two\\ tasks\\?\\ \\(4pts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tourist\\ visa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fill\\-ins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ figuring\\ out\\ where\\ one\\ word\\ ends\\ and\\ the\\ next\\ begins\\ during\\ speech\\ perception\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_segmentation\\_\\_\\_\\_\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nouns\\ that\\ denote\\ particular\\ objects\\ are\\ called\\ \\_\\_count\\_\\_\\_\\ nouns\\,\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ singular\\ or\\ plural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ meaningless\\ units\\ of\\ sound\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ speech\\ are\\ called\\ \\_\\_\\_phonemes\\_\\_\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Words\\ have\\ \\_\\_syntactic\\_\\_\\ categories\\ that\\ determine\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ combined\\ to\\ make\\ up\\ meaningful\\ sentences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matching\\ strategy\\ describes\\ a\\ strategy\\ of\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_endorsing\\_\\_\\ conclusions\\ when\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;match\\&rdquo\\;\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ \\_\\_premises\\_\\_\\_\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Problem\\ solving\\ shortcuts\\,\\ or\\ \\_heuristics\\_\\_\\ are\\ widely\\ used\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ sometimes\\ lead\\ to\\ systematic\\ \\_\\_\\_errors\\_\\_\\ in\\ judgment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ theory\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ should\\ think\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ correct\\ conclusion\\ most\\ often\\,\\ but\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ theory\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ actually\\ think\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Normative\\,\\ descriptive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ People\\ typically\\ try\\ to\\ solve\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ problems\\ by\\ transforming\\ them\\ into\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ problems\\ by\\ adding\\ constraints\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Ill\\-defined\\,\\ well\\-defined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ A\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ is\\ a\\ quick\\ but\\ approximate\\ way\\ of\\ solving\\ a\\ problem\\ whereas\\ a\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ is\\ a\\ slow\\ and\\ accurate\\ way\\ of\\ solving\\ a\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ Heuristic\\,\\ algorithm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kosslyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ map\\ task\\ supports\\ the\\ \\(analogical\\)\\ representation\\ of\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\(parietal\\)\\ lobe\\ is\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ purely\\ spatial\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Brooks\\ interference\\ task\\ shows\\ that\\ mental\\ scanning\\ is\\ both\\ \\(spatial\\)\\ and\\ \\(visual\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Short\\ Answers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ speech\\ sounds\\ actually\\ vary\\ along\\ a\\ continuum\\,\\ adults\\ tend\\ to\\ perceive\\ them\\ categorically\\.\\ Describe\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ suggesting\\ that\\ newborns\\ innately\\ recognize\\ the\\ same\\ distinctions\\ between\\ phonemes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Playing\\ a\\ novel\\ stimulus\\ like\\ a\\ particular\\ phoneme\\ to\\ newborns\\ prompts\\ a\\ sucking\\ response\\,\\ that\\ stops\\ as\\ infants\\ habituate\\ to\\ that\\ phoneme\\.\\ If\\ you\\ play\\ a\\ new\\ phoneme\\ that\\ adults\\ recognize\\ as\\ the\\ same\\ categorically\\ the\\ infants\\ are\\ still\\ habituated\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ play\\ a\\ different\\ category\\ of\\ phoneme\\ the\\ infants\\ dishabituate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Give\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ linguistic\\ slip\\ \\(or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Spoonerism\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ explain\\ its\\ implications\\ for\\ our\\ mental\\ representations\\ of\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Someone\\ might\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ I\\ stop\\,\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ start\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ I\\ start\\,\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ unlikely\\ to\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ start\\ I\\,\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ exchanges\\ only\\ occur\\ between\\ two\\ verbs\\ or\\ two\\ nouns\\,\\ not\\ between\\ a\\ verb\\ or\\ noun\\.\\ This\\ is\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ there\\ are\\ mental\\ representations\\ of\\ syntactic\\ categories\\ like\\ nouns\\ and\\ verbs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\ one\\ way\\ that\\ language\\ influences\\ performance\\ on\\ a\\ nonlinguistic\\ task\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ subjects\\ are\\ shown\\ an\\ image\\ or\\ color\\ and\\ then\\ asked\\ to\\ remember\\ it\\ later\\,\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ verbally\\ encoded\\ the\\ stimulus\\ can\\ cause\\ them\\ to\\ misremember\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrast\\ the\\ behaviorist\\ and\\ cognitive\\ views\\ of\\ how\\ grammar\\ is\\ learned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Behaviorists\\ proposed\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ learned\\ through\\ reinforcement\\ of\\ particular\\ pairings\\ or\\ chains\\ of\\ word\\,\\ like\\ any\\ other\\ habit\\.\\ The\\ cognitive\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ children\\ learn\\ \\(or\\ innately\\ know\\)\\ abstract\\ rules\\,\\ and\\ just\\ have\\ to\\ learn\\ what\\ words\\ match\\ what\\ syntactic\\ categories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Give\\ one\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ cautious\\ when\\ interpreting\\ cross\\-linguistic\\ studies\\ on\\ how\\ language\\ affects\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Groups\\ that\\ use\\ different\\ languages\\ often\\ also\\ have\\ very\\ different\\ cultures\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ know\\ whether\\ the\\ differences\\ seen\\ on\\ any\\ tasks\\ are\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ influence\\ or\\ language\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ aspect\\ of\\ culture\\ on\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ role\\ does\\ \\&ldquo\\;motherese\\&rdquo\\;\\ play\\ in\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\ acquisition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Motherese\\ seems\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ very\\ small\\ role\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ children\\ have\\ some\\ other\\ source\\ of\\ linguistic\\ input\\.\\ While\\ it\\ might\\ prompt\\ children\\ to\\ more\\ often\\ use\\ particular\\ words\\ or\\ grammatical\\ structures\\ that\\ their\\ parents\\ use\\ frequently\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ affect\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ language\\ development\\ children\\ go\\ through\\ or\\ their\\ end\\ level\\ of\\ proficiency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ several\\ known\\ cases\\ of\\ individuals\\ who\\ were\\ deprived\\ of\\ early\\ language\\ input\\.\\ Compare\\ the\\ language\\ acquisition\\ of\\ Isabelle\\,\\ who\\ was\\ introduced\\ to\\ language\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 6\\,\\ and\\ Chelsea\\,\\ who\\ was\\ first\\ exposed\\ to\\ language\\ at\\ 31\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Isabelle\\ demonstrated\\ normal\\ language\\ acquisition\\,\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ same\\ stages\\ exhibited\\ by\\ most\\ children\\ and\\ catching\\ up\\ to\\ her\\ peers\\ within\\ a\\ year\\.\\ Chelsea\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\ impairment\\ was\\ severely\\ impaired\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ learned\\ some\\ words\\ and\\ sometimes\\ paired\\ them\\ together\\,\\ but\\ never\\ demonstrated\\ a\\ consistent\\ understanding\\ of\\ grammar\\ or\\ complex\\ sentences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suppose\\ a\\ black\\ patch\\ is\\ projected\\ to\\ your\\ left\\ eye\\ and\\ a\\ white\\ patch\\ is\\ projected\\ to\\ your\\ right\\ eye\\.\\ What\\ would\\ you\\ consciously\\ perceive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alternating\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ patches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ aphasia\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ acquired\\ deficit\\ of\\ language\\ OR\\ when\\ someone\\ has\\ a\\ stroke\\ or\\ lesion\\ and\\ it\\ impairs\\ their\\ language\\ abilities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describe\\ what\\ the\\ availability\\ heuristic\\ is\\ and\\ explain\\ why\\ it\\ sometimes\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\ biased\\ judgments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Estimating\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ events\\ by\\ seeing\\ how\\ readily\\/easily\\ we\\ can\\ generate\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ event\\.\\ Some\\ events\\ may\\ be\\ easier\\ or\\ harder\\ to\\ retrieve\\ for\\ reasons\\ other\\ than\\ frequency\\ \\(vividness\\,\\ organization\\ of\\ memory\\ etc\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explain\\ the\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ the\\ difference\\ reduction\\ method\\ and\\ the\\ means\\-end\\ analysis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ search\\ heuristics\\ help\\ you\\ solve\\ anagrams\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describe\\ experimental\\ evidence\\ supporting\\ the\\ usefulness\\ of\\ analogies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Describe\\ some\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ against\\ verbal\\ encoding\\ of\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\T\\ experiment\\,\\ zoom\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrast\\ the\\ analogical\\ and\\ propositional\\ representations\\ of\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Analogical\\:\\ picture\\-like\\ code\\,\\ visual\\ memory\\ is\\ like\\ perception\\,\\ relations\\ represented\\ implicitly\\,\\ diff\\.\\ kind\\ of\\ representation\\ for\\ each\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Propositional\\:\\ word\\-like\\ code\\,\\ visual\\ memory\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ image\\,\\ relations\\ represented\\ explicitly\\,\\ same\\ kind\\ of\\ representation\\ for\\ each\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ there\\ evidence\\ for\\ a\\ double\\ dissociation\\ between\\ imagery\\ and\\ perception\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ what\\ is\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yes\\:\\ some\\ patients\\ can\\ image\\ but\\ not\\ ID\\,\\ other\\ can\\ ID\\ but\\ not\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Visual\\ Imagery\\ \\(12\\ pts\\)\\ In\\ the\\ Island\\ Scanning\\ task\\,\\ Kosslyn\\ had\\ participants\\ memorize\\ a\\ map\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ asked\\ them\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ mental\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ map\\ and\\ scan\\ from\\ one\\ location\\ to\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ What\\ did\\ he\\ find\\?\\ It\\ takes\\ people\\ longer\\ to\\ scan\\ between\\ locations\\ that\\ are\\ farther\\ apart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ How\\ did\\ he\\ interpret\\ this\\ finding\\?\\ As\\ evidence\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ pictorial\\ or\\ image\\-\\ based\\ mental\\ representations\\ of\\ visual\\ stimuli\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ What\\ is\\ one\\ alternate\\ interpretation\\ of\\ this\\ finding\\?\\ That\\ the\\ task\\ had\\ demand\\ characteristics\\ that\\ prompted\\ participants\\ to\\ respond\\ more\\ slowly\\ on\\ the\\ distant\\ location\\ trials\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Describe\\ a\\ study\\ which\\ you\\ believe\\ rules\\ out\\ this\\ alternate\\ interpretation\\.\\ Make\\ sure\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ was\\ manipulated\\,\\ what\\ was\\ measured\\ and\\ what\\ the\\ finding\\ was\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Reasoning\\ \\(15\\ pts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ 100\\ college\\ students\\ are\\ given\\ the\\ following\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bob\\ says\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ a\\ card\\ has\\ an\\ even\\ number\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ then\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ consonant\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Which\\ cards\\ would\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ turn\\ over\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ if\\ Bob\\&rsquo\\;s\\ statement\\ is\\ true\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\ D\\ 4\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ logically\\ correct\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\ 4\\ and\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ how\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ students\\ will\\ give\\ this\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\ 4\\ or\\ 5\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Which\\ card\\ or\\ cards\\ will\\ the\\ other\\ students\\ say\\ should\\ be\\ turned\\ over\\?\\ Why\\?\\ \\(2pts\\ Most\\ students\\ will\\ turn\\ over\\ 4\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ good\\ at\\ testing\\ the\\ mentioned\\ conditional\\ \\(modus\\ ponens\\)\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ turning\\ over\\ A\\,\\ however\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ turn\\ over\\ D\\,\\ prompted\\ by\\ the\\ confirmation\\ bias\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.\\ Now\\ 100\\ new\\ students\\ are\\ given\\ this\\ problem\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ Canadian\\ passport\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\then\\ you\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ tourist\\ visa\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ Which\\ passports\\ must\\ be\\ checked\\ to\\ verify\\ this\\ rule\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Canada\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\France\\ tourist\\ visa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\visa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ logically\\ correct\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\ Canada\\ and\\ work\\ visa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ how\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ students\\ will\\ give\\ this\\ answer\\?\\ \\(1pt\\)\\ Over\\ half\\ \\(any\\ large\\ number\\ will\\ do\\ here\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ two\\ distinct\\ theories\\ which\\ explain\\ why\\ performance\\ might\\ be\\ different\\ on\\ these\\ two\\ tasks\\?\\ \\(4pts\\)\\ The\\ case\\-based\\ reasoning\\ theory\\ posits\\ that\\ we\\ draw\\ on\\ familiar\\ experiences\\ that\\ match\\ the\\ problem\\ that\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ solved\\,\\ helping\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ case\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ first\\.\\ The\\ pragmatic\\ reasoning\\ theory\\ posits\\ that\\ we\\ abstract\\ rules\\ from\\ our\\ experiences\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ classes\\ of\\ situations\\,\\ such\\ as\\ situations\\ where\\ permission\\ is\\ required\\ or\\ where\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ cause\\-and\\-effect\\ relationship\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ second\\ problem\\ fit\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ situational\\ categories\\,\\ we\\ could\\ apply\\ the\\ schema\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 40, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/practice_questions.pdf", "desc": "review questions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 133, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c12\\{height\\:11pt\\;text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:4\\.5pt\\}\\.c17\\{height\\:11pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c13\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c24\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c19\\{line\\-height\\:2\\.0\\}\\.c6\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c30\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c9\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c20\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\READINGS\\ FOR\\ FEBRUARY\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Feb\\ 5\\ Seligman\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ reason\\ for\\ positive\\ psychology\\:\\ Post\\ WWII\\,\\ psychology\\ had\\ become\\ focused\\ on\\ pathology\\.\\ \\ \\;True\\,\\ need\\ to\\ fix\\ problems\\,\\ have\\ mental\\ health\\.\\ \\ \\;BUT\\,\\ also\\ need\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ strengths\\,\\ best\\ qualities\\ in\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revelation\\ re\\:\\ pos\\ psych\\ came\\ from\\ spending\\ time\\ with\\ his\\ 5\\ year\\ old\\ daughter\\:\\ she\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ since\\ she\\ had\\ stopped\\ whining\\ \\(of\\ her\\ own\\ volition\\)\\,\\ he\\ can\\ stop\\ being\\ a\\ grouch\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Realized\\ raising\\ children\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ fixing\\ their\\ bad\\ qualities\\ \\(they\\ do\\ it\\ themselves\\)\\,\\ but\\ about\\ nurturing\\ their\\ strengths\\,\\ their\\ best\\ qualities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Psychology\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pre\\-WWII\\,\\ psychology\\ had\\ been\\ about\\ 3\\ things\\:\\ 1\\.\\ pathology\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ making\\ all\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lives\\ more\\ productive\\ \\&\\;\\ fulfilling\\ 3\\.\\ nurturing\\ high\\ talent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\ WWII\\,\\ both\\ jobs\\ serving\\ veterans\\ and\\ the\\ founding\\ of\\ NIH\\ \\(which\\ funds\\ research\\ grants\\)\\ made\\ studying\\ pathology\\ \\&\\;\\ working\\ with\\ sick\\ people\\ profitable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychology\\ shifted\\ to\\ only\\ \\#1\\:\\ pathology\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ seen\\ as\\ passive\\ reactors\\ to\\ stimuli\\&mdash\\;need\\ to\\ fix\\ those\\ problems\\ causing\\ reactions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ be\\ active\\,\\ build\\ what\\ is\\ good\\,\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ Prevention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\disease\\ model\\ does\\ nothing\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ prevention\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ strengths\\ \\(eg\\ optimism\\,\\ faith\\,\\ perseverance\\,\\ future\\-mindedness\\)\\ buffer\\ against\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seligman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ focuses\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\disputing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;learned\\ optimism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;If\\ an\\ external\\ stimulus\\ wrongly\\ accuses\\ you\\ of\\ something\\ bad\\ \\(eg\\ bad\\ at\\ your\\ job\\)\\,\\ you\\ dispute\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ when\\ we\\ wrongly\\ accuse\\ ourselves\\ \\(like\\ with\\ pessimism\\)\\,\\ we\\ tend\\ to\\ believe\\ it\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;downward\\ spiral\\.\\ \\ \\;Learn\\ to\\ dispute\\,\\ learn\\ optimism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Optimism\\ prevents\\ depression\\ \\&\\;\\ anxiety\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Nikki\\ principle\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Nikki\\ is\\ his\\ 5yo\\ daughter\\)\\:\\ Identifying\\ \\&\\;\\ Amplifying\\ a\\ strength\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ repairing\\ damage\\,\\ prevents\\ depression\\ \\&\\;\\ anxiety\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\amplify\\ skills\\ that\\ you\\ already\\ have\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Call\\ to\\ research\\ for\\ scientists\\ to\\ study\\ which\\ strengths\\ work\\ best\\,\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Call\\ to\\ create\\ environments\\ \\(eg\\ in\\ schools\\)\\ that\\ also\\ foster\\,\\ amplify\\ strengths\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ Therapy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\positive\\ psychology\\ is\\ already\\ an\\ unintentional\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ part\\ of\\ psychotherapy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ why\\ it\\ works\\ so\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ make\\ it\\ intentional\\,\\ will\\ work\\ even\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ much\\ of\\ positive\\ outcome\\ from\\ both\\ psychotherapy\\ \\&\\;\\ psychopharmacology\\ is\\ attributed\\ to\\ nonspecifics\\ or\\ placebo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ nonspecifics\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ categories\\:\\ tactics\\ \\&\\;\\ deep\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;tactics\\ \\(of\\ the\\ therapist\\)\\ come\\ from\\ inherent\\ values\\ of\\ therapy\\,\\ such\\ as\\ opening\\ up\\,\\ having\\ someone\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\,\\ or\\ having\\ an\\ authority\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Deep\\ strategies\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\actually\\ pos\\ psych\\ principles\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ taught\\,\\ per\\ se\\,\\ but\\ intuitive\\,\\ used\\ by\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Eg\\,\\ instilling\\ hope\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\building\\ of\\ buffering\\ strengths\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ \\=\\ the\\ Nikki\\ principle\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ psychology\\&rsquo\\;s\\ focus\\ on\\ pathology\\ has\\ lost\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ time\\ is\\ right\\ to\\ start\\ looking\\ at\\ pos\\ psych\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ it\\ happened\\ before\\/why\\ such\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Negative\\ emotions\\ are\\ often\\ more\\ urgent\\,\\ override\\ the\\ positive\\?\\ \\&ldquo\\;survival\\ value\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Positive\\ emotions\\ seem\\ to\\ come\\ passively\\,\\ are\\ derived\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ ignore\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;survival\\ value\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ positive\\ emotions\\,\\ take\\ it\\ for\\ granted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultures\\ that\\ are\\ under\\ political\\/military\\ pressure\\ have\\ trouble\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ positive\\.\\ \\ \\;Need\\ to\\ DEFEND\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Creativity\\,\\ etc\\ come\\ when\\ stable\\:\\ Victorian\\ England\\,\\ Renaissance\\ Italy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ shift\\ social\\ sciences\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ negative\\ bias\\.\\ \\ \\;Stop\\ focusing\\ on\\ aggression\\,\\ greed\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ past\\ 50\\ years\\ of\\ studying\\ pathology\\ has\\ produced\\ tremendous\\ results\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ we\\ focus\\ on\\ positive\\ psychology\\,\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ advances\\ and\\ FLOURISH\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gable\\ and\\ Haidt\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ \\(and\\ Why\\)\\ Is\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Study\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ allow\\ people\\ \\(\\&\\;\\ groups\\,\\ institutions\\)\\ to\\ function\\ optimally\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Filled\\ a\\ need\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ explains\\ phenomena\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quote\\ from\\ RFK\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[The\\ GNP\\]\\ measures\\ everything\\,\\ in\\ short\\,\\ except\\ that\\ which\\ makes\\ life\\ worthwhile\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ happiness\\,\\ intellectualism\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychology\\ was\\ not\\ studying\\ enough\\ about\\ what\\ makes\\ life\\ worth\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psych\\.\\ Was\\ good\\ at\\ bringing\\ people\\ from\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;zero\\,\\ but\\ not\\ zero\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ skeptics\\ even\\ though\\ movement\\ has\\ taken\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ look\\ at\\ content\\ \\&\\;\\ direction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ Is\\ \\(and\\ Was\\,\\ and\\ Is\\ Not\\)\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Past\\ 50\\ years\\ have\\ neglected\\ pos\\ psych\\,\\ focused\\ on\\ pathology\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Areas\\ downplayed\\ \\(optimism\\,\\ love\\,\\ etc\\)\\ and\\ neglected\\ \\(gratitude\\,\\ hope\\,\\ forgiveness\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ new\\ studies\\ on\\ neglected\\ topics\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ obscure\\ populations\\ \\(Asians\\ in\\ arranged\\ marriages\\,\\ happiness\\/unhappiness\\ balance\\ in\\ schizophrenics\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ new\\ therapies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;positive\\ psych\\&rdquo\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ that\\ conventional\\ psychology\\ is\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\ means\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ bias\\ away\\ from\\ studying\\ the\\ positives\\,\\ or\\ relationships\\ not\\ in\\ conflict\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ positive\\ psych\\ manages\\ to\\ rebalance\\ psychology\\ in\\ general\\,\\ remove\\ the\\ bias\\,\\ then\\ positive\\ psych\\ as\\ a\\ concept\\,\\ field\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pos\\ psych\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ ignore\\ tough\\ things\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ coin\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ positive\\ things\\ are\\ important\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ right\\,\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ buffer\\ to\\ negatives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ psych\\ studies\\ the\\ normal\\,\\ because\\ in\\ general\\,\\ normal\\ is\\ positive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ a\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ Why\\ Now\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\recent\\ psychology\\ \\(past\\ 50\\ years\\)\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ pathology\\,\\ had\\ great\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ reasons\\ for\\ neglect\\ of\\ positive\\ psych\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ compassion\\&mdash\\;it\\ seems\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ help\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ hurting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(pos\\ psych\\ agrees\\,\\ but\\ thinks\\ that\\ focus\\ on\\ \\+\\ can\\ help\\ this\\ too\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Psychology\\&rsquo\\;s\\ track\\ record\\:\\ have\\ made\\ strides\\ in\\ IDing\\ proximal\\ causes\\ of\\ mental\\ illness\\,\\ but\\ not\\ distal\\ causes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bias\\ away\\ from\\ pos\\ psych\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ lacking\\ in\\ info\\ on\\ things\\ that\\,\\ eg\\,\\ keep\\ people\\ healthy\\ \\(eg\\ resilience\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ prejudice\\ that\\ bad\\ is\\ stronger\\ than\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;Maybe\\ this\\ is\\ evolutionarily\\ adaptive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Recognize\\ potential\\ threats\\ better\\ than\\ potential\\ rewards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Negative\\ events\\ also\\ violate\\ our\\ expectations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;given\\ more\\ attention\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Negative\\ events\\ less\\ common\\,\\ therefore\\ exception\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ attention\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negative\\ attention\\ bias\\ is\\ not\\ justified\\ in\\ the\\ field\\.\\ \\ \\;Positive\\ things\\ can\\ have\\ huge\\ effects\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Eg\\:\\ Nun\\ study\\:\\ positive\\ outlook\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;positive\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ with\\ college\\ yearbook\\ photo\\ study\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(satisfaction\\ with\\ picture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;good\\ outcomes\\ in\\ the\\ future\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenges\\ to\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\misconception\\ that\\ other\\ psychology\\ \\=\\ negative\\ psychology\\.\\ \\ \\;Actually\\ mostly\\ neutral\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollyanna\\ problem\\:\\ positive\\ psych\\ ignores\\ the\\ messy\\/hard\\ parts\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ criticism\\ but\\&hellip\\;\\)\\ positive\\ psych\\ tries\\ to\\ get\\ people\\ to\\ include\\ things\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\ that\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ for\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ like\\ green\\ vegetables\\ are\\ good\\ for\\ physical\\ health\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tough\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ if\\ consider\\ three\\ criteria\\,\\ can\\ get\\ a\\ better\\ idea\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ what\\ is\\ chosen\\ often\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ whether\\ the\\ outcome\\ is\\ pleasing\\ 3\\.\\ often\\ made\\ with\\ regards\\ to\\ cultural\\ beliefs\\/norms\\.\\ These\\ 3\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ agree\\,\\ but\\ serve\\ a\\ general\\ understanding\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Future\\ of\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\:\\ Just\\ Plain\\ Psychology\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\need\\ to\\ properly\\ map\\ optimal\\ functioning\\ \\(Ryff\\ 2003\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seligman\\ laid\\ out\\ 3\\ pillars\\ of\\ pos\\ psych\\:\\ 1\\.\\ subjective\\ \\+\\ experiences\\,\\ 2\\.\\ \\+\\ individual\\ characteristics\\ and\\ 3\\.\\ positive\\ institutions\\ and\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Little\\ research\\ into\\ the\\ third\\.\\ \\ \\;Want\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ link\\ pos\\ psych\\ and\\ pos\\ anthro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Little\\ understanding\\ in\\ psychology\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ makes\\ a\\ complete\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Pos\\ psych\\ strives\\ to\\ study\\ this\\,\\ and\\ to\\ hopefully\\ rebalance\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ psychology\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Barbara\\ Fredrickson\\:\\ The\\ Role\\ Of\\ Positive\\ Emotions\\ in\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\:\\ The\\ Broaden\\ and\\ Build\\ Theory\\ of\\ Positive\\ Emotions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Positive\\ emotions\\ signal\\ flourishing\\ \\\\-they\\ are\\ worth\\ cultivating\\ because\\ not\\ just\\ end\\ in\\ themselves\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ achieving\\ growth\\ and\\ improved\\ well\\ being\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emotions\\ are\\ but\\ a\\ subset\\ of\\ the\\ broader\\ class\\ of\\ affective\\ phenomena\\,\\ begin\\ with\\ a\\ personal\\ assessment\\ of\\ personal\\ meaning\\ which\\ triggers\\ a\\ cascade\\ of\\ responses\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Affect\\ is\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ general\\ concept\\-consciously\\ accessible\\ feelings\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ distinction\\ between\\ emotion\\ and\\ affect\\ are\\ 1\\.\\ Emotions\\ are\\ about\\ a\\ personally\\ meaning\\ experience\\ \\(they\\ have\\ an\\ object\\)\\ 2\\.\\ Emotions\\ are\\ usually\\ brief\\ 3\\.\\ Emotions\\ fit\\ into\\ discrete\\ categories\\ of\\ families\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Positive\\ affect\\ according\\ to\\ numerous\\ theorists\\ facilitates\\ approach\\ behavior\\ or\\ continuous\\ action\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Broaden\\ and\\ Build\\ Theory\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ discussion\\ within\\ the\\ article\\;\\ certain\\ discrete\\ positive\\ emotions\\ although\\ phenomenologically\\ distinct\\ share\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ broaden\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ momentary\\ thought\\ action\\ repertoires\\ and\\ build\\ their\\ enduring\\ personal\\ resources\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ life\\ threatening\\ situations\\ a\\ narrowed\\ thought\\ action\\ repertoire\\ promotes\\ quick\\ and\\ decisive\\ action\\ that\\ carries\\ direct\\ and\\ immediate\\ benefit\\,\\ positive\\ emotions\\ broaden\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ momentary\\ thought\\ action\\ repertoires\\,\\ widening\\ the\\ array\\ of\\ thoughts\\ that\\ come\\ to\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\.joy\\ broadens\\ by\\ creating\\ the\\ urge\\ to\\ play\\,\\ push\\ the\\ limits\\,\\ and\\ be\\ creative\\,\\ interest\\ creates\\ the\\ urge\\ to\\ explore\\,\\ take\\ in\\ new\\ information\\,\\ and\\ expand\\ the\\ self\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Broadened\\ thought\\ action\\ repertoire\\ triggered\\ by\\ positive\\ emotions\\ are\\ beneficial\\ in\\ many\\ behaviors\\,\\ they\\ have\\ indirect\\ and\\ long\\ term\\ adaptive\\ benefits\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Study\\ with\\ Branigan\\ showed\\ film\\ clips\\ evoking\\ different\\ emotions\\,\\ the\\ ones\\ with\\ fear\\ and\\ anger\\ narrowed\\ the\\ thought\\ action\\ repertoire\\ while\\ joy\\ broadened\\ it\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Positive\\ emotions\\ ought\\ to\\ function\\ as\\ antidotes\\ for\\ lingering\\ effects\\ of\\ negative\\ emotion\\,\\ the\\ undoing\\ hypothesis\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Evidence\\ suggests\\ that\\ positive\\ emotions\\ might\\ improve\\ psychological\\ well\\ being\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ physical\\ health\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\By\\ broadening\\ thinking\\ positive\\ emotions\\ increase\\ likelihood\\ of\\ future\\ happiness\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vehicles\\ for\\ individual\\ growth\\ and\\ social\\ contact\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Specifically\\,\\ I\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ positive\\ emotions\\ \\(a\\)\\ broaden\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ thought\\&ndash\\;action\\ repertoires\\ \\(b\\)\\ undo\\ lingering\\ negative\\ emotions\\ \\(c\\)\\ fuel\\ psychological\\ resilience\\ and\\ \\(d\\)\\ build\\ psychological\\ resilience\\ and\\ trigger\\ upward\\ spirals\\ toward\\ enhanced\\ emotional\\ well\\-being\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READINGS\\ FOR\\ FEBRUARY\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\TH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#10132\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\By\\ Tal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ \\-\\ The\\ Question\\ of\\ Happiness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ can\\ I\\ find\\ lasting\\ happiness\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#10132\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ question\\ of\\ all\\ questions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Happy\\ to\\ Happier\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Am\\ I\\ happy\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#10132\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ a\\ useful\\ question\\ b\\/c\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ determine\\ this\\ ourselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implies\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ a\\ finite\\,\\ definable\\ point\\&hellip\\;which\\ it\\ is\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ can\\ always\\ be\\ happier\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helpful\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ can\\ I\\ become\\ happier\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercise\\:\\ Creating\\ Rituals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ rituals\\ would\\ make\\ you\\ happier\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incremental\\ change\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ ambitious\\ failure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercise\\:\\ Expressing\\ Gratitude\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Emmons\\ and\\ McCullough\\ found\\ hat\\ those\\ who\\ kept\\ a\\ daily\\ gratitude\\ journal\\ enjoyed\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ emotion\\ and\\ physical\\ well\\ being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\ \\-\\ Reconciling\\ Present\\ and\\ Future\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ Model\\ \\-\\-\\ Hamburger\\ Model\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Hamburger\\ Model\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tasty\\ junk\\ food\\ burger\\ \\-\\-\\ Present\\ benefit\\ with\\ future\\ deteriment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hedonism\\ archetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vegetarian\\ burger\\ \\-\\-\\ present\\ detriment\\ with\\ future\\ benefit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rat\\ race\\ archetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tasteless\\ and\\ unhealthy\\ \\-\\-\\ present\\ detriment\\ with\\ future\\ detriment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nihilism\\ archetype\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tasty\\ and\\ healthy\\ \\-\\-\\ present\\ benefit\\ with\\ future\\ benefit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ achetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#10132\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Look\\ at\\ Diagram\\ on\\ p\\.\\ 16\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rat\\ Race\\ Archetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ student\\ who\\ sacrifices\\ present\\ enjoyment\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ happy\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NOTE\\:\\ being\\ a\\ hard\\ worker\\ does\\ NOT\\ mean\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ rat\\ racer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ differentiates\\ rat\\ racers\\ is\\ their\\ inability\\ to\\ enjoy\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\ \\-\\-\\ and\\ their\\ persistent\\ belief\\ that\\ once\\ they\\ reach\\ a\\ certain\\ point\\,\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ happy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ are\\ there\\ so\\ many\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#10132\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Our\\ culture\\ reinforces\\ this\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ force\\ the\\ illusion\\ that\\ simply\\ reaching\\ a\\ goal\\ will\\ make\\ us\\ happy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ confusing\\ relief\\ with\\ happiness\\.\\ Relief\\ presupposed\\ a\\ negative\\ event\\ and\\ therefore\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yield\\ lasting\\ happiness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fallacy\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;arrival\\ fallacy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ false\\ belief\\ that\\ arriving\\ at\\ a\\ destination\\ can\\ sustain\\ happiness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Hedonism\\ Archetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Seeks\\ pleasure\\ and\\ avoids\\ pain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ do\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ potentially\\ detrimental\\ if\\ they\\ give\\ her\\ immediate\\ gratification\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\,\\ we\\ can\\ not\\ find\\ happiness\\ if\\ we\\ exclusively\\ seek\\ pleasure\\ and\\ avoid\\ pain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fallacy\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;floating\\ moment\\ fallacy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ the\\ false\\ belief\\ that\\ happiness\\ can\\ be\\ sustained\\ by\\ an\\ ongoing\\ experience\\ of\\ momentary\\ pleasures\\ that\\ are\\ detached\\ from\\ future\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Nihilism\\ Archetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ person\\ who\\ has\\ given\\ up\\ on\\ happiness\\ \\-\\ who\\ has\\ become\\ resigned\\ that\\ life\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometime\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\learned\\ helplessness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ Experiment\\ with\\ dogs\\ and\\ shocks\\ done\\ by\\ Seligman\\ \\(23\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Victim\\ of\\ a\\ fallacy\\ \\-\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ one\\ does\\,\\ he\\ will\\ never\\ achieve\\ happiness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Happiness\\ Archetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Note\\:\\ This\\ does\\ not\\ mena\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ expect\\ to\\ experience\\ constant\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Objective\\ is\\ to\\ spend\\ as\\ much\\ time\\ engaged\\ in\\ activities\\ that\\ bring\\ us\\ present\\ and\\ future\\ benefit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Illusions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rat\\ Racer\\ \\-\\ reaching\\ some\\ future\\ destination\\ will\\ bring\\ lasting\\ happiness\\,\\ slave\\ to\\ future\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hedonist\\ \\-\\ only\\ the\\ journey\\ is\\ important\\,\\ slave\\ to\\ present\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nihilist\\ \\-\\ disillusioned\\ with\\ life\\,\\ slave\\ to\\ past\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#10132\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Happiness\\ is\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ climbing\\ toward\\ the\\ peak\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercise\\:\\ Writing\\ about\\ negative\\ and\\ positive\\ experiences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spend\\ time\\ writing\\ about\\ your\\ experiences\\ in\\ all\\ these\\ quadrants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercise\\:\\ Meditating\\ on\\ Happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Meditate\\!\\ Scan\\ your\\ body\\ for\\ tension\\,\\ breathe\\ deep\\,\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\.\\ Happiness\\ Explained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ infinitely\\ regressive\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\&rdquo\\;\\ exercise\\ suggests\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Research\\ illustrates\\ that\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ happiness\\ and\\ success\\ is\\ reciprocal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pleasure\\ is\\ about\\ experiencing\\ positive\\ emotions\\ in\\ the\\ here\\ and\\ now\\,\\ about\\ present\\ benefit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meaning\\ is\\ about\\ having\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\,\\ from\\ future\\ benefit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotions\\ cause\\ motion\\ and\\ move\\ us\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ desireless\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ link\\ between\\ emotion\\ and\\ motivation\\ is\\ exemplified\\ by\\ Eliot\\,\\ who\\ became\\ similar\\ to\\ an\\ emotionless\\ robot\\ after\\ surgery\\ for\\ a\\ brain\\ tumor\\;\\ he\\ had\\ all\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ cognitive\\ characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ normal\\ human\\ being\\,\\ but\\ the\\ system\\ involved\\ in\\ feeling\\ and\\ emotion\\ was\\ damaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ happy\\ person\\ experiences\\ highs\\ and\\ lows\\,\\ but\\ his\\ overall\\ state\\ of\\ being\\ is\\ positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ emotions\\ is\\ necessary\\ but\\ not\\ sufficient\\ for\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Given\\ the\\ choice\\ between\\ a\\ machine\\-generated\\ feeling\\ that\\ we\\ had\\ brought\\ about\\ world\\ peace\\ and\\ a\\ less\\ powerful\\ feeling\\ derived\\ from\\ actually\\ helping\\ a\\ person\\,\\ we\\ would\\ most\\ likely\\ choose\\ the\\ latter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ internal\\ mechanism\\ that\\ demands\\ more\\ than\\ our\\ present\\ sensation\\;\\ we\\ need\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ our\\ emotions\\ to\\ be\\ meaningful\\;\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ that\\ our\\ actions\\ have\\ an\\ actual\\ effect\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ not\\ just\\ that\\ we\\ feel\\ that\\ they\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ idealist\\ is\\ not\\ detached\\ but\\ rather\\ realistic\\ in\\ the\\ deepest\\ sense\\,\\ for\\ he\\ is\\ true\\ to\\ his\\ inner\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ find\\ satisfaction\\ if\\ they\\ feel\\,\\ from\\ within\\,\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\ things\\ that\\ utilize\\ their\\ full\\ potential\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ happy\\ person\\ defies\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ pain\\,\\ no\\ gain\\&rdquo\\;\\ formula\\,\\ for\\ he\\ enjoys\\ the\\ journey\\ and\\ attains\\ a\\ better\\ outcome\\ by\\ dedicating\\ himself\\ to\\ a\\ purpose\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ believes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ to\\ pleasure\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\ is\\ also\\ insufficient\\ for\\ attainment\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ sustain\\ our\\ denial\\ of\\ immediate\\ gratification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ we\\ could\\,\\ we\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ need\\ positive\\ emotions\\ and\\ meaning\\;\\ we\\ need\\ present\\ and\\ future\\ benefit\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ synergistic\\ relationship\\ between\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Lasagna\\ principle\\&mdash\\;the\\ notion\\ that\\ our\\ capacity\\ to\\ enjoy\\ different\\ activities\\ is\\ limited\\ and\\ unique\\;\\ identifying\\ the\\ right\\ activity\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ right\\ quantity\\ for\\ each\\ activity\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ highest\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Ultimate\\ Currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1975\\,\\ Marva\\ Collins\\ founded\\ the\\ Westside\\ Preparatory\\ School\\;\\ children\\ who\\ were\\ previously\\ labeled\\ \\&ldquo\\;unteachable\\&rdquo\\;\\ learned\\ to\\ read\\ and\\ ended\\ up\\ going\\ to\\ college\\;\\ the\\ students\\ internalized\\ Collins\\&rsquo\\;\\ vision\\ that\\ each\\ and\\ every\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ had\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ succeed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ Collins\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ not\\ gold\\ or\\ prestige\\,\\ was\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ reason\\ money\\ and\\ fame\\ should\\ be\\ desirable\\ is\\ if\\ they\\ lead\\ to\\ positive\\ emotions\\ or\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ evaluating\\ how\\ happy\\ something\\ makes\\ us\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ money\\,\\ conversations\\)\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ common\\ currency\\ that\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\ compare\\ seemingly\\ unrelated\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Money\\,\\ beyond\\ the\\ bare\\ minimum\\ necessary\\ for\\ food\\ and\\ shelter\\,\\ is\\ a\\ means\\,\\ while\\ happiness\\ is\\ an\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ financial\\ security\\ can\\ liberate\\ us\\ from\\ non\\-meaningful\\ work\\ and\\ from\\ worrying\\ about\\ bills\\,\\ material\\ wealth\\ does\\ not\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\ generate\\ meaning\\ or\\ lead\\ to\\ emotional\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ extensive\\ cross\\-cultural\\ and\\ longitudinal\\ studies\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ psychologist\\ David\\ Myers\\ found\\ a\\ very\\ low\\ correlation\\ between\\ material\\ wealth\\ and\\ happiness\\,\\ except\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ extreme\\ poverty\\;\\ moreover\\,\\ although\\ people\\ have\\ become\\ wealthier\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ fifty\\ years\\,\\ studies\\ reveal\\ no\\ increase\\,\\ and\\ often\\ a\\ decrease\\,\\ in\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ now\\&rdquo\\;\\ syndrome\\&mdash\\;a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ realization\\ that\\ his\\ efforts\\ and\\ sacrifices\\ have\\ not\\ earned\\ him\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\,\\ and\\ his\\ subsequent\\ sinking\\ into\\ learned\\ helplessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ desire\\ for\\ wealth\\ accumulation\\ may\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ evolutionary\\ biology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ material\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ emotional\\ may\\ be\\ because\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ quantifiable\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ easily\\ assessed\\ and\\ evaluated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daniel\\ Goleman\\ has\\ found\\ an\\ increase\\,\\ society\\-wide\\,\\ in\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ emotional\\ bankruptcy\\,\\ including\\ listlessness\\,\\ dejection\\,\\ self\\-pity\\,\\ and\\ nihilism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ termed\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Age\\ of\\ Anxiety\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ present\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Age\\ of\\ Melancholoy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ 1968\\ to\\ 1997\\,\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ college\\ students\\ have\\ preferred\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ than\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ meaningful\\ philosophy\\ of\\ life\\;\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\ emotional\\ bankruptcy\\ and\\ disturbing\\ social\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drugs\\ can\\ provide\\ temporary\\ escape\\ from\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ a\\ joyless\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\READINGS\\ FOR\\ FEBRUARY\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\ \\-\\ HAPPIER\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mind\\-Set\\ Matters\\:\\ Exercise\\ and\\ the\\ Placebo\\ Effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alia\\ J\\.\\ Crum\\ \\&\\;\\ Ellen\\ J\\.\\ Langer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 19\\,\\ 2008\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(NOTES\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Placebo\\ effect\\:\\ any\\ effect\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ actual\\ treatment\\/remedy\\,\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mindset\\.\\ \\ \\;Typically\\ has\\ a\\ relatively\\ large\\ effect\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ effects\\ are\\ real\\:\\ examples\\:\\ exposure\\ to\\ fake\\ poison\\ ivy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;real\\ rashes\\;\\ placebo\\ caffeine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;increased\\ motor\\ performance\\ \\&\\;\\ incr\\.\\ heart\\ rate\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exercise\\ often\\ prescribed\\ as\\ a\\ remedy\\/treatment\\ for\\ chronic\\ health\\ problems\\&hellip\\;\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ positive\\ effects\\ actually\\ placebo\\ effects\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Past\\ study\\ in\\ this\\ vein\\:\\ Two\\ exercise\\ groups\\,\\ one\\ told\\ of\\ psychological\\ benefits\\,\\ one\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;Similar\\ physical\\ fitness\\ outcomes\\,\\ but\\ improved\\ self\\ esteem\\ much\\ more\\ in\\ informed\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perceived\\ health\\ highly\\ related\\ to\\ actual\\ health\\&hellip\\;\\ perception\\ is\\ very\\ strong\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\seven\\ hotels\\,\\ each\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ to\\ informed\\ or\\ control\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informed\\ group\\ told\\ about\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ exercise\\ and\\ also\\ that\\ their\\ daily\\ work\\ \\=\\ exercise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Control\\ group\\ received\\ information\\ about\\ exercise\\,\\ but\\ not\\ about\\ how\\ their\\ work\\ related\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ groups\\ were\\ told\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ study\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ improve\\ health\\ \\&\\;\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Measured\\ through\\ questionnaires\\ \\&\\;\\ physiological\\ measures\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Questionnaire\\:\\ questions\\ on\\ \\(perceived\\)\\ amount\\ of\\ exercise\\;\\ Behavioral\\ measures\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(quality\\ of\\ diet\\,\\ substance\\ abuse\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Physiological\\:\\ weight\\,\\ \\%\\ body\\ fat\\,\\ BMI\\,\\ Waist\\-to\\-hip\\ ratio\\,\\ blood\\ pressure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*actual\\ exercise\\ did\\ not\\ change\\,\\ but\\ only\\ perceived\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ only\\ four\\ weeks\\ of\\ increased\\ perceived\\ exercise\\,\\ subjects\\ lost\\ an\\ avg\\.\\ of\\ 2\\ lbs\\,\\ and\\ also\\ were\\ healthier\\ by\\ systolic\\ BP\\,\\ \\%\\ body\\ fat\\,\\ BMI\\ and\\ waist\\-to\\-hip\\ ratio\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ significant\\ other\\ behavioral\\ change\\ \\(diet\\,\\ substance\\ abuse\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Implications\\:\\ further\\ proof\\ of\\ the\\ placebo\\ effect\\;\\ importance\\ of\\ mindset\\ for\\ body\\ health\\ and\\ healing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Self\\-Efficacy\\ Training\\ to\\ Speed\\ Reemployment\\:\\ Helping\\ People\\ Help\\ Themselves\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Dov\\ Eden\\ and\\ Arie\\ Aviram\\,\\ Journal\\ of\\ Applied\\ Psychology\\,\\ 1993\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\:\\ testing\\ to\\ see\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ training\\ designed\\ to\\ boost\\ general\\ self\\-efficacy\\ \\(GSE\\)\\ on\\ job\\-search\\ activity\\ and\\ on\\ reemployment\\ worked\\;\\ 66\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ unemployed\\ for\\ up\\ to\\ 18\\ weeks\\;\\ training\\ did\\ boost\\ GSE\\;\\ job\\-search\\ activity\\ increased\\,\\ increased\\ GSE\\ leads\\ to\\ increased\\ motivation\\;\\ individuals\\ with\\ low\\ GSE\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ more\\ training\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belief\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ capacity\\ extremely\\ important\\ when\\ facing\\ a\\ new\\ task\\;\\ \\ \\;fairly\\ recent\\ that\\ researchers\\ have\\ singled\\ out\\ self\\-efficacy\\ to\\ study\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-self\\-efficacy\\ derived\\ from\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ joblessness\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ blow\\ to\\ self\\-concept\\,\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ but\\ regained\\ with\\ reemployment\\;\\ self\\-efficacy\\ plays\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ in\\ motivating\\ unemployed\\ to\\ seek\\ jobs\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-researchers\\ designed\\ a\\ workshop\\ to\\ increase\\ self\\-efficacy\\ by\\ influencing\\ all\\ 4\\ sources\\ of\\ self\\-efficacy\\:\\ enactive\\ attainment\\,\\ vicarious\\ experience\\,\\ verbal\\ persuasion\\,\\ emotional\\ state\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-debate\\ on\\ difference\\ between\\ general\\ and\\ specific\\ self\\-efficacy\\:\\ some\\ say\\ general\\ is\\ not\\ specific\\ enough\\,\\ others\\ say\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ generalized\\ trait\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ such\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-behavioral\\ plasticity\\:\\ people\\ low\\ in\\ self\\-esteem\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ external\\ influences\\ with\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\ \\(Brockner\\ 1988\\)\\;\\ programs\\ that\\ work\\ when\\ applied\\ to\\ lows\\ may\\ not\\ work\\ for\\ highs\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Jones\\ \\(1986\\)\\ showed\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ organizational\\ socialization\\ tactics\\ and\\ newcomers\\&rsquo\\;\\ role\\ orientations\\ is\\ moderated\\ by\\ self\\-efficacy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ confirms\\ plasticity\\ hypothesis\\;\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ self\\-efficacy\\ go\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\,\\ very\\ similar\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Method\\:\\ studied\\ unemployed\\ vocational\\ workers\\,\\ letters\\ inviting\\ them\\ to\\ a\\ reemployment\\ workshop\\,\\ measured\\ GSE\\ according\\ to\\ 17\\-item\\ GSE\\ scale\\,\\ job\\-search\\ activity\\ was\\ quantified\\ using\\ self\\-report\\ forms\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Self\\-efficacy\\ Workshop\\:\\ based\\ on\\ Kelvin\\ and\\ Jarrett\\&rsquo\\;s\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ psychological\\ damage\\ that\\ unemployment\\ inflicts\\ in\\ 10\\ areas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lack\\ of\\ success\\ experiences\\,\\ performance\\ anxiety\\,\\ disruption\\ of\\ social\\ contacts\\,\\ discoupling\\ of\\ activities\\ from\\ reality\\,\\ discontinuation\\ of\\ familiar\\ routine\\;\\ shown\\ video\\ clips\\ of\\ people\\ performing\\ successful\\ job\\-search\\ behaviors\\,\\ brief\\ discussion\\ after\\,\\ with\\ role\\-playing\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Conclusion\\:\\ experiment\\ showed\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ that\\ applied\\ psychologists\\ can\\ do\\ for\\ the\\ unemployed\\,\\ the\\ experiment\\ did\\ not\\ find\\ a\\ job\\ for\\ these\\ people\\ but\\ set\\ an\\ SFP\\ \\(self\\-fulfilling\\ process\\)\\ process\\ in\\ motion\\,\\ improved\\ their\\ GSE\\,\\ helped\\ them\\ believe\\ they\\ could\\ do\\ it\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ participants\\ themselves\\ executed\\ the\\ activities\\ and\\ found\\ jobs\\;\\ \\ \\;experimenters\\ recommend\\ that\\ managers\\ assume\\ role\\ of\\ GSE\\ booster\\ for\\ their\\ employees\\,\\ being\\ supportive\\,\\ encouraging\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Winning\\ Edge\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\.\\ Doskoch\\ \\(2005\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Psychology\\ Today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Passion\\ and\\ perseverance\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ success\\ than\\ mere\\ talent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ grit\\ may\\ yield\\ the\\ biggest\\ payoff\\ of\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ of\\ mathematician\\ Andrew\\ Wiles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ worked\\ on\\ solving\\ a\\ seemingly\\ simple\\ equation\\ for\\ seven\\ straight\\ years\\,\\ never\\ giving\\ up\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ got\\ it\\;\\ his\\ achievement\\ was\\ celebrated\\;\\ attributed\\ his\\ success\\ to\\ his\\ hard\\ work\\,\\ not\\ to\\ his\\ intellect\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Researchers\\ at\\ UPenn\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ gritty\\ are\\ more\\ like\\ to\\ achieve\\ success\\ in\\ school\\,\\ work\\ and\\ other\\ pursuits\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;10\\-year\\-rule\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ takes\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ decade\\ of\\ hard\\ work\\ or\\ practice\\ to\\ become\\ highly\\ successful\\ in\\ most\\ endeavors\\;\\ Grit\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ cultivated\\ and\\ strengthened\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IQ\\ counts\\ for\\ different\\ amounts\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ task\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ individuals\\ in\\ job\\ performance\\ attributed\\ to\\ IQ\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grit\\ has\\ value\\ for\\ people\\ at\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ ability\\;\\ Studies\\ show\\ that\\ grit\\ and\\ intelligence\\ are\\ two\\ different\\ traits\\,\\ and\\ both\\ contribute\\ to\\ success\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Passion\\ fuels\\ perseverance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ important\\ for\\ parents\\ to\\ expose\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ activities\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ find\\ their\\ passion\\;\\ sometimes\\ perseverance\\ can\\ foster\\ passion\\;\\ sometimes\\ persistence\\ can\\ grow\\ from\\ a\\ determination\\ to\\ push\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ limits\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ endurance\\ athletes\\ like\\ Lance\\ Armstrong\\)\\;\\ perseverance\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\ that\\ depends\\ on\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ and\\ level\\ of\\ discomfort\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ambition\\ also\\ important\\,\\ as\\ is\\ self\\-discipline\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\-discipline\\ contributes\\ to\\ grit\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ enough\\ on\\ its\\ own\\;\\ Optimism\\ extremely\\ common\\ among\\ high\\ achievers\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grit\\ can\\ most\\ likely\\ be\\ taught\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ encouraged\\;\\ Problem\\ of\\ praising\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intelligence\\:\\ when\\ they\\ fail\\,\\ the\\ kids\\ think\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ smart\\ any\\ more\\ and\\ lose\\ interest\\ in\\ their\\ work\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dweck\\:\\ study\\ about\\ intelligence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ group\\ thought\\ intelligence\\ was\\ fixed\\ for\\ life\\,\\ the\\ other\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ malleable\\;\\ students\\ who\\ thought\\ intelligence\\ could\\ be\\ changed\\ got\\ higher\\ grades\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ believed\\ in\\ learning\\ and\\ believed\\ in\\ effort\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ global\\ marketplace\\ where\\ innovation\\ is\\ more\\ critical\\ to\\ viability\\ than\\ ever\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ urgency\\ to\\ identifying\\ and\\ hopefully\\ cultivating\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ success\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ force\\ of\\ motivation\\ so\\ luminous\\ that\\ it\\ constantly\\ renews\\ itself\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ grin\\ and\\ bear\\ it\\ kind\\ of\\ attitude\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\READINGS\\ FOR\\ FEBRUARY\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Counting\\ Blessings\\ Versus\\ Burdens\\:\\ An\\ Experimental\\ Investigation\\ of\\ Gratitude\\ and\\ Subjective\\ Well\\-Being\\ in\\ Daily\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ effect\\ of\\ a\\ grateful\\ outlook\\ on\\ psychological\\ and\\ physical\\ well\\-being\\ was\\ examined\\.\\ In\\ Studies\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\,\\ participants\\ were\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ to\\ 1\\ of\\ 3\\ experimental\\ conditions\\ \\(hassles\\,\\ gratitude\\ listing\\,\\ and\\ either\\ neutral\\ life\\ events\\ or\\ social\\ comparison\\)\\;\\ they\\ then\\ kept\\ weekly\\ \\(Study\\ 1\\)\\ or\\ daily\\ \\(Study\\ 2\\)\\ records\\ of\\ their\\ moods\\,\\ coping\\ behaviors\\,\\ health\\ behaviors\\,\\ physical\\ symptoms\\,\\ and\\ overall\\ life\\ apprais\\-als\\.\\ In\\ a\\ 3rd\\ study\\,\\ persons\\ with\\ neuromuscular\\ disease\\ were\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ to\\ either\\ the\\ gratitude\\ condition\\ or\\ to\\ a\\ control\\ condition\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\-outlook\\ groups\\ exhibited\\ heightened\\ well\\-being\\ across\\ several\\,\\ though\\ not\\ all\\,\\ of\\ the\\ outcome\\ measures\\ across\\ the\\ 3\\ studies\\,\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ comparison\\ groups\\.\\ The\\ effect\\ on\\ positive\\ affect\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ robust\\ finding\\.\\ Results\\ suggest\\ that\\ a\\ conscious\\ focus\\ on\\ blessings\\ may\\ have\\ emotional\\ and\\ interpersonal\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scholarly\\ and\\ popular\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ gratitude\\ is\\ widespread\\,\\ but\\ perhaps\\ misleading\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Everyone\\ thinks\\ gratitude\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ \\(all\\ major\\ religions\\ advocate\\ gratitude\\)\\ but\\ most\\ of\\ this\\ praise\\ of\\ gratitude\\ is\\ subjective\\ and\\ not\\ empirically\\-based\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gratitude\\ is\\ defined\\ in\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ ways\\.\\ It\\ is\\ generally\\ recognized\\ that\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ notice\\ and\\ savor\\ the\\ positive\\ elements\\ of\\ your\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ booster\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Gratitude\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ perception\\ of\\ a\\ positive\\ personal\\ outcome\\,\\ not\\necessarily\\ deserved\\ or\\ earned\\,\\ that\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ another\\ person\\\\\\-it\\ has\\ been\\ defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ willingness\\ to\\ recognize\\ the\\ unearned\\ increments\\ of\\value\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ estimate\\ of\\ gain\\ coupled\\ with\\ the\\ judgement\\that\\ someone\\ else\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ that\\ gain\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\\-there\\ is\\ anecdotal\\ evidence\\ that\\ gratitude\\ makes\\ people\\ feel\\ happy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ may\\be\\ because\\ a\\ grateful\\ response\\ to\\ life\\ circumstances\\ is\\ a\\ psychological\\strategy\\ that\\ people\\ use\\ to\\ positively\\ interpret\\ everyday\\ experiences\\.\\\\\\-the\\ studies\\ described\\ addresss\\ whether\\ relative\\ on\\ complaints\\ or\\ neutral\\ life\\events\\,\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ gratitude\\ leads\\ to\\ enhanced\\ psychological\\ and\\ physical\\functioning\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ authors\\ hypothesize\\ that\\ those\\ in\\ gratitude\\ focused\\ groups\\would\\ have\\ enhanced\\ functioning\\ compared\\ with\\ neutral\\ and\\ complaint\\ groups\\.\\\\\\-Study\\ \\#1\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Participants\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ packet\\ of\\ 10\\ weekly\\ reports\\,\\ with\\ three\\ types\\ of\\packets\\:\\ \\ \\;Gratitude\\ group\\-\\ write\\ down\\ up\\ to\\ five\\ things\\ in\\ your\\ life\\ that\\ youre\\thankful\\ for\\,\\ Hassles\\ group\\-\\ \\ \\;write\\ down\\ 5\\ hassles\\ that\\ have\\ occurred\\ in\\ your\\life\\,\\ Control\\ group\\-\\ \\ \\;write\\ down\\ up\\ to\\ 5\\ events\\ that\\ had\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ your\\life\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ lists\\,\\ each\\ group\\ was\\ asked\\ to\\ rate\\ things\\ such\\ as\\mood\\,\\ physical\\ symptoms\\,\\ reactions\\ to\\ social\\ support\\ received\\,\\ time\\ spent\\exercising\\,\\ and\\ global\\ life\\ appraisal\\ questions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ students\\ who\\ were\\ in\\ the\\gratitude\\ group\\ rated\\ their\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ and\\ their\\ outlook\\ on\\ the\\ upcoming\\week\\ significantly\\ better\\,\\ had\\ less\\ physical\\ symptoms\\,\\ and\\ spent\\ significantly\\more\\ time\\ exercising\\ than\\ the\\ hassles\\ and\\ control\\ group\\.\\\\\\-Study\\ \\#2\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Similar\\ to\\ study\\ one\\,\\ the\\ only\\ difference\\ was\\ instead\\ of\\ weekly\\ ratings\\,\\ there\\were\\ daily\\ ratings\\ and\\ forms\\ to\\ fill\\ out\\ over\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ 16\\ days\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\the\\ same\\ three\\ groups\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ questions\\,\\ except\\ the\\ wording\\ was\\ changed\\to\\ reflect\\ the\\ time\\ frame\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ results\\ were\\ again\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ first\\,\\ except\\the\\ standard\\ mean\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ gratitude\\ and\\ hassles\\ group\\ in\\ rating\\life\\ satisfaction\\ was\\ higher\\ in\\ this\\ study\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ daily\\ taskes\\were\\ on\\ average\\ more\\ potent\\ in\\ facilitating\\ and\\ inhibiting\\ gratitude\\ than\\ they\\were\\ when\\ completed\\ on\\ a\\ more\\ infrequent\\ weekly\\ basis\\.\\\\\\-the\\ authors\\ conclude\\ that\\ gratitude\\ can\\ help\\ boost\\ positive\\ affect\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\people\\ were\\ also\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ help\\ others\\ out\\ during\\ the\\ study\\.\\\\\\-Study\\ 3\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ intended\\ to\\ a\\)\\ \\ \\;extend\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ study\\ 2\\ to\\ 3\\ weeks\\,\\ b\\)\\ to\\ recruit\\a\\ sample\\ beyond\\ college\\ students\\,\\ and\\ c\\)\\ \\ \\;examine\\ whether\\ the\\ affective\\ benefits\\observed\\ in\\ study\\ 2\\ could\\ be\\ replicated\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ effect\\ was\\ observable\\within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ closest\\ relationship\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ they\\ include\\ in\\the\\ dependent\\ variables\\ spouse\\-rated\\ affect\\ and\\ satisfaction\\ with\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\participants\\ were\\ 65\\ people\\ with\\ Neuromuscular\\ Disease\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ study\\ was\\ the\\ same\\as\\ Study\\ 2\\ except\\ the\\ period\\ was\\ lengthened\\ to\\ 3\\ weeks\\,\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ only\\ a\\gratitude\\ and\\ control\\ condition\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ experimenters\\ also\\ asked\\ the\\ persons\\spouse\\ to\\ fill\\ out\\ a\\ Positive\\ and\\ Negative\\ Affect\\ Scale\\ and\\ Satisfaction\\ with\\life\\ scale\\ according\\ to\\ how\\ they\\ felt\\ the\\ person\\ participating\\ in\\ the\\experiment\\ was\\ feeling\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ results\\ were\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ the\\ previous\\ 2\\ studies\\,\\with\\ the\\ gratitude\\ groups\\ having\\ significantly\\ higher\\ scores\\ on\\ the\\ positive\\affect\\ scale\\ and\\ lower\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\ affect\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ gratitude\\ groups\\ also\\reported\\ significantly\\ more\\ sleep\\ and\\ felt\\ more\\ refreshed\\ when\\ waking\\ than\\control\\ groups\\,\\ however\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ studies\\ 1\\ \\&\\;\\ 2\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ other\\significant\\ effects\\ on\\ health\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ observers\\ rated\\ the\\ participants\\ with\\higher\\ positive\\ affect\\ and\\ life\\ satisfaction\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\\\-\\ Gratitude\\ had\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ emotional\\,\\ physical\\ and\\ interpersonal\\health\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ link\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ broaden\\ and\\ build\\ model\\.\\ \\ \\;Gratitude\\ increases\\psychological\\,\\ social\\ and\\ spiritual\\ resources\\ and\\ produce\\ a\\ positive\\ affect\\,\\which\\ strengthens\\ bonds\\ and\\ friendships\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\,\\ gratitude\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ thing\\.\\ Be\\ grateful\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benefit\\ Finding\\ and\\ Physical\\ Health\\:\\ Positive\\ Psychological\\ Changes\\ and\\ Enhanced\\ Allostasis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abstract\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ individuals\\ who\\ undergo\\ stressful\\ life\\ events\\ report\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ derived\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\some\\ positive\\ benefit\\ from\\ the\\ experience\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ research\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\benefit\\ finding\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ its\\ psychological\\ correlates\\,\\ there\\ is\\ intriguing\\ evidence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ benefit\\ finding\\ may\\ also\\ have\\ effects\\ on\\ physical\\ health\\.\\ In\\ this\\ paper\\,\\ we\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\review\\ the\\ emerging\\ literature\\ on\\ benefit\\ finding\\ and\\ physical\\ health\\ and\\ present\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\an\\ integrative\\ model\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ identify\\ specific\\ psychological\\ and\\ physiological\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pathways\\ through\\ which\\ benefit\\ finding\\ may\\ influence\\ physical\\ health\\ outcomes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ particular\\,\\ we\\ consider\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ benefit\\ finding\\ may\\ involve\\ changes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ psychological\\ domains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ namely\\,\\ changes\\ in\\ appraisal\\ and\\ coping\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\processes\\,\\ relationships\\,\\ goals\\ and\\ priorities\\,\\ and\\ positive\\ affect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ state\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ enhanced\\ allostasis\\,\\ buffering\\ against\\ negative\\ effects\\ of\\ catabolic\\ stress\\ responses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ promoting\\ activity\\ in\\ restorative\\ physiological\\ systems\\.\\ Empirical\\ evidence\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\this\\ model\\ is\\ reviewed\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ studies\\ that\\ have\\ examined\\ positive\\ psychological\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\constructs\\ relevant\\ to\\ benefit\\ finding\\ and\\ their\\ effects\\ on\\ stress\\ reactivity\\,\\ recovery\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ habituation\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ restorative\\ processes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benefit\\ finding\\:\\ the\\ broad\\ range\\ of\\ positive\\ side\\-effects\\ that\\ emerge\\ following\\ stress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ men\\,\\ after\\ having\\ their\\ first\\ heart\\ attack\\ became\\ happier\\ and\\ more\\ appreciative\\.\\ Many\\ also\\ experienced\\ physical\\ benefits\\ and\\ boosts\\.\\ The\\ men\\ who\\ perceived\\ benefits\\ were\\ significantly\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ another\\ heart\\ attack\\,\\ and\\ experienced\\ less\\ morbidity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Studies\\ involving\\ HIV\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ finding\\ benefit\\ can\\ increase\\ both\\ emotional\\ and\\ physical\\ wellness\\.\\ Benefit\\ finding\\ is\\ often\\ correlated\\ with\\ increased\\ relative\\ left\\-frontal\\ activation\\.\\ It\\ leads\\ most\\ often\\ to\\ an\\ increased\\ feeling\\ of\\ interpersonal\\ closeness\\ with\\ friends\\ and\\ family\\.\\ Things\\ are\\ more\\ easily\\ put\\ in\\ perspective\\ and\\ people\\ are\\ less\\ worried\\ by\\ trivial\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ benefit\\ finding\\ influence\\ physical\\ health\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ process\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enhanced\\ allostasis\\ describes\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ adaptive\\ physiological\\ responding\\ to\\ stress\\ which\\ we\\ hypothesize\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ benefit\\ finding\\ and\\ accompanying\\ changes\\ in\\ cognitive\\,\\ affective\\,\\ social\\,\\ and\\ motivational\\ domains\\.\\ Social\\ support\\ may\\ also\\ buffer\\ Physiological\\ stress\\ responses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\benefit\\ finding\\ may\\ promote\\ efficient\\ physiological\\ habituation\\ to\\ stressors\\ by\\ enhancing\\ coping\\ resources\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ approach\\-oriented\\ emotional\\ expression\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\ satisfaction\\ and\\ happiness\\ also\\ leads\\ to\\ more\\ rapid\\ recovery\\ rates\\.\\ Happiness\\ and\\ benefit\\ finding\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ firing\\ of\\ healthful\\ chemicals\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ \\(DHEA\\ and\\ NPY\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ physiological\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benefit\\ finding\\ leads\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ appraisal\\ standards\\ and\\ relationship\\ goals\\ and\\ satisfaction\\.\\ The\\ link\\ between\\ the\\ psychological\\ and\\ the\\ physical\\ is\\ not\\ too\\ broadly\\ studied\\ or\\ examined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wiseman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ proposes\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ luck\\ can\\ be\\ improved\\ by\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ doing\\.\\ Wiseman\\ discusses\\ a\\ research\\ project\\ that\\ he\\ undertook\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ determine\\ how\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ done\\.\\ He\\ concluded\\ that\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ lucky\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ four\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\They\\ view\\ things\\ broadly\\ and\\ thus\\ are\\ highly\\ aware\\ of\\ windows\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ follow\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;gut\\&rdquo\\;\\ instinct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ view\\ the\\ future\\ optimistically\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ensuing\\ results\\ are\\ thus\\ positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ look\\ at\\ bad\\ luck\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ light\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ Wiseman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ superstition\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ to\\ luck\\,\\ that\\ by\\ simply\\ viewing\\ things\\ positively\\,\\ one\\ can\\ significantly\\ boost\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ luck\\ in\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ben\\-Shahar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ article\\,\\ Tal\\ discusses\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ a\\ positive\\ viewpoint\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ a\\ negative\\ one\\.\\ He\\ cites\\ the\\ detrimental\\ affects\\ of\\ the\\ latter\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ former\\,\\ while\\ still\\ potentially\\ dangerous\\,\\ at\\ least\\ allows\\ for\\ action\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ is\\ the\\ more\\ courageous\\ and\\ admirable\\ choice\\.\\ The\\ title\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Yes\\,\\ But\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ tendency\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ negative\\ attitudes\\ to\\ focus\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\ aspects\\ of\\ an\\ issue\\.\\ The\\ opening\\ example\\ that\\ Tal\\ cites\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ speaking\\ about\\ Walt\\ Disney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ positive\\ accomplishments\\,\\ and\\ someone\\ instead\\ focused\\ on\\ his\\ negative\\ attributes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\READINGS\\ FOR\\ MARCH\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\ for\\ March\\ 4\\,\\ 2008\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 135\\-140\\,\\ Third\\ Meditation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Depth\\ of\\ happiness\\:\\ stable\\ level\\/base\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ around\\ which\\ our\\ happiness\\ levels\\ fluctuate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Height\\ of\\ happiness\\:\\ the\\ fluctuating\\ levels\\ of\\ happiness\\ we\\ experience\\;\\ highs\\ and\\ lows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Much\\ research\\ suggests\\ that\\ we\\ cannot\\ change\\ our\\ base\\-level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Minnesota\\ twin\\ studies\\:\\ happiness\\ levels\\ based\\ on\\ genetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Implies\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ control\\ over\\ how\\ happy\\ we\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ says\\ claims\\ are\\ misleading\\:\\ genes\\ define\\ a\\ range\\,\\ not\\ a\\ set\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sheldon\\,\\ Schkade\\,\\ Lyubomisrky\\:\\ 3\\ factors\\ for\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Genetically\\ determined\\ set\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Happiness\\-relevant\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Happiness\\-relevant\\ activities\\ and\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gilbert\\,\\ D\\.\\ T\\.\\,\\ Pinel\\,\\ E\\.\\ C\\.\\,\\ Wilson\\,\\ T\\.\\ D\\.\\,\\ Blumberg\\,\\ S\\.\\ J\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Wheatley\\,\\ T\\.\\ P\\.\\ \\(1998\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Immune\\ Neglect\\:\\ A\\ Source\\ of\\ Durability\\ Bias\\ in\\ Affective\\ Forecasting\\.\\ \\ \\;Journal\\ of\\ Personality\\ and\\ Social\\ Psychology\\,\\ 75\\,\\ 617\\-638\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ predictions\\ for\\ emotional\\ effects\\ of\\ events\\ are\\ usually\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Important\\ because\\ actions\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ predictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ guess\\ valence\\ and\\ intensity\\ of\\ future\\ events\\&rsquo\\;\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Estimations\\ of\\ duration\\ usually\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Durability\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ have\\ relatively\\ stable\\ subjective\\ well\\-beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Events\\&rsquo\\;\\ consequences\\ have\\ less\\ impact\\ on\\ long\\-term\\ happiness\\ than\\ expected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Durability\\ Bias\\:\\ People\\ overestimate\\ duration\\ of\\ impact\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\6\\ reasons\\ for\\ durability\\ bias\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Misconstrual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\when\\ people\\ imagine\\ events\\,\\ they\\ fail\\ to\\ recognize\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ imagine\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ possible\\ way\\ of\\ many\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ forecasters\\ misconstrue\\ an\\ event\\ and\\ imagine\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ powerful\\ than\\ actually\\ is\\,\\ they\\ overestimate\\ duration\\ of\\ affective\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Inaccurate\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\culture\\ and\\ experience\\ give\\ ppl\\ domain\\-specific\\ knowledge\\ about\\ how\\ particular\\ events\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ feel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\some\\ of\\ this\\ knowledge\\ is\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ability\\ to\\ remember\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ experiences\\ accurately\\ is\\ prone\\ to\\ distortion\\ and\\ error\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;inaccurate\\ theories\\ persist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ knowledge\\ of\\ consequences\\ of\\ common\\ events\\ is\\ wrong\\,\\ affective\\ forecasts\\ are\\ also\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Motivated\\ Distortions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ overestimate\\ positive\\ consequences\\ \\ \\;because\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ making\\ that\\ forecast\\ induces\\ positive\\ affect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ overestimate\\ consequences\\ of\\ negative\\ events\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;defensive\\ pessimism\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ so\\ pleasantly\\ surprised\\ when\\ consequences\\ are\\ less\\ enduring\\ than\\ anticipated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\affective\\ forecasts\\ have\\ immediate\\ affective\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4\\.\\ Undercorrection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\when\\ correcting\\ their\\ predictions\\ for\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\,\\ people\\ undercorrect\\ their\\ affective\\ responses\\ to\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;Focalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\when\\ people\\ predict\\ affective\\ reactions\\,\\ they\\ only\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ event\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ the\\ exclusion\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ overestimate\\ effects\\ of\\ focal\\ events\\ because\\ ignore\\ nonfocal\\ events\\ when\\ making\\ predictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\6\\.\\ Immune\\ neglect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ have\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ bad\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Presence\\ of\\ psychological\\ immune\\ system\\ that\\ serves\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ individual\\ from\\ excessive\\ negative\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utilize\\ defense\\ mechanisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Works\\ best\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ alone\\ and\\ operations\\ of\\ psychological\\ immune\\ system\\ not\\ explicitly\\ scrutinized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immune\\ neglect\\:\\ tendency\\ to\\ be\\ unaware\\ of\\ influence\\ that\\ psychological\\ immune\\ system\\ has\\ on\\ emotional\\ wellbeing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unique\\ mechanism\\ that\\ causes\\ durability\\ bias\\ because\\ only\\ leads\\ people\\ to\\ overestimate\\ duration\\ of\\ negative\\ affective\\ reactions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ 1\\:\\ Looking\\ Down\\ Lonely\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ being\\ in\\ a\\ relationship\\ on\\ predicted\\ levels\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Loners\\ \\(people\\ not\\ in\\ relationships\\)\\ vs\\ Lovers\\ \\(people\\ in\\ relationships\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loners\\ were\\ less\\ happy\\ than\\ lovers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Loners\\ predicted\\ would\\ be\\ happier\\ if\\ in\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Forecasts\\ accurate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Luckies\\ \\(had\\ not\\ experienced\\ a\\ breakup\\)\\ vs\\ Leftovers\\ \\(experienced\\ breakup\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Luckies\\ not\\ happier\\ than\\ leftovers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiencing\\ a\\ breakup\\ does\\ not\\ decrease\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Luckies\\ believed\\ would\\ be\\ less\\ happy\\ 2\\ months\\ after\\ experiencing\\ break\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Forecasts\\ of\\ how\\ unhappy\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ 2\\ months\\ were\\ inaccurate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ 2\\:\\ Life\\ after\\ tenure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Professors\\ predicted\\ effects\\ of\\ being\\ offered\\ tenure\\ on\\ future\\ happiness\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Forecasted\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ happier\\ in\\ first\\ 5\\ years\\ after\\ achieving\\ tenure\\ than\\ would\\ be\\ if\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ achieve\\ tenure\\;\\ difference\\ would\\ dissipate\\ so\\ would\\ be\\ equally\\ happy\\ in\\ following\\ 5\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ achieved\\ tenure\\ were\\ not\\ happier\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tenure\\ decision\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ dramatic\\ effect\\ on\\ happiness\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ 3\\:\\ Politics\\ of\\ Happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\After\\ voting\\ in\\ gubernatorial\\ election\\,\\ participants\\ estimated\\ how\\ happy\\ would\\ be\\ 1\\ month\\ after\\ candidate\\ won\\ or\\ loss\\.\\ 1\\ month\\ later\\ reported\\ how\\ happy\\ they\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Democrats\\ \\(losers\\)\\ happier\\ than\\ Republicans\\ \\(winners\\)\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ election\\;\\ aka\\ election\\ had\\ no\\ effect\\ on\\ overall\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Winners\\ did\\ not\\ think\\ win\\ would\\ influence\\ happiness\\,\\ but\\ losers\\ thought\\ loss\\ would\\ significantly\\ decrease\\ their\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\ month\\ after\\ election\\ winners\\ were\\ as\\ happy\\ as\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\,\\ but\\ losers\\ were\\ significantly\\ happier\\ than\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meta\\-analysis\\ of\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ robust\\ negative\\ than\\ positive\\ durability\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suggestive\\ of\\ immune\\ neglect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ view\\ losses\\ as\\ larger\\ than\\ equivalent\\ gains\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Hurting\\ Machine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Forecasters\\ and\\ Experiencers\\ with\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ self\\-views\\ told\\ that\\ computer\\ program\\ or\\ team\\ of\\ clinicians\\ had\\ classified\\ them\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ personality\\ types\\ and\\ told\\ to\\ estimate\\ how\\ happy\\ would\\ expect\\ to\\ feel\\ after\\ learning\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ classified\\ as\\ worst\\ personality\\ type\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Forecasters\\ w\\/\\ negative\\ self\\-views\\ asked\\ to\\ predict\\ how\\ would\\ feel\\ 5\\ min\\ after\\ being\\ diagnosed\\ as\\ worst\\ personality\\ type\\&mdash\\;no\\ significant\\ difference\\ from\\ how\\ ppl\\ with\\ negative\\ self\\-views\\ felt\\ 5\\ min\\ after\\ being\\ diagnosed\\ as\\ worst\\ personality\\ type\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ 5\\:\\ Just\\ Death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Experiencers\\ read\\ either\\ blameless\\ or\\ blameworthy\\ version\\ of\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ accidental\\ death\\ of\\ infant\\ and\\ rated\\ how\\ upset\\ they\\ felt\\.\\ Forecasters\\ read\\ summaries\\ of\\ stories\\ and\\ estimated\\ how\\ upset\\ they\\ would\\ feel\\ if\\ read\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ in\\ its\\ entirety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Forecasters\\ believed\\ would\\ become\\ equally\\ upset\\ after\\ reading\\ both\\ stories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiences\\ who\\ read\\ blameworthy\\ story\\ were\\ less\\ upset\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ read\\ blameless\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Study\\ 6\\:\\ Failure\\ Inc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Participants\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ hired\\ for\\ job\\ and\\ rejected\\ either\\ by\\ fair\\ decision\\ or\\ by\\ unfair\\ decision\\ process\\.\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Participants\\ predicted\\ that\\ would\\ feel\\ equally\\ bad\\ after\\ being\\ rejected\\ for\\ a\\ job\\ by\\ unfair\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiencers\\ were\\ actually\\ more\\ upset\\ when\\ rejected\\ by\\ fair\\ decision\\ vs\\ unfair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ do\\ people\\ neglect\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ consider\\ how\\ easily\\ an\\ undesired\\ outcome\\ can\\ be\\ explained\\ away\\,\\ might\\ find\\ that\\ significance\\ of\\ positive\\ outcomes\\ is\\ also\\ explained\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attempts\\ to\\ minimize\\ defeat\\ may\\ also\\ minimize\\ victory\\,\\ so\\ ppl\\ benefit\\ by\\ not\\ considering\\ the\\ matter\\ so\\ closely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acute\\ awareness\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ immune\\ system\\ may\\ suppress\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ catch\\ yourself\\ bending\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ the\\ act\\ may\\ fail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ ppl\\ readily\\ aware\\ of\\ how\\ readily\\ their\\ affective\\ reactions\\ to\\ negative\\ events\\ could\\ be\\ undone\\,\\ they\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ motivated\\ to\\ avoid\\ this\\ outcomes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Seligman\\,\\ M\\.\\ E\\.\\,\\ Steen\\,\\ T\\.\\ A\\.\\,\\ Park\\,\\ N\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Peterson\\,\\ C\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Positive\\ Psychology\\ Progress\\:\\ Empirical\\ Validation\\ of\\ Interventions\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Psychologist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 60\\,\\ 410\\-421\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abstract\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ authors\\ review\\ recent\\ developments\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\,\\ including\\ books\\,\\ meetings\\,\\ courses\\,\\ and\\ conferences\\.\\ They\\ also\\ discuss\\ the\\ newly\\ created\\ classification\\ of\\ character\\ strengths\\ and\\ virtues\\,\\ and\\ present\\ some\\ cross\\-cultural\\ findings\\ that\\ suggest\\ a\\ surprising\\ ubiquity\\ of\\ strengths\\ and\\ virtues\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ focus\\ on\\ psychological\\ interventions\\ that\\ increase\\ individual\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ 6\\-\\ group\\,\\ random\\ assignment\\,\\ placebo\\-controlled\\ Internet\\ study\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ tested\\ 5\\ purported\\ happiness\\ interventions\\ and\\ 1\\ plausible\\ control\\ exercise\\.\\ They\\ found\\ that\\ 3\\ of\\ the\\ interventions\\ lastingly\\ increased\\ happiness\\ and\\ decreased\\ depressive\\ symptoms\\.\\ Positive\\ interventions\\ can\\ supplement\\ traditional\\ interventions\\ that\\ relieve\\ suffering\\ and\\ may\\ someday\\ be\\ the\\ practical\\ legacy\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ psychology\\:\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ positive\\ emotion\\,\\ positive\\ character\\,\\ and\\ positive\\ institutions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ more\\ complete\\ science\\ and\\ complete\\ practice\\ of\\ psychology\\ that\\ includes\\ understanding\\ of\\ suffering\\ and\\ happiness\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ their\\ interaction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Character\\ Strengths\\ and\\ Virtues\\:\\ A\\ Handbook\\ and\\ Classifications\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ looks\\ at\\ six\\ virtues\\ that\\ almost\\ every\\ culture\\ across\\ the\\ world\\ endorses\\ \\(wisdom\\,\\ courage\\,\\ humanity\\,\\ justice\\,\\ temperance\\,\\ and\\ transcendence\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ particular\\ strengths\\ such\\ as\\ fulfilling\\,\\ morality\\ valued\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ empirical\\ finding\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ remarkable\\ similarities\\ in\\ the\\ endorsement\\ of\\ the\\ 24\\ character\\ strengths\\ by\\ adults\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Widespread\\ dissemination\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\ research\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ general\\ psychological\\ community\\ is\\ beginning\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ respectable\\ science\\ can\\ be\\ conducted\\ on\\ the\\ positive\\ side\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ paper\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ efficacy\\ of\\ psychological\\ intervention\\ to\\ increase\\ individual\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ meant\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ an\\ umbrella\\ for\\ a\\)\\ positive\\ emotion\\ and\\ pleasure\\ b\\)\\ engagement\\ c\\)\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happy\\ people\\ are\\ healthier\\,\\ more\\ successful\\,\\ and\\ more\\ socially\\ engaged\\ and\\ the\\ causal\\ direction\\ runs\\ in\\ both\\ ways\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Study\\ designed\\ five\\ happiness\\ exercises\\ and\\ one\\ placebo\\ control\\ exercise\\.\\ Each\\ exercise\\ was\\ delivered\\ via\\ the\\ Internet\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ completed\\ within\\ one\\ week\\.\\ One\\ of\\ these\\ exercises\\ focused\\ on\\ building\\ gratitude\\,\\ two\\ focused\\ on\\ increasing\\ awareness\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ positive\\ about\\ oneself\\,\\ and\\ two\\ focused\\ on\\ identifying\\ strengths\\ of\\ character\\.\\ In\\ a\\ randomized\\,\\ placebo\\-controlled\\ study\\,\\ we\\ compared\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ these\\ exercises\\ with\\ those\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ thought\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ plausible\\ placebo\\ control\\:\\ journaling\\ for\\ one\\ week\\ about\\ early\\ memories\\.\\ We\\ followed\\ our\\ participants\\ for\\ six\\ months\\,\\ periodically\\ measuring\\ symptoms\\ of\\ both\\ depression\\ and\\ happiness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Placebo\\ control\\ exercise\\:\\ early\\ memories\\:\\ write\\ about\\ their\\ early\\ memories\\ every\\ night\\ for\\ a\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gratitude\\ visit\\:\\ given\\ one\\ week\\ to\\ write\\ and\\ deliver\\ a\\ letter\\ of\\ gratitude\\ to\\ someone\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ never\\ properly\\ thanked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ good\\ things\\ in\\ life\\:\\ write\\ down\\ three\\ things\\ that\\ went\\ well\\ and\\ their\\ causes\\ every\\ night\\ for\\ one\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ at\\ your\\ best\\:\\ write\\ about\\ times\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ at\\ their\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ signature\\ strengths\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ top\\ strengths\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ and\\ different\\ way\\ every\\ day\\ for\\ one\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Identifying\\ signature\\ strengths\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ their\\ highest\\ strengths\\ and\\ use\\ them\\ more\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Using\\ signature\\ strengths\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\ and\\ writing\\ three\\ good\\ things\\ increased\\ happiness\\ and\\ decreased\\ depressive\\ symptoms\\ for\\ six\\ months\\.\\ Gratitude\\ visit\\ caused\\ large\\ positive\\ changes\\ for\\ one\\ month\\ but\\ the\\ effect\\ decreased\\ over\\ the\\ 6\\-month\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ significant\\ effect\\ for\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ exercise\\ on\\ happiness\\ scores\\ at\\ all\\ time\\ periods\\ and\\ significant\\ effect\\ for\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ exercise\\ on\\ depression\\ scores\\ at\\ 1\\-month\\ and\\ follow\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ each\\ participant\\ was\\ only\\ asked\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ task\\ for\\ 1\\-week\\ but\\ the\\ researchers\\ measured\\ that\\ participants\\ who\\ continued\\ on\\ the\\ task\\ shows\\ increasing\\ levels\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ results\\ indicate\\ that\\ intervention\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ increased\\ happiness\\ for\\ extended\\ periods\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyubomirsky\\,\\ S\\.\\,\\ Sheldon\\ Pursuing\\ Happiness\\:\\ The\\ Architecture\\ of\\ Sustainable\\ Change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ little\\ scientific\\ research\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ how\\ happiness\\ can\\ be\\ increased\\ and\\ then\\ sustained\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drawing\\ on\\ the\\ past\\ well\\-being\\ literature\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ propose\\ that\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chronic\\ happiness\\ level\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ 3\\ major\\ factors\\:\\ a\\ genetically\\ determined\\ set\\ point\\ for\\ happiness\\,\\ happiness\\-relevant\\ circumstantial\\ factors\\,\\ and\\ happiness\\-relevant\\ activities\\ and\\ practices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ just\\ a\\ North\\ American\\ obsession\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ it\\ is\\ becoming\\ ever\\ more\\ global\\ as\\ people\\ seek\\ to\\ fulfill\\ the\\ promises\\ of\\ capitalism\\ and\\ political\\ freedom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ evidence\\ showing\\ that\\ happiness\\ has\\ numerous\\ positive\\ byproducts\\ that\\ appear\\ to\\ benefit\\ individuals\\,\\ families\\,\\ and\\ communities\\ \\(positive\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ including\\ larger\\ social\\ rewards\\ \\(higher\\ odds\\ of\\ marriage\\ and\\ lower\\ odds\\ of\\ divorce\\,\\ more\\ friends\\,\\ stronger\\ social\\ support\\,\\ and\\ richer\\ social\\ interactions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ summary\\,\\ happy\\ individuals\\ appear\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ flourishing\\ people\\,\\ both\\ inwardly\\ and\\ outwardly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ researchers\\ still\\ know\\ surprisingly\\ little\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\change\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;well\\-being\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ about\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;becoming\\ happier\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ Historical\\ Sources\\ of\\ Pessimism\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\first\\ source\\ of\\ pessimism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\genetically\\ determined\\ set\\ point\\ \\(or\\ set\\ range\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Lykken\\ and\\ Tellegen\\ \\(1996\\)\\ have\\ provided\\ evidence\\,\\ based\\ on\\ twin\\ studies\\ and\\ adoption\\ studies\\,\\ that\\ the\\ heritability\\ of\\ well\\-being\\ may\\ be\\ as\\ high\\ as\\ 80\\%\\ \\(although\\ a\\ more\\ widely\\ accepted\\ figure\\ is\\ 50\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ although\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ substantial\\ variation\\ around\\ this\\ baseline\\ level\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ term\\,\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ people\\ perhaps\\ cannot\\ help\\ but\\ return\\ to\\ their\\ set\\ point\\,\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ their\\ set\\ range\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\second\\ and\\ closely\\ related\\ source\\ of\\ pessimism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;comes\\ from\\ the\\ literature\\ on\\ personality\\ traits\\.\\ Traits\\ are\\ cognitive\\,\\ affective\\,\\ and\\ behavioral\\ complexes\\ that\\ are\\,\\ by\\ definition\\,\\ consistent\\ across\\ situations\\ and\\ across\\ the\\ life\\ span\\ and\\ therefore\\ may\\ account\\ for\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ stability\\ of\\ the\\ set\\ point\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\third\\ source\\ of\\ pessimism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;arises\\ from\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hedonic\\ treadmill\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Brickman\\ \\&\\;\\ Campbell\\,\\ 1971\\)\\,\\ which\\ suggests\\ that\\ any\\ gains\\ in\\ happiness\\ are\\ only\\ temporary\\,\\ because\\ humans\\ so\\ quickly\\ adapt\\ to\\ change\\.\\ i\\.e\\.\\ After\\ 1\\ year\\,\\ lottery\\ winners\\ were\\ no\\ happier\\ than\\ controls\\,\\ and\\ furthermore\\ recent\\ paralysis\\ victims\\ were\\ not\\ as\\ unhappy\\ as\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Together\\,\\ these\\ concepts\\ and\\ findings\\ suggest\\ that\\ trying\\ to\\ become\\ happier\\ may\\ be\\ as\\ futile\\ as\\ trying\\ to\\ become\\ taller\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ Current\\ Sources\\ of\\ Pessimism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ First\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ interventions\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ increase\\ happiness\\.\\ i\\.e\\.\\ happiness\\-\\ enhancing\\ interventions\\ \\(showing\\ gratitude\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ Second\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\motivational\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\attitudinal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;factors\\ have\\ been\\ linked\\ to\\ well\\-being\\ \\(pursuing\\ life\\ goals\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Third\\ \\-\\ older\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ somewhat\\ happier\\ than\\ younger\\ people\\ \\(they\\ pursue\\ different\\ goals\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yet\\ another\\ reason\\ why\\ genes\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ destiny\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ appear\\ to\\ influence\\ happiness\\ indirectly\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ by\\ influencing\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ experiences\\ and\\ environments\\ one\\ has\\ or\\ seeks\\ to\\ have\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ summarize\\,\\ it\\ appears\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ paradox\\:\\ Some\\ theoretical\\ perspectives\\ and\\ empirical\\ data\\ suggest\\ that\\ happiness\\ can\\ be\\ increased\\,\\ whereas\\ other\\ theories\\ and\\ data\\ imply\\ that\\ it\\ cannot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ primary\\ focus\\ in\\ this\\ article\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ characteristic\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ during\\ a\\ particular\\ period\\ in\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ life\\,\\ which\\ we\\ term\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\chronic\\ happiness\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ focus\\ on\\ three\\ primary\\ types\\ of\\ factors\\ that\\ we\\ believe\\ causally\\ affect\\ the\\ chronic\\ happiness\\ level\\,\\ namely\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\set\\ point\\,\\ life\\ circumstances\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\intentional\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ happiness\\ set\\ point\\ is\\ genetically\\ determined\\ and\\ is\\ assumed\\ to\\ be\\ fixed\\,\\ stable\\ over\\ time\\,\\ and\\ immune\\ to\\ influence\\ or\\ control\\.\\ \\(50\\%\\)\\ The\\ set\\ point\\ probably\\ reflects\\ relatively\\ immutable\\ intrapersonal\\,\\ temperamental\\,\\ and\\ affective\\ personality\\ traits\\,\\ such\\ as\\ extraversion\\,\\ arousability\\,\\ and\\ negative\\ affectivity\\,\\ that\\ are\\ rooted\\ in\\ neurobiology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ category\\ consists\\ of\\ happiness\\-relevant\\ circumstantial\\ factors\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ incidental\\ but\\ relatively\\ stable\\ facts\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ This\\ is\\ influenced\\ by\\ geography\\,\\ childhood\\ experiences\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ we\\ turn\\ to\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ arguably\\ most\\ promising\\ means\\ of\\ altering\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happiness\\ level\\:\\ intentional\\ activity\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ broad\\ category\\ that\\ includes\\ the\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ people\\ do\\ and\\ think\\ in\\ their\\ daily\\ lives\\.\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Best\\ potential\\ route\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ They\\ are\\ \\(1\\)\\ episodic\\ and\\ transient\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ activity\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Intentional\\ activity\\ can\\ directly\\ counteract\\ adaptation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Yet\\ another\\ advantage\\ of\\ intentional\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\activity\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ directly\\ tackle\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\problem\\ presented\\ by\\ adaptation\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Choose\\ a\\ role\\,\\ new\\ activity\\,\\ and\\ pursue\\ it\\ with\\ energy\\ and\\ vigor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discusses\\ the\\ important\\ role\\ of\\ habitual\\ activities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\READINGS\\ FOR\\ MARCH\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\TH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\ \\-\\ HAPPIER\\ \\-\\ CHAPTER\\ 5\\-7\\-\\ dropped\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\ \\-\\ SECOND\\ MEDITATION\\ \\-\\ dropped\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Fifth\\ Mediation\\:\\ Imagine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\You\\ are\\ 110\\ years\\ old\\ and\\ can\\ suddenly\\ be\\ transported\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ current\\ time\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ 15\\ minutes\\ with\\ your\\ current\\ self\\ what\\ advice\\ would\\ you\\ give\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Irvin\\ Yalom\\:\\ Following\\ the\\ news\\ of\\ terminal\\ illness\\,\\ people\\ suddenly\\ have\\ the\\ skills\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ happier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Time\\ In\\:\\ Have\\ you\\ had\\ experiences\\ that\\ made\\ you\\ reevaluate\\ your\\ priorities\\?\\ Did\\ you\\ follow\\ up\\ on\\ your\\ new\\ insights\\ or\\ understanding\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ultimately\\,\\ our\\ progress\\,\\ our\\ growth\\,\\ and\\ our\\ happiness\\ come\\ from\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ look\\ within\\ ourselves\\ and\\ ask\\ important\\ questions\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exercise\\:\\ Write\\ out\\ the\\ advice\\ you\\ would\\ give\\ your\\ current\\ self\\ if\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ you\\ time\\ traveled\\ back\\ to\\ now\\,\\ ritualize\\ the\\ advice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sixth\\ Mediation\\:\\ Take\\ Your\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overcommitting\\ leads\\ to\\ compromised\\ happiness\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daniel\\ Kahneman\\:\\ Women\\ asked\\ to\\ list\\ and\\ describe\\ daily\\ activities\\,\\ did\\ not\\ enjoy\\ time\\ spent\\ taking\\ care\\ of\\ children\\&hellip\\;\\.surprising\\ finding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ complex\\ life\\ leads\\ to\\ constant\\ time\\ pressure\\,\\ distracted\\ and\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ enjoy\\ experiences\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ enjoyable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Time\\ In\\:\\ In\\ what\\ areas\\ or\\ activities\\ if\\ any\\ do\\ you\\ feel\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ compromising\\ on\\ your\\ happiness\\ because\\ of\\ time\\ pressure\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ must\\ simplify\\ our\\ lives\\,\\ slow\\ down\\,\\ do\\ less\\ rather\\ than\\ more\\,\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ successful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tim\\ Kasser\\:\\ time\\ affluence\\ \\(feeling\\ that\\ one\\ has\\ sufficient\\ time\\ to\\ pursue\\ activities\\ that\\ are\\ personally\\ meaningful\\)\\ is\\ a\\ consistent\\ predictor\\ of\\ well\\-being\\,\\ whereas\\ material\\ affluence\\ is\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teresa\\ Amabile\\:\\ when\\ creativity\\ is\\ under\\ the\\ gun\\ it\\ usually\\ ends\\ up\\ getting\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Time\\ pressure\\ leads\\ to\\ frustration\\,\\ and\\ when\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ frustrated\\ or\\ experienced\\ other\\ negative\\ emotions\\ our\\ thinking\\ constricts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quantity\\ affects\\ quality\\,\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ too\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exercise\\:\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ mapping\\ your\\ life\\ exercise\\,\\ simply\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Seventh\\ Mediation\\:\\ The\\ Happiness\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ scientific\\ revolution\\ contributed\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ society\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ created\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ material\\ perception\\ as\\ the\\ highest\\ on\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ importance\\,\\ whereas\\ happiness\\ and\\ spirituality\\ was\\ discarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Problem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ freedom\\ to\\ pursue\\ material\\ wealth\\ is\\ replaced\\ with\\ a\\ compulsion\\ to\\ amass\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ Perception\\:\\ recognize\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dalai\\ Lama\\:\\ The\\ very\\ purpose\\ of\\ life\\ is\\ happiness\\,\\ the\\ vory\\ mtion\\ of\\ our\\ life\\ is\\ towards\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ Revolution\\:\\ comes\\ from\\ within\\&hellip\\;\\ will\\ help\\ in\\ our\\ everyday\\ life\\ by\\ reducing\\ envy\\ between\\ individual\\ and\\ cultures\\,\\ conflicts\\ will\\ be\\ reduced\\ because\\ material\\ items\\ not\\ as\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quantity\\ of\\ happiness\\ is\\ not\\ fixed\\,\\ happiness\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ zero\\ sum\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Time\\ In\\:\\ How\\ will\\ your\\ life\\ \\ \\;change\\ if\\ you\\ shift\\,\\ in\\ theory\\ and\\ in\\ practice\\,\\ further\\ toward\\ happiness\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exercise\\:\\ think\\ of\\ any\\ conflict\\ and\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ are\\ paying\\ in\\ happiness\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ grudge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ENDING\\ PROCRASTINATION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Procrastination\\ weakens\\ your\\ immune\\ system\\,\\ keeps\\ you\\ up\\ at\\ night\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Procrastinators\\ are\\ born\\ and\\ not\\ made\\&hellip\\;\\.can\\ be\\ unlearned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ ok\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ finish\\ all\\ tasks\\ on\\ To\\ Do\\ lists\\&hellip\\;you\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ procrastinator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Five\\ Lies\\ of\\ procrastinators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ They\\ overestimate\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ have\\ left\\ to\\ perform\\ tasks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ They\\ underestimate\\ the\\ time\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ complete\\ tasks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ They\\ overestimate\\ how\\ motivated\\ they\\ will\\ feel\\ the\\ next\\ day\\,\\ the\\ next\\ week\\,\\ the\\ next\\ month\\ \\-\\-\\ whenever\\ they\\ are\\ putting\\ things\\ off\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ They\\ mistakenly\\ think\\ that\\ succeeding\\ at\\ a\\ task\\ requires\\ that\\ they\\ feel\\ like\\ doing\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ They\\ mistakenly\\ believe\\ that\\ working\\ when\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ mood\\ is\\ suboptimal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Procrastinators\\ distract\\ themselves\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ regulating\\ their\\ own\\ emotions\\,\\ such\\ as\\ fear\\ of\\ failure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tips\\ for\\ reducing\\ procrastination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Make\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ everything\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Write\\ a\\ statement\\ of\\ intention\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Set\\ realistic\\ goals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Break\\ it\\ down\\ into\\ specific\\ tasks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Make\\ your\\ task\\ meaningful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Promise\\ yourself\\ a\\ reward\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Eliminate\\ tasks\\ you\\ never\\ plan\\ to\\ do\\.\\ Be\\ honest\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Estimate\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ you\\ think\\ it\\ will\\ take\\ you\\ to\\ complete\\ a\\ task\\.\\ Then\\ increase\\ the\\ amount\\ by\\ 100\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 52, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Midterm_study_guide.doc", "desc": "Midterm review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Readings", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 134, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\ Readings\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=m0tazYRimFnV1hoGKbgtnw\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:21pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:93pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c32\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c6\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:3pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c25\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c19\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c37\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c34\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:21pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c36\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c38\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c31\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:57pt\\}\\.c22\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\For\\ Feb\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gable\\,\\ S\\.\\ L\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Haidt\\,\\ J\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ \\(and\\ Why\\)\\ Is\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\?\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Review\\ of\\ General\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 103\\-110\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/faculty\\.virginia\\.edu\\/haidtlab\\/articles\\/gable\\.haidt\\.what\\-is\\-positive\\-psychology\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ Psychology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Is\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ conditions\\ and\\ processes\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ flourishing\\ or\\ optimal\\ functioning\\ of\\ people\\,\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ institutions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ Psychology\\ dates\\ back\\ to\\ William\\ James\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;healthy\\ mindedness\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 1902\\.\\ Allport\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interest\\ in\\ positive\\ human\\ characteristics\\ in\\ 1958\\,\\ Maslow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advocacy\\ for\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ healthy\\ people\\ in\\ lieu\\ of\\ sick\\ people\\ in\\ 1968\\,\\ and\\ Cowan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ research\\ on\\ resilience\\ in\\ children\\ and\\ adolescence\\ around\\ 2000\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ psychology\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ psychology\\ is\\ negative\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ aim\\ of\\ pos\\.\\ psychology\\ is\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ ways\\ that\\ people\\ feel\\ joy\\,\\ show\\ altruism\\,\\ and\\ create\\ healthy\\ families\\ and\\ institutions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thereby\\ addressing\\ the\\ full\\ spectrum\\ of\\ human\\ experiences\\ and\\ contribute\\ those\\ to\\ the\\ existing\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ study\\ indicated\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ 3\\.2\\ times\\ more\\ positive\\ events\\ than\\ negative\\,\\ but\\ psychological\\ research\\ is\\ overwhelmingly\\ focused\\ on\\ negatives\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ philosophical\\,\\ historical\\ and\\ theoretical\\ underpinnings\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ empirical\\ justification\\ for\\ our\\ predominantly\\ negative\\ view\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ challenges\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ challenge\\ stems\\ from\\ defining\\ what\\ actually\\ is\\ positive\\ and\\ the\\ ambiguous\\ line\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\describing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\something\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prescribing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\ bases\\ for\\ what\\ are\\ positive\\ or\\ what\\ is\\ valuable\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Choices\\ people\\ make\\ are\\ one\\ indication\\ of\\ value\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ People\\ can\\ judge\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ something\\ is\\ satisfying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ Judgments\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ positive\\ or\\ good\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ some\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ value\\ system\\ or\\ set\\ of\\ cultural\\ norms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ future\\ task\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\ is\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ build\\ strengths\\,\\ outline\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ resilience\\,\\ ascertain\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ positive\\ experiences\\,\\ and\\ delineate\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ positive\\ relationships\\ with\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Seligman\\,\\ M\\.\\ E\\.\\ P\\.\\ \\(2002\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Positive\\ Psychology\\,\\ Positive\\ Prevention\\,\\ and\\ Positive\\ Therapy\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ C\\.\\ R\\.\\ Snyder\\ and\\ S\\.\\ J\\.\\ Lopez\\ \\(Eds\\.\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Handbook\\ of\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 528\\-540\\.\\ \\;\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/psych\\.upenn\\.edu\\/seligman\\/ppsnyderchapter\\.htm\\#Top\\%20of\\%20Page\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ aim\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\ is\\ to\\ catalyze\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ psychology\\ from\\ a\\ preoccupation\\ only\\ with\\ repairing\\ the\\ worst\\ things\\ in\\ life\\ to\\ also\\ building\\ the\\ best\\ qualities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychology\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ weakness\\,\\ and\\ damage\\;\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ strength\\ and\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ task\\ of\\ the\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ will\\ be\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ science\\ of\\ human\\ strengths\\ and\\ foster\\ those\\ virtues\\ in\\ the\\ youth\\ rather\\ than\\ always\\ repairing\\ depression\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ get\\ over\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ negative\\ emotions\\ are\\ authentic\\ and\\ positive\\ emotions\\ are\\ derivative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ science\\ has\\ to\\ develop\\ its\\ primary\\ task\\ into\\ finding\\ out\\ what\\ makes\\ life\\ worth\\ living\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Optimism\\ can\\ prevent\\ depression\\ and\\ promote\\ positive\\ change\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fredrickson\\,\\ B\\.\\ L\\.\\ \\(2001\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Role\\ of\\ Positive\\ Emotions\\ in\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\:\\ The\\ Broaden\\-and\\-Build\\ Theory\\ of\\ Positive\\ Emotions\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Psychologist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 56\\,\\ 218\\-226\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.unc\\.edu\\/peplab\\/publications\\/role\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ emotions\\ are\\ worth\\ cultivating\\,\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ end\\ states\\ in\\ themselves\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ means\\ to\\ achieving\\ psychological\\ growth\\ and\\ improved\\ well\\-being\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Affect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Refers\\ to\\ consciously\\ accessible\\ feelings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emotions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Are\\ personally\\ meaningful\\ circumstances\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Broaden\\-and\\-Build\\ Theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Discrete\\ positive\\ emotions\\ share\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ broaden\\ peoples\\ momentary\\ thought\\-action\\ repertoires\\ and\\ build\\ their\\ enduring\\ personal\\ resources\\,\\ ranging\\ from\\ physical\\ and\\ intellectual\\ resources\\ to\\ social\\ and\\ psychological\\ resources\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Isen\\ and\\ colleagues\\ have\\ documented\\ that\\ people\\ experiencing\\ positive\\ affect\\ show\\ patterns\\ of\\ thought\\ that\\ are\\ notable\\ unusual\\,\\ flexible\\,\\ creative\\,\\ integrative\\,\\ open\\ to\\ information\\,\\ and\\ efficient\\.\\ Positive\\ affect\\ broadens\\ cognition\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Undoing\\ Hypothesis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Positive\\ emotions\\ might\\ also\\ correct\\ or\\ undo\\ the\\ after\\ effects\\ of\\ negative\\ emotions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Broaden\\-and\\-Build\\ theory\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ broadening\\ at\\ the\\ cognitive\\ level\\ mediates\\ undoing\\ at\\ the\\ cardiovascular\\ level\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ emotions\\ may\\ help\\ people\\ place\\ events\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\ in\\ broader\\ context\\,\\ lessening\\ the\\ resonance\\ of\\ any\\ particular\\ event\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ emotions\\ also\\ build\\ psychological\\ resiliency\\ and\\ trigger\\ upward\\ spirals\\ towards\\ improved\\ emotional\\ well\\-being\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individuals\\ who\\ experienced\\ more\\ positive\\ emotions\\ became\\ more\\ resilient\\ to\\ adversity\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conclusions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ emotions\\ have\\ long\\-lasting\\ consequences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ emotions\\ transform\\ people\\ for\\ the\\ better\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ better\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ emotions\\ might\\ be\\ essential\\ for\\ optimizing\\ both\\ psychological\\ and\\ physical\\ functioning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\ key\\ take\\ away\\ points\\ about\\ positive\\ emotions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Broaden\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thought\\-action\\ repertoires\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Undo\\ lingering\\ negative\\ emotions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Fuel\\ psychological\\ resilience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Build\\ psychological\\ resilience\\ and\\ trigger\\ upward\\ spirals\\ towards\\ enhanced\\ emotional\\ well\\-being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ February\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Happier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ Tal\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\PREFACE\\ \\&\\;\\ CHAPTERS\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Preface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ started\\ as\\ a\\ positive\\ psychology\\ seminar\\ \\(8\\ at\\ first\\,\\ 2\\ dropped\\ out\\)at\\ Harvard\\ in\\ 2002\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explored\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;question\\ of\\ questions\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ help\\ ourselves\\ and\\ others\\ be\\ happier\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mentor\\ Phillip\\ Stone\\ encouraged\\ Tal\\ to\\ teach\\ lecture\\ course\\ \\(385\\ students\\)\\;\\ the\\ following\\ year\\ class\\ grew\\ to\\ 855\\,\\ largest\\ class\\ at\\ Harvard\\;\\ 20\\%\\ in\\ CUE\\ said\\ it\\ improves\\ their\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ James\\ founder\\ of\\ psychology\\ kept\\ Tal\\ on\\ track\\ by\\ reminding\\ him\\ to\\ remain\\ practical\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;seek\\ truth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cash\\ value\\ in\\ experiential\\ terms\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cash\\ value\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\ not\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ accolades\\ and\\ successes\\,\\ but\\ in\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ the\\ growing\\ interest\\ in\\ positive\\ psychology\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ have\\ always\\ struggled\\ to\\ pursue\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Plato\\,\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Confucius\\,\\ religion\\ \\&\\;\\ philosophy\\ all\\ strive\\ to\\ answer\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\US\\ depression\\ rates\\ 10\\ times\\ higher\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ 1960s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Average\\ age\\ for\\ onset\\ is\\ 14\\.5\\ versus\\ 29\\.5\\ in\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ show\\ 45\\%\\ of\\ college\\ students\\ have\\ experienced\\ depression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Material\\ prosperity\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ increasing\\ and\\ so\\ are\\ depression\\ levels\\ \\(not\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ around\\ the\\ world\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mihaly\\ Csikszentmihalyi\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;if\\ we\\ are\\ so\\ rich\\,\\ why\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ happy\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ for\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ psychology\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;scientific\\ study\\ of\\ optimal\\ human\\ functioning\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Launched\\ as\\ a\\ field\\ by\\ Martin\\ Seligman\\ \\(president\\ of\\ the\\ APA\\)in\\ 1998\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ 1998\\,\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ happiness\\ was\\ relegated\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;pop\\ psychology\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\:\\ vapid\\ self\\-help\\ books\\ or\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\,\\ academic\\ research\\ not\\ readily\\ accessed\\ or\\ known\\ by\\ the\\ public\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ psychology\\ bridges\\ Main\\ Street\\ and\\ the\\ Ivory\\ Tower\\ \\(daily\\ life\\ and\\ academia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Using\\ this\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ shortcuts\\ to\\ meaningful\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Treat\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ workbook\\ to\\ help\\ understand\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Book\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ sections\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Part\\ one\\:\\ chapters\\ 1\\-5\\:\\ what\\ is\\ happiness\\ and\\ what\\ are\\ components\\ of\\ a\\ happy\\ life\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ two\\:\\ chapters\\ 6\\-8\\:\\ practical\\ applications\\ in\\ education\\,\\ work\\,\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ three\\:\\ seven\\ meditations\\ offering\\ some\\ thoughts\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ The\\ Question\\ of\\ Happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Quick\\ summary\\:\\ Tal\\ recounts\\ the\\ experience\\ that\\ launched\\ his\\ search\\ for\\ a\\ better\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\After\\ training\\ for\\ 5\\ years\\,\\ Tal\\ at\\ 16\\,\\ won\\ the\\ Israeli\\ national\\ squash\\ championship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\huge\\ success\\ but\\ nevertheless\\ felt\\ empty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\question\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decided\\ to\\ study\\ philosophy\\ and\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;question\\ of\\ questions\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ surprised\\ how\\ few\\ people\\ overlooked\\ their\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ students\\ around\\ him\\ depressed\\ despite\\ high\\ achievements\\ and\\ successes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Happy\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;happier\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ know\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ happy\\?\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ binary\\!\\ One\\ can\\ always\\ be\\ happier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Create\\ rituals\\ that\\ will\\ make\\ you\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loehr\\ \\&\\;\\ Schwartz\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Power\\ of\\ Full\\ Engagement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instead\\ of\\ cultivating\\ self\\-discipline\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ change\\,\\ introduce\\ rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Schwartz\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;incremental\\ change\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ ambitious\\ failure\\&hellip\\;success\\ feeds\\ on\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Express\\ gratitude\\ daily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emmons\\ and\\ McCullough\\:\\ those\\ who\\ kept\\ a\\ daily\\ gratitude\\ journal\\ enjoyed\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ emotional\\ and\\ physical\\ well\\-being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Reconciling\\ the\\ Present\\ and\\ Future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Quick\\ Summary\\:\\ Happiness\\ does\\ not\\ arise\\ from\\ satisfying\\ immediate\\ desires\\ nor\\ the\\ delay\\ of\\ satisfaction\\.\\ Typical\\ models\\ for\\ happiness\\ are\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ hedonist\\ \\(lives\\ only\\ for\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ moment\\)\\ or\\ the\\ rat\\-racer\\ \\(postpones\\ gratification\\ for\\ the\\ prospect\\ of\\ attaining\\ a\\ future\\ goal\\)\\.\\ Both\\ models\\ fail\\ to\\ integrate\\ our\\ basic\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ present\\ and\\ future\\ benefit\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Hamburger\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Four\\ quadrant\\ model\\ of\\ attitudes\\ and\\ behaviors\\ \\(page\\ 16\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Present\\ benefit\\ and\\ future\\ detriment\\=hedonist\\ archetype\\=junk\\-food\\ burger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Future\\ benefit\\ and\\ present\\ detriment\\=rat\\ race\\ archetype\\=veggie\\ burger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Present\\ detriment\\ and\\ future\\ detriment\\=nihilist\\ archetype\\=tasteless\\/unhealthy\\ burger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Present\\ benefit\\ and\\ future\\ benefit\\=happiness\\ archetype\\=healthy\\ \\&\\;\\ tasty\\ burger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illusions\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ rat\\-racers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ we\\ attain\\ a\\ goal\\:\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ relief\\ and\\ not\\ happiness\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relief\\ as\\ negative\\ happiness\\:\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ negation\\ of\\ stress\\ or\\ anxiety\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ happiness\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nihilists\\ give\\ up\\ on\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seligman\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;learned\\ helplessness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ studied\\ dogs\\ and\\ their\\ reactions\\ to\\ shocks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dogs\\ in\\ condition\\ where\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ the\\ shocks\\ made\\ no\\ effort\\ to\\ escape\\;\\ learned\\ to\\ be\\ helpless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ archetype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ journey\\,\\ not\\ the\\ destination\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herbert\\ Benson\\:\\ benefits\\ of\\ meditation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Happiness\\ Explained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quick\\ summary\\:\\ Tal\\ outlines\\ why\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ find\\ both\\ meaning\\ and\\ pleasure\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ happy\\.\\ Sense\\ of\\ purpose\\ and\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ positive\\ emotions\\ is\\ critical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ our\\ nature\\ to\\ pursue\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ Hume\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ great\\ end\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ industry\\ is\\ the\\ attainment\\ of\\ happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Success\\ thrives\\ on\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happy\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\ across\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ domains\\:\\ health\\,\\ relationships\\,\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ happiness\\:\\ overall\\ experience\\ of\\ pleasure\\ and\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotions\\ cause\\ motion\\:\\ provide\\ motives\\ for\\ our\\ actions\\:\\ motivation\\ to\\ pursue\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nozick\\:\\ philosopher\\ who\\ helps\\ distinguish\\ true\\ happiness\\ from\\ drug\\ induced\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ of\\ being\\ plugged\\ into\\ a\\ machine\\ simulating\\ positive\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ this\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ live\\?\\ Most\\ would\\ say\\ no\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capacity\\ for\\ spirituality\\ is\\ unique\\ to\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ people\\ find\\ meaning\\ in\\ different\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ be\\ idealistic\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ realistic\\:\\ not\\ just\\ dreaming\\,\\ actually\\ pursuing\\ ideal\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Potential\\ and\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Internal\\ potential\\:\\ satisfaction\\ from\\ within\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\External\\ potential\\:\\ manifestations\\ of\\ potential\\ \\(becoming\\ President\\,\\ making\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ for\\ meaning\\ and\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Viktor\\ Frankl\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Search\\ for\\ Meaning\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ book\\ about\\ victims\\ of\\ the\\ Holocaust\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ meaning\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sigmund\\ Freud\\:\\ man\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ instinctual\\ need\\ for\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tal\\ asserts\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ gratify\\ both\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quantity\\ and\\ Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lasagna\\ principle\\:\\ notion\\ that\\ our\\ capacity\\ to\\ enjoy\\ different\\ activities\\ is\\ limited\\ and\\ unique\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suggested\\ exercises\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Map\\ your\\ life\\ for\\ a\\ week\\:\\ activities\\,\\ time\\ spent\\,\\ pleasure\\ derived\\,\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Integrity\\ mirror\\:\\ write\\ down\\ activities\\ and\\ things\\ that\\ make\\ you\\ happy\\ and\\ hope\\ much\\ time\\ you\\ would\\ ideally\\ like\\ to\\ devote\\ to\\ them\\.\\ Are\\ you\\ living\\ up\\ to\\ this\\?\\ What\\ changes\\ can\\ you\\ make\\ to\\ do\\ this\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Ultimate\\ Currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ chapter\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Marva\\ Collins\\,\\ a\\ remarkable\\ woman\\ who\\ Tal\\ constantly\\ refers\\ to\\ during\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ founded\\ Westside\\ Prep\\,\\ a\\ Chicago\\ school\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;last\\ chance\\&rdquo\\;\\ juveniles\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ kicked\\ out\\ of\\ other\\ schools\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ she\\ personally\\ struggled\\ \\(mentally\\ and\\ financially\\)\\ while\\ setting\\ up\\ the\\ school\\,\\ she\\ eventually\\ reached\\ success\\ and\\ her\\ schools\\/followers\\ are\\ now\\ widespread\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ money\\ and\\ fame\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ should\\ convert\\ everything\\ into\\ a\\ happiness\\ scale\\,\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ compare\\ tradeoffs\\ between\\ certain\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;Tal\\ gives\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ holding\\ a\\ conversation\\ with\\ a\\ friend\\ or\\ being\\ given\\ \\$1\\ million\\;\\ you\\ must\\ convert\\ everything\\ into\\ happiness\\ units\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ appropriate\\ decision\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ almost\\ everybody\\ would\\ choose\\ the\\ money\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ case\\ that\\ you\\ derive\\ more\\ happiness\\ from\\ the\\ social\\ interaction\\ \\(in\\ which\\ case\\ you\\&rsquo\\;d\\ choose\\ the\\ conversation\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ says\\ that\\ money\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\,\\ with\\ the\\ end\\ being\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ problematic\\,\\ and\\ a\\ study\\ by\\ David\\ Meyers\\ has\\ shown\\ a\\ low\\ correlation\\ between\\ material\\ wealth\\ and\\ happiness\\,\\ excluding\\ extreme\\ poverty\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ Tal\\ argues\\ that\\ people\\ considered\\ rat\\-racers\\ often\\ strive\\ for\\ monetary\\ success\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ falsely\\ believing\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ success\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ particularly\\ troubling\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ notes\\ that\\ financially\\ successful\\ people\\ often\\ turn\\ to\\ drugs\\ and\\ alcohol\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ one\\ focuses\\ too\\ much\\ on\\ the\\ material\\,\\ and\\ not\\ enough\\ on\\ emotion\\,\\ they\\ reach\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emotional\\ Bankruptcy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Tal\\ suggests\\ that\\ we\\ calculate\\ our\\ emotional\\ state\\ by\\ thinking\\ of\\ our\\ positive\\ experiences\\ as\\ income\\ and\\ our\\ negative\\ experiences\\ as\\ expenses\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ such\\,\\ if\\ our\\ income\\ is\\ larger\\ than\\ our\\ expenses\\,\\ profit\\ is\\ generated\\&mdash\\;in\\ this\\ metaphorical\\ context\\,\\ profit\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;Long\\-term\\ depression\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ emotional\\ bankruptcy\\ when\\ expenses\\ \\(negative\\ experiences\\)\\ dramatically\\ outweigh\\ income\\ \\(positive\\ experiences\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Society\\ can\\ reach\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ bankruptcy\\ if\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ individual\\ bankruptcies\\ continues\\ to\\ rise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Things\\ are\\ not\\ getting\\ better\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ American\\ teenagers\\ suffer\\ from\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ college\\ freshmen\\ showed\\ that\\ in\\ 1968\\,\\ 41\\%\\ had\\ a\\ goal\\ to\\ make\\ tons\\ of\\ money\\ while\\ 83\\%\\ wanted\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ meaningful\\ philosophy\\ of\\ life\\;\\ in\\ 1997\\,\\ the\\ same\\ numbers\\ were\\ 75\\%\\ and\\ 41\\%\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercises\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sentence\\ Completion\\&mdash\\;generate\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ endings\\ to\\ sentence\\ stems\\ that\\ are\\ positive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\e\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ I\\ bring\\ 5\\ percent\\ more\\ awareness\\ to\\ my\\ life\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ appreciate\\ my\\ family\\ more\\&rdquo\\;\\ OR\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ will\\ be\\ kinder\\ to\\ my\\ employees\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Create\\ a\\ Happiness\\ Map\\&mdash\\;create\\ a\\ mental\\ image\\ of\\ what\\ your\\ ideal\\ life\\ would\\ be\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ February\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\,\\ Fourth\\ Meditation\\ \\(pages\\ 141\\-145\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Nothing\\ external\\ can\\ protect\\ us\\ from\\ what\\ Tal\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ believe\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ impediments\\ we\\ face\\ in\\ our\\ pursuit\\ of\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ our\\ feeling\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ somehow\\ unworthy\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\,\\ at\\ some\\ level\\,\\ we\\ feel\\ unworthy\\ of\\ being\\ happy\\,\\ we\\ will\\ find\\ way\\ to\\ limit\\ our\\ capacity\\ for\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ external\\ and\\ internal\\ factors\\,\\ cultural\\ and\\ psychological\\ biases\\,\\ that\\ conspire\\ against\\ our\\ being\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ the\\ most\\ fundamental\\ level\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Our\\ fear\\ of\\ loss\\ creates\\ an\\ actual\\ loss\\;\\ our\\ feeling\\ of\\ being\\ unworthy\\ of\\ happiness\\ in\\ fact\\ leads\\ to\\ unhappiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ person\\ who\\ fears\\ loss\\ may\\ protect\\ himself\\ by\\ ensuring\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ nothing\\ to\\ lose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ if\\ we\\ find\\ happiness\\,\\ we\\ might\\ feel\\ guilty\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ less\\ fortunate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\False\\ assumptions\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ a\\ zero\\-sum\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ when\\ we\\ liberate\\ ourselves\\ from\\ our\\ fear\\ of\\ happiness\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ best\\ help\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inherent\\ Worthiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ lead\\ a\\ happy\\ life\\,\\ we\\ must\\ experience\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ inherent\\ worthiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ we\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ receive\\ a\\ gift\\,\\ from\\ a\\ friend\\ or\\ from\\ nature\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ open\\ to\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Crum\\,\\ A\\.\\ J\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Langer\\,\\ E\\.\\ J\\.\\ \\(2007\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Mindset\\ Matters\\:\\ Exercise\\ and\\ the\\ Placebo\\ Effect\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/isites\\.harvard\\.edu\\/fs\\/docs\\/icb\\.topic252130\\.files\\/exercise\\-Crum\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ paper\\ about\\ the\\ maids\\ cleaning\\ hotel\\ rooms\\.\\ It\\ has\\ been\\ discussed\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ my\\ sections\\ and\\ lectures\\.\\ What\\ follows\\ is\\ the\\ abstract\\,\\ we\\ will\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ too\\ much\\ more\\.\\ Those\\ in\\ the\\ informed\\ condition\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ the\\ work\\ they\\ do\\ \\(cleaning\\ hotel\\ rooms\\)\\ is\\ good\\ exercise\\ and\\ satisfies\\ the\\ Surgeon\\ General\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recommendations\\ for\\ an\\ active\\ lifestyle\\.\\ Examples\\ of\\ how\\ their\\ work\\ was\\ exercise\\ were\\ provided\\.\\ Subjects\\ in\\ the\\ control\\ group\\ were\\ not\\ given\\ this\\ information\\.\\ Although\\ actual\\ behavior\\ did\\ not\\ change\\,\\ 4\\ weeks\\ after\\ the\\ intervention\\,\\ the\\ informed\\ group\\ perceived\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ getting\\ significantly\\ more\\ exercise\\ than\\ before\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ compared\\ with\\ the\\ control\\ group\\,\\ they\\ showed\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ weight\\,\\ blood\\ pressure\\,\\ body\\ fat\\,\\ waist\\-to\\-hip\\ ratio\\,\\ and\\ body\\ mass\\ index\\.\\ These\\ results\\ support\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ exercise\\ affects\\ health\\ in\\ part\\ or\\ in\\ whole\\ via\\ the\\ placebo\\ effect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extra\\ Details\\ for\\ those\\ Hoffmanns\\ out\\ there\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ placebo\\ effect\\ is\\ any\\ effect\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ attributed\\ to\\ an\\ actual\\ pharmaceutical\\ drug\\ or\\ remedy\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ is\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\-set\\ \\(mindless\\ beliefs\\ and\\ expectations\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ prevent\\ information\\ contamination\\,\\ we\\ assigned\\ all\\ room\\ attendants\\ within\\ a\\ hotel\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ same\\ condition\\.\\ In\\ total\\,\\ 84\\ subjects\\ completed\\ both\\ sets\\ of\\ measures\\ \\(44\\ in\\ the\\ informed\\ group\\,\\ 40\\ in\\ the\\ control\\ group\\)\\.\\ The\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ ages\\ ranged\\ from\\ 18\\ to\\ 55\\ years\\,\\ and\\ most\\ were\\ Hispanic\\,\\ although\\ some\\ were\\ Caucasian\\,\\ African\\ American\\,\\ and\\ Asian\\.\\ All\\ worked\\ 32\\ to\\ 40\\ hr\\ per\\ week\\ and\\ cleaned\\ approximately\\ 15\\ rooms\\ per\\ day\\.\\ Over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ study\\,\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ informed\\ subjects\\ who\\ reported\\ exercising\\ regularly\\ \\(perceived\\ regular\\ exercise\\)\\ doubled\\ \\(39\\.4\\%\\ to\\ 79\\.4\\%\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ average\\ amount\\ of\\ exercise\\ that\\ subjects\\ in\\ the\\ informed\\ group\\ believed\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ getting\\ \\(perceived\\ amount\\ of\\ exercise\\)\\ increased\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ 20\\%\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ although\\ the\\ informed\\ room\\ attendants\\ did\\ report\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ exercise\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ study\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ report\\ getting\\ any\\ additional\\ exercise\\ outside\\ of\\ work\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ although\\ the\\ subjects\\ in\\ the\\ informed\\ group\\ showed\\ a\\ significant\\ increase\\ in\\ recognizing\\ their\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ exercise\\,\\ their\\ actual\\ workload\\ did\\ not\\ change\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ reported\\ physical\\ activity\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ attributable\\ not\\ to\\ actual\\ increases\\ in\\ physical\\ activity\\,\\ but\\ to\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ mind\\-set\\ initiated\\ by\\ the\\ information\\ given\\ to\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ intervention\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Eden\\,\\ D\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Aviram\\,\\ A\\.\\ \\(1993\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Self\\-efficacy\\ training\\ to\\ speed\\ reemployment\\:\\ Helping\\ people\\ to\\ help\\ themselves\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Applied\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 78\\(3\\)\\ 352\\-360\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/talbenshahar\\.com\\/images\\/stories\\/PDF\\/article1\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ paper\\ essentially\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ helping\\ a\\ person\\ out\\ a\\ little\\ raises\\ their\\ motivation\\ and\\ they\\ in\\ turn\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ employment\\ faster\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ the\\ abstract\\:\\ The\\ impact\\ of\\ training\\ designed\\ to\\ boost\\ general\\ self\\-efficacy\\ \\(GSE\\)\\ on\\ job\\-search\\ activity\\ and\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Re\\ employment\\ was\\ assessed\\ among\\ 66\\ persons\\ unemployed\\ for\\ up\\ to\\ 18\\ weeks\\.\\ Randomly\\ assigned\\ experimental\\ participants\\ attended\\ 8\\ behavioral\\-modeling\\ workshop\\ sessions\\ over\\ 2\\~\\ weeks\\.\\ The\\ manipulation\\ check\\ showed\\ that\\ training\\ boosted\\ GSE\\ as\\ intended\\.\\ The\\ workshop\\ also\\ increased\\ job\\-search\\ activity\\,\\ confirming\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ raising\\ GSE\\ motivates\\ intensification\\ of\\ effort\\.\\ The\\ treatment\\ increased\\ reemployment\\ among\\ participants\\ low\\ in\\ initial\\ GSE\\ but\\ not\\ among\\ those\\ with\\ high\\ GSE\\.\\ The\\ greater\\ plasticity\\ of\\ individuals\\ low\\ in\\ GSE\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ practical\\ utility\\ of\\ training\\ is\\ moderated\\ by\\ initial\\ GSE\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ conclude\\ that\\ individuals\\ of\\ low\\ GSE\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ priority\\ access\\ to\\ scarce\\ behavioral\\-modeling\\ training\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extra\\ Details\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-efficacy\\ is\\ intimately\\ involved\\ with\\ unemployment\\.\\ People\\ derive\\ a\\ major\\ portion\\ of\\ our\\ self\\-efficacy\\ from\\ work\\.\\ A\\ rich\\ literature\\ documents\\ the\\ devastating\\ blow\\ to\\ self\\-concept\\ caused\\ by\\ joblessness\\.\\ We\\ designed\\ a\\ workshop\\ to\\ raise\\ self\\-efficacy\\ among\\ unemployed\\ persons\\ by\\ influencing\\ all\\ four\\ sources\\ of\\ self\\-efficacy\\ information\\ that\\ Bandura\\ \\(1986\\)\\ denned\\.\\ In\\ descending\\ orderof\\ impact\\ on\\ self\\-efficacy\\,\\ the\\ sources\\ are\\ enactive\\ attainment\\,\\ vicarious\\ experience\\,\\ verbal\\ persuasion\\,\\ and\\ emotional\\ state\\.\\ Helping\\ the\\ unemployed\\ prior\\ to\\ their\\ reemployment\\ requires\\ breaking\\ into\\ the\\ vicious\\ circle\\ through\\ the\\ generation\\ of\\ enactive\\ attainment\\ of\\ requisite\\ job\\-search\\ behaviors\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ planning\\ a\\ job\\ search\\,\\ making\\ a\\ convincing\\ self\\-presentation\\,\\ solving\\ employment\\-related\\ problems\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Method\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Israel\\ Ministry\\ of\\ Labor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Employment\\ Service\\ classifies\\ unemployed\\ workers\\ as\\ academic\\,\\ vocational\\,\\ or\\ unskilled\\.\\ We\\ studied\\ 66unemployed\\ vocational\\ workers\\.\\ This\\ category\\ includes\\ workers\\ with\\ postsecondary\\ training\\ and\\ workers\\ who\\ have\\ passed\\ qualifying\\ examinations\\ under\\ ministry\\ auspices\\.\\ It\\ includes\\ such\\ occupations\\ as\\ bookkeepers\\,\\ clerks\\,\\ teachers\\,\\ skilled\\ mechanics\\,\\ and\\ technicians\\.\\ Workers\\ officially\\ certified\\ as\\ unemployed\\ are\\ eligible\\ for\\ unemployment\\ benefits\\ but\\ must\\ present\\ themselves\\ in\\ person\\ at\\ the\\ employment\\ office\\ at\\ least\\ once\\ a\\ week\\.\\ Each\\ reports\\ to\\ the\\ placement\\ officer\\ to\\ whom\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ assigned\\,\\ usually\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ day\\ or\\ days\\ of\\ the\\ week\\.\\ Letters\\ of\\ invitation\\ to\\ a\\ reemployment\\ workshop\\ were\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ waiting\\ room\\ of\\ an\\ urban\\ employment\\ office\\ for\\ one\\ workweek\\ in\\ the\\ spring\\ of\\ 1988\\.\\ The\\ letter\\ described\\ the\\ workshop\\ and\\ invited\\ interested\\ persons\\ to\\ register\\ with\\ any\\ placement\\ officer\\.\\ Of\\ the\\ roughly\\ 400\\ persons\\ who\\ passed\\ through\\ the\\ office\\ that\\ week\\,\\ 88\\ registered\\.\\ We\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ 43\\ to\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\ and\\ 45\\ to\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\control\\ group\\.\\ GSE\\ was\\ assessed\\ by\\ a\\ revised\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ 17\\-item\\ GSE\\ Scale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GSE\\ affected\\ employment\\ status\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\.\\ First\\,\\ it\\ affected\\ employment\\ status\\ naturalistically\\,\\ because\\ those\\ withhigher\\ initial\\ GSE\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ become\\ reemployed\\,\\ and\\ second\\,\\ experimentally\\,\\ because\\ those\\ whose\\ GSE\\ was\\ raised\\ by\\ the\\ workshop\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ find\\ jobs\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ crucial\\ point\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ workshop\\ broke\\ the\\ vicious\\ circle\\ and\\ helped\\ the\\ participants\\ to\\ help\\ themselves\\.\\ Together\\ with\\ the\\ differential\\ changes\\ in\\ job\\-search\\ activity\\,\\ this\\ finding\\ confirms\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ raising\\ GSE\\ causes\\ intensification\\ of\\ effort\\ and\\ also\\ shows\\ that\\ self\\-efficacy\\ training\\ can\\ produce\\ a\\ practically\\ important\\ payoff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augmenting\\ their\\ GSE\\ by\\ the\\ workshop\\ and\\ then\\ believing\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ do\\ it\\,\\ the\\ participants\\ themselves\\ executed\\ the\\ requisite\\ activities\\ and\\ found\\ jobs\\.\\ Helping\\ people\\ to\\ regain\\ their\\ GSE\\ is\\ help\\ of\\ the\\ noblest\\ kind\\ and\\ is\\ ultimately\\ the\\ most\\ effective\\,\\ because\\ it\\ truly\\ helps\\ people\\ to\\ help\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doskoch\\,\\ P\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Winning\\ Edge\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Psychology\\ Today\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.psychologytoday\\.com\\/articles\\/index\\.php\\?term\\=pto\\-20051017\\-000003\\.xml\\&\\;print\\=1\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ article\\ about\\ grit\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Passion\\ and\\ perseverance\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ success\\ than\\ mere\\ talent\\.\\ In\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ instant\\ gratification\\,\\ grit\\ may\\ yield\\ the\\ biggest\\ payoff\\ of\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ describes\\ Wiles\\,\\ a\\ guy\\ at\\ Princeton\\ struggled\\ for\\ years\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ proof\\ to\\ Fermat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ last\\ theorem\\.\\ It\\ took\\ him\\ over\\ 15\\,000\\ hours\\ and\\ so\\ this\\ article\\ lauds\\ passion\\ and\\ perseverance\\ to\\ the\\ extreme\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Perhaps\\ even\\ more\\ than\\ talent\\,\\ grit\\ can\\ be\\ cultivated\\ and\\ strengthened\\.\\ Many\\ large\\-scale\\ analyses\\,\\ however\\,\\ suggest\\ that\\ a\\ mere\\ 25\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ individuals\\ in\\ job\\ performance\\&mdash\\;and\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ grade\\ point\\ average\\&mdash\\;can\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ IQ\\ \\(personality\\ factors\\,\\ creativity\\ and\\ luck\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ 75\\ percent\\)\\.\\ Grit\\ has\\ value\\ for\\ people\\ at\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ ability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ their\\ initial\\ studies\\ show\\ that\\ grit\\ and\\ intelligence\\ are\\ completely\\ independent\\ traits\\.\\ Both\\ enhance\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ success\\,\\ but\\ the\\ brightest\\ among\\ us\\ are\\ no\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ the\\ dimmest\\ to\\ be\\ gritty\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ that\\ passion\\ fuels\\ perseverance\\ has\\ crucial\\ implications\\:\\ If\\ grit\\&mdash\\;and\\ hence\\ high\\ achievement\\&mdash\\;hinges\\ on\\ passion\\,\\ then\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ especially\\ important\\ for\\ parents\\ to\\ expose\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ the\\ broadest\\ possible\\ range\\ of\\ academic\\,\\ artistic\\ and\\ athletic\\ activities\\,\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ chances\\ that\\ something\\ will\\ capture\\ the\\ child\\&\\#39\\;s\\ imagination\\.\\ Self\\-discipline\\ is\\ probably\\ also\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ grit\\,\\ and\\ studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ gritty\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ highly\\ self\\-disciplined\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ data\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ parents\\ and\\ teachers\\ to\\ praise\\ effort\\ rather\\ than\\ ability\\.\\ But\\ it\\ also\\ explains\\ why\\ so\\ many\\ prodigies\\ fail\\ to\\ flourish\\ as\\ adults\\:\\ The\\ adoration\\ showered\\ upon\\ them\\ in\\ childhood\\ rests\\ on\\ their\\ remarkable\\ abilities\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ their\\ hard\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ thing\\ they\\ know\\:\\ This\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ your\\ grandmother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ grit\\.\\ The\\ quality\\ Duckworth\\ finds\\ so\\ intriguing\\ has\\ little\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ clenched\\ teeth\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ force\\ of\\ motivation\\ so\\ luminous\\ that\\,\\ as\\ mathematician\\ Andrew\\ Wiles\\ found\\,\\ it\\ constantly\\ renews\\ itself\\.\\ No\\ wonder\\ grit\\ is\\ on\\ its\\ way\\ to\\ becoming\\ The\\ Next\\ Big\\ Thing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ February\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emmons\\,\\ R\\.\\ A\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ McCullough\\,\\ M\\.\\ E\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Counting\\ blessings\\ versus\\ burdens\\:\\ An\\ experimental\\ investigation\\ of\\ gratitude\\ and\\ subjective\\ well\\-being\\ in\\ daily\\ life\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;Journal\\ of\\ Personality\\ \\&\\;\\ Social\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 88\\,\\ 377\\-389\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.psy\\.miami\\.edu\\/faculty\\/mmccullough\\/gratitude\\/Emmons\\_McCullough\\_2003\\_JPSP\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ point\\:\\ Participants\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ conditions\\ \\(hassles\\,\\ gratitude\\ listing\\,\\ and\\ either\\ neutral\\ life\\ events\\ or\\ social\\ comparisons\\)\\.\\ They\\ kept\\ weekly\\ \\(for\\ Study\\ 1\\)\\ or\\ daily\\ \\(for\\ Study\\ 2\\)\\ journals\\ about\\ their\\ moods\\,\\ coping\\ behavior\\,\\ health\\ behavior\\,\\ physical\\ symptoms\\,\\ and\\ overall\\ appraisal\\ of\\ life\\.\\ In\\ Study\\ 3\\,\\ people\\ with\\ neuromuscular\\ disease\\ were\\ assigned\\ to\\ the\\ gratitude\\ or\\ control\\ conditions\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\ groups\\ showed\\ higher\\ well\\-being\\ on\\ some\\ outcome\\ measures\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ other\\ groups\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ positive\\ affect\\ for\\ studies\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\.\\ Studies\\ one\\ and\\ two\\ involved\\ college\\ students\\ while\\ study\\ 3\\ involved\\ adults\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#x100072\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\gratitude\\:\\ perception\\ of\\ positive\\ personal\\ outcome\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\deserved\\ or\\ earned\\,\\ that\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ another\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ also\\ defined\\ as\\ \\(a\\)\\ recognizing\\ a\\ positive\\ outcome\\ and\\ \\(b\\)\\ someone\\ helped\\ you\\ obtain\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ 1\\ \\(weekly\\)\\:\\ People\\ were\\ put\\ into\\ three\\ groups\\ which\\ either\\ asked\\ to\\ list\\ things\\ that\\ made\\ them\\ grateful\\ \\(group\\ 1\\)\\,\\ events\\ that\\ were\\ hassles\\ \\(group\\ 2\\)\\,\\ or\\ just\\ any\\ event\\ at\\ all\\ \\(neutral\\ condition\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ did\\ you\\ do\\ last\\ week\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;group\\ 3\\)\\.\\ They\\ were\\ then\\ asked\\ about\\ their\\ feelings\\,\\ physical\\ symptoms\\,\\ how\\ they\\ felt\\ toward\\ anyone\\ who\\ might\\ have\\ helped\\ them\\,\\ and\\ overall\\ well\\-being\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\ group\\ had\\ higher\\ appraisals\\ of\\ current\\ \\&\\;\\ expected\\ well\\-being\\,\\ better\\ health\\,\\ and\\ spent\\ more\\ time\\ exercising\\.\\ People\\ who\\ had\\ grateful\\ emotions\\ after\\ getting\\ help\\ had\\ more\\ feelings\\ of\\ happiness\\ and\\ better\\ life\\ appraisals\\ than\\ groups\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\ condition\\,\\ however\\,\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ influence\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\ emotional\\ affect\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ once\\ a\\ week\\ writers\\ did\\ see\\ improvement\\ in\\ overall\\ optimism\\,\\ gratitude\\,\\ and\\ outlook\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ week\\,\\ but\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ experience\\ better\\ affect\\ \\(the\\ scientific\\ term\\ for\\ overall\\ mood\\)\\.\\ I\\ know\\ that\\ sounds\\ a\\ bit\\ confusing\\,\\ so\\ I\\ have\\ included\\ this\\ quote\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 381\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ positive\\ benefits\\ for\\ well\\-being\\ specific\\ to\\ the\\ gratitude\\ condition\\ in\\ Study\\ 1\\.\\ Relative\\ to\\ the\\ hassles\\ and\\ life\\ events\\ groups\\,\\ participants\\ in\\ the\\ gratitude\\ condition\\ felt\\ better\\ about\\ their\\ lives\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ and\\ were\\ more\\ optimistic\\ regarding\\ their\\ expectations\\ for\\ the\\ upcoming\\ week\\.\\ They\\ reported\\ fewer\\ physical\\ complaints\\ and\\ reported\\ spending\\ significantly\\ more\\ time\\ exercising\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ gratitude\\ condition\\ did\\ not\\ appear\\ to\\ influence\\ global\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\ affect\\.\\ Study\\ 1\\ was\\ limited\\ in\\ that\\ participants\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ complete\\ only\\ one\\ report\\ per\\ week\\.\\ The\\ effects\\ on\\ emotional\\ well\\-being\\ might\\ be\\ more\\ pronounced\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ intensive\\ intervention\\.\\ To\\ introduce\\ a\\ stronger\\ manipulation\\,\\ we\\ designed\\ a\\ second\\ study\\.\\ This\\ second\\ study\\ was\\ similar\\ in\\ most\\ respects\\ to\\ Study\\ 1\\ except\\ that\\ \\(a\\)\\ diaries\\ were\\ kept\\ on\\ a\\ daily\\ basis\\ over\\ a\\ 2\\-week\\ period\\,\\ \\(b\\)\\ we\\ replaced\\ the\\ life\\ events\\ group\\ with\\ a\\ downward\\ social\\ comparison\\ focused\\ group\\,\\ and\\ \\(c\\)\\ we\\ included\\ a\\ wider\\ range\\ of\\ well\\-being\\ outcomes\\ than\\ in\\ study\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ 2\\ \\(daily\\)\\:\\ Subjects\\ were\\ asked\\ the\\ same\\ gratitude\\ and\\ hassle\\ questions\\ as\\ in\\ study\\ one\\,\\ but\\ daily\\ instead\\ of\\ weekly\\.\\ Also\\ Instead\\ of\\ just\\ listing\\ any\\ events\\ for\\ the\\ third\\ condition\\ \\(group\\ 3\\)\\,\\ people\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ ways\\ they\\ were\\ better\\ off\\ than\\ others\\ \\(downward\\ social\\ comparison\\)\\.\\ They\\ were\\ then\\ asked\\ the\\ same\\ mood\\ questions\\ as\\ Study\\ 1\\,\\ health\\ behaviors\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ they\\ had\\ helped\\ or\\ offered\\ emotional\\ support\\ to\\ anyone\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\ group\\ had\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ positive\\ affect\\ and\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ helped\\ others\\.\\ There\\ were\\ no\\ differences\\ in\\ physical\\ symptoms\\ or\\ health\\ behaviors\\,\\ maybe\\ because\\ of\\ short\\ time\\ frame\\ of\\ study\\.\\ The\\ big\\ point\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ weekly\\ journals\\ and\\ evaluations\\,\\ more\\ intense\\ daily\\ evaluations\\ and\\ discussion\\ of\\ gratitude\\ did\\ improve\\ affect\\ \\(more\\ positive\\ affect\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 383\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Using\\ a\\ more\\ intensive\\ procedure\\ for\\ cultivating\\ gratitude\\ in\\ this\\ second\\ study\\ enabled\\ us\\ to\\ observe\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ beneficial\\ emotional\\ effects\\ of\\ focusing\\ on\\ what\\ one\\ is\\ grateful\\ for\\.\\ People\\ in\\ the\\ gratitude\\ condition\\ experienced\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ positive\\ affect\\ during\\ the\\ 13\\-day\\ period\\,\\ and\\ it\\ appears\\ plausible\\ that\\ this\\ effect\\ on\\ positive\\ affect\\ generally\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ intervention\\&rsquo\\;s\\ effect\\ on\\ gratitude\\ per\\ se\\.\\ They\\ were\\ also\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ report\\ having\\ helped\\ someone\\ with\\ a\\ personal\\ problem\\ or\\ offered\\ emotional\\ support\\ to\\ another\\,\\ suggesting\\ prosocial\\ motivation\\ as\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ the\\ gratitude\\ induction\\.\\ Data\\ were\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ gratitude\\ mediated\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ intervention\\ on\\ positive\\ affect\\.\\ Unlike\\ Study\\ 1\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ benefits\\ did\\ not\\ extend\\ to\\ the\\ somatic\\ realm\\:\\ No\\ differences\\ were\\ observed\\ in\\ physical\\ symptomatology\\ or\\ health\\ behaviors\\.\\ We\\ suspect\\ that\\ this\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ relatively\\ short\\ time\\ frame\\ of\\ the\\ study\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ alter\\ their\\ exercise\\ habits\\ in\\ a\\ 2\\-week\\ period\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ failure\\ to\\ replicate\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ from\\ Study\\ 1\\ to\\ Study\\ 2\\,\\ we\\ conducted\\ a\\ third\\ study\\.\\ Study\\ 3\\ had\\ the\\ following\\ three\\ main\\ purposes\\:\\ \\(a\\)\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ experimental\\ period\\ from\\ 2\\ weeks\\ to\\ 3\\ weeks\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ a\\ grateful\\ outlook\\ could\\ be\\ observed\\ over\\ a\\ longer\\ period\\ of\\ time\\;\\ \\(b\\)\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\broaden\\ our\\ participant\\ base\\ beyond\\ healthy\\ college\\ students\\ by\\ recruiting\\ an\\ adult\\ sample\\ with\\ chronic\\ disease\\;\\ and\\ \\(c\\)\\ to\\ examine\\ whether\\ the\\ affective\\ benefits\\ observed\\ in\\ Study\\ 2\\ could\\ be\\ replicated\\ in\\ another\\ daily\\ study\\ and\\,\\ importantly\\,\\ if\\ these\\ effects\\ are\\ observable\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ closest\\ relationship\\.\\ We\\ thus\\ expand\\ our\\ range\\ of\\ dependent\\ variables\\ to\\ include\\ spouse\\-rated\\ affect\\ and\\ satisfaction\\ with\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Descriptive\\ statistics\\ on\\ these\\ health\\ variables\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ 3\\:\\ People\\ with\\ neuromuscular\\ diseases\\ were\\ assigned\\ to\\ either\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gratitude\\ condition\\ used\\ in\\ Studies\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\ \\ \\;or\\ control\\ condition\\ and\\ filled\\ out\\ daily\\ appraisals\\ of\\ their\\ feelings\\,\\ overall\\ current\\ and\\ expected\\ wellbeing\\ connectedness\\ with\\ others\\,\\ health\\ behaviors\\,\\ and\\ difficulty\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\daily\\ activities\\ like\\ walking\\ or\\ eating\\.\\ Partners\\ or\\ significant\\ others\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\filled\\ out\\ appraisals\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\ condition\\ had\\ increased\\ daily\\ positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\affect\\ and\\ decreased\\ daily\\ negative\\ affect\\;\\ reported\\ more\\ overall\\ current\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ expected\\ well\\-being\\;\\ felt\\ more\\ connected\\ with\\ others\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\condition\\ got\\ more\\ sleep\\,\\ but\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ other\\ differences\\ in\\ physical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\health\\ or\\ difficulty\\ with\\ daily\\ activities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pg\\ 386\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ in\\ Study\\ 1\\,\\ the\\ gratitude\\ manipulation\\ affected\\ subjective\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\appraisals\\.\\ As\\ in\\ Study\\ 2\\,\\ the\\ gratitude\\ manipulation\\ appeared\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\create\\ increases\\ in\\ positive\\ affect\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ reductions\\ in\\ negative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\affect\\.\\ Once\\ again\\,\\ mediational\\ analyses\\ showed\\ that\\ gratitude\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\uniquely\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ intervention\\ on\\ positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\affect\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ gratitude\\ intervention\\ also\\ appears\\ to\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\improved\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ amount\\ of\\ sleep\\ and\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ that\\ sleep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ effects\\ on\\ well\\-being\\ \\(positive\\ affect\\ and\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\satisfaction\\)\\ were\\ apparent\\ to\\ the\\ participants\\&rsquo\\;\\ spouse\\ or\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\other\\.\\ However\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ Study\\ 2\\,\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ measurable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\effects\\ of\\ the\\ manipulation\\ on\\ other\\ measures\\ of\\ physical\\ health\\ or\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\health\\ behaviors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ take\\ home\\ point\\ \\(pg\\ 386\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\provide\\ some\\ important\\ findings\\ that\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ reported\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\empirical\\ literature\\ on\\ happiness\\.\\ There\\ do\\ appear\\ to\\ exist\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ regularly\\ focusing\\ on\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blessings\\.\\ The\\ advantages\\ are\\ most\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pronounced\\ when\\ compared\\ with\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ hassles\\ or\\ complaints\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yet\\ are\\ still\\ apparent\\ in\\ comparison\\ with\\ simply\\ reflecting\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\major\\ events\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ on\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ believes\\ one\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\better\\ off\\ than\\ comparison\\ with\\ others\\,\\ or\\ with\\ a\\ control\\ group\\.\\ In\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ 1\\,\\ we\\ found\\ that\\ a\\ weekly\\ benefit\\ listing\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\more\\ positive\\ and\\ optimistic\\ appraisals\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ more\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\spent\\ exercising\\,\\ and\\ fewer\\ reported\\ physical\\ symptoms\\.\\ In\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ 2\\,\\ self\\-guided\\ daily\\ gratitude\\ exercises\\ were\\ associated\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\higher\\ levels\\ of\\ positive\\ affect\\.\\ People\\ led\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ their\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\blessings\\ were\\ also\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ report\\ having\\ helped\\ someone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\with\\ a\\ personal\\ problem\\ or\\ offered\\ emotional\\ support\\ to\\ another\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\suggesting\\ prosocial\\ motivation\\ as\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ the\\ gratitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\induction\\.\\ This\\ finding\\ lends\\ support\\ to\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ gratitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\serves\\ as\\ a\\ moral\\ motivator\\ \\(McCullough\\,\\ Kilpatrick\\,\\ Emmons\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\;\\ Larson\\,\\ 2001\\)\\.\\ The\\ daily\\ manipulation\\ in\\ Studies\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\were\\,\\ on\\ average\\,\\ more\\ powerful\\ in\\ facilitating\\ gratitude\\ than\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ weekly\\ listing\\ used\\ in\\ Study\\ 1\\.\\ Consequently\\,\\ the\\ attendant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\effect\\ sizes\\ for\\ the\\ manipulation\\ were\\ larger\\ in\\ Study\\ 2\\.\\ Study\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\examined\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ gratitude\\ manipulation\\ in\\ a\\ sample\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\adults\\ with\\ NMD\\.\\ We\\ found\\ that\\ random\\ assignment\\ to\\ the\\ gratitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\condition\\ resulted\\ in\\ greater\\ levels\\ of\\ positive\\ affect\\,\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sleep\\,\\ better\\ sleep\\ quality\\,\\ and\\ greater\\ optimism\\ and\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\connectedness\\ to\\ others\\.\\ In\\ Study\\ 3\\,\\ we\\ even\\ found\\ that\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gratitude\\ intervention\\ led\\ to\\ reductions\\ in\\ negative\\ affect\\,\\ a\\ finding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ correlational\\ research\\ reporting\\ that\\ trait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gratitude\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ less\\ negative\\ affect\\ \\(McCullough\\ et\\ al\\.\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2002\\)\\.\\ Of\\ most\\ importance\\,\\ our\\ mediational\\ analyses\\ in\\ Studies\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ 3\\ revealed\\ that\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ intervention\\ on\\ gratitude\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\specifically\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ the\\ gratitude\\ induction\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\-product\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ intervention\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\positive\\ affect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strengths\\ and\\ Limitations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ the\\ dearth\\ of\\ experimental\\ research\\ on\\ strategies\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cultivating\\ positive\\ affect\\ in\\ daily\\ life\\,\\ the\\ research\\ reported\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\these\\ studies\\ offer\\ important\\ contributions\\ not\\ previously\\ demonstrated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ believe\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ established\\ a\\ rather\\ easily\\ implemented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\strategy\\ for\\ improving\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ level\\ of\\ well\\-being\\.\\ We\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\not\\ know\\ how\\ long\\ these\\ effects\\ last\\ and\\ whether\\ they\\ can\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sustained\\ over\\ time\\.\\ There\\ does\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ evidence\\ that\\ some\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ effects\\ on\\ well\\-being\\ are\\ apparent\\ to\\ others\\,\\ as\\ the\\ observer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ratings\\ in\\ Study\\ 3\\ indicate\\.\\ Future\\ studies\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ designed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ examine\\ long\\-term\\ consequences\\ of\\ counting\\ blessings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\My\\ take\\ home\\ point\\:\\ The\\ more\\ gratitude\\ you\\ show\\ \\(ex\\ more\\ often\\ write\\ about\\ feelings\\ of\\ gratitude\\)\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ your\\ overall\\ affect\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ outlook\\,\\ feeling\\ of\\ gratification\\,\\ and\\ positive\\ emotions\\ will\\ increase\\.\\ However\\,\\ changes\\ in\\ physical\\ health\\ conditions\\ were\\ not\\ seen\\ from\\ this\\ study\\,\\ which\\ is\\ somewhat\\ limited\\ in\\ its\\ measuring\\ effects\\ over\\ a\\ short\\ time\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bower\\,\\ J\\.\\ E\\.\\,\\ Low\\,\\ C\\.\\ A\\.\\,\\ Moskowitz\\,\\ J\\.\\ T\\.\\,\\ Sepah\\,\\ S\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Epel\\,\\ E\\.\\ \\(2007\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Benefit\\ Finding\\ and\\ Physical\\ Health\\:\\ Positive\\ Psychological\\ Changes\\ and\\ Enhanced\\ Allostasis\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Social\\ and\\ Personality\\ Psychology\\ Compass\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 223\\-244\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/isites\\.harvard\\.edu\\/fs\\/docs\\/icb\\.topic252130\\.files\\/BenefitFinding\\-Sepah\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ paper\\ explores\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ positive\\ psychology\\ and\\ physical\\ health\\.\\ While\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ conclude\\ that\\ one\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ other\\,\\ it\\ does\\ make\\ a\\ persuasive\\ case\\ that\\ a\\ positive\\ outlook\\ and\\ coping\\ methods\\ may\\ play\\ a\\ key\\ rule\\ in\\ reducing\\ stress\\ and\\ allowing\\ for\\ greater\\ health\\ benefits\\.\\ Having\\ a\\ positive\\ outlook\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ enhanced\\ allostasis\\,\\ which\\ buffers\\ against\\ the\\ negative\\ effects\\ of\\ catabolic\\ stress\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ article\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ review\\ of\\ studies\\ already\\ conducted\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ Bower\\,\\ Kemeny\\,\\ Taylor\\,\\ and\\ Fahey\\ \\(1998\\)\\ found\\ that\\ men\\ who\\ have\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\ attitude\\ towards\\ having\\ AIDS\\ saw\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;significantly\\ less\\ rapid\\&rdquo\\;\\ decline\\ in\\ CD4\\ T\\ cells\\ \\(224\\)\\.\\ The\\ same\\ findings\\ \\(benefit\\ finders\\ do\\ better\\/are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ see\\ another\\ heart\\ attack\\)\\ held\\ true\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ suffered\\ a\\ heart\\ attack\\ according\\ to\\ Affleck\\,\\ Tennen\\,\\ Croog\\,\\ and\\ Levine\\ \\(1987\\)\\.\\ Again\\,\\ for\\ hepatocellular\\ carcinoma\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ benefit\\ finder\\ shad\\ more\\ white\\ blood\\ cells\\ after\\ a\\ 3\\ and\\ 6\\ month\\ follow\\ up\\ \\(Dunigan\\,\\ Carr\\,\\ and\\ Steele\\ 2007\\)\\.\\ Stanton\\ et\\ al\\ 2002\\ found\\ that\\ female\\ benefit\\ finders\\ with\\ breast\\ cancer\\ had\\ fewer\\ problems\\ than\\ the\\ control\\ group\\ \\(average\\ people\\)\\ after\\ a\\ 3\\ month\\ follow\\ up\\.\\ Antoni\\ and\\ colleagues\\ found\\ that\\ benefit\\ finders\\ who\\ had\\ breast\\ cancer\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;decreases\\ in\\ serum\\ cotisol\\ \\(226\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ stress\\.\\ Why\\ did\\ all\\ these\\ people\\ see\\ health\\ boons\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 226\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ recent\\ study\\ explored\\ the\\ neural\\ correlates\\ of\\ benefit\\ finding\\,\\ focusing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\ asymmetrical\\ frontal\\ activation\\ \\(Rabe\\,\\ Zollner\\,\\ Maercker\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Karl\\,\\ 2006\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eighty\\-two\\ survivors\\ of\\ severe\\ motor\\ vehicle\\ accidents\\ completed\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PTGI\\ to\\ assess\\ benefit\\ finding\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ accident\\ and\\ were\\ assessed\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\resting\\ electroencephalographic\\ activity\\.\\ Benefit\\ finding\\ was\\ correlated\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\increased\\ relative\\ left\\ frontal\\ activation\\,\\ controlling\\ for\\ positive\\ affect\\.\\ Of\\ note\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\greater\\ relative\\ left\\ prefrontal\\ activation\\ is\\ also\\ associated\\ with\\ enhancements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ immune\\ system\\ function\\,\\ including\\ a\\ more\\ robust\\ antibody\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\response\\ to\\ vaccination\\ and\\ increased\\ natural\\ killer\\ cell\\ cytotoxicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Davidson\\,\\ Coe\\,\\ Dolski\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Donzella\\,\\ 1999\\;\\ Rosenkranz\\ et\\ al\\.\\,\\ 2003\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\,\\ the\\ literature\\ on\\ benefit\\ finding\\ and\\ health\\ supports\\ the\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ benefit\\ following\\ stressful\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\show\\ positive\\ changes\\ in\\ various\\ health\\-related\\ outcomes\\,\\ including\\ decreases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ morbidity\\ and\\ mortality\\ and\\ positive\\ changes\\ in\\ immune\\ and\\ neuroendocrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\function\\.\\ It\\ is\\ notable\\ that\\ these\\ effects\\ have\\ emerged\\ with\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\patient\\ populations\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ HIV\\-positive\\ individuals\\,\\ breast\\ and\\ liver\\ cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\patients\\,\\ individuals\\ with\\ cardiovascular\\ disease\\)\\ and\\ different\\ methods\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\assessing\\ benefit\\ finding\\,\\ including\\ interviews\\ and\\ self\\-report\\ questionnaires\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ paper\\ emphasizes\\ how\\ being\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\ helps\\.\\ First\\,\\ it\\ points\\ out\\ the\\ positive\\ psychological\\ condition\\ benefit\\ finders\\ are\\ in\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Individuals\\ also\\ report\\ feeling\\ stronger\\ and\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\challenges\\,\\ suggesting\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ approach\\-oriented\\ coping\\ and\\ enhanced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\coping\\ resources\\ such\\ as\\ mastery\\,\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ and\\ self\\-efficacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\228\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Psychological\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\processes\\ linked\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\benefit\\ finding\\ in\\ our\\ model\\ have\\ also\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ stress\\ buffers\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\including\\ coping\\ \\(Aldwin\\ \\&\\;\\ Revenson\\,\\ 1987\\)\\ and\\ social\\ support\\ \\(Cohen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\;\\ Wills\\,\\ 1985\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ compelling\\ evidence\\ that\\ positive\\ affect\\ may\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\buffer\\ against\\ the\\ deleterious\\ psychological\\ effects\\ of\\ stress\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zautra\\,\\ Johnson\\,\\ and\\ Davis\\ \\(2005\\)\\ found\\ that\\ positive\\ affect\\ buffered\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\effect\\ of\\ high\\ pain\\ and\\ high\\ interpersonal\\ stress\\ on\\ negative\\ affect\\ among\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ with\\ fibromyalgia\\ and\\ osteoarthritis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\ it\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ people\\ with\\ positive\\ affect\\ may\\ be\\ healthier\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ it\\ has\\ reducing\\ stress\\ \\(227\\)\\.\\ Siegel\\&\\;\\ Schrimshaw\\ 2007\\ \\(HIV\\)\\ and\\ Pakenham\\ 2005\\ \\(MS\\)\\ studies\\ support\\ this\\ assertion\\.\\ While\\ conditions\\ such\\ as\\ HIV\\ and\\ MS\\ lead\\ to\\ stress\\,\\ McEwen\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ while\\ some\\ stress\\ can\\ help\\ the\\ body\\ respond\\ to\\ these\\ conditions\\,\\ an\\ appropriate\\ \\&ldquo\\;allostatic\\ load\\&rdquo\\;\\ exists\\(229\\)\\.\\ Being\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\ or\\ not\\ getting\\ stressed\\ out\\ about\\ the\\ little\\ things\\ can\\ help\\ make\\ one\\ have\\ a\\ healthy\\,\\ appropriate\\ allostatic\\ load\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ cancer\\ patient\\ not\\ stressing\\ the\\ little\\ stuff\\ and\\ spending\\ time\\ with\\ friends\\.\\ This\\ person\\ will\\ initiate\\ fewer\\ HPA\\ and\\ SAM\\ responses\\ over\\ time\\,\\ which\\ is\\ less\\ straining\\ on\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ allostatic\\ road\\ it\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\physiological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;way\\ in\\ which\\ being\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\ and\\ being\\ healthier\\ is\\ linked\\.\\ Creswell\\ 1995\\ \\(232\\)\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ benefit\\ finder\\ releases\\ less\\ coritsol\\ as\\ well\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ individual\\ has\\ fewer\\ physiological\\ hits\\ as\\ he\\/she\\/\\ whatever\\ adapts\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ situation\\ \\(ex\\ having\\ HIV\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rapid\\&rdquo\\;\\ habituation\\ and\\ rapid\\ recovery\\ is\\ also\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\ in\\ individuals\\ who\\ were\\ benefit\\ finders\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(it\\ is\\ comparable\\ to\\ the\\ young\\ healing\\ faster\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ Epel\\ 1998\\ \\(pg\\ 223\\)\\&hellip\\;\\.There\\ are\\ like\\ 100\\ studies\\ in\\ this\\ paper\\ \\=\\ I\\ better\\ be\\ summarizing\\ chapter\\ 8\\ in\\ Happier\\ for\\ the\\ final\\ study\\ guide\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pg\\ 233\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ male\\ firefighters\\ reported\\ that\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\who\\ reported\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ social\\ support\\ exhibited\\ more\\ rapid\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pressure\\ recovery\\ following\\ a\\ mental\\ arithmetic\\ and\\ speech\\ task\\ \\(Roy\\,\\ 2004\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pg\\.\\ 234\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relatedly\\,\\ writing\\ about\\ stress\\-related\\ emotions\\ in\\ an\\ accepting\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ ruminative\\ way\\ led\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ faster\\ heart\\ rate\\ recovery\\ after\\ writing\\ \\(Low\\ et\\ al\\.\\,\\ forthcoming\\)\\.\\ Taken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\together\\,\\ the\\ aforementioned\\ studies\\ suggest\\ that\\ benefit\\ finding\\ may\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\speed\\ cardiovascular\\ recovery\\ from\\ future\\ stressors\\ to\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\increases\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ positive\\ emotions\\,\\ alters\\ appraisals\\ of\\ stressors\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reduces\\ ruminative\\ cognition\\ about\\ stressors\\,\\ or\\ increases\\ social\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Please\\ also\\ look\\ at\\ graph\\ on\\ 230\\ to\\ visualize\\ fewer\\ hits\\,\\ rapid\\ habitulization\\,\\ and\\ response\\ models\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ think\\ it\\ would\\ make\\ a\\ good\\,\\ look\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ using\\ science\\ in\\ my\\ class\\!\\ Kind\\ of\\ question\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ paper\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ how\\ more\\ research\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ verify\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ being\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\ and\\ health\\ benefits\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ how\\ stress\\ and\\ hormones\\ interact\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ finder\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ the\\ average\\ person\\.\\ While\\ we\\ know\\ testosterone\\ levels\\ in\\ males\\ rise\\ and\\ fall\\ based\\ on\\ emotional\\ feelings\\,\\ we\\ have\\ yet\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ other\\ hormones\\ work\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ stress\\ and\\ healing\\ \\(pg\\ 235\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ authors\\ conclude\\,\\ 236\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\We\\ have\\ proposed\\ that\\ benefit\\ finding\\ may\\ involve\\ changes\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ psychological\\ domains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ namely\\,\\ changes\\ in\\ appraisal\\ and\\ coping\\ processes\\,\\ relationships\\,\\ goals\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\priorities\\,\\ and\\ positive\\ affect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ enhanced\\ allostasis\\,\\ buffering\\ against\\ negative\\ effects\\ of\\ catabolic\\ stress\\ responses\\ and\\ promoting\\ restorative\\ processes\\ such\\ as\\ heart\\ rate\\ variability\\ and\\ anabolic\\ hormone\\ production\\.\\ Although\\ few\\ studies\\ have\\ directly\\ examined\\ associations\\ between\\ benefit\\ finding\\ and\\ physiological\\ stress\\ responses\\,\\ there\\ is\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ dimensions\\ of\\ benefit\\ finding\\ identified\\ in\\ our\\ model\\ and\\ related\\ constructs\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ resilience\\)\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ positive\\ stress\\ response\\ profile\\,\\ as\\ indicated\\ by\\ reduced\\ reactivity\\,\\ faster\\ habituation\\ and\\ recovery\\,\\ and\\ enhanced\\ anabolic\\ activity\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ individuals\\ who\\ find\\ benefit\\ in\\ stressful\\ experiences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ show\\ a\\ corresponding\\ change\\ in\\ their\\ stress\\ appraisals\\,\\ approach\\-oriented\\ coping\\ strategies\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ and\\ social\\ resources\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ may\\ show\\ a\\ more\\ efficient\\ and\\ balanced\\ response\\ to\\ future\\ stressors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\,\\ pg\\ 237\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ model\\ focuses\\ on\\ particular\\ cognitive\\,\\ emotional\\,\\ and\\ motivational\\ constructs\\ that\\ either\\ fall\\ within\\ the\\ conceptual\\ frame\\ of\\ benefit\\ finding\\ or\\ have\\ been\\ associated\\ with\\ benefit\\ finding\\ in\\ empirical\\ research\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ positive\\ affect\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ constructs\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ relevant\\ to\\ stress\\ physiology\\ than\\ others\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ shifts\\ in\\ goals\\ and\\ priorities\\ may\\ influence\\ stress\\ reactivity\\ primarily\\ by\\ changing\\ appraisals\\ of\\ future\\ stressors\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ different\\ psychological\\ processes\\ may\\ regulate\\ different\\ components\\ of\\ the\\ stress\\ response\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ appraisals\\ and\\ social\\ support\\ may\\ be\\ particularly\\ important\\ for\\ regulating\\ initial\\ responses\\ to\\ stress\\,\\ whereas\\ coping\\ and\\ positive\\ emotion\\ may\\ play\\ a\\ stronger\\ role\\ in\\ recovery\\.\\ Identifying\\ the\\ links\\ between\\ these\\ constructs\\,\\ and\\ particularly\\ their\\ links\\ with\\ physiological\\ systems\\,\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ topic\\ for\\ future\\ research\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ the\\ studies\\ that\\ they\\ may\\ ask\\ about\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ summary\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ mentioned\\ in\\ class\\/section\\.\\ Otherwise\\,\\ the\\ big\\ take\\ home\\ point\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ being\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\ can\\ reduce\\ stress\\ to\\ good\\,\\ balanced\\ levels\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ physical\\ benefits\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ only\\ starting\\ to\\ understand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wiseman\\,\\ R\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Luck\\ Factor\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Skeptical\\ Inquirer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 27\\ \\(3\\)\\,\\ 1\\-5\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.luckfactor\\.co\\.uk\\/papers\\/The\\%20Luck\\%20Factor\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\good\\ fortune\\/lucky\\ events\\ plays\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\ in\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ people\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ little\\ superstitious\\,\\ majority\\ own\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ good\\ luck\\ charm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Superstitions\\ were\\ created\\,\\ and\\ have\\ survived\\,\\ because\\ they\\ promise\\ that\\ most\\ elusive\\ of\\ holy\\ grails\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ enhancing\\ good\\ fortune\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Superstitions\\ do\\ not\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Levin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ test\\ \\(black\\ cat\\ crossing\\ street\\,\\ tossing\\ a\\ coin\\,\\ no\\ change\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Test\\ conducted\\ by\\ Wiseman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;carry\\ charms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;no\\ effect\\ on\\ happiness\\ or\\ luck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Study\\ on\\ people\\ who\\ consider\\ themselves\\ \\&ldquo\\;lucky\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;unlucky\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ concluded\\ 4\\ basic\\ principles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ are\\ skilled\\ at\\ creating\\ and\\ noticing\\ chance\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Newspaper\\ tests\\,\\ lucky\\ completed\\ higher\\ percentage\\ and\\ quicker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\make\\ lucky\\ decisions\\ by\\ listening\\ to\\ their\\ intuition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\create\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophesies\\ via\\ positive\\ expectations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\adopt\\ a\\ resilient\\ attitude\\ that\\ transforms\\ bad\\ luck\\ into\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unlucky\\ people\\ more\\ tense\\,\\ nervous\\,\\ miss\\ chance\\ opportunities\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ too\\ focused\\ on\\ looking\\ for\\ something\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lucky\\ people\\ expand\\ comfort\\ zone\\,\\ seek\\ new\\ chances\\/opportunities\\ to\\ create\\ more\\ chances\\ for\\ good\\ luck\\ \\(new\\ route\\ to\\ work\\,\\ socializing\\ to\\ new\\ people\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\/negative\\ outlooks\\ on\\ similar\\ situations\\ affects\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Olympic\\ example\\ \\(bronze\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;happy\\ won\\ medal\\,\\ silver\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;upset\\ missed\\ gold\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Created\\ \\&ldquo\\;luck\\ school\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ taught\\ principles\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ employed\\ principles\\ are\\ happier\\,\\ more\\ satisfied\\ and\\ luckier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ our\\ good\\/bad\\ fortunes\\ determined\\ by\\ thoughts\\ and\\ behavior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;potential\\ for\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ben\\-Shahar\\,\\ T\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Yes\\,\\ but\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ \\;\\ Unpublished\\ manuscript\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/talbenshahar\\.com\\/index\\.php\\?option\\=com\\_content\\&\\;task\\=view\\&\\;id\\=26\\&\\;Itemid\\=41\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Yes\\,\\ but\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ talking\\ about\\ great\\ leaders\\ \\(Bill\\ Gates\\,\\ Walt\\ Disney\\,\\ JP\\ Morgan\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\unwilling\\ to\\ accept\\ that\\ a\\ hero\\,\\ outside\\ story\\ books\\ and\\ fairy\\ tales\\ is\\,\\ first\\ and\\ foremost\\,\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ \\=\\ light\\ \\(active\\ force\\)\\,\\ bad\\ \\=\\ darkness\\ \\(passive\\,\\ absence\\ of\\ light\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ implications\\ of\\ a\\ negative\\ focus\\&mdash\\;the\\ belief\\ that\\ good\\ can\\ exist\\ if\\,\\ and\\ only\\ if\\,\\ bad\\ is\\ completely\\ absent\\&mdash\\;is\\ that\\ only\\ a\\ person\\ without\\ any\\ dark\\ patches\\,\\ without\\ any\\ blemishes\\,\\ can\\ be\\ good\\ \\(is\\ against\\ humanness\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ implications\\ of\\ a\\ positive\\ focus\\&mdash\\;that\\ the\\ bad\\ is\\ passive\\ and\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ active\\&mdash\\;does\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\ any\\ person\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ much\\ evil\\ he\\ has\\ done\\,\\ is\\ forgiven\\ after\\ his\\ first\\ good\\ deed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negative\\ outlook\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;afraid\\ of\\ doing\\ something\\ wrong\\,\\ that\\ they\\ refrain\\ from\\ action\\,\\ conform\\ to\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\,\\ and\\ end\\ up\\ doing\\ nothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ outlook\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\act\\ is\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ to\\ err\\,\\ but\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ avoidance\\ of\\ making\\ mistakes\\ that\\ creates\\ the\\ good\\ life\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ active\\ pursuit\\ of\\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ do\\ no\\ harm\\ by\\ not\\ doing\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ one\\ a\\ moral\\ saint\\,\\ but\\ a\\ coward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ do\\ good\\ is\\ to\\ risk\\ failure\\,\\ that\\ to\\ act\\ is\\ to\\ risk\\ getting\\ dirty\\ \\(should\\ be\\ thankful\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ act\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;For\\ March\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\,\\ Third\\ Meditation\\ \\(pages\\ 135\\-140\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ height\\ and\\ depth\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Height\\ refers\\ to\\ fluctuations\\ in\\ our\\ levels\\ of\\ well\\-being\\,\\ the\\ highs\\ and\\ lows\\ we\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depth\\ refers\\ to\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ well\\-being\\ that\\ is\\ stable\\,\\ to\\ our\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Key\\ question\\ of\\ this\\ chapter\\:\\ can\\ we\\ change\\ the\\ depth\\ of\\ our\\ happiness\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ many\\ researchers\\ would\\ have\\ you\\ believe\\ that\\ our\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\ \\(happiness\\)\\ is\\ predetermined\\ and\\ unchangeable\\,\\ our\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ can\\ most\\ certainly\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ gifted\\ psychotherapist\\ of\\ sometimes\\ even\\ a\\ singular\\ encounter\\ can\\ change\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sighting\\ research\\,\\ Tal\\ states\\ that\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ is\\ primarily\\ determined\\ by\\ three\\ factors\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ genetically\\ determined\\ set\\ point\\ for\\ happiness\\,\\ happiness\\-relevant\\ circumstantial\\ factors\\,\\ and\\ happiness\\-relevant\\ activities\\ and\\ practices\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\While\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ \\(and\\ for\\ genetics\\ impossible\\)\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ determinates\\,\\ pursuing\\ meaningful\\ and\\ pleasurable\\ activates\\ can\\ significantly\\ raise\\ our\\ levels\\ of\\ well\\-being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Error\\ of\\ the\\ Average\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psychologists\\ often\\ only\\ derive\\ their\\ conclusions\\ from\\ what\\ most\\ people\\ do\\ while\\ ignoring\\ those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fit\\ the\\ norm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\,\\ it\\ is\\ those\\ outside\\ the\\ norm\\,\\ the\\ exceptional\\ ones\\,\\ how\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ argument\\ that\\ the\\ depth\\ of\\ our\\ happiness\\ is\\ immutable\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ misleading\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ detrimental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ an\\ extreme\\ example\\,\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ believes\\ that\\ she\\ cannot\\ improve\\ her\\ lot\\,\\ might\\ end\\ up\\ feeling\\ helplessness\\ and\\ despair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ people\\ fall\\ far\\ short\\ of\\ their\\ potential\\ for\\ happiness\\ because\\ they\\ misuse\\ precious\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;By\\ pursuing\\ work\\,\\ education\\,\\ and\\ relationships\\ that\\ yield\\ both\\ meaning\\ and\\ pleasure\\,\\ we\\ become\\ progressively\\ happier\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ experiencing\\ not\\ just\\ an\\ ephemeral\\ high\\ that\\ withers\\ with\\ the\\ leaves\\ but\\ lasting\\ happiness\\ with\\ deep\\ and\\ stable\\ roots\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gilbert\\,\\ D\\.\\ T\\.\\,\\ Pinel\\,\\ E\\.\\ C\\.\\,\\ Wilson\\,\\ T\\.\\ D\\.\\,\\ Blumberg\\,\\ S\\.\\ J\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Wheatley\\,\\ T\\.\\ P\\.\\ \\(1998\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Immune\\ Neglect\\:\\ A\\ Source\\ of\\ Durability\\ Bias\\ in\\ Affective\\ Forecasting\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Personality\\ and\\ Social\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 75\\,\\ 617\\-638\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.wjh\\.harvard\\.edu\\/\\~dtg\\/Gilbert\\%20et\\%20al\\%20\\(IMMUNE\\%20NEGLECT\\)\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-even\\ if\\ people\\ can\\ estimate\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ the\\ affect\\ that\\ future\\ events\\ will\\ evoke\\,\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ less\\ adept\\ at\\ estimating\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ those\\ emotions\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ those\\ emotions\\ that\\ affect\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-regardless\\ of\\ a\\ bad\\/good\\ phone\\ call\\,\\ people\\ would\\ return\\ to\\ their\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ in\\ relatively\\ short\\ time\\ \\(durability\\ bias\\:\\ the\\ overestimation\\ of\\ the\\ affect\\ an\\ event\\ will\\ have\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-six\\ reasons\\ for\\ this\\ durability\\ bias\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)misconstrual\\ \\-overestimating\\ the\\ negative\\ impact\\ of\\ an\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)motivated\\ distortions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ppl\\ overestimate\\ these\\ durations\\ of\\ negative\\ feelings\\ because\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;defensive\\ pessimism\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ make\\ it\\ seem\\ worse\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ when\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ as\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)undercorrection\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ after\\ predicting\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ the\\ negative\\ response\\,\\ ppl\\ tend\\ to\\ undercorrect\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)focalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ focusing\\ on\\ one\\ negative\\ event\\ in\\ particular\\ and\\ no\\ other\\ events\\ over\\ that\\ time\\ span\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)immune\\ neglect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\ ignores\\,\\ augments\\,\\ transforms\\,\\ and\\ rearranges\\ information\\ in\\ an\\ unending\\ battle\\ against\\ affective\\ consequences\\;\\ a\\ psychological\\ immune\\ system\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ individual\\ from\\ excess\\ gloom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ immune\\ system\\ works\\ to\\ repair\\ one\\,\\ not\\ to\\ improve\\ one\\,\\ and\\ this\\ suggests\\ that\\ immune\\ neglect\\ should\\ cause\\ a\\ negative\\,\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ positive\\,\\ durability\\ bias\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-lovers\\/loners\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-lovers\\ were\\ happier\\ than\\ loners\\,\\ loners\\ expected\\ that\\ becoming\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ close\\ relationship\\ would\\ increase\\ their\\ happiness\\,\\ and\\ loners\\ accurately\\ predicted\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ to\\ become\\ lovers\\,\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ just\\ about\\ as\\ happy\\ as\\ old\\ and\\ young\\ lovers\\ currently\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-luckies\\ \\(those\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ experience\\ a\\ breakup\\)\\ were\\ not\\ happier\\ than\\ leftovers\\ \\(those\\ who\\ experienced\\ a\\ breakup\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ affect\\ of\\ a\\ breakup\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ leftovers\\&rsquo\\;\\ happiness\\ like\\ they\\ thought\\ it\\ would\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-professors\\&rsquo\\;\\ tenure\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-achieving\\ tenure\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ professors\\ as\\ happy\\ as\\ they\\ thought\\ it\\ would\\;\\ over\\ time\\,\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ failed\\ to\\ achieve\\ tenure\\ were\\ just\\ as\\ happy\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ achieve\\ tenure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ negative\\ result\\ of\\ not\\ getting\\ tenure\\ had\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ negative\\ affect\\ than\\ the\\ professors\\ had\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-about\\ four\\ other\\ studies\\ you\\ can\\ read\\ over\\,\\ but\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ he\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ ask\\ about\\ each\\ of\\ them\\,\\ so\\ I\\ just\\ summarized\\ the\\ first\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-they\\ believe\\ that\\ experiencers\\ were\\ happier\\ than\\ the\\ forecasters\\ thought\\ they\\ would\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-many\\ factors\\ may\\ prevent\\ people\\ from\\ noticing\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ made\\ affective\\ forecasting\\ errors\\,\\ and\\ many\\ more\\ factors\\ may\\ keep\\ them\\ from\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ errors\\ they\\ do\\ notice\\ were\\ brought\\ about\\ by\\ immune\\ neglect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seligman\\,\\ M\\.\\ E\\.\\,\\ Steen\\,\\ T\\.\\ A\\.\\,\\ Park\\,\\ N\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Peterson\\,\\ C\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Positive\\ Psychology\\ Progress\\:\\ Empirical\\ Validation\\ of\\ Interventions\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Psychologist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 60\\,\\ 410\\-421\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.authentichappiness\\.sas\\.upenn\\.edu\\/images\\/apaarticle\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-positive\\ interventions\\ can\\ supplement\\ traditional\\ interventions\\ that\\ relive\\ suffering\\ and\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ practical\\ legacy\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Character\\ Strengths\\ andVirtues\\ \\(CSV\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-relies\\ on\\ six\\ overarching\\ virtues\\:\\ wisdom\\,\\ courage\\,\\ humanity\\,\\ justice\\,\\ temperance\\,\\ and\\ transcendence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-3\\ findings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)correlation\\ btw\\ relative\\ endorsement\\ of\\ 24\\ character\\ strengths\\ by\\ adults\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ USA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-most\\ common\\ strengths\\ were\\ kindness\\,\\ fairness\\,\\ authenticity\\,\\ gratitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)US\\ adolescents\\ vs\\.\\ US\\ adults\\ was\\ very\\ similar\\,\\ but\\ difference\\ between\\ adults\\ in\\ US\\ and\\ adults\\ around\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)strengths\\ \\&ldquo\\;of\\ the\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\-zest\\,\\ gratitude\\,\\ love\\,\\ and\\ hope\\-\\ are\\ more\\ associated\\ with\\ life\\ satisfaction\\ than\\ with\\ character\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ pattern\\ among\\ adults\\ and\\ among\\ youths\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ longitudinal\\ evidence\\ that\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;heart\\&rdquo\\;\\ strengths\\ foreshadow\\ subsequent\\ life\\ satisfaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Positive\\ Psychology\\ Network\\ continues\\ to\\ grow\\ and\\ funds\\ more\\ than\\ 50\\ research\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-happiness\\ in\\ three\\ categories\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ the\\ pleasant\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ the\\ engaged\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ the\\ meaningful\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-happy\\ people\\ are\\ healthier\\,\\ more\\ successful\\,\\ and\\ more\\ socially\\ engaged\\,\\ and\\ the\\ causal\\ directions\\ run\\ both\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-5\\ internet\\-based\\ interventions\\:\\ one\\ focused\\ on\\ gratitude\\,\\ two\\ focused\\ on\\ increasing\\ awareness\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ positive\\ about\\ ones\\ self\\,\\ two\\ focused\\ on\\ identifying\\ strengths\\,\\ and\\ one\\ was\\ a\\ placebo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-two\\ of\\ the\\ exercised\\ created\\ happiness\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ and\\ two\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ placebo\\ did\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ gratitude\\ visit\\ exercise\\ produced\\ immediate\\ increases\\ in\\ happiness\\ and\\ less\\ depressive\\ emotions\\,\\ but\\ six\\ months\\ later\\,\\ subjects\\ returned\\ to\\ their\\ baseline\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ three\\ good\\ things\\ exercise\\ produced\\ immediate\\ results\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ long\\ term\\ results\\ for\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ happiness\\ and\\ less\\ depressive\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-long\\ term\\ improvement\\ was\\ also\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;using\\ signature\\ strengths\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\&rsquo\\;\\ exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-positive\\ psychology\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\ and\\ is\\ gaining\\ public\\ support\\ and\\ will\\ be\\ more\\ effective\\ with\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lyubomirsky\\,\\ S\\.\\,\\ Sheldon\\,\\ K\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Schkade\\,\\ D\\.\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Pursuing\\ Happiness\\:\\ The\\ Architecture\\ of\\ Sustainable\\ Change\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Review\\ of\\ General\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 111\\-131\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.faculty\\.ucr\\.edu\\/\\~sonja\\/papers\\/LSS2005\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chronic\\ happiness\\ level\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ 3\\ major\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\a\\ genetically\\ determined\\ set\\ point\\ for\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\happiness\\-relevant\\ circumstantial\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\happiness\\-relevant\\ activities\\ and\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ seems\\ that\\ nearly\\ all\\ people\\ believe\\,\\ or\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ believe\\,\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ move\\ in\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;upward\\ spiral\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Sheldon\\ \\&\\;\\ Houser\\-Marko\\,\\ 2001\\)\\ toward\\ ever\\ greater\\ personal\\ well\\-being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\happiness\\ has\\ numerous\\ positive\\ byproducts\\ that\\ appear\\ to\\ benefit\\ individuals\\,\\ families\\,\\ and\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happy\\ people\\ characteristics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Larger\\ social\\ rewards\\ \\(higher\\ odds\\ of\\ marriage\\ success\\,\\ more\\ friends\\,\\ stronger\\ social\\ support\\ and\\ richer\\ social\\ interactions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Superior\\ work\\ outcomes\\ \\(greater\\ creativity\\,\\ increased\\ productivity\\,\\ higher\\ quality\\ of\\ work\\,\\ and\\ higher\\ income\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ activity\\,\\ energy\\,\\ and\\ flow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exhibit\\ more\\ self\\-discipline\\,\\ self\\-regulatory\\ and\\ coping\\ abilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ bolstered\\ immune\\ system\\ and\\ live\\ longer\\,\\ healthier\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ flourishing\\,\\ inside\\ and\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sources\\ of\\ Pessimism\\ on\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ change\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lykken\\ and\\ Tellegen\\ \\(1996\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Twin\\ studies\\,\\ happiness\\ genetic\\ and\\ predetermined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\McCrae\\ and\\ Costa\\ \\(1990\\)\\ long\\-term\\ stability\\ for\\ big\\ five\\ traits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;consistent\\ across\\ situations\\/life\\ span\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;therefore\\,\\ maintain\\ same\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hedonic\\ Treadmill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;any\\ gains\\ in\\ happiness\\ only\\ temporary\\,\\ because\\ humans\\ so\\ quickly\\ adapt\\ to\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\:Lottery\\ winners\\,\\ paralysis\\ patients\\ same\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ one\\ year\\ later\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;adaptation\\ forces\\ people\\ back\\ to\\ original\\ happiness\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ to\\ be\\ happier\\ may\\ be\\ as\\ futile\\ as\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ taller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Present\\ Sources\\ of\\ Optimism\\ on\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ change\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Practicing\\ virtues\\ \\(such\\ as\\ gratitude\\,\\ forgiveness\\,\\ and\\ thoughtful\\ self\\-reflection\\)\\ can\\ bring\\ about\\ enhance\\ well\\-being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Motivational\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\attitudinal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;factors\\ that\\ are\\ amenable\\ have\\ been\\ linked\\ to\\ well\\-being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;successful\\ pursuits\\ of\\ goals\\ that\\ are\\ intrinsic\\ in\\ content\\ and\\ concordant\\ with\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interests\\,\\ motives\\ and\\ values\\ and\\ internally\\ consistent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Older\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ somewhat\\ happier\\ than\\ younger\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;learn\\ to\\ structure\\ lives\\ to\\ pursue\\ goals\\ and\\ maximize\\ positive\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Architecture\\ of\\ sustainable\\ happiness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;model\\ incorporates\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ motivational\\ and\\ attitudinal\\ factors\\,\\ consistent\\ with\\ assumption\\ that\\ happiness\\ can\\ be\\ pursued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\&rsquo\\;\\ three\\ primary\\ components\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ affect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ life\\ satisfaction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Infrequent\\ negative\\ affect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ \\=\\ subjective\\ phenomenon\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;whoever\\ lives\\ inside\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skin\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ happiness\\ is\\ subjective\\,\\ Research\\ has\\ shown\\ significant\\ convergence\\ of\\ reported\\ self\\-being\\ with\\ peer\\ and\\ spouse\\ reports\\ of\\ well\\-being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easier\\ to\\ change\\ happiness\\ short\\-term\\ \\(tough\\ to\\ change\\ chronic\\ happiness\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Determinants\\ of\\ chronic\\ happiness\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Set\\ Point\\ \\(50\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Twin\\ studies\\ \\(Lykken\\ \\&\\;Tellegen\\,\\ 1996\\)\\,\\ Long\\-term\\ panel\\ studies\\ \\(Headley\\ \\&\\;\\ Wearing\\,\\ 1989\\)\\ and\\ studies\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ life\\ events\\ on\\ well\\-being\\ indicate\\ substantial\\ long\\-term\\ ability\\ in\\ happiness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\ Circumstances\\ \\(10\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Higher\\ Wealth\\,\\ physical\\ health\\,\\ married\\ over\\ divorced\\,\\ middle\\ vs\\.\\ working\\ class\\,\\ higher\\ religious\\ commitment\\ \\=\\ relatively\\ happier\\ but\\ accounts\\ for\\ smaller\\ percentage\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;adaptation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;baseline\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intentional\\ Activity\\ \\(40\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ Promising\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;means\\ of\\ changing\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\require\\ some\\ degree\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\effort\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ enact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\circumstances\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\happen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ people\\ and\\ activities\\ are\\ way\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\act\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ their\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Include\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\behavioral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(exercising\\ regularly\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cognitive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(counting\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blessings\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\volitional\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(striving\\ for\\ important\\ goals\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Volitional\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;goal\\ progress\\ or\\ attainment\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;fit\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ person\\ \\(self\\-concordant\\ goals\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;evidence\\ greatest\\ goal\\ attainment\\ and\\ highest\\ well\\-being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Student\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maintain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;enhanced\\ well\\ being\\ if\\ continue\\ to\\ attain\\ goals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sheldon\\ \\&\\;\\ Lyubomirsky\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;longitudinal\\ studies\\,\\ testing\\ affects\\ of\\ activity\\ and\\ circumstantial\\ changes\\ on\\ short\\-term\\ and\\ long\\-term\\ well\\-being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Both\\ circumstantial\\ and\\ activity\\ changes\\ brought\\ about\\ changes\\ in\\ well\\-being\\,\\ but\\ only\\ activity\\ based\\ changes\\ lasted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intentional\\ activity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Episodic\\ and\\ transient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Length\\ of\\ time\\ before\\ one\\ reengages\\ in\\ a\\ happiness\\-boosting\\ activity\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ in\\ its\\ potency\\ the\\ next\\ time\\ the\\ act\\ is\\ performed\\ \\(Thus\\,\\ we\\ should\\ strive\\ for\\ optimal\\ timing\\ so\\ an\\ activity\\ remains\\ fresh\\,\\ meaningful\\ and\\ positive\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Variable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Change\\ \\=\\ innately\\ pleasurable\\ and\\ stimulating\\,\\ should\\ seek\\ variety\\ in\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Counteracts\\ adaptation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ \\&ndash\\;increasing\\ strategies\\ can\\ be\\ initiated\\ and\\ effectively\\ pursued\\ only\\ with\\ concerted\\,\\ consistent\\ commitment\\ and\\ effort\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implementation\\ of\\ happiness\\-increasing\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\choose\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Person\\-activity\\ fit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;each\\ person\\ is\\ different\\,\\ predisposed\\ so\\ some\\ activities\\ provide\\ more\\ benefit\\ than\\ others\\,\\ tailor\\ towards\\ those\\ that\\ provide\\ more\\ benefits\\ than\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Initiating\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;an\\ activity\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\carrying\\ out\\ and\\ maintaining\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Avoid\\ roadblocks\\ to\\ starting\\ certain\\ activities\\,\\ tailor\\ time\\ towards\\ activities\\ that\\ provide\\ benefit\\ and\\ are\\ innately\\ easier\\ to\\ start\\ and\\ maintain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-determination\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ crucial\\ factor\\ is\\ whether\\ the\\ person\\ has\\ internalized\\ the\\ non\\-enjoyable\\ activity\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ whether\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ meaning\\ and\\ value\\ expression\\ in\\ it\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ pleasant\\ to\\ perform\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\distinguish\\ between\\ the\\ habit\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\regularly\\ initiating\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ potentially\\ beneficial\\ activity\\ and\\ the\\ habit\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\implementing\\ it\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ every\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bottom\\-up\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\theory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ make\\ global\\ well\\-being\\ judgments\\ in\\ part\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ emotions\\ associated\\ with\\ their\\ recent\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Top\\-down\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ well\\-being\\ judgments\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ part\\ determined\\ by\\ global\\ attitudinal\\ or\\ meaning\\-based\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ theories\\ of\\ intentional\\ activity\\ can\\ collectively\\ account\\ for\\ well\\-being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lyubomirsky\\,\\ Tkach\\,\\ and\\ Sheldon\\ \\(2004\\)\\ conducted\\ two\\ six\\ week\\ interventions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 5\\ acts\\ of\\ kindness\\ in\\ a\\ week\\,\\ better\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ singular\\ day\\ than\\ spread\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ think\\ of\\ things\\ grateful\\ for\\,\\ better\\ to\\ do\\ less\\ often\\ \\(1x\\ a\\ week\\)\\ than\\ more\\ often\\ \\(3x\\ a\\ week\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;loses\\ sustainability\\ with\\ greater\\ frequency\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;For\\ March\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\,\\ Chapters\\ 5\\-7\\ \\(pages\\ 65\\-110\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ Setting\\ Goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Empirical\\ research\\ has\\ proven\\ that\\ people\\ who\\ set\\ goals\\ are\\ often\\ more\\ successful\\ than\\ people\\ who\\ do\\ not\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Setting\\ goals\\ creates\\ a\\ commitment\\ towards\\ a\\ future\\ event\\,\\ binding\\ that\\ person\\ to\\ strive\\ to\\ succeed\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ goal\\,\\ an\\ explicit\\ commitment\\,\\ focuses\\ our\\ attention\\ on\\ the\\ target\\ and\\ helps\\ us\\ to\\ find\\ ways\\ of\\ getting\\ there\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ by\\ believing\\ in\\ ourselves\\,\\ we\\ create\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\ because\\ we\\ show\\ faith\\ in\\ ourselves\\ and\\ create\\ our\\ own\\ realities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ notes\\ that\\ failure\\ to\\ succeed\\ in\\ meeting\\ a\\ goal\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ despair\\&mdash\\;however\\,\\ this\\ negative\\ state\\ is\\ often\\ very\\ short\\-lived\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ study\\ by\\ Philip\\ Brickman\\ showed\\ that\\ lottery\\ winners\\ returned\\ to\\ their\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ within\\ a\\ short\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ a\\ month\\)\\;\\ same\\ thing\\ with\\ paraplegics\\ after\\ accidents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ to\\ Tal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\attaining\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;goals\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\having\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Goals\\ are\\ a\\ means\\,\\ not\\ an\\ end\\,\\ and\\ must\\ be\\ meaningful\\ to\\ you\\ as\\ a\\ person\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ journey\\ to\\ increase\\ our\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;Tal\\ speaks\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\self\\-concordant\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ are\\ goals\\ that\\ we\\ pursue\\ out\\ of\\ deep\\ personal\\ conviction\\ or\\ interest\\&mdash\\;they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ imposed\\ by\\ external\\ forces\\.\\ \\ \\;Research\\ by\\ Tim\\ Kasser\\ and\\ Richard\\ Ryan\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Dark\\ Side\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Dream\\&rdquo\\;\\ shows\\ that\\ financial\\ success\\ as\\ a\\ central\\ goal\\ leads\\ to\\ negative\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ engage\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\-to\\&rdquo\\;\\ versus\\ \\&ldquo\\;want\\-to\\&rdquo\\;\\ activities\\ and\\ chores\\,\\ which\\ are\\ devoid\\ of\\ meaning\\ and\\ pleasure\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ some\\ have\\-to\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ unavoidable\\,\\ one\\ must\\ increase\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ want\\-to\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ become\\ happier\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ four\\ concentric\\ circles\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ohad\\ Kamin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(p\\.76\\ image\\)\\ is\\ the\\ model\\ through\\ which\\ to\\ analyze\\ choices\\:\\ first\\,\\ look\\ at\\ what\\ you\\ can\\ do\\;\\ then\\,\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ do\\;\\ then\\,\\ what\\ you\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ do\\;\\ last\\,\\ what\\ you\\ really\\,\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ allows\\ you\\ to\\ go\\ from\\ what\\ is\\ possible\\ and\\ attainable\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ desirable\\ and\\ pleasurable\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Setting\\ Self\\-Concordant\\ Goals\\&mdash\\;consider\\ your\\ long\\-term\\ goals\\,\\ short\\-term\\ goals\\,\\ then\\ set\\ up\\ an\\ action\\ plan\\ to\\ achieve\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ Board\\&mdash\\;create\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ care\\ about\\ you\\ and\\ make\\ sure\\ they\\ hold\\ you\\ on\\ your\\ commitments\\.\\ \\ \\;Speak\\ regularly\\ about\\ your\\ progress\\ towards\\ achieving\\ your\\ goals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Happiness\\ in\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ models\\ to\\ show\\ student\\ motivation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Drowning\\ Model\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ when\\ a\\ student\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ is\\ forced\\ under\\ water\\ and\\ suffers\\ discomfort\\ and\\ pain\\&mdash\\;the\\ desire\\ to\\ free\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ from\\ pain\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ motivating\\ forces\\.\\ \\ \\;Students\\ are\\ motivated\\ by\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ failure\\,\\ which\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ living\\ as\\ a\\ rat\\-racer\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lovemaking\\ Model\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(not\\ to\\ be\\ confused\\ with\\ making\\ love\\ to\\ a\\ model\\)\\ is\\ thinking\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ we\\ spend\\ reading\\,\\ researching\\,\\ thinking\\,\\ etc\\.\\ as\\ foreplay\\.\\ \\ \\;Tal\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ climax\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eureka\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ when\\ the\\ boundary\\ between\\ intuition\\ and\\ knowledge\\ breaks\\ and\\ we\\ reach\\ a\\ solution\\ to\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ such\\,\\ children\\ in\\ school\\ should\\ be\\ pushed\\ to\\ pursue\\ what\\ they\\ find\\ pleasurable\\ and\\ meaningful\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ study\\ by\\ Daniel\\ Goleman\\ showed\\ that\\ IQ\\ constitutes\\ only\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ the\\ explaining\\ factors\\ behind\\ success\\&mdash\\;the\\ other\\ 80\\%\\ comes\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;emotional\\ intelligence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Being\\ a\\ rat\\-racer\\ is\\ against\\ emotional\\ intelligence\\ and\\ will\\ not\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ happier\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Psychologist\\ Mihaly\\ Csikszentimihalyi\\ states\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flow\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ state\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ engaged\\ in\\ an\\ activity\\ that\\ is\\ intrinsically\\ rewarding\\,\\ in\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;action\\ and\\ awareness\\ are\\ merged\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;People\\ do\\ the\\ activity\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ rewarding\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ flow\\,\\ a\\ person\\ reaches\\ peak\\ experience\\ and\\ peak\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ flow\\,\\ future\\ and\\ present\\ benefits\\ become\\ one\\ and\\ proves\\ the\\ statement\\ \\&ldquo\\;present\\ gain\\,\\ future\\ gain\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ pain\\,\\ no\\ gain\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ graph\\ explains\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ two\\ ways\\ to\\ hurt\\ a\\ student\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chance\\ to\\ experience\\ flow\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ the\\ drowning\\ model\\ prevents\\ a\\ student\\ from\\ experiencing\\ flow\\ by\\ making\\ things\\ too\\ stressful\\.\\ Second\\,\\ an\\ environment\\ with\\ no\\ challenge\\ or\\ struggle\\ creates\\ underexertion\\ and\\ boredom\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ too\\ many\\ people\\ are\\ at\\ ease\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ depression\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ rich\\ people\\ are\\ under\\ pressure\\ to\\ be\\ happy\\,\\ and\\ become\\ unhappy\\ due\\ to\\ feelings\\ of\\ inadequacy\\&mdash\\;Tal\\ calls\\ this\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\underprivilege\\ of\\ the\\ privileged\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Research\\ has\\ shown\\ that\\ while\\ people\\ prefer\\ leisure\\ to\\ work\\,\\ they\\ experience\\ FLOW\\ at\\ work\\&mdash\\;thus\\,\\ by\\ associating\\ effort\\ with\\ pain\\ and\\ leisure\\ with\\ pleasure\\,\\ we\\ are\\ robbing\\ ourselves\\ of\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ be\\ happy\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ rid\\ ourselves\\ of\\ the\\ prejudice\\ against\\ work\\ and\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ study\\ by\\ Donal\\ Hebb\\ in\\ 1930\\,\\ 600\\ students\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ they\\ no\\ longer\\ needed\\ to\\ do\\ any\\ schoolwork\\ and\\ were\\ rewarded\\ with\\ play\\ time\\ for\\ misbehavior\\ and\\ punished\\ with\\ work\\ for\\ behaving\\ properly\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ students\\ preferred\\ work\\ to\\ not\\ working\\ and\\ ended\\ up\\ learning\\ more\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ proves\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ frame\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\privilege\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rather\\ than\\ as\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\duty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ says\\ that\\ education\\ needs\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Three\\ R\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ w\\<\\/span\\>\\R\\<\\/span\\>\\iting\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\R\\<\\/span\\>\\eading\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\R\\<\\/span\\>\\itchmetic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ claims\\ a\\ fourth\\ R\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Revelry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ which\\ teachers\\ created\\ an\\ environment\\ that\\ allows\\ students\\ to\\ revel\\ in\\ learning\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ students\\ are\\ pushed\\ to\\ study\\ what\\ they\\ desire\\,\\ the\\ end\\ outcome\\ \\(happiness\\)\\ is\\ much\\ greater\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Education\\ Program\\&mdash\\;create\\ one\\ for\\ yourself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Privilege\\ of\\ Hardship\\&mdash\\;write\\ about\\ a\\ difficult\\ experience\\ and\\ the\\ lessons\\ you\\ learned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\,\\ Chapter\\ 7\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Happiness\\ in\\ the\\ Work\\ Place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ talks\\ about\\ being\\ happy\\ with\\ your\\ profession\\.\\ To\\ enjoy\\ a\\ job\\ it\\ must\\ both\\ have\\ meaning\\ and\\ pleasure\\.\\ Richard\\ Hackman\\ is\\ quoted\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ certain\\ conditions\\ can\\ lead\\ an\\ employee\\ to\\ experience\\ more\\ meaning\\ in\\ her\\ work\\.\\ One\\ example\\ is\\ to\\ feel\\ that\\ work\\ is\\ having\\ a\\ significant\\ impact\\.\\ Hard\\ Currency\\ and\\ ultimate\\ currency\\ are\\ both\\ necessary\\ for\\ survival\\ and\\ the\\ need\\ not\\ be\\ mutually\\ exclusive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Concept\\ of\\ job\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ where\\ work\\ is\\ a\\ chore\\.\\ Career\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ always\\ looking\\ to\\ that\\ next\\ promotion\\.\\ Calling\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doing\\ what\\ people\\ genuinely\\ want\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ find\\ ones\\ calling\\ use\\ MPS\\ process\\.\\ Meaning\\,\\ Pleasure\\,\\ Strengths\\.\\ Finding\\ out\\ where\\ they\\ overlap\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ happiness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ perceive\\ their\\ work\\ as\\ meaningful\\ are\\ happier\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ think\\ their\\ work\\ is\\ meaningful\\.\\&rdquo\\;Happiness\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ external\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ of\\ the\\ internal\\,\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ choose\\ to\\ pursue\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ choose\\ to\\ perceive\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\,\\ Second\\ Meditation\\ \\(pages\\ 129\\-133\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ a\\ perfect\\ world\\,\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ meaningful\\ and\\ pleasurable\\ activities\\ all\\ day\\,\\ every\\ day\\.\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ this\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ as\\ most\\ people\\ go\\ through\\ spells\\ of\\ happiness\\ droughts\\.\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ this\\ chapter\\ is\\ to\\ describe\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ gain\\ happiness\\ in\\ otherwise\\ unhappy\\ times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ research\\ by\\ Kennon\\ Sheldon\\ and\\ Linda\\ Houser\\-Marko\\ shows\\,\\ engaging\\ in\\ activities\\ that\\ are\\ personally\\ meaningful\\ impacts\\ our\\ experience\\ in\\ other\\ areas\\,\\ not\\ directly\\ related\\ to\\ those\\ activities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ of\\ a\\ candle\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ room\\:\\ one\\ or\\ tow\\ happy\\ experiences\\ during\\ an\\ otherwise\\ uninspiring\\ period\\ can\\ transform\\ our\\ general\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tal\\ calls\\ these\\ brief\\ but\\ transforming\\ experiences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\happiness\\ boosters\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ activities\\,\\ lasting\\ anywhere\\ from\\ a\\ few\\ minutes\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ hours\\,\\ that\\ provide\\ us\\ with\\ both\\ meaning\\ and\\ pleasure\\,\\ both\\ future\\ and\\ present\\ benefit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ boosters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ act\\ as\\ both\\ a\\ motivational\\ pull\\ and\\ a\\ motivational\\ push\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pulling\\ you\\ through\\ an\\ otherwise\\ hard\\ time\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ time\\ at\\ work\\)\\ and\\ pushing\\ you\\ by\\ recharging\\ motivational\\ stores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Examples\\:\\ a\\ Single\\ parent\\ going\\ on\\ a\\ meaningful\\ outing\\ with\\ her\\ children\\ over\\ the\\ weekend\\ can\\ change\\ her\\ overall\\ experience\\ of\\ life\\;\\ a\\ consultant\\ taking\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ his\\ family\\ a\\ few\\ nights\\ a\\ week\\,\\ play\\ tennis\\ twice\\ a\\ week\\ and\\ read\\ for\\ pleasure\\ a\\ few\\ hours\\ a\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Introducing\\ change\\:\\ introducing\\ relatively\\ brief\\ experiences\\ of\\ meaning\\ and\\ pleasure\\ is\\ less\\ threatening\\ than\\ overhauling\\ an\\ entire\\ life\\ and\\ will\\ therefore\\ meet\\ with\\ less\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ drastic\\ change\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ career\\ move\\)\\ to\\ increase\\ happiness\\;\\ if\\ think\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ switch\\ from\\ investing\\ to\\ teaching\\,\\ volunteer\\ at\\ an\\ after\\-school\\ program\\ a\\ few\\ times\\ a\\ week\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ affording\\ the\\ opportunity\\ for\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\,\\ with\\ minimal\\ risk\\,\\ happiness\\ boosters\\ can\\ help\\ us\\ hone\\ in\\ on\\ what\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ most\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Value\\ of\\ Free\\ Time\\:\\ During\\ free\\ time\\,\\ choose\\ an\\ active\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\ over\\ a\\ passive\\ hedonism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\,\\ Fifth\\ Meditation\\,\\ Sixth\\ Meditation\\,\\ and\\ Seventh\\ Meditation\\ \\(pages\\ 147\\-163\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ Fifth\\ Meditation\\:\\ Imagine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ chapter\\ starts\\ by\\ asking\\ us\\ to\\ imagine\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ like\\ to\\ be\\ 110\\ and\\ travel\\ back\\ in\\ time\\ and\\ meet\\ with\\ our\\ younger\\ selves\\.\\ The\\ key\\ question\\ is\\ what\\ would\\ we\\ tell\\ ourselves\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ examining\\ terminally\\ ill\\ patients\\,\\ we\\ realize\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ and\\ have\\ always\\ had\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ change\\ our\\ lives\\ and\\ become\\ happier\\.\\ Nothing\\ happens\\ to\\ these\\ individuals\\ when\\ they\\ realize\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ terminally\\ ill\\,\\ but\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\,\\ they\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ obtain\\ a\\ completely\\ new\\ and\\ fresh\\ view\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ time\\-travel\\ thought\\ experiment\\ does\\ is\\ make\\ us\\ aware\\ of\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brevity\\ and\\ preciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ultimately\\,\\ our\\ progress\\,\\ our\\ growth\\,\\ and\\ our\\ happiness\\ come\\ from\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ look\\ within\\ ourselves\\ and\\ ask\\ the\\ important\\ questions\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ awareness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ Sixth\\ Meditation\\:\\ Take\\ Your\\ Time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ chapter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ tell\\ people\\ not\\ to\\ over\\ commit\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ there\\ are\\ too\\ many\\ competing\\ demands\\ on\\ our\\ time\\ and\\ attention\\,\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ be\\ present\\ is\\ diminished\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ with\\ it\\,\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ appreciate\\ and\\ enjoy\\ the\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ are\\,\\ generally\\,\\ too\\ busy\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ squeeze\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ activates\\ into\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ time\\.\\ Consequently\\,\\ we\\ fail\\ to\\ savor\\,\\ to\\ enjoy\\,\\ potential\\ sources\\ of\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ all\\ around\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ must\\ simplify\\ our\\ lives\\;\\ we\\ must\\ slow\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Our\\ immoderate\\ busyness\\,\\ the\\ stress\\ so\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ experience\\ so\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ makes\\ us\\ unhappy\\ across\\ many\\ areas\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ must\\ gain\\ time\\ affluence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ one\\ has\\ sufficient\\ time\\ to\\ pursue\\ activities\\ that\\ are\\ personally\\ meaningful\\,\\ to\\ reflect\\,\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ must\\ learn\\ to\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\&rdquo\\;\\ more\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ Less\\ is\\ More\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peak\\ experiences\\ \\(enjoying\\ ourselves\\)\\ and\\ peak\\ performance\\ \\(doing\\ are\\ best\\)\\ go\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Time\\ pressure\\ leads\\ to\\ frustration\\,\\ and\\ when\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ frustrated\\ or\\ experience\\ other\\ negative\\ emotions\\,\\ our\\ thinking\\ becomes\\ more\\ constricted\\,\\ narrower\\,\\ and\\ less\\ broad\\ and\\ creative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ the\\ individual\\ activities\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ engage\\ have\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ make\\ us\\ happy\\,\\ we\\ can\\ still\\ be\\ unhappy\\ on\\ aggregate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quantity\\ affects\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ on\\ success\\ when\\ we\\ simplify\\ our\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAPPIER\\:\\ Chapter\\ 15\\:\\ Seventh\\ Meditation\\:\\ The\\ Happiness\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\While\\ there\\ have\\ certainly\\ been\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ beneficial\\ results\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ revolution\\,\\ there\\ have\\ also\\ been\\ negative\\ consequences\\.\\ Most\\ importantly\\,\\ the\\ scientific\\ revolution\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\material\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ material\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ on\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ importance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ arises\\ when\\ the\\ freedom\\ to\\ pursue\\ material\\ wealth\\ is\\ replace\\ with\\ a\\ compulsion\\ to\\ amass\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ perception\\ is\\ about\\ recognizing\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\,\\ the\\ end\\ toward\\ which\\ all\\ other\\ goals\\ lead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ rejecting\\ the\\ material\\ but\\ rather\\ dethroning\\ it\\ form\\ its\\ status\\ as\\ the\\ highest\\ on\\ the\\ hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Today\\,\\ with\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ material\\ perception\\,\\ too\\ many\\ people\\ are\\ asking\\ the\\ wrong\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ question\\ should\\ always\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ will\\ make\\ me\\ happier\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ Peaceful\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ happiness\\ revolution\\ must\\ come\\ from\\ within\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ outside\\ force\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ his\\ change\\;\\ no\\ such\\ force\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ bringing\\ about\\ his\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ many\\ people\\ would\\ agree\\,\\ in\\ theory\\,\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\,\\ a\\ closer\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ lead\\ their\\ lives\\ reveals\\ that\\ in\\ effect\\ they\\ are\\ driven\\ primarily\\ by\\ factors\\ other\\ than\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ happiness\\ revolution\\,\\ we\\ will\\ witness\\ a\\ society\\-wide\\ abundance\\ of\\ not\\ only\\ happiness\\ but\\ also\\ goodness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Envy\\,\\ among\\ individuals\\ and\\ cultures\\,\\ would\\ be\\ reduced\\ considerably\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ materialistic\\ perception\\ creates\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ zero\\-sum\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Given\\ that\\ happiness\\ depends\\ more\\ on\\ internal\\ rather\\ than\\ external\\ circumstances\\,\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ conflict\\ of\\ interest\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ spreading\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\.\\ The\\ quantity\\ of\\ happiness\\ is\\ not\\ fixed\\.\\ Unlike\\ material\\ possessions\\,\\ which\\ are\\ usually\\ finite\\,\\ happiness\\ is\\ infinite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marano\\,\\ H\\.\\ E\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Ending\\ Procrastination\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Psychology\\ Today\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/cms\\.psychologytoday\\.com\\/articles\\/pto\\-20031028\\-000008\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Procrastination\\ \\=\\ learned\\ behavior\\ and\\ can\\ therefore\\ be\\ unlearned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\70\\%\\ of\\ students\\ describe\\ themselves\\ as\\ procrastinators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Putting\\ things\\ off\\ creates\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ stress\\,\\ wears\\ out\\ your\\ body\\ faster\\,\\ puts\\ you\\ at\\ risk\\ for\\ poor\\ health\\,\\ weakens\\ your\\ immune\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ Lies\\ of\\ procrastinators\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overestimate\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ have\\ left\\ to\\ perform\\ tasks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Underestimate\\ the\\ time\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ complete\\ tasks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overestimate\\ how\\ motivated\\ they\\ will\\ feel\\ the\\ next\\ day\\,\\ the\\ next\\ week\\,\\ the\\ next\\ month\\ \\-\\-\\ whenever\\ they\\ are\\ putting\\ things\\ off\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mistakenly\\ think\\ that\\ succeeding\\ at\\ a\\ task\\ requires\\ that\\ they\\ feel\\ like\\ doing\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mistakenly\\ believe\\ that\\ working\\ when\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ mood\\ is\\ suboptimal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ can\\ we\\ tackle\\ procrastination\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Make\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ everything\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Write\\ a\\ statement\\ of\\ intention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ realistic\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Break\\ it\\ down\\ into\\ specific\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Make\\ your\\ task\\ meaningful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Promise\\ yourself\\ a\\ reward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eliminate\\ tasks\\ you\\ never\\ plan\\ to\\ do\\.\\ Be\\ honest\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Estimate\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ you\\ think\\ it\\ will\\ take\\ you\\ to\\ complete\\ a\\ task\\.\\ Then\\ increase\\ the\\ amount\\ by\\ 100\\%\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 52, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Psy1504_Midterm_Readings_SG.doc", "desc": "Readings for the midterm"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Full Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 135, "html": "\\\\\\Full\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c35\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c34\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{height\\:22pt\\;text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-0\\.9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:37\\.9pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c37\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c40\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c24\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c32\\{height\\:22pt\\}\\.c21\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\}\\.c39\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c12\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c38\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c25\\{height\\:16pt\\}\\.c36\\{height\\:14pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c20\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:22pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\The\\ Merchants\\ of\\ Cool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-According\\ to\\ the\\ film\\ what\\ size\\ is\\ the\\ teenage\\ market\\?\\ \\ \\;Why\\ might\\ some\\ parents\\ give\\ their\\ kids\\ so\\ much\\ spending\\ money\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ 32\\ million\\ teens\\ \\(more\\ than\\ baby\\ boomer\\ parents\\)\\ spending\\ more\\ than\\ 100\\ billion\\ themselves\\ and\\ pushed\\ their\\ parents\\ to\\ spend\\ another\\ 50\\ billion\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ is\\ an\\ innate\\ feeling\\ from\\ moms\\ and\\ dads\\ to\\ please\\ the\\ teen\\.\\ To\\ keep\\ the\\ teens\\ happy\\,\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ teens\\ home\\&hellip\\;there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ call\\ \\&lsquo\\;guilt\\ money\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ here\\ is\\ my\\ credit\\ card\\,\\ go\\ buy\\ something\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ because\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ enough\\ time\\ to\\ spend\\ with\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ many\\ discreet\\ advertising\\ messages\\ does\\ the\\ average\\ teen\\ see\\ by\\ age\\ 18\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Over\\ 3\\,000\\ in\\ a\\ day\\,\\ over\\ 10\\ million\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ are\\ 18\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;cool\\ hunting\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ are\\ some\\ ways\\ cool\\ hunters\\ conduct\\ their\\ research\\?\\ What\\ kinds\\ of\\ teenagers\\ are\\ they\\ looking\\ for\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cool\\ hunting\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ search\\ for\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ of\\ personality\\,\\ and\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ of\\ player\\ in\\ a\\ social\\ world\\.\\ Finding\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cool\\ kids\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ are\\ ahead\\ of\\ the\\ pact\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;trend\\ setters\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ top\\ 20\\%\\ who\\ will\\ influence\\ the\\ other\\ 80\\%\\.\\ Advertising\\ companies\\ use\\ agencies\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;Look\\-Look\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(featured\\)\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ discover\\ trends\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ underground\\ and\\ bring\\ them\\ to\\ market\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;As\\ soon\\ as\\ marketers\\ discover\\ cool\\,\\ they\\ kill\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ did\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sprite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;exploit\\ the\\ teenage\\ market\\ in\\ new\\ ways\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Market\\ to\\ kids\\ without\\ seeming\\ to\\ do\\ so\\-become\\ cool\\ themselves\\.\\ Talked\\ to\\ teens\\ in\\ focus\\ groups\\ and\\ discovered\\ that\\ they\\ teens\\ were\\ on\\ advertising\\ overload\\ and\\ had\\ become\\ cynical\\ to\\ traditional\\ advertising\\.\\ So\\ they\\ launched\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ advertisements\\ poking\\ fun\\ at\\ advertising\\ so\\ teens\\ felt\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;sprite\\ understands\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\(They\\ had\\ famous\\ people\\ telling\\ them\\ not\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ famous\\ people\\)\\.\\ It\\ worked\\ for\\ a\\ while\\ but\\ kids\\ grew\\ wise\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ advertising\\,\\ advertising\\ campaign\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ they\\ moved\\ on\\ and\\ focused\\ on\\ hip\\-hop\\,\\ developing\\ relationships\\ with\\ artists\\,\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ sell\\ a\\ lifestyle\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ marriage\\ of\\ a\\ corporation\\ and\\ a\\ culture\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-How\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MTV\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\like\\ a\\ continual\\ commercial\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ does\\ MTV\\ tap\\ into\\ the\\ teen\\ market\\?\\ \\ \\;\\(ex\\.\\ TRL\\,\\ ethnography\\ study\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ cross\\-promotional\\ free\\ for\\ all\\.\\ They\\ show\\ a\\ sprite\\ promotion\\ party\\ on\\ TRL\\,\\ where\\ kids\\ have\\ been\\ paid\\ to\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ are\\ having\\ a\\ good\\ time\\ dancing\\ ect\\.\\ Show\\ videos\\ to\\ sell\\ music\\,\\ the\\ set\\ filled\\ with\\ trendy\\ clothes\\ to\\ sell\\ a\\ look\\,\\ or\\ an\\ explicit\\ commercial\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ What\\ is\\ MTV\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ of\\ the\\ teenage\\ male\\ \\(the\\ Mook\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ rude\\,\\ loud\\,\\ obnoxious\\,\\ and\\ in\\ your\\ face\\.\\ Examples\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;mooks\\&rdquo\\;\\ included\\ the\\ boys\\ from\\ jackass\\,\\ tom\\ green\\,\\ frat\\ boys\\,\\ south\\ park\\ cartoon\\ characters\\,\\ the\\ man\\ show\\ hosts\\,\\ howard\\ stern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ media\\&rsquo\\;s\\ caricature\\ of\\ the\\ female\\ \\(the\\ Midriff\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ prematurely\\ adult\\,\\ consumed\\ by\\ appearances\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ that\\ her\\ body\\ is\\ her\\ best\\ asset\\.\\ An\\ example\\ would\\ be\\ Britney\\ Spears\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ How\\ do\\ TV\\ networks\\ \\(like\\ WB\\ and\\ MTV\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spring\\ break\\)\\ and\\ films\\ treat\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ sex\\ in\\ teen\\ programming\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ might\\ these\\ messages\\ about\\ sex\\ influence\\ teen\\ behavior\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ WB\\ went\\ \\&ldquo\\;family\\ friendly\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;where\\ television\\ can\\ watch\\ television\\ together\\.\\ But\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ 90210\\ and\\ sex\\ obsessed\\ teens\\ so\\ the\\ WB\\ started\\ Dawson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Creek\\ where\\ a\\ 14\\ year\\ boy\\ has\\ a\\ romance\\ with\\ his\\ teacher\\.\\ The\\ sexual\\ steaks\\ were\\ raised\\ even\\ higher\\ and\\ MTV\\ started\\ \\&ldquo\\;Undressed\\&rdquo\\;\\ needless\\ to\\ say\\ teens\\ think\\ what\\ they\\ see\\ on\\ TV\\ is\\ cool\\,\\ so\\ they\\ feel\\ almost\\ obliged\\ to\\ keep\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\-soon\\&rdquo\\;\\ sexuality\\ of\\ the\\ 14\\ year\\ olds\\ that\\ they\\ see\\ on\\ television\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Describe\\ the\\ circle\\ of\\ teen\\ behavior\\,\\ the\\ media\\,\\ and\\ marketing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;The\\ media\\ watches\\ kids\\ and\\ then\\ sells\\ them\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ themselves\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;How\\ might\\ teenagers\\ internalize\\ the\\ messages\\ they\\ get\\ from\\ the\\ media\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ becomes\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ who\\ is\\ mirroring\\ who\\.\\ The\\ media\\ sells\\ kids\\ images\\ of\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;kids\\ mirror\\ the\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;media\\ watches\\ kids\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ cycle\\ continues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Color\\ of\\ Fear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Color\\ of\\ Fear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ a\\ documentary\\ by\\ Lee\\ Mun\\ Wah\\ who\\ has\\ made\\ it\\ his\\ life\\ goal\\ to\\ examine\\ racism\\ and\\ figure\\ out\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\ all\\ the\\ anger\\ comes\\ from\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ In\\ the\\ film\\ there\\ are\\ 8\\ middle\\ aged\\ men\\ of\\ various\\ ethnicities\\ who\\ are\\ together\\ for\\ a\\ weekend\\ retreat\\ concerning\\ race\\.\\ The\\ films\\ central\\ figure\\ in\\ a\\ white\\ man\\ who\\ claims\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ racist\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ friends\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;colored\\ men\\ that\\ work\\ for\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ He\\ is\\ obviously\\ clueless\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;colored\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ derogatory\\ term\\ as\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;African\\-American\\,\\ Chinese\\,\\ Latino\\,\\ what\\ do\\ you\\ want\\ me\\ to\\ do\\,\\ lets\\ lump\\ it\\ all\\ together\\ with\\ one\\ term\\:\\ colored\\.\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ colored\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ white\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ colored\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ As\\ the\\ discussion\\ continues\\ the\\ men\\ talk\\ about\\ how\\ race\\ has\\ effects\\ their\\ lives\\.\\ One\\ man\\ talks\\ about\\ his\\ families\\ immigration\\ from\\ Mexico\\ into\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ his\\ father\\ refused\\ to\\ stop\\ while\\ driving\\ through\\ Texas\\ because\\ he\\ fear\\ for\\ his\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ Also\\ an\\ African\\ American\\ man\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ dangers\\ of\\ Driving\\ While\\ Black\\ \\(DWB\\)\\ and\\ racial\\ profiling\\.\\ The\\ discussion\\ gets\\ pretty\\ heated\\,\\ one\\ guy\\ cries\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ them\\ scream\\ and\\ yell\\.\\ Wah\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ movies\\ in\\ a\\ microcosm\\ for\\ the\\ national\\ dialogue\\ that\\ we\\ all\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ as\\ a\\ nation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ deeper\\ understanding\\ with\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultural\\ and\\ adolescence\\ \\(lecture\\ 11\\/2\\,\\ the\\ first\\ part\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cultural\\ context\\ influences\\ development\\ through\\ 1\\)\\ norms\\ and\\ rules\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ values\\ parents\\ teach\\ their\\ children\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ identity\\ is\\ formed\\ by\\ 1\\)\\ worldview\\ beliefs\\,\\ 2\\)\\ behavioral\\ practices\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ which\\ cultural\\ community\\ you\\ identify\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ cultural\\ differences\\,\\ but\\ globalization\\/westernization\\ affects\\ cultures\\ by\\ making\\ individualistic\\ cultural\\ values\\ less\\ important\\ through\\ a\\ more\\ valued\\ global\\ and\\ collectivistic\\ set\\ of\\ norms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ which\\ areas\\ are\\ there\\ cultural\\ differences\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\ structure\\ \\(matriarch\\ vs\\.\\ patriarch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parenting\\ styles\\ and\\ roles\\ \\(Arab\\ societies\\ parent\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ children\\ differently\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Age\\ of\\ marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Family\\ size\\/number\\ of\\ children\\ \\(there\\ is\\ a\\ fertility\\ map\\ on\\ slide\\ 12\\ of\\ this\\ lecture\\ that\\ has\\ no\\ explanation\\ next\\ to\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Education\\ and\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Access\\ to\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Values\\ of\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Child\\ labor\\ laws\\ and\\ trends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Margaret\\ Mead\\:\\ cultural\\ anthropologist\\ who\\ visited\\ Samoa\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Differences\\ found\\ between\\ the\\ Samoan\\ adolescent\\ girls\\ and\\ U\\.S\\.\\ girls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Little\\ role\\ of\\ biology\\,\\ importance\\ of\\ cultural\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultural\\ determinism\\ for\\ Samoans\\:\\ behavior\\,\\ thoughts\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ everything\\ was\\ determined\\ by\\ cultural\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wider\\ range\\ of\\ acceptable\\ sexual\\ behavior\\,\\ more\\ freedom\\ to\\ experiment\\ with\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simpler\\ society\\,\\ fewer\\ choices\\ or\\ options\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ live\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\less\\ conflict\\/identity\\ formation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*critics\\ of\\ Mead\\,\\ like\\ D\\.\\ Freeman\\,\\ argue\\ 1\\)\\ she\\ could\\ not\\ fully\\ communicate\\ with\\ the\\ girls\\,\\ 2\\)\\ they\\ act\\ differently\\ under\\ surveillance\\,\\ 3\\)\\ much\\ of\\ her\\ findings\\ were\\ based\\ on\\ hearsay\\ and\\ 4\\)\\ Generalized\\ a\\ small\\ village\\ for\\ all\\ primitive\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Westernization\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ changing\\ cultural\\ values\\ to\\ fit\\ U\\.S\\.\\ pop\\ culture\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ still\\ exists\\ cultural\\ differences\\ in\\ adolescence\\ and\\ these\\ arise\\ due\\ to\\ cultural\\ expectations\\ and\\ norms\\.\\ Family\\ and\\ society\\ play\\ a\\ large\\ role\\.\\ Using\\ African\\ American\\ girls\\ as\\ an\\ example\\,\\ they\\ have\\ an\\ overall\\ higher\\ SE\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ stronger\\ cultural\\ message\\ and\\ different\\ body\\ image\\ standards\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Risk\\ factors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ factors\\ in\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ that\\ increase\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ a\\ negative\\ developmental\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ study\\ was\\ performed\\ by\\ Cloninger\\ et\\ al\\.\\ that\\ divided\\ teens\\ into\\ groups\\ depending\\ on\\ genetic\\ \\(criminal\\ parent\\)\\ and\\ environmental\\ \\(abusive\\ environment\\)\\ risk\\ factors\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ individuals\\ were\\ tracked\\ for\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ they\\ experienced\\ negative\\ developmental\\ outcomes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ results\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\~3\\%\\ of\\ teens\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\without\\ either\\ risk\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;criminal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\~6\\%\\ of\\ teens\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ environmental\\ risk\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;criminal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\~12\\%\\ of\\ teens\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ genetic\\ risk\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;criminal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\~40\\%\\ of\\ teens\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ both\\ risk\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;criminal\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*The\\ take\\-home\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;criminal\\&rdquo\\;\\ adolescents\\ from\\ the\\ group\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\both\\ risk\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ GREATER\\ THAN\\ THE\\ SUM\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\environmental\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\genetic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;groups\\,\\ indicating\\ an\\ amplified\\ effect\\ when\\ both\\ risk\\ factors\\ are\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Risk\\ factors\\ interact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\length\\ of\\ exposure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\severity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ risk\\ factors\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Risk\\ factors\\ may\\ have\\ a\\ cumulative\\ effect\\.\\ \\(ie\\:\\ a\\ negative\\ developmental\\ outcome\\,\\ such\\ as\\ depression\\ after\\ a\\ traumatic\\ event\\,\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ risk\\ factor\\ itself\\,\\ such\\ as\\ for\\ suicidal\\ tendencies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Protective\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Protective\\ factors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ factors\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\lower\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vulnerability\\ for\\ experiencing\\ negative\\ outcomes\\ \\(the\\ opposite\\ of\\ risk\\ factors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ internal\\ protective\\ factors\\:\\ temperament\\,\\ genetics\\,\\ personality\\,\\ hardiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vulnerability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vulnerability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ susceptibility\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ problem\\ or\\ disorder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stress\\-Diathesis\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Psychopathology\\ has\\ biological\\/genetic\\ origins\\,\\ but\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ stressful\\ environmental\\ factors\\,\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comorbidity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ describes\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ disorders\\ often\\ cluster\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comorbidity\\ can\\ make\\ it\\ difficult\\ for\\ individuals\\ to\\ understand\\ their\\ disorders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Internalizing\\ disorders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ problems\\ are\\ turned\\ inward\\,\\ manifested\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ emotional\\ and\\ cognitive\\ distress\\ \\(ie\\:\\ depression\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Externalizing\\ disorders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ problems\\ are\\ turned\\ outward\\,\\ manifested\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ behavioral\\ problems\\ \\(ie\\:\\ delinquency\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Be\\ sure\\ to\\ review\\ the\\ summaries\\ of\\ lecture\\ topics\\ \\&ldquo\\;Risky\\ Behavior\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Resilience\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ integral\\ to\\ the\\ topics\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risk\\ and\\ Resilience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\November\\ 28\\,\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Risk\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Factors\\ in\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ that\\ increases\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ a\\ negative\\ developmental\\ outcome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Antisocial\\ Behavior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ risk\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Cloninger\\,\\ Sigvardsson\\,\\ Bohman\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ von\\ Knorring\\,\\ 1982\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Male\\ Swedish\\ adoptees\\ \\(N\\ \\=\\ 862\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Divided\\ into\\ four\\ groups\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ presence\\ or\\ absence\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\\\(a\\)\\ a\\ congenital\\ predisposition\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ whether\\ biological\\ parents\\ were\\ criminal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\\\(b\\)\\ a\\ postnatal\\ predisposition\\ \\(abusive\\ parenting\\ by\\ their\\ adoptive\\ parents\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\40\\%\\ rate\\ for\\ criminality\\ when\\ both\\ biological\\ \\&\\;\\ environmental\\ factors\\ are\\ present\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ 18\\.8\\%\\ rate\\ given\\ by\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ \\"\\;congenital\\ only\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;postnatal\\ only\\"\\;\\ conditions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Genetic\\ and\\ environmental\\ factors\\ interact\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Time\\,\\ exposure\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Exposure\\ to\\ risk\\ factor\\:\\ prolonged\\ vs\\.\\ brief\\/one\\-time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Severity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Risk\\ factors\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ more\\ risk\\ factors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Often\\ cluster\\ together\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Double\\ whammy\\.\\ \\ \\;Ex\\:\\ child\\ abuse\\ and\\ poverty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\A\\ \\&ldquo\\;negative\\ developmental\\ outcome\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ risk\\ factor\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ Low\\ IQ\\ \\+\\ bad\\ parenting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dropping\\ out\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stress\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;delinquent\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Diversity\\ of\\ Outcomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\What\\ is\\ actually\\ increasing\\ the\\ risk\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Example\\:\\ divorce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\What\\ does\\ this\\ event\\ or\\ problem\\ mean\\ for\\ a\\ particular\\ child\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\The\\ same\\ risk\\ factor\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ unique\\ effect\\ on\\ different\\ children\\/\\ adolescents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\Vulnerability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\An\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ susceptibility\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ problem\\ or\\ disorder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\A\\ sum\\ of\\ all\\ risk\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Protective\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Opposite\\ of\\ risk\\ factors\\.\\ \\ \\;LOWER\\ vulnerability\\ for\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Both\\ internal\\ to\\ child\\,\\ and\\ external\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Risky\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Rise\\ in\\ risky\\ behavior\\ at\\ adolescence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Assumption\\:\\ Bad\\ judgment\\ about\\ risk\\ vulnerability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Is\\ this\\ true\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Milstein\\ and\\ Halpern\\-Felsher\\ \\(coursepack\\)\\ show\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Other\\ possible\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Social\\ influences\\,\\ loosening\\ parental\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Ponton\\ Book\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Romance\\ of\\ Risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ during\\ adolescence\\ that\\ young\\ people\\ experiment\\ with\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ life\\,\\ taking\\ on\\ new\\ challenges\\,\\ testing\\ out\\ how\\ things\\ fit\\ together\\,\\ and\\ using\\ this\\ process\\ to\\ define\\ and\\ shape\\ both\\ their\\ identities\\ and\\ their\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ distinguish\\ between\\ behaviors\\ that\\ are\\ enhancing\\ to\\ the\\ adolescent\\ and\\ those\\ that\\ present\\ not\\ only\\ no\\ gains\\ but\\ a\\ significant\\ risk\\ of\\ danger\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Development\\ of\\ Psychopathology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Many\\ disorders\\ have\\ increased\\ onset\\ during\\ adolescence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Depression\\,\\ eating\\ disorders\\,\\ anxiety\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\WHY\\?\\ Brain\\ development\\,\\ Cognitive\\,\\ Body\\ changes\\,\\ Stress\\/social\\/family\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Each\\ factor\\ of\\ influence\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ diverse\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\And\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ pathways\\ to\\ any\\ particular\\ outcome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Psychopathology\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Stress\\-Diathesis\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Biological\\/genetic\\ origins\\,\\ but\\ must\\ have\\ stressful\\ environmental\\ factors\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Biological\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Genetic\\ component\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Neurotransmitters\\ \\(esp\\.\\ seratonin\\ \\&\\;\\ norepinephrine\\)\\ and\\ HPA\\ axis\\ \\(cortisol\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Lower\\ frontal\\ lobe\\ volume\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Comorbidity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Disorders\\ often\\ cluster\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Can\\ make\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ understand\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\.\\ Depression\\ coupled\\ with\\ anxiety\\ disorder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Internalizing\\ vs\\.\\ Externalizing\\ Disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Internalizing\\ disorders\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\Problems\\ are\\ turned\\ inward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Manifested\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ emotional\\ and\\ cognitive\\ distress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ Depression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Externalizing\\ disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\\\Problems\\ are\\ turned\\ outward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Manifested\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ behavioral\\ problems\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;acting\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ Delinquency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Resilience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Ability\\ to\\ cope\\ positively\\ with\\ adversity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\1\\.\\ Good\\ outcome\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ high\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Sustained\\ competence\\ under\\ stress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Recovery\\ from\\ trauma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\\\Must\\ have\\ been\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\at\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ be\\ considered\\ resilient\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Resilient\\ outcomes\\ may\\ fluctuate\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Example\\:\\ A\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ resilient\\ at\\ first\\ but\\ then\\ folds\\ to\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Resilience\\ is\\ multidimensional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\May\\ show\\ good\\ outcome\\ in\\ certain\\ domains\\,\\ not\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Resilient\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h5\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Important\\ domains\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Social\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\\\*\\ Connections\\ with\\ positive\\ adult\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Cognitive\\ and\\ emotional\\ skills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Dealing\\ with\\ stress\\,\\ learning\\ from\\ mistakes\\,\\ IQ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\High\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Motivation\\ to\\ change\\/\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Masten\\ study\\ \\(Coursepack\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Examined\\ resilient\\,\\ maladaptive\\,\\ and\\ competent\\ teens\\.\\ Advantages\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Good\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Cognitive\\ ability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Social\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\High\\ socioeconomic\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Internal\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(coping\\ with\\ stress\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Kauai\\ Longitudinal\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\All\\ 698\\ babies\\ born\\ on\\ Kauai\\ in\\ 1955\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\1\\/3\\ \\(n\\=201\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;High\\ Risk\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ poverty\\,\\ parinatal\\ stress\\,\\ and\\ troubled\\ family\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Of\\ these\\,\\ 1\\/3\\ \\(n\\=72\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;Resilient\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ age\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\2\\/3\\ had\\ mental\\ health\\ problems\\,\\ delinquency\\,\\ or\\ teen\\ pregnancy\\ at\\ age\\ 18\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\At\\ age\\ 32\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Resilient\\ more\\ successful\\ than\\ other\\ high\\ risk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\But\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Most\\ teen\\ mothers\\ and\\ teen\\ delinquents\\ were\\ doing\\ better\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Most\\ were\\ not\\ receiving\\ mental\\ health\\ treatment\\ anymore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Protective\\ Factors\\ \\(correlated\\ w\\/\\ successful\\ adult\\ adaptation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Easy\\&rdquo\\;\\ infant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\temperament\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ social\\ competence\\ as\\ toddler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\School\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\competence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ middle\\-childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Self\\-efficacy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(high\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ internal\\ locus\\ of\\ control\\)\\ at\\ age\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Realistic\\ educational\\/vocational\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\High\\ Valley\\ Resilience\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Dr\\.\\ Stuart\\ T\\.\\ Hauser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\About\\ 150\\ hospitalized\\ teens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Narrative\\ interviews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Found\\ a\\ small\\ resilient\\ group\\&ndash\\;\\ those\\ who\\ had\\ exceptionally\\ high\\ functioning\\ in\\ young\\ adulthood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\9\\ resilient\\,\\ 7\\ contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reflectiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Looking\\ inward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Curiosity\\ about\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\2\\.\\ Agency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Belief\\ they\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Quest\\ for\\ mastery\\/\\ engagement\\ in\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\3\\.\\ Relatedness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Understanding\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\November\\ 30\\,\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Violence\\:\\ Trends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\The\\ United\\ States\\ has\\ the\\ highest\\ youth\\ homicide\\ and\\ suicide\\ rate\\ among\\ the\\ wealthiest\\ developed\\ nations\\ \\(Task\\ Force\\ on\\ Violence\\,\\ 1999\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Homicide\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ for\\ youth\\ ages\\ 15\\-19\\ \\(Cohen\\ \\&\\;\\ Potter\\,\\ 1999\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Recent\\ research\\ shows\\ changes\\ to\\ brain\\ structure\\ and\\ chemistry\\ following\\ exposure\\ to\\ extreme\\ violence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Niehoff\\,\\ 1999\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Violence\\:\\ Risk\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Individual\\ risk\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Male\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Sensation\\ seeking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Impulsivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Anger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Alcohol\\ and\\ drug\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Failure\\ to\\ bond\\ with\\ adults\\ or\\ develop\\ positive\\ relationships\\ with\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Psychological\\ disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Family\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Parental\\ rejection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Physical\\ abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Sexual\\ abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Violence\\ is\\ learned\\ by\\ being\\ victimized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Experiencing\\ child\\ abuse\\ and\\ neglect\\ increases\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ arrest\\ as\\ a\\ juvenile\\ by\\ 53\\%\\ and\\ of\\ committing\\ violent\\ crimes\\ by\\ 38\\%\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Violence\\ is\\ learned\\ by\\ modeling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\The\\ 3\\.3\\ million\\ children\\ who\\ witness\\ domestic\\ abuse\\ each\\ year\\ are\\ 15\\ times\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ become\\ victims\\ or\\ perpetrators\\ of\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Family\\ characteristics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Family\\ history\\ of\\ problem\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Family\\ management\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Family\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Parental\\ involvement\\ in\\ problem\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Family\\ members\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ spend\\ much\\ time\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ parental\\ supervision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ clear\\ expectations\\,\\ limits\\ and\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Peers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Violent\\ victimization\\ \\(bullying\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Rejection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Alcohol\\ and\\ other\\ drugs\\ readily\\ available\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Laws\\ and\\ ordinances\\ are\\ unclear\\ or\\ inconsistently\\ enforced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Norms\\ are\\ unclear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Residents\\ feel\\ little\\ sense\\ of\\ \\"\\;connection\\"\\;\\ to\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Neighborhood\\ disorganization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Extreme\\ economic\\ deprivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ strong\\ social\\ institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ monitoring\\ youths\\&\\#39\\;\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ clear\\ expectations\\,\\ both\\ academic\\ and\\ behavioral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ commitment\\ or\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\ at\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Academic\\ failure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Parents\\ and\\ community\\ members\\ not\\ actively\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Punitive\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Violence\\ in\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Studies\\ suggest\\ that\\ children\\ confronted\\ incessantly\\ by\\ violent\\ images\\ may\\ become\\ immune\\ to\\ the\\ horror\\ of\\ violence\\ and\\ may\\ come\\ to\\ accept\\ violence\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ solve\\ problems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Access\\ to\\ guns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Firearms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Teenage\\ boys\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ die\\ from\\ gunshot\\ wounds\\ than\\ from\\ all\\ natural\\ causes\\ combined\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Family\\ and\\ friends\\ are\\ the\\ primary\\ source\\ of\\ guns\\ for\\ young\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Case\\ example\\,\\ violence\\ as\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Columbine\\ High\\ School\\:\\ April\\,\\ 1999\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Bullying\\ at\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Low\\ parental\\ monitoring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Media\\:\\ videogames\\,\\ webpages\\,\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Psychopathology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Access\\ to\\ guns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Violence\\:\\ Psychological\\ Warning\\ Signs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Consistently\\ does\\ not\\ listen\\ to\\ authority\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Pays\\ no\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ feelings\\ or\\ rights\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Mistreats\\ people\\ and\\ seems\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ physical\\ violence\\ or\\ threats\\ of\\ violence\\ to\\ solve\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Often\\ expresses\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ life\\ has\\ treated\\ him\\ or\\ her\\ unfairly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Violence\\:\\ Behavioral\\ Warning\\ Signs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Does\\ poorly\\ in\\ school\\ and\\ often\\ skips\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Misses\\ school\\ frequently\\ for\\ unidentifiable\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Gets\\ suspended\\ from\\ or\\ drops\\ out\\ of\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Joins\\ a\\ gang\\,\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ fighting\\,\\ stealing\\,\\ or\\ destroying\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Drinks\\ alcohol\\ and\\/or\\ uses\\ inhalants\\ or\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Delinquency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Violent\\ crimes\\ and\\ property\\ crimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Increase\\ in\\ frequency\\ between\\ the\\ preadolescent\\ and\\ adolescent\\ years\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Peak\\ during\\ high\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Decline\\ somewhat\\ during\\ young\\ adulthood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Most\\ serious\\ delinquency\\ begins\\ between\\ ages\\ 13\\ and\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Interpret\\ ambiguous\\ interactions\\ with\\ others\\ as\\ intentionally\\ hostile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treatment\\ for\\ juvenile\\ offenders\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Prevention\\&ndash\\;\\ Such\\ as\\ after\\ school\\ programs\\,\\ intervening\\ in\\ family\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Therapy\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;boot\\ camps\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Broader\\ problems\\:\\ poverty\\,\\ violent\\ neighborhoods\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Jail\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treatment\\ for\\ juvenile\\ offenders\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Should\\ adolescents\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ juveniles\\ or\\ adults\\ in\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Should\\ adolescents\\ who\\ have\\ committed\\ serious\\ crimes\\ be\\ eligible\\ for\\ the\\ death\\ penalty\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Can\\ they\\ be\\ rehabilitated\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ there\\ hope\\ for\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Substance\\ Use\\ and\\ Abuse\\ in\\ Adolescence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\\\Occasional\\ use\\ now\\ normative\\ among\\ adolescents\\ in\\ contemporary\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Normal\\,\\ healthy\\ adolescents\\ often\\ have\\ experimented\\ with\\ alcohol\\ and\\ marijuana\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Often\\ well\\-adjusted\\,\\ social\\ skilled\\ adolescents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\For\\ many\\ adolescents\\,\\ experimentation\\ does\\ not\\ lead\\ to\\ serious\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Problems\\ associated\\ with\\ Substance\\ abuse\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Binge\\ drinking\\,\\ overdose\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ at\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Depression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Unprotected\\ sex\\/\\ sexual\\ assault\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Car\\ accidents\\/\\ driving\\ under\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Crime\\ and\\ truancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Addiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prevention\\/Treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\\\Government\\ attention\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ limiting\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ drugs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Substances\\,\\ especially\\ alcohol\\ and\\ tobacco\\ are\\ widely\\ available\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Education\\ programs\\ like\\ DARE\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Just\\ Say\\ No\\&rdquo\\;\\ campaigns\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ very\\ effective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Do\\ not\\ consider\\ difference\\ between\\ normative\\ experimentation\\ and\\ abuse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Better\\ options\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Helping\\ adolescents\\ develop\\ alternative\\ activities\\ and\\ interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\General\\ efforts\\ to\\ enhance\\ psychological\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\Multifaceted\\ efforts\\ combining\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ teen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ \\(community\\,\\ family\\,\\ school\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Depression\\,\\ suicide\\ \\+\\ guest\\ lecturers\\ \\(Bethany\\ and\\ Elizabeth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Suicide\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;highest\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ for\\ 5\\-14\\ year\\ olds\\,\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;highest\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ for\\ 15\\-24\\ year\\ olds\\;\\ over\\ 16\\,000\\ children\\ attempt\\ suicide\\ yearly\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 324\\ succeed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Risks\\ for\\ suicide\\ include\\ hopelessness\\,\\ abuse\\,\\ neglect\\,\\ bullying\\,\\ impulsivity\\,\\ low\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ depression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Why\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attempt\\ always\\ work\\?\\ Fear\\ of\\ pain\\,\\ attachment\\ or\\ responsibility\\ to\\ family\\,\\ belief\\ in\\ God\\/afterlife\\,\\ social\\ disapproval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Females\\ make\\ more\\ attempts\\ \\(2\\:1\\)\\ but\\ men\\ succeed\\ more\\ often\\ \\(4\\:1\\)\\ because\\ use\\ more\\ lethal\\ methods\\ \\(guns\\ versus\\ overdose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ For\\ prevention\\:\\ strong\\ family\\ support\\,\\ coping\\ methods\\ \\(reaching\\ out\\,\\ self\\-acceptance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Suicide\\ rates\\ highest\\ for\\ divorced\\/widowed\\ men\\ in\\ their\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Two\\ types\\ of\\ depression\\:\\ mild\\ \\(dysthemia\\)\\ and\\ major\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Symptoms\\ of\\ depression\\ include\\ anhedonia\\,\\ sad\\ or\\ irritable\\ mood\\,\\ thoughts\\ of\\ helplessness\\ or\\ hopelessness\\,\\ loss\\ of\\ energy\\ or\\ motivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ adolescents\\,\\ depression\\ often\\ manifested\\ in\\ irritability\\,\\ acting\\ out\\,\\ persistent\\ boredom\\,\\ social\\ isolation\\,\\ fear\\ of\\ failure\\,\\ reckless\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Main\\ suicide\\ risks\\:\\ major\\ depression\\,\\ bipolar\\ disorder\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ previous\\ mental\\ health\\ treatment\\,\\ availability\\ of\\ firearms\\ in\\ the\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Depression\\ is\\ a\\ gene\\ x\\ environment\\ disorder\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ genetic\\ and\\ environmental\\/stress\\ aspects\\ to\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Biologically\\ caused\\ by\\ decreased\\ serotonin\\ levels\\ \\(due\\ to\\ decreased\\ serotonin\\ receptors\\)\\,\\ SSRI\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(selective\\ serotonin\\ reuptake\\ inhibitors\\)\\ work\\ by\\ preventing\\ reuptake\\ of\\ serotonin\\ so\\ that\\ more\\ is\\ available\\ for\\ receptors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1\\ in\\ 20\\ adolescents\\ suffer\\ from\\ major\\ depression\\,\\ often\\ undiagnosed\\ because\\ manifested\\ differently\\,\\ described\\ differently\\ by\\ adolescents\\,\\ or\\ attributed\\ to\\ part\\ of\\ adolescence\\ \\(57\\%\\ of\\ teens\\ who\\ attempted\\ suicide\\ had\\ major\\ depression\\,\\ for\\ successful\\ suicides\\,\\ only\\ 13\\%\\ of\\ parents\\ believed\\ child\\ was\\ depressed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Risk\\ factors\\ include\\ being\\ female\\ \\(3\\:1\\)\\,\\ family\\ history\\,\\ learning\\ or\\ conduct\\ disorders\\,\\ poor\\ family\\ attachment\\,\\ abuse\\/neglect\\,\\ low\\ academic\\ achievement\\,\\ low\\ community\\ attachment\\,\\ peer\\ rejection\\ and\\ aggression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Nearly\\ three\\ million\\ adolescents\\ in\\ US\\ suffer\\ from\\ depression\\ \\(over\\ 8\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Treatment\\ include\\ therapy\\ \\(cognitive\\ behavior\\ therapy\\,\\ or\\ CBT\\)\\,\\ hospitalization\\,\\ medication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ his\\ book\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Emerging\\ Adulthood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Arnett\\ offers\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ contemporary\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ young\\ adult\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ focuses\\ on\\ young\\ adults\\&rsquo\\;\\ perspectives\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ big\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ careers\\,\\ love\\/sex\\ and\\ marriage\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;cohabitation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ new\\ trend\\,\\ living\\ with\\ a\\ significant\\ other\\ before\\ marriage\\)\\,\\ religion\\,\\ the\\ prospect\\ of\\ having\\ children\\,\\ and\\ relationships\\ with\\ parents\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Format\\ of\\ book\\ \\=\\ combination\\ of\\ case\\ studies\\ and\\ general\\ analysis\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ some\\ statistics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ thesis\\ of\\ book\\ \\=\\ young\\ adults\\ these\\ days\\ are\\ taking\\ longer\\ and\\ longer\\ to\\ make\\ final\\ major\\ life\\ choices\\ which\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ much\\ sooner\\ in\\ previous\\ generations\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ previous\\ generations\\,\\ people\\ got\\ married\\,\\ had\\ kids\\ and\\ found\\ permanent\\ jobs\\ in\\ their\\ early\\ twenties\\,\\ now\\ trend\\ is\\ to\\ do\\ these\\ things\\ later\\ on\\ in\\ twenties\\/early\\ thirties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arnett\\ labels\\ these\\ young\\ adults\\ \\&ldquo\\;emerging\\ adults\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ they\\ no\\ longer\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;adolescent\\&rdquo\\;\\ category\\ and\\ yet\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fully\\ consider\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;adults\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Characteristics\\ of\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;emerging\\ adults\\:\\&rdquo\\;\\ career\\-oriented\\ \\(both\\ male\\ \\&\\;\\ female\\)\\,\\ looking\\ for\\ careers\\ they\\ love\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ jobs\\ to\\ pay\\ the\\ bills\\ \\(more\\ job\\-switching\\/exploration\\ than\\ in\\ previous\\ generations\\)\\;\\ committed\\ romantic\\ relationships\\ but\\ not\\ racing\\ toward\\ marriage\\;\\ vague\\ religious\\ sentiment\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ yet\\ clearly\\ defined\\ and\\ is\\ still\\ being\\ explored\\ \\(often\\ final\\ religious\\ choices\\ are\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ childhood\\ religious\\ upbringing\\)\\;\\ various\\ kinds\\ relationships\\ with\\ parents\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;sometimes\\ tension\\,\\ as\\ parents\\ made\\ major\\ life\\ choices\\ earlier\\ and\\ some\\ feel\\ that\\ their\\ kids\\ should\\ do\\ the\\ same\\;\\ no\\ matter\\ whether\\ relationship\\ with\\ parents\\ is\\ generally\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\,\\ always\\ \\&ldquo\\;emotionally\\ charged\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ general\\ \\&ldquo\\;emerging\\ adulthood\\&rdquo\\;\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ healthy\\ trend\\ which\\ might\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\ prevent\\ trouble\\ and\\ crisis\\ later\\ on\\ in\\ life\\ \\(as\\ sometimes\\ people\\ regret\\ life\\-changing\\ decisions\\ made\\ too\\ soon\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Emerging\\ adulthood\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ with\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ optimism\\ and\\ positive\\ self\\-exploration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ question\\ discussed\\:\\ what\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ adult\\?\\ \\(also\\ discussed\\ and\\ debated\\ in\\ lecture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Forgotten\\ Half\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ William\\ Perry\\ \\(College\\ learning\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;forgotten\\ half\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Secondary\\ schools\\ geared\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ towards\\ college\\ bound\\ youngsters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ schools\\ do\\ not\\ prepare\\ graduates\\ at\\ all\\ for\\ world\\ of\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;forgotten\\ half\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ those\\ students\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ go\\ to\\ college\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\&ldquo\\;forgotten\\ half\\&rdquo\\;\\ has\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ finding\\ even\\ low\\-paying\\ employment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ low\\ long\\-term\\ employment\\ prospects\\ but\\ may\\ not\\ see\\ it\\ this\\ way\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ dropping\\ out\\ or\\ choosing\\ not\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ college\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ largely\\ ignored\\ in\\ the\\ research\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Perry\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ emerging\\ adults\\ experience\\ cognitive\\ changes\\,\\ in\\ large\\ part\\ because\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ college\\ \\(may\\ place\\ non\\-college\\-goers\\ at\\ a\\ disadvantage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ a\\ study\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ on\\ male\\ Harvard\\ College\\ Students\\ and\\ established\\ a\\ 4\\ stage\\ theory\\ of\\ cognitive\\ development\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dualistic\\ thinking\\ \\(a\\ perspective\\ that\\ is\\ either\\ right\\ or\\ wrong\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ often\\ high\\ school\\ work\\ encourages\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ thinking\\,\\ can\\ make\\ freshman\\ year\\ confusing\\ for\\ the\\ recent\\ high\\ school\\ grads\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\multiple\\ thinking\\ \\(realizing\\ multiple\\ perspectives\\ are\\ possible\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\relativistic\\ thinking\\ \\(realizing\\ that\\ multiple\\ perspectives\\ can\\ be\\ simultaneously\\ valid\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\active\\-participant\\ \\(having\\ self\\-chosen\\ beliefs\\ and\\ values\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biracial\\ identity\\ development\\ and\\ Theories\\ of\\ Marcia\\ Root\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Identity\\ status\\ and\\ group\\ affiliation\\ for\\ biracial\\ adolescents\\ can\\ be\\ hard\\ \\(groups\\ may\\ have\\ different\\ values\\)\\.\\ Some\\ feel\\ pressure\\ to\\ choose\\ and\\ worry\\ about\\ loyalty\\.\\ A\\ supportive\\ family\\ and\\ integrated\\ school\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\ positive\\ biracial\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MARCIA\\ ROOT\\&rsquo\\;S\\ THEORIES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acceptance\\ of\\ identity\\ status\\ defined\\ by\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ adolescent\\ accepts\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consensual\\ definition\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;One\\ drop\\ rule\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ society\\ defines\\ as\\ person\\ of\\ color\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ drop\\&rdquo\\;\\ non\\-white\\.\\ Conflict\\ occurs\\ when\\ segments\\ of\\ society\\ label\\ one\\ another\\ differently\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ goal\\ of\\ moving\\ toward\\ self\\-identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Identify\\ with\\ BOTH\\ heritages\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(like\\ Jacqueline\\)\\:\\ adolescent\\ views\\ biracial\\ status\\ as\\ unique\\ personal\\ identity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Easier\\ when\\ adolescent\\ has\\ a\\ similar\\ peer\\ group\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ requires\\ coping\\ strategies\\ to\\ manage\\ societal\\ resistance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Identify\\ with\\ SINGLE\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(like\\ Adolphus\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ personal\\ choice\\,\\ not\\ imposed\\ by\\ society\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ matching\\ with\\ family\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coping\\ strategies\\ needed\\ to\\ manage\\ questions\\ from\\ those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ choice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ lead\\ to\\ feelings\\ of\\ disloyalty\\ and\\ guilty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Identity\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ racial\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ unique\\,\\ kinship\\ with\\ other\\ biracial\\ persons\\ in\\ a\\ unique\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ be\\ healthy\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ reject\\ some\\ aspect\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cultural\\ heritage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ Tiger\\ Woods\\ considers\\ himself\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cablinasian\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ Caucasian\\-Black\\-Indian\\-Asian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Achievement\\ and\\ the\\ achievement\\ gap\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Achievement\\ motivation\\ and\\ beliefs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ need\\ for\\ achievement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ an\\ individual\\ strives\\ for\\ success\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ fear\\ or\\ failure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ often\\ manifested\\ by\\ feelings\\ of\\ anxiety\\ and\\ interferes\\ with\\ successful\\ performance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learned\\ helplessness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ failure\\ is\\ inevitable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Underachievers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ grades\\ are\\ lower\\ than\\ would\\ be\\ expected\\ based\\ on\\ ability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-handicapping\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ students\\ who\\ use\\ self\\-handicapping\\ strategies\\ perform\\ worse\\ in\\ school\\ and\\ have\\ more\\ adjustment\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intrinsic\\ motivation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ striving\\ to\\ achieve\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ pleasure\\ received\\ from\\ learning\\ and\\ mastering\\ the\\ material\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extrinsic\\ motivation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ striving\\ to\\ achieve\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ rewards\\ for\\ performing\\ well\\ and\\ the\\ punishments\\ for\\ performing\\ poorly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Educational\\ achievement\\ is\\ defined\\ three\\ ways\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ school\\ performances\\ \\(grades\\)\\,\\ academic\\ achievement\\ \\(standardized\\ tests\\)\\,\\ and\\ educational\\ attainment\\ \\(number\\ of\\ years\\ of\\ schooling\\ completed\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wide\\ variation\\ in\\ levels\\ of\\ educational\\ and\\ occupational\\ success\\ in\\ adolescents\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\High\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ many\\ have\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ academic\\ achievement\\ necessary\\ to\\ enter\\ selective\\ colleges\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Low\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ others\\ enter\\ adulthood\\ without\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ diploma\\,\\ or\\ basic\\ academic\\ skills\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Influence\\ of\\ family\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ achievement\\ tied\\ to\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ values\\ and\\ expectations\\,\\ encouragement\\ of\\ academic\\ success\\,\\ role\\ models\\ of\\ achievement\\,\\ involvement\\ in\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ education\\,\\ home\\ environment\\ and\\ enrichment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Influence\\ of\\ friends\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ having\\ friends\\ with\\ high\\ grades\\ and\\ aspirations\\ appears\\ to\\ enhance\\ adolescents\\&rsquo\\;\\ achievement\\.\\ Friends\\ who\\ have\\ low\\ grades\\ or\\ disparage\\ school\\ success\\ may\\ interfere\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\(by\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;grade\\,\\ students\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ classmates\\ to\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ worked\\ hard\\ in\\ school\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negatives\\ of\\ achievement\\?\\ High\\ pressure\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ grades\\ and\\ test\\ scores\\.\\ Sleep\\ deprivations\\,\\ cheating\\ and\\ despair\\ over\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;B\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ also\\ possible\\.\\ Also\\,\\ expensive\\ to\\ spend\\ money\\ on\\ SATs\\ and\\ tutors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Achievement\\ Gap\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Asian\\ American\\ adolescent\\ are\\ higher\\ academic\\ achiever\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minority\\ Achievement\\ Gap\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ across\\ the\\ USA\\,\\ a\\ gap\\ exists\\ in\\ academic\\ achievement\\ between\\ minority\\ and\\ disadvantaged\\ students\\ and\\ their\\ white\\ counterparts\\.\\ Lower\\ academic\\ achievement\\ among\\ African\\-Americans\\,\\ Latinos\\,\\ and\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Latino\\ youngsters\\ drop\\ out\\ at\\ more\\ than\\ twice\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ other\\ youth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possible\\ reasons\\ for\\ this\\ include\\ teacher\\ expectations\\,\\ stereotypes\\,\\ labeling\\,\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\,\\ discrimination\\,\\ cultural\\ values\\,\\ mistrust\\ of\\ the\\ educational\\ system\\,\\ and\\ differences\\ in\\ wealth\\ or\\ cultural\\ capital\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ socioeconomic\\ status\\:\\ middle\\ and\\ high\\-class\\ SES\\ students\\ in\\ all\\ racial\\ groups\\ score\\ higher\\ on\\ basic\\ tests\\ of\\ academic\\ skills\\,\\ earn\\ higher\\ grades\\ in\\ school\\,\\ and\\ complete\\ more\\ years\\ of\\ schooling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possible\\ reasons\\ for\\ poorer\\ school\\ performance\\ among\\ disadvantaged\\ youth\\:\\ beginning\\ school\\ at\\ an\\ academic\\ disadvantage\\,\\ fewer\\ resources\\,\\ opportunities\\ and\\ cultural\\/social\\ capital\\,\\ less\\ parental\\ involvement\\ in\\ education\\ or\\ role\\ models\\,\\ more\\ stress\\ \\(both\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ adolescence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ live\\ events\\,\\ daily\\ hassles\\,\\ negative\\ school\\ climates\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risk\\ and\\ Resilience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\ \\;RISK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Film\\ Clip\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ordinary\\ People\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Conrad\\ has\\ some\\ warning\\ signs\\ of\\ possible\\ problems\\:\\ loss\\ of\\ interest\\,\\ trouble\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;sleeping\\,\\ no\\ appetite\\,\\ withdrawn\\,\\ not\\ paying\\ attention\\ in\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ is\\ at\\ risk\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;because\\ of\\ his\\ cold\\ mother\\,\\ the\\ trauma\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suffered\\,\\ and\\ his\\ grief\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;protected\\ by\\ his\\ relationship\\ with\\ his\\ dad\\,\\ friends\\,\\ swimming\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Risk\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ factors\\ in\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ that\\ increase\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ a\\ negative\\ developmental\\ outcome\\.\\ \\ \\;Common\\ ones\\ include\\ neglectful\\ parents\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ prenatal\\ stress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biological\\ Factors\\ like\\ temperment\\ and\\ predispositions\\,\\ and\\ Environmental\\ factors\\ like\\ home\\ life\\,\\ socioeconomic\\ status\\,\\ parents\\,\\ and\\ bullying\\ BOTH\\ play\\ a\\ role\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Anti\\-Social\\ Behavior\\ \\(Clonninger\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1982\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Divided\\ adopted\\ boys\\ into\\ four\\ groups\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ presence\\/absence\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(a\\)\\ congenital\\ disposition\\ \\(biological\\ parents\\ were\\ criminal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(b\\)\\ post\\-natal\\ predisposition\\ \\(abusive\\ parenting\\ by\\ adoptive\\ parents\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Found\\ if\\ you\\ had\\ both\\ factors\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ 40\\%\\ rate\\ of\\ criminality\\ \\(both\\ factors\\ is\\ worse\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;than\\ bad\\ genes\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ bad\\ environment\\,\\ and\\ then\\ no\\ factors\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Risk\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\influnced\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;Exposure\\ to\\ the\\ risk\\ factor\\:\\ prolonged\\ vs\\.\\ brief\\/one\\-time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;Severity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;Whether\\ they\\ lead\\ to\\ more\\ risk\\ factors\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Child\\ abuse\\ and\\ poverty\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ negative\\ developmental\\ outcome\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ risk\\ factor\\ \\(Ex\\.\\ Low\\ I\\.Q\\.\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;bad\\ parenting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dropping\\ out\\ of\\ h\\.s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stress\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;delinquent\\ activity\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ can\\ be\\ hard\\ to\\ isolate\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ problems\\,\\ or\\ how\\ a\\ risk\\ factor\\ will\\ influence\\ a\\ particular\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vulnerability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ susceptibility\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ problem\\ or\\ disorder\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protective\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ Opposite\\ of\\ Risk\\ factors\\,\\ they\\ Lower\\ the\\ vulnerability\\ for\\ problems\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ can\\ be\\ both\\ external\\ and\\ internal\\ \\(exs\\.\\ Attitude\\,\\ social\\ competence\\,\\ friends\\,\\ parental\\ support\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Risky\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;increases\\ with\\ adolescence\\.\\ \\ \\;Assumption\\ is\\ that\\ adolescents\\ have\\ bad\\ judgment\\ about\\ risk\\ \\(see\\ Milstein\\ in\\ coursepack\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ possible\\ reasons\\ are\\ social\\ influences\\ and\\ loosening\\ parental\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ three\\ important\\ distinctions\\ for\\ Risky\\ Behavior\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;Experimentation\\ vs\\.\\ Enduring\\ patterns\\ of\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;Problems\\ with\\ origins\\ in\\ adolescence\\ vs\\.\\ problems\\ that\\ do\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;Problems\\ that\\ are\\ transitory\\ vs\\.\\ problems\\ that\\ endure\\ into\\ adulthood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\ \\;PSYCHOPATHOLOGY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Many\\ disorders\\ have\\ increased\\ onset\\ during\\ adolescence\\ \\(depression\\,\\ anxiety\\,\\ eating\\ disorders\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\?\\ \\ \\;Maybe\\ cognitive\\,\\ body\\ changes\\,\\ social\\/family\\ factors\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ factor\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ diverse\\ outcome\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ pathways\\ to\\ any\\ particular\\ outcome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stress\\-Diathesis\\ Model\\:\\ there\\ are\\ biological\\/genetic\\ origins\\,\\ but\\ a\\ person\\ must\\ have\\ stressful\\ environmental\\ factors\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Biological\\ factors\\ include\\:\\ genetic\\ component\\,\\ neurotransmitters\\ \\(especially\\ seratonin\\ and\\ norepinephrine\\)\\ and\\ HPA\\ axis\\ \\(cortisol\\)\\,\\ and\\ lower\\ frontal\\ lobe\\ volume\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Comorbidity\\:\\ disease\\ often\\ cluster\\ together\\,\\ which\\ can\\ make\\ things\\ difficult\\ to\\ understand\\ \\(ie\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ depression\\,\\ anxiety\\ disorders\\,\\ and\\ conduct\\ disorders\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychopathology\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ disorders\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Internalizing\\ Disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ problems\\ turned\\ inward\\,\\ manifested\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ emotional\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ cognitive\\ distress\\ \\(ex\\:\\ depression\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Externalizing\\ Disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ problems\\ turned\\ outward\\,\\ manifested\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;behavioral\\ problems\\/\\ \\&lsquo\\;acting\\ out\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(ex\\:\\ delinquency\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ RESILIENCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Resilience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ ability\\ to\\ cope\\ positively\\ with\\ adversity\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ at\\ risk\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ resilient\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ outcome\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ high\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;Sustained\\ competence\\ under\\ stress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;Recovery\\ from\\ Trauma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;HIGH\\ RISK\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;LOW\\ RISK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HIGH\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Resilient\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Competent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ADAPTATION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LOW\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Maladaptive\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Empty\\ Cell\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ADAPTATION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Multiple\\ pathways\\ to\\ resilience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Resilience\\ is\\ multidimensional\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ might\\ show\\ a\\ good\\ outcome\\ in\\ certain\\ domains\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ define\\ a\\ resilient\\ outcome\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;Average\\ vs\\.\\ Excellent\\ Functioning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ what\\ Domain\\?\\ \\ \\;Academic\\,\\ low\\ psychopathology\\,\\ behavioral\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ factors\\ contribute\\ to\\ resilience\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Social\\ Resources\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Connections\\ with\\ positive\\ adult\\ influences\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cognitive\\ and\\ Emotional\\ Skills\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(dealing\\ with\\ stress\\,\\ learning\\ from\\ mistakes\\,\\ IQ\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\High\\ Self\\ Esteem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Motivation\\ to\\ Change\\/Have\\ a\\ Good\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Internal\\ Protective\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(temperament\\,\\ genetics\\,\\ personality\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Masten\\ Study\\ \\(coursepack\\)\\:\\ Looked\\ at\\ Resilient\\,\\ Maladaptive\\,\\ and\\ Competent\\ teens\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ found\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ advantages\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ parents\\,\\ cognitive\\ ability\\,\\ social\\ resources\\,\\ high\\ socioeconomic\\ status\\,\\ internal\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\E\\.E\\.\\ Werner\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kauai\\ Longitudinal\\ Study\\:\\ \\ \\;Used\\ all\\ 698\\ babies\\ born\\ on\\ Kauai\\ in\\ 1955\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\/3\\ were\\ \\&lsquo\\;high\\ risk\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ poverty\\,\\ parinatal\\ stress\\,\\ and\\ troubled\\ family\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Of\\ these\\,\\ 1\\/3\\ were\\ Resilient\\ at\\ age\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\/3\\ had\\ Mental\\ health\\ problems\\,\\ delinquency\\,\\ or\\ teen\\ pregnancy\\ at\\ age\\ 18\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ age\\ 32\\,\\ the\\ Resilient\\ ones\\ were\\ more\\ successful\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ high\\ risk\\ ones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\,\\ most\\ delinquents\\ and\\ teen\\ mothers\\ were\\ doing\\ better\\,\\ and\\ most\\ were\\ not\\ receiving\\ mental\\ health\\ treatment\\ anymore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protective\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(correlated\\ with\\ successful\\ adult\\ adaptation\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;Easy\\ Infant\\ Temperament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;Autonomy\\ and\\ social\\ competence\\ as\\ a\\ toddler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;School\\ competence\\ in\\ middle\\-childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\ \\;Self\\-efficacy\\ at\\ age\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\ \\;Realistic\\ educational\\/vocational\\ goals\\ at\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;6\\.\\ \\ \\;Parental\\ competence\\ and\\ good\\ care\\-giving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;7\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ support\\ in\\ family\\ and\\ community\\ \\(grandparents\\,\\ teacher\\,\\ friends\\,\\ faith\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;8\\.\\ \\ \\;Opening\\ of\\ opportunity\\ \\(ex\\:\\ military\\ service\\ for\\ delinquent\\ youth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ High\\ Valley\\ Resilience\\ Study\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(see\\ Lecture\\ 11\\/28\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ isolating\\ what\\ separates\\ the\\ resilient\\ from\\ the\\ non\\-resilient\\,\\ we\\ can\\ then\\ promote\\ these\\ qualities\\ in\\ those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ them\\ already\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Researcher\\:\\ Dr\\.\\ Stuart\\ Hauser\\ \\(wrote\\ about\\ the\\ study\\ in\\ his\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Out\\ of\\ the\\ Woods\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Participants\\:\\ 150\\ hospitalized\\ teens\\ at\\ High\\ Valley\\ \\(a\\ psychiatric\\ facility\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ study\\ sought\\ to\\ answer\\ the\\ question\\:\\ why\\ are\\ some\\ teens\\ able\\ to\\ bounce\\ back\\ from\\ trouble\\,\\ while\\ others\\ are\\ unable\\?\\ What\\ differentiates\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hauser\\ found\\ 9\\ teens\\ in\\ the\\ resilient\\ group\\ \\(those\\ who\\ had\\ high\\ functioning\\ in\\ young\\ adulthood\\)\\,\\ and\\ compared\\ them\\ with\\ 7\\ teens\\ in\\ the\\ contrast\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Through\\ his\\ interviews\\ with\\ both\\ groups\\,\\ Hauser\\ found\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ 3\\ crucial\\ elements\\ that\\ allow\\ resilience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reflectiveness\\ \\(ability\\ to\\ look\\ inward\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ experiences\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\agency\\ \\(belief\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ impact\\ and\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ ability\\ to\\ change\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\relatedness\\ \\(understanding\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ and\\ engaging\\ in\\ relationships\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ elements\\ may\\ now\\ be\\ used\\ by\\ teachers\\,\\ psychiatrists\\,\\ counselors\\,\\ etc\\.\\ to\\ promote\\ resilience\\ in\\ youth\\ that\\ they\\ work\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Substance\\ Use\\ and\\ Abuse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(see\\ Lecture\\ 11\\/30\\,\\ part\\ 3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Substance\\ use\\ is\\ commonplace\\ in\\ adolescence\\ starting\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ high\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ use\\ to\\ may\\ not\\ lead\\ abuse\\ for\\ many\\ adolescents\\,\\ hard\\ drug\\ use\\,\\ high\\ frequency\\ of\\ use\\,\\ and\\ early\\ introduction\\ all\\ predicts\\ substance\\ abuse\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ effectively\\ deal\\ with\\ substance\\ abuse\\,\\ we\\ are\\ better\\ off\\ encouraging\\ drug\\ education\\ by\\ peers\\,\\ promoting\\ alternative\\ interests\\,\\ and\\ building\\ supportive\\ communities\\,\\ than\\ trying\\ to\\ eliminate\\ drugs\\ or\\ use\\ programs\\ like\\ DARE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Who\\ uses\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Monitoring\\ the\\ Future\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(2002\\)\\ is\\ an\\ ongoing\\ study\\ of\\ behaviors\\,\\ attitudes\\,\\ and\\ values\\ of\\ American\\ high\\ school\\ students\\,\\ college\\ students\\,\\ and\\ young\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Every\\ year\\ 50\\,000\\,\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\grade\\ students\\ are\\ surveyed\\ and\\ given\\ follow\\ up\\ surveys\\ in\\ the\\ years\\ following\\ their\\ initial\\ participation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ have\\ they\\ found\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\About\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ seniors\\ have\\ tried\\ alcohol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nearly\\ 60\\%\\ have\\ tried\\ smoking\\ cigarettes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nearly\\ 50\\%\\ have\\ tried\\ marijuana\\ at\\ least\\ once\\ within\\ the\\ past\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\/5\\ have\\ smoked\\ marijuana\\ within\\ the\\ past\\ 30\\ days\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\30\\%\\ of\\ all\\ high\\ school\\ seniors\\,\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ all\\ tenth\\ graders\\,\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ all\\ eighth\\ graders\\ binge\\ drank\\ \\(5\\ drinks\\ in\\ a\\ row\\)\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 2\\ weeks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Partnership\\ for\\ a\\ Drug\\-Free\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;reports\\ almost\\ \\½\\;\\ of\\ US\\ teens\\ have\\ abused\\ prescription\\ drugs\\,\\ painkillers\\,\\ and\\ cough\\ syrup\\,\\ which\\ are\\ easily\\ available\\ and\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ normal\\ is\\ drug\\ use\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Occasional\\ use\\ now\\ normative\\ among\\ adolescents\\ in\\ contemporary\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Normal\\,\\ healthy\\ adolescents\\ often\\ have\\ experimented\\ with\\ alcohol\\ and\\ marijuana\\,\\ and\\ not\\ abused\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ often\\ Substance\\ use\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ Substance\\ Abuse\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ Addiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ \\(including\\ binge\\ drinking\\,\\ overdosing\\,\\ depression\\,\\ academic\\ problems\\,\\ sexual\\ assault\\,\\ DUI\\,\\ crime\\,\\ addiction\\)\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ for\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ who\\ start\\ abusing\\ substances\\ at\\ an\\ early\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ frequent\\ users\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ drug\\ users\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\`\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prevention\\/Treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Limit\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ drugs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ineffective\\ because\\ substances\\,\\ especially\\ alcohol\\ and\\ tobacco\\ are\\ widely\\ available\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Education\\ programs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DARE\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Just\\ Say\\ No\\&rdquo\\;\\ campaigns\\ ineffective\\,\\ because\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ consider\\ difference\\ between\\ normative\\ experimentation\\ and\\ abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Better\\ options\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peer\\ education\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encourage\\ alternative\\ activities\\ and\\ interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\General\\ efforts\\ to\\ enhance\\ psychological\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multifaceted\\ efforts\\ combining\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ teen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ \\(community\\,\\ family\\,\\ school\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NON\\-SUICIDAL\\ SELF\\ INJURY\\ \\(NSSI\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(12\\/05\\/06\\ lecture\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;half\\,\\ Bethany\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\-also\\ known\\ as\\:\\ Self\\-Injury\\ \\(SI\\)\\,\\ Self\\-Harm\\ \\(SH\\)\\,\\ Deliberate\\ Self\\-Harm\\ \\(DSH\\)\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-Mutilation\\ \\(SM\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Direct\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ cutting\\/carving\\,\\ burning\\,\\ scratching\\,\\ hitting\\/punching\\,\\ biting\\,\\ self\\-poisoning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*but\\ no\\ actual\\ desire\\ to\\ kill\\ oneself\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ thus\\ lead\\ to\\:\\ Severe\\ physical\\ injury\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Deep\\ lacerations\\,\\ severe\\ burns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Suicide\\ attempts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Accidental\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indirect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Alcohol\\ \\&\\;\\ substance\\ abuse\\,\\ eating\\ disorders\\,\\ risky\\ behaviors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Types\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Major\\:\\ Severe\\,\\ infrequent\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ limb\\ amputation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Stereotypic\\:\\ Repetitive\\,\\ rhythmic\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ head\\ banging\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ often\\ seen\\ in\\ developmental\\ disorders\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ autism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Moderate\\:\\ Most\\ common\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Compulsive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Automatic\\,\\ ritualistic\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ trichotillomania\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Episodic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Infrequent\\,\\ isolated\\ acts\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ cutting\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repetitive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Preoccupation\\ and\\ identification\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ a\\ cutter\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ does\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\14\\%\\-20\\%\\ high\\ school\\ students\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-40\\%\\-61\\%\\ adolescent\\ psychiatric\\ inpatients\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\self\\-injurers\\ report\\ greater\\ emotional\\ reactivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\ \\ \\;Personal\\ Explanations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Scientific\\ Attribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ punish\\ myself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;remove\\ tension\\ or\\ other\\ adverse\\ state\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(negative\\ reinforcement\\/internal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ automatic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ keep\\ from\\ attempting\\ suicide\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;avoid\\ interpersonal\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(negative\\ reinforcement\\/external\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ social\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ see\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\ the\\ pain\\ I\\ feel\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;generate\\ internal\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(positive\\ reinforcement\\/internal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ automatic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ show\\ others\\ the\\ emotional\\ pain\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ in\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;gain\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(positive\\ reinforcement\\/external\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ social\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Thus\\ it\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ emotional\\ regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Automatic\\ negative\\ reinforcement\\ \\(Nock\\ \\&\\;\\ Prinstein\\ 2005\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decrease\\ negative\\ emotions\\:\\ Distress\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Cut\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Calm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Automatic\\ positive\\ reinforcement\\ \\(Nock\\ \\&\\;\\ Prinstein\\ 2005\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Increase\\ feelings\\:\\ Numbness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Cut\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Feeling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Perhaps\\ due\\ to\\ its\\ prevalence\\ in\\ popular\\ culture\\ \\(music\\,\\ movies\\,\\ tv\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-injury\\ is\\ painful\\ so\\ how\\ do\\ individuals\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Innate\\ sensitivity\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-injurers\\ born\\ with\\ lower\\ sensitivity\\ to\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Habituation\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exposure\\ to\\ NSSI\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;habituation\\ to\\ pain\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Dissociation\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Emotional\\ stress\\ coping\\ method\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dissociate\\ from\\ pain\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ Development\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sets\\ the\\ stage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Formal\\ operations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abstract\\,\\ complex\\ thought\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Life\\ is\\ meaningless\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Metacognition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ flawed\\,\\ hopeless\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Systematic\\ reasoning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fixate\\ on\\ hopeless\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Egocentrism\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;No\\ one\\ understands\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ inflexibility\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nothing\\ will\\ ever\\ change\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Risk\\ taking\\/\\ Invulnerability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coping\\ abilities\\ develop\\ more\\ gradually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brain\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prefrontal\\ Cortex\\ \\(PFC\\)\\ not\\ complete\\ \\(myelination\\ delayed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Limbic\\ system\\ still\\ in\\ charge\\ \\(emotion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fear\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synaptic\\ pruning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ you\\ practice\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ keep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Automatic\\ cognitions\\ \\(groove\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Some\\ maybe\\ more\\ susceptible\\ due\\ to\\ Automatic\\ Negative\\ Cognitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negative\\ Cognition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Self\\-injurious\\/suicidal\\ reaction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Repetitive\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biological\\ Explanation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Feels\\ good\\ as\\ body\\ releases\\ endorphins\\ with\\ the\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Treatment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\now\\ is\\ based\\ mostly\\ on\\ Coping\\ Mechanisms\\ \\(improved\\ emotion\\ regulation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ restructuring\\ form\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ an\\ idiot\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ made\\ a\\ mistake\\,\\ but\\ so\\ does\\ everyone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Progressive\\ muscle\\ relaxation\\,\\ breathing\\ exercise\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Relaxing\\ body\\ helps\\ relax\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distraction\\:\\ pleasurable\\ activities\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Fail\\ test\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;plan\\ better\\ for\\ next\\ time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;move\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mindfulness\\ practices\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ ok\\ that\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ anxious\\ right\\ now\\.\\ I\\ know\\ it\\ will\\ pass\\ soon\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Top\\ Criteria\\ for\\ Adulthood\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Criteria\\ based\\ on\\ interviews\\ with\\ many\\ people\\.\\ Consistent\\,\\ even\\ cross\\-culturally\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1\\.\\ Accepting\\ responsibility\\ for\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ Independent\\ decision\\ making\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\3\\.\\ Financial\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emerging\\ Adulthood\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ time\\ of\\ transition\\ between\\ adolescence\\ and\\ full\\ adult\\ responsibility\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\It\\ \\ \\;exists\\ \\(as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\)\\ mainly\\ in\\ industrialized\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Growing\\ in\\ developing\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\India\\:\\ Growing\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61544\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;E\\.A\\.\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rise\\ in\\ E\\.A\\.\\ related\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\economic\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\extended\\ education\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ later\\ marriage\\/\\ having\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Approximately\\ ages\\ 18\\-25\\,\\ sometimes\\ through\\ the\\ 20s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Age\\ 18\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ transitional\\ time\\ in\\ our\\ society\\ \\(graduate\\ high\\ school\\,\\ begins\\ college\\ or\\ work\\,\\ leave\\ home\\,\\ legal\\ adult\\&mdash\\;voting\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Five\\ Key\\ Features\\ of\\ E\\.A\\.\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Identity\\ exploration\\ and\\ self\\-reflection\\ \\(Education\\/work\\ choices\\,\\ serious\\ relationships\\,\\ new\\ experiences\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Instability\\ \\(changing\\ mind\\,\\ interests\\,\\ location\\,\\ jobs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Self\\-focus\\ \\(Out\\ of\\ original\\ family\\,\\ but\\ before\\ starting\\ own\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Very\\ Autonomous\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Feeling\\ \\"\\;in\\-between\\"\\;\\ \\(gradual\\ process\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Possibility\\ \\(Optimism\\,\\ Self\\-esteem\\,\\ well\\-being\\ rise\\ in\\ E\\.A\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Heterogeneity\\ \\(No\\ criteria\\ define\\ all\\ E\\.A\\&hellip\\;\\ living\\ status\\,\\ relationship\\ status\\,\\ educational\\ attainment\\,\\ etc\\.\\ vary\\ widely\\ at\\ this\\ age\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\ 12\\/7\\,\\ 12\\/10\\:\\ Changes\\ in\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\ \\(Cognitive\\ \\&\\;\\ Social\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;18\\ is\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ big\\ transitions\\ in\\ our\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;emerging\\ adulthood\\:\\ 18\\-25\\ years\\ old\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ life\\ between\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ secondary\\ school\\ and\\ full\\ adult\\ status\\ \\(approximate\\)\\,\\ transition\\ between\\ adolescence\\ and\\ full\\ adult\\ responsibility\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ self\\-reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;hard\\ to\\ put\\ an\\ age\\ limit\\ for\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ emerging\\ adulthood\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 25\\ years\\ old\\,\\ marriage\\,\\ children\\,\\ financial\\ independence\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;emerging\\ adulthood\\ has\\ increased\\ due\\ to\\ economic\\ freedom\\,\\ extended\\ education\\,\\ and\\ later\\ marriages\\/having\\ kids\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ an\\ increased\\ psychosocial\\ moratorium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;biggest\\ change\\ in\\ higher\\ education\\ is\\ for\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Features\\ of\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\ \\(Arnett\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Not\\ everyone\\ experiences\\ all\\ 5\\ of\\ these\\ features\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ diversity\\ at\\ this\\ age\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Identity\\ Exploration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ freedom\\ to\\ explore\\ love\\,\\ work\\,\\ worldviews\\,\\ new\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Instability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ indecisiveness\\ and\\ constant\\ changing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Self\\-focus\\/Autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ spends\\ lots\\ of\\ time\\ alone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Feeling\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\-between\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ feel\\ like\\ an\\ adult\\ or\\ an\\ adolescent\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ gradual\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Possibility\\/Optimism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ thinks\\ everything\\ will\\ work\\ out\\ fine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;thriving\\ view\\ of\\ emerging\\ adulthood\\:\\ waiting\\ for\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ everything\\,\\ idealistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;floundering\\ view\\ of\\ emerging\\ adulthood\\:\\ feeling\\ stuck\\,\\ overwhelming\\ decisions\\,\\ helplessness\\,\\ risky\\ behavior\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ depression\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ forgotten\\ half\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ college\\ after\\ high\\ school\\ and\\ often\\ have\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ finding\\ employment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ largely\\ ignored\\ in\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Top\\ Criteria\\ for\\ Adulthood\\ \\(these\\ occur\\ gradually\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;accepting\\ responsibility\\ for\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;independent\\ decision\\-making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;financial\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ Changes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;social\\ cognition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\-reflective\\ and\\ better\\ understand\\ parents\\ as\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;going\\ to\\ college\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exposure\\ to\\ variety\\ of\\ worldviews\\,\\ ability\\ to\\ think\\ more\\ complexly\\ about\\ difficult\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tasks\\ of\\ College\\ \\(Chickering\\,\\ 1969\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;develop\\ competence\\ \\-\\ intellectually\\,\\ physically\\,\\ and\\ interpersonally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;manage\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;become\\ self\\-sufficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;develop\\ mature\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;establish\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;develop\\ career\\ objectives\\ and\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;develop\\ integrity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ values\\ to\\ live\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ Influence\\ on\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;patterns\\ of\\ family\\ interaction\\ \\/\\ strength\\ of\\ emotional\\ bonds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;family\\ composition\\ and\\ transitions\\ \\(divorced\\ vs\\.\\ married\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;family\\ support\\ system\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ financial\\ support\\,\\ advice\\,\\ guidance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friends\\ and\\ dating\\ during\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;relationships\\ are\\ more\\ complex\\,\\ intimate\\,\\ and\\ integrated\\ with\\ other\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;friendships\\ require\\ more\\ work\\ to\\ maintain\\,\\ and\\ companionship\\ patterns\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 12\\/14\\:\\ College\\ Mental\\ Health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Guest\\ Lecturer\\:\\ Alan\\ Siegel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Please\\ look\\ at\\ slides\\ posted\\ on\\ website\\*\\ \\(I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attend\\ this\\ lecture\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\,\\ class\\,\\ and\\ ethnicity\\ panel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Negatives\\ are\\ the\\ biggest\\ part\\ of\\ motivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grandmother\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ leery\\ of\\ white\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proud\\ of\\ being\\ black\\:\\ everyone\\ has\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ proud\\ of\\ in\\ their\\ histories\\ \\(even\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ a\\ minority\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seeing\\ people\\ around\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ life\\,\\ having\\ classes\\ taught\\ about\\ people\\ of\\ your\\ race\\ really\\ changes\\ your\\ perception\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Race\\ matters\\:\\ be\\ open\\ and\\ honest\\ with\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Being\\ biracial\\ can\\ be\\ hard\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fit\\ in\\ with\\ either\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ assume\\ you\\ know\\ what\\ race\\ someone\\ is\\ just\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ equal\\ opportunities\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ culture\\ makes\\ a\\ big\\ difference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bethany\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Being\\ Mexican\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Considered\\ dirty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Considered\\ an\\ underclass\\ \\(servant\\,\\ maid\\,\\ janitor\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ my\\ father\\ was\\ a\\ janitor\\ concurrent\\ with\\ his\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;job\\ as\\ an\\ attorney\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cheap\\ food\\,\\ cheap\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disclosing\\ to\\ white\\ boyfriend\\&rsquo\\;s\\ affluent\\ family\\ \\&\\;\\ watching\\ their\\ faces\\ drop\\ subtly\\ \\(dirtying\\ their\\ lineage\\)\\,\\ while\\ they\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ knowing\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\&rsquo\\;re\\ white\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ because\\ they\\ count\\ only\\ 3\\ races\\:\\ white\\,\\ black\\,\\ Asian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ come\\ from\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ illegal\\ immigrants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Father\\ told\\ not\\ to\\ learn\\ Spanish\\ \\(would\\ keep\\ him\\ poor\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ my\\ brother\\ and\\ I\\ still\\ struggle\\ to\\ learn\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ disclosure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;ooh\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spicy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\ can\\ dance\\ sexy\\ b\\/c\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Mexican\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ many\\ wealthy\\ \\(or\\ even\\ middle\\ class\\)\\ Mexicans\\ have\\ I\\ ever\\ met\\?\\ My\\ father\\ and\\ brother\\ are\\ now\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ the\\ only\\ ones\\ I\\ know\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ my\\ incoming\\ year\\,\\ there\\ was\\ 1\\ Latino\\ grad\\ student\\ \\(according\\ to\\ stats\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ was\\ not\\ counted\\ \\(being\\ mixed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ jokes\\ about\\ running\\ for\\ the\\ border\\,\\ la\\ migra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ people\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ border\\ control\\ \\(this\\ is\\ totally\\ racial\\ and\\ classist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ all\\,\\ California\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ Mexico\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\ly\\,\\ the\\ only\\ border\\ being\\ controlled\\ is\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ not\\ Canada\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ would\\ there\\ really\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\ if\\ wealthy\\ French\\ people\\ kept\\ immigrating\\ to\\ the\\ US\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ yes\\,\\ I\\ have\\ achieved\\ a\\ lot\\ academically\\.\\ Now\\,\\ meet\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ my\\ Mexican\\ family\\.\\ They\\ are\\ dead\\,\\ poor\\ in\\ dead\\-end\\ jobs\\.\\ They\\ were\\ drug\\ addicts\\,\\ criminals\\,\\ in\\ jail\\,\\ killed\\ themselves\\,\\ killed\\ other\\ people\\.\\ My\\ dad\\ got\\ out\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ joined\\ the\\ Marines\\,\\ and\\ was\\ willing\\ to\\ die\\ in\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ war\\.\\ My\\ dad\\ credits\\ one\\ high\\ school\\ teacher\\ with\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ college\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ she\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ smart\\,\\ expected\\ him\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ college\\,\\ and\\ made\\ him\\ take\\ a\\ typing\\ class\\.\\ He\\ says\\ without\\ that\\,\\ he\\ never\\ would\\ have\\ felt\\ he\\ had\\ the\\ skills\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ school\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ am\\ sick\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ good\\ token\\ Mexican\\ person\\ to\\ white\\ people\\/programs\\ \\(particularly\\ good\\ b\\/c\\ I\\ look\\ white\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easier\\ to\\ ignore\\ the\\ infiltration\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ that\\ people\\ speak\\ some\\ Spanish\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;enchilada\\,\\ taco\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ expectations\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ you\\ live\\ in\\ are\\ STRONG\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ who\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ idiot\\ who\\ sits\\ home\\ reading\\ every\\ night\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ about\\ what\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ I\\ am\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ got\\ lucky\\ with\\ acting\\ talent\\,\\ which\\ is\\ how\\ I\\ got\\ the\\ academic\\ education\\ I\\ did\\ in\\ an\\ arts\\ high\\ school\\ with\\ great\\ academics\\ and\\ my\\ mother\\ expected\\ me\\ to\\ do\\ well\\ in\\ school\\,\\ which\\ is\\ how\\ I\\ got\\ the\\ grades\\ I\\ did\\.\\ Guess\\ who\\ I\\ hung\\ around\\?\\ Academic\\ achievers\\,\\ not\\ the\\ majority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;reverse\\ racism\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ racism\\ is\\ racism\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reverse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ drop\\ because\\ they\\ find\\ out\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ Mexican\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ my\\ white\\ family\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ trash\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ if\\ poor\\ white\\ people\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ distinguished\\ from\\ affluent\\ white\\ people\\,\\ and\\ Mexican\\ and\\ black\\ people\\ are\\ automatically\\ trash\\.\\ As\\ if\\ normal\\ white\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ trash\\.\\ Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ hear\\ about\\ Mexican\\ or\\ black\\ trash\\?\\ Because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ trash\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ never\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hispanic\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hispanic\\ means\\ Spanish\\ speaking\\.\\ People\\ from\\ Spain\\ are\\ Spanish\\ speaking\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ white\\.\\ Latino\\ means\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ descent\\,\\ including\\ Mexico\\,\\ Central\\ and\\ South\\ America\\,\\ Cuba\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ strength\\ of\\ being\\ Mexican\\ I\\ feel\\ is\\ that\\ I\\ belong\\ in\\ California\\ and\\ Mexico\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ have\\ 2\\ countries\\ I\\ claim\\.\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ from\\ this\\ land\\.\\ I\\ am\\ not\\ an\\ immigrant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ white\\ people\\ can\\ acknowledge\\ their\\ privilege\\,\\ be\\ grateful\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ treated\\ decently\\ and\\ have\\ social\\ mobility\\,\\ and\\ remember\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ only\\ different\\ from\\ me\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ born\\ to\\ a\\ different\\ family\\ and\\ neighborhood\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ sucks\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ underclass\\ and\\ it\\ could\\ just\\ have\\ easily\\ have\\ been\\ them\\ and\\ not\\ me\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ white\\ people\\ can\\ check\\ their\\ defensiveness\\ and\\ just\\ LISTEN\\ to\\ the\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\.\\ Take\\ one\\ for\\ the\\ team\\,\\ if\\ necessary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ white\\ people\\ can\\ educate\\ themselves\\ by\\ reading\\ about\\ inequalities\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ relying\\ on\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ to\\ teach\\ them\\.\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ us\\.\\ They\\ can\\ also\\ teach\\ other\\ white\\ people\\ when\\ issues\\ of\\ race\\ and\\ racism\\ come\\ up\\ or\\ ignorant\\ comments\\ are\\ made\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ the\\ group\\ being\\ defended\\.\\ A\\ black\\ woman\\ saying\\ racism\\ sucks\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ typical\\ black\\ woman\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ person\\ concerned\\ about\\ social\\ equality\\.\\ A\\ white\\ person\\ saying\\ the\\ same\\ is\\ listened\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ white\\ people\\ can\\ purchase\\ non\\-racist\\ things\\,\\ like\\ clear\\ bandages\\ rather\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;flesh\\&rdquo\\;\\ colored\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ white\\ people\\ can\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ uncomfortable\\ conversations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ white\\ people\\ can\\ accept\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ get\\ things\\ wrong\\ and\\ just\\ cowboy\\ up\\ about\\ it\\.\\ You\\ make\\ mistakes\\ when\\ you\\ learn\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ok\\ to\\ make\\ mistakes\\ as\\ you\\ learn\\ about\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ experiences\\.\\ Ask\\ questions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ thinking\\ it\\,\\ there\\ are\\ probably\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ wondering\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Being\\ Biracial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Passing\\ as\\ white\\ \\(not\\ disclosing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Viewed\\ with\\ skepticism\\ by\\ white\\ people\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ really\\ Mexican\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ just\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cool\\ to\\ not\\ be\\ white\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Viewed\\ with\\ skepticism\\/contempt\\ by\\ Mexican\\ people\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ really\\ Mexican\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ everyone\\ treats\\ you\\ like\\ a\\ white\\ girl\\ and\\ you\\ act\\ like\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Being\\ grateful\\ to\\ look\\ white\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ privilege\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ confusion\\,\\ misfit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ anyone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinion\\ of\\ whether\\ I\\ count\\ as\\ Mexican\\ or\\ white\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ can\\ only\\ know\\ my\\ experience\\ if\\ you\\ live\\ my\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ all\\ people\\ can\\ not\\ assume\\ they\\ know\\ what\\ your\\ race\\ is\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Being\\ Light\\-skinned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\La\\ guera\\,\\ la\\ rubia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PASSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Differences\\ between\\ me\\ and\\ my\\ brother\\ \\(he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ much\\ darker\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ disclose\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ disclose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ someone\\ who\\ passes\\,\\ I\\ am\\ invisible\\.\\ I\\ can\\ do\\ anything\\,\\ shop\\ in\\ any\\ store\\,\\ fit\\ in\\ anywhere\\.\\ I\\ have\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ privileges\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ Mexican\\,\\ I\\ am\\ invisible\\ to\\ non\\-white\\ people\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ their\\ group\\.\\ I\\ am\\ not\\ treated\\ as\\ an\\ insider\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ treated\\ as\\ an\\ outsider\\.\\ Especially\\ when\\ they\\ find\\ out\\ my\\ race\\,\\ but\\ that\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ Spanish\\ fluently\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Growing\\ Up\\ Poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Underclass\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ were\\ on\\ welfare\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\My\\ parents\\ went\\ to\\ jail\\/prison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ Mexicans\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ consistent\\ with\\ stereotype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\ drug\\ addiction\\ \\(and\\ requisite\\ consequences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ death\\,\\ crime\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helicopters\\ with\\ search\\ lights\\ in\\ the\\ alley\\ off\\ of\\ my\\ bedroom\\ keeping\\ me\\ from\\ sleeping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ way\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ college\\ was\\ scholarship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ school\\ was\\ the\\ way\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fine\\ in\\ elementary\\/junior\\ high\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ everyone\\ was\\ the\\ same\\ \\(racial\\ diversity\\,\\ but\\ everyone\\ was\\ poor\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tougher\\ in\\ high\\ school\\ \\(thrift\\ store\\ clothing\\)\\,\\ but\\ went\\ to\\ an\\ arts\\ high\\ school\\,\\ so\\ creativity\\ was\\ valued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Currency\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ artistic\\ talent\\,\\ physical\\ attractiveness\\,\\ \\(intellectual\\ acuity\\,\\ to\\ a\\ degree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ people\\ to\\ know\\ where\\ I\\ was\\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encountering\\ flashers\\,\\ would\\-be\\ kidnappers\\,\\ child\\ molesters\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ my\\ bus\\ stop\\ \\(child\\ molesters\\ are\\ in\\ wealthy\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ too\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ often\\ restricted\\ to\\ private\\ quarters\\ than\\ in\\ public\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ sometimes\\ still\\ hard\\ to\\ see\\ affluence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ have\\ a\\ reactionary\\ bias\\ to\\ having\\ felt\\ less\\-than\\ growing\\ up\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ culture\\ still\\ evident\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ loud\\,\\ swear\\,\\ fear\\ of\\ poverty\\,\\ little\\ financial\\ knowledge\\,\\ self\\-conscious\\ about\\ not\\ having\\ nice\\ stuff\\,\\ feel\\ unworthy\\ of\\ nice\\ stuff\\,\\ expect\\ to\\ always\\ struggle\\ w\\/\\ money\\/never\\ own\\ a\\ home\\,\\ fear\\ of\\ making\\ money\\/selling\\ out\\,\\ comfort\\ in\\ poor\\ Mexican\\ neighborhoods\\/working\\ with\\ poor\\ Mexican\\ clients\\,\\ feeling\\ like\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ belong\\ in\\ affluent\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kids\\ at\\ school\\ having\\ kids\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mexican\\ or\\ black\\,\\ never\\ the\\ white\\ girls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ strength\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ gotten\\ from\\ growing\\ up\\ poor\\ is\\ that\\ I\\ am\\ resourceful\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ not\\ waste\\ and\\ I\\ know\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ strength\\ is\\ that\\ I\\ appreciate\\ \\(probably\\ too\\ much\\)\\ everything\\ I\\ have\\ and\\ am\\ given\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ am\\ grateful\\ for\\ time\\,\\ consideration\\,\\ stuff\\,\\ educational\\ grants\\ and\\ loans\\,\\ public\\ access\\ to\\ resources\\ like\\ libraries\\,\\ parks\\,\\ the\\ ocean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ am\\ proud\\ of\\ prioritizing\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ people\\ people\\ are\\ rather\\ than\\ their\\ pedigrees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ allies\\,\\ affluent\\ and\\ middle\\ class\\ people\\ can\\ question\\ their\\ assumptions\\ about\\ resources\\ and\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ being\\ poor\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ choice\\.\\ Poor\\ people\\ are\\ a\\ group\\ that\\ is\\ still\\ openly\\ scorned\\ and\\ blamed\\ and\\ made\\ fun\\ of\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ funny\\ to\\ be\\ poor\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ terrifying\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ funny\\ to\\ have\\ your\\ mannerisms\\,\\ taste\\,\\ expectations\\ single\\ you\\ out\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ humiliating\\ to\\ not\\ know\\ the\\ norms\\ and\\ infuriating\\ to\\ be\\ shown\\ that\\ your\\ way\\ of\\ being\\ is\\ less\\-than\\.\\ Growing\\ up\\ in\\ poverty\\ never\\ leaves\\ you\\ and\\ is\\ never\\ cool\\.\\ You\\ are\\ always\\ terrified\\ there\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ enough\\.\\ You\\ distrust\\ cops\\.\\ You\\ are\\ grateful\\ for\\ public\\ assistance\\ and\\ hope\\ to\\ god\\ politicians\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ welfare\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ win\\ elections\\.\\ Growing\\ up\\ in\\ poverty\\ means\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ connections\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ job\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ great\\ references\\,\\ you\\ had\\ crappy\\ medical\\ care\\.\\ And\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ your\\ fault\\.\\ My\\ father\\ lost\\ all\\ his\\ teeth\\ in\\ his\\ 40s\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ never\\ went\\ to\\ a\\ dentist\\.\\ If\\ your\\ teeth\\ are\\ crooked\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ getting\\ braces\\.\\ You\\ have\\ nothing\\ good\\ to\\ trade\\ at\\ lunch\\.\\ Your\\ stuff\\ gets\\ stolen\\ at\\ home\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ break\\ into\\ your\\ house\\ without\\ anyone\\ noticing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chaos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ knowing\\ if\\ we\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ evicted\\ each\\ month\\,\\ not\\ knowing\\ if\\ my\\ father\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ San\\ Quentin\\ or\\ would\\ make\\ it\\ out\\ alive\\,\\ not\\ knowing\\ if\\ we\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ caught\\ bouncing\\ checks\\ at\\ the\\ supermarket\\ and\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Father\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ finish\\ high\\ school\\ \\(joined\\ Marines\\,\\ GI\\ bill\\ got\\ him\\ to\\ college\\,\\ grades\\ got\\ him\\ to\\ law\\ school\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mother\\ valued\\ intellectual\\ growth\\,\\ academic\\ achievement\\ \\(had\\ some\\ college\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ 1\\ person\\ on\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\ finished\\ college\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ am\\ proud\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ my\\ achievement\\ means\\ in\\ my\\ family\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ deal\\ and\\ also\\ gives\\ the\\ younger\\ generations\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ am\\ proud\\ of\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ help\\ people\\ without\\ resources\\ to\\ navigate\\ the\\ system\\ \\(getting\\ in\\ to\\ college\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ Harvard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\I\\ felt\\ more\\ comfortable\\ in\\ undergrad\\ at\\ Stanford\\,\\ where\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ larger\\ Mexican\\ population\\ \\(still\\ not\\ very\\ big\\,\\ though\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clothes\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ comfortable\\ in\\ are\\ considered\\ inappropriate\\ here\\ \\(tight\\ jeans\\,\\ big\\ hoop\\ earrings\\,\\ tank\\ tops\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ California\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ poor\\ and\\ Mexican\\ culture\\,\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clothes\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ comfortable\\ in\\ are\\ considered\\ inappropriate\\ in\\ financially\\ successful\\ circles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ no\\ Mexican\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ psychology\\ department\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ professors\\ or\\ students\\.\\ There\\ are\\ black\\ people\\ and\\ Asian\\ people\\ and\\ white\\ people\\,\\ but\\ no\\ Latinos\\.\\ There\\ are\\ Latino\\ janitors\\.\\ That\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ time\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ hear\\ Spanish\\ being\\ spoken\\ in\\ the\\ building\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ group\\ for\\ grad\\ students\\ of\\ color\\.\\ It\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ DuBois\\ group\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ almost\\ entirely\\ black\\.\\ At\\ a\\ big\\,\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ event\\,\\ I\\ sat\\ at\\ the\\ only\\ Latino\\ table\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\ of\\ us\\ were\\ students\\,\\ 2\\ others\\ were\\ their\\ dates\\.\\ There\\ were\\ at\\ least\\ 60\\ other\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ room\\,\\ all\\ black\\.\\ Where\\ are\\ the\\ Mexican\\ grad\\ students\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ the\\ Mexican\\ professors\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\ know\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ into\\ Harvard\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ my\\ race\\.\\ Requirements\\ for\\ grad\\ school\\ are\\ way\\ too\\ great\\ and\\ hard\\ to\\ achieve\\ and\\ that\\ just\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ into\\ play\\.\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ bonus\\,\\ but\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ your\\ work\\ is\\ too\\ important\\ to\\ your\\ advisor\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ matter\\.\\ As\\ an\\ undergrad\\,\\ I\\ always\\ questioned\\ whether\\ it\\ played\\ a\\ part\\ and\\ what\\ other\\ people\\ thought\\.\\ I\\ did\\ great\\,\\ but\\ I\\ always\\ felt\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ like\\ a\\ fraud\\.\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ more\\ than\\ white\\ people\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ equally\\ worthy\\ of\\ your\\ achievements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mead\\:\\ Coming\\ of\\ Age\\ in\\ Samoa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\ X\\:\\ The\\ Experience\\ and\\ Individuality\\ of\\ the\\ Average\\ Girl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\interacted\\ with\\ girls\\ aged\\ 10\\-20\\,\\ describes\\ what\\ their\\ life\\ was\\ like\\,\\ coming\\ of\\ age\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\their\\ main\\ activity\\ was\\ tending\\ to\\ babies\\;\\ other\\ activities\\ included\\ fishing\\,\\ weaving\\,\\ other\\ chores\\,\\ playing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ the\\ courtesy\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ tribe\\,\\ so\\ were\\ excluded\\ from\\ ceremonial\\ activities\\ and\\ convos\\ with\\ elders\\;\\ but\\ knew\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ birth\\/death\\,\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\masturbation\\ is\\ nearly\\ universal\\;\\ less\\ of\\ stigma\\ towards\\ sex\\ in\\ general\\ there\\ than\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ preadolescent\\ heterosexual\\ experimentation\\ and\\ little\\ homosexual\\ activity\\ \\(which\\,\\ there\\,\\ is\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ substitute\\ for\\ heterosex\\.\\ activity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gives\\ examples\\ of\\ various\\ girls\\ in\\ tribe\\,\\ and\\ their\\ individual\\ characters\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ much\\ variety\\ among\\ all\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\men\\ learn\\ about\\ sex\\ from\\ other\\,\\ slightly\\ older\\ men\\;\\ women\\ from\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\adolescence\\ not\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ storm\\ or\\ stress\\ in\\ general\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\ XIII\\:\\ Our\\ Educational\\ Problems\\ in\\ the\\ Light\\ of\\ Samoan\\ Contrasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\again\\ describes\\ adolescent\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lives\\ as\\ relatively\\ stress\\-free\\,\\ no\\ different\\ from\\ their\\ younger\\ female\\ counterparts\\ emotionally\\/crisis\\-wise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\then\\ asks\\ why\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ stressful\\ in\\ America\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attributes\\ part\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ casualness\\ of\\ society\\ in\\ Samoa\\;\\ also\\ to\\ the\\ multitude\\ of\\ choices\\ in\\ a\\ civilization\\ like\\ the\\ US\\:\\ religious\\,\\ sexual\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Samoan\\ life\\ also\\ lacks\\ difficult\\ situations\\,\\ conflicting\\ choices\\,\\ anxiety\\-ridden\\ situations\\/decisions\\;\\ children\\ have\\ less\\ dependence\\ on\\ parents\\ there\\,\\ as\\ are\\ basically\\ raised\\ by\\ entire\\ village\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Samoans\\ have\\ lack\\ of\\ specialization\\ of\\ feeling\\;\\ less\\ attachment\\ to\\ other\\ individuals\\ \\(parents\\,\\ husbands\\/wives\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ quiet\\ acceptance\\ of\\ physical\\ facts\\ of\\ life\\ \\(life\\,\\ death\\,\\ sex\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ definitions\\ of\\ work\\ here\\ vs\\ there\\:\\ in\\ Samoa\\,\\ work\\ is\\ constant\\,\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ exempt\\,\\ but\\ its\\ just\\ performing\\ necessities\\ to\\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ pressure\\ there\\ for\\ child\\ to\\ make\\ important\\ choices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Freeman\\,\\ 1983\\:\\ Criticisms\\ of\\ Mead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mead\\ believed\\ human\\ behavior\\ could\\ be\\ explained\\ in\\ purely\\ cultural\\ terms\\,\\ which\\ Freeman\\ argues\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mead\\ underestimated\\ complexity\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\,\\ society\\,\\ history\\,\\ psychology\\ of\\ adolescents\\ there\\;\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ complex\\ society\\,\\ with\\ subtle\\ nuances\\ she\\ overlooked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ ability\\ to\\ communicate\\ with\\ Samoans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ live\\ in\\ Samoan\\ household\\,\\ but\\ with\\ ex\\=pat\\ Americans\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ knew\\ less\\ about\\ culture\\/language\\ than\\ could\\ have\\,\\ and\\ also\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ verify\\ that\\ her\\ informants\\ were\\ telling\\ her\\ the\\ truth\\ about\\ their\\ life\\,\\ bc\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ around\\ them\\ all\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ discrepancies\\ between\\ Mead\\&rsquo\\;s\\ account\\ and\\ other\\ documents\\ concerning\\ the\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Samoan\\ culture\\ actually\\ values\\ female\\ virginity\\ extremely\\ highly\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ monitors\\ adolescent\\ girls\\ very\\ closely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guesses\\ that\\ the\\ girls\\ lied\\ to\\ Mead\\ to\\ mock\\/tease\\ her\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ taboo\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ sex\\ to\\ foreigners\\ there\\,\\ so\\ they\\ probably\\ lied\\ to\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\French\\ et\\ al\\,\\ 2006\\ \\(Ethnic\\ identity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ discusses\\ how\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ develops\\ during\\ adolescence\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;critical\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ of\\ adolescence\\,\\ particularly\\ among\\ adolescents\\ of\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;Researchers\\ French\\ and\\ Seidman\\ researched\\ the\\ development\\ path\\ of\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ by\\ studying\\ 420\\ early\\ and\\ middle\\ adolescent\\ African\\ American\\,\\ Latino\\ American\\,\\ and\\ European\\ Americans\\ over\\ 3\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;Two\\ components\\ of\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ were\\ evaluated\\:\\ \\(1\\)group\\-esteem\\ was\\ found\\ to\\ rise\\ for\\ both\\ middle\\ and\\ early\\ adolescents\\ and\\ \\(2\\)exploration\\ rose\\ for\\ middle\\ adolescents\\.\\ \\ \\;African\\-Americans\\ and\\ Latino\\ Americans\\ were\\ overall\\ lower\\ in\\ group\\-esteem\\ but\\ have\\ greater\\ increases\\ than\\ European\\ Americans\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\,\\ particularly\\ across\\ a\\ school\\ transition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\,\\ over\\ the\\ 3\\-year\\ periods\\,\\ group\\-esteem\\ was\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ rise\\ than\\ exploration\\.\\ \\ \\;Ultimately\\,\\ although\\ group\\-esteem\\ rose\\ for\\ all\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ over\\ the\\ 3\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\,\\ it\\ was\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ rise\\ for\\ African\\-American\\ and\\ Latino\\ American\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ this\\ supports\\ prior\\ studies\\ that\\ have\\ stated\\ that\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ will\\ be\\ more\\ salient\\ for\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ than\\ for\\ European\\ Americans\\ who\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Luthar\\ \\&\\;\\ Becker\\,\\ 2002\\ \\(Affluence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ study\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ build\\ on\\ preliminary\\ findings\\ of\\ unusually\\ high\\ internalizing\\ symptoms\\ and\\ substance\\ use\\ among\\ suburban\\ high\\ school\\ students\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sample\\ consisted\\ of\\ 302\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;grade\\ students\\ in\\ an\\ affluent\\,\\ suburban\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ findings\\ of\\ this\\ study\\ corroborated\\ with\\ prior\\ ones\\,\\ specifically\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vulnerability\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ results\\ showed\\ \\(1\\)\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ clinically\\ significant\\ depressive\\ symptoms\\ among\\ older\\ girls\\,\\ \\(2\\)\\ significant\\ links\\ between\\ various\\ internalizing\\ symptoms\\ and\\ substance\\ use\\ among\\ both\\ boys\\ and\\ girls\\,\\ and\\ \\(3\\)\\ peer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\ of\\ substance\\ use\\ among\\ older\\ boys\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ question\\ after\\ these\\ results\\ is\\:\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ distress\\ in\\ this\\ sample\\?\\ The\\ study\\ suggested\\ achievement\\ pressures\\ \\(particularly\\ excessive\\ perfectionistic\\ strivings\\)\\ and\\ isolation\\ from\\ parents\\ \\(particularly\\ low\\ perceived\\ closeness\\ to\\ mothers\\)\\ as\\ potential\\ reasons\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Steele\\,\\ 1997\\ \\(Stereotype\\ threat\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ article\\,\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ domain\\ identification\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ achievement\\ barriers\\ faced\\ by\\ women\\ in\\ advanced\\ quantitative\\ areas\\ and\\ by\\ African\\ Americans\\ in\\ school\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ theory\\ assumes\\ that\\ sustained\\ school\\ success\\ requires\\ identification\\ with\\ the\\ school\\ and\\ its\\ sub\\ domains\\ and\\ that\\ societal\\ pressures\\ on\\ these\\ groups\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ economic\\ disadvantage\\,\\ gender\\ roles\\)\\ can\\ hinder\\ this\\ identification\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ in\\ school\\ domains\\ where\\ these\\ groups\\ are\\ negatively\\ stereotyped\\,\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ become\\ domain\\ identified\\ face\\ further\\ barriers\\ of\\ stereotype\\ threat\\:\\ the\\ threat\\ that\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgments\\ or\\ their\\ own\\ actions\\ will\\ negatively\\ stereotype\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Research\\ in\\ this\\ area\\ has\\ shown\\ that\\ this\\ threat\\ heavily\\ depresses\\ the\\ standardized\\ test\\ performances\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ African\\-Americans\\ who\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ academic\\ forefront\\ of\\ their\\ groups\\ \\(suggesting\\ a\\ new\\ interpretation\\ of\\ group\\ differences\\ in\\ standardized\\ test\\ performance\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;stereotype\\ threat\\&rdquo\\;\\ also\\ causes\\ disidentification\\ with\\ school\\,\\ and\\ that\\ practices\\ that\\ reduce\\ this\\ threat\\ \\(such\\ as\\ role\\ models\\,\\ valuing\\ multiple\\ perspectives\\,\\ building\\ self\\-efficacy\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ can\\ reduce\\ these\\ negative\\ effects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risk\\ and\\ Resilience\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Millstein\\,\\ S\\.G\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Halpern\\-Felsher\\,\\ B\\.L\\.\\,\\ Judgments\\ about\\ risk\\ and\\ perceived\\ invulnerability\\ in\\ adolescents\\ and\\ young\\ adults\\-\\ Study\\ of\\ 577\\ adolescents\\ and\\ young\\ adults\\ were\\ examined\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ age\\ affects\\ risk\\ judgments\\ and\\ perceptions\\ of\\ invulnerability\\.\\ \\ \\;Adolescents\\ were\\ less\\ likely\\ than\\ were\\ young\\ adults\\ to\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ invulnerable\\,\\ and\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ minority\\ of\\ adolescents\\ evidenced\\ such\\ perceptions\\.\\ \\ \\;Moreover\\,\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ perceptions\\ about\\ the\\ magnitude\\ of\\ their\\ personal\\ risk\\ for\\ experiencing\\ negative\\ outcomes\\ showed\\ an\\ inverse\\ relation\\ to\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ participants\\ were\\ inaccurate\\ and\\ significantly\\ overestimated\\ risks\\,\\ especially\\ adolescents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Masten\\,\\ et\\ al\\.\\ \\,\\ Competence\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ adversity\\:\\ Pathways\\ to\\ resilience\\ and\\ maladaptation\\ from\\ childhood\\ to\\ late\\ adolescence\\-\\ An\\ urban\\ community\\ sample\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ located\\ factors\\ of\\ resiliency\\.\\ \\ \\;Better\\ intellectual\\ functioning\\ and\\ parenting\\ resources\\ were\\ associated\\ with\\ good\\ outcomes\\ across\\ competence\\ domains\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ severe\\,\\ chronic\\ adversity\\.\\ \\ \\;IQ\\ and\\ parenting\\ appeared\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ specific\\ protective\\ role\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ antisocial\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;Resilient\\ adolescents\\ \\(high\\ adversity\\,\\ adequate\\ competence\\ across\\ three\\ domains\\ \\(academic\\ achievement\\,\\ conduct\\,\\ and\\ peer\\ social\\ competence\\)\\)\\ had\\ much\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ their\\ low\\-adversity\\ competent\\ peers\\,\\ including\\ average\\ or\\ better\\ IQ\\,\\ parenting\\,\\ and\\ psychological\\ well\\ beings\\.\\ \\ \\;IQ\\ and\\ parenting\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ main\\ factors\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ resiliency\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ severe\\ adversity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Olsson\\,\\ C\\.A\\.\\,\\ Bond\\,\\ L\\.\\,\\ Burns\\,\\ J\\.M\\.\\,\\ Adolescent\\ resilience\\:\\ A\\ concept\\ analysis\\-\\ This\\ article\\ uses\\ empirical\\ data\\ to\\ better\\ define\\ resiliency\\:\\ a\\ dynamic\\ process\\ involving\\ an\\ interaction\\ between\\ both\\ risk\\ and\\ protective\\ processes\\,\\ internal\\ and\\ external\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ that\\ act\\ to\\ modify\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ an\\ adverse\\ life\\ event\\;\\ an\\ ability\\ to\\ recover\\ from\\ negative\\ events\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thriving\\ not\\ surviving\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emerging\\ Adulthood\\ by\\ JJ\\ Arnett\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\-\\ A\\ Longer\\ Road\\ to\\ Adulthood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ age\\ of\\ true\\ adulthood\\ has\\ been\\ rising\\ throughout\\ the\\ last\\ half\\ century\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ average\\ age\\ of\\ marriage\\ went\\ from\\ 20\\ to\\ 25\\ for\\ women\\,\\ and\\ 22\\ to\\ 27\\ for\\ men\\ from\\ 1950\\ to\\ 2000\\.\\ \\ \\;Teens\\ tend\\ to\\ move\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ parents\\ house\\ around\\ age\\ 18\\ or\\ 19\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ become\\ true\\ adults\\ until\\ their\\ mid\\ to\\ late\\ 20s\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ period\\ between\\ adolescence\\ and\\ adulthood\\ is\\ called\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 5\\ main\\ features\\ of\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ Identity\\ exploration\\ in\\ both\\ love\\ and\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Instability\\-\\ know\\ they\\ need\\ a\\ Plan\\,\\ but\\ often\\ have\\ to\\ revise\\ it\\ \\(ex\\.\\ changing\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;major\\ or\\ location\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ Self\\-focused\\-\\ it\\ is\\ normal\\ and\\ healthy\\ to\\ self\\-focus\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ become\\ self\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;sufficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ Feeling\\ in\\-between\\ \\(in\\ transition\\ between\\ adolescent\\ and\\ adult\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ Age\\ of\\ possibilities\\-\\ high\\ hopes\\ and\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\ is\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;late\\ adolescence\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;young\\ adulthood\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;transition\\ to\\ adulthood\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;youth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\ exists\\ mainly\\ in\\ the\\ industrialized\\ countries\\ of\\ the\\ West\\,\\ and\\ Asian\\ countries\\ such\\ as\\ Japan\\ and\\ South\\ Korea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ certain\\ cultural\\ aspects\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ or\\ region\\ affect\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ emerging\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;adulthood\\,\\ such\\ as\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ and\\ socioeconomic\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\-\\ What\\ Is\\ It\\ Like\\ to\\ Be\\ an\\ Emerging\\ Adult\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\ Profiles\\ of\\ real\\ emerging\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rosa\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Choking\\ Life\\ for\\ All\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Got\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 24\\ year\\ old\\ UC\\ Berkeley\\ grad\\ with\\ a\\ degree\\ in\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Has\\ had\\ a\\ couple\\ jobs\\ since\\ graduation\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ any\\ of\\ them\\ as\\ permanent\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ just\\ going\\ to\\ hop\\ around\\ for\\ awhile\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Has\\ had\\ the\\ same\\ boyfriend\\ for\\ 3\\ years\\ and\\ expects\\ they\\ will\\ marry\\,\\ but\\ feels\\ that\\ she\\ needs\\ to\\ develop\\ her\\ own\\ identity\\ more\\ before\\ marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ gets\\ along\\ well\\ with\\ her\\ parents\\,\\ despite\\ some\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ of\\ them\\,\\ and\\ between\\ Rosa\\ and\\ her\\ older\\ brother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ is\\ half\\ Mexican\\ and\\ half\\ Chinese\\ and\\ embraces\\ her\\ identity\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ Chinese\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ For\\ the\\ future\\ she\\ dreams\\ of\\ opening\\ a\\ bakery\\ and\\ starting\\ a\\ family\\ with\\ her\\ boyfriend\\,\\ and\\ continuing\\ to\\ learn\\ throughout\\ her\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Steve\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Who\\ Knows\\ What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Going\\ to\\ Happen\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 23\\ year\\ old\\ waiter\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ love\\ of\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ thinks\\ he\\ will\\ probably\\ end\\ up\\ becoming\\ an\\ engineer\\ like\\ his\\ dad\\ but\\ is\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;treading\\ water\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Has\\ had\\ a\\ girlfriend\\ for\\ two\\ months\\ and\\ they\\ spend\\ most\\ of\\ their\\ time\\ together\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ thinking\\ about\\ marriage\\ yet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Is\\ also\\ uncertain\\ about\\ his\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Despite\\ uncertainty\\ he\\ believes\\ his\\ life\\ will\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ his\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ lives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ Highly\\ Portable\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 27\\ year\\ old\\ Princeton\\ grad\\ who\\ majored\\ in\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Expects\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ full\\ life\\ and\\ sees\\ no\\ reason\\ why\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fit\\ many\\ things\\ into\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Had\\ privileged\\ upbringing\\,\\ but\\ was\\ not\\ protected\\ from\\ wounds\\ of\\ being\\ Black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ feels\\ he\\ has\\ reached\\ adulthood\\,\\ but\\ still\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ exploration\\ and\\ instability\\ in\\ career\\,\\ love\\,\\ and\\ religious\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Even\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ where\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ begin\\ to\\ settle\\ down\\,\\ he\\ still\\ likes\\ to\\ explore\\ and\\ tolerates\\ the\\ instability\\ that\\ goes\\ along\\ with\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Angela\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ Want\\ to\\ Get\\ My\\ Life\\ in\\ Order\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 21\\ years\\ old\\ and\\ just\\ moved\\ back\\ to\\ Missouri\\ after\\ 2\\ years\\ at\\ Michigan\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Has\\ known\\ since\\ high\\ school\\ that\\ she\\ wanted\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ career\\ in\\ horticulture\\,\\ and\\ majored\\ in\\ it\\ at\\ Michigan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Her\\ parents\\ divorced\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ four\\ so\\ she\\ grew\\ up\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\,\\ stepfather\\ and\\ 2\\ siblings\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ gets\\ along\\ well\\ with\\ he\\ mother\\ but\\ not\\ her\\ stepfather\\,\\ and\\ has\\ not\\ seen\\ her\\ real\\ father\\ for\\ seven\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ has\\ been\\ dating\\ her\\ boyfriend\\ for\\ about\\ a\\ year\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ plan\\ on\\ marrying\\ him\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ reservations\\ about\\ the\\ relationship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ wants\\ to\\ get\\ married\\ and\\ have\\ kids\\ someday\\,\\ but\\ not\\ until\\ her\\ life\\ is\\ in\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ is\\ happy\\ with\\ her\\ life\\ and\\ has\\ high\\ hopes\\ for\\ the\\ future\\,\\ even\\ though\\ right\\ now\\ she\\ is\\ adrift\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\ and\\ Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ All\\ four\\ are\\ engaged\\ in\\ identity\\ exploration\\ in\\ love\\ and\\ work\\,\\ which\\ tend\\ to\\ go\\ along\\ with\\ instability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Their\\ concentration\\ on\\ identity\\ exploration\\ makes\\ this\\ time\\ in\\ their\\ life\\ self\\-focused\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ However\\,\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ confident\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ get\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ out\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\-\\ The\\ Age\\ of\\ Possibilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ emerging\\ adulthood\\,\\ adolescents\\ can\\ transform\\ their\\ lives\\ and\\ start\\ a\\ new\\ path\\ different\\ from\\ their\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Is\\ it\\ too\\ late\\ for\\ those\\ children\\ whose\\ lives\\ are\\ heading\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\ direction\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\ case\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jeremy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ Equipped\\ to\\ Make\\ Better\\ Judgments\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Parents\\ divorced\\,\\ remarried\\ each\\ other\\,\\ he\\ divorced\\ again\\ before\\ her\\ was\\ three\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ His\\ mother\\ remarried\\ twice\\,\\ both\\ to\\ abusive\\ men\\,\\ so\\ at\\ age\\ 11\\,\\ Jeremy\\ moved\\ in\\ with\\ his\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ fell\\ in\\ with\\ a\\ bad\\ crowd\\,\\ got\\ in\\ fights\\,\\ and\\ spent\\ time\\ in\\ juvenile\\ jail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Then\\ he\\ tried\\ moving\\ in\\ back\\ with\\ his\\ mother\\ at\\ age\\ 15\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ no\\ better\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ got\\ an\\ apartment\\ by\\ himself\\ and\\ drank\\,\\ smoked\\ pot\\ and\\ did\\ \\&ldquo\\;other\\ wild\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Now\\ at\\ age\\ 25\\ he\\ is\\ engaged\\,\\ attending\\ college\\ and\\ working\\ 20\\-30\\ hours\\ a\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\ Meeting\\ his\\ finacee\\ pushed\\ him\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ direction\\,\\ and\\ becoming\\ an\\ emerging\\ adult\\ meant\\ learning\\ how\\ to\\ handle\\ the\\ challenges\\ life\\ threw\\ at\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nicole\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ Need\\ to\\ Experience\\ Freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Mother\\ had\\ a\\ nervous\\ breakdown\\,\\ and\\ Nicole\\ became\\ the\\ responsible\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ household\\ at\\ age\\ 6\\ \\(cleaned\\,\\ cares\\ for\\ her\\ siblings\\,\\ bought\\ food\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Once\\ she\\ reached\\ emerging\\ adulthood\\,\\ she\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ shift\\ her\\ focus\\ to\\ personal\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ worked\\ full\\ time\\ and\\ took\\ evening\\ courses\\,\\ getting\\ excellent\\ grades\\ and\\ eventually\\ a\\ Ph\\.D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ is\\ now\\ 25\\ with\\ a\\ great\\ job\\ and\\ is\\ very\\ \\&ldquo\\;professional\\ and\\ polished\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ She\\ was\\ very\\ focused\\ and\\ optimistic\\ and\\ did\\ what\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ change\\ her\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bridget\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Not\\ I\\ Answer\\ to\\ Myself\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Grew\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ dysfunctional\\ family\\ and\\ endured\\ physical\\ and\\ emotional\\ abuse\\ during\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Says\\ her\\ religious\\ faith\\ helped\\ her\\ get\\ through\\ it\\ and\\ become\\ a\\ healthy\\ 23\\ year\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Did\\ a\\ year\\ of\\ college\\ in\\ Sweden\\,\\ which\\ helped\\ her\\ realize\\ she\\ no\\ longer\\ needed\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ her\\ family\\,\\ and\\ that\\ she\\ could\\ be\\ self\\-sufficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Wants\\ to\\ get\\ married\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ family\\ some\\ day\\,\\ and\\ hopes\\ for\\ a\\ job\\ as\\ a\\ teacher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Her\\ life\\ is\\ still\\ uncertain\\,\\ but\\ she\\ believes\\ her\\ future\\ is\\ bright\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Derek\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ Feel\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ Been\\ Very\\ Fortunate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Was\\ put\\ up\\ for\\ adoption\\ and\\ his\\ adoptive\\ father\\ was\\ an\\ alcoholic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ couple\\ divorced\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ passed\\ to\\ an\\ aunt\\ and\\ uncle\\,\\ grandparents\\ and\\ then\\ boarding\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ 90\\%\\ white\\ area\\,\\ which\\ was\\ hard\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ Black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ was\\ felt\\ anxiety\\ about\\ school\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Once\\ he\\ became\\ and\\ emerging\\ adult\\,\\ he\\ was\\ more\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ He\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ move\\ around\\,\\ which\\ helped\\ his\\ anxiety\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ intimate\\ relationship\\ with\\ a\\ woman\\ for\\ 2\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ At\\ 28\\,\\ he\\ is\\ still\\ unsettled\\ in\\ work\\ and\\ love\\,\\ but\\ has\\ many\\ friends\\ and\\ business\\ experience\\ and\\ he\\ enjoys\\ exploring\\ his\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Emerging\\ adulthood\\ can\\ provide\\ a\\ second\\ chance\\ for\\ kids\\ with\\ bad\\ childhoods\\,\\ given\\ the\\ right\\ motivation\\ and\\ characteristics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\-\\ From\\ Emerging\\ Adulthood\\ to\\ Young\\ Adulthood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ Does\\ it\\ Mean\\ to\\ Become\\ and\\ Adult\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 25\\ is\\ an\\ estimated\\ age\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ apply\\ to\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Marriage\\ no\\ longer\\ means\\ that\\ someone\\ has\\ reached\\ full\\ adulthood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Adulthood\\ means\\ learning\\ to\\ stand\\ alone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Three\\ main\\ criteria\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ Taking\\ responsibility\\ for\\ yourself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Making\\ independent\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ Becoming\\ financially\\ independent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Also\\ important\\ to\\ learn\\ consideration\\ for\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Reach\\ adulthood\\ not\\ by\\ a\\ single\\ event\\ but\\ through\\ a\\ gradual\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Often\\ a\\ difficult\\ process\\,\\ and\\ becoming\\ an\\ adult\\ is\\ not\\ always\\ a\\ happy\\ time\\,\\ but\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ happy\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 53, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Adolescent_Development_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Complete Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "School Transition Readings", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 138, "html": "\\\\\\School\\ Transition\\ Readings\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c8\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\School\\ Transition\\ \\(Eccles\\)\\ and\\ Dropout\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Social\\ Class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Classism\\-\\ class\\ based\\ stigma\\ and\\ assumptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ Dream\\-\\ does\\ it\\ exist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rags\\ to\\ riches\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ can\\ achieve\\ anything\\ through\\ hard\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Puritan\\ undertones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hard\\ work\\ glorified\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ failure\\ to\\ attain\\ prosperity\\ is\\ a\\ sin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ does\\ social\\ class\\ concern\\ Psych\\ 1603\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ seeing\\ how\\ social\\ class\\ influences\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ adolescents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Among\\ affluent\\ youth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ see\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ depression\\ and\\ internalizing\\ of\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suggested\\ reasons\\ are\\ that\\ among\\ other\\ successful\\ people\\,\\ one\\ faces\\:\\ 1\\.\\ achievement\\ pressures\\ 2\\.\\ perfectionism\\ and\\ 3\\.\\ a\\ disconnection\\ from\\ adults\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Adolescents\\ and\\ School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Compulsory\\ education\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ government\\ mandated\\ schooling\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ has\\ had\\ significant\\ effect\\ on\\ raising\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ adolescents\\ involved\\ in\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\School\\ Transition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ movement\\ into\\ middle\\ school\\ or\\ junior\\ high\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Student\\ grades\\ drop\\ but\\ standardized\\ test\\ results\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ Eccles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Stage\\-environment\\ fit\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ traditional\\ middle\\ school\\ environments\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ fit\\ to\\ suiting\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ adolescents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increased\\ control\\,\\ decreased\\ decision\\ making\\,\\ less\\ caring\\ relationships\\ w\\/\\ teachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ \\&ldquo\\;busy\\ work\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\FEW\\ OPPORTUNITIES\\ FOR\\ AUTONOMY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.\\ Droupouts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Forgotten\\ Half\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ secondary\\ schools\\ geared\\ almost\\ entirely\\ to\\ education\\ of\\ college\\-bound\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dropout\\ rate\\ is\\ rising\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ problem\\ as\\ educational\\ attainment\\ is\\ a\\ powerful\\ predictor\\ of\\ predicted\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Student\\ drop\\ out\\ because\\:\\ poor\\ performance\\,\\ low\\ motivation\\,\\ psychological\\ problems\\,\\ or\\ special\\ factors\\ \\(pregnancy\\,\\ need\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ family\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 53, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/School_Transition_and_Dropout.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tracking and Adolescence Readings", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 139, "html": "\\\\\\Tracking\\ and\\ Adolescence\\ Readings\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Tracking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tracking\\ is\\ separating\\ students\\ in\\ school\\ by\\ ability\\ into\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ classes\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ research\\ on\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ definitive\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ overall\\ effects\\ on\\ each\\ group\\ of\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ Eccles\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adolescents\\ at\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Percentage\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ students\\ working\\ part\\ time\\ jobs\\ up\\ between\\ 1940\\-1980\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\75\\%\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ juniors\\ work\\ during\\ school\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ jobs\\ in\\ retail\\ and\\ fast\\ food\\-lower\\ wages\\ and\\ shorter\\ shifts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ an\\ adolescent\\ works\\ may\\ depend\\ on\\ region\\ of\\ country\\,\\ age\\,\\ and\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rural\\ regions\\:\\ agricultural\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Younger\\ teens\\:\\ babysitting\\ and\\ yard\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Older\\ teens\\:\\ \\ \\;employed\\ in\\ the\\ retail\\ and\\ service\\ industries\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boys\\:\\ \\ \\;manual\\ labor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Girls\\:\\ \\ \\;service\\ positions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ teenage\\ jobs\\ are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dreary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ not\\ allow\\ independent\\ behavior\\ or\\ decision\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poorly\\ supervised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ complimentary\\ to\\ school\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repetitive\\ and\\ stressful\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ injury\\ and\\ accidents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ believe\\ working\\ develops\\ responsibility\\,\\ character\\,\\ real\\ world\\ skills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ exaggerated\\ as\\ many\\ teens\\ are\\ careless\\ with\\ the\\ money\\ they\\ earn\\ and\\ the\\ responsibilities\\ they\\ gain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Premature\\ Affluence\\:\\ students\\ cannot\\ maintain\\ level\\ of\\ discretionary\\ spending\\ during\\ high\\ school\\ when\\ they\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ and\\ have\\ bills\\,\\ rent\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Working\\ more\\ than\\ 20\\ hours\\ per\\ week\\ may\\ hurt\\ school\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increases\\ absences\\,\\ decreased\\ extra\\-curriculars\\,\\ less\\ school\\ enjoyment\\,\\ less\\ time\\ on\\ homework\\,\\ lower\\ grades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ believe\\ work\\ will\\ deter\\ teens\\ from\\ criminal\\ activity\\ by\\ keeping\\ them\\ busy\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ trouble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ research\\ shows\\ that\\ working\\ long\\ hours\\ maybe\\ associated\\ with\\ increases\\ in\\ aggression\\,\\ school\\ misconduct\\,\\ irresponsible\\ sexual\\ activity\\,\\ minor\\ delinquency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ an\\ underlying\\ variable\\ of\\ lower\\ SES\\ affecting\\ the\\ data\\ or\\ lower\\ parental\\ involvement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 53, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Tracking_and_Adolescents_at_Work.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Essays", "tags": ["harvard", "anthropology", "food"], "text": null, "id": 144, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\ Essays\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Please\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\print\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;your\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\FULL\\ NAME\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;your\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\STUDENT\\ I\\.D\\.\\ NUMBER\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\NAME\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ OF\\ YOUR\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\SECTION\\ LEADER\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(TF\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TIME\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\DAY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ your\\ section\\ on\\ the\\ cover\\ of\\ your\\ test\\ booklet\\(s\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOTE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\;\\ Your\\ arguments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;be\\ supported\\ by\\ evidence\\ drawn\\ from\\ lectures\\,\\ section\\ discussions\\,\\ and\\ \\(especially\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\course\\ readings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\ and\\ cite\\ authors\\ when\\ relevant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ According\\ to\\ Marvin\\ Harris\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Good\\ to\\ Eat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 86\\-87\\)\\,\\ the\\ Mosaic\\ Laws\\ represent\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ unassailably\\ \\&lsquo\\;correct\\&rsquo\\;\\ ecological\\ and\\ economic\\ decision\\ embodying\\ thousands\\ of\\ years\\ of\\ collective\\ wisdom\\ and\\ practical\\ experience\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ Do\\ you\\ agree\\ or\\ disagree\\?\\ \\;\\ In\\ your\\ answer\\ be\\ sure\\ to\\ address\\ alternative\\ explanations\\ of\\ the\\ Mosaic\\ dietary\\ restrictions\\.\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\ and\\ support\\ your\\ argument\\ with\\ course\\ readings\\,\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ and\\ section\\ discussions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ lecture\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Watson\\ made\\ the\\ following\\ assertion\\:\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ systems\\ of\\ food\\ exchange\\ involve\\ power\\ relationships\\.\\ \\;\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ is\\ always\\ an\\ imbalance\\ between\\ feeders\\ and\\ eaters\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ Discuss\\ this\\ proposition\\.\\ \\;\\ Do\\ you\\ agree\\ or\\ disagree\\?\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\ and\\ support\\ your\\ argument\\ with\\ course\\ readings\\,\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ and\\ section\\ discussions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ maintaining\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\halal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;diet\\ in\\ non\\-Muslim\\ societies\\.\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\ and\\ support\\ your\\ argument\\ with\\ course\\ readings\\,\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ and\\ section\\ discussions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ pig\\ is\\ never\\ just\\ a\\ pig\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ always\\ stands\\ for\\ something\\ much\\ larger\\ than\\ a\\ mere\\ domesticated\\ animal\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ Discuss\\ this\\ proposition\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ two\\ human\\ societies\\.\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\ and\\ support\\ your\\ argument\\ with\\ course\\ readings\\,\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ and\\ section\\ discussions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ social\\ hierarchies\\ in\\ rural\\ India\\ as\\ revealed\\ in\\ customs\\ relating\\ to\\ food\\,\\ cooking\\,\\ and\\ eating\\.\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\ and\\ support\\ your\\ argument\\ with\\ course\\ readings\\,\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ and\\ section\\ discussions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 56, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Food__Culture_midterm_essays.doc", "desc": "sample essays"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Essay Question 2 Outline", "tags": ["harvard", "anthropology", "food"], "text": null, "id": 146, "html": "\\\\\\Essay\\ Question\\ 2\\ Outline\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c0\\{text\\-align\\:center\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\SA70\\:\\ FOOD\\ AND\\ CULTURE\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUESTION\\ 2\\ OUTLINE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ Two\\:\\ \\ \\;Discuss\\ the\\ interconnections\\ between\\ food\\ consumption\\ and\\ body\\ image\\ in\\ human\\ societies\\.\\ In\\ your\\ answer\\ pay\\ close\\ attention\\ to\\ gender\\ distinctions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Typically\\,\\ women\\ are\\ more\\ conscious\\ of\\ their\\ bodies\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ usually\\ watch\\ what\\ goes\\ in\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ includes\\ food\\ and\\ drinks\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ commonly\\ thought\\ that\\ women\\ have\\ more\\ pressure\\ to\\ be\\ skinny\\ because\\ societies\\,\\ especially\\ developed\\ Western\\ societies\\,\\ stress\\ a\\ slender\\ appearance\\ for\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ appearances\\ are\\ seen\\ in\\ numerous\\ models\\ and\\ actresses\\ that\\ dominate\\ the\\ media\\ through\\ magazines\\,\\ televisions\\ shows\\,\\ and\\ movies\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ pressure\\ on\\ women\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ psychology\\ study\\ on\\ Fijian\\ adolescent\\ girls\\ done\\ by\\ Anne\\ E\\.\\ Becker\\ et\\ al\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Aim\\:\\ \\ \\;To\\ assess\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ novel\\,\\ prolonged\\ exposure\\ to\\ television\\ on\\ disordered\\ eating\\ attitudes\\ and\\ behaviors\\ among\\ ethnic\\ Fijian\\ adolescent\\ girls\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Method\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ prospective\\,\\ multi\\-wave\\ cross\\-sectional\\ design\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ compare\\ two\\ samples\\ of\\ Fijian\\ schoolgirls\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ prolonged\\ exposure\\ with\\ a\\ modified\\ 26\\-item\\ eating\\ attitudes\\ test\\,\\ supplemented\\ with\\ a\\ semi\\-structured\\ interview\\ to\\ confirm\\ self\\-reported\\ symptoms\\.\\ \\ \\;Narrative\\ data\\ from\\ a\\ subset\\ of\\ respondents\\ from\\ the\\ exposed\\ sample\\ were\\ analyzed\\ for\\ content\\ relating\\ television\\ exposure\\ to\\ body\\ image\\ concerns\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Results\\:\\ \\ \\;Key\\ indicators\\ of\\ disordered\\ eating\\ were\\ significantly\\ more\\ prevalent\\ following\\ exposure\\.\\ \\ \\;Narrative\\ data\\ revealed\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ interest\\ in\\ weight\\ loss\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ modeling\\ themselves\\ after\\ television\\ characters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusions\\:\\ \\ \\;This\\ naturalistic\\ experiment\\ suggests\\ a\\ negative\\ impact\\ of\\ television\\ upon\\ disordered\\ eating\\ attitudes\\ and\\ behaviors\\ in\\ a\\ media\\-na\\ï\\;ve\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ psychology\\ study\\ suggests\\ that\\ women\\ exposed\\ to\\ Western\\ media\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ negative\\ body\\ image\\ because\\ the\\ Western\\ woman\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ extremely\\ skinny\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ is\\ that\\ eating\\ disorders\\ and\\ poor\\ body\\ image\\ was\\ rare\\ in\\ Fiji\\ before\\ television\\ became\\ so\\ popular\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ other\\ side\\,\\ men\\ are\\ also\\ pressured\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;six\\ pack\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Professor\\ Watson\\ stressed\\ in\\ lecture\\ on\\ Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ pressured\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ shape\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ sexually\\ appealing\\ to\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ used\\ a\\ Men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Health\\ magazine\\ cover\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ importance\\ for\\ men\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ shape\\,\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;six\\ pack\\ abs\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;fulfill\\ every\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ difference\\ between\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pressures\\ and\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pressures\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ purely\\ to\\ be\\ skinny\\ whereas\\ the\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pressure\\ to\\ be\\ skinny\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ sexual\\ appeal\\ for\\ the\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\ Watson\\ also\\ stressed\\ that\\ male\\ body\\ image\\ is\\ different\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ said\\ that\\ in\\ India\\,\\ strength\\ matters\\,\\ not\\ defined\\ muscles\\ that\\ are\\ commonly\\ seen\\ in\\ American\\ body\\ builders\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ referenced\\ Jospeh\\ Alter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ on\\ Body\\ Image\\ and\\ Wrestlers\\ in\\ India\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ mentioned\\ that\\ wrestlers\\ in\\ India\\ eat\\ a\\ completely\\ different\\ diet\\ than\\ American\\ Body\\ Builders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ same\\ goes\\ for\\ East\\ Asian\\ Wrestlers\\ and\\ Sumo\\ Wrestlers\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ said\\ that\\ these\\ men\\ eat\\ stew\\ from\\ a\\ large\\ pot\\ that\\ is\\ prepared\\ and\\ eaten\\ in\\ seniority\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ biggest\\,\\ toughest\\,\\ and\\ oldest\\ men\\ eat\\ the\\ best\\ food\\ in\\ the\\ pot\\ and\\ then\\ smaller\\,\\ less\\ tough\\,\\ and\\ younger\\ men\\ eat\\ what\\ is\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ that\\ body\\ image\\ is\\ affected\\ by\\ exposure\\ to\\ western\\ societies\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ western\\ societies\\ that\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ obese\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ David\\ Cutler\\ \\(guest\\ lecture\\)\\ US\\ is\\ second\\ most\\ obese\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Japanese\\ least\\ obese\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ US\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ are\\ overweight\\.\\ \\ \\;Perhaps\\ problem\\ is\\ because\\ get\\ bigger\\ portions\\ in\\ US\\ and\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cooking\\ at\\ home\\ as\\ much\\.\\ Obesity\\ is\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\:\\ have\\ cars\\ so\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ walk\\,\\ have\\ packaged\\ food\\ so\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ cook\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Perhaps\\ obese\\ is\\ majority\\ and\\ society\\ prizes\\ what\\ is\\ different\\,\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ skinny\\ is\\ so\\ idolized\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ media\\ and\\ social\\ norms\\ have\\ brought\\ along\\ obsessions\\ for\\ skinny\\ figure\\ for\\ women\\ and\\ huge\\ muscles\\ for\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ semi\\ representation\\ of\\ gender\\ differences\\ within\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 56, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SA70_QUESTION_2_outline.doc", "desc": "Question 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Essay Question 3 Outline", "tags": ["harvard", "anthropology", "food"], "text": null, "id": 147, "html": "\\\\\\Essay\\ Question\\ 3\\ Outline\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\SA70\\:\\ FOOD\\ AND\\ CULTURE\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUESTION\\ 3\\ OUTLINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ obesity\\ in\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ world\\.\\ How\\ does\\ obesity\\ relate\\ to\\ food\\ availability\\,\\ consumption\\ practices\\,\\ and\\ exercise\\?\\ What\\ are\\ other\\ factors\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ obesity\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ body\\ image\\ play\\ in\\ this\\ debate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 2\\ TV\\ and\\ Fijian\\ Body\\ Image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SB\\ 3\\ American\\ Obesity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obesity\\ in\\ Today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notes\\ from\\ David\\ Cutler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\substantial\\ increase\\ in\\ overweight\\ and\\ obesity\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ two\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\average\\ weight\\ is\\ up\\ by\\ about\\ 10\\ lbs\\ since\\ 1980\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\caloric\\ intake\\ vs\\.\\ outflow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\calories\\ in\\:\\ reported\\ caloric\\ intake\\ up\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ 150\\ calories\\ per\\ day\\,\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ snacks\\,\\ reported\\ from\\ diary\\ data\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ caution\\:\\ reporting\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ food\\ production\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ well\\ over\\ needed\\ amount\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ we\\ used\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ as\\ much\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Calories\\ Out\\:\\ caloric\\ expenditure\\ relatively\\ unchanged\\ in\\ past\\ few\\ decades\\,\\ time\\ use\\ about\\ the\\ same\\,\\ car\\ ridership\\ about\\ the\\ same\\,\\ growth\\ in\\ obesity\\ within\\ occupations\\ and\\ for\\ non\\-workers\\,\\ obesity\\ increase\\ for\\ children\\ and\\ adolescents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diet\\ industry\\:\\ \\$30\\-50\\ billion\\ per\\ year\\ budget\\,\\ only\\ \\%1\\-2\\ success\\ rate\\ \\(people\\ who\\ lose\\ weight\\ and\\ keep\\ it\\ off\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ correlation\\ between\\ wealth\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ and\\ obesity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Share\\ of\\ women\\ who\\ work\\ not\\ related\\ to\\ obesity\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ Question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obesity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Growing\\ problem\\ in\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\:\\ see\\ article\\ \\&ldquo\\;Why\\ Have\\ Americans\\ Become\\ More\\ Obese\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ sourcebook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ Availability\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\people\\ have\\ on\\ average\\ gained\\ about\\ 10\\ pounds\\ since\\ 1980\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mainly\\ due\\ to\\ snacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\prevalence\\ of\\ fast\\ food\\,\\ snack\\ machines\\,\\ and\\ packaged\\ goods\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ much\\ more\\ people\\ will\\ have\\ chips\\ at\\ his\\/her\\ desk\\ or\\ hit\\ a\\ drive\\ thru\\ fast\\ food\\ restaurant\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\technology\\ of\\ preservatives\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ added\\ to\\ food\\ help\\ make\\ food\\ more\\ readily\\ available\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consumption\\ Practices\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\much\\ more\\ people\\ go\\ out\\ to\\ eat\\ nowadays\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ eating\\ in\\ and\\ preparing\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ woman\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ used\\ to\\ spend\\ about\\ 30\\ minutes\\ preparing\\ the\\ meal\\ which\\ would\\ then\\ be\\ consumed\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ sit\\-down\\ family\\ meal\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\now\\ people\\ will\\ just\\ pick\\ up\\ take\\ out\\,\\ or\\ defrost\\ a\\ frozen\\ meal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Body\\ Image\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\unrealistic\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ portrayed\\ by\\ the\\ media\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ leads\\ to\\ cases\\ of\\ eating\\ disorders\\ and\\ related\\ body\\ image\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ People\\ Magazine\\,\\ filled\\ with\\ actors\\ and\\ actresses\\ who\\ fill\\ a\\ certain\\ stereotype\\ of\\ beauty\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ isolated\\ example\\ found\\ in\\ Fiji\\:\\ see\\ article\\ \\&ldquo\\;Eating\\ behaviors\\ and\\ attitudes\\ following\\ prolonged\\ exposure\\ to\\ television\\ among\\ ethnic\\ Fijian\\ adolescent\\ girls\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ sourcebook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ girls\\ in\\ Fiji\\ who\\ had\\ never\\ seen\\ American\\ television\\ shows\\ before\\ showed\\ higher\\ rates\\ of\\ eating\\ disorders\\ after\\ being\\ exposed\\ to\\ such\\ shows\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Beverly\\ Hills\\ 90210\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possible\\ Solution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ his\\ lecture\\,\\ Cutler\\ suggested\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ instate\\ a\\ food\\ tax\\ so\\ that\\ purchasing\\ food\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ appealing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ even\\ narrowed\\ his\\ suggestion\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ food\\ tax\\ would\\ only\\ apply\\ to\\ fast\\ foods\\ or\\ foods\\ that\\ were\\ particularly\\ not\\ healthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ with\\ this\\ solution\\:\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ effective\\,\\ people\\ may\\ just\\ continue\\ to\\ eat\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ eat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ have\\ concerns\\ about\\ putting\\ taxes\\ on\\ food\\,\\ and\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ effects\\ that\\ could\\ have\\ on\\ lower\\ socioeconomic\\ groups\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ obesity\\ in\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ world\\.\\ How\\ does\\ obesity\\ relate\\ to\\ food\\ availability\\,\\ consumption\\ practices\\,\\ and\\ exercise\\?\\ What\\ are\\ other\\ factors\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ obesity\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ body\\ image\\ play\\ in\\ this\\ debate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Cutler\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Why\\ Have\\ American\\&rsquo\\;s\\ become\\ more\\ obese\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ article\\ written\\ by\\ an\\ economist\\,\\ but\\ the\\ only\\ article\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ read\\ that\\ clearly\\ describes\\ the\\ connections\\ between\\ obesity\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;food\\ availability\\,\\ consumption\\ practices\\ and\\ exercise\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Below\\ is\\ a\\ full\\ outline\\ of\\ this\\ article\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ info\\ should\\ be\\ fair\\ game\\ if\\ the\\ question\\ is\\ given\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ at\\ numbers\\,\\ just\\ remember\\ the\\ trends\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Obesity\\ rates\\ have\\ doubled\\ since\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Weights\\ have\\ been\\ rising\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-calories\\ expended\\ have\\ not\\ changed\\ but\\ calories\\ consumed\\ have\\ increased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ are\\ eating\\ more\\ meals\\ rather\\ than\\ consuming\\ more\\ calories\\ per\\ meal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-lower\\ fixed\\ costs\\ of\\ food\\ preparation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-increased\\ consumption\\ of\\ mass\\ produced\\ foods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-lower\\ income\\ groups\\ and\\ married\\ women\\ \\(used\\ to\\ be\\ at\\ home\\ moms\\)\\ have\\ had\\ the\\ most\\ ability\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ technological\\ changes\\ have\\ had\\ the\\ biggest\\ increases\\ in\\ weight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-countries\\ with\\ a\\ high\\ degree\\ of\\ regulation\\ that\\ support\\ traditional\\ agriculture\\ and\\ delivery\\ systems\\ have\\ lower\\ rates\\ of\\ obesity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-standard\\ economic\\ view\\:\\ lower\\ prices\\ for\\ any\\ good\\&mdash\\;either\\ monetary\\ or\\ time\\ costs\\&mdash\\;expand\\ the\\ budget\\ set\\ and\\ make\\ people\\ better\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Reason\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Since\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ structure\\ has\\ changed\\ and\\ families\\ are\\ eating\\ out\\ more\\.\\ Families\\ used\\ to\\ cook\\ their\\ own\\ meals\\.\\ Revolution\\ in\\ the\\ mass\\ production\\ has\\ affected\\ most\\ countries\\:\\ technological\\ innovations\\&mdash\\;including\\ vacuum\\ packing\\,\\ improved\\ preservatives\\,\\ deep\\ freezing\\,\\ artificial\\ flavors\\ and\\ microwaves\\&mdash\\;have\\ enabled\\ food\\ manufacturers\\ to\\ cook\\ food\\ centrally\\ and\\ ship\\ it\\ to\\ consumers\\ for\\ rapid\\ consumption\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ French\\ fries\\ used\\ to\\ take\\ too\\ long\\ to\\ prepare\\ \\&lsquo\\;cause\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ peel\\ them\\ \\,\\ cut\\ \\,\\ and\\ cooked\\,\\ so\\ people\\ hardly\\ ate\\ potatoes\\ that\\ way\\.\\ But\\ now\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ pre\\-peeled\\,\\ cut\\,\\ and\\ ready\\ for\\ frying\\,\\ heating\\,\\ or\\ microwaving\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changing\\ Image\\ of\\ Weight\\ gain\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-an\\ increase\\ in\\ weight\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ health\\,\\ not\\ a\\ decrease\\.\\ Today\\,\\ Americans\\ are\\ gatter\\ than\\ medical\\ science\\ recommends\\,\\ and\\ weights\\ continue\\ to\\ increase\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-America\\ outranks\\ every\\ other\\ country\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ weight\\ and\\ weight\\ increase\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conflict\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-if\\ people\\ have\\ difficulty\\ with\\ self\\-control\\ issues\\,\\ lowering\\ the\\ time\\ costs\\ of\\ food\\ consumption\\ may\\ exacerbate\\ these\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\$40\\-100\\ billion\\ spent\\ annually\\ on\\ diets\\ tells\\ us\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ problems\\ with\\ self\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Body\\ Mass\\ Index\\ \\(BMI\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BMI\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ optimally\\ medically\\ or\\ too\\ low\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Between\\ 1894\\-1961\\ BMI\\ for\\ men\\ in\\ their\\ 40\\&rsquo\\;s\\ increased\\ from\\ 23\\.6\\-26\\.0\\ \\(which\\ corresponds\\ to\\ a\\ 16\\ lbs\\ increase\\)\\.\\ It\\ was\\ comparable\\ with\\ the\\ increase\\ of\\ men\\ in\\ their\\ 30\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-those\\ first\\ increases\\ were\\ a\\ major\\ source\\ of\\ improved\\ health\\.\\ But\\ the\\ increases\\ since\\ the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\ have\\ been\\ detrimental\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ the\\ past\\ 4\\ decades\\,\\ the\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ that\\ is\\ overweight\\ or\\ obese\\ increased\\ from\\ 45\\ to\\ 61\\%\\.\\ The\\ share\\ of\\ obese\\ people\\ increased\\ from\\ 13\\-27\\%\\.\\ These\\ are\\ average\\ trends\\ for\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ alike\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-married\\ women\\ and\\ women\\ with\\ exactly\\ 12\\ years\\ of\\ schooling\\ had\\ had\\ the\\ largest\\ increases\\ in\\ average\\ BMI\\.\\ These\\ groups\\ used\\ to\\ spend\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ time\\ preparing\\ foods\\ at\\ home\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ now\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Obesity\\ for\\ women\\ is\\ strongly\\ negatively\\ associated\\ with\\ education\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ more\\ educated\\ the\\ less\\ obese\\.\\ But\\ that\\ just\\ means\\ they\\ obesity\\ rate\\ is\\ increasing\\ at\\ a\\ smaller\\ rate\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ groups\\.\\ But\\ still\\ increasing\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-for\\ men\\,\\ obesity\\ is\\ independent\\ of\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-eating\\ disorders\\ \\(like\\ anorexia\\)\\ have\\ also\\ increased\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 30\\ years\\ but\\ its\\ prevalence\\ is\\ still\\ low\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ studies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-food\\ consumption\\ is\\ understated\\ in\\ food\\ diaries\\.\\ But\\ people\\ have\\ always\\ under\\-reported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ increase\\ in\\ calories\\ since\\ some\\ decades\\ ago\\ has\\ occurred\\ in\\ snacking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dinnertime\\ calories\\ have\\ fallen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ are\\ eating\\ more\\ often\\,\\ not\\ eating\\ more\\ in\\ one\\ sitting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-so\\ he\\ says\\ this\\ rules\\ out\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ obesity\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ increased\\ portion\\ sizes\\ in\\ restaurants\\.\\ If\\ this\\ were\\ true\\,\\ calories\\ at\\ main\\ meals\\ \\(like\\ dinner\\)\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ increased\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Energy\\ expenditure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-has\\ been\\ stable\\ since\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-also\\,\\ occupation\\ changes\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ major\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ recent\\ increase\\ in\\ obesity\\ since\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-commuting\\ to\\ work\\ has\\ also\\ not\\ changed\\ since\\ the\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-children\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ then\\,\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ now\\.\\ The\\ elderly\\ are\\ more\\ active\\ now\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ but\\ both\\ groups\\ are\\ more\\ obese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-therefore\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ no\\ significant\\ caloric\\ expenditure\\,\\ just\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ caloric\\ intake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proposal\\:\\ increased\\ obesity\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ reductions\\ in\\ the\\ time\\ cost\\ of\\ food\\,\\ which\\ has\\ allowed\\ more\\ frequent\\ food\\ consumption\\ of\\ greater\\ variety\\,\\ thus\\,\\ led\\ to\\ higher\\ weights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advances\\ in\\ Technology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Innovations\\ in\\ food\\ processing\\ and\\ packaging\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ 3\\ decades\\ have\\ improved\\ manufacturer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ address\\ obstacles\\ impeding\\ fast\\ preparation\\ of\\ convenient\\,\\ ready\\ for\\ consumption\\ foods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obstacles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-controlling\\ atmosphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-preventing\\ spoilage\\ due\\ to\\ microorganisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-preserving\\ flavor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-preserving\\ moisture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-controlling\\ temperature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-these\\ new\\ technologies\\ slow\\ down\\ ripening\\ and\\ prevent\\ spoilage\\,\\ hence\\ lengthening\\ shelf\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ are\\ artificial\\ flavoring\\ techniques\\ that\\ make\\ prepared\\-foods\\ more\\ appealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-american\\ technological\\ leadership\\ and\\ the\\ large\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ market\\ meant\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ innovations\\ were\\ first\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-reductions\\ in\\ the\\ time\\ cost\\ of\\ food\\ prep\\ should\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ amount\\ consumed\\,\\ just\\ as\\ reductions\\ in\\ food\\ price\\ should\\ lead\\ to\\ increased\\ consumption\\ of\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-but\\ as\\ fixed\\ costs\\ decline\\ we\\ expect\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ increase\\ in\\ calories\\ to\\ come\\ from\\ increased\\ variety\\ of\\ foods\\ and\\ frequency\\ of\\ food\\ consumption\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ more\\ food\\ during\\ each\\ meal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-more\\ trends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-food\\ items\\ with\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ commercial\\ preparation\\ have\\ increased\\ in\\ consumption\\,\\ and\\ food\\ items\\ with\\ less\\ commercial\\ preparation\\ have\\ fallen\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ fruits\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-women\\ spend\\ less\\ time\\ preparing\\ food\\ now\\ than\\ they\\ used\\ to\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ obese\\ than\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ be\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ sexes\\ may\\ be\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ variety\\ has\\ increased\\ the\\ most\\ for\\ women\\ \\(men\\ already\\ ate\\ out\\ more\\)\\ or\\ to\\ lack\\ of\\ joint\\ decision\\ making\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-reduced\\ time\\ for\\ preparing\\ food\\ should\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ effect\\ in\\ countries\\ where\\ the\\ appropriate\\ technological\\ innovations\\ are\\ encouraged\\.\\ Evidence\\ comes\\ from\\ their\\ access\\ to\\ food\\ technology\\.\\ E\\.g\\.\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ US\\ households\\ have\\ microwave\\ ovens\\,\\ while\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ where\\ obesity\\ is\\ much\\ less\\ common\\.\\ Only\\ 14\\%\\ of\\ households\\ have\\ microwaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-countries\\ with\\ higher\\ numbers\\ of\\ food\\ laws\\ have\\ lower\\ levels\\ of\\ obesity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ in\\ OECD\\ countries\\ with\\ more\\ price\\ controls\\ are\\ much\\ less\\ obese\\ than\\ people\\ in\\ countries\\ without\\ price\\ controls\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Big\\ Mac\\ prices\\ are\\ an\\ approximate\\ measure\\ of\\ relative\\ food\\ costs\\ in\\ different\\ countries\\,\\ countries\\ in\\ which\\ Big\\ Mac\\ cost\\ more\\ are\\ less\\ obese\\ than\\ countries\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ cost\\ less\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-as\\ time\\ costs\\ of\\ food\\ fall\\,\\ so\\ does\\ price\\,\\ and\\ consumption\\ increases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-control\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ overeat\\ even\\ when\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ lose\\ weight\\.\\ Food\\ brings\\ immediate\\ gratification\\,\\ while\\ health\\ costs\\ of\\ overconsumption\\ occur\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-lower\\ time\\ costs\\ of\\ food\\ preparation\\ result\\ in\\ welfare\\ loss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ have\\ difficulty\\ passing\\ up\\ current\\ pleasure\\ for\\ future\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\(hyperbolic\\ consumers\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ high\\ initial\\ weight\\ levels\\ and\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ gain\\ more\\ weight\\ with\\ further\\ improvements\\ in\\ food\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-vs\\ rational\\ consumers\\:\\ for\\ whom\\,\\ when\\ prices\\ fall\\,\\ welfare\\ increases\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-hyperbolic\\ consumers\\:\\ would\\ spend\\ more\\ than\\ is\\ optimal\\ on\\ food\\ anyway\\ so\\ if\\ price\\ is\\ lowered\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ faster\\ technology\\,\\ they\\ will\\ spend\\ even\\ more\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extremely\\ highly\\ hyperbolic\\ individuals\\ may\\ be\\ hurt\\ by\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ technology\\,\\ but\\ people\\ without\\ extreme\\ self\\-control\\ problems\\ will\\ be\\ better\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ know\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ really\\ long\\,\\ but\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ basically\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ question\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SourceBook\\ 2\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Eating\\ behaviors\\ and\\ attitudes\\ following\\ prolonged\\ exposure\\ to\\ television\\ among\\ ethnic\\ Fijian\\ adolescent\\ girls\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ analytical\\ article\\ like\\ Cutlers\\,\\ and\\ also\\ very\\ short\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ to\\ take\\ from\\ it\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Fiji\\ had\\ very\\ low\\ instances\\ of\\ eating\\ disorders\\ before\\ television\\ \\(western\\ media\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ The\\ study\\ accounted\\ that\\ after\\ exposure\\,\\ the\\ girls\\ participating\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ were\\ showing\\ signs\\ of\\ eating\\ disorders\\ \\(by\\ answering\\ questions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ clinical\\ study\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ The\\ girls\\ related\\ with\\ and\\ wanted\\ to\\ emulate\\ the\\ girls\\ on\\ TV\\,\\ like\\ Beverly\\ Hills\\ 90210\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Fijian\\ culture\\ accepts\\ large\\ women\\ and\\ large\\ appetites\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ desired\\ body\\ image\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ skinny\\,\\ Hollywood\\ like\\ the\\ girls\\ now\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ culture\\ and\\ their\\ own\\ culture\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perception\\ of\\ a\\ healthy\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Watson\\ discussed\\ Men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Health\\ magazine\\ and\\ its\\ relation\\ to\\ body\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ discussed\\ body\\ builders\\ like\\ Arnold\\ Schwarzenegger\\ and\\ others\\ from\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ \\(Sandow\\ the\\ Magnificent\\ and\\ Sumo\\ Wrestlers\\ in\\ Japan\\)\\ \\ \\;\\[Body\\-building\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ what\\ I\\ think\\ of\\ when\\ I\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ perfect\\ body\\ though\\,\\ but\\ Prof\\.\\ Watson\\ was\\ insinuating\\ this\\,\\ so\\ do\\ what\\ you\\ think\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ the\\ covers\\ of\\ Self\\ Magazine\\ and\\ Men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ when\\ I\\ think\\ of\\ body\\ image\\ these\\ days\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ skinny\\,\\ but\\ also\\ strong\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;healthy\\ looking\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ not\\ too\\ muscular\\,\\ but\\ defined\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ obesity\\ in\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ world\\.\\ How\\ does\\ obesity\\ relate\\ to\\ food\\ availability\\,\\ consumption\\ practices\\,\\ and\\ exercise\\?\\ What\\ are\\ other\\ factors\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ obesity\\?\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ body\\ image\\ play\\ in\\ this\\ debate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ two\\ main\\ sources\\ for\\ this\\ question\\:\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ David\\ M\\.\\ Cutler\\ \\(April\\ 24\\)\\ and\\ his\\ article\\ in\\ the\\ source\\ pack\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ will\\ also\\ summarize\\ the\\ Fiji\\ adolescent\\ \\/\\ TV\\ article\\ just\\ bc\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ fit\\ in\\ to\\ this\\ topic\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[All\\ notes\\ are\\ from\\ Cutler\\ unless\\ otherwise\\ noted\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Obesity\\ is\\ NOT\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ women\\ working\\ and\\ thus\\ people\\ eating\\ out\\ more\\ often\\ and\\ getting\\ fast\\ food\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ results\\ do\\ not\\ correlate\\ working\\ women\\ with\\ obese\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Something\\ interesting\\:\\ Men\\:\\ obesity\\ not\\ associated\\ with\\ socioeconomic\\ position\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\:\\ poorer\\ women\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ heavier\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consumption\\ Practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mass\\ preparation\\ of\\ food\\ \\=\\ increased\\ availability\\ of\\ food\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ as\\ long\\ to\\ prepare\\.\\ \\ \\;Uses\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;time\\ price\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ consider\\ both\\ actual\\ price\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ time\\ required\\ to\\ prepare\\ and\\ clean\\ up\\ a\\ meal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ populations\\ in\\ which\\ food\\ time\\ price\\ has\\ decreased\\ the\\ most\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ populations\\ in\\ which\\ obesity\\ has\\ increased\\ the\\ most\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ increased\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ calories\\ in\\ a\\ meal\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ meals\\/day\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ mostly\\ due\\ to\\ dramatic\\ increases\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\snacking\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Better\\ technology\\ allows\\ for\\ more\\ instant\\ gratification\\.\\ \\ \\;Decreased\\ time\\ lapse\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;between\\ desire\\ for\\ food\\ and\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ a\\ snack\\ \\(eg\\ vending\\ machines\\ at\\ offices\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Disproves\\ the\\ large\\ portion\\ sizes\\ in\\ restaurants\\ argument\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ fast\\ food\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;argument\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ already\\ have\\ trouble\\ controlling\\ weight\\ are\\ made\\ worse\\ by\\ the\\ simple\\ availability\\ of\\ the\\ food\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ place\\ where\\ the\\ time\\ price\\ comes\\ in\\:\\ snacks\\,\\ meals\\ are\\ easier\\ to\\ get\\ \\(since\\ they\\ take\\ less\\ time\\)\\,\\ so\\ people\\ eat\\ them\\ when\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ if\\ it\\ took\\ longer\\ to\\ prepare\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\major\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ways\\ in\\ which\\ food\\ prep\\/cleanup\\ has\\ gotten\\ quicker\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ microwaves\\,\\ pre\\-packaged\\ foods\\,\\ and\\ advances\\ in\\ chemical\\ flavors\\ so\\ that\\ processed\\ food\\ now\\ tastes\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ idea\\ \\(that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ trouble\\ anyways\\ who\\ get\\ fatter\\)\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ data\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ tail\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\ that\\ is\\ increasing\\,\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ whole\\ population\\ getting\\ fatter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;BMI\\ is\\ an\\ index\\ of\\ weight\\/\\(height\\ squared\\)\\,\\ and\\ while\\ the\\ general\\ population\\ has\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;increased\\ the\\ mean\\ BMI\\ by\\ 0\\.9\\,\\ the\\ 75\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;percentile\\ has\\ increased\\ its\\ BMI\\ by\\ 1\\.5\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ the\\ 95\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;percentile\\ has\\ increased\\ by\\ 2\\.7\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ Availability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Economics\\ rather\\ than\\ lifestyle\\:\\ countries\\ with\\ increased\\ price\\ control\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ pure\\ capitalism\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ more\\ food\\ laws\\ have\\ lower\\ rates\\ of\\ obesity\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ places\\ with\\ higher\\ food\\ time\\ costs\\ \\(money\\ and\\ time\\)\\ display\\ lower\\ obesity\\.\\ \\ \\;Decreased\\ availability\\ \\=\\ decreased\\ obesity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exercise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;calories\\ expended\\ have\\ not\\ changed\\ significantly\\&hellip\\;\\ calories\\ consumed\\ have\\ risen\\ markedly\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(women\\ mostly\\)\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ to\\ spend\\ so\\ much\\ time\\ \\&\\;\\ energy\\ \\(and\\ exercise\\)\\ in\\ cooking\\ food\\ for\\ themselves\\ and\\ their\\ families\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Television\\ watching\\ has\\ increased\\,\\ household\\ tasks\\ \\(energy\\)\\ has\\ decreased\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ the\\ Fiji\\/Adolescent\\ girls\\/TV\\ article\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;This\\ article\\ is\\ about\\ eating\\ disorders\\ \\(anorexia\\ and\\ bulimia\\)\\,\\ not\\ obesity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\researched\\ two\\ groups\\,\\ about\\ 65\\ teenage\\ girls\\/group\\,\\ one\\ group\\ in\\ 1995\\ and\\ another\\ in\\ 1998\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TV\\ was\\ basically\\ brought\\ to\\ Fiji\\ in\\ 1995\\,\\ so\\ they\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;media\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Previously\\,\\ eating\\ disorders\\ were\\ almost\\ unknown\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ people\\ are\\ quite\\ \\&ldquo\\;robust\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ researchers\\ used\\ a\\ test\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;EAT\\-26\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ measure\\ risk\\ factors\\ for\\ eating\\ disorders\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ at\\ risk\\ for\\ eating\\ disorders\\ generally\\ have\\ a\\ score\\ \\>\\;20\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ three\\ year\\ period\\,\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ percentage\\ with\\ an\\ at\\ risk\\ score\\ \\(\\>\\;20\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ increases\\ in\\ vomiting\\ as\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ lose\\ weight\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lots\\ of\\ interviews\\ with\\ girls\\ who\\ said\\ that\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ thin\\ like\\ the\\ girls\\ on\\ tv\\,\\ not\\ fat\\ like\\ their\\ mothers\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ potential\\ point\\ of\\ dispute\\ between\\ generations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TV\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ body\\ image\\,\\ a\\ departure\\ from\\ traditional\\ values\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ desire\\ to\\ lose\\ weight\\ was\\ not\\ associated\\ with\\ BMI\\-\\ thus\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ lose\\ weight\\ is\\ really\\ only\\ a\\ self\\ perception\\ thing\\,\\ not\\ actually\\ based\\ on\\ being\\ fat\\ or\\ thin\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 56, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SA70_QUESTION_3_Outlines1.doc", "desc": "Question 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Essay Question 4 Outline", "tags": ["harvard", "anthropology", "food"], "text": null, "id": 148, "html": "\\\\\\Essay\\ Question\\ 4\\ Outline\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c5\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c8\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c19\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c20\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c9\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\SA70\\:\\ FOOD\\ AND\\ CULTURE\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUESTION\\ 4\\ OUTLINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Many\\ scholars\\ argue\\ that\\ global\\ food\\ systems\\ become\\ \\"\\;localized\\"\\;\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ transplanted\\ from\\ one\\ society\\ to\\ another\\.\\ Others\\ make\\ the\\ \\"\\;cultural\\ imperialism\\"\\;\\ argument\\ and\\ claim\\ that\\ global\\ food\\ systems\\ constitute\\ powerful\\,\\ \\"\\;invasive\\"\\;\\ forces\\ that\\ erode\\ local\\ traditions\\.\\ \\;\\ Where\\ do\\ you\\ stand\\ in\\ this\\ debate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Potential\\ Sources\\ and\\ arguments\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Argument\\:\\ That\\ it\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;localized\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\/fast\\ food\\.\\ Argue\\ that\\ every\\ time\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ food\\ system\\ is\\ introduced\\ into\\ a\\ new\\ culture\\,\\ it\\ is\\ met\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ level\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ but\\ then\\ eventually\\ gets\\ accepted\\,\\ emulated\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;naturalized\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ imperialism\\&rdquo\\;\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ bringing\\ this\\ American\\ way\\ of\\ eating\\ into\\ other\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everywhere\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\ the\\ hygiene\\ standards\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ locals\\ eventually\\ start\\ to\\ expect\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ of\\ cleanliness\\ in\\ other\\ local\\ restaurants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ reception\\ of\\ a\\ smile\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Birthday\\ parties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Watson\\ et\\ al\\;\\ GAE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hong\\ Kong\\:\\ Chinese\\ children\\ think\\ that\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ a\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ company\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yan\\,\\ Yunxiang\\;\\ Of\\ Hamburger\\ and\\ Social\\ Space\\:\\ Consuming\\ McDonlad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ Beijing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Aunt\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ school\\ essay\\ competitions\\;\\ involving\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lozada\\,\\ Eriberto\\;\\ Globalized\\ Childhood\\?\\ Kentucky\\ Fried\\ Chicken\\ in\\ Beijing\\ \\(Not\\ exactly\\ McD\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ but\\ close\\ enough\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\ in\\ this\\ one\\ the\\ variety\\ of\\ local\\ Chinese\\ competitors\\ that\\ are\\ mentioned\\ and\\ how\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ do\\ local\\ food\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ well\\ received\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caldwell\\,\\ Melissa\\;\\ Domesticating\\ the\\ French\\ Fry\\:\\ McDonlad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Consumerism\\ in\\ Moscow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Milkshakes\\ being\\ adopted\\ by\\ the\\ common\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marketed\\ themselves\\ as\\ an\\ ordinary\\ place\\ that\\ ordinary\\ people\\ visit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creates\\ discourse\\ on\\ what\\ \\&ldquo\\;Russian\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\;\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ grown\\ and\\ produced\\ by\\ Russians\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\McDonalds\\ in\\ Late\\ Soviet\\ Moscow\\ movie\\ that\\ we\\ watched\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ difficulties\\ of\\ growing\\ foods\\ in\\ Russia\\ with\\ government\\ resistance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\;\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ India\\,\\ Israel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vegetarian\\/no\\ beef\\,\\ kosher\\,\\ cater\\ to\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eating\\ habits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Counterargument\\:\\ Food\\ as\\ cultural\\ imperialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bestor\\,\\ Ted\\;\\ When\\ Sushi\\ Went\\ Global\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ this\\ you\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ taste\\ for\\ sushi\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ Japanese\\ cultural\\ imperialism\\.\\ You\\ would\\ also\\ use\\ Bestor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lecture\\,\\ and\\ argue\\ that\\ sushi\\ in\\ America\\ has\\ not\\ gone\\ through\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanization\\&rdquo\\;\\ process\\,\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ Japanese\\ imperialism\\.\\ I\\ find\\ this\\ argument\\ much\\ weaker\\ than\\ when\\ using\\ various\\ fast\\ foods\\ as\\ an\\ argument\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harris\\;\\ Good\\ to\\ Eat\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lactophiles\\ and\\ Lactophobes\\:\\ Milk\\ Lovers\\ and\\ Milk\\ Haters\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\You\\ could\\ use\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pushing\\ of\\ everyone\\ to\\ drink\\ milk\\ as\\ an\\ argument\\ that\\ food\\ can\\ be\\ forced\\ upon\\ others\\ in\\ an\\ imperialistic\\ way\\ without\\ being\\ adopted\\ by\\ the\\ local\\ culture\\.\\ Again\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ hole\\ because\\ the\\ lactose\\-intolerant\\ people\\ are\\ biologically\\ incapable\\ of\\ incorporating\\ the\\ food\\ system\\ into\\ their\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Many\\ scholars\\ argue\\ that\\ global\\ food\\ systems\\ become\\ \\"\\;localized\\"\\;\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ transplanted\\ from\\ one\\ society\\ to\\ another\\.\\ Others\\ make\\ the\\ \\"\\;cultural\\ imperialism\\"\\;\\ argument\\ and\\ claim\\ that\\ global\\ food\\ systems\\ constitute\\ powerful\\,\\ \\"\\;invasive\\"\\;\\ forces\\ that\\ erode\\ local\\ traditions\\.\\ \\ \\;Where\\ do\\ you\\ stand\\ in\\ this\\ debate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\ \\;Possible\\ thesis\\:\\ \\ \\;I\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;localized\\&rdquo\\;\\ argument\\ for\\ global\\ food\\ systems\\ is\\ more\\ valid\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ imperialist\\&rdquo\\;\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ main\\ institutionalized\\ food\\ systems\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ illustrate\\ this\\ point\\ are\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Coca\\-Cola\\®\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\ \\;Using\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ to\\ reflect\\ this\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\From\\ Yunxiang\\ Yan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ Beijing\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;These\\ differences\\ are\\ so\\ profound\\ that\\ the\\ presumed\\ \\&lsquo\\;American\\ style\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Beijing\\ restaurants\\ has\\ itself\\ been\\ transformed\\;\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ caricature\\ of\\ its\\ intended\\ symbolic\\ association\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ represents\\ a\\ localized\\ Chinese\\ version\\ of\\ Americana\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Golden\\ Arches\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ quote\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ many\\ Muscovites\\ McDonalds\\ has\\ become\\ so\\ ordinary\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ culturally\\ marketed\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.when\\ asked\\ why\\ they\\ had\\ included\\ these\\ items\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Russian\\&rdquo\\;\\ students\\ typically\\ replied\\ that\\ they\\ simply\\ took\\ them\\ for\\ granted\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ contemplate\\ their\\ origins\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\From\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Consumerism\\ in\\ Moscow\\ in\\ CPFE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ So\\ you\\ could\\ say\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ have\\ started\\ off\\ as\\ being\\ a\\ little\\ piece\\ of\\ America\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ movie\\,\\ however\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ culture\\ so\\ much\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ association\\ has\\ diminished\\ considerably\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ viewed\\ in\\ the\\ video\\,\\ the\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ catered\\ to\\ local\\ needs\\ by\\ instituting\\ a\\ rubles\\ only\\ payment\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ other\\ places\\ such\\ as\\ India\\,\\ the\\ menu\\ varies\\ greatly\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ cater\\ to\\ the\\ special\\ vegetarian\\ diets\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ a\\ personal\\ note\\,\\ the\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ Hawaii\\ caters\\ greatly\\ to\\ the\\ locals\\ by\\ offering\\ rice\\ with\\ breakfast\\ meals\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ ramen\\ and\\ specialized\\ teri\\-burgers\\ throughout\\ the\\ day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Counter\\-argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Golden\\ Arches\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Local\\ companies\\ appeared\\ in\\ the\\ Chinese\\ food\\ market\\ in\\ Beijing\\ and\\ were\\ competing\\ with\\ KFC\\ and\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ by\\ offering\\ a\\ more\\ Chinese\\ menu\\,\\ but\\ employing\\ the\\ same\\ modern\\ efficiency\\ techniques\\ that\\ were\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ McDonalds\\ and\\ KFCs\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\note\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ either\\ for\\ or\\ against\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ how\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ whether\\ Chinese\\ took\\ techniques\\ from\\ Americans\\ or\\ Americans\\ forced\\ techniques\\ on\\ the\\ Chinese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Counter\\-argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ the\\ video\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Russian\\ workers\\ had\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ Hamburger\\ University\\ in\\ Canada\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ standards\\ of\\ the\\ McDonalds\\ business\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ learned\\ the\\ McDonalds\\ way\\ of\\ doing\\ things\\ and\\ then\\ went\\ back\\ to\\ Russian\\ to\\ use\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\note\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ skewed\\ either\\ way\\ depending\\ on\\ if\\ you\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ techniques\\ were\\ imposed\\ on\\ the\\ locals\\ or\\ if\\ the\\ locals\\ took\\ the\\ techniques\\ and\\ then\\ changed\\ them\\ into\\ something\\ that\\ would\\ work\\ back\\ home\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\ \\;Using\\ the\\ Coca\\-Cola\\ example\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cultural\\ Politics\\ of\\ Food\\ and\\ Eating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ have\\ localized\\ Coca\\-Cola\\ as\\ just\\ another\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ sweet\\ drink\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ an\\ exotic\\ or\\ foreign\\ drink\\ from\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;Showing\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ there\\ have\\ localized\\ the\\ drink\\ into\\ being\\ just\\ another\\ beverage\\ and\\ separated\\ it\\ from\\ it\\ American\\ origins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ quote\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Coke\\ and\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ not\\ trends\\ or\\ symbolic\\ of\\ trends\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ like\\ whiskey\\ before\\ them\\,\\ they\\ are\\ particular\\ images\\ of\\ globality\\ that\\ are\\ held\\ as\\ a\\ polarity\\ against\\ highly\\ localized\\ drinks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ McD\\ and\\ Coke\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ representative\\ of\\ America\\ and\\ notions\\ of\\ cultural\\ imperialism\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ have\\ assumed\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ truly\\ global\\ commodities\\ like\\ beef\\ or\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ whiskey\\.\\ \\ \\;Things\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ an\\ origin\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ take\\ different\\ forms\\ everywhere\\ they\\ go\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\ \\;Conclusion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wrap\\ up\\ and\\ kill\\ counter\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\one\\ more\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ Chicky\\ in\\ China\\,\\ because\\ the\\ Chinese\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ old\\ American\\ mascot\\,\\ Colonel\\ Sanders\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Say\\ something\\ like\\ people\\ are\\ happy\\ about\\ getting\\ global\\ chains\\ like\\ McD\\ and\\ Coke\\ and\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ associate\\ them\\ with\\ American\\ imperialism\\ any\\ longer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pro\\-Localized\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ Food\\ Habits\\ are\\ localized\\ constructions\\ that\\ vary\\ across\\ different\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ habits\\ are\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ interaction\\ between\\ regional\\ cultural\\ discourses\\ and\\ the\\ entrance\\ of\\ major\\ global\\ corporations\\.\\ \\ \\;Consequently\\,\\ the\\ perceptions\\ of\\ global\\ entities\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Coke\\,\\ McDonalds\\,\\ and\\ Starbucks\\,\\ are\\ received\\ and\\ changed\\ in\\ their\\ symbolic\\ meanings\\ for\\ different\\ consumers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coca\\-Cola\\:\\ A\\ Black\\ Sweet\\ Drink\\ from\\ Trinidad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ Daniel\\ Miller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ point\\ of\\ this\\ ethnographic\\ study\\ is\\ to\\ discredit\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ Coke\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;meta\\-symbol\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ capitalist\\ dominance\\&hellip\\;this\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ article\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ use\\ to\\ argue\\ against\\ globalization\\ of\\ food\\ systems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Coke\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ stand\\ as\\ a\\ meta\\-commodity\\ for\\ Imperialism\\ or\\ Americanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-However\\,\\ if\\ we\\ analyze\\ the\\ production\\ and\\ consumption\\ of\\ Coke\\,\\ from\\ both\\ the\\ corporate\\ side\\ and\\ the\\ Trinidadian\\ side\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ much\\ too\\ difficult\\ to\\ simply\\ reduce\\ Coca\\-Cola\\ into\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ imperialism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ its\\ paradoxical\\ nature\\,\\ capitalist\\ corporations\\ \\(whether\\ American\\ or\\ not\\)\\ must\\&mdash\\;in\\ order\\ to\\ maximize\\ profits\\&mdash\\;be\\ aware\\ of\\ regional\\ disparities\\ in\\ the\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ distributing\\ their\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ is\\ especially\\ apparent\\ in\\ advertising\\ techniques\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ until\\ the\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ advertising\\ specifically\\ designed\\ to\\ fare\\ in\\ the\\ international\\ markets\\ was\\ identified\\;\\ basically\\ advertisers\\ must\\ be\\ even\\ more\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ contingencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-e\\.g\\.\\ models\\ in\\ Muslim\\ countries\\ usually\\ have\\ more\\ clothes\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Global\\ localization\\&rdquo\\;\\ strategies\\ also\\ encompass\\ franchising\\&mdash\\;which\\ by\\ its\\ nature\\ puts\\ more\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ local\\ bottling\\ plants\\ to\\ dictate\\ how\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ distribute\\ to\\ their\\ consumers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ franchisers\\ must\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ what\\ flavours\\ and\\ what\\ amounts\\ of\\ sugar\\ in\\ the\\ drink\\ will\\ be\\ most\\ well\\-received\\ by\\ the\\ locals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ turn\\,\\ these\\ franchises\\ are\\ reliant\\ upon\\ distribution\\ to\\ even\\ smaller\\ retailers\\,\\ known\\ as\\ parlours\\,\\ which\\ exist\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ nowhere\\ rural\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ must\\ also\\ view\\ the\\ corporate\\ side\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ discourses\\ of\\ Coke\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ already\\ present\\ conceptions\\ of\\ Coke\\ within\\ Trinidad\\ that\\ in\\ essence\\ conceptualizes\\ what\\ the\\ drink\\ will\\ become\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ understand\\ how\\ the\\ population\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\perceives\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ commodity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ the\\ Trinidadian\\ case\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\&rdquo\\;\\ sweet\\ drinks\\ have\\ traditionally\\ been\\ a\\ cultural\\ marker\\ of\\ the\\ Indian\\ population\\ there\\;\\ while\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\&rdquo\\;\\ sweet\\ drinks\\ \\(such\\ as\\ rum\\ and\\ Coke\\)\\ are\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ African\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ turn\\,\\ Coke\\ becomes\\ an\\ objectification\\ of\\ ethnic\\ value\\ systems\\&mdash\\;NOT\\ as\\ a\\ globalizing\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ conclusion\\ in\\ all\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ almost\\ always\\ exists\\ a\\ GULF\\ between\\ the\\ producer\\ and\\ consumer\\&mdash\\;yet\\ this\\ case\\ elucidates\\ that\\ the\\ corporate\\ strategists\\ of\\ Coke\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ the\\ ethnic\\/political\\/cultural\\ discourses\\ that\\ already\\ exist\\ in\\ Trinidad\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ just\\ as\\ importantly\\,\\ the\\ Trinidadians\\ themselves\\ do\\ not\\ recognize\\ Coke\\ as\\ a\\ global\\ meta\\-symbol\\,\\ for\\ in\\ a\\ post\\-modern\\ era\\,\\ they\\ can\\ create\\ their\\ own\\ meaning\\ of\\ globality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crafting\\ Grand\\ Cru\\ Chocolates\\ in\\ Contemporary\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ elaboration\\ of\\ chocolate\\ as\\ a\\ cultural\\ commodity\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ EC\\ unification\\ provides\\ another\\ instance\\ of\\ the\\ localization\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ imperialism\\&rdquo\\;\\ within\\ the\\ advanced\\ capitalist\\ economies\\ of\\ the\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(thus\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ have\\ to\\ presume\\ that\\ globalization\\ vs\\.\\ localization\\ of\\ food\\ habits\\ is\\ an\\ issue\\ between\\ West\\ vs\\.\\ East\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ study\\ by\\ Susan\\ Terrio\\ examined\\ the\\ complex\\ process\\ whereby\\ craft\\ objects\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ artisanal\\ chocolatiers\\)\\ are\\ culturally\\ mass\\-marketed\\ by\\ Belgian\\ chocolate\\ candy\\ producers\\,\\ who\\ hoped\\ to\\ market\\ to\\ the\\ high\\-end\\ niche\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ French\\,\\ however\\,\\ tend\\ to\\ reject\\ foreign\\ influences\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ are\\ so\\ proud\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ language\\ and\\ cultural\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Consequently\\,\\ in\\ 1993\\ French\\ chocolatiers\\ responded\\ to\\ such\\ globalizing\\ influences\\ by\\ exerting\\ the\\ specifically\\ French\\ \\&ldquo\\;art\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ chocolate\\ making\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ collaborated\\ to\\ codify\\ and\\ promote\\ a\\ new\\ set\\ of\\ expert\\ criteria\\ for\\ determining\\ the\\ authenticity\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;vintage\\&rdquo\\;\\ chocolates\\&hellip\\;and\\ the\\ inauthicity\\ of\\ Belgian\\ franchises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-French\\ chocolate\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ the\\ reassertion\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\;\\ and\\ buyers\\ of\\ these\\ chocolates\\ realize\\ their\\ cultural\\ symbolism\\ \\(thus\\ implying\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;active\\ consumer\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Pierre\\ Bourdieu\\ terms\\ this\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;gentrification\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ chocolate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Part\\ of\\ this\\ negative\\ response\\ and\\ reassertion\\ of\\ French\\ national\\ identity\\ has\\ been\\ from\\ the\\ proliferation\\ of\\ other\\ foreign\\ fast\\-food\\ chains\\ like\\ McDonalds\\,\\ which\\ is\\ currently\\ the\\ largest\\ restaurant\\ chain\\ in\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ good\\ quote\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ postindustrial\\ societies\\ like\\ France\\,\\ craft\\ can\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ an\\ alternative\\ set\\ of\\ cultural\\ values\\ and\\ work\\ practices\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ dominant\\ norm\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ these\\ settings\\ the\\ persistence\\,\\ reinvention\\,\\ or\\ creation\\ of\\ traditional\\ craft\\ cultural\\ forms\\,\\ work\\ practices\\,\\ and\\ communities\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ reassert\\ cultural\\ distinctiveness\\ and\\ identity\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ rapidly\\ changing\\ circumstances\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-and\\ similarly\\ to\\ the\\ Trinidadians\\,\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ traditional\\ cultural\\ nostalgia\\ and\\ historical\\ implications\\ surrounding\\ food\\ are\\ central\\ in\\ this\\ reassertion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Taste\\ and\\ Food\\ Consumption\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ Lens\\ for\\ Social\\ Hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ however\\,\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ social\\ classes\\ is\\ different\\ across\\ regions\\.\\ \\ \\;Fast\\ food\\ chains\\ like\\ McDonalds\\ and\\ coffee\\ providers\\ thus\\ conform\\ to\\ social\\ strata\\&hellip\\;they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessary\\ create\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-We\\ can\\ contrast\\ the\\ different\\ classes\\ of\\ consumption\\ of\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ versus\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ received\\ by\\ the\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ Asia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Watson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Article\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;Big\\ Mac\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Along\\ with\\ social\\ hierarchies\\,\\ religion\\ and\\ culture\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ determining\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;acceptable\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ eat\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ not\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ intertwining\\ between\\ vegetarianism\\ and\\ religion\\ across\\ different\\ countries\\:\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ Christians\\ have\\ found\\ new\\ evidence\\ for\\ cereal\\ diet\\ as\\ healthy\\,\\ and\\ this\\ would\\ not\\ apply\\ to\\ Chinese\\.\\ \\ \\;Vegetarianism\\ in\\ India\\ is\\ considered\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-male\\ and\\ female\\ body\\ ideals\\ change\\ across\\ societies\\:\\ thus\\ this\\ affects\\ how\\ receptive\\ they\\ are\\ to\\ fast\\-food\\ chains\\ like\\ McDonalds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(e\\.g\\.\\ consider\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ eating\\ disorders\\ and\\ how\\ skinny\\ the\\ ideal\\ woman\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ West\\ vs\\.\\ East\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-even\\ within\\ China\\ and\\ after\\ decades\\ of\\ the\\ Mao\\&rsquo\\;s\\ communist\\ \\&ldquo\\;forced\\ commensality\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ arise\\ disparities\\ between\\ practices\\ of\\ ancestral\\ worship\\ and\\ Muslim\\/Buddhist\\ clashes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maris\\ Gillette\\ Article\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ mid\\-term\\&hellip\\;hopefully\\ everyone\\ remembers\\ the\\ basics\\ of\\ it\\ \\(the\\ Hui\\ vs\\.\\ Han\\ intercourse\\ and\\ the\\ assertion\\ of\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ through\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ certain\\ Western\\ mass\\-produced\\ foods\\ considered\\ Halal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-so\\ without\\ summarizing\\ it\\ completely\\&hellip\\;the\\ basic\\ points\\ relevant\\ for\\ this\\ essay\\ would\\ be\\ that\\ Gillette\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ demonstrates\\ similarly\\ to\\ the\\ Coke\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ case\\ that\\ global\\ forces\\ from\\ the\\ West\\ can\\ actually\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\increase\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\awareness\\ of\\ differences\\ between\\ ethnicities\\ alongside\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\ Point\\:\\ we\\ must\\ also\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ due\\ to\\ different\\ ideologies\\,\\ conceptions\\ of\\ health\\ and\\ nutrition\\,\\ trends\\ in\\ diets\\&hellip\\;globalization\\ of\\ food\\ habits\\ is\\ made\\ even\\ more\\ difficult\\.\\ \\ \\;Food\\ habits\\ are\\ products\\ of\\ localized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cultural\\ adaptations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ globalizing\\ influences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SA70\\ Final\\ Exam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ global\\ food\\ systems\\ can\\ be\\ powerful\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;invasive\\&rdquo\\;\\ forces\\ that\\ erode\\ local\\ traditions\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Recall\\ French\\ Beans\\ for\\ the\\ Masses\\ in\\ Burkina\\ Faso\\,\\ in\\ article\\ written\\ by\\ Susanne\\ Freidberg\\ in\\ CPF\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burkina\\ Faso\\ \\=\\ country\\ in\\ W\\.\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burkina\\ Faso\\ \\&ldquo\\;has\\ become\\ one\\ of\\ several\\ African\\ countries\\ supplying\\ the\\ counter\\-season\\ and\\ exotic\\ fresh\\ vegetables\\ found\\ in\\ European\\ upscale\\ markets\\ and\\ restaurants\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ reflects\\ \\&ldquo\\;Europe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ increasingly\\ globalized\\ tastes\\ and\\ Africa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ efforts\\ to\\ profit\\ from\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\City\\ of\\ Bobo\\-Dioulasso\\ \\(BD\\)\\,\\ in\\ southwestern\\ Burkina\\ Faso\\;\\ was\\ historically\\ a\\ French\\ colony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foodways\\ in\\ BD\\ has\\ been\\ influence\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;western\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ European\\ forces\\,\\ both\\ colonial\\ and\\ postcolonial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ specifically\\,\\ diet\\ and\\ meal\\ pattersn\\ in\\ BD\\ have\\ changed\\ since\\ colonial\\ rule\\,\\ most\\ likely\\ due\\ to\\ not\\ only\\ French\\ influences\\ during\\ colonial\\ era\\ but\\ also\\ due\\ to\\ BD\\&rsquo\\;s\\ efforts\\ at\\ producing\\ what\\ European\\ markets\\ want\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ cocoa\\,\\ tea\\,\\ coffee\\,\\ sugar\\,\\ citrus\\,\\ bananas\\,\\ wheat\\ bread\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ foreign\\ crops\\ to\\ BD\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;forced\\ to\\ grow\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ European\\ traders\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ cater\\ to\\ European\\ consumers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ ex\\.\\,\\ in\\ Algeria\\,\\ European\\ colonizers\\ replaced\\ the\\ local\\ crop\\ of\\ wheat\\,\\ wine\\,\\ and\\ olive\\ with\\ tropical\\ crops\\ like\\ coffee\\ and\\ spices\\ that\\ would\\ cater\\ to\\ French\\ consumer\\/foods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ is\\,\\ European\\ colonizers\\ forced\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ indigenous\\ crops\\ that\\ were\\ traditionally\\ grown\\ before\\ they\\ came\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BD\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eating\\ patterns\\ changed\\ too\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ WWI\\ when\\ French\\ gov\\.\\ had\\ to\\ feed\\ lots\\ of\\ soldiers\\,\\ gov\\ led\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ systematic\\ efforts\\ to\\ increase\\ local\\ horticultural\\ production\\&rdquo\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ instead\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ came\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;bush\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ baobab\\ leaves\\ and\\ spinach\\-like\\ veggies\\,\\ more\\ European\\ style\\ vegetables\\ were\\ grown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ diet\\ of\\ BD\\ was\\ changed\\&mdash\\;many\\ younger\\ generation\\ women\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ prepare\\ sauces\\ with\\ only\\ cultivated\\ veggies\\ \\(tomatoes\\,\\ onions\\,\\ hot\\ peppers\\)\\ instead\\ of\\ bush\\ veggies\\ \\(baobab\\ leaves\\,\\ traditionally\\ used\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ baguettes\\,\\ omelettes\\,\\ caf\\é\\;s\\,\\ instant\\ coffee\\,\\ wheat\\ flour\\,\\ etc\\.\\ now\\ commonly\\ found\\ in\\ BD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Issue\\ of\\ beans\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ green\\ beans\\?\\ B\\/c\\ target\\ consumer\\ \\=\\ France\\ who\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ highest\\ rates\\ of\\ per\\ capita\\ green\\ bean\\ consumption\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ if\\ not\\ the\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Green\\ beans\\ can\\ grow\\ in\\ Burkina\\ Faso\\ easily\\ during\\ France\\&rsquo\\;s\\ winter\\ time\\,\\ when\\ they\\ cannot\\ grow\\ in\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Green\\ bean\\ production\\ can\\ generate\\ lots\\ of\\ jobs\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ is\\ labor\\ intensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ conclusion\\,\\ crop\\ production\\ and\\ food\\ eating\\ habits\\ of\\ Burkina\\ Faso\\ have\\ changed\\ due\\ to\\ French\\ and\\ European\\ influence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ one\\ could\\ also\\ argue\\ that\\ global\\ food\\ systems\\ become\\ instead\\ \\&ldquo\\;localized\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ they\\ cross\\ societies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Recall\\ example\\ of\\ Coca\\-Cola\\ in\\ Trinidad\\,\\ article\\ written\\ by\\ Daniel\\ Miller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ Coca\\-Cola\\ is\\ a\\ global\\ food\\,\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ redefined\\ by\\ local\\ forces\\ to\\ represent\\ \\&ldquo\\;personal\\ and\\ national\\ Trinidadian\\ identity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coca\\-Cola\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;meta\\-symbol\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ something\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;evokes\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ exists\\ a\\ higher\\,\\ more\\ mystical\\ level\\ of\\ symbolization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ soft\\ drink\\,\\ not\\ just\\ material\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ something\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;stands\\ for\\ a\\ debate\\ about\\ the\\ materiality\\ of\\ culture\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coca\\-Cola\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ typical\\ of\\ globalization\\&rdquo\\;\\ b\\/c\\ \\&ldquo\\;based\\ upon\\ system\\ of\\ franchising\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ allows\\ local\\ bottling\\ plants\\,\\ gives\\ them\\ exclusivity\\ for\\ particular\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ ex\\,\\ Trinidad\\ Coke\\ bottled\\ by\\ Cannings\\,\\ then\\ Neil\\ \\&\\;\\ Massey\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ both\\ from\\ old\\ colonial\\ firms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ firms\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;representing\\ national\\ interests\\ against\\ foreign\\ interests\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;representing\\ white\\ elite\\ interests\\ against\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ dominant\\ population\\ in\\ the\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Six\\ main\\ bottlers\\ of\\ soft\\ drinks\\ in\\ Trinidad\\=\\>\\;\\ intense\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ soft\\ drinks\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ global\\ food\\ system\\,\\ they\\ are\\ nevertheless\\ \\&ldquo\\;viewed\\ as\\ Trinidadian\\,\\ as\\ basic\\ necessities\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ common\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drink\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Red\\ sweet\\ drink\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ East\\ Indian\\,\\ nostalgia\\,\\ Jaleel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\ spot\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Black\\ sweet\\ drink\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ African\\,\\ Coke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Coke\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ something\\ modern\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ something\\ that\\ conjures\\ up\\ nostalgia\\=\\>\\;\\ b\\/c\\ Coke\\ \\&ldquo\\;has\\ actually\\ been\\ a\\ presence\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ for\\ several\\ generations\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ therefore\\ become\\ an\\ almost\\ nostalgic\\,\\ traditional\\ image\\ of\\ being\\ modern\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ has\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ Trinidad\\ identity\\,\\ although\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ meta\\-sym\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 56, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SA70_QUESTION_4_outlines1.doc", "desc": "Question 4"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Essay Question 5 Outline", "tags": ["harvard", "anthropology", "food"], "text": null, "id": 149, "html": "\\\\\\Essay\\ Question\\ 5\\ Outline\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c16\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.6pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39\\.6pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c10\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c17\\{height\\:10pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\SA70\\:\\ FOOD\\ AND\\ CULTURE\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUESTION\\ 5\\ OUTLINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ meanings\\ and\\ problems\\ of\\ maintaining\\ food\\ restrictions\\.\\ Refer\\ to\\ both\\ religious\\ and\\ health\\-related\\ food\\ choices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ restrictions\\ constitute\\ a\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\,\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ segregate\\ into\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ challenge\\ arises\\ from\\ balancing\\ this\\ while\\ living\\ within\\ a\\ broader\\ society\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ partake\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ restrictions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RELIGION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\*\\*Hard\\ for\\ Muslims\\ to\\ integrate\\ into\\ society\\.\\ Halal\\ restrictions\\-\\ difficult\\ for\\ Muslims\\ to\\ identify\\ w\\/both\\ Islamic\\ culture\\ \\&\\;\\ other\\ culture\\.\\ Often\\ must\\ choose\\ \\&\\;\\ effectively\\ be\\ isolated\\ from\\ the\\ secondary\\ culture\\ to\\ maintain\\ Halal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Durkheim\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Collective\\ consciousness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ in\\ keeping\\ Halal\\ in\\ a\\ non\\-Muslim\\ society\\ is\\ that\\ while\\ Halal\\ keep\\ the\\ Muslim\\ group\\ tightly\\ together\\ they\\ are\\ held\\ distinct\\ from\\ other\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Appadurai\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Gastro\\-politics\\ in\\ India\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Food\\ serves\\ to\\ diametrically\\ oppose\\ semiotic\\ functions\\:\\ It\\ can\\ either\\ homogenize\\ the\\ actors\\ who\\ transact\\ in\\ it\\ or\\ it\\ can\\ serve\\ to\\ heterogenze\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ whenever\\ food\\ is\\ exchanged\\ in\\ one\\ domain\\,\\ it\\ carries\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ its\\ roles\\ into\\ other\\ domains\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Halal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ lawful\\,\\ permitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forbidden\\ foods\\/Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ food\\ restrictions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\improperly\\ slaughtered\\ animals\\ \\(and\\ carrion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pork\\ \\(no\\ lard\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Forbidden\\ to\\ you\\ is\\ carrion\\,\\ blood\\ and\\ the\\ flesh\\ of\\ the\\ swine\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\alcohol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\animals\\ that\\ swim\\/crawl\\ \\=\\ abomination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\*CHINA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Qingzhen\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ pure\\,\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Hui\\ \\=\\ Muslim\\ minority\\;\\ Han\\ \\=\\ Chinese\\ majority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-impossible\\ to\\ find\\ Chinese\\ food\\ w\\/o\\ lard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Hui\\ only\\ go\\ to\\ Qingzhen\\ restaurant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Utensils\\:\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ common\\ chopsticks\\ \\(some\\ carry\\ own\\ chopsticks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Hands\\ as\\ important\\;\\ food\\ cannot\\ be\\ made\\ by\\ Han\\ \\(hands\\ have\\ handled\\ pork\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pig\\ as\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pig\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ meat\\ in\\ China\\;\\ form\\ of\\ wealth\\ \\&\\;\\ health\\;\\ everything\\ made\\:\\ pork\\/lard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;meat\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ default\\ for\\ pig\\;\\ by\\ definition\\,\\ meat\\ means\\ pig\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hui\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;dark\\ devil\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ pig\\;\\ considered\\ evil\\,\\ crafty\\,\\ sneaky\\;\\ dangerous\\ moral\\ overtones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pigs\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ ancestor\\ worship\\;\\ Islamic\\ families\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ pigs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Han\\ \\&\\;\\ Hui\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ socialize\\:\\ If\\ a\\ non\\ Muslim\\ individual\\ eats\\ from\\ a\\ Hui\\ household\\,\\ the\\ Hui\\ family\\ immediately\\ breaks\\ the\\ dish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hui\\ as\\ tight\\-knit\\ group\\;\\ difficult\\ to\\ form\\ ties\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ w\\/ppl\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ comply\\ with\\ their\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\Maris\\ Boyd\\ Gillette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Food\\ \\&\\;\\ Islamic\\ Dietary\\ Restrictions\\ in\\ Xi\\&rsquo\\;an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Giving\\ Western\\ products\\ to\\ children\\;\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ impure\\ like\\ other\\ foods\\;\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ Han\\ \\&\\;\\ Hui\\;\\ consuming\\ modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\AMERICA\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Commensality\\ w\\/non\\ Muslim\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 70s\\ Muslims\\ requested\\ from\\ British\\ schools\\ that\\ Halal\\ foods\\ be\\ offered\\ in\\ cafeterias\\.\\ British\\ declined\\ citing\\ Halal\\ slaughter\\ as\\ cruel\\.\\ This\\ demarcates\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ young\\ school\\ children\\ and\\ separates\\ them\\ from\\ other\\ school\\ children\\.\\ Meat\\ and\\ preparation\\ of\\ foods\\ separating\\ the\\ group\\.\\ At\\ this\\ level\\,\\ the\\ school\\ children\\ are\\ kept\\ apart\\ and\\ identified\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ group\\ early\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Annapolis\\:\\ ritual\\ to\\ have\\ man\\ onto\\ statue\\ smeared\\ w\\/lard\\;\\ default\\ view\\:\\ ppl\\ can\\ easily\\ embrace\\ lard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Halal\\ marshmallows\\ \\(previously\\ a\\ restriction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imam\\ in\\ Brooklyn\\:\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ Big\\ Mac\\ is\\ Halal\\?\\ \\ \\;Such\\ restrictions\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ common\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alcohol\\:\\ \\ \\;Western\\ culture\\ bond\\ over\\ alcohol\\.\\ Alcohol\\ is\\ the\\ mediator\\ of\\ the\\ making\\ of\\ friendship\\ and\\ business\\ deals\\.\\ Muslims\\ cannot\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ this\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\ alcohol\\ is\\ the\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Note\\ that\\ this\\ view\\ of\\ Westerners\\ being\\ consumers\\ of\\ alcohol\\ is\\ shown\\ in\\ Professor\\ Watson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slide\\ of\\ his\\ experience\\ at\\ a\\ Halal\\ restaurant\\ in\\ China\\.\\ They\\ were\\ served\\ red\\ wine\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Muslims\\ cannot\\ consume\\ alcohol\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\*Connection\\ to\\ kosher\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Keeping\\ Kosher\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jews\\ in\\ Denmark\\,\\ Buckser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Within\\ group\\:\\ eating\\ shows\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ Jew\\ you\\ are\\;\\ strictness\\ of\\ your\\ observance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Within\\ household\\:\\ intermarriage\\ can\\ cause\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Within\\ social\\ life\\:\\ presence\\ of\\ difference\\ among\\ groups\\ \\(boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\HEALTH\\-RELATED\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\Organic\\ Food\\ Phenomenon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 60s\\,\\ organic\\ food\\ was\\ unappealing\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\,\\ there\\ are\\ organic\\ sections\\ in\\ stores\\ \\&\\;\\ is\\ mainstream\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Counterculture\\ sold\\ to\\ mass\\ audience\\;\\ removed\\ from\\ domain\\ of\\ protest\\ to\\ mainline\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capitalism\\ does\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ corporations\\ take\\ ideas\\ of\\ minority\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BREAD\\ \\&\\;\\ COUNTERCULTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CHILEAN\\ PRODUCE\\ by\\ Walter\\ Goldfrank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ consuming\\ Chilean\\ produce\\ are\\ from\\ upper\\ \\&\\;\\ middle\\ strata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moral\\ overtones\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ if\\ working\\ class\\ and\\ poor\\ deserve\\ to\\ be\\ sicker\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ take\\ enough\\ care\\ of\\ themselves\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(52\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ a\\ concern\\ with\\ health\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;part\\ narcissism\\,\\ part\\ dread\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ be\\ overweight\\ or\\ aging\\ is\\ a\\ frightening\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ meat\\ approaches\\ \\&ldquo\\;taboo\\&rdquo\\;\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Food\\ consumption\\ as\\ self\\-discipline\\ \\&\\;\\ self\\-denial\\,\\ but\\ also\\ embodies\\ a\\ sensual\\,\\ hedonistic\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Vegetarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Ideological\\ context\\/political\\ movement\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;coming\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ a\\ vegetarian\\ in\\ Maine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Radical\\ issues\\ often\\ correlate\\ w\\/vegetarianism\\ \\(when\\ things\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;peculiar\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ rise\\ of\\ veg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coincides\\ with\\ creative\\ production\\ of\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ healthier\\ cereal\\ \\(vs\\.\\ eggs\\ \\&\\;\\ bacon\\ for\\ breakfast\\)\\ aimed\\ at\\ rise\\ of\\ veg\\,\\ especially\\ Christian\\ groups\\ embracing\\ new\\ diet\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ New\\ Testament\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psychological\\ \\&\\;\\ symbolic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ eating\\ animals\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;primal\\ habit\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ something\\ that\\ future\\ humans\\ will\\ think\\ back\\ on\\,\\ in\\ horror\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Devoid\\ of\\ religious\\ context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ ecological\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Feeding\\ cattle\\ is\\ inefficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marvin\\ Harris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Practical\\,\\ evolutionary\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Species\\-given\\ physiology\\ \\&\\;\\ digestive\\ processes\\ predispose\\ us\\ to\\ learn\\ to\\ prefer\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ preference\\ for\\ meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Health\\ Argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Human\\ colon\\ is\\ relatively\\ short\\:\\ not\\ well\\ adapted\\ to\\ long\\ digestion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Short\\ transit\\;\\ quick\\ digestion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fatty\\ meat\\ is\\ energy\\ efficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CRITICISM\\ of\\ this\\ argument\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\humans\\ are\\ actually\\ maladaptive\\ to\\ meat\\;\\ colon\\ keeps\\ meat\\ too\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\meat\\ produces\\ deadly\\ byproducts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\animal\\ fat\\ biggest\\ source\\ of\\ caolories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caldwell\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ hunger\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ craving\\ for\\ meat\\ that\\ is\\ irrational\\ given\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ diets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;perceived\\ deprivation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ view\\ not\\ eating\\ meat\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ deprivation\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ have\\ other\\ kinds\\ of\\ food\\ to\\ eat\\.\\ \\ \\;Meat\\ is\\ beyond\\ reason\\ \\&\\;\\ dietary\\ needs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\China\\:\\ craving\\ for\\ meat\\ \\&\\;\\ oil\\ despite\\ no\\ starvation\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;People\\ honor\\ and\\ crave\\ animal\\ foods\\ more\\ than\\ plant\\ foods\\ and\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ lavish\\ a\\ disproportionate\\ share\\ of\\ their\\ energy\\ and\\ wealth\\ on\\ producing\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ shows\\ the\\ symbolic\\ power\\ of\\ meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inuit\\ diet\\:\\ pure\\ meat\\ \\&\\;\\ fish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consumption\\ of\\ water\\ to\\ purge\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reasonably\\ healthy\\ diet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vitamins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Harris\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;species\\ ignorance\\ of\\ death\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cancers\\ do\\ not\\ affect\\ species\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Youth\\ hormones\\ not\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Segmentation\\ of\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eggs\\:\\ all\\ natural\\,\\ veg\\ diet\\;\\ Veg\\ pet\\ food\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ meanings\\ and\\ problems\\ of\\ maintaining\\ food\\ restrictions\\ in\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ world\\.\\ In\\ your\\ answer\\ make\\ reference\\ to\\ both\\ religious\\ and\\ health\\-related\\ food\\ choices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Food\\ restrictions\\ can\\ take\\ on\\ various\\ meanings\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ context\\:\\ group\\,\\ individual\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ class\\ identifications\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ food\\ restrictions\\ of\\ the\\ Muslim\\ Hui\\ in\\ China\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qinzhen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;restrictions\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\ for\\ the\\ Hui\\ people\\.\\ Pork\\ is\\ a\\ staple\\ of\\ the\\ ethnic\\ majority\\ in\\ China\\,\\ the\\ Han\\.\\ Thus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qingzhen\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\becomes\\ defined\\ by\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ Han\\:\\ no\\ pork\\,\\ no\\ food\\ prepared\\ by\\ the\\ Han\\,\\ even\\ packaged\\ food\\ that\\ are\\ recognizably\\ Han\\ are\\ taboo\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ food\\ restrictions\\ make\\ hospitality\\ between\\ Han\\ and\\ Hui\\ very\\ tense\\.\\ The\\ exchange\\ of\\ food\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ Han\\ hospitality\\;\\ Hui\\ cannot\\ accept\\ Han\\ food\\,\\ and\\ when\\ offering\\ food\\ to\\ a\\ Han\\ individual\\ the\\ dish\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ item\\ was\\ served\\ is\\ broken\\ publicly\\,\\ to\\ indicate\\ that\\ the\\ pollution\\ of\\ the\\ Han\\ diet\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ Hui\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ Hui\\ food\\ restrictions\\ serve\\ to\\ maintain\\ a\\ cohesive\\ social\\ group\\ within\\ China\\ by\\ inhibiting\\ commensal\\ and\\ social\\ interactions\\ between\\ the\\ Hui\\ minority\\ and\\ the\\ Han\\ majority\\.\\ With\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ western\\ packaged\\ foods\\,\\ which\\ are\\ consumed\\ by\\ younger\\ generations\\,\\ these\\ barriers\\ could\\ break\\ down\\ somewhat\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ could\\ potentially\\ threaten\\ the\\ cohesion\\ of\\ this\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Keeping\\ Kosher\\ in\\ Copenhagen\\.\\ As\\ Buckser\\ says\\ in\\ his\\ article\\ on\\ the\\ Jews\\ of\\ Copenhagen\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;eating\\ always\\ involves\\ an\\ individual\\ choice\\ about\\ connection\\ with\\ a\\ group\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ As\\ more\\ traditional\\ social\\ networks\\ break\\ down\\ \\(ethnic\\ neighborhoods\\ and\\ government\\)\\ as\\ people\\ become\\ more\\ integrated\\ into\\ society\\,\\ as\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ with\\ Jews\\ in\\ Denmark\\,\\ dietary\\ choices\\ can\\ take\\ on\\ particular\\ import\\ in\\ self\\-definition\\ and\\ connection\\ to\\ their\\ religious\\ heritage\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;food\\ becomes\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ symbolic\\ media\\ for\\ expressing\\ ideas\\ of\\ group\\ and\\ individual\\ in\\ societies\\ where\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ group\\ to\\ individual\\ is\\ particularly\\ problematic\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Food\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ can\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;work\\ out\\ and\\ make\\ visible\\ their\\ ideas\\ about\\ their\\ relationships\\ to\\ Judaism\\ and\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ choice\\ to\\ keep\\ kosher\\ or\\ not\\ helps\\ define\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ identifies\\ themselves\\ as\\ Danish\\ and\\ Jewish\\ and\\ the\\ relative\\ importance\\ of\\ each\\.\\ The\\ decision\\ to\\ not\\ keep\\ kosher\\,\\ or\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ bifurcated\\ system\\,\\ indicates\\ the\\ centrality\\ of\\ Danishness\\;\\ some\\ believe\\ the\\ kosher\\ restrictions\\ must\\ apply\\ everywhere\\ to\\ have\\ meaning\\ and\\ thus\\ retains\\ its\\ power\\ as\\ a\\ boundary\\ to\\ social\\ interaction\\;\\ younger\\ Danish\\ Jews\\ will\\ give\\ an\\ excuse\\ \\(vegetarianism\\,\\ health\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ to\\ maintain\\ Kosher\\ restriction\\ without\\ establishing\\ a\\ cultural\\ barrier\\.\\ Among\\ Jews\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ keep\\ kosher\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ relative\\ strictness\\ of\\ adherence\\,\\ including\\ relative\\ commitment\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ money\\:\\ not\\ eating\\ pork\\,\\ meat\\ from\\ Koshers\\ shops\\,\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ dished\\,\\ two\\ entirely\\ separate\\ kitchens\\.\\ The\\ choices\\ along\\ this\\ spectrum\\ can\\ symbolically\\ define\\ an\\ individual\\&\\#39\\;s\\ commitment\\ to\\ Judaism\\.\\ Kosher\\ restrictions\\ no\\ longer\\ define\\,\\ they\\ conceptualize\\ Jewish\\ practice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vegetarinism\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ dietary\\ restriction\\ because\\ it\\ can\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ meanings\\.\\ Primarily\\ ideological\\/political\\ or\\ health\\ implications\\.\\ Vegetarianism\\ becomes\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ civil\\ disobedience\\,\\ or\\ withdrawal\\ from\\ means\\ of\\ production\\.\\ Harris\\ describes\\ the\\ energy\\ costs\\ of\\ meat\\ production\\:\\ \\ \\;4\\:1\\ trade\\-off\\ in\\ protein\\,\\ 9\\:1\\ calorie\\ conversion\\ to\\ produce\\ beef\\.\\ The\\ personal\\ dietary\\ choices\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ expressing\\ protest\\ against\\ the\\ slaughter\\ of\\ animals\\,\\ the\\ waste\\ of\\ meat\\ production\\ and\\ by\\ extension\\ as\\ an\\ act\\ to\\ alleviate\\ world\\ hunger\\:\\ the\\ personal\\ becomes\\ political\\.\\ Meat\\ becomes\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ wealth\\ as\\ seen\\ by\\ the\\ disproportionate\\ investment\\ in\\ its\\ production\\,\\ and\\ vegetarians\\ can\\ be\\ viewed\\ as\\ choosing\\ to\\ withdraw\\ from\\ the\\ culture\\ that\\ values\\ meat\\ and\\ wealth\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Organic\\ and\\ health\\ foods\\.\\ Another\\ reason\\ to\\ abstain\\ from\\ meat\\ foods\\ is\\ health\\,\\ which\\ can\\ also\\ manifest\\ itself\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ other\\ dietary\\ restrictions\\.\\ These\\ sorts\\ of\\ food\\ restrictions\\ require\\ an\\ investment\\ of\\ time\\ in\\ production\\ and\\ money\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ consumer\\ and\\ thus\\ become\\ class\\ markers\\.\\ The\\ choice\\ to\\ withdraw\\ from\\ methods\\ of\\ mass\\ production\\ is\\ inherently\\ limited\\ to\\ the\\ few\\ by\\ price\\ and\\ availability\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ arises\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ organic\\ and\\ health\\ foods\\ are\\ adopted\\ by\\ the\\ mass\\ market\\ and\\ while\\ they\\ maintain\\ their\\ symbolic\\ value\\ as\\ wholesome\\ and\\ alternative\\,\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ that\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mass\\ produced\\&rdquo\\;\\ foods\\-one\\ example\\ is\\ artisan\\ breads\\ versus\\ wonderbread\\ and\\ the\\ like\\ \\(Food\\ and\\ the\\ conterculture\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dietary\\ restrictions\\ can\\ serve\\ to\\ heterogenize\\ or\\ homogenize\\ people\\:\\ they\\ can\\ set\\ a\\ social\\ group\\ apart\\,\\ define\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ within\\ a\\ social\\ group\\,\\ and\\ define\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ within\\ a\\ socioeconomic\\ hierarchy\\.\\ With\\ dietary\\ restrictions\\,\\ food\\ becomes\\ a\\ daily\\ statement\\ of\\ commitment\\ to\\ religious\\,\\ ideological\\,\\ or\\ health\\ commitments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ meanings\\ and\\ problems\\ of\\ maintaing\\ food\\ restrictions\\ in\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ world\\.\\ Case\\ study\\ of\\ Jews\\ in\\ Copenhagen\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keeping\\ Kosher\\:\\ Eating\\ and\\ Social\\ Identity\\ Among\\ the\\ Jews\\ of\\ Denmark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Andrew\\ Buckser\\,\\ Purdue\\ University\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Buckser\\ explores\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ destabilized\\ modern\\ Jewish\\ identity\\ in\\ Denmark\\ on\\ Kosher\\ practices\\ among\\ Jews\\ in\\ Copenhagen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Importance\\ of\\ Food\\ in\\ Cultural\\ Perceptions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;As\\ everyone\\ knows\\,\\ we\\ are\\ what\\ we\\ eat\\.\\ Our\\ ideas\\ about\\ food\\ represent\\ ideas\\ about\\ ourselves\\,\\ and\\ we\\ categorize\\ people\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ their\\ culinary\\ habits\\.\\ Americans\\ distinguish\\ themselvesf\\ rom\\ the\\ French\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\ frogs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ Koreans\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\ dogs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Keeping\\ Kosher\\ in\\ Copenhagen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-about\\ 7000\\ Jews\\ in\\ Denmark\\,\\ most\\ in\\ Copenhagen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-community\\ established\\ from\\ around\\ the\\ 17th\\ cen\\.\\ Jews\\ are\\ fully\\ integrated\\ into\\ larger\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Danish\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-criteria\\ for\\ Jewish\\ identity\\ hard\\ to\\ define\\,\\ disagreements\\:\\ some\\ say\\ descent\\,\\ some\\ self\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;identification\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-however\\,\\ Kosher\\ obervance\\ remains\\ important\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ true\\ not\\ because\\ most\\ of\\ them\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;practice\\ it\\,\\ nor\\ because\\ they\\ agree\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ important\\ about\\ it\\;\\ but\\ dietary\\ alw\\ remains\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ symbolic\\ systems\\ which\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ recognize\\,\\ and\\ through\\ which\\ all\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;them\\ can\\ express\\ their\\ Jewish\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ body\\ of\\ Jewish\\ law\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\halakha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ code\\ of\\ practice\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kashruth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Kosher\\ Observance\\ in\\ 3\\ settings\\:\\ a\\)\\ non\\-Jewish\\ social\\ occasions\\ b\\)\\ Jewish\\ community\\ c\\)\\ Jewish\\ household\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Eating\\ outside\\ at\\ non\\-Jews\\&rsquo\\;\\ homes\\ presents\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ Pork\\ is\\ a\\ stable\\ diet\\ of\\ Danish\\ cuisine\\,\\ and\\ dinner\\ parties\\ usually\\ feature\\ roast\\ pork\\ \\(flaeskesteg\\)\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ dish\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ transgress\\ Jewish\\ law\\,\\ the\\ halakha\\,\\ or\\ violate\\ guest\\ etiquette\\ and\\ attract\\ notice\\?\\ What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ important\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ imperatives\\ of\\ conviviality\\ implicit\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Danishness\\,\\ or\\ the\\ food\\ taboos\\ implicit\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jewishness\\?\\ How\\ far\\ is\\ one\\ willing\\ to\\ transgress\\ one\\ identity\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ step\\ wiht\\ the\\ other\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;To\\ solve\\ this\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-some\\ Jews\\ eat\\ Kosher\\ at\\ hom\\ but\\ non\\-Kosher\\ outside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-a\\ small\\ number\\ keep\\ Kosher\\ restrictions\\ even\\ outside\\ the\\ home\\,\\ insisting\\ that\\ Jewish\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;laws\\ must\\ apply\\ everywhere\\,\\ which\\ separates\\ them\\ on\\ social\\ occasions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-some\\ younger\\ Jews\\ keep\\ Kosher\\ restrictions\\ but\\ cover\\ their\\ observance\\ with\\ a\\ non\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;religious\\ explanation\\ such\\ as\\ vegetarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ meaning\\ of\\ keeping\\ or\\ not\\ keeping\\ these\\ restrictions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;For\\ Jews\\ who\\ eat\\ Kosher\\ at\\ home\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ social\\ occasions\\,\\ it\\ minimizes\\ Jewish\\ difference\\,\\ allowing\\ them\\ to\\ blend\\ into\\ Danish\\ society\\.\\ It\\ also\\ highlights\\ Jewishness\\ in\\ the\\ home\\,\\ making\\ Jewishness\\ a\\ private\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ creating\\ a\\ physical\\ different\\/break\\ between\\ the\\ Jewish\\ home\\ and\\ the\\ non\\-Jewish\\ outside\\.\\ For\\ Jews\\ who\\ keep\\ their\\ Kosher\\ restrictions\\,\\ it\\ separates\\ them\\ as\\ Jews\\-\\ a\\ different\\ people\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ set\\ of\\ dietary\\ restrictions\\.\\ When\\ they\\ attend\\ dinner\\ parties\\,\\ they\\ must\\ do\\ so\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ guests\\ but\\ as\\ Jews\\.\\ They\\ cannot\\ both\\ observe\\ their\\ dietary\\ rules\\ and\\ blend\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ group\\.\\ For\\ the\\ third\\ group\\ who\\ practices\\ \\&ldquo\\;stealth\\ Kosher\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ this\\ requiring\\ them\\ to\\ lie\\ to\\ cover\\ their\\ differences\\,\\ this\\ can\\ highlight\\ the\\ conflict\\ between\\ their\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Danish\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ Jewish\\ Community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Within\\ the\\ Jewish\\ community\\,\\ there\\ are\\ different\\ ways\\ of\\ keeping\\ Kosher\\,\\ which\\ ways\\ carry\\ distinct\\ implicactions\\ about\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ and\\ religious\\ position\\.\\ A\\ loose\\ interpretation\\ of\\ halakha\\ might\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ forbidding\\ meat\\ from\\ forbidden\\ animals\\,\\ but\\ not\\ beef\\.\\ A\\ stricter\\ interpretation\\ would\\ forbid\\ ordinary\\ beef\\,\\ since\\ the\\ rules\\ require\\ ritual\\ slaughter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Glatt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kosher\\ imposes\\ the\\ condition\\ that\\ the\\ slaughtered\\ animal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ internal\\ organs\\ be\\ free\\ of\\ taint\\.\\ A\\ even\\ stricter\\ interpretation\\ might\\ forbid\\ meat\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ certification\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ rabbi\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ kosher\\ obesrvance\\ require\\ different\\ amounts\\ of\\ investment\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ money\\.\\ They\\ also\\ signify\\ various\\ group\\ affiliations\\ within\\ the\\ Jewish\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-2\\ Kosher\\ shops\\ in\\ Copenhagen\\ operated\\ and\\ patronized\\ by\\ different\\ Jewish\\ factions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Samson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Kosher\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ poor\\ section\\ of\\ central\\ Copenhagen\\.\\ sells\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Glatt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\meat\\-\\ patronized\\ by\\ more\\ Orthodox\\ Jews\\.\\ Glatt\\ meat\\ for\\ many\\ years\\ associated\\ with\\ lower\\-class\\ Eastern\\ Europeans\\ and\\ regarded\\ with\\ scorn\\ by\\ many\\ higher\\ class\\ Jews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kosher\\ Delicatessen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ near\\ the\\ prosperous\\ suburbs\\ where\\ many\\ Danish\\ Jews\\ live\\ today\\.\\ offers\\ fresh\\ meat\\.\\ frequented\\ by\\ richer\\ and\\ more\\ liberal\\ Kosher\\ keeping\\ Jews\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Jewish\\ Household\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-the\\ Jewish\\ house\\ can\\ consist\\ of\\ mixed\\ marriages\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ part\\ is\\ Jewish\\ and\\ one\\ is\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;non\\-Jewish\\,\\ and\\ one\\ where\\ both\\ partners\\ are\\ Jewish\\.\\ There\\ may\\ be\\ conflict\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;case\\ as\\ well\\ because\\ of\\ varying\\ ideas\\ and\\ practices\\ of\\ Jewishness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Kosher\\ restrictions\\ provide\\ a\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ families\\ can\\ explore\\ and\\ confront\\/resolve\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ differences\\ in\\ their\\ understandings\\ of\\ Jewishness\\,\\ of\\ Jewish\\ tradition\\ and\\ family\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;loyalties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-opportunity\\ for\\ both\\ conflict\\ and\\ solidarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-conflict\\ over\\ adherence\\ to\\ restrictions\\ b\\/c\\ convenience\\ and\\ economy\\ since\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;stricter\\ restrictions\\ require\\ separate\\ sets\\ of\\ dishes\\,\\ sinks\\,\\ dishwashers\\,\\ in\\ some\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;cases\\ even\\ kitchens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-opportunities\\ for\\ the\\ non\\-Jewish\\ spouse\\ to\\ embrace\\ the\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religion\\ by\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;keeping\\ to\\ the\\ restrictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emile\\ Durkheim\\:\\ collective\\ representations\\-\\ shared\\ food\\ restrictions\\ as\\ ritual\\ \\&ldquo\\;ritual\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ reconstituting\\ and\\ maintaining\\ the\\ social\\ group\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Dietary\\ practive\\ provides\\ a\\ common\\ symbolic\\ system\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ increasingly\\ heterogeneous\\ notions\\ of\\ Jewish\\ identity\\ in\\ Denmark\\ can\\ be\\ expressed\\ and\\ interrelated\\.\\ Ethnic\\ cuisines\\ act\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ vivid\\ ways\\ through\\ which\\ group\\ identities\\ are\\ recognized\\ and\\ reinforced\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ modern\\ times\\,\\ social\\ mobility\\ and\\ geographical\\ mobility\\ has\\ become\\ much\\ more\\ common\\.\\ Parochial\\ identities\\ like\\ kin\\ groups\\ and\\ religious\\ affiliations\\ are\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ important\\ in\\ individual\\ lives\\,\\ and\\ in\\ constructing\\ individual\\ identities\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ethnic\\ identities\\ tend\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ symbolic\\,\\ individually\\ negotiated\\ statemetns\\ of\\ self\\ rather\\ than\\ functioning\\ social\\ affiliations\\.\\ Food\\ provides\\ a\\ rich\\ symbolic\\ medium\\ for\\ expressing\\ such\\ identities\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ construction\\ of\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ becomes\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ \\-and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ food\\ restrictions\\ becomes\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ construction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ eg\\ of\\ food\\ restrictions\\ as\\ constructing\\ self\\-identity\\-by\\ acting\\ as\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\ and\\ drawing\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ one\\ people\\-who\\ follows\\ these\\ restrictions\\-against\\ another\\.\\ Fredrik\\ Barth\\:\\ mentalist\\/approach\\-\\ sees\\ the\\ pig\\ as\\ a\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;eg\\.\\ Problems\\ with\\ keeping\\ a\\ Halal\\ diet\\ in\\ non\\-Muslim\\ societies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ hard\\ for\\ Muslims\\ to\\ integrate\\ into\\ the\\ larger\\ society\\.\\ Halal\\ diet\\ as\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\ for\\ Muslims\\.\\ strengthens\\ the\\ Muslim\\ halal\\-keeping\\ community\\ and\\ weakens\\ its\\ ties\\ to\\ non\\-Halal\\ keeping\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;eg\\.\\ Hui\\ Muslims\\ Vs\\ Han\\ people\\ in\\ China\\.\\ the\\ main\\ meat\\ in\\ China\\ is\\ pork\\,\\ which\\ the\\ Hui\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\.\\ the\\ Hui\\ identity\\ food\\ as\\ Qingzhen\\ if\\ it\\ follows\\ Islamic\\ dietary\\ restrictions\\,\\ and\\ Qingzhen\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ food\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ tainted\\ with\\ pork\\ at\\ all\\.\\.\\ even\\ the\\ utensils\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ touched\\ pork\\ at\\ any\\ point\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ Hui\\ Muslims\\ who\\ follow\\ the\\ Halal\\ restrictions\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\ at\\ Han\\ houses\\,\\ because\\ the\\ dishes\\ and\\ utensils\\ are\\ sure\\ to\\ have\\ touched\\ pork\\ at\\ one\\ point\\.\\ Because\\ Chinese\\ social\\ relationships\\ are\\ based\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ hospitality\\ and\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ drink\\ between\\ guest\\ and\\ host\\,\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ Hui\\ and\\ Han\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ socialize\\ and\\ maintain\\ social\\ relationships\\ in\\ a\\ meaningful\\ manner\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 56, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SA70_QUESTION_5_outlines1.doc", "desc": "Question 5"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Roman Games Notes", "tags": ["roman-games"], "text": null, "id": 110, "html": "\\\\\\Roman\\ Games\\ Notes\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c17\\{max\\-width\\:498\\.6pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:56\\.7pt\\ 56\\.7pt\\ 56\\.7pt\\ 56\\.7pt\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{height\\:12pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c8\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Course\\-description\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ course\\ examines\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ defining\\ cultural\\ institutions\\ of\\ ancient\\ Rome\\:\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\presentation\\ of\\ institutionalized\\ violence\\ as\\ public\\ entertainment\\.\\ The\\ syllabus\\ comprises\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\evolution\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ four\\ categories\\ of\\ spectacle\\:\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\;\\ beast\\-fights\\ and\\ staged\\ hunts\\;\\ aquatic\\ displays\\;\\ and\\ the\\ exposure\\ of\\ criminals\\ to\\ wild\\ animals\\.\\ The\\ course\\ seeks\\ to\\ identify\\ and\\ question\\ the\\ attitudes\\ and\\ the\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ factors\\ that\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ these\\ spectacles\\ from\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Punic\\ Wars\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ century\\ BCE\\ until\\ the\\ Christianization\\ of\\ the\\ Empire\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ century\\ CE\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Contextualizing\\ the\\ games\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ key\\ institutions\\ and\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\in\\ Roman\\ culture\\,\\ including\\:\\ slavery\\ and\\ emancipation\\;\\ commemorative\\ practices\\;\\ liturgies\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\urbanization\\;\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ democracy\\;\\ the\\ imperial\\ cult\\ and\\ the\\ centralization\\ of\\ power\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\territorial\\ expansion\\ and\\ the\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ of\\ exotica\\;\\ the\\ Romanization\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mediterranean\\ world\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;euergetism\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(charity\\)\\ and\\ municipal\\ patronage\\;\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\class\\ in\\ Roman\\ society\\;\\ Roman\\ penal\\ theory\\;\\ capital\\ punishment\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;dual\\-penalty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\system\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ cruelty\\ and\\ suffering\\;\\ the\\ impulse\\ to\\ martyrdom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Throughout\\ the\\ course\\ there\\ is\\ continuous\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ contextualization\\ and\\ analysis\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\primary\\ documents\\ and\\ images\\ \\(chiefly\\ literary\\ sources\\,\\ inscriptions\\,\\ coins\\,\\ sculpture\\,\\ wall\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\painting\\,\\ mosaics\\,\\ and\\ archaeological\\ remains\\)\\.\\ Modern\\ theoretical\\ frameworks\\ are\\ tested\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ interpreting\\ this\\ material\\,\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ far\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ violent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\entertainment\\ permeated\\ and\\ defined\\ Roman\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ this\\ institution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\changed\\ over\\ time\\.\\ Students\\ are\\ encouraged\\ to\\ contrast\\ our\\ modern\\ value\\-system\\,\\ which\\ \\(at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\least\\ nominally\\)\\ condemns\\ institutionalized\\ violence\\,\\ with\\ the\\ pride\\ that\\ the\\ Romans\\ took\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ games\\;\\ to\\ probe\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ preconceptions\\ that\\ enabled\\ the\\ Romans\\ to\\ deploy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\institutionalized\\ violence\\ as\\ entertainment\\;\\ to\\ consider\\ how\\ societies\\&rsquo\\;\\ values\\ may\\ differ\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\one\\ another\\;\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ alert\\ to\\ the\\ practices\\ and\\ attitudes\\ that\\ shape\\ our\\ own\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Participation\\ and\\ quizzes\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ 15\\%\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paper\\ \\#\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 10\\%\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mid\\-term\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 15\\%\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paper\\ \\#\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 25\\%\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Final\\ exam\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 35\\%\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ M\\ 9\\/15\\ \\ \\;Introduction\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ W\\ 9\\/17\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ anything\\ about\\ the\\ Romans\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Scarre\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 12\\&ndash\\;73\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ F\\ 9\\/19\\ \\ \\;What\\ do\\ we\\ mean\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Roman\\ Empire\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Scarre\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 74\\&ndash\\;135\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;4\\.\\ M\\ 9\\/22\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ violent\\ spectacle\\ first\\ become\\ institutionalized\\ at\\ Rome\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ Wiedemann\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\&ndash\\;54\\,\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 20\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;5\\.\\ W\\ 9\\/24\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ surviving\\ amphitheatre\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 12\\,\\ 19\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ F\\ 9\\/26\\ \\ \\;What\\ does\\ the\\ amphitheatre\\ at\\ Pompeii\\ reveal\\ about\\ social\\ hierarchy\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 11\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 3\\ \\ \\;SECTIONS\\ BEGIN\\ THIS\\ WEEK\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Section\\ 1\\:\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ M\\ 9\\/29\\ \\ \\;How\\ does\\ slavery\\ promote\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ gladiators\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Wiedemann\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 102\\&ndash\\;127\\,\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 14\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;8\\.\\ W\\ 10\\/1\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ gladiators\\ fight\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 15\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;9\\.\\ F\\ 10\\/3\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ serving\\ as\\ a\\ gladiator\\ and\\ a\\ soldier\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 10\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 4\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;Section\\ 2\\:\\ Augustus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ M\\ 10\\/6\\ \\ \\;Could\\ gladiators\\ show\\ pride\\ in\\ their\\ profession\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 13\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ W\\ 10\\/8\\ \\ \\;How\\ could\\ the\\ Romans\\ simultaneously\\ despise\\ and\\ heroize\\ gladiators\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 16\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ F\\ 10\\/10\\ \\ \\;Was\\ the\\ participation\\ of\\ female\\ gladiators\\ unsettling\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 5\\ \\ \\;NO\\ CLASS\\ MONDAY\\ \\(COLUMBUS\\ DAY\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;Section\\ 3\\:\\ Tiberius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ W\\ 10\\/15\\ What\\ can\\ be\\ learnt\\ about\\ gladiators\\ from\\ a\\ graveyard\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ \\ \\;Kanz\\,\\ F\\.\\ and\\ Grossschmidt\\,\\ K\\.\\ \\(2006\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Head\\ injuries\\ of\\ Roman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gladiators\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Forensic\\ Science\\ International\\,\\ 160\\:\\ 207\\&ndash\\;216\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ F\\ 10\\/17\\ How\\ did\\ gladiators\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ troupe\\ cope\\ with\\ fighting\\ each\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ public\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 9\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 6\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Section\\ 4\\:\\ Caligula\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ M\\ 10\\/20\\ How\\ does\\ Roman\\ patronage\\ differ\\ from\\ modern\\ philanthropy\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 22\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\[Paper\\ 1\\ due\\ at\\ beginning\\ of\\ lecture\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\ W\\ 10\\/22\\ How\\ does\\ sponsoring\\ violent\\ display\\ promote\\ \\é\\;lite\\ values\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.\\ F\\ 10\\/24\\ How\\ do\\ naval\\ enactments\\ manipulate\\ historical\\ memory\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ Leon\\,\\ H\\.\\ J\\.\\ \\(1939\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Morituri\\ te\\ salutamus\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Transactions\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ Philological\\ Association\\,\\ 70\\:\\ 46\\&ndash\\;50\\;\\ Coleman\\,\\ K\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(1993\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Launching\\ into\\ history\\:\\ aquatic\\ displays\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ Empire\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Journal\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\ Studies\\,\\ 83\\:\\ 48\\&ndash\\;74\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 7\\ \\ \\;NO\\ CLASS\\ FRIDAY\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Section\\ 5\\:\\ Claudius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.\\ M\\ 10\\/27\\ How\\ do\\ lotteries\\ and\\ physical\\ amenities\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\at\\ arena\\ spectacles\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ Killeen\\,\\ J\\.\\ F\\.\\ \\(1959\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ was\\ the\\ linea\\ dives\\ \\(Martial\\,\\ VIII\\,\\ 78\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\)\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ American\\ Journal\\ of\\ Philology\\,\\ 80\\:\\ 185\\&ndash\\;188\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;19\\.\\ W\\ 10\\/29\\ Midterm\\ exam\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 8\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;Section\\ 6\\:\\ Nero\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\ M\\ 11\\/3\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ the\\ trade\\ in\\ beasts\\ work\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Epplett\\,\\ C\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(2001\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ capture\\ of\\ animals\\ by\\ the\\ Roman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\military\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Greece\\ \\&\\;\\ Rome2\\,\\ 48\\:\\ 210\\&ndash\\;222\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.\\ W\\ 11\\/5\\ \\ \\;Were\\ beast\\-displays\\ associated\\ with\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ environment\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Wiedemann\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 55\\&ndash\\;101\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\ F\\ 11\\/7\\ \\ \\;Where\\ are\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fault\\-lines\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ attitude\\ towards\\ animals\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 9\\ \\ \\;NO\\ SECTIONS\\ \\(TUESDAY\\ \\=\\ VETERANS\\&rsquo\\;\\ DAY\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\23\\.\\ M\\ 11\\/10\\ How\\ did\\ the\\ Greek\\ East\\ accommodate\\ arena\\ spectacles\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\ Oxford\\ Classical\\ Dictionary\\ s\\.v\\.\\ ruler\\-cult\\;\\ Welch\\,\\ K\\.\\ \\(1998\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\ \\;stadium\\ at\\ Aphrodisias\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ American\\ Journal\\ of\\ Archaeology\\,\\ 102\\:\\ 547\\&ndash\\;569\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ W\\ 11\\/12\\ What\\ was\\ the\\ ideology\\ attached\\ to\\ capital\\ punishment\\ at\\ Rome\\?\\ Reading\\:\\ Coleman\\,\\ K\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(1990\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fatal\\ charades\\:\\ Roman\\ executions\\ staged\\ as\\ mythological\\ enactments\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Journal\\ of\\ Roman\\ Studies\\,\\ 80\\:\\ 44\\&ndash\\;73\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\ F\\ 11\\/14\\ What\\ was\\ Martial\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Liber\\ Spectaculorum\\ \\(Book\\ of\\ Spectacles\\)\\ for\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 10\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Section\\ 7\\:\\ Galba\\,\\ Otto\\,\\ Vitellius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ M\\ 11\\/17\\ How\\ did\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ Christian\\ martyrdom\\ subvert\\ the\\ Romans\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cultural\\ assumptions\\ about\\ violent\\ spectacle\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;27\\.\\ W\\ 11\\/19\\ How\\ did\\ the\\ Roman\\ authorities\\ cope\\ with\\ a\\ religious\\ sect\\ that\\ actively\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\welcomed\\ martyrdom\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 17\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;28\\.\\ F\\ 11\\/21\\ What\\ can\\ magical\\ practices\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ rationality\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\which\\ fans\\ and\\ participants\\ approached\\ the\\ element\\ of\\ risk\\ in\\ arena\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\spectacles\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Oxford\\ Classical\\ Dictionary\\ s\\.v\\.\\ magic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 11\\ \\ \\;NO\\ SECTIONS\\,\\ NO\\ CLASS\\ FRIDAY\\ \\(THANKSGIVING\\ RECESS\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\29\\.\\ M\\ 11\\/24\\ Why\\ was\\ the\\ Colosseum\\ built\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;30\\.\\ W\\ 11\\/26\\ Video\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Unsolved\\ History\\:\\ Roman\\ Colosseum\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Termite\\ Art\\,\\ 2003\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 12\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Section\\ 8\\:\\ Vespasian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\.\\ M\\ 12\\/1\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ institutionalized\\ violence\\ become\\ embedded\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ national\\ economy\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Oliver\\,\\ J\\.\\ H\\.\\ \\ \\;and\\ Palmer\\,\\ R\\.\\ E\\.\\ A\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(1955\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Minutes\\ of\\ an\\ Act\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ Roman\\ Senate\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Hesperia\\,\\ 24\\:\\ 320\\&ndash\\;49\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\32\\.\\ W\\ 12\\/3\\ Why\\ did\\ the\\ Roman\\ emperors\\ attempt\\ to\\ shore\\ up\\ arena\\ spectacles\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\limiting\\ the\\ inflationary\\ effect\\ of\\ arena\\-supply\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Carter\\,\\ M\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Gladiatorial\\ ranking\\ and\\ the\\ SC\\ de\\ pretiis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gladiatorum\\ minuendis\\ \\(CIL\\ II\\ 6278\\ \\=\\ ILS\\ 5163\\)\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Phoenix\\,\\ 57\\:\\ 83\\&ndash\\;114\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\.\\ F\\ 12\\/5\\ Why\\ did\\ pagan\\ philosophers\\ and\\ Christian\\ apologists\\ object\\ to\\ arena\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\spectacles\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 21\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 13\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Section\\ 9\\:\\ Titus\\ and\\ Domitian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\.\\ M\\ 12\\/8\\ \\ \\;What\\ caused\\ arena\\ spectacles\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ an\\ end\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ Wiedemann\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 128\\&ndash\\;183\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\.\\ W\\ 12\\/10\\ Did\\ institutionalized\\ violence\\ in\\ Antiquity\\ end\\ with\\ arena\\ spectacles\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ Greatrex\\,\\ G\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(1997\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Nika\\ riot\\:\\ a\\ reappraisal\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Journal\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hellenic\\ Studies\\,\\ 117\\:\\ 60\\&ndash\\;86\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\36\\.\\ F\\ 12\\/12\\ What\\ does\\ modern\\ psychology\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ human\\ reactions\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\violence\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 18\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ 14\\ \\ \\;NO\\ SECTIONS\\ \\(CLASSES\\ END\\ TUESDAY\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\37\\.\\ M\\ 12\\/15\\ Can\\ modern\\ theory\\ help\\ to\\ explain\\ violent\\ entertainment\\ at\\ Rome\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reading\\:\\ SB\\ \\#\\ 4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\[Paper\\ 2\\ due\\ at\\ beginning\\ of\\ lecture\\]\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kathleen\\ M\\.\\ Coleman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Professor\\ of\\ Latin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\kcoleman\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Boylston\\ Hall\\,\\ G\\-23\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tel\\.\\ 617\\-495\\-2024\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overview\\ of\\ Spectacles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-the\\ cutting\\ of\\ damnati\\ to\\ feed\\ animals\\ was\\ a\\ misconception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suetonius\\ mentioned\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ extraordinary\\ and\\ unheard\\ of\\ action\\ that\\ Caligula\\ ordered\\ to\\ be\\ done\\ only\\ once\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ bodies\\ of\\ noxii\\ and\\ damnati\\ were\\ either\\ buried\\ or\\ thrown\\ into\\ rivers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ the\\ traditional\\ Roman\\ disposal\\ method\\ for\\ the\\ bodies\\ of\\ executed\\ criminals\\,\\ while\\ other\\ gladiators\\ were\\ often\\ buried\\ with\\ honours\\ by\\ their\\ \\"\\;union\\"\\;\\ \\(collegia\\)\\ or\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Animal\\ carcasses\\ were\\ either\\ disposed\\ of\\ or\\ distributed\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\ for\\ sustenance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Editor\\ planned\\ games\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Banquets\\ for\\ the\\ gladiators\\ held\\ the\\ evening\\ before\\ the\\ games\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ the\\ criminals\\ \\(noxii\\)\\ listed\\ to\\ fight\\ were\\ at\\ times\\ permitted\\ to\\ attend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiator\\ fights\\ were\\ preceded\\ by\\ animal\\-on\\-animal\\ fights\\,\\ animal\\ hunts\\=\\ venationes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;public\\ executions\\ of\\ condemned\\ criminals\\=\\=damnati\\ during\\ lunchtime\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\considered\\ bad\\ taste\\ to\\ watch\\ the\\ executions\\ so\\ the\\ upper\\ classes\\ would\\ leave\\ and\\ return\\ after\\ lunch\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ Claudius\\ was\\ criticized\\ because\\ he\\ usually\\ stayed\\ in\\ the\\ stadium\\ to\\ watch\\ executions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ damnati\\ were\\ sometimes\\ required\\ to\\ fight\\ battle\\ recreations\\ or\\ in\\ paired\\ gladiatorial\\ combats\\ against\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Under\\ Nero\\,\\ it\\ became\\ the\\ practice\\ to\\ perform\\ plays\\ adapted\\ from\\ myths\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\editors\\ assigned\\ roles\\ of\\ characters\\ who\\ would\\ die\\ to\\ a\\ condemned\\ man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\audience\\ would\\ watch\\ the\\ play\\ and\\ the\\ condemned\\ man\\ would\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ death\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ manner\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ pompa\\,\\ or\\ procession\\,\\ would\\ occur\\ before\\ the\\ afternoon\\ fights\\ began\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\emperor\\ would\\ sometimes\\ check\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ the\\ weapons\\ were\\ sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\9\\/15\\/08\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Epigraphy\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ inscriptions\\-\\ urge\\ to\\ carve\\ things\\ on\\ stone\\ to\\ leave\\ textural\\ memory\\ of\\ oneself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\gladiator\\ common\\ picture\\ in\\ carvings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\9\\/17\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ pieces\\ have\\ captions\\ below\\ the\\ sculptures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\evidence\\ of\\ illustrations\\ keeps\\ increasing\\ as\\ things\\ excavated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pictorial\\ evidence\\ can\\ help\\ us\\ learn\\ about\\ roman\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ must\\ know\\ a\\ little\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ to\\ understand\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\object\\-\\ material\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;each\\ holding\\ object\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ sloping\\ back\\ and\\ hull\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ clothings\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ loose\\ fitting\\ tunics\\,\\ they\\ are\\ holding\\ in\\ their\\ right\\ hands\\ their\\ helmets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ shields\\ have\\ different\\ shapes\\,\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ pointy\\ and\\ rounded\\ and\\ square\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ could\\ mean\\ they\\ use\\ shields\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ or\\ fight\\ differently\\,\\ which\\ will\\ tell\\ us\\ that\\ they\\ value\\ fighting\\ appreciate\\ different\\ fighting\\ styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ they\\ were\\ fighting\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ wearing\\ tunics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ suggest\\ that\\ this\\ scene\\ is\\ after\\ the\\ fight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ suggestion\\ of\\ movement\\ in\\ their\\ stance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ could\\ be\\ marching\\/processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ substance\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\relief\\ sculpture\\-\\ stands\\ proud\\ of\\ a\\ background\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ full\\ in\\ the\\ round\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ one\\ slab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ fact\\,\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ 16\\ panels\\ that\\ the\\ italian\\ police\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 2000s\\ \\(were\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ illegally\\ transported\\ from\\ italy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\come\\ from\\ bce\\ and\\ republican\\ period\\,\\ very\\ old\\ and\\ precious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\indeed\\ they\\ are\\ holding\\ gladiatorial\\ equipment\\-\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ formal\\ procession\\ before\\ the\\ actual\\ combat\\ begins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\epigrapic\\ or\\ inscribed\\ text\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\epitah\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ carved\\ in\\ stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ fought\\ to\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ organ\\,\\ played\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Epigraphy\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ inscriptions\\-\\ on\\ stone\\ to\\ leave\\ textural\\ memory\\ of\\ oneself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\9\\/19\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ do\\ we\\ mean\\ by\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Gladiators\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ illiterate\\,\\ so\\ unfortunately\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ autobiographies\\ of\\ gladiators\\;\\ however\\ epitaphs\\ were\\ commissioned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;What\\ do\\ we\\ mean\\ by\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geographical\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ Romans\\ ruled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\AD117\\ CE\\ the\\ emperor\\ Trajan\\ saw\\ Rome\\ reach\\ its\\ biggest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rome\\ ruled\\ through\\ middle\\ east\\ to\\ iran\\,\\ africa\\,\\ romania\\,\\ scotland\\,\\ parts\\ of\\ western\\ germany\\,\\ to\\ the\\ rhine\\ in\\ modern\\ holland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\*\\ review\\ maps\\/\\ atlas\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\compare\\ the\\ old\\ maps\\ to\\ the\\ modern\\ atlas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Republic\\ has\\ no\\ single\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roman\\ republic\\ was\\ not\\ governed\\ by\\ sole\\ rule\\;\\ instead\\ pairs\\ of\\ consuls\\ ruled\\ to\\ prevent\\ megalomania\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;this\\ fell\\ apart\\ in\\ late\\ first\\ century\\ BCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\August\\ Octavian\\ made\\ this\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;he\\ almost\\ wanted\\ to\\ call\\ himself\\ romulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\so\\ he\\ called\\ himself\\ augustus\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ are\\ the\\ SAME\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\he\\ took\\ the\\ name\\ augustus\\ at\\ a\\ later\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;31\\ BCE\\,\\ Actium\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\=\\=\\ the\\ decisive\\ engagement\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ civil\\ war\\ between\\ the\\ forces\\ supporting\\ Octavian\\ and\\ those\\ supporting\\ Mark\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;It\\ was\\ fought\\ on\\ September\\ 2\\,\\ 31\\ B\\.CE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\on\\ the\\ Ionian\\ Sea\\ near\\ the\\ Roman\\ colony\\ of\\ Actium\\ in\\ Greece\\ \\(near\\ the\\ modern\\-day\\ city\\ of\\ Preveza\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;victory\\ of\\ Octavian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fleet\\ enabled\\ him\\ to\\ consolidate\\ his\\ power\\ over\\ Rome\\ and\\ its\\ domains\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ his\\ adoption\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ Princeps\\ \\(\\"\\;first\\ citizen\\"\\;\\)\\ and\\ accepting\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ Augustus\\ from\\ the\\ Senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ perceive\\ Mark\\ Antony\\ as\\ ruler\\ during\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Republic\\ and\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roman\\ empire\\ can\\ mean\\:\\ geog\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Extent\\,\\ chronological\\ spread\\,\\ control\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ exerted\\ \\(abstract\\ idea\\-\\ under\\ the\\ roman\\ empire\\ most\\ cities\\ had\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ underground\\ sanitation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Roman\\ empire\\ can\\ effective\\ mean\\ three\\ different\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Italy\\/Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ 8th\\ century\\ BCE\\ the\\ villages\\ of\\ Italy\\ were\\ starting\\ to\\ develop\\ larger\\ nucleur\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\expanded\\ beyond\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ mere\\ villages\\-\\ cultivating\\ more\\ ground\\,\\ expanding\\ population\\ \\,etc\\.\\,\\ much\\ fighting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rome\\ actually\\ is\\ not\\ on\\ the\\ coast\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ on\\ the\\ river\\ tyber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ appenines\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ Italy\\:\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ early\\ people\\ were\\ competing\\ for\\ flat\\ fertile\\ land\\ to\\ grow\\ grain\\-\\ so\\ the\\ flat\\ areas\\ near\\ the\\ coast\\ were\\ coveted\\ and\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ where\\ people\\ hoped\\ to\\ cultivate\\ crops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\also\\,\\ people\\ liked\\ to\\ live\\ on\\ hills\\ for\\ safety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rome\\ was\\ built\\ on\\ seven\\ hills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ area\\ around\\ rome\\,\\ south\\ of\\ rome\\ was\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Latium\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ the\\ language\\ Latin\\ was\\ spoken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Latium\\ is\\ the\\ sweep\\ of\\ territory\\ below\\ rome\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ territory\\ called\\ campainia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;The\\ romans\\ spoke\\ latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ were\\ italian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ were\\ still\\ influenced\\ by\\ foreigners\\,\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Etrusca\\ had\\ large\\ influence\\ on\\ early\\ roman\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\etrucsa\\-\\ cultura\\ of\\ turkey\\,\\ distinct\\ cultural\\ identity\\ that\\ had\\ a\\ large\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ dvelopment\\ of\\ rome\\:\\ initially\\ romans\\ ruled\\ by\\ kings\\ from\\ etruria\\ \\(etruscan\\ kings\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ roman\\ republic\\ lasted\\ for\\ nearly\\ 500\\ years\\ until\\ 31\\ bc\\ when\\ octavian\\ became\\ the\\ sole\\ ruler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\had\\ not\\ had\\ a\\ king\\ since\\ the\\ etrucans\\ aside\\ from\\ the\\ millitary\\ temporary\\ constitutional\\ provision\\ for\\ dictator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\tartar\\ was\\ only\\ a\\ limited\\ time\\ emergency\\ ruler\\-\\ no\\ negative\\ connotations\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ techinical\\ term\\-\\ this\\ changed\\ with\\ octavian\\ in\\ 31\\ bc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ tiber\\ flows\\ down\\ into\\ tirenian\\ sea\\ at\\ ostia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rome\\ is\\ located\\ east\\ of\\ tiber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\7\\ \\ \\;\\(mts\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ colleseum\\ built\\ on\\ low\\ lying\\ spot\\ close\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ nero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ estates\\-\\ the\\ colloseum\\ construction\\ had\\ to\\ address\\ drainage\\ issue\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ trying\\ to\\ rejig\\ the\\ whole\\ construction\\ bec\\.\\ Of\\ the\\ intense\\ flooding\\-\\ though\\ it\\ drained\\ into\\ the\\ tyber\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ issue\\ esp\\.\\ late\\ in\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;the\\ hills\\ in\\ and\\ around\\ ancient\\ rome\\ \\(\\ a\\ relatively\\ small\\ city\\)\\ make\\ it\\ seem\\ bigger\\,\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ navigate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\with\\ octavian\\,\\ 1\\ million\\ people\\ lived\\ in\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\600\\,\\ 000\\ in\\ carthage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NO\\ CITY\\ reached\\ this\\ size\\ until\\ London\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ sophisticated\\ construction\\ problems\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ will\\ examine\\ the\\ early\\ bldgs\\.\\ of\\ rome\\ and\\ examine\\ its\\ architecture\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ the\\ city\\ and\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Temple\\ of\\ Juno\\ on\\ the\\ capital\\ hill\\ at\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ map\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Circus\\ maximus\\ was\\ another\\ big\\ structure\\-\\ where\\ starting\\ boxes\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ horse\\ racing\\ conducted\\ there\\ was\\ religious\\ ritual\\:\\ place\\ of\\ religious\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\horse\\ racing\\ not\\ a\\ sporting\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consus\\ deity\\ had\\ a\\ cite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\circus\\ maximus\\ was\\ a\\ structure\\ for\\ religious\\ ritual\\ \\(though\\ not\\ a\\ temple\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\later\\,\\ Romans\\ became\\ pretty\\ secular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;With\\ Colloseum\\,\\ we\\ will\\ examine\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ there\\ was\\ ritual\\ significance\\ to\\ the\\ gladiators\\ and\\ the\\ writings\\ the\\ christians\\ might\\ level\\ against\\ the\\ gladiators\\ trials\\ being\\ rooted\\ in\\ pagan\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;sports\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ seemingly\\ replicated\\ in\\ early\\ rome\\ as\\ religious\\ ritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ 4th\\ cent\\ \\(300s\\ ce\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ examination\\ of\\ map\\ shows\\ the\\ circus\\ maximus\\ with\\ central\\ barrier\\,\\ stone\\ structure\\,\\ urban\\ fabric\\ of\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\most\\ of\\ rome\\ exists\\ on\\ left\\ bank\\ of\\ the\\ tiber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vatican\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ rt\\,\\ but\\ the\\ old\\ city\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ bank\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\80\\ BCE\\=\\=colloseum\\ is\\ built\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ law\\ in\\ rome\\ that\\ no\\ bldg\\ may\\ overtop\\ st\\ peters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ colloseum\\ and\\ st\\ peters\\ are\\ the\\ tallest\\ bldgs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\thus\\,\\ the\\ colloseum\\ is\\ very\\ visible\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\ bc\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ sky\\ scrapers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ conquest\\ of\\ the\\ med\\.\\ Basin\\ by\\ the\\ romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\had\\ to\\ swamp\\ other\\ italian\\ groups\\,\\ peninsula\\,\\ etruscans\\,\\ punic\\ wars\\ \\(against\\ carthage\\ in\\ 3rd\\ cent\\ bce\\)\\ led\\ to\\ expansion\\ overseas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\present\\ day\\ turkey\\,\\ \\=\\=\\ carthage\\ \\(maj\\ western\\ mediterranean\\ city\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\with\\ the\\ conquest\\ of\\ carthage\\ rome\\ became\\ the\\ dominant\\ force\\ of\\ the\\ med\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Territories\\ kept\\ being\\ acquired\\ as\\ the\\ romans\\ conquered\\ areas\\ in\\ the\\ east\\ north\\ and\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rome\\ needed\\ an\\ army\\,\\ rome\\ had\\ a\\ militaristic\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\how\\ far\\ is\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ conquest\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ millitaristic\\ self\\ portrait\\ of\\ the\\ romans\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ roman\\ army\\ was\\ and\\ remained\\ extremely\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ empire\\ \\(the\\ actual\\ control\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ exerted\\ over\\ the\\ entire\\ space\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\117\\ BCE\\,\\ romans\\ had\\ concquered\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ was\\ a\\ people\\ who\\ exercised\\ power\\ over\\ a\\ huge\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ is\\ reflected\\ very\\ well\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ games\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\thracian\\ style\\ of\\ gladiator\\,\\ etc\\ represents\\ the\\ ethnic\\ differences\\ in\\ games\\,\\ samnite\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\by\\ 3rd\\ century\\,\\ as\\ the\\ romans\\ conquered\\ other\\ people\\ they\\ no\\ longer\\ objectified\\ the\\ samnites\\ bc\\ they\\ had\\ acquired\\ the\\ samnites\\ who\\ then\\ became\\ romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\augustus\\ \\(prima\\ porta\\)\\ statue\\ shows\\ first\\ emperor\\ in\\ his\\ glory\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grandoise\\ gesture\\ with\\ right\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\graciousness\\ even\\ with\\ militaristic\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\barelegged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Romans\\ realistic\\,\\ very\\ frank\\ about\\ physical\\ appeaance\\ \\(unlike\\ greeks\\ who\\ idolized\\ the\\ human\\ body\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;the\\ romans\\ were\\ very\\ realistic\\-\\ anatole\\ hair\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ has\\ robe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;roman\\ coins\\ \\,\\ sometimes\\ gold\\,\\ one\\ example\\ shows\\ hippo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hippo\\ represents\\ conquering\\ egypt\\ the\\ jule\\,\\ octavian\\ wins\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ illustrations\\ allow\\ common\\ ppl\\ to\\ understand\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consus\\-\\ the\\ one\\ originally\\ worhsipped\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\ maximus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;31\\ bce\\-\\ when\\ augustus\\ octavian\\ conquers\\ antony\\ and\\ cleopatra\\ and\\ it\\ becomes\\ roman\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\509\\ BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ rome\\ became\\ a\\ republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\754\\ BCE\\=\\=\\ when\\ scarre\\ claims\\ that\\ Rome\\ was\\ founded\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;BUT\\ HE\\ WAD\\ WRONG\\ date\\ because\\ romans\\ believe\\ rome\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ 753\\ bce\\ \\(with\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ city\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\ the\\ Roman\\ games\\ began\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\result\\ of\\ republic\\&\\#39\\;s\\ collapse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\politicians\\ use\\ games\\ to\\ manipulate\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\games\\ as\\ tool\\ of\\ loyalty\\ to\\ corral\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\manipulation\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ emperor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cult\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\roman\\ empire\\ ultimately\\ dissplves\\ in\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\ \\(when\\ the\\ games\\ had\\ already\\ ceased\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ roman\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ hayday\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Week\\ Two\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\9\\/24\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ far\\ as\\ the\\ romans\\ concerned\\,\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ peg\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ to\\ the\\ funerals\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\artificially\\ staged\\ beast\\ hunts\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ peoples\\ the\\ romans\\ had\\ fought\\ had\\ used\\ elephants\\ in\\ combat\\ and\\ from\\ there\\ the\\ romans\\ used\\ the\\ animals\\ they\\ stolen\\ from\\ their\\ foes\\ in\\ staged\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\then\\ they\\ began\\ getting\\ animals\\ from\\ diplomatic\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hired\\ the\\ animal\\ trainers\\ who\\ were\\ experts\\ in\\ animal\\ management\\ \\(eg\\ crocodile\\ mgmt\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\brought\\ experts\\ in\\ to\\ manage\\ the\\ beasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\venatio\\=\\ staged\\ hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\damnatio\\=\\ punishment\\ exhibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\throwing\\ deserters\\ to\\ the\\ elephants\\ and\\ beasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ who\\ deserted\\ the\\ macedonian\\ court\\ would\\ be\\ trampled\\ by\\ elephants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1bce\\,\\ trend\\ becomes\\ visible\\:\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ funerary\\ celebrations\\ and\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\ starts\\ to\\ be\\ manipuated\\ for\\ political\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\julius\\ ceasar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\ staged\\ in\\ 46bce\\ a\\ \\(announced\\ after\\ 2\\ yrs\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ funerary\\ celebration\\ for\\ his\\ daughter\\,\\ then\\ gap\\ of\\ 6\\ yrs\\ until\\ context\\ of\\ his\\ triumverate\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\8\\ yrs\\ after\\ her\\ death\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ celebration\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\display\\ of\\ mass\\ species\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ were\\ common\\ animals\\ some\\ like\\ rhinos\\ and\\ hippos\\ were\\ harder\\ to\\ find\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ roman\\ politicians\\ made\\ connections\\ with\\ traders\\ in\\ local\\ areas\\ to\\ acquire\\ the\\ beasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\58\\ BC\\ aedile\\;\\ M\\ Aemilius\\ Seaurus\\ \\(magistratein\\ charge\\ of\\ running\\ rome\\)\\-\\ put\\ on\\ a\\ show\\ with\\ 5\\ hippos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\55\\ bce\\-\\ Pompey\\ opened\\ the\\ first\\ theater\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\exhibited\\ a\\ lynx\\ and\\ a\\ rhinocerous\\ \\,\\ he\\ opened\\ first\\ stone\\ theater\\*\\*\\*\\ he\\ was\\ caesar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ main\\ rival\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ 48\\ bce\\,\\ when\\ caesar\\ got\\ his\\ triumvirate\\,\\ he\\ was\\ given\\ a\\ giraffe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\kathrun\\ welsh\\ \\(94\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\she\\ was\\ fiirst\\ person\\ to\\ question\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ chronological\\ priotiry\\ of\\ rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ earliest\\ amphitheter\\ found\\ in\\ pompey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\79\\ ce\\-\\ eruption\\ of\\ vesuvius\\ on\\ the\\ bay\\ of\\ naples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ uncovering\\ of\\ the\\ cities\\ allowed\\ archaeologists\\ \\&ldquo\\;witness\\ the\\ moment\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ its\\ eriuption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\one\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ things\\ they\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ was\\ the\\ amphitheter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\bay\\ of\\ naples\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ spot\\ we\\ will\\ study\\ in\\ the\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pompeii\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ preserved\\ early\\ amphitheters\\ \\(although\\ others\\ exist\\ in\\ various\\ stages\\ of\\ decay\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\before\\ kathryns\\ time\\,\\ people\\ thought\\ that\\ campania\\ had\\ thought\\ up\\ the\\ amphitheter\\ in\\ pompeii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;the\\ amphithetre\\ dates\\ back\\ to\\ 75\\ bce\\,\\ which\\ is\\ older\\ thant\\ he\\ amphitheter\\ from\\ 29\\ bce\\ in\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elder\\ Pliny\\,\\ Natural\\ History\\ \\(53\\.52\\ bce\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\romans\\ felt\\ that\\ Curio\\ had\\ invented\\ the\\ amphitheter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ first\\ amphitheter\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ invented\\ by\\ this\\ entreupreneurial\\ spirit\\,\\ curio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ may\\ have\\ wanted\\ to\\ impress\\ the\\ population\\ with\\ a\\ great\\ technological\\ achievement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\curio\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ introducing\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;method\\ of\\ substituting\\ for\\ an\\ amphitheter\\ byb\\ piggybacking\\ on\\ previously\\ existing\\ structures\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ this\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ possibility\\ because\\ kathryn\\ welsh\\ has\\ examined\\ the\\ evidence\\ and\\ the\\ forum\\ in\\ rome\\ had\\ been\\ long\\ used\\ for\\ displays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\ was\\ temporary\\ seating\\ for\\ the\\ amphitheter\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\ for\\ the\\ housing\\ of\\ the\\ spectators\\ during\\ festive\\ occasions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ romans\\ themselves\\ were\\ likely\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ amphitheter\\-\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ something\\ borrowed\\ from\\ another\\ italian\\ people\\ in\\ italy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Festus\\ 134\\ b\\.\\ \\-\\ kathryn\\ welsh\\ in\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ necessity\\ to\\ adapt\\ the\\ forum\\ for\\ the\\ technological\\ displays\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maenius\\ was\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ first\\ erected\\ beams\\ projecting\\ beyond\\ the\\ columns\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ upper\\ spectacula\\ for\\ seating\\ could\\ be\\ arranged\\ with\\ chairs\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ predates\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ forum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ romans\\ were\\ not\\ creating\\ temporary\\ structures\\,\\ their\\ construcion\\ of\\ an\\ amphitheter\\ in\\ pompey\\ in\\ the\\ 70sbce\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ copying\\ a\\ native\\ institution\\ in\\ that\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ imported\\ to\\ their\\ new\\ colony\\ in\\ pompeii\\ a\\ practice\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ already\\ familiar\\ with\\ in\\ rome\\ and\\ its\\ origins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\however\\,\\ in\\ pompeii\\ they\\ did\\ build\\ permanent\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ must\\ now\\ examine\\ colonization\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\pompeii\\:\\ roman\\ colony\\,\\ sammarite\\ city\\,\\ venerable\\ past\\,\\ many\\ cultural\\ amenities\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ had\\ like\\ a\\ forum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sula\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ introduce\\ gladiaorial\\ games\\ in\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ bce\\,\\ he\\ became\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ to\\ reweard\\ soldiers\\ by\\ establishing\\ veteran\\ colonies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sula\\ established\\ a\\ veteran\\ colony\\ at\\ the\\ samorite\\ city\\ of\\ pompeii\\-\\ forced\\ on\\ the\\ city\\ a\\ roman\\ system\\ of\\ government\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sula\\ put\\ a\\ cultural\\ stamp\\ on\\ pompeii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\H3\\-\\ stone\\ carvings\\.incriptions\\ in\\ pompeii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ILS\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ important\\ pt\\ of\\ collection\\ of\\ latin\\ incrpiptions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\EAOR\\-\\ incriptions\\ pertaining\\ to\\ amphitheatres\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ west\\,\\ includes\\ photographs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duoviri\\ quinquennales\\-\\ five\\ year\\ appointment\\ for\\ overseeing\\ the\\ colony\\ \\(team\\ of\\ 2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ was\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ consuls\\ in\\ rome\\,\\ this\\ colonial\\ administration\\ mimics\\ the\\ setup\\ in\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ two\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ the\\ colony\\ built\\ the\\ amphitheter\\ at\\ their\\ own\\ expense\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ occupying\\ the\\ office\\ in\\ the\\ colony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ was\\ not\\ designed\\ for\\ the\\ samnite\\ inhabinants\\ at\\ pompeii\\,\\ but\\ rahter\\ it\\ was\\ specifically\\ created\\ for\\ the\\ roman\\ colonists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ earliest\\ roman\\ authorities\\ in\\ pompeii\\ were\\ superimposing\\ a\\ structure\\ that\\ was\\ roman\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ amphitheter\\ was\\ thus\\ recognizeable\\ as\\ roman\\ in\\ structure\\ from\\ the\\ get\\ go\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\archaelogists\\ have\\ found\\ traces\\ of\\ original\\ saminate\\ houses\\ under\\ the\\ amphiteter\\ in\\ pompeii\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ basically\\ buldozed\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ housing\\ quarter\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ saminte\\ inhabitants\\ to\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ structure\\ was\\ constructed\\ by\\ the\\ new\\ roman\\ rulers\\ of\\ pompeii\\ for\\ the\\ romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;spectacula\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ seeing\\ space\\,\\ was\\ the\\ original\\ term\\ for\\ the\\ emphitheter\\ in\\ latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\then\\ later\\ they\\ adapted\\ the\\ greek\\ term\\ apmhitheatre\\ later\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ amphitheter\\ at\\ pompeii\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ SE\\ corner\\,\\ and\\ the\\ strucutre\\ itself\\ will\\ now\\ be\\ examined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rather\\ primitive\\ design\\ of\\ amphitheter\\ in\\ pompeii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\must\\ be\\ accessed\\ from\\ outside\\,\\ climbing\\ to\\ top\\ of\\ building\\ up\\ staircase\\,\\ along\\ walkway\\ and\\ enter\\ through\\ archways\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ rather\\ laborious\\ process\\ to\\ access\\ the\\ seating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ archways\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ perimeter\\ archway\\ would\\ lead\\ down\\ into\\ seating\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\arches\\ \\,\\ staircases\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\podium\\ wall\\ was\\ ring\\ \\,\\ seating\\ in\\ lower\\ area\\ accessed\\ from\\ doorway\\,\\ the\\ podium\\ wall\\ runs\\ the\\ perimeter\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ wall\\ separates\\ the\\ lower\\ seats\\ from\\ the\\ upper\\ seats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\access\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ seating\\ was\\ from\\ an\\ entry\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ stadium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ people\\ who\\ sat\\ bet\\.\\ Podium\\ wll\\ and\\ the\\ upper\\ wall\\ will\\ never\\ have\\ to\\ come\\ into\\ \\ \\;contact\\ with\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ sitting\\ in\\ the\\ higher\\ seats\\-\\ demarcated\\ mentality\\ of\\ romans\\,\\ design\\ of\\ amphitheter\\ separates\\ the\\ spectators\\ into\\ two\\ distinct\\ categories\\ and\\ the\\ lower\\ seating\\ area\\ have\\ eas\\ access\\ to\\ seats\\ without\\ coming\\ into\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ ppl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\509\\ bce\\ Rome\\ founded\\ \\(republic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\264\\ bce\\ First\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\ with\\ junius\\ brutus\\ funeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anthony\\ born\\ in\\ 63\\ bce\\,\\ died\\ in\\ 14\\ ad\\,\\ rome\\ became\\ empire\\ when\\ he\\ defeated\\ antony\\ and\\ cleopatra\\ in\\ 31\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vesuvius\\ erupted\\ In\\ pompeii\\ in\\ 79\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\ had\\ gladiator\\ games\\ for\\ daughter\\ in\\ 46\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decreed\\ new\\ rules\\ \\(only\\ rulers\\ could\\ run\\ games\\)\\-\\ 42\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\maurelias\\-\\ requested\\ that\\ beams\\ be\\ added\\ for\\ upper\\ spectacula\\ at\\ the\\ show\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\munera\\-\\ amphithetre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\oldest\\ amph\\ at\\ pompei\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sulla\\ had\\ games\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\triumviral\\ refers\\ to\\ 3\\ rulers\\-\\ typically\\ associated\\ with\\ augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ inaugural\\ games\\ of\\ the\\ Flavian\\ Amphitheatre\\ were\\ held\\ in\\ AD\\ 80\\,\\ on\\ the\\ orders\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Emperor\\ Titus\\,\\ to\\ celebrate\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ the\\ Colosseum\\,\\ then\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Flavian\\ Amphitheatre\\ \\(Latin\\:\\ Amphitheatrum\\ Flavium\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vespasian\\ began\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ amphitheatre\\ around\\ AD\\ 70\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ completed\\ by\\ Titus\\ soon\\ after\\ Vespasian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\ in\\ AD\\ 79\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;After\\ Titus\\&\\#39\\;\\ reign\\ began\\ with\\ months\\ of\\ disasters\\,\\ including\\ the\\ eruption\\ of\\ Mount\\ Vesuvius\\,\\ a\\ fire\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ and\\ an\\ outbreak\\ of\\ plague\\,\\ he\\ inaugurated\\ the\\ building\\ with\\ lavish\\ games\\ which\\ lasted\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ hundred\\ days\\,\\ perhaps\\ partially\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ appease\\ the\\ Roman\\ public\\ and\\ the\\ gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nero\\ was\\ convinced\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ Olympic\\ Games\\ of\\ 67\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ improve\\ relations\\ with\\ Greece\\ and\\ display\\ Roman\\ dominance\\.\\[101\\]\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\born\\ 63\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defeated\\ antony\\ and\\ cleopatra\\ 31\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\died\\ in\\ 14\\ ce\\ \\(ad\\ 14\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reigned\\ for\\ 41\\ years\\!\\!\\ unprecedented\\ and\\ never\\ matched\\ by\\ anyone\\ else\\ in\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Etruscan\\ theory\\ \\(gladiatorial\\ combat\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Osco\\-Lucanian\\ \\(campanian\\ origin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ romans\\ got\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ from\\ the\\ greeks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\ the\\ latter\\ two\\ theories\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ etruscans\\ provided\\ the\\ medium\\ of\\ transfer\\ to\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-the\\ may\\ have\\ transmitted\\ it\\ from\\ southern\\ italy\\ or\\ from\\ the\\ greek\\ peoples\\ of\\ italy\\ to\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ did\\ the\\ romans\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ theories\\ of\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-the\\ etruscan\\ theory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*based\\ on\\ a\\ few\\ theories\\ of\\ literary\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\ Nicolaus\\ of\\ Damascus\\,\\ quoted\\ by\\ Athenaeus\\ \\-\\ tells\\ us\\ the\\ romans\\ took\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\ from\\ the\\ etruscans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ showing\\ gladiators\\ at\\ festivals\\ of\\ shows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*maybe\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ invent\\ gladiatorial\\ comabt\\,\\ but\\ they\\ did\\ \\(etruscans\\)\\ use\\ gladiators\\ at\\ festivals\\ and\\ shows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\ isador\\ of\\ sville\\,\\ \\(17th\\ century\\ ce\\)\\-\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ the\\ gladiators\\ \\ \\;\\(lanista\\=etruscan\\ word\\ for\\ gladiator\\ owner\\/trainer\\)\\-\\ ludi\\=\\ gladiator\\ school\\ \\,\\ munera\\=\\ gladiator\\ games\\ romans\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ etruscan\\ term\\ for\\ someone\\ who\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ word\\ for\\ gladiator\\,\\ but\\ the\\ etruscans\\ does\\ not\\ \\(the\\ modern\\ scholar\\ might\\ argue\\)\\ take\\ invent\\ the\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\ charon\\=\\ god\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\-\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ etruscan\\ tradition\\ of\\ toomb\\ paintings\\ of\\ masked\\ figures\\ with\\ mallets\\ and\\ the\\ charon\\ figure\\ accompanied\\ the\\ gladiator\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ stadium\\-\\ since\\ these\\ symbols\\ were\\ found\\ on\\ the\\ etruscans\\&\\#39\\;\\ tombs\\,\\ must\\ mean\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ creators\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-pictorial\\ evidence\\-\\ there\\ are\\ tomb\\ paintings\\ at\\ Tarquinia\\,\\ NW\\ of\\ Rome\\ \\(included\\ the\\ masked\\ figure\\,\\ \\"\\;phersu\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-Tarquinia\\,\\ Tomb\\ of\\ the\\ Augurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\ Phersu\\,\\ damnatus\\,\\ and\\ hound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-if\\ the\\ picture\\ has\\ anything\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ display\\ scene\\ in\\ the\\ amphithetre\\ shows\\ killing\\ gladiator\\ against\\ best\\ rather\\ than\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ death\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-540\\/530\\ BCE\\ for\\ these\\ paintings\\ in\\ the\\ tombs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-show\\ athletes\\ paired\\ in\\ types\\ of\\ conquest\\ in\\ presence\\ of\\ umpire\\,\\ include\\ armed\\ men\\ in\\ clothing\\ and\\ naked\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ arranged\\ in\\ pairs\\ or\\ engaged\\ in\\ combat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-there\\ are\\ no\\ actual\\ fighting\\ pairs\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-people\\ claimed\\ that\\ they\\ did\\ see\\ paired\\ armed\\ combat\\ on\\ etruscan\\ tomb\\ paintings\\ that\\ have\\ since\\ been\\ destroyed\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ relay\\ credibility\\ to\\ these\\ stories\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ existing\\ evidene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-we\\ see\\ people\\ attacking\\ a\\ dog\\,\\ which\\ is\\ bleeding\\ profusel\\,\\ the\\ person\\ wears\\ a\\ mask\\ with\\ the\\ characteristic\\ pointed\\ etruscan\\ beard\\-\\ his\\ skin\\ is\\ not\\ red\\,\\ but\\ skin\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ labeled\\ \\"\\;phersu\\"\\;\\ \\-\\-\\ an\\ etruscan\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-it\\ has\\ been\\ suggested\\ that\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ sacred\\ execution\\ or\\ hercules\\ cult\\ drwaing\\,\\ but\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ NOT\\ is\\ gladiatorial\\ comabt\\ bc\\ the\\ two\\ people\\ are\\ NOT\\ fighting\\ with\\ weapons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_THUS\\ the\\ etruscan\\ view\\ has\\ NOTHING\\ SUBSTANTIAL\\ TO\\ SOLVE\\ THE\\ PRB\\ OF\\ GLAIATORIAL\\ COMBAT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-DOES\\ TEL\\ THAAT\\ THERE\\ WAS\\ TRADITION\\ OF\\ ETRUSCAN\\ FUNERAL\\ SHOWING\\ PEOPLE\\ WITH\\ BEASTS\\ AND\\ BINDING\\,\\ BUT\\ NOTHING\\ MORE\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-Osco\\-Lucanian\\ \\(\\"\\;campanian\\"\\;\\)\\ origin\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Livy\\,\\ History\\ of\\ Rome\\ 9\\.40\\.17\\-\\-\\-\\ augustan\\ historian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strabo\\,\\ Geography\\ 5\\.4\\.13\\-\\-\\ augustan\\ geographer\\-\\ much\\ better\\ to\\ display\\ than\\ at\\ a\\ fuenral\\ than\\ to\\ haoul\\ in\\ gladiatori\\ images\\ for\\ entertainment\\ at\\ dinner\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tomb\\-paintings\\ at\\ Paestum\\,\\ s\\.\\ of\\ the\\ bay\\ of\\ naples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ dinner\\ parties\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-uniformly\\ hostile\\ attitude\\ toward\\ campanians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-these\\ were\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ defected\\ to\\ hanniabl\\ during\\ the\\ second\\ punic\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ they\\ were\\ supposeduly\\ known\\ to\\ stage\\ gladiatorial\\ comabt\\ at\\ dinner\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-staging\\ gladiatorial\\ conquest\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ funeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-did\\ not\\ necessarily\\ originate\\ there\\ in\\ campania\\,\\ but\\ were\\ displayed\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-there\\ are\\ very\\ intersting\\ tomb\\ paitnings\\ from\\ the\\ early\\ 300s\\ BCE\\ \\(4th\\ cent\\ bce\\)\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ Posidonia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-there\\ are\\ also\\ vases\\ from\\ south\\ italy\\ with\\ this\\ evidence\\ but\\ our\\ focus\\ is\\ tomb\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-represent\\ a\\ competitive\\ context\\ and\\ depict\\ funeral\\ games\\ and\\ one\\ to\\ one\\ combat\\ in\\ the\\ tombs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-so\\ far\\ 17\\ paintings\\ so\\ far\\ disc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-paestum\\,\\ andriuolo\\:\\ tomb\\ 53\\,\\ S\\.wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-see\\ 2\\ ppl\\ fighting\\,\\ armed\\ with\\ weapons\\ and\\ wearing\\ defensive\\ armor\\-\\ racing\\ in\\ a\\ chariot\\ and\\ a\\ column\\ which\\ suggests\\ a\\ built\\ context\\,\\ clearly\\ an\\ architectural\\ context\\ where\\ this\\ is\\ being\\ deployed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-Paestum\\:\\ Laghetto\\,\\ Tomb\\ X\\,\\ S\\ Wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-we\\ see\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ combatitants\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ with\\ loin\\ cloth\\,\\ they\\ are\\ carrying\\ large\\ shields\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ weapons\\ in\\ their\\ right\\ hand\\ and\\ are\\ wearing\\ a\\ helmet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-next\\ to\\ them\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ a\\ pair\\ who\\ are\\ neaked\\,\\ have\\ helmets\\ on\\ \\,\\ are\\ holding\\ shields\\,\\ are\\ wearing\\ nothing\\ \\(scary\\ way\\ to\\ fight\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-Paestum\\:\\ Andriuolo\\,\\ Tomb\\ of\\ 1937\\,\\ N\\.\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ another\\ pair\\ of\\ combatiant\\,\\ have\\ lances\\ and\\ shilds\\ and\\ helmet\\,\\ and\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ naked\\ except\\ for\\ something\\ protecting\\ their\\ shins\\,\\ there\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ staged\\ one\\ on\\ one\\ combat\\ with\\ a\\ figure\\ who\\ is\\ remote\\ from\\ the\\ actual\\ combat\\-\\ it\\ is\\ staged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-Paestum\\:\\ Gaudo\\:\\ Tomb\\ 7\\/\\/1972\\,\\ N\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-one\\ dark\\ skined\\ one\\ light\\ skinned\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ combatinats\\,\\ another\\ pair\\ of\\ boxers\\,\\ there\\ is\\ someone\\ to\\ the\\ side\\ observing\\ the\\ action\\,\\ this\\ is\\ campania\\ still\\,\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ pther\\ indv\\.\\ wearing\\ olong\\ tunics\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ in\\ combat\\ so\\ they\\ cant\\ be\\ engaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ in\\ another\\ tomb\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ figure\\ wearing\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ wings\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ comatinta\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ musician\\ playing\\ a\\ flute\\,\\ and\\ two\\ female\\ observers\\,\\ these\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ mourniers\\,\\ the\\ combat\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ staged\\ to\\ music\\,\\ we\\ have\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ audience\\ in\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ women\\,\\ we\\ can\\ only\\ assume\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ religious\\ winged\\ creature\\ possibly\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ under\\ world\\,\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ tell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-there\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\:\\ chariot\\ racing\\,\\ boxing\\,\\ adjudicators\\,\\ musical\\ acompaniment\\,\\ spectators\\,\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ dealing\\ with\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ display\\ perhaps\\ with\\ funerary\\ context\\ bec\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ tomb\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ another\\ painting\\ shw\\ an\\ infv\\ fallen\\ over\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ assume\\ is\\ dead\\ that\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ paintings\\ are\\ showing\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ fihgs\\ to\\ the\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ this\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ in\\ 4th\\ century\\ bce\\ there\\ are\\ paintings\\ in\\ campania\\ possibly\\ brought\\ from\\ rome\\ from\\ etruscans\\ and\\ lead\\ nickolas\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\ brough\\ t\\ to\\ rome\\ from\\ the\\ etruscans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ but\\ perhaps\\ no\\ reason\\ that\\ the\\ etruscans\\ should\\ adapt\\ the\\ games\\ \\ \\;and\\ they\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ much\\ combat\\ with\\ campania\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\ if\\ we\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ etruscans\\ of\\ mediators\\ we\\ must\\ assume\\ that\\ romans\\ adapted\\ process\\ form\\ the\\ lucanians\\ directly\\,\\ but\\ then\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ hard\\ to\\ show\\ why\\ there\\ is\\ etruscan\\ literature\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-the\\ romans\\ got\\ roman\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ from\\ the\\ greeks\\ cvaia\\ the\\ settlements\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ \\(greek\\ settlementes\\)\\ in\\ the\\ illiad\\ byhomer\\ you\\ get\\ people\\ fighting\\ to\\ the\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-hugejump\\ from\\ homer\\ in\\ the\\ dark\\ ages\\ to\\ the\\ romans\\ in\\ the\\ 3rd\\ century\\ bce\\-\\ not\\ many\\ have\\ liked\\ this\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ we\\ can\\ probly\\ assume\\ that\\ the\\ greeks\\ can\\ be\\ left\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ theories\\ \\)greeks\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ even\\ have\\ pics\\ in\\ tomb\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ tomb\\ paintings\\ are\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ places\\ games\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ aristocratic\\ funeral\\ in\\ 264\\ bce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-264\\ BCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-maenius\\ was\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ first\\ erected\\ beams\\ projecting\\ beyond\\ columns\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ upper\\ spectacula\\ could\\ be\\ extended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-although\\ the\\ romans\\ thought\\ the\\ first\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\ at\\ a\\ funeral\\ wiere\\ at\\ 264\\ bce\\,\\ there\\ was\\ evidnece\\ bc\\ maenius\\ extended\\ seating\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\ much\\ much\\ earlier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-Tertullian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-opposed\\ to\\ pagan\\ romans\\,\\ christian\\ author\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-thought\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ used\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ prisoners\\ at\\ funerals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ then\\ claimed\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ turned\\ this\\ into\\ practice\\ of\\ killing\\ for\\ pleasure\\ with\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-he\\ interprets\\ the\\ human\\ sacrifice\\ and\\ practice\\ of\\ one\\ to\\ one\\ combat\\ at\\ the\\ grave\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-he\\ may\\ simply\\ mean\\ that\\ they\\ wereready\\ to\\ be\\ killed\\ at\\ the\\ grave\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-Servius\\ \\(writes\\ about\\ Virgils\\ Aeneid\\)\\ in\\ 519\\ bce\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ says\\ it\\ was\\ customery\\ for\\ prisoners\\ to\\ be\\ killed\\ at\\ sites\\ of\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-then\\ when\\ this\\ was\\ frowned\\ upon\\ they\\ brought\\ in\\ gladiators\\ to\\ the\\ funerals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-says\\ that\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ a\\ replacement\\ for\\ human\\ sacrifice\\ at\\ a\\ funeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ Servius\\ on\\ Virgil\\,\\ Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ varro\\ says\\ that\\ at\\ funerals\\ mournign\\ woman\\ would\\ make\\ themselves\\ bleed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\-gift\\=\\ munus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ word\\ munus\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ for\\ a\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\according\\ to\\ servius\\ quoting\\ varro\\,\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ to\\ pit\\ persons\\ against\\ eachother\\ as\\ combatitns\\ fighting\\ in\\ the\\ honor\\ of\\ the\\ decesased\\ was\\ Junius\\ Brutus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\264\\ bce\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ brutus\\&\\#39\\;s\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ all\\ started\\ in\\ 264\\ BC\\ at\\ the\\ obsequies\\ of\\ Junius\\ Brutus\\ when\\,\\ in\\ the\\ honor\\ of\\ his\\ memory\\,\\ three\\ pairs\\ of\\ gladiators\\ fought\\.\\ Just\\ three\\!\\ 50\\ years\\ later\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aemilius\\ Lepidus\\ threw\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ 22\\ pairs\\ of\\ gladiators\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 106\\ AD\\,\\ celebrating\\ his\\ victory\\ over\\ the\\ Dacians\\ in\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ total\\ lush\\,\\ emperor\\ Trajan\\ offered\\ 123\\ days\\ of\\ games\\ in\\ which\\ 10\\,000\\ gladiators\\ participated\\ and\\ 11\\,000\\ beasts\\ were\\ killed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\then\\ son\\ held\\ combat\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ brutus\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;surprisingly\\ in\\ agreement\\ that\\ funeral\\ of\\ Munius\\ Brutus\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ instance\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ at\\ a\\ funeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ first\\ spectacle\\ at\\ rome\\ was\\ held\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\ boarium\\ during\\ the\\ consulship\\ of\\ appius\\ claudius\\ and\\ fulvius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;second\\ production\\ was\\ recorded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\8b\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ second\\ act\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ gladiators\\ out\\ do\\ the\\ attraction\\ of\\ the\\ play\\ that\\ is\\ happening\\ at\\ the\\ funeral\\ games\\ for\\ lupius\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ link\\ for\\ over\\ a\\ cent\\ for\\ putting\\ on\\ gladiators\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ funeral\\ celebration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-9\\.\\.\\.libby\\,\\ scipio\\ returned\\ to\\ see\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\ honoring\\ his\\ father\\ and\\ uncle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\funeral\\ games\\ at\\ carthage\\ in\\ 206\\ bce\\-\\ honer\\ to\\ fight\\ as\\ a\\ gladiator\\ in\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ games\\ celebrating\\ scipio\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ not\\ just\\ slaves\\ fought\\ but\\ everyone\\ came\\ forward\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\regarded\\ by\\ foreigners\\ as\\ distinctive\\ feature\\ of\\ roman\\ civilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\167\\ bce\\ antiochus\\ IV\\ held\\ games\\ \\(greek\\ monarch\\)\\ held\\ games\\ in\\ Antioch\\/\\ Daphne\\ that\\ included\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\-\\ in\\ yr\\ 167\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\had\\ a\\ parade\\ before\\ the\\ games\\ with\\ hundreds\\ of\\ pairs\\ of\\ gladiators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\with\\ gladiatrial\\ games\\ and\\ beast\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\blended\\ greek\\ habit\\ of\\ grand\\ \\"\\;pomp\\"\\;\\ procession\\ with\\ violent\\ spectacles\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ liked\\ \\:\\ gladiators\\ and\\ beast\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;so\\ by\\ 160s\\ bce\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ greek\\ ruler\\ copying\\ a\\ prototypically\\ roman\\ spectacle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;this\\ happened\\ in\\ greek\\ world\\ and\\ in\\ syria\\ where\\ he\\ is\\ immitating\\ the\\ romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;gladiators\\ had\\ become\\ a\\ national\\ export\\ and\\ even\\ greeks\\ were\\ copying\\ what\\ romans\\ were\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\valerius\\ maximus\\ \\(105\\ bce\\)\\-\\-\\ roman\\ army\\ started\\ to\\ employ\\ gladiatorial\\ trainers\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ more\\ sophisticated\\ method\\ of\\ fighting\\ so\\ that\\ by\\ 15\\ bce\\,\\ the\\ roman\\ army\\ was\\ starting\\ to\\ adapt\\ fighting\\ toech\\.\\ of\\ gladiators\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ fighters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\two\\ consuls\\ were\\ introducing\\ gladiatorial\\ training\\ into\\ the\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\perhaps\\ gladiators\\ were\\ deployed\\ at\\ rome\\ to\\ keep\\ up\\ the\\ fighting\\ spirit\\ and\\ keep\\ people\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ militancy\\ upon\\ which\\ the\\ empire\\ was\\ founded\\,\\ reminded\\ ppl\\ of\\ militant\\ power\\ base\\,\\ in\\ 105\\ bce\\ the\\ gladiators\\ were\\ introduced\\ to\\ train\\ etc\\-\\ interesting\\ insight\\ either\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\beast\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\romans\\ associated\\ from\\ get\\ go\\ with\\ funerary\\ celebration\\ and\\ had\\ ppl\\ fight\\ at\\ the\\ grave\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\also\\ had\\ aritficially\\ staged\\ beast\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\275\\ bce\\ shows\\ evdences\\ from\\ kind\\ pirus\\ of\\ epidus\\ \\(Pyrrhus\\ of\\ epirus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\king\\ pyrrhus\\ of\\ epirus\\ on\\ the\\ west\\ coast\\ of\\ greece\\ came\\ to\\ italy\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ defeat\\ the\\ romans\\ in\\ italy\\ and\\ brought\\ his\\ fihgting\\ force\\ of\\ elephants\\ with\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ romans\\ captured\\ four\\ of\\ the\\ elephants\\ and\\ put\\ them\\ on\\ display\\ \\(war\\ heros\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ evidnece\\ of\\ mass\\ display\\ of\\ am\\=nimals\\ \\ \\;252\\ BCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elder\\ Pliny\\ under\\ titus\\,\\ when\\ he\\ deals\\ with\\ elephants\\ in\\ his\\ natural\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\elephants\\ were\\ captured\\ from\\ the\\ cathaginians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\186\\ bce\\ they\\ hunted\\ elephant\\ in\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\186\\ bce\\ staged\\ a\\ fight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\169\\ bce\\ the\\ animal\\ fight\\ aedile\\ was\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ city\\-\\ mayors\\ job\\ becomes\\ beast\\ hunts\\ to\\ entertain\\ the\\ pl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\167\\ bce\\-\\-\\ King\\ Persus\\ threw\\ POWs\\ to\\ the\\ animals\\ for\\ display\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Livy\\,\\ summaries\\ 51\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\scipio\\ staged\\ games\\ after\\ the\\ manner\\ of\\ his\\ father\\ aemilius\\ paulus\\ and\\ threw\\ deserters\\ and\\ refugees\\ to\\ the\\ beats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\animal\\ and\\ elephant\\ importation\\ allowed\\ for\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\venatio\\:\\ word\\ for\\ beast\\ hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\L\\ sulla\\ was\\ first\\ \\ \\;to\\ displa\\ lions\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*Circus\\ Maximus\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/1\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Peter\\ Garnsey\\,\\ Ideas\\ of\\ Slavery\\ from\\ Aristotle\\ to\\ Augustine\\ \\(Cambridge\\ 1996\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Continuing\\ with\\ Handout\\ \\#6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ \\(was\\ last\\ classes\\&\\#39\\;\\ topic\\)\\-\\ fighting\\ methods\\ is\\ this\\ class\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peter\\ Garnsey\\ wrote\\ an\\ interesting\\ book\\ that\\ explores\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ slavery\\ chronologically\\ 4thcent\\ bce\\,\\ to\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ ce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ presses\\ the\\ evidence\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ whether\\ fundamentally\\ there\\ were\\ people\\ objecting\\ to\\ slavery\\,\\ few\\ ppl\\ were\\ against\\ it\\ bc\\ of\\ moral\\ grounds\\,\\ even\\ paul\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ question\\ the\\ institution\\ in\\ this\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\why\\ didnt\\ anyone\\ think\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ bad\\ idea\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Item\\ 22\\,\\ handout\\ 6\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ an\\ inscription\\ on\\ a\\ tomb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\c\\ salvius\\ capito\\=owned\\ gladiatorial\\ troupe\\ \\,\\ the\\ list\\ in\\ item\\ 22\\ is\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ ppl\\ buried\\ in\\ the\\ communal\\ tomb\\,\\ they\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ slave\\ household\\,\\ thus\\ burial\\ was\\ his\\ obligation\\;\\ the\\ list\\ shows\\ gladiators\\ by\\ their\\ specializations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\familia\\=\\ troop\\ of\\ gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sagittarius\\=\\ gladiator\\ armed\\ as\\ an\\ archer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\all\\ slaves\\ are\\ very\\ specialized\\ in\\ their\\ tasks\\,\\ thus\\ all\\ gladiators\\ are\\ very\\ specialized\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mentality\\ was\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\/property\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ their\\ specializations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiator\\ with\\ a\\ javelin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\gladiator\\ \\&ldquo\\;oplomachus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thracian\\ gladiators\\=\\ ppl\\ who\\ fight\\ in\\ what\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ thracian\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thrace\\=\\ in\\ northeastern\\ border\\ of\\ greece\\ \\(bulgaria\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ can\\ assume\\ thracian\\ style\\ developed\\ because\\ the\\ romans\\ encountered\\ thracian\\ military\\ and\\ then\\ objectified\\ this\\ foreign\\ enemy\\ as\\ a\\ fighting\\ style\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ if\\ this\\ fighting\\ style\\ was\\ an\\ exact\\ equivalent\\ of\\ how\\ they\\ fought\\ in\\ wars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ style\\ determines\\ the\\ approaches\\ opponents\\ could\\ take\\ in\\ combat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thracian\\ gladiators\\,\\ we\\ see\\,\\ were\\ quite\\ numerous\\=\\ POPULAR\\!\\!\\ \\(Titus\\ favored\\ the\\ thracian\\ gladiator\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\murmillones\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\chariot\\ borne\\ gladiator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\samnite\\ gladiator\\ \\(remember\\ cladius\\ sulla\\ and\\ pompeii\\ colony\\/\\ quinctius\\ valgus\\/marcus\\ porcius\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ maenius\\-beams\\ in\\ the\\ forums\\ columns\\ and\\ upper\\ spectacula\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\retiarius\\-\\=\\ gladiator\\ who\\ must\\ fight\\ with\\ net\\!\\!\\,\\ THEY\\ WERE\\ POPULAR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thraeces\\-\\ popular\\ gladiator\\ \\(thracian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\scissor\\,\\ we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ much\\ about\\ this\\ tipe\\ of\\ gladiator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ no\\ age\\ shown\\,\\ but\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ gladiators\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ fight\\ every\\ day\\,\\ it\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ as\\ infrequently\\ as\\ once\\ or\\ twice\\ a\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ carry\\ salvius\\ capito\\&\\#39\\;s\\ name\\,\\ so\\ they\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ owned\\ by\\ him\\,\\ but\\ technicially\\ they\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ individually\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ someone\\ else\\ who\\ sent\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ barracks\\ for\\ distriubution\\ and\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\:\\ Marcus\\ Caecilius\\:\\ marcus\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;praenomen\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Caecilius\\ is\\ the\\ \\(nomen\\=\\ family\\ name\\)\\ so\\ he\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ free\\ born\\;\\ other\\ ones\\ with\\ eonus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\auctoratus\\/\\ autocratii\\=free\\ born\\ men\\ who\\ become\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\some\\ of\\ the\\ names\\ may\\ be\\ stage\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ took\\ 6\\ categories\\ of\\ stage\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ethnic\\ origins\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;damascenus\\=\\ person\\ from\\ damascus\\;\\ Lycus\\=\\ man\\ from\\ lythia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\attitudes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paratus\\=\\ ready\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\incitatus\\-\\ \\(insight\\)\\=\\ spirited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\habilis\\=\\ handy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\something\\ valuable\\/precious\\/exotic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\margarites\\=\\ pearl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\animal\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ursula\\=little\\ bear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pantheriscus\\=panther\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pardus\\=leopard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\serpentinus\\=snake\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\nature\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\narcissus\\=flower\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gods\\ or\\ heroes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hermes\\=\\ tricky\\ god\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\astyanax\\=\\ defender\\ of\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\socrates\\=\\ intelligent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ which\\ had\\ been\\ held\\ by\\ famous\\ predescessors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\idea\\ of\\ sympathetic\\ magic\\,\\ naming\\ kid\\ after\\ president\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Nom\\ de\\ Guerre\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ french\\ word\\ for\\ fighting\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\item\\ 29\\:\\ breast\\ plate\\,\\ shield\\,\\ VISOR\\=\\ face\\ protector\\,\\ leg\\ protector\\,\\ loin\\ cloth\\,\\ helmet\\,\\ crest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\see\\ the\\ weighted\\ base\\ with\\ vertical\\ pole\\ to\\ practice\\ the\\ fighting\\,\\ triangle\\ border\\ on\\ mosaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;PARDUS\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ post\\,\\ equivalent\\ of\\ doing\\ punching\\ on\\ punching\\ bag\\ in\\ the\\ gym\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Flaces\\ Macon\\ mosaic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\item\\ 29\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ARMATURAE\\:\\ WORD\\ FOR\\ ARMOR\\,\\ THIS\\ FIRST\\ FELLOW\\ IS\\ THE\\ TEMPLATE\\ WITH\\ MINIMUM\\ ARMOR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thraex\\=\\ thraecian\\ gladiator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\crest\\,\\ arm\\ protector\\ on\\ arm\\,\\ distinctive\\ bent\\ sword\\,\\ thy\\ protector\\,\\ bent\\ sword\\ is\\ distinctive\\,\\ its\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ get\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ with\\ the\\ sword\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HOPLOMACHUS\\-\\ has\\ shield\\ and\\ long\\ spear\\,\\ helmet\\ etc\\ similar\\ to\\ thraecian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\RETIARIUS\\-\\ VERY\\ vulnerable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*GALERUS\\=\\ SHOULDER\\ GUARD\\ THAT\\ PROTECTS\\ THE\\ NECK\\ OF\\ RETIARIUS\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\;\\ WEAPONERY\\ EXPENSIVE\\ BC\\ CUSTOM\\ DESIGNED\\,\\ protection\\ on\\ left\\ arm\\ but\\ none\\ on\\ his\\ right\\,\\ has\\ no\\ helmet\\,\\ has\\ short\\ dagger\\,\\ had\\ trident\\ \\,\\ may\\ have\\ kept\\ dagger\\ tucked\\ into\\ loin\\ cloth\\-\\ ONLY\\ NECK\\ ON\\ Left\\ SIDE\\ PROTECTED\\-\\ head\\,\\ etc\\.\\ not\\.\\.\\.\\.assumed\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ handed\\ opponent\\ who\\ will\\ be\\ coming\\ over\\ to\\ his\\ left\\ side\\ to\\ strike\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PROVOCATOR\\=\\ CHALLENGER\\,\\ similar\\ in\\ style\\ to\\ SECUTOR\\:\\ same\\ rectangular\\ shield\\,\\ protector\\ on\\ right\\ arm\\ \\,\\ protector\\ on\\ both\\ legs\\ but\\ more\\ on\\ fwd\\ left\\ leg\\,\\ loincloth\\,\\ belt\\,\\ leg\\ padding\\ more\\ protective\\ on\\ the\\ secutor\\,\\ more\\ protusions\\ on\\ the\\ provocator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ helmet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eques\\,\\ only\\ person\\ who\\ fights\\ in\\ a\\ tunic\\.\\ Has\\ a\\ shield\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ a\\ dinner\\ plate\\,\\ FIGHTS\\ HIS\\ OWN\\ TYPE\\,\\ PROVOCATOR\\ FIGHTS\\ HIS\\ OWN\\ KIND\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Secutor\\ has\\ a\\ smooth\\ helmet\\ so\\ that\\ ppl\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ jab\\ him\\ and\\ bring\\ him\\ down\\ \\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provecator\\ has\\ similar\\ weaponery\\ to\\ secutor\\,\\ difference\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ less\\ padding\\ on\\ the\\ provecator\\ on\\ his\\ fwd\\ left\\ leg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MURMILLO\\-\\ same\\ as\\ secutor\\ except\\ for\\ the\\ helmet\\,\\ which\\ has\\ HUGE\\ crest\\,\\ ideal\\ for\\ Retiarius\\ to\\ get\\ his\\ trident\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\retiarius\\ fights\\ the\\ secutor\\ \\(so\\ retiarius\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ snag\\ the\\ helmet\\ so\\ no\\ unfair\\ adv\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eques\\-\\ fight\\ another\\ eques\\:\\ mobility\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ secuotor\\ impregnable\\ but\\ also\\ weighed\\ down\\ by\\ equip\\.\\,\\ other\\ ppl\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ heavy\\ stuff\\ to\\ wear\\ around\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ppl\\ obsessed\\ with\\ tallying\\ up\\ the\\ victories\\ and\\ the\\ outcomes\\ of\\ different\\ gladiators\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orpheus\\ mosaic\\,\\ Cos\\ \\(btw\\ greece\\ and\\ turkey\\,\\ island\\ where\\ common\\ language\\ was\\ greek\\=\\ lingua\\ franca\\ \\(sp\\?\\)\\)\\ \\:\\ Frieze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Tydeus\\ vs\\.\\ Leukaspis\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Paktolos\\ vs\\ Nympheros\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.suggests\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ specific\\ reference\\ to\\ a\\ real\\ fight\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ freze\\ around\\ the\\ mosaic\\ that\\ showed\\ this\\ orpheus\\ animal\\ gathering\\ motif\\=\\=\\=\\=\\=\\ so\\ this\\ gladiator\\ theme\\ is\\ just\\ filler\\ around\\ the\\ more\\ elaborate\\ picture\\,\\ this\\ shows\\ how\\ common\\ gladiators\\ were\\;\\;\\;\\;\\;\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ letters\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ one\\ man\\ \\,\\ and\\ this\\ says\\ vicotory\\-\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\;retiarius\\,\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ soldier\\ gard\\ and\\ trident\\,\\ but\\ we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ see\\ his\\ net\\ because\\ this\\ was\\ difficult\\ to\\ show\\ his\\ name\\ was\\ tydeus\\.\\.\\.\\.he\\ was\\ fighting\\ the\\ secutor\\ \\(shield\\ with\\ big\\ metal\\ crest\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.next\\ to\\ them\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ second\\ pair\\=\\=\\ they\\ are\\ both\\ provoCATORes\\ same\\ style\\ fighting\\ eachother\\.\\.\\.\\.next\\ to\\ them\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ referee\\,\\ or\\ umpire\\,\\ he\\ wears\\ a\\ tunic\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rudis\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ wand\\ of\\ the\\ referee\\,\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ arbitrator\\ and\\ thus\\ with\\ the\\ tunic\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ fighting\\,\\ we\\ are\\ uncertain\\ of\\ the\\ official\\ rules\\ the\\ umpire\\ would\\ call\\,\\ they\\ were\\ ALWAYS\\ present\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/3\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ gladiator\\ and\\ a\\ soldier\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ topic\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paper\\ due\\ october\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ceramic\\ flask\\ from\\ Asia\\ Minor\\,\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ stand\\ because\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ flat\\ bottem\\,\\ we\\ see\\ two\\ people\\ in\\ fighting\\ stance\\ facing\\ one\\ another\\ on\\ the\\ vase\\,\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ soldiers\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ fighting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ person\\ with\\ a\\ shield\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ a\\ person\\ with\\ a\\ dagger\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ retiarius\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ the\\ net\\ is\\ seldom\\ depicted\\,\\ he\\ DOES\\ have\\ a\\ trident\\ though\\,\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ facing\\ towards\\ the\\ opponent\\ with\\ the\\ pointed\\ weapon\\ in\\ his\\ right\\ arm\\,\\.\\.\\.\\.the\\ retiarius\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ fighting\\ the\\ secutor\\,\\ who\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ has\\ bulky\\ \\ \\;armor\\,\\ a\\ big\\ smoothe\\ helmet\\ and\\ the\\ smooth\\ helmet\\ allows\\ greater\\ protection\\ because\\ the\\ trident\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ retiarius\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ puncture\\ his\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deva\\,\\ Castra\\ \\(this\\ is\\ why\\ chester\\ is\\ called\\ chester\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ word\\)\\,\\ chester\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ welsh\\ marches\\ between\\ england\\ and\\ whales\\,\\ Roman\\ Forts\\ in\\ Wales\\ and\\ the\\ Marches\\ \\(SEE\\ PAGE\\ 51\\ in\\ SCARRE\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\ you\\ will\\ see\\ chester\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ page\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Next\\ relief\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ retiarius\\ \\,\\ the\\ relief\\ is\\ from\\ Chester\\ \\(Deva\\)\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ stone\\ material\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ broen\\ off\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ border\\ on\\ top\\ and\\ right\\ and\\ so\\ perhaps\\ there\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ one\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\ too\\!\\ He\\ has\\ a\\ trident\\,\\ a\\ shoulder\\ guard\\ on\\ his\\ right\\ shoulder\\ \\(most\\ ppl\\ are\\ right\\ handed\\ so\\ they\\ would\\ go\\ for\\ his\\ left\\ shoulder\\,\\ right\\ handed\\ opponent\\ should\\ come\\ at\\ \\ \\;left\\ exposed\\ neck\\ part\\)\\,\\ Why\\ did\\ he\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ protected\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ left\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\THIS\\ Is\\ THE\\ ONLY\\ ONE\\ PROFESSOR\\ CAN\\ THINK\\ OF\\ THAT\\ HAS\\ THE\\ SHOULDER\\ GUARD\\ ON\\ THE\\ RIGHT\\ SIDE\\,\\ THIS\\ ISN\\&\\#39\\;T\\ SOMETHING\\ COMMON\\ IN\\ DEPICTIONS\\ OF\\ THE\\ RETIARIUS\\ \\(RETIARIUS\\ HAS\\ NO\\ HELMET\\,\\ NO\\ SHIELD\\,\\ A\\ TRIDENT\\,\\ A\\ NET\\,\\ AND\\ AN\\ ARM\\ PROTECTOR\\ \\(TYPICALLY\\ ON\\ THE\\ LEFT\\ ARM\\,\\ AND\\ LEFT\\ SHOULDER\\ guard\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\MANICA\\=\\ ARM\\ GUARD\\ ON\\ TRIDENT\\ ARM\\ \\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\RETIARIUS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\CASTRA\\ \\(DEVA\\)\\ SEE\\ MAP\\ IN\\ SCARRE\\ PAGE\\ 51\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#2\\ Handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ individuals\\ trained\\ the\\ gladiators\\,\\ gladiator\\ training\\ groups\\ sometimes\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;familia\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ also\\ had\\ gladiatorial\\ training\\ facilities\\,\\ and\\ one\\ trainer\\ was\\ Gladius\\ Aurelius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BCE\\;\\ in\\ last\\ 5\\ yrs\\ of\\ cent\\,\\ \\ \\;gladiatorial\\ techniques\\ were\\ introduced\\ to\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marius\\=\\ individual\\ who\\ helped\\ to\\ introduce\\ gladiator\\ techniques\\ to\\ the\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Marius\\&\\#39\\;Muels\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ gladiators\\ forced\\ to\\ carry\\ equipment\\ on\\ their\\ backs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\C\\ Aurelius\\ Scaurus\\&\\#39\\;\\ Gladiatorial\\ School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spartacus\\ was\\ serving\\ as\\ a\\ gladiator\\/slave\\ in\\ the\\ Capua\\ School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spartacus\\ and\\ his\\ followers\\ broke\\ out\\ and\\ terrorized\\ people\\ for\\ three\\ years\\ until\\ the\\ roman\\ army\\ defeated\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tacfarinas\\=\\ individuals\\ from\\ the\\ Tunisia\\ area\\,\\ originally\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Numida\\&rdquo\\;\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spartacus\\ represented\\ someone\\ breaking\\ out\\ against\\ the\\ army\\ \\,\\ he\\ had\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ auxiliaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ had\\ both\\ served\\ as\\ auxiliary\\ fighters\\,\\ spartacus\\ rose\\ up\\ against\\ Roman\\ army\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ experience\\ as\\ a\\ military\\ fighter\\,\\ he\\ had\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\legionaries\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ army\\ were\\ citizens\\ whereas\\ gladiators\\ were\\ either\\ slaves\\ or\\ assimilated\\ to\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ slave\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Auctoramentum\\=\\ oath\\ of\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Auctoratus\\=\\ persons\\ who\\ have\\ taken\\ the\\ oath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\soldiers\\ had\\ to\\ taje\\ an\\ oath\\ when\\ they\\ joined\\ the\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\similar\\ sense\\ of\\ binding\\ oneself\\ by\\ oath\\ of\\ loyalty\\ to\\ commander\\/trainer\\ in\\ case\\ of\\ Roman\\ fighter\\/gladiator\\,\\ respectively\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ fight\\ one\\ on\\ one\\,\\ whereas\\ soldiers\\ fight\\ as\\ division\\ of\\ troups\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ and\\ discipline\\ is\\ different\\ for\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ fighting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\therefore\\ the\\ actual\\ fighting\\ identity\\ of\\ a\\ soldier\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ division\\ not\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\,\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ tomb\\ stones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ usually\\ fight\\ in\\ pairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\making\\ a\\ tally\\ of\\ how\\ one\\ has\\ done\\ in\\ single\\ combat\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ you\\ would\\ find\\ on\\ a\\ roman\\ army\\ tomb\\ stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interpunctum\\=dots\\ between\\ lines\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ epitaph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ waste\\ letters\\ or\\ money\\ so\\ some\\ letters\\ were\\ abbreviated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ionius\\,\\ son\\ of\\ dabezematygus\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ double\\ wages\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ division\\ of\\ thracians\\ from\\ the\\ town\\ of\\ serdica\\,\\ lived\\ 40\\ years\\,\\ served\\ 15\\;\\ his\\ heirs\\ saw\\ to\\ the\\ erection\\ \\(of\\ this\\ monument\\)\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ his\\ will\\;\\ he\\ is\\ buried\\ here\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ do\\ we\\ find\\ on\\ the\\ epitaph\\?\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ find\\ the\\ name\\,\\ affiliation\\ \\(reference\\ to\\ parent\\)\\,\\ rank\\ \\,\\ years\\ of\\ services\\,\\ heirs\\ \\(compare\\ this\\ to\\ \\#4\\ on\\ handout\\ 6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#4\\ handout\\ 6\\:\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ affiliation\\ shown\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ anything\\ about\\ the\\ parents\\ and\\ son\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ do\\ know\\ about\\ his\\ fighting\\ identity\\,\\ rank\\ and\\ capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\like\\ the\\ soldier\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ veteran\\ murmillo\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ gladiators\\ age\\,\\ just\\ as\\ we\\ saw\\ the\\ soldier\\&\\#39\\;s\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ his\\ origin\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ ethnic\\ provenance\\:\\ tungrian\\ in\\ origin\\=\\ from\\ germany\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ notice\\ the\\ regular\\,\\ formulaic\\ model\\ in\\ the\\ epitaph\\,\\ the\\ formula\\ for\\ who\\ erected\\ the\\ monument\\,\\ the\\ heirs\\ of\\ the\\ indv\\;\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ wife\\ and\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#10\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ words\\ Amabili\\=\\=\\ loveable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ shows\\ a\\ resume\\ of\\ his\\ fighting\\ form\\,\\ he\\ had\\ fought\\ 14\\ fights\\,\\ never\\ get\\ this\\ on\\ the\\ soldier\\&\\#39\\;s\\ epitaph\\ because\\ they\\ fought\\ in\\ detachments\\ and\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ need\\ individual\\ fights\\,\\ most\\ were\\ in\\ fact\\ building\\ road\\ s\\ and\\ may\\ have\\ never\\ engaged\\ with\\ the\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ a\\ tally\\ of\\ his\\ victories\\ and\\ combats\\ in\\ his\\ career\\,\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ soldier\\&\\#39\\;s\\ epitaph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\castra\\=\\ word\\ for\\ military\\ camp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\a\\ gladiatorial\\ school\\ was\\ never\\ called\\ a\\ castra\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ school\\ \\&ldquo\\;was\\ the\\ technical\\ term\\ for\\ where\\ the\\ gladiators\\ lived\\ and\\ were\\ trained\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ludus\\ Dacicus\\=\\ castra\\ that\\ was\\ built\\ by\\ Domitian\\,\\ and\\ was\\ located\\ in\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ school\\ was\\ named\\ after\\ the\\ people\\ living\\ along\\ the\\ danube\\,\\ who\\ fought\\ many\\ roman\\ wars\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ and\\ 90s\\ CE\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ dacicus\\ were\\ the\\ romans\\&\\#39\\;\\ enemies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ more\\ accurate\\ that\\ the\\ school\\ was\\ called\\ after\\ the\\ prisoners\\ of\\ war\\ who\\ supplied\\ the\\ prisoners\\ in\\ the\\ school\\ eventually\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ones\\ who\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ their\\ heads\\ chopped\\ off\\ were\\ put\\ to\\ work\\ as\\ gladiators\\,\\ also\\ dacicus\\ was\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ludus\\ Gallicus\\=\\ castra\\ that\\ was\\ difficult\\ to\\ peg\\ to\\ a\\ campaign\\ in\\ Gaul\\,\\ but\\ the\\ training\\ schoolw\\ as\\ build\\ about\\ a\\ century\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ after\\ JC\\ had\\ conquered\\ Gaul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ it\\ was\\ called\\ after\\ the\\ Gallicus\\ \\&ldquo\\;style\\ fighting\\/gladiator\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ludus\\=\\ school\\,\\ the\\ word\\ emphasizes\\ training\\ facility\\,\\ this\\ word\\ was\\ used\\ differently\\ than\\ Castra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Veteranus\\=\\ term\\ common\\ to\\ soldiers\\ and\\ gladiators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\tiro\\=\\ recruit\\ \\(in\\ army\\ or\\ gladiatorial\\ school\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ terms\\ apply\\ to\\ both\\ gladiators\\ and\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mosaics\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\most\\ mosaics\\ were\\ made\\ from\\ pavement\\,\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ survive\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ aligned\\ horizontally\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ they\\ address\\ the\\ entrance\\ of\\ the\\ room\\ or\\ the\\ couch\\,\\ they\\ address\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ room\\,\\ initially\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ register\\ of\\ the\\ mosaic\\,\\ while\\ the\\ upper\\ register\\ is\\ father\\ away\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ reads\\ a\\ mosaic\\ from\\ the\\ bottom\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Via\\ Appia\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Astyanax\\ v\\.\\ Kalendio\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ mosiac\\ depicts\\ a\\ particular\\ incidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ a\\ secutor\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ a\\ retiarius\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ and\\ an\\ umpire\\ in\\ the\\ corner\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ retiarius\\ with\\ trident\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ skewer\\ the\\ secutor\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Astyanaz\\=\\ defender\\ of\\ the\\ city\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ opponent\\ is\\ Kalendio\\,\\ the\\ retiarius\\ uses\\ his\\ net\\ to\\ trap\\ opponent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ zero\\ with\\ the\\ slash\\ through\\ it\\ near\\ the\\ umpire\\,\\ indivating\\ Obit\\=\\ 0\\=\\ he\\ died\\=\\ theta\\ nigrum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theta\\ nigrum\\=\\ black\\ theatre\\ because\\ the\\ associated\\ it\\ with\\ the\\ greek\\ term\\ for\\ death\\ and\\ dying\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ it\\ also\\ stands\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;obit\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\&rdquo\\;0\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ for\\ he\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ an\\ abbreviation\\ in\\ latin\\ for\\ deceased\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ mark\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ name\\ seems\\ wrong\\ because\\ we\\ think\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ other\\ who\\ would\\ have\\ died\\ \\(based\\ on\\ his\\ advantage\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ frame\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ latin\\ word\\ wichit\\ means\\ he\\ won\\,\\ in\\ the\\ bottem\\ picture\\ means\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ decided\\ by\\ the\\ crown\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ die\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Normally\\ a\\ gladiator\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ spared\\ after\\ defeat\\,\\ but\\ in\\ this\\ instance\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ spared\\,\\ thus\\ this\\ mosaic\\ was\\ constructed\\ on\\ this\\ extraordinary\\ mistake\\ of\\ kalendio\\;\\ this\\ was\\ such\\ a\\ bad\\ mistake\\ on\\ kalendio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ part\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ determined\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ to\\ die\\,\\ the\\ theta\\ nigrum\\,\\ 0\\/\\,\\ he\\ died\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ associated\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ exotic\\ world\\ of\\ Greek\\ death\\,\\ the\\ under\\ world\\,\\ interestingly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ romans\\ interpreted\\ it\\ as\\ something\\ else\\ by\\ mistake\\ \\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#16\\ \\,handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ piece\\,\\ epitaph\\,\\ comes\\ from\\ budapest\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aquincum\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ husband\\ and\\ wige\\ are\\ both\\ organists\\,\\ the\\ husband\\ was\\ an\\ organist\\ in\\ the\\ pay\\ of\\ the\\ army\\,\\ whereas\\ his\\ wife\\ played\\ recitals\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ popular\\ organist\\,\\ probably\\ he\\ played\\ in\\ the\\ military\\ amphitheater\\ and\\ she\\ in\\ the\\ civillian\\ one\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\limes\\=\\ fortified\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\,\\ on\\ the\\ danube\\,\\ were\\ very\\ commonly\\ we\\ find\\ two\\ amphitheaters\\;\\ boundary\\ forts\\ along\\ the\\ border\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ other\\ lesser\\ military\\ camps\\ around\\ the\\ boundary\\ there\\ would\\ only\\ be\\ one\\ military\\ camp\\ amphitheater\\ and\\ one\\ community\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ was\\ a\\ large\\ connection\\ between\\ amphitheaters\\,\\ and\\ military\\ headquarters\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ Wiedemann\\ p\\ 45\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ association\\ of\\ amphitheater\\ with\\ militaristic\\ camps\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ that\\ the\\ soldiers\\ wanted\\ to\\ display\\ there\\ identification\\ with\\ roman\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\primarily\\,\\ an\\ amphitheater\\ any\\ place\\ would\\ have\\ an\\ entertainment\\ function\\;\\ while\\ the\\ troops\\ spent\\ much\\ time\\ building\\ roads\\,etc\\.\\,\\ there\\ were\\ long\\ period\\ when\\ the\\ troops\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ entertained\\;\\ so\\ this\\ was\\ when\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ military\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\stiffened\\ moral\\ with\\ bloody\\ events\\,\\ cow\\ the\\ enemy\\ to\\ show\\ them\\ what\\ went\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ fort\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ amphitheater\\ right\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ wall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;could\\ cow\\ the\\ barbarians\\ who\\ were\\ very\\ close\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ see\\ a\\ glazed\\ flask\\;\\ Valentinus\\ the\\ opponent\\ is\\ a\\ retiarius\\,\\ we\\ see\\ his\\ name\\ and\\ his\\ legion\\ \\#\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ gladiators\\ could\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ support\\ staff\\ of\\ a\\ roman\\ army\\ unit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ legion\\ was\\ barracked\\ at\\ Zantam\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\)\\,\\ on\\ the\\ Rhine\\,\\ just\\ inside\\ of\\ Germany\\ \\(\\*\\*\\ see\\ scarre\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonia\\ Ulpia\\ Traina\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wiedemann\\ p\\ 45\\,\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ bear\\ keeper\\ belonging\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ legion\\,\\ oyt\\ up\\ a\\ monument\\ in\\ Zantum\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cessorinius\\ Ammausius\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ bear\\ keeper\\ of\\ the\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;legion\\,\\ the\\ bear\\ keeper\\ was\\ clearly\\ engaged\\ to\\ control\\ bears\\ for\\ supplying\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\:\\ we\\ see\\ an\\ individual\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ soldier\\ writing\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ division\\ of\\ the\\ Thracians\\,\\ also\\ of\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ style\\ \\&ldquo\\;thracian\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ original\\ name\\ was\\ bulgarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ combat\\ roman\\ military\\ forces\\ was\\ with\\ inside\\ knowledge\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/6\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roman\\ soldier\\ fought\\ in\\ detachment\\,\\ not\\ in\\ combat\\,\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ large\\ contingent\\,\\ so\\ often\\ times\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ practices\\ were\\ not\\ helpful\\,\\ Spartacus\\ was\\ a\\ fighter\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ auxiliary\\,\\ knew\\ the\\ intricacies\\ of\\ the\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slaves\\ do\\ not\\ serve\\ as\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ gladiators\\ and\\ soldiers\\ have\\ the\\ pledge\\ of\\ loyal\\ in\\ common\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ of\\ the\\ terminology\\ is\\ the\\ same\\,\\ some\\ is\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ ampitheATRE\\ along\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;limes\\=\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ word\\ limit\\,\\ means\\ the\\ boundary\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ empire\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ along\\ the\\ north\\ bouandary\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ legionary\\ camps\\ with\\ ampHITHEATRE\\ attached\\ to\\ them\\,\\ some\\ had\\ military\\ amphiTHEATRE\\ and\\ civillian\\ one\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;carnuntum\\=\\ legionary\\ camp\\ by\\ budapest\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\ were\\ there\\ ampiTHEATRE\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ legionary\\ camps\\ on\\ the\\ boundary\\ of\\ the\\ empires\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ needed\\ entertainment\\ when\\ they\\ weren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ busy\\,\\ ampiTHEATRE\\ displays\\ might\\ have\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ stiffening\\ soldiers\\&\\#39\\;\\ morale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\relationship\\ between\\ watching\\ the\\ displays\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;catharsis\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ cleansing\\ effect\\ of\\ watching\\ violence\\-\\ do\\ spectacles\\ make\\ one\\ less\\ appreciative\\ to\\ violence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ watching\\ displays\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\ somthg\\ to\\ make\\ ppl\\ more\\ aggressive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Did\\ it\\ inspire\\ fear\\ in\\ the\\ barBARIANS\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ limes\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;carnuntum\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ here\\ the\\ civillian\\ amphITHEATRE\\ is\\ back\\ from\\ the\\ danube\\,\\ but\\ the\\ military\\ ampHITHEATRE\\ is\\ right\\ on\\ the\\ danube\\;\\ europe\\ was\\ very\\ wild\\ on\\ the\\ south\\ banks\\ of\\ the\\ danube\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ the\\ romans\\ reinforced\\ their\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ must\\ consider\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ romans\\ and\\ how\\ these\\ institutional\\ forms\\ of\\ violence\\ map\\ onto\\ the\\ romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\this\\ analysis\\ lets\\ us\\ take\\ a\\ criticial\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ of\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ types\\ have\\ ethnic\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\gaul\\ and\\ samnite\\ drop\\ out\\ of\\ site\\,\\ but\\ thracian\\ identifier\\ \\(as\\ ethnic\\ label\\)\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ inappropriate\\ in\\ later\\ days\\ to\\ objectify\\ rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ empire\\,\\ but\\ ultimately\\ ppl\\ like\\ the\\ samnites\\ became\\ part\\ of\\ italian\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gausl\\ even\\ had\\ reps\\ in\\ romes\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ludus\\ Dacius\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\=school\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ colusseum\\,\\ has\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ enemies\\,\\ also\\ where\\ pows\\ during\\ the\\ dacian\\ wars\\ were\\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ trained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ ppl\\ who\\ fought\\ as\\ gadiators\\ and\\ were\\ pows\\ were\\ a\\ link\\ btw\\ the\\ army\\ and\\ the\\ arena\\ bc\\ they\\ were\\ there\\ since\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ conquered\\ by\\ the\\ roman\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\how\\ do\\ roman\\ soldiers\\ travel\\ around\\ the\\ roman\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arena\\ displays\\ sometimes\\ were\\ advertised\\ in\\ a\\ 50\\ mile\\ radius\\ \\(all\\ around\\ the\\ ctr\\.\\ Epicenter\\ of\\ pompeii\\)\\,\\ assumed\\ that\\ ppl\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ travel\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ gladiators\\ being\\ named\\ in\\ local\\ graffiti\\ suggesting\\ where\\ they\\ came\\ from\\ \\(capua\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ was\\ home\\ to\\ a\\ school\\ over\\ 40\\ km\\ away\\ from\\ pompeii\\)\\,\\ of\\ course\\ the\\ gladiators\\ were\\ sponsored\\ and\\ would\\ travel\\ with\\ the\\ trainers\\ to\\ the\\ different\\ fights\\/displays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ exctly\\ where\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ stayed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Fergus\\ Millar\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ emperor\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ world\\=\\=\\=\\=\\=\\ single\\ biggest\\ complaint\\ was\\ the\\ complaint\\ about\\ having\\ soldiers\\ billeted\\ in\\ the\\ provincial\\ communities\\.\\ The\\ army\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ go\\ from\\ millitary\\ barrics\\ to\\ millitary\\ barricks\\,\\ if\\ night\\ fell\\,\\ unfortunatley\\,\\ the\\ community\\ had\\ to\\ provide\\ them\\ with\\ food\\,\\ women\\,\\ lodging\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\therefore\\ the\\ soldiers\\ were\\ very\\ unpopular\\ but\\ necessary\\,\\ the\\ soldiers\\ were\\ a\\ terrible\\ nuisance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ were\\ AMBIGUOUS\\ ATTITUDES\\ TOWARDS\\ SOLDIERING\\<\\;\\ JUST\\ AS\\ THERE\\ WERE\\ AMBIGUOUS\\ ATTITUDES\\ TOWAR\\ D\\ GLADIATORS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ where\\ the\\ gladiators\\ would\\ stay\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ or\\ when\\ and\\ where\\ they\\ might\\ be\\ allowed\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ barracks\\ unsupervised\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Could\\ gladiators\\ show\\ pride\\ in\\ their\\ profession\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Could\\ one\\ call\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ a\\ profession\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Valery\\ Hope\\ article\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ argument\\ that\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ epitaphs\\ for\\ gladiators\\ and\\ soldiers\\ were\\ similar\\,\\ and\\ also\\ similar\\ to\\ practitioners\\ of\\ other\\ occupations\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ world\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gladiators\\ were\\ divided\\ on\\ their\\ epitaphs\\ and\\ in\\ life\\ by\\ their\\ fighting\\ styles\\;\\ each\\ fighting\\ style\\ had\\ a\\ different\\ trainer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#2\\ handout\\ 6\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ is\\ an\\ epitah\\ for\\ a\\ small\\ child\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\very\\ common\\ for\\ child\\&\\#39\\;s\\ age\\ to\\ be\\ computed\\ precisely\\ to\\ last\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trainer\\ of\\ thraecian\\ gladiators\\ likely\\ erected\\ this\\ epitah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trainer\\ of\\ thracian\\ gladiator\\ dedicated\\ this\\ epitah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ his\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cachet\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\=\\=special\\ kind\\ of\\ atmosphere\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ particular\\ habit\\ or\\ a\\ particular\\ institution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ gladiators\\ were\\ specialized\\ \\(needed\\ special\\ trainers\\)\\ reflects\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ highly\\ regarded\\ and\\ even\\ need\\ their\\ own\\ trainer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\maybe\\ the\\ gladiators\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ proud\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ so\\ special\\ that\\ they\\ needed\\ their\\ own\\ trianer\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ them\\,\\ trainers\\ ONLY\\ specializing\\ in\\ one\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\important\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ epitahs\\ bc\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ whether\\ the\\ epitaphs\\ can\\ reveal\\ to\\ what\\ extent\\ \\&ldquo\\;gladiators\\ have\\ pride\\ in\\ their\\ profession\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\epitaphs\\ were\\ written\\ after\\ demise\\,\\ so\\ difficult\\ to\\ use\\ epitaphs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;trope\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ \\=\\=\\=mannerism\\ of\\ epitah\\ to\\ make\\ deceased\\ speak\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ voice\\;\\ some\\ were\\ written\\ in\\ first\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#\\ 13\\,\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ from\\ northeastern\\ turkey\\,\\ a\\ place\\ just\\ southeast\\ of\\ Troy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ epigram\\ is\\ in\\ stone\\ from\\ the\\ greek\\ east\\,\\ these\\ are\\ verses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;it\\ is\\ largely\\ a\\ greek\\ habit\\ to\\ put\\ epitahs\\ into\\ verse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#14\\,\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ from\\ \\(for\\?\\)\\ musician\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#17\\,\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ epitaph\\ is\\ written\\ on\\ stone\\,\\ in\\ greek\\ \\,\\ in\\ the\\ trope\\ of\\ the\\ deceased\\ gladiator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ written\\ this\\ one\\,\\ although\\ some\\ individuals\\ chose\\ to\\ write\\ their\\ own\\ epitaphs\\ before\\ death\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\what\\ qualities\\ are\\ ascribed\\ to\\ the\\ deceased\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#4\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;veteran\\&rdquo\\;\\ murmillo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ deceased\\,\\ marcus\\,\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;beloved\\,\\ well\\-deserving\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\these\\ were\\ VERY\\ common\\ words\\ employed\\ to\\ describe\\ deceased\\ husband\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;very\\ formulaic\\ USELESS\\ for\\ our\\ purposes\\ because\\ they\\ all\\ say\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\;\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ help\\ us\\ determine\\ public\\ view\\ of\\ gladiators\\ or\\ gladiator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ view\\ of\\ self\\;\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ who\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ treated\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ other\\ husbands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ NO\\ SHAME\\ in\\ acknowledging\\ that\\ the\\ deceased\\ husband\\ was\\ a\\ gladiator\\ by\\ profession\\;\\ this\\ was\\ freely\\ stated\\,\\ and\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ shameful\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ at\\ large\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ are\\ some\\ qualities\\ regularly\\ mentioned\\ on\\ epitaphs\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Name\\ of\\ deceased\\ would\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Designation\\ of\\ fighting\\ style\\ \\(item\\ 4\\-\\ murmmillo\\=\\=like\\ secutor\\ but\\ with\\ plume\\ crest\\ on\\ helmet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manner\\ of\\ death\\;\\ some\\ details\\ \\(item\\ 4\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ veteran\\ gladiator\\ murmillo\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ imply\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ retired\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tally\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ wins\\ or\\ losses\\ will\\ state\\ or\\ imply\\ that\\ the\\ person\\ died\\ in\\ combat\\,\\ this\\ one\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Age\\ stated\\ when\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ was\\ also\\ common\\ for\\ other\\ epitaphs\\ for\\ non\\-gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\there\\ was\\ a\\ tremendous\\ urge\\ to\\ write\\ things\\ up\\ in\\ stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;epigraphic\\ habit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\age\\ was\\ computed\\ to\\ almost\\ the\\ day\\,\\ even\\ common\\ person\\ was\\ often\\ well\\ aware\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ birthday\\;\\ even\\ illiterate\\ ppl\\ aware\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oral\\ recall\\ must\\ stronger\\ back\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#9\\,\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ gladiator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ profession\\;\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ hidden\\;\\ this\\ epitaph\\ was\\ of\\ a\\ secutor\\;\\ from\\ somewhere\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ his\\ name\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;flama\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ secutor\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ would\\ raise\\ a\\ monument\\ to\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ fellow\\ combatant\\,\\ or\\ vice\\ versa\\,\\ most\\ detailed\\ accounts\\ of\\ gladiators\\&\\#39\\;\\ caree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ individual\\ lived\\ to\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 40\\;\\ fought\\ 34\\ times\\,\\ \\(3\\ times\\ a\\ year\\,\\ quite\\ a\\ high\\ number\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ other\\ epitaphs\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ only\\ won\\ 21\\ times\\ \\(did\\ not\\ win\\ 13\\ times\\)\\ out\\ of\\ 34\\ victories\\,\\ but\\ this\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ in\\ 9\\ times\\ he\\ fought\\ to\\ a\\ draw\\ and\\ four\\ times\\ he\\ was\\ defeated\\ but\\ got\\ a\\ reprieve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;MISSIO\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ repreive\\ given\\;\\ someone\\ who\\ has\\ received\\ missio\\/missius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ a\\ repreive\\ for\\ a\\ down\\ gladiaotor\\ who\\ gets\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ok\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ crowd\\ to\\ survive\\,\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ barracks\\ and\\ train\\ further\\;\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ person\\ renting\\ them\\ out\\ to\\ have\\ them\\ return\\ to\\ barracks\\ whenever\\ possible\\,\\ dead\\ gladiator\\ was\\ form\\ of\\ capiatl\\ loss\\,\\ charged\\ more\\ for\\ gladiators\\ killed\\ in\\ combat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ shame\\ in\\ gladiatorial\\ profession\\,\\ no\\ shame\\ in\\ having\\ suffered\\ the\\ sum\\ defeats\\ in\\ a\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ career\\;\\ no\\ attempt\\ to\\ disguise\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ someone\\ had\\ suffered\\ a\\ defeat\\,\\ must\\ be\\ some\\ prided\\ to\\ state\\ that\\ the\\ person\\ picked\\ himself\\ up\\ and\\ went\\ on\\ fighting\\ next\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Map\\:\\ Milan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ in\\ northern\\ italy\\,\\ at\\ top\\ of\\ boot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ephesus\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ coast\\ of\\ turkey\\,\\ see\\ also\\ thrace\\ above\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\we\\ see\\ a\\ monument\\ from\\ Ephesus\\,\\ Turkey\\,\\ sculpture\\ of\\ a\\ provacator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ are\\ Wreaths\\ around\\ him\\,\\ there\\ are\\ four\\ wreaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ won\\ four\\ wreaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ they\\ mean\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ he\\ won\\ bc\\ there\\ is\\ space\\ on\\ the\\ bottem\\ for\\ more\\ wreaths\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ won\\ more\\,\\ presumably\\ the\\ stone\\ mason\\ would\\ have\\ added\\ another\\ few\\ wreaths\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ as\\ decoration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ gladiator\\ presumably\\ had\\ 4\\ disctintions\\ in\\ his\\ career\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ any\\ writing\\ to\\ further\\ identify\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Asteropaios\\ vs\\ drakon\\,\\ Ephesus\\,\\ turkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ two\\ men\\ have\\ tossed\\ away\\ their\\ shields\\ and\\ are\\ fighting\\ in\\ man\\ to\\ man\\ combat\\,\\ their\\ bodies\\ are\\ locked\\,\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ writing\\ on\\ the\\ ledge\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ monument\\,\\ the\\ writing\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;asteropaios\\=\\ something\\ about\\ the\\ star\\,\\ and\\ drakon\\=\\=dragon\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ ce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fighting\\ style\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ two\\ provocatores\\ \\(or\\ perhaps\\ one\\ and\\ a\\ thraecian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ monument\\,\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ when\\ we\\ compare\\ the\\ carving\\,\\ the\\ border\\ and\\ overhang\\ is\\ similar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ letters\\ on\\ the\\ lone\\ guy\\ \\(who\\ one\\ 4\\ times\\)\\ are\\ blurred\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ identify\\ him\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*\\*There\\ is\\ no\\ surviving\\ tomb\\ to\\ an\\ unamed\\ gladiator\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ were\\ as\\ proud\\ of\\ their\\ profession\\ as\\ anyone\\ else\\;\\ tools\\ of\\ profession\\ included\\ in\\ funerary\\ monument\\ as\\ celebration\\ of\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ a\\ funerary\\ stele\\ \\(upright\\ slab\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ individual\\ seen\\ here\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Euprepes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ means\\ ready\\,\\ well\\ prepared\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ wreaths\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ won\\ 13\\ wreaths\\,\\ his\\ name\\ is\\ given\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ are\\ name\\ by\\ their\\ fighting\\ name\\ on\\ their\\ tombstone\\,\\ very\\ often\\ they\\ are\\ named\\ by\\ their\\ fighting\\ name\\ and\\ their\\ true\\ name\\,\\ fighting\\ name\\ was\\ often\\ taken\\ when\\ they\\ entered\\ the\\ training\\ school\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\here\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ funerary\\ stele\\ of\\ Kallimorphos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ 5\\ wreaths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ helmet\\ style\\ seems\\ to\\ establish\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ murmillo\\;\\ he\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ shield\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;squared\\ off\\ crest\\ on\\ top\\,\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ crest\\ of\\ the\\ murmillo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ shield\\ is\\ NOT\\ the\\ shield\\ of\\ the\\ thraex\\ or\\ hoplomachus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ crest\\ seems\\ to\\ rule\\ out\\ designation\\ of\\ provocator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ funerary\\ stele\\ of\\ antaios\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ think\\ that\\ antaios\\ was\\ a\\ hracian\\ gladiator\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ bent\\ sword\\ \\(short\\ hooked\\ sword\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\individuals\\ were\\ often\\ depicted\\ IN\\ ACTION\\ on\\ funerary\\ monuments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ thraecian\\ with\\ the\\ short\\ curved\\ sword\\ stands\\ forward\\ with\\ his\\ helmet\\ on\\ the\\ stand\\ next\\ to\\ him\\;\\ he\\ has\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ courage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ funerary\\ stele\\ of\\ urbicus\\:\\ mediolanum\\ \\(milan\\,\\ 2\\/3\\ cent\\ ce\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ stele\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ long\\ latin\\ inscription\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ inscription\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ fought\\ 13\\ times\\,\\ died\\ age\\ 22\\ \\(\\?\\)\\,\\ married\\ 7\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\interpuncts\\=\\ dots\\,\\ separate\\ the\\ letters\\ and\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ latin\\ numeral\\ showing\\ that\\ his\\ was\\ married\\ 7\\ yrs\\,\\ which\\ was\\ very\\ young\\ for\\ his\\ age\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ someone\\ messed\\ up\\ about\\ his\\ age\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ actually\\ 32\\ when\\ he\\ died\\-\\ however\\,\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ correct\\ a\\ mistake\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ form\\ is\\ very\\ predictable\\ and\\ formulaic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ say\\ specifically\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ from\\,\\ although\\ generally\\ it\\ is\\ from\\ italy\\ \\(regular\\ except\\ that\\ something\\ must\\ be\\ wrong\\ with\\ the\\ math\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&rdquo\\;grafito\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;grafiti\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 6\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ refers\\ to\\ marcus\\ acttilius\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ recruit\\-\\ \\ \\;hilarus\\ \\(from\\ famous\\ blood\\ of\\ nero\\?\\?\\)\\-\\ he\\ was\\ granted\\ \\&ldquo\\;missus\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ granted\\ a\\ reprieve\\;\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ rooky\\ who\\ managed\\ to\\ defeat\\ someone\\ who\\ had\\ already\\ won\\ 13\\ crown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Palus\\=\\ 2\\ meter\\ boxing\\ pole\\ the\\ gladiators\\ used\\ to\\ practice\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Equipment\\ highlights\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\galerus\\=\\ retiarius\\ shoulder\\ guard\\,\\ custom\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\49\\ bce\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ owned\\ a\\ troupe\\ of\\ gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Aurelius\\ Acaurus\\-\\ owned\\ gladiators\\ \\,\\ had\\ school\\ at\\ pompeii\\;\\ erected\\ the\\ earliest\\ gladiatorial\\ school\\ at\\ capua\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spartacus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trained\\ at\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ school\\ \\(ludus\\)\\ near\\ Capua\\,\\ belonging\\ to\\ Lentulus\\ Batiatus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 73\\ BC\\,\\ Spartacus\\ and\\ some\\ seventy\\[9\\]\\ followers\\ escaped\\ from\\ the\\ gladiator\\ school\\ of\\ \\=\\=\\=Lentulus\\ Batiatus\\,\\ and\\ were\\ joined\\ by\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\spartacus\\ served\\ as\\ auxiliary\\ soldier\\ in\\ roman\\ army\\.\\ At\\ capua\\,\\ broke\\ out\\ of\\ captivity\\ with\\ slaves\\ from\\ baracks\\,\\ w\\ fellow\\ gladiators\\,\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ SLAVE\\ REVOLT\\,\\ not\\ gladiatorial\\ uprising\\,\\ terrorized\\ rome\\!\\!\\ and\\ the\\ authorities\\ evaded\\ for\\ 3\\ years\\.\\;\\ initial\\ escape\\ used\\ no\\ weapons\\;\\ 6k\\ followers\\ were\\ crucified\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ uprising\\ \\(he\\ stayed\\ in\\ italy\\ until\\ marcus\\ crassus\\ captured\\ him\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Map\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brixia\\=Brescia\\:\\ east\\ of\\ milan\\ \\(scarre\\ 133\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tergeste\\=trieste\\ \\,\\ E\\ of\\ Aquileia\\,\\ NE\\ Italy\\ \\(scarre\\ 23\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sicily\\=\\ cos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eski\\ Stambul\\ \\(by\\ istanbul\\ on\\ connected\\ btw\\ asia\\ europe\\,\\ near\\ where\\ thracians\\ from\\,\\ by\\ troy\\ too\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\danube\\ frontier\\,\\ dacia\\ nubs\\ up\\ against\\ it\\,\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;dacia\\ to\\ north\\,\\ then\\ below\\ is\\ the\\ dalmatia\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dalmatia\\-\\-\\ region\\ northeast\\ across\\ adriadic\\ sea\\ from\\ italy\\;\\ ludus\\ dacius\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ gladiator\\ school\\ at\\ pompeii\\ because\\ many\\ of\\ its\\ first\\ prisoners\\ were\\ from\\ dalmatia\\ \\(dacian\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/8\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\graffito\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ one\\ of\\ them\\;\\ writing\\ on\\ public\\ surface\\ usually\\ a\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\graffiti\\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;many\\ of\\ them\\;\\ many\\ writings\\ on\\ public\\ surfaces\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romans\\ wrote\\ on\\ walls\\ more\\ frequently\\ than\\ modern\\ day\\ ppl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ ancient\\ days\\ sharp\\ instruments\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stilus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;were\\ used\\ to\\ scratch\\ using\\ the\\ sharp\\ stilus\\ end\\ into\\ the\\ wall\\ or\\ into\\ wax\\ at\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\plaster\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\ not\\ pliable\\ to\\ the\\ scratches\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ permanent\\;\\ the\\ romans\\ were\\ not\\ that\\ concerned\\ about\\ having\\ the\\ walls\\ clean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;in\\ pompeii\\ we\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;palimpsest\\&rdquo\\;\\-writing\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ rubbed\\ away\\ and\\ then\\ written\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;walls\\ of\\ pompeii\\ were\\ like\\ a\\ palimpset\\;\\ pompeii\\ was\\ settled\\ by\\ roman\\ veteran\\ colonists\\;\\ eruption\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ 79\\ ce\\,\\ so\\ we\\ have\\ about\\ 150\\ yrs\\ of\\ romans\\ writing\\ on\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ pompeii\\ in\\ latin\\ \\(roman\\)\\,\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ pretty\\ instructive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ graffiti\\ was\\ the\\ informal\\ record\\;\\ the\\ formal\\ record\\ was\\ painted\\ advertisements\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\notices\\;\\ often\\ signed\\ by\\ the\\ sign\\ writer\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ sign\\ writers\\ also\\ wrote\\ about\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ displays\\ and\\ about\\ elections\\;\\ could\\ be\\ painted\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\ and\\ painted\\ over\\ at\\ a\\ later\\ date\\ and\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ graffiti\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ graffiti\\ on\\ external\\ walls\\,\\ but\\ some\\ on\\ INTERNAL\\ walls\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#\\ 18a\\ handout\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\scarre\\ p56\\:\\ Porta\\ Nuceria\\,\\ Pompeii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\liked\\ drawing\\ boats\\ and\\ ships\\,\\ liked\\ drawing\\ gladiators\\,\\ played\\ endlessly\\ with\\ writing\\ on\\ the\\ walls\\,\\ gladiators\\ were\\ favorite\\ motiff\\ for\\ sketching\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ instances\\ they\\ added\\ a\\ textual\\ annotation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\here\\ we\\ see\\ two\\ gladiators\\,\\ the\\ one\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ is\\ marcus\\ attilius\\,\\ and\\ the\\ one\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ has\\ the\\ name\\ hilarus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NER\\ might\\ stand\\ for\\ his\\ last\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ text\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;marcus\\ attilius\\,\\ recruit\\,\\ won\\:\\ hilarus\\ neronianus\\,\\ fought\\ 14\\ times\\,\\ awarded\\ 13\\,\\ wreaths\\,\\ granted\\ a\\ reprieve\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ after\\ Marcus\\ Attiuls\\&\\#39\\;\\ name\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;t\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ tiro\\,\\ or\\ a\\ recruit\\ or\\ rookie\\;\\ his\\ first\\ public\\ combat\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;w\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ wichit\\,\\ or\\ won\\,\\ NER\\ stands\\ for\\ Neroniuonus\\ \\(Thus\\ he\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ troup\\ owned\\ by\\ nero\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;14\\ \\ \\;and\\ the\\ reverse\\ c\\ are\\ the\\ abbreviations\\ for\\ wreaths\\,\\ the\\ numeral\\ 13\\ represents\\ his\\ record\\;\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ seasoned\\ gladiator\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;remarkable\\ track\\ record\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;m\\&rdquo\\;\\ missus\\=\\ repreive\\,\\ same\\ word\\ for\\ discharge\\ of\\ soldier\\ after\\ he\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ army\\;\\ but\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ reprieve\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ gladiator\\ would\\ be\\ sent\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ barracks\\ until\\ the\\ next\\ fight\\;\\ we\\ think\\ that\\ this\\ individual\\ is\\ a\\ murmillo\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ shield\\ and\\ crest\\ and\\ hat\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.we\\ think\\ he\\ is\\ fighting\\ a\\ thraecia\\;\\ this\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\murmillo\\ and\\ thraex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#18b\\ handout\\ 6\\ \\(tomb\\ 19\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\it\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ polluting\\ to\\ bury\\ the\\ dead\\ inside\\ the\\ city\\ limits\\,\\ so\\ rows\\ of\\ tombs\\ on\\ the\\ outskirts\\ of\\ town\\ were\\ built\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ symbols\\ are\\ a\\ tally\\ referring\\ to\\ his\\ wins\\ and\\ defeats\\,\\ the\\ v\\ is\\ for\\ wichit\\ so\\ we\\ know\\ he\\&\\#39\\;d\\ won\\,\\ he\\ was\\ fighting\\ a\\ different\\ opponent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ know\\ he\\ was\\ an\\ auctoratus\\ because\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ three\\ names\\ for\\ a\\ Roman\\ citizen\\;\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ Ionus\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ someone\\ else\\;\\ we\\ also\\ know\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ roman\\ citizen\\ because\\ we\\ see\\ his\\ fore\\ name\\ and\\ last\\ name\\;\\ \\ \\;thus\\ we\\ know\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ free\\ born\\ citizen\\;\\ we\\ also\\ know\\ his\\ record\\ for\\ fighting\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ graffito\\ could\\ be\\ an\\ advertisement\\,\\ or\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ a\\ fan\\ putting\\ up\\ the\\ gladiator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ tally\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ rooky\\ and\\ beat\\ two\\ veterans\\;\\ perhaps\\ too\\ tehyw\\ ere\\ gambling\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ they\\ were\\ gambling\\ on\\ him\\ winning\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ may\\ have\\ had\\ records\\/programs\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ them\\ during\\ the\\ shows\\;\\ as\\ in\\ a\\ horse\\ race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#18c\\,\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ recognize\\ musicians\\ playing\\ the\\ trumpet\\,\\ politicians\\,\\ people\\,\\ the\\ halos\\ around\\ their\\ heads\\,\\ people\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ may\\ be\\ playing\\ the\\ horn\\,\\ but\\ the\\ horns\\ are\\ oddly\\ round\\,\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;v\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ hilurus\\ \\(from\\ the\\ stable\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;ner\\-nero\\&rdquo\\;and\\ has\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ wreaths\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ crossed\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ graffito\\ that\\ changed\\ as\\ his\\ record\\ changed\\,\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ hilarus\\ from\\ item\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\horror\\ vaccui\\=\\ fear\\ of\\ empty\\ space\\;\\ nola\\ was\\ about\\ 40\\ miles\\ from\\ Pompeii\\,\\ cite\\ of\\ this\\ particular\\ advertised\\ spectacle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\infamia\\=\\ socially\\ unspeakable\\,\\ legal\\ disability\\,\\ along\\ with\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ actors\\ or\\ prostitutes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ performed\\ in\\ public\\ for\\ pay\\ fighting\\ in\\ an\\ artificial\\ context\\ as\\ actors\\,\\ more\\ or\\ less\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\disability\\ was\\ only\\ applied\\ when\\ one\\ earned\\ money\\ from\\ doing\\ this\\ gladiatorial\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ upper\\ classes\\ became\\ gladiators\\,\\ they\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ earn\\ money\\ so\\ the\\ situation\\ was\\ different\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ would\\ be\\ quite\\ possible\\ for\\ romans\\ to\\ admire\\ and\\ despise\\ gladiators\\ for\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ and\\ were\\,\\ respectively\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#30\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\formal\\ government\\ documents\\ were\\ another\\ primary\\ text\\ of\\ Roman\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\original\\ decree\\ would\\ go\\ into\\ archive\\,\\ the\\ rest\\ would\\ be\\ put\\ into\\ stone\\ for\\ all\\ to\\ see\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Senatus\\ Consultun\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ senatorial\\ decree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\document\\ makes\\ it\\ illegal\\ for\\ any\\ descendant\\ of\\ equestrians\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ gladiator\\,\\ and\\ new\\ free\\ female\\ or\\ male\\ of\\ less\\ than\\ 20\\/25\\ years\\ of\\ age\\ to\\ appear\\ as\\ a\\ gladiator\\;\\ seems\\ to\\ involve\\ some\\ precautions\\ around\\ birth\\ rate\\,\\ the\\ government\\ hoped\\ that\\ the\\ women\\ would\\ have\\ babies\\ by\\ 20\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ could\\ go\\ be\\ a\\ gladiator\\,\\ while\\ men\\ would\\ have\\ reproduced\\ by\\ 25\\ \\(17\\ CE\\/AD\\)\\,\\ gladiators\\ were\\ approached\\ in\\ a\\ dual\\ method\\:\\ people\\ admired\\ them\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ suffered\\ from\\ legal\\ disability\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ were\\ despised\\ \\(see\\ handout\\ 6\\ \\#30\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/10\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\17ce\\-\\(\\?\\)\\ senatorial\\ decree\\ under\\ tiberius\\ \\(augustus\\ died\\ in\\ 14\\ ce\\ and\\ tiberius\\ was\\ his\\ sun\\ in\\ law\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ decree\\ made\\ it\\ illegal\\ for\\ any\\ descendent\\ of\\ equestrians\\ to\\ become\\ gladiator\\,\\ and\\ forbade\\ woman\\ under\\ 20\\ from\\ becoming\\ gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\virtus\\-\\ combination\\ of\\ physical\\ and\\ moral\\ courage\\,\\ a\\ quality\\ that\\ gladiators\\ can\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ demonstrate\\,\\ redeems\\ foreigners\\ of\\ low\\ social\\ status\\ if\\ they\\ become\\ gladiators\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\-\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ manly\\ characteristic\\,\\ so\\ how\\ could\\ woman\\ demonstrate\\ virtus\\?\\;\\ well\\,\\ they\\ could\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\I\\.e\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ philosopher\\ who\\ was\\ compromised\\ in\\ his\\ philosophical\\ beliefs\\ over\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*there\\ was\\ a\\ transgressive\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ having\\ women\\ fighting\\ as\\ gladiators\\,\\ how\\ could\\ women\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ virtus\\ underpinning\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ wonder\\ whether\\ the\\ participation\\ of\\ woman\\ as\\ gladiators\\ was\\ unsettling\\ for\\ roman\\ audience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ were\\ segregated\\ to\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ stands\\,\\ augustus\\ was\\ showing\\ that\\ he\\ expected\\ women\\ to\\ be\\ there\\,\\ but\\ wanted\\ to\\ control\\ where\\ they\\ sat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ sort\\ sort\\ female\\ gladiators\\ into\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ and\\ more\\ importantly\\ into\\ the\\ arena\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#\\ 27\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Amazon\\ and\\ Achilia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ shows\\ two\\ women\\;\\ breasts\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ womens\\&\\#39\\;\\ quarters\\ in\\ the\\ diagram\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(cross\\ reference\\ is\\ handout\\ 7n\\ 8\\,\\ but\\ the\\ original\\ is\\ handout\\ 6\\,\\ item\\ 7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ a\\ roughly\\ square\\ slab\\ with\\ two\\ figures\\ in\\ relief\\ with\\ a\\ greek\\ word\\ inscribed\\ above\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ word\\ implies\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ granted\\ \\&ldquo\\;MISSIO\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ gladiator\\ lost\\ the\\ engagement\\ but\\ earned\\ life\\ rather\\ than\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ this\\ picture\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ BOTH\\ were\\ granted\\ missio\\ \\(both\\ have\\ lost\\,\\ neither\\ have\\ technically\\ won\\-\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;flamma\\&rdquo\\;\\ epitaph\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ tally\\ of\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ reprieves\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ fought\\ to\\ a\\ draw\\,\\ in\\ a\\ simliar\\ sense\\ they\\ both\\ had\\ lost\\.were\\ granted\\ reprieve\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\neither\\ woman\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\=\\ fought\\ to\\ draw\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ one\\ on\\ ground\\ or\\ kneeling\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ are\\ named\\ on\\ the\\ slab\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ standing\\ on\\,\\ the\\ platform\\ has\\ their\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&rdquo\\;amazon\\,\\ achilia\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\=\\ great\\ name\\ for\\ female\\ gladiator\\,\\ fought\\ against\\ the\\ Greeks\\ bare\\ breasted\\ \\,\\ thus\\ the\\ female\\ gladiators\\ often\\ took\\ this\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\achillia\\ is\\ the\\ female\\ for\\ achilles\\ \\(the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ the\\ greek\\ warriers\\ in\\ the\\ trojan\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nom\\ de\\ guerre\\(fighting\\ name\\/\\ sp\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ picture\\ she\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ wrapping\\ on\\ her\\ sword\\ arm\\,\\ a\\ large\\ shield\\,\\ and\\ her\\ oppnoonent\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ shield\\.\\.\\.but\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ damaged\\,\\ perhaps\\ we\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ her\\ fighting\\ with\\ her\\ shield\\ in\\ her\\ right\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ we\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ seeing\\ her\\ from\\ other\\ perspective\\ \\(from\\ the\\ back\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ two\\ women\\ wear\\ normal\\ gladiator\\ costumes\\,\\ \\(see\\ p\\ 12\\,\\ ho6\\ for\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ gladiators\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ women\\ are\\ likely\\ provocatorae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ know\\ this\\ because\\ their\\ shields\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ entire\\ body\\ shields\\ of\\ the\\ murmillo\\;\\ one\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ wrapping\\ on\\ their\\ right\\ arm\\,\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\ since\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ wearing\\ tunics\\ they\\ are\\ NOT\\ Eques\\.\\.\\.\\.thus\\ perseumably\\ provocatores\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hey\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ wearing\\ a\\ helmet\\,\\ interstingly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ this\\ lets\\ spectators\\ see\\ the\\ faces\\ more\\ clearly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ helmets\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ given\\ up\\,\\ and\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ helmets\\ signals\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ draw\\,\\ or\\ are\\ defeated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\helmetlessness\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ visual\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ granted\\ reprieve\\,\\ \\(perhaps\\ ppl\\ looking\\ at\\ slab\\ illiterate\\ so\\ the\\ visual\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout7\\ B3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(b\\ is\\ for\\ more\\ general\\ purposes\\,\\ whereas\\ a\\ is\\ for\\ specific\\ emperors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;set\\ women\\ to\\ the\\ sword\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ hostilanius\\ did\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ may\\ mean\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ ruler\\ in\\ ostia\\ to\\ murder\\ women\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Or\\,\\ this\\ may\\ mean\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ spectacles\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ must\\ assume\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ put\\ them\\ to\\ fight\\ against\\ eachother\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ostia\\ was\\ a\\ harbor\\ town\\ in\\ Rome\\;\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ big\\ metropolitan\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\,\\ it\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ first\\ place\\ where\\ games\\ occurred\\ with\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\duumvir\\=refers\\ to\\ two\\ \\&ldquo\\;mayers\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ ostia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Zliten\\,\\ Libya\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fantastic\\ mosaic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ support\\ staff\\ of\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ two\\ horn\\ players\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ will\\ say\\ later\\ in\\ much\\ greater\\ detail\\ this\\ gladiatorial\\ freize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ referee\\ in\\ a\\ tunica\\ trumpeter\\,\\ and\\ an\\ organist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ critical\\ moment\\ when\\ the\\ emperor\\ gives\\ the\\ signal\\ to\\ the\\ umpire\\ \\(\\?\\?\\)\\ about\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ combatants\\ should\\ live\\ or\\ die\\ \\(perhaps\\ the\\ musicians\\ supply\\ mood\\ music\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ musicians\\ look\\ very\\ female\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\at\\ all\\ events\\ \\(sabina\\ \\=\\=water\\ organ\\,\\ aquincum\\ civillian\\ unit\\)\\,\\ women\\ seem\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ water\\ organ\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ brunett\\&\\#39\\;s\\ article\\,\\ the\\ evidence\\ for\\ females\\ fighting\\ is\\ actually\\ very\\ small\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ novelties\\,\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ regular\\ occurrences\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\ the\\ earlier\\ monument\\ must\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ funerary\\ monument\\,\\ seems\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ novelty\\ inscription\\ to\\ commemorate\\ one\\ particular\\ combat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\never\\ had\\ dwarfs\\ fighting\\ women\\ \\:\\ because\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ is\\ about\\ evening\\ the\\ odds\\,\\ and\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ easy\\ to\\ predict\\ that\\ a\\ large\\ amazon\\ woman\\ could\\ kill\\ the\\ dwarf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ image\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ parody\\ the\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-graffito\\ is\\ informal\\ scratching\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Romance\\:\\(see\\ handout\\ 7\\ \\#6\\)\\-\\-\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ women\\ do\\ fall\\ for\\ gladiators\\ \\(even\\ those\\ this\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ disgraceful\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#10\\ handout7\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Martial\\ writes\\ a\\ satirical\\ epigram\\ about\\ a\\ lesbian\\ who\\ is\\ an\\ athlete\\,\\ and\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ women\\ training\\ as\\ gladiators\\ or\\ athletes\\ \\(assimilating\\ themselves\\ to\\ manly\\ professionals\\)\\ is\\ by\\ martial\\ attributed\\ to\\ an\\ irregular\\ sexual\\ proclivity\\ \\(at\\ least\\ by\\ womens\\&\\#39\\;\\ standards\\)\\,\\ in\\ the\\ psg\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ satire\\ about\\ how\\ silly\\ she\\ looks\\ fighting\\ as\\ a\\ gladiator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#1b\\ handout\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ummidii\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ this\\ family\\ represented\\ the\\ traditional\\ patrons\\ of\\ the\\ town\\,\\ had\\ built\\ an\\ theater\\ there\\,\\ the\\ girl\\ heir\\ later\\ repairs\\ the\\ theatre\\ and\\ builds\\ an\\ amphitheatre\\,\\ and\\ temple\\ for\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ building\\ and\\ amphitheater\\ was\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ inappropriate\\ for\\ a\\ female\\ \\(Ummidii\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ the\\ senior\\ memebr\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ who\\ just\\ happened\\ to\\ be\\ female\\ saw\\ that\\ the\\ town\\ needed\\ an\\ amphitheatre\\,\\ so\\ she\\ build\\ it\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ were\\ implicated\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\ other\\ than\\ simply\\ fighting\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pliny\\ wrote\\ about\\ ummidii\\ \\(she\\ wrote\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ the\\ grandson\\ of\\ ummidii\\&\\#39\\;s\\ father\\)\\,\\ he\\ was\\ disapproving\\ of\\ her\\ gambling\\,\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\ her\\ decadent\\ tastes\\,\\ apparently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Building\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ her\\ inherited\\ responsibility\\ towards\\ her\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#2b\\ handout\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Epitome\\:\\ Dio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ history\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ the\\ summary\\ \\(epitome\\=summary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ work\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ forbidden\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ fight\\ in\\ single\\ combat\\ \\(\\=\\=greek\\ technical\\ term\\ for\\ fighting\\ as\\ a\\ gladiator\\)\\,\\ this\\ was\\ shown\\ in\\ scarre\\ page\\ 136\\ \\(list\\ of\\ emperors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ 193\\-211\\ CE\\,\\ under\\ reigh\\ of\\ Septimius\\ Severus\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ women\\ gladiators\\ were\\ banned\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ know\\ for\\ certain\\ whether\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ local\\ ban\\ or\\ a\\ national\\ ban\\ on\\ the\\ female\\ fighters\\;\\ or\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ temporary\\ or\\ permanent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ same\\ questions\\ hold\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\ \\;seating\\ arrangements\\;\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ whether\\ his\\ seating\\ arrangements\\ were\\ empire\\ wide\\ or\\ locally\\ managed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/15\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\read\\ the\\ article\\-\\ website\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ kanz\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Head\\ injuries\\ of\\ Roman\\ gladiators\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Todays\\ topic\\:\\ What\\ can\\ we\\ learn\\ about\\ gladIATORs\\ from\\ graves\\/remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ephesus\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ turkey\\-\\ see\\ pgs\\ 83\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ Rome\\*\\*\\*\\ important\\ to\\ know\\ where\\ this\\ place\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goddess\\ Artemis\\=diana\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ world\\;\\ she\\ was\\ worshipped\\ in\\ Ephesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ important\\,\\ large\\,\\ prosperous\\ city\\ in\\ antiquity\\;\\ considerable\\ excavation\\ has\\ been\\ done\\ here\\ by\\ a\\ team\\ of\\ archaeologists\\ from\\ Austria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Graveyards\\ were\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ amphitheatres\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ at\\ the\\ outskirts\\ of\\ the\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ stadium\\ at\\ Ephesus\\ may\\ be\\ where\\ the\\ gladiators\\ performed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Graveyards\\ lined\\ the\\ main\\ roots\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trope\\=\\ sorrow\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cemetary\\ major\\ way\\ leading\\ out\\ of\\ ephesus\\ and\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ intersection\\ of\\ two\\ major\\ roots\\ outside\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cemetary\\ 20\\ sq\\.\\ yards\\,\\ significant\\ stretch\\ of\\ ground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ Paul\\ Elston\\ video\\ one\\ can\\ watch\\ \\(see\\ handout\\ 8\\,\\ with\\ the\\ references\\ of\\ additional\\ interesting\\ readings\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\skeletal\\ remains\\ in\\ graveyard\\;\\ about\\ 120\\ adults\\,\\ of\\ whom\\ 68\\ have\\ been\\ identified\\ as\\ distinct\\ DNA\\ entities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ are\\ very\\ muscular\\,\\ very\\ heavily\\ build\\ \\(almost\\ stout\\)\\,\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ consistent\\ age\\ range\\ btw\\ 19\\-35\\,\\ only\\ one\\ women\\ identified\\,\\ only\\ one\\ male\\ skeleton\\ identified\\ as\\ over\\ 35\\ yrs\\;\\ very\\ good\\ teeth\\,\\ generally\\ all\\ have\\ well\\-developed\\ bones\\;\\ remarkable\\ thing\\ about\\ remains\\ show\\ extensive\\ signs\\ of\\ wounds\\:\\ healed\\ wounds\\ and\\ fresh\\ wounds\\;\\ the\\ fresh\\ wounds\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ fatal\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ instances\\ of\\ trauma\\ are\\ far\\ higher\\ \\(normal\\ population\\ 5\\-10\\%\\ trauma\\)\\,\\ than\\ the\\ normal\\ population\\=\\=\\=\\ these\\ are\\ huge\\ wounds\\!\\!\\!\\ \\-significant\\ degrees\\ of\\ trauma\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\archaeologists\\ asked\\ themselves\\ whether\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ contingent\\ of\\ soldiers\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ battle\\ field\\ but\\ a\\ graveyard\\,\\ so\\ this\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ graveyard\\ of\\ gladiators\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Left\\ extremities\\ \\(left\\ arm\\ thigh\\,\\ leg\\)\\ show\\ little\\ sign\\ of\\ trauma\\,\\ so\\ this\\ identifies\\ the\\ trauma\\ as\\ having\\ been\\ sustained\\ in\\ combat\\ \\(right\\ handed\\ ppl\\ have\\ left\\ side\\ protected\\ by\\ the\\ shield\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\few\\ people\\ thus\\ suffered\\ injury\\ to\\ their\\ left\\ extremities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\out\\ of\\ 100\\ skulls\\,\\ 26\\ showed\\ serious\\ wounds\\:\\ wounds\\ to\\ the\\ head\\ that\\ were\\ sufficiently\\ severe\\ that\\ they\\ showed\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ skull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\12\\ had\\ healed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ \\ \\;of\\ healing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\ were\\ fresh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\of\\ the\\ skulls\\ that\\ were\\ investigated\\,\\ at\\ least\\ 15\\%\\ had\\ severe\\ head\\ wounds\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\30\\%\\ of\\ head\\ wounds\\ seemed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ inflicted\\ by\\ blunt\\ instrument\\:\\ blunt\\ shield\\ side\\ or\\ blunt\\ part\\ of\\ sword\\ \\(shield\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ offensive\\ and\\ defensive\\ weapon\\)\\-\\ shield\\ may\\ account\\ for\\ blunt\\ blows\\ to\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\other\\ 70\\%\\ were\\ attributed\\ to\\ something\\ short\\ \\(perhaps\\ a\\ trident\\,\\ javelin\\ \\(in\\ 1\\ case\\ each\\)\\,\\ in\\ 4\\ cases\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ squared\\ off\\ hole\\ in\\ the\\ head\\:\\ the\\ square\\ hole\\ does\\ not\\ correspond\\ to\\ any\\ military\\ weapon\\ that\\ was\\ known\\-\\ the\\ only\\ weapon\\ that\\ would\\ correspond\\ to\\ this\\ wound\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ hammer\\-\\-\\-\\ WHAT\\?\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\45\\ individual\\ wounds\\ are\\ evidenced\\ on\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ parts\\ \\,\\ 15\\ had\\ healed\\,\\ 1\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ healing\\,\\ 29\\ were\\ fresh\\ wounds\\ \\(predominantly\\ to\\ torso\\,\\ neck\\,\\ thighs\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ gravestones\\ were\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ graveyard\\:\\ these\\ show\\ the\\ deceased\\ in\\ the\\ outfit\\ of\\ the\\ gladiator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ so\\ much\\?\\ From\\ two\\ monuments\\ to\\ two\\ individuals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;dove\\&rdquo\\;\\=Palumbus\\ in\\ latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ a\\ murmillo\\,\\ his\\ monument\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\another\\ one\\ was\\ called\\ Euxeinus\\=Euxine\\ sea\\=\\ hospitable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ a\\ retiarius\\,\\ his\\ tomb\\ stone\\ was\\ dediecated\\ by\\ two\\ people\\ called\\ Paritina\\=\\ surrounder\\ and\\ margaritas\\=pearl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ two\\ dedicated\\ the\\ tomb\\ stone\\ to\\ Euxeinus\\:\\ one\\ skull\\ def\\.\\ Shows\\ the\\ wound\\ from\\ a\\ trident\\ wound\\ \\(holes\\ that\\ were\\ 2\\-2\\.5\\ inches\\ apart\\,\\ like\\ the\\ trident\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ skeleton\\ seems\\ to\\ show\\ evidence\\ of\\ a\\ four\\ pronged\\ instrument\\ \\(hitherto\\ unknown\\ to\\ us\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\strontium\\=\\ primarily\\ vegetarian\\ diet\\ eaten\\ by\\ the\\ gladiators\\,\\ hi\\ proportion\\ of\\ strontium\\ in\\ the\\ bones\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Galen\\=\\=greek\\ doctor\\,\\ attended\\ gladiators\\ at\\ Pergamon\\ \\(in\\ turkey\\ in\\ sparr\\ 133\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pergamon\\ due\\ north\\ of\\ Ephesus\\ on\\ the\\ aegean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Galen\\ wrote\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ being\\ the\\ dr\\ in\\ residence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ said\\ that\\ only\\ 2\\ under\\ his\\ care\\ had\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ assisted\\ by\\ a\\ team\\ of\\ massage\\ specialists\\,\\ the\\ dr\\.s\\ used\\ oil\\ and\\ massage\\ to\\ restore\\ mobility\\ to\\ strained\\ muscles\\;\\ there\\ was\\ medical\\ attention\\ given\\ to\\ gladiators\\,\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ from\\ the\\ skeletal\\ remains\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ wounds\\ had\\ healed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ diagram\\ shows\\ that\\ 37\\%\\ of\\ wounds\\ are\\ to\\ the\\ head\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ seems\\ odd\\ that\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ injuries\\ to\\ gladiators\\ are\\ to\\ the\\ head\\ \\(esp\\ since\\ the\\ retiarius\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ not\\ using\\ the\\ helmet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ wounds\\ to\\ the\\ forehead\\ were\\ from\\ driving\\ the\\ helmet\\ into\\ the\\ persons\\&\\#39\\;\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ other\\ cases\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ either\\ the\\ gladiator\\ was\\ not\\ wearing\\ his\\ helmet\\;\\ so\\ either\\ it\\ was\\ lost\\ in\\ combat\\,\\ or\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ larage\\ percentage\\ of\\ left\\ fighting\\ retiarii\\ in\\ the\\ graveyard\\,\\ or\\ the\\ gladiators\\ took\\ the\\ blow\\ after\\ losing\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ even\\ so\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ a\\ high\\ proportion\\ to\\ suppose\\ that\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ victims\\ in\\ the\\ graveyard\\ had\\ been\\ retiarii\\ \\(netfighters\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\scholars\\ think\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ rather\\ implausible\\ deduction\\,\\ must\\ be\\ another\\ reason\\ for\\ so\\ many\\ skull\\ wounds\\ in\\ the\\ graveyard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ given\\ the\\ extreme\\ difficulty\\ of\\ seeing\\ through\\ the\\ visor\\ in\\ combat\\ that\\ the\\ gladiator\\ might\\ have\\ disgarded\\ his\\ helmet\\ in\\ combat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ seems\\ more\\ likely\\ that\\ a\\ defeated\\ gladiator\\ had\\ removed\\ his\\ helmet\\ and\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ deemed\\ un\\ deserving\\ to\\ survive\\ the\\ death\\ blow\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ served\\ to\\ the\\ head\\ with\\ a\\ hammer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*there\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ an\\ executioner\\ dressed\\ up\\ as\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\ armed\\ with\\ a\\ hammer\\ to\\ deliver\\ the\\ death\\ blow\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\we\\ thought\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ rarely\\ attested\\ practice\\,\\ but\\ if\\ this\\ evidence\\ in\\ ephesus\\ is\\ accurate\\,\\ perhaps\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ common\\ practice\\;\\ or\\ it\\ could\\ simply\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ the\\ \\*\\*hammer\\ blow\\ was\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ mercy\\ \\,\\ kill\\ him\\ to\\ prevent\\ extensive\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ skulls\\ with\\ hammer\\ holes\\ belonged\\ to\\ gladiators\\ with\\ fatal\\ wounds\\ on\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ their\\ body\\;\\ we\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ tell\\ bc\\ of\\ state\\ of\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\skulls\\ and\\ their\\ injuries\\ show\\ only\\ a\\ single\\ wound\\ at\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ death\\,\\ including\\ trident\\ wounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trident\\ wounds\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ only\\ person\\ who\\ was\\ not\\ wearing\\ the\\ helmet\\ was\\ the\\ retiarius\\,\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ guy\\ wearing\\ the\\ retiarius\\,\\ and\\ the\\ opponent\\ was\\ wearing\\ the\\ secutor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ helmet\\;\\ so\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ account\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ someone\\ got\\ a\\ trident\\ blow\\ to\\ the\\ head\\?\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\answer\\:\\ if\\ a\\ retiarius\\ dropped\\ his\\ trident\\,\\ the\\ opponent\\ \\(secutor\\)\\ would\\ pick\\ it\\ up\\ and\\ skwere\\ the\\ retiarius\\ in\\ the\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\being\\ armed\\ with\\ the\\ retiarius\\ was\\ a\\ double\\ edged\\ sword\\-\\ the\\ trident\\ could\\ get\\ tangled\\ up\\ when\\ the\\ net\\ got\\ tangled\\ up\\;\\ this\\ added\\ liklihood\\ that\\ secutor\\ would\\ escape\\ net\\ and\\ skewer\\ the\\ retiarius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\head\\ wounds\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\restraint\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ multiple\\ wounds\\ inflicted\\ on\\ victims\\ in\\ medievil\\ warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\study\\ about\\ skeletons\\ recovered\\ from\\ battle\\ of\\ Towton\\ in\\ north\\ yorkshire\\ in\\ 1461\\ \\(wars\\ of\\ the\\ roses\\)\\;\\ those\\ skeletons\\ show\\ multiple\\ wounds\\;\\ hard\\ to\\ interpret\\ them\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\ whether\\ they\\ were\\ massacred\\ after\\ the\\ battle\\ or\\ during\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ galdiatorial\\ remains\\ were\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ repeated\\ battering\\ so\\ discipline\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ used\\ during\\ the\\ killing\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ severely\\ injured\\ gladiator\\-\\ they\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ get\\ vandilized\\ in\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ demise\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\may\\ be\\ that\\ wounds\\ to\\ the\\ pelvic\\ area\\ were\\ forbidden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;greaves\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ forward\\ leg\\ pad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seems\\ that\\ the\\ shield\\ would\\ protect\\ the\\ left\\ thigh\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ evidence\\ of\\ some\\ wounds\\ there\\,\\ if\\ shield\\ got\\ knocked\\ away\\ then\\ they\\ would\\ go\\ for\\ this\\ spot\\ bc\\ no\\ greave\\ there\\ and\\ big\\ artery\\ along\\ back\\ of\\ leg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shield\\ arm\\ and\\ sword\\ arm\\ get\\ some\\ damage\\,\\ torso\\ gets\\ some\\ damage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/17\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ could\\ gladiators\\ kill\\ one\\ another\\ \\(even\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ barracks\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\physical\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ gladiators\\ trained\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#8\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\epitaph\\ for\\ gladiator\\ put\\ up\\ by\\ fellow\\ gladiator\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ specialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\very\\ likely\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ paying\\ into\\ a\\ fund\\ that\\ paid\\ for\\ the\\ monument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;collegium\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\=term\\ for\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;formal\\ affiliation\\,\\ quite\\ possible\\ that\\ gladiators\\ in\\ the\\ thracian\\ style\\,\\ presumably\\ in\\ rome\\,\\ had\\ paid\\ into\\ a\\ fund\\ that\\ then\\ paid\\ for\\ the\\ monument\\ for\\ their\\ fellow\\ thracian\\ gladiator\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ name\\;\\ endorsed\\ by\\ the\\ manner\\ of\\ its\\ celebration\\;\\ perhaps\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ fraternity\\ in\\ the\\ thracian\\ barracks\\ at\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thanks\\ to\\ eruption\\ of\\ vesuvius\\ in\\ 79\\ bce\\,\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ pompeii\\ has\\ survived\\ for\\ excavation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theatre\\ quarter\\;\\ two\\ theatres\\,\\ smaller\\ is\\ harder\\ to\\ see\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&rdquo\\;odeion\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ used\\ for\\ intimate\\ performaces\\ such\\ as\\ recitals\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ small\\ theatre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ barracks\\ of\\ the\\ gladiators\\ at\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;caserma\\ dei\\ gladiatori\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-\\-\\-\\=\\=\\=\\ gladiator\\ barracks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-portico\\ was\\ close\\ to\\ marine\\ gate\\ at\\ pompeii\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-portico\\ used\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ walk\\ during\\ intervals\\ of\\ plays\\/\\ possibly\\ originally\\ a\\ gymnasium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-couldnt\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ military\\ barracks\\ because\\ the\\ helmets\\ were\\ too\\ heavy\\ and\\ elaborate\\;\\ it\\ was\\ determined\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ soldiers\\ but\\ gladiators\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\weapons\\ were\\ kept\\ elsewhere\\,\\ helmets\\ in\\ rms\\ but\\ not\\ weapons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\11\\ sq\\ ft\\ deepest\\ dimension\\ for\\ a\\ roman\\ rm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ many\\ as\\ 4\\ glad\\/\\ rm\\ in\\ barracks\\,\\ nails\\ on\\ wall\\ for\\ helmet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ \\ \\;women\\ sleep\\ here\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ludus\\ magnus\\ school\\,\\ domitian\\ built\\ after\\ colloseum\\,\\ not\\ free\\ standing\\ ampHITHEATRE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\like\\ portico\\ superimposed\\ on\\ amphITHEATRE\\,\\ must\\ have\\ practiced\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ audience\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tunnel\\ connects\\ to\\ colleseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ a\\ custom\\ structure\\,\\ domitian\\ built\\ the\\ lududs\\ magnus\\ and\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ 4\\ gladiatorial\\ training\\ schools\\ that\\ were\\ known\\ to\\ have\\ surrounding\\ the\\ colloseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ludus\\ magnus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(great\\ school\\)\\,\\ presumably\\ larger\\ than\\ other\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ludus\\ Dacicus\\ \\(dacian\\ prisoner\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ludus\\ Gallicus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ludus\\ Matutinus\\ \\(morning\\ school\\)\\;\\ perhaps\\ this\\ was\\ where\\ beast\\ fighters\\ were\\ trained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#25\\ handout\\ 6\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ perhaps\\ maybe\\ other\\ grps\\ of\\ gladiators\\ were\\ barracked\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-system\\ of\\ ranking\\ gladiators\\ according\\ to\\ skill\\ \\(paying\\ for\\ gladiators\\ of\\ certain\\ rank\\)\\ helped\\ evenly\\ match\\ gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#10\\ handout\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\epitaph\\,\\ we\\ surmised\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ formulaic\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ script\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;honorand\\&rdquo\\;\\ named\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\gives\\ the\\ information\\ about\\ his\\ death\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ gladiator\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\ was\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ skill\\ of\\ the\\ opponent\\,\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ destiny\\;\\ did\\ belief\\ in\\ fatalism\\ allow\\ gladiators\\ to\\ continue\\ with\\ their\\ task\\ more\\ easily\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\ are\\ other\\ indications\\ suggesting\\ the\\ attitude\\ that\\ gladiators\\ may\\ have\\ adopted\\ towards\\ their\\ opponents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;suggestion\\ that\\ a\\ certain\\ degree\\ of\\ gentlemanly\\ conduct\\ may\\ have\\ prescribed\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ moods\\ permitted\\ and\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ attitudes\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ tolerated\\ in\\ combat\\;\\ irrational\\ anger\\ kept\\ under\\ control\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ gladiatorial\\ success\\ depended\\ on\\ cool\\ head\\ and\\ strict\\ practicing\\ regime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#14\\ handout\\ 6\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ notice\\ the\\ intricate\\ imagery\\ on\\ the\\ monument\\:\\ trident\\,\\ dagger\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ the\\ 8\\ palm\\ branches\\ represent\\ \\(or\\ wreath\\)\\ victory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#12\\ handout\\ 6\\ \\(p3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ may\\ represent\\ christian\\ deceased\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ were\\ not\\ many\\ items\\ of\\ evidence\\ yielding\\ anything\\ specific\\ about\\ qualities\\ of\\ modern\\ gladiators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sarcophagus\\ front\\,\\ from\\ rome\\ originally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sarcophagus\\=\\ means\\ flesh\\ eater\\,\\ to\\ eat\\ the\\ body\\ inside\\ its\\ stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ pictures\\ came\\ first\\ because\\ the\\ words\\ are\\ squashed\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fotsa\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;ditch\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ grave\\;\\ not\\ high\\ class\\ latin\\,\\ late\\ latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commemorates\\ the\\ solidaciarius\\=\\ companion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\early\\ christian\\ belief\\ was\\ that\\ day\\ fo\\ death\\ was\\ day\\ of\\ rebirth\\ in\\ jesus\\ christ\\=\\=\\=day\\ of\\ death\\ day\\ of\\ birthday\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\ militant\\ qualities\\,\\ could\\ be\\ early\\ christian\\ \\,\\ death\\=rebirth\\,\\ implies\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ christian\\ community\\ may\\ have\\ had\\ something\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ commemoration\\;\\;\\;\\;\\;how\\ was\\ it\\ possible\\ for\\ a\\ christian\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ gladiator\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ forbidden\\ for\\ christians\\ to\\ have\\ anything\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ fighting\\ arena\\,\\ but\\ perhaps\\ they\\ were\\ converted\\ in\\ the\\ barracks\\,\\ faith\\ spread\\ more\\ quickly\\ \\,\\ perhaps\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ \\&ldquo\\;soft\\&rdquo\\;\\ virtues\\ applied\\ to\\ gladiator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/20\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\handout\\ 9\\ discusses\\ sponsors\\ and\\ sponsorship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sponsor\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ munerarii\\ \\(or\\ munerarius\\)\\=\\ someone\\ who\\ supplies\\ a\\ munus\\,\\ from\\ the\\ word\\ duty\\,\\ editores\\ \\(someone\\ who\\ puts\\ something\\ on\\)\\ interchangeable\\ terms\\ for\\ someone\\ who\\ sponsors\\ a\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ ancient\\ time\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;gift\\ and\\ duty\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ very\\ close\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ assumed\\ responsbilities\\ of\\ friendship\\;\\ we\\ still\\ see\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ diplomatic\\ circle\\ of\\ today\\ \\(sick\\ queen\\ receives\\ presents\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\munificentia\\=\\ gift\\ making\\/generosity\\;\\ from\\ the\\ root\\ munificence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\liberalitas\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;generosity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ the\\ quality\\ displayed\\ by\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ is\\ liner\\;\\ or\\ free\\,\\ bc\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ free\\ can\\ own\\ property\\,\\ thereby\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ capcaity\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ his\\ freedom\\ by\\ being\\ liberalites\\,\\ \\ \\;since\\ he\\ has\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ generous\\ with\\ \\(the\\ concept\\ of\\ liberalites\\ responsds\\ to\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ liber\\,\\ which\\ means\\ free\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ ancient\\ society\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ state\\ far\\ less\\ expansive\\ than\\ modern\\ state\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ supplying\\ amenities\\ to\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ article\\ by\\ welsh\\,\\ she\\ makes\\ an\\ argument\\ for\\ the\\ pompeii\\ colony\\ charter\\ \\(or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;urso\\&rdquo\\;\\ community\\)\\ there\\ is\\ provision\\ in\\ the\\ charter\\ for\\ a\\ fixed\\ sum\\ of\\ money\\ to\\ be\\ given\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ municipal\\ account\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\;\\ this\\ was\\ made\\ available\\ from\\ the\\ budget\\ of\\ the\\ town\\ council\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ money\\ often\\ was\\ not\\ too\\ extensive\\,\\ however\\,\\ so\\ often\\ private\\ individuals\\ would\\ put\\ up\\ buildings\\ in\\ the\\ community\\ and\\ tell\\ ppl\\ outwardly\\ that\\ they\\ footed\\ the\\ bill\\ to\\ build\\ different\\ buildings\\;\\ they\\ did\\ this\\ independently\\ of\\ the\\ municipality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-they\\ wanted\\ credit\\ for\\ doing\\ this\\&rdquo\\;out\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ money\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\ there\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ an\\ expectation\\ in\\ roman\\ society\\ for\\ aristocrats\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ their\\ generosity\\ exceeds\\ that\\ which\\ must\\ have\\ already\\ been\\ anticipated\\ by\\ the\\ the\\ state\\ or\\ normal\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Euergetism\\=\\ giving\\ things\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-\\&rdquo\\;Peter\\ Garnsey\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1991\\)\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Generosity\\ of\\ Veyne\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ must\\ identify\\ Charity\\ v\\.\\ philanthropy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ILAlg\\=\\ Latin\\ inscription\\ from\\ algeria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\editor\\ \\<\\;edere\\ \\-\\-\\-means\\ sponsor\\ of\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ problem\\ with\\ euergetism\\ was\\ that\\ sponsors\\ could\\ go\\ broke\\!\\ Competition\\ lead\\ to\\ over\\ spending\\;\\ bankrupt\\ aristocracy\\ bc\\ they\\ gave\\ too\\ much\\ of\\ their\\ property\\ away\\,\\ fundamental\\ impulse\\ in\\ roman\\ society\\,\\ and\\ necessary\\ impulse\\ for\\ society\\ which\\ had\\ not\\ developed\\ substantial\\ government\\ and\\ municipal\\ ability\\ to\\ supply\\ for\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-they\\ did\\ pay\\ taxes\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ also\\ private\\ patronage\\ bc\\ public\\ taxes\\ often\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\money\\ for\\ bath\\ building\\,\\ water\\ supply\\,\\ forest\\,\\ etc\\.\\ for\\ the\\ citizens\\ supplied\\ privately\\ to\\ have\\ bath\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Euergetism\\-\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ local\\ community\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ as\\ charity\\,\\ however\\ \\(there\\ was\\ charity\\ in\\ antiquity\\,\\ but\\ that\\ was\\ different\\ \\,\\ ie\\ trajan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ scheme\\ to\\ provide\\ food\\ to\\ children\\ was\\ type\\ of\\ charitable\\ foundation\\,\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ not\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ppl\\ were\\ wealthy\\ and\\ expected\\ recognition\\;\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ expect\\ physical\\ commemoration\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ statues\\ for\\ their\\ generosity\\;\\ forest\\ of\\ statues\\,\\ commemorative\\ arches\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Paul\\ Veyne\\ and\\ his\\ translation\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;bread\\ and\\ circus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\veyne\\ had\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ euergetism\\ in\\ antiquity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Peter\\ garsey\\ wrote\\ the\\ translation\\ \\(he\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ antiquity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\contribution\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ rich\\ for\\ public\\ expenses\\ \\,\\ doing\\ something\\ for\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pliny\\ built\\ a\\ library\\ in\\ his\\ home\\ town\\,\\ put\\ money\\ down\\ to\\ build\\ school\\ for\\ the\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ entertainments\\ in\\ circus\\ or\\ arena\\ in\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ circus\\ or\\ arena\\ and\\ the\\ bldg\\ of\\ public\\ bldg\\;\\ ie\\ leave\\ money\\ in\\ community\\ for\\ oil\\ for\\ the\\ baths\\;\\ sope\\ so\\ that\\ ppl\\ can\\ be\\ cleaned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\for\\ all\\ citizens\\ \\ \\;\\(communal\\ benefit\\)\\,\\ not\\ for\\ a\\ subgroup\\ of\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ expected\\ or\\ even\\ imposed\\ by\\ the\\ communit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ was\\ huge\\ pressure\\,\\ voluntary\\ euergetism\\ and\\ OB\\ Honorem\\ euergetism\\;\\ certain\\ categories\\ of\\ magistrates\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ put\\ on\\ games\\ to\\ give\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ancient\\ home\\ of\\ euergetism\\ was\\ the\\ ancient\\ city\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ aediles\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ put\\ on\\ beast\\ hunts\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ their\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#6\\ handout\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\volume\\ 10\\ discusses\\ stone\\ inscriptions\\ \\(whereas\\ \\#4\\ discusses\\ graffiti\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ a\\ resume\\ of\\ Claugius\\ Flacuss\\&\\#39\\;\\ achievements\\ in\\ Pompeii\\;\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ funerary\\ monument\\;\\ tomeb\\ monument\\;\\ it\\ summarizes\\ the\\ achievements\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ monument\\ of\\ the\\ tomb\\,\\ put\\ up\\ by\\ the\\ daughter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ exclusively\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ his\\ formal\\ offices\\ and\\ a\\ detailed\\ account\\ of\\ 3\\ pairs\\ of\\ games\\ he\\ put\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ about\\ the\\ games\\ he\\ put\\ on\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ amphitheater\\ games\\ v\\.\\ the\\ forum\\ games\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ forum\\ had\\ bull\\ fights\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ included\\ gladiators\\ fighting\\ beasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ games\\ he\\ put\\ on\\ by\\ himself\\ are\\ distinguished\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ putting\\ them\\ on\\ with\\ a\\ subsidiary\\,\\ w\\/out\\ input\\ from\\ his\\ colleague\\,\\ foots\\ the\\ bill\\ himself\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ second\\ games\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ his\\ own\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ put\\ on\\ various\\ pairs\\ of\\ athletes\\,\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ pairs\\ of\\ gladiators\\ \\(two\\ separate\\ paris\\ of\\ occasions\\ on\\ the\\ last\\ day\\)\\ and\\ the\\ beast\\ fight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\and\\ then\\,\\ he\\ have\\ a\\ second\\ beast\\ fught\\,\\ but\\ that\\ was\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ individual\\ sponsor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\other\\ persons\\&\\#39\\;\\ family\\ would\\ deface\\ monument\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ honest\\ inscriptions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\frankness\\ and\\ detail\\ of\\ the\\ monument\\ was\\ very\\ interesting\\ to\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\flaccus\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ fish\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ town\\,\\ Pompeii\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ big\\ city\\ in\\ antiquity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\for\\ once\\ we\\ can\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ home\\ town\\ kind\\ of\\ place\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ new\\ worthy\\ large\\ cities\\ such\\ as\\ rome\\ that\\ were\\ always\\ documented\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#9\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\from\\ minturnae\\=\\ minturno\\,\\ on\\ the\\ tyrrhenian\\ coast\\,\\ between\\ terracina\\ and\\ Naples\\,\\ see\\ Scarre\\ p\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ piece\\ is\\ dedicated\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\&rdquo\\;\\ this\\ person\\,\\ so\\ we\\ guess\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ on\\ a\\ statue\\ or\\ base\\ of\\ a\\ statue\\;\\ the\\ dedication\\ on\\ the\\ statue\\ base\\ survived\\ while\\ the\\ statue\\ did\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ have\\ many\\ bases\\ with\\ inscriptions\\,\\ like\\ this\\,\\ while\\ the\\ statues\\ likely\\ crashed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\model\\ statues\\ can\\ be\\ put\\ in\\ a\\ lime\\ kiln\\ and\\ burnt\\ to\\ make\\ lime\\ out\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ a\\ widely\\ used\\ building\\ substance\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ christianity\\ used\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ pagan\\ character\\ statues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\christians\\ just\\ saw\\ them\\ as\\ building\\ material\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ statue\\ bases\\ also\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ more\\ heavy\\ to\\ handle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ here\\ that\\ he\\ leaves\\ money\\ in\\ his\\ will\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ 1\\ mil\\ secestres\\ \\(equiv\\ of\\ the\\ money\\ needed\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ senator\\)\\ to\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ 40k\\ secestres\\ to\\ be\\ distributed\\ for\\ \\ \\;a\\ meal\\,\\ the\\ equiv\\.\\ Of\\ what\\ an\\ equestrian\\ had\\ to\\ own\\,\\ may\\ be\\ an\\ indication\\ that\\ people\\ thought\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ amounts\\ that\\ they\\ connected\\ with\\ certain\\ rights\\ and\\ privileges\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ was\\ enough\\ for\\ a\\ meal\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ community\\ left\\ for\\ the\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ was\\ even\\ a\\ class\\ structure\\ for\\ how\\ people\\ were\\ meant\\ to\\ eat\\;\\ reclining\\ or\\ sitting\\;\\ higher\\ class\\ prostitutes\\ allowed\\ to\\ recline\\ on\\ stoops\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ prostitutes\\ had\\ to\\ sit\\ on\\ stools\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\400\\,000\\ secestres\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ interest\\ over\\ four\\ years\\ on\\ 600\\ secestres\\ was\\ sufficient\\ for\\ a\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ any\\ event\\,\\ it\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ expensive\\ to\\ put\\ on\\ a\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\,\\ so\\ they\\ looked\\ forward\\ to\\ the\\ meal\\ but\\ even\\ more\\ so\\ to\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\;\\ most\\ likely\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ who\\ had\\ left\\ money\\ for\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\ in\\ this\\ particular\\ community\\;\\ an\\ individual\\ could\\ watch\\ one\\ game\\ every\\ 4\\ years\\;\\ once\\ in\\ a\\ lifetime\\ more\\ or\\ less\\!\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Euergetism\\ was\\ generosity\\ that\\ was\\ endowed\\ in\\ perpetuity\\;\\ not\\ a\\ one\\ time\\ gift\\,\\ but\\ something\\ that\\ would\\ keep\\ the\\ generations\\ going\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\his\\ thesis\\ was\\ that\\ euergetism\\ had\\ sometimes\\ been\\ viewed\\ too\\ often\\ as\\ a\\ one\\ way\\ process\\,\\ rather\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ two\\ way\\ process\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Xaererhook\\)\\ that\\ the\\ community\\ has\\ some\\ say\\ in\\ how\\ the\\ generosity\\ was\\ manifested\\ \\(suetonius\\ Ch37\\ on\\ Tiberius\\ discusses\\ funeral\\ in\\ Polentia\\,\\ where\\ people\\ would\\ not\\ let\\ the\\ corpse\\ be\\ romved\\ for\\ burial\\ until\\ the\\ family\\ had\\ promised\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ community\\ forced\\ the\\ rich\\ people\\ to\\ hold\\ gladiatorial\\ displays\\ for\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ illustrates\\ Zaderhook\\&\\#39\\;s\\ point\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ had\\ a\\ scale\\ of\\ expectations\\,\\ no\\ statue\\ unless\\ aristorcrat\\ that\\ can\\ bakrupt\\ some\\ ppl\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ destructive\\ factioalism\\ that\\ allows\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ manipulate\\ the\\ patrons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ p\\ 197\\-198\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ discussion\\ about\\ the\\ inscription\\ on\\ the\\ stele\\ at\\ Ephesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ephesus\\ Handout\\ 10\\(\\?\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ piece\\ is\\ about\\ Martyria\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ letter\\ of\\ witness\\ from\\ the\\ Pious\\ to\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ Ephesus\\ in\\ 145\\ CE\\,\\ urging\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ provide\\ new\\ buildings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ is\\ adding\\ to\\ the\\ city\\,\\ one\\ can\\ act\\ inappropriately\\ in\\ failing\\ to\\ commend\\ him\\,\\ reproof\\ to\\ the\\ citizens\\ for\\ failing\\ to\\ commend\\ him\\?\\ Reproof\\ to\\ the\\ citizens\\ for\\ not\\ commemorating\\ him\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zaderhook\\ wanted\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ community\\ who\\ wished\\ they\\ could\\ but\\ up\\ building\\ without\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ the\\ aristocrat\\;\\ however\\ this\\ was\\ only\\ a\\ restoration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ different\\ restoration\\ said\\,\\ you\\ therefore\\ act\\ appropriately\\ in\\ commending\\ him\\,\\ thus\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ emperor\\ is\\ giving\\ the\\ town\\ a\\ pat\\ on\\ the\\ back\\,\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ restoration\\ seems\\ much\\ more\\ plausible\\,\\ thus\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ careful\\ in\\ reading\\ zaderhook\\&\\#39\\;s\\ article\\ and\\ his\\ misinterpretation\\ of\\ this\\ inscription\\ in\\ Ephesus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/22\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;how\\ does\\ sponsoring\\ violent\\ display\\ promote\\ and\\ teach\\ values\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(picking\\ up\\ from\\ monday\\&\\#39\\;s\\ discussion\\ of\\ how\\ patronage\\ in\\ antiquity\\ differed\\ from\\ patronage\\ today\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\readings\\,\\ lectures\\,\\ handouts\\,\\ slides\\,\\ section\\ wkst\\,\\ test\\ \\&ldquo\\;analytical\\ skills\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ two\\ short\\ extracts\\ like\\ handouts\\ and\\ quotations\\ in\\ english\\,\\ asked\\ to\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ passages\\;\\ rubric\\ of\\ instruction\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ required\\ of\\ the\\ commentry\\,\\ identify\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ \\(epitaph\\)\\,\\ signifi\\.\\ For\\ study\\ of\\ romans\\ spectacles\\,\\ culture\\ that\\ the\\ spectacles\\ demonstrate\\,\\ show\\ parallels\\ with\\ other\\ documents\\ and\\ art\\;\\ comment\\ on\\ any\\ features\\ of\\ special\\ interest\\,\\ use\\ the\\ facts\\ from\\ the\\ quizzes\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ use\\ the\\ skills\\ from\\ section\\ and\\ lecture\\ and\\ knowldege\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ evidence\\,\\ two\\ passages\\,\\ one\\ will\\ be\\ like\\ we\\ have\\ done\\ in\\ class\\,\\ the\\ other\\ will\\ be\\ one\\ we\\ have\\ not\\ donw\\ in\\ class\\ but\\ very\\ recognizeable\\;\\ other\\ part\\ will\\ be\\ two\\ images\\ \\(mosaic\\ from\\ class\\,\\ mosaic\\ or\\ pictorial\\ evidence\\ not\\ from\\ class\\)\\;\\ format\\ very\\ fair\\ because\\ it\\ tests\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ learned\\ to\\ date\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#10\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;he\\ is\\ adding\\ to\\ the\\ city\\;\\ you\\ act\\ inappropriately\\ in\\ failing\\ to\\ commend\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ restoration\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;He\\ is\\ adding\\ to\\ your\\ city\\,\\ you\\ therefore\\ act\\ inappropriately\\ in\\ commending\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\note\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ translation\\ and\\ restoration\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ paragraph\\ perfectly\\ \\ \\;sufficient\\;\\ one\\ paragraph\\ on\\ each\\ of\\ two\\ texts\\,\\ one\\ paragraph\\ on\\ each\\ of\\ two\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;how\\ does\\ sponsoring\\ violent\\ display\\ promote\\ and\\ teach\\ values\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(picking\\ up\\ from\\ monday\\&\\#39\\;s\\ discussion\\ of\\ how\\ patronage\\ in\\ antiquity\\ differed\\ from\\ patronage\\ today\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#10\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\article\\ by\\ zaderhook\\ in\\ sourcebook\\ tests\\ pressure\\ points\\ of\\ euergetism\\ \\(the\\ form\\ of\\ munificence\\ whereby\\ private\\ individuals\\ will\\ fund\\ in\\ the\\ common\\ interest\\ projects\\ such\\ as\\ putting\\ up\\ bldg\\,\\ entertainment\\,\\ grants\\ of\\ oil\\ to\\ bathhouse\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\exttract\\ on\\ this\\ item\\ in\\ handout\\;\\ inscrpition\\ reinforces\\ function\\ of\\ patronage\\ in\\ ancient\\ society\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ showing\\ patronage\\ failing\\,\\ because\\ the\\ interpretation\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ restoration\\ \\(zaderhook\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interp\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\letter\\ from\\ the\\ emperor\\ to\\ citizens\\ of\\ ephesus\\ \\(where\\ graveyard\\ is\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ZUIDERHOEK\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\k\\ changes\\ to\\ v\\ so\\ the\\ epigraphy\\ was\\ wrong\\ before\\;\\ now\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ theletter\\ commends\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ built\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\ did\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ spend\\ so\\ \\ \\;much\\ money\\ on\\ the\\ projects\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\profit\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ suitable\\ method\\ for\\ an\\ upperclass\\ roman\\ citizen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\actor\\ prostutite\\ galdiator\\ for\\ \\ \\;pay\\ not\\ allowed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ values\\ to\\ travel\\ and\\ have\\ lots\\ of\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\property\\ means\\ you\\ are\\ free\\,\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ free\\,\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ posession\\ of\\ property\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ you\\ goodnes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;LIBERALITAS\\&rdquo\\;\\ giving\\ stuff\\ away\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\prestige\\,\\ they\\ get\\ the\\ gratitude\\ of\\ the\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ get\\ statues\\ \\,\\ inscropition\\ on\\ statue\\ base\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\will\\ say\\ who\\ you\\ were\\,\\ what\\ you\\ did\\ for\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\public\\ office\\;\\ freq\\ you\\ were\\ obligated\\ to\\ be\\ generous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\would\\ also\\ have\\ gotten\\ increased\\ following\\ of\\ citizens\\ outside\\ their\\ door\\,\\ accompanying\\ them\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;fans\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\altruism\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\did\\ patrons\\ feel\\ that\\ games\\ were\\ virtuous\\ and\\ justifiable\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#2\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\ of\\ function\\ for\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\ in\\ roman\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\statue\\ emphasis\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ communal\\ good\\ that\\ motivated\\ him\\ in\\ putting\\ on\\ the\\ games\\;\\ gives\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ the\\ games\\ \\(ie\\ he\\ loves\\ ommunity\\ more\\ \\ \\;bc\\ he\\ offers\\ the\\ games\\ for\\ longer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ of\\ note\\ \\ \\;is\\ that\\ the\\ values\\ of\\ the\\ elites\\ wre\\ competitive\\ values\\ thus\\ it\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ surpassed\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ everyone\\ before\\ him\\=\\ critical\\!\\!\\ his\\ blamelessness\\,\\ disctionction\\ and\\ effection\\ for\\ community\\ recognized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sense\\ of\\ community\\ cohesion\\ and\\ integrity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#3\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;patron\\ of\\ the\\ colony\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(as\\ pliny\\ was\\ the\\ patron\\ of\\ kona\\ \\(sp\\?\\?\\)\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ all\\ sponsors\\.\\.\\.novelty\\ value\\ of\\ his\\ being\\ the\\ first\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scale\\ of\\ spectacle\\ great\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#4\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\endowment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\munus\\=\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\=\\=\\ just\\ gladiator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\endowed\\ display\\,\\ built\\ portico\\,\\ physical\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ generosity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\8a\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\volume\\ 4\\,\\ informal\\ register\\ from\\ pompeii\\ \\(graffiti\\ and\\ painted\\ slogans\\)edicating\\ works\\ of\\ arts\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ have\\ games\\,\\ designed\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ munificence\\ of\\ the\\ guy\\;\\ dedicates\\ games\\ and\\ ALSO\\ holds\\ games\\ to\\ dedicate\\ dedication\\ of\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#8b\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\analyze\\ for\\ tf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#9\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\having\\ a\\ procession\\,\\ and\\ he\\ begged\\ to\\ beef\\ it\\ up\\ by\\ funding\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\voluntary\\ aspect\\ becomes\\ a\\ bit\\ transparent\\ bc\\ ppl\\ in\\ town\\ council\\ bribed\\ to\\ put\\ up\\ the\\ statues\\ quickly\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\killed\\ bears\\ and\\ put\\ up\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\from\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\!\\-\\ comemorated\\ for\\ having\\ killed\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ gladiators\\ fought\\;\\ out\\ of\\ 11\\ pairs\\,\\ 11\\ were\\ killed\\,\\ 22\\ fighting\\,\\ half\\ died\\!\\!\\!\\,\\ he\\ must\\ have\\ decided\\ in\\ each\\ instance\\ that\\ loser\\ would\\ not\\ survive\\,\\ perhaps\\ there\\ was\\ pressure\\ on\\ elite\\ values\\ to\\ shed\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ as\\ though\\ there\\ were\\ 10\\ bears\\ killed\\ cruelly\\ \\(is\\ he\\ commended\\ for\\ having\\ shown\\ cruelty\\ in\\ killing\\ thebears\\,\\ or\\ were\\ the\\ bears\\ cruel\\ and\\ he\\ being\\ vindicated\\ for\\ the\\ act\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ killed\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ animals\\ on\\ different\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pressure\\ mounting\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ have\\ bigger\\ displays\\ with\\ more\\ fatalities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ records\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\would\\ be\\ better\\ if\\ we\\ had\\ records\\ of\\ all\\ town\\ councils\\ for\\ all\\ days\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#8e\\ handout\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\from\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ claudius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\said\\ that\\ claudius\\ presided\\ at\\ the\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interesting\\ bc\\ of\\ the\\ technical\\ term\\ he\\ uses\\ \\&ldquo\\;acclamatio\\&rdquo\\;meant\\ a\\ concerted\\ orchestrated\\ shout\\ by\\ the\\ spectators\\ at\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\verbalization\\ of\\ the\\ wave\\ at\\ fenway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;christians\\ to\\ the\\ lions\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\acclamations\\ a\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ crowd\\ could\\ up\\ the\\ anty\\ and\\ get\\ the\\ sponsor\\ to\\ respond\\ with\\ grand\\ gestures\\,\\ gave\\ the\\ crowd\\ some\\ form\\ of\\ autonomy\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ collective\\ voice\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ population\\ where\\ theyw\\ ere\\ being\\ honored\\ by\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ acclimations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\must\\ have\\ had\\ a\\ psychological\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ ppl\\ that\\ were\\ being\\ honored\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ a\\ complex\\ issue\\ what\\ the\\ sponsors\\ got\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ generosity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ afterlife\\ so\\ immortality\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ what\\ ppl\\ thought\\ of\\ you\\ now\\ \\(no\\ xtianity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\reading\\ for\\ today\\;\\ article\\ from\\ french\\ scholar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\based\\ on\\ ideas\\ from\\ tacitus\\,\\ where\\ in\\ Fidanae\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ collapses\\,\\ Tacitus\\ VERY\\ scornful\\ of\\ Atilius\\ who\\ put\\ it\\ on\\ \\(4000\\ sequestres\\ needed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ guaranteed\\ entry\\ to\\ equestrian\\ order\\ amt\\-\\ to\\ put\\ up\\ shows\\ and\\ amphitheater\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ was\\ so\\ disgraceful\\ about\\ what\\ atilius\\ had\\ been\\ doing\\-\\-\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ sordid\\ profit\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ charge\\ foreigners\\ entry\\ fees\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\constant\\ emphasis\\ on\\ doing\\ the\\ games\\ for\\ the\\ community\\,\\ but\\ then\\ if\\ atilius\\ did\\ this\\ for\\ profit\\ the\\ profit\\ must\\ come\\ from\\ charging\\ the\\ foreigners\\ \\;\\ thus\\ population\\ of\\ rome\\ wouldh\\ ave\\ to\\ pay\\ to\\ see\\ games\\,\\ bu\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ fidanae\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ pay\\;\\ doing\\ things\\ for\\ profit\\ in\\ antiquity\\ was\\ not\\ dignified\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ senatorial\\ census\\ \\(4k\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ erect\\ an\\ amphitheater\\;\\ must\\ mean\\ that\\ Tiberius\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ ensure\\ \\(along\\ with\\ the\\ senate\\)\\ would\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ do\\,\\ and\\ also\\ a\\ design\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ incentive\\ of\\ profit\\ because\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\ exchalons\\ were\\ not\\ supposed\\ to\\ do\\ things\\ to\\ profit\\;\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ allowed\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ equestrian\\ come\\ along\\ and\\ make\\ money\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ games\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/25\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;How\\ did\\ naval\\ battles\\ in\\ spectacles\\ influence\\ historical\\ memory\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\this\\ discussion\\ involves\\ prof\\&\\#39\\;s\\ article\\ \\(see\\ online\\ resources\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\topic\\ will\\ be\\ covered\\ in\\ two\\ future\\ occasions\\:\\ architecture\\ of\\ colosseum\\,\\ inaguaral\\ celebrations\\ of\\ coloseeum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\violent\\ combat\\:\\ we\\ have\\ so\\ far\\ looked\\ at\\ 1\\:1\\ combat\\ w\\/gladaitors\\,\\ although\\ some\\ instances\\ in\\ passing\\ when\\ we\\ see\\ gladiators\\ fighting\\ with\\ several\\ against\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ better\\ gladiators\\ fought\\ exclusively\\ 1\\:1\\,\\ although\\ fighting\\ in\\ groups\\ was\\ a\\ habit\\,\\ but\\ not\\ a\\ very\\ practiced\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aqautic\\ displays\\:\\ staged\\ naval\\ battles\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&rdquo\\;NAUMACHIAE\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\=THE\\ STAGED\\ NAVAL\\ BATTLES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\very\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ people\\ involved\\ in\\ these\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rome\\ had\\ not\\ originally\\ been\\ a\\ naval\\ power\\;\\ it\\ was\\ 264\\ bce\\ punic\\ war\\ that\\ forced\\ rome\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ navy\\ bc\\ rome\\ was\\ fighting\\ with\\ carthage\\ over\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ sicily\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ troups\\ to\\ be\\ around\\ the\\ island\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ carthaginians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reenacted\\ a\\ navy\\ battle\\ from\\ the\\ past\\,\\ historical\\,\\ or\\ one\\ that\\ oculd\\ plausibly\\ have\\ happened\\,\\ had\\ it\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ evidence\\ we\\ have\\ for\\ romans\\ reenacting\\ a\\ naval\\ battle\\ from\\ their\\ own\\ history\\,\\ was\\ an\\ unusual\\ event\\ \\(handout\\ 10\\ item\\ 2\\)\\,and\\ every\\ other\\ time\\ a\\ battle\\ was\\ staged\\ as\\ an\\ imperial\\ program\\ in\\ spectacles\\,\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ was\\ taken\\ from\\ greek\\ history\\:\\ actual\\ history\\ or\\ greek\\ imaginery\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ was\\ noticeable\\ about\\ roman\\ culture\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ distiction\\ drawn\\ between\\ reality\\ and\\ the\\ imaginary\\ was\\ not\\ where\\ we\\ would\\ put\\ it\\ in\\ ouro\\ culture\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ stage\\ a\\ naval\\ enactment\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\suitable\\ stretch\\ of\\ water\\ available\\ to\\ suitable\\ number\\ of\\ spectators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(venue\\,\\ spectators\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\participants\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\certain\\ towns\\ in\\ england\\ was\\ fashionable\\ to\\ replay\\ naval\\ engagements\\ of\\ british\\ history\\,\\ private\\ engagement\\ a\\ replay\\ of\\ a\\ battle\\,\\ for\\ ex\\.\\,\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ for\\ a\\ cost\\ of\\ thousands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ romans\\ liked\\ doing\\ things\\ on\\ a\\ large\\ scale\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ outdo\\ the\\ pervious\\ person\\,\\ bring\\ innovations\\ that\\ had\\ never\\ been\\ thought\\ of\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\were\\ not\\ hundreds\\ of\\ people\\ signing\\ up\\ to\\ drown\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\evidence\\ points\\ to\\ primary\\ source\\ of\\ participants\\ in\\ staged\\ naval\\ battles\\ as\\ having\\ been\\ prisoners\\ of\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\ war\\ was\\ required\\ to\\ provide\\ prisoners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ many\\ indications\\ in\\ the\\ sources\\ as\\ to\\ who\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ participants\\ in\\ the\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\who\\ did\\ it\\?\\ Where\\ did\\ it\\ occur\\?\\ Who\\ participated\\?\\ What\\ was\\ the\\ theme\\?\\ \\(to\\ let\\ us\\ conclude\\ why\\ naval\\ battles\\ manipulate\\ historical\\ memory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Julius\\ Caesar\\-\\ t\\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ first\\ person\\ stage\\ a\\ naval\\ battle\\ for\\ entertainment\\,\\ had\\ lake\\ built\\ for\\ event\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#1\\ handout\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-see\\ suetonius\\ text\\ about\\ jc\\ and\\ lake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ text\\ lost\\,\\ but\\ we\\ get\\ the\\ gist\\ that\\ jc\\ had\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;lake\\ dug\\ in\\ the\\ campas\\ marshes\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ staging\\ the\\ naval\\ battle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ in\\ 46bce\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ games\\ he\\ used\\ to\\ celebrate\\ his\\ gladiatorial\\ triumph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;biremes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;triremes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;quadriremes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(remes\\=oars\\)\\,\\ oars\\ rowers\\ used\\;\\ trireme\\ most\\ nimble\\ and\\ effective\\ of\\ greek\\ fighting\\ craft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ imaginary\\ event\\ that\\ was\\ being\\ replicated\\;\\ with\\ shifts\\ from\\ the\\ fleet\\ of\\ tyre\\ and\\ the\\ fleet\\ of\\ egypt\\,\\ tire\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ general\\ modern\\ area\\ of\\ syria\\ and\\ israel\\,\\ the\\ modern\\ city\\ on\\ the\\ site\\ of\\ tyre\\ is\\.still\\ called\\ tyre\\?\\.\\.\\.\\(we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ damascus\\/\\ lebanon\\,\\ pg\\ 133\\ scarre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\egypt\\ is\\ a\\ neighbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\perfectly\\ plausible\\ that\\ there\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ an\\ engagement\\ btw\\ fleets\\ of\\ egypt\\ and\\ fleets\\ of\\ tyre\\,\\ HOWEVER\\<\\;\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ historical\\ time\\ that\\ this\\ occurred\\;\\ HOWEVER\\ caesar\\ stageed\\ this\\ battle\\ ast\\ hoguht\\ it\\ were\\ a\\ clash\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ geographical\\ clash\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\what\\ was\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ spectators\\ may\\ have\\ plaused\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ believable\\ pairing\\?\\?\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\agrippa\\ put\\ up\\ a\\ map\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ we\\ are\\ still\\ not\\ sure\\ if\\ the\\ avg\\ joe\\ would\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ geography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ what\\ extent\\ did\\ these\\ precise\\ reenactments\\ appeal\\ to\\ peoples\\&\\#39\\;\\ sense\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ geography\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-Sextus\\ Pompeius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\40\\ bce\\ \\(handout\\ 10\\,\\ \\#2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-Octavian\\ and\\ sectus\\ pompey\\ had\\ a\\ good\\ naval\\ backing\\ and\\ he\\ invaded\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ sicily\\ and\\ he\\ fought\\ several\\ battles\\ with\\ octavians\\ troups\\ off\\ sicily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;Salvidienus\\ Rufus\\&rdquo\\;\\ concluded\\ that\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ battle\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ build\\ boats\\ and\\ fight\\ them\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ do\\ it\\;\\ they\\ lost\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ afterwards\\ sectus\\ pompey\\ redid\\ the\\ battle\\ as\\ a\\ fun\\ thing\\ off\\ the\\ straights\\ in\\ full\\ view\\ of\\ everyone\\ on\\ the\\ sure\\,\\ to\\ mock\\ the\\ scheme\\,\\ he\\ put\\ the\\ opponents\\ into\\ lever\\ boats\\ and\\ the\\ victorious\\ side\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ craft\\,\\ dio\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ used\\ pows\\ in\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ sextus\\ pompeius\\ put\\ the\\ winning\\ pows\\ in\\ the\\ winning\\ roman\\ boat\\,\\ sextus\\ pompeius\\ restages\\ a\\ battle\\ he\\ has\\ just\\ won\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ humiliate\\ his\\ fellow\\ romans\\ who\\ lost\\ it\\,\\ however\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ instance\\ we\\ have\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ battle\\ represetns\\ recent\\ roman\\ history\\,\\ usually\\ themes\\ are\\ chosen\\ from\\ an\\ imaginary\\ past\\ or\\ form\\ the\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ bx\\ he\\ was\\ son\\ of\\ pompey\\ the\\ great\\?\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#3\\ Handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ tyber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;3000\\&rdquo\\;\\ marines\\ fought\\ in\\ the\\ engagements\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trastevera\\ \\(across\\)\\ the\\ tyber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ where\\ augustus\\ had\\ the\\ lake\\ dug\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\probably\\ eliptical\\ in\\ space\\ because\\ the\\ water\\ would\\ push\\ it\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tendency\\ for\\ something\\ with\\ squared\\ corners\\ to\\ cave\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Stagnum\\ Augusti\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lake\\ of\\ augustus\\,\\ size\\ of\\ a\\ city\\ block\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ endeavor\\,\\ lake\\ still\\ there\\ in\\ early\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ AD\\ in\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Dio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ seems\\ to\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ used\\ too\\ much\\ after\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Flavian\\ emperors\\ \\(titus\\ domitian\\ ephasian\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ lake\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ deployed\\,\\ and\\ also\\ what\\ the\\ engagement\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ represent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\augustus\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#3b\\ handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ovid\\,\\ Art\\ of\\ Love\\ \\&ldquo\\;ars\\ amatoria\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(2bce\\,\\ dedication\\ of\\ temple\\ of\\ mars\\ ultor\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\refers\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;persian\\ and\\ athenian\\&rdquo\\;\\ craft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;should\\ trigger\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;battle\\ of\\ salamis\\&rdquo\\;\\ 480\\ bce\\,\\ the\\ tiny\\ athenian\\ fleet\\ beat\\ the\\ persian\\ fleet\\,\\ great\\ victory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;what\\ about\\ the\\ recent\\ occasionw\\ hen\\ caesar\\ deploued\\ persian\\ and\\ ethenian\\ craft\\ in\\ enactment\\ of\\ a\\ naval\\ battle\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(he\\ refers\\ to\\ picking\\ up\\ girls\\,\\ but\\ we\\ wonder\\ whter\\ this\\ battle\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ staged\\ or\\ real\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\well\\,\\ according\\ to\\ dio\\,\\ the\\ history\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ does\\ he\\ mean\\ of\\ course\\ the\\ won\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ loaded\\ so\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ would\\ win\\,\\ or\\ does\\ he\\ mean\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ 50\\-50\\ chance\\ and\\ it\\ fell\\ out\\ the\\ way\\ history\\ had\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-not\\ a\\ trivial\\ matter\\ bc\\ IF\\ THERE\\ WERE\\ PPL\\ BETTING\\ ON\\ THE\\ OUTCOME\\,\\ THEN\\ THERE\\ WAS\\ A\\ LOT\\ AT\\ STAKE\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-they\\ did\\ bet\\ on\\ gladiatorial\\ engagements\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ betting\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ the\\ dedication\\ of\\ a\\ temple\\ that\\ augustus\\ had\\ built\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;MARS\\ ULTOR\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(MARS\\ THE\\ AVENGER\\)\\,\\ TO\\ COMMPEMORATE\\ his\\ own\\ record\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ his\\ father\\ before\\ him\\ had\\ been\\ vindicated\\ by\\ mars\\ who\\ had\\ avenged\\ the\\ opponents\\ of\\ caesar\\ and\\ augustus\\,\\ \\:\\:\\:\\ 2ce\\,\\ this\\ was\\ record\\ of\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ bce\\ battle\\ fought\\ btw\\ greeks\\ and\\ persians\\;\\ not\\ a\\ recent\\ battle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\question\\ is\\ whether\\ the\\ persians\\ represent\\ athenians\\ that\\ had\\ gone\\ east\\ like\\ marc\\ anthony\\,\\ or\\ did\\ the\\ greeks\\ represent\\ the\\ athenian\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ for\\ sure\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ sympathized\\ with\\ persians\\ whose\\ heirs\\ were\\ the\\ PARTHIANS\\ \\(WHO\\ WERE\\ SWORN\\ ENEMIES\\ OF\\ THE\\ ROMANS\\)\\ SO\\ THE\\ SYMPATHIES\\ engaged\\ by\\ reanacement\\ of\\ battle\\ of\\ salamis\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ firmly\\ to\\ the\\ greek\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#3d\\ handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-20bce\\,\\ the\\ Lollii\\ brothers\\ reenacted\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ actium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-word\\ for\\ servents\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ same\\ as\\ word\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;slaves\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-suggets\\ roman\\ aristocrats\\ had\\ fathers\\ who\\ played\\ naval\\ battles\\ on\\ the\\ lawn\\-\\ surprising\\ activity\\ for\\ the\\ elite\\ back\\ then\\,\\ case\\ in\\ point\\ with\\ the\\ Lollii\\ brothers\\;\\ gives\\ us\\ new\\ persepective\\ on\\ large\\ engagements\\,\\ may\\ seem\\ less\\ astonishing\\ when\\ ppl\\ did\\ this\\ thing\\ at\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#4\\ handout\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\look\\ at\\ tacitus\\ and\\ suetonius\\;\\ examine\\ the\\ place\\,\\ spectators\\,\\ participants\\,\\ astensible\\ theme\\,\\ the\\ theme\\ is\\ a\\ theme\\ that\\ was\\ never\\ actually\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ historical\\ record\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ claudisu\\ drained\\ lake\\ in\\ ctr\\ of\\ italy\\ to\\ promote\\ agriculture\\,\\ he\\ said\\ goodbye\\ to\\ it\\ with\\ naval\\ battle\\ replay\\ between\\ sicily\\ and\\ rhodes\\ \\(two\\ islands\\ in\\ the\\ med\\,\\ rhodes\\ was\\ a\\ much\\ smaller\\ island\\ in\\ the\\ eastern\\ med\\.\\,\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;p\\ 75\\ in\\ scarre\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;underneath\\ turkey\\;\\ ne\\ of\\ crete\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ rhodes\\&\\#39\\;\\ moment\\ of\\ glory\\ in\\ roman\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ protagonists\\ in\\ the\\ battle\\ staged\\ by\\ claudius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ other\\ staged\\ naval\\ battle\\ from\\ the\\ roman\\ world\\ that\\ occurred\\ on\\ a\\ natural\\ lake\\ \\(like\\ sexious\\ pompeous\\;\\ btw\\ the\\ drainage\\ system\\ of\\ claudius\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ work\\ and\\ it\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ actually\\ drained\\ until\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#5\\ handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nero\\ refers\\ to\\ theatres\\ \\(he\\ means\\ amphitheatres\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ filled\\ it\\ with\\ sea\\ water\\ and\\ staged\\ naval\\ battle\\ between\\ persians\\ and\\ athenians\\ \\(eg\\ salamis\\ battle\\)\\,\\ brought\\ in\\ infantry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\claudius\\ \\(we\\ will\\ see\\ in\\ section\\)\\ also\\ has\\ an\\ infintry\\ battle\\ replicated\\ by\\ his\\ teams\\ of\\ gladiators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ we\\ see\\ here\\ nero\\ combining\\ the\\ naval\\ battle\\ with\\ the\\ aquarium\\,\\ then\\ he\\ gets\\ rid\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ has\\ an\\ infintry\\ battle\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ claudius\\)\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ spot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ a\\ propoganda\\ method\\ of\\ nero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-tacitus\\ trounces\\ this\\ spectalces\\ of\\ nero\\ because\\ he\\ holds\\ better\\ celebration\\ at\\ coloseeum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#6\\ handout\\ 10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ a\\ pome\\ from\\ Martial\\,\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ naval\\ battle\\ staged\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ celebrations\\ staged\\ to\\ celebrate\\ the\\ opening\\ of\\ the\\ colosseum\\,\\ even\\ though\\ one\\ was\\ staged\\ on\\ augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ lake\\,\\ not\\ all\\ staged\\ in\\ coloseeum\\,\\ 80\\ CE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\touts\\ this\\ as\\ fantastic\\ naval\\ battle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dio\\:\\ Roman\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ engaged\\ in\\ nacal\\ battles\\.\\ Titus\\ had\\ staged\\ battle\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;corcyra\\ versus\\ Corinth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(war\\ in\\ 434\\ bce\\;\\ geek\\ history\\,\\ Corcyra\\ was\\ an\\ island\\ off\\ the\\ west\\ coast\\ of\\ greece\\,\\ and\\ corinth\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ isthmus\\ where\\ pelopanis\\ was\\ attached\\ to\\ mainland\\ greece\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\similar\\ display\\ outside\\ the\\ colosseum\\ at\\ Gaius\\ and\\ Lucius\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ third\\ day\\ of\\ spectacles\\ at\\ this\\ other\\ location\\ had\\ naval\\ battle\\ between\\ syracuse\\ and\\ athenians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\titus\\ combines\\ naval\\ and\\ infintry\\ battle\\ on\\ site\\ of\\ lake\\ augustus\\ had\\ built\\ across\\ the\\ tyber\\,\\ a\\ much\\ bigger\\ space\\ than\\ what\\ nero\\ did\\ earlier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ occasion\\ again\\ is\\ an\\ instance\\ from\\ pelopoanisian\\ war\\ in\\ 414\\ bce\\ when\\ the\\ athenians\\ sent\\ fleet\\ over\\ to\\ sicily\\ to\\ fight\\ inhabitants\\ of\\ syracuse\\,\\ and\\ the\\ athenians\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HOWEVER\\,\\ IN\\ THIS\\ NAVAL\\ BATTLE\\ ATHENS\\ CONQUERS\\ SYRACUSE\\ AND\\ ATHENIANS\\ LAND\\ ON\\ ISLAND\\ AND\\ CAPTURE\\ THE\\ WALL\\ OF\\ THE\\ SYRACYSE\\,\\ AS\\ THOUGH\\ THE\\ ROMANS\\ CAN\\ CONTROL\\ THE\\ PAST\\ AND\\ THEY\\ CAN\\ MANIPULATE\\ HISTORICAL\\ MEMORY\\,\\ THIS\\ MAY\\ HAVE\\ BEEN\\ A\\ RIGGED\\ BATTLE\\ SO\\ THAT\\ THIS\\ WOULD\\ HAPPEN\\,\\ perhaps\\ there\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ possibililty\\ for\\ the\\ syracuusians\\ to\\ win\\,\\ but\\ probably\\ not\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\super\\ exciting\\ to\\ see\\ athenians\\,\\ the\\ historical\\ underdog\\,\\ winning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ 400\\+\\ yrs\\ after\\ the\\ battle\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ happening\\ \\(the\\ one\\ btw\\ the\\ syracuse\\ and\\ athenians\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\much\\ of\\ romans\\&\\#39\\;\\ education\\ was\\ predicated\\ on\\ reversing\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\naval\\ battles\\ that\\ go\\ reverse\\ of\\ history\\ are\\ in\\ imaginatve\\ repotroir\\ of\\ romans\\ who\\ practice\\ imagining\\ history\\ other\\ than\\ it\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#7\\ handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\domitian\\ staged\\ naval\\ battle\\ in\\ colosseum\\ and\\ also\\ built\\ his\\ own\\ near\\ the\\ tyber\\,\\ used\\ to\\ watch\\ them\\ even\\ while\\ it\\ was\\ raining\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ fan\\ of\\ naval\\ battle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ everyone\\ else\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ watch\\ bc\\ the\\ emperor\\ was\\ watching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#9a\\ handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ have\\ a\\ remarkable\\ survival\\ from\\ antiquity\\:\\ about\\ 1000\\ fragments\\ of\\ a\\ map\\ of\\ rome\\ put\\ up\\ by\\ septimius\\ severus\\ btw\\ 203\\-212\\/211\\ ce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ put\\ up\\ a\\ map\\ of\\ rome\\ in\\ the\\ temple\\ of\\ peace\\ just\\ north\\ of\\ roman\\ forum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ 9a\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ fragments\\ of\\ map\\ that\\ were\\ survived\\ and\\ we\\ could\\ use\\ to\\ reconstruct\\ the\\ temple\\ of\\ peace\\,\\ the\\ plan\\ was\\ reconstructed\\ from\\ fragmetns\\ of\\ marple\\ plan\\ frolm\\ claridge\\,\\ it\\ was\\ etched\\ in\\ marble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#9b\\ handout\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\was\\ a\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ the\\ wall\\ at\\ the\\ temple\\ of\\ peace\\ built\\ by\\ hephasian\\?\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ was\\ a\\ collosal\\ endeavor\\!\\!\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.the\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ recorded\\!\\ The\\ blk\\ spots\\ are\\ surviving\\ bits\\ that\\ were\\ recovered\\,\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ was\\ displayed\\ at\\ the\\ temple\\,\\ north\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ bottme\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\10\\/27\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ Advertising\\,\\ Facilities\\,\\ and\\ Gifts\\ Distributed\\ by\\ Lottery\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ overall\\ feeling\\ and\\ atmosphere\\ at\\ the\\ Roman\\ Games\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#2\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\see\\ the\\ latin\\ on\\ the\\ sheet\\,\\ the\\ round\\ brackets\\ mean\\ a\\ supplement\\ to\\ the\\ conventional\\ abbreviation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ double\\ s\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ name\\,\\ so\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ curly\\ s\\ on\\ the\\ translation\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ letter\\ that\\ is\\ superflous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;lipinto\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\=painted\\ advertisement\\,\\ used\\ for\\ ephemeral\\ notices\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perfunctum\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\familia\\ gladitoria\\ means\\ gladiatorial\\ troupe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\venatio\\ and\\ awnings\\ \\(there\\ will\\ be\\)\\;\\ the\\ prime\\ attraction\\ was\\ gladiators\\,\\ but\\ there\\ were\\ two\\ optional\\ extras\\ that\\ were\\ provided\\:\\ a\\ beast\\ hunt\\ and\\ strung\\ awnings\\ for\\ audience\\ comfort\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ owns\\ his\\ own\\ gladiators\\;\\ probably\\ a\\ requirement\\ for\\ standing\\ for\\ that\\ office\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\name\\ of\\ sponsor\\,\\ date\\,\\ venue\\,\\ the\\ tid\\-bit\\ \\/extras\\ about\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\-\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ beasts\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;awning\\&rdquo\\;\\ comforts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ not\\ for\\ pompeii\\,\\ we\\ might\\ not\\ have\\ had\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ gladiatorial\\ advertisements\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ everything\\ in\\ pompeii\\ had\\ been\\ sealed\\,\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ read\\ the\\ advertisements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;Pompeii\\,\\ outside\\ Porta\\ Nuceria\\,\\ tomb\\ 14\\:\\ advertisement\\ \\(CIL\\ iv\\.\\ 9979\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\beast\\ hunt\\ with\\ 20\\ prs\\ of\\ gladiators\\,\\ were\\ it\\ will\\ be\\,\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ides\\ of\\ november\\&rdquo\\;\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ november\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ fixed\\ dates\\ of\\ the\\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wanted\\ to\\ adversite\\ things\\ where\\ ppl\\ would\\ see\\ them\\-\\ a\\ main\\ road\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\that\\ is\\ why\\ this\\ one\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ port\\ road\\ outside\\ porta\\ nuceria\\,\\ this\\ one\\ also\\ was\\ painted\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ a\\ tomb\\,\\ tombs\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ outsid\\ eo\\ fthe\\ city\\ boundary\\ so\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ pollution\\,\\ and\\ they\\ generally\\ lined\\ th\\ routes\\ of\\ a\\ main\\ road\\,\\ so\\ they\\ were\\ good\\ advertisement\\ space\\,\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ evidence\\ that\\ they\\ felt\\ ppl\\ were\\ defiling\\ the\\ dead\\ by\\ painting\\ an\\ advertisement\\ on\\ it\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Item\\ 1\\,\\ handout11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\few\\ tickets\\ for\\ amphitheater\\ displays\\ have\\ been\\ recovered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ the\\ first\\ one\\ here\\ does\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ for\\ an\\ amphitheater\\ gladiator\\ display\\,\\ but\\ most\\ are\\ for\\ theatrical\\ displays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;Tessera\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\=\\ token\\,\\ cube\\,\\ or\\ ticket\\ \\(found\\ in\\ amphitheater\\ in\\ modern\\ arles\\,\\ France\\=\\ scarre\\ 55\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cavea\\=\\=\\ \\(horizontal\\ band\\ of\\ seating\\)\\ \\#2\\,\\ cavea\\ is\\ advertised\\ on\\ the\\ ticket\\;\\ cunneus\\ \\(wedge\\ of\\ seating\\)\\,\\ gradus\\ \\(\\=\\ row\\)\\ 10\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ the\\ event\\ that\\ ppl\\ have\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ at\\:\\ gladiators\\ and\\ awnings\\-\\ it\\ seems\\ strange\\ that\\ the\\ seating\\ area\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ including\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\)\\ similar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ specifies\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ play\\ and\\ the\\ playwright\\ \\(\\*\\*\\ contrast\\ the\\ theatre\\ token\\ here\\ in\\ b\\ with\\ the\\ tessera\\ from\\ gladiatorial\\ show\\ in\\ a\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\odd\\ that\\ the\\ advertisement\\ in\\ a\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ indicate\\ the\\ date\\ or\\ the\\ name\\ or\\ familia\\ of\\ gladiators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ does\\,\\ hwoever\\,\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ indicaiton\\ of\\ a\\ ticket\\,\\ no\\ seating\\ numbers\\,\\ you\\ would\\ just\\ squish\\ into\\ the\\ seating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ town\\ councillors\\ had\\ spots\\ per\\ seat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#4\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\advertisement\\ would\\ be\\ put\\ up\\ by\\ editor\\,\\ perhaps\\ a\\ sponsor\\ or\\ held\\ by\\ the\\ duvoir\\ \\(2\\ mayers\\)\\,\\ gives\\ the\\ date\\,\\ says\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ venatio\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ beast\\ hunt\\,\\ perhaps\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ Maius\\ bc\\ of\\ his\\ status\\ and\\ censorial\\ powers\\,\\ it\\ was\\ put\\ up\\ by\\ paris\\ \\(who\\ was\\ the\\ painter\\)\\,\\ advertises\\ gladiatorial\\ fights\\ and\\ beast\\ hunts\\ that\\ will\\ last\\ 3\\ days\\,\\ 30\\ prs\\ of\\ gladiators\\ all\\ belong\\ to\\ Maius\\,\\ maybe\\ Maius\\ was\\ recently\\ elected\\,\\ perhaps\\ game\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ election\\;\\ perhaps\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ aedile\\=\\=\\=\\ must\\ put\\ on\\ games\\ for\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ office\\;\\ it\\ mentions\\ replacements\\ for\\ the\\ galdiators\\,\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ extra\\ detail\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ unusual\\ that\\ the\\ understudes\\ for\\ the\\ gladiators\\ are\\ also\\ being\\ advertised\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ attractions\\ of\\ the\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ excellent\\ way\\ to\\ start\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ say\\ advertisements\\-\\ painted\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\ as\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ from\\ the\\ signature\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\,\\ it\\ sepcifices\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ spectacle\\,\\ the\\ venue\\,\\ the\\ date\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ a\\ large\\ or\\ small\\ number\\?\\/acclamations\\ as\\ formal\\ shouts\\ from\\ the\\ crowd\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ in\\ the\\ advertisement\\,\\ there\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ extra\\ grafito\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ perhaps\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ aprobation\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ for\\ maius\\&rdquo\\;\\!\\!\\,\\ mimics\\ the\\ shouts\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ where\\ the\\ crowd\\ shouts\\ in\\ concert\\ and\\ delivers\\ a\\ msg\\ to\\ the\\ games\\ ppl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\must\\ see\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ the\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ signature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ it\\ is\\ appended\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 11\\,\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cil\\ iv\\ 10161\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tells\\ the\\ location\\,\\ nuceria\\,\\ the\\ date\\,\\ the\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ april\\,\\ open\\-air\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ munus\\ might\\ not\\ be\\ in\\ an\\ amphitheater\\;\\ IMPLIES\\ NO\\ AWNING\\;\\ says\\ that\\ habitus\\ from\\ Nuceria\\ will\\ be\\ there\\-\\ perhaps\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ gladiator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\,\\ if\\ there\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ game\\,\\ then\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ troupe\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;habitus\\&rdquo\\;\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ political\\ figure\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;NO\\ THREE\\ NAMES\\&rdquo\\;\\ OF\\ ROMAN\\ CITIZEN\\;\\ could\\ just\\ be\\ someone\\ who\\ added\\ \\&ldquo\\;i\\ will\\ be\\ there\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#5\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ advertisement\\ was\\ found\\ in\\ pompeii\\,\\ but\\ it\\ advertises\\ a\\ spectacle\\ in\\ another\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ records\\ the\\ achievements\\ of\\ a\\ gladiator\\ called\\ Floris\\,\\ who\\ won\\ at\\ a\\ few\\ other\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ someone\\ who\\ wrote\\ this\\ had\\ written\\ a\\ tally\\ of\\ victories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indicates\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ circuit\\ and\\ a\\ gladiator\\ would\\ move\\ around\\ from\\ one\\ community\\ to\\ the\\ next\\,\\ fighting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#6\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ occurred\\ in\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#7\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\all\\ of\\ the\\ spectators\\ sit\\ in\\ blocks\\,\\ so\\ the\\ equestrians\\ will\\ lose\\ seat\\ if\\ they\\ leave\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painting\\ from\\ pompeii\\ in\\ BC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Painting\\ preserved\\,\\ pompeii\\ and\\ nucerians\\ broke\\ out\\ in\\ fighting\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ riot\\ in\\ 59\\ AD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ is\\ that\\ ppl\\ normally\\ sat\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ section\\,\\ there\\ was\\ rivalry\\ btw\\ the\\ two\\ cities\\,\\ only\\ 6\\ arches\\ under\\ stairs\\ that\\ were\\ fancy\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ spectacular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ see\\ the\\ platform\\/\\ walkway\\ that\\ surrounds\\ amphitheater\\,\\ can\\ see\\ podium\\ wall\\,\\ arena\\,\\ seating\\,\\ can\\ see\\ awning\\,\\ the\\ ppl\\ in\\ the\\ ctr\\ are\\ gladiators\\,\\ outside\\ arena\\ there\\ are\\ ppl\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ maybe\\ dead\\,\\ kiosks\\ outside\\,\\ bldg\\ of\\ city\\ outside\\,\\ tacitus\\ wrote\\ about\\ this\\,\\ but\\ indicates\\ sense\\ of\\ community\\ in\\ amphitheater\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ painting\\ from\\ pompeii\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ is\\ pompeii\\ the\\ incident\\ in\\ 59\\ CE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ the\\ riot\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Nucerians\\ started\\ fighting\\ in\\ the\\ stands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ were\\ rival\\ spectators\\;\\ Tacitus\\ discussed\\ this\\ event\\ in\\ his\\ annals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ community\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nero\\ had\\ been\\ emperor\\,\\ he\\ said\\ he\\ would\\ close\\ the\\ shows\\ for\\ 10\\ years\\;\\ but\\ then\\ he\\ lifted\\ the\\ ban\\ anyways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#8\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\to\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ provides\\ game\\ and\\ meal\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#9\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\missilia\\=\\ things\\ distributed\\ to\\ spectators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\demonstrates\\ patronage\\ system\\,\\ let\\ ppl\\ take\\ something\\ away\\ from\\ games\\,\\ memory\\,\\ tangible\\ lasting\\ good\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#14\\ handout\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Martial\\ poem\\,\\ refers\\ to\\ individuals\\ giving\\ out\\ missilia\\ during\\ the\\ spectacles\\,\\ birds\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ commonly\\ distributed\\,\\ and\\ animals\\ in\\ carved\\ up\\ form\\ are\\ distributed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;museo\\ arheologico\\ nazionale\\,\\ naples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\taut\\ cables\\,\\ and\\ looped\\ cables\\ to\\ allow\\ items\\ and\\ pouch\\ to\\ be\\ inside\\ pouch\\,\\ pouch\\ would\\ bounce\\ like\\ pillow\\ case\\ and\\ then\\ stuff\\ would\\ be\\ distributed\\,\\ linea\\ davis\\ refers\\ to\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/2\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\beast\\ trade\\ is\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ todays\\ lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ element\\ in\\ institution\\ of\\ Roman\\ games\\;\\ tied\\ to\\ roman\\ economy\\;\\ many\\ must\\ have\\ died\\ in\\ transit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ were\\ imported\\,\\ 1\\/3\\ likely\\ died\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\complicated\\ trade\\ infrastructure\\ to\\ supply\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\possible\\ that\\ outlying\\ regions\\ restricted\\ animals\\ they\\ could\\ display\\ to\\ locally\\ available\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\ some\\ argue\\ that\\ some\\ rural\\ towns\\ must\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ supply\\ exotic\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\supplies\\ to\\ rome\\ were\\ likely\\ more\\ exotic\\;\\ same\\ problems\\ must\\ have\\ existed\\ in\\ supplying\\ animals\\ to\\ other\\ places\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\nero\\ built\\ arena\\ at\\ ostia\\ at\\ port\\ of\\ entry\\,\\ this\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ trading\\ town\\ connecting\\ africa\\ to\\ east\\ of\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ was\\ possible\\ to\\ make\\ crossing\\ from\\ alexandria\\ to\\ rome\\ in\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ 9\\ days\\;\\ in\\ many\\ cases\\ must\\ be\\ facing\\ the\\ importation\\ of\\ animals\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ cooped\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ ship\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 13\\ \\#1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\remark\\ by\\ pliny\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ books\\ about\\ art\\,\\ from\\ natural\\ history\\ series\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ is\\ describing\\ the\\ career\\ of\\ a\\ well\\ known\\ scalptor\\ Pasiteles\\;\\ we\\ hear\\ about\\ the\\ docking\\ of\\ the\\ animals\\ in\\ rome\\ after\\ being\\ shipped\\ up\\ the\\ tiber\\ by\\ barge\\ then\\ t\\ obe\\ unloaded\\ an\\ d\\ brought\\ to\\ holding\\ \\;pens\\ in\\ the\\ \\=\\=\\&ldquo\\;Porta\\ Praenestina\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ rome\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ gate\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ praeneste\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 13\\ \\#2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\)\\-2\\ letters\\ from\\ important\\ senator\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ almost\\ the\\ alter\\ author\\ we\\ will\\ deal\\ with\\ \\,\\ date\\ is\\ appx\\ 400ce\\,\\ his\\ career\\ spanned\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ games\\ giver\\,\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ prbs\\ of\\ holding\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ prbs\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ species\\,\\ how\\ to\\ acquire\\ them\\,\\ the\\ difficult\\ of\\ keeping\\ the\\ audience\\ happy\\ by\\ compensating\\ with\\ another\\ species\\ if\\ the\\ animal\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ arrive\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\)\\ letter\\ about\\ problem\\ with\\ crocodiles\\,\\ the\\ crocodiles\\ in\\ rough\\ shape\\!\\ They\\ refuse\\ to\\ eat\\,\\ vivid\\ insight\\ into\\ the\\ difficulties\\ of\\ importing\\ the\\ animals\\ and\\ then\\ keeping\\ them\\ in\\ reasonable\\ shape\\ when\\ they\\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ fine\\ line\\ btw\\ making\\ them\\ hungry\\ and\\ therefore\\ aggressive\\,\\ v\\.\\ so\\ hungry\\ that\\ they\\ become\\ lethargic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\romans\\ pay\\ great\\ att\\.\\ To\\ the\\ diet\\ of\\ the\\ beasts\\ and\\ do\\ whatever\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ keep\\ them\\ in\\ good\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ first\\ item\\ in\\ source\\ book\\ for\\ wed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Hunt\\ Mosaic\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Annaba\\ \\(bone\\ in\\ french\\,\\ also\\ the\\ ancient\\ name\\ of\\ this\\ place\\ in\\ Algeria\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mosaic\\ shows\\ us\\ how\\ animals\\ were\\ captured\\ for\\ the\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mosaic\\ important\\ piece\\ of\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ animals\\ were\\ captured\\;\\ evidently\\ captured\\ alive\\,\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ from\\ the\\ efforts\\ attempted\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ animals\\ for\\ transport\\,\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ animals\\ are\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ for\\ sport\\ because\\ thay\\ are\\ put\\ into\\ cages\\ mounted\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;cassey\\&rdquo\\;\\ they\\ would\\ trap\\ animals\\ inside\\ a\\ cage\\,\\ if\\ the\\ animals\\ were\\ hunted\\ and\\ killed\\ they\\ would\\ simply\\ have\\ a\\ cart\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ whell\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ with\\ a\\ cart\\,\\ has\\ cross\\ bars\\ of\\ metal\\,\\ the\\ door\\ has\\ been\\ lifted\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ handle\\,\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ cheta\\ or\\ leopard\\ will\\ bound\\ inside\\ cage\\ and\\ door\\ closed\\ ans\\ \\&ldquo\\;sachey\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ wheels\\ will\\ be\\ taken\\ away\\,\\ the\\ animal\\ brought\\ to\\ a\\ port\\ to\\ board\\ a\\ ship\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ over\\ seas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;image\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\&rdquo\\;\\ famous\\ mosaic\\,\\ known\\ for\\ years\\,\\ mounted\\ riders\\ on\\ hourses\\ at\\ bottem\\ of\\ screen\\,\\ they\\ are\\ galloping\\ towards\\ animals\\ that\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ inside\\ an\\ enclosure\\.\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\three\\ large\\ cats\\ that\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ have\\ spots\\ so\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ leopards\\ or\\ chetas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ other\\ large\\ cats\\ which\\ look\\ to\\ be\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ lioness\\ bc\\ one\\ has\\ mane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ the\\ leopards\\ looks\\ like\\ he\\ is\\ mauling\\ a\\ person\\ \\(we\\ can\\ tell\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ person\\ bc\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ sleeve\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ man\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ herding\\ the\\ animals\\ towards\\ a\\ cage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ enclosure\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ surrounded\\ by\\ non\\-predatory\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ sort\\ of\\ gazelles\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ top\\ right\\,\\ looks\\ like\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ ostriches\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ although\\ you\\ cannot\\ see\\ the\\ tops\\ of\\ their\\ heads\\,\\ there\\ is\\ another\\ mounted\\ man\\ on\\ horseback\\ in\\ the\\ top\\ left\\ aswell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\ what\\ about\\ non\\ animal\\ elements\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\maybe\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ shoulders\\ surrounding\\ animals\\ bc\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ semicircle\\ of\\ shields\\,\\ there\\ could\\ be\\ hands\\ or\\ spears\\ reaching\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\appears\\ to\\ be\\ net\\ or\\ fence\\ around\\ bushes\\,\\ appears\\ that\\ they\\ heard\\ animals\\ in\\ to\\ capture\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bushes\\ seem\\ to\\ hide\\ the\\ nets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\appears\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ bushes\\ behind\\ the\\ shields\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\maybe\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ nets\\ behind\\ the\\ soldiers\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ soldiers\\ surround\\ on\\ all\\ sides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ groups\\ of\\ domestic\\ animals\\ could\\ be\\ sheep\\ or\\ llama\\ to\\ lure\\ the\\ game\\ animals\\,\\ eg\\ bait\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SO\\:\\ row\\ of\\ hunters\\ hurd\\ animals\\ into\\ trap\\,\\ cage\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ wheel\\ sacey\\ with\\ door\\ open\\ to\\ receive\\ the\\ animal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\flares\\ used\\ to\\ frighten\\ animal\\,\\ flares\\ stop\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ cage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\flares\\ used\\ to\\ guide\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ bottem\\ right\\ there\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ cloth\\ over\\ sticks\\,\\ so\\ perhaps\\ a\\ tent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout13\\,\\ \\#6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ is\\ a\\ hunter\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;venatio\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ \\&ldquo\\;venator\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ one\\ who\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ hunter\\ belongs\\ to\\ a\\ company\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Telegenii\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ from\\ tunisia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 13\\ \\#8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\again\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ telegenii\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\its\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;sacred\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ shades\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\,\\ means\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ epitaph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\from\\ north\\ africa\\ we\\ have\\ epitaphs\\ and\\ enscriptions\\ that\\ mention\\ various\\ companies\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ telegenii\\,\\ they\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ symbol\\ attached\\ to\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ symbol\\ and\\ a\\ numeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\someone\\ realized\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ registration\\ system\\ for\\ companies\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ import\\ export\\ trade\\ \\(for\\ beasts\\ and\\ other\\ commodoties\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ have\\ evidence\\ of\\ items\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ traded\\,\\ some\\ \\&ldquo\\;amphri\\?\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ found\\ in\\ italy\\ that\\ were\\ also\\ stamped\\ with\\ thesymbol\\ and\\ numeral\\ of\\ their\\ import\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ one\\ commodity\\,\\ but\\ trade\\ in\\ \\ \\;mixed\\ commodities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 13\\,\\ \\#10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\table\\ that\\ correlates\\ evidence\\ of\\ numerals\\ and\\ symbols\\ representing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\=\\=SODALITAS\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ SODALITATES\\(plural\\)\\ \\(SMALL\\ BUSINESS\\)\\ THAT\\ SUPPLIED\\ BEASTS\\ FOR\\ THE\\ ARENA\\ IN\\ NORTH\\ AFRICA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Iv\\ versus\\ IIII\\ \\-romans\\ use\\ both\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\for\\ every\\ company\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ numeral\\ and\\ an\\ emblem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\s\\ emblem\\ correlates\\ with\\ sinematii\\ which\\ has\\ numeral\\ 3\\,\\ and\\ another\\ with\\ the\\ numeral\\ IIII\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ lost\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ that\\ group\\ so\\ ther\\ eis\\ an\\ x\\ in\\ the\\ chart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-this\\ indicates\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ centralized\\ system\\ of\\ registration\\,\\ otherwise\\ ppl\\ would\\ overlap\\ their\\ ids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bear\\ keeper\\ from\\ Xanten\\,\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;usarius\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;legion\\ on\\ the\\ rhine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 13\\,\\ \\#9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\refers\\ to\\ words\\ on\\ the\\ silence\\ of\\ the\\ bulls\\ mosaic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Silence\\ of\\ the\\ bulls\\ mosaic\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Thysdrus\\ \\(El\\ Djem\\)\\,\\ Tunisia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ two\\ people\\ an\\ urn\\,\\ smaller\\ jugs\\ on\\ a\\ table\\,\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ damade\\,\\ an\\ arch\\,\\ animals\\ underneath\\,\\ vestiges\\ of\\ writing\\,\\ most\\ likely\\ an\\ I\\ in\\ the\\ writing\\,\\ a\\ v\\-\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ word\\ silent\\ v\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;silentium\\=\\=\\ silence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ let\\ the\\ bulls\\ sleep\\,\\ one\\ is\\ fast\\ asleep\\,\\ one\\ looks\\ dead\\,\\ eye\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ open\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\above\\ central\\ inscription\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ curved\\ instalation\\,\\ behind\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ cup\\,\\ there\\ are\\ also\\ five\\ human\\ figures\\ with\\ one\\ arm\\ raised\\ in\\ the\\ three\\ instances\\,\\ above\\ their\\ heads\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ inscription\\ for\\ each\\ one\\,\\ they\\ all\\ hold\\ something\\,\\ one\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ holding\\ ivy\\ leaf\\,\\ millet\\ stalk\\,\\ the\\ structure\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ cup\\ on\\ it\\,\\ maybe\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ table\\,\\ they\\ are\\ sitting\\ around\\=\\=\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Stibadion\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\-\\ an\\ s\\ shaped\\ table\\,\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ dining\\ arrangement\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ three\\ couches\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ bent\\ curve\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ form\\ of\\ drinking\\ or\\ dining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inscriptions\\ say\\:\\ we\\ willtake\\ our\\ clothes\\ off\\;\\ we\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ drink\\;\\ now\\ we\\ are\\ talking\\ a\\ lot\\;\\ let\\&\\#39\\;s\\ amuse\\ ourselves\\;\\ we\\ three\\ stick\\ together\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ party\\ involving\\ nudity\\,\\ drinking\\,\\ conversation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symbols\\ in\\ right\\ hand\\ column\\ of\\ table\\ represent\\ an\\ ivy\\ shaped\\ leaf\\ on\\ large\\ stem\\,\\ next\\ person\\ wears\\ his\\ symbol\\-\\ 3\\ spiked\\ crown\\ with\\ cross\\ bar\\ and\\ s\\ symbol\\,\\ one\\ in\\ middle\\ also\\ wears\\ three\\ spike\\ crown\\ with\\ a\\ fish\\ on\\ it\\,\\ fourth\\ has\\ millet\\ stalk\\ type\\ of\\ grain\\,\\ and\\ fifth\\ has\\ shaft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ are\\ emblems\\ associated\\ with\\ companies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tellegenii\\ have\\ present\\ on\\ the\\ shaft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fish\\,\\ millet\\ stalk\\,\\ s\\ are\\ all\\ representative\\ of\\ different\\ companies\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ beast\\ trade\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\ are\\ they\\ having\\ a\\ drinking\\ party\\?\\?\\,\\ presumably\\ drink\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ urn\\,\\ will\\ refill\\ cups\\ from\\ jugs\\,\\ only\\ one\\ cup\\ visible\\ on\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ may\\ be\\ seeing\\ feast\\ the\\ night\\ before\\ the\\ display\\ when\\ bulls\\ have\\ their\\ rest\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ display\\ and\\ the\\ reps\\ of\\ the\\ ppl\\ who\\ imported\\ the\\ bulls\\ are\\ also\\ having\\ a\\ feast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shows\\ the\\ registrations\\ in\\ combination\\ with\\ the\\ animals\\ themselces\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ doubt\\ that\\ the\\ animals\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ companies\\ and\\ symbols\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\utside\\ view\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;El\\ Djem\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\amphitheatre\\ at\\ modern\\ \\&ldquo\\;El\\ Djem\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Tunisia\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ arabic\\ name\\,\\ comes\\ from\\ tunisia\\,\\ we\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ huge\\ amphitheater\\ and\\ the\\ surrounding\\ town\\,\\ much\\ much\\ larger\\ than\\ anything\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ built\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ town\\ of\\ El\\ Djem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\still\\ a\\ monnumental\\ structure\\ on\\ the\\ tunisian\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\built\\ in\\ the\\ 250s\\ ce\\ \\/ad\\,\\ it\\ is\\ modeled\\ in\\ the\\ colloseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ from\\ the\\ slide\\ that\\ the\\ actual\\ amphitheater\\ was\\ lower\\ than\\ the\\ modern\\ ground\\ level\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ upper\\ facade\\ but\\ the\\ bottem\\ is\\ corroding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ gun\\ poweder\\ depo\\ in\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ so\\ it\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ restored\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inside\\ view\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;El\\ Djem\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ restored\\ seating\\,\\ built\\ similarly\\ to\\ pompeii\\,\\ access\\ under\\ the\\ seating\\,\\ cavea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\restored\\ seating\\,\\ wesee\\ spots\\ where\\ people\\ could\\ pop\\ up\\ from\\ behind\\ and\\ enter\\ seating\\ through\\ this\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ slot\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ floor\\,\\ perhaps\\ goes\\ to\\ hypogeum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\significant\\ podium\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ few\\ fragments\\ of\\ facing\\ marble\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ covering\\ whole\\ wall\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trouble\\ with\\ ancient\\ buildings\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ structural\\ stage\\ bc\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ nice\\ parts\\ have\\ fallen\\ off\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ with\\ the\\ skeleton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\would\\ have\\ glistened\\ and\\ been\\ very\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\arena\\ view\\ down\\ long\\ axis\\ at\\ el\\ djem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hypogeum\\,\\ basement\\ of\\ amphitheater\\ \\,\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ covered\\ with\\ wooden\\ floor\\,\\ go\\ underneath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rooms\\ leading\\ off\\ the\\ central\\ corrider\\ downstairs\\,\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ used\\ for\\ corpses\\,\\ storage\\,\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\animals\\ would\\ have\\ come\\ into\\ arena\\ through\\ openings\\ in\\ arena\\ floor\\:\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ smelly\\,\\ hot\\ environment\\ for\\ animals\\ prior\\ to\\ their\\ appearance\\ in\\ the\\ show\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/5\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\handout\\ 13a\\ \\#9\\,\\ p\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;whether\\ animal\\ displays\\ represented\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\millet\\ stalks\\ form\\ border\\ of\\ mosaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ bulls\\ in\\ dormant\\ posture\\,\\ servants\\ wearing\\ tunics\\ with\\ large\\ jug\\ and\\ two\\ smalelr\\ serving\\ jugs\\ on\\ a\\ table\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ inscription\\ that\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;let\\ the\\ bulls\\ sleep\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ moon\\,\\ the\\ table\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ stibadion\\,\\ hemisphere\\ setup\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;5\\ ppl\\ at\\ the\\ table\\ wear\\ distinctive\\ motif\\,\\ above\\ heads\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ inscription\\,\\ from\\ left\\ they\\ say\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ will\\ take\\ our\\ clothes\\ off\\,\\ waves\\ an\\ ivy\\ leaf\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;three\\ spike\\ crown\\ topped\\ with\\ cross\\ bar\\ and\\ wavy\\ s\\,\\ says\\ we\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ drink\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;5\\ pointed\\ crown\\ with\\ fish\\ symbol\\,\\ says\\ now\\ you\\ are\\ talking\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ or\\ now\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ conversation\\ or\\ enough\\ said\\,\\ exortation\\ at\\ a\\ banquest\\ context\\,\\ fourth\\ holds\\ a\\ milet\\ stalk\\ and\\ says\\ lets\\ amuse\\ ourselves\\,\\ we\\ three\\ are\\ getting\\ along\\ fine\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fraternity\\ among\\ the\\ 3\\ characters\\,\\ etc\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ crest\\ represents\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ animal\\ hunters\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ the\\ numeral\\ also\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ both\\ number\\ and\\ symbol\\ tell\\ the\\ company\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ banquet\\ for\\ the\\ animal\\ hunters\\ while\\ the\\ animals\\ \\(bulls\\)\\ rest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 13\\ \\#\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dedication\\ to\\ sacred\\ shades\\,\\ says\\ his\\ age\\,\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ epitaph\\,\\ the\\ star\\ and\\ numeral\\ 5\\ suggest\\ that\\ there\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ company\\ that\\ had\\ that\\ combination\\ and\\ Eufrosi\\ \\(female\\)\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ involved\\ with\\ the\\ company\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ funearl\\ for\\ the\\ woman\\ has\\ been\\ paid\\ for\\ by\\ the\\ company\\ of\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ iike\\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\from\\ the\\ table\\ below\\ we\\ know\\ there\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ star\\ with\\ the\\ numeral\\ 5\\ \\(see\\ \\#10\\)\\,\\ but\\ the\\ identification\\ is\\ unknown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 13\\ \\#\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tellegenii\\ ensured\\ proper\\ burial\\ of\\ its\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 13\\ \\#8\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ woman\\ raises\\ the\\ monument\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ he\\ is\\ also\\ keeper\\ of\\ the\\ elephants\\ at\\ larintum\\;\\ which\\ means\\ here\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ an\\ imperial\\ heard\\ belonging\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\ bc\\ this\\ person\\ worked\\ for\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ so\\ the\\ hear\\ was\\ kept\\ at\\ larintum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 13\\,\\ \\#4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ handout\\ should\\ have\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ october\\ as\\ the\\ date\\,\\ not\\ the\\ 20th\\!\\!\\ \\(year\\ continues\\ through\\ the\\ christian\\ ear\\ to\\ be\\ calculated\\ as\\ \\(yr\\ of\\ the\\ consulship\\ of\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ \\)consulship\\ was\\ the\\ yr\\ 241\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kalends\\ are\\ always\\ on\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;nones\\&rdquo\\;\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(when\\ the\\ nones\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\,\\ the\\ ides\\ are\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ides\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(8\\ days\\ after\\ the\\ nones\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romans\\ used\\ inclusive\\ rittling\\,\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\-in\\ the\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\station\\,\\ curators\\ from\\ the\\ capital\\ line\\ museum\\,\\ the\\ curators\\ have\\ displaed\\ the\\ sculpture\\ around\\ the\\ amazing\\ machines\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;hunt\\ mosaic\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ near\\ the\\ church\\ of\\ santa\\ bibiana\\,\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ bear\\ on\\ the\\ bott\\.\\ Left\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ bear\\ faced\\ with\\ the\\ cage\\ anda\\ person\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ cage\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ luring\\ him\\ with\\ a\\ human\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;piazza\\ armerina\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Great\\ Hunt\\&rdquo\\;\\ Mosaic\\:\\ leopard\\ approaches\\ bait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ another\\ hund\\ with\\ a\\ row\\ of\\ shields\\ and\\ a\\ leopard\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ box\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ doorway\\ of\\ the\\ box\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ corpse\\ to\\ lure\\ the\\ leopard\\ to\\ the\\ box\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Piazza\\&rdquo\\;\\ armenia\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ h\\<\\/span\\>\\unt\\&rdquo\\;\\ mosaic\\&rdquo\\;\\ rhinoceros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-see\\ the\\ poem\\ by\\ martial\\ about\\ the\\ bull\\ and\\ the\\ rhino\\ fighting\\,\\ in\\ the\\ slide\\ we\\ see\\ rhino\\ in\\ the\\ marsh\\ bc\\ he\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\ his\\ skin\\ to\\ dry\\ out\\,\\ the\\ artist\\ shows\\ the\\ plants\\ in\\ the\\ water\\,\\ and\\ the\\ torso\\ and\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ rhino\\ above\\ the\\ water\\ and\\ the\\ legs\\ below\\,\\ this\\ image\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ sicily\\ and\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ great\\ hunt\\ mosaic\\.\\.\\.use\\ scarre\\ p\\ 23\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\other\\ rhinos\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ enter\\ erope\\ again\\ until\\ the\\ early\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\?\\?\\ \\(big\\ feat\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Piazza\\ Armenia\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ Hunt\\&rdquo\\;\\ Cage\\ in\\ tra\\<\\/span\\>\\nsit\\ \\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ oxen\\ carrying\\ the\\ cart\\ with\\ the\\ big\\ gae\\=me\\ in\\ it\\,\\ the\\ oxen\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ terrified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Piazza\\ Armerina\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ hunt\\&rdquo\\;\\ mosaic\\:\\ cargo\\ loaded\\ on\\ board\\,\\ we\\ see\\ servants\\ brining\\ ostriches\\ on\\ board\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\El\\ Djem\\,\\ mosaic\\:\\ logo\\ of\\ the\\ Pentasii\\ \\(fish\\ and\\ numeral\\ 5\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-el\\ djem\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ big\\ amphitheater\\ was\\ \\(that\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ on\\ monday\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-five\\ can\\ be\\ represented\\ by\\ 5\\ one\\ dashes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-the\\ mosaic\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ displayed\\ in\\ headquearters\\ of\\ pentasii\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cathage\\ Mosaic\\:\\ Better\\ than\\ the\\ quaestorship\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ IOW\\,\\ there\\ was\\ presumably\\ a\\ beast\\ display\\ in\\ north\\ africa\\ that\\ was\\ better\\ than\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\ of\\ queastars\\ in\\ north\\ rome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ \\&ldquo\\;n\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ animal\\ that\\ stans\\ for\\ number\\ and\\ then\\ 30xxx\\,\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ vi\\,\\ and\\ these\\ animals\\ have\\ obviously\\ been\\ conjectured\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ siginificances\\,\\ one\\ notion\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ number\\ represented\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ species\\ shown\\ at\\ a\\ certain\\ point\\ in\\ town\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\millet\\ stalk\\ is\\ important\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ symbol\\ of\\ at\\ least\\ 3\\ companies\\ involvedin\\ importing\\ animals\\,\\ repeated\\ often\\ in\\ media\\ of\\ this\\ type\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ Smirat\\,\\ Tunisia\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Magerius\\&rdquo\\;\\ mosaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\handout\\ 13\\,\\ 11b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ a\\ fascninating\\ artifact\\ bc\\ the\\ mosaic\\ is\\ almost\\ complete\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ a\\ modern\\ supplement\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ right\\ hand\\ corner\\ bc\\ it\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ little\\ broken\\,\\ from\\ smirat\\,\\ so\\ insignificant\\ that\\ we\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ even\\ know\\ its\\ latin\\ name\\ or\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ merely\\ a\\ single\\ country\\ villa\\ or\\ a\\ small\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mosaic\\ seems\\ to\\ celebrate\\ munificence\\ of\\ someone\\ called\\ magerius\\,\\ must\\ be\\ read\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ bc\\ stuff\\ on\\ the\\ top\\ is\\ upside\\ down\\.\\ This\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ floor\\ mosaic\\ so\\ we\\ msut\\ flip\\ it\\ over\\ in\\ our\\ heads\\ by\\ 90\\ degrees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ppl\\ seem\\ to\\ carry\\ money\\ bags\\ with\\ an\\ infinity\\ symbol\\,\\ which\\ stands\\ in\\ latin\\ for\\ 1000\\ \\(\\ money\\ to\\ buy\\ freedom\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\around\\ the\\ fire\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ long\\ inscription\\ \\,\\ the\\ inscription\\ does\\ not\\ go\\ behind\\ the\\ inscription\\ so\\ we\\ know\\ they\\ were\\ painted\\ at\\ different\\ times\\,\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ hunters\\ seem\\ to\\ engage\\ with\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;leopards\\ here\\ \\,\\ in\\ process\\ of\\ bleeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\huntesrs\\ named\\ and\\ leaopards\\ are\\ also\\ named\\;\\ named\\ using\\ curly\\ or\\ victor\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 13\\ \\#\\ 11b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\magerius\\ is\\ so\\ generous\\ that\\ he\\ doubles\\ the\\ prize\\,\\ inflationary\\ impulse\\ behind\\ eurgetism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ can\\ pay\\ more\\!\\!\\,\\ also\\ shows\\ dialogue\\ between\\ crown\\ and\\ herald\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/7\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\handout\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Roman\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(up\\ until\\ now\\ we\\ have\\ examined\\ animal\\ displays\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\;\\ we\\ look\\ again\\ at\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Silence\\ of\\ the\\ Bulls\\&rdquo\\;\\ mosaic\\;\\ importation\\ of\\ animals\\ for\\ the\\ events\\,\\ the\\ 5\\ traders\\ in\\ the\\ pitcure\\,\\ etc\\.\\ perhaps\\ \\(\\#3\\ is\\ the\\ emblem\\ for\\ the\\ telegenii\\=\\=perhaps\\ they\\ mean\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ holding\\ onto\\ 3\\;\\ item\\ 9\\-\\ does\\ it\\ match\\ these\\ acclamations\\ celebrating\\ the\\ banquet\\ style\\ encounter\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ mosaic\\ me\\ be\\ whether\\ the\\ 5\\ bulls\\ are\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ 5\\ companies\\ who\\ have\\ all\\ buried\\ their\\ competitive\\ instincts\\ to\\ be\\ convivial\\ at\\ a\\ banquet\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ this\\ represents\\ docile\\ collaboration\\ among\\ rivals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;silence\\,\\ let\\ the\\ bulls\\ sleep\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\shelby\\ brown\\ article\\:\\ death\\ and\\ representation\\ on\\ mosaics\\ and\\ media\\ involving\\ animal\\ suffering\\:\\ chief\\ theme\\ is\\ that\\ iit\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ romans\\ saw\\ the\\ images\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ see\\ them\\;\\ she\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ animals\\ are\\ displayed\\ in\\ the\\ images\\ as\\ icons\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ wealth\\ of\\ the\\ patrons\\ who\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ deploy\\ beasts\\ for\\ consumption\\;\\ effectively\\ a\\ portable\\ zoo\\,\\ interactive\\ zoo\\ where\\ animals\\ can\\ do\\ their\\ thing\\,\\ human\\ protagonists\\ hunt\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ space\\;admired\\ the\\ animals\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ the\\ romans\\ ever\\ feel\\ sorry\\ for\\ the\\ animals\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\martial\\ seems\\ to\\ show\\ some\\ sympathy\\ to\\ a\\ female\\ doe\\,\\ moving\\ instance\\ where\\ the\\ public\\ is\\ very\\ astonished\\ by\\ the\\ animals\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\todays\\ handout\\ shows\\ episode\\ in\\ \\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*55BCE\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\55bce\\ was\\ the\\ year\\ in\\ which\\ pompey\\ dedicated\\ his\\ theater\\ in\\ the\\ campus\\ marshes\\ in\\ rome\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ pomey\\&\\#39\\;s\\ theater\\;\\ had\\ been\\ no\\ theaters\\ before\\ this\\ \\(before\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\ or\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ bldgs\\ in\\ the\\ town\\)\\,\\ but\\ pompey\\ built\\ a\\ permanent\\ theater\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-hey\\ tricked\\ people\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ theater\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ temp\\;e\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;venus\\ victrix\\=\\=\\ venus\\ the\\ victor\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ not\\ as\\ morally\\ questionable\\ as\\ a\\ public\\ theatre\\;this\\ bldg\\ must\\ have\\ held\\ as\\ many\\ as\\ 20k\\ ppl\\,\\ possibly\\ more\\;\\ when\\ pompey\\ dedicated\\ th\\ theeater\\,\\ he\\ had\\ lavish\\ games\\,\\ the\\ games\\ ended\\ with\\ a\\ display\\ of\\ elephants\\,\\ we\\ have\\ cicero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ letter\\ about\\ he\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 15\\,\\ \\#1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ cicero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ description\\ \\(letter\\)\\ about\\ the\\ animals\\;\\ the\\ mob\\ had\\ compassion\\ for\\ the\\ elephants\\,\\ he\\ is\\ consoling\\ his\\ friend\\ marius\\ for\\ having\\ missed\\ the\\ games\\,\\ and\\ the\\ elite\\ view\\ seems\\ that\\ the\\ event\\ of\\ mau\\;ling\\ of\\ animals\\ and\\ animals\\ being\\ kiled\\ by\\ humans\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ impressive\\;\\ comment\\ about\\ elephant\\ sis\\ revealing\\ bc\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ recofding\\ the\\ reaction\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ population\\-\\ they\\ felt\\ astonishment\\ but\\ no\\ compassion\\,\\ that\\ the\\ monsters\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ felt\\ sorry\\ for\\.\\.\\.\\.basically\\ it\\ backfired\\ bc\\ the\\ people\\ did\\ not\\ like\\ how\\ the\\ elephants\\ were\\ being\\ treated\\ at\\ thegames\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 15\\,\\ 1b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pliny\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ history\\ \\(written\\ before\\ 79\\ bc\\ pliny\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ eruption\\ of\\ mt\\ vesuvius\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\book\\ 8\\ includes\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ elephants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pliny\\ says\\ that\\ pompeys\\ elephants\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ crow\\ for\\ sympathy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ cursed\\ pompey\\ for\\ having\\ elephants\\ in\\ the\\ ring\\ \\(he\\ then\\ looses\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pompey\\ has\\ the\\ eurgetism\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ viewed\\ as\\ generosity\\ but\\ ratehr\\ as\\ satisim\\,\\ the\\ elephants\\ appeal\\ to\\ the\\ ppl\\ for\\ their\\ sympathy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\iconic\\ animal\\ display\\ interestingly\\ alienates\\ the\\ sponsor\\,\\ the\\ animals\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ victims\\!\\!\\ not\\ as\\ commodity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 15\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dio\\ discusses\\ the\\ elephants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\strongly\\ \\&ldquo\\;anthropomorphic\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ human\\ behavior\\ of\\ elephants\\;\\ wounded\\ elephants\\ raised\\ their\\ trunks\\ and\\ trumpeted\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ interpreted\\ that\\ the\\ deployment\\ of\\ the\\ engagement\\ had\\ broken\\ a\\ sacred\\ oath\\ \\(bargained\\ with\\ their\\ handlers\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ come\\ to\\ any\\ harm\\,\\ so\\ sacred\\ trust\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\ had\\ been\\ violated\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ here\\ a\\ very\\ rare\\ instance\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\ is\\ seemed\\ to\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ a\\ pact\\ with\\ the\\ roman\\ gods\\;\\ no\\ concept\\ of\\ grace\\ in\\ pagan\\ roman\\ religion\\;\\ anthropomorphic\\ interpretation\\ of\\ opening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;d\\,e\\ also\\ discuss\\ the\\ elephants\\;\\ they\\ call\\ the\\ dead\\ inhuman\\ and\\ say\\ that\\ pompey\\ believed\\ he\\ was\\ above\\ the\\ natural\\ order\\ of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seneca\\ used\\ the\\ incident\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ excessive\\ cruelty\\ and\\ deployment\\ of\\ animal\\ and\\ human\\ life\\ for\\ senseless\\ destruction\\ was\\ a\\ paridime\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ wars\\;\\ many\\ ways\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ animals\\ were\\ also\\ given\\ names\\,\\ so\\ apparently\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ viewed\\ in\\ the\\ cages\\ before\\ the\\ event\\ and\\ perhaps\\ the\\ spectators\\ were\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ beasts\\ that\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ fight\\ that\\ day\\;\\ perhaps\\ they\\ could\\ also\\ bet\\ on\\ the\\ events\\ and\\ bet\\ on\\ the\\ animals\\ winning\\ or\\ not\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 15\\ 3\\ or\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\roman\\ record\\ has\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ sensitivity\\ to\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ poem\\ here\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ greek\\ anthology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\#3\\-\\ the\\;\\ augusutus\\ has\\ basically\\ cleared\\ north\\ africa\\ of\\ the\\ scourage\\ of\\ lions\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ farmers\\ can\\ tend\\ their\\ heards\\ in\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ having\\ no\\ lions\\,\\ basically\\ this\\ attests\\ to\\ the\\ beast\\ trade\\ clearing\\ away\\ the\\ lions\\ in\\ north\\ africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#4\\-\\ the\\ farmers\\ benefit\\ from\\ beasts\\ being\\ cleared\\ away\\;\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\,\\ no\\ longer\\ see\\ the\\ beasts\\ bc\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ has\\ absorbed\\ them\\ and\\ re\\-written\\ the\\ landscape\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\two\\ poetic\\ sources\\ for\\ the\\ additude\\ that\\ the\\ beast\\ trade\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ because\\ it\\ supplies\\ entertainment\\ for\\ the\\ urban\\ dwellers\\ and\\ leavees\\ the\\ countryside\\ safe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dog\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;pompeii\\ V\\.i\\.\\ 18\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;House\\ of\\ epigrams\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inscription\\ reads\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;called\\ together\\&rdquo\\;\\ I\\.e\\.\\ guest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ the\\ house\\ belong\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aulus\\ Syncletus\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ was\\ the\\ dog\\ known\\ of\\ Syncletus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\roman\\ habit\\ of\\ painting\\ interior\\ walls\\ with\\ lively\\ colorful\\ painting\\ into\\ dark\\ cramped\\ spaces\\ to\\ add\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\frequently\\ garden\\ scenes\\ painted\\ on\\ inerior\\ walls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ a\\ flower\\ and\\ an\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ a\\ large\\ heron\\ so\\ this\\ in\\ fact\\ a\\ graden\\ paintingw\\/\\ a\\ little\\ dog\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ assume\\ that\\ the\\ dog\\ was\\ likely\\ a\\ household\\ pet\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ Smirat\\ \\ \\;Tunisia\\ \\&ldquo\\;Magerius\\&rdquo\\;\\ mosaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\beasts\\ being\\ slaughtered\\ brutally\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ garden\\ paintings\\ showing\\ their\\ household\\ pets\\ and\\ naming\\ those\\ pets\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ can\\ the\\ romans\\ have\\ pets\\ yet\\ slaughter\\ beasts\\?\\ Which\\ animals\\ have\\ anthropomorphic\\ qualities\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 15\\,\\ 5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CIL\\ 659\\-\\ an\\ inscription\\ on\\ stone\\,\\ to\\ the\\ dog\\,\\ epitaph\\ for\\ the\\ dog\\;\\ how\\ does\\ this\\ work\\?\\ Haha\\,\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ household\\ dog\\,\\ a\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ tombe\\ for\\ the\\ family\\ pet\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 15\\,6\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ stone\\ another\\ inscription\\ about\\ the\\ dog\\ \\,\\ in\\ remembrance\\ to\\ the\\ dog\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;these\\ are\\ two\\ actual\\ inscribed\\ examples\\ of\\ actual\\ epitaphs\\ for\\ actual\\ ancient\\ animals\\-\\-\\-\\ very\\ very\\ expensive\\ to\\ have\\ things\\ inscribed\\ so\\ this\\ was\\ quite\\ astonishing\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ from\\ this\\ record\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ sentimental\\ attachment\\ to\\ animals\\ in\\ ancient\\ rome\\,\\ this\\ record\\ of\\ sentimental\\ genuine\\ attachment\\ to\\ other\\ species\\ much\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ romans\\ could\\ sit\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ and\\ watch\\ wild\\ beasts\\ be\\ injured\\ and\\ made\\ to\\ suffer\\;\\ stress\\ stracture\\ btw\\ these\\ two\\ attitudes\\ exemplified\\ in\\ cicero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ description\\ of\\ popmey\\&\\#39\\;s\\ display\\ of\\ elephants\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ people\\ felt\\ sorry\\ for\\ the\\ elephants\\ and\\ turned\\ against\\ pompey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/9\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ does\\ romanization\\ factor\\ into\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\question\\ of\\ idendity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ did\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ focus\\ this\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ must\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ reception\\ of\\ roman\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ the\\ receiving\\ culture\\ influence\\ the\\ way\\ roman\\ culture\\ was\\ shaped\\ in\\ the\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ seems\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ culture\\ would\\ go\\ both\\ ways\\,\\ provincials\\ must\\ have\\ also\\ influenced\\ the\\ romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ areas\\ by\\ turkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ MAP\\ of\\ northern\\ macedonia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ looking\\ inland\\ at\\ perge\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;Stobi\\&rdquo\\;\\ Macedonia\\,\\ adaptation\\ to\\ theatre\\,\\ see\\ slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\holdes\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ for\\ erecting\\ a\\ net\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ the\\ bracket\\ on\\ the\\ podium\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ realized\\ that\\ what\\ she\\ found\\ was\\ the\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ vertical\\ post\\ to\\ attach\\ a\\ protective\\ device\\ to\\ the\\ front\\ seats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dionysis\\ is\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ tremendous\\ creativity\\ and\\ uninhibited\\ display\\ and\\ theatrical\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ dio\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ even\\ gladiators\\ in\\ the\\ theatre\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ scandalous\\ that\\ the\\ gladiators\\ are\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ theater\\ of\\ dionysis\\ at\\ athens\\,\\ it\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ priests\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ highest\\ dignities\\ and\\ sit\\ at\\ the\\ front\\ are\\ at\\ mortal\\ risk\\ bc\\ of\\ the\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ was\\ strong\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ theatre\\ was\\ modified\\ so\\ that\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ security\\ for\\ the\\ spectators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Perge\\&rdquo\\;\\ Pamphylia\\ \\(s\\ turkey\\)\\ stadium\\ with\\ potholes\\;\\ this\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ net\\ and\\ lip\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ spectators\\ from\\ the\\ arena\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ the\\ posts\\ had\\ a\\ mast\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ rooted\\ intot\\ he\\ edge\\ of\\ the\\ performace\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\maybe\\ the\\ netting\\ was\\ looped\\ against\\ the\\ masks\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ animal\\ must\\ have\\ come\\ at\\ the\\ netting\\ from\\ an\\ angle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aphrodisias\\&rdquo\\;\\ caria\\ \\(s\\ turkey\\)\\;\\ amphitheater\\ built\\ into\\ curved\\ end\\ of\\ stadium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\has\\ a\\ curved\\ end\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sphendone\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ created\\ an\\ oval\\ space\\ like\\ an\\ amphitheater\\;\\ the\\ oval\\ stones\\ would\\ have\\ made\\ the\\ base\\ of\\ the\\ seaeting\\ area\\ nad\\ likely\\ wrekced\\ the\\ stadium\\ as\\ a\\ running\\ track\\;\\ clearly\\ they\\ had\\ given\\ up\\ on\\ running\\ and\\ athletics\\ and\\ had\\ given\\ up\\ these\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ spectacles\\ with\\ gladiators\\;\\ adaptations\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ greek\\ structures\\ for\\ the\\ accomodation\\ of\\ greek\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\.protective\\ devices\\ to\\ use\\ bldg\\ for\\ spectacles3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\adapt\\ bldg\\ to\\ hold\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\corinth\\ was\\ destroyed\\ in\\ 146\\ BCE\\,\\ julius\\ caesar\\ then\\ planted\\ a\\ veteran\\ colony\\ at\\ corinth\\ and\\ the\\ began\\ to\\ build\\ bldgs\\ there\\;\\ at\\ corinth\\ they\\ built\\ a\\ roman\\ style\\ theatre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roman\\ theatre\\ Corinth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\above\\-\\ first\\ phase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\below\\-\\ second\\ phase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;the\\ two\\ drawings\\ are\\ exactly\\ to\\ scale\\,\\ the\\ semi\\ circle\\ are\\ of\\ different\\ sizes\\,\\ the\\ front\\ rows\\ of\\ the\\ seats\\ get\\ removed\\ so\\ the\\ lowest\\ row\\ will\\ be\\ higher\\ up\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ originally\\ therefore\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ fewer\\ seats\\ so\\ then\\ they\\ stuck\\ more\\ seatnig\\ behind\\ the\\ original\\ set\\ of\\ seating\\,\\ so\\ they\\ have\\ taken\\ away\\ the\\ front\\ seats\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ lowest\\ row\\ would\\ be\\ elevated\\ off\\ the\\ performance\\ space\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ added\\ more\\ at\\ the\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ footings\\ for\\ the\\ screens\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ swiveled\\ and\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ beast\\ fighters\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ outwit\\ the\\ animal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ old\\ timers\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ scared\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\screen\\ swiveling\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ stark\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ old\\ plays\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\.but\\ it\\ must\\ mean\\ that\\ the\\ reception\\ of\\ roman\\ games\\ in\\ the\\ east\\ was\\ enthusiastic\\ because\\ the\\ locals\\ were\\ GREEKS\\ yet\\ the\\ GREEKS\\ MUST\\ HAVE\\ LIKED\\ THE\\ SHOW\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ original\\ was\\ in\\ greek\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Miletus\\,\\ Caria\\ \\(SE\\ Turkey\\)\\:\\ greek\\ theatre\\ adapted\\ for\\ roman\\ spectacles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-easy\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ addition\\ in\\ the\\ top\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ podium\\ wall\\,\\ there\\ are\\ niches\\ in\\ the\\ podium\\ wall\\,\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ perhaps\\ an\\ armed\\ bow\\ man\\ would\\ sit\\ there\\ as\\ a\\ preventative\\ means\\ to\\ kill\\ escaped\\ or\\ rowdy\\ animals\\,\\ the\\ whole\\ arena\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ ADAPTED\\ for\\ roman\\ spectacles\\=\\=\\ adaptation\\ of\\ staidum\\ or\\ theatres\\ for\\ romans\\ spectaclesl\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ decorations\\ are\\ ballistrades\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ look\\ pretyt\\,\\ to\\ demarcate\\ the\\ areas\\ with\\ the\\ corridor\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ a\\ boar\\,\\ in\\ one\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ chubby\\ eros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\miletus\\:\\ theatre\\,\\ balustrade\\ with\\ relief\\ scultpure\\ of\\ eros\\ \\(cupid\\)\\ as\\ venator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ used\\ in\\ greek\\ east\\ for\\ decoration\\,\\ the\\ taste\\ for\\ depicting\\ everyday\\ recognizeable\\ human\\ activities\\ being\\ performed\\ by\\ the\\ cupids\\ was\\ very\\ prominent\\ in\\ the\\ whimsical\\ tastes\\ of\\ the\\ greeks\\ and\\ romans\\;\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ outrageous\\ things\\ that\\ human\\ adults\\ do\\,\\ but\\ very\\ cute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dealing\\ with\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ propriety\\,\\ what\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ appropriate\\ to\\ have\\ had\\,\\ appropriate\\ to\\ a\\ bldg\\ with\\ vanatio\\ and\\ venatores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ bldgs\\ were\\ also\\ often\\ rendered\\ useless\\ for\\ their\\ original\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\latin\\ words\\ were\\ taken\\ over\\ by\\ greek\\ words\\,\\ murmillo\\ retiarius\\ etc\\-\\-\\-\\ written\\ in\\ greek\\ script\\,\\ but\\ not\\ greek\\!\\!\\ technical\\ vocabilary\\ of\\ the\\ arena\\ taken\\ over\\ into\\ greek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\unusual\\ bc\\ the\\ roman\\ systems\\ of\\ government\\ were\\ often\\ translated\\ \\(not\\ just\\ transliterated\\ into\\ greek\\)\\ into\\ greek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\augustus\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ cult\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;roma\\ et\\ augustus\\&rdquo\\;\\ made\\ it\\ ok\\ to\\ deify\\ an\\ emperor\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ worship\\ him\\,\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ starts\\ out\\ with\\ the\\ moderating\\ influence\\ of\\ being\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ rome\\;\\ in\\ the\\ east\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ became\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ the\\ high\\ priest\\ of\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\coins\\ designed\\ to\\ boast\\ about\\ how\\ rich\\ they\\ are\\,\\ also\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ grant\\ special\\ privileges\\ to\\ rulers\\ in\\ the\\ greek\\ east\\ to\\ put\\ spectacles\\ on\\,\\ became\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ channel\\ loyalty\\ of\\ greek\\ citiznes\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\ who\\ has\\ ALLOWED\\ those\\ sponsors\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ to\\ put\\ them\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(see\\ handout\\ 7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 9\\,\\ 11\\/12\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;criticism\\ of\\ the\\ favor\\ that\\ powerful\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ could\\ carry\\,\\ it\\ was\\ something\\ that\\ was\\ later\\ objected\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ bce\\,\\ plato\\ is\\ telling\\ us\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ appropriate\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ should\\ be\\ statesmen\\ to\\ pander\\ ot\\ popular\\ favor\\ and\\ gain\\ popularity\\ by\\ putting\\ on\\ shows\\,\\ where\\ we\\ see\\ criticism\\ of\\ greek\\ authors\\ of\\ roman\\ spectacles\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ criticism\\ of\\ spectacle\\ as\\ being\\ an\\ inappropriate\\ means\\ of\\ getting\\ a\\ following\\,\\ not\\ of\\ roman\\ spectalce\\ per\\ say\\!\\!\\!\\!\\.\\.\\.format\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ for\\ epitaphs\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ condencesd\\,\\ the\\ east\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ florid\\,\\ the\\ epitaphs\\ can\\ be\\ in\\ verse\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\.but\\ none\\ of\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ west\\!\\!\\ in\\ the\\ east\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ old\\ tradition\\ of\\ honoring\\ athletes\\ that\\ filters\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ gladitoars\\,\\ the\\ qualities\\ of\\ athlietes\\ given\\ to\\ gladiators\\,\\ more\\ glory\\ for\\ gladiators\\ in\\ the\\ east\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/12\\/08\\ \\(yay\\!\\!\\ It\\ is\\ my\\ birthday\\ today\\!\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ ideolody\\ of\\ punishment\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ read\\ coleman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ article\\ about\\ penal\\ theory\\ last\\ night\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\you\\ can\\ see\\ a\\ guy\\ swiveling\\ the\\ screeen\\/door\\ and\\ the\\ bear\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ bit\\ defeated\\ by\\ the\\ swiveling\\ object\\:\\ serdica\\ moesia\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ivory\\ diptych\\ to\\ celebrate\\ consulship\\ of\\ Anastasius\\ 517\\ CE\\ \\(reigned\\ 491\\-518\\ CE\\)\\ From\\ Soncstantinople\\ \\(Istanbul\\)\\ craze\\ for\\ giving\\ these\\ as\\ gifts\\ to\\ the\\ incoming\\ consul\\ in\\ the\\ later\\ empire\\,\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ given\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\ to\\ Anastasius\\,\\ \\(Istanbul\\)\\,\\ now\\ in\\ the\\ national\\ libarary\\ in\\ paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ bestiarii\\ maniuplating\\ screens\\ as\\ protection\\ against\\ lions\\ and\\ bears\\ \\,\\ it\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ confusing\\ for\\ the\\ animals\\,\\ the\\ lion\\ and\\ bear\\,\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ things\\ they\\ use\\ but\\ the\\ screens\\ are\\ important\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ period\\,\\ Ivory\\ diptych\\,\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ CE\\,\\ left\\ hand\\ leaf\\ elk\\ hunt\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ open\\ doorways\\ with\\ venatores\\ \\ \\;emerging\\ from\\ behind\\ the\\ cochleae\\ \\(the\\ screen\\ door\\-type\\ things\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-virtually\\ no\\ discussion\\ of\\ penal\\ aims\\ surviving\\ from\\ antiquity\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Digest\\&rdquo\\;\\ compiled\\ under\\ Justinian\\ was\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ opinions\\ of\\ 5\\ centuries\\ of\\ roman\\ jurors\\ in\\ matters\\ of\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ law\\ arranged\\ in\\ categories\\ to\\ form\\ judicial\\ voice\\,\\ book\\ 48\\ deals\\ with\\ penalty\\ and\\ penal\\ voice\\;\\ some\\ gneraly\\ trends\\ are\\ perceptible\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\treatment\\ under\\ the\\ law\\ depended\\ on\\ social\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;e\\.g\\ the\\ obvious\\ social\\ disctinction\\ between\\ slave\\ and\\ freeman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;slave\\ also\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ coerced\\ and\\ punished\\ differently\\ because\\ you\\ cannot\\ fine\\ a\\ slave\\ so\\ you\\ must\\ find\\ physical\\ means\\ of\\ punishing\\ the\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\penalty\\ would\\ include\\ inflicted\\ pain\\,\\ either\\ physical\\ or\\ psychological\\ pain\\:\\ fear\\ shame\\ and\\ humiliation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ penalty\\ must\\ be\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ crime\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;miscreant\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\=criminal\\,\\ punishment\\ tshould\\ fit\\ the\\ crime\\ but\\ should\\ not\\ exceed\\ the\\ crime\\;\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ has\\ committed\\ the\\ crim\\ should\\ pay\\ for\\ it\\ in\\ kind\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ guiding\\ principle\\ of\\ roman\\ thinking\\,\\ penal\\ aim\\ eye\\ for\\ eye\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\another\\ penalty\\ would\\ be\\ humliation\\ of\\ the\\ miscreant\\,\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ penal\\ system\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;there\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ aim\\ of\\ dterrence\\ to\\ get\\ people\\ NOT\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ sort\\ of\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;another\\ aim\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ reform\\ of\\ the\\ criminals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;we\\ shouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ discount\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ penal\\ aid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\retribution\\,\\ humliiation\\,\\ deterence\\,\\ prevention\\,\\ reform\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ ROMAN\\ CITIZEN\\ COULD\\ NOT\\ BE\\ CONDEMNED\\ TO\\ DEATH\\ WITHOUT\\ FIRST\\ SEEING\\ THE\\ PENAL\\ AUTHORITIES\\ IN\\ ROME\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\map\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ empire\\ at\\ its\\ fullest\\ extent\\ under\\ Trajan\\ \\(reigned\\ 98\\-117\\ CE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\after\\ the\\ universal\\ grant\\ of\\ citizinship\\ in\\ 212\\ CE\\ \\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ honestiores\\=\\=\\ more\\ honorable\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ honestiores\\ comprised\\ senators\\ equestrians\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;decurions\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\,\\ members\\ of\\ town\\ councils\\,\\ and\\ veterens\\ of\\ wars\\ \\=\\=\\=\\ the\\ upper\\ class\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ honorable\\;\\ the\\ humiliiores\\ are\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ riff\\ raff\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\ some\\ soldiers\\ had\\ privileges\\ that\\ raised\\ them\\ above\\ the\\ common\\ hord\\ of\\ the\\ humiliores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\ we\\ can\\ always\\ be\\ sure\\ that\\ slaves\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ bottem\\ of\\ every\\ pecking\\ order\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ system\\ infiltrates\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ mentality\\/\\ separateness\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ worth\\ of\\ free\\ citicens\\ although\\ nominally\\ they\\ would\\ all\\ have\\ roman\\ citizenship\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ treated\\ separately\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ citizens\\ could\\ not\\ normally\\ be\\ executed\\;\\ only\\ a\\ very\\ few\\ numbers\\ of\\ crimes\\ that\\ a\\ roman\\ citizen\\ could\\ be\\ tried\\ for\\ and\\ executed\\ for\\ \\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ them\\ was\\ parricide\\ or\\ treason\\ too\\ \\(\\ murdering\\ ones\\ father\\ or\\ relative\\ and\\ then\\ treason\\ against\\ gov\\&\\#39\\;t\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ romans\\ committed\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ wrongs\\,\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ tried\\ at\\ rome\\;\\ if\\ free\\ persons\\ different\\ than\\ slaves\\,\\ then\\ slaves\\ have\\ to\\ suffer\\ more\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ crime\\!\\!\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ romans\\ want\\ the\\ actually\\ penalty\\ to\\ hurt\\ \\,and\\ had\\ to\\ hurt\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ honestiores\\ with\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ their\\ penalty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ the\\ sanction\\ applied\\ to\\ someone\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ painful\\ but\\ more\\ painful\\ for\\ slaves\\ than\\ for\\ freepersons\\,\\ then\\ slaves\\ can\\ have\\ physically\\ painful\\ punishment\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ freeman\\ can\\ suffer\\ psychologically\\ through\\ a\\ fine\\ that\\ hurts\\ his\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ then\\ also\\ have\\ to\\ distinguish\\ between\\ the\\ genteel\\ and\\ the\\ citizen\\ and\\ non\\ citixen\\ then\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ even\\ more\\ painful\\ for\\ the\\ slave\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aggravated\\ death\\ penalty\\:\\ crucifixion\\,\\ burning\\,\\ damnatio\\ ad\\ bestias\\ \\=\\=\\=\\=\\ CONDEMNATION\\ TO\\ THE\\ BEASTS\\ THIS\\ IS\\ VERY\\ IMPOTANT\\ TO\\ KNOW\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-indirect\\ death\\ penalty\\-\\ useful\\ in\\ their\\ death\\;\\ condemnation\\ to\\ a\\ bakery\\ \\(because\\ of\\ pushing\\ the\\ treadmill\\ all\\ night\\ long\\)\\;\\ the\\ corn\\ is\\ breathed\\ in\\ and\\ it\\ kills\\ them\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\map\\ of\\ roman\\ empire\\ at\\ its\\ fullest\\ extent\\ under\\ trajan\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rome\\:\\ Column\\ of\\ Marcus\\ Aurelius\\ \\,\\ shows\\ us\\ dacian\\ prisoners\\ lined\\ up\\ to\\ be\\ beheaded\\ and\\ a\\ dacian\\ prisoner\\ is\\ the\\ agent\\ of\\ execution\\,\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ graphic\\ and\\ gruesome\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ one\\ who\\ has\\ had\\ his\\ head\\ severed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Miletus\\ and\\ smur\\?\\?\\ two\\ places\\ where\\ relief\\ sculptures\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\miletus\\ \\:\\ relief\\ of\\ damnati\\ being\\ led\\ off\\ to\\ punishment\\,\\ the\\ leading\\ prsioner\\ holds\\ a\\ placard\\,\\ they\\ wear\\ only\\ loin\\ cloths\\,\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ led\\ off\\ in\\ a\\ yolk\\ to\\ be\\ killed\\,\\ the\\ plack\\ likely\\ announced\\ who\\ they\\ were\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ had\\ done\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Smyrna\\,\\ Ionia\\ \\(\\=Ismir\\,\\ Turkey\\)\\ relief\\ panel\\ in\\ 3\\ registers\\,\\ upper\\ registers\\:\\ damnati\\,\\ lower\\ register\\:\\ beasts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ are\\ being\\ lead\\ away\\,\\ one\\ holds\\ a\\ yolk\\,\\ they\\ are\\ wearing\\ just\\ loin\\ cloths\\,\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ some\\ connection\\ between\\ these\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ beasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\map\\-\\ we\\ will\\ look\\ for\\ \\(Scarre\\ 105\\)\\ el\\ djem\\ is\\ inland\\ from\\ carthage\\,\\ in\\ n\\ africa\\,\\ this\\ is\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domus\\ Sollertiana\\ El\\ Djem\\ \\(Thysdrus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mosaic\\:\\ damnationes\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\;\\ we\\ must\\ assume\\ that\\ there\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ scene\\ like\\ this\\ in\\ all\\ four\\ corners\\ of\\ the\\ mosaic\\.\\ The\\ central\\ structure\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ trophies\\ on\\ the\\ 4\\ corners\\ but\\ these\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ properly\\ explained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domus\\ Sollertiana\\,\\ El\\ Djem\\,\\ mosaic\\,\\ detail\\ of\\ damnatio\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ tesserae\\ \\(pieces\\ of\\ glass\\ in\\ the\\ slide\\)\\,\\ the\\ man\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ has\\ had\\ his\\ tessarae\\ taken\\ away\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ still\\ see\\ the\\ outline\\.\\ He\\ wears\\ sandals\\ and\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ attendant\\ who\\ is\\ propelling\\ the\\ victim\\ toward\\ the\\ leopard\\,\\ the\\ victim\\ wears\\ only\\ the\\ loincloth\\,\\ he\\ is\\ barefooted\\ and\\ his\\ hands\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ behind\\ his\\ back\\,\\ the\\ hair\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ attendant\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ messier\\,\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ conclude\\ the\\ ethinicity\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ parties\\ involoved\\ because\\ the\\ tessarae\\ from\\ the\\ attendant\\ is\\ gone\\;\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ blood\\ that\\ seems\\ to\\ stream\\ between\\ the\\ tooth\\ and\\ claw\\ of\\ the\\ leopard\\ and\\ the\\ skin\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\,\\ there\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ graphic\\ bleeding\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ points\\ of\\ contact\\,\\ this\\ was\\ from\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ sollertias\\ in\\ el\\ djem\\ and\\ it\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ the\\ reception\\ room\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ think\\ was\\ a\\ private\\ residence\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\ what\\ then\\ does\\ this\\ demonstrate\\ about\\ the\\ tastes\\ and\\ outlook\\ of\\ the\\ inhabitants\\ of\\ the\\ residence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\restrained\\,\\ beared\\ victim\\ faces\\ a\\ lion\\,\\ the\\ damnatius\\ and\\ the\\ lion\\ \\,\\ dinner\\ plate\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Zliten\\,\\ Libya\\,\\ theere\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ inset\\ pieces\\ of\\ marble\\ in\\ the\\ ctr\\ that\\ alternate\\ in\\ squares\\ with\\ medallions\\ that\\ show\\ fish\\,\\ there\\ is\\ cutwork\\ and\\ mosaic\\,\\ the\\ cutwork\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ expensive\\,\\ center\\:\\ Opus\\ sectile\\ geometric\\ panels\\/\\ mosaic\\ medallions\\ with\\ fish\\ inner\\ border\\ \\:\\ mosaic\\ friexe\\ depicting\\ arena\\ spectacles\\;\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ deocrative\\ frieze\\ surrounding\\ the\\ decorative\\ panels\\ aon\\ the\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\zliten\\,\\ libya\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\amphitheater\\ frieze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\refereed\\ by\\ the\\ umpire\\,\\ pairs\\ of\\ gladiators\\ \\,musicians\\,\\ damnationes\\ \\(punhisments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\east\\ frieze\\ slide\\:\\ sliten\\ libya\\ \\,amphitheatre\\ mosaic\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slide\\ of\\ close\\ up\\ ofeast\\ slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slave\\ attendant\\ has\\ some\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ prisoner\\,\\ the\\ prisoner\\ is\\ attached\\ to\\ a\\ post\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ a\\ chariot\\ base\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ long\\ handle\\ like\\ a\\ wheel\\ barrow\\ to\\ wheel\\ the\\ prisoner\\ to\\ the\\ executioner\\,\\ we\\ can\\ just\\ see\\ another\\ prisoner\\ attached\\ to\\ another\\ chariod\\ base\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ his\\ leopard\\ has\\ already\\ made\\ contact\\!\\ Horrifying\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\zliten\\:\\ damnatus\\ exposed\\ to\\ lion\\ \\(amphitheater\\ mosaic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shows\\ us\\ the\\ emotions\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\,\\ this\\ is\\ unusual\\,w\\ e\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ attendant\\ has\\ the\\ victim\\ in\\ the\\ hair\\ and\\ whip\\ in\\ his\\ hand\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ color\\ of\\ flesh\\ btw\\ slave\\ attendant\\ and\\ victim\\ so\\ maybe\\ the\\ victim\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ ethnicity\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ victim\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ local\\ affrican\\ eye\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ wide\\ eye\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\ and\\ the\\ gesture\\ of\\ his\\ hands\\ are\\ both\\ scary\\!\\ We\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ lion\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ attacking\\ deliberately\\ registers\\ the\\ horror\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\ the\\ commmussoner\\ wanted\\ this\\ tension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/14\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\400\\,000\\=\\ money\\ for\\ the\\ equestrian\\ league\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1000000\\=\\ money\\ for\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aspects\\ of\\ eurgetism\\(meal\\,\\ banquet\\,\\ spectace\\,etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-200\\ ce\\,\\ Tertullian\\ lived\\ in\\ 200ce\\ and\\ wrote\\ about\\ amphitheater\\ displays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-\\&rdquo\\;The\\ Book\\ of\\ the\\ Spectacles\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ latin\\ poet\\,\\ Martial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-thus\\,\\ poetry\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ source\\ of\\ spectacle\\ from\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ spectacle\\,\\ somewhat\\ ironic\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Martial\\,\\ Liber\\;\\ spectaculorum\\ \\(epitaph\\-tomb\\ stone\\ quotation\\;\\ epigraph\\ starts\\ off\\ a\\ paper\\;\\ epigram\\ is\\ literally\\ written\\ on\\ something\\ else\\ latin\\ equivalent\\ is\\ ENSCRPITION\\=\\=VERSE\\ INSCRIPTION\\ ORIGINALLY\\ ON\\ STONE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\epigram\\ was\\ originally\\ a\\ funerary\\ verse\\ or\\ dedicatory\\ one\\;\\ in\\ our\\ modern\\ sense\\ EPIGRAM\\=\\ SHORT\\,\\ WITTY\\ VERSE\\/POEM\\,\\ CLEVER\\ RATHER\\ THAN\\ HUMOROUS\\;\\ EPIGRAM\\ A\\ WITTY\\ SOUL\\,\\ HOLE\\,\\ ETC\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 18\\#3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;EPIGRAM\\ SHORT\\ WITTY\\ POEM\\,\\ BOOK\\ OF\\ SPECTACLES\\=\\ BOOK\\ OF\\ EPIGRAMS\\,\\ SHORT\\,\\ WITTY\\ POEMS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ was\\ a\\ cultural\\ practice\\ that\\ people\\ who\\ wrote\\ poems\\ in\\ the\\ ancient\\ world\\ would\\ try\\ to\\ attach\\ themselves\\ to\\ a\\ powerful\\ individual\\ who\\ would\\ help\\ them\\ gain\\ fain\\ through\\ veres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ this\\ collection\\,\\ the\\ poems\\ are\\ all\\ designed\\ to\\ glorify\\ the\\ reputation\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\ \\(but\\ martial\\ only\\ refers\\ to\\ gaius\\ caesar\\,\\ which\\ unfortunately\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ honoriffic\\ titles\\ all\\ rulers\\ had\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ confusing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\martial\\ lived\\ about\\ 1900\\ years\\ ago\\;\\ originally\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ recorced\\ by\\ a\\ scribe\\,\\ and\\ hand\\ copied\\ for\\ reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\westminister\\ abby\\ is\\ home\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ manuscript\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\written\\ on\\ cow\\ leather\\,\\ illuminated\\ capitals\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ material\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ letter\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ scribe\\ thinks\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ epigram\\ is\\ highlighted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ manuscript\\,\\ fancy\\ capital\\ letter\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\puts\\ a\\ heading\\ in\\ the\\ margin\\ for\\ each\\ new\\ theme\\ or\\ sequence\\ of\\ the\\ poems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\disagree\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ poems\\,\\ sometimes\\ division\\ of\\ epigrams\\ is\\ different\\,\\ very\\ confusing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\martial\\&\\#39\\;s\\ text\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ miracle\\ of\\ transcription\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ ages\\ of\\ antiquity\\ literature\\,\\ this\\ would\\ have\\ occurred\\ in\\ monasteries\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FLORILEGIUM\\ \\(A\\-PL\\)\\ MEANS\\ \\&ldquo\\;ANTHOLOGY\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ poems\\ devoted\\ to\\ a\\ parade\\ of\\ informers\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ punishment\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ public\\,\\ would\\ be\\ inconveivable\\ to\\ put\\ people\\ to\\ death\\ out\\ of\\ sight\\,\\ had\\ to\\ have\\ witnesses\\ and\\ satisfy\\ themselves\\ that\\ justice\\ was\\ being\\ done\\ and\\ the\\ correct\\ sanctions\\ being\\ done\\ \\(also\\ why\\ people\\ were\\ crucified\\,\\ via\\ appia\\ and\\ sparticus\\ crucifixions\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\need\\ a\\ safe\\ venue\\ to\\ throw\\ ppl\\ to\\ beasts\\,\\ amphitheater\\ \\ \\;a\\ good\\ place\\ for\\ this\\,\\ all\\ eyes\\ trained\\ on\\ one\\ spot\\-\\ the\\ ct\\,\\ where\\ the\\ action\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parade\\ of\\ political\\ informers\\ paraded\\ at\\ beginning\\ of\\ sequence\\ of\\ spectacles\\,\\ way\\ for\\ emperor\\ to\\ demonstate\\ that\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ pernicious\\ informers\\ under\\ his\\ authority\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\series\\ of\\ spectacles\\ involving\\ women\\,\\ series\\ involving\\ animals\\ \\(animal\\ series\\ interupted\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ 3\\ refer\\ to\\ caesar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ amphitheater\\ \\;\\ eg\\ \\=COLOSSEUM\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\ compares\\ colosseum\\ w\\ 7\\ wonders\\ of\\ greek\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\very\\ roman\\ statement\\ of\\ roman\\ achievement\\ which\\ outdoes\\ the\\ achievements\\ of\\ the\\ greeks\\ in\\ the\\ 7\\ wonders\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poem\\ compares\\ the\\ colosseum\\ and\\ other\\ bldg\\ of\\ titus\\ w\\ those\\ that\\ were\\ there\\ under\\ nero\\,\\ shows\\ improvement\\ of\\ having\\ the\\ bldg\\ that\\ titus\\ has\\ put\\ up\\,\\ shows\\ titus\\ putting\\ up\\ for\\ the\\ public\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ epigram\\ discussing\\ the\\ cosmopolitan\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ spectators\\ that\\ will\\ come\\ to\\ watch\\ the\\ spectacles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\refers\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ ppl\\ who\\ will\\ come\\ watch\\,\\ british\\,\\ irish\\,\\ thracians\\,\\ arabs\\,\\ africans\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\saffron\\ would\\ keep\\ the\\ stench\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sigambri\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ \\-europe\\,\\ germanic\\ tribe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;PATER\\ PATRIAE\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ FATHER\\ OF\\ THE\\ FATHERED\\,\\ IT\\ IS\\ THE\\ ADHESIVE\\ OF\\ THE\\ EMPIRE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ poems\\ about\\ informants\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 18\\ \\#6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;poem\\ discusses\\ punishment\\,\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ performants\\ of\\ \\(pasiphiae\\ \\?\\?\\ and\\ the\\ bull\\;\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ king\\ minus\\ of\\ crete\\,\\ she\\ went\\ and\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ a\\ bull\\,\\ to\\ realize\\ her\\ attraction\\ to\\ the\\ animal\\ she\\ needed\\ the\\ palace\\ carpenter\\,\\ Daedalus\\,\\ who\\ suggested\\ that\\ he\\ make\\ a\\ wooden\\ heffer\\ with\\ a\\ door\\,\\ the\\ bull\\ would\\ be\\ attracted\\ and\\ charmed\\ by\\ the\\ wooden\\ heffer\\ and\\ love\\ her\\;\\ apparently\\ it\\ worked\\ and\\ the\\ offspring\\ of\\ the\\ union\\ was\\ the\\ minotaur\\=\\=\\ half\\ bull\\,\\ half\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\horrific\\ thing\\ about\\ poem\\,\\ if\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ really\\ true\\,\\ they\\ performed\\ the\\ mating\\ of\\ the\\ bull\\ and\\ pasiphae\\ using\\ a\\ real\\ bull\\ and\\ real\\ woman\\,\\ the\\ woman\\ would\\ have\\ died\\ from\\ this\\ \\(terrible\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ realization\\ of\\ myth\\ as\\ a\\ real\\ performance\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\,\\ replaying\\ history\\,\\ or\\ replaying\\ mythology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-flehmen\\ \\;\\ animals\\ with\\ hooves\\ are\\ attracted\\ to\\ the\\ urine\\ of\\ a\\ cow\\ in\\ season\\ then\\ the\\ cow\\ flares\\ its\\ lips\\ and\\ the\\ organ\\ gets\\ the\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ urine\\,\\ and\\ it\\ goes\\ to\\ mate\\ with\\ the\\ cow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bronze\\ quadrans\\ issued\\ by\\ the\\ Senate\\ 83\\-85\\ CE\\,\\ obvesrse\\ has\\ a\\ legend\\,\\ reverse\\ has\\ a\\ rhino\\,\\ the\\ rhino\\ has\\ two\\ horns\\,\\ one\\ big\\ one\\ at\\ the\\ front\\ and\\ a\\ little\\ one\\ behind\\,\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ tremendously\\ real\\ istic\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Domitian\\ Augustus\\ Germanicus\\,\\ Imperator\\,\\ \\(minted\\)\\ by\\ decree\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;legs\\ are\\ somewhat\\ unrealistic\\,\\ no\\ elbow\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ pillar\\ shaped\\,\\ legs\\ of\\ real\\ rhino\\ are\\ graviportal\\ \\(\\?\\ column\\ like\\ word\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.the\\ rhino\\ was\\ such\\ a\\ novelty\\ in\\ rome\\,\\ that\\ the\\ animal\\ was\\ advertised\\ on\\ the\\ coin\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;imperator\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ of\\ the\\ army\\,\\ the\\ colosseum\\ was\\ opened\\ in\\ 80ce\\,\\ so\\ this\\ coin\\ must\\ have\\ appeared\\ under\\ domitian\\ who\\ took\\ office\\ in\\ 81\\,\\ even\\ thogh\\ the\\ rhino\\ poems\\,\\ \\#11\\/26\\ of\\ marital\\ in\\ fact\\ reger\\ to\\ the\\ games\\ put\\ on\\ under\\ the\\ next\\ emperor\\ \\(domitian\\,\\ not\\ Titus\\?\\?\\)\\,\\ thus\\ maybe\\ there\\ were\\ cycles\\ of\\ poems\\ put\\ out\\ by\\ martial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Piazza\\ Armerina\\,\\ sicily\\ early\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ hunt\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ capture\\ of\\ rhinoceros\\,\\ caught\\ in\\ the\\ horn\\ to\\ bring\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Terracota\\ flask\\,\\ c\\ 400\\ CE\\ \\:\\ Romisch\\-Germanisches\\ Zentralmuseum\\,\\ Mainz\\ \\(typo\\ on\\ p\\ 4\\ \\,\\ should\\ say\\ to\\ bear\\,\\ not\\ bull\\)\\,\\ a\\ bear\\ is\\ being\\ used\\ to\\ maul\\ a\\ victim\\ who\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ proto\\-cross\\,\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ wine\\ glass\\ a\\ victim\\ attached\\ to\\ a\\ pole\\ being\\ mauled\\ by\\ a\\ bear\\,\\ and\\ a\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ poll\\ controlling\\ the\\ event\\;\\ this\\ is\\ all\\ similar\\ to\\ everyday\\ decoration\\ around\\ the\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ also\\ see\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ lariolus\\ the\\ robber\\ who\\ met\\ his\\ end\\ is\\ also\\ depicted\\,\\ a\\ person\\ attacked\\ by\\ a\\ beast\\,and\\ someone\\ on\\ a\\ cross\\ \\(\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ scrilege\\,\\ arson\\,\\ or\\ patricide\\=\\=\\ all\\ liable\\ for\\ a\\ slave\\ or\\ of\\ a\\ low\\ rank\\ or\\ anyone\\ to\\ a\\ death\\ penalty\\,\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ slave\\,\\ etc\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ an\\ aggravated\\ penalty\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ they\\ enacted\\ on\\ the\\ stage\\ became\\ real\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ with\\ real\\ bear\\,\\ real\\ cross\\,\\ real\\ victim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;small\\ hunt\\&rdquo\\;\\ mosaic\\,\\ from\\ Piazza\\ Armerina\\,\\ Sicily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rustic\\ scenes\\ with\\ people\\ having\\ a\\ picnic\\ under\\ an\\ awning\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ out\\ hunting\\ in\\ the\\ country\\;\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ them\\ chasing\\ buck\\ antelope\\ into\\ a\\ net\\,\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ them\\ standing\\ under\\ a\\ tree\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ full\\ of\\ birds\\ with\\ spotted\\ breasts\\.\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ ce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ hunters\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ lined\\ sticks\\ in\\ their\\ one\\ hands\\ with\\ holster\\ around\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hold\\ a\\ decoy\\ bird\\ that\\ will\\ terrify\\ the\\ birds\\,\\ so\\ you\\ poke\\ rods\\ into\\ the\\ tree\\ and\\ smeare\\ the\\ birds\\ with\\ bird\\ lyme\\ so\\ they\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ fly\\ away\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ could\\ catch\\ the\\ bird\\,\\ standard\\ technique\\ \\(see\\ martial\\ \\#13\\,\\ where\\ the\\ bird\\ lime\\ tangles\\ the\\ victim\\)\\;\\ basically\\ saying\\ that\\ a\\ bear\\ is\\ made\\ sticky\\ with\\ bird\\ lime\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ trap\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ that\\ way\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ trapping\\ birds\\ in\\ antiquity\\,\\ transgression\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ order\\ bc\\ should\\ be\\ hunting\\ birds\\ in\\ the\\ air\\,\\ not\\ animals\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ with\\ this\\ method\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/17\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ romans\\ deal\\ with\\ christian\\ religious\\ sect\\ that\\ actively\\ promoted\\ martyrism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liber\\ spectaculorum\\,\\ Poem\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Damnatio\\ Ad\\ Bestias\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ prisoner\\ wouldh\\ ave\\ been\\ dressed\\ up\\ and\\ then\\ been\\ exposed\\ and\\ killed\\ by\\ a\\ bear\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ Mainz\\ flask\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ person\\ attacked\\ on\\ a\\ pole\\,\\ person\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ damnatio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\martial\\ describes\\ the\\ orpheus\\ myth\\,\\ nature\\ bends\\ over\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ orpheus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\but\\,\\ when\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\,\\ the\\ scene\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ bear\\ attack\\ and\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\then\\ one\\ bear\\ attacks\\ orpheus\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\,\\ the\\ person\\ playing\\ orpheus\\ was\\ a\\ prisoner\\ with\\ a\\ cap\\ and\\ holding\\ a\\ lyre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\he\\ was\\ destined\\ not\\ to\\ survive\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ emperor\\ reenacts\\ myth\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ except\\ that\\ the\\ illusion\\ is\\ broken\\ when\\ the\\ animal\\ acts\\ as\\ a\\ bear\\,\\ not\\ as\\ one\\ enraptured\\ by\\ orpheus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ should\\ examine\\ the\\ intense\\ punishment\\ of\\ christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ also\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;HIPPO\\ REGIUS\\&rdquo\\;mosaic\\ of\\ bone\\ in\\ Algeria\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poem\\ 22\\-\\ bull\\ goaded\\ by\\ flame\\ at\\ the\\ beasts\\ and\\ by\\ goading\\ the\\ animal\\ with\\ flares\\ they\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ to\\ perform\\ against\\ the\\ straw\\ dummies\\ who\\ are\\ thrown\\ at\\ it\\,\\ but\\ ultimately\\ it\\ encounters\\ the\\ elephant\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\,\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ flame\\ to\\ goad\\ animals\\ and\\ direct\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ direction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Magerius\\&rdquo\\;\\ mosaic\\;\\ Smirat\\,\\ tunisa\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poem\\ 31\\,\\ about\\ two\\ gladiators\\ who\\ fight\\ to\\ a\\ draw\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ both\\ given\\ a\\ reprieve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\often\\ gave\\ dishes\\ and\\ presents\\ they\\ are\\ presenting\\ the\\ money\\ on\\ plates\\ to\\ the\\ victor\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ leave\\ Marshall\\ because\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ find\\ evidence\\ for\\ punishment\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\;\\ we\\ turn\\ to\\ the\\ handout\\ called\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;punishment\\ of\\ christians\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ \\#19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\ were\\ the\\ christians\\ punished\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ was\\ wrong\\ with\\ what\\ they\\ had\\ done\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ wed\\,\\ we\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ martyrdom\\ Perpetua\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ persons\\ \\ \\;of\\ certain\\ status\\ subject\\ to\\ extreme\\ penalties\\,\\ like\\ crucifixion\\ or\\ beasts\\;\\ so\\ what\\ had\\ the\\ christians\\ done\\ to\\ qualify\\ them\\ for\\ this\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pliny\\,\\ book\\ 10\\ of\\ the\\ letters\\;\\ which\\ the\\ correspondence\\ that\\ he\\ exchanged\\ with\\ the\\ emperor\\ trajan\\ in\\ 110\\ CE\\,\\ he\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ northern\\ coastline\\ in\\ turkey\\ \\(eg\\ Bithynia\\-pontus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pliny\\ said\\ he\\ should\\ stay\\ home\\,\\ and\\ so\\ he\\ survived\\ while\\ his\\ uncle\\ died\\ while\\ trying\\ to\\ rescue\\ people\\ form\\ the\\ volcano\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ younger\\ pliny\\ governed\\ turkey\\,\\ appt\\ by\\ trajan\\,\\ pliny\\ had\\ experience\\ and\\ pliny\\ was\\ a\\ financial\\ wiz\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ in\\ turkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interesting\\ exchanges\\ in\\ letters\\ 96\\ ad\\ 97\\ where\\ pliny\\ asks\\ what\\ he\\ should\\ do\\ about\\ the\\ christians\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pliny\\ was\\ appt\\ by\\ trajan\\ and\\ answerable\\ to\\ trajan\\,\\ so\\ pliny\\ had\\ to\\ write\\ back\\ to\\ trajan\\ when\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ record\\ in\\ the\\ archive\\ of\\ precedent\\ for\\ what\\ he\\ should\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 19\\ \\#1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ letter\\ from\\ pliny\\ to\\ trajan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ whether\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ christian\\ is\\ punishable\\ or\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ christians\\ that\\ is\\ punishable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pliny\\ gives\\ the\\ christians\\ 3\\ chances\\ to\\ recant\\ their\\ faith\\,\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ renounce\\,\\ he\\ has\\ them\\ executed\\;\\ but\\ \\ \\;he\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ why\\ he\\ is\\ punishing\\ them\\;\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ roman\\ citizens\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ appeal\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ rome\\ itself\\ for\\ trial\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pliny\\ tries\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ Judicial\\ Procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\problem\\ is\\ growing\\,\\ has\\ annonymos\\ pamphlet\\ with\\ accused\\ persons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\romans\\ are\\ Polytheistic\\,\\ versus\\ Christians\\ who\\ are\\ Monotheistic\\;\\ it\\ is\\ interesting\\ that\\ pliny\\ does\\ not\\ link\\ christians\\ to\\ jews\\ at\\ all\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ a\\ distinct\\ category\\ of\\ believer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ accused\\ must\\ repeat\\ after\\ him\\ \\,\\ sacrifice\\ wine\\ and\\ insense\\ to\\ the\\ living\\ emperor\\,\\ Trajan\\,\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ that\\ then\\ they\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ be\\ Christian\\ because\\ this\\ practice\\ would\\ make\\ them\\ polytheistic\\,\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ the\\ Christians\\ not\\ acknowledging\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ so\\ perhaps\\ Christian\\ refusal\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ supremacy\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ emperor\\ was\\ tantamount\\ to\\ treason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Romans\\ also\\ had\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ the\\ Collegia\\,\\ or\\ clubs\\ of\\ guild\\-like\\ nature\\ with\\ gladiators\\,\\ bakers\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ authorities\\ antsy\\ about\\ these\\ clubs\\ because\\ they\\ could\\ become\\ political\\ focal\\ points\\,\\ and\\ points\\ of\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ Roman\\ law\\;\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ potential\\ problem\\ for\\ the\\ christians\\,\\ who\\ meet\\ together\\ to\\ practice\\ different\\ rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ informers\\ to\\ tell\\ Pliny\\ that\\ the\\ Christians\\ were\\ around\\;\\ the\\ charges\\ laid\\ by\\ an\\ individual\\ bc\\ no\\ public\\ prosecutor\\ working\\ for\\ the\\ state\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ was\\ around\\ to\\ accuse\\ the\\ Christians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christians\\ admitted\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ guilty\\ of\\ singing\\ psalms\\ before\\ dawn\\ on\\ a\\ regular\\ day\\ and\\ taking\\ food\\ later\\ that\\ day\\ of\\ an\\ ordinary\\ kind\\ \\(EUCHARIST\\=\\ BODY\\ OF\\ CHRIST\\ IS\\ BREAD\\,\\ WINE\\ IS\\ CHRIST\\&\\#39\\;S\\ BLOOD\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pliny\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ Christians\\ were\\ NOT\\ cannibals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pliny\\ mentions\\ that\\ after\\ Trajans\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ edict\\ banned\\ all\\ political\\ societies\\ \\(THE\\ GREEK\\ WORD\\ FOR\\ COLLEGIA\\)\\,\\ the\\ christians\\ said\\ they\\ had\\ stopped\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ ancient\\ penal\\ theory\\ you\\ could\\ not\\ get\\ the\\ truth\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ without\\ employing\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ torture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pliny\\ had\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ anxiety\\ about\\ the\\ \\#\\ of\\ ppl\\ at\\ risk\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ expressed\\ belief\\,\\ so\\ he\\ wrote\\ to\\ Trajan\\ about\\ his\\ concern\\ and\\ Trajan\\ wrote\\ back\\ to\\ Pliny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 19\\,\\ \\#2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\98CE\\-117Ce\\,\\ Trajan\\ Reigns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ had\\ a\\ big\\ propaganda\\ campaign\\ about\\ the\\ New\\ Age\\,\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ conduct\\ that\\ smacked\\ of\\ severe\\ oppression\\ to\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ his\\ reign\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 19\\,\\ \\#3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ a\\ letter\\ from\\ Tertullian\\,\\ and\\ Apology\\,\\ a\\ self\\-defense\\,\\ of\\ what\\ christianity\\ is\\ against\\ the\\ pagan\\ charges\\ of\\ atheism\\ and\\ sedition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tertullian\\ quotes\\ the\\ letter\\ of\\ trajan\\ in\\ his\\ apology\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ pagan\\ muddled\\ thinking\\;\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ trajan\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ even\\ think\\ too\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ issue\\,\\ he\\ implied\\ that\\ christians\\ were\\ innocent\\ and\\ yet\\ still\\ ordered\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\,\\ implying\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ guilty\\,\\ thus\\ contradicting\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baffled\\ by\\ the\\ idiocy\\ and\\ inconsistency\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roman\\ authorities\\ trying\\ not\\ to\\ get\\ bogged\\ down\\ in\\ mass\\ executions\\ of\\ christians\\ so\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ give\\ as\\ many\\ outs\\ for\\ christians\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ romans\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ get\\ there\\ heads\\ around\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ christians\\ wanted\\ to\\ die\\ to\\ see\\ christ\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ conundrum\\ and\\ it\\ cause\\ the\\ roman\\ authorities\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ problems\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 19\\,\\ \\#4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tacitus\\ letters\\ \\(64\\ Ce\\-\\ year\\ in\\ which\\ great\\ fire\\ raged\\,\\ Nero\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ have\\ fiddled\\ while\\ rome\\ burned\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Tacitus\\,\\ Nero\\ blamed\\ the\\ christians\\ for\\ the\\ fire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ch\\ 44\\,\\ nero\\ tried\\ to\\ burn\\ christians\\,\\ he\\ seized\\ those\\ who\\ confessed\\ and\\ then\\ convicted\\ many\\ for\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;hatred\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ race\\&rdquo\\;\\ bc\\ christians\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ ppl\\ who\\ turned\\ inwards\\ away\\ from\\ human\\ society\\;\\ beasts\\,\\ burning\\,\\ and\\ crucifixion\\ while\\ Nero\\ watched\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/21\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Handout\\ 21\\:\\ Magic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\terminology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\obverse\\:\\ front\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reverse\\:\\ back\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\deficio\\:\\ curse\\,\\ tablet\\,\\ \\,\\ hence\\ bewitch\\,\\ cures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relics\\ from\\ Antioch\\:\\ we\\ have\\ some\\ interesting\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ fog\\ bldg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Map\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\Antioch\\:\\ area\\ located\\ on\\ the\\ med\\,\\ close\\ to\\ syria\\,\\ now\\ this\\ is\\ turkey\\,\\ modern\\ antiochia\\ is\\ in\\ turkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ distinguish\\ btw\\ religion\\ and\\ superstition\\ and\\ religion\\ and\\ magic\\;\\ some\\ practice\\ contain\\ what\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ as\\ religious\\ elements\\,\\ both\\ claim\\ to\\ harness\\ supernatural\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;magi\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ the\\ term\\ has\\ associations\\ with\\ authority\\ and\\ power\\,\\ but\\ these\\ associations\\ are\\ not\\ negative\\ in\\ root\\,\\ the\\ negative\\ associations\\ developed\\ whereby\\ magic\\ became\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ interfere\\ with\\ nature\\ by\\ supernatural\\ means\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\magic\\ is\\ a\\ manipulative\\ strategy\\ to\\ influence\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ nature\\ by\\ supernatural\\ means\\;\\ involves\\ secret\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ sources\\ of\\ power\\,\\ magical\\ formula\\ that\\ when\\ repeated\\ will\\ get\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ supernatural\\ powers\\,\\ involves\\ performance\\ and\\ the\\ burial\\ of\\ objects\\,utterances\\,\\ and\\ performances\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Curse\\ tablets\\;\\ employs\\ words\\ words\\ against\\ living\\ animate\\ beings\\;\\ the\\ curse\\ tablets\\ supposedly\\ employ\\ chthonic\\ powers\\=\\ powers\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ than\\ 1500\\ curse\\ tablets\\ have\\ been\\ recovered\\ including\\ a\\ important\\ collection\\ from\\ Antioch\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ powers\\ get\\ attention\\ and\\ get\\ them\\ to\\ work\\,\\ the\\ people\\ use\\ ritual\\ utterances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Magic\\ must\\ have\\ no\\ ambiguity\\ involved\\,\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ repetitive\\ and\\ absolutely\\ exclusive\\ of\\ any\\ possible\\ misinterpretation\\;\\ they\\ specify\\ every\\ conceivable\\ alternative\\ necessary\\ to\\ perform\\ specific\\ procedure\\ implied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lead\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ spell\\ out\\ curses\\;\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ durable\\ medium\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ cold\\ and\\ therefore\\ negative\\ in\\ influence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Curses\\ written\\ on\\ cold\\ material\\ are\\ so\\ cold\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ frieze\\ the\\ goal\\ and\\ make\\ the\\ goal\\ unable\\ to\\ act\\,\\ the\\ magic\\ has\\ a\\ negative\\ effect\\ and\\ it\\ inhibits\\ the\\ object\\ the\\ aim\\ from\\ action\\;\\ the\\ lead\\ is\\ cold\\,\\ it\\ will\\ friezes\\ the\\ victim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ tablets\\ are\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Defixiones\\:\\ bc\\ the\\ latin\\ is\\ to\\ fix\\ or\\ to\\ fasten\\ \\;\\ defixio\\,\\ curse\\ tablet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Purpose\\ was\\ to\\ bind\\ victim\\ with\\ demonic\\ powers\\ and\\ hinder\\ their\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obligare\\+\\ to\\ bind\\,\\ bind\\ the\\ victim\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ victim\\ is\\ hindered\\ from\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Appropriate\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ rivalry\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ love\\ affairs\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheatre\\,\\ ask\\ the\\ chthonic\\ powers\\ to\\ bind\\ your\\ rival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Libanius\\ was\\ an\\ individual\\ who\\ left\\ us\\ lots\\ of\\ writing\\;\\ he\\ was\\ lecturing\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ call\\ and\\ then\\ someone\\ found\\ a\\ Chameleon\\ and\\ its\\ lefs\\ were\\ bound\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ casting\\ a\\ spell\\ on\\ the\\ lecture\\;\\ this\\ occurred\\ in\\ Antioch\\,\\ Libanius\\ had\\ a\\ total\\ meltdown\\ over\\ it\\ and\\ was\\ afraid\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ hexed\\ for\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ was\\ magic\\ deployed\\ in\\ the\\ visual\\ medium\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\ntioch\\,\\ mosaic\\,\\ displayed\\ on\\ a\\ wall\\ in\\ the\\ museum\\ in\\ antioch\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ too\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ says\\,\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ a\\ naked\\ person\\ with\\ a\\ prominent\\ phallus\\,\\ a\\ hunch\\ back\\,\\ and\\ wears\\ a\\ loincloth\\,\\ has\\ two\\ crossed\\ sticks\\ in\\ each\\ hand\\.\\.\\.\\.the\\ greek\\ label\\ is\\ you\\ too\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;lucky\\ hunchback\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ mosaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;we\\ see\\ this\\ phrase\\ you\\ too\\ in\\ funerary\\ epigrams\\,\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ magical\\ connotations\\ \\,\\ a\\ method\\ of\\ deflecting\\ ill\\ luck\\ or\\ evil\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ enacter\\ of\\ the\\ rival\\ or\\ the\\ enemy\\;\\ you\\ return\\ the\\ evil\\ to\\ them\\,\\ this\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ meaning\\ jcaesar\\ used\\ when\\ he\\ said\\ you\\ too\\ brutus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ have\\ wished\\ good\\ intentions\\ on\\ the\\ visiter\\ of\\ the\\ house\\,\\ if\\ the\\ visiter\\ evil\\,\\ you\\ return\\ the\\ evil\\,\\ if\\ the\\ visiter\\ good\\,\\ you\\ return\\ the\\ good\\;\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ lucky\\ hunchback\\ one\\ meant\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ house\\ of\\ the\\ evil\\ eye\\&rdquo\\;\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ 3\\ borders\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ wave\\ pattern\\ an\\ interior\\ boarder\\,\\ and\\ an\\ image\\;\\ plays\\ with\\ dimensions\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ hind\\ legs\\ of\\ the\\ animal\\ seem\\ to\\ break\\ through\\ the\\ boarder\\ to\\;\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ prominent\\ phallus\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\,\\ the\\ man\\ has\\ a\\ big\\ head\\,\\ he\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ dwarf\\ or\\ pigmy\\,\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ cross\\ sticks\\,\\ he\\ has\\ an\\ enormous\\ human\\ eye\\ behind\\ him\\;\\ the\\ eye\\ is\\ being\\ attacked\\ by\\ sharp\\ and\\ vicious\\ things\\:\\ trident\\,\\ dagger\\,\\ scorpion\\,\\ snake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ centipede\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ leopard\\,\\ an\\ ibis\\ with\\ a\\ long\\ curved\\ beak\\,\\ all\\ attack\\ the\\ eye\\;\\ the\\ lucky\\ figure\\ is\\ turned\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ eye\\,\\ but\\ the\\ phallus\\ points\\ towards\\ it\\;\\ evil\\ is\\ being\\ deflected\\ away\\ by\\ the\\ attack\\ upon\\ the\\ evil\\ eye\\,\\ this\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ a\\ nice\\ house\\ in\\ antioch\\,\\ it\\ also\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ too\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\,\\ this\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ respectable\\ house\\,\\ these\\ notions\\ about\\ magic\\ common\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\curse\\ tablets\\ very\\ small\\,\\ some\\ in\\ the\\ Fogg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ were\\ the\\ impulses\\ in\\ the\\ three\\ examples\\ in\\ the\\ handout\\ 21\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\curse\\ tablets\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ many\\ contexts\\;\\ competitive\\ sports\\,\\ amphitheatres\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ were\\ different\\ context\\ for\\ the\\ tablets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\st\\ augustus\\ tells\\ us\\ in\\ the\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ ce\\ that\\ someone\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ sell\\ him\\ a\\ guarantee\\ of\\ victory\\ by\\ doing\\ a\\ curse\\ on\\ the\\ opponent\\,\\ but\\ augustus\\ said\\ no\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ were\\ experts\\ who\\ knew\\ the\\ curse\\ fomulae\\ and\\ were\\ the\\ authorities\\ in\\ this\\;\\ repetition\\ was\\ the\\ hallmark\\ in\\ curse\\,they\\ are\\ repetitive\\ and\\ quote\\ long\\;\\ as\\ much\\ venom\\ into\\ the\\ space\\ as\\ possible\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;most\\ exciting\\ curse\\ tablet\\ was\\ one\\ that\\ named\\ 60\\ horses\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ cursed\\ individually\\ by\\ names\\ of\\ horses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\amphitheater\\ at\\ carthage\\:\\ more\\ than\\ 100\\ curse\\ tablets\\ found\\ under\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ that\\ we\\ believe\\ was\\ where\\ the\\ corpses\\ were\\ stripped\\,\\ called\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;spolorium\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ good\\ spot\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ tablets\\ under\\ ground\\ beneath\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ at\\ carthage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\primarily\\ in\\ latin\\,\\ but\\ part\\ of\\ handout\\ 21\\ \\#2b\\ is\\ in\\ greek\\ script\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\repetitive\\ and\\ formulaic\\ language\\,\\ harnessing\\ the\\ magical\\ properties\\ of\\ another\\ alternative\\ language\\,\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ item\\ c\\ that\\ every\\ few\\ lines\\ begins\\ in\\ a\\ greek\\ word\\ starting\\ in\\ a\\ capital\\ letter\\;\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ names\\ of\\ alternative\\ deities\\,\\ cthonic\\ deities\\,\\ deities\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ underworld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\h\\<\\/span\\>\\andout\\ 21\\,\\ \\#2\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ about\\ an\\ inch\\ thick\\,\\ and\\ about\\ 66\\ mm\\ long\\.\\ it\\ was\\ very\\ tiny\\!\\ \\:\\ audollent\\ \\(1904\\)\\ \\#250\\ \\=\\ tremel\\ \\(2004\\)\\ \\#95\\,\\ obverse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ his\\ maternal\\ affiliation\\,\\ not\\ the\\ son\\ or\\ daughter\\ of\\ father\\ \\(paternal\\ filiation\\)\\,\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ traced\\ from\\ the\\ maternal\\ line\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ proven\\,\\ you\\ cannot\\ prove\\ paternity\\ in\\ ancient\\ days\\,\\ but\\ in\\ antiquity\\ you\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\;\\ this\\ specifies\\ which\\ gallicus\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ one\\ born\\ of\\ prima\\;\\ he\\ was\\ deliberately\\ subverting\\ the\\ traditional\\ roman\\ way\\;\\ everything\\ about\\ curse\\ tablet\\ upside\\ down\\ inside\\ out\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ evil\\ powers\\ on\\ your\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\you\\ see\\ the\\ repetition\\ and\\ the\\ exclusion\\ of\\ any\\ loophole\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ him\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ bull\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ 3\\ then\\ he\\ would\\ probably\\ be\\ dead\\ at\\ the\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ last\\ online\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ the\\ bear\\ has\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ and\\ wound\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ target\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ BESTIARIUS\\=\\=\\ engagement\\ with\\ a\\ specific\\ animal\\;\\ interesting\\ that\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ curse\\ tablets\\ form\\ antioch\\ actially\\ nameso\\ a\\ gladiator\\,\\ but\\ we\\ don\\ not\\ know\\ the\\ reasoning\\ yet\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ obverse\\ is\\ fully\\ written\\ \\,\\ the\\ inside\\ rolled\\ p\\ side\\ is\\ all\\ filled\\ out\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ tablet\\,\\ something\\ has\\ \\ \\;fallen\\ away\\,\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ tell\\ the\\ the\\ words\\ probably\\ said\\ v\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ tablet\\ 2b\\,\\ we\\ se\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ almost\\ everyone\\ there\\ were\\ square\\ brackets\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ hand\\ side\\,\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ square\\ tablets\\ that\\ were\\ there\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\ but\\ not\\ know\\,\\ except\\ the\\ two\\ lines\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\ where\\ we\\ could\\ actually\\ read\\ p\\ to\\ the\\ edge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ latin\\ and\\ greek\\ part\\;\\ the\\ greek\\ part\\ was\\ the\\ repetitive\\ part\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ that\\ was\\ translated\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ now\\ now\\ quick\\ quick\\ latin\\,\\ second\\ set\\ in\\ greek\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\possibility\\ that\\ the\\ sons\\ were\\ gladiators\\ or\\ targets\\,\\ once\\ again\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ same\\ impulse\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ wounded\\ and\\ bloodied\\,\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ succeed\\ in\\ the\\ show\\,\\ they\\ specify\\ the\\ date\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ alternative\\ date\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\want\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ the\\ underworld\\ goes\\ after\\ sons\\ of\\ umilianius\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ day\\,\\ communication\\ of\\ very\\ chilling\\ sort\\ \\:\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ front\\ o\\ f\\ the\\ curse\\ tablet\\ three\\ persons\\ are\\ named\\ in\\ greeek\\,\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ umilianus\\,\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ sure\\,\\ it\\ says\\ come\\ come\\ now\\ now\\ quick\\ quick\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ repeated\\ in\\ greek\\ just\\ come\\ quick\\ x2\\,\\ the\\ efficacy\\ of\\ the\\ transcription\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ translation\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 21\\,\\ \\#2c\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ the\\ deamons\\ names\\,\\ they\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ are\\ written\\ in\\ greek\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ semitic\\ elements\\ to\\ them\\,\\ in\\ carthage\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ punic\\ part\\ of\\ north\\ africa\\,\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ part\\ originally\\ settled\\ by\\ the\\ phoenicians\\,\\ a\\ semitic\\ people\\;\\ these\\ deities\\ are\\ being\\ asked\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;bind\\ and\\ limit\\ activitiies\\ of\\ Maurussus\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ geographical\\ control\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ deamons\\ is\\ specified\\,\\ they\\ include\\ deamons\\ that\\ are\\ affiliated\\ with\\ different\\ lakes\\,\\ one\\ lake\\ was\\ very\\ sulfurous\\ and\\ a\\ root\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\ and\\ this\\ filtered\\ into\\ the\\ carthaginian\\ community\\ and\\ this\\ deity\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ associated\\ with\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ there\\ were\\ also\\ others\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ spain\\ and\\ africa\\,\\ africa\\ west\\ of\\ egypt\\,\\ et\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sleepless\\,\\ bound\\ tightly\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.lack\\ of\\ sleep\\ impairs\\ efficacy\\!\\ To\\ be\\ taken\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ infernal\\ realms\\ within\\ a\\ week\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ should\\ block\\ the\\ efficacy\\ of\\ the\\ curses\\ he\\ may\\ be\\ using\\ to\\ protect\\ against\\ such\\ curses\\!\\ Let\\ every\\ remedy\\ and\\ charm\\ and\\ means\\ of\\ defense\\ be\\ rendered\\ null\\ and\\ void\\!\\!\\;\\ he\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ bound\\ and\\ then\\ completely\\ consumed\\ inside\\!\\!\\ he\\ is\\ asking\\ the\\ deamons\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\ to\\ send\\ something\\ that\\ will\\ simply\\ shrivel\\ his\\ guts\\ so\\ he\\ will\\ disappear\\!\\!\\ not\\ that\\ beasts\\ will\\ get\\ him\\;\\ he\\ says\\ it\\ is\\ necessity\\ that\\ they\\ kill\\ him\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defixiones\\:\\ entire\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ victim\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ who\\ was\\ composing\\ the\\ curses\\ \\(curse\\ experts\\?\\)\\ but\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ paid\\ him\\ \\,\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ wanted\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ maurus\\ executed\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ be\\ the\\ fans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ be\\ mauruss\\&\\#39\\;\\ direct\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\crucial\\ that\\ the\\ correct\\ formula\\ employed\\,\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ big\\ business\\!\\!\\ very\\ interesting\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\11\\/24\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\blank\\ facades\\,\\ 3\\ arcaded\\ stories\\ is\\ the\\ regular\\ facade\\ for\\ a\\ roman\\ spectacle\\ building\\,\\ the\\ colosseum\\ was\\ made\\ larger\\ by\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ a\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;story\\,\\ there\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ shield\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ bays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ has\\ been\\ deliberate\\ vandalism\\ to\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;of\\ hose\\ with\\ inscription\\ behind\\,\\ inscription\\ of\\ great\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inscription\\ has\\ letters\\ and\\ also\\ has\\ lots\\ of\\ pock\\ marks\\ and\\ there\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ two\\ texts\\ and\\ lots\\ of\\ overwriting\\ on\\ the\\ stone\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ holes\\ between\\ the\\ letters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ inscription\\ on\\ the\\ slide\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\peg\\ holes\\ must\\ have\\ once\\ held\\ up\\ bronze\\ letters\\,\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ left\\ with\\ stone\\,\\ and\\ so\\ then\\ theodossus\\ must\\ have\\ put\\ an\\ inscription\\ over\\ the\\ peg\\ holes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ tried\\ to\\ restore\\ what\\ the\\ original\\ text\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\handout22\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\refers\\ to\\ titus\\ building\\ an\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;vespasian\\ \\+79\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;titus\\ 79\\-81\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ only\\ difference\\ btw\\ dad\\ and\\ son\\ is\\ the\\ name\\ titus\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;caesar\\ vespasian\\ augustus\\ \\(titus\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;t\\&rdquo\\;\\ inserted\\ to\\ differentiate\\ btw\\ dad\\ and\\ son\\,\\ son\\ titus\\,\\ wants\\ to\\ get\\ credit\\ for\\ colosseum\\ so\\ he\\ puts\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;t\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ inscription\\;\\ theft\\ perpetrated\\ in\\ antiquity\\ for\\ credit\\ for\\ colosseum\\,\\ dedicator\\ formula\\ already\\ arranged\\ and\\ then\\ titus\\ inserted\\ his\\ initial\\ in\\ and\\ claimed\\ credit\\ for\\ theater\\,\\ claims\\ credit\\ for\\ construction\\ of\\ colosseum\\ from\\ his\\ father\\,\\ vespasian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ important\\ was\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ amphitheater\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ interesting\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ called\\ the\\ flavian\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;manubiae\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ enemy\\,\\ bounty\\ that\\ was\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ national\\ enemy\\ and\\ assigned\\ to\\ a\\ general\\ who\\ had\\ one\\ a\\ triumph\\,\\ you\\ could\\ have\\ the\\ choice\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ manubiae\\ for\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ community\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ special\\ sort\\ of\\ euergetism\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ enabled\\ by\\ conquest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ last\\ time\\ that\\ a\\ bldg\\ was\\ put\\ up\\ was\\ 13bce\\ when\\ balbus\\ got\\ manubiae\\ and\\ put\\ up\\ the\\ theatre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\,\\ once\\ the\\ emperors\\ were\\ incharge\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ the\\ generals\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ spoils\\ to\\ use\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ interest\\ and\\ the\\ emperors\\ were\\ threatened\\ byt\\ h\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\after\\ balbus\\,\\ itw\\ as\\ never\\ done\\ again\\ until\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ \\ \\;using\\ that\\ phrase\\,\\ vespasian\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ republican\\ roman\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ given\\ the\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ booty\\ and\\ was\\ giving\\ it\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ rome\\ for\\ the\\ coloceeum\\,\\ vespasian\\ sees\\ himself\\ as\\ having\\ old\\ fashioned\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vespasian\\ markets\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ soldeir\\,\\ down\\ to\\ earth\\,\\ republican\\ values\\,\\ but\\ advertised\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ sort\\ of\\ emperor\\,\\ with\\ the\\ republic\\ at\\ heart\\,\\ we\\ now\\ know\\ this\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ inscription\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ wonder\\ what\\ comapign\\ vespasian\\ had\\ been\\ rewarded\\ munubiae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vespasian\\ fought\\ in\\ judea\\ in\\ 70\\ and\\ destroyed\\ the\\ temple\\ in\\ jarusalem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(other\\ amphitheaters\\ before\\ the\\ colosseum\\ had\\ been\\ burned\\ down\\ in\\ nero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fires\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ destruction\\ therefore\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\ in\\ judea\\ in\\ 70\\ ad\\ therefore\\ must\\ have\\ funded\\ the\\ bldg\\ of\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\huge\\ tragedy\\ for\\ the\\ jewish\\ nation\\,\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ bldg\\ in\\ rome\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\colosseum\\ with\\ the\\ roman\\ forum\\ beind\\ it\\ \\,\\ outer\\ pealings\\ of\\ the\\ onion\\ end\\ up\\ i\\ nan\\ elipse\\ in\\ the\\ ct\\ with\\ the\\ hypogeum\\ in\\ the\\ cellar\\ of\\ the\\ colosseum\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ screen\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ cross\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ seataing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\entering\\ the\\ colosseum\\ was\\ very\\ orderly\\,\\ either\\ walked\\ along\\ incline\\ up\\ steps\\ to\\ the\\ senatorial\\ area\\,\\ or\\ if\\ woman\\ or\\ slave\\ would\\ go\\ through\\ interior\\ staircases\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ balcony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ three\\ arcaded\\ stories\\ go\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ fourth\\ story\\ and\\ elevated\\ seating\\ vertically\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ to\\ add\\ more\\ seats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\about\\ 50k\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ bldg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout4\\,\\ \\#6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;we\\ see\\ regional\\ catalogues\\ from\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ rome\\ in\\ history\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ 14\\ augustan\\ regions\\ of\\ rome\\ and\\ their\\ capacities\\,\\ the\\ piece\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ held\\ 80k\\ places\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ were\\ much\\ smaller\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ different\\ sense\\ of\\ personal\\ space\\ were\\ jammed\\ in\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\87\\ k\\ ppl\\ v\\ 50\\ k\\ ppl\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\80\\ entrances\\,\\ each\\ with\\ a\\ roman\\ numeral\\ on\\ top\\,\\ 4\\ at\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;vomitoria\\-\\&rdquo\\;\\ entrances\\ to\\ stands\\ in\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\central\\ area\\ of\\ basement\\ was\\ a\\ double\\ story\\ cellar\\;\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ there\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\ with\\ flooding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\evidence\\ shows\\ that\\ there\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ platform\\ to\\ elevate\\ the\\ cages\\ and\\ pulleys\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ basement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ floor\\ of\\ the\\ basement\\ there\\ were\\ two\\ stories\\ of\\ stone\\ and\\ brick\\ with\\ corridors\\ with\\ little\\ openings\\ off\\ them\\ \\,\\ and\\ the\\ openings\\ had\\ metal\\ grills\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ closed\\ and\\ a\\ 3\\ sided\\ cage\\ in\\ side\\ the\\ niche\\ could\\ be\\ elevated\\ by\\ a\\ pulley\\ system\\ to\\ get\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ second\\ level\\,\\ when\\ the\\ cage\\ got\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ level\\,\\ the\\ cage\\ was\\ open\\,\\ and\\ then\\ ramps\\ would\\ lead\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ door\\ into\\ the\\ arena\\,\\ presumably\\ slaves\\ with\\ flares\\ would\\ encourage\\ animals\\ in\\ the\\ cage\\ to\\ go\\ up\\ the\\ ramp\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ desperate\\ attempt\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ sytem\\ functioning\\ in\\ later\\ antiquity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\basement\\ was\\ therefore\\ used\\ for\\ introducing\\ beasts\\ and\\ presumably\\ personnel\\,\\ scenery\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ into\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ aquatic\\ displays\\,\\ however\\,\\ originally\\ the\\ colosseum\\ was\\ originally\\ used\\ for\\ naval\\ battle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\ it\\ is\\ believed\\ that\\ these\\ structures\\ were\\ probably\\ not\\ originall\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ would\\ have\\ allowed\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\ with\\ wooden\\ posts\\ to\\ be\\ flooded\\,\\ but\\ later\\ they\\ built\\ the\\ basement\\ levels\\ out\\ of\\ stone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\likely\\ domitian\\=\\=\\ 81\\-96\\ \\*\\*\\ was\\ probably\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ basement\\ of\\ the\\ colosseum\\;\\ he\\ was\\ also\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ ludus\\ magnus\\ next\\ to\\ and\\ connecting\\ to\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\system\\ of\\ buttresses\\ support\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slide\\:\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ imagining\\ of\\ the\\ structure\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ awning\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ upper\\ gallery\\ where\\ the\\ women\\ and\\ slaves\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ accomodated\\,\\ we\\ could\\ see\\ the\\ bands\\ of\\ seating\\ that\\ would\\ correspond\\ to\\ the\\ cavea\\ and\\ the\\ wedges\\ correspond\\ to\\ the\\ \\(kudiiee\\?\\?\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ podium\\ wall\\,\\ with\\ posts\\ from\\ the\\ podium\\ wall\\ to\\ support\\ netting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\textual\\ evidence\\ of\\ scenery\\ being\\ used\\ during\\ beast\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\must\\ recreate\\ the\\ scene\\ with\\ the\\ animals\\ mingling\\ with\\ the\\ landscape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ also\\ look\\ at\\ ancient\\ descriptions\\ on\\ coins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\coin\\ dedicated\\ under\\ titus\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;meta\\ sudans\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ sweating\\ cones\\,\\ was\\ the\\ fountain\\ that\\ was\\ built\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ colosseum\\,\\ no\\ the\\ north\\ side\\ there\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ portico\\ \\(noth\\ side\\ \\)\\ to\\ attach\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ baths\\ of\\ titus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ an\\ see\\ the\\ masts\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ suported\\ the\\ awingng\\,\\ and\\ the\\ masts\\ for\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;story\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ are\\ four\\ horse\\ chariots\\ mounted\\ on\\ the\\ roof\\ of\\ the\\ porch\\ of\\ the\\ cathedral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ a\\ shield\\ with\\ a\\ bull\\ and\\ an\\ elephant\\ and\\ the\\ emperor\\,\\ gordian\\,\\ he\\ even\\ has\\ limbs\\ and\\ body\\,\\ in\\ late\\ antiquity\\ the\\ emperor\\ much\\ bigger\\ and\\ inflated\\ importance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ nero\\ that\\ was\\ towards\\ the\\ forum\\ before\\ and\\ then\\ got\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ vestibule\\ of\\ the\\ colosseum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ can\\ see\\ references\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;munificence\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\ gordian\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gordion\\&\\#39\\;s\\ generosity\\ was\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ repairing\\ the\\ colosseum\\,\\ he\\ probably\\ minted\\ this\\ medallion\\ to\\ circulate\\ it\\ among\\ the\\ senatorial\\ classes\\ to\\ celebrate\\ his\\ geneoristy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sourcebook\\ page\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;domus\\ aurea\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nero\\ built\\ a\\ personal\\ golden\\ house\\:\\ domus\\ aurea\\,\\ in\\ the\\ valley\\ between\\ the\\ forum\\ and\\ the\\ esvoling\\ hill\\ \\,\\ precisely\\ where\\ the\\ colossem\\ is\\ now\\,\\ where\\ trajans\\ baths\\ were\\,\\ stretched\\ around\\ the\\ palatine\\,\\ and\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ where\\ the\\ colosseum\\ was\\ built\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ whole\\ are\\ awas\\ occupied\\ by\\ neros\\&\\#39\\;\\ golden\\ house\\,\\ ppl\\ resented\\ it\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\roman\\ population\\ must\\ have\\ had\\ through\\ access\\ through\\ neros\\&\\#39\\;golden\\ park\\,\\ but\\ people\\ resented\\ it\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\martial\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;starry\\ collassus\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\(statue\\ of\\ nero\\)\\,\\ they\\ call\\ the\\ scaffolding\\ on\\ the\\ arach\\ of\\ titus\\,\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ odius\\ halls\\ of\\ a\\ cruel\\ monarch\\-\\ eg\\ mero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ house\\-\\ overtook\\ the\\ whole\\ city\\,\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ colosseum\\ was\\ once\\ nero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lake\\-\\ nicely\\ excavated\\ hole\\ wehre\\ vespasian\\ could\\ then\\ put\\ colosseum\\,\\ robbed\\ the\\ poor\\ of\\ their\\ dwellings\\,\\ in\\ all\\ events\\ it\\ disappeared\\ after\\ the\\ fire\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ biilt\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ flavians\\,\\ by\\ replacing\\ neros\\ golden\\ house\\ with\\ the\\ coloseeum\\ reinforced\\ vespasians\\&\\#39\\;\\ message\\ of\\ being\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ built\\ the\\ colosseum\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\iconic\\ structure\\ in\\ roman\\ thought\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\12\\/1\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ the\\ Romans\\ support\\ the\\ funding\\ for\\ the\\ games\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ does\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ institutionalized\\ violence\\ become\\ imbeded\\ in\\ the\\ national\\ economy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ did\\ the\\ leaders\\ limit\\ the\\ supply\\ to\\ increase\\ infaltionary\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ spectacles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\read\\ the\\ two\\ online\\ articles\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ inscription\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\basic\\ information\\ about\\ roman\\ currency\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;AS\\&rdquo\\;\\ WAS\\ THE\\ SMALLEST\\ currency\\ denomination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.5\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ 1\\ SESTERTIUS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ SESTERTIUS\\=1\\ DENARIUS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ why\\ the\\ latin\\ abbreviation\\ for\\ sestertius\\ was\\ IIS\\ or\\ HS\\=\\=\\ the\\ modern\\ abbreviation\\=1\\+1\\+\\.5\\,\\ and\\ one\\ sesertius\\ was\\ \\¼\\;\\ of\\ a\\ denarius\\ bc\\ 4\\ sestertius\\=1\\ denarius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ relationship\\ btw\\ sesterius\\ and\\ denarius\\ holds\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\documents\\ we\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ covered\\ have\\ mentioned\\ both\\ sestertius\\ and\\ denarius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ would\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ units\\ of\\ currency\\ fetch\\ in\\ ancient\\ days\\,\\ well\\ 3\\ as\\ would\\ give\\ you\\ dinner\\,\\ for\\ example\\;\\ this\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ the\\ buying\\ power\\ was\\ in\\ antiquity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\within\\ the\\ roman\\ system\\,\\ how\\ were\\ expenses\\ computed\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\where\\ were\\ the\\ costs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\putting\\ up\\ an\\ amphitheater\\ was\\ expensive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\putting\\ up\\ a\\ temp\\ structure\\ in\\ a\\ forum\\ still\\ costs\\ for\\ materials\\,\\ labor\\,\\ workers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\costs\\ of\\ training\\ and\\ servicing\\ a\\ troupe\\ of\\ gladiators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\those\\ costs\\ were\\ presumably\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ sponsor\\ who\\ rented\\ the\\ gladiator\\ for\\ a\\ particular\\ show\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\look\\ at\\ the\\ animal\\ trade\\ \\(3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ly\\)\\,\\ must\\ examine\\ how\\ the\\ animal\\ trade\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ factor\\ in\\ economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\must\\ factor\\ in\\ the\\ waste\\ from\\ the\\ animals\\ who\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ make\\ it\\ across\\ the\\ med\\,\\ or\\ who\\ were\\ too\\ sick\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\roman\\ games\\ a\\ tremendous\\ burden\\ on\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ also\\ an\\ engine\\ on\\ that\\ same\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 24\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Funding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dio\\ against\\ caligula\\ and\\ comodus\\ \\(he\\ said\\ they\\ spent\\ too\\ much\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\scarre\\ 136\\-\\ useful\\ list\\ of\\ roman\\ emperors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\late\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ early\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ emperors\\ will\\ be\\ looked\\ at\\ this\\ week\\;\\ helsp\\ us\\ identify\\ the\\ periods\\ relevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commodus\\ 180\\-192\\ CE\\ \\(end\\ of\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ CE\\,\\ he\\ reigned\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\conspicuous\\ consumption\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ image\\ emperors\\ cultivated\\,\\ eurgetism\\ contributeto\\ this\\ frugal\\ persona\\,\\ crieterian\\ of\\ national\\ utility\\ in\\ determining\\ the\\ spending\\ practices\\ in\\ the\\ empire\\-\\-\\-\\ tax\\ on\\ urine\\,\\ when\\ people\\ objected\\ to\\ this\\=\\=\\=vespasian\\ tried\\ to\\ introduce\\ taxation\\ in\\ areas\\ that\\ had\\ not\\ been\\ taxed\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ cover\\ areas\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ spending\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ the\\ national\\ interest\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ people\\ living\\ around\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\with\\ JC\\ the\\ soldiers\\ thought\\ they\\ should\\ get\\ a\\ cash\\ handout\\ from\\ the\\ emperor\\/dictator\\ juliuscaesar\\ instead\\ of\\ lavish\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 24\\ \\#\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;dio\\ lived\\ in\\ reign\\ of\\ caracalla\\ \\(was\\ an\\ eye\\ witness\\)\\ scarred\\ 136\\:\\ 211\\-217\\ ce\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ 212\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ universal\\ edict\\ of\\ citizenshship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hunting\\ theatre\\ was\\ greek\\ for\\ amphitheater\\,\\ in\\ the\\ towns\\ caracalla\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ billetted\\ in\\ his\\ travels\\,\\ he\\ required\\ amphitheaters\\ and\\ games\\ to\\ be\\ held\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ hosted\\ by\\ the\\ locals\\ and\\ then\\ after\\ the\\ games\\ ended\\ the\\ theatres\\ were\\ demolished\\ specifically\\ to\\ impoverish\\ the\\ roman\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ have\\ talked\\ before\\ about\\ peoples\\&\\#39\\;\\ complaints\\ about\\ the\\ roman\\ army\\ being\\ supported\\ by\\ locals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ tremendous\\ privilege\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ emperor\\ visit\\ the\\ town\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hadrian\\ \\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ gave\\ advice\\ to\\ the\\ locals\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ afford\\ projects\\,\\ and\\ he\\ traveled\\ the\\ empires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ emperor\\ would\\ even\\ give\\ the\\ people\\ a\\ checklist\\ of\\ things\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ town\\,\\ dio\\ criticized\\ this\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Epitome\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Dio\\ survived\\ in\\ a\\ digest\\ and\\ may\\ have\\ condensed\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ complex\\ discussion\\,\\ dio\\ claims\\ that\\ after\\ the\\ emperor\\ disappeared\\ the\\ bldgs\\ were\\ demolished\\ right\\ away\\,\\ and\\ dios\\ interpretation\\ was\\ that\\ Caracalla\\ only\\ was\\ doing\\ this\\ to\\ ruin\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ though\\ Caracalla\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ bad\\ emperor\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ evidence\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ town\\ to\\ rubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ likely\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ that\\ the\\ stone\\ was\\ carted\\ away\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ more\\ useful\\ things\\,\\ the\\ local\\ community\\ chooses\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ stone\\ for\\ putting\\ up\\ new\\ aquaducts\\,\\ etc\\.\\ so\\ dio\\ may\\ have\\ exaggerated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ emperors\\&\\#39\\;\\ tours\\ created\\ opportunity\\ for\\ community\\ to\\ put\\ its\\ best\\ foot\\ forward\\ but\\ also\\ placed\\ burdens\\ on\\ the\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ultimately\\ the\\ communities\\ benefitted\\ from\\ the\\ emperors\\&\\#39\\;\\ presence\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ being\\ burdened\\ with\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ in\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ it\\ was\\ more\\ burdensome\\ that\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ most\\ cities\\ of\\ any\\ size\\ already\\ possessed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\abanissio\\ granu\\ \\(amphitheater\\ built\\ for\\ this\\ purpose\\)\\,\\ or\\ an\\ adaptation\\ of\\ a\\ theater\\ or\\ a\\ stadium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\ in\\ some\\ places\\ the\\ blsgs\\ were\\ replaced\\ by\\ larger\\ versions\\ or\\ special\\ models\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ in\\ corinth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ amphitheater\\ at\\ el\\ djem\\ was\\ built\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ replace\\ a\\ miserable\\ previous\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\early\\ on\\ many\\ individuals\\ had\\ voluntary\\ acts\\ of\\ munificence\\ or\\ private\\ enterprise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\udamilla\\ had\\ obligation\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ theatre\\,\\ following\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ tradition\\ of\\ eurgetism\\-\\ her\\ contribution\\ was\\ voluntary\\,\\ there\\ was\\ heavy\\ moral\\ pressure\\ for\\ the\\ dignitaries\\ of\\ the\\ communities\\ to\\ embellish\\ the\\ communities\\ with\\ important\\ bldgs\\ such\\ as\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ veteran\\ colonies\\ there\\ were\\ provisions\\ in\\ the\\ charters\\ which\\ made\\ it\\ possible\\ for\\ structures\\ like\\ amphitheater\\ to\\ be\\ built\\ with\\ dolalr\\ for\\ dollar\\ funding\\ from\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\was\\ a\\ requirement\\ for\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ to\\ be\\ built\\ and\\ ensured\\ 50\\%\\ contribution\\ from\\ the\\ treasury\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ more\\ surprising\\ that\\ at\\ pompeii\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ was\\ built\\ by\\ individual\\ leaders\\ along\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ of\\ these\\ acts\\ of\\ munificence\\ would\\ have\\ helped\\ the\\ communities\\ and\\ reduced\\ the\\ spending\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ rich\\ families\\ who\\ put\\ them\\ up\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\were\\ there\\ entrance\\ fees\\?\\ Payback\\ for\\ the\\ ppl\\ who\\ shouldered\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ construction\\?\\ Maybe\\ not\\!\\ Euergetism\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\or\\,\\ perhaps\\ local\\ communities\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ pay\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ but\\ ppl\\ outside\\ the\\ community\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ fidanae\\,\\ there\\ was\\ one\\ built\\ not\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ community\\ could\\ benefit\\ from\\ amphitheater\\,\\ but\\ primarily\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ ppl\\ from\\ rome\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ visit\\ and\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ to\\ enter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\must\\ rely\\ on\\ appx\\.\\ Costs\\ for\\ bldg\\ an\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;Janet\\ Delaine\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;epitome\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;urso\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;HS\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sestertius\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Denarius\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cost\\ equivalent\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ annual\\ budget\\ for\\ handouts\\ to\\ the\\ ppl\\ of\\ rome\\ and\\ the\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\same\\ sums\\ of\\ money\\,\\ either\\ a\\ handout\\ or\\ an\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ investment\\ that\\ an\\ amphitheater\\ represented\\ would\\ be\\ comparable\\ to\\ a\\ medium\\ size\\ temple\\ in\\ africa\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\60k\\-70k\\ sestestrii\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bc\\ the\\ epigraphic\\ evidence\\ comes\\ from\\ africa\\,\\ \\(divide\\ by\\ 4\\ to\\ get\\ denarii\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\small\\ paved\\ forum\\ with\\ porticos\\ along\\ the\\ edge\\ owul\\ have\\ cost\\ 2000\\ secestres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theater\\ would\\ have\\ cost\\ 600\\,000\\ secterces\\ \\(sp\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\amphitheatre\\ would\\ represent\\ an\\ investment\\ larger\\ than\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ permanent\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dio\\ book\\ 52\\ chapter\\ 30\\-dio\\ discusses\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ spectacles\\ on\\ magistrates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;maecenas\\&rdquo\\;\\=augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ minister\\ of\\ culture\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ speech\\,\\ maecenas\\ advises\\ augustus\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ manage\\ the\\ burdens\\ on\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ magistrates\\ of\\ putting\\ on\\ spectacles3\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\speech\\ recognized\\ as\\ anachronistic\\ relfection\\ of\\ the\\ times\\ of\\ dio\\?\\ augustus\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dio\\&\\#39\\;s\\ program\\ for\\ prudent\\ administration\\ in\\ the\\ severian\\ age\\-\\ maecinas\\ draws\\ a\\ distinction\\ btw\\ rome\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ says\\ that\\ rome\\ should\\ be\\ glorious\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\ spendingn\\ on\\ bldgs\\ and\\ games\\ should\\ be\\ carefully\\ controlled\\ to\\ curb\\ potentially\\ ruinous\\ competition\\ btween\\ private\\ citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dio\\ worried\\ about\\ the\\ competition\\ between\\ individuals\\ and\\ sees\\ this\\ asa\\ a\\ major\\ impulse\\ towards\\ bankruptcy\\ of\\ those\\ outside\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ rome\\,\\ he\\ asserts\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ unreasonable\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ spend\\ money\\ outside\\ his\\ home\\ territory\\,\\ very\\ interesting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tradition\\ of\\ local\\ benefaction\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ into\\ question\\,\\ but\\ taking\\ on\\ an\\ office\\ that\\ would\\ require\\ you\\ to\\ spend\\ money\\ outside\\ your\\ community\\ does\\ come\\ into\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ \\ \\;\\#5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\plutarch\\ \\(\\#5\\)\\-\\ echoes\\ idea\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ not\\ bribe\\ the\\ populous\\ \\(should\\ achieve\\ reputation\\ on\\ virtue\\ not\\ bank\\ balance\\)\\,\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ buying\\ popularity\\ is\\ not\\ honorable\\,\\ says\\ plutarch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\plutarch\\ objects\\ that\\ the\\ contemporary\\ culture\\ of\\ giving\\ handouts\\ to\\ the\\ community\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ tangible\\ evidence\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ reputation\\ is\\ decadent\\ and\\ not\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ roman\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;says\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ shame\\ in\\ refusing\\ to\\ take\\ up\\ an\\ office\\ bc\\ you\\ can\\ not\\ affort\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 24\\ \\#6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dio\\ of\\ Prusua\\ speech\\,\\ he\\ is\\ formulating\\ about\\ how\\ ppl\\ try\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ oneanother\\ to\\ take\\ up\\ public\\ office\\ spend\\ money\\ and\\ then\\ get\\ the\\ cudos\\ that\\ come\\ from\\ it\\-\\ have\\ a\\ specials\\ eat\\ in\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ppl\\ incapable\\ of\\ managing\\ a\\ village\\ go\\ in\\ pursuit\\ of\\ crowns\\ and\\ robes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ampition\\ makes\\ ppl\\ go\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ money\\ spent\\ on\\ spectacles\\ and\\ bldgs\\ becomes\\ a\\ pressure\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\HO24\\,\\ \\#8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\visiting\\ Aphrodisias\\ in\\ this\\ map\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ southwestern\\ part\\ of\\ turkey\\ to\\ se\\ of\\ ephesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\document\\ is\\ form\\ hadrian\\ to\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ aphrodisias\\ \\(125\\ CE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ letter\\ form\\ hadrian\\ is\\ one\\ from\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ 4\\ that\\ was\\ from\\ aphrodisias\\ and\\ found\\ only\\ 4\\ years\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\funding\\ for\\ priests\\ to\\ hold\\ gladiatorial\\ shows\\ will\\ be\\ replaced\\ by\\ using\\ money\\ for\\ aqueduct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ question\\ is\\ are\\ candidates\\ for\\ the\\ high\\ priest\\ hood\\ reluctant\\ to\\ run\\ for\\ office\\ because\\ now\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ aqueduct\\ versus\\ doing\\ the\\ games\\ which\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ more\\ useful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\or\\,\\ were\\ candidates\\ reluctant\\ to\\ run\\ for\\ priesthood\\ bc\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ games\\ put\\ them\\ up\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ the\\ latter\\,\\ then\\ the\\ aqueduct\\ proposal\\ maeks\\ running\\ for\\ office\\ easier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\professor\\ coleman\\ is\\ arguing\\ in\\ her\\ latest\\ article\\,\\ that\\ the\\ capping\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ gladiators\\ was\\ because\\ magistrates\\ cannot\\ afford\\ them\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\177\\ ce\\ document\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ pre\\-shadowed\\ in\\ this\\ article\\ from\\ 125\\-\\ does\\ objection\\ from\\ holding\\ priesthood\\ stem\\ from\\ the\\ city\\ making\\ priest\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ aqueduct\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ fun\\ games\\ where\\ they\\ could\\ cut\\ corners\\ on\\ costs\\)\\,\\ or\\ was\\ there\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ gladiators\\ not\\ a\\ fixed\\ expense\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ really\\ really\\ expensive\\ to\\ host\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\with\\ the\\ aqueduct\\ you\\ potentially\\ get\\ a\\ more\\ lasing\\ payback\\,\\ bc\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ an\\ insctiption\\ listing\\ the\\ ppl\\ who\\ put\\ it\\ up\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ spnosors\\ would\\ struggle\\ to\\ have\\ spectacles\\ remembered\\ after\\ the\\ moment\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ put\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gaius\\ trying\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ hire\\ and\\ purcahse\\ in\\ antiquity\\ and\\ he\\ thinks\\ of\\ an\\ example\\ from\\ gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\12\\/3\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ hadrian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wall\\,\\ in\\ soggy\\,\\ anaerobic\\ england\\,\\ wooden\\ tablets\\ have\\ been\\ found\\,\\ probably\\ could\\ hold\\ them\\ in\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ hand\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;PUGILLARIO\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(PL\\.\\)\\=\\ items\\ held\\ in\\ the\\ fist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;VINDOLANDA\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ tablets\\ found\\ by\\ hadrian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shallow\\ basin\\ on\\ each\\ of\\ 2\\ wooden\\ tablets\\,\\ hinged\\ on\\ wooden\\ thong\\,\\ able\\ to\\ close\\ the\\ tablets\\,\\ wax\\ base\\ to\\ scratch\\ writing\\,\\ could\\ be\\ rubbed\\ smoothe\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\VINDOANDA\\ TABLET\\=PUGLLARIO\\;\\ would\\ have\\ included\\ letters\\ thanking\\ mom\\ for\\ warm\\ socks\\,\\ etc\\,\\ letter\\ inviting\\ an\\ officer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ to\\ the\\ birthday\\ party\\ of\\ another\\ officer\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\ did\\ roman\\ emperors\\ try\\ to\\ inflate\\ roman\\ games\\ with\\ limiting\\ supply\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 24\\#4\\,\\ \\#9\\ from\\ page\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\177\\ CE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\marcus\\ aurelius\\ wants\\ to\\ limit\\ spending\\ on\\ gladiatorial\\ shows\\ in\\ western\\ and\\ eastern\\ spectacles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ho\\ 24\\,\\ 4\\ look\\ on\\ 125\\ in\\ scarre\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ sardis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\SARDIS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sardis\\ is\\ in\\ modern\\ turkey\\,\\ a\\ little\\ northeast\\ of\\ ephesus\\ in\\ western\\ hemisphere\\ of\\ turkey\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ sea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1920s\\,\\ harvard\\ excavation\\ in\\ sardis\\ gives\\ us\\ clues\\ about\\ emperors\\&\\#39\\;\\ speech\\,\\ he\\ submitted\\ the\\ draft\\ of\\ his\\ law\\ to\\ the\\ senate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ also\\ see\\ a\\ bronze\\ panel\\ from\\ spain\\;\\ hadrian\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ itallica\\,\\ it\\ is\\ north\\ of\\ cadiz\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ fifth\\ of\\ the\\ iberian\\ peninsula\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MARCUS\\ AURELIUS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\senator\\ moved\\ that\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ marcus\\ aurelius\\ should\\ be\\ adopted\\,\\ commodus\\ was\\ aurelius\\&\\#39\\;\\ son\\,\\ the\\ law\\ was\\ adopted\\ as\\ their\\ joint\\ proposal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AES\\ ITALICENSE\\-\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ speech\\ proposed\\ by\\ senator\\ who\\ was\\ endorsing\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ aurelius\\ and\\ commodus\\,\\ the\\ speech\\ attested\\ the\\ independence\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ emperor\\ was\\ effectively\\ a\\ monarch\\ and\\ could\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ do\\ what\\ he\\ liked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ senate\\ made\\ adaptations\\ to\\ suggestions\\ from\\ the\\ emperor\\ and\\ still\\ had\\ some\\ power\\,\\ so\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ the\\ senator\\ comes\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ aes\\ italicense\\ speech\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bronze\\ tablets\\ and\\ inscriptions\\ suffer\\ less\\ damage\\ than\\ marble\\ ones\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ unique\\ circumstance\\ when\\ we\\ have\\ two\\ documents\\,\\ the\\ italicense\\ paraphrases\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ bronze\\ from\\ spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\serendipitous\\ discovery\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ documents\\ were\\ complimentary\\ and\\ shed\\ enormous\\ light\\ on\\ this\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gauls\\ in\\ france\\,\\ sardis\\ in\\ turkey\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ instructions\\ that\\ seem\\ to\\ pertain\\ to\\ opposite\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\ are\\ also\\ advertised\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ pole\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ document\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ broader\\ application\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ specification\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ cap\\ an\\ inflationary\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\distinction\\ made\\ between\\ the\\ free\\ man\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ auctoratis\\-\\ and\\ the\\ slave\\,\\ the\\ slave\\ only\\ can\\ receive\\ 1\\/5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ sum\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ freeman\\ receives\\ 5\\ times\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ slave\\ can\\ receive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;trinci\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ apparently\\ an\\ opponent\\ of\\ the\\ gauls\\ \\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\limit\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ money\\ a\\ lanista\\ can\\ be\\ paid\\ for\\ services\\ of\\ trincist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\antonine\\ plague\\ swept\\ through\\ the\\ ancient\\ world\\-\\ pestilence\\ occurred\\ during\\ reign\\ of\\ Andonius\\ Pius\\,\\ language\\ senator\\ used\\ is\\ vividly\\ reverant\\ of\\ the\\ ravages\\ of\\ the\\ plague\\;\\ he\\ applies\\ the\\ plague\\ to\\ the\\ circumtances\\ of\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ gladiators\\ \\,\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ flavor\\ of\\ the\\ rhetorical\\ florid\\ contexxt\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\want\\ to\\ cap\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ games\\ so\\ that\\ ppl\\ can\\ still\\ stand\\ for\\ office\\,\\ afford\\ to\\ \\,\\ when\\ games\\ are\\ still\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ put\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ saw\\ last\\ time\\ the\\ letter\\ from\\ hadrian\\ to\\ the\\ ppl\\ of\\ aphrodisas\\ which\\ may\\ tell\\ us\\ that\\ ppl\\ were\\ torn\\ btwn\\ water\\ games\\ and\\ aquaducts\\ and\\ spectacles\\ and\\ cost\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FISUCS\\ \\(TRESAUSRY\\)\\ \\,\\ the\\ emperors\\ controlled\\ it\\,\\ THE\\ CONCERN\\ of\\ the\\ istalicese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AERARIUM\\=\\ treasury\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ senate\\ \\(\\?\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\then\\ he\\ discusses\\ the\\ caps\\ on\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\other\\ article\\ \\(lots\\ of\\ latin\\ in\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\for\\ our\\ purposes\\ the\\ article\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ the\\ light\\ it\\ sheds\\ on\\ the\\ financial\\ \\&ldquo\\;fix\\&rdquo\\;that\\ is\\ being\\ proposed\\ in\\ th\\ inscription\\,\\ we\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ documents\\ aspects\\ that\\ hope\\ to\\ shore\\ up\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\ in\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\contain\\ useful\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ inscription\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interpuncts\\=\\ is\\ a\\ dot\\ in\\ an\\ incscription\\ separating\\ two\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pages338\\-339\\=\\ map\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ inscription\\ contains\\,\\ long\\ text\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\p341\\,\\ not\\ 13\\ in\\ oliver\\ and\\ parlor\\ discusses\\ a\\ term\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Munera\\ Assiofrana\\&rdquo\\;\\(munera\\ is\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\)\\=a\\ gladiatorial\\ display\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ only\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ an\\ entry\\ fee\\ of\\ an\\ ass\\ \\;\\ \\=games\\ one\\ would\\ watch\\ in\\ the\\ forum\\,\\ a\\ very\\ basic\\ sort\\ of\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CAH\\ \\=\\=\\ THE\\ CAMBRIDGE\\ ANCIENT\\ HISTORY\\ \\?\\?\\ in\\ lamont\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ACTA\\ SENATUS\\ \\=\\=\\ senatorial\\ proceedings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\COMMENTARII\\ \\=\\=\\ the\\ minutes\\ of\\ the\\ meeting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\senatus\\ consultum\\=\\=\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ senate\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sententii\\=\\ a\\ response\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PALUS\\=\\ gladiatorial\\ categories\\,\\ also\\ the\\ word\\ for\\ the\\ post\\ they\\ practiced\\ against\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\each\\ palus\\ had\\ a\\ number\\,\\ most\\ comon\\ numer\\ was\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PALOI\\ \\=\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ professional\\ excellences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ cost\\ of\\ trinci\\ was\\ a\\ special\\ burden\\ to\\ the\\ local\\ priest\\,\\ the\\ priests\\ in\\ the\\ roma\\ empire\\ had\\ to\\ put\\ on\\ gladiatorial\\ displays\\;\\ priests\\ in\\ gaul\\ had\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ the\\ trinci\\ to\\ shoulder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sardis\\ inscription\\ mentios\\ these\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ criminals\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ serve\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lanista\\/Imperial\\ governors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;could\\ both\\ supply\\ the\\ people\\ for\\ spectacles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ revenue\\ earned\\ by\\ the\\ governor\\ went\\ into\\ the\\ emperor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ fiscus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aes\\ Italicense\\ \\=\\=\\ legislature\\ only\\ refers\\ to\\ games\\,\\ not\\ to\\ bldgs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ is\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ trend\\ that\\ leads\\ most\\ communities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romans\\ had\\ trouble\\ coping\\ with\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ nomads\\/\\ germans\\,\\ on\\ northern\\ frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ games\\ represented\\ badge\\ of\\ romanness\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ document\\ was\\ very\\ concerned\\ with\\ shoring\\ up\\ the\\ spectacles\\,\\ to\\ keep\\ them\\ open\\,\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ the\\ games\\ so\\ that\\ ppl\\ could\\ afford\\ to\\ hold\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\page\\ 2\\,\\ under\\ item\\ 7\\-\\ there\\ were\\ two\\ table\\ on\\ the\\ article\\ by\\ michael\\ carter\\ \\;\\ replicated\\ tables\\ trying\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ ranks\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ within\\ each\\ category\\ of\\ munus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cost\\ written\\ in\\ secestres\\ \\(HS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lowest\\ form\\ of\\ gladiator\\ in\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ game\\ would\\ fetch\\ 3000\\ secestes\\ \\(up\\ to\\ 5\\ or\\ 8\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ arranged\\ by\\ their\\ rank\\ in\\ his\\ table\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ expensive\\ ranks\\ of\\ games\\ 150k0200k\\ plus\\ would\\ allow\\ more\\ expensive\\ gladiators\\ to\\ perform\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ social\\ terms\\ very\\ stratified\\,\\ now\\ we\\ see\\ how\\ stratified\\ categories\\ of\\ gladiators\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\arranged\\ according\\ to\\ experience\\ and\\ ability\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ limits\\ on\\ the\\ tupe\\ of\\ expenditure\\ you\\ could\\ make\\ overall\\ in\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ munus\\ on\\ which\\ gladiators\\ were\\ eligible\\,\\ couldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ use\\ cheap\\ gladiator\\ in\\ most\\ expensive\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\same\\ pressure\\ upon\\ local\\ magistrates\\,\\ becomes\\ prbs\\ in\\ antioch\\ and\\ syria\\ in\\ the\\ 5ht\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Syriarch\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ president\\ of\\ provincial\\ council\\ in\\ Syria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Got\\ approval\\ for\\ games\\ and\\ expensive\\ beast\\ hunts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ could\\ hold\\ office\\ for\\ 4\\ yrs\\,\\ had\\ to\\ shoulder\\ games\\ 4\\ times\\ in\\ his\\ career\\,\\ got\\ so\\ difficult\\ to\\ get\\ ppl\\ to\\ stand\\ for\\ the\\ office\\ hat\\ a\\ provision\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ introduced\\ that\\ nobody\\ culd\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ be\\ Syriarch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\had\\ to\\ get\\ an\\ outsider\\ to\\ take\\ job\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\12\\/5\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\attitudes\\ about\\ the\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\next\\ week\\ we\\ see\\ how\\ games\\ end\\,\\ and\\ what\\ filled\\ the\\ vacuum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\will\\ have\\ an\\ attempt\\ in\\ last\\ two\\ classes\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ see\\ what\\ modern\\ psych\\ and\\ culture\\ theory\\ can\\ bring\\ to\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ troubling\\ and\\ compex\\ issue\\ of\\ how\\ institutionalized\\ violence\\ was\\ detained\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\converted\\ theaters\\,\\ important\\ impulse\\ in\\ greek\\ east\\ shows\\ how\\ greeks\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ roman\\ violent\\ spectacles\\ by\\ adapting\\ the\\ roman\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ pompeii\\ we\\ see\\ graffiti\\ that\\ shows\\ interest\\ in\\ gladiators\\ and\\ tally\\ of\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ advertisements\\ for\\ gladiatorial\\ shows\\,\\ ppl\\ would\\ travel\\ to\\ 60\\ miles\\ to\\ watch\\ spectacles\\ in\\ adjacent\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\see\\ how\\ emperors\\ monopolize\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacle\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ small\\ man\\ could\\ become\\ famous\\ by\\ putting\\ on\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\,\\ and\\ we\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ seen\\ them\\ struggling\\ to\\ perpetuate\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ spectacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pride\\ in\\ sponsorship\\,\\ manifested\\ by\\ record\\ sponsors\\ put\\ up\\,\\ pictorial\\ commemoration\\ in\\ mosaics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mosaics\\ typically\\ very\\ grand\\,\\ expensive\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ inscription\\ it\\ tries\\ to\\ commemorate\\ specific\\ event\\ on\\ specific\\ occasion\\ to\\ perpetuate\\ the\\ memory\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ last\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pride\\ in\\ participation\\,\\ details\\ of\\ gladiators\\ careers\\ on\\ their\\ tomb\\ stones\\,\\ the\\ want\\ for\\ senators\\ and\\ equestrians\\ to\\ participate\\ \\(which\\ of\\ course\\ was\\ illegal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 25\\ \\#7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Epictetus\\,\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;diatribes\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ gave\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ public\\ sermons\\,\\ was\\ a\\ stoic\\ philosopher\\,\\ here\\ is\\ gives\\ a\\ speech\\ on\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ conversations\\ one\\ should\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\-could\\ benefit\\ or\\ could\\ be\\ stained\\ by\\ interaction\\;\\ says\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ enter\\ carefully\\ into\\ conversation\\ with\\ the\\ laymen\\ \\(ie\\ someone\\ not\\ a\\ stoic\\ philosopher\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ubiquity\\ of\\ images\\ of\\ gladiators\\ on\\ maps\\ very\\ taken\\ for\\ granted\\,\\ absolutely\\ the\\ common\\ currency\\ of\\ everyday\\ thought\\,\\ everyone\\ very\\ used\\ to\\ them\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\could\\ we\\ make\\ a\\ crude\\ class\\ distinction\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ only\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\ who\\ approved\\ of\\ gladiators\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\special\\ seats\\ for\\ vestal\\ virgins\\,\\ emperor\\,\\ senators\\,\\ slaves\\:\\ every\\ category\\ of\\ roman\\ life\\ presemt\\,\\ what\\ was\\ being\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ must\\ have\\ had\\ positive\\ associations\\ if\\ these\\ ppl\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ there\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wistrand\\-\\ said\\ that\\ peoples\\ put\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ face\\ in\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\virtus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theater\\=\\ licentiousness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\circus\\=\\ triviality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\amphitheater\\=\\ demonstrates\\ virtus\\ so\\ romans\\ could\\ accommodate\\ the\\ aspects\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ so\\ Wistrand\\ approved\\ of\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ approve\\ of\\ the\\ theater\\ or\\ the\\ circus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ did\\ ppl\\ object\\ to\\ about\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ etc\\.\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;infamis\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ could\\ be\\ despised\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ level\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ awe\\ for\\ what\\ he\\ could\\ achieve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ attitude\\ of\\ contempt\\ towards\\ gladiators\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ confused\\ with\\ the\\ games\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ppl\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ able\\ to\\ recognize\\ the\\ merits\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiators\\ themselves\\ show\\ no\\ shame\\ in\\ their\\ profession\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 25\\,\\ \\#1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cicero\\ extracts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cicero\\ was\\ the\\ pagan\\ writer\\ who\\ has\\ left\\ us\\ a\\ large\\ amount\\ of\\ latin\\ writing\\,\\ his\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ orator\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ theoretical\\ works\\ on\\ rhetoric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ this\\ one\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ says\\ that\\ gladiators\\ are\\ trained\\ in\\ stoic\\ values\\ of\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ suffering\\ and\\ the\\ implication\\ is\\ that\\ watching\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ will\\ show\\ ppl\\ about\\ tolerance\\ of\\ suffering\\ and\\ acceptance\\ of\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rationalizing\\ notions\\ that\\ ppl\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ when\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ cultural\\ institution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout25\\,\\ \\#3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\comes\\ from\\ speech\\ denouncing\\ Mark\\ Antony\\,\\ cicero\\ denounces\\ him\\ bc\\ Antony\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ lead\\ to\\ strife\\,\\ he\\ delivers\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ 14\\ speeches\\ denouncing\\ Antony\\,\\ 43\\ BCE\\,\\ Marc\\ Antony\\ eventually\\ has\\ cicero\\ fun\\ down\\,\\ his\\ head\\ cut\\ off\\ and\\ his\\ hands\\ cut\\ off\\ and\\ brought\\ back\\ to\\ rome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\did\\ this\\ to\\ Rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ greatest\\ orator\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ lucius\\ antonius\\,\\ antony\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brother\\,\\ who\\ he\\ thought\\ fought\\ as\\ a\\ murmillo\\-\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ call\\ him\\ a\\ gladiator\\ as\\ just\\ an\\ insult\\,\\ but\\ he\\ did\\ in\\ fact\\ fight\\ as\\ a\\ murmillo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shows\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ among\\ the\\ elite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gladiator\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ an\\ adj\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\employing\\ gladiatorial\\ insults\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ witty\\ remark\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout25\\,\\ \\#5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ovid\\ goes\\ on\\ about\\ eros\\ and\\ erotica\\ and\\ offends\\ augustus\\ and\\ is\\ banished\\ to\\ romania\\,\\ written\\ in\\ about\\ 1BCE\\,\\ evidently\\ before\\ the\\ seating\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ shows\\ was\\ separated\\ by\\ gender\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ovid\\ said\\ that\\ spectacles\\ were\\ useful\\ for\\ meeting\\ girls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ also\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ cirucs\\ and\\ the\\ races\\,\\ moves\\ from\\ the\\ circus\\ to\\ the\\ gladiatorial\\ displays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ spectator\\ being\\ wounded\\ by\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ as\\ the\\ gladiator\\ may\\ be\\ wounded\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;once\\ he\\ has\\ placed\\ his\\ bet\\&rdquo\\;\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ spectators\\ must\\ have\\ bet\\ on\\ the\\ arena\\ like\\ mad\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handout\\ 25\\,\\ \\#8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\plutarch\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;on\\ the\\ eating\\ of\\ meat\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ was\\ the\\ same\\ one\\ who\\ said\\ that\\ ppl\\ were\\ wasting\\ their\\ money\\ on\\ spectacles\\,\\ criticized\\ sponsors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\here\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ criticize\\ luxury\\ and\\ debauchery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ cruelty\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\ follow\\ spectacles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\makes\\ an\\ identification\\ between\\ the\\ attendence\\ at\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\ and\\ the\\ desensitizing\\ of\\ spectators\\ once\\ they\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ left\\ the\\ arena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\plutarch\\ espouses\\ the\\ theory\\ that\\ watching\\ violence\\ hyped\\ ppl\\ up\\ and\\ made\\ them\\ more\\ vicious\\ and\\ made\\ them\\ less\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ dignified\\ treatment\\ of\\ their\\ fellow\\ once\\ they\\ left\\ the\\ arena\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\direct\\ link\\ btw\\ watching\\ violence\\ and\\ behaving\\ violently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\contrast\\ btw\\ watching\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacle\\,\\ and\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ thing\\ good\\ ppl\\ should\\ be\\ doing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 25\\,\\ \\#7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;seneca\\-\\ letters\\ with\\ this\\ guy\\ called\\ usirus\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&rdquo\\;epistulae\\ morales\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ stoic\\ philosopher\\ seneca\\ gives\\ this\\ guy\\ advice\\ about\\ coping\\ with\\ life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\exposing\\ oneself\\ to\\ the\\ contaminating\\ influences\\ of\\ ppl\\ without\\ the\\ carapace\\ to\\ know\\ any\\ better\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;carapace\\&rdquo\\;\\=thick\\ shell\\ of\\ philosophy\\ to\\ know\\ any\\ better\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ such\\ protection\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ man\\ bc\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ advantage\\ of\\ training\\ and\\ philosophy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\calls\\ the\\ lunch\\ hour\\ break\\ pure\\ and\\ simple\\ murder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\posits\\ objections\\ to\\ his\\ thesis\\,\\ interesting\\ rhetoric\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seneca\\ is\\ objecting\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ ppl\\ watch\\ them\\ and\\ take\\ pleasure\\ from\\ doing\\ so\\ \\&\\#39\\;bad\\ examples\\ have\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ recoiling\\ on\\ one\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\inappriopriate\\ to\\ take\\ such\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ spectacles\\;\\ he\\ agrees\\ that\\ ppl\\ objectified\\ in\\ arena\\ may\\ have\\ desreved\\ it\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ spectators\\ watching\\ that\\ bothers\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ataxaria\\&rdquo\\;\\=what\\ philosopher\\ tries\\ to\\ cultivate\\ to\\ take\\ things\\ that\\ happen\\ in\\ stride\\,\\ calmly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 25\\,\\ \\#10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\extract\\ from\\ augustine\\,\\ \\(down\\ to\\ 388\\)\\ called\\ the\\ confessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ passage\\ augustan\\ describes\\ his\\ friend\\ who\\ has\\ never\\ gone\\ to\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ in\\ carthage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ rome\\ however\\ he\\ was\\ persuaded\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ lost\\ his\\ reason\\ and\\ took\\ gulps\\ of\\ madness\\,\\ echanted\\ by\\ the\\ even\\ spectacle\\,\\ drunk\\ on\\ blood\\ stained\\ spectacle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\imagery\\ of\\ drinking\\ and\\ being\\ drunk\\ on\\ blood\\ is\\ the\\ metaphor\\ that\\ st\\ augustun\\ uses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\essentially\\ the\\ same\\ objection\\ that\\ seneca\\,\\ a\\ pagan\\,\\ was\\ making\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\going\\ to\\ the\\ spectacles\\ infringes\\ the\\ spiritual\\ space\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\:\\ assault\\ on\\ the\\ sesnse\\ which\\ weares\\ down\\ on\\ ones\\ values\\,\\ infected\\ by\\ the\\ histeria\\ of\\ other\\ spectators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ is\\ worried\\ about\\ the\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ spectator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\debate\\ about\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ appropriate\\ to\\ televise\\ the\\ events\\ inappropriate\\ to\\ see\\ it\\,\\ not\\ to\\ have\\ it\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 25\\,\\ \\#9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;pliny\\:\\ this\\ passage\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ supporting\\ galdiatorial\\ spectacle\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ younger\\ pliny\\ the\\ same\\ one\\ who\\ writes\\ to\\ trajan\\ about\\ the\\ christians\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ through\\ all\\ the\\ categories\\ of\\ trajan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ career\\ as\\ emperor\\,\\ shows\\ how\\ much\\ better\\ he\\ is\\ than\\ domitian\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\like\\ vespasian\\ contrasting\\ himself\\ with\\ nero\\,\\ trajan\\ contrasted\\ with\\ domitian\\,\\ celebrates\\ the\\ spectacles\\ of\\ trajan\\,\\ trajan\\ argues\\ that\\ ppl\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ from\\ the\\ brave\\ gladiators\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\handout\\ 25\\,\\ \\#11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\325\\ ce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;constantine\\ was\\ the\\ new\\ christian\\ leader\\,\\ the\\ edict\\ of\\ beirut\\ effectively\\ banned\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacle\\;\\ bloody\\ spectacles\\ do\\ not\\ please\\ us\\!\\ eg\\,\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ them\\ anymore\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\quiz\\ for\\ 12\\/8\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\"\\;\\=\\ smallest\\ currency\\ denomination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;2\\.5\\ as\\=\\ 1\\ sestertius\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;4\\ sestertius\\=1\\ denarius\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\latin\\ abbreviation\\ for\\ sestertius\\ was\\ iis\\ or\\ hs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\ sestertius\\ was\\ 1\\/4\\ of\\ denarius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\costs\\:\\ materials\\,\\ workers\\,\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\costs\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ sponsors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\animal\\ trade\\ major\\ factor\\ in\\ economy\\,\\ by\\ 3rd\\ century\\ esp\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\late\\ 2nd\\ century\\,\\ early\\ 3rd\\ century\\ emperors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commodus\\ 180\\-192\\ ce\\ \\(end\\ of\\ 2nd\\ century\\ ce\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\conspicuous\\ consumption\\=\\ image\\ emperors\\ cultivated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vespasian\\ tried\\ to\\ use\\ taxes\\ of\\ ppl\\ from\\ everywhere\\ to\\ cover\\ cost\\ of\\ colosseum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\with\\ jc\\,\\ soldiers\\ wanted\\ cash\\,not\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\caracalla\\=\\ 211\\-217\\ ce\\=\\ emperor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ 212\\=\\ universal\\ edict\\ of\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hunting\\ theater\\=\\=\\ greek\\ for\\ amphitheater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\caracalla\\ expected\\ games\\ to\\ be\\ thrown\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ theaters\\ demolished\\ after\\ he\\ left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dio\\ was\\ an\\ eyewitness\\ to\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;epitome\\"\\;\\ of\\ dio\\,\\ survived\\ as\\ writings\\ in\\ a\\ digest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perhaps\\ stone\\ was\\ carted\\ away\\ for\\ other\\ bldg\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ 3rd\\ century\\ most\\ cities\\ already\\ had\\ amphitheaters\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;abanissio\\ granu\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(amphitheater\\ built\\ for\\ this\\ purpose\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\or\\ adaptation\\ of\\ a\\ theater\\ or\\ a\\ stadium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3rd\\ century\\,\\ el\\ djem\\ built\\ to\\ replace\\ previous\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\50\\%\\ contributions\\ for\\ amph\\.\\ from\\ treasury\\,\\ other\\ part\\ from\\ sponsors\\ and\\ magistrates\\ private\\ funds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\comparable\\ to\\ medium\\ size\\ temple\\ in\\ africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\60\\-70k\\ sesetres\\ for\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ invesment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theater\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ 600\\,000\\ secters\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paved\\ forum\\ with\\ portico\\ for\\ 2000\\ sec\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;maecenas\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ minister\\ of\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tells\\ augusutus\\ he\\ should\\ concentrate\\ funds\\ on\\ rome\\,\\ make\\ rome\\ the\\ epicnenter\\,\\ bldgs\\ in\\ rome\\ more\\ glorious\\,\\ money\\ more\\ carefully\\ spent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ ppl\\ to\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ office\\ requiring\\ spending\\ money\\ outside\\ community\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\plutarch\\:\\ one\\ should\\ not\\ bribe\\ the\\ populous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ shame\\ in\\ refusing\\ office\\ if\\ you\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ afford\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hadrian\\ \\(125\\ ce\\)\\ letter\\ to\\ city\\ of\\ aphrodisias\\ \\-\\ 2\\ meanings\\:\\ no\\ ppl\\ wanted\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ priest\\ hood\\ bc\\ they\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ money\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ shows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\or\\,\\ were\\ they\\ capping\\ it\\ to\\ divert\\ money\\ to\\ the\\ more\\ pleasing\\ task\\ of\\ aquaducts\\?\\,\\ unclear\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\12\\/3\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;pugillario\\"\\;\\=\\ items\\ held\\ in\\ the\\ fist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;vindolanda\\"\\;\\=\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ tablets\\ found\\ by\\ hadrian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;vindolanda\\ tablet\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ pugillario\\=\\ informal\\ notes\\ writtin\\ on\\ wax\\ on\\ small\\ wooden\\ tablet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;marcus\\ aurelius\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ wants\\ to\\ limit\\ spending\\ on\\ shows\\ in\\ 177\\ ce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commodus\\ was\\ marcus\\ aurelius\\&\\#39\\;\\ son\\;\\ movement\\ approved\\ as\\ join\\ proposal\\ in\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;aes\\ italicense\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ speech\\ proposed\\ by\\ senator\\ \\(177\\ ce\\)\\,\\ who\\ was\\ endorsing\\ law\\ of\\ aurelius\\ and\\ commodus\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ written\\ on\\ a\\ bronze\\ tablet\\ found\\ in\\ spain\\=\\ applied\\ to\\ whole\\ empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\try\\ to\\ cap\\ inflationary\\ spending\\ on\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;in\\ east\\ and\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;trinci\\"\\;\\=\\ opponent\\ of\\ the\\ gauls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\limit\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ money\\ a\\ lanista\\ can\\ be\\ paid\\ for\\ services\\ of\\ trincist\\?\\?\\(\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fiscus\\=\\ the\\ emperor\\ controlled\\ it\\,\\ the\\ concernt\\ of\\ the\\ aes\\ italicense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\antonine\\ plague\\ during\\ reign\\ of\\ antonius\\ pius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\aerarium\\=\\ treasury\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\interpuncts\\-\\ dots\\ between\\ the\\ letters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\munera\\ assiforana\\-gladiatorial\\ show\\ just\\ costing\\ an\\ ass\\ to\\ enter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cah\\=\\ cambridge\\ ancienty\\ history\\ source\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\acta\\ senatus\\=\\ senatorial\\ proceedings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\palus\\=\\ gladiatorial\\ categories\\ also\\ the\\ word\\ for\\ the\\ post\\ they\\ practices\\ against\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commentarii\\=\\=\\ the\\ minutes\\ of\\ a\\ meetings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paloi\\ \\=\\ \\ \\;the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ professional\\ excellences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ cost\\ of\\ trinci\\ was\\ a\\ special\\ burden\\ to\\ the\\ local\\ priest\\,\\ the\\ priests\\ in\\ the\\ roman\\ empire\\ had\\ to\\ put\\ on\\ gladiatorial\\ displays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\syriarch\\=\\ presidentof\\ provincial\\ councilin\\ syria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\provision\\ introduced\\=\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ be\\ syriarch\\ \\(\\-\\-4\\ games\\ in\\ 4\\ yr\\ career\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\12\\/5\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\converted\\ theaters\\ in\\ greek\\ east\\ show\\ greeks\\ adapting\\ institution\\ of\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\advertisements\\ \\,\\ travel\\ miles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wistrand\\-\\ said\\ that\\ ppl\\ put\\ their\\ face\\ in\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(virtus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\theater\\-licentiousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\circus\\-\\ triviality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\amphitheater\\-\\ demonstrates\\ virtus\\,\\ so\\ romans\\ could\\ accommodate\\ the\\ aspects\\ of\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\,\\ so\\ wistrand\\ approved\\ of\\ the\\ amphitheater\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ theater\\ or\\ circus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\12\\/8\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ scholar\\ Georges\\ Ville\\ was\\ writing\\ book\\ about\\ gladiators\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ when\\ died\\.\\ In\\ 1960\\ wrote\\ another\\ book\\ dissecting\\ reasons\\ why\\ games\\ came\\ to\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ influence\\ did\\ Christianity\\ have\\ upon\\ the\\ trajectory\\ of\\ the\\ games\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Handout\\ 25\\,\\ \\#11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constantine\\ declared\\ Christianity\\ to\\ be\\ official\\ religion\\ of\\ empire\\ in\\ 312\\ CE\\.\\ Bloody\\ spectacles\\ when\\ no\\ war\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ to\\ be\\ performed\\,\\ and\\ that\\ means\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\.\\ Took\\ long\\ time\\ for\\ news\\ to\\ filter\\ around\\ empire\\,\\ and\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ obey\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tertullian\\ flourished\\ ca\\.\\ 200\\ CE\\,\\ lived\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ Important\\ witness\\ to\\ Christian\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ games\\ because\\ 1\\)\\ lived\\ fairly\\ early\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ devotes\\ whole\\ tract\\ \\"\\;De\\ Spectaculis\\"\\;\\ to\\ the\\ spectacles\\.\\ Purpose\\ was\\ to\\ promote\\ Christian\\ faith\\,\\ compares\\ spectacles\\ to\\ honey\\ in\\ poisoned\\ pastry\\.\\ Tried\\ to\\ get\\ Christians\\ to\\ worship\\ emperor\\,\\ but\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ because\\ could\\ only\\ worship\\ one\\ god\\.\\ Any\\ event\\ where\\ gods\\ displayed\\,\\ possible\\ label\\ of\\ idolatry\\.\\ Christian\\ writers\\ like\\ St\\.\\ Augustine\\,\\ John\\ Tritterstam\\ tried\\ to\\ encourage\\ Christians\\ not\\ to\\ attend\\ spectacles\\.\\ Tertullian\\ associated\\ pagan\\ spectacles\\ with\\ superstition\\.\\ Gymnasium\\ is\\ tantamount\\ to\\ vanity\\.\\ Theatre\\ is\\ inpudicitia\\ \\=\\ shamelessness\\.\\ Circus\\ is\\ insanity\\.\\ Arena\\ is\\ atrocitas\\ \\=\\ atrocity\\.\\ But\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ say\\ spectacles\\ are\\ cruel\\ necessarily\\.\\ Mainly\\ targets\\ spectacles\\ as\\ pagan\\ practice\\ and\\ therefore\\ anathema\\ to\\ Christianity\\.\\ By\\ his\\ time\\,\\ games\\ had\\ become\\ entirely\\ secularized\\.\\ Focuses\\ on\\ origins\\ in\\ paganism\\.\\ Spectacula\\ leads\\ to\\ irrationality\\ and\\ destruction\\ of\\ peace\\ of\\ mind\\.\\ Christians\\ should\\ not\\ rejoice\\ in\\ punishment\\ of\\ guilty\\,\\ but\\ that\\ should\\ lament\\ guilt\\ of\\ person\\.\\ Argues\\ that\\ those\\ punished\\ in\\ spectacles\\ deserved\\ it\\,\\ but\\ laments\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ guilty\\.\\ When\\ Tertullian\\ talks\\ about\\ some\\ condemned\\ to\\ beasts\\ being\\ innocent\\,\\ treads\\ tricky\\ ground\\ because\\ of\\ impulse\\ in\\ Christian\\ church\\ to\\ voluntarily\\ subject\\ themselves\\ to\\ violence\\.\\ Objects\\ to\\ committing\\ murder\\ in\\ arena\\.\\ Both\\ pagan\\ and\\ Christian\\ works\\ look\\ at\\ moral\\ fiber\\ of\\ spectators\\ and\\ participants\\ rather\\ than\\ as\\ institution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ville\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Melanges\\ de\\ l\\&\\#39\\;Ecole\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;Francaise\\ de\\ Rome\\"\\;\\ in\\ 1960\\.\\ Premise\\ is\\ that\\ evidence\\ suggests\\ that\\ upper\\ classes\\ thought\\ differently\\ from\\ lower\\ classes\\.\\ Ramsay\\ MacMullen\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\"\\;Historia\\"\\;\\ in\\ 1986\\,\\ asked\\ what\\ difference\\ did\\ Christianity\\ make\\.\\ Mainly\\ in\\ sexual\\ morays\\ and\\ not\\ spectacles\\ and\\ punishment\\.\\ Even\\ after\\ Christianity\\,\\ spectacles\\ were\\ increasingly\\ violent\\.\\ Edict\\ by\\ Constantine\\ implies\\ there\\ was\\ feeling\\ against\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ for\\ gladiators\\.\\ Ville\\ shows\\ that\\ in\\ Rome\\ gladiatorial\\ displays\\ survived\\ longest\\.\\ In\\ Greek\\ East\\,\\ died\\ out\\ soon\\ after\\ edict\\.\\ Libanius\\ found\\ chameleon\\ in\\ lecture\\ hall\\.\\ In\\ Antioch\\ in\\ 4th\\ century\\.\\ Only\\ mentions\\ beast\\ hunts\\ after\\ 327\\ CE\\,\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\ before\\.\\ Epigraphic\\ evidence\\ from\\ Italy\\ dating\\ to\\ mid\\-4th\\ century\\ for\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\.\\ In\\ Theodosian\\ Code\\ published\\ between\\ 429\\-438\\ CE\\,\\ collection\\ of\\ 2\\,500\\ imperial\\ laws\\,\\ have\\ repeated\\ legislations\\ against\\ gladiators\\.\\ If\\ there\\ weren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ any\\ more\\,\\ then\\ wouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ anything\\ legislated\\ against\\ them\\.\\ Artistic\\ evidence\\ \\(Borghese\\ mosaic\\ from\\ 4th\\ century\\ shows\\ gladiators\\)\\ from\\ Via\\ Appia\\ in\\ Madrid\\.\\ Dating\\ things\\ on\\ stylistic\\ grounds\\ is\\ tricky\\ business\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pope\\ Damasius\\ in\\ 367\\ CE\\ recruited\\ gladiators\\ to\\ defend\\ him\\ against\\ opponents\\ in\\ church\\.\\ Ville\\ suggests\\ gladiators\\ retained\\ as\\ personal\\ bodyguards\\ for\\ aristocracy\\ in\\ 4th\\ century\\ during\\ political\\ fragmentation\\.\\ No\\ definite\\ proof\\ that\\ Christians\\ martyred\\ in\\ Colosseum\\.\\ Amphitheatre\\ epitomizes\\ persecution\\ of\\ Christians\\.\\ Only\\ in\\ 365\\ CE\\ was\\ there\\ law\\ preventing\\ condemning\\ Christians\\ to\\ be\\ trained\\ as\\ gladiators\\ in\\ ludus\\.\\ Second\\ quarter\\ of\\ 4th\\ century\\ saw\\ decline\\ of\\ spectacles\\ in\\ Greek\\ East\\.\\ For\\ shows\\ to\\ maintain\\ popularity\\,\\ must\\ maintain\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ frequency\\.\\ Once\\ games\\ started\\ to\\ be\\ held\\ intermittently\\,\\ their\\ popularity\\ starts\\ to\\ wane\\.\\ Private\\ gladiatorial\\ training\\ schools\\ closed\\ in\\ 399\\ CE\\.\\ Imperial\\ schools\\ open\\ through\\ 402\\-403\\ CE\\.\\ Impulse\\ of\\ keeping\\ open\\ to\\ protect\\ senators\\ as\\ personal\\ bodyguards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ source\\ from\\ 400\\ CE\\ was\\ Symmachus\\,\\ senator\\ with\\ powerful\\ friends\\ who\\ tried\\ to\\ keep\\ show\\ on\\ road\\ in\\ Rome\\.\\ Frequently\\ mentions\\ spectacles\\,\\ suggesting\\ this\\ was\\ widespread\\ concern\\.\\ Had\\ to\\ put\\ on\\ beast\\ hunts\\ and\\ munera\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ office\\,\\ complained\\ about\\ expenses\\.\\ HANDOUT\\ 26\\ \\#1\\ Complaint\\ from\\ Symmachus\\ to\\ brother\\ Flavianus\\ about\\ spectacles\\.\\ Execution\\ put\\ on\\ by\\ sons\\ preempted\\ by\\ suicide\\ by\\ all\\ prisoners\\,\\ wrecking\\ spectacle\\.\\ Calculated\\ that\\ bears\\ should\\ have\\ come\\,\\ but\\ had\\ not\\.\\ Offers\\ peek\\ into\\ corruption\\ of\\ officials\\.\\ HANDOUT\\ 13a\\ \\#2\\ Infrastructural\\ problems\\ of\\ getting\\ animals\\ to\\ games\\ constantly\\ occupied\\ Symmachus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beast\\ hunts\\ lasted\\ longer\\ than\\ gladiatorial\\ displays\\.\\ Last\\ pictorial\\ evidence\\ for\\ gladiators\\ is\\ medallion\\ from\\ 434\\-435\\ CE\\,\\ just\\ before\\ another\\ ban\\ introduced\\ in\\ 434\\-438\\ CE\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ spectacles\\.\\ Scarre\\ on\\ p\\.\\ 137\\ lists\\ emperors\\,\\ see\\ that\\ period\\ 434\\-438\\ CE\\ was\\ under\\ Theodosian\\ in\\ East\\.\\ Split\\ between\\ eastern\\ and\\ western\\ halves\\ of\\ empire\\.\\ Eastern\\ half\\ became\\ preservative\\ of\\ Roman\\ empire\\.\\ Spectacles\\ lasted\\ longer\\ in\\ East\\.\\ Legacy\\ continued\\ in\\ Byzantium\\.\\ Gradual\\ change\\ in\\ sensibilities\\ associated\\ with\\ introduction\\ of\\ Christianity\\.\\ Very\\ gradual\\ process\\.\\ Pagan\\ philosophers\\ objected\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ first\\ century\\ to\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\.\\ Financial\\ burden\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ Marcus\\ Aurelius\\ \\(Aes\\ Italicense\\)\\,\\ inflation\\ of\\ costs\\ made\\ people\\ reluctant\\ to\\ hold\\ offices\\ where\\ spectacles\\ were\\ prerequisite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wiedemann\\&\\#39\\;s\\ thesis\\ is\\ that\\ gladiators\\ were\\ alternative\\ route\\ to\\ salvation\\.\\ Too\\ abstract\\,\\ misses\\ point\\ that\\ people\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ gladiators\\.\\ Made\\ difficult\\ to\\ eradicate\\ practice\\ by\\ church\\.\\ Fact\\ that\\ they\\ stayed\\ longer\\ in\\ West\\ than\\ East\\ explained\\ by\\ Ville\\&\\#39\\;s\\ thesis\\ about\\ use\\ of\\ gladiators\\ as\\ personal\\ bodyguards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Handout7\\,\\ \\#4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Prudentius\\ defense\\ against\\ Symmachus\\.\\ Vestal\\ Virgins\\ were\\ psyched\\ by\\ games\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\12\\/10\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\last\\ wednesday\\ lecture\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\-did\\ institutional\\ violence\\ in\\ roman\\ history\\ end\\ with\\ roman\\ spectacles\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;coin\\ of\\ septimius\\ severus\\ 204\\ ce\\ \\(staged\\ venatio\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\,\\ minted\\ coin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\chariot\\ races\\,\\ ship\\,\\ and\\ venatio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\laetitia\\ temporum\\=\\ what\\ happy\\ times\\!\\-\\(inscription\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;LUDI\\ SEACULARES\\"\\;\\=\\ 110\\ year\\ interval\\ celebrations\\;\\ septimius\\ severus\\ celebrated\\ this\\ event\\ with\\ the\\ coin\\ in\\ the\\ slide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\show\\ chariots\\ in\\ the\\ backgrount\\,\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ horses\\ and\\ the\\ charioteer\\,\\ we\\ can\\ also\\ see\\ a\\ huge\\ ship\\ and\\ some\\ animals\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ commemorates\\ a\\ staging\\ of\\ a\\ venatio\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\ \\(which\\ we\\ know\\ its\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\ bc\\ of\\ the\\ chariot\\ racing\\ in\\ the\\ background\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\venationes\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ were\\ celebrated\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wanted\\ to\\ dramatize\\ the\\ venatio\\,\\ so\\ he\\ introduced\\ the\\ animals\\ aboard\\ ship\\ \\ \\;and\\ then\\ the\\ ship\\ would\\ break\\ apart\\ and\\ the\\ animals\\ would\\ pop\\ out\\ for\\ a\\ hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\circus\\ used\\ for\\ chariot\\ racing\\ and\\ staged\\ venationes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ see\\ a\\ venatio\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\,\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ stand\\ with\\ seven\\ eggs\\,\\ the\\ eggs\\ are\\ the\\ lap\\ counters\\,\\ removed\\ to\\ count\\ the\\ laps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;campana\\"\\;\\ relief\\,\\ terracotta\\.\\ environs\\ of\\ Rome\\,\\ c\\.1st\\ c\\ AD\\,\\ venatio\\ in\\ circus\\;\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ spectators\\,\\ a\\ spectator\\ in\\ the\\ bldg\\ in\\ stands\\ of\\ the\\ circus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ are\\ called\\ campana\\ reliefs\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ origins\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ these\\,\\ found\\ in\\ rome\\,\\ various\\ spectacle\\ scenes\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Lugdunum\\,\\ Gaul\\ \\(\\=Lyons\\)\\:\\ circus\\ mosaic\\ c\\ CE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ see\\ the\\ conical\\ shaped\\ turning\\ posts\\,\\ \\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ charioteers\\ careening\\ along\\ the\\ track\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\white\\,\\ red\\,\\ blue\\,\\ green\\ \\=\\=\\ circus\\ faction\\ colors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ horrible\\ accidents\\ being\\ depicted\\ at\\ diagonal\\ ends\\ of\\ the\\ visual\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;piazza\\ armerina\\,\\ sicily\\ \\ \\;circus\\ mosaic\\;\\ very\\ famous\\,\\ 300\\-335\\ ce\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ piles\\ of\\ bodies\\ in\\ the\\ bl\\ corner\\-\\ horse\\ bodies\\ and\\ riders\\ \\(life\\ of\\ nero\\ had\\ a\\ nasty\\ chariot\\ accident\\)\\,\\ suggests\\ gruesome\\ interest\\ of\\ general\\ public\\,\\ tremendous\\ realism\\ \\,\\ even\\ have\\ stand\\ with\\ the\\ eggs\\,\\ and\\ ladder\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ egg\\ counters\\ from\\ the\\ platform\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Piazza\\ armerina\\:\\ sketch\\ of\\ circus\\ mosaic\\-\\ \\(in\\ coleman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ article\\ in\\ sb\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ charioteer\\ in\\ chariot\\,\\ happened\\ to\\ musical\\ acompaniment\\,\\ like\\ amph\\.\\,\\ gets\\ palm\\ fround\\ for\\ win\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ see\\ man\\ getting\\ helmet\\ from\\ attendant\\ \\(helmet\\ to\\ charioteer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ see\\ the\\ cahriot\\ in\\ full\\ swing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ hadrian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ villa\\,\\ outskirts\\ of\\ rome\\,\\ hadrian\\ took\\ over\\ from\\ trajan\\ 117\\-138\\ ad\\,\\ 125\\-130ce\\ hadrian\\ was\\ constructing\\ his\\ villa\\,\\ huge\\ site\\,\\ marble\\ relief\\,\\ marble\\ frieze\\ of\\ Erotes\\ \\(cupids\\)\\ racing\\;\\ charioteer\\ in\\ each\\ case\\ has\\ wings\\ on\\ and\\ nothing\\ else\\,\\ is\\ an\\ erotes\\,\\ romans\\ liked\\ using\\ cupid\\,\\ adult\\ pastimes\\ shown\\ being\\ deployed\\ by\\ little\\ children\\ or\\ cupids\\;\\ also\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ hte\\ beasts\\ being\\ raced\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ this\\ rleif\\,\\ are\\ not\\ horses\\ but\\ little\\ antelope\\ \\(far\\ lt\\)\\,\\ far\\ rt\\ we\\ have\\ 2\\ boars\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ something\\ like\\ hrses\\ or\\ donkeys\\;\\ this\\ would\\ cohere\\ with\\ whimiscal\\ humouros\\ representation\\ \\(the\\ next\\ slide\\ has\\ cupids\\ and\\ dogs\\ and\\ stuff\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;marble\\ relief\\ \\ \\;showing\\ ape\\ as\\ charioteer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ piazza\\ armerina\\ \\:\\ cupid\\ charioteers\\;\\ concerned\\ with\\ 4\\ factions\\,\\ chariots\\ being\\ drawn\\ by\\ suitably\\ colored\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Russata\\ faction\\:\\ flamingos\\ \\(red\\ faction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Albata\\ faction\\ \\:ducks\\ \\(white\\ faction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ \\ \\;Prasina\\ faction\\ wood\\ pigeons\\:\\ \\(green\\ faction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\ Veneta\\ faction\\ \\:\\ peahens\\ \\(2\\ bluebirds\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\each\\ man\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ v\\ on\\ his\\ forehead\\,\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ frown\\ of\\ consternation\\ or\\ signature\\,\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ laid\\ in\\ \\ \\;a\\ villa\\ that\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ traditional\\ circus\\ depiction\\,\\ but\\ this\\ one\\ also\\ shows\\ the\\ whimsical\\ interpretation\\ of\\ circus\\ \\(staffed\\ by\\ birds\\ instead\\ of\\ horses\\ with\\ children\\ riding\\ them\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gafsa\\ mosaic\\-\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ audience\\ depicted\\,\\ ppl\\ stare\\ impassively\\ at\\ the\\ spectacle\\,\\ no\\ depiction\\ of\\ hand\\ waving\\ or\\ anything\\ perhaps\\ the\\ audience\\ stake\\ holders\\ in\\ what\\ happening\\,\\ the\\ audience\\ seems\\ bigger\\ than\\ ppl\\ depicted\\ in\\ arena\\;\\ circus\\ a\\ place\\ of\\ hierarchy\\,\\ looks\\ dignified\\,\\ observes\\ the\\ spectacle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(refers\\ to\\ ho\\ 4\\)\\,\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ nucerian\\ pompeii\\ riot\\ at\\ fidanae\\,\\ the\\ amphitheater\\ not\\ completely\\ realistic\\ bc\\ it\\ has\\ extra\\ grades\\ going\\ up\\ staircase\\,\\ we\\ hvae\\ ppl\\ fight\\ in\\ arena\\ and\\ outside\\ the\\ arena\\,\\ we\\ have\\ vendors\\,\\ awning\\ at\\ top\\,\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ vamitaria\\ \\(\\?\\?\\?\\)\\,\\ the\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ has\\ spilled\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ outside\\.\\ too\\ many\\ buttress\\ arches\\,\\ should\\ only\\ be\\ 6\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ 11\\ in\\ the\\ slide\\,\\ violence\\ within\\ the\\ arena\\ space\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ spilt\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ arena\\;\\ there\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ too\\ many\\ ppl\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ \\(more\\ than\\ 2\\ gladiators\\ and\\ referee\\)\\,\\ view\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ north\\ \\(would\\ typically\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ pool\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ not\\ right\\)\\,\\ found\\ in\\ a\\ graden\\ wall\\ in\\ pompeii\\,\\ clinches\\ identificaton\\ that\\ its\\ the\\ stone\\ one\\ in\\ pompeii\\,\\ we\\ can\\ also\\ see\\ th\\ city\\ wall\\ in\\ the\\ top\\,\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ perimeter\\ walkway\\,\\ and\\ arches\\ that\\ would\\ take\\ on\\ into\\ the\\ theater\\ and\\ to\\ seats\\,\\ trick\\ of\\ roman\\ perspective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Annals\\ of\\ tacitus\\ book\\ 14\\ \\,\\ book\\ containing\\ crucifixion\\ of\\ christ\\ mssing\\,\\ have\\ important\\ ch\\,\\ ch\\ 17\\,\\ that\\ talks\\ about\\ pompeii\\ episode\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\passage\\ datable\\ to\\ year\\ 59\\,\\ and\\ recounts\\ riot\\ in\\ amphitheater\\ at\\ pompeii\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\"\\;\\ There\\ are\\ some\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ account\\.\\ It\\ is\\,\\ however\\,\\ greatly\\ serendipidous\\ that\\ the\\ textual\\ and\\ visual\\ accounts\\ have\\ survived\\.\\ Senators\\ prevented\\ gatherings\\ for\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ illegal\\ leagues\\ dissolved\\,\\ ppl\\ exiled\\!\\!\\ \\(leagues\\=\\ collegia\\;\\ we\\ heard\\ this\\ word\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ pliny\\ and\\ trajans\\ correspondence\\ about\\ the\\ christians\\;\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ ppl\\ banding\\ together\\ with\\ like\\ minded\\ purpose\\ because\\ then\\ they\\&\\#39\\;d\\ try\\ to\\ unseat\\ them\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\which\\ collegia\\ were\\ these\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\which\\ type\\ of\\ spectacles\\ were\\ banned\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\ were\\ the\\ rioters\\ armed\\ anyways\\?\\ why\\ did\\ thy\\ have\\ swords\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*important\\ scene\\ because\\ there\\ must\\ only\\ be\\ a\\ 10\\ year\\ window\\ for\\ advertisements\\,\\ or\\ that\\ they\\ predate\\ the\\ year\\ 59\\ \\(69\\-79\\ or\\ prior\\ to\\ 59\\)\\,\\ also\\ the\\ ban\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ for\\ all\\ gladiatorial\\ spectacles\\ because\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ \\"\\;of\\ that\\ type\\"\\;\\ means\\;\\ a\\ troubling\\ passage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(melage\\ \\?\\?\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ plot\\ a\\ chronology\\ of\\ the\\ advertisments\\?\\?\\ only\\ covered\\ athletes\\ and\\ venationes\\?\\ no\\ advertisements\\ or\\ tablets\\ that\\ period\\ that\\ actually\\ advertise\\ gladiatros\\?\\?\\ dating\\ is\\ difficult\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sabatini\\ Tubolegi\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\leagues\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\ all\\ collegia\\ at\\ pompeii\\ would\\ be\\ illegal\\;\\ only\\ applies\\ to\\ those\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ instituted\\ without\\ sanction\\,\\ could\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ clubs\\ for\\ young\\ men\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ and\\ upper\\ classes\\ who\\ were\\ trained\\ for\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ physical\\ exercises\\.\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tacitus\\ uses\\ word\\ spectacula\\ not\\ munus\\,\\ which\\ is\\ unusual\\,\\ perhaps\\ suggests\\ a\\ different\\ type\\ of\\ spectacles\\;\\ pompeii\\ founded\\ by\\ sulla\\,\\ capua\\ and\\ nuceria\\ founded\\ by\\ JC\\;\\ rivalry\\ between\\ citizens\\ of\\ adjacent\\ colonies\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\was\\ this\\ staged\\ or\\ not\\?\\?\\ big\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ other\\ riots\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ we\\ know\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Roman\\ Games\\ Lecture\\ 12\\/12\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scarre\\ pg\\.\\ 135\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Byzantium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constantinople\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Istanbul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justinian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nika\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Byzantine\\ period\\-\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ empire\\ had\\ been\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\ under\\ Diocletian\\ in\\ 303\\ AD\\.\\ The\\ balance\\ of\\ real\\ power\\ shifts\\ to\\ the\\ eastern\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constantine\\ founded\\ Constantinople\\ is\\ the\\ modern\\ Istanbul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eis\\ ten\\ polin\\-\\ Istanbul\\-\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Istanbul\\ and\\ Constantinople\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ Justinian\\-\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\-\\ emperor\\ of\\ the\\ Byzantine\\ \\(eastern\\ Roman\\ Empire\\)\\ empire\\-\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ church\\;\\ emperor\\ from\\ 527\\-565\\ AD\\-\\ had\\ two\\ passions\\-\\ religion\\,\\ and\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Digest\\-\\ compilation\\ of\\ Roman\\ law\\ of\\ 50\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\532\\ CE\\-\\ Nika\\ Riot\\-\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ 30\\,000\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ hippodrome\\ \\(where\\ the\\ circus\\ was\\ held\\)\\-\\ held\\ about\\ 100\\,000\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ documents\\ contradict\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ urban\\ drift\\ towards\\ the\\ city\\-\\ Constantinople\\ was\\ particularly\\ populated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ people\\ riot\\ because\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ their\\ animosity\\ towards\\ the\\ rich\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circus\\ factions\\ were\\ genuine\\ fan\\ clubs\\-\\ rivalry\\ between\\ the\\ different\\ followers\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ circus\\ factions\\ \\(focal\\ point\\ of\\ loyalties\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ the\\ emperor\\ annoys\\ people\\ who\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ root\\ for\\-\\ face\\-to\\-face\\ exposure\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justinian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ been\\ a\\ popular\\ emperor\\ so\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ used\\ to\\ the\\ animosity\\ of\\ people\\-\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ consistent\\ and\\ so\\ people\\ were\\ angry\\ \\(any\\ sort\\ of\\ concession\\ shows\\ weakness\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ hippodrome\\ is\\ a\\ controlled\\ space\\ and\\ is\\ it\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ aggression\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ the\\ fighters\\ that\\ led\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ revolt\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Handbook\\ of\\ Mass\\ Media\\ Ethics\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wilkins\\ and\\ Christians\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ mass\\ media\\ of\\ those\\ that\\ receive\\ the\\ messages\\ of\\ the\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Violent\\ entertainment\\ in\\ movies\\ is\\ not\\ real\\ whereas\\ the\\ fighters\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ are\\ real\\-\\ can\\ children\\ identify\\ the\\ difference\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\ for\\ the\\ cathartic\\ \\(cleansing\\)\\ effect\\ of\\ violence\\-\\ Hitchcock\\-\\ when\\ people\\ view\\ violence\\ it\\ makes\\ them\\ less\\ aggressive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Media\\ violence\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ aggression\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Priming\\-\\ you\\ see\\ something\\ that\\ stimulates\\ thought\\ that\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ aggressive\\ thoughts\\ and\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Excitation\\ transfer\\-\\ after\\ a\\ violent\\ stimulus\\,\\ a\\ subsequent\\ stimulus\\ seems\\ worse\\,\\ so\\ you\\ react\\ more\\ aggressively\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imitation\\-\\ children\\ copy\\ whoever\\ they\\ observe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\-term\\ effects\\ of\\ media\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learn\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ aggressive\\ attitude\\ when\\ we\\ perceive\\ that\\ it\\ gets\\ us\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Densensitization\\-\\ habituation\\ through\\ repeated\\ exposure\\ to\\ violence\\-\\ leads\\ to\\ pro\\-active\\ aggression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultivation\\-\\ TV\\ addicts\\-\\ \\&lsquo\\;mean\\ world\\ syndrome\\&rsquo\\;\\-\\ perceive\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ more\\ violent\\ and\\ think\\ it\\ has\\ more\\ violence\\ than\\ it\\ actually\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aesthetic\\ freedom\\ to\\ portray\\ what\\ you\\ want\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ exploit\\ the\\ need\\ in\\ people\\ to\\ have\\ excitement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ easier\\ to\\ show\\ effects\\ rather\\ than\\ causes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sissela\\ Bok\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;published\\ Mayhem\\:\\ Violence\\ as\\ Public\\ Entertainment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ catharsis\\-\\ talking\\ about\\ staged\\ Greek\\ tragedy\\-\\ mimesis\\ \\(theory\\ of\\ imitation\\)\\;\\ when\\ theatrical\\ element\\ starts\\ to\\ fuse\\ with\\ the\\ violence\\ that\\ is\\ portrayed\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abreaction\\-\\ release\\ of\\ anxiety\\ through\\ reliving\\ episodes\\ through\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ spectators\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ thrill\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ watching\\ the\\ games\\-\\ loss\\ of\\ self\\-control\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Handout\\ 25\\ Item\\ 9\\-\\ vicious\\ spectacles\\ put\\ on\\ by\\ Trajan\\-\\ trying\\ to\\ justify\\ the\\ games\\ under\\ Trajan\\-\\ rational\\ mind\\ becomes\\ overridden\\ by\\ the\\ imprint\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carol\\ Oats\\-\\ wrote\\ a\\ book\\ on\\ boxing\\-\\ something\\ innately\\ aggressive\\ in\\ human\\ nature\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ channeled\\ in\\ an\\ inflammatory\\ way\\-\\ the\\ homicide\\ rate\\ after\\ a\\ heavily\\ publicized\\ boxing\\ match\\ rises\\ 12\\%\\-\\ releases\\ primitive\\ urges\\-\\ she\\ sees\\ boxing\\ as\\ a\\ combination\\ between\\ love\\ and\\ hate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boxers\\ are\\ there\\ to\\ win\\ and\\ have\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ in\\ inhibitions\\-\\ has\\ to\\ throw\\ away\\ the\\ caution\\ that\\ is\\ apparent\\ in\\ the\\ audience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emperor\\ buying\\ the\\ loyalty\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ man\\ by\\ feeding\\ him\\ entertainment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ visual\\ sources\\,\\ the\\ spectators\\,\\ when\\ represented\\,\\ look\\ very\\ dignified\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gafsa\\ mosaic\\-\\ North\\ Africa\\-\\ spectators\\ are\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ circus\\ arena\\-\\ look\\ orderly\\ and\\ impassive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ivory\\ dictates\\-\\ people\\ look\\ on\\ impassively\\ onto\\ the\\ spectators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spectators\\ look\\ interested\\ but\\ not\\ misbehaving\\-\\ visual\\ representation\\ shows\\ them\\ not\\ infected\\ by\\ what\\ they\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\12\\.15\\.08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\amphitheater\\ at\\ Carnuntum\\,\\ austria\\,\\ military\\ amphitheater\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ little\\ rooms\\,\\ and\\ doorways\\,\\ the\\ entrances\\ all\\ lead\\ into\\ small\\ rooms\\,\\ door\\ would\\ have\\ slot\\ down\\ like\\ cages\\ to\\ let\\ the\\ cages\\ of\\ the\\ animals\\ come\\ in\\.\\.\\.this\\ was\\ an\\ arena\\ with\\ no\\ hypogeum\\ \\,\\ so\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ introduce\\ the\\ animals\\ at\\ ground\\ level\\,\\ so\\ the\\ holding\\ pen\\ for\\ the\\ beasts\\ is\\ at\\ ground\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fiano\\ Romano\\ \\(ancient\\ lucus\\ feroniae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ was\\ a\\ relief\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ found\\ in\\ italy\\,\\ this\\ was\\ discovered\\ in\\ 2006\\,\\ buried\\ in\\ an\\ orhard\\ outside\\ rome\\,\\ there\\ were\\ 12\\ slabs\\ in\\ all\\,\\ this\\ shows\\ 4\\ of\\ them\\ \\,\\ the\\ foot\\ of\\ one\\ gladiator\\ is\\ damaged\\,\\ one\\ stpes\\ on\\ theothers\\ foot\\,\\ someone\\ plays\\ the\\ horn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lucus\\ feroniae\\ \\-tuba\\,\\ above\\,\\ retraining\\ the\\ loser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ that\\ standing\\ on\\ a\\ hand\\ was\\ a\\ formally\\ accepted\\ form\\ of\\ contraint\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\read\\ the\\ review\\ article\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\review\\ session\\ on\\ January\\ 12th\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\does\\ modern\\ theory\\ help\\ with\\ interpreting\\ the\\ arena\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\retiarius\\ fighting\\ a\\ secutor\\ with\\ an\\ umpire\\,\\ the\\ one\\ wears\\ leather\\ thongs\\,\\ to\\ relieve\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ patella\\ tendon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bignor\\ at\\ sussex\\ in\\ england\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ shows\\ circus\\ with\\ adults\\ performing\\,\\ one\\ show\\ scene\\ with\\ birds\\ and\\ chariots\\,\\ this\\ freize\\ shows\\ gladiatorial\\ motif\\ that\\ is\\ interesting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ venus\\ in\\ a\\ decoration\\,\\ we\\ see\\ little\\ guys\\ at\\ the\\ bottem\\ of\\ the\\ mosaic\\,\\ the\\ guys\\ have\\ wings\\,\\ they\\ are\\ cupids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ 1970\\,\\ french\\ book\\,\\ cruelty\\ and\\ civilization\\,\\ the\\ roman\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\euergetism\\-\\ Paul\\ Veyne\\ talks\\ about\\ euergetism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sabbatini\\ Tumolesi\\,\\ P\\:\\ discussed\\ pairs\\ of\\ gladiators\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reviews\\:\\ shelby\\ brown\\-\\ gives\\ wiedemann\\ a\\ review\\,\\ first\\ person\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ arena\\ within\\ our\\ life\\ time\\,\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ death\\ bc\\ in\\ ancient\\ rome\\ it\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ common\\ than\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carlin\\ Barton\\,\\ anxiety\\ and\\ the\\ fraility\\ of\\ existence\\ and\\ human\\ discomfort\\ objectified\\ in\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ gladiator\\;\\ in\\ this\\ course\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ impulses\\ in\\ roman\\ society\\ that\\ influenced\\ the\\ institution\\,\\ not\\ other\\ cultures\\,\\ whereas\\ carlin\\ discusses\\ violent\\ spectacle\\ in\\ other\\ cultures\\,\\ as\\ well\\,\\ not\\ as\\ much\\ focus\\ in\\ her\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Georges\\ Ville\\-\\ talks\\ about\\ gladiatorial\\ combat\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ until\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ domitian\\,\\ tries\\ to\\ put\\ together\\ a\\ chronological\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ games\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\and\\ other\\ theorists\\,\\ see\\ handout\\ \\#28\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wiedemann\\-\\ shelby\\ brown\\ reviewed\\ idea\\ of\\ death\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paul\\ plass\\-\\ applied\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ game\\ theory\\ to\\ ancient\\ rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\toner\\-\\ chapter\\ on\\ entertainment\\ in\\ our\\ sourcebook\\;\\ his\\ book\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ grounded\\ in\\ marxist\\ interpretation\\,\\ same\\ idea\\ that\\ exploitation\\ of\\ have\\ nots\\ by\\ haves\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ to\\ explain\\ various\\ social\\ instittutions\\;\\ sees\\ the\\ masses\\ as\\ explanation\\ \\,\\ still\\ difficult\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ it\\ appealed\\ to\\ ppl\\ so\\ much\\.\\ did\\ keep\\ them\\ quiet\\ but\\ bc\\ they\\ liked\\ it\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\futrell\\-\\ practical\\ purpose\\ of\\ arena\\,\\ but\\ what\\ were\\ they\\ used\\ for\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ used\\ for\\ the\\ games\\ put\\ on\\ there\\?\\ how\\ is\\ that\\ useful\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\donald\\-\\ tries\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ happened\\ to\\ the\\ carcasses\\ of\\ the\\ animals\\ that\\ was\\ disgarded\\ after\\ the\\ spectacles\\,\\ dispose\\ of\\ waste\\ into\\ the\\ river\\ tiber\\,\\ wrote\\ a\\ review\\ of\\ the\\ david\\ potter\\ video\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\david\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\eckart\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bomgardner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\coleman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\welch\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 9, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Culture_and_Belief_17year_notes_1.doc", "desc": "roman games, harvard"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Study Guide pt. 2", "tags": ["harvard", "caribbean", "globalization"], "text": null, "id": 153, "html": "\\\\\\Study\\ Guide\\ pt\\.\\ 2\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c5\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Island\\ Paradox\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ F\\.\\ Rivera\\-\\ Batiz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ \\(PR\\)\\ under\\ Spanish\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\ to\\ end\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1898\\&mdash\\;after\\ Spanish\\-American\\ War\\,\\ PR\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1940s\\-PR\\ leader\\ Luis\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\ of\\ the\\ popular\\ Democratic\\ Party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1952\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ PR\\ became\\ the\\ Commonwealth\\ of\\ PR\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\ state\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ US\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\neither\\ state\\ nor\\ independent\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ elected\\ governor\\ and\\ legislature\\,\\ but\\ no\\ fed\\ taxes\\,\\ Congress\\ or\\ voting\\ rights\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Washington\\ controls\\ immigrations\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\citizens\\ have\\ US\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Early\\ 1970s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ PR\\ had\\ economic\\ development\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ political\\ stability\\,\\ democracy\\ and\\ open\\-market\\ economic\\ policies\\ led\\ to\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ such\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ economy\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ 20\\ years\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ last\\ 50\\ years\\ PR\\ changed\\ from\\ mostly\\ rural\\,\\ agricultural\\ economy\\ to\\ urban\\ manufacturing\\ and\\ service\\ activities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1940s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\/3\\ rural\\,\\ now\\ 2\\/3\\ urban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ change\\ led\\ to\\ substantial\\ economic\\ growth\\ and\\ social\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1948\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ gross\\ national\\ product\\ per\\ capita\\ \\-\\-\\ \\$1\\,\\ 478\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1994\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ GNP\\ \\$6\\,\\ 361\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ higher\\ than\\ other\\ Latin\\ American\\ nations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ improvements\\,\\ medical\\ ability\\ improved\\ which\\ brought\\ up\\ birth\\ rates\\ and\\ life\\ expectancy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ growth\\ has\\ a\\ bad\\ underside\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ deep\\ economic\\ and\\ social\\ malaise\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ unemployment\\ rate\\ is\\ 1990\\ was\\ as\\ high\\ as\\ 20\\%\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ crash\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\ in\\ PR\\ since\\ the\\ 1970s\\ has\\ severe\\ repercussions\\,\\ mostly\\ in\\ the\\ young\\.\\ \\ \\;Unemployment\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ in\\ crimes\\ in\\ PR\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Policy\\ and\\ Economic\\ Change\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ 1947\\ to\\ 1995\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(3\\ stages\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ stage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ OPERATION\\ BOOTSTRAP\\ \\(1947\\ to\\ 1960s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Set\\ of\\ government\\ policies\\ aimed\\ at\\ fostering\\ private\\-sector\\ investments\\ by\\ US\\ firms\\ in\\ PR\\ to\\ expand\\ local\\ employment\\ through\\ public\\ investment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agency\\ implemented\\ the\\ Economic\\ Development\\ Administration\\ \\(FOMENTO\\)\\ promoted\\ industrial\\ development\\ to\\ attract\\ mainland\\ industries\\ to\\ island\\ through\\ tax\\ exemption\\,\\ industrial\\ services\\,\\ provision\\ of\\ factory\\ buildings\\,\\ loans\\,\\ and\\ special\\ assistance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ industries\\ needed\\ incentives\\ because\\ lower\\ labor\\ productivity\\ in\\ PR\\ had\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ infrastructure\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ the\\ government\\ built\\ physical\\ plants\\ for\\ foreign\\ investors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eg\\.\\&ldquo\\;Tax\\ holiday\\&rdquo\\;\\ law\\ of\\ 1947\\ eliminated\\ income\\ and\\ property\\ taxes\\ for\\ US\\ investments\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ rapid\\ growth\\ of\\ manufacturing\\ production\\ and\\ employment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ Operation\\ Bootstrap\\ was\\ not\\ entirely\\ positive\\ as\\ PR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ independence\\ on\\ US\\ market\\ left\\ it\\ hostage\\ to\\ sustained\\ US\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\ \\ \\;Plants\\ were\\ easy\\ to\\ be\\ shut\\ down\\,\\ so\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ maintain\\ productivity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\ Stage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mid\\ 1960s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ new\\ strategy\\ arose\\:\\ petrochemical\\ \\(capital\\-incentive\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ strategy\\ attracted\\ industries\\ whose\\ output\\ could\\ be\\ input\\ by\\ other\\ industries\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ considerable\\ amount\\ of\\ capital\\ investment\\ in\\ PR\\ and\\ could\\ withstand\\ downturn\\ in\\ business\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ promoted\\ petrochemical\\ complexes\\ in\\ the\\ hopes\\ that\\ pharmaceuticals\\ and\\ other\\ chemical\\ companies\\ would\\ go\\ to\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ boom\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 1960s\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ bust\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1973\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sharp\\ increase\\ in\\ oil\\ prices\\ with\\ US\\ recession\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&lsquo\\;When\\ USA\\ sneezes\\,\\ PR\\ catches\\ a\\ cold\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ demand\\ for\\ PR\\ manufacturers\\ collapsed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1972\\-6\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unemployment\\ doubled\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ US\\ rebounded\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1970s\\,\\ PR\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;Importers\\ looked\\ to\\ avoid\\ PR\\ refineries\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ too\\ expensive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Under\\ Bootstrap\\,\\ PR\\ opened\\ local\\ markets\\ to\\ direct\\ foreign\\ investments\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ nations\\ followed\\ by\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ US\\ firms\\ had\\ alternate\\ sites\\ in\\ Asia\\ and\\ Latin\\ America\\ because\\ low\\-tariff\\ countries\\ were\\ cheaper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Third\\ Stage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ 1970s\\,\\ new\\ tax\\ breaks\\ were\\ made\\ to\\ keep\\ industries\\ from\\ leaving\\ PR\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ subsidiaries\\ of\\ PR\\ companies\\ could\\ transfer\\ money\\ to\\ free\\ from\\ federal\\ taxes\\,\\ it\\ the\\ funds\\ stayed\\ in\\ PR\\ for\\ 6\\ months\\ before\\ the\\ transport\\.\\ \\ \\;Called\\ \\&ldquo\\;936\\ funds\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ they\\ grew\\ fast\\ and\\ became\\ sources\\ of\\ private\\ investment\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ money\\ financed\\ loans\\ and\\ morgages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ new\\ tax\\ laws\\ relied\\ on\\ America\\ to\\ stimulate\\ local\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ Major\\ Shortcomings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tax\\ incentives\\ aimed\\ at\\ reducing\\ cost\\ of\\ investing\\ capital\\ on\\ island\\,\\ so\\ made\\ capital\\ intensive\\,\\ not\\ labor\\-intensive\\ investments\\.\\ \\ \\;Hence\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ employment\\ boom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\export\\ plants\\ established\\ were\\ sensitive\\ to\\ US\\ business\\ cycles\\ and\\ contributed\\ to\\ unemployment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pattern\\ mirrors\\ US\\,\\ but\\ booms\\ and\\ busts\\ were\\ greater\\ in\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1980s\\-90s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tempestuous\\ in\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1982\\:\\ US\\ recession\\ \\ \\;\\-\\-\\ 10\\%\\ unemployment\\ rates\\ in\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1986\\:\\ PR\\ had\\ 282\\ plants\\ closed\\,\\ 13\\,000\\ jobs\\ lost\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 22\\%\\ unemployment\\ rates\\ in\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1992\\:\\ US\\ economic\\ activity\\ down\\,\\ PR\\ unemployment\\ up\\ 4\\ more\\ \\%\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ stamps\\ began\\ in\\ 1970s\\ in\\ PR\\,\\ but\\ after\\ Reagan\\ tightened\\ eligibility\\ for\\ welfare\\ and\\ lowered\\ benefits\\,\\ food\\ stamps\\ and\\ the\\ National\\ Assistance\\ Grant\\ declined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foreign\\ Cultures\\ 46\\:\\ Caribbean\\ Societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ Six\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Culture\\ \\&\\;\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\:\\ A\\ Guide\\ to\\ the\\ People\\,\\ Politics\\ and\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-History\\:\\ Before\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ occupied\\ by\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\at\\ first\\ were\\ only\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ gold\\ but\\ later\\ great\\ location\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ Spanish\\ port\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jose\\ Marti\\-\\ leader\\ of\\ Cuban\\ independence\\ struggle\\ against\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\America\\ took\\ over\\ control\\ and\\ in\\ 1902\\ declared\\ it\\ a\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ dominated\\ the\\ key\\ industry\\ of\\ Sugar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rise\\ of\\ Fulgencio\\ Batista\\-\\ imposed\\ a\\ harsh\\ dictatorship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fidel\\ Castro\\-\\ overtook\\ Batista\\ and\\ his\\ much\\ larger\\ army\\ on\\ January\\ 1\\,\\ 1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\famous\\ quote\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ will\\ absolve\\ me\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\famous\\ named\\ associated\\ with\\ Castro\\-\\ Che\\ Guevara\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-History\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\:\\ Island\\ in\\ the\\ Storm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Castro\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Communist\\ government\\ passed\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\,500\\ laws\\ in\\ first\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\expropriated\\ \\(central\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ took\\ over\\)\\ all\\ US\\ property\\ in\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ responded\\ with\\ a\\ trade\\ embargo\\ that\\ still\\ exists\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Bay\\ of\\ Pigs\\-\\ a\\ failed\\ attack\\ on\\ Cuba\\ in\\ 1961\\ by\\ American\\ CIA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuban\\ Missile\\ Crisis\\-\\ Russia\\,\\ who\\ was\\ allied\\ with\\ Cuba\\ and\\ greatly\\ subsidized\\ them\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\placed\\ nuclear\\ missiles\\ in\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ had\\ to\\ promise\\ not\\ to\\ invade\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Castro\\ invested\\ vast\\ amounts\\ of\\ money\\ in\\ healthcare\\,\\ education\\,\\ and\\ housing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\there\\ have\\ been\\ mass\\ exoduses\\ of\\ Cubans\\ trying\\ to\\ leave\\ and\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\around\\ 1\\.5\\ million\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Collapse\\ of\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ in\\ 90\\&rsquo\\;s\\ was\\ detrimental\\ to\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soviet\\ bloc\\ accounted\\ for\\ 85\\%\\ of\\ Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ began\\ to\\ slightly\\ liberalize\\ in\\ efforts\\ to\\ save\\ ailing\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\legalized\\ the\\ US\\ dollar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-Politics\\:\\ Party\\ and\\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ has\\ only\\ one\\ political\\ party\\-\\ the\\ Cuban\\ Communist\\ Party\\ \\(PCC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ an\\ elite\\ club\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ the\\ countries\\ top\\ workers\\ and\\ professionals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Castro\\ is\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ is\\ very\\ strict\\ with\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ dissidents\\ of\\ Communism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ Committees\\ for\\ the\\ Defense\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mass\\ organizations\\ \\(more\\ than\\ 1000\\,000\\ of\\ them\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ has\\ a\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ militia\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ some\\ 1\\.3\\ million\\ men\\ and\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ and\\ Cuba\\ have\\ always\\ had\\ a\\ sour\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ since\\ its\\ only\\ 90\\ miles\\ away\\ from\\ Florida\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\it\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ deal\\ that\\ Pope\\ John\\ Paul\\ II\\ visited\\ Castro\\ in\\ 1998\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-Economy\\:\\ State\\ and\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ embargo\\ is\\ largely\\ responsible\\ for\\ Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ struggling\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Communist\\ centralization\\ of\\ Cuba\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\especially\\ with\\ crops\\ \\(sugar\\)\\,\\ even\\ though\\ Cuba\\ is\\ a\\ fertile\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\legalizing\\ the\\ dollar\\ has\\ caused\\ many\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\only\\ the\\ elite\\ possess\\ the\\ dollar\\ \\(worth\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ peso\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\more\\ than\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ food\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ imported\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ exports\\:\\ sugar\\,\\ coffee\\,\\ cigars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ \\(Havana\\)\\ is\\ once\\ again\\ a\\ huge\\ tourist\\ attraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Castro\\ allowed\\ tourism\\ only\\ out\\ of\\ desperate\\ need\\ for\\ foreign\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ has\\ debt\\ of\\ 11\\ billion\\,\\ trade\\ deficit\\ of\\ 1\\.7\\ billion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-Diversity\\ and\\ Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;greatest\\ racial\\ jumble\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ become\\ decidedly\\ darker\\ since\\ 1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ many\\ standard\\,\\ Cuba\\ is\\ a\\ paradise\\ of\\ racial\\ harmony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santeria\\-\\ a\\ blend\\ of\\ African\\ and\\ Catholic\\ beliefs\\ that\\ developed\\ during\\ the\\ colonial\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\more\\ than\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ Cuban\\ babies\\ are\\ born\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuba\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ the\\ free\\ healthcare\\ system\\ that\\ Castro\\ set\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\anyone\\ with\\ AIDS\\ is\\ usually\\ isolated\\ from\\ the\\ community\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;sanatoria\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-Caribbean\\ Fusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Predominant\\ culture\\ influences\\ have\\ been\\ from\\ Spain\\ and\\ Africa\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\other\\ influences\\-\\ French\\,\\ Chinese\\,\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuban\\ music\\-\\ salsa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\baseball\\ is\\ Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\#1\\ sport\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1959\\ when\\ Castro\\ took\\ over\\ he\\ became\\ a\\ worshiped\\ man\\,\\ but\\ now\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ people\\ are\\ getting\\ fed\\ up\\ with\\ making\\ sacrifice\\ after\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ his\\ failing\\ Communist\\ dream\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\it\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ debate\\ about\\ what\\ will\\ become\\ of\\ Cuba\\ after\\ Castro\\,\\ who\\ has\\ ruled\\ for\\ 40\\ years\\,\\ finally\\ dies\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ long\\-standing\\ embargo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miguel\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Setting\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1940s\\;\\ Port\\ of\\ Spain\\,\\ Trinidad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plot\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miguel\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ basically\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ short\\ stories\\ all\\ told\\ by\\ a\\ little\\ boy\\ living\\ in\\ Trinidad\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ unnamed\\ boy\\ narrator\\ takes\\ the\\ reader\\ through\\ his\\ life\\ as\\ he\\ becomes\\ a\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ individual\\ stories\\ are\\ tied\\ together\\ by\\ the\\ boy\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ repeated\\ characters\\:\\ Hat\\,\\ Boyee\\ and\\ Errol\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ story\\ tells\\ about\\ a\\ character\\ the\\ small\\ town\\ of\\ Miguel\\ Street\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ affected\\ the\\ narrator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ comic\\ or\\ juvenile\\ nature\\ to\\ the\\ novel\\ that\\ creates\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ relief\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ tragedy\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ the\\ characters\\ are\\ names\\ like\\ Bogart\\,\\ Man\\-Man\\,\\ \\ \\;and\\ Big\\-Foot\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Characters\\ and\\ their\\ significance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(note\\:\\ this\\ section\\ does\\ not\\ include\\ every\\ character\\ because\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ includes\\ characters\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ helpful\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ important\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\ and\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ Trinidad\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BOGART\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ character\\ nicknamed\\ after\\ the\\ American\\ movie\\ star\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bogart\\&rdquo\\;\\ remains\\ otherwise\\ nameless\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ disappears\\ from\\ Miguel\\ Street\\ and\\ comes\\ back\\ with\\ an\\ American\\ accent\\ and\\ a\\ sophisticated\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ imitation\\ of\\ Bogart\\ makes\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ star\\ in\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ he\\ is\\ arrested\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ on\\ charges\\ of\\ bigamy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ chapter\\ are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;But\\ why\\ he\\ leave\\ she\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Eddoes\\ asked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;To\\ be\\ a\\ man\\,\\ among\\ we\\ men\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\POPO\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Initially\\,\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ wife\\ who\\ works\\ while\\ popo\\ does\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ frowns\\ upon\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ his\\ wife\\ leaves\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\ finds\\ her\\ and\\ beats\\ up\\ her\\ new\\ lover\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\,\\ he\\ gets\\ arrested\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ when\\ he\\ returns\\,\\ his\\ follows\\ his\\ almost\\ artist\\ like\\ dream\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ carpenter\\ trying\\ to\\ build\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ thing\\ without\\ a\\ name\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ refurnishes\\ his\\ whole\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ wife\\ soon\\ comes\\ back\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ he\\ continues\\ building\\ things\\ until\\ he\\ is\\ arrested\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ turns\\ out\\ he\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ build\\ anything\\ but\\ rather\\ he\\ had\\ stolen\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ furniture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GEORGE\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;George\\ is\\ a\\ character\\ out\\ of\\ control\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ lack\\ of\\ ability\\ to\\ control\\ his\\ family\\ drives\\ him\\ to\\ beat\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ actually\\ beats\\ his\\ wife\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ that\\,\\ he\\ transforms\\ his\\ home\\ into\\ a\\ brother\\ \\(where\\ he\\ prostitutes\\ his\\ own\\ daughter\\)\\ for\\ American\\ soldiers\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ george\\ is\\ left\\ unhappy\\ and\\ alone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ELIAS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Elias\\,\\ george\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\,\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ characters\\ with\\ ambition\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ everyone\\ else\\ on\\ the\\ street\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ doctor\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ after\\ attaining\\ his\\ school\\ certificate\\,\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ manage\\ to\\ pass\\ the\\ necessary\\ test\\ to\\ continue\\ schooling\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ tries\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ sanitary\\ inspector\\ but\\ he\\ fails\\ those\\ tests\\ also\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ even\\ goes\\ to\\ other\\ west\\ Indian\\ islands\\ where\\ the\\ test\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ easier\\ and\\ fails\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ ends\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ street\\ scavenger\\ like\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ boys\\ on\\ Miguel\\ Street\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\.\\ WORDSWORTH\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;This\\ poet\\ tells\\ the\\ boy\\ narrator\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ write\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ greatest\\ poem\\ in\\ the\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ narrator\\ gets\\ very\\ excited\\ about\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ and\\ is\\ horribly\\ disappointed\\ when\\ it\\ never\\ comes\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ turns\\ out\\ there\\ was\\ never\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ poem\\ and\\ that\\ Wordsworth\\ was\\ just\\ pretending\\ to\\ put\\ some\\ joy\\ into\\ the\\ day\\.\\ \\ \\;Wordsworth\\ created\\ an\\ illusion\\ and\\ then\\ shattered\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EDDOES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Eddoes\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ lady\\-killer\\ of\\ the\\ scavengers\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ boys\\ in\\ M\\.S\\.\\ envy\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ has\\ luck\\ on\\ the\\ job\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ picking\\ up\\ trash\\ one\\ day\\ he\\ finds\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ new\\ shoes\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ an\\ ex\\-girlfriend\\ pretends\\ to\\ be\\ pregnant\\ with\\ his\\ child\\ and\\ forces\\ him\\ into\\ marriage\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ born\\,\\ it\\ is\\ obvious\\ that\\ he\\ looks\\ nothing\\ like\\ Eddoes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EDWARD\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Edward\\ was\\ settled\\ and\\ happy\\,\\ however\\,\\ during\\ the\\ war\\ when\\ the\\ Americans\\ invaded\\ Trinidad\\,\\ he\\ gets\\ a\\ job\\ with\\ Americans\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ becomes\\ obsessed\\ with\\ the\\ American\\ culture\\ and\\ starts\\ dressing\\ like\\ an\\ American\\,\\ chewing\\ gum\\,\\ and\\ talking\\ with\\ an\\ American\\ accent\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ begins\\ to\\ loath\\ Trinidad\\ and\\ its\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ whole\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;body\\ beautiful\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ he\\ starts\\ lifting\\ weights\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ marries\\ a\\ white\\ woman\\ and\\ then\\ she\\ tried\\ to\\ kill\\ herself\\ and\\ left\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THEMES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GENDER\\/COMMUNITY\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ novel\\ emphasize\\ the\\ connection\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ in\\ Miguel\\ Street\\;\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ defined\\ unity\\ among\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ town\\ had\\ a\\ special\\ connection\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ all\\ stuck\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ less\\ than\\ ideal\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ novel\\ did\\ not\\ talk\\ much\\ about\\ women\\ except\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ either\\ beaten\\ or\\ leaving\\ their\\ husbands\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ showed\\ women\\ in\\ most\\ cases\\ as\\ being\\ strong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESCAPE\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ every\\ chapter\\,\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ tragedy\\ of\\ Miguel\\ Street\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Bogart\\-\\ imitated\\ a\\ movie\\ star\\ as\\ an\\ escape\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Eddoes\\-\\ wanted\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ doctor\\ so\\ he\\ could\\ leave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ Wordsworth\\-\\ created\\ an\\ illusion\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DISILLUSIONMENT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ in\\ every\\ chapter\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ struggle\\ to\\ escape\\,\\ none\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ successful\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ every\\ childish\\ story\\,\\ the\\ novel\\ returned\\ to\\ reality\\ that\\ the\\ characters\\ lives\\ were\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ stories\\ ended\\ with\\ the\\ main\\ character\\ in\\ prison\\ or\\ unhappy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ END\\ OF\\ THE\\ STORY\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ boy\\ escapes\\ and\\ take\\ an\\ internship\\ to\\ go\\ abroad\\ and\\ be\\ a\\ pharmacist\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;druggist\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ novel\\ ends\\ with\\ the\\ words\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ left\\ them\\ all\\ and\\ walked\\ briskly\\ towards\\ the\\ aeroplane\\,\\ not\\ looking\\ back\\,\\ looking\\ only\\ at\\ my\\ shadow\\ before\\ me\\,\\ a\\ dancing\\ dwarf\\ on\\ the\\ tarmac\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(176\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 57, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Fc_46-_Study_Guide_Pt._2.doc", "desc": "Part 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "caribbean", "globalization"], "text": null, "id": 154, "html": "\\\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c36\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c40\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c7\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c44\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:63pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:135pt\\}\\.c43\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c42\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:198pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c28\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c30\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c24\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c35\\{text\\-indent\\:12pt\\}\\.c6\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c34\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c21\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.6999999999999997\\}\\.c37\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c45\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c39\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:66pt\\}\\.c41\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c32\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c25\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c38\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\September\\ 18\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defining\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ Approaches\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ General\\ Argument\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ tough\\ to\\ define\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ diverse\\,\\ so\\ why\\ lump\\ it\\ all\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ differences\\ in\\ size\\,\\ economy\\,\\ politics\\,\\ history\\,\\ language\\,\\ and\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ economy\\:\\ Bermuda\\ \\$35\\,000\\/capita\\,\\ PR\\ \\$11\\.5K\\,\\ Jam\\ \\$2\\.3K\\,\\ Haiti\\ 1\\.7K\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ definition\\ of\\ Caribbean\\,\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ encompassed\\ by\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Reagan\\ made\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ Basin\\ Initiative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ lumped\\ all\\ the\\ islands\\ together\\,\\ foreigners\\ see\\ it\\ this\\ way\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ locals\\ wondered\\ why\\ Central\\ Am\\.\\ and\\ South\\ Am\\.\\ countries\\ were\\ included\\ \\[why\\ Bermuda\\ and\\ Belise\\ included\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ simply\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ close\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ tropical\\ climate\\,\\ so\\ why\\ not\\ lump\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ tried\\ to\\ form\\ uniting\\ Caribbean\\ Federation\\,\\ but\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ 30\\ insolent\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ politics\\ and\\ history\\ define\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ just\\ as\\ much\\ the\\ geography\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ theme\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ divides\\,\\ also\\ unites\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ different\\ colonial\\ powers\\:\\ span\\,\\ brit\\,\\ fren\\,\\ dutch\\,\\ usa\\,\\ Danish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ all\\ different\\ colonial\\ powers\\ had\\ different\\ objectives\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ similarities\\ in\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ yet\\,\\ all\\ experienced\\ colonization\\,\\ economic\\ dependency\\,\\ political\\ dependency\\,\\ slavery\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ plantations\\,\\ and\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ good\\ strategic\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Spain\\ used\\ islands\\ initially\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ gold\\/silver\\ form\\ South\\ America\\ shipments\\ from\\ pirates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ three\\ major\\ cultures\\ in\\ Caribbean\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ Latin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Greater\\ Antilles\\:\\ Cuba\\,\\ PR\\,\\ DR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jamaica\\,\\ and\\ South\\ East\\ small\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ Mixed\\ Afro\\-Indian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Trinidad\\ and\\ Tobago\\,\\ and\\ that\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ color\\ and\\ race\\ is\\ distinct\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ lower\\ in\\ class\\ means\\ a\\ higher\\ unification\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ \\(opposite\\ from\\ the\\ US\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\[aside\\:\\ strange\\ how\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ Spanish\\ Creole\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ modern\\ forces\\ of\\ convergence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ modernization\\ and\\ underdevelopment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ US\\ influence\\ is\\ Caribbean\\ \\[larger\\ middle\\ class\\?\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ transnationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ sense\\ of\\ regional\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 23\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conquest\\,\\ Settlement\\,\\ and\\ Challenges\\ to\\ Spanish\\ Hegemony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Indigenous\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tainos\\ of\\ Greater\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribs\\ of\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peripheral\\ groups\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Guanahatabes\\ \\(W\\.\\ Cuba\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tainos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Origins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paleo\\ and\\ Meso\\ Indians\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3000\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tainos\\ enter\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\ \\@\\ time\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ Greater\\ Antilles\\ c\\.\\ AD\\ 250\\,\\ Bahamas\\ c\\.\\ 1000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Names\\ and\\ powers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ neither\\ Tainos\\ nor\\ Arawaks\\ \\(both\\ used\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hispanola\\ as\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\ to\\ 1\\.5\\ million\\ total\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ Organizations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Matrilineal\\ kin\\ groups\\ w\\/bride\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ status\\ of\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dense\\ village\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chieftainship\\ \\(including\\ women\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agriculture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cassava\\,\\ potato\\,\\ corn\\,\\ pineapple\\,\\ fish\\,\\ small\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Complex\\ inter\\-island\\ migration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ than\\ even\\ the\\ modern\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Religion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ complex\\ animalistic\\ beliefs\\ focused\\ on\\ Zemis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mellow\\,\\ laid\\ back\\ \\(hammocks\\ originate\\ here\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ game\\ w\\/rubber\\ ball\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ soccer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ festivals\\ and\\ dances\\;\\ piercings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tobacco\\ as\\ drug\\ of\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caribs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ bum\\ rap\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cannibal\\ from\\ caribal\\ \\(Sp\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ practiced\\ ritual\\ cannibalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ resistance\\ to\\ Europeans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warfare\\ and\\ trade\\ oriented\\ economy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ attacked\\ \\(pushed\\?\\)\\ Tainos\\,\\ raided\\ for\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Survived\\ much\\ longer\\ than\\ Tainos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ St\\.\\ Vincent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Simpler\\,\\ more\\ egalitarian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ recent\\ arrivals\\ to\\ the\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Men\\ and\\ women\\ spoke\\ different\\ language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ raided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Couval\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ man\\ imagines\\ himself\\ pregnant\\,\\ in\\ labor\\ w\\/wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fate\\ of\\ Indigenous\\ Groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degradation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\ conversion\\ to\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enslavement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genocide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Columbian\\ Exchange\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ globalization\\ in\\ action\\,\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ disease\\ exchange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ food\\ exchange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Great\\ human\\ exchange\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Globalizing\\ the\\ Microbes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mainly\\ European\\ diseases\\ to\\ New\\ World\\,\\ with\\ devastating\\ results\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\.5\\ mil\\ to\\ \\<\\;1000\\ natives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ smallpox\\,\\ measles\\,\\ gonorreah\\,\\ yellow\\ fever\\,\\ cholera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montezuma\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Revenge\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ did\\ syphilis\\ come\\ from\\ New\\ World\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ timing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ treponemas\\ bacteria\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ World\\ strain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sexually\\-transmitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Globalizing\\ Food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ Old\\ World\\:\\ corn\\,\\ potato\\,\\ tomato\\,\\ vanilla\\,\\ tobacco\\,\\ beans\\,\\ pumpkin\\,\\ cassava\\,\\ pineapple\\,\\ sunflower\\,\\ marigold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ New\\ World\\:\\ horse\\,\\ cattle\\,\\ sheep\\,\\ pigs\\,\\ chicken\\,\\ watermelon\\,\\ lettuce\\,\\ banana\\,\\ olive\\,\\ tulip\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ People\\ Exchange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europeans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natives\\ \\(Indians\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;and\\ Africans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\September\\ 23\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 30\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 2\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\ from\\ 10\\-2\\-03\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Slave\\ trade\\:\\ a\\ global\\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1451\\-1600\\:\\ 275\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1601\\-1700\\:\\ 1\\,362\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1701\\-1810\\:\\ 7\\,440\\,000\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1811\\-1870\\:\\ 2\\,467\\,400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Slave\\ trade\\ abolished\\ by\\ Britain\\ in\\ 1807\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\:\\ 11\\,544\\,400\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ reconquest\\ of\\ Spain\\ from\\ the\\ Indians\\ occurred\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ every\\ slave\\ who\\ came\\ over\\,\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ would\\ have\\ died\\&mdash\\;so\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ 23\\-24\\ million\\ slave\\ trade\\ transportation\\ casualties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ did\\ they\\ all\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Professor\\ Patterson\\ then\\ flashed\\ a\\ large\\ graphic\\ of\\ the\\ Middle\\ Passage\\ for\\ like\\ three\\ seconds\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ copy\\ it\\ all\\ down\\,\\ but\\ Nigeria\\ and\\ Ghana\\ were\\ featured\\ as\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ countries\\ involved\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ did\\ they\\ go\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ that\\ many\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ surprisingly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ could\\ feed\\ the\\ slaves\\ at\\ much\\ cheaper\\ costs\\ than\\ British\\ Columbia\\,\\ France\\,\\ Spain\\ or\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ did\\ they\\ get\\ there\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Major\\ Traders\\&mdash\\;Dutch\\,\\ British\\,\\ French\\,\\ Portuguese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Similar\\ patterns\\ for\\ all\\,\\ save\\ Portugal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Note\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ Spain\\&mdash\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;Spanish\\ Creole\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ Spain\\ was\\ not\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ what\\ costs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Average\\ mortality\\ rate\\ on\\ the\\ Middle\\ Passage\\ during\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ 13\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Tight\\ packing\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ major\\ culprit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Length\\ of\\ time\\ at\\ sea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Quality\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Epidemic\\ and\\ health\\ conditions\\ at\\ embarkation\\ ports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cost\\ to\\ Africa\\&mdash\\;calamitous\\,\\ with\\ the\\ aforementioned\\ loss\\ of\\ at\\ least\\ 22\\ million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ not\\ the\\ European\\ poor\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ was\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ racism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Racism\\&mdash\\;but\\ more\\ effect\\ than\\ cause\\,\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ enslavement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Large\\-scale\\ bonded\\ labor\\ did\\ develop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rise\\ of\\ serfdom\\ in\\ Eastern\\ Europe\\&mdash\\;all\\ whites\\,\\ could\\ be\\ whipped\\,\\ abused\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Use\\ of\\ indentured\\ white\\ labor\\ in\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Modern\\ World\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Three\\ kinds\\ of\\ labor\\ exploitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ Bonded\\ labor\\ at\\ semi\\-periphery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ Slave\\ labor\\ at\\ periphery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ Emergence\\ of\\ proletarian\\ labor\\ at\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 7\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Abolition\\ and\\ Post\\-Emancipation\\ Society\\ in\\ the\\ Non\\-Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Distinctive\\ features\\ of\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\slave\\-\\ free\\ ratio\\ \\(slaves\\ greatly\\ outnumbered\\ free\\ blacks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\white\\-black\\ ratio\\ \\(colored\\,\\ black\\,\\ Creole\\ outnumbered\\ whites\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sex\\ ratio\\ \\(men\\ outnumbered\\ women\\ in\\ both\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ populations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\planter\\ absenteeism\\ \\(in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ planters\\ considered\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;home\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ planters\\ considered\\ Europe\\ \\&ldquo\\;home\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ cared\\ little\\ about\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ primary\\ focus\\ was\\ on\\ producing\\ high\\ revenues\\,\\ slaves\\ overworked\\,\\ plantations\\ mismanaged\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\role\\ of\\ free\\ colored\\ class\\ \\(many\\ blacks\\ had\\ civil\\ liberties\\,\\ greater\\ opportunity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\use\\ of\\ provision\\ ground\\ system\\ \\(made\\ slaves\\ grow\\ own\\ food\\ for\\ consumption\\,\\ welcomed\\ by\\ slaves\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ produced\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ self\\-dependence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Consequences\\ of\\ slave\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\familial\\ and\\ gender\\ responses\\ \\(marriage\\ forbidden\\,\\ discouragement\\ of\\ child\\-bearing\\,\\ destruction\\ of\\ nuclear\\ family\\ structure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ retentions\\ \\(agricultural\\ techniques\\,\\ linear\\ kinship\\ emphasis\\ as\\ a\\ compensating\\ factor\\ for\\ \\ \\;erosion\\ of\\ family\\ structure\\ \\,\\ increased\\ role\\ of\\ women\\ especially\\ in\\ labor\\ market\\,\\ unrestricted\\ religion\\ and\\ music\\,\\ Sunday\\ markets\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ The\\ abolition\\ of\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-slave\\ trade\\ abolished\\ in\\ 1807\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-apprenticeship\\ system\\ 1834\\-1838\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Act\\ of\\ 1834\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\significant\\ colonial\\ events\\ that\\ impacted\\ abolition\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ parliament\\ bought\\ slaves\\ freedom\\ from\\ their\\ owners\\ and\\ provided\\ compensation\\ for\\ the\\ slave\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\.S\\.\\-\\ brutal\\ civil\\ war\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ highly\\ controversial\\ issue\\ of\\ abolition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haiti\\-\\ slave\\ revolt\\,\\ colony\\ taken\\ over\\ by\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brazil\\-\\ abolition\\ gradually\\ negotiated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spanish\\/\\ French\\-\\ slavery\\ ended\\ with\\ conclusion\\ of\\ Spanish\\-American\\ War\\,\\ also\\ ended\\ without\\ compensation\\ for\\ slave\\ owners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Abolition\\ of\\ Slavery\\ \\(in\\ British\\ colonies\\)\\?\\ \\ \\;Williams\\ thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\loss\\ in\\ profits\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shift\\ in\\ imperial\\ interests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shift\\ to\\ free\\ trade\\ \\(rise\\ of\\ industrial\\ revolution\\/\\ capitalism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\competition\\ from\\ Spanish\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\declining\\ profits\\ of\\ sugar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\economic\\ interests\\ of\\ abolitionists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moral\\ and\\ Sociological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sugar\\ still\\ profitable\\,\\ abolition\\ needed\\ as\\ an\\ economic\\ critique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\abolition\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ moral\\ crusade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ new\\ social\\ movement\\,\\ move\\ towards\\ moral\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 9\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Post\\ Emancioation\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Major\\ developments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Decline\\ and\\ revival\\ of\\ plantations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rise\\ of\\ colored\\ middle\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rise\\ of\\ peasantry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Indentured\\ labor\\ and\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ the\\ Asians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Plantations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Shcock\\ and\\ near\\ ruin\\ after\\ 1846\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Shock\\ of\\ competition\\ from\\ Spanish\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Early\\ failure\\ to\\ modernize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Traditional\\ labor\\ attitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Revival\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rise\\ of\\ colored\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Power\\ sharing\\ with\\ white\\ elite\\ \\(whites\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ killed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Entry\\ into\\ professions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Color\\ attitudes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rise\\ of\\ peasantry\\ \\(ex\\-slaves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Prescence\\ depended\\ upon\\ land\\ availability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\ stages\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;establishment\\ \\(squatting\\ on\\ land\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;consolidation\\ \\(they\\ had\\ some\\ revolts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;saturation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Missionaries\\ are\\ sent\\ to\\ introduce\\ slaves\\ to\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economic\\ aspects\\ of\\ peasantry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Systems\\ varied\\ depending\\ on\\ land\\ availability\\ in\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;White\\ owned\\ and\\ blacks\\ split\\ profits\\ on\\ larger\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Plantation\\ dominant\\ on\\ some\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Different\\ systems\\ in\\ smaller\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Small\\ hillside\\ holdings\\ on\\ poor\\ lands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Land\\ tenure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Family\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Owned\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Rented\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Squatters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Slash\\ and\\ burn\\&rdquo\\;\\ method\\ of\\ growing\\ crops\\ eroded\\ soil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ and\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Demography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;High\\ fertility\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;High\\ sex\\ ratio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Distinctive\\ familial\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Development\\ cycle\\ \\(common\\ law\\ relationships\\ more\\ common\\ than\\ marriage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wide\\ kin\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Special\\ role\\ of\\ women\\ as\\ farmers\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;hagglers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consolidation\\ of\\ bicultural\\ Creole\\ system\\ in\\ afro\\-Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Euro\\-Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Elite\\ culture\\ \\(participated\\ in\\ by\\ upper\\ class\\ blacks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Schools\\,\\ government\\,\\ Anglicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Mediated\\ by\\ colored\\ middles\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Afro\\-Caribbean\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Peasants\\ were\\ intrigued\\ by\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\&rdquo\\;\\ stuff\\ and\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Indentured\\ servants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Whites\\ wanted\\ free\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\ sources\\ of\\ indentured\\ labor\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Portuguese\\ Atlantic\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;North\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Asia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Destinations\\ in\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chinese\\ go\\ to\\ Cuba\\;\\ where\\ they\\ work\\ indentured\\ on\\ plantations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 14\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Hispanics\\ Caribbean\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ An\\ Era\\ of\\ Radical\\ Transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ developments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Decline\\ of\\ Spain\\ as\\ a\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Latin\\ American\\ Wars\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decline\\ of\\ plantation\\ system\\ in\\ Non\\-Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haitian\\ Revolution\\ \\(1791\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ complete\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Santo\\ Domingo\\ independence\\ \\(1821\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ American\\ power\\ and\\ slave\\ south\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consequences\\ for\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shift\\ of\\ Spanish\\ focus\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ mainland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immigration\\ of\\ whites\\ to\\ region\\ \\(because\\ of\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ population\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Demographic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shift\\ of\\ Spanish\\ imperial\\ focus\\ to\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1800\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Haitian\\ invasion\\ of\\ Santo\\ Domingo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Audiencia\\ moved\\ to\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1814\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ change\\ in\\ trade\\ and\\ immigration\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\immigration\\ encouraged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trade\\ with\\ friendly\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tax\\ exemptions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\agricultural\\ development\\ encouraged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wavering\\ liberalization\\ of\\ imperial\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ the\\ region\\ wanted\\ more\\ local\\ representation\\ and\\ autonomy\\,\\ but\\ no\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ much\\ political\\ power\\/local\\ autonomy\\ should\\ e\\ given\\ to\\ these\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Immigration\\ of\\ whites\\ to\\ Cuba\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ families\\ from\\ liberated\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creole\\ loyalists\\ from\\ liberated\\ stated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spanish\\ and\\ other\\ soldiers\\ in\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ planters\\ from\\ Haiti\\ and\\ Louisiana\\ after\\ US\\ purchase\\ from\\ France\\ \\(1803\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ were\\ kicked\\ out\\ after\\ the\\ Haitian\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ Consequences\\ of\\ Immigration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pro\\-Spanish\\ forces\\ increased\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ plants\\ to\\ retain\\ remaining\\ Spanish\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ant\\-independence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ imperialist\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-autonomy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ want\\ to\\ stay\\ in\\ empire\\ but\\ want\\ self\\-government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pro\\-slavery\\ and\\ anti\\-labor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Racist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economic\\ Consequences\\ of\\ Immigration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rise\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ indentured\\-based\\ sugar\\ plantation\\ sin\\ western\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coffee\\ haciendas\\ in\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ for\\ white\\ laborers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Sugar\\ Plantations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Increase\\ of\\ exports\\ from\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Coffee\\ Haciendas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ Cuba\\,\\ eastern\\ part\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mixture\\ of\\ slaves\\,\\ Chinese\\ \\(a\\ few\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relative\\ growth\\ of\\ white\\ and\\ black\\ population\\ in\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Whites\\,\\ free\\ coloreds\\,\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ number\\ of\\ poor\\ whites\\ \\(England\\ tried\\,\\ but\\ whites\\ fled\\ to\\ US\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blacks\\ and\\ coloreds\\ were\\ the\\ majority\\ at\\ one\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ want\\ to\\ avoid\\ overpopulation\\ by\\ blacks\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;blanqueamiento\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;whitening\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Growing\\ trade\\ with\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\US\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ number\\ of\\ imports\\/exports\\ than\\ England\\,\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ US\\,\\ rise\\ of\\ cotton\\ kingdom\\;\\ US\\ South\\ strongly\\ influenced\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plans\\ for\\ annexation\\ \\(Cubans\\ and\\ Cuban\\ allies\\ in\\ the\\ US\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 16\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 21\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\We\\ watched\\ a\\ video\\ on\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ \\(PR\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gives\\ government\\ view\\ of\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1938\\ organized\\ democratic\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relationship\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ has\\ brought\\ much\\ money\\ to\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plaza\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ every\\ town\\ in\\ PR\\ \\(mostly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ PR\\ is\\ mountains\\ and\\ such\\.\\ \\ \\;Small\\ towns\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ mountains\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Planting\\ is\\ done\\ mostly\\ by\\ hand\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ hill\\ sides\\ \\(little\\ farms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hibaros\\ \\(spelling\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ who\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ mountains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Banana\\,\\ Pineapple\\,\\ Sugar\\,\\ and\\ tobacco\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ crops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ streets\\ are\\ still\\ made\\ of\\ balices\\ from\\ the\\ Spanish\\ ships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Culture\\ influenced\\ by\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1521\\ built\\ church\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Celebrated\\ Christmas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jan\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ Greek\\ king\\&\\#39\\;s\\ day\\ and\\ kids\\ get\\ toys\\ and\\ presents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Musical\\ traditions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ guitars\\ and\\ maracas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ modernization\\ of\\ PR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gains\\ and\\ Loses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1898\\ Pr\\ ceded\\ to\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1889\\-1900\\ Military\\ rule\\ by\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1900\\ Foraker\\ Act\\ \\(Spelling\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Institutionalized\\ US\\ rule\\ and\\ US\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ president\\ selected\\ a\\ governor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ chamber\\ of\\ deputies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ handled\\ literacy\\ requirements\\,\\ as\\ almost\\ everyone\\ was\\ illiterate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ had\\ veto\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PR\\ became\\ an\\ unincorporated\\ territory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1900\\-1917\\ Major\\ economic\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1917\\:\\ Jones\\ Act\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ US\\ citizenship\\ was\\ granted\\ to\\ PR\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ being\\ used\\ for\\ drafting\\ purposes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Americans\\ became\\ economically\\ interested\\ in\\ PR\\ and\\ Pr\\ shifted\\ to\\ sugar\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ sold\\ to\\ become\\ sugar\\ plantations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ small\\ farms\\ were\\ disappearing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1930\\-1940\\:\\ Nationalist\\ party\\ formed\\ with\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\ as\\ its\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1940\\-41\\:\\ Second\\ World\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1941\\:\\ Popular\\ party\\ victory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1948\\:\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\ became\\ the\\ governor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ WWII\\ US\\ gave\\ all\\ rights\\ to\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depression\\ hit\\ sugar\\ hard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Development\\ objectives\\ in\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\)\\ Self\\-sustained\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Full\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\)\\ End\\ of\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Did\\ this\\ by\\ industrialization\\ and\\ modernization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ took\\ place\\ overnight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foreign\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ capital\\ and\\ technology\\ and\\ funding\\ came\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incentives\\ for\\ outside\\ investments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cheaper\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tax\\ breaks\\ to\\ US\\ firms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ assistance\\ helped\\ create\\ an\\ infrastructure\\ for\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1941\\-1945\\:\\ state\\ led\\ reforms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1945\\-1947\\:\\ Import\\ Substitutes\\ for\\ uses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Operation\\ bootstrap\\ \\(1947\\-1973\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1947\\-1959\\:\\ Labor\\ intensive\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1960\\-1973\\:\\ capital\\ intensive\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphases\\ on\\ petrol\\ chemicals\\.\\ \\ \\;PR\\ was\\ the\\ largest\\ producer\\ of\\ drugs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1976\\-1996\\:\\ Tax\\ subsidy\\ oriented\\ strategy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ longer\\ competitive\\ with\\ cheaper\\ labor\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gains\\ for\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modernization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structural\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Per\\ capita\\ income\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ middle\\ calls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\ expectancy\\ rise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ little\\ cane\\ planted\\ any\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Per\\ Capita\\ Improvements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Good\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ other\\ countries\\ like\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ comparison\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ it\\ had\\ half\\ the\\ per\\ capita\\ income\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ Force\\ Distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agriculture\\:\\ 1950\\ \\=\\ 35\\%\\ \\;\\ 1990\\ \\=\\ 3\\.7\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\:\\ 1950\\=\\ 14\\.4\\%\\ \\;\\ 1990\\=20\\.6\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growth\\ of\\ middle\\ class\\:\\ 1950\\:\\ 27\\%\\ \\;\\ 1990\\:\\ 51\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unemployment\\ up\\ by\\ 20\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ measures\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ job\\ and\\ jot\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ given\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poverty\\ is\\ 57\\%\\ in\\ 1990\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ an\\ increased\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\October\\ 23\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 28\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 30\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\CUBA\\ \\(part\\ 2\\)\\:\\ A\\ FAILED\\ REVOLUTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reasons\\ for\\ failure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\flawed\\ political\\ system\\:\\ charismatic\\ authoritarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\flawed\\ economic\\ model\\:\\ communist\\ centralized\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ Soviet\\ Union\\:\\ socialist\\ dependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ U\\.S\\.\\:\\ strike\\-counter\\-strike\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;B\\.\\ Historical\\ Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1959\\-1962\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;59\\-\\ Revolutionary\\ movement\\ takes\\ over\\:\\ Castro\\ becomes\\ Prime\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ minister\\,\\ Agrarian\\ reforms\\ enacted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;60\\-\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;phase\\ of\\ Naturalization\\:\\ U\\.S\\.\\ petroleum\\ companies\\ nationalized\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ imposes\\ trade\\ embargo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;61\\-\\ Soviet\\ Embrace\\:\\ mass\\ migration\\ of\\ Cuban\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ diplomatic\\ relations\\ with\\ U\\.S\\.\\ out\\,\\ Bay\\ of\\ Pigs\\ disaster\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;62\\-\\ THE\\ MISSILE\\ CRISIS\\ \\(October\\ 22\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-28\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;C\\.\\ The\\ Turn\\ to\\ Communism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(1963\\-1970\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;62\\-\\ Cuba\\ expelled\\ from\\ O\\.A\\.S\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;65\\-\\ Revolutionary\\ party\\ becomes\\ Cuban\\ Communist\\ Party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;67\\-\\ Che\\ Guevara\\ killed\\ in\\ Bolivia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&rsquo\\;68\\-\\ Economy\\ completely\\ nationalized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;68\\-\\&lsquo\\;70\\-\\ Return\\ to\\ sugar\\ \\[\\&rsquo\\;70\\:\\ 10\\ million\\ ton\\ failure\\;\\ economy\\ in\\ tailspin\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\.\\ Growing\\ Authoritarianism\\ at\\ home\\;\\ support\\ for\\ liberation\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rsquo\\;70\\-\\ Poet\\ Herberto\\ Padilla\\ arrested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rsquo\\;72\\-\\ Cuba\\ joins\\ Soviet\\ economic\\ bloc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rsquo\\;74\\-\\ Poder\\ Popular\\ launched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rsquo\\;76\\-\\ New\\ Communist\\ constitution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rsquo\\;74\\-\\&rsquo\\;80\\-\\ Brief\\ thaw\\ under\\ Jimmy\\ Carter\\;\\ Castro\\ elected\\ head\\ of\\ non\\-\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;aligned\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;E\\.\\ Reagan\\ Era\\:\\ A\\ Climax\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&rsquo\\;80\\-\\ Mariel\\ boatlift\\ \\(125\\,000\\ fled\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&rsquo\\;83\\-\\ Pre\\-dawn\\ Vertical\\ Insertion\\:\\ U\\.S\\.\\ invasion\\ of\\ Grenada\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&rsquo\\;84\\-\\&rsquo\\;85\\-\\ Migration\\ agreement\\ enacted\\ but\\ soon\\ collapses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&rsquo\\;85\\-\\&rsquo\\;89\\-\\ Central\\ American\\ involvement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&rsquo\\;89\\-\\&rsquo\\;90\\-\\ Sandinistas\\ defeated\\ in\\ Nicaraguan\\ election\\,\\ S\\.U\\.\\ Collapses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;F\\.\\ Disaster\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;El\\ Periodo\\ Especial\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&rsquo\\;90\\-\\&rsquo\\;94\\-austerity\\ and\\ repression\\:\\ drastic\\ fall\\ in\\ Soviet\\ subsidies\\,\\ austerities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;in\\ Cuba\\,\\ growing\\ internal\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&rsquo\\;94\\-2000\\-\\ Economic\\ Reforms\\:\\ Self\\ employment\\,\\ foreign\\ capital\\ encouraged\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;agricultural\\ markets\\ opened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ G\\.\\ Growing\\ Contradictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(2000\\-2003\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-Dual\\ economy\\:\\ dollars\\ and\\ pesos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-new\\ social\\ inequities\\:\\ underemployment\\,\\ crime\\,\\ prostitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OVERALL\\:\\ A\\ FAILED\\ ECONOMIC\\ SYSTEM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Failure\\ in\\ all\\ sectors\\ of\\ Production\\:\\ Sugar\\,\\ Tourism\\,\\ Agriculture\\,\\ Construction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Distorted\\ Structure\\ of\\ Employment\\:\\ Public\\ sector\\-poor\\,\\ Private\\ sector\\-rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Food\\ Failure\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ versus\\ 90\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Decline\\ in\\ Automobiles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Highly\\ Centralized\\ 3\\ tier\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Communist\\ Party\\-Local\\ Government\\ Organizations\\ \\(Poder\\ Popular\\)\\-Mass\\ Orgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Basic\\ contradiction\\:\\ democratic\\ centralism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WHAT\\ SUSTAINS\\ THE\\ REGIME\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;External\\ Factors\\:\\ Soviet\\ Support\\ during\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ Inept\\ U\\.S\\.\\ policy\\ \\(trade\\ embargo\\,\\ distorting\\ influence\\ of\\ Cuban\\ exiles\\)\\,\\ diplomatic\\ support\\ from\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;World\\ countries\\ \\(economic\\ also\\)\\,\\ support\\ from\\ advanced\\ countries\\ \\(Canada\\,\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ Europe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Internal\\ Factors\\:\\ Social\\ policies\\ that\\ benefit\\ the\\ poorest\\,\\ voluntary\\ work\\ and\\ socialist\\ competition\\,\\ radical\\ egalitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MOBILIZATION\\,\\ IDEOLOGY\\,\\ CHARISMA\\,\\ MACHISMO\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 4\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Paradise\\ for\\ some\\:\\ Babylon\\ for\\ many\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ island\\ of\\ extremes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ great\\ wealth\\ and\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ stable\\ democracy\\ but\\ high\\ crime\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ culturally\\ dazzling\\ but\\ economically\\ bankrupt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\ sometimes\\ befuddles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ basic\\ facts\\ on\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ Area\\:\\ 10\\,990\\ sq\\.\\ km\\;\\ about\\ size\\ of\\ CT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 2\\.6\\ million\\ population\\ \\(in\\ Jamaica\\)\\ \\(at\\ least\\ 1\\/3\\ to\\ \\½\\;\\ of\\ Jamaicans\\ live\\ outside\\ of\\ Jamaica\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ life\\ expectancy\\:\\ 75\\.7\\ years\\ because\\ access\\ to\\ fatty\\ foods\\ low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ literacy\\:\\ over\\ 15\\ years\\ of\\ age\\:\\ 13\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ GDP\\ per\\ capita\\:\\ \\$3\\,720\\ \\(US\\ GDP\\ per\\ capita\\:\\ \\$34\\,320\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overview\\ of\\ modern\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1865\\-1900\\:\\ revolt\\ and\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ 1865\\:\\ Morant\\ Bay\\ Rebellion\\ led\\ by\\ Paul\\ Bogle\\ \\(peasant\\)\\ and\\ William\\ Gordon\\ \\(middle\\ class\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Crown\\ Colony\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ more\\ representation\\ for\\ colored\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1900\\-1936\\:\\ early\\ Black\\ Nationalism\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1919\\-1930\\:\\ Marcus\\ Garvey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ struggled\\ for\\ trade\\ union\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ founded\\ first\\ black\\ mass\\ movement\\ in\\ US\\,\\ the\\ United\\ Negroes\\ Improvement\\ Association\\ \\(UNIA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ led\\ Back\\ to\\ African\\ movement\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Haile\\ Selasie\\ of\\ Ethiopia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ crowned\\ 1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ exiled\\ 1936\\,\\ after\\ Halian\\ conquest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ beginnings\\ of\\ Rastafarian\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1938\\-1962\\:\\ bourgeois\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1930s\\ economic\\ depression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1938\\:\\ riots\\ on\\ plantations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1938\\-1943\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ trade\\ union\\ movement\\ begins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ PNP\\ \\(People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ National\\ Party\\)\\ formed\\ by\\ Norman\\ Manley\\ \\(a\\ classic\\ bourgeois\\ success\\ story\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ JLP\\ \\(Jamaica\\ Labor\\ Party\\)\\ formed\\ by\\ Bustamente\\ \\(who\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ looked\\ white\\,\\ had\\ the\\ greatest\\ support\\ among\\ the\\ masses\\ because\\ he\\ spoke\\ creole\\ and\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;culturally\\ black\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1944\\:\\ adult\\ suffrage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1957\\:\\ internal\\ self\\-government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1958\\-1962\\:\\ Federation\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1962\\:\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ travails\\ of\\ Independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1962\\-1972\\:\\ JLP\\ modernization\\ \\(Edward\\ Seaga\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1972\\-1980\\:\\ PNP\\ Democratic\\ Socialism\\ \\(Michael\\ Manley\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1980\\-1989\\:\\ JLP\\ return\\ to\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ 1989\\-2003\\:\\ PNP\\ conservative\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ 90\\%\\ black\\ but\\ Seaga\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Manley\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ political\\ system\\ is\\ not\\ racialized\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ Violent\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ genuine\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ Westminister\\ model\\ \\(British\\ model\\;\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ not\\ directly\\ elected\\ but\\ is\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ that\\ wins\\ the\\ most\\ seats\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ strong\\ party\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ fair\\ elections\\ \\(not\\ rigged\\ like\\ in\\ some\\ South\\ American\\ governments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ participation\\ in\\ elections\\ \\(much\\ higher\\ than\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ repeated\\ changes\\ of\\ government\\ \\(most\\ important\\ test\\ of\\ a\\ democracy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ free\\ press\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ violent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ only\\ Columbia\\ has\\ more\\ murders\\ per\\ 100\\,000\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ military\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ supplementary\\ police\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ political\\ clientelism\\:\\ strong\\ tendency\\ \\(for\\ PM\\)\\ to\\ look\\ after\\ their\\ constituency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ conflict\\ over\\ political\\ spoils\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ jobs\\,\\ housing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ constituency\\ system\\:\\ reinforces\\ a\\ spoiled\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ garrison\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ guns\\ \\(to\\ protect\\ yourself\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ political\\ gang\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ drugs\\ \\(ganja\\ \\+\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ failure\\ of\\ economic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ harsh\\ rhetoric\\ covers\\ economic\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 6\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Lecture\\ 11\\/06\\/03\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Jamaica\\&mdash\\;Economic\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.Overview\\ of\\ Jamaica\\ today\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\19\\%\\ poverty\\ rate\\/\\$2820\\ GNP\\ per\\ capita\\ making\\ it\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;lower\\-middle\\ class\\&rdquo\\;\\ country\\/stagnant\\ economic\\ growth\\ through\\ 1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ many\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ countries\\,\\ GDP\\ consists\\ of\\ narrow\\ range\\ of\\ products\\:\\ agriculture\\,\\ industry\\ \\(bauxite\\)\\,\\ and\\ tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ all\\ small\\ economies\\,\\ relies\\ heavily\\ on\\ external\\ trade\\&mdash\\;makes\\ it\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ global\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bad\\ situation\\:\\ imports\\ more\\ than\\ it\\ exports\\,\\ and\\ is\\ hopelessly\\ in\\ debt\\ \\(debt\\=120\\%\\ of\\ its\\ annual\\ GDP\\!\\ \\ \\;Will\\ never\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ pay\\ it\\ back\\)\\.\\ Most\\ govt\\.\\ revenues\\ go\\ to\\ interest\\ payments\\,\\ leaving\\ little\\ for\\ infrastructure\\ growth\\ and\\ social\\ services\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ How\\ did\\ this\\ happen\\?\\ \\ \\;4\\ development\\ eras\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ Modernization\\:\\ 1962\\-1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Characterized\\ by\\ influx\\ of\\ foreign\\ investment\\ for\\ tourism\\,\\ manufacturing\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\bauxite\\ mining\\&mdash\\;just\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ relying\\ on\\ imports\\:\\ tourist\\ money\\ goes\\ right\\ \\ \\;\\ back\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ manufacturing\\ just\\ involves\\ putting\\ foreign\\ parts\\ together\\,\\ and\\ bauxite\\ requires\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ \\(foreign\\)\\ energy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Results\\:\\ superficial\\ growth\\,\\ rise\\ of\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ neglect\\ of\\ agriculture\\,\\ rapid\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ urbanization\\,\\ unemployment\\,\\ rise\\ of\\ slums\\ and\\ poverty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ b\\.\\ Democratic\\ Socialism\\ under\\ Michael\\ Manley\\:\\ 1972\\-1980\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brought\\ on\\ by\\ oil\\ crisis\\ of\\ \\&rsquo\\;73\\,\\ rise\\ in\\ external\\ interest\\ rates\\,\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;screwdriver\\&rdquo\\;\\ manufacturing\\ industries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ under\\ Manley\\:\\ increased\\ taxes\\ on\\ bauxite\\ companies\\ from\\ nothing\\ to\\ 7\\%\\,\\ growth\\ of\\ public\\ services\\,\\ import\\ controls\\,\\ heavy\\ government\\ borrowing\\,\\ friendliness\\ with\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\:\\ capital\\ flight\\,\\ flight\\ of\\ elites\\,\\ rising\\ debt\\,\\ interest\\ rates\\ and\\ prices\\,\\ struggle\\ with\\ IMF\\ which\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ Jamaica\\ giving\\ in\\,\\ increasing\\ poverty\\ led\\ to\\ rise\\ in\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ black\\ identity\\ and\\ Rastafari\\ movement\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;IMF\\ regime\\:\\ 1980\\-1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Structural\\ adjustment\\:\\ 1989\\-2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ last\\ two\\ periods\\ involve\\ the\\ opening\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ markets\\,\\ ending\\ of\\ government\\ help\\ to\\ agriculture\\,\\ etc\\.\\&mdash\\;issues\\ taken\\ up\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Life\\ and\\ Debt\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 13\\,\\ 2003\\ \\(Slides\\ are\\ online\\ if\\ you\\ need\\ extra\\ info\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tourism\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Over\\ 15\\ million\\ tourists\\/year\\ travel\\ to\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ small\\ islands\\ have\\ more\\ tourists\\ than\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ level\\ of\\ economic\\ dependence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\St\\.\\ Lucia\\ has\\ 80\\%\\ tourism\\ GDP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tourism\\ is\\ growing\\ faster\\ than\\ the\\ economy\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Costs\\ and\\ Benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Economic\\ Benefits\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contribution\\ to\\ GDP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foreign\\ exchange\\ earnings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creation\\ of\\ income\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tax\\ revenue\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ source\\ of\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economic\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leakage\\:\\ 80\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Import\\ leakage\\ \\(food\\,\\ drinks\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ export\\ leakage\\ \\(profits\\,\\ income\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ of\\ all\\-inclusive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overconcentration\\ and\\ dependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rise\\ in\\ local\\ cost\\ of\\ living\\ e\\.g\\.\\ land\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Governments\\ bear\\ infrastructure\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seasonality\\ of\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lower\\ rate\\ of\\ return\\ on\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Clash\\ of\\ lifestyles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ segregation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inequality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ benefits\\ mainly\\ to\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beach\\ rights\\ denied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effect\\ on\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negative\\ effects\\ on\\ local\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crime\\:\\ prostitution\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ gambling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ ordinary\\ people\\ have\\ positive\\ views\\ of\\ tourism\\ according\\ to\\ most\\ polls\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Significant\\ improvement\\ of\\ local\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radical\\ impact\\ on\\ racial\\/class\\/gender\\ attitudes\\ and\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ awareness\\ of\\ local\\ culture\\ and\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Environmental\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Generally\\ negative\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Solid\\ and\\ liquid\\ wastes\\:\\ dumping\\ by\\ cruise\\ ships\\;\\ hotel\\ wastes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Threat\\ to\\ vulnerable\\ environments\\ \\(Sea\\,\\ beaches\\,\\ coral\\ reefs\\,\\ marsh\\ lands\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ high\\ water\\ and\\ energy\\ consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Environmental\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ environmental\\ awareness\\ in\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ to\\ concept\\ of\\ sustainable\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\External\\ aid\\ for\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ to\\ eco\\-tourism\\ in\\ some\\ islands\\ such\\ as\\ Dominica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 18\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ major\\ transshipment\\ regions\\ for\\ illicit\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Average\\:\\ 50\\-\\ kilos\\ \\(cocaine\\)\\ cross\\ region\\ daily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equaled\\ 216\\ Metric\\ Tons\\ in\\ 2001\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ is\\ major\\ marijuana\\ producer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\160\\ Metric\\ tons\\ exported\\ in\\ 2001\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\80\\%\\ for\\ U\\.S\\ Market\\,\\ 20\\%\\ to\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deleterious\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drug\\ Addiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ destabilization\\/Corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ Security\\ Problems\\ \\(Drug\\ lords\\ can\\ have\\ better\\ security\\ than\\ the\\ army\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ Distortion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ is\\ major\\ \\%\\ of\\ GDP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Total\\ Export\\ earnings\\:\\ 2001\\>\\;\\ U\\.S\\ \\$3\\.447B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domestic\\ Earnings\\:\\ \\$3\\.68B\\;\\ 34\\%\\ of\\ GDP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Total\\:\\ Grater\\ than\\ top\\ 5\\ legit\\ export\\ earners\\ combined\\:\\ Petroleum\\,\\ Aluminum\\,\\ Alcohol\\,\\ Aluminum\\ Ore\\,\\ Chemicals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Narco\\-Trafficking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rise\\ in\\ European\\ Export\\ \\=\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Price\\ value\\ of\\ cocaine\\:\\ takes\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cocaine\\ Routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colombia\\,\\ Jamaican\\,\\ Bahamian\\ Islands\\ Connect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ uses\\ daring\\ procedures\\,\\ often\\ w\\/\\ military\\ precision\\ \\(not\\ clear\\ in\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eastern\\ \\&\\;\\ Mainland\\ Caribbean\\ service\\ to\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ Organization\\ dominate\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ operations\\ \\(\\?\\ Not\\ clear\\ in\\ notes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marijuana\\ Routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fall\\ in\\ Export\\,\\ due\\ to\\ production\\ in\\ N\\.\\ America\\,\\ Europe\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Morocco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\160\\ MT\\ produced\\,\\ 80\\%\\ to\\ U\\.S\\,\\ worth\\ US\\$2\\ million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saw\\ a\\ steep\\ decline\\ in\\ total\\ revenue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dominant\\ island\\ in\\ drug\\ trade\\ is\\ Jamaica\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ Drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heroine\\,\\ ecstasy\\ \\(club\\ drugs\\)\\,\\ increase\\ in\\ N\\.\\ America\\,\\ minor\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\>\\;\\ has\\ heroine\\ problem\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ diverted\\ pharmaceuticals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ ominous\\ recent\\ developments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colombia\\>\\;\\ has\\ entered\\ into\\ poppy\\ \\&\\;\\ heroine\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Renewed\\ U\\.S\\ demand\\ \\(heroine\\ chic\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\9\\/11\\ Terrorist\\ attack\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ interdiction\\ on\\ Mexican\\ border\\ and\\ Asia\\ \\(led\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ sea\\ routes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ Production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ marijuana\\ produced\\ in\\ Caribbean\\>\\;\\ mainly\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\.S\\ promoted\\ eradication\\;\\ met\\ w\\/\\ resistance\\,\\ resentment\\,\\ environmental\\ hazard\\,\\ hostility\\ from\\ local\\ farms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ Use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ganja\\ \\(traditional\\ in\\ Jamaica\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medicinal\\,\\ Spiritual\\,\\ Rastafarians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seen\\ as\\ Non\\-addictive\\;\\ recreational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\B\\/c\\ of\\ trafficking\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ turn\\ to\\ hard\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bahamas\\ \\(worst\\)\\ had\\ cocaine\\ \\&\\;\\ crack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drugs\\ grown\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ Trinidad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\None\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ needle\\ phobia\\ \\&\\;\\ high\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Special\\ case\\:\\ high\\ usage\\ of\\ hard\\ drugs\\ among\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Corruption\\ \\(pervasive\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\:\\ Suriname\\,\\ Cuba\\,\\ Antigua\\,\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\,\\ everywhere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Police\\ Corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ against\\ drugs\\ causes\\ human\\ rights\\ violations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*Root\\ Cause\\:\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ insatiable\\ demand\\ for\\ narcotics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ Blacks\\ in\\ America\\ in\\ prison\\ for\\ drugs\\ and\\ drug\\ related\\ crimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drugs\\ are\\ demand\\-driven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 20\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paradise\\ Lost\\ \\(II\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extent\\ of\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Causes\\ of\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Global\\ context\\ especially\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Comparative\\ overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Worldwide\\ upsurge\\ of\\ crime\\ since\\ the\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Related\\ to\\ economic\\,\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narcotics\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ major\\ factor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Latin\\ America\\ and\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ have\\ the\\ highest\\ crime\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ striking\\ regional\\ variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ is\\ more\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ than\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guyana\\ had\\ also\\ had\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\ with\\ drugs\\ and\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Not\\ so\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overall\\ crimes\\ declined\\ in\\ the\\ 90\\&rsquo\\;s\\ from\\ highs\\ of\\ the\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ important\\ exceptions\\ homicide\\ rates\\ are\\ generally\\ stable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crimes\\ against\\ tourists\\ are\\ very\\ low\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1999\\,\\ 0\\.01\\ per\\/100\\,000\\ tourists\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Barbados\\ has\\ a\\ rate\\ of\\ 0\\.07\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Causes\\ of\\ Crime\\:\\ Economic\\ and\\ Sociological\\ approaches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Economists\\ view\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crime\\ as\\ a\\ rational\\ calculation\\ of\\ rewards\\ between\\ legit\\ and\\ criminal\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opportunities\\ offered\\ by\\ potential\\ victims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Police\\ presence\\ as\\ deference\\ in\\ potential\\ criminal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ risk\\ assessment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sociologists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Community\\ extent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Familial\\ and\\ other\\ background\\ fators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Broad\\ socio\\-economic\\ forces\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ class\\,\\ racism\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demographic\\ factors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ age\\ structure\\,\\ urbanization\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labeling\\ crime\\ as\\ social\\ construction\\ of\\ crime\\ \\(for\\ instance\\,\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ define\\ crime\\ as\\ what\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ people\\ do\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ and\\ social\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ recent\\ convergence\\ in\\ these\\ 2\\ approaches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Findings\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ Bank\\ Study\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inequality\\ an\\ important\\ determinant\\ of\\ homicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ income\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ inequality\\.\\ Education\\ also\\ creates\\ inequality\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\ rates\\ is\\ a\\ predictor\\ of\\ homicide\\,\\ though\\ weakly\\ correlated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ educated\\ people\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ more\\ innovative\\ ways\\ of\\ committing\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ relation\\ between\\ crime\\ and\\ levels\\ of\\ national\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drug\\ use\\ and\\ traffic\\ strongly\\ determine\\ homicide\\ rtaes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homicide\\ rate\\ rises\\ during\\ low\\ economic\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ deference\\ factor\\ of\\ effective\\ police\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Continuity\\ factor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inertia\\:\\ crime\\ persists\\ once\\ entrenched\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effective\\ police\\ action\\ makes\\ a\\ big\\ difference\\ in\\ homicide\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Causes\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ Crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Traditional\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poverty\\ and\\ inequality\\:\\ Poverty\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ cause\\,\\ but\\ how\\ it\\ influences\\ crime\\ is\\ not\\ clearly\\ known\\.\\ Mediating\\ factors\\ could\\ be\\ family\\,\\ social\\ organization\\,\\ education\\ and\\ anger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Socio\\-cultural\\ factors\\:\\ Single\\ female\\ families\\,\\ gender\\ relations\\ and\\ absent\\ fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Democracy\\:\\ Criminals\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ increased\\ personal\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Post\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ trafficking\\:\\ increase\\ in\\ drug\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Availability\\ of\\ firearms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deportees\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Concentration\\ of\\ criminals\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ due\\ to\\ return\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ criminals\\ after\\ serving\\ crime\\-related\\ sentence\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weak\\ police\\ force\\;\\ police\\ force\\ increasingly\\ committing\\ serious\\ human\\ right\\ offences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weak\\ rehab\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Special\\ case\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lethal\\ combination\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drug\\ gangs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Garrison\\ communities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deportees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ disorganization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Out\\-of\\-control\\ police\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 25\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 2\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 4\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 9\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polyrhythm\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\regular\\ interaction\\ of\\ two\\ responses\\ \\(call\\ and\\ response\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Ostenado\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\short\\ building\\ block\\ of\\ a\\ rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Many\\ European\\ influences\\ in\\ music\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\:\\ sea\\ shanty\\,\\ military\\ marches\\,\\ social\\ dances\\)\\;\\ transmission\\ was\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ colonialism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neo\\-African\\ traditions\\ abound\\ in\\ Cuba\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Batta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Yoruba\\ drumming\\,\\ pre\\-composed\\ rhythmic\\ patterns\\ associated\\ with\\ particular\\ orisha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rumba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ related\\ to\\ secular\\ dances\\ performed\\ by\\ Congolese\\ slaves\\;\\ emerged\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ among\\ lower\\ class\\ blacks\\,\\ performed\\ at\\ parties\\;\\ carries\\ forward\\ into\\ salsa\\;\\ Qua\\ Congo\\ rhythm\\ is\\ most\\ popular\\ \\(couple\\ dancing\\)\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Montuno\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ call\\ and\\ response\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\European\\ Traditions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decimas\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spanish\\ verse\\ form\\,\\ ten\\ line\\ improvised\\ stanzas\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\:\\ Guantanamera\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Danza\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Spanish\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ elite\\ music\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Danzon\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ragtime\\,\\ piano\\-based\\ tradition\\ took\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bollera\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;slow\\ dance\\ song\\ sung\\ in\\ clean\\,\\ operatic\\ voice\\ with\\ sentimental\\ lyrics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Son\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;originated\\ among\\ Spanish\\ farmers\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\;\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ thrace\\ \\(6\\ string\\ guitar\\)\\ important\\;\\ Son\\ began\\ as\\ an\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ popular\\ dance\\ of\\ the\\ rural\\ working\\ classes\\ and\\ was\\ performed\\ with\\ percussion\\ alone\\;\\ Son\\ is\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ first\\ musical\\ genre\\ to\\ use\\ drums\\ played\\ with\\ bare\\ hands\\;\\ Cuban\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ the\\ backbone\\ for\\ contemporary\\ salsa\\ and\\ was\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ dance\\ music\\ genre\\ to\\ emerge\\ from\\ Cuba\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sextet\\ crystallized\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ thrace\\,\\ guitar\\,\\ bongo\\,\\ string\\ bass\\ and\\ 2\\ vocalists\\ playing\\ moroccos\\;\\ trumpet\\ soon\\ added\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Section\\ 1\\ of\\ songs\\,\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Largo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ songlike\\ with\\ an\\ extended\\ harmonic\\ section\\ \\(AABA\\)\\;\\ similar\\ to\\ early\\ Jazz\\ compositions\\,\\ relatively\\ short\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Section\\ 2\\ of\\ songs\\ had\\ a\\ longer\\ \\&ldquo\\;Montuno\\&rdquo\\;\\ section\\ with\\ vocal\\,\\ call\\/response\\ patterns\\ with\\ instrumental\\ solos\\;\\ chorus\\ of\\ vocals\\ singing\\ a\\ refrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anticipated\\ bass\\ provides\\ a\\ strong\\ underlying\\ rhythmic\\ vive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clave\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(key\\)\\ determines\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ other\\ instruments\\ play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 1940s\\,\\ Congo\\,\\ piano\\,\\ trumpet\\ all\\ add\\ faster\\ tempos\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ son\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ trumpet\\ format\\ very\\ common\\ throughout\\ Latin\\ music\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sectional\\ arrangements\\ for\\ the\\ horns\\ provide\\ strong\\ rhythmic\\ vibe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mambo\\ hit\\ the\\ U\\.S\\ in\\ the\\ 1940s\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\:\\ Benny\\ Moraz\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ tradition\\ influences\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bomba\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secular\\ dance\\ from\\ slave\\ barracks\\,\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ dancers\\ whom\\ the\\ drummers\\ follow\\,\\ very\\ rare\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plaina\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;informal\\ dance\\ music\\ in\\ street\\ parties\\,\\ recessions\\,\\ jingle\\-less\\ tambourines\\,\\ frame\\ drums\\;\\ translate\\ news\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Puerto\\ Rican\\ and\\ New\\ Yorican\\ music\\ combine\\;\\ black\\ hiphop\\ influence\\ converges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salsa\\ emerges\\ in\\ 1960s\\ with\\ promotion\\ of\\ Fanya\\ record\\ label\\,\\ which\\ gives\\ it\\ an\\ identity\\ and\\ skewed\\ the\\ strong\\ Cuban\\ roots\\;\\ 1970s\\ was\\ heyday\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\:\\ Willy\\ Cologne\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meringue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emerged\\ from\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\:\\ bands\\ are\\ cheaper\\,\\ flashier\\,\\ basic\\ dance\\ pattern\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-1800s\\ as\\ a\\ variant\\ of\\ the\\ danza\\;\\ accordion\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ element\\;\\ simpler\\ harmonies\\,\\ relentlessly\\ fast\\ tempo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 11\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MISSING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\December\\ 16\\,\\ 2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\ Emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ Course\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Global\\ Dimension\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hispanic\\/Non\\ Hispanic\\ divide\\ and\\ convergence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ Imperialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Migration\\\\The\\ great\\ wealth\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ was\\ not\\ reinvested\\ there\\ but\\ sent\\ to\\ mother\\ Europe\\ and\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ foreign\\ investment\\ still\\ runs\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ today\\\\The\\ displacement\\ of\\ these\\ different\\ groups\\ gets\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\:\\ drama\\,\\ fiction\\,\\ music\\ and\\ poetry\\.\\ \\\\Many\\ Cubans\\ migrated\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ rule\\ of\\ Castro\\ for\\ fear\\ of\\ losing\\ all\\ property\\\\*Large\\ population\\ in\\ Florida\\Many\\ Jamaicans\\ move\\ to\\ US\\ in\\ fear\\ of\\ communism\\ coming\\ to\\ Jamaica\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\\\*Mostly\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ upper\\ middle\\ class\\Modern\\ Migration\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\\\After\\ the\\ Jone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ born\\ on\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ are\\ all\\ American\\ citizens\\ and\\ freely\\ travel\\ in\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\\\*Blue\\ collar\\ workers\\ go\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ looking\\ for\\ jobs\\\\*Many\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ \\(NY\\)\\ and\\ still\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ cultural\\ identity\\Jamaicans\\ are\\ a\\ large\\ group\\ in\\ US\\ and\\ many\\ moved\\ to\\ Britain\\ and\\ a\\ notable\\ population\\ exists\\ there\\\\Jamaicans\\,\\ Haitians\\,\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\,\\ Trinidadians\\,\\ and\\ many\\ others\\ are\\ still\\ immigrating\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ today\\.\\ Seeking\\ better\\ jobs\\ and\\ better\\ standards\\ of\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ US\\Some\\ circular\\ immigration\\ is\\ occurring\\\\There\\ exists\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ still\\ have\\ strong\\ ties\\ to\\ Caribbean\\ homelands\\ and\\ have\\ not\\ assimilated\\ into\\ American\\ life\\\\Many\\ immigrants\\ send\\ money\\ home\\ to\\ their\\ loved\\ ones\\ which\\ makes\\ up\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ some\\ Caribbean\\ nations\\&rsquo\\;\\ income\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Geography\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinctive\\ Pattern\\ of\\ race\\-Ethno\\ somatic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ Vitality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ central\\ Role\\ in\\ Modern\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Global\\ Dimension\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Caribbean\\ from\\ the\\ time\\ Christopher\\ Columbus\\ landed\\ on\\ the\\ land\\ he\\ thought\\ was\\ the\\ East\\ Indies\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ jewel\\,\\ a\\ pawn\\ and\\ a\\ scapegoat\\ to\\ world\\ powers\\,\\ First\\ Europe\\ than\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Caribbean\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ Triangular\\ trade\\,\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ land\\ loaded\\ with\\ opportunities\\ for\\ wealth\\.\\ The\\ Sugar\\ and\\ Tobacco\\ plantations\\ worked\\ by\\ thousands\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\slaves\\ brought\\ much\\ wealth\\ to\\ European\\ planters\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ coveted\\ jewel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\ were\\ used\\ as\\ pawns\\ in\\ the\\ exchanges\\ of\\ the\\ European\\ powers\\ ad\\ islands\\ were\\ traded\\ for\\ security\\ or\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Caribbean\\ was\\ also\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ strategic\\ military\\ location\\ in\\ water\\ routes\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ a\\ weak\\ spot\\ in\\ the\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ France\\,\\ England\\,\\ The\\ Netherlands\\,\\ Portugal\\,\\ Russia\\,\\ Spain\\,\\ and\\ Germany\\ all\\ had\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hispanic\\/\\ Non\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ are\\ the\\ Major\\ differences\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ \\(Cuba\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\/Hispanic\\ \\(Jamaica\\,\\ Trinidad\\,\\ Haiti\\,\\ St\\ Vincent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Language\\:\\ the\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ unified\\ in\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ Spanish\\ and\\ no\\ Creole\\ has\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ Hispanic\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Non\\-Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ speaks\\ English\\ in\\ most\\ countries\\ and\\ French\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Dutch\\ in\\ some\\,\\ but\\ all\\ these\\ nations\\ have\\ developed\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ Creole\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\:\\ The\\ Spanish\\ Colonies\\ were\\ mostly\\ urban\\ settlements\\ built\\ around\\ central\\ squares\\.\\ There\\ were\\ strong\\ tensions\\ between\\ the\\ Creole\\ and\\ Spanish\\ born\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ shortage\\ of\\ European\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1519\\-1421\\ the\\ Spanish\\ colonies\\ became\\ fortress\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Spanish\\ colonies\\ had\\ a\\ less\\ harsh\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\ than\\ the\\ non\\ Hispanic\\ colonies\\ and\\ also\\ allowed\\ refugee\\ slaves\\ from\\ other\\ colonies\\ to\\ remain\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Non\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ had\\ very\\ harsh\\ slavery\\ and\\ the\\ communities\\ were\\ not\\ urban\\ based\\ but\\ scattered\\.\\ Settlers\\ went\\ into\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ built\\ farms\\ away\\ from\\ any\\ central\\ plazas\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ societies\\ developed\\.\\ The\\ Non\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ also\\ introduced\\ African\\ slaves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ developed\\ with\\ an\\ aristocracy\\ of\\ counts\\,\\ marquis\\ etc\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ white\\ population\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ large\\ mixed\\ population\\ and\\ also\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ urban\\ environment\\ supported\\ many\\ colored\\ women\\ as\\ mistresses\\ for\\ white\\ men\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Spanish\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ a\\ larger\\ white\\ and\\ mixed\\ population\\ than\\ the\\ Non\\-\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Shared\\ features\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ shared\\ African\\ traditions\\ in\\ Music\\,\\ religion\\ and\\ family\\ structure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Also\\ the\\ shared\\ inheritance\\ of\\ slave\\ traditions\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ European\\ ones\\ such\\ as\\ Catholicism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ there\\ a\\ trend\\ toward\\ convergence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ Urbanization\\,\\ Globalization\\,\\ and\\ immigration\\ to\\ America\\ the\\ Hispanic\\ and\\ Non\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ are\\ becoming\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ similar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tourism\\:\\ The\\ non\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ a\\ tourist\\ industry\\ that\\ promotes\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ paradise\\ and\\ relaxation\\ and\\ the\\ Hispanic\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ theme\\ of\\ offering\\ wonderful\\ entertainment\\ in\\ Salsa\\ and\\ Meringue\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ Imperialism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ European\\ quest\\ for\\ gold\\,\\ glory\\,\\ and\\ God\\ led\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ and\\ there\\ they\\ established\\ colonies\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ Hemisphere\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ was\\ a\\ harsh\\ system\\ of\\ labor\\ enabling\\ the\\ rich\\ planters\\ to\\ become\\ rich\\ on\\ the\\ backs\\ of\\ enslaved\\ Africans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ was\\ harsher\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ owners\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ money\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ grand\\ style\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ the\\ plantation\\ owners\\ were\\ therefore\\ largely\\ absent\\ on\\ the\\ plantations\\ and\\ their\\ interests\\ were\\ protected\\ by\\ lawyers\\ and\\ overseers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Lawyers\\ and\\ overseers\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ maximize\\ profits\\ worked\\ slaved\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ in\\ 18\\ hour\\ days\\ in\\ harsh\\ conditions\\,\\ After\\ 8\\ years\\ when\\ a\\ slave\\ died\\ from\\ the\\ harshness\\ of\\ the\\ conditions\\ more\\ slaves\\ were\\ brought\\ in\\ to\\ replace\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unlike\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\ who\\ were\\ encouraged\\ to\\ reproduce\\ themselves\\,\\ the\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ were\\ considered\\ disposable\\ goods\\ used\\ for\\ only\\ a\\ time\\ then\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ newer\\ fresher\\ model\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ slave\\ owners\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ were\\ attempting\\ to\\ settle\\ in\\ colonies\\ and\\ establish\\ new\\ lives\\.\\ This\\ made\\ them\\ take\\ person\\ interest\\ in\\ their\\ slaves\\ and\\ attempted\\ to\\ disconnect\\ them\\ with\\ their\\ African\\ ancestry\\ and\\ break\\ all\\ ties\\ of\\ the\\ sort\\.\\ Caribbean\\ slave\\ owners\\ had\\ no\\ such\\ interests\\ and\\ wanted\\ only\\ to\\ make\\ money\\ and\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ Europe\\.\\ The\\ slave\\ owners\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ allowed\\ the\\ slaves\\ to\\ keep\\ whatever\\ traditions\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ work\\ was\\ done\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ culture\\ was\\ retained\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Migration\\ is\\ central\\ for\\ all\\ groups\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Indigenous\\ populations\\ \\ \\;who\\ were\\ the\\ Tainos\\ \\ \\;and\\ the\\ Caribs\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ migrating\\ from\\ island\\ to\\ island\\ for\\ years\\.\\ The\\ Caribs\\ attacks\\ the\\ Tainos\\ and\\ took\\ over\\ their\\ lands\\ \\ \\;and\\ raided\\ their\\ villages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ the\\ migration\\ of\\ whites\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ the\\ whites\\ who\\ migrated\\ were\\ those\\ searching\\ for\\ wealth\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ came\\ along\\ with\\ them\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ prison\\ colonies\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Colonies\\ and\\ the\\ puritans\\ fleeing\\ Europe\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blacks\\ migrated\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ through\\ slavery\\ originally\\ and\\ there\\ becomes\\ this\\ experience\\ of\\ exile\\ \\(being\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ homeland\\)\\ that\\ Africans\\ feel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\East\\ Indians\\ after\\ 1850\\ migrated\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ as\\ indentured\\ servants\\ and\\ still\\ remain\\ there\\ today\\,\\ The\\ East\\ Indians\\ too\\ feel\\ an\\ exile\\ experience\\ of\\ being\\ connected\\ deeply\\ to\\ mother\\ India\\ although\\ most\\ were\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ whites\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ went\\,\\ not\\ to\\ settle\\,\\ but\\ make\\ money\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ this\\ still\\ felt\\ connected\\ to\\ homelands\\ of\\ Europe\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ also\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ high\\ mortality\\ rate\\,\\ exile\\ and\\ cut\\ off\\ from\\ the\\ homeland\\ which\\ propagated\\ this\\ feeling\\ of\\ not\\ belonging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ great\\ wealth\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ was\\ not\\ reinvested\\ there\\ but\\ sent\\ to\\ mother\\ Europe\\ and\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ foreign\\ investment\\ still\\ runs\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ displacement\\ of\\ these\\ different\\ groups\\ gets\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\:\\ drama\\,\\ fiction\\,\\ music\\ and\\ poetry\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Geography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\The\\ Geography\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ been\\ crucial\\ in\\ its\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ islands\\ big\\ and\\ small\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ sea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ larger\\ islands\\ are\\ the\\ greater\\ Antilles\\ where\\ the\\ smaller\\ islands\\ are\\ called\\ the\\ lesser\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Tropical\\ lands\\ are\\ ideal\\ for\\ growing\\ fruits\\,\\ vegetables\\,\\ tobacco\\,\\ and\\ sugar\\,\\ and\\ spices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ mountains\\,\\ green\\ thick\\ vegetation\\,\\ beaches\\,\\ and\\ waterfalls\\ in\\ fresh\\ water\\ springs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Travel\\ between\\ the\\ islands\\ was\\ easily\\ accessible\\ by\\ canoe\\ and\\ the\\ geography\\ throughout\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ mostly\\ the\\ same\\ tropical\\ kind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ location\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ at\\ the\\ foot\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ American\\ Continent\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ strong\\ military\\ position\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ weak\\ spot\\ for\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distinctive\\ Patterns\\ of\\ Race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;In\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ European\\ women\\ who\\ migrated\\ to\\ the\\ islands\\ there\\ was\\ much\\ racial\\ mixing\\ between\\ the\\ white\\ males\\ and\\ the\\ African\\ women\\.\\ What\\ developed\\ was\\ an\\ entire\\ population\\ of\\ mixed\\ people\\.\\ There\\ were\\ then\\ people\\ with\\ different\\ amounts\\ of\\ African\\ and\\ European\\ blood\\ and\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ different\\ groups\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unlike\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ where\\ you\\ are\\ either\\ black\\ or\\ white\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ racial\\ groups\\.\\ One\\ drop\\ black\\ in\\ US\\ is\\ considered\\ black\\ but\\ one\\ drop\\ white\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ considered\\ white\\ or\\ almost\\ white\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ in\\ Cuba\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ colors\\ and\\ shades\\ but\\ all\\ relate\\ to\\ being\\ Cuban\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ different\\ racial\\ groups\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ mixed\\ upper\\ class\\ population\\ who\\ are\\ considered\\ white\\ though\\ they\\ most\\ probably\\ have\\ some\\ African\\ ancestry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unsuccessful\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Caribbean\\ since\\ they\\ became\\ independent\\ of\\ Europe\\ has\\ had\\ quite\\ a\\ few\\ set\\ backs\\ economically\\ because\\ of\\ misuse\\ of\\ resources\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ opportunity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ infrastructure\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\ is\\ not\\ strong\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ low\\ level\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ high\\ poverty\\ rate\\ in\\ many\\ island\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ strong\\ trade\\,\\ and\\ cultivated\\ export\\ instead\\ the\\ tourist\\ industry\\ is\\ the\\ major\\ money\\ making\\ business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Tourism\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ source\\ of\\ income\\ for\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ smaller\\ islands\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tourism\\ is\\ mostly\\ dominated\\ by\\ foreign\\ investors\\ and\\ the\\ investors\\ often\\ times\\ do\\ not\\ reinvest\\ in\\ the\\ communities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ managerial\\ positions\\ are\\ held\\ by\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ locals\\ and\\ the\\ money\\ is\\ not\\ being\\ spent\\ in\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Jamaica\\,\\ the\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ are\\ not\\ adequately\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ resorts\\ and\\ spend\\ money\\ overseas\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ spent\\ within\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Cuba\\ American\\ dollars\\ brought\\ into\\ the\\ country\\ bring\\ problems\\ because\\ the\\ Cuban\\ currency\\ is\\ worth\\ so\\ little\\ that\\ waiters\\ make\\ more\\ money\\ in\\ tips\\ than\\ the\\ most\\ skilled\\ laborers\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultural\\ Vitality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ cultures\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ are\\ very\\ rich\\ and\\ unique\\ blends\\ of\\ many\\ different\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ Chinese\\,\\ Indian\\,\\ African\\,\\ and\\ European\\ influences\\ in\\ the\\ food\\,\\ the\\ music\\,\\ and\\ the\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Caribbean\\ cultures\\ are\\ similar\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ maintain\\ distinct\\ features\\ on\\ various\\ islands\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ world\\ has\\ embraced\\ reggae\\ music\\,\\ salsa\\,\\ and\\ meringue\\ music\\ which\\ all\\ originate\\ from\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ and\\ are\\ commercialized\\ \\ \\;and\\ enjoyed\\ world\\ wide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\ the\\ relaxed\\ laid\\ back\\ paradise\\ idea\\ is\\ also\\ spread\\ throughout\\ and\\ lure\\ visitors\\ to\\ the\\ various\\ islands\\ to\\ enjoy\\ these\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\T\\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ American\\ Involvement\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ the\\ Monroe\\ Doctrine\\ came\\ into\\ effect\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ had\\ been\\ closely\\ guarded\\ by\\ the\\ US\\ from\\ the\\ European\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ has\\ sent\\ in\\ troops\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ peace\\ and\\ to\\ keep\\ other\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ has\\ also\\ attempted\\ to\\ aid\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ politicians\\ \\ \\;who\\ agree\\ with\\ American\\ politicians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ has\\ also\\ encouraged\\ American\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ has\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ priority\\ to\\ keep\\ abreast\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ happenings\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ which\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ vulnerable\\ foot\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ American\\ continent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ has\\ even\\ added\\ a\\ few\\ islands\\ on\\ as\\ American\\ commonwealths\\ such\\ as\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ Virgin\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 57, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FC_46_FINAL_-_Lecture.doc", "desc": "Finals"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Readings Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "caribbean", "globalization"], "text": null, "id": 155, "html": "\\\\\\Readings\\ Notes\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c55\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;text\\-align\\:justify\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c41\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-81pt\\;margin\\-left\\:81pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:135pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c32\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:69pt\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c40\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c42\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:33pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c31\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c57\\{padding\\-top\\:6\\.7pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c21\\{background\\-color\\:\\#00ff00\\}\\.c51\\{margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c50\\{margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c44\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c43\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c36\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c3\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c38\\{margin\\-left\\:9pt\\}\\.c49\\{height\\:14pt\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c52\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c48\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c54\\{margin\\-left\\:57pt\\}\\.c47\\{margin\\-left\\:135pt\\}\\.c37\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c56\\{margin\\-left\\:171pt\\}\\.c29\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c39\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:75pt\\}\\.c16\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c53\\{margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c46\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\WEEK\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Small\\ Palace\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ by\\ Jamaica\\ Kincaid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basic\\ gist\\:\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ powerful\\ and\\ opinionated\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ basically\\ a\\ long\\ rant\\ where\\ Kincaid\\ bashes\\ tourists\\,\\ the\\ damn\\ English\\,\\ and\\ the\\ corrupt\\ government\\ of\\ her\\ homeland\\,\\ Antigua\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ writes\\ about\\ the\\ naivety\\ of\\ the\\ tourist\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ does\\ not\\ think\\ at\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ native\\ Antiguans\\,\\ and\\ not\\ about\\ things\\ like\\ where\\ their\\ sewage\\ ends\\ up\\ \\(not\\ far\\ into\\ the\\ ocean\\)\\ or\\ the\\ terrible\\ corruption\\ in\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ tourist\\ thinks\\ about\\ is\\ getting\\ away\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ boredom\\ and\\ seeing\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ island\\,\\ not\\ the\\ bad\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ natives\\ hate\\ tourists\\ because\\ they\\ envy\\ them\\;\\ they\\ too\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ get\\ away\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ too\\ poor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\ 23\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 37\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ writes\\ about\\ how\\ England\\ completely\\ screwed\\ them\\ over\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ lasting\\ problems\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ bank\\ which\\ still\\ exists\\ in\\ Antigua\\ today\\,\\ called\\ Barclays\\ Bank\\,\\ was\\ started\\ by\\ two\\ brothers\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;Jamaica\\ hates\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ she\\ went\\ to\\ school\\ named\\ after\\ the\\ Princess\\ of\\ England\\ and\\ how\\ she\\ speaks\\ English\\,\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ Antigua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oppressor\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ speaks\\ of\\ a\\ specific\\ example\\ involving\\ the\\ Mill\\ Reef\\ Club\\,\\ a\\ club\\ which\\ was\\ started\\ by\\ wealthy\\ Europeans\\ that\\ used\\ to\\ exclude\\ black\\ from\\ membership\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ disturbed\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ young\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ servants\\ there\\ are\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ she\\ has\\ beef\\ with\\ capitalism\\,\\ and\\ how\\ blacks\\ were\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;capital\\ only\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ white\\ rich\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\ 41\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 74\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ starts\\ off\\ with\\ how\\ her\\ beloved\\ library\\ ruined\\ in\\ an\\ earthquake\\ still\\ has\\ yet\\ to\\ be\\ repaired\\ because\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ so\\ corrupted\\.\\ \\ \\;Next\\,\\ she\\ explains\\ that\\ Antiguans\\ have\\ no\\ culture\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ unfortunate\\ history\\ with\\ the\\ British\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ then\\ writes\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ island\\ \\(which\\ is\\ just\\ 12\\ miles\\ by\\ 9\\ miles\\)\\ makes\\ it\\ so\\ people\\ blow\\ up\\ every\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ writes\\ how\\ people\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ are\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ to\\ the\\ happenings\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ validity\\ of\\ an\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ explains\\ the\\ fact\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ can\\ get\\ away\\ with\\ the\\ largest\\ prostitution\\ house\\ on\\ the\\ island\\,\\ and\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ minister\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ drug\\ trafficking\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ chapter\\ gets\\ into\\ her\\ problems\\ with\\ specific\\ government\\ issues\\&hellip\\;\\.goes\\ a\\ little\\ off\\ track\\ for\\ our\\ purposes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\ 79\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 81\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antigua\\ is\\ too\\ beautiful\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ slave\\/slave\\-master\\ role\\ is\\ still\\ present\\ in\\ Antigua\\;\\ however\\,\\ once\\ a\\ master\\ gives\\ up\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;yoke\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ master\\,\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ slave\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ essence\\,\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;just\\ human\\ beings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ROGOZINSI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ The\\ Enduring\\ Environment\\ and\\ the\\ First\\ Islanders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Physical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Greater\\ Antilles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Cuba\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Hispanola\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lesser\\ Antilles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ arc\\ from\\ Virgin\\ Islands\\ to\\ Grenada\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Outer\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\ much\\ lower\\ than\\ inner\\ \\(ones\\ closer\\ to\\ Central\\ America\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trinidad\\,\\ Tobago\\,\\ Aruba\\,\\ Bonaire\\,\\ Curaco\\ form\\ another\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Except\\ Bahamas\\,\\ all\\ represent\\ the\\ peaks\\ of\\ underwater\\ mountain\\ ranges\\ \\(some\\ volcanic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Weather\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tropical\\ climate\\ due\\ to\\ prevailing\\ \\(trade\\)\\ winds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Daily\\ variations\\ in\\ temperature\\ \\(up\\ to\\ 15\\ degrees\\)\\ more\\ marked\\ than\\ seasonal\\/monthly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Currents\\ and\\ winds\\ run\\ roughly\\ clockwise\\ from\\ S\\ to\\ N\\,\\ and\\ from\\ E\\ to\\ W\\ \\(Central\\ American\\ coast\\)\\ and\\ back\\ E\\ \\(across\\ the\\ Gulf\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Atlantic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hurricanes\\ common\\ in\\ late\\ summer\\,\\ with\\ potentially\\ devastating\\ results\\ \\(Hugo\\ in\\ 1980\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tropical\\ environment\\ perfectly\\ suited\\ to\\ year\\-round\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Erosion\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ natural\\ and\\ chemical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tropical\\ and\\ seasonal\\ rainforests\\ \\(\\>\\;50\\ inches\\ rain\\/yr\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ dry\\ forest\\ and\\ savannah\\,\\ very\\ limited\\ cactus\\ scrub\\ \\(Venezuelan\\ islands\\ and\\ Bahamas\\)\\ and\\ mangrove\\ swamps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\-Columbian\\ period\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ small\\ animal\\ population\\,\\ centralized\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ \\(proximity\\ to\\ the\\ mainland\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ tribes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Arawak\\ and\\ Taino\\ \\(see\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ 9\\/23\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ local\\ diseases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Malaria\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mosquito\\ transmitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yellow\\ fever\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mosquito\\ transmitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Up\\ until\\ late\\ 1800s\\,\\ high\\ mortality\\ rates\\ for\\ Europeans\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ up\\ to\\ 20\\-30\\%\\,\\ localized\\ incidents\\ much\\ higher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sanitation\\ advances\\ and\\ modern\\ medicine\\ significantly\\ reduces\\ risk\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Discovery\\ of\\ the\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Columbus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Spanish\\ claims\\ to\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ region\\,\\ royal\\ grant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poor\\ management\\,\\ single\\-minded\\ focus\\ on\\ gold\\ disrupts\\ local\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crown\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Encomienda\\ system\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Indian\\ slavery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ quickly\\ fails\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ resistance\\ and\\ high\\ mortality\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hispanola\\ as\\ center\\ of\\ settlement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ eventual\\ exploration\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ Greater\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ in\\ Spanish\\ focus\\ to\\ Central\\ and\\ South\\ America\\,\\ along\\ with\\ loss\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Pirates\\ Fight\\ for\\ Spanish\\ Gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Challenges\\ to\\ Spanish\\ Hegemony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ focus\\ on\\ Central\\ Americas\\;\\ exhaustion\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ gold\\ and\\ silver\\ deposits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Piracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Organized\\ challenges\\ \\-\\-\\ \\ \\;French\\ and\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pirates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sponsored\\ by\\ nations\\ seeking\\ portions\\ of\\ Spanish\\ take\\;\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ European\\ wars\\ of\\ the\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Norman\\ French\\ corsairs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sponsored\\ by\\ government\\ before\\ peace\\,\\ continued\\ afterwards\\ as\\ weak\\ French\\ government\\ unable\\ to\\ control\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spanish\\ convoy\\ system\\ as\\ response\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ two\\ fleets\\,\\ one\\ April\\,\\ one\\ August\\,\\ armed\\ guards\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ armada\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\British\\ piracy\\ becomes\\ big\\ business\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sir\\ Francis\\ Drake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ big\\ hauls\\,\\ attacks\\ on\\ Spanish\\ fortifications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Dutch\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ act\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ c\\.\\ 1600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lull\\ from\\ about\\ 1606\\-1620\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ European\\ peace\\,\\ then\\ picks\\ up\\ with\\ tobacco\\ ban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Spain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Caribbean\\ Colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Council\\ of\\ the\\ Indies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ theoretical\\ absolute\\ authority\\ until\\ abolished\\ \\(1834\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Casa\\ de\\ Contratacion\\ \\(Seville\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overall\\ supervision\\,\\ economic\\ jurisdiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Audencia\\ in\\ Santo\\ Domingo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Town\\ councils\\ \\(extends\\ beyond\\ urban\\ centers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Juridical\\ rather\\ than\\ political\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;separation\\ of\\ powers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Growth\\ constricted\\ by\\ convoy\\ system\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ powerful\\ merchant\\ guilds\\,\\ inflated\\ prices\\ for\\ goods\\,\\ eventual\\ failure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yet\\ no\\ free\\ trade\\ till\\ 1765\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ Resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Metals\\ major\\ focus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ non\\-perishable\\,\\ non\\-manufacturable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cattle\\ ranching\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ interior\\ of\\ islands\\,\\ esp\\ Cuba\\,\\ Hispanola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sugar\\ introduced\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ideal\\ environment\\,\\ labor\\-intensive\\ process\\ leads\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ individual\\ Crown\\ licenses\\ to\\ asiento\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ centralized\\ \\&ldquo\\;distribution\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ slaves\\ from\\ Cartanega\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ sugar\\ and\\ slave\\ trade\\ for\\ Spanish\\ dies\\ down\\ after\\ 1600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ Centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Havana\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ control\\ of\\ Bahama\\ Channel\\ route\\ to\\ Gulf\\ Stream\\,\\ deep\\ and\\ secure\\ port\\,\\ effectively\\ became\\ capital\\ of\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expansion\\ through\\ Hispanola\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ and\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ gain\\ control\\ of\\ western\\ third\\ of\\ Hispanola\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ now\\ Haiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ largely\\ abandoned\\ after\\ 1600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ largely\\ escaped\\ Crown\\ control\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Columbus\\&rsquo\\;\\ family\\ controlled\\,\\ absenteeism\\ besides\\ taxes\\,\\ no\\ real\\ contact\\ with\\ Spanish\\ crown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trinidad\\ neglected\\ with\\ founding\\ of\\ new\\ trade\\ routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ The\\ Dutch\\ Empire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Northern\\ Europeans\\ focus\\ first\\ on\\ uncolonized\\ outer\\ islands\\ \\(Lesser\\ Antilles\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Limited\\ role\\ for\\ government\\ initially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Influence\\ of\\ pirates\\/piracy\\;\\ chartered\\ explorers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dutch\\ provide\\ cover\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Europe\\ with\\ assaults\\ on\\ Spanish\\ and\\ Portuguese\\ trading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dutch\\ West\\ India\\ Company\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ traders\\ and\\ raiders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overwhelmed\\ traditional\\ trade\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Largely\\ abandoned\\ by\\ 1648\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Settlement\\ of\\ the\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tobacco\\ and\\ Sugar\\ as\\ driving\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tobacco\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ continental\\ American\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ in\\ the\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\St\\.\\ Kitts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pirate\\ berthing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Barbados\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ early\\ sugar\\ boom\\ once\\ introduced\\ by\\ Dutch\\ traders\\,\\ early\\ reliance\\ on\\ indentured\\ servants\\,\\ then\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brief\\ semi\\-independence\\ during\\ English\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ free\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Navigation\\ Acts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mercantilist\\,\\ exclusionary\\,\\ meant\\ to\\ hit\\ the\\ Dutch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;required\\ importation\\ of\\ items\\ to\\ Britain\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ British\\ vessels\\;\\ imports\\ to\\ colonies\\ from\\ Europe\\ on\\ English\\,\\ colonial\\,\\ or\\ country\\ of\\ origin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Settlement\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ Leewards\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Nevis\\,\\ Antigua\\,\\ Montserrat\\,\\ later\\ Virgin\\ Islands\\,\\ Anguilla\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ in\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\St\\.\\ Christophe\\,\\ then\\ Guadeloupe\\ and\\ Martinique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proprietary\\ control\\ until\\ 1661\\,\\ when\\ Louis\\ XIV\\ assumes\\ royal\\ control\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Colbert\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ and\\ British\\ both\\ confront\\ internal\\ organizational\\ struggles\\ and\\ continuing\\ Carib\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virgin\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\,\\ French\\,\\ Dutch\\,\\ Danish\\ all\\ exercise\\ control\\ over\\ some\\ portion\\ at\\ some\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Buccaneers\\ of\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;classic\\&rdquo\\;\\ pirates\\ \\(Pirates\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\-style\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hispanola\\ and\\ Jamaica\\ as\\ perfect\\ bases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lots\\ of\\ small\\ natural\\ harbors\\,\\ proximity\\,\\ size\\ precluded\\ effective\\ government\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ interior\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cromwell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Western\\ Design\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ get\\ all\\ of\\ Caribbean\\,\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ Jamaica\\ from\\ the\\ Spanish\\ \\(1640s\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ an\\ afterthought\\ after\\ initial\\ assaults\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eventually\\ drove\\ out\\ Spanish\\;\\ Maroons\\ \\(escaped\\ slaves\\)\\ to\\ interior\\ of\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slow\\ population\\ growth\\ at\\ first\\,\\ but\\ early\\ on\\ \\(by\\ 1673\\)\\ majority\\-African\\ slave\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Planters\\ gain\\ control\\ over\\ local\\ government\\ during\\ Restoration\\ period\\ in\\ Britain\\&ndash\\;\\ transition\\ to\\ classic\\ planter\\ economy\\,\\ if\\ not\\ yet\\ plantation\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puritan\\ minority\\ population\\ through\\ much\\ of\\ 1600s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Agriculture\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ here\\,\\ but\\ strategic\\ position\\ makes\\ holding\\ them\\ advantageous\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Florida\\-Cuba\\ passage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tortega\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pirates\\ haven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pirate\\ Society\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tortuga\\&ndash\\;\\ base\\ for\\ pirate\\ raids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\D\\&rsquo\\;Ogeron\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ brings\\ what\\ is\\ now\\ Haiti\\ under\\ French\\ crown\\ rule\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ Spanish\\ challenge\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ limited\\ population\\,\\ mountainous\\ terrain\\ in\\ middle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limited\\ success\\ in\\ corralling\\ pirates\\ from\\ Tortuga\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pirates\\ move\\ to\\ Port\\ Royal\\,\\ Jamaica\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ government\\ shares\\ in\\ profits\\,\\ gains\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ Wars\\ and\\ Piracy\\,\\ 1665\\-1720\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Post\\-1665\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Britain\\ and\\ France\\ split\\,\\ Spanish\\ in\\ decline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wholly\\ destructive\\ for\\ islanders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ destruction\\ of\\ rival\\ crops\\ in\\ time\\,\\ stealing\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ governments\\ send\\ men\\-of\\-war\\ to\\ aid\\ colonists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ Dutch\\ War\\ \\(1665\\-1667\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ merchants\\ seek\\ to\\ wipe\\ out\\ Dutch\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ pillage\\ the\\ Leeward\\ isles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Henry\\ Morgan\\ and\\ the\\ Port\\ Royal\\ Buccaneers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ defeats\\ Dutch\\,\\ then\\ takes\\ his\\ fleet\\ raiding\\ up\\ the\\ Central\\ American\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1692\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Port\\ Royal\\ sunk\\ in\\ earthquake\\,\\ most\\ buccaneers\\ to\\ Bahamas\\ \\(again\\)\\ for\\ refuge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treaty\\ of\\ Breda\\ \\(1667\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cessation\\ of\\ hostilities\\,\\ all\\ colonies\\ back\\ to\\ prewar\\ owners\\ except\\ Tobago\\ to\\ France\\ from\\ Netherlands\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ end\\ of\\ Dutch\\ ambitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Third\\ Dutch\\ War\\ \\(1672\\-1678\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Again\\,\\ attempt\\ to\\ thwart\\ Dutch\\ shipping\\ dominance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ France\\ and\\ Britain\\ at\\ beginning\\,\\ British\\ drop\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ end\\ of\\ war\\,\\ Tobago\\ firmly\\ held\\ \\(but\\ not\\ settled\\)\\ by\\ French\\,\\ and\\ Dutch\\ pull\\ out\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ trading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Saint\\-Domingue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refuge\\ for\\ many\\ pirates\\ excluded\\ from\\ Port\\ Royal\\ by\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plundering\\ of\\ Spanish\\ along\\ Central\\ American\\ coast\\ continues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nine\\ Years\\ War\\ \\(1688\\-1697\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\England\\,\\ Holland\\,\\ Spain\\ v\\.\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ sides\\ skirmish\\ across\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ again\\,\\ French\\ enlist\\ pirates\\,\\ English\\ make\\ move\\ to\\ expel\\ French\\ from\\ Leewards\\ \\(unsuccessful\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ reaches\\ the\\ Greater\\ Antilles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jamaica\\ pillaged\\ by\\ French\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ raid\\ and\\ then\\ buccaneers\\ sack\\ Cartagena\\,\\ where\\ the\\ Spanish\\ had\\ been\\ collecting\\ gold\\ and\\ silver\\ before\\ shipment\\ back\\ to\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marks\\ final\\ \\&ldquo\\;organized\\&rdquo\\;\\ pirate\\ raid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Return\\ to\\ pre\\-hostility\\ situation\\ with\\ French\\ control\\ of\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\War\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ Succession\\ \\(1702\\-1714\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\,\\ Dutch\\,\\ Austria\\ seek\\ to\\ prevent\\ uniting\\ of\\ French\\ and\\ Spanish\\ Empires\\;\\ British\\ seek\\ entry\\ to\\ Spanish\\ markets\\,\\ esp\\.\\ the\\ asiento\\ \\(slave\\ import\\ contract\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Again\\,\\ only\\ British\\ and\\ French\\ skirmish\\ in\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Antiguan\\ rebellion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ eventually\\ put\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Buccaneer\\ Republic\\ in\\ Bahamas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Robinson\\ Crusoe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ Providence\\ Puritan\\ settlement\\ destroyed\\ by\\ joint\\ French\\-Spanish\\ force\\,\\ leaving\\ Bahamas\\ to\\ the\\ buccaneers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1718\\,\\ new\\ royal\\ governor\\ begins\\ to\\ crack\\ down\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Woodes\\ Rodgers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BRANDON\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santeria\\:\\ From\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 37\\-52\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Cuba\\ originally\\ was\\ inhabited\\ by\\ the\\ Ciboney\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ Spain\\ enticed\\ Spaniards\\ to\\ settle\\ in\\ Cuba\\ through\\ perks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Imposed\\ Roman\\ Catholicism\\ to\\ unify\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ Queen\\ Isabella\\ instituted\\ through\\ 1492\\ and\\ 1502\\ declarations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ Offered\\ Muslims\\ and\\ Jews\\ conversion\\ or\\ exile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ Spanish\\ conquest\\ culture\\ imposed\\ on\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ believed\\ their\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ was\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Members\\ of\\ Spain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aristocracy\\ traveled\\ to\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ and\\ ladino\\ slaves\\ brought\\ to\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ ladino\\:\\ Christianized\\,\\ Spanish\\-speaking\\ blacks\\ and\\/or\\ mulattoes\\,\\ slave\\,\\ or\\ \\ \\;free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ ladinos\\ helped\\ rebellions\\ in\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Spanish\\ then\\ solely\\ used\\ slaves\\ straight\\ from\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ Creole\\ culture\\ emerged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cultural\\ intersystem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ drew\\ from\\ European\\,\\ Islamic\\,\\ and\\ African\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ Rise\\ of\\ tobacco\\ and\\ beeswax\\ production\\ brought\\ more\\ slaves\\ \\(up\\ to\\ 1\\ million\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ Later\\ coffee\\ and\\,\\ especially\\,\\ sugar\\ needed\\ more\\ labor\\ to\\ cultivate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ Spanish\\ imported\\ Catholicism\\ to\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ Basic\\ cult\\:\\ seven\\ sacraments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ Specialized\\ cults\\:\\ personages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ folk\\ legends\\ of\\ saints\\ arose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ saints\\ were\\ worshipped\\ and\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ miraculously\\ powerful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ towns\\ adopted\\ patron\\ saints\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;protection\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\ Plantations\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;Christened\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ religious\\ ceremony\\ including\\ godparents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ Cross\\ and\\ sword\\ union\\:\\ soldiers\\ took\\ part\\ in\\ religious\\ services\\ with\\ the\\ female\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Irving\\ Rouse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Tainos\\:\\ Rise\\ and\\ Decline\\ of\\ the\\ People\\ Who\\ Greeted\\ Columbus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pages\\ 1\\-25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ The\\ West\\ Indian\\ Islands\\ form\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;y\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\bordered\\ by\\ Atlantic\\ Ocean\\,\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\,\\ Gulf\\ of\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lesser\\ Antilles\\:\\ islands\\ from\\ Trinidad\\ and\\ Tobago\\ to\\ Virgin\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greater\\ Antilles\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Hispanola\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ and\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bahamian\\ Archipelago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\South\\ and\\ North\\ Equatorial\\ currents\\ combine\\ to\\ form\\ the\\ Gulf\\ Stream\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ tropical\\ with\\ fertile\\ soil\\,\\ abundant\\ rain\\,\\ and\\ various\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\II\\.\\ The\\ Tainos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inhabited\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ Northern\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\,\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ Greater\\ Antilles\\ except\\ Western\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tainos\\ identified\\ themselves\\ not\\ collectively\\,\\ but\\ by\\ island\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Borinquen\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tainos\\ of\\ Hispanola\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ were\\ the\\ more\\ populated\\ and\\ culturally\\ advanced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Identified\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Classic\\ Tainos\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Columbus\\ found\\ permanent\\ villages\\ governed\\ by\\ a\\ chief\\ or\\ cacique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Had\\ system\\ of\\ village\\/regional\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mined\\ gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trained\\ various\\ skilled\\ artisans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mounded\\ agricultural\\ fields\\ called\\ conucos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultivated\\ cassava\\,\\ sweet\\ potato\\,\\ and\\ corn\\ among\\ other\\ crops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\religion\\ centered\\ around\\ deity\\ worship\\ \\(zemis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yucahu\\-god\\ of\\ cassave\\ and\\ the\\ sea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Atabey\\-Yucahu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\,\\ goddess\\ of\\ fresh\\ water\\ and\\ human\\ fertility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Went\\ through\\ personal\\ purification\\ before\\ worship\\/sacrifice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shamans\\ \\(bohuti\\)\\ cured\\ the\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\played\\ games\\,\\ had\\ celebrations\\ around\\ their\\ central\\ plaza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\frequently\\ traveled\\ by\\ sea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\males\\/females\\ held\\ equal\\ standing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lineage\\ traced\\ through\\ mother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\polygamy\\,\\ trade\\,\\ and\\ in\\-fighting\\ were\\ widespread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Western\\ and\\ Eastern\\ Tainos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\,\\ central\\ Cuba\\,\\ and\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ villages\\,\\ except\\ in\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaicans\\ were\\ heavily\\ ornamented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Western\\ Tainos\\ more\\ peaceful\\,\\ Easter\\ Tainos\\ more\\ hostile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Columbus\\ felt\\ the\\ Taions\\ were\\ less\\ civilzed\\ than\\ the\\ Asians\\ he\\ expected\\ to\\ find\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neighbored\\ the\\ Guanahatabeys\\ and\\ Island\\-Caribs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Little\\ cultural\\ interaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pages\\ 138\\-172\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ The\\ Second\\ Repeopling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Casimiroid\\ and\\ Ortoiroid\\ Indians\\ originally\\ discovered\\ and\\ populated\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\West\\ Indies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overtaken\\ by\\ the\\ Saladoid\\,\\ who\\ evolved\\ into\\ the\\ Ostionoids\\,\\ who\\ evolved\\ into\\ the\\ Tainos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christopher\\ Columbus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sailed\\ for\\ Spain\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ route\\ to\\ Asia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ voyage\\ \\(1492\\)\\ landed\\ in\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wrecked\\ the\\ Santa\\ Maria\\,\\ Pinta\\ captain\\ deserted\\ him\\,\\ forced\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Spain\\ with\\ one\\-third\\ of\\ his\\ fleet\\ on\\ the\\ Nina\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ voyage\\ \\(1493\\)\\ landed\\ off\\ Dominica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ monarchs\\ told\\ him\\ to\\ find\\ gold\\,\\ establish\\ colonies\\,\\ trade\\ with\\ natives\\ and\\ convert\\ them\\ to\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proceeded\\ along\\ Leewards\\ and\\ named\\ them\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ explore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Devoted\\ much\\ time\\ and\\ effort\\ to\\ Hispanola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Third\\ voyage\\ \\(1498\\)\\ half\\ of\\ his\\ fleet\\ was\\ sent\\ to\\ Hispanola\\,\\ the\\ other\\ half\\ was\\ sent\\ to\\ the\\ Cape\\ Verde\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spent\\ 2\\ unsuccessful\\ years\\ trying\\ to\\ govern\\ Santo\\ Domingo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fourth\\ voyage\\ \\(1502\\)\\ Sailed\\ along\\ Central\\ American\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conquest\\ \\(1494\\-1497\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christopher\\ Columbus\\ explored\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ govern\\,\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Faced\\ rebellion\\ in\\ Santo\\ Tomas\\ against\\ natives\\ \\(Caonabo\\ was\\ the\\ native\\ chief\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ rebellion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brother\\,\\ Bartholomew\\ Columbus\\,\\ left\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ colony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\oversaw\\ colonization\\ and\\ exploitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\expansion\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ and\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\maltreated\\ Indians\\ through\\ labor\\,\\ rape\\,\\ genocide\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ population\\ grew\\,\\ Indian\\ population\\ shrank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Survival\\ and\\ Revival\\ \\(1524\\ on\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tainos\\ live\\ on\\ through\\ offspring\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\,\\ and\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ intermarriage\\ with\\ natives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inherited\\ linguistics\\ and\\ biological\\ traits\\ from\\ natives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Isolated\\ from\\ other\\ European\\ colonies\\ and\\ cultures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Brief\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sugar\\ Rules\\ the\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ During\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ sugar\\ on\\ the\\ islands\\ grew\\ rapidly\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ an\\ increasing\\ demand\\ for\\ and\\ consumption\\ of\\ sugar\\ by\\ Europeans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ sugar\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ accounted\\ for\\ 80\\ to\\ 90\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ sugar\\ consumed\\ by\\ western\\ Europeans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ non\\-Spanish\\ islands\\ devoted\\ themselves\\ entirely\\ to\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ sugar\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ Spanish\\ islands\\ such\\ as\\ Cuba\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ dominantly\\ practiced\\ ranching\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mercantilism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ an\\ economic\\ system\\ whereby\\ governments\\ exploit\\ their\\ colonies\\ to\\ benefit\\ the\\ mother\\ country\\ through\\ policies\\ and\\ regulations\\.\\ The\\ French\\ and\\ British\\ employed\\ this\\ mercantilist\\ system\\ during\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ placing\\ import\\ duties\\ on\\ sugar\\ from\\ foreign\\ nations\\,\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ all\\ profits\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ homeland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Sugar\\ plantations\\ and\\ slave\\ trades\\ were\\ lucrative\\ enterprises\\ because\\ they\\ brought\\ in\\ much\\ higher\\ profits\\ than\\ the\\ capital\\ put\\ into\\ them\\ and\\ supported\\ many\\ European\\ interests\\ from\\ merchants\\ to\\ grocers\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ they\\ became\\ essential\\ to\\ the\\ national\\ economy\\ of\\ Britain\\ and\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Triangular\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ sugar\\ was\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ system\\,\\ which\\ featured\\ export\\ of\\ manufactured\\ goods\\ from\\ Europe\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ shipment\\ of\\ slaves\\ from\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ return\\ of\\ sugar\\ to\\ Europe\\.\\ This\\ brought\\ huge\\ revenue\\ to\\ the\\ mother\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\West\\ India\\ Interest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ guild\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ planters\\ and\\ British\\ merchants\\,\\ which\\ shared\\ profits\\ from\\ sugar\\ and\\ slave\\ trades\\.\\ A\\ large\\ association\\ gained\\ them\\ significant\\ political\\ leverage\\ in\\ Parliament\\,\\ enabling\\ them\\ to\\ voice\\ their\\ concerns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ tropical\\ climate\\ and\\ plentiful\\ rain\\ supported\\ growth\\ of\\ sugarcane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\ were\\ the\\ main\\ sugar\\ producers\\ during\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Total\\ devotion\\ of\\ land\\ to\\ sugarcane\\ production\\ demanded\\ many\\ slaves\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ support\\ a\\ white\\ population\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ a\\ disproportionate\\ slave\\-white\\ ratio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Governmental\\ regulation\\ prevented\\ Spanish\\ colonies\\ from\\ developing\\ sugar\\ estates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ World\\ of\\ the\\ Slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Growing\\ production\\ of\\ sugar\\ necessitated\\ slave\\ trades\\ and\\ slavery\\ to\\ satisfy\\ labor\\ demand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Cumulative\\ slave\\-white\\ ratio\\ was\\ about\\ 9\\:1\\ on\\ all\\ the\\ islands\\ \\(but\\ 10\\:1\\ on\\ most\\ islands\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slaves\\ initially\\ worked\\ as\\ hands\\ on\\ the\\ plantations\\,\\ but\\ their\\ tasks\\ began\\ to\\ expand\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ ex\\:\\ skilled\\ craftsmen\\,\\ servants\\,\\ drivers\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Atlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ included\\ shipment\\ of\\ slaves\\ from\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ boomed\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ dominated\\ by\\ the\\ British\\,\\ component\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Triangle\\ Trade\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ slave\\ trade\\ not\\ only\\ boomed\\,\\ but\\ remained\\ a\\ steady\\ event\\ during\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ because\\ planters\\ neglected\\ the\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ their\\ slaves\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ high\\ slave\\ death\\ rates\\ and\\ low\\ slave\\ birth\\ rates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ European\\ slave\\ trade\\ was\\ helped\\ by\\ the\\ internal\\ slavery\\ network\\ within\\ Africa\\ that\\ already\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Middle\\ Passage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ 2\\-3\\ month\\ voyage\\ of\\ slaves\\ from\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ and\\ the\\ Americas\\,\\ resulted\\ in\\ modest\\ slave\\ death\\ rate\\ \\(about\\ 10\\%\\)\\ due\\ to\\ diseases\\ and\\ cramped\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Planters\\/masters\\ had\\ total\\ freedom\\ of\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ slaves\\,\\ which\\ was\\ granted\\ to\\ them\\ through\\ island\\ laws\\,\\ allowing\\ them\\ to\\ manage\\ the\\ complex\\ process\\ of\\ sugarcane\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Manumission\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ gaining\\ of\\ free\\ status\\ for\\ slaves\\,\\ occurred\\ more\\ in\\ Spanish\\ colonies\\ and\\ even\\ in\\ French\\ colonies\\ than\\ in\\ British\\ colonies\\ due\\ to\\ more\\ lenient\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ plantation\\ was\\ like\\ a\\ factory\\,\\ involving\\ processes\\ such\\ as\\ milling\\ and\\ refining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gang\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ very\\ harsh\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ slaves\\ worked\\ in\\ groups\\ based\\ on\\ age\\ and\\ strength\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ increase\\ production\\,\\ usually\\ 3\\ or\\ 4\\ groups\\ where\\ the\\ strongest\\ slaves\\ were\\ assigned\\ to\\ the\\ toughest\\ tasks\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slaves\\ lived\\ in\\ miserable\\ conditions\\,\\ lacked\\ necessities\\,\\ and\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ themselves\\,\\ which\\ translated\\ into\\ their\\ high\\ death\\ rate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Essentially\\,\\ the\\ sugar\\ plantation\\ was\\ a\\ killing\\ machine\\ that\\ was\\ fueled\\ by\\ the\\ indifference\\ of\\ planters\\ towards\\ their\\ slaves\\,\\ harsh\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ exposure\\ to\\ deadly\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\England\\ and\\ France\\ Struggle\\ to\\ Control\\ the\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ From\\ 1744\\ to\\ 1783\\,\\ France\\ and\\ Britain\\ were\\ engaged\\ in\\ world\\ wars\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ several\\ islands\\ from\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ one\\ country\\ to\\ the\\ other\\.\\ However\\,\\ these\\ changes\\ of\\ power\\ did\\ not\\ significantly\\ affect\\ the\\ society\\ or\\ economy\\ of\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Some\\ argue\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ islands\\ had\\ been\\ ruled\\ by\\ one\\ empire\\,\\ greater\\ unity\\ between\\ the\\ islands\\ would\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ military\\ weakness\\ of\\ islands\\ facilitated\\ takeover\\ by\\ opposing\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;War\\ of\\ Jenkins\\&rsquo\\;\\ Ear\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 1739\\-1748\\,\\ this\\ battle\\ b\\/w\\ Britain\\ and\\ Spain\\ \\(and\\ eventually\\ France\\)\\ set\\ the\\ power\\ struggle\\ among\\ these\\ nations\\ into\\ motion\\,\\ Britain\\ sought\\ to\\ annex\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ Empire\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ and\\ force\\ its\\ commerce\\ on\\ Spain\\,\\ resulted\\ in\\ no\\ gain\\ for\\ each\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Seven\\ Years\\&rsquo\\;\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 1756\\-1763\\,\\ mainly\\ b\\/w\\ Britain\\ and\\ France\\.\\ Britain\\ emerged\\ the\\ victor\\,\\ kept\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ Caribbean\\ conquests\\ and\\ returned\\ some\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ outside\\ territories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ French\\ and\\ the\\ Spanish\\ teamed\\ up\\ to\\ get\\ revenge\\ on\\ the\\ British\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ holdings\\ for\\ the\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ These\\ wars\\ were\\ mostly\\ won\\ through\\ each\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ naval\\ force\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Runaways\\ and\\ Rebels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ As\\ displays\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ many\\ slaves\\ ran\\ away\\,\\ committed\\ theft\\,\\ attacked\\ whites\\,\\ or\\ feigned\\ sickness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ These\\ forms\\ of\\ slave\\ resistance\\ reduced\\ profits\\ for\\ owners\\,\\ but\\ were\\ mostly\\ contained\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maroons\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ were\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ who\\ escaped\\ their\\ masters\\ to\\ create\\ independent\\ communities\\.\\ They\\ had\\ to\\ frequently\\ fight\\ off\\ white\\ attacks\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ Most\\ notable\\ and\\ prosperous\\ are\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ Maroons\\.\\ Initially\\,\\ these\\ maroons\\ worked\\ to\\ raid\\ and\\ destroy\\ plantations\\,\\ but\\ after\\ a\\ 1738\\ treaty\\ that\\ legitimized\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\&rdquo\\;\\ status\\,\\ they\\ joined\\ the\\ British\\ to\\ catch\\ and\\ return\\ runaway\\ slaves\\.\\ This\\ helped\\ to\\ check\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ mass\\ slave\\ revolts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Some\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ fled\\ to\\ Spanish\\ colonies\\ for\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ During\\ this\\ period\\,\\ slave\\ revolts\\ became\\ increasingly\\ popular\\.\\ Hundreds\\ of\\ revolts\\ were\\ launched\\ during\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ but\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ eventually\\ suppressed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Saint\\-Domingue\\ Revolt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 1789\\,\\ only\\ successful\\ Caribbean\\ slave\\ revolt\\.\\ Led\\ by\\ Toussaint\\ Louverture\\,\\ a\\ creole\\ slave\\,\\ an\\ army\\ consisting\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ black\\ slaves\\ defeated\\ Spanish\\ and\\ British\\ forces\\ to\\ eventually\\ gain\\ independence\\ for\\ the\\ region\\ \\(now\\ called\\ Haiti\\)\\ in\\ 1804\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Sociology\\ of\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Slave\\ Plantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ seeks\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ socio\\-economic\\ structure\\ of\\ slave\\ plantations\\,\\ primarily\\ sugar\\ plantations\\,\\ at\\ the\\ peak\\ of\\ their\\ development\\&mdash\\;the\\ post\\-1739\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Sugar\\ plantations\\ required\\ huge\\ capital\\/investment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slaves\\ lived\\ isolated\\ form\\ their\\ masters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ overseer\\ was\\ the\\ manager\\ of\\ the\\ estate\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ the\\ owner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ A\\ social\\ stratification\\ of\\ slaves\\ existed\\:\\ 1\\)\\ domestics\\,\\ 2\\)\\ skilled\\ workers\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ field\\ Negroes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Among\\ slaves\\,\\ it\\ generally\\ followed\\ that\\ the\\ lighter\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skin\\ color\\,\\ the\\ higher\\ his\\/\\ her\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slaves\\ were\\ powerless\\ in\\ defining\\ their\\ socio\\-economic\\ status\\ and\\ divisions\\;\\ their\\ position\\ hinged\\ on\\ their\\ master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\,\\ which\\ was\\ usually\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ slave\\&rsquo\\;s\\ value\\ and\\ skin\\ color\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slaves\\ worked\\ an\\ average\\ of\\ 16\\.5hrs\\/day\\ a\\ year\\,\\ some\\ days\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ 18hrs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\ \\(pp\\.\\ 145\\-158\\ \\&\\;\\ 165\\-181\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Socialization\\ and\\ Personality\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ socialization\\ of\\ African\\ slaves\\ and\\ creole\\ slaves\\ into\\ slavery\\ \\(which\\ were\\ entirely\\ different\\)\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ personality\\ traits\\ that\\ this\\ system\\ produced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ introduction\\ of\\ African\\ slaves\\ to\\ slavery\\ was\\ sudden\\ and\\ painful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Equiano\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ an\\ Ibo\\ slave\\ who\\ recounted\\ his\\ capture\\ and\\ later\\ experiences\\ in\\ an\\ autobiography\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ his\\ capture\\,\\ encounter\\ with\\ whites\\,\\ and\\ transportation\\ as\\ being\\ filled\\ with\\ terror\\.\\ He\\ mentions\\ an\\ overwhelming\\ dejection\\ among\\ slaves\\ and\\ the\\ difficult\\ process\\ of\\ adjusting\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ life\\ and\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Shipmates\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ African\\ slaves\\ who\\ formed\\ strong\\ bonds\\ of\\ friendship\\ on\\ the\\ slave\\ ship\\.\\ The\\ term\\ is\\ synonymous\\ with\\ brother\\ or\\ sister\\,\\ as\\ these\\ slaves\\ had\\ deep\\ affection\\ and\\ sympathy\\ for\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ African\\ slaves\\ underwent\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\seasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ 1\\-3\\ year\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ new\\ slaves\\ were\\ put\\ to\\ work\\ under\\ the\\ supervision\\ elderly\\ seasoned\\ slaves\\ and\\ masters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ terms\\ of\\ personality\\,\\ the\\ traumatic\\ experiences\\ of\\ African\\ slaves\\ left\\ them\\ cold\\,\\ unfeeling\\,\\ and\\ indifferent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ socialization\\ of\\ creole\\ slaves\\ into\\ slavery\\ was\\ gradual\\.\\ It\\ was\\ also\\ less\\ painful\\ than\\ African\\ slaves\\ since\\ creole\\ slaves\\ never\\ had\\ freedom\\ to\\ lose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Creole\\ nuclear\\ families\\ were\\ almost\\ non\\-existent\\,\\ discouraged\\ by\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slavery\\ made\\ the\\ women\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ men\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ masters\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ could\\ perform\\ comparable\\ tasks\\.\\ It\\ also\\ afforded\\ women\\ more\\ opportunities\\/advantages\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ sex\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ Negro\\/creole\\ male\\ to\\ feel\\ demoralized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quashee\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ various\\ personality\\ traits\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ slave\\,\\ includes\\:\\ disguised\\ and\\ ambiguous\\ disposition\\,\\ tendency\\ to\\ deceive\\,\\ distrustfulness\\,\\ unpredictability\\,\\ and\\ laziness\\.\\ These\\ traits\\ may\\ have\\ resulted\\ from\\ a\\ desire\\ of\\ slaves\\ to\\ undermine\\ authority\\ and\\ circumvent\\ duty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Mechanisms\\ of\\ Resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Two\\ types\\ of\\ resistance\\:\\ passive\\ and\\ violent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Passive\\ forms\\ of\\ resistance\\:\\ refusal\\ to\\ work\\,\\ satire\\,\\ running\\ away\\,\\ and\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Violent\\ forms\\ of\\ resistance\\:\\ individual\\ and\\ collective\\ rebellion\\/revolt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Jamaica\\ produced\\ more\\ slave\\ revolts\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ island\\.\\ The\\ causes\\ were\\:\\ a\\ high\\ slave\\-master\\ ratio\\ \\(higher\\ than\\ 10\\:1\\)\\,\\ a\\ high\\ African\\ to\\ creole\\ slave\\ ratio\\ \\(Africans\\ slaves\\ had\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ rebel\\)\\,\\ military\\-oriented\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ an\\ inefficiency\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ whites\\ to\\ enforce\\ laws\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slavery\\ and\\ Social\\ Death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Constitutive\\ Elements\\ of\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ book\\,\\ Patterson\\ attempts\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ unique\\ dimension\\ of\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ master\\-slave\\ relationship\\ and\\ its\\ implications\\ on\\ both\\ parties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slavery\\,\\ like\\ all\\ other\\ human\\ relationships\\,\\ is\\ structured\\ and\\ defined\\ by\\ relative\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ persons\\ involved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Power\\ has\\ 3\\ facets\\:\\ 1\\)\\ social\\,\\ involves\\ the\\ threat\\ or\\ use\\ of\\ violence\\;\\ 2\\)\\ psychological\\,\\ involves\\ persuasion\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ cultural\\,\\ involves\\ transforming\\ force\\ into\\ right\\ and\\ obedience\\ into\\ duty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Masters\\ utilized\\ these\\ aspects\\ of\\ power\\ to\\ gain\\ complete\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ slaves\\.\\ Examples\\ include\\ use\\ of\\ whips\\ for\\ punishment\\,\\ alienation\\ of\\ slaves\\ from\\ all\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ religiously\\-motivated\\ \\&ldquo\\;inferiority\\&rdquo\\;\\ doctrine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Slaves\\ were\\ completely\\ controlled\\ by\\ their\\ masters\\ and\\,\\ thus\\,\\ completely\\ powerless\\ in\\ their\\ relation\\ to\\ another\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Patterson\\ claims\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ direct\\ correlation\\ b\\/w\\ power\\ and\\ honor\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ slaves\\ had\\ no\\ honor\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ their\\ powerless\\ status\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ means\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ public\\ worth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Patterson\\ concludes\\ with\\ having\\ reached\\ a\\ definition\\ for\\ slavery\\.\\ He\\ defines\\ slavery\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;permanent\\,\\ violent\\ domination\\ of\\ natally\\ alienated\\ and\\ generally\\ dishonored\\ persons\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(missing\\ chapter\\ 22\\ in\\ Williams\\ and\\ 13\\-15\\ in\\ Rogozinski\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\.\\ Williams\\ 17\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Williams\\ Thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Establishment\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ slavery\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ increasing\\ economic\\ importance\\ and\\ dependency\\ on\\ that\\ system\\.\\ The\\ abolition\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ system\\ was\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ system\\ to\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Economic\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\sugar\\ plantations\\ going\\ bankrupt\\,\\ plantation\\ system\\ inefficient\\ because\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ slave\\ labor\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ competition\\,\\ Napoleon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Continental\\ Blockade\\,\\ decreasing\\ dependency\\ on\\ sugar\\ exports\\,\\ Caribbean\\ sugar\\ producers\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ produce\\ enough\\ raw\\ sugar\\ exports\\ to\\ meet\\ Britain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ increasing\\ demand\\/\\ Britain\\ conversely\\ criticized\\ Caribbean\\ for\\ overproducing\\ sugar\\,\\ free\\ white\\ labor\\ increasingly\\ more\\ cost\\ effective\\ and\\ profitable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Political\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ abolition\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ general\\ movement\\ towards\\ democracy\\,\\ humanitarian\\ leaders\\ expressed\\ need\\ for\\ greater\\ morality\\,\\ \\*\\(less\\ effective\\ argument\\)\\,\\ move\\ towards\\ industrial\\ metropolitans\\,\\ gradual\\ abolition\\ policies\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Limited\\ rights\\,\\ restriction\\ of\\ cruel\\ behavior\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ International\\/\\ Inter\\-colonial\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ monopolized\\ trade\\ and\\ industries\\,\\ pressure\\ by\\ various\\ nations\\ wanting\\ to\\ end\\ slavery\\ in\\ all\\ European\\ colonies\\,\\ shift\\ of\\ imperial\\ interests\\,\\ move\\ to\\ free\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Social\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\-\\ slave\\ revolts\\,\\ slaves\\ outnumbered\\ whites\\ making\\ insurrection\\ an\\ major\\ issue\\,\\ colonies\\ in\\ turmoil\\,\\ property\\ destruction\\ in\\ revolts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Free\\ Labor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\ \\;use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;apprenticeship\\/\\ organization\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ labour\\ method\\,\\ slavery\\ abolished\\,\\ but\\ plantocracy\\ and\\ plantation\\ labor\\ patterns\\ continued\\,\\ laborers\\ worked\\ under\\ contracts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ in\\ effect\\ a\\ modified\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ slaves\\ free\\ but\\ constrained\\ by\\ plantation\\ system\\,\\ plantations\\ on\\ which\\ free\\ labor\\ was\\ given\\ a\\ fair\\ chance\\ made\\ significant\\ economic\\ increases\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asian\\ immigration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ alternate\\ means\\ to\\ support\\ agricultural\\ production\\ and\\ compensate\\ for\\ diminished\\ supply\\ of\\ African\\ slave\\ labor\\,\\ tremendous\\ influx\\ of\\ Indian\\ and\\ Chinese\\ from\\ 1853\\ and\\ 1924\\,\\ indentured\\ servitude\\ was\\ increasingly\\ used\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ with\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ practice\\ of\\ denying\\ free\\ former\\ slaves\\ of\\ land\\ ownership\\,\\ sugar\\ planters\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ embraced\\ granting\\ land\\ to\\ indentured\\ immigrants\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ overall\\ expense\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ Slavery\\ and\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ World\\ \\(Ch\\ 20\\,38\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Author\\ questions\\ generalizations\\ of\\ slave\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Author\\ assigns\\ 3\\ factors\\/varying\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Population\\ density\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ impacts\\ communication\\ and\\ quasi\\-independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sex\\ ratio\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ affects\\ fertility\\ level\\,\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ families\\,\\ and\\ their\\ household\\ patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Balance\\ of\\ Africans\\ and\\ Creoles\\ and\\ the\\ age\\ distribution\\ of\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mentions\\ crude\\ registration\\ data\\ of\\ slaves\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ generalizations\\ crude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Establishes\\ pattern\\ of\\ natural\\ \\[population\\]\\ increase\\ to\\ help\\ classify\\ the\\ colonies\\ into\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ increase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lessening\\ natural\\ decreases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deterioration\\ decreases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Author\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ aforementioned\\ patterns\\ and\\ to\\ investigate\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ contrasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diversity\\ of\\ populations\\ arose\\ from\\ demographic\\ factors\\ independent\\ of\\ slave\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contrasts\\ attributed\\ to\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contrasts\\ reflect\\ different\\ stages\\ of\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disputes\\ Curtin\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Atlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ his\\ theory\\ that\\ all\\ sugar\\ colonies\\ fell\\ into\\ a\\ regular\\ pattern\\ over\\ time\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ population\\,\\ age\\,\\ sex\\ ratios\\,\\ mortality\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ author\\ does\\ concede\\ that\\ this\\ claim\\ seems\\ to\\ hold\\ true\\ for\\ British\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ index\\ slave\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sugar\\ colonies\\ mush\\ be\\ separated\\ from\\ non\\-sugar\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sugar\\ colonies\\ must\\ be\\ subdivided\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ stage\\ of\\ settlement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sugar\\ plantations\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ studied\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ chronology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Columbus\\ to\\ Castro\\ \\(Ch\\ 23\\-25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 23\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ British\\ Government\\ supported\\ the\\ Spanish\\ colonies\\&rsquo\\;\\ revolutions\\ for\\ independence\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ power\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manifest\\ Destiny\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1823\\ Monroe\\ Doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\US\\ regard\\ any\\ European\\ power\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ extend\\ colonial\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ pledge\\ not\\ to\\ interferer\\ with\\ existing\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ respect\\ to\\ colonies\\ that\\ had\\ declared\\ their\\ independence\\,\\ if\\ any\\ European\\ power\\ made\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ oppress\\ or\\ control\\ them\\,\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ manifestation\\ of\\ an\\ unfriendly\\ disposition\\ towards\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Britain\\ v\\.\\ US\\/French\\ annexation\\ of\\ Cuba\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gentlemen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ agreement\\ on\\ status\\ quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dollar\\ diplomacy\\/\\ Ostend\\ Manifesto\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recommended\\ an\\ immediate\\ effort\\ to\\ purchase\\ Cuba\\ for\\ a\\ maximum\\ of\\ \\$120M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dominican\\ Republic\\ wishes\\ for\\ annexation\\ due\\ to\\ interior\\ struggle\\ and\\ apprehension\\ of\\ attack\\ from\\ Haiti\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roosevelt\\ plans\\ to\\ drive\\ out\\ European\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Revolution\\ for\\ independence\\ in\\ Cuba\\,\\ 1895\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Spain\\ cannot\\ restore\\ Order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ sent\\ battleship\\ \\&ldquo\\;Maine\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ exploded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ joint\\ resolution\\ called\\ for\\ independence\\ but\\ not\\ claim\\ sovereignty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1898\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Paris\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Spain\\ not\\ sovereign\\ of\\ Cuba\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\;\\ removal\\ of\\ Spain\\ as\\ a\\ world\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1901\\ Platt\\ Amendment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ govern\\ American\\ relations\\ with\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ not\\ withdrew\\ from\\ Cuba\\ until\\ Platt\\ Amendment\\ accepted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1903\\ acceptance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\US\\ received\\ bases\\ at\\ Guantanamo\\ and\\ Bahia\\ Honda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\,\\ changes\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1917\\ purchaser\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Islands\\ from\\ Denmark\\ for\\ \\$25M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1940\\ US\\ received\\ from\\ Britain\\ 99\\-year\\ leases\\ of\\ naval\\ bases\\ in\\ Trinidad\\,\\ Guyana\\,\\ Antigua\\,\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ Newfoundland\\,\\ Bermuda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\exchange\\ involved\\ 50\\ over\\-age\\ destroyers\\ for\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\US\\ prefer\\ sugar\\ operations\\ \\(growing\\,\\ manufacturing\\)\\ under\\ one\\ administration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ casualties\\ of\\ American\\ mode\\ of\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ West\\ Indies\\ possessed\\ a\\ huge\\ sugar\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colono\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ small\\ farmers\\ account\\ for\\ much\\ of\\ production\\,\\ and\\ cheaper\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\US\\ colossal\\ investment\\ of\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ aggregation\\ of\\ land\\,\\ buildings\\,\\ railroads\\,\\ and\\ workers\\ of\\ various\\ races\\ and\\ ethnicities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Modern\\ Caribbean\\ \\(Ch\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Development\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\ in\\ Cuba\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\,\\ economic\\ considerations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cuban\\ separatists\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ divided\\ on\\ issue\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PR\\ progressive\\ landowners\\,\\ PROS\\,\\ and\\ intellectuals\\ worked\\ within\\ framework\\ of\\ national\\ parties\\ to\\ obtain\\ reforms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DR\\ caudillos\\ both\\ victims\\ and\\ perpetrators\\ of\\ economic\\ backwardness\\ and\\ foreign\\ domination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Association\\ with\\ Spain\\ secured\\ position\\ as\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ largest\\ sugar\\ producer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ sugar\\ planters\\ suffer\\:\\ 1\\)\\ indirect\\ taxation\\ of\\ agri\\-production\\ and\\ duties\\ of\\ exports\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ import\\ duties\\ on\\ machinery\\ and\\ consumer\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ Pezuela\\ punished\\ slave\\ importers\\,\\ encouraged\\ interracial\\ marriages\\,\\ annexations\\ not\\ successful\\,\\ failed\\ US\\ attempts\\ to\\ purchase\\ outright\\ or\\ as\\ security\\ on\\ loan\\ to\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sugar\\ industry\\ crisis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sensitive\\ to\\ international\\ financial\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guerilla\\ warfare\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fortified\\ ditch\\ and\\ martial\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\ years\\ war\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nationalist\\ feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\political\\ development\\ reflect\\ 2\\ features\\ of\\ colonial\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\authority\\ of\\ captain\\-general\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\limited\\ development\\ of\\ sugar\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\acquisition\\ by\\ US\\ as\\ war\\ booty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ 1820s\\,\\ measures\\ to\\ protect\\ from\\ influence\\ of\\ Latino\\ American\\ independence\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\economic\\ development\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ favor\\ legislation\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ credit\\ and\\ foreign\\ imports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1830\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Spain\\ taxes\\ sugar\\ sent\\ to\\ mainland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\weak\\ national\\ bourgeoisie\\,\\ with\\ desire\\ to\\ establish\\ immediate\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ have\\ much\\ economic\\ clout\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reformists\\/activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\regulate\\ as\\ Spanish\\ province\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\permanent\\ \\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\freedom\\ of\\ speech\\,\\ petition\\,\\ association\\,\\ free\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\denounce\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\deplore\\ absence\\ of\\ modern\\ methods\\ in\\ cultivation\\/manufacturing\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\culmination\\ of\\ reformist\\ trend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\assimilation\\:\\ unity\\/rights\\ as\\ Spanish\\ province\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\autonomy\\:\\ self\\-government\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\efforts\\ to\\ define\\ interests\\ as\\ different\\ from\\ Spain\\ failed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dominican\\ Republic\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\nationalism\\ fueled\\ by\\ adversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\obtain\\ independence\\ from\\ Haiti\\ \\(1844\\)\\ and\\ Spain\\ \\(1855\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;time\\ 9n\\ 1865\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\identify\\ with\\ mother\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\abolition\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ Code\\ Napoleon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\destroy\\ traditional\\ land\\-holding\\ patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ protectorate\\ in\\ 1861\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\safeguard\\ autonomy\\,\\ integrity\\,\\ offered\\ protection\\,\\ money\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\none\\ of\\ Spanish\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promises\\ fulfilled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ of\\ Restoration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Absence\\ of\\ political\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Regional\\ economic\\ divisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cuba\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wealthy\\ but\\ difficulty\\ in\\ achieving\\ independence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ become\\ US\\ puppet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lacked\\ means\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ poor\\ and\\ divided\\;\\ sought\\ foreign\\ protection\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ struggles\\ v\\ Spain\\ and\\ Haiti\\-\\ molded\\ national\\ id\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ establishment\\ of\\ states\\ preceded\\ birth\\ of\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Island\\ Paradox\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\ by\\ Rivera\\-Batiz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ February\\ 1949\\ Luis\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\ took\\ office\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ freely\\ elected\\ governor\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ \\(PR\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Main\\ architect\\ of\\ PR\\ economic\\ development\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1990census\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PR\\ has\\ exhibited\\ rapid\\ growth\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ 50\\ yrs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ in\\ per\\ capita\\ income\\ and\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\ which\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\ substantial\\ improvements\\ in\\ health\\,\\ nutrition\\,\\ and\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ the\\ early\\ 1970s\\,\\ the\\ economy\\ has\\ suffered\\ from\\ a\\ devastating\\ upward\\ trend\\ in\\ unemployment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inequality\\ in\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increased\\ people\\ residing\\ in\\ female\\-headed\\ households\\,\\ rural\\ households\\,\\ the\\ unskilled\\,\\ the\\ uneducated\\,\\ and\\ the\\ young\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recently\\ aids\\ has\\ been\\ rampant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ of\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rapid\\ migration\\ of\\ people\\ from\\ rural\\ to\\ urban\\ areas\\ and\\ massive\\ emigration\\ of\\ PR\\ to\\ the\\ mainland\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1990\\ 2\\.7\\ mill\\ PR\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1950\\ net\\ migration\\ peaked\\ when\\ 470k\\ people\\ left\\ the\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ net\\ outflow\\ of\\ the\\ 80s\\ was\\ 117k\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sharp\\ increase\\ in\\ per\\ capita\\ income\\ in\\ PR\\ since\\ 1940\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ migration\\ out\\ of\\ PR\\ saved\\ PR\\ from\\ absorbing\\ the\\ large\\ labor\\ force\\ on\\ the\\ island\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Economic\\ Growth\\,\\ Stagnation\\,\\ and\\ Inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Standstill\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-1970s\\ in\\ growth\\ after\\ years\\ of\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Standstill\\ lasted\\ until\\ the\\ mid\\-1980s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Per\\ capita\\ income\\ surged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mean\\ per\\ capita\\ household\\ income\\ rose\\ 22\\%\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Federal\\ transfer\\ payments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\17\\%\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ 28\\%\\ of\\ women\\ 16\\ years\\ of\\ age\\ or\\ older\\ received\\ public\\ assistance\\ payments\\ in\\ 1989\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ problem\\ but\\ more\\ publicly\\ exaggerated\\ then\\ actuality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ and\\ Agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1950\\ 35\\%\\ of\\ PR\\ labor\\ was\\ in\\ agriculture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1990\\ under\\ 4\\%\\ of\\ PR\\ labor\\ is\\ in\\ agriculture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Operation\\ Bootstrap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Urban\\-based\\ industrialization\\ first\\ development\\ strategy\\ is\\ to\\ thank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ number\\ of\\ urban\\ employed\\ PRs\\ increased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manufacturing\\ has\\ accounted\\ for\\ about\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ labor\\ force\\ since\\ 1950\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1950\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 93\\%\\ of\\ pop\\ under\\ 25\\ yrs\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ diploma\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ number\\ was\\ 50\\%\\ by\\ 1990\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1990\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ in\\ PR\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ finish\\ college\\ than\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1990\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 13\\%\\ men\\ in\\ PR\\ had\\ college\\ degrees\\ and\\ 15\\%\\ of\\ the\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unemployment\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Climbed\\ dramatically\\ in\\ the\\ 70s\\ and\\ 80s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ men\\ it\\ rose\\ 5\\%\\ in\\ 70\\ and\\ up\\ to\\ 19\\ percent\\ in\\ 90\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caused\\ severe\\ recessions\\ that\\ lasted\\ until\\ the\\ late\\ 80s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ minimum\\ wages\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ instatement\\ of\\ min\\ wage\\ was\\ slightly\\ positively\\ correlated\\ with\\ the\\ recession\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consisted\\ of\\ a\\ female\\ head\\ with\\ no\\ spouse\\ present\\ \\(growing\\ situation\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poverty\\ rates\\ in\\ 1990\\ were\\ higher\\ for\\ women\\ than\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teenage\\ pregnancy\\ is\\ an\\ issue\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ growing\\ concern\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Single\\ parenthood\\ has\\ been\\ increasing\\ rapidly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Substantial\\ income\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Their\\ mean\\ per\\ capita\\ household\\ income\\ increased\\ by\\ close\\ to\\ 30\\ percent\\ adjusted\\ for\\ inflation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ was\\ the\\ highest\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ major\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immigrants\\ to\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dominicans\\ were\\ the\\ largest\\ immigrant\\ group\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\42\\,000\\ in\\ 1990\\ doubling\\ from\\ 1980\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 89\\,\\ the\\ average\\ household\\ income\\ for\\ a\\ Dominican\\ born\\ pop\\ was\\ 17\\ percent\\ higher\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ native\\ born\\ pop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\15\\%\\ of\\ Dominican\\ born\\ pop\\ has\\ a\\ college\\ degree\\ in\\ 199\\ compared\\ to\\ 13\\%\\ of\\ the\\ pop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dominican\\ born\\ women\\ had\\ lower\\ educational\\ attainment\\ than\\ Dominican\\ born\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\North\\ American\\ Free\\ Trade\\ Agreement\\ and\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PR\\ advantages\\ as\\ an\\ export\\ site\\ have\\ diminished\\ over\\ the\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\ reliance\\ on\\ US\\ capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ tax\\ incentives\\ that\\ PR\\ has\\ used\\ to\\ attract\\ this\\ capital\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ under\\ attack\\ by\\ federal\\ authorities\\ intent\\ on\\ reducing\\ the\\ federal\\ budget\\ deficit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ subsidies\\ in\\ PR\\ have\\ produced\\ fairly\\ little\\ employment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minimum\\ wages\\ have\\ also\\ hurt\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ less\\ competitive\\ place\\ to\\ land\\ a\\ business\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ young\\ people\\ with\\ little\\ education\\ cannot\\ find\\ jobs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PR\\ cannot\\ utilize\\ the\\ major\\ policy\\ instrument\\ available\\ to\\ sovereign\\ countries\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ monetary\\ or\\ exchange\\ rate\\ issues\\ do\\ to\\ its\\ relation\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ US\\ currency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PR\\ government\\ was\\ an\\ effective\\ agent\\ of\\ economic\\ change\\ in\\ PR\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ Operation\\ Bootstrap\\ but\\ now\\ with\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ Mexico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ admittance\\ in\\ to\\ NAFTA\\,\\ this\\ threatens\\ PR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ competitive\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ Hemisphere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ issue\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ addressed\\ is\\ the\\ formulation\\ of\\ public\\ policy\\ in\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ sometimes\\ contradictory\\ to\\ US\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ PR\\ relations\\ and\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ sit\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ min\\ wage\\ for\\ one\\ hurt\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unemployment\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ problem\\ facing\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ sever\\ in\\ young\\ people\\ with\\ low\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\ must\\ be\\ pushed\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ has\\ been\\ stagnate\\ in\\ its\\ growth\\ since\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ expenditures\\ dedicated\\ to\\ education\\ have\\ dropped\\ sharply\\ and\\ still\\ are\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ educated\\ populous\\ in\\ PR\\ would\\ allow\\ PR\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ supply\\ of\\ human\\ capital\\ and\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ thing\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ raising\\ employment\\,\\ stimulating\\ their\\ economy\\ through\\ entrepreneurship\\ or\\ outsourcing\\ from\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\:\\ Culture\\,\\ Politics\\,\\ and\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ Nancy\\ Morris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ National\\ Identity\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Since\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rsquo\\;\\ territories\\,\\ the\\ United\\ Sates\\ has\\ taken\\ a\\ conscious\\ effort\\ or\\ to\\ campaign\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanize\\&rdquo\\;\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ this\\ campaign\\,\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ have\\ managed\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\collective\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Puerto\\ Ricaness\\&rdquo\\;\\ into\\ this\\ present\\ era\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ key\\ part\\ of\\ defining\\ collective\\ identity\\ involves\\ establishing\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ group\\ members\\ ad\\ outsiders\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;us\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;them\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ this\\ mentality\\ that\\ has\\ helped\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ national\\ identities\\ worldwide\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ this\\ issue\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\ has\\ arisen\\ in\\ global\\ controversies\\ over\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ mass\\ media\\ products\\ and\\ information\\ which\\ many\\ receiving\\ countries\\ have\\ felt\\ attempt\\ to\\ damage\\ or\\ undermine\\ their\\ national\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ widespread\\ transfer\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ media\\ has\\ also\\ at\\ times\\ been\\ to\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanization\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ country\\ of\\ origin\\ of\\ this\\ media\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ territory\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ been\\ exposed\\ to\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanization\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ ways\\,\\ including\\ cultural\\ and\\ political\\ coercion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morris\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ define\\ a\\ nation\\,\\ a\\ state\\,\\ nationalism\\ and\\ national\\ identity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;a\\ self\\-defined\\ community\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ share\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ solidarity\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ common\\ heritage\\ and\\ who\\ claim\\ political\\ rights\\ that\\ may\\ include\\ self\\-determination\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ legal\\ and\\ political\\ organization\\,\\ with\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ require\\ obedience\\ and\\ loyalty\\ from\\ its\\ citizens\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ nationalism\\ may\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotional\\ attachment\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ country\\.\\ It\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ a\\ doctrine\\ that\\ holds\\ that\\ the\\ political\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ should\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ nations\\,\\ and\\ it\\ describes\\ any\\ political\\ movement\\ whose\\ aim\\ is\\ national\\ independence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ simple\\ working\\ definition\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\ can\\ be\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\ to\\ a\\ collectivity\\ that\\ calls\\ itself\\ a\\ nation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Under\\ the\\ definitions\\ set\\ forth\\ here\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ is\\ a\\ nation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ self\\-defined\\ community\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ share\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ solidarity\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ common\\ heritage\\,\\ and\\ who\\ claim\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ political\\ self\\-determination\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ Americanization\\ Campaign\\,\\ 1891\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Under\\ the\\ colonial\\ rule\\ of\\ Spain\\,\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ increasingly\\ began\\ to\\ advocate\\ independence\\ and\\ were\\ dissatisfied\\ with\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ own\\ affairs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1887\\ Spain\\ granted\\ the\\ island\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ voting\\ representation\\ I\\ the\\ Spanish\\ parliament\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Parliament\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\ on\\ July\\ 25\\,\\ 1898\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ who\\ was\\ currently\\ involved\\ with\\ the\\ Spanish\\-American\\ war\\ invaded\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ over\\ Spain\\ relinquished\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ several\\ other\\ nations\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;PR\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ Latin\\ American\\ property\\ acquired\\ by\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ since\\ the\\ 1823\\ Monroe\\ Doctrine\\ had\\ proclaimed\\ that\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ not\\ accept\\ any\\ European\\ intervention\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ Military\\ Occupation\\,\\ October\\ 1898\\-\\ May\\ 1900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ the\\ first\\ eighteen\\ months\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ sovereignty\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ embarked\\ on\\ a\\ campaign\\ to\\ Americanize\\ what\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ poor\\ agrarian\\ society\\ that\\ was\\ ill\\ equipped\\ for\\ self\\-government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1899\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Republican\\ Party\\ formed\\ to\\ advocate\\ statehood\\ within\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanization\\&rdquo\\;\\ agenda\\ was\\ improvement\\ of\\ their\\ education\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ sought\\ to\\ implement\\ English\\ within\\ the\\ school\\ system\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ throughout\\ the\\ nation\\ by\\ hiring\\ English\\ teachers\\ to\\ educate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Civilian\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;After\\ eighteen\\ months\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ occupation\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Congress\\ enacted\\ the\\ Organic\\ Act\\ of\\ 1900\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Foraker\\ Act\\,\\ allowed\\ little\\ self\\-government\\ by\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ people\\ themselves\\.\\ Instead\\ government\\ appointees\\ from\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ run\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ an\\ Executive\\ Council\\ would\\ be\\ comprised\\ of\\ at\\ lest\\ five\\ native\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ would\\ also\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ Foraker\\ Act\\ that\\ the\\ islands\\ name\\ would\\ be\\ misspelled\\ and\\ changed\\ to\\ Porto\\ Rico\\.\\ It\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ corrected\\ until\\ 1930\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Foraker\\ Act\\ also\\ mad\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ \\&ldquo\\;citizens\\ of\\ Porto\\ Rico\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PR\\ then\\ underwent\\ a\\ long\\ process\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanization\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ U\\.S\\.\\ national\\ holidays\\ were\\ adopted\\ within\\ the\\ society\\ and\\ a\\ bill\\ called\\ the\\ Official\\ Languages\\ Act\\ in\\ 1902\\ that\\ mandated\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ the\\ English\\ language\\ and\\ the\\ Spanish\\ language\\ shall\\ be\\ used\\ indiscriminately\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ were\\ not\\ happy\\ with\\ their\\ undefined\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ In\\ 1904\\ the\\ Unionist\\ Party\\ formed\\ to\\ advocate\\ self\\-government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ language\\ policy\\ of\\ Roland\\ P\\.\\ Falkner\\ would\\ further\\ agitate\\ their\\ disappointment\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ policy\\ mandated\\ that\\ English\\ would\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ instruction\\ within\\ all\\ schools\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ policy\\ was\\ another\\ factor\\ in\\ the\\ rising\\ of\\ separatist\\ sentiments\\ within\\ PR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ point\\ of\\ contestation\\ was\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ flag\\ which\\ was\\ created\\ in\\ 1895\\ by\\ opponents\\ of\\ Spanish\\ rule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1917\\ the\\ Jones\\ Act\\,\\ granting\\ increased\\ self\\-government\\ and\\ U\\.S\\.\\ citizenship\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\,\\ was\\ passed\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ Jones\\ Act\\ would\\ bring\\ them\\ a\\ step\\ closer\\ to\\ statehood\\;\\ however\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ come\\ to\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Citizenship\\ brought\\ with\\ it\\ a\\ pressure\\ to\\ Americanize\\ and\\ also\\ a\\ counter\\ pressure\\ to\\ turn\\ back\\ to\\ their\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ roots\\ which\\ resulted\\ in\\ heated\\ debates\\ over\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ English\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ language\\ within\\ the\\ school\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1922\\ the\\ Unionist\\ Party\\,\\ still\\ the\\ dominant\\ party\\,\\ advocated\\ the\\ instituting\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;State\\,\\ People\\ or\\ Community\\ that\\ is\\ Free\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ Associated\\ with\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ struggle\\ for\\ self\\ government\\ continued\\ to\\ intensify\\ within\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ especially\\ over\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ English\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ language\\ within\\ the\\ school\\ system\\.\\ By\\ 1929\\ the\\ Unionist\\ party\\ continued\\ to\\ advocate\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ sovereignty\\ that\\ would\\ allow\\ PR\\ autonomy\\ with\\ close\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ However\\,\\ a\\ break\\ away\\ faction\\ of\\ the\\ Unionist\\ Party\\ called\\ the\\ Alliance\\ demanded\\ complete\\ autonomy\\ while\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ remained\\ pro\\-statehood\\.\\ In\\ 1930\\ the\\ Unionist\\ Party\\ renamed\\ itself\\ the\\ Liberal\\ party\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ advocate\\ complete\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pro\\-independence\\ demonstrations\\ continued\\ throughout\\ the\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1938\\ the\\ independence\\ wing\\ of\\ the\\ Liberal\\ Party\\ and\\ became\\ the\\ Popular\\ Democratic\\ Party\\ founded\\ by\\ Luis\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\.\\ This\\ party\\ soon\\ came\\ to\\ dominate\\ within\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ allowing\\ Marin\\ to\\ be\\ elected\\ president\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Senate\\ in\\ 1940\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 1940\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ economic\\ transformation\\ for\\ PR\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ government\\ campaign\\,\\ known\\ as\\ \\&lsquo\\;Operation\\ Bootstrap\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ to\\ attract\\ investment\\ and\\ special\\ tax\\ breaks\\ designed\\ to\\ encourage\\ commercial\\ development\\ propelled\\ rapid\\ industrialization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ period\\ of\\ rapid\\ industrialization\\ also\\ marked\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\ immigration\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ by\\ job\\-seeking\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ particularly\\ to\\ NY\\ and\\ the\\ east\\ coast\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ August\\ 5\\,\\ 1947\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Congress\\ elected\\ to\\ provide\\ more\\ self\\ government\\ to\\ PR\\ and\\ voted\\ to\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ elect\\ their\\ own\\ governor\\ for\\ the\\ island\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ year\\ 1948\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ turning\\ point\\ within\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ who\\ would\\ have\\ its\\ first\\ ever\\ election\\ for\\ governor\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Luis\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\ became\\ the\\ first\\ elected\\ governor\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ PR\\.\\ Also\\ within\\ months\\ of\\ his\\ election\\ Spanish\\ would\\ be\\ reinstituted\\ within\\ the\\ school\\ system\\,\\ ending\\ a\\ fifty\\ year\\ controversy\\ over\\ the\\ issue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Commonwealth\\ Status\\,\\ 1949\\-1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\As\\ the\\ new\\ governor\\ of\\ PR\\,\\ Marin\\ envisioned\\ a\\ new\\ relationship\\ between\\ PR\\ and\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ This\\ vision\\ was\\ being\\ realized\\ with\\ the\\ writing\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ constitution\\ in\\ 1952\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ while\\ impressed\\ with\\ the\\ rapid\\ industrialization\\ and\\ changes\\ within\\ PR\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ draft\\ a\\ constitution\\ providing\\ that\\ it\\ met\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ Congressional\\ standards\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ law\\ under\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Constitution\\ adopted\\ the\\ traditional\\ single\\ star\\ flag\\ that\\ was\\ made\\ in\\ 1895\\ as\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ official\\ flag\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ law\\ passed\\ under\\ the\\ new\\ constitution\\ adopted\\ \\&ldquo\\;La\\ Boriquena\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ combined\\ establishment\\ of\\ national\\ symbols\\ in\\ effect\\ had\\ a\\ great\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ people\\,\\ essentially\\ establishing\\ their\\ national\\ identity\\ for\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ see\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ also\\ around\\ this\\ time\\ of\\ change\\,\\ in\\ 1952\\,\\ that\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ \\&ldquo\\;upgrade\\&rdquo\\;\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ from\\ a\\ territory\\ to\\ a\\ Commonwealth\\,\\ to\\ represent\\ PR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ special\\ status\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ years\\ following\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ commonwealth\\,\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ political\\ system\\ jelled\\ into\\ a\\ three\\ party\\ system\\ each\\ advocating\\ a\\ different\\ type\\ of\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ The\\ Democratic\\ Party\\ supported\\ the\\ commonwealth\\ status\\ while\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ supported\\ statehood\\.\\ The\\ Liberal\\ Party\\ continued\\ to\\ campaign\\ for\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Party\\ that\\ would\\ hold\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ island\\ over\\ the\\ next\\ twenty\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ issue\\ of\\ English\\ being\\ taught\\ within\\ the\\ school\\ system\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ language\\ arose\\ again\\ in\\ 1962\\ when\\ the\\ rising\\ amount\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ religious\\ orders\\ established\\ Catholic\\ schools\\ within\\ PR\\ that\\ mainly\\ used\\ English\\ as\\ its\\ main\\ course\\ of\\ instruction\\.\\ This\\ led\\ to\\ heated\\ debate\\ within\\ the\\ island\\ over\\ the\\ issue\\ and\\ necessity\\ to\\ learn\\ English\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ improve\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ which\\ Marin\\ advocated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ Hawaii\\ and\\ Alaska\\ gained\\ admittance\\ to\\ the\\ Union\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ sentiment\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ Union\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ December\\ 1966\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ legislature\\ passed\\ a\\ plebiscite\\ bill\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ national\\ vote\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ island\\.\\ The\\ commonwealth\\ status\\ receiving\\ 60\\.5\\%\\ of\\ the\\ vote\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ commencement\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ took\\ towards\\ the\\ streets\\ protesting\\ their\\ subjection\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ draft\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ also\\ around\\ this\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ identity\\ was\\ called\\ into\\ question\\ at\\ the\\ Pan\\ American\\ games\\ of\\ 1979\\.\\ \\ \\;Heated\\ controversy\\ arose\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ American\\ flag\\ and\\ anthem\\ or\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ flag\\ and\\ anthem\\ should\\ be\\ raised\\ throughout\\ the\\ games\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ agreement\\ was\\ reached\\ in\\ which\\ both\\ the\\ American\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ flag\\ were\\ flown\\ during\\ the\\ opening\\ ceremonies\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alone\\ solely\\ at\\ sports\\ ceremonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ early\\ 1989\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ three\\ parties\\ allied\\ together\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ plebiscite\\ proposal\\ to\\ Congress\\ that\\ would\\ allow\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ to\\ decide\\ their\\ status\\ once\\ and\\ for\\ all\\,\\ however\\ once\\ the\\ bill\\ was\\ submitted\\ it\\ died\\ within\\ Congress\\ in\\ 1991\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PR\\,\\ affronted\\ by\\ this\\ clear\\ lack\\ of\\ interest\\ by\\ Congress\\,\\ PRican\\ legislature\\ voted\\ to\\ abolish\\ English\\ as\\ the\\ primary\\ language\\ taught\\ within\\ the\\ school\\ system\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ was\\ already\\ was\\,\\ and\\ return\\ to\\ their\\ mother\\ tongue\\ of\\ Spanish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1991\\ the\\ party\\ that\\ advocated\\ commonwealth\\ status\\ proposed\\ a\\ refrenedum\\ that\\ would\\ settle\\ all\\ issues\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricanness\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ referendum\\ would\\ be\\ defeated\\ and\\ the\\ statehood\\ party\\ would\\ gain\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ in\\ 1992\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ would\\ in\\ turn\\ repeal\\ the\\ language\\ act\\ enacted\\ the\\ previous\\ year\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ salvaging\\ the\\ road\\ to\\ statehood\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1993\\ the\\ statehood\\ party\\ organized\\ a\\ second\\ plebiscite\\ to\\ decide\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Status\\.\\ The\\ three\\ main\\ issues\\ contested\\ with\\ the\\ vote\\ were\\ the\\ issues\\ of\\ citizenship\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ status\\ if\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ became\\ a\\ state\\ or\\ nation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ culture\\ and\\ national\\ identity\\ if\\ they\\ became\\ a\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ plebiscite\\ was\\ defeated\\ in\\ 1993\\ with\\ the\\ commonwealth\\ winning\\ the\\ majority\\ vote\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Symbols\\ of\\ Identity\\:\\ What\\ is\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(In\\ this\\ chapter\\ the\\ author\\ does\\ less\\ commenting\\ on\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ She\\ instead\\ chooses\\ to\\ put\\ her\\ interviews\\ within\\ this\\ chapter\\ so\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ much\\ to\\ summarize\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basically\\ Morris\\ interviewed\\,\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ chapter\\ 4\\,\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ that\\ are\\ currently\\ live\\ within\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ parties\\.\\ \\ \\;Mainly\\ they\\ all\\ responded\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ types\\ of\\ answer\\,\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ proud\\ to\\ belong\\ to\\ a\\ nation\\ such\\ as\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ are\\ glad\\ to\\ call\\ themselves\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ take\\ pride\\ in\\ their\\ long\\ history\\ and\\ heritage\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ various\\ elements\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ a\\ unique\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ then\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ ask\\ what\\ the\\ interviewees\\ thought\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ a\\ nation\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ respondents\\ replied\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ was\\ a\\ unique\\ nation\\ with\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ idiosyncrasies\\ and\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ they\\ all\\ agree\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ nation\\,\\ they\\ disagree\\ on\\ whether\\ it\\ should\\ pursue\\ independence\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ of\\ the\\ interviewees\\ that\\ were\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ Commonwealth\\ Party\\ believed\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ was\\ a\\ nation\\ but\\ should\\ not\\ pursue\\ independence\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ economic\\ and\\ societal\\ \\(loss\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ citizenship\\)\\ it\\ would\\ entail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ next\\ question\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ of\\ the\\ respondents\\ replied\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ essential\\ quality\\ to\\ being\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ but\\ could\\ not\\ define\\ it\\ in\\ terms\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ defined\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ elusive\\ quality\\ that\\ is\\ inherent\\ within\\ its\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ then\\ asks\\ the\\ respondents\\ to\\ define\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ traits\\.\\ Morris\\ believes\\ that\\ one\\ respondent\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.summed\\ up\\ the\\ comments\\ of\\ many\\ respondent\\ stating\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Ricanness\\ comprises\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;series\\ \\ \\;of\\ elements\\ and\\ ingredients\\,\\ non\\ of\\ which\\ by\\ itself\\ makes\\ Puerto\\ Ricanness\\,\\ but\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ does\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Also\\ the\\ most\\ referred\\ to\\ trait\\ by\\ other\\ respondents\\ was\\ their\\ common\\ language\\ of\\ Spanish\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Two\\ other\\ cited\\ traits\\ were\\ their\\ illustrious\\ history\\ and\\ common\\ customs\\ and\\ traditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ trait\\ that\\ was\\ often\\ cited\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Puerto\\ Rican\\ personality\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ Morris\\ notes\\ had\\ characteristics\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.warmth\\,\\ gregariousness\\,\\ generosity\\,\\ expressiveness\\,\\ and\\ especially\\,\\ hospitality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morris\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ one\\ international\\ aspect\\ that\\ has\\ become\\ important\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ was\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Olympic\\ team\\ on\\ the\\ national\\ scene\\.\\ Morris\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ Olympic\\ teams\\ bolsters\\ national\\ pride\\ and\\ in\\ essence\\ puts\\ them\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ as\\ the\\ many\\ nations\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ traits\\ and\\ characteristics\\ that\\ were\\ mentioned\\ that\\ Morris\\ feels\\ has\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\ and\\ uniqueness\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\,\\ on\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ feel\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Across\\ political\\ parties\\,\\ respondents\\ identified\\ shared\\ elements\\ that\\ they\\ believed\\ distinguished\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ from\\ others\\.\\ \\[\\&hellip\\;\\]\\ \\.\\.\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ symbols\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ language\\,\\ food\\,\\ music\\,\\ holiday\\ celebrations\\,\\ Olympic\\ team\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ were\\ widely\\ agreed\\ upon\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ respondents\\&rsquo\\;\\ sense\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricanness\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ recognition\\ and\\ valuing\\ of\\ the\\ symbols\\ and\\ traits\\ that\\ they\\ felt\\ uniquely\\ defined\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosper\\ or\\ Perish\\?\\ Development\\ in\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Global\\ Capital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Blanca\\ Heredia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ main\\ argument\\ present\\ by\\ Heredia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ piece\\ is\\ that\\ globalization\\ does\\ not\\ guarantee\\ a\\ developing\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ success\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heredia\\ believes\\ that\\ will\\ globalization\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ economic\\ force\\ for\\ countries\\,\\ if\\ left\\ unchecked\\ by\\ the\\ developing\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\,\\ it\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ serious\\ and\\ costly\\ economic\\ damage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ such\\ economic\\ problem\\ presented\\ by\\ globalization\\ is\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;rather\\ than\\ allowing\\ developing\\ nations\\ to\\ quickly\\ catch\\ up\\,\\ globalization\\ has\\ greatly\\ exacerbated\\ inequalities\\ among\\ and\\ within\\ them\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Heredia\\,\\ while\\ unbridled\\ economic\\ openness\\ \\(globalization\\)\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ less\\ developed\\ countries\\&rsquo\\;\\ economic\\ success\\ that\\ their\\ success\\ truly\\ hinges\\ on\\ the\\ institutions\\ they\\ have\\ within\\ in\\ their\\ country\\ to\\ regulate\\ and\\ mitigate\\ this\\ globalization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heredia\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;basic\\ engine\\ behind\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ globalized\\ world\\ economy\\&rdquo\\;\\ lies\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;capital\\ becoming\\ historically\\ more\\ portable\\ and\\ mobile\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Robert\\ Rubin\\,\\ a\\ past\\ U\\.S\\.\\ States\\ Treasury\\ Secretary\\,\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ developing\\ nations\\ encounter\\ with\\ globalization\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ poor\\ response\\ to\\ not\\ opening\\ up\\ deep\\ and\\ fast\\ enough\\.\\ However\\,\\ Heredia\\ appears\\ to\\ disagree\\ with\\ this\\ point\\ saying\\ that\\ unrestrained\\ globalization\\ within\\ developing\\ nations\\ without\\ some\\ type\\ of\\ governmental\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\ only\\ makes\\ problems\\ worse\\ in\\ the\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heredia\\ cites\\ that\\ while\\ within\\ recent\\ years\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ global\\ capital\\ flow\\,\\ that\\ it\\ remains\\ within\\ a\\ small\\ percentage\\ of\\ countries\\,\\ not\\ remaining\\ in\\ countries\\ with\\ little\\ capital\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ uneven\\ capital\\ flow\\ is\\ also\\ manifested\\ within\\ these\\ developing\\ nations\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ scarce\\ capital\\ is\\ unevenly\\ distributed\\ within\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ increased\\ poverty\\ by\\ many\\ within\\ developing\\ countries\\ while\\ increased\\ wealth\\ by\\ a\\ select\\ minority\\ within\\ developing\\ nations\\.\\ She\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ this\\ my\\ doing\\ case\\ studies\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heredia\\ believes\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;globalization\\ is\\ not\\ making\\ the\\ world\\ less\\ diverse\\ and\\ more\\ equal\\ \\[\\.\\.\\.\\]\\ The\\ large\\ majority\\ of\\ humankind\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ rapidly\\ being\\ left\\ outside\\ and\\ far\\ behind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heredia\\ closes\\ her\\ essay\\ by\\ making\\ three\\ observations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\:\\ The\\ good\\ news\\ is\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;focusing\\ or\\ enhancing\\ state\\ institutional\\ capacities\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ huge\\ difference\\ in\\ allowing\\ developing\\ countries\\ to\\ profit\\ from\\ closer\\ international\\ economic\\ intergration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\:\\ The\\ bad\\ news\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;following\\ the\\ World\\ Bank\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ advice\\ to\\ states\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ restricting\\ state\\ interventions\\ only\\ to\\ those\\ areas\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ state\\ capabilities\\ exist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ make\\ developing\\ nations\\ richer\\ and\\ nicer\\ places\\ to\\ live\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Third\\:\\ More\\ bad\\ news\\ is\\ that\\ if\\ continued\\ rapid\\ liberalization\\ is\\ left\\ unchecked\\,\\ it\\ may\\ become\\ increasingly\\ difficult\\ for\\ nations\\ to\\ transform\\ this\\ economic\\ openness\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ effective\\ springboard\\ into\\ greater\\ prosperity\\ for\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(missing\\ Hatchwell\\ and\\ Calder\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inside\\ the\\ Revolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ Rosendahl\\,\\ Chapters\\ 1\\,2\\,3\\,4\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ book\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ social\\ anthropologist\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ study\\ how\\ Communist\\ ideology\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ everyday\\ lives\\ of\\ regular\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ chose\\ Palmera\\,\\ a\\ municipality\\ in\\ Cuba\\,\\ as\\ a\\ field\\ site\\ for\\ her\\ research\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Limones\\,\\ Palmera\\ Cuba\\:\\ The\\ Field\\ and\\ the\\ Fieldwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ chapter\\ introduces\\ Palmera\\:\\ a\\ poor\\,\\ yet\\ full\\ of\\ life\\ region\\ of\\ small\\ towns\\ that\\ functioned\\ in\\ Communist\\ Cuba\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;Life\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ often\\ dominated\\ by\\ rations\\,\\ uncertain\\ transportation\\,\\ crowded\\ queues\\,\\ and\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ luxuries\\ that\\ other\\ countries\\ take\\ for\\ granted\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Palmera\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ all\\ of\\ Cuba\\,\\ all\\ employees\\ are\\ paid\\ by\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ differences\\ among\\ occupations\\ in\\ their\\ salary\\,\\ status\\,\\ prestige\\,\\ and\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ early\\ phases\\ of\\ her\\ fieldwork\\ the\\ author\\ was\\ presented\\ with\\ an\\ idyllic\\ picture\\ of\\ Cuba\\,\\ Palmera\\,\\ and\\ Limones\\ \\(the\\ main\\ administrative\\ and\\ political\\ center\\ of\\ Palmera\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ complaints\\ of\\ shortages\\,\\ bad\\ transportation\\,\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ housing\\,\\ most\\ people\\ seemed\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ revolutionaries\\&rdquo\\;\\ having\\ totally\\ internalized\\ the\\ socialist\\ ideology\\.\\ \\ \\;During\\ her\\ research\\,\\ she\\ saw\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ were\\ grateful\\ for\\ the\\ progress\\ in\\ equality\\ and\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\ that\\ the\\ socialist\\ government\\ had\\ achieved\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ also\\ deep\\ discontent\\ with\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ democratic\\ rights\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ To\\ Give\\ and\\ Take\\:\\ Redistribution\\ and\\ Reciprocity\\ in\\ the\\ Household\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ economic\\ situation\\ in\\ Palmera\\,\\ during\\ the\\ period\\ before\\ 1990\\ when\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ discontinued\\ its\\ special\\ trade\\ arrangement\\ with\\ Cuba\\ and\\ the\\ economic\\ crisis\\ began\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ national\\ economy\\ in\\ Cuba\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ its\\ redistribution\\ and\\ planning\\.\\ \\ \\;Farmers\\ sell\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ state\\;\\ profits\\ from\\ all\\ other\\ products\\ sold\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ then\\ are\\ redistributed\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\&mdash\\;thru\\ free\\ medical\\ care\\,\\ inexpensive\\ drugs\\,\\ free\\ education\\,\\ and\\ subventions\\ on\\ food\\ and\\ other\\ goods\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ of\\ taxes\\,\\ people\\ pay\\ fees\\ to\\ mass\\ organizations\\,\\ the\\ Party\\ \\(members\\ only\\)\\,\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ militia\\.\\ \\ \\;Higher\\ political\\ levels\\ draw\\ up\\ overall\\ budgets\\ for\\ lower\\ provinces\\ and\\ municipalities\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ local\\ governments\\ can\\ use\\ resources\\ as\\ they\\ see\\ fit\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Cuban\\ economy\\ provides\\ most\\ citizens\\ with\\ a\\ comfortable\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\,\\ but\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ goods\\ is\\ something\\ Cubans\\ struggle\\ with\\ everyday\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ an\\ informal\\ economy\\ \\(with\\ black\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;gray\\&rdquo\\;\\ markets\\ and\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ barter\\ and\\ reciprocity\\)\\ exists\\ alongside\\ the\\ planned\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ goes\\ into\\ further\\ detail\\ about\\ various\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Cuban\\ economy\\.\\ The\\ rationing\\ system\\ is\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ Cuban\\ household\\ economy\\;\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;guarantees\\&rdquo\\;\\ every\\ citizen\\ basic\\ goods\\ in\\ equal\\ amounts\\ and\\ at\\ a\\ very\\ low\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ can\\ buy\\ food\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ and\\ other\\ household\\ items\\ with\\ their\\ ration\\ booklets\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ the\\ cost\\ for\\ food\\ is\\ relatively\\ low\\,\\ most\\ people\\ spend\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ their\\ booklets\\ on\\ clothes\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ also\\ buy\\ clothes\\ in\\ the\\ street\\ from\\ black\\ marketers\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ wait\\ to\\ win\\ household\\ appliances\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\emulacion\\ socialista\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(socialist\\ competition\\)\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ relatively\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ competitions\\ award\\ prizes\\ to\\ productive\\ workers\\;\\ sometimes\\ foreign\\ travel\\ is\\ awarded\\.\\ \\ \\;Queuing\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ scarcity\\ of\\ goods\\ in\\ Cuban\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ gather\\ in\\ clusters\\ to\\ wait\\ to\\ buy\\ items\\ as\\ they\\ come\\ into\\ the\\ region\\.\\ \\ \\;Queues\\ are\\ sometimes\\ instruments\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;gray\\&rdquo\\;\\ market\\,\\ which\\ re\\-circulates\\ legal\\ commodities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ black\\ market\\ includes\\ people\\ illegally\\ taking\\ items\\ home\\ from\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Reciprocity\\ is\\ an\\ informal\\ sector\\ that\\ in\\ part\\ depends\\ on\\ loans\\,\\ gift\\-giving\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cultivation\\ of\\ relationships\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Men\\ and\\ Women\\ in\\ Palmera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ discusses\\ the\\ discrepancies\\ between\\ Cuba\\ communist\\ ideals\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\plena\\ iqualdad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(total\\ equality\\)\\ and\\ the\\ traditional\\ Cuban\\ ideas\\ of\\ machismo\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ ambiguities\\ of\\ gender\\ relations\\ in\\ Palmera\\,\\ because\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ equal\\ rights\\ in\\ most\\ areas\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ organization\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Federacion\\ de\\ Mujeres\\ Cubanes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Many\\ women\\ work\\ outside\\ the\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;Laws\\ stipulate\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ traditional\\ attitudes\\ regarding\\ gender\\ issues\\ are\\ still\\ prevalent\\ among\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ have\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ in\\ Cuban\\ society\\,\\ while\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ mother\\,\\ housekeeper\\,\\ wife\\/lover\\,\\ and\\ worker\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Palmerans\\ think\\ about\\ family\\,\\ that\\ includes\\ their\\ extended\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;Housing\\ shortages\\ increase\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ extended\\ families\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ Palmeran\\ couples\\ live\\ in\\ common\\-law\\ marriages\\ and\\ Cuban\\ couples\\ may\\ change\\ partners\\ often\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Party\\ stresses\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ family\\,\\ and\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Federation\\,\\ it\\ encourages\\ people\\ to\\ marry\\ legally\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Federation\\ also\\ tries\\ to\\ prevent\\ teenage\\ pregnancy\\.\\ \\ \\;Social\\ norms\\ consider\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sphere\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ symbol\\ that\\ connects\\ womanhood\\,\\ housework\\ and\\ motherhood\\;\\ while\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sphere\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ street\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ working\\ and\\ providing\\ for\\ the\\ family\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Officially\\,\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ role\\ for\\ Cuban\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ revolutionary\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ both\\ expected\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ their\\ society\\,\\ but\\ different\\ gender\\ ideals\\ cause\\ people\\ to\\ see\\ differences\\ in\\ their\\ abilities\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\verdado\\ hombre\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(real\\ man\\)\\ is\\ brave\\,\\ autonomous\\,\\ and\\ strong\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ A\\ real\\ man\\ has\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ woman\\,\\ but\\ he\\ must\\ see\\ his\\ mistresses\\ in\\ discretion\\ so\\ as\\ not\\ to\\ embarrass\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ good\\ woman\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ man\\ whose\\ valued\\ role\\ are\\ mother\\ and\\ wife\\.\\ \\ \\;Motherhood\\ is\\ almost\\ sacred\\.\\ \\ \\;Homophobia\\ is\\ overt\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ state\\ denies\\ known\\ homosexuals\\ access\\ to\\ some\\ jobs\\ and\\ Party\\ membership\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ the\\ leaders\\ and\\ the\\ social\\ norms\\ of\\ the\\ grass\\ root\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Soul\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ opens\\ with\\ an\\ anecdote\\ about\\ a\\ ceremony\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ a\\ bridge\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ overtones\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ 1984\\:\\ celebration\\ of\\ putting\\ the\\ state\\ over\\ oneself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ illustrates\\ the\\ concepts\\ of\\ machismo\\ and\\ virility\\ used\\ to\\ promote\\ Cuban\\ Communism\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ chapter\\,\\ the\\ author\\ discusses\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ communist\\ party\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;precarious\\ balance\\ between\\ hierarchy\\/equality\\ and\\ centralism\\/participation\\ in\\ Cuban\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Democratic\\ centralism\\ is\\ the\\ political\\ basis\\ for\\ Cuban\\ society\\,\\ but\\ an\\ inherently\\ contradictory\\ Leninist\\ concept\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ contradiction\\ between\\ the\\ tenets\\ of\\ centralism\\ and\\ democracy\\ is\\ mirrored\\ by\\ the\\ conflicting\\ messages\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\ Party\\:\\ totally\\ exclusionary\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Poder\\ Popular\\ and\\ mass\\ organizations\\:\\ representative\\ of\\ everyone\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ hierarchy\\ within\\ the\\ Party\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ just\\ and\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;Whereas\\ other\\ instances\\ of\\ hierarchy\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ class\\ differences\\ in\\ other\\ societies\\)\\ is\\ equated\\ with\\ inequality\\ and\\ seen\\ as\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Centralist\\ structure\\ leads\\ to\\ extreme\\ bureaucracy\\,\\ which\\ often\\ results\\ in\\ decisions\\ being\\ made\\ only\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ high\\ level\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ counteracts\\ the\\ message\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ are\\ needed\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Socialist\\ democracy\\ is\\ a\\ Cuban\\ goal\\ that\\ involves\\ participation\\ and\\ equality\\.\\ \\ \\;Cuban\\ people\\ can\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ political\\ decisions\\,\\ but\\ are\\ often\\ hindered\\ by\\ the\\ Centralist\\ political\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ avenue\\ where\\ most\\ Cubans\\ can\\ influence\\ decisions\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ the\\ Poder\\ Popular\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ way\\ is\\ to\\ attend\\ the\\ bi\\-yearly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rendicion\\ de\\ cuenta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(meeting\\ with\\ the\\ delegate\\)\\,\\ in\\ each\\ constituency\\.\\ \\ \\;Delegates\\ to\\ the\\ municipal\\ assembly\\ are\\ elected\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ a\\ neighborhood\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ socialist\\ democracy\\ is\\ equality\\,\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ connote\\ similarity\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\ means\\ equal\\ opportunities\\ for\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Cuban\\ socialism\\,\\ differences\\ do\\ and\\ should\\ exist\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ between\\ the\\ doctor\\ and\\ the\\ cowhand\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ felt\\ that\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ society\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ but\\ a\\ just\\ society\\ is\\ ideal\\ and\\ attainable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ hegemonic\\ political\\ ideology\\,\\ the\\ centralist\\ political\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ the\\ planned\\ economy\\ pervade\\ everyday\\ life\\ in\\ Palmera\\,\\ a\\ typical\\ Cuban\\ municipality\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ provides\\ a\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ traditional\\ ideas\\ that\\ remain\\ an\\ essential\\ part\\ of\\ Cuban\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ people\\ appreciate\\ the\\ Party\\ and\\ the\\ mass\\ organizations\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mind\\ that\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ vote\\ for\\ other\\ parties\\ or\\ read\\ newspapers\\ that\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ censored\\ by\\ the\\ Party\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ remember\\ that\\ life\\ before\\ the\\ revolution\\ included\\ neither\\ democracy\\ nor\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ compare\\ Cuba\\ now\\,\\ with\\ what\\ it\\ could\\ have\\ been\\,\\ and\\ are\\ disgusted\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ criticize\\ the\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perez\\-Stable\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Cuban\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FIDEL\\-PATRIA\\-REVOLUTION\\-Post\\-1959\\ \\&\\;\\ Batista\\ \\(when\\ Fidel\\ takes\\ over\\)\\,\\ Cuba\\ seeks\\ to\\ become\\ socialist\\ with\\ a\\ central\\ commitment\\ to\\ \\"\\;clases\\ populares\\"\\;\\/working\\ class\\.\\ US\\ had\\ supported\\ Batista\\ because\\ he\\ promised\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Areas\\ that\\ experienced\\ reform\\ under\\ Castro\\:\\ EDUCATION\\ of\\ working\\ class\\,\\ HEALTHCARE\\,\\ EMPLOYMENT\\,\\ HOUSING\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ factors\\ that\\ influence\\ relationship\\ between\\ market\\ and\\ state\\,\\ that\\ Fidel\\ struggled\\ to\\ control\\ during\\ his\\ Revolution\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ availability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ feasibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tension\\ btwn\\.\\ growth\\ \\&\\;\\ equity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Flow\\ of\\ hard\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\reason\\ why\\ they\\ return\\ to\\ sugar\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disposition\\ of\\ socialist\\ countries\\ to\\ aid\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ embargo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\CHE\\ GUEVERA\\-Industry\\ Minister\\,\\ responsible\\ for\\ questioning\\ how\\ Cuba\\ could\\ make\\ the\\ transition\\ to\\ socialism\\ and\\ suggesting\\ his\\ own\\ vision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;rebeldes\\"\\;\\-Cuban\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CMEA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Council\\ for\\ Mutual\\ Economic\\ Assistance\\;\\ the\\ socialist\\-trading\\ bloc\\,\\ which\\ Cuba\\ joined\\ in\\ 1972\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GREAT\\ DEBATE\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Talk\\ of\\ how\\ Cuba\\ could\\ make\\ the\\ change\\ to\\ socialism\\ successfully\\;\\ 2\\ main\\ positions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ CLASSICAL\\ MARXISM\\-\\(supported\\ by\\ Foreign\\ Trade\\ Minister\\ Albert\\ Mora\\)\\ defines\\ Communism\\ as\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ value\\ and\\ market\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ SOCIALISM\\-\\(supported\\ by\\ Che\\ Guevara\\)\\ aims\\ to\\ curtail\\ wage\\ labor\\ to\\ create\\ cooperation\\;\\ emphasis\\ on\\ \\"\\;conciencia\\"\\;\\/conscience\\ of\\ people\\;\\ major\\ supporting\\ organizations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;las\\ masas\\&rdquo\\;\\/the\\ masses\\,\\ CENTRAL\\ ORGANIZATION\\ OF\\ CUBAN\\ TRADE\\ UNIONS\\ \\(CTC\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ FEDERATION\\ OF\\ CUBAN\\ WOMEN\\ \\(FMC\\)\\,\\ which\\ trained\\ housewives\\ for\\ chores\\ of\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RADICAL\\ EXPERIMENT\\:\\ refers\\ to\\ when\\ Cuba\\ pulls\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ and\\ decides\\ to\\ make\\ its\\ Revolution\\ without\\ their\\ help\\ after1965\\ when\\ US\\ air\\ raids\\ against\\ Vietnam\\ went\\ unchallenged\\ by\\ Soviet\\ Union\\,\\ showing\\ Cuba\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ hardly\\ protected\\ by\\ Soviet\\ Union\\.\\ \\ \\;Trade\\ unions\\ withered\\ away\\ and\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ as\\ important\\ in\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;CTC\\ was\\ reduced\\ significantly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JULY\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\TH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;MOVEMENT\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-date\\ and\\ name\\ used\\ for\\ Fidel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forces\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PLATT\\ AMENDMENT\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Platform\\ on\\ which\\ US\\ made\\ it\\ constitutional\\ to\\ intervene\\ in\\ Cuba\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\militarily\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ two\\ different\\ occasions\\;\\ was\\ incorporated\\ into\\ Cuban\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ARTICLE\\ 141\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-says\\ that\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ total\\ constitutional\\ reform\\,\\ or\\ change\\ in\\ powers\\,\\ a\\ referendum\\ must\\ be\\ held\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*Revolution\\ needed\\ a\\ vanguard\\-\\-which\\ Castro\\ created\\ from\\ CTC\\-\\-to\\ be\\ a\\ bona\\ fide\\ socialist\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ vanguard\\ party\\ was\\ a\\ select\\ group\\ of\\ individuals\\ who\\ would\\ serve\\ in\\ making\\ important\\ executive\\ decisions\\;\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ Marxist\\-Leninist\\ principles\\ of\\ Communism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1960\\-first\\ attempt\\ to\\ encourage\\ worker\\ participation\\ in\\ management\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1961\\:\\ JUSCEI\\ was\\ established\\ to\\ regulate\\ gov\\.\\ offices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1961\\-1963\\ Revolutionary\\ Strategy\\:\\ Rapid\\ industrialization\\ and\\ import\\-substitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1962\\:\\ US\\ imposes\\ embargo\\;\\ rationing\\ of\\ food\\,\\ clothing\\ and\\ consumer\\ items\\ is\\ established\\ in\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1964\\ Revolutionary\\ Strategy\\:\\ Government\\ abandons\\ import\\-substitution\\ strategy\\ and\\ adopts\\ \\"\\;turnpike\\"\\;\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;back\\ to\\ sugar\\ and\\ agriculture\\,\\ when\\ they\\ see\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ flourishing\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ they\\ did\\ with\\ surplus\\ dollars\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1965\\:\\ Cuban\\ Communist\\ Party\\ is\\ formed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1968\\:\\ Cuba\\ supports\\ attack\\ by\\ Soviet\\ and\\ Warsaw\\ Pact\\ forces\\ on\\ Czechoslovakia\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ support\\ market\\ socialism\\;\\ does\\ not\\ really\\ help\\ tensions\\ between\\ Soviet\\ union\\ and\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1970\\:\\ marked\\ end\\ of\\ Cuban\\ Revolution\\;\\ Fidel\\ publicly\\ says\\ he\\ will\\ resign\\ if\\ people\\ want\\ him\\ to\\,\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ sees\\ any\\ other\\ alternatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1990\\-Russia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trade\\ w\\/Cuba\\ declined\\ more\\ than\\ 50\\%\\.After\\ a\\ failed\\ attempt\\ at\\ a\\ new\\ trade\\ agreement\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;Special\\ Period\\ in\\ Peacetime\\"\\;\\ is\\ proclaimed\\;\\ adopting\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ austerity\\ measures\\;\\ result\\ of\\ oil\\ cutbacks\\ by\\ Russia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oct\\.\\ 1992\\-\\ George\\ Bush\\ signs\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\CUBAN\\ DEMOCRACY\\ ACT\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ where\\ US\\ subsidiaries\\ abroad\\ are\\ prohibited\\ from\\ trading\\ with\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1992\\:\\ Cuba\\ revises\\ 42\\ and\\ updates\\ 34\\ of\\ the\\ 141\\ articles\\ in\\ the\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\ \\;Mason\\ Reading\\:\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Morant\\ Bay\\ Rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;led\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Paul\\ Bogle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;occurred\\ because\\ of\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ post\\-emancipation\\ political\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ many\\ Jamaicans\\ migrated\\ to\\ the\\ US\\,\\ Panama\\,\\ Cuba\\,\\ Costa\\ Rica\\ to\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ Canal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marcus\\ Garvey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ a\\ lasting\\ impact\\ on\\ black\\ Jamaican\\ consciousness\\;\\ he\\ organized\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Back\\ to\\ Africa\\ Movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ restored\\ pride\\ among\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ majority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1938\\:\\ Formation\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ National\\ Party\\ \\(PNP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Bustamente\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cousing\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Norman\\ Manley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1943\\:\\ Formation\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jamaica\\ Labor\\ Party\\ \\(JLP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;under\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bustamente\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\August\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1962\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1962\\:\\ Bustamente\\ was\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Prime\\ Minister\\ with\\ the\\ JLP\\;\\ the\\ prominent\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ of\\ the\\ JLP\\ later\\ on\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Edward\\ Seaga\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ the\\ PNP\\ under\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Michael\\ Manley\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Norman\\ Manley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\)\\ took\\ leftward\\ steps\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ radical\\,\\ social\\ track\\ and\\ flirtations\\ with\\ Castro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ JLP\\ went\\ rightward\\ with\\ Seaga\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1980\\:\\ JLP\\ won\\ this\\ election\\ with\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ deliverance\\ to\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ people\\;\\ the\\ JLP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ political\\ legacy\\ was\\ to\\ bring\\ Jamaica\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ US\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ronald\\ Reagan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;supported\\ Seaga\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1989\\:\\ because\\ the\\ JLP\\ and\\ Seaga\\ did\\ little\\ against\\ poverty\\ and\\ unemployment\\,\\ the\\ PNP\\ returned\\ with\\ Michael\\ Manley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1993\\:\\ PNP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\P\\.J\\.\\ Patterson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;became\\ Prime\\ Minister\\,\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;black\\ PM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\now\\ Jamaican\\ politics\\ are\\ more\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ became\\ a\\ member\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caricom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\despite\\ PNP\\ efforts\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ little\\ was\\ done\\/achieved\\ at\\ the\\ government\\ level\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ more\\ even\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\between\\ 1951\\ \\&\\;\\ 1962\\:\\ more\\ than\\ 163\\,000\\ Jamaicans\\ settled\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\UK\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;labor\\-hungry\\ mother\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jamaica\\ advertised\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ fill\\ jobs\\ in\\ numerous\\ sectors\\ in\\ UK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ retirees\\ who\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ Jamaica\\ feel\\ unwelcome\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jamaicans\\ they\\ return\\ to\\ live\\ among\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\ separated\\ by\\ a\\ security\\ fence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\because\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\large\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ there\\ was\\ easy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\availability\\ of\\ guns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\police\\ murder\\;\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ penalty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\ has\\ the\\ highest\\ number\\ of\\ churches\\ per\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ \\(widely\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\remnants\\ of\\ African\\ religions\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rastafarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Ras\\ Tafari\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;black\\ king\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ ready\\ to\\ deliver\\ black\\ people\\ from\\ their\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lifestyle\\ \\&\\;\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\ suffers\\ from\\ ingrained\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;pigmentocracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(valuing\\ light\\ skin\\ over\\ brown\\ and\\ black\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hagglers\\:\\ most\\ are\\ women\\ who\\ do\\ it\\ to\\ provide\\ their\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bauxite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(and\\ alumina\\)\\ are\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biggest\\ money\\ makers\\ but\\ face\\ cheap\\ competition\\ from\\ South\\ America\\ and\\ Australia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ inclusive\\ resorts\\ are\\ one\\ of\\ few\\ Jamaican\\ success\\ stories\\ of\\ recent\\ years\\;\\ they\\ boost\\ Jamaican\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ Jamaicans\\ resent\\ tourism\\ \\&ldquo\\;seeing\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ black\\ servitude\\ to\\ the\\ rich\\ white\\ world\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;rude\\ boy\\&rdquo\\;\\ culture\\;\\ influence\\ of\\ Rasta\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ganja\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Robert\\ Nesta\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bob\\&rdquo\\;\\ Marley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cricket\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ national\\ game\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\ Boyz\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\soccer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\ \\;Stephens\\ Reading\\:\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Different\\ development\\ models\\ were\\ pursued\\ over\\ time\\ by\\ successive\\ governments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plantation\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ pure\\ plantation\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ labor\\ rebellion\\ created\\ two\\ initially\\ linked\\ mass\\ movements\\,\\ the\\ PNP\\ and\\ the\\ trade\\ union\\ movement\\ \\(whose\\ leader\\ Bustamente\\ eventually\\ broke\\ with\\ the\\ PNP\\ to\\ form\\ his\\ own\\ party\\,\\ the\\ JLP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ JLP\\ had\\ greater\\ support\\ from\\ rural\\ areas\\ and\\ more\\ conservative\\ segments\\ of\\ the\\ capitalist\\ class\\ while\\ the\\ PNP\\ continued\\ to\\ have\\ greater\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ urban\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ among\\ the\\ more\\ liberal\\ capitalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&lsquo\\;50s\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaican\\ economy\\ grew\\ rapidly\\ in\\ \\&lsquo\\;50s\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\ however\\ Jamaican\\ economy\\ and\\ society\\ experienced\\ classical\\ symptoms\\ of\\ an\\ economy\\ undergoing\\ dependent\\ development\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ economic\\ development\\ model\\ unable\\ to\\ produce\\ adequate\\ number\\ of\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1967\\:\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ Free\\ Trade\\ Association\\ \\(CARIFTA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ 1960s\\,\\ growing\\ inequality\\ and\\ unemployment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ PNP\\ \\&lsquo\\;70s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\when\\ PNP\\ back\\ in\\ power\\,\\ it\\ introduced\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ policies\\ aimed\\ at\\ redistribution\\ and\\ state\\ expansion\\ and\\ thus\\ were\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\democratic\\-socialist\\ development\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1974\\:\\ PNP\\ officially\\ declared\\ its\\ commitment\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\democratic\\ socialism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ the\\:\\ reduction\\ of\\ economic\\ dependence\\;\\ increase\\ in\\ social\\ equality\\ through\\ economic\\ redistribution\\;\\ deepening\\ of\\ political\\ democracy\\;\\ promoting\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ cooperation\\ and\\ construction\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ international\\ economic\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bauxite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\levy\\ imposed\\ 1974\\ and\\ provided\\ short\\ respite\\ from\\ chronic\\ foreign\\ exchange\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\end\\ of\\ 1976\\:\\ foreign\\ exchange\\ crisis\\ forced\\ government\\ into\\ negotiations\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\IMF\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ under\\ IMF\\ agreements\\,\\ the\\ economy\\ continued\\ to\\ deteriorate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\main\\ failure\\ of\\ PNP\\ government\\ was\\ its\\ inability\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ country\\ on\\ an\\ economically\\ viable\\ democratic\\ socialist\\ development\\ path\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\failures\\ at\\ the\\ political\\ level\\ intimately\\ linked\\ to\\ these\\ economic\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\traditional\\ political\\ divisions\\ among\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\ made\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ a\\ broad\\-based\\ democratic\\ socialist\\ movement\\ difficult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ geopolitical\\ situation\\ of\\ JA\\ \\(close\\ to\\ Cuba\\ and\\ the\\ US\\)\\ was\\ unfavorable\\ for\\ the\\ project\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ PNP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ project\\ branded\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;almost\\ communist\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Seaga\\ \\&lsquo\\;80s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\a\\ neoliberal\\,\\ free\\ market\\/free\\ enterprise\\ model\\ is\\ pushed\\ by\\ the\\ IMF\\,\\ World\\ Bank\\,\\ US\\ administration\\,\\ and\\ private\\ international\\ banks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1980s\\:\\ Jamaica\\ followed\\ a\\ neoliberal\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1980s\\:\\ the\\ Seaga\\ government\\ committed\\ to\\ orthodox\\ stabilization\\ and\\ liberalization\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\during\\ his\\ entire\\ time\\ in\\ office\\ Seaga\\ kept\\ up\\ the\\ public\\ appearance\\ of\\ total\\ commitment\\ to\\ a\\ free\\ market\\,\\ private\\ enterprise\\-based\\ economic\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\popular\\ protest\\ of\\ 1985\\ forced\\ him\\ to\\ change\\ his\\ policies\\ but\\ despite\\ these\\ late\\ attempts\\ to\\ provide\\ some\\ relief\\ to\\ the\\ poorer\\ sectors\\ of\\ the\\ population\\,\\ he\\ and\\ the\\ JLP\\&rsquo\\;s\\ popular\\ support\\ remained\\ very\\ weak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decline\\ in\\ bauxite\\ production\\ \\(which\\ was\\ the\\ largest\\ foreign\\ exchange\\ earner\\)\\ contributed\\ significantly\\ to\\ the\\ difficulties\\ of\\ the\\ 1980s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\bright\\ spot\\ in\\ economy\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\central\\ feature\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ economic\\ reality\\ since\\ mid\\ 1980s\\ has\\ been\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\huge\\ debt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Into\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;90s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1989\\:\\ PNP\\ reelected\\ to\\ office\\;\\ popular\\ forces\\ and\\ the\\ left\\ were\\ generally\\ weaker\\ and\\ business\\ community\\ and\\ conservative\\ forces\\ stronger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\policies\\ of\\ new\\ PNP\\ government\\ made\\ sharp\\ departure\\ from\\ its\\ orientation\\ in\\ 1970s\\ and\\ surprising\\ continuity\\ with\\ JLP\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\few\\ initiatives\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ social\\ policy\\ because\\ PNP\\ thought\\ that\\ questions\\ of\\ welfare\\ should\\ be\\ addressed\\ only\\ after\\ problems\\ of\\ production\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ solved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\question\\ turned\\ to\\ what\\ economic\\ model\\ would\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ World\\ Bank\\ Report\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Jamaica\\:\\ Island\\ in\\ a\\ Turbulent\\ World\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Voices\\ of\\ the\\ Poor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;series\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Based\\ on\\ studies\\ of\\ 9\\ poor\\ communities\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ \\(4\\ urban\\,\\ 5\\ rural\\)\\ conducted\\ in\\ 1999\\.\\ \\ \\;Poverty\\ has\\ declined\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ despite\\ economic\\ stagnation\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 30\\ years\\,\\ largely\\ because\\ of\\ government\\ investment\\ in\\ social\\ services\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ 16\\.9\\%\\ of\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ population\\ lived\\ in\\ poverty\\ in\\ 1999\\,\\ facing\\ serious\\ challenges\\.\\ \\ \\;Government\\ programs\\ are\\ often\\ inadequate\\,\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ programs\\ of\\ structural\\ adjustment\\ and\\ market\\ liberalization\\ have\\ hit\\ the\\ poor\\ very\\ hard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Global\\ forces\\ which\\ affect\\ poor\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increased\\ international\\ competition\\ for\\ both\\ food\\ crops\\ and\\ manufactured\\ goods\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ factory\\ and\\ plantation\\ closings\\ \\(things\\ are\\ produced\\ more\\ cheaply\\ elsewhere\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ there\\ are\\ few\\ economic\\ opportunities\\:\\ unemployment\\ is\\ rampant\\,\\ and\\ is\\ cited\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ cause\\ of\\ poverty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Small\\ and\\ remotely\\ located\\ farmers\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ compete\\ with\\ cheap\\,\\ mass\\-produced\\ international\\ products\\:\\ they\\ lack\\ the\\ capital\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ inputs\\ necessary\\ to\\ produce\\ efficiently\\ \\(and\\ sell\\ at\\ the\\ low\\ prices\\ of\\ imported\\ food\\)\\,\\ and\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ markets\\ because\\ of\\ bad\\ roads\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\,\\ which\\ we\\ know\\ accounts\\ for\\ over\\ one\\ fifth\\ of\\ GNP\\,\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\ for\\ the\\ inland\\ rural\\ communities\\ because\\ roads\\ are\\ so\\ bad\\ that\\ tourists\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ to\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hurricanes\\,\\ landslides\\,\\ and\\ flooding\\ are\\ constant\\ concerns\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poor\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allowed\\ to\\ build\\ sturdy\\ or\\ permanent\\ houses\\ on\\ property\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ own\\,\\ so\\ weather\\ can\\ be\\ devastating\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ after\\-effects\\ of\\ Hurricane\\ Gilbert\\ in\\ 1988\\ are\\ still\\ being\\ felt\\,\\ as\\ the\\ extremely\\ poor\\ take\\ decades\\ to\\ recover\\ from\\ losing\\ everything\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ International\\ Narcotics\\ Trade\\:\\ Negatives\\ \\:\\ 1\\)\\ men\\ go\\ abroad\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ earn\\ a\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\,\\ but\\ often\\ get\\ arrested\\ or\\ shot\\;\\ 2\\)\\ violent\\ crime\\ has\\ increased\\ significantly\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ as\\ drug\\ lords\\ and\\ gangs\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ guns\\ and\\ money\\ battle\\ for\\ supremacy\\;\\ 3\\)\\ \\ \\;addiction\\ to\\ hard\\ drugs\\ like\\ crack\\ and\\ cocaine\\ has\\ increased\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;Positive\\:\\ many\\ people\\ earn\\ their\\ living\\ growing\\ and\\ selling\\ marijuana\\ \\(ganja\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Poor\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ to\\ improve\\ their\\ situations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Migration\\:\\ young\\ people\\ move\\ from\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ the\\ cities\\,\\ and\\ many\\ young\\ people\\ leave\\ Jamaica\\ for\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ or\\ Canada\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ find\\ work\\ and\\ fulfill\\ their\\ hopes\\ of\\ material\\ gain\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\(many\\ older\\ people\\ lament\\ what\\ they\\ see\\ as\\ the\\ infection\\ of\\ the\\ youth\\ by\\ global\\ popular\\ culture\\ and\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ their\\ communities\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Local\\ entrepreneurship\\:\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ started\\ a\\ day\\ care\\.\\ \\ \\;Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ work\\ though\\ because\\ people\\ are\\ so\\ poor\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\ to\\ spend\\ money\\ in\\ shops\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\:\\ many\\ consider\\ it\\ crucial\\,\\ but\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ education\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ low\\,\\ and\\ even\\ educated\\ people\\ have\\ difficulty\\ finding\\ jobs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jobs\\ they\\ do\\ have\\:\\ works\\ as\\ tradespeople\\,\\ drive\\ taxis\\,\\ take\\ factory\\ and\\ daily\\ farm\\ wage\\ jobs\\,\\ and\\ fish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Poor\\ people\\,\\ government\\,\\ and\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poor\\ people\\ view\\ the\\ government\\ negatively\\ \\(committing\\ \\&ldquo\\;politricks\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\:\\ politicians\\ make\\ empty\\ promises\\ for\\ votes\\,\\ and\\ social\\ service\\ programs\\ are\\ not\\ effective\\ in\\ helping\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ government\\ health\\ care\\ services\\,\\ food\\ stamp\\ programs\\,\\ and\\ job\\ skills\\ training\\ are\\ often\\ too\\ far\\ away\\ for\\ poor\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ them\\:\\ the\\ roads\\ are\\ bad\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ transportation\\ is\\ beyond\\ their\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ asked\\ to\\ rank\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ institutions\\ in\\ their\\ area\\,\\ one\\ community\\ said\\ their\\ churches\\,\\ schools\\,\\ and\\ local\\ NGOs\\ were\\ the\\ best\\,\\ while\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ Parliament\\ and\\ the\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ were\\ the\\ worst\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caring\\ culture\\:\\ Everyone\\ has\\ community\\ role\\&mdash\\;women\\ help\\ each\\ other\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ elderly\\,\\ and\\ men\\ are\\ mentors\\ and\\ peacemakers\\ among\\ youth\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ study\\ participants\\ often\\ claimed\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ little\\ crime\\ in\\ their\\ communities\\,\\ but\\ national\\ statistics\\ suggest\\ otherwise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maroon\\ traditions\\:\\ May\\ be\\ dying\\ out\\,\\ as\\ young\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ material\\ gain\\ and\\ western\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Important\\ features\\ of\\ Maroon\\ culture\\ include\\ biodiverse\\ farming\\ methods\\ and\\ community\\ ownership\\ of\\ all\\ property\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ changing\\ role\\ of\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ community\\ respondents\\ agreed\\ that\\ the\\ primary\\ role\\ of\\ women\\ is\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ home\\ and\\ children\\,\\ and\\ of\\ men\\ is\\ to\\ earn\\ a\\ living\\ for\\ the\\ family\\ \\(including\\ all\\ the\\ children\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ many\\ different\\ mothers\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ changing\\ because\\ of\\ economic\\ pressures\\ and\\ global\\ influences\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ take\\ the\\ jobs\\ men\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ informal\\ economy\\ and\\ have\\ increased\\ outside\\ help\\ \\(from\\ women\\-focused\\ NGOs\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ increased\\ equality\\ and\\ less\\ domestic\\ abuse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;Life\\ and\\ Debt\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;extremely\\ well\\-done\\ documentary\\ on\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ history\\ \\(as\\ discussed\\ above\\)\\ on\\ its\\ people\\&mdash\\;loans\\ from\\ the\\ IMF\\ and\\ World\\ Bank\\ failed\\ to\\ reduce\\ poverty\\ or\\ increase\\ opportunity\\,\\ and\\ actually\\ worsened\\ many\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;Focus\\ on\\ three\\ major\\ international\\ decisions\\ which\\ have\\ impacted\\ Jamaicans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\ Kincaid\\ narrates\\:\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ carefree\\ vacation\\ experience\\,\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;island\\ paradise\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ realities\\ of\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ people\\ and\\ with\\ what\\ is\\ actually\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ tourists\\&rsquo\\;\\ homelands\\ and\\ the\\ natives\\&rsquo\\;\\ homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ Interviews\\ with\\ Michael\\ Manley\\,\\ government\\ officials\\ during\\ the\\ 70s\\,\\ and\\ Jamaican\\ farmers\\,\\ workers\\,\\ and\\ businessmen\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\IMF\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.Manley\\:\\ IMF\\ is\\ there\\ to\\ give\\ short\\-term\\ loans\\ with\\ restrictions\\&mdash\\;told\\ him\\ long\\-term\\ development\\ is\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ problem\\,\\ not\\ theirs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.These\\ restrictions\\ included\\ cutting\\ government\\ spending\\ on\\ social\\ services\\,\\ ending\\ all\\ import\\ restrictions\\ and\\ other\\ trade\\ barriers\\,\\ and\\ ending\\ government\\ subsidies\\ for\\ farmers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.Film\\ reveals\\ the\\ hypocrisy\\ of\\ the\\ IMF\\ and\\ other\\ international\\ development\\ organizations\\:\\ demanded\\ that\\ Jamaican\\ farmers\\,\\ with\\ no\\ government\\ help\\,\\ compete\\ with\\ American\\ and\\ European\\ farmers\\ who\\ are\\ heavily\\ subsidized\\&mdash\\;has\\ driven\\ Jamaicans\\ out\\ of\\ business\\&mdash\\;imported\\ vegetables\\,\\ milk\\,\\ meat\\,\\ etc\\.\\ is\\ all\\ cheaper\\ because\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ Europe\\ subsidizes\\ \\(and\\ produces\\ on\\ large\\ scale\\)\\ and\\ Jamaica\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.These\\ demands\\ have\\ destroyed\\ agricultural\\ industries\\ and\\ centuries\\-old\\ cultures\\,\\ and\\ have\\ made\\ Jamaica\\ even\\ more\\ dependent\\ on\\ imports\\ and\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ world\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lom\\é\\;\\ Agreement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Between\\ European\\ Union\\ and\\ former\\ colonies\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ Caribbean\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Pacific\\:\\ economic\\ privileges\\ for\\ the\\ former\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ Jamaica\\,\\ has\\ meant\\ a\\ guaranteed\\ market\\ for\\ its\\ bananas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ pushed\\ by\\ multinational\\ corporations\\ \\(Dole\\ and\\ Chiquita\\)\\,\\ complained\\ to\\ the\\ World\\ Trade\\ Organization\\ that\\ the\\ agreement\\ is\\ unfair\\&mdash\\;Dole\\ and\\ Chiquita\\ plan\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ European\\ market\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ cheaper\\ \\(they\\ grow\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ paying\\ workers\\ next\\ to\\ nothing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;e\\.\\ Caribbean\\ Basin\\ Initiative\\ \\(started\\ by\\ Reagan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Set\\ up\\ \\&ldquo\\;Free\\ Zones\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Jamaica\\:\\ manufacturing\\ companies\\ set\\ up\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;assembly\\ factories\\ there\\ and\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ subject\\ to\\ any\\ Jamaican\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;regulations\\ or\\ taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Created\\ many\\ low\\-paying\\ jobs\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ bring\\ anything\\ else\\ to\\ the\\ island\\&mdash\\;Jamaican\\ government\\ is\\ still\\ paying\\ off\\ the\\ loans\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ borrow\\ to\\ build\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ for\\ the\\ manufacturers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ f\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ the\\ film\\ sends\\ the\\ message\\ that\\ independence\\ has\\ not\\ yet\\ fully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;come\\ to\\ Jamaica\\&mdash\\;the\\ relations\\ of\\ dominator\\-dominated\\ continue\\ for\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ nations\\:\\ they\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ the\\ financial\\ and\\ political\\ interests\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ Europe\\,\\ which\\ operate\\ under\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;global\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ IMF\\,\\ World\\ Bank\\,\\ WTO\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pattullo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Why\\ tourism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\-market\\ trading\\ blocks\\ marginalized\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industry\\ failure\\ \\(oil\\ in\\ T\\ \\+\\ T\\ and\\ agriculture\\ in\\ Windward\\)\\ force\\ countries\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ tourism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ steady\\-grown\\ sector\\ for\\ the\\ region\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ Tourism\\ Organization\\ estimates\\ that\\ tourism\\ produces\\ 12\\ billion\\ from\\ tourism\\,\\ about\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ region\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exports\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increase\\ in\\ tourist\\ numbers\\ offset\\ profits\\ because\\ of\\ increased\\ expenditures\\ in\\ building\\ tourism\\ industry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ gains\\ from\\ tourism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Airlines\\,\\ tour\\ operations\\/travel\\ agents\\,\\ and\\ hoteliers\\ are\\ the\\ key\\ players\\ of\\ tourism\\:\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ based\\ outside\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1992\\:\\ Foreign\\ airlines\\ had\\ \\¾\\;\\ of\\ seats\\ to\\ Caribbean\\ w\\/AA\\ having\\ half\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tour\\ operators\\ bully\\ small\\ locally\\ owned\\ hotels\\,\\ forcing\\ them\\ to\\ make\\ discounts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\63\\%\\ in\\ early\\ 1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\ of\\ all\\ hotels\\ owned\\ by\\ foreigners\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\/Barbados\\,\\ however\\,\\ have\\ huge\\ indigenous\\ hotel\\ industry\\:\\ Sandals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\ of\\ tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Development\\ of\\ islands\\ to\\ make\\ tourists\\ feel\\ comfortable\\ has\\ massive\\ costs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Airports\\,\\ roads\\,\\ water\\ supply\\,\\ sewage\\ disposal\\,\\ telephone\\,\\ and\\ electricity\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ updated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locals\\ go\\ without\\ these\\ updated\\ improvements\\,\\ however\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Governments\\ offer\\ major\\ incentives\\ to\\ attract\\ foreign\\ investors\\.\\ \\ \\;Increased\\ land\\ prices\\ make\\ it\\ impossible\\ for\\ local\\ entrepreneurs\\ to\\ procure\\ any\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Land\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ other\\ industries\\ now\\ used\\ for\\ tourism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ problems\\ and\\ facts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ Problem\\:\\ No\\ linkages\\ with\\ tourism\\ and\\ other\\ industries\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ such\\ as\\ agriculture\\ and\\ light\\ industry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ \\&ldquo\\;leakage\\&rdquo\\;\\ average\\:\\ 70\\ percent\\;\\ Jamaica\\:\\ 37\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ crop\\&rdquo\\;\\ export\\ culture\\ hard\\ to\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Grenada\\,\\ indigenous\\ private\\ entrepreneurship\\ forced\\ agricultural\\ linkage\\ w\\/tourism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ point\\:\\ if\\ country\\ provides\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ needed\\ to\\ maintain\\ tourism\\,\\ it\\ will\\ benefit\\ more\\ than\\ if\\ it\\ relies\\ on\\ other\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\/6\\ finds\\ direct\\ employment\\ in\\ tourist\\ industry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ jobs\\ are\\ relatively\\ for\\ unskilled\\ and\\ untrained\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Workers\\ happy\\ for\\ secure\\ employment\\,\\ despite\\ complaint\\ of\\ low\\ wages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unions\\ have\\ been\\ formed\\,\\ with\\ moderate\\ success\\ of\\ job\\ security\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Informal\\ sector\\ includes\\:\\ taxi\\ drivers\\,\\ vendors\\,\\ craftspeople\\,\\ prostitutes\\ \\(both\\ male\\ and\\ female\\)\\&hellip\\;to\\ make\\ the\\ area\\ more\\ pleasant\\ for\\ tourists\\,\\ these\\ informal\\ vendors\\ are\\ often\\ thrown\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ Issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ remember\\ working\\ for\\ whites\\ under\\ servitude\\.\\ \\ \\;Tourism\\ tends\\ to\\ marginalize\\ local\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;Best\\ jobs\\ left\\ for\\ \\(foreign\\)\\ whites\\.\\ \\(like\\ management\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ WI\\ intellectuals\\ see\\ tourism\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ slavery\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\:\\ White\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ elite\\ look\\ for\\ careers\\ in\\ business\\ or\\ medicine\\ or\\ law\\,\\ not\\ hotel\\ management\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brainwashing\\?\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\ has\\ book\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hello\\,\\ Tourist\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ teach\\ kids\\ about\\ tourism\\.\\ Talks\\ about\\ positive\\ effects\\ of\\ tourism\\ and\\ why\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ tourists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ opinion\\:\\ People\\ think\\ tourism\\ brings\\ in\\ money\\,\\ but\\ foreign\\ whites\\ benefit\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incident\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\:\\ Popular\\ musician\\ refused\\ to\\ have\\ his\\ car\\ searched\\ when\\ he\\ dropped\\ off\\ to\\ friends\\ at\\ a\\ hotel\\;\\ guard\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ company\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ incident\\ w\\/PM\\ of\\ Antigua\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ locked\\ off\\ from\\ beaches\\,\\ when\\ before\\ people\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ free\\ access\\ to\\ beaches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ public\\ beaches\\ have\\ security\\ guards\\ to\\ stop\\ locals\\ from\\ bothering\\ visitors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\ negatively\\ affects\\ community\\;\\ they\\ mimic\\ bad\\ qualities\\:\\ lack\\ of\\ self\\-confidence\\ and\\ loss\\ of\\ community\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ sexual\\ relations\\ with\\ tourists\\ and\\ locals\\;\\ DR\\ and\\ Cuba\\ have\\ problems\\ with\\ formal\\ prostitution\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Led\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ AIDS\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ led\\ to\\ increase\\ in\\ drug\\ trade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourists\\ fear\\ crime\\,\\ but\\ crime\\ to\\ individual\\ tourists\\ not\\ very\\ apparent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Degradation\\ of\\ local\\ culture\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourists\\ constantly\\ told\\ that\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ a\\ paradise\\ and\\ believe\\ so\\ to\\ an\\ extent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ of\\ giving\\ tourists\\ what\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;know\\&rdquo\\;\\ about\\ Caribbean\\ history\\ and\\ culture\\,\\ when\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ coincide\\ with\\ actual\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ forms\\ of\\ music\\ \\(not\\ reggae\\,\\ soca\\,\\ or\\ salsa\\)\\ are\\ ignored\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Carnival\\ e\\.g\\.\\ they\\ tried\\ to\\ clean\\ it\\ up\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ tourists\\ but\\ efforts\\ failed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ white\\ elite\\ tried\\ to\\ force\\ the\\ Carnival\\ onto\\ the\\ Savannah\\ stage\\ with\\ expensive\\ seating\\ and\\ big\\ prizes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ museums\\ have\\ been\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ true\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attempts\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ at\\ new\\ tourism\\,\\ where\\ tourism\\ integrated\\ with\\ rest\\ of\\ society\\,\\ but\\ these\\ have\\ been\\ met\\ with\\ resistance\\ by\\ the\\ elite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Palmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Tourism\\ \\&\\;\\ Colonialism\\:\\ The\\ Experience\\ of\\ the\\ Bahamas\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;Catherine\\ Palmer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Week\\ 9\\,\\ Required\\ Reading\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quick\\ Version\\:\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ this\\ article\\ is\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ tourism\\ and\\ colonialism\\,\\ and\\ the\\ implications\\ this\\ had\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ article\\ basically\\ indicates\\ Great\\ Britain\\ for\\ continually\\ hindering\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Intro\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ impact\\ of\\ colonialism\\ on\\ tourist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;contemporary\\ tourist\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ affluent\\ traveler\\ from\\ an\\ industrialized\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\historical\\ development\\ of\\ Bahamas\\ affected\\ image\\ locals\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ identity\\ constructed\\ around\\ Great\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditions\\ of\\ local\\ people\\ manipulated\\ to\\ attract\\ tourists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tourism\\ in\\ the\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geography\\ and\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\tourism\\ as\\ leading\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\70\\%\\ of\\ GNP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\/3\\ of\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mass\\ tourism\\ begun\\ in\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ while\\ until\\ colonial\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dubious\\ economic\\ benefit\\ of\\ tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hotels\\/resorts\\ as\\ foreign\\ owned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tourist\\ industry\\ hinders\\ agricultural\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Colonial\\ Experience\\ in\\ General\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Former\\ colonial\\ territories\\ now\\ developing\\/3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\ as\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ dependence\\ on\\ developed\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\colonialism\\ created\\ the\\ stereotypical\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ that\\ exist\\ today\\,\\ local\\ people\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ develop\\ an\\ independent\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colonialism\\ in\\ the\\ Bahamas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Huge\\ racial\\ divisions\\ between\\ white\\ and\\ black\\ populations\\,\\ white\\ control\\ of\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\assimilation\\ to\\ white\\ culture\\ as\\ only\\ way\\ for\\ blacks\\ to\\ advance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\ based\\ on\\ British\\ history\\,\\ tradition\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\contention\\ that\\ true\\ Bahamian\\ national\\ identity\\ only\\ began\\ to\\ develop\\ after\\ Independence\\ in\\ 1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Myths\\ and\\ Stereotypes\\ of\\ Colonialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\creation\\ of\\ stereotypical\\ ethnic\\ and\\ cultural\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tourism\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\furthering\\ \\ \\;servility\\ of\\ colonial\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Power\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Textual\\ Attitude\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cultural\\ stereotypes\\ written\\ down\\ and\\ transferred\\ to\\ tourists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\guidebooks\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;false\\ realities\\&rdquo\\;\\ confusing\\ travelers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\perpetuation\\ of\\ fantasy\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\fantasy\\ rooted\\ in\\ the\\ colonial\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\presentation\\ of\\ islands\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;timeless\\ escapes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tourism\\ and\\ Bahamian\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ colonial\\ era\\,\\ not\\ achievements\\ of\\ independent\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\presentation\\ of\\ travel\\ to\\ Bahamas\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;colonial\\ stereotypes\\ wrapped\\ in\\ a\\ blanket\\ of\\ sun\\,\\ sea\\,\\ and\\ sand\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bottom\\ Line\\:\\ Palmer\\ indicts\\ colonialism\\ as\\ hindering\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Bahamian\\ economic\\ and\\ national\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Political\\ Impact\\ of\\ Tourism\\ Dependence\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ronald\\ Francisco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Week\\ 9\\,\\ Required\\ Reading\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quick\\ Version\\:\\ This\\ article\\ denounces\\ the\\ dependency\\ theory\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ tourism\\ and\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\There\\ is\\ no\\ relationship\\ between\\ a\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ reliance\\ on\\ tourism\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ vote\\ politically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tourism\\ and\\ Dependency\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dependency\\ Theory\\ defined\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ system\\ of\\ capital\\ and\\ trade\\ that\\ perpetuates\\ underdevelopment\\ and\\ political\\ servitude\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditions\\ for\\ Dependency\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ share\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ needs\\ supplied\\ externally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ share\\ of\\ markets\\ is\\ foreign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ Ratio\\ of\\ foreign\\ to\\ domestic\\ capital\\,\\ technology\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tourism\\ as\\ Inherently\\ dependent\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reliance\\ on\\ inflow\\ of\\ foreign\\ capital\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\travel\\ is\\ constrained\\ by\\ uncontrollable\\ forces\\ \\(weather\\,\\ outside\\ economies\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tested\\ Hypothesis\\:\\ that\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;positive\\ relationship\\ exists\\ between\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ tourists\\ in\\ total\\ tourist\\ arrivals\\ and\\ host\\ nation\\ political\\ compliance\\ with\\ the\\ US\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Failure\\ of\\ the\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ Latin\\ American\\ nation\\ is\\ politically\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\-dependent\\ Caribbean\\ nations\\ exhibit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\less\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\political\\ compliance\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ than\\ autonomous\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entire\\ Caribbean\\ displays\\ signs\\ of\\ political\\ independence\\ from\\ US\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ If\\ anything\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\negative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\relationship\\ between\\ political\\ compliance\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ tourism\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ tourism\\ correlates\\ with\\ more\\ US\\ trade\\,\\ but\\ not\\ with\\ political\\ dependency\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caveat\\:\\ This\\ article\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ 1983\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ perhaps\\ outdated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Globalising\\ the\\ Tourist\\ Gaze\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;John\\ Urry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Week\\ 9\\,\\ Recommended\\ Reading\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ pretty\\ interesting\\ read\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ helpful\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\,\\ ie\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ thank\\ any\\ id\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ come\\ from\\ this\\ reading\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ era\\ of\\ space\\-time\\ compression\\ that\\ changed\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ Tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ closer\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ internet\\,\\ cell\\ phones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rapid\\ ascension\\ of\\ both\\ business\\ and\\ leisure\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Development\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tourism\\ reflexivity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creation\\ of\\ disciplined\\ study\\ of\\ tourist\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\monitoring\\,\\ developing\\,\\ evaluating\\ tourism\\ potential\\ of\\ destinations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\institutionalization\\ of\\ tourism\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Specialization\\ of\\ Destinations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\niche\\-dependent\\ places\\ \\(tropical\\,\\ historical\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\development\\ of\\ corresponding\\ visual\\ images\\ and\\ marketing\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tourism\\ as\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spread\\ of\\ tourism\\ to\\ multiple\\ spaces\\ of\\ consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transportation\\,\\ travel\\,\\ hospitality\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Production\\ of\\ travel\\ \\&ldquo\\;concepts\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lifestyles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ Visceral\\,\\ Bodily\\ experience\\ of\\ Travel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ destination\\ for\\ oneself\\,\\ experience\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\ Depiction\\ of\\ Travel\\ \\(words\\ like\\ freedom\\,\\ adventure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Intersection\\ Between\\ Tourism\\ \\&\\;\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Staged\\ Authenticity\\/Reconstructed\\ Ethnicity\\ of\\ Destinations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Destinations\\ as\\ spectacles\\ vying\\ to\\ attract\\ visitors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GRIFFITH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\ and\\ Security\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\:\\ Sovereignty\\ Under\\ Siege\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\CHAPTER\\ 1\\:\\ Narcotics\\ Production\\ and\\ Consumption\\-Abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Main\\ Drugs\\:\\ marijuana\\,\\ cocaine\\ \\(crack\\)\\,\\ heroin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marijuana\\ \\-\\ only\\ drugs\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drugs\\ and\\ Geography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marijuana\\:\\ An\\ Appreciation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tobacco\\-like\\ substance\\;\\ produced\\ by\\ drying\\ leaves\\ and\\ flowering\\ tops\\ of\\ India\\ hemp\\ plant\\;\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cannabis\\ sativa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Related\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sin\\ semilla\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ plant\\,\\ different\\ process\\;\\ uses\\ non\\ pollinated\\ female\\ part\\ of\\ flower\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easy\\ to\\ breed\\,\\ grows\\ in\\ variety\\ of\\ temperate\\ and\\ moisture\\ conditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ name\\:\\ Ganja\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Street\\ name\\:\\ pot\\,\\ weed\\,\\ herb\\,\\ reefer\\,\\ grass\\,\\ sin\\ semilla\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ been\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ since\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ originally\\ brought\\ by\\ the\\ Indians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Geographic\\ Profile\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Name\\ of\\ region\\ comes\\ from\\ Carib\\ Tribe\\ of\\ American\\ Indians\\,\\ who\\ originally\\ inhabited\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ Major\\ Grouping\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ Islands\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ The\\ Greater\\ Antilles\\:\\ Cuba\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Hispaniola\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ Lesser\\ Antilles\\:\\ islands\\ to\\ the\\ east\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ forming\\ an\\ arc\\ from\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Islands\\ to\\ Grenada\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Southern\\ Islands\\:\\ located\\ along\\ the\\ S\\.\\ American\\ coast\\,\\ include\\ Trinidad\\ \\&\\;\\ Tobago\\,\\ Aruba\\,\\ Bonaire\\,\\ and\\ Curacao\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bahamian\\ Archipelago\\:\\ include\\ 700\\ islands\\ \\(only\\ 22\\ are\\ inhabited\\)\\,\\ and\\ 2\\,000\\ rocks\\ and\\ cays\\,\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ Atlantic\\ Ocean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\:\\ \\(3\\ Definitions\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Comprises\\ of\\ islands\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\ along\\ w\\/\\ the\\ Guianas\\ \\(Geopolitical\\ definition\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ on\\ ethno\\-history\\,\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ geography\\ \\&\\;\\ focuses\\ on\\ English\\ speaking\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ Basin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ island\\ nations\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\,\\ countries\\ in\\ Central\\ America\\,\\ S\\.\\ America\\ and\\ Mexico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Climate\\:\\ warm\\ and\\ humid\\;\\ all\\ territories\\ except\\ Northern\\ Bahamas\\ are\\ south\\ of\\ the\\ Tropic\\ of\\ Cancer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mountainous\\ islands\\ receive\\ more\\ rain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Six\\ types\\ of\\ natural\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tropical\\ Rainforest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seasonal\\ Rainforest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dry\\ Forest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Savanna\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Woodlands\\/\\ Cactus\\ Herbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mangrove\\ Swamps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hurricane\\ are\\ most\\ feared\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ Production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ is\\ hospitable\\ to\\ cultivation\\ of\\ marijuana\\.\\ Usually\\ cultivated\\ in\\ 1\\ acre\\ plots\\ \\(or\\ less\\)\\.\\ Was\\ sometimes\\ the\\ largest\\ cash\\ crop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Until\\ mid\\-1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ significant\\ cultivation\\ was\\ in\\ \\(N\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ W\\.\\)\\ Belize\\ and\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ for\\ high\\ production\\ levels\\ in\\ both\\ places\\ was\\ availability\\ of\\ export\\ market\\ in\\ US\\ \\(mainly\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Belize\\ was\\ fourth\\ largest\\ supplier\\ to\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ cultivation\\ plummeted\\ since\\ 1985\\ due\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Government\\ pressure\\ from\\ Belize\\ and\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aerial\\ spraying\\ \\(most\\ began\\ in\\ 1982\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ Developments\\ jeopardize\\ success\\ of\\ eradication\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cultivation\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\indica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;variety\\ of\\ cannabis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Withdrawal\\ \\(1993\\)\\ of\\ Department\\ of\\ State\\ spray\\ aircraft\\ due\\ to\\ budget\\ cuts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Completion\\ of\\ phased\\ w\\/drawal\\ of\\ British\\ Forces\\ Belize\\,\\ a\\ garrison\\ kept\\ in\\ Belize\\ by\\ the\\ British\\,\\ and\\ forced\\ out\\ by\\ military\\ threat\\ from\\ Guatemala\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\:\\ grows\\ marijuana\\ all\\ year\\ round\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\indica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;makes\\ it\\ possible\\ 4\\ harvests\\ per\\ year\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultivations\\ occurs\\ everywhere\\ but\\ mainly\\ in\\ high\\ in\\ accessible\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eradication\\ agenda\\:\\ driven\\ largely\\ by\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\(Operation\\ Buccaneer\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aerial\\ spraying\\ is\\ controversial\\ b\\/c\\ marijuana\\ cultivation\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ large\\ course\\ of\\ income\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guyana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Good\\ physical\\ geography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ geography\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vast\\ expanses\\ of\\ territories\\ are\\ under\\ populated\\ and\\ under\\ policed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surprisingly\\ no\\ cultivation\\ before\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ Consumption\\ and\\ Abuse\\:\\ A\\ Portrait\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Danger\\ Drugs\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ marijuana\\,\\ cocaine\\ \\(crack\\)\\,\\ and\\ heroin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marijuana\\:\\ smoked\\ \\&\\;\\ chewed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spliff\\ or\\ sklif\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cigarette\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Use\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chillum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Pipe\\ Bowl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Used\\ as\\ dry\\ and\\ for\\ medicinal\\ purposes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brewed\\ as\\ tea\\/tonic\\,\\ cooked\\ in\\ food\\,\\ applied\\ as\\ poultice\\ or\\ liniment\\,\\ cooked\\ as\\ vegetable\\ to\\ protect\\,\\ babies\\ from\\ evil\\ spirits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Long\\ History\\ of\\ socio\\-religious\\ use\\ dating\\ back\\ from\\ Indians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\ mostly\\ associated\\ w\\/\\ Rastafarians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cocaine\\:\\ Powerful\\ psychotropic\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ potent\\ stimulant\\ of\\ natural\\ origin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coke\\,\\ Flake\\,\\ Snow\\,\\ Superblow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crack\\:\\ 10\\ times\\ more\\ powerful\\,\\ 10\\ times\\ more\\ dangerous\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ production\\ began\\ in\\ Trinidad\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Heroin\\:\\ Semisynthetic\\ narcotic\\,\\ derived\\ from\\ morphine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Street\\:\\ Horse\\,\\ smack\\,\\ dope\\,\\ snow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Injection\\,\\ sniffing\\,\\ smoking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\-6\\ hours\\ \\&ldquo\\;high\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ causes\\ physical\\ \\&\\;\\ psychological\\ dependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patterns\\ of\\ Consumption\\ and\\ Abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Progression\\:\\ alcohol\\ and\\ tobacco\\ \\(gateway\\ drugs\\)\\,\\ marijuana\\,\\ cocaine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marijuana\\:\\ predominantly\\ a\\ working\\-class\\ drug\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crack\\-cocaine\\:\\ widespread\\ among\\ lower\\ \\&\\;\\ middle\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heroin\\:\\ rich\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drug\\;\\ less\\ available\\,\\ possibly\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ needle\\ phobia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cocaine\\ \\&\\;\\ Heroin\\ consumption\\:\\ mainly\\ from\\ spillover\\ from\\ trafficking\\ operations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ by\\ Carl\\ Stone\\:\\ Jamaica\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cocaine\\ and\\ crack\\ market\\ for\\ locals\\ and\\ tourists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ combined\\ w\\/\\ tradition\\ of\\ ganja\\ use\\ caused\\ major\\ drug\\ abuse\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ opinions\\ in\\ Jamaica\\:\\ favorable\\ view\\ of\\ ganja\\,\\ alcohol\\,\\ tobacco\\ use\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ urban\\ youths\\ using\\ drugs\\:\\ Kingston\\,\\ St\\.\\ Andrew\\,\\ Spanishtown\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourist\\ Centers\\:\\ Ocho\\ Rios\\,\\ Negril\\,\\ Montego\\ Bay\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peak\\ incidence\\ of\\ crack\\-cocaine\\ abuse\\ is\\ in\\ ages\\ 15\\-30\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bahamas\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ first\\ Caribbean\\ societies\\ to\\ experience\\ cocaine\\ addiction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trinidad\\ \\&\\;\\ Tobago\\:\\ 1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ escalation\\ of\\ overall\\ drug\\ use\\,\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ increased\\ production\\ in\\ S\\.\\ America\\ and\\ trafficking\\ routes\\ moving\\ through\\ and\\ to\\ S\\.\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Few\\ people\\ seek\\ treatment\\ for\\ addiction\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Correlation\\ between\\ drug\\ use\\ and\\ race\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\East\\ Indians\\:\\ alcohol\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ African\\ Descent\\:\\ cocaine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motivation\\ for\\ Consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effects\\ of\\ mood\\ change\\,\\ excitement\\,\\ relaxation\\,\\ pleasure\\,\\ stimulation\\,\\ sedation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Availability\\ of\\ drugs\\ influences\\ drug\\ use\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ peer\\ pressure\\,\\ personality\\,\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ drug\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ Dr\\.\\ Winston\\ Davidson\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ abuse\\ consists\\ of\\ four\\ elements\\:\\ 1\\)\\ environment\\,\\ 2\\)\\ host\\,\\ 3\\)\\ agent\\,\\ and\\ 4\\)\\ natural\\ history\\ of\\ drug\\ addiction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;All\\ classes\\ \\&ldquo\\;highly\\ disposed\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ consuming\\ drugs\\ that\\ relax\\ tension\\,\\ suppress\\ worries\\,\\ and\\ such\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Geography\\:\\ geographic\\ proximity\\ of\\ U\\.S\\ to\\ Caribbean\\ causes\\ frequent\\ commercial\\ contact\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easy\\ money\\ provides\\ incentive\\ to\\ get\\ involved\\ in\\ drug\\ trafficking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\attractive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\CHAPTER2\\:\\ Drug\\ Trafficking\\ Operations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possible\\ because\\ of\\ Strategic\\ Location\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Caribbean\\ as\\ a\\ Vortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ dominant\\ physical\\ feature\\:\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\-\\ 1\\,049\\,500\\ square\\ miles\\ in\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islands\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ Sea\\ form\\ an\\ bridge\\ between\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ Caribbean\\ countries\\ are\\ island\\ territories\\ \\(except\\ Belize\\,\\ French\\ Guiana\\,\\ Guyana\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Surinam\\:\\ this\\ allows\\ entry\\ into\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ fro\\ hundreds\\ of\\ places\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entry\\ and\\ exit\\ of\\ drugs\\ is\\ quite\\ proximal\\:\\ Drugs\\ enter\\ from\\ S\\.\\ America\\,\\ \\(major\\ drug\\ supplier\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ exit\\ to\\ N\\.\\ America\\,\\ \\(major\\ drug\\ consumer\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colombia\\,\\ Peru\\,\\ Bolivia\\,\\ Brazil\\,\\ Ecuador\\,\\ Venezuela\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ producers\\ of\\ cocaine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colombia\\,\\ Mexico\\,\\ Peru\\,\\ Paraguay\\,\\ Brazil\\,\\ Guatemala\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ producers\\ of\\ heroine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ United\\ States\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ single\\ largest\\ drug\\ consuming\\ nation\\ \\/\\ Caribbean\\ also\\ ships\\ drugs\\ to\\ Europe\\ \\(large\\ consumer\\ of\\ cocaine\\,\\ marijuana\\ \\&\\;\\ heroin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ Factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 1\\.\\ Proximity\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ to\\ S\\.\\ America\\.\\ \\/\\ 2\\.\\ Commercial\\,\\ communications\\,\\ etc\\ linkages\\ between\\ Europe\\&\\;Caribbean\\.\\ \\/\\ 3\\.\\ Political\\ \\ \\;linkages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Vulnerability\\ \\&\\;\\ Prospects\\ for\\ continued\\ trafficking\\ mutually\\ support\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ interact\\ with\\ aspects\\ of\\ social\\ geography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trafficking\\ Patterns\\ and\\ Routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ islands\\ have\\ excellent\\ geography\\ to\\ function\\ as\\ important\\ transshipment\\ centers\\ for\\ drugs\\ \\(mainly\\ Bahamian\\ islands\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traffickers\\ use\\ aircrafts\\,\\ boats\\,\\ and\\ even\\ possible\\ land\\ routes\\ to\\ evade\\ law\\ enforcements\\.\\ Extremely\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ drugs\\ are\\ trafficking\\ \\(\\ up\\ to\\ 5\\,000lbs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Note\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Not\\ all\\ trafficking\\ that\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ natives\\:\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ foreigners\\ who\\ attempt\\ to\\ smuggle\\ drugs\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ JDF\\ \\(Jamaican\\ Defense\\ Force\\)\\:\\ legal\\ and\\ illegal\\ aircrafts\\ are\\ used\\ for\\ trafficking\\,\\ pilots\\ are\\ rarely\\ caught\\ b\\/c\\ planes\\ to\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ complete\\ stop\\,\\ loaders\\ run\\ alongside\\ and\\ un\\/load\\ drug\\ cargo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ location\\ \\-\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ drug\\ trafficking\\ both\\ w\\/\\ and\\ w\\/out\\ official\\ sanction\\.\\ Castro\\ may\\ have\\ had\\ connections\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1989\\:\\ many\\ Cuban\\ Officials\\ were\\ convicted\\ and\\ given\\ harsh\\ sentences\\ for\\ trafficking\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ islands\\ each\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ specific\\ characteristics\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ ideal\\ for\\ use\\ in\\ drug\\ trafficking\\ mainly\\:\\ geographic\\ location\\,\\ poorly\\ monitored\\ coasts\\,\\ mountains\\,\\ unpatrolled\\ airstrips\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ and\\ inadequate\\ law\\ enforcement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ drug\\ trafficking\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ not\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ be\\ reported\\ simply\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ caught\\.\\ However\\,\\ numbers\\ do\\ not\\ really\\ tell\\ the\\ whole\\ story\\ of\\ drugs\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ Foreign\\ and\\ local\\ drugs\\ are\\ trafficked\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conveyance\\ and\\ Organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ traffickers\\ are\\ very\\ creative\\:\\ the\\ use\\ human\\ orifices\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ food\\,\\ vehicles\\,\\ furniture\\,\\ false\\ legs\\ of\\ amputees\\,\\ and\\ other\\ methods\\ to\\ transport\\ their\\ drugs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animals\\ are\\ stuffed\\ with\\ drugs\\;\\ objects\\ are\\ made\\ completely\\ of\\ drugs\\ and\\ smuggled\\ into\\ countries\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traffickers\\ are\\ also\\ able\\ to\\ adapt\\ their\\ methods\\ to\\ carry\\ drugs\\:\\ they\\ rotate\\ them\\ or\\ use\\ them\\ once\\ or\\ twice\\,\\ or\\ use\\ them\\ on\\ specific\\ routes\\ and\\ then\\ switch\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traffickers\\ exploit\\ family\\ members\\,\\ lovers\\,\\ and\\ government\\ official\\ to\\ transport\\ drugs\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ ordinary\\ people\\ become\\ drug\\ traffickers\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ lure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ considered\\ easy\\ money\\ and\\ many\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ are\\ in\\ need\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Even\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\,\\ like\\,\\ prime\\ ministers\\ and\\ upper\\-class\\ are\\ engaged\\ in\\ some\\ drug\\ trafficking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ routes\\ used\\ by\\ traffickers\\ involve\\ going\\ to\\ countries\\ completely\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ area\\ such\\ as\\ Russia\\,\\ Nigeria\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\CHAPTER\\ 4\\:\\ Crime\\,\\ Justice\\ and\\ Public\\ Order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Criminal\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ basic\\ categories\\ of\\ drug\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 1\\.\\ Crimes\\ among\\ traffickers\\ and\\ between\\ traffickers\\ and\\ civilians\\/police\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ efforts\\ to\\ avoid\\ arrests\\.\\ \\/\\ 2\\ Crimes\\ committed\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ business\\ disputes\\ \\&\\;\\ acquisitive\\ crimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Or\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Three\\ types\\ of\\ crimes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ 1\\.\\ consensual\\ crimes\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ drug\\ possession\\/use\\/trafficking\\ \\-\\ 2\\.\\ expressive\\ crimes\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ violence\\/assault\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\.\\ Instrumental\\/property\\ crime\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ theft\\,\\ forgery\\,\\ etc\\.\\(Describes\\ Caribbean\\ better\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ no\\ boundaries\\ based\\ on\\ economics\\/race\\/politics\\ in\\ drug\\ crimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mounting\\ \\ \\;crime\\ and\\ violence\\ are\\ nation\\ problems\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ all\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Organized\\ Drug\\ Crimes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Posses\\:\\ groups\\ that\\ run\\ drug\\ operations\\ in\\ calculated\\ manners\\;\\ some\\ are\\ linked\\ to\\ international\\ drugs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ many\\ members\\ are\\ often\\ from\\ non\\-Caribbean\\ origin\\;\\ their\\ work\\ shows\\ the\\ transnational\\ nature\\ of\\ drugs\\;\\ often\\ shift\\ their\\ centers\\ of\\ work\\ so\\ as\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ caught\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ stem\\ from\\ Jamaican\\ criminal\\ gangs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ include\\ \\&ldquo\\;rude\\ bwoys\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ young\\ men\\ raised\\ in\\ urban\\ centers\\ of\\ cities\\ with\\ tough\\ attitude\\ that\\ makes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ disciplined\\ \\&\\;\\ very\\ violent\\-\\ use\\ swift\\ \\&\\;\\ brutal\\ violence\\ \\(it\\ is\\ their\\ trademark\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ activity\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ control\\ b\\/c\\ even\\ government\\ officials\\ \\&\\;\\ those\\ in\\ law\\ enforcement\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ business\\;\\ police\\ power\\ is\\ often\\ misused\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ infringing\\ on\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ civil\\ rights\\ ensues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Witnesses\\ are\\ often\\ murdered\\ by\\ drug\\ traffickers\\ and\\ therefore\\ prosecution\\ is\\ difficult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Security\\ \\&\\;\\ management\\ of\\ court\\ evidence\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ problem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ stolen\\ \\&\\;\\ cases\\ must\\ be\\ dismissed\\;\\ courts\\ have\\ judicial\\ delays\\,\\ are\\ overloaded\\ with\\ cases\\,\\ have\\ poor\\ facilities\\ and\\ inadequate\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\:\\ some\\ places\\ have\\ drug\\-power\\-politics\\ combinations\\ which\\ cause\\ pervasive\\ corruption\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 5\\:\\ ARMS\\ TRAFFICKING\\,\\ CORRRUPTION\\,\\ AND\\ GOVERNANCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arms\\ Trafficking\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(b\\/c\\ drug\\ operations\\ need\\ weapons\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Makes\\ use\\ of\\ complicated\\ and\\ creative\\/dangerous\\ maneuvers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Intraregional\\:\\ Facilitates\\ some\\ activities\\ of\\ drug\\ traffickers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interregional\\:\\ Facilities\\ acquisition\\ of\\ weapons\\ by\\ drug\\ operators\\ based\\ in\\ S\\.\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ \\&\\;\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ have\\ the\\ most\\ trouble\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ arms\\ trafficking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ kinds\\:\\ Systemic\\,\\ Sporadic\\,\\ Institutionalized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Systemic\\ \\(2\\ types\\)\\:\\ 1\\.\\ pervasive\\ poorly\\ organized\\ \\/\\ 2\\.\\ hierarchal\\ payoff\\ arrangement\\ w\\/\\ upper\\ \\&\\;\\ lower\\-level\\ people\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ higher\\ ups\\ make\\ more\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ currently\\ has\\ more\\ sporadic\\ and\\ systemic\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\-Aristide\\ Haiti\\ is\\ the\\ closest\\ example\\ to\\ institutionalized\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bahamas\\:\\ a\\ center\\ for\\ both\\ trafficking\\ and\\ money\\ laundering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ government\\ officials\\ involved\\ in\\ arms\\/drug\\ trafficking\\ and\\ therefore\\ there\\ really\\ is\\ nowhere\\ to\\ turn\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ corruption\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\ things\\ that\\ allow\\ corruption\\ to\\ flourish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\police\\ service\\&rsquo\\;s\\ operation\\ as\\ a\\ law\\ unto\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rank\\-and\\-status\\ mentality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lack\\ of\\ accountability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\absence\\ of\\ clear\\ policy\\ on\\ posting\\ and\\ transfers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ delays\\ and\\ procedures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\destruction\\ of\\ records\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\breakdown\\ of\\ disciplinary\\ procedures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\territorial\\ control\\ that\\ allows\\ local\\ commanders\\ to\\ pursue\\ or\\ condone\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\idea\\ that\\ image\\ must\\ be\\ sustained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Insufficient\\ supervision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organizations\\ that\\ are\\ corrupt\\:\\ witness\\ protection\\,\\ taxes\\,\\ customs\\,\\ prisons\\,\\ banking\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ corruption\\ is\\ often\\ international\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Governance\\ \\&\\;\\ Sovereignty\\ at\\ Risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Corruption\\ of\\ officials\\ cause\\:\\ a\\)\\ capacity\\ for\\ effective\\ action\\ to\\ be\\ undermined\\;\\ b\\)\\ cause\\ everyday\\ citizens\\ to\\ resort\\ to\\ vigilante\\ tactics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\/c\\ of\\ corruption\\,\\ some\\ products\\ from\\ trafficking\\ stay\\ w\\/in\\ the\\ region\\ and\\ cause\\ problems\\ for\\ regional\\ crime\\,\\ it\\ escalates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ uniformity\\ in\\ drug\\ operations\\ and\\ their\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ state\\ and\\ nonstate\\ actors\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ drug\\ phenomenon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Security\\ implications\\ are\\ varied\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ threats\\ and\\ challenges\\ presented\\ by\\ drugs\\ are\\ not\\ amenable\\ to\\ military\\ countermeasures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Environmental\\ security\\ of\\ low\\ significance\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ because\\ environmental\\ threat\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ cocaine\\ and\\ heroin\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Environmental\\ consequences\\ do\\ exist\\ and\\ these\\ include\\ deforestation\\ and\\ soil\\ erosion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deforestation\\ most\\ prominent\\ in\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Grenada\\,\\ Guyana\\,\\ st\\.\\ Vincent\\ and\\ the\\ Grenadines\\ \\&\\;\\ other\\ countries\\ with\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ marijuana\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Approach\\ to\\ countering\\ drug\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ needs\\ to\\ multidimensional\\ and\\ multileveled\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;Multiactors\\ are\\ also\\ needed\\ to\\ counter\\ the\\ drug\\ problem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ governmental\\,\\ non\\-governmental\\ and\\ international\\ organizations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ governments\\ willing\\ to\\ tackle\\ drug\\ problems\\ by\\ employing\\ measures\\ that\\ are\\ compatible\\ with\\ their\\ sovereignty\\ as\\ a\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critical\\ Considerations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economic\\ difficulties\\ make\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ dependent\\ on\\ external\\ support\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ drug\\ siege\\.\\ External\\ support\\ is\\ needed\\ from\\ America\\ and\\ other\\ first\\ world\\ countries\\ and\\ also\\ from\\ non\\-governmental\\ \\(or\\ State\\)\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ external\\ support\\,\\ Caribbean\\ states\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ accommodate\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ international\\ governmental\\ organizations\\,\\ which\\ are\\ key\\ players\\ in\\ the\\ assistance\\ groups\\ such\\ the\\ UN\\ International\\ Drug\\ Control\\ Program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ending\\ the\\ siege\\ also\\ depends\\ on\\ decisions\\ by\\ South\\ American\\ cocaine\\ producers\\ since\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ transshipment\\ center\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ending\\ the\\ drug\\ siege\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ demand\\ reduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ will\\ and\\ strong\\ policies\\ are\\ also\\ needed\\ to\\ arrest\\ drug\\ trafficking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Patterson\\.\\ Roots\\ of\\ Conflicts\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Capital\\ city\\ of\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Kingston\\ and\\ homes\\ of\\ native\\ Jamaicans\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ Southern\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourist\\ areas\\,\\ hotels\\,\\ etc\\,\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ northern\\ coast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ has\\ a\\ high\\ crime\\ rate\\.Crime\\ and\\ violence\\ is\\ highly\\ localized\\ to\\ the\\ southern\\ coast\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\ is\\ an\\ active\\ democracy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ dominant\\ parties\\ since\\ independence\\ in\\ 1962\\;\\ free\\ press\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;sophisticated\\ tradition\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ discourse\\,\\ a\\ vibrant\\ civil\\ society\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\,\\ like\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ have\\ been\\ unsuccessful\\ at\\ post\\-independence\\ economic\\ dev\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ high\\ income\\ inequality\\,\\ drug\\ abuse\\,\\ high\\ unemployment\\ rates\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ informal\\ economy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\B\\/n\\ a\\ quarter\\ and\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ Jamaican\\&rsquo\\;s\\ live\\ abroad\\.\\ The\\ money\\ they\\ send\\ home\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ highest\\ \\(2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ tourism\\)\\ GNP\\ earner\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\ half\\ of\\ informal\\ sector\\ is\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Marijuana\\ traditionally\\ been\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ Jamaica\\,\\ but\\ more\\ recently\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ transshipment\\ center\\ for\\ Colombian\\ dealers\\ exporting\\ to\\ the\\ US\\.\\ Drug\\ gangs\\ increase\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Political\\ survival\\ via\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ garrisons\\ began\\ with\\ Seaga\\ in\\ the\\ 1960\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Currently\\ there\\ are\\ about\\ 15\\ established\\ garrison\\ constituencies\\ \\&\\;\\ political\\ fights\\ b\\/n\\ them\\ have\\ spilled\\ into\\ broader\\ ongoing\\ turf\\ wars\\.\\ These\\ gangs\\ also\\ serve\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\.\\ These\\ gangs\\ are\\ the\\ major\\ cause\\ of\\ violence\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ today\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\World\\ Bank\\ Study\\:\\ Urban\\ Poverty\\ \\&\\;\\ Violence\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\This\\ study\\ explores\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ violence\\ effects\\ the\\ urban\\ poor\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ use\\ a\\ participatory\\ urban\\ appraisal\\ methodology\\ to\\ determine\\ what\\ types\\ of\\ violence\\ poor\\ Jamaicans\\ perceive\\ to\\ be\\ causing\\ major\\ problems\\ in\\ their\\ communities\\.\\ The\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ study\\ is\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ major\\ problems\\ that\\ violence\\ causes\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ social\\ investment\\ funds\\ more\\ responsive\\ to\\ providing\\ assistance\\ to\\ poverty\\ stricken\\ communities\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ conducted\\ interviews\\ with\\ people\\ in\\ various\\ different\\ poor\\ urban\\ neighborhoods\\ to\\ determine\\ how\\ the\\ poor\\ defined\\ poverty\\ and\\ what\\ types\\ of\\ violence\\ the\\ poor\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ most\\ problematic\\ for\\ their\\ community\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ also\\ sought\\ to\\ discover\\ what\\ types\\ of\\ violence\\ were\\ most\\ prevalent\\ in\\ communities\\,\\ and\\ determine\\ how\\ violence\\ effects\\ social\\ capital\\ in\\ poor\\ communities\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ found\\ that\\ cocaine\\ related\\ gang\\ violence\\ and\\ political\\ violence\\ were\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ violence\\ that\\ the\\ urban\\ poor\\ found\\ most\\ problematic\\ for\\ their\\ communities\\.\\ These\\ types\\ of\\ violence\\ were\\ most\\ problematic\\ for\\ residents\\ of\\ poor\\ neighborhoods\\ because\\ they\\ prevented\\ residents\\ from\\ accessing\\ jobs\\,\\ education\\,\\ and\\ other\\ social\\ services\\ outside\\ their\\ immediate\\ community\\.\\ Political\\ and\\ drug\\ related\\ gangs\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ restrict\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ people\\ through\\ neighborhoods\\ \\-\\-\\ wandering\\ into\\ the\\ wrong\\ neighborhood\\ can\\ make\\ individuals\\ targets\\ for\\ violence\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ gang\\.\\ These\\ conditions\\ make\\ it\\ difficult\\ for\\ people\\ in\\ poor\\ communities\\ to\\ travel\\ to\\ and\\ from\\ work\\ and\\ school\\.\\ Although\\ gang\\ violence\\ was\\ most\\ prevalent\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ causing\\ community\\ problems\\,\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ violence\\ were\\ problematic\\ as\\ well\\.\\ There\\ are\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ domestic\\ violence\\ in\\ poor\\ Jamaican\\ communities\\,\\ and\\ this\\ violence\\ increases\\ during\\ times\\ of\\ economic\\ hardship\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ police\\ related\\ violence\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ \\-\\-\\ most\\ residents\\ of\\ poor\\ communities\\ feel\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ are\\ at\\ best\\ indifferent\\ and\\ at\\ worst\\ perpetrators\\ of\\ violence\\ against\\ them\\.\\ Violence\\ has\\ had\\ detrimental\\ effects\\ on\\ social\\ capital\\ in\\ poor\\ urban\\ communities\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ Horizontal\\ ties\\ between\\ members\\ of\\ different\\ communities\\ are\\ severed\\ by\\ gang\\ violence\\.\\ The\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ vertical\\ ties\\ has\\ been\\ weakened\\ by\\ the\\ replacing\\ of\\ legitimate\\ political\\ leaders\\ by\\ gang\\ and\\ strong\\ armed\\ political\\ bosses\\.\\ Violence\\ has\\ also\\ created\\ problems\\ in\\ enabling\\ poor\\ communities\\ to\\ gain\\ access\\ to\\ and\\ maintain\\ infrastructure\\.\\ Domestic\\ violence\\ can\\ weaken\\ intrafamily\\ social\\ capital\\ as\\ well\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ widespread\\ fear\\ that\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ violence\\ causes\\ in\\ communities\\ erodes\\ trust\\ and\\ enhances\\ fear\\ of\\ others\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ see\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ fund\\ conflict\\ resolution\\ programs\\,\\ drug\\ abuse\\ counseling\\,\\ family\\-life\\ education\\ and\\ parenting\\ courses\\ and\\ job\\ training\\ and\\ placement\\ services\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ help\\ curb\\ violence\\ in\\ these\\ communities\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ they\\ feel\\ that\\ rehabilitating\\ sports\\ facilities\\ and\\ teen\\ centers\\ may\\ be\\ helpful\\ as\\ well\\.\\ They\\ believe\\ that\\ these\\ steps\\ may\\ help\\ break\\ the\\ cycle\\ of\\ violence\\ that\\ cripples\\ poor\\ urban\\ communities\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1\\/2\\ of\\ this\\ week\\ is\\ still\\ missing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\/25\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Island\\ Paradox\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Population\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\:\\ This\\ chapter\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ statistically\\ based\\ analysis\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ 1990\\ were\\ economically\\ at\\ the\\ average\\ rate\\ of\\ American\\ Hispanics\\ and\\ that\\ migraton\\ patterns\\ have\\ changed\\ among\\ them\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ now\\ moe\\ and\\ more\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ are\\ moving\\ to\\ midside\\ cities\\ rather\\ than\\ large\\ cties\\ like\\ New\\ York\\,\\ and\\ regionally\\ they\\ are\\ spreading\\ beyond\\ the\\ Northeast\\ into\\ Texas\\,\\ Florida\\,\\ and\\ California\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ number\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ increased\\ from\\ close\\ to\\ two\\ million\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ to\\ ove\\ r2\\.7\\ million\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ This\\ rate\\ of\\ growth\\ of\\ 35\\ percent\\ was\\ more\\ than\\ three\\ times\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ overall\\ population\\ ib\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ during\\ the\\ decade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ 1980s\\ saw\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ dispersing\\ across\\ America\\ at\\ rates\\ unprecedent\\ in\\ Texas\\,\\ Florida\\,\\ and\\ California\\,\\ where\\ a\\ significant\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ emigrants\\ from\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ are\\ locating\\.\\ By\\ 1990\\,\\ Florida\\ had\\ the\\ third\\-largest\\ population\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ with\\ approximately\\ 10\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ total\\.\\ Most\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\,however\\,\\ still\\ reside\\ in\\ the\\ Northeast\\ and\\ Midwest\\.\\ New\\ York\\ has\\ the\\ largest\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ in\\ 1990\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ New\\ Jersy\\.\\ Massachusetts\\,\\ Pennsylvania\\,\\ Connecticut\\,\\ Ohio\\,\\ and\\ Illinois\\ also\\ have\\ significant\\ poprtions\\ o\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ populations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ communities\\ declined\\ in\\ large\\,\\ urban\\ centers\\ in\\ the\\ Northeast\\ and\\ Midwest\\ and\\ accelerated\\ in\\ smaller\\ cities\\ as\\ Tampa\\,\\ and\\ Springfield\\ and\\ Lawrence\\,\\ MA\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ traditional\\ association\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ with\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\ While\\ in\\ 1960\\ close\\ to\\ two\\-thirds\\ of\\ all\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ lived\\ in\\ NYC\\,\\ by\\ 1990\\ only\\ a\\ third\\ did\\.\\ More\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\,\\ moved\\ out\\ of\\ NYC\\ than\\ moved\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Puerto\\ Ricans\\ exhibited\\ substantial\\ income\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ Unted\\ States\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\ Their\\ mean\\ per\\ capita\\ houselhold\\ income\\ adjusted\\ for\\ inflation\\ increased\\ by\\ close\\ to\\ 30\\ percent\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\ This\\ increase\\ was\\ the\\ highest\\ among\\ all\\ the\\ major\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Associated\\ with\\ the\\ income\\ gains\\ of\\ the\\ 1980s\\ was\\ a\\ sharp\\ increase\\ in\\ labor\\ forcr\\ participation\\ among\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ women\\,\\ higher\\ educational\\ attainemt\\,\\ and\\ a\\ significant\\ upgrading\\ of\\ the\\ occupational\\ distribution\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economic\\ gains\\ were\\ not\\ equal\\ for\\ all\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\.\\ Those\\ without\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ diploma\\ suffered\\ largely\\ from\\ unemployment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ non\\-tradional\\ areas\\ like\\ the\\ West\\ Coast\\ and\\ Florida\\ also\\ tended\\ to\\ fare\\ better\\ economically\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ remained\\ in\\ the\\ Northeast\\,\\ one\\ cause\\ for\\ this\\ might\\ be\\ that\\ more\\ recent\\ immigrants\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ concentrated\\ in\\ the\\ Northeast\\ while\\ more\\ estacblished\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ tend\\ to\\ migrate\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carribean\\ Circuits\\-\\ Chap\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;Transformation\\ Among\\ Dominican\\ Return\\ Migrants\\&rdquo\\;\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ author\\ set\\ out\\ to\\ analyze\\ the\\ experiences\\ of\\ migrants\\ who\\ were\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\ from\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ but\\ she\\ found\\ that\\ migratory\\ patterns\\ were\\ not\\ as\\ final\\ as\\ she\\ imagined\\ that\\ that\\ immigrants\\ often\\ return\\ to\\ their\\ mother\\ country\\ only\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ again\\ mostly\\ for\\ financial\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Instead\\ of\\ unidirectional\\ flows\\ of\\ migrants\\ pouring\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;daughter\\&rdquo\\;\\ communities\\,\\ we\\ hae\\ a\\ binational\\ society\\ whose\\ members\\ are\\ tied\\ to\\ people\\ ans\\ places\\ that\\ happen\\ to\\ be\\ located\\ within\\ the\\ territory\\ of\\ different\\ nation\\-states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Migrants\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ foreigners\\ in\\ both\\ societies\\:\\ Dominicans\\ in\\ New\\ York\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dominicanyorks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Santo\\ Domingo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\,\\ the\\ conspicuous\\ presence\\ migrants\\ attatined\\ be\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 1980s\\ in\\ several\\ sectors\\ of\\ the\\ national\\ economy\\ such\\ as\\ housing\\,\\ finance\\,\\ tourism\\,\\ and\\ free\\ processing\\ zones\\-\\ where\\ middle\\-\\ and\\ eveen\\ upper\\-class\\ people\\ have\\ been\\ displaced\\-\\ has\\ generated\\ a\\ growing\\ animosity\\ toward\\ the\\ migrant\\ population\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ found\\ a\\ significant\\ variation\\ in\\ migration\\ behavior\\ across\\ gender\\,\\ regional\\,\\ and\\ generational\\ lines\\.\\ First\\,\\ depite\\ similar\\ ages\\,\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\,\\ and\\ time\\ spent\\ living\\ abroad\\,\\ and\\ despite\\ their\\ greater\\ desire\\ to\\ stay\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ females\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ males\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ for\\ familial\\ reaons\\ \\(especially\\ concerns\\ about\\ hteir\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ education\\ and\\ family\\ reunification\\)\\ and\\ by\\ their\\ spouses\\&rsquo\\;\\ intiative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;women\\ tended\\ to\\ trail\\ behind\\ males\\ in\\ their\\ occupational\\ and\\ economic\\ achievements\\ during\\ the\\ migration\\ period\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Migration\\ has\\ significant\\ consequences\\ for\\ family\\ cohesiveness\\ ans\\ stability\\ because\\ it\\ affects\\ the\\ likelihood\\ that\\ family\\ members\\ will\\ stay\\ togetherand\\ influence\\ their\\ choices\\ of\\ where\\ to\\ live\\,\\ work\\,\\ and\\ socialize\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intact\\ families\\ rarely\\ emigrate\\ to\\ or\\ return\\ from\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;while\\ social\\ capital\\ furnishes\\ individuals\\ and\\ families\\ with\\ resources\\ beyond\\ their\\ individual\\ reach\\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ connections\\ and\\ support\\ for\\ emigrating\\ and\\ returning\\-\\ it\\ also\\ limits\\ their\\ possibilities\\ givent\\ he\\ costs\\ of\\ the\\ obligations\\ and\\ reciprocity\\-\\ negative\\ social\\ capital\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(missing\\ the\\ Murrell\\ reading\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brandon\\ Reading\\ Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santeria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ prominent\\ embodiments\\ of\\ Yoruba\\,\\ must\\ be\\ placed\\ in\\ global\\,\\ New\\ World\\ and\\ local\\-national\\ contexts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;global\\:\\ Santeria\\ is\\ a\\ variation\\ on\\ the\\ transatlantic\\ tradition\\ of\\ Yoruba\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;New\\ World\\:\\ Santeria\\ is\\ a\\ New\\ World\\,\\ Neo\\-African\\ religion\\ with\\ a\\ clear\\ dual\\ heritage\\;\\ its\\ component\\ elements\\ include\\ Spanish\\ folk\\ Catholicism\\,\\ traditional\\ African\\ orisha\\ worship\\ and\\ Kardean\\ spiritism\\ \\(which\\ originated\\ in\\ France\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;local\\-national\\:\\ Santeria\\ religion\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ occult\\ underground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phases\\ of\\ Religious\\ Development\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phase\\ I\\,\\ the\\ African\\ and\\ Pre\\-Santeria\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Includes\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ Yoruba\\ people\\,\\ religion\\ and\\ city\\-states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ appeared\\ from\\ Bight\\ of\\ Benin\\ area\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ to\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sugar\\ boom\\ of\\ the\\ 1760s\\ in\\ Cuba\\ required\\ mass\\ importation\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Phase\\ II\\,\\ Early\\ Santeria\\ \\(1760\\-1870\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Foundation\\ of\\ sugar\\,\\ coffee\\ and\\ tobacco\\ estates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yoruba\\ Afro\\-Catholicism\\ emerged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Phase\\ III\\,\\ Santeria\\ \\(1870\\-1959\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Final\\ abolition\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ the\\ migration\\ of\\ ex\\-slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legal\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ religious\\ organizations\\ were\\ suppressed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transformative\\ phase\\ leading\\ to\\ a\\ Yoruba\\-spiritist\\-Catholic\\ amalgam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Phase\\ IV\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Branch\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Persisting\\ Santeria\\/Santerismo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beginning\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Santerismo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ adoption\\ of\\ some\\ aspects\\ of\\ Santeria\\ by\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Espiritismo\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\type\\ of\\ spiritualism\\ that\\ combined\\ scientism\\ with\\ Christian\\ moral\\ teachings\\ and\\ personal\\ mysticism\\;\\ belief\\ that\\ people\\ could\\ communicate\\ with\\ spirits\\ of\\ the\\ dead\\;\\ focus\\ on\\ healing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Branch\\ 2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Persisting\\ Santeria\\/Early\\ Orisha\\-Voodoo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Orisha\\-Voodoo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;represents\\ a\\ fusion\\ of\\ Santeria\\ with\\ black\\ nationalism\\ in\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emphasis\\ was\\ on\\ expunging\\ Christian\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Phase\\ V\\,\\ Orisha\\-Voodoo\\ \\(1970\\ to\\ present\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Oyotunji\\ Village\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ commune\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ African\\ religion\\,\\ founded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ideological\\ bases\\ widened\\ to\\ include\\ elements\\ of\\ Fon\\ religion\\,\\ Haitian\\ Voodoo\\ and\\ Bini\\ religious\\ motifs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ Old\\ African\\ Religion\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Benin\\,\\ Dahomey\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Yoruba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;city\\-states\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\All\\ trace\\ their\\ origins\\ to\\ Odua\\,\\ creator\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ progenitor\\ of\\ the\\ Yoruba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ should\\ not\\ approach\\ African\\ religion\\ as\\ a\\ body\\ of\\ beliefs\\,\\ doctrines\\ and\\ rituals\\,\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ ongoing\\ manifestation\\ of\\ an\\ attitude\\ toward\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hierarchy\\ of\\ Beings\\ in\\ Yoruba\\:\\ nonliving\\ things\\,\\ plants\\/animals\\,\\ humans\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\egungun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(person\\/town\\&rsquo\\;s\\ immediate\\ ancestors\\,\\ object\\ of\\ worship\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\orisha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(superhuman\\ being\\,\\ object\\ of\\ worship\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Olodumare\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(supreme\\ being\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ are\\ not\\ masters\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ are\\ they\\ only\\ ones\\ with\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ create\\ and\\ sustain\\ the\\ harmony\\,\\ freshness\\ and\\ balance\\ that\\ ought\\ to\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucumi\\ Ethnicity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lucumi\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ the\\ descendants\\ of\\ the\\ Yorubas\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ neighbors\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\:\\ Oyos\\,\\ Egbas\\,\\ Ijesheas\\ etc\\ in\\ Cuba\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lucumi\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ was\\ closely\\ linked\\ with\\ Yoruba\\ culture\\ and\\ forms\\ one\\ basis\\ of\\ Santeria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Classifications\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ African\\ nations\\ developed\\ stereotypes\\ for\\ slave\\ traders\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\:\\ Gangars\\ were\\ thieves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syncretism\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\development\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ distinct\\ culture\\ resulting\\ from\\ an\\ extended\\ encounter\\ of\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ other\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ African\\ and\\ European\\ Religions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Omole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ extended\\ families\\ who\\ traced\\ descent\\ through\\ the\\ male\\ line\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ common\\ ancestor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transmission\\ of\\ orisha\\ worship\\:\\ inheritance\\ through\\ parents\\;\\ as\\ payment\\ to\\ the\\ orisha\\ for\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birth\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ illness\\,\\ one\\ adopted\\ an\\ orisha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ implement\\ on\\ the\\ plantations\\ the\\ guided\\ culture\\ change\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ produce\\ elsewhere\\&mdash\\;rural\\ slaves\\ literally\\ had\\ no\\ time\\ for\\ religion\\;\\ some\\ female\\ domestic\\ slaves\\ exposed\\ to\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ blacks\\ in\\ Cuba\\ emerged\\ as\\ artisans\\ and\\ tavern\\-owners\\;\\ free\\ blacks\\ made\\ many\\ distinctions\\ between\\ each\\ other\\ \\(generational\\ distance\\ from\\ slave\\ status\\,\\ born\\ in\\ Cuba\\ vs\\.\\ Africa\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Catholic\\ Church\\ was\\ one\\ sphere\\ where\\ people\\ of\\ African\\ and\\ European\\ descent\\ were\\ equals\\ \\(no\\ segregation\\)\\;\\ education\\ through\\ the\\ Church\\ was\\ a\\ method\\ of\\ upward\\ mobility\\ for\\ the\\ free\\ black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ religion\\ managed\\ to\\ persevere\\ in\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ clubs\\;\\ Havana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bishop\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pedro\\ Morel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;campaigned\\ mid\\-18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ bring\\ Catholicism\\ into\\ these\\ clubs\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ recreate\\ the\\ Spanish\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cabildo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;institution\\ \\(religious\\ brotherhoods\\ devoted\\ to\\ indoctrinating\\ the\\ members\\ with\\ Catholicism\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cabildo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ became\\ the\\ principal\\ organizations\\ for\\ the\\ religious\\ life\\ of\\ urban\\ Afro\\-Cubans\\ till\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\;\\ religious\\ dances\\ very\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ worship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lucumi\\ cabildoes\\ were\\ the\\ perfect\\ framework\\ for\\ the\\ unique\\ mixture\\ of\\ folk\\ Catholicism\\ and\\ Yoruba\\ religion\\ of\\ Santeria\\ to\\ evolve\\;\\ the\\ orisha\\ became\\ the\\ saints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Afro\\-Cubanism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Afro\\-Cubanism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ an\\ ideological\\ trend\\ of\\ the\\ 1920s\\ and\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ political\\,\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ Cuban\\ Republic\\;\\ Cuban\\ artists\\ had\\ the\\ magical\\ presence\\ of\\ Africa\\ right\\ on\\ the\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\ Fernando\\ Ortiz\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ a\\ father\\ of\\ Afro\\-Cubanism\\;\\ he\\ provided\\ a\\ systematic\\ account\\ of\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ religious\\ beliefs\\,\\ myths\\ and\\ rites\\;\\ saw\\ the\\ African\\ element\\ as\\ regressive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Involvement\\ with\\ Santeria\\ became\\ fashionable\\ among\\ intellectuals\\;\\ Santeria\\ seen\\ more\\ as\\ folklore\\ than\\ as\\ witchcraft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Ambivalence\\ of\\ Repression\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Colonial\\ government\\ came\\ to\\ see\\ African\\ cabildoes\\ as\\ sources\\ of\\ insurrection\\;\\ nervous\\ of\\ a\\ possible\\ independence\\ from\\ Spain\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\View\\ that\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ religion\\ was\\ witchcraft\\,\\ though\\ whites\\ of\\ all\\ classes\\ availed\\ of\\ black\\ healers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Questioning\\ of\\ whether\\ Africans\\ used\\ the\\ Catholic\\ saints\\ to\\ mask\\ worship\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ deities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Santeria\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Santerismo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emerged\\ in\\ the\\ Bronx\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\;\\ variant\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Espiritismo\\ with\\ influences\\ of\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ Santeria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Orisha\\-Voodoo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\emerged\\ as\\ an\\ arm\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ nationalist\\ movement\\;\\ its\\ cultural\\ ideal\\ derived\\ from\\ Yoruba\\ religion\\;\\ abandonment\\ of\\ Catholic\\ elements\\ \\(i\\.e\\:\\ saints\\)\\;\\ return\\ to\\ African\\ roots\\/culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oba\\ Ofuntola\\ Adefunmi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\founded\\ Orisha\\-Voodoo\\ in\\ 1959\\;\\ in\\ his\\ mind\\ initiation\\ into\\ Santeria\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ an\\ ongoing\\ political\\ and\\ cultural\\ struggle\\ against\\ the\\ hegemony\\ of\\ white\\ culture\\ over\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Jamaica\\ would\\ explode\\ were\\ it\\ not\\ for\\ dancehall\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\-Jamaican\\ police\\ officer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\ \\;Dancehall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ Rise\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;sailors\\ after\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ brought\\ records\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\need\\ for\\ new\\ material\\ that\\ the\\ DJs\\ could\\ \\&ldquo\\;spin\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\led\\ to\\ beginning\\ of\\ Caribbean\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ namely\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ own\\ record\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\stylistically\\ unique\\ to\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\not\\ influenced\\ by\\ American\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\influenced\\ by\\ African\\ ancestry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\some\\ argue\\ gave\\ rise\\ to\\ American\\ hip\\-hop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ bands\\ not\\ an\\ option\\ for\\ entertainment\\ for\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\brought\\ music\\ to\\ lower\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\easily\\ obtained\\ or\\ built\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\made\\ dance\\ music\\ widely\\ available\\ for\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\ \\;Socially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ black\\ lower\\ class\\ youths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ excluded\\ from\\ Caribbean\\ power\\ base\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ dancehall\\ music\\ their\\ own\\ way\\ of\\ voicing\\ disapproval\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ poverty\\,\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ social\\ interactions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ DJs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ added\\ new\\ words\\ and\\ expressions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ obtain\\ fame\\ and\\ fortune\\ on\\ the\\ global\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;gangster\\&rdquo\\;\\ lifestyle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ masculine\\ symbols\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ cars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ role\\ of\\ women\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ reactions\\ against\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;dancehall\\ divas\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ fashion\\ and\\ the\\ female\\ body\\ became\\ important\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ the\\ dancehall\\ events\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ romanticized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\ \\;perceived\\ as\\ threat\\ by\\ middle\\ and\\ upper\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ society\\ complaints\\ and\\ disapprovals\\ voiced\\ by\\ lower\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ challenged\\ myth\\ of\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ called\\ for\\ all\\ to\\ question\\ government\\ and\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ in\\ 1960s\\,\\ crossed\\ over\\ poverty\\ lines\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ government\\ offered\\ scholarships\\ to\\ poor\\ youths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ youths\\ were\\ moving\\ uptown\\ and\\ intermingling\\ with\\ people\\ their\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ own\\ age\\ from\\ different\\ socio\\-economic\\ backgrounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;dancehall\\ music\\ spread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Politically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Norman\\ Manley\\ realized\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ dancehall\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ its\\ relevance\\ to\\ nation\\ building\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ important\\ that\\ Jamaica\\ have\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ self\\-confidence\\ on\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;international\\ stage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ over\\ reliance\\ on\\ European\\ examples\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ Brief\\ history\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Ameridians\\,\\ mostly\\ located\\ on\\ Hispaniola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taino\\ Arawaks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribs\\&mdash\\;Lesser\\ Antilles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Areito\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&mdash\\;\\ socioreligious\\ ceremony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Call\\ \\&\\;\\ Response\\ of\\ mythological\\ chants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maracas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\g\\ü\\;iros\\&mdash\\;gourd\\ scrapers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mayohuacan\\&mdash\\;slit\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ \\ \\;Spaniards\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ enslaved\\ the\\ Indians\\,\\ prompting\\ starvation\\,\\ disease\\ \\&\\;\\ mass\\ suicide\\,\\ with\\ Christopher\\ Columbus\\ at\\ the\\ forefront\\ \\&mdash\\;t\\ his\\ effectively\\ stifled\\ the\\ chances\\ of\\ Indian\\ culture\\ being\\ furthered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ African\\ Heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Quite\\ a\\ large\\ impact\\ on\\ Caribbean\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\General\\ principles\\ rather\\ than\\ specific\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slave\\ communities\\ blended\\ with\\ different\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ and\\ regions\\ of\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ musics\\ blurred\\ the\\ original\\ African\\ practices\\,\\ complementing\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ contact\\ with\\ slaves\\ post\\-slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afro\\-Caribbean\\ musicians\\ possessed\\ a\\ natural\\ creative\\ penchant\\ bound\\ to\\ influence\\ their\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collective\\ participation\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ spectator\\ entity\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ general\\ conception\\ that\\ musical\\ talent\\ is\\ something\\ innate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Syncopation\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ interaction\\ of\\ regular\\ beats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polyrhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Call\\ \\&\\;\\ Response\\ features\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cellular\\ structure\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ repetition\\ of\\ ostinatos\\,\\ generally\\ allowing\\ more\\ freedom\\ \\&\\;\\ variety\\&hellip\\;musicians\\ playing\\ upon\\ audience\\,\\ mood\\,\\ setting\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ European\\ Heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\,\\ British\\ \\&\\;\\ French\\ colonists\\ introduced\\ diverse\\ musical\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Classic\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ well\\-known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Folk\\ \\&\\;\\ popular\\ song\\ \\&\\;\\ dances\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ Church\\ hymns\\,\\ military\\ marches\\,\\ social\\ dances\\ like\\ quadrille\\ \\&\\;\\ mazurka\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ b\\.\\ Instruments\\ like\\ the\\ fife\\,\\ guitar\\ and\\ fiddle\\ \\(piano\\ of\\ course\\ with\\ classical\\ music\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\All\\ became\\ creolized\\ upon\\ being\\ performed\\ by\\ generations\\ of\\ Afro\\-Caribbeans\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ though\\ not\\ a\\ big\\ transition\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Spanish\\ fandangos\\ \\&\\;\\ zapateos\\ and\\ their\\ lively\\ cross\\-rhythms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Protestant\\ hymns\\ \\&\\;\\ call\\ \\&\\;\\ response\\ \\&ldquo\\;lining\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ \\&\\;\\ Spanish\\ traditions\\ of\\ seasonal\\ carnivals\\ with\\ festival\\ music\\ akin\\ to\\ African\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ generally\\ Caribbean\\ popular\\ culture\\ is\\ oral\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ written\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Chordal\\ harmony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Sectional\\,\\ formal\\ structures\\ unlike\\ African\\ cellular\\ ostinatos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ensemble\\ orchestrization\\ \\&\\;\\ arrangements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notating\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vast\\ repetition\\ of\\ written\\ but\\ also\\ orally\\ transmitted\\ musics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Spanish\\ flamenco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Guitar\\ chord\\ progression\\ of\\ Am\\-G\\-F\\-E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\V\\.\\ \\ \\;Creolization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ distinct\\ culture\\ resulting\\ from\\ an\\ extended\\ encounter\\ of\\ two\\ or\\ three\\ more\\ other\\ cultures\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;syncretism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ than\\ a\\ mere\\ mixing\\ of\\ dormant\\ reagents\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ bound\\ to\\ merge\\ and\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ life\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ their\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Africans\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ West\\ and\\ Central\\ Africa\\ meet\\ with\\ Europeans\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ Spanish\\,\\ British\\ and\\ French\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generally\\,\\ lower\\-class\\ syncretic\\ forms\\ gradually\\ blossom\\ and\\ soon\\ are\\ accepted\\ by\\ the\\ upper\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ \\ \\;African\\-Derived\\ musics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Santer\\í\\;a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Party\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\orishas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ powerful\\ presences\\ who\\ should\\ be\\ honored\\ regularly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Drum\\ invocations\\ before\\ the\\ altar\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bat\\á\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vodou\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Does\\ not\\ posses\\ the\\ lewd\\,\\ cult\\-like\\ entity\\ usually\\ associated\\ with\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;Traditional\\ dance\\ steps\\ in\\ a\\ collective\\ while\\ loose\\ fashion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Palo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Congolese\\ contribution\\,\\ more\\ secular\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Paleros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;play\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ngoma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;drums\\,\\ which\\ developed\\ into\\ the\\ conga\\ drum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\ \\;Simpler\\ rhythms\\ and\\ more\\ lively\\ dance\\ than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\santer\\í\\;a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;D\\.\\ \\ \\;Rumba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ influential\\ creation\\,\\ wholly\\ Cuban\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Guaguanc\\ó\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&mdash\\;\\ sticks\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\palitos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;striking\\ side\\ of\\ conga\\ drum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lyrics\\ take\\ on\\ any\\ type\\ of\\ social\\ goings\\-on\\,\\ involving\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ call\\ and\\ response\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\canto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\VII\\.\\ \\ \\;European\\-Derived\\ musics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\D\\é\\;cima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Spanish\\-derived\\ verse\\ form\\ going\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\abbaaccddc\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ performed\\ by\\ white\\ Cuban\\ farmers\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guajiros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ famous\\ as\\ the\\ limerick\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Guajira\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ folk\\-style\\ music\\ with\\ a\\ I\\-IV\\-V\\ chord\\ progression\\,\\ a\\ country\\-like\\ rurality\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Guantanamera\\&rdquo\\;\\ an\\ example\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contradanza\\ Habanera\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Havana\\-style\\ contradance\\,\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Cuban\\ creole\\,\\ x\\-\\-xx\\-x\\-\\ \\(Georges\\ Bizet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carmen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Danz\\ó\\;n\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ surpassed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contradanza\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ national\\ dance\\ of\\ Cuba\\ from\\ 1880s\\ to\\ 1930s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cinquillo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ostinato\\ \\(x\\-xx\\-xx\\-\\)\\,\\ present\\ in\\ many\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ musics\\,\\ feature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vodou\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;drumming\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bat\\á\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;music\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yellow\\ Bird\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1920\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\danz\\ó\\;n\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ensemble\\ had\\ been\\ replaced\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\charanga\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ featuring\\ a\\ wooden\\ flute\\,\\ two\\ violins\\,\\ a\\ piano\\,\\ a\\ string\\ bass\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\g\\ü\\;iro\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\timbales\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ like\\ the\\ timpani\\ drum\\ but\\ small\\ and\\ with\\ a\\ metal\\ frame\\,\\ essentially\\ steel\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ your\\ opinion\\,\\ has\\ dancehall\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ really\\ impacted\\ the\\ general\\ state\\ of\\ things\\?\\ \\ \\;Have\\ the\\ DJs\\ and\\ the\\ messages\\ they\\ have\\ voiced\\ made\\ a\\ difference\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ what\\ extent\\ can\\ the\\ creolization\\ of\\ musics\\ from\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ bring\\ about\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ continuum\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ can\\ bring\\ the\\ different\\ walks\\ of\\ society\\ together\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ Currents\\:\\ Caribbean\\ Music\\ from\\ Rumba\\ to\\ Reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-Manuel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ motive\\ for\\ writing\\ this\\ book\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ counter\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ no\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ blessed\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ what\\ it\\ probably\\ its\\ greatest\\ cultural\\ contribution\\,\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Caribbean\\ music\\ begins\\ with\\ its\\ Indian\\ heritage\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ style\\ of\\ indigenous\\ music\\ \\&ldquo\\;centered\\ around\\ a\\ socioreligious\\ ceremony\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\areito\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ which\\ as\\ many\\ as\\ a\\ thousand\\ participants\\ would\\ dance\\ in\\ concentric\\ circles\\ around\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ musicians\\&rdquo\\;\\(3\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Much\\ of\\ present\\ day\\ Caribbean\\ music\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ back\\ to\\ this\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ call\\-and\\-response\\ style\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ musical\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-African\\ elements\\ are\\ also\\ heard\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ music\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;Contrary\\ to\\ some\\ theorists\\,\\ slaves\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ maintain\\ parts\\ of\\ their\\ African\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ music\\,\\ one\\ finds\\ collective\\ participation\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ rhythm\\,\\ call\\ and\\ response\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;cellular\\ structure\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;meaning\\ pieces\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ constructed\\ by\\ repetition\\ and\\ variation\\ of\\ a\\ short\\ musical\\ cell\\ or\\ ostinato\\&rdquo\\;\\(9\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-European\\ elements\\ also\\ influenced\\ Caribbean\\ music\\,\\ particularly\\:\\ church\\ hymns\\,\\ sailor\\ songs\\,\\ military\\ marches\\,\\ dances\\,\\ and\\ musical\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-But\\ Caribbean\\ music\\ did\\ not\\ just\\ pick\\ and\\ choose\\ elements\\ of\\ these\\ influences\\ to\\ create\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\creolization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\occurred\\ where\\ innovations\\ were\\ made\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ new\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Music\\ was\\ not\\ just\\ some\\ African\\ rhythm\\,\\ with\\ Indian\\ instruments\\ and\\ a\\ dash\\ of\\ European\\ dance\\&mdash\\;Caribbean\\ peoples\\ created\\ their\\ own\\ style\\ of\\ distinct\\ music\\ from\\ these\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 2\\:\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Santeria\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\voodoo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\religions\\ give\\ Cuba\\ some\\ religious\\ music\\,\\ but\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ secular\\ form\\ of\\ music\\ is\\ rumba\\.\\ \\ \\;Rumba\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;distinctly\\ Cuban\\ creation\\,\\ not\\ a\\ retention\\ of\\ an\\ old\\ African\\ genre\\&rdquo\\;\\(24\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-music\\ often\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ national\\ identity\\ and\\ patriotism\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ the\\ revolution\\ a\\ music\\ was\\ needed\\ to\\ unite\\ all\\ of\\ Cuba\\&mdash\\;black\\,\\ white\\,\\ and\\ mulatto\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\helped\\ set\\ the\\ stage\\ for\\ this\\,\\ as\\ it\\ laid\\ the\\ ground\\ for\\ salsa\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ the\\ 1940s\\ mambo\\,\\ a\\ fusion\\ of\\ the\\ big\\-band\\ format\\ and\\ afro\\-Cuban\\ rhythms\\,\\ evolved\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ modernized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\became\\ the\\ favorite\\ type\\ of\\ music\\ among\\ all\\ Cubans\\ through\\ syntheses\\ of\\ Euro\\-American\\ and\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ elements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ Cuban\\ dance\\ music\\ peaked\\ with\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ mambo\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\chachacha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ where\\ Havana\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ twin\\ poles\\ of\\ a\\ Latin\\ dance\\ empire\\&rdquo\\;\\(43\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Communist\\ Revolution\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ embargo\\ cut\\ off\\ Cuba\\ from\\ the\\ America\\,\\ and\\ helped\\ incorporate\\ lower\\-classes\\ and\\ their\\ culture\\ into\\ the\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ music\\ industry\\ was\\ free\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;under\\-the\\-table\\ payoffs\\,\\ liquor\\ company\\ sponsorship\\,\\ narco\\-dollars\\,\\ advertisements\\,\\ and\\ commercialism\\ in\\ general\\&rdquo\\;\\(47\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nueva\\ cancion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;genre\\ that\\ is\\ like\\ American\\ protest\\ music\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\,\\ and\\ is\\ folk\\ songy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 4\\:\\ Salsa\\ and\\ Beyond\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-the\\ rise\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Fania\\ records\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;salsa\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ originally\\ a\\ commercial\\ term\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ a\\ loosely\\ related\\ style\\ of\\ music\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ it\\ became\\ an\\ accepted\\ label\\,\\ even\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ played\\ \\&ldquo\\;salsa\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ originally\\ did\\ not\\ like\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-salsa\\ voiced\\ the\\ new\\ self\\-consciousness\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ generation\\ of\\ Latinos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-salsa\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ modernized\\ version\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ has\\ become\\ the\\ hub\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ and\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ its\\ creativity\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;salsa\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Latin\\ Dance\\ clubs\\ which\\ play\\ salsa\\ are\\ distinct\\ from\\ other\\ dance\\ clubs\\,\\ since\\ here\\ you\\ find\\ people\\ of\\ all\\ ages\\,\\ races\\,\\ etc\\.\\ enjoying\\ the\\ music\\,\\ and\\ unlike\\ Jazz\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\ and\\ 40s\\,\\ drugs\\ are\\ not\\ nearly\\ as\\ pervasive\\ and\\ as\\ big\\ a\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-since\\ the\\ 60s\\,\\ salsa\\ has\\ pretty\\ much\\ stayed\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ younger\\ people\\ nowadays\\,\\ salsa\\ is\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ their\\ parents\\,\\ and\\ has\\ lost\\ much\\ of\\ its\\ popularity\\,\\ due\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ merengue\\ boom\\,\\ which\\ is\\ much\\ faster\\ and\\ uptempo\\,\\ although\\ many\\ \\&ldquo\\;hard\\-core\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\salseros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;deplore\\ it\\ as\\ trivial\\ and\\ monotonous\\&rdquo\\;\\(90\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-by\\ the\\ 70s\\,\\ salsa\\ had\\ lost\\ its\\ social\\ consciousness\\ and\\ focused\\ mostly\\ on\\ sentimental\\ love\\ lyrics\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ type\\ of\\ salsa\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\salsa\\ romantica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ played\\ on\\ most\\ radio\\ stations\\,\\ and\\ is\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ aggressive\\,\\ proletarian\\,\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\salsa\\-caliente\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\(91\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Latin\\ rap\\ is\\ now\\ largely\\ popular\\ among\\ Latin\\ youth\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ urban\\ settings\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ influenced\\ largely\\ from\\ American\\ rap\\ music\\ and\\ also\\ Jamaican\\ dancehall\\,\\ yet\\ shuns\\ both\\ of\\ these\\ styles\\ misogyny\\,\\ nihilism\\,\\ and\\ violent\\ gun\\-focused\\ lyrics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\nueva\\ cancion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\has\\ also\\ emerged\\ as\\ fairly\\ popular\\,\\ although\\ most\\ of\\ its\\ artists\\ and\\ audiences\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ educated\\ and\\ middle\\-class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 10\\:\\ Five\\ Themes\\ in\\ the\\ Study\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-\\#1\\)\\ Unity\\ and\\ diversity\\ in\\ a\\ continent\\ of\\ islands\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ all\\ Caribbean\\ music\\ is\\ the\\ same\\,\\ and\\ much\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ regions\\ geography\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ Cuban\\ music\\ does\\ not\\ affect\\ Jamaican\\ popular\\ music\\ much\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ Martinican\\ feels\\ closer\\ to\\ France\\ than\\ to\\ nearby\\ Barbados\\&rdquo\\;\\(222\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ entire\\ regions\\ shares\\ a\\ somewhat\\ similar\\ set\\ of\\ musical\\ influences\\,\\ but\\ of\\ course\\ these\\ differ\\ depending\\ upon\\ their\\ original\\ colonial\\ countries\\,\\ and\\ other\\ regional\\ factors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\#2\\)\\ Race\\ and\\ Ethnicity\\.\\ \\ \\;Genres\\ are\\ often\\ times\\ associated\\ or\\ claimed\\ by\\ specific\\ ethnic\\ or\\ racial\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ may\\ also\\ be\\ celebrated\\ as\\ national\\ styles\\ of\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;Music\\ can\\ play\\ a\\ huge\\ role\\ in\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ identities\\,\\ the\\ best\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ being\\ Bob\\ Marley\\ and\\ how\\ his\\ legacy\\ made\\ Jamaicans\\ proud\\ to\\ be\\ black\\ as\\ never\\ before\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\#3\\)\\ Music\\,\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ sexism\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ modernization\\ the\\ family\\ structure\\ has\\ been\\ negatively\\ influenced\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ double\\ standards\\ for\\ women\\ that\\ music\\ often\\ times\\ embodies\\ \\(women\\ are\\ shunned\\ for\\ promiscuity\\,\\ but\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;expected\\ to\\ be\\ sexual\\ available\\ to\\ the\\ singer\\&rdquo\\;\\(239\\)\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ sexism\\ in\\ music\\ may\\ reflect\\ the\\ sexism\\ norms\\ the\\ music\\ is\\ grounded\\ in\\,\\ and\\ changing\\ this\\ may\\ require\\ changing\\ social\\ norms\\ fundamentally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\#4\\)Caribbean\\ Music\\ International\\.\\ \\ \\;Caribbean\\ music\\ has\\ enjoyed\\ large\\ international\\ success\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ New\\ York\\,\\ and\\ while\\ many\\ may\\ migrate\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ maintain\\ ties\\ with\\ their\\ place\\ of\\ birth\\ and\\ strongly\\ hold\\ onto\\ their\\ Caribbean\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ has\\ Caribbean\\ music\\ evolved\\ through\\ international\\ influences\\,\\ but\\ it\\ now\\ influences\\ people\\ internationally\\ and\\ enjoys\\ popularity\\ far\\ beyond\\ its\\ own\\ region\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\#5\\)\\ Music\\ and\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;Music\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ an\\ escape\\ from\\ adversity\\ for\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\ \\;Forms\\ of\\ music\\ can\\ be\\ politically\\ important\\,\\ and\\ are\\ often\\ times\\ very\\ socially\\ conscious\\ like\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nueva\\ cancion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wake\\ the\\ Town\\ and\\ Tell\\ the\\ People\\:\\ Dancehall\\ Culture\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 1\\:\\ Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-some\\ people\\ think\\ dancehall\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ creation\\,\\ but\\ Stolzoff\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ around\\ since\\ the\\ slavery\\ era\\,\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ name\\ \\&ldquo\\;dancehall\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ relatively\\ recent\\.\\ \\ \\;IN\\ other\\ words\\,\\ aspects\\ of\\ dancehall\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ back\\ to\\ that\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ dancehall\\ performance\\ has\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ fundamentally\\ challenge\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ race\\-class\\ hierarchy\\ and\\ the\\ colonialist\\ ideologies\\ of\\ white\\ supremacy\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ it\\ can\\ also\\ reinforce\\ the\\ hegemonic\\ structure\\ when\\ it\\ promotes\\ misogyny\\,\\ the\\ romanticization\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ \\[and\\]\\ homophobia\\&rdquo\\;\\(4\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ elite\\ looks\\ down\\ on\\ dancehall\\ as\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ dancehall\\ is\\ a\\ space\\ where\\ race\\,\\ class\\,\\ gender\\,\\ sexuality\\,\\ religion\\,\\ and\\ political\\ affiliation\\ divisions\\ has\\ been\\ created\\ and\\ modified\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dancehall\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ harsh\\ realities\\ of\\ lower\\-class\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ many\\ lower\\-class\\ people\\,\\ they\\ earn\\ their\\ living\\ through\\ dancehall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dancehall\\ is\\ incredibly\\ male\\-dominated\\,\\ with\\ a\\ few\\ notable\\ exceptions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ dancehall\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ a\\ site\\ of\\ clashing\\,\\ between\\ rival\\ sound\\-systems\\,\\ and\\ at\\ times\\ between\\ police\\ and\\ dancehall\\-goers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 3\\:\\ The\\ Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Sound\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-the\\ sound\\ systems\\ emerged\\ within\\ the\\ lower\\-class\\,\\ since\\ it\\ was\\ far\\ cheaper\\ to\\ use\\ an\\ affordable\\ PA\\ system\\ than\\ hire\\ an\\ entire\\ band\\ \\(which\\ was\\ mostly\\ used\\ to\\ entertain\\ tourists\\ anyway\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ sound\\ systems\\ owners\\ straddled\\ the\\ border\\ between\\ lower\\ and\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\,\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;act\\ as\\ cultural\\ brokers\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ both\\ worlds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-each\\ sound\\ system\\ owner\\ tried\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ more\\ powerful\\ sound\\ system\\ and\\ amp\\,\\ which\\ attracted\\ more\\ people\\ to\\ their\\ business\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ quality\\ and\\ sheer\\ loudness\\ of\\ their\\ sound\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ R\\&\\;B\\ was\\ the\\ dominant\\ genre\\,\\ and\\ you\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ actual\\ dancehall\\ events\\ to\\ hear\\ it\\ since\\ the\\ radio\\ would\\ not\\ play\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-obtaining\\ \\&ldquo\\;exclusive\\&rdquo\\;\\ records\\ was\\ extremely\\ important\\ to\\ sound\\ systems\\,\\ and\\ sound\\ systems\\ went\\ to\\ great\\ lengths\\ to\\ get\\ these\\,\\ and\\ protect\\ them\\ from\\ leaking\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ competition\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ times\\ people\\ would\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ latest\\ records\\,\\ since\\ there\\ was\\ little\\ demand\\ for\\ records\\ since\\ most\\ lower\\-class\\ people\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ record\\ players\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-sometimes\\ at\\ dancehall\\ events\\ sound\\ systems\\ would\\ \\&ldquo\\;clash\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ winner\\ was\\ decided\\ by\\ the\\ crowds\\&rsquo\\;\\ response\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ \\&ldquo\\;selector\\&rdquo\\;\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ sound\\ systems\\,\\ and\\ playing\\ popular\\ songs\\ was\\ less\\ important\\ than\\ the\\ actual\\ ordering\\ and\\ choosing\\ of\\ songs\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ desired\\ mood\\ or\\ response\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ selector\\ also\\ acted\\ as\\ DJ\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ and\\ would\\ get\\ the\\ crowd\\ going\\ and\\ talk\\ over\\ the\\ records\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ followed\\ around\\ sound\\ systems\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ these\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ the\\ actual\\ dancehall\\ participation\\ was\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ passively\\ watching\\ and\\ listening\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rock\\ and\\ roll\\ was\\ a\\ middle\\ and\\ upper\\-class\\ genre\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 50s\\ local\\ R\\&\\;B\\ shifted\\ into\\ a\\ uniquely\\ Jamaican\\ sound\\,\\ ska\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ as\\ ska\\ gained\\ in\\ popularity\\,\\ sound\\ systems\\ began\\ producing\\ records\\ for\\ public\\ consumption\\ rather\\ than\\ strictly\\ their\\ own\\ usage\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ of\\ note\\ was\\ that\\ this\\ strictly\\ \\&ldquo\\;downtown\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(lower\\-class\\)\\ style\\ was\\ starting\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ uptown\\ capital\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-according\\ to\\ Stolzoff\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ sound\\ system\\ gave\\ birth\\ to\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ recording\\ business\\ and\\ continued\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ driving\\ force\\ behind\\ its\\ success\\&rdquo\\;\\(62\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 4\\:\\ Dancehall\\ in\\ Post\\-Independence\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-the\\ dancehall\\ was\\ a\\ cultural\\ bridge\\ in\\ Jamaica\\,\\ since\\ people\\,\\ particularly\\ youth\\ who\\ escaped\\ away\\ to\\ dancehall\\ events\\,\\ from\\ both\\ upper\\ and\\ lower\\-classes\\ would\\ meet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ empowered\\ \\&ldquo\\;downtown\\&rdquo\\;\\ kids\\,\\ because\\ the\\ uptown\\ kids\\ were\\ enthralled\\ by\\ this\\ aspect\\ of\\ downtown\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ romanticized\\ their\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ coming\\ together\\ was\\ also\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ done\\ on\\ black\\,\\ lower\\-class\\ terms\\.\\ \\ \\;Dancehall\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ the\\ uptown\\ crowd\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ uptown\\ crowd\\ flocked\\ to\\ dancehall\\,\\ without\\ it\\ having\\ to\\ be\\ watered\\ down\\ or\\ changed\\ to\\ suit\\ their\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-as\\ the\\ PNP\\ and\\ JLP\\ competed\\ for\\ political\\ power\\,\\ they\\ fought\\ for\\ influence\\ over\\ the\\ lower\\-class\\,\\ and\\ sound\\ systems\\ started\\ to\\ become\\ affiliated\\ with\\ political\\ parties\\,\\ often\\ times\\ resulting\\ in\\ violent\\ clashes\\ between\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ Rastafarian\\ movement\\ gained\\ prominence\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ influenced\\ dancehall\\ music\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ and\\ brought\\ their\\ message\\ of\\ resistance\\ into\\ the\\ dancehall\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ saw\\ involvement\\ in\\ politics\\ as\\ buying\\ into\\ the\\ hegemonic\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ this\\ shunned\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-around\\ this\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rude\\ Boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rudies\\&rdquo\\;\\ gained\\ in\\ popularity\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ formed\\ among\\ the\\ unemployed\\,\\ lower\\-class\\ black\\ youths\\,\\ and\\ influenced\\ music\\ in\\ that\\ lyrics\\ would\\ portray\\ their\\ violent\\,\\ nihilistic\\ take\\ on\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-increasingly\\ the\\ dancehall\\ became\\ a\\ site\\ of\\ gang\\ violence\\,\\ mostly\\ caused\\ by\\ conflicts\\ between\\ political\\ garrisons\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ violence\\,\\ the\\ music\\ shifted\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ dancehall\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ recording\\ studio\\,\\ giving\\ birth\\ to\\ another\\ form\\ of\\ music\\,\\ rocksteady\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ type\\ of\\ music\\ \\&ldquo\\;can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ artistic\\ effort\\ to\\ bring\\ harmony\\ and\\ balance\\ to\\ a\\ shaky\\ social\\ order\\&rdquo\\;\\(89\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ attention\\ was\\ shifted\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ instrumentalists\\ and\\ onto\\ the\\ singers\\ and\\ lyricists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rocksteady\\ enjoyed\\ only\\ brief\\ popularity\\,\\ and\\ what\\ came\\ next\\ was\\ reggae\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ reggae\\ Jamaican\\ music\\ exploded\\ onto\\ the\\ international\\ scene\\,\\ with\\ the\\ most\\ notable\\ example\\ being\\ Bob\\ Marley\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ popularity\\,\\ more\\ youth\\ aspired\\ to\\ become\\ artists\\ or\\ producers\\,\\ and\\ even\\ more\\ sound\\ system\\ studios\\ were\\ created\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-reggae\\ became\\ so\\ popular\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ embraced\\ it\\ for\\ his\\ campaign\\ for\\ prime\\ minister\\ in\\ 1972\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ change\\ from\\ the\\ distinctly\\ apolitical\\ nature\\ of\\ dancehall\\,\\ and\\ particularly\\ Rastafarian\\,\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ dancehall\\ changed\\ so\\ that\\ selectors\\ would\\ only\\ choose\\ the\\ music\\,\\ and\\ another\\ DJ\\ would\\ do\\ the\\ talking\\ over\\ the\\ records\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ type\\ of\\ hardcore\\ reggae\\ was\\ not\\ heard\\ on\\ the\\ radio\\,\\ and\\ one\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ an\\ actual\\ dancehall\\ event\\ to\\ experience\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-during\\ this\\ period\\ dancehall\\ changed\\ from\\ its\\ socially\\ conscious\\ roots\\ to\\ a\\ kind\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;celebrated\\ consumerism\\,\\ sexuality\\,\\ the\\ gunplay\\ of\\ gangsters\\,\\ and\\ the\\ local\\&rdquo\\;\\(99\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;slackness\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ topics\\ such\\ as\\ sexuality\\,\\ violence\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Slackness\\ lyrics\\ gained\\ popularity\\ after\\ Rasta\\ music\\ began\\ to\\ decline\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-at\\ the\\ dancehall\\,\\ there\\ were\\ danchall\\ queen\\ competitions\\ that\\ the\\ fashion\\ industry\\ latched\\ onto\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ the\\ middle\\-class\\,\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;slackness\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;nudity\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ derided\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ the\\ 90s\\ Rasta\\ had\\ a\\ resurgence\\,\\ but\\ this\\ time\\ delivering\\ their\\ message\\ through\\ contemporary\\ means\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;roots\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ 70s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 7\\:\\ The\\ Dancehall\\ Performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-2\\ kinds\\ of\\ dances\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;clash\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ sound\\ systems\\ battle\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;juggling\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ its\\ noncompetitive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-at\\ the\\ dancehall\\ events\\ there\\ are\\ tons\\ of\\ vendors\\ outside\\,\\ and\\ people\\ generally\\ hang\\ around\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ stages\\,\\ until\\ enough\\ people\\ show\\ up\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ starts\\ to\\ shift\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;signing\\ tunes\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ actually\\ DJ\\ songs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ reputation\\ of\\ a\\ sound\\ systems\\ is\\ entirely\\ based\\ upon\\ these\\ clashes\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ do\\ this\\ you\\ need\\ a\\ good\\ set\\ of\\ exclusives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-when\\ music\\ shifts\\ from\\ classic\\ reggae\\ to\\ modern\\ dancehall\\,\\ things\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;heat\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ clashing\\ ensues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;juggling\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ female\\ thing\\,\\ whereas\\ \\&ldquo\\;clashing\\&rdquo\\;\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ male\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ the\\ DJ\\ senses\\ the\\ people\\ are\\ tired\\ of\\ dancing\\,\\ the\\ clashing\\ begins\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-when\\ the\\ clashing\\ begins\\,\\ each\\ sound\\ system\\ will\\ play\\ a\\ record\\ for\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ minute\\,\\ will\\ implore\\ the\\ crowd\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;toasting\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ will\\ at\\ times\\ symbolically\\ \\&ldquo\\;kill\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ other\\ sound\\ system\\ with\\ certain\\ records\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ lines\\ that\\ are\\ never\\ crossed\\,\\ like\\ openly\\ insulting\\ sound\\ systems\\ or\\ sabotaging\\ them\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ win\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ sound\\ system\\ has\\ won\\ when\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ essentially\\ shut\\ off\\ all\\ their\\ equipment\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ winner\\ is\\ chosen\\ by\\ the\\ crowd\\,\\ although\\ sometimes\\ by\\ a\\ referee\\,\\ which\\ people\\ really\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 8\\:\\ The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Dancehall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-the\\ middle\\-class\\ critiques\\ of\\ dancehall\\ show\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\-classes\\ gaining\\ agency\\ and\\ popularity\\ in\\ the\\ mainstream\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-yet\\ downtown\\ people\\ see\\ dancehall\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ only\\ positive\\ aspects\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ society\\,\\ especially\\ since\\ they\\ shun\\ politics\\ as\\ entirely\\ corrupt\\ or\\ motivated\\ by\\ self\\-interest\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-even\\ though\\ slackness\\ has\\ and\\ is\\ still\\ popular\\,\\ dancehall\\ music\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ above\\ internal\\ critique\\,\\ and\\ the\\ dancehall\\ crowd\\ itself\\ is\\ always\\ highly\\ concerned\\ with\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ Lady\\ Saw\\ controversy\\ epitomized\\ the\\ debates\\ about\\ dancehall\\ and\\ the\\ hypocrisy\\ of\\ its\\ objectors\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ play\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ part\\ of\\ Jamaica\\ due\\ to\\ her\\ slackness\\ and\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ lyrics\\,\\ but\\ this\\ reflects\\ a\\ double\\-standard\\ where\\ men\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ express\\ sexual\\ agency\\ in\\ song\\ \\(and\\ elsewhere\\)\\,\\ but\\ not\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ people\\ note\\ that\\ slackness\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ \\&ldquo\\;slackness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wake\\ the\\ Town\\ and\\ Tell\\ the\\ People\\ by\\ Norman\\ C\\.\\ Stolzoff\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dancehall\\ is\\ center\\ for\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ghetto\\ youth\\ \\(black\\ lower\\-class\\ masses\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-allows\\ black\\ lower\\-class\\ youth\\ to\\ project\\ identity\\ in\\ local\\,\\ national\\,\\ and\\ global\\ contexts\\;\\ also\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ deal\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ poverty\\,\\ racism\\,\\ and\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dancehall\\ music\\ can\\ be\\ heard\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ island\\;\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ media\\ from\\ radio\\ to\\ newspaper\\ and\\ television\\ cover\\ dancehall\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-fashion\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ distinct\\ feature\\ of\\ dancehall\\ goers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-shapes\\ values\\ and\\ motivation\\ into\\ children\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-music\\ and\\ culture\\ creates\\ and\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ language\\ Patois\\,\\ the\\ language\\ primarily\\ spoken\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-music\\ internationally\\ influences\\;\\ hip\\-hop\\,\\ ska\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dancehall\\ music\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ new\\ phenomenon\\ within\\ the\\ past\\ 15\\ years\\,\\ but\\ has\\ been\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ since\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Mento\\:\\ created\\ during\\ slavery\\ era\\;\\ a\\ mixture\\ of\\ African\\ and\\ European\\ cultural\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-sound\\ systems\\ are\\ a\\ unique\\ medium\\ for\\ communication\\,\\ social\\ interaction\\,\\ education\\,\\ moral\\ leadership\\,\\ political\\ action\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ activity\\;\\ socially\\ helps\\ poorer\\ blacks\\ rise\\ to\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ dance\\ hall\\ as\\ a\\ force\\ of\\ Generation\\,\\ Mediation\\,\\ and\\ Reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dancehall\\ is\\ a\\ marked\\ divider\\ between\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ races\\ and\\ class\\ levels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ music\\ and\\ performance\\ allow\\ people\\ to\\ reinvent\\ tradition\\ to\\ fit\\ the\\ present\\,\\ but\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ sort\\ continuity\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dancehalls\\ provide\\ means\\ of\\ economic\\ survival\\ and\\ refuge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-provides\\ access\\ to\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-enables\\ one\\ to\\ promote\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ international\\ field\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-music\\ touches\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ homophobia\\,\\ which\\ is\\ widespread\\,\\ and\\ the\\ battery\\ and\\ sexuality\\ of\\ women\\;\\ women\\ were\\ discouraged\\ from\\ becoming\\ singers\\ and\\ DJs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Clashings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-zones\\ of\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-sound\\ system\\ clashes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-reflect\\ violence\\ of\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-provoked\\ violence\\ amongst\\ gangs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-dancehall\\ entertainers\\ must\\ have\\ the\\ support\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;backative\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ a\\ crew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-animosity\\ lies\\ between\\ police\\ and\\ masses\\ at\\ dancehalls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-police\\ responsible\\ for\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ homicides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;gangster\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(cars\\,\\ women\\,\\ and\\ money\\)\\ has\\ become\\ romanticized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-collective\\ amnesia\\,\\ an\\ idea\\ of\\ leaving\\ and\\ forgetting\\ the\\ past\\,\\ was\\ sung\\ about\\,\\ but\\ historical\\ aspects\\ still\\ existed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\ \\\\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ 1960s\\ brought\\ great\\ social\\ change\\ to\\ Jamaica\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ it\\ \\gained\\ independence\\ from\\ the\\ British\\,\\ and\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ lower\\ class\\ music\\ to\\ \\the\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Jamaica\\ had\\ a\\ rigid\\ social\\ structure\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ \\predominantly\\ lived\\ in\\ downtown\\ Kingston\\,\\ while\\ the\\ middle\\ and\\ elite\\ class\\ \\lived\\ uptown\\.\\ Their\\ lifestyles\\ rarely\\ intermingled\\ until\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ musical\\ \\revolution\\ in\\ which\\ young\\ people\\ from\\ uptown\\ began\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ \\the\\ lower\\ class\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Dancehall\\ music\\ was\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ dissent\\ with\\ the\\ \\political\\ situation\\ and\\ was\\ established\\ on\\ militant\\ Black\\ Nationalism\\ \\influenced\\ by\\ Marcus\\ Garvey\\,\\ the\\ rastafari\\ religion\\ and\\ the\\ insurgence\\ of\\ the\\ \\rude\\ boys\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;As\\ with\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ lower\\ class\\ expression\\,\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ youth\\ \\began\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ downtown\\,\\ and\\ actually\\ traveled\\ downtown\\ to\\ \\take\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ Music\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ therefore\\ became\\ a\\ sort\\ \\of\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ youth\\ of\\ the\\ uptown\\ and\\ those\\ downtown\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ music\\ of\\ downtown\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ accepted\\ by\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ youth\\,\\ \\but\\ was\\ still\\ shunned\\ by\\ the\\ parents\\ and\\ elite\\ adults\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Radio\\ soon\\ began\\ to\\ play\\ ska\\ music\\,\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ downtown\\ began\\ to\\ \\travel\\ to\\ the\\ uptown\\ audiences\\,\\ inspiring\\ new\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ \\population\\.\\ Soon\\ these\\ artists\\ began\\ to\\ make\\ there\\ way\\ downtown\\ to\\ perform\\.\\ \\However\\,\\ this\\ uptown\\ ska\\ was\\ not\\ as\\ politically\\ charged\\ and\\ was\\ created\\ to\\ \\suit\\ more\\ the\\ middle\\ and\\ upper\\ class\\.\\ Thus\\ the\\ social\\ protest\\ and\\ struggle\\ of\\ \\the\\ lower\\ class\\ heard\\ in\\ downtown\\ ska\\,\\ was\\ absent\\ in\\ the\\ uptown\\ ska\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Rastafari\\ had\\ a\\ great\\ influence\\ in\\ dancehall\\ music\\,\\ as\\ their\\ beliefs\\ \\and\\ persecution\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ accepted\\ by\\ more\\ people\\ in\\ Jamaica\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ \\the\\ lower\\ class\\.\\ Rastafarians\\ challenged\\ the\\ elite\\ rulers\\ and\\ the\\ secular\\ \\nationalism\\ that\\ was\\ being\\ promoted\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ They\\ were\\ the\\ voices\\ of\\ those\\ \\that\\ were\\ suffering\\,\\ and\\ seeked\\ true\\ independence\\ through\\ there\\ religion\\.\\ \\Their\\ ideas\\ diffused\\ into\\ the\\ music\\ known\\ as\\ reggae\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ rastafari\\ movement\\ picked\\ up\\ steam\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 60s\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ \\the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ and\\ many\\ artists\\ began\\ to\\ sympathize\\ with\\ the\\ \\rastafari\\ cause\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Another\\ group\\ that\\ represented\\ the\\ disenfranchised\\ lower\\ class\\ and\\ \\influenced\\ Jamaican\\ music\\ were\\ the\\ rude\\ boys\\ \\-\\ a\\ rebellious\\ male\\ youth\\ \\movement\\.\\ These\\ boys\\ were\\ unemployed\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ feel\\ alienated\\ by\\ the\\ \\system\\.\\ While\\ many\\ were\\ violent\\,\\ others\\ like\\ the\\ Wailers\\ were\\ more\\ cultural\\ \\and\\ spoke\\ against\\ the\\ elite\\ in\\ their\\ politically\\ charged\\ songs\\.\\ Many\\ rude\\ boys\\ \\adopted\\ Rastafarian\\ styles\\ and\\ many\\ saw\\ music\\ as\\ the\\ alternative\\ to\\ a\\ criminal\\ \\lifestyle\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Rude\\ boys\\ had\\ a\\ fascination\\ with\\ American\\ westerns\\ and\\ gangster\\ \\movies\\,\\ and\\ often\\ modeled\\ their\\ lives\\ after\\ these\\ characters\\.\\ Entertainers\\ \\even\\ gave\\ themselves\\ names\\ after\\ these\\ westerns\\ such\\ as\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;Josey\\ Wales\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\ \\and\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;Outlaw\\ Terry\\ Ganzie\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ cultural\\ rude\\ boys\\ such\\ as\\ Bob\\ Marley\\,\\ Peter\\ Tosh\\ and\\ Bunny\\ Wailer\\ \\modeled\\ themselves\\ after\\ American\\ r\\&\\;b\\ vocal\\ groups\\ and\\ gained\\ national\\ and\\ \\international\\ appeal\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ political\\ climate\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\ two\\ political\\ \\parties\\,\\ PNP\\ and\\ JLP\\.\\ In\\ the\\ late\\ 60s\\,\\ violent\\ clashes\\ and\\ political\\ gangs\\ \\greatly\\ shaped\\ the\\ dancehall\\ music\\ and\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ lifestyle\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ 30\\ \\years\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Political\\ gang\\ warfare\\ began\\ to\\ spread\\ into\\ the\\ dancehalls\\ as\\ gangs\\ \\began\\ to\\ hang\\ out\\ at\\ dances\\ and\\ often\\ times\\ would\\ come\\ across\\ each\\ other\\ at\\ \\these\\ events\\.\\ The\\ rise\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ guns\\ available\\ also\\ fueled\\ the\\ \\violence\\,\\ as\\ shootings\\ became\\ more\\ common\\ over\\ minuscule\\ disputes\\.\\ Soon\\ all\\ \\gangsters\\ had\\ guns\\ and\\ were\\ using\\ them\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ they\\ saw\\ fit\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Soon\\ dancehalls\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ stigmatized\\ by\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ which\\ \\reflected\\ poorly\\ on\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\.\\ Uptown\\ youth\\ were\\ urged\\ not\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ \\these\\ dancehalls\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ a\\ place\\ of\\ violence\\.\\ Many\\ also\\ feared\\ their\\ \\children\\ would\\ become\\ Rasta\\ like\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Police\\ \\presence\\ increased\\ at\\ these\\ dancehalls\\,\\ but\\ due\\ to\\ corruption\\,\\ many\\ times\\ they\\ \\looked\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ increase\\ in\\ gang\\ activity\\ and\\ violence\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ \\music\\ from\\ ska\\,\\ to\\ rocksteady\\,\\ which\\ was\\ slower\\,\\ paced\\ and\\ had\\ more\\ of\\ an\\ \\emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ drums\\ and\\ bass\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ these\\ songs\\ focused\\ on\\ love\\ while\\ \\others\\ were\\ viewed\\ as\\ motivational\\ songs\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Also\\ with\\ the\\ increase\\ violence\\ and\\ change\\ to\\ rocksteady\\,\\ brought\\ the\\ \\decline\\ of\\ the\\ sound\\ systems\\.\\ Many\\ were\\ now\\ performing\\ and\\ recording\\ in\\ \\studios\\,\\ rather\\ then\\ touring\\ and\\ playing\\ in\\ the\\ violent\\,\\ stigmatized\\ \\dancehalls\\.\\ To\\ differentiate\\ themselves\\ from\\ those\\ in\\ dancehalls\\,\\ groups\\ began\\ \\taking\\ on\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ discotheques\\ rather\\ then\\ sound\\ systems\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;With\\ the\\ increase\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ studios\\ came\\ inventions\\ that\\ \\broadened\\ the\\ musical\\ style\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ music\\.\\ Two\\-track\\ technology\\ allowed\\ \\one\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ person\\¡\\;\\¦\\;s\\ voice\\ and\\ play\\ it\\ unto\\ another\\ beat\\.\\ Altering\\ of\\ \\recordings\\ called\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;specials\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\ or\\ dubs\\ began\\ to\\ emerge\\ on\\ b\\-sides\\ of\\ tracks\\,\\ \\which\\ often\\ displayed\\ the\\ skills\\ of\\ sound\\ engineers\\.\\ Live\\ bands\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ \\needed\\ and\\ singers\\ only\\ needed\\ to\\ sing\\ a\\ tune\\ once\\,\\ which\\ cut\\ cost\\ for\\ \\producers\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Dub\\ versions\\ brought\\ on\\ the\\ innovation\\ of\\ DJs\\,\\ who\\ talked\\ over\\ songs\\ \\in\\ the\\ spaces\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ song\\,\\ which\\ became\\ popular\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ dance\\ \\halls\\.\\ Soon\\ a\\ new\\ genre\\ called\\ dub\\ emerged\\ in\\ which\\ through\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ \\electronic\\ beats\\,\\ noises\\ and\\ mixes\\,\\ sound\\ engineers\\ produced\\ unique\\ songs\\,\\ and\\ \\add\\ intensity\\ to\\ songs\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ reggae\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ era\\ of\\ rocksteady\\ was\\ brief\\,\\ and\\ reggae\\ soon\\ took\\ its\\ place\\ in\\ \\which\\ the\\ bass\\ was\\ more\\ pronounced\\ and\\ essentially\\ drove\\ the\\ beat\\.\\ It\\ was\\ \\celebrated\\ in\\ songs\\ like\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;Do\\ the\\ Reggay\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\ by\\ Toots\\ and\\ the\\ Maytals\\.\\ Reggae\\ \\became\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ and\\ lucrative\\ form\\ of\\ dancehall\\ music\\,\\ and\\ even\\ today\\ \\the\\ work\\ reggae\\ seems\\ to\\ encompass\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ music\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Reggae\\ music\\ became\\ extremely\\ popular\\ internationally\\,\\ and\\ this\\ caused\\ \\more\\ of\\ the\\ youth\\ to\\ desire\\ to\\ be\\ reggae\\ artist\\.\\ Thus\\ reggae\\ music\\ was\\ a\\ \\source\\ of\\ optimism\\ of\\ the\\ youth\\,\\ but\\ still\\ reflected\\ the\\ socio\\-political\\ \\problems\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Rastafarianism\\ became\\ popular\\ again\\ as\\ many\\ were\\ \\influenced\\ by\\ them\\ and\\ openly\\ converted\\ to\\ Rastafari\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ the\\ dancehall\\ style\\ began\\ to\\ emerge\\ in\\ which\\ artists\\ \\performed\\ outside\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ large\\ crowds\\ and\\ the\\ DJ\\ became\\ the\\ important\\ \\figure\\ in\\ the\\ music\\.\\ The\\ DJ\\ stimulated\\ the\\ crowd\\ with\\ his\\ words\\ and\\ emphasized\\ \\materialism\\,\\ hedonism\\ and\\ gangterism\\,\\ much\\ to\\ the\\ dismay\\ of\\ reggae\\ purists\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ change\\ from\\ the\\ social\\ protest\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ music\\ to\\ the\\ emergence\\ \\of\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;slackness\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\ in\\ which\\ violence\\,\\ sexual\\ exploits\\ and\\ overall\\ diminished\\ of\\ \\values\\ were\\ popular\\ among\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ dancehalls\\.\\ Women\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ \\provocative\\ in\\ the\\ clothing\\ and\\ actions\\,\\ and\\ men\\ glorified\\ the\\ gangster\\ life\\,\\ \\which\\ were\\ encouraged\\ through\\ DJs\\ such\\ as\\ Yellowman\\,\\ Ninjaman\\ and\\ dancehall\\ \\models\\ and\\ queens\\ such\\ as\\ Wendy\\ and\\ Carlene\\ Smith\\.\\ Sex\\ and\\ guns\\ began\\ to\\ \\define\\ the\\ dancehall\\ lifestyle\\ \\\\Chapter\\ 7\\ \\\\The\\ dancehall\\ today\\ is\\ the\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ music\\ and\\ encompasses\\ a\\ \\great\\ cultural\\ show\\.\\ Stolzoff\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ events\\ \\that\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ dancehall\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Dancehalls\\ are\\ normally\\ held\\ everywhere\\ in\\ the\\ country\\,\\ seven\\ days\\ a\\ \\week\\.\\ There\\ are\\ about\\ 150\\ different\\ sound\\ systems\\ that\\ perform\\ at\\ these\\ \\dancehalls\\,\\ some\\ more\\ popular\\ then\\ others\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Dancehalls\\ are\\ usually\\ prepared\\ months\\ in\\ advance\\ usually\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ \\who\\ wants\\ to\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;keep\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\ or\\ hold\\ a\\ dance\\.\\ Dances\\ are\\ reserved\\ on\\ large\\ outdoor\\ \\lawns\\,\\ usually\\ playgrounds\\ are\\ theatres\\ normally\\ setup\\ up\\ for\\ dances\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ sound\\ system\\ would\\ usually\\ arrive\\ around\\ 4\\ or\\ 5\\ PM\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ \\dance\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ their\\ equipment\\.\\ Up\\ to\\ 25\\ people\\ can\\ work\\ for\\ a\\ system\\,\\ and\\ \\the\\ day\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ speakers\\,\\ make\\ sure\\ all\\ the\\ technicalities\\ and\\ \\equipment\\ is\\ functional\\.\\ This\\ usually\\ takes\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ hours\\.\\ Test\\ sounds\\ are\\ \\conducted\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ sound\\ is\\ good\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Around\\ 7\\ or\\ 8\\ a\\ predance\\ period\\ starts\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ systems\\ play\\ old\\ \\school\\ music\\ and\\ vendors\\ make\\ there\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ serving\\ food\\,\\ alcohol\\ \\and\\ weed\\.\\ During\\ this\\ time\\ the\\ lawn\\ is\\ usually\\ empty\\ as\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ are\\ \\outside\\ of\\ the\\ lawn\\ buying\\ things\\ from\\ the\\ vendors\\ and\\ just\\ \\generally\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;flossing\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Around\\ 9\\ the\\ DJ\\ tells\\ people\\ to\\ politely\\ clear\\ the\\ lawn\\ to\\ go\\ outside\\ \\and\\ pay\\ for\\ tickets\\ which\\ run\\ from\\ \\$1\\ \\-\\ \\$5\\.\\ People\\ then\\ begin\\ slowly\\ make\\ \\their\\ way\\ into\\ the\\ dance\\.\\ The\\ music\\ is\\ still\\ pretty\\ slow\\ and\\ are\\ mostly\\ old\\ \\songs\\,\\ since\\ the\\ dance\\ has\\ not\\ truly\\ started\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ dances\\.\\ One\\ is\\ a\\ clash\\ in\\ which\\ 2\\ or\\ more\\ \\systems\\ battle\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ a\\ juggler\\ in\\ which\\ 2\\ or\\ more\\ \\systems\\ are\\ there\\ not\\ to\\ battle\\ each\\ other\\ but\\ to\\ take\\ turns\\ playing\\ songs\\ for\\ \\the\\ people\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ selector\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ choosing\\ the\\ songs\\ that\\ are\\ played\\ during\\ a\\ \\clash\\,\\ which\\ range\\ from\\ reality\\ songs\\,\\ slack\\ songs\\,\\ and\\ violent\\ songs\\ known\\ \\as\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;sound\\ boy\\ killers\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\.\\ These\\ songs\\ are\\ chosen\\ to\\ one\\-upman\\ or\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;murder\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\ the\\ \\rival\\ sound\\ system\\.\\ The\\ beginning\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\ is\\ usually\\ geared\\ towards\\ \\the\\ females\\ as\\ love\\ songs\\ or\\ slack\\ songs\\ are\\ played\\ to\\ which\\ women\\ can\\ really\\ \\dance\\ too\\.\\ Surprisingly\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ intermingly\\ in\\ the\\ dance\\ as\\ guys\\ \\usually\\ dance\\ among\\ themselves\\ and\\ girls\\ dance\\ among\\ the\\ people\\ they\\ came\\ \\with\\.\\ There\\ are\\ four\\ main\\ types\\ of\\ dances\\ called\\ limbo\\,\\ tati\\,\\ world\\ dance\\ and\\ \\erkle\\.\\ There\\ is\\ usually\\ a\\ little\\ competition\\ among\\ the\\ girls\\ to\\ out\\ dance\\ or\\ \\out\\ dress\\ another\\ girl\\ or\\ a\\ member\\ or\\ a\\ rival\\ model\\ group\\ to\\ gain\\ attention\\ \\from\\ the\\ males\\.\\ Women\\ often\\ wear\\ very\\ little\\ clothes\\ while\\ the\\ men\\ are\\ usually\\ \\fully\\ dressed\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Around\\ midnight\\,\\ the\\ songs\\ begin\\ to\\ gear\\ towards\\ the\\ men\\ as\\ violent\\,\\ \\gangster\\ songs\\ come\\ on\\.\\ This\\ is\\ right\\ before\\ the\\ clash\\ begins\\.\\ During\\ the\\ \\dancehall\\ each\\ sound\\ system\\ gets\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ to\\ play\\,\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ \\night\\ goes\\ on\\,\\ that\\ time\\ becomes\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ until\\ the\\ end\\ comes\\ where\\ each\\ \\sound\\ system\\ goes\\ song\\ for\\ song\\.\\ The\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ win\\ over\\ the\\ crowd\\ and\\ \\ultimately\\ force\\ the\\ other\\ sound\\ system\\ to\\ stop\\ playing\\.\\ \\\\Chapter\\ 8\\ \\\\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ chapter\\ Stolzoff\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ aspect\\ of\\ dancehall\\ \\and\\ describes\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ struggle\\,\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ \\is\\ constantly\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\.\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ seeking\\ \\is\\ social\\ identity\\ among\\ the\\ different\\ classes\\ which\\ is\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ music\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\ matter\\ what\\ class\\ one\\ is\\ in\\,\\ there\\ are\\ definite\\ opinions\\ about\\ \\dancehall\\ music\\.\\ There\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ uptown\\ critics\\ and\\ the\\ downtown\\ \\defenders\\,\\ which\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ true\\ dichotomies\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ \\elite\\ uptown\\ critics\\ often\\ put\\ down\\ dancehall\\ music\\ and\\ the\\ ideology\\ it\\ sings\\.\\ \\They\\ are\\ the\\ more\\ conservative\\ group\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ don\\¡\\;\\¦\\;t\\ view\\ dancehall\\ as\\ \\music\\ as\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ uncultured\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ voyeurism\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ downtown\\ defenders\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ represented\\ by\\ black\\ lower\\ \\class\\ youth\\,\\ middle\\ class\\ youth\\ and\\ intellectuals\\ and\\ feminists\\,\\ see\\ the\\ are\\ \\of\\ dancehall\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ expression\\ for\\ the\\ oppressed\\ and\\ simply\\ as\\ popular\\ \\culture\\.\\ Downtown\\ defenders\\ think\\ they\\ issues\\ with\\ dancehall\\ are\\ trivial\\ \\compared\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Also\\ by\\ accepting\\ dancehall\\ \\they\\ are\\ in\\ effect\\ disregarding\\ the\\ elite\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ think\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ \\social\\ norm\\.\\ \\\\&bdquo\\;P\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Stolzoff\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ gender\\ in\\ dancehall\\.\\ The\\ controversy\\ \\with\\ the\\ DJ\\ Lady\\ Saw\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ a\\ woman\\ was\\ describing\\ sexual\\ \\acts\\ she\\ wants\\ to\\ perform\\.\\ This\\ turned\\ off\\ many\\ people\\ for\\ even\\ though\\ \\sexuality\\ is\\ often\\ pronounced\\ such\\ as\\ with\\ the\\ dancehall\\ queen\\ Carlene\\,\\ they\\ \\are\\ often\\ inferred\\ or\\ left\\ to\\ the\\ imagination\\.\\ While\\ Carlene\\ would\\ dance\\ \\provocatively\\,\\ that\\ was\\ where\\ it\\ would\\ end\\.\\ Lady\\ Saw\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ took\\ it\\ \\further\\ and\\ was\\ blunt\\ with\\ her\\ sexual\\ desires\\ and\\ left\\ nothing\\ to\\ the\\ \\imagination\\.\\ The\\ \\¡\\;\\§\\;slackness\\¡\\;\\¨\\;\\ exhibited\\ by\\ Lady\\ Saw\\ put\\ front\\ and\\ center\\ the\\ \\problems\\ people\\ viewed\\ with\\ dancehall\\,\\ but\\ she\\ was\\ quick\\ to\\ note\\ how\\ men\\ who\\ \\are\\ even\\ more\\ explicit\\ are\\ not\\ getting\\ the\\ attention\\ she\\ is\\ getting\\.\\ \\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 14\\ \\(missing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 57, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FC_46_FINAL_-_Readings.doc", "desc": "all readings"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Social Thought in Modern America - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "social-thought"], "text": null, "id": 63, "html": "\\\\\\1661\\_MIDTERM\\_STUDY\\_GUIDE\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-right\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\September\\ 20\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\:\\ Victorian\\ America\\ and\\ the\\ Challenge\\ of\\ Darwinism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Hollinger\\ and\\ Charles\\ Capper\\:\\ Preface\\ and\\ Introduction\\ to\\ AIT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Pierce\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fixation\\ of\\ Belief\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Haskell\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Responsibility\\,\\ Convention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Role\\ of\\ Ideas\\ in\\ History\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preface\\ and\\ Introduction\\ \\(Hollinger\\ and\\ Capper\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ selections\\ in\\ AIT\\ are\\ of\\ the\\ genres\\ classically\\ associated\\ with\\ purposive\\ discourse\\:\\ sermon\\,\\ address\\,\\ letter\\,\\ treatise\\,\\ and\\ essay\\.\\ They\\ respond\\ to\\ issues\\ that\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;persistently\\ generated\\ extensive\\ intellectual\\ discussion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Most\\ of\\ these\\ selections\\ concern\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;theoretical\\ basis\\ for\\ religious\\,\\ scientific\\,\\ artistic\\,\\ political\\,\\ social\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ practice\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Hollinger\\ believes\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ above\\ a\\ polity\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ public\\ culture\\ of\\ America\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;often\\ been\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ distinctive\\ ethos\\ of\\ Protestant\\ Christianity\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ modern\\ America\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;peculiarly\\ science\\-preoccupied\\ civilization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(xii\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ writing\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Will\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 1897\\,\\ William\\ James\\ sought\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;vindicate\\ the\\ individual\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ retain\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Protestant\\ heritage\\ not\\ actually\\ proven\\ false\\ by\\ the\\ advancement\\ of\\ secular\\ learning\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\.\\ The\\ documents\\ of\\ Part\\ One\\ of\\ AIT\\ display\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tendency\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ determination\\,\\ to\\ ground\\ arguments\\ in\\ naturalistic\\ and\\ humanistic\\ premises\\&rdquo\\;\\ meaning\\ they\\ seek\\ to\\ ground\\ their\\ arguments\\,\\ even\\ if\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ religious\\ belief\\,\\ in\\ a\\ rational\\,\\ scientific\\,\\ or\\ humanistic\\ authority\\ rather\\ than\\ scriptural\\ or\\ divine\\ authority\\ \\(3\\)\\.\\ Moving\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ Gilded\\ Age\\ thinkers\\,\\ Hollinger\\ believes\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ their\\ hope\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ science\\ might\\ provide\\ a\\ new\\,\\ solid\\ foundation\\ for\\ organizing\\ and\\ governing\\ their\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(4\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fixation\\ of\\ Belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Charles\\ Pierce\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ piece\\,\\ Hollinger\\ argues\\ that\\ Pierce\\ manages\\ to\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ articulate\\ a\\ largely\\ social\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ enterprise\\,\\ according\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ community\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ individual\\ knower\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ agent\\ of\\ cognitive\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ direct\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ science\\ against\\ not\\ only\\ beliefs\\ about\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ against\\ the\\ entire\\ panorama\\ of\\ inherited\\ beliefs\\,\\ especially\\ and\\ explicitly\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.\\ assert\\ that\\ open\\,\\ honest\\ inquiry\\ is\\ decidedly\\ superior\\ morally\\ to\\ pious\\ loyalty\\ to\\ an\\ inherited\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\.\\ argue\\,\\ in\\ what\\ would\\ eventually\\ be\\ recognized\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;pragmatic\\&rdquo\\;\\ mode\\,\\ that\\ true\\ belief\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ habit\\ that\\ can\\ remain\\ stable\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;fixed\\ opinion\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(15\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fixation\\ of\\ Belief\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Charles\\ Peirce\\ assesses\\ the\\ methods\\ by\\ which\\ people\\ move\\ from\\ states\\ of\\ doubt\\ to\\ states\\ of\\ belief\\,\\ ultimately\\ endorsing\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\.\\ It\\ is\\ historically\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ casts\\ the\\ Darwinian\\ controversy\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ question\\ of\\ logic\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ religious\\ belief\\.\\ In\\ his\\ theory\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ Pierce\\ argues\\,\\ Darwin\\ is\\ merely\\ applying\\ the\\ statistical\\ method\\,\\ which\\ is\\ itself\\ objective\\,\\ to\\ biology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Pierce\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ we\\ draw\\ certain\\ inferences\\ from\\ certain\\ observations\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ That\\ which\\ determines\\ us\\,\\ from\\ given\\ premises\\,\\ to\\ draw\\ one\\ inference\\ rather\\ than\\ another\\,\\ is\\ some\\ habit\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ be\\ constitutional\\ or\\ aquired\\.\\ \\&hellip\\;an\\ inference\\ is\\ regarded\\ as\\ valid\\ or\\ not\\,\\ without\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ truth\\ or\\ falsity\\ of\\ its\\ conclusions\\ specially\\,\\ but\\ according\\ as\\ the\\ habit\\ which\\ determines\\ it\\ is\\ such\\ as\\ to\\ produce\\ true\\ conclusions\\ in\\ general\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\(17\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ habit\\ of\\ mind\\ provides\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;guiding\\ principle\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ inference\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;variety\\ of\\ facts\\ are\\ already\\ assumed\\ when\\ the\\ logical\\ question\\ is\\ first\\ asked\\&rdquo\\;\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ are\\ such\\ states\\ of\\ mind\\ as\\ doubt\\ and\\ belief\\&mdash\\;that\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ one\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ possible\\,\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ thought\\ remaining\\ the\\ same\\,\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ transition\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ some\\ rules\\ which\\ all\\ minds\\ are\\ alike\\ bound\\ by\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(18\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Pierce\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ believe\\ than\\ to\\ doubt\\ because\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ feelings\\ of\\ believing\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ sure\\ indication\\ of\\ there\\ being\\ established\\ in\\ our\\ nature\\ some\\ habit\\ which\\ will\\ determine\\ our\\ actions\\.\\ Doubt\\ never\\ has\\ such\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(19\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ doubt\\,\\ too\\,\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ doubt\\ \\&ldquo\\;stimulates\\ us\\ to\\ action\\ until\\ it\\ is\\ destroyed\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ irritation\\ of\\ doubt\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ immediate\\ motive\\ for\\ the\\ struggle\\ to\\ attain\\ belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(19\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ however\\,\\ Pierce\\ suggests\\ that\\ validity\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ truth\\,\\ in\\ that\\ an\\ objective\\ process\\ may\\ render\\ a\\ belief\\ valid\\,\\ but\\ not\\ true\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ And\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ nothing\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\ can\\ be\\ our\\ object\\,\\ for\\ nothing\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ affect\\ the\\ mind\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ motive\\ for\\ a\\ mental\\ effort\\.\\ The\\ most\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ maintained\\ is\\,\\ that\\ we\\ seek\\ for\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ we\\ shall\\ think\\ to\\ be\\ true\\.\\ 19\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pierce\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ articulate\\ four\\ methods\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;fixing\\ belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ such\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ withstand\\ a\\ doubt\\ and\\ be\\ acted\\ upon\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ tenacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.\\ the\\ a\\ priori\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\.\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;method\\ of\\ tenacity\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ one\\ does\\ whatever\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ shut\\ himself\\ out\\ from\\ all\\ influences\\ that\\ may\\ shake\\ his\\ belief\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ method\\,\\ however\\,\\ can\\ hardly\\ work\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;unless\\ we\\ make\\ ourselves\\ hermits\\,\\ we\\ shall\\ necessarily\\ influence\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ the\\ problem\\ becomes\\ how\\ to\\ fix\\ belief\\,\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\ merely\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ scientific\\ method\\ solves\\ this\\ by\\ providing\\ a\\ standard\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ community\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ can\\ fix\\ belief\\)\\ \\(21\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;method\\ of\\ authority\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ state\\ creates\\ an\\ institution\\ which\\ shall\\ have\\ for\\ its\\ object\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ keep\\ correct\\ doctrines\\ before\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ to\\ reiterate\\ them\\ perpetually\\,\\ and\\ to\\ teach\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ young\\;\\ having\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ power\\ to\\ prevent\\ contrary\\ doctrines\\ from\\ being\\ taught\\,\\ advocated\\,\\ or\\ expressed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(21\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ priori\\ method\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ positions\\ are\\ adopted\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ fundamental\\ propositions\\ seemed\\ \\&lsquo\\;agreeable\\ to\\ reason\\&rsquo\\;\\ for\\ those\\ that\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ positions\\;\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ preferences\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ unimpeded\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ hoped\\ that\\ men\\ conversing\\ together\\ will\\ gradually\\ develop\\ beliefs\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;harmony\\ with\\ natural\\ causes\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Pierce\\ likens\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ develop\\ meant\\ of\\ taste\\ in\\ art\\ or\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Considering\\ these\\ methods\\ inadequate\\ for\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ community\\ belief\\,\\ Pierce\\ calls\\ for\\ a\\ fourth\\ method\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ To\\ satisfy\\ our\\ doubts\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ that\\ a\\ method\\ should\\ be\\ found\\ by\\ which\\ our\\ beliefs\\ may\\ be\\ caused\\ by\\ nothing\\ human\\,\\ but\\ by\\ some\\ external\\ permanency\\&mdash\\;by\\ something\\ upon\\ which\\ our\\ thinking\\ has\\ no\\ effect\\.\\ \\(23\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;scientific\\ method\\&rdquo\\;\\ achieves\\ this\\ because\\,\\ with\\ it\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ test\\ of\\ whether\\ I\\ am\\ truly\\ following\\ the\\ method\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ immediate\\ appeal\\ to\\ my\\ feelings\\ and\\ purposes\\,\\ but\\,\\ on\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ itself\\ involves\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ method\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(24\\)\\.\\ The\\ hypothesis\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\ is\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ real\\ things\\,\\ whose\\ characters\\ are\\ entirely\\ independent\\ of\\ our\\ opinions\\ about\\ them\\;\\ whose\\ realities\\ affect\\ our\\ senses\\ according\\ to\\ regular\\ laws\\,\\ and\\,\\ though\\ our\\ sensations\\ are\\ as\\ different\\ as\\ our\\ relations\\ to\\ the\\ objects\\,\\ yet\\,\\ by\\ taking\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ we\\ can\\ ascertain\\ by\\ reasoning\\ how\\ things\\ really\\ are\\,\\ and\\ any\\ man\\,\\ if\\ he\\ have\\ sufficient\\ experience\\ and\\ reason\\ enough\\ about\\ it\\,\\ will\\ be\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ conclusion\\.\\ \\(23\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pierce\\ goes\\ on\\ place\\ faith\\ in\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ shed\\ comfortable\\ beliefs\\ with\\ reflection\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ force\\ of\\ habit\\ will\\ sometimes\\ cause\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ hold\\ on\\ to\\ old\\ beliefs\\,\\ after\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ condition\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ sound\\ basis\\.\\ But\\ reflection\\ upon\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ case\\ will\\ overcome\\ these\\ habits\\,\\ and\\ he\\ ought\\ to\\ allow\\ reflection\\ full\\ weight\\.\\ \\(25\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ Pierce\\ makes\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ avoiding\\ the\\ truth\\ is\\ immoral\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ But\\,\\ above\\ all\\,\\ let\\ it\\ be\\ considered\\ that\\ what\\ is\\ more\\ wholesome\\ than\\ any\\ particular\\ belief\\,\\ is\\ integrity\\ of\\ belief\\;\\ and\\ that\\ to\\ avoid\\ looking\\ into\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ any\\ belief\\ from\\ a\\ fear\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ turn\\ out\\ rotten\\ is\\ quite\\ as\\ immoral\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ disadvantageous\\.\\ \\(25\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Responsibility\\,\\ Convention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Role\\ of\\ Ideas\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Thomas\\ Haskell\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ this\\ piece\\,\\ Haskell\\ sets\\ out\\ to\\ explain\\ how\\ various\\ generations\\ can\\ view\\ similar\\ phenomena\\ in\\ very\\ different\\ ways\\ and\\ specifically\\ treats\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ slavery\\ as\\ viewed\\ in\\ modern\\ times\\ and\\ ancient\\ Greek\\ times\\.\\ In\\ his\\ view\\,\\ convention\\ places\\ \\&ldquo\\;unrecognized\\ constraints\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ reason\\ and\\ imagination\\ of\\ men\\.\\ In\\ doing\\ this\\,\\ Haskell\\ joins\\ the\\ project\\ of\\ Quentin\\ Skinner\\ in\\ urging\\ people\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;explore\\ convention\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shadowy\\ domain\\ of\\ unconscious\\ habit\\,\\ presupposition\\,\\ prejudgment\\,\\ and\\ prejudice\\ neither\\ to\\ discredit\\ reason\\,\\ nor\\ to\\ belabor\\ its\\ shortcomings\\,\\ but\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ strengthening\\ its\\ claims\\ within\\ a\\ more\\ defensible\\ perimeter\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(281\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Haskell\\ argues\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ consider\\ that\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ was\\ foreign\\ to\\ the\\ ancients\\ before\\ passing\\ judgment\\ on\\ their\\ treatment\\ of\\ slavery\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ What\\ is\\ most\\ intriguing\\ about\\ the\\ comparatively\\ short\\ etymological\\ lineage\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsible\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;is\\ the\\ thought\\ that\\ our\\ conceptions\\ of\\ morality\\ and\\ human\\ agency\\,\\ in\\ which\\ these\\ terms\\ figure\\ so\\ prominently\\ today\\,\\ may\\ be\\ less\\ a\\ timeless\\ feature\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ and\\ more\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ changing\\ historical\\ conditions\\ than\\ is\\ commonly\\ recognized\\.\\ \\(283\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Haskell\\ identifies\\ \\&ldquo\\;cause\\,\\ intention\\,\\ state\\,\\ and\\ response\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ four\\ elements\\ by\\ which\\ both\\ modern\\ and\\ ancient\\ thinking\\ judged\\ responsibility\\ \\(292\\)\\.\\ The\\ difference\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ conceptions\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ conventions\\ of\\ material\\ existence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Instead\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ lies\\ in\\ their\\ comparative\\ inability\\ to\\ imagine\\ any\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ that\\ would\\ bring\\ about\\ the\\ practical\\ implementation\\ of\\ those\\ ideals\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(295\\)\\.\\ For\\ the\\ ancients\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ moral\\ judgments\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;its\\ existence\\ seemed\\ necessary\\ and\\ its\\ abolition\\ almost\\ literally\\ unthinkable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(294\\)\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ What\\ has\\ changed\\,\\ then\\,\\ if\\ concepts\\ of\\ justice\\ have\\ not\\,\\ are\\ the\\ technical\\-material\\ constraints\\ that\\ rendered\\ slavery\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ like\\ slavery\\,\\ the\\ technological\\ advances\\ are\\ shifting\\ our\\ the\\ contemporary\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ expanding\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;domain\\ of\\ necessity\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ our\\ reach\\ in\\ matters\\ of\\ altruistic\\ intervention\\&mdash\\;no\\ longer\\ are\\ we\\ only\\ able\\ to\\ save\\ those\\ with\\ whom\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ immediate\\ contact\\,\\ but\\ advances\\ in\\ transportation\\ and\\ financial\\ transfer\\ have\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ save\\ those\\ who\\ live\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ These\\ advances\\ have\\ thus\\ changed\\ convention\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ always\\ take\\ this\\ into\\ account\\ before\\ making\\ historical\\ judgments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lecture\\ 3\\ Reading\\ Summaries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Norton\\,\\ Whitman\\,\\ and\\ Crane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-noah\\ nathan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ pretty\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ at\\ this\\ point\\,\\ but\\ here\\ are\\ summaries\\ anyway\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norton\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ Political\\ Ideas\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1865\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ Norton\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ founding\\ the\\ Nation\\ and\\ North\\ American\\ Review\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ era\\.\\ Obsessed\\ with\\ European\\ art\\ and\\ culture\\,\\ became\\ Harvard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ art\\ history\\ professor\\.\\ Unlike\\ Whitman\\,\\ Kloppenburg\\ argued\\ that\\ Norton\\ was\\ not\\ so\\ concerned\\ that\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ art\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ ordinary\\ people\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ he\\ believed\\ that\\ American\\ should\\ embrace\\ medieval\\ and\\ renaissance\\ European\\ art\\.\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ Victorian\\ compared\\ to\\ Whitman\\ the\\ challenger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norton\\ argued\\ that\\ American\\ democracy\\ was\\ exceptional\\ because\\ it\\ had\\ a\\ different\\ \\&ldquo\\;essence\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ Europe\\ \\-\\ a\\ new\\ set\\ of\\ guiding\\ political\\ principles\\ under\\ which\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;doctrine\\ of\\ privilege\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ put\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ kings\\,\\ nobles\\,\\ and\\ clergy\\ above\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ society\\ was\\ replaced\\ by\\ ideas\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ equality\\ of\\ all\\ men\\.\\ Sovereignty\\ was\\ derived\\ from\\ within\\,\\ from\\ the\\ collective\\ will\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ People\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Norton\\ saw\\ the\\ great\\ mass\\ of\\ Americans\\ becoming\\ a\\ second\\ and\\ far\\ more\\ important\\ \\&ldquo\\;controlling\\ agency\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ society\\;\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;extra\\-governmental\\ organization\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ surpassing\\ the\\ government\\ itself\\.\\ In\\ this\\ way\\ for\\ Norton\\ the\\ people\\ formed\\ a\\ moral\\ community\\ held\\ together\\ by\\ a\\ shared\\ moral\\ code\\ or\\ identity\\.\\ Their\\ political\\ behavior\\ was\\ the\\ process\\ through\\ which\\ they\\ put\\ these\\ morals\\ into\\ action\\.\\ Norton\\ believed\\ that\\ this\\ self\\-government\\ could\\ allow\\ American\\ institutions\\ to\\ be\\ perfected\\ and\\ evolve\\ over\\ time\\ with\\ the\\ changing\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Writing\\ in\\ 1865\\,\\ Norton\\ expressed\\ a\\ self\\-righteous\\ \\&ldquo\\;confidence\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ perpetual\\ beneficent\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ principles\\ on\\ which\\ American\\ institutions\\ of\\ government\\ and\\ of\\ society\\ are\\ based\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ despite\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ evils\\&hellip\\;\\ mistakes\\ and\\ defects\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ American\\ life\\ exposed\\ by\\ the\\ recently\\ concluded\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ He\\ went\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ claim\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ perfect\\ commonwealth\\ might\\ here\\ become\\ a\\ reality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Civil\\ War\\ did\\ not\\ temper\\ Norton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confidence\\ because\\ he\\ saw\\ the\\ South\\ as\\ fighting\\ against\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ American\\ democracy\\ and\\ not\\ sharing\\ the\\ same\\ moral\\ identity\\ that\\ guided\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ community\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ repeated\\ too\\ often\\;\\ that\\ this\\ war\\ was\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ ideas\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ South\\ was\\ invested\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ opposite\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ American\\ democracy\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ particular\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primary\\ task\\ after\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;secure\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ Union\\,\\ a\\ civil\\ unity\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ victory\\ gave\\ the\\ North\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ impose\\ its\\ moral\\ order\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ civilization\\ itself\\ on\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ North\\ is\\ civilized\\,\\ the\\ South\\ is\\ uncivilized\\&hellip\\;\\ One\\ must\\ take\\ the\\ likeness\\ of\\ the\\ other\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whitman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Democratic\\ Vistas\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1867\\,\\ 1871\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ Whitman\\ \\(1819\\ \\-1892\\)\\ was\\ a\\ Vicotrian\\ era\\ poet\\ who\\ aspired\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;voice\\ of\\ ordinary\\ Americans\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ wanted\\ art\\ to\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ average\\ and\\ common\\ man\\,\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ elite\\.\\ To\\ quote\\ Kloppenburg\\,\\ Whitman\\ wanted\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;explode\\ conventions\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;become\\ the\\ singer\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ democratic\\ ethos\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ creating\\ leading\\ a\\ movement\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ American\\ literature\\.\\ His\\ work\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ direct\\ challenge\\ to\\ Victorian\\ sensibilities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whitman\\ stressed\\ that\\ American\\ exceptionalism\\ lay\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ He\\ believed\\ America\\ was\\ only\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;its\\ birth\\ throes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ war\\ had\\ given\\ Whitman\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;latent\\&rdquo\\;\\ power\\ in\\ American\\ democracy\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ tapped\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ and\\ allow\\ America\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;come\\ to\\ dominate\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Whitman\\ also\\ espoused\\ the\\ greatness\\ of\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ for\\ giving\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ binding\\ people\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ brotherhood\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ but\\ Whitman\\ did\\ not\\ believe\\ America\\ had\\ yet\\ achieved\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;solidarity\\&rdquo\\;\\ necessary\\ to\\ be\\ exceptional\\,\\ because\\ he\\ argued\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unique\\ political\\ foundations\\ and\\ institutions\\ were\\ not\\ sufficient\\ to\\ make\\ democracy\\ successful\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ would\\ alarm\\ the\\&hellip\\;\\ reader\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ the\\ utmost\\ extent\\,\\ against\\ the\\ prevailing\\ delusion\\ that\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ free\\ political\\ institutions\\&hellip\\;\\ do\\,\\ of\\ themselves\\,\\ determine\\ and\\ yield\\ to\\ our\\ experiment\\ of\\ democracy\\ the\\ fruitage\\ of\\ success\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ was\\ because\\ where\\ Norton\\ found\\ a\\ strong\\ moral\\ civic\\ culture\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ American\\ democracy\\,\\ Whitman\\ found\\ \\&ldquo\\;hollowness\\ at\\ heart\\ than\\ at\\ present\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ America\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ Americans\\ lived\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ hypocrisy\\ throughout\\&hellip\\;\\ saturated\\ in\\ corruption\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ underlying\\ principles\\ of\\ the\\ States\\ are\\ not\\ honestly\\ believed\\ in\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Our\\ New\\ World\\ democracy\\&hellip\\;\\ is\\,\\ so\\ far\\,\\ an\\ almost\\ complete\\ failure\\ in\\ social\\ aspects\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ overcome\\ this\\,\\ Whitman\\ argued\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ America\\ to\\ abandon\\ its\\ reliance\\ on\\ European\\ traditions\\ in\\ art\\ and\\ literature\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ had\\ their\\ birth\\ in\\ courts\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ castle\\ sunshine\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ poisonous\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ pride\\ and\\ dignity\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ people\\,\\ the\\ life\\ blood\\ of\\ democracy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ create\\ its\\ own\\ tradition\\ of\\ truly\\ American\\ art\\ and\\ literature\\ \\(especially\\ poetry\\!\\ \\(figures\\)\\)\\.\\ This\\ was\\ necessary\\,\\ Whitman\\ argued\\ because\\ literature\\ and\\ art\\ go\\ \\&ldquo\\;deeper\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ take\\ \\&ldquo\\;hold\\ in\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hearts\\,\\ emotions\\ and\\ belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;together\\&hellip\\;\\ give\\ more\\ compaction\\ and\\ more\\ moral\\ identity\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ America\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ its\\ hitherto\\ political\\&hellip\\;\\ experiences\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ American\\ art\\ and\\ literature\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ aimed\\ at\\ an\\ elite\\ but\\ at\\ bringing\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;average\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ give\\ all\\ Americans\\ a\\ universal\\ set\\ of\\ norms\\ and\\ models\\ for\\ behavior\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ distinctly\\ American\\ personality\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ Whitman\\ argues\\ that\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\-penetrating\\ religiosity\\&rdquo\\;\\ must\\ be\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ American\\ culture\\,\\ hands\\ out\\ advice\\ to\\ young\\ people\\ who\\ might\\ want\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ warns\\ that\\ women\\ might\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ something\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolutionary\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ entering\\ into\\ politics\\ and\\ asking\\ for\\ suffrage\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crane\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Episode\\ of\\ War\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1899\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ tied\\ into\\ the\\ broader\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ romanticism\\ to\\ realism\\ \\(compare\\ to\\ the\\ transitions\\ in\\ Kloppenburg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ art\\ slide\\ show\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ Crane\\,\\ who\\ had\\ come\\ up\\ through\\ poverty\\ as\\ a\\ worker\\ in\\ the\\ Bowery\\ and\\ a\\ baseball\\ player\\,\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ represent\\ a\\ new\\ generation\\ of\\ writers\\ emerging\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ challenge\\ Victorian\\ romanticism\\.\\ Kloppenburg\\ said\\ Crane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writing\\ represented\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ American\\ naturalism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ his\\ characters\\ were\\ not\\ high\\-minded\\,\\ high\\-society\\ types\\,\\ but\\ dark\\,\\ more\\ realistic\\ portrayals\\ of\\ everyday\\ American\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ should\\ be\\ easily\\ recognizable\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ short\\ story\\ prose\\,\\ etc\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ a\\ page\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ so\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ quicker\\ to\\ just\\ read\\ it\\ than\\ read\\ this\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ plot\\ is\\:\\ a\\ Civil\\ War\\ lieutenant\\ is\\ distributing\\ coffee\\ among\\ his\\ men\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ suddenly\\ shot\\ in\\ the\\ arm\\.\\ He\\ is\\ stunned\\ by\\ his\\ wound\\ and\\ the\\ men\\ stare\\ at\\ him\\ in\\ awe\\ before\\ helping\\ him\\ sheath\\ his\\ sword\\ and\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ line\\.\\ He\\ leaves\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ and\\ moves\\ into\\ the\\ rear\\ with\\ his\\ arm\\ hastily\\ bandaged\\ where\\ he\\ passes\\ a\\ general\\ and\\ artillery\\ companies\\ preparing\\ a\\ barrage\\.\\ He\\ makes\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ a\\ field\\ hospital\\ in\\ an\\ old\\ school\\ house\\ where\\ a\\ doctor\\ amputates\\ his\\ arm\\.\\ He\\ returns\\ home\\ to\\ his\\ sobbing\\ family\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;standing\\ shamefaced\\ amid\\&hellip\\;\\ tears\\&rdquo\\;\\ tries\\ to\\ shrug\\ off\\ the\\ fact\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ missing\\ his\\ arm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ is\\ certainly\\ a\\ dark\\,\\ brooding\\,\\ realistic\\ portrayal\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ and\\ each\\ paragraph\\ presents\\ a\\ little\\ vignette\\ into\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ environment\\ of\\ the\\ battlefield\\.\\ Kloppenburg\\ connected\\ the\\ Crane\\ piece\\ back\\ into\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Democratic\\ Vistas\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ asking\\ us\\ if\\ we\\ think\\ Crane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writing\\ is\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ democratic\\ art\\ Whitman\\ was\\ calling\\ for\\.\\ If\\ you\\ think\\ it\\ is\\,\\ and\\ I\\ guess\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ subjective\\ assessment\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ connect\\ Crane\\ back\\ to\\ Whitman\\ if\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ while\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ vivid\\ civil\\ war\\ piece\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ \\(James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Shaw\\ Oration\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Holmes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Faith\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ Crane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Red\\ Badge\\ of\\ Courage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ about\\ the\\ war\\,\\ Crane\\,\\ born\\ in\\ 1871\\,\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ personal\\ experience\\ with\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sumner\\ and\\ Bellamy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gilded\\ Age\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ gilded\\ age\\ was\\ perceived\\ as\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ unrivaled\\ hypocrisy\\,\\ immorality\\ in\\ politics\\ and\\ business\\,\\ and\\ the\\ degradation\\ of\\ democracy\\;\\ though\\ society\\ was\\ glittery\\ on\\ top\\,\\ it\\ was\\ hollow\\ and\\ rotting\\ at\\ its\\ core\\.\\ Perhaps\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ unrealistic\\ hopes\\ after\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ massive\\ sense\\ of\\ disappointment\\ with\\ the\\ trajectory\\ of\\ American\\ society\\ as\\ rich\\ got\\ richer\\ as\\ poor\\ got\\ poorer\\/northerners\\ let\\ the\\ south\\ go\\ its\\ own\\ way\\,\\ with\\ detrimental\\ results\\ for\\ blacks\\ and\\ poor\\ white\\ farmers\\/the\\ west\\ was\\ pillaged\\ by\\ farmers\\ and\\ the\\ army\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Darwinism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ extrapolation\\ of\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ evolution\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ sphere\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ intellectual\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ Gilded\\ Age\\.\\ A\\ new\\ set\\ of\\ values\\ emerged\\ in\\ this\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ period\\,\\ which\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ social\\ Darwinism\\ with\\ the\\ gospel\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\ According\\ to\\ this\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\,\\ survival\\ of\\ the\\ fittest\\ was\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ best\\-qualified\\ people\\ would\\ survive\\ and\\ prosper\\ while\\ everyone\\ else\\ disappeared\\;\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ process\\ was\\ considered\\ both\\ natural\\ and\\ divinely\\ ordained\\.\\ This\\ was\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ a\\ challenge\\ to\\ the\\ democratic\\ ideal\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ are\\ created\\ equal\\ and\\ should\\ participate\\ in\\ rule\\-making\\,\\ which\\ connects\\ to\\ the\\ historical\\ tension\\ between\\ democracy\\ and\\ conservatism\\ \\(taking\\ social\\ Darwinism\\ as\\ a\\ fundamental\\ premise\\ of\\ conservatism\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Indeed\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1870s\\ and\\ 80s\\,\\ the\\ priority\\ of\\ traditional\\ democratic\\ ideas\\ was\\ reversed\\:\\ economic\\ goals\\ became\\ the\\ end\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ means\\ and\\ democracy\\ became\\ conservative\\ because\\ the\\ existing\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ was\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ human\\ cannot\\ interfere\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sumner\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sociology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1881\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;William\\ Graham\\ Sumner\\ attended\\ and\\ taught\\ at\\ Yale\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ He\\ is\\ famous\\ for\\ translating\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ about\\ natural\\ selection\\ into\\ social\\ theory\\.\\ Sumner\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;fitness\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ material\\ success\\ or\\ wealth\\;\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ the\\ best\\ economically\\ were\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ chain\\.\\ Inequality\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ ordering\\ society\\ according\\ to\\ natural\\ hierarchies\\-\\ he\\ thought\\ that\\ property\\ ownership\\ was\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ superiority\\ so\\ any\\ attempt\\ to\\ restrict\\ that\\ ownership\\ was\\ to\\ interfere\\ in\\ the\\ cosmic\\ evolutionary\\ experience\\.\\ His\\ vision\\ of\\ society\\ h\\ ad\\ no\\ place\\ for\\ ideals\\ like\\ charity\\ or\\ brotherhood\\&mdash\\;self\\ interest\\ and\\ wealth\\ were\\ the\\ ruling\\ ideas\\.\\ Sumner\\ drew\\ much\\ of\\ his\\ inspiration\\ from\\ Thomas\\ Malthus\\;\\ he\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ to\\ land\\ ratio\\ was\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ everything\\ in\\ social\\ life\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ Sumner\\ eventually\\ abandoned\\ a\\ Darwinian\\ explanation\\ for\\ social\\ life\\ and\\ instead\\ argued\\ that\\ because\\ humans\\ have\\ free\\ choice\\,\\ we\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ species\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\only\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ man\\/land\\ ratio\\ and\\ economic\\ facts\\ that\\ determine\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ Freedom\\,\\ for\\ Sumner\\,\\ is\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ which\\ man\\ can\\ unabashedly\\ pursue\\ his\\ own\\ self\\-interest\\ without\\ any\\ external\\ intrusion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sociology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(in\\ AIT\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ essay\\ basically\\ argues\\ the\\ tenets\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ described\\ above\\,\\ but\\ here\\ are\\ some\\ important\\/illustrative\\ quotes\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ law\\ of\\ population\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ combined\\ with\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ diminishing\\ returns\\,\\ constitutes\\ the\\ great\\ underlying\\ condition\\ of\\ society\\&hellip\\;\\ progress\\ is\\ a\\ word\\ which\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\ save\\ in\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ population\\ and\\ the\\ diminishing\\ return\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ quite\\ natural\\ that\\ anyone\\ who\\ fails\\ to\\ understand\\ those\\ laws\\ should\\ fall\\ into\\ doubt\\ which\\ way\\ progress\\ points\\,\\ whether\\ towards\\ wealth\\ or\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(28\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ only\\ social\\ element\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ the\\ competition\\ of\\ life\\,\\ and\\ when\\ society\\ is\\ blamed\\ for\\ the\\ ills\\ which\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ lot\\,\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ burdening\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ successfully\\ contended\\ those\\ ills\\ with\\ the\\ further\\ task\\ of\\ conquering\\ the\\ same\\ ills\\ over\\ again\\ for\\ somebody\\ else\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(28\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ institutions\\ whose\\ growth\\ constitutes\\ the\\ advance\\ of\\ civilization\\ have\\ their\\ guarantee\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ grew\\ and\\ became\\ established\\&hellip\\;The\\ path\\ of\\ improvement\\ lies\\ forwards\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(29\\)\\ \\(eg\\-\\ institution\\ of\\ private\\ property\\,\\ 29\\-30\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sociology\\&hellip\\;\\ dispels\\ illusions\\ about\\ what\\ society\\ is\\ or\\ may\\ be\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ instead\\ knowledge\\ of\\ facts\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ intelligent\\ effort\\ by\\ man\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ his\\ circumstances\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ Sociology\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ which\\ can\\ never\\ accomplish\\ anything\\ more\\ than\\ to\\ enable\\ use\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ our\\ situation\\,\\ will\\ never\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ reconcile\\ itself\\ with\\ those\\ philosophies\\ which\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ how\\ we\\ may\\ arrange\\ things\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ satisfy\\ any\\ ideal\\ of\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(29\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sociology\\ must\\ exert\\ a\\ most\\ important\\ influence\\ on\\ political\\ economy\\.\\ Political\\ economy\\ is\\ the\\ science\\ which\\ investigates\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ welfare\\ of\\ human\\ societies\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ essential\\ elements\\ of\\ political\\ economy\\ are\\ only\\ corollaries\\ or\\ special\\ cases\\ of\\ sociological\\ principles\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(30\\-31\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;organization\\ with\\ subordination\\ and\\ discipline\\ is\\ essential\\ in\\ order\\ that\\ the\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ may\\ win\\ a\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ land\\.\\ In\\ an\\ overpopulated\\ country\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ luxury\\ are\\ presented\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ with\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ poverty\\ and\\ distress\\.\\ They\\ are\\ equally\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ an\\ intense\\ social\\ pressure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;we\\ have\\ seen\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ should\\ try\\ by\\ an\\ measures\\ of\\ arbitrary\\ interference\\ and\\ assistance\\ to\\ relieve\\ the\\ victims\\ of\\ social\\ pressure\\ from\\ the\\ calamity\\ of\\ their\\ position\\ we\\ should\\ only\\ offer\\ premiums\\ to\\ folly\\ and\\ vice\\ and\\ extend\\ them\\ further\\&hellip\\;\\ if\\ then\\ it\\ be\\ asked\\ what\\ the\\ wit\\ and\\ effort\\ of\\ man\\ can\\ do\\ to\\ struggle\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ offered\\ by\\ social\\ pressure\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ do\\ only\\ what\\ his\\ instinct\\ has\\ correctly\\ and\\ surely\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ do\\ without\\ any\\ artificial\\ social\\ organization\\ of\\ any\\ kind\\&hellip\\;\\ in\\ truth\\,\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ has\\ never\\ done\\ anything\\ else\\ but\\ struggle\\ with\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\ That\\ struggle\\ constitutes\\ history\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ increasing\\ ease\\ of\\ communication\\ and\\ transportation\\,\\ formerly\\ over\\-crowded\\ centers\\ of\\ civilization\\ are\\ becoming\\ less\\ so\\;\\ this\\ spreading\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ lessens\\ creates\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ increasing\\ equality\\ because\\ extremes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;wealth\\ and\\ poverty\\,\\ culture\\ and\\ brutality\\ will\\ be\\ contracted\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(34\\)\\.\\ But\\,\\ Sumner\\ offers\\ two\\ caveats\\ to\\ this\\ vision\\ of\\ an\\ equalizing\\ society\\.\\ One\\:\\ the\\ less\\ the\\ social\\ pressure\\,\\ the\\ more\\ latitude\\ individuals\\ have\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;ignorance\\,\\ error\\,\\ and\\ folly\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;capable\\ of\\ wasting\\ and\\ nullifying\\ all\\ the\\ gains\\ of\\ civilization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(34\\)\\.\\ Two\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ our\\ new\\ civilization\\ may\\ perish\\ by\\ an\\ explosion\\ from\\ within\\.\\ The\\ sentimentalists\\ have\\ been\\ preaching\\ for\\ a\\ century\\ notions\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ equality\\,\\ of\\ the\\ dignity\\,\\ wisdom\\,\\ and\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ proletariat\\,\\ which\\ have\\ filled\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ ignorant\\ men\\ with\\ impossible\\ dreams\\&hellip\\;\\ Now\\ the\\ thirst\\ for\\ luxurious\\ enjoyment\\,\\ when\\ brought\\ into\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ notions\\ of\\ rights\\,\\ of\\ power\\,\\ and\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ dissociated\\ from\\ notions\\ of\\ industry\\ and\\ economy\\,\\ produces\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ is\\ robbed\\ of\\ his\\ rights\\ if\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ everything\\ that\\ he\\ wants\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ deprived\\ of\\ equality\\ if\\ he\\ sees\\ anyone\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ has\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ fool\\ if\\,\\ having\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ State\\ in\\ his\\ hands\\,\\ he\\ allows\\ this\\ state\\ of\\ things\\ to\\ last\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ have\\ socialism\\,\\ communism\\,\\ and\\ nihilism\\;\\ and\\ the\\ fairest\\ conquests\\ of\\ civilization\\,\\ with\\ all\\ their\\ promise\\ of\\ solid\\ good\\ to\\ man\\,\\ on\\ the\\ sole\\ conditions\\ of\\ virtue\\ and\\ wisdom\\,\\ may\\ be\\ scattered\\ to\\ the\\ winds\\ in\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ classes\\,\\ or\\ trampled\\ underfoot\\ by\\ a\\ mob\\ which\\ can\\ only\\ hate\\ what\\ it\\ cannot\\ enjoy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(34\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bellamy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Looking\\ Backward\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1888\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ cynical\\ view\\ of\\ society\\ presented\\ by\\ authors\\ like\\ Sumner\\,\\ two\\ trends\\ emerged\\.\\ First\\ was\\ philanthropy\\-\\ rich\\ men\\ like\\ Carnegie\\ and\\ Stanford\\ believed\\ that\\ their\\ wealth\\ came\\ from\\ processes\\ outside\\ of\\ their\\ control\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ give\\ back\\ to\\ society\\ however\\ they\\ could\\.\\ Second\\ was\\ the\\ counter\\-trend\\ of\\ reform\\ Darwinism\\.\\ Edward\\ Bellamy\\ was\\ the\\ best\\-known\\ reform\\ Darwinist\\.\\ His\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Looking\\ Backward\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ hugely\\ successful\\ and\\ catalyzed\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ nationalist\\ clubs\\,\\ which\\ later\\ became\\ the\\ prototype\\ for\\ political\\ action\\ movements\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1890s\\ and\\ early\\ 1900s\\.\\ His\\ book\\ had\\ huge\\ appeal\\ because\\ it\\ demonstrated\\ what\\ people\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ missing\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Looking\\ Backward\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(I\\ think\\ this\\ will\\ be\\ an\\ easily\\ identifiable\\ one\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ a\\ first\\-person\\ narrative\\,\\ but\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ basic\\ plot\\ summary\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ utopian\\ novel\\ that\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Julian\\ West\\,\\ a\\ Boston\\ aristocrat\\ who\\ is\\ hypnotized\\ in\\ 1887\\ and\\ then\\ is\\ discovered\\ in\\ the\\ year\\ 2000\\ by\\ a\\ man\\ named\\ Dr\\.\\ Leete\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Boston\\ of\\ 2000\\,\\ the\\ economy\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ public\\ ownership\\ of\\ capital\\ and\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\,\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ event\\ distributes\\ its\\ revenues\\ among\\ citizens\\.\\ The\\ body\\ of\\ laborers\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;industrial\\ army\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ industrial\\ service\\ spans\\ from\\ age\\ 21\\ to\\ 24\\.\\ As\\ Dr\\.\\ Leete\\ explains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ man\\ for\\ himself\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ his\\ natural\\ aptitude\\,\\ the\\ utmost\\ pains\\ being\\ taken\\ to\\ enable\\ him\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ what\\ his\\ natural\\ aptitude\\ really\\ is\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(133\\)\\.\\ Great\\ effort\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ equalize\\ the\\ attraction\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ trades\\.\\ Emphasis\\ is\\ shifted\\ entirely\\ from\\ individualism\\ to\\ the\\ community\\-\\ this\\ is\\ evident\\ from\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ innovations\\ like\\ a\\ common\\ umbrella\\ that\\ replaces\\ individual\\ umbrellas\\ \\(192\\-3\\)\\.\\ As\\ Leete\\ explains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ solidarity\\ of\\ the\\ race\\ and\\ the\\ brotherhood\\ of\\ man\\,\\ which\\ to\\ you\\ were\\ but\\ fine\\ phrases\\,\\ are\\,\\ to\\ our\\ thinking\\ and\\ feeling\\,\\ ties\\ as\\ real\\ and\\ as\\ vital\\ as\\ physical\\ fraternity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(179\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ Julian\\ has\\ a\\ nightmare\\ that\\ his\\ awakening\\ in\\ 2000\\ was\\ but\\ a\\ dream\\.\\ Upon\\ return\\ to\\ 1887\\,\\ he\\ sees\\ his\\ world\\ for\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ convince\\ those\\ around\\ him\\ that\\ society\\ can\\ be\\ bettered\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ buy\\ it\\,\\ and\\ Julian\\ wakes\\ up\\ from\\ his\\ nightmare\\ and\\ is\\ overjoyed\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ his\\ transportation\\ to\\ the\\ year\\ 2000\\ was\\ indeed\\ real\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Note\\:\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ more\\ specifics\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sparknotes\\ for\\ this\\ book\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\History\\ 1661\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assignment\\ \\#6\\&mdash\\;midterm\\ study\\ guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Significance\\ of\\ the\\ Frontier\\ in\\ American\\ History\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1893\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chief\\ Joseph\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Chief\\ Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Own\\ Story\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1897\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TURNER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hugely\\ influential\\ essay\\ presented\\ at\\ Chicago\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fair\\ in\\ 1893\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Western\\ frontier\\ experience\\ determined\\ the\\ unique\\ course\\ of\\ American\\ societal\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Democratic\\ political\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ institutions\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ been\\ compelled\\ to\\ adapt\\ themselves\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ developing\\ primitive\\ frontier\\ conditions\\ into\\ complex\\ social\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Recurrence\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ evolution\\ in\\ each\\ western\\ area\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ a\\ natural\\ science\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ frontier\\ vs\\.\\ European\\ frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ frontier\\ separates\\ free\\ land\\ from\\ developed\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ frontier\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;boundary\\ line\\ running\\ through\\ dense\\ populations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ promoted\\ melting\\ pot\\ nationality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immigrants\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanized\\,\\ liberated\\,\\ and\\ fused\\ into\\ a\\ mixed\\ race\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ decreased\\ American\\ dependence\\ on\\ England\\ by\\ expanding\\ American\\ economic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frontier\\ combated\\ sectionalism\\,\\ mediating\\ between\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Democratic\\,\\ nonsectional\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;rooted\\ strongly\\ in\\ material\\ prosperity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ mobility\\ unsettled\\ local\\ populations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ promoted\\ democracy\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Individualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enfranchisement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dangers\\ of\\ frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lax\\ enforcement\\ of\\ government\\ ethics\\,\\ banking\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Issues\\ with\\ paper\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ affected\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ Old\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Education\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Religious\\ denominations\\ compete\\ for\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ west\\,\\ creating\\ western\\ intellectual\\ and\\ cultural\\ flow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intellectual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;That\\ coarseness\\ and\\ strength\\ combined\\ with\\ acuteness\\ and\\ inquisitiveness\\;\\ that\\ practical\\,\\ inventive\\ turn\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ quick\\ to\\ find\\ expedients\\;\\ that\\ masterful\\ grasp\\ of\\ material\\ things\\,\\ lacking\\ in\\ the\\ artistic\\ but\\ powerful\\ to\\ effect\\ great\\ ends\\;\\ that\\ restless\\,\\ nervous\\ energy\\;\\ that\\ dominant\\ individualism\\,\\ working\\ for\\ good\\ and\\ for\\ evil\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\End\\ of\\ frontier\\ represents\\ end\\ of\\ first\\ period\\ of\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JOSEPH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ natural\\ rights\\ of\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idealistic\\ introduction\\,\\ hoping\\ that\\ the\\ harsh\\ truth\\ of\\ Indian\\ mistreatment\\ will\\ be\\ evident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demonstrates\\ traditional\\ Nez\\ Perce\\ honor\\,\\ peacefulness\\,\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ Great\\ Spirit\\ who\\ sees\\ and\\ hears\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ white\\ men\\ were\\ few\\ and\\ we\\ were\\ strong\\ we\\ could\\ have\\ killed\\ them\\ off\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Nez\\ Perces\\ wished\\ to\\ live\\ at\\ peace\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ white\\ men\\ in\\ 1797\\ \\(French\\)\\,\\ then\\ Lewis\\ and\\ Clark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Initial\\ trust\\ that\\ soon\\ soured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conflict\\ in\\ conceptions\\ of\\ land\\:\\ private\\ vs\\.\\ communal\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nez\\ Perce\\ forced\\ to\\ place\\ markers\\ to\\ delineate\\ land\\;\\ reluctantly\\ conforming\\ to\\ white\\ property\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trend\\ of\\ misrepresentation\\ in\\ treaty\\-making\\;\\ Nez\\ Perces\\ feel\\ cheated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breaking\\ point\\ leads\\ to\\ war\\,\\ many\\ battles\\ against\\ larger\\ American\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Treaty\\ lands\\ Nez\\ Perces\\ on\\ various\\ reservations\\ unlike\\ original\\ Midwest\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Criticism\\ of\\ American\\ government\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ can\\ not\\ understand\\ how\\ the\\ Government\\ sends\\ a\\ man\\ out\\ to\\ fight\\ us\\,\\ as\\ it\\ did\\ General\\ Miles\\,\\ and\\ then\\ breaks\\ his\\ word\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ Government\\ has\\ something\\ wrong\\ about\\ it\\.\\ I\\ can\\ not\\ understand\\ why\\ so\\ many\\ chiefs\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ talk\\ so\\ mayn\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ and\\ promise\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Good\\ words\\ do\\ not\\ last\\ long\\ until\\ they\\ amount\\ to\\ something\\.\\ Words\\ do\\ not\\ pay\\ for\\ my\\ dead\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Espouses\\ values\\ that\\ echo\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Treat\\ all\\ men\\ alike\\.\\ Give\\ them\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ law\\.\\ Give\\ them\\ all\\ an\\ even\\ chance\\ to\\ live\\ and\\ grow\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ men\\ were\\ made\\ the\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ Great\\ Spirit\\ Chief\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1892\\ Populist\\ Platform\\ \\(2\\ pages\\ in\\ sourcebook\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-want\\ to\\ use\\ silver\\ standard\\ for\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-graduated\\ income\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-postal\\ savings\\ banks\\ be\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-government\\ should\\ control\\ modes\\ of\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\&ldquo\\;land\\.\\.\\.should\\ not\\ be\\ monopolized\\ for\\ speculative\\ purposes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(151\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-want\\ labor\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-pensions\\ for\\ Union\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-abolition\\ of\\ private\\ standing\\ armies\\ \\(Pinkertons\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-limit\\ office\\ of\\ President\\/VP\\ to\\ one\\ term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Veblen\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Leisure\\ Class\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;chapters\\ 1\\-4\\,\\ 6\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;Introductory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defining\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;leisure\\ class\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ reciting\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ culture\\ which\\ make\\ a\\ leisure\\ class\\ possible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ leisure\\ class\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ compromises\\ the\\ noble\\ and\\ priestly\\ classes\\,\\ together\\ with\\ much\\ of\\ their\\ retinue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ occupations\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ are\\ correspondingly\\ diversified\\;\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ common\\ economic\\ characteristic\\ of\\ being\\ non\\-industrial\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ community\\ passes\\ from\\ peaceable\\ savagery\\ to\\ a\\ predatory\\ phase\\ of\\ life\\,\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ emulation\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ opportunity\\ and\\ the\\ incentive\\ to\\ emulation\\ increases\\ greatly\\ in\\ scope\\ and\\ urgency\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ activity\\ of\\ men\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ takes\\ on\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ exploit\\;\\ and\\ an\\ invidious\\ comparison\\ of\\ one\\ hunter\\ or\\ warrior\\ with\\ another\\ grows\\ continually\\ easier\\ and\\ more\\ habitual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Labor\\ acquires\\ a\\ character\\ of\\ irksomeness\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ indignity\\ imputed\\ to\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Predation\\ cannot\\ become\\ the\\ habitual\\,\\ \\ \\;conventional\\ resource\\ of\\ any\\ group\\.\\.\\.until\\ industrial\\ methods\\ have\\ been\\ developed\\ to\\ such\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ efficiency\\ as\\ to\\ leave\\ a\\ margin\\ worth\\ fighting\\ for\\,\\ above\\ the\\ subsistence\\ of\\ those\\ engaged\\ in\\ getting\\ a\\ living\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Pecuniary\\ Emulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ ownership\\ and\\ its\\ many\\ manifestations\\ in\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ sequences\\ of\\ cultural\\ evolution\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ leisure\\ class\\ coincides\\ with\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ ownership\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ necessarily\\ the\\ case\\,\\ for\\ these\\ two\\ institutions\\ result\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ set\\ of\\ economic\\ forces\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ inchoate\\ phase\\ of\\ their\\ development\\,\\ they\\ are\\ but\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ general\\ facts\\ of\\ social\\ structure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(15\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Where\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ private\\ property\\ is\\ found\\.\\.\\.\\ the\\ economic\\ process\\ bears\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ a\\ struggle\\ between\\ men\\ for\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ goods\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(15\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ possession\\ of\\ wealth\\ confers\\ honour\\;\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ invidious\\ distinction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Prowess\\ and\\ exploit\\ may\\ still\\ remain\\ the\\ basis\\ award\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ popular\\ esteem\\,\\ although\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ wealth\\ has\\ become\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ commonplace\\ reputability\\ and\\ of\\ a\\ blameless\\ social\\ standing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ predatory\\ instinct\\ and\\ the\\ consequent\\ approbation\\ of\\ predatory\\ efficiency\\ are\\ deeply\\ ingrained\\ in\\ the\\ habits\\ of\\ thought\\ of\\ those\\ peoples\\ who\\ have\\ passed\\ under\\ the\\ discipline\\ of\\ a\\ protracted\\ predatory\\ culture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(19\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Conspicuous\\ Leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leisure\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;booty\\&rdquo\\;\\ prize\\ of\\ the\\ strongest\\ class\\;\\ discusses\\ how\\ manners\\ and\\ decorum\\ become\\ the\\ marks\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ honor\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ ties\\ to\\ an\\ ability\\ to\\ be\\ idle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;For\\ this\\ class\\ also\\ \\[the\\ leisure\\ class\\]\\ the\\ incentive\\ to\\ diligence\\ and\\ thrift\\ is\\ not\\ absent\\;\\ but\\ its\\ action\\ is\\ so\\ greatly\\ qualified\\ by\\ the\\ secondary\\ demands\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ emulation\\,\\ that\\ any\\ inclination\\ in\\ this\\ direction\\ is\\ practically\\ overborne\\ and\\ any\\ incentive\\ to\\ diligence\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ no\\ effect\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ most\\ imperative\\ of\\ these\\ secondary\\ demands\\ of\\ emulation\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ widest\\ scope\\,\\ is\\ the\\ requirement\\ of\\ abstention\\ from\\ productive\\ work\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(24\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.a\\ life\\ of\\ leisure\\ is\\ the\\ readiest\\ and\\ most\\ conclusive\\ evidence\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ strength\\.\\.\\.since\\ application\\ to\\ productive\\ labor\\ is\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ poverty\\ and\\ subjection\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ a\\ reputable\\ standing\\ in\\ the\\ community\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ it\\ constitutes\\ \\[leisure\\]\\ is\\ non\\-productive\\ consumption\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Time\\ is\\ consumed\\ non\\-productively\\ \\(1\\)\\ from\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ unworthiness\\ of\\ productive\\ work\\,\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ as\\ an\\ evidence\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ ability\\ to\\ afford\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ idleness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(28\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Conspicuous\\ Consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consumption\\ as\\ another\\ outlet\\ for\\ the\\ predatory\\ nature\\ and\\ proof\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ prowess\\,\\ specifically\\ for\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Unproductive\\ consumption\\ of\\ goods\\ is\\ honourable\\,\\ primarily\\ as\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ prowess\\ and\\ a\\ prerequisite\\ of\\ human\\ dignity\\;\\ secondarily\\ it\\ becomes\\ substantially\\ honorable\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ desirable\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(44\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ consumption\\ of\\ luxuries\\,\\ in\\ the\\ true\\ sense\\,\\ is\\ a\\ consumption\\ directed\\ to\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ the\\ consumer\\ himself\\,\\ and\\ is\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ the\\ master\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(45\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ quasi\\-peaceable\\ gentleman\\ of\\ leisure\\,\\ then\\,\\ not\\ only\\ consumes\\ of\\ the\\ staff\\ of\\ life\\ beyond\\ the\\ minimum\\ required\\ for\\ subsistence\\ and\\ physical\\ efficiency\\,\\ but\\ his\\ consumption\\ also\\ undergoes\\ a\\ specialisation\\ as\\ regards\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ goods\\ consumed\\.\\.\\.Since\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ these\\ more\\ excellent\\ goods\\ is\\ an\\ evidence\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ honorific\\;\\ and\\ conversely\\,\\ the\\ failure\\ to\\ consume\\ in\\ due\\ quantity\\ and\\ quality\\ becomes\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ inferiority\\ and\\ demerit\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ requirement\\ of\\ vicarious\\ consumption\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\ continues\\ in\\ force\\ even\\ at\\ a\\ lower\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ pecuniary\\ scale\\ than\\ the\\ requirement\\ of\\ vicarious\\ leisure\\.\\.\\.decency\\ still\\ requires\\ the\\ wife\\ to\\ consume\\ some\\ foods\\ conspicuously\\ for\\ the\\ reputability\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ and\\ its\\ head\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(52\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Pecuniary\\ Canons\\ of\\ Taste\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ordinarily\\ his\\ motive\\ \\[the\\ consumer\\]\\ is\\ a\\ wish\\ to\\ conform\\ to\\ established\\ usage\\,\\ to\\ avoid\\ unfavourable\\ notice\\ and\\ comment\\,\\ to\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ accepted\\ canons\\ of\\ decency\\ in\\ the\\ kind\\,\\ amount\\ and\\ grade\\ of\\ goods\\ consumed\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ decorous\\ employment\\ of\\ his\\ time\\ and\\ effort\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(71\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Under\\ the\\ selective\\ surveillance\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ waste\\ there\\ grows\\ up\\ a\\ code\\ of\\ accredited\\ canons\\ of\\ consumption\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ consumer\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ standard\\ of\\ expensiveness\\ and\\ wastefulness\\ in\\ his\\ consumption\\ of\\ goods\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(71\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.the\\ canon\\ of\\ honorific\\ expenditure\\ habitually\\ traverses\\ the\\ canons\\ of\\ moral\\ conduct\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(72\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ superior\\ gratification\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ use\\ and\\ contemplation\\ of\\ costly\\ and\\ supposedly\\ beautiful\\ products\\ is\\,\\ commonly\\,\\ in\\ great\\ measure\\ a\\ gratification\\ of\\ our\\ sense\\ of\\ costliness\\ masquerading\\ under\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ beauty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(79\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.the\\ utility\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ to\\ the\\ possessor\\ is\\ commonly\\ due\\ less\\ to\\ their\\ intrinsic\\ beauty\\ than\\ to\\ the\\ honour\\ which\\ their\\ possession\\ and\\ consumption\\ confers\\,\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ obloquy\\ which\\ it\\ wards\\ off\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(79\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Dress\\ as\\ an\\ Expression\\ of\\ Pecuniary\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.but\\ expenditure\\ on\\ dress\\ has\\ this\\ advantage\\ over\\ most\\ other\\ methods\\,\\ that\\ our\\ apparel\\ is\\ always\\ in\\ evidence\\ and\\ affords\\ an\\ indication\\ of\\ our\\ pecuniary\\ standing\\ to\\ all\\ observers\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ glance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(103\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ true\\ of\\ dress\\ in\\ even\\ a\\ higher\\ degree\\ than\\ of\\ most\\ other\\ items\\ of\\ consumption\\,\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ undergo\\ a\\ very\\ considerable\\ degree\\ of\\ privation\\ in\\ the\\ comforts\\ and\\ necessities\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ afford\\ what\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ decent\\ amount\\ of\\ wasteful\\ consumption\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(103\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;So\\ far\\,\\ then\\,\\ we\\ have\\,\\ as\\ the\\ great\\ and\\ dominant\\ norm\\ of\\ dress\\,\\ the\\ broad\\ principle\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ waste\\.\\ \\ \\;Subsidiary\\ to\\ this\\ principle\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ corollary\\ under\\ it\\,\\ we\\ get\\ as\\ a\\ second\\ norm\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ leisure\\.\\.\\.there\\ is\\ a\\ third\\ \\[principle\\]\\ of\\ scarcely\\ less\\ constraining\\ force\\.\\.\\.it\\ \\[dress\\]\\ must\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ date\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(106\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ homely\\ reason\\ for\\ all\\ this\\ conspicuous\\ leisure\\ and\\ attire\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ women\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ servants\\ to\\ whom\\,\\ in\\ the\\ differentiation\\ of\\ economic\\ functions\\,\\ has\\ been\\ delegated\\ the\\ office\\ of\\ putting\\ into\\ evidence\\ their\\ master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ pay\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(111\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\:\\ Race\\,\\ Ethnicity\\ and\\ Cosmopolitanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ DuBois\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ chapters\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 13\\,\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Randolph\\ Bourne\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Trans\\-National\\ America\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ AIT\\ 170\\-180\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\ \\(1868\\-1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Great\\ Barrington\\,\\ Fisk\\ \\&\\#39\\;88\\,\\ Harvard\\ \\&\\#39\\;90\\,\\ Berlin\\ \\&\\#39\\;92\\-\\&\\#39\\;94\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Wilberforce\\ \\(Ohio\\)\\,\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ Harvard\\ \\&\\#39\\;95\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-at\\ Harvard\\,\\ followed\\ James\\ turning\\ to\\ realist\\ Pragmatism\\ and\\ social\\ sciences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;insight\\ lead\\ to\\ reforms\\ that\\ unsettled\\ dogma\\ and\\ opened\\ room\\ to\\ transformation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-individual\\ self\\ inextricably\\ connected\\ to\\ environment\\ \\(sense\\ of\\ self\\ dependent\\ on\\ perceptions\\ of\\ you\\ from\\ others\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ praised\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ and\\ Atlanta\\ Exposition\\ \\(realistic\\)\\ but\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ own\\ experience\\ teaching\\ in\\ South\\ \\(more\\ prominent\\ awareness\\)\\,\\ less\\ perceptive\\ and\\ changed\\ mind\\ about\\ BTW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-at\\ end\\ of\\ 1800s\\,\\ nominal\\ end\\ to\\ slavery\\ but\\ still\\ amendments\\ still\\ rolled\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;contrast\\ to\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ \\(slow\\ process\\ to\\ accommodate\\,\\ take\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;crumbs\\,\\ equality\\ is\\ forcing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-instead\\ DuBois\\:\\ education\\,\\ talented\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ positions\\ of\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Coming\\ of\\ John\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(innocent\\ black\\ man\\ unhappy\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ learned\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Invisible\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1903\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fruit\\ of\\ DuBois\\&rsquo\\;s\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-struggled\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ grain\\ b\\/c\\ so\\ intensely\\ aware\\ of\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-joined\\ NAACP\\ \\(only\\ African\\ American\\ in\\ executive\\ committee\\)\\ to\\ increase\\ circulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ supported\\ US\\ entry\\ to\\ WWI\\ as\\ opportunity\\ for\\ blacks\\ to\\ fight\\ and\\ b\\/c\\ heroes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;must\\ want\\ the\\ wants\\ of\\ humanity\\ \\(committed\\ to\\ philosophical\\ sensibility\\)\\ and\\ radicalizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\*ideas\\ and\\ framing\\ of\\ race\\ relations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-begins\\ each\\ chapter\\ in\\ TSOBF\\ juxtaposing\\ music\\ and\\ white\\ poetry\\:\\ talents\\ can\\ interact\\ and\\ speak\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ \\(need\\ 2\\ way\\ contribution\\)\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ separate\\ out\\ of\\ black\\ folk\\ song\\ or\\ retreat\\ to\\ white\\ music\\ and\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;put\\ on\\ same\\ level\\/plane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[direct\\ attack\\ at\\ BTW\\]\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pple\\.\\ of\\ both\\ backgrounds\\ can\\ recognize\\ value\\ in\\ each\\ other\\ on\\ own\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;union\\ of\\ intelligence\\ and\\ sympathy\\ across\\ the\\ color\\-line\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(147\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ forge\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;problem\\ of\\ the\\ color\\ line\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ not\\ distinctly\\ American\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-could\\ be\\ solved\\ with\\ Freedmen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bureau\\ and\\ the\\ Bank\\:\\ to\\ provide\\ land\\,\\ education\\ \\(agency\\)\\,\\ and\\ suffrage\\ \\(political\\ participation\\)\\ \\ \\;\\[problem\\ w\\/\\ BTW\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ only\\ focused\\ on\\ work\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-need\\ perspective\\ to\\ look\\ from\\ both\\ sides\\ and\\ forge\\ blindness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recognize\\ and\\ connect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ read\\ Hegel\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ coming\\ to\\ self\\-conciousness\\ and\\ double\\ consciousness\\ \\(not\\ unalloyed\\ advantage\\ or\\ disadvantage\\ for\\ blacks\\ or\\ whites\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Hegel\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ encounter\\ between\\ 2\\ individuals\\ where\\ fight\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ and\\ winner\\ survives\\ \\=\\ metaphor\\ for\\ social\\ progress\\ \\(master\\ arrives\\ at\\ self\\-consciousness\\ thru\\ recognition\\ of\\ slave\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ realized\\ freedom\\ \\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-abstract\\ notion\\ of\\ freedom\\ vs\\.\\ true\\ reality\\ blacks\\ are\\ faced\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-black\\ Americans\\ see\\ though\\ their\\ own\\ eyes\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ everyone\\ else\\ sees\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\:\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;son\\;\\ sophisticated\\ position\\ that\\ no\\ universal\\ freedom\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inconsistency\\ of\\ ideals\\ of\\ America\\ and\\ reality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;challenges\\ American\\ Univeralist\\ project\\ b\\/c\\ says\\ there\\ are\\ fundamental\\ ideas\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ achieved\\ first\\;\\ however\\,\\ black\\ Americans\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ unique\\ position\\ to\\ achieve\\ that\\ idealism\\ and\\ realize\\ human\\ brotherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-double\\ consciousness\\:\\ black\\ \\&\\;\\ American\\;\\ insights\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;veil\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;caul\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-2\\ worlds\\,\\ 2\\ souls\\,\\ 2\\ thoughts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sight\\:\\ kind\\ of\\ perspective\\ you\\ cannot\\ otherwise\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-link\\ b\\/t\\ veil\\ and\\ progress\\ \\(mutual\\ recognition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ more\\ veils\\,\\ end\\ of\\ historical\\ process\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-2\\ sides\\,\\ must\\ see\\/appreciate\\/sympathize\\ with\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\:\\ blacks\\ must\\ uplift\\;\\ white\\ must\\ eliminate\\ prejudice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ blame\\ social\\ condition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-institutional\\ changes\\ lacking\\:\\ time\\,\\ resources\\,\\ and\\ infastructure\\ \\(Freedmen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bureau\\ fails\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ unified\\ plan\\ for\\ freedmen\\,\\ tension\\ with\\ organization\\ and\\ many\\ think\\ hands\\ will\\ never\\ unite\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-different\\ interactions\\:\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ economic\\ relations\\,\\ political\\ relations\\,\\ intellectual\\ contact\\,\\ social\\ contact\\,\\ religious\\ enterprise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ offers\\ different\\ view\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ real\\ villains\\,\\ just\\ tragedy\\ \\(no\\ solution\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-chapter\\ on\\ Sons\\ of\\ Master\\ and\\ Monarch\\:\\ former\\ slave\\ holder\\ and\\ former\\ female\\ slave\\ to\\ juxtapose\\ power\\ and\\ powerless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;pg\\.\\ 57\\:\\ blunder\\ lay\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ cannot\\ wish\\ away\\ legacy\\ by\\ demonizing\\ or\\ making\\ hero\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;pg\\ 60\\:\\ deep\\ tragedy\\,\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ failed\\ experiments\\,\\ tragedy\\ of\\ failure\\ re\\-inscripted\\ by\\ white\\ supremacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-songs\\:\\ faith\\ in\\ ultimate\\ justice\\,\\ freedom\\,\\ hope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\UNDERSTAND\\ VS\\.\\ JUDGE\\ THE\\ PAST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Randolph\\ Bourne\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ideal\\ of\\ transnationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-main\\ idea\\:\\ condemns\\ failure\\ of\\ conventional\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;melting\\ pot\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ instead\\ mix\\,\\ unite\\,\\ enrich\\ ethnic\\ differences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cosmopolitanism\\:\\ more\\ inclusive\\ moral\\,\\ economic\\,\\ political\\ relationship\\ b\\/t\\ individuals\\ of\\ different\\ nations\\&hellip\\;global\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Bourne\\:\\ potential\\ promise\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;trans\\-national\\&rdquo\\;\\ America\\ to\\ move\\ beyond\\ the\\ metaphysical\\ understanding\\ of\\ ethnicity\\ and\\ channel\\ national\\ differences\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;trans\\-national\\&rdquo\\;\\ democratic\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Bourne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethnic\\ enclave\\ similar\\ to\\ William\\ James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;On\\ a\\ Certain\\ Blindness\\ in\\ Humans\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mutual\\ respect\\ for\\ individuals\\ and\\ contribution\\ of\\ unique\\ perspectives\\ to\\ bring\\ to\\ collective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-new\\ pple\\,\\ education\\,\\ next\\ generation\\,\\ future\\:\\ for\\ him\\,\\ democracy\\ not\\ found\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;magical\\ qualities\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ rather\\ each\\ ethnic\\ group\\ has\\ something\\ unique\\ to\\ bring\\ to\\ democratic\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-previous\\:\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ arrogance\\,\\ failure\\ of\\ Americanization\\ assimilation\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;obstacle\\ to\\ social\\ advance\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ uniformity\\ preventing\\ \\&ldquo\\;spiritual\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inarticulate\\ federation\\ of\\ cultures\\,\\ disintegration\\ of\\ culture\\ \\(we\\ are\\ all\\ foreign\\ born\\ in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ no\\ real\\ definition\\ of\\ Americanism\\ or\\ purpose\\,\\ still\\ impose\\ on\\ immigrants\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ S\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;instead\\,\\ must\\ allow\\ differences\\ and\\ cultural\\ vitality\\ to\\ foster\\ intelligence\\,\\ social\\ values\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;enhancement\\ of\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ w\\/\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;trans\\-national\\ expressiveness\\&rdquo\\;\\ integrate\\ \\&\\;\\ strengthen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-optimistic\\ about\\ future\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ us\\ work\\ with\\ the\\ forces\\ that\\ are\\ at\\ work\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;metaphysics\\ in\\ international\\ relations\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bourne\\ cuts\\ vs\\.\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-creative\\ tension\\,\\ hybridized\\ identity\\ allows\\ for\\ autonomy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ties\\ Americans\\ and\\ home\\,\\ many\\ allegiances\\:\\ hybridized\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-acknowledge\\ diversity\\ in\\ cosmopolitan\\ project\\ and\\ be\\ American\\ but\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ essentialize\\ metaphysical\\ notion\\ of\\ nationhood\\ \\(like\\ Europe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-same\\ tension\\ as\\ James\\:\\ different\\ parts\\ coalesce\\ to\\ coherent\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-cosmopolitanism\\ holds\\ culture\\ together\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ eliminate\\ diversity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ w\\/\\ the\\ way\\ James\\ does\\ not\\ subsume\\ individuals\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;both\\ DuBois\\ and\\ Bourne\\ bring\\ intellects\\ blacks\\/whites\\ together\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ beyond\\ color\\ line\\ veil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-though\\ Bourne\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ race\\,\\ striking\\ issue\\ is\\ uniting\\ and\\ enriching\\ ethnic\\ mix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Virtue\\,\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Suffrage\\ and\\ the\\ feminism\\ of\\ C\\.P\\.Gilman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Context\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Shift\\ from\\ republican\\ virtue\\ to\\ female\\ virtue\\ influenced\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ ethical\\ sensibility\\ seen\\ as\\ natural\\ and\\ present\\ in\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\ but\\ that\\ education\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ maturation\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ transformation\\ of\\ religion\\ to\\ link\\ virtue\\ with\\ emotions\\ and\\ education\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ rise\\ of\\ sentimental\\ novel\\ where\\ domestic\\ sphere\\ is\\ prized\\ and\\ women\\ are\\ pure\\ victims\\ threatened\\ by\\ male\\ aggressiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ reevaluation\\ of\\ self\\ interest\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ philosophy\\,\\ economics\\ \\(Adam\\ Smith\\ has\\ a\\ strong\\ impact\\ showing\\ that\\ pursuit\\ of\\ self\\ interest\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ vice\\ but\\ a\\ virtue\\)\\,\\ and\\ biology\\ into\\ a\\ rational\\ calculation\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ not\\ as\\ unharnessed\\ desires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elizabeth\\ Cady\\ Stanton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ CONCEPTS\\:\\ Conceives\\ suffrage\\ as\\ an\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\ for\\ the\\ capacity\\ of\\ lone\\ individual\\ to\\ achieve\\ greatness\\,\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;solitude\\ of\\ personal\\ responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ each\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;individual\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ equality\\ for\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ politics\\,\\ argues\\ for\\ natural\\ rights\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ should\\ have\\ these\\ rights\\ before\\ the\\ law\\,\\ openly\\ critical\\ of\\ Christianity\\,\\ supports\\ birth\\ control\\ and\\ revised\\ divorce\\ laws\\ \\(more\\ radical\\ so\\ not\\ always\\ included\\ by\\ suffrage\\ movement\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Solitude\\ of\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ phrases\\:\\ individual\\ \\(happiness\\,\\ development\\)\\,\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ each\\ soldier\\ bears\\ own\\ burden\\,\\ self\\ dependence\\ on\\ every\\ human\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ strongest\\ reason\\ for\\ giving\\ a\\ woman\\ all\\ the\\ opportunities\\ for\\ higher\\ education\\&hellip\\;is\\ the\\ solitude\\ and\\ personal\\ responsibility\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ individual\\ life\\.\\ The\\ strongest\\ reason\\ why\\ we\\ ask\\ for\\ woman\\ a\\ voice\\ in\\ the\\ government\\&hellip\\;is\\ because\\ of\\ her\\ birthright\\ to\\ self\\-sovereignty\\;\\ because\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ she\\ must\\ rely\\ on\\ herself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Robbed\\ of\\ her\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ handicapped\\ by\\ law\\ and\\ custom\\ at\\ every\\ turn\\,\\ yet\\ compelled\\ to\\ fight\\ her\\ won\\ battles\\,\\ and\\ in\\ emergencies\\ in\\ life\\ to\\ fall\\ back\\ on\\ herself\\ for\\ protection\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(47\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Inasmuch\\,\\ then\\,\\ woman\\ shares\\ equally\\ the\\ joys\\ and\\ sorrows\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ eternity\\,\\ is\\ it\\ not\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ presumption\\ in\\ man\\ to\\ propose\\ to\\ represent\\ her\\ at\\ the\\ ballot\\ box\\ and\\ the\\ throne\\ of\\ grace\\,\\ to\\ do\\ her\\ voting\\ in\\ the\\ state\\,\\ her\\ praying\\ in\\ the\\ church\\,\\ and\\ to\\ assume\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ high\\ priest\\ at\\ the\\ family\\ altar\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(48\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ talking\\ of\\ education\\,\\ how\\ shallow\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ each\\ class\\ must\\ be\\ educated\\ for\\ the\\ special\\ work\\ it\\ proposes\\ to\\ do\\,\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ those\\ faculties\\ not\\ needed\\ in\\ this\\ special\\ work\\ must\\ lie\\ dormant\\ and\\ utterly\\ whither\\ for\\ want\\ of\\ use\\,\\ when\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ these\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ very\\ faculties\\ needed\\ in\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greatest\\ emergencies\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(49\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1898\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shows\\ how\\ current\\ story\\ of\\ Bible\\ places\\ woman\\ as\\ bringing\\ sin\\ and\\ living\\ in\\ dependent\\ bondage\\ to\\ husband\\,\\ challenges\\ why\\ Bible\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ reformed\\ or\\ rewritten\\ as\\ laws\\ have\\,\\ explains\\ problematic\\ of\\ Mary\\ and\\ divine\\ birth\\ for\\ women\\,\\ and\\ questions\\ Jesus\\ as\\ God\\-like\\ and\\ champions\\ him\\ if\\ a\\ real\\ character\\ that\\ espouses\\ ideals\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ followed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Why\\ is\\ it\\ more\\ ridiculous\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ protest\\ against\\ her\\ present\\ status\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ and\\ New\\ Testament\\,\\ in\\ the\\ ordinances\\ of\\ discipline\\ of\\ the\\ church\\,\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ statutes\\ of\\ the\\ constitution\\ of\\ the\\ state\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Come\\,\\ come\\,\\ my\\ conservative\\ friend\\,\\ wipe\\ the\\ dew\\ off\\ your\\ spectacles\\,\\ and\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ moving\\.\\ Whatever\\ your\\ views\\ may\\ be\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ proposed\\ work\\,\\ your\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ degradation\\ are\\ but\\ an\\ outgrowth\\ of\\ your\\ status\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Let\\ us\\ remember\\ that\\ all\\ reforms\\ are\\ interdependent\\,\\ and\\ that\\ whatever\\ is\\ done\\ to\\ establish\\ one\\ principle\\ on\\ a\\ solid\\ basis\\,\\ strengthens\\ all\\.\\ Reformers\\ who\\ are\\ always\\ compromising\\,\\ have\\ not\\ yet\\ grasped\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ truth\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ safe\\ ground\\ to\\ stand\\ upon\\.\\ The\\ object\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ life\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ carry\\ one\\ fragmentary\\ measure\\ in\\ human\\ progress\\,\\ but\\ to\\ utter\\ the\\ highest\\ truth\\ clearly\\ seen\\ in\\ all\\ directions\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ to\\ round\\ out\\ and\\ perfect\\ a\\ well\\ balanced\\ character\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\-2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charlotte\\ Perkins\\ Gilman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ CONCEPTS\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;women\\ once\\ forced\\ into\\ relations\\ of\\ dependency\\ by\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\ ceased\\ to\\ function\\ capably\\ for\\ themselves\\ and\\ depend\\ on\\ sex\\ relation\\ for\\ survival\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ stunts\\ growth\\ of\\ entire\\ human\\ species\\,\\ humans\\&rsquo\\;\\ mental\\ capacity\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ construct\\ the\\ social\\ order\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ differentiates\\ from\\ animals\\,\\ prioritizes\\ work\\ because\\ equates\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ produce\\ as\\ being\\ human\\,\\ woman\\ defined\\ through\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ heredity\\ is\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ place\\ evened\\ out\\ a\\ bit\\ despite\\ her\\ development\\ through\\ expression\\ and\\ interaction\\ with\\ the\\ world\\ being\\ truncated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ and\\ Economics\\,\\ 1898\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ phrases\\:\\ sex\\-action\\,\\ sex\\-development\\,\\ sex\\-attraction\\,\\ sex\\-distinction\\,\\ race\\-preservation\\,\\ absolutely\\ stationary\\ female\\,\\ specialization\\,\\ heredity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;all\\ tendencies\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ organism\\ are\\ progressive\\ in\\ their\\ development\\&hellip\\;Every\\ quality\\ of\\ every\\ creature\\ is\\ relative\\ to\\ its\\ condition\\,\\ and\\ tends\\ to\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ accordingly\\;\\ and\\ each\\ quality\\ tends\\ to\\ increase\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ its\\ use\\,\\ and\\ to\\ decrease\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ its\\ disuse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(90\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ human\\ female\\ was\\ cut\\ off\\ from\\ the\\ direct\\ action\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ that\\ mighty\\ force\\ which\\ heretofore\\ had\\ acted\\ on\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ alike\\ with\\ inexorable\\ and\\ beneficial\\ effect\\,\\ developing\\ strength\\,\\ developing\\ skill\\,\\ developing\\ endurance\\,\\ developing\\ courage\\,\\-\\-in\\ a\\ word\\,\\ developing\\ species\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(91\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ profit\\ comes\\ through\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ sex\\-attraction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(91\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ in\\ the\\ ever\\-growing\\ human\\ impulse\\ to\\ create\\,\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ will\\ to\\ make\\,\\ to\\ do\\,\\ to\\ express\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spirit\\ in\\ new\\ forms\\,\\-\\-here\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ utterly\\ debarred\\.\\ She\\ might\\ work\\ as\\ she\\ had\\ worked\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\-\\-at\\ primitive\\ \\[uncompensated\\]\\ labors\\ of\\ the\\ household\\&hellip\\;Her\\ labor\\ has\\ not\\ only\\ been\\ limited\\ in\\ kind\\,\\ but\\ in\\ degree\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(93\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ to\\ serve\\ each\\ other\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ widely\\;\\ to\\ live\\ only\\ by\\ such\\ service\\;\\ to\\ develop\\ special\\ functions\\,\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ depend\\ for\\ our\\ living\\ on\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ return\\ for\\ services\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ of\\ no\\ direct\\ use\\ to\\ ourselves\\,\\-\\-this\\ is\\ a\\ civilization\\,\\ our\\ human\\ glory\\,\\ our\\ race\\ distinction\\.\\ All\\ this\\ human\\ progress\\ has\\ been\\ accomplished\\ by\\ men\\&hellip\\;Man\\ is\\ the\\ human\\ creature\\.\\ Woman\\ has\\ been\\ checked\\,\\ starved\\,\\ aborted\\ in\\ human\\ growth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(95\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Yellow\\ Wallpaper\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Short\\ story\\ told\\ from\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-person\\ perspective\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\ confined\\ to\\ a\\ bedroom\\ by\\ husband\\,\\ John\\,\\ because\\ of\\ her\\ mental\\ illness\\ \\(auto\\-biographical\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\)\\.\\ She\\ develops\\ a\\ fantastical\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ yellow\\ wallpaper\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ where\\ she\\ sees\\ it\\ as\\ double\\-layered\\ and\\ trapping\\ a\\ woman\\ in\\ the\\ layer\\ behind\\.\\ Originally\\ read\\ as\\ a\\ horror\\ story\\ and\\ now\\ a\\ critique\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\ separated\\ from\\ society\\ and\\ her\\ soul\\ trapped\\ within\\ \\(writing\\ as\\ an\\ outlet\\ for\\ escape\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thorstein\\ Veblen\\,\\ The\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Leisure\\ Class\\,\\ 1899\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ CONCEPTS\\:\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ and\\ conspicuous\\ leisure\\,\\ social\\ and\\ evolutionary\\ economics\\,\\ thinks\\ that\\ woman\\ \\(and\\ clergy\\)\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ who\\ can\\ display\\ her\\ leisure\\ and\\ need\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ economic\\ production\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ Gilman\\)\\,\\ futility\\ of\\ life\\ when\\ not\\ involved\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;sphere\\ of\\ usefulness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ production\\,\\ talk\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ Woman\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\,\\ discusses\\ role\\ of\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ phrases\\:\\ invidiuous\\,\\ pecuniary\\,\\ rituals\\ and\\ education\\ \\(higher\\ learning\\)\\,\\ status\\,\\ subservient\\,\\ habit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ ceremonial\\ exclusion\\ from\\ productive\\ effort\\ of\\ the\\ vulgar\\ sort\\ is\\ to\\ draft\\ a\\ relatively\\ large\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ energies\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ feminine\\ and\\ priestly\\ classes\\ into\\ the\\ services\\ of\\ other\\ interests\\ than\\ the\\ self\\-regarding\\ one\\&hellip\\;The\\ effect\\ of\\ a\\ consistent\\ inhibition\\ on\\ industrially\\ useful\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ leisure\\-class\\ women\\ shows\\ itself\\ in\\ a\\ restless\\ assertion\\ of\\ the\\ impulse\\ to\\ workmanship\\ in\\ other\\ directions\\ that\\ that\\ of\\ business\\ activity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ new\\-woman\\ movement\\ marks\\ a\\ reversion\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ generic\\ type\\ of\\ human\\ character\\ or\\ to\\ a\\ less\\ differentiated\\ expression\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ which\\ Is\\ to\\ be\\ characterized\\ as\\ proto\\-anthropoid\\,\\ and\\,\\ as\\ regards\\ the\\ substance\\ if\\ not\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ its\\ dominant\\ traits\\,\\ it\\ belongs\\ to\\ a\\ cultural\\ stage\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ class\\ as\\ possibly\\ sub\\-human\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Beck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1661\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ Guide\\:\\ Jane\\ Addams\\ and\\ Walter\\ Rauschenbusch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jane\\ Addams\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Twenty\\ Years\\ at\\ Hull\\-House\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Concepts\\:\\ Theory\\ should\\ be\\ subordinate\\ to\\ \\ \\;practice\\.\\ An\\ abstract\\,\\ dogmatic\\,\\ ideological\\ view\\ of\\ social\\ reform\\ will\\ always\\ fail\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ a\\ reformer\\ must\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ situations\\ on\\ a\\ case\\-by\\-case\\ basis\\ with\\ experimentation\\ and\\ modification\\.\\ This\\ includes\\ both\\ experiments\\ with\\ practice\\ \\(if\\ residents\\ of\\ Hull\\-House\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ military\\ drill\\,\\ let\\ them\\ do\\ military\\ drill\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ ideas\\ \\(Hull\\-House\\ hosted\\ radical\\ political\\ speakers\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Influence\\ of\\ Lincoln\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ professor\\ at\\ Oxford\\ described\\ Lincoln\\,\\ who\\ Addams\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ greatest\\ American\\,\\ as\\ the\\ man\\ \\&ldquo\\;who\\ was\\ content\\ merely\\ to\\ dig\\ the\\ channels\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ moral\\ life\\ of\\ his\\ countrymen\\ might\\ flow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(26\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Snare\\ of\\ Preparation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Addams\\ tours\\ through\\ Europe\\.\\ She\\ sees\\ the\\ wretchedness\\ of\\ London\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;She\\ also\\ comes\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ college\\ women\\ sacrifice\\ too\\ much\\ of\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;active\\,\\ emotional\\&rdquo\\;\\ lives\\ to\\ an\\ obsession\\ with\\ intellect\\ and\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;She\\ is\\ baptised\\ into\\ a\\ Presbyterian\\ church\\,\\ though\\ she\\ feels\\ few\\ religious\\ convictions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ Days\\ at\\ Hull\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Hull\\ House\\ was\\ built\\ in\\ an\\ environment\\ of\\ little\\ to\\ none\\ initiative\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ government\\ or\\ the\\ public\\ \\(p\\.\\ 64\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Motto\\ of\\ Hull\\ House\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ provide\\ a\\ center\\ for\\ a\\ higher\\ civic\\ and\\ social\\ life\\;\\ to\\ institute\\ and\\ maintain\\ educational\\ and\\ philanthropic\\ enterprises\\,\\ and\\ to\\ investigate\\ and\\ improve\\ the\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ industrial\\ districts\\ of\\ Chicago\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 73\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Subjective\\ Necessity\\ for\\ Social\\ Sentiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Both\\ destitute\\ immigrants\\ and\\ over\\-educated\\ young\\ people\\ can\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ Hull\\ House\\ Civilization\\ must\\ advance\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ not\\ in\\ parts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Immigrants\\ can\\ become\\ less\\ alienated\\ from\\ American\\ civilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Educated\\ young\\ people\\ can\\ finally\\ do\\ something\\ with\\ their\\ learning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Some\\ Early\\ Undertakings\\ at\\ Hull\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Hull\\-House\\ faced\\ both\\ external\\ and\\ internal\\ challenges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Seen\\ as\\ insufficiently\\ religious\\ by\\ citizens\\ of\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Time\\ is\\ needed\\ for\\ the\\ diverse\\ population\\ of\\ Hull\\-House\\ to\\ develop\\ mutual\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Think\\ practically\\ and\\ experimentally\\,\\ not\\ dogmatically\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Problems\\ of\\ Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Women\\ cannot\\ work\\ AND\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ their\\ children\\.\\ They\\ need\\ help\\ in\\ one\\ area\\ or\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Decade\\ of\\ Economic\\ Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Chicago\\ reacted\\ to\\ the\\ Haymarket\\ Riot\\ of\\ 1887\\ by\\ holding\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ public\\ discussions\\.\\ Socialists\\ participated\\ enthusiastically\\ in\\ discussions\\ of\\ economics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Still\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Socialists\\ are\\ frequently\\ too\\ theoretical\\.\\ They\\ want\\ the\\ church\\ abolished\\,\\ but\\ they\\ forget\\ that\\ the\\ churches\\ provide\\ real\\ help\\ to\\ workers\\ and\\ families\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Even\\ though\\ residents\\ of\\ Hull\\ House\\ hosted\\ radical\\ speakers\\,\\ the\\ goal\\ \\ \\;was\\ inquiry\\,\\ NOT\\ revolt\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ \\ \\;sake\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pioneer\\ Legislation\\ in\\ Illinois\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Child\\ labor\\ and\\ worker\\ safety\\ laws\\ began\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ connections\\ between\\ their\\ particular\\ hardships\\ and\\ national\\/international\\ campaigns\\ for\\ workers\\&rsquo\\;\\ rights\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Socialized\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Education\\ of\\ workers\\ has\\ two\\ goals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\)\\ Practical\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Even\\ a\\ meager\\ knowledge\\ of\\ English\\ may\\ mean\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;work\\ in\\ a\\ factory\\ versus\\ nonemployment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 286\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\)\\ Ephemeral\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ \\ \\;feed\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ the\\ worker\\,\\ to\\ lift\\ it\\ above\\ the\\ monotony\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;his\\ task\\,\\ and\\ to\\ connect\\ it\\ with\\ the\\ larger\\ world\\ outside\\ of\\ his\\ immediate\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;surroundings\\,\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 284\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walter\\ Rauschenbusch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Concepts\\:\\ The\\ goal\\ of\\ social\\ reform\\ is\\ to\\ arouse\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ forces\\ latent\\ in\\ Christian\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ mobilize\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ the\\ progressive\\ regeneration\\ of\\ social\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 344\\)\\.\\ Progressive\\ reform\\ is\\ important\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ effective\\ if\\ it\\ rests\\ on\\ a\\ foundation\\ \\ \\;of\\ Christian\\ ethics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Industrial\\ economy\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ enrich\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ many\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ few\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 345\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;The\\ Church\\ must\\ relinquish\\ control\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ degree\\ an\\ focus\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;inspiring\\ the\\ social\\ movement\\ with\\ religious\\ faith\\ and\\ daring\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 348\\)\\.\\ It\\ cannot\\ hope\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ social\\ movement\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ benefit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;If\\ the\\ Church\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ allow\\ religion\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ areas\\ of\\ life\\ that\\ are\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;controlled\\ solely\\ by\\ the\\ Church\\,\\ it\\ will\\ become\\ possible\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ all\\ human\\ life\\ can\\ be\\ filled\\ with\\ divine\\ purpose\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 355\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Ministers\\ must\\ also\\ leave\\ the\\ church\\.\\ They\\ must\\ be\\ non\\-partisan\\,\\ and\\ they\\ must\\ actually\\ meet\\ the\\ poor\\ \\(p\\.\\ 362\\-363\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ What\\ Ends\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ scientific\\ political\\ economy\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ has\\ taught\\ us\\ to\\ approach\\ economic\\ questions\\ from\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ of\\ goods\\ and\\ not\\ of\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 371\\)\\.\\ We\\ should\\ focus\\ as\\ much\\ on\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ wealth\\ as\\ we\\ do\\ on\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ wealth\\ that\\ wealth\\ enters\\ into\\ real\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ Methods\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Church\\ cannot\\ be\\ afraid\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ politics\\.\\ Issues\\ of\\ public\\ morality\\ are\\ at\\ stake\\.\\ A\\ new\\ temperance\\ movement\\ should\\ be\\ undertaken\\ \\(p\\.\\ 376\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;There\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ cooperation\\ of\\ Church\\ and\\ politics\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ machinery\\ of\\ Church\\ and\\ State\\ must\\ be\\ kept\\ separate\\,\\ but\\ the\\ output\\ of\\ each\\ must\\ mingle\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ to\\ make\\ social\\ life\\ increasingly\\ wholesome\\ and\\ normal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 380\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Communism\\ is\\ becoming\\ more\\ important\\ in\\ various\\ forms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Natural\\ resources\\,\\ like\\ coal\\,\\ are\\ gifts\\ from\\ God\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ people\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;not\\ to\\ a\\ wealthy\\ industrialist\\ \\(p\\.\\ 386\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Family\\,\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ societal\\ unit\\,\\ is\\ run\\ communistically\\.\\ Schools\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;run\\ communistically\\ as\\ well\\.\\ So\\ are\\ churches\\ \\(p\\.\\ 390\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Individualism\\ is\\ coming\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ inadequate\\ and\\ antiquated\\ form\\ of\\ social\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;organization\\ which\\ must\\ give\\ place\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ form\\ of\\ communistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;organization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 397\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Socialism\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ and\\ logical\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 408\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ a\\ Certain\\ Blindness\\ in\\ Human\\ Beings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ lectures\\ that\\ we\\ read\\ for\\ class\\ that\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ lecture\\ series\\ James\\ gave\\ at\\ Radcliffe\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Talks\\ for\\ Teachers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ You\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ notice\\ the\\ diction\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ little\\ less\\ scholarly\\ than\\ that\\ found\\ in\\ his\\ other\\ works\\,\\ although\\ not\\ drastically\\ so\\.\\ In\\ these\\ two\\ talks\\,\\ James\\ argues\\ that\\ since\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ completely\\ understand\\ what\\ goes\\ on\\ in\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\,\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ completely\\ understand\\ that\\ person\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ this\\ inability\\ to\\ communicate\\,\\ James\\ argues\\ for\\ understanding\\&mdash\\;meaning\\ we\\ should\\ try\\ our\\ best\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ circumstances\\ from\\ which\\ someone\\ else\\ comes\\&mdash\\;and\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;hands\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;meaning\\ that\\ since\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ completely\\ get\\ there\\,\\ we\\ should\\ never\\ presume\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ regulate\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beliefs\\ or\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Here\\ are\\ some\\ notes\\/quotes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Our\\ judgments\\ concerning\\ the\\ worth\\ of\\ things\\,\\ big\\ or\\ little\\,\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ things\\ arouse\\ in\\ us\\.\\ Where\\ we\\ judge\\ a\\ thing\\ to\\ be\\ precious\\ in\\ consequence\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\idea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ frame\\ of\\ it\\,\\ this\\ is\\ only\\ because\\ the\\ idea\\ is\\ itself\\ associated\\ already\\ with\\ a\\ feeling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hands\\ off\\:\\ neither\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ truth\\ nor\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ good\\ is\\ revealed\\ to\\ any\\ single\\ observer\\,\\ although\\ each\\ observer\\ gains\\ a\\ partial\\ superiority\\ of\\ insight\\ from\\ the\\ peculiar\\ position\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ stands\\&hellip\\;it\\ is\\ enough\\ to\\ ask\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ us\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ faithful\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ opportunities\\ and\\ make\\ the\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ blessings\\ without\\ presuming\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ vast\\ field\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ Makes\\ a\\ Life\\ Significant\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Talks\\ for\\ Teachers\\&rdquo\\;\\ series\\.\\ See\\ above\\ for\\ more\\ info\\.\\ Quotes\\/notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ first\\ thing\\ to\\ learn\\ in\\ intercourse\\ with\\ others\\ is\\ non\\-interference\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ peculiar\\ ways\\ of\\ being\\ happy\\,\\ provided\\ those\\ ways\\ do\\ not\\ assume\\ to\\ interfere\\ by\\ violence\\ with\\ ours\\.\\ No\\ one\\ has\\ insight\\ into\\ all\\ the\\ ideals\\.\\ NO\\ one\\ should\\ presume\\ to\\ judge\\ them\\ off\\-hand\\.\\ The\\ pretension\\ to\\ dogmatize\\ about\\ them\\ in\\ each\\ other\\ is\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ most\\ human\\ injustices\\ and\\ cruelties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instinctively\\,\\ we\\ make\\ a\\ combination\\ pf\\ two\\ things\\ in\\ judging\\ the\\ total\\ significance\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\ We\\ feel\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ product\\ \\(if\\ such\\ a\\ product\\ only\\ could\\ be\\ calculated\\)\\ of\\ his\\ inner\\ virtue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;his\\ outer\\ place\\,\\-\\-neither\\ singly\\ taken\\,\\ but\\ both\\ conjoined\\.\\ If\\ the\\ outer\\ differences\\ had\\ no\\ meaning\\ for\\ life\\,\\ why\\ indeed\\ should\\ all\\ this\\ immense\\ variety\\ of\\ them\\ exist\\.\\ They\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;be\\ significant\\ elements\\ of\\ this\\ world\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ now\\ we\\ are\\ led\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ such\\ inner\\ meaning\\ can\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\complete\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\valid\\ for\\ us\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ when\\ the\\ inner\\ joy\\,\\ courage\\,\\ and\\ endurance\\ are\\ joined\\ with\\ an\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ideals\\ taken\\ by\\ themselves\\ give\\ no\\ reality\\,\\ the\\ virtues\\ by\\ themselves\\ no\\ novelty\\.\\ And\\&hellip\\;the\\ thing\\ of\\ the\\ deepest\\&hellip\\;significance\\ in\\ life\\ does\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ its\\ character\\ of\\ progress\\,\\ or\\ that\\ strange\\ union\\ of\\ reality\\ with\\ ideal\\ novelty\\ which\\ it\\ continues\\ from\\ one\\ moment\\ to\\ another\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ far\\ as\\ this\\ conflict\\ is\\ unhealthy\\ and\\ regrettable\\ \\(labor\\ question\\)\\&hellip\\;the\\ unhealthiness\\ consists\\ solely\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ one\\ half\\ of\\ our\\ fellow\\-countrymen\\ remain\\ entirely\\ blind\\ to\\ the\\ internal\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ half\\&hellip\\;Each\\,\\ in\\ short\\,\\ ignores\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ happiness\\ and\\ unhappiness\\ and\\ significance\\ are\\ a\\ vital\\ mystery\\;\\ each\\ pins\\ them\\ absolutely\\ on\\ some\\ ridiculous\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ external\\ situation\\;\\ and\\ everybody\\ remains\\ outside\\ of\\ everybody\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sight\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ with\\ each\\ new\\ ideal\\ that\\ comes\\ into\\ life\\,\\ the\\ chance\\ for\\ a\\ life\\ based\\ on\\ some\\ old\\ ideal\\ will\\ vanish\\;\\ and\\ he\\ would\\ needs\\ be\\ a\\ presumptuous\\ calculater\\ who\\ should\\ with\\ confidence\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ total\\ sum\\ of\\ significances\\ is\\ positively\\ and\\ absolutely\\ greater\\ at\\ any\\ one\\ epoch\\ than\\ at\\ any\\ other\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Moral\\ Philosopher\\ and\\ the\\ Moral\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ Kloppenberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ essay\\ by\\ James\\ and\\ he\\ quoted\\ twice\\ from\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ final\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ World\\ of\\ William\\ James\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ just\\ going\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ passages\\ he\\ quoted\\ below\\,\\ but\\ it\\ would\\ probably\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ review\\ this\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ such\\ thing\\ possible\\ as\\ an\\ ethical\\ philosophy\\ dogmatically\\ made\\ up\\ in\\ advance\\.\\.\\.in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ final\\ truth\\ in\\ ethics\\ any\\ more\\ than\\ in\\ physics\\,\\ until\\ the\\ last\\ man\\ has\\ had\\ his\\ experience\\ and\\ said\\ his\\ say\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multiply\\ the\\ thinkers\\ into\\ a\\ pluralism\\,\\ and\\ we\\ find\\ realized\\ for\\ us\\ in\\ the\\ ethical\\ sphere\\ something\\ like\\ that\\ world\\ which\\ the\\ antique\\ skeptics\\ conceived\\ of\\,\\-\\-in\\ which\\ individual\\ minds\\ are\\ the\\ measure\\ of\\ all\\ things\\,\\ and\\ in\\ which\\ no\\ one\\ \\&lsquo\\;objective\\&rsquo\\;\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ only\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;subjective\\&rsquo\\;\\ opinions\\,\\ can\\ be\\ found\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ everything\\ which\\ is\\ demanded\\ is\\ demanded\\ is\\ by\\ that\\ fact\\ a\\ good\\,\\ must\\ not\\ the\\ guiding\\ principle\\ for\\ ethical\\ philosophy\\ be\\ simply\\ to\\ satisfy\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ many\\ demands\\ as\\ we\\ can\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;That\\ act\\ must\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ act\\ which\\ makes\\ for\\ the\\ best\\ whole\\,\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ awakening\\ the\\ least\\ sum\\ of\\ dissatisfactions\\&hellip\\;Invent\\ some\\ manner\\ of\\ realizing\\ year\\ own\\ ideals\\ which\\ will\\ also\\ satisfy\\ the\\ alien\\ demands\\,\\-\\-that\\ and\\ that\\ only\\ is\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ peace\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ presumption\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ conflict\\ must\\ always\\ be\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ conventionally\\ recognized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ must\\ conclude\\ that\\ no\\ philosophy\\ of\\ ethics\\ is\\ possible\\ in\\ the\\ old\\-fashionend\\ absolute\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ term\\.\\ Everywhere\\ the\\ ethical\\ philosopher\\ must\\ wait\\ on\\ facts\\&hellip\\;the\\ highest\\ ethical\\ life\\ consists\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ in\\ the\\ breaking\\ of\\ rules\\ which\\ have\\ grown\\ too\\ narrow\\ for\\ the\\ actual\\ case\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pragmatism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ difference\\ would\\ it\\ practically\\ make\\ to\\ any\\ one\\ if\\ this\\ notion\\ rather\\ than\\ that\\ notion\\ were\\ true\\?\\.\\.\\.Whenever\\ a\\ dispute\\ is\\ serious\\,\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ show\\ some\\ practical\\ difference\\ that\\ must\\ follow\\ from\\ one\\ side\\ or\\ the\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ right\\.\\.\\.The\\ whole\\ function\\ of\\ philosophy\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ what\\ definite\\ difference\\ it\\ will\\ make\\ to\\ you\\ and\\ me\\,\\ at\\ definite\\ instants\\ of\\ our\\ life\\,\\ if\\ this\\ world\\ formula\\ or\\ that\\ world\\ formula\\ be\\ the\\ true\\ one\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(think\\ squirrel\\/tree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ violent\\ revolutions\\ in\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belief\\ leave\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ old\\ order\\ standings\\&hellip\\;it\\ marries\\ old\\ opinion\\ to\\ new\\ fact\\ so\\ as\\ ever\\ to\\ show\\ a\\ minimum\\ of\\ jolt\\,\\ a\\ maximum\\ of\\ continuity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Pragmatism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Truth\\ happens\\ to\\ an\\ idea\\.\\ It\\ becomes\\ true\\,\\ is\\ made\\ true\\ by\\ events\\.\\ Its\\ verity\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ an\\ event\\,\\ a\\ process\\:\\ the\\ process\\ namely\\ of\\ its\\ verifying\\ itself\\,\\ its\\ veri\\-fication\\.\\ Its\\ validity\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ its\\ valid\\-ation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&lsquo\\;true\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ to\\ put\\ it\\ very\\ briefly\\,\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ expedient\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ our\\ thinking\\,\\ just\\ as\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ right\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ expedient\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ our\\ behaving\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*Meanwhile\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ live\\ today\\ by\\ what\\ truth\\ we\\ can\\ get\\ today\\ and\\ be\\ ready\\ tomorrow\\ to\\ call\\ it\\ falsehood\\&hellip\\;We\\ live\\ forwards\\ but\\ understand\\ backwards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Will\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1897\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ essay\\ was\\ written\\ early\\ in\\ James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\,\\ almost\\ seven\\ years\\ after\\ he\\ published\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Principles\\ of\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ is\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ a\\ distilling\\ of\\ his\\ longer\\ attempt\\ to\\ justify\\ religious\\ belief\\ in\\ an\\ age\\ of\\ skepticism\\ that\\ one\\ finds\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Varieties\\ of\\ Religious\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Will\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ James\\ later\\ would\\ say\\ he\\ wished\\ he\\ had\\ titled\\ the\\ essay\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Right\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ will\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ Dewey\\ makes\\ reference\\ to\\ this\\ later\\ on\\)\\ was\\ James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ logically\\ explain\\ why\\ human\\ beings\\ hold\\ certain\\ beliefs\\ even\\ though\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;evidence\\&rdquo\\;\\ surrounding\\ them\\ cannot\\ decisively\\ point\\ them\\ in\\ any\\ direction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Here\\ are\\ some\\ notes\\/quotes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ calls\\ anything\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ proposed\\ to\\ our\\ belief\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hypothesis\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ live\\ or\\ dead\\ hypotheses\\.\\ A\\ live\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ appeals\\ as\\ a\\ real\\ possibility\\ to\\ him\\ to\\ whom\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proposed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ decision\\ between\\ two\\ hypotheses\\ is\\ an\\ option\\.\\ Options\\ may\\ be\\ living\\ or\\ dead\\,\\ forced\\ or\\ avoidable\\,\\ or\\ momentous\\ or\\ trivial\\.\\ An\\ option\\ is\\ genuine\\ only\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ forced\\,\\ living\\ and\\ momentous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Live\\ \\=\\ both\\ options\\ must\\ appeal\\ to\\ your\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\ \\=\\ no\\ possibility\\ of\\ not\\ choosing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Momentous\\ \\=\\ unique\\ opportunity\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ done\\ at\\ any\\ later\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Does\\ it\\ not\\ seem\\ preposterous\\ on\\ the\\ very\\ face\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ talk\\ of\\ our\\ opinions\\ being\\ modifiable\\ at\\ will\\?\\ Can\\ our\\ will\\ either\\ help\\ or\\ hinder\\ our\\ intellect\\ in\\ its\\ perceptions\\ of\\ truth\\?\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ We\\ can\\ say\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ things\\,\\ but\\ we\\ are\\ absolutely\\ impotent\\ to\\ believe\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(65\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ believe\\ in\\ truth\\ itself\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ truth\\,\\ and\\ that\\ our\\ minds\\ and\\ it\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ reach\\ other\\,\\-\\-what\\ is\\ it\\ but\\ a\\ passionate\\ affirmation\\ of\\ desire\\,\\ in\\ which\\ our\\ social\\ system\\ beacks\\ us\\ up\\?\\ We\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ truth\\;\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ our\\ experiments\\ and\\ studies\\ and\\ discussions\\ must\\ put\\ us\\ in\\ a\\ continually\\ better\\ and\\ better\\ position\\ towards\\ it\\&hellip\\;but\\ if\\ a\\ pyrrhonistic\\ skeptic\\ asks\\ us\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ we\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ this\\,\\ can\\ our\\ logic\\ find\\ a\\ reply\\?\\ No\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;As\\ a\\ rule\\ we\\ disbelieve\\ all\\ facts\\ and\\ theories\\ for\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ use\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ postulate\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ truth\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ destiny\\ of\\ our\\ minds\\ to\\ attain\\ it\\,\\ we\\ are\\ deliberately\\ resolving\\ to\\ make\\&hellip\\;But\\ the\\ faith\\ that\\ truth\\ exists\\,\\ and\\ that\\ our\\ minds\\ can\\ find\\ it\\,\\ may\\ be\\ held\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\.\\ We\\ may\\ talk\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\empiricist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;way\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\absolutist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;way\\ of\\ believing\\ in\\ truth\\.\\ The\\ absolutists\\ in\\ this\\ matter\\ say\\ that\\ we\\ not\\ only\\ can\\ attain\\ to\\ knowing\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\know\\ when\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ have\\ attained\\ to\\ knowing\\ it\\;\\ while\\ the\\ empiricist\\ think\\ think\\ that\\ although\\ we\\ may\\ attain\\ it\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ infallibly\\ know\\ when\\.\\ To\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\know\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ and\\ to\\ know\\ for\\ certain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ know\\ is\\ another\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(68\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;but\\ please\\ observe\\,\\ now\\,\\ that\\ when\\ as\\ empiricists\\ we\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ objective\\ certitude\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ thereby\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ quest\\ or\\ hop\\ of\\ truth\\ itself\\.\\ We\\ still\\ pin\\ our\\ faith\\ on\\ its\\ existence\\,\\ and\\ still\\ believe\\ that\\ we\\ gain\\ an\\ ever\\ better\\ position\\ towards\\ it\\ by\\ systematically\\ continuing\\ to\\ roll\\ up\\ experience\\ and\\ think\\&hellip\\;it\\ matters\\ not\\ to\\ an\\ empiricist\\ from\\ what\\ quarter\\ an\\ hypothesis\\ may\\ come\\ to\\ him\\:\\ he\\ may\\ have\\ acquired\\ it\\ by\\ fair\\ means\\ or\\ by\\ foul\\;\\ passion\\ may\\ have\\ whispered\\ or\\ accident\\ suggested\\ it\\;\\ but\\ if\\ the\\ total\\ drift\\ of\\ thinking\\ continues\\ to\\ confirm\\ it\\,\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ he\\ means\\ by\\ its\\ being\\ true\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(70\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\:\\ John\\ Dewey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Philosophy\\ and\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philosophy\\,\\ Dewey\\ says\\,\\ has\\ concerned\\ itself\\ with\\ finding\\ some\\ deeper\\ truth\\ than\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ available\\ through\\ empirical\\ methods\\.\\ Philosophy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ Truth\\ underlies\\ its\\ historical\\ support\\ for\\ conservative\\ social\\ orders\\.\\ Defenders\\ of\\ absolute\\ authority\\ and\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ often\\ appealed\\ to\\ the\\ values\\ and\\ truths\\ supposedly\\ uncovered\\ by\\ philosophy\\ to\\ justify\\ their\\ position\\.\\ However\\,\\ in\\ a\\ democracy\\,\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\will\\ construe\\ liberty\\ as\\ meaning\\ a\\ universe\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ real\\ uncertainty\\ and\\ contingency\\,\\ a\\ world\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ all\\ in\\,\\ and\\ never\\ will\\ be\\,\\ a\\ world\\ which\\ in\\ some\\ respect\\ is\\ incomplete\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ making\\,\\ and\\ which\\ in\\ these\\ respects\\ may\\ be\\ made\\ this\\ way\\ or\\ that\\ according\\ as\\ men\\ judge\\,\\ prize\\,\\ love\\ and\\ labor\\.\\ To\\ such\\ a\\ philosophy\\ any\\ notion\\ of\\ a\\ perfect\\ or\\ complete\\ reality\\,\\ finished\\,\\ existing\\ always\\ the\\ same\\ without\\ regard\\ to\\ the\\ vicissitudes\\ of\\ time\\,\\ will\\ be\\ abhorrent\\ \\(207\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ philosophy\\ guided\\ by\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ science\\ will\\ always\\ keep\\ the\\ door\\ open\\ for\\ new\\ truths\\.\\ Dewey\\ redefines\\ philosophy\\ as\\ a\\ practice\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ pragmatic\\.\\ It\\ must\\ suggest\\ new\\ responses\\ to\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ essay\\ is\\ significant\\ on\\ many\\ fronts\\.\\ It\\ is\\ another\\ articulation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;pragmatism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ we\\ saw\\ earlier\\ in\\ William\\ James\\.\\ Truth\\ is\\ some\\ that\\ is\\ constantly\\ in\\ flux\\.\\ Dewey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ support\\ for\\ philosophical\\ experimentation\\ connects\\ with\\ his\\ idea\\ of\\ experimenting\\ in\\ education\\,\\ of\\ giving\\ full\\ opportunities\\ for\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ develop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ distinguish\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ this\\ essay\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Dewey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essays\\ is\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ any\\ mention\\ of\\ the\\ status\\,\\ purpose\\ or\\ methodology\\ of\\ philosophy\\.\\ Dewey\\ does\\ not\\ explicitly\\ give\\ any\\ hard\\ criterion\\ for\\ evaluating\\ truth\\ \\(whether\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;pays\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ proposition\\)\\,\\ but\\ he\\ does\\ state\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[a\\]ll\\ knowledge\\ in\\ short\\ makes\\ a\\ difference\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ practical\\ effects\\ to\\ believing\\ in\\ certain\\ ideas\\ over\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ essay\\,\\ Dewey\\ makes\\ the\\ bold\\ claim\\ that\\ aristocracy\\ and\\ democracy\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ ends\\:\\ the\\ realization\\ of\\ individual\\ personality\\.\\ Dewey\\ debunks\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ democracy\\ is\\ about\\ unfettered\\ individualism\\;\\ rather\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;form\\ of\\ moral\\ and\\ spiritual\\ association\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(59\\)\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ democracy\\ and\\ aristocracy\\ \\(and\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ one\\)\\ is\\ the\\ means\\.\\ Aristocracy\\ wrongly\\ assumes\\ that\\ personality\\ can\\ be\\ imposed\\ from\\ on\\ high\\,\\ that\\ individuals\\ can\\ be\\ given\\ their\\ roles\\.\\ Conversely\\,\\ in\\ democracy\\,\\ each\\ individual\\ is\\ given\\ the\\ freedom\\ to\\ develop\\ his\\ personality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ democracy\\ is\\ distinct\\ from\\ James\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ Its\\ promise\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;intellectual\\ republic\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ individuals\\ voice\\ their\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\ while\\ maintaining\\ their\\ irreducible\\ differences\\.\\ Dewey\\ conceives\\ of\\ a\\ more\\ organic\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ the\\ polity\\,\\ where\\ a\\ certain\\ melding\\ occurs\\ between\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ everyone\\.\\ Ward\\ suggested\\ in\\ section\\ that\\ a\\ helpful\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ thinkers\\ is\\ that\\ Dewey\\ is\\ more\\ Hegelian\\ and\\ James\\ is\\ more\\ Kantian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Intelligence\\ and\\ Morals\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ faults\\ the\\ Greek\\ not\\ for\\ subjecting\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ the\\ state\\,\\ but\\ for\\ subjecting\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;both\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ an\\ external\\ cosmic\\ order\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(65\\)\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\summum\\ bonum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;ultimate\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ lies\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ a\\ misguided\\ moral\\ philosophy\\.\\ Dewey\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ rational\\ sciences\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ discover\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ uniquely\\ human\\ capacities\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ to\\ device\\ ways\\ to\\ cultivate\\ and\\ satisfy\\ them\\.\\ While\\ this\\ approach\\ to\\ moral\\ philosophy\\ may\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ form\\,\\ Dewey\\ warns\\ against\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&lsquo\\;happiness\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ any\\ less\\ unique\\ than\\ the\\ individuals\\ who\\ experience\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(74\\)\\.\\ This\\ approach\\ to\\ morality\\ is\\ that\\ same\\ as\\ his\\ approach\\ to\\ democracy\\,\\ where\\ individual\\ personality\\ is\\ incommensurable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ the\\ business\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ the\\ one\\ separate\\ moral\\ motive\\,\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ converge\\ all\\ the\\ instrumentalities\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ arts\\,\\ of\\ law\\,\\ education\\,\\ economics\\ and\\ political\\ science\\ upon\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ intelligent\\ methods\\ of\\ improving\\ the\\ common\\ lot\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(74\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ thinks\\ human\\ behavior\\ is\\ best\\ modified\\ by\\ changing\\ the\\ conditions\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ act\\,\\ not\\ dictating\\ new\\ principles\\ for\\ action\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ men\\ do\\ what\\ they\\ can\\ do\\.\\ They\\ refrain\\ from\\ doing\\ what\\ they\\ cannot\\ do\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(74\\)\\.\\ The\\ focus\\ should\\ less\\ be\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrong\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ on\\ how\\ we\\ want\\ people\\ to\\ behave\\,\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ social\\ environment\\ to\\ induce\\ that\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ essay\\ is\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ pragmatic\\ thought\\,\\ this\\ time\\ to\\ moral\\ philosophy\\ and\\ social\\ policy\\.\\ Dewey\\ agrees\\ with\\ James\\ that\\ sources\\ of\\ good\\ for\\ individuals\\ are\\ pluralistic\\;\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\&lsquo\\;ultimate\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ Pragmatism\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ dispense\\ with\\ hard\\ rules\\ and\\ instead\\ judge\\ and\\ bring\\ about\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ morality\\ by\\ the\\ outcomes\\ we\\ find\\ desirable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Democratic\\ Conception\\ in\\ Education\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ spelling\\ out\\ his\\ conception\\ of\\ democratic\\ education\\,\\ he\\ agrees\\ with\\ Plato\\ that\\ education\\ should\\ help\\ train\\ individuals\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ useful\\ to\\ others\\.\\ Education\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ train\\ our\\ natural\\ aptitudes\\.\\ Yet\\ Dewey\\,\\ once\\ again\\ \\(like\\ he\\ does\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ faults\\ Plato\\ for\\ assuming\\ that\\ individuals\\ have\\ fixed\\ natures\\ that\\ determine\\ how\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ educated\\.\\ When\\ this\\ is\\ assumed\\,\\ Dewey\\ suggests\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ diversity\\ of\\ human\\ types\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;progress\\ in\\ knowledge\\ has\\ made\\ us\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ superficiality\\ of\\ Plato\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lumping\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ their\\ original\\ powers\\ into\\ a\\ few\\ sharply\\ marked\\-off\\ classes\\;\\ it\\ has\\ taught\\ us\\ that\\ original\\ capacities\\ are\\ indefinitely\\ numerous\\ and\\ variable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(113\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ also\\ finds\\ wanting\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\ ideal\\ of\\ the\\ infinite\\ perfectibility\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ Nature\\.\\ Giving\\ free\\ reign\\ to\\ individual\\ development\\ in\\ Nature\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ negate\\ the\\ very\\ idea\\ of\\ education\\;\\ it\\ was\\ to\\ trust\\ to\\ the\\ accidents\\ of\\ circumstance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(115\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Germans\\,\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ sought\\ to\\ educate\\ their\\ citizens\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ ensure\\ a\\ strong\\ state\\.\\ Competent\\,\\ disciplined\\ citizens\\ could\\ defend\\ the\\ state\\.\\ The\\ German\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Hegelian\\)\\ view\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ educational\\ process\\ was\\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ one\\ of\\ disciplinary\\ training\\ rather\\ than\\ personal\\ development\\&hellip\\;\\.The\\ individual\\ in\\ his\\ isolation\\ is\\ nothing\\;\\ only\\ in\\ and\\ through\\ an\\ absorption\\ of\\ the\\ aim\\ and\\ meaning\\ of\\ organized\\ institutions\\ does\\ he\\ attain\\ true\\ personality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(117\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ sees\\ a\\ tension\\ between\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ education\\ run\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ open\\,\\ cosmopolitan\\-humanitarian\\ ethos\\ it\\ should\\ try\\ to\\ instill\\ in\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Need\\ of\\ an\\ Industrial\\ Education\\ in\\ an\\ Industrial\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ quotes\\ speak\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;such\\ qualities\\ as\\ insistence\\ upon\\ widespread\\ opportunity\\,\\ free\\ exchange\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ experiences\\,\\ and\\ extensive\\ realization\\ of\\ the\\ purposes\\ for\\ which\\ hold\\ men\\ together\\,\\ are\\ intellectual\\ and\\ emotional\\ trains\\&hellip\\;\\.And\\ they\\ are\\ traits\\ which\\ do\\ not\\ grow\\ spontaneously\\ on\\ bushes\\.\\ They\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ planted\\ and\\ nurtured\\.\\ They\\ are\\ dependent\\ upon\\ education\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(122\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ counteract\\ the\\ soulless\\ monotony\\ of\\ machine\\ industry\\,\\ a\\ premium\\ must\\ be\\ put\\ upon\\ initiative\\,\\ intellectual\\ independence\\,\\ and\\ inventiveness\\.\\ Hence\\ schooling\\ must\\ not\\ model\\ itself\\ upon\\ the\\ automatic\\ repetitiousness\\ of\\ machines\\,\\ whether\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ false\\ gods\\ of\\ practical\\ skill\\ or\\ of\\ discipline\\.\\ Personal\\ control\\ of\\ power\\,\\ strong\\ discontent\\ with\\ whatever\\ subordinates\\ mental\\ capacity\\ to\\ merely\\ external\\ regulation\\,\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ primary\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(123\\-24\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pragmatism\\ and\\ Progressive\\ Reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walter\\ Lippmann\\,\\ Drift\\ and\\ Mastery\\,\\ 1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Studied\\ under\\ William\\ James\\ and\\ George\\ Santayana\\ at\\ Harvard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lippmann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ on\\ Wilson\\,\\ 14\\ Points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Progressive\\ challenge\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ battle\\ for\\ us\\,\\ in\\ short\\,\\ does\\ not\\ lie\\ against\\ crusted\\ prejudice\\,\\ but\\ against\\ the\\ chaos\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Muckraking\\ \\(investigative\\ journalism\\ like\\ that\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ Stephens\\ or\\ Upton\\ Sinclair\\)\\ suggests\\ new\\ attitude\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ stocks\\ and\\ trust\\ ownership\\ alters\\ our\\ conception\\ of\\ Private\\ Property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stockholding\\ Class\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ shareholding\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ adapted\\ to\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ any\\ civilizing\\ passion\\.\\ It\\ is\\ too\\ abstract\\,\\ too\\ scattered\\,\\ too\\ fluctuating\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(48\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drift\\ signifies\\ an\\ end\\ of\\ certainty\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ have\\ lost\\ authority\\.\\ We\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;emancipated\\&rsquo\\;\\ from\\ an\\ ordered\\ world\\.\\ We\\ drift\\&hellip\\;What\\ nonsense\\ it\\ is\\,\\ then\\,\\ to\\ talk\\ of\\ liberty\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ a\\ happy\\-go\\-lucky\\ breaking\\ of\\ chains\\.\\ It\\ is\\ with\\ emancipation\\ that\\ real\\ tasks\\ begin\\,\\ and\\ liberty\\ is\\ a\\ searching\\ challenge\\,\\ for\\ it\\ takes\\ away\\ the\\ guardianship\\ of\\ the\\ master\\ and\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ the\\ priest\\.\\ The\\ iconoclasts\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ free\\ us\\.\\ They\\ threw\\ us\\ into\\ the\\ water\\,\\ and\\ now\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ swim\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(111\\-112\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ James\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ only\\ people\\ who\\ can\\ stomach\\ a\\ pluralistic\\ philosophy\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ or\\ another\\ have\\ grown\\ strong\\ enough\\ to\\ do\\ without\\ an\\ absolute\\ faith\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(115\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ cannot\\ be\\ absolute\\ pragmatists\\.\\ But\\ we\\ judge\\ by\\ results\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ we\\ can\\,\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ our\\ human\\ limitations\\ allow\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(144\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mastery\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ is\\ what\\ mastery\\ means\\:\\ the\\ substitution\\ of\\ conscious\\ intention\\ for\\ unconscious\\ striving\\.\\ Civilization\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ me\\,\\ is\\ just\\ this\\ constant\\ effort\\ to\\ introduce\\ plan\\ where\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ clash\\,\\ and\\ purpose\\ into\\ the\\ jungles\\ of\\ disordered\\ growth\\.\\ But\\ to\\ shape\\ the\\ world\\ nearer\\ to\\ the\\ heart\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ requires\\ a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ You\\ cannot\\ throw\\ yourself\\ blindly\\ against\\ unknown\\ facts\\ and\\ trust\\ to\\ luck\\ that\\ the\\ result\\ will\\ be\\ satisfactory\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(148\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Science\\ and\\ Democracy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ scientific\\ sprit\\ is\\ the\\ discipline\\ of\\ democracy\\,\\ the\\ escape\\ from\\ drift\\,\\ the\\ outlook\\ of\\ a\\ free\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(151\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Randolph\\ Bourne\\,\\ Twilight\\ of\\ Idols\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attacks\\ John\\ Dewey\\ and\\ other\\ pragmatists\\ for\\ their\\ support\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ James\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Where\\ are\\ the\\ seeds\\ of\\ American\\ promise\\?\\ Man\\ cannot\\ live\\ by\\ politics\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ small\\ cheer\\ that\\ our\\ best\\ intellects\\ are\\ caught\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ current\\ and\\ see\\ only\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ America\\ will\\ find\\ her\\ soul\\ in\\ the\\ remaking\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(AIT\\,\\ 181\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ policy\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;win\\ the\\ war\\ first\\&rsquo\\;\\ must\\ be\\,\\ for\\ the\\ radical\\,\\ a\\ policy\\ of\\ intellectual\\ suicide\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(AIT\\,\\ 184\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 25, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/1661_MIDTERM_STUDY_GUIDE_1.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "French Body Image - Midterm Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "art", "architecture", "body-image"], "text": null, "id": 49, "html": "\\\\\\HAA174s\\_midterm\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c18\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\The\\ Academic\\ Body\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Jennifer\\ Montagu\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Le\\ Brun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Complete\\ Theory\\ of\\ Expression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Le\\ Brun\\ \\(LB\\)\\ gave\\ lectures\\ on\\ physiognomics\\ and\\ pathognomics\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ train\\ artists\\ to\\ use\\ these\\ systems\\ in\\ their\\ paintings\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ passions\\ in\\ a\\ legible\\ way\\ \\(Physiognomics\\ \\=\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ character\\ is\\ revealed\\ through\\ his\\ facial\\ features\\,\\ Pathognomics\\ \\=\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ facial\\ features\\ reveal\\ his\\ emotions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montagu\\ discusses\\ how\\ LB\\ defended\\ Poussin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biblical\\ painting\\ of\\ Rebecca\\ and\\ Eliezer\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ camels\\ were\\ omitted\\ from\\ the\\ painting\\ \\(and\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ actual\\ story\\)\\ bc\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ still\\ conveyed\\ a\\ specific\\ emotion\\ by\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ colors\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ painted\\ the\\ figures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ introduced\\ the\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Modes\\ to\\ the\\ Academy\\ \\(where\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ director\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ theory\\ teaches\\ different\\ modes\\ of\\ painting\\ to\\ convey\\ different\\ emotions\\ and\\ moods\\ \\(his\\ support\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ reason\\ LB\\ defended\\ Poussin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ exclude\\ the\\ ugly\\ camels\\ in\\ his\\ painting\\ which\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ depict\\ pretty\\ girls\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ advocated\\ strict\\ historical\\ accuracy\\ \\(ex\\:\\ very\\ careful\\ about\\ depicting\\ his\\ own\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ correct\\ costumes\\,\\ his\\ further\\ defense\\ of\\ Poussin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exclusion\\ of\\ the\\ camels\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ camels\\ were\\ actually\\ not\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ figures\\ on\\ the\\ bible\\ and\\ their\\ exclusion\\ demonstrated\\ the\\ real\\ distance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montagu\\ mainly\\ argues\\ that\\ LB\\ was\\ actually\\ not\\ as\\ strict\\ as\\ others\\ think\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unlike\\ other\\ art\\ instructors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ believed\\ that\\ an\\ artist\\ could\\ alter\\ some\\ details\\ if\\ the\\ alterations\\ made\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ their\\ paintings\\ more\\ clear\\.\\ He\\ therefore\\ allowed\\ for\\ some\\ artistic\\ freedom\\,\\ even\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ where\\ such\\ a\\ strong\\ emphasis\\ was\\ placed\\ on\\ historical\\ accuracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Montagu\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ LB\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ facial\\ expressions\\ was\\ originally\\ his\\ own\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ took\\ scientific\\ ideas\\ and\\ Descarte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ and\\ applied\\ them\\ to\\ art\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ teach\\ how\\ to\\ portray\\ emotion\\ on\\ a\\ face\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Descartes\\ said\\ the\\ soul\\ controlled\\ the\\ reactions\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ through\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ pineal\\ gland\\.\\ LB\\ interpreted\\ this\\ to\\ mean\\ that\\ the\\ face\\ was\\ then\\ the\\ most\\ accurate\\ index\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\/soul\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ LB\\ established\\ 4\\ major\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ eyebrows\\ as\\ indicative\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ emotions\\ \\(concupiscible\\,\\ irascible\\,\\ simple\\,\\ mixed\\.\\)\\ he\\ also\\ described\\ different\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ mouth\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ conveyed\\ inner\\ emotion\\ \\(he\\ was\\ very\\ precise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ noticed\\ a\\ difference\\ btwn\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ mouth\\ to\\ convey\\ joy\\ and\\ to\\ convey\\ laughter\\.\\ These\\ 2\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ same\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ system\\ allowed\\ an\\ artist\\ to\\ convey\\ any\\ emotion\\,\\ which\\ may\\ have\\ also\\ given\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ freedom\\ of\\ expression\\.\\ LB\\ also\\ supported\\ certain\\ deviations\\ from\\ his\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LB\\ also\\ taught\\ a\\ theory\\ on\\ the\\ physical\\ similarities\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ animals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ drew\\ didactic\\ drawings\\ to\\ show\\ these\\ similarities\\.\\ He\\ supported\\ to\\ idea\\ that\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ likeness\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ animal\\ meant\\ their\\ personality\\ was\\ like\\ the\\ animal\\ they\\ looked\\ like\\ \\(so\\ a\\ man\\ that\\ looked\\ like\\ a\\ boar\\ was\\ course\\ and\\ brutal\\,\\ like\\ a\\ horse\\ was\\ intelligent\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meaning\\ was\\ assigned\\ to\\ the\\ slope\\ of\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ his\\ head\\ shape\\,\\ etc\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ physical\\ features\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ convey\\ his\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ these\\ theories\\ of\\ expression\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ history\\ painters\\ to\\ narrate\\ the\\ psychological\\ effects\\ of\\ their\\ paintings\\ and\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ viewer\\ feel\\ a\\ certain\\ emotion\\.\\ The\\ Academy\\ taught\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ was\\ for\\ a\\ painting\\ to\\ be\\ understandable\\ and\\ the\\ figures\\ to\\ be\\ totally\\ legible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Private\\ Body\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sarah\\ Cohen\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Performers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ drawings\\ and\\ paintings\\ of\\ Watteau\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ striking\\ transformation\\ of\\ aristocratic\\ performance\\ into\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ product\\ that\\ a\\ wider\\ public\\ could\\ call\\ their\\ own\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ hundreds\\ of\\ posing\\ figures\\ and\\ their\\ various\\ permutations\\,\\ Watteau\\ exploited\\ the\\ layers\\ of\\ social\\ meaning\\ and\\ suggested\\ aristocratic\\ themes\\ without\\ fixing\\ any\\ messages\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ allowing\\ for\\ various\\ interpretations\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ play\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ artifice\\ \\(deception\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Figure\\ and\\ Character\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Watteau\\ is\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nuances\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ figural\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Details\\ of\\ dress\\ are\\ subordinated\\ to\\ the\\ longer\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ posing\\ figures\\ themselves\\.\\ Long\\ sinuous\\ alignments\\ connect\\ feet\\,\\ legs\\,\\ torso\\,\\ and\\ head\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ elegant\\ twist\\ of\\ the\\ posture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drawings\\ lacking\\ in\\ a\\ scenic\\ finish\\,\\ create\\ a\\ paradox\\ of\\ a\\ naturally\\ artful\\ body\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ preoccupation\\ with\\ corporeal\\ definition\\ in\\ the\\ drawings\\,\\ with\\ emphasis\\ on\\ body\\ alignment\\,\\ contours\\,\\ and\\ shadows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ while\\ the\\ figures\\ may\\ seem\\ spontaneous\\ and\\ exact\\,\\ their\\ postures\\ may\\ actually\\ be\\ impossible\\ to\\ execute\\ given\\ the\\ contortion\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ a\\ constant\\ dialogue\\ between\\ freedom\\ and\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capitalized\\ in\\ Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ works\\ were\\ the\\ presently\\ popular\\ masquerade\\ balls\\,\\ held\\ by\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ nobility\\ in\\ Paris\\,\\ where\\ the\\ leveling\\ devices\\ of\\ costume\\ and\\ mask\\ allowed\\ commoners\\ and\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ aristocracy\\ to\\ pose\\ as\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ to\\ commingle\\ at\\ will\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watteau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\ in\\ costuming\\ his\\ models\\ was\\ precisely\\ to\\ accentuate\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ artificial\\ meet\\.\\ Every\\ line\\ that\\ defines\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ its\\ costume\\ performs\\ the\\ double\\ task\\ of\\ evincing\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ physical\\ presence\\ and\\ transforming\\ that\\ physicality\\ into\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ \\&ldquo\\;characters\\&rdquo\\;\\ represent\\ different\\ states\\ of\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Arabesque\\ Couplings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arabesque\\:\\ a\\ sinuous\\,\\ spiraling\\,\\ undulating\\,\\ or\\ serpentine\\ line\\ or\\ linear\\ motif\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arabesques\\ from\\ early\\ in\\ his\\ career\\ pursued\\ social\\ interaction\\ as\\ an\\ overt\\ theme\\:\\ using\\ the\\ arabesque\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curves\\ and\\ diagonals\\ to\\ imply\\ an\\ erotic\\ bonding\\ between\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ figures\\,\\ populated\\ by\\ lovers\\,\\ animals\\,\\ comedians\\,\\ and\\ erotically\\ charged\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decorative\\ structure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bodily\\ play\\,\\ and\\ bodily\\ play\\ is\\ decoration\\.\\ Charged\\ tension\\ between\\ linear\\ system\\ and\\ space\\,\\ and\\ symmetry\\ and\\ diagonal\\ interaction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Social\\ Play\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Contredanse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\That\\ the\\ intrigue\\ boils\\ down\\ to\\ sex\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ is\\ suggested\\ through\\ the\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ heads\\ confronting\\ one\\ another\\,\\ as\\ if\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contredanse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obviously\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ performing\\ dimension\\ of\\ the\\ forms\\ he\\ was\\ working\\ with\\,\\ Watteau\\ developed\\ a\\ figural\\ language\\ whose\\ medium\\ \\(the\\ costumed\\,\\ gesturing\\ body\\)\\ paralleled\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\ and\\ whose\\ themes\\ epitomized\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ theatrical\\ preoccupations\\ of\\ his\\ era\\.\\ Decorative\\ structures\\ as\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ flirtation\\ exchange\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parting\\ question\\:\\ What\\ does\\ a\\ body\\ do\\ with\\ itself\\ to\\ present\\ a\\ distinctive\\ identity\\ to\\ the\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Erotic\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mary\\ Sheriff\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Erotics\\ of\\ Decoration\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Fragonard\\ was\\ a\\ decorative\\ painter\\ hired\\ by\\ wealthy\\,\\ elitist\\ private\\ patrons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ often\\ painted\\ on\\ panels\\ to\\ show\\ a\\ sequence\\ \\(like\\ his\\ Seasons\\ paintings\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Seasons\\ paintings\\ are\\ all\\ about\\ fecundity\\ \\(or\\ lack\\ of\\ fecundity\\ in\\ the\\ Winter\\ panel\\.\\)\\ While\\ Fall\\,\\ Spring\\,\\ and\\ Summer\\ present\\ a\\ fertile\\ ground\\ under\\ the\\ figure\\,\\ Winter\\ presents\\ a\\ barren\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheriff\\ compares\\ Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ with\\ Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ndash\\;Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figures\\ are\\ often\\ engaging\\ in\\ some\\ non\\-sexual\\ activity\\ that\\ symbolizes\\ lovemaking\\ and\\ surrounded\\ by\\ erotic\\ objects\\ that\\ alluded\\ to\\ sexual\\ organs\\.\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ rustic\\ and\\ painted\\ in\\ pastures\\,\\ but\\ aritfical\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ depicts\\ peasants\\ in\\ artful\\ poses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fragonard\\ inherited\\ Boucher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pastoral\\ mode\\ and\\ also\\ depicted\\ peasants\\ who\\ looked\\ ladylike\\,\\ graceful\\,\\ and\\ refined\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fragonard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figures\\ are\\ sexualized\\,\\ his\\ painting\\ contain\\ many\\ sexual\\ metaphors\\.\\ He\\ used\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fertility\\ to\\ reference\\ human\\ sexuality\\,\\ and\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ seasons\\ to\\ disguise\\ the\\ sexual\\ content\\.\\ But\\ the\\ sexual\\ undertones\\ of\\ his\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ were\\ like\\ inside\\ jokes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ decoded\\ by\\ the\\ viewer\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\.\\ Sheriff\\ even\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ figures\\ in\\ F\\ paintings\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ themselves\\ are\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ joke\\ \\(the\\ look\\ sly\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ closes\\ the\\ gap\\ btwn\\ viewer\\ and\\ subject\\ bc\\ they\\ now\\ share\\ an\\ inside\\ joke\\.\\ Other\\ times\\,\\ though\\,\\ his\\ figures\\ looked\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ viewer\\ believes\\ he\\ is\\ making\\ up\\ sexual\\ content\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ really\\ there\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheriff\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ Diderot\\ disapproved\\ of\\ sexualized\\ or\\ erotic\\ paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ phallic\\ symbols\\ in\\ his\\ paintings\\ that\\ suggest\\ the\\ dominance\\ of\\ the\\ male\\ in\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ultimately\\,\\ F\\ used\\ symbols\\ to\\ represent\\ what\\ he\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ represent\\ directly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sheriff\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ pleasure\\ derived\\ from\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ from\\ what\\ the\\ painting\\ alludes\\ to\\ \\(sex\\)\\ but\\ instead\\ comes\\ from\\ recognizing\\ the\\ witty\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ F\\ disguises\\ sex\\ with\\ his\\ symbols\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ The\\ Bathers\\ also\\ combines\\ the\\ natural\\ and\\ the\\ sexual\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ different\\ from\\ his\\ other\\ painting\\ because\\ it\\ links\\ woman\\ to\\ nature\\ not\\ by\\ symbolic\\ objects\\ \\(like\\ in\\ the\\ Seasons\\ panels\\)\\ but\\ by\\ the\\ formal\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ composition\\,\\ color\\,\\ brushwork\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ figures\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ part\\ by\\ part\\ but\\ as\\ unified\\ with\\ the\\ setting\\.\\ The\\ figures\\ also\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ acknowledge\\ the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\.\\ Sheriff\\ also\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ The\\ Bathers\\,\\ the\\ figures\\ positions\\ and\\ colors\\ mimic\\ the\\ surrounding\\ nature\\ and\\ that\\ connects\\ them\\ to\\ it\\,\\ too\\.\\ \\(Their\\ arms\\ bend\\ like\\ the\\ trees\\ and\\ reeds\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fecundity\\ is\\ reflected\\ onto\\ the\\ figures\\.\\ Sheriff\\ argues\\ that\\ nature\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ natural\\ though\\ in\\ F\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ \\(and\\ the\\ figures\\)\\ are\\ artfully\\ posed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Bathers\\ \\=\\ sexuality\\ slightly\\ more\\ overt\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ Seasons\\ panels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Bathers\\ is\\ more\\ modern\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ brushstrokes\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ painterly\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ a\\ depiction\\ of\\ reality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Moral\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emma\\ Barker\\,\\ Painting\\ and\\ Reform\\ in\\ Eighteenth\\ Century\\ France\\:\\ Greuze\\&rsquo\\;s\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Accord\\é\\;e\\ de\\ Village\\ \\(online\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1761\\ Greuze\\ had\\ his\\ first\\ success\\ with\\ the\\ unprecedentedly\\ popular\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&\\#39\\;Accord\\é\\;e\\ de\\ Village\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ painting\\ was\\ indicative\\ of\\ post\\-1750\\ Enlightenment\\ thinking\\,\\ specifically\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sensebilite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ took\\ over\\ French\\ elite\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ It\\ focused\\ on\\ utilitarian\\ reform\\ of\\ all\\ classes\\ of\\ society\\.\\ Formally\\,\\ it\\ was\\ instantly\\ legible\\ and\\ clear\\,\\ possibly\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ busy\\ Salon\\.\\ The\\ space\\ is\\ shallow\\,\\ all\\ figures\\ are\\ visible\\ and\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ front\\,\\ and\\ everyone\\ is\\ assembled\\ in\\ opposite\\ diagonals\\ from\\ the\\ bottom\\ corners\\,\\ focusing\\ attention\\ clearly\\ on\\ the\\ center\\.\\ Classic\\ tableau\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Didactically\\ sentimental\\:\\ viewer\\ identifies\\ through\\ pathos\\ and\\ understands\\ the\\ lesson\\ through\\ narrative\\ and\\ form\\.\\ Like\\ Rousseau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ accessible\\ and\\ uplifting\\ moral\\ novels\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ immense\\ machine\\,\\ concealed\\ beneath\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ noble\\ simplicity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ bride\\ in\\ particular\\ embodied\\ modest\\ love\\;\\ slightly\\ tearful\\ she\\ gently\\ held\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ her\\ fianc\\é\\;\\.\\ She\\ seduces\\ the\\ viewer\\ into\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ while\\ the\\ eye\\ then\\ \\&lsquo\\;reads\\&rsquo\\;\\ across\\ to\\ the\\ right\\,\\ finally\\ landing\\ on\\ the\\ father\\.\\ He\\ commands\\ attention\\ of\\ all\\ in\\ the\\ work\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ outside\\ the\\ work\\.\\ Respect\\ for\\ his\\ virtuous\\,\\ natural\\ patrimony\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ message\\.\\ The\\ father\\ is\\ placed\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ family\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ notary\\ and\\ governmental\\ authority\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ marriage\\ contract\\.\\ Illustrative\\ of\\ contemporary\\ desire\\ for\\ judicial\\ power\\ in\\ family\\ matters\\ and\\ domestic\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Barker\\ then\\ continues\\ into\\ a\\ long\\ economic\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ determine\\ exactly\\ what\\ role\\ the\\ farmer\\-father\\ had\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ wealthy\\,\\ hard\\-working\\ farmer\\.\\ His\\ family\\ is\\ somewhat\\ urbane\\,\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ clothing\\,\\ but\\ he\\ controls\\ his\\ own\\ land\\,\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ gun\\ on\\ his\\ wall\\.\\ The\\ rural\\ setting\\ is\\ established\\ by\\ the\\ hen\\ and\\ chicks\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ He\\ is\\ a\\ wealthy\\ laborer\\,\\ trusting\\ in\\ the\\ powers\\ of\\ the\\ crown\\,\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ secular\\ marriage\\ contract\\.\\ Greuze\\ did\\ not\\ idealize\\ a\\ rustic\\ rural\\ setting\\,\\ showing\\ poor\\ but\\ happy\\ laborers\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ with\\ primitive\\ instruments\\.\\ He\\ supported\\ more\\ capitalistic\\ farming\\ methods\\,\\ and\\ his\\ rural\\ setting\\ is\\ a\\ profitable\\ farm\\ with\\ a\\ morally\\ advanced\\ family\\.\\ The\\ right\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ sober\\ and\\ productive\\ \\(work\\ of\\ the\\ men\\)\\ and\\ the\\ left\\ half\\ is\\ graceful\\ with\\ feminine\\ luxury\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ formally\\ successful\\ moral\\ painting\\ was\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ negotiate\\ demands\\ for\\ morality\\ and\\ self\\-interest\\ in\\ French\\ society\\ through\\ romanticized\\ rurality\\.\\ It\\ was\\ intended\\ for\\ an\\ aristocratic\\ audience\\ that\\ wanted\\ to\\ view\\ lower\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ moralistic\\ example\\ for\\ a\\ capitalist\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Moral\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Denis\\ Diderot\\,\\ The\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1765\\ \\(Greuze\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Examination\\ of\\ artist\\ Jean\\-Baptiste\\ Greuze\\ \\(1725\\-1805\\)\\.\\ First\\ he\\ looks\\ at\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Young\\ Girl\\ Crying\\ over\\ her\\ Dead\\ Bird\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ On\\ seeing\\ this\\ work\\,\\ he\\ repeatedly\\ wants\\ to\\ exclaim\\ \\&lsquo\\;Delicious\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ by\\ exulting\\ over\\ the\\ sensuous\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ composition\\,\\ and\\ then\\ continues\\ to\\ narrate\\ an\\ imagined\\ story\\ for\\ the\\ Young\\ Girl\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ criticizes\\ a\\ couple\\ flaws\\,\\ specifically\\ that\\ the\\ hand\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ an\\ older\\ teen\\ and\\ the\\ head\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ girl\\ about\\ fifteen\\ or\\ sixteen\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ two\\ important\\ analyses\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ reading\\ are\\ of\\ the\\ paired\\ sketches\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ungrateful\\ Son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Bad\\ Son\\ Punished\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ first\\ depicts\\ a\\ father\\ crying\\ out\\ at\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ young\\ son\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ a\\ tumultuous\\ family\\ scene\\.\\ The\\ second\\ shows\\ the\\ son\\ returning\\ to\\ his\\ home\\ to\\ find\\ his\\ father\\ dead\\ and\\ his\\ relations\\ mourning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Diderot\\ is\\ thorough\\ in\\ his\\ description\\ of\\ these\\ works\\,\\ detailing\\ the\\ composition\\ and\\ emotive\\ effects\\ of\\ every\\ figure\\ present\\.\\ His\\ criticisms\\ center\\ around\\ painterly\\ success\\ in\\ evoking\\ emotions\\ and\\ visceral\\ sensuality\\.\\ He\\ has\\ a\\ clear\\ predilection\\ towards\\ lesson\\ paintings\\ \\(as\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ warn\\ against\\ wayward\\ sons\\)\\ and\\ ravishment\\ \\(he\\ really\\ sees\\ almost\\ every\\ female\\ character\\ as\\ a\\ sex\\-object\\)\\.\\ He\\ also\\ whole\\-heartedly\\ supports\\ the\\ somewhat\\ kitschy\\ and\\ excessive\\ pathos\\ of\\ Greuze\\&rsquo\\;s\\ specifically\\ staged\\ scenes\\ while\\ declaiming\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ public\\ taste\\ for\\ such\\ subjects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ section\\ we\\ discussed\\ how\\ Diderot\\ was\\ really\\ the\\ first\\ art\\ critic\\,\\ and\\ these\\ short\\ essays\\ come\\ from\\ his\\ examinations\\ of\\ works\\ on\\ display\\ an\\ the\\ Salon\\.\\ At\\ such\\ events\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ artists\\ would\\ cover\\ a\\ room\\ with\\ their\\ paintings\\ for\\ a\\ ticketed\\ public\\.\\ Salons\\ were\\ instrumental\\ in\\ bringing\\ art\\ to\\ a\\ wider\\ audience\\,\\ beyond\\ that\\ of\\ necessarily\\ wealthy\\ patrons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Revolutionary\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Start\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\:\\ July\\ 14\\ 1789\\,\\ Storming\\ of\\ the\\ Bastille\\-\\ Directors\\ were\\ killed\\ and\\ beheaded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Radical\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ body\\-\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ unprecedented\\ event\\ that\\ was\\ contemporary\\,\\ how\\ should\\ it\\ be\\ represented\\?\\ Past\\ important\\ events\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;history\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ themes\\ of\\ antiquity\\ could\\ be\\ applied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ effect\\:\\ primitive\\ unedited\\,\\ conveys\\ what\\ happened\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(See\\ Anon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Bastille\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ print\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ ideals\\:\\ new\\ collectivity\\,\\ the\\ republic\\,\\ togetherness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ of\\ body\\ to\\ show\\ these\\ new\\ ideals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1791\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Founding\\ moment\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\-\\ when\\ the\\ new\\ constitution\\ was\\ formed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ had\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ event\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ collectivity\\ was\\ commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ Jacobian\\ club\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ never\\ finished\\ because\\ David\\ became\\ rather\\ busy\\ as\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;official\\&rsquo\\;\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Centralized\\ space\\,\\ interior\\,\\ the\\ viewer\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ their\\ common\\ gesture\\.\\ \\(Structural\\ unity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Figures\\ are\\ physically\\ and\\ emotionally\\ engaged\\ \\(it\\ can\\ be\\ read\\ in\\ their\\ gestures\\ and\\ their\\ facial\\ expressions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Broad\\ shift\\ in\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ represented\\ politically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rigaud\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Louis\\ XIV\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1701\\:\\ one\\ strong\\ figure\\,\\ looking\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ viewer\\,\\ regal\\ surroundings\\,\\ omnipotent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Group\\ of\\ individuals\\ all\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ cause\\,\\ from\\ all\\ estates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marat\\:\\ assassinated\\ in\\ 1793\\ by\\ a\\ politically\\ motivated\\ woman\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ rivals\\ of\\ the\\ Jacobian\\ club\\.\\ \\ \\;Marat\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ supporter\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ friends\\ with\\ David\\ etc\\.\\;\\ this\\ woman\\ was\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ groups\\ who\\ wanted\\ the\\ king\\ to\\ return\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\ at\\ His\\ Last\\ Breath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1793\\.\\ \\ \\;Commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ Jacobian\\ club\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Showed\\ Marat\\ as\\ a\\ victim\\ justifying\\ the\\ Jacobian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ execution\\ of\\ the\\ king\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ had\\ to\\ embody\\ the\\ people\\ he\\ drew\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Andromache\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Grief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1783\\,\\ the\\ heroic\\ death\\ bed\\-\\ however\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ \\&lsquo\\;Andromache\\&rsquo\\;\\ figure\\ i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ figure\\ that\\ instructed\\ the\\ viewer\\ how\\ to\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figure\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;pieta\\&rsquo\\;\\-\\ the\\ way\\ his\\ body\\ hangs\\ limp\\,\\ idealize\\ and\\ heroic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ artists\\ were\\ inspired\\ to\\ portray\\ Marat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\.\\.\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ focus\\ on\\ Marat\\ as\\ a\\ victim\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ David\\ did\\ they\\ included\\ other\\ details\\,\\ more\\ narrative\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ in\\ the\\ Revolution\\:\\ stormed\\ Versailles\\ for\\ bread\\&hellip\\;they\\ were\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;Shown\\ as\\ heroines\\ and\\ agents\\ of\\ historical\\ action\\ \\(only\\ in\\ prints\\,\\ no\\ paintings\\)\\ See\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Triumphant\\ Return\\ of\\ French\\ Heroinse\\ from\\ Versailles\\,\\ October\\ 1789\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;engraving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Female\\ body\\ represented\\ abstract\\ ideals\\ of\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1999\\:\\ \\ \\;shift\\ of\\ ideas\\ about\\ women\\ use\\ an\\ allegorical\\ scene\\ of\\ women\\ urging\\ the\\ men\\ to\\ cease\\ fighting\\ to\\ stand\\ for\\ political\\ strife\\ between\\ the\\ fractions\\ for\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ emerge\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\/composition\\,\\ standing\\ for\\ public\\ ideals\\:\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ \\(mingling\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ bodies\\:\\ heroically\\ nude\\ marked\\ shift\\ from\\ embodiment\\/commitment\\ to\\ political\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;male\\ aesthetic\\ of\\ beauty\\ w\\/\\ erotic\\ overtones\\,\\ male\\ subjectivity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Revolution\\ Glacee\\,\\ Ewa\\ Lajer\\-Burcharth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(I\\ have\\ outlined\\ it\\ by\\ section\\ 1\\-6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Exhibition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 21\\ December\\ 1799\\ independent\\ Salon\\ of\\ David\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ David\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ revive\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ the\\ Greeks\\ \\(heroic\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Difference\\ of\\ the\\ sexes\\ is\\ articulate\\:\\ women\\ are\\ present\\ centrally\\,\\ men\\ have\\ an\\ erotic\\ construction\\.\\ \\ \\;David\\ wanted\\ to\\ embody\\ and\\ consolidate\\ the\\ accomplishments\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ the\\ painting\\:\\ all\\ were\\ welcome\\ to\\ attend\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ admission\\ was\\ paid\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ protecting\\ and\\ asserting\\ his\\ autonomy\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ new\\ display\\ \\(with\\ mirrors\\:\\ confusion\\ between\\ the\\ painted\\ bodies\\ and\\ the\\ visitors\\)\\ would\\ allow\\ viewers\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ work\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;sharing\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ experience\\ by\\ paying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Fleshing\\ out\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Pierre\\ Chaussard\\ claimed\\ that\\ David\\ had\\ captured\\ the\\ very\\ essence\\ of\\ bodies\\ from\\ antiquity\\.\\ \\ \\;Antiquity\\ was\\ the\\ ideal\\ for\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ Directoire\\ sought\\ to\\ present\\ itself\\ as\\ lawful\\,\\ legitimate\\ after\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;Passions\\ and\\ strong\\ emotion\\ are\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ female\\ figures\\,\\ they\\ are\\ varied\\ though\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ women\\ are\\ shown\\ as\\ intervening\\-\\ central\\.\\ The\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ male\\ body\\ \\(nude\\,\\ heroic\\,\\ monumental\\)\\ is\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ heroic\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ The\\ Viewing\\ Experience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Psyche\\ mirror\\ placed\\ directly\\ opposite\\ to\\ the\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ purposely\\ aligned\\ themselves\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ find\\ their\\ own\\ reflection\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ not\\ only\\ looking\\ for\\ themselves\\ but\\ also\\ what\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ become\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ paintings\\ were\\ ideals\\,\\ their\\ nudity\\ was\\ symbolic\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ David\\ had\\ made\\ them\\ all\\ clothes\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;imperfect\\.\\ After\\ the\\ revolution\\ everyone\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;find\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;identify\\&rdquo\\;\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ The\\ Mirror\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Most\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ Terror\\ where\\ caricatures\\,\\ not\\ high\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ started\\ to\\ intervene\\ with\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ 1795\\ and\\ were\\ always\\ seen\\ as\\ incapable\\ for\\ all\\ political\\ action\\ on\\ biological\\,\\ psychological\\ and\\ moral\\ grounds\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&lsquo\\;woman\\ in\\ red\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Sabines\\:\\ represents\\ women\\ during\\ the\\ revolution\\ and\\ the\\ unruly\\,\\ excessive\\ and\\ violent\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Terror\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ The\\ Moral\\ Body\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ The\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ fused\\ with\\ moral\\ and\\ social\\ function\\ that\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ to\\ perform\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ the\\ violence\\ of\\ the\\ Terror\\/\\ Guillotine\\ the\\ ideologists\\ of\\ the\\ Directoire\\ wanted\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ place\\ an\\ enlightened\\ opinion\\/belief\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ body\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ socially\\ useful\\ figure\\:\\ morally\\ eloquent\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ female\\&rsquo\\;s\\ anatomy\\ dictated\\ her\\ social\\ use\\ i\\.e\\.\\ mother\\,\\ contained\\ within\\ the\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Model\\ mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fashionable\\ Mother\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Marriage\\ was\\ a\\ society\\ ideal\\,\\ to\\ produce\\ \\&ldquo\\;citizens\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Inter\\-male\\ desire\\ is\\ discussed\\;\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ involve\\ women\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attraction\\ to\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Revolutionary\\ Body\\,\\ Part\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\artists\\ at\\ work\\ during\\ revolutionary\\ period\\ aimed\\ to\\ convey\\ revolutionary\\ ideals\\ in\\ their\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paintings\\ communicated\\ collectivity\\ of\\ republic\\,\\ unity\\ of\\ people\\ by\\ displaying\\ collective\\ groups\\ engaged\\ in\\ unified\\ activities\\,\\ gestures\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paintings\\ of\\ current\\ events\\ emerge\\ and\\ replace\\ history\\ painting\\ as\\ chief\\ source\\ of\\ didactic\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\return\\ to\\ academic\\ notions\\ of\\ legibility\\,\\ decorum\\,\\ physiognomy\\ \\(but\\ used\\ to\\ communicate\\ power\\ of\\ people\\,\\ not\\ power\\ of\\ monarch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\polarized\\ gender\\ roles\\ \\(men\\ represent\\ public\\ power\\ and\\ concrete\\ civic\\ values\\,\\ women\\ represent\\ private\\ life\\,\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ abstract\\ ideals\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significant\\ Paintings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Oath\\ of\\ the\\ Tennis\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marat\\ at\\ His\\ Last\\ Breath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ewa\\ Lajer\\-Burcharth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Necklines\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\explores\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ aesthetic\\ shift\\ in\\ 1795\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\exemplified\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\source\\ of\\ inspiration\\ shifts\\ from\\ Roman\\ art\\ \\(focus\\ on\\ beauty\\ and\\ social\\ coherence\\)\\ to\\ Greek\\ art\\ \\(focus\\ on\\ intensity\\,\\ drama\\,\\ conflict\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\represents\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\notions\\ of\\ gender\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolution\\ aimed\\ to\\ create\\ social\\ equality\\,\\ but\\ popular\\ perceptions\\ of\\ women\\ still\\ reduced\\ them\\ to\\ inferior\\ roles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ became\\ limited\\ to\\ childbearing\\,\\ which\\ kept\\ them\\ separate\\ from\\ politics\\ but\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ Revolution\\ by\\ providing\\ offspring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\explores\\ use\\ of\\ psych\\é\\;\\ mirror\\ in\\ presentation\\ of\\ art\\ \\(incorporated\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ involve\\ the\\ viewer\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ force\\ the\\ painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ morals\\ upon\\ him\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Body\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Body\\:\\ Artists\\ no\\ longer\\ represent\\ themselves\\ surrounded\\ with\\ intellectual\\ objects\\ \\(Academic\\ body\\)\\ but\\ as\\ collective\\ body\\ due\\ to\\ collapse\\ of\\ Academy\\ and\\ Salon\\ becoming\\ public\\.\\ \\ \\;Body\\ as\\ self\\-promotional\\ fantasy\\ of\\ artistic\\ community\\ in\\ void\\ of\\ Academy\\.\\ Romanticism\\-artist\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ body\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ soul\\&mdash\\;shift\\ from\\ social\\ to\\ psychological\\.\\ \\ \\;Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Realism\\ shows\\ psychic\\ identity\\ as\\ performance\\ of\\ self\\&mdash\\;idea\\ of\\ disguise\\ as\\ terrain\\ for\\ negotiating\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;Modernist\\ concerns\\-art\\ produced\\ with\\ self\\-consciousness\\ about\\ modern\\ city\\ experience\\ and\\ instability\\ of\\ artist\\ in\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\ \\;Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Realism\\-\\"\\;Courbet\\ Early\\ Self\\-Portraits\\"\\;\\ \\;Michael\\ Fried\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fried\\ undertakes\\ to\\ situate\\ the\\ representational\\ project\\ of\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-portraits\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ understanding\\ of\\ his\\ monumentalist\\ Realist\\ pictures\\ of\\ 1848\\-51\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phenomenological\\ reading\\/Themes\\ Fried\\ touches\\ upon\\ in\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ portraits\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Engrossment\\ in\\ reverie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ The\\ Sculptor\\ \\(1844\\)\\,\\ losing\\ consciousness\\,\\ sleep\\,\\ etc\\.\\-consciousness\\ often\\ flows\\ into\\ surroundings\\.\\ \\ \\;Emphasis\\ on\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\ as\\ dilation\\ of\\ ordinary\\ waking\\ awareness\\.\\ Sleep\\ aims\\ to\\ present\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liveness\\ in\\ its\\ simplest\\ form\\-\\&ldquo\\;primordial\\ presence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peculiar\\ bodily\\ positions\\/compositional\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-viewer\\ often\\ looks\\ up\\ to\\ sitter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ from\\ below\\ \\(Wounded\\ Man\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Foreshortening\\ of\\ body\\-the\\ sitter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ body\\ is\\ foreshortened\\-he\\ occupies\\ towards\\ his\\ body\\ a\\ fixed\\ and\\ unchanging\\ point\\ of\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ as\\ object\\ actually\\ lived\\-embodied\\ body\\,\\ not\\ the\\ object\\ body\\&mdash\\;i\\.e\\.\\ Wounded\\ Man\\-body\\ as\\ object\\ obscured\\ under\\ a\\ cloak\\-possessed\\ from\\ within\\&mdash\\;body\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\actually\\ lived\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ given\\ expression\\ thru\\ the\\ hands\\ that\\ clasp\\ the\\ cloak\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ hand\\ motif\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ single\\ hand\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ passivity\\/relaxation\\ away\\ from\\ body\\,\\ as\\ if\\ hand\\ were\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ internal\\ feeling\\ brought\\ into\\ focus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ hands\\ in\\ activity\\,\\ tension\\-grasping\\,\\ clasping\\,\\ etc\\ as\\ if\\ to\\ evoke\\ a\\ sensation\\ of\\ effort\\ from\\ within\\.\\ Hand\\ as\\ locus\\ of\\ sensation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Facial\\ expressions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-all\\ are\\ uncommunicative\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;character\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;personality\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;Fried\\ suggests\\ inexpressiveness\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ evoke\\ within\\ the\\ painting\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intense\\ absorption\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ live\\ bodily\\ being\\&mdash\\;his\\ bodily\\ liveness\\&mdash\\;driven\\ to\\ express\\ through\\ the\\ self\\-portrait\\ a\\ sense\\/intuition\\/conviction\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ embodiedness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Viewer\\-Painter\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-physical\\ proximity\\ of\\ painted\\ image\\ to\\ surface\\ of\\ painting\\,\\ and\\ beyond\\ surface\\ to\\ beholder\\.\\ \\ \\;Ontological\\ impermeability\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\ surface\\ \\(The\\ Wounded\\ Man\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Framing\\-edge\\ contains\\ representation\\ and\\ keeps\\ it\\ at\\ distance\\ from\\ beholder\\.\\ Water\\ in\\ Wounded\\ Man\\ suggests\\ spilling\\ over\\ of\\ painting\\ into\\ world\\ of\\ beholder\\,\\ refusal\\ of\\ painting\\ to\\ confine\\ itself\\/its\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Bottom\\ edges\\ of\\ Courbet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ are\\ often\\ problematic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Preoccupation\\ with\\ nearness\\-arbitrary\\ lighting\\ in\\ Desperate\\ Man\\ thrusts\\ subject\\ towards\\ surface\\-physical\\ aggression\\ to\\ close\\ gulf\\ between\\ sitter\\ and\\ beholder\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portraits\\ seek\\ to\\ avoid\\/minimize\\ confrontation\\ between\\ sitter\\ and\\ beholder\\.\\ \\ \\;Seek\\ to\\ make\\ congruent\\ relation\\ between\\ sitter\\ and\\ beholder\\.\\ \\ \\;Courbet\\ as\\ first\\ beholder\\-conscious\\ absorption\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ bodily\\ being\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historically\\ conditioned\\ pictorial\\ demands\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beholder\\-centered\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ 1840s\\ in\\ French\\ painting\\&mdash\\;imperative\\ that\\ the\\ painter\\ negate\\ or\\ neutralize\\ the\\ primordial\\ convention\\ that\\ paintings\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ beheld\\&mdash\\;that\\ he\\ manage\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ fiction\\ that\\ the\\ beholder\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Generally\\ accomplished\\ thru\\ pictorial\\ drama\\-figures\\ so\\ absorbed\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ emotionally\\-charged\\ situation\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ become\\ immured\\ in\\ world\\ of\\ painting\\ and\\ be\\ therefore\\ oblivious\\ to\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ being\\ beheld\\ from\\ an\\ outside\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Courbet\\ revokes\\ distance\\ and\\ difference\\ between\\ himself\\ and\\ representation\\ of\\ himself\\-sought\\ to\\ annul\\ his\\ presence\\/identity\\ as\\ beholder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\-portrait\\ privileged\\ for\\ Courbet\\ because\\ it\\ lent\\ itself\\ to\\ his\\ efforts\\ at\\ representing\\ his\\ own\\ embodiedness\\ and\\ also\\ because\\ his\\ struggle\\ against\\ his\\ identity\\ as\\ beholder\\ found\\ a\\ counter\\-conventional\\ home\\ through\\ subversion\\ of\\ painting\\ convention\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Act\\ of\\ painting\\ called\\ to\\ attention\\ in\\ various\\ portraits\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ other\\ figures\\ in\\ his\\ self\\-portraits\\ are\\ not\\ quiet\\ independent\\ or\\ detached\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ambiguity\\ in\\ painter\\-beholder\\ relation\\ to\\ painting\\ before\\ him\\-painter\\ labored\\ to\\ project\\ himself\\ and\\ undo\\ metaphorics\\ of\\ possession\\,\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ separate\\ existence\\ altogether\\&mdash\\;metaphorics\\ of\\ merger\\,\\ incompleteness\\,\\ disappearance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ House\\ of\\ the\\ Soul\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Stendhal\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Salon\\ 1824\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Marie\\-Henri\\ Beyle\\ \\(penname\\ \\&ldquo\\;Stendhal\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ A\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ French\\ writer\\,\\ who\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ giving\\ acute\\ attention\\ to\\ his\\ characters\\&rsquo\\;\\ psyche\\.\\ This\\ particular\\ piece\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Salon\\ of\\ 1824\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ critical\\ review\\ of\\ various\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ that\\ were\\ on\\ display\\ in\\ the\\ Salon\\ of\\ 1824\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ public\\ frankly\\ and\\ simply\\ what\\ I\\ feel\\ about\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ pictures\\&hellip\\;I\\ will\\ give\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ my\\ particular\\ point\\ of\\ view\\.\\ My\\ aim\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ each\\ spectator\\ search\\ his\\ soul\\,\\ analyze\\ his\\ personal\\ manner\\ of\\ feeling\\,\\ and\\ come\\ in\\ this\\ manner\\ to\\ for\\ m\\ his\\ own\\ opinion\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ disabuse\\ \\[discourage\\]\\ equally\\ the\\ youthful\\ painters\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ of\\ David\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ imitation\\ of\\ Horance\\ Vernet\\,\\ that\\ is\\ my\\ second\\ aim\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Arguments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ dawn\\ of\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ the\\ Fine\\ Arts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Bored\\ and\\ disgusted\\ with\\ the\\ nude\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ infinite\\ patience\\,\\ and\\ with\\ brilliant\\ genius\\,\\ in\\ two\\-three\\ years\\ one\\ can\\ arrive\\ at\\ a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ conformation\\ and\\ the\\ exact\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ hundred\\ muscles\\ which\\ cover\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ and\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ reproduce\\ them\\ with\\ a\\ brush\\.\\ But\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ paint\\ the\\ passions\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ difficult\\,\\ and\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ seen\\ and\\ felt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ school\\ of\\ Davlid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\can\\ only\\ paint\\ bodies\\;\\ it\\ is\\ decidedly\\ inept\\ at\\ painting\\ souls\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ Delacroix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ a\\ feeling\\ for\\ color\\,\\ and\\ his\\ figures\\ have\\ movement\\.\\ But\\ Stendhal\\ finds\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Massacre\\ of\\ Scio\\&rdquo\\;\\ mediocre\\ through\\ insignificance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ an\\ immense\\ superiority\\ over\\ all\\ the\\ painters\\ of\\ the\\ large\\ pictures\\ which\\ paper\\ the\\ great\\ salons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Towards\\ Ingres\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Louis\\ XIII\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vow\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ very\\ dry\\ work\\,\\ and\\ borrowing\\ from\\ a\\ patchwork\\ of\\ Italian\\ masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Madonna\\ has\\ material\\ beauty\\,\\ but\\ no\\ divine\\ beauty\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ painting\\ with\\ feeling\\ but\\ not\\ with\\ science\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ new\\ school\\ has\\ arisen\\ in\\ 18234\\ to\\ the\\ great\\ dissatisfaction\\ of\\ the\\ pupils\\ of\\ David\\.\\ Schenetz\\,\\ Delacroix\\,\\ Scheffer\\,\\ Delaroche\\,\\ and\\ Sigalon\\ have\\ had\\ the\\ insolence\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ admired\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Schnetz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pictures\\ will\\ be\\ admired\\ for\\ a\\ hundred\\ years\\.\\ No\\ similar\\ movement\\ can\\ be\\ noticed\\ in\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;So\\ much\\ the\\ better\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ cries\\ the\\ school\\ of\\ David\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;So\\ much\\ the\\ worse\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ says\\ the\\ amateur\\ who\\ leaves\\ the\\ hall\\ of\\ sculpture\\ with\\ no\\ deeply\\ felt\\ emotion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ great\\ fault\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ School\\ of\\ Painting\\ is\\ the\\ total\\ lack\\ of\\ chiaroscuro\\ that\\ also\\ ranges\\ among\\ mediocre\\ works\\ and\\ is\\ in\\ this\\ large\\ portrait\\ so\\ impatiently\\ awaited\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sabine\\ Women\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ equal\\ talent\\,\\ Vernet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ battle\\ would\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ battle\\.\\ What\\ sympathy\\ can\\ a\\ Frenchman\\ feel\\,\\ who\\ has\\ given\\ some\\ saber\\ cuts\\ in\\ his\\ life\\,\\ with\\ those\\ men\\ who\\ fight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\naked\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\House\\ of\\ the\\ Soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prendeville\\ \\"\\;Features\\ of\\ Insanity\\,\\ as\\ Seen\\ by\\ G\\é\\;ricault\\ and\\ by\\ B\\ü\\;chner\\"\\;\\ \\(online\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portraits\\ of\\ the\\ insane\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ image\\ analysis\\:\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ intensity\\ of\\ gaze\\ at\\ removed\\ object\\ creates\\ sense\\ of\\ distance\\,\\ repetition\\ of\\ subject\\ creates\\ sense\\ of\\ scientific\\ analysis\\,\\ the\\ rigid\\ detail\\ of\\ the\\ face\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ disheveled\\ clothing\\ evokes\\ focused\\ insanity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intersection\\ of\\ medical\\ and\\ history\\ paintings\\.\\ Scientific\\ medical\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ religious\\,\\ analyses\\ of\\ human\\ functioning\\ were\\ flourishing\\ after\\ the\\ Restoration\\ around\\ 1815\\,\\ and\\ medical\\ engravings\\/paintings\\ paid\\ meticulous\\ attention\\ to\\ visceral\\ detail\\.\\ David\\ took\\ history\\ painting\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ level\\ of\\ realism\\ and\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ fragile\\ human\\ body\\.\\ Gericault\\ worked\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ history\\ tradition\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ post\\-Restoration\\ generation\\ was\\ greatly\\ concerned\\ with\\ liberating\\ the\\ human\\ through\\ scientific\\ improvement\\.\\ The\\ portraits\\ struggle\\ between\\ body\\ legibility\\ for\\ the\\ audience\\ and\\ hiding\\ the\\ secrets\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\ for\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ had\\ other\\ work\\ focusing\\ on\\ urban\\ realism\\,\\ relating\\ a\\ fractured\\ society\\ and\\ portraying\\ instances\\ of\\ subjective\\ loss\\ or\\ death\\ \\(severed\\ heads\\,\\ hanging\\ of\\ unconnected\\ figures\\,\\ coal\\ wagon\\ turning\\ away\\ into\\ a\\ dark\\ tunnel\\)\\.\\ The\\ scene\\ of\\ his\\ portraits\\ immobilizes\\ the\\ sitter\\;\\ they\\ become\\ bound\\ by\\ the\\ gaze\\ of\\ the\\ viewer\\ they\\ cannot\\ meet\\.\\ Identity\\ and\\ the\\ labeling\\ of\\ their\\ illness\\ imposes\\ on\\ them\\ with\\ our\\ gaze\\.\\ They\\ stare\\ intensely\\ at\\ an\\ external\\ object\\,\\ limited\\ in\\ their\\ gaze\\,\\ but\\ resistant\\ in\\ their\\ fierocity\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\ which\\ lives\\ on\\ in\\ them\\ is\\ distinct\\ not\\ only\\ from\\ the\\ labels\\ imposed\\ on\\ them\\,\\ but\\ from\\ whatever\\ public\\ and\\ familial\\ identities\\ they\\ have\\ relinquished\\ or\\ forgotten\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Long\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ playwright\\ Buchner\\ serves\\ to\\ highlight\\ Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(and\\ Balzac\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ attention\\ to\\ contemporary\\ realism\\ and\\ tinge\\ it\\ with\\ uncertainties\\ of\\ purpose\\ and\\ irrationality\\ of\\ modern\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\ the\\ works\\ are\\ tragic\\ portrayals\\ of\\ a\\ subject\\ bound\\ by\\ modern\\ existence\\.\\ Their\\ life\\ is\\ torn\\ by\\ specifically\\ post\\-Restoration\\ concerns\\ of\\ soul\\ versus\\ machine\\,\\ freedom\\ versus\\ subjection\\.\\ This\\ is\\ realism\\ purposefully\\ incompletely\\ legible\\;\\ the\\ works\\ portray\\ a\\ subject\\ hiding\\ something\\ about\\ himself\\ and\\ resisting\\ public\\ inquisition\\ and\\ labeling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\ and\\ the\\ Colonial\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Darcy\\ Grimaldo\\ Grigsby\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Black\\ Revolution\\,\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\:\\ Girodet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Portrait\\ of\\ Citizen\\ Belley\\,\\ Ex\\-Repersentative\\ of\\ the\\ Colonies\\,\\ 1797\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Extremeties\\:\\ Painting\\ Empire\\ in\\ Post\\-Revolutionary\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Challenge\\ of\\ doing\\ history\\ painting\\ contemporaneously\\ with\\ events\\&mdash\\;idea\\ of\\ using\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\martyr\\-acad\\é\\;mies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ie\\,\\ martyrs\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\,\\ to\\ reconcile\\ past\\ and\\ present\\,\\ general\\ and\\ specific\\,\\ classical\\ and\\ contemporary\\,\\ history\\ painting\\ and\\ portraiture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Question\\ of\\ how\\ permeable\\ the\\ French\\ body\\ politic\\ was\\&mdash\\;did\\ it\\ matter\\ that\\ constituents\\ all\\ looked\\ the\\ same\\,\\ or\\ was\\ heterogeneity\\ something\\ that\\ would\\ work\\&mdash\\;Grigsby\\ positions\\ this\\ work\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ ambitious\\ painted\\ response\\ to\\ these\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\ as\\ both\\ object\\ of\\ painting\\ \\(legible\\ form\\)\\ and\\ as\\ sitter\\ of\\ portrait\\ \\(subjecthood\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\ in\\ France\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Girodet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Race\\ became\\ an\\ increasingly\\ important\\ category\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\,\\ intimately\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Slavery\\ had\\ been\\ abolished\\ 8\\ months\\ before\\ execution\\ of\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Representatives\\ \\(including\\ Belley\\)\\ presented\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tricolor\\&rdquo\\;\\ flag\\,\\ representing\\ Black\\,\\ White\\,\\ and\\ Mulatto\\ elements\\ of\\ constituents\\ of\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ flag\\ provided\\ image\\ of\\ alliance\\ among\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\equal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;parts\\ of\\ constituency\\,\\ but\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ race\\ was\\ a\\ useful\\ means\\ of\\ dividing\\ people\\,\\ focus\\ on\\ skin\\ color\\&rsquo\\;s\\ irreducibility\\,\\ flag\\ acted\\ as\\ legible\\ sign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Notion\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;people\\ of\\ color\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;related\\ to\\ idea\\ that\\ race\\ was\\ aligned\\ with\\ class\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blacks\\ were\\ always\\ slaves\\,\\ whites\\ were\\ free\\,\\ but\\ person\\ of\\ color\\/mulatto\\ was\\ a\\ socio\\-economic\\ description\\ unto\\ itself\\,\\ somewhere\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ a\\ biological\\ and\\ socio\\-economic\\ term\\,\\ famously\\ difficult\\ to\\ define\\ and\\ legislate\\.\\ \\ \\;Were\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ bring\\ up\\ issue\\ of\\ enfranchisement\\,\\ this\\ was\\ foregrounded\\ over\\ issue\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ emancipation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Liberty\\/slavery\\ issue\\&mdash\\;Revolutionary\\ idea\\ of\\ liberty\\ often\\ defined\\ by\\ images\\ of\\ being\\ freed\\ from\\ theoretical\\ slavery\\,\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ difficult\\ way\\ of\\ defining\\ liberty\\ given\\ existence\\ of\\ real\\ slavery\\ in\\ colonies\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ proslavery\\ Revolutionaries\\ had\\ to\\ turn\\ to\\ notion\\ of\\ race\\/skin\\ color\\ \\(discrete\\ categories\\)\\ to\\ define\\ difference\\ and\\ legitimize\\ slavery\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ class\\/free\\ vs\\ not\\ free\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;Oppositions\\ of\\ black\\/white\\ and\\ slave\\/free\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ identical\\.\\ \\ \\;Constant\\ fear\\ of\\ slave\\ uprising\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\ and\\ identity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Origins\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ colonies\\ or\\ metropole\\:\\ \\ \\;Belley\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;men\\ of\\ color\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ him\\ positioned\\ themselves\\ as\\ having\\ origins\\ in\\ France\\,\\ France\\ as\\ the\\ fatherland\\,\\ source\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-This\\ meant\\ fighting\\ for\\ France\\ as\\ soldier\\ of\\ fatherland\\.\\ \\ \\;Issue\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ soldier\\ very\\ important\\&mdash\\;at\\ stake\\ was\\ whether\\ this\\ would\\ prevent\\ slave\\ uprising\\ or\\ make\\ issue\\ worse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\ was\\ officer\\&mdash\\;both\\ commanded\\ white\\ soldiers\\ and\\ had\\ monopoly\\ of\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Uniform\\ was\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ this\\ identity\\,\\ otherwise\\ a\\ disembodied\\,\\ abstracted\\ idea\\ of\\ slave\\ \\(as\\ was\\ usually\\ depicted\\ in\\ prints\\ of\\ abolitionists\\ etc\\)\\,\\ portraiture\\ further\\ freed\\ Belley\\ from\\ anonymity\\ of\\ generalized\\ slave\\ depiction\\.\\ \\ \\;Important\\ that\\ his\\ portrait\\ was\\ mixture\\ of\\ portrait\\ and\\ history\\ painting\\ \\(see\\ introduction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portrait\\ itself\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Raynal\\ bust\\&mdash\\;marble\\ bust\\ has\\ almost\\ lifelike\\ characteristics\\,\\ extremely\\ white\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skin\\,\\ bust\\ as\\ effigy\\ to\\ man\\ who\\ had\\ had\\ complicated\\/contradictory\\ relationship\\ to\\ issues\\ of\\ emancipation\\ and\\ the\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Lifelike\\ quality\\ points\\ to\\ his\\ almost\\ being\\ alive\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\,\\ but\\ not\\ quite\\,\\ juxtaposed\\ with\\ Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actual\\ vitality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Painting\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ physiognomy\\ \\(of\\ Lavater\\ and\\ in\\ general\\)\\&mdash\\;Girodet\\ knew\\ work\\ of\\ Lavater\\,\\ but\\ not\\ likely\\ that\\ this\\ painting\\ aimed\\ at\\ participated\\ in\\ his\\ tradition\\,\\ possibly\\ shows\\ influence\\ of\\ other\\ physiognamist\\ thinkers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Challenge\\ of\\ painting\\ dark\\ skin\\ for\\ Dividian\\ portrait\\ painter\\&mdash\\;evocation\\ of\\ light\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ shadow\\ as\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ case\\ with\\ light\\ skin\\.\\ \\ \\;Critics\\ wondered\\ if\\ ideal\\ beauty\\/portrait\\ could\\ be\\ made\\ with\\ dark\\ skinned\\ sitter\\ \\(Girodet\\ and\\ Benoist\\ paintings\\ obviously\\ prove\\ them\\ wrong\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ gives\\ effect\\ of\\ sitter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autonomy\\ and\\ inscrutability\\&mdash\\;his\\ thoughts\\ are\\ important\\,\\ independent\\,\\ intellectually\\ grave\\,\\ but\\ private\\&mdash\\;in\\ contrast\\ to\\ depictions\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Belley\\ depicted\\ as\\ both\\ law\\-abiding\\ and\\ self\\-disciplined\\ \\(not\\ rebel\\ or\\ slave\\,\\ the\\ two\\ usual\\ tropes\\ used\\ to\\ depict\\/think\\ of\\ blacks\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ helped\\ by\\ depiction\\ of\\ genitals\\&mdash\\;made\\ very\\ explicit\\,\\ site\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ virility\\ held\\ in\\ check\\ by\\ self\\-discipline\\,\\ volition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Final\\ discussion\\:\\ contrast\\ between\\ way\\ Belley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ was\\ received\\ in\\ 1791\\ and\\ way\\ Benoist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Portrait\\ of\\ a\\ Negress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ received\\ in\\ 1800\\.\\ \\ \\;Revulsion\\ to\\ black\\ subject\\ more\\ bluntly\\ expressed\\ as\\ Consulate\\ moved\\ to\\ more\\ exclusionary\\ position\\,\\ eventually\\ slavery\\ re\\-legalized\\,\\ helped\\ by\\ Napoleon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ in\\ Egypt\\ and\\ Tousaint\\-L\\&rsquo\\;Ouverture\\&rsquo\\;s\\ revolt\\ in\\ Saint\\-Domingue\\/Haiti\\ \\(Belley\\ fought\\ against\\ these\\ revolutionaries\\,\\ but\\ was\\ still\\ later\\ imprisoned\\ by\\ the\\ French\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ethnographic\\ Gaze\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Race\\ as\\ visual\\ trope\\ positioned\\ under\\ white\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ \\;Colonial\\ body\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ \\&ndash\\;passive\\,\\ sexually\\ available\\,\\ or\\ violent\\.\\ \\ \\;Cultural\\ means\\ of\\ display\\ produced\\ object\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ Other\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ subjectively\\ visually\\ represented\\ under\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ being\\ scientifically\\,\\ objectively\\ shown\\ \\(think\\ of\\ Hottentot\\ Venus\\ and\\ how\\ she\\ was\\ represented\\ as\\ a\\ scientific\\ \\&ldquo\\;specimen\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Ethnographic\\ gaze\\ was\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ other\\ can\\ be\\ placed\\.\\ \\ \\;Implied\\ hierarchy\\ between\\ object\\ defined\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ knowing\\ subject\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Timothy\\ Mitchell\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ World\\ as\\ Exhibition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ examines\\ what\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ exhibiting\\ at\\ France\\&rsquo\\;s\\ World\\ Exhibitions\\ says\\ about\\ the\\ modern\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;Mitchell\\ explores\\ this\\ through\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ Arab\\ writers\\,\\ who\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ an\\ ordering\\ up\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ an\\ endless\\ exhibition\\.\\ The\\ Orient\\ as\\ the\\ West\\&rsquo\\;s\\ great\\ \\&ldquo\\;external\\ reality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\World\\ Exhibition\\ in\\ Paris\\-\\ constructed\\ a\\ carefully\\ chaotic\\ Egyptian\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imported\\ 50\\ donkeys\\ from\\ Cairo\\,\\ made\\ buildings\\ dirty\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Europe\\ as\\ an\\ object\\-world\\-curiosity\\ of\\ observing\\ subject\\ rendered\\ things\\ as\\ objects\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ visitor\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Le\\ spectacle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-Parisian\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ set\\ the\\ world\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ picture\\;\\ arranged\\ object\\ on\\ display\\ for\\ audience\\-to\\ be\\ viewed\\,\\ investigated\\,\\ and\\ experienced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\World\\ exhibitions\\-direct\\ experience\\ of\\ object\\-world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refers\\ to\\ not\\ an\\ exhibition\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ conceived\\ and\\ grasped\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ were\\ an\\ exhibition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Machinery\\ of\\ representation\\-rendered\\ world\\ as\\ a\\ thing\\ to\\ be\\ viewed\\ and\\ thus\\ produced\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ spectacle\\ through\\ cultural\\ difference\\ and\\ imperial\\ truth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ museums\\,\\ public\\ gardens\\,\\ theater\\,\\ zoo\\&mdash\\;all\\ organized\\ under\\ European\\ system\\ as\\ signifiers\\ of\\ some\\ larger\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ was\\ realistic\\ but\\ always\\ distinguishable\\ from\\ the\\ reality\\ it\\ claimed\\ to\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Representation\\ depended\\ on\\ displacement\\ in\\ space\\ separating\\ the\\ representation\\ from\\ the\\ real\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;Representation\\ of\\ reality\\ was\\ an\\ exhibit\\ set\\ up\\ for\\ an\\ observer\\-observer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gaze\\ surrounded\\ by\\ exhibit\\ yet\\ excluded\\ from\\ its\\ careful\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ separate\\ oneself\\ from\\ world\\ and\\ render\\ it\\ as\\ object\\ of\\ representation\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ lose\\ oneself\\ within\\ object\\-world\\ and\\ experience\\ it\\ directly\\.\\ Double\\ position\\ of\\ European\\ as\\ participant\\-observer\\ in\\ world\\ exhibitions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exhibition\\ creates\\ dichotomies\\:\\ representation\\/original\\,\\ exhibit\\/external\\ reality\\ and\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Reality\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ represented\\ in\\ an\\ exhibit\\.\\ \\ \\;Reality\\ as\\ extended\\ exhibition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Commercial\\ worlds\\-in\\-miniature\\-representation\\ of\\ its\\ commodities\\.\\ Discipline\\ of\\ the\\ European\\ gaze\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ world\\ of\\ representation\\-claim\\ to\\ certainty\\ or\\ truth\\,\\ certainly\\ in\\ order\\ and\\ organization\\,\\ political\\ decidedness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Certainty\\ exists\\ as\\ determined\\ correspondence\\ btwn\\ mere\\ representations\\ and\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonial\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ exhibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\European\\ Writers\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experience\\ of\\ strangeness\\ expressed\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ forming\\ a\\ picture\\&mdash\\;need\\ to\\ step\\ back\\ and\\ draw\\/photograph\\/write\\ precisely\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ strangeness\\ of\\ another\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Pictorial\\ certainty\\ of\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ of\\ writer\\/photographer\\ visiting\\ Middle\\ East\\ was\\ not\\ take\\ accurate\\ picture\\ of\\ East\\ and\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ the\\ East\\ as\\ a\\ picture\\&mdash\\;to\\ create\\ a\\ distance\\ between\\ oneself\\ and\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ picture\\-like\\,\\ like\\ on\\ object\\ on\\ exhibit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ represent\\ something\\ as\\ Oriental\\,\\ one\\ sought\\ to\\ excise\\ totally\\ the\\ European\\ presence\\ \\(Edward\\ Said\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Ability\\ to\\ see\\ without\\ being\\ seen\\ confirmed\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ separation\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ position\\ of\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orient\\ rediscovered\\,\\ grasped\\ as\\ the\\ reoccurrence\\ of\\ a\\ picture\\ one\\ had\\ seen\\ before\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Orient\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;re\\-presentation\\&rdquo\\;\\-a\\ set\\ of\\ references\\,\\ not\\ a\\ real\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 20, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA174s_midterm_1.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Essay Question 6 Outline", "tags": ["harvard", "anthropology", "food"], "text": null, "id": 150, "html": "\\\\\\Essay\\ Question\\ 6\\ Outline\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.6pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:25\\.2pt\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:30pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-top\\:13\\.7pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:13\\.7pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\SA70\\:\\ FOOD\\ AND\\ CULTURE\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUESTION\\ 6\\ OUTLINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Nostalgia\\ is\\ often\\ manifested\\ in\\ food\\ choices\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ social\\ conditions\\ that\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ connect\\ food\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ past\\,\\ and\\ what\\ do\\ these\\ images\\ reveal\\ about\\ the\\ present\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sources\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ 9\\ \\(Cantonese\\ Nostalgia\\ Cuisine\\)\\,\\ James\\ Watson\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;From\\ the\\ Common\\ Pot\\:\\ Feasting\\ with\\ Equals\\ in\\ Chinese\\ Society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\April\\ 17\\,\\ 2006\\ Lecture\\ of\\ Nostalgia\\ Cuisine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ greatest\\ example\\ of\\ nostalgia\\ cuisine\\ that\\ we\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\ is\\ the\\ Cantonese\\ common\\ pot\\ banquet\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ village\\ banquets\\ defy\\ the\\ convention\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ hierarchically\\ divided\\ Chinese\\ banquets\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;reinforcement\\ of\\ social\\ hierarchies\\ by\\ feeding\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ food\\ to\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\(390\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ banquets\\ in\\ rural\\ Hong\\ Kong\\,\\ all\\ people\\ of\\ all\\ different\\ classes\\ sit\\ together\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;eat\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ pot\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sihk\\ puhn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ literally\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;eat\\ pot\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ strikingly\\ significant\\ that\\ a\\ plebeian\\ culinary\\ form\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sihk\\ puhn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ emerged\\ precisely\\ in\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ China\\ most\\ noted\\ for\\ its\\ exquisite\\ cuisine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ namely\\ the\\ Canton\\ Deta\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ region\\ renowned\\ for\\ its\\ wealth\\ and\\ complex\\ class\\ hierarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sihk\\ puhn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\represents\\,\\ in\\ my\\ view\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\consciously\\-maintained\\ form\\ of\\ low\\ cuisine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ created\\ and\\ supported\\ by\\ villagers\\ who\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ very\\ much\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ alternatives\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Watson\\,\\ 397\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;It\\ appears\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sihk\\ puhn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ an\\ important\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\ separating\\ the\\ Cantonese\\ from\\ other\\,\\ competing\\ ethnic\\ groups\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(393\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sihk\\ puhn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\banquets\\ also\\ serve\\ to\\ legitimize\\ a\\ social\\ transition\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Women\\ who\\ have\\ not\\ had\\ their\\ marriages\\ celebrated\\ with\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sihk\\ puhn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\banquet\\ are\\ not\\ considered\\ legitimate\\ wives\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Sihk\\ puhn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\banquets\\ are\\ also\\ held\\ to\\ mark\\ what\\ might\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ social\\ birth\\ of\\ males\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(395\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Watson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ 1987\\,\\ so\\ he\\ only\\ briefly\\ mentions\\ here\\ that\\ Britains\\ 99\\ year\\ lease\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ expires\\ in\\ 1997\\,\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ New\\ Territories\\ together\\ with\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ island\\ and\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Kowloon\\ revert\\ to\\ Chinese\\ control\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(392\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ this\\ topic\\ Professor\\ Watson\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sihk\\ puhn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ now\\ being\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ maintaining\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ culture\\ after\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ colonial\\ rule\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ Culture\\?\\ The\\ people\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ wanted\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ uniqueness\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ China\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ celebrate\\ their\\ colonial\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ selected\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\puhn\\ choi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;common\\ pot\\ banquet\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ to\\ set\\ them\\ apart\\ \\(Food\\ as\\ boundary\\ maintenance\\ mechanism\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ had\\ to\\ find\\ something\\ that\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ contaminated\\ by\\ British\\ colonialism\\ which\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ village\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Nostalgia\\ is\\ often\\ manifested\\ in\\ food\\ choices\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ social\\ conditions\\ that\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ connect\\ food\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ past\\,\\ and\\ what\\ do\\ these\\ images\\ reveal\\ about\\ the\\ present\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ can\\ often\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ nostalgia\\ reasons\\.\\ But\\ not\\ all\\ nostalgia\\ food\\ practices\\ are\\ alike\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Using\\ food\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ identity\\ today\\ based\\ off\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hong\\ Kong\\,\\ when\\ it\\ became\\ independent\\ in\\ 1997\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ past\\ to\\ cling\\ to\\.\\ Nostalgia\\ foods\\ can\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cantonese\\ common\\ pots\\ \\(puhn\\ choi\\)\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ central\\ piece\\ to\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ ensure\\ that\\ Hong\\ Kong\\&rsquo\\;s\\ culture\\ is\\ not\\ absorbed\\ by\\ its\\ neighbors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ pots\\ are\\ a\\ natural\\ nostalgic\\ food\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ become\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ tied\\ to\\ crucial\\ moments\\ of\\ transition\\,\\ such\\ as\\ birth\\ and\\ marriages\\.\\ As\\ Watson\\ explains\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ the\\ common\\ pot\\:\\ feasting\\ with\\ equals\\ in\\ Chinese\\ culture\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ common\\ pots\\ \\&ldquo\\;serve\\ to\\ legitimize\\ a\\ social\\ transition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ helps\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ create\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ community\\ \\(as\\ false\\ or\\ true\\ as\\ that\\ might\\ be\\,\\ because\\ as\\ Michael\\ Herzfeld\\ explains\\,\\ it\\ may\\ even\\ be\\ an\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;imagined\\ past\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ because\\ common\\ pots\\ equalize\\ everyone\\,\\ as\\ both\\ commoners\\ and\\ elite\\ eat\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ pot\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ Reveal\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ unity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\a\\ desire\\ for\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ specific\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cereal\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ nostalgia\\ food\\ in\\ an\\ individuals\\ own\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Today\\,\\ Watson\\ explained\\,\\ sugary\\ cereals\\ are\\ very\\ popular\\ among\\ baby\\-boomers\\ as\\ a\\ taste\\ they\\ miss\\ form\\ their\\ pasts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adult\\ life\\ is\\ more\\ complicated\\ and\\ busy\\,\\ and\\ a\\ desire\\ for\\ simpler\\,\\ childhood\\ time\\ then\\ eating\\ cereal\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ TV\\ was\\ a\\ common\\ event\\ leads\\ people\\ to\\ crave\\ cereal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Eating\\ nostalgia\\ food\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ reconnecting\\ to\\ a\\ different\\ political\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Today\\,\\ in\\ china\\,\\ one\\ can\\ find\\ MAO\\ restaurants\\,\\ restaurants\\ full\\ of\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nostalgia\\ cravings\\ an\\ even\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ purchase\\ food\\ at\\ expensive\\ costs\\ just\\ for\\ its\\ nostalgic\\ value\\ and\\ not\\ its\\ particular\\ good\\ taste\\ \\(corn\\ bread\\ in\\ these\\ Chinese\\ nostalgic\\ restaurants\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ communist\\ times\\,\\ everyone\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ eat\\ at\\ banquet\\ halls\\,\\ and\\ for\\ many\\,\\ Watson\\ explained\\,\\ they\\ were\\ being\\ fed\\ better\\ than\\ they\\ ever\\ had\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Today\\ in\\ china\\,\\ where\\ Mao\\ no\\ longer\\ rules\\,\\ eating\\ at\\ a\\ nostalgic\\ themed\\ restaurant\\ serves\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ only\\ places\\ where\\ its\\ appropriate\\ to\\ reminisce\\ about\\ all\\ things\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ leap\\ forward\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ such\\ as\\ communist\\ songs\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ east\\ is\\ red\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ It\\ explains\\ that\\ although\\ present\\ time\\ are\\ good\\,\\ people\\ often\\ miss\\ their\\ pasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ can\\ often\\ carry\\ the\\ heavy\\ burden\\ of\\ connecting\\ people\\ to\\ the\\ past\\,\\ but\\ often\\ for\\ very\\ different\\ reasons\\,\\ whether\\ a\\ real\\ past\\ one\\ experienced\\ or\\ a\\ past\\ that\\ helps\\ define\\ the\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Nostalgia\\ is\\ often\\ manifested\\ in\\ food\\ choices\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ social\\ conditions\\ that\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ connect\\ food\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ past\\,\\ and\\ what\\ do\\ these\\ images\\ reveal\\ about\\ the\\ present\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\.\\ Nostalgia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nostalgia\\ is\\ a\\ word\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ words\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nostos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;return\\ home\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\algia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;pain\\,\\ ache\\ for\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Of\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ nostalgia\\ Professor\\ Watson\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\,\\ he\\ focused\\ primarily\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;structural\\ nostalgia\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ constructing\\ of\\ culture\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ imagined\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nostalgia\\ foods\\ represent\\ comfort\\,\\ home\\,\\ a\\ stress\\-free\\ environment\\ and\\,\\ as\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ an\\ imagined\\ past\\.\\ In\\ many\\ cases\\,\\ as\\ Professor\\ Watson\\ pointed\\ out\\,\\ nostalgia\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ nostalgia\\ food\\ is\\ about\\ authenticity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\B\\.\\ Social\\ conditions\\ that\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ connect\\ food\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\ influence\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ false\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ intervention\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ In\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\,\\ the\\ Chinese\\ government\\ implemented\\ strict\\ food\\ restrictions\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ construct\\ culture\\.\\ The\\ Great\\ Leap\\ Forward\\ \\(1958\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1960\\)\\ marked\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ Chinese\\ government\\ forced\\ commensality\\ on\\ its\\ people\\.\\ In\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ go\\ from\\ a\\ class\\-based\\ society\\ to\\ a\\ classless\\ utopia\\,\\ the\\ government\\ manipulated\\ the\\ eating\\ habits\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ by\\ first\\ taking\\ ovens\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ home\\ and\\ forcing\\ people\\ to\\ eat\\ their\\ meals\\ at\\ the\\ public\\ canteen\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Food\\ restrictions\\ elicited\\ help\\ form\\ the\\ people\\ quickly\\.\\ The\\ formation\\ of\\ mess\\ halls\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ consciousness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ that\\ promoted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shitang\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\&ldquo\\;eating\\ from\\ one\\ big\\ pot\\/wok\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ destroying\\ the\\ family\\ settling\\ and\\ family\\ communal\\ eating\\,\\ the\\ Chinese\\ government\\ created\\ a\\ collective\\ world\\ where\\ the\\ focus\\ was\\ on\\ country\\ and\\ countrymen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Eat\\ well\\ and\\ eat\\ to\\ the\\ full\\&rdquo\\;\\ became\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slogan\\ as\\ the\\ Chinese\\ family\\ became\\ extinct\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ opened\\ its\\ granary\\ to\\ the\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ government\\ offered\\ food\\ in\\ large\\ surpluses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ only\\ was\\ rice\\ served\\ in\\ large\\ quantities\\,\\ buns\\ were\\ made\\ available\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ now\\ centered\\ their\\ lives\\ around\\ these\\ government\\ canteen\\ halls\\.\\ These\\ foods\\ quickly\\ became\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ socialism\\ in\\ China\\;\\ the\\ rice\\,\\ buns\\,\\ and\\ excess\\ of\\ food\\ can\\ easily\\ be\\ connected\\ with\\ the\\ political\\ influences\\ and\\ communal\\ eating\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\C\\.\\ For\\ a\\ more\\ recent\\ example\\,\\ one\\ can\\ examine\\ the\\ common\\ pot\\ banquet\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Puhn\\ choi\\ \\[Cantonese\\]\\ or\\ pancai\\ \\[Mandarin\\]\\ are\\ terms\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ common\\ pot\\ banquet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puhn\\ choi\\ describes\\ a\\ meal\\ in\\ which\\ nine\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ food\\ are\\ cooked\\ separately\\ and\\ then\\ mixed\\ together\\ in\\ one\\ pot\\,\\ just\\ prior\\ to\\ eating\\.\\ The\\ food\\ used\\ is\\ often\\ common\\ food\\.\\ The\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ puhn\\ choi\\ is\\ the\\ boiled\\/roasted\\ pork\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ fat\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ pig\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puhn\\ choi\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ communal\\ eating\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ stand\\ for\\ authenticity\\ and\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ culture\\.\\ In\\ both\\ his\\ April\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lecture\\ and\\ his\\ essay\\ \\&ldquo\\;From\\ the\\ Common\\ Pot\\:\\ Feasting\\ with\\ Equals\\ in\\ Chinese\\ Society\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Professor\\ Watson\\ describes\\ how\\ puhn\\ choi\\ became\\ a\\ nostalgia\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1898\\,\\ Hong\\ Kong\\&rsquo\\;s\\ New\\ Territories\\ was\\ leased\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ Crown\\ for\\ 99\\ years\\.\\ In\\ 1997\\,\\ when\\ the\\ lease\\ expired\\,\\ the\\ New\\ Territories\\ together\\ with\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ island\\ and\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Kowloon\\ reverted\\ by\\ to\\ Chinese\\ control\\ \\(SB\\ p\\.\\ 98\\)\\.\\ Independent\\ of\\ Chinese\\ rule\\,\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ peasant\\ culture\\ still\\ survived\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ identity\\,\\ these\\ Cantonese\\ villagers\\ remain\\ \\&ldquo\\;fiercely\\ proud\\ of\\ their\\ ethnic\\ heritage\\ and\\ nurture\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ distinctive\\ cuisine\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 99\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puhn\\ choi\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ many\\ cultural\\ elements\\ that\\ separate\\ these\\ Cantonese\\ villagers\\ from\\ China\\.\\ Puhn\\ choi\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\ identity\\ and\\ nature\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\D\\.\\ \\ \\;Images\\ revealed\\ about\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nostalgia\\ foods\\ as\\ a\\ leveling\\ device\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Looking\\ at\\ the\\ customs\\ surrounding\\ puhn\\ choi\\ banqueting\\,\\ it\\ become\\ evident\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Professor\\ Watson\\,\\ that\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ communal\\ eating\\ is\\ designed\\ to\\ keep\\ power\\ leveled\\.\\ Puhn\\ choi\\ is\\ a\\ leveling\\ device\\ in\\ that\\ everyone\\ who\\ eats\\ puhn\\ choi\\ is\\ equal\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ ancestor\\ \\(pork\\)\\;\\ each\\ person\\ gets\\ the\\ same\\ share\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ no\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 56, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SA70_QUESTION_6_outlines1.doc", "desc": "Question 6"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Essay Question 1 Outline", "tags": ["harvard", "anthropology", "food"], "text": null, "id": 145, "html": "\\\\\\Essay\\ Question\\ 1\\ Outline\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.6pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39\\.6pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c8\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c21\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c15\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\SA70\\:\\ FOOD\\ AND\\ CULTURE\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUESTION\\ 1\\ OUTLINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 1\\:\\ Prof\\.\\ Watson\\ insists\\ that\\ food\\ is\\ never\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ claims\\ that\\ every\\ instance\\ of\\ human\\ food\\ behavior\\ reveals\\ relationships\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ differences\\ in\\ social\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;Do\\ you\\ agree\\ or\\ disagree\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ is\\ food\\ a\\ political\\ phenomenon\\?\\ In\\ constructing\\ your\\ answer\\,\\ think\\ about\\ nationalism\\,\\ ethnic\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ social\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\:\\ \\ \\;Guilty\\ as\\ Charged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Food\\ connotes\\ relationships\\ b\\/w\\ power\\ and\\ differences\\ in\\ social\\ status\\,\\ not\\ only\\ within\\ a\\ country\\ but\\ between\\ countries\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Countries\\ may\\ use\\ food\\ as\\ a\\ mechanism\\ to\\ control\\ or\\ manipulate\\ their\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connotations\\ of\\ food\\ gets\\ translated\\ into\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Food\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ and\\ eating\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ equality\\ of\\ people\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;Communal\\ Dining\\ in\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Leaders\\ of\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ would\\ certainly\\ agree\\ with\\ Professor\\ Watson\\,\\ as\\ they\\ tried\\ to\\ reform\\ their\\ entire\\ system\\ to\\ socialism\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ food\\ preparation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ instill\\ ideas\\ of\\ communism\\ and\\ to\\ revolutionize\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ lived\\ and\\ related\\ to\\ each\\ others\\,\\ the\\ Bolshevik\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ targeted\\ something\\ simple\\ as\\ dining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Following\\ the\\ 1917\\ revolution\\,\\ the\\ Bolshevik\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ devised\\ plans\\ for\\ communal\\ dining\\ establishments\\ to\\ replace\\ private\\ restaurants\\ and\\ family\\ kitchens\\ in\\ urban\\ Russia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bread\\ is\\ the\\ staple\\ of\\ the\\ Russian\\ diet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bolsheviks\\ saw\\ communal\\ dining\\ as\\ superior\\ to\\ private\\ dining\\;\\ saw\\ a\\ sharp\\ contrast\\ in\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ foods\\ that\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ propertied\\ classes\\ ate\\;\\ the\\ propertied\\ classes\\ ate\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ problem\\ was\\ to\\ requisition\\ all\\ restaurants\\ and\\ organize\\ state\\ cafeterias\\ where\\ food\\ would\\ be\\ distributed\\ in\\ equal\\ quantities\\ to\\ everyone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\-run\\ facilities\\ such\\ as\\ communal\\ kitchens\\,\\ nurseries\\,\\ laundries\\,\\ and\\ dining\\ rooms\\ would\\ free\\ women\\ from\\ domestic\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individual\\ family\\ is\\ oppressing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ regulation\\ creates\\ black\\ market\\ \\(libertarianism\\ view\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quality\\ of\\ food\\ at\\ cafeterias\\ was\\ poor\\;\\ people\\ were\\ starving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ struggled\\ to\\ survive\\,\\ one\\,\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formation\\ of\\ underground\\ restaurants\\ and\\ caf\\é\\;s\\ \\(social\\ movement\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\;Eating\\ from\\ the\\ Common\\ Pot\\ in\\ China\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\In\\ China\\,\\ food\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ leveling\\ device\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ banquets\\,\\ quality\\ and\\ diversity\\ of\\ dishes\\ reflect\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ diners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Host\\ must\\ make\\ careful\\ calculations\\ to\\ avoid\\ turning\\ a\\ guest\\ into\\ an\\ enemy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Foods\\ presented\\ to\\ gods\\,\\ ghosts\\,\\ and\\ ancestors\\ were\\ ranked\\ in\\ a\\ clearly\\ identifiable\\ hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ categories\\ of\\ supernaturals\\ receiving\\ different\\ offerings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seating\\ arrangements\\ are\\ paramount\\,\\ given\\ that\\ guests\\ are\\ ranked\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ proximity\\ to\\ the\\ host\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ might\\ appear\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ relaxed\\ dinner\\ among\\ friends\\ may\\ in\\ fact\\ be\\ a\\ highly\\ charged\\ social\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specific\\ example\\ that\\ professor\\ Watson\\ discusses\\ in\\ class\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;sihk\\ puhn\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ translate\\ literally\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;eat\\ pot\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ communal\\ banqueting\\ custom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Banquet\\ fare\\,\\ not\\ everyday\\ food\\;\\ ingredients\\ are\\ cooked\\ separately\\ and\\ later\\ mixed\\ together\\,\\ just\\ prior\\ to\\ eating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Such\\ formality\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ collapsing\\ nine\\ courses\\,\\ which\\ make\\ up\\ a\\ formal\\ Chinese\\ banquet\\ into\\ one\\ mass\\ food\\;\\ sihk\\ puhn\\ essentially\\ destroys\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ fed\\ on\\ first\\ come\\,\\ first\\ served\\ basis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ to\\ eat\\ from\\ the\\ common\\ pot\\ along\\ with\\ other\\ local\\ people\\;\\ shows\\ trust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rice\\ served\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ banquet\\;\\ considered\\ rude\\ to\\ eat\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ spoonful\\ of\\ rice\\,\\ indicates\\ that\\ guests\\ have\\ not\\ had\\ their\\ fill\\ of\\ luxury\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sihk\\ puhn\\-\\ men\\ actually\\ do\\ the\\ cooking\\;\\ women\\ may\\ prepare\\ the\\ raw\\ materials\\;\\ reversal\\ of\\ the\\ sexual\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\;\\ only\\ men\\ are\\ taught\\ the\\ secret\\ blend\\ of\\ spices\\ and\\ oils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meat\\ was\\ a\\ luxury\\ before\\ the\\ 1950s\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eating\\ from\\ the\\ common\\ pot\\ is\\ the\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ act\\ confirming\\ transfer\\ of\\ a\\ bride\\ from\\ one\\ family\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sihk\\ puhn\\ also\\ marks\\ the\\ social\\ birth\\ of\\ males\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ sihk\\ puhn\\-\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ food\\ is\\ involved\\;\\ people\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;eating\\ for\\&rdquo\\;\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Host\\ symbolically\\ feeds\\ the\\ entire\\ community\\,\\ and\\ by\\ eating\\ the\\ offered\\ food\\,\\ the\\ community\\ signals\\ acceptance\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ transition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*Sihk\\ puhn\\-\\ symbolism\\ of\\ food\\ is\\ obvious\\-\\ components\\ are\\ cooked\\ separately\\ and\\ then\\ mixed\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ common\\ pot\\;\\ blending\\ of\\ foods\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ is\\ a\\ blatant\\ reversal\\ of\\ elite\\ models\\ of\\ preparation\\ and\\ presentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ who\\ eat\\ from\\ the\\ common\\ pot\\ are\\ equals\\;\\ they\\ are\\ commensal\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ on\\ a\\ level\\ not\\ found\\ in\\ ordinary\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ all\\ other\\ occasions\\ Cantonese\\ dining\\ procedures\\ are\\ hierarchical\\:\\ \\ \\;guests\\ before\\ hosts\\,\\ elders\\ before\\ juniors\\,\\ agnates\\ before\\ affines\\,\\ officials\\ before\\ commoners\\,\\ rich\\ before\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sihk\\ puhn\\-\\ all\\ social\\ barriers\\ are\\ breached\\;\\ food\\ is\\ purposely\\ mixed\\ together\\ so\\ too\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ choose\\ to\\ eat\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sihk\\ puhn\\-\\ central\\ symbol\\ of\\ community\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symbolic\\ effect\\ of\\ obliterating\\ class\\ and\\ status\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ sharing\\ the\\ common\\ pot\\-\\ villagers\\ manage\\ to\\ negate\\ status\\ differences\\ that\\ govern\\ their\\ everyday\\ lives\\ and\\ create\\ for\\ themselves\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ social\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ serves\\ as\\ national\\ identity\\ and\\ political\\ phenomena\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Example\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;Beef\\ \\(within\\ a\\ country\\ and\\ b\\/w\\ countries\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beef\\ for\\ century\\ has\\ been\\ the\\ epicenter\\ of\\ worldwide\\ cuisine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\King\\ of\\ meat\\,\\ considered\\ superior\\ to\\ pork\\ and\\ lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ country\\ boasts\\ of\\ best\\ beef\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beef\\ is\\ most\\ expensive\\ and\\ least\\ efficient\\ form\\ of\\ meat\\ to\\ produce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ prestigious\\ category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beef\\ has\\ special\\ meaning\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ European\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Has\\ focus\\ in\\ family\\ meals\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\)\\ Sunday\\ joint\\ in\\ Britain\\-\\ form\\ of\\ roast\\ beef\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\English\\ are\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;roast\\ beef\\&rdquo\\;\\ people\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ \\(ethnic\\ identity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beef\\ known\\ as\\ wealth\\ and\\ class\\ in\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ mad\\-cow\\ disease\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ trade\\ restrictions\\ to\\ importing\\ cattle\\ and\\ cattle\\ related\\ products\\,\\ especially\\ from\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Japan\\ has\\ refused\\ to\\ import\\ beef\\ products\\ from\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\.\\ Korea\\ has\\ just\\ opened\\ trading\\ again\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Britain\\ now\\ identified\\ as\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ mad\\-cow\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ Cross\\ refuses\\ the\\ blood\\ from\\ donors\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ England\\ during\\ that\\ era\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ recent\\ outbreaks\\ in\\ mad\\-cow\\ disease\\ causing\\ world\\-wide\\ scares\\,\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ surprised\\ to\\ see\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ people\\ becoming\\ vegetarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vegetarian\\ and\\ quasi\\-vegetarian\\ responses\\ are\\ becoming\\ elite\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spreading\\ around\\ top\\-consumption\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ orthorexia\\:\\ \\ \\;reactive\\ vegetarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fear\\ driven\\ motivation\\ of\\ sheer\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Professor\\ Watson\\ predicts\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ our\\ children\\ will\\ react\\ to\\ meat\\ as\\ do\\ young\\ Japanese\\ men\\ do\\ today\\ with\\ fugu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ show\\ off\\ and\\ be\\ tough\\ guys\\,\\ we\\ will\\ flirt\\ with\\ death\\ and\\ eat\\ something\\ dangerous\\,\\ which\\ in\\ our\\ case\\,\\ will\\ probably\\ be\\ beef\\/meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Food\\ is\\ connected\\ with\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ in\\ every\\ instance\\ food\\ connotes\\ different\\ social\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.Prof\\.\\ Watson\\ insists\\ that\\ food\\ is\\ never\\ \\"\\;innocent\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ He\\ claims\\ that\\ every\\ instance\\ of\\ human\\ food\\ behavior\\ reveals\\ relationships\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ differences\\ in\\ social\\ status\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ agree\\ or\\ disagree\\?\\ How\\ is\\ food\\ a\\ political\\ phenomenon\\?\\ In\\ constructing\\ your\\ answer\\,\\ think\\ about\\ nationalism\\,\\ ethnic\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ social\\ movements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Agree\\:\\ Food\\ behavior\\ reveals\\ relationships\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ social\\ status\\,\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ phenomenon\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\ from\\ reading\\ below\\,\\ as\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ they\\ really\\ care\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Gastro\\-politics\\ in\\ Hindu\\ South\\ Asia\\&mdash\\;Appadurai\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\food\\ can\\ signal\\ rank\\ and\\ rivalry\\,\\ solidarity\\ and\\ community\\,\\ identity\\ or\\ exclusion\\,\\ and\\ intimacy\\ or\\ distance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gender\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cooking\\ is\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ the\\ women\\ and\\ therefore\\ indicates\\ their\\ general\\ subordination\\ to\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hierarchy\\ between\\ women\\ expressed\\ in\\ the\\ management\\ of\\ the\\ cooking\\ process\\:\\ seniority\\ and\\ affinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Men\\ served\\ first\\,\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relatives\\ ranked\\ higher\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Communal\\ Dining\\ and\\ State\\ Cafeterias\\ in\\ Moscow\\ and\\ Petrograd\\&mdash\\;Borrerro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Communal\\ dining\\ made\\ the\\ most\\ sense\\ for\\ communist\\ society\\:\\ cafeterias\\ and\\ communal\\ kitchen\\ could\\ inculcate\\ collectivist\\ values\\ among\\ the\\ population\\ and\\ utilize\\ scarce\\ food\\ resources\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ efficient\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bolsheviks\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ utopian\\ socialist\\ and\\ Marxist\\ traditions\\,\\ believed\\ that\\ women\\ were\\ oppressed\\ by\\ daily\\ housework\\.\\ \\ \\;State\\ run\\ facilities\\ would\\ free\\ women\\ from\\ domestic\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;Lenin\\ recognized\\ connection\\ between\\ communal\\ arrangements\\ and\\ the\\ emancipation\\ of\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distinction\\:\\ A\\ Social\\ Critique\\ of\\ the\\ Judgment\\ of\\ Taste\\&mdash\\;Bourdieu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ one\\ rises\\ in\\ social\\ hierarchy\\,\\ \\%\\ budget\\ on\\ food\\ decreases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\%\\ on\\ heavy\\,\\ fattening\\ foods\\ like\\ pasta\\,\\ potatoes\\,\\ beans\\ bacon\\ and\\ pork\\ \\(which\\ are\\ cheap\\)\\ goes\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\%\\ on\\ expensive\\,\\ lean\\ non\\-fattening\\ foods\\ like\\ beef\\ mutton\\ lamb\\ and\\ fruit\\ and\\ vegetables\\ goes\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taste\\ of\\ necessity\\&mdash\\;workers\\ eat\\ beans\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ afford\\ nothing\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eg\\&mdash\\;Clerical\\ workers\\ vs\\ skilled\\ manual\\ laborers\\ spend\\ less\\ in\\ absolute\\ and\\ relative\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chinese\\ Table\\ Manners\\&mdash\\;you\\ are\\ how\\ you\\ eat\\&mdash\\;cooper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rice\\ doled\\ out\\ from\\ common\\ pot\\ by\\ hostess\\,\\ accepted\\ with\\ 2\\ hands\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ accept\\ with\\ one\\ hand\\ suggests\\ disinterest\\,\\ disrespect\\,\\ and\\ carelessness\\>\\;food\\ as\\ symbolic\\,\\ ethnic\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ eat\\ common\\ dishes\\ without\\ rice\\ in\\ your\\ bowl\\ is\\ to\\ appear\\ a\\ gutton\\ because\\ need\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ ts\\&rsquo\\;ai\\ to\\ fill\\ up\\ without\\ rice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ rice\\ should\\ be\\ left\\ over\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ meal\\&mdash\\;disrespectful\\ to\\ leave\\ anything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ Beans\\ for\\ the\\ Masses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\French\\ focused\\ on\\ promoting\\ \\&ldquo\\;European\\ vegetable\\ production\\ in\\ the\\ tropics\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Conducted\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ acclimatization\\ research\\,\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;settlers\\ needed\\ a\\ reliable\\ and\\ palatable\\ food\\ supply\\,\\ and\\ colonial\\ economies\\ needed\\ crops\\ suitable\\ for\\ exports\\&rdquo\\;\\>\\;\\>\\;colonizing\\ as\\ imposing\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Local\\ colonial\\ officers\\ in\\ Africa\\ would\\ grow\\ in\\ their\\ gardens\\ \\&ldquo\\;vegetables\\ that\\ the\\ officers\\ themselves\\ habitually\\ ate\\ in\\ France\\.\\ These\\ were\\ not\\ considered\\ luxuries\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ dietary\\ necessities\\ in\\ places\\ where\\ local\\ vegetation\\ seemed\\ strange\\ and\\ savage\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 1\\:\\ Prof\\.\\ Watson\\ insists\\ that\\ food\\ is\\ never\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ claims\\ that\\ every\\ instance\\ of\\ human\\ food\\ behavior\\ reveals\\ relationships\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ differences\\ in\\ social\\ status\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ agree\\ or\\ disagree\\?\\ How\\ is\\ food\\ a\\ political\\ phenomenon\\?\\ In\\ constructing\\ your\\ answer\\,\\ think\\ about\\ nationalism\\,\\ ethnic\\ identity\\ and\\ social\\ movements\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Meat\\ eating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ghandi\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hyper\\ strict\\ vegetarianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\British\\ colonialists\\ were\\ meat\\ eaters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Believed\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ are\\ weak\\ people\\ because\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ eat\\ meat\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiment\\ for\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ahimsd\\:\\ hind\\ concept\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\,\\ an\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ desire\\ to\\ kill\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dumont\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ the\\ vegetarianism\\ Hindu\\ to\\ eat\\ meat\\ is\\ to\\ eat\\ corpse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Competitive\\ vegetarianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Festival\\/periodic\\ ethnic\\ events\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ramadan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jewish\\ Fasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chinese\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ each\\ lunar\\ month\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vegetarian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dumont\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brahman\\ priests\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\ tomatoes\\ because\\ of\\ living\\ seeds\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Benegal\\ the\\ Brahman\\ eat\\ fish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ eat\\ meat\\ but\\ not\\ eggs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ hard\\ and\\ fast\\ rules\\ but\\ exercise\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ food\\ restriction\\ when\\ needed\\ for\\ power\\ over\\ rival\\ neighboring\\ groups\\ \\(Jainism\\ and\\ Buddhism\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Japanese\\ national\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rice\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;official\\/legal\\&rdquo\\;\\ diet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pesco\\ vegetarianism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernizers\\ during\\ the\\ Meiji\\ Period\\ \\(1868\\-1912\\)\\ tried\\ to\\ introduce\\ meat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Like\\ in\\ ghandi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ case\\ meat\\ represented\\ modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rice\\ is\\ eating\\ the\\ soil\\ of\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ancestors\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consuming\\ the\\ rice\\ is\\ consuming\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ soil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Japanese\\ will\\ not\\ accept\\ the\\ American\\ grown\\ version\\ of\\ their\\ rice\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ fares\\ better\\ in\\ taste\\ tests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Must\\ adhere\\ to\\ their\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rice\\ patties\\ are\\ protected\\ by\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Supporting\\ own\\ economy\\ as\\ well\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Korea\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ fight\\ American\\ imperialism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Want\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ western\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rice\\ consumption\\ is\\ decreasing\\ in\\ east\\ asian\\ diet\\ while\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ increasing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ promote\\ kimchee\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Using\\ kimchee\\ on\\ stamps\\ to\\ celebrate\\ identity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chilean\\ produce\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Walter\\ Goldfrank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exotic\\ foods\\ can\\ go\\ further\\ with\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ new\\ technology\\ cooling\\ chains\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diet\\ has\\ themes\\ such\\ as\\ nutrition\\,\\ health\\,\\ fitness\\ convenience\\ and\\ cosmopolitanism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spending\\ on\\ fresh\\ produce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Those\\ about\\ \\$40\\,000\\ income\\ mark\\ spend\\ over\\ 25\\%\\ more\\ on\\ fresh\\ produce\\ than\\ those\\ earning\\ between\\ \\$20\\,000\\ and\\ \\$30\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chilean\\ fruit\\ consumption\\ is\\ greater\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ the\\ West\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ Midwest\\ and\\ South\\ by\\ 40\\-50\\%\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ of\\ differences\\ in\\ class\\ composition\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ of\\ lags\\ in\\ cultural\\ trends\\ and\\ partly\\ ease\\ of\\ transportation\\ to\\ those\\ ports\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exotic\\ \\&ldquo\\;vanity\\ foods\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ status\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ young\\ individuals\\ \\(more\\ attuned\\ to\\ fashionable\\ theories\\ on\\ eating\\ fresh\\ produce\\)\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ buy\\ Chilean\\ grapes\\ when\\ they\\ see\\ them\\ than\\ the\\ older\\ crowd\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ interview\\ many\\ indicated\\ that\\ their\\ efforts\\ to\\ choose\\ grapes\\ are\\ connected\\ to\\ status\\ making\\ and\\ social\\ acceptability\\ of\\ healthy\\ eating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ the\\ upper\\-middle\\ class\\ red\\ meat\\ approaches\\ tobacco\\ as\\ a\\ taboo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;produce\\ stand\\&rdquo\\;\\ ethic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bordieu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ class\\ theories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taste\\ of\\ luxury\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Taste\\ of\\ necessity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ Guide\\Answer\\ to\\ Question\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Prof\\.\\ Watson\\ insists\\ that\\ food\\ is\\ never\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ claims\\ that\\ every\\instance\\ of\\ human\\ food\\ behavior\\ reveals\\ relationships\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ differences\\in\\ social\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;Do\\ you\\ agree\\ or\\ disagree\\?\\ How\\ is\\ food\\ a\\ political\\phenomenon\\?\\ In\\ constructing\\ your\\ answer\\,\\ think\\ about\\ nationalism\\,\\ ethnic\\identity\\,\\ and\\ social\\ movements\\.\\\\YES\\ \\-\\ Human\\ food\\ behavior\\ does\\ reveal\\ relationships\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ differences\\ in\\social\\ status\\;\\ food\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ phenomenon\\.\\\\Example\\ 1\\:\\ CPF\\ Article\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Rise\\ of\\ Yuppie\\ Coffees\\ and\\ the\\ Reimagination\\ of\\Class\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(William\\ Roseberry\\)\\\\*\\&ldquo\\;Specialty\\&rdquo\\;\\ coffee\\ consumers\\ use\\ their\\ knowledge\\ and\\ discrimination\\ in\\ choosing\\their\\ \\(iinternational\\)\\ coffees\\ to\\ distinguish\\ themselves\\ as\\ higher\\ class\\,\\ global\\consumers\\\\-coffee\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;beverage\\ of\\ postmodernism\\&rdquo\\;\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ represents\\ a\\ new\\ form\\ of\\capitalism\\,\\ no\\ longer\\ mass\\ production\\ and\\ consumption\\,\\ but\\ more\\ choice\\ and\\ less\\concentration\\.\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;specialty\\ coffees\\&rdquo\\;\\ allow\\ one\\ to\\ cultivate\\ and\\ display\\ \\&ldquo\\;taste\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\\\&ldquo\\;discrimination\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ to\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ gourmet\\ \\(high\\ class\\)\\,\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\one\\\\-this\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ wines\\,\\ beers\\,\\ waters\\,\\ breads\\,\\ cheeses\\,\\ sauces\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\-Jimenez\\:\\ historically\\,\\ coffee\\ was\\ transformed\\ from\\ an\\ elite\\ and\\ expensive\\beverage\\ \\(early\\ 20th\\ century\\)\\ to\\ a\\ cheaper\\ drink\\ consumed\\ in\\ working\\ class\\homes\\ and\\ at\\ factories\\ by\\ 1930\\ \\&ndash\\;\\>\\;\\ coffee\\ became\\ tailored\\ to\\ a\\ mass\\ market\\\\-Market\\ niches\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;coffeemen\\&rdquo\\;\\ created\\ distinct\\ market\\ niches\\,\\ developing\\ distinct\\coffees\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ distinct\\ niches\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ yuppie\\ consumers\\ vs\\.\\ older\\,\\price\\-driven\\ consumers\\,\\ vs\\.\\ young\\ college\\-aged\\ potential\\ consumer\\)\\\\-Coffee\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ mass\\ market\\,\\ but\\ a\\ segmented\\ market\\,\\ differentiated\\ in\\ terms\\of\\ class\\ and\\ generation\\\\-Ex\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;specialty\\&rdquo\\;\\ coffee\\ business\\ tailored\\ to\\ 1\\)yuppies\\ 2\\)college\\ students\\ by\\offering\\ flavored\\ syrups\\ and\\ quality\\ varietals\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ complex\\ relationship\\ between\\ class\\ and\\ food\\ consumption\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ particular\\ groups\\ have\\ differentiated\\ market\\ situations\\ simply\\ determined\\ by\\their\\ ability\\ to\\ purchase\\ \\(\\$\\$\\$\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\)\\ groups\\ use\\ foods\\ and\\ food\\ preferences\\ to\\ mark\\ themselves\\ as\\ distinct\\ from\\ or\\similar\\ to\\ other\\ groups\\ \\(this\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;specialty\\&rdquo\\;\\ coffee\\ connoisseurs\\)\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Proletarian\\ hunger\\ killers\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ expensive\\ goods\\ from\\ exotic\\ locales\\ but\\became\\ available\\ for\\ mass\\ consumption\\ as\\ costs\\ of\\ production\\,\\ processing\\,\\ and\\shipping\\ dropped\\\\-Yuppies\\ drink\\ coffee\\ to\\ identify\\ themselves\\ not\\ with\\ the\\ bourgeois\\,\\ but\\ with\\the\\ courtly\\,\\ genteel\\,\\ cosmopolitan\\ elite\\ class\\ present\\ before\\ the\\ days\\ of\\ mass\\consumption\\ and\\ mass\\ society\\.\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;specialized\\&rdquo\\;\\ coffees\\ success\\ depends\\ upon\\ the\\ processes\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\differentiation\\ they\\ mark\\\\*Coffee\\ also\\ represents\\ a\\ political\\ phenomenon\\ apparent\\ in\\ the\\ disparity\\ between\\\\(third\\ world\\)\\ coffee\\ producers\\ and\\ \\(first\\ world\\)\\ coffee\\ consumers\\\\-the\\ relationship\\ is\\ the\\ inheritance\\ of\\ 500\\ years\\ of\\ colonialism\\:\\ consumption\\zones\\:\\ wealthy\\ western\\ countries\\ vs\\.\\ production\\ zones\\:\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ the\\Carribean\\,\\ Africa\\,\\ Asia\\ \\(peasants\\,\\ slaves\\,\\ rural\\ toilers\\ who\\ grow\\ cut\\,\\ and\\ pick\\product\\)\\\\-social\\ movements\\:\\ Aztec\\ Cooperation\\:\\ high\\ percentage\\ of\\ money\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ the\\farmers\\,\\ Coffee\\ Kids\\:\\ percentage\\ of\\ sales\\ goes\\ to\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ cause\\,\\ Free\\Trade\\\\-coffee\\ is\\ product\\ that\\ takes\\ a\\ year\\ to\\ grow\\ and\\ requires\\ much\\ difficult\\,\\dangerous\\ work\\ \\-\\ ironically\\,\\ the\\ price\\ is\\ inflated\\ 400\\ \\-600\\%\\ by\\ \\(first\\ world\\)\\people\\ who\\ simply\\ cook\\ and\\ display\\ it\\\\-food\\ market\\ and\\ coffee\\ market\\ now\\ boast\\ variety\\ from\\ around\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ do\\so\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ conceals\\ any\\ trace\\ of\\ labor\\ processes\\ that\\ produced\\ them\\,\\or\\ social\\ relations\\ implicated\\ in\\ their\\ production\\.\\\\-free\\ market\\ \\&ldquo\\;peripheralized\\&rdquo\\;\\ labor\\ of\\ coffee\\ growers\\ in\\ a\\ direct\\ way\\ \\-\\ now\\,\\with\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ coffee\\ \\&ldquo\\;styles\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ coffee\\ no\\ longer\\ has\\ to\\ come\\ from\\countries\\ where\\ coffee\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labeling\\ says\\ it\\ does\\\\-evidence\\ of\\ exploitative\\ relationship\\:\\ free\\-market\\ conditions\\ for\\coffee\\-producing\\ regions\\ \\(effects\\ these\\ regions\\ detrimentally\\)\\,\\ standardization\\and\\ concentration\\ of\\ gourmet\\ coffee\\ production\\ \\(also\\ effects\\ regions\\detrimentally\\)\\.\\\\-Conclusion\\:\\ coffee\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;very\\ political\\ commodity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\Example\\ 2\\:\\ CPF\\ Article\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Crafting\\ Grand\\ Cru\\:\\ Chocolates\\ in\\ Contemporary\\ France\\&rdquo\\;\\by\\ Susan\\ J\\.\\ Terrio\\\\*Specialty\\ chocolates\\ in\\ France\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ affirming\\ national\\identity\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ EU\\ unification\\\\-EC\\ bureaucrats\\ attempt\\ to\\ forge\\ closer\\ union\\ among\\ factitious\\ members\\ of\\ EC\\ by\\creating\\ pan\\-nationalism\\ grounded\\ in\\ common\\ Euro\\ culture\\ and\\ shared\\ cultural\\symbols\\\\-France\\ rebelled\\ against\\ this\\ \\-\\ universalist\\ notion\\ of\\ civilization\\ still\\survives\\ in\\ France\\ \\-\\ view\\ that\\ French\\ culture\\ itself\\ best\\ embodies\\ it\\.\\\\-French\\ chocolatiers\\ responded\\ to\\ calls\\ for\\ European\\ uniformity\\ by\\ invoking\\ the\\uniqueness\\ of\\ their\\ cultural\\ products\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ specifically\\ French\\ art\\ of\\chocolate\\ making\\)\\ \\-\\ grounded\\ in\\:\\ superior\\ aesthetic\\ standards\\,\\ skilled\\artisanship\\.\\\\-French\\ gastronomic\\ heritage\\ based\\ on\\ taste\\ and\\ aesthetics\\ invoked\\ by\\ specialty\\chocolatier\\ shops\\\\-In\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\,\\ foreign\\ multinationals\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ American\\ Mars\\ and\\ Swiss\\Lindt\\)\\ dominated\\ French\\ market\\\\-Belgian\\ franchises\\ came\\ into\\ France\\ in\\ 1980s\\,\\ boasting\\ mass\\-produced\\ chocolates\\in\\ store\\ fronts\\ that\\ resembled\\ French\\ boutiques\\\\-This\\ touched\\ a\\ raw\\ nerve\\ among\\ French\\ chocolatiers\\\\-Politics\\ of\\ cultural\\ authenticity\\ in\\ the\\ globalization\\ of\\ markets\\ enables\\\\&ldquo\\;genuine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ locally\\ produced\\ craft\\ work\\ and\\ commodities\\ to\\ be\\ maintained\\ and\\revived\\ \\-\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\ as\\ such\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;gentrification\\ of\\ taste\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ distinctive\\ regional\\ culinary\\ styles\\ are\\rediscovered\\ and\\ marketed\\ by\\ taste\\ makers\\\\-today\\,\\ consumers\\ emulate\\ celebrated\\ chocolatiers\\ and\\ Parisian\\ gastronomes\\through\\ their\\ chocolate\\ purchases\\\\-French\\ culture\\:\\ dominant\\ bourgeois\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ exemplifying\\ the\\ culture\\that\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ and\\ sign\\ of\\ their\\ power\\\\-Their\\ cultured\\ practices\\ distinguish\\ them\\ from\\ lower\\ classes\\\\-While\\ chocolate\\ was\\ once\\ an\\ exclusive\\ commodity\\,\\ distinguishing\\ upper\\ classes\\because\\ they\\ alone\\ had\\ access\\ to\\ it\\,\\ today\\ it\\ is\\ mass\\ produced\\,\\ so\\ chocolate\\has\\ become\\ an\\ item\\ of\\ luxury\\ for\\ its\\ authenticity\\\\-chocolate\\ has\\ become\\ unique\\ manifestation\\ of\\ cultural\\ identity\\ \\-\\ buying\\chocolate\\ makes\\ someone\\ more\\ French\\.\\\\Example\\ 3\\:\\ Sushi\\,\\ Power\\,\\ and\\ Ethnic\\ Identity\\In\\ Ted\\ Bestor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ guest\\ lecture\\,\\ he\\ described\\ the\\ global\\ sushi\\ boom\\ as\\ part\\ of\\Japan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Gross\\ National\\ \\&lsquo\\;Cool\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\Sushi\\,\\ which\\ is\\ strongly\\ associated\\ with\\ Japanese\\ culture\\ even\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ becoming\\more\\ and\\ more\\ popular\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\,\\ remains\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cultural\\ property\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\Japan\\Bestor\\ discusses\\ bifocality\\:\\ as\\ a\\ condition\\ of\\ modernity\\,\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ social\\actors\\ to\\ both\\ perceive\\ and\\ experience\\ the\\ lived\\ realities\\ of\\ daily\\ life\\ in\\both\\ \\&ldquo\\;near\\ sight\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;far\\ sight\\&rdquo\\;\\ simultaneously\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ means\\ basically\\ that\\sushi\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ culture\\ but\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ Japanese\\culture\\Soft\\ power\\:\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ get\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ through\\ attraction\\ rather\\ than\\coercion\\ or\\ payments\\Bestor\\ also\\ discusses\\ \\&ldquo\\;Power\\ and\\ Culinary\\ Flows\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Most\\F\\(l\\)avored\\ Nation\\ Model\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ states\\ that\\ high\\ cultural\\ capital\\ translates\\into\\ culinary\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ perfect\\ example\\ of\\ soft\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ Japanese\\becomes\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ \\&ldquo\\;cool\\&rdquo\\;\\ globally\\,\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Japanese\\ culture\\ on\\global\\ cuisine\\ becomes\\ stronger\\ and\\ stronger\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hence\\ sushi\\ is\\ more\\ and\\ more\\popular\\ and\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;trendy\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ society\\,\\ something\\ that\\ yuppies\\really\\ like\\In\\ the\\ 1800s\\,\\ Europeans\\ did\\ not\\ like\\ sushi\\ at\\ all\\,\\ it\\ was\\ considered\\ inedible\\.\\ \\As\\ Japan\\ has\\ risen\\ in\\ cultural\\ significance\\,\\ sushi\\ has\\ caught\\ on\\ globally\\Bestor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ sushi\\ went\\ global\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ tuna\\ trade\\ is\\ a\\ prime\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ globalization\\ of\\ a\\ regional\\industry\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(14\\)\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;tuna\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ popular\\ in\\ Japan\\ and\\ advertising\\ of\\ sushi\\ is\\ low\\-key\\ and\\fun\\,\\ not\\ an\\ aggressive\\ marketing\\ campaign\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ is\\ unnecessary\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Japan\\ has\\ Tuna\\ Day\\,\\ with\\ a\\ colorful\\ cartoon\\ tuna\\ as\\ its\\ mascot\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Sushi\\ became\\ popular\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ and\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\\\&ldquo\\;hearty\\,\\ red\\-meat\\ American\\ fare\\&rdquo\\;\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Sushi\\ went\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;exotic\\ and\\ unpalatable\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ haute\\ cuisine\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ just\\ cool\\but\\ popular\\&rdquo\\;\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Japanese\\ culture\\ seen\\ as\\ having\\ prestige\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ new\\ fishing\\ regulations\\ prohibited\\ foreign\\ fishers\\ from\\ fishing\\within\\ a\\ 200\\ mile\\ radius\\ of\\ many\\ countries\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ tuna\\ industry\\ is\\ huge\\!\\ today\\,\\ on\\ a\\ global\\ scale\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ Maine\\ to\\ Japan\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Interesting\\ because\\ we\\ usually\\ think\\ of\\ global\\ forces\\ moving\\ West\\ \\ \\;\\à\\;\\ \\ \\;East\\,\\but\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ it\\ is\\ East\\ \\à\\;\\ West\\.\\\\Example\\ 4\\:\\ Bread\\,\\ Power\\,\\ and\\ Social\\ Movements\\\\&ldquo\\;Food\\ and\\ the\\ Counterculture\\:\\ A\\ story\\ of\\ Bread\\ and\\ Politics\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(In\\ CPF\\)\\for\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ advocated\\ \\&ldquo\\;countercuisine\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(and\\ specifically\\,\\ whole\\ wheat\\bread\\)\\ food\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;integrating\\ the\\ world\\,\\ seeing\\ the\\ social\\ consequences\\of\\ private\\ actions\\,\\ and\\ reminding\\ us\\ of\\ our\\ moral\\ responsibilities\\&rdquo\\;\\Author\\ argues\\ that\\ countercuisine\\ was\\ more\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;radical\\ politics\\ and\\environmentalism\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;personal\\ vitality\\ or\\ longevity\\&rdquo\\;\\Whole\\ wheat\\ bread\\ vs\\.\\ white\\ bread\\:\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Natural\\ v\\.\\ plastic\\:\\ plastic\\ \\(white\\)\\ bread\\ was\\ regarded\\ as\\ tasteless\\,\\standardized\\ and\\ homogenized\\,\\ chemical\\;\\ natural\\ \\(whole\\ wheat\\)\\ bread\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\better\\ because\\ it\\ lacked\\ preservatives\\,\\ chemicals\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;poisons\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ it\\ was\\seen\\ as\\ more\\ healthy\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ nostalgic\\ and\\ old\\-fashioned\\,\\ and\\ was\\thus\\ associated\\ with\\ honesty\\,\\ simplicity\\,\\ virtuosity\\,\\ and\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ the\\chemicalized\\,\\ preservative\\-filled\\ food\\ industry\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;White\\ vs\\.\\ brown\\:\\ white\\ bread\\ \\(eg\\ WonderBread\\)\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ whiteness\\,\\and\\ the\\ counterculture\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ good\\ things\\ to\\ say\\ about\\ whiteness\\politically\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ even\\ likens\\ the\\ bleaching\\ and\\ separating\\ process\\ used\\in\\ making\\ white\\ bread\\ to\\ the\\ racial\\ segregation\\,\\ subordination\\,\\ and\\ law\\enforcement\\ that\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ rising\\ counterculture\\ in\\ the\\US\\.\\ \\ \\;Brown\\ bread\\ was\\ dissociated\\ with\\ the\\ negative\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ predominant\\culture\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Wheat\\ bread\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;crafted\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ make\\,\\ whereas\\ white\\ bread\\was\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ American\\ convenience\\ and\\ emphasis\\ on\\ fast\\ production\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Product\\ vs\\.\\ process\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;mainstream\\ consumer\\ culture\\ put\\ a\\ premium\\ on\\ the\\ end\\product\\;\\ how\\ it\\ got\\ to\\ you\\ did\\ not\\ really\\ matter\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ the\\ counterculture\\movement\\ put\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ process\\Enriched\\ white\\ bread\\ is\\ nutritionally\\ equivalent\\ to\\ wheat\\ bread\\Thus\\,\\ by\\ eating\\ wheat\\ bread\\,\\ consumers\\ associate\\ themselves\\ with\\ certain\\political\\ ideologies\\In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ wheat\\ bread\\ was\\ marketed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;healthier\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ is\\nutritionally\\ equivalent\\ to\\ enriched\\ white\\ bread\\The\\ real\\ cause\\ for\\ the\\ counterculture\\ preference\\ to\\ wheat\\ is\\ political\\ ideology\\,\\not\\ actual\\ nutritional\\ difference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 56, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SA70_QUESTION_1_outlines1.doc", "desc": "Question 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Review", "tags": ["harvard", "study-guide", "samurai"], "text": null, "id": 125, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Review\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c3\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Identifications\\ \\(People\\,\\ Places\\,\\ Terms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tanegashima\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ island\\ lying\\ to\\ the\\ south\\ of\\ Kyushu\\ \\(south\\ Japan\\)\\,\\ and\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Kagoshima\\ Prefecture\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ Mendes\\ Pinto\\ landed\\ when\\ he\\ found\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ Japan\\ in\\ 1543\\.\\ A\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Namban\\ \\(barbarian\\)\\ Trade\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ Europeans\\.\\ Tanegashima\\ was\\ another\\ name\\ for\\ gun\\ until\\ recently\\,\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ firearms\\ originated\\ from\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gekokujo\\ \\(16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ subordinate\\ would\\ overthrow\\ his\\ master\\.\\ There\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ samurai\\ fluidity\\ in\\ the\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ as\\ low\\-ranking\\ warriors\\ could\\ increase\\ their\\ status\\.\\ Goes\\ against\\ the\\ romanticized\\ view\\ of\\ samurai\\ loyalty\\.\\ Each\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ unifiers\\ benefited\\ from\\ gekokujo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oda\\ Nobunaga\\ \\(1534\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1582\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ First\\ of\\ the\\ unifiers\\.\\ His\\ family\\ took\\ power\\ over\\ their\\ master\\.\\ He\\ controlled\\ an\\ entire\\ province\\ by\\ 1559\\.\\ Nobunaga\\ had\\ heads\\ of\\ enemies\\ cut\\ off\\ to\\ be\\ displayed\\ after\\ post\\-battle\\ banquets\\.\\ After\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ guns\\ by\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ in\\ 1553\\ \\(and\\ Japanese\\ manufacturing\\ of\\ them\\ in\\ 1554\\)\\,\\ Oda\\ Nobunaga\\ ordered\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ them\\.\\ Hideyoshi\\ and\\ Ieyasu\\ followed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Toyotomi\\ Hideyoshi\\ \\(1537\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1598\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Began\\ life\\ as\\ a\\ nobody\\.\\ Served\\ Oda\\ Nobunaga\\ as\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ took\\ care\\ of\\ footwear\\.\\ Rose\\ in\\ ranks\\ and\\ served\\ in\\ Nobunaga\\&rsquo\\;s\\ military\\ service\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ lieutenant\\ by\\ 1574\\.\\ When\\ Nobunaga\\ died\\ in\\ 1590\\,\\ he\\ took\\ over\\ \\(ignoring\\ Nobunaga\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descendants\\)\\,\\ won\\ battles\\ in\\ Shikoku\\ and\\ Kyushyu\\,\\ and\\ had\\ virtually\\ united\\ all\\ of\\ Japan\\ by\\ 1590\\.\\ Was\\ on\\ good\\ terms\\ with\\ imperials\\,\\ was\\ a\\ ruthless\\ leader\\ \\(killed\\ friends\\ and\\ Christians\\)\\.\\ Attempted\\ to\\ invade\\ Korea\\ in\\ 1592\\ and\\ China\\ in\\ 1597\\ \\(failed\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tokugawa\\ Ieyasu\\ \\(1542\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1616\\)\\ aka\\ Matsudaira\\ Takechiyo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ spent\\ his\\ youth\\ as\\ a\\ hostage\\ to\\ the\\ Imagawa\\ family\\.\\ Was\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ Oda\\ Nobunaga\\.\\ At\\ Oda\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ he\\ was\\ given\\ 6\\ provinces\\ around\\ Tokyo\\.\\ When\\ Hideyoshi\\ died\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ power\\ struggle\\.\\ Tokugawa\\ Ieyasu\\ led\\ allied\\ forces\\ to\\ victory\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Sekigahara\\ where\\ they\\ beat\\ Ishida\\ Mitsunari\\.\\ He\\ claimed\\ himself\\ shogun\\,\\ and\\ later\\ gave\\ power\\ to\\ his\\ son\\.\\ He\\ took\\ care\\ of\\ Toyotomi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ son\\,\\ and\\ set\\ Japan\\ on\\ an\\ unprecedented\\ road\\ to\\ peace\\ \\(infrastructure\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sankin\\ Kotai\\ \\(1635\\ \\-\\ 1862\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ purpose\\ of\\ this\\ edict\\ was\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ daimyo\\.\\ Idea\\ started\\ by\\ Toyotomi\\ Hideyoshi\\.\\ It\\ forced\\ daimyo\\ to\\ spend\\ alternate\\ years\\ in\\ Edo\\ and\\ their\\ han\\ \\(province\\)\\.\\ Some\\ member\\(s\\)\\ of\\ their\\ family\\ would\\ be\\ kept\\ in\\ Edo\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hostage\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Daimyo\\ were\\ also\\ forced\\ to\\ send\\ some\\ people\\ for\\ military\\ service\\.\\ Prevented\\ daimyo\\ from\\ waging\\ war\\,\\ and\\ it\\ cost\\ the\\ daimyo\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ to\\ maintain\\ two\\ houses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miyamoto\\ Musashi\\ \\(1584\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1645\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Lived\\ through\\ unification\\ period\\.\\ Was\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Book\\ of\\ Five\\ Rings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(written\\ just\\ before\\ his\\ death\\)\\.\\ Won\\ more\\ than\\ 60\\ duels\\ and\\ lost\\ only\\ twice\\ in\\ learning\\ experiences\\.\\ Most\\ famous\\ battle\\ was\\ the\\ killing\\ of\\ his\\ rival\\,\\ Sasaki\\ Kojiro\\,\\ on\\ Ganryu\\ Island\\.\\ Was\\ a\\ popular\\ samurai\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ mysticism\\ of\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ life\\ story\\.\\ Skilled\\ artist\\.\\ Died\\ in\\ the\\ service\\ of\\ a\\ daimyo\\.\\ Multiple\\ books\\,\\ movies\\,\\ and\\ anime\\ references\\ to\\ the\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sasaki\\ Kojiro\\ \\(1585\\-1612\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ rival\\ of\\ Miyamoto\\ Musashi\\.\\ Was\\ killed\\ on\\ Ganryu\\ Island\\.\\ He\\ founded\\ a\\ school\\ of\\ kenjutsu\\.\\ Was\\ very\\ skilled\\ with\\ the\\ sword\\ and\\ had\\ his\\ own\\ technique\\.\\ His\\ life\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ well\\ documented\\,\\ as\\ times\\ of\\ his\\ rank\\ of\\ ascension\\ do\\ not\\ fit\\ with\\ his\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ihara\\ Saikaku\\ \\(1642\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1693\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ Japanese\\ poet\\ and\\ writer\\.\\ He\\ was\\ born\\ into\\ a\\ chonin\\ family\\.\\ Wrote\\ stories\\ for\\ the\\ merchant\\ and\\ lower\\-than\\-samurai\\ classes\\.\\ This\\ was\\ facilitated\\ by\\ a\\ large\\ increase\\ in\\ literacy\\ during\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ Period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chikamatsu\\ Monzaemon\\ \\(1653\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1725\\)\\ aka\\ Sugimori\\ Nobumori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ Japanese\\ dramatist\\ of\\ Bunraku\\ puppet\\ theater\\.\\ Known\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Japanese\\ Shakespeare\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Played\\ for\\ theaters\\ in\\ Kyoto\\ or\\ Osaka\\.\\ Wrote\\ over\\ 100\\ plays\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bunraku\\ Theater\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\(puppet\\)\\ Found\\ in\\ Osaka\\ around\\ 1684\\ \\(Tokugawa\\)\\.\\ Shares\\ many\\ themes\\ with\\ Kabuki\\ Theater\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kabuki\\ Theater\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(human\\)\\ plays\\ started\\ in\\ 1603\\.\\ Kabuki\\ has\\ had\\ different\\ stages\\.\\ In\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ it\\ was\\ performed\\ by\\ females\\ \\(and\\ served\\ as\\ prostitution\\)\\.\\ It\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ young\\ males\\,\\ then\\ men\\ \\(in\\ which\\ it\\ also\\ partly\\ served\\ as\\ prostitution\\)\\.\\ The\\ Genroku\\ Period\\ \\(1673\\-1735\\)\\ served\\ as\\ an\\ artistic\\ explosion\\ for\\ the\\ genre\\.\\ It\\ was\\ also\\ performed\\ after\\ the\\ Meiji\\ restoration\\,\\ and\\ continues\\ on\\ today\\.\\ Done\\ on\\ stage\\ with\\ certain\\ techniques\\ that\\ explain\\ different\\ events\\ in\\ time\\ \\(Tale\\ of\\ Heike\\ \\/\\ Chushingura\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BOTH\\ THEATERS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Their\\ plays\\ fell\\ into\\ two\\ distinct\\ types\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\ARAGOTO\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[featured\\ heroic\\ warriors\\ perpetuated\\ samurai\\ image\\ and\\ confirmed\\ bushido\\ image\\]\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\WAGOTO\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\[contemporary\\ settings\\ with\\ romantic\\ and\\ financial\\ problems\\]\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asahi\\ Bunzaemon\\ \\(1674\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1718\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ provincial\\ samurai\\ whose\\ duties\\ occupied\\ him\\ for\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ 3\\ days\\ a\\ month\\.\\ He\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ serve\\ guard\\ duty\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ lazy\\ man\\,\\ and\\ he\\ represented\\ what\\ some\\ Japanese\\ came\\ to\\ despise\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ Samurai\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yamamoto\\ Tsunetomo\\ \\(1659\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1719\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Samurai\\ of\\ the\\ Saga\\ domain\\.\\ Served\\ his\\ master\\ for\\ 30\\ years\\,\\ and\\ left\\ for\\ hermitage\\ after\\ his\\ master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ \\(he\\ wanted\\ to\\ commit\\ seppuku\\)\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ the\\ Hagakure\\ from\\ 1709\\ to\\ 1716\\.\\ Very\\ tough\\ view\\ of\\ samurai\\.\\ Bushido\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ way\\ of\\ dying\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Had\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Tokugawa\\ samurai\\,\\ and\\ even\\ criticized\\ the\\ seemingly\\ glorious\\ 47\\ ronin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oishi\\ Kuranosuke\\ \\(1659\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1703\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ hero\\ of\\ the\\ Chusingura\\ \\(47\\ ronin\\)\\.\\ He\\ served\\ Asano\\ Naganori\\.\\ After\\ the\\ Asano\\ incident\\ \\(where\\ Asano\\ committed\\ seppuku\\)\\,\\ Oishi\\ tried\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ Asano\\ house\\ intact\\.\\ After\\ the\\ house\\ was\\ taken\\ down\\ by\\ the\\ shogunate\\,\\ he\\ led\\ the\\ 47\\ samurai\\ to\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ Kira\\ Yoshinaka\\,\\ and\\ killed\\ him\\ on\\ a\\ night\\ in\\ January\\ 1703\\.\\ He\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ ronin\\ were\\ sentenced\\ to\\ seppuku\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asano\\ Naganori\\ \\(1667\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1701\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Leader\\ of\\ the\\ Asano\\ House\\.\\ Head\\ of\\ the\\ AKO\\ domain\\.\\ After\\ being\\ provoked\\ \\(or\\ so\\ we\\ think\\)\\ inside\\ the\\ Edo\\ Castle\\,\\ he\\ drew\\ his\\ sword\\ and\\ struck\\ Kira\\ Yoshinaka\\ twice\\.\\ He\\ was\\ sentenced\\ to\\ seppuku\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ day\\ \\(hastily\\)\\.\\ His\\ unfair\\ treatment\\ sparked\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ 47\\ samurai\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kira\\ Yoshinaka\\ \\(1641\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1703\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ koke\\ in\\ the\\ Edo\\ Period\\ who\\ was\\ head\\ of\\ ceremonies\\ at\\ the\\ Edo\\ Castle\\.\\ After\\ provoking\\ Asano\\ \\(by\\ harassing\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ not\\ playing\\ nice\\ in\\ the\\ ceremonies\\ of\\ a\\ day\\)\\,\\ he\\ was\\ attacked\\ and\\ hit\\ twice\\ with\\ a\\ short\\ sword\\.\\ He\\ demanded\\ a\\ swift\\ death\\ of\\ Asano\\,\\ and\\ showed\\ no\\ remorse\\ for\\ his\\ house\\.\\ He\\ got\\ his\\ in\\ January\\ 1703\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ 47\\ ronin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Horibe\\ Taketsune\\ Yasubei\\ \\(1670\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1703\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ radical\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ Asano\\ clan\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ to\\ vent\\ his\\ frustration\\ instantly\\,\\ and\\ go\\ after\\ Kira\\.\\ Was\\ against\\ the\\ conservative\\ view\\ of\\ waiting\\ and\\ appeasing\\ to\\ the\\ shogun\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ Asano\\ house\\ could\\ be\\ restored\\.\\ He\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 47\\ ronin\\ that\\ killed\\ Kira\\,\\ and\\ he\\ committed\\ seppuku\\ in\\ 1703\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matsudaira\\ Sadanobu\\ \\(1759\\-1829\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Japanese\\ daimyo\\ that\\ was\\ famous\\ for\\ reforms\\ that\\ saved\\ Shirakawa\\ han\\,\\ and\\ similar\\ reforms\\ for\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ Bakufu\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daimyo\\ Katagi\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ a\\ satirical\\ text\\ about\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ samurai\\.\\ He\\ criticized\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ daimyo\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ lost\\ their\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ Era\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Watanabe\\ Kazan\\ \\(1793\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1841\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ poor\\ Tokugawa\\ samurai\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ Edo\\ Period\\.\\ By\\ 1818\\,\\ his\\ father\\ had\\ risen\\ to\\ a\\ senior\\ samurai\\ administrator\\.\\ In\\ 1824\\,\\ his\\ father\\ died\\.\\ He\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ get\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stipend\\,\\ but\\ the\\ indebted\\ daimyo\\ only\\ gave\\ him\\ 15\\%\\.\\ He\\ was\\ so\\ poor\\ he\\ asked\\ his\\ daimyo\\ bosses\\ if\\ he\\ could\\ paint\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ samurai\\.\\ The\\ increasing\\ fate\\ of\\ samurai\\ in\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ Period\\,\\ as\\ the\\ chonin\\ were\\ gaining\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matthew\\ Calbraith\\ Perry\\ \\(1794\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1858\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Commodore\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Navy\\ who\\ compelled\\ the\\ opening\\ of\\ Japan\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ with\\ the\\ Convention\\ of\\ Kanagawa\\ in\\ 1854\\.\\ Dealt\\ with\\ American\\ forces\\ in\\ Key\\ West\\ and\\ Mexican\\ American\\ War\\.\\ MORE\\ IMPORTANTLY\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ opening\\ of\\ Japan\\ from\\ 1852\\ to\\ 1854\\.\\ On\\ his\\ first\\ visit\\,\\ the\\ Japanese\\ saw\\ the\\ American\\ \\&ldquo\\;black\\ ships\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ were\\ interested\\.\\ The\\ second\\ visit\\,\\ in\\ 1854\\,\\ contained\\ the\\ signing\\ of\\ the\\ Convention\\ of\\ Kanagawa\\,\\ which\\ opened\\ two\\ ports\\ to\\ Japan\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ii\\ Naosuke\\ \\(1815\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1860\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ daimyo\\ of\\ Hikone\\ and\\ Tairo\\.\\ Ii\\ Naosuke\\ signed\\ the\\ HARRIS\\ TREATY\\,\\ granting\\ ports\\ and\\ extraterritoriality\\ to\\ American\\ merchants\\ and\\ seamen\\.\\ Ii\\ was\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ opening\\ Japan\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ the\\ Ansei\\ Purge\\,\\ which\\ arrested\\ or\\ executed\\ isolationist\\ leaders\\.\\ He\\ was\\ murdered\\ in\\ 1860\\ during\\ the\\ night\\ by\\ a\\ band\\ of\\ 17\\ ronin\\ near\\ Sakurada\\ Gate\\,\\ Edo\\ Castle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emperor\\ Komei\\ \\(1831\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1867\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ ruled\\ 1846\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1867\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ Emperor\\ Meiji\\.\\ Hated\\ the\\ foreign\\ influence\\ America\\ and\\ other\\ western\\ powers\\ had\\ on\\ Japan\\.\\ He\\ did\\ not\\ like\\ how\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ Bakufu\\ was\\ opening\\ Japan\\ to\\ the\\ west\\.\\ He\\ had\\ his\\ sister\\ marry\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ Shogun\\ to\\ help\\ relations\\ between\\ the\\ imperial\\ family\\ and\\ the\\ shogun\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aizu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ province\\ in\\ northern\\ Japan\\.\\ Aizu\\ were\\ the\\ main\\ force\\ in\\ protecting\\ the\\ bakufu\\,\\ having\\ responsibilities\\ in\\ both\\ Kyoto\\ and\\ Edo\\.\\ The\\ inhabitants\\ fell\\ into\\ poverty\\ when\\ the\\ bakufu\\ fell\\ \\(as\\ written\\ by\\ Shiba\\ Goro\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Satsuma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Played\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ Meiji\\ revolution\\.\\ Was\\ led\\ by\\ Saigo\\ Takamori\\.\\ Satsuma\\ had\\ originally\\ been\\ helpers\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Meiji\\ Restoration\\,\\ but\\ had\\ grown\\ dissatisfied\\ with\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ government\\ was\\ conducting\\ business\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Choshu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tosa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hizen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tenchugumi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ dedicated\\ to\\ overthrowing\\ the\\ government\\.\\ Clashed\\ with\\ the\\ Shinsengumi\\ in\\ 1862\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shinsengumi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ special\\ police\\ force\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ Tokugawa\\ shogunate\\.\\ They\\ defended\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ shogun\\.\\ Formed\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Roshigumi\\ \\(a\\ rival\\ group\\ which\\ was\\ against\\ the\\ emperor\\)\\ The\\ prevented\\ the\\ burning\\ of\\ Kyoto\\ in\\ the\\ Ikedaya\\ Affair\\ of\\ 1864\\,\\ and\\ fought\\ for\\ the\\ shogunate\\ until\\ the\\ end\\ in\\ 1869\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Lennox\\ Richardson\\ \\(\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1862\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ An\\ English\\ merchant\\ from\\ Shanghai\\ who\\ was\\ in\\ Japan\\ and\\ was\\ killed\\ during\\ ghte\\ Namamugi\\ Incident\\ by\\ the\\ Satsuma\\ retainers\\ of\\ Shimazu\\ Hisamitsu\\ on\\ September\\ 14\\,\\ 1862\\.\\ Satsuma\\ faced\\ punishment\\ for\\ trying\\ to\\ assert\\ their\\ independence\\ by\\ the\\ British\\ foreign\\ powers\\.\\ \\[wikipedia\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Saigo\\ Takamori\\ \\(1827\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1877\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ In\\ early\\ life\\,\\ assisted\\ Satsuma\\ in\\ promoting\\ reconciliation\\ and\\ closers\\ ties\\ between\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ bakufu\\.\\ Arrested\\ by\\ Ansei\\ Purge\\ and\\ finally\\ pardoned\\ in\\ 1864\\.\\ Led\\ Satsuma\\ \\(allied\\ with\\ Aizu\\ domain\\)\\ against\\ force\\ of\\ Choshu\\.\\ Was\\ against\\ the\\ resignation\\ of\\ Tokugawa\\ Yoshinobu\\ \\(and\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ Meiji\\ Restoration\\)\\ His\\ intransigence\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ causes\\ of\\ the\\ Boshin\\ War\\ \\(he\\ surrendered\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Toba\\-Fushimi\\ to\\ Katsu\\ Kaishu\\)\\.\\ Saigo\\ had\\ a\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ Meiji\\ government\\ \\(abolished\\ the\\ han\\ system\\ and\\ established\\ a\\ conscript\\ army\\)\\ After\\ the\\ government\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attack\\ Korea\\ \\(which\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respect\\ Meiji\\ government\\)\\ Saigo\\ left\\ the\\ government\\.\\ He\\ led\\ the\\ Satsuma\\ Rebellion\\ \\(1877\\)\\.\\ He\\ died\\ at\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Battle\\ of\\ Shiroyama\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ where\\ he\\ had\\ someone\\ cut\\ off\\ his\\ head\\ or\\ he\\ committed\\ seppuku\\.\\ Takamori\\ goes\\ down\\ as\\ a\\ mythical\\ samurai\\.\\ The\\ government\\ pardoned\\ him\\ after\\ for\\ his\\ commitment\\ to\\ bushido\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Okubo\\ Toshimichi\\ \\(1830\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1878\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ In\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Meiji\\ Restoration\\,\\ eh\\ was\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ Saigo\\ Takamori\\.\\ They\\ fought\\ together\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ emperor\\ as\\ ruler\\ of\\ Japan\\.\\ He\\ favored\\ reconciliation\\ of\\ Tokugawa\\ and\\ emperor\\ \\(unlike\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ colleagues\\)\\.\\ He\\ helps\\ establish\\ Meiji\\ government\\,\\ and\\ ironically\\ leads\\ a\\ platoon\\ against\\ Saigo\\ Takamori\\ in\\ the\\ Satsuma\\ Rebellion\\ of\\ 1877\\.\\ He\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ traitor\\ of\\ Satsuma\\,\\ and\\ ends\\ up\\ being\\ assassinated\\ on\\ his\\ way\\ back\\ to\\ Tokyo\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ Satsuma\\ samurai\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Boshin\\ War\\ \\(1868\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1869\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ civil\\ war\\ in\\ Japan\\ fought\\ between\\ forces\\ ruling\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\ shogunate\\ and\\ those\\ favorable\\ to\\ the\\ restoration\\ of\\ the\\ Meiji\\.\\ Edo\\ was\\ surrendered\\ to\\ the\\ imperial\\ forces\\.\\ Satsuma\\ and\\ Choshu\\ rebelled\\ against\\ the\\ Tokugawa\\.\\ Emperor\\ Meiji\\ ordered\\ Satsuma\\ and\\ Choshu\\ to\\ kill\\ Tokugawa\\ Yoshinobu\\ \\(the\\ shogun\\ who\\ gave\\ rule\\ to\\ the\\ Meiji\\)\\.\\ Deals\\ went\\ sour\\,\\ and\\ fighting\\ began\\.\\ Multiple\\ battles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ imperial\\ forces\\ ended\\ up\\ winning\\ with\\ their\\ western\\ technological\\ advancements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Byakkotai\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;White\\ Tiger\\ Company\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ young\\,\\ predominantly\\ teenage\\ samurai\\ who\\ committed\\ seppuku\\ on\\ a\\ hillside\\ overlooking\\ the\\ catlee\\ after\\ seeing\\ its\\ defenses\\ breached\\ during\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Aizu\\ in\\ the\\ Boshin\\ War\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ Byakkotai\\ were\\ sadly\\ mistaken\\ in\\ their\\ assessment\\ of\\ defeat\\,\\ as\\ the\\ castle\\ had\\ not\\ been\\ breached\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shinpuren\\ Rebellion\\ of\\ 1876\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ In\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ attacks\\,\\ samurai\\ attacked\\ the\\ Kumamoto\\ Garrison\\ dressed\\ in\\ traditional\\ armor\\.\\ They\\ succeeded\\ in\\ burning\\ the\\ armory\\ and\\ killing\\ 65\\ soldiers\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ largest\\ mass\\ seppuku\\ during\\ peacetime\\ Japan\\.\\ Brought\\ on\\ by\\ Meiji\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ destroy\\ the\\ samurai\\ class\\.\\ The\\ samurai\\ were\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Keishinto\\,\\ a\\ political\\/religious\\ group\\ SHAPED\\ by\\ Hayashi\\ Oen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hayashi\\ Oen\\ \\(1798\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1870\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Satsuma\\ Rebellion\\ \\(1877\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Satsuma\\ had\\ grown\\ dissatisfied\\ with\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ Meiji\\ government\\.\\ Saigo\\ Takamori\\ led\\ the\\ rebellion\\ \\(who\\ had\\ helped\\ in\\ the\\ Meiji\\ Restoration\\)\\.\\ The\\ rebels\\ used\\ western\\ weapons\\ \\(they\\ just\\ ran\\ out\\ of\\ ammo\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ and\\ switched\\ to\\ swords\\ and\\ arrows\\)\\.\\ The\\ fighting\\ ended\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Shiroyama\\,\\ where\\ Saigo\\ was\\ honorable\\ killed\\/seppuku\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Budo\\ \\(post\\-Meiji\\ Restoration\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ name\\ for\\ Japanese\\ martial\\ arts\\.\\ It\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ Bujutsu\\,\\ but\\ they\\ changed\\ it\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ times\\.\\ Literally\\ means\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Modern\\ Martial\\ Way\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Russo\\-Japanese\\ War\\ \\(1904\\-1905\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Japan\\ opened\\ attack\\ at\\ Port\\ Arthur\\.\\ Battle\\ was\\ inconclusive\\.\\ Ended\\ with\\ Battle\\ of\\ Tsushima\\.\\ Japan\\ won\\ this\\ war\\,\\ gained\\ an\\ island\\,\\ expanded\\ influence\\ heavily\\ into\\ Korea\\,\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ experience\\ defeat\\ until\\ 1945\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ Japan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ international\\ standing\\,\\ and\\ their\\ desire\\ for\\ representation\\ with\\ superpowers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nogi\\ Maresuke\\ \\(1849\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1912\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ prominent\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ Imperial\\ Japanese\\ Army\\ and\\ the\\ Russo\\-Japanese\\ War\\.\\ Served\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ the\\ Satsuma\\ Rebellion\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Kyushu\\,\\ lost\\ the\\ imperial\\ army\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banner\\ \\(which\\ was\\ a\\ disgrace\\)\\.\\ He\\ fought\\ in\\ the\\ Russo\\-Japanese\\ War\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Port\\ Arthur\\,\\ where\\ he\\ proved\\ his\\ valor\\ fighting\\ through\\ a\\ long\\ battle\\.\\ The\\ emperor\\ even\\ verbally\\ defended\\ him\\ when\\ his\\ honor\\ was\\ attacked\\.\\ When\\ emperor\\ Meiji\\ died\\,\\ he\\ committed\\ seppuku\\ \\(controversial\\ because\\ it\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ because\\ of\\ samurai\\ loyalty\\ or\\ his\\ disgust\\ with\\ the\\ Meiji\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moral\\ values\\)\\.\\ Seen\\ as\\ an\\ icon\\ for\\ loyalty\\ and\\ sacrifice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ryunosuke\\ Akutagawa\\ \\(1892\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1927\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Father\\ of\\ the\\ Japanese\\ Short\\ Story\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Wrote\\ over\\ 150\\ short\\ stories\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ critic\\ of\\ the\\ suicide\\ of\\ General\\ Nogi\\ Maresuke\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kojima\\ Nobuo\\ \\(1915\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2006\\ \\[after\\ sourcebook\\ was\\ printed\\]\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mishima\\ Yukio\\ \\(1925\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1970\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ Japanese\\ author\\ and\\ playwright\\,\\ famous\\ for\\ his\\ highly\\ notable\\ transcendentalist\\ post\\-war\\ writings\\ and\\ his\\ suicide\\ by\\ seppuku\\.\\ He\\ was\\ drafted\\ for\\ WWII\\,\\ and\\ got\\ out\\ of\\ it\\ by\\ saying\\ he\\ had\\ TB\\.\\ He\\ went\\ to\\ college\\,\\ and\\ wrote\\ professionally\\.\\ He\\ then\\ joined\\ the\\ Ground\\ Self\\-Defense\\ Force\\ \\(GSDF\\)\\ and\\ formed\\ the\\ Tatenokai\\ \\(Shield\\ Society\\)\\.\\ He\\ attempted\\ a\\ coup\\-d\\&rsquo\\;etat\\ to\\ restore\\ the\\ emperor\\ to\\ his\\ rightful\\ power\\,\\ but\\ the\\ soldiers\\ at\\ the\\ Tokyo\\ HQ\\ of\\ the\\ SDF\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\.\\ He\\ then\\ committed\\ seppuku\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Japanese\\ Economic\\ Miracle\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1960\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1990\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ historical\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ economic\\ growth\\ after\\ WWII\\,\\ spurred\\ by\\ US\\ investment\\ and\\ Japanese\\ government\\ economic\\ interventionism\\.\\ Helped\\ by\\ the\\ Korean\\ War\\,\\ and\\ a\\ large\\ shift\\ to\\ export\\ trade\\.\\ Paired\\ with\\ Japanese\\ liberalization\\,\\ democratization\\,\\ and\\ pacifism\\,\\ Japan\\ had\\ a\\ large\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ boom\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ opposed\\ the\\ westernization\\ of\\ Japan\\,\\ but\\ it\\ happened\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 49, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Samurai_Final_Review_People.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "study-guide", "haa-10"], "text": null, "id": 120, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-indent\\:20\\.2pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:360\\.2pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-indent\\:83pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-indent\\:39\\.4pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-indent\\:40\\.1pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:45\\.8pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-indent\\:9\\.8pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:47pt\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-indent\\:293\\.5pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c24\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:75\\.4pt\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:3\\.4pt\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-indent\\:19\\.9pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HAA\\ 10\\ FINAL\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Table\\ of\\ Contents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 2\\ Klein\\ and\\ Zerner\\:\\ Italian\\ Art\\,\\ 1500\\-1600\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.2\\ Ivins\\ \\(Road\\ Block\\,\\ Tyranny\\,\\ Prints\\)\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 4\\ Rosenberg\\:\\ Rembrandt\\,\\ Life\\ and\\ Work\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 5\\ Rosen\\ and\\ Zerner\\:\\ The\\ Ideology\\ of\\ the\\ Licked\\ Surface\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.6\\ Eitner\\:\\ Gericault\\,\\ His\\ Life\\ and\\ Work\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.7\\ Wolfflin\\:\\ Principles\\ of\\ Art\\ History\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.9\\ Schapiro\\:\\ Style\\ \\(first\\ version\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 10\\ Schapiro\\:\\ Style\\ \\(second\\ version\\)\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 12\\ Baudelaire\\:\\ The\\ Painter\\ of\\ Modern\\ Life\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.13\\ Eisenman\\:\\ Symbolism\\ and\\ the\\ Dialectics\\ of\\ Retreat\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.15\\ Sekula\\:\\ On\\ the\\ Invention\\ of\\ Photographic\\ Meaning\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 16\\ Buchloh\\:\\ Readymade\\,\\ Photography\\ and\\ Painting\\ in\\ the\\ Painting\\ of\\ Gerhard\\ Richter\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.18\\ Lectures\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.19\\ Lecture\\ 3\\/10\\:\\ Gian\\ Lorenzo\\ Bernini\\:\\ Structure\\ and\\ Light\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.19\\ Lecture\\ 3\\/12\\:\\ Caravaggio\\ and\\ Poussin\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.22\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/7\\:\\ Gericault\\ and\\ Romanticism\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.24\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/9\\:\\ The\\ Rise\\ of\\ Landscape\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.27\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/14\\:\\ The\\ American\\ Sublime\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 31\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/16\\:\\ Photography\\ and\\ the\\ Western\\ tradition\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.36\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/21\\:\\ Picasso\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 40\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/23\\:\\ Jackson\\ Pollack\\ and\\ Barnett\\ Newman\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.42\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/28\\&rdquo\\;\\ Contemporary\\ Artists\\ as\\ Historians\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.45\\ Lecture\\ 4\\/30\\:\\ Velazquez\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Las\\ Meninas\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ 46\\ Sections\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.48\\ Week\\ of\\ March\\ 10\\ \\(version\\ 1\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.48\\ Week\\ of\\ March\\ 10\\ \\(Version\\ 2\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.49\\ Week\\ of\\ March\\ 24\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.50\\ Week\\ of\\ March\\ 31\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.51\\ Week\\ of\\ April\\ 7\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.52\\ Week\\ of\\ April\\ 14\\ \\(first\\ version\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.54\\ Week\\ of\\ April\\ 14\\ \\(second\\ version\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.55\\ Week\\ of\\ April\\ 21\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.56\\ Week\\ of\\ April\\ 28\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.57\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Klein\\ and\\ Zerner\\:\\ Italian\\ Art\\,\\ 1500\\-1600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COMPARATIVE\\ MERITS\\ OF\\ THE\\ ARTS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Painters\\ and\\ sculptors\\ argued\\ over\\ which\\ art\\ was\\ more\\ prestigious\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\middle\\ ages\\,\\ and\\ the\\ comparison\\ or\\ controversy\\ between\\ the\\ different\\ arts\\ was\\ called\\ paragone\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ paper\\ begins\\ with\\ Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ on\\ painters\\ versus\\ sculptors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Sculptor\\ has\\ greater\\ physical\\ fatigue\\,\\ Painter\\ has\\ greater\\ mental\\ fatigue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Sculptor\\ must\\ make\\ the\\ figure\\ look\\ good\\ from\\ all\\ sides\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ is\\ 3\\-d\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ sculptor\\ more\\ difficult\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ painter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Sculptors\\ say\\ their\\ work\\ is\\ more\\ difficult\\ because\\ once\\ they\\ remove\\ something\\,\\ its\\ gone\\ forever\\,\\ whereas\\ a\\ painter\\ could\\ add\\ it\\,\\ but\\ Leonardo\\ maintains\\ that\\ if\\ a\\ sculptor\\ removes\\ too\\ much\\,\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ good\\ sculptor\\ anyway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ The\\ sculptor\\ has\\ fewer\\ matters\\ to\\ consider\\,\\ because\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ light\\ or\\ color\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ then\\ discusses\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Painting\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ detached\\ from\\ the\\ wall\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ really\\ not\\,\\ and\\ this\\ contrasts\\ with\\ sculpture\\,\\ because\\ sculpture\\ appears\\ as\\ it\\ truly\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ The\\ painter\\ must\\ evaluate\\ shadows\\ and\\ lights\\,\\ but\\ nature\\ provides\\ these\\ for\\ the\\ sculptor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ The\\ painter\\ must\\ create\\ perspective\\,\\ but\\ again\\,\\ sculpture\\ is\\ helped\\ in\\ this\\ regard\\ by\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sculptor\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ create\\ perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Painting\\ requires\\ greater\\ skill\\ and\\ is\\ more\\ marvelous\\ than\\ sculpture\\ because\\ the\\ painter\\ becomes\\ an\\ interpreter\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Painting\\ achieves\\ many\\ effects\\ like\\ mist\\ and\\ fish\\ playing\\ between\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ and\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ a\\ river\\ which\\ sculpture\\ cannot\\ attain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ The\\ bas\\-relief\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ like\\ painting\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ perspective\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ portray\\ shadows\\ and\\ lights\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\.\\ It\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ sculpture\\ and\\ requires\\ less\\ physical\\ fatigue\\ than\\ sculpture\\ but\\ more\\ study\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ sculptor\\ says\\ his\\ art\\ is\\ more\\ worthy\\ than\\ painting\\ b\\/c\\ his\\ work\\ is\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\enduring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Leonardo\\ declares\\ that\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ his\\ work\\ more\\ worthy\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ endurance\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ material\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ and\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ paintings\\ can\\ endure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Sculpture\\ looks\\ distorted\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ shown\\ in\\ an\\ area\\ with\\ lighting\\ different\\ than\\ that\\ in\\ which\\ is\\ was\\ made\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ happen\\ to\\ painting\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ideas\\ about\\ the\\ Paragone\\ from\\ Bronzino\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Bronzino\\ believes\\ that\\ painting\\ is\\ the\\ superior\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ He\\ says\\ that\\ arguments\\ presented\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ sculpture\\ are\\ that\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ permanent\\ than\\ painting\\ and\\ thus\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ bring\\ back\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ statue\\ was\\ made\\ because\\ it\\ lasts\\ longer\\,\\ so\\ in\\ that\\ way\\,\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ useful\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ statue\\ requires\\ more\\ effort\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ made\\ out\\ of\\ hard\\ materials\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ requires\\ more\\ judgment\\ because\\ you\\ cannot\\ put\\ something\\ back\\ once\\ you\\ have\\ taken\\ it\\ away\\.\\ Sculpture\\ also\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ mimic\\ nature\\ more\\ effectively\\ and\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ through\\ more\\ senses\\ than\\ painting\\ because\\ one\\ can\\ touch\\ it\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ as\\ Leonardo\\ said\\,\\ the\\ sculptor\\ must\\ make\\ the\\ sculpture\\ look\\ good\\ from\\ all\\ angles\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ painter\\ must\\ just\\ make\\ it\\ look\\ good\\ from\\ one\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ sculpture\\ is\\ more\\ difficult\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ viewer\\ enjoys\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ move\\ around\\ a\\ sculpture\\ and\\ see\\ it\\ from\\ all\\ sides\\,\\ so\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ more\\ enjoyable\\ than\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ People\\ who\\ prefer\\ sculpture\\ also\\ say\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ ornament\\ for\\ cities\\ and\\ that\\ sculpture\\ is\\ useful\\ because\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ incorporated\\ into\\ architecture\\,\\ while\\ painting\\ has\\ no\\ utility\\ except\\ for\\ giving\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ In\\ reality\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ to\\ be\\ said\\ for\\ painting\\ than\\ sculpture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ sculpture\\ is\\ more\\ durable\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ credit\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ because\\ the\\ material\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ its\\ power\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ Nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ Sculpture\\ has\\ less\\ dignity\\ than\\ painting\\,\\ because\\ the\\ more\\ an\\ art\\ is\\ exercised\\ with\\ manual\\ and\\ physical\\ exertion\\,\\ the\\ closer\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ a\\ mechanical\\ craft\\.\\ Although\\ sculptors\\ say\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ add\\ once\\ they\\ have\\ taken\\ away\\ some\\ part\\ of\\ their\\ sculpture\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ colossal\\ statues\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ many\\ pieces\\ The\\ 3\\-d\\ part\\ of\\ sculpture\\ is\\ to\\ nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ credit\\ because\\ nature\\ made\\ the\\ material\\ and\\ all\\ that\\ sculptors\\ make\\ are\\ the\\ lines\\,\\ so\\ the\\ three\\-dimensionality\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ sculptor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Michelangelo\\ gave\\ his\\ ideas\\ on\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Painting\\ is\\ considered\\ excellent\\ as\\ it\\ approaches\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ relief\\,\\ while\\ relief\\ is\\ considered\\ bad\\ in\\ proportion\\ as\\ it\\ approaches\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ painting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ He\\ considers\\ that\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Artists\\ should\\ do\\ equal\\ amounts\\ of\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ The\\ debate\\ between\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\ should\\ end\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Someone\\ already\\ has\\ Cellini\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\,\\ which\\ goes\\ over\\ Perseus\\ and\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\article\\ repeats\\,\\ so\\ all\\ I\\ will\\ add\\ is\\ the\\ bit\\ of\\ commentary\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Cellini\\ used\\ the\\ technique\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;lost\\ wax\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ is\\ risky\\ because\\ if\\ the\\ cast\\ is\\ not\\ successful\\,\\ the\\ model\\ is\\ lost\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ Cellini\\ was\\ so\\ nervous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ One\\ makes\\ a\\ clay\\ core\\ which\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ statue\\,\\ this\\ is\\ completed\\ with\\ wax\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ exact\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ finished\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ The\\ figure\\ is\\ then\\ wrapped\\ in\\ a\\ cloak\\ made\\ with\\ clay\\,\\ and\\ is\\ heated\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ wax\\ melts\\ and\\ runs\\ through\\ the\\ holes\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;cloak\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ empty\\ mold\\ is\\ then\\ baked\\ and\\ molten\\ metal\\ is\\ poured\\ into\\ the\\ space\\ between\\ the\\ core\\ and\\ the\\ cloak\\.\\ This\\ metal\\ becomes\\ the\\ statue\\ and\\ the\\ mold\\ is\\ broken\\ to\\ reveal\\ the\\ statue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ivins\\ \\(Road\\ Block\\,\\ Tyranny\\,\\ Prints\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Road\\ Block\\ Broken\\:\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Discusses\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ printmaking\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\centuries\\ and\\ its\\ significance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Woodcuts\\ came\\ before\\ engravings\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ 14th\\ century\\,\\ but\\ very\\ primitive\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ were\\ not\\ struck\\ off\\ a\\ printing\\ press\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ subject\\ of\\ a\\ print\\ influences\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\ made\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ earliest\\ prints\\ were\\ not\\ intended\\ to\\ convey\\ information\\ to\\ an\\ audience\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Woodcut\\ vs\\.\\ Engraving\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Engraved\\ plate\\ wears\\ out\\ faster\\ than\\ the\\ woodblock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Engraving\\ more\\ expensive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 15th\\ an\\ 16th\\ century\\ woodcuts\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;facsimile\\ cuts\\&rdquo\\;\\ meaning\\ that\\ they\\ tried\\ to\\ copy\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drawing\\ directly\\ with\\ little\\ translation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ By\\ first\\-half\\ of\\ 16th\\ century\\,\\ woodcuts\\ became\\ more\\ detailed\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\saturated\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Push\\ for\\ more\\ detail\\ encouraged\\ the\\ transition\\ to\\ engraving\\ on\\ copper\\ plates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tyranny\\ Broken\\:\\ 0\\.\\ Between\\ 1800\\ and\\ 1900\\,\\ boom\\ in\\ the\\ printed\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\ The\\ photograph\\ replaced\\ the\\ print\\ \\.\\ 19th\\ century\\ marked\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ wood\\-engraving\\ and\\ lithography\\ \\.\\ Lithograph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ could\\ be\\ practically\\ identical\\ to\\ the\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ drawing\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ major\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Prints\\ Look\\:\\ 0\\.\\ Woodcut\\ \\=\\ artistic\\ technique\\ in\\ printmaking\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ image\\ is\\ carved\\ into\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\surface\\ of\\ a\\ block\\ of\\ wood\\,\\ with\\ the\\ printing\\ parts\\ remaining\\ level\\ with\\ the\\ surface\\ while\\ the\\ non\\-printing\\ parts\\ are\\ removed\\,\\ typically\\ with\\ gouges\\ \\.\\ Produces\\ a\\ negative\\ image\\ 0\\.\\ Intaglio\\ process\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ means\\ to\\ cut\\ into\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ image\\ itself\\ is\\ hollowed\\ out\\,\\ then\\ filled\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ink\\ \\.\\ Requires\\ high\\ pressure\\ \\.\\ Etching\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ using\\ strong\\ acid\\ to\\ cut\\ into\\ the\\ unprotected\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ metal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\surface\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ design\\ in\\ intaglio\\ in\\ the\\ metal\\,\\ usually\\ copper\\ \\.\\ Cover\\ metal\\ plate\\ with\\ resin\\,\\ use\\ etching\\ needle\\ to\\ scratch\\ surface\\ so\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lines\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ resin\\ surface\\,\\ put\\ into\\ acid\\ bath\\ \\.\\ The\\ acid\\ eats\\ the\\ metal\\ where\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ scratched\\ \\.\\ Lithography\\ is\\ a\\ method\\ for\\ printing\\ using\\ a\\ plate\\ or\\ stone\\ with\\ a\\ completely\\ smooth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\surface\\.\\ By\\ contrast\\ with\\ intaglio\\ printing\\ which\\ uses\\ a\\ plate\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ engraved\\ \\(engraving\\)\\,\\ etched\\ \\(etching\\)\\ or\\ stippled\\ \\(mezzotint\\)\\ to\\ produce\\ cavities\\ to\\ contain\\ the\\ printing\\ ink\\,\\ lithography\\ simply\\ uses\\ oil\\ or\\ fat\\ and\\ gum\\ arabic\\ to\\ divide\\ the\\ smooth\\ surface\\ into\\ hydrophobic\\ regions\\ which\\ accept\\ the\\ ink\\,\\ and\\ hydrophilic\\ regions\\ which\\ reject\\ it\\ and\\ become\\ the\\ background\\ Monotyping\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ printmaking\\ made\\ by\\ drawing\\ or\\ painting\\ on\\ a\\ smooth\\,\\ non\\-\\ absorbent\\ surface\\.\\ The\\ surface\\,\\ or\\ matrix\\,\\ was\\ historically\\ a\\ copper\\ etching\\ plate\\,\\ but\\ in\\ contemporary\\ work\\ it\\ can\\ vary\\ from\\ zinc\\ or\\ glass\\ to\\ acrylic\\ glass\\.\\ The\\ image\\ is\\ then\\ transferred\\ onto\\ a\\ sheet\\ of\\ paper\\ by\\ pressing\\ the\\ two\\ together\\,\\ usually\\ using\\ a\\ printing\\-\\ press\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rosenberg\\:\\ Rembrandt\\,\\ Life\\ and\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ aspects\\ of\\ R\\&rsquo\\;s\\ technique\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Chiaroscuro\\ \\(painting\\ and\\ etching\\/drawing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Coloristic\\ treatment\\ \\(painting\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Brushwork\\ \\(painting\\)\\ Painting\\ \\.\\ R\\ follows\\ in\\ footsteps\\ of\\ Caravaggio\\ \\(esp\\,\\ chiaroscuro\\)\\,\\ but\\ less\\ harsh\\/more\\ subtle\\ \\.\\ Sees\\ light\\ and\\ dark\\ as\\ elements\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ themselves\\;\\ highlights\\ space\\,\\ not\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\objects\\ \\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;airy\\ transparency\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ avoids\\ \\&ldquo\\;dramatic\\ intensification\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ achieves\\ \\&ldquo\\;harmonious\\ total\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\unification\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\ Uses\\ chiaroscuro\\ as\\ way\\ to\\ focus\\ interest\\ \\.\\ \\(Slowly\\)\\ developed\\ a\\ warmer\\ tonality\\ that\\ set\\ him\\ apart\\ from\\ later\\ northern\\ European\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\painters\\ \\.\\ Varied\\ technique\\ with\\ scratching\\ paints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Etching\\ \\.\\ More\\ prolific\\ use\\ of\\ etching\\ than\\ others\\ of\\ his\\ time\\;\\ more\\ playful\\ with\\ medium\\,\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cognizant\\ of\\ the\\ potential\\ of\\ etching\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;wavering\\&rdquo\\;\\ lines\\ 0\\.\\ Whiteness\\ of\\ paper\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\ First\\ explored\\ dry\\-point\\ \\(leaving\\ burr\\ of\\ copper\\ plate\\ to\\ collect\\ ink\\ and\\ produce\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;velvety\\&rdquo\\;\\ darkness\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ combined\\ this\\ with\\ etching\\ and\\ burin\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drawing\\ \\.\\ Exploited\\ drawing\\ as\\ an\\ art\\ itself\\ \\(not\\ just\\ for\\ preparing\\ for\\ paintings\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Easily\\ developed\\ freedom\\ and\\ spontaneity\\ in\\ drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rosen\\ and\\ Zerner\\:\\ The\\ Ideology\\ of\\ the\\ Licked\\ Surface\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Official\\ artists\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ France\\ in\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\century\\,\\ the\\ pompiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Supported\\ by\\ the\\ government\\,\\ most\\ honored\\ by\\ Salons\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ These\\ artists\\ specialized\\ in\\ large\\ historical\\ and\\ religious\\ pictures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ However\\,\\ their\\ popularity\\ declined\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ the\\ pictures\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\artists\\ were\\ held\\ in\\ contempt\\ by\\ many\\ critics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Among\\ the\\ pompiers\\ was\\ Bouguereau\\,\\ whose\\ paintings\\ contributed\\ to\\ a\\ popular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\commercial\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ His\\ paintings\\ often\\ appeared\\ on\\ sentimental\\ postcards\\ early\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Pompiers\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ grand\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ 16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\centuries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Impressionists\\ worked\\ against\\ official\\ art\\,\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ pompiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ They\\ considered\\ themselves\\ realists\\,\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ What\\ factors\\ governed\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;official\\&rdquo\\;\\ taste\\ in\\ last\\ 19th\\ century\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Which\\ paintings\\ were\\ worthy\\ enough\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ purchase\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\display\\ in\\ the\\ Luxembourg\\ exhibition\\,\\ and\\ which\\ were\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Interesting\\ considering\\ many\\ famous\\ painters\\,\\ Monet\\,\\ Degas\\,\\ etc\\,\\ refused\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\paint\\ pictures\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ would\\ buy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ The\\ gov\\.\\ had\\ two\\ factors\\ that\\ were\\ most\\ important\\ to\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Subject\\ matter\\ 2\\.\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;licked\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ polished\\ surface\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Government\\ wanted\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ traditional\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preference\\ went\\ to\\ historical\\ paintings\\,\\ \\¬in\\;\\ Mythology\\,\\ sacred\\ and\\ profane\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grandes\\ machines\\ \\¬in\\;\\ At\\ the\\ time\\ such\\ subjects\\ were\\ unpopular\\ with\\ the\\ public\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;licked\\&rdquo\\;\\ surface\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fini\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ A\\ smooth\\ and\\ glossy\\ painting\\,\\ traditional\\ transitions\\ between\\ colors\\,\\ unbroken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\modeling\\ of\\ forms\\,\\ polished\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Symbolizes\\ careful\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Guarantees\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ work\\ done\\ and\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ execution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ it\\ also\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ rubbing\\ outraces\\ of\\ real\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brush\\ strokes\\ Fills\\ in\\ broken\\ lines\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Difference\\ between\\ fini\\ and\\ realists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Both\\ are\\ versions\\ of\\ realism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Fini\\ is\\ the\\ faithful\\ representation\\ of\\ an\\ illusionary\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Think\\ of\\ Ingres\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ brush\\ stroke\\.\\.\\.should\\ not\\ be\\ visible\\,\\ otherwise\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\prevents\\ the\\ illusion\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ represented\\ it\\ calls\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ process\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9675\\;\\ Realists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Concerned\\ with\\ painting\\ light\\,\\ asserting\\ the\\ independence\\ of\\ art\\ itself\\ Rejecting\\ the\\ licked\\ surface\\ proclaimed\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ Academy\\ Refusal\\ to\\ hold\\ everyday\\ reality\\ at\\ a\\ distance\\ by\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ idealization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eitner\\:\\ Gericault\\,\\ His\\ Life\\ and\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Nouvelle\\ Athenes\\ Gericault\\ traveled\\ to\\ Italy\\ before\\ returning\\ to\\ Paris\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 26\\.\\ Upon\\ returning\\ he\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ personal\\ turmoil\\ involving\\ his\\ Uncle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ young\\ wife\\ so\\ he\\ moved\\ to\\ a\\ Bohemian\\ area\\ of\\ Paris\\ known\\ as\\ La\\ Nouvelle\\ Athenes\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ His\\ neighbor\\ and\\ friend\\ was\\ Horace\\ Vernet\\,\\ a\\ popular\\ and\\ charismatic\\ painter\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Eitner\\ discusses\\ Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ early\\ work\\ called\\ Charging\\ Chasseur\\ \\(1812\\)\\ which\\ was\\ greeted\\ with\\ enthusiasm\\ by\\ the\\ art\\ world\\ and\\ his\\ 1814\\ piece\\,\\ Wounded\\ Cuirassier\\ which\\ was\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ disappointment\\ compared\\ with\\ the\\ earlier\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Cattle\\ Market\\ \\.\\ Before\\ completing\\ his\\ masterpiece\\,\\ Raft\\ of\\ the\\ Medusa\\,\\ Gericault\\ completed\\ several\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\smaller\\ works\\,\\ including\\ The\\ Cattle\\ Market\\.\\ \\.\\ The\\ Cattle\\ Market\\ is\\ especially\\ notable\\ for\\ its\\ distant\\ landscapes\\ and\\ overcast\\ sky\\,\\ the\\ walls\\ that\\ divide\\ the\\ view\\,\\ and\\ the\\ congested\\ surge\\ of\\ animals\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ foreground\\.\\ The\\ work\\ hints\\ at\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ his\\ work\\ that\\ probably\\ took\\ place\\ during\\ his\\ trip\\ to\\ Italy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imaginary\\ Landscapes\\ and\\ Moral\\ Allegories\\ \\.\\ Gericault\\ rarely\\ painted\\ anything\\ resembling\\ a\\ landscape\\ before\\ 1818\\ because\\ he\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\believed\\ that\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ nature\\ should\\ be\\ centered\\ around\\ animals\\ and\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\ In\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 1818\\ he\\ completed\\ 3\\ large\\ landscapes\\:\\ Landscape\\ with\\ Fisherman\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\which\\ represents\\ a\\ morning\\ departure\\,\\ Landscape\\ with\\ Roman\\ Tomb\\,\\ which\\ depicts\\ a\\ thunderstorm\\ at\\ noon\\,\\ and\\ Landscape\\ with\\ Aqueduct\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ bathing\\ scene\\ on\\ a\\ cool\\ evening\\.\\ The\\ three\\ works\\ are\\ not\\ indicative\\ of\\ actual\\ landscapes\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ personally\\ witnessed\\,\\ but\\ draw\\ upon\\ artistic\\ conventions\\ and\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ other\\ artists\\.\\ They\\ were\\ specifically\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ Italian\\ wall\\ landscapes\\ of\\ Joseph\\ Vernet\\ \\(not\\ Horace\\ Vernet\\,\\ Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbor\\ in\\ La\\ Nouvelle\\ Athenes\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ Gericault\\ left\\ his\\ individual\\ mark\\ on\\ the\\ works\\ with\\ the\\ concreteness\\ rather\\ than\\ haziness\\ of\\ the\\ landscapes\\ and\\ his\\ borrowing\\ of\\ figures\\ from\\ Italian\\ masters\\ such\\ as\\ Michelangelo\\.\\ \\.\\ The\\ 3\\ landscapes\\ also\\ show\\ a\\ progressive\\ continuity\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sequential\\ in\\ order\\,\\ they\\ have\\ common\\ features\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ winding\\ river\\,\\ and\\ if\\ placed\\ in\\ order\\,\\ the\\ two\\ outside\\ works\\ are\\ darker\\ than\\ the\\ middle\\ work\\,\\ making\\ the\\ three\\ together\\ tonally\\ symmetrical\\.\\ 0\\.\\ Eitner\\ speculates\\ that\\ the\\ apparent\\ impending\\ doom\\ of\\ the\\ storm\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\represented\\ Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ impending\\ turmoil\\ over\\ his\\ affair\\.\\ \\.\\ Moralizing\\ Allegories\\:\\ Gericault\\ produced\\ two\\ significant\\ such\\ works\\,\\ Man\\ Led\\ Astray\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ Voluptuousness\\ and\\ Folly\\ and\\ Man\\ Tearing\\ Himself\\ from\\ the\\ Arms\\ of\\ Vice\\&mdash\\;\\ both\\ contained\\ a\\ young\\ man\\,\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\,\\ a\\ dagger\\,\\ demonic\\ pursuers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Furies\\.\\ Representative\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ life\\ and\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ Hennequin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Remorse\\ of\\ Oresles\\ \\(1800\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Return\\ to\\ Modernity\\ \\.\\ Gericault\\ saw\\ Horace\\ Vernet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choice\\ of\\ modern\\ subject\\ matter\\ and\\ the\\ vivacity\\ it\\ lent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\his\\ work\\ and\\ hoped\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ similar\\ effect\\.\\ \\.\\ He\\ was\\ looking\\ to\\ directly\\ appeal\\ to\\ viewers\\&rsquo\\;\\ emotions\\ with\\ events\\ and\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ an\\ immediate\\ human\\ interest\\.\\ \\.\\ He\\ mostly\\ depicted\\ modern\\ military\\ scenes\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ epic\\ style\\ he\\ had\\ used\\ for\\ scenes\\ of\\ classical\\ mythology\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Standard\\ Bearer\\,\\ he\\ depicts\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ slaves\\ in\\ rebellion\\ as\\ the\\ hero\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ more\\ patriotic\\ work\\ by\\ other\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Early\\ Lithographs\\ and\\ The\\ Fauldes\\ Drawings\\ \\.\\ Lithographs\\ of\\ 1818\\-19\\ are\\ often\\ considered\\ the\\ first\\ masterworks\\ in\\ the\\ already\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\popular\\ medium\\.\\ \\.\\ Lithography\\ was\\ attractive\\ to\\ Gericault\\ and\\ other\\ artists\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ richness\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tone\\ and\\ its\\ ease\\ of\\ handling\\.\\ \\.\\ Gericault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lithographs\\ were\\ usually\\ depictions\\ of\\ the\\ Napoleonic\\ Wars\\ but\\ they\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lacked\\ the\\ patriotic\\ rant\\ of\\ more\\ popular\\ lithographers\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ They\\ usually\\ depicted\\ the\\ struggles\\ of\\ common\\ soldiers\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ refer\\ to\\ a\\ precise\\ event\\ or\\ contain\\ a\\ specific\\ narrative\\.\\ Around\\ 1818\\,\\ he\\ completed\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ drawings\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ a\\ mayor\\ named\\ Fualdes\\ which\\ reflect\\ his\\ growing\\ interest\\ in\\ painting\\ current\\ events\\ in\\ a\\ heroic\\ and\\ dramatic\\ fashion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PART\\ 2\\ \\-Frigate\\,\\ La\\ Meduse\\ ran\\ aground\\ July\\ 2nd\\ 1816\\ due\\ to\\ captain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ incompetence\\,\\ steering\\ a\\ bad\\ course\\.\\ It\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ new\\ colony\\ of\\ Senegal\\ \\-painted\\ only\\ 2\\ years\\ later\\,\\ still\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ controversy\\ \\-after\\ 2\\ days\\,\\ had\\ to\\ abandon\\ ship\\.\\ 6\\ life\\ boats\\ could\\ cater\\ for\\ 250\\ crew\\ members\\ \\-remaining\\ 150\\ members\\ had\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ life\\ raft\\ \\-life\\ boats\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ tow\\ raft\\ to\\ safety\\,\\ but\\ in\\ their\\ desperation\\ to\\ get\\ away\\,\\ they\\ cut\\ the\\ ropes\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ men\\ on\\ the\\ raft\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ survival\\ \\-some\\ men\\ on\\ raft\\ died\\ of\\ injury\\,\\ then\\ as\\ famine\\ sunk\\ in\\,\\ men\\ got\\ aggressive\\,\\ angry\\ and\\ desperate\\ \\-\\ by\\ the\\ second\\ night\\ there\\ was\\ mutiny\\,\\ and\\ 65\\ men\\ were\\ killed\\ in\\ battle\\.\\ After\\ this\\ the\\ hungry\\ men\\ resorted\\ to\\ cannibalism\\ \\-15\\ healthy\\ men\\ left\\ on\\ the\\ raft\\,\\ survived\\ a\\ further\\ week\\,\\ were\\ on\\ the\\ raft\\ for\\ 13\\ days\\ before\\ they\\ were\\ rescued\\ \\-135\\ perished\\ on\\ raft\\,\\ 15\\ rescued\\ \\-of\\ the\\ 15\\,\\ 5\\ died\\ before\\ they\\ got\\ back\\ to\\ land\\.\\ \\-Survivors\\ reported\\ story\\ to\\ Navy\\ who\\ tried\\ to\\ play\\ down\\ incident\\ \\-Chief\\ of\\ police\\ found\\ out\\,\\ who\\ hated\\ the\\ Navy\\,\\ stired\\ up\\ trouble\\ \\-gericault\\ took\\ survivors\\ testament\\ from\\ correard\\ and\\ savigny\\ and\\ turned\\ it\\ into\\ painting\\ used\\ a\\ carpenter\\ to\\ construct\\ mini\\-version\\ of\\ the\\ raft\\,\\ tudied\\ paintings\\ of\\ suffering\\ people\\ \\-victimas\\ and\\ defenders\\ on\\ left\\,\\ savages\\ and\\ rebels\\ on\\ right\\ \\-gericault\\ drew\\ sketches\\ \\-oriximity\\ of\\ raft\\ makes\\ us\\ focus\\ on\\ raft\\,\\ not\\ ship\\ in\\ background\\.\\ A\\ contrast\\ between\\ near\\ and\\ far\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ raft\\ is\\ so\\ near\\,\\ as\\ though\\ unavoidable\\ struggle\\,\\ while\\ rescue\\ ship\\ is\\ so\\ far\\ away\\,\\ as\\ if\\ unattainable\\ \\-figures\\ on\\ raft\\ blend\\ into\\ one\\.\\ Gericault\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ overcomplicate\\ painting\\ nor\\ draw\\ attention\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ focus\\.\\ \\-So\\,\\ he\\ split\\ figures\\ into\\ 4\\ groups\\:\\ the\\ dead\\,\\ the\\ alert\\,\\ the\\ pleading\\,\\ and\\ the\\ 3\\ men\\ that\\ are\\ handling\\ the\\ barrels\\ \\-nearness\\ of\\ raft\\ and\\ people\\ was\\ designed\\ \\-gericault\\ had\\ fathered\\ a\\ bastard\\,\\ stayed\\ away\\ from\\ people\\ during\\ scandal\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ finish\\ work\\ and\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ trouble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wolfflin\\:\\ Principles\\ of\\ Art\\ History\\ specific\\ \\&ldquo\\;principles\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ necessary\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ establishing\\ a\\ firm\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ classifications\\ of\\ art\\ history\\ \\(not\\ a\\ value\\ judgment\\,\\ but\\ classifications\\ of\\ style\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ must\\ interpret\\ art\\ within\\ its\\ own\\ terms\\/context\\ \\(time\\ period\\,\\ region\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\-three\\ kinds\\ of\\ style\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-individual\\ \\-national\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-time\\ period\\ \\-though\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ for\\ even\\ artists\\ born\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ place\\ to\\ have\\ different\\ styles\\,\\ there\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;certain\\ thoughts\\ that\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ thought\\ at\\ certain\\ stages\\ of\\ development\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ so\\ Pollack\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ done\\ his\\ work\\ if\\ he\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 16th\\ century\\ Italy\\,\\ for\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Style\\ is\\ unique\\ to\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ scene\\ will\\ be\\ rendered\\ differently\\ by\\ different\\ people\\,\\ this\\ is\\ particularly\\ evident\\ when\\ the\\ subjects\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Thus\\,\\ Botticelli\\ paints\\ women\\ in\\ a\\ distinctive\\ way\\,\\ and\\ color\\ and\\ line\\ are\\ often\\ distinguishable\\ between\\ different\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-individual\\ artists\\ with\\ their\\ personal\\ styles\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ compared\\ in\\ groups\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ school\\ or\\ the\\ country\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Dutch\\ subtlety\\ vs\\.\\ Flemish\\ massiveness\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-these\\ are\\ categorizations\\ that\\ are\\ only\\ apparent\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ compare\\ larger\\ groups\\ of\\ artists\\ to\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ are\\ also\\ distinct\\ categories\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ drawn\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ time\\ period\\ \\(called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;period\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-not\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ art\\ are\\ possible\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ \\(an\\ artist\\ is\\ influenced\\ by\\ what\\ has\\ come\\ before\\ him\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-analysis\\ of\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ the\\ High\\ Renaissance\\/\\ terms\\ for\\ formal\\ analysis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-linear\\ to\\ painterly\\ style\\ \\-plane\\ to\\ recession\\ \\(classical\\ art\\ reduces\\ the\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ total\\ form\\ to\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ planes\\,\\ while\\ the\\ baroque\\ emphasizes\\ depth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ closed\\ to\\ open\\ form\\ \\(classical\\ art\\ is\\ more\\ closed\\,\\ baroque\\ is\\ more\\ loose\\ and\\ open\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-multiplicity\\ to\\ unity\\ \\(in\\ classical\\ art\\,\\ the\\ single\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ painting\\ maintain\\ independence\\,\\ while\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;primitive\\&rdquo\\;\\ art\\ there\\ is\\ anarchy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ spectator\\ moves\\ from\\ one\\ part\\ to\\ the\\ next\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-absolute\\ vs\\.\\ relative\\ clarity\\ \\(this\\ mostly\\ refers\\ to\\ subject\\ matter\\)\\ \\-these\\ formal\\ terms\\ are\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ represent\\ a\\ specific\\ schema\\ within\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ talk\\ about\\ works\\ of\\ art\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ representation\\ of\\ forms\\,\\ etc\\.\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ they\\ also\\ represent\\ a\\ logical\\ progression\\ of\\ art\\ \\(linear\\ vision\\ had\\ to\\ come\\ before\\ the\\ painterly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schapiro\\:\\ Style\\ \\(first\\ version\\)\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ fairly\\ recent\\ reading\\:\\ Schapiro\\ wrote\\ this\\ in\\ 1962\\ and\\ included\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ volume\\ on\\ the\\ Theory\\ and\\ Philosophy\\ of\\ Art\\ as\\ the\\ section\\ on\\ Style\\.\\ The\\ reading\\ has\\ nine\\ parts\\,\\ clearly\\ delimitated\\ with\\ roman\\ numerals\\.\\ Style\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ constant\\ form\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ of\\ groups\\ or\\ individuals\\.\\ For\\ the\\ archaeologist\\,\\ style\\ is\\ a\\ motif\\ or\\ pattern\\ exemplified\\ by\\ works\\ of\\ art\\.\\ To\\ the\\ historian\\ of\\ art\\,\\ style\\ is\\ an\\ object\\ of\\ investigation\\,\\ with\\ an\\ inner\\ correspondences\\,\\ life\\ history\\ and\\ problems\\ of\\ formation\\ and\\ change\\.\\ For\\ the\\ synthesizing\\ historian\\ of\\ culture\\,\\ the\\ style\\ is\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ culture\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ the\\ visible\\ sign\\ of\\ its\\ unity\\.\\ The\\ critic\\ of\\ art\\,\\ like\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ tends\\ to\\ conceive\\ style\\ as\\ a\\ value\\ term\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ quality\\ that\\ the\\ painter\\ or\\ writer\\ has\\.\\ Common\\ to\\ all\\ these\\ approaches\\ is\\ the\\ assumptions\\ that\\ each\\ style\\ is\\ peculiar\\ to\\ a\\ period\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ each\\ period\\,\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ style\\ or\\ a\\ limited\\ range\\ of\\ styles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 21, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA10_Final_Study_Guide.pdf", "desc": "Final"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "caribbean", "globalization"], "text": null, "id": 151, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-right\\:\\-27pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c23\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-27pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-252pt\\;margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c32\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c24\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c33\\{height\\:1px\\;width\\:33\\%\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c25\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c8\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-27pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c16\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c34\\{text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\}\\.c31\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Island\\ Paradox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Population\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ are\\ two\\ main\\ focuses\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ This\\ chapter\\ attempts\\ to\\ discredit\\ the\\ popular\\ belief\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ lowest\\ rung\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ ladder\\ among\\ Hispanics\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(2\\)\\ It\\ also\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ migration\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ within\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ The\\ main\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ have\\ actually\\ had\\ the\\ fastest\\ growing\\ per\\ capita\\ income\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Hispanic\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\:\\ A\\ higher\\ participation\\ rate\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ women\\,\\ a\\ higher\\ attainment\\ of\\ education\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ only\\ objection\\ to\\ this\\ statistic\\ is\\ that\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ income\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ very\\ unequal\\ distribution\\ among\\ the\\ different\\ classes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ living\\ in\\ areas\\ such\\ as\\ California\\ and\\ Florida\\ have\\ three\\ times\\ the\\ average\\ income\\ than\\ those\\ living\\ in\\ Massachusetts\\ and\\ Pennsylvania\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ does\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ is\\ having\\ an\\ economic\\ influence\\ on\\ each\\ particular\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ and\\ other\\ times\\ it\\ is\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ current\\ trend\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ within\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ has\\ been\\ to\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ larger\\ urban\\ centers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ New\\ York\\,\\ and\\ move\\ to\\ smaller\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ largest\\ migration\\ has\\ been\\ from\\ the\\ East\\ coast\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ has\\ been\\ proven\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ tend\\ to\\ migrate\\ more\\ have\\,\\ on\\ average\\,\\ a\\ higher\\ degree\\ of\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ city\\ still\\ has\\ the\\ highest\\ population\\ or\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\,\\ however\\ the\\ growth\\ rate\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ steady\\ decline\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ trend\\ of\\ migration\\ towards\\ the\\ West\\ coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Between\\ Two\\ Worlds\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ Looks\\ Towards\\ the\\ Twenty\\-First\\ Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ begins\\ by\\ explaining\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ current\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ chapter\\ claims\\ that\\ improvements\\ made\\ in\\ areas\\ such\\ as\\ health\\ care\\,\\ nutrition\\,\\ and\\ education\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ back\\ seat\\ and\\ other\\ problems\\ are\\ overpowering\\ the\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Problems\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ increasing\\ unemployment\\ rate\\,\\ growing\\ crime\\ rates\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sharply\\ increasing\\ inequality\\ of\\ income\\,\\ have\\ begun\\ to\\ overshadow\\ the\\ positive\\ moves\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ made\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ chapter\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ massive\\ industrialization\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ may\\ have\\ hurt\\ its\\ inhabitants\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ helped\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Migration\\ from\\ rural\\ to\\ urban\\ settings\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ massive\\ emigration\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ hurt\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ its\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ massive\\ industrialization\\ and\\ migration\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ still\\ maintained\\ a\\ very\\ prominent\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Socioeconomic\\ Trends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ and\\ urbanization\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ boom\\ set\\ off\\ by\\ Operation\\ Bootstrap\\ caused\\ a\\ rapid\\ growth\\ period\\ and\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ labor\\ forced\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ from\\ their\\ rural\\ home\\ into\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unemployment\\ crisis\\:\\ The\\ unemployment\\ rates\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ are\\ at\\ crisis\\ rates\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ mostly\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ recession\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ and\\ a\\ federally\\ instituted\\ minimum\\ wage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dependance\\ on\\ the\\ U\\.S\\:\\ \\ \\;This\\ has\\ actually\\ hurt\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ entirely\\ dependent\\ on\\ inflow\\ of\\ capital\\ and\\ outflow\\ of\\ exports\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ then\\ they\\ are\\ left\\ to\\ fend\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ next\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ have\\ been\\ calls\\ for\\ government\\ downsizing\\,\\ deregulation\\,\\ and\\ privatization\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ to\\ attain\\ an\\ economically\\ efficient\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possible\\ changes\\ to\\ the\\ current\\ minimum\\ wage\\ law\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ decrease\\ the\\ unemployment\\ rate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\:\\ Culture\\,\\ Politics\\,\\ and\\ Identity\\ Chs\\.2\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-When\\ Colombus\\ claimed\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ for\\ Spain\\ in\\ 1493\\,\\ the\\ island\\ was\\ inhabited\\ by\\ Taino\\ and\\ Carib\\ indians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ natives\\ resisted\\ attempts\\ by\\ the\\ Spanish\\ to\\ enslave\\ them\\,\\ and\\ an\\ organized\\ indigenous\\ uprising\\ in\\ 1511\\ was\\ put\\ down\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Brutal\\ exploitation\\ by\\ the\\ Spanish\\ colonizers\\,\\ along\\ with\\ epidemics\\ and\\ escape\\ through\\ migration\\ to\\ other\\ islands\\,\\ quicky\\ reduced\\ the\\ native\\ population\\ to\\ insignificant\\ numbers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-was\\ a\\ military\\ outpost\\ for\\ Spanish\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-developed\\ a\\ plantation\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-while\\ most\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\ was\\ in\\ war\\ with\\ Spain\\ for\\ indepence\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ remained\\ outside\\ the\\ fray\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ large\\ Spanish\\ military\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-negotiated\\ for\\ political\\ rights\\ within\\ the\\ empire\\ instead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-July\\ 25\\,\\ 1898\\,\\ US\\ troops\\ fighting\\ the\\ Spanish\\-American\\ War\\ invaded\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ replaced\\ the\\ Spanish\\ flag\\ with\\ the\\ American\\ flag\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ presence\\ was\\ welcomed\\ by\\ most\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ would\\ be\\ incorporated\\ as\\ a\\ US\\ territory\\ which\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ statehood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ leaders\\ sought\\ to\\ replace\\ Spanish\\ instituions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-had\\ a\\ clear\\ agenda\\ of\\ Americanization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-After\\ 18\\ months\\ of\\ military\\ occupation\\,\\ Congress\\ enacted\\ the\\ Foraker\\ Act\\ of\\ 1900\\ instituting\\ civil\\ government\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Foraker\\ Act\\ included\\ a\\ provision\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ to\\ elect\\ a\\ resident\\ commissioner\\ to\\ represent\\ island\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ Was\\ then\\ upgraded\\ to\\ nonvoting\\ delegate\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ representatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ revamping\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ political\\ and\\ legal\\ system\\,the\\ Official\\ Languages\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\ stating\\ that\\ English\\ and\\ Spanish\\ shall\\ be\\ used\\ indiscriminately\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Bills\\ providing\\ US\\ citizenship\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ had\\ failed\\ to\\ pass\\ every\\ Congress\\ since\\ 1900\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ 1917\\ the\\ Jones\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\,\\ granting\\ US\\ citizenship\\ and\\ increased\\ self\\-government\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-did\\ not\\ resolve\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ 1940s\\ were\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ transformation\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;Operation\\ Bootstrap\\"\\;\\ sparked\\ the\\ conversion\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ economic\\ base\\ from\\ agriculture\\ to\\ industry\\;\\ \\ \\;contributing\\ to\\ economic\\ growth\\ and\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ 1947\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ were\\ granted\\ permission\\ to\\ elect\\ their\\ own\\ governor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Under\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ Luis\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\,\\ the\\ newly\\ appointed\\ education\\ commissioner\\ Mariano\\ Villaronga\\ declared\\ Spanish\\ the\\ official\\ language\\ of\\ instruction\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ 1952\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ first\\ constitution\\ was\\ created\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Under\\ the\\ constitution\\,\\ Puerto\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ an\\ \\"\\;Associated\\ Free\\ State\\"\\;\\ or\\ commonwealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-first\\ law\\ passed\\ adopted\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ flag\\,\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ single\\ star\\ flag\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Munoz\\ Marin\\ noted\\ that\\ commonwealth\\ status\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ permanent\\,\\ just\\ a\\ stopover\\ to\\ either\\ statehood\\ or\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-April\\ 1991\\,\\ Spanish\\ became\\ official\\ language\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;We\\ have\\ one\\ thing\\ that\\ unifies\\ us\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ all\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ are\\ proud\\ of\\ being\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Two\\ reasons\\ for\\ such\\ devotion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-reside\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ when\\ they\\ could\\ easily\\ move\\ to\\ mainland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-active\\ in\\ island\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-independence\\ supporters\\,\\ statehood\\ supporters\\,\\ ad\\ commonwealth\\ supporters\\ all\\ show\\ great\\ pride\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-all\\ unified\\ under\\ international\\ sports\\ representation\\,\\ view\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ its\\ own\\ nation\\,\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ international\\ sports\\ world\\,\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-island\\ is\\ physically\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ closer\\ to\\ South\\ America\\ than\\ North\\ America\\,\\ historically\\ and\\ culturally\\ related\\ to\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ list\\ \\"\\;puerto\\ rican\\"\\;\\ as\\ most\\ important\\ identity\\ on\\ how\\ they\\ define\\ themselves\\ over\\ Caribbean\\,\\ Hispanic\\,\\ and\\ Latin\\ American\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-shared\\ view\\ that\\ US\\ presence\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ had\\ an\\ obvious\\ impact\\ on\\ island\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-statehood\\ supporters\\ see\\ more\\ positive\\ outcomes\\ of\\ US\\ presence\\ than\\ commonwealth\\ and\\ independence\\ supporters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Puerto\\ Ricans\\ have\\ a\\ resilient\\ identity\\.\\ Strong\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-summarization\\ of\\ previous\\ chapters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Was\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Esmerelda\\ Santiago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basic\\ Idea\\:\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ autobiographical\\ story\\ of\\ Esmerelda\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coming\\ of\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ growing\\ up\\,\\ a\\ mixing\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ and\\ American\\ cultures\\,\\ and\\ struggling\\ to\\ find\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\ somewhere\\ between\\ the\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ spends\\ most\\ of\\ her\\ childhood\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ depths\\ of\\ poverty\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ immersed\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ experiencing\\ forces\\ of\\ American\\ influence\\ \\(ex\\.\\ watching\\ American\\ shows\\ on\\ TV\\,\\ American\\ govt\\ programs\\ on\\ the\\ island\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ in\\ her\\ teen\\ years\\,\\ she\\ moves\\ to\\ New\\ York\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\ and\\ her\\ brother\\ and\\ sisters\\ and\\ we\\ see\\ how\\ this\\ affects\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ story\\ starts\\ off\\ when\\ Negi\\ \\(Esmerelda\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nickname\\ meaning\\ little\\ black\\ one\\)\\ is\\ a\\ young\\ girl\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ poor\\ country\\ town\\ of\\ Mancun\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ lives\\ with\\ her\\ Mami\\ and\\ Papi\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ brothers\\ and\\ sisters\\ \\(she\\ has\\ 7\\ total\\ in\\ the\\ end\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ parents\\ are\\ not\\ married\\ and\\ her\\ dad\\ often\\ goes\\ away\\ and\\ has\\ affairs\\ with\\ other\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ parents\\ fight\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ the\\ mom\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ takes\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\ on\\ her\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Negi\\,\\ being\\ the\\ oldest\\,\\ is\\ given\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ responsibility\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ to\\ help\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ younger\\ kids\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ book\\ follows\\ their\\ move\\ through\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ other\\ towns\\ and\\ documents\\ her\\ different\\ experiences\\ in\\ each\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ whenever\\ she\\ moves\\ to\\ another\\ town\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ nicer\\ place\\,\\ she\\ always\\ misses\\ her\\ hometown\\ of\\ Mancun\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ her\\ brothers\\ gets\\ hurt\\ in\\ an\\ accident\\ on\\ a\\ bicycle\\ and\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ for\\ care\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mom\\ begins\\ making\\ trips\\ out\\ there\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ doctors\\ and\\ eventually\\ she\\ decides\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ other\\ children\\ out\\ there\\ to\\ live\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ leave\\ the\\ father\\ behind\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ when\\ they\\ make\\ their\\ final\\ move\\ to\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;Negi\\ resents\\ the\\ move\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ poor\\ immigrant\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ know\\ English\\,\\ she\\ struggles\\ to\\ find\\ her\\ identity\\ and\\ feels\\ out\\ of\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ she\\ overcomes\\ these\\ obstacles\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ and\\ ends\\ up\\ getting\\ into\\ a\\ top\\ performing\\ arts\\ school\\ and\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ graduate\\ from\\ Harvard\\ and\\ become\\ a\\ famous\\ writer\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ even\\ with\\ all\\ this\\ success\\ in\\ America\\,\\ she\\ still\\ is\\ proud\\ of\\ her\\ roots\\ and\\ misses\\ her\\ life\\ on\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Themes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ When\\ Negi\\ moves\\ she\\ struggles\\ to\\ find\\ where\\ she\\ fits\\ in\\ \\(see\\ quotations\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ sharp\\ distinctions\\ at\\ her\\ first\\ school\\ in\\ NY\\ between\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ born\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ and\\ US\\ born\\.\\ She\\ wants\\ to\\ learn\\ English\\ to\\ fit\\ in\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ but\\ she\\ also\\ feels\\ like\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ traitor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Negi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ is\\ poor\\ throughout\\ this\\ book\\ and\\ the\\ mother\\ and\\ father\\ struggle\\ to\\ make\\ ends\\ meet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ metal\\ shack\\ w\\/o\\ running\\ water\\ in\\ Mancun\\,\\ and\\ in\\ another\\ town\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ house\\ that\\ floated\\ in\\ a\\ river\\ of\\ sewage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prof\\.\\ Patterson\\,\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ connected\\ this\\ book\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;culture\\ of\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(poor\\ people\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\ have\\ common\\ adaptations\\ to\\ common\\ problems\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Jibaro\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ A\\ jibaro\\ is\\ a\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ countryman\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Mancun\\,\\ Negi\\ heard\\ folk\\ songs\\ romanticizing\\ the\\ jibaro\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ songs\\ celebrated\\ the\\ hardships\\ and\\ joys\\ of\\ the\\ simple\\ jibaro\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Negi\\ really\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ jibaro\\,\\ but\\ her\\ mother\\ told\\ her\\ that\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ something\\ she\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ and\\ to\\ call\\ someone\\ one\\ was\\ an\\ insult\\.\\ \\ \\;Negi\\ later\\ found\\ out\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ cities\\,\\ jibaro\\ had\\ the\\ negative\\ connotations\\ of\\ being\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ rowdy\\,\\ has\\ bad\\ manners\\ and\\ is\\ unsophisticated\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ major\\ contradiction\\ \\(see\\ quotations\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Family\\ and\\ community\\ are\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ culture\\.\\ In\\ this\\ book\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ much\\ beyond\\ family\\ for\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Church\\ was\\ not\\ very\\ significant\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\ so\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ get\\ through\\ the\\ hard\\ times\\ was\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ Negi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mom\\ had\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ others\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ help\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\ or\\ give\\ them\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ stay\\ when\\ they\\ moved\\ from\\ town\\ to\\ town\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ The\\ mother\\ breaks\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ woman\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ of\\ the\\ women\\ in\\ her\\ town\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ or\\ cleaned\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ houses\\,\\ but\\ she\\ went\\ out\\ and\\ worked\\ at\\ a\\ factory\\,\\ which\\ brought\\ on\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ criticism\\ from\\ the\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mother\\ exhibits\\ strength\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ to\\ care\\ for\\ the\\ children\\ without\\ help\\ from\\ the\\ dad\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ work\\ to\\ make\\ money\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quotations\\:\\ \\ \\;Here\\ are\\ some\\ quotations\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ helpful\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;My\\ own\\ grandparents\\,\\ whom\\ I\\ was\\ to\\ respect\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ love\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ jibaros\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ I\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ one\\,\\ nor\\ was\\ I\\ to\\ call\\ anyone\\ a\\ jibaro\\,\\ lest\\ they\\ be\\ offended\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ at\\ the\\ tender\\ age\\ when\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ know\\ my\\ real\\ name\\,\\ I\\ was\\ puzzled\\ by\\ the\\ hypocrisy\\ of\\ celebrating\\ a\\ people\\ everyone\\ looked\\ down\\ on\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Page\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Negi\\ said\\ when\\ they\\ moved\\ into\\ the\\ city\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ Santurce\\ I\\ had\\ become\\ what\\ I\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ Mancun\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Santurce\\ a\\ jibara\\ was\\ something\\ no\\ one\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Page\\ 39\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-As\\ Negi\\ and\\ her\\ mother\\ are\\ finally\\ leaving\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ for\\ New\\ York\\ she\\ writes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Neither\\ one\\ of\\ us\\ could\\ have\\ known\\ what\\ lay\\ ahead\\&hellip\\;\\ For\\ me\\,\\ the\\ person\\ I\\ was\\ becoming\\ when\\ we\\ left\\ was\\ erased\\,\\ and\\ another\\ one\\ was\\ created\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\jibara\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ longed\\ for\\ the\\ green\\ quiet\\ of\\ a\\ tropical\\ afternoon\\ was\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ hybrid\\ who\\ would\\ never\\ forgive\\ the\\ uprooting\\&rdquo\\;\\ page\\ 209\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ brings\\ in\\ this\\ theme\\ of\\ identity\\.\\ It\\ talks\\ about\\ her\\ transition\\ from\\ being\\ a\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ to\\ becoming\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ both\\ cultures\\ and\\ it\\ shows\\ her\\ resistance\\ to\\ this\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ idea\\ as\\ the\\ title\\&hellip\\;\\ When\\ I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Puerto\\ Rican\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;This\\ quotation\\ comes\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ her\\ prologue\\ where\\ she\\ remembers\\ learning\\ how\\ to\\ eat\\ a\\ guava\\ as\\ a\\ child\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ had\\ my\\ last\\ guava\\ the\\ day\\ we\\ left\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ I\\ stand\\ before\\ a\\ stack\\ of\\ dark\\ green\\ guavas\\,\\ each\\ perfectly\\ round\\ and\\ hard\\,\\ each\\ \\$1\\.59\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ one\\ in\\ my\\ hand\\ is\\ tempting\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ smells\\ faintly\\ of\\ late\\ summer\\ afternoons\\ and\\ hopscotch\\ under\\ the\\ mango\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ is\\ autumn\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ guava\\ joins\\ its\\ sisters\\ under\\ the\\ harsh\\ fluorescent\\ lights\\ of\\ the\\ exotic\\ fruit\\ display\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ push\\ my\\ cart\\ away\\,\\ toward\\ the\\ apples\\ and\\ pears\\ of\\ my\\ adulthood\\,\\ their\\ nearly\\ seedless\\ ripeness\\ predictable\\ and\\ bittersweet\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\ idea\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ guavas\\ bring\\ back\\ fond\\ memories\\ of\\ her\\ childhood\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ has\\ changed\\ since\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grown\\ up\\ and\\ moved\\ away\\ and\\ here\\ again\\ we\\ can\\ sense\\ her\\ regret\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inside\\ the\\ Revolution\\:\\ Everyday\\ Life\\ in\\ Socialist\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Limones\\,\\ Palmera\\,\\ Cuba\\:\\ The\\ Field\\ and\\ the\\ Fieldwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-3\\,000\\ inhabitants\\,\\ most\\ families\\ have\\ pigs\\,\\ hens\\,\\ and\\ maybe\\ a\\ goat\\.\\ \\ \\;Houses\\ have\\ two\\ or\\ three\\ bedrooms\\,\\ living\\ room\\,\\ and\\ small\\ kitchen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ shortage\\ of\\ housing\\,\\ most\\ people\\ live\\ very\\ crowded\\ together\\ in\\ small\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Within\\ a\\ socialist\\ system\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ private\\ endeavors\\ to\\ make\\ demand\\ equal\\ to\\ supply\\;\\ this\\ perpetuates\\ the\\ living\\ space\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ planned\\ economy\\ and\\ the\\ scarcity\\ of\\ goods\\ made\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ items\\ erratic\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;shops\\ or\\ restaurants\\ could\\ not\\ order\\ what\\ they\\ needed\\ but\\ had\\ to\\ wait\\ for\\ goods\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ them\\ from\\ other\\ levels\\ of\\ the\\ commercial\\ organization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\-p\\.11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Children\\ in\\ Cuba\\ are\\ incorporated\\ in\\ the\\ Pioneer\\ movement\\ when\\ they\\ enter\\ school\\ at\\ six\\ years\\ old\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ all\\ wear\\ uniforms\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ high\\ school\\ graduate\\ to\\ Pioneros\\ Jose\\ Marti\\ and\\ wear\\ red\\ scarves\\ with\\ yellow\\ trousers\\ or\\ skirts\\ and\\ white\\ shirts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Overall\\ Rosendahl\\ describes\\ Limones\\ as\\ a\\ lively\\,\\ bustling\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Palmera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ small\\ and\\ rather\\ poor\\ municipality\\ w\\/\\ 30\\,000\\ inhabitants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Many\\ people\\ consider\\ the\\ municipality\\ a\\ dirty\\ place\\ using\\ derogatory\\ terms\\ for\\ its\\ inhabitants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Palmerans\\ harbor\\ all\\ shades\\ of\\ skin\\ color\\ from\\ white\\ to\\ black\\ including\\ all\\ different\\ facial\\ features\\;\\ however\\,\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ blacks\\ people\\ here\\ than\\ anywhere\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Agriculture\\,\\ cattle\\ raising\\,\\ and\\ forestry\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ work\\ activities\\ on\\ private\\ farms\\ or\\ on\\ cooperatives\\ or\\ state\\ farms\\.\\ \\ \\;47\\%\\ of\\ workforce\\ are\\ employed\\ by\\ these\\ activities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cooperative\\ defined\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;organized\\ by\\ private\\ farmers\\ that\\ sell\\ their\\ produce\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ have\\ advantages\\ in\\ getting\\ loans\\ to\\ buy\\ new\\ equipment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Services\\-\\ working\\ in\\ shops\\,\\ restaurants\\,\\ coffee\\ shops\\ provide\\ a\\ significant\\ number\\ of\\ jobs\\;\\ women\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ work\\ more\\ in\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-No\\ high\\ schools\\ in\\ Palmera\\ so\\ students\\ travel\\ to\\ boarding\\ schools\\ in\\ other\\ provinces\\ to\\ study\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ people\\ simply\\ do\\ not\\ work\\ in\\ Palmera\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ advanced\\ educations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rosendahl\\ has\\ a\\ particular\\ interest\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;ideology\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ pursued\\ that\\ in\\ Palmera\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ do\\ everything\\ save\\ attend\\ meetings\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ worked\\ hard\\ in\\ the\\ fileds\\ literally\\ planting\\ coffee\\ bushes\\;\\ after\\ people\\ saw\\ her\\ do\\ this\\ they\\ liked\\ her\\ more\\ and\\ opened\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ her\\ studies\\ she\\ found\\ a\\ few\\ notable\\ characteristics\\ about\\ he\\ society\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ people\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ revolutionaries\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ having\\ totally\\ internalized\\ the\\ socialist\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-When\\ asked\\ about\\ censorship\\,\\ most\\ answer\\ by\\ affirming\\ their\\ freedom\\ and\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ say\\ whatever\\ they\\ want\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ most\\ shied\\ away\\ from\\ voicing\\ opinions\\ or\\ ideas\\ about\\ contemporary\\ society\\ in\\ interviews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Generally\\ society\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ open\\ than\\ she\\ expected\\ and\\ she\\ herself\\ tried\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ open\\-minded\\ even\\ though\\ she\\ admits\\ she\\ might\\ have\\ harbored\\ expectations\\ such\\ as\\ repression\\,\\ secret\\ police\\,\\ control\\,\\ and\\ censorship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ To\\ Give\\ and\\ Take\\:\\ Redistribution\\ and\\ Reciprocity\\ in\\ the\\ Household\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cuban\\ economy\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ redistribution\\ and\\ planning\\ for\\ both\\ the\\ short\\ and\\ long\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-All\\ are\\ employed\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ or\\ state\\ organization\\,\\ and\\ farmers\\ only\\ sell\\ to\\ the\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rationing\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\-Guarantees\\ every\\ citizen\\ basic\\ goods\\ in\\ equal\\ amounts\\ at\\ low\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ person\\ has\\ two\\ libretas\\ \\(booklets\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\ for\\ food\\,\\ 1\\ for\\ clothes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-All\\ receive\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ a\\ loaf\\ of\\ bread\\ each\\ day\\,\\ and\\ every\\ second\\ week\\ one\\ receives\\ one\\-half\\ pound\\ of\\ beef\\ at\\ low\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ buy\\ all\\ the\\ items\\ in\\ the\\ libreta\\ and\\ sell\\ those\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\;\\ bartering\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Household\\ products\\ can\\ be\\ bought\\ once\\ a\\ year\\-sheets\\,\\ work\\ shoes\\,\\ dress\\ shoes\\,\\ cloth\\ \\,\\ towels\\,\\ and\\ underpants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overarching\\ theme\\ and\\ notion\\ from\\ the\\ people\\ is\\ Scarcity\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ people\\ say\\ goods\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ in\\ sufficient\\ quantities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\ Households\\ and\\ their\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Single\\-Person\\ Household\\-\\ saves\\ 45\\ pesos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\-Person\\ Household\\-\\ saves\\ 40\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\She\\ also\\ analyzes\\ two\\ three\\ person\\ households\\,\\ one\\ with\\ mother\\,\\ father\\,\\ and\\ one\\ child\\.\\ The\\ other\\ with\\ mother\\ and\\ two\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-She\\ finds\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ have\\ more\\ money\\ that\\ they\\ spend\\,\\ this\\ is\\ in\\ part\\ why\\ \\&ldquo\\;dissatisfaction\\ with\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ available\\ goods\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ complaint\\ that\\ people\\ in\\ Palmera\\ express\\ about\\ their\\ life\\ situations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Generally\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ most\\ Cubans\\ want\\ to\\ eat\\ and\\ dress\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Planned\\ economy\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ socialist\\ ideology\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ advanced\\ by\\ Che\\ Guevara\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Good\\ revolutionaries\\ should\\ not\\ need\\ economic\\ incentives\\ to\\ work\\ productively\\ for\\ their\\ society\\,\\ the\\ mere\\ satisfaction\\ of\\ doing\\ a\\ good\\ job\\ for\\ the\\ revolution\\ should\\ be\\ enough\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Rosendahl\\ finds\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ evident\\ that\\ this\\ did\\ not\\ work\\ very\\ well\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ rewards\\,\\ so\\ called\\ estimulos\\ \\(stimulis\\)\\ were\\ introduced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cubans\\ have\\ ques\\ \\(lines\\)\\ everywhere\\,\\ this\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ scarcity\\.\\ \\ \\;Rosendahl\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ ques\\ are\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ conversation\\,\\ jokes\\,\\ and\\ hanging\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ who\\ work\\ get\\ mad\\ because\\ they\\ always\\ miss\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ items\\ because\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ work\\ everything\\ is\\ all\\ sold\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Black\\ markets\\ are\\ prevalent\\ especially\\ for\\ clothes\\,\\ often\\ occurs\\ in\\ bigger\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ also\\ steal\\ clothes\\ from\\ work\\ such\\ as\\ light\\ bulbs\\,\\ paper\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Reciprocity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ act\\ of\\ ritual\\ gift\\ giving\\ and\\ good\\/services\\ exchanged\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ become\\ very\\ important\\ in\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;Rosendahl\\ finds\\ that\\ repayment\\ in\\ extremely\\ important\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ also\\ finds\\ that\\ you\\ must\\ have\\ connections\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ scarce\\ items\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ must\\ be\\ nice\\ and\\ generous\\ and\\ participate\\ in\\ Reciprocity\\ to\\ survive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lastly\\,\\ Rosendahl\\ finds\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ culture\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ trend\\ of\\ giving\\ and\\ receiving\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;With\\ friends\\,\\ reciprocity\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ relationship\\ at\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\.\\ 50\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Men\\ and\\ Women\\ in\\ Palmera\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\early\\ in\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ the\\ FMC\\ \\(Federacion\\ de\\ Mujeres\\ Cubanas\\)\\ was\\ formed\\ to\\ spread\\ the\\ ideal\\ of\\ penal\\ igualdad\\ \\(total\\ equality\\)\\.\\ this\\ has\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ reality\\ the\\ way\\ planners\\ hoped\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ have\\ increased\\ in\\ the\\ workforce\\,\\ going\\ from\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ women\\ working\\ in\\ 1953\\ to\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ workforce\\ being\\ female\\ today\\.\\ this\\ has\\ not\\ redistributed\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ burdens\\,\\ instead\\ it\\ has\\ increased\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ roles\\ are\\ en\\ la\\ casa\\,\\ and\\ remain\\ mother\\,\\ wife\\/lover\\,\\ housekeeper\\,\\ and\\ now\\ with\\ the\\ additional\\ worker\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-\\ men\\ are\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ en\\ la\\ calle\\,\\ which\\ is\\ balancing\\ respectability\\ \\(provider\\,\\ controls\\ family\\,\\ discretion\\)\\ and\\ reputation\\ \\(virile\\,\\ womanizer\\)\\.\\ men\\ continue\\ to\\ refuse\\ largely\\ to\\ share\\ household\\ burdens\\ or\\ responsibility\\ for\\ childcare\\,\\ despite\\ insistence\\ from\\ the\\ FMC\\ and\\ the\\ Party\\ that\\ this\\ should\\ be\\ so\\.\\ women\\ accept\\ this\\ fact\\ with\\ some\\ resignation\\,\\ saying\\ \\"\\;it\\ will\\ be\\ generations\\ until\\ that\\ happens\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\womanizing\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ a\\ man\\ must\\ womanize\\ to\\ assert\\ his\\ hombria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(this\\ is\\ a\\ tradition\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ seems\\ to\\ think\\ will\\ change\\)\\.\\ eroticism\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ever\\-present\\ \\-\\ for\\ example\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ a\\ woman\\ cannot\\ be\\ alone\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\without\\ rumors\\ starting\\.\\ mothers\\ encourage\\ boys\\ aroun\\ 11\\ or\\ 12yo\\ to\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\several\\ girlfriends\\,\\ lest\\ people\\ think\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ pajaro\\ \\(homosexual\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ this\\ has\\ bad\\ consequences\\.\\ almost\\ all\\ divorces\\ are\\ the\\ woman\\ throwing\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ man\\ for\\ his\\ infidelity\\.\\ the\\ Party\\ tries\\ to\\ encourage\\ common\\-law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marriages\\ and\\ discourage\\ teenage\\ pregnancy\\,\\ but\\ it\\ remains\\ difficult\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ these\\ ideas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\casual\\ relationships\\ are\\ common\\ and\\ change\\ frequently\\.\\ abortions\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\common\\.\\ Mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Day\\ is\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SUMMARY\\:\\ women\\ now\\ work\\ far\\ more\\.\\ men\\ refuse\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ machismo\\ way\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\despite\\ insistence\\ from\\ the\\ PCC\\ in\\ penal\\ igualdad\\ and\\ socialist\\ upbringing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ children\\.\\ still\\,\\ women\\ have\\ improved\\ much\\ financially\\ and\\ politically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;the\\ male\\ gender\\ ideal\\,\\ embraced\\ by\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ is\\ an\\ integral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\component\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ revolutionary\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ soul\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chapter\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ of\\ the\\ province\\ of\\ Palmera\\ who\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ give\\ awards\\ to\\ people\\ for\\ completing\\ a\\ bridge\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ themes\\ about\\ the\\ virtues\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ and\\ characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ leader\\ in\\ that\\ revolution\\ emerge\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Workers\\ not\\ rewarded\\ monetarily\\ but\\ praised\\ for\\ their\\ hard\\ work\\ in\\ building\\ the\\ country\\,\\ the\\ revolution\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ moral\\ incentive\\ rather\\ than\\ material\\ incentive\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Workers\\ proud\\ about\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ idea\\ of\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ involvement\\ in\\ building\\ the\\ revolution\\ emphasized\\ by\\ child\\ who\\ was\\ also\\ awarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ readily\\ interacted\\ with\\ them\\ which\\ portrays\\ idea\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ working\\ together\\ to\\ build\\ the\\ socialist\\ Cuba\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ relatively\\ casual\\ dressing\\ makes\\ him\\ identify\\ with\\ workers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\Brings\\ us\\ to\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\democratic\\ centralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ the\\ system\\ prevailing\\ in\\ Cuba\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ extols\\ virtues\\ of\\ manliness\\ a\\ characteristic\\ of\\ leadership\\ in\\ the\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Centralism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Contradictory\\ concept\\ because\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ \\&ldquo\\;democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ need\\ and\\ expectation\\ for\\ all\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\;\\ all\\ has\\ to\\ play\\ his\\ role\\ in\\ building\\ revolution\\;\\ equality\\ and\\ participation\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ there\\ is\\ centralization\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ a\\ strict\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ government\\ and\\ in\\ all\\ organizations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\ despite\\ this\\ inequality\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ hierarchy\\,\\ generally\\ accepted\\ by\\ all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Centralism\\ and\\ Hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Although\\ in\\ other\\ circumstances\\ hierarchy\\ is\\ equated\\ with\\ inequality\\ and\\ seen\\ as\\ negative\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ class\\ differences\\ in\\ other\\ societies\\,\\ the\\ Party\\ hierarchy\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ both\\ just\\ and\\ necessary\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reflects\\ \\&ldquo\\;idea\\ of\\ trade\\-union\\ consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ belief\\ that\\ members\\ of\\ masses\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ only\\ their\\ immediate\\ interests\\ and\\ have\\ no\\ wider\\ class\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\ the\\ elite\\ party\\ has\\ to\\ lead\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ formulate\\ their\\ idealogical\\ goals\\,\\ always\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\-party\\ justified\\ by\\ idea\\ that\\ ruling\\ party\\ governs\\ people\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ individual\\ should\\ never\\ reject\\ or\\ question\\ the\\ system\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ failures\\ but\\ should\\ feel\\ strengthened\\ by\\ his\\/her\\ efforts\\ to\\ improve\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\System\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ favors\\ hierarchy\\:\\ \\Only\\ those\\ higher\\ up\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ necessary\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strict\\ order\\ of\\ command\\ had\\ advantage\\ of\\ efficiency\\ an\\ speed\\ in\\ the\\ execution\\ of\\ many\\ practical\\ matters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ disadvantage\\ of\\ extreme\\ bureaucracy\\ especially\\ for\\ unpleasant\\ decisions\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ pushed\\ higher\\ in\\ the\\ hierarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;Realizing\\ ones\\ initiatives\\ difficult\\ because\\ may\\ be\\ revoked\\ by\\ someone\\ higher\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Gender\\ Issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Expectations\\ and\\ characteristics\\ of\\ leadership\\ are\\ traditionally\\ male\\:\\ strength\\,\\ audacity\\,\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ life\\,\\ being\\ active\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ female\\ leaders\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ ideals\\ as\\ its\\ male\\ leaders\\ but\\ few\\ expect\\ women\\ to\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ these\\ ideals\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(85\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ women\\ in\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ no\\ direct\\ discrimination\\,\\ idea\\ that\\ by\\ entering\\ politics\\,\\ woman\\ acquires\\ manly\\ attributes\\;\\ becomes\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ fewer\\ channels\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ attain\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ women\\ heroes\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Few\\ instances\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ female\\ heroes\\,\\ they\\ are\\ seen\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ their\\ link\\ to\\ a\\ male\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;E\\.g\\.\\ Vilma\\ Espin\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ wife\\ of\\ Raul\\ Castro\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ issues\\ on\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ good\\ revolutionary\\ and\\ a\\ good\\ leader\\ is\\ also\\ what\\ Cuban\\ people\\ describe\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;typical\\ Cuban\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ a\\ leader\\ beyond\\ a\\ merely\\ political\\ one\\:\\ \\ideological\\:\\ preserving\\ socialist\\ ideology\\pedagogical\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;education\\ of\\ the\\ workers\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ political\\ consciousness\\,\\ the\\ teaching\\ of\\ communist\\ values\\ to\\ new\\ generations\\ and\\ the\\ struggle\\ against\\ weak\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ the\\ socialist\\ ideology\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ Members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Leaders\\ and\\ militantes\\ have\\ an\\ extremely\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ obligations\\,\\ responsibility\\ and\\ power\\ since\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ making\\ the\\ decisions\\ and\\ defining\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ ways\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ thinking\\ concerning\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ Cuban\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Militante\\ by\\ selection\\.\\ \\ \\;Must\\ portray\\ ideals\\ of\\ revolution\\:\\ good\\,\\ loyal\\ worker\\ and\\ neighbour\\ and\\ decent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aspirante\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ One\\ in\\ the\\ trial\\ period\\ to\\ be\\ selected\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ militante\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obligations\\/Responsibilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Pedagogical\\ role\\;\\ spreading\\ and\\ defending\\ ideas\\ of\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behave\\ in\\ an\\ exemplary\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ scandals\\.\\ \\ \\;Story\\ of\\ Juana\\ who\\ had\\ marital\\ issues\\.\\\\&ldquo\\;since\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ few\\ women\\ in\\ politics\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ behaving\\ impeccably\\ is\\ therefore\\ especially\\ important\\.\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ women\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ criticized\\ than\\ men\\ when\\ thy\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ scandal\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(92\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ ideal\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ cases\\ of\\ contravention\\ and\\ reactions\\ these\\ flaws\\ are\\ judged\\ not\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\ program\\ or\\ socialist\\ ideology\\ but\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ common\\ cultural\\ \\&ldquo\\;folk\\ models\\&rdquo\\;\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Access\\ to\\ information\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ this\\ comes\\ responsibility\\ of\\ secrecy\\ where\\ necessary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Socialist\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Cuba\\ heading\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;socialist\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;incomparably\\ superior\\ to\\ bourgeois\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Programa\\ del\\ PCC\\ 1987\\:\\ 65\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ feature\\ of\\ Cuban\\ democracy\\ is\\ the\\ active\\ participation\\ of\\ all\\ citizens\\ in\\ social\\ matters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Avenues\\ where\\ Cubans\\ can\\ influence\\ politics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elections\\ to\\ the\\ Poder\\ Popular\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Voting\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ participation\\ and\\ so\\ encouraged\\ by\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Like\\ participation\\ in\\ general\\,\\ not\\ just\\ something\\ one\\ can\\ do\\ when\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ but\\ something\\ one\\ needs\\ to\\ do\\)\\.\\ Usually\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ voter\\ turnout\\.\\ All\\ candidates\\ screened\\ by\\ party\\ to\\ eliminate\\ critics\\ of\\ system\\ although\\ non\\-Party\\ members\\ may\\ also\\ be\\ elected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attending\\ the\\ biyearly\\ \\&ldquo\\;rendicion\\ de\\ cuenta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Here\\ they\\ meet\\ with\\ the\\ delegates\\ representing\\ their\\ constituency\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ constituency\\ is\\ a\\ sub\\-division\\ of\\ the\\ municipality\\.\\ \\ \\;Chance\\ to\\ present\\ complaints\\ suggestions\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Formal\\ complaints\\ often\\ concern\\ lack\\ of\\ consumer\\ goods\\ in\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Relationship\\ between\\ the\\ delegates\\ and\\ constituents\\ that\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\equality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ very\\ open\\.\\ Ability\\ to\\ resolve\\ complaints\\ important\\ for\\ delegate\\ in\\ maintaining\\ office\\.0\\Rosendahl\\ sees\\ this\\ meeting\\ as\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ formality\\ for\\ constituencies\\ where\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ leaders\\ and\\ cadres\\ lived\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ alternate\\ ways\\ for\\ solving\\ local\\ problems\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ high\\ officials\\ are\\ generally\\ highly\\ accessible\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ delegates\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;despacho\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ are\\ like\\ office\\ hours\\.\\ \\ \\;Where\\ such\\ avenues\\ absent\\ people\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ heavily\\ dependent\\ on\\ delegate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Slogan\\ of\\ party\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Never\\ above\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ always\\ with\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ term\\ is\\ seldom\\ used\\ singularly\\ but\\ is\\ qualified\\ in\\ various\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Equality\\&hellip\\;does\\ not\\ connote\\ similarity\\,\\ as\\ it\\ does\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ Sweden\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ it\\ means\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ for\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Rosendahl\\ 100\\)\\.\\This\\ idea\\ of\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ has\\ been\\ realised\\ in\\ medicine\\;\\ education\\;\\ right\\ and\\ duty\\ for\\ everyone\\ to\\ work\\;\\ rationing\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ of\\ Palmera\\,\\ goal\\ is\\ just\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Equality\\ is\\ unreachable\\ goal\\ and\\ differences\\ must\\ exist\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ give\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ society\\ should\\ be\\ rewarded\\ and\\ this\\ builds\\ on\\ the\\ supposition\\ that\\ Cuba\\ has\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ communist\\ state\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ promote\\ idea\\,\\ leaders\\ dress\\ simply\\.\\ \\ \\;Everyone\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;companero\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;companera\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\ \\;However\\,\\ with\\ equality\\ comes\\ respect\\/courtesy\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ high\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ leader\\ ideally\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ advantages\\ from\\ his\\ post\\ but\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ responsibility\\&hellip\\;Their\\ greatest\\ privilege\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ obtain\\ goods\\ and\\ information\\ much\\ easier\\ than\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santeria\\ From\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cuba\\:\\ Santeria\\ \\(1870\\-1959\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cuba\\ began\\ to\\ base\\ its\\ entire\\ agricultural\\ industry\\ on\\ sugar\\,\\ which\\ meant\\ that\\ it\\ had\\ to\\ import\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ supplies\\.\\ \\ \\;Racism\\ became\\ prominent\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ especially\\ after\\ independence\\.\\ \\ \\;Afro\\-Cubans\\ felt\\ they\\ were\\ underrepresented\\ in\\ government\\ and\\ public\\ administration\\,\\ which\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ Negro\\ revolt\\ in\\ May\\ 1912\\.\\ \\ \\;Out\\ of\\ this\\ three\\ contrasting\\ views\\ towards\\ the\\ African\\ religion\\ emerged\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ an\\ anti\\-Africanist\\ attitude\\ \\(2\\)\\ One\\ promoting\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ spiritism\\ and\\ the\\ blending\\ of\\ African\\ religions\\ \\(3\\)\\ Some\\ Cuban\\ intellectuals\\ thought\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ African\\ religions\\ as\\ sources\\ of\\ inspiration\\ and\\ national\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Suppression\\ of\\ the\\ Cabildos\\:\\ \\ \\;Because\\ of\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ imports\\ from\\ Africa\\ the\\ cabildos\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ start\\ accepting\\ Cuban\\ born\\ members\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ governments\\ began\\ to\\ watch\\ over\\ the\\ cabildos\\,\\ they\\ began\\ to\\ lose\\ their\\ original\\ purposes\\ and\\ instead\\ of\\ maintaining\\ religious\\ and\\ social\\ ties\\ they\\ became\\ more\\ like\\ social\\ clubs\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ the\\ government\\ took\\ the\\ last\\ step\\ towards\\ abolishing\\ them\\ and\\ forbade\\ them\\ from\\ meeting\\ and\\ demonstrating\\ their\\ religions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Espiritismo\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ is\\ a\\ variant\\ of\\ spiritism\\ founded\\ in\\ France\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ Cubans\\ sought\\ spiritualism\\ as\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\,\\ they\\ thought\\ the\\ Church\\ was\\ just\\ another\\ way\\ to\\ control\\ them\\ so\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ break\\ away\\ from\\ Spain\\ they\\ broke\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ adopted\\ Espiritismo\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ aspects\\ of\\ Espiritismo\\ were\\ not\\ absorbed\\ into\\ Santeria\\ because\\ they\\ disagreed\\ with\\ the\\ spiritual\\ aspect\\ of\\ each\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ an\\ aspect\\ that\\ did\\ go\\ directly\\ into\\ Santeria\\ was\\ the\\ healing\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Afro\\-Cubanism\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ movement\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cubans\\ began\\ to\\ write\\ and\\ paint\\ and\\ basically\\ become\\ more\\ cultural\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ these\\ Cubans\\ became\\ more\\ enlightened\\ their\\ focus\\ turned\\ to\\ religion\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ movement\\ created\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ Santeria\\ religion\\ through\\ the\\ literary\\ pieces\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Santeria\\ began\\ to\\ spread\\ from\\ belonging\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cubans\\ to\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ white\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ could\\ not\\ find\\ fulfillment\\ through\\ work\\ and\\ family\\ life\\ could\\ turn\\ to\\ Santeria\\.\\ \\ \\;Santeros\\ supported\\ the\\ revolution\\ and\\ sought\\ to\\ overthrow\\ Batista\\,\\ they\\ felt\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ their\\ cultural\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ revolution\\ went\\ forth\\ Castro\\ began\\ to\\ shut\\ churches\\ down\\ and\\ suppress\\ religious\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Santeria\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Santeria\\ actually\\ became\\ more\\ popular\\ after\\ many\\ Cubans\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ because\\ they\\ used\\ the\\ religion\\ as\\ a\\ tie\\ to\\ their\\ native\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Two\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ Santeria\\ became\\ to\\ emerge\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ more\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ Espiritismo\\ religion\\ than\\ the\\ Santeria\\ on\\ the\\ island\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ forms\\ of\\ Santerismo\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ emerging\\ practises\\ were\\ frowned\\ upon\\ by\\ both\\ pure\\ forms\\ of\\ Espiritismo\\ and\\ Santeria\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ the\\ two\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Voodoo\\ became\\ another\\ branch\\ of\\ Santeria\\ practiced\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ race\\ related\\ religion\\ and\\ only\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ \\(or\\ Afro\\-American\\)\\ individuals\\ could\\ join\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ difference\\ between\\ Voodoo\\ and\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ Santeria\\ is\\ that\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Voodoo\\ religion\\ were\\ very\\ involved\\ politically\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ practice\\ of\\ Santeria\\ later\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ lowest\\,\\ and\\ most\\ disgraceful\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eastern\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Islands\\ And\\ People\\:\\ The\\ Caribbean\\ Crucible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\topography\\ varies\\ greatly\\ among\\ islands\\,\\ although\\ one\\ way\\ to\\ draw\\ distinctions\\ is\\ b\\/w\\ the\\ Leewards\\ and\\ Windwards\\ \\(wind\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hurricanes\\ are\\ unpredictable\\ and\\ destructive\\,\\ growing\\ concern\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ becoming\\ more\\ frequent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\ was\\ initially\\ settled\\ by\\ Arawaks\\ and\\ Caribs\\,\\ who\\ migrated\\ from\\ the\\ mainland\\ around\\ 4500B\\.\\ European\\ countries\\ colonized\\ \\(mostly\\ Britain\\ and\\ France\\)\\ in\\ the\\ 1500s\\,\\ and\\ their\\ influence\\ is\\ still\\ felt\\ today\\.\\ Slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;population\\ demographics\\ shift\\ greatly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\History\\ And\\ Politics\\:\\ Lost\\ Empires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spain\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ European\\ nation\\ to\\ arrive\\,\\ but\\ abandoned\\ the\\ eastern\\ islands\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ Cuba\\ and\\ hispaniola\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;British\\ and\\ French\\ conflicts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disputes\\ b\\/w\\ British\\ and\\ French\\ arose\\ mostly\\ from\\ Sugar\\,\\ but\\ also\\ for\\ ports\\ of\\ trade\\ and\\ military\\ installments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ was\\ marked\\ by\\ slave\\ revolts\\,\\ partly\\ inspired\\ by\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\ The\\ fear\\ of\\ violent\\ rebellions\\ added\\ to\\ economic\\ and\\ humanitarian\\ reasons\\ for\\ the\\ abolishment\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slow\\ decline\\ of\\ plantation\\ culture\\/economy\\ led\\ to\\ greater\\ democracy\\ and\\ economic\\ freedom\\ for\\ the\\ islands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ WWII\\,\\ islands\\ capable\\ of\\ choosing\\ their\\ own\\ fate\\,\\ very\\ few\\ choose\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cuban\\ revolution\\ of\\ 1959\\ was\\ followed\\ by\\ many\\ other\\ violent\\ uprisings\\ against\\ dictatorships\\ in\\ the\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\.\\ Subsequent\\ changes\\ in\\ political\\ power\\ have\\ drawn\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Economy\\:\\ After\\ The\\ Plantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\very\\ few\\ natural\\ resources\\ leave\\ islands\\ with\\ few\\ economic\\ options\\,\\ mostly\\ tourism\\ and\\ bananas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;open\\ economies\\ that\\ are\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ commodity\\ price\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sugar\\ industry\\ died\\ out\\ in\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\C\\,\\ only\\ held\\ up\\ by\\ preferential\\ trade\\ agreements\\ and\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ rum\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\banana\\ crisis\\ arises\\ from\\ competition\\ with\\ plantation\\ based\\ economies\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;need\\ to\\ diversify\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manufacturing\\ has\\ failed\\ because\\ labor\\ costs\\ are\\ too\\ high\\ and\\ the\\ islands\\ are\\ too\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ US\\.\\ Trinidad\\ prospers\\ only\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ highly\\ lucrative\\,\\ but\\ volatile\\,\\ oil\\ and\\ natural\\ gas\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nearly\\ every\\ country\\ has\\ tourism\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\,\\ some\\ employ\\ 25\\%\\ in\\ tourism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recent\\ trend\\ has\\ been\\ towards\\ off\\-shore\\ economies\\ such\\ as\\ money\\ laundering\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ vessel\\ registrations\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Island\\ economies\\ have\\ been\\ swamped\\ in\\ debt\\ and\\ recently\\,\\ internationl\\ aid\\ organizations\\ have\\ been\\ calling\\ the\\ debt\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;need\\ for\\ privatization\\ within\\ economies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Society\\:\\ The\\ Weight\\ of\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\political\\ power\\ has\\ transferred\\ to\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ black\\ and\\ colored\\ leaders\\ but\\ there\\ remains\\ a\\ small\\ sector\\ of\\ whites\\ in\\ many\\ islands\\ who\\ control\\ economies\\ through\\ tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;racial\\ tensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ enjoyed\\ high\\ literacy\\,\\ employment\\ and\\ life\\ expectancy\\,\\ but\\ all\\ have\\ been\\ subsidized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ enjoy\\ relatively\\ high\\ status\\,\\ but\\ receive\\ lower\\ wages\\,\\ face\\ discrimination\\ and\\ have\\ high\\ incidences\\ of\\ teenage\\ pregnancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rural\\/urban\\ divide\\ is\\ closing\\ as\\ many\\ move\\ to\\ cities\\ for\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\extremely\\ large\\ income\\ disparity\\,\\ many\\ resort\\ to\\ drugs\\/crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\migration\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;safety\\-valve\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ unemployment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\remmitances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Culture\\:\\ Creation\\ and\\ Celebration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ tourism\\ and\\ colonialism\\ have\\ influenced\\,\\ if\\ not\\ controlled\\,\\ many\\ cultural\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;resentment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ islands\\ have\\ produced\\ many\\ great\\ writers\\ \\(Nobel\\ and\\ Pulitzer\\ Prize\\ winners\\)\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ reliance\\ on\\ foreign\\ publishers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\successful\\ music\\ genres\\ include\\ Calypso\\ of\\ Trinidad\\,\\ which\\ combines\\ French\\ and\\ African\\ influences\\,\\ often\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ social\\ satire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carnival\\,\\ is\\ a\\ two\\ day\\ Trinidadian\\ celebration\\ centered\\ around\\ Calypso\\ competitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cricket\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sporting\\ obsession\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ English\\ speaking\\ countries\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lies\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ male\\ psyche\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miguel\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ Miguel\\ Street\\ is\\ more\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ characters\\ than\\ an\\ explanation\\ of\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ narrator\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ is\\ a\\ child\\ living\\ in\\ moderate\\ conditions\\ in\\ Trinidad\\,\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ poor\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ not\\ rich\\.\\ The\\ story\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ poor\\ regions\\ of\\ their\\ city\\,\\ it\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ Dry\\ River\\,\\ an\\ area\\ feared\\ by\\ the\\ characters\\ in\\ this\\ story\\.\\ Naipaul\\ introduces\\ Titus\\ Hoyt\\ as\\ a\\ compassionate\\ man\\,\\ intent\\ on\\ educating\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ Miguel\\ Street\\.\\ He\\ teaches\\ them\\ to\\ read\\ and\\ write\\,\\ even\\ starts\\ a\\ special\\ Literary\\ and\\ Social\\ Club\\.\\ The\\ club\\ does\\ not\\ last\\ long\\,\\ however\\ the\\ children\\ receive\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ education\\.\\ The\\ events\\ surrounding\\ Titus\\ Hoyt\\ seem\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ education\\ for\\ children\\ in\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\,\\ Titus\\ Hoyt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teachings\\ are\\ viewed\\ as\\ weird\\ and\\ unfamiliar\\ by\\ the\\ characters\\.\\ The\\ English\\ spoke\\ by\\ the\\ characters\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ broken\\ and\\ full\\ of\\ grammatical\\ errors\\,\\ this\\ gives\\ the\\ impression\\ of\\ an\\ uneducated\\ society\\.\\ Next\\ Laura\\ is\\ introduced\\.\\ She\\ has\\ eight\\ or\\ nine\\ kids\\,\\ all\\ through\\ different\\ fathers\\.\\ She\\ raises\\ the\\ kids\\ herself\\ and\\ has\\ many\\ men\\ in\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ life\\.\\ Laura\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Eddoes\\,\\ another\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ who\\ impregnates\\ a\\ woman\\ whom\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ very\\ well\\,\\ implies\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ birth\\ control\\ in\\ this\\ particular\\ class\\ of\\ the\\ Trinidadian\\ society\\.\\ Sex\\ is\\ casual\\ and\\ pregnancy\\ is\\ common\\.\\ Eddoes\\ also\\ represents\\ the\\ struggles\\ and\\ hardships\\ experienced\\ in\\ finding\\,\\ keeping\\ a\\ job\\ and\\ earning\\ a\\ living\\ in\\ Trinidad\\.\\ Toni\\,\\ another\\ character\\ introduced\\ late\\ in\\ the\\ book\\,\\ is\\ an\\ alcoholic\\ and\\ represents\\ a\\ serious\\ problem\\ in\\ Trinidad\\.\\ Near\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ into\\ world\\ war\\ two\\ a\\ bit\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ Americans\\ invaded\\ Trinidad\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ employment\\ opportunities\\ available\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Trinidad\\ provided\\ by\\ the\\ Americans\\.\\ The\\ narrator\\ ends\\ up\\ leaving\\ Miguel\\ Street\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ because\\ he\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ mother\\ notices\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ becoming\\ too\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ becoming\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ his\\ neighborhood\\.\\ The\\ many\\ faults\\ and\\ problems\\ that\\ plague\\ his\\ neighborhood\\ and\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\ are\\ becoming\\ his\\ faults\\ and\\ problems\\ and\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ end\\ up\\ like\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\:\\ A\\ Guide\\ to\\ the\\ People\\,\\ Politics\\ and\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Land\\ and\\ People\\:\\ From\\ Mountains\\ to\\ Ghettos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ geography\\ is\\ extremely\\ diverse\\ ranging\\ from\\ the\\ Blue\\ Mountains\\ to\\ the\\ hills\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ north\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ rainforest\\ to\\ the\\ beaches\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soil\\ is\\ generally\\ fertile\\ throughout\\ the\\ island\\ with\\ about\\ 45\\%\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ being\\ used\\ for\\ agriculture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ Jamaica\\ lies\\ in\\ hurricane\\ belt\\ and\\ experiences\\ regular\\ earthquakes\\,\\ which\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ completely\\ destroy\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ crops\\.\\ \\ \\;Soil\\ erosion\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ problem\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ badly\\ managed\\ hillside\\ farming\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ of\\ these\\ environmental\\ problems\\ and\\ worries\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ an\\ increased\\ urbanization\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ \\(55\\%\\ of\\ Jamaicans\\ now\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ city\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ capitol\\,\\ Kingston\\,\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ city\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\,\\ as\\ periodic\\ riots\\,\\ disturbances\\,\\ and\\ gun\\ battles\\ testify\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ even\\ with\\ the\\ large\\ crime\\ rate\\,\\ the\\ danger\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ confined\\ to\\ those\\ directly\\ involved\\ on\\ the\\ front\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;Kingston\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Coronation\\ Market\\ attracts\\ hundreds\\ of\\ vendors\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\,\\ but\\ due\\ to\\ its\\ reputation\\,\\ tourists\\ rarely\\ visit\\ this\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ main\\ city\\,\\ Spanish\\ Town\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ even\\ worse\\ off\\ than\\ Kingston\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ its\\ slums\\ and\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ most\\ Jamaicans\\ can\\ claim\\ African\\ heritage\\,\\ the\\ country\\ still\\ suffers\\ from\\ discrimination\\ and\\ pigmentocracy\\ towards\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ darker\\ skinned\\.\\ \\ \\;Compared\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\,\\ the\\ racial\\ mix\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ much\\ less\\ diverse\\ \\(91\\%\\ are\\ Afro\\-Jamaican\\ or\\ mixed\\ race\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Whites\\ make\\ up\\ only\\ about\\ 4\\%\\,\\ but\\ yet\\ still\\ seem\\ to\\ dominate\\ an\\ overwhelming\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ business\\ and\\ political\\ worlds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ History\\:\\ Island\\ of\\ Conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ islands\\ first\\ inhabitants\\ were\\ the\\ peaceful\\ Tainos\\,\\ who\\ in\\ turn\\ were\\ conquered\\ by\\ the\\ more\\ aggressive\\ Caribs\\,\\ who\\ then\\ were\\ conquered\\ by\\ the\\ whites\\ after\\ Christopher\\ Columbus\\ landed\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ in\\ 1494\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Spanish\\ easily\\ took\\ the\\ island\\ from\\ its\\ inhabitants\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ next\\ 300\\ years\\,\\ Jamaica\\ existed\\ under\\ Spanish\\ rule\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ period\\ it\\ was\\ completely\\ ignored\\ by\\ the\\ mother\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ inhabitants\\ remained\\ unsuccessful\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;poor\\ farming\\ techniques\\,\\ illness\\,\\ lassitude\\,\\ in\\-fighting\\,\\ and\\ ignorance\\ ensured\\ that\\ prosperity\\ was\\ forever\\ elusive\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ English\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ island\\ informally\\ during\\ 1655\\ and\\ formally\\ during\\ 1670\\,\\ the\\ population\\ skyrocketed\\ immediately\\ attracting\\ mainly\\ criminals\\ and\\ indentured\\ servants\\ from\\ England\\,\\ Holland\\,\\ and\\ France\\ bound\\ together\\ by\\ their\\ hatred\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ and\\ the\\ feared\\ \\&ldquo\\;brethren\\ of\\ the\\ coast\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ formed\\.\\ \\ \\;Port\\ Royal\\ was\\ their\\ base\\ and\\ the\\ city\\ flourished\\ and\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ richest\\ and\\ most\\ debauched\\ settlement\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ a\\ severe\\ earthquake\\ killed\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ inhabitants\\ and\\ destroyed\\ the\\ city\\ ending\\ this\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\,\\ Jamaica\\ headed\\ towards\\ a\\ plantation\\ based\\ economy\\,\\ which\\ brought\\ along\\ with\\ it\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;Sugar\\ plantations\\ ruled\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ rich\\ class\\ of\\ plantation\\ owners\\ that\\ bought\\ their\\ way\\ into\\ society\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ diversification\\ of\\ crops\\,\\ slave\\ uprisings\\,\\ and\\ most\\ importantly\\,\\ the\\ moral\\ outrage\\ in\\ England\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ but\\ slavery\\ was\\ not\\ officially\\ ended\\ until\\ after\\ the\\ Sam\\ Sharpe\\ rebellion\\ which\\ provided\\ the\\ economic\\ incentive\\ and\\ further\\ moral\\ arguments\\ to\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ slavery\\ ended\\,\\ the\\ sugar\\ plantations\\ suffered\\ from\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ beet\\ sugar\\ and\\ from\\ lack\\ of\\ workers\\,\\ and\\ even\\ when\\ indentured\\ servants\\ were\\ used\\,\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ duties\\ were\\ taken\\ off\\ the\\ sugar\\ not\\ from\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ Jamaica\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ compete\\.\\ \\ \\;Everything\\ seemed\\ to\\ fall\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;Life\\ was\\ no\\ easier\\ for\\ the\\ freed\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ stepped\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ arena\\,\\ but\\ Jamaica\\ has\\ remained\\ extremely\\ vulnerable\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ achieved\\ independence\\ and\\ joined\\ a\\ federation\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ islands\\,\\ but\\ that\\ soon\\ fell\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ a\\ constitutional\\ monarchy\\,\\ Jamaica\\ lays\\ under\\ the\\ sway\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ instead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Politics\\:\\ Violent\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ modern\\,\\ and\\ often\\ violent\\ political\\ scene\\,\\ began\\ in\\ the\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ two\\ figures\\,\\ Bustamante\\,\\ who\\ formed\\ the\\ Bustamante\\ Industrial\\ Trade\\ Union\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ Jamaica\\ Labour\\ Party\\,\\ and\\ Manley\\,\\ who\\ formed\\ the\\ PNP\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ Trade\\ Union\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;Bustamante\\ took\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ trade\\ unionism\\,\\ economic\\ conditions\\,\\ and\\ workers\\,\\ while\\ Manely\\ took\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ universal\\ suffrage\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ British\\ rule\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ were\\ opposed\\ to\\ communism\\ and\\ little\\ seemed\\ to\\ separate\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\.\\ \\ \\;Bustamante\\ was\\ elected\\ the\\ first\\ prime\\ minister\\.\\ \\ \\;Together\\,\\ they\\ led\\ Jamaica\\ to\\ independence\\,\\ but\\ after\\ them\\,\\ someone\\ needed\\ to\\ step\\ up\\ and\\ create\\ something\\ with\\ their\\ achievement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edward\\ Seaga\\ and\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ were\\ their\\ successors\\.\\ \\ \\;Manely\\ took\\ the\\ PNP\\ towards\\ communism\\ and\\ the\\ left\\,\\ while\\ Seaga\\ shifted\\ the\\ JLP\\ towards\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ that\\ began\\ the\\ politically\\ motivated\\ violence\\ found\\ mostly\\ in\\ the\\ ghettos\\.\\ \\ \\;Manely\\ was\\ the\\ current\\ prime\\ minister\\ and\\ in\\ 1977\\ and\\ 1978\\;\\ he\\ began\\ taking\\ loans\\ from\\ the\\ World\\ Band\\ and\\ IMF\\,\\ sending\\ Jamaica\\ into\\ debt\\ while\\ trying\\ to\\ rescue\\ Jamaica\\ from\\ a\\ financial\\ crisis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Seaga\\ took\\ over\\,\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ obtain\\ money\\ from\\ the\\ US\\,\\ but\\ made\\ little\\ progress\\ in\\ any\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;Manely\\ was\\ reelected\\ with\\ a\\ new\\,\\ more\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ road\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ start\\ talks\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Cuba\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ successor\\,\\ Patterson\\,\\ carried\\ on\\ this\\ new\\ platform\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ the\\ parties\\ once\\ again\\ have\\ very\\ similar\\ positions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ violence\\ is\\ lessening\\ around\\ election\\ time\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Jamaica\\ has\\ joined\\ Caricom\\,\\ a\\ union\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ islands\\,\\ which\\ has\\ helped\\ to\\ increase\\ trade\\ and\\ influence\\ within\\ the\\ region\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ \\ \\;Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Middle\\ ranking\\ country\\ w\\.r\\.t\\.\\,\\ some\\ social\\ indicators\\ such\\ as\\ life\\ expectancy\\,\\ immunization\\,\\ mortality\\ rates\\ among\\ children\\,\\ but\\ one\\ third\\ of\\ Jamaicans\\ live\\ below\\ poverty\\ standards\\ because\\ of\\ high\\ unemployment\\,\\ flimsy\\ welfare\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ investment\\ in\\ health\\ services\\ is\\ only\\ 7\\%\\,\\ which\\ is\\ below\\ the\\ defense\\ budget\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Housing\\-squatting\\ common\\,\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ home\\ or\\ land\\,\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\-schooling\\ free\\ and\\ compulsory\\ until\\ age\\ 11\\,\\ but\\ some\\ state\\ subside\\ for\\ education\\ up\\ to\\ age\\ 15\\&mdash\\;only\\ 2\\/3\\ boys\\,\\ slightly\\ fewer\\ females\\ continue\\ with\\ secondary\\ education\\&mdash\\;gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spending\\ cut\\ to\\ 11\\%\\,\\ 5\\%\\ illiteracy\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\&mdash\\;Cohabitation\\ and\\ serial\\ monogamy\\ more\\ common\\ than\\ marriage\\,\\ children\\ with\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ man\\&mdash\\;domestic\\ violence\\,\\ abuse\\,\\ sexual\\ harassment\\ common\\ because\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ traditions\\&mdash\\;one\\ half\\ economically\\ active\\ in\\ workforce\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ rates\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emigration\\&mdash\\;popular\\ escape\\ door\\,\\ 22\\,500\\ people\\ leave\\ each\\ year\\,\\ 85\\%\\ to\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Returnees\\,\\ mixed\\ experience\\,\\ joy\\,\\ difficulty\\ moving\\ from\\ first\\ world\\ to\\ the\\ third\\ because\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crime\\&mdash\\;very\\ high\\ rate\\,\\ due\\ to\\ large\\ gap\\ between\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\ and\\ the\\ easy\\ availability\\ of\\ guns\\&mdash\\;police\\ shootings\\ way\\ above\\ any\\ other\\ democratic\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ Rights\\&mdash\\;Amnesty\\ International\\ concerned\\ about\\ safety\\ of\\ trials\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ death\\ sentences\\&mdash\\;prejudice\\ against\\ homosexuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religion\\&mdash\\;one\\ of\\ the\\ strongest\\ social\\ forces\\,\\ 80\\%\\ protestant\\,\\ serious\\ but\\ fun\\&mdash\\;Voodoo\\,\\ Pocomania\\,\\ Obeah\\ practiced\\ in\\ small\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rastafarianism\\&mdash\\;before\\ second\\ world\\ war\\,\\ 100\\,000\\ followers\\,\\ divine\\ Ethiopian\\ emperor\\ Haile\\ Selassie\\&mdash\\;foundations\\ on\\ ganja\\,\\ back\\-to\\-Africanism\\,\\ black\\ consciousness\\,\\ moral\\ teachings\\ from\\ bible\\,\\ anti\\-establishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diversified\\ economy\\ comparatively\\,\\ income\\ spread\\ unevenly\\ across\\ economy\\ or\\ leached\\ out\\ to\\ foreign\\ investors\\&mdash\\;oil\\ crisis\\ of\\ 1970\\ and\\ international\\ recession\\ caused\\ the\\ progress\\ from\\ Manley\\ and\\ Seaga\\ to\\ disappear\\,\\ external\\ debt\\ rose\\,\\ foreign\\ investors\\ fled\\,\\ trade\\ deficits\\ grew\\,\\ currency\\ crises\\,\\ inflation\\ 30\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Higglers\\&mdash\\;street\\ vendors\\ that\\ are\\ a\\ key\\ feature\\ of\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ informal\\ economy\\,\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tries\\ to\\ dispose\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bauxite\\&mdash\\;major\\ industry\\,\\ raw\\ material\\ not\\ as\\ lucrative\\ as\\ could\\ be\\ because\\ not\\ turned\\ into\\ aluminum\\ on\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manufacturing\\&mdash\\;consumer\\ goods\\,\\ attract\\ foreign\\ investment\\ with\\ cheapest\\ labor\\ in\\ Caribbean\\&mdash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\ zones\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ three\\ on\\ island\\,\\ tax\\ concessions\\,\\ no\\ unions\\,\\ and\\ few\\ red\\ tape\\ inconveniences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Agriculture\\&mdash\\;sugar\\ still\\ most\\ important\\ product\\,\\ exported\\ to\\ European\\ union\\ or\\ US\\&mdash\\;bananas\\ main\\ crop\\,\\ few\\ large\\ estates\\,\\ threatened\\ by\\ disease\\,\\ hurricane\\ damage\\&mdash\\;coffee\\ threatened\\ by\\ poor\\ organization\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ proliferation\\ of\\ small\\ growers\\,\\ erosion\\ of\\ land\\,\\ marijuana\\ source\\ of\\ illegal\\ income\\,\\ hide\\ crops\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;sensimilla\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\&mdash\\;Jamaican\\ entrepreneur\\ introduced\\ all\\-inclusive\\ resorts\\,\\ keeps\\ tourism\\ in\\ local\\ hands\\-\\-\\ complaints\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ left\\ immediate\\ local\\ economy\\ empty\\&mdash\\;still\\ some\\ resentment\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ extension\\ of\\ black\\ servitude\\ to\\ the\\ rich\\ white\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debt\\&mdash\\;PNP\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ have\\ refused\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ IMF\\,\\ but\\ debt\\ is\\ so\\ bad\\ may\\ have\\ to\\ return\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Infrastructure\\&mdash\\;travel\\ by\\ car\\ difficult\\,\\ many\\ fly\\,\\ too\\ expensive\\ to\\ reinstate\\ broken\\ railway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Environment\\&mdash\\;coral\\ reefs\\ destroyed\\,\\ bad\\ waste\\ disposal\\,\\ bauxite\\ pollution\\,\\ soil\\ erosion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Reggae\\&mdash\\;most\\ recognizable\\ and\\ significant\\ cultural\\ asset\\,\\ spread\\ worldwide\\,\\ origins\\ in\\ Black\\ American\\ R\\&\\;B\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;rock\\ steady\\&rdquo\\;\\ more\\ relaxed\\ and\\ sophisticated\\ style\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ heavy\\ bass\\,\\ militant\\ lyrics\\ of\\ Rastas\\&mdash\\;Bob\\ Marley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ musical\\ message\\,\\ charisma\\,\\ spirituality\\ made\\ him\\ hero\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;digital\\&rdquo\\;\\ sound\\ termed\\ \\&ldquo\\;raga\\&rdquo\\;\\ drew\\ away\\ from\\ Rasta\\-inspired\\ lyrics\\ and\\ melodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Art\\ and\\ Literature\\&mdash\\;orally\\ based\\,\\ African\\ influenced\\ traditions\\ were\\ frowned\\ upon\\ by\\ whites\\ for\\ centuries\\&mdash\\;representational\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ abstract\\)\\ art\\ dominate\\ form\\,\\ racial\\ identity\\ prominent\\&mdash\\;use\\ of\\ Creole\\ \\(Patois\\)\\ language\\ found\\ in\\ literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theater\\ and\\ Cinema\\&mdash\\;doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ money\\ to\\ make\\ good\\ films\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sport\\&mdash\\;disproportionately\\ high\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cricket\\&mdash\\;national\\ game\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\&mdash\\;first\\ successful\\ Jamaican\\ soccer\\ team\\,\\ many\\ things\\ of\\ great\\ promise\\ brought\\ low\\ by\\ greed\\ and\\ bad\\ management\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ True\\ History\\ of\\ Paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chap\\.\\ 1\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\STORYLINE\\ \\(shortened\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ and\\ Lana\\ are\\ \\½\\;\\ sisters\\.\\ The\\ story\\ begins\\ w\\/\\ Jean\\ learning\\ \\(from\\ Paul\\)\\ that\\ Lana\\ is\\ dead\\.\\ Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dad\\ is\\ a\\ rich\\ Indian\\ man\\,\\ who\\ eventually\\ moves\\ to\\ Connecticut\\.\\ Monica\\,\\ their\\ mom\\,\\ is\\ vain\\ w\\/\\ her\\ fair\\ skin\\,\\ contemptuous\\ of\\ Africans\\/communists\\/PNP\\,\\ and\\ horribly\\ strict\\ w\\/\\ her\\ daughters\\.\\ At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ her\\ death\\,\\ Lana\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spoken\\ to\\ her\\ mother\\ in\\ 15\\ years\\.\\ Lana\\ considered\\ Mary\\ Darling\\,\\ Monica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mom\\,\\ to\\ be\\ her\\ mother\\ because\\ she\\ had\\ lived\\ her\\ childhood\\ w\\/\\ her\\.\\ Jean\\ had\\ Roy\\,\\ her\\ father\\,\\ until\\ he\\ died\\ of\\ a\\ brain\\ tumor\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ young\\.\\ Paul\\,\\ the\\ attractive\\/good\\-dancer\\ boy\\ from\\ across\\ the\\ street\\ becomes\\ a\\ close\\ friend\\ of\\ the\\ girls\\.\\ He\\ and\\ Jean\\ spent\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ together\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ he\\ and\\ Lana\\ \\(only\\ a\\ year\\ apart\\)\\ had\\ a\\ very\\ special\\ relationship\\,\\ too\\.\\ Lana\\ gets\\ pregnant\\ by\\ her\\ boyfriend\\,\\ a\\ gray\\-haired\\ married\\ man\\.\\ Monica\\ kicks\\ her\\ out\\,\\ and\\ tells\\ her\\ to\\ never\\ set\\ foot\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ again\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ story\\ intertwines\\ w\\/\\ all\\ these\\ side\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OVERALL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ novel\\,\\ by\\ Margaret\\ Cezair\\-Thompson\\,\\ focuses\\ on\\ Jean\\ Landing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1981\\ departure\\ from\\ Jamaica\\.\\ Each\\ chapter\\ skips\\ around\\ throughout\\ time\\,\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ allowing\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relatives\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ her\\ family\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ \\(in\\ the\\ first\\ person\\)\\ their\\ Jamaican\\ experience\\.\\ What\\ the\\ reader\\ comes\\ to\\ realize\\ from\\ all\\ this\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ w\\/in\\ one\\ family\\,\\ Jamaicans\\ are\\ extremely\\ diverse\\:\\ culturally\\ and\\ ethnically\\ \\(German\\,\\ Scotish\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ Rasta\\,\\ Ashanti\\,\\ Chinese\\,\\ Indian\\&hellip\\;\\)\\,\\ politically\\ \\(in\\ the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mom\\,\\ Monica\\ Stern\\,\\ was\\ a\\ the\\ pro\\-colonial\\,\\ anti\\-communist\\ JLP\\ \\-\\ Bustamante\\ supporter\\ who\\ valued\\ whiteness\\ and\\ disdained\\ anything\\ African\\,\\ while\\ her\\ father\\,\\ Roy\\ Landing\\,\\ worked\\ for\\ Norman\\ Manley\\ and\\ was\\ crazy\\ about\\ the\\ PNP\\.\\ He\\ celebrated\\ his\\ African\\ heritage\\ immensely\\,\\ even\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ wanting\\ to\\ take\\ Jean\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ Ghana\\.\\)\\,\\ and\\ economically\\ \\(she\\ had\\ rich\\ plantation\\ ancestors\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ poor\\ family\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ envisioned\\ post\\-colonial\\ Jamaica\\ \\(independence\\ \\=\\ Aug\\ 6\\,\\ 1962\\)\\ was\\ far\\ from\\ achieved\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ problems\\ of\\ her\\ family\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ Jamaica\\,\\ repeat\\ themselves\\ throughout\\ history\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ am\\ writing\\ about\\ this\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ an\\ ID\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\There\\ is\\ this\\ huge\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ Morant\\ Bay\\ Rebellion\\ \\(1865\\)\\,\\ led\\ by\\ Pastor\\ Bogle\\ \\(Paul\\?\\)\\.\\ There\\ was\\ an\\ immediate\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ rebellion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ were\\ outside\\ the\\ courthouse\\,\\ protesting\\ the\\ mistreatment\\ of\\ a\\ prisoner\\.\\ But\\ the\\ anti\\-establishment\\ anger\\ had\\ been\\ building\\ up\\ for\\ years\\.\\ The\\ people\\ felt\\ that\\ since\\ the\\ Abolition\\ Act\\ of\\ 1838\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ blacks\\ had\\ still\\ remained\\ slaves\\.\\ The\\ protesters\\ went\\ on\\ a\\ killing\\ rampage\\,\\ killing\\ whites\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;White\\ man\\ country\\ fe\\ we\\ now\\!\\ \\&hellip\\;We\\ fe\\ kill\\ white\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ p\\.58\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ people\\ who\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ white\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Him\\ skin\\ Black\\ but\\ him\\ heart\\ White\\&rdquo\\;\\ p\\.\\ 59\\)\\ As\\ the\\ protest\\ grew\\ and\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ spirit\\ spread\\,\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ emergency\\ was\\ declared\\ by\\ Governer\\ Eyre\\,\\ who\\ sent\\ soldiers\\ and\\ three\\ battleships\\ to\\ Morant\\ Bay\\.\\ The\\ Queen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soldiers\\ destroyed\\ Bogle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\;\\ the\\ entire\\ eastern\\ part\\ of\\ Jamaica\\ was\\ embroiled\\ in\\ a\\ bloody\\ siege\\.\\ It\\ rained\\ and\\ rained\\ and\\ rained\\,\\ flooding\\ the\\ area\\ terribly\\.\\ The\\ Queen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soldiers\\,\\ in\\ this\\ unknown\\ land\\ and\\ rough\\ environment\\,\\ went\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ killing\\ spree\\.\\ They\\ shot\\ and\\ hung\\ blacks\\ that\\ they\\ came\\ across\\,\\ both\\ the\\ guilty\\ and\\ the\\ innocent\\,\\ burned\\ homes\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ and\\ arrested\\ hundreds\\ of\\ blacks\\.\\ Final\\ outcome\\ of\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intervention\\:\\ many\\ many\\ many\\ innocent\\ blacks\\ were\\ killed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Compare\\ that\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ gang\\ violence\\ of\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 80s\\:\\ people\\ feeling\\ a\\ deep\\ social\\ injustice\\,\\ reacting\\ violently\\,\\ huge\\ PNP\\ and\\ JLP\\ gang\\ warfare\\,\\ the\\ government\\ reacting\\ in\\ an\\ equally\\ violent\\ manner\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ declared\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ emergency\\ in\\ 1976\\,\\ increasing\\ the\\ police\\ and\\ military\\ power\\ and\\ his\\ subsequent\\ Gun\\ Court\\ decision\\,\\ which\\ basically\\ made\\ courts\\ extra\\ hard\\ on\\ crimes\\ involving\\ guns\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ many\\ many\\ deaths\\ of\\ innocent\\ Jamaicans\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ book\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ across\\ that\\ the\\ racial\\/social\\ problems\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\never\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\been\\ solved\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ they\\ culminate\\ in\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ they\\ did\\ in\\ slave\\-times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HISTORICAL\\ POINTS\\ GIVEN\\ IN\\ THE\\ BOOK\\:\\1\\.\\ The\\ Arawaks\\ gave\\ Jamaica\\ the\\ name\\ Xaymaca\\,\\ Land\\ of\\ Many\\ Rivers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Late\\ 1800s\\,\\ Chinese\\ were\\ shipped\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ in\\ slave\\-like\\ conditions\\,\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ workforce\\ that\\ had\\ disintegrated\\ with\\ the\\ abolishment\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ 1838\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Religious\\ leaders\\ often\\ led\\ rebellions\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Pastor\\ Bogle\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Aug\\ 6\\,\\ 1962\\ \\=\\ independence\\ from\\ colonial\\ Britain\\;\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birthday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Racism\\ still\\ exists\\:\\ Monica\\,\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relatively\\ fair\\-skinned\\ mother\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ there\\ was\\ anything\\ beautiful\\ about\\ Africans\\,\\ and\\ she\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ about\\ Nubian\\ anything\\ in\\ her\\ bone\\ structure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 31\\)\\ There\\ are\\ few\\ blue\\-eyed\\ boys\\ in\\ rags\\,\\ few\\ Chinese\\ men\\ w\\/\\ dreads\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ whole\\ class\\ of\\ elite\\ whites\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Jean\\ and\\ her\\ older\\ sister\\ Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boarding\\ school\\ is\\ a\\ prime\\ example\\.\\ What\\ was\\ valued\\ at\\ the\\ school\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;wealth\\,\\ class\\,\\ and\\ whiteness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 69\\)\\ The\\ upper\\-class\\ consisted\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Syrians\\,\\ old\\ white\\ Jamaican\\ families\\,\\ White\\ expatriates\\,\\ a\\ few\\ Chinese\\,\\ and\\ a\\ small\\ scattering\\ of\\ mixed\\-race\\ girls\\ like\\ Lana\\ and\\ Jean\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 69\\)\\ The\\ food\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ school\\ is\\ very\\ British\\,\\ they\\ have\\ tea\\-time\\,\\ the\\ teachers\\ are\\ white\\,\\ they\\ learn\\ anglo\\-saxon\\ history\\ as\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ ancestors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Pretty\\ rotten\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Marriage\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ is\\ not\\ that\\ common\\.\\ Jamaican\\ men\\ commonly\\ and\\ openly\\ cheat\\ on\\ their\\ wives\\ and\\ girlfriends\\.\\ Jamaican\\ women\\ are\\ just\\ supposed\\ to\\ accept\\ that\\ for\\ the\\ way\\ things\\ are\\,\\ and\\ usually\\ end\\ up\\ bringing\\ up\\ their\\ babies\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 21\\-\\ 31\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ and\\ Jean\\ in\\ the\\ car\\,\\ talk\\ about\\ Lana\\ \\(who\\ has\\ died\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Mention\\ how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lana\\ thought\\ nothing\\ of\\ being\\ half\\-Indian\\,\\ but\\ Monica\\ hated\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\ \\-\\ flashback\\ 1967\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ gets\\ to\\ go\\ dancing\\ with\\ Lana\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\they\\ have\\ to\\ sneak\\ out\\ after\\ Monica\\ says\\ they\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ go\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ minute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ Lana\\ is\\ \\"\\;dressed\\ like\\ a\\ whore\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\skip\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\ later\\,\\ family\\ is\\ gathered\\ to\\ determine\\ how\\ to\\ tell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monica\\ that\\ Lana\\ is\\ pregnant\\,\\ Monica\\ flips\\,\\ then\\ when\\ Lana\\ is\\ sick\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hospital\\,\\ visits\\ and\\ cares\\ for\\ her\\,\\ then\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ Lana\\ comes\\ home\\,\\ Monica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\kicks\\ her\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ forever\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ shows\\ Monica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ unpredictable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nature\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cyclical\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ mistakes\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ \\(early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pregnancies\\ for\\ Monica\\ and\\ then\\ Lana\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ and\\ Jean\\ in\\ the\\ car\\ \\-\\ in\\ country\\,\\ where\\ violence\\ has\\ not\\ reached\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yet\\,\\ makes\\ the\\ violence\\ in\\ Kingston\\ seem\\ absurd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ is\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ see\\ Lana\\ after\\ she\\ is\\ kicked\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ house\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Her\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ mystery\\,\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ whether\\ to\\ consider\\ her\\ sister\\ a\\ whore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\or\\ what\\ to\\ think\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ talks\\ about\\ different\\ reactions\\ to\\ man\\ landing\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ moon\\.\\ \\;\\ Monica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ is\\ cynical\\ \\(never\\ thought\\ it\\ would\\ happen\\,\\ then\\ says\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;might\\ as\\ well\\ try\\ and\\ walk\\ on\\ water\\ \\[as\\ walk\\ on\\ the\\ moon\\]\\,\\ I\\ gone\\ to\\ bed\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\while\\ Irene\\ \\(the\\ family\\ maid\\)\\ is\\ amazed\\ and\\ feels\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\ \\-\\ Lana\\ gets\\ sick\\,\\ Jean\\ sends\\ a\\ get\\ well\\ card\\,\\ and\\ then\\ sneaks\\ out\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\meet\\ her\\ for\\ lunch\\ after\\ Lana\\ recovers\\.\\ \\;\\ Jean\\ is\\ happy\\ to\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pictures\\ of\\ Lana\\ painted\\ by\\ Monica\\ erased\\ by\\ seeing\\ that\\ Lana\\ has\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\changed\\ much\\ in\\ appearance\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ job\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ Lana\\ leaves\\ Jamaica\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ later\\ sees\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ won\\ a\\ beauty\\ pageant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ begins\\ to\\ be\\ sexually\\ curious\\,\\ talk\\ to\\ Faye\\ and\\ Paul\\ about\\ it\\ \\(I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\think\\ she\\ is\\ about\\ 13\\ or\\ 14\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Faye\\ sneaks\\ out\\ from\\ school\\ to\\ meet\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\boyfriend\\ and\\ is\\ suspended\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ \\(conservative\\ nature\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ private\\ school\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ attends\\ a\\ wedding\\,\\ dances\\ a\\ slow\\ dance\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ and\\ cannot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stop\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ boy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gathering\\ on\\ Daphne\\&\\#39\\;s\\ veranda\\,\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ there\\,\\ Jean\\ feels\\ he\\ is\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\presence\\ without\\ even\\ speaking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aunt\\ Daphne\\ tells\\ Jean\\ that\\ Monica\\ can\\ never\\ forgive\\ herself\\ for\\ falling\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\love\\ with\\ Deepa\\ \\(who\\ is\\ Indian\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ and\\ Faye\\ walk\\ along\\ the\\ road\\,\\ Faye\\ is\\ mistaken\\ for\\ being\\ white\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\takes\\ offence\\ \\(racial\\ tensions\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ signs\\ up\\ to\\ support\\ Manley\\&\\#39\\;s\\ party\\,\\ the\\ party\\ her\\ father\\ had\\ supported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\before\\ he\\ died\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\ \\-\\ Christmas\\ gathering\\,\\ Jean\\ receives\\ a\\ glass\\ for\\ her\\ drink\\ instead\\ of\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;unbreakable\\ tumbler\\"\\;\\ as\\ an\\ acknowledged\\ rite\\ of\\ passage\\ to\\ maturity\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\talks\\ to\\ Trevor\\,\\ a\\ childhood\\ friend\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ away\\ and\\ has\\ forgotten\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beauty\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ the\\ hills\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lana\\ is\\ back\\,\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ singer\\,\\ performs\\ calypsos\\ and\\ reggae\\ and\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\popular\\ songs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ beach\\ with\\ Paul\\,\\ they\\ discuss\\ Trevor\\,\\ who\\ overdosed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\ drugs\\ in\\ NYC\\.\\ \\;\\ Paul\\,\\ like\\ everyone\\,\\ thinks\\ NYC\\ is\\ \\"\\;crazy\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ and\\ Jean\\ in\\ the\\ car\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ Redfields\\,\\ a\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\family\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ money\\ but\\ after\\ slavery\\ was\\ over\\ their\\ former\\ slaves\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\not\\ know\\ any\\ better\\ and\\ so\\ sent\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ them\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\basically\\ treated\\ them\\ like\\ royalty\\,\\ so\\ the\\ Redfields\\ lived\\ comfortably\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\four\\ generations\\ like\\ this\\ until\\ a\\ gang\\ from\\ Kingston\\ came\\ out\\ and\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\them\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ farm\\ where\\ Paul\\ talks\\ business\\ with\\ the\\ owner\\,\\ Jean\\ wanders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\off\\ and\\ we\\ \\(the\\ reader\\)\\ experience\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ meets\\ Mark\\ who\\ becomes\\ her\\ first\\ boyfriend\\.\\ \\;\\ Lana\\ shows\\ signs\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mental\\ instability\\ at\\ the\\ party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\ \\-\\ Mark\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ house\\,\\ Monica\\ likes\\ him\\ because\\ his\\ family\\ is\\ rich\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\influential\\,\\ and\\ white\\ \\(his\\ father\\ is\\ Monica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ banker\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ charms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monica\\,\\ but\\ Irene\\ dislikes\\ him\\ immediately\\,\\ sees\\ he\\ is\\ sleazy\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marks\\ parents\\ do\\ not\\ approve\\ of\\ Jean\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ too\\ dark\\,\\ but\\ he\\ likes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\disapointing\\ them\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ take\\ Jean\\&\\#39\\;s\\ virginity\\,\\ but\\ says\\ he\\ can\\ wait\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ True\\ History\\ of\\ Paradise\\,\\ pages\\ 159\\-331\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sexism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ males\\ all\\ have\\ mistresses\\,\\ solely\\ based\\ on\\ sex\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\ as\\ passive\\ housewife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nature\\/beauty\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ terrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-made\\ women\\ and\\ men\\ \\(from\\ poor\\ to\\ rich\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stories\\ remembering\\ family\\/ancestors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ conflict\\,\\ JLP\\ versus\\ PNP\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ to\\ blame\\ for\\ national\\ turmoil\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Building\\ status\\,\\ longing\\ to\\ be\\ respected\\ white\\,\\ educated\\,\\ elite\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Violence\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ safety\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decision\\ to\\ escape\\ from\\ or\\ remain\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ points\\ of\\ view\\ affecting\\ family\\/friend\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marriage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ very\\ sacred\\,\\ people\\ get\\ married\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ other\\ options\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personal\\ instability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ go\\ insane\\,\\ result\\ of\\ violent\\ physical\\ abuse\\ from\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ Manley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ control\\,\\ even\\ though\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ prime\\ minister\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ crisis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ try\\ to\\ become\\ economically\\ independent\\ from\\ world\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constant\\ brutality\\,\\ almost\\ everyone\\ close\\ to\\ Jean\\ killed\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;gunmen\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(from\\ JLP\\ or\\ PNP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distrust\\,\\ skepticism\\,\\ suspicion\\ among\\ Jamaicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monica\\,\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ Jean\\ and\\ Lana\\,\\ is\\ obsessed\\ with\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ being\\ considered\\ an\\ educated\\,\\ white\\ \\&ldquo\\;lady\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-made\\ woman\\,\\ owning\\ her\\ own\\ bakery\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ against\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ and\\ blames\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ political\\ propaganda\\ for\\ the\\ turmoil\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ and\\ Monica\\ have\\ become\\ estranged\\ over\\ the\\ years\\ and\\ Jean\\ still\\ lives\\ with\\ Monica\\.\\ \\ \\;Daphne\\,\\ Monica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sister\\,\\ and\\ Jean\\ finally\\ blow\\ up\\ at\\ Monica\\ one\\ day\\,\\ accusing\\ her\\ of\\ forgetting\\ who\\ she\\ is\\ and\\ where\\ she\\ came\\ from\\,\\ she\\ is\\ part\\ black\\ and\\ she\\ grew\\ up\\ poor\\,\\ but\\ Monica\\ only\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ her\\ English\\ grandmother\\,\\ Jean\\ Fairlik\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ according\\ to\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ decides\\ to\\ marry\\ this\\ guy\\ named\\ Mark\\ because\\ even\\ though\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ 21\\ years\\ old\\,\\ she\\ has\\ nothing\\ better\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ she\\ feels\\ bored\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ her\\ and\\ Lana\\ were\\ educated\\ well\\,\\ but\\ most\\ all\\ jobs\\ request\\ a\\ male\\ so\\ Jean\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ an\\ appealing\\ place\\ to\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ eventually\\ goes\\ insane\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ tense\\ relationship\\ between\\ her\\ and\\ Monica\\,\\ so\\ she\\ goes\\ to\\ an\\ insane\\ asylum\\ in\\ Florida\\ for\\ a\\ while\\.\\ \\ \\;Meanwhile\\,\\ Monica\\ continues\\ to\\ live\\ her\\ reclusive\\ lifestyle\\,\\ refusing\\ to\\ give\\ into\\ the\\ fear\\ that\\ has\\ seemed\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ as\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ violent\\ \\&ldquo\\;gunmen\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(from\\ either\\ the\\ JLP\\ or\\ PNP\\,\\ no\\ one\\ knows\\)\\,\\ who\\ rob\\,\\ rape\\,\\ beat\\ up\\ and\\ kill\\ citizens\\ everyday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daphne\\ dies\\ of\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\ right\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ Jean\\ who\\ was\\ playing\\ scrabble\\ with\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Without\\ her\\ favorite\\ aunt\\,\\ Jean\\ starts\\ to\\ realize\\ how\\ bad\\ her\\ marriage\\ and\\ how\\ bored\\ she\\ gets\\ everyday\\ sitting\\ around\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;Mark\\ cheats\\ on\\ her\\ all\\ the\\ time\\,\\ but\\ she\\ accepts\\ it\\ and\\ stays\\ with\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ finally\\ gets\\ a\\ job\\ under\\ Michael\\ Manley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\ with\\ the\\ Ministry\\ of\\ National\\ Security\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ returns\\ from\\ Florida\\ anew\\ person\\,\\ very\\ happy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ neighborhoods\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ have\\ become\\ extremely\\ unsafe\\ as\\ people\\ are\\ killed\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\ and\\ in\\ their\\ houses\\ everyday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\,\\ Ines\\,\\ is\\ visiting\\ one\\ day\\,\\ gunmen\\ attack\\ them\\ and\\ cut\\ up\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ and\\ arms\\ and\\ kill\\ Ines\\.\\ \\ \\;Jean\\ wonders\\ why\\ God\\ spared\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Jean\\ stays\\ with\\ her\\ grandmother\\,\\ Mary\\ Darling\\,\\ during\\ her\\ recovery\\ and\\ remembers\\ her\\ childhood\\,\\ noticing\\ how\\ much\\ Jamaica\\ has\\ changed\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ day\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boss\\ finds\\ out\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ bribed\\ by\\ a\\ foreigner\\ to\\ give\\ him\\ information\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ him\\ helping\\ her\\ to\\ escape\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ knows\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ people\\ following\\ her\\ and\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ who\\ to\\ trust\\,\\ her\\ boss\\ no\\ longer\\ trusts\\ her\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ever\\ present\\ violence\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ boil\\ for\\ Jean\\ and\\ her\\ family\\ when\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ friend\\,\\ Faye\\ and\\ Faye\\&rsquo\\;s\\ girlfriend\\,\\ Pat\\ are\\ attacked\\ by\\ gunmen\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ targeted\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ lesbians\\ most\\ likely\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ women\\ are\\ raped\\ and\\ Pat\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;Faye\\ got\\ shot\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ and\\ got\\ her\\ eye\\ gouged\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ lives\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\ before\\ dying\\.\\ \\ \\;Jean\\ and\\ her\\ family\\ begin\\ to\\ feel\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ threatened\\ by\\ the\\ gunmen\\ and\\ their\\ savagery\\&hellip\\;no\\ one\\ is\\ safe\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ gunmen\\ also\\ kill\\ Irene\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(Monica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ maid\\)\\ son\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meanwhile\\,\\ Lana\\ and\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ other\\ best\\ friend\\,\\ Paul\\ have\\ been\\ seeing\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ Jean\\ feels\\ incredibly\\ jealous\\ \\(she\\ split\\ up\\ with\\ Mark\\ eventually\\ because\\ his\\ mistreated\\ her\\ so\\ much\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ realizes\\ she\\ has\\ feelings\\ for\\ Paul\\,\\ but\\ he\\ cares\\ about\\ Lana\\ and\\ only\\ sees\\ Jean\\ as\\ a\\ friend\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ is\\ also\\ very\\ jealous\\ because\\ Paul\\ got\\ another\\ woman\\,\\ Cecile\\,\\ pregnant\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Paul\\ is\\ at\\ his\\ farm\\ outside\\ of\\ town\\ Jean\\ comes\\ to\\ visit\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ terror\\,\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ feel\\ safe\\ at\\ home\\ since\\ people\\ call\\ her\\ and\\ threaten\\ to\\ kill\\ her\\ and\\ her\\ family\\ soon\\ because\\ she\\ knows\\ too\\ much\\ working\\ for\\ national\\ security\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ upset\\ because\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ week\\ after\\ Faye\\ finally\\ passed\\ away\\,\\ she\\ saw\\ a\\ stranger\\ die\\ right\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ her\\;\\ he\\ was\\ standing\\ up\\ for\\ her\\ after\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ beating\\ her\\ for\\ laughing\\ at\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soldier\\ killed\\ the\\ man\\ just\\ for\\ saying\\ that\\ Jean\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ she\\ goes\\ to\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ eventually\\ starts\\ to\\ hit\\ on\\ him\\ because\\ she\\ realizes\\ she\\ only\\ feels\\ safe\\ with\\ him\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ says\\ no\\ but\\ takes\\ care\\ of\\ her\\ \\(she\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ crying\\ because\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ death\\ and\\ brutality\\ that\\ surrounds\\ her\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Paul\\ is\\ late\\ returning\\ home\\ to\\ Lana\\ because\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ Jean\\,\\ when\\ he\\ gets\\ home\\ Lana\\ \\(who\\ has\\ already\\ started\\ to\\ go\\ crazy\\ again\\ without\\ her\\ medication\\)\\ is\\ a\\ mess\\,\\ she\\ tells\\ him\\ Cecile\\ \\(the\\ woman\\ pregnant\\ with\\ his\\ baby\\)\\ came\\ by\\ and\\ told\\ her\\ she\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ die\\ tonight\\ because\\ Cecile\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ Paul\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mad\\ at\\ Paul\\ for\\ being\\ late\\ because\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ gotten\\ Cecile\\ out\\ of\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ she\\ thinks\\ Paul\\ has\\ planned\\ to\\ leave\\ her\\ for\\ Cecile\\.\\ \\ \\;Out\\ of\\ anger\\,\\ jealousy\\,\\ insanity\\,\\ and\\ fear\\ Lana\\ sets\\ herself\\ on\\ fire\\ and\\ Paul\\ tries\\ to\\ put\\ it\\ out\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ambulance\\ finally\\ gets\\ there\\,\\ but\\ Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ ends\\ with\\ Paul\\ driving\\ Jean\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ where\\ she\\ can\\ catch\\ a\\ cab\\ and\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ airport\\,\\ escaping\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ violent\\/brutal\\ government\\ actions\\ for\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;Too\\ many\\ people\\ close\\ to\\ her\\ have\\ died\\ and\\ she\\ feels\\ leaving\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ her\\ only\\ option\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ leaves\\ Monica\\ there\\,\\ but\\ Monica\\ is\\ proud\\ of\\ her\\ daughter\\ for\\ leaving\\ finally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ music\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caribbean\\ Currents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ you\\ really\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ are\\ the\\ 5\\ themes\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ music\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Unity\\ and\\ Diversity\\ within\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\ major\\ cultural\\ zones\\:\\ French\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ English\\ \\(although\\ internally\\ fragmented\\ by\\ rivalries\\ and\\ factions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ regions\\ share\\:\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ culture\\,\\ history\\ of\\ musical\\ syncretism\\,\\ strength\\ of\\ oral\\ tradition\\,\\ African\\ work\\ songs\\,\\ \\ \\;carnival\\ traditions\\,\\ inter\\-island\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Race\\ and\\ Ethnicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\music\\ both\\ passively\\ reflects\\ and\\ actively\\ influences\\ race\\ relations\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ colonial\\ era\\ calypsos\\ often\\ crticise\\ Negroid\\ features\\,\\ music\\ during\\ 1970s\\ Black\\ Power\\ movement\\ promotes\\ black\\ pride\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ view\\ of\\ race\\ \\=\\ on\\ a\\ spectrum\\ of\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afro\\-Caribbean\\ culture\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ celebrated\\ as\\ national\\ culture\\,\\ however\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ other\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ like\\ the\\ Chinese\\,\\ Japanese\\,\\ and\\ Indian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Sex\\ and\\ Sexism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\traditional\\ familial\\ ties\\ strained\\ by\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ urbanization\\,\\ and\\ increased\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\men\\ often\\ peripheral\\ to\\ family\\,\\ infected\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;machismo\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ sexually\\ available\\,\\ to\\ all\\ men\\ but\\ denounced\\ for\\ their\\ promiscuity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\music\\ reflects\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ themes\\,\\ often\\ portrays\\ male\\ attitude\\ \\(musicians\\ are\\ usually\\ male\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Caribbean\\ Musical\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ music\\ now\\ involves\\ international\\ sounds\\,\\ as\\ many\\ have\\ migrated\\ out\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ \\(2\\ mil\\.\\ Caribbean\\ natives\\ live\\ in\\ NYC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ desire\\ to\\ maintain\\ musical\\ traditions\\/Caribbean\\ identity\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brain\\ Drain\\:\\ many\\ talented\\ musicians\\ leave\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ for\\ greater\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Music\\ and\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\paradox\\ between\\ perception\\ and\\ reality\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perception\\:\\ Caribbean\\ natives\\ are\\ lazy\\,\\ unmotivated\\,\\ and\\ lounge\\ on\\ the\\ beach\\ all\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reality\\:\\ life\\ of\\ poverty\\,\\ toil\\,\\ hunger\\,\\ deprivation\\,\\ and\\ political\\ repression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\music\\ functions\\ as\\ an\\ escape\\ from\\ such\\ adversity\\,\\ becomes\\ a\\ common\\ connection\\ between\\ struggling\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\music\\ also\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ expression\\ of\\ discontent\\,\\ it\\ is\\ reflective\\ of\\ sociopolitical\\ conditions\\ \\(Cuban\\ habaneras\\ are\\ symbols\\ of\\ opposition\\ to\\ Spanish\\ rule\\,\\ Cuban\\ decimas\\ explicitly\\ celebrate\\ independence\\ struggle\\ and\\ nationalist\\ opposition\\ to\\ colonial\\ rule\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Music\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Evolution\\ of\\ Forms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ska\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1950\\-60\\ nationalistic\\ prode\\ stimulated\\ musical\\ experimentation\\-\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;distinctly\\ Jamaican\\ form\\ of\\ popular\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rock\\ Steady\\/Early\\ Reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1965\\-68\\ with\\ foundation\\ of\\ African\\ drumming\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ rhythms\\ of\\ the\\ Kumina\\ cult\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ secular\\ Buru\\ drumming\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1968\\-85\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ ealier\\ complex\\ drumming\\ styles\\,\\ emphasized\\ harmony\\ and\\ lyrics\\ \\(not\\ typical\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ music\\)\\,\\ statements\\ of\\ sociopolitical\\ situation\\,\\ Marley\\ helps\\ identify\\ Rastafarian\\ faith\\ with\\ reggae\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dub\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\part\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\ hall\\ phenomenon\\,\\ process\\ of\\ dubbing\\ eliminates\\ need\\ for\\ live\\ musicians\\,\\ DJs\\ can\\ make\\ entire\\ songs\\ using\\ only\\ a\\ Casio\\ keyboard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ Hall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1950s\\-\\ digital\\ revolution\\ created\\ new\\ dance\\ hall\\ phenomenon\\,\\ contemporary\\ successor\\ of\\ reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ragga\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dance\\ hall\\ DJ\\ music\\,\\ themes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;rude\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ sufferers\\,\\ Jamaican\\ Patwa\\ lyrics\\,\\ often\\ have\\ Revivalist\\/\\ Pocomania\\ beats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Cyclical\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lower\\ classes\\ create\\ music\\:\\ synthesis\\/creolization\\/syncretism\\ of\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ drumming\\ \\(Kumina\\,\\ Burru\\,\\ and\\ Nyabinghi\\ rhythms\\)\\,\\ Rivival\\ hymns\\ \\(Pocomania\\)\\,\\ and\\ world\\ pop\\ culture\\ \\(if\\ available\\ at\\ that\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bourgeois\\/Upper\\ classes\\ take\\ interest\\,\\ music\\ is\\ lost\\ to\\ the\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ shifts\\ from\\ Jamaica\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Music\\ of\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Diversity\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Cuba\\ has\\ a\\ rich\\,\\ diverse\\ musical\\ atmosphere\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Reasons\\ for\\ diversity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Equal\\ proportions\\ of\\ whites\\,\\ blacks\\,\\ and\\ mulattoes\\ in\\ Cuban\\ population\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\ Spanish\\ musical\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ communities\\ of\\ free\\ blacks\\ allowed\\ to\\ celebrate\\ musical\\ and\\ religious\\ festivities\\ within\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cabildos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(mutual\\-aid\\ societies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plantation\\ slaves\\ allowed\\ to\\ continue\\ African\\ singing\\/drumming\\/dancing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Influx\\ of\\ new\\ slaves\\ revives\\ and\\ maintains\\ African\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spanish\\ musical\\ traditions\\ brought\\ to\\ Cuba\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ were\\ far\\ richer\\ than\\ those\\ brought\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ colonies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Creolization\\ of\\ Cuban\\ Music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Creolization\\:\\ New\\ music\\ and\\ culture\\ develops\\ from\\ prolonged\\ encounter\\ of\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Ethnologist\\ Fernando\\ Ortiz\\ called\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ musical\\ syncretism\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;transculturation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 4\\ phases\\ of\\ musical\\ creolization\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Initial\\ Stage\\:\\ neo\\-African\\ and\\ European\\ inspired\\ music\\ \\(Cuban\\ rumba\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mix\\ of\\ African\\ and\\ European\\ derived\\ musical\\ elements\\ rejected\\ by\\ upper\\ classes\\ \\(early\\ calypso\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syncretic\\ genres\\ embraced\\ by\\ all\\ classes\\,\\ nationalistic\\ symbols\\ \\(calypso\\,\\ Cuban\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advanced\\ creolization\\,\\ blurring\\ of\\ cultural\\ boundaries\\,\\ accelerated\\ by\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Music\\ of\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ Religions\\ \\(Santeria\\ and\\ Palo\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ two\\ largest\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ among\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ slaves\\ were\\ the\\ Yoruba\\ and\\ Congolese\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Yoruba\\-derived\\ music\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bata\\ and\\ bembe\\ drumming\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Santeria\\ \\(Afro\\-Cuban\\ religion\\ that\\ was\\ a\\ fusion\\ of\\ Yoruba\\ and\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ elements\\)\\ greatly\\ influenced\\ later\\ Cuban\\ rhythms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Congolese\\-derived\\ music\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ngomo\\ drumming\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Palo\\ \\(Congolese\\ religion\\ practiced\\ in\\ Cuba\\)\\ ceremonies\\ played\\ more\\ simple\\ rhythms\\ than\\ bata\\ and\\ bembe\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Soukous\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ popular\\ Congolese\\ dance\\-music\\ genre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ European\\ Derived\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ known\\ than\\ African\\ derived\\ musical\\ styles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Guajira\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hispanic\\ style\\ of\\ folk\\ music\\ \\(Jose\\ Marti\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Guantanamera\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Punto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Cuban\\ musical\\ style\\ of\\ singing\\ the\\ Decima\\ \\ \\;\\(Hispanic\\-derived\\ ten\\-line\\ stanzas\\,\\ often\\ celebrated\\ struggle\\ for\\ independence\\ and\\ nationalist\\ opposition\\ to\\ Spanish\\ rule\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Contradanza\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ both\\ a\\ Cuban\\ and\\ Spanish\\ dance\\ and\\ music\\ genre\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Distinctly\\ Cuban\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Rumba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ secular\\ type\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ dance\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ 1800s\\ and\\ spread\\ world\\-wide\\ as\\ a\\ Spanish\\ ballroom\\ dance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mambo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Up\\-tempo\\,\\ Cuban\\ style\\ of\\ instrumental\\ dance\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chachacha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ popular\\ dance\\ and\\ music\\ genre\\ from\\ the\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Cuban\\ Music\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Latin\\ Jazz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ late\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ jazz\\ solos\\ played\\ over\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ rhythms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nueva\\ Trova\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ new\\ music\\ inspired\\ by\\ the\\ Cuban\\ revolution\\ \\(songs\\ about\\ contemporary\\ cultural\\ policies\\ and\\ political\\ issues\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ Cuban\\ music\\/dance\\ genre\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ often\\ mistakenly\\ called\\ rumba\\ by\\ non\\-Cubans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;See\\ below\\ under\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;Link\\ back\\ to\\ paradox\\ in\\ democratic\\ centralism\\:\\ \\ \\;all\\ participate\\ but\\ hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 57, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FC_46-_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Complete Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "caribbean", "globalization"], "text": null, "id": 152, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c33\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c31\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-right\\:\\-27pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-252pt\\;margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c32\\{height\\:1px\\;width\\:33\\%\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c8\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.5\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c34\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-right\\:\\-27pt\\}\\.c22\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c21\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c5\\{margin\\-left\\:\\-18pt\\}\\.c30\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c23\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c35\\{text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Island\\ Paradox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Population\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ are\\ two\\ main\\ focuses\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ This\\ chapter\\ attempts\\ to\\ discredit\\ the\\ popular\\ belief\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ lowest\\ rung\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ ladder\\ among\\ Hispanics\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(2\\)\\ It\\ also\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ migration\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ within\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\-\\ The\\ main\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ have\\ actually\\ had\\ the\\ fastest\\ growing\\ per\\ capita\\ income\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Hispanic\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\:\\ A\\ higher\\ participation\\ rate\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ women\\,\\ a\\ higher\\ attainment\\ of\\ education\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ only\\ objection\\ to\\ this\\ statistic\\ is\\ that\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ income\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ very\\ unequal\\ distribution\\ among\\ the\\ different\\ classes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ living\\ in\\ areas\\ such\\ as\\ California\\ and\\ Florida\\ have\\ three\\ times\\ the\\ average\\ income\\ than\\ those\\ living\\ in\\ Massachusetts\\ and\\ Pennsylvania\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ It\\ does\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ is\\ having\\ an\\ economic\\ influence\\ on\\ each\\ particular\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ and\\ other\\ times\\ it\\ is\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ current\\ trend\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ within\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ has\\ been\\ to\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ larger\\ urban\\ centers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ New\\ York\\,\\ and\\ move\\ to\\ smaller\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ largest\\ migration\\ has\\ been\\ from\\ the\\ East\\ coast\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ has\\ been\\ proven\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ tend\\ to\\ migrate\\ more\\ have\\,\\ on\\ average\\,\\ a\\ higher\\ degree\\ of\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ city\\ still\\ has\\ the\\ highest\\ population\\ or\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\,\\ however\\ the\\ growth\\ rate\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ steady\\ decline\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ trend\\ of\\ migration\\ towards\\ the\\ West\\ coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Between\\ Two\\ Worlds\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ Looks\\ Towards\\ the\\ Twenty\\-First\\ Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ chapter\\ begins\\ by\\ explaining\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ current\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ chapter\\ claims\\ that\\ improvements\\ made\\ in\\ areas\\ such\\ as\\ health\\ care\\,\\ nutrition\\,\\ and\\ education\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ back\\ seat\\ and\\ other\\ problems\\ are\\ overpowering\\ the\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Problems\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ increasing\\ unemployment\\ rate\\,\\ growing\\ crime\\ rates\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sharply\\ increasing\\ inequality\\ of\\ income\\,\\ have\\ begun\\ to\\ overshadow\\ the\\ positive\\ moves\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ made\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ chapter\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ massive\\ industrialization\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ may\\ have\\ hurt\\ its\\ inhabitants\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ helped\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Migration\\ from\\ rural\\ to\\ urban\\ settings\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ massive\\ emigration\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ hurt\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ its\\ social\\ balance\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ massive\\ industrialization\\ and\\ migration\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ still\\ maintained\\ a\\ very\\ prominent\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Socioeconomic\\ Trends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ and\\ urbanization\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ boom\\ set\\ off\\ by\\ Operation\\ Bootstrap\\ caused\\ a\\ rapid\\ growth\\ period\\ and\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ labor\\ forced\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ from\\ their\\ rural\\ home\\ into\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unemployment\\ crisis\\:\\ The\\ unemployment\\ rates\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ are\\ at\\ crisis\\ rates\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ mostly\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ recession\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ and\\ a\\ federally\\ instituted\\ minimum\\ wage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dependance\\ on\\ the\\ U\\.S\\:\\ \\ \\;This\\ has\\ actually\\ hurt\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ entirely\\ dependent\\ on\\ inflow\\ of\\ capital\\ and\\ outflow\\ of\\ exports\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ then\\ they\\ are\\ left\\ to\\ fend\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ next\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ have\\ been\\ calls\\ for\\ government\\ downsizing\\,\\ deregulation\\,\\ and\\ privatization\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ to\\ attain\\ an\\ economically\\ efficient\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possible\\ changes\\ to\\ the\\ current\\ minimum\\ wage\\ law\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ decrease\\ the\\ unemployment\\ rate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\:\\ Culture\\,\\ Politics\\,\\ and\\ Identity\\ Chs\\.2\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-When\\ Colombus\\ claimed\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ for\\ Spain\\ in\\ 1493\\,\\ the\\ island\\ was\\ inhabited\\ by\\ Taino\\ and\\ Carib\\ indians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ natives\\ resisted\\ attempts\\ by\\ the\\ Spanish\\ to\\ enslave\\ them\\,\\ and\\ an\\ organized\\ indigenous\\ uprising\\ in\\ 1511\\ was\\ put\\ down\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Brutal\\ exploitation\\ by\\ the\\ Spanish\\ colonizers\\,\\ along\\ with\\ epidemics\\ and\\ escape\\ through\\ migration\\ to\\ other\\ islands\\,\\ quicky\\ reduced\\ the\\ native\\ population\\ to\\ insignificant\\ numbers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-was\\ a\\ military\\ outpost\\ for\\ Spanish\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-developed\\ a\\ plantation\\ economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-while\\ most\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\ was\\ in\\ war\\ with\\ Spain\\ for\\ indepence\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ remained\\ outside\\ the\\ fray\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ large\\ Spanish\\ military\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-negotiated\\ for\\ political\\ rights\\ within\\ the\\ empire\\ instead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-July\\ 25\\,\\ 1898\\,\\ US\\ troops\\ fighting\\ the\\ Spanish\\-American\\ War\\ invaded\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ replaced\\ the\\ Spanish\\ flag\\ with\\ the\\ American\\ flag\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ presence\\ was\\ welcomed\\ by\\ most\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ would\\ be\\ incorporated\\ as\\ a\\ US\\ territory\\ which\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ statehood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-US\\ leaders\\ sought\\ to\\ replace\\ Spanish\\ instituions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-had\\ a\\ clear\\ agenda\\ of\\ Americanization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-After\\ 18\\ months\\ of\\ military\\ occupation\\,\\ Congress\\ enacted\\ the\\ Foraker\\ Act\\ of\\ 1900\\ instituting\\ civil\\ government\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Foraker\\ Act\\ included\\ a\\ provision\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ to\\ elect\\ a\\ resident\\ commissioner\\ to\\ represent\\ island\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ Was\\ then\\ upgraded\\ to\\ nonvoting\\ delegate\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ representatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ revamping\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ political\\ and\\ legal\\ system\\,the\\ Official\\ Languages\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\ stating\\ that\\ English\\ and\\ Spanish\\ shall\\ be\\ used\\ indiscriminately\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Bills\\ providing\\ US\\ citizenship\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ had\\ failed\\ to\\ pass\\ every\\ Congress\\ since\\ 1900\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ 1917\\ the\\ Jones\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\,\\ granting\\ US\\ citizenship\\ and\\ increased\\ self\\-government\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-did\\ not\\ resolve\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ 1940s\\ were\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ transformation\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;Operation\\ Bootstrap\\"\\;\\ sparked\\ the\\ conversion\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ economic\\ base\\ from\\ agriculture\\ to\\ industry\\;\\ \\ \\;contributing\\ to\\ economic\\ growth\\ and\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ 1947\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ were\\ granted\\ permission\\ to\\ elect\\ their\\ own\\ governor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Under\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ Luis\\ Munoz\\ Marin\\,\\ the\\ newly\\ appointed\\ education\\ commissioner\\ Mariano\\ Villaronga\\ declared\\ Spanish\\ the\\ official\\ language\\ of\\ instruction\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ 1952\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&\\#39\\;s\\ first\\ constitution\\ was\\ created\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Under\\ the\\ constitution\\,\\ Puerto\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ an\\ \\"\\;Associated\\ Free\\ State\\"\\;\\ or\\ commonwealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-first\\ law\\ passed\\ adopted\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ flag\\,\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ single\\ star\\ flag\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Munoz\\ Marin\\ noted\\ that\\ commonwealth\\ status\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ permanent\\,\\ just\\ a\\ stopover\\ to\\ either\\ statehood\\ or\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-April\\ 1991\\,\\ Spanish\\ became\\ official\\ language\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\"\\;We\\ have\\ one\\ thing\\ that\\ unifies\\ us\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ all\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ are\\ proud\\ of\\ being\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Two\\ reasons\\ for\\ such\\ devotion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-reside\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ when\\ they\\ could\\ easily\\ move\\ to\\ mainland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-active\\ in\\ island\\ politics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-independence\\ supporters\\,\\ statehood\\ supporters\\,\\ ad\\ commonwealth\\ supporters\\ all\\ show\\ great\\ pride\\ for\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-all\\ unified\\ under\\ international\\ sports\\ representation\\,\\ view\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ its\\ own\\ nation\\,\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ international\\ sports\\ world\\,\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-island\\ is\\ physically\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ closer\\ to\\ South\\ America\\ than\\ North\\ America\\,\\ historically\\ and\\ culturally\\ related\\ to\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ list\\ \\"\\;puerto\\ rican\\"\\;\\ as\\ most\\ important\\ identity\\ on\\ how\\ they\\ define\\ themselves\\ over\\ Caribbean\\,\\ Hispanic\\,\\ and\\ Latin\\ American\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-shared\\ view\\ that\\ US\\ presence\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ had\\ an\\ obvious\\ impact\\ on\\ island\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-statehood\\ supporters\\ see\\ more\\ positive\\ outcomes\\ of\\ US\\ presence\\ than\\ commonwealth\\ and\\ independence\\ supporters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Puerto\\ Ricans\\ have\\ a\\ resilient\\ identity\\.\\ Strong\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-summarization\\ of\\ previous\\ chapters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ I\\ Was\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Esmerelda\\ Santiago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basic\\ Idea\\:\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ autobiographical\\ story\\ of\\ Esmerelda\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coming\\ of\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ growing\\ up\\,\\ a\\ mixing\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ and\\ American\\ cultures\\,\\ and\\ struggling\\ to\\ find\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\ somewhere\\ between\\ the\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ spends\\ most\\ of\\ her\\ childhood\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ depths\\ of\\ poverty\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ immersed\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ experiencing\\ forces\\ of\\ American\\ influence\\ \\(ex\\.\\ watching\\ American\\ shows\\ on\\ TV\\,\\ American\\ govt\\ programs\\ on\\ the\\ island\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ in\\ her\\ teen\\ years\\,\\ she\\ moves\\ to\\ New\\ York\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\ and\\ her\\ brother\\ and\\ sisters\\ and\\ we\\ see\\ how\\ this\\ affects\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ story\\ starts\\ off\\ when\\ Negi\\ \\(Esmerelda\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nickname\\ meaning\\ little\\ black\\ one\\)\\ is\\ a\\ young\\ girl\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ poor\\ country\\ town\\ of\\ Mancun\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ lives\\ with\\ her\\ Mami\\ and\\ Papi\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ brothers\\ and\\ sisters\\ \\(she\\ has\\ 7\\ total\\ in\\ the\\ end\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ parents\\ are\\ not\\ married\\ and\\ her\\ dad\\ often\\ goes\\ away\\ and\\ has\\ affairs\\ with\\ other\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ parents\\ fight\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ the\\ mom\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ takes\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\ on\\ her\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Negi\\,\\ being\\ the\\ oldest\\,\\ is\\ given\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ responsibility\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ to\\ help\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ younger\\ kids\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ book\\ follows\\ their\\ move\\ through\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ other\\ towns\\ and\\ documents\\ her\\ different\\ experiences\\ in\\ each\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ whenever\\ she\\ moves\\ to\\ another\\ town\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ nicer\\ place\\,\\ she\\ always\\ misses\\ her\\ hometown\\ of\\ Mancun\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ her\\ brothers\\ gets\\ hurt\\ in\\ an\\ accident\\ on\\ a\\ bicycle\\ and\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ for\\ care\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mom\\ begins\\ making\\ trips\\ out\\ there\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ doctors\\ and\\ eventually\\ she\\ decides\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ other\\ children\\ out\\ there\\ to\\ live\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ leave\\ the\\ father\\ behind\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ when\\ they\\ make\\ their\\ final\\ move\\ to\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;Negi\\ resents\\ the\\ move\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ a\\ poor\\ immigrant\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ know\\ English\\,\\ she\\ struggles\\ to\\ find\\ her\\ identity\\ and\\ feels\\ out\\ of\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ she\\ overcomes\\ these\\ obstacles\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ and\\ ends\\ up\\ getting\\ into\\ a\\ top\\ performing\\ arts\\ school\\ and\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ graduate\\ from\\ Harvard\\ and\\ become\\ a\\ famous\\ writer\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ even\\ with\\ all\\ this\\ success\\ in\\ America\\,\\ she\\ still\\ is\\ proud\\ of\\ her\\ roots\\ and\\ misses\\ her\\ life\\ on\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Themes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ When\\ Negi\\ moves\\ she\\ struggles\\ to\\ find\\ where\\ she\\ fits\\ in\\ \\(see\\ quotations\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ sharp\\ distinctions\\ at\\ her\\ first\\ school\\ in\\ NY\\ between\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ born\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ and\\ US\\ born\\.\\ She\\ wants\\ to\\ learn\\ English\\ to\\ fit\\ in\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ but\\ she\\ also\\ feels\\ like\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ traitor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Negi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ is\\ poor\\ throughout\\ this\\ book\\ and\\ the\\ mother\\ and\\ father\\ struggle\\ to\\ make\\ ends\\ meet\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ metal\\ shack\\ w\\/o\\ running\\ water\\ in\\ Mancun\\,\\ and\\ in\\ another\\ town\\ they\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ house\\ that\\ floated\\ in\\ a\\ river\\ of\\ sewage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prof\\.\\ Patterson\\,\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ connected\\ this\\ book\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;culture\\ of\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(poor\\ people\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\ have\\ common\\ adaptations\\ to\\ common\\ problems\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Jibaro\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ A\\ jibaro\\ is\\ a\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ countryman\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Mancun\\,\\ Negi\\ heard\\ folk\\ songs\\ romanticizing\\ the\\ jibaro\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ songs\\ celebrated\\ the\\ hardships\\ and\\ joys\\ of\\ the\\ simple\\ jibaro\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Negi\\ really\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ jibaro\\,\\ but\\ her\\ mother\\ told\\ her\\ that\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ something\\ she\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ and\\ to\\ call\\ someone\\ one\\ was\\ an\\ insult\\.\\ \\ \\;Negi\\ later\\ found\\ out\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ cities\\,\\ jibaro\\ had\\ the\\ negative\\ connotations\\ of\\ being\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ rowdy\\,\\ has\\ bad\\ manners\\ and\\ is\\ unsophisticated\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ major\\ contradiction\\ \\(see\\ quotations\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Family\\ and\\ community\\ are\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ culture\\.\\ In\\ this\\ book\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ much\\ beyond\\ family\\ for\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Church\\ was\\ not\\ very\\ significant\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\ so\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ get\\ through\\ the\\ hard\\ times\\ was\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ Negi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mom\\ had\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ others\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ help\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\ or\\ give\\ them\\ a\\ place\\ to\\ stay\\ when\\ they\\ moved\\ from\\ town\\ to\\ town\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ The\\ mother\\ breaks\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ woman\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ of\\ the\\ women\\ in\\ her\\ town\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ or\\ cleaned\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ houses\\,\\ but\\ she\\ went\\ out\\ and\\ worked\\ at\\ a\\ factory\\,\\ which\\ brought\\ on\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ criticism\\ from\\ the\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mother\\ exhibits\\ strength\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ to\\ care\\ for\\ the\\ children\\ without\\ help\\ from\\ the\\ dad\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ work\\ to\\ make\\ money\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quotations\\:\\ \\ \\;Here\\ are\\ some\\ quotations\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ helpful\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;My\\ own\\ grandparents\\,\\ whom\\ I\\ was\\ to\\ respect\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ love\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ jibaros\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ I\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ one\\,\\ nor\\ was\\ I\\ to\\ call\\ anyone\\ a\\ jibaro\\,\\ lest\\ they\\ be\\ offended\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ at\\ the\\ tender\\ age\\ when\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yet\\ know\\ my\\ real\\ name\\,\\ I\\ was\\ puzzled\\ by\\ the\\ hypocrisy\\ of\\ celebrating\\ a\\ people\\ everyone\\ looked\\ down\\ on\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Page\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Negi\\ said\\ when\\ they\\ moved\\ into\\ the\\ city\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ Santurce\\ I\\ had\\ become\\ what\\ I\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ in\\ Mancun\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Santurce\\ a\\ jibara\\ was\\ something\\ no\\ one\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Page\\ 39\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-As\\ Negi\\ and\\ her\\ mother\\ are\\ finally\\ leaving\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ for\\ New\\ York\\ she\\ writes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Neither\\ one\\ of\\ us\\ could\\ have\\ known\\ what\\ lay\\ ahead\\&hellip\\;\\ For\\ me\\,\\ the\\ person\\ I\\ was\\ becoming\\ when\\ we\\ left\\ was\\ erased\\,\\ and\\ another\\ one\\ was\\ created\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\jibara\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ longed\\ for\\ the\\ green\\ quiet\\ of\\ a\\ tropical\\ afternoon\\ was\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ hybrid\\ who\\ would\\ never\\ forgive\\ the\\ uprooting\\&rdquo\\;\\ page\\ 209\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ brings\\ in\\ this\\ theme\\ of\\ identity\\.\\ It\\ talks\\ about\\ her\\ transition\\ from\\ being\\ a\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ to\\ becoming\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ both\\ cultures\\ and\\ it\\ shows\\ her\\ resistance\\ to\\ this\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ idea\\ as\\ the\\ title\\&hellip\\;\\ When\\ I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Puerto\\ Rican\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\;This\\ quotation\\ comes\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ her\\ prologue\\ where\\ she\\ remembers\\ learning\\ how\\ to\\ eat\\ a\\ guava\\ as\\ a\\ child\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ had\\ my\\ last\\ guava\\ the\\ day\\ we\\ left\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&hellip\\;\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ I\\ stand\\ before\\ a\\ stack\\ of\\ dark\\ green\\ guavas\\,\\ each\\ perfectly\\ round\\ and\\ hard\\,\\ each\\ \\$1\\.59\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ one\\ in\\ my\\ hand\\ is\\ tempting\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ smells\\ faintly\\ of\\ late\\ summer\\ afternoons\\ and\\ hopscotch\\ under\\ the\\ mango\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ is\\ autumn\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ guava\\ joins\\ its\\ sisters\\ under\\ the\\ harsh\\ fluorescent\\ lights\\ of\\ the\\ exotic\\ fruit\\ display\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ push\\ my\\ cart\\ away\\,\\ toward\\ the\\ apples\\ and\\ pears\\ of\\ my\\ adulthood\\,\\ their\\ nearly\\ seedless\\ ripeness\\ predictable\\ and\\ bittersweet\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Same\\ idea\\ here\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ guavas\\ bring\\ back\\ fond\\ memories\\ of\\ her\\ childhood\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ has\\ changed\\ since\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grown\\ up\\ and\\ moved\\ away\\ and\\ here\\ again\\ we\\ can\\ sense\\ her\\ regret\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inside\\ the\\ Revolution\\:\\ Everyday\\ Life\\ in\\ Socialist\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Limones\\,\\ Palmera\\,\\ Cuba\\:\\ The\\ Field\\ and\\ the\\ Fieldwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-3\\,000\\ inhabitants\\,\\ most\\ families\\ have\\ pigs\\,\\ hens\\,\\ and\\ maybe\\ a\\ goat\\.\\ \\ \\;Houses\\ have\\ two\\ or\\ three\\ bedrooms\\,\\ living\\ room\\,\\ and\\ small\\ kitchen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ shortage\\ of\\ housing\\,\\ most\\ people\\ live\\ very\\ crowded\\ together\\ in\\ small\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Within\\ a\\ socialist\\ system\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ private\\ endeavors\\ to\\ make\\ demand\\ equal\\ to\\ supply\\;\\ this\\ perpetuates\\ the\\ living\\ space\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ planned\\ economy\\ and\\ the\\ scarcity\\ of\\ goods\\ made\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ items\\ erratic\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;shops\\ or\\ restaurants\\ could\\ not\\ order\\ what\\ they\\ needed\\ but\\ had\\ to\\ wait\\ for\\ goods\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ them\\ from\\ other\\ levels\\ of\\ the\\ commercial\\ organization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\-p\\.11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Children\\ in\\ Cuba\\ are\\ incorporated\\ in\\ the\\ Pioneer\\ movement\\ when\\ they\\ enter\\ school\\ at\\ six\\ years\\ old\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ all\\ wear\\ uniforms\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ high\\ school\\ graduate\\ to\\ Pioneros\\ Jose\\ Marti\\ and\\ wear\\ red\\ scarves\\ with\\ yellow\\ trousers\\ or\\ skirts\\ and\\ white\\ shirts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Overall\\ Rosendahl\\ describes\\ Limones\\ as\\ a\\ lively\\,\\ bustling\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Palmera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ small\\ and\\ rather\\ poor\\ municipality\\ w\\/\\ 30\\,000\\ inhabitants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Many\\ people\\ consider\\ the\\ municipality\\ a\\ dirty\\ place\\ using\\ derogatory\\ terms\\ for\\ its\\ inhabitants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Palmerans\\ harbor\\ all\\ shades\\ of\\ skin\\ color\\ from\\ white\\ to\\ black\\ including\\ all\\ different\\ facial\\ features\\;\\ however\\,\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ blacks\\ people\\ here\\ than\\ anywhere\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Agriculture\\,\\ cattle\\ raising\\,\\ and\\ forestry\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ work\\ activities\\ on\\ private\\ farms\\ or\\ on\\ cooperatives\\ or\\ state\\ farms\\.\\ \\ \\;47\\%\\ of\\ workforce\\ are\\ employed\\ by\\ these\\ activities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cooperative\\ defined\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;organized\\ by\\ private\\ farmers\\ that\\ sell\\ their\\ produce\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ have\\ advantages\\ in\\ getting\\ loans\\ to\\ buy\\ new\\ equipment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Services\\-\\ working\\ in\\ shops\\,\\ restaurants\\,\\ coffee\\ shops\\ provide\\ a\\ significant\\ number\\ of\\ jobs\\;\\ women\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ work\\ more\\ in\\ education\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-No\\ high\\ schools\\ in\\ Palmera\\ so\\ students\\ travel\\ to\\ boarding\\ schools\\ in\\ other\\ provinces\\ to\\ study\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ people\\ simply\\ do\\ not\\ work\\ in\\ Palmera\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ advanced\\ educations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Rosendahl\\ has\\ a\\ particular\\ interest\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;ideology\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ pursued\\ that\\ in\\ Palmera\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ do\\ everything\\ save\\ attend\\ meetings\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ worked\\ hard\\ in\\ the\\ fileds\\ literally\\ planting\\ coffee\\ bushes\\;\\ after\\ people\\ saw\\ her\\ do\\ this\\ they\\ liked\\ her\\ more\\ and\\ opened\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ her\\ studies\\ she\\ found\\ a\\ few\\ notable\\ characteristics\\ about\\ he\\ society\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ people\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\ revolutionaries\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ having\\ totally\\ internalized\\ the\\ socialist\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-When\\ asked\\ about\\ censorship\\,\\ most\\ answer\\ by\\ affirming\\ their\\ freedom\\ and\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ say\\ whatever\\ they\\ want\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ most\\ shied\\ away\\ from\\ voicing\\ opinions\\ or\\ ideas\\ about\\ contemporary\\ society\\ in\\ interviews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Generally\\ society\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ open\\ than\\ she\\ expected\\ and\\ she\\ herself\\ tried\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ open\\-minded\\ even\\ though\\ she\\ admits\\ she\\ might\\ have\\ harbored\\ expectations\\ such\\ as\\ repression\\,\\ secret\\ police\\,\\ control\\,\\ and\\ censorship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ To\\ Give\\ and\\ Take\\:\\ Redistribution\\ and\\ Reciprocity\\ in\\ the\\ Household\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cuban\\ economy\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ redistribution\\ and\\ planning\\ for\\ both\\ the\\ short\\ and\\ long\\ terms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-All\\ are\\ employed\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ or\\ state\\ organization\\,\\ and\\ farmers\\ only\\ sell\\ to\\ the\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rationing\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\-Guarantees\\ every\\ citizen\\ basic\\ goods\\ in\\ equal\\ amounts\\ at\\ low\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ person\\ has\\ two\\ libretas\\ \\(booklets\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\ for\\ food\\,\\ 1\\ for\\ clothes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-All\\ receive\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ a\\ loaf\\ of\\ bread\\ each\\ day\\,\\ and\\ every\\ second\\ week\\ one\\ receives\\ one\\-half\\ pound\\ of\\ beef\\ at\\ low\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Most\\ buy\\ all\\ the\\ items\\ in\\ the\\ libreta\\ and\\ sell\\ those\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\;\\ bartering\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Household\\ products\\ can\\ be\\ bought\\ once\\ a\\ year\\-sheets\\,\\ work\\ shoes\\,\\ dress\\ shoes\\,\\ cloth\\ \\,\\ towels\\,\\ and\\ underpants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overarching\\ theme\\ and\\ notion\\ from\\ the\\ people\\ is\\ Scarcity\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ people\\ say\\ goods\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ in\\ sufficient\\ quantities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\ Households\\ and\\ their\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Single\\-Person\\ Household\\-\\ saves\\ 45\\ pesos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\-Person\\ Household\\-\\ saves\\ 40\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\She\\ also\\ analyzes\\ two\\ three\\ person\\ households\\,\\ one\\ with\\ mother\\,\\ father\\,\\ and\\ one\\ child\\.\\ The\\ other\\ with\\ mother\\ and\\ two\\ children\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-She\\ finds\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ have\\ more\\ money\\ that\\ they\\ spend\\,\\ this\\ is\\ in\\ part\\ why\\ \\&ldquo\\;dissatisfaction\\ with\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ available\\ goods\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ complaint\\ that\\ people\\ in\\ Palmera\\ express\\ about\\ their\\ life\\ situations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Generally\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ most\\ Cubans\\ want\\ to\\ eat\\ and\\ dress\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Planned\\ economy\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ socialist\\ ideology\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ advanced\\ by\\ Che\\ Guevara\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Good\\ revolutionaries\\ should\\ not\\ need\\ economic\\ incentives\\ to\\ work\\ productively\\ for\\ their\\ society\\,\\ the\\ mere\\ satisfaction\\ of\\ doing\\ a\\ good\\ job\\ for\\ the\\ revolution\\ should\\ be\\ enough\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Rosendahl\\ finds\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ evident\\ that\\ this\\ did\\ not\\ work\\ very\\ well\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ rewards\\,\\ so\\ called\\ estimulos\\ \\(stimulis\\)\\ were\\ introduced\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Cubans\\ have\\ ques\\ \\(lines\\)\\ everywhere\\,\\ this\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ scarcity\\.\\ \\ \\;Rosendahl\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ ques\\ are\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ conversation\\,\\ jokes\\,\\ and\\ hanging\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ who\\ work\\ get\\ mad\\ because\\ they\\ always\\ miss\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ items\\ because\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ work\\ everything\\ is\\ all\\ sold\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Black\\ markets\\ are\\ prevalent\\ especially\\ for\\ clothes\\,\\ often\\ occurs\\ in\\ bigger\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ also\\ steal\\ clothes\\ from\\ work\\ such\\ as\\ light\\ bulbs\\,\\ paper\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Reciprocity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ act\\ of\\ ritual\\ gift\\ giving\\ and\\ good\\/services\\ exchanged\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ become\\ very\\ important\\ in\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;Rosendahl\\ finds\\ that\\ repayment\\ in\\ extremely\\ important\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ also\\ finds\\ that\\ you\\ must\\ have\\ connections\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ scarce\\ items\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ must\\ be\\ nice\\ and\\ generous\\ and\\ participate\\ in\\ Reciprocity\\ to\\ survive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lastly\\,\\ Rosendahl\\ finds\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ culture\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ trend\\ of\\ giving\\ and\\ receiving\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;With\\ friends\\,\\ reciprocity\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ relationship\\ at\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\.\\ 50\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Men\\ and\\ Women\\ in\\ Palmera\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\early\\ in\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ the\\ FMC\\ \\(Federacion\\ de\\ Mujeres\\ Cubanas\\)\\ was\\ formed\\ to\\ spread\\ the\\ ideal\\ of\\ penal\\ igualdad\\ \\(total\\ equality\\)\\.\\ this\\ has\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ reality\\ the\\ way\\ planners\\ hoped\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ have\\ increased\\ in\\ the\\ workforce\\,\\ going\\ from\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ women\\ working\\ in\\ 1953\\ to\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ workforce\\ being\\ female\\ today\\.\\ this\\ has\\ not\\ redistributed\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ burdens\\,\\ instead\\ it\\ has\\ increased\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ roles\\ are\\ en\\ la\\ casa\\,\\ and\\ remain\\ mother\\,\\ wife\\/lover\\,\\ housekeeper\\,\\ and\\ now\\ with\\ the\\ additional\\ worker\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-\\ men\\ are\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ en\\ la\\ calle\\,\\ which\\ is\\ balancing\\ respectability\\ \\(provider\\,\\ controls\\ family\\,\\ discretion\\)\\ and\\ reputation\\ \\(virile\\,\\ womanizer\\)\\.\\ men\\ continue\\ to\\ refuse\\ largely\\ to\\ share\\ household\\ burdens\\ or\\ responsibility\\ for\\ childcare\\,\\ despite\\ insistence\\ from\\ the\\ FMC\\ and\\ the\\ Party\\ that\\ this\\ should\\ be\\ so\\.\\ women\\ accept\\ this\\ fact\\ with\\ some\\ resignation\\,\\ saying\\ \\"\\;it\\ will\\ be\\ generations\\ until\\ that\\ happens\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\womanizing\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ a\\ man\\ must\\ womanize\\ to\\ assert\\ his\\ hombria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(this\\ is\\ a\\ tradition\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ seems\\ to\\ think\\ will\\ change\\)\\.\\ eroticism\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ever\\-present\\ \\-\\ for\\ example\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ a\\ woman\\ cannot\\ be\\ alone\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\without\\ rumors\\ starting\\.\\ mothers\\ encourage\\ boys\\ aroun\\ 11\\ or\\ 12yo\\ to\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\several\\ girlfriends\\,\\ lest\\ people\\ think\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ pajaro\\ \\(homosexual\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ this\\ has\\ bad\\ consequences\\.\\ almost\\ all\\ divorces\\ are\\ the\\ woman\\ throwing\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ man\\ for\\ his\\ infidelity\\.\\ the\\ Party\\ tries\\ to\\ encourage\\ common\\-law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marriages\\ and\\ discourage\\ teenage\\ pregnancy\\,\\ but\\ it\\ remains\\ difficult\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ these\\ ideas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\casual\\ relationships\\ are\\ common\\ and\\ change\\ frequently\\.\\ abortions\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\common\\.\\ Mother\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Day\\ is\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SUMMARY\\:\\ women\\ now\\ work\\ far\\ more\\.\\ men\\ refuse\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ machismo\\ way\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\despite\\ insistence\\ from\\ the\\ PCC\\ in\\ penal\\ igualdad\\ and\\ socialist\\ upbringing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ children\\.\\ still\\,\\ women\\ have\\ improved\\ much\\ financially\\ and\\ politically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;the\\ male\\ gender\\ ideal\\,\\ embraced\\ by\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ is\\ an\\ integral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\component\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ revolutionary\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ soul\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chapter\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ of\\ the\\ province\\ of\\ Palmera\\ who\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ give\\ awards\\ to\\ people\\ for\\ completing\\ a\\ bridge\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ themes\\ about\\ the\\ virtues\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ and\\ characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ leader\\ in\\ that\\ revolution\\ emerge\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Workers\\ not\\ rewarded\\ monetarily\\ but\\ praised\\ for\\ their\\ hard\\ work\\ in\\ building\\ the\\ country\\,\\ the\\ revolution\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ moral\\ incentive\\ rather\\ than\\ material\\ incentive\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Workers\\ proud\\ about\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ This\\ idea\\ of\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ involvement\\ in\\ building\\ the\\ revolution\\ emphasized\\ by\\ child\\ who\\ was\\ also\\ awarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ readily\\ interacted\\ with\\ them\\ which\\ portrays\\ idea\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ working\\ together\\ to\\ build\\ the\\ socialist\\ Cuba\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ relatively\\ casual\\ dressing\\ makes\\ him\\ identify\\ with\\ workers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\Brings\\ us\\ to\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\democratic\\ centralism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ the\\ system\\ prevailing\\ in\\ Cuba\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ extols\\ virtues\\ of\\ manliness\\ a\\ characteristic\\ of\\ leadership\\ in\\ the\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democratic\\ Centralism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Contradictory\\ concept\\ because\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ \\&ldquo\\;democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ need\\ and\\ expectation\\ for\\ all\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\;\\ all\\ has\\ to\\ play\\ his\\ role\\ in\\ building\\ revolution\\;\\ equality\\ and\\ participation\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ there\\ is\\ centralization\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ a\\ strict\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ government\\ and\\ in\\ all\\ organizations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\ despite\\ this\\ inequality\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ hierarchy\\,\\ generally\\ accepted\\ by\\ all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Centralism\\ and\\ Hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Although\\ in\\ other\\ circumstances\\ hierarchy\\ is\\ equated\\ with\\ inequality\\ and\\ seen\\ as\\ negative\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ class\\ differences\\ in\\ other\\ societies\\,\\ the\\ Party\\ hierarchy\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ both\\ just\\ and\\ necessary\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reflects\\ \\&ldquo\\;idea\\ of\\ trade\\-union\\ consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ belief\\ that\\ members\\ of\\ masses\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ only\\ their\\ immediate\\ interests\\ and\\ have\\ no\\ wider\\ class\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\ the\\ elite\\ party\\ has\\ to\\ lead\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ formulate\\ their\\ idealogical\\ goals\\,\\ always\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\-party\\ justified\\ by\\ idea\\ that\\ ruling\\ party\\ governs\\ people\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ individual\\ should\\ never\\ reject\\ or\\ question\\ the\\ system\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ failures\\ but\\ should\\ feel\\ strengthened\\ by\\ his\\/her\\ efforts\\ to\\ improve\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\System\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ favors\\ hierarchy\\:\\ \\Only\\ those\\ higher\\ up\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ necessary\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strict\\ order\\ of\\ command\\ had\\ advantage\\ of\\ efficiency\\ an\\ speed\\ in\\ the\\ execution\\ of\\ many\\ practical\\ matters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ disadvantage\\ of\\ extreme\\ bureaucracy\\ especially\\ for\\ unpleasant\\ decisions\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ pushed\\ higher\\ in\\ the\\ hierarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;Realizing\\ ones\\ initiatives\\ difficult\\ because\\ may\\ be\\ revoked\\ by\\ someone\\ higher\\ up\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Gender\\ Issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Expectations\\ and\\ characteristics\\ of\\ leadership\\ are\\ traditionally\\ male\\:\\ strength\\,\\ audacity\\,\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ life\\,\\ being\\ active\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ female\\ leaders\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ ideals\\ as\\ its\\ male\\ leaders\\ but\\ few\\ expect\\ women\\ to\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ these\\ ideals\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(85\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ women\\ in\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ no\\ direct\\ discrimination\\,\\ idea\\ that\\ by\\ entering\\ politics\\,\\ woman\\ acquires\\ manly\\ attributes\\;\\ becomes\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ fewer\\ channels\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ attain\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ few\\ women\\ heroes\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Few\\ instances\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ female\\ heroes\\,\\ they\\ are\\ seen\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ their\\ link\\ to\\ a\\ male\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;E\\.g\\.\\ Vilma\\ Espin\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ wife\\ of\\ Raul\\ Castro\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ issues\\ on\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ good\\ revolutionary\\ and\\ a\\ good\\ leader\\ is\\ also\\ what\\ Cuban\\ people\\ describe\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;typical\\ Cuban\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ a\\ leader\\ beyond\\ a\\ merely\\ political\\ one\\:\\ \\ideological\\:\\ preserving\\ socialist\\ ideology\\pedagogical\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;education\\ of\\ the\\ workers\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ political\\ consciousness\\,\\ the\\ teaching\\ of\\ communist\\ values\\ to\\ new\\ generations\\ and\\ the\\ struggle\\ against\\ weak\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ the\\ socialist\\ ideology\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ Members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Leaders\\ and\\ militantes\\ have\\ an\\ extremely\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ obligations\\,\\ responsibility\\ and\\ power\\ since\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ making\\ the\\ decisions\\ and\\ defining\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ ways\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ thinking\\ concerning\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ Cuban\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Militante\\ by\\ selection\\.\\ \\ \\;Must\\ portray\\ ideals\\ of\\ revolution\\:\\ good\\,\\ loyal\\ worker\\ and\\ neighbour\\ and\\ decent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aspirante\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ One\\ in\\ the\\ trial\\ period\\ to\\ be\\ selected\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ militante\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obligations\\/Responsibilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Pedagogical\\ role\\;\\ spreading\\ and\\ defending\\ ideas\\ of\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behave\\ in\\ an\\ exemplary\\ manner\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ scandals\\.\\ \\ \\;Story\\ of\\ Juana\\ who\\ had\\ marital\\ issues\\.\\\\&ldquo\\;since\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ few\\ women\\ in\\ politics\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ behaving\\ impeccably\\ is\\ therefore\\ especially\\ important\\.\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ women\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ criticized\\ than\\ men\\ when\\ thy\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ scandal\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(92\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ ideal\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ cases\\ of\\ contravention\\ and\\ reactions\\ these\\ flaws\\ are\\ judged\\ not\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\ program\\ or\\ socialist\\ ideology\\ but\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ common\\ cultural\\ \\&ldquo\\;folk\\ models\\&rdquo\\;\\ too\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Access\\ to\\ information\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ this\\ comes\\ responsibility\\ of\\ secrecy\\ where\\ necessary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Socialist\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Cuba\\ heading\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;socialist\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;incomparably\\ superior\\ to\\ bourgeois\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Programa\\ del\\ PCC\\ 1987\\:\\ 65\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ feature\\ of\\ Cuban\\ democracy\\ is\\ the\\ active\\ participation\\ of\\ all\\ citizens\\ in\\ social\\ matters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Avenues\\ where\\ Cubans\\ can\\ influence\\ politics\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elections\\ to\\ the\\ Poder\\ Popular\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Voting\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ participation\\ and\\ so\\ encouraged\\ by\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Like\\ participation\\ in\\ general\\,\\ not\\ just\\ something\\ one\\ can\\ do\\ when\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ but\\ something\\ one\\ needs\\ to\\ do\\)\\.\\ Usually\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ voter\\ turnout\\.\\ All\\ candidates\\ screened\\ by\\ party\\ to\\ eliminate\\ critics\\ of\\ system\\ although\\ non\\-Party\\ members\\ may\\ also\\ be\\ elected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attending\\ the\\ biyearly\\ \\&ldquo\\;rendicion\\ de\\ cuenta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Here\\ they\\ meet\\ with\\ the\\ delegates\\ representing\\ their\\ constituency\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ constituency\\ is\\ a\\ sub\\-division\\ of\\ the\\ municipality\\.\\ \\ \\;Chance\\ to\\ present\\ complaints\\ suggestions\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Formal\\ complaints\\ often\\ concern\\ lack\\ of\\ consumer\\ goods\\ in\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Relationship\\ between\\ the\\ delegates\\ and\\ constituents\\ that\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\equality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ very\\ open\\.\\ Ability\\ to\\ resolve\\ complaints\\ important\\ for\\ delegate\\ in\\ maintaining\\ office\\.0\\Rosendahl\\ sees\\ this\\ meeting\\ as\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ formality\\ for\\ constituencies\\ where\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ leaders\\ and\\ cadres\\ lived\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ alternate\\ ways\\ for\\ solving\\ local\\ problems\\.\\ \\ \\;Remember\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ high\\ officials\\ are\\ generally\\ highly\\ accessible\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ delegates\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;despacho\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ are\\ like\\ office\\ hours\\.\\ \\ \\;Where\\ such\\ avenues\\ absent\\ people\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ heavily\\ dependent\\ on\\ delegate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Slogan\\ of\\ party\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Never\\ above\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ always\\ with\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ term\\ is\\ seldom\\ used\\ singularly\\ but\\ is\\ qualified\\ in\\ various\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Equality\\&hellip\\;does\\ not\\ connote\\ similarity\\,\\ as\\ it\\ does\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ Sweden\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ it\\ means\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ for\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Rosendahl\\ 100\\)\\.\\This\\ idea\\ of\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ has\\ been\\ realised\\ in\\ medicine\\;\\ education\\;\\ right\\ and\\ duty\\ for\\ everyone\\ to\\ work\\;\\ rationing\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;secretary\\ of\\ Palmera\\,\\ goal\\ is\\ just\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Equality\\ is\\ unreachable\\ goal\\ and\\ differences\\ must\\ exist\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ give\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ society\\ should\\ be\\ rewarded\\ and\\ this\\ builds\\ on\\ the\\ supposition\\ that\\ Cuba\\ has\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ communist\\ state\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ promote\\ idea\\,\\ leaders\\ dress\\ simply\\.\\ \\ \\;Everyone\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;companero\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;companera\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\ \\;However\\,\\ with\\ equality\\ comes\\ respect\\/courtesy\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ high\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ leader\\ ideally\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ advantages\\ from\\ his\\ post\\ but\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ responsibility\\&hellip\\;Their\\ greatest\\ privilege\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ obtain\\ goods\\ and\\ information\\ much\\ easier\\ than\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santeria\\ From\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cuba\\:\\ Santeria\\ \\(1870\\-1959\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cuba\\ began\\ to\\ base\\ its\\ entire\\ agricultural\\ industry\\ on\\ sugar\\,\\ which\\ meant\\ that\\ it\\ had\\ to\\ import\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ supplies\\.\\ \\ \\;Racism\\ became\\ prominent\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ especially\\ after\\ independence\\.\\ \\ \\;Afro\\-Cubans\\ felt\\ they\\ were\\ underrepresented\\ in\\ government\\ and\\ public\\ administration\\,\\ which\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ Negro\\ revolt\\ in\\ May\\ 1912\\.\\ \\ \\;Out\\ of\\ this\\ three\\ contrasting\\ views\\ towards\\ the\\ African\\ religion\\ emerged\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ an\\ anti\\-Africanist\\ attitude\\ \\(2\\)\\ One\\ promoting\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ spiritism\\ and\\ the\\ blending\\ of\\ African\\ religions\\ \\(3\\)\\ Some\\ Cuban\\ intellectuals\\ thought\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ African\\ religions\\ as\\ sources\\ of\\ inspiration\\ and\\ national\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Suppression\\ of\\ the\\ Cabildos\\:\\ \\ \\;Because\\ of\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ imports\\ from\\ Africa\\ the\\ cabildos\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ start\\ accepting\\ Cuban\\ born\\ members\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ governments\\ began\\ to\\ watch\\ over\\ the\\ cabildos\\,\\ they\\ began\\ to\\ lose\\ their\\ original\\ purposes\\ and\\ instead\\ of\\ maintaining\\ religious\\ and\\ social\\ ties\\ they\\ became\\ more\\ like\\ social\\ clubs\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ the\\ government\\ took\\ the\\ last\\ step\\ towards\\ abolishing\\ them\\ and\\ forbade\\ them\\ from\\ meeting\\ and\\ demonstrating\\ their\\ religions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Espiritismo\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ is\\ a\\ variant\\ of\\ spiritism\\ founded\\ in\\ France\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ Cubans\\ sought\\ spiritualism\\ as\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\,\\ they\\ thought\\ the\\ Church\\ was\\ just\\ another\\ way\\ to\\ control\\ them\\ so\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ break\\ away\\ from\\ Spain\\ they\\ broke\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ adopted\\ Espiritismo\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ aspects\\ of\\ Espiritismo\\ were\\ not\\ absorbed\\ into\\ Santeria\\ because\\ they\\ disagreed\\ with\\ the\\ spiritual\\ aspect\\ of\\ each\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ an\\ aspect\\ that\\ did\\ go\\ directly\\ into\\ Santeria\\ was\\ the\\ healing\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Afro\\-Cubanism\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ movement\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cubans\\ began\\ to\\ write\\ and\\ paint\\ and\\ basically\\ become\\ more\\ cultural\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ these\\ Cubans\\ became\\ more\\ enlightened\\ their\\ focus\\ turned\\ to\\ religion\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ movement\\ created\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ Santeria\\ religion\\ through\\ the\\ literary\\ pieces\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Santeria\\ began\\ to\\ spread\\ from\\ belonging\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cubans\\ to\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ white\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ could\\ not\\ find\\ fulfillment\\ through\\ work\\ and\\ family\\ life\\ could\\ turn\\ to\\ Santeria\\.\\ \\ \\;Santeros\\ supported\\ the\\ revolution\\ and\\ sought\\ to\\ overthrow\\ Batista\\,\\ they\\ felt\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ their\\ cultural\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ revolution\\ went\\ forth\\ Castro\\ began\\ to\\ shut\\ churches\\ down\\ and\\ suppress\\ religious\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Santeria\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Santeria\\ actually\\ became\\ more\\ popular\\ after\\ many\\ Cubans\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ because\\ they\\ used\\ the\\ religion\\ as\\ a\\ tie\\ to\\ their\\ native\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Two\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ Santeria\\ became\\ to\\ emerge\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ more\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ Espiritismo\\ religion\\ than\\ the\\ Santeria\\ on\\ the\\ island\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ forms\\ of\\ Santerismo\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ emerging\\ practises\\ were\\ frowned\\ upon\\ by\\ both\\ pure\\ forms\\ of\\ Espiritismo\\ and\\ Santeria\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ the\\ two\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Voodoo\\ became\\ another\\ branch\\ of\\ Santeria\\ practiced\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ race\\ related\\ religion\\ and\\ only\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ \\(or\\ Afro\\-American\\)\\ individuals\\ could\\ join\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ difference\\ between\\ Voodoo\\ and\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ Santeria\\ is\\ that\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Voodoo\\ religion\\ were\\ very\\ involved\\ politically\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ practice\\ of\\ Santeria\\ later\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ lowest\\,\\ and\\ most\\ disgraceful\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eastern\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Islands\\ And\\ People\\:\\ The\\ Caribbean\\ Crucible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\topography\\ varies\\ greatly\\ among\\ islands\\,\\ although\\ one\\ way\\ to\\ draw\\ distinctions\\ is\\ b\\/w\\ the\\ Leewards\\ and\\ Windwards\\ \\(wind\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hurricanes\\ are\\ unpredictable\\ and\\ destructive\\,\\ growing\\ concern\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ becoming\\ more\\ frequent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\ was\\ initially\\ settled\\ by\\ Arawaks\\ and\\ Caribs\\,\\ who\\ migrated\\ from\\ the\\ mainland\\ around\\ 4500B\\.\\ European\\ countries\\ colonized\\ \\(mostly\\ Britain\\ and\\ France\\)\\ in\\ the\\ 1500s\\,\\ and\\ their\\ influence\\ is\\ still\\ felt\\ today\\.\\ Slave\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;population\\ demographics\\ shift\\ greatly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\History\\ And\\ Politics\\:\\ Lost\\ Empires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spain\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ European\\ nation\\ to\\ arrive\\,\\ but\\ abandoned\\ the\\ eastern\\ islands\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ Cuba\\ and\\ hispaniola\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;British\\ and\\ French\\ conflicts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disputes\\ b\\/w\\ British\\ and\\ French\\ arose\\ mostly\\ from\\ Sugar\\,\\ but\\ also\\ for\\ ports\\ of\\ trade\\ and\\ military\\ installments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ was\\ marked\\ by\\ slave\\ revolts\\,\\ partly\\ inspired\\ by\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\ The\\ fear\\ of\\ violent\\ rebellions\\ added\\ to\\ economic\\ and\\ humanitarian\\ reasons\\ for\\ the\\ abolishment\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slow\\ decline\\ of\\ plantation\\ culture\\/economy\\ led\\ to\\ greater\\ democracy\\ and\\ economic\\ freedom\\ for\\ the\\ islands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ WWII\\,\\ islands\\ capable\\ of\\ choosing\\ their\\ own\\ fate\\,\\ very\\ few\\ choose\\ independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cuban\\ revolution\\ of\\ 1959\\ was\\ followed\\ by\\ many\\ other\\ violent\\ uprisings\\ against\\ dictatorships\\ in\\ the\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\.\\ Subsequent\\ changes\\ in\\ political\\ power\\ have\\ drawn\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Economy\\:\\ After\\ The\\ Plantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\very\\ few\\ natural\\ resources\\ leave\\ islands\\ with\\ few\\ economic\\ options\\,\\ mostly\\ tourism\\ and\\ bananas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;open\\ economies\\ that\\ are\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ commodity\\ price\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sugar\\ industry\\ died\\ out\\ in\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\C\\,\\ only\\ held\\ up\\ by\\ preferential\\ trade\\ agreements\\ and\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ rum\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\banana\\ crisis\\ arises\\ from\\ competition\\ with\\ plantation\\ based\\ economies\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;need\\ to\\ diversify\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manufacturing\\ has\\ failed\\ because\\ labor\\ costs\\ are\\ too\\ high\\ and\\ the\\ islands\\ are\\ too\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ US\\.\\ Trinidad\\ prospers\\ only\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ highly\\ lucrative\\,\\ but\\ volatile\\,\\ oil\\ and\\ natural\\ gas\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nearly\\ every\\ country\\ has\\ tourism\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\,\\ some\\ employ\\ 25\\%\\ in\\ tourism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recent\\ trend\\ has\\ been\\ towards\\ off\\-shore\\ economies\\ such\\ as\\ money\\ laundering\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ vessel\\ registrations\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Island\\ economies\\ have\\ been\\ swamped\\ in\\ debt\\ and\\ recently\\,\\ internationl\\ aid\\ organizations\\ have\\ been\\ calling\\ the\\ debt\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;need\\ for\\ privatization\\ within\\ economies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Society\\:\\ The\\ Weight\\ of\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\political\\ power\\ has\\ transferred\\ to\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ black\\ and\\ colored\\ leaders\\ but\\ there\\ remains\\ a\\ small\\ sector\\ of\\ whites\\ in\\ many\\ islands\\ who\\ control\\ economies\\ through\\ tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;racial\\ tensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ enjoyed\\ high\\ literacy\\,\\ employment\\ and\\ life\\ expectancy\\,\\ but\\ all\\ have\\ been\\ subsidized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ enjoy\\ relatively\\ high\\ status\\,\\ but\\ receive\\ lower\\ wages\\,\\ face\\ discrimination\\ and\\ have\\ high\\ incidences\\ of\\ teenage\\ pregnancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rural\\/urban\\ divide\\ is\\ closing\\ as\\ many\\ move\\ to\\ cities\\ for\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\extremely\\ large\\ income\\ disparity\\,\\ many\\ resort\\ to\\ drugs\\/crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\migration\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;safety\\-valve\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ unemployment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\remmitances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Culture\\:\\ Creation\\ and\\ Celebration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ tourism\\ and\\ colonialism\\ have\\ influenced\\,\\ if\\ not\\ controlled\\,\\ many\\ cultural\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Eastern\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;resentment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ islands\\ have\\ produced\\ many\\ great\\ writers\\ \\(Nobel\\ and\\ Pulitzer\\ Prize\\ winners\\)\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ reliance\\ on\\ foreign\\ publishers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\successful\\ music\\ genres\\ include\\ Calypso\\ of\\ Trinidad\\,\\ which\\ combines\\ French\\ and\\ African\\ influences\\,\\ often\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ social\\ satire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carnival\\,\\ is\\ a\\ two\\ day\\ Trinidadian\\ celebration\\ centered\\ around\\ Calypso\\ competitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cricket\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sporting\\ obsession\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ English\\ speaking\\ countries\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;lies\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ male\\ psyche\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Miguel\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ Miguel\\ Street\\ is\\ more\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ characters\\ than\\ an\\ explanation\\ of\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ narrator\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ is\\ a\\ child\\ living\\ in\\ moderate\\ conditions\\ in\\ Trinidad\\,\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ poor\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ not\\ rich\\.\\ The\\ story\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ poor\\ regions\\ of\\ their\\ city\\,\\ it\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ Dry\\ River\\,\\ an\\ area\\ feared\\ by\\ the\\ characters\\ in\\ this\\ story\\.\\ Naipaul\\ introduces\\ Titus\\ Hoyt\\ as\\ a\\ compassionate\\ man\\,\\ intent\\ on\\ educating\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ Miguel\\ Street\\.\\ He\\ teaches\\ them\\ to\\ read\\ and\\ write\\,\\ even\\ starts\\ a\\ special\\ Literary\\ and\\ Social\\ Club\\.\\ The\\ club\\ does\\ not\\ last\\ long\\,\\ however\\ the\\ children\\ receive\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ education\\.\\ The\\ events\\ surrounding\\ Titus\\ Hoyt\\ seem\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ education\\ for\\ children\\ in\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\,\\ Titus\\ Hoyt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teachings\\ are\\ viewed\\ as\\ weird\\ and\\ unfamiliar\\ by\\ the\\ characters\\.\\ The\\ English\\ spoke\\ by\\ the\\ characters\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ broken\\ and\\ full\\ of\\ grammatical\\ errors\\,\\ this\\ gives\\ the\\ impression\\ of\\ an\\ uneducated\\ society\\.\\ Next\\ Laura\\ is\\ introduced\\.\\ She\\ has\\ eight\\ or\\ nine\\ kids\\,\\ all\\ through\\ different\\ fathers\\.\\ She\\ raises\\ the\\ kids\\ herself\\ and\\ has\\ many\\ men\\ in\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ life\\.\\ Laura\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Eddoes\\,\\ another\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ who\\ impregnates\\ a\\ woman\\ whom\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ very\\ well\\,\\ implies\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ birth\\ control\\ in\\ this\\ particular\\ class\\ of\\ the\\ Trinidadian\\ society\\.\\ Sex\\ is\\ casual\\ and\\ pregnancy\\ is\\ common\\.\\ Eddoes\\ also\\ represents\\ the\\ struggles\\ and\\ hardships\\ experienced\\ in\\ finding\\,\\ keeping\\ a\\ job\\ and\\ earning\\ a\\ living\\ in\\ Trinidad\\.\\ Toni\\,\\ another\\ character\\ introduced\\ late\\ in\\ the\\ book\\,\\ is\\ an\\ alcoholic\\ and\\ represents\\ a\\ serious\\ problem\\ in\\ Trinidad\\.\\ Near\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ into\\ world\\ war\\ two\\ a\\ bit\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ Americans\\ invaded\\ Trinidad\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ employment\\ opportunities\\ available\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Trinidad\\ provided\\ by\\ the\\ Americans\\.\\ The\\ narrator\\ ends\\ up\\ leaving\\ Miguel\\ Street\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ because\\ he\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ mother\\ notices\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ becoming\\ too\\ \\&ldquo\\;wild\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ becoming\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ his\\ neighborhood\\.\\ The\\ many\\ faults\\ and\\ problems\\ that\\ plague\\ his\\ neighborhood\\ and\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\ are\\ becoming\\ his\\ faults\\ and\\ problems\\ and\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ end\\ up\\ like\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\:\\ A\\ Guide\\ to\\ the\\ People\\,\\ Politics\\ and\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Land\\ and\\ People\\:\\ From\\ Mountains\\ to\\ Ghettos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ geography\\ is\\ extremely\\ diverse\\ ranging\\ from\\ the\\ Blue\\ Mountains\\ to\\ the\\ hills\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ north\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ rainforest\\ to\\ the\\ beaches\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soil\\ is\\ generally\\ fertile\\ throughout\\ the\\ island\\ with\\ about\\ 45\\%\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ being\\ used\\ for\\ agriculture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ Jamaica\\ lies\\ in\\ hurricane\\ belt\\ and\\ experiences\\ regular\\ earthquakes\\,\\ which\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ completely\\ destroy\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ crops\\.\\ \\ \\;Soil\\ erosion\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ problem\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ badly\\ managed\\ hillside\\ farming\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ of\\ these\\ environmental\\ problems\\ and\\ worries\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ an\\ increased\\ urbanization\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ \\(55\\%\\ of\\ Jamaicans\\ now\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ city\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ capitol\\,\\ Kingston\\,\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ city\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\,\\ as\\ periodic\\ riots\\,\\ disturbances\\,\\ and\\ gun\\ battles\\ testify\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ even\\ with\\ the\\ large\\ crime\\ rate\\,\\ the\\ danger\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ confined\\ to\\ those\\ directly\\ involved\\ on\\ the\\ front\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;Kingston\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Coronation\\ Market\\ attracts\\ hundreds\\ of\\ vendors\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\,\\ but\\ due\\ to\\ its\\ reputation\\,\\ tourists\\ rarely\\ visit\\ this\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ main\\ city\\,\\ Spanish\\ Town\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ even\\ worse\\ off\\ than\\ Kingston\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ its\\ slums\\ and\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ though\\ most\\ Jamaicans\\ can\\ claim\\ African\\ heritage\\,\\ the\\ country\\ still\\ suffers\\ from\\ discrimination\\ and\\ pigmentocracy\\ towards\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ darker\\ skinned\\.\\ \\ \\;Compared\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\,\\ the\\ racial\\ mix\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ much\\ less\\ diverse\\ \\(91\\%\\ are\\ Afro\\-Jamaican\\ or\\ mixed\\ race\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Whites\\ make\\ up\\ only\\ about\\ 4\\%\\,\\ but\\ yet\\ still\\ seem\\ to\\ dominate\\ an\\ overwhelming\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ business\\ and\\ political\\ worlds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ History\\:\\ Island\\ of\\ Conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ islands\\ first\\ inhabitants\\ were\\ the\\ peaceful\\ Tainos\\,\\ who\\ in\\ turn\\ were\\ conquered\\ by\\ the\\ more\\ aggressive\\ Caribs\\,\\ who\\ then\\ were\\ conquered\\ by\\ the\\ whites\\ after\\ Christopher\\ Columbus\\ landed\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ in\\ 1494\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Spanish\\ easily\\ took\\ the\\ island\\ from\\ its\\ inhabitants\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ next\\ 300\\ years\\,\\ Jamaica\\ existed\\ under\\ Spanish\\ rule\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ period\\ it\\ was\\ completely\\ ignored\\ by\\ the\\ mother\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ inhabitants\\ remained\\ unsuccessful\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;poor\\ farming\\ techniques\\,\\ illness\\,\\ lassitude\\,\\ in\\-fighting\\,\\ and\\ ignorance\\ ensured\\ that\\ prosperity\\ was\\ forever\\ elusive\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ English\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ island\\ informally\\ during\\ 1655\\ and\\ formally\\ during\\ 1670\\,\\ the\\ population\\ skyrocketed\\ immediately\\ attracting\\ mainly\\ criminals\\ and\\ indentured\\ servants\\ from\\ England\\,\\ Holland\\,\\ and\\ France\\ bound\\ together\\ by\\ their\\ hatred\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ and\\ the\\ feared\\ \\&ldquo\\;brethren\\ of\\ the\\ coast\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ formed\\.\\ \\ \\;Port\\ Royal\\ was\\ their\\ base\\ and\\ the\\ city\\ flourished\\ and\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ richest\\ and\\ most\\ debauched\\ settlement\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ a\\ severe\\ earthquake\\ killed\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ inhabitants\\ and\\ destroyed\\ the\\ city\\ ending\\ this\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\,\\ Jamaica\\ headed\\ towards\\ a\\ plantation\\ based\\ economy\\,\\ which\\ brought\\ along\\ with\\ it\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;Sugar\\ plantations\\ ruled\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ rich\\ class\\ of\\ plantation\\ owners\\ that\\ bought\\ their\\ way\\ into\\ society\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ political\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ diversification\\ of\\ crops\\,\\ slave\\ uprisings\\,\\ and\\ most\\ importantly\\,\\ the\\ moral\\ outrage\\ in\\ England\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ but\\ slavery\\ was\\ not\\ officially\\ ended\\ until\\ after\\ the\\ Sam\\ Sharpe\\ rebellion\\ which\\ provided\\ the\\ economic\\ incentive\\ and\\ further\\ moral\\ arguments\\ to\\ put\\ an\\ end\\ to\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ slavery\\ ended\\,\\ the\\ sugar\\ plantations\\ suffered\\ from\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ beet\\ sugar\\ and\\ from\\ lack\\ of\\ workers\\,\\ and\\ even\\ when\\ indentured\\ servants\\ were\\ used\\,\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ duties\\ were\\ taken\\ off\\ the\\ sugar\\ not\\ from\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ Jamaica\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ compete\\.\\ \\ \\;Everything\\ seemed\\ to\\ fall\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;Life\\ was\\ no\\ easier\\ for\\ the\\ freed\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ stepped\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ arena\\,\\ but\\ Jamaica\\ has\\ remained\\ extremely\\ vulnerable\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ achieved\\ independence\\ and\\ joined\\ a\\ federation\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ islands\\,\\ but\\ that\\ soon\\ fell\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ a\\ constitutional\\ monarchy\\,\\ Jamaica\\ lays\\ under\\ the\\ sway\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ instead\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Politics\\:\\ Violent\\ Democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ modern\\,\\ and\\ often\\ violent\\ political\\ scene\\,\\ began\\ in\\ the\\ 1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ two\\ figures\\,\\ Bustamante\\,\\ who\\ formed\\ the\\ Bustamante\\ Industrial\\ Trade\\ Union\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ Jamaica\\ Labour\\ Party\\,\\ and\\ Manley\\,\\ who\\ formed\\ the\\ PNP\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ Trade\\ Union\\ Congress\\.\\ \\ \\;Bustamante\\ took\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ trade\\ unionism\\,\\ economic\\ conditions\\,\\ and\\ workers\\,\\ while\\ Manely\\ took\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ universal\\ suffrage\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ British\\ rule\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ were\\ opposed\\ to\\ communism\\ and\\ little\\ seemed\\ to\\ separate\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\.\\ \\ \\;Bustamante\\ was\\ elected\\ the\\ first\\ prime\\ minister\\.\\ \\ \\;Together\\,\\ they\\ led\\ Jamaica\\ to\\ independence\\,\\ but\\ after\\ them\\,\\ someone\\ needed\\ to\\ step\\ up\\ and\\ create\\ something\\ with\\ their\\ achievement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edward\\ Seaga\\ and\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ were\\ their\\ successors\\.\\ \\ \\;Manely\\ took\\ the\\ PNP\\ towards\\ communism\\ and\\ the\\ left\\,\\ while\\ Seaga\\ shifted\\ the\\ JLP\\ towards\\ the\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ that\\ began\\ the\\ politically\\ motivated\\ violence\\ found\\ mostly\\ in\\ the\\ ghettos\\.\\ \\ \\;Manely\\ was\\ the\\ current\\ prime\\ minister\\ and\\ in\\ 1977\\ and\\ 1978\\;\\ he\\ began\\ taking\\ loans\\ from\\ the\\ World\\ Band\\ and\\ IMF\\,\\ sending\\ Jamaica\\ into\\ debt\\ while\\ trying\\ to\\ rescue\\ Jamaica\\ from\\ a\\ financial\\ crisis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ Seaga\\ took\\ over\\,\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ obtain\\ money\\ from\\ the\\ US\\,\\ but\\ made\\ little\\ progress\\ in\\ any\\ area\\.\\ \\ \\;Manely\\ was\\ reelected\\ with\\ a\\ new\\,\\ more\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ road\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ start\\ talks\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Cuba\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ successor\\,\\ Patterson\\,\\ carried\\ on\\ this\\ new\\ platform\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ the\\ parties\\ once\\ again\\ have\\ very\\ similar\\ positions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ violence\\ is\\ lessening\\ around\\ election\\ time\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Jamaica\\ has\\ joined\\ Caricom\\,\\ a\\ union\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ islands\\,\\ which\\ has\\ helped\\ to\\ increase\\ trade\\ and\\ influence\\ within\\ the\\ region\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ \\ \\;Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Middle\\ ranking\\ country\\ w\\.r\\.t\\.\\,\\ some\\ social\\ indicators\\ such\\ as\\ life\\ expectancy\\,\\ immunization\\,\\ mortality\\ rates\\ among\\ children\\,\\ but\\ one\\ third\\ of\\ Jamaicans\\ live\\ below\\ poverty\\ standards\\ because\\ of\\ high\\ unemployment\\,\\ flimsy\\ welfare\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ government\\ investment\\ in\\ health\\ services\\ is\\ only\\ 7\\%\\,\\ which\\ is\\ below\\ the\\ defense\\ budget\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Housing\\-squatting\\ common\\,\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ home\\ or\\ land\\,\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\-schooling\\ free\\ and\\ compulsory\\ until\\ age\\ 11\\,\\ but\\ some\\ state\\ subside\\ for\\ education\\ up\\ to\\ age\\ 15\\&mdash\\;only\\ 2\\/3\\ boys\\,\\ slightly\\ fewer\\ females\\ continue\\ with\\ secondary\\ education\\&mdash\\;gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spending\\ cut\\ to\\ 11\\%\\,\\ 5\\%\\ illiteracy\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\&mdash\\;Cohabitation\\ and\\ serial\\ monogamy\\ more\\ common\\ than\\ marriage\\,\\ children\\ with\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ man\\&mdash\\;domestic\\ violence\\,\\ abuse\\,\\ sexual\\ harassment\\ common\\ because\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ traditions\\&mdash\\;one\\ half\\ economically\\ active\\ in\\ workforce\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ rates\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emigration\\&mdash\\;popular\\ escape\\ door\\,\\ 22\\,500\\ people\\ leave\\ each\\ year\\,\\ 85\\%\\ to\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Returnees\\,\\ mixed\\ experience\\,\\ joy\\,\\ difficulty\\ moving\\ from\\ first\\ world\\ to\\ the\\ third\\ because\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crime\\&mdash\\;very\\ high\\ rate\\,\\ due\\ to\\ large\\ gap\\ between\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\ and\\ the\\ easy\\ availability\\ of\\ guns\\&mdash\\;police\\ shootings\\ way\\ above\\ any\\ other\\ democratic\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ Rights\\&mdash\\;Amnesty\\ International\\ concerned\\ about\\ safety\\ of\\ trials\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ death\\ sentences\\&mdash\\;prejudice\\ against\\ homosexuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religion\\&mdash\\;one\\ of\\ the\\ strongest\\ social\\ forces\\,\\ 80\\%\\ protestant\\,\\ serious\\ but\\ fun\\&mdash\\;Voodoo\\,\\ Pocomania\\,\\ Obeah\\ practiced\\ in\\ small\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rastafarianism\\&mdash\\;before\\ second\\ world\\ war\\,\\ 100\\,000\\ followers\\,\\ divine\\ Ethiopian\\ emperor\\ Haile\\ Selassie\\&mdash\\;foundations\\ on\\ ganja\\,\\ back\\-to\\-Africanism\\,\\ black\\ consciousness\\,\\ moral\\ teachings\\ from\\ bible\\,\\ anti\\-establishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diversified\\ economy\\ comparatively\\,\\ income\\ spread\\ unevenly\\ across\\ economy\\ or\\ leached\\ out\\ to\\ foreign\\ investors\\&mdash\\;oil\\ crisis\\ of\\ 1970\\ and\\ international\\ recession\\ caused\\ the\\ progress\\ from\\ Manley\\ and\\ Seaga\\ to\\ disappear\\,\\ external\\ debt\\ rose\\,\\ foreign\\ investors\\ fled\\,\\ trade\\ deficits\\ grew\\,\\ currency\\ crises\\,\\ inflation\\ 30\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Higglers\\&mdash\\;street\\ vendors\\ that\\ are\\ a\\ key\\ feature\\ of\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ informal\\ economy\\,\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tries\\ to\\ dispose\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bauxite\\&mdash\\;major\\ industry\\,\\ raw\\ material\\ not\\ as\\ lucrative\\ as\\ could\\ be\\ because\\ not\\ turned\\ into\\ aluminum\\ on\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manufacturing\\&mdash\\;consumer\\ goods\\,\\ attract\\ foreign\\ investment\\ with\\ cheapest\\ labor\\ in\\ Caribbean\\&mdash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\ zones\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ three\\ on\\ island\\,\\ tax\\ concessions\\,\\ no\\ unions\\,\\ and\\ few\\ red\\ tape\\ inconveniences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Agriculture\\&mdash\\;sugar\\ still\\ most\\ important\\ product\\,\\ exported\\ to\\ European\\ union\\ or\\ US\\&mdash\\;bananas\\ main\\ crop\\,\\ few\\ large\\ estates\\,\\ threatened\\ by\\ disease\\,\\ hurricane\\ damage\\&mdash\\;coffee\\ threatened\\ by\\ poor\\ organization\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ proliferation\\ of\\ small\\ growers\\,\\ erosion\\ of\\ land\\,\\ marijuana\\ source\\ of\\ illegal\\ income\\,\\ hide\\ crops\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;sensimilla\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\&mdash\\;Jamaican\\ entrepreneur\\ introduced\\ all\\-inclusive\\ resorts\\,\\ keeps\\ tourism\\ in\\ local\\ hands\\-\\-\\ complaints\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ left\\ immediate\\ local\\ economy\\ empty\\&mdash\\;still\\ some\\ resentment\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ extension\\ of\\ black\\ servitude\\ to\\ the\\ rich\\ white\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debt\\&mdash\\;PNP\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ have\\ refused\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ IMF\\,\\ but\\ debt\\ is\\ so\\ bad\\ may\\ have\\ to\\ return\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Infrastructure\\&mdash\\;travel\\ by\\ car\\ difficult\\,\\ many\\ fly\\,\\ too\\ expensive\\ to\\ reinstate\\ broken\\ railway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Environment\\&mdash\\;coral\\ reefs\\ destroyed\\,\\ bad\\ waste\\ disposal\\,\\ bauxite\\ pollution\\,\\ soil\\ erosion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Reggae\\&mdash\\;most\\ recognizable\\ and\\ significant\\ cultural\\ asset\\,\\ spread\\ worldwide\\,\\ origins\\ in\\ Black\\ American\\ R\\&\\;B\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;rock\\ steady\\&rdquo\\;\\ more\\ relaxed\\ and\\ sophisticated\\ style\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ heavy\\ bass\\,\\ militant\\ lyrics\\ of\\ Rastas\\&mdash\\;Bob\\ Marley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ musical\\ message\\,\\ charisma\\,\\ spirituality\\ made\\ him\\ hero\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;digital\\&rdquo\\;\\ sound\\ termed\\ \\&ldquo\\;raga\\&rdquo\\;\\ drew\\ away\\ from\\ Rasta\\-inspired\\ lyrics\\ and\\ melodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Art\\ and\\ Literature\\&mdash\\;orally\\ based\\,\\ African\\ influenced\\ traditions\\ were\\ frowned\\ upon\\ by\\ whites\\ for\\ centuries\\&mdash\\;representational\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ abstract\\)\\ art\\ dominate\\ form\\,\\ racial\\ identity\\ prominent\\&mdash\\;use\\ of\\ Creole\\ \\(Patois\\)\\ language\\ found\\ in\\ literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theater\\ and\\ Cinema\\&mdash\\;doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ money\\ to\\ make\\ good\\ films\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sport\\&mdash\\;disproportionately\\ high\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cricket\\&mdash\\;national\\ game\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\&mdash\\;first\\ successful\\ Jamaican\\ soccer\\ team\\,\\ many\\ things\\ of\\ great\\ promise\\ brought\\ low\\ by\\ greed\\ and\\ bad\\ management\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ True\\ History\\ of\\ Paradise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chap\\.\\ 1\\-22\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\STORYLINE\\ \\(shortened\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ and\\ Lana\\ are\\ \\½\\;\\ sisters\\.\\ The\\ story\\ begins\\ w\\/\\ Jean\\ learning\\ \\(from\\ Paul\\)\\ that\\ Lana\\ is\\ dead\\.\\ Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dad\\ is\\ a\\ rich\\ Indian\\ man\\,\\ who\\ eventually\\ moves\\ to\\ Connecticut\\.\\ Monica\\,\\ their\\ mom\\,\\ is\\ vain\\ w\\/\\ her\\ fair\\ skin\\,\\ contemptuous\\ of\\ Africans\\/communists\\/PNP\\,\\ and\\ horribly\\ strict\\ w\\/\\ her\\ daughters\\.\\ At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ her\\ death\\,\\ Lana\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ spoken\\ to\\ her\\ mother\\ in\\ 15\\ years\\.\\ Lana\\ considered\\ Mary\\ Darling\\,\\ Monica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mom\\,\\ to\\ be\\ her\\ mother\\ because\\ she\\ had\\ lived\\ her\\ childhood\\ w\\/\\ her\\.\\ Jean\\ had\\ Roy\\,\\ her\\ father\\,\\ until\\ he\\ died\\ of\\ a\\ brain\\ tumor\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ young\\.\\ Paul\\,\\ the\\ attractive\\/good\\-dancer\\ boy\\ from\\ across\\ the\\ street\\ becomes\\ a\\ close\\ friend\\ of\\ the\\ girls\\.\\ He\\ and\\ Jean\\ spent\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ together\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ he\\ and\\ Lana\\ \\(only\\ a\\ year\\ apart\\)\\ had\\ a\\ very\\ special\\ relationship\\,\\ too\\.\\ Lana\\ gets\\ pregnant\\ by\\ her\\ boyfriend\\,\\ a\\ gray\\-haired\\ married\\ man\\.\\ Monica\\ kicks\\ her\\ out\\,\\ and\\ tells\\ her\\ to\\ never\\ set\\ foot\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ again\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ story\\ intertwines\\ w\\/\\ all\\ these\\ side\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OVERALL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ novel\\,\\ by\\ Margaret\\ Cezair\\-Thompson\\,\\ focuses\\ on\\ Jean\\ Landing\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1981\\ departure\\ from\\ Jamaica\\.\\ Each\\ chapter\\ skips\\ around\\ throughout\\ time\\,\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ allowing\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relatives\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ her\\ family\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ \\(in\\ the\\ first\\ person\\)\\ their\\ Jamaican\\ experience\\.\\ What\\ the\\ reader\\ comes\\ to\\ realize\\ from\\ all\\ this\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ w\\/in\\ one\\ family\\,\\ Jamaicans\\ are\\ extremely\\ diverse\\:\\ culturally\\ and\\ ethnically\\ \\(German\\,\\ Scotish\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ Rasta\\,\\ Ashanti\\,\\ Chinese\\,\\ Indian\\&hellip\\;\\)\\,\\ politically\\ \\(in\\ the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mom\\,\\ Monica\\ Stern\\,\\ was\\ a\\ the\\ pro\\-colonial\\,\\ anti\\-communist\\ JLP\\ \\-\\ Bustamante\\ supporter\\ who\\ valued\\ whiteness\\ and\\ disdained\\ anything\\ African\\,\\ while\\ her\\ father\\,\\ Roy\\ Landing\\,\\ worked\\ for\\ Norman\\ Manley\\ and\\ was\\ crazy\\ about\\ the\\ PNP\\.\\ He\\ celebrated\\ his\\ African\\ heritage\\ immensely\\,\\ even\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ wanting\\ to\\ take\\ Jean\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ Ghana\\.\\)\\,\\ and\\ economically\\ \\(she\\ had\\ rich\\ plantation\\ ancestors\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ poor\\ family\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ envisioned\\ post\\-colonial\\ Jamaica\\ \\(independence\\ \\=\\ Aug\\ 6\\,\\ 1962\\)\\ was\\ far\\ from\\ achieved\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ problems\\ of\\ her\\ family\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ Jamaica\\,\\ repeat\\ themselves\\ throughout\\ history\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ am\\ writing\\ about\\ this\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ an\\ ID\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\There\\ is\\ this\\ huge\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ Morant\\ Bay\\ Rebellion\\ \\(1865\\)\\,\\ led\\ by\\ Pastor\\ Bogle\\ \\(Paul\\?\\)\\.\\ There\\ was\\ an\\ immediate\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ rebellion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ were\\ outside\\ the\\ courthouse\\,\\ protesting\\ the\\ mistreatment\\ of\\ a\\ prisoner\\.\\ But\\ the\\ anti\\-establishment\\ anger\\ had\\ been\\ building\\ up\\ for\\ years\\.\\ The\\ people\\ felt\\ that\\ since\\ the\\ Abolition\\ Act\\ of\\ 1838\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ blacks\\ had\\ still\\ remained\\ slaves\\.\\ The\\ protesters\\ went\\ on\\ a\\ killing\\ rampage\\,\\ killing\\ whites\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;White\\ man\\ country\\ fe\\ we\\ now\\!\\ \\&hellip\\;We\\ fe\\ kill\\ white\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ p\\.58\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ people\\ who\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ white\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Him\\ skin\\ Black\\ but\\ him\\ heart\\ White\\&rdquo\\;\\ p\\.\\ 59\\)\\ As\\ the\\ protest\\ grew\\ and\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ spirit\\ spread\\,\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ emergency\\ was\\ declared\\ by\\ Governer\\ Eyre\\,\\ who\\ sent\\ soldiers\\ and\\ three\\ battleships\\ to\\ Morant\\ Bay\\.\\ The\\ Queen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soldiers\\ destroyed\\ Bogle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\;\\ the\\ entire\\ eastern\\ part\\ of\\ Jamaica\\ was\\ embroiled\\ in\\ a\\ bloody\\ siege\\.\\ It\\ rained\\ and\\ rained\\ and\\ rained\\,\\ flooding\\ the\\ area\\ terribly\\.\\ The\\ Queen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soldiers\\,\\ in\\ this\\ unknown\\ land\\ and\\ rough\\ environment\\,\\ went\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ killing\\ spree\\.\\ They\\ shot\\ and\\ hung\\ blacks\\ that\\ they\\ came\\ across\\,\\ both\\ the\\ guilty\\ and\\ the\\ innocent\\,\\ burned\\ homes\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ and\\ arrested\\ hundreds\\ of\\ blacks\\.\\ Final\\ outcome\\ of\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intervention\\:\\ many\\ many\\ many\\ innocent\\ blacks\\ were\\ killed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Compare\\ that\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ gang\\ violence\\ of\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 80s\\:\\ people\\ feeling\\ a\\ deep\\ social\\ injustice\\,\\ reacting\\ violently\\,\\ huge\\ PNP\\ and\\ JLP\\ gang\\ warfare\\,\\ the\\ government\\ reacting\\ in\\ an\\ equally\\ violent\\ manner\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ declared\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ emergency\\ in\\ 1976\\,\\ increasing\\ the\\ police\\ and\\ military\\ power\\ and\\ his\\ subsequent\\ Gun\\ Court\\ decision\\,\\ which\\ basically\\ made\\ courts\\ extra\\ hard\\ on\\ crimes\\ involving\\ guns\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ many\\ many\\ deaths\\ of\\ innocent\\ Jamaicans\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ book\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ across\\ that\\ the\\ racial\\/social\\ problems\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\never\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\been\\ solved\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ they\\ culminate\\ in\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ they\\ did\\ in\\ slave\\-times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HISTORICAL\\ POINTS\\ GIVEN\\ IN\\ THE\\ BOOK\\:\\1\\.\\ The\\ Arawaks\\ gave\\ Jamaica\\ the\\ name\\ Xaymaca\\,\\ Land\\ of\\ Many\\ Rivers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Late\\ 1800s\\,\\ Chinese\\ were\\ shipped\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ in\\ slave\\-like\\ conditions\\,\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ workforce\\ that\\ had\\ disintegrated\\ with\\ the\\ abolishment\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ 1838\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Religious\\ leaders\\ often\\ led\\ rebellions\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Pastor\\ Bogle\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Aug\\ 6\\,\\ 1962\\ \\=\\ independence\\ from\\ colonial\\ Britain\\;\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birthday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Racism\\ still\\ exists\\:\\ Monica\\,\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relatively\\ fair\\-skinned\\ mother\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ there\\ was\\ anything\\ beautiful\\ about\\ Africans\\,\\ and\\ she\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ hear\\ about\\ Nubian\\ anything\\ in\\ her\\ bone\\ structure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 31\\)\\ There\\ are\\ few\\ blue\\-eyed\\ boys\\ in\\ rags\\,\\ few\\ Chinese\\ men\\ w\\/\\ dreads\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ whole\\ class\\ of\\ elite\\ whites\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Jean\\ and\\ her\\ older\\ sister\\ Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boarding\\ school\\ is\\ a\\ prime\\ example\\.\\ What\\ was\\ valued\\ at\\ the\\ school\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;wealth\\,\\ class\\,\\ and\\ whiteness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 69\\)\\ The\\ upper\\-class\\ consisted\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Syrians\\,\\ old\\ white\\ Jamaican\\ families\\,\\ White\\ expatriates\\,\\ a\\ few\\ Chinese\\,\\ and\\ a\\ small\\ scattering\\ of\\ mixed\\-race\\ girls\\ like\\ Lana\\ and\\ Jean\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 69\\)\\ The\\ food\\ eaten\\ at\\ the\\ school\\ is\\ very\\ British\\,\\ they\\ have\\ tea\\-time\\,\\ the\\ teachers\\ are\\ white\\,\\ they\\ learn\\ anglo\\-saxon\\ history\\ as\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ ancestors\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Pretty\\ rotten\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Marriage\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ is\\ not\\ that\\ common\\.\\ Jamaican\\ men\\ commonly\\ and\\ openly\\ cheat\\ on\\ their\\ wives\\ and\\ girlfriends\\.\\ Jamaican\\ women\\ are\\ just\\ supposed\\ to\\ accept\\ that\\ for\\ the\\ way\\ things\\ are\\,\\ and\\ usually\\ end\\ up\\ bringing\\ up\\ their\\ babies\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 21\\-\\ 31\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ and\\ Jean\\ in\\ the\\ car\\,\\ talk\\ about\\ Lana\\ \\(who\\ has\\ died\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Mention\\ how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lana\\ thought\\ nothing\\ of\\ being\\ half\\-Indian\\,\\ but\\ Monica\\ hated\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\ \\-\\ flashback\\ 1967\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ gets\\ to\\ go\\ dancing\\ with\\ Lana\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\they\\ have\\ to\\ sneak\\ out\\ after\\ Monica\\ says\\ they\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ go\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ minute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ Lana\\ is\\ \\"\\;dressed\\ like\\ a\\ whore\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\skip\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\ later\\,\\ family\\ is\\ gathered\\ to\\ determine\\ how\\ to\\ tell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monica\\ that\\ Lana\\ is\\ pregnant\\,\\ Monica\\ flips\\,\\ then\\ when\\ Lana\\ is\\ sick\\ in\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hospital\\,\\ visits\\ and\\ cares\\ for\\ her\\,\\ then\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ Lana\\ comes\\ home\\,\\ Monica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\kicks\\ her\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ forever\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ shows\\ Monica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ unpredictable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nature\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cyclical\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ mistakes\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ family\\ \\(early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pregnancies\\ for\\ Monica\\ and\\ then\\ Lana\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ and\\ Jean\\ in\\ the\\ car\\ \\-\\ in\\ country\\,\\ where\\ violence\\ has\\ not\\ reached\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yet\\,\\ makes\\ the\\ violence\\ in\\ Kingston\\ seem\\ absurd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ is\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ see\\ Lana\\ after\\ she\\ is\\ kicked\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ house\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Her\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ mystery\\,\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ whether\\ to\\ consider\\ her\\ sister\\ a\\ whore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\or\\ what\\ to\\ think\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ talks\\ about\\ different\\ reactions\\ to\\ man\\ landing\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ moon\\.\\ \\;\\ Monica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ is\\ cynical\\ \\(never\\ thought\\ it\\ would\\ happen\\,\\ then\\ says\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;might\\ as\\ well\\ try\\ and\\ walk\\ on\\ water\\ \\[as\\ walk\\ on\\ the\\ moon\\]\\,\\ I\\ gone\\ to\\ bed\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\while\\ Irene\\ \\(the\\ family\\ maid\\)\\ is\\ amazed\\ and\\ feels\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ act\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\ \\-\\ Lana\\ gets\\ sick\\,\\ Jean\\ sends\\ a\\ get\\ well\\ card\\,\\ and\\ then\\ sneaks\\ out\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\meet\\ her\\ for\\ lunch\\ after\\ Lana\\ recovers\\.\\ \\;\\ Jean\\ is\\ happy\\ to\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pictures\\ of\\ Lana\\ painted\\ by\\ Monica\\ erased\\ by\\ seeing\\ that\\ Lana\\ has\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\changed\\ much\\ in\\ appearance\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ job\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ Lana\\ leaves\\ Jamaica\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ later\\ sees\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ won\\ a\\ beauty\\ pageant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ begins\\ to\\ be\\ sexually\\ curious\\,\\ talk\\ to\\ Faye\\ and\\ Paul\\ about\\ it\\ \\(I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\think\\ she\\ is\\ about\\ 13\\ or\\ 14\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Faye\\ sneaks\\ out\\ from\\ school\\ to\\ meet\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\boyfriend\\ and\\ is\\ suspended\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ \\(conservative\\ nature\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ private\\ school\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ attends\\ a\\ wedding\\,\\ dances\\ a\\ slow\\ dance\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ and\\ cannot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stop\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ boy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gathering\\ on\\ Daphne\\&\\#39\\;s\\ veranda\\,\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ there\\,\\ Jean\\ feels\\ he\\ is\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\presence\\ without\\ even\\ speaking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aunt\\ Daphne\\ tells\\ Jean\\ that\\ Monica\\ can\\ never\\ forgive\\ herself\\ for\\ falling\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\love\\ with\\ Deepa\\ \\(who\\ is\\ Indian\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ and\\ Faye\\ walk\\ along\\ the\\ road\\,\\ Faye\\ is\\ mistaken\\ for\\ being\\ white\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\takes\\ offence\\ \\(racial\\ tensions\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ signs\\ up\\ to\\ support\\ Manley\\&\\#39\\;s\\ party\\,\\ the\\ party\\ her\\ father\\ had\\ supported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\before\\ he\\ died\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\ \\-\\ Christmas\\ gathering\\,\\ Jean\\ receives\\ a\\ glass\\ for\\ her\\ drink\\ instead\\ of\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;unbreakable\\ tumbler\\"\\;\\ as\\ an\\ acknowledged\\ rite\\ of\\ passage\\ to\\ maturity\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\talks\\ to\\ Trevor\\,\\ a\\ childhood\\ friend\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ away\\ and\\ has\\ forgotten\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beauty\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ the\\ hills\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lana\\ is\\ back\\,\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ singer\\,\\ performs\\ calypsos\\ and\\ reggae\\ and\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\popular\\ songs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ beach\\ with\\ Paul\\,\\ they\\ discuss\\ Trevor\\,\\ who\\ overdosed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\ drugs\\ in\\ NYC\\.\\ \\;\\ Paul\\,\\ like\\ everyone\\,\\ thinks\\ NYC\\ is\\ \\"\\;crazy\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ and\\ Jean\\ in\\ the\\ car\\ \\-\\ Paul\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ Redfields\\,\\ a\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\family\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ money\\ but\\ after\\ slavery\\ was\\ over\\ their\\ former\\ slaves\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\not\\ know\\ any\\ better\\ and\\ so\\ sent\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ them\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\basically\\ treated\\ them\\ like\\ royalty\\,\\ so\\ the\\ Redfields\\ lived\\ comfortably\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\four\\ generations\\ like\\ this\\ until\\ a\\ gang\\ from\\ Kingston\\ came\\ out\\ and\\ killed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\them\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ farm\\ where\\ Paul\\ talks\\ business\\ with\\ the\\ owner\\,\\ Jean\\ wanders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\off\\ and\\ we\\ \\(the\\ reader\\)\\ experience\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ island\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\ \\-\\ Jean\\ meets\\ Mark\\ who\\ becomes\\ her\\ first\\ boyfriend\\.\\ \\;\\ Lana\\ shows\\ signs\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mental\\ instability\\ at\\ the\\ party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\ \\-\\ Mark\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ house\\,\\ Monica\\ likes\\ him\\ because\\ his\\ family\\ is\\ rich\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\influential\\,\\ and\\ white\\ \\(his\\ father\\ is\\ Monica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ banker\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ charms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monica\\,\\ but\\ Irene\\ dislikes\\ him\\ immediately\\,\\ sees\\ he\\ is\\ sleazy\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marks\\ parents\\ do\\ not\\ approve\\ of\\ Jean\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ too\\ dark\\,\\ but\\ he\\ likes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\disapointing\\ them\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ take\\ Jean\\&\\#39\\;s\\ virginity\\,\\ but\\ says\\ he\\ can\\ wait\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ True\\ History\\ of\\ Paradise\\,\\ pages\\ 159\\-331\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Themes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sexism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ males\\ all\\ have\\ mistresses\\,\\ solely\\ based\\ on\\ sex\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\ as\\ passive\\ housewife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nature\\/beauty\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ terrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-made\\ women\\ and\\ men\\ \\(from\\ poor\\ to\\ rich\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stories\\ remembering\\ family\\/ancestors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ conflict\\,\\ JLP\\ versus\\ PNP\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ to\\ blame\\ for\\ national\\ turmoil\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Building\\ status\\,\\ longing\\ to\\ be\\ respected\\ white\\,\\ educated\\,\\ elite\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Violence\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ safety\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decision\\ to\\ escape\\ from\\ or\\ remain\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ points\\ of\\ view\\ affecting\\ family\\/friend\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marriage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ very\\ sacred\\,\\ people\\ get\\ married\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ other\\ options\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personal\\ instability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ go\\ insane\\,\\ result\\ of\\ violent\\ physical\\ abuse\\ from\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ Manley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ control\\,\\ even\\ though\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ prime\\ minister\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ crisis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ try\\ to\\ become\\ economically\\ independent\\ from\\ world\\ powers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constant\\ brutality\\,\\ almost\\ everyone\\ close\\ to\\ Jean\\ killed\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;gunmen\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(from\\ JLP\\ or\\ PNP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distrust\\,\\ skepticism\\,\\ suspicion\\ among\\ Jamaicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monica\\,\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ Jean\\ and\\ Lana\\,\\ is\\ obsessed\\ with\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ being\\ considered\\ an\\ educated\\,\\ white\\ \\&ldquo\\;lady\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-made\\ woman\\,\\ owning\\ her\\ own\\ bakery\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ against\\ Michael\\ Manley\\ and\\ blames\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ political\\ propaganda\\ for\\ the\\ turmoil\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ and\\ Monica\\ have\\ become\\ estranged\\ over\\ the\\ years\\ and\\ Jean\\ still\\ lives\\ with\\ Monica\\.\\ \\ \\;Daphne\\,\\ Monica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sister\\,\\ and\\ Jean\\ finally\\ blow\\ up\\ at\\ Monica\\ one\\ day\\,\\ accusing\\ her\\ of\\ forgetting\\ who\\ she\\ is\\ and\\ where\\ she\\ came\\ from\\,\\ she\\ is\\ part\\ black\\ and\\ she\\ grew\\ up\\ poor\\,\\ but\\ Monica\\ only\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ like\\ her\\ English\\ grandmother\\,\\ Jean\\ Fairlik\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;lady\\&rdquo\\;\\ according\\ to\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ decides\\ to\\ marry\\ this\\ guy\\ named\\ Mark\\ because\\ even\\ though\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ 21\\ years\\ old\\,\\ she\\ has\\ nothing\\ better\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ she\\ feels\\ bored\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ her\\ and\\ Lana\\ were\\ educated\\ well\\,\\ but\\ most\\ all\\ jobs\\ request\\ a\\ male\\ so\\ Jean\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ an\\ appealing\\ place\\ to\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ eventually\\ goes\\ insane\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ tense\\ relationship\\ between\\ her\\ and\\ Monica\\,\\ so\\ she\\ goes\\ to\\ an\\ insane\\ asylum\\ in\\ Florida\\ for\\ a\\ while\\.\\ \\ \\;Meanwhile\\,\\ Monica\\ continues\\ to\\ live\\ her\\ reclusive\\ lifestyle\\,\\ refusing\\ to\\ give\\ into\\ the\\ fear\\ that\\ has\\ seemed\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ as\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ violent\\ \\&ldquo\\;gunmen\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(from\\ either\\ the\\ JLP\\ or\\ PNP\\,\\ no\\ one\\ knows\\)\\,\\ who\\ rob\\,\\ rape\\,\\ beat\\ up\\ and\\ kill\\ citizens\\ everyday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daphne\\ dies\\ of\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\ right\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ Jean\\ who\\ was\\ playing\\ scrabble\\ with\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Without\\ her\\ favorite\\ aunt\\,\\ Jean\\ starts\\ to\\ realize\\ how\\ bad\\ her\\ marriage\\ and\\ how\\ bored\\ she\\ gets\\ everyday\\ sitting\\ around\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;Mark\\ cheats\\ on\\ her\\ all\\ the\\ time\\,\\ but\\ she\\ accepts\\ it\\ and\\ stays\\ with\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ finally\\ gets\\ a\\ job\\ under\\ Michael\\ Manley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\ with\\ the\\ Ministry\\ of\\ National\\ Security\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ returns\\ from\\ Florida\\ anew\\ person\\,\\ very\\ happy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ neighborhoods\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ have\\ become\\ extremely\\ unsafe\\ as\\ people\\ are\\ killed\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\ and\\ in\\ their\\ houses\\ everyday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friend\\,\\ Ines\\,\\ is\\ visiting\\ one\\ day\\,\\ gunmen\\ attack\\ them\\ and\\ cut\\ up\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ and\\ arms\\ and\\ kill\\ Ines\\.\\ \\ \\;Jean\\ wonders\\ why\\ God\\ spared\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Jean\\ stays\\ with\\ her\\ grandmother\\,\\ Mary\\ Darling\\,\\ during\\ her\\ recovery\\ and\\ remembers\\ her\\ childhood\\,\\ noticing\\ how\\ much\\ Jamaica\\ has\\ changed\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ day\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boss\\ finds\\ out\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ bribed\\ by\\ a\\ foreigner\\ to\\ give\\ him\\ information\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ him\\ helping\\ her\\ to\\ escape\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ knows\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ people\\ following\\ her\\ and\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ who\\ to\\ trust\\,\\ her\\ boss\\ no\\ longer\\ trusts\\ her\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ever\\ present\\ violence\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ boil\\ for\\ Jean\\ and\\ her\\ family\\ when\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ friend\\,\\ Faye\\ and\\ Faye\\&rsquo\\;s\\ girlfriend\\,\\ Pat\\ are\\ attacked\\ by\\ gunmen\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ targeted\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ lesbians\\ most\\ likely\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ women\\ are\\ raped\\ and\\ Pat\\ dies\\.\\ \\ \\;Faye\\ got\\ shot\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ and\\ got\\ her\\ eye\\ gouged\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ lives\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\ before\\ dying\\.\\ \\ \\;Jean\\ and\\ her\\ family\\ begin\\ to\\ feel\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ threatened\\ by\\ the\\ gunmen\\ and\\ their\\ savagery\\&hellip\\;no\\ one\\ is\\ safe\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ gunmen\\ also\\ kill\\ Irene\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(Monica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ maid\\)\\ son\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Meanwhile\\,\\ Lana\\ and\\ Jean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ other\\ best\\ friend\\,\\ Paul\\ have\\ been\\ seeing\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ Jean\\ feels\\ incredibly\\ jealous\\ \\(she\\ split\\ up\\ with\\ Mark\\ eventually\\ because\\ his\\ mistreated\\ her\\ so\\ much\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ realizes\\ she\\ has\\ feelings\\ for\\ Paul\\,\\ but\\ he\\ cares\\ about\\ Lana\\ and\\ only\\ sees\\ Jean\\ as\\ a\\ friend\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\ is\\ also\\ very\\ jealous\\ because\\ Paul\\ got\\ another\\ woman\\,\\ Cecile\\,\\ pregnant\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Paul\\ is\\ at\\ his\\ farm\\ outside\\ of\\ town\\ Jean\\ comes\\ to\\ visit\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ terror\\,\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ feel\\ safe\\ at\\ home\\ since\\ people\\ call\\ her\\ and\\ threaten\\ to\\ kill\\ her\\ and\\ her\\ family\\ soon\\ because\\ she\\ knows\\ too\\ much\\ working\\ for\\ national\\ security\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ upset\\ because\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ week\\ after\\ Faye\\ finally\\ passed\\ away\\,\\ she\\ saw\\ a\\ stranger\\ die\\ right\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ her\\;\\ he\\ was\\ standing\\ up\\ for\\ her\\ after\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ beating\\ her\\ for\\ laughing\\ at\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ soldier\\ killed\\ the\\ man\\ just\\ for\\ saying\\ that\\ Jean\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ she\\ goes\\ to\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ eventually\\ starts\\ to\\ hit\\ on\\ him\\ because\\ she\\ realizes\\ she\\ only\\ feels\\ safe\\ with\\ him\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ says\\ no\\ but\\ takes\\ care\\ of\\ her\\ \\(she\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ crying\\ because\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ death\\ and\\ brutality\\ that\\ surrounds\\ her\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Paul\\ is\\ late\\ returning\\ home\\ to\\ Lana\\ because\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ with\\ Jean\\,\\ when\\ he\\ gets\\ home\\ Lana\\ \\(who\\ has\\ already\\ started\\ to\\ go\\ crazy\\ again\\ without\\ her\\ medication\\)\\ is\\ a\\ mess\\,\\ she\\ tells\\ him\\ Cecile\\ \\(the\\ woman\\ pregnant\\ with\\ his\\ baby\\)\\ came\\ by\\ and\\ told\\ her\\ she\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ die\\ tonight\\ because\\ Cecile\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ Paul\\.\\ \\ \\;Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mad\\ at\\ Paul\\ for\\ being\\ late\\ because\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ gotten\\ Cecile\\ out\\ of\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ she\\ thinks\\ Paul\\ has\\ planned\\ to\\ leave\\ her\\ for\\ Cecile\\.\\ \\ \\;Out\\ of\\ anger\\,\\ jealousy\\,\\ insanity\\,\\ and\\ fear\\ Lana\\ sets\\ herself\\ on\\ fire\\ and\\ Paul\\ tries\\ to\\ put\\ it\\ out\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ambulance\\ finally\\ gets\\ there\\,\\ but\\ Lana\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dead\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ ends\\ with\\ Paul\\ driving\\ Jean\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ where\\ she\\ can\\ catch\\ a\\ cab\\ and\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ airport\\,\\ escaping\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ violent\\/brutal\\ government\\ actions\\ for\\ good\\.\\ \\ \\;Too\\ many\\ people\\ close\\ to\\ her\\ have\\ died\\ and\\ she\\ feels\\ leaving\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ her\\ only\\ option\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ leaves\\ Monica\\ there\\,\\ but\\ Monica\\ is\\ proud\\ of\\ her\\ daughter\\ for\\ leaving\\ finally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ music\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Caribbean\\ Currents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ you\\ really\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ are\\ the\\ 5\\ themes\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ music\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Unity\\ and\\ Diversity\\ within\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ Islands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\ major\\ cultural\\ zones\\:\\ French\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ English\\ \\(although\\ internally\\ fragmented\\ by\\ rivalries\\ and\\ factions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ regions\\ share\\:\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ culture\\,\\ history\\ of\\ musical\\ syncretism\\,\\ strength\\ of\\ oral\\ tradition\\,\\ African\\ work\\ songs\\,\\ \\ \\;carnival\\ traditions\\,\\ inter\\-island\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Race\\ and\\ Ethnicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\music\\ both\\ passively\\ reflects\\ and\\ actively\\ influences\\ race\\ relations\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ colonial\\ era\\ calypsos\\ often\\ crticise\\ Negroid\\ features\\,\\ music\\ during\\ 1970s\\ Black\\ Power\\ movement\\ promotes\\ black\\ pride\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ view\\ of\\ race\\ \\=\\ on\\ a\\ spectrum\\ of\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afro\\-Caribbean\\ culture\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ celebrated\\ as\\ national\\ culture\\,\\ however\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ other\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ like\\ the\\ Chinese\\,\\ Japanese\\,\\ and\\ Indian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Sex\\ and\\ Sexism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\traditional\\ familial\\ ties\\ strained\\ by\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ urbanization\\,\\ and\\ increased\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\men\\ often\\ peripheral\\ to\\ family\\,\\ infected\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;machismo\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ sexually\\ available\\,\\ to\\ all\\ men\\ but\\ denounced\\ for\\ their\\ promiscuity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\music\\ reflects\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ themes\\,\\ often\\ portrays\\ male\\ attitude\\ \\(musicians\\ are\\ usually\\ male\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Caribbean\\ Musical\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ music\\ now\\ involves\\ international\\ sounds\\,\\ as\\ many\\ have\\ migrated\\ out\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ \\(2\\ mil\\.\\ Caribbean\\ natives\\ live\\ in\\ NYC\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ desire\\ to\\ maintain\\ musical\\ traditions\\/Caribbean\\ identity\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brain\\ Drain\\:\\ many\\ talented\\ musicians\\ leave\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ for\\ greater\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Music\\ and\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\paradox\\ between\\ perception\\ and\\ reality\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perception\\:\\ Caribbean\\ natives\\ are\\ lazy\\,\\ unmotivated\\,\\ and\\ lounge\\ on\\ the\\ beach\\ all\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reality\\:\\ life\\ of\\ poverty\\,\\ toil\\,\\ hunger\\,\\ deprivation\\,\\ and\\ political\\ repression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\music\\ functions\\ as\\ an\\ escape\\ from\\ such\\ adversity\\,\\ becomes\\ a\\ common\\ connection\\ between\\ struggling\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\music\\ also\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ expression\\ of\\ discontent\\,\\ it\\ is\\ reflective\\ of\\ sociopolitical\\ conditions\\ \\(Cuban\\ habaneras\\ are\\ symbols\\ of\\ opposition\\ to\\ Spanish\\ rule\\,\\ Cuban\\ decimas\\ explicitly\\ celebrate\\ independence\\ struggle\\ and\\ nationalist\\ opposition\\ to\\ colonial\\ rule\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Music\\ of\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Evolution\\ of\\ Forms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ska\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1950\\-60\\ nationalistic\\ prode\\ stimulated\\ musical\\ experimentation\\-\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;distinctly\\ Jamaican\\ form\\ of\\ popular\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rock\\ Steady\\/Early\\ Reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1965\\-68\\ with\\ foundation\\ of\\ African\\ drumming\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ rhythms\\ of\\ the\\ Kumina\\ cult\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ secular\\ Buru\\ drumming\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1968\\-85\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ ealier\\ complex\\ drumming\\ styles\\,\\ emphasized\\ harmony\\ and\\ lyrics\\ \\(not\\ typical\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ music\\)\\,\\ statements\\ of\\ sociopolitical\\ situation\\,\\ Marley\\ helps\\ identify\\ Rastafarian\\ faith\\ with\\ reggae\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dub\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\part\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\ hall\\ phenomenon\\,\\ process\\ of\\ dubbing\\ eliminates\\ need\\ for\\ live\\ musicians\\,\\ DJs\\ can\\ make\\ entire\\ songs\\ using\\ only\\ a\\ Casio\\ keyboard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ Hall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1950s\\-\\ digital\\ revolution\\ created\\ new\\ dance\\ hall\\ phenomenon\\,\\ contemporary\\ successor\\ of\\ reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ragga\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dance\\ hall\\ DJ\\ music\\,\\ themes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;rude\\ boys\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ sufferers\\,\\ Jamaican\\ Patwa\\ lyrics\\,\\ often\\ have\\ Revivalist\\/\\ Pocomania\\ beats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Cyclical\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lower\\ classes\\ create\\ music\\:\\ synthesis\\/creolization\\/syncretism\\ of\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ drumming\\ \\(Kumina\\,\\ Burru\\,\\ and\\ Nyabinghi\\ rhythms\\)\\,\\ Rivival\\ hymns\\ \\(Pocomania\\)\\,\\ and\\ world\\ pop\\ culture\\ \\(if\\ available\\ at\\ that\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bourgeois\\/Upper\\ classes\\ take\\ interest\\,\\ music\\ is\\ lost\\ to\\ the\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ shifts\\ from\\ Jamaica\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Music\\ of\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Diversity\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Cuba\\ has\\ a\\ rich\\,\\ diverse\\ musical\\ atmosphere\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Reasons\\ for\\ diversity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Equal\\ proportions\\ of\\ whites\\,\\ blacks\\,\\ and\\ mulattoes\\ in\\ Cuban\\ population\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\ Spanish\\ musical\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ communities\\ of\\ free\\ blacks\\ allowed\\ to\\ celebrate\\ musical\\ and\\ religious\\ festivities\\ within\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cabildos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(mutual\\-aid\\ societies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plantation\\ slaves\\ allowed\\ to\\ continue\\ African\\ singing\\/drumming\\/dancing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Influx\\ of\\ new\\ slaves\\ revives\\ and\\ maintains\\ African\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spanish\\ musical\\ traditions\\ brought\\ to\\ Cuba\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ were\\ far\\ richer\\ than\\ those\\ brought\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ colonies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Creolization\\ of\\ Cuban\\ Music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Creolization\\:\\ New\\ music\\ and\\ culture\\ develops\\ from\\ prolonged\\ encounter\\ of\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Ethnologist\\ Fernando\\ Ortiz\\ called\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ musical\\ syncretism\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;transculturation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 4\\ phases\\ of\\ musical\\ creolization\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Initial\\ Stage\\:\\ neo\\-African\\ and\\ European\\ inspired\\ music\\ \\(Cuban\\ rumba\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mix\\ of\\ African\\ and\\ European\\ derived\\ musical\\ elements\\ rejected\\ by\\ upper\\ classes\\ \\(early\\ calypso\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syncretic\\ genres\\ embraced\\ by\\ all\\ classes\\,\\ nationalistic\\ symbols\\ \\(calypso\\,\\ Cuban\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advanced\\ creolization\\,\\ blurring\\ of\\ cultural\\ boundaries\\,\\ accelerated\\ by\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Music\\ of\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ Religions\\ \\(Santeria\\ and\\ Palo\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ two\\ largest\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ among\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ slaves\\ were\\ the\\ Yoruba\\ and\\ Congolese\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Yoruba\\-derived\\ music\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bata\\ and\\ bembe\\ drumming\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Santeria\\ \\(Afro\\-Cuban\\ religion\\ that\\ was\\ a\\ fusion\\ of\\ Yoruba\\ and\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ elements\\)\\ greatly\\ influenced\\ later\\ Cuban\\ rhythms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Congolese\\-derived\\ music\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ngomo\\ drumming\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Palo\\ \\(Congolese\\ religion\\ practiced\\ in\\ Cuba\\)\\ ceremonies\\ played\\ more\\ simple\\ rhythms\\ than\\ bata\\ and\\ bembe\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Soukous\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ popular\\ Congolese\\ dance\\-music\\ genre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ European\\ Derived\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ known\\ than\\ African\\ derived\\ musical\\ styles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Guajira\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hispanic\\ style\\ of\\ folk\\ music\\ \\(Jose\\ Marti\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Guantanamera\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Punto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Cuban\\ musical\\ style\\ of\\ singing\\ the\\ Decima\\ \\ \\;\\(Hispanic\\-derived\\ ten\\-line\\ stanzas\\,\\ often\\ celebrated\\ struggle\\ for\\ independence\\ and\\ nationalist\\ opposition\\ to\\ Spanish\\ rule\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Contradanza\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ both\\ a\\ Cuban\\ and\\ Spanish\\ dance\\ and\\ music\\ genre\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Distinctly\\ Cuban\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Rumba\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ secular\\ type\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ dance\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ 1800s\\ and\\ spread\\ world\\-wide\\ as\\ a\\ Spanish\\ ballroom\\ dance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mambo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Up\\-tempo\\,\\ Cuban\\ style\\ of\\ instrumental\\ dance\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chachacha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ popular\\ dance\\ and\\ music\\ genre\\ from\\ the\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Cuban\\ Music\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Latin\\ Jazz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ late\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ jazz\\ solos\\ played\\ over\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ rhythms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nueva\\ Trova\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ new\\ music\\ inspired\\ by\\ the\\ Cuban\\ revolution\\ \\(songs\\ about\\ contemporary\\ cultural\\ policies\\ and\\ political\\ issues\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Son\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ Cuban\\ music\\/dance\\ genre\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\,\\ often\\ mistakenly\\ called\\ rumba\\ by\\ non\\-Cubans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;See\\ below\\ under\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;Link\\ back\\ to\\ paradox\\ in\\ democratic\\ centralism\\:\\ \\ \\;all\\ participate\\ but\\ hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 57, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FC_46-_Study_Guide_1.doc", "desc": "Complete Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Alternative Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "caribbean", "globalization"], "text": null, "id": 156, "html": "\\\\\\Alternative\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c22\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c47\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c10\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:4\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:49\\.5pt\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:225pt\\}\\.c38\\{font\\-size\\:8pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c40\\{color\\:\\#ff6600\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:45pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c42\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c5\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c45\\{color\\:\\#ff6600\\}\\.c43\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c30\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c32\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c46\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c39\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c26\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.8pt\\}\\.c35\\{margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c44\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c29\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Whitney\\ Baxter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\wbaxter\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 1\\ Week\\ 6\\:\\ Jamaica\\ p\\.\\ 4\\-12\\;\\ 23\\-79\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mason\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jamaica\\ in\\ Focus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ the\\ best\\ and\\ worst\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Best\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tropical\\ paradise\\,\\ democratic\\,\\ independent\\,\\ natural\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worst\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gangs\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ hurricanes\\,\\ unemployment\\,\\ debt\\,\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Land\\ and\\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Largest\\ English\\ speaking\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.6\\ million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fertile\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Farming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cattle\\ farming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bauxite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;aluminum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\City\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kingston\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capital\\ 1872\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Size\\ breads\\ tensions\\ surrounding\\ the\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Northern\\ areas\\,\\ near\\ the\\ Blue\\ mountains\\,\\ are\\ wealthier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ghettos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Certain\\ hotspots\\,\\ but\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ downtown\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Community\\ can\\ embrace\\ the\\ plight\\ and\\ pull\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Respectable\\ areas\\ become\\ targets\\ for\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isolation\\ from\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hardly\\ visited\\ by\\ tourists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ Town\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Could\\ be\\ rougher\\ than\\ Kingston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Montego\\ Bay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Designed\\ as\\ a\\ tourist\\ town\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inhabitants\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ thirteen\\ parishes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Pigmentocracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lighter\\ skin\\ is\\ valued\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Origins\\ of\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morant\\ Bay\\ Rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Led\\ by\\ Paul\\ Bogle\\,\\ culmination\\ of\\ the\\ slavery\\ tensions\\ in\\ 1865\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Governor\\ Eyre\\ heavy\\ handed\\ response\\ killing\\ 400\\+\\,\\ burning\\ 1000\\+\\ homes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marcus\\ Garvey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Created\\ Universal\\ Negro\\ Improvement\\ Association\\ in\\ 1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relocating\\ blacks\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ restoring\\ pride\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ineffective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peoples\\ National\\ Party\\,\\ 1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Outgrowth\\ of\\ depression\\ recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focused\\ on\\ the\\ inequalities\\ of\\ British\\ rule\\,\\ which\\ ignored\\ regions\\ shortcomings\\ and\\ denied\\ them\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Norman\\ Manley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elected\\ in\\ 1944\\,\\ after\\ all\\ 21\\+\\ Jamaicans\\ are\\ given\\ the\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gradually\\ moves\\ Jamaica\\ to\\ Independence\\ in\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manley\\ and\\ Alexander\\ Bustamante\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ face\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Self\\ made\\ union\\ leaders\\ from\\ 1938\\ strikes\\,\\ light\\ skinned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bustamante\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jamaican\\ Labor\\ Party\\,\\ 1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focuses\\ on\\ trade\\ and\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ PM\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universal\\ suffrage\\,\\ end\\ British\\ Rule\\,\\ PNP\\ Founder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1976\\ Election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Michael\\ Manley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Son\\ of\\ Norman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radical\\,\\ socialist\\,\\ nationalist\\,\\ land\\ reform\\,\\ taxation\\ on\\ foreign\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Edward\\ Seaga\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anti\\ PNP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manley\\ wins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poor\\ economy\\ makes\\ him\\ take\\ loans\\ from\\ the\\ IMF\\,\\ WB\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\IMF\\ loan\\ requirements\\ wreck\\ PNP\\ social\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1980\\ he\\ reneges\\ on\\ the\\ IMF\\ contract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\US\\ and\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reagan\\ supports\\ Seaga\\ after\\ Manley\\ begins\\ shunning\\ Western\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seaga\\ uses\\ support\\ to\\ call\\ short\\ term\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ gets\\ a\\ united\\ govt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1989\\ Manley\\ returns\\ to\\ power\\,\\ but\\ is\\ more\\ receptive\\ to\\ IMF\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Current\\ Govt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Manley\\ succeeded\\ by\\ Percival\\ Patterson\\,\\ 1992\\,\\ follows\\ moderate\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increase\\ in\\ posse\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ alliances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Middle\\ of\\ the\\ road\\ health\\ wise\\,\\ but\\ great\\ economic\\ disparity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ health\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Squatter\\ communities\\,\\ though\\ Patterson\\ trying\\ to\\ end\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ education\\ schooling\\ guaranteed\\ only\\ up\\ to\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ Rights\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Religion\\ a\\ main\\ force\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\,\\ highest\\ number\\ of\\ churches\\ per\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fusion\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ African\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rastafarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theoretically\\ diverse\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ independence\\,\\ GDP\\ grew\\ 5\\%\\ a\\ year\\ on\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ Bauxite\\,\\ but\\ wealth\\ was\\ not\\ reinvested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ develop\\ bauxite\\/aluminum\\ production\\ capability\\ where\\ the\\ money\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1970s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Oil\\ and\\ debt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1988\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Hurricane\\ Gilbert\\ destroys\\ much\\ of\\ infrastructure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ unemployment\\,\\ low\\ government\\ investment\\ due\\ to\\ debt\\ payments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tax\\ havens\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;free\\ zones\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ promote\\ textile\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Farming\\ industry\\ has\\ preferential\\ trade\\ agreements\\ with\\ the\\ EU\\,\\ and\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ industries\\ with\\ country\\ wide\\ trickle\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Savings\\ problems\\,\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ foreign\\ controlled\\ debt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Environment\\,\\ infrastructure\\,\\ health\\,\\ education\\,\\ low\\ priorities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Music\\ large\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Track\\ and\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bob\\ Sled\\,\\ think\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cool\\ Runnings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cricket\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ obsession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Previously\\ segregated\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Universally\\ embraced\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ baseball\\ in\\ latin\\ countries\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Soccer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reggae\\ Boys\\ qualified\\ for\\ the\\ 1998\\ World\\ Cup\\ in\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ English\\ speaking\\ Caribbean\\ team\\ to\\ qualify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resulted\\ in\\ new\\ opportunity\\ for\\ corruption\\,\\ as\\ increased\\ youth\\ funds\\ were\\ siphoned\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dhaval\\ Chadha\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\dchadha\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#1\\ Week\\ 6\\:\\ World\\ Bank\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poverty\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bad\\ situation\\-\\ often\\ no\\ water\\,\\ sanitation\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\main\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\factory\\ closure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\loss\\ of\\ agricultural\\ jobs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\destructive\\ weather\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\effect\\ of\\ international\\ drug\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\push\\ and\\ pull\\ of\\ better\\ life\\ in\\ urban\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poverty\\ reducing\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ slow\\ economic\\ growth\\-down\\ to\\ 16\\%\\ in\\ 1999\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reasons\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ investment\\ in\\ education\\ and\\ health\\ care\\-\\ life\\ expectancy\\ 69\\/72\\ for\\ m\\/f\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\to\\ a\\ lesser\\ degree\\,\\ safety\\ net\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\near\\ 100\\%\\ school\\ enrollment\\ till\\ age\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\strong\\ family\\ ties\\-\\ help\\ support\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PJ\\ Patterson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ goals\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\structural\\ adjustment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\market\\ liberalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\control\\ inflation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\modernize\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compete\\ internationally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\through\\ the\\ following\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\exchange\\ rate\\ liberalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\privatization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reduction\\ of\\ public\\ sector\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\removal\\ of\\ price\\ controls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tax\\ and\\ financial\\ sector\\ reforms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Banking\\ sector\\ crisis\\ together\\ with\\ external\\ shock\\ triggered\\ recession\\ in\\ 1996\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Broad\\ survey\\ conducted\\ by\\ researchers\\ in\\ 9\\ communities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Buffeted\\ by\\ Global\\ Forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jamaican\\ economy\\ influenced\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\competitive\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\austerity\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\harsh\\ weather\\,\\ hurricanes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\labor\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\drug\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\main\\ problem\\ for\\ poverty\\ is\\ unemployment\\-\\ scarcity\\ of\\ jobs\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\-\\ Freeman\\ Hill\\ where\\ hurricane\\ Gilbert\\ destroyed\\ banana\\ and\\ sugar\\ plantations\\ and\\ now\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ jobs\\.\\ Now\\ they\\ grow\\ yam\\ as\\ a\\ cash\\ crop\\ but\\ prices\\ are\\ unsteady\\ and\\ they\\ lack\\ capital\\ to\\ plant\\ even\\ the\\ amount\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ enough\\ land\\ for\\-\\ lack\\ \\&ldquo\\;backative\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Global\\ competition\\ major\\ problem\\-lower\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ of\\ bad\\ roads\\,\\ people\\ are\\ often\\ starving\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ is\\ enough\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fishing\\,\\ farming\\ and\\ tourism\\ main\\ areas\\ of\\ income\\ for\\ rural\\ people\\-\\ where\\ \\¼\\;\\ people\\ are\\ dependent\\ on\\ tourism\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ means\\ more\\ prostitution\\,\\ trafficking\\ etc\\.\\ again\\,\\ bad\\ roads\\ make\\ possible\\ tourism\\ areas\\ unaccessible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extreme\\ weather\\ and\\ environmental\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\H\\.\\ Gilbert\\ destroyed\\ 80\\%\\ homes\\ in\\ Freeman\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Little\\ Bay\\ lost\\ most\\ of\\ its\\ crops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\housing\\ crisis\\ everywhere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Local\\ and\\ Global\\ drug\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\local\\ people\\ see\\ ganja\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ crop\\-\\ non\\ perishable\\ and\\ twice\\ as\\ profitable\\ as\\ dasheen\\ and\\ therefore\\ indispensable\\ but\\ drug\\ use\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ find\\ a\\ better\\ life\\,\\ many\\ Jamaicans\\ migrate\\;\\ even\\ educated\\ people\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ find\\ jobs\\ easily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Often\\,\\ men\\ leave\\ and\\ send\\ money\\ home\\ but\\ this\\ causes\\ many\\ emotional\\ and\\ functional\\ problems\\ within\\ families\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ send\\ anything\\ back\\ home\\ are\\ shunned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Local\\ Entrepreneurship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ manage\\ to\\ get\\ themselves\\ out\\ of\\ poverty\\ be\\ acquiring\\ specific\\ skill\\ and\\ hope\\ that\\ skills\\ training\\ institutes\\ are\\ set\\ up\\ so\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ more\\ oppurtunities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\-\\ day\\-care\\ homes\\,\\ trail\\ guides\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ of\\ popularity\\ of\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\high\\ fees\\,\\ quality\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ functional\\ value\\ of\\ education\\ are\\ the\\ major\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Poor\\ people\\ and\\ public\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\negative\\ view\\ of\\ elected\\ representatives\\-\\ blame\\ govt\\ for\\ loss\\ of\\ jobs\\,\\ inadequacy\\ of\\ schools\\ and\\ shutting\\ down\\ and\\ downsizing\\ of\\ factories\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Politricks\\&rdquo\\;\\ seen\\ as\\ major\\ cause\\ of\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\social\\ assistance\\ programs\\ amount\\ to\\ a\\ far\\ less\\ percentage\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ than\\ in\\ S\\.America\\ and\\ other\\ countries\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\but\\ government\\ devotes\\ money\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\micro\\-enterprise\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\community\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\low\\-income\\ housing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\public\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\this\\ may\\ have\\ helped\\ in\\ reducing\\ poverty\\ even\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ slow\\ economic\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yet\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ impressed\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ execution\\ of\\ ambitious\\ projects\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ food\\ stamp\\ project\\ and\\ government\\ housing\\ efforts\\ \\(national\\ housing\\ trust\\-NHT\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Institution\\ ranking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\researchers\\ asked\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ rank\\ what\\ institutions\\ are\\ most\\ important\\ to\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ and\\ men\\ both\\ agreed\\ on\\ school\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ important\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ let\\ down\\ by\\ false\\ promises\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ parliament\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negril\\ Area\\ Environmental\\ Protection\\ Trust\\ is\\ highly\\ regarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Local\\ communities\\ see\\ \\&ldquo\\;pardner\\&rdquo\\;\\ funds\\ as\\ one\\ solution\\-\\ small\\ pools\\ of\\ resources\\ run\\ by\\ women\\ where\\ the\\ more\\ fortunate\\ help\\ the\\ less\\ fortunate\\ by\\ making\\ funds\\ available\\ for\\ the\\ latter\\ to\\ withdraw\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ lot\\ of\\ inter\\-community\\ help\\ takes\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Resisting\\ crime\\ and\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rural\\ crime\\ not\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ urban\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\often\\,\\ communities\\ cooperate\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ to\\ control\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maroons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ feel\\ that\\ this\\ community\\ feeling\\ is\\ falling\\ apart\\ because\\ of\\ changing\\ cultural\\ traditions\\,\\ material\\ prosperity\\ and\\ gender\\ roles\\ especially\\ among\\ Maroon\\ communities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maroons\\ were\\ originally\\ slaves\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ and\\ were\\ used\\ on\\ farms\\.\\ They\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ tradition\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ laws\\ including\\ restrictions\\ on\\ owning\\ property\\.\\ This\\ lack\\ of\\ collateral\\ often\\ prevents\\ them\\ from\\ getting\\ credit\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ moving\\ further\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ culture\\,\\ having\\ already\\ lost\\ their\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ reach\\ for\\ independence\\ and\\ security\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ communities\\ studied\\ agreed\\ that\\ the\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ role\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ housewife\\ but\\ owing\\ to\\ rising\\ unemployment\\ and\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ families\\,\\ women\\ have\\ started\\ venturing\\ into\\ the\\ professional\\ fields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ the\\ double\\ advantage\\ of\\ more\\ education\\ and\\ the\\ willingness\\ to\\ take\\ any\\ job\\ and\\ are\\ therefore\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ employed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Formal\\ employment\\ percentage\\-\\ m\\/f\\-9\\.9\\/23\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ helpless\\.\\ They\\ leave\\ their\\ husbands\\ when\\ the\\ men\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ them\\ and\\ are\\ far\\ safer\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ domestic\\ abuse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brian\\ Rapp\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bfrapp\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 2\\ Week\\ 7\\ \\ \\;all\\ Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Island\\ Paradox\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Island\\ Paradox\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ former\\ Spanish\\ colony\\ of\\ 3\\.5\\ million\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ became\\ a\\ territory\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ after\\ in\\ Spanish\\ American\\ War\\ in\\ 1898\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ current\\ political\\ status\\ was\\ forged\\ in\\ the\\ 1940s\\ by\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ leader\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Luis\\ \\ \\;Munoz\\ Marin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ his\\ Popular\\ Democratic\\ Party\\.\\ In\\ 1952\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ became\\ the\\ Commonwealth\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;free\\ state\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ United\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Popularly\\ elected\\ governor\\ and\\ legislature\\,\\ exempt\\ from\\ federal\\ taxes\\,\\ no\\ voting\\ representatives\\ in\\ Congress\\,\\ do\\ not\\ vote\\ in\\ national\\ elections\\,\\ use\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ dollar\\,\\ foreign\\ and\\ immigration\\ policies\\ determined\\ by\\ Washington\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MASSIVE\\ population\\ flows\\,\\ 3\\ million\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ living\\ outside\\ the\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Culture\\:\\ Spanish\\ and\\ American\\ interaction\\ result\\ in\\ Latin\\ American\\ culture\\ heavily\\ influenced\\ by\\ American\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ early\\ 1970s\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ was\\ held\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ showcase\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\,\\ as\\ a\\ shining\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ political\\ stability\\,\\ democracy\\,\\ and\\ open\\-market\\ economic\\ policies\\ lead\\ to\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\ This\\ image\\ has\\ been\\ tarnished\\ by\\ the\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disappointing\\ and\\ painful\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ experiences\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ twenty\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1940\\-\\ 2\\/3\\ rural\\ residences\\,\\ 45\\%\\ of\\ labor\\ force\\ in\\ agricultural\\ activities\\,\\ GNP\\ of\\ \\$1\\,478\\,\\ one\\ physician\\ for\\ every\\ 3\\,763\\,\\ life\\ expectancy\\ of\\ 46\\ years\\,\\ infant\\ mortality\\ rate\\ of\\ 109\\.1\\ per\\ thousand\\ births\\,\\ 7\\%\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ have\\ high\\ school\\ diplomas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1990\\-\\ 2\\/3\\ urban\\ residences\\,\\ 3\\.7\\%\\ of\\ labor\\ force\\ in\\ agricultural\\ activities\\,\\ GNP\\ of\\ \\$6\\,361\\,\\ one\\ physician\\ for\\ every\\ 350\\ persons\\,\\ life\\ expectancy\\ of\\ 75\\ years\\,\\ infant\\ mortality\\ rate\\ of\\ 14\\.3\\ per\\ thousand\\ births\\,\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ have\\ high\\ school\\ diplomas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highest\\ GNP\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ however\\,\\ after\\ the\\ crash\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ unemployment\\ has\\ increased\\ to\\ over\\ 20\\ percent\\ with\\ the\\ young\\ \\(ages\\ 16\\-19\\)\\ being\\ affected\\ the\\ most\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;crime\\ has\\ reached\\ a\\ crisis\\ level\\ necessitating\\ National\\ Guard\\ action\\ \\(social\\ distress\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Operation\\ Bootstrap\\ \\(1940\\-1960s\\)\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ government\\ policies\\ aimed\\ at\\ fostering\\ private\\-sector\\ investment\\ by\\ U\\.S\\.\\ firms\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ to\\ expand\\ local\\ employment\\ through\\ public\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Operation\\ Bootstrap\\ was\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ attract\\ mainland\\ industries\\ and\\ capital\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ through\\ tax\\ exemptions\\,\\ industrial\\ services\\,\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ factory\\ buildings\\,\\ loans\\,\\ and\\ special\\ assistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ lower\\ productivity\\ of\\ labor\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ infrastructure\\,\\ Operation\\ Bootstrap\\ generated\\ rapid\\ growth\\ of\\ manufacturing\\ production\\ and\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ became\\ almost\\ entirely\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ market\\ for\\ its\\ exports\\ that\\ left\\ it\\ hostage\\ to\\ sustained\\ economic\\ growth\\,\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ closed\\ down\\ with\\ little\\ cost\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ companies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ petrochemical\\ \\(capital\\-intensive\\)\\ development\\ strategy\\-\\ designed\\ to\\ attract\\ industries\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ whose\\ output\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ an\\ input\\ by\\ other\\ industries\\-\\ BOOM\\ in\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;BUST\\ in\\ 70s\\ and\\ 80s\\ \\(additionally\\,\\ other\\ developing\\ nations\\ led\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labor\\ market\\ failure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\To\\ keep\\ companies\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ allowed\\ profits\\ made\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ to\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ motherland\\ free\\ from\\ federal\\ taxes\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ money\\ was\\ deposited\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ for\\ six\\ months\\-\\ this\\ continues\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ major\\ source\\ of\\ private\\ investments\\ that\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ finance\\ commercial\\ loans\\,\\ mortgages\\,\\ and\\ government\\ loans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ recession\\ in\\ 1982\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;unemployment\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ of\\ 25\\ percent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ relationship\\ between\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ situation\\.\\ Overall\\,\\ the\\ integration\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ into\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ economy\\ has\\ been\\ associated\\ with\\ substantial\\ income\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ island\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ tight\\ links\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ increased\\ economic\\ volatility\\,\\ and\\,\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ twenty\\ years\\,\\ to\\ growing\\ unemployment\\ and\\ widespread\\ social\\ malaise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Population\\ Growth\\ and\\ Demographic\\ Changes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Between\\ 1980\\ and\\ 1990\\,\\ the\\ population\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ rose\\ from\\ 3\\,196\\,500\\ to\\ 3\\,522\\,037\\,\\ an\\ increase\\ of\\ 10\\.2\\ percent\\.\\ This\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ slowest\\ periods\\ of\\ population\\ growth\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ during\\ the\\ century\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ decline\\ in\\ population\\ growth\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ reduction\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ net\\ flow\\ of\\ 116\\,571\\ persons\\ during\\ the\\ decade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ drop\\ in\\ the\\ natural\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ fall\\ in\\ the\\ birth\\ rate\\ and\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ death\\ rate\\ during\\ the\\ decade\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ birth\\ rate\\ has\\ systematically\\ declined\\ since\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ from\\ 38\\.9\\ births\\ per\\ one\\ thousand\\ persons\\ in\\ 1950\\,\\ to\\ 23\\.8\\ births\\ per\\ thousand\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ to\\ 18\\.8\\ per\\ thousand\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ Death\\ declined\\ from\\ 9\\.9\\ to\\ 6\\.6\\ deaths\\ per\\ thousand\\ persons\\ between\\ 1950\\ and\\ 1980\\.\\ But\\ in\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ death\\ rate\\ rose\\ sharply\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ from\\ 6\\.4\\ deaths\\ per\\ thousand\\ persons\\ in\\ 1980\\ to\\ 7\\.4\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ increased\\ mortality\\ rate\\ was\\ related\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ to\\ the\\ aging\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ and\\ the\\ consequent\\ increased\\ proportion\\ of\\ people\\ aged\\ 65\\ and\\ over\\.\\ The\\ age\\ of\\ the\\ average\\ person\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ climbed\\ from\\ 18\\.4\\ years\\ in\\ 1950\\,\\ to\\ 21\\.6\\ years\\ in\\ 1970\\,\\ to\\ 28\\.4\\ years\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ The\\ overall\\ aging\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ population\\ has\\ been\\ partly\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ migratory\\ movements\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ to\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ island\\.\\ Out\\-migrants\\ are\\ generally\\ younger\\ than\\ the\\ average\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rising\\ death\\ rate\\ in\\ the\\ island\\ is\\ also\\ associated\\ with\\ increased\\ mortality\\ among\\ the\\ 25\\-44\\ age\\ group\\.\\ This\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ in\\ AIDS\\-related\\ deaths\\ and\\ the\\ growing\\ incidents\\ of\\ accidents\\ and\\ homicides\\.\\ For\\ persons\\ in\\ the\\ 25\\-44\\ age\\ group\\,\\ AIDS\\ constitutes\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ accidents\\ and\\ homicides\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ drop\\ in\\ the\\ birth\\ rate\\ us\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ increased\\ educational\\ attainment\\ among\\ women\\.\\ More\\-educated\\ women\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ lower\\ birth\\ rates\\.\\ In\\ 1990\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ children\\ ever\\ born\\ to\\ women\\ between\\ 25\\ and\\ 55\\ years\\ of\\ age\\ who\\ had\\ not\\ completed\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ education\\ was\\ 4\\.2\\.\\ To\\ those\\ with\\ a\\ college\\ degree\\,\\ it\\ was\\ 1\\.6\\.\\ Since\\ educational\\ attainment\\ increase\\ sharply\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ this\\ accounts\\ for\\ a\\ significant\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ drop\\ in\\ fertility\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fertility\\ has\\ also\\ declined\\ because\\ of\\ rising\\ urbanization\\,\\ marriage\\ delay\\,\\ and\\ other\\ social\\ and\\ demographic\\ trends\\.\\ Birth\\ control\\ initiatives\\ have\\ had\\ an\\ impact\\ by\\ providing\\ information\\ and\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ desired\\ smaller\\ families\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teenage\\ pregnancy\\ does\\ not\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ single\\ parenthood\\ increased\\ rapidly\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 1990s\\,\\ 18\\.8\\ percent\\ of\\ all\\ women\\ ages\\ 18\\-55\\ were\\ single\\ parents\\,\\ up\\ from\\ 15\\.7\\ percent\\ in\\ 1980\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ proportion\\ of\\ people\\ ever\\ married\\ has\\ generally\\ risen\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ However\\ among\\ the\\ younger\\ cohorts\\ in\\ the\\ population\\,\\ the\\ 1980s\\ saw\\ a\\ drop\\ in\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ people\\ getting\\ married\\.\\ Among\\ women\\ aged\\ 20\\-29\\,\\ the\\ proportion\\ ever\\ married\\ fell\\ from\\ 67\\.6\\ percent\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ to\\ 60\\.6\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ substantial\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ delaying\\ marriage\\ until\\ their\\ thirties\\.\\ Higher\\ education\\ attainment\\ and\\ the\\ greater\\ participation\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ were\\ the\\ main\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ marriage\\ delay\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divorce\\ rates\\ have\\ been\\ climbing\\ since\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ The\\ proportion\\ of\\ men\\ who\\ were\\ divorced\\ rose\\ from\\ 3\\.5\\ percent\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ to\\ 5\\.1\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ For\\ women\\,\\ the\\ proportion\\ rose\\ from\\ 7\\.3\\ percent\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ to\\ 9\\.4\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ now\\ has\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ divorce\\ rates\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ in\\ on\\ average\\ stronger\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ mainland\\ United\\ States\\.\\ In\\ 1990\\,\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ all\\ households\\ in\\ the\\ mainland\\ United\\ States\\ that\\ were\\ also\\ families\\ was\\ 70\\.8\\ percent\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ 84\\ percent\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Between\\ 1970\\ and\\ 1990\\,\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ married\\-couple\\ families\\ dropped\\ from\\ 78\\.8\\ percent\\ to\\ 71\\.6\\ percent\\.\\ This\\ fall\\ was\\ matched\\ by\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ families\\ headed\\ by\\ a\\ female\\ with\\ no\\ spouse\\ present\\,\\ from\\ 15\\.6\\ percent\\ in\\ 1970\\,\\ to\\ 23\\.2\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Labor\\ Market\\ and\\ the\\ Unemployment\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ decline\\ of\\ employment\\ in\\ agriculture\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ developments\\ in\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ economy\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ forty\\ years\\.\\ In\\ 1950\\,\\ 35\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ labor\\ force\\ was\\ employed\\ in\\ agriculture\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ only\\ 3\\.7\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ This\\ drastic\\ transformation\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ agriculture\\ as\\ an\\ income\\-generating\\ sector\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ As\\ policymakers\\ engaged\\ in\\ Operation\\ Bootstrap\\,\\ with\\ its\\ urban\\-based\\ \\&ldquo\\;industrialization\\-first\\&rdquo\\;\\ development\\ strategy\\,\\ the\\ agricultural\\ labor\\ force\\ was\\ siphoned\\ into\\ rapidly\\ expanding\\ urban\\ areas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\,\\ services\\,\\ and\\ public\\ administration\\ have\\ all\\ greatly\\ increased\\ as\\ employment\\ sectors\\.\\ Manufacturing\\ employment\\ has\\ been\\ stable\\ since\\ 1950\\,\\ accounting\\ on\\ average\\ for\\ about\\ 19\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\.\\ Women\\ have\\ been\\ heavily\\ involved\\ in\\ manufacturing\\ employment\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ In\\ 1950\\,\\ approximately\\ 50\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ employed\\ in\\ manufacturing\\ was\\ female\\.\\ In\\ 1990\\,\\ the\\ female\\ proportion\\ of\\ the\\ manufacturing\\ workforce\\ in\\ the\\ island\\ was\\ still\\ 46\\.7\\ percent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ 1950\\ to\\ 1990\\,\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ in\\ white\\-collar\\ occupations\\ grew\\ sharply\\,\\ reflected\\ an\\ upgrading\\ of\\ the\\ skills\\ of\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ workforce\\.\\ Workers\\ in\\ white\\-collar\\ occupations\\ made\\ up\\ less\\ than\\ 30\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ in\\ 1950\\,\\ but\\ more\\ than\\ half\\ by\\ 1990\\.\\ Improvements\\ in\\ education\\ greatly\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ improvement\\ in\\ occupational\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historically\\,\\ women\\ have\\ been\\ overrepresented\\ in\\ white\\-collar\\ occupations\\.\\ Within\\ the\\ white\\-collar\\ segment\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ female\\ labor\\ force\\ has\\ been\\ clustered\\ or\\ segregated\\ into\\ lower\\-paying\\ clerical\\ and\\ administrative\\-support\\ occupations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ labor\\ force\\ participation\\ rates\\ declined\\ sharply\\ between\\ 1950\\ and\\ 1980\\,\\ and\\ rose\\ between\\ 1980\\ and\\ 1990\\.\\ In\\ 1950\\,\\ the\\ male\\ labor\\ force\\ participation\\ rate\\ was\\ 70\\.7\\ percent\\;\\ by\\ 1990\\,\\ it\\ was\\ 59\\.2\\ percent\\.\\ This\\ drop\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ lower\\ participation\\ rates\\ among\\ persons\\ below\\ 20\\ years\\ of\\ age\\ \\(due\\ to\\ greater\\ educational\\ attainment\\)\\.\\ This\\ rising\\ unemployment\\ since\\ the\\ early\\ 1970s\\ has\\ resulted\\ in\\ discouraged\\ workers\\,\\ who\\ will\\ drop\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ labor\\ force\\ participation\\ rate\\ of\\ women\\ has\\ trended\\ upward\\ since\\ the\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ rising\\ from\\ 20\\ percent\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ to\\ 37\\.1\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ The\\ same\\ forces\\ operating\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ participation\\ rates\\ among\\ younger\\ and\\ older\\ men\\ were\\ also\\ operating\\ among\\ women\\ during\\ this\\ time\\ period\\.\\ These\\ changes\\,\\ however\\,\\ were\\ minor\\ compared\\ with\\ the\\ sharply\\ rising\\ labor\\ force\\ participation\\ rates\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ 25\\-55\\ age\\ group\\.\\ This\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ an\\ increased\\ demand\\ for\\ female\\ labor\\ in\\ manufacturing\\ and\\ service\\ sectors\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ with\\ shifting\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unemployment\\ exploded\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\.\\ Among\\ men\\,\\ unemployment\\ rose\\ from\\ 4\\.7\\ percent\\ in\\ 1970\\,\\ to\\ 14\\.3\\ percent\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ to\\ 18\\.9\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ Among\\ women\\,\\ unemployment\\ increased\\ from\\ 6\\.8\\ percent\\ in\\ 1970\\,\\ to\\ 16\\.1\\ percent\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ to\\ 22\\.2\\ percent\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ incidence\\ of\\ unemployment\\ varies\\ among\\ various\\ demographic\\ groups\\ in\\ the\\ population\\.\\ Age\\ is\\ crucial\\;\\ the\\ unemployment\\ rate\\ among\\ teenagers\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ is\\ at\\ crisis\\ levels\\.\\ In\\ 1990\\,\\ 53\\.9\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ between\\ the\\ ages\\ of\\ 16\\ and\\ 19\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ were\\ unemployed\\.\\ Among\\ women\\ in\\ this\\ age\\ group\\,\\ 61\\.9\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ was\\ unemployed\\.\\ Educational\\ attainment\\ is\\ another\\ major\\ determinant\\ of\\ unemployment\\.\\ The\\ unemployment\\ rate\\ is\\ substantially\\ lower\\ among\\ college\\-educated\\ persons\\.\\ Given\\ the\\ high\\ rate\\ of\\ mobility\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ between\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ the\\ mainland\\,\\ recency\\ of\\ migration\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ is\\ a\\ third\\ major\\ factor\\ affecting\\ unemployment\\.\\ A\\ fourth\\ factor\\ is\\ location\\:\\ rural\\ areas\\ in\\ the\\ island\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ substantially\\ higher\\ unemployment\\ rates\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ massive\\ increase\\ in\\ unemployment\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\ affected\\ almost\\ every\\ demographic\\ group\\ in\\ the\\ island\\.\\ The\\ crisis\\ was\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ extent\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ sustained\\ drop\\ in\\ the\\ aggregate\\ demand\\ for\\ labor\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ severe\\ recession\\ that\\ lasted\\ until\\ the\\ late\\ q980s\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ increased\\ competition\\ from\\ other\\ developing\\ and\\ newly\\ industrialized\\ nations\\ for\\ foreign\\ \\ \\;investment\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ reduction\\ of\\ labor\\-intensive\\ U\\.S\\.\\ investments\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federal\\ minimum\\ wage\\ legislation\\ applies\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ The\\ evidence\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ federal\\ minimum\\ wages\\ play\\ on\\ unemployment\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ is\\ mixed\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ evidence\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ variables\\ are\\ positively\\ related\\,\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ magnitude\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ precisely\\ established\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Earnings\\ growth\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\ was\\ brisk\\.\\ It\\ also\\ appears\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ somewhat\\ stronger\\ for\\ women\\ than\\ for\\ men\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ in\\ earnings\\ declined\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\ In\\ 1979\\,\\ the\\ average\\ earnings\\ of\\ women\\ working\\ full\\-time\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ were\\ 74\\.1\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ earnings\\ of\\ full\\-time\\ male\\ workers\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ this\\ gap\\ narrowed\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ three\\ percentage\\ points\\.\\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ narrowing\\ of\\ the\\ male\\-female\\ earnings\\ gap\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ occupational\\ distributions\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ became\\ more\\ similar\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ returns\\ to\\ education\\ increased\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ just\\ as\\ they\\ did\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ Although\\ higher\\ education\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ higher\\ pay\\ for\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ returns\\ to\\ education\\ are\\ higher\\ among\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ differentiates\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\ from\\ the\\ economy\\ of\\ the\\ mainland\\,\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\,\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ a\\ developing\\ economy\\.\\ The\\ notion\\ of\\ dualism\\,\\ between\\ formal\\ and\\ informal\\ sectors\\,\\ and\\ between\\ rural\\ and\\ urban\\ areas\\,\\ an\\ important\\ concept\\ in\\ analyzing\\ developing\\ economies\\,\\ applies\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ The\\ urban\\ informal\\ sector\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ thriving\\ and\\ dynamic\\,\\ with\\ comparatively\\ low\\ unemployment\\ rates\\ and\\ high\\ earnings\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ both\\ the\\ formal\\ and\\ informal\\ sectors\\ in\\ rural\\ areas\\ are\\ stagnant\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Between\\ Two\\ Worlds\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ Looks\\ Toward\\ The\\ Twenty\\-First\\ Century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\At\\ times\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ fifty\\ years\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ exhibited\\ rapid\\,\\ occasionally\\ extraordinary\\ gains\\ in\\ per\\ capita\\ income\\ and\\ in\\ its\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\.\\ These\\ changes\\ were\\ associated\\ with\\ substantial\\ improvements\\ in\\ health\\,\\ nutrition\\,\\ and\\ education\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ since\\ the\\ early\\ 1970s\\,\\ the\\ economy\\ has\\ suffered\\ from\\ a\\ devastating\\ upward\\ trend\\ in\\ unemployment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inequality\\ of\\ economic\\ outcomes\\ has\\ sharply\\ increased\\:\\ persons\\ residing\\ in\\ female\\-headed\\ households\\,\\ rural\\ households\\,\\ the\\ unskilled\\,\\ the\\ uneducated\\,\\ and\\ the\\ young\\,\\ all\\ suffer\\ from\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ poverty\\.\\ In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ such\\ social\\ ills\\ as\\ growing\\ crime\\ rates\\ and\\ substance\\ abuse\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lethal\\ virus\\-related\\ AIDS\\ have\\ become\\ rampant\\ among\\ some\\ segments\\ of\\ the\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ was\\ the\\ pioneer\\ of\\ policies\\ later\\ adopted\\ worldwide\\.\\ Its\\ outward\\-oriented\\ approach\\ to\\ trade\\ and\\ investment\\,\\ based\\ on\\ tax\\ exemptions\\ and\\ other\\ incentives\\ to\\ attract\\ foreign\\ investment\\ and\\ export\\-oriented\\ industries\\,\\ is\\ now\\ commonplace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ speed\\ at\\ which\\ industrialization\\ proceeded\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ made\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ adjustment\\ extremely\\ difficult\\ for\\ many\\.\\ They\\ have\\ remained\\ remarkably\\ resilient\\ in\\ preserving\\ their\\ culture\\ and\\ identifying\\ themselves\\ as\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ \\(mostly\\ dealing\\ with\\ those\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ Trends\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Economy\\:\\ Growth\\,\\ Stagnation\\,\\ and\\ Inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industrialization\\ and\\ Growing\\ Urbanization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Education\\ and\\ the\\ Labor\\ Force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Unemployment\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Migration\\ Between\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immigrants\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ \\(Dominican\\ Republic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\.S\\.\\/Puerto\\ Rico\\ relations\\ moving\\ towards\\ full\\ integration\\ with\\ common\\ currency\\ and\\ common\\ social\\ and\\ labor\\ legislation\\-\\ common\\ customs\\,\\ free\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ capital\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ free\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ internal\\ U\\.S\\.\\ market\\.\\ Without\\ tariffs\\,\\ quotas\\,\\ or\\ other\\ barriers\\ to\\ the\\ free\\ flow\\ of\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\,\\ government\\ authorities\\ understand\\ that\\ the\\ island\\ has\\ an\\ advantage\\ over\\ other\\ developing\\ countries\\ in\\ producing\\ for\\ export\\ to\\ the\\ huge\\ U\\.S\\.\\ market\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economy\\ Failure\\ \\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ longer\\ a\\ pioneer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ major\\ advantages\\ over\\ other\\ developing\\ countries\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\ reliance\\ on\\ U\\.S\\ capital\\-\\ U\\.S\\.\\ sneeze\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;catches\\ cold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minimum\\ wages\\ on\\ the\\ island\\-\\ rids\\ them\\ of\\ their\\ trade\\ advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Migratory\\ flow\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ economy\\ is\\ to\\ deal\\ seriously\\ with\\ high\\ unemployment\\ rates\\ \\(most\\ significant\\ problem\\)\\,\\ the\\ education\\ of\\ its\\ workforce\\ must\\ be\\ sharply\\ increased\\.\\ It\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ employment\\ levels\\ of\\ unskilled\\ labor\\ in\\ a\\ developing\\ country\\ where\\ federal\\ minimum\\ wage\\ rates\\ apply\\.\\ A\\ focus\\ on\\ education\\ at\\ all\\ levels\\ as\\ a\\ public\\ policy\\ objective\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\ in\\ reducing\\ unemployment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ accumulation\\ of\\ human\\ capital\\ would\\ also\\ generate\\ positive\\ spillover\\ effects\\:\\ individual\\ entrepreneurship\\,\\ technological\\ change\\,\\ and\\ innovation\\ are\\ all\\ spurred\\ by\\ greater\\ supplies\\ of\\ workers\\ with\\ a\\ college\\ degree\\ or\\ more\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Erica\\ Mitchell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\emitchel\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 3\\ Week\\ 7\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\:\\ Culture\\,\\ Politics\\,\\ and\\ Identity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Nancy\\ Morris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ exploration\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\ through\\ field\\ and\\ archival\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 1\\:\\ National\\ Identity\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1493\\-1898\\ \\-\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ was\\ a\\ Spanish\\ Colony\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1898\\ \\-\\ U\\.S\\.\\ gained\\ sovereignty\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ undertook\\ a\\ sustained\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanization\\&rdquo\\;\\ campaign\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;leading\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ conflicted\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Puerto\\ Rican\\ Identity\\ in\\ the\\ Modern\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Key\\ part\\ of\\ identity\\ is\\ establishing\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;us\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MANY\\ conflicts\\ have\\ arisen\\ when\\ a\\ group\\ desires\\ formal\\ differentiation\\ from\\ an\\ existing\\ state\\ due\\ to\\ ethnic\\,\\ linguistic\\,\\ or\\ religious\\ identities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defining\\ the\\ Terms\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Definition\\ Maze\\&rdquo\\;\\ PRs\\ are\\ faced\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\ self\\-defined\\ community\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ share\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ solidarity\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ common\\ heritage\\ and\\ who\\ claim\\ political\\ rights\\ that\\ may\\ include\\ self\\-determination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;a\\ legal\\ and\\ political\\ organization\\,\\ with\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ require\\ obedience\\ and\\ loyalty\\ from\\ its\\ citizens\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Hugh\\ Seton\\-Watson\\,\\ 1977\\)\\ pg\\.12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nationalism\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;an\\ emotional\\ attachment\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ country\\ OR\\ a\\ doctrine\\ that\\ holds\\ that\\ the\\ political\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ should\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ nations\\ and\\ describes\\ any\\ political\\ movement\\ whose\\ aim\\ is\\ national\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ Identity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\ to\\ a\\ collectivity\\ that\\ calls\\ itself\\ a\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ and\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Under\\ the\\ provided\\ definitions\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ is\\ a\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ site\\ of\\ contested\\ identity\\,\\ PR\\ is\\ unusual\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;A\\ small\\ island\\ with\\ no\\ borders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indigenous\\ population\\ was\\ completely\\ wiped\\ out\\ during\\ Spanish\\ conquest\\ \\(no\\ native\\ group\\ to\\ demand\\ recognition\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Complete\\ Spanish\\ control\\ left\\ it\\ with\\ little\\ suppressed\\ ethnic\\,\\ linguistic\\,\\ or\\ religious\\ competition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ Americanization\\ Campaign\\,\\ 1898\\-1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ Military\\ Occupation\\,\\ October\\ 1898\\-\\ May\\ 1900\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Americanization\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ requisite\\ for\\ the\\ eventual\\ self\\-rule\\ and\\ integration\\ in\\ US\\ of\\ a\\ population\\ that\\ was\\ perceived\\ as\\ politically\\ immature\\ and\\ unequipped\\ for\\ self\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Educational\\ system\\ was\\ a\\ primary\\ target\\ of\\ efforts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ teaching\\ of\\ English\\ was\\ a\\ consistent\\ goal\\ and\\ was\\ taught\\ as\\ primary\\ in\\ schools\\ \\(a\\ BIG\\ point\\ of\\ controversy\\ in\\ the\\ coming\\ decades\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Civilian\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ 18\\ months\\ of\\ occupation\\,\\ US\\ instated\\ the\\ Organic\\ Act\\ \\(known\\ as\\ the\\ Foraker\\ Act\\)\\ of\\ 1900\\ that\\ instituted\\ civilian\\ govt\\.\\ in\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Govt\\ would\\ be\\ run\\ by\\ a\\ governor\\ and\\ an\\ 11\\-member\\ executive\\ counsel\\ \\(5\\ from\\ PR\\)\\,\\ all\\ of\\ whom\\ were\\ appointed\\ by\\ the\\ US\\ president\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Described\\ by\\ Morales\\ Carri\\ó\\;n\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;paternalistic\\&hellip\\;dominated\\ by\\ Washington\\,\\ and\\ run\\ primarily\\ by\\ an\\ American\\ bureaucracy\\ with\\ a\\ smattering\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Participation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Pg\\.\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ parties\\ that\\ developed\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Republican\\ Party\\:\\ \\(1899\\)\\ wanted\\ US\\ statehood\\ for\\ PR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unionist\\ Party\\:\\ \\(1904\\)\\ advocated\\ self\\-government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Socialist\\ Party\\ \\(1915\\-54\\)\\ based\\ in\\ organized\\ labor\\ and\\ favored\\ statehood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;In\\ 1917\\ the\\ Jones\\ Act\\,\\ granting\\ increased\\ self\\-government\\ and\\ US\\ citizenship\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ was\\ passed\\ by\\ the\\ US\\ Congress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ Citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\May\\ have\\ been\\ granted\\ for\\ strategic\\ location\\ and\\ recruits\\ for\\ WWI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brought\\ continuing\\ pressure\\ to\\ adopt\\ US\\ ways\\ and\\ English\\ language\\ \\(Of\\ a\\ population\\ of\\ 1\\.25\\ million\\,\\ only\\ 288\\ declined\\ US\\ citizenship\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Governor\\ E\\.\\ Montgomery\\ Reily\\ \\(1921\\)\\ enforced\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ supporting\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ independence\\ was\\ akin\\ to\\ treason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expressions\\ of\\ Unrest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Formation\\ of\\ the\\ Nationalist\\ Party\\ in\\ 1922\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ advocated\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increasingly\\ self\\-conscious\\ affirmation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Puerto\\ Ricanness\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ literary\\ and\\ artistic\\ production\\,\\ use\\ of\\ political\\ symbols\\ \\(single\\ star\\ flag\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1946\\,\\ a\\ bill\\ restoring\\ Spanish\\ as\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ instruction\\ in\\ school\\ was\\ vetoed\\ by\\ Truman\\ and\\ PR\\ university\\ students\\ staged\\ a\\ strike\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Internal\\ Self\\-Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ 1947\\ Congress\\ approved\\ an\\ amendment\\ to\\ the\\ Jones\\ Act\\ \\(1917\\)\\ that\\ authorized\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ to\\ elect\\ their\\ own\\ governor\\,\\ who\\ would\\ appoint\\ the\\ commissioner\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ the\\ attorney\\ general\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1948\\,\\ Luis\\ Munoz\\ Mar\\í\\;n\\,\\ who\\ advocated\\ continued\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ mainland\\ with\\ maximum\\ self\\ govt\\.\\,\\ became\\ the\\ first\\ elected\\ governor\\ and\\ upon\\ appointing\\ a\\ new\\ education\\ commissioner\\,\\ Spanish\\ returned\\ as\\ the\\ school\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\c\\.\\ \\ \\;Note\\ that\\ plebiscite\\ campaign\\ with\\ 73\\%\\ participation\\:\\ 46\\%\\ want\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;commonwealth\\ status\\,\\ 46\\%\\ want\\ statehood\\,\\ 4\\%\\ want\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kati\\ McFarland\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\mcfarlan\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 3\\ Week\\ 7\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\ and\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Commonwealth\\ Status\\,\\ 1949\\-1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Munoz\\ Marin\\ and\\ Popular\\ Democratic\\ Party\\:\\ efforts\\ to\\ achieve\\ greater\\ autonomy\\ while\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;maintaining\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ ties\\ with\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Campos\\ and\\ Nationalist\\ Party\\:\\ any\\ form\\ of\\ resistance\\ to\\ US\\ legitimate\\,\\ organized\\ violent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;uprisings\\ in\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rican\\ and\\ US\\ law\\ agencies\\ invoked\\ \\&ldquo\\;gag\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ forbid\\ advocation\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;violence\\ against\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1952\\:\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ constitution\\:\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ would\\ retain\\ citizenship\\ and\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;exempt\\ from\\ federal\\ taxes\\,\\ and\\ continue\\ to\\ be\\ represented\\ in\\ Congress\\,\\ share\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;monetary\\ system\\ and\\ have\\ US\\ tariffs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Term\\ \\&ldquo\\;commonwealth\\&rdquo\\;\\ chosen\\ to\\ allay\\ fears\\ that\\ PR\\ was\\ asking\\ for\\ statehood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ law\\ adopted\\ single\\ star\\ flag\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constitution\\ inaugurated\\ on\\ July\\ 25\\,\\ 1952\\,\\ 54\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;anniversary\\ of\\ US\\ invasion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marin\\:\\ new\\ status\\ not\\ necessarily\\ permanent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\-party\\ system\\ developed\\:\\ commonwealth\\,\\ statehood\\,\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Statehood\\ party\\ aligned\\ with\\ US\\ Republicans\\;\\ commonwealth\\ with\\ US\\ Dems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Commonwealth\\ has\\ dominated\\ since\\ 1949\\ but\\ statehood\\ increasing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Debate\\ over\\ language\\ in\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ War\\:\\ PR\\ students\\ protested\\ obligatory\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cerro\\ Maravilla\\:\\ two\\ people\\ murdered\\,\\ ten\\ policemen\\ convicted\\ for\\ murder\\,\\ perjury\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;obstruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terrorist\\ groups\\ advocating\\ independence\\,\\ especially\\ FALN\\ and\\ Los\\ Macheteros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PR\\ Justice\\ Dept\\ ruled\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ illegal\\ not\\ to\\ use\\ US\\ anthem\\ for\\ Pan\\ Am\\ games\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1979\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plebiscite\\ Bill\\ in\\ 1989\\,\\ not\\ passed\\ by\\ US\\ Senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1991\\ law\\ that\\ Spanish\\ is\\ official\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Six\\-point\\ referendum\\ in\\ 1991\\ seen\\ as\\ vote\\ for\\ PR\\-ness\\,\\ voted\\ down\\ by\\ 53\\%\\ of\\ PRs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Symbols\\ of\\ Identity\\:\\ What\\ Is\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\-depth\\ interviews\\ with\\ politicians\\ and\\ focus\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Points\\ of\\ consensus\\:\\ pride\\ in\\ PR\\,\\ customs\\ and\\ traditions\\,\\ strength\\ of\\ US\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ consistently\\ cited\\ element\\ of\\ PR\\-ness\\ was\\ Spanish\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ seen\\ as\\ important\\ \\(400\\ years\\ of\\ Spanish\\ colonialism\\,\\ 100\\ years\\ of\\ US\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;sovereignity\\,\\ blend\\ of\\ many\\ cultures\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\,\\ food\\,\\ sports\\ esp\\.\\ Olympic\\ team\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Puerto\\ Rican\\ personality\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ warm\\,\\ gregarious\\,\\ generous\\,\\ expressive\\,\\ hospitality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julie\\ Lamusta\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\lamusta\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 3\\ Week\\ 7\\ Ch\\.s\\ 3\\ and\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\:\\ Culture\\,\\ Politics\\,\\ and\\ Identity\\ by\\ Nancy\\ Morris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 3\\ Commonwealth\\ Status\\,\\ 1949\\-1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\&rsquo\\;s\\ political\\ struggle\\ due\\ to\\ different\\ opinions\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ should\\ be\\:\\ state\\,\\ commonwealth\\,\\ independent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Nationalist\\ Party\\,\\ leader\\ Pedro\\ Campos\\,\\ lead\\ violent\\ protests\\ against\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ trying\\ to\\ promote\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ independence\\-\\ attempted\\ assassinations\\ of\\ Governor\\ Marin\\ and\\ President\\ Truman\\,\\ violent\\ uprisings\\ in\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ violence\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;gag\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ passed\\ in\\ 1948\\ till\\ 1957\\ \\(even\\ after\\ law\\ revoked\\,\\ advocating\\ independence\\ was\\ considered\\ subversive\\ and\\ repression\\ continued\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ that\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ felony\\ to\\ advocate\\ violent\\ action\\ against\\ the\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ government\\ in\\ speech\\ or\\ writing\\.\\ \\ \\;Followed\\ by\\ violations\\ in\\ which\\ police\\ made\\ blind\\ arrests\\,\\ burned\\ books\\,\\ broke\\ down\\ doors\\ to\\ homes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Rican\\ Constitution\\ 1952\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Constitution\\ established\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ a\\ commonwealth\\.\\ \\ \\;Constitution\\ was\\ drafted\\ by\\ elected\\ assembly\\,\\ ratified\\ by\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ voters\\,\\ then\\ sent\\ to\\ Washington\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Constitution\\ was\\ approved\\ by\\ Truman\\,\\ then\\ sent\\ to\\ Congress\\ which\\ required\\ three\\ changes\\:\\ adding\\ clause\\ stating\\ that\\ future\\ amendments\\ must\\ be\\ consistent\\ with\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Constitution\\,\\ a\\ clarification\\ of\\ wording\\ of\\ one\\ section\\ of\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\,\\ and\\ elimination\\ of\\ Section\\ 20\\ of\\ the\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\ \\(it\\ did\\ not\\ guarantee\\ right\\ to\\ education\\ and\\ to\\ obtain\\ work\\ which\\ were\\ in\\ UN\\ Universal\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Human\\ Rights\\.\\ \\ \\;Puerto\\ Ricans\\ were\\ upset\\ that\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ make\\ changes\\,\\ but\\ did\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Law\\-\\ national\\ single\\-star\\ flag\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Second\\ law\\-\\ National\\ Anthem\\ \\ \\;Both\\ psychologically\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ Party\\ system\\:\\ \\ \\;Statehood\\ Party\\ aligned\\ with\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Republican\\ Party\\;\\ Commonwealth\\ Party\\ aligned\\ with\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Democrats\\;\\ \\ \\;Independence\\ Party\\ not\\ very\\ popular\\-less\\ than\\ 7\\%\\;\\ \\ \\;Commonwealth\\ has\\ had\\ the\\ most\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Language\\ Issues\\ Resurface\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spanish\\ vs\\.\\ English\\:\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ was\\ made\\ the\\ required\\ language\\ of\\ instruction\\ in\\ schools\\,\\ but\\ acknowledged\\ that\\ students\\ need\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ proficient\\ in\\ English\\.\\ \\ \\;Commonwealth\\ Party\\ supported\\ Spanish\\ requirement\\,\\ Statehood\\ Party\\ did\\ not\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Status\\ Plebiscite\\,\\ 1967\\ \\ \\;A\\ partial\\ boycott\\ of\\ the\\ polls\\ rendered\\ the\\ vote\\ inconclusive\\,\\ any\\ party\\ could\\ claim\\ victory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agitation\\ Against\\ the\\ Status\\ Quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unrest\\ with\\ Vietnam\\ draft\\ prompted\\ independence\\ support\\,\\ which\\ was\\ still\\ considered\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;FBI\\ threatened\\ to\\ take\\ radio\\ stations\\ licenses\\ away\\ if\\ too\\ much\\ pro\\-independence\\ talk\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cerro\\ Maravilla\\ killings\\-\\ PR\\ police\\ shot\\ and\\ killed\\ two\\ independence\\ supporters\\ trying\\ to\\ sabotage\\ a\\ television\\ tower\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ somehow\\ staged\\ by\\ the\\ FBI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Throughout\\ 70\\&rsquo\\;2\\ and\\ early\\ 80\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Armed\\ Forces\\ of\\ National\\ Liberation\\ \\(FALN\\-\\ acronym\\ comes\\ from\\ Spanish\\ name\\)\\ was\\ a\\ terrorist\\ group\\ supporting\\ independence\\-\\ over\\ 100\\ bombings\\,\\ targeted\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Navy\\,\\ National\\ Guard\\,\\ postal\\ facilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Los\\ Machetos\\,\\ another\\ violent\\ pro\\-independece\\ group\\ collaborated\\ with\\ FALN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Violence\\ subsided\\ in\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ after\\ many\\ arrests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pan\\ American\\ Games\\ of\\ 1979\\ was\\ held\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ controversy\\ whether\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ flag\\ and\\ national\\ anthem\\ would\\ be\\ honored\\ or\\ U\\.S\\.\\ also\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ were\\ done\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ booed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plebiscite\\ Proposal\\,\\ Referendum\\,\\ Plebiscite\\ 1989\\-1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ three\\ parties\\ pushed\\ to\\ have\\ another\\ plebiscite\\ bill\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ binding\\;\\ the\\ bill\\ died\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Senate\\ committee\\ in\\&rsquo\\;91\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\.S\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ allow\\ possibility\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ statehood\\.\\ \\ \\;Puerto\\ Rico\\ was\\ very\\ offended\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1991\\ Made\\ Spanish\\ official\\ language\\,\\ English\\ still\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ in\\ schools\\.\\ Statehood\\ party\\ opposed\\ the\\ law\\ because\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ send\\ a\\ message\\ to\\ U\\.S\\.\\ that\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ separate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Law\\ of\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Rights\\ of\\ the\\ People\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\-\\ six\\ point\\ referendum\\ asserting\\ right\\ to\\ retain\\ U\\.S\\.\\ citizenship\\,\\ dealt\\ with\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ symbols\\,\\ guaranteeing\\ right\\ to\\ culture\\,\\ language\\,\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ international\\ sports\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Surprising\\ everyone\\,\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ pass\\ the\\ vote\\ by\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 4\\ Symbols\\ of\\ Identity\\:\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ is\\ a\\ summation\\ of\\ interviews\\ of\\ fourteen\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ politicians\\ and\\ many\\ focus\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Pride\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\-\\ all\\ respondents\\ showed\\ great\\ pride\\ to\\ be\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Statehood\\ Party\\ respondents\\ spoke\\ of\\ pride\\ in\\ more\\ general\\ terms\\ than\\ others\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ proud\\ to\\ be\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ wherever\\ I\\ am\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ pride\\ would\\ be\\ expected\\ since\\ all\\ respondents\\ have\\ decided\\ to\\ live\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ participate\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ a\\ Nation\\-\\ respondents\\ described\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ a\\ nation\\ defining\\ term\\ with\\ references\\ to\\ distinct\\ culture\\ and\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ not\\ an\\ official\\ nation\\,\\ called\\ it\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;sociological\\ nation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Even\\ some\\ Commonwealth\\ supporters\\ see\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ as\\ a\\ nation\\,\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ support\\ independence\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ unpopular\\ and\\ not\\ very\\ feasible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Puerto\\ Ricanness\\:\\ \\ \\;When\\ asked\\ what\\ is\\ Puerto\\ Ricanness\\?\\ \\ \\;Respondents\\ had\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ putting\\ it\\ into\\ words\\,\\ called\\ it\\ a\\ feeling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Puerto\\ \\ \\;Rican\\ Traits\\-\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ many\\ different\\ ingredients\\-\\ customs\\,\\ history\\,\\ language\\&hellip\\;Spanish\\ language\\ extremely\\ important\\,\\ personality\\-warm\\,\\ generous\\,\\ expressive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;International\\ Sports\\ Representation\\-\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ is\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ Olympics\\ and\\ other\\ international\\ sporting\\ games\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ take\\ great\\ pride\\ in\\ their\\ participation\\.\\ \\ \\;Commonwealth\\ Party\\ rated\\ it\\ as\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ importance\\,\\ Statehood\\-\\ medium\\ importance\\,\\ Independence\\-\\ medium\\ importance\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ really\\ take\\ pride\\ in\\ beauty\\ pageants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\,\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ really\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ a\\ unique\\ culture\\ and\\ have\\ pride\\ in\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ben\\ Sheridan\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\sheridan\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 4\\ Week\\ 8\\ \\ \\;Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\-3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sarah\\ Devine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\sdevine\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 4\\ Week\\ 8\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\-6\\,\\ conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Focus\\:\\ Cuba\\ A\\ guide\\ to\\ the\\ People\\,\\ Politics\\,\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuban\\ Economy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cuban\\ joined\\ the\\ COMECON\\ \\(communist\\ common\\ market\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ traded\\ mainly\\ sugar\\ cane\\ and\\ fruit\\ with\\ the\\ USSR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ USSR\\ paid\\ above\\ market\\ price\\ for\\ sugar\\ and\\ sold\\ wheat\\ and\\ oil\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ below\\ the\\ world\\ market\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ gave\\ the\\ island\\ a\\ strong\\ economy\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ its\\ citizens\\ but\\ the\\ structure\\ was\\ not\\ developed\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ profit\\ of\\ strong\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ USSR\\ led\\ the\\ Cubans\\ to\\ have\\ industries\\ which\\ were\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ provide\\ profit\\ with\\ in\\ a\\ global\\ economic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1993\\:\\ A\\ Year\\ of\\ Economic\\ Liberation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\July\\ 1993\\:\\ the\\ dollar\\ was\\ decriminalized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dollar\\ shops\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ place\\ where\\ most\\ Cubans\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ domestic\\ goods\\ that\\ they\\ desired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\September\\ 1993\\:\\ Limited\\ Private\\ Enterprise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ became\\ much\\ more\\ profitable\\ for\\ locals\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ private\\ enterprise\\ than\\ within\\ the\\ state\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paladares\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\private\\ restaurants\\ run\\ by\\ citizens\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foreign\\ investment\\ became\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ industries\\ such\\ as\\ tourism\\ to\\ take\\ off\\ within\\ the\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peso\\ Convertible\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\currency\\ that\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ dollar\\ within\\ Cuba\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ accepted\\ on\\ the\\ world\\ market\\;\\ this\\ was\\ developed\\ to\\ help\\ bring\\ the\\ Cuban\\ peso\\ and\\ American\\ dollar\\ into\\ parallel\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Black\\ Market\\:\\ the\\ black\\ market\\ does\\ more\\ trade\\ than\\ governmental\\ and\\ dollar\\ shops\\ because\\ items\\ on\\ the\\ street\\ are\\ often\\ sold\\ at\\ much\\ lower\\ prices\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Food\\ Shortages\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\libreta\\(ration\\ book\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\does\\ not\\ provide\\ enough\\ food\\ for\\ the\\ citizens\\ and\\ the\\ nation\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ import\\ more\\ that\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ its\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ Farmers\\ have\\ been\\ reduced\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ profitable\\ but\\ the\\ sugar\\ trade\\ still\\ remains\\ on\\ state\\ equipment\\ which\\ is\\ old\\ and\\ often\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ correct\\ fuel\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ latest\\ technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plan\\ Turquino\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\young\\ men\\ have\\ been\\ going\\ into\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ work\\ the\\ land\\ instead\\ of\\ compulsorily\\ military\\ service\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ keep\\ citizens\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ continue\\ to\\ farm\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourism\\ has\\ developed\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ producer\\ for\\ the\\ economy\\ but\\ heavily\\ relies\\ on\\ imports\\ which\\ limits\\ the\\ net\\ profit\\ and\\ the\\ growth\\ is\\ slow\\ compared\\ to\\ other\\ Caribbean\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuban\\ Society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\almost\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mestizo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ is\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ Hispanic\\ and\\ African\\ ancestry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ revolution\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ breakdown\\ of\\ racial\\ and\\ class\\ barriers\\ which\\ left\\ a\\ decidedly\\ more\\ mixed\\ population\\ than\\ before\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ still\\ not\\ racial\\ equality\\:\\ white\\ men\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ marry\\ darker\\ women\\ but\\ society\\ still\\ frowns\\ on\\ a\\ relationship\\ of\\ dark\\ men\\ and\\ white\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Atheism\\ was\\ originally\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Catholicism\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rich\\ social\\ classes\\ and\\ corrupt\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ 1990s\\ saw\\ the\\ final\\ acceptance\\ of\\ religion\\ into\\ the\\ country\\ with\\ a\\ visit\\ from\\ the\\ pope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ attendance\\ has\\ steadily\\ increased\\ while\\ people\\ are\\ looking\\ for\\ answers\\ to\\ the\\ economic\\ crisis\\ caused\\ my\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Santer\\í\\;a\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\syncretic\\ blend\\ of\\ African\\ deities\\ and\\ the\\ catholic\\ religion\\ that\\ developed\\ among\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Members\\ of\\ the\\ communist\\ party\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ supporters\\ of\\ Santer\\í\\;a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ allows\\ books\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ displays\\ because\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ pose\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ communist\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marriage\\ is\\ not\\ often\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\60\\%\\ of\\ babies\\ are\\ born\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abortion\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ acceptable\\ birthcontrol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\ in\\ 2\\ marriages\\ that\\ do\\ occur\\ end\\ in\\ divorce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Revolution\\ has\\ opened\\ over\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ force\\ to\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teen\\ age\\ pregnancy\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ reasons\\ women\\ are\\ still\\ not\\ working\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Homosexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Originally\\ forbidden\\ by\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ acceptance\\ during\\ the\\ 1990s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\ filled\\ with\\ social\\ stigmas\\ and\\ punishments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maric\\ó\\;n\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\local\\ slang\\ for\\ gay\\ man\\ or\\ also\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ spineless\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Castro\\ prides\\ himself\\ in\\ having\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ literacy\\ rates\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ new\\ special\\ period\\ and\\ economic\\ decline\\ it\\ has\\ become\\ harder\\ to\\ keep\\ teachers\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ paid\\ very\\ little\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ also\\ hard\\ for\\ students\\ because\\ parents\\ could\\ use\\ them\\ to\\ work\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ sever\\ lack\\ of\\ public\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Healthcare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reached\\ levels\\ in\\ disease\\ prevention\\,\\ infant\\ mortality\\ rates\\ and\\ average\\ life\\ expectancy\\ which\\ are\\ equal\\ to\\ developed\\ nations\\ instead\\ of\\ other\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;world\\ Caribbean\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ soviet\\ union\\ is\\ has\\ been\\ harder\\ to\\ keep\\ supporting\\ the\\ entire\\ healthcare\\ network\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Locals\\ find\\ themselves\\ unable\\ to\\ gain\\ access\\ to\\ conventional\\ medicines\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ herbal\\ treatments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Tourism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ locals\\ are\\ prevented\\ from\\ tourist\\ areas\\ including\\ hotels\\,\\ restaurants\\ and\\ beaches\\ because\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ provide\\ the\\ same\\ hard\\ currency\\ that\\ the\\ tourists\\ bring\\ with\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jineteras\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\females\\ who\\ seek\\ out\\ male\\ tourists\\&hellip\\;they\\ will\\ perform\\ sexual\\ favors\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ money\\ or\\ food\\;\\ the\\ sex\\ tourism\\ industry\\ is\\ booming\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ little\\ success\\ in\\ controlling\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Local\\ crime\\ most\\ often\\ occurs\\ against\\ the\\ governmental\\ economic\\ restrictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tourists\\ are\\ often\\ protected\\ by\\ high\\ security\\ presence\\ so\\ not\\ have\\ bags\\ snatched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Street\\ beggars\\ have\\ increased\\ as\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ dollars\\ available\\ have\\ steadily\\ declined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Culture\\:\\ Caribbean\\ Fusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ dominated\\ culture\\ during\\ colonial\\ period\\&mdash\\;wiped\\ out\\ any\\ native\\ cultural\\ contributors\\,\\ controlled\\ slaves\\ with\\ iron\\ fist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\,\\ French\\,\\ and\\ Chinese\\ all\\ had\\ minor\\ hand\\ in\\ culture\\ shaping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\ abolition\\,\\ Afro\\-Cubans\\ begin\\ shape\\ and\\ contribute\\ to\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ independence\\ from\\ Spain\\ art\\,\\ literature\\,\\ architecture\\,\\ and\\ music\\ flourish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Revolution\\ brought\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ building\\ theaters\\ all\\ over\\,\\ charging\\ minimal\\ prices\\,\\ but\\ chases\\ many\\ artists\\ into\\ exile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ love\\ affair\\ of\\ African\\ drums\\ and\\ Spanish\\ guitar\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Fernando\\ Ort\\<\\/span\\>\\\\í\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\z\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Son\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;trova\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ballad\\ singers\\ of\\ East\\ Cuba\\ with\\ African\\ drums\\ and\\ guitar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\orchestras\\ emerge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\popular\\ variations\\ emerge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1940s\\ and\\ 50s\\:\\ mambo\\,\\ cha\\-cha\\-ch\\á\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salsa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1970s\\,\\ New\\ York\\ City\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mix\\ of\\ many\\ Latin\\ rhythems\\,\\ but\\ Cuban\\ influence\\ prevails\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mix\\ of\\ Salsa\\ and\\ other\\ rhythms\\ becomes\\ popular\\ in\\ later\\ days\\ in\\ Cuba\\,\\ known\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;timba\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cuban\\ funk\\,\\ expresses\\ hopes\\ and\\ fears\\ of\\ young\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Rumba\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\late\\ nineteenth\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\popular\\ among\\ urban\\ blacks\\&mdash\\;Havana\\,\\ Natanzas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\influences\\ of\\ African\\ religious\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Columbia\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fast\\,\\ popular\\ Rumba\\ dance\\:\\ male\\ solo\\,\\ devilish\\ antics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;congas\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tall\\ hand\\ drums\\ dominating\\ Rumba\\ rhythm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Yorub\\á\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ritual\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\ rhythms\\ least\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;bat\\á\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tall\\,\\ hour\\ glass\\ shaped\\ drums\\ used\\ for\\ Yorub\\á\\;\\,\\ revered\\ as\\ religious\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;cantos\\&rdquo\\;\\ songs\\ of\\ praise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Youth\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Nueva\\ Trova\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\only\\ significant\\ music\\ to\\ develop\\ post\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\supported\\ by\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\support\\ for\\ artists\\ varies\\ depending\\ on\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;\\ positions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\often\\ express\\ views\\ of\\ younger\\ generation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\influenced\\ by\\ American\\ rock\\&mdash\\;initially\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ protest\\,\\ but\\ musicians\\ conform\\ to\\ governments\\ views\\ eventually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ballet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ known\\ performing\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ballet\\ Nacional\\ de\\ Cuba\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\formed\\ by\\ Alicia\\ Alonso\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;First\\ Lady\\ of\\ Cuba\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\beneficial\\ ties\\ with\\ Kirov\\ and\\ Bolshoi\\ ballet\\ companies\\ of\\ Soviet\\ Union\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Film\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Much\\ government\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Toll\\ of\\ political\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Given\\ much\\ foreign\\ praise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ for\\ prestige\\ and\\ also\\ private\\ capital\\/\\ hard\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Majority\\ of\\ Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writers\\ spend\\ time\\ in\\ exile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prior\\ to\\ independence\\ from\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cirilo\\ Villaverde\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wrote\\ against\\ struggles\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jos\\é\\;\\ Mart\\í\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\During\\ \\&ldquo\\;pseudo\\&rdquo\\;\\ republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alego\\ Carpentier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Imprisoned\\ during\\ 1920s\\,\\ lived\\ in\\ exile\\ in\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\ revolution\\ returns\\ to\\ \\ \\;Cuba\\,\\ becomes\\ professor\\ at\\ Havana\\ U\\.\\ \\ \\;and\\ head\\ of\\ national\\ publishing\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nicol\\á\\;s\\ \\ \\;Guill\\é\\;n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\National\\ Poet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Used\\ musical\\ rhythms\\ to\\ put\\ his\\ poetry\\ in\\ a\\ unique\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ mold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\African\\/Hispanic\\ descent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cirilo\\ Villaverde\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wrote\\ against\\ struggles\\ of\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Literary\\ boom\\,\\ but\\ put\\ to\\ stop\\ by\\ Padilla\\ Affair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Herberto\\ Padilla\\ arrested\\ after\\ international\\ jury\\ gives\\ him\\ award\\ for\\ poems\\ he\\ wrote\\ that\\ were\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Various\\ intellectuals\\ protest\\,\\ move\\ into\\ exile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modern\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Authors\\ draw\\ inspiration\\ from\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discuss\\ important\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ days\\&mdash\\;AIDS\\,\\ homosexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Castro\\ rejected\\ art\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Man\\ is\\ the\\ end\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encouraged\\ by\\ advisors\\ and\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ not\\ to\\ ban\\ abstract\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ controlled\\ galleries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Legalization\\ of\\ self\\ employment\\ enables\\ artists\\ to\\ sell\\ directly\\ to\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ shortage\\ of\\ materials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ rich\\ art\\,\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ colonial\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ influences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wilfredo\\ Lam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Worked\\ in\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Surrealist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worked\\ with\\ Picasso\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ren\\é\\;\\ Portocarrero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oil\\ paints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stained\\ glass\\ windows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Castro\\ demands\\ participation\\ by\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Essential\\ for\\ education\\&mdash\\;physical\\ and\\ mental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boxing\\ and\\ baseball\\ huge\\,\\ even\\ before\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Matter\\ of\\ national\\ pride\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pan\\ American\\ Games\\,\\ 1991\\:\\ Cuba\\ won\\ 140\\ gold\\ medals\\,\\ first\\ Latin\\ American\\ country\\ to\\ beat\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ blow\\ when\\ athletes\\ defect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Baseball\\ huge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\pelota\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fidel\\ was\\ once\\ Cuba\\&rsquo\\;s\\ top\\ pitcher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ he\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ turned\\ to\\ politics\\ likely\\ would\\ have\\ played\\ for\\ New\\ York\\ Giants\\ or\\ Washington\\ Senators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Major\\ League\\ Baseball\\ salaries\\ tempt\\ many\\ Cuban\\ players\\ to\\ defect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Livan\\ Hern\\á\\;ndez\\,\\ MVP\\,\\ Florida\\ Marlins\\,\\ World\\ Series\\ champs\\ 1997\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ Conclusion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Was\\ the\\ revolution\\ really\\ successful\\ if\\ people\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ buy\\ simple\\ things\\ like\\ ham\\ and\\ cheese\\ sandwhiches\\ and\\ aspirin\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Socialismo\\ o\\ Muerte\\&rdquo\\;\\ unlikely\\ to\\ carry\\ Cuba\\ much\\ farther\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\ Castro\\?\\ \\ \\;Who\\ knows\\,\\ but\\ likely\\ the\\ American\\ invasion\\ will\\ quickly\\ spread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amanda\\ Thornton\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\athornt\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 5\\ Week\\ 8\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inside\\ the\\ Revolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 1\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ gained\\ access\\ to\\ Cuba\\ as\\ a\\ researcher\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ suspects\\ that\\ most\\ of\\ her\\ relationships\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ completely\\ unbiased\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ largely\\ female\\ interview\\ set\\ because\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ males\\ will\\ not\\ talk\\ freely\\ to\\ a\\ female\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;Limones\\,\\ Palmera\\,\\ Cuba\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\She\\ lived\\ in\\ Palmera\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ small\\ poor\\ municipality\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ residents\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ highly\\ mixed\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ work\\ in\\ agriculture\\,\\ cattle\\ raising\\,\\ forestry\\ on\\ private\\ farms\\,\\ coops\\,\\ or\\ state\\ farms\\ \\(47\\%\\ of\\ the\\ workforce\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Service\\ work\\ sectors\\ are\\ next\\ biggest\\ job\\ section\\:\\ coffee\\ shops\\,\\ restaurants\\ and\\ medicine\\.\\ \\ \\;Education\\ employs\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ women\\,\\ but\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ work\\,\\ they\\ are\\ mostly\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Work\\ days\\ run\\ 8\\ hours\\,\\ with\\ 2\\ hours\\ for\\ a\\ lunch\\ and\\ siesta\\.\\ \\ \\;Leaders\\ work\\ longer\\ days\\ and\\ have\\ no\\ fixed\\ hours\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ classes\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ difference\\ in\\ among\\ jobs\\,\\ highest\\ are\\ doctors\\,\\ political\\ leaders\\,\\ chauffeur\\/mechanic\\,\\ teacher\\,\\ but\\ these\\ differences\\ are\\ not\\ correlated\\ to\\ wealth\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ was\\ welcomed\\ by\\ the\\ local\\ branch\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ when\\ she\\ arrived\\,\\ but\\ she\\ was\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ attend\\ the\\ Communist\\ party\\ meetings\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ welcomed\\ politely\\ in\\ the\\ community\\ and\\ much\\ more\\ warmly\\ when\\ she\\ began\\ to\\ volunteer\\ in\\ work\\ brigades\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ farther\\ into\\ the\\ community\\ she\\ got\\,\\ the\\ less\\ Spanish\\ she\\ understood\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ people\\ started\\ to\\ express\\ discontent\\ with\\ party\\ officials\\ and\\ talk\\ about\\ scandals\\ in\\ the\\ party\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ found\\ that\\ on\\ the\\ most\\ part\\,\\ everyone\\ defended\\ the\\ Communist\\ party\\ above\\ other\\ systems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ populace\\ works\\ very\\ hard\\,\\ she\\ found\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ presented\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ sugar\\ coated\\ picture\\ of\\ Cuba\\ and\\ Palmera\\ \\(the\\ municipality\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ found\\ a\\ fair\\ amount\\ of\\ women\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ about\\ social\\ aspects\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ her\\ initial\\ work\\,\\ she\\ spent\\ 6\\ months\\ in\\ Sweden\\ and\\ then\\ when\\ she\\ returned\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ status\\ in\\ Cuba\\ had\\ changed\\ and\\ she\\ found\\ she\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ welcomed\\ as\\ people\\ were\\ being\\ cautioned\\ not\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ the\\ anthropologist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Redistribution\\ in\\ the\\ Household\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ considerable\\ bureaucracy\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ comfortable\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ rationing\\ system\\:\\ guarantees\\ basic\\ good\\ in\\ equal\\ amounts\\ cheap\\.\\ \\ \\;Libretas\\ are\\ the\\ booklets\\,\\ one\\ for\\ clothes\\ and\\ other\\ household\\ items\\,\\ the\\ other\\ for\\ food\\.\\ \\ \\;Every\\ person\\ is\\ allowed\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ a\\ loaf\\ of\\ bread\\ each\\ day\\,\\ but\\ rationed\\ items\\ can\\ be\\ bought\\ for\\ around\\ \\$12\\ per\\ month\\,\\ and\\ every\\ second\\ week\\,\\ \\½\\;\\ lb\\ of\\ beef\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ people\\ buy\\ all\\ they\\ can\\ at\\ the\\ libreta\\ and\\ sell\\ or\\ exchange\\ unused\\ items\\.\\ \\ \\;Clothing\\ is\\ not\\ often\\ bought\\,\\ though\\ cloth\\ is\\,\\ and\\ socks\\ and\\ underwear\\ are\\ in\\ constant\\ short\\ supply\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ foodstuffs\\ are\\ sold\\ por\\ libre\\ \\(on\\ the\\ free\\ market\\)\\,\\ and\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\ Households\\ and\\ their\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\single\\ person\\ household\\:\\ a\\ divorced\\ wife\\ who\\ has\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ libreta\\ still\\ with\\ a\\ good\\ job\\,\\ no\\ children\\,\\ lives\\ well\\ and\\ has\\ money\\ to\\ buy\\ clothes\\ to\\ dress\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\household\\ of\\ mother\\,\\ father\\ and\\ 2\\ children\\:\\ administrator\\ and\\ teacher\\ with\\ 4\\ libretas\\,\\ buys\\ all\\ the\\ items\\ allowed\\,\\ and\\ food\\ on\\ the\\ free\\ market\\ and\\ a\\ TV\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ raise\\ chickens\\ and\\ a\\ pig\\ at\\ a\\ relatives\\ finca\\,\\ and\\ live\\ inexpensively\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\household\\ of\\ mother\\,\\ father\\ and\\ 1\\ child\\:\\ cook\\ and\\ manual\\ laborer\\,\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ wasteful\\ with\\ their\\ money\\,\\ buy\\ cigarettes\\ with\\ extra\\ cash\\ but\\ their\\ food\\ is\\ taken\\ care\\ of\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\household\\ of\\ mother\\ and\\ two\\ children\\:\\ \\ \\;manual\\ laborer\\ pinched\\ for\\ money\\,\\ food\\ ration\\ not\\ used\\ completely\\ and\\ claims\\ to\\ have\\ trouble\\ with\\ her\\ monthly\\ dues\\ to\\ union\\ and\\ mass\\ organizations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ people\\ have\\ more\\ money\\ than\\ they\\ can\\ spend\\ \\(because\\ they\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ buy\\ more\\ than\\ their\\ ration\\ at\\ the\\ libreattas\\ and\\ free\\ market\\ things\\ are\\ very\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ Food\\ and\\ Nice\\ Clothes\\:\\ Females\\ tend\\ to\\ serve\\,\\ people\\ like\\ to\\ eat\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ eat\\ well\\,\\ especially\\ supplemented\\ by\\ food\\ bought\\ on\\ the\\ free\\ market\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ meat\\ is\\ sometimes\\ not\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ quality\\,\\ and\\ cloth\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ relatively\\ cheaply\\.\\ \\ \\;Electronics\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ find\\,\\ fans\\ for\\ example\\ are\\ horribly\\ expensive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emulacion\\ Socilaista\\:\\ Cuba\\ started\\ out\\ not\\ having\\ any\\ economic\\ incentive\\ for\\ work\\,\\ but\\ found\\ that\\ people\\ worked\\ better\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ paid\\.\\ \\ \\;Leaders\\ often\\ can\\ get\\ items\\,\\ like\\ fans\\,\\ on\\ the\\ libreattas\\ prices\\,\\ which\\ upsets\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Queuing\\:\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ distinct\\ system\\ for\\ getting\\ in\\ a\\ line\\,\\ in\\ particular\\ because\\ lines\\ are\\ not\\ straight\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ numbers\\ are\\ given\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;good\\ are\\ in\\ such\\ short\\ supply\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ will\\ join\\ queues\\ without\\ figuring\\ out\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ offered\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\,\\ you\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ get\\ items\\ because\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sold\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ you\\ get\\ in\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gray\\ and\\ black\\ markets\\:\\ Sometimes\\ waiting\\ in\\ a\\ queue\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ offered\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ extra\\ merchandise\\ \\(gray\\ market\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ bisneros\\ \\(black\\ marketers\\)\\ are\\ found\\ a\\ lot\\ in\\ big\\ cities\\,\\ for\\ clothes\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ where\\ foreigners\\ will\\ buy\\ imported\\ clothes\\ and\\ sell\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ marketers\\ for\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ resold\\ on\\ the\\ market\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ taking\\ items\\ home\\ from\\ work\\ is\\ illegal\\ but\\ often\\ done\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reciprocity\\:\\ Strengthens\\ relationships\\ with\\ other\\ people\\ to\\ offer\\ them\\ first\\ choice\\ at\\ your\\ extra\\ gifts\\ or\\ anything\\.\\ \\ \\;Expected\\ to\\ share\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ fortune\\ to\\ receive\\,\\ and\\ the\\ better\\ friends\\ you\\ are\\ with\\ the\\ person\\,\\ the\\ less\\ equal\\ the\\ barter\\ may\\ be\\,\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ flat\\ out\\ gift\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Economic\\ Aspect\\ of\\ Reciprocity\\:\\ \\ \\;People\\ are\\ very\\ insistent\\ about\\ giving\\ back\\ for\\ favors\\,\\ and\\ the\\ difficulty\\ of\\ getting\\ goods\\ is\\ often\\ raises\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;price\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ them\\ \\(a\\ chicken\\ for\\ some\\ clothes\\ were\\ inequal\\ in\\ monetary\\ value\\,\\ but\\ equal\\ in\\ the\\ society\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Begging\\ for\\ items\\ is\\ not\\ unusual\\ between\\ friends\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ serious\\ or\\ in\\ fun\\,\\ but\\ begging\\ for\\ items\\ from\\ strangers\\ without\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ a\\ reciprocal\\ gift\\ is\\ considered\\ rude\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Aspect\\ of\\ Reciprocity\\:\\ \\ \\;Requests\\ to\\ borrow\\ things\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ often\\ the\\ time\\ when\\ drinks\\ and\\ party\\ invitations\\ are\\ offered\\ in\\ place\\ repayment\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ good\\ Cuban\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;happy\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ in\\ have\\ party\\,\\ be\\ seen\\ socially\\,\\ and\\ being\\ generous\\ with\\ your\\ time\\,\\ allowing\\ people\\ to\\ sit\\ in\\ your\\ apartment\\,\\ offering\\ them\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ little\\ you\\ might\\ have\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ so\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ they\\ will\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ you\\.\\ \\ \\;Greetings\\ in\\ the\\ street\\ are\\ equally\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ offering\\ drinks\\ and\\ food\\ when\\ people\\ come\\ to\\ visit\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ cannot\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ go\\ to\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\ without\\ also\\ welcoming\\ them\\ to\\ your\\ own\\,\\ and\\ by\\ going\\ you\\ are\\ implicitly\\ offering\\ them\\ an\\ invitation\\ to\\ visit\\ your\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parties\\ are\\ invitation\\ only\\,\\ as\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ embarrassing\\ for\\ a\\ host\\ to\\ be\\ unable\\ to\\ supply\\ drinks\\ and\\ food\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ party\\ because\\ of\\ an\\ unexpected\\ wealth\\ of\\ guests\\.\\ \\ \\;Parties\\ are\\ thrown\\ for\\ children\\ or\\ in\\ celebration\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ fortune\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ Bilal\\ Belardo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\belardo\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 5\\ Week\\ 8\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\ and\\ 4\\,\\ concl\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\,\\ Week\\ 8\\:\\ Inside\\ the\\ Revolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.3\\:\\ Men\\ and\\ Women\\ in\\ Palmera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ many\\ ambiguities\\ present\\ in\\ gender\\ relations\\ in\\Palmera\\,\\ Cuba\\.\\ While\\ there\\ are\\ laws\\ stipulating\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ and\\ women\\ hold\\outside\\ jobs\\,\\ political\\ office\\ and\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ military\\ training\\,\\ there\\ is\\still\\ not\\ the\\ perfect\\ equality\\,\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ equality\\ that\\ is\\ being\\ desired\\ by\\radical\\ feminist\\ groups\\ such\\ as\\ La\\ Federacion\\ de\\ Mujeres\\ Cubanas\\ \\(FMC\\)\\.\\ Men\\have\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ in\\ Cuban\\ society\\,\\ while\\ women\\ are\\ left\\ to\\ balance\\ their\\duties\\ as\\ housekeeper\\,\\ wife\\,\\ mother\\,\\ and\\ worker\\.\\ Machismo\\,\\ an\\ exaggerated\\display\\ of\\ manliness\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ men\\ should\\ have\\ supremacy\\ and\\control\\ over\\ women\\ in\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ life\\,\\ is\\ an\\ old\\ latino\\ gender\\ construct\\that\\ no\\ doubt\\ affects\\ the\\ relations\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ While\\ machismso\\ is\\no\\ longer\\ idealized\\ by\\ the\\ educated\\,\\ gender\\ system\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ combination\\of\\ Mediterranean\\ \\(virginity\\,\\ motherhood\\,\\ chastity\\,\\ and\\ male\\ as\\ protector\\)\\ and\\Caribbean\\ \\(open\\ eroticism\\,\\ martifocality\\,\\ and\\ the\\ frequent\\ shifting\\ of\\partners\\)\\ views\\ of\\ gender\\.\\ The\\ big\\ difference\\ is\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ equality\\;\\ men\\ view\\equality\\ in\\ social\\ structural\\ terms\\ \\(working\\ outside\\ the\\ home\\,\\ getting\\ an\\education\\)\\ while\\ these\\ same\\ men\\ refuse\\ to\\ do\\ housework\\,\\ they\\ spend\\ too\\ much\\time\\ on\\ the\\ street\\,\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ multiple\\ mistresses\\,\\ which\\ to\\ the\\ FMC\\ and\\other\\ women\\ constitutes\\ as\\ inequality\\.\\ The\\ different\\ view\\ of\\ equality\\ that\\ both\\men\\ and\\ women\\ hold\\ shows\\ these\\ gender\\ distinctions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ The\\ Soul\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ opens\\ with\\ an\\ anecdote\\ about\\ a\\ ceremony\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ a\\ bridge\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ overtones\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ 1984\\:\\ celebration\\ of\\ putting\\ the\\ state\\ over\\ oneself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ illustrates\\ the\\ concepts\\ of\\ machismo\\ and\\ virility\\ used\\ to\\ promote\\ Cuban\\ Communism\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ chapter\\,\\ the\\ author\\ discusses\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ communist\\ party\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;precarious\\ balance\\ between\\ hierarchy\\/equality\\ and\\ centralism\\/participation\\ in\\ Cuban\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Democratic\\ centralism\\ is\\ the\\ political\\ basis\\ for\\ Cuban\\ society\\,\\ but\\ an\\ inherently\\ contradictory\\ Leninist\\ concept\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ contradiction\\ between\\ the\\ tenets\\ of\\ centralism\\ and\\ democracy\\ is\\ mirrored\\ by\\ the\\ conflicting\\ messages\\ of\\ the\\ elite\\ Party\\:\\ totally\\ exclusionary\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Poder\\ Popular\\ and\\ mass\\ organizations\\:\\ representative\\ of\\ everyone\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ hierarchy\\ within\\ the\\ Party\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ just\\ and\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;Whereas\\ other\\ instances\\ of\\ hierarchy\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ class\\ differences\\ in\\ other\\ societies\\)\\ is\\ equated\\ with\\ inequality\\ and\\ seen\\ as\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Centralist\\ structure\\ leads\\ to\\ extreme\\ bureaucracy\\,\\ which\\ often\\ results\\ in\\ decision\\ being\\ made\\ only\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ high\\ level\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ counteracts\\ the\\ message\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ are\\ needed\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Socialist\\ democracy\\ is\\ a\\ Cuban\\ goal\\ that\\ involves\\ participation\\ and\\ equality\\.\\ \\ \\;Cuban\\ people\\ can\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ political\\ decisions\\,\\ but\\ are\\ often\\ hindered\\ by\\ the\\ Centralist\\ political\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ avenue\\ where\\ most\\ Cubans\\ can\\ influence\\ decisions\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ election\\ of\\ the\\ Poder\\ Popular\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ way\\ is\\ to\\ attend\\ the\\ bi\\-yearly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rendicion\\ de\\ cuenta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\(meeting\\ with\\ the\\ delegate\\)\\,\\ in\\ each\\ constituency\\.\\ \\ \\;Delegates\\ to\\ the\\ municipal\\ assembly\\ are\\ elected\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ a\\ neighborhood\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ socialist\\ democracy\\ is\\ equality\\,\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ connote\\ similarity\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\ means\\ equal\\ opportunities\\ for\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Cuban\\ socialism\\,\\ differences\\ do\\ and\\ should\\ exist\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ between\\ the\\ doctor\\ and\\ the\\ cowhand\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ felt\\ that\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ society\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ but\\ a\\ just\\ society\\ is\\ ideal\\ and\\ attainable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ hegemonic\\ political\\ ideology\\,\\ the\\ centralist\\ political\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ the\\ planned\\ economy\\ pervade\\ everyday\\ life\\ in\\ Palmera\\,\\ a\\ typical\\ Cuban\\ municipality\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ provides\\ a\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ traditional\\ ideas\\ that\\ remain\\ an\\ essential\\ part\\ of\\ Cuban\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ people\\ appreciate\\ the\\ Party\\ and\\ the\\ mass\\ organizations\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mind\\ that\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ vote\\ for\\ other\\ parties\\ or\\ read\\ newspapers\\ that\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ censored\\ by\\ the\\ Party\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ remember\\ that\\ life\\ before\\ the\\ revolution\\ included\\ neither\\ democracy\\ nor\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ compare\\ Cuba\\ now\\,\\ with\\ what\\ it\\ could\\ have\\ been\\,\\ and\\ are\\ disgusted\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ criticize\\ the\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christina\\ Siliciano\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\csilic\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 6\\ Week\\ 9\\ p\\.\\ 209\\-238\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Understanding\\ the\\ Contemporary\\ Caribbean\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Begins\\ by\\ making\\ definitions\\\\-\\-ethnicity\\&mdash\\;set\\ of\\ ideas\\ \\(real\\ or\\ imagined\\)\\ that\\ link\\ a\\ group\\ to\\ its\\ ancestral\\past\\\\-\\-race\\&mdash\\;division\\ based\\ on\\ bundles\\ of\\ physical\\ traits\\ \\(hair\\ color\\,\\ skin\\ color\\,\\etc\\)\\ which\\ are\\ then\\ valued\\&mdash\\;doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ exist\\ biologically\\,\\ rather\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\social\\ construct\\\\-\\-class\\&mdash\\;multidimensional\\,\\ fluid\\ process\\ wherein\\ class\\ confers\\ different\\ social\\powers\\ and\\ resources\\\\-\\-nationality\\&mdash\\;unity\\ based\\ on\\ physical\\ location\\,\\ despite\\ ethnicity\\/race\\/class\\differences\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ are\\ they\\ all\\ related\\?\\Ethnicity\\ and\\ race\\ can\\ determine\\ class\\&mdash\\;there\\ exists\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ value\\whiteness\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;whiteness\\ is\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ standard\\ to\\ which\\ people\\ aspire\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ thus\\ethnicity\\/race\\ determine\\ resources\\ and\\ therefore\\ class\\,\\ and\\ class\\ determines\\nationality\\ because\\ the\\ highest\\ class\\ makes\\ the\\ rules\\,\\ nationality\\ also\\determines\\ the\\ others\\ because\\ different\\ races\\/ethnicities\\/classes\\ are\\ valued\\differently\\ in\\ different\\ nations\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;Role\\ on\\ plantation\\?\\Race\\ unified\\&mdash\\;all\\ Africans\\,\\ and\\ only\\ Africans\\,\\ were\\ slaves\\However\\,\\ ethnicity\\ distinguished\\&mdash\\;slave\\ owners\\ understood\\ different\\ tribal\\affiliations\\,\\ new\\ particular\\ traits\\ of\\ each\\ tribe\\,\\ who\\ was\\ good\\ at\\ what\\,\\ and\\also\\ knew\\ to\\ keep\\ too\\ many\\ from\\ one\\ tribe\\ apart\\ to\\ prevent\\ slave\\ rebellions\\like\\ the\\ one\\ in\\ Haiti\\ in\\ 1791\\ where\\ organized\\ Kongo\\ soldiers\\ brought\\ about\\Haitian\\ independence\\4\\.\\ Role\\ in\\ colonialism\\?\\Obsession\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;limpieza\\ de\\ sangre\\&rdquo\\;\\ purity\\ of\\ blood\\ and\\ whiteness\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\constructed\\ categories\\ to\\ specifically\\ determine\\ amounts\\ of\\ whiteness\\.\\ \\ \\;Shows\\clear\\ social\\ construct\\ of\\ race\\&mdash\\;definitions\\,\\ flow\\ charts\\.\\ \\ \\;Results\\ in\\ generic\\pyramid\\:\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ elite\\ whites\\ at\\ top\\,\\ grading\\ down\\ to\\ masses\\ of\\ poor\\blacks\\.\\ \\ \\;Noteworthy\\ reversal\\ attempt\\ in\\ Haiti\\,\\ where\\ blacks\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\supreme\\,\\ although\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ so\\ well\\ in\\ practice\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;Abolition\\Massive\\ need\\ for\\ workers\\&mdash\\;huge\\ immigration\\,\\ results\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\most\\ ethnically\\ and\\ culturally\\ diverse\\ locations\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ also\\ migration\\within\\ Caribbean\\Slaves\\ brought\\ over\\:\\ only\\ shared\\ common\\ experience\\ of\\ brutality\\,\\ but\\ other\\ than\\that\\ were\\ very\\ diverse\\.\\.\\.\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ \\"\\;heterogenous\\ crowd\\"\\;\\ than\\ any\\ sort\\ of\\unifyed\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;African\\ influence\\ survives\\ in\\ syncretism\\/creolization\\.\\6\\.imagining\\ the\\ caribbean\\ nation\\:\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ nationalism\\,\\ all\\ revolve\\around\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ national\\ culture\\ \\(eg\\ music\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.mestizaje\\/creolite\\ \\(racial\\ mixing\\/creolism\\)\\:\\ \\(eg\\ martinique\\)\\ creolized\\,\\and\\therefore\\ unified\\,\\ \\"\\;one\\ big\\ happy\\ family\\"\\;\\ although\\ marginalizes\\ amerindians\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.racial\\ democracy\\:\\ emphasizes\\ national\\ cultural\\ integration\\,\\ idealizes\\ethnic\\-racial\\ relations\\,\\ anti\\-imperialism\\ \\(eg\\ cuba\\ and\\ pr\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.national\\ race\\:\\ DR\\-haiti\\ example\\,\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ racism\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\.multiculturalism\\:\\ unifying\\,\\ nonethnicity\\,\\ inverted\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ \\(eg\\british\\ and\\ dutch\\ colonies\\)\\7\\.\\ \\ \\;Diaspora\\-\\-\\ Caribbeans\\ moving\\ within\\ Caribbean\\,\\ and\\ migrating\\ out\\-\\-\\ often\\forge\\isolated\\ communities\\ to\\ retain\\ national\\ identities\\ \\(Little\\ Havana\\)\\ but\\ the\\definitions\\ of\\ ethnicity\\/race\\/national\\ id\\ are\\ fluid\\,\\ constantly\\ evolving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brian\\ Cusworth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\cusworth\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\#\\ 6\\ Week\\ 9\\ \\(b\\.\\)\\ Racializ\\.\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOT\\ COMPLETED\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Katie\\ Johnson\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\kwjohns\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 7\\ Week\\ 9\\:\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trinidad\\ Ethnicity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Kevin\\ A\\.Yelvington\\,\\ Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Race\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;colour\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ pre\\-independence\\ Trinidad\\ and\\ Tobago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ constructionist\\ view\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ way\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ people\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ fit\\ neatly\\ within\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ traditional\\ groupings\\ \\(Whites\\,\\ East\\ Indians\\,\\ Aftro\\-Trinidadians\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Primary\\ purpose\\ of\\ chapter\\ to\\ study\\ semiotics\\ of\\ race\\ and\\ color\\ as\\ terms\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ prior\\ to\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ races\\ of\\ pre\\-independence\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\ immigrant\\ races\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Europeans\\,\\ Africans\\,\\ East\\ Indians\\;\\ European\\ and\\ African\\ denominated\\ by\\ color\\ terms\\ white\\ and\\ black\\,\\ no\\ such\\ term\\ for\\ East\\ Indians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Person\\ pure\\ only\\ if\\ both\\ parents\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ race\\,\\ otherwise\\ mixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ of\\ racial\\ categories\\ shaped\\ both\\ by\\ their\\ use\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ class\\ positions\\ and\\ by\\ signification\\ of\\ race\\ that\\ were\\ independent\\ of\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idiom\\ of\\ race\\ memorialized\\ pasts\\ and\\ connected\\ them\\ to\\ contemporary\\ social\\ grouping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Racial\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Six\\ types\\ of\\ sexual\\ unions\\ between\\ the\\ three\\ main\\ races\\,\\ three\\ of\\ these\\ pure\\,\\ the\\ other\\ three\\ mixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ origins\\ of\\ coloured\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ people\\ with\\ a\\ mixture\\ of\\ European\\ and\\ African\\ ancestry\\ could\\ be\\ designated\\ coloured\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\complexly\\ resulted\\ in\\ coloured\\ middle\\ class\\ because\\ colour\\ and\\ status\\ imaged\\ as\\ coincident\\ and\\ coloured\\ population\\ thus\\ between\\ upper\\ and\\ lower\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Creole\\ scale\\ of\\ colour\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Particular\\ color\\ terms\\ \\(white\\,\\ red\\,\\ brown\\,\\ light\\ black\\,\\ black\\ etc\\.\\)\\ identified\\ relative\\ proportion\\ of\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ in\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ make\\-up\\,\\ along\\ with\\ bodily\\ features\\ such\\ as\\ hair\\,\\ nose\\,\\ lips\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Term\\ creole\\ applied\\ to\\ all\\ blacks\\ and\\ coloured\\ but\\ only\\ to\\ a\\ segment\\ of\\ whites\\ distinguishing\\ local\\ whites\\ from\\ expatriates\\ on\\ assignment\\ in\\ Trinidad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analogy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;local\\ whites\\ \\:\\ expatriate\\ whites\\ \\:\\:\\ French\\ Creoles\\ \\:\\ the\\ British\\ \\:\\:\\ Africans\\ \\:\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ a\\ white\\ to\\ be\\ local\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ mixed\\ with\\ and\\ connected\\ to\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dividing\\ colours\\,\\ personally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ something\\ observable\\,\\ color\\ diverged\\ from\\ ancestry\\ in\\ being\\ an\\ individual\\ trait\\ of\\ persons\\;\\ full\\ siblings\\ could\\ be\\ different\\ in\\ their\\ color\\ identities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colour\\ as\\ a\\ shifter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shifts\\ in\\ racial\\ classificatory\\ boundaries\\ between\\ different\\ colonies\\,\\ and\\ subsequently\\ males\\ and\\ females\\ within\\ these\\ colonies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shifting\\ hinged\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ observer\\;\\ color\\ determined\\ not\\ simply\\ by\\ bodily\\ appearance\\ but\\ also\\ by\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ observer\\ and\\ the\\ observed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pattern\\ of\\ upward\\ identification\\ and\\ downward\\ distancing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Achieved\\ lightness\\:\\ respectability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Things\\ such\\ as\\ speech\\,\\ education\\,\\ weddings\\ etc\\ given\\ color\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acquired\\ respectability\\ could\\ substitute\\ for\\ bodily\\ lightness\\,\\ though\\ that\\ respectability\\ just\\ masked\\ the\\ skin\\ color\\ and\\ thus\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ continuously\\ reestablished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ mobility\\ in\\ social\\ practice\\ contingent\\ upon\\ both\\ the\\ factual\\ reality\\ of\\ race\\ and\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ what\\ whites\\ defined\\ as\\ respectable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ classificatory\\ erasure\\ of\\ mixing\\ between\\ European\\ and\\ East\\ Indians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Offspring\\ between\\ Europeans\\ and\\ East\\ Indians\\ also\\ mixed\\,\\ yet\\ in\\ marked\\ contrast\\ to\\ elaborate\\ distinctions\\ of\\ color\\ between\\ mixed\\ Europeans\\ and\\ Africans\\,\\ no\\ such\\ elaborate\\ distinctions\\ exist\\ here\\,\\ no\\ such\\ color\\ scale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Two\\ Principles\\ of\\ Subordination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;2\\ forms\\ of\\ racism\\ \\(black\\ vs\\ asian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mixing\\ of\\ Africans\\ and\\ Europeans\\ \\=\\ well\\ represented\\,\\ mixing\\ of\\ East\\ Indians\\ and\\ Europeans\\ were\\ not\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Huge\\ void\\ b\\/w\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\,\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ racial\\ \\&ldquo\\;gap\\&rdquo\\;\\ b\\/w\\ whites\\ and\\ Asians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asians\\ considered\\ to\\ have\\ own\\ civilization\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ religion\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ and\\ literate\\ languages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;either\\/or\\ relationship\\:\\ person\\ was\\ either\\ Christian\\ or\\ Hindu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asians\\ came\\ to\\ Caribbean\\ on\\ own\\ accord\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ indenture\\,\\ vs\\ balcks\\ forced\\ into\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indenture\\ allows\\ for\\ more\\ cultural\\,\\ language\\ and\\ religious\\ retention\\ than\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Afro\\-West\\ Indian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ absorbed\\ culture\\ form\\ all\\ lands\\,\\ no\\ culture\\ of\\ their\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chinese\\ and\\ Indian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ persons\\ of\\ anscestral\\ homelands\\,\\ able\\ to\\ preserve\\ \\&ldquo\\;past\\ glory\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ forsake\\ British\\ propagandist\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ \\&lsquo\\;mixing\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;Africans\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;Indians\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dougla\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ mixed\\ offspring\\ of\\ black\\ and\\ east\\ Indian\\,\\ used\\ to\\ designate\\ individuals\\ not\\ to\\ name\\ a\\ collective\\ grouping\\,\\ little\\ inheritance\\ of\\ this\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mixing\\ of\\ whites\\ and\\ blacks\\ produced\\ intermediate\\ kind\\,\\ mixing\\ b\\/w\\ blacks\\ and\\ Asians\\ was\\ of\\ no\\ importance\\ to\\ colonial\\ powers\\,\\ thus\\ no\\ real\\ term\\ was\\ coined\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ social\\ construction\\ of\\ cultural\\ preservation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ of\\ both\\ loss\\ and\\ syncretism\\ of\\ Indian\\ culture\\,\\ language\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everything\\ adopted\\ by\\ Indians\\ form\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ became\\ their\\ own\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ really\\ erasure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;race\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;color\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ a\\ summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\European\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Asian\\ \\=\\ \\{\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\}\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Black\\ \\=\\ coloured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Black\\ \\=\\ dougla\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Absence\\ of\\ a\\ creation\\ of\\ second\\ generation\\ racial\\ kinds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ affected\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;silence\\&rsquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ mixing\\ of\\ Asians\\ and\\ Europeans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ \\=\\ black\\,\\ Masters\\ \\=\\ white\\,\\ Indentures\\ \\=\\ Asian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Some\\ observations\\ on\\ the\\ pragmatics\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;race\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;color\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\To\\ practice\\ racism\\ \\=\\ constitute\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ relative\\ dependence\\ and\\ dominance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Achievements\\ were\\ related\\ to\\ relative\\ whiteness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;were\\ not\\ attributed\\ to\\ individuals\\,\\ but\\ to\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ property\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ collectivity\\ of\\ group\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1945\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Indians\\ gathered\\ in\\ San\\ Fernando\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ largest\\ city\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ a\\ mass\\ mobilization\\ of\\ Indians\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ demanded\\ recognition\\ from\\ British\\ authority\\,\\ union\\ of\\ Indians\\,\\ achievements\\,\\ class\\ positions\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ comparable\\ amassing\\ of\\ Africans\\ or\\ non\\-white\\ creoles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ achievements\\ of\\ blacks\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ were\\ recognized\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ individuals\\ wo\\ won\\ Island\\ scholarships\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sent\\ to\\ England\\ to\\ be\\ educated\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ gain\\ respectability\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ process\\ of\\ becoming\\ British\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anna\\ Tseretopaulos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tseretop\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\#\\ 7\\ Week\\ 9\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Trinidad\\ Ethnicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Trinidad\\ and\\ Tobago\\ has\\ an\\ unusual\\ social\\ system\\,\\ with\\ both\\ Creoles\\ and\\ Indians\\ each\\ making\\ up\\ approximately\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\.\\ This\\ chapter\\ examined\\ the\\ interaction\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ social\\ groups\\ over\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ 20\\ years\\,\\ between\\ 1960\\ and\\ 1980\\,\\ focusing\\ especially\\ on\\ intermarriage\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Early\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\,\\ Indians\\ were\\ brought\\ over\\ as\\ indentured\\ servants\\ and\\ were\\ viewed\\ as\\ outsiders\\ by\\ the\\ native\\ Creoles\\;\\ however\\,\\ eventually\\,\\ the\\ Indians\\ were\\ viewed\\ as\\ permanent\\ inhabitants\\ by\\ the\\ 1920s\\,\\ although\\ reluctantly\\ by\\ the\\ Creoles\\.\\ Segregation\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ groups\\ increased\\,\\ especially\\ after\\ 1950\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ 1960\\,\\ the\\ population\\ of\\ Creoles\\ was\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ Indians\\ was\\ about\\ 37\\%\\;\\ by\\ 1980\\,\\ the\\ population\\ leveled\\ out\\ more\\,\\ making\\ the\\ numbers\\ nearly\\ even\\,\\ and\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ Indian\\ Christians\\ also\\ increased\\ slightly\\.\\ Maps\\ showing\\ racial\\ distribution\\ in\\ different\\ areas\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ very\\ little\\ mingling\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\,\\ with\\ Creoles\\ living\\ predominantly\\ in\\ the\\ towns\\ and\\ the\\ Indians\\ in\\ the\\ rural\\ areas\\.\\ This\\ changed\\ very\\ little\\ over\\ the\\ period\\ studied\\.\\ Segregation\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ increased\\ between\\ whites\\ and\\ blacks\\ versus\\ Indians\\,\\ but\\ decreased\\ among\\ the\\ different\\ religious\\ groups\\ present\\ \\(Muslims\\,\\ Hindus\\,\\ and\\ Christians\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ San\\ Fernando\\,\\ Creoles\\ outnumbered\\ the\\ Indians\\ \\(who\\ were\\,\\ surprisingly\\,\\ mostly\\ Christian\\)\\ in\\ 1960\\;\\ color\\ segregation\\ here\\ was\\ higher\\ than\\ other\\ places\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ in\\ 1960\\.\\ Whites\\ were\\ a\\ minority\\,\\ highly\\ segregated\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ in\\ this\\ area\\,\\ as\\ were\\ Hindus\\ and\\ Muslims\\ \\(who\\ were\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ scale\\ with\\ the\\ blacks\\)\\.\\ Just\\ above\\ them\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ scale\\ were\\ Christian\\ Indians\\,\\ and\\ above\\ them\\ were\\ the\\ Creoles\\.\\ By\\ 1970\\,\\ Hindus\\ and\\ Muslims\\ were\\ still\\ segregated\\ from\\ Creoles\\ and\\ blacks\\,\\ but\\ closer\\ to\\ Christian\\ Indians\\.\\ Whites\\ and\\ Creoles\\ also\\ became\\ closer\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ living\\ spaces\\;\\ blacks\\ were\\ more\\ separated\\ from\\ all\\ the\\ groups\\ \\(mostly\\ because\\ of\\ tension\\ following\\ a\\ Black\\ Power\\ movement\\)\\.\\ Creole\\-Indian\\ tension\\ continued\\ after\\ 1970\\ as\\ tension\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ other\\ groups\\ lessened\\.\\ By\\ 1980\\,\\ whites\\ were\\ more\\ segregated\\ from\\ the\\ other\\ groups\\.\\ In\\ general\\,\\ between\\ 1960\\ and\\ 1980\\,\\ this\\ are\\ became\\ more\\ segregated\\ by\\ race\\ and\\ religion\\,\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ what\\ would\\ be\\ expected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ terms\\ of\\ intermarriage\\,\\ less\\ than\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ Hindu\\/Muslim\\ households\\ had\\ Creole\\ spouses\\ in\\ the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ and\\ the\\ numbers\\ were\\ similar\\ among\\ Creole\\ households\\.\\ By\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ interracial\\ couples\\ had\\ increased\\ significantly\\ \\(more\\ than\\ doubled\\)\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ general\\,\\ these\\ statistics\\ show\\ a\\ society\\ in\\ which\\,\\ after\\ independence\\,\\ rivalry\\ led\\ to\\ increased\\ segregation\\;\\ paradoxically\\,\\ though\\,\\ intermarriage\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\ is\\ increasing\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jessica\\ Knox\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\jknox\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 8\\ Week\\ 10\\ Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Last\\ Resorts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 1\\:\\ History\\ and\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ Caribbean\\ colonies\\ became\\ nation\\ states\\,\\ the\\ tourism\\ industry\\ began\\ taking\\ shape\\.\\ Tourism\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ began\\ with\\ the\\ wealthiest\\ Americans\\ and\\ Europeans\\ seeking\\ health\\-restoring\\ holidays\\.\\ \\ \\;Mass\\ tourism\\ took\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ the\\ 1990s\\,\\ tourism\\ evolved\\ into\\ a\\ dominant\\ economic\\ sector\\ as\\ the\\ agricultural\\ and\\ oil\\ sectors\\ began\\ to\\ falter\\.\\ During\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ certain\\ groups\\ and\\ people\\ began\\ complaining\\ that\\ tourism\\ demeaned\\ islanders\\,\\ was\\ a\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ colonization\\,\\ and\\ fueled\\ racism\\.\\ However\\,\\ politicians\\ and\\ various\\ international\\ commissions\\ enthusiastically\\ support\\ tourism\\ as\\ economically\\ promising\\ for\\ Caribbean\\ societies\\.\\ Tourism\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ steadily\\ growing\\ economic\\ sector\\ for\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ but\\ is\\ also\\ responsible\\ for\\ many\\ islands\\&rsquo\\;\\ largest\\ income\\ bills\\.\\ \\ \\;Tourism\\ has\\ led\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ to\\ remain\\ very\\ much\\ under\\ foreign\\ control\\ despite\\ the\\ islands\\&rsquo\\;\\ escape\\ from\\ colonialism\\.\\ \\ \\;Foreign\\-owned\\ airlines\\ dominate\\ Caribbean\\ skies\\ while\\ regional\\ airlines\\ carry\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ percentage\\ of\\ Caribbean\\-bound\\ tourists\\;\\ this\\ allows\\ foreign\\ airlines\\ to\\ determine\\ routes\\,\\ schedules\\,\\ and\\ prices\\,\\ and\\ control\\ reservations\\ systems\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ tourist\\ industry\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ foreign\\ demands\\.\\ \\ \\;Foreign\\ mass\\-market\\ tour\\ operators\\ work\\ in\\ volume\\ and\\ discounts\\,\\ leaving\\ independent\\ tourists\\ to\\ scramble\\ for\\ airline\\ seats\\ and\\ accommodations\\ and\\ small\\ island\\ hotels\\ to\\ struggle\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ \\ \\;Large\\,\\ foreign\\-owned\\ hotels\\ and\\ hotel\\ chains\\ dominate\\,\\ but\\ small\\ locally\\ owned\\ hotels\\ have\\ increased\\ in\\ number\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Jamaica\\,\\ locally\\ owned\\ hotels\\ now\\ account\\ for\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ the\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hotel\\ rooms\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ development\\ of\\ all\\-inclusive\\ resorts\\ has\\ been\\ both\\ beneficial\\ and\\ detrimental\\,\\ providing\\ both\\ income\\ and\\ environmental\\ pollution\\.\\ \\ \\;Government\\-owned\\ hotels\\ developed\\ as\\ means\\ to\\ involve\\ more\\ local\\ ownership\\;\\ eventually\\ joint\\ ventures\\ became\\ the\\ government\\-involved\\ ownership\\ of\\ choice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 2\\:\\ Linkages\\ and\\ Leakages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tourist\\ safety\\ and\\ comfort\\ is\\ a\\ top\\ priority\\ for\\ Caribbean\\ governments\\.\\ \\ \\;Political\\ unrest\\,\\ civil\\ disturbances\\,\\ and\\ natural\\ instability\\ all\\ damage\\ the\\ tourist\\ industry\\ as\\ they\\ temporarily\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ permanently\\,\\ drive\\ tourists\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;Tourists\\ demand\\ modern\\ and\\ reliable\\ infrastructure\\ that\\ includes\\ airports\\,\\ roads\\,\\ water\\ supply\\,\\ sewage\\ disposal\\,\\ electricity\\,\\ and\\ telephones\\;\\ such\\ demands\\ place\\ stress\\ on\\ local\\ governments\\ and\\ ecosystems\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ feed\\ the\\ expensive\\ and\\ growing\\ infrastructure\\,\\ governments\\ levy\\ taxes\\ on\\ the\\ tourist\\ sector\\ and\\ on\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\.\\ \\ \\;Large\\ tourist\\ numbers\\ strain\\ islands\\&rsquo\\;\\ water\\ supplies\\ and\\ systems\\,\\ which\\ are\\ often\\ not\\ big\\ enough\\ to\\ accommodate\\ the\\ increased\\ population\\;\\ but\\ tourists\\ take\\ priority\\ and\\ will\\ receive\\ water\\ before\\ locals\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;Governments\\ entice\\ investors\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ compensate\\ for\\ high\\ infrastructural\\ and\\ operational\\ costs\\;\\ governments\\ offer\\ investors\\ tax\\-free\\ concessions\\,\\ exemption\\ from\\ land\\ tax\\ and\\ capital\\ levies\\,\\ tax\\ holidays\\,\\ and\\ repatriation\\ of\\ investment\\ and\\ profits\\.\\ \\ \\;Tourism\\ growth\\ has\\ reduced\\ the\\ pool\\ of\\ land\\ available\\ for\\ locals\\,\\ agriculture\\,\\ and\\ other\\ uses\\;\\ tourism\\ requires\\ hotel\\ and\\ resort\\ real\\ estate\\ and\\ drives\\ up\\ land\\ prices\\.\\ \\ \\;Together\\,\\ poor\\ land\\ planning\\,\\ high\\ prices\\,\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ building\\ and\\ environmental\\ codes\\ have\\ caused\\ uncoordinated\\ and\\ unnatural\\ tourism\\ developments\\.\\ \\ \\;Tourist\\ industries\\ within\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ are\\ organized\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ ways\\ \\(ministries\\,\\ tourist\\ boards\\,\\ private\\ sector\\ control\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Generally\\,\\ critics\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ tourist\\ industry\\ could\\ be\\ better\\ organized\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Caribbean\\ suffers\\ from\\ a\\ high\\ level\\ of\\ leakages\\ \\(average\\ of\\ 70\\%\\-\\-70\\ cents\\ of\\ every\\ dollar\\ earned\\ in\\ foreign\\ exchange\\ is\\ lost\\ in\\ imports\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Increasing\\ linkages\\ would\\ offset\\ leakages\\;\\ utilizing\\ locally\\ produced\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ instead\\ of\\ importing\\ them\\ would\\ not\\ only\\ lessen\\ money\\ lost\\ to\\ import\\,\\ but\\ would\\ also\\ decrease\\ foreign\\ dependence\\,\\ stimulate\\ local\\ economies\\,\\ and\\ inspire\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\-determination\\ among\\ locals\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ agriculture\\ industry\\ has\\ declined\\ steadily\\ as\\ tourism\\ expands\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ great\\ efforts\\ are\\ being\\ made\\ to\\ link\\ the\\ agriculture\\ and\\ tourism\\ industries\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ripple\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;multiplier\\&rdquo\\;\\ effect\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ tourism\\ spending\\ filters\\ through\\ an\\ economy\\ and\\ contributes\\ to\\ income\\ and\\ employment\\,\\ and\\ measures\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ tourism\\ on\\ an\\ economy\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\;\\ the\\ higher\\ the\\ score\\,\\ the\\ more\\ beneficial\\ tourism\\ is\\ for\\ that\\ island\\.\\ \\ \\;Large\\ islands\\ with\\ large\\ populations\\ and\\ land\\ mass\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ higher\\ scores\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ even\\ large\\ islands\\ have\\ problems\\ like\\ poverty\\ and\\ huge\\ debt\\ to\\ fix\\.\\ \\ \\;Caribbean\\ islands\\ must\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ balance\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ people\\ with\\ the\\ demands\\ of\\ the\\ tourist\\ industry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.\\ 3\\:\\ Employment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Tourism\\ provides\\ direct\\ employment\\ in\\ hotels\\,\\ casinos\\,\\ restaurants\\,\\ shops\\ and\\ transport\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ indirect\\ employment\\ in\\ services\\ and\\ industries\\ related\\ to\\ tourism\\.\\ \\ \\;Tourism\\ also\\ creates\\ \\&ldquo\\;informal\\&rdquo\\;\\ jobs\\ for\\ locals\\ who\\ sell\\ goods\\ or\\ provide\\ services\\ to\\ tourists\\ on\\ a\\ casual\\ basis\\.\\ \\ \\;Caribbean\\ countries\\ depend\\ highly\\ on\\ the\\ tourist\\ industry\\ to\\ provide\\ employment\\ opportunities\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ wages\\ and\\ working\\ conditions\\ could\\ be\\ improved\\,\\ many\\ workers\\ are\\ grateful\\ for\\ a\\ guaranteed\\ income\\ and\\ respectable\\ job\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ well\\-organized\\ trade\\ union\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ hotel\\ sector\\ has\\ managed\\ to\\ negotiate\\ reasonable\\ wages\\ and\\ conditions\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ job\\ security\\ remains\\ low\\.\\ \\ \\;Locals\\ employ\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ tourism\\ industry\\ by\\ becoming\\ taxi\\ drivers\\,\\ acting\\ as\\ guides\\,\\ opening\\ small\\ hotels\\ and\\ guesthouses\\,\\ selling\\ t\\-shirts\\,\\ jewelry\\,\\ hats\\,\\ and\\ arts\\ and\\ crafts\\,\\ braiding\\ hair\\,\\ or\\ selling\\ snacks\\ and\\ food\\;\\ however\\,\\ officials\\ see\\ vendors\\ as\\ problems\\ and\\ want\\ to\\ eliminate\\ them\\ from\\ tourist\\ spots\\.\\ \\ \\;Policies\\ have\\ been\\ adopted\\ that\\ require\\ vendors\\ to\\ buy\\ licenses\\ and\\ occupy\\ booths\\ in\\ corners\\ of\\ beach\\ properties\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ locals\\ resent\\ being\\ prohibited\\ from\\ certain\\ beaches\\ and\\ areas\\,\\ while\\ others\\ prefer\\ the\\ new\\ system\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ permanent\\ pitch\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ walk\\ the\\ beach\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ \\;Poor\\ attitude\\ toward\\ the\\ industry\\ by\\ workers\\ and\\ locals\\ threaten\\ the\\ tourism\\ industry\\;\\ governments\\ and\\ tourist\\ organizations\\ implore\\ workers\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ friendly\\ and\\ welcoming\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ claim\\ that\\ tourism\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\ as\\ blacks\\ tend\\ to\\ fill\\ the\\ low\\-end\\ menial\\ jobs\\ while\\ whites\\ secure\\ the\\ best\\ jobs\\,\\ black\\ hotel\\ workers\\ serve\\ mainly\\ white\\ tourists\\,\\ and\\ black\\ workers\\ display\\ resentment\\ towards\\ white\\ guests\\ and\\ managers\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ slave\\ resistance\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Employee\\ training\\ programs\\ must\\ improve\\ for\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ employment\\;\\ money\\ tends\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ new\\ buildings\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ training\\ staff\\ effectively\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ training\\ schools\\ and\\ programs\\ have\\ been\\ established\\,\\ but\\ have\\ much\\ room\\ for\\ improvement\\.\\ \\ \\;Expatriates\\ are\\ often\\ given\\ the\\ best\\ jobs\\ while\\ locals\\ receive\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ opportunity\\ to\\ be\\ promoted\\ in\\ the\\ workforce\\.\\ \\ \\;Governments\\ have\\ launched\\ tourism\\ awareness\\ programs\\ that\\ involve\\ entire\\ islands\\,\\ not\\ just\\ hotel\\ employees\\;\\ the\\ programs\\ aim\\ to\\ educate\\ local\\ populations\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ tourism\\ and\\ open\\ discussion\\ about\\ the\\ potential\\ benefits\\ of\\ tourism\\.\\ \\ \\;Surveys\\ show\\ that\\ islanders\\ generally\\ see\\ tourism\\ as\\ economically\\ beneficial\\ and\\ socially\\ hurtful\\;\\ many\\ believe\\ most\\ profits\\ go\\ to\\ foreigners\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\-inclusive\\ resorts\\ have\\ triggered\\ resentment\\ among\\ locals\\,\\ but\\ do\\ provide\\ economic\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alejandro\\ Acevedo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\aacevedo\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 8\\ Week\\ 10\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\-6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOT\\ COMPLETED\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Andre\\ Plair\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\plair\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 8\\ Week\\ 10\\ Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 8\\ and\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reclaiming\\ the\\ Heritage\\ Trail\\I\\.\\ The\\ Invisible\\ Heritage\\A\\.\\ Caribbean\\ culture\\ has\\ been\\ affected\\ and\\ added\\ to\\ by\\ almost\\ everyone\\ who\\settles\\ there\\B\\.\\ Need\\ to\\ keep\\ emphasis\\ of\\ person\\ first\\,\\ dollar\\ second\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cannot\\ loose\\ identity\\C\\.\\ Antigua\\ has\\ lost\\ its\\ heritage\\ because\\ it\\ caters\\ too\\ much\\ to\\ tourists\\D\\.\\ Tourists\\ tend\\ to\\ turn\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\ more\\ uniform\\ for\\ tourism\\E\\.\\ Music\\ also\\ has\\ been\\ compromised\\ on\\ certain\\ islands\\1\\.\\ Antigua\\&rsquo\\;s\\ iron\\ bad\\ and\\ Carriacou\\&rsquo\\;s\\ big\\ Drums\\ are\\ native\\ musical\\ forms\\ but\\things\\ like\\ steel\\ bands\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;saloon\\&rdquo\\;\\ reggae\\ are\\ desired\\ by\\ tourists\\F\\.\\ Many\\ hotels\\ and\\ cruises\\ put\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;native\\ shows\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ tourists\\G\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ want\\ by\\ some\\ resorts\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ authenticity\\ of\\ their\\ island\\,\\ is\\Dominica\\ and\\ is\\ Bele\\ and\\ Haiti\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Voodoo\\\\II\\.\\ Street\\ Culture\\A\\.\\ The\\ biggest\\ form\\ of\\ street\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ Trinidad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Carnival\\B\\.\\ It\\ was\\ started\\ for\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ not\\ for\\ tourists\\,\\ however\\ events\\ in\\Carnival\\ have\\ been\\ altered\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ more\\ tourist\\ friendly\\C\\.\\ Junkanoo\\ is\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ form\\ of\\ Carnival\\ for\\ Christmas\\D\\.\\ It\\ too\\ was\\ started\\ and\\ maintained\\ by\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ island\\,\\ but\\just\\ as\\ well\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ tourists\\ has\\ fueled\\ into\\ the\\ longevity\\ and\\ size\\ of\\the\\ carnival\\E\\.\\ Barbados\\ has\\ Crop\\-Over\\ as\\ their\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ festival\\F\\.\\ This\\ festival\\ has\\ been\\ greatly\\ altered\\ by\\ tourism\\ to\\ accommodate\\ tourists\\G\\.\\ These\\ festival\\ are\\ strategically\\ used\\ to\\ boost\\ tourism\\ in\\ slow\\ seasons\\ and\\are\\ altered\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ accessible\\ and\\ fun\\ for\\ tourists\\H\\.\\ The\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ festivals\\ that\\ survive\\ is\\ the\\ participation\\ of\\ the\\ town\\,\\the\\ natives\\,\\ and\\ small\\ native\\ businesses\\;\\ they\\ provide\\ the\\ original\\ spirit\\ of\\the\\ festivals\\I\\.\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ musical\\ Sunsplash\\ festival\\ and\\ St\\.\\ Lucia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jazz\\ festival\\ are\\ other\\examples\\ of\\ local\\ venues\\ that\\ attract\\ tourists\\\\III\\.\\ The\\ Heritage\\ Trail\\A\\.\\ Recently\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ movement\\ towards\\ adding\\ culture\\ and\\ heritage\\ to\\ the\\tourist\\ scene\\B\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ heritage\\ program\\ previous\\ architecture\\ was\\ made\\ to\\ look\\like\\ other\\ places\\ like\\ Florida\\,\\ Spain\\,\\ or\\ Mexico\\C\\.\\ The\\ heritage\\ movement\\ has\\ come\\ from\\ a\\ resurgence\\ Caribbean\\ pride\\ and\\ an\\international\\ trend\\ of\\ recreating\\ history\\D\\.\\ Organizations\\ like\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Tourist\\ Action\\ Program\\ \\(TAP\\)\\ have\\ been\\recreating\\ entire\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ special\\ monuments\\ and\\ structures\\ as\\well\\ as\\ re\\-popularizing\\ vibrant\\ Caribbean\\ colors\\E\\.\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\ have\\ also\\ been\\ restoring\\ buildings\\ and\\ artifacts\\ that\\ were\\involved\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ and\\ the\\ slave\\ society\\ in\\ general\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\adding\\ heritage\\ campaign\\F\\.\\ An\\ initial\\ effort\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ to\\ restore\\ and\\ start\\ up\\museums\\ on\\ the\\ islands\\G\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ tendency\\ however\\ for\\ islands\\ to\\ create\\ heritage\\ that\\ it\\ never\\ had\\and\\ invalidate\\ the\\ authenticity\\ of\\ the\\ island\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heritage\\\\IV\\.\\ Art\\ for\\ Art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sake\\A\\.\\ The\\ Caribbean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ art\\ was\\ initially\\ structured\\ to\\ please\\ colonials\\ but\\ has\\ now\\become\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ heritage\\ movement\\ and\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;indigenized\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ people\\B\\.\\ The\\ international\\ market\\ for\\ art\\ has\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ attracted\\ to\\ Caribbean\\ art\\C\\.\\ Sponsoring\\ exhibitions\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ tourist\\ attraction\\ in\\ the\\Caribbean\\ with\\ companies\\ funding\\ such\\ exhibitions\\D\\.\\ The\\ demand\\ for\\ souvenirs\\ and\\ knick\\ knacks\\ s\\ so\\ high\\ that\\ many\\ Caribbean\\markets\\ cannot\\ satisfy\\ them\\ and\\ have\\ to\\ import\\ them\\1\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ an\\ economic\\ linkage\\ to\\ the\\ inner\\ Caribbean\\ economy\\ that\\has\\ been\\ broken\\E\\.\\ The\\ chapter\\ closes\\ with\\ remarks\\ about\\ the\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ societies\\and\\ way\\ of\\ life\\ will\\ become\\ too\\ commercialized\\\\\\New\\ Footprints\\ in\\ the\\ Sand\\I\\.\\ The\\ Future\\A\\.\\ Tourism\\ has\\ been\\ generally\\ accepted\\ by\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ community\\;\\ it\\ Is\\ viewed\\as\\ their\\ last\\ resort\\B\\.\\ Some\\ intellectuals\\ believe\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ plantocracy\\ or\\slavery\\C\\.\\ However\\ it\\ is\\ greatly\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ mass\\ tourist\\ industry\\ cannot\\ exist\\for\\ much\\ longer\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\D\\.\\ A\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ Tourism\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ answer\\,\\ where\\ ecological\\ as\\ well\\ as\\human\\ needs\\ are\\ considered\\ with\\ business\\ considerations\\E\\.\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ Tourism\\&rdquo\\;\\ calls\\ for\\ a\\ complete\\ reshaping\\ of\\ the\\ industry\\,\\ from\\ownership\\,\\ to\\ business\\ strategies\\,\\ to\\ strong\\ linkages\\,\\ to\\ Caribbean\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ in\\charge\\ of\\ their\\ destiny\\F\\.\\ Linkages\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ community\\ are\\ essential\\ to\\ the\\ future\\of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\G\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ strong\\ need\\ for\\ cooperation\\ amongst\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\,\\cause\\ yah\\ know\\ the\\ saying\\,\\ divided\\ we\\ fall\\,\\ united\\ we\\ stand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beatrice\\ Duvert\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\bduvert\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 9\\ Week\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Tourism\\ and\\ Colonialism\\:\\ the\\ Experience\\ of\\ the\\ Bahamas\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ analyzes\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ mass\\ tourism\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ article\\ also\\ tries\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ tourist\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ relates\\ to\\ British\\ Colonialism\\.\\ \\ \\;Are\\ Bahamians\\ essentially\\ turning\\ into\\ Afro\\-Saxons\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ article\\ also\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ whole\\ idea\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\ among\\ Bahamians\\.\\ \\ \\;National\\ identity\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ customs\\,\\ traditions\\,\\ myths\\,\\ and\\ other\\ things\\ in\\ common\\ that\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ peoples\\ share\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ is\\ the\\ tourism\\ industry\\ manipulating\\ these\\ customs\\,\\ traditions\\,\\ and\\ myths\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ appealing\\ to\\ tourists\\ and\\ help\\ business\\?\\ \\ \\;It\\ very\\ well\\ might\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ brochures\\ that\\ the\\ travel\\ agencies\\ put\\ out\\ to\\ bring\\ tourists\\ to\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ try\\ to\\ amplify\\ the\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ that\\ were\\ more\\ influenced\\ by\\ British\\ colonialism\\ as\\ being\\ indicative\\ of\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tourism\\ now\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ leading\\ industry\\ in\\ the\\ Bahamas\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ actually\\ contributes\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ the\\ gross\\ national\\ product\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ hotels\\ are\\ foreign\\ owned\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ profits\\ sent\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ made\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ as\\ all\\ tourism\\-dependent\\ Caribbean\\ islands\\,\\ still\\ remain\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ countries\\ that\\ formerly\\ colonized\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ instance\\,\\ they\\ still\\ depend\\ on\\ those\\ countries\\ to\\ provide\\ tourists\\,\\ imported\\ food\\,\\ other\\ imported\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ everything\\ else\\ to\\ manage\\ the\\ tourism\\ facilities\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ trying\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ similarities\\ between\\ tourism\\ in\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ and\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ during\\ colonization\\,\\ the\\ writer\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ relates\\ how\\ the\\ way\\ blacks\\ were\\ treated\\ in\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ and\\ looked\\ at\\ as\\ socially\\ inferior\\ by\\ the\\ wealthy\\ white\\ class\\ who\\ had\\ immigrated\\ there\\ after\\ the\\ wars\\ of\\ Independence\\ in\\ America\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ tourists\\ to\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ still\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ islanders\\ as\\ socially\\ inferior\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ instance\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ town\\ of\\ Nassau\\,\\ it\\ was\\ pretty\\ much\\ off\\ limits\\ to\\ blacks\\ on\\ the\\ island\\,\\ whites\\ had\\ special\\ privilege\\ over\\ whatever\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ they\\ wanted\\,\\ just\\ as\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\ now\\ are\\ reserved\\ for\\ wealthy\\ tourists\\,\\ and\\ the\\ natives\\ of\\ the\\ islands\\ themselves\\ are\\ pretty\\ much\\ not\\ welcome\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ thing\\ the\\ author\\ tries\\ to\\ argue\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ whole\\ dynamics\\ of\\ tourism\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\ subject\\ the\\ islanders\\ to\\ a\\ life\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ almost\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ tourism\\ makes\\ it\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ bondage\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ in\\ service\\ to\\ a\\ rich\\ white\\ class\\ just\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ during\\ the\\ time\\ before\\ they\\ gained\\ their\\ independence\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ the\\ author\\ goes\\ about\\ giving\\ examples\\ of\\ common\\ stereotypes\\ that\\ are\\ promoted\\ and\\ portrayed\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ islanders\\ \\&ldquo\\;live\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ island\\ to\\ tourists\\ wanting\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ vacation\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ as\\ well\\ stated\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ decades\\ destinations\\ like\\ the\\ Bahamas\\ have\\ been\\ saddled\\ with\\ images\\ of\\ smiling\\ natives\\,\\ often\\ shirtless\\,\\ shuffling\\ under\\ limbo\\ bars\\ with\\ frothy\\ fruit\\ and\\ rum\\ drinks\\ to\\ the\\ delight\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ jet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\setters\\.\\ How\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ truth\\ this\\ is\\!\\ \\(Insight\\ Bahamas\\ Guide\\ 1986\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;66\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Political\\ Impact\\ of\\ Tourism\\ Dependence\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ is\\ pretty\\ much\\ trying\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;economic\\ reliance\\ on\\ tourism\\ creates\\ political\\ dependence\\.\\ \\ \\;Specifically\\,\\ it\\ seeks\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ region\\,\\ strongly\\ dependent\\ on\\ U\\.S\\.\\ tourism\\,\\ is\\ demonstrably\\ more\\ compliant\\ politically\\ with\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ than\\ other\\,\\ less\\ dependent\\,\\ Latin\\ American\\ nations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ tries\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\ a\\ conclusion\\ by\\ analyzing\\ things\\ empirically\\ through\\ the\\ way\\ these\\ countries\\ vote\\ in\\ UN\\ meetings\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ argument\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\political\\ compliance\\ hypotheses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ has\\ four\\ main\\ parts\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ positive\\ relationship\\ exists\\ between\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ tourists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ total\\ tourist\\ arrivals\\ and\\ host\\ nation\\ political\\ compliance\\ with\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ larger\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ host\\ nation\\,\\ the\\ larger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ degree\\ of\\ political\\ compliance\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ larger\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ tourists\\,\\ the\\ more\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\assistance\\ flows\\ to\\ the\\ host\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ larger\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ tourist\\ sector\\,\\ the\\ larger\\ the\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ trade\\ with\\ the\\ host\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ of\\ this\\ article\\ tries\\ to\\ go\\ about\\ finding\\ evidence\\ to\\ support\\ these\\ hypotheses\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ evidence\\ actually\\ disproves\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ hypotheses\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ instance\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ direct\\ correlation\\ between\\ economic\\ dependence\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\ and\\ a\\ trend\\ of\\ political\\ compliance\\ between\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ it\\ is\\ seen\\ that\\ although\\ American\\ tourists\\ tend\\ to\\ travel\\ to\\ areas\\ dependent\\ on\\ U\\.S\\.\\ trade\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ connection\\ between\\ this\\ and\\ the\\ host\\ nations\\&rsquo\\;\\ decisions\\ in\\ the\\ General\\ Assembly\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ even\\ go\\ against\\ the\\ votes\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ at\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ conclude\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ evidence\\ to\\ support\\ hypothesis\\ 1\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ hypothesis\\ 2\\ is\\ disproved\\ because\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ foreign\\ investment\\ in\\ host\\ nations\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ investments\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ tourist\\ industries\\ there\\,\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ affect\\ the\\ host\\ nations\\&rsquo\\;\\ political\\ compliance\\.\\ \\ \\;Hypothesis\\ 3\\ is\\ disproved\\ because\\ even\\ though\\ nations\\ might\\ enjoy\\ economic\\ benefits\\ from\\ U\\.S\\.\\ tourists\\ spending\\ money\\ in\\ their\\ economy\\,\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ get\\ economic\\ grants\\ from\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ hypothesis\\ 4\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ confirmed\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ positive\\ correlation\\ between\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ tourist\\ sector\\ and\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ trade\\ with\\ that\\ host\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Luigi\\ Naguit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\naguit\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#9\\ Week\\ 11\\ Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 4\\,\\ 5\\,\\ and\\ conclusion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\ and\\ Security\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Crime\\ Justice\\ and\\ the\\ Social\\ Order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ trade\\ affects\\ power\\ and\\ politics\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caribbean\\ countries\\ pay\\ a\\ high\\ price\\ for\\ trying\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ criminal\\-justice\\ challenges\\ presented\\ by\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ \\(Cost\\ borne\\ by\\ government\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ private\\ sector\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crime\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enforcing\\ drug\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prosecution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protecting\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ Huge\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ private\\ security\\ firms\\ being\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\;Jamaica\\ in\\ 1994\\ had\\ 15\\,000\\ private\\ guards\\,\\ by\\ mid\\ 1996\\ that\\ number\\ grew\\ to\\ 20\\,000\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Criminal\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ basic\\ types\\ of\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Enforcement\\ crimes\\:\\ involves\\ crimes\\ among\\ traffickers\\ and\\ between\\ traffickers\\ and\\ civilians\\ and\\ police\\ triggered\\ by\\ traffickers\\&rsquo\\;\\ efforts\\ to\\ avoid\\ arrest\\ and\\ prosecution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Business\\ Crimes\\:\\ Crimes\\ committed\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ business\\ disputes\\,\\ acquisitive\\ crimes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ robbery\\ and\\ extortion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ no\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ of\\ causal\\ linkages\\ between\\ drug\\ activities\\ and\\ fraud\\,\\ homicide\\,\\ theft\\ and\\ assault\\ exists\\ there\\ is\\ considerable\\ circumstantial\\ evidence\\ that\\ points\\ to\\ connections\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ places\\ that\\ have\\ featured\\ prominently\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ decade\\ as\\ centers\\ of\\ drug\\ activity\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ ones\\ with\\ high\\ and\\ progressive\\ reports\\ in\\ the\\ theft\\,\\ homicide\\ and\\ serious\\-assault\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bahamas\\,\\ Belize\\,\\ the\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\,\\ Guyana\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ St\\ Kitts\\-Nevis\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Trinidad\\ and\\ Tobago\\,\\ and\\ The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Virgin\\ Islands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Puerto\\ Rico\\ has\\ highest\\ per\\ capita\\ murder\\ rate\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ \\(64\\%\\ of\\ the\\ 850\\ murders\\ there\\ in\\ 1995\\ were\\ drug\\ related\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ criminality\\ has\\ no\\ economic\\,\\ social\\,\\ or\\ political\\ boundaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ operations\\ often\\ generate\\ criminal\\ behavior\\ that\\ defies\\ clear\\ \\&ldquo\\;consensual\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;expressive\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;instrumental\\&rdquo\\;\\ ranking\\ because\\ of\\ linkages\\ and\\ overlapping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jamaican\\ minister\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fear\\ of\\ crime\\ is\\ destroying\\ freedom\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\ crimes\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ random\\ and\\ individually\\ perpetrated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organized\\ criminal\\ activity\\ has\\ established\\ itself\\ within\\ countries\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ and\\ also\\ links\\ drug\\ operators\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ with\\ some\\ outside\\ the\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possess\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-are\\ organized\\ criminal\\ gangs\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ origin\\ and\\ composed\\ primarily\\ of\\ Jamaicans\\ or\\ people\\ of\\ Jamaican\\ descent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disciplined\\ and\\ Violent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Swift\\ and\\ brutal\\ violence\\ is\\ a\\ trademark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jim\\ Brown\\-coleader\\ of\\ Shower\\ posse\\ was\\ reputedly\\ responsible\\ for\\ sixty\\-eight\\ murders\\ and\\ the\\ shooting\\ of\\ thirteen\\ policemen\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ six\\ months\\ of\\ 1990\\ alone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ sold\\ drugs\\ that\\ came\\ mainly\\ from\\ Jamaica\\,\\ however\\ the\\ expanded\\ their\\ enterprise\\ and\\ recruited\\ other\\ ethnicities\\ including\\ white\\ females\\ as\\ couriers\\ and\\ arms\\ purchasers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Money\\ laundering\\ is\\ handled\\ in\\ house\\,\\ mainly\\ by\\ using\\ wire\\-transfer\\ services\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Posse\\ feels\\ duty\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ neighborhood\\ by\\ offering\\ social\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drug\\-related\\ criminal\\ activity\\ within\\ some\\ Caribbean\\ countries\\ is\\ complicated\\ and\\ aggravated\\ by\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ nationals\\ who\\ are\\ convicted\\ and\\ sentenced\\ elsewhere\\ and\\ later\\ deported\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ of\\ these\\ deportees\\ are\\ posse\\ members\\ or\\ former\\ posse\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drug\\-related\\ criminality\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ has\\ given\\ rise\\ to\\ an\\ increasing\\ problem\\ related\\ to\\ witnesses\\.\\ \\ \\;Witnesses\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ being\\ intimidated\\ but\\ also\\ murdered\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ has\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ protection\\ programs\\ that\\ are\\ a\\ drag\\ on\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;Puerto\\ Rico\\ spends\\ \\$4\\ million\\ a\\ year\\ protecting\\ witnesses\\ in\\ drug\\ cases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Legislative\\ and\\ Judicial\\ Responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illegal\\ drug\\ operations\\ and\\ the\\ problems\\ they\\ generate\\ have\\ created\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ new\\ and\\ expanded\\ drug\\ units\\ for\\ intelligence\\ and\\ prosecution\\,\\ and\\ new\\ and\\ additional\\ drug\\ courts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ vital\\ than\\ new\\ or\\ revised\\ laws\\ is\\ their\\ implementation\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ reasons\\ ranging\\ from\\ administrative\\ lethargy\\ to\\ technical\\,\\ financial\\,\\ and\\ other\\ limitations\\,\\ the\\ implementation\\ record\\ is\\ very\\ poor\\ in\\ the\\ region\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ when\\ laws\\ are\\ effective\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ worry\\ that\\ the\\ laws\\ are\\ too\\ harsh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ laws\\ provide\\ considerable\\ police\\ power\\,\\ which\\,\\ has\\ often\\ been\\ misused\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Burden\\ of\\ proof\\ on\\ defendant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ warrant\\ searches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virtual\\ suspension\\ of\\ civil\\ rights\\ in\\ crime\\&mdash\\;ridden\\ neighborhoods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capital\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justifiable\\ concern\\ about\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ justice\\,\\ and\\ actual\\ and\\ potential\\ abused\\ of\\ power\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ wide\\ discretion\\ and\\ power\\ that\\ the\\ provisions\\ of\\ some\\ laws\\ give\\ to\\ law\\ enforcement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Metaphor\\)\\ Jamaica\\ brought\\ the\\ mongoose\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ snakes\\&hellip\\;that\\ did\\ the\\ job\\ well\\ until\\ the\\ mongoose\\ turned\\ their\\ attention\\ to\\ chickens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prisons\\ are\\ overcrowded\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;inhuman\\ and\\ degrading\\&rdquo\\;\\ conditions\\,\\ abuse\\ occurring\\ in\\ Jamaican\\ prisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ easy\\ answers\\ as\\ all\\ parts\\ of\\ legal\\ system\\ claim\\ different\\ solutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ crime\\ intensifies\\,\\ answers\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ found\\ only\\ through\\ the\\ coordination\\ of\\ law\\ enforcement\\ across\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\ procedural\\ changes\\ must\\ be\\ implemented\\,\\ that\\ would\\ speed\\ trials\\ up\\ while\\ maintaining\\ the\\ integrity\\ of\\ the\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fact\\ remains\\ that\\ many\\ who\\ traffic\\ in\\ drugs\\ do\\ funnel\\ money\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ winning\\ the\\ hearts\\ and\\ minds\\ of\\ potential\\ witnesses\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\ and\\ Security\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ Arms\\ Trafficking\\,\\ Corruption\\,\\ and\\ Governance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ in\\ Griffith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ analyzes\\ the\\ security\\ implications\\ of\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\;Weapons\\ and\\ drugs\\ seem\\ to\\ go\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\ because\\ weapons\\ are\\ needed\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ drugs\\ and\\ to\\ intimidate\\ clients\\ and\\ other\\ competitors\\ in\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;Arms\\ trafficking\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ has\\ been\\ both\\ intraregional\\ and\\ interregional\\,\\ with\\ the\\ latter\\ being\\ the\\ more\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ all\\ the\\ places\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ guns\\ and\\ drugs\\ is\\ strongest\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ times\\ the\\ prominent\\ cases\\ of\\ interregional\\ arms\\ trafficking\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ liaison\\ for\\ arms\\ shipments\\ to\\ South\\ America\\,\\ hint\\ at\\ bigger\\,\\ more\\ insidious\\ schemes\\ by\\ the\\ arms\\ traffickers\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ arms\\ will\\ probably\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ train\\ mercenaries\\ for\\ assassination\\ attempts\\ and\\ other\\ elaborate\\ plans\\ that\\ go\\ beyond\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ merely\\ protecting\\ drugs\\ and\\ intimidating\\ clients\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drug\\-related\\ corruption\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ involves\\ both\\ acts\\ of\\ commission\\ and\\ acts\\ of\\ omission\\.\\ Particularly\\ disturbing\\ is\\ the\\ corruption\\ of\\ public\\ officials\\.\\ \\ \\;Griffith\\ uses\\ Ethan\\ Nadelmann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\ to\\ corruption\\,\\ which\\ distinguishes\\ networks\\ by\\ size\\,\\ sophistication\\,\\ and\\ hierarchical\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ keeping\\ with\\ Nadelmann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definitions\\,\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ sees\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ sporadic\\ and\\ systemic\\ corruption\\.\\ \\ \\;Sporadic\\ corruption\\ occurs\\ when\\ people\\ take\\ bribes\\ without\\ sharing\\ the\\ profit\\ or\\ knowledge\\ with\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;Systemic\\ corruption\\ \\ \\;may\\ occur\\ two\\ ways\\:\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ \\ \\;corruption\\ may\\ be\\ rampant\\ but\\ not\\ inclusive\\ of\\ everyone\\ in\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ or\\ 2\\)\\ \\ \\;there\\ is\\ a\\ payoff\\ arrangement\\ in\\ which\\ lower\\ officials\\ give\\ their\\ profits\\ to\\ superiors\\ along\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ command\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Bahamas\\ has\\ had\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ region\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ notorious\\ corruption\\ case\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ central\\ role\\ in\\ trafficking\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ sporadic\\ corruption\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ conviction\\ of\\ officials\\ in\\ the\\ police\\ force\\ and\\ military\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ police\\ force\\ has\\ also\\ played\\ a\\ big\\ role\\ in\\ corruption\\ in\\ Trinidad\\ and\\ Tobago\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ investigation\\ report\\ from\\ Trinidad\\ revealed\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ get\\ most\\ its\\ money\\ from\\ corruption\\ from\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ drug\\ dealers\\,\\ their\\ supplies\\,\\ and\\ their\\ supply\\ routes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ corrupt\\ groups\\ stretched\\ from\\ new\\ recruits\\ to\\ senior\\ police\\ officers\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ corruption\\ spans\\ other\\ agencies\\ besides\\ the\\ police\\ force\\,\\ law\\-enforcement\\ measures\\ are\\ often\\ seriously\\ compromised\\ and\\ frustrated\\.\\ \\ \\;Aruba\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ systemic\\ corruption\\ where\\ the\\ Cuntrera\\ brothers\\ were\\ a\\ powerful\\ mafia\\ family\\ that\\ controlled\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Several\\ observations\\ may\\ be\\ made\\ about\\ corruption\\ generally\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ corrupt\\ officials\\ not\\ only\\ violate\\ laws\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ country\\,\\ but\\ often\\ times\\,\\ of\\ another\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\,\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ full\\ extent\\ of\\ corruption\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Third\\,\\ corruption\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ limited\\ to\\ the\\ military\\ and\\ law\\-enforcement\\ agencies\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ government\\ agencies\\,\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ dealing\\ with\\ customs\\,\\ taxes\\,\\ and\\ prisons\\ are\\ also\\ involved\\ in\\ corruption\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ private\\ sector\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ involved\\ in\\ corruption\\ as\\ the\\ public\\ sector\\.\\ \\ \\;Fourth\\,\\ the\\ judicial\\ and\\ legislative\\ branches\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ are\\ also\\ involved\\ in\\ corruption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arms\\ trafficking\\ and\\ corruption\\ not\\ only\\ erode\\ the\\ respect\\ for\\ laws\\,\\ but\\ they\\ may\\ also\\ shape\\ the\\ attitudes\\ and\\ values\\ in\\ societies\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ implications\\ of\\ this\\ are\\ three\\-fold\\:\\ military\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ economic\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ corruption\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ undermines\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ maintain\\ national\\ security\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ people\\ may\\ resort\\ to\\ vigilante\\ acts\\ to\\ take\\ justice\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ hands\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ in\\ specific\\ agencies\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ loss\\ of\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ mean\\ changes\\ in\\ power\\ between\\ political\\ parties\\ by\\ voters\\ who\\ are\\ frustrated\\ with\\ the\\ current\\,\\ corrupt\\ party\\ in\\ power\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ happened\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Kitts\\-Nevis\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\ and\\ Security\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Conclusion\\:\\ Prospects\\ for\\ Ending\\ the\\ Siege\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ narcotics\\ phenomenon\\ involves\\ the\\ interplay\\ of\\ four\\ factors\\:\\ drugs\\,\\ geography\\,\\ power\\,\\ and\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ uniformity\\ in\\ drug\\ operations\\ and\\ their\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ state\\ and\\ nonstate\\ actors\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\,\\ and\\ they\\ engage\\ in\\ both\\ conflict\\ and\\ cooperation\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ military\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ implications\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ security\\ impact\\ of\\ drugs\\ is\\ multidimensional\\ and\\ variable\\.\\ \\ \\;Drug\\ trafficking\\ has\\ numerous\\ consequences\\ and\\ implications\\,\\ namely\\ arms\\ trafficking\\,\\ crime\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ and\\ tourism\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ the\\ drug\\ phenomenon\\ extends\\ so\\ far\\,\\ countermeasures\\ must\\ be\\ both\\ multidimensional\\ and\\ multilevel\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ scope\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ phenomenon\\ undermines\\ sovereignty\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ drug\\ siege\\?\\ \\ \\;Ending\\ the\\ drug\\ siege\\ hinges\\ on\\ several\\ factors\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ pertains\\ to\\ capabilities\\&mdash\\;simply\\ having\\ the\\ money\\,\\ manpower\\,\\ and\\ technology\\ to\\ combat\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;External\\ support\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\ and\\ from\\ nonstate\\ actors\\ \\(IGOs\\,\\ INGOs\\,\\ MNCs\\)\\ is\\ also\\ necessary\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ drug\\ siege\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ third\\ factor\\ is\\ the\\ continued\\ support\\ of\\ political\\ relations\\ with\\ nations\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ US\\,\\ Britain\\,\\ Canada\\,\\ and\\ France\\,\\ nations\\ that\\ are\\ critical\\ bilateral\\ partners\\ for\\ countermeasures\\ against\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\;Reducing\\ demand\\ for\\ drugs\\ will\\ also\\ help\\ end\\ the\\ drug\\ siege\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Caribbean\\ political\\ elite\\ will\\ also\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ courage\\ to\\ make\\ very\\ difficult\\ decisions\\ if\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ chance\\ of\\ ending\\ the\\ siege\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ strict\\ and\\ firm\\ with\\ their\\ policies\\ against\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ backlash\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\,\\ but\\ politicians\\ must\\ be\\ brave\\ enough\\ to\\ weather\\ the\\ storm\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ gravity\\ of\\ other\\ socioeconomic\\ problems\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ will\\ help\\ determine\\ how\\ successful\\ ending\\ the\\ drug\\ siege\\ can\\ be\\ since\\ governments\\ can\\ only\\ allocate\\ their\\ scarce\\ resources\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ pressing\\ social\\ ills\\.\\ \\ \\;Economic\\ developments\\ serve\\ as\\ another\\ factor\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ there\\ were\\ less\\ demand\\ for\\ Caribbean\\ exports\\ such\\ as\\ bananas\\,\\ sugar\\,\\ and\\ bauxite\\,\\ then\\ Caribbean\\ countries\\ may\\ turn\\ to\\ marijuana\\ production\\ to\\ compensate\\ for\\ the\\ fall\\ in\\ GDP\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;This\\ book\\ provides\\ ample\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ drug\\ phenomenon\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ does\\ not\\ constitute\\ a\\ security\\ matter\\ for\\ the\\ region\\ simply\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ drug\\ production\\,\\ consumption\\-abuse\\,\\ trafficking\\,\\ and\\ money\\ laundering\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(241\\)\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ due\\ to\\ these\\ reasons\\ that\\ the\\ drug\\ phenomenon\\ is\\ a\\ security\\ issue\\;\\ rather\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ for\\ the\\ following\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ drug\\ trade\\ has\\ multiple\\ consequences\\,\\ such\\ as\\ crime\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ and\\ arms\\ trafficking\\.\\ \\ \\;Drugs\\ heavily\\ influence\\ the\\ agencies\\ that\\ promote\\ national\\ security\\ and\\ good\\ governance\\.\\ \\ \\;State\\ and\\ nonstate\\ actors\\ have\\ infringed\\ the\\ formal\\-legal\\ and\\ positive\\ sovereignty\\ of\\ the\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keith\\ Nunziata\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\nunziata\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\#\\ 10\\ Week\\ 11\\ \\ \\;Ch\\.\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foreign\\ Cultures\\ 46\\ Final\\ Exam\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 11\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Paradise\\ Lost\\:\\ Crime\\,\\ Violence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ International\\ Drug\\ Trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\ and\\ Security\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\:\\ Sovereignty\\ Under\\ Siege\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Ivelaw\\ Lloyd\\ Griffith\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Griffith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Thesis\\:\\ The\\ production\\ and\\ flow\\ of\\ drugs\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ leads\\ to\\ myriad\\ problems\\ \\(crime\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ arms\\ trafficking\\,\\ money\\-laundering\\,\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ tourism\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ undermine\\ the\\ political\\ stability\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ region\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Narcotics\\ Production\\ and\\ Consumption\\ Abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Epigraph\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ fundamental\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ problem\\&hellip\\;is\\ the\\ presence\\ and\\ power\\ of\\ consumer\\ demand\\&hellip\\;So\\ long\\ as\\ demand\\ continues\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ people\\ engaged\\ in\\ supply\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Peter\\ Smith\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drugs\\ that\\ feature\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\:\\ marijuana\\,\\ cocaine\\,\\ heroin\\,\\ and\\ their\\ derivatives\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ crack\\ from\\ cocaine\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ marijuana\\ grown\\ locally\\,\\ others\\ brought\\ from\\ S\\.\\ American\\ supplier\\ nations\\ such\\ as\\ Columbia\\,\\ Peru\\,\\ and\\ Bolivia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ climate\\ and\\ soil\\ ideal\\ for\\ marijuana\\,\\ which\\ grows\\ easily\\ anyway\\;\\ traditionally\\ Jamaica\\ and\\ Belize\\ are\\ the\\ two\\ largest\\ producer\\ nations\\ of\\ marijuana\\ \\(but\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ the\\ only\\ ones\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marijuana\\ has\\ several\\ street\\ names\\ \\(see\\ pg\\.\\ 26\\)\\,\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;ganja\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Indian\\ indentured\\ servants\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ bring\\ marijuana\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ and\\ interestingly\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;ganja\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ actually\\ the\\ hindi\\ word\\ for\\ cannabis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crop\\ eradication\\ efforts\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ are\\ largely\\ driven\\ by\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;supply\\ side\\ strategy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 34\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aerial\\ spraying\\ is\\ controversial\\ due\\ to\\ damage\\ to\\ legitimate\\ crops\\ and\\ ground\\ water\\ supply\\;\\ most\\ locals\\ resent\\ it\\ and\\ therefore\\ are\\ not\\ likely\\ to\\ cooperate\\ with\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ in\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;drug\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marijuana\\ has\\ a\\ long\\ history\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;socioreligious\\ use\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ which\\ also\\ dates\\ back\\ originally\\ to\\ Indian\\ indentured\\ servants\\ \\(see\\ quote\\ on\\ pg\\.\\ 42\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rastafarianism\\,\\ medicinal\\ uses\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alcohol\\ and\\ marijuana\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;gateway\\ drugs\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ cocaine\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generalization\\:\\ marijuana\\ is\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\,\\ crack\\ is\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ lower\\ and\\ middle\\ classes\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ considered\\ \\&lsquo\\;hard\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;status\\&rsquo\\;\\ drug\\,\\ but\\ yet\\ is\\ cheap\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ heroin\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;rich\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drug\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 45\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cocaine\\ and\\ heroin\\ abuse\\ are\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ spillover\\ from\\ trafficking\\ operations\\,\\ therefore\\ most\\ significant\\ in\\ major\\ transit\\ states\\:\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Belize\\,\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\,\\ Trinidad\\ and\\ Tobago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conspicuous\\ consumption\\,\\ materialism\\,\\ hedonism\\,\\ and\\ U\\.S\\.\\ culture\\ blamed\\ for\\ drug\\ problem\\ by\\ some\\ Caribbean\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Drug\\ Trafficking\\ Operations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Caribbean\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vortex\\ of\\ the\\ Americas\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 53\\)\\:\\ a\\ bridge\\ between\\ N\\.\\ and\\ S\\.\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\.\\ America\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ supplier\\ of\\ drugs\\,\\ and\\ N\\.\\ America\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ consumer\\;\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ is\\ caught\\ in\\ between\\;\\ cities\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ are\\ convenient\\ stops\\ from\\ cities\\ in\\ either\\ S\\.\\ America\\ or\\ North\\ America\\ \\(see\\ pg\\.\\ 58\\-61\\ for\\ charts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ islands\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;many\\ entry\\ and\\ exit\\ points\\;\\ good\\ for\\ surreptitious\\ travel\\ by\\ sea\\ or\\ air\\,\\ simply\\ impossible\\ to\\ monitor\\ them\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Geography\\ as\\ destiny\\ theme\\ seen\\ once\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditionally\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ Jamaica\\,\\ and\\ Belize\\ large\\ trafficking\\ states\\;\\ improved\\ enforcement\\ has\\ caused\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ alternate\\ routes\\ in\\ the\\ southern\\ and\\ eastern\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Because\\ of\\ the\\ increased\\ drug\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ eastern\\ Caribbean\\,\\ in\\ July\\ 1995\\ the\\ Drug\\ Enforcement\\ Administration\\ \\(DEA\\)\\ upgraded\\ its\\ presence\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\ from\\ \\&lsquo\\;Office\\&rsquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;Field\\ Division\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(68\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ochoa\\ Affair\\:\\ several\\ top\\ Cuban\\ military\\ officials\\ convicted\\ of\\ drug\\ trafficking\\ charges\\ in\\ 1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corruption\\ common\\ in\\ Haiti\\ due\\ to\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ instability\\,\\ facilitating\\ trafficking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apart\\ from\\ geography\\,\\ Caribbean\\ nations\\ have\\ inadequate\\ military\\ and\\ police\\ resources\\ to\\ fight\\ drug\\ trafficking\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ effect\\,\\ the\\ state\\ lacks\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ exercise\\ proper\\ political\\ and\\ territorial\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ the\\ nation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(80\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ creativity\\ and\\/or\\ desperation\\ of\\ smuggling\\ efforts\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 81\\-83\\)\\,\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;granny\\ mules\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ cadavers\\ \\(87\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drug\\ trafficking\\ operations\\ today\\ can\\ be\\ extremely\\ sophisticated\\,\\ making\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;digital\\ encryption\\ devices\\,\\ high\\-frequency\\ transmitters\\,\\ cellular\\ phones\\,\\ beepers\\,\\ radar\\-tracking\\ devices\\,\\ flares\\ and\\ sensors\\ for\\ airdrops\\,\\ and\\ other\\ equipment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(88\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trafficking\\ requires\\ corruption\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ flourish\\;\\ corruption\\ is\\ rampant\\ at\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ government\\ and\\ private\\ organization\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;people\\ in\\ shipping\\ companies\\,\\ customs\\ and\\ immigration\\ agencies\\,\\ warehouses\\,\\ police\\ forces\\,\\ the\\ military\\,\\ airlines\\,\\ export\\ and\\ import\\ companies\\,\\ stores\\,\\ cruise\\ ships\\,\\ trucking\\ companies\\,\\ farms\\,\\ factories\\,\\ bus\\ and\\ taxi\\ operations\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(89\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seizures\\ reveal\\ the\\ nature\\ and\\ scope\\ of\\ drug\\ trafficking\\,\\ but\\ most\\ experts\\ estimate\\ only\\ 15\\-25\\%\\ of\\ drugs\\ passing\\ through\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ annually\\ are\\ seized\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unfortunately\\ for\\ trafficking\\ nations\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ correlation\\ between\\ drug\\ trafficking\\ and\\ drug\\ consumption\\ and\\ abuse\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ drugs\\ which\\ are\\ being\\ smuggled\\ are\\ inevitably\\ left\\ behind\\,\\ on\\ accident\\,\\ or\\ by\\ design\\ as\\ payment\\;\\ EX\\:\\ the\\ Bahamas\\,\\ a\\ major\\ cocaine\\ transit\\ center\\ and\\ a\\ country\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ cocaine\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ problems\\ include\\ crime\\,\\ arms\\ trafficking\\,\\ and\\ corruption\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colin\\ Jackson\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\cbjacks\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 10\\ Week\\ 11\\ Roots\\ of\\ Violence\\ \\&\\;\\ Ch\\.1\\&\\;2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roots\\ of\\ Violence\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;I\\ want\\ to\\ start\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ topic\\ you\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\,\\ or\\ think\\ you\\ can\\ write\\ a\\ paper\\ on\\,\\ you\\ should\\ just\\ read\\ the\\ article\\ online\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ five\\ short\\ pages\\ and\\ took\\ about\\ four\\ minutes\\ for\\ me\\ to\\ finish\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ slow\\ reader\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worry\\ that\\ I\\ did\\ not\\ do\\ my\\ fair\\ share\\ of\\ work\\ though\\,\\ I\\ also\\ did\\ a\\ summary\\ for\\ the\\ Drugs\\ in\\ the\\ Carribean\\ book\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Politically\\,\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ stable\\ country\\,\\ with\\ a\\ thriving\\ democracy\\ that\\ has\\ withstood\\ power\\ changing\\ hands\\ multiple\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;Politics\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ problem\\ in\\ Jamaica\\,\\ the\\ economy\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ unemployment\\ rate\\ is\\ at\\ levels\\ seen\\ during\\ depressions\\ in\\ America\\ and\\ attempts\\ at\\ industrialization\\ have\\ all\\ failed\\.\\ \\ \\;Jamaica\\ has\\ been\\ forced\\ to\\ submit\\ to\\ the\\ demands\\ of\\ the\\ International\\ Monetary\\ Fund\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ it\\ has\\ shown\\ some\\ signs\\ of\\ economic\\ turnaround\\.\\ \\ \\;Problems\\ arise\\ because\\ their\\ debt\\ is\\ 160\\%\\ of\\ the\\ GDP\\ and\\ more\\ than\\ half\\ of\\ their\\ yearly\\ expenditure\\ is\\ spent\\ paying\\ loans\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ leaves\\ the\\ government\\ very\\ little\\ abiltiy\\ to\\ spend\\ money\\ on\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ only\\ thing\\ saving\\ Jamaica\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ transnational\\ society\\,\\ with\\ almost\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ their\\ population\\ residing\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ money\\ these\\ expatriots\\ send\\ back\\ is\\ second\\ only\\ to\\ tourism\\ in\\ its\\ contribution\\ to\\ Jamaica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ net\\ foreign\\ earning\\&\\#39\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ drug\\ trade\\ is\\ the\\ other\\ main\\ source\\ of\\ money\\ for\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;Jamaica\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ stopover\\ point\\ for\\ drugs\\ coming\\ from\\ Colombia\\ and\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ produce\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ weed\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ of\\ the\\ money\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ the\\ drugs\\ bring\\ with\\ it\\ guns\\ and\\ turf\\ battles\\,\\ often\\ the\\ drug\\ lords\\ are\\ better\\ armed\\ than\\ the\\ police\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ brings\\ violence\\ and\\ police\\ crackdowns\\ into\\ the\\ poor\\ neighborhoods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ economic\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ haves\\ and\\ have\\ nots\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ violence\\ is\\ so\\ prevelent\\ in\\ Jamaican\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ country\\ is\\ divided\\ in\\ two\\ by\\ the\\ mountain\\ range\\ running\\ West\\ to\\ East\\ through\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ North\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\ ranges\\ are\\ the\\ affluent\\ tourist\\ hotels\\;\\ south\\ of\\ the\\ moutain\\ ranges\\ are\\ the\\ shanty\\ towns\\ and\\ slums\\ of\\ a\\ struggling\\ economy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ island\\ can\\ be\\ viewed\\ as\\ almost\\ two\\ separate\\ countries\\,\\ separated\\ by\\ a\\ dense\\ jungle\\ and\\ mountains\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ cultural\\ split\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ violence\\ is\\ the\\ class\\ divide\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ in\\ the\\ South\\,\\ there\\ are\\ rich\\ Jamaicans\\ who\\ enjoy\\ splendid\\ villas\\ and\\ mansions\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ social\\ unrest\\ occurs\\ because\\ the\\ poor\\ see\\ people\\ living\\ in\\ splendor\\,\\ and\\ wonder\\ why\\ a\\ small\\ piece\\ of\\ that\\ cake\\ cannot\\ be\\ theirs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ other\\ reason\\ that\\ Jamaica\\ sees\\ a\\ disproportionate\\ amount\\ of\\ unrest\\ is\\ the\\ exact\\ nature\\ of\\ its\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ parliamentary\\ representatives\\ only\\ need\\ a\\ majority\\ in\\ their\\ region\\ to\\ be\\ re\\-elected\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ support\\ that\\ erect\\ public\\ funded\\ housing\\ projects\\ and\\ then\\ only\\ allow\\ loyal\\ supporters\\ to\\ live\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ projects\\ are\\ called\\ garrisons\\ and\\ are\\ filled\\ with\\ a\\ parties\\ most\\ loyal\\ supporters\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ of\\ their\\ livelihood\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ ascendancy\\ of\\ their\\ party\\,\\ so\\ political\\ riots\\ and\\ battles\\ break\\ out\\ among\\ opposing\\ garrisons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\ and\\ Security\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ chapters\\ 1\\-2\\ by\\ Ivelaw\\ L\\.\\ Griffith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ drug\\ problem\\ can\\ be\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ two\\ categories\\:\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\&\\#39\\;s\\ affect\\ on\\ individuals\\ and\\ communities\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\&\\#39\\;s\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ on\\ individuals\\ can\\ be\\ further\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ four\\ categories\\:\\ production\\,\\ consumption\\,\\ drug\\ trafficking\\ and\\ money\\ laundering\\.\\ \\ \\;Production\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ large\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\ \\;Marijuana\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ produced\\ at\\ an\\ endemic\\ level\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ because\\ its\\ warm\\ climate\\,\\ fertile\\ soil\\ and\\ dense\\ forest\\ are\\ perfect\\ for\\ marijuana\\ cultivation\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ of\\ the\\ high\\ demand\\ in\\ America\\,\\ production\\ has\\ increased\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ much\\ larger\\ market\\.\\ \\ \\;Production\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ many\\ negative\\ affects\\ on\\ individuals\\ except\\ that\\ turf\\ wars\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ violence\\ in\\ communities\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ offset\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ drug\\ production\\ and\\ drug\\ trade\\ create\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ some\\ countries\\ GDP\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ this\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ same\\ communities\\ affected\\ by\\ the\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Consumption\\ is\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ because\\ it\\ can\\ suck\\ up\\ money\\ needed\\ for\\ other\\ necessities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ author\\ mainly\\ fills\\ this\\ section\\ with\\ statistics\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ using\\ which\\ drugs\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ way\\ to\\ many\\ to\\ memorize\\ or\\ list\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ trend\\ is\\ that\\ drug\\ demographics\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ those\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\ \\;Weed\\ is\\ predominantly\\ a\\ working\\ class\\ drug\\,\\ crack\\ is\\ centered\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ and\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ while\\ the\\ upper\\ classes\\ use\\ heroin\\ and\\ coke\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ statistics\\ also\\ show\\ that\\ drug\\ use\\ tends\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ trafficking\\ paths\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ means\\ that\\ areas\\ where\\ coke\\ trafficking\\ is\\ high\\ usually\\ have\\ high\\ cocaine\\ and\\ crack\\ use\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ same\\ trends\\ are\\ seen\\ with\\ heroin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Money\\ laundering\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ assigned\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ so\\ I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ cover\\ it\\ very\\ briefly\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ most\\ important\\ factor\\ of\\ money\\ laundering\\ is\\ that\\ pumps\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ into\\ the\\ communities\\ and\\ funds\\ many\\ businesses\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ provides\\ legitamate\\ jobs\\ for\\ people\\ and\\ stimulates\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ countries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Trafficking\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ dangerous\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ for\\ individuals\\.\\ \\ \\;Drug\\ trafficking\\ heavily\\ involves\\ the\\ Colombian\\ druglords\\ because\\ cocaine\\ is\\ the\\ major\\ drug\\ moved\\ through\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ brings\\ The\\ might\\ of\\ and\\ anger\\ of\\ America\\ down\\ on\\ these\\ small\\ Caribbean\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ funding\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ lords\\,\\ the\\ drug\\ gangs\\ are\\ often\\ better\\ equipped\\ than\\ the\\ forces\\ attempting\\ to\\ stop\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ money\\ flowing\\ through\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ that\\ is\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\,\\ the\\ police\\ officers\\ can\\ be\\ bribed\\ and\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ undermined\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Also\\,\\ The\\ caribbean\\ is\\ perfect\\ for\\ drug\\ trafficking\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ over\\ a\\ million\\ square\\ miles\\ of\\ hard\\ to\\ police\\ ocean\\ separating\\ the\\ largest\\ producers\\ of\\ drugs\\,\\ South\\ America\\,\\ with\\ the\\ largest\\ consumers\\ of\\ drugs\\,\\ US\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ thousands\\ of\\ small\\ islands\\ and\\ large\\ remote\\ forested\\ areas\\ that\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ patrol\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bahamas\\ are\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ heavily\\ used\\ areas\\ for\\ trafficking\\ drugs\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ only\\ 180\\ miles\\ from\\ miami\\,\\ but\\ even\\ closer\\ to\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ florida\\ keys\\ and\\ other\\,\\ smaller\\,\\ cities\\ in\\ florida\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ with\\ consumption\\,\\ the\\ book\\ gives\\ many\\ stastitics\\ about\\ how\\ many\\ drugs\\ are\\ being\\ routed\\ through\\ the\\ caribbean\\,\\ and\\ since\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ bore\\ you\\,\\ the\\ general\\ stastistic\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ drugs\\ caught\\ is\\ upwards\\ of\\ ten\\ million\\,\\ and\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ busts\\ like\\ this\\ in\\ almost\\ every\\ major\\ country\\ and\\ most\\ minor\\ ones\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ main\\ trend\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ is\\ that\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ cracks\\ down\\ on\\ one\\ island\\,\\ the\\ traffickers\\ move\\ on\\ to\\ another\\ island\\ or\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ possible\\ because\\ all\\ islands\\ are\\ only\\ a\\ short\\ flight\\ from\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ way\\ the\\ drug\\ trade\\ affects\\ countries\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ chapters\\ 4\\-5\\ and\\ so\\ not\\ my\\ assignment\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ those\\ areas\\ for\\ information\\ on\\ that\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Edward\\ Sohn\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\esohn\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\#\\ 11\\ Week\\ 12\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-17\\,\\ 55\\-78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santeria\\&mdash\\;From\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\.\\ \\ \\;pp\\.\\ 1\\-17\\ and\\ 55\\-78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Definition\\:\\ \\ \\;Santeria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;the\\ present\\ embodiment\\ of\\ ancient\\ African\\ Yoruba\\ religions\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ Kardecan\\ spiritualism\\ from\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brandon\\ traces\\ two\\ major\\ lines\\ of\\ study\\:\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ formation\\ and\\ transformation\\ of\\ Santeria\\ as\\ a\\ religion\\,\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ geographical\\ movement\\ of\\ Santeria\\ from\\ Africa\\ through\\ Cuba\\,\\ and\\ its\\ eventual\\ arrival\\ in\\ metropolitan\\ New\\ York\\ City\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Formation\\ of\\ Santeria\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brandon\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ Santeria\\ passed\\ through\\ five\\ major\\ phases\\:\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ Pre\\-Santeria\\,\\ 2\\)\\ Early\\ Santeria\\,\\ 3\\)\\ Santeria\\ proper\\,\\ 4\\)\\ dual\\-branching\\ of\\ Santeria\\ in\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Espiritismo\\ and\\ Orisha\\-Voodoo\\ Santeria\\,\\ and\\ 5\\)\\ the\\ further\\ development\\ of\\ Orisha\\-Voodoo\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ solidified\\ religion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Further\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ stages\\ passed\\ through\\ three\\ distinct\\ stages\\:\\ 1\\)\\ formative\\,\\ 2\\)\\ persisting\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ transformative\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(I\\ doubt\\ any\\ test\\ questions\\ will\\ ask\\ precisely\\ what\\ happened\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ stages\\-of\\-phases\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ to\\ know\\ they\\ exist\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phase\\ I\\:\\ Pre\\-Santeria\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ booming\\ Cuban\\ plantation\\ economy\\ immediately\\ afther\\ the\\ Spanish\\ conquest\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ bringing\\ about\\ this\\ phase\\,\\ with\\ the\\ huge\\ impact\\ of\\ changing\\ race\\ relations\\ that\\ occurred\\ as\\ many\\ different\\ peoples\\ mixed\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ boom\\ of\\ agricultural\\ economies\\,\\ with\\ sugar\\ plantations\\ as\\ their\\ central\\ aspect\\,\\ brought\\ with\\ it\\ an\\ influx\\ of\\ African\\ slaves\\ who\\ carried\\ with\\ them\\ the\\ religions\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ molded\\ into\\ Santeria\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phase\\ II\\:\\ Early\\ Santeria\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ most\\ prominent\\ mixing\\ force\\ in\\ this\\ phase\\ is\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ the\\ Catholic\\ church\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempts\\ to\\ convert\\ African\\ slaves\\,\\ which\\ met\\ with\\ little\\ actual\\ success\\ because\\ ministers\\ could\\ not\\ dedicate\\ the\\ time\\ necessary\\ to\\ preach\\ effectively\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ slaves\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ did\\,\\ however\\,\\ lead\\ to\\ influences\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ assimilated\\ into\\ the\\ melting\\ pot\\ of\\ religions\\ into\\ which\\ Santeria\\ would\\ eventually\\ develop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phase\\ III\\:\\ Santeria\\.\\ \\ \\;Stabilized\\ phase\\ of\\ Santeria\\ lasting\\ many\\ years\\,\\ throughout\\ which\\ little\\ change\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ the\\ religion\\;\\ still\\ centralized\\ mainly\\ in\\ Cuba\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phase\\ IV\\ and\\ V\\:\\ Dual\\-branching\\ of\\ Santeria\\ into\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ Espiritismo\\ \\(with\\ heightened\\ influence\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ migrants\\ and\\ better\\ developed\\ trade\\/travel\\ routes\\)\\,\\ and\\ Orisha\\-Voodoo\\ Santeria\\ \\(developing\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ as\\ the\\ religion\\ spread\\ with\\ people\\ emigrating\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Traditional\\ African\\ Religion\\ and\\ Sociology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Western\\ Africa\\ was\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ kingdoms\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Benin\\,\\ 2\\)\\ Dahomey\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ the\\ Yoruba\\ City\\-States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Traditional\\ African\\ religion\\ was\\ very\\ artistic\\,\\ with\\ worship\\ focused\\ on\\ earthly\\ objects\\ and\\ symbolic\\ elements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yoruba\\ subgroups\\ held\\ greatest\\ influence\\ on\\ the\\ religions\\ that\\ would\\ manifest\\ themselves\\ in\\ Santeria\\.\\ \\ \\;Lucumi\\ is\\ particularly\\ important\\,\\ with\\ its\\ ritual\\ language\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ tongue\\ of\\ Santeria\\ chants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yoruba\\ subgrouping\\ in\\ Africa\\ maintained\\ itself\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ slave\\ populations\\ of\\ Cuba\\,\\ with\\ racial\\ relations\\ and\\ divisions\\ on\\ the\\ plantations\\ similar\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ native\\ Africa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Catholic\\ Influence\\ on\\ Santeria\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Though\\ the\\ Catholic\\ church\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ gain\\ a\\ dominant\\ foothold\\ among\\ the\\ African\\ slaves\\&mdash\\;largely\\ because\\ the\\ slaves\\ worked\\ so\\ long\\ that\\ the\\ clergymen\\ had\\ little\\ time\\ to\\ teach\\ them\\&mdash\\;the\\ influences\\ of\\ the\\ religion\\ on\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Santeria\\ are\\ hardly\\ dismissible\\,\\ penetrating\\ to\\ its\\ very\\ core\\,\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ worshipped\\ deities\\.\\ \\ \\;Striking\\ parallels\\ between\\ the\\ Santeria\\ divinities\\ and\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Trinity\\,\\ saints\\,\\ prophets\\,\\ and\\ priests\\ are\\ visible\\,\\ reflecting\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ Catholicism\\ influenced\\ the\\ hybrid\\ religion\\ of\\ Santeria\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Susan\\ Mathai\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\skmathai\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\#\\ 11\\ Week\\ 12\\ pp\\.\\ 90\\-120\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Brandon\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Santer\\í\\;a\\:\\ From\\ Africa\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Required\\ reading\\,\\ summary\\ of\\ pages\\ 90\\-120\\,\\ submitted\\ by\\ Susan\\ Mathai\\,\\ skmathai\\@fas\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Brandon\\ gives\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ how\\ Santer\\í\\;a\\ evolved\\ in\\ Cuba\\ in\\ the\\ exile\\ community\\.\\ He\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ intellectual\\ movement\\ of\\ Afro\\-Cubanism\\ of\\ the\\ 1920s\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ survival\\ of\\ African\\ culture\\,\\ the\\ early\\ and\\ continuing\\ work\\ of\\ Fernando\\ Ortiz\\,\\ and\\ an\\ energetic\\ group\\ of\\ writers\\,\\ painters\\,\\ and\\ musicians\\ gave\\ the\\ Cuban\\ intellectual\\ scene\\ a\\ peculiar\\ dynamism\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(90\\)\\.\\ Brandon\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ movements\\ were\\ a\\ cultural\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;political\\,\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ Cuban\\ Republic\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ intellectual\\ influences\\ of\\ contemporary\\ European\\ avant\\-garde\\.\\ This\\ movement\\ addressed\\ questions\\ of\\ race\\,\\ socioeconomic\\ inequality\\,\\ and\\ national\\ identity\\ with\\ a\\ critique\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Western\\ civilization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ founders\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ was\\ Don\\ Fernando\\ Ortiz\\ who\\ entered\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ intellectual\\ world\\ through\\ his\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hampa\\ afro\\-cubana\\:\\ Los\\ negros\\ brujos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Afro\\-Cuban\\ Underworld\\:\\ black\\ sorcerers\\)\\,\\ an\\ in\\-depth\\ study\\ of\\ witchcraft\\ and\\ sorcery\\ among\\ Cuban\\ blacks\\.\\ Ortiz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ was\\ an\\ incendiary\\ one\\,\\ providing\\ fuel\\ to\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ intellectuals\\ who\\ would\\ counter\\ his\\ often\\ racist\\ arguments\\.\\ But\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ Ortiz\\ himself\\ was\\ allegedly\\ converted\\ to\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ side\\,\\ and\\ his\\ writings\\ evolved\\,\\ though\\ they\\ retained\\ their\\ racist\\ underpinnings\\.\\ Between\\ 1926\\ and\\ 1938\\,\\ Afro\\-Cubanism\\ became\\ popular\\ in\\ Cuban\\ literary\\ circles\\,\\ and\\ by\\ 1940\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ distinct\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ had\\ become\\ incorporated\\ into\\ Cuban\\ intellectual\\ life\\&mdash\\;though\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;acceptance\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ culture\\ and\\ religion\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ limited\\ to\\ the\\ urban\\ centers\\ among\\ intellectuals\\,\\ where\\ it\\ was\\ considered\\ in\\ vogue\\ \\(93\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ larger\\ society\\,\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ oscillation\\ between\\ acceptance\\ and\\ repression\\ of\\ Santer\\í\\;a\\ and\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ culture\\,\\ though\\ when\\ needed\\ whites\\ availed\\ themselves\\ of\\ the\\ powers\\ of\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ santeros\\.\\ Cuban\\ politicians\\ would\\ sometimes\\ court\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ santeros\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ shore\\ up\\ votes\\.\\ \\[A\\ note\\ on\\ Catholicism\\ in\\ the\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ tradition\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ some\\ believers\\ today\\,\\ the\\ equation\\ of\\ the\\ saints\\ and\\ the\\ orisha\\ is\\ not\\ real\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ historical\\ residue\\&hellip\\;Africans\\ used\\ the\\ Catholic\\ saints\\ to\\ mask\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ deities\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(97\\)\\.\\]\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ post\\-revolutionary\\ status\\ of\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ religions\\ is\\ similarly\\ ambiguous\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Santeros\\ fought\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ during\\ the\\ struggle\\ to\\ overthrow\\ the\\ Batista\\ government\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(100\\)\\.\\ Relations\\ between\\ religious\\ groups\\ and\\ the\\ socialist\\ government\\ oscillated\\ between\\ repression\\ and\\ acceptance\\,\\ just\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ in\\ the\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\.\\ But\\ the\\ Castro\\ government\\ recognized\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ religions\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ national\\ cultural\\ heritage\\ \\(101\\)\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ Santer\\í\\;a\\ continued\\ to\\ be\\ clandestine\\,\\ in\\ part\\ because\\ that\\ had\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ religious\\ culture\\ and\\ also\\ because\\ people\\ were\\ unsure\\ of\\ state\\ reactions\\ to\\ it\\.\\ Religious\\ pilgrimages\\ to\\ San\\ L\\á\\;zaro\\ in\\ Santiago\\ de\\ Cuba\\ \\(el\\ Oriente\\)\\ continue\\.\\ But\\ the\\ socialist\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ control\\ over\\ civil\\ society\\ and\\ production\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ created\\ problems\\ for\\ rituals\\,\\ since\\ animal\\ meat\\ was\\ strictly\\ controlled\\,\\ making\\ sacrifices\\ complicated\\ and\\ subject\\ to\\ state\\ intervention\\ \\(103\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Santer\\í\\;a\\ now\\ almost\\ certainly\\ has\\ more\\ devotees\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ than\\ it\\ had\\ in\\ Cuba\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(104\\)\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ frequency\\ of\\ psychological\\ problems\\ that\\ Cuban\\ exiles\\ faced\\ in\\ creating\\ their\\ new\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ many\\ of\\ them\\ sought\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ santeros\\,\\ particularly\\ because\\ healing\\ was\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ religious\\ tradition\\ \\(106\\)\\.\\ The\\ author\\ calls\\ the\\ persisting\\ form\\ of\\ Santer\\í\\;a\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ \\&ldquo\\;Phase\\ III\\ Santer\\í\\;a\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ developed\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ \\(107\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ highly\\ influenced\\ by\\ other\\ Caribbean\\/Latin\\ religious\\ traditions\\ since\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ spiritist\\ centros\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ are\\ multiethnic\\ in\\ leadership\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(107\\)\\.\\ He\\ notes\\ that\\ Santerismo\\ is\\ the\\ syncretic\\ combination\\ of\\ Espiritismo\\ \\(PR\\)\\ and\\ Santeria\\ \\(Cuba\\)\\ that\\ happened\\ in\\ New\\ York\\.\\ Orisha\\-Voodoo\\,\\ another\\ new\\ formation\\ of\\ Santer\\í\\;a\\,\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ black\\ nationalist\\ movements\\ and\\ has\\ dispensed\\ with\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ Catholic\\ saints\\ \\(114\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alia\\ Toran\\-Burrell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\toranbur\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\#\\ 12\\ Week\\ 12\\ \\ \\;Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chanting\\ down\\ Babylon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 1\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Babylon\\ can\\ equal\\ many\\ things\\,\\ both\\ concrete\\ and\\ ideological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ Christian\\ terms\\,\\ the\\ forces\\ that\\ worked\\ against\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-anything\\ evil\\,\\ oppressive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-being\\ in\\ Babylon\\ means\\ being\\ downtrodden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ Jamaica\\,\\ Babylon\\ is\\ imperialism\\,\\ police\\ force\\ \\(babylon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ frontline\\ agents\\)\\,\\ assaults\\ on\\ Africa\\ and\\ being\\ African\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Beating\\/Chanting\\ down\\ Babylon\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ ideological\\ assault\\ on\\ the\\ culture\\ and\\ institutions\\ that\\ have\\ dominated\\ the\\ African\\ Diaspora\\ and\\ the\\ historical\\ atrocities\\ of\\ Babylon\\ both\\ past\\ and\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-these\\ include\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ predatory\\ nature\\ of\\ economic\\ system\\,\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;pimper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paradise\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ exploitation\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ slavery\\ which\\ continues\\ in\\ many\\ forms\\ including\\ European\\ education\\,\\ the\\ church\\ with\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;pie\\ in\\ the\\ sky\\&rdquo\\;\\ mentality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-politics\\ is\\ also\\ known\\ for\\ its\\ trickery\\ \\&ldquo\\;politricks\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-politics\\ is\\ shunned\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ participation\\ in\\ Babylon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-politics\\ is\\ also\\ seen\\ as\\ divisive\\,\\ since\\ it\\ turns\\ powerless\\ people\\ against\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ Europeans\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ control\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-reggae\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ through\\ which\\ people\\ are\\ restored\\ to\\ self\\ awareness\\ and\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ oppression\\ and\\ oppressors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-signals\\ to\\ people\\ what\\ being\\ a\\ rasta\\ is\\ all\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-says\\ that\\ Babylon\\ will\\ eventually\\ self\\-destruct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rastafarianism\\=\\ cultural\\ revitalization\\ and\\ self\\ awareness\\ and\\ reaffirmation\\ of\\ black\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Africa\\=opposite\\ of\\ Babylon\\,\\ and\\ is\\ revered\\,\\ symbolic\\ character\\ for\\ black\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-deification\\ of\\ Selassie\\,\\ call\\ for\\ repatriation\\,\\ adoption\\ of\\ Ethiopian\\ colors\\,\\ Ethiopia\\ especially\\ was\\ cause\\ of\\ inspiration\\ to\\ struggle\\ for\\ freedom\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\ fight\\ against\\ facism\\ and\\ many\\ biblical\\ references\\ to\\ Ethiopia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-signals\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ European\\ standards\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dreadlocks\\&mdash\\;rejection\\ of\\ Europe\\,\\ comes\\ from\\ biblical\\ passages\\ which\\ say\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cut\\ or\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ ones\\ body\\,\\ be\\ natural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-dreadtalk\\ was\\ created\\ as\\ a\\ unique\\ linguistic\\ device\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Marcus\\ Garvey\\ was\\ a\\ large\\ influence\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ pan\\-African\\ movement\\ \\(Back\\ to\\ Africa\\)\\ and\\ his\\ stress\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ Africa\\ and\\ rejection\\ of\\ european\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rastas\\ gained\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ support\\ at\\ first\\ from\\ lower\\ classes\\,\\ though\\ middle\\ class\\ did\\ eventually\\ come\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ the\\ religion\\ \\(even\\ if\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ join\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-some\\ claim\\ that\\ rasta\\ is\\ reverse\\ racism\\&mdash\\;its\\ not\\,\\ it\\ seeks\\ to\\ destroy\\ the\\ premises\\ which\\ make\\ any\\ type\\ of\\ racism\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soli\\ Habte\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\shabte\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 12\\ Week\\ 12\\:\\ Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 11\\ and\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rastafarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chanting\\ Down\\ Babylon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ A\\ true\\ Rasta\\ is\\ one\\ who\\ sticks\\ to\\ his\\ path\\,\\ does\\ not\\ shave\\,\\ cut\\/straighten\\ his\\ hair\\,\\ rejects\\ the\\ customs\\ of\\ Babylon\\ and\\ reveres\\ his\\ blackness\\ \\(there\\ are\\ 1\\ million\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ of\\ 1997\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Rastafarianism\\ is\\ largely\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ Babylonian\\ society\\ therefore\\ they\\ hate\\ the\\ police\\,\\ they\\ shun\\ participation\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ rejection\\ of\\ whiteness\\ through\\ the\\ manifestation\\ through\\ dreadlocks\\,\\ grooming\\,\\ language\\ \\(dread\\ talk\\)\\ and\\ reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Rastafarians\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\,\\ pride\\ in\\ their\\ African\\ heritage\\,\\ racial\\ solidarity\\,\\ self\\-reliance\\,\\ self\\-confident\\,\\ highly\\ motivated\\,\\ self\\-assured\\,\\ very\\ proud\\ and\\ hopeful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Today\\ Rasta\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ largely\\ identified\\ by\\ their\\ long\\ dreads\\ and\\ associate\\ to\\ marijuana\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ misconceptions\\ of\\ how\\ pot\\ is\\ used\\.\\ Rastas\\ are\\ adamantly\\ opposed\\ to\\ substance\\ abuse\\ of\\ any\\ kind\\ and\\ advocate\\ drinking\\ ganja\\ tea\\ since\\ smoking\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ bad\\ for\\ the\\ body\\.\\ The\\ number\\ of\\ Rasta\\ ganja\\ dealers\\ is\\ very\\ small\\ some\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ smoke\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Although\\ they\\ disapprove\\ of\\ politics\\,\\ they\\ have\\ influenced\\ it\\ through\\ electing\\ Manley\\ and\\ by\\ bringing\\ awareness\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;psychological\\ downpression\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ forefront\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\/1970s\\ by\\ forcing\\ Jamaica\\ to\\ take\\ African\\ consciousness\\ seriously\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-While\\ Bob\\ Marley\\ and\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ reggae\\ brought\\ some\\ acceptance\\ of\\ Rastafarianism\\,\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;underclass\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Jamaica\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ classes\\ accepted\\ things\\ like\\ dreadlocks\\,\\ music\\,\\ and\\ pot\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Rastas\\ are\\ not\\ glorified\\ in\\ anyway\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ They\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ as\\ the\\ homeless\\ here\\.\\ In\\ other\\ countries\\,\\ the\\ Rastas\\ are\\ more\\ accepted\\ than\\ in\\ Jamaica\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ exotic\\.\\ As\\ of\\ 1976\\,\\ the\\ Rasas\\ became\\ a\\ protected\\ Ethnic\\ became\\ a\\ protected\\ Ethnic\\ group\\ under\\ the\\ Race\\ Relations\\ Act\\ of\\ \\ \\;1976\\ in\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ avenues\\ that\\ has\\ caused\\ awareness\\ of\\ Rastafarianism\\ to\\ spread\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\.\\ Evident\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Bob\\ Marley\\ was\\ hugely\\ popular\\,\\ his\\ biggest\\ hits\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ associated\\ with\\ Rastafarianism\\.\\ The\\ huge\\ growth\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ resistance\\ to\\ neoliberal\\ capitalist\\ strategies\\ of\\ structural\\ adjustment\\ and\\ an\\ affirmation\\ of\\ new\\ society\\ that\\ opposes\\ contradictions\\ of\\ European\\ societies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ryan\\ Maki\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\maki\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\#\\ 13\\ Week\\ 13\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Caribbean\\ Currents\\ \\(Caribbean\\ Music\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Caribbean\\ culture\\ is\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ several\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-by\\ 1962\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ people\\ had\\ already\\ made\\ cultural\\ history\\ in\\ creating\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ original\\ and\\ dynamic\\ musical\\ styles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Styles\\ such\\ as\\ reggae\\ and\\ Cuban\\ dance\\ music\\ achieve\\ international\\ popularity\\ and\\ therefore\\ become\\ world\\ music\\,\\ not\\ just\\ Caribbean\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-With\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ newer\\,\\ larger\\ mass\\ media\\,\\ styles\\ and\\ songs\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ reach\\ a\\ world\\ audience\\ over\\ night\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Caribbean\\ styles\\ borrow\\ elements\\ from\\ disparate\\ traditions\\ such\\ as\\ African\\ and\\ European\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Before\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ Indies\\ by\\ Christopher\\ Columbus\\,\\ the\\ Native\\ Indian\\ to\\ the\\ islands\\ had\\ already\\ set\\ in\\ motion\\ a\\ culture\\ of\\ music\\,\\ which\\ included\\ instruments\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ maracas\\,\\ gourd\\ scrapers\\ \\(Guires\\)\\ and\\ slit\\ drums\\ called\\ mayohuacan\\ \\(hollowed\\ logs\\ with\\ H\\-shaped\\ tongues\\ cut\\ into\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\African\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-derived\\ elements\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ music\\ can\\ be\\ to\\ thank\\ for\\ international\\ popularity\\ and\\ acclaim\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Due\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ number\\ of\\ African\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ forced\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ many\\ slaves\\ were\\ ripped\\ from\\ their\\ civilizations\\ in\\ African\\ and\\ sent\\ thousands\\ of\\ miles\\ away\\ to\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ to\\ be\\ condemned\\ to\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;Obviously\\ these\\ harsh\\ conditions\\ fueled\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ stay\\ connected\\ to\\ their\\ home\\ civilizations\\ and\\ cultures\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ obviously\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ retention\\ and\\ celebration\\ of\\ several\\ African\\ traditions\\ and\\ even\\ spurned\\ new\\ unique\\ Caribbean\\ traditions\\ and\\ music\\ that\\ followed\\ African\\ elements\\ and\\ music\\ closely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Africa\\ is\\ home\\ to\\ hundreds\\ of\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ with\\ different\\ languages\\ and\\ social\\ structures\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ traditions\\ and\\ culture\\ traits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-One\\ main\\ feature\\ of\\ African\\ music\\ which\\ is\\ apparent\\ in\\ Caribbean\\ tunes\\ are\\ the\\ collective\\ participation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ African\\ cultures\\ that\\ lack\\ social\\ class\\ distinction\\ that\\ would\\ typically\\ put\\ the\\ band\\ leader\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ only\\ certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ melody\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Key\\ feature\\ is\\ the\\ emphasis\\ on\\ rhythm\\.\\ \\ \\;Rich\\ in\\ melody\\,\\ tribal\\ variety\\ but\\ rhythm\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ aesthetic\\ parameter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Another\\ major\\ feature\\ is\\ the\\ call\\ and\\ response\\,\\ well\\ suited\\ for\\ communal\\ performance\\ in\\ general\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\European\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;heritage\\ brought\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ several\\ instruments\\,\\ chordal\\ harmony\\,\\ sectional\\ formal\\ structures\\,\\ concepts\\ of\\ ensemble\\ orchestration\\ and\\ arrangement\\.\\ \\ \\;Spanish\\ traditions\\ were\\ particularly\\ fundamental\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ fundamental\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ music\\ was\\ the\\ creolization\\ of\\ several\\ different\\ languages\\ and\\ traditions\\ to\\ synthesize\\ to\\ form\\ the\\ new\\ hybrid\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Urbanization\\,\\ emigration\\,\\ mass\\ media\\ and\\ internationalization\\ of\\ capital\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ new\\ dimensions\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ traditional\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Cuban\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\African\\ derived\\ elements\\ are\\ immanent\\ in\\ Cuban\\ music\\,\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ African\\ slaves\\ brought\\ over\\ during\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ that\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ religions\\ and\\ African\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-From\\ present\\ day\\ Nigeria\\,\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ Yoruba\\ culture\\ were\\ exported\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Yoruba\\ religion\\ in\\ Cuba\\ called\\ Santeria\\.\\ \\ \\;Santeria\\ has\\ many\\ worship\\ centers\\ were\\ \\ \\;participants\\ sing\\ and\\ dance\\ and\\ worship\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ Santerian\\ events\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ bembe\\ where\\ musical\\ ensemble\\,\\ repertoire\\,\\ and\\ rather\\ festive\\ character\\ are\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Other\\ religions\\ include\\ Congolese\\ religions\\ called\\ palo\\ which\\ worships\\ ancestors\\ and\\ anthropomorphic\\ spirits\\ through\\ song\\ and\\ dance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ most\\ famous\\ Cuban\\ music\\ and\\ dance\\ is\\ the\\ Rumba\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ distinctly\\ Cuban\\ tradition\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ Santeria\\,\\ which\\ stems\\ from\\ African\\ roots\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-As\\ an\\ informal\\ fiesta\\ dance\\,\\ the\\ rumba\\ is\\ seldom\\ performed\\ any\\ more\\,\\ except\\ by\\ folklorists\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Goes\\ on\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ Santiago\\ Festival\\,\\ costumes\\ and\\ dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-European\\ influenced\\ musical\\ types\\ have\\ given\\ way\\ to\\ Cuban\\ dance\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ recent\\ times\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Talks\\ about\\ Spanish\\ influence\\ in\\ Cuban\\ white\\ farmers\\&rsquo\\;\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-With\\ invasion\\ of\\ US\\ early\\ 1900\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ need\\ for\\ cultural\\ and\\ patriotic\\ identity\\ arrived\\:\\ Cuban\\ dance\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Invention\\ of\\ the\\ mumbo\\,\\ influential\\ to\\ Cuban\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-famous\\ dance\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\;1930\\&rsquo\\;s\\ called\\ son\\&hellip\\;synthesis\\ of\\ Euro\\-Cuban\\ and\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ genres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Key\\ to\\ Cuban\\ nationalism\\,\\ the\\ Revolution\\ and\\ cultural\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kevin\\ Lyons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\kmlyons\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 13\\ Week\\ 13\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\ and\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 13\\-Kevin\\ Lyons\\ \\(kmlyons\\@fas\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caribbean\\ Currents\\:\\ from\\ Rumba\\ to\\ Reggae\\ by\\ Peter\\ Manuel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 4\\ \\&\\;10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ embargo\\ enacted\\ against\\ Cuba\\ in\\ early\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cut\\ off\\ influence\\ from\\ Cuba\\ which\\ was\\ considered\\ the\\ most\\ dynamic\\ center\\ of\\ Latin\\ dance\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ conformism\\ of\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ led\\ baby\\ boomers\\ to\\ reject\\ parent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ culture\\ and\\ thus\\ accepted\\ new\\ styles\\ of\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-New\\ social\\ consciousness\\ among\\ Latinos\\ called\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ musical\\ movement\\ that\\ would\\ embrace\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ tradition\\ and\\ capture\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ barrio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Salsa\\ emerged\\ in\\ 1964\\ thru\\ Fania\\ Records\\ who\\ signed\\ many\\ salsa\\ style\\ musicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Salsa\\ follows\\ the\\ basic\\ styles\\ and\\ formal\\ structure\\ of\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dance\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Salsa\\ songs\\ deal\\ with\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ American\\ imperialism\\ and\\ ghetto\\ lawlessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Famous\\ New\\ York\\ salsians\\ include\\ Johnny\\ Pacheco\\,\\ Jose\\ Alberto\\ and\\ Ruben\\ Blades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Colombia\\ and\\ Venezuela\\ emerged\\ as\\ hotbeds\\ for\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ salsa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Ruben\\ Blades\\ is\\ arguably\\ the\\ most\\ distinguished\\ salsero\\ of\\ the\\ field\\ as\\ he\\ has\\ produced\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ genre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ innovative\\,\\ ambitious\\ and\\ socially\\ relevant\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Blades\\ was\\ skilled\\ on\\ the\\ guitar\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ singing\\ which\\ was\\ uncommon\\ of\\ salsa\\ musicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-He\\ recorded\\ many\\ songs\\ in\\ English\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ spread\\ salsa\\ to\\ the\\ Anglo\\ crowds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-About\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ salsa\\ songs\\ can\\ be\\ categorized\\ as\\ modernized\\ renditions\\ of\\ the\\ Cuban\\ \\&ldquo\\;son\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\ of\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-it\\ commences\\ with\\ a\\ songlike\\ firs\\ section\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ an\\ extended\\ montuno\\ with\\ call\\ and\\ response\\ vocals\\,\\ instrumental\\ breaks\\ and\\ improvised\\,\\ jazz\\ influenced\\ solos\\,\\ all\\ over\\ a\\ repeated\\ harmonic\\-rhythmic\\ ostinato\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Typical\\ band\\ consists\\ of\\ 10\\-14\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-New\\ York\\ remains\\ the\\ home\\ and\\ creative\\ hub\\ of\\ salsa\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Two\\ groups\\ of\\ New\\ York\\ salsa\\ bands\\:\\ The\\ lower\\ echelon\\ consists\\ of\\ lesser\\ known\\ bands\\ that\\ play\\ cover\\ versions\\ of\\ other\\ groups\\&rsquo\\;\\ hit\\ songs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ upper\\ echelon\\ consists\\ of\\ more\\ visible\\,\\ significant\\ and\\ influential\\ bands\\ \\(about\\ 15\\ total\\)\\ who\\ record\\ and\\ perform\\ their\\ own\\ original\\ songs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Salsa\\ musicians\\ are\\ not\\ paid\\ well\\ and\\ therefore\\ have\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ daytime\\ jobs\\ to\\ support\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Ralph\\ Mercado\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ influential\\ figure\\ in\\ salsa\\ music\\ and\\ he\\ manages\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ bands\\ and\\ controls\\ most\\ club\\ bookings\\ and\\ big\\ concerts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Even\\ though\\ major\\ bands\\ have\\ begun\\ producing\\ records\\,\\ the\\ dance\\ club\\ scene\\ is\\ still\\ more\\ important\\ both\\ to\\ audiences\\ and\\ musicians\\-live\\ versions\\ of\\ songs\\ are\\ often\\ twice\\ as\\ long\\ with\\ extended\\ improvisation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Salsa\\ has\\ failed\\ to\\ change\\ with\\ the\\ times\\ due\\ to\\ such\\ things\\ as\\ Americanization\\ which\\ has\\ lead\\ Latino\\ youths\\ to\\ embrace\\ rap\\,\\ rock\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ the\\ meringue\\ boom\\ brought\\ from\\ the\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\,\\ and\\ big\\ record\\ labels\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ which\\ have\\ targeted\\ more\\ Latin\\ pop\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Latin\\ Rap\\ develops\\ with\\ Gerardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hit\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rico\\ Suave\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Latin\\ rap\\ remains\\ a\\ heavy\\ derivative\\ of\\ Afro\\-American\\ hip\\ hop\\,\\ however\\ most\\ songs\\ use\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ dancehall\\ accompaniment\\ and\\ declamation\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Latin\\ Rap\\ shuns\\ dancehall\\&rsquo\\;s\\ firearm\\ fetishism\\ and\\ gangster\\ rap\\&rsquo\\;s\\ misogyny\\,\\ anger\\ and\\ nihilistic\\ glorification\\ of\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Musical\\ genres\\ are\\ often\\ associated\\ with\\ specific\\ ethnic\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Caribbean\\ song\\ lyrics\\ articulate\\ racial\\ attitudes\\ and\\ situations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ emergence\\ of\\ creole\\ popular\\ music\\ has\\ involved\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ accepting\\ and\\ legitimizing\\ local\\ forms\\ of\\ Afro\\-Caribbean\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Love\\ and\\ male\\-female\\ relationships\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ favorite\\ song\\ topics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kinship\\ networks\\ help\\ to\\ provide\\ stability\\ and\\ cohesion\\ to\\ families\\ in\\ situation\\ shwere\\ the\\ men\\ are\\ absent\\ or\\ peripheral\\ for\\ whatever\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ has\\ become\\ quite\\ common\\ for\\ men\\ to\\ have\\ only\\ loose\\ ties\\ to\\ their\\ children\\ and\\ partners\\ which\\ is\\ attributed\\ to\\ a\\ legacy\\ of\\ slavery\\ which\\ undermined\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ mail\\ provider\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Music\\ reflects\\ not\\ universal\\ feelings\\ but\\ predominantly\\ male\\ viewpoints\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ male\\ domination\\ of\\ most\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ world\\ and\\ of\\ public\\ culture\\ in\\ general\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Overly\\ sexist\\ songs\\ are\\ relatively\\ unusual\\ in\\ the\\ Caribbean\\,\\ however\\ those\\ songs\\ that\\ are\\ sexist\\ are\\ usually\\ of\\ the\\ dancehall\\ genre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Women\\ have\\ joined\\ in\\ the\\ genre\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\ however\\ their\\ viewpoints\\ are\\ repressed\\ by\\ society\\ as\\ any\\ woman\\ who\\ expresses\\ her\\ sensuality\\ in\\ public\\ runs\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ being\\ perceived\\ as\\ a\\ sex\\ object\\ by\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-New\\ York\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ Caribbean\\ city\\ and\\ has\\ reached\\ over\\ 2\\ million\\ people\\ of\\ Caribbean\\ decent\\ making\\ it\\ the\\ biggest\\ Caribbean\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;There\\ are\\ more\\ people\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ from\\ Nevis\\ than\\ there\\ are\\ in\\ Nevis\\ itself\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Caribbean\\ music\\ provides\\ the\\ people\\ with\\ an\\ escape\\ from\\ their\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Local\\ music\\ genres\\ in\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ Caribbean\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ symbols\\ of\\ nationalistic\\ pride\\ and\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kristina\\ Mirabeau\\-Beale\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\mirabeau\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 14\\ Week\\ 13\\ Ch\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wake\\ the\\ Town\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapters\\ 1\\-\\ Dancehall\\ Culture\\ in\\ Jamaica\\:\\ An\\ Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dancehall\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ potent\\ form\\ of\\ popular\\ culture\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Means\\ by\\ which\\ black\\ lower\\ class\\ youth\\ articulate\\ and\\ project\\ a\\ distinct\\ identity\\ in\\ local\\,\\ national\\ and\\ global\\ contexts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dancehalls\\ are\\ like\\ open\\ club\\ parties\\ that\\ occur\\ on\\ weekends\\ and\\ are\\ notoriously\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ black\\ lower\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dancehall\\ shapes\\ this\\ class\\&rsquo\\;\\ personhood\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ social\\ spaces\\ that\\ they\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ sexual\\ politics\\,\\ as\\ Carelene\\ is\\ a\\ dancehall\\ queen\\ \\(model\\/dancer\\)\\ who\\ has\\ gained\\ national\\ popularity\\.\\ Known\\ for\\ her\\ provocative\\ dancing\\,\\ costumes\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Author\\ argues\\ that\\ dancehall\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ space\\ of\\ cultural\\ creation\\ and\\ performance\\ since\\ the\\ slavery\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ than\\ just\\ dancing\\ \\>\\;\\ sound\\ systems\\ \\(performance\\ crews\\/\\ think\\ analogous\\ to\\ hip\\ hop\\ \\&ldquo\\;crews\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ battle\\;\\ dancehall\\ allows\\ some\\ blacks\\ from\\ poor\\ backgrounds\\ to\\ rise\\ \\>\\;\\ sound\\ systems\\ become\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ economically\\ rise\\ and\\ have\\ an\\ almost\\ political\\ voice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dancehall\\ promotes\\ the\\ same\\ misogyny\\,\\ romanticization\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ homophobia\\,\\ etc\\.\\ that\\ exists\\ in\\ JA\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dancehall\\ seen\\ by\\ middle\\ class\\ as\\ negative\\ impact\\ on\\ youth\\;\\ they\\ hold\\ a\\ position\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ superiority\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\ so\\ they\\ see\\ dancehall\\ as\\ culturally\\ inferior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Soundmen\\ were\\ men\\ who\\ owned\\ sound\\ systems\\ and\\ initially\\ got\\ the\\ dancehall\\ started\\ \\>\\;\\ usually\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ petite\\ bourgeuise\\,\\ esp\\ since\\ most\\ lower\\ class\\ poor\\ people\\ could\\ not\\ afford\\ radios\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technical\\ details\\ about\\ PA\\ systems\\ the\\ development\\,\\ other\\ technology\\ like\\ the\\ sound\\ system\\ selector\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\,\\ Winston\\ Black\\ \\>\\;\\ ethnically\\ black\\ but\\ from\\ state\\ scholarship\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ secondary\\ education\\ \\(a\\ middle\\ class\\ thing\\)\\;\\ in\\ this\\ capacity\\ he\\ got\\ to\\ mix\\ with\\ some\\ middle\\ class\\ men\\ who\\ owned\\ sound\\ systems\\ \\>\\;\\ shows\\ how\\ dancehall\\ began\\ to\\ straddle\\ the\\ classes\\,\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ spread\\ to\\ blacks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dancehall\\ becomes\\ an\\ alternative\\ cultural\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sound\\ clashes\\ \\(dancehall\\ battles\\)\\ and\\ more\\ equipment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fashions\\ changed\\ from\\ being\\ casual\\ to\\ being\\ dressed\\ really\\ ell\\ to\\ more\\ scandalous\\ side\\>\\;\\ dress\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ dancing\\ ability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ mid\\-50s\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Jamaican\\ recording\\ industry\\ \\>\\;\\ dancehall\\ makes\\ ghetto\\ celebrities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\-\\ The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Dancehall\\ Culture\\:\\ A\\ Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Emphasize\\ again\\,\\ dancehall\\ played\\ a\\ primary\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ distinct\\ lower\\ class\\ culture\\ in\\ JA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\ debate\\ over\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elite\\ view\\ \\(uptown\\)\\>\\;\\ dancehall\\ not\\ respected\\ by\\ upper\\ class\\ Jamaicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lower\\ classes\\ \\(downtown\\)\\>\\;\\ support\\ it\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ popular\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lyrics\\ can\\ be\\ political\\,\\ as\\ with\\ Bounty\\ Killer\\ and\\ Buju\\ Banton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slack\\ dancing\\ \\>\\;\\ sexually\\ explicit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sexuality\\ in\\ dancehall\\ \\(known\\ as\\ slackness\\)\\ is\\ controversial\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ female\\ DJ\\ Lady\\ Saw\\ got\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ criticism\\ for\\ being\\ too\\ sexually\\ explicit\\,\\ though\\ her\\ lyrics\\ are\\ no\\ more\\ profane\\ than\\ her\\ male\\ counterparts\\ \\(she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ described\\ as\\ X\\-rated\\,\\ disgraceful\\ to\\ middle\\ class\\ Jamaicans\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carlene\\ \\(the\\ dancehall\\ queen\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 1\\)\\ meanwhile\\ has\\ endorsements\\ for\\ condoms\\,\\ soap\\ operas\\ and\\ carnival\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tasha\\ Bartch\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bartch\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 14\\ Week\\ 13\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\,\\ 7\\,\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wake\\ the\\ Town\\ and\\ Tell\\ the\\ People\\:\\ Dancehall\\ Culture\\ in\\ Jamaica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\,\\ 4\\,\\ 7\\,\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tasha\\ Bartch\\,\\ bartch\\@fas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\You\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ reading\\ by\\ reading\\ the\\ bold\\ excerpts\\ at\\ the\\ top\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ definitions\\ are\\ some\\ things\\ I\\ thought\\ could\\ possibly\\ show\\ up\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ of\\ them\\ are\\ obvious\\ and\\ I\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ write\\ out\\ def\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ but\\ included\\ page\\ numbers\\ in\\ case\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ for\\ the\\ content\\,\\ Ch\\ 4\\ summary\\ is\\ good\\ to\\ browse\\ through\\,\\ but\\ Ch\\ 7\\ and\\ Ch\\ 8\\ definitely\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ content\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ tested\\&mdash\\;they\\ just\\ chronicle\\ what\\ a\\ real\\ dancehall\\ experience\\ is\\ like\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ luck\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\definitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DJ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;p\\.97\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\slackness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;overt\\ sexuality\\ in\\ lyrics\\ p\\.104\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rude\\ boy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;disenfranchised\\ urban\\ males\\,\\ shaped\\ dancehall\\ after\\ Independence\\ like\\ Rastafarians\\ did\\,\\ unemployed\\ male\\ youths\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;increasingly\\ disenchanged\\ and\\ alienated\\ from\\ a\\ system\\ which\\ seemed\\ to\\ offer\\ no\\ relief\\ from\\ suffering\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;saw\\ music\\ as\\ viable\\ alternative\\ to\\ exploitation\\ in\\ wage\\ labor\\,\\ the\\ risks\\ of\\ criminality\\,\\ and\\ patronage\\ system\\ of\\ party\\ politics\\,\\ ex\\.\\ The\\ Wailers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sound\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;p\\.108\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dance\\ hall\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;p\\.103\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;dance\\ hall\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;p\\.106\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rocksteady\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;new\\ style\\ of\\ music\\ in\\ dancehalls\\,\\ slower\\ pace\\,\\ sparser\\ arrangements\\,\\ smoother\\ than\\ ska\\,\\ space\\ for\\ lead\\ vocalists\\ and\\ harmony\\ groups\\ \\ \\;p\\.89\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ summary\\:\\ p\\.235\\ Ch\\.8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Downtown\\ is\\ convinced\\ that\\ dancehall\\ culture\\ is\\ Jamaican\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ only\\ positive\\ social\\ currents\\ in\\ the\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Dancehall\\ is\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ culture\\,\\ African\\ heritage\\,\\ and\\ Rastafari\\-inspired\\ practices\\ and\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ long\\ tradition\\ of\\ creative\\ musical\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ dancehall\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ good\\ because\\ it\\ provides\\ an\\ alternate\\ arena\\ of\\ social\\ protest\\ to\\ the\\ bankrupt\\ political\\ establishment\\.\\ \\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ dancehall\\ is\\ a\\ productive\\ countereconomy\\ because\\ it\\ provides\\ employment\\ and\\ the\\ opportunity\\ for\\ great\\ success\\ where\\ few\\ avenues\\ for\\ employment\\ exist\\.\\ \\ \\;Dancehall\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ important\\ educational\\ venue\\,\\ because\\ the\\ schools\\ are\\ still\\ promulgating\\ a\\ colonialist\\ mentality\\,\\ because\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ teach\\ \\&ldquo\\;reality\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ truth\\ about\\ African\\ culture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Dancehall\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ popular\\ form\\ of\\ entertainment\\ and\\ cultural\\ expression\\;\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ important\\ institution\\ that\\ generates\\,\\ mediates\\,\\ and\\ reproduces\\ the\\ social\\ order\\&mdash\\;that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ hierarchical\\ divisions\\ of\\ race\\,\\ class\\,\\ gender\\,\\ and\\ sexuality\\ running\\ through\\ Jamaican\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Dancehall\\ has\\ thus\\ played\\ a\\ primary\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ distinct\\ lower\\-class\\ culture\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ two\\ centuries\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Dancehall\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ hegemonic\\ power\\;\\ it\\ also\\ produces\\ and\\ mediates\\ relations\\ of\\ power\\&hellip\\;as\\ such\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ space\\ where\\ the\\ symbolic\\ distinctions\\ that\\ uphold\\ relations\\ of\\ power\\ in\\ a\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ are\\ made\\,\\ undone\\,\\ and\\ reinforced\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ dancehall\\ is\\ a\\ primary\\ idiom\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ black\\ lower\\ class\\ has\\ constructed\\ counterideologies\\,\\ counteridentities\\,\\ and\\ counterpractices\\,\\ it\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ transformative\\,\\ counterhegemonic\\ potential\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.227\\ Ch\\.8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\:\\ The\\ Dancehall\\ in\\ Post\\-Independence\\ Jamaica\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dancehall\\ performance\\ from\\ 1962\\-1998\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1960s\\ dancehall\\ culture\\ was\\ weapon\\ in\\ struggle\\ for\\ liberation\\ for\\ the\\ black\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;masses\\.\\ \\ \\;Fueled\\ by\\ Garvey\\,\\ Rastafari\\,\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\transition\\ from\\ nonconformational\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;challenger\\ of\\ dominant\\ sociopolitical\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\explosive\\ cultural\\ creativity\\ of\\ post\\-Independence\\ years\\ and\\ its\\ multivalent\\ effects\\ on\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ structure\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\cultural\\ bridge\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dancehall\\ became\\ place\\ where\\ status\\ quo\\ opposed\\,\\ independence\\ myth\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;challenged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\became\\ force\\ of\\ cultural\\ cohesion\\ instead\\ of\\ place\\ of\\ social\\ stratification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rivaled\\ institutions\\ like\\ the\\ school\\,\\ church\\,\\ and\\ political\\ parties\\ as\\ space\\ of\\ cultural\\ creation\\ and\\ reproduction\\,\\ mixed\\ uptown\\ and\\ downtown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dancehall\\ was\\ vehicle\\ for\\ moral\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\lowerclass\\ youth\\ given\\ social\\ legitimacy\\ and\\ self\\-confidence\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ autonomy\\ because\\ not\\ controlled\\ by\\ upperclass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\upperclass\\ youth\\ given\\ sense\\ of\\ possibility\\,\\ identity\\,\\ new\\ modes\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ interaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\because\\ lower\\-class\\ blacks\\ were\\ drawing\\ in\\ middle\\ and\\ upper\\ class\\ blacks\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;dancehall\\ became\\ increasingly\\ threatening\\ to\\ their\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ generation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\relationship\\ b\\/w\\ growing\\ social\\ violence\\ and\\ politicization\\ of\\ dancehall\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;political\\ parties\\ would\\ forge\\ relationships\\ with\\ youth\\ gangs\\ from\\ various\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ghetto\\ neighborhoods\\ to\\ get\\ more\\ votes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;prob\\ b\\/c\\ politicians\\ needed\\ the\\ gangsters\\ but\\ the\\ escalation\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;violent\\ interparty\\ rivalry\\ threatened\\ societal\\ chaos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;led\\ to\\ police\\ surveillance\\ of\\ dancehalls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\role\\ of\\ sound\\ system\\ dance\\ in\\ ensuing\\ political\\ rivalry\\ and\\ violence\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;tribal\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\rise\\ of\\ reggae\\ as\\ influential\\ international\\ musical\\ force\\ 1970s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\made\\ dancehall\\ an\\ important\\ cultural\\ force\\,\\ primary\\ medium\\ for\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\emergence\\ of\\ dancehall\\ style\\ after\\ 1980\\ national\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dancehall\\ style\\ metamorphosis\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;dancehall\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\rise\\ of\\ slackness\\,\\ Rasta\\ Renaissance\\,\\ and\\ influence\\ of\\ hip\\-hop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;dancehall\\ divas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ slackness\\ phenomenon\\ and\\ the\\ focus\\ on\\ women\\ and\\ fashion\\ display\\ were\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;never\\ able\\ to\\ completely\\ replace\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;culture\\&rdquo\\;\\-centered\\ orientation\\ in\\ dancehall\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;which\\ focuses\\ on\\ themes\\ relating\\ to\\ Rastafari\\ and\\ rude\\ boys\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ clashing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;between\\ the\\ sound\\ systems\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Run\\ Come\\ Inna\\ the\\ Dance\\:\\ The\\ Dancehall\\ Performance\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\outline\\ of\\ ideal\\ dance\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\performance\\ of\\ sound\\ system\\ selector\\,\\ sound\\ system\\ clash\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\role\\ of\\ audience\\ in\\ interactive\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\meanings\\ of\\ various\\ performative\\ modes\\ \\(records\\,\\ speeches\\,\\ dancing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\question\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ how\\ it\\ pertains\\ to\\ the\\ body\\ politics\\ of\\ entertainers\\,\\ audience\\,\\ and\\ state\\ security\\ forces\\ who\\ often\\ raid\\ dances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cultural\\ Politics\\ of\\ Dancehall\\:\\ a\\ Conclusion\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\relationship\\ between\\ dancehall\\ and\\ Jamaica\\&rsquo\\;s\\ current\\ social\\ predicament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\how\\ discourse\\ about\\ dancehall\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ central\\ means\\ for\\ people\\ from\\ different\\ social\\ positions\\ to\\ mediate\\ their\\ relations\\ to\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\debate\\ between\\ uptown\\ and\\ downtown\\ social\\ blocs\\ in\\ Jamaican\\ society\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ dancehall\\ as\\ music\\,\\ culture\\,\\ morality\\,\\ economics\\,\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lady\\ Saw\\ and\\ Carlene\\,\\ commentary\\ about\\ societal\\ norms\\ about\\ nudity\\ and\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jisoo\\ Kim\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\jisookim\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 15\\ Week\\ 14\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Transnational\\ approach\\ to\\ Caribbean\\ migration\\ reflects\\ a\\ new\\ phase\\ in\\ global\\ capitalist\\ production\\ and\\ the\\ associated\\ decrease\\ in\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ national\\ boundaries\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ and\\ distribution\\ of\\ goods\\,\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\changing\\ forms\\ of\\ capital\\ accumulation\\ contribute\\ to\\ deteriorating\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ conditions\\ in\\ both\\ home\\ and\\ host\\ societies\\ with\\ neither\\ locale\\ offering\\ security\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\many\\ new\\ immigrants\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;people\\ of\\ color\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ have\\ relocated\\ to\\ countries\\ where\\ institutional\\ racism\\ exists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\have\\ educational\\/economic\\ achievements\\ dismissed\\ or\\ devalued\\ by\\ host\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\nation\\-building\\ projects\\ of\\ both\\ countries\\ create\\ political\\ identities\\,\\ loyalties\\,\\ and\\ interests\\ that\\ bind\\ migrants\\ to\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ nation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Going\\ Home\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Class\\,\\ Gender\\,\\ and\\ Household\\ Transfromation\\ Among\\ Dominican\\ Return\\ Migrants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Return\\ is\\ an\\ essential\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ migration\\ ethos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whatever\\ their\\ original\\ reasons\\ for\\ emigrating\\,\\ while\\ abroad\\,\\ immigrants\\ retain\\ a\\ strong\\ social\\ and\\ emotional\\ attachment\\ to\\ their\\ communities\\ of\\ origin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decision\\ to\\ emigrate\\ largely\\ based\\ on\\:\\ 1\\)\\ personal\\ preference\\ or\\ economic\\ attraction\\ to\\ US\\ or\\ 2\\)\\ familial\\ circumstances\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ family\\ reunification\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Migrants\\ left\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ an\\ untenable\\ situation\\ but\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ off\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sociocultural\\ preferences\\ were\\ the\\ major\\ factor\\ determining\\ respondents\\&rsquo\\;\\ return\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Preference\\ for\\ living\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ responsiveness\\ to\\ family\\ obligations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ men\\ NOT\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Dom\\.\\ Republic\\ BUT\\ men\\ more\\ active\\ in\\ making\\ the\\ final\\ decision\\ to\\ return\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Reflects\\ migration\\&rsquo\\;s\\ embeddedness\\ in\\ social\\ context\\ where\\ unequal\\ gender\\ roles\\ persist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*final\\ decision\\-making\\ made\\ without\\ participation\\ of\\ other\\ family\\ members\\,\\ especially\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\higher\\ living\\ standards\\ enjoyed\\ abroad\\ \\(basic\\ public\\ services\\)\\ and\\ the\\ certainty\\ of\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ US\\ made\\ returnees\\ more\\ sensitive\\ than\\ people\\ with\\ no\\ exit\\ options\\ to\\ precarious\\ living\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\return\\ migrants\\ have\\ a\\ binational\\ social\\ ethos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\returnees\\&rsquo\\;\\ occupational\\ histories\\ reveal\\ impressive\\,\\ steady\\ upward\\ mobility\\ throughout\\ migration\\ journey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;labor\\ migration\\ constitutes\\ a\\ bridge\\ to\\ independent\\ entrepreneurship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;BUT\\:\\ occupational\\ achievements\\ of\\ women\\ lag\\ behind\\ both\\ abroad\\ and\\ at\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Difference\\ between\\ the\\ way\\ families\\ procure\\ income\\ while\\ abroad\\ v\\.\\ upon\\ return\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Abroad\\:\\ resource\\ pooling\\ most\\ common\\ way\\ to\\ support\\ domestiv\\ economy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ reliance\\ on\\ traditional\\ patriarchal\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Return\\:\\ inversion\\:\\ patriarchal\\ structure\\ dominant\\,\\ resource\\ pooling\\ is\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changing\\ gender\\ relations\\ within\\ migrant\\ households\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;conspicuous\\ labor\\ participation\\ of\\ returnees\\&rsquo\\;\\ wives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parent\\-child\\ relations\\:\\ many\\ concerns\\ regarding\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rearing\\ and\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Perils\\ of\\ city\\-life\\ \\(crime\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ low\\ quality\\ education\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Incompatibility\\ between\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ cultural\\ identity\\ and\\ childrens\\&rsquo\\;\\ identity\\ growing\\ up\\ in\\ e\\.g\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Erosion\\ of\\ authority\\ and\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ children\\ \\(poor\\ knowledge\\ of\\ English\\ is\\ obstacle\\ for\\ parents\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Typical\\ strategy\\:\\ send\\ children\\ back\\ to\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(counterproductive\\?\\ Deviant\\ behavior\\ and\\ mental\\ health\\ disorders\\ among\\ forced\\-return\\ kids\\ \\=\\ high\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ past\\:\\ dominant\\ classes\\ had\\ idyllic\\ image\\ of\\ migrants\\ prior\\ to\\ 1980s\\ as\\ honest\\,\\ hardworking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\social\\ discrimination\\ exacerbated\\ urban\\ spatial\\ segregation\\,\\ now\\ drawn\\ along\\ class\\ lines\\ and\\ migration\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\since\\ the\\ 1980s\\ return\\ migrants\\ \\(especially\\ the\\ economically\\ successful\\)\\ endured\\ double\\ social\\ rejection\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dominant\\ classes\\ 2\\)\\ earlier\\ migrants\\ \\(had\\ higher\\ class\\ background\\,\\ less\\ conspicuous\\ economic\\ success\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\regardless\\ of\\ source\\ of\\ their\\ capital\\,\\ affluent\\ migrant\\ elites\\ want\\ to\\ legitimize\\ their\\ class\\ position\\ and\\ enter\\ the\\ ranks\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*migrants\\ have\\ become\\ a\\ negative\\ reference\\ point\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ dominant\\ classes\\ define\\ \\&lsquo\\;good\\ taste\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;national\\ culture\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\.\\ Reimagining\\ the\\ Nation\\ and\\ Defining\\ the\\ Distinct\\.\\ Dominican\\ Migration\\ and\\ Transnational\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\-Evolution\\ of\\ transnationally\\ organized\\ politics\\ is\\ solidly\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ political\\ economy\\ of\\ the\\ migration\\ process\\,\\ not\\ solely\\ on\\ symbolic\\ of\\ ideological\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Dominican\\ case\\ provides\\ insight\\ into\\ issues\\ of\\ access\\ to\\ participation\\ in\\ transnational\\ political\\ projects\\ \\(New\\ York\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Nation\\-state\\,\\ as\\ a\\ basis\\ of\\ individual\\ identity\\ and\\ a\\ locus\\ of\\ power\\ within\\ the\\ international\\ system\\,\\ has\\ not\\ necessarily\\ become\\ weakened\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ proliferation\\ of\\ transnational\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ arrangements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Migration\\ out\\ of\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\ was\\ relatively\\ small\\ in\\ magnitude\\ during\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Late\\ 1960s\\ and\\ on\\,\\ Dom\\.Rep\\.\\ has\\ consistently\\ ranked\\ in\\ top\\ 10\\ source\\ nations\\ for\\ migration\\ to\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ reign\\ of\\ General\\ Rafael\\ Trujillo\\ \\(1930\\-1961\\)\\:\\ state\\ restrictions\\ on\\ travel\\ and\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Those\\ that\\ did\\ leave\\ were\\ often\\ exiles\\ \\[vocal\\ political\\ opponents\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1961\\-mid\\ 1960s\\:\\ migration\\ accelerated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;many\\ 1966\\ emigrants\\ \\=\\ supporters\\ of\\ failed\\ army\\ that\\ tried\\ to\\ reinstate\\ const\\.\\ Elected\\ Juan\\ Bosch\\ to\\ presid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1960s\\-1970s\\:\\ internal\\ Domincan\\ political\\ factors\\ continued\\ to\\ influence\\ migration\\ out\\ of\\ Dom\\.\\ Rep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ 1980s\\ were\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ ecnomic\\ difficulty\\ and\\ growing\\ discontent\\ within\\ Dom\\.Rep\\.\\,\\ Dominican\\ community\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ experienced\\ growth\\ in\\ organizational\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dominican\\ Nationality\\:\\ only\\ a\\ relatively\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ Domican\\-born\\ people\\ living\\ in\\ US\\ are\\ naturalized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Importance\\ of\\ reinforcing\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Domican\\-ness\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ repeated\\ experiences\\ of\\ occupation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*several\\ attempts\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ to\\ amend\\ the\\ constitution\\ for\\ dual\\ nationality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;organizations\\ in\\ US\\ and\\ Dom\\.Rep\\.\\ formed\\ to\\ discuss\\ nationality\\ and\\ other\\ political\\ concerns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Dominican\\ political\\ candidates\\ make\\ speeches\\ in\\ New\\ York\\,\\ etc\\.\\ for\\ votes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Efforts\\ to\\ reconceptualize\\ and\\ legally\\ redefine\\ nationality\\ and\\ citizenship\\ continue\\ with\\ ongoing\\ attempt\\ to\\ achieve\\ voting\\ and\\ representation\\ rights\\ within\\ Dominican\\ political\\ institutions\\ for\\ nationals\\ living\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dominicans\\ in\\ NY\\:\\ 1980s\\ represented\\ beginnings\\ of\\ a\\ more\\ noticeable\\ political\\ presence\\ among\\ Dominicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ 1990s\\:\\ as\\ a\\ growing\\ political\\ bloc\\,\\ able\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ councilmanic\\ district\\ to\\ maximize\\ Dominican\\ voting\\ power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\.\\ Haitian\\ Identities\\ at\\ the\\ Juncture\\ Between\\ Diaspora\\ and\\ Homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Contraty\\ to\\ prevalent\\ nation\\-building\\ ideologies\\,\\ the\\ populations\\ of\\ newly\\ emerging\\ nation\\-states\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ defind\\ eas\\ residing\\ solel\\ iwhtin\\ the\\ confines\\ of\\ the\\ national\\ territory\\ nor\\ as\\ sharing\\ a\\ common\\ language\\ and\\ homogeneous\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ independence\\ until\\ the\\ current\\ nation\\-state\\ building\\ project\\,\\ Haiti\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Platonic\\ aristocracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ ruled\\ by\\ a\\ clique\\ that\\ has\\ customarily\\ denied\\ the\\ legitimate\\ aspirations\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ urban\\ masses\\ and\\ the\\ uneducated\\ peasant\\ majority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ lower\\ classes\\ fear\\ and\\ distrust\\ the\\ government\\/institutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\:\\ gunboat\\ diplomacy\\ used\\ by\\ European\\ and\\ US\\ banking\\/shipping\\ interests\\ to\\ extract\\ profits\\ replaced\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;US\\ military\\ occupation\\ of\\ Haiti\\ in\\ 1915\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;resentment\\:\\ Indigenist\\ Movement\\ \\(black\\ and\\ mulatto\\ intellectuals\\ join\\ forces\\ to\\ resist\\ US\\ occupation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1957\\:\\ Francois\\ Duvalier\\ begins\\ his\\ dictatorial\\ regime\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ his\\ son\\ Jean\\-Claude\\ \\(1970s\\ and\\ 1980s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;receive\\ support\\ from\\ core\\ of\\ capitalist\\ countries\\ \\(especially\\ US\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;effects\\ Haitian\\ political\\ situation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;popular\\ movements\\ \\(e\\.g\\.liberation\\ theology\\)\\ take\\ root\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;TKL\\ \\(Little\\ Church\\ Communities\\)\\:\\ progressive\\ branch\\ of\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1990\\:\\ Jean\\ Bertran\\ Aristide\\ \\(priest\\)\\ runs\\ for\\ and\\ wins\\ presidency\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;calls\\ his\\ movement\\ Lavalas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;classic\\ nation\\-state\\ buiding\\ agenda\\ \\(proposed\\ a\\ marriage\\ between\\ the\\ Army\\ and\\ the\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Under\\ the\\ Duvalier\\ regimes\\,\\ people\\ who\\ fled\\ Haiti\\ were\\ considered\\ as\\ no\\ longer\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Haitian\\ political\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Leaders\\ in\\ the\\ diaspora\\ called\\ themselves\\ political\\ refugees\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ remained\\:\\ accomodationists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristide\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ articulated\\ the\\ new\\ nationalist\\ language\\ that\\ incorporated\\ diaspora\\ into\\ Haitian\\ nation\\-state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ Jean\\-Claude\\ Duvalier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ departure\\,\\ presidential\\ candidates\\ sought\\ support\\ abroad\\ \\(Montreal\\,\\ NY\\,\\ Miami\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristide\\ enacted\\ dual\\ nationality\\ for\\ immigrants\\ \\(despite\\ opposition\\ of\\ Haitian\\ legislators\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Tenth\\ Department\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Difficulty\\ getting\\ international\\ lending\\ institutions\\ to\\ advance\\ funds\\ to\\ rebuild\\ Haiti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristide\\ forced\\ into\\ exile\\ by\\ a\\ military\\ coup\\ after\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ year\\ in\\ office\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;returns\\ after\\ 3\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ ties\\ have\\ remained\\ at\\ the\\ base\\ of\\ Haitian\\ transnational\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Migrants\\ who\\ leave\\ Haiti\\ are\\ obligated\\ to\\ remember\\ family\\ members\\ left\\ behind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;remittances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Women\\,\\ often\\ head\\ of\\ their\\ household\\,\\ send\\ the\\ largest\\ amount\\ of\\ remittances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Haitian\\ media\\:\\ allows\\ communication\\ for\\ Haitians\\ and\\ diaspora\\ Haitians\\;\\ encourages\\ migrants\\ to\\ return\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Create\\ a\\ transnational\\ Haitian\\ space\\ \\(culture\\,\\ politics\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disjuncture\\ DOES\\ exist\\ between\\ Haitians\\ abroad\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ remained\\ in\\ Haiti\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\resentment\\ of\\ impoverished\\ family\\ members\\ who\\ contributed\\ their\\ resources\\/services\\ to\\ allow\\ others\\ to\\ migrate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vulnerability\\ experienced\\ by\\ people\\ who\\ stayed\\ behind\\ and\\ now\\ face\\ competition\\ from\\ diaspora\\ returnees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rivalry\\ of\\ traditional\\ dominant\\ classes\\ who\\ see\\ transmigrants\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ their\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ economic\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\April\\ Timberlake\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\timberl\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\#\\ 16\\ Week\\ 15\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 15\\:\\ \\ \\;Puerto\\ Rico\\ in\\ the\\ 90s\\,\\ \\ \\;Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ chapter\\ contained\\ virtually\\ nothing\\ but\\ numbers\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ Puerto\\ Ricans\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ rose\\ 35\\%\\,\\ to\\ 2\\.7\\ million\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ comparison\\,\\ the\\ overall\\ U\\.S\\.\\ population\\ rose\\ by\\ only\\ 10\\%\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ mean\\ household\\ income\\ of\\ PRs\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ rose\\ by\\ 25\\%\\ between\\ 1979\\ and\\ 1989\\,\\ from\\ \\$23\\,463\\ to\\ \\$29\\,264\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ decreased\\ from\\ 4\\.13\\ to\\ 3\\.95\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rate\\ of\\ economic\\ growth\\ of\\ PRs\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ overall\\:\\ \\ \\;while\\ in\\ 1979\\ \\ \\;the\\ per\\ capita\\ income\\ of\\ PRs\\ was\\ significantly\\ below\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ average\\ Hispanic\\,\\ but\\ by\\ 1989\\ PR\\ income\\ was\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ average\\ Hispanic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Puerto\\ Ricans\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ exhibited\\ a\\ larger\\ increase\\ in\\ mean\\ per\\ capita\\ household\\ income\\ during\\ the\\ 80s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sharp\\ rise\\ in\\ average\\ income\\ among\\ PRs\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ relative\\ to\\ other\\ ethnic\\ and\\ racial\\ groups\\ can\\ be\\ partially\\ explained\\ by\\ the\\ significant\\ rise\\ in\\ labor\\ force\\ participation\\ among\\ PR\\ woman\\,\\ sharp\\ improvement\\ in\\ educational\\ attainment\\,\\ and\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ PRs\\ 25\\ years\\ or\\ older\\ with\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ degree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ sharp\\ inequality\\ of\\ income\\ among\\ PRs\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1990\\,\\ their\\ unemployment\\ rate\\ was\\ approximately\\ 12\\%\\,\\ about\\ twice\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ overall\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ recession\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ 1990s\\ severely\\ affected\\ PRs\\ and\\ Latinos\\ in\\ general\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ PR\\ population\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ had\\ moved\\ within\\ the\\ last\\ 5\\ years\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Of\\ all\\ PRs\\ who\\ moved\\ between\\ 1985\\ and\\ 1990\\,\\ nearly\\ 25\\%\\ moved\\ to\\ California\\,\\ Florida\\,\\ and\\ Texas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ nearly\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ the\\ PR\\ pop\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ northeastern\\ states\\ of\\ NY\\,\\ NJ\\,\\ Mass\\,\\ Penn\\,\\ and\\ Conn\\,\\ by\\ 1990\\ only\\ 68\\.3\\%\\ lived\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\PRs\\ are\\ increasingly\\ living\\ in\\ smaller\\ cities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ great\\ variability\\ of\\ economic\\ status\\ of\\ PRs\\ in\\ different\\ cities\\:\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ LA\\,\\ Tampa\\,\\ and\\ Miami\\ the\\ per\\ capita\\ mean\\ household\\ incomes\\ approximate\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ community\\,\\ while\\ in\\ Worcerster\\ and\\ Lawrence\\,\\ Mass\\,\\ it\\ is\\ nearly\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ the\\ mean\\ for\\ all\\ residents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interestingly\\,\\ the\\ PR\\ population\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ growing\\ faster\\ in\\ areas\\ of\\ relatively\\ high\\ income\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\-income\\ cities\\.\\ The\\ PR\\ populations\\ in\\ both\\ low\\ and\\ high\\ income\\ communities\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ expanding\\ equally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recent\\ movers\\ from\\ PR\\ have\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\ that\\ PRs\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ translate\\ into\\ higher\\ earnings\\ and\\ lower\\ poverty\\ rates\\.\\ This\\ may\\ be\\ because\\ recent\\ movers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ comprehensive\\ networks\\ and\\ contacts\\ to\\ find\\ available\\ jobs\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ because\\ of\\ linguistic\\ or\\ cultural\\ factors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ migration\\ to\\ NYC\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ 1960\\,\\ close\\ to\\ 2\\/3rds\\ of\\ all\\ PRs\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ lived\\ in\\ NY\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ only\\ 43\\%\\ in\\ 1980\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\ there\\ were\\ more\\ PRs\\ who\\ left\\ New\\ York\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ PR\\ than\\ \\ \\;PRs\\ moving\\ into\\ the\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Interestingly\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ gap\\ between\\ whites\\ and\\ PRs\\ in\\ NYC\\ widened\\ during\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ while\\ the\\ opposite\\ occurred\\ at\\ the\\ national\\ level\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\REQUIRED\\ MOVIE\\ \\(LIFE\\ AND\\ DEBT\\)\\ SUMMARY\\ \\ \\;STILL\\ TO\\ COME\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 57, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/ahzar_study_guide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Review", "tags": ["harvard", "american-capitalism", "midterm-review"], "text": null, "id": 123, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\ Review\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c7\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-indent\\:54pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jill\\ Bunting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\/10\\/07\\ 2\\:32\\ PM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 1\\ Lecture\\:\\ Intro\\ Readings\\:\\ None\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ discussed\\ the\\ general\\ themes\\/logistics\\ for\\ the\\ course\\.\\ Professor\\ Beckert\\ emphasized\\ that\\ the\\ course\\ would\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ causes\\ and\\ consequence\\ of\\ capitalism\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ why\\ then\\,\\ why\\ there\\,\\ what\\ did\\ it\\ impact\\)\\.\\ I\\ think\\ this\\ theme\\ has\\ been\\ carried\\ through\\ the\\ semesters\\ lectures\\ and\\ might\\ make\\ be\\ an\\ essay\\ topic\\,\\ such\\ as\\ why\\ did\\ Europe\\ become\\ a\\ colonial\\ power\\ or\\ why\\ did\\ the\\ American\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\ begin\\ when\\ it\\ did\\.\\ Using\\ this\\ framing\\,\\ Beckert\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ course\\ would\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ the\\ dramatic\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ from\\ an\\ economic\\ backwater\\ to\\ a\\ global\\ economic\\ power\\ house\\ in\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ centuries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 2\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Danny\\ Lee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\/10\\/07\\ 2\\:32\\ PM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lectures\\:\\ Feb\\.\\ 6\\:\\ Native\\ American\\ Economics\\ Feb\\.\\ 8\\:\\ The\\ Expansion\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\:\\ Cronon\\,\\ Changes\\ in\\ the\\ Land\\,\\ 1\\-171\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Richard\\ Hakluyt\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Argument\\ for\\ Colonization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1584\\)\\ John\\ Cotton\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ Just\\ Price\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1639\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\N\\.B\\.\\ My\\ lecture\\ notes\\ are\\ kinda\\ long\\,\\ but\\ I\\ bolded\\ what\\ I\\ though\\ was\\ important\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ can\\ skim\\ the\\ rest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ especially\\ the\\ dates\\ and\\ other\\ numbers\\ Lectures\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\/6\\ Native\\-American\\ Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ should\\ our\\ story\\ begin\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Native\\ Americans\\:\\ the\\ white\\ settlers\\&rsquo\\;\\ economy\\ will\\ very\\ much\\ build\\ upon\\ the\\ native\\ American\\ economies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ tobacco\\ and\\ corn\\ \\(Native\\ American\\ in\\ origin\\)\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ white\\ settlers\\ traded\\ with\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Also\\,\\ natural\\ resources\\ and\\ land\\ were\\ expropriated\\ from\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ Native\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Before\\ 1500\\,\\ several\\ NA\\ groups\\ began\\ cultivating\\ agriculture\\ but\\ were\\ varied\\:\\ just\\ get\\ an\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ spread\\,\\ variety\\,\\ and\\ number\\ of\\ these\\ native\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ At\\ 15th\\ century\\,\\ the\\ most\\ advanced\\ societies\\ were\\ Aztecs\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ astronomy\\,\\ mathematics\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ In\\ the\\ north\\ were\\ less\\ developed\\;\\ Hopi\\;\\ on\\ a\\ smaller\\ scale\\,\\ they\\ had\\ agricultural\\ economy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ irrigation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ In\\ the\\ east\\;\\ groups\\ sustained\\ themselves\\ with\\ agriculture\\,\\ hunt\\/gath\\,\\ and\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Denser\\ pop\\ in\\ gulf\\ and\\ southeast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Northeast\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ smaller\\ communities\\ were\\ tied\\ by\\ familial\\ relations\\;\\ moveable\\;\\ also\\ grew\\ grains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ did\\ most\\ of\\ agricultural\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Further\\ north\\;\\ agriculture\\ played\\ no\\ role\\ in\\ economies\\;\\ men\\ mostly\\ hunted\\;\\ women\\ did\\ everything\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ NE\\ \\(New\\ England\\)\\&ndash\\;\\ 70k\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 100k\\ Indians\\ before\\ white\\ settlement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Economies\\ were\\ fairly\\ advanced\\:\\ looms\\ to\\ weave\\ textiles\\ \\(maybe\\ cotton\\)\\;\\ settled\\ agriculture\\ 3000BCE\\;\\ architectural\\ \\(multi\\-roomed\\ houses\\ of\\ Anaszazi\\,\\ dams\\,\\ irrigation\\)\\;\\ extensive\\ trade\\ routes\\ \\(trans\\ great\\ lakes\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ About\\ 600\\ autonomous\\ societies\\ before\\ whites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ All\\ were\\ deeply\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ ecology\\ of\\ their\\ surroundings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Three\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Iroquois\\:\\ confederacy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pop\\.\\ 20k\\-110k\\;\\ controlled\\ most\\ of\\ north\\ east\\;\\ hunting\\ fishing\\ and\\ agriculture\\;\\ corn\\,\\ beans\\,\\ squash\\;\\ cultivation\\ of\\ corn\\ allowed\\ for\\ higher\\ pop\\.\\ Densities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ First\\ contact\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dutch\\ trading\\ post\\ 1614\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fur\\ trading\\ \\(beaver\\ fur\\)\\ o\\ Incredible\\ European\\ demand\\ for\\ furs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ trade\\ exploded\\ o\\ The\\ Iroquois\\ played\\ the\\ Europeans\\ off\\ each\\ other\\ o\\ Europeans\\ needed\\ the\\ Indians\\;\\ Indians\\ got\\ credit\\ for\\ supplies\\ then\\ they\\ \\&ldquo\\;paid\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\back\\ with\\ their\\ hunt\\;\\ if\\ bad\\ hunt\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ abandoned\\ debt\\ and\\ moved\\ to\\ another\\ trader\\ o\\ Native\\ American\\ cultural\\ networks\\ became\\ the\\ networks\\ of\\ trade\\ o\\ The\\ economy\\ of\\ beaver\\ pelts\\ gave\\ the\\ Iroquois\\ significant\\ power\\ o\\ Per\\ capita\\ wealth\\ increased\\;\\ the\\ beaver\\ was\\ a\\ medium\\ by\\ which\\ they\\ could\\ get\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\everything\\;\\ wealth\\ was\\ not\\ evenly\\ distributed\\;\\ o\\ Iroquois\\ society\\ was\\ disrupted\\ by\\ this\\ trade\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ o\\ Technological\\ disturbance\\:\\ guns\\,\\ metal\\ utensils\\,\\ etc\\.\\ o\\ Fur\\ trade\\ caused\\ hostilities\\ btw\\ internal\\ relations\\ for\\ competition\\ o\\ Also\\ beavers\\ were\\ over\\ hunted\\ and\\ caused\\ the\\ Indians\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ their\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Pacific\\ Northwest\\:\\ Tlingit\\,\\ Salish\\,\\ Chinook\\,\\ Makah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Washingtoon\\,\\ Oregon\\,\\ BC\\ o\\ No\\ agriculture\\;\\ heavily\\ on\\ Pacific\\ coast\\;\\ salmon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lasted\\ entire\\ year\\ o\\ Gave\\ many\\ of\\ them\\ time\\ off\\ from\\ food\\ gathering\\;\\ so\\ very\\ prosperous\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economically\\ complex\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ though\\,\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;lazy\\&rdquo\\;\\ o\\ Had\\ class\\ system\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;nobility\\&rdquo\\;\\ commoners\\,\\ and\\ slaves\\ o\\ Slaves\\:\\ captured\\ people\\ and\\ were\\ sometimes\\ traded\\ o\\ Labor\\ was\\ highly\\ specialized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hunters\\,\\ carpenters\\,\\ artists\\,\\ song\\ makers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Permanent\\ communities\\:\\ had\\ many\\ possessions\\ and\\ established\\ dwellings\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\longhouses\\ \\(up\\ to\\ 100ft\\ long\\)\\ o\\ Lots\\ of\\ leisure\\:\\ intricate\\ woodcarving\\,\\ masks\\,\\ other\\ art\\;\\ marked\\ difference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ other\\ Indian\\ groups\\ o\\ Complex\\ rituals\\;\\ gift\\-giving\\ \\(poplash\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ chiefs\\ would\\ give\\ or\\ destroyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\property\\/goods\\;\\ food\\,\\ carvings\\,\\ canoes\\,\\ slaves\\;\\ great\\ numbers\\ of\\ good\\ were\\ consumed\\ or\\ destroyed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ o\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ gift\\-giving\\ emphasized\\ that\\ this\\ society\\ could\\ produce\\ more\\ than\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\they\\ needed\\;\\ but\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ accumulate\\ goods\\ o\\ Social\\ status\\ was\\ gained\\ through\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ capital\\ \\(gifts\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accumulation\\ of\\ social\\ status\\ was\\ of\\ higher\\ priority\\ than\\ the\\ accumulation\\ of\\ capital\\ How\\ were\\ they\\ different\\ from\\ contemporary\\ European\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Conceptions\\ of\\ property\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Unit\\ of\\ ownership\\ was\\ group\\ as\\ whole\\,\\ not\\ individual\\;\\ private\\ property\\ did\\ exist\\,\\ but\\ different\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Europeans\\ thought\\ the\\ natives\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ concept\\ of\\ property\\ b\\/c\\ no\\ plow\\ or\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ But\\,\\ they\\ did\\ \\-\\ Native\\ land\\ rights\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;use\\ rights\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\)\\ right\\ to\\ hunt\\ or\\ use\\ trail\\;\\ not\\ absolute\\ property\\ rights\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ today\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ rights\\ could\\ overlap\\ ex\\)\\ one\\ could\\ trap\\ beaver\\,\\ but\\ others\\ would\\ fish\\ o\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ land\\ for\\ exclusive\\ use\\ would\\ be\\ alien\\ to\\ the\\ Indians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ clothing\\ and\\ things\\ made\\ with\\ own\\ hands\\ were\\ considered\\ private\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ bounty\\ of\\ land\\ was\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Role\\ of\\ gift\\ giving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ At\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ social\\ relationships\\;\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Influence\\ in\\ society\\ was\\ generated\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ accumulation\\,\\ but\\ by\\ giving\\ things\\ away\\ \\(social\\/political\\ capital\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Created\\ mutual\\ obligations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ who\\ could\\ not\\ give\\ gifts\\ lost\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Europeans\\ had\\ to\\ learn\\ this\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Lack\\ of\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Natives\\ had\\ no\\ abstract\\ medium\\ of\\ exchange\\;\\ all\\ in\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Only\\ after\\ European\\ contact\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wampum\\ \\(strings\\ of\\ shells\\ and\\ beads\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Wampum\\ was\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ communication\\ device\\ \\(white\\ and\\ purple\\ shell\\ patterns\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ record\\ things\\)\\;\\ use\\ as\\ currency\\ was\\ only\\ used\\ after\\ contact\\ with\\ Europeans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Some\\ societies\\ eventually\\ specialized\\ in\\ the\\ sole\\ production\\ of\\ wampum\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\European\\ impact\\ was\\ huge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Disease\\:\\ more\\ than\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ NA\\ population\\ died\\ by\\ European\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Devastated\\ NA\\ economies\\;\\ 80\\-90\\%\\ population\\ did\\ not\\ survive\\ 1st\\ century\\ of\\ European\\ contact\\;\\ they\\ would\\ never\\ recover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ NA\\ practices\\ were\\ surely\\ affected\\ by\\ global\\ network\\,\\ ex\\)\\ beaver\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ In\\ the\\ long\\ term\\;\\ Europeans\\ would\\ expropriate\\ wealth\\ of\\ NA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Seized\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Destruction\\ of\\ NA\\ societies\\;\\ future\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ agricultural\\ fields\\,\\ coal\\ lands\\,\\ grazing\\ land\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ taken\\ from\\ NA\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Developing\\ capitalism\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ NA\\ economies\\ 2\\/8\\ The\\ Expansion\\ of\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\ Why\\ Europe\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ European\\ powers\\ always\\ tried\\ to\\ go\\ by\\ sea\\ to\\ India\\/China\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fabulous\\ riches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Finally\\,\\ Portuguese\\ Vasco\\ da\\ Gama\\ sailed\\ to\\ India\\ 1497\\/98\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ around\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Spaniards\\ 1492\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ get\\ there\\ another\\ way\\ to\\ India\\ \\(shorter\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ America\\ was\\ found\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Why\\ did\\ they\\ leave\\ at\\ all\\?\\ Why\\ not\\ earlier\\?\\ Why\\ not\\ Incas\\ or\\ Aztecs\\ find\\ Europe\\?\\ Why\\ not\\ China\\ \\(very\\ powerful\\ and\\ technologically\\ advanced\\)\\ go\\ to\\ America\\ or\\ Europe\\ and\\ conquer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ No\\ one\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ would\\ have\\ guessed\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Europe\\ was\\ really\\ poor\\ at\\ the\\ time\\;\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ most\\ advanced\\ industries\\,\\ its\\ social\\ structures\\ not\\ easily\\ adaptable\\ to\\ idea\\ of\\ economic\\ growth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Europe\\ was\\ isolated\\;\\ trade\\ was\\ limited\\ to\\ Mediterranean\\ and\\ focused\\ narrowly\\ on\\ luxury\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Chinese\\ and\\ Indians\\ had\\ very\\ little\\ interest\\ in\\ European\\ goods\\/products\\;\\ but\\ Europe\\ really\\ had\\ interest\\ in\\ Asian\\ goods\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gold\\/silver\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ spices\\,\\ silk\\,\\ cotton\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 15th\\ cent\\;\\ international\\ contacts\\ increased\\ suddenly\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Once\\ this\\ interconnectedness\\ expanded\\,\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ Europe\\ itself\\ created\\ the\\ conditions\\ which\\ allowed\\ Europe\\ to\\ expand\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Economic\\ dominance\\ of\\ Europe\\ was\\ imbedded\\ in\\ ability\\ of\\ Europeans\\ to\\ dramatically\\ shift\\ global\\ networks\\ \\(trade\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Before\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Indians\\/Arabs\\ dominated\\ trade\\;\\ then\\ Europe\\ dominated\\ and\\ controlled\\ Asia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ New\\ international\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\ emerged\\:\\ Global\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Colonies\\,\\ Baltic\\,\\ etc\\ called\\ on\\ for\\ primary\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Europeans\\ were\\ called\\ upon\\ to\\ create\\ new\\ economic\\ institutions\\/systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Improved\\ techniques\\ of\\ capital\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Re\\-introduced\\ chattel\\ slavery\\ on\\ the\\ global\\ scale\\ Decline\\ of\\ Feudalism\\:\\ gave\\ rise\\ to\\ powerful\\ and\\ large\\ states\\:\\ need\\ more\\ capital\\ \\-\\ want\\ economic\\ modernization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ States\\ now\\ Intervened\\ ever\\ more\\ in\\ economic\\ affairs\\ Mercantilism\\:\\ form\\ of\\ economic\\ policy\\ that\\ aimed\\ at\\ creating\\ self\\-sufficient\\ commercial\\ systems\\;\\ independence\\ from\\ other\\ markets\\;\\ secure\\ colonies\\ for\\ raw\\ materials\\,\\ markets\\ to\\ export\\ to\\,\\ labor\\;\\ gold\\/silver\\ Renaissance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Economic\\ improvements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Food\\ production\\ up\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Population\\ up\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ production\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Large\\ nation\\ states\\ with\\ large\\ ruling\\ classes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Technology\\ was\\ also\\ improving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Capital\\ was\\ increasing\\;\\ Social\\ and\\ economic\\ changes\\ within\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ New\\ forms\\ of\\ social\\ inequality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Living\\ conditions\\:\\ majority\\ were\\ peasants\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Life\\ got\\ worse\\;\\ farms\\ got\\ smaller\\ and\\ smaller\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ went\\ to\\ towns\\ and\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Need\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ living\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Increase\\ in\\ paupers\\,\\ vagrants\\ and\\ bandits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Available\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;outsourcing\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Lots\\ of\\ wealthy\\ people\\ too\\ \\(getting\\ large\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Gained\\ access\\ to\\ greater\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Rising\\ status\\ of\\ merchant\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Demand\\ of\\ merchants\\ promoted\\ industry\\ and\\ trade\\ \\(consumed\\ a\\ lot\\)\\ wanted\\ silks\\,\\ clothes\\,\\ wine\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Wealth\\ provided\\ capital\\ for\\ new\\ enterprise\\,\\ industry\\,\\ exploration\\,\\ etc\\ Changes\\ in\\ attitudes\\ about\\ wealth\\ Change\\ from\\ patronage\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;pursuit\\ of\\ profit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ European\\ societies\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ structured\\ along\\ feudal\\ lines\\:\\ very\\ rigid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Few\\ were\\ very\\ rich\\;\\ vast\\ majority\\ were\\ very\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ However\\,\\ there\\ was\\ deference\\;\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ content\\ with\\ their\\ station\\ in\\ life\\;\\ upper\\ classes\\ owe\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ living\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ accumulate\\ wealth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ patronage\\;\\ Christian\\ teaching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Ex\\)\\ Merchants\\ could\\ only\\ charge\\ \\&ldquo\\;just\\ price\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ advantage\\ to\\ make\\ profit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Economy\\ was\\ strictly\\ regulated\\;\\ labor\\ was\\ also\\ strict\\;\\ discouraged\\ profit\\ making\\ and\\/or\\ free\\ consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ New\\ beliefs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Now\\ merchants\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ name\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ profit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Gradually\\,\\ justified\\ accumulation\\ of\\ wealth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ People\\ owned\\ others\\ nothing\\ except\\ money\\ owed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Philosophical\\ foundations\\ for\\ capitalist\\,\\ market\\-driven\\ economy\\ emerged\\ Shift\\ of\\ the\\ centers\\ of\\ economic\\ power\\ and\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ strong\\ nation\\-states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Used\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\ and\\ Italian\\ city\\-states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ shifted\\ to\\ Portugal\\ and\\ Spain\\,\\ then\\ Netherlands\\,\\ England\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Became\\ more\\ Atlantic\\ trade\\,\\ from\\ Mediterranean\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Large\\,\\ integrated\\ nation\\-states\\ had\\ huge\\ advantage\\ over\\ city\\-states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Italian\\ cities\\ were\\ not\\ large\\ enough\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ E\\.g\\.\\ Spain\\ funded\\ the\\ expedition\\ to\\ find\\ new\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Formation\\ of\\ modern\\ states\\ and\\ emergence\\ of\\ capitalism\\ went\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\ Institutional\\ innovations\\,\\ including\\ joint\\-stock\\ companies\\ and\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Businesses\\ arose\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ fund\\ other\\ institutions\\ on\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Colonization\\ was\\ expensive\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Raising\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ money\\ needed\\ new\\ financial\\ arrangements\\ and\\ government\\ organization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Joint\\-stock\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Large\\ number\\ of\\ investors\\ could\\ pool\\ their\\ resources\\ for\\ a\\ single\\ goal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Other\\ kinds\\ of\\ hedging\\:\\ states\\ and\\ wealthy\\ merchants\\ could\\ do\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Credit\\,\\ Commercial\\ partnerships\\,\\ Insurance\\,\\ banking\\,\\ and\\ accounting\\ emerged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Slaves\\ made\\ it\\ profitable\\ to\\ extract\\ resources\\ from\\ new\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Sugar\\,\\ silver\\,\\ tobacco\\ \\*\\*\\ You\\ can\\ skim\\ these\\ next\\ sections\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ except\\ maybe\\ Jamestown\\*\\*\\ Spanish\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Consolidation\\ of\\ Spanish\\ crown\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rule\\ over\\ Iberian\\ states\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ expensive\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Needed\\ more\\ money\\;\\ tried\\ to\\ tighten\\ on\\ farmers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ social\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ East\\ seemed\\ to\\ promise\\ fabulous\\ riches\\:\\ but\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ there\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ were\\ established\\ powers\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Ottomans\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ \\(overland\\ route\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Tried\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ different\\ ways\\ \\(sea\\ route\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Columbus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ Spanish\\ were\\ not\\ looking\\ to\\ build\\ empire\\,\\ but\\ more\\ trade\\ routes\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ to\\ plunder\\ gold\\/silver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Took\\ them\\ less\\ then\\ 50\\ years\\ to\\ conquer\\ the\\ new\\ world\\;\\ extracted\\ more\\ than\\ 180\\ tons\\ of\\ gold\\ 16k\\ tons\\ of\\ silver\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ huge\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Melted\\ Indian\\ possessions\\,\\ then\\ mined\\ from\\ streams\\ and\\ silver\\ mines\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Indian\\ slaves\\ died\\ out\\;\\ then\\ African\\ slaves\\ came\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Rapid\\ inflation\\ in\\ Spain\\ \\(wealth\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ caused\\ its\\ crumble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Textile\\ industry\\ collapsed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ When\\ silver\\ mines\\ failed\\,\\ economy\\ crumbled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ However\\,\\ they\\ also\\ introduced\\ plantation\\ agriculture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sugar\\,\\ diamonds\\,\\ tobacco\\ French\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ When\\ other\\ countries\\ saw\\ this\\ wealth\\,\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Modestly\\,\\ came\\ to\\ the\\ N\\.\\ America\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ catch\\ fish\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Began\\ to\\ trade\\ beaver\\ skins\\;\\ eventually\\ permanent\\ settlements\\ Dutch\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Also\\ had\\ permanent\\ settlement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Sponsored\\ by\\ large\\ companies\\,\\ not\\ crown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Dominance\\ of\\ merchants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Was\\ a\\ republic\\,\\ dominated\\ by\\ its\\ merchants\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ mercantile\\;\\ but\\ traded\\ with\\ friend\\ and\\ foe\\ alike\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Invented\\ join\\-stock\\ company\\:\\ British\\ copied\\ this\\ in\\ 17th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ America\\ was\\ minor\\ for\\ the\\ Dutch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ But\\ new\\ guy\\ traded\\ in\\ furs\\,\\ \\@\\ Ft\\.\\ orange\\ and\\ New\\ Amsterdam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Dutch\\ were\\ weak\\;\\ were\\ only\\ based\\ on\\ trade\\,\\ only\\ 2\\ mil\\ ppl\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Challenged\\ by\\ rising\\ power\\ on\\ fringe\\ \\(English\\)\\ English\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ At\\ first\\,\\ very\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Few\\ colonies\\ at\\ first\\ privately\\ funded\\ were\\ big\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ After\\ 1603\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ real\\ thing\\ started\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ By\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ came\\,\\ all\\ profitable\\ places\\ were\\ taken\\;\\ no\\ gold\\ in\\ N\\.\\ America\\,\\ less\\ ppl\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 1606\\;\\ granted\\ land\\:\\ VA\\ co\\.\\ of\\ London\\,\\ Va\\.\\ Co\\ of\\ Plymouth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ joint\\-stock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Protected\\ by\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Protected\\ by\\ tariffs\\ and\\ Navy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ London\\ co\\.\\ established\\ Jamestown\\ 1607\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\&ldquo\\;No\\ food\\,\\ all\\ profit\\&rdquo\\;\\ attitude\\ almost\\ destroyed\\ the\\ colony\\ o\\ But\\,\\ Tobacco\\ made\\ the\\ expedition\\ economically\\ viable\\ o\\ 1620\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ already\\ 40k\\ lbs\\ exported\\,\\ 1630\\ 1\\.5\\ mil\\ lbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Changes\\ in\\ labor\\ system\\ also\\ made\\ it\\ economically\\ viable\\ o\\ Granted\\ new\\ people\\ who\\ came\\ free\\ land\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nice\\ to\\ poor\\ at\\ home\\ o\\ This\\ guaranteed\\ emergence\\ of\\ self\\-sustaining\\ European\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ English\\ Colonies\\ were\\ not\\ only\\ source\\ of\\ raw\\ materials\\/gold\\,\\ but\\ also\\ developed\\ as\\ markets\\ for\\ goods\\ Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Global\\ world\\ in\\ 16th\\ century\\ was\\ direct\\ outcome\\ of\\ emergence\\ of\\ European\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\ William\\ Cronon\\,\\ Changes\\ in\\ the\\ Land\\ 1\\-171\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ One\\:\\ The\\ view\\ from\\ Walden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ first\\ arrivals\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ world\\ did\\ not\\ face\\ a\\ virgin\\ wilderness\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ uninfluenced\\ by\\ human\\ hands\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ NA\\ \\(native\\ Americans\\)\\ were\\ there\\ and\\ DID\\ modify\\/have\\ a\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Cronon\\ describes\\ the\\ methodology\\ and\\ common\\ pitfalls\\ when\\ gathering\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ instability\\ of\\ human\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ environment\\ can\\ bring\\ about\\ ecological\\ change\\ Landscape\\ and\\ Patchwork\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Europeans\\ saw\\ this\\ New\\ World\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;merchantable\\ commodities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Fish\\,\\ furs\\,\\ timber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Each\\ item\\/member\\ of\\ an\\ ecosystem\\ is\\ treated\\ as\\ isolated\\,\\ extractable\\ unit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Initial\\ view\\ that\\ New\\ England\\ was\\ abundant\\ with\\ plant\\ and\\ animal\\ life\\ \\(early\\ 1600s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Boundaries\\ of\\ land\\ were\\ not\\ clearly\\ defined\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ random\\ \\&ldquo\\;patchwork\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ But\\ Europeans\\&rsquo\\;\\ view\\ was\\ to\\ more\\ clearly\\ systematize\\ it\\ and\\ impose\\ a\\ more\\ regular\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Europeans\\ were\\ amazed\\ that\\ the\\ seeming\\ poverty\\ of\\ NA\\ Seasons\\ of\\ Want\\ and\\ Plenty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ NA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Their\\ lives\\ hinged\\ on\\ mobility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ adopted\\ agriculture\\,\\ but\\ still\\ relied\\ heavily\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\&rdquo\\;\\ produce\\ of\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ NA\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ go\\ hungry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Europeans\\ did\\ not\\ understand\\ this\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ maintained\\ ecological\\ stability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Disillusion\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ vision\\ of\\ abundance\\ and\\ the\\ bountiful\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ European\\ monoculture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ single\\ crop\\ fields\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exhausted\\ the\\ soil\\ quickly\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cleared\\ new\\ land\\ for\\ planting\\ and\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ fertilization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Indian\\ mounds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ planted\\ many\\ crops\\ together\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exhausted\\ slower\\,\\ and\\ had\\ habit\\ of\\ leaving\\ the\\ mounds\\ \\&ldquo\\;fallow\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ recover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Burning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Indians\\ frequently\\ burned\\ the\\ underbrush\\ in\\ the\\ forest\\ to\\ facilitate\\ movement\\,\\ drive\\ game\\ for\\ hunting\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Also\\ cleared\\ land\\ by\\ burning\\ the\\ trees\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ moved\\ semi\\-frequently\\ to\\ new\\ fields\\ and\\ reduced\\ the\\ overall\\ ecological\\ footprint\\ they\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;edge\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ created\\ meadows\\ and\\ grassy\\ areas\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ forests\\ and\\ supported\\ denser\\ populations\\ of\\ animals\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ This\\ is\\ evidence\\ of\\ Indian\\ \\&ldquo\\;husbandry\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ perhaps\\ a\\ conscious\\ manipulation\\ of\\ the\\ ecology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Division\\ of\\ labor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Indian\\ women\\ did\\ the\\ farming\\;\\ men\\ hunted\\;\\ European\\ men\\ farmed\\ and\\ thought\\ the\\ Indian\\ men\\ as\\ lazy\\ Bounding\\ the\\ Land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ European\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Improvement\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ to\\ fence\\ and\\ plow\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Acted\\ as\\ a\\ justification\\ to\\ expropriate\\ Indian\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Thought\\ private\\ ownership\\ was\\ the\\ best\\ and\\ most\\ productive\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Indian\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ possession\\ of\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Land\\ was\\ owned\\ by\\ whole\\ tribe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ \\&ldquo\\;useage\\&rdquo\\;\\ rights\\ which\\ could\\ overlap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Very\\ distinct\\ idea\\ of\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ How\\ capitalist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Most\\ early\\ towns\\ were\\ about\\ subsistence\\ and\\ local\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ But\\ emerging\\ idea\\ of\\ global\\ markets\\,\\ the\\ commodification\\ of\\ the\\ ecology\\,\\ and\\ pursuit\\ of\\ profit\\ tend\\ towards\\ capitalism\\ Commodities\\ of\\ the\\ Hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Plague\\ and\\ disruption\\ of\\ Indian\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Furs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ trade\\ exploded\\ and\\ changed\\ Indian\\ social\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Gift\\-giving\\ and\\ wampum\\ \\(explained\\ earlier\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Trade\\ and\\ prestige\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ New\\ European\\ items\\ were\\ collected\\ for\\ prestige\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Collection\\ of\\ wampum\\ also\\ necessary\\ for\\ prestige\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ NA\\ Leaders\\ needed\\ this\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ enormous\\ social\\ change\\ and\\ devastation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ plague\\,\\ etc\\ Taking\\ the\\ Forest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Timber\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ resource\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 28, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/History_B-49_Midterm_Review_Version_2.pdf", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Readings 1-4", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 136, "html": "\\\\\\Readings\\ 1\\-4\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:9pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Kadison\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ College\\ of\\ the\\ Overwhelmed\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ are\\ some\\ kids\\ so\\ unhappy\\ at\\ college\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Identity\\ Development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\At\\ college\\ given\\ new\\ freedom\\ to\\ explore\\ and\\ exposed\\ to\\ sex\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ alcohol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ who\\ have\\ defined\\ themselves\\ by\\ their\\ high\\ school\\ activities\\ can\\ feel\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reluctance\\ to\\ break\\ old\\ habits\\ or\\ reject\\ past\\ decisions\\ can\\ cause\\ identity\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Relationships\\ and\\ Sexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Unhealthy\\ or\\ immature\\ sexual\\ relationships\\ can\\ cause\\ emotional\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peer\\ pressure\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\ is\\ everywhere\\;\\ in\\ the\\ media\\,\\ popular\\ culture\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ other\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gender\\ differences\\ regarding\\ the\\ meaning\\ or\\ significance\\ of\\ a\\ sexual\\ encounter\\ can\\ result\\ in\\ miscommunication\\ or\\ dashed\\ expectations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negative\\ female\\ body\\ image\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ media\\ is\\ unhealthy\\ for\\ college\\ girls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Confusion\\ over\\ sexual\\ orientation\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ very\\ painful\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Interpersonal\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Learning\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ other\\ people\\;\\ or\\ learning\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ without\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learning\\ to\\ share\\ and\\ compromise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Men\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ woman\\ to\\ abuse\\ drugs\\ or\\ alcohol\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ social\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Pressure\\ and\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Academic\\ pressure\\,\\ perfectionism\\,\\ need\\ to\\ get\\ all\\ As\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Coping\\ with\\ academic\\ \\(or\\ social\\)\\ failure\\ can\\ be\\ hard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sub\\-par\\ performance\\ can\\ encourage\\ unhealthy\\ obsession\\ with\\ work\\ and\\ encourage\\ to\\ withdraw\\ from\\ the\\ social\\ environment\\ entirely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parental\\ expectations\\ for\\ perfect\\ grades\\ can\\ cause\\ stress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parental\\ expectations\\ for\\ a\\ certain\\ career\\ path\\ or\\ course\\ of\\ study\\ can\\ also\\ cause\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Juggling\\ Extracurriculars\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Many\\ students\\ are\\ simply\\ too\\ busy\\ which\\ causes\\ stress\\ and\\ poor\\ sleep\\ habits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Failure\\ to\\ excel\\ in\\ an\\ activity\\ at\\ the\\ university\\ level\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Some\\ students\\ also\\ have\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ issues\\ like\\ discrimination\\ or\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ culture\\ or\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Financial\\ worries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Most\\ college\\ students\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ some\\ or\\ all\\ of\\ their\\ expenses\\ and\\ tuition\\,\\ and\\ must\\ worry\\ about\\ getting\\ a\\ job\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ stresses\\ of\\ college\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Others\\ feel\\ guilty\\ for\\ the\\ financial\\ burden\\ they\\ are\\ placing\\ on\\ their\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Social\\ Fears\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Campus\\ violence\\ although\\ rare\\,\\ is\\ highlighted\\ by\\ the\\ media\\,\\ making\\ some\\ students\\ feel\\ unsafe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fear\\ of\\ terrorism\\ or\\ sexual\\ assault\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Psychological\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Many\\ college\\ students\\ suffer\\ from\\ depression\\ or\\ other\\ less\\ common\\ ailments\\ like\\ Dysthymia\\ or\\ Bipolar\\ Disorder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dysmythia\\ is\\ a\\ long\\-term\\ chronic\\ depression\\ that\\ is\\ less\\ severe\\ but\\ more\\ persistant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bipolar\\ Disorder\\ causes\\ one\\ to\\ alternate\\ between\\ manic\\ and\\ depressive\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ seek\\ help\\ and\\ most\\ depressed\\ students\\ hide\\ their\\ feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sleep\\ Disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insomnia\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ dependence\\ on\\ sleeping\\ pills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pulling\\ all\\-nighters\\ or\\ sleeping\\ at\\ odd\\ hours\\ confuses\\ the\\ biological\\ clock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sleep\\ deprivation\\ can\\ be\\ debilitating\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ high\\ psychosocial\\ stress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anxiety\\ disorders\\ and\\ eating\\ disorders\\ also\\ strike\\ this\\ age\\ demographic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anorexia\\ nervosa\\,\\ binge\\ eating\\,\\ bulimia\\ nervosa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Body\\ dysmorphic\\ disorder\\ is\\ cognitive\\ distortion\\ of\\ own\\ body\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cutting\\ or\\ other\\ self\\-injurious\\ habits\\ as\\ a\\ coping\\ mechanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suicidal\\ feelings\\,\\ or\\ even\\ committing\\ suicide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ goal\\ is\\ prevention\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 53, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Kadison__College_of_the_Overwhelmed_Ch_1-4.doc", "desc": "Kadison readings"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Metamorphoses Summary", "tags": ["harvard", "classics", "augustus"], "text": null, "id": 128, "html": "\\\\\\Metamorphoses\\ Summary\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c4\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\METAMORPHESES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rob\\ Pinkas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lit\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Arts\\ C\\-61\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ Rome\\ of\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ Guide\\:\\ \\ \\;Metamorphoses\\ Books\\ I\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\ starts\\ out\\ with\\ a\\ statement\\ of\\ his\\ intention\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;to\\ tell\\ of\\ bodies\\ changed\\ to\\ different\\ forms\\;\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ who\\ made\\ the\\ changes\\,\\ will\\ help\\ me\\&mdash\\;or\\ I\\ hope\\ so\\&mdash\\;with\\ a\\ poem\\ that\\ runs\\ form\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beginning\\ to\\ our\\ own\\ days\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Before\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ ocean\\,\\ an\\ earth\\ or\\ a\\ heaven\\,\\ all\\ was\\ a\\ shapeless\\ matter\\ full\\ of\\ confusion\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ sun\\,\\ no\\ moon\\,\\ nothing\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ God\\,\\ or\\ perhaps\\ a\\ kindlier\\ nature\\,\\ came\\ and\\ organized\\ everything\\ making\\ sense\\ of\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Fire\\ \\(the\\ weightless\\ matter\\)\\ was\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ highest\\ position\\ layered\\ over\\ air\\,\\ earth\\ and\\ ocean\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ earth\\ was\\ designed\\ with\\ cold\\ polar\\ reigons\\ and\\ a\\ hot\\ torrid\\ zone\\ that\\ were\\ inhospitable\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ temperate\\ zone\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ with\\ a\\ varying\\ climate\\ designed\\ for\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\ was\\ created\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\&mdash\\;all\\ animals\\ looked\\ downward\\ sauf\\ man\\ who\\ could\\ raise\\ his\\ face\\ towards\\ heaven\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Four\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ came\\ the\\ golden\\ age\\ when\\ all\\ was\\ well\\ and\\ prospered\\ out\\ of\\ its\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ earth\\ was\\ full\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ fought\\&mdash\\;all\\ was\\ at\\ peace\\ during\\ an\\ everlasting\\ spring\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ Saturn\\ died\\ \\(presumably\\ he\\ reigned\\ during\\ that\\ period\\)\\,\\ Jove\\ came\\ in\\ and\\ began\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ Silver\\.\\ \\ \\;Jove\\ shortened\\ springtime\\ and\\ added\\ summer\\,\\ fall\\ and\\ winter\\ \\(the\\ bastard\\)\\,\\ forcing\\ men\\ into\\ shelter\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ began\\ the\\ Bronze\\ Age\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ became\\ more\\ aggressive\\ and\\ quick\\ to\\ arm\\ but\\ were\\ not\\ entirely\\ evil\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Iron\\ Age\\ was\\ full\\ of\\ evil\\ and\\ catastrophe\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ warred\\ and\\ giants\\ attacked\\ heaven\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ assembled\\ all\\ the\\ gods\\ and\\ expressed\\ his\\ desire\\ to\\ right\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Jove\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ trouble\\ threatening\\ to\\ undermine\\ the\\ sovereignty\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ originated\\ with\\ man\\&mdash\\;a\\ race\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ destroyed\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ to\\ preserve\\ earth\\ for\\ the\\ demigods\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ nymphs\\,\\ fauns\\ and\\ satyrs\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ gods\\ were\\ in\\ agreement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Lycaon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ points\\ in\\ particular\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Lycaon\\.\\ \\ \\;Jove\\,\\ after\\ hearing\\ how\\ wicked\\ the\\ earth\\ had\\ become\\,\\ went\\ down\\ to\\ visit\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ truth\\ for\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Upon\\ arrival\\ at\\ an\\ Arcadian\\ palace\\,\\ he\\ gave\\ a\\ sight\\ that\\ a\\ god\\ had\\ come\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ worship\\,\\ only\\ to\\ be\\ mocked\\ by\\ their\\ ruler\\ Lycaon\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ made\\ plans\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\ while\\ he\\ slept\\ and\\ attempted\\ to\\ feed\\ Jove\\ human\\ flesh\\.\\ \\ \\;Jove\\ struck\\ him\\ with\\ a\\ bolt\\ of\\ lightning\\ destroying\\ the\\ palace\\ and\\ taking\\ away\\ his\\ voice\\.\\ \\ \\;Banished\\ to\\ the\\ fields\\,\\ Lycaon\\ still\\ delighted\\ in\\ slaughter\\ ravaging\\ in\\ the\\ bloody\\ murder\\ of\\ countless\\ sheep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Flood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ and\\ the\\ gods\\ decided\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ eradicate\\ man\\,\\ but\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ due\\ this\\ with\\ fire\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ prophecy\\ that\\ heaven\\ would\\ perish\\ from\\ a\\ great\\ fire\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Jove\\ called\\ on\\ Neptune\\ to\\ flood\\ the\\ rivers\\ and\\ oceans\\ and\\ had\\ Aeolus\\,\\ the\\ wind\\ god\\,\\ halt\\ the\\ north\\ and\\ west\\ winds\\ and\\ unleash\\ only\\ the\\ rain\\-filled\\ south\\ wind\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ world\\ was\\ flooded\\ killing\\ all\\ men\\ and\\ animals\\ either\\ through\\ starvation\\ or\\ drowning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deucalion\\ and\\ Phyrra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ peak\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ Mount\\ Parnassus\\ was\\ still\\ above\\ the\\ water\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ here\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ humans\\,\\ Deucalion\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ Phyrra\\,\\ came\\ and\\ worshipped\\.\\ \\ \\;Recognizing\\ their\\ great\\ piety\\ and\\ righteousness\\,\\ Jove\\ stopped\\ the\\ flooding\\ \\ \\;\\ Not\\ knowing\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ the\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ altar\\ of\\ Themis\\ and\\ asked\\ what\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ \\;Themis\\ heard\\ their\\ prayer\\ and\\ told\\ them\\ to\\ loosen\\ their\\ robes\\ and\\ throw\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bones\\&rdquo\\;\\ behind\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ fully\\ understanding\\ they\\ left\\ and\\ realized\\ that\\ their\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bones\\ were\\ likely\\ rocks\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ they\\ did\\ as\\ Themis\\ said\\ and\\ the\\ rocks\\ transformed\\ into\\ humans\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ combination\\ of\\ moisture\\ and\\ heat\\ created\\ life\\,\\ including\\ some\\ undesirable\\ creatures\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ great\\ serpent\\ Python\\ that\\ Apollo\\ killed\\ with\\ thousands\\ of\\ arrows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apollo\\ and\\ Daphne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ girl\\ Apollo\\ ever\\ loved\\ was\\ Daphne\\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ god\\ Peneus\\,\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ through\\ no\\ fault\\ of\\ his\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ mocking\\ Cupid\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ children\\ should\\ not\\ play\\ with\\ arrows\\&mdash\\;weapons\\ reserved\\ for\\ great\\ archers\\ such\\ as\\ himself\\,\\ Cupid\\ struck\\ him\\ with\\ a\\ love\\-inspiring\\ golden\\ arrow\\ directing\\ his\\ affection\\ towards\\ Daphne\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ had\\ struck\\ with\\ a\\ love\\-spurning\\ lead\\ arrow\\.\\ \\ \\;Daphne\\ wanted\\ no\\ part\\ of\\ any\\ man\\ and\\ begged\\ her\\ father\\ to\\ forever\\ remain\\ a\\ virgin\\,\\ a\\ wish\\ that\\ was\\ granted\\ with\\ much\\ reluctance\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ constantly\\ chased\\ Daphne\\ though\\ and\\ eventually\\ caught\\ her\\ near\\ a\\ river\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ be\\ taken\\ by\\ a\\ man\\,\\ Daphne\\ implored\\ that\\ her\\ father\\ transform\\ her\\ shape\\ and\\ she\\ immediately\\ became\\ a\\ laurel\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ Apollo\\ forever\\ donned\\ a\\ laurel\\ wreath\\&mdash\\;this\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ symbolism\\ surrounding\\ that\\ headdress\\ came\\ from\\.\\ \\ \\;Ovid\\ even\\ mentions\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Augustus\\ would\\ wear\\ such\\ wreaths\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ and\\ Io\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ wanted\\ to\\ sleep\\ with\\ Io\\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ Inachus\\,\\ and\\ approached\\ her\\ in\\ a\\ field\\ one\\ day\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ asked\\ her\\ to\\ come\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ with\\ him\\ \\(great\\ Roman\\ pick\\ up\\ line\\)\\,\\ maintaining\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ powerful\\ god\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Io\\ fled\\ and\\ Juno\\ began\\ to\\ take\\ note\\ of\\ the\\ bizarre\\ occurrence\\.\\ \\ \\;Descending\\ to\\ find\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ Jove\\ saw\\ Juno\\ coming\\ and\\ turned\\ Io\\ into\\ a\\ gorgeous\\ white\\ heifer\\.\\ \\ \\;Juno\\,\\ still\\ suspicious\\,\\ demanded\\ the\\ cow\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\ and\\ not\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ caught\\,\\ Jove\\ consented\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ turned\\ Io\\ over\\ to\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ Argus\\ who\\ had\\ 100\\ eyes\\,\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ two\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ ever\\ closed\\ at\\ one\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Io\\ was\\ miserable\\ as\\ a\\ cow\\ and\\ after\\ explaining\\ her\\ identity\\ to\\ her\\ father\\ \\(by\\ scratching\\ the\\ letters\\ I\\ and\\ O\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\)\\ he\\ became\\ even\\ more\\ upset\\ proclaiming\\ her\\ fate\\ as\\ one\\ worse\\ than\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Jove\\ still\\ desired\\ Io\\ and\\ sent\\ his\\ son\\ Mercury\\ to\\ kill\\ Argus\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ putting\\ him\\ to\\ sleep\\ with\\ Arcadia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reeds\\,\\ he\\ cut\\ his\\ head\\ off\\ \\ \\;\\ Juno\\ fastened\\ the\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ tail\\ of\\ her\\ favorite\\ bird\\,\\ the\\ peacock\\,\\ and\\ continued\\ to\\ harass\\ Io\\ sending\\ a\\ fury\\ after\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Io\\ pleaded\\ to\\ Jove\\ to\\ take\\ pity\\ and\\ Jove\\ was\\ so\\ moved\\ that\\ he\\ swore\\ to\\ Juno\\ he\\ would\\ never\\ attempt\\ to\\ cheat\\ on\\ her\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ after\\ appeasing\\ Juno\\,\\ Jove\\ returned\\ Io\\ to\\ her\\ original\\ form\\ and\\ she\\ became\\ a\\ goddess\\,\\ bearing\\ Epaphus\\ by\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ Jove\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phaethon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phaethon\\ goes\\ to\\ visit\\ Phoebus\\ \\(the\\ sun\\ god\\)\\,\\ who\\ his\\ mother\\ has\\ told\\ him\\ is\\ really\\ his\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ prove\\ to\\ Phaethon\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ his\\ father\\,\\ Phoebus\\ grants\\ him\\ any\\ favor\\.\\ \\ \\;Phaethon\\ asks\\ to\\ drive\\ the\\ chariot\\ and\\ horses\\ that\\ pull\\ the\\ sun\\ across\\ the\\ sky\\ and\\ Phoebus\\ really\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ it\\ to\\ him\\ because\\ he\\ knows\\ that\\ Phaethon\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ drive\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(\\&ldquo\\;What\\ you\\ want\\,\\ my\\ son\\,\\ is\\ dangerous\\;\\ you\\ ask\\ for\\ power\\ beyond\\ your\\ strength\\ and\\ years\\;\\ your\\ lot\\ is\\ mortal\\,\\ but\\ what\\ you\\ ask\\ beyond\\ the\\ lot\\ of\\ mortals\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;Unfortunately\\ a\\ promise\\ is\\ a\\ promise\\ and\\ Phoebus\\ grants\\ Phaethon\\ his\\ wish\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ things\\ go\\ ridiculously\\ wrong\\ because\\ Phoebus\\ cannot\\ control\\ the\\ wild\\ horses\\ and\\ has\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ the\\ chariot\\ is\\ traveling\\ so\\ close\\ to\\ earth\\,\\ everything\\ is\\ burning\\ up\\ and\\ turning\\ to\\ ashes\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ stop\\ the\\ chariot\\,\\ Jove\\ hurls\\ a\\ thunderbolt\\ at\\ it\\ and\\ destroys\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Four\\ sisters\\ of\\ Phaethon\\ lament\\ him\\ and\\ are\\ turned\\ into\\ trees\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ cousin\\ \\(Cygnus\\)\\ is\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ swan\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ lamentations\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ gods\\ convince\\ Phoebus\\ to\\ drive\\ the\\ chariot\\ again\\,\\ but\\ he\\ extremely\\ bitter\\ and\\ angry\\ at\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ in\\ Arcady\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ is\\ checking\\ out\\ the\\ damage\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ kingdoms\\ when\\ he\\ sees\\ a\\ beautiful\\ nymph\\ in\\ Arcadia\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ literally\\ thinks\\ to\\ himself\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Juno\\ will\\ never\\ catch\\ me\\ here\\,\\ or\\ if\\ she\\ does\\,\\ well\\,\\ well\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ worth\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;So\\ he\\ disguises\\ himself\\ as\\ Diana\\,\\ eventually\\ reveals\\ himself\\ and\\ then\\ rapes\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ nymph\\ rejoins\\ the\\ hunting\\ party\\,\\ but\\ since\\ Diana\\ is\\ a\\ virgin\\,\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ notice\\ the\\ Nymph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ changed\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;Juno\\ holds\\ off\\ revenge\\ until\\ the\\ nymph\\ gives\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ son\\,\\ Arcas\\.\\ \\ \\;Juno\\ turns\\ the\\ nymph\\ into\\ a\\ bear\\ and\\ lives\\ that\\ way\\ for\\ 15\\ years\\ until\\ her\\ son\\ is\\ hunting\\,\\ finds\\ her\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ kill\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Taking\\ pity\\ on\\ his\\ illegitimate\\ family\\,\\ Jove\\ whirls\\ them\\ up\\ to\\ heaven\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;set\\ them\\ together\\ there\\,\\ as\\ neighboring\\ constellations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\(I\\ think\\ this\\ explains\\ Ursa\\ Major\\ and\\ Minor\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ the\\ Raven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Raven\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ white\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Apollo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bird\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ his\\ talking\\ caused\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ changed\\ to\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ sends\\ him\\ to\\ spy\\ on\\ a\\ beautiful\\ girl\\,\\ Coronis\\ of\\ Larissa\\,\\ and\\ he\\ learns\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ beautiful\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ chaste\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ flies\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ master\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ that\\,\\ but\\ is\\ warned\\ by\\ a\\ gossiping\\ crow\\ that\\ chattering\\ never\\ helps\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ is\\ angry\\ at\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bad\\ reputation\\ and\\ kills\\ her\\ with\\ an\\ arrow\\.\\ \\ \\;Before\\ she\\ dies\\ however\\,\\ she\\ tells\\ Apollo\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ carrying\\ a\\ child\\ so\\ he\\ has\\ now\\ committed\\ a\\ double\\ murder\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Apollo\\ turns\\ the\\ raven\\ black\\ in\\ his\\ anger\\ and\\ then\\ mourns\\ the\\ girl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Ocyrhoe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BUT\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ dead\\ and\\ Apollo\\ takes\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ the\\ centaur\\,\\ Chiron\\,\\ to\\ care\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;Chiron\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ Ocyrhoe\\,\\ comes\\ to\\ visit\\ and\\ is\\ moved\\ by\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\,\\ but\\ warns\\ the\\ child\\ that\\ he\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ immortal\\ forever\\ and\\ basically\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ miserable\\ fate\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ of\\ her\\ prophecy\\ and\\ messing\\ with\\ fate\\,\\ Ocyrhoe\\ is\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ horse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mercury\\ and\\ Battus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apollo\\ was\\ hiding\\ in\\ Elis\\ mourning\\ over\\ the\\ girl\\ and\\ pretending\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ shepherd\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ so\\ distracted\\ that\\ he\\ lets\\ his\\ cattle\\ wander\\ away\\ and\\ Mercury\\ steals\\ and\\ hides\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ only\\ person\\ who\\ sees\\ the\\ theft\\ is\\ Battus\\,\\ an\\ old\\ servant\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ keep\\ him\\ quiet\\,\\ Mercury\\ gives\\ him\\ a\\ bull\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ old\\ man\\,\\ Mercury\\ returns\\ in\\ disguise\\,\\ asks\\ him\\ about\\ the\\ cattle\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ old\\ man\\ tells\\ him\\ about\\ Mercury\\,\\ the\\ god\\ reveals\\ himself\\ and\\ turns\\ the\\ old\\ man\\ into\\ a\\ stone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mercury\\,\\ Herse\\,\\ and\\ Aglauros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flying\\ around\\,\\ Mercury\\ sees\\ Herse\\,\\ a\\ lovely\\ girl\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ follows\\ her\\ to\\ her\\ house\\ where\\ she\\ lives\\ with\\ two\\ other\\ girls\\ in\\ three\\ chambers\\.\\ \\ \\;Pandrosos\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ right\\-hand\\,\\ Herse\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ and\\ Aglauros\\ on\\ the\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Aglauros\\ sees\\ Mercury\\ coming\\ and\\ demands\\ and\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ visit\\.\\ \\ \\;Mercury\\ tells\\ her\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ messenger\\ sent\\ to\\ get\\ Herse\\,\\ but\\ Aglauros\\ denies\\ Mercury\\ entrance\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ because\\ Minerva\\ sees\\ this\\ and\\ remembers\\ that\\ Aglauros\\ has\\ wronged\\ her\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ so\\ Minerva\\ decides\\ this\\ girl\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ punished\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ House\\ of\\ the\\ Goddess\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Envy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minerva\\ travels\\ to\\ Envy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dark\\ and\\ scary\\ house\\ and\\ asks\\ her\\ to\\ poison\\ Aglauros\\.\\ \\ \\;Envy\\ travels\\ to\\ Athens\\,\\ poisons\\ Aglauros\\&rsquo\\;\\ heart\\ with\\ envy\\ of\\ her\\ sister\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happy\\ marriage\\ to\\ Mercury\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ she\\ just\\ shrivels\\ up\\ and\\ dies\\ because\\ envy\\ has\\ eaten\\ away\\ at\\ her\\ soul\\ and\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ has\\ Mercury\\ drive\\ a\\ herd\\ of\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ Sidon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cattle\\ to\\ the\\ seashore\\ so\\ he\\ can\\ hide\\ amongst\\ them\\ and\\ spy\\ on\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beautiful\\ daughter\\ who\\ always\\ takes\\ walks\\ along\\ the\\ seashore\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ daughter\\ sees\\ Jove\\ disguised\\ as\\ a\\ bull\\ and\\ brings\\ him\\ flowers\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ gradually\\ loses\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ fear\\ and\\ eventually\\ rides\\ on\\ his\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Jove\\ \\(still\\ disguised\\)\\ starts\\ swimming\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ ocean\\ and\\ she\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Jove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prisoner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ III\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Cadmus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Crete\\.\\ \\ \\;King\\ Agenor\\ sends\\ his\\ son\\,\\ Cadmus\\,\\ to\\ find\\ his\\ sister\\ Europa\\ \\(who\\ Jove\\ had\\ just\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ heifer\\)\\ or\\ be\\ exiled\\.\\ \\ \\;Seeking\\ escape\\ instead\\,\\ Cadmus\\ visits\\ the\\ oracle\\ of\\ Apollo\\ who\\ counseled\\ him\\ to\\ seek\\ a\\ lone\\ heifer\\,\\ follow\\ it\\,\\ and\\ found\\ a\\ city\\ called\\ Boeotia\\ in\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ she\\ stops\\ to\\ rest\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ does\\ and\\ begins\\ clearing\\ the\\ woods\\ but\\ a\\ serpent\\,\\ sacred\\ to\\ Mars\\,\\ kills\\ all\\ his\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;Searching\\ for\\ his\\ men\\,\\ armed\\,\\ Cadmus\\ finds\\ what\\ happened\\ and\\ spears\\ the\\ serpent\\.\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\ tells\\ him\\ that\\ the\\ teeth\\ of\\ the\\ serpent\\ will\\ grow\\ as\\ seeds\\ to\\ become\\ his\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ army\\ springs\\ up\\ immediately\\ but\\ the\\ soldiers\\ kill\\ one\\ another\\ until\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ are\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ and\\ Cadmus\\ together\\ founded\\ Thebes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Actaeon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Actaeon\\,\\ grandson\\ of\\ Cadmus\\,\\ returning\\ from\\ hunting\\,\\ came\\ upon\\ the\\ wood\\ goddess\\ Diana\\ bathing\\ naked\\ with\\ her\\ nymphs\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ turned\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ deer\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ killed\\ him\\&mdash\\;satisfying\\ her\\ anger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Semele\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juno\\ secretly\\ rejoiced\\ in\\ the\\ tragedy\\ that\\ had\\ befallen\\ king\\ Agenor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ household\\ \\(Actaeon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\)\\ because\\ Europa\\ had\\ been\\ Juno\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rival\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ of\\ Jove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mistresses\\,\\ Semele\\,\\ Cadmus\\&rsquo\\;\\ daughter\\,\\ carried\\ his\\ child\\&mdash\\;infuriating\\ Juno\\.\\ \\ \\;Posing\\ as\\ an\\ old\\ woman\\,\\ Juno\\ tricked\\ her\\ into\\ asking\\ Jove\\ to\\ kill\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ did\\,\\ took\\ the\\ child\\ \\(Bacchus\\)\\,\\ and\\ hid\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ leg\\ to\\ be\\ cared\\ for\\ later\\ by\\ nymphs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Tiresias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jove\\ and\\ Juno\\ argue\\ about\\ who\\ gets\\ more\\ from\\ love\\:\\ men\\ or\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ refer\\ the\\ question\\ to\\ wise\\ Tiresias\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ two\\ switch\\ his\\ sex\\ for\\ seven\\ years\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ happens\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ compensation\\ Jove\\ made\\ him\\ able\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Echo\\ and\\ Narcissus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tiresias\\ tells\\ a\\ naiad\\ that\\ her\\ beautiful\\ son\\ will\\ live\\ long\\ only\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ never\\ knows\\ himself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Beautiful\\,\\ androgynous\\,\\ Narcissus\\ meets\\ Echo\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ \\(Juno\\ made\\ her\\ able\\ only\\ to\\ repeat\\ the\\ last\\ words\\ of\\ another\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Spurned\\ by\\ Narcissus\\ for\\ her\\ weirdness\\,\\ she\\ hides\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ until\\ only\\ her\\ voice\\,\\ the\\ curse\\ remained\\&mdash\\;the\\ echo\\ one\\ hears\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ mountains\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Goddess\\ of\\ Vengeance\\ granting\\ another\\ scorned\\ suitor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prayer\\ made\\ Narcissus\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ reflection\\ through\\ which\\ Echo\\ repeated\\ his\\ words\\ until\\ he\\ died\\,\\ face\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ pool\\ of\\ water\\ with\\ whom\\ he\\ had\\ fallen\\ in\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Pentheus\\ and\\ Bacchus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pentheus\\ mocked\\ Tiresias\\ for\\ his\\ premonitions\\ of\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;Tiresias\\ predicted\\ Pentheus\\ downfall\\ at\\ the\\ alter\\ of\\ Bacchus\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Semele\\.\\ \\ \\;Pentheus\\&rsquo\\;\\ life\\ shows\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ shit\\-head\\,\\ injuring\\ and\\ mistreating\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ giving\\ advice\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ Ino\\&rsquo\\;s\\ demise\\,\\ the\\ Thebans\\ tore\\ Pentheus\\ to\\ shreds\\ and\\ began\\ worshipping\\ Bacchus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ IV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\The\\ daughters\\ of\\ Minyas\\,\\ avoiding\\ participation\\ in\\ a\\ Theban\\ Bacchanal\\ tell\\ stories\\ while\\ weaving\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Pyramus\\ and\\ Thisbe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\The\\ young\\ lovers\\&rsquo\\;\\ parents\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ see\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ they\\ communicate\\ through\\ a\\ chink\\ in\\ the\\ wall\\ between\\ their\\ adjacent\\ houses\\,\\ and\\ decide\\ to\\ meet\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\,\\ run\\ away\\,\\ and\\ elope\\.\\ \\ \\;Thisbe\\,\\ running\\ from\\ a\\ lion\\,\\ dropped\\ her\\ veil\\,\\ which\\ the\\ lion\\ chewed\\ with\\ his\\ bloody\\ mouth\\.\\ \\ \\;Pyramus\\,\\ seeing\\ the\\ veil\\,\\ presumed\\ Thisbe\\ dead\\ and\\ kills\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Thisbe\\,\\ unharmed\\,\\ then\\ sees\\ his\\ death\\ and\\ does\\ the\\ same\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Mars\\ and\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ sun\\ god\\ spied\\ Mars\\ and\\ Venus\\ making\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ tells\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ Vulcan\\,\\ who\\ makes\\ a\\ net\\ to\\ catch\\ the\\ two\\ in\\ the\\ act\\ the\\ next\\ time\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ bed\\.\\ \\ \\;Trapped\\,\\ Vulcan\\ displays\\ the\\ couple\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ gods\\ who\\ find\\ it\\ uproariously\\ amusing\\ and\\ wish\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ Mars\\&rsquo\\;\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Sun\\-god\\ and\\ Leucothoe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venus\\ takes\\ vengeance\\ on\\ Vulcan\\ by\\ getting\\ his\\ prized\\ girl\\,\\ Leucothoe\\,\\ buried\\ alive\\ by\\ her\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ body\\ became\\ frankincense\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Salamacis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hermaphroditus\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Hermes\\ and\\ Aphrodite\\,\\ finds\\ a\\ beautiful\\ naiad\\ who\\ thought\\ him\\ a\\ god\\ and\\ flirts\\ with\\ him\\ and\\ begs\\ for\\ a\\ kiss\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ she\\ undresses\\ coyly\\ in\\ his\\ sight\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\ embraced\\ her\\ she\\ prayed\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ never\\ to\\ let\\ them\\ apart\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ were\\ joined\\ forever\\,\\ neither\\ man\\ nor\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ End\\ of\\ the\\ Daughters\\ of\\ Minyas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bacchus\\ turns\\ the\\ story\\-telling\\ daughters\\ into\\ bats\\,\\ to\\ wander\\ the\\ night\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Athamus\\ and\\ Ino\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juno\\ decides\\ to\\ drive\\ Ino\\,\\ another\\,\\ but\\ unaffected\\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ Minyas\\,\\ mad\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ underworld\\ where\\ Athamus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brothers\\,\\ Ino\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brothers\\-in\\-law\\,\\ are\\ being\\ tortured\\ and\\ incites\\ their\\ companions\\ against\\ Athamus\\ \\(king\\ of\\ Thebes\\)\\,\\ freeing\\ them\\ from\\ the\\ underworld\\ to\\ torment\\ Athamus\\ and\\ Ino\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ covered\\ them\\ with\\ serpents\\,\\ foam\\ from\\ the\\ jaws\\ of\\ Cerberus\\,\\ poisonous\\ hydra\\ venom\\,\\ and\\ Dread\\,\\ Terror\\,\\ and\\ Madness\\,\\ then\\ sent\\ them\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Ino\\ and\\ her\\ daughter\\,\\ driven\\ insane\\,\\ catch\\ the\\ mercy\\ of\\ Venus\\ who\\ implores\\ Neptune\\ to\\ save\\ and\\ deify\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ End\\ of\\ Cadmus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cadmus\\,\\ unaware\\ of\\ his\\ daughter\\ and\\ grandaughter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deification\\,\\ old\\ and\\ withered\\ gets\\ turned\\ into\\ the\\ serpent\\ from\\ which\\ bore\\ Thebes\\,\\ as\\ had\\ been\\ prophesized\\ earlier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Perseus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Child\\ of\\ Jove\\ and\\ Danae\\,\\ the\\ golden\\ maid\\,\\ raped\\ by\\ Jove\\.\\ \\ \\;Perseus\\ bringing\\ back\\ the\\ trophy\\ of\\ the\\ Gorgon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\,\\ travels\\ home\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ his\\ way\\ he\\ meets\\ Atlas\\ to\\ whom\\ he\\ boasts\\ of\\ his\\ might\\ and\\ high\\ birth\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ holds\\ up\\ the\\ Gorgon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ and\\ turns\\ Atlas\\ into\\ a\\ mountain\\ of\\ stone\\.\\ \\ \\;Flying\\ over\\ Ethopia\\ he\\ spies\\ Andromeda\\,\\ scorned\\ daughter\\ of\\ the\\ king\\,\\ whose\\ hand\\ he\\ asks\\ in\\ marriage\\ boastfully\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tells\\ her\\ family\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ how\\ Neptune\\ raped\\ a\\ young\\ girl\\,\\ who\\,\\ as\\ punishment\\,\\ Minerva\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ snake\\-headed\\ beast\\&mdash\\;which\\ is\\ why\\ she\\ has\\ snakes\\ on\\ her\\ breastplate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metamorphoses\\ 5\\ \\&\\;\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Fighting\\ of\\ Perseus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ begins\\ as\\ Perseus\\ finishes\\ telling\\ his\\ story\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ a\\ fight\\ breaks\\ out\\ and\\ Phineus\\ is\\ its\\ instigator\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ claims\\ that\\ Perseus\\ stole\\ his\\ bride\\.\\ \\ \\;Cepheus\\ intervenes\\ and\\ claims\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ Pereus\\ who\\ stole\\ Phineus\\&rsquo\\;\\ bride\\ and\\ that\\ Phineus\\,\\ as\\ her\\ uncle\\ and\\ promised\\ husband\\,\\ is\\ angry\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ he\\ who\\ saved\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Phineus\\ throws\\ his\\ spear\\ at\\ Perseus\\,\\ but\\ misses\\.\\ \\ \\;Perseus\\ in\\ flinging\\ the\\ spear\\ back\\,\\ misses\\ Phineus\\ and\\ the\\ spear\\ kills\\ Rhoetus\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ fight\\ once\\ more\\ ensued\\,\\ and\\ Cepheus\\ flees\\ from\\ the\\ palace\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Calling\\ on\\ Justice\\,\\ Faith\\,\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ gods\\&hellip\\;That\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ stop\\ it\\,\\ all\\ this\\ madness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\ comes\\ and\\ gives\\ Cepheus\\ shield\\ and\\ reassurance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Meanwhile\\ in\\ the\\ palace\\,\\ a\\ young\\ boy\\,\\ Athis\\,\\ son\\ of\\ the\\ river\\-nymph\\ Limnaee\\,\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ Perseus\\.\\ \\ \\;Lycabas\\ witnessed\\ the\\ tragedy\\ and\\ wept\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ took\\ up\\ Athis\\&rsquo\\;\\ bow\\ and\\ missed\\ \\(as\\ everyone\\ does\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\)\\ at\\ shooting\\ Perseus\\.\\ \\ \\;Perseus\\ slays\\ Lycabas\\ with\\ his\\ scimitar\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Lycabas\\ and\\ Athis\\ were\\ not\\ divided\\ in\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ killing\\ goes\\ on\\,\\ people\\ slip\\ in\\ the\\ blood\\ and\\ fall\\ on\\ their\\ swords\\ and\\ Perseus\\ is\\ killing\\ one\\ after\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;Phineus\\ once\\ again\\ tries\\ to\\ throw\\ the\\ javelin\\ and\\ as\\ usual\\ misses\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ old\\ man\\,\\ Emathion\\,\\ with\\ a\\ high\\ regard\\ for\\ justice\\ and\\ fear\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ curses\\ the\\ brawlers\\ and\\ is\\ killed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ battle\\ continues\\ and\\ even\\ bloodier\\ than\\ before\\.\\ \\ \\;Perseus\\ feeling\\ faint\\ from\\ the\\ fighting\\ now\\ finds\\ himself\\ pursued\\ by\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ three\\ were\\ left\\ loyal\\ to\\ him\\,\\ father\\-to\\-be\\,\\ bride\\-to\\-be\\,\\ and\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;Everyone\\ follows\\ Phineus\\ to\\ kill\\ Perseus\\,\\ who\\ is\\ now\\ pinned\\ between\\ the\\ crowd\\ and\\ a\\ stone\\ wall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ And\\ yet\\ in\\ his\\ weakest\\ moment\\,\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ try\\ to\\ kill\\ him\\ turn\\ to\\ marble\\ instantly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ whole\\ battle\\ is\\ extremely\\ bloody\\,\\ graphic\\,\\ and\\ grotesque\\&hellip\\;heads\\ being\\ chopped\\ off\\,\\ javelins\\ going\\ through\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foreheads\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ scene\\ shows\\ the\\ brutality\\ of\\ war\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ the\\ two\\ young\\ boys\\ are\\ slain\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ it\\ all\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ resounding\\ theme\\ of\\ justice\\ and\\ reverence\\ for\\ the\\ gods\\ by\\ certain\\ characters\\ such\\ as\\ Cepheus\\&hellip\\;but\\ those\\ characters\\ either\\ wind\\ up\\ fleeing\\ or\\ being\\ killed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phineus\\ repents\\ the\\ warfare\\ and\\ proclaims\\ Perseus\\ the\\ victor\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ end\\ he\\ too\\ is\\ changed\\ too\\ marble\\&hellip\\;Perseus\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ him\\ to\\ die\\ by\\ the\\ sword\\ but\\ endure\\ and\\ be\\ seen\\ for\\ ages\\ in\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ household\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ Perseus\\ and\\ his\\ bride\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ ancestral\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minverva\\ Visits\\ the\\ Muses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minerva\\ leaves\\ her\\ brother\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ Helicon\\ where\\ the\\ Muses\\ lived\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ talks\\ to\\ them\\ about\\ a\\ new\\ fountain\\ spring\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ Pegasus\\,\\ a\\ winged\\ horse\\.\\ \\ \\;Urania\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ Muses\\ leads\\ her\\ to\\ the\\ fountain\\.\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\ talks\\ to\\ Urania\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ Muses\\ must\\ be\\ happy\\ in\\ their\\ home\\ and\\ calling\\.\\ \\ \\;Urania\\ says\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ safe\\ and\\ recounts\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ king\\ Pyreneus\\ who\\ tried\\ to\\ entrap\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ fly\\ away\\ bit\\ still\\ fear\\ Pyreneus\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ then\\ a\\ flock\\ of\\ birds\\ land\\ in\\ the\\ trees\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Urania\\ explains\\ that\\ these\\ birds\\ were\\ once\\ women\\,\\ daughters\\ of\\ Pierus\\,\\ who\\ challenged\\ the\\ nymphs\\ to\\ a\\ match\\ of\\ song\\ and\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ nymphs\\ lost\\ they\\ would\\ \\ \\;have\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ Medusa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spring\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ birds\\ lost\\ they\\ promised\\ Emathia\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ nymphs\\ took\\ up\\ the\\ challenge\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ nymph\\ then\\ sings\\ a\\ song\\ of\\ Ceres\\,\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ gave\\ men\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ the\\ harvest\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ song\\ recalls\\ the\\ myth\\ of\\ Ceres\\ and\\ her\\ daughter\\ Prosperina\\.\\ \\ \\;Prosperina\\ was\\ snatched\\ by\\ the\\ god\\ of\\ the\\ Underworld\\ and\\ was\\ only\\ allowed\\ the\\ spend\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ with\\ her\\ mother\\ \\(accounting\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ weather\\ and\\ harvest\\ of\\ the\\ year\\)\\ and\\ part\\ with\\ Hades\\ \\(Ceres\\ would\\ grow\\ sad\\ and\\ fall\\ and\\ winter\\ would\\ come\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ VI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Minerva\\ praises\\ the\\ song\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ then\\ says\\ how\\ she\\ too\\ deserves\\ some\\ praise\\ and\\ believes\\ she\\ should\\ show\\ resentment\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ mock\\ her\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ recalls\\ such\\ an\\ incidence\\ where\\ Arachne\\ boasted\\ of\\ greater\\ talent\\ in\\ spinning\\ and\\ weaving\\ wool\\ than\\ Minerva\\.\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\,\\ disguised\\ as\\ an\\ old\\ woman\\ comes\\ upon\\ Arachne\\.\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\ tells\\ Arachne\\ she\\ should\\ confine\\ her\\ reputation\\ as\\ a\\ weaver\\ to\\ human\\ beings\\ and\\ to\\ defer\\ to\\ a\\ goddess\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ imparts\\ wisdom\\ and\\ warns\\ Arachne\\ to\\ be\\ humble\\.\\ \\ \\;Arachne\\ calls\\ her\\ a\\ silly\\ old\\ fool\\ and\\ throws\\ off\\ the\\ advice\\.\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\ transforms\\ into\\ her\\ real\\ self\\.\\ \\ \\;Arachne\\ still\\ maintains\\ her\\ defiance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ challenge\\ then\\ begins\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ set\\ up\\ looms\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ contest\\ of\\ talent\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ both\\ do\\ scenes\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\ centerpieces\\ clashes\\ between\\ Juno\\ and\\ mortal\\ women\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ all\\ receive\\ her\\ wrath\\.\\ \\ \\;Arachne\\ shows\\ scenes\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ deceitful\\ business\\ with\\ mortal\\ girls\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ work\\ had\\ no\\ flaws\\.\\ \\ \\;Minerva\\ grows\\ angry\\ and\\ strikes\\ Arachne\\ until\\ the\\ girl\\ hangs\\ herself\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ story\\ thus\\ perpetuates\\ the\\ scenes\\ depicted\\ on\\ the\\ tapestry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Niobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ shifts\\ to\\ Niobe\\,\\ who\\ in\\ her\\ youth\\ knew\\ Arachne\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ Arachne\\,\\ Niobe\\ maintains\\ little\\ deference\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ and\\ is\\ very\\ proud\\ by\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ royalty\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ describes\\ as\\ very\\ beautiful\\ but\\ also\\ arrogant\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ believes\\ the\\ citizens\\ are\\ mad\\ to\\ prefer\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ of\\ this\\ earth\\,\\ namely\\ her\\ and\\ her\\ ruling\\ husband\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ why\\ she\\ as\\ queen\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worshipped\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ gods\\ are\\,\\ especially\\ Latona\\.\\ \\ \\;Latona\\ grows\\ angry\\ as\\ Niobe\\ proclaims\\ her\\ children\\ better\\ than\\ hers\\.\\ \\ \\;Watching\\ her\\ sons\\,\\ Niobe\\ witnesses\\ their\\ deaths\\ as\\ Apollo\\ strikes\\ them\\ with\\ arrows\\.\\ \\ \\;Niobe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ husband\\ Amphion\\ commits\\ suicide\\ in\\ grief\\.\\ \\ \\;Niobe\\ in\\ anger\\ drives\\ people\\ from\\ Latona\\&rsquo\\;s\\ altar\\,\\ and\\ is\\ shortly\\ thereafter\\ killed\\ by\\ an\\ arrow\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ daughters\\ grieving\\ the\\ losses\\ of\\ their\\ family\\ also\\ die\\ in\\ visiting\\ the\\ barrows\\ where\\ the\\ dead\\ lay\\.\\ \\ \\;Upon\\ word\\ of\\ the\\ deaths\\,\\ the\\ neighboring\\ rulers\\ come\\.\\ \\ \\;Teleus\\,\\ king\\ of\\ Thrace\\,\\ sends\\ an\\ army\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ relief\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ story\\ then\\ transitions\\ to\\ the\\ Tereus\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ Procne\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Tereus\\,\\ Procne\\ and\\ Philemela\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pandion\\,\\ king\\ of\\ Athens\\,\\ seeing\\ the\\ greatness\\ of\\ Tereus\\ makes\\ him\\ an\\ ally\\ by\\ joining\\ Tereus\\ with\\ his\\ daughter\\ Procne\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ have\\ kids\\ and\\ five\\ years\\ later\\ Procne\\ makes\\ a\\ request\\ to\\ see\\ her\\ sister\\.\\ \\ \\;Tereus\\ sails\\ to\\ Athens\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ request\\ with\\ Pandion\\.\\ \\ \\;Philomela\\,\\ her\\ sister\\,\\ enters\\ and\\ Tereus\\ becomes\\ entranced\\ in\\ her\\ beauty\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ has\\ immediate\\ thoughts\\ of\\ committing\\ adultery\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ go\\ to\\ bed\\ and\\ Tereus\\ dreams\\ of\\ Philomela\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ next\\ morning\\,\\ Philomela\\ and\\ Tereus\\ sail\\ away\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ docks\\ the\\ ship\\ and\\ takes\\ her\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ where\\ he\\ rapes\\ the\\ virgin\\ Philomela\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ likened\\ to\\ a\\ dove\\,\\ who\\ is\\ injured\\ and\\ blood\\ stained\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ threatens\\ Tereus\\ by\\ saying\\ she\\ will\\ disgrace\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Tereus\\ draws\\ his\\ sword\\ on\\ her\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ happy\\ at\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ dying\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ does\\ not\\ kill\\ her\\,\\ but\\ cuts\\ off\\ her\\ tongue\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ proceeds\\ to\\ rape\\ her\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;Tereus\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ told\\ her\\ that\\ Philomela\\ had\\ died\\.\\ \\ \\;Meanwhile\\,\\ Philomela\\ remained\\ trapped\\ in\\ the\\ woods\\ by\\ a\\ stone\\ wall\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ had\\ a\\ loom\\ though\\ and\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ weave\\ the\\ story\\ and\\ give\\ it\\ to\\ an\\ old\\ woman\\ to\\ take\\ it\\ to\\ Procne\\.\\ \\ \\;Upon\\ receving\\ it\\,\\ Procne\\ finds\\ her\\ sister\\ and\\ brings\\ her\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;Procne\\ so\\ enrage\\ sees\\ her\\ son\\ and\\ sees\\ how\\ much\\ he\\ is\\ like\\ his\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ kills\\ her\\ son\\ and\\ cuts\\ him\\ up\\ and\\ makes\\ a\\ feast\\ to\\ be\\ served\\ to\\ Tereus\\.\\ \\ \\;Eating\\ his\\ feast\\,\\ he\\ calls\\ for\\ his\\ son\\ Itys\\.\\ \\ \\;Philomela\\ springs\\ at\\ him\\ and\\ throws\\ Itys\\&rsquo\\;\\ head\\ at\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ women\\ flee\\ and\\ fly\\.\\.becoming\\ birds\\ with\\ blood\\ stained\\ feathers\\.\\ \\ \\;Tereus\\ himself\\ \\ \\;becomes\\ a\\ bird\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ Seven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ start\\ of\\ book\\ seven\\ finds\\ Jason\\,\\ of\\ the\\ famous\\ Jason\\ and\\ the\\ Argonauts\\ \\(who\\ are\\ not\\ mentioned\\ by\\ this\\ name\\ in\\ the\\ book\\)\\ looking\\ to\\ gain\\ the\\ Golden\\ Fleece\\ in\\ Colchis\\.\\ Jason\\ must\\ endure\\ severe\\ labors\\ to\\ attain\\ the\\ fleece\\ from\\ the\\ king\\,\\ and\\ his\\ bravery\\ in\\ his\\ quest\\ earns\\ him\\ the\\ affection\\ of\\ Medea\\.\\ She\\ burns\\ with\\ passion\\ for\\ Jason\\,\\ but\\ as\\ we\\ shall\\ see\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ beloved\\ characters\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ Apparently\\,\\ Ovid\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ why\\ in\\ this\\ book\\,\\ Medea\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\,\\ a\\ king\\,\\ does\\ not\\ support\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Medea\\ marrying\\ Jason\\,\\ but\\ her\\ passion\\ proves\\ too\\ much\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ completely\\ at\\ his\\ will\\.\\ Jason\\ completes\\ the\\ two\\ arduous\\ tasks\\ through\\ Medea\\&rsquo\\;s\\ help\\,\\ for\\ she\\ gives\\ him\\ herbs\\ that\\ protect\\ him\\ from\\ the\\ creatures\\ that\\ attack\\ him\\.\\ With\\ the\\ fleece\\ secured\\,\\ Jason\\ and\\ Medea\\ leave\\ Colchis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Jason\\ and\\ Medea\\ go\\ to\\ Thessaly\\,\\ where\\ Jason\\ asks\\ Medea\\ to\\ return\\ his\\ father\\ Aeson\\,\\ who\\ had\\ become\\ old\\ and\\ frail\\,\\ to\\ healthy\\ youth\\.\\ Medea\\ obliges\\ and\\ uses\\ herbs\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ make\\ Aeson\\ young\\ and\\ fit\\ again\\.\\ She\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ see\\ Pelias\\,\\ another\\ old\\ man\\ who\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\ she\\ wants\\ to\\ kill\\.\\ She\\ tells\\ his\\ daughters\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ cured\\ Jason\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\ of\\ old\\ age\\,\\ so\\ they\\ ask\\ her\\ to\\ help\\ their\\ father\\ as\\ well\\.\\ She\\ agrees\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ than\\ helping\\,\\ she\\ convinces\\ them\\ to\\ murder\\ their\\ father\\ by\\ accident\\.\\ As\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ process\\,\\ the\\ old\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ throat\\ must\\ be\\ caught\\ to\\ remove\\ his\\ old\\ blood\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ refilling\\ his\\ body\\ with\\ new\\ blood\\,\\ Medea\\ flees\\ from\\ Pelias\\ after\\ his\\ throat\\ is\\ cut\\ and\\ leaves\\ him\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Medea\\ returns\\ to\\ Corinth\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ Jason\\ has\\ married\\ a\\ new\\ woman\\,\\ so\\ Medea\\ burns\\ their\\ house\\ with\\ their\\ children\\ inside\\.\\ She\\ then\\ flees\\ and\\ marries\\ Aegeus\\ of\\ Athens\\.\\ Aegeus\\ is\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ Theseus\\,\\ the\\ hero\\ who\\ defeated\\ the\\ minotaur\\ \\(I\\ think\\.\\)\\ Aegeus\\ does\\ not\\ realize\\ when\\ Theseus\\ returns\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ his\\ son\\.\\ When\\ Medea\\ tries\\ to\\ poison\\ Theseus\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\,\\ Aegeus\\ notices\\ the\\ emblem\\ on\\ Theseus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sword\\ and\\ knocks\\ the\\ poison\\ away\\.\\ Medea\\ then\\ flees\\ and\\ Aegeus\\ celebrates\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ triumphant\\ return\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Meanwhile\\,\\ King\\ Minos\\ of\\ Crete\\ decides\\ to\\ make\\ war\\ on\\ Athens\\.\\ Minos\\ gathers\\ many\\ allies\\ and\\ goes\\ to\\ Aegina\\ to\\ seek\\ their\\ help\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Minos\\ explains\\ his\\ quest\\ for\\ revenge\\ of\\ his\\ slain\\ son\\ Androgeos\\,\\ but\\ King\\ Aeacus\\ has\\ an\\ old\\ alliance\\ with\\ Athens\\ and\\ refuse\\ to\\ help\\.\\ Cephalus\\ of\\ Athens\\ then\\ shows\\ up\\ and\\ Aegina\\ pledges\\ their\\ aid\\ to\\ Athens\\.\\ Juno\\ had\\ put\\ a\\ plague\\ on\\ Aegina\\ because\\ the\\ king\\ had\\ named\\ the\\ place\\ after\\ her\\ rival\\.\\ Aeacus\\ prayed\\ to\\ Jove\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ place\\,\\ and\\ he\\ made\\ new\\ young\\ men\\ grow\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ ground\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ dead\\ ones\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;One\\ morning\\ in\\ Aegina\\,\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Aeacus\\,\\ Phocus\\,\\ asks\\ Cephalus\\ about\\ his\\ spear\\.\\ Cephalus\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ spear\\.\\ One\\ day\\ while\\ hunting\\,\\ Cephalus\\ was\\ kidnapped\\ by\\ the\\ god\\ Dawn\\.\\ He\\ asks\\ to\\ be\\ returned\\ to\\ his\\ love\\,\\ but\\ Dawn\\ says\\ he\\ will\\ regret\\ it\\.\\ Fearing\\ she\\ meant\\ that\\ his\\ wife\\ Procris\\ was\\ cheating\\ on\\ him\\,\\ he\\ returns\\ to\\ her\\ in\\ disguise\\.\\ He\\ tries\\ to\\ tempt\\ her\\ and\\ when\\ she\\ finally\\ displays\\ a\\ little\\ infidelity\\,\\ he\\ changes\\ back\\ into\\ himself\\ and\\ she\\ runs\\ off\\.\\ He\\ convinces\\ her\\ to\\ return\\ from\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ Diana\\ that\\ she\\ joined\\ and\\ she\\ returns\\ with\\ a\\ spear\\ of\\ Diana\\.\\ Happy\\,\\ Cephalus\\ goes\\ out\\ hunting\\ again\\ and\\,\\ while\\ relaxing\\ in\\ a\\ clearing\\,\\ calls\\ out\\ to\\ zephyr\\,\\ the\\ breeze\\.\\ An\\ eavesdropper\\ thinks\\ he\\ is\\ calling\\ out\\ for\\ a\\ woman\\ named\\ Zephyr\\ so\\ he\\ tells\\ Procris\\.\\ Procris\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ Cephalus\\ is\\ cheating\\,\\ but\\ when\\ he\\ hears\\ her\\ movement\\ he\\ thinks\\ she\\ is\\ an\\ animal\\ and\\ kills\\ her\\ with\\ the\\ spear\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ Eight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Nisus\\ and\\ Scylla\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Cephalus\\ and\\ the\\ army\\ of\\ Aegina\\ returned\\ to\\ Athens\\ to\\ find\\ Minos\\ and\\ the\\ Cretans\\ fighting\\ King\\ Nisus\\.\\ The\\ daughter\\ of\\ Nisus\\,\\ Scylla\\,\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Minos\\ during\\ their\\ six\\ months\\ of\\ fighting\\.\\ Torn\\ between\\ devotion\\ to\\ her\\ father\\ and\\ her\\ love\\ for\\ Minos\\,\\ Scylla\\ gives\\ into\\ her\\ love\\ and\\ kills\\ her\\ father\\.\\ She\\ cuts\\ off\\ a\\ lock\\ of\\ Nisus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hair\\ and\\ presents\\ it\\ to\\ Minos\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ his\\ victory\\ and\\ her\\ absolute\\ love\\ for\\ him\\.\\ Minos\\ is\\ disgusted\\ by\\ the\\ act\\,\\ and\\ leaves\\ with\\ his\\ fleet\\.\\ Scylla\\,\\ fearing\\ the\\ wrath\\ of\\ her\\ countrymen\\,\\ swims\\ after\\ Minos\\&rsquo\\;s\\ boat\\.\\ While\\ holding\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ boats\\,\\ her\\ father\\,\\ transformed\\ into\\ an\\ osprey\\,\\ knocks\\ her\\ off\\.\\ She\\ is\\ then\\ also\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ bird\\ named\\ Ciris\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Minos\\ returns\\ to\\ Crete\\ to\\ find\\ his\\ wife\\ had\\ cheated\\ on\\ him\\ with\\ the\\ Minotaur\\.\\ Minos\\ banishes\\ the\\ creature\\ to\\ Daedalus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ labyrinth\\.\\ Theseus\\,\\ offered\\ as\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ the\\ Minotaur\\,\\ kills\\ it\\ and\\ gets\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ labyrinth\\ with\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ Minos\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ Ariadne\\.\\ He\\ promises\\ to\\ marry\\ her\\,\\ but\\ ditches\\ her\\ on\\ an\\ island\\ instead\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Daedalus\\ and\\ Icarus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Daedalus\\ wanted\\ to\\ flee\\ Crete\\ so\\ constructed\\ wings\\ for\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ son\\ Icarus\\ to\\ fly\\ away\\ in\\.\\ Icarus\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ youthful\\ exuberance\\,\\ flies\\ too\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ sun\\ and\\ his\\ wings\\ burn\\ and\\ he\\ falls\\ to\\ his\\ death\\.\\ While\\ burying\\ Icarus\\,\\ Daedalus\\ sees\\ a\\ partridge\\ which\\ is\\ actually\\ his\\ nephew\\ Perdix\\.\\ Daedalus\\ had\\ killed\\ Perdix\\ out\\ of\\ jealousy\\,\\ for\\ Perdix\\ had\\ invented\\ the\\ saw\\ and\\ compass\\.\\ Minerva\\ turned\\ Perdix\\ into\\ a\\ partridge\\,\\ a\\ bird\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ fly\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Calydonian\\ Boar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Dadalus\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ Athens\\,\\ where\\ Diana\\ had\\ set\\ lose\\ a\\ vicious\\ boar\\ on\\ the\\ city\\ as\\ a\\ plague\\.\\ Meleager\\ asks\\ Theseus\\,\\ who\\ had\\ saved\\ the\\ city\\,\\ to\\ aid\\ in\\ killing\\ the\\ boar\\.\\ A\\ brave\\ woman\\,\\ Atalanta\\,\\ volunteers\\ to\\ help\\ and\\ inflicts\\ the\\ first\\ wound\\ on\\ the\\ boar\\ after\\ it\\ had\\ killed\\ many\\ men\\.\\ Meleager\\ finishes\\ off\\ the\\ boar\\ and\\ kills\\ \\ \\;his\\ two\\ uncles\\ for\\ stealing\\ Atalanta\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reward\\ for\\ helping\\ kill\\ the\\ boar\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Brand\\ of\\ Meleager\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Althaea\\,\\ Meleager\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\ and\\ sister\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ dead\\ brothers\\,\\ is\\ stuck\\ between\\ revenge\\ and\\ her\\ love\\ for\\ her\\ son\\.\\ She\\ decides\\ on\\ vengeance\\ and\\ throws\\ a\\ brand\\ that\\ holds\\ Meleager\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ force\\ into\\ a\\ fire\\.\\ Meleager\\ dies\\ and\\ turns\\ into\\ a\\ guinea\\ fowl\\.\\ Althaea\\ then\\ kills\\ herself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Return\\ of\\ Theseus\\ and\\ Achelous\\&rsquo\\;\\ Story\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Theseus\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ come\\ upon\\ a\\ river\\ and\\ meet\\ its\\ god\\,\\ Achelous\\.\\ Achelous\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ nymphs\\ and\\ his\\ lover\\ who\\ became\\ islands\\ in\\ the\\ river\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ mocks\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\,\\ so\\ Achelous\\ tells\\ him\\ a\\ story\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Bauchis\\ and\\ Philemon\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Mercury\\ and\\ Jove\\ decided\\ to\\ roam\\ the\\ earth\\ one\\ day\\ and\\ came\\ upon\\ the\\ cottage\\ of\\ Bauchis\\ and\\ Philemon\\.\\ They\\ were\\ as\\ generous\\ as\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ poor\\.\\ As\\ a\\ thanks\\,\\ the\\ gods\\ took\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ a\\ mountain\\ and\\ flooded\\ the\\ area\\ below\\,\\ killing\\ all\\ the\\ ungenerous\\ people\\.\\ They\\ then\\ made\\ B\\ and\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cottage\\ a\\ temple\\.\\ The\\ gods\\ would\\ grant\\ them\\ any\\ wish\\ and\\ all\\ they\\ wanted\\ was\\ to\\ die\\ together\\.\\ When\\ they\\ did\\,\\ they\\ became\\ trees\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ trunk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Erysichthon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ The\\ river\\ god\\ also\\ told\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Erysichthon\\,\\ who\\ hated\\ the\\ god\\ Ceres\\ and\\ cut\\ down\\ a\\ tree\\ that\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ nymphs\\.\\ Ceres\\ was\\ pissed\\ and\\ sent\\ Hunger\\.\\ To\\ survive\\,\\ E\\.\\ sold\\ his\\ daughter\\ into\\ slavery\\ but\\ she\\ escaped\\ and\\ Neptune\\ gave\\ her\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ change\\ shapes\\.\\ She\\ returned\\ to\\ her\\ father\\ who\\ would\\ sell\\ her\\ as\\ livestock\\.\\ She\\ would\\ then\\ change\\ again\\ and\\ escape\\ and\\ return\\ again\\ to\\ her\\ father\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metamorphoses\\:\\ Book\\ Nine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Achelous\\&rsquo\\;\\ Duel\\ for\\ Deianira\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Story\\ is\\ told\\ by\\ Achelous\\ to\\ Theseus\\.\\ Deianira\\ was\\ a\\ lovely\\,\\ beautiful\\ girl\\ who\\ had\\ many\\ suitors\\,\\ including\\ Hercules\\.\\ Achelous\\ was\\ a\\ river\\ god\\ and\\ talks\\ badly\\ of\\ Hercules\\,\\ who\\ was\\ not\\ yet\\ a\\ god\\,\\ and\\ criticizes\\ his\\ parentage\\,\\ claiming\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ bastard\\ and\\ calling\\ his\\ mother\\ an\\ adulteress\\ for\\ sleeping\\ with\\ Jove\\.\\ Hercules\\ challenges\\ Achelous\\ to\\ a\\ fight\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ insults\\.\\ After\\ a\\ well\\-matched\\ fight\\,\\ Hercules\\ knocks\\ Achelous\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ but\\ he\\ turns\\ into\\ a\\ serpent\\.\\ Hercules\\ laughs\\ at\\ this\\ as\\ he\\ had\\ killed\\ serpents\\ when\\ in\\ his\\ cradle\\ and\\ strangles\\ Achelous\\.\\ Achelous\\ then\\ turns\\ into\\ a\\ bull\\,\\ but\\ Hercules\\ breaks\\ off\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ horns\\,\\ and\\ defeats\\ Achelous\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Hercules\\,\\ Nessus\\ and\\ Deianira\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Centaur\\,\\ Nessus\\,\\ also\\ wanted\\ Deianira\\.\\ When\\ he\\ saw\\ Hercules\\ with\\ his\\ new\\ bride\\,\\ Deianira\\,\\ about\\ to\\ cross\\ a\\ dangerous\\ river\\,\\ Nessus\\ offers\\ to\\ carrying\\ Deianira\\ across\\ while\\ Hercules\\ swims\\.\\ When\\ Hercules\\ reaches\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ river\\,\\ he\\ hears\\ Deianira\\ shouting\\ for\\ help\\ from\\ the\\ evil\\ Nessus\\.\\ Hercules\\ shoots\\ an\\ arrow\\ into\\ Nessus\\,\\ whose\\ blood\\ is\\ poisoned\\.\\ In\\ revenge\\,\\ Nessus\\ gives\\ his\\ blood\\-soaked\\ cloak\\ to\\ Deianira\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Much\\ later\\,\\ a\\ god\\ called\\ Rumor\\ tells\\ Deianira\\ that\\ Hercules\\ is\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Iole\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ Deianira\\ very\\ upset\\ and\\ cries\\.\\ Then\\ she\\ realizes\\ that\\ she\\ must\\ do\\ something\\ to\\ stop\\ Iole\\.\\ She\\ decides\\ to\\ send\\ the\\ robe\\ of\\ Nessus\\ to\\ Hercules\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ Lichas\\,\\ who\\ is\\ affected\\ by\\ the\\ poison\\,\\ knocking\\ over\\ altars\\ in\\ his\\ madness\\.\\ He\\ tries\\ to\\ tear\\ of\\ the\\ robe\\,\\ but\\ only\\ succeeds\\ in\\ tearing\\ off\\ his\\ skin\\.\\ Lichas\\ prays\\ to\\ Juno\\ for\\ death\\,\\ but\\ death\\ does\\ not\\ come\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ Hercules\\ sees\\ him\\,\\ gets\\ angry\\ at\\ him\\ for\\ bringing\\ him\\ the\\ poisoned\\ robe\\,\\ and\\ throws\\ him\\ through\\ the\\ air\\ until\\ he\\ turns\\ into\\ stone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hercules\\ than\\ makes\\ himself\\ a\\ funeral\\ pyre\\ and\\ makes\\ arrangements\\ for\\ his\\ death\\.\\ However\\,\\ only\\ his\\ mortal\\ half\\ would\\ burn\\,\\ the\\ rest\\ lives\\ on\\ forever\\,\\ Hercules\\ becoming\\ a\\ god\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Hercules\\&rsquo\\;\\ Birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Told\\ by\\ Alcmena\\ \\(Hercules\\&rsquo\\;\\ mother\\)\\ to\\ Iole\\,\\ who\\ was\\ pregnant\\ with\\ Hercules\\&rsquo\\;\\ child\\.\\ \\ \\;Alcmena\\ went\\ through\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ labor\\.\\ She\\ prayed\\ to\\ the\\ goddess\\ of\\ childbirth\\,\\ Lucina\\,\\ to\\ help\\ her\\.\\ But\\ Lucina\\ was\\ persuaded\\ by\\ Juno\\ \\(who\\ hated\\ Alcmena\\ because\\ she\\ was\\ carrying\\ Jove\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\)\\ to\\ prolong\\ the\\ labor\\.\\ However\\,\\ Alcmena\\ gives\\ birth\\ and\\ Juno\\ is\\ very\\ angry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Dryope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Told\\ \\ \\;by\\ Iole\\ to\\ Alcmena\\.\\ Dryope\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ beautiful\\ of\\ all\\ Oechalian\\ girls\\.\\ Apollo\\ took\\ her\\ virginity\\,\\ but\\ she\\ married\\ Andraemon\\.\\ One\\ day\\ Dryope\\ goes\\ to\\ a\\ lake\\ and\\ gives\\ flowers\\ to\\ her\\ one\\ year\\ old\\ son\\,\\ Amphissos\\.\\ However\\ these\\ are\\ flowers\\ were\\ actually\\ the\\ transformed\\ nymph\\ Lotis\\ and\\ they\\ turn\\ Dryope\\ into\\ a\\ lotus\\ flower\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Caunus\\ and\\ Byblis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Byblis\\ loved\\ her\\ brother\\ Caunus\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ platonic\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ sees\\ visions\\ of\\ being\\ with\\ her\\ brother\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ hates\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ his\\ brother\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ talks\\ of\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ acceptable\\ for\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ their\\ brothers\\ and\\ sisters\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ decides\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ her\\ brother\\,\\ confessing\\ her\\ feelings\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ her\\ brother\\ receives\\ the\\ message\\ he\\ gets\\ really\\ angry\\ and\\ nearly\\ attacks\\ the\\ messenger\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ regrets\\ writing\\ the\\ letter\\ and\\ thinks\\ that\\ she\\ should\\ have\\ tested\\ the\\ water\\ first\\ by\\ talking\\ to\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Caunus\\ leaves\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ Byblis\\ goes\\ insane\\ and\\ follows\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ she\\ grew\\ tired\\ and\\ fell\\ of\\ a\\ cliff\\,\\ landing\\ on\\ rocks\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mountain\\ nymphs\\ try\\ to\\ console\\ her\\,\\ but\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ and\\ she\\ continues\\ to\\ cry\\,\\ with\\ her\\ tears\\ becoming\\ a\\ fountain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Iphis\\ and\\ Ianthe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lidgus\\ is\\ a\\ poor\\ man\\ who\\ wants\\ two\\ things\\:\\ easy\\ labor\\ for\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ and\\ a\\ male\\ child\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ girl\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ girl\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ her\\ killed\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ wife\\,\\ Telethusa\\,\\ begs\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ merciful\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ a\\ dream\\ that\\ Osiris\\ told\\ her\\ that\\ she\\ should\\ save\\ her\\ child\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ boy\\ or\\ a\\ girl\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ has\\ a\\ girl\\,\\ but\\ dresses\\ her\\ and\\ a\\ boy\\ so\\ that\\ her\\ husband\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ child\\ is\\ called\\ Iphis\\.\\ \\ \\;Iphis\\ grew\\ up\\,\\ and\\ was\\ betrothed\\ to\\ Ianthe\\,\\ Telestes\\&rsquo\\;\\ daughter\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ childhood\\ friends\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Iphis\\ knew\\ that\\ their\\ love\\ could\\ never\\ be\\ consummated\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\/she\\ wishes\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Telethusa\\ prays\\ to\\ Osiris\\ to\\ help\\ her\\,\\ and\\ Osiris\\ turns\\ Iphis\\ into\\ a\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metamorphoses\\:\\ Book\\ Ten\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Orpheus\\ and\\ Eurydice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orpheus\\ mourned\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ bride\\,\\ Eurydice\\,\\ who\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ a\\ serpent\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ that\\ his\\ bride\\ would\\ not\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\,\\ he\\ descends\\ to\\ the\\ Styx\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ begged\\ for\\ Eurydice\\ to\\ be\\ brought\\ back\\ to\\ life\\,\\ and\\ if\\ that\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ possible\\,\\ then\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ join\\ her\\ in\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ hearing\\ this\\,\\ the\\ Furies\\ wept\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ ever\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ life\\,\\ on\\ one\\ condition\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ would\\ follow\\ him\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\,\\ but\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ look\\ back\\ at\\ her\\ until\\ they\\ had\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ just\\ before\\ they\\ left\\,\\ he\\ looked\\ back\\ and\\ she\\ was\\ gone\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ mourned\\ her\\ for\\ three\\ years\\,\\ not\\ sleeping\\ with\\ any\\ women\\,\\ only\\ young\\ boys\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Cyparissus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Carthean\\ nymphs\\ had\\ a\\ stag\\ that\\ they\\ held\\ sacred\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ stag\\ was\\ very\\ fond\\ of\\ Cyparissus\\,\\ the\\ handsomest\\ youth\\ in\\ Cea\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ mistake\\,\\ Cyparissus\\ shot\\ the\\ dear\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ asked\\ the\\ gods\\ if\\ he\\ could\\ grieve\\ forever\\,\\ and\\ was\\ turned\\ in\\ to\\ the\\ cypress\\ tree\\,\\ which\\ remains\\ the\\ tree\\ of\\ mourning\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Ganymede\\,\\ a\\ Very\\ Brief\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ganymede\\ was\\ a\\ Trojan\\ boy\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ person\\ Jove\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ other\\ than\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ he\\ turned\\ himself\\ into\\ an\\ eagle\\ and\\ took\\ Ganymede\\ o\\ be\\ his\\ cup\\-bearer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Apollo\\ and\\ Hyacinthus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apollo\\ had\\ a\\ similar\\ desire\\ for\\ Hyacinthus\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ day\\ they\\ took\\ part\\ in\\ some\\ very\\ homo\\-erotic\\ discus\\-throwing\\.\\ \\ \\;Hyacinthus\\ tried\\ to\\ catch\\ the\\ discus\\,\\ but\\ it\\ hit\\ him\\ in\\ the\\ face\\,\\ killing\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ named\\ a\\ flower\\ after\\ him\\,\\ whose\\ petals\\ read\\ Ai\\,\\ Ai\\,\\ the\\ Greek\\ for\\ \\&lsquo\\;Alas\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ Incidents\\ of\\ Venus\\&rsquo\\;\\ Anger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venus\\ killed\\ the\\ horned\\ daughters\\ of\\ Amathus\\,\\ in\\ Cyprus\\ for\\ worshipping\\ at\\ the\\ altar\\ of\\ Jove\\,\\ some\\ were\\ slaughtered\\,\\ others\\ were\\ turned\\ into\\ stone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Pygmalion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pygmalion\\ chose\\ to\\ be\\ celibate\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ vices\\ of\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ he\\ made\\ a\\ beautiful\\ ivory\\ statue\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ the\\ statue\\ and\\ even\\ brings\\ it\\ presents\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ prayed\\ to\\ Venus\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ marry\\ a\\ woman\\ like\\ the\\ statue\\.\\ \\ \\;Venus\\ grants\\ him\\ this\\ wish\\ and\\ the\\ statue\\ turns\\ into\\ a\\ real\\ woman\\,\\ who\\ bears\\ him\\ a\\ daughter\\ named\\ Paphos\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Cinyras\\ and\\ Myrrha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paphos\\&rsquo\\;\\ son\\ was\\ called\\ Cinyras\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ happy\\ had\\ he\\ been\\ childless\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ daughter\\ was\\ called\\ Myrrha\\,\\ who\\ had\\ many\\ suitors\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ she\\ loves\\ her\\ father\\,\\ preferring\\ him\\ to\\ all\\ her\\ suitors\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ her\\ father\\ asked\\ her\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ husband\\ she\\ wanted\\,\\ she\\ said\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ man\\ like\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ night\\ before\\ she\\ has\\ to\\ make\\ her\\ decision\\,\\ she\\ decides\\ to\\ hang\\ herself\\,\\ but\\ her\\ nurse\\ rescued\\ her\\ in\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ nurse\\ suspects\\ that\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ love\\ affair\\ but\\ Myrrha\\ refuses\\ to\\ tell\\ her\\,\\ but\\ she\\ eventually\\ lets\\ it\\ slip\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ nurse\\ tells\\ Cinyras\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ girl\\,\\ the\\ same\\ age\\ as\\ his\\ daughter\\ that\\ wants\\ to\\ sleep\\ with\\ him\\.\\ Cinyras\\ tells\\ her\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ girl\\.\\ Myrrha\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ dark\\ and\\ sleeps\\ with\\ her\\ father\\.\\ \\ \\;Myrrha\\ becomes\\ pregnant\\ and\\ flees\\ for\\ nine\\ months\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ prays\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ for\\ help\\ and\\ she\\ becomes\\ a\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ her\\ tears\\ became\\ myrrh\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ child\\ is\\ very\\ beautiful\\,\\ even\\ Envy\\ praised\\ his\\ beauty\\,\\ he\\ was\\ called\\ Adonis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Adonis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cupid\\ made\\ Venus\\ love\\ Adonis\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venus\\ Tells\\ Adonis\\ the\\ Story\\ of\\ Atalanta\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Atalanta\\ was\\ faster\\ than\\ any\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ oracle\\ told\\ her\\ that\\ a\\ husband\\ would\\ ruin\\ her\\ life\\,\\ so\\ she\\ rejected\\ all\\ her\\ suitors\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ someone\\ who\\ could\\ out\\-run\\ her\\ could\\ marry\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Anyone\\ who\\ races\\ her\\ and\\ loses\\ will\\ be\\ killed\\.\\ \\ \\;Hippomenes\\,\\ the\\ great\\-grandson\\ of\\ Neptune\\,\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ foolish\\ competition\\,\\ until\\ he\\ saw\\ how\\ beautiful\\ she\\ was\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ challenges\\ her\\ to\\ a\\ race\\,\\ and\\ Atalanta\\ wishes\\ he\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ because\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ him\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ Cyprus\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ golden\\ tree\\ that\\ bears\\ golden\\ apples\\.\\ \\ \\;Venus\\ told\\ Hippomenes\\ to\\ use\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;During\\ the\\ race\\,\\ when\\ Hippomenes\\ began\\ to\\ tire\\,\\ he\\ threw\\ an\\ apple\\,\\ which\\ Atalanta\\ went\\ to\\ get\\,\\ giving\\ him\\ the\\ lead\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ she\\ overtakes\\ him\\ and\\ he\\ throws\\ the\\ second\\ apple\\,\\ which\\ she\\ goes\\ to\\ find\\,\\ then\\ sprints\\ past\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ before\\ the\\ end\\,\\ he\\ throws\\ the\\ last\\ apple\\ and\\ wins\\ the\\ race\\,\\ and\\ Atalanta\\ becomes\\ his\\ bride\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ Hippomenes\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ thank\\ Venus\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ her\\ angry\\.\\ So\\ one\\ day\\ when\\ the\\ couple\\ is\\ passing\\ the\\ temple\\ of\\ Cybele\\,\\ Hippomenes\\ wants\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ his\\ wife\\ in\\ a\\ cave\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Cybele\\ turns\\ them\\ into\\ lions\\.\\ \\ \\;Venus\\ tells\\ Adonis\\ not\\ to\\ hunt\\ any\\ beasts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Fate\\ of\\ Adonis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ Adonis\\ ignores\\ this\\ warning\\,\\ and\\ strikes\\ a\\ boar\\ with\\ a\\ spear\\,\\ which\\ then\\ kills\\ Adonis\\ with\\ his\\ tusk\\.\\ \\ \\;Venus\\ said\\ that\\ Adonis\\&rsquo\\;\\ blood\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ flower\\ called\\ anemone\\,\\ the\\ wind\\-flower\\,\\ that\\ looses\\ its\\ petals\\ too\\ early\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ might\\ be\\ helpful\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.bookrags\\.com\\/notes\\/met\\/TOP2\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ XI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ Orpheus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orpheus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sang\\ a\\ lot\\ and\\ in\\ signing\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;drew\\ the\\ trees\\,\\ the\\ beasts\\,\\ the\\ stones\\,\\ to\\ follow\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ciconian\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;flung\\ across\\ their\\ maddened\\ breasts\\&rdquo\\;\\ saw\\ him\\ as\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;joined\\ his\\ song\\ to\\ the\\ lyre\\&rsquo\\;s\\ music\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ When\\ the\\ Ciconian\\ women\\ saw\\ Orpheus\\,\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;flung\\ a\\ spear\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ Orpheus\\,\\ but\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;did\\ not\\ harm\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Another\\ woman\\ threw\\ a\\ stone\\,\\ however\\,\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;conquered\\ by\\ the\\ sweet\\ harmonies\\ music\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ women\\ became\\ more\\ angry\\ and\\ even\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;mad\\ fury\\ reigned\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ weapons\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ softened\\ by\\ the\\ singer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ music\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ciconian\\ women\\,\\ however\\,\\ realized\\ they\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\could\\ defeat\\ Orpheus\\ by\\ overcoming\\ his\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ And\\ so\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;beating\\ breasts\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;flutes\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;drums\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;shrilling\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ lyre\\ was\\ overcome\\.\\ \\ \\;Orpheus\\ was\\ murdered\\ as\\ his\\ voice\\,\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ moved\\ no\\ one\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ birds\\ wept\\ for\\ him\\,\\ and\\ the\\ throng\\ of\\ beasts\\,\\ the\\ flinty\\ rocks\\,\\ the\\ trees\\ which\\ came\\ so\\ often\\ to\\ hear\\ his\\ song\\,\\ all\\ mourned\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ poet\\&rsquo\\;s\\ limbs\\ lay\\ scattered\\ where\\ they\\ were\\ flung\\ in\\ cruelty\\ or\\ madness\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bacchus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;demanded\\ punishment\\ for\\ so\\ much\\ evil\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Upset\\ with\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ his\\ singer\\,\\ he\\ turned\\ the\\ women\\ into\\ trees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Midas\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bacchus\\,\\ upset\\ with\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ Orpheus\\,\\ left\\ the\\ fields\\ and\\ traveled\\ to\\ his\\ vineyards\\ at\\ Timolus\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Phrygian\\ rustics\\ found\\ him\\ and\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ King\\ Midas\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ king\\ had\\ learned\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;rites\\ of\\ Bacchic\\ lore\\ from\\ Orpheus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ recognizing\\ Bacchus\\,\\ the\\ \\ \\;king\\ had\\ a\\ big\\ party\\ for\\ ten\\ long\\ days\\ and\\ nights\\.\\ \\ \\;Bacchus\\,\\ happy\\,\\ told\\ Midas\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ choice\\ of\\ anything\\ he\\ wanted\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ asked\\ Bacchus\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;grant\\ that\\ whatever\\ I\\ tough\\ may\\ turn\\ to\\ gold\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Bacchus\\ granted\\ the\\ gift\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ this\\ gift\\,\\ seaming\\ great\\ at\\ first\\,\\ was\\ bad\\ because\\ it\\ turned\\ everything\\ into\\ gold\\,\\ including\\ all\\ food\\ and\\ wine\\:\\ the\\ wine\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;molten\\ gold\\ that\\ trickled\\ though\\ his\\ jaws\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;No\\ food\\ relieved\\ his\\ hunger\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;his\\ throat\\ is\\ dry\\ with\\ burning\\ thirst\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;After\\ the\\ king\\ pled\\ for\\ his\\ forgiveness\\,\\ Bacchus\\ forgave\\ him\\ and\\ took\\ back\\ the\\ gift\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ instructs\\ Midas\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ tumbling\\ river\\&rsquo\\;s\\ source\\ where\\ the\\ foaming\\ white\\ of\\ the\\ fountain\\ will\\ was\\ the\\ sin\\ away\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Midas\\ Never\\ Learns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Midas\\ traveled\\ the\\ forests\\&hellip\\;in\\ the\\ forest\\ he\\ comes\\ cross\\ pan\\ who\\ is\\ singing\\ and\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ pan\\ sucks\\ compared\\ to\\ Apollo\\ and\\ he\\ challenges\\ Timolus\\ to\\ judge\\ who\\ is\\ better\\:\\ Appollo\\ or\\ Pan\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Midas\\ is\\ given\\ jackass\\ ears\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Building\\ of\\ the\\ Walls\\ of\\ Troy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Timolus\\ landed\\ in\\ the\\ plain\\ midway\\ between\\ two\\ capes\\,\\ where\\ an\\ old\\ altar\\ sacred\\ to\\ Jove\\ arose\\&hellip\\;and\\ there\\ Apollo\\ saw\\ Laomedon\\.\\.\\.building\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ his\\ new\\ city\\,\\ troy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Neptune\\ then\\ built\\ the\\ wall\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ gold\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ King\\ Laomedon\\ refused\\ to\\ pay\\ saying\\ that\\ such\\ an\\ agreement\\ never\\ existed\\.\\ \\ \\;Neptune\\,\\ in\\ response\\,\\ flooded\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ the\\ princess\\ was\\ given\\ as\\ prey\\ to\\ a\\ sea\\-monster\\.\\ Hercules\\ set\\ her\\ free\\ and\\ demanded\\ of\\ the\\ king\\ to\\ pay\\ him\\ in\\ horses\\.\\ \\ \\;Laomedon\\ once\\ more\\ denied\\.\\ \\ \\;Hercules\\ stormed\\ the\\ walls\\.\\ Peleus\\ won\\ a\\ goddess\\ for\\ a\\ bride\\.\\.\\.now\\ many\\ men\\ had\\ fathers\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ jove\\.\\ \\ \\;Peleus\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ to\\ wed\\ a\\ goddess\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Thetis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peleus\\ seized\\ Thetis\\,\\ the\\ daughter\\ of\\ Proteus\\ \\(grandchild\\ of\\ Jove\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ thetis\\ escaped\\ using\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;old\\ art\\ she\\ knew\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;she\\ became\\ a\\ bird\\,\\ a\\ trunk\\,\\ a\\ tigress\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Peleus\\ was\\ happy\\ with\\ Thetis\\ and\\ left\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ land\\,\\ finding\\ asylum\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Trachis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ceyx\\ Tells\\ the\\ Story\\ of\\ Daedalion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daedallion\\,\\ a\\ man\\,\\ was\\ once\\ a\\ bird\\.\\ \\ \\;Ceyx\\,\\ king\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Trachis\\,\\ was\\ the\\ brother\\ of\\ Daedalion\\ and\\ son\\ of\\ the\\ morning\\ star\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Daedallion\\ had\\ a\\ \\ \\;beautiful\\ daughter\\ called\\ Chione\\.\\ Both\\ Apollo\\ and\\ Mercury\\ wanted\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ took\\ her\\ with\\ his\\ sleep\\-compelling\\ wand\\ and\\ twins\\ were\\ born\\-\\ Autolycus\\ and\\ Philammon\\.\\ \\ \\;Chione\\ boasted\\ herself\\ above\\ Diana\\ and\\ then\\ life\\ left\\ her\\ body\\.\\ Daedallion\\ tried\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\ by\\ dashing\\ toward\\ the\\ burning\\ funeral\\ pyre\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ jumped\\ off\\ a\\ cliff\\.\\ \\ \\;Apollo\\ took\\ pity\\ on\\ him\\&hellip\\;Apollo\\ made\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ hawk\\&hellip\\;now\\ he\\ must\\ make\\ others\\ suffer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Peleus\\&rsquo\\;\\ Cattle\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peleus\\ took\\ his\\ heard\\ along\\ the\\ beach\\ were\\ he\\ saw\\ a\\ huge\\ temple\\ appear\\ in\\ the\\ sea\\ made\\ of\\ heavy\\ timbers\\.\\ From\\ underneath\\ the\\ temple\\ appeared\\ this\\ huge\\ wolf\\ which\\ proceeded\\ to\\ eat\\ all\\ the\\ cattle\\ and\\ all\\ men\\ that\\ tried\\ to\\ fight\\ it\\.\\.\\ Peleus\\ prayed\\ to\\ Nereid\\ for\\ help\\,\\ but\\ she\\ would\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;Thetis\\ intervened\\ and\\ won\\ her\\ pardon\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ wolf\\ continued\\ and\\ destroyed\\ everything\\.\\ Ceyx\\ orders\\ his\\ men\\ to\\ put\\ on\\ armor\\ and\\ take\\ spears\\.\\ The\\ wolf\\ bit\\ heifer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neck\\,\\ and\\ the\\ wolf\\ then\\ turned\\ to\\ marble\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Quest\\ of\\ Ceyx\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ceyx\\,\\ troubled\\ over\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fate\\ plans\\ to\\ travel\\ to\\ Claros\\,\\ an\\ oracle\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ ship\\ sinks\\ in\\ a\\ storm\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ sailors\\,\\ including\\ Cexy\\,\\ die\\.\\ Ceyx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\,\\ Alcyone\\,\\ prayed\\ for\\ Ceyx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ safety\\.\\ \\ \\;Juno\\ summoned\\ Iris\\ to\\ send\\ Alycone\\ a\\ dream\\ of\\ Cevx\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ truth\\ about\\ Ceyx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fate\\.\\ Alycone\\ is\\ distraught\\ over\\ the\\ dream\\ and\\ the\\ next\\ day\\ shoe\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ very\\ beach\\ she\\ said\\ goodbye\\ to\\ Ceyx\\,\\ where\\ she\\ find\\&rsquo\\;s\\ her\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Aeolus\\ keeps\\ his\\ winds\\ at\\ home\\,\\ and\\ ocean\\ smooth\\ for\\ Ceyx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ descendants\\&rsquo\\;\\ sake\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Story\\ of\\ Aesacus\\ and\\ Hesperia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aesacrus\\ saw\\ Cebren\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ as\\ she\\ dried\\ her\\ hair\\ in\\ the\\ sunlight\\&hellip\\;she\\ saw\\ him\\ and\\ ran\\ and\\ has\\ she\\ ran\\,\\ a\\ serpent\\ bit\\ her\\ and\\ killed\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Aescaus\\ was\\ felt\\ guilty\\ for\\ the\\ death\\ and\\ he\\ jumped\\ off\\ a\\ cliff\\&hellip\\;Tethys\\ received\\ him\\ gently\\ and\\ covered\\ his\\ body\\ with\\ plumage\\ and\\ wings\\.\\ \\ \\;Aesacrus\\ tried\\ drowning\\ himself\\-\\ however\\ his\\ legs\\ grew\\ longer\\ as\\ did\\ his\\ neck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ XII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Invasion\\ of\\ Troy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Priam\\ mourned\\ Aesacus\\,\\ not\\ knowing\\ that\\ Aesacus\\ was\\ a\\ bird\\.\\ \\ \\;Greeks\\ invaded\\ troy\\.\\ Trojans\\ leaned\\ there\\ lessons\\ in\\ blood\\ and\\ Sigean\\ shores\\ were\\ turned\\ to\\ crimson\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;All\\ this\\ toil\\ and\\ warfare\\ brought\\ a\\ long\\ truce\\,\\ and\\ men\\ laid\\ down\\ their\\ weapons\\ and\\ took\\ their\\ rest\\,\\ but\\ guards\\ patrolled\\ the\\ trenches\\ and\\ guards\\ patrolled\\ the\\ walls\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Achilles\\ offered\\ heifer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ Pallas\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ all\\ had\\ a\\ party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nestor\\ Tells\\ the\\ Story\\ of\\ Caeneus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elatus\\&rsquo\\;\\ daughter\\,\\ Caenis\\,\\ was\\ very\\ attractive\\.\\ She\\ was\\ known\\ has\\ the\\ loveliest\\ of\\ girls\\ in\\ Thessaly\\.\\ \\ \\;Caenis\\ would\\ not\\ consent\\ to\\ any\\ marriage\\ and\\ Neptune\\ got\\ hold\\ of\\ her\\ one\\ day\\ and\\ took\\ her\\ by\\ force\\.\\ Neptune\\ says\\ she\\ can\\ have\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ asks\\ to\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ woman\\ so\\ that\\ Neptune\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ She\\ became\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ went\\ on\\ his\\ way\\ in\\ male\\ pursuits\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nestor\\ Goes\\ on\\ and\\ on\\ with\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ with\\ the\\ Centaurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ixion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ had\\ married\\ Hippodame\\ and\\ invited\\ the\\ cloud\\-born\\ Centaurs\\ to\\ the\\ wedding\\.\\ The\\ centaurs\\ get\\ drunk\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;grew\\ heated\\ with\\ wine\\ or\\ lust\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;they\\ grab\\ hippodame\\ and\\ othergirls\\ \\ \\;and\\ the\\ whole\\ scene\\ looked\\ like\\ a\\ town\\ being\\ ravaged\\.\\ \\ \\;Eeurytus\\ attacks\\ Theseus\\&hellip\\;Theusus\\ killes\\ Eurytus\\.\\ \\ \\;Hercules\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ rescue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nestor\\ is\\ Asked\\ Why\\ He\\ Omitted\\ Hercules\\ and\\ Explains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;God\\ knows\\ he\\ has\\ done\\ things\\ no\\ one\\ could\\ believe\\,\\ Earned\\ praise\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\,\\ God\\ knows\\,\\ and\\ I\\ wish\\ I\\ could\\ \\ \\;call\\ it\\ a\\ lie\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Hercules\\ brought\\ down\\ Messene\\&rsquo\\;s\\ walls\\,\\ ravaged\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ made\\ ruin\\ of\\ my\\ house\\.\\ Periclymenus\\,\\ as\\ an\\ eagle\\,\\ has\\ power\\ through\\ Neptune\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ to\\ change\\ Hercules\\&rsquo\\;\\ form\\ and\\ he\\ tore\\ the\\ face\\ off\\ Hercules\\.\\ \\ \\;Pericymenus\\ flew\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ clouds\\ and\\ Herculues\\ shot\\ an\\ arrow\\ at\\ him\\,\\ killing\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Nestor\\ avenges\\ his\\ brothers\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ this\\ small\\ way\\,\\ ignoring\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Neptune\\ grieved\\ for\\ the\\ son\\ whose\\ body\\ was\\ now\\ a\\ swan\\.\\ \\ \\;Neptune\\ hated\\ Achilles\\,\\ who\\ dies\\ at\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ Apollo\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 50, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/2007_Metamorpheses_Summary.doc", "desc": "summary of metamorphoses"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Slide Summaries", "tags": ["harvard", "classics", "augustus"], "text": null, "id": 129, "html": "\\\\\\Slide\\ Summaries\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c29\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.1pt\\;margin\\-left\\:37\\.8pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:3pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:10pt\\;text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-size\\:7pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-right\\:23\\.8pt\\}\\.c9\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Tahoma\\\"\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c14\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c20\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:6pt\\}\\.c27\\{height\\:10pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\General\\ Slides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\:\\ Detail\\ of\\ Botticelli\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;Death\\ of\\ Lucretia\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucretia\\ was\\ raped\\ by\\ a\\ noble\\.\\ She\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ what\\ happened\\ and\\ then\\ kills\\ herself\\.\\ Brutus\\ slays\\ him\\ and\\ rids\\ Rome\\ of\\ the\\ Monarch\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ the\\ apprehension\\ of\\ a\\ monarch\\ over\\ Rome\\.\\ This\\ piece\\ shows\\ Brutus\\ lamenting\\ over\\ Lucretia\\&\\#39\\;s\\ body\\.\\ Brutus\\ later\\ uses\\ this\\ event\\ as\\ propaganda\\ on\\ a\\ coin\\ to\\ prove\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ defender\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\ and\\ that\\ his\\ actions\\ against\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ should\\ be\\ justified\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\ republican\\ man\\ holding\\ the\\ portrait\\ busts\\ \\[\\"\\;imagines\\"\\;\\]\\ of\\ his\\ ancestors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ speaks\\ of\\ the\\ fiber\\ of\\ roman\\ politics\\.\\ It\\ was\\ tradition\\ to\\ raise\\ your\\ authority\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ politicians\\ by\\ accentuating\\ your\\ associations\\ with\\ already\\ powerful\\ or\\ well\\ respected\\ individuals\\.\\ Here\\ the\\ roman\\ politician\\ is\\ broadcasting\\ his\\ ancestry\\ to\\ add\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ validity\\.\\ The\\ importance\\ of\\ this\\ procedure\\ relevant\\ to\\ Augustus\\ is\\ how\\ he\\ in\\ his\\ early\\ years\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ validity\\ and\\ influence\\ accentuated\\ his\\ relations\\ with\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\.\\ Virgil\\ furthers\\ these\\ glorified\\ associations\\ in\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ by\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ the\\ Julian\\ family\\ from\\ the\\ original\\ founders\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\View\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\ house\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\ Curia\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ forum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Senate\\ was\\ a\\ pillar\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\ tradition\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ They\\ embodied\\ the\\ believed\\ superiority\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ governmental\\ style\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ government\\ and\\ tradition\\ was\\ challenged\\ many\\ times\\ but\\ unsuccessfully\\ until\\ Augustus\\.\\ He\\ pursued\\ his\\ way\\ into\\ a\\ monarch\\ position\\ while\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ supplying\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ so\\ amazing\\ about\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ accomplish\\ two\\ totally\\ opposing\\ agendas\\ for\\ his\\ gain\\ with\\ little\\ notice\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portrait\\ bust\\ of\\ Cicero\\,\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;new\\ men\\"\\;\\ of\\ Rome\\ and\\ most\\ famed\\ orator\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ Republic\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Full\\ Name\\:\\ Marcus\\ Tullius\\ Cicero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lived\\ 106BCE\\ \\-\\ 43BCE\\.\\ His\\ career\\ in\\ politics\\ is\\ remarkable\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ usual\\ line\\ of\\ top\\ leaders\\.\\ His\\ family\\ was\\ not\\ of\\ immense\\ wealth\\ or\\ fame\\.\\ He\\ remained\\ a\\ true\\ supporter\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\ through\\ the\\ times\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\.\\ A\\ law\\ was\\ passed\\ stating\\ any\\ man\\ who\\ killed\\ a\\ roman\\ would\\ be\\ exiled\\ automatically\\ and\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ retroactive\\.\\ This\\ was\\ specifically\\ called\\ upon\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ rid\\ the\\ Senate\\ of\\ Cicero\\ by\\ a\\ loyal\\ Caesar\\ follower\\.\\ Orated\\ the\\ Philippics\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ after\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Caesar\\.\\ He\\ supported\\ Octavian\\ to\\ use\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ puppet\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ the\\ senate\\.\\ After\\ Antony\\ was\\ defeated\\ Octavian\\ had\\ him\\ killed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\.8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portrait\\ bust\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sim\\.\\ to\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 5\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julius\\ Caesar\\ laid\\ the\\ foundation\\ to\\ the\\ upset\\ of\\ the\\ senate\\ and\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ monarch\\ type\\ leader\\ that\\ Octavian\\ would\\ soon\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\.\\ He\\ adopted\\ Octavian\\ in\\ his\\ will\\ issued\\ after\\ his\\ murder\\ on\\ the\\ ides\\ \\(15th\\)\\ of\\ March\\ 44\\ BCE\\.\\ Born\\ in\\ 100BCE\\.\\ After\\ his\\ death\\ Octavian\\ took\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ defeat\\ Antony\\ and\\ \\"\\;restore\\"\\;\\ the\\ republic\\.\\ His\\ line\\ was\\ commemorated\\ in\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ by\\ Virgil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 2\\.9\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Portrait\\ bust\\ of\\ Pompey\\ the\\ Great\\ \\(55\\ BC\\)\\ \\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Interestingly\\,\\ in\\ this\\ bust\\,\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hairstyle\\ resembles\\ that\\ of\\ \\Alexander\\ the\\ Great\\ from\\ whom\\ he\\ borrowed\\ his\\ title\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Great\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ bust\\ \\was\\ created\\ after\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ triumvirate\\ in\\ 60\\ BC\\ \\(along\\ with\\ \\Caesar\\ and\\ Crassus\\)\\ and\\ before\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defeat\\ at\\ Pharsalus\\ following\\ a\\ war\\ \\with\\ Caesar\\ in\\ 48\\ BC\\.\\ \\ \\;Professor\\ Tarrant\\ cited\\ the\\ conflict\\ and\\ competition\\ \\between\\ Caesar\\ and\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ ambition\\ and\\ military\\ success\\ \\(as\\ \\exemplified\\ here\\ with\\ Pompey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ comparison\\ to\\ Alexander\\ the\\ Great\\)\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ \\the\\ major\\ forces\\ bringing\\ Rome\\ to\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;breaking\\ point\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Slide\\ 2\\.12\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Coin\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ \\(45\\ BC\\)\\ \\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;As\\ we\\ learned\\ from\\ our\\ section\\ papers\\,\\ coins\\ were\\ an\\ extremely\\ \\powerful\\ form\\ of\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ of\\ these\\ coins\\ issued\\ by\\ Caesar\\ exemplify\\ \\his\\ desire\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ own\\ authority\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ wreaths\\ worn\\ in\\ each\\ coin\\ by\\ \\Caesar\\ are\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ authority\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ top\\ coin\\,\\ the\\ inscription\\ \\reads\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dictator\\ for\\ the\\ fourth\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dictator\\ forever\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ \\claim\\ Caesar\\ made\\ after\\ defeating\\ all\\ opponents\\ in\\ 44\\ BC\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ followed\\ \\Caesar\\ by\\ making\\ coins\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ increase\\ his\\ popularity\\ among\\ the\\ Roman\\ \\populace\\ but\\ learned\\ from\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mistakes\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Octavian\\ used\\ his\\ \\coins\\ to\\ portray\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ ruler\\ among\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ people\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ \\supreme\\ dictator\\ \\(the\\ year\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ proclaimed\\ himself\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dictator\\ forever\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\happened\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ year\\ he\\ was\\ assassinated\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Slide\\ 3\\.2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Coin\\ of\\ Brutus\\ \\(44\\ BC\\)\\ \\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Brutus\\,\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ led\\ the\\ conspiracy\\ against\\ Caesar\\,\\ in\\ what\\ he\\ \\termed\\ as\\ a\\ fight\\ for\\ freedom\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;liberty\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ pictured\\ here\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ coin\\ \\following\\ the\\ overthrow\\ and\\ assassination\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ coins\\ he\\ \\has\\ the\\ inscription\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cap\\ of\\ Freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Essentially\\ he\\ tries\\ to\\ free\\ himself\\ \\from\\ the\\ dictator\\ role\\ which\\ Caesar\\ had\\ assumed\\ \\(much\\ like\\ Octavian\\ does\\ \\later\\)\\ and\\ instill\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ brought\\ liberty\\ to\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ \\is\\ much\\ controversy\\ surrounding\\ Brutus\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ conspirator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ motives\\ \\since\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ had\\ gained\\ the\\ support\\ and\\ love\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ \\people\\ \\(the\\ issue\\ was\\ probably\\ the\\ liberty\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ of\\ note\\,\\ \\Octavian\\ will\\ openly\\ hate\\ Brutus\\ and\\ all\\ others\\ involved\\ in\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\murder\\ throughout\\ his\\ entire\\ life\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Slide\\ 3\\.3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Coin\\ of\\ Octavian\\ \\(38\\ BC\\)\\ \\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ coin\\ of\\ Octavian\\,\\ two\\ important\\ methods\\ of\\ propaganda\\ employed\\ \\by\\ Octavian\\ are\\ shown\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\,\\ on\\ the\\ obverse\\ Octavian\\ is\\ pictured\\ with\\ the\\ \\inscription\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Son\\ of\\ the\\ deified\\ one\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ Julian\\ Star\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ \\references\\ and\\ connections\\ to\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ by\\ Octavian\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ further\\ \\his\\ own\\ status\\ by\\ association\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\,\\ by\\ declaring\\ Caesar\\ to\\ be\\ divine\\ in\\ 42\\ \\BC\\,\\ Octavian\\ hoped\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ his\\ prior\\ reputation\\ as\\ a\\ dictator\\,\\ as\\ well\\ \\as\\ use\\ his\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ status\\ to\\ enhance\\ his\\ own\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Lecture\\ III\\ notes\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ \\the\\ reverse\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ similar\\ reference\\ to\\ Caesar\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ \\inscription\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ civic\\ crown\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;As\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ Res\\ Gestae\\ and\\ other\\ sources\\,\\ \\Octavian\\ loves\\ to\\ stress\\ how\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ elected\\ and\\ is\\ serving\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ \\as\\ many\\ ways\\ as\\ possible\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ fitting\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ his\\ \\position\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;civic\\ crown\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Slide\\ 3\\.5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Triumviral\\ coins\\ of\\ Octavian\\ and\\ Lepidus\\ \\\\Octavian\\,\\ Lepidus\\ and\\ Antony\\ composed\\ the\\ second\\ triumvirate\\ created\\ in\\ 43\\ \\BC\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ another\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ coins\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ political\\ \\propaganda\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ solidifying\\ the\\ formation\\ and\\ promoting\\ the\\ future\\ \\success\\ of\\ the\\ triumvirate\\.\\ \\ \\;Of\\ note\\,\\ these\\ coins\\ do\\ not\\ exist\\ for\\ members\\ of\\ \\the\\ first\\ triumvirate\\ because\\ that\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ wholly\\ unofficial\\ arrangement\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\while\\ the\\ second\\ triumvirate\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;legally\\ sanctioned\\ office\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ \\publicly\\ advertised\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Lecture\\ III\\ notes\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COINS\\:\\ Certainly\\ not\\ neutral\\ representations\\,\\ but\\ tools\\ of\\ propaganda\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Obverse\\:\\ Head\\ of\\ Brutus\\,\\ Inscription\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Reverse\\:\\ Cap\\ of\\ Freedom\\,\\ daggers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ assassination\\ of\\ Caesar\\.\\ Printed\\ under\\ the\\ auspices\\ of\\ Marcus\\ Brutus\\.\\ Gives\\ the\\ traditional\\ republican\\ view\\ of\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assassination\\.\\ Obverse\\ bears\\ inscription\\ \\&ldquo\\;IMP\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ Imperator\\,\\ holds\\ the\\ office\\ of\\ general\\ or\\ military\\ commander\\.\\ On\\ reverse\\,\\ inscription\\ refers\\ in\\ abbreviated\\ form\\ to\\ the\\ Ides\\ of\\ March\\,\\ the\\ season\\ known\\ for\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assassination\\.\\ Two\\ daggers\\ represent\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ the\\ conspirators\\ \\(assassination\\)\\.\\ The\\ cap\\ of\\ freedom\\ or\\ liberty\\,\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ from\\ slavery\\ to\\ freedom\\,\\ was\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ ceremony\\ to\\ mark\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ freedom\\.\\ In\\ this\\ symbol\\ we\\ get\\ the\\ assertion\\ that\\ the\\ Senators\\ who\\ killed\\ Caesar\\ transformed\\ Romans\\,\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ slaves\\ under\\ Caesar\\,\\ had\\ been\\ set\\ free\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;How\\ can\\ you\\ be\\ against\\ freedom\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ we\\ must\\ ask\\ ourselves\\ who\\ was\\ being\\ set\\ free\\.\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ subsection\\ of\\ the\\ Senators\\ whose\\ interests\\ were\\ endangered\\ by\\ Caesar\\ who\\ were\\ most\\ \\&ldquo\\;enslaved\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Caesar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Senate\\ had\\ ultimate\\ authority\\ to\\ authorize\\ coinage\\.\\ Senate\\ would\\ then\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ triumvirate\\ to\\ oversee\\ production\\ and\\ distribution\\ of\\ coins\\.\\ Those\\ triumvirs\\ might\\ have\\ strong\\ political\\ ties\\ and\\ loyalties\\,\\ which\\ would\\ guide\\ the\\ coinage\\ they\\ saw\\ produced\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plutarch\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ Caesar\\,\\ when\\ he\\ died\\,\\ fell\\ at\\ the\\ foot\\ of\\ Pompeii\\&rsquo\\;s\\ statue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pompeii\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;depicted\\ as\\ guardian\\ of\\ senate\\ \\ \\;Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ violator\\ of\\ Senate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BUT\\,\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ Pompeii\\ was\\ as\\ much\\ a\\ symptom\\ of\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ Republican\\ system\\ as\\ Caesar\\.\\ If\\ Pompeii\\ had\\ one\\,\\ the\\ Republic\\ still\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ persisted\\.\\ Pompeii\\ took\\ office\\ prematurely\\,\\ skipped\\ curses\\ honorum\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Obverse\\:\\ Head\\ of\\ Woman\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Libertas\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Reverse\\ Brutus\\ and\\ his\\ attendants\\,\\ inscription\\ \\&ldquo\\;Brutus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcus\\ Brutus\\ issuing\\ a\\ warning\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 50\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ the\\ Brutus\\ clan\\,\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ establish\\ consul\\,\\ is\\ still\\ going\\ to\\ act\\ to\\ protect\\ libertas\\ and\\ freedom\\.\\ Probably\\ a\\ warning\\ directed\\ towards\\ Pompeii\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Caesar\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ put\\ his\\ image\\ on\\ a\\ coin\\.\\ After\\ his\\ death\\,\\ EVERYONE\\ does\\ it\\,\\ follows\\ suit\\.\\ The\\ anonymity\\ that\\ once\\ tempered\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ images\\ on\\ coin\\ was\\ never\\ pursued\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ that\\ Caesar\\ was\\ gone\\,\\ what\\ next\\?\\ VACUUM\\ where\\ Caesar\\ had\\ been\\,\\ strong\\ loyalties\\ to\\ the\\ man\\ and\\ the\\ name\\ persisted\\.\\ POWER\\ of\\ the\\ name\\,\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\.\\ Hundreds\\ of\\ Senators\\ would\\ have\\ remained\\ loyal\\ to\\ Caesar\\,\\ owed\\ their\\ positions\\ to\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ Caesarian\\ power\\ base\\ that\\ existed\\ in\\ wait\\ of\\ a\\ leader\\.\\ Two\\ potential\\ leaders\\ step\\ forward\\ to\\ claim\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MARC\\ ANTONY\\:\\ The\\ Obvious\\ successor\\,\\ defender\\ of\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legacy\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Already\\ had\\ the\\ loyalty\\ of\\ the\\ army\\,\\ served\\ as\\ co\\-consul\\ with\\ Caesar\\.\\ At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\,\\ Antony\\ is\\ the\\ man\\ to\\ watch\\.\\ Cicero\\ transferred\\ his\\ hatred\\ and\\ opposition\\ of\\ Caesar\\ to\\ Antony\\.\\ Started\\ attacking\\ Antony\\ in\\ speech\\ after\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;philippic\\ oration\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GAIUS\\ OCTAVIUS\\:\\ age\\ 19\\ when\\ Caesar\\ is\\ killed\\ in\\ 44\\-\\ was\\ a\\ great\\-nephew\\ of\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Was\\ in\\ Albania\\ in\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ study\\ and\\ military\\ training\\ at\\ time\\ of\\ assassination\\.\\ Had\\ started\\ to\\ become\\ close\\ to\\ J\\.C\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MARC\\ ANTONY\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ prime\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OCTAVIUS\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;still\\ a\\ kid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ things\\ happen\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\ tables\\ in\\ Octavius\\&rsquo\\;\\ favor\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ will\\ of\\ Caesar\\ is\\ revealed\\ with\\ Octavius\\ as\\ the\\ heir\\ to\\ his\\ enormous\\ fortune\\.\\ and\\ as\\ his\\ adopted\\ son\\.\\ He\\ takes\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Caesar\\,\\ becoming\\ Octavianus\\ and\\ Caesar\\.\\ His\\ friends\\ and\\ allies\\ call\\ his\\ Caesar\\,\\ while\\ opponents\\ like\\ Cicero\\ continue\\ to\\ call\\ him\\ Octavian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ in\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;divine\\ association\\.\\ In\\ his\\ final\\ years\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ priest\\ responsible\\ for\\ his\\ image\\,\\ with\\ sacrifices\\ made\\ to\\ him\\.\\ Summer\\ of\\ 44\\ \\(after\\ assassination\\)\\ a\\ comet\\ was\\ observed\\ during\\ games\\ in\\ his\\ honor\\.\\ His\\ supporters\\ took\\ that\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ his\\ divinity\\,\\ and\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ an\\ official\\ proclamation\\ of\\ divinity\\,\\ with\\ J\\.C\\.\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\divus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Octavian\\ is\\ now\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ a\\ deified\\ one\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ coins\\ Octavian\\ produces\\ from\\ here\\ on\\ make\\ reference\\ to\\ this\\ divine\\ element\\,\\ with\\ Octavian\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Divi\\ Filius\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ son\\ of\\ the\\ divine\\ one\\.\\ Sometimes\\ with\\ J\\.C\\.\\ on\\ obverse\\ and\\ Octavian\\ \\(Caesar\\)\\ on\\ reverse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Octavian\\ portrayed\\ at\\ times\\ with\\ beard\\,\\ sign\\ of\\ MOURNING\\.\\ Depicts\\ him\\ in\\ mourning\\ of\\ father\\,\\ as\\ loyal\\,\\ devotional\\ son\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Octavian\\ associates\\ himself\\ with\\ Caesar\\ on\\ coins\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ useful\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Obverse\\:\\ bearded\\ head\\ of\\ Octavian\\,\\ Divi\\ Filius\\ inscription\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sidus\\ Iulium\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ star\\ or\\ comet\\ that\\ was\\ evidence\\ of\\ J\\.C\\&rsquo\\;s\\ divinity\\.Reverse\\:\\ Laurel\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\corona\\ civica\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ civic\\ crown\\)\\ with\\ inscription\\ DIVOS\\ IULIUS\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ deified\\ Julius\\.\\ From\\ 38\\ BC\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Series\\)\\ Octavian\\ on\\ obverse\\,\\ Venus\\ on\\ reverse\\.\\ Venus\\ as\\ ancestress\\ of\\ Octavian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Venus\\ victorius\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;victrix\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ shield\\,\\ helmet\\,\\ spear\\.\\ On\\ the\\ shield\\ of\\ Venus\\ is\\ the\\ star\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sidus\\ Iulium\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\From\\ before\\ 31\\ BC\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ 43\\,\\ an\\ official\\ alliance\\ of\\ triumvirate\\ is\\ established\\ to\\ manage\\ the\\ state\\.\\ Is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ three\\-person\\ dictatorship\\.\\ Third\\ person\\ is\\ Marcus\\ Lepidus\\,\\ one\\ of\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\ commanders\\.\\ Authorized\\ for\\ five\\ years\\,\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ temporary\\ situation\\.\\ Was\\ renewed\\ in\\ 37\\.\\ One\\ of\\ more\\ notorious\\ moves\\ of\\ triumvirate\\ is\\ proscription\\ list\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;means\\ of\\ paying\\ back\\ scores\\.\\ Lands\\ and\\ fortunes\\ seized\\.\\ Antony\\ demands\\ that\\ Cicero\\ be\\ a\\ prominent\\ victim\\ of\\ proscription\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alliance\\ of\\ Octavian\\ and\\ Antony\\ was\\ a\\ shaky\\ and\\ difficult\\ one\\.\\ Each\\ wanted\\ sole\\ power\\.\\ Fought\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ accord\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;expansive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Octavian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;calculating\\,\\ cautious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Octavia\\ featured\\ on\\ reverse\\ of\\ coin\\ of\\ Antony\\.\\ REVOLUTION\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;had\\ only\\ been\\ five\\ years\\ since\\ first\\ appearance\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ Roman\\ on\\ coinage\\.\\ Now\\ a\\ woman\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ coin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Commemorates\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ marriage\\ to\\ sister\\ of\\ Octavian\\,\\ Octavia\\.\\ Octavia\\ is\\ the\\ cement\\ meant\\ to\\ link\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavia\\.\\ On\\ other\\ coins\\,\\ depicted\\ as\\ superimposed\\ faces\\.\\ 40\\ BC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ so\\,\\ Antony\\ is\\ cultivating\\ a\\ relationship\\ that\\ had\\ already\\ formed\\ between\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Coins\\ are\\ the\\ venue\\ used\\ to\\ shape\\ the\\ purely\\ Roman\\ image\\ of\\ Octavian\\ and\\ the\\ changing\\ Egyptian\\ image\\ of\\ Antony\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\This\\ coin\\ shows\\ Octavia\\,\\ the\\ sister\\ of\\ Octavian\\ and\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ Antony\\.\\ At\\ that\\ time\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ triumvirate\\ in\\ which\\ Antony\\,\\ Octavian\\,\\ and\\ Lepidus\\ ruled\\ the\\ state\\,\\ and\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavian\\ did\\ not\\ get\\ along\\.\\ Marriage\\ was\\ a\\ traditional\\ Roman\\ practice\\ for\\ creating\\ a\\ link\\ between\\ people\\,\\ so\\ in\\ 40\\ BC\\,\\ Antony\\ married\\ Octavia\\.\\ Only\\ five\\ years\\ before\\ this\\ coin\\,\\ Caesar\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ to\\ place\\ any\\ Roman\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ portrait\\ on\\ a\\ coin\\,\\ and\\ so\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ Roman\\ coins\\ because\\ now\\ a\\ woman\\ was\\ featured\\ on\\ the\\ obverse\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\3\\.7\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\This\\ is\\ a\\ portrait\\ of\\ Fulvia\\,\\ the\\ second\\ wife\\ of\\ Mark\\ Antony\\.\\ Antony\\ was\\ married\\ to\\ Fulvia\\ and\\ married\\ Octavia\\ after\\ she\\ died\\.\\ In\\ the\\ war\\ of\\ Perugia\\,\\ Octavian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ forces\\ beseige\\ Fulvia\\ and\\ Antony\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brother\\ Lucius\\.\\ War\\ would\\ have\\ begun\\ between\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavian\\,\\ but\\ the\\ troops\\ refused\\ to\\ fight\\ \\(many\\ had\\ fought\\ together\\ earlier\\)\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ reconciled\\-\\-Treaty\\ of\\ Brundisium\\.\\ Then\\,\\ after\\ Fulvia\\ died\\,\\ Antony\\ married\\ Octavia\\ to\\ \\"\\;seal\\ the\\ arrangement\\"\\;\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\3\\.8\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\Superimposed\\,\\ overlapping\\ images\\ of\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavia\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ king\\ and\\ queen\\ of\\ egypt\\ might\\ have\\ appeared\\ on\\ a\\ coin\\.\\ Shows\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavian\\ that\\ was\\ created\\ through\\ this\\ marriage\\.\\ The\\ reverse\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ see\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\3\\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\Jugate\\ coin\\ of\\ Ptolemy\\ and\\ Arsinoe\\.\\ This\\ coin\\ shows\\ Ptolemy\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ sister\\,\\ Arsinoe\\.\\ Brother\\-sister\\ marriages\\ were\\ accepted\\ in\\ Egypt\\ and\\ the\\ Ptolemeis\\ did\\ it\\ for\\ many\\ generations\\.\\ The\\ coins\\ read\\ \\"\\;Divine\\ Siblings\\"\\;\\.\\ The\\ relation\\ of\\ this\\ coin\\ to\\ Octavian\\ is\\,\\ most\\ likely\\,\\ that\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ jugate\\ coin\\ is\\ used\\ by\\ Antony\\ and\\ Octavia\\ in\\ many\\ coins\\ to\\ show\\ their\\ relationship\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ 3\\.8\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\3\\.10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\This\\ coin\\ shows\\ Antony\\ on\\ the\\ obverse\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\ on\\ the\\ reverse\\.\\ Even\\ while\\ Antony\\ was\\ married\\ to\\ Octavia\\,\\ he\\ was\\ pursuing\\ a\\ relationship\\ with\\ Cleopatra\\,\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ 30s\\ progressed\\,\\ his\\ interests\\ in\\ Egypt\\ were\\ becoming\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ prominantly\\ displayed\\ on\\ coins\\.\\ This\\ coin\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ many\\ depicting\\ Cleopatra\\ and\\ Antony\\.\\ Although\\ some\\ \\"\\;admirers\\ of\\ romantic\\ poetry\\"\\;\\ were\\ thrilled\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ the\\ courage\\ to\\ put\\ Octavia\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\ on\\ coins\\,\\ his\\ depiction\\ of\\ Cleo\\ also\\ fueled\\ the\\ propaganda\\ of\\ Octavian\\ and\\ his\\ followers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ capture\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\ On\\ obverse\\,\\ Octavian\\.\\ On\\ reverse\\,\\ Egyptian\\ crocodile\\ and\\ inscription\\ AEGYPTO\\ CAPTA\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;with\\ Egypt\\ captured\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Coin\\ from\\ after\\ 31\\,\\ when\\ Octavian\\ defeats\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\ at\\ Actium\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;most\\ dangerous\\ moment\\ in\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ is\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ triumph\\ and\\ victory\\,\\ when\\ power\\ is\\ at\\ its\\ peak\\.\\ This\\ is\\ visible\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ Caesar\\.\\ \\By\\ 32\\,\\ Octavian\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ position\\ that\\ Caesar\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ his\\ death\\ in\\ 44\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coin\\ of\\ Octavian\\ minted\\ after\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\ in\\ 31\\ when\\ Octavian\\ defeated\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inscription\\ on\\ the\\ obverse\\:\\ CAESAR\\ COS\\ VI\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Consol\\ for\\ the\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;time\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shows\\ how\\ Octavian\\ still\\ used\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ traditional\\ republican\\ offices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ reverse\\:\\ a\\ Nile\\ crocodile\\ and\\ the\\ inscription\\:\\ AEGYPTO\\ CAPTA\\ \\(\\"\\;with\\ Egypt\\ captured\\"\\;\\)\\ Important\\ because\\ battle\\ is\\ depicted\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ foreign\\ victory\\,\\ not\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ since\\ Antony\\ had\\ so\\ fully\\ associated\\ himself\\ with\\ Cleopatra\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aureus\\ \\(gold\\ coin\\)\\ from\\ 27\\ BC\\,\\ the\\ year\\ Octavian\\ becomes\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\ \\;Inscription\\ reads\\:\\ CAESAR\\ DIVI\\ F\\[ILIUS\\]\\ COS\\ VII\\ \\=\\ \\"\\;Caesar\\,\\ son\\ of\\ the\\ deified\\ one\\,\\ consul\\ for\\ the\\ seventh\\ time\\.\\"\\;\\ Advertises\\ that\\ consulship\\ is\\ a\\ traditional\\ position\\ \\(though\\ Octavian\\ held\\ it\\ many\\ times\\ more\\ than\\ was\\ traditional\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coin\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ 27\\ BC\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Obverse\\:\\ portrait\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reverse\\:\\ eagle\\ carrying\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\corona\\ civica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ wreath\\ given\\ to\\ him\\ by\\ the\\ Senate\\ as\\ a\\ military\\ decoration\\ for\\ saving\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ citizens\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ inscription\\ AUGUSTUS\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ he\\ incorporated\\ his\\ name\\ into\\ the\\ coinage\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ name\\ was\\ conferred\\ to\\ him\\ by\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(for\\ more\\ info\\,\\ see\\ similar\\ coin\\ in\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 76\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\5\\.2\\ Portrait\\ bust\\ of\\ Marcus\\ Agrippa\\,\\ c\\.\\ 30\\-20\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ portrait\\ bust\\ of\\ Marcus\\ Vipsanius\\ Agrippa\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ \\advisers\\ to\\ Augustus\\.\\ Agrippa\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ admiral\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\forces\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\ \\-\\ indeed\\,\\ by\\ most\\ accounts\\ he\\ won\\ the\\ \\battle\\ \\-\\ and\\ was\\ later\\ given\\ the\\ responsibility\\ for\\ most\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\building\\ programs\\.\\ For\\ a\\ time\\,\\ he\\ was\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ most\\ obvious\\ successor\\,\\ and\\ \\he\\ was\\ clearly\\ the\\ second\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ \\-\\ evidenced\\ from\\ his\\ position\\ on\\ \\the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ Augustae\\.\\ When\\ Augustus\\ became\\ princeps\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ principate\\,\\ \\he\\ shaped\\ an\\ administration\\ that\\ relied\\ heavily\\ on\\ a\\ stable\\ group\\ of\\ \\advisors\\,\\ of\\ which\\ Agrippa\\ was\\ probably\\ the\\ foremost\\.\\ Agrippa\\ was\\ also\\ \\significant\\ because\\ Augustus\\ married\\ him\\ to\\ his\\ daughter\\ Julia\\ in\\ 21\\ BC\\ and\\ \\adopted\\ him\\ as\\ his\\ son\\-in\\-law\\,\\ desiring\\ to\\ produce\\ an\\ heir\\.\\ The\\ marriage\\ \\produced\\ five\\ children\\ \\(Agrippa\\ Posthumous\\,\\ Agrippina\\,\\ Gaius\\,\\ Lucius\\,\\ and\\ \\Germanicus\\)\\,\\ however\\ none\\ of\\ them\\ became\\ his\\ heir\\.\\ The\\ existence\\ of\\ this\\ \\bust\\ is\\ testament\\ to\\ Agrippa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ importance\\ \\-\\ he\\ was\\ portrayed\\ in\\ art\\ and\\ \\immortalized\\ for\\ posterity\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\5\\.3\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\Segment\\ of\\ the\\ south\\ processional\\ frieze\\ of\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ Augustae\\ showing\\ \\members\\ of\\ the\\ imperial\\ family\\-\\-could\\ that\\ be\\ Maecenas\\ peeking\\ over\\ a\\ \\shoulder\\?\\ 13\\-9\\ BC\\ \\\\This\\ picture\\ depicts\\ a\\ segment\\ of\\ the\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ Augustae\\ \\(Altar\\ of\\ Augustan\\ \\Peace\\)\\ monument\\ \\(dedicated\\ in\\ 9\\ BC\\)\\.\\ The\\ monument\\ depicts\\ a\\ procession\\ \\following\\ the\\ royal\\ family\\.\\ The\\ segment\\ shown\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ imperial\\ family\\,\\ but\\ \\the\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ background\\,\\ looking\\ over\\ the\\ shoulder\\ of\\ the\\ person\\ in\\ \\front\\ of\\ him\\,\\ may\\ represent\\ Gaius\\ Clineus\\ Maecenas\\,\\ one\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ chief\\ \\advisors\\.\\ Maecenas\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ behind\\-the\\-scenes\\ presence\\,\\ and\\ was\\ active\\ \\mainly\\ in\\ domestic\\ and\\ cultural\\ affairs\\,\\ famously\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ patron\\ of\\ \\Virgil\\ and\\ Horace\\.\\ Maecenas\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ Agrippa\\)\\ were\\ insiders\\ who\\ knew\\ \\Augustus\\ from\\ his\\ youth\\,\\ but\\ as\\ men\\ from\\ non\\-elite\\ backgrounds\\ they\\ were\\ \\typical\\ of\\ many\\ whom\\ Augustus\\ attracted\\ to\\ public\\ life\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\5\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fragment\\ of\\ a\\ papyrus\\ roll\\ found\\ in\\ Egypt\\ containing\\ elegiac\\ verses\\ of\\ \\C\\.\\ Cornelius\\ Gallus\\,\\ poet\\ and\\ onetime\\ prefect\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\(70\\-26\\ BC\\.\\)\\ \\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ fragment\\ of\\ a\\ papyrus\\ roll\\ found\\ in\\ Egypt\\ containing\\ elegiac\\ \\verses\\ of\\ C\\.\\ Cornelius\\ Gallus\\ \\(70\\-26\\ BC\\)\\,\\ poet\\ and\\ onetime\\ prefect\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\Those\\ who\\ were\\ successful\\ under\\ Augustus\\ knew\\ not\\ to\\ enhance\\ their\\ own\\ glory\\ \\at\\ his\\ expense\\;\\ Cornelius\\ Gallus\\ did\\ not\\ get\\ this\\ message\\.\\ He\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ \\commit\\ suicide\\ in\\ 27\\-26\\ BC\\,\\ and\\ his\\ case\\ illustrates\\ the\\ new\\ limitations\\ on\\ \\ambition\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ principate\\.\\ As\\ a\\ poet\\,\\ he\\ is\\ considered\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\second\\ generation\\ of\\ poets\\ following\\ the\\ novi\\ poetae\\,\\ which\\ included\\ Virgil\\ \\and\\ Horace\\.\\ It\\ is\\ ironic\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ Egyptian\\ obelisk\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ \\St\\.\\ Peter\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Square\\ \\(in\\ the\\ Vatican\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ visited\\ places\\ on\\ earth\\)\\ \\is\\ inscribed\\ with\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Gallus\\,\\ who\\ desired\\ to\\ be\\ remembered\\;\\ his\\ name\\ \\is\\ not\\ visible\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\5\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Temple\\ in\\ Ankara\\,\\ Turkey\\:\\ site\\ of\\ a\\ bilingual\\ \\(Greek\\ and\\ Latin\\)\\ version\\ \\of\\ the\\ Res\\ Gestae\\ inscribed\\ on\\ its\\ walls\\.\\ \\\\This\\ picture\\ depicts\\ a\\ temple\\ in\\ Ankara\\,\\ Turkey\\,\\ which\\ was\\ the\\ site\\ of\\ a\\ \\bilingual\\ \\(Greek\\ and\\ Latin\\)\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ Res\\ Gestae\\ inscribed\\ on\\ its\\ \\walls\\.\\ The\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ temple\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ represents\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\Rome\\,\\ while\\ a\\ Republic\\ in\\ name\\,\\ was\\ actually\\ a\\ de\\ facto\\ Empire\\.\\ The\\ Res\\ \\Gestae\\ \\(the\\ Accomplishments\\)\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ Augustus\\ and\\ completed\\ in\\ the\\ \\last\\ year\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ \\(14\\ AD\\)\\.\\ In\\ it\\,\\ Augustus\\ glorifies\\ his\\ political\\ and\\ \\military\\ endeavors\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ service\\ to\\ the\\ people\\;\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ inscription\\ \\on\\ a\\ Turkish\\ temple\\ is\\ evidence\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ widespread\\ influence\\ and\\ the\\ \\propagandizing\\ that\\ occurred\\ throughout\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Slide\\ 5\\.7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Temple\\ in\\ Ankara\\,\\ Turkey\\:\\ site\\ of\\ a\\ bilingual\\ \\(Greek\\ and\\ Latin\\)\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\inscribed\\ on\\ its\\ walls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Temple\\ of\\ Rome\\ and\\ Augustus\\ at\\ Ankara\\,\\ the\\ capital\\ of\\ modern\\ Turkey\\,\\ contains\\ the\\ best\\-preserved\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Aug\\.\\ statement\\ of\\ his\\ achievements\\.\\ The\\ exterior\\ of\\ the\\ wall\\ is\\ covered\\ with\\ a\\ Greek\\ translation\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ making\\ it\\ most\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ citizens\\.\\ The\\ interior\\ of\\ the\\ wall\\ has\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ Latin\\ text\\.\\ This\\ is\\ sign\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ cultural\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ spreading\\ to\\ the\\ provinces\\ outside\\ of\\ Italy\\.\\ The\\ mode\\ of\\ Roman\\ architecture\\ was\\ very\\ wide\\ spread\\.\\ Temples\\ like\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ visually\\ recalling\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Rome\\ was\\ spreading\\ its\\ control\\ over\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 5\\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Aqueduct\\:\\ Pont\\ du\\ Gard\\,\\ France\\.\\ Built\\ perhaps\\ when\\ Agrippa\\ governor\\ in\\ Gaul\\,\\ late\\ 1st\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ aqueduct\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Aug\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ building\\ program\\ in\\ the\\ provinces\\ to\\ display\\ Roman\\ control\\.\\ The\\ Pont\\ du\\ Gard\\ was\\ made\\ by\\ Agrippa\\,\\ August\\&\\#39\\;s\\ son\\ in\\ law\\,\\ in\\ 9\\ BC\\.\\ It\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ supply\\ drinking\\ water\\ to\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ N\\î\\;mes\\ from\\ a\\ hill\\ that\\&\\#39\\;s\\ only\\ 90\\ meters\\ high\\,\\ hundreds\\ of\\ kilometers\\ away\\.\\ The\\ long\\,\\ slow\\ descent\\ requires\\ the\\ aquaduct\\ to\\ cross\\ the\\ Gard\\ River\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ impressive\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ structure\\.\\ Here\\,\\ the\\ structure\\ reaches\\ a\\ height\\ of\\ over\\ 40\\ meters\\ over\\ the\\ river\\,\\ giving\\ it\\ great\\ technical\\ and\\ aesthetic\\ importance\\.\\ The\\ bridge\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ three\\ tiers\\ of\\ arches\\:\\ the\\ first\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ 6\\ arches\\ \\(142\\ meters\\ long\\)\\,\\ the\\ second\\ has\\ 11\\ arches\\ \\(242\\ meters\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ has\\ 35\\ small\\ arches\\ \\(275\\ meters\\)\\.\\ The\\ entire\\ bridge\\ is\\ constructed\\ of\\ yellow\\ stone\\ blocks\\ weighing\\ 6\\ tons\\ each\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 5\\.10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Statue\\ of\\ Augustus\\ from\\ Livia\\&\\#39\\;s\\ villa\\ at\\ Prima\\ Porta\\.\\ Copy\\ in\\ marble\\ of\\ a\\ bronze\\ statue\\,\\ after\\ 20\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ statue\\ of\\ Augustus\\ at\\ Prima\\ Porta\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ famous\\ image\\ of\\ him\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ him\\ as\\ an\\ ideal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\imperator\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ commander\\-in\\-chief\\.\\ He\\ is\\ wearing\\ a\\ military\\ breastplate\\ and\\ holding\\ a\\ staff\\ of\\ command\\ in\\ his\\ left\\ hand\\.\\ He\\ raises\\ his\\ right\\ hand\\ in\\ the\\ gesture\\ of\\ addressing\\ his\\ troops\\.\\ On\\ the\\ breastplate\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ that\\ was\\ carefully\\ chosen\\.\\ A\\ Roman\\ soldier\\ with\\ a\\ hunting\\ dog\\ at\\ his\\ feet\\ and\\ a\\ more\\ exotically\\ dressed\\ man\\ wearing\\ trousers\\,\\ tunic\\ and\\ a\\ beard\\ is\\ holding\\ up\\ a\\ standard\\ with\\ an\\ eagle\\ at\\ the\\ top\\.\\ The\\ foreigner\\ is\\ a\\ Parthian\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ depicted\\ kneeling\\.\\ This\\ relates\\ to\\ Aug\\.\\ success\\ in\\ recovering\\ the\\ legionary\\ standard\\ lost\\ to\\ the\\ Parthians\\ by\\ Crassus\\ in\\ 53\\ BC\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ diplomatic\\ negotiations\\,\\ but\\ Aug\\.\\ depicts\\ it\\ here\\ as\\ a\\ victory\\ over\\ the\\ Parthia\\,\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ Romans\\ forced\\ the\\ Parthians\\ to\\ give\\ back\\ the\\ standard\\.\\ The\\ statue\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ an\\ advertisement\\ of\\ Aug\\.\\ as\\ a\\ great\\ command\\/general\\;\\ in\\ reality\\ Aug\\.\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ good\\ with\\ military\\ matters\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ victories\\ won\\ were\\ by\\ Agrippa\\ and\\ Tiberius\\.\\ But\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ that\\ Aug\\.\\ has\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ military\\ commander\\,\\ since\\ military\\ success\\ is\\ directly\\ correlated\\ with\\ political\\ success\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ expected\\ that\\ the\\ imperator\\ as\\ commander\\-in\\-chief\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ general\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\SLIDES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Breastplate\\ after\\ 20\\ BC\\.\\ \\ \\;Depicts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Parthian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;returning\\ the\\ Roman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\legionary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\standards\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lost\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crassus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ 53\\ BC\\.\\ \\ \\;Twists\\ real\\ story\\:\\ diplomatic\\ negotiations\\ occurred\\,\\ not\\ victory\\ over\\ Parthia\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ statue\\ of\\ Augustus\\ in\\ Livia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ villa\\ at\\ Prima\\ Porta\\.\\ \\ \\;Military\\ success\\ part\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\princeps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;image\\.\\ \\ \\;Statue\\ showed\\ Augustus\\ the\\ general\\ as\\ ultimate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dux\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(leader\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\See\\ Lecture\\ V\\ notes\\,\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 148\\ a\\-b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Coin\\ shows\\ kneeling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Parthian\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;returning\\ Roman\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\legionary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\standards\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Inscription\\:\\ CAESAR\\ and\\ SIGN\\[\\.\\.\\]\\ RECE\\[PT\\.\\.\\]\\ \\=\\ \\"\\;the\\ standards\\ received\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\ BC\\.\\ \\ \\;Same\\ motive\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\5\\.11\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\See\\ Lecture\\ V\\ notes\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 146\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portrait\\ bust\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Livia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ second\\ wife\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ the\\ proud\\ Claudii\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ powerful\\ imperial\\ wives\\ and\\ mothers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\See\\ Lecture\\ VI\\ notes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 6\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Theater\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Marcellus\\,\\ adoptive\\ son\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ 13\\ BC\\ \\\\Marcellus\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Octavia\\,\\ making\\ him\\ effectively\\ A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ nephew\\ \\[mirroring\\ \\A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ relationship\\ with\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\]\\ was\\ a\\ clear\\ favorite\\ of\\ A\\&\\#39\\;s\\,\\ and\\ \\was\\ his\\ marked\\ heir\\.\\ A\\ married\\ Marcellus\\ off\\ to\\ Julia\\ \\[A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ daughter\\]\\ in\\ 25\\ \\B\\.C\\.\\;\\ unfortunately\\,\\ Marcellus\\ died\\ in\\ 23\\ B\\.C\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ death\\ of\\ Marcellus\\ is\\ \\also\\ documented\\ in\\ Virgil\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Aeneid\\ \\-\\-\\ in\\ Book\\ VI\\ when\\ Anchises\\ is\\ telling\\ \\of\\ a\\ young\\ man\\ who\\ grieved\\ the\\ nation\\ when\\ he\\ died\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ \\which\\ A\\ depended\\ on\\ Marcellus\\ to\\ be\\ his\\ heir\\.\\ The\\ theater\\ of\\ Marcellus\\ was\\ \\built\\ in\\ 13\\ B\\.C\\.\\,\\ ten\\ years\\ after\\ Marcellus\\&\\#39\\;\\ death\\,\\ probably\\ to\\ \\commemorate\\ him\\ as\\ A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ adopted\\ son\\.\\ A\\ word\\ on\\ theaters\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ theatre\\ of\\ \\Marcellus\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ other\\ theatre\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ apart\\ from\\ the\\ theatre\\ of\\ \\Pompey\\;\\ A\\ loved\\ theatres\\,\\ because\\ when\\ he\\ did\\ go\\ in\\,\\ he\\ was\\ among\\ the\\ \\masses\\,\\ symbolic\\ of\\ the\\ leader\\ addressing\\ his\\ people\\ directly\\.\\ It\\ also\\ \\gave\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ popular\\ support\\,\\ since\\ it\\ could\\ seat\\ 12\\-15\\,000\\ people\\.\\ It\\ \\was\\ a\\ center\\ for\\ high\\ culture\\ \\-\\-\\ Roman\\ plays\\ and\\ poetry\\ would\\ be\\ read\\ \\here\\,\\ and\\ A\\ attended\\ often\\ \\[juxtaposed\\ with\\ Caesar\\,\\ who\\ attended\\,\\ but\\ read\\ \\letters\\ all\\ the\\ time\\]\\.\\ Finally\\ \\-\\-\\ as\\ with\\ many\\ other\\ objects\\ of\\ \\architecture\\ during\\ the\\ Augustan\\ period\\,\\ by\\ naming\\ buildings\\ after\\ his\\ \\family\\ members\\,\\ A\\ created\\ a\\ ubiquitous\\ presence\\ for\\ his\\ family\\ in\\ Rome\\ \\-\\-\\ \\connotations\\ of\\ being\\ dynastic\\ and\\ immortaility\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\6\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\Coin\\ with\\ Augustus\\ on\\ obverse\\ and\\ Marcus\\ Agrippa\\ on\\ reverse\\.\\ Agrippa\\ is\\ \\wearing\\ a\\ \\"\\;naval\\ crown\\.\\"\\;\\ c\\.\\ 12\\ BC\\.\\ Sim\\.\\ to\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 168\\.\\ Agrippa\\,\\ as\\ \\other\\ descriptions\\ of\\ him\\ have\\ mentioned\\,\\ was\\ considered\\,\\ with\\ maecenas\\,\\ \\one\\ of\\ \\"\\;those\\ closest\\ to\\"\\;\\ A\\.\\ Agrippa\\ was\\ A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ star\\ general\\,\\ helping\\ in\\ the\\ \\war\\ of\\ Perugia\\,\\ Naulochus\\,\\ and\\ Actium\\;\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ great\\ general\\,\\ but\\ also\\ \\a\\ faithful\\ supporter\\,\\ a\\ public\\ benefactor\\,\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ an\\ \\autobiography\\.\\.\\.\\ he\\ basically\\ devoted\\ all\\ his\\ energies\\ ot\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ \\Rome\\ and\\ its\\ empire\\,\\ the\\ emperor\\ and\\ the\\ dynasty\\ \\[becoming\\ part\\ of\\ it\\ \\himself\\,\\ in\\ his\\ marriage\\ to\\ Julia\\ and\\ 21\\ BC\\]\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ chosen\\ heir\\ after\\ \\marcellus\\&\\#39\\;\\ death\\;\\ unfortunately\\,\\ he\\ died\\ in\\ 12\\ BC\\,\\ which\\ is\\ when\\ this\\ coin\\ \\was\\ minted\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ coin\\ was\\ produced\\ in\\ memory\\ of\\ Agrippa\\,\\ \\not\\ only\\ fantastic\\ general\\ \\[as\\ evidenced\\ by\\ the\\ ship\\-crown\\ on\\ his\\ head\\]\\ \\and\\ benefactor\\ of\\ Rome\\,\\ but\\ also\\ good\\ friend\\ and\\ right\\ hand\\ man\\ to\\ \\Augustus\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ ship\\-crown\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ commemorating\\ \\Agrippa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ naval\\ victory\\ against\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\ at\\ Actium\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ \\that\\ Agrippa\\&\\#39\\;s\\ profile\\ is\\ feature\\ on\\ the\\ reverse\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ reflects\\ the\\ \\closeness\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ men\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\6\\.7\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\Julia\\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\ The\\ woman\\ who\\ helped\\ secure\\ all\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\heirs\\,\\ but\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ a\\ huge\\ pain\\ in\\ his\\ life\\ because\\ of\\ her\\ \\adulterous\\ ways\\ \\[in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ marriage\\ laws\\ and\\ hopes\\ to\\ restore\\ \\morals\\ to\\ the\\ republic\\]\\.\\ First\\ married\\ Marcellus\\ in\\ 25\\ BC\\,\\ then\\ when\\ \\Marcellus\\ died\\ in\\ 23\\ BC\\,\\ she\\ married\\ Agrippa\\ in\\ 21\\ BC\\,\\ and\\ when\\ Agrippa\\ \\died\\ in\\ 12\\ BC\\,\\ she\\ married\\ Tiberius\\ in\\ 11\\ BC\\;\\ finally\\ she\\ was\\ banished\\ by\\ \\Augustus\\ in\\ 2\\ BC\\.\\ She\\ provided\\ Augustus\\ with\\ more\\ heirs\\ in\\ her\\ short\\ \\marriage\\ with\\ Agrippa\\,\\ producing\\ five\\ children\\:\\ Gaius\\,\\ Lucius\\ \\[both\\ boys\\ \\whom\\ A\\ adopted\\ into\\ the\\ Caesarian\\ family\\]\\,\\ Agrippina\\,\\ Julia\\ the\\ younger\\ \\\\[who\\ was\\ also\\ promiscuous\\ and\\ was\\ banished\\ as\\ well\\]\\,\\ and\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\ \\\\[apparently\\ a\\ disgrace\\ to\\ the\\ family\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ slow\\ and\\ indolent\\,\\ and\\ \\eventually\\ was\\ murdered\\ during\\ Tiberius\\&\\#39\\;\\ reign\\ to\\ secure\\ T\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ position\\ \\of\\ power\\]\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.8\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\\\Coin\\ with\\ Augustus\\ on\\ obverse\\,\\ Julia\\ flanked\\ by\\ Gaius\\ and\\ Lucius\\ on\\ the\\ reverse\\.\\ \\Sim\\.\\ to\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 167b\\.\\ Julia\\ was\\ daughter\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ married\\ to\\ Marcellus\\,\\ \\Agrippa\\,\\ and\\ Tiberius\\.\\ Gaius\\ and\\ Lucius\\ were\\ Julia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sons\\,\\ and\\ apparent\\ heirs\\ to\\ \\August\\,\\ until\\ both\\ died\\ young\\ and\\ within\\ two\\ years\\ of\\ eachother\\.\\ Julia\\ was\\ exiled\\ \\for\\ adultery\\ in\\ 2\\ BCE\\.\\ \\\\25\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ daughter\\ Julia\\ marries\\ A\\.\\&\\#39\\;s\\ nephew\\ Marcellus\\ 23\\ death\\ of\\ Marcellus\\ \\21\\ Julia\\ marries\\ Agrippa\\;\\ 20\\ birth\\ of\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;grandson\\ Gaius\\ Caesar\\ \\(son\\ of\\ \\Julia\\ and\\ Agrippa\\)\\;\\ 17\\ birth\\ of\\ \\Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ grandson\\ Lucius\\ Caesar\\ \\(son\\ of\\ Julia\\ and\\ Agrippa\\)\\,\\ adoption\\ of\\ Gaius\\ \\and\\ Lucius\\ by\\ Augustus\\;\\ 12\\ death\\ of\\ Agrippa\\;\\ 11\\ Julia\\ \\marries\\ Tiberius\\ \\(Livia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ by\\ previous\\ husband\\)\\ \\5\\ B\\.C\\.\\ Gaius\\ designated\\ as\\ consul\\ five\\ years\\ in\\ \\advance\\;\\ \\\\ \\;2\\ B\\.C\\.\\ Lucius\\ designated\\ as\\ consul\\ five\\ years\\ in\\ advance\\;\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ daughter\\ \\Julia\\ banished\\ for\\ adultery\\ with\\ Iullus\\ Antonius\\ \\(son\\ of\\ \\Mark\\ Antony\\)\\ and\\ others\\;\\ 2\\ A\\.D\\.\\ death\\ of\\ Lucius\\;\\ 4\\ death\\ of\\ Gaius\\,\\ Augustus\\ \\adopts\\ Tiberius\\ \\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\6\\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\\\Cameo\\ of\\ Livia\\ and\\ Augustus\\ \\(14\\ AD\\ \\=\\ posthumous\\)\\.\\ Livia\\ has\\ the\\ attributes\\-\\-\\ \\wheat\\,\\ poppies\\,\\ and\\ diadem\\,\\ of\\ the\\ goddess\\ Ceres\\.\\ Zanker\\ fig\\.\\ 184\\.\\ Livia\\ was\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\third\\ \\(and\\ final\\ wife\\)\\.\\ Ceres\\ was\\ the\\ Roman\\ goddess\\ of\\ growth\\ and\\ fertility\\,\\ \\identified\\ with\\ Greek\\ Demeter\\.\\ Ceres\\ had\\ a\\ cult\\ following\\ in\\ Rome\\.\\ \\\\\\Notes\\ on\\ Livia\\ from\\ lecture\\:\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Livia\\ a\\ clear\\ winner\\:\\ her\\ son\\ Tiberius\\ now\\ Princeps\\,\\ her\\ own\\ status\\ enhanced\\;\\ \\given\\ title\\ \\"\\;Augusta\\,\\"\\;\\ position\\ somewhat\\ like\\ that\\ of\\ Queen\\ Mother\\ but\\ with\\ more\\ \\ability\\ to\\ influence\\ policy\\.\\ Livia\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ powerful\\ imperial\\ \\wives\\ and\\ mothers\\,\\ cf\\.\\ Agrippina\\ \\the\\ mother\\ of\\ Nero\\ \\(granddaughter\\ of\\ Julia\\ and\\ Agrippa\\)\\.\\ Roman\\ ambivalence\\ about\\ \\a\\ woman\\ with\\ great\\ power\\ may\\ account\\ for\\ hostile\\ tradition\\ about\\ Livia\\,\\ image\\ of\\ \\her\\ as\\ scheming\\ or\\ murderous\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\9\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\Reconstruction\\ of\\ Pompey\\&\\#39\\;s\\ theater\\,\\ dedicated\\ in\\ 57\\ BC\\ \\(first\\ permanent\\ theater\\ \\building\\ in\\ Rome\\)\\ in\\ honor\\ of\\ Pompey\\ the\\ Great\\ \\(of\\ Pompey\\-Caesar\\-Crassus\\ fame\\)\\.\\ \\Tarrant\\ discusses\\ this\\ slide\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ comparing\\ poets\\&rsquo\\;\\ desire\\ for\\ fame\\ and\\ \\permanence\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ political\\ leaders\\.\\ Poets\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ often\\ referred\\ to\\ \\their\\ poems\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;monuments\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\(Catullus\\ refers\\ to\\ Cinna\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Smyrna\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;small\\ \\monument\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Horace\\ compares\\ his\\ poems\\ to\\ the\\ pyramids\\ in\\ Odes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 9\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\The\\ tomb\\ of\\ a\\ wealthy\\ freedman\\ \\(a\\ baker\\)\\,\\ resembling\\ in\\ shape\\ a\\ large\\ \\granary\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ individuals\\ sought\\ lasting\\ memory\\ through\\ \\monuments\\,\\ even\\ after\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ baker\\ must\\ have\\ worked\\ his\\ way\\ up\\ \\through\\ life\\ to\\ create\\ such\\ an\\ expensive\\ very\\ individual\\ celebration\\ of\\ \\his\\ job\\ and\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ mentality\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ reach\\ gloria\\/fame\\ through\\ \\lasting\\ monuments\\/achievements\\ created\\ tension\\ in\\ the\\ Augustan\\ world\\:\\ \\personal\\ political\\ ambition\\ \\(example\\ Cornelius\\ Gallus\\)\\ was\\ not\\ tolerated\\ \\by\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\ \\;Reference\\ slide\\ 5\\.6\\,\\ of\\ the\\ obelisk\\ with\\ Gallus\\&\\#39\\;\\ name\\ etched\\ \\into\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ poetic\\ ambition\\ flourished\\ and\\ Latin\\ poets\\ sought\\ their\\ \\own\\ immortality\\ through\\ ever\\-greater\\ poetic\\ works\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Slide\\ 9\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Reconstructed\\ view\\ of\\ a\\ public\\ library\\ in\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ \\the\\ only\\ medium\\ on\\ which\\ poems\\ could\\ be\\ recorded\\ was\\ the\\ highly\\ fragile\\ \\papyrus\\ scroll\\,\\ Rome\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ able\\ to\\ print\\/copy\\ poems\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ \\easily\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ public\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ collected\\ \\at\\ libraries\\ such\\ as\\ these\\.\\ \\ \\;Scholars\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ forced\\ to\\ travel\\ \\here\\ to\\ study\\ them\\;\\ it\\ changed\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ interacting\\ with\\ poetry\\ \\in\\ the\\ ancient\\ world\\,\\ explains\\ why\\ so\\ few\\ of\\ it\\ survives\\ today\\ \\(fragility\\ \\of\\ papyrus\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ consolidate\\ great\\ poetic\\ works\\ at\\ Rome\\,\\ \\centralize\\ culture\\ and\\ a\\ chance\\ for\\ Augustus\\ to\\ extol\\ the\\ cultural\\ \\superiority\\ of\\ Rome\\ under\\ his\\ reign\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Slide\\ 10\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\Enlarged\\ detail\\ of\\ 5th\\ century\\ BC\\ Greek\\ hydria\\.\\ Painted\\ scenes\\ depict\\ the\\ \\Sack\\ of\\ Troy\\.\\ Note\\:\\ Aeneas\\ carrying\\ Anchises\\ in\\ upper\\ left\\ corner\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\is\\ a\\ mosaic\\ of\\ scenes\\ depicting\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Troy\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ it\\ is\\ Greek\\ and\\ \\predates\\ Augustus\\ and\\ Virgil\\ by\\ 400\\ years\\,\\ this\\ jar\\ shows\\ that\\ pervasive\\ \\knowledge\\ and\\ celebration\\ of\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ the\\ events\\ related\\ in\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ \\already\\ existed\\ long\\ before\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ was\\ written\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ Virgil\\ had\\ the\\ \\opportunity\\ of\\ formalizing\\ the\\ myth\\ and\\ legends\\ that\\ were\\ already\\ \\circulating\\,\\ and\\ spinning\\ them\\ to\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ political\\ career\\ of\\ \\Augustus\\.\\ \\ \\;Specifically\\,\\ the\\ tensions\\ between\\ pessimistic\\ and\\ optimistic\\ \\readings\\ of\\ the\\ Aeneid\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ opinion\\ on\\ the\\ methods\\ and\\ \\legacy\\ of\\ Augustus\\ was\\ not\\ clear\\-cut\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Coin\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\:\\ Venus\\ on\\ the\\ obverse\\;\\ Aeneas\\ and\\ Anchises\\ on\\ the\\ reverse\\.\\ \\ \\;Aeneas\\ was\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Venus\\ and\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ Iulus\\,\\ traditionally\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ the\\ gens\\ Iulia\\ to\\ which\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ belonged\\ and\\ Octavian\\/Augustus\\ was\\ linked\\ by\\ adoption\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ coin\\ references\\ Caesar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ties\\ to\\ the\\ divine\\ Venus\\ and\\ the\\ Roman\\ founder\\-figure\\,\\ Aeneas\\;\\ Represents\\ the\\ Roman\\ side\\ of\\ Aeneas\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ Greek\\ side\\)\\ \\(Lecture\\ 11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Manuscript\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 4th\\/early\\ 5th\\ c\\.\\ AD\\ \\(late\\ Antiquity\\)\\ of\\ Virgil\\,\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eclogue\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Generalized\\ portrait\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poet\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Latin\\ Antiquity\\ \\-Virgil\\ is\\ pictured\\ at\\ his\\ work\\ with\\ his\\ tools\\-\\ lectern\\ and\\ papyrus\\ scroll\\-box\\ \\(containing\\ rolls\\ of\\ his\\ poetry\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Show\\ the\\ fame\\ that\\ Virgil\\ and\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ achieved\\ \\(Lecture\\ 11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;From\\ the\\ fourth\\ book\\,\\ confrontation\\ between\\ Anna\\ and\\ Dido\\ and\\ Aeneas\\,\\ debating\\ poses\\.\\ \\ \\;Anacrhonistic\\ illustrations\\ of\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Aeneid\\ to\\ accompany\\ the\\ text\\ show\\ how\\ important\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ was\\ even\\ to\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ \\(Vatican\\ Latium\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Virgil\\ seen\\ sort\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ pagan\\ prophet\\.\\ Show\\ the\\ fame\\ that\\ Virgil\\ and\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ achieved\\ \\(Lecture\\ 11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 12\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Phallic\\ votive\\ offering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ who\\ pray\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ and\\ subsequently\\ receive\\ benefit\\ would\\ dedicate\\ monument\\,\\ identifying\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ help\\,\\ to\\ express\\ thanks\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ monument\\ is\\ to\\ express\\ thanks\\ for\\ conception\\ of\\ a\\ child\\,\\ and\\ was\\ first\\ introduced\\ with\\ a\\ decorous\\ fig\\ leaf\\ hiding\\ the\\ phallus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 12\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ slide\\ is\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Flying\\ Phallus\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ represents\\ the\\ sexuality\\ that\\ was\\ so\\ prevalent\\ in\\ Roman\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ this\\ aspect\\ of\\ Roman\\ art\\ is\\ often\\ excluded\\ from\\ exhibits\\,\\ it\\ was\\ nonetheless\\ a\\ very\\ prevalent\\ and\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ Roman\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ phallic\\ symbols\\ represent\\ symbols\\ of\\ fertility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 14\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bernini\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rendition\\ of\\ Apollo\\ and\\ Daphne\\ \\(from\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Metamorphoses\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(1624\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theme\\ of\\ god\\ raping\\ nymph\\ tackled\\ by\\ many\\ Roman\\ wall\\ painters\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ illustrates\\ transformation\\ of\\ textual\\ into\\ sculptural\\ work\\ \\-\\-Apollo\\ almost\\ has\\ Daphne\\;\\ however\\,\\ the\\ desperate\\ Daphne\\ \\(arms\\ outstretched\\ in\\ desperation\\)\\ has\\ begun\\ to\\ transform\\ into\\ a\\ laurel\\ tree\\.\\ Image\\ intended\\ to\\ elicit\\ sympathy\\ for\\ helpless\\ victim\\?\\ \\ \\;Artist\\ perhaps\\ attempting\\ to\\ illustrate\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ that\\ meaning\\ is\\ a\\ construct\\-\\ depends\\ on\\ whose\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ one\\ focuses\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;Possible\\ Augustan\\ links\\ could\\ be\\ suggesting\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ tendency\\ to\\ abuse\\ power\\,\\ like\\ Apollo\\,\\ and\\ allow\\ passion\\ to\\ overtake\\ sense\\ of\\ right\\ and\\ decency\\,\\ victimizing\\ the\\ helpless\\,\\ like\\ Daphne\\.\\ \\ \\;Important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ what\\ artist\\ focus\\ on\\ important\\ and\\ indicative\\ of\\ intent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slide\\ 14\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ depiction\\ of\\ the\\ rape\\ of\\ Europa\\ by\\ Titian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tale\\ of\\ Europa\\ carried\\ off\\ by\\ Jupiter\\,\\ disguised\\ as\\ a\\ white\\ bull\\,\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ frequently\\ explored\\ by\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ scene\\ is\\ visualized\\ very\\ clearly\\,\\ with\\ Europa\\ clutching\\ onto\\ Jupiter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ horn\\ with\\ one\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ action\\ here\\ is\\ advanced\\,\\ for\\ the\\ bull\\ has\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ shore\\,\\ with\\ the\\ terrified\\ Europa\\ holding\\ the\\ a\\ streaming\\ garment\\ above\\ her\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Details\\ of\\ Titian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rendering\\ correspond\\ to\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ second\\ account\\ of\\ Europa\\ in\\ the\\ tapestry\\ of\\ Arachne\\:\\ He\\ precisely\\ shows\\ Europa\\ lifting\\ her\\ legs\\,\\ and\\ desperately\\ trying\\ to\\ keep\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Erotes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(cherubs\\)\\ indicates\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Amor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ operating\\ within\\ this\\ scene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Titian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ depiction\\ illustrates\\ the\\ richness\\ and\\ diversity\\ of\\ perspectives\\ on\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stories\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Image\\ 14\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Fall\\ of\\ Icarus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Pieter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Brueghel\\ \\(16\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\image\\ adapted\\ from\\ Daedalus\\/Icarus\\ myth\\ in\\ Ovid\\,\\ Book\\ VIII\\,\\ pp187\\-190\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\illustrates\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ myths\\ in\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ \\(250\\+\\ myths\\!\\)\\ to\\ artists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Brueghel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ description\\ seem\\ very\\ different\\:\\ for\\ Ovid\\,\\ Icarus\\&rsquo\\;\\ fall\\ is\\ the\\ central\\ event\\;\\ for\\ Brueghel\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ minor\\ detail\\,\\ easily\\ missed\\ \\(Icarus\\ is\\ only\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ tiny\\ pair\\ of\\ legs\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ bottom\\ corner\\,\\ sticking\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ splashing\\ water\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brueghel\\:\\ everything\\ is\\ calm\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ farmer\\,\\ the\\ ship\\,\\ the\\ shepherd\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\:\\ could\\ be\\ interpreted\\ as\\ affirmation\\ of\\ Ovid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ meaning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ too\\ proud\\ or\\ ambitious\\.\\ \\(Hence\\,\\ Icarus\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ center\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ during\\ Renaissance\\,\\ Icarus\\ myth\\ was\\ often\\ interpreted\\ \\(following\\ humanist\\ tradition\\)\\ that\\ Icarus\\ \\=\\ hero\\ who\\ risked\\ everything\\ for\\ greatness\\.\\ However\\,\\ Brueghel\\,\\ creating\\ this\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ Baroque\\ tradition\\,\\ reacting\\ against\\ the\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ humankind\\,\\ by\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;smallness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ man\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ universe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Slide\\ 15\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ Archaic\\ Greek\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kouros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ Sounion\\ in\\ Attica\\,\\ 600\\-575\\ BC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ image\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kouros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ young\\ man\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Archaic\\ artistic\\ style\\ that\\ was\\ characteristic\\ of\\ Greek\\ art\\,\\ pre\\-500\\ B\\.C\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ Archaic\\ depiction\\ of\\ people\\,\\ individuality\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ priority\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ statue\\ presents\\ a\\ generic\\ young\\ man\\ with\\ a\\ typical\\ archaic\\-style\\ appearance\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ athletic\\ man\\:\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ stylized\\ face\\,\\ large\\ \\&ldquo\\;handle\\-shaped\\&rdquo\\;\\ ears\\,\\ curly\\ symmetrical\\ patterned\\ hair\\ and\\ patterned\\ braids\\,\\ large\\ blank\\ eyes\\,\\ \\(usually\\,\\ not\\ really\\ shown\\ here\\ but\\ general\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kouros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ typical\\ \\&ldquo\\;archaic\\ smile\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ his\\ mouth\\)\\,\\ and\\ abstract\\ and\\ geometric\\ muscles\\ on\\ his\\ torso\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ statue\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ typical\\ rigid\\ frontal\\ pose\\,\\ mid\\-walk\\ with\\ one\\ leg\\ forward\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ archaic\\ style\\ of\\ depicting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kouros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ so\\ stylized\\ and\\ predictable\\ that\\ usually\\ there\\ was\\ little\\ difference\\ from\\ one\\ statue\\ to\\ the\\ next\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ non\\-naturalistic\\ depiction\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ figure\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ softened\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ Archaic\\ period\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;severe\\ style\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ showed\\ greater\\ realism\\,\\ but\\ this\\ slide\\ shows\\ a\\ typical\\,\\ standardized\\,\\ and\\ non\\-naturalistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kouros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ discussed\\ Greek\\ art\\ in\\ this\\ class\\ as\\ preceding\\ Roman\\ art\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Archaic\\ style\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ store\\ of\\ examples\\ of\\ art\\ that\\ could\\ have\\ influenced\\ Roman\\ artists\\,\\ so\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ studied\\.\\ \\ \\;Focus\\ was\\ on\\ depictions\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Slide\\ 15\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Kritios\\ boy\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ Greek\\ sculture\\ circa\\ 490\\ BC\\;\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Classical\\&rdquo\\;\\ period\\ \\(apprxom\\ 450\\-350\\ BC\\)\\,\\ noted\\ for\\ greater\\ realism\\ in\\ depicition\\ of\\ facial\\ and\\ anatomical\\ features\\,\\ yet\\ as\\ in\\ Archaic\\ period\\,\\ figures\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ individually\\ distinctive\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Image\\ 16\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ bust\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\ Homer\\,\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ Hellenistic\\ style\\ \\(1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ B\\.C\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ portrayal\\ is\\ realistic\\,\\ as\\ evident\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;warts\\ and\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ poet\\ is\\ depicted\\ with\\ a\\ wrinkled\\ face\\,\\ balding\\ head\\,\\ and\\ tossed\\ hair\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ bust\\,\\ is\\ unlike\\ that\\ of\\ Socrates\\,\\ who\\ is\\ portrayed\\ in\\ the\\ more\\ idealistic\\ classical\\ style\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ contrast\\ to\\ Socrates\\&rsquo\\;\\ bust\\,\\ this\\ depiction\\ makes\\ Homer\\ appear\\ less\\ dominant\\ and\\ powerful\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ style\\ may\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ portray\\ Homer\\ as\\ a\\ venerable\\ figure\\,\\ and\\ convey\\ the\\ message\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gravitas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Alexander\\ the\\ great\\.\\ Coin\\ of\\ Alexander\\ the\\ Great\\,\\ showing\\ attributes\\ \\(ram\\&\\#39\\;s\\ horns\\)\\ of\\ the\\ god\\ Zeus\\ Ammon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alexander\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 356\\ BC\\ in\\ Macedonia\\,\\ the\\ area\\ around\\ present\\ day\\ Thessaloniki\\ in\\ northern\\ Greece\\.\\ Though\\ the\\ Macedonians\\ might\\ have\\ considered\\ themselves\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ cultural\\ world\\,\\ the\\ other\\ Greeks\\ might\\ have\\ viewed\\ them\\ as\\ half\\-barbarians\\.\\ Alexander\\&\\#39\\;s\\ father\\,\\ King\\ Philip\\,\\ was\\ an\\ energetic\\ ruler\\ who\\ had\\ started\\ a\\ systematic\\ policy\\ of\\ expanding\\ his\\ kingdom\\.\\ Philip\\&\\#39\\;s\\ main\\ conquest\\ was\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ mainland\\,\\ after\\ his\\ victory\\ at\\ Chaeronea\\ in\\ 338\\ BC\\.\\ Alexander\\,\\ still\\ in\\ his\\ teens\\,\\ commanded\\ the\\ Macedonian\\ cavalry\\ during\\ this\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ coin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ features\\:\\ idealization\\.\\ the\\ rams\\ horns\\,\\ suggesting\\ deification\\ \\(godliness\\)\\ the\\ flowing\\,\\ long\\ upswept\\ hair\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(anastole\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ and\\ feminized\\ features\\.\\ Beauty\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ glodliness\\.\\ And\\ damn\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ he\\ beautiful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Coin\\ of\\ Ptolemy\\ III\\ of\\ Egypt\\,\\ with\\ attributes\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ Helios\\ \\(sun\\-ray\\ crown\\)\\,\\ Zeus\\ and\\ Poseidon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ trident\\ \\(three\\ pronged\\ spear\\)\\ is\\ illustrative\\ of\\ Poseiden\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Neptune\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ you\\ Greek\\-educated\\ mythological\\ cats\\&hellip\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\again\\,\\ take\\ note\\ of\\ the\\ scruffy\\ hair\\.\\ He\\ looks\\ relaxed\\.\\ A\\ calm\\ leader\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ \\"\\;Terme\\ ruler\\"\\;\\:\\ Life\\-size\\ statue\\ of\\ Roman\\ general\\,\\ 150\\-125\\ BC\\.\\ Zanker\\,\\ fig\\.\\ 1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ call\\ \\&lsquo\\;heroic\\ nudity\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ The\\ exaggeration\\ of\\ the\\ perfect\\ human\\ form\\,\\ the\\ spear\\ actually\\ helps\\ the\\ statue\\ stand\\ up\\,\\ so\\ the\\ man\\ can\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ moving\\,\\ more\\ animated\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ flat\\ on\\ his\\ feet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Head\\ of\\ Pompey\\ the\\ Great\\.\\ See\\ lecture\\ 2\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Zanker\\,\\ fig\\.\\ 6\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ year\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\60bc\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ remember\\ the\\ \\ \\;unofficial\\ pact\\ \\(the\\ wrongly\\ named\\ \\"\\;First\\ Triumvirate\\"\\;\\)\\ uniting\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gnaeus\\ Pompeius\\ \\(\\=\\ Pompey\\ the\\ Great\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ and\\ Marcus\\ Crassus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Still\\,\\ this\\ statue\\ has\\ Pompey\\ with\\ a\\ slightly\\ big\\ nose\\,\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ realistic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Early\\ head\\ of\\ Octavian\\ \\(37\\ BC\\)\\,\\ bearded\\,\\ from\\ Arles\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Keep\\ in\\ mind\\:\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ coins\\ and\\ statues\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ a\\ record\\ of\\ how\\ he\\ looked\\ at\\ any\\ particular\\ time\\ as\\ of\\ how\\ he\\ wished\\ or\\ allowed\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\-\\-a\\ freedom\\ not\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ most\\ modern\\ political\\ figures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ Early\\ coins\\ and\\ statues\\ show\\ Octavian\\ bearded\\,\\ a\\ symbol\\ or\\ his\\ mourning\\ for\\ Julius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Coin\\ of\\ Octavian\\,\\ 38\\ BC\\.\\ Obv\\.\\:\\ Octavian\\,\\ bearded\\,\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sidus\\ Iulium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Julian\\ star\\)\\ and\\ inscription\\ DIVI\\ F\\[ILIUS\\]\\ \\(\\"\\;son\\ of\\ the\\ deified\\ one\\.\\"\\;\\)\\ Rev\\.\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Corona\\ civica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\"\\;civic\\ crown\\"\\;\\)\\ and\\ inscription\\ DIVOS\\ IULIUS\\ \\(\\"\\;the\\ deified\\ Julius\\.\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\take\\ note\\ of\\ the\\ olive\\ leaves\\ symbolizing\\ peace\\.\\ Very\\ simple\\ coin\\.\\ What\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ there\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Small\\ intaglio\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\glyptic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\art\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\consisting\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\of\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\a\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\sunken\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\or\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\depressed\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\engraving\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\or\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\carving\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\on\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\a\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\stone\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\or\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\gem\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\ \\;showing\\ Octavian\\ as\\ Neptune\\.\\ Showing\\ him\\ as\\ Neptune\\,\\ in\\ heroic\\ nudity\\,\\ suggests\\ a\\ blatant\\ deification\\ of\\ the\\ leader\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;17\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Denarius\\ showing\\ Octavian\\ with\\ foot\\ on\\ a\\ sphere\\,\\ holding\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\aphlaston\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(stern\\)\\ and\\ staff\\.\\ Between\\ 36\\ and\\ 31\\ BC\\.\\ Honesty\\,\\ not\\ really\\ of\\ interest\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ got\\ his\\ foot\\ on\\ the\\ sphere\\,\\ great\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;on\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;\\ we\\ all\\ get\\ the\\ imagery\\.\\ Not\\ much\\ more\\ to\\ squeeze\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Aureus\\ with\\ head\\ of\\ Octavian\\,\\ now\\ Augustus\\.\\ Inscription\\ reads\\:\\ CAESAR\\ DIVI\\ F\\[ILIUS\\]\\ COS\\ VII\\ \\=\\ \\"\\;Caesar\\,\\ son\\ of\\ the\\ deified\\ one\\,\\ consul\\ for\\ the\\ seventh\\ time\\.\\"\\;\\ 27\\ BC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ looks\\ young\\,\\ huh\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idealized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prima\\ Porta\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ talking\\.\\ This\\ is\\ pretty\\ important\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Augustus\\ of\\ Prima\\ Porta\\,\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ commissioned\\ in\\ 15\\ A\\.D\\.\\ by\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ adopted\\ son\\ Tiberius\\,\\ is\\ a\\ majestic\\ example\\ of\\ Imperial\\ Roman\\ statuary\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hair\\ meticulously\\ arranged\\:\\ note\\ stylized\\ grouping\\ of\\ locks\\ on\\ forehead\\,\\ the\\ signature\\ of\\ this\\ type\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ arm\\ outstretched\\ to\\ suggest\\ a\\ look\\ towards\\ the\\ future\\,\\ change\\,\\ vision\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nothing\\ overtly\\ dramatic\\ or\\ superhuman\\;\\ in\\ Primaporta\\ statue\\ divine\\ connections\\ subtly\\ suggested\\ by\\ figure\\ of\\ Cupid\\,\\ chilling\\ under\\ the\\ statue\\,\\ looking\\ up\\ at\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Check\\ out\\ the\\ breast\\ plate\\:\\ lots\\ of\\ good\\ stuff\\ carved\\ in\\ relief\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\scenes\\ depicting\\ the\\ Roman\\ victory\\ over\\ the\\ Parthians\\.\\ \\;\\ These\\ scenes\\ were\\ used\\ by\\ Tiberius\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ propaganda\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ viewer\\ would\\ recall\\ the\\ important\\ role\\ his\\ father\\ played\\ in\\ securing\\ the\\ Roman\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\.7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drawing\\ of\\ statue\\ of\\ Augustus\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pontifex\\ Maximus\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ toga\\ drawn\\ up\\ over\\ the\\ head\\.\\ After\\ 12\\ BC\\.\\ Really\\ not\\ that\\ interesting\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ waste\\ your\\ time\\ on\\ this\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theater\\ of\\ Pompey\\.\\ \\ \\;theater\\ complex\\ \\(55\\ B\\.C\\.\\)\\ the\\ first\\ permanent\\ theater\\ in\\ Rome\\;\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ the\\ increased\\ wealth\\ and\\ ambitions\\ of\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Temple\\ of\\ Apollo\\ on\\ the\\ Palatine\\(mid\\-20s\\ B\\.C\\.\\)\\;\\ super\\ important\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ building\\ program\\ larger\\,\\ more\\ comprehensive\\,\\ more\\ carefully\\ planned\\ and\\ integrated\\ than\\ anything\\ earlier\\.\\ Recent\\ availability\\ of\\ high\\-quality\\ marble\\ from\\ Carrara\\ allows\\ for\\ new\\ level\\ of\\ magnificence\\;\\ this\\ constructed\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;white\\ luna\\ marble\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;interesting\\ for\\ location\\,\\ in\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ city\\ and\\ linked\\ to\\ Augustus\\&\\#39\\;\\ own\\ new\\ residence\\,\\ the\\ ultimate\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ term\\ \\"\\;palace\\"\\;\\;\\ recall\\ Ovid\\&\\#39\\;s\\ mischievous\\ reference\\ to\\ Mt\\.\\ Olympus\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ Palatine\\ of\\ heaven\\"\\;\\.\\ Temple\\ complex\\ included\\ a\\ major\\ library\\ of\\ Greek\\ and\\ Latin\\ literary\\ classics\\:\\ as\\ building\\&\\#39\\;s\\ architecture\\ links\\ Rome\\ to\\ Greek\\ classical\\ past\\,\\ union\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ literatures\\ implies\\ Rome\\&\\#39\\;s\\ equality\\ with\\ Greece\\ and\\ full\\ assimilation\\ of\\ Greek\\ culture\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Link\\ of\\ Library\\ to\\ Temple\\ avoids\\ a\\ \\"\\;royal\\"\\;\\ connection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Forum\\ Augustus\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ check\\ this\\ info\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Temple\\ of\\ Mars\\ Ultor\\ \\(Mars\\ the\\ Avenger\\)\\ and\\ Forum\\ of\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;vowed\\ in\\ 42\\ B\\.C\\.\\,\\ not\\ completed\\ until\\ 2\\ B\\.C\\.\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;21\\.\\ Located\\ next\\ to\\ the\\ forum\\ of\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\,\\ originally\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ proclaiming\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\"\\;avenging\\"\\;\\ of\\ Julius\\&\\#39\\;\\ death\\,\\ its\\ message\\ much\\ expanded\\ as\\ project\\ developed\\,\\ especially\\ after\\ the\\ Parthian\\ \\"\\;victory\\"\\;\\ of\\ 20\\ and\\ the\\ recovery\\ of\\ lost\\ legionary\\ standards\\.\\ In\\ final\\ form\\ a\\ synthesis\\ of\\ Roman\\ history\\ with\\ Augustus\\ as\\ culmination\\.\\ \\ \\;Temple\\ itself\\,\\ elements\\ identifiable\\ through\\ views\\ on\\ coins\\ and\\ allusions\\ in\\ later\\ monuments\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ grouping\\ of\\ Mars\\,\\ Venus\\,\\ Caesar\\ on\\ pediment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Side\\ \\"\\;halls\\ of\\ fame\\"\\;\\ with\\ statues\\ of\\ Roman\\ worthies\\,\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ simialr\\ feature\\ in\\ Pompey\\&\\#39\\;s\\ theatre\\.\\ Prominent\\ siting\\ of\\ Romulus\\ and\\ Aeneas\\ in\\ semicircular\\ exedrae\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Typically\\ eclectic\\ use\\ of\\ Greek\\ decorative\\ elements\\:\\ classically\\-styled\\ caryatids\\,\\ Corinthian\\ column\\-capitals\\,\\ copies\\ of\\ famous\\ Hellenistic\\ paintings\\ originally\\ associated\\ with\\ Alexander\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\18\\.4\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Complex\\ on\\ the\\ Campus\\ Martius\\ which\\ included\\ the\\ Mausoleum\\,\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\,\\ obelisk\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ustrinum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(funeral\\ pyre\\ base\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mausoleum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ Augustus\\;\\ the\\ earliest\\ of\\ all\\ buildings\\ in\\ this\\ district\\,\\ perhaps\\ a\\ relic\\ of\\ Octavian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ more\\ extravagant\\ self\\-presentation\\ before\\ Actium\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bigger\\ than\\ the\\ original\\ \\"\\;Mausoleum\\"\\;\\ built\\ by\\ Mausolus\\ in\\ 4th\\ c\\.\\ BC\\ \\(one\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ \\"\\;seven\\ wonders\\ of\\ world\\"\\;\\)\\:\\ 130\\ ft\\.\\ high\\,\\ 280\\ ft\\.\\ across\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ outdoing\\ the\\ pomp\\ of\\ Hellenistic\\ monarchs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ symbol\\ of\\ Octavian\\&\\#39\\;s\\ loyalty\\ to\\ Rome\\ and\\ a\\ counter\\ to\\ Antony\\&\\#39\\;s\\ rumored\\ wish\\ to\\ be\\ buried\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\During\\ A\\.\\&\\#39\\;s\\ long\\ life\\ becomes\\ a\\ family\\ resting\\-place\\,\\ taking\\ on\\ a\\ dynastic\\ significance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Given\\ new\\ meaning\\ when\\ incorporated\\ into\\ larger\\ complex\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sundial\\ with\\ Egyptian\\ obelisk\\ 100\\ ft\\.\\ high\\ as\\ its\\ gnomon\\ \\(\\ i\\.e\\.\\,pointer\\)\\.\\ Dedicated\\ 10\\ B\\.C\\.\\,\\ recalling\\ A\\.\\&\\#39\\;s\\ victory\\ over\\ Egypt\\.\\ Theory\\ mentioned\\ by\\ Zanker\\ that\\ sundial\\ pointed\\ to\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ on\\ A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ birthday\\ no\\ longer\\ seems\\ tenable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remember\\:\\ Ara\\ Pacis\\ is\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ auto\\-biography\\,\\ but\\ it\\ leaves\\ out\\ Julia\\ and\\ all\\ her\\ fuckups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;View\\ of\\ the\\ Forum\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ contemporary\\ view\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ now\\.\\ Not\\ nearly\\ as\\ preserved\\ as\\,\\ say\\,\\ the\\ pantheon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ \\"\\;Room\\ of\\ the\\ Masks\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Augustus\\ in\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prominent\\ element\\ in\\ domestic\\ art\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mythological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;scenes\\ relating\\ to\\ \\"\\;classic\\"\\;\\ literary\\ texts\\:\\ Homer\\,\\ Virgil\\,\\ Ovid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remember\\:\\ Emphasis\\ on\\ picturesque\\ or\\ romantic\\ incidents\\:\\ Odyssey\\ landscapes\\,\\ Trojan\\ \\ \\;\\ Horse\\,\\ ill\\-fated\\ Ovidian\\ characters\\ such\\ as\\ Pyramus\\ and\\ Thisbe\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-Combinations\\ of\\ subjects\\ in\\ \\"\\;theme\\"\\;\\ rooms\\,\\ integration\\ of\\ mythic\\ scenes\\ into\\ architectural\\ settings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Bronze\\ statue\\ \\(Greek\\)\\ of\\ a\\ youth\\ pressed\\ into\\ service\\ as\\ a\\ candelabra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Young\\ Roman\\ boys\\ were\\ known\\ each\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\kouros\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ Good\\ word\\.\\ Score\\ essay\\ points\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.4\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Wall\\-painting\\ from\\ Pompeii\\ showing\\ the\\ rescue\\ of\\ Andromeda\\ by\\ Perseus\\.\\ Not\\ very\\ intersting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\.5\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sacro\\-idyllic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\ scene\\ from\\ wall\\ decoaration\\ at\\ the\\ villa\\ of\\ Agrippa\\ Postumus\\ at\\ Boscotrecase\\.\\ 10\\ BC\\-10\\ AD\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.1\\ \\ \\;\\(lots\\ to\\ say\\ on\\ \\&lsquo\\;oration\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ public\\ speaking\\)\\ \\(though\\ not\\ directly\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ statue\\ itself\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bronze\\ statue\\ from\\ Etruria\\ \\[i\\.e\\.\\ where\\ the\\ Etruscans\\ were\\ from\\]\\ of\\ an\\ orator\\,\\ dressed\\ in\\ high\\ Roman\\ boots\\ and\\ a\\ toga\\.\\ Nicknamed\\ \\"\\;L\\&\\#39\\;Arringatore\\"\\;\\ \\(\\"\\;the\\ haranguer\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ 90\\-70\\ BC\\.\\ Museo\\ Archeologico\\,\\ Florence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oratory\\ skill\\ was\\ super\\-important\\ \\(think\\ Cicero\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ not\\-so\\-important\\ family\\ and\\ then\\ became\\ a\\ consul\\,\\ really\\ respected\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\So\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ so\\ important\\ about\\ this\\ dude\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oratory\\ the\\ skill\\ most\\ prized\\ by\\ the\\ Republican\\ elite\\ \\(along\\ with\\ military\\ success\\)\\.\\ Oratory\\ considered\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ prominent\\ speakers\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\.\\ Cato\\,\\ Cicero\\)\\ often\\ published\\ their\\ best\\ efforts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Public\\ speaking\\ central\\ to\\ law\\ and\\ politics\\:\\ both\\ involve\\ persuading\\/moving\\ large\\ groups\\,\\ many\\ political\\ figures\\ also\\ active\\ in\\ legal\\ system\\;\\ Roman\\ trials\\ large\\ public\\ events\\;\\ overlap\\ of\\ oratory\\ and\\ theater\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Speaking\\ ability\\ also\\ valued\\ in\\ military\\ commanders\\,\\ cf\\.\\ Augustus\\ of\\ Prima\\ Porta\\,\\ shown\\ addressing\\ an\\ imaginary\\ body\\ of\\ troops\\;\\ speeches\\ before\\ battles\\ a\\ standard\\ feature\\ of\\ Roman\\ historiography\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rhetoric\\ the\\ final\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\-class\\ educational\\ system\\ for\\ men\\ \\(not\\ for\\ women\\)\\,\\ after\\ basic\\ literacy\\ and\\ \\"\\;grammar\\,\\"\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ literature\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ speeches\\ prominent\\ in\\ Latin\\ poetry\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ Dido\\-Aeneas\\ confrontation\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;4\\,\\ monologues\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metamorphoses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Romans\\&\\#39\\;\\ high\\ regard\\ for\\ oratorical\\ skill\\ tempered\\ with\\ suspicion\\/hostility\\ toward\\ glibness\\,\\ mere\\ technical\\ proficiency\\,\\ perhaps\\ because\\ rhetoric\\ as\\ a\\ discipline\\ was\\ a\\ Greek\\ product\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rhetorical\\ schools\\ focus\\ on\\ two\\ main\\ kinds\\ of\\ exercise\\,\\ the\\ imaginary\\ legal\\ case\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\controversia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ where\\ student\\ is\\ given\\ facts\\ and\\ has\\ to\\ argue\\ for\\ one\\ side\\ or\\ the\\ other\\,\\ and\\ the\\ speech\\ of\\ advice\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\suasoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ where\\ student\\ advises\\ a\\ historical\\ or\\ mythological\\ character\\ in\\ making\\ a\\ critical\\ decision\\.\\ For\\ examples\\ of\\ both\\ types\\ cf\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sourcebook\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pp\\.\\ 239\\-243\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ subcategory\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\suasoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prosopopoeia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\"\\;role\\-playing\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ which\\ student\\ assumes\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ historical\\ or\\ mythological\\ character\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ situation\\ and\\ imagines\\ what\\ that\\ person\\ might\\ have\\ said\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ from\\ lecture\\ 21\\ where\\ the\\ professor\\ is\\ commenting\\ on\\ religion\\ in\\ the\\ Rome\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ gods\\,\\ the\\ lares\\,\\ the\\ penates\\,\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ family\\.\\ Here\\ both\\ the\\ human\\ figures\\ and\\ the\\ sanek\\ are\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ gods\\.\\ In\\ this\\ sense\\ religious\\ practices\\ were\\ pervasive\\ in\\ lives\\ of\\ many\\-\\-perhaps\\ most\\&mdash\\;Romans\\.\\ The\\ household\\ and\\ family\\ would\\ be\\ embodied\\/symbolized\\/protected\\ by\\ household\\ gods\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\lares\\,\\ penates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ representation\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ that\\ would\\ most\\ likely\\ be\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ entrance\\ of\\ a\\ home\\.\\ We\\ see\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ day\\ to\\ day\\ religious\\ practice\\ of\\ Romans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ scene\\ on\\ the\\ Ari\\ Pacis\\ of\\ Aeneas\\ offering\\ sacrifice\\.\\ Significantly\\ juxtaposed\\ with\\ it\\,\\ not\\ shown\\ in\\ this\\ slide\\,\\ is\\ a\\ figure\\ of\\ Augustus\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Ari\\ Pacis\\ these\\ two\\ scenes\\ are\\ actually\\ at\\ right\\ angle\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Professor\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;One\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ is\\ being\\ implied\\ is\\ continuity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ goes\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ Ari\\ Pacis\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ to\\ link\\ the\\ Rome\\ of\\ Augustus\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Rome\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ here\\ it\\ is\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ continuity\\ of\\ religious\\ observance\\ of\\ both\\ Augustus\\ and\\ Aeneas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Here\\ we\\ see\\ Augustus\\ on\\ the\\ throne\\ taking\\ the\\ familiar\\ positioning\\ of\\ Jupiter\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ positioning\\ we\\ had\\ seen\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ on\\ an\\ Alexander\\ coin\\ with\\ Zeus\\ on\\ the\\ throne\\.\\ The\\ god\\ most\\ natural\\ to\\ affiliate\\ Augustus\\ is\\ Jupiter\\,\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ their\\ similar\\ position\\ over\\ their\\ respective\\ kingdoms\\.\\ Horace\\ once\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jupiter\\ reigns\\ on\\ high\\,\\ Augustus\\ Reigns\\ on\\ earth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ Turquoise\\ cameo\\ of\\ Livia\\ and\\ Tiberius\\.\\ 14\\-19\\ AD\\.\\ in\\ the\\ Museum\\ of\\ Fine\\ Arts\\,\\ Boston\\.\\ I\\ could\\ not\\ find\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ it\\ was\\ supposedly\\ presented\\ in\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ portrait\\ of\\ Livia\\.\\ It\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ where\\ the\\ prof\\.\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ emphasis\\ put\\ on\\ the\\ fertility\\ of\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ family\\.\\ In\\ doing\\ so\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ careful\\ showcase\\ Livia\\ without\\ emphasizing\\ her\\ traditional\\ role\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ image\\ her\\ is\\ doing\\.\\ Otherwise\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ unsettling\\ for\\ Romans\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ woman\\ showcased\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ fear\\ the\\ behind\\ the\\ scenes\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ possible\\ image\\ of\\ Julia\\.\\ Though\\,\\ it\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ clearly\\ identified\\ as\\ Julia\\.\\ It\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ Villa\\ owned\\ by\\ her\\ youngest\\ son\\ Agrippa\\ Posthumous\\.\\ The\\ prof\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ much\\ else\\ about\\ this\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ bust\\ of\\ Antonia\\ the\\ Younger\\,\\ the\\ daughter\\ of\\ Marc\\ Antony\\ and\\ Livia\\.\\ She\\ became\\ the\\ mother\\,\\ grandmother\\,\\ and\\ great\\ grandmother\\ of\\ future\\ emperors\\ by\\ Drussus\\ the\\ brother\\ of\\ Tiberius\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ portrayals\\ of\\ Julia\\,\\ Antonia\\ is\\ looked\\ up\\ on\\ as\\ the\\ ideal\\ roman\\ wife\\.\\ This\\ slide\\ is\\ not\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ though\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ Napolean\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ It\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ a\\ lecture\\ where\\ the\\ prof\\ is\\ showing\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Augustus\\ on\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ first\\ title\\ is\\ significant\\.\\ It\\ was\\ consul\\.\\ The\\ prof\\ references\\ that\\ both\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ revolutions\\ were\\ influenced\\ by\\ contemplating\\ Roman\\ history\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ Republic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Be\\ careful\\ here\\.\\ The\\ slide\\ shown\\ as\\ a\\ thumbnail\\ is\\ actually\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ pops\\ up\\ when\\ you\\ click\\ on\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ thumbnail\\ is\\ oh\\ the\\ Arch\\ of\\ Constantine\\.\\ This\\ landscape\\ is\\ important\\ b\\/c\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ Mussolini\\ wanted\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ open\\ space\\ for\\ the\\ parades\\ of\\ his\\ forces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ that\\ pops\\ up\\ is\\ the\\ Proposal\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Die\\ Halle\\ der\\ Partei\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ attached\\ mausoleum\\ for\\ Hitler\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ his\\ mausoleum\\ to\\ be\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ Hall\\ of\\ the\\ Fascist\\ Party\\.\\ \\ \\;Hitler\\ was\\ fascinated\\ with\\ architecture\\ and\\ rebuilding\\ of\\ landscapes\\ as\\ was\\ Augustus\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ real\\ link\\ we\\ can\\ draw\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ figures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Here\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ propaganda\\ used\\ by\\ Mussolini\\.\\ He\\ covered\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ imagery\\ of\\ ancient\\ Rome\\,\\ like\\ in\\ this\\ picture\\,\\ the\\ SPQR\\,\\ the\\ fasces\\,\\ the\\ wolf\\,\\ and\\ Latin\\ terms\\.\\ This\\ is\\ to\\ recall\\ the\\ greatness\\ of\\ his\\ people\\ and\\ feed\\ form\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 50, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/2007_Slide_Summaries_final.doc", "desc": "lecture slide summaries"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "heb", "human-nature"], "text": null, "id": 140, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:198\\.2pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:126pt\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-indent\\:123\\.1pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:81\\.4pt\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-indent\\:164\\.4pt\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:90pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:54pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:223\\.7pt\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:91pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:132\\.7pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-indent\\:112\\.1pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:146\\.6pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:80\\.9pt\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-size\\:15pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-indent\\:356\\.2pt\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-indent\\:15\\.6pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SCIENCE\\ B\\-29\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\ THE\\ EVOLUTION\\ OF\\ HUMAN\\ NATURE\\ Spring\\ 2009\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OURSE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VERVIEW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EMONIC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ALES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-2\\,\\ M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ORAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\INDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ROLOGUE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ KAT\\ 2\\.\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VOLUTIONARY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ EHB\\ 1\\-2\\ \\-\\ JESSE\\ 3\\.\\ LIFE\\ HISTORY\\ THEORY\\ \\-\\ EHB\\ 3\\-4\\ \\-\\ CHRISTIAN\\ 4\\.\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RAIN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\T\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HEORY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\T\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HEORY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ EHB\\ 6\\-8\\ \\-\\ KIKI\\ 5\\.\\ DEEP\\ SEX\\ \\-\\ EHB\\ 11\\,\\ 13\\ \\-\\ WENDY\\ 6\\.\\ R\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ECENT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ISA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-6\\ \\-\\ BECKY\\ 7\\.\\ M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ODERN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ EHB\\ 12\\ \\-\\ TESSA\\ 8\\.\\ DEEP\\ PARENTING\\ \\-\\ EHB\\ 9\\ \\-\\ DEVIN\\ 9\\.\\ R\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ECENT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\;\\ M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ODERN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ARENTING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ISA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\-12\\ \\-\\ LEXIE\\ 10\\.\\ DEEP\\ AGGRESSION\\ \\-\\ EHB\\ 10\\,\\ DEMONIC\\ MALES\\ 7\\-11\\ \\-\\ NINI\\ 11\\.\\ RECENT\\ AGGRESSION\\ \\-\\ DEMONIC\\ MALES\\ CH\\ 4\\-6\\ \\-\\ KRISTA\\ 12\\.\\ M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ODERN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\131\\-159\\,\\ 346\\-351\\&ndash\\;\\ LUCY\\ 13\\.\\ RECENT\\ COOPERATION\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ BECKY\\ 14\\.\\ M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ODERN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GGRESSION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EMONIC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\M\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ALES\\ PP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ K\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RISTA\\ 15\\.\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OCIAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OOPERATION\\ E\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COLOGY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ K\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IKI\\ 16\\.\\ DEEP\\ AND\\ RECENT\\ DIET\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ TESSA\\ 17\\.\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXUAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IVISION\\ OF\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ABOR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EVIN\\ 18\\.\\ LANGUAGE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ JESSE\\ 19\\.\\ MORALITY\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ NINI\\ 20\\.\\ R\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ELIGION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ K\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\AT\\ 21\\.\\ ART\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ WENDY\\ 22\\.\\ W\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RAP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\U\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\ AND\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Q\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\UESTIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ L\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\UCY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COURSE\\ OVERVIEW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Demonic\\ Males\\ Ch\\ 1\\-2\\,\\ Moral\\ Minds\\ Prologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Your\\ Name\\:\\ Kat\\ Kim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Title\\:\\ Introduction\\ \\(Lecture\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\-sentence\\ summary\\ of\\ lecture\\:\\ Biology\\ controls\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ what\\ culture\\ gets\\ to\\ do\\;\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ blank\\ slate\\.\\ Biological\\ traits\\ that\\ we\\ share\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ nonhuman\\ primate\\ relatives\\ include\\ the\\ tendency\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ groups\\,\\ form\\ social\\ bonds\\,\\ and\\ have\\ dominance\\ pairs\\.\\ Our\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ shaped\\ by\\ our\\ evolutionary\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implausibility\\ of\\ Human\\ Nature\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ define\\ human\\ nature\\ when\\ culture\\ seems\\ to\\ let\\ anything\\ happen\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Blank\\ Slate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ We\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ nothing\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wiring\\?\\ \\-\\ Culture\\ can\\ do\\ what\\ it\\ wants\\ to\\ do\\,\\ culture\\ gets\\ to\\ decide\\ our\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenging\\ the\\ Blank\\ State\\ View\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Instead\\,\\ argue\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ equipped\\ with\\ INSTINCTS\\ \\(capacities\\)\\ for\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Language\\ o\\ Inferring\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ minds\\ \\(think\\,\\ feel\\,\\ desire\\,\\ believe\\)\\ o\\ Aesthetics\\ \\(beauty\\)\\ o\\ Morality\\ \\(what\\ is\\ right\\ or\\ wrong\\)\\ \\-\\ Biology\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ our\\ genetic\\ code\\,\\ sets\\ us\\ up\\ to\\ be\\ predisposed\\ for\\ certain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KINDS\\ of\\ behaviors\\,\\ thoughts\\ \\-\\ Culture\\ plays\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ certain\\ signatures\\ of\\ differences\\ between\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cultures\\ \\(but\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ get\\ do\\ whatever\\ it\\ pleases\\)\\ \\-\\ Biology\\ controls\\ FORM\\ of\\ what\\ culture\\ gets\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Evolution\\:\\ how\\ our\\ body\\ provides\\ unification\\ with\\ different\\ species\\ \\-\\ 3\\ different\\ time\\ depths\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Deep\\ time\\ \\(evolutionary\\ past\\ as\\ it\\ links\\ to\\ other\\ animals\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ can\\ we\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\learn\\ from\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ other\\ animals\\:\\ what\\ do\\ we\\ share\\ in\\ common\\?\\ What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ different\\?\\ o\\ Recent\\ time\\ \\(human\\ recent\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hunter\\-gatherers\\ o\\ Modern\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ we\\ have\\ been\\ transformed\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ have\\ stayed\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\same\\ in\\ modern\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ cultures\\ can\\ MODIFY\\ biological\\ heritage\\ To\\ understand\\ human\\ behavior\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ understand\\ human\\ biology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ New\\ evidence\\ that\\ pushes\\ harder\\ how\\ biological\\ approach\\ can\\ explain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ variations\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ human\\ behavior\\ o\\ How\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ human\\ behavior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ guided\\ by\\ thinking\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fitness\\ consequences\\:\\ how\\ we\\ reproduce\\ successfully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Marc\\ Hauser\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ How\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\ evolved\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ is\\ similar\\ with\\ other\\ primates\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Different\\?\\ o\\ How\\ do\\ cultures\\ of\\ violence\\ emerge\\ in\\ modern\\ societies\\?\\ Why\\ are\\ some\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\more\\ violent\\ than\\ others\\?\\ o\\ Psychological\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ underpin\\ certain\\ KINDS\\ of\\ violence\\ o\\ South\\ of\\ US\\ was\\ colonized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ culture\\ of\\ HONOR\\,\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rest\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ led\\ to\\ diff\\ ways\\ people\\ deal\\ with\\ social\\ norms\\ \\(compared\\ to\\ NORTH\\)\\ o\\ Problems\\ emerge\\ in\\ development\\,\\ damage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ violence\\ in\\ disorders\\ \\(psychopath\\!\\!\\!\\)\\ do\\ they\\ KNOW\\ right\\ from\\ wrong\\?\\?\\?\\ Typically\\ very\\ intelligent\\,\\ rational\\,\\ but\\ what\\ went\\ wrong\\?\\?\\ Something\\ about\\ their\\ emotional\\ systems\\,\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ prevent\\ them\\ from\\ doing\\ the\\ wrong\\ thing\\ even\\ when\\ they\\ know\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrong\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ learning\\ about\\ spectrum\\ of\\ violence\\ o\\ Sex\\ difference\\ \\(intelligence\\ vs\\.\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ invest\\ in\\ a\\ relationship\\)\\ o\\ Cooperation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cheating\\,\\ punishing\\,\\ fairness\\ \\(in\\ genetically\\ related\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\animals\\,\\ MORE\\ cooperation\\)\\ what\\ protects\\ us\\ from\\ CHEATERS\\?\\ Behavioral\\ economics\\,\\ neuroimaging\\,\\ etc\\.\\ to\\ better\\ understand\\ our\\ cooperative\\ tendencies\\ o\\ Evolving\\ LANGUAGE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ structure\\ of\\ languages\\ of\\ humans\\ has\\ NO\\ parallel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\in\\ other\\ animals\\;\\ what\\ is\\ it\\ about\\ the\\ human\\ brain\\ that\\ lets\\ us\\ have\\ language\\?\\ After\\ it\\ evolved\\,\\ what\\ else\\ does\\ it\\ give\\ us\\?\\ o\\ Moral\\ instincts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ judge\\ spontaneously\\,\\ without\\ knowing\\ why\\,\\ why\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\something\\ is\\ morally\\ right\\ or\\ wrong\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ understand\\ with\\ evolutionary\\ thinking\\;\\ altruism\\ at\\ a\\ distance\\ is\\ NOT\\ in\\ our\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ We\\ have\\ been\\ equipped\\ with\\ certain\\ instincts\\ that\\ push\\ us\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ another\\;\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ decide\\ whether\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ RIGHT\\ kinds\\ of\\ instincts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Karen\\ Kramer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Biological\\ traits\\ that\\ we\\ share\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ nonhuman\\ primate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\relatives\\:\\ tendency\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ groups\\,\\ social\\ bonds\\,\\ tendency\\ for\\ dominance\\ pairs\\ o\\ Deep\\ into\\ the\\ ancestral\\ past\\:\\ large\\ brains\\,\\ underdeveloped\\ young\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\decrease\\ in\\ size\\ between\\ males\\ and\\ females\\ \\(low\\ sexual\\ dimorphism\\)\\ o\\ Capacity\\ for\\ reciprocity\\ not\\ shared\\ in\\ other\\ animals\\ o\\ No\\ one\\ way\\ to\\ define\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ many\\ perspectives\\ o\\ So\\ how\\ will\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ it\\?\\ o\\ Our\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ SHAPED\\ by\\ our\\ evolutionary\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Shift\\ in\\ focus\\ of\\ specific\\ cultures\\ \\(similarities\\ and\\ diff\\)\\ to\\ focusing\\ on\\ underlying\\ tendencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Females\\ spend\\ much\\ of\\ their\\ life\\ in\\ old\\ age\\ while\\ chimps\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Young\\ children\\ are\\ helpless\\ to\\ forage\\ for\\ food\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ survive\\,\\ but\\ not\\ chimps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Human\\ nature\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ what\\ we\\ share\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ Our\\ physiology\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Our\\ psychology\\:\\ assume\\ patient\\ has\\ certain\\ psychological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\capacities\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Our\\ behavior\\:\\ New\\ Guinea\\ tribes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Malinowski\\ in\\ 1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\met\\ them\\;\\ despite\\ separation\\ \\(without\\ same\\ culture\\)\\,\\ they\\ smiled\\/frowned\\ at\\ same\\ things\\ that\\ we\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Culturally\\ we\\ do\\ things\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ When\\ girls\\ reach\\ puberty\\,\\ some\\ rite\\ of\\ passage\\:\\ bat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mitzvah\\,\\ quinceanera\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Underlying\\ question\\ that\\ comes\\ up\\ when\\ we\\ look\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cross\\-cultural\\ differences\\:\\ why\\ does\\ it\\ seem\\ so\\ important\\?\\ Interest\\ in\\ displaying\\/signaling\\ when\\ girls\\ reach\\ sexual\\ maturity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Instead\\ of\\ focusing\\ on\\ particulars\\,\\ we\\ ask\\ general\\ questions\\ o\\ Few\\ peculiar\\ things\\ about\\ humans\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Large\\ brains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Bipeds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ constrain\\ birth\\ canal\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ So\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ born\\ small\\ and\\ underdeveloped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Leads\\ to\\ other\\ needs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ dependent\\ on\\ others\\ well\\ into\\ our\\ teens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Because\\ we\\ grow\\ slowly\\ and\\ are\\ dependent\\ on\\ others\\ \\&ndash\\;we\\ expect\\ that\\ human\\ history\\ evolves\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ few\\ children\\,\\ far\\ apart\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ NOT\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ focusing\\ on\\ natural\\ fertility\\ populations\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;recent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\past\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ controlled\\ by\\ contraception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;onion\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ To\\ solve\\ fundamental\\ problem\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ biologically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\set\\ to\\ have\\ lots\\ of\\ children\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ support\\ them\\,\\ gives\\ us\\ dispensation\\ to\\ be\\ socially\\ dependent\\ \\(unlike\\ other\\ animals\\)\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Most\\ animals\\ spend\\ their\\ time\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ mates\\ or\\ food\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ accomplish\\ this\\,\\ animals\\ have\\ to\\ expand\\ social\\ sphere\\ \\(cooperate\\ to\\ hunt\\ for\\ fish\\;\\ fish\\ swim\\ in\\ schools\\ to\\ protect\\ each\\ other\\;\\ coyotes\\ hunt\\ in\\ packs\\)\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ But\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ marry\\,\\ share\\ food\\ with\\ large\\ community\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ complex\\ social\\ networks\\ to\\ regulate\\ distribution\\ of\\ resource\\,\\ but\\ WE\\ DO\\:\\ levels\\ of\\ complexity\\ of\\ social\\ life\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Song\\,\\ dance\\,\\ art\\ to\\ support\\ this\\ complex\\ social\\ life\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Evolution\\ of\\ Human\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Human\\ life\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Parenting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Division\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Social\\ cohesion\\ \\(art\\)\\*\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ Develop\\ to\\ maintain\\ deep\\ social\\ bonds\\ fundamental\\ to\\ human\\ nature\\ o\\ This\\ shapes\\ our\\ life\\ history\\:\\ what\\ traits\\ do\\ we\\ share\\ in\\ common\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\other\\ animals\\?\\ What\\ in\\ primates\\?\\ And\\ how\\ are\\ we\\ set\\ apart\\ as\\ humans\\?\\ o\\ What\\ implications\\ does\\ our\\ human\\ life\\ history\\ \\(mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dilemma\\)\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\ it\\ shapes\\ mating\\ strategies\\,\\ sexual\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ and\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ cooperate\\ on\\ diff\\ levels\\ \\(kinship\\,\\ non\\-kinship\\ interactions\\)\\ o\\ Role\\ of\\ ART\\ in\\ holding\\ together\\ social\\ fabric\\ important\\ to\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nature\\ o\\ People\\ living\\ in\\ small\\,\\ preindustrial\\ societies\\ \\(Maya\\ Indians\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mexico\\,\\ Hunter\\-gatherers\\ in\\ Venezuela\\ \\(Pume\\)\\,\\ Horticulturalists\\ in\\ Madagascar\\ \\(Tanala\\)\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Help\\ us\\ with\\ behavioral\\ dimensions\\ that\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ in\\ past\\ \\(closest\\ natural\\ experiment\\ to\\ observe\\ what\\ life\\ was\\ like\\ before\\ environmental\\ conditions\\ changed\\,\\ before\\ birth\\ control\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Book\\ Ends\\ that\\ establish\\ \\&ldquo\\;reaction\\ norms\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ possible\\ range\\ of\\ variation\\ in\\ behavior\\ \\=\\ expands\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ humans\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Richard\\ Wrangham\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ HEB\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Genetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Human\\ biology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Paleoanthropology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Functional\\ morphology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Behavioral\\ ecology\\ o\\ How\\ does\\ natural\\ selection\\ work\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Is\\ behavior\\ adaptive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ Evolutionary\\ \\&ldquo\\;error\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ If\\ benefit\\,\\ what\\ kind\\?\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Individual\\ or\\ group\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Chimps\\ do\\ things\\ a\\ lot\\ like\\ human\\ warfare\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ is\\ it\\ about\\ this\\ behavior\\ that\\ is\\ adaptive\\?\\ \\(Is\\ warfare\\ just\\ a\\ social\\ construction\\?\\?\\ Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ evolutionary\\ sense\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ traditional\\ analysis\\)\\ o\\ Evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ How\\ has\\ behavior\\ evolved\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ Other\\ species\\?\\ When\\?\\ Why\\?\\ How\\ far\\ does\\ it\\ go\\ back\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\our\\ evolutionary\\ past\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ closer\\?\\ Chimps\\ or\\ gorillas\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ knuckle\\-walk\\,\\ diet\\,\\ teeth\\,\\ guts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ Darwin\\ said\\ that\\ chimps\\ and\\ gorillas\\ must\\ be\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\closest\\ relatives\\,\\ BUT\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ In\\ 1984\\:\\ DNA\\ analysis\\ showed\\ that\\ chimps\\ are\\ closer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\related\\ to\\ humans\\ than\\ to\\ gorillas\\ \\(98\\.6\\%\\)\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Reason\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ amazing\\ is\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ share\\ more\\ with\\ US\\ than\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\something\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ How\\ did\\ human\\ behavior\\ evolve\\?\\ From\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ other\\ apes\\ \\(look\\ at\\ evolutionary\\ TREE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ Chimps\\,\\ bonobos\\ and\\ gorillas\\ look\\ the\\ most\\ similar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(because\\ their\\ ancestor\\ looked\\ like\\ them\\ as\\ well\\)\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Group\\ territoriality\\:\\ common\\ origin\\ or\\ convergence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Is\\ this\\ something\\ that\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ when\\ species\\ diverges\\?\\ Or\\ is\\ it\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ emerged\\ by\\ chance\\?\\ o\\ 4\\ core\\ principles\\ of\\ B\\-29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nothing\\ in\\ biology\\ makes\\ sense\\ except\\ in\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ evolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Theodosius\\ Dobhzansky\\,\\ 20th\\ c\\ geneticist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ all\\ animals\\ are\\ aggregations\\ of\\ cells\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ something\\ else\\ 2\\.\\ No\\ animal\\ is\\ a\\ blank\\ slate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ species\\ have\\ typical\\ behaviors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ though\\ with\\ their\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;norm\\ of\\ reaction\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(how\\ they\\ vary\\)\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ chimps\\ and\\ bonobos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ different\\ anatomy\\ and\\ very\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\different\\ behavioral\\ \\(chimps\\ are\\ more\\ violent\\,\\ ingenious\\,\\ use\\ tools\\,\\ aggressive\\;\\ bonobos\\:\\ sex\\!\\!\\ Homosexual\\ and\\ heterosexual\\,\\ non\\-violent\\,\\ live\\ peacefully\\ together\\ \\=\\ both\\ show\\ human\\ nature\\)\\ 3\\.\\ Sex\\ differences\\ are\\ everywhere\\,\\ though\\ they\\ vary\\ by\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ Y\\-chromosome\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ Importance\\ of\\ testosterone\\ 4\\.\\ Genes\\ and\\ environment\\ COMBINE\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ phenotype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9643\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ premise\\ which\\ cannot\\ be\\ stressed\\ too\\ often\\ is\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\what\\ the\\ hereditary\\ process\\ determines\\ are\\ not\\ fixed\\ characters\\ or\\ traits\\ but\\ DEVELOPMENTAL\\ PROCESSES\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dobzhansky\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ development\\ occurs\\ is\\ critical\\ \\&\\#9643\\;\\ 4\\ processes\\,\\ questions\\ about\\ where\\ our\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\comes\\ from\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ immediate\\ causes\\:\\ what\\ caused\\ anger\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ adaptive\\ logic\\:\\ what\\ about\\ it\\ caused\\ anger\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ individual\\ ontogeny\\:\\ something\\ specific\\ about\\ the\\ individual\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ evolutionary\\ history\\:\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ o\\ Biology\\ underlies\\ ALL\\ SOCIAL\\ LIFE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ HOW\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physics\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ Chemistry\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ Biology\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ Behavior\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ Religion\\,\\ sociology\\,\\ history\\,\\ politics\\,\\ etc\\.\\ o\\ Worked\\ in\\ Gombe\\ Tanzania\\ \\(with\\ Goodall\\)\\,\\ worked\\ in\\ Ituri\\ DR\\ Congo\\ o\\ Work\\ in\\ Kibale\\,\\ Uganda\\ o\\ Impact\\ of\\ Cooking\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ humans\\ cook\\,\\ we\\ NEED\\ to\\ cook\\;\\ imp\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\understand\\ ecological\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ words\\ and\\ definitions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Blank\\ Slate\\:\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ nothing\\ written\\ in\\ brain\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wiring\\,\\ and\\ culture\\ can\\ dictate\\ all\\ behavior\\ Deep\\ time\\:\\ evolutionary\\ past\\ as\\ it\\ links\\ to\\ other\\ species\\ of\\ animals\\ Recent\\ time\\:\\ evolutionary\\ past\\ as\\ it\\ links\\ to\\ past\\ humans\\ like\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\ Modern\\ time\\:\\ how\\ we\\ have\\ transformed\\/stayed\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ modern\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fitness\\ consequence\\:\\ how\\ we\\ reproduce\\ successfully\\ Reaction\\ norms\\:\\ possible\\ range\\ of\\ variation\\ in\\ behavior\\ \\(can\\ be\\ determined\\ by\\ observing\\ those\\ in\\ small\\,\\ preindustrial\\ societies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READING\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ Title\\:\\ Demonic\\ Males\\,\\ chapters\\ 1\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Dale\\ Peterson\\ and\\ Wrangham\\ were\\ in\\ Africa\\ studying\\ deep\\ origins\\ of\\ human\\ violence\\ by\\ observing\\ behavior\\ of\\ bonobos\\ in\\ Burundi\\.\\ He\\ first\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ violence\\ in\\ Rwanda\\,\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ human\\ aggression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ first\\ view\\ of\\ chimps\\ was\\ peaceful\\,\\ with\\ Jane\\ Gooddall\\&rsquo\\;s\\ observations\\.\\ Scientists\\ thought\\ that\\ animals\\ killed\\ each\\ other\\ by\\ accident\\,\\ an\\ idea\\ that\\ fit\\ with\\ the\\ theory\\ that\\ saw\\ animal\\ behavior\\ as\\ designed\\ by\\ evolution\\ for\\ mutual\\ good\\ \\(natural\\ selection\\ eliminating\\ murder\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ January\\ 1974\\,\\ 8\\ chimps\\ in\\ Gombe\\ National\\ Park\\ in\\ Tanzania\\ killed\\ another\\ chimp\\ from\\ a\\ neighboring\\ range\\,\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ a\\ human\\ had\\ seen\\ it\\.\\ Until\\ this\\ incident\\,\\ scientists\\ thought\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ violence\\ \\(deliberately\\ killing\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ species\\)\\ was\\ a\\ uniquely\\ human\\ trait\\.\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ implies\\ human\\ killing\\ is\\ rooted\\ in\\ prehuman\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sexual\\ violence\\ was\\ also\\ observed\\:\\ brother\\ chimp\\ rapes\\ female\\ chimp\\ that\\ refuses\\ to\\ mate\\ with\\ brother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wrangham\\ observed\\ divisions\\ within\\ communities\\ of\\ chimps\\ in\\ Gombe\\ \\(Kasekela\\ versus\\ Kahama\\)\\,\\ and\\ realized\\ that\\ the\\ male\\ chimps\\ were\\ defending\\ their\\ specific\\ group\\ territory\\ by\\ raiding\\ the\\ other\\.\\ Eventually\\ the\\ Kasekela\\ males\\ killed\\ off\\ the\\ Kahama\\ by\\ attacking\\ them\\ and\\ beating\\ the\\ females\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kahama\\ killings\\ undermined\\ explanation\\ that\\ violence\\ is\\ uniquely\\ human\\ \\(via\\ culture\\,\\ brainpower\\,\\ God\\)\\,\\ and\\ showed\\ that\\ maybe\\ warring\\ tendencies\\ is\\ in\\ prehuman\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ discoveries\\ re\\:\\ relationship\\ between\\ chimps\\ and\\ humans\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ fossils\\ found\\ showing\\ bipedal\\ human\\ ancestor\\ with\\ chimp\\-like\\ head\\ 2\\.\\ chimps\\ and\\ humans\\ are\\ more\\ closely\\ related\\ than\\ chimps\\ and\\ gorillas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(via\\ DNA\\ analysis\\)\\ 3\\.\\ chimp\\ behavior\\ parallels\\ with\\ human\\ behavior\\ \\(affection\\,\\ friendships\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\math\\,\\ signs\\,\\ and\\ social\\ world\\ of\\ chimps\\ Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Yale\\ biologists\\ Sibley\\ and\\ Ahlquist\\ claimed\\ that\\ human\\ DNA\\ was\\ inside\\ the\\ ape\\ group\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ our\\ separation\\ from\\ apes\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ much\\ more\\ recent\\ than\\ we\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Lucy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Australopithecus\\ afarensis\\)\\:\\ ape\\-like\\ in\\ upper\\ body\\,\\ brain\\,\\ mouth\\,\\ belly\\;\\ human\\-like\\ in\\ leg\\,\\ pelvis\\,\\ tooth\\ enamel\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apes\\ are\\ not\\ that\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ monkeys\\:\\ Huxley\\ showed\\ this\\ in\\ comparing\\ anatomy\\;\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ biochemistry\\ and\\ DNA\\ analysis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Date\\ of\\ divergence\\ between\\ humans\\ and\\ chimps\\ is\\ estimated\\ at\\ around\\ 5\\ million\\ years\\.\\ \\(Recent\\!\\)\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ evolved\\ particularly\\ fast\\ \\(Homo\\ sapiens\\ are\\ only\\ \\~150\\,000\\-230\\,000\\ years\\ old\\)\\.\\ The\\ last\\ common\\ ancestor\\ was\\ a\\ rainforest\\ ape\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ words\\ and\\ definitions\\:\\ Selfish\\-gene\\ theory\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ inclusive\\ fitness\\ theory\\,\\ sociobiology\\,\\ behavioral\\ ecology\\:\\ ultimate\\ explanation\\ of\\ individual\\ behavior\\ considers\\ only\\ how\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\behavior\\ tends\\ to\\ maximize\\ genetic\\ success\\ by\\ passing\\ on\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genes\\ into\\ next\\ generations\\ Male\\ bonded\\:\\ males\\ forming\\ aggressive\\ coalitions\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ mutual\\ support\\ against\\ others\\ Matrilineal\\/matrilocal\\:\\ inheritance\\ \\(from\\ male\\ to\\ male\\)\\ is\\ according\\ to\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ line\\ Convergence\\:\\ through\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ when\\ unrelated\\ or\\ distantly\\ related\\ species\\ can\\ evolve\\ toward\\ physical\\ similarity\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ similar\\ environmental\\ stressors\\.\\ Not\\ a\\ problem\\ on\\ a\\ molecular\\ level\\,\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ an\\ issue\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ comparative\\ anatomy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ Title\\:\\ Moral\\ Minds\\ Prologue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ evolved\\ a\\ moral\\ instinct\\,\\ like\\ an\\ unconscious\\ \\&ldquo\\;grammar\\ of\\ action\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ moral\\ instinct\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ our\\ capacity\\ for\\ language\\.\\ Language\\ can\\ be\\ described\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;exquisitely\\ designed\\ organ\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ all\\ humans\\ share\\.\\ Hauser\\ believes\\ that\\ we\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;universal\\ moral\\ grammar\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ that\\ once\\ we\\ get\\ our\\ culture\\&rsquo\\;s\\ specific\\ moral\\ norms\\,\\ we\\ can\\ decide\\ right\\/wrong\\ without\\ conscious\\ reasoning\\.\\ Book\\ is\\ basically\\ a\\ detailed\\ explanation\\ of\\ how\\ an\\ unconscious\\ and\\ universal\\ moral\\ grammar\\ underlies\\ these\\ moral\\ judgments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Legal\\ policies\\ ignore\\ or\\ cover\\ up\\ essential\\ psychological\\ distinctions\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ that\\ we\\ view\\ actions\\ one\\ way\\ and\\ omissions\\ another\\)\\,\\ conflict\\ with\\ moral\\ intuitions\\;\\ and\\ when\\ policy\\ and\\ intuition\\ conflict\\,\\ policy\\ is\\ in\\ trouble\\ \\(example\\ of\\ mercy\\ killings\\:\\ permissible\\ to\\ help\\ patient\\ die\\ by\\ ending\\ life\\ support\\,\\ but\\ not\\ okay\\ to\\ overdose\\ patient\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ seems\\ illogical\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ some\\ intuitions\\ we\\ evolved\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ applicable\\ to\\ current\\ societal\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ words\\ and\\ definitions\\:\\ Universal\\ moral\\ grammar\\:\\ As\\ Hauser\\ says\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;toolkit\\ for\\ building\\ specific\\ moral\\ systems\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EVOLUTIONARY\\ THEORY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EHB\\ 1\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ NOTES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\YOUR\\ NAME\\:\\ Jesse\\ Ge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ TITLE\\:\\ Evolutionary\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THREE\\ SENTENCE\\ SUMMARY\\ OF\\ LECTURE\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Evolution\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ is\\ dependent\\ upon\\:\\ over\\-\\ reproduction\\,\\ competition\\,\\ individual\\ variation\\,\\ and\\ genetically\\ linked\\ traits\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Inclusive\\ fitness\\ theory\\ states\\ that\\ our\\ structures\\ and\\ behavior\\ have\\ evolved\\ solely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ pass\\ on\\ our\\ individual\\ genes\\.\\ 3\\.\\ Not\\ everything\\ is\\ adaptive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ beware\\ of\\ several\\ unique\\ exceptions\\ \\(see\\ last\\ section\\)\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ NOTES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ We\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ instincts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Cooperative\\ approach\\ right\\ from\\ beginning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ How\\ can\\ we\\ understand\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ cooperative\\ behavior\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Two\\ islands\\:\\ selfish\\ or\\ cooperative\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ and\\ Natural\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Anti\\-evolutionism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ U\\.S\\.\\ reluctant\\ to\\ accept\\ natural\\ selection\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Due\\ to\\ creationists\\ and\\ proselytizers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ If\\ you\\ hold\\ previous\\ preview\\,\\ education\\ will\\ likely\\ not\\ change\\ o\\ Evolutionary\\ \\&ldquo\\;Theory\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Scientific\\ definition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ well\\ tested\\ explanation\\ of\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ phenomenon\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ tested\\ in\\ multiple\\ experiments\\ and\\ has\\ produced\\ a\\ coherent\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ phenomenon\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Has\\ almost\\ become\\ fact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Common\\ thinking\\:\\ theory\\ as\\ in\\ speculation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Evolution\\ is\\ NOT\\ this\\ kind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Two\\ Big\\ Ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Evolution\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ happened\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ CHANGE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ In\\ phenotype\\ of\\ species\\,\\ consequence\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ genes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Pre\\-Darwinian\\:\\ Erasmus\\ Darwin\\ \\&\\;\\ Jean\\-Baptise\\ Lamarck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Darwin\\ o\\ Natural\\ Selection\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ it\\ happened\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Mechanism\\ by\\ which\\ evolution\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Pre\\-Darwinian\\:\\ Natural\\ Theology\\ and\\ Pruning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Evolution\\ VIA\\ Natural\\ Selection\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Combination\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Biogeography\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Closely\\ related\\ species\\ geographically\\ isolated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Therefore\\,\\ deep\\ organic\\ bond\\ must\\ have\\ existed\\ o\\ Paleontology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Deeper\\ layers\\ show\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Adjacent\\ layers\\ show\\ related\\ species\\ o\\ Embryology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Embryos\\ of\\ related\\ species\\ are\\ VERY\\ similar\\ \\(common\\ ancestor\\)\\ o\\ Morphology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Natural\\ taxonomy\\ of\\ organisms\\ based\\ on\\ internal\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Homologies\\:\\ traits\\ with\\ similar\\ underlying\\ structure\\,\\ despite\\ different\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Example\\ is\\ limb\\,\\ wings\\,\\ fins\\ \\(all\\ have\\ similar\\ structures\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Vestigial\\ traits\\:\\ homologous\\ traits\\ with\\ functions\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Male\\ nipples\\,\\ human\\ tail\\ bone\\ o\\ Genetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Biochemistry\\ \\&\\;\\ DNA\\ analysis\\ shows\\ similarities\\ between\\ related\\ species\\ o\\ Evolution\\ observed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ See\\ viruses\\,\\ bacteria\\,\\ Galapagos\\ finches\\ \\(less\\ food\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ eat\\ harder\\ seeds\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ select\\ for\\ larger\\ beaks\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ next\\ generation\\ had\\ larger\\ beaks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Evolutions\\ via\\ Natural\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Anagenesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Single\\ species\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\ o\\ Cladogenesis\\/Speciation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Creation\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Usually\\ from\\ geographic\\ isolation\\ of\\ same\\ species\\ in\\ two\\ places\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Anagenesis\\ within\\ each\\ population\\ until\\ the\\ two\\ species\\ cannot\\ interbreed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Natural\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Thomas\\ Malthus\\ \\-\\ more\\ are\\ born\\ can\\ survive\\/reproduce\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OVERREPRODUCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 1\\.\\ COMPETITION\\ between\\ individuals\\ to\\ survive\\ and\\ reproduce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 2\\.\\ VARIATION\\ between\\ individuals\\ creates\\ some\\ advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Ex\\.\\)\\ rock\\ doves\\ have\\ white\\ rumps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Effective\\ protection\\ vs\\ peregrine\\ falcons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Pass\\ on\\ genes\\ b\\/c\\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Ex\\.\\)\\ stock\\ doves\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ white\\ rumps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ More\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ captured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Experimentally\\ tested\\ by\\ changing\\ colors\\ of\\ rumps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Net\\ result\\:\\ descendent\\ generations\\ have\\ whiter\\ rumps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 3\\.\\ GENETIC\\ LINK\\ of\\ favorable\\ traits\\ so\\ can\\ be\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ next\\ generation\\ o\\ All\\ three\\ factors\\ lead\\ to\\ shift\\ in\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inclusive\\ Fitness\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Change\\ in\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ 1859\\ onwards\\,\\ people\\ try\\ to\\ explain\\ phylogeny\\ o\\ 1960\\ onwards\\,\\ explaining\\ species\\ traits\\ as\\ adaptations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Why\\ food\\ choice\\?\\ Why\\ war\\?\\ Why\\ homosexuality\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 54, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Science_B-29_Final_Exam_Study_Guide.pdf", "desc": "Ultimate study guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "1st Midterm Q & A", "tags": ["harvard", "molecules", "life"], "text": null, "id": 141, "html": "\\\\\\1st\\ Midterm\\ Q\\ \\&\\;\\ A\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:166\\.6pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-indent\\:168pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:146\\.9pt\\}\\.c3\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:3\\.1pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:27\\.4pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Science\\ B\\-47\\:\\ Molecules\\ of\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Exam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\November\\ 1st\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ID\\ \\#\\:\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_Exam\\ Key\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ TF\\:\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Instructions\\:\\ Questions\\ are\\ either\\ short\\ answer\\ or\\ short\\ essay\\.\\ You\\ have\\ 1\\ hour\\ and\\ 20\\ minutes\\ to\\ take\\ this\\ exam\\.\\ Consider\\ your\\ time\\ and\\ skip\\ any\\ question\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ difficulty\\ with\\ and\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ them\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ short\\ answer\\ questions\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ short\\.\\ Two\\ sentences\\ or\\ less\\ is\\ adequate\\.\\ Good\\ luck\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grades\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 1\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 2\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 3\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 4\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 5\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 6\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Total\\:\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 0\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ Questions\\:\\ Please\\ choose\\ four\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ essay\\ questions\\ to\\ answer\\.\\ Each\\ question\\ is\\ worth\\ 12\\ points\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ A\\ certain\\ \\&lsquo\\;morning\\ after\\&rsquo\\;\\ pill\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ later\\ became\\ a\\ successful\\ breast\\ cancer\\ drug\\.\\ Describe\\ 1\\)\\ how\\ this\\ compound\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ function\\ as\\ a\\ contraceptive\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ why\\ such\\ a\\ drug\\ is\\ effective\\ in\\ breast\\ cancer\\ therapy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ steroids\\,\\ estradiol\\ \\(E2\\)\\ and\\ progesterone\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ ovulation\\ and\\ fertilization\\.\\ Therefore\\ it\\ was\\ predicted\\ that\\ estrogen\\ and\\ progesterone\\ receptor\\ antagonists\\ and\\ agonists\\ should\\ be\\ effective\\ small\\ molecule\\ birth\\ control\\ agents\\.\\ A\\ progesterone\\ agonist\\ would\\ signal\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;pregnancy\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(norethindrone\\,\\ norgestrel\\)\\ while\\ a\\ progesterone\\ antagonist\\ could\\ be\\ an\\ effective\\ morning\\ after\\ pill\\ \\(mifepristone\\.\\)\\ As\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\,\\ ER\\ antagonists\\ have\\ never\\ worked\\ as\\ effective\\ birth\\ control\\ drugs\\.\\ However\\,\\ Tamoxifen\\ originally\\ a\\ morning\\ after\\ pill\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ an\\ ER\\ antagonist\\,\\ effectively\\ blocks\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ ER\\+\\ cancer\\ cells\\ and\\ was\\ later\\ approved\\ for\\ use\\ as\\ a\\ breast\\ cancer\\ therapeutic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Estradiol\\ \\(E2\\)\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ growth\\ regulation\\,\\ differentiation\\ and\\ function\\ of\\ female\\ reproductive\\ organs\\,\\ including\\ breast\\,\\ uterus\\ and\\ ovaries\\.\\ During\\ development\\,\\ breast\\ growth\\ is\\ regulated\\ by\\ estradiol\\ signaling\\ through\\ the\\ estrogen\\ receptor\\ \\(ER\\.\\)\\ Breast\\ cancer\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ diseases\\ based\\ on\\ whether\\ the\\ progenitor\\ cells\\ were\\ ER\\+\\ or\\ ER\\-\\.\\ Cancer\\ cells\\ that\\ are\\ ER\\+\\ may\\ also\\ rely\\ on\\ estradiol\\ signaling\\ for\\ \\(unregulated\\)\\ cell\\ growth\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ blocking\\ the\\ receptor\\ or\\ inhibiting\\ aromatase\\ \\(blocking\\ estrogen\\ production\\)\\ should\\ affect\\ growth\\ of\\ ER\\+\\ breast\\ cancer\\ cells\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ ER\\ antagonists\\ \\(Tamoxifen\\,\\ Raloxifene\\)\\ and\\ aromatase\\ inhibitors\\ \\(Exemestane\\,\\ Arimidex\\,\\ Femara\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ The\\ two\\ medical\\ conditions\\ given\\ in\\ the\\ table\\ below\\ were\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\.\\ Fill\\ in\\ each\\ column\\ in\\ the\\ table\\ provided\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ column\\ write\\ whether\\ an\\ affected\\ individual\\ with\\ either\\ CAIS\\ or\\ CAH\\ has\\ XX\\ or\\ XY\\ for\\ their\\ chromosomal\\ sex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chromosomal\\ Sex\\ \\(XX\\,\\ XY\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 1\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ Morphological\\ Sex\\ \\(Male\\ or\\ Female\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hormonal\\ Sex\\ \\(Male\\ or\\ Female\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gonadal\\ Sex\\ \\(Male\\ or\\ Female\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biological\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ disorder\\ \\(10\\ words\\ or\\ less\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Complete\\ Androgen\\ Insensitivity\\ Syndrome\\ \\(CAIS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XY\\ Female\\ Male\\ Male\\ Faulty\\ androgen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\receptors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Congenital\\ Adrenal\\ Hyperplasia\\ \\(CAH\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\XX\\ Male\\ or\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Female\\ or\\ Ambiguous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Male\\ Female\\ High\\ levels\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\testosterone\\ \\(because\\ they\\ can\\ not\\ hydroxylate\\ progesterone\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Gene\\ duplication\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ phenomenon\\ in\\ evolution\\.\\ How\\ does\\ gene\\ duplication\\ facilitate\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ new\\ capabilities\\?\\ Define\\ gene\\ duplication\\ and\\ include\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ hormones\\ or\\ receptors\\ that\\ evolved\\ in\\ this\\ manner\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gene\\ duplication\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ making\\ an\\ extra\\ copy\\ of\\ a\\ gene\\ inside\\ the\\ genome\\.\\ Gene\\ duplication\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ DNA\\ replication\\ which\\ is\\ making\\ two\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ genome\\ before\\ a\\ cell\\ divides\\ into\\ two\\.\\ Gene\\ duplication\\ results\\ in\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ gene\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\.\\ \\(Duplications\\ can\\ arise\\ from\\ unequal\\ crossing\\-over\\,\\ called\\ recombination\\,\\ or\\ transposition\\.\\ The\\ mechanism\\ of\\ gene\\ duplication\\ is\\ not\\ required\\ for\\ answering\\ this\\ question\\ in\\ midterm\\.\\)\\ The\\ two\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ duplicated\\ gene\\ can\\ evolve\\ independently\\.\\ One\\ approach\\ is\\ that\\ one\\ copy\\ stays\\ the\\ same\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ copy\\ can\\ gain\\ novel\\ functions\\ by\\ mutations\\.\\ The\\ unchanged\\ copy\\ can\\ help\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ the\\ mutant\\ copy\\ by\\ maintaining\\ the\\ original\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\.\\ Another\\ approach\\ is\\ the\\ two\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\ will\\ evolve\\ independently\\ by\\ creating\\ different\\ mutations\\ in\\ the\\ DNA\\ sequence\\,\\ thus\\ gaining\\ different\\ capacities\\.\\ Recent\\ genomic\\ sequence\\ data\\ provide\\ substantial\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ abundance\\ of\\ duplicated\\ genes\\ in\\ all\\ organisms\\ surveyed\\.\\ Some\\ examples\\ from\\ Science\\ B47\\ are\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Oxytocin\\ and\\ Vasopressin\\ were\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ the\\ duplication\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\ called\\ vasotocin\\.\\ They\\ employed\\ the\\ second\\ approach\\ to\\ gain\\ different\\ functions\\.\\ 2\\)\\ There\\ is\\ usually\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ gene\\ in\\ our\\ genome\\ encoding\\ different\\ receptors\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ hormone\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ adrenaline\\ has\\ alpha\\-\\ and\\ beta\\-\\,\\ two\\ major\\ types\\ of\\ receptors\\,\\ which\\ regulate\\ different\\ responses\\ to\\ adrenaline\\.\\ For\\ each\\ major\\ type\\ of\\ receptors\\,\\ there\\ are\\ also\\ many\\ subtypes\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ duplication\\ and\\ mutation\\ from\\ a\\ common\\ alpha\\-\\ or\\ beta\\-\\ ancestor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ It\\ is\\ projected\\ that\\ within\\ 10\\ years\\ full\\ human\\ genome\\ sequencing\\ will\\ cost\\ less\\ than\\ \\$1\\,000\\ and\\ will\\ take\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ day\\.\\ Raise\\ 3\\ issues\\ associated\\ with\\ widely\\ available\\ personal\\ genomes\\ and\\ discuss\\ their\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ implications\\.\\ Support\\ each\\ issue\\ with\\ a\\ specific\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ People\\ will\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ details\\ about\\ risk\\ factors\\,\\ some\\ genetic\\ risk\\ factors\\ are\\ well\\ understood\\ and\\ some\\ are\\ not\\.\\ People\\ may\\ use\\ the\\ knowledge\\ of\\ their\\ risk\\ factors\\ to\\ modify\\ their\\ lifestyle\\,\\ doctors\\ may\\ use\\ them\\ to\\ modify\\ treatment\\,\\ but\\ people\\ may\\ also\\ misunderstand\\ their\\ risk\\ factors\\ and\\ possibly\\ act\\ inappropriately\\.\\ Example\\:\\ Craig\\ Venter\\ might\\ choose\\ a\\ heart\\ healthy\\ lifestyle\\ to\\ mitigate\\ his\\ slightly\\ raised\\ heart\\ attack\\ risk\\ or\\ he\\ might\\ decide\\ not\\ to\\ bother\\ since\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ \\"\\;heart\\ attack\\ gene\\"\\;\\ and\\ will\\ die\\ anyways\\.\\ b\\)\\ Insurance\\ companies\\ might\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ these\\ genomes\\.\\ They\\ could\\ use\\ them\\ to\\ deny\\ people\\ coverage\\ or\\ use\\ them\\ to\\ calculate\\ better\\ more\\ exact\\ rates\\ based\\ on\\ your\\ risk\\ just\\ like\\ car\\ insurance\\ companies\\ do\\ by\\ profiling\\.\\ This\\ could\\ be\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\ depending\\ on\\ your\\ risk\\ factors\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ think\\ this\\ is\\ fair\\ or\\ not\\.\\ Example\\:\\ If\\ you\\ had\\ risk\\ factors\\ for\\ a\\ chronic\\ disease\\ like\\ diabetes\\ this\\ might\\ make\\ your\\ insurance\\ more\\ expensive\\.\\ c\\)\\ Sequencing\\ your\\ personal\\ genome\\ could\\ reveal\\ information\\ about\\ a\\ family\\ member\\.\\ This\\ could\\ be\\ good\\ if\\ it\\ revealed\\ a\\ risk\\ factor\\ and\\ then\\ preventative\\ action\\ was\\ taken\\ or\\ bad\\ if\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ this\\ information\\.\\ Example\\:\\ A\\ daughter\\ might\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ breast\\ cancer\\ risk\\ factor\\ gene\\.\\ However\\,\\ if\\ her\\ mother\\ is\\ tested\\ and\\ has\\ it\\ then\\ statistically\\ speaking\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ predictions\\ about\\ the\\ daughter\\&\\#39\\;s\\ genes\\.\\ Many\\ answers\\ possible\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ should\\ include\\ a\\ recognizable\\ issue\\,\\ discussion\\ of\\ positives\\ and\\ negatives\\ and\\ an\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 2\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;war\\ between\\ the\\ soups\\ and\\ the\\ sparks\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ a\\ disagreement\\ about\\ the\\ mechanism\\ of\\ neuronal\\ transmission\\.\\ Briefly\\ describe\\ the\\ two\\ models\\ that\\ were\\ being\\ debated\\ and\\ then\\ explain\\ a\\ critical\\ experiment\\ that\\ helped\\ demonstrate\\ which\\ model\\ was\\ ultimately\\ correct\\.\\ Make\\ sure\\ to\\ mention\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;won\\ the\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ why\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ heated\\ debate\\ was\\ centered\\ upon\\ whether\\ transmission\\ of\\ a\\ neural\\ signal\\ \\(from\\ the\\ presynaptic\\ to\\ the\\ postsynaptic\\ cell\\)\\ occurred\\ via\\ electricity\\ or\\ via\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ \\(chemical\\)\\ signal\\.\\ Those\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ electrical\\ transmission\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;Sparks\\"\\;\\,\\ while\\ those\\ favoring\\ chemical\\ transmission\\ were\\ termed\\ the\\ \\"\\;Soups\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ experiment\\ which\\ settled\\ this\\ debate\\ involved\\ stimulating\\ the\\ vagus\\ nerve\\ of\\ a\\ frog\\ heart\\,\\ which\\ caused\\ the\\ heart\\ rate\\ to\\ slow\\.\\ The\\ fluid\\ directly\\ surrounding\\ the\\ stimulated\\ heart\\ was\\ then\\ collected\\ and\\ applied\\ to\\ a\\ second\\ heart\\.\\ It\\ was\\ observed\\ that\\ transfer\\ of\\ this\\ fluid\\ induced\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ heart\\ rate\\ of\\ the\\ second\\,\\ recipient\\ heart\\.\\ These\\ results\\ showed\\ that\\ transmission\\ between\\ neurons\\ occurs\\ via\\ a\\ diffusible\\ factor\\,\\ or\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ proving\\ the\\ Soups\\ right\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Short\\ answer\\:\\ Please\\ answer\\ the\\ following\\ question\\ in\\ two\\ sentences\\ or\\ less\\.\\ 4\\ points\\ each\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ What\\ would\\ happen\\ if\\ you\\ administered\\ vasopressin\\ to\\ a\\ male\\ Montane\\ vole\\ \\(non\\-\\ monogamous\\ species\\ of\\ vole\\)\\ directly\\ before\\ mating\\?\\ Would\\ he\\ form\\ an\\ attachment\\ to\\ the\\ female\\?\\ Why\\ or\\ why\\ not\\?\\ No\\,\\ an\\ attachment\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ formed\\ because\\ the\\ male\\ Montane\\ vole\\ is\\ missing\\ receptors\\ for\\ vasopressin\\ in\\ key\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\)\\ Transporters\\ are\\ membrane\\ proteins\\,\\ which\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ transporting\\ some\\ necessary\\ small\\ molecules\\ into\\ the\\ cell\\ interior\\.\\ Why\\ do\\ some\\ small\\ molecules\\ require\\ transporters\\?\\ Often\\ small\\ molecules\\ are\\ too\\ polar\\ to\\ cross\\ a\\ lipid\\ membrane\\.\\ Transporters\\ help\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ do\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\)\\ What\\ are\\ two\\ main\\ roles\\ for\\ cholesterol\\ in\\ the\\ body\\?\\ \\(10\\ words\\ or\\ less\\ each\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ precursors\\ for\\ steroid\\ hormones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ lipid\\ bilayer\\ \\(membrane\\)\\ rigidity\\ enhancer\\ or\\ blood\\ pressure\\ elevator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 3\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\)\\ Give\\ two\\ specific\\ examples\\ of\\ shape\\ complementarity\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\ besides\\ DNA\\ and\\ survival\\ machines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ any\\ ligand\\,\\ antagonist\\,\\ agonist\\ and\\ receptor\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ a\\ substrate\\ or\\ inhibitor\\ and\\ its\\ enzyme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\)\\ Define\\ agonist\\ and\\ antagonist\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agonist\\:\\ A\\ ligand\\ that\\ mimics\\ the\\ abilites\\ of\\ an\\ endogenous\\ ligand\\ to\\ activate\\ a\\ receptor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antagonist\\:\\ A\\ ligand\\ that\\ inhibits\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ an\\ endogenous\\ ligand\\ to\\ activate\\ a\\ receptor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\)\\ Give\\ one\\ advantage\\ and\\ one\\ disadvantage\\ of\\ using\\ a\\ gene\\ knockout\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ antagonist\\ to\\ study\\ a\\ biological\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advantage\\:\\ Key\\ advantages\\ of\\ gene\\ knockout\\ include\\ that\\ knockouts\\ only\\ target\\ one\\ gene\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ chance\\ of\\ antagonizing\\ other\\ receptors\\ as\\ small\\ molecules\\ do\\,\\ knockouts\\ are\\ often\\ 100\\%\\ complete\\ unlike\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ as\\ robust\\,\\ and\\ knockouts\\ do\\ not\\ require\\ constant\\ administration\\ as\\ small\\ molecules\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disadvantage\\:\\ Key\\ disadvantages\\ include\\ that\\ knocking\\ out\\ a\\ gene\\ that\\ has\\ multiple\\ functions\\ may\\ disrupt\\ unintended\\ and\\ very\\ important\\ cellular\\ functions\\,\\ gene\\ knockouts\\ are\\ often\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ achieve\\,\\ we\\ can\\ not\\ test\\ gene\\ knockouts\\ on\\ humans\\,\\ gene\\ knockouts\\ are\\ permanent\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ allow\\ any\\ temporal\\ control\\ like\\ small\\ molecule\\ administration\\ would\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\)\\ Why\\ did\\ the\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ lecture\\ develop\\ female\\-like\\ genitalia\\ before\\ puberty\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prenatally\\,\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ 5alpha\\-reductase\\ caused\\ a\\ deficiency\\ of\\ DHT\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ hormone\\ that\\ stimulates\\ male\\ physical\\ development\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\)\\ How\\ could\\ genetic\\ information\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ personalize\\ depression\\ medication\\ in\\ the\\ future\\?\\ What\\ improvements\\ would\\ this\\ make\\ on\\ current\\ depression\\ treatment\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Current\\ depression\\ treatment\\ is\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\ and\\ only\\ 60\\%\\ accurate\\.\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ receptor\\ problems\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brain\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ guess\\ which\\ medications\\ a\\ person\\ needs\\.\\ Genetic\\ information\\ that\\ showed\\ exactly\\ what\\ receptor\\ was\\ the\\ problem\\ would\\ allow\\ for\\ a\\ quicker\\,\\ less\\ side\\-effect\\ inducing\\ therapy\\ as\\ we\\ could\\ give\\ the\\ correct\\ drug\\ immediately\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\)\\ Adrenaline\\ often\\ has\\ to\\ perform\\ different\\ functions\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ organ\\ such\\ as\\ contracting\\ one\\ eye\\ muscle\\ and\\ relaxing\\ another\\.\\ How\\ can\\ one\\ molecule\\ perform\\ two\\ such\\ different\\ functions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ molecule\\ can\\ stimulate\\ multiple\\ different\\ receptors\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ can\\ perform\\ a\\ different\\ action\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ one\\ can\\ contract\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ relax\\ an\\ eye\\ muscle\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ multiplexing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 4\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Use\\ the\\ following\\ structure\\ and\\ information\\ for\\ questions\\ 15\\ and\\ 16\\:\\ Fluoxetine\\ \\(Prozac\\)\\ is\\ a\\ racemic\\ mixture\\ of\\ the\\ molecule\\ shown\\ below\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\)\\ Please\\ circle\\ the\\ stereocenter\\ and\\ describe\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ important\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ stereocenter\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ carbon\\ attached\\ to\\ four\\ different\\ things\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ point\\ from\\ which\\ an\\ enantiomer\\ can\\ be\\ formed\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ chiral\\ center\\.\\ Further\\,\\ enantiomers\\ can\\ have\\ different\\ receptors\\ and\\ thus\\ different\\ biological\\ activities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\)\\ Imagine\\ that\\ the\\ patent\\ for\\ this\\ drug\\ is\\ about\\ to\\ expire\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ easiest\\ way\\ that\\ a\\ drug\\ company\\ might\\ try\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ new\\ drug\\ to\\ patent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ above\\ drug\\ is\\ a\\ racemic\\ mixture\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ 50\\:50\\ mix\\ of\\ enantiomers\\.\\ A\\ drug\\ company\\ might\\ was\\ to\\ isolate\\ or\\ synthesize\\ a\\ single\\ enantiomer\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ new\\ patent\\ on\\ that\\ drug\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17\\)\\ Adenine\\ is\\ shown\\ below\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ molecular\\ formula\\ of\\ adenine\\ and\\ why\\ is\\ the\\ molecular\\ formula\\ evolutionarily\\ significant\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 5\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\is\\ made\\ of\\ 5\\ X\\ HCN\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ prebiotic\\ gas\\ molecule\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ adenine\\ could\\ have\\ arisen\\ prebiotically\\ by\\ five\\ HCN\\ molecules\\ coming\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\)\\ Draw\\ all\\ seven\\ isomers\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ molecular\\ formula\\ \\(no\\ stereoisomers\\)\\:\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\O\\.\\ Any\\ of\\ the\\ drawing\\ conventions\\ used\\ in\\ class\\ are\\ acceptable\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ hydrogen\\ atoms\\ drawn\\ out\\ or\\ implied\\)\\.\\ \\(Hint\\:\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ molecule\\ as\\ from\\ your\\ homework\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\OH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Page\\ 6\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 43, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SciB47_-_1st_Midterm_Questions__Answers.pdf", "desc": "actual exam"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 142, "html": "\\\\\\Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c45\\{max\\-width\\:504pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:49\\.5pt\\ 67\\.5pt\\ 72pt\\ 40\\.5pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c42\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c27\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:225pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c44\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:171pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c47\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c38\\{padding\\-left\\:3pt\\}\\.c41\\{padding\\-left\\:0\\.8pt\\}\\.c24\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c21\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c35\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c46\\{margin\\-left\\:9pt\\}\\.c34\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c36\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:216pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c40\\{margin\\-left\\:252pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c43\\{color\\:\\#333333\\}\\.c37\\{margin\\-left\\:198pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c39\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Alex\\ \\-\\ Concepts\\ \\&\\;\\ Reasoning\\.\\ \\ \\;Concepts\\,\\ categories\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ stereotypes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deductive\\ and\\ probabilistic\\ reasoning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 10\\,\\ \\ \\;pp\\.\\ 345\\-351\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Concepts\\ \\&\\;\\ Reasoning\\,\\ Categories\\,\\ Stereotypes\\,\\ Deductive\\ and\\ Inductive\\ Reasoning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Textbook\\ Pages\\ 345\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 351\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Classical\\,\\ or\\ Aristotelian\\ Categories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ All\\ or\\ none\\,\\ governed\\ by\\ rules\\ of\\ logic\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ grandmother\\ in\\ a\\ classical\\ category\\ is\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ a\\ parent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Concepts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ definitions\\ in\\ the\\ head\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ properties\\ common\\ to\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ \\(necessary\\ conditions\\)\\ and\\ common\\ only\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ that\\ category\\ \\(sufficient\\ conditions\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ concepts\\ for\\ individual\\ things\\,\\ and\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wittgenstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ critique\\ of\\ Classical\\ Categories\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Just\\ try\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ one\\ definition\\ that\\ works\\ \\(can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ disproved\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ game\\,\\ for\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ you\\ say\\ its\\ fun\\,\\ people\\ say\\ chess\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fun\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ you\\ say\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ event\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ win\\,\\ solitaire\\ breaks\\ the\\ mold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ unified\\ definition\\,\\ instead\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ properties\\,\\ and\\ each\\ game\\ has\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ properties\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ all\\ of\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ Resemblance\\ Categories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ fits\\ definition\\ above\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ has\\ some\\ qualities\\ common\\ to\\ the\\ group\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ fonts\\ for\\ the\\ letter\\ A\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\,\\ A\\,\\ and\\ A\\ all\\ look\\ different\\,\\ but\\ you\\ recognize\\ them\\ as\\ the\\ letter\\ A\\ because\\ they\\ share\\ the\\ common\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ letter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(chairs\\ are\\ also\\ a\\ good\\ example\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Even\\ categories\\ with\\ strict\\ definitions\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ bachelor\\,\\ do\\ not\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bachelor\\ \\=\\ adult\\ male\\ who\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ married\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ about\\ the\\ unmarried\\ bishop\\?\\ \\ \\;Or\\ the\\ homosexual\\ long\\-term\\ partners\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ family\\,\\ or\\ category\\,\\ has\\ a\\ prototype\\,\\ or\\ an\\ individual\\ who\\ best\\ fits\\ our\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ through\\ common\\ characteristics\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ carrot\\ is\\ a\\ better\\ prototype\\ of\\ a\\ vegetable\\ than\\ garlic\\,\\ and\\ a\\ robin\\ a\\ better\\ prototype\\ than\\ a\\ penguin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Family\\ Resemblance\\ categories\\ are\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;fuzzy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ have\\ unclear\\ sets\\ or\\ definitions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Is\\ a\\ SUV\\ a\\ car\\ or\\ a\\ truck\\?\\ \\ \\;Is\\ a\\ ball\\ of\\ cells\\ a\\ person\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Family\\ resemblance\\ categories\\ also\\ have\\ characteristic\\ features\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ definition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ grandmother\\ who\\ bakes\\ cookies\\ and\\ knits\\,\\ but\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ a\\ grandmother\\ has\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ that\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;provides\\ evidence\\ of\\ family\\ resemblance\\ categories\\ in\\ our\\ minds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ agree\\ on\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ membership\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ classify\\ a\\ robin\\ as\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ prototype\\ of\\ a\\ bird\\ than\\ a\\ chicken\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ classify\\ these\\ prototypes\\ faster\\ than\\ other\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ kids\\ use\\ the\\ prototypical\\ exemplars\\ before\\ using\\ the\\ other\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ \\(they\\ would\\ say\\ robin\\ before\\ they\\ say\\ chicken\\ if\\ you\\ asked\\ them\\ to\\ name\\ a\\ bird\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\,\\ we\\ totally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ Classical\\ Categories\\,\\ right\\?\\ \\ \\;Not\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mind\\ has\\ both\\ Classical\\ Categories\\ and\\ Family\\ Resemblance\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fuzzy\\ Sets\\ \\(Family\\ Resemblance\\)\\ and\\ Classical\\ Categories\\ also\\ coexist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ mother\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ prototypical\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ female\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ classical\\ category\\.\\ \\ \\;Comedienne\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ female\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Every\\ entity\\ in\\ a\\ group\\ belongs\\ to\\ a\\ whole\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ groups\\,\\ including\\ the\\ category\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ thinking\\ of\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ a\\ dog\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ is\\ a\\ mammal\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ animal\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ living\\ thing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ one\\ level\\ of\\ categorization\\ is\\ always\\ most\\ natural\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Basic\\ Level\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Rosch\\ studied\\ this\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ dog\\,\\ we\\ most\\ naturally\\ say\\ dog\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ animal\\ \\(which\\ is\\ too\\ broad\\)\\ or\\ black\\ Labrador\\ \\(which\\ is\\ too\\ specific\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ category\\ that\\ is\\ too\\ broad\\ \\(animal\\)\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ superordinate\\ category\\,\\ while\\ the\\ too\\ specific\\ category\\ is\\ called\\ subordinate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Properties\\ of\\ the\\ Basic\\ Level\\:\\ share\\ many\\ attributes\\,\\ similar\\ shapes\\,\\ can\\ be\\ identified\\ by\\ similar\\ shape\\,\\ similar\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Purpose\\ of\\ Categories\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ can\\ infer\\ without\\ knowing\\ the\\ specifics\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ it\\ barks\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ dog\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ investigate\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ figure\\ that\\ out\\,\\ because\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ dogs\\ as\\ a\\ group\\ bark\\,\\ and\\ this\\ thing\\ barks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subordinate\\ categories\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ assign\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ offer\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ specifics\\ and\\ inferences\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ remember\\ the\\ specifics\\ of\\ each\\ group\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ specific\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Superordinate\\ categories\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ offer\\ enough\\ inferences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ specific\\ enough\\,\\ so\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ learn\\ enough\\ about\\ the\\ object\\ by\\ saying\\ its\\ animate\\,\\ or\\ a\\ mammal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Deductive\\ Reasoning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ general\\ to\\ specific\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ formal\\ logic\\,\\ certain\\ logic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Socrates\\ is\\ a\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Men\\ are\\ mortal\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ Socrates\\ is\\ mortal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inductive\\ Inference\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ specific\\ to\\ general\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ probabilistic\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tyler\\,\\ Billy\\,\\ and\\ I\\ are\\ all\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;Tyler\\ is\\ mortal\\,\\ Billy\\ is\\ mortal\\,\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ mortal\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ mortal\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ probabilistic\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ uncertain\\;\\ there\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ man\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ list\\ who\\ is\\ immortal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Normative\\ versus\\ Descriptive\\ Models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Normative\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ people\\ should\\ think\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ people\\ follow\\ normative\\ models\\?\\ It\\ depends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\WASON\\ SELECTION\\ TASK\\ \\-\\ BELOW\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ usually\\ get\\ this\\ wrong\\ \\(the\\ answer\\ is\\ D\\ and\\ 7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Confirmation\\ Bias\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ seek\\ to\\ confirm\\ rather\\ than\\ falsify\\ our\\ hypotheses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ content\\ matters\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ really\\ bad\\ with\\ formal\\ logic\\ problems\\ like\\ the\\ past\\ one\\,\\ but\\ when\\ put\\ into\\ a\\ different\\ context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ with\\ bar\\ patrons\\,\\ we\\ do\\ very\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ bar\\ patron\\ is\\ drinking\\ beer\\,\\ he\\ must\\ be\\ over\\ 21\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Who\\ do\\ you\\ check\\?\\ \\ \\;The\\ guy\\ over\\ 21\\,\\ the\\ guy\\ under\\ 21\\,\\ the\\ guy\\ drinking\\ beer\\,\\ or\\ the\\ guy\\ drinking\\ a\\ coke\\?\\ \\ \\;Obviously\\,\\ the\\ guy\\ with\\ the\\ coke\\ and\\ the\\ guy\\ over\\ 21\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ concern\\ us\\,\\ because\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ breaking\\ the\\ rule\\.\\ But\\ we\\ know\\ to\\ check\\ the\\ guy\\ under\\ 21\\ and\\ the\\ guy\\ drinking\\ beer\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ IDENTICAL\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ problem\\,\\ except\\ for\\ the\\ social\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ contracts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ people\\ take\\ a\\ benefit\\,\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ pay\\ a\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ understand\\ this\\ logical\\ in\\ a\\ social\\ situation\\ \\(cheater\\ detection\\)\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ abstract\\ reasoning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Misconceptions\\ of\\ Chance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Predictable\\-World\\ Biases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ game\\ where\\ dice\\ have\\ 4\\ green\\ sides\\ and\\ two\\ red\\ sides\\,\\ and\\ you\\ get\\ rewarded\\ for\\ guessing\\ which\\ color\\ it\\ will\\ land\\ on\\,\\ you\\ will\\ win\\ the\\ most\\ by\\ guessing\\ green\\ on\\ every\\ trial\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ called\\ maximizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ maximize\\,\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ pattern\\,\\ called\\ matching\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ matching\\,\\ people\\ will\\ guess\\ green\\ for\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ trials\\ and\\ red\\ for\\ 1\\/3\\,\\ matching\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ the\\ trials\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ yield\\ a\\ higher\\ reward\\,\\ but\\ reveals\\ that\\ people\\ think\\ they\\ can\\ guess\\ the\\ random\\ chance\\ pattern\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gambler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fallacy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ lost\\ the\\ last\\ 20\\ times\\ \\(say\\ in\\ flipping\\ a\\ coin\\)\\,\\ so\\ I\\ have\\ to\\ win\\ \\(get\\ a\\ heads\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ tails\\)\\ on\\ the\\ next\\ try\\!\\ Not\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ have\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ chance\\ of\\ winning\\ on\\ each\\ try\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Misperceptions\\ of\\ Risk\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Plane\\ versus\\ Car\\ travel\\.\\ \\ \\;Plane\\ is\\ way\\ safer\\,\\ but\\ people\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\ flying\\.\\ \\ \\;Happens\\ for\\ several\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Availability\\ Heuristic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ we\\ see\\ it\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ we\\ think\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ normal\\ occurrence\\ \\(airplane\\ crashes\\ are\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ news\\,\\ car\\ crashes\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ so\\ we\\ therefore\\ think\\ that\\ planes\\ are\\ less\\ safe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ vs\\.\\ Human\\ Made\\ fears\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ fear\\ snakes\\ \\(ancestral\\ environments\\)\\,\\ but\\ not\\ guns\\ or\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ control\\ \\(flying\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ control\\,\\ so\\ we\\ freak\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\ \\(H\\|D\\)\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\P\\ \\(H\\)\\ x\\ P\\ \\(D\\|H\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\=\\ Bayes\\&rsquo\\;\\ Theorem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ \\(D\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Base\\ rate\\ neglect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ where\\ people\\ ignore\\ the\\ actual\\ prevalence\\ rates\\ of\\ something\\ occurring\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ hearing\\ hoof\\ beats\\ outside\\ and\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ zebra\\ when\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ horse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Representative\\ Heuristic\\ or\\ the\\ Conjunction\\ Fallacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ say\\ that\\ Linda\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ bank\\ teller\\ and\\ an\\ active\\ feminist\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ bank\\ teller\\ alone\\,\\ which\\ is\\ impossible\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ pool\\ of\\ people\\ is\\ greater\\ \\(less\\ specific\\)\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ probable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Different\\ Types\\ of\\ Probability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subjectivist\\ probability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frequentist\\ probability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ proportion\\ of\\ events\\ have\\ a\\ given\\ outcome\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\ \\(multiple\\ times\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ frequentists\\;\\ when\\ we\\ try\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ a\\ subjectivist\\ probability\\,\\ we\\ use\\ memory\\,\\ stereotypes\\,\\ judgment\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ when\\ we\\ use\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ we\\ are\\ pretty\\ good\\ intuitive\\ statisticians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\READ\\ THE\\ BLOG\\ FOR\\ MORE\\ ON\\ BAYES\\&rsquo\\;\\ THEOREM\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ honestly\\ like\\ a\\ page\\ and\\ a\\ half\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ terms\\ in\\ the\\ theorem\\,\\ the\\ blog\\ explains\\ it\\ pretty\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Two\\ types\\ of\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\ problems\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ series\\ problem\\,\\ and\\ syllogisms\\.\\ \\ \\;Series\\ requires\\ you\\ to\\ organize\\ items\\ in\\ a\\ set\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ comparative\\ feature\\,\\ and\\ then\\ extrapolate\\ information\\ from\\ the\\ organized\\ set\\ \\(John\\ is\\ taller\\ than\\ Sally\\,\\ Sally\\ is\\ shorter\\ than\\ Dave\\&hellip\\;those\\ problems\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Syllogisms\\ present\\ a\\ major\\ premise\\,\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ minor\\ premise\\ \\(All\\ chefs\\ are\\ violinist\\,\\ Mary\\ is\\ a\\ chef\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ she\\ a\\ violinist\\?\\ Yes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Euler\\ circles\\ \\(think\\ Venn\\ diagrams\\)\\ help\\ to\\ illustrate\\ deductive\\ logic\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phillip\\ Johnson\\-Laird\\ contends\\ that\\ people\\ make\\ mental\\ models\\ of\\ deductive\\ logic\\ problems\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ solve\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Insight\\ problems\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ problems\\ designed\\ to\\ be\\ difficult\\ to\\ solve\\ until\\ you\\ approach\\ the\\ problem\\ in\\ an\\ unusual\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aley\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Thursday\\,\\ March\\ 20\\:\\ Language\\.\\ Universality\\ of\\ language\\;\\ language\\ and\\ thought\\;\\ components\\ of\\ language\\;\\ how\\ language\\ works\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 11\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 406\\-421\\.\\ \\[Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ forget\\ to\\ read\\ the\\ two\\ chapters\\ in\\ the\\ Language\\ Instinct\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Language\\&rdquo\\;\\ 3\\/20\\/08\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Language\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ instinct\\ \\(an\\ adapted\\ cognitive\\ module\\ leading\\ to\\ very\\ specific\\ adaptive\\ behaviors\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Man\\ has\\ an\\ instinctive\\ tendency\\ to\\ speak\\,\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\we\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ babble\\ of\\ our\\ young\\ children\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\while\\ no\\ child\\ has\\ an\\ instinctive\\ tendency\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bake\\,\\ brew\\,\\ or\\ write\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Charles\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Central\\ in\\ human\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expressive\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Universality\\ \\(6000\\ languages\\ worldwide\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ not\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\written\\/alphabetic\\ language\\ \\(not\\ instinctive\\ to\\ write\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;proper\\ grammar\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\thought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\there\\ is\\ thought\\ in\\ nonlinguistic\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mentalese\\ language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;language\\ of\\ thought\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;includes\\ nonlinguistic\\ thought\\ ex\\.\\ mental\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nonlinguistic\\ thinking\\ underlies\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\language\\ does\\ not\\ determine\\ thought\\ \\(may\\ affect\\ it\\ though\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\How\\ language\\ works\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Noam\\ Chomsky\\:\\ the\\ biggest\\ contributor\\ to\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ language\\ works\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ on\\ creativity\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;productivity\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ is\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ rules\\ that\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ produce\\/understand\\ an\\ unlimited\\ of\\ new\\ sentences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ on\\ language\\ acquisition\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ be\\ seen\\ by\\ observing\\ children\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ children\\ generalize\\ from\\ finite\\ input\\ of\\ sentences\\ to\\ infinite\\ language\\ of\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\CONCLUSIONS\\ made\\ by\\ Chomsky\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Language\\ has\\ syntax\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ as\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ syntactically\\ well\\-constructed\\ sentence\\ however\\ is\\ meaningless\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ language\\ works\\ using\\ rules\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ connected\\ to\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Syntax\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ linear\\,\\ word\\-by\\-word\\ associations\\ \\(B\\.f\\.\\ Skinner\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ IS\\)\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ not\\ learned\\ or\\ conditioned\\ by\\ stimulus\\-response\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ make\\ up\\ and\\ understand\\ new\\ sentences\\,\\ they\\ have\\ never\\ heard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Word\\ associate\\ mechanisms\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ account\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;long\\-distance\\ dependencies\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(either\\.\\.or\\,\\ if\\&hellip\\;then\\)\\ or\\ gibberish\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daddy\\,\\ what\\ did\\ you\\ bring\\ that\\ book\\ that\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ to\\ out\\ of\\ up\\ for\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Syntax\\ requires\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hierarchical\\ phrase\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;built\\ from\\ rules\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\A\\ sentence\\ consists\\:\\ noun\\ phrase\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ verb\\ phrase\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decomposed\\ into\\ smaller\\ pieces\\ ex\\.\\ noun\\ phrase\\ can\\ contain\\ a\\ detriminer\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;the\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ an\\ adjective\\,\\ a\\ noun\\,\\ prepositional\\ \\ \\;phrase\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phrase\\ structure\\ in\\ grammar\\ explains\\ productivity\\/creativity\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Man\\ bites\\ dog\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dog\\ bites\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ have\\ different\\ meaning\\ due\\ to\\ structure\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Allows\\ us\\ to\\ express\\ unfamiliar\\ meanings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allows\\ us\\ to\\ express\\ an\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ combinations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syntax\\ helps\\ explain\\ recursion\\:\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ embed\\ a\\ phrase\\ within\\ a\\ phrase\\ Ex\\.\\&rdquo\\;The\\ boy\\ with\\ the\\ hair\\ hit\\ the\\ ball\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Recursions\\ allow\\ sentences\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ theoretical\\ limit\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phrase\\ structure\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ determining\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\meaning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ sentence\\;\\ two\\ sentences\\ can\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ exact\\ wording\\ but\\ different\\ structure\\ and\\ have\\ completely\\ different\\ meanings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Phrase\\ structure\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ explain\\ syntax\\.\\ \\ \\;Chomsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ solution\\:\\ transformational\\ grammar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Words\\ are\\ assembled\\ by\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\deep\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ transformational\\ rule\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;move\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ phrase\\ to\\ an\\ empty\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ deep\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ did\\ John\\ devour\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;John\\ devoured\\ sushi\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ word\\ and\\ derives\\ its\\ meaning\\ from\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Language\\ Acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(this\\ is\\ still\\ Chomsky\\ because\\ apparently\\ he\\ owns\\ this\\ field\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Children\\ have\\ an\\ innate\\ universal\\ grammar\\,\\ children\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ memorize\\ sentences\\&hellip\\;must\\ generalize\\ to\\ infinite\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ poverty\\ of\\ the\\ stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ argument\\ that\\ children\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ enough\\ input\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;learn\\&rdquo\\;\\ these\\ rules\\ and\\ must\\ therefore\\ know\\ something\\ about\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evidence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Demonstrations\\ of\\ productive\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ndash\\;ed\\ past\\-tense\\ in\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overgeneralization\\ to\\ irregular\\ verbs\\ \\(sticked\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generalization\\ to\\ novel\\ words\\ \\(new\\ word\\ is\\ given\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;wug\\&rdquo\\;\\ then\\ child\\ asked\\ to\\ say\\ plural\\,\\ they\\ will\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;wugs\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ learn\\ correctly\\ to\\ form\\ questions\\ quickly\\:\\ always\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ is\\ tall\\ here\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ never\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ tall\\ is\\ here\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Critiques\\ of\\ Chomsky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\He\\ has\\ not\\ gathered\\ data\\ on\\ what\\ children\\ actually\\ hear\\,\\ so\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ conclude\\ that\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ enough\\ input\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ shown\\ that\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ Universal\\ Grammar\\ are\\ specific\\ to\\ language\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ principles\\ of\\ general\\ cognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ shown\\ that\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ Universal\\ Grammar\\ hold\\ in\\ all\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ non\\-behaviorist\\ models\\ are\\ incapable\\ of\\ acquiring\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ may\\ have\\ overestimated\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ phenomena\\ that\\ are\\ due\\ to\\ syntactic\\ rules\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ language\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Can\\ language\\ be\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ cognition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ ways\\ to\\ show\\ this\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Neurological\\ double\\ dissociation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Population\\ A\\ has\\ impairment\\ of\\ language\\,\\ no\\ impairment\\ of\\ cognition\\ ex\\.\\ Aphasia\\,\\ Specific\\ Language\\ Impairment\\ \\(language\\ delay\\,\\ effortful\\,\\ indistinct\\ speech\\ in\\ childhood\\,\\ grammatical\\ errors\\,\\ comprehension\\ difficulties\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Population\\ B\\ has\\ impairment\\ of\\ cognition\\,\\ no\\ impairment\\ of\\ language\\,\\ ex\\.\\ Williams\\ Syndrome\\ \\(retarded\\,\\ poor\\ spatial\\ cognition\\,\\ very\\ social\\,\\ excellent\\ language\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Other\\ components\\ of\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ Lexicon\\ \\(concept\\ introduced\\ by\\ Ferdinand\\ de\\ Sassure\\)\\:\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;dictionary\\ in\\ our\\ brains\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ consists\\ of\\ pairing\\ between\\ arbitrary\\ symbols\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ words\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ concepts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ definitions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vocab\\ of\\ 600\\,000\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\ word\\ every\\ 2\\ hours\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morphology\\:\\ the\\ syntax\\ of\\ words\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ duck\\,\\ ducks\\.\\ Walk\\,\\ walked\\.\\ Inflectional\\ languages\\ use\\ morphology\\ to\\ express\\ syntactical\\ relationships\\.\\ For\\ example\\ in\\ Latin\\,\\ word\\ order\\ is\\ irrelevant\\ but\\ the\\ suffixes\\ and\\ prefixes\\ of\\ words\\ determine\\ role\\ of\\ word\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;canis\\ hominem\\ mordet\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ dog\\ bites\\ the\\ man\\)\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ meaning\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;hominem\\ canis\\ mordet\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phonology\\:\\ the\\ sound\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ language\\ and\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ fundamental\\ units\\ called\\ phonemes\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;krechtz\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ valid\\ English\\ sound\\ structure\\ word\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ sound\\ structure\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ word\\.\\ Further\\ there\\ are\\ adjustment\\ rules\\ such\\ as\\ how\\ \\&ndash\\;ed\\ is\\ pronounced\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;walked\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;patted\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Language\\ Interfaces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ source\\-articulation\\ \\(source\\-filter\\)\\ model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ we\\ generate\\ sounds\\ using\\ muscles\\,\\ flaps\\ of\\ skin\\,\\ teeth\\,\\ and\\ airflow\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Larynx\\ creates\\ non\\-descript\\ sound\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ pharynx\\,\\ mouth\\,\\ lips\\,\\ and\\ nose\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\changeable\\ resonators\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ filter\\ sound\\ from\\ larynx\\ to\\ create\\ vowels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ lips\\,\\ tongue\\,\\ and\\ soft\\ palate\\ filter\\ sound\\ from\\ larynx\\ through\\ the\\ constriction\\ of\\ the\\ vocal\\ tract\\,\\ creating\\ consonants\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speech\\ Comprehension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difficulties\\ in\\ computer\\ speech\\ recognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reason\\ 1\\:\\ the\\ acoustic\\ variability\\ of\\ phonemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ 2\\:\\ The\\ illusion\\ of\\ segmentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pragmatics\\ and\\ inference\\:\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ language\\ is\\ actually\\ used\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ could\\ pass\\ the\\ guacamole\\,\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ awesome\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ an\\ interface\\ between\\ language\\ and\\ psychology\\.\\ Two\\ reasons\\ why\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ in\\ clear\\,\\ concise\\,\\ complete\\ sentences\\:\\ 1\\.\\ there\\ is\\ often\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ shared\\ knowledge\\ for\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ hearer\\ to\\ draw\\ on\\ 2\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ not\\ solely\\ means\\ of\\ communication\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ achieve\\ goals\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ best\\ be\\ met\\ through\\ clear\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Language\\ Instinct\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ch\\.2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\:\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\,\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ isolated\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&hellip\\;they\\ had\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ any\\ cultural\\ invention\\ but\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ a\\ special\\ human\\ instinct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ inventions\\ vary\\ widely\\ in\\ sophistication\\ from\\ society\\ to\\ society\\ \\(ex\\.\\ some\\ count\\ by\\ carving\\ notches\\,\\ others\\ use\\ computers\\)\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ of\\ sophistication\\ in\\ all\\ societies\\ \\(and\\ within\\ all\\ societies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Proper\\ grammar\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ grammatical\\ sophistication\\,\\ nonstandard\\ dialects\\ of\\ English\\ are\\ not\\ grammatically\\ deficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BEV\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ grammatically\\ deficient\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ sometimes\\ more\\ grammatical\\ \\(or\\ even\\ more\\ precise\\)than\\ standard\\ English\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ is\\ invaluable\\ for\\ all\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ daily\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ people\\:\\ necessity\\ is\\ the\\ mother\\ of\\ invention\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Universal\\ grammar\\ reflects\\ the\\ universal\\ exigencies\\ of\\ human\\ experience\\ and\\ universal\\ limitations\\ on\\ human\\ information\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Complex\\ language\\ is\\ universal\\ because\\ children\\ actually\\ reinvent\\ it\\,\\ generation\\ after\\ generation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ the\\ particular\\ languages\\ we\\ find\\ arose\\.\\ Case\\:\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ Slave\\ trade\\/indentured\\ servitude\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ Pacific\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ and\\ laborers\\ of\\ difference\\ language\\ backgrounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ speakers\\ of\\ different\\ language\\ have\\ to\\ communicate\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ practical\\ tasks\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ opportunity\\ to\\ learn\\ one\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ language\\,\\ they\\ develop\\ a\\ makeshift\\ jargon\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;pidgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ choppy\\ strings\\ of\\ words\\ borrowed\\ from\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ colonizers\\/plantation\\ owners\\,\\ highly\\ variable\\ in\\ order\\ and\\ with\\ little\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ grammar\\)\\.\\ Can\\ increase\\ in\\ complexity\\ over\\ decades\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Derek\\ Bickerton\\:\\ pidgin\\ can\\ be\\ transmuted\\ into\\ full\\ complex\\ language\\ if\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ children\\ are\\ exposed\\ to\\ it\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ learning\\ language\\.\\ Children\\ injected\\ grammatical\\ complexity\\ where\\ none\\ existed\\ before\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ a\\ brand\\-new\\,\\ richly\\ expressive\\ language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ creole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ Hawaiian\\ Creole\\.\\ Children\\ \\(of\\ Japanese\\,\\ Chine\\,\\ Portuguese\\,\\ etc\\.\\ immigrants\\)\\ who\\ had\\ grown\\ up\\ in\\ Hawaii\\ beginning\\ in\\ the\\ 1890s\\ and\\ were\\ exposed\\ to\\ pidgin\\ developed\\ Hawaiin\\ Creole\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ bona\\ fide\\ language\\ with\\ standardized\\ word\\ orders\\ and\\ grammatical\\ markers\\ that\\ were\\ lacking\\ in\\ the\\ pidgin\\ of\\ the\\ immigrants\\ and\\ aside\\ from\\ the\\ sounds\\ of\\ word\\,\\ not\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ colonizers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sign\\ languages\\ are\\ found\\ wherever\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ deaf\\ people\\ and\\ each\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\;distinct\\,\\ full\\ language\\ using\\ the\\ same\\ kinds\\ of\\ grammatical\\ machinery\\ found\\ in\\ spoken\\ language\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ of\\ sign\\ language\\ pidgin\\ is\\ Nicaragua\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parents\\ do\\ not\\ teach\\ their\\ children\\ language\\;\\ children\\ understand\\ things\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ taught\\.\\.the\\ logic\\ of\\ language\\ is\\ wired\\ into\\ children\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grammatical\\ explosion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ several\\ months\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ year\\ of\\ life\\ during\\ which\\ children\\ suddenly\\ begin\\ to\\ speak\\ in\\ fluent\\ sentences\\,\\ respecting\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ fine\\ points\\ of\\ their\\ community\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spoken\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ create\\ own\\ uses\\ of\\ rules\\ ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ gots\\ a\\ book\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Thus\\ showing\\ that\\ language\\ acquisition\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ imitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ language\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ smarts\\&rdquo\\;\\ we\\ should\\ expect\\ that\\ injuries\\ and\\ impairments\\ would\\ always\\ affect\\ language\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Broca\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aphasia\\ patients\\:\\ difficulty\\ in\\ speech\\,\\ however\\ in\\ command\\ of\\ other\\ faculties\\.\\ Intellectual\\ functions\\ are\\ not\\ closely\\ tied\\ to\\ language\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Broca\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ SLI\\ patients\\ score\\ normal\\ in\\ nonverbal\\ parts\\ of\\ IQ\\ yet\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pass\\ tests\\ like\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wug\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ language\\ is\\ impaired\\ and\\ rest\\ of\\ intelligence\\ seems\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fluent\\ grammatical\\ language\\ can\\ appear\\ in\\ many\\ kinds\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ severe\\ intellectual\\ impairments\\ ex\\.\\ Williams\\ Syndrome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ch\\.4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Language\\ conveys\\ news\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Ferdinand\\ de\\ Saussure\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ arbitrariness\\ of\\ the\\ sign\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ pairing\\ of\\ sound\\ with\\ a\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ \\&ldquo\\;makes\\ infinite\\ use\\ of\\ media\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Generative\\ grammar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ code\\ to\\ translate\\ between\\ order\\ of\\ words\\ and\\ combination\\ of\\ thoughts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grammar\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;discrete\\ combinatorial\\ system\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ finite\\ number\\ of\\ words\\ are\\ sampled\\,\\ combined\\,\\ and\\ permuted\\ to\\ create\\ sentence\\ with\\ properties\\ that\\ are\\ distinct\\ from\\ those\\ words\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ consequences\\ of\\ grammar\\ as\\ a\\ discrete\\ combinational\\ system\\:\\ vastness\\ of\\ language\\,\\ it\\ is\\ autonomous\\ from\\ cognition\\ \\(independent\\ of\\ particular\\ meanings\\ we\\ typically\\ convey\\ or\\ expect\\ others\\ to\\ convey\\ to\\ us\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rest\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ lecture\\/\\ blog\\ notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\These\\ chapters\\ are\\ pretty\\ interesting\\,\\ particularly\\ chapter\\ 2\\.\\ So\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ time\\,\\ you\\ should\\ check\\ them\\ out\\ yourself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christine\\ \\-\\ Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 1\\:\\ Development\\.\\ \\ \\;Maturation\\ \\&\\;\\ cognitive\\ development\\.\\ \\ \\;Piaget\\.\\ Domain\\-specificity\\.\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 11\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 383\\-405\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Human\\ Development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Species\\ are\\ either\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Altricial\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ born\\ \\&ldquo\\;before\\ it\\ is\\ ready\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ the\\ infants\\ do\\ not\\ even\\ resemble\\ the\\ adult\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ species\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ gerbils\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Precocial\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ born\\ functional\\ \\&\\;\\ already\\ developed\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ zebras\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\secondarily\\ altricial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possibly\\ evolutionary\\ reason\\:\\ a\\ large\\ brain\\ also\\ makes\\ babies\\&rsquo\\;\\ heads\\ large\\;\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ constraints\\ of\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pelvis\\,\\ if\\ the\\ baby\\ was\\ born\\ at\\ a\\ further\\ developed\\ state\\,\\ its\\ head\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ large\\ to\\ pass\\ through\\ the\\ pelvis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\ childhood\\ of\\ humans\\ \\=\\ adaptation\\ to\\ cognitively\\ demanding\\ lifestyle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mechanisms\\ of\\ Developmental\\ Change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\)\\ Learning\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Maturation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Babies\\ have\\ many\\ more\\ neurons\\ than\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ adult\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neurons\\ are\\ formed\\ in\\ utero\\ \\&\\;\\ die\\ off\\ in\\ early\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synapses\\ peak\\ in\\ infancy\\ and\\ childhood\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ brain\\ area\\ \\(babies\\:\\ 50\\%\\ more\\ than\\ adults\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contributes\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\plasticity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ record\\ info\\ about\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\)\\ Critical\\ periods\\ \\(learning\\ within\\ a\\ maturational\\ window\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lorenz\\ found\\ that\\ goslings\\ imprint\\ within\\ 18\\-30\\ hours\\ after\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\0\\-2\\ week\\ critical\\ period\\ for\\ binocularly\\ driven\\ visual\\ neurons\\ in\\ monkeys\\;\\ if\\ the\\ monkey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ are\\ taped\\ over\\,\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ develop\\ visual\\ perception\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Learning\\ language\\ during\\ childhood\\:\\ small\\ decline\\ after\\ 2\\ years\\,\\ then\\ steep\\ decline\\ after\\ puberty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phonology\\ \\(accent\\)\\:\\ strongly\\ influenced\\ by\\ critical\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syntax\\ \\&\\;\\ morphology\\:\\ somewhat\\ influenced\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lexicon\\ \\(words\\)\\:\\ maybe\\ no\\ critical\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jean\\ Piaget\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Theory\\ of\\ Cognitive\\ Development\\ \\(Domain\\-General\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ child\\ as\\ a\\ scientist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ learning\\ through\\ experimentation\\:\\ observing\\ effects\\ of\\ manipulations\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\&\\;\\ formulating\\ theories\\ to\\ explain\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\motor\\ program\\ \\+\\ expectation\\ of\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(ex\\:\\ to\\ raise\\ a\\ block\\,\\ grab\\ block\\ \\&\\;\\ lift\\ arm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;block\\ rises\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piaget\\&rsquo\\;s\\ schemes\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ theory\\ that\\ cognition\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Schemes\\ can\\ be\\ chained\\ or\\ embedded\\;\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ combinations\\ of\\ different\\ schemes\\ \\(ex\\:\\ to\\ move\\ block\\:\\ raise\\ block\\ \\+\\ drop\\ block\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;block\\ moves\\ to\\ new\\ location\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assimilation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;experience\\ conforms\\ to\\ the\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accommodation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ experience\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ conform\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;change\\ the\\ scheme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Four\\ Developmental\\ Stages\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\at\\ each\\ stage\\,\\ schemes\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ certain\\ mathematical\\/logical\\ properties\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\domain\\-generality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ our\\ abilities\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;learning\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;higher\\ reasoning\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(or\\ any\\ other\\ general\\ mechanism\\)\\ are\\ applied\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ across\\ domains\\ of\\ knowledge\\ like\\ language\\,\\ morality\\,\\ social\\ behavior\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helpful\\ analogy\\:\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\ a\\ general\\-purpose\\ computer\\ with\\ just\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ programs\\ that\\ used\\ for\\ almost\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ cognition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sensorimotor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ range\\:\\ birth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Description\\:\\ experiencing\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ senses\\ \\&\\;\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developmental\\ milestones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Object\\ permanence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stranger\\ anxiety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Preoperational\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ range\\:\\ about\\ 2\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 6\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Description\\:\\ representing\\ things\\ w\\/\\ words\\ \\&\\;\\ images\\ but\\ lacking\\ logical\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developmental\\ milestones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ability\\ to\\ pretend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Egocentrism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cannot\\ see\\ the\\ world\\ from\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ point\\ of\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concrete\\ Operational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ 7\\ to\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Description\\:\\ thinking\\ logically\\ about\\ concrete\\ events\\;\\ grasping\\ concrete\\ analogies\\ \\&\\;\\ performing\\ arithmetical\\ operations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developmental\\ Milestones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conservation\\ \\(of\\ number\\,\\ length\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ substance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mathematical\\ transformations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abstract\\ logic\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Formal\\ Operational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ 12\\ to\\ adulthood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Description\\:\\ Abstract\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developmental\\ Milestone\\:\\ potential\\ for\\ mature\\ moral\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ Piaget\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Findings\\ based\\ on\\ observation\\,\\ not\\ experimentation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Underestimation\\ of\\ children\\&rsquo\\;\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trick\\ questions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ children\\ may\\ interpret\\ questions\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Underestimates\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ knowledge\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ could\\ know\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ but\\ just\\ lack\\ neural\\ development\\ to\\ act\\ upon\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;D\\é\\;callage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ domain\\-general\\ approach\\ of\\ setting\\ rules\\ rather\\ than\\ exceptions\\;\\ the\\ stages\\ might\\ not\\ apply\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ domains\\ because\\ many\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ do\\ not\\ develop\\ in\\ distinct\\ stages\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Alternative\\ View\\:\\ Domain\\-Specificity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Domain\\-specificity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ understand\\ \\&\\;\\ develop\\ different\\ cognitive\\ domains\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ using\\ some\\ general\\ cognitive\\ processes\\ to\\ solve\\ all\\ cognitive\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ specific\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\modules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(intuitive\\ theories\\ or\\ ways\\ of\\ knowing\\)\\ for\\ many\\ individual\\ domains\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ intuitive\\ physics\\,\\ psychology\\,\\ biology\\,\\ design\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Intuitive\\ Physics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ development\\ of\\ knowledge\\ \\&\\;\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Tested\\ through\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\habituation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ presenting\\ an\\ event\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\ until\\ the\\ baby\\ experiences\\ boredom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ a\\ new\\ event\\ is\\ presented\\ after\\ an\\ old\\ one\\,\\ babies\\ perk\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ 3\\-4\\ months\\ understand\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cohesion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ parts\\ of\\ an\\ object\\ move\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Continuity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ objects\\ follow\\ continuous\\ spatiotemporal\\ trajectories\\ \\(they\\ do\\ not\\ disappear\\ then\\ reappear\\,\\ or\\ pass\\ through\\ one\\ another\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ other\\ concepts\\ require\\ time\\ \\&\\;\\ further\\ experience\\ \\(such\\ as\\ gravity\\,\\ inertia\\,\\ support\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\even\\ adults\\ do\\ not\\ completely\\ get\\ Newtonian\\ physics\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ ball\\ rotated\\ on\\ a\\ string\\ flies\\ off\\ at\\ a\\ tangent\\ when\\ the\\ string\\ is\\ cut\\,\\ but\\ most\\ people\\ think\\ it\\ continues\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Intuitive\\ Biology\\ \\&\\;\\ Intuitive\\ Design\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Children\\ divide\\ the\\ world\\ into\\ animate\\/inanimate\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Are\\ shocked\\ when\\ inanimate\\ objects\\ propel\\ themselves\\,\\ but\\ not\\ when\\ animate\\ objects\\ propel\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\7\\-year\\-olds\\ \\(but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ 5\\-year\\-olds\\)\\ associate\\ an\\ \\&lsquo\\;essence\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ hidden\\ trait\\ with\\ living\\ things\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Understand\\ that\\ a\\ raccoon\\ dyed\\ black\\ with\\ a\\ white\\ stripe\\ painted\\ down\\ its\\ back\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ raccoon\\,\\ not\\ a\\ skunk\\ \\(5\\-year\\-olds\\ failed\\ to\\ realize\\ this\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ 5\\-\\ and\\ 7\\-year\\-olds\\ understand\\ that\\ objects\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ their\\ functions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ coffeepot\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ birdfeeder\\ is\\ labeled\\ as\\ a\\ birdfeeder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ windup\\ bird\\ made\\ to\\ look\\ and\\ fly\\ like\\ a\\ real\\ bird\\ is\\ properly\\ labeled\\ as\\ a\\ toy\\ bird\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ real\\ one\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ animate\\/artifact\\ distinction\\ appears\\ early\\ \\&\\;\\ further\\ differentiates\\ at\\ 7\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Intuitive\\ Psychology\\ \\(theory\\ of\\ mind\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Theory\\ of\\ mind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ thoughts\\ of\\ others\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ tested\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\false\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\task\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sally\\-Anne\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sally\\ puts\\ her\\ marble\\ in\\ one\\ spot\\.\\ When\\ she\\ leaves\\,\\ Anne\\ moves\\ it\\ to\\ another\\ spot\\.\\ Where\\ will\\ Sally\\ look\\ when\\ she\\ returns\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\-year\\-olds\\ fail\\ this\\ test\\,\\ but\\ 4\\-year\\-olds\\ pass\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ realize\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ private\\ tests\\ \\&\\;\\ can\\ believe\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ 2\\-\\ and\\ 3\\-year\\-olds\\,\\ however\\,\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\some\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\intuitive\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pretense\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pretending\\ one\\ object\\ is\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mental\\ state\\ verbs\\ \\(understand\\ the\\ words\\ \\&lsquo\\;think\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;know\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ do\\ simple\\ theory\\-of\\-mind\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Autism\\ as\\ a\\ defective\\ \\&ldquo\\;theory\\ of\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ module\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Characterized\\ by\\ social\\ unresponsiveness\\,\\ detachment\\,\\ attention\\ to\\ objects\\ instead\\ of\\ people\\,\\ no\\ pretend\\ play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autistic\\ children\\ have\\ no\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ mental\\ states\\ of\\ others\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fail\\ all\\ theory\\-mind\\-tasks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ the\\ Four\\ Domains\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Intuitive\\ physics\\:\\ core\\ intuition\\ \\=\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intuitive\\ biology\\:\\ core\\ intuition\\ \\=\\ essence\\ \\(of\\ living\\ things\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intuitive\\ design\\:\\ core\\ intuition\\ \\=\\ function\\ \\(of\\ artifacts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intuitive\\ psychology\\:\\ core\\ intuition\\ \\=\\ mind\\ \\(beliefs\\ \\&\\;\\ desires\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LeRenzo\\ \\-\\ Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 3\\:\\ Emotions\\:\\ theory\\ \\&\\;\\ background\\.\\ Function\\ of\\ emotions\\.\\ Darwin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Expression\\ of\\ Emotions\\.\\ Ekman\\ \\&\\;\\ universal\\ expressions\\.\\ Emotions\\ aboutthe\\ physical\\ world\\:\\ fear\\,\\ disgust\\ and\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 3\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 68\\-75\\ \\;\\ Chapter\\ 4\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 124\\-128\\;\\ Chapter\\ 6\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 219\\-222\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ emotion\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Source\\ of\\ conflicting\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotion\\ and\\ reason\\ are\\ not\\ against\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotion\\ is\\ core\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Limbic\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Primarily\\ responsible\\ for\\ emotional\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Composed\\ of\\ amygdla\\,\\ hypothalamus\\ \\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\ cortex\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(cingulated\\ cortex\\ and\\ parahippocampal\\ gyrus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Responsible\\ for\\ ancient\\ behaviors\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;four\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Feeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fighting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fleeing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fuckng\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Highly\\ interconnected\\ with\\ frontal\\ lobes\\ \\(decision\\ makng\\ and\\ reason\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fight\\ or\\ flight\\ response\\ has\\ a\\ specific\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brain\\ notices\\ stimuli\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadowy\\ figure\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interprets\\ as\\ fearsome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hypothalamus\\ releases\\ corticotrophin\\-releasing\\ factor\\ into\\ anterior\\ pituitary\\ \\(where\\ many\\ hormones\\ come\\ from\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ant\\ pituitary\\ releases\\ corticotrophin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adrenal\\ glands\\ release\\ cortisol\\ and\\ others\\ \\(make\\ up\\ adrenaline\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ hormones\\ create\\ fight\\ or\\ flight\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Darwin\\ and\\ Emotional\\ Expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Proposed\\ three\\ principles\\ to\\ explain\\ emotion\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serviceable\\ habits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Facial\\/emotional\\ expressions\\ prepare\\ us\\ for\\ ensuing\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dog\\ will\\ bear\\ teeth\\ to\\ show\\ aggressive\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behaviors\\ reflect\\ adaptive\\ response\\ to\\ situation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Today\\ we\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ emotion\\ itself\\ is\\ the\\ adaptive\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Antithesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opposite\\ emotional\\ states\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ opposite\\ physical\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ from\\ dog\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attacking\\ dog\\ and\\ happy\\ dog\\ are\\ in\\ two\\ opposite\\ physical\\ positions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ action\\ of\\ nervous\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotional\\ responses\\ are\\ under\\ control\\ of\\ nervous\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ conscious\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Outdated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ with\\ this\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Darwin\\ thought\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ adaptive\\ function\\ to\\ exmotional\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\False\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ a\\ Lamarckian\\ version\\ of\\ inheritance\\ to\\ understand\\ emotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\E\\.g\\.\\ use\\ and\\ disuse\\,\\ inheritance\\ of\\ acquired\\ characteristics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ideas\\ are\\ still\\ used\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serviceable\\ habits\\ are\\ signals\\ to\\ convey\\ emotional\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Antithesis\\ used\\ to\\ allow\\ signals\\ that\\ cant\\ be\\ confused\\ with\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Direct\\ action\\ corresponds\\ to\\ signaling\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ used\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ bluffing\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ real\\ emotional\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Real\\ happy\\ vs\\ fake\\ happy\\,\\ diff\\ is\\ smile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universality\\ of\\ Facial\\ Expressions\\ of\\ Emotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ekman\\ studies\\ in\\ New\\ Guinea\\ showed\\ that\\ some\\ facial\\ expressions\\ are\\ universal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Surprise\\,\\ fear\\,\\ disgust\\,\\ anger\\,\\ happness\\,\\ and\\ sadness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ other\\ universal\\ emotional\\ expressions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Greeting\\ someone\\ with\\ eyebrow\\ flash\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Raise\\ eyebrow\\ when\\ yousee\\ someone\\ you\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Flirting\\ gestures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Staring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aggressing\\ or\\ love\\/sexual\\ attraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Play\\ and\\ laughter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ get\\ homologous\\ evidence\\ from\\ other\\ primates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ evidence\\ from\\ blind\\ and\\ deaf\\ children\\ who\\ exhibit\\ same\\ expressions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotions\\ about\\ things\\ and\\ Universal\\ emotions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ emotions\\ are\\ adaptive\\ and\\ guide\\ adaptive\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cannot\\ be\\ conditioned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ are\\ naturally\\ afraid\\ of\\ snakes\\ and\\ spiders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ be\\ easily\\ taught\\ to\\ be\\ afraid\\ of\\ flowers\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ with\\ phobias\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ fear\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ ancestral\\ dangers\\ \\(heights\\,\\ large\\ carnivores\\,\\ social\\ scrutiny\\ etc\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ not\\ fear\\ modern\\ dangers\\ \\(guns\\,\\ cars\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easy\\ to\\ treat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Flooding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patient\\ put\\ around\\ whatever\\ they\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imposion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patients\\ imagines\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flooding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Controlled\\ exposure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Person\\ gets\\ relaxed\\ and\\ slowly\\ fear\\ is\\ made\\ less\\ scary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Desensitization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imagery\\ of\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ observation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Watching\\ other\\ people\\ confronting\\ fear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Disgust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Avoid\\ things\\ that\\ make\\ us\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ generally\\ inside\\ of\\ body\\ that\\ are\\ now\\ outside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ things\\ make\\ us\\ sick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ option\\ given\\ to\\ patients\\ to\\ drink\\ sanitized\\ glass\\ with\\ roach\\ in\\ it\\ or\\ glass\\ of\\ arsenic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ choose\\ arsenic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Generally\\ only\\ things\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ made\\ us\\ sick\\ before\\ modern\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Usually\\ all\\ animal\\ products\\ are\\ disgusting\\ except\\ foods\\ like\\ steak\\,\\ drumsticks\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stomachs\\,\\ eyeball\\ etc\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;disgusting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contamination\\ by\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anything\\ that\\ touches\\ something\\ disgusting\\ is\\ disgusting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resemblance\\ principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;If\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ something\\ disgusting\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disgusting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\also\\ things\\ like\\ incest\\ and\\ body\\ violations\\ \\(fish\\ hook\\ in\\ skin\\)\\ cause\\ disgust\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Development\\ of\\ Disgust\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ can\\ learn\\ what\\ is\\ disgusting\\ or\\ not\\,\\ but\\ after\\ that\\ is\\ firm\\ rule\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explains\\ why\\ children\\ are\\ picky\\ eaters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ disgust\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ infectious\\ things\\ are\\ most\\ disgusting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Poop\\ worse\\ than\\ pus\\/blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ accompanies\\ food\\ taboos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Grays\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\ pp\\.\\ 68\\-75\\:\\ Natural\\ Selection\\ as\\ a\\ foundation\\ for\\ understanding\\ species\\-typical\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Species\\ typical\\ behaviors\\ in\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Species\\ typical\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ animals\\ behave\\ that\\ characteristic\\ of\\ a\\ specific\\ species\\,\\ more\\ commonly\\ called\\ instincts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Human\\ emotional\\ expressions\\ as\\ species\\-typical\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ facial\\ expressions\\ are\\ universal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ who\\ are\\ born\\ blind\\ express\\ them\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ observed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ekman\\ and\\ Friesen\\ found\\ six\\ basic\\ emotional\\ expressions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Surprise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disgust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sadness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Found\\ that\\ people\\ in\\ other\\ cultures\\ expressed\\ these\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Includes\\ cultures\\ that\\ have\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ contact\\ with\\ other\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ study\\ showed\\ universality\\ of\\ non\\-verbal\\ signals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eyebrow\\ flash\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Last\\ 1\\/6\\ of\\ a\\ sec\\.\\ and\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ smile\\ and\\ upward\\ nod\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Universal\\ sign\\ of\\ greeting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Raised\\ eyebrow\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ surprise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ a\\ happy\\ surprise\\ to\\ see\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ blind\\ children\\ do\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Expression\\ of\\ some\\ emotions\\ is\\ species\\-typical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ some\\ are\\ learned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expression\\ is\\ also\\ culture\\ specific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ general\\ expressions\\,\\ but\\ might\\ be\\ used\\ at\\ diff\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ learning\\ in\\ development\\ of\\ species\\-typical\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ emotional\\ expressions\\ are\\ species\\-typical\\,\\ but\\ the\\ differences\\ across\\ cultures\\ are\\ learned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behaviors\\ require\\ input\\ from\\ environment\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ expressed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Plays\\ large\\ role\\ in\\ development\\ of\\ species\\-specific\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biological\\ prepredness\\ as\\ basis\\ for\\ species\\-typical\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diff\\ between\\ instinctive\\ behaviors\\ \\(species\\ typical\\)\\ and\\ others\\ is\\ degree\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\biological\\ preparedness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refers\\ to\\ natural\\ anatomical\\ features\\ that\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ walk\\ on\\ two\\ legs\\,\\ speak\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ come\\ biologically\\ prepared\\ to\\ learn\\ to\\ walk\\ on\\ two\\ legs\\,\\ speak\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relative\\ Nature\\ of\\ Concept\\ of\\ Species\\-Typical\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Behaviors\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ completely\\ rely\\ on\\ biological\\ attributes\\,\\ also\\ need\\ input\\ from\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Input\\ from\\ environment\\ will\\ not\\ create\\ behaviors\\ by\\ itself\\,\\ must\\ also\\ have\\ physical\\ attributes\\ to\\ use\\ inputs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Value\\ of\\ Cross\\-species\\ comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ forms\\ of\\ cross\\-species\\ comparison\\:\\ homologies\\ and\\ analogies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ similarity\\ from\\ common\\ ancestry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analogy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ similarity\\ from\\ convergent\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ ancestor\\,\\ similar\\ lifestyles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;similar\\ attributes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Value\\ for\\ psychology\\ of\\ studying\\ Homologies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ find\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ behaviors\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ must\\ study\\ species\\ with\\ similar\\ behavior\\ that\\ is\\ homologous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Homologies\\ as\\ Clues\\ to\\ evolutionary\\ origins\\ of\\ Two\\ human\\ smiles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genuinely\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wishing\\ to\\ show\\ favorable\\ disposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reduce\\ tension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Possibly\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;greeting\\ smile\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Darwin\\ found\\ these\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ apes\\ in\\ London\\ zoo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possible\\ origins\\ of\\ Greeting\\ smile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ monkeys\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ them\\ provokes\\ a\\ fight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Smile\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ counteract\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evolved\\ into\\ a\\ greeting\\ signal\\ in\\ chimps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possible\\ origin\\ of\\ laughter\\ and\\ happy\\ smile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Smile\\ in\\ chimps\\ accompanied\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;ahh\\ ahh\\ ahh\\&rdquo\\;\\ sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Resembles\\ laughter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aggressive\\ behavior\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ seriously\\ \\(playing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Value\\ of\\ Studying\\ analogies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ to\\ make\\ inferences\\ about\\ ultimate\\ functions\\ of\\ behaviors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grays\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\ pp\\.124\\-128\\:\\ Specialized\\ Learning\\ abilities\\:\\ filling\\ the\\ blanks\\ in\\ species\\-typical\\ behavior\\ patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Special\\ abilities\\ for\\ learning\\ what\\ to\\ eat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Food\\ aversion\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ who\\ get\\ sick\\ after\\ eating\\ something\\ develop\\ an\\ aversion\\ to\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generally\\ learned\\ through\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ judge\\ the\\ chemical\\ nature\\ of\\ food\\ \\(taste\\,\\ smell\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Food\\ preference\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Food\\ that\\ promotes\\ health\\ is\\ more\\ preferred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ Social\\ Learning\\ in\\ Food\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ taste\\ food\\ that\\ adults\\ eat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rules\\ for\\ learning\\ what\\ to\\ eat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eat\\ what\\ elders\\ eat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ taste\\ and\\ smell\\ of\\ new\\ foods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grays\\ Ch\\ 6\\ pp\\ 219\\-222\\ Brain\\ Mechanisms\\ of\\ Emotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amygdala\\ Assesses\\ the\\ emotional\\ Significance\\ of\\ Stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brain\\ can\\ assess\\ stimuli\\ and\\ generate\\ responses\\ unconsciously\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amygdala\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ part\\ of\\ limbic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;early\\ warning\\ system\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\receives\\ input\\ from\\ sense\\ systems\\ and\\ performs\\ continuous\\ rapid\\ assessment\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\alerts\\ brain\\ when\\ a\\ reaction\\ is\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\input\\ comes\\ from\\ two\\ routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sub\\-cortical\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\faster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\input\\ processed\\ here\\ before\\ sensory\\ part\\ of\\ brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cortical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slower\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goes\\ through\\ cerebral\\ cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\removal\\ of\\ amygdale\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\psychic\\ blindness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\indifferen\\ to\\ psychological\\ significance\\ of\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respond\\ rearfully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ distinguish\\ foods\\/non\\-foods\\ or\\ good\\/bad\\ objects\\ for\\ sex\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prefrontal\\ Cortex\\ is\\ essential\\ for\\ Conscious\\ Experience\\ of\\ Emotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prefrontal\\ Cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foremost\\ portion\\ of\\ frontal\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Essential\\ for\\ full\\ conscious\\ experience\\ of\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Needed\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ planned\\ ways\\ based\\ on\\ these\\ feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\:\\ prefrontal\\ lobotomy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;used\\ for\\ mental\\ patients\\ to\\ relieve\\ them\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;crippling\\ emotional\\ fellings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Right\\ hemisphere\\ for\\ neg\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Left\\ for\\ pos\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DJ\\ \\-\\ Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 8\\:\\ Social\\ emotions\\:\\ Sympathy\\,\\ gratitude\\,\\ anger\\,\\ guilt\\,\\ trust\\,\\ shame\\,\\ passion\\;\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\;\\ Prisoner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Dilemma\\;\\ Ultimatum\\ Game\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ p\\.\\ 86\\;\\ Chapter\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 522\\-527\\,\\ 530\\-535\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 9\\,\\ Lecture\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ Lecture\\ explained\\ in\\ more\\ depth\\ by\\ the\\ summaries\\ of\\ the\\ textbook\\ pages\\ and\\ the\\ blog\\ found\\ below\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ Lecture\\ Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EMOTIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Emotions\\ about\\ nonhuman\\ things\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;fear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;disgust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Emotions\\ about\\ other\\ people\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;love\\ of\\ family\\ \\(next\\ lecture\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;love\\,\\ lust\\,\\ jealousy\\ toward\\ mates\\ \\(next\\ week\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;other\\ social\\ emotions\\:\\ sympathy\\,\\ gratitude\\,\\ trust\\,\\ anger\\,\\ liking\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Crucial\\ difference\\:\\ Other\\ people\\ have\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\own\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\emotions\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HOW\\ CAN\\ ORGANISMS\\ BEHAVE\\ TOWARD\\ ONE\\ ANOTHER\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Benefit\\ others\\,\\ benefit\\ self\\:\\ Mutualism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Impose\\ cost\\ on\\ others\\,\\ benefit\\ self\\:\\ Predation\\,\\ parasitism\\,\\ aggression\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Benefit\\ others\\,\\ impose\\ cost\\ on\\ self\\:\\ Altruism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Technical\\ vs\\.\\ Everyday\\ meaning\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;altruism\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Impose\\ cost\\ on\\ others\\,\\ impose\\ cost\\ on\\ self\\:\\ competition\\,\\ punishment\\ or\\ spite\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ PUZZLE\\ OF\\ BIOLOGICAL\\ ALTRUISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ In\\ evolution\\,\\ nice\\ guys\\ finish\\ last\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ So\\ how\\ can\\ altruism\\ evolve\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ POPULAR\\ BUT\\ INCORRECT\\ THEORY\\ OF\\ ALTRUISM\\:\\ SPECIES\\ SELECTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Supposed\\ examples\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Lemmings\\ commit\\ suicide\\ to\\ save\\ species\\ from\\ starvation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Stags\\ fight\\ so\\ only\\ the\\ best\\ males\\ will\\ pass\\ their\\ genes\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ species\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Wolves\\ eat\\ only\\ the\\ sick\\ and\\ old\\ deer\\,\\ keeping\\ the\\ deer\\ species\\ strong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;The\\ \\&ldquo\\;BBC\\ Fallacy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ PROBLEM\\ WITH\\ GROUP\\ SELECTION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Individuals\\ replicate\\ faster\\ than\\ species\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ new\\ species\\;\\ will\\ win\\ any\\ conflict\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\between\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Selfish\\ individuals\\ \\(mutants\\,\\ immigrants\\)\\ will\\ take\\ over\\ unselfish\\ groups\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;e\\.g\\.\\ grooming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ also\\,\\ if\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;everyone\\ is\\ just\\ unconditionally\\ helping\\ everyone\\ else\\,\\ and\\ then\\ someone\\ comes\\ along\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ help\\,\\ they\\ receive\\ the\\ benefit\\ without\\ paying\\ the\\ cost\\,\\ making\\ them\\ evolutionarily\\ \\&ldquo\\;fitter\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ thus\\ their\\ genes\\ will\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ population\\.\\ This\\ will\\ destroy\\ the\\ group\\ level\\ adaptation\\ for\\ unconditional\\ cooperation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GENES\\ AS\\ THE\\ UNITS\\ OF\\ SELECTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\individuals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ replicate\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ We\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ clone\\ ourselves\\;\\ we\\ reproduce\\ sexually\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Lamarck\\ was\\ wrong\\:\\ acquired\\ traits\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ inherited\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\do\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\replicate\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Most\\ genes\\ are\\ passed\\ on\\ intact\\ in\\ sexual\\ reproduction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ gene\\ is\\ the\\ unit\\ of\\ selection\\ giving\\ rise\\ to\\ adaptations\\:\\ \\"\\;The\\ Selfish\\ Gene\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Replicators\\&rdquo\\;\\(genes\\)\\ versus\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vehicles\\&rdquo\\;\\(organisms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RARITY\\ \\(BUT\\ NOT\\ ABSENCE\\)\\ OF\\ ALTRUISM\\ IN\\ ANIMAL\\ KINGDOM\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Deadbeat\\ dads\\;\\ males\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Blackheaded\\ gulls\\ \\(eat\\ other\\ gulls\\&rsquo\\;\\ eggs\\)\\;\\ Emperor\\ penguins\\ \\(push\\ other\\ penguins\\ into\\ the\\ water\\ to\\ test\\ for\\ seals\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Alternative\\ explanations\\ for\\ apparent\\ altruism\\ in\\ lemmings\\,\\ wolves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SOME\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\REAL\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;CASES\\ OF\\ ALTRUISM\\ IN\\ THE\\ ANIMAL\\ KINGDOM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Helpers\\ at\\ the\\ nest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Grooming\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Food\\ sharing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HOW\\ TO\\ SOLVE\\ THIS\\ PUZZLE\\ OF\\ ALTRUISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ See\\ how\\ selfish\\ \\(nonaltruistic\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\genes\\<\\/span\\>\\can\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ unselfish\\ \\(altruistic\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\individuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;An\\ important\\ distinction\\!\\ Metaphorical\\ \\&ldquo\\;selfishness\\&rdquo\\;of\\ the\\ genes\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\real\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\selfishness\\ of\\ organisms\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ people\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Proximate\\ vs\\.\\ Ultimate\\ explanations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;How\\ can\\ selfish\\ genes\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ \\(sometimes\\)\\ unselfish\\ organisms\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TWO\\ WAYS\\ THAT\\ UNSELFISHNESS\\ CAN\\ PAY\\ OFF\\ FOR\\ THE\\ GENES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 1\\.\\ Nepotism\\ \\(kin\\ selection\\,\\ inclusive\\ fitness\\)\\.\\ \\(Next\\ lecture\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 2\\.\\ Reciprocation\\ \\(tit\\ for\\ tat\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RECIPROCAL\\ ALTRUISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Gains\\ in\\ trade\\ \\(simultaneous\\ exchange\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ problem\\ of\\ delayed\\ exchange\\:\\ Vulnerability\\ to\\ cheating\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Trivers\\:\\ Reciprocal\\ Altruism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Example\\:\\ grooming\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;You\\ scratch\\ my\\ back\\;\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ scratch\\ yours\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Requirements\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Confer\\ large\\ benefit\\ to\\ others\\ at\\ small\\ cost\\ to\\ self\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Roles\\ must\\ sometimes\\ reverse\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Recognize\\ other\\ animals\\ as\\ individuals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Remember\\ who\\ helped\\,\\ who\\ hurt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Grant\\,\\ withhold\\ favors\\ accordingly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOTE\\:\\ Last\\ three\\ are\\ predictions\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\psychology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Formal\\ Support\\ for\\ Trivers\\&rsquo\\;Theory\\:\\ The\\ Prisoners\\&rsquo\\;Dilemma\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\:\\ 3\\ years\\ \\(punishment\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\:\\ 3\\ years\\ \\(punishment\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\:\\ Go\\ free\\ \\(temptation\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\:\\ 10\\ years\\ \\(sucker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;payoff\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\:\\ 10\\ years\\ \\(sucker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ payoff\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\:\\ Go\\ free\\ \\(temptation\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\:\\ 6\\ months\\ \\(reward\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\B\\:\\ 6\\ months\\ \\(reward\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cooperate\\&rdquo\\;\\(with\\ partner\\)\\ \\=\\ stay\\ mum\\&ldquo\\;Defect\\&rdquo\\;\\(against\\ partner\\)\\ \\=\\ rat\\ on\\ partner\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brutus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Choices\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cooperate\\:\\ Defect\\:Lefty\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Choices\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cooperate\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defect\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Formal\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ prisoners\\&rsquo\\;dilemma\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Best\\ individual\\ payoff\\:\\ defect\\ while\\ other\\ guy\\ cooperates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Lowest\\ individual\\ payoff\\:\\ cooperate\\ while\\ other\\ guy\\ defects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Highest\\ total\\ payoff\\:\\ both\\ cooperate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Lowest\\ total\\ payoff\\:\\ both\\ defect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Tragedy\\ of\\ Prisoners\\&rsquo\\;Dilemmas\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ If\\ both\\ parties\\ are\\ selfish\\,\\ they\\ end\\ up\\ worse\\ off\\ than\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ if\\ both\\ cooperated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ BUT\\ if\\ one\\ decides\\ to\\ cooperate\\,\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ worse\\ off\\ than\\ if\\ he\\ decides\\ to\\ be\\ selfish\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\what\\ the\\ other\\ one\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ SO\\ both\\ act\\ selfishly\\,\\ and\\ both\\ end\\ up\\ worse\\ off\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Nash\\ equilibrium\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ pair\\ of\\ strategies\\ such\\ that\\ each\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ \\(no\\ incentive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ either\\ to\\ switch\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ paradox\\.\\ But\\ \\.\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iterated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Prisoner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Dilemma\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Prisoners\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\repeatedly\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\encounter\\ each\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ Axelrod\\-Hamilton\\ tournament\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tit\\ for\\ Tat\\ Strategy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Cooperate\\ on\\ first\\ move\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Thereafter\\,\\ cooperate\\ if\\ partner\\ cooperated\\ on\\ preceding\\ move\\;\\ defect\\ if\\ partner\\ defected\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Requirements\\ of\\ Tit\\ for\\ Tat\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Interact\\ repeatedly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Remember\\ each\\ other\\&\\#39\\;s\\ behavior\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Reciprocate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Psychological\\ predictions\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Human\\ Adaptations\\ to\\ Reciprocal\\ Altruism\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Cognitive\\ abilities\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;1\\.\\ Memory\\ for\\ individuals\\ \\(faces\\,\\ names\\,\\ voices\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;2\\.\\ Cheater\\ detection\\:\\ sensitivity\\ to\\ someone\\ taking\\ a\\ benefit\\ without\\ paying\\ a\\ cost\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Card\\ Selection\\ Task\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\ on\\ reasoning\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Every\\ card\\ has\\ a\\ number\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ and\\ a\\ letter\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\"\\;If\\ card\\ has\\ a\\ D\\ on\\ one\\ side\\,\\ then\\ it\\ has\\ 3\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Which\\ cards\\ do\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ turn\\ over\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\D\\ F\\ 3\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Most\\ people\\ say\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;D\\&rdquo\\;or\\ \\&ldquo\\;D\\ \\&\\;\\ 3\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Correct\\ answer\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;D\\ \\&\\;\\ 7\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\"\\;Confirmation\\ bias\\"\\;\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;People\\ seek\\ evidence\\ to\\ confirm\\,\\ not\\ falsify\\,\\ their\\ hypotheses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Content\\ Effect\\:\\ A\\ Cheater\\-Detection\\ Strategy\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ If\\ an\\ employee\\ collects\\ a\\ pension\\,\\ he\\ must\\ have\\ worked\\ for\\ 20\\ years\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ You\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ Benefits\\ Office\\,\\ and\\ have\\ to\\ verify\\ which\\ of\\ the\\ following\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Collects\\ a\\ pension\\:\\ Worked\\ how\\ long\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ collect\\ a\\ pension\\:\\ Worked\\ how\\ long\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Worked\\ 20\\ years\\:\\ Collects\\ a\\ pension\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Worked\\ 15\\ years\\:\\ Collects\\ a\\ pension\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Content\\ effects\\ in\\ syllogistic\\ reasoning\\,\\ cont\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ People\\ are\\ logicians\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ contracts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ you\\ take\\ a\\ benefit\\,\\ you\\ must\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pay\\ a\\ cost\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Choices\\ reverse\\ if\\ the\\ person\\ imagines\\ he\\ works\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\employees\\&rsquo\\;\\ union\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rather\\ than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\benefits\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Equivalent\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;cheater\\ detector\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cognitive\\ Arms\\ Race\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Why\\ are\\ humans\\ so\\ smart\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Tool\\ use\\ \\&\\;\\ technology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Social\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\intelligence\\:\\ get\\ advantages\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ without\\ being\\ cheated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Most\\ intelligent\\ animals\\ are\\ social\\ \\(primates\\,\\ parrots\\,\\ dolphins\\,\\ wolves\\ \\&\\;\\ dogs\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Humans\\ show\\ more\\ cooperation\\ among\\ non\\-kin\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ animal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Partial\\ explanation\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\&rdquo\\;in\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emotions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adapted\\ to\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(implementation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tit\\ for\\ Tat\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Liking\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Initiate\\ altruistic\\ partnership\\ to\\ those\\ likely\\ to\\ reciprocate\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;cooperate\\ on\\ first\\ move\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Anger\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reaction\\ to\\ being\\ cheated\\;\\ avoid\\ and\\/or\\ punish\\ cheater\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;defect\\ if\\ other\\ guy\\ defected\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gratitude\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reaction\\ to\\ being\\ helped\\:\\ return\\ favor\\ in\\ future\\.\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;cooperate\\ if\\ other\\ guy\\ cooperated\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ Complicated\\ Emotions\\ Related\\ to\\ Reciprocal\\ Altruism\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sympathy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Help\\ those\\ most\\ in\\ need\\ \\(earn\\ gratitude\\)\\ \\(great\\ benefit\\ to\\ other\\ at\\ small\\ cost\\ to\\ self\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Guilt\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bestow\\ extra\\ benefit\\ after\\ cheating\\ \\(cooperation\\ compensating\\ for\\ defection\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shame\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Punish\\ self\\ when\\ cheating\\ has\\ been\\ discovered\\ \\(avoid\\ punishment\\ for\\ defection\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\showing\\ that\\ future\\ defection\\ is\\ unlikely\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Mencken\\:\\ \\"\\;Conscience\\ is\\ the\\ inner\\ voice\\ that\\ tells\\ us\\ someone\\ might\\ be\\ looking\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ More\\ Twist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Homo\\ sapiens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\someone\\ cooperate\\ or\\ defect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;With\\ language\\,\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hear\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whether\\ they\\ are\\ cooperators\\ or\\ defectors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Importance\\ of\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;gossip\\ \\&\\;\\ reputation\\:\\ Have\\ you\\ cooperated\\ or\\ defected\\ with\\ other\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ past\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;honor\\ \\&\\;\\ commitment\\:\\ Do\\ you\\ cooperate\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ principle\\ \\(not\\ just\\ when\\ it\\ pays\\ off\\)\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Test\\ of\\ importance\\ of\\ reputation\\:\\ The\\ Ultimatum\\ Game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ultimatum\\ Game\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ First\\ player\\ \\(proposer\\)\\ divides\\ a\\ jackpot\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\$10\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Second\\ player\\ \\(accepter\\)\\ either\\ accepts\\ the\\ division\\ \\(both\\ get\\ what\\ the\\ proposerproposes\\)\\ or\\ rejects\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(neither\\ gets\\ anything\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Optimal\\ strategy\\ for\\ proposer\\:\\ \\$9\\ \\&\\;\\ \\$1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Optimal\\ strategy\\ for\\ accepter\\:\\ take\\ anything\\ above\\ \\$0\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Actual\\ strategy\\ of\\ proposers\\:\\ \\$5\\-\\$6\\ for\\ self\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Actual\\ strategy\\ of\\ accepters\\:\\ reject\\ anything\\ less\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Note\\:\\ Refutes\\ \\&ldquo\\;rational\\ actor\\&rdquo\\;models\\ in\\ economics\\,\\ political\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Paradoxical\\ Rationality\\ of\\ Irrational\\ Passion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Accepter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spite\\ is\\ self\\-destructive\\ over\\ the\\ short\\ term\\,\\ BUT\\ advantageous\\ over\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ via\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reputation\\ \\&\\;\\ commitment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Implicit\\ threat\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Treat\\ me\\ fairly\\ or\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ punish\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Logical\\ problem\\ with\\ threats\\:\\ costly\\ for\\ threatenerto\\ carry\\ them\\ out\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Target\\ of\\ threat\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;call\\ your\\ bluff\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Solution\\:\\ Passionate\\ anger\\ makes\\ threats\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\credible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Paradoxical\\ Tactics\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Thomas\\ Schelling\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Paradoxical\\ advantages\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ control\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;game\\ of\\ chicken\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;chain\\ self\\ to\\ tracks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;coordinating\\ rendez\\-vous\\&bull\\;\\ Paradoxical\\ advantages\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ rationality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(\\&ldquo\\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crazy\\ enough\\ to\\ do\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;hotheads\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;religious\\ fervor\\ \\&\\;\\ terrorism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Nixon\\ in\\ Vietnam\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paradoxical\\ Tactics\\,\\ cont\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Genuine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\altruism\\ \\&\\;\\ generosity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Dictator\\ game\\:\\ many\\ proposers\\ still\\ make\\ generous\\ offers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Leave\\ tip\\ in\\ restaurant\\ during\\ a\\ trip\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Donate\\ blood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Sacrifice\\ life\\ to\\ save\\ fellow\\ firefighters\\&bull\\;\\ Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\genuine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\altruism\\ may\\ sometimes\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ strategy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ Logical\\ Problem\\ with\\ Promises\\ \\(cf\\.\\ threats\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Why\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ you\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\double\\-cross\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ supposed\\ beneficiary\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Why\\ should\\ he\\ trust\\ you\\?\\&bull\\;\\ Niceness\\,\\ honor\\,\\ guilt\\ as\\ guarantors\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promises\\ are\\ not\\ double\\-crosses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ convince\\ someone\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ nice\\ is\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nice\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Passionate\\ goodness\\ as\\ guarantee\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\promise\\ s\\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\double\\-crosses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\(cf\\.\\ Passionate\\ anger\\ as\\ guarantee\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\threat\\ s\\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bluffs\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Paradoxical\\ tactics\\ \\&\\;\\ fiction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Maltese\\ Falcon\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Sam\\ Spade\\ dares\\ Kaspar\\ Gutmanto\\ kill\\ him\\,\\ knowing\\ that\\ Gutman\\ needs\\ him\\ to\\ retrieve\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\falcon\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kaspar\\ Gutman\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ attitude\\,\\ sir\\,\\ that\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\delicate\\ judgment\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\,\\ because\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\you\\ know\\,\\ sir\\,\\ in\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ action\\ men\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\are\\ likely\\ to\\ forget\\ where\\ their\\ best\\ interests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lie\\,\\ \\ \\;and\\ let\\ their\\ emotions\\ carry\\ them\\ away\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 522\\-527\\,\\ 530\\-535\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ Cooperate\\ or\\ Not\\:\\ The\\ Dilemma\\ of\\ Social\\ Life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ an\\ evo\\.\\ perspective\\,\\ the\\ fundamental\\ purpose\\ of\\ sociability\\ is\\ cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ dilemma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ particular\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ or\\ inaction\\ will\\ benefit\\ the\\ individual\\ but\\ harm\\ the\\ others\\ in\\ the\\ group\\ and\\ cause\\ more\\ harm\\ than\\ good\\ to\\ everyone\\ if\\ everyone\\ takes\\ that\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\cooperation\\ \\=\\ acting\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defection\\ \\=\\ acting\\ for\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ selfish\\ good\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ Commons\\:\\ A\\ Social\\-Dilemma\\ Allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\illustrated\\ by\\ ecologist\\ Garrett\\ Hardin\\ \\(1968\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\allegory\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ Commons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cows\\ graze\\ on\\ common\\ grazing\\ land\\ that\\ lies\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ NE\\ towns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ number\\ of\\ cattle\\ reaches\\ the\\ limit\\ that\\ pasture\\ can\\ support\\,\\ each\\ farmer\\ has\\ dilemma\\:\\ adding\\ another\\ cow\\ will\\ hurt\\ the\\ pasture\\ and\\ neighbors\\ but\\ help\\ self\\ BUT\\ if\\ everyone\\ adds\\ a\\ cow\\,\\ pasture\\ will\\ fail\\ and\\ all\\ cattle\\ will\\ die\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dilemma\\ becomes\\ a\\ tragedy\\ if\\ all\\ the\\ farmers\\ reason\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ my\\ increase\\ in\\ cattle\\,\\ but\\ everyone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ will\\ determine\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ commons\\.\\ I\\ will\\ lose\\ if\\ everyone\\ increases\\ the\\ herd\\,\\ but\\ will\\ lose\\ more\\ if\\ everyone\\ except\\ me\\ increases\\ his\\ herd\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ they\\ all\\ add\\ a\\ cow\\ and\\ the\\ pasture\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hold\\ all\\ the\\ cows\\,\\ and\\ the\\ townspeople\\ suffer\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ cows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\grand\\ allegory\\:\\ the\\ pollution\\ that\\ I\\ add\\ to\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ by\\ driving\\ a\\ car\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ damage\\ the\\ air\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ pollution\\ of\\ the\\ millions\\ of\\ cars\\ driven\\ by\\ others\\ that\\ causes\\ the\\ real\\ damage\\,\\ so\\ I\\ keep\\ driving\\,\\ everyone\\ else\\ does\\ too\\,\\ and\\ the\\ pollution\\ keeps\\ getting\\ worse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ working\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contributing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cooperative\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ loafing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\free\\ riding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ non\\-cooperative\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Logic\\ of\\ Social\\ Dilemmas\\ Exemplified\\ in\\ Games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\to\\ study\\ logic\\ of\\ social\\ dilemmas\\,\\ social\\ scientists\\ have\\ invented\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ social\\-dilemma\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ One\\-Trial\\ Prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dilemma\\ Game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\two\\ prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ must\\ choose\\ between\\ remaining\\ silent\\ and\\ confessing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ both\\ remain\\ silent\\ \\=\\ both\\ will\\ get\\ a\\ short\\ prison\\ sentence\\ based\\ on\\ other\\ charges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ both\\ confess\\ \\=\\ will\\ both\\ get\\ a\\ moderately\\ long\\ sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ one\\ confesses\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\=\\ that\\ one\\ will\\ get\\ immunity\\ and\\ get\\ no\\ sentence\\ but\\ the\\ partner\\ will\\ get\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decisions\\ until\\ after\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;game\\ is\\ social\\ dilemma\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ highest\\ individual\\ payoff\\ \\(use\\ \\$\\ in\\ psych\\ experiments\\)\\ is\\ when\\ one\\ person\\ defects\\,\\ but\\ the\\ highest\\ totally\\ payoff\\ is\\ when\\ both\\ cooperate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\one\\-trial\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\version\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ \\=\\ and\\ players\\ are\\ anonymous\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ they\\ usually\\ defect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Iterative\\ Prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dilemma\\ Game\\:\\ The\\ Power\\ of\\ Reciprocity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\if\\ 2\\ prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ play\\ the\\ game\\ repeatedly\\ \\(iteratively\\)\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ for\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ trials\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ once\\,\\ the\\ logic\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cooperation\\ becomes\\ a\\ reasonable\\ choice\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ only\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ maximize\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ profits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;new\\ reasoning\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ I\\ cooperate\\ on\\ this\\ trial\\,\\ maybe\\ that\\ will\\ convince\\ the\\ other\\ player\\ to\\ cooperate\\ on\\ the\\ next\\,\\ better\\ to\\ get\\ \\$3\\ each\\ trial\\,\\ then\\ \\$1\\ for\\ defecting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;logic\\ and\\ selfishness\\ which\\ lead\\ players\\ to\\ defect\\ in\\ the\\ one\\-trial\\ game\\,\\ can\\ lead\\ them\\ to\\ cooperate\\ in\\ the\\ iterative\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\used\\ computer\\ programs\\ to\\ see\\ who\\ won\\ the\\ most\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\WINNER\\:\\ called\\ TFT\\,\\ consisted\\ of\\ 2\\ rules\\:\\ 1\\.\\ first\\ time\\ you\\ meet\\ program\\,\\ cooperate\\,\\ 2\\.\\ after\\ that\\ do\\ on\\ each\\ trial\\ what\\ the\\ other\\ program\\ did\\ on\\ its\\ most\\ recent\\ previous\\ trial\\ with\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Why\\ was\\ TFT\\ so\\ effective\\ in\\ eliciting\\ cooperation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\TFT\\ is\\ nice\\!\\ by\\ cooperating\\ from\\ start\\,\\ it\\ encourages\\ others\\ to\\ cooperate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TFT\\ is\\ not\\ exploitable\\!\\ by\\ reciprocating\\ every\\ failure\\ to\\ cooperate\\ with\\ its\\ own\\ failure\\,\\ it\\ discourages\\ the\\ other\\ player\\ from\\ defecting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TFT\\ is\\ forgiving\\!\\ It\\ resumes\\ cooperating\\ with\\ any\\ program\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ that\\ program\\ begins\\ to\\ cooperate\\ with\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TFT\\ is\\ transparent\\!\\ It\\ is\\ so\\ simple\\ that\\ other\\ programs\\ quickly\\ figure\\ out\\ its\\ strategy\\ and\\ learn\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ best\\ off\\ cooperating\\ with\\ it\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;humans\\ also\\ cooperate\\ with\\ TFT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Decline\\ in\\ Cooperation\\ as\\ the\\ Number\\ of\\ Players\\ Increases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\in\\ experiments\\ in\\ which\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ exert\\ effort\\ for\\ a\\ common\\ goal\\,\\ people\\ work\\ harder\\ in\\ small\\ groups\\ than\\ in\\ large\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conditions\\ That\\ Promote\\ Cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\people\\ cooperate\\ more\\ in\\ social\\ dilemmas\\ than\\ would\\ be\\ expected\\ if\\ their\\ choices\\ were\\ based\\ solely\\ on\\ immediate\\ self\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\still\\ many\\ people\\ work\\ hard\\ on\\ group\\ projects\\ in\\ large\\ groups\\,\\ contribute\\ to\\ public\\ television\\,\\ choose\\ to\\ ride\\ a\\ bicycle\\ or\\ use\\ public\\ transportation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;what\\ forces\\ that\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ cooperate\\ in\\ such\\ \\&ldquo\\;illogical\\ ways\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\evolution\\,\\ cultural\\ history\\,\\ individual\\ \\ \\;experiences\\ combined\\ to\\ produce\\ decision\\ making\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ immediate\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ we\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ factors\\ that\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ short\\-term\\ AND\\ long\\-term\\ interests\\ which\\ often\\ reside\\ in\\ maintaining\\ good\\ relationships\\ with\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Accountability\\,\\ Reputation\\,\\ and\\ Reciprocity\\ as\\ Forces\\ for\\ Cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\TFT\\ is\\ successful\\ because\\ each\\ player\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\accountable\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ actions\\,\\ through\\ that\\ accountability\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ establishes\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ one\\ who\\ helps\\ others\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reciprocates\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;help\\ given\\ by\\ others\\ but\\ who\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ exploited\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ fail\\ to\\ reciprocate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ free\\ to\\ choose\\ players\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;choose\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ reputation\\ for\\ cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ tend\\ to\\ offer\\ the\\ greatest\\ help\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ most\\ helpful\\ in\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pay\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ reciprocity\\ when\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ help\\ another\\ without\\ too\\ much\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ ourselves\\,\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ can\\ help\\ us\\ in\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norms\\ of\\ Fairness\\ and\\ Punishment\\ of\\ Cheaters\\ as\\ Forces\\ for\\ Cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\people\\ would\\ rather\\ gain\\ nothing\\ than\\ enter\\ into\\ an\\ unfair\\ agreement\\ where\\ they\\ gain\\ little\\ and\\ another\\ person\\ gains\\ a\\ lot\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;illustrated\\ by\\ laboratory\\ games\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ultimatum\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ one\\ time\\ game\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\responder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;will\\ take\\ anything\\ above\\ \\$0\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\proposer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ multiple\\ games\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\responder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;will\\ usually\\ reject\\ offers\\ that\\ are\\ considerably\\ less\\ than\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ money\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ opportunity\\ to\\ punish\\ cheaters\\ is\\ introduced\\ into\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ a\\ game\\,\\ most\\ people\\ stop\\ cheating\\,\\ so\\ the\\ total\\ amount\\ of\\ cooperation\\ increases\\ dramatically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\altruistic\\ punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ whole\\ group\\ benefits\\ from\\ the\\ improvement\\ in\\ cooperation\\,\\ while\\ only\\ the\\ punisher\\ and\\ the\\ person\\ being\\ punished\\ by\\ a\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Identity\\ Promotes\\ Cooperation\\ Within\\ Groups\\ and\\ Competition\\ Across\\ Groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ think\\ about\\ ourselves\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\personal\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ thought\\ of\\ oneself\\ as\\ an\\ independent\\ person\\ with\\ self\\-interests\\ distinct\\ from\\ those\\ of\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ thought\\ of\\ oneself\\ as\\ a\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ interchangeable\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ larger\\ entity\\,\\ the\\ group\\,\\ whose\\ interests\\ are\\ shared\\ by\\ all\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;experiments\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ people\\ in\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ social\\ dilemma\\ games\\ cooperate\\ much\\ more\\ when\\ they\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ players\\ as\\ group\\ mates\\ than\\ as\\ separate\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ID\\ with\\ a\\ group\\ increases\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ willingness\\ to\\ help\\ members\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ group\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decreases\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;their\\ willingness\\ to\\ help\\ members\\ of\\ another\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;people\\ are\\ much\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ trust\\ others\\ and\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ cheat\\ others\\ when\\ they\\ view\\ those\\ others\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ another\\ group\\ than\\ when\\ they\\ view\\ them\\ as\\ individuals\\ \\(true\\ in\\ real\\ life\\ too\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emotional\\ Foundations\\ of\\ Our\\ Social\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emotions\\ Help\\ Keep\\ Us\\ Together\\ and\\ Coordinate\\ Our\\ Actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Pain\\ of\\ Exclusion\\ and\\ Social\\ Loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\social\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ refers\\ to\\ discomfort\\ that\\ people\\ feel\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ socially\\ rejected\\ or\\ when\\ they\\ lose\\ a\\ valued\\ companion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ pain\\ and\\ physical\\ pain\\ overlap\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\ \\=\\ social\\ pain\\ magnifies\\ physical\\ pain\\,\\ vice\\ versa\\,\\ people\\ with\\ physical\\ pain\\ find\\ relief\\ in\\ social\\ companionship\\,\\ drugs\\ that\\ reduce\\ physical\\ pain\\ also\\ lead\\ to\\ having\\ social\\ pain\\ reduced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\neuroimaging\\ \\=\\ some\\ of\\ same\\ brain\\ areas\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\evidence\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ social\\ pain\\ system\\ uses\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ neural\\ system\\ that\\ evolved\\ originally\\ to\\ serve\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ physical\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\purpose\\ of\\ social\\ pain\\:\\ to\\ motivate\\ us\\ to\\ avoid\\ social\\ rejection\\ and\\ to\\ maintain\\ close\\ social\\ ties\\ with\\ others\\,\\ as\\ cooperation\\ is\\ fundamental\\ to\\ our\\ well\\-being\\ and\\ survival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emotional\\ Cogitation\\ as\\ a\\ Force\\ for\\ Group\\ Cohesion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\a\\ social\\ group\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unified\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;collection\\ of\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\group\\ behaves\\ more\\ like\\ one\\ another\\ than\\ the\\ same\\ people\\ if\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ group\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mimic\\ one\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ postures\\,\\ mannerisms\\,\\ styles\\ of\\ speech\\,\\ EVEN\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ of\\ most\\ contagious\\ of\\ all\\ emotional\\ signals\\ is\\ laughter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ Self\\-Conscious\\ Emotions\\ Make\\ Us\\ Socially\\ Acceptable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\our\\ emotions\\ help\\ make\\ us\\ socially\\ acceptable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ is\\ particularly\\ true\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\guilt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shame\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\embarrassment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pride\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\these\\ emotions\\ are\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\self\\-conscious\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Guilt\\ as\\ a\\ Motivator\\ of\\ Relationship\\ Repair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\when\\ adults\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ describe\\ guilt\\ in\\ lives\\,\\ most\\ often\\ tell\\ about\\ hurting\\ or\\ disappointing\\ someone\\ they\\ care\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\when\\ people\\ perceive\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ hurt\\ a\\ valued\\ partner\\,\\ they\\ experience\\ guilt\\,\\ which\\ motivates\\ them\\ to\\ behave\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ bring\\ the\\ relationship\\ back\\ into\\ balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shame\\ as\\ a\\ Motivator\\ of\\ Social\\ Withdrawal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\shame\\ focuses\\ our\\ attention\\ on\\ some\\ real\\ or\\ imagined\\ flaw\\ in\\ ourselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\shame\\ occurs\\ most\\ often\\ when\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ failings\\ have\\ been\\ publicly\\ exposed\\,\\ such\\ expressions\\ of\\ shame\\ may\\ help\\ communicate\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feelings\\ of\\ self\\-derogation\\ and\\ powerlessness\\,\\ which\\ may\\ induce\\ compassion\\,\\ perhaps\\ even\\ guilt\\,\\ in\\ those\\ who\\ would\\ judge\\ or\\ punish\\ the\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Embarrassment\\ as\\ a\\ Rectifier\\ of\\ Awkward\\ Situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-embarrassment\\ stories\\ more\\ often\\ focused\\ on\\ trivial\\ or\\ humorous\\ situations\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ stories\\ about\\ shame\\ and\\ guilt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ function\\ of\\ embarrassment\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ communicative\\ \\=\\ physical\\ signs\\ that\\ what\\ just\\ happened\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ circumstance\\ or\\ blunder\\ or\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ deliberate\\ attempt\\ by\\ the\\ self\\ to\\ disrupt\\ the\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ activities\\ or\\ become\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Pride\\ as\\ an\\ Index\\ of\\ Social\\ Acceptability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\emotional\\ component\\ of\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ focuses\\ us\\ on\\ our\\ strengths\\ and\\ successes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\advertisement\\ of\\ self\\-confidence\\ that\\ invites\\ others\\ to\\ feel\\ confident\\ in\\ us\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tyler\\ \\-\\ Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;Kin\\ \\&\\;\\ socialization\\.\\ \\ \\;Kin\\ selection\\,\\ parents\\ \\&\\;\\ offspring\\,\\ relationship\\-specific\\ social\\ psychology\\,\\ socialization\\ and\\ personality\\ development\\,\\ behavioral\\ genetics\\.\\ Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 3\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 84\\-86\\;\\ Chapter\\ 13\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 471\\-473\\;\\ Chapter\\ 15\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 537\\-554\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\84\\-86\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Patterns\\ of\\ Helping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\helping\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ behavior\\ that\\ increases\\ the\\ survival\\ chance\\ or\\ reproductive\\ capacity\\ of\\ another\\ individual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ categories\\ of\\ helping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Cooperation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ individuals\\ help\\ others\\ while\\ helping\\ themselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\This\\ concept\\ is\\ pretty\\ easy\\ to\\ understand\\ from\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ perspective\\.\\ Almost\\ every\\ advantage\\ of\\ social\\ living\\ comes\\ from\\ cooperation\\ because\\ if\\ gives\\ each\\ individual\\ a\\ better\\ chance\\ of\\ surviving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ foxes\\ work\\ together\\ to\\ find\\ food\\ and\\ raise\\ their\\ young\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ costs\\ accrued\\ are\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ benefits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Altruism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\when\\ individuals\\ help\\ others\\ while\\ decreasing\\ their\\ chance\\ of\\ survival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ This\\ is\\ less\\ common\\ than\\ cooperation\\ and\\ harder\\ to\\ explain\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;evolutionarily\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\ ground\\ squirrels\\ emit\\ a\\ loud\\ scream\\ to\\ warn\\ others\\ of\\ an\\ approaching\\ predator\\ but\\ attracting\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ predator\\ to\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Trivers\\ says\\ that\\ no\\ behavior\\ is\\ actually\\ altruistic\\ and\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ behavior\\ from\\ a\\ broader\\ perspective\\ it\\ must\\ somehow\\ prompt\\ the\\ propagation\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ theories\\ as\\ to\\ how\\ \\&lsquo\\;altruism\\&rsquo\\;\\ develops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ explanations\\ of\\ altruism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kin\\ Selections\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;altruistic\\&rsquo\\;\\ behavior\\ developed\\ through\\ natural\\ selection\\ because\\ it\\ preferentially\\ helps\\ close\\ relatives\\,\\ who\\ are\\ genetically\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ helper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ survives\\ over\\ time\\ are\\ genes\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ helper\\ and\\ therefore\\ the\\ trait\\ is\\ pasted\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mathematically\\ speaking\\:\\ One\\-half\\ of\\ the\\ offspring\\ or\\ siblings\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ will\\ share\\ a\\ particular\\ gene\\ with\\ them\\,\\ \\¼\\;\\ of\\ their\\ nieces\\ and\\ nephews\\ will\\,\\ 1\\/8\\ of\\ their\\ cousins\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ if\\ an\\ altruist\\ incurred\\ a\\ small\\ risk\\ \\(\\®\\;\\)\\ from\\ a\\ certain\\ action\\ then\\ they\\ must\\ increase\\ their\\ siblings\\/offspring\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chance\\ of\\ survival\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ 2\\®\\;\\,\\ a\\ niece\\/nephew\\&rsquo\\;s\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ 4\\®\\;\\,\\ or\\ a\\ cousin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ 8\\®\\;\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ gene\\ to\\ be\\ passed\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Research\\ has\\ found\\ that\\ animals\\ help\\ kin\\ more\\ than\\ non\\-kin\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ found\\ that\\ some\\ species\\ will\\ discriminately\\ help\\ their\\ closer\\ kin\\ more\\ than\\ their\\ distant\\ kin\\,\\ showing\\ an\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ proportionality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ theory\\,\\ however\\,\\ altruistic\\ behavior\\ can\\ evolve\\ through\\ kin\\ selection\\ even\\ without\\ such\\ discrimination\\.\\ \\ \\;Any\\ tendency\\ to\\ help\\ members\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ species\\ indiscriminately\\ can\\ evolve\\ if\\,\\ by\\ chance\\,\\ the\\ animal\\ tends\\ to\\ live\\ primarily\\ around\\ relatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ humans\\ this\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ nepotism\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ world\\ leaders\\ invoke\\ it\\ when\\ they\\ call\\ for\\ patriotism\\ and\\ loyalty\\ towards\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;motherland\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;fatherland\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ saying\\ \\&lsquo\\;brothers\\ and\\ sisters\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reciprocal\\ Altruism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ theory\\ says\\ that\\ altruism\\ can\\ develop\\ among\\ non\\-kin\\ because\\ \\&lsquo\\;altruistic\\ acts\\&rsquo\\;\\ are\\ actually\\ forms\\ of\\ long\\ term\\ cooperation\\ \\(still\\ Trivers\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ tendency\\ to\\ help\\ non\\-kin\\ can\\ evolve\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ tempered\\ by\\ an\\ ability\\ to\\ remember\\ which\\ individuals\\ have\\ helped\\ you\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ refrain\\ from\\ helping\\ some\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ selfish\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humans\\ are\\ the\\ greatest\\ reciprocal\\ helpers\\ of\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ remember\\ who\\ has\\ helped\\ us\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ fairness\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometime\\ we\\ even\\ help\\ those\\ who\\ cannot\\ reciprocate\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ reputation\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ helper\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pp\\ 471\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 473\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ interact\\ with\\ people\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ we\\ judge\\ their\\ character\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ times\\ we\\ judge\\ their\\ character\\ on\\ our\\ first\\ impression\\ based\\ on\\ physical\\ features\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Attractiveness\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ that\\ are\\ attractive\\ are\\ commonly\\ judged\\ as\\ more\\ intelligent\\,\\ competent\\,\\ sociable\\,\\ and\\ moral\\ than\\ less\\ attractive\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ also\\ works\\ in\\ reverse\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ who\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ personality\\ are\\ often\\ judged\\ as\\ being\\ more\\ physically\\ attractive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ East\\ Asians\\ have\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ less\\ susceptible\\ to\\ the\\ attractiveness\\ bias\\ than\\ Westerns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Baby\\-Face\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\People\\ also\\ judge\\ each\\ other\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ facial\\ maturity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Some\\ people\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ age\\,\\ have\\ more\\ infantile\\ features\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ round\\ head\\,\\ a\\ protruding\\ forehead\\,\\ large\\ eyes\\,\\ and\\ a\\ small\\ jawbone\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Baby\\-faced\\ adults\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ more\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\,\\ honest\\,\\ helpless\\,\\ kind\\,\\ and\\ warm\\ than\\ mature\\-faced\\ adults\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Some\\ research\\ has\\ shown\\ that\\ we\\ extend\\ this\\ bias\\ to\\ baby\\ faced\\ animals\\ \\(pandas\\,\\ rabbits\\)\\ and\\ perceive\\ them\\ as\\ being\\ cute\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pp\\.\\ 537\\-554\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Ones\\ general\\ style\\ of\\ interacting\\ with\\ the\\ world\\,\\ especially\\ with\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Trait\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ stable\\ predisposition\\ to\\ behave\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Traits\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ rather\\ than\\ their\\ environment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;States\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unlike\\ traits\\,\\ states\\ are\\ temporary\\ emotional\\ experiences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\traits\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ a\\ certain\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;For\\ example\\ the\\ trait\\ of\\ being\\ aggressive\\ means\\ you\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ hostile\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Trait\\ theories\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;attempt\\ to\\ specify\\ a\\ manageable\\ set\\ of\\ distinct\\ personality\\ dimensions\\ that\\ can\\ summarize\\ the\\ basic\\ psychological\\ differences\\ among\\ individuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Factor\\ Analysis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ a\\ method\\ of\\ analyzing\\ patterns\\ of\\ correlations\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ extract\\ mathematically\\ defined\\ factors\\ which\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ those\\ patters\\.\\ Just\\ fyi\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ matter\\ that\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Five\\ Factor\\ Model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ model\\ was\\ developed\\ using\\ factor\\ analysis\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ narrows\\ personality\\ down\\ to\\ five\\ basic\\ components\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&darr\\;neuroticism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vulnerability\\ to\\ emotional\\ upset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\=\\ extraversion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tendency\\ to\\ be\\ outgoing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&darr\\;openness\\ to\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&uarr\\;agreeableness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&uarr\\;conscientiousness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ are\\ just\\ like\\ personality\\ tests\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ taken\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ or\\ during\\ psych\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ problem\\ with\\ them\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ questions\\ are\\ quite\\ transparent\\ \\(do\\ you\\ like\\ going\\ to\\ parties\\?\\)\\ so\\ people\\ may\\ answer\\ based\\ on\\ what\\ they\\ liked\\ to\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ tests\\ are\\ relatively\\ reliable\\ throughout\\ adult\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ personality\\ does\\ not\\ typically\\ change\\ much\\ during\\ maturity\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ come\\ change\\ over\\ time\\,\\ the\\ arrows\\ above\\ show\\ which\\ traits\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ during\\ ones\\ life\\ span\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genetic\\ Foundations\\ of\\ Personality\\ Traits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Heritability\\ of\\ Traits\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ studies\\ show\\ what\\ identical\\ twins\\ have\\ more\\ similar\\ personalities\\ than\\ fraternal\\ twins\\,\\ even\\ when\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ almost\\ no\\ effect\\ from\\ the\\ environment\\ \\(parenting\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ but\\ is\\ mainly\\ based\\ on\\ genetics\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ have\\ even\\ been\\ links\\ found\\ between\\ specific\\ genes\\ and\\ a\\ specific\\ personality\\ traits\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ neuroticism\\ has\\ been\\ linked\\ to\\ an\\ allele\\ affecting\\ serotonin\\ levels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personality\\ as\\ an\\ Adaptation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Advantages\\ of\\ Personality\\ Diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Hedging\\ your\\ bets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Having\\ offspring\\ with\\ varying\\ personality\\ traits\\ is\\ like\\ hedging\\ your\\ bets\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\ being\\ bold\\ and\\ being\\ cautious\\ have\\ differing\\ advantages\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ some\\ environments\\,\\ boldness\\ is\\ rewarded\\ and\\ allows\\ individuals\\ to\\ flourish\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ others\\,\\ cautious\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ bet\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ safety\\ and\\ survival\\.\\ \\ \\;Parents\\ produced\\ offspring\\ of\\ both\\ types\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ insure\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ offspring\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Effects\\ from\\ the\\ Family\\ Environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sibling\\ Contrast\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ siblings\\ raised\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ home\\ score\\ as\\ differently\\ on\\ personality\\ tests\\ as\\ random\\ people\\ do\\ from\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ siblings\\ create\\ distinctly\\ different\\ roles\\ from\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ unique\\ niche\\ within\\ their\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ theory\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ family\\ environment\\ focuses\\ on\\ differences\\ between\\ children\\ rather\\ than\\ similarities\\ and\\ that\\ siblings\\ closer\\ in\\ age\\ will\\ identify\\ with\\ different\\ parents\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ theory\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ worthless\\ considering\\ how\\ heritable\\ personality\\ is\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\ Order\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Earlier\\ born\\ children\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ knowledgeable\\ and\\ competent\\ and\\ thus\\ have\\ more\\ dominating\\ personalities\\.\\ \\ \\;Given\\ the\\ special\\ role\\ of\\ firstborns\\,\\ many\\ older\\ children\\ tend\\ to\\ develop\\ distinct\\ traits\\.\\ \\ \\;Later\\-born\\ children\\ are\\ put\\ in\\ a\\ submissive\\ role\\ by\\ their\\ older\\ siblings\\ and\\ similarly\\ develop\\ unique\\ traits\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONCLUDING\\ THOUGHTS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cool\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ possible\\ that\\ diversity\\ in\\ personality\\ is\\ randomly\\ chosen\\ because\\ they\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ selected\\ against\\ by\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ a\\ genetic\\ drift\\ of\\ sorts\\.\\ \\ \\;Gray\\ seems\\ to\\ not\\ like\\ this\\ idea\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;perhaps\\;\\ but\\ I\\ think\\ not\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ viable\\ explanation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 17\\ \\(4\\/15\\/08\\)\\-\\ Kinship\\ and\\ Socialization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ultimate\\ explanation\\ for\\ nepotism\\ and\\ kinship\\ altruism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Though\\ we\\ share\\ over\\ 99\\%\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ genes\\ with\\ all\\ individuals\\ it\\ is\\ genetic\\ differences\\ that\\ evolution\\ acts\\ upon\\.\\ So\\ when\\ discussing\\ kin\\ selection\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genes\\&rdquo\\;\\ actually\\ is\\ shorthand\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;shares\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ gene\\ will\\ spread\\ through\\ the\\ population\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ cost\\ incurred\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ benefit\\ bestowed\\ multiplied\\ by\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ the\\ gene\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\called\\ Hamilton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rule\\ and\\ is\\ succinctly\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ formula\\ C\\<\\;rB\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\C\\=cost\\ to\\ altruistic\\ organism\\,\\ B\\=benefit\\ to\\ receiving\\ organism\\,\\ and\\ r\\=proportion\\ of\\ shared\\ genes\\ \\(r\\=\\.5\\ for\\ siblings\\,\\ \\.25\\ for\\ nephews\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\ you\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ risk\\ your\\ own\\ well\\ being\\ for\\ people\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ you\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Proximate\\ explanation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essentially\\,\\ you\\ protect\\ your\\ family\\ because\\ of\\ familial\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\;Familial\\ love\\ is\\ the\\ psychological\\ mechanism\\ that\\ gets\\ our\\ genes\\ to\\ help\\ out\\ copies\\ of\\ themselves\\ in\\ other\\ bodies\\.\\ The\\ more\\ genes\\ we\\ share\\ with\\ individuals\\ in\\ our\\ families\\,\\ the\\ closer\\ we\\ feel\\ to\\ them\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ closer\\ to\\ our\\ siblings\\ than\\ to\\ our\\ cousins\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ likely\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ more\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ proximate\\ level\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ help\\ our\\ family\\ members\\ because\\ we\\ love\\ them\\,\\ the\\ ultimate\\ level\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ emotions\\ like\\ love\\ to\\ get\\ us\\ to\\ help\\ our\\ family\\ members\\ \\(this\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ proximate\\/ultimate\\ explanations\\ for\\ sex\\:\\ it\\ feels\\ good\\ and\\ to\\ pass\\ on\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genes\\ respectively\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Other\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eusociality\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ extreme\\ example\\ of\\ kin\\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Ants\\ and\\ bees\\ act\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ superorganism\\,\\ where\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ our\\ cells\\ specialize\\ to\\ make\\ us\\ efficient\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\ machines\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ as\\ though\\ individual\\ bees\\/ants\\ specialize\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ hive\\/colony\\ an\\ efficient\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\ machine\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ special\\ type\\ of\\ inheritance\\,\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\haplodiploidy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Sparing\\ you\\ the\\ details\\,\\ bees\\ share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ with\\ their\\ offspring\\,\\ but\\ they\\ share\\ 75\\%\\ with\\ their\\ sisters\\ \\(remember\\ we\\ share\\ 50\\%\\)\\ with\\ our\\ siblings\\.\\ This\\ also\\ means\\ that\\ they\\ share\\ a\\ minimum\\ of\\ 37\\.5\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ with\\ their\\ nieces\\ \\(we\\ share\\ 25\\%\\)\\.\\ They\\ are\\ therefore\\ very\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ their\\ nieces\\ compared\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ children\\.\\ This\\ being\\ the\\ case\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ equally\\ beneficial\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ kid\\,\\ or\\ help\\ their\\ sister\\ have\\ a\\ kid\\.\\ Given\\ this\\,\\ they\\ will\\ do\\ better\\ if\\ they\\ get\\ one\\ sister\\ to\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ kids\\,\\ while\\ everyone\\ else\\ just\\ helps\\ here\\ out\\ \\(because\\ the\\ groups\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ productive\\ than\\ individuals\\ alone\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ societies\\ of\\ the\\ eusocial\\ insects\\:\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ queen\\,\\ with\\ many\\ sterile\\ classes\\ of\\ workers\\,\\ soldiers\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ cinderella\\ effect\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ effect\\ that\\ step\\-children\\ are\\ more\\ often\\ abused\\.\\ Being\\ a\\ step\\-child\\ is\\ the\\ biggest\\ risk\\ factor\\ for\\ child\\ abuse\\,\\ because\\ parents\\ have\\ no\\ genetic\\ allegiance\\ to\\ their\\ well\\ being\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Parents\\ and\\ children\\ have\\ differing\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ well\\-being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ parent\\ must\\ decide\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ investment\\ that\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ child\\.\\ Parental\\ investment\\ is\\ the\\ effort\\ expended\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ one\\ offspring\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ other\\ offspring\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ conflict\\ comes\\ up\\ here\\ because\\ while\\ a\\ parent\\ wants\\ to\\ optimize\\ their\\ reproductive\\ output\\ by\\ spreading\\ investment\\ across\\ children\\,\\ the\\ children\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ more\\ investment\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ parent\\ shares\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ genes\\ with\\ all\\ children\\,\\ and\\ so\\ should\\ want\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ each\\ equally\\ \\(more\\ or\\ less\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ over\\-simplification\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-A\\ child\\ shares\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ its\\ genes\\ with\\ all\\ siblings\\,\\ but\\ 100\\%\\ with\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Therefore\\,\\ a\\ child\\ will\\ want\\ more\\ investment\\ in\\ him\\ or\\ herself\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ siblings\\,\\ while\\ a\\ parent\\ would\\ like\\ this\\ to\\ be\\ equal\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ conflict\\ is\\ evident\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ instances\\,\\ such\\ as\\ children\\ resisting\\ weaning\\,\\ wanting\\ more\\ parental\\ investment\\ than\\ the\\ parent\\ wants\\ to\\ give\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ diseases\\ that\\ women\\ can\\ get\\ when\\ pregnant\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\diabetes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ biochemical\\ child\\-parent\\ conflict\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ fetus\\ releases\\ hormones\\ or\\ other\\ biofunctional\\ molecules\\ to\\ elicit\\ more\\ nutritional\\ investment\\ from\\ the\\ mother\\,\\ and\\ she\\ counters\\ with\\ other\\ molecular\\ stoppers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Infanticide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\.\\ Infanticide\\ is\\ extremely\\ common\\ in\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\.\\ If\\ a\\ woman\\ is\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ in\\ a\\ bad\\ situation\\,\\ then\\ the\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ baby\\ may\\ be\\ extremely\\ costly\\,\\ and\\ the\\ baby\\ may\\ still\\ not\\ thrive\\.\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\paradoxical\\ tactic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Babies\\ fight\\ back\\ with\\ their\\ best\\ weapon\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cuteness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Mother\\-infant\\ bonding\\ is\\ not\\ automatic\\,\\ but\\ is\\ forged\\ by\\ babies\\ being\\ cute\\.\\ Children\\ can\\ also\\ fight\\ for\\ their\\ idealized\\ investment\\ quantity\\ by\\ crying\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ reactions\\ in\\ adults\\.\\ Brattiness\\ and\\ tantrums\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\paradoxical\\ tactics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ making\\ the\\ kid\\ seem\\ needier\\,\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ of\\ going\\ out\\ of\\ control\\ if\\ the\\ parent\\ does\\ not\\ give\\ in\\)\\ is\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ investment\\-invoking\\ weapon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implications\\ of\\ parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ implications\\ of\\ parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\ is\\ that\\ parents\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ responsible\\ for\\ their\\ adult\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personality\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ for\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ parent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ socialization\\ for\\ a\\ kid\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ parent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ benefit\\,\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ kid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ to\\ be\\ equally\\ nice\\ to\\ self\\ and\\ sister\\,\\ whereas\\ kid\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ nicer\\ to\\ self\\ than\\ sister\\)\\.\\ Children\\ should\\ therefore\\ resist\\ this\\ socialization\\ and\\ develop\\ their\\ own\\ personality\\ as\\ a\\ strategy\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ best\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personality\\ Tests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ to\\ test\\ personality\\ measures\\,\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ Minnesota\\ Multiphasic\\ Personality\\ Inventory\\ \\(MMPI\\)\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ battery\\ of\\ 500\\ questions\\.\\ There\\ are\\ five\\ major\\ personality\\ dimensions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Openness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ experience\\.\\ \\(daring\\ to\\ conforming\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conscientiousness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ how\\ careful\\ or\\ careless\\ someone\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Extraversion\\/intraversion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ that\\ is\\ sociable\\ or\\ retiring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Agreeableness\\/antagonism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ courteous\\ or\\ nice\\ vs\\.\\ rude\\ and\\ suspicious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Neuroticism\\/stability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ does\\ one\\ constantly\\ worry\\ or\\ are\\ they\\ calm\\ and\\ satisfied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ determines\\ personality\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ are\\ strong\\ correlations\\ between\\ parenting\\ styles\\/personalities\\ and\\ adult\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personalities\\.\\ This\\ would\\ make\\ it\\ seem\\ that\\ parenting\\ and\\ the\\ environment\\ create\\ personality\\,\\ but\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ parents\\ influence\\ their\\ children\\ through\\ sharing\\ genes\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ through\\ the\\ environment\\ provided\\ by\\ parenting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-So\\,\\ then\\ is\\ it\\ the\\ shared\\ genes\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ parents\\ that\\ spank\\ have\\ more\\ violent\\ children\\,\\ not\\ because\\ spanking\\ is\\ causing\\ this\\,\\ but\\ because\\ genes\\ for\\ violence\\ cause\\ spanking\\ and\\ violence\\ later\\)\\?\\ or\\ the\\ parenting\\ style\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ spanking\\ really\\ does\\ cause\\ adults\\ to\\ be\\ violent\\)\\?\\ This\\ is\\ evaluated\\ using\\ techniques\\ from\\ behavioral\\ genetics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ determine\\ Heritability\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ main\\ techniques\\:\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ twin\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;looks\\ at\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ monozygotic\\(MZ\\)\\ and\\ dizygotic\\(DZ\\)\\ twins\\.\\ MZ\\ \\(or\\ identical\\)\\ twins\\ share\\ 100\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ and\\ DZ\\ \\(or\\ fraternal\\)\\ twins\\ share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\,\\ just\\ like\\ normal\\ siblings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ technique\\ assumes\\ that\\ identical\\ twins\\ share\\ their\\ environment\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ extent\\ as\\ fraternal\\ twins\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ adoption\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;looks\\ at\\ variability\\ between\\ biological\\ siblings\\ raised\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ family\\ vs\\.\\ biological\\ siblings\\ raised\\ in\\ different\\ families\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;looks\\ at\\ MZ\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Variance\\ in\\ personality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ variance\\ in\\ personality\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ separated\\ into\\ 3\\ causal\\ categories\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heritability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ \\%\\ of\\ variance\\ due\\ to\\ genetic\\ differences\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shared\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ \\%\\ of\\ variance\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\ shared\\ by\\ twins\\/siblings\\ but\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ siblings\\ or\\ twins\\ \\(such\\ as\\ family\\ raised\\ in\\ together\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nonshared\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ \\%\\ of\\ variance\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\ not\\ shared\\ by\\ siblings\\/twins\\,\\ such\\ as\\ different\\ families\\,\\ accidents\\,\\ diseases\\,\\ schools\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evidence\\ from\\ testing\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heritability\\ evidence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Evidence\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\twin\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;would\\ be\\ when\\ MZ\\ twins\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ than\\ DZ\\ \\-twins\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Evidence\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ adoption\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;would\\ give\\ high\\ heritability\\ when\\ biological\\ siblings\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ than\\ adopted\\ siblings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Evidence\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;would\\ be\\ high\\ when\\ MZ\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ are\\ highly\\ similar\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-All\\ of\\ these\\ essentially\\ show\\ that\\ those\\ with\\ shared\\ genes\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ than\\ those\\ without\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shared\\ environment\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Similarities\\ between\\ MZ\\ twins\\ and\\ DZ\\ twins\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\twin\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Adoptive\\ siblings\\ being\\ as\\ similar\\ as\\ biological\\ siblings\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adoptive\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Twins\\ reared\\ apart\\ are\\ less\\ similar\\ than\\ twins\\ raised\\ together\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ studies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-These\\ all\\ show\\ high\\ similarity\\ ratings\\ corresponding\\ with\\ relationships\\ in\\ which\\ individuals\\ share\\ an\\ environment\\,\\ but\\ not\\ genes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nonshared\\ environment\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-MZ\\ twins\\ are\\ raised\\ together\\ and\\ not\\ similar\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\twin\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ left\\ over\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adoption\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ the\\ genes\\ and\\ shared\\ environment\\ are\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-When\\ MZ\\ twins\\ raised\\ together\\ show\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ variation\\ in\\ personality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ is\\ essentially\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;leftover\\ variance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Nobody\\ has\\ a\\ great\\ explanation\\ for\\ what\\ the\\ causal\\ factors\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;nonshared\\ environment\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ even\\ exactly\\ what\\ it\\ means\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ variance\\ left\\ over\\ after\\ the\\ genetic\\ factors\\ and\\ shared\\ environment\\ factors\\ are\\ accounted\\ for\\.\\ A\\ lot\\ of\\ this\\ could\\ just\\ be\\ chance\\ events\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tim\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 15\\ \\&\\;\\ Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 17\\:\\ Love\\ and\\ sex\\.\\ Sexual\\ selection\\,\\ attraction\\,\\ beauty\\,\\ commitment\\,\\ conflict\\,\\ sexual\\ politics\\.\\ Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 3\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 76\\-82\\;\\ Chapter\\ 12\\,\\ 451\\-458\\;\\ Chapter\\ 15\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 554\\-557\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Lecture\\ Stuff\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sex\\ and\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Three\\ Psychological\\ Mechanisms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sexual\\ Desire\\ \\(Lust\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romantic\\ Love\\ \\(Infatuation\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Companionate\\ Love\\ \\(Long\\-term\\ commitment\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ are\\ there\\ different\\ sexes\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sexes\\ are\\ defined\\ must\\ fundamentally\\ by\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ gametes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Females\\ produce\\ relatively\\ large\\ egg\\:\\ all\\ necessary\\ biomaterial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Males\\ produce\\ relatively\\ small\\ sperm\\:\\ naked\\ DNA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eggs\\ are\\ expensive\\;\\ sperm\\ are\\ cheap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Madman\\ Trivers\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\parental\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;predicts\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Females\\ usually\\ invest\\ more\\:\\ size\\ of\\ egg\\,\\ gestation\\,\\ lactation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Females\\ usually\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rate\\-limiting\\ step\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ reproduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consequences\\ of\\ asymmetry\\ in\\ parental\\ investment\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\High\\ variance\\ in\\ reproductive\\ success\\ among\\ males\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leads\\ to\\ male\\-male\\ competition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ reproductive\\ success\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ many\\ females\\ he\\ mates\\ with\\;\\ not\\ so\\ for\\ females\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Females\\ are\\ more\\ discriminating\\/scrutinizing\\;\\ look\\ for\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Best\\ genes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ willing\\ to\\ protect\\ young\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ attractive\\ to\\ other\\ females\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\sexy\\ son\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ biologically\\ significant\\ properties\\ of\\ human\\ sexuality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Minimal\\ parental\\ investment\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\:\\ 9\\ mo\\ pregnancy\\,\\ 30\\ lbs\\ nutrients\\,\\ 2\\-4\\ yrs\\ nursing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Men\\:\\ five\\ minutes\\ of\\ copulation\\,\\ one\\ sperm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anatomical\\ evidence\\ for\\ male\\-male\\ competition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sexual\\ dimorphism\\ in\\ body\\ size\\ \\(men\\ bigger\\,\\ faster\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\age\\ of\\ puberty\\ \\(later\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lifespan\\ \\(shorter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Typical\\ parental\\ investment\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ feed\\,\\ protect\\,\\ teach\\ offspring\\ \\(unusual\\ for\\ mammals\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\human\\ infants\\ have\\ long\\,\\ dependent\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\increased\\ survival\\ of\\ forager\\ children\\ with\\ fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ predicts\\ that\\ both\\ sexes\\ should\\ compete\\ \\(roughly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Males\\ for\\ willing\\,\\ fertile\\ females\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Females\\ for\\ resource\\-laden\\ males\\ willing\\ to\\ invest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\ asymmetrical\\:\\ male\\ investment\\ optional\\,\\ female\\ obligatory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concealed\\ fertilization\\ and\\ gregariousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paternity\\ uncertainty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cuckoldry\\ as\\ male\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worst\\ case\\ scenario\\;\\ jealousy\\ is\\ adaptation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ should\\ females\\ be\\ adulterous\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Best\\ of\\ both\\ worlds\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\genes\\ from\\ best\\ male\\,\\ investment\\ from\\ most\\ willing\\ male\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Well\\-documented\\ Satanic\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Have\\ Human\\ sexual\\ emotions\\ in\\ fact\\ been\\ shaped\\ by\\ Darwinian\\ sexual\\ selection\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distinction\\ between\\ proximate\\ and\\ ultimate\\ causation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ facts\\ of\\ life\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ in\\ evolutionary\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contraception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Artificial\\ insemination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Substitutes\\ for\\ lactation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Equal\\ opportunities\\ for\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ on\\ Sexual\\ Selection\\ and\\ Sexual\\ Emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prediction\\:\\ men\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ numerous\\ partners\\ than\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\David\\ Buss\\&rsquo\\;\\ experiment\\ reported\\ men\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ one\\ night\\ stand\\ than\\ women\\;\\ men\\ desire\\ more\\ sexual\\ partners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hatfield\\ and\\ Clark\\:\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ men\\ would\\ agree\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ bed\\ with\\ an\\ attractive\\ stranger\\;\\ 0\\%\\ of\\ women\\ would\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Greater\\ Complexity\\ of\\ Female\\ Sexuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ variability\\ among\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ variability\\ in\\ one\\ woman\\ at\\ different\\ times\\ of\\ her\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Greater\\ complexity\\ in\\ decision\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\,\\ choice\\ of\\ partner\\,\\ criteria\\ for\\ attractiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cross\\ cultural\\ similarities\\:\\ men\\ way\\ more\\ than\\ women\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woo\\,\\ proposition\\,\\ seduce\\,\\ use\\ love\\ magic\\,\\ give\\ gifts\\ in\\ trade\\ for\\ sex\\,\\ pay\\ bridepieces\\,\\ hire\\ prostitutes\\,\\ rape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ interactions\\ Among\\ People\\ in\\ Determining\\ Overt\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Behavior\\ depends\\ not\\ just\\ on\\ desires\\,\\ but\\ context\\:\\ opportunities\\ and\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heterosexual\\ versus\\ homosexual\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symons\\:\\ emotions\\ typical\\ to\\ each\\ sex\\ masked\\ my\\ need\\ to\\ compromise\\ with\\ other\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homosexual\\ relations\\ present\\ purer\\ picture\\ of\\ sexual\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\San\\ Francisco\\,\\ 1970\\,\\ striking\\ results\\:\\ 28\\%\\ of\\ gay\\ men\\ had\\ over\\ 1000\\ sexual\\ partners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sexual\\ Attraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Buss\\&rsquo\\;\\ 37\\-country\\ study\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intelligence\\ and\\ kindness\\:\\ important\\ for\\ both\\ sexes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Earning\\ capacity\\,\\ emotional\\ stability\\:\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ females\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Youth\\ and\\ looks\\:\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ males\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beauty\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Importance\\ for\\ other\\ interpersonal\\ evaluations\\:\\ attractive\\ people\\ judged\\ to\\ be\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Smarter\\,\\ kinder\\,\\ more\\ honest\\,\\ stronger\\,\\ more\\ nurturant\\ and\\ sensitive\\,\\ sociable\\ and\\ outgoing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beauty\\ predicts\\ better\\ life\\ incomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mothers\\ more\\ affectionate\\ with\\,\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ abuse\\ attractive\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ beauty\\ in\\ the\\ eye\\ of\\ the\\ beholder\\?\\ Actually\\,\\ NO\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hypothesis\\:\\ beauty\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ cue\\ for\\ the\\ biological\\ fitness\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ \\(especially\\ as\\ mates\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Criteria\\ for\\ beauty\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Features\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\average\\ size\\ and\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Average\\ phenotype\\ is\\ fittest\\;\\ what\\ natural\\ selection\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;trying\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ achieve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symmetry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\symmetry\\ as\\ indication\\ of\\ successful\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symmetrical\\ men\\ even\\ smell\\ more\\ attractive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\correlates\\ with\\ intelligence\\ and\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\predicts\\ income\\,\\ sexual\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Differences\\ between\\ beauty\\ in\\ Men\\ and\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Faces\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cues\\ for\\ fertility\\,\\ normal\\ hormones\\,\\ right\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\effects\\ of\\ testosterone\\ on\\ jaw\\,\\ brow\\ ridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Youth\\ and\\ nulliparity\\ \\(never\\ had\\ a\\ child\\)\\:\\ eyes\\,\\ lips\\,\\ skin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Supernormal\\ stimulus\\:\\ exaggerate\\ magnitude\\ of\\ psychologically\\ effective\\ physical\\ cues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Red\\ dots\\ on\\ beaks\\ of\\ gulls\\:\\ bigger\\ dot\\ makes\\ young\\ peck\\ ferociously\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lips\\,\\ jawbone\\,\\ arched\\ eyebrows\\,\\ boobs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ puzzle\\ of\\ male\\ beauty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\difficulty\\ of\\ getting\\ consensus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\contradictory\\ findings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\more\\ masculine\\ features\\ sometimes\\ regarded\\ as\\ more\\ attractive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ feminization\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ look\\ more\\ attractive\\ \\(boy\\ bands\\;\\ Alex\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lipstick\\&rdquo\\;\\ Lipton\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possible\\ resolution\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ find\\ masculinized\\ men\\ hotter\\ when\\ ovulating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ stuff\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\waist\\-to\\-hip\\ ratio\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ideal\\ for\\ women\\:\\ \\.7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ideal\\ for\\ men\\:\\ \\.9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sexual\\ jealousy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ultimate\\ causation\\:\\ concealed\\ fertilization\\,\\ uncertainty\\ of\\ paternity\\,\\ and\\ cost\\ of\\ cuckoldry\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarities\\ and\\ differences\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ in\\ jealousy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\men\\:\\ sexual\\ infidelity\\ worst\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\:\\ emotional\\ infidelity\\ worst\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Domestic\\ quarrels\\ and\\ jealousy\\ are\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;most\\ common\\ motives\\ for\\ homicide\\ \\(Philadelphia\\,\\ 1948\\-1962\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patriarchy\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ownership\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marriage\\ as\\ transfer\\ of\\ woman\\ from\\ father\\ to\\ husband\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bridepieces\\,\\ brideservice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ownership\\ badges\\:\\ rings\\,\\ names\\,\\ forms\\ of\\ address\\ \\(Mrs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Control\\ of\\ female\\ sexuality\\:\\ chaperones\\,\\ veils\\,\\ burkas\\,\\ genital\\ mutilation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Double\\ standard\\ for\\ adultery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\adultery\\ as\\ property\\ violation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\elopement\\ as\\ theft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rape\\ as\\ offense\\ against\\ husband\\ \\(or\\ father\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\legality\\ of\\ marital\\ rape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ brain\\ chemistry\\ for\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ feelings\\ toward\\ mate\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Testosterone\\ \\(lust\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dopamine\\ and\\ PEA\\ \\(romance\\,\\ cf\\ addition\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vasopressin\\ and\\ oxytocin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\vasopressin\\ made\\ the\\ promiscuous\\ montane\\ vole\\ more\\ pair\\-bonding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Romance\\,\\ Passion\\,\\ Infatuation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ constructivism\\:\\ romantic\\ love\\ is\\ a\\ recent\\ invention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cross\\-cultural\\ universality\\ of\\ romantic\\ love\\ refutes\\ this\\ bullshit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ Romantic\\ Love\\?\\ A\\ theory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ of\\ dating\\ as\\ a\\ mating\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\ in\\ assortative\\ mating\\:\\ each\\ person\\ gets\\ the\\ best\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trade\\ off\\ in\\ value\\ vs\\.\\ time\\;\\ if\\ we\\ search\\ for\\ ideal\\ mate\\ forever\\,\\ we\\ may\\ never\\ find\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Romantic\\ passion\\ seems\\ to\\ violate\\ \\&ldquo\\;smart\\ shopping\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capricious\\ choice\\ of\\ one\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Involuntariness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\?\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ commitment\\ problem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ with\\ promises\\;\\ why\\ should\\ the\\ recipient\\ trust\\ you\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inherent\\ trustworthiness\\ of\\ courtship\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Solution\\ to\\ commitment\\ problem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paradoxical\\ tactics\\:\\ make\\ a\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ involuntary\\ to\\ convince\\ skeptics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\think\\ of\\ protester\\ handcuffing\\ himself\\ to\\ railroad\\ tracks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ romance\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ tactic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Convince\\ mate\\ that\\ your\\ love\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ his\\/her\\ mate\\ value\\;\\ you\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ leave\\ him\\/her\\ when\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;better\\&rdquo\\;\\ one\\ comes\\ along\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Content\\ of\\ courtship\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ falling\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ you\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Companionate\\ \\(Long\\-term\\)\\ Love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Psychologically\\ and\\ neurochemically\\ distinct\\ from\\ lust\\ and\\ passion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ mechanism\\:\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ successful\\ marriages\\,\\ both\\ parties\\ feel\\ costs\\ \\=\\ benefits\\ over\\ long\\ term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\marriage\\ is\\ unhappy\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ turn\\-taking\\ reciprocation\\ over\\ short\\ term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ else\\ does\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Confluence\\ of\\ interest\\ among\\ ideal\\ spouses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\symbiosis\\/mutualism\\ \\=\\ benefit\\ to\\ other\\ and\\ benefit\\ to\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\same\\ interests\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ friends\\,\\ enemies\\,\\ temperament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\predictors\\ of\\ attraction\\,\\ marital\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;virtuous\\ cycle\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ has\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;selfish\\&rdquo\\;\\ stake\\ in\\ your\\ survival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ you\\ a\\ selfish\\ stake\\ in\\ theirs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positive\\ feedback\\ loop\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ultimate\\ confluence\\ of\\ interests\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\genetic\\ fates\\ of\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\ are\\ identical\\ if\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ are\\ monogamous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ favor\\ their\\ own\\ children\\ over\\ other\\ relatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ die\\ at\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ predicts\\ ideal\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\ should\\ value\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ happiness\\ as\\ equivalent\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sources\\ of\\ marital\\ strife\\:\\ infidelity\\,\\ in\\-laws\\,\\ age\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\READING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\ Analyses\\ of\\ Mating\\ Patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;One\\ way\\ to\\ classify\\ species\\ is\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ partners\\ males\\ or\\ females\\ take\\.\\ There\\ are\\ four\\ broad\\ classes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polygyny\\:\\ one\\ male\\ mates\\ with\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ female\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polyandry\\:\\ one\\ female\\ mates\\ with\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ male\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monogamy\\:\\ one\\ male\\ with\\ one\\ female\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polygynandry\\:\\ round\\-robin\\ fuckfest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ case\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ anything\\ about\\ anything\\:\\ \\-gyn\\ means\\ woman\\,\\ \\-andr\\ means\\ man\\,\\ poly\\-\\ means\\ many\\,\\ mono\\-\\ means\\ one\\.\\ Why\\ memorize\\ four\\ words\\ when\\ you\\ can\\ just\\ memorize\\ four\\ Greek\\ roots\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ Theory\\ Relating\\ Mating\\ Patterns\\ to\\ Parental\\ Investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parental\\ investment\\ can\\ be\\ defined\\ roughly\\ as\\ the\\ time\\,\\ enery\\,\\ and\\ risk\\ to\\ survival\\ that\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ producing\\,\\ feeding\\,\\ and\\ otherwise\\ caring\\ for\\ each\\ offspring\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Madman\\ Trivers\\ defines\\ it\\ more\\ precisely\\ as\\ the\\ loss\\,\\ to\\ the\\ adult\\,\\ of\\ future\\ reproductive\\ capacity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Madman\\ Trivers\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\:\\ In\\ general\\,\\ for\\ species\\ in\\ which\\ parental\\ investment\\ is\\ unequal\\,\\ the\\ more\\ parentally\\ invested\\ sex\\ will\\ \\(a\\)\\ be\\ more\\ vigorously\\ competed\\ for\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ and\\ \\(b\\)\\ be\\ more\\ discriminating\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ when\\ choosing\\ mates\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Apply\\ Madman\\ Trivers\\&rsquo\\;\\ Theory\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polygyny\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ high\\ female\\ and\\ low\\ male\\ parental\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ mammals\\ are\\ polygynous\\ because\\ mammalian\\ reproductive\\ physiology\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ female\\ necessarily\\ invests\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ in\\ the\\ offspring\\ she\\ bears\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ parental\\ investment\\ is\\ higher\\ in\\ females\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ competition\\ between\\ males\\ is\\ common\\;\\ victor\\ generally\\ decided\\ by\\ strength\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ more\\ polygynous\\ a\\ species\\ is\\,\\ the\\ greater\\ size\\ difference\\ between\\ males\\ and\\ females\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polyandry\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ high\\ male\\ and\\ low\\ female\\ parental\\ investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ the\\ primary\\ mating\\ pattern\\ for\\ any\\ mammal\\,\\ but\\ is\\ for\\ some\\ fishes\\ and\\ birds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ likely\\ to\\ develop\\ in\\ egg\\-laying\\ species\\ because\\ a\\ small\\ proportion\\ of\\ an\\ egg\\ layer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reproductive\\ cycle\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ female\\ body\\.\\ Once\\ eggs\\ are\\ out\\,\\ either\\ parent\\ can\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Just\\ as\\ Trivers\\ would\\ predict\\,\\ females\\ in\\ polyandrous\\ species\\ are\\ more\\ active\\ and\\ aggressive\\ courters\\,\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ evolved\\ to\\ be\\ bigger\\,\\ stronger\\,\\ more\\ colorful\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ Freshwater\\ sandpiper\\.\\ Female\\ can\\ lay\\ three\\ batches\\ of\\ eggs\\ in\\ quick\\ succession\\,\\ and\\ a\\ different\\ male\\ will\\ care\\ for\\ each\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ whore\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monogamy\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ equivalent\\ Male\\ and\\ Female\\ Parental\\ Investment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Equal\\ parental\\ investment\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ come\\ about\\ when\\ conditions\\ make\\ it\\ impossible\\ for\\ a\\ single\\ adult\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ young\\ but\\ quite\\ possible\\ for\\ two\\ to\\ raise\\ them\\.\\ If\\ either\\ parent\\ leaves\\,\\ the\\ young\\ die\\,\\ so\\ natural\\ selection\\ favors\\ genes\\ that\\ keep\\ both\\ parents\\ around\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ monogamy\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ faithful\\ pairing\\ of\\ female\\ and\\ male\\ for\\ raising\\ young\\.\\ Social\\ monogamy\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ imply\\ sexual\\ monogamy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ socially\\ monogamous\\ birds\\,\\ 5\\-35\\%\\ of\\ offspring\\ are\\ sired\\ by\\ neighboring\\ birds\\.\\ The\\ superb\\ fairy\\ wren\\ has\\ a\\ number\\ around\\ 75\\%\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Female\\ perspective\\:\\ better\\ to\\ copulate\\ genetically\\ superior\\ male\\ \\(best\\ feathers\\ and\\ song\\)\\;\\ just\\ a\\ good\\ idea\\ to\\ copulate\\ with\\ anyone\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ fertilize\\ all\\ eggs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ perspective\\:\\ advantage\\ rests\\ in\\ driving\\ other\\ males\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ nest\\ and\\ boning\\ any\\ females\\ it\\ possibly\\ can\\.\\ Genes\\ that\\ build\\ territorialism\\ and\\ infidelity\\ get\\ passed\\ on\\ more\\ frequently\\.\\ Fun\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Polygynandry\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Best\\ examples\\ are\\ chimpanzees\\ and\\ bonobos\\,\\ which\\ are\\ actually\\ our\\ closest\\ animal\\ relatives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bonobos\\:\\ when\\ females\\ start\\ ovulating\\ they\\ grow\\ a\\ great\\ big\\ pink\\ rumpus\\ that\\ they\\ display\\ to\\ all\\ the\\ males\\;\\ they\\ then\\ proceed\\ to\\ fuck\\ everything\\ that\\ moves\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ few\\ weeks\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ evidently\\ some\\ selection\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pretty\\ close\\ to\\ a\\ free\\-for\\-all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apparently\\ evolved\\ this\\ way\\ because\\ it\\ allows\\ for\\ group\\ harmony\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Female\\ perspective\\:\\ paternal\\ uncertainty\\.\\ In\\ some\\ species\\,\\ males\\ kill\\ offspring\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ theirs\\.\\ Not\\ a\\ risk\\ among\\ bonobos\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ any\\ kid\\ could\\ be\\ any\\ father\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ each\\ male\\ has\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ protecting\\ all\\ young\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ bonobos\\,\\ sex\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ reducer\\ of\\ conflict\\,\\ not\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polygynandry\\ is\\ less\\ developed\\ in\\ chimps\\;\\ males\\ still\\ fight\\ over\\ females\\,\\ occasionally\\ monopolize\\ her\\ sex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ about\\ human\\ mating\\ patterns\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ border\\ between\\ monogamy\\ and\\ Polygyny\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ the\\ great\\ majority\\ of\\ non\\-Western\\ cultures\\,\\ where\\ Western\\ influence\\ has\\ not\\ made\\ polygamy\\ illegal\\,\\ people\\ practice\\ a\\ limited\\ form\\ of\\ Polygyny\\,\\ where\\ rich\\ men\\ will\\ have\\ two\\ wives\\,\\ most\\ will\\ have\\ one\\,\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ any\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Males\\ lag\\ behind\\ females\\ in\\ parental\\ investment\\,\\ but\\ not\\ by\\ much\\.\\ Generally\\ provide\\ more\\ material\\ goods\\ to\\ offspring\\,\\ but\\ less\\ physical\\ care\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ follows\\ from\\ Trivers\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\ that\\ males\\ are\\ slightly\\ larger\\ than\\ females\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biological\\ equipment\\ that\\ predisposes\\ us\\ for\\ mating\\ bonds\\ includes\\ brain\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ promote\\ romantic\\ love\\ and\\ sexual\\ jealousy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Love\\ tends\\ to\\ create\\ mating\\ bonds\\;\\ jealousy\\ tends\\ to\\ preserve\\ bonds\\ by\\ motivating\\ each\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ mated\\ pair\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ ways\\ to\\ prevent\\ other\\ from\\ having\\ an\\ affair\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Analogous\\ feelings\\ in\\ monogamous\\ birds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lust\\,\\ another\\ product\\ of\\ evolution\\,\\ works\\ opposite\\;\\ to\\ motivate\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ sex\\ outside\\ mating\\ bonds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ men\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obvious\\:\\ the\\ more\\ females\\ a\\ male\\ inseminates\\,\\ the\\ better\\ for\\ his\\ genes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ women\\,\\ the\\ benefit\\ is\\ threefold\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\She\\ increases\\ her\\ chances\\ of\\ conception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Increases\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ fitness\\ of\\ her\\ offspring\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gaining\\ provisions\\ from\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ man\\ at\\ a\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fun\\ fact\\:\\ DNA\\ studies\\ reveal\\ that\\ somewhere\\ between\\ 2\\-10\\%\\ of\\ children\\ in\\ socially\\ monogamous\\ families\\ are\\ sired\\ by\\ someone\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ husband\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\ Analyses\\ of\\ Hurting\\ and\\ Helping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aggression\\:\\ refers\\ to\\ fighting\\ and\\ threats\\ of\\ fighting\\ among\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ species\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ aggression\\ derives\\ from\\ mating\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serves\\ also\\ to\\ protect\\ feeding\\ ground\\,\\ protection\\ of\\ self\\ and\\ young\\,\\ elevate\\ status\\ in\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sexual\\ explorations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unprotected\\ sex\\ and\\ teenage\\ pregnancy\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\8\\%\\ of\\ females\\ aged\\ 15\\-19\\ become\\ pregnant\\ each\\ year\\ in\\ US\\;\\ half\\ result\\ in\\ abortion\\;\\ this\\ number\\ has\\ dropped\\ from\\ 12\\%\\ in\\ 1980s\\,\\ but\\ still\\ is\\ highest\\ among\\ industrialized\\ nations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sexual\\ Restraint\\ and\\ Promiscuity\\ as\\ Products\\ of\\ Evolution\\ and\\ Life\\ Conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\ Explanation\\ of\\ Sex\\ Diff\\ in\\ Sexual\\ Eagerness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\across\\ cultures\\,\\ men\\ are\\ more\\ eager\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Madman\\ Trivers\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\ of\\ parental\\ investment\\ helps\\ to\\ explain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ are\\ more\\ discriminating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ sexually\\ restrained\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ teenage\\ sexuality\\ may\\ depend\\ on\\ conditions\\ of\\ rearing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\remember\\,\\ evolution\\ only\\ explains\\ trends\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cross\\ cultural\\ studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ promiscuity\\ works\\ best\\ in\\ cultures\\ where\\ men\\ devote\\ little\\ care\\ to\\ young\\,\\ and\\ sexual\\ restraint\\ prevails\\ in\\ cultures\\ where\\ men\\ devote\\ much\\ care\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ theory\\ depends\\ on\\ presence\\ of\\ father\\:\\ if\\ children\\ have\\ a\\ reliable\\ father\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ assume\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ appropriate\\ role\\ of\\ a\\ man\\;\\ boys\\ will\\ aspire\\ to\\ be\\ providers\\,\\ girls\\ will\\ look\\ for\\ providers\\.\\ Without\\ a\\ father\\,\\ boys\\ will\\ be\\ pigs\\ and\\ girls\\ will\\ be\\ sluts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ study\\ actually\\ supported\\ this\\.\\ In\\ households\\ without\\ a\\ father\\,\\ or\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ father\\ divorced\\ the\\ mother\\,\\ girls\\ were\\ more\\ flirtatious\\;\\ girls\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ become\\ sexual\\ active\\/promiscuous\\;\\ girls\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ enter\\ puberty\\ early\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adulthood\\:\\ Finding\\ Satisfaction\\ in\\ Love\\ and\\ Work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Freud\\:\\ emotional\\ maturity\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ love\\ and\\ work\\.\\ Modern\\ psychological\\ theory\\ follows\\ these\\ two\\ strands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Love\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Romantic\\ Love\\ Viewed\\ as\\ Adult\\ Attachment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\similar\\ in\\ form\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ in\\ underlying\\ mechanism\\,\\ to\\ the\\ attachment\\ that\\ infants\\ develop\\ for\\ parents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eye\\ contact\\,\\ caressing\\,\\ feeling\\ of\\ fusion\\,\\ exclusivity\\,\\ security\\,\\ confidence\\;\\ distress\\ when\\ separated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attachments\\ can\\ be\\ classified\\ as\\ secure\\,\\ anxious\\,\\ or\\ avoidant\\ \\(same\\ classes\\ as\\ with\\ parent\\/child\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ show\\ continuity\\ between\\ parental\\ attachment\\ and\\ romantic\\ attachment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Employment\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ most\\ often\\ say\\ they\\ enjoy\\ work\\ if\\ it\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\complex\\ rather\\ than\\ simple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\varied\\ rather\\ than\\ routine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ closely\\ supervised\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;occupational\\ self\\-direction\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adapting\\ to\\ One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ gender\\ differences\\ in\\ personality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ score\\ higher\\ than\\ men\\ in\\ agreeableness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ are\\ more\\ concerned\\ than\\ men\\ on\\ developing\\ and\\ maintaining\\ positive\\ social\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ score\\ higher\\ on\\ conscientiousness\\,\\ warmth\\,\\ gregariousness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Affects\\ not\\ only\\ personality\\ but\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ personality\\ to\\ life\\ satisfaction\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ Shyness\\ or\\ behavioral\\ inhibition\\ correlates\\ positively\\ with\\ feels\\ of\\ emotional\\ distress\\ and\\ unhappiness\\ in\\ young\\ men\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ young\\ women\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ who\\ have\\ a\\ relatively\\ competitive\\ nature\\ tend\\ to\\ score\\ lower\\ on\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ while\\ the\\ opposite\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oxytocin\\,\\ which\\ is\\ at\\ higher\\ levels\\ in\\ females\\ than\\ in\\ males\\,\\ tends\\ to\\ promote\\ affiliation\\;\\ testosterone\\,\\ which\\ is\\ at\\ higher\\ levels\\ in\\ males\\,\\ tends\\ to\\ promote\\ aggression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Johnny\\ \\-\\ Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 22\\:\\ Violence\\.\\ Individual\\ aggression\\;\\ Hobbes\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ dynamics\\ of\\ aggression\\;\\ aggression\\ between\\ groups\\;\\ group\\ psychology\\;\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ violence\\.\\ \\ \\;Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 3\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 82\\-84\\;\\ Chapter\\ 12\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 448\\-449\\;\\ Chapter\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 527\\-529\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Slides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ view\\ of\\ human\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Hobbes\\-\\ life\\ of\\ man\\ is\\ naturally\\ \\&ldquo\\;nasty\\,\\ brutish\\ and\\ short\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ not\\ it\\ not\\ for\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jean\\-Jacques\\ Rousseau\\-\\ man\\ is\\ naturally\\ peaceful\\ and\\ nice\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ should\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ savage\\ lifestyle\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;noble\\ savage\\&rdquo\\;\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ study\\ of\\ Native\\ American\\ life\\ undermined\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;noble\\ savage\\ theory\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ they\\ were\\ may\\ more\\ aggressive\\ and\\ violent\\ than\\ previously\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ Yanomamo\\ \\(fierce\\ people\\)\\ tribe\\,\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ adults\\ had\\ lost\\ a\\ family\\ member\\ to\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ weapons\\ were\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ damaging\\ among\\ Natives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aggression\\ in\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Close\\ to\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ men\\ have\\ considered\\ killing\\ another\\,\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ animals\\,\\ individual\\ aggression\\ common\\,\\ collective\\ aggression\\ rare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rare\\ examples\\ include\\ dolphins\\ and\\ chimpanzees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ is\\ collective\\ aggression\\ rare\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ of\\ cheater\\ \\(coward\\)\\ detection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ need\\ a\\ coalition\\ of\\ related\\ males\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ species\\ more\\ designed\\ for\\ aggression\\ \\(chimps\\ vs\\.\\ bonobos\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ do\\ organisms\\ hurt\\ each\\ other\\?\\ \\ \\;Hobbes\\ gives\\ three\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Competition\\ \\(gain\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Darwinian\\ competition\\ over\\ resources\\,\\ food\\,\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ sexual\\ selection\\:\\ \\ \\;greater\\ investing\\ sex\\ \\(usually\\ the\\ female\\)\\ limits\\ how\\ often\\ a\\ species\\ reproduces\\,\\ and\\ will\\ be\\ competed\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ males\\ usually\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ minimal\\ investment\\ in\\ time\\ and\\ energy\\,\\ they\\ compete\\ against\\ each\\ other\\ for\\ the\\ female\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tribal\\ wars\\ most\\ often\\ start\\ due\\ to\\ competition\\ over\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Men\\ kill\\ more\\ often\\,\\ engage\\ in\\ rougher\\ play\\ as\\ kids\\,\\ and\\ take\\ greater\\ risks\\ than\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Diffidence\\ \\(safety\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Hobbesian\\ Trap\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ do\\ it\\ to\\ them\\ before\\ they\\ do\\ it\\ to\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\ burglar\\ in\\ the\\ basement\\,\\ modern\\ wars\\,\\ nuclear\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Detterence\\ as\\ a\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ Hobbesian\\ trap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attack\\ first\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ attacked\\,\\ we\\ will\\ retaliate\\ surely\\ and\\ severely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prerequisites\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\credibility\\ of\\ no\\ first\\ strike\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ability\\ to\\ survive\\ first\\ strike\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\resolve\\ to\\ carry\\ on\\ even\\ if\\ self\\ destructive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ eye\\ for\\ an\\ eye\\,\\ a\\ tooth\\ for\\ a\\ tooth\\ another\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Glory\\ \\(reputation\\,\\ honor\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deterrence\\ can\\ be\\ bluffed\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ you\\ assure\\ people\\ that\\ your\\ threats\\ are\\ not\\ bluffs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Solution\\,\\ make\\ punishment\\ involuntary\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;paradoxical\\ attacks\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Physical\\ constraints\\,\\ like\\ hijacker\\ with\\ explosives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\ constraints\\,\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ hothead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ explains\\ dueling\\,\\ and\\ partially\\ male\\ violence\\ against\\ women\\ as\\ a\\ deterrent\\ against\\ infidelity\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crazy\\ enough\\ to\\ kill\\ me\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Number\\ one\\ motive\\ for\\ homicide\\ in\\ philadelphia\\ 1948\\-1962\\:\\ Altercation\\ of\\ trivial\\ origin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultures\\ of\\ honor\\ found\\ in\\ societies\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\ of\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mafia\\,\\ drug\\ dealers\\,\\ remote\\ mountain\\ regions\\,\\ nation\\ states\\ dealing\\ with\\ each\\ othe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ places\\ where\\ wealth\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ steal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cash\\,\\ jewelry\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ herders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Culture\\ of\\ honor\\ in\\ south\\ brought\\ by\\ Irish\\ and\\ Scottish\\ herders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ reflected\\ in\\ higher\\ violence\\ in\\ south\\,\\ more\\ in\\ military\\,\\ corporal\\ punishment\\ laws\\,\\ individual\\ psychology\\ \\(southerners\\ more\\ stressed\\ at\\ minor\\ insult\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aggression\\ among\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Collective\\ aggression\\ in\\ related\\ men\\/\\ revenge\\ in\\ blood\\ feuds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethnic\\ groups\\ like\\ extended\\ families\\ and\\ act\\ accordingly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ caves\\ study\\ of\\ camp\\ of\\ boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Group\\ of\\ well\\ adjusted\\ WASP\\ boys\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Developed\\ distinctive\\ cultures\\,\\ and\\ after\\ a\\ week\\ they\\ started\\ fighting\\ each\\ other\\ physically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ attempted\\ solution\\:\\ joint\\ activities\\ in\\ pleasant\\ activities\\ such\\ as\\ eating\\ together\\,\\ movies\\,\\ and\\ shooting\\ firecrackers\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ just\\ provided\\ opportunities\\ for\\ further\\ hostilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\ solution\\:\\ superordinate\\ goals\\:\\ goals\\ that\\ are\\ desired\\ by\\ both\\ groups\\ that\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ accomplished\\ by\\ cooperation\\ of\\ both\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ way\\ to\\ end\\ fighting\\ was\\ to\\ imply\\ a\\ common\\ enemy\\ across\\ the\\ lake\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ work\\ together\\ against\\ new\\ enemy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ does\\ it\\ take\\ to\\ create\\ prejudice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Painting\\ study\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Klee\\&rdquo\\;\\ fans\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;kandinsky\\&rdquo\\;\\ fans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Groups\\ divided\\ arbitrarily\\ and\\ asked\\ if\\ given\\ some\\ of\\ money\\,\\ how\\ would\\ they\\ allocate\\ it\\ amongst\\ two\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Found\\ that\\ arbitrary\\ groups\\ who\\ had\\ never\\ met\\ each\\ other\\ would\\ rather\\ give\\ themselves\\ 7\\ dollars\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ team\\ 1\\ dollar\\,\\ over\\ giving\\ themselves\\ 19\\ dollars\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ team\\ 25\\ dollars\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ has\\ violence\\ declined\\ since\\ medieval\\ times\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rule\\ of\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eliminate\\ need\\ for\\ cultures\\ of\\ honor\\ and\\ resulting\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expansion\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ circles\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Empathy\\ technologies\\:\\ journalism\\,\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expanding\\ networks\\ of\\ reciprocity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Awareness\\ of\\ history\\,\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Psychology\\ Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pgs\\.\\ 82\\-84\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evolutionary\\ Analysis\\ of\\ Hurting\\ and\\ Helping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sex\\ Differences\\ in\\ Aggression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Animals\\ evolve\\ aggression\\ to\\ better\\ acquire\\ resources\\ needed\\ to\\ survive\\ and\\ reproduce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ to\\ protect\\ young\\ and\\ elevate\\ own\\ social\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ Male\\ Primates\\ are\\ Generally\\ More\\ Violent\\ Than\\ Female\\ Primates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ reproductive\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Killing\\ infants\\ stops\\ mother\\ from\\ lactating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prevent\\ from\\ copulating\\ with\\ other\\ males\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genes\\ that\\ promote\\ mating\\ proliferate\\,\\ by\\ whatever\\ means\\,\\ and\\ genes\\ that\\ fail\\ to\\ promote\\ it\\ fail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ men\\,\\ violence\\ most\\ often\\ due\\ to\\ sexual\\ jealousy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\USA\\ and\\ Canada\\-25\\-30\\%\\ of\\ wives\\ will\\ be\\ battered\\ in\\ some\\ form\\ by\\ a\\ mate\\,\\ due\\ to\\ his\\ feeling\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ or\\ might\\ be\\ sexually\\ unfaithfull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ Female\\ Bonobos\\ Dominate\\ Males\\ \\(funny\\ if\\ you\\ find\\ women\\ raping\\ men\\ funny\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ males\\ are\\ larger\\ and\\ more\\ strong\\,\\ females\\ form\\ strong\\ alliances\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ food\\ is\\ found\\,\\ females\\ eat\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ male\\ mounts\\ unwilling\\ female\\,\\ she\\ screams\\ and\\ other\\ females\\ come\\ to\\ her\\ rescue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ male\\ refuses\\ invitation\\ by\\ female\\ to\\ mount\\ her\\,\\ he\\ risks\\ serious\\ injury\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ men\\ form\\ alliances\\ and\\ dominate\\?\\ \\ \\;No\\ one\\ knows\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ women\\ in\\ society\\ form\\ alliances\\?\\ \\ \\;Again\\,\\ no\\ one\\ knows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pgs\\.\\ 448\\-449\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Increased\\ Rates\\ of\\ Recklessness\\ and\\ Delinquency\\ on\\ previous\\ page\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explanations\\ That\\ Focus\\ on\\ Adolescents\\ Segregation\\ from\\ Adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modern\\ explanation\\:\\ Early\\ onset\\ of\\ puberty\\ and\\ delayed\\ acceptance\\ into\\ adult\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ who\\ are\\ past\\ puberty\\ want\\ to\\ enter\\ adulthood\\ through\\ whatever\\ means\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;Sex\\,\\ alcohol\\,\\ crime\\ are\\ all\\ considered\\ adult\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crime\\ can\\ also\\ bring\\ material\\ goods\\ that\\ confer\\ adultlike\\ status\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ theory\\ does\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ adolescents\\ who\\ engage\\ in\\ dangerous\\ non\\ adult\\ activities\\ such\\ as\\ driving\\ around\\ wildly\\ in\\ stolen\\ cars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ theory\\:\\ kids\\ do\\ crime\\ to\\ set\\ themselves\\ apart\\ from\\ adult\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ are\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ legitimacy\\ conferred\\ by\\ own\\ peers\\,\\ not\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ both\\ are\\ true\\:\\ adolescents\\ seek\\ adult\\ like\\ status\\ while\\ identifying\\ with\\ behaviors\\ of\\ peers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ Evolutionary\\ Explanation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Young\\-Male\\ Syndrome\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ do\\ young\\ men\\ in\\ every\\ society\\ engage\\ in\\ excessivley\\ risky\\ behavior\\ that\\ negates\\ their\\ reproductive\\ capacity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ men\\ do\\ not\\ invest\\ as\\ much\\ in\\ children\\,\\ men\\ who\\ take\\ time\\ to\\ achieve\\ status\\ procreate\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ more\\ attracted\\ to\\ men\\ who\\ succeed\\ in\\ risky\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Risky\\ behavior\\ \\=\\ status\\ seeking\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Violence\\ among\\ men\\ usually\\ triggered\\ by\\ challenging\\ of\\ another\\&rsquo\\;\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Women\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ violent\\ peak\\ in\\ adolescense\\,\\ but\\ much\\ smaller\\ than\\ in\\ men\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ usually\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ gossip\\ about\\ their\\ sexual\\ activity\\,\\ which\\ tarnishes\\ their\\ reputation\\ amongst\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pgs\\.\\ 527\\-529\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Group\\ Against\\ Group\\:\\ Lessons\\ from\\ Robber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\See\\ aforementioned\\ lecture\\ slides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Michael\\ J\\ \\-\\ Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 24\\:\\ Obedience\\ to\\ authority\\.\\ Gray\\:\\ Chapter\\ 13\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 465\\-482\\,\\ 493\\-496\\,\\ 504\\-513\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 21\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Obedience\\ to\\ Authority\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ 4\\/29\\/2008\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Atrocities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Death\\ statistics\\ for\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ are\\ horrifying\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\:\\ \\ \\;37M\\ soldiers\\ killed\\ in\\ WWI\\,\\ 6M\\ jews\\ killed\\ in\\ holocaust\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ people\\ commit\\ mass\\ murder\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Freud\\ argued\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thanatos\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ a\\ death\\ instinct\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ inherent\\ instinct\\ or\\ desire\\ for\\ destruction\\ and\\ death\\.\\ This\\ is\\ nonsensical\\ from\\ a\\ modern\\ evolutionary\\ perspective\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ he\\ may\\ have\\ picked\\ up\\ on\\ a\\ pattern\\&mdash\\;people\\ seem\\ to\\ enjoy\\ doing\\ better\\ than\\ others\\,\\ which\\ may\\ include\\ harming\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ people\\ are\\ either\\ good\\ or\\ evil\\ and\\ the\\ few\\ evil\\ ones\\ orchestrated\\ these\\ atrocities\\.\\ But\\,\\ this\\ seems\\ nonsensical\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ many\\ people\\ were\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ mass\\ murders\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ a\\ couple\\ evil\\ people\\,\\ except\\ for\\ as\\ the\\ possible\\ leaders\\ of\\ these\\ tragedies\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ just\\ complex\\ and\\ that\\ these\\ horrible\\ events\\ are\\ just\\ some\\ possibilities\\ of\\ what\\ can\\ happen\\,\\ given\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Milgram\\ Experiments\\ \\(Motivation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adolf\\ Eichmann\\ organized\\ Hitler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;final\\ solution\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ AKA\\ the\\ holocaust\\.\\ He\\ escaped\\ to\\ Argentina\\ after\\ World\\ War\\ II\\,\\ and\\ was\\ captured\\ by\\ Israeli\\ agents\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ and\\ brought\\ back\\ to\\ Jerusalem\\ for\\ trial\\.\\ Hannah\\ Arendt\\ studied\\ Eichmann\\,\\ and\\ published\\ ideas\\ about\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;normal\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ was\\.\\ Eichmann\\ was\\ not\\ especially\\ sadistic\\.\\ He\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ following\\ orders\\ and\\ was\\ just\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ good\\ job\\.\\ He\\ was\\ aware\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ was\\ designing\\,\\ but\\ his\\ explanations\\ sound\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ designing\\ a\\ motor\\,\\ or\\ a\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ corporate\\ organization\\,\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ normal\\ engineering\\/administrative\\ feat\\.\\ Arendt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eichmann\\ in\\ Jerusalem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ Milgram\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inspiration\\ for\\ the\\ study\\.\\ Stanley\\ Milgram\\ decided\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ these\\ atrocities\\,\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ with\\ the\\ compliance\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ people\\,\\ could\\ have\\ occurred\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ Milgram\\ investigated\\ how\\ normal\\ people\\ respond\\ to\\ authority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Milgram\\ Experiments\\ \\(Description\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stanley\\ Milgram\\ designed\\ a\\ study\\ in\\ which\\ two\\ \\&ldquo\\;participants\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ come\\ in\\,\\ with\\ one\\ being\\ a\\ confederate\\ who\\ was\\ actually\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ study\\.\\ There\\ would\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;random\\ assignment\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ confederate\\ would\\ be\\ wired\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ machine\\ that\\ gave\\ electric\\ shocks\\ and\\ the\\ actual\\ participant\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ one\\ administering\\ the\\ shocks\\.\\ The\\ participant\\ was\\ told\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ experiment\\ on\\ learning\\,\\ and\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ theories\\ of\\ learning\\ that\\ said\\ punishment\\ was\\ important\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ would\\ administer\\ a\\ punishment\\ of\\ electric\\ shock\\ to\\ the\\ participant\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;facilitate\\ learning\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ confederate\\ discussed\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\.\\ The\\ voltage\\ of\\ the\\ shocks\\ escalated\\ with\\ each\\ one\\,\\ going\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ up\\ to\\ 450\\ Volts\\ \\(our\\ outlets\\ are\\ 110\\ Volts\\)\\.\\ Electric\\ shocks\\ from\\ voltages\\ as\\ low\\ as\\ 50\\ Volts\\ can\\ potentially\\ be\\ lethal\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ someone\\ with\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ confederate\\ would\\ then\\ scream\\ and\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;let\\ me\\ out\\ of\\ here\\,\\ I\\ have\\ heart\\ problems\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ voltage\\ escalated\\.\\ For\\ the\\ last\\ few\\ shocks\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ silent\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ dead\\.\\ If\\ the\\ participants\\ stopped\\ shocking\\ the\\ confederate\\,\\ the\\ experimenter\\ would\\ say\\ a\\ few\\ pre\\-orchestrated\\ lines\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ experiment\\ requires\\ that\\ you\\ continue\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ was\\ an\\ explicit\\ violation\\ of\\ common\\-sense\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ were\\ encouraged\\ to\\ harm\\ someone\\ else\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ they\\ normally\\ would\\ not\\ by\\ an\\ authority\\ figure\\.\\ It\\ was\\ absolutely\\ shocking\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ would\\ continue\\ all\\ they\\ way\\ up\\ to\\ 450\\ Volts\\ just\\ because\\ the\\ experimenter\\ told\\ them\\ to\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ obvious\\ pain\\,\\ and\\ possible\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ confederate\\ who\\ was\\ constantly\\ saying\\ to\\ stop\\,\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ let\\ out\\,\\ that\\ it\\ hurt\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ growing\\ silent\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ had\\ actually\\ had\\ a\\ heart\\ attack\\.\\ The\\ findings\\ are\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ graph\\ below\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ factors\\ that\\ affected\\ obedience\\ were\\ not\\ typical\\ factors\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ violence\\ or\\ would\\ seem\\ obvious\\ as\\ contributing\\ to\\ aggression\\,\\ such\\ as\\ gender\\,\\ whether\\ the\\ subject\\ was\\ a\\ student\\ or\\ nonstudent\\,\\ or\\ sadism\\.\\ This\\ is\\ shown\\ through\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ manipulations\\,\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ experimenter\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ one\\ getting\\ shocked\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\,\\ its\\ fine\\&rdquo\\;\\ reversing\\ roles\\.\\ Minor\\ factors\\ contributing\\ to\\ high\\ obedience\\ to\\ authority\\ were\\ personality\\ of\\ participant\\,\\ prestige\\ of\\ institution\\,\\ and\\ appearance\\ of\\ experimenter\\ \\&\\;\\ victim\\.\\ Major\\ factors\\ contributing\\ to\\ high\\ obedience\\ included\\ the\\ proximity\\ and\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ experimenter\\ \\(the\\ closer\\ and\\ more\\ authoritative\\ the\\ more\\ obedience\\)\\,\\ the\\ proximity\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\ \\(the\\ closer\\,\\ the\\ less\\ obedience\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ solitude\\ of\\ the\\ participant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Psychological\\ Issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ findings\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\ are\\ puzzling\\.\\ Most\\ psychiatrists\\ predicted\\ obedience\\ levels\\ of\\ \\.1\\%\\,\\ not\\ 50\\-80\\%\\.\\ There\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ tension\\ in\\ the\\ subjects\\ doing\\ the\\ shocking\\ and\\ a\\ corresponding\\ absence\\ of\\ malice\\ or\\ sadism\\&mdash\\;people\\ did\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ shock\\ the\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;participant\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ did\\ it\\ anyways\\.\\ Many\\ people\\ laughed\\ while\\ they\\ did\\ it\\,\\ showing\\ a\\ dissociation\\ of\\ thought\\ and\\ emotion\\ from\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fundamental\\ attribution\\ error\\ is\\ a\\ complicated\\ and\\ multi\\-faceted\\ concept\\ that\\ here\\ could\\ say\\ we\\ attribute\\ our\\ behavior\\ to\\ one\\ thing\\ \\(our\\ reasonableness\\ and\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\)\\,\\ while\\ we\\ behave\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ something\\ else\\ \\(unconscious\\ factors\\ listed\\ below\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ think\\ we\\ would\\ behave\\ according\\ to\\ certain\\ cues\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ like\\ the\\ screaming\\,\\ yet\\ people\\ ignored\\ this\\ and\\ followed\\ what\\ the\\ experimental\\ authority\\ said\\,\\ cues\\ we\\ think\\ would\\ not\\ dictate\\ our\\ behavior\\.\\ There\\ are\\ surprising\\ effects\\ of\\ signs\\ of\\ confidence\\ and\\ dominance\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ more\\ confident\\ the\\ experimenter\\ seems\\,\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ to\\ obey\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ major\\ effects\\ of\\ diffusion\\ of\\ responsibility\\,\\ where\\ when\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ responsible\\ for\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\,\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ follow\\ authority\\ figures\\ \\(indeed\\,\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ Eichmann\\ said\\)\\.\\ There\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ substantial\\ amount\\ of\\ denigrating\\ the\\ victim\\ as\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ Cognitive\\ Dissonance\\-like\\ mechanisms\\.\\ Cognitive\\ Dissonance\\ is\\ the\\ tendency\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ beliefs\\ fall\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ their\\ actions\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Milgram\\ Experiment\\ and\\ Escalation\\ Games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ acted\\ as\\ they\\ did\\ because\\ the\\ study\\ proceeded\\ gradually\\.\\ The\\ Milgram\\ experiment\\ was\\ equivalent\\ to\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;escalation\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;dollar\\ auction\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ game\\ theory\\.\\ The\\ auction\\ works\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ an\\ authority\\ offers\\ to\\ auction\\ a\\ dollar\\,\\ and\\ the\\ winning\\ bidder\\ gets\\ the\\ dollar\\,\\ BUT\\ the\\ loser\\ also\\ must\\ pay\\ their\\ losing\\ bid\\.\\ At\\ each\\ stage\\ then\\ the\\ two\\ bidders\\ have\\ two\\ options\\:\\ fold\\,\\ and\\ lose\\ entire\\ cost\\ of\\ previous\\ bid\\,\\ or\\ raise\\,\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ chance\\ at\\ gain\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ reducing\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ loss\\.\\ The\\ paradoxical\\ outcome\\ of\\ an\\ escalation\\ game\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;rational\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ lose\\ much\\ more\\ money\\ than\\ they\\ were\\ even\\ bidding\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ Essentially\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ bids\\ 1\\ cent\\,\\ the\\ second\\ 2\\,\\ the\\ first\\ 3\\,\\ the\\ second\\ 4\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ However\\,\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ one\\ bids\\ 99\\ cents\\,\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ interest\\ to\\ bid\\ \\$1\\ to\\ minimize\\ losses\\ \\(even\\ though\\ he\\ will\\ come\\ out\\ even\\ now\\)\\.\\ Now\\,\\ paradoxically\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ bids\\ \\$1\\.01\\,\\ to\\ minimize\\ losses\\ to\\ 1\\ cent\\,\\ and\\ is\\ now\\ actually\\ bidding\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ dollar\\ is\\ worth\\.\\ The\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ once\\ the\\ bidding\\ starts\\ it\\ is\\ always\\ worth\\ it\\ to\\ bid\\ higher\\ to\\ minimize\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ losses\\,\\ and\\ while\\ both\\ start\\ thinking\\ they\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ deal\\,\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ they\\ end\\ up\\ actually\\ paying\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ item\\ being\\ bid\\ for\\,\\ just\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ they\\ get\\ something\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ deal\\.\\ It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ rational\\ strategy\\ in\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ situation\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ play\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Milgram\\ Experiment\\ was\\ similar\\ to\\ an\\ escalation\\ game\\.\\ The\\ reward\\ was\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ experimenter\\,\\ the\\ satisfaction\\ of\\ completing\\ the\\ task\\ to\\ help\\ science\\,\\ and\\ monetary\\ compensation\\.\\ At\\ each\\ stage\\ the\\ participant\\ has\\ two\\ options\\:\\ disobey\\,\\ with\\ the\\ potential\\ cost\\ of\\ having\\ hurt\\ the\\ learner\\ without\\ receiving\\ the\\ reward\\,\\ or\\ obey\\ with\\ chance\\ at\\ reward\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ other\\ similar\\ escalation\\ games\\ that\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ horrendous\\ costs\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ human\\ lives\\ and\\ suffering\\ because\\ they\\ go\\ way\\ past\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ any\\ positive\\ returns\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ wars\\ that\\ continue\\ to\\ the\\ bitter\\ end\\,\\ labor\\ strikes\\ that\\ go\\ past\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ reasonable\\ returns\\,\\ and\\ lawsuits\\ that\\ end\\ up\\ costing\\ both\\ parties\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ original\\ disagreements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevance\\ of\\ Milgram\\ Experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ clear\\ that\\ these\\ explain\\ atrocities\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ holocaust\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\ to\\ Milgram\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Obedience\\ Theory\\,\\ in\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ kill\\ without\\ being\\ ordered\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\ that\\ people\\ just\\ following\\ authorities\\ that\\ cause\\ these\\ atrocities\\,\\ given\\ the\\ above\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ human\\ coalitional\\ psychology\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ dehumanization\\ of\\ outgroup\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ also\\ ethical\\ problems\\ with\\ Milgram\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Experiments\\.\\ The\\ experiment\\ created\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ stress\\ in\\ participants\\ and\\ involved\\ deception\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ would\\ not\\ allow\\ these\\ experiments\\ to\\ pass\\ modern\\-day\\ ethical\\ review\\ boards\\.\\ We\\ now\\ have\\ committees\\ for\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ human\\ subjects\\ for\\ all\\ psychology\\ research\\,\\ although\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ some\\ replication\\ of\\ alternatives\\ \\(such\\ as\\ getting\\ people\\ to\\ promote\\ bad\\ things\\ like\\ cigarettes\\,\\ thus\\ indirectly\\ causing\\ harm\\ to\\ others\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ in\\ all\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ conclude\\ from\\ the\\ Milgram\\ experiments\\ seems\\ very\\ important\\ but\\ elusive\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\ what\\ they\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ human\\ nature\\ exactly\\,\\ but\\ whatever\\ it\\ is\\ seems\\ very\\ disturbing\\,\\ which\\ probably\\ lends\\ to\\ their\\ allure\\.\\ This\\ is\\ by\\ far\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ creepiest\\ chapters\\ of\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ psychology\\,\\ and\\ a\\ very\\ difficult\\ experiment\\ to\\ internalize\\ exactly\\ what\\ it\\ tells\\ us\\ about\\ ourselves\\.\\ Another\\ great\\ one\\ is\\ the\\ Stanford\\ Prison\\ Experiments\\,\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ check\\ out\\ here\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.prisonexp\\.org\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Grey\\,\\ Chapter\\ 13\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 465\\-482\\,\\ 493\\-496\\,\\ 504\\-516\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ subfield\\ of\\ psychology\\ that\\ deals\\ most\\ explicitly\\ with\\ how\\ people\\ view\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ are\\ influenced\\ by\\ one\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Person\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ processes\\ by\\ which\\ people\\ perceive\\ and\\ understand\\ one\\ another\\ and\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attitudes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ evaluative\\ beliefs\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ about\\ their\\ social\\ world\\ and\\ the\\ entities\\ within\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forming\\ Impressions\\ of\\ Other\\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fritz\\ Heider\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ naturally\\ interested\\ in\\ assessing\\ the\\ personality\\ and\\ attitudes\\ of\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ people\\ untrained\\ in\\ psychology\\ are\\ remarkably\\ perceptive\\,\\ but\\ they\\ often\\ suffer\\ from\\ consistent\\ mistakes\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\biases\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Understanding\\ these\\ biases\\ can\\ provide\\ clues\\ to\\ mental\\ processes\\ and\\ promote\\ social\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Making\\ Attributes\\ from\\ Observed\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Judgments\\ about\\ actions\\ are\\ claims\\ of\\ causation\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ see\\ someone\\ smile\\,\\ and\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ context\\ you\\ form\\ a\\ belief\\ about\\ what\\ caused\\ them\\ to\\ smile\\&mdash\\;happiness\\,\\ friendliness\\,\\ guile\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\attribution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ claim\\ about\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Logic\\ of\\ Attributing\\ Behavior\\ to\\ the\\ Person\\ or\\ the\\ Situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harold\\ Kelly\\ developed\\ a\\ logical\\ model\\ for\\ judging\\ whether\\ a\\ particular\\ action\\ should\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ a\\ personal\\ characteristic\\ or\\ the\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Does\\ this\\ person\\ regularly\\ behave\\ this\\ way\\ in\\ this\\ situation\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ yes\\,\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ a\\ personal\\ characteristic\\ or\\ the\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ many\\ other\\ people\\ regularly\\ behave\\ this\\ way\\ in\\ this\\ situation\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ yes\\,\\ then\\ the\\ action\\ may\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ personal\\ characteristic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ this\\ person\\ behave\\ this\\ way\\ in\\ many\\ other\\ situation\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ yes\\,\\ then\\ the\\ action\\ may\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ a\\ personal\\ characteristic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Person\\ Bias\\ in\\ Attribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ researchers\\ have\\ confirmed\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\person\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ give\\ too\\ much\\ weight\\ to\\ personal\\ characteristics\\ and\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ environment\\ when\\ judging\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ police\\ officer\\ performing\\ their\\ duties\\,\\ we\\ attribute\\ this\\ action\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personality\\ more\\ than\\ their\\ job\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Actor\\-Observer\\ Discrepancy\\ in\\ Attributions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ person\\ bias\\ breaks\\ down\\ when\\ people\\ consider\\ their\\ own\\ actions\\,\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\actor\\-observer\\ discrepancy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ whistling\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ beautiful\\ day\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\ is\\ whistling\\ because\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ cheerful\\ person\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\knowledge\\-across\\-situations\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;claims\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ more\\ knowledge\\ about\\ how\\ we\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ situation\\ than\\ we\\ do\\ about\\ another\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\visual\\-orientation\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;claims\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ when\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ another\\ person\\ our\\ eyes\\ focus\\ on\\ them\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Cross\\-Cultural\\ Difference\\ in\\ Attributions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perhaps\\ person\\ bias\\ only\\ occurs\\ in\\ Western\\ societies\\,\\ or\\ occurs\\ more\\ often\\.\\ \\ \\;Joan\\ Miller\\,\\ among\\ others\\,\\ have\\ found\\ that\\ person\\ bias\\ occurs\\ less\\ in\\ cultures\\ such\\ as\\ India\\,\\ China\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ occurs\\ even\\ less\\ as\\ people\\ age\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ expected\\ if\\ this\\ difference\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ Prior\\ Information\\ and\\ Physical\\ Appearance\\ on\\ Person\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Using\\ a\\ Preexisitng\\ Schema\\ to\\ Interpret\\ a\\ Person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ organized\\ set\\ of\\ information\\ or\\ beliefs\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ about\\ an\\ entity\\ or\\ event\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\schema\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ know\\ a\\ person\\,\\ even\\ slightly\\ or\\ inaccurately\\,\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ schema\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ experiment\\ demonstrated\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Participants\\ were\\ all\\ given\\ the\\ same\\ speech\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ speaker\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ different\\ groups\\ received\\ different\\ descriptions\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ before\\ hearing\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ descriptions\\ affected\\ their\\ reported\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Attractiveness\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ people\\ view\\ more\\ attractive\\ people\\ as\\ being\\ more\\ intelligent\\,\\ competent\\,\\ sociable\\,\\ and\\ moral\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ bias\\ is\\ slightly\\ less\\ pronounced\\ among\\ eastern\\ cultures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Baby\\-Face\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adults\\ with\\ features\\ that\\ resemble\\ a\\ baby\\&rsquo\\;s\\&mdash\\;round\\ head\\,\\ protruding\\ forehead\\,\\ large\\ eyes\\,\\ small\\ jawbone\\&mdash\\;are\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\,\\ honest\\,\\ helpless\\,\\ kind\\,\\ and\\ warm\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ makes\\ sense\\ from\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forming\\ Impressions\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ one\\ experiment\\,\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ were\\ introduced\\ both\\ to\\ people\\ they\\ had\\ previously\\ met\\ online\\ and\\ those\\ they\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ people\\ tended\\ to\\ like\\ those\\ they\\ had\\ first\\ met\\ online\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ because\\ online\\ meetings\\ tended\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ personal\\ and\\ revealing\\.\\ \\ \\;Online\\ communication\\ reduces\\ anxiety\\ and\\ frees\\ people\\ to\\ reveal\\ things\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ if\\ they\\ met\\ face\\ to\\ face\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perceiving\\ and\\ Evaluating\\ the\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ self\\ aware\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ few\\ other\\ animals\\ are\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ 18\\ months\\,\\ we\\ react\\ to\\ our\\ image\\ in\\ a\\ mirror\\ as\\ ourselves\\ rather\\ than\\ another\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;Primates\\ and\\ dolphins\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ product\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seeing\\ Ourselves\\ Through\\ the\\ Eyes\\ of\\ Others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\looking\\ glass\\ self\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\concept\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ infer\\ what\\ others\\ think\\ of\\ us\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ reactions\\ and\\ use\\ these\\ inferences\\ to\\ structure\\ our\\ own\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ Others\\&rsquo\\;\\ Appraisals\\ on\\ Self\\-Understanding\\ and\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Others\\&rsquo\\;\\ expectations\\ can\\ effect\\ how\\ we\\ view\\ ourselves\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ called\\ termed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ classic\\ study\\,\\ teachers\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ certain\\ students\\ would\\ experience\\ a\\ growth\\ in\\ IQ\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ reality\\,\\ these\\ students\\ were\\ selected\\ randomly\\.\\ \\ \\;Only\\ the\\ teachers\\ were\\ told\\,\\ not\\ the\\ students\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\,\\ the\\ students\\ selected\\ showed\\ a\\ greater\\ growth\\ in\\ IQ\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ students\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ was\\ the\\ change\\ do\\ to\\ students\\&rsquo\\;\\ changed\\ self\\ concept\\ or\\ the\\ teachers\\&rsquo\\;\\ giving\\ them\\ more\\ educational\\ opportunity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changing\\ Others\\&rsquo\\;\\ Behavior\\ by\\ Altering\\ their\\ Self\\-Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ one\\ study\\,\\ some\\ elementary\\ school\\ children\\ were\\ told\\ they\\ were\\ neat\\ and\\ tidy\\,\\ some\\ others\\ were\\ told\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ neat\\ and\\ tidy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ others\\ were\\ told\\ neither\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ were\\ told\\ they\\ were\\ neat\\ and\\ tidy\\ improved\\ the\\ most\\ in\\ cleanliness\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concepts\\ of\\ self\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ moldable\\ and\\ become\\ less\\ so\\ with\\ age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-Esteem\\ as\\ an\\ Index\\ of\\ Others\\&rsquo\\;\\ Approval\\ and\\ Acceptance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\ esteem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\ and\\ acceptance\\ of\\ oneself\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ experienced\\ as\\ deriving\\ from\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\,\\ but\\ research\\ has\\ suggested\\ that\\ it\\ derives\\ from\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ approval\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sociometer\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ explanation\\ of\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ self\\ esteem\\.\\ \\ \\;Research\\ that\\ supports\\ this\\ includes\\ the\\ finding\\ that\\ self\\ esteem\\ correlates\\ strongly\\ with\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reported\\ acceptance\\ by\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Actively\\ Constructing\\ Our\\ Self\\-Perceptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ attempt\\ to\\ influence\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ perception\\ of\\ them\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ influence\\ their\\ self\\-perception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Comparison\\:\\ \\ \\;Effects\\ of\\ the\\ Reference\\ Group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ comparison\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ comparing\\ ourselves\\ to\\ others\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ identify\\ our\\ unique\\ characteristics\\ and\\ abilities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ group\\ we\\ compare\\ ourselves\\ to\\ is\\ our\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reference\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ composition\\ of\\ a\\ reference\\ group\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ shape\\ self\\-description\\ and\\ self\\-definition\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ student\\ who\\ gets\\ good\\ grades\\ in\\ high\\ school\\ may\\ think\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ smart\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\,\\ when\\ they\\ get\\ to\\ college\\ and\\ compare\\ themselves\\ against\\ a\\ more\\ selective\\ class\\,\\ this\\ self\\-perception\\ can\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attributing\\ Our\\ Successes\\ to\\ Ourselves\\,\\ Our\\ Failures\\ to\\ Something\\ Else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\self\\-serving\\ attributional\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ tendency\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ attribute\\ their\\ successes\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ inner\\ qualities\\ and\\ their\\ failure\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ people\\ accept\\ praise\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ sincere\\ more\\ often\\ they\\ do\\ praise\\ for\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ bias\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ define\\ their\\ success\\ according\\ to\\ different\\ criteria\\:\\ \\ \\;one\\ person\\ thinks\\ they\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ a\\ class\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ high\\ grade\\,\\ another\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ constructive\\ comments\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\East\\-West\\ Differences\\ in\\ Self\\-Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Greater\\ Focus\\ in\\ the\\ East\\ on\\ Relationships\\ and\\ Roles\\,\\ Less\\ on\\ the\\ Independent\\ Self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Individualist\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ emphasize\\ personal\\ freedom\\,\\ self\\-determination\\,\\ and\\ individual\\ competition\\,\\ exist\\ in\\ Western\\ Europe\\,\\ North\\ America\\,\\ and\\ Australia\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Collectivist\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ emphasize\\ the\\ interdependence\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ families\\,\\ communities\\ and\\ social\\ groups\\,\\ exist\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ and\\ East\\ Asia\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ east\\ asia\\,\\ the\\ ideal\\ person\\ is\\ modest\\,\\ who\\ is\\ aware\\ of\\ their\\ deficiencies\\ and\\ is\\ working\\ hard\\ to\\ improve\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perceiving\\ Ourselves\\ and\\ Others\\ as\\ Members\\ of\\ Groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-descriptions\\ that\\ pertain\\ to\\ the\\ person\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ individual\\ are\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\personal\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ those\\ that\\ pertain\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ categories\\ or\\ groups\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ person\\ belongs\\ are\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\social\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ shift\\ between\\ personal\\ and\\ social\\ identity\\,\\ perhaps\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ shifting\\ between\\ different\\ groups\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ evolutionary\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ self\\-esteem\\ depends\\ on\\ both\\ personal\\ and\\ social\\ identity\\ and\\ our\\ success\\ in\\ these\\ different\\ capacities\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ as\\ we\\ all\\ have\\ self\\-enhancing\\ biases\\,\\ we\\ also\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\group\\-enhancing\\ biases\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ overestimate\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ our\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attitudes\\ as\\ Rationalizations\\ to\\ Attain\\ Cognitive\\ Consistency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cognitive\\ dissonance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ we\\ get\\ an\\ uncomfortable\\ feeling\\ of\\ dissonance\\ whenever\\ we\\ sense\\ an\\ inconsistency\\ in\\ the\\ attitudes\\,\\ belief\\,\\ and\\ knowledge\\ that\\ constitute\\ our\\ mental\\ store\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ compels\\ us\\ to\\ resolve\\ contradictions\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ people\\ avoid\\ dissonant\\ information\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ people\\ rationalize\\ actions\\ after\\ the\\ fact\\ to\\ be\\ consistent\\ with\\ prior\\ attitudes\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ people\\ change\\ their\\ attitudes\\ to\\ match\\ their\\ actions\\,\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\insufficient\\-justification\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ effect\\ is\\ optimized\\ under\\ low\\ incentive\\ or\\ free\\ choice\\ circumstances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impression\\ Management\\:\\ \\ \\;Behavior\\ as\\ Performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Impression\\ management\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ ways\\ by\\ which\\ people\\ consciously\\ and\\ unconsciously\\ modify\\ their\\ behavior\\ to\\ influence\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ impressions\\ of\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ are\\ generally\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ this\\ when\\ around\\ acquaintances\\ or\\ people\\ we\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ met\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ Others\\&rsquo\\;\\ Example\\ and\\ Opinions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ can\\ influence\\ our\\ behavior\\ through\\ the\\ examples\\ they\\ set\\.\\ \\ \\;Social\\ influence\\ that\\ works\\ through\\ providing\\ clues\\ about\\ the\\ objective\\ nature\\ of\\ an\\ event\\ or\\ situation\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\informational\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Social\\ influence\\ that\\ works\\ through\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ to\\ be\\ approved\\ of\\ by\\ others\\ is\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\normative\\ influence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Classic\\ Conformity\\ Experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conformity\\ can\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ say\\ or\\ do\\ absurd\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ study\\,\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ identify\\ the\\ longest\\ of\\ three\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ all\\ but\\ one\\ of\\ each\\ group\\ were\\ actors\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ instructed\\ to\\ pick\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ obviously\\ shorter\\ lines\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ participants\\ often\\ agreed\\ that\\ an\\ obviously\\ shorter\\ line\\ was\\ the\\ longest\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ interviewing\\ subjects\\,\\ Asch\\ concluded\\ that\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ others\\ was\\ both\\ informational\\ and\\ normative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norms\\ as\\ Forces\\ for\\ Helpful\\ and\\ Harmful\\ Actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ many\\ theory\\ about\\ conformity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\broken\\ window\\ theory\\ of\\ crime\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;holds\\ that\\ crime\\ is\\ encouraged\\ by\\ physical\\ evidence\\ of\\ chaos\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ care\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ people\\ have\\ suggested\\ that\\ public\\ service\\ announcement\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ effective\\ if\\ they\\ emphasized\\ that\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ behaved\\ in\\ the\\ desired\\ way\\ and\\ implicitly\\ portrayed\\ the\\ undesirable\\ behavior\\ as\\ abnormal\\.\\ \\ \\;Conformity\\ also\\ effects\\ how\\ people\\ assess\\ whether\\ they\\ should\\ help\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ at\\ an\\ accident\\,\\ the\\ more\\ people\\ are\\ there\\,\\ the\\ less\\ any\\ one\\ seeks\\ to\\ act\\ to\\ help\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Pressure\\ in\\ Group\\ Discussions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ group\\ discussion\\,\\ when\\ the\\ group\\ is\\ evenly\\ split\\ in\\ opinion\\,\\ discussion\\ pushes\\ the\\ majority\\ towards\\ a\\ more\\ extreme\\ view\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ direction\\ as\\ their\\ initial\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\group\\ polarization\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ informational\\ explanation\\ of\\ this\\ phenomenon\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ withhold\\ arguments\\ that\\ hurt\\ their\\ side\\ and\\ put\\ forth\\ arguments\\ that\\ help\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ normative\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ group\\ members\\ vie\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ vigorous\\ supporter\\ of\\ the\\ position\\,\\ thereby\\ pushing\\ the\\ whole\\ group\\ towards\\ extremity\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ normative\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ exaggerate\\ their\\ opinion\\ to\\ distinguish\\ themselves\\ as\\ members\\ of\\ their\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ sometimes\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\groupthink\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ defined\\ as\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ mode\\ of\\ thinking\\ that\\ people\\ engage\\ in\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ deeply\\ involved\\ in\\ a\\ cohesive\\ ingroup\\,\\ when\\ the\\ members\\&rsquo\\;\\ striving\\ for\\ unanimity\\ overrides\\ their\\ motivation\\ to\\ realistically\\ appraise\\ alternative\\ courses\\ of\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Effects\\ of\\ Others\\&rsquo\\;\\ Requests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ potent\\ forms\\ of\\ social\\ influence\\ is\\ direct\\ request\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ several\\ principles\\ that\\ help\\ in\\ making\\ people\\ compliant\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\low\\-ball\\ technique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ technique\\,\\ a\\ salesperson\\ convinces\\ someone\\ to\\ buy\\ a\\ product\\ at\\ a\\ low\\ price\\ and\\ then\\ claims\\ to\\ have\\ just\\ realized\\ that\\ the\\ actual\\ price\\ is\\ higher\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ person\\,\\ having\\ had\\ their\\ heart\\ set\\ on\\ buying\\ the\\ object\\,\\ does\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\foot\\-in\\-the\\-door\\ technique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ principle\\ of\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ agree\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ request\\ after\\ they\\ have\\ agreed\\ to\\ a\\ small\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ technique\\ uses\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reciprocity\\ norm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ states\\ that\\ people\\ feel\\ compelled\\ to\\ return\\ favors\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ donation\\ might\\ give\\ someone\\ a\\ free\\ bottle\\ of\\ water\\ before\\ asking\\ them\\ for\\ their\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Billy\\ \\-\\ Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 29\\:\\ The\\ self\\ and\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;Self\\-deception\\,\\ self\\-presentation\\,\\ cognitive\\ dissonance\\.\\ Chapter\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 517\\-521\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theories\\ of\\ the\\ Self\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Romantic\\ Theory\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Authentic\\&rdquo\\;\\ Self\\:\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\&rdquo\\;\\ self\\ underlying\\ our\\ actions\\.\\ We\\ put\\ on\\ masks\\ and\\ take\\ different\\ roles\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ true\\ self\\ beneath\\ each\\ role\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Erving\\ Goffman\\-\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Presentation\\ of\\ Self\\ in\\ Everyday\\ Life\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\There\\ is\\ only\\ masks\\,\\ nothing\\ underneath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beneffective\\:\\ Portrayal\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ to\\ make\\ socially\\ appealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Beneficent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reciprocal\\ altruism\\:\\ Punish\\ cheaters\\ and\\ reward\\ altruists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cooperation\\ with\\ those\\ you\\&\\#39\\;ve\\ cooperated\\ in\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ likely\\ to\\ help\\ or\\ have\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ helping\\ is\\ even\\ better\\.\\ By\\ making\\ yourself\\ seem\\ generous\\,\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ others\\ to\\ be\\ generous\\ to\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dominance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ bluffing\\,\\ showing\\ nonlethal\\ threats\\,\\ or\\ having\\ a\\ reputation\\ of\\ violence\\,\\ you\\ can\\ prevent\\ risk\\ to\\ both\\ parties\\ in\\ a\\ fight\\ because\\ if\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ fight\\ is\\ obvious\\,\\ no\\ fight\\ is\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exaggerate\\ size\\ \\&\\;\\ strength\\ \\(big\\ manes\\,\\ deep\\ roars\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Female\\ motivation\\:\\ more\\ food\\ \\/\\ Male\\ motivation\\:\\ more\\ females\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dominance\\ in\\ humans\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\High\\ ranking\\ men\\ have\\ more\\ lovers\\,\\ wives\\,\\ etc\\.\\ reproduce\\ more\\.\\ Not\\ enough\\ information\\ to\\ be\\ sure\\ how\\ this\\ plays\\ out\\ in\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taller\\ men\\ get\\ a\\ higher\\ salary\\ and\\ more\\ political\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Culturally\\,\\ men\\ will\\ tend\\ to\\ exaggerate\\ their\\ size\\ to\\ show\\ dominance\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Shoulder\\ pads\\ in\\ jackets\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Public\\ knowledge\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ help\\ others\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Beauty\\,\\ unique\\ talent\\,\\ wealth\\)\\.\\ Always\\ relative\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Handicap\\ in\\ animal\\ displays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Peacock\\ feathers\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ telling\\ females\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ so\\ healthy\\ \\&\\;\\ fit\\ that\\ I\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ have\\ this\\ large\\ tail\\,\\ which\\ had\\ a\\ high\\ cost\\ in\\ resources\\ and\\ makes\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ avoid\\ prey\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reflection\\ in\\ human\\ society\\:\\ Conspicuous\\ waste\\ \\&\\;\\ leisure\\ \\(buying\\ an\\ extremely\\ expensive\\ watch\\,\\ taking\\ long\\ vacations\\,\\ throwing\\ huge\\ wasteful\\ parties\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fashion\\:\\ try\\ to\\ dress\\ like\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ higher\\ social\\ status\\ then\\ you\\.\\ If\\ you\\&\\#39\\;re\\ at\\ the\\ top\\,\\ try\\ to\\ look\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ below\\ you\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conspicuous\\ outrage\\:\\ \\&\\#39\\;I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ so\\ wealthy\\ and\\ popular\\ I\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ offend\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ one\\ is\\ as\\ Beneffective\\ as\\ they\\ show\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conformity\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 509\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Milgram\\ obedience\\ experiments\\ \\(textbook\\ pg\\.\\ 517\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asch\\:\\ simple\\ judgements\\ \\(textbook\\ pg\\.\\ 507\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\ where\\ one\\ test\\ subject\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ group\\ with\\ several\\ confederates\\,\\ shown\\ a\\ line\\ next\\ to\\ three\\ other\\ lines\\ of\\ varying\\ lengths\\,\\ and\\ asked\\ which\\ line\\ matches\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ length\\.\\ Extremely\\ easy\\ test\\,\\ but\\ when\\ the\\ confederates\\ uniformly\\ gave\\ the\\ wrong\\ answer\\ out\\ loud\\,\\ the\\ subject\\ would\\ conform\\ and\\ give\\ the\\ wrong\\ answer\\ 37\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ those\\ tested\\ agreed\\ with\\ a\\ wrong\\ answer\\ at\\ least\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Darley\\:\\ bystander\\ apathy\\ \\&\\;\\ Kitty\\ Genovese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Woman\\ murdered\\ while\\ lots\\ of\\ people\\ watched\\ from\\ a\\ window\\ without\\ calling\\ the\\ police\\:\\ Diffusion\\ of\\ responsibility\\ in\\ huge\\ groups\\.\\ Everyone\\ assumes\\ someone\\ else\\ will\\ do\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fundamental\\ Attribution\\ Error\\:\\ People\\ overestimate\\ importance\\ about\\ the\\ person\\ and\\ underestimate\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ \\(467\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ did\\ he\\ turn\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\ late\\?\\ He\\ is\\ a\\ procrastinator\\ vs\\.\\ The\\ deadline\\ was\\ unreasonable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ an\\ experiment\\ randomly\\ assign\\ roles\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;managers\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;clerks\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ after\\ a\\ short\\ game\\,\\ people\\ will\\ rate\\ managers\\ as\\ better\\ leaders\\,\\ smarter\\.\\ Confusing\\ actors\\ with\\ roles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Actor\\-Observer\\ Discrepancy\\ \\(468\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ am\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ controlled\\ by\\ his\\ personality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ is\\ he\\ whistling\\?\\ He\\ is\\ a\\ happy\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ am\\ I\\ whistling\\?\\ It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ beautiful\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Being\\ a\\ good\\ liar\\ is\\ difficult\\:\\ causes\\ anxiety\\,\\ which\\ can\\ make\\ you\\ appear\\ suspicious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Way\\ to\\ avoid\\ lying\\-\\ self\\-deception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Self\\-Deception\\-\\-\\ Trivers\\&\\#39\\;\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ believes\\ the\\ self\\ is\\ benefficient\\,\\ other\\ registers\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evidence\\:\\ Gazzaniga\\:\\ Left\\ hemisphere\\ excuses\\:\\ Split\\ brain\\ patients\\ will\\ see\\ something\\ in\\ their\\ left\\ hemisphere\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Directions\\ to\\ do\\ something\\)\\,\\ act\\ on\\ it\\,\\ and\\ when\\ asked\\ why\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\ it\\,\\ make\\ up\\ a\\ response\\ instantly\\,\\ and\\ believe\\ it\\.\\ Brain\\ \\&ldquo\\;tricks\\ itself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Same\\ thing\\ when\\ the\\ left\\ hemisphere\\ is\\ shown\\ a\\ chicken\\ foot\\ and\\ the\\ patient\\ points\\ to\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ chicken\\.\\ Subject\\ will\\ make\\ up\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ chicken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\60\\-70\\%\\ of\\ people\\ say\\ they\\ are\\ above\\ average\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ positive\\ trait\\,\\ 25\\%\\ will\\ say\\ they\\ are\\ below\\ average\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ self\\-serving\\ biases\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ subjects\\ play\\ rigged\\ games\\,\\ blame\\ successes\\ on\\ skill\\ and\\ failures\\ on\\ luck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Milgram\\ experiment\\ some\\ would\\ convince\\ themselves\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ they\\ were\\ shocking\\ deserved\\ it\\ because\\ he\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ trying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depressed\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ accurate\\ about\\ their\\ performances\\ than\\ regular\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cognitive\\ Dissonance\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 493\\)\\ Festinger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ people\\ hold\\ two\\ inconsistent\\ beliefs\\,\\ it\\ causes\\ an\\ unpleasant\\ mental\\ state\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;cognitive\\ dissonance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ People\\ reduce\\ this\\ by\\ changing\\ one\\ belief\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Test\\ subjects\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ very\\ boring\\ task\\ for\\ 1\\ hour\\,\\ then\\ they\\ were\\ paid\\ either\\ \\$1\\ or\\ \\$20\\ to\\ lie\\ about\\ the\\ task\\ and\\ tell\\ another\\ person\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ fun\\.\\ After\\ this\\,\\ they\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ rate\\ how\\ fun\\ the\\ experiment\\ was\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ were\\ paid\\ \\$1\\ rated\\ the\\ experiment\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ fun\\ than\\ those\\ paid\\ \\$20\\.\\ Reasoning\\:\\ People\\ paid\\ \\$20\\ can\\ explain\\ their\\ lie\\ to\\ themselves\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ rewarded\\ so\\ well\\ for\\ it\\.\\ People\\ paid\\ \\$1\\ must\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ face\\ the\\ facts\\ that\\ 1\\.\\ the\\ test\\ was\\ not\\ fun\\ and\\ 2\\.\\ I\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ fun\\,\\ so\\ they\\ change\\ 1\\,\\ and\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ task\\ was\\ fun\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientists\\ put\\ a\\ toy\\ on\\ a\\ table\\,\\ and\\ leave\\ a\\ kid\\ alone\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ with\\ the\\ toy\\.\\ Before\\ leaving\\ the\\ room\\ either\\ give\\ a\\ severe\\ or\\ mild\\ thread\\ not\\ to\\ touch\\ it\\.\\ Children\\ given\\ a\\ mild\\ threat\\ rated\\ the\\ toy\\ as\\ less\\ fun\\ than\\ those\\ with\\ a\\ severe\\ threat\\.\\ Reasoning\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ toy\\ is\\ great\\.\\ I\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ take\\ the\\ toy\\,\\ but\\ I\\ could\\ have\\.\\ The\\ toy\\ is\\ not\\ great\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Forbidden\\ fruit\\ is\\ more\\ desirable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Female\\ students\\ forced\\ to\\ read\\ embarrassing\\ sexual\\ passages\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ a\\ big\\ group\\,\\ then\\ rate\\ the\\ group\\.\\ The\\ more\\ embarrassing\\ the\\ passage\\,\\ the\\ better\\ the\\ rating\\.\\ Reasoning\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ activity\\ is\\ bad\\.\\ I\\ suffered\\ to\\ to\\ it\\.\\ The\\ activity\\ is\\ great\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ with\\ cognitive\\ dissonance\\:\\ Not\\ triggered\\ by\\ logical\\ inconsistencies\\,\\ bur\\ self\\-presentation\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ contradicts\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ contradicts\\ the\\ belief\\:\\ I\\ am\\ nice\\ and\\ in\\ control\\,\\&\\#39\\;\\ so\\ I\\ better\\ change\\ A\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ admit\\ that\\ you\\ were\\ too\\ scared\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ toy\\ or\\ pressured\\ into\\ lying\\,\\ better\\ to\\ believe\\ you\\ wanted\\ the\\ outcome\\ that\\ happened\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Self\\-deception\\ is\\ problematic\\ because\\ everyone\\ believes\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ fully\\ right\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ resentment\\ in\\ marriage\\,\\ or\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ something\\ you\\ do\\ that\\ is\\ hurting\\ people\\ is\\ the\\ right\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\.\\ Wisdom\\ in\\ recognition\\ of\\ self\\-deception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 55, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FINAL_STUDY_GUIDE.doc", "desc": "comprehensive study guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tracking Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 137, "html": "\\\\\\Tracking\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c3\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Tracking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nov\\.\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lecture\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;separating\\ students\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ ability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ into\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ classes\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ school\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eccles\\ study\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ this\\ system\\ is\\ inconclusive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ pros\\ say\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ for\\ teachers\\ to\\ meet\\ intellectual\\ needs\\ of\\ kids\\Also\\ have\\ discipline\\ problems\\ if\\ you\\ track\\ kids\\ this\\ way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ less\\ boredom\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ tracking\\,\\But\\,\\ problems\\:\\Kids\\ placed\\ in\\ lower\\ tracks\\,\\ seems\\ like\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ an\\ education\\Tends\\ to\\ be\\ less\\ diversity\\ within\\ the\\ classrooms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 53, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Psych_guide_tracking.doc", "desc": "Psychology techniques"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:21:20.716704+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Comparative Politics of Latin Americ - Class Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "comparative-politics", "latin-america"], "text": null, "id": 38, "html": null, "course_id": 19, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Gov1295_Comp_Govt_L._America_-_Class__Section_Notes.doc", "desc": "Class Notes for whole year"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:42:08.172454+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Roman Games - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "culture-and-belief-17", "roman-games", "general-education"], "text": null, "id": 14, "html": null, "course_id": 9, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Culture_and_Belief_17year_notes.doc", "desc": "Comprehensive Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 01:16:18.671745+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Constitutional Law - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "american", "constitutional-law"], "text": null, "id": 31, "html": "\\\\\\CLStudy\\_Guide\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c12\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c11\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Dred\\ Scott\\ v\\.\\ Sandford\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1857\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scott\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ VA\\,\\ held\\ there\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\traveled\\ with\\ his\\ master\\ through\\ IL\\ and\\ WI\\,\\ free\\ states\\ by\\ Missouri\\ Compromise\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\back\\ in\\ VA\\,\\ Scot\\ was\\ sold\\ to\\ owner\\ in\\ NY\\;\\ he\\ sued\\ for\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Questions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\is\\ Dred\\ Scot\\ as\\ citizen\\ of\\ the\\ US\\,\\ or\\ can\\ he\\ not\\ sue\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ Congress\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ enact\\ this\\ law\\ under\\ Article\\ IV\\,\\ Sect\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Cl\\.\\ 2\\ to\\ enact\\ this\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Should\\ Scot\\ be\\ a\\ free\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Taney\\:\\ the\\ Congress\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ prohibit\\ slavery\\;\\ it\\ cannot\\ create\\ free\\/slave\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dred\\ Scot\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ citizen\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ is\\ only\\ 3\\/5\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ citizen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taney\\ states\\ that\\ clearly\\ the\\ founders\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ slaves\\ citizens\\ \\(unclear\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ divided\\ issue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ though\\ Art\\.\\ IV\\,\\ Sect\\.\\ 3\\,\\ Cl\\.\\ 2\\ seems\\ to\\ give\\ power\\ to\\ Congress\\ to\\ enact\\ the\\ Missouri\\ Compromise\\,\\ the\\ due\\ process\\ clause\\ gives\\ people\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ property\\ that\\ overrules\\ this\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Strauder\\ v\\.\\ West\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1880\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ race\\ discrimination\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\black\\ man\\ sued\\ over\\ murder\\ conviction\\ since\\ no\\ black\\ men\\ were\\ allowed\\ on\\ the\\ jury\\ \\(WV\\ law\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\he\\ wins\\:\\ Equal\\ Protection\\ clause\\ says\\ that\\ blacks\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ positive\\ immunity\\ or\\ right\\ against\\ unfriendly\\ discrimination\\ against\\ them\\ distinctly\\ as\\ colored\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Plessy\\ v\\.\\ Ferguson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ Plessy\\,\\ black\\,\\ arrested\\ for\\ sitting\\ in\\ white\\ car\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ against\\ him\\ 8\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plessy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ gov\\.\\ can\\ impose\\ no\\ racial\\ discrimination\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ divides\\ Social\\ and\\ Political\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\political\\ power\\ cannot\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;annoy\\ or\\ oppress\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ only\\ to\\ promote\\ a\\ public\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ legislate\\ social\\ equality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arguments\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strauder\\ mentions\\ only\\ the\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ of\\ all\\ citizens\\,\\ not\\ social\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\enforced\\ separation\\ is\\ not\\ inherently\\ demeaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Korematsu\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1944\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ ruled\\ that\\ internment\\ camps\\ were\\ ok\\,\\ even\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ legal\\ restrictions\\ which\\ curtail\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ racial\\ group\\ are\\ immediately\\ suspect\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ rigid\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ people\\ in\\ country\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ including\\ citizens\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ of\\ Japanese\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\essentially\\,\\ court\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ must\\ take\\ the\\ military\\&rsquo\\;s\\ word\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ of\\ compelling\\ interest\\ to\\ the\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Endo\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1944\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\loyal\\ citizen\\ to\\ US\\ was\\ released\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ longer\\ a\\ valid\\ security\\ reason\\,\\ says\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ argues\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;today\\,\\ education\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ function\\ of\\ state\\ and\\ local\\ governments\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\asks\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Does\\ segregation\\ of\\ children\\ in\\ public\\ schools\\.\\.\\.deprive\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ minority\\ group\\ of\\ equal\\ educational\\ opportunities\\?\\ We\\ believe\\ it\\ does\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\feeling\\ of\\ inferiority\\;\\ affects\\ motivation\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\substantive\\,\\ modern\\ argument\\;\\ away\\ from\\ historical\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\new\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ moral\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bolling\\ v\\.\\ Sharpe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\federal\\ case\\ concerning\\ discrimination\\ in\\ public\\ school\\ education\\ in\\ the\\ District\\ of\\ Columbia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ due\\ process\\;\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reference\\ to\\ Korematsu\\,\\ most\\ amount\\ of\\ scrutiny\\ possible\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;proper\\ governmental\\ objective\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\segregation\\ does\\ not\\ pass\\ this\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fairness\\ doctrine\\ being\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\desegregation\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ all\\ deliberate\\ speed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compromise\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ court\\;\\ took\\ until\\ 1964\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\ for\\ desegregation\\ to\\ really\\ be\\ motivated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Loving\\ v\\.\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1967\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\miscegenation\\ law\\ in\\ VA\\ overruled\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ both\\ sides\\ are\\ equally\\ punished\\,\\ the\\ motivation\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ clearly\\ for\\ white\\ supremacy\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ fairly\\ applied\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\white\\ supremacy\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ proper\\ governmental\\ objective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Johnson\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ CA\\ prisons\\,\\ whites\\,\\ blacks\\,\\ Asians\\ sorted\\ out\\ in\\ different\\ cells\\ to\\ prevent\\ cross\\-racial\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ remands\\ case\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ a\\ sufficient\\ governmental\\ interest\\ case\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Marbury\\ v\\.\\ Madison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1803\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defining\\ case\\ in\\ issues\\ of\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Adams\\ named\\ John\\ Marshall\\,\\ his\\ secretary\\ of\\ state\\,\\ his\\ Chief\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Federalist\\ Congress\\ created\\ 16\\ lower\\ federal\\ court\\ judgeships\\ \\(midnight\\ appointments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\42\\ \\&ldquo\\;justices\\ of\\ the\\ peace\\&rdquo\\;\\ created\\,\\ confirmed\\;\\ however\\,\\ 4\\ of\\ these\\ named\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ their\\ formal\\ commissions\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ now\\ president\\;\\ James\\ Madison\\ sec\\.\\ of\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Republicans\\ abolish\\ the\\ new\\ judgeships\\,\\ begin\\ to\\ impeach\\ the\\ federal\\ judges\\,\\ and\\ Marbury\\ files\\ suit\\ asking\\ court\\ to\\ make\\ Madison\\ give\\ him\\ his\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\by\\ 1803\\,\\ case\\ comes\\ to\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\problem\\:\\ if\\ Marshall\\ rules\\ for\\ Marbury\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ defied\\;\\ if\\ he\\ rules\\ for\\ Madison\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ look\\ weak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;brilliant\\ master\\ stroke\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ Marbury\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\ court\\:\\ S\\.C\\.\\ should\\ just\\ be\\ an\\ appellate\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Says\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marbury\\ has\\ legal\\ right\\ to\\ his\\ commission\\ since\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ signed\\ and\\ sealed\\:\\ for\\ every\\ right\\,\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ remedy\\,\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marbury\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ right\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ for\\ this\\ remedy\\:\\ only\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ a\\ Congressional\\ statute\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Court\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ issue\\ writs\\ of\\ mandamus\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(an\\ order\\ to\\ a\\ governmental\\ official\\)\\ can\\ he\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ mandamus\\ act\\,\\ says\\ Marshall\\,\\ is\\ repugnant\\ to\\ the\\ Constitution\\:\\ says\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ decide\\ when\\ to\\ expand\\ and\\ contract\\ powers\\ of\\ branches\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Therefore\\,\\ the\\ mandamus\\ law\\ is\\ struck\\ down\\ \\(first\\ instance\\ of\\ judicial\\ review\\)\\;\\ Marbury\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ his\\ commission\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ has\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ court\\;\\ and\\ court\\ has\\ given\\ itself\\ power\\ of\\ judicial\\ review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\McCullough\\ v\\.\\ Maryland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1819\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maryland\\ is\\ taxing\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ in\\ its\\ efforts\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ national\\ bank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Marshall\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ a\\ constitution\\ we\\ are\\ expounding\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Necessary\\ and\\ Proper\\ Clause\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ employed\\:\\ what\\ use\\ is\\ Congress\\&rsquo\\;\\ power\\ if\\ it\\ cannot\\ operate\\ reasonably\\ to\\ enforce\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Power\\ to\\ tax\\ naturally\\ leads\\ to\\ power\\ to\\ create\\ National\\ Bank\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reading\\ the\\ Constitution\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ bank\\,\\ because\\ then\\ state\\ would\\ have\\ power\\ to\\ destroy\\ it\\;\\ state\\ cannot\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ destroy\\ something\\ created\\ by\\ Congress\\ \\(Marshall\\ does\\ not\\ get\\ this\\ from\\ Constitution\\ directly\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Champion\\ v\\.\\ Ames\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1903\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lottery\\ Tickets\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ decided\\ that\\ Congress\\ did\\ have\\ power\\ under\\ the\\ Commerce\\ Clause\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ lottery\\ tickets\\,\\ since\\ those\\ tickets\\ were\\ articles\\ of\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;formal\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ essentially\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\these\\ lottery\\ tickets\\ are\\ being\\ carried\\ state\\ to\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shreveport\\ Case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ said\\ that\\ states\\ could\\ not\\ change\\ their\\ intrastate\\ railroad\\ rates\\ against\\ the\\ necessary\\ interstate\\ rates\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ Congress\\ to\\ regulate\\ commerce\\ exists\\,\\ it\\ dominates\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;All\\ matters\\ having\\ such\\ a\\ close\\ and\\ substantial\\ relation\\ to\\ interstate\\ traffic\\ that\\ the\\ control\\ is\\ essential\\ or\\ appropriate\\ to\\ the\\ security\\ of\\ that\\ traffic\\,\\ to\\ the\\ efficiency\\ of\\ interstate\\ service\\,\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ conditions\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ has\\ right\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ matters\\ that\\ effect\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ substantially\\ and\\ closely\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ intrastate\\ matters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hammer\\ v\\.\\ Dagenhart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;reality\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ prohibit\\ interstate\\ transportation\\ of\\ products\\ from\\ factories\\ that\\ used\\ child\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ act\\ in\\ its\\ effect\\ does\\ not\\ regulate\\ transportation\\ among\\ the\\ states\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ rather\\ regulates\\ a\\ morality\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\,\\ says\\ the\\ court\\,\\ is\\ unconstitutionally\\ using\\ police\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\:\\ whenever\\ anything\\ goes\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ regulated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Schechter\\ Poultry\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1935\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ struck\\ down\\ act\\ that\\ regulated\\ conditions\\ of\\ businesses\\ that\\ affected\\ Schechter\\ Poultry\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ upon\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Carter\\ v\\.\\ Carter\\ Coal\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1936\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ ruled\\ that\\ Congress\\ could\\ not\\ pass\\ law\\ concerning\\ hours\\ and\\ wages\\ of\\ companies\\,\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;direct\\ effects\\&rdquo\\;\\ concerning\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\degree\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\proximity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\NLRB\\ v\\.\\ Jones\\ and\\ Laughlin\\ Steel\\ Corp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1937\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\after\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ shift\\ in\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\National\\ Labor\\ Relations\\ Act\\ controlled\\ conditions\\ in\\ factories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\overrules\\ Carter\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;question\\ is\\ necessarily\\ one\\ of\\ degree\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ something\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ large\\ effect\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ whether\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\,\\ Congress\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ regulate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Darby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1941\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ Deal\\ act\\ said\\ that\\ companies\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ship\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ unless\\ their\\ workers\\ had\\ certain\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\goal\\:\\ impose\\ local\\ minimum\\ wages\\.\\ approach\\:\\ regulate\\ shipping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\using\\ commerce\\ power\\ as\\ police\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Formal\\ Test\\ firmly\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;whatever\\ their\\ motive\\ and\\ purpose\\,\\ regulations\\ of\\ commerce\\ which\\ do\\ not\\ infringe\\ some\\ constitutional\\ prohibition\\ are\\ within\\ the\\ plenary\\ power\\ conferred\\ on\\ Congress\\ by\\ the\\ Commerce\\ Clause\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dagenhart\\ directly\\ overruled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wickard\\ v\\.\\ Filber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ New\\ Deal\\ Law\\ regulating\\ production\\ of\\ individual\\ wheat\\ producers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\239\\ extra\\ bushels\\ is\\ still\\ against\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\reasoning\\:\\ cumulative\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lochner\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1905\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\substantive\\ due\\ process\\ rears\\ its\\ ugly\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ of\\ NY\\ passed\\ legislation\\ forbidding\\ 60\\-hour\\ workdays\\ for\\ bakers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\are\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ impugned\\ by\\ this\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ yes\\:\\ the\\ privileges\\ and\\ immunities\\ clause\\ in\\ Constitution\\ only\\ applied\\ to\\ national\\ citizens\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ state\\ interfering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ cannot\\ justify\\ its\\ infringement\\ of\\ economic\\ liberty\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Labor\\ laws\\.\\ Court\\ says\\ it\\ cannot\\ take\\ sides\\ in\\ employer\\-employee\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Calder\\ v\\.\\ Bull\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Health\\ of\\ employees\\:\\ court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ legislation\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ tied\\ to\\ this\\ purpose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ goal\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ menas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dissent\\:\\ Justice\\ Holmes\\ says\\ the\\ court\\ should\\ decide\\ legitimate\\ public\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Calder\\ v\\.\\ Bull\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1798\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\.\\ Chase\\ said\\ court\\ should\\ shoot\\ down\\ any\\ law\\ in\\ violation\\ of\\ natural\\ rights\\ \\(taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ property\\ rights\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Fletcher\\ v\\.\\ Peck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1810\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ Georgia\\ take\\ back\\ land\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sold\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ no\\,\\ because\\ this\\ violates\\ the\\ contracts\\ clause\\,\\ taking\\ natural\\ rights\\ into\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wynehamer\\ v\\.\\ the\\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\State\\ of\\ NY\\ says\\ that\\ due\\ process\\ laws\\ can\\ be\\ violated\\ by\\ unfair\\ laws\\ \\(setting\\ up\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\ decisions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Nebbia\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1934\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ a\\ statute\\ forbidding\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ milk\\ under\\ a\\ certain\\ price\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ market\\ fair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\:\\ in\\ interconnected\\ economy\\,\\ legislation\\ that\\ helps\\ farmers\\ helps\\ the\\ whole\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;taking\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ tell\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lochner\\ reasoning\\ being\\ abandoned\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ welfare\\&rdquo\\;\\ deemed\\ a\\ good\\ enough\\ purpose\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\West\\ Coast\\ Hotel\\ v\\.\\ Parrish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1937\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ minimum\\ wage\\ for\\ women\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;public\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\ passes\\;\\ freedom\\ of\\ contract\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ absolute\\ and\\ uncontrollable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Carolene\\ Products\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actual\\ case\\:\\ court\\ rules\\ that\\ federal\\ statute\\ prohibiting\\ sale\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;filled\\ milk\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ is\\ legitimate\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ test\\ \\(people\\ may\\ mistake\\ it\\ for\\ milk\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\real\\ reason\\:\\ powerful\\ milk\\ lobby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\FOOTNOTE\\:\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minorities\\ deserve\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Williamson\\ v\\.\\ Lee\\ Optical\\ of\\ Oklahoma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unlawful\\ for\\ anyone\\ other\\ than\\ optometrist\\ to\\ make\\ new\\ glasses\\ without\\ a\\ prescription\\ is\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rational\\ basis\\ test\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;quality\\ of\\ glasses\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ jeopardy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Atlanta\\ Motel\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\,\\ under\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ banned\\ exclusion\\ of\\ blacks\\ from\\ Atlanta\\ motel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ interstate\\ commerce\\ is\\ affected\\:\\ blacks\\ kept\\ from\\ traveling\\,\\ spending\\ money\\.\\ Hurts\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ constitutional\\ in\\ this\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Katzenbach\\ v\\.\\ McClung\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ollie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Barbecue\\&rdquo\\;\\ kept\\ blacks\\ from\\ buying\\ foot\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;regardless\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ direct\\ evidence\\,\\ refusal\\ to\\ serve\\ Negroes\\.\\.\\.\\[has\\]\\ a\\ close\\ connection\\ to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\ applies\\:\\ if\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ rational\\ basis\\ to\\ tie\\ something\\ to\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ Congress\\ can\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Lopez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1995\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ passes\\ statute\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ illegal\\ to\\ posses\\ a\\ gun\\ within\\ 3\\,000\\ feet\\ of\\ a\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ruling\\:\\ law\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ overrule\\ all\\ commerce\\ clause\\ precedent\\ before\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ CHANNELS\\ of\\ Interstate\\ Commerce\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ movement\\ of\\ PEOPLE\\/GOODS\\ in\\ interstate\\ commerce\\,\\ or\\ after\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ arrived\\ from\\ interstate\\ movement\\ \\(drugs\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ can\\ regulate\\ activities\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;substantial\\ effects\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ that\\ substantial\\ effect\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ too\\ attenuated\\,\\ unlike\\ Wickard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Morrison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\argument\\:\\ Violence\\ Against\\ Women\\ Act\\ has\\ huge\\ effects\\ on\\ interstate\\ commerce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ previous\\ cases\\ involve\\ economic\\ activity\\;\\ Congress\\ can\\ only\\ appeal\\ to\\ substantial\\ effects\\ when\\ they\\ arise\\ from\\ economic\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\key\\ distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gonzales\\ v\\.\\ Raich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Controlled\\ Substances\\ Act\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ wants\\ to\\ legislate\\ private\\ drug\\ use\\ grown\\ privately\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ which\\ allows\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\difficult\\ spot\\ for\\ conservatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\remand\\ ordered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schenck\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1917\\ Espionage\\ Act\\ in\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-WWI\\ pamphlets\\ to\\ draftees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pamphlet\\ urges\\ \\&ldquo\\;assert\\ your\\ rights\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\:\\ b\\/c\\ these\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;ordinary\\ times\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fire\\ in\\ a\\ crowded\\ theater\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\ takes\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Debs\\ v\\.\\ US\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1919\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anti\\-war\\ speech\\ at\\ Socialist\\ party\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decision\\:\\ though\\ speech\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ directly\\ about\\ hurting\\ US\\ or\\ military\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;intent\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ utterances\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ harmful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ tendency\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;reasonable\\ probable\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ to\\ hurt\\ US\\;\\ so\\ Debs\\ trial\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ lost\\,\\ was\\ upheld\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Masses\\ Publishing\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Patten\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ Supreme\\ Ct\\.\\ Case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Learned\\ Hand\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\said\\ that\\ revolutionary\\ journal\\ was\\ permissible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ speech\\ does\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;urge\\ upon\\ others\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ duty\\ or\\ interest\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ it\\ is\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\direct\\ counsel\\ to\\ advice\\ insubordination\\ is\\ forbidden\\;\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Masses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;did\\ not\\ do\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Abrams\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\:\\ Famous\\ Holmes\\ dissent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1918\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\leaflets\\ printed\\ against\\ US\\ attempts\\ to\\ crush\\ Russian\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Convictions\\ upheld\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ plan\\ of\\ action\\ they\\ adopted\\ was\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;defeat\\ the\\ war\\ program\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ their\\ primary\\ purpose\\ per\\ se\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\HOLMES\\ DISSENT\\:\\ Clear\\ and\\ Present\\ Danger\\ of\\ immediate\\ evil\\;\\ only\\ place\\ to\\ punish\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ should\\ not\\ punish\\ speech\\ unless\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;so\\ imminently\\ threatens\\ immediate\\ interference\\ with\\ the\\ lawful\\ and\\ pressing\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ that\\ an\\ immediate\\ check\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gitlow\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1925\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defendant\\ published\\ effect\\-less\\ \\&ldquo\\;Left\\ Wing\\ Manifesto\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decision\\:\\ utterances\\ as\\ those\\ published\\ by\\ Gitlow\\ present\\ \\&ldquo\\;sufficient\\ danger\\ of\\ substantive\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ single\\ revolutionary\\ spark\\&rdquo\\;\\ may\\ be\\ enough\\ to\\ cause\\ danger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\ by\\ Holmes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ idea\\ is\\ an\\ incitement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Whitney\\ v\\.\\ California\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defendant\\,\\ Ms\\.\\ Whitney\\,\\ joined\\ Communist\\ Labor\\ Party\\ of\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ says\\ she\\ had\\ no\\ idea\\ how\\ violent\\,\\ terrorism\\ minded\\ the\\ organization\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ she\\ is\\ guilty\\:\\ freedom\\ of\\ association\\ is\\ legitimately\\ banned\\ by\\ CA\\ since\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ partakes\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ criminal\\ conspiracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brandeis\\ concurrence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;only\\ an\\ emergency\\ can\\ justify\\ repression\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dennis\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gov\\.\\ had\\ been\\ prosecuting\\ those\\ organizing\\ the\\ violent\\ overthrow\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ govt\\ using\\ the\\ Clear\\ and\\ Present\\ Danger\\ Test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1951\\:\\ Height\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\ fears\\ \\(pre\\-Warren\\ Ct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Gravity\\ of\\ the\\ threatened\\ evil\\ grounded\\ by\\ its\\ probability\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\probability\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ small\\,\\ but\\ the\\ gravity\\ was\\ huge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Brandenburg\\ v\\.\\ Ohio\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1959\\:\\ KKK\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\political\\ speech\\ protected\\ unless\\ imminent\\ lawless\\ action\\ is\\ urged\\ and\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\extremely\\ difficult\\ test\\ to\\ satisfy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ part\\ test\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ speech\\ political\\?\\ Advocacy\\ is\\ stringently\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ danger\\ imminent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ the\\ danger\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\private\\ conspiracies\\ NOT\\ protected\\;\\ just\\ public\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hess\\ v\\.\\ Indiana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-war\\ protesters\\ yelled\\,\\ after\\ being\\ moved\\ by\\ police\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ take\\ this\\.\\.\\.street\\ later\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ overturned\\ conviction\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ specific\\,\\ imminent\\ time\\ given\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ Times\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Sullivan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\paid\\ ad\\ in\\ the\\ NYT\\ makes\\ false\\ claims\\ about\\ a\\ candidate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ racism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\ things\\ come\\ from\\ this\\ case\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ NYT\\&rsquo\\;s\\ speech\\ is\\ political\\,\\ it\\ is\\ protected\\;\\ how\\ can\\ political\\ democracy\\ be\\ upheld\\ if\\ public\\ officials\\ are\\ over\\-protected\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Empirical\\ Calculators\\:\\ newspapers\\ around\\ the\\ country\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ scared\\ that\\ something\\ they\\ print\\ will\\ be\\ libelous\\;\\ again\\,\\ political\\ democracy\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ legal\\ standard\\ to\\ help\\ Editors\\ make\\ decision\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ publish\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\state\\ can\\ impose\\ damages\\ on\\ people\\ who\\ make\\ libelous\\ claims\\ about\\ public\\ officials\\ if\\ those\\ people\\ KNOW\\ the\\ speech\\ is\\ false\\ or\\ act\\ with\\ RECKLESS\\ DISREGARD\\ for\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Actual\\ Malice\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gertz\\ v\\.\\ Robert\\ Welch\\ Inc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gertz\\,\\ a\\ lawyer\\,\\ falsely\\ called\\ an\\ architect\\ of\\ a\\ communist\\ cover\\-up\\ of\\ a\\ police\\ murder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ held\\ NYT\\ rule\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ apply\\,\\ b\\/c\\ Gertz\\ was\\ a\\ private\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\private\\ citizens\\ would\\ be\\ left\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ recourse\\ for\\ injury\\ to\\ his\\ reputation\\ unless\\ he\\ can\\ satisfy\\ the\\ demanding\\ requirements\\ of\\ the\\ Times\\ test\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harder\\ for\\ private\\ citizens\\ to\\ defend\\ themselves\\;\\ and\\ public\\ officials\\ know\\ they\\ are\\ taking\\ a\\ risk\\ in\\ entering\\ public\\ sphere\\,\\ while\\ private\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ establishes\\ that\\ when\\ people\\ become\\ public\\ figures\\,\\ they\\ lose\\ that\\ private\\ citizen\\ protection\\ afforded\\ to\\ Gertz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Roth\\ v\\.\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ Alberts\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Obscenity\\,\\ court\\ rules\\,\\ is\\ not\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;All\\ ideas\\ having\\ even\\ the\\ slightest\\ redeeming\\ social\\ importance\\.\\.\\.have\\ full\\ protection\\ of\\ guaranties\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obscenity\\ does\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sex\\ and\\ obscenity\\ are\\ not\\ synonymous\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Kingsley\\ Int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ Pictures\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\.\\ Regents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ of\\ NY\\ wanted\\ to\\ bar\\ showing\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lady\\ Chatterley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Lover\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;b\\/c\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;advocates\\ an\\ idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ adultery\\ under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ may\\ be\\ proper\\ behavior\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\/c\\ it\\ advocates\\ an\\ idea\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ the\\ movie\\ is\\ protected\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Paris\\ Adult\\ Theatre\\ I\\ v\\.\\ Slaton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\an\\ adult\\ theater\\ that\\ says\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ 21\\,\\ does\\ not\\ solicit\\,\\ has\\ large\\ warning\\ sign\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Berger\\ court\\ holds\\ there\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ legitimate\\ state\\ interests\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ stemming\\ the\\ tide\\ of\\ commercialized\\ obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ though\\ assumptions\\ of\\ legislature\\ are\\ unprovable\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ not\\ a\\ sufficient\\ reason\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ statute\\ unconstitutional\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Miller\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obscenity\\ defined\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;appeals\\ to\\ a\\ prurient\\ interest\\ in\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;material\\ is\\ patently\\ offensive\\ because\\ it\\ offends\\ contemporary\\ community\\ standards\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ description\\ or\\ representation\\ of\\ sexual\\ matters\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;utterly\\ without\\ redeeming\\ social\\ value\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Miller\\ had\\ sent\\ unsolicited\\ pictorial\\ ads\\ featuring\\ pornographic\\ poses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\admits\\ standards\\ will\\ vary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\community\\,\\ not\\ national\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ remanded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\American\\ Booksellers\\ Association\\ v\\.\\ Hudnut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\MacKinnon\\/Dworkin\\ ordinances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\J\\.\\ Easterbrook\\ rejected\\ ordinance\\ banning\\ pornography\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ definitions\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ ordinance\\ made\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ censoring\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ if\\ the\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claims\\ are\\ right\\ and\\ pornography\\ has\\ serious\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ women\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ a\\ false\\ idea\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\obscenity\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ ideas\\,\\ but\\ sexual\\ explications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Brien\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Brien\\ burns\\ draft\\ card\\,\\ saying\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expressive\\ conduct\\ protected\\ by\\ first\\ amendment\\;\\ draft\\ card\\ burning\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ illegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Test\\ Created\\ for\\ Expressive\\ Conduct\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\government\\ can\\ bar\\ it\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ governmental\\ interest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\that\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\ cannot\\ be\\ simply\\ to\\ suppress\\ certain\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ suppression\\ cannot\\ go\\ beyond\\ what\\ is\\ strictly\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ law\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;content\\ neutral\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ draft\\-card\\ burning\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\,\\ it\\ cares\\ about\\ the\\ damaging\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ decides\\ not\\ to\\ care\\ about\\ the\\ actual\\ motive\\ concerned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ Court\\ decides\\ that\\ the\\ statute\\ does\\ serve\\ an\\ important\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Texas\\ v\\.\\ Johnson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\over\\ flag\\-burning\\ at\\ 1984\\ convention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ acts\\ must\\ convey\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;particularized\\ message\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ get\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\ coverage\\;\\ this\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ concedes\\ that\\ the\\ governmental\\ interest\\ is\\ repressing\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\;\\ however\\,\\ they\\ apply\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ exacting\\ scrutiny\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\still\\,\\ they\\ cannot\\ excuse\\ the\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;means\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ protecting\\ the\\ flag\\,\\ since\\ it\\ attacks\\ an\\ idea\\ specifically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Clark\\ v\\.\\ Community\\ for\\ Creative\\ Non\\-Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1984\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ w\\/\\ CCNV\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ sleep\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ Mall\\ by\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protest\\ homelessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ expressive\\ conduct\\ with\\ a\\ particularized\\ message\\,\\ says\\ the\\ court\\;\\ BUT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ regulation\\ is\\ content\\-neutral\\;\\ no\\ camping\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ Mall\\ or\\ Lafayette\\ Park\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Govt\\.\\ has\\ legitimate\\ interest\\ in\\ ensuring\\ the\\ National\\ Parks\\ are\\ adequately\\ protected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ has\\ an\\ interest\\;\\ Gov\\.\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ law\\;\\ interest\\ is\\ unrelated\\ to\\ suppression\\ of\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DISSENT\\:\\ expression\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ protected\\ enough\\;\\ content\\-neutrality\\ can\\ still\\ unnecessarily\\ restrict\\ protected\\ expressive\\ activity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cohen\\ v\\.\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ wore\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fuck\\ the\\ Draft\\&rdquo\\;\\ t\\-shirt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ obscenity\\ case\\;\\ these\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;fighting\\ words\\&rdquo\\;\\ directly\\ aimed\\ at\\ someone\\;\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ violently\\ aroused\\ by\\ the\\ t\\-shirt\\,\\ Cohen\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ violently\\ arouse\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ decision\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ side\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ broader\\ enduring\\ values\\ which\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ open\\ debate\\ permits\\ us\\ to\\ achieve\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ has\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ cleans\\ public\\ debate\\ to\\ point\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;grammatical\\ palatability\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;one\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vulgar\\ is\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lyric\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ language\\ conveys\\ \\&ldquo\\;otherwise\\ inexpressible\\ emotions\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;we\\ cannot\\ indulge\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ forbid\\ particular\\ words\\ without\\ also\\ running\\ a\\ substantial\\ risk\\ of\\ suppressing\\ ideas\\ in\\ the\\ process\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Miami\\ Herald\\ Publishing\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Tornillo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1974\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Florida\\ statute\\ said\\ newspapers\\ running\\ political\\ editorials\\ for\\ a\\ candidate\\ had\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ opposing\\ candidate\\ room\\ to\\ reply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ against\\ Florida\\ statue\\:\\ fear\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;under\\ the\\ operation\\ of\\ the\\ FL\\ statute\\,\\ political\\ and\\ electoral\\ coverage\\ would\\ be\\ blunted\\ or\\ reduced\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fear\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;chill\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Red\\ Lion\\ Broadcasting\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ FCC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ owns\\ frequencies\\;\\ FCC\\ says\\ that\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fairness\\ Doctrine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;personal\\ attack\\&rdquo\\;\\ rule\\,\\ under\\ which\\ people\\ running\\ attack\\ ads\\ had\\ to\\ notify\\ the\\ attacked\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ Lion\\ co\\.\\ lost\\ privilege\\ to\\ its\\ frequencies\\ for\\ failing\\ to\\ comply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ that\\ since\\ the\\ airways\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ govt\\,\\ Red\\ Lion\\ has\\ no\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rules\\ are\\ applied\\ content\\-neutrally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ELECTRONIC\\ MEDIA\\ NOT\\ AS\\ PROTECTED\\ AS\\ PRINT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\FCC\\ v\\.\\ Pacifica\\ Foundation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pacifica\\ radio\\ station\\ broadcasts\\ Carlin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 7\\ Dirty\\ Words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Channeling\\&rdquo\\;\\ behavior\\,\\ not\\ prohibiting\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ could\\ hear\\ the\\ broadcast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ speech\\ is\\ more\\ like\\ obscenity\\ than\\ political\\ speech\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ words\\ offend\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ reasons\\ as\\ obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\speech\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;vulgar\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;offensive\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;shocking\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ it\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;Intrusive\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ accessible\\ to\\ children\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\therefore\\,\\ radio\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ too\\ much\\ protection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Turner\\ Broadcasting\\ System\\ v\\.\\ FCC\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1994\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\requirement\\ of\\ TBS\\ to\\ devote\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ their\\ programming\\ to\\ public\\ broadcast\\ is\\ upheld\\ with\\ certain\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stevens\\ argued\\ that\\ act\\ was\\ content\\ neutral\\;\\ BUT\\,\\ conceded\\ that\\ law\\ was\\ directed\\ at\\ cable\\ operators\\,\\ not\\ generally\\ applicable\\,\\ so\\ it\\ deserved\\ heightened\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\ upheld\\ in\\ 1997\\,\\ with\\ legislation\\ found\\ as\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\ and\\ fair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\US\\ v\\.\\ Playboy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Playboy\\ channel\\ is\\ bleeding\\ into\\ other\\ channels\\,\\ accessible\\ to\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ requiring\\ channel\\ to\\ install\\ fail\\-safe\\ technology\\ does\\ not\\ hold\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ is\\ content\\-based\\;\\ Playboy\\ channel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ not\\ obscene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cable\\ wins\\ over\\ other\\ concerns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\:\\ compelling\\ interest\\ to\\ protect\\ kids\\;\\ channel\\ advertises\\ itself\\ as\\ obscene\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obscene\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reno\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1997\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;communication\\ decency\\ act\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ made\\ it\\ illegal\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ transmit\\ illicit\\ material\\ to\\ minors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ court\\ said\\ this\\ act\\ was\\ Content\\-based\\ regulation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ statute\\ is\\ too\\ vague\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\term\\ \\&ldquo\\;indecent\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ vague\\,\\ and\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ caveat\\ for\\ redeeming\\ social\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ that\\ though\\ protecting\\ kids\\ is\\ important\\,\\ the\\ government\\ cannot\\ disregard\\ freedom\\ of\\ adult\\-to\\-adult\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ginsberg\\ v\\.\\ NY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\statute\\ defined\\ category\\ of\\ speech\\ \\&ldquo\\;obscene\\ to\\ children\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\states\\ got\\ to\\ define\\ this\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ legit\\,\\ leaving\\ \\&ldquo\\;obscenity\\&rdquo\\;\\ open\\ to\\ define\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Rust\\ v\\.\\ Sullivan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ to\\ speech\\ as\\ a\\ subsidizer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\.\\ subsidizing\\ family\\ planning\\ co\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ say\\ nothing\\ about\\ abortion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ gov\\.\\ can\\ selectively\\ fund\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gov\\ is\\ making\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ contain\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ the\\ program\\;\\ only\\ wants\\ to\\ fund\\ certain\\ things\\,\\ and\\ is\\ just\\ taking\\ steps\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ compares\\ Gov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ selective\\ speech\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ to\\ its\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Endowment\\ for\\ Democracy\\ without\\ founding\\ Communist\\ or\\ Fascist\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ is\\ not\\ denying\\ anyone\\ benefits\\;\\ the\\ grantee\\ here\\ is\\ obtaining\\ funds\\ only\\ for\\ very\\ specific\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\outside\\ of\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ the\\ Title\\ X\\ co\\&rsquo\\;s\\ employees\\ can\\ give\\ any\\ advice\\ they\\ want\\,\\ since\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ outside\\ of\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ that\\ Title\\ X\\ \\&ldquo\\;does\\ not\\ significantly\\ impinge\\ upon\\ the\\ doctor\\ patient\\ relationship\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wooley\\ v\\.\\ Maynard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\man\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ \\&ldquo\\;Live\\ Free\\ or\\ Die\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ his\\ NH\\ license\\ plate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ his\\ rights\\ are\\ being\\ impinged\\ upon\\;\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ intellect\\ and\\ spirit\\ being\\ invaded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\quotes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\West\\ Virginia\\ Board\\ of\\ Ed\\.\\ v\\.\\ Barnette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1943\\)\\ which\\ said\\ schools\\ could\\ not\\ make\\ people\\ cite\\ pledge\\ of\\ allegiance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Connick\\ v\\.\\ Myers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1983\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myers\\,\\ and\\ ADA\\,\\ was\\ transferred\\,\\ sent\\ around\\ questionnaire\\ criticizing\\ Connick\\,\\ the\\ DA\\.\\ So\\ Connick\\ fired\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ criteria\\ laid\\ out\\ protecting\\ speech\\ by\\ government\\ employee\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\speech\\ must\\ deal\\ with\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ public\\ concern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\value\\ of\\ protecting\\ the\\ speech\\ must\\ outweigh\\ the\\ balancing\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ b\\/c\\ ADA\\ and\\ DA\\ need\\ close\\ working\\ relationship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ balancing\\ governmental\\ interest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Myers\\&rsquo\\;\\ speech\\ loses\\ out\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tinker\\ v\\.\\ Des\\ Moines\\ School\\ District\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\students\\ suspended\\ for\\ wearing\\ black\\ armbands\\ to\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ said\\:\\ this\\ speech\\ is\\ being\\ particularly\\ targeted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\unless\\ a\\ substantial\\ disruption\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ school\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ punish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hazelwood\\ School\\ District\\ v\\.\\ Kuhlmeier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1988\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\student\\ newspaper\\ published\\ stories\\ about\\ divorce\\,\\ teen\\ pregnancy\\;\\ school\\ censored\\ the\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ principal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ censorship\\ relates\\ to\\ a\\ legitimate\\ pedagogical\\ interest\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;reasonably\\ related\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ light\\ test\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Board\\ of\\ Education\\ v\\.\\ Pico\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\board\\ tried\\ to\\ ban\\ 11\\ books\\ from\\ library\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ct\\.\\ ruled\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ suppress\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\optional\\ library\\ books\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ and\\ motives\\ are\\ partisan\\ and\\ political\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Olsen\\ v\\.\\ Nebraska\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\state\\ regulation\\ of\\ fees\\ for\\ employment\\ agencies\\ upheld\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lincoln\\ Fed\\.\\ Labor\\ Union\\ v\\.\\ Northwestern\\ Iron\\ and\\ Metal\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\state\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\-to\\-work\\&rdquo\\;\\ law\\ barring\\ preference\\ of\\ union\\ membership\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\again\\,\\ anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Williamson\\ v\\.\\ Lee\\ Optical\\ of\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\law\\ regulating\\ opticians\\ and\\ optometrists\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\once\\ again\\,\\ anti\\-Lochner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\ implied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ferguson\\ v\\.\\ Skupra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\court\\ rejected\\ due\\ process\\ claim\\ that\\ state\\ law\\ barring\\ all\\ but\\ lawyers\\ from\\ business\\ of\\ debt\\ adjustment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Railway\\ Express\\ Agency\\ v\\.\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1949\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ law\\ regulating\\ street\\ advertisements\\ in\\ NY\\ upheld\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ local\\ authorities\\ may\\ wee\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ concluded\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ advertised\\ their\\ own\\ wares\\ on\\ their\\ trucks\\ do\\ not\\ present\\ the\\ same\\ traffic\\ problem\\ in\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ or\\ extent\\ of\\ the\\ advertising\\ which\\ they\\ use\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rational\\ basis\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ Orleans\\ v\\.\\ Dukes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\.O\\.\\ law\\ said\\ that\\ only\\ people\\ who\\ operated\\ pushcarts\\ in\\ the\\ French\\ Quarter\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ 8\\ years\\ could\\ continue\\ to\\ do\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ statute\\ is\\ fine\\,\\ since\\ the\\ classification\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ legislature\\ \\&ldquo\\;rationally\\ furthers\\ the\\ purpose\\ which\\ the\\ city\\ had\\ identified\\ as\\ its\\ objective\\.\\.\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;to\\ preserve\\ the\\ appearance\\ and\\ custom\\ valued\\ by\\ the\\ Quarter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ residents\\ and\\ attractive\\ to\\ tourists\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ City\\ Transit\\ Authority\\ v\\.\\ Beazer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1979\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upheld\\ exclusion\\ of\\ methadone\\ users\\ from\\ any\\ Transit\\ Authority\\ Job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;no\\ drugs\\&rsquo\\;\\ policy\\ enforced\\ by\\ the\\ TA\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;legitimate\\ inference\\ that\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ treatment\\ program\\ continues\\,\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ persists\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DISSENT\\:\\ Poor\\ people\\ use\\ heroin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\US\\ Dept\\.\\ of\\ Agriculture\\ v\\.\\ Moreno\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ held\\ that\\ a\\ provision\\ of\\ the\\ Food\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ which\\ excluded\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ unrelated\\ to\\ any\\ other\\ \\ \\;member\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;wholly\\ without\\ any\\ rational\\ basis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transparent\\,\\ malicious\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;bare\\ desire\\ to\\ harm\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\purpose\\:\\ to\\ hurt\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\.\\ This\\ is\\ NOT\\ a\\ legitimate\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Washington\\ v\\.\\ Davies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ of\\ disparate\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\results\\ v\\.\\ intentions\\,\\ rationale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ statute\\ otherwise\\ neutral\\ on\\ its\\ face\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ applied\\ so\\ as\\ invidiously\\ to\\ discriminate\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ race\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ must\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ racially\\ neutral\\ selection\\ criteria\\ and\\ procedures\\ have\\ produced\\ the\\ monochromatic\\ result\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ neutral\\ law\\ is\\ not\\ invalid\\ for\\ causes\\ disproportionate\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\too\\ many\\ problems\\ would\\ result\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ different\\ policy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;tax\\,\\ welfare\\,\\ public\\ service\\,\\ regulatory\\,\\ and\\ licensing\\ statutes\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ examined\\,\\ redone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\University\\ of\\ California\\ v\\.\\ Bakke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1978\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\:\\ affirmative\\ action\\ does\\ merit\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\;\\ BUT\\ goal\\ of\\ diversity\\ passes\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Grutter\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Michigan\\ Law\\ School\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;law\\ school\\ has\\ a\\ compelling\\ interest\\ in\\ attaining\\ a\\ diverse\\ student\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\critical\\ mass\\ of\\ minority\\ students\\,\\ not\\ quotas\\,\\ are\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diversity\\ interest\\ lies\\ in\\ 2\\ places\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;cross\\-racial\\ understanding\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;livelier\\ classrooms\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ AND\\ \\&ldquo\\;real\\ world\\ application\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\system\\ must\\ be\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\;\\ no\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ be\\ narrowly\\ tailored\\,\\ a\\ program\\ must\\ not\\ burden\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ favored\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ can\\ avoid\\ taking\\ race\\ into\\ account\\,\\ do\\;\\ but\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\,\\ says\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\,\\ you\\ must\\ exhaust\\ every\\ single\\ option\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ quotas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\individualized\\ treatment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gratz\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\point\\-scale\\ by\\ UMich\\ undergrad\\ program\\ ruled\\ unconstitutional\\;\\ too\\ un\\-individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reed\\ v\\.\\ Reed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ preferring\\ males\\ to\\ females\\ when\\ two\\ persons\\ otherwise\\ equally\\ entitled\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ administrator\\ of\\ an\\ estate\\ is\\ ruled\\ unconstitutional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ rational\\ basis\\,\\ but\\ only\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ basis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Frontiero\\ v\\.\\ Richardson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\military\\ had\\ given\\ men\\ dependency\\ allowance\\,\\ but\\ not\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\:\\ sex\\ classifications\\ \\&ldquo\\;inherently\\ suspect\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ deserve\\ \\&ldquo\\;close\\ judicial\\ scrutiny\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ quite\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\,\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ differences\\ that\\ need\\ acknowledges\\&rsquo\\;\\ nonetheless\\,\\ stricter\\ scrutiny\\ than\\ before\\ is\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\without\\ concrete\\ evidence\\,\\ government\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pass\\ its\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Craig\\ v\\.\\ Boren\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;near\\-beer\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ a\\ law\\ cannot\\ pursue\\ an\\ objective\\ by\\ targeting\\ a\\ gender\\;\\ law\\ must\\ be\\ generally\\ applicable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ statistical\\ data\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ not\\ substantial\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ law\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\United\\ States\\ v\\.\\ Virginia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1996\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\question\\:\\ Can\\ Virginia\\ have\\ a\\ single\\-sex\\ public\\ college\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\VA\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ an\\ important\\ governmental\\ interest\\ in\\ educational\\ diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ginsburg\\ overrules\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;important\\ govt\\.\\ interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;exceedingly\\ persuasive\\ justification\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Educational\\ diversity\\ argument\\ denied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ rules\\ that\\ this\\ case\\ is\\ preference\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dothard\\ v\\.\\ Rawlinson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ barred\\ from\\ being\\ prison\\ guards\\ b\\/c\\,\\ says\\ court\\,\\ the\\ proxy\\ of\\ gender\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ one\\ for\\ qualification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ women\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ handle\\ riots\\,\\ may\\ be\\ targeted\\ sexually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Geduldig\\ v\\.\\ Aiello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Court\\ says\\ CA\\ can\\ have\\ an\\ insurance\\ system\\ that\\ pays\\ all\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ bills\\ and\\ all\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ bills\\ except\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;pregnancy\\-related\\&rdquo\\;\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Michael\\ M\\.\\ v\\.\\ Superior\\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1981\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ punishing\\ the\\ male\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ female\\,\\ party\\ to\\ intercourse\\ when\\ female\\ was\\ under\\ 18\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ the\\ male\\;\\ upheld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ all\\ the\\ negative\\ effects\\ fall\\ on\\ the\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Califano\\ v\\.\\ Webster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1977\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ security\\ benefits\\ were\\ changed\\ to\\ compensate\\ women\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ paid\\ lower\\ wages\\ during\\ their\\ working\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;compensation\\&rdquo\\;\\ not\\ necessary\\ legitimate\\ shield\\ against\\ \\&ldquo\\;inquiry\\ into\\ actual\\ purposes\\ underlying\\ a\\ statutory\\ scheme\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\:\\ gender\\-based\\ classification\\;\\ intermediate\\ scrutiny\\;\\ law\\ is\\ ok\\ since\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ stereotype\\ about\\ women\\ needing\\ more\\ benefits\\ or\\ men\\ being\\ less\\ deserving\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ an\\ actual\\ economic\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Orr\\ v\\.\\ Orr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1979\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alabama\\ statue\\ provided\\ that\\ only\\ husbands\\ pay\\ alimony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ considered\\ whether\\ sex\\ was\\ a\\ legit\\ proxy\\ for\\ need\\ and\\ whether\\ this\\ was\\ legit\\ compensation\\ for\\ past\\ discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\decides\\ that\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ pass\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Craig\\ v\\.\\ Boren\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mississippi\\ University\\ for\\ Women\\ v\\.\\ Hogan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1982\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nursing\\ school\\ denied\\ a\\ man\\ admittance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ providing\\ a\\ compensatory\\ service\\ for\\ women\\,\\ but\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ merely\\ reinforcing\\ stereotypes\\ that\\ only\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ nurses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\women\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ discriminated\\ in\\ field\\ of\\ nursing\\,\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ affirmative\\ action\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mathews\\ v\\.\\ Lucas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\case\\ of\\ illegitimates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ illegitimate\\ children\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\,\\ and\\ must\\ prove\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ illegitimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\practical\\ reason\\:\\ anyone\\ can\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ illegitimate\\,\\ can\\ claim\\ paternity\\ suit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cleburne\\ v\\.\\ Cleburne\\ Living\\ Center\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ mentally\\ retarded\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ deserve\\ \\&ldquo\\;quasi\\-suspect\\ classification\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\why\\?\\ court\\ says\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\legitimate\\ differences\\ exist\\ that\\ allow\\ the\\ govt\\.\\ to\\ treat\\ them\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\since\\ state\\/fed\\.\\ government\\ is\\ fighting\\ for\\ the\\ mentally\\ retarded\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ really\\ prejudiced\\ against\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\laws\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ mentally\\ retarded\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ politically\\ powerless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hard\\ to\\ define\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ allows\\ for\\ an\\ ordinance\\ denying\\ special\\ permit\\ to\\ mentally\\-retarded\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Harper\\ v\\.\\ VA\\ Board\\ of\\ Elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1966\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\$1\\.50\\ charged\\ for\\ state\\ elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ was\\ a\\ rational\\ basis\\:\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ care\\ to\\ vote\\,\\ \\$1\\.50\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ too\\ much\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ says\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\any\\ state\\ statute\\ that\\ allows\\ some\\ people\\ to\\ vote\\ while\\ denying\\ others\\ triggers\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\important\\ thing\\:\\ Fundamental\\ Rights\\ drawing\\ Strict\\ Scrutiny\\;\\ not\\ just\\ Discreet\\ and\\ Insular\\ minorities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ uses\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;structure\\ of\\ the\\ constitution\\&rdquo\\;\\ argument\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ fundamental\\ right\\ which\\ is\\ nowhere\\ in\\ the\\ actual\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Kramer\\ v\\.\\ Union\\ School\\ District\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ parents\\ of\\ school\\-age\\ children\\ and\\ property\\ owners\\ allowed\\ to\\ vote\\ in\\ school\\ board\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ applies\\,\\ and\\ wins\\,\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\ Court\\ worried\\ about\\ protecting\\ rights\\ of\\ POOR\\ PEOPLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reynolds\\ v\\.\\ Sims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alabama\\ districting\\ law\\ was\\ such\\ that\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ the\\ electorate\\ could\\ elect\\ the\\ state\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ votes\\ counting\\ more\\ than\\ others\\;\\ court\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constitutionally\\ protected\\ right\\ to\\ an\\ equally\\ weighted\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ person\\,\\ one\\ vote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\again\\,\\ court\\ not\\ pulling\\ this\\ from\\ the\\ actual\\ Constitution\\,\\ just\\ theory\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;structure\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frankfurter\\ dissent\\:\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ thicket\\,\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ districting\\ the\\ court\\ should\\ not\\ try\\ and\\ fix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Davis\\ v\\.\\ Bandemer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1986\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gerrimander\\ of\\ Indiana\\ legislature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\representatives\\ getting\\ 47\\%\\ of\\ vote\\,\\ but\\ 58\\%\\ of\\ seats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ splits\\ in\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ say\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ political\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\two\\ say\\ districting\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ by\\ neutral\\,\\ apolitical\\ reasoning\\;\\ no\\ scheming\\ for\\ partisan\\ advantage\\;\\ courts\\ can\\ force\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\gerrymandering\\ cannot\\ go\\ too\\ far\\;\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ outrageous\\ and\\ effective\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ draw\\ fire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Vieth\\ v\\.\\ Jubeliver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2004\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\:\\ split\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deciding\\ vote\\ says\\ that\\ so\\ far\\,\\ every\\ case\\ of\\ gerrymandering\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ political\\ question\\,\\ and\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ too\\.\\ However\\,\\ that\\ may\\ well\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Skinner\\ v\\.\\ Oklahoma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1942\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sterilization\\ case\\ for\\ 3\\-time\\ chicken\\ thief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\today\\:\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\ would\\ cover\\ this\\,\\ but\\ not\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\;\\ chicken\\ thieves\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ and\\ discreet\\ and\\ insular\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\,\\ court\\ says\\ right\\ to\\ procreate\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\;\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ should\\ apply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Griswold\\ v\\.\\ Connecticut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Penumbras\\&rdquo\\;\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connecticut\\ said\\ that\\ people\\ cannot\\ use\\ contraceptives\\ for\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ preventing\\ conception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;zones\\ of\\ privacy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ regulation\\ is\\ invading\\ a\\ zone\\ of\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\:\\ uncommonly\\ silly\\ law\\,\\ but\\ irreversible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Eisenstadt\\ v\\.\\ Baird\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MA\\ statute\\ forbade\\ distribution\\ of\\ contraceptives\\ to\\ unmarried\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ Brennan\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Right\\ of\\ privacy\\ is\\ the\\ freedom\\ from\\ government\\ intrusion\\ in\\ matters\\ so\\ personal\\ as\\ right\\ to\\ bear\\ or\\ beget\\ a\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Roe\\ v\\.\\ Wade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1974\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\ exists\\ somewhere\\ in\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\trimesters\\ are\\ required\\,\\ since\\ at\\ some\\ point\\,\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ compelling\\ interest\\ in\\ protecting\\ innocent\\ life\\ is\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\before\\ third\\ trimester\\,\\ fetus\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ viable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ theory\\ of\\ life\\ cannot\\ impinge\\ upon\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Planned\\ Parenthood\\ v\\.\\ Casey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1992\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ restrictions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\no\\ woman\\ can\\ have\\ an\\ abortion\\ without\\ having\\ been\\ subjected\\ to\\ persuasion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mandatory\\ 24\\-hour\\ waiting\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\spousal\\ notification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parental\\ consent\\ \\(with\\ opportunity\\ for\\ judicial\\ bypass\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\record\\-keeping\\ requirements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Souter\\,\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Conner\\,\\ Kenney\\ write\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\affirm\\ \\&ldquo\\;essential\\ holding\\ of\\ Roe\\&rdquo\\;\\ through\\ stare\\ decisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\said\\ state\\ can\\ impose\\ restrictions\\ unless\\ those\\ restrictions\\ put\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;undue\\ burden\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\an\\ \\&ldquo\\;undue\\ burden\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ substantial\\ obstacle\\ in\\ the\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\only\\ spousal\\ notification\\ is\\ overturned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ Roe\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ seriously\\ wrongly\\ decided\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ overturn\\ it\\ would\\ undermine\\ the\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;to\\ overrule\\ under\\ fire\\ would\\ bring\\ \\[the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\]\\ legitimacy\\ under\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scalia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dissent\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ imperial\\ judiciary\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ that\\ stare\\ decisis\\ is\\ a\\ dumb\\ rule\\ to\\ go\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stevens\\&rsquo\\;\\ dissent\\:\\ says\\ that\\ court\\ is\\ upholding\\ patronizing\\ state\\ efforts\\ which\\ imply\\ that\\ a\\ woman\\ is\\ not\\ capable\\ of\\ making\\ her\\ own\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Stenberg\\ v\\.\\ Carhart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\partial\\-birth\\ abortions\\ banned\\ by\\ Nebraska\\,\\ even\\ when\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ is\\ at\\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breyer\\,\\ for\\ majority\\,\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ since\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ health\\ is\\ left\\ unconsidered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ enough\\ options\\ for\\ women\\,\\ since\\ the\\ fetus\\ will\\ die\\ anyway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dissent\\ by\\ Kennedy\\:\\ this\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\infanticide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bowers\\ v\\.\\ Hardwick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1986\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Georgia\\ statute\\ banning\\ sodomy\\ \\(doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ differentiate\\ between\\ homosexual\\ and\\ heterosexual\\ sodomy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ White\\:\\ no\\ fundamental\\ right\\ to\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ rights\\,\\ according\\ to\\ previous\\ cases\\,\\ should\\ either\\ be\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\implicit\\ in\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ ordered\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rooted\\ in\\ traditions\\ \\&ldquo\\;deeply\\ rooted\\ in\\ this\\ Nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\ and\\ tradition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ qualify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\,\\ Lochner\\-esque\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ the\\ rational\\ basis\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ has\\ a\\ moral\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pure\\ bigotry\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ Burger\\ concurrence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stevens\\ points\\ out\\,\\ the\\ GA\\ law\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ single\\ out\\ homosexuals\\;\\ but\\ the\\ decision\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissenters\\:\\ precedent\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ have\\ sexual\\ autonomy\\ AND\\ constitution\\ presupposes\\ right\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ make\\ these\\ kinds\\ of\\ decisions\\ \\(4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\:\\ right\\ of\\ privacy\\ at\\ home\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lawrence\\ v\\.\\ Texas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2003\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\TX\\ law\\ prohibited\\ \\&ldquo\\;deviate\\ sexual\\ intercourse\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ persons\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ sex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ right\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ homosexual\\ sodomy\\,\\ but\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ liberty\\ of\\ sexual\\ intimacy\\ crucial\\ to\\ leading\\ of\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\essentially\\ a\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\ case\\;\\ overrules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bowers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\respect\\ for\\ private\\ lives\\;\\ right\\ to\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;persons\\ in\\ every\\ generation\\ can\\ invoke\\ its\\ principles\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ search\\ for\\ greater\\ freedom\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Romer\\ v\\.\\ Evans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1996\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CO\\ state\\ constitution\\ says\\ that\\ homosexuals\\ should\\ not\\ get\\ protected\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ uses\\ rational\\ basis\\ review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\says\\ legislation\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ narrow\\ and\\ too\\ broad\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seizes\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ trait\\ \\(homosexuality\\)\\ and\\ broadly\\ subjects\\ those\\ people\\ to\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ legal\\ disabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ shows\\ special\\ concern\\ for\\ gays\\:\\ worried\\ about\\ animus\\,\\ prejudice\\,\\ discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Shapiro\\ v\\.\\ Thompson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1969\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\ Court\\,\\ showing\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\statutes\\ in\\ CT\\,\\ PA\\,\\ and\\ D\\.C\\.\\ deny\\ welfare\\ to\\ residence\\ who\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ lived\\ their\\ for\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ that\\ these\\ states\\ are\\ penalizing\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\fundamental\\ right\\ is\\ implicated\\;\\ strict\\ scrutiny\\ is\\ used\\;\\ no\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concern\\:\\ this\\ decision\\ will\\ unincentivize\\ states\\ with\\ generous\\ welfare\\ plans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Saenz\\ v\\.\\ Roe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1999\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CA\\ statute\\ limited\\ welfare\\ benefits\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ lived\\ there\\ less\\ than\\ one\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ you\\ move\\ from\\ a\\ state\\ with\\ lower\\ benefits\\,\\ you\\ keep\\ those\\ lower\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\:\\ different\\ treatment\\ of\\ citizenship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Theory\\ of\\ Equal\\ Citizenship\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\formal\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dissent\\:\\ this\\ is\\ beyond\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ travel\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ once\\ you\\ move\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ traveling\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Dandridge\\ v\\.\\ Williams\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\1970\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maryland\\ capped\\ the\\ total\\ amount\\ any\\ family\\ could\\ receive\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aid\\ to\\ Families\\ with\\ Dependent\\ Children\\ Program\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ upholds\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rational\\ basis\\ test\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\state\\ simply\\ trying\\ to\\ balance\\ families\\ on\\ welfare\\ and\\ those\\ supported\\ by\\ employed\\ breadwinner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\San\\ Antonio\\ v\\.\\ Rodriguez\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1973\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\symbolic\\ case\\:\\ protection\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ abandoned\\ by\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parents\\ in\\ San\\ Antonio\\ school\\ district\\ ague\\ that\\ their\\ kids\\ are\\ discriminated\\ against\\,\\ since\\ the\\ property\\ tax\\-planned\\ system\\ greatly\\ hurts\\ their\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rich\\ people\\ paying\\ less\\ for\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powell\\:\\ disproportionate\\ impact\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ unfair\\ intent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\courts\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ fundamental\\ to\\ education\\ unless\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ undeniable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\distinguishing\\ between\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\West\\ VA\\ State\\ Bd\\.\\ of\\ Education\\ v\\.\\ Barnette\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1943\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\compelling\\ a\\ flag\\ salute\\ by\\ public\\ school\\ children\\ whose\\ religious\\ scruples\\ forbade\\ it\\ violated\\ first\\ amendment\\,\\ says\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Hobbie\\ v\\.\\ Unemployment\\ Appeals\\ Commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1987\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hobbie\\ appealed\\ firing\\ after\\ she\\ refused\\ to\\ work\\ certain\\ scheduled\\ hours\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ interfered\\ with\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ruling\\:\\ government\\ must\\ recognize\\ exemptions\\ for\\ conscientious\\ religious\\ objectors\\ unless\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\free\\ exercise\\ clause\\ implicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Employment\\ Division\\ v\\.\\ Smith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1990\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smith\\,\\ member\\ of\\ Native\\ American\\ Church\\,\\ in\\ which\\ peyote\\-smoking\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ religious\\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\law\\ in\\ question\\ was\\ generally\\ applied\\,\\ not\\ targeting\\ Native\\ American\\ Church\\ members\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ have\\ never\\ held\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ excuse\\ him\\ from\\ compliance\\ with\\ an\\ otherwise\\ valid\\ law\\ prohibiting\\ conduct\\ that\\ the\\ State\\ is\\ free\\ to\\ regulate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ other\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ neutrally\\ applied\\ laws\\ have\\ been\\ exempted\\ \\(such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Yoder\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ other\\ rights\\,\\ such\\ as\\ freedom\\ to\\ raise\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\,\\ freedom\\ of\\ the\\ press\\,\\ have\\ been\\ implicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Says\\ Court\\ should\\ not\\ apply\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\ test\\ because\\ then\\ it\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ too\\ many\\ questions\\ with\\ too\\ much\\ uncertainty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Wisconsin\\ v\\.\\ Yoder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amish\\ man\\ allowed\\ to\\ pull\\ his\\ child\\ from\\ school\\ before\\ age\\ 16\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ against\\ his\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ to\\ keep\\ her\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Church\\ of\\ Lukumi\\ Babalu\\ Aye\\ v\\.\\ Hialeah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1993\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ritual\\ sacrificing\\ of\\ small\\ animals\\ banned\\ in\\ this\\ FL\\ city\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ct\\ overrules\\ law\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ generally\\ applicable\\ law\\,\\ but\\ one\\ targeting\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Locke\\ v\\.\\ Davey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2004\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Washington\\ State\\ denies\\ scholarships\\ for\\ ministry\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ allows\\ the\\ state\\ to\\ do\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ can\\ decide\\ not\\ to\\ use\\ taxpayer\\ money\\ for\\ religious\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Everson\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1947\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\first\\ case\\ testing\\ the\\ Establishment\\ Clause\\ with\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;incorporation\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NJ\\ town\\ says\\ it\\ will\\ pay\\ transit\\ costs\\ for\\ kids\\ going\\ to\\ school\\,\\ including\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\ Black\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;wall\\ of\\ separation\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ Church\\ and\\ State\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formal\\ neutrality\\:\\ govt\\.\\ can\\ make\\ no\\ law\\ or\\ policy\\ that\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ religion\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\decision\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dissent\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Substantive\\ neutrality\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ government\\,\\ in\\ supporting\\ the\\ parochial\\ school\\,\\ encourages\\ people\\ to\\ go\\ there\\,\\ so\\ the\\ substantive\\ effect\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ religious\\ subsidy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Walz\\ v\\.\\ Tax\\ Commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1970\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\ rules\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ tax\\ exempt\\ status\\ for\\ church\\,\\ since\\ the\\ laws\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ place\\ for\\ so\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\result\\:\\ government\\ can\\ give\\ tax\\ breaks\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sending\\ checks\\ to\\ the\\ actual\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lemon\\ v\\.\\ Kurtzman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1971\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\states\\ were\\ supplementing\\ salaries\\ of\\ schoolteachers\\ in\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ strikes\\ down\\ these\\ statutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\says\\ no\\ statute\\ with\\ the\\ purpose\\,\\ principle\\,\\ or\\ primary\\ effect\\ of\\ religious\\ endorsement\\,\\ or\\,\\ which\\ overly\\ entangles\\ the\\ government\\ with\\ religion\\,\\ is\\ acceptable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Zelman\\ v\\.\\ Simmons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2002\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\school\\ vouchers\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ split\\:\\ 4\\ conservative\\ judges\\ say\\ the\\ formal\\ neutrality\\ test\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\,\\ 4\\ liberal\\ judges\\ say\\ the\\ substantive\\ neutrality\\ test\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ formal\\ neutrality\\ matters\\,\\ but\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reasonable\\ Observer\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\ is\\ more\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\she\\ says\\ that\\ a\\ reasonable\\ observer\\ would\\ not\\ think\\ the\\ government\\ was\\ endorsing\\ parochial\\ education\\ through\\ vouchers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Mitchell\\ v\\.\\ Helms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\government\\ paying\\ for\\ materials\\ for\\ parochial\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\&rsquo\\;Connor\\:\\ this\\ is\\ ok\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ materials\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ used\\ for\\ theology\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Allegheny\\ Country\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1989\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Creche\\ featured\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ a\\ grand\\ staircase\\ near\\ Allegheny\\ County\\ Courthouse\\,\\ menorah\\ nearby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ that\\ the\\ creche\\ violates\\ the\\ reasonable\\ viewer\\ test\\:\\ people\\ would\\ think\\,\\ says\\ Blackmun\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ occupies\\ this\\ location\\ with\\.\\.\\.support\\ and\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ which\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ celebrate\\ Christmas\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ endorsing\\ a\\ patently\\ Christian\\ message\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dissenters\\ say\\ that\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ coercion\\,\\ the\\ Endorsement\\ Clause\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ violated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NO\\ ONE\\ says\\ that\\ they\\ think\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ symbolic\\ support\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\McCreary\\ County\\ v\\.\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\ commandments\\ in\\ KT\\ courthouse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\court\\ rules\\ 5\\-4\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\violates\\ the\\ Endorsement\\ Clause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Van\\ Orden\\ v\\.\\ Perry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\monument\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ up\\ since\\ 1960s\\ around\\ TX\\ State\\ Capitol\\ of\\ 10\\ commandments\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ stay\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breyer\\:\\ limits\\ of\\ public\\ acceptance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ one\\ has\\ complained\\ about\\ the\\ think\\ for\\ this\\ long\\,\\ so\\ it\\ has\\ historical\\ significance\\ to\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Katzenbach\\ v\\.\\ Morgan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1968\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ had\\ enacted\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ legislation\\ to\\ protect\\ minorities\\ \\(The\\ Voting\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ 1965\\,\\ Section\\ 4e\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Lassiter\\ v\\.\\ Northampton\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1958\\)\\,\\ the\\ Equal\\ Protection\\ Clause\\,\\ said\\ the\\ court\\,\\ was\\ not\\ violated\\ when\\ voting\\ was\\ denied\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ failed\\ literacy\\ tests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\,\\ court\\ upheld\\ section\\ 4e\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reasoning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ Congress\\ give\\ itself\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ nullify\\ a\\ state\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Court\\ uses\\ McCulloch\\ v\\.\\ Maryland\\ standard\\ of\\ Congress\\ passing\\ \\&ldquo\\;appropriate\\ legislation\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ question\\:\\ is\\ this\\ legislation\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Congress\\ was\\ appropriate\\,\\ says\\ Brennan\\,\\ in\\ its\\ reasoning\\ behind\\ passing\\ the\\ law\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ legitimate\\ exercise\\ of\\ its\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\City\\ of\\ Boerne\\ v\\.\\ Flores\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1997\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Current\\ Doctrine\\ concerning\\ Congressional\\ Power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ in\\ TX\\ wanted\\ to\\ expand\\,\\ the\\ state\\ said\\ no\\ due\\ to\\ zoning\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Church\\ said\\ it\\ has\\ Congressional\\ right\\ to\\ expand\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ Religious\\ Freedom\\ Reformation\\ Act\\ \\(RFRA\\)\\,\\ wherein\\ if\\ a\\ state\\ or\\ local\\ govt\\.\\ is\\ burdening\\ religion\\,\\ they\\ must\\ relax\\ their\\ laws\\ without\\ a\\ compelling\\ governmental\\ interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Court\\:\\ a\\ state\\ can\\ compensate\\ for\\ Congressional\\ violations\\,\\ but\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ choose\\ to\\ make\\ substantive\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ the\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 16, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/CLStudy_Guide_2.doc", "desc": "Final Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Hebrew Bible - Midterm Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "hebrew", "bible"], "text": null, "id": 81, "html": "\\\\\\Hebrew\\_Bible\\_Midterm\\_Study\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{text\\-indent\\:4\\.5pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:\\-4\\.5pt\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c28\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c35\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c17\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c38\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c46\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{color\\:\\#0e62be\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Trebuchet\\ MS\\\"\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c31\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-58\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:58\\.5pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-54pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c48\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-198pt\\;margin\\-left\\:198pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c30\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-117pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c36\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-81pt\\;margin\\-left\\:81pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c39\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-76\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:76\\.5pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:13\\.5pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c32\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-126pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c44\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-85\\.5pt\\;margin\\-left\\:85\\.5pt\\}\\.c47\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c43\\{margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-90pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c34\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c33\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c42\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c29\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:\\-4\\.5pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c40\\{text\\-indent\\:4\\.5pt\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#993366\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Trebuchet\\ MS\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#33cc33\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#9933ff\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Hebrew\\ Bible\\ Midterm\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ \\#1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Do\\ the\\ books\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\(\\=The\\ Tanakh\\,\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Scriptures\\,\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\)\\ differ\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;normal\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ regular\\ books\\?\\ \\ \\;If\\ so\\,\\ how\\?\\ Would\\ ancient\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ agree\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ these\\ questions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ways\\ in\\ which\\ Bible\\ differs\\ from\\ other\\ books\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gradual\\ process\\ of\\ canonization\\ \\(see\\ Brettler\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bible\\ is\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ books\\ with\\ varied\\ viewpoints\\,\\ coming\\ from\\ different\\ eras\\,\\ places\\,\\ and\\ social\\ stratas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bible\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;alive\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ constantly\\ being\\ reinterpreted\\ both\\ within\\ itself\\ and\\ by\\ outside\\ scholars\\ \\(see\\ Sommer\\-\\ inner\\-biblical\\ interpretation\\ and\\ Stern\\-\\ midrash\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bible\\ is\\ God\\ given\\,\\ omnisignificant\\,\\ divine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interpretation\\ reveals\\ revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ basic\\ beliefs\\ about\\ bible\\ \\(both\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Christian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Bible\\ was\\ a\\ cryptic\\ document\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\ was\\ a\\ perfect\\ document\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ always\\ relevant\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\ was\\ of\\ divine\\ origin\\ \\(See\\ Stern\\ article\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ Chicago\\ Statement\\ on\\ Inerrancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Would\\ ancient\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ agree\\ with\\ this\\ answer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Yes\\,\\ both\\ groups\\ believed\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ stated\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\,\\ how\\ they\\ interpreted\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ the\\ conclusions\\ they\\ drew\\ were\\ quite\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ Stern\\ article\\ summary\\ for\\ difference\\ in\\ how\\ they\\ were\\ interpreted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ Enslin\\,\\ Justin\\,\\ Martyr\\,\\ Barabas\\,\\ Tomson\\ for\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ conclusions\\ that\\ were\\ drawn\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Outline\\ for\\ Essay\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scriptures\\ differ\\ from\\ normal\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ disagree\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ Bible\\ would\\ differ\\ from\\ a\\ normal\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Common\\ views\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ differ\\ from\\ normal\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Compilation\\ of\\ multiple\\ authors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ leads\\ to\\ exegesis\\ and\\ self\\-interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Debate\\ over\\ the\\ credibility\\ or\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ authors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leads\\ to\\ historical\\ ambiguity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thought\\ to\\ be\\ written\\ under\\ divine\\ inspiration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\ they\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ eternally\\ true\\ and\\ infallible\\ \\(different\\ from\\ normal\\ books\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Omnisignificant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ everything\\ means\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ contradictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ disagree\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Bible\\ is\\ law\\ for\\ both\\ Christians\\ and\\ Jews\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ it\\ different\\ from\\ normal\\ books\\,\\ but\\ they\\ disagree\\ on\\ how\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ followed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jews\\ feel\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\ should\\ be\\ interpreted\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ metaphorically\\ \\(usually\\ literally\\)\\ while\\ Christians\\ tend\\ to\\ read\\ it\\ allegorically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Typologies\\ of\\ Christ\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ testament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ Christ\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ decode\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ makes\\ Judaism\\ not\\-Christianity\\,\\ and\\ what\\ makes\\ Christianity\\ not\\-Judaism\\?\\ How\\ do\\ modern\\ scholars\\ like\\ Morton\\ Scott\\ Enslin\\ answer\\ this\\ question\\,\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ Justin\\ answer\\ it\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;parting\\ of\\ ways\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ coming\\ to\\ occupy\\ separate\\ social\\ space\\,\\ with\\ separate\\ institutions\\,\\ political\\ structures\\ and\\ social\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ define\\ themselves\\ against\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jesus\\ as\\ a\\ teacher\\/prophet\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Interpretation\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inclusiveness\\ of\\ the\\ Gentiles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laws\\/rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Circumcision\\/Sabbath\\ vs\\.\\ baptism\\ and\\ communion\\.\\ Food\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ Despite\\ their\\ basis\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ original\\ text\\,\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ or\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ Christianity\\ and\\ Judaism\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ different\\ interpretations\\ of\\ this\\ text\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ different\\ interpretations\\ stem\\ from\\ their\\ differing\\ beliefs\\ in\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ Christ\\ and\\ result\\ in\\ different\\ sets\\ of\\ laws\\ and\\ rituals\\,\\ effectively\\ separating\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-different\\ scriptural\\ interpretations\\ \\(jesus\\ as\\ hermeneutical\\ key\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-circumcision\\/Sabbath\\ YES\\ jews\\ NO\\ Christians\\ \\(this\\ might\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ place\\ to\\ stick\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enslin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1897\\-1980\\)\\-Author\\ of\\ many\\ books\\ on\\ New\\ Testament\\ and\\ early\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ key\\ points\\ from\\ Enslin\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Jesus\\ was\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\eschatological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;prophet\\ meaning\\ he\\ was\\ announcing\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ demanding\\ repentance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Jesus\\ was\\ a\\ reformer\\ from\\ within\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Jesus\\ had\\ no\\ intention\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ new\\ religion\\ or\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;church\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Jesus\\ did\\ not\\ depart\\ from\\ Jewish\\ practice\\ or\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jesus\\ movement\\ becomes\\ a\\ sect\\ or\\ party\\ of\\ Judaism\\ after\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ of\\ Acts\\ and\\ Letters\\ of\\ Paul\\ describe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\ group\\ in\\ Judaea\\ continue\\ basic\\ themes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Jesus\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ In\\ Diaspora\\ incorporation\\ of\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ gentiles\\ and\\ decision\\ not\\ to\\ observe\\ all\\ commandments\\ in\\ Torah\\ \\(Paul\\)\\ inevitably\\ creates\\ non\\-Jewish\\ society\\ and\\ non\\-Jewish\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Variety\\ and\\ diversity\\ of\\ earliest\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ Martyr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takes\\ the\\ separation\\ between\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\ for\\ granted\\;\\ uses\\ word\\ Christian\\ \\(but\\ not\\ Christianity\\;\\ unclear\\ why\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ believed\\ that\\ Jesus\\ absolutely\\ son\\ of\\ God\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ Enslin\\ who\\ thought\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ prophet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Justin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ scriptures\\ was\\ this\\ is\\ OUR\\ book\\,\\ not\\ yours\\,\\ we\\ understand\\ it\\ you\\ misunderstand\\ it\\ etc\\.\\ \\(29\\ would\\ probably\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ quote\\ to\\ stick\\ in\\ here\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-as\\ a\\ Gentile\\,\\ Justin\\ was\\ uncircumcised\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ rituals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-see\\ above\\ quotes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ makes\\ Judaism\\ not\\-Christianity\\,\\ and\\ what\\ makes\\ Christianity\\ not\\-Judaism\\?\\ How\\ do\\ modern\\ scholars\\ like\\ Morton\\ Scott\\ Enslin\\ answer\\ this\\ question\\,\\ and\\ how\\ does\\ Justin\\ answer\\ it\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ideas\\ that\\ go\\ with\\ this\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;parting\\ of\\ ways\\&rdquo\\;\\=\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ coming\\ to\\ occupy\\ separate\\ social\\ space\\,\\ with\\ separate\\ institutions\\,\\ political\\ structures\\ and\\ social\\ networks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ define\\ themselves\\ against\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jesus\\ as\\ a\\ teacher\\/prophet\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Interpretation\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inclusiveness\\ of\\ the\\ Gentiles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laws\\/rituals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Thesis\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Despite\\ their\\ basis\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ original\\ text\\,\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ or\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ Christianity\\ and\\ Judaism\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ different\\ interpretations\\ of\\ this\\ text\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ different\\ interpretations\\ stem\\ from\\ their\\ differing\\ beliefs\\ in\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;Christians\\ believe\\ that\\ Jesus\\ represents\\ their\\ covenant\\ with\\ God\\ while\\ Jews\\ still\\ follow\\ the\\ literal\\ covenants\\ that\\ they\\ believe\\ God\\ has\\ set\\ forth\\ for\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ The\\ result\\ is\\ different\\ sets\\ of\\ laws\\ and\\ rituals\\,\\ effectively\\ separating\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WHAT\\ MAKES\\ THEM\\ NOT\\ EACHOTHER\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rituals\\ and\\ Laws\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ Jews\\ observe\\ strict\\ laws\\ concerning\\ pork\\ \\(best\\ example\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Food\\ laws\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ define\\ social\\ boundaries\\:\\ ie\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ jews\\,\\ do\\ no\\ eat\\ pork\\ we\\ should\\ together\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Do\\ not\\ boil\\ a\\ kid\\ in\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ milk\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ USE\\ THIS\\!\\ Cohen\\ loves\\ it\\ way\\ to\\ much\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ Circumcision\\:\\ physical\\ interpretation\\:\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ central\\ to\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ covanent\\ with\\ Jews\\,\\ Christians\\ interpret\\ this\\ metaphorically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;C\\.\\ Baptism\\ and\\ Communion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enslin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1897\\-1980\\)\\-Author\\ of\\ many\\ books\\ on\\ New\\ Testament\\ and\\ early\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ key\\ points\\ from\\ Enslin\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Jesus\\ was\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\eschatological\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;prophet\\ meaning\\ he\\ was\\ announcing\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ demanding\\ repentance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Jesus\\ was\\ a\\ reformer\\ from\\ within\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Jesus\\ had\\ no\\ intention\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ new\\ religion\\ or\\ new\\ \\&ldquo\\;church\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Jesus\\ did\\ not\\ depart\\ from\\ Jewish\\ practice\\ or\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jesus\\ movement\\ becomes\\ a\\ sect\\ or\\ party\\ of\\ Judaism\\ after\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ of\\ Acts\\ and\\ Letters\\ of\\ Paul\\ describe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\ group\\ in\\ Judaea\\ continue\\ basic\\ themes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Jesus\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ Diaspora\\ incorporation\\ of\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ gentiles\\ and\\ decision\\ not\\ to\\ observe\\ all\\ commandments\\ in\\ Torah\\ \\(Paul\\)\\ inevitably\\ creates\\ non\\-Jewish\\ society\\ and\\ non\\-Jewish\\ religion\\-\\ Christians\\ have\\ broken\\ off\\ from\\ Jews\\ and\\ are\\ fundamentally\\ the\\ same\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\ \\;Enslin\\,\\ unlike\\ Justin\\,\\ does\\ not\\ advertise\\ one\\ over\\ the\\ other\\,\\ in\\ fact\\ he\\ stresses\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\ go\\ to\\ your\\ church\\ \\(or\\ synogoge\\)\\ but\\ let\\ us\\ walk\\ together\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ Martyr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Takes\\ the\\ separation\\ between\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\ for\\ granted\\;\\ uses\\ word\\ Christian\\ \\(but\\ not\\ Christianity\\;\\ unclear\\ why\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ believed\\ that\\ Jesus\\ absolutely\\ son\\ of\\ God\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ Enslin\\ who\\ thought\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ prophet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Justin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ scriptures\\ was\\ this\\ is\\ OUR\\ book\\,\\ not\\ yours\\,\\ we\\ understand\\ it\\ you\\ misunderstand\\ it\\ etc\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ we\\ believe\\ and\\ obey\\ them\\,\\ whereas\\ you\\,\\ though\\ you\\ read\\ them\\,\\ do\\ not\\ grasp\\ their\\ spirit\\&rdquo\\;\\-justin\\ 29\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-as\\ a\\ Gentile\\,\\ Justin\\ was\\ uncircumcised\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ rituals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Believes\\ that\\ Christians\\ have\\ a\\ covenant\\ with\\ God\\ that\\ was\\ established\\ with\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\ faith\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ thing\\ that\\ is\\ required\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-While\\ Enslin\\ is\\ at\\ worst\\ neutral\\ to\\ Judaism\\,\\ Justin\\ is\\ fairly\\ harsh\\.\\ \\ \\;Believes\\ that\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\ rituals\\ that\\ distinguish\\ Jews\\ are\\ necessary\\ as\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ punishing\\ them\\ for\\ their\\ unfaithfulness\\ throughout\\ time\\.\\ In\\ particular\\,\\ Jews\\ must\\ circumcise\\ themselves\\ to\\ distinguish\\ who\\ the\\ sinners\\ are\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ \\#3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Though\\ Christians\\ tended\\ to\\ interpret\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Scriptures\\ much\\ more\\ allegorically\\ than\\ Jews\\ did\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ use\\ it\\ only\\ to\\ justify\\ their\\ a\\ priori\\ claims\\ to\\ authority\\ and\\ legitimacy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instead\\,\\ Christianity\\ built\\ upon\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Scriptures\\ and\\ Jewish\\ Tradition\\ by\\ using\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ as\\ their\\ lens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christians\\ adhered\\ to\\ the\\ scriptures\\ just\\ as\\ closely\\ as\\ Jews\\ did\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Judaism\\ followed\\ the\\ text\\ much\\ more\\ literally\\,\\ though\\ not\\ necessarily\\ more\\ closely\\,\\ than\\ Christianity\\ did\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Follow\\ the\\ Food\\ Laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ God\\ said\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ eat\\ unclean\\ animals\\,\\ the\\ abstained\\ from\\ eating\\ such\\ animals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Leviticus\\ 11\\ \\&\\;\\ Deuteronomy\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Circumcise\\ son\\ on\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ to\\ reaffirm\\ a\\ covenant\\ with\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Genesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ Jews\\ do\\ not\\ interpret\\ COMEPLETELY\\ literally\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\there\\ are\\ some\\ exceptions\\ where\\ Jews\\ interpret\\ allegorically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ not\\ boil\\ a\\ kid\\ in\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ milk\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ mostly\\,\\ the\\ Jews\\ read\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ scriptures\\ literally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christians\\ read\\ the\\ same\\ scriptures\\ as\\ the\\ Jews\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pelikan\\:\\ 10\\ commandments\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ same\\ for\\ Christianity\\,\\ though\\ other\\ laws\\ take\\ a\\ backseat\\ to\\ these\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Golden\\ Rule\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\based\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ your\\ neighbor\\&rdquo\\;\\ commandment\\ in\\ Leviticus\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\but\\ Leviticus\\ 19\\ has\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ revenge\\ aspect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\,\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ built\\ upon\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ Christians\\ interpreted\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ passages\\ allegorically\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ clarified\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pelikan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Paul\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ was\\ meaningless\\ without\\ its\\ New\\ Testament\\ counterpart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Justin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ scripture\\ is\\ ours\\,\\ not\\ yours\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ text\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ what\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ mean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jesus\\ \\=\\ decoder\\ ring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Food\\ Laws\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Barnabas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\interpreted\\ do\\ not\\ eat\\ pork\\ as\\ do\\ not\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ porcine\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ Circumcised\\ out\\ ears\\ and\\ mouths\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ understand\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ covenant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\still\\ important\\ \\(Genesis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\a\\ physical\\ circumcision\\ is\\ unnecessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\spiritual\\ circumcision\\ takes\\ precedence\\ \\(Paul\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\While\\ Jews\\ interpret\\ more\\ literally\\,\\ christians\\ interpret\\ more\\ allegorically\\.\\ \\ \\;Christians\\ did\\ not\\ simply\\ use\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ scriptures\\ to\\ back\\ up\\ their\\ random\\ claims\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ they\\ followed\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ closely\\,\\ but\\,\\ with\\ Christ\\ as\\ their\\ lens\\,\\ chose\\ to\\ interpret\\ it\\ differently\\ than\\ the\\ Jews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ 4\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ How\\ has\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ circumcision\\ in\\ Genesis\\ 17\\ been\\ developed\\ in\\ rabbinic\\ and\\ Christian\\ thought\\?\\ And\\ how\\ \\&\\#39\\;biblical\\&\\#39\\;\\ is\\ each\\ development\\?\\ Provide\\ specific\\ examples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ Gen\\.\\ 17\\,\\ God\\ promises\\ Abraham\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ descendants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ instructs\\ Abraham\\ and\\ his\\ offspring\\ to\\ circumcise\\ their\\ foreskin\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ their\\ covenant\\;\\ circumcision\\ is\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Importance\\ of\\ circumcision\\ is\\ emphasized\\ in\\ rabbinic\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ increased\\ emphasis\\ possibly\\ intends\\ to\\ counter\\ those\\ who\\ place\\ little\\ emphasis\\ on\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ rabbinic\\ developments\\ in\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ circumcision\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ Bible\\ for\\ justification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mishnah\\ \\(1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rabbinic\\ book\\)\\ notes\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ circumcision\\ overrules\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ performed\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ if\\ that\\ is\\ 8\\ days\\ after\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ a\\ male\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ the\\ Mishnah\\ and\\ the\\ Talmud\\ say\\ that\\ Abraham\\ was\\ righteous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\but\\ not\\ perfect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;until\\ he\\ was\\ circumcised\\;\\ cites\\ Gen\\.\\ 17\\:1\\ as\\ proof\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ the\\ Mishnah\\ and\\ the\\ Talmud\\ also\\ hold\\ that\\ if\\ it\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ for\\ circumcision\\,\\ God\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ created\\ the\\ universe\\;\\ cites\\ Jeremiah\\ 33\\ as\\ proof\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Understanding\\ of\\ circumcision\\ in\\ Christian\\ thought\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ is\\ prevalent\\ throughout\\ Deuteronomy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christians\\ emphasize\\ metaphorical\\ circumcision\\ rather\\ than\\ physical\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ believe\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ open\\ your\\ heart\\ to\\ God\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ circumcise\\ your\\ heart\\ so\\ you\\ can\\ understand\\ divine\\ commands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christians\\ developments\\ in\\ understanding\\ of\\ circumcision\\ have\\ some\\ biblical\\ proof\\,\\ but\\ not\\ a\\ lot\\;\\ basis\\ is\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mention\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ and\\ Justin\\ argue\\ against\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ physical\\ circumcision\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ Abraham\\ was\\ righteous\\ before\\ he\\ was\\ circumcised\\;\\ uses\\ Gen\\.\\ 17\\ to\\ support\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ circumcision\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ faith\\;\\ however\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ have\\ faith\\ without\\ being\\ circumcised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ holds\\ that\\ circumcision\\ and\\ the\\ law\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ keep\\ the\\ law\\,\\ then\\ you\\ are\\ circumcised\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ also\\ believes\\ that\\ circumcision\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ the\\ ethnic\\ divide\\ that\\ should\\ no\\ longer\\ exist\\ between\\ Jews\\ and\\ Gentiles\\;\\ Jews\\ and\\ Gentiles\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ because\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ Christians\\ believe\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ circumcised\\ through\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ argues\\ against\\ importance\\ of\\ circumcision\\ by\\ listing\\ righteous\\ biblical\\ figures\\ who\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ circumcised\\;\\ also\\ women\\ can\\ be\\ righteous\\ w\\/out\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ notes\\ fact\\ that\\ many\\ other\\ nations\\ are\\ circumcised\\,\\ so\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ that\\ Jews\\ are\\ special\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ says\\ that\\ circumcision\\ marks\\ Jews\\ for\\ punishment\\ they\\ deserve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ repeats\\ Paul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ God\\ wants\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justin\\ notes\\ that\\ Joshua\\ was\\ told\\ to\\ circumcise\\ the\\ people\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\anew\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ this\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ first\\ circumcision\\ was\\ bodily\\,\\ but\\ this\\ second\\ one\\ will\\ be\\ spiritual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essay\\ 4\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ How\\ has\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ circumcision\\ in\\ Genesis\\ 17\\ been\\ developed\\ in\\ rabbinic\\ and\\ Christian\\ thought\\?\\ \\ \\;And\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;biblical\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ each\\ development\\?\\ \\ \\;Provide\\ specific\\ examples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ key\\ points\\ that\\ you\\ should\\ have\\ in\\ your\\ arsenal\\ to\\ battle\\ this\\ question\\&hellip\\;that\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ pretty\\ friendly\\ option\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\°\\;\\ \\ \\;Genesis\\ 17\\ states\\ that\\ circumcision\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sign\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ covenant\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Remember\\ Genesis\\ 17\\ is\\ when\\ God\\ comes\\ to\\ Abram\\ and\\ changes\\ him\\ to\\ Abraham\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\berit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ covenant\\ promising\\ land\\ and\\ fertility\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ circumcision\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;sign\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\ be\\ interpreted\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\,\\ but\\ 2\\ important\\ ones\\ are\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ sign\\ to\\ distinguish\\ the\\ Israelites\\ as\\ a\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ others\\,\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;post\\-it\\&rdquo\\;\\ note\\ for\\ God\\ to\\ uphold\\ his\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;Rabbinic\\ understanding\\ of\\ circumcision\\ is\\ three\\-fold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Because\\ circumcision\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;13\\ covenants\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ is\\ extraordinarily\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ Jewish\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ therefore\\ the\\ quintessential\\ part\\ of\\ defining\\ a\\ Jew\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circumcision\\ overrides\\ the\\ Sabbath\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ of\\ a\\ boy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ Sabbath\\,\\ he\\ should\\ still\\ be\\ circumcised\\ on\\ that\\ day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abraham\\ reached\\ perfection\\ when\\ circumcised\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 99\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ \\ \\;Christian\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ carnal\\ circumcision\\ is\\ unnecessary\\,\\ but\\ metaphorical\\,\\ or\\ allegorical\\ circumcision\\ is\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ cutting\\ away\\ the\\ tough\\ outer\\ layer\\ of\\ your\\ heart\\,\\ clearing\\ your\\ ears\\,\\ opening\\ your\\ lips\\,\\ etc\\,\\ you\\ are\\ ready\\ to\\ be\\ instructed\\ by\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Justin\\ saw\\ circumcision\\ as\\ a\\ punishment\\ for\\ the\\ unruly\\ Jews\\ who\\ needed\\ punishment\\ to\\ get\\ their\\ act\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;Christians\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ follow\\ it\\ because\\ they\\ already\\ are\\ not\\ hard\\ of\\ heart\\ and\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ understand\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teachings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christians\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ obey\\ this\\ law\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ baptism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allegorized\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ is\\ actually\\ what\\ was\\ meant\\ by\\ this\\ passage\\ in\\ Genesis\\ and\\ this\\ point\\ is\\ outlined\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\.\\ \\ \\;Paul\\,\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ Jew\\,\\ but\\ along\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ Christianity\\,\\ suggested\\ that\\ circumcision\\ was\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ faith\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ faith\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ really\\ want\\,\\ although\\ physical\\ circumcision\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ necessary\\.\\ \\ \\;Paul\\ also\\ continued\\ that\\ Jesus\\ was\\ circumcised\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ all\\ Christians\\ who\\ could\\ then\\ live\\ vicariously\\ through\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ an\\ applicability\\ for\\ everyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ say\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;biblical\\&rdquo\\;\\ each\\ development\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;Parts\\ of\\ Genesis\\ and\\ Leviticus\\ do\\ outline\\ specifically\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ circumcision\\,\\ but\\ then\\ again\\ parts\\ of\\ Deuteronomy\\ and\\ Jeremiah\\ do\\ specifically\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ ears\\,\\ lips\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ interpretations\\ are\\ aimed\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ of\\ being\\ closest\\ to\\ the\\ word\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ his\\ covenant\\,\\ but\\ both\\ have\\ changed\\ from\\ the\\ initial\\ practices\\ and\\ therefore\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ equally\\ biblical\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\ Circumcision\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gen\\ 17\\-\\ The\\ 2\\ part\\ covenant\\ is\\ established\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ appears\\ to\\ 99\\-year\\-old\\ Abram\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ He\\ will\\ establish\\ a\\ covenant\\ with\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;God\\ changes\\ Abram\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ to\\ Abraham\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ fertile\\ and\\ shall\\ father\\ many\\ nation\\&mdash\\;even\\ kings\\ will\\ come\\ from\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ addition\\ to\\ this\\ fertility\\,\\ God\\ promises\\ the\\ fertile\\ land\\ of\\ Canaan\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ He\\ will\\ be\\ their\\ everlasting\\ God\\.\\ \\ \\;Abraham\\ and\\ his\\ offspring\\ shall\\ keep\\ the\\ covenant\\ by\\ circumcising\\ every\\ male\\ \\(both\\ his\\ sons\\,\\ foreigners\\,\\ and\\ slaves\\)\\ eight\\ days\\ after\\ they\\ are\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ shall\\ My\\ covenent\\ be\\ marked\\ in\\ your\\ flesh\\ as\\ an\\ everlasting\\ pact\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Not\\ being\\ circumcised\\ is\\ therefore\\ breaking\\ the\\ covenant\\ and\\ that\\ individual\\ will\\ be\\ cut\\ off\\ from\\ his\\ kin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Additionall\\ Sarai\\,\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ infertile\\,\\ 90\\-year\\-old\\ wife\\,\\ shall\\ be\\ called\\ Sarah\\ and\\ will\\ give\\ birth\\ to\\ Isaac\\.\\ \\ \\;God\\ will\\ maintain\\ His\\ covenant\\ with\\ Isaac\\ and\\ his\\ offspring\\,\\ but\\ Ishmael\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\,\\ though\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ fertile\\ land\\ where\\ he\\ shall\\ father\\ twelve\\ chieftains\\ and\\ a\\ great\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abraham\\ circumcised\\ all\\ the\\ males\\-\\ including\\ Ishmael\\ and\\ himself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 12\\:43\\-50\\ \\ \\;The\\ Law\\ of\\ the\\ Passover\\ Offering\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Lord\\ tells\\ Moses\\ and\\ Aaron\\ that\\ the\\ Passover\\ offering\\ may\\ only\\ be\\ eaten\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ foreigners\\,\\ slaves\\,\\ or\\ laborers\\ shall\\ eat\\ of\\ it\\ unless\\ they\\ are\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ community\\ shall\\ offer\\ it\\,\\ and\\ it\\ shall\\ be\\ eaten\\ in\\ one\\ house\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ be\\ a\\ citizen\\ you\\ shall\\ be\\ circumcised\\ and\\ then\\ may\\ offer\\ and\\ eat\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genesis\\ 34\\ The\\ rape\\ of\\ Dinah\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dinah\\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ Jacob\\ and\\ Leah\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;raped\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Shechem\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Hamor\\.\\ \\ \\;Hamor\\ comes\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ Jacob\\ to\\ ask\\ Dinah\\ to\\ marry\\ Schechem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(the\\ words\\ \\&ldquo\\;lie\\ w\\/\\ force\\&rdquo\\;\\ imply\\ that\\ he\\ raped\\ her\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ seems\\ like\\ he\\ loves\\ her\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Jacob\\ and\\ his\\ sons\\ make\\ the\\ deal\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ give\\ him\\ Dinah\\ if\\ he\\ and\\ everyone\\ else\\ are\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ agree\\.and\\ do\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Hamor\\ tells\\ the\\ townspeople\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ get\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ cattle\\ for\\ themselves\\ from\\ Jacob\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ tell\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ just\\ trying\\ to\\ convince\\ them\\,\\ or\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ planned\\ thing\\)\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ when\\ all\\ the\\ men\\ were\\ in\\ pain\\,\\ Simeon\\ and\\ Levi\\ killed\\ all\\ the\\ males\\ in\\ the\\ city\\ and\\ plundered\\ the\\ town\\ because\\ Dinah\\ had\\ been\\ defiled\\.\\ \\ \\;Jacob\\ is\\ very\\ angry\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ sons\\ say\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;should\\ our\\ sister\\ be\\ treated\\ like\\ a\\ whore\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 4\\:24\\-26\\ Moses\\ saved\\ by\\ cutting\\ off\\ his\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foreskin\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zipporah\\,\\ Moses\\&rsquo\\;\\ wife\\,\\ cut\\ off\\ her\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foreskin\\ to\\ save\\ Moses\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\ we\\ find\\ an\\ apotropaic\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leviticus\\ 12\\-\\ \\ \\;after\\ give\\ birth\\ unclean\\ until\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lord\\ tell\\ Moses\\ that\\ women\\ unclean\\ for\\ 7\\ days\\ after\\ giving\\ birth\\ and\\ that\\ on\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ her\\ son\\ shall\\ be\\ circumcised\\ and\\ then\\ blood\\ purification\\ for\\ 33\\ more\\ days\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ girl\\,\\ unclean\\ for\\ 2\\ weeks\\,\\ and\\ then\\ blood\\ purification\\ for\\ 66\\ days\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ she\\ shall\\ make\\ offerings\\ and\\ the\\ priest\\ shall\\ make\\ expiation\\ on\\ her\\ behalf\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joshua\\ 5\\ the\\ second\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ they\\ were\\ about\\ to\\ enter\\ Canaan\\,\\ the\\ Lord\\ told\\ Joshua\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ make\\ flint\\ knives\\ to\\ proceed\\ with\\ a\\ second\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ Israelites\\ because\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ born\\ after\\ the\\ exodus\\,\\ during\\ the\\ desert\\ wanderings\\,\\ had\\ been\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;Everyone\\ is\\ circumcised\\ and\\ stays\\ in\\ the\\ camp\\ to\\ recover\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Passover\\ offering\\ is\\ made\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ Israelites\\ are\\ ready\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ Canaan\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mishnah\\ Nedarim\\/Talmud\\:\\ why\\ circumcision\\ is\\ important\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Circumcision\\ is\\ SO\\ important\\,\\ one\\ rabbi\\ says\\,\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ 13\\ covenants\\ made\\ about\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ rabbinic\\ doctrine\\ specifies\\ that\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ circumcision\\ on\\ the\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;day\\ overrides\\ the\\ Sabbath\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ referred\\ to\\ in\\ John\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Abraham\\ was\\ not\\ perfect\\ until\\ he\\ circumcised\\ himself\\.\\ \\(Talmud\\ say\\ as\\ well\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ sentence\\ that\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ unclear\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Great\\ is\\ circumcision\\,\\ since\\ but\\ for\\ it\\,\\ the\\ Holy\\ One\\,\\ Blessed\\ Be\\ He\\,\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ created\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ written\\,\\ but\\ for\\ my\\ covenant\\ by\\ day\\ and\\ night\\,\\ I\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ appointed\\ the\\ ordinances\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ covenant\\ and\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deuteronomy\\ 10\\:16\\;\\ 30\\:6\\,\\ Jeremiah\\ 4\\:4\\,\\ 6\\:10\\,\\ 9\\:25\\:\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Circumcision\\ is\\ metaphorical\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ meant\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ foreskin\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ lips\\,\\ or\\ ears\\ blocks\\ obedienced\\ to\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ \\ \\;Either\\ God\\ or\\ the\\ Israelites\\ will\\ circumcise\\ the\\ Israelite\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ intellect\\ must\\ be\\ turned\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ understand\\ the\\ divine\\ commandments\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ preparation\\ to\\ accept\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Exodus\\ 6\\:12\\,\\ 30\\;\\ Leviticus\\ 26\\:41\\;\\ Ezekiel\\ 44\\:7\\-9\\)\\ other\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ same\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ What\\ is\\/are\\ the\\ meaning\\/s\\ of\\ Jewish\\ circumcision\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Appear\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ circumstances\\ that\\ are\\ summarized\\ as\\ follows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\tribal\\ mark\\ \\(Gen\\ 34\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ purification\\ sacrifice\\ \\(Lev\\ 12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Apotropaic\\ sacrifice\\ \\(Exodus\\ 4\\:24\\-26\\ and\\ 12\\:43\\-50\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Metaphorical\\ \\(Deut\\,\\ Jeremiah\\,\\ some\\ Exodus\\,\\ Leviticus\\,\\ and\\ Ezekial\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ three\\ main\\ stories\\ in\\ Genesis\\:\\ creation\\,\\ Abraham\\,\\ and\\ Joseph\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ have\\ outlined\\ the\\ major\\ parts\\ of\\ each\\ stories\\-\\ sorry\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ long\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ cover\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ discussion\\ questions\\ and\\ passages\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CREATION\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ FIRST\\ DAYS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\ the\\ symmetry\\ of\\ the\\ days\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;4\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\5\\,\\ 3\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\6\\ and\\ 7\\ is\\ just\\ for\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Day\\ 1\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\light\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ darkness\\;\\ day\\ and\\ night\\,\\ Day\\ 4\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\lights\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ sun\\,\\ moon\\,\\ and\\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Day\\ 2\\:\\ separates\\ the\\ sea\\ from\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ Day\\ 5\\ makes\\ birds\\ and\\ fish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Day\\ 3\\:\\ land\\ and\\ sea\\,\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ land\\ there\\ was\\ seed\\ bearing\\ vegetation\\,\\ Day\\ 6\\:\\ land\\ animals\\ and\\ lastly\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Day\\ 7\\:\\ rested\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;GARDEN\\ OF\\ EDEN\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adam\\ is\\ alone\\,\\ God\\ takes\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ ribs\\ and\\ makes\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ Eve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ serpent\\ tells\\ Eve\\ that\\ she\\ can\\ eat\\ from\\ the\\ tree\\ of\\ knowledge\\ and\\ that\\ she\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ die\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ Eve\\ takes\\ an\\ apple\\ and\\ gives\\ some\\ to\\ Adam\\ and\\ they\\ gain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wisdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ punishment\\ God\\ makes\\ childbearing\\ painful\\ for\\ the\\ woman\\ and\\ forces\\ Man\\ to\\ toil\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\ for\\ food\\ all\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ banned\\ from\\ the\\ Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ eat\\ from\\ the\\ tree\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ live\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ eating\\ from\\ the\\ tree\\ man\\ brings\\ upon\\ himself\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\problems\\ of\\ moral\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notes\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ different\\ ways\\ that\\ man\\ is\\ portrayed\\ in\\ Genesis\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\,\\ first\\ as\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ god\\ and\\ in\\ Gen\\ 2\\ as\\ coming\\ from\\ the\\ dust\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ that\\ God\\ clothes\\ them\\ indicates\\ that\\ their\\ relationship\\ has\\ not\\ ended\\,\\ and\\ shows\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kindness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CAIN\\ AND\\ ABEL\\/NOAH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ have\\ 2\\ sons\\:\\ Cain\\ and\\ Abel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cain\\:\\ tills\\ the\\ soil\\,\\ God\\ does\\ not\\ like\\ his\\ offerings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abel\\ has\\ a\\ flock\\ of\\ Sheep\\ and\\ God\\ likes\\ his\\ offerings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cain\\ is\\ jealous\\ and\\ so\\ he\\ kills\\ Abel\\,\\ as\\ punishment\\ he\\ is\\ banned\\ from\\ Eden\\ and\\ he\\ goes\\ east\\ to\\ Nod\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ have\\ Seth\\,\\ Seth\\ has\\ a\\ son\\ Enosh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ of\\ mankind\\ is\\ wicked\\ and\\ God\\ regrets\\ having\\ made\\ man\\,\\ enter\\ Noah\\ who\\ is\\ good\\ favor\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ arc\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ boat\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ future\\ generations\\ of\\ life\\:\\ represents\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ willingness\\ to\\ protect\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ moral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ABRAHAM\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genesis\\ 12\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ sends\\ Abram\\ and\\ his\\ family\\ to\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Canaan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ famine\\ so\\ Abram\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ Sarai\\ go\\ to\\ Egypt\\ where\\ they\\ say\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ sister\\ and\\ brother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Pharaoh\\ takes\\ Sarai\\ as\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ is\\ punished\\ by\\ God\\,\\ both\\ are\\ sent\\ out\\ of\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ not\\ trusting\\ God\\ to\\ protect\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Sarai\\,\\ Abram\\ inadvertently\\ subjects\\ her\\ to\\ sexual\\ victimization\\.\\ It\\ is\\ for\\ this\\ reason\\ that\\ his\\ descendents\\ suffer\\ a\\ painful\\ exile\\ in\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genesis\\ 15\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-predicts\\ the\\ Jew\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 400\\ years\\ of\\ enslavement\\ in\\ Egypt\\ but\\ God\\ maintains\\ his\\ promise\\ to\\ give\\ them\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genesis\\ 21\\,\\ 22\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ gives\\ Abraham\\ and\\ Sarah\\ their\\ first\\ son\\ Isaac\\ when\\ Abraham\\ is\\ very\\ old\\ \\(this\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ circumcision\\ and\\ did\\ this\\ establish\\ the\\ covenant\\ or\\ represent\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isaac\\ is\\ circumcised\\ 8\\ days\\ after\\ his\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\.\\ tells\\ A\\.\\ to\\ send\\ away\\ his\\ other\\ son\\,\\ Ishmael\\ and\\ his\\ Egyptian\\ mother\\ Hagar\\,\\ he\\ hesitates\\ but\\ God\\ says\\ he\\ will\\ make\\ a\\ land\\ for\\ his\\ other\\ son\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genesis\\ 22\\ \\(Akedah\\)\\:\\ Abraham\\ takes\\ Isaac\\ up\\ a\\ mountain\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ him\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ moment\\ angels\\ give\\ him\\ a\\ sheep\\ instead\\;\\ he\\ has\\ proven\\ his\\ devotion\\ to\\ God\\ with\\ his\\ willingness\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ his\\ own\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\ Nahor\\ has\\ 8\\ children\\,\\ one\\ of\\ whom\\ is\\ Rebekah\\ who\\ marries\\ Isaac\\ and\\ thus\\ becomes\\ the\\ second\\ matriarch\\ of\\ Israel\\ \\(the\\ first\\ being\\ Sarah\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JOSEPH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basic\\ story\\ of\\ Joseph\\:\\ is\\ the\\ youngest\\ son\\ of\\ Jacob\\,\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ him\\ because\\ he\\ has\\ dreams\\ of\\ ruling\\ over\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ \\(or\\ possibly\\ the\\ gypsy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ walking\\ by\\)\\ sell\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ Egyptians\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ proves\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ good\\ at\\ interpreting\\ dreams\\ for\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\ so\\ he\\ is\\ put\\ in\\ change\\ of\\ basically\\ all\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\ \\ \\;Eventually\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ famine\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ reunited\\ with\\ his\\ brothers\\ and\\ his\\ youngest\\ brother\\ Benjamin\\,\\ who\\ he\\ had\\ never\\ met\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ beginning\\ the\\ Israelites\\ inhabitants\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ and\\ his\\ Brothers\\:\\ 37\\,\\ 39\\-47\\,\\ 50\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Jacob\\,\\ is\\ best\\ liked\\ by\\ Jacob\\ and\\ has\\ dreams\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\ bowing\\ down\\ to\\ him\\-\\ his\\ brothers\\ hate\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Hear\\ this\\ dream\\ which\\ I\\ have\\ dreamedL\\ There\\ we\\ were\\ binding\\ sheaves\\ in\\ the\\ field\\,\\ when\\ suddenly\\ my\\ sheaf\\ stood\\ up\\ and\\ remained\\ up\\ right\\;\\ then\\ your\\ sheaves\\ gathered\\ around\\ and\\ bowed\\ low\\ to\\ my\\ sheaf\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ are\\ angered\\ by\\ this\\ dream\\ and\\ think\\ it\\ means\\ that\\ Joseph\\ intends\\ to\\ rule\\ over\\ them\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\symbolism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ grain\\-\\ later\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ grain\\ and\\ feed\\ them\\ when\\ they\\ do\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ day\\ they\\ conspire\\ to\\ kill\\ Jacob\\ but\\ instead\\ sell\\ him\\ to\\ Midianite\\ traders\\ who\\ sold\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ Egyptian\\ Pharaoh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ 28\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;they\\ pulled\\ him\\ from\\ the\\ pit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;it\\ is\\ unclear\\ who\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;they\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\:\\ the\\ Midianties\\ or\\ his\\ brothers\\,\\ if\\ Midianties\\ then\\ the\\ brothers\\ truly\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ him\\ but\\ this\\ must\\ mean\\ that\\ mid\\.\\ Sell\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ Ishmaelites\\ HOWEVER\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ Midianties\\ who\\ sell\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ Egyptians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ tell\\ Jacob\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ eaten\\ by\\ a\\ wild\\ beast\\ and\\ they\\ give\\ him\\ Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tunic\\ covered\\ in\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\39\\-47\\:\\ The\\ story\\ of\\ Joseph\\ in\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ is\\ favored\\ by\\ God\\ and\\ everything\\ he\\ does\\ turns\\ out\\ well\\ so\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\ likes\\ him\\,\\ until\\ one\\ day\\ his\\ wife\\ seduces\\ Joseph\\ but\\ says\\ it\\ was\\ he\\ who\\ came\\ for\\ her\\,\\ not\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\ For\\ this\\ Joseph\\ is\\ put\\ in\\ jail\\ where\\ things\\ continue\\ to\\ go\\ well\\ for\\ him\\ and\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ run\\ of\\ the\\ jail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ was\\ second\\]\\-\\ ranked\\ in\\ his\\ family\\ \\(second\\ to\\ Jacob\\)\\,\\ second\\ ranked\\ in\\ Egypt\\ \\(Pharaoh\\)\\,\\ and\\ second\\ ranked\\ in\\ jail\\ \\(warden\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\While\\ Joseph\\ is\\ in\\ jail\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\ sends\\ his\\ cupbearer\\ and\\ baker\\ to\\ jail\\ too\\,\\ they\\ have\\ dreams\\ that\\ Joseph\\ interprets\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ are\\ the\\ second\\ set\\ of\\ dreams\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ are\\ involved\\ with\\ Joseph\\;\\ for\\ him\\,\\ now\\ he\\ has\\ become\\ the\\ interpreter\\ through\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Later\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\ has\\ a\\ dream\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ interpret\\ so\\ the\\ cupbearer\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ get\\ Joseph\\ who\\ then\\ interprets\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dream\\ to\\ mean\\ that\\ Egypt\\ will\\ have\\ 7\\ years\\ of\\ prosperity\\ followed\\ by\\ 7\\ years\\ of\\ great\\ famine\\.\\ Pharaoh\\ puts\\ Joseph\\ back\\ in\\ charge\\ and\\ tells\\ the\\ Egyptians\\ they\\ must\\ listen\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ set\\ of\\ dreams\\ that\\ Joseph\\ must\\ interpret\\,\\ he\\ is\\ brought\\ from\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dungeon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ meaning\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;where\\ his\\ brothers\\ had\\ previously\\ thrown\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ cloths\\ are\\ again\\ changed\\,\\ this\\ time\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ elevation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ dreams\\:\\ his\\ both\\ meant\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ weak\\ over\\ strong\\,\\ in\\ jail\\ deal\\ with\\ themes\\ of\\ good\\ fortune\\ and\\ ill\\,\\ the\\ last\\ dream\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ and\\ shows\\ the\\ expanse\\ of\\ his\\ abilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Joseph\\ does\\ become\\ ruler\\ as\\ his\\ brothers\\ had\\ feared\\ but\\ his\\ rule\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ servant\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ is\\ benevolent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ child\\ is\\ named\\ after\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ as\\ the\\ cupbearer\\ forgot\\ to\\ mention\\ his\\ name\\ to\\ Pharaoh\\,\\ second\\ child\\ named\\ after\\ fertility\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ affliction\\ which\\ turns\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ mixed\\ blessing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ is\\ rationing\\ food\\ and\\ one\\ day\\ is\\ brothers\\ come\\,\\ they\\ meet\\ in\\ reversed\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treatment\\ of\\ his\\ brothers\\ could\\ be\\ seem\\ as\\ dominating\\ \\(as\\ they\\ saw\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ dreams\\)\\ but\\ more\\ accurately\\ it\\ will\\ help\\ with\\ their\\ survival\\ \\(just\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ dream\\ his\\ dominance\\ reflected\\ this\\ ability\\ to\\ supply\\ food\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ money\\ is\\ mysteriously\\ returned\\ to\\ them\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ walking\\ home\\:\\ shows\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;getting\\ what\\ they\\ had\\ given\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ sons\\ return\\ to\\ Jacob\\ and\\ persuade\\ him\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ Benjamin\\,\\ once\\ again\\ his\\ favorite\\ son\\ must\\ go\\ to\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ they\\ dine\\ Joseph\\ is\\ kind\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ but\\ continues\\ to\\ favor\\ the\\ youngest\\,\\ this\\ time\\ the\\ brothers\\ do\\ not\\ react\\ with\\ hostility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ puts\\ the\\ silver\\ goblet\\ in\\ Benjamin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bag\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ brothers\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ they\\ have\\ learned\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ family\\ solidarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Joseph\\ forces\\ his\\ brothers\\ to\\ accept\\ that\\ B\\.\\ is\\ special\\,\\ they\\ are\\ told\\ that\\ B\\.\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ Jacob\\ will\\ die\\ \\(the\\ 2\\ punishments\\ the\\ brothers\\ intended\\ for\\ Joseph\\ in\\ ch\\ 37\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Judah\\ offers\\ his\\ on\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ B\\.\\,\\ Judah\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ brother\\ that\\ sold\\ J\\.\\ into\\ slavery\\,\\ things\\ now\\ have\\ fully\\ reversed\\ themselves\\,\\ and\\ the\\ family\\ can\\ be\\ healed\\.\\ The\\ brothers\\ return\\ and\\ persuade\\ Jacob\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\J\\.\\ tells\\ the\\ brothers\\ not\\ to\\ blame\\ themselves\\,\\ that\\ the\\ events\\ were\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ word\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ not\\ death\\,\\ but\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\God\\ tells\\ Jacob\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Egypt\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ go\\ with\\ him\\,\\ and\\ that\\ He\\ will\\ bring\\ him\\ back\\ \\(foreshadow\\ to\\ the\\ Exodus\\)\\.\\ Family\\ moves\\ to\\ Goshen\\,\\ a\\ region\\ in\\ the\\ eastern\\ delta\\ of\\ the\\ Nile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\70\\ people\\ in\\ total\\ go\\ to\\ Egypt\\:\\ 70\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ perfect\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\J\\.\\ continues\\ to\\ dispense\\ the\\ grain\\ but\\ when\\ the\\ Egyptians\\ run\\ out\\ of\\ money\\ he\\ enslaves\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ Jacob\\ dies\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 147\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\While\\ Egyptians\\ suffer\\ the\\ Israelites\\ are\\ prospering\\-\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ god\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favoritism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Gen\\ 50\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ go\\ and\\ bury\\ Jacob\\ in\\ the\\ promised\\ land\\,\\ gets\\ his\\ own\\ personal\\ Exodus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ are\\ prepared\\ to\\ be\\ your\\ slaves\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\brothers\\ to\\ Joseph\\,\\ foreshadowing\\ Exodus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Joseph\\ dies\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 110\\,\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ perfect\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\QUESTIONS\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ kind\\ of\\ character\\ is\\ God\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ Genesis\\?\\ Are\\ sin\\/punishment\\ and\\ righteousness\\/reward\\ the\\ dominant\\ paradigms\\ for\\ understanding\\ history\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ Genesis\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ has\\ favorites\\ throughout\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ Genesis\\ but\\ it\\ begins\\ with\\ man\\ being\\ his\\ favorite\\ creation\\.\\ \\ \\;Others\\ include\\:\\ Abel\\,\\ Noah\\,\\ Abraham\\,\\ Joseph\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ one\\ reason\\ or\\ another\\ God\\ protects\\ these\\ men\\ and\\ brings\\ them\\ good\\ fortune\\.\\ Noah\\ and\\ Abraham\\ are\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;Noah\\ is\\ saved\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favor\\.\\ \\ \\;Abraham\\ has\\ to\\ work\\ a\\ little\\ harder\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ circumcision\\ and\\ later\\ he\\ must\\ bring\\ Isaac\\ to\\ be\\ sacrificed\\.\\ \\ \\;God\\ is\\ pleased\\ with\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ devotion\\ and\\ rewards\\ him\\ by\\ promising\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ many\\ descendants\\ who\\ will\\ all\\ be\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favor\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Those\\ who\\ sin\\ against\\ God\\ are\\ punished\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ trend\\ begins\\ with\\ Cain\\ who\\ is\\ banished\\.\\ \\ \\;Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brothers\\ are\\ another\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ sinned\\ by\\ selling\\ Joseph\\ to\\ the\\ Egyptians\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ Joseph\\ had\\ a\\ good\\ life\\ and\\ his\\ brothers\\ are\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ holy\\ land\\ they\\ are\\ then\\ enslaved\\ for\\ 400\\ years\\,\\ likely\\ as\\ punishment\\ for\\ their\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IMPORTANT\\ PASSAGES\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;And\\ God\\ created\\ man\\ in\\ His\\ image\\,\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ God\\ He\\ created\\ him\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ Gen\\ 1\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ man\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ Gen\\ 2\\:\\ \\:The\\ Lord\\ God\\ formed\\ man\\ from\\ the\\ dust\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ He\\ blew\\ into\\ his\\ nostrils\\ the\\ breath\\ of\\ life\\,\\ and\\ man\\ became\\ a\\ living\\ being\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Noteworthy\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ obvious\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ man\\ is\\ glorified\\ \\(or\\ not\\.\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Hear\\ this\\ dream\\ which\\ I\\ have\\ dreamt\\.\\ There\\ we\\ were\\ binding\\ sheaves\\ in\\ the\\ field\\,\\ when\\ suddenly\\ my\\ sheaf\\ stood\\ up\\ and\\ remained\\ up\\ right\\;\\ then\\ your\\ sheaves\\ gathered\\ around\\ and\\ bowed\\ low\\ to\\ my\\ sheaf\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ tells\\ this\\ to\\ his\\ brothers\\,\\ it\\ foreshadows\\ not\\ just\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ ruler\\ but\\ includes\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ grain\\.\\ Eventually\\ when\\ Egypt\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ drought\\ Joseph\\ will\\ save\\ them\\ all\\ with\\ his\\ stock\\ of\\ grain\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ this\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ dreams\\/\\ dream\\ interpretations\\ it\\ is\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ that\\ God\\ favors\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Because\\ you\\ have\\ done\\ this\\ and\\ have\\ not\\ withheld\\ your\\ son\\,\\ your\\ favored\\ one\\,\\ I\\ wil\\ bestow\\ My\\ blessing\\ upon\\ you\\ and\\ make\\ your\\ descendants\\ as\\ numerous\\ as\\ the\\ stars\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ the\\ sands\\ of\\ the\\ seashore\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ God\\ rewarding\\ Abraham\\ for\\ offering\\ Isaac\\ as\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ and\\ thereby\\ showing\\ his\\ devotion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\ \\:\\ Elizabeth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Justin\\ Passages\\ from\\ week\\ 4\\ are\\ sort\\ of\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ place\\ \\(as\\ per\\ usual\\ with\\ Justin\\)\\,\\ but\\ the\\ general\\ theme\\ of\\ this\\ weeks\\ were\\ separation\\ of\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ bunch\\ listed\\ pretty\\ much\\ give\\ evidence\\ for\\ Justin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ and\\ continue\\ to\\ curse\\ Jesus\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ passages\\ discuss\\ the\\ Jews\\&rsquo\\;\\ initial\\ reaction\\ to\\ Jesus\\;\\ in\\ some\\ they\\ supposedly\\ send\\ out\\ messengers\\ to\\ discredit\\ Jesus\\ and\\ they\\ also\\ call\\ him\\ a\\ magician\\ \\(and\\ therefore\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ his\\ miracles\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ important\\ passage\\ is\\ 29\\ and\\ I\\ would\\ recommend\\ reading\\ it\\ over\\ \\(its\\ short\\)\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ Justin\\ is\\ clearly\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ is\\ our\\ Bible\\ not\\ yours\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ helpful\\ in\\ the\\ essay\\.\\ 44\\.2\\ is\\ also\\ pretty\\ important\\ I\\ think\\ and\\ alludes\\ to\\ literal\\ vs\\.\\ figurative\\ interpreations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ is\\ Justin\\ Martyr\\ and\\ why\\ is\\ he\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\ Justin\\ Maryr\\ was\\ a\\ gentile\\,\\ educated\\ in\\ Greek\\ philosophy\\ and\\ an\\ apologist\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ tradition\\ he\\ was\\ martyred\\ in\\ 160s\\.\\ \\ \\;Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\ is\\ set\\ right\\ after\\ the\\ Bar\\ Kokhba\\ war\\ of\\ 132\\-135\\.\\ The\\ Dialogue\\ defends\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;proto\\-orthodox\\&rdquo\\;\\ Christianity\\ \\(no\\ New\\ Testament\\,\\ no\\ trinity\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Dialogue\\ gives\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ an\\ early\\ Christian\\ and\\ thus\\ is\\ invaluable\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ no\\ similar\\ Jewish\\ writing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ according\\ to\\ Justin\\ makes\\ Judaism\\ not\\-Christianity\\?\\ Why\\ did\\/do\\ Jews\\ \\and\\ Christians\\ argue\\ over\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;See\\ essay\\ number\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Passages\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hopefully\\ passages\\ on\\ the\\ ID\\ section\\ from\\ Justin\\ will\\ be\\ obvious\\ because\\ the\\ primary\\ sources\\ are\\ really\\ just\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ Justin\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tell\\ them\\ apart\\&hellip\\;\\.well\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ to\\ tell\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ passages\\ that\\ I\\ found\\ interesting\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jews\\ curse\\ Christ\\ and\\ Christians\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;for\\ you\\ have\\ murdered\\ the\\ Just\\ One\\,\\ and\\ his\\ prophets\\ before\\ him\\;\\ now\\ you\\ spurn\\ those\\ who\\ hope\\ in\\ him\\,\\ and\\ in\\ him\\ who\\ sent\\ him\\,\\ namely\\ the\\ almighty\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(16\\.4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;in\\ your\\ synagogues\\ you\\ curse\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ through\\ him\\ are\\ called\\ Christians\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Gentiles\\ put\\ into\\ effect\\ your\\ curse\\ by\\ killing\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ merely\\ admit\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ Christians\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ all\\ our\\ persecutors\\ we\\ say\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\You\\ are\\ our\\ brothers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ recognize\\ rather\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(96\\.2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;you\\ not\\ only\\ refused\\ to\\ repent\\&hellip\\;proclaiming\\ that\\ a\\ godless\\ and\\ lawless\\ sect\\ has\\ been\\ started\\ by\\ a\\ deceiver\\&hellip\\;we\\ pray\\ that\\ even\\ now\\ you\\ may\\ mend\\ your\\ ways\\ and\\ find\\ mercy\\ from\\ God\\ the\\ Father\\ of\\ all\\,\\ who\\ is\\ most\\ benign\\ and\\ compassionate\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(108\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ you\\ are\\ mistaken\\ when\\ you\\ think\\ that\\ he\\ spoke\\ these\\ words\\ of\\ your\\ people\\ only\\ or\\ to\\ your\\ land\\&hellip\\;God\\ did\\ not\\ address\\ your\\ land\\,\\ but\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ faithful\\ to\\ him\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(138\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;they\\ attributed\\ them\\ to\\ a\\ magical\\ art\\;\\ indeed\\ they\\ dared\\ to\\ call\\ him\\ a\\ magician\\ who\\ misled\\ the\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(69\\.7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ say\\ that\\ some\\ precepts\\ were\\ given\\ for\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ virtue\\,\\ whereas\\ other\\ commandments\\ and\\ customs\\ were\\ arranged\\ either\\ in\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ mystery\\ of\\ Christ\\ or\\ the\\ harness\\ of\\ you\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hearts\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(44\\.2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\&ldquo\\;they\\ are\\ contained\\ in\\ your\\ Scriptures\\,\\ or\\ rather\\ not\\ yours\\,\\ but\\ ours\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ we\\ believe\\ and\\ obey\\ them\\,\\ whereas\\ you\\,\\ though\\ you\\ read\\ them\\,\\ do\\ not\\ grasp\\ their\\ spirit\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(29\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pelikan\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pelikan\\ 1\\-66\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ God\\ Who\\ Speaks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;God\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ the\\ who\\ speaks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Torah\\ mentions\\:\\ \\"\\;to\\ say\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;to\\ call\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;to\\ bless\\"\\;\\ when\\ referencing\\ God\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ Voice\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Moses\\ \\(according\\ to\\ tradition\\ writer\\ of\\ first\\ give\\ books\\ of\\ Bible\\)\\ hears\\ voice\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Examples\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ Speaking\\ to\\ Moses\\,\\ Abraham\\,\\ Isaac\\ and\\ Jacob\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Prophet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ From\\ Greek\\ for\\ \\"\\;speaker\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Someone\\ who\\ speaks\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Oral\\ Tradition\\ in\\ the\\ World\\ Literature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\i\\.\\ evidence\\ that\\ culture\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ posses\\ developed\\ alphabet\\ \\&\\;\\ stabilized\\ written\\ language\\ to\\ be\\ capable\\ of\\ \\"\\;literary\\"\\;\\ creativity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Socrates\\ and\\ Jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ \\ \\;Jesus\\ criticized\\ many\\ for\\ reading\\ diligently\\ but\\ not\\ living\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ God\\ in\\ flesh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\ \\ \\;writing\\ of\\ Jesus\\ came\\ much\\ later\\,\\ after\\ his\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;oral\\ Torah\\"\\;\\ alongside\\ written\\ Torah\\ collected\\ in\\ the\\ Talmud\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\f\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Scripture\\ and\\ Tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ \\ \\;Torah\\ transmitted\\ through\\ word\\ of\\ mouth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;ii\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ Testament\\ \\(gospels\\)\\ transmitted\\ orally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\ \\;illiterate\\ outnumbered\\ the\\ literate\\ in\\ many\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\g\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Spoken\\ Word\\ and\\ the\\ Written\\ Word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;i\\.\\ \\ \\;speaking\\ you\\ can\\ control\\ other\\ things\\ like\\ pauses\\,\\ speed\\,\\ volume\\,\\ grimaces\\,\\ smiles\\,\\ gestures\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;So\\ then\\ faith\\ does\\ come\\ from\\ hearing\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;\\-Paul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\ early\\ reliance\\ and\\ dependence\\ on\\ spoken\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;iv\\.\\ \\ \\;Before\\ anything\\ was\\ created\\,\\ \\"\\;God\\ said\\"\\;\\ so\\ \\"\\;In\\ the\\ beginning\\ the\\ Word\\ already\\ was\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ Truth\\ in\\ Hebrew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Tanankh\\ \\(includes\\ Torah\\,\\ Nevi\\&\\#39\\;im\\,\\ and\\ Kethuvim\\)\\,\\ covers\\ 1\\,000\\ years\\ of\\ Israelite\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Torah\\,\\ the\\ Pentateuch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Torah\\ \\(\\"\\;law\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;instruction\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Genesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ \\"\\;beginning\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ foundation\\ of\\ Tanakh\\ contained\\ in\\ Exodus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ covenant\\ relationship\\ b\\/t\\ God\\ and\\ Israel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ \\ \\;Passover\\ \\(night\\ they\\ were\\ brought\\ out\\ of\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ Book\\ of\\ Leviticus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ \\ \\;Levitical\\ priesthood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ b\\.\\ \\ \\;ceremonial\\ purity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ c\\.\\ \\ \\;sacred\\ feasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ d\\.\\ \\ \\;fasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ e\\.\\ festivals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 4\\.\\ Numbers\\ and\\ Deuteronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ Numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ ingratitude\\ and\\ disobedience\\ \\ \\;\\-\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ forgiveness\\ \\(cycle\\ of\\ sin\\ and\\ repentance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Moab\\-\\ final\\ chapters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;b\\.\\ Deuteronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ brought\\ them\\ within\\ site\\ of\\ promised\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ \\ \\;closes\\ w\\/\\ Moses\\&\\#39\\;\\ farewell\\ to\\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;ii\\.\\ debate\\ whether\\ Moses\\ wrote\\ Deuteronomy\\ or\\ not\\-\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ part\\ of\\ Oral\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Nevi\\&\\#39\\;im\\,\\ the\\ Prophets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;former\\ prophets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ Joshua\\,\\ Judges\\,\\ I\\ Samuel\\,\\ 2\\ Samuel\\,\\ 1\\ Kings\\,\\ 2\\ Kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ Books\\ of\\ Samuel\\ and\\ Kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;history\\ of\\ Jewish\\ monarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ Major\\ prophetic\\ books\\:\\ Isaiah\\,\\ Jeremiah\\,\\ and\\ Ezekiel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ Isaiah\\ most\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ \\ \\;work\\ of\\ two\\ prophets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ \\ \\;Twelve\\ other\\ minor\\ prophets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ minor\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ length\\ of\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 4\\.\\ \\ \\;History\\ of\\ Judah\\ and\\ Israel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Kethuvim\\,\\ the\\ writings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Psalms\\,\\ proverbs\\ and\\ Job\\ \\(among\\ others\\ like\\ Esther\\,\\ Ecclesiastes\\,\\ Chronicles\\,\\ Daniel\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ Psalms\\-devotion\\ of\\ individual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ poems\\ in\\ praise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ b\\.\\ Job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ poignant\\,\\ indicates\\ God\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ways\\ are\\ mysterious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ Canon\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Tanakh\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ canon\\-\\ authoritative\\ list\\ of\\ sacred\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ Meeting\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ Jamnia\\ in\\ 91\\ or\\ 100\\ CE\\ \\(safest\\ generalization\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;discovery\\ of\\ Dead\\ Sea\\ Scrolls\\ let\\ us\\ know\\ of\\ formation\\ of\\ Jewish\\ canon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Moses\\ Speaking\\ Greek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Jewish\\ Diaspora\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Greek\\ for\\ \\"\\;the\\ dispersion\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;ii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Term\\ used\\ for\\ scattering\\ of\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;iii\\.\\ \\ \\;Jewish\\ religion\\ and\\ nation\\ had\\ been\\ coterminous\\ \\(covered\\ same\\ area\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ important\\ Jewish\\ colony\\-\\ Alexandria\\,\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ crossroads\\ of\\ many\\ land\\ and\\ water\\ trade\\ routes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ Origins\\ of\\ the\\ Septuagint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Translation\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ to\\ Greek\\ \\-\\ Septuagint\\ \\(Latin\\=70\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ 72\\ scholars\\ produced\\ the\\ identical\\ translation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ irrefutable\\ evidence\\ of\\ divine\\ inspiration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ based\\ on\\ assumption\\ that\\ every\\ Hebrew\\ word\\ had\\ a\\ Greek\\ equivalent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;iii\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ accommodated\\ changing\\ needs\\ of\\ Jews\\ that\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ speak\\ Hebrew\\ \\(served\\ its\\ purpose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Peculiarities\\ of\\ the\\ Septuagint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ translation\\ not\\ produced\\ all\\ at\\ once\\ but\\ over\\ period\\ of\\ century\\ or\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ \\ \\;began\\ with\\ first\\ five\\ books\\ \\(books\\ of\\ Moses\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cultural\\ Significance\\ of\\ Septuagint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ led\\ to\\ formation\\ of\\ world\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Biography\\ of\\ Moses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ philosophers\\ exalted\\ Moses\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ more\\ appealing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Philo\\,\\ Timaeus\\,\\ Flavius\\ Josephus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\f\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Christian\\ Significance\\ of\\ Septuagint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;i\\.\\ principal\\ beneficiaries\\ of\\ Septuagint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;ii\\.\\ \\ \\;allowed\\ them\\ to\\ declare\\ independence\\ from\\ Judaism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;iii\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ Testament\\ written\\ originally\\ in\\ Greek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pelikan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pages\\ 67\\-119\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Beyond\\ Written\\ Torah\\:\\ Talmud\\ and\\ Continuing\\ Revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\The\\ relation\\ between\\ tradition\\ and\\ scripture\\&mdash\\;including\\ origin\\,\\ content\\,\\ and\\ authority\\&mdash\\;has\\ often\\ become\\ controversial\\ throughout\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ since\\ the\\ oral\\ traditions\\ that\\ gave\\ rise\\ to\\ the\\ Old\\ and\\ New\\ Testaments\\ cannot\\ be\\ fully\\ contained\\ in\\ these\\ two\\ texts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apocrypha\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ Apocrypha\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;post\\-Scriptural\\ scriptures\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Judaism\\ which\\ were\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ canon\\ of\\ the\\ Tanakh\\ in\\ Hebrew\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\,\\ however\\,\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ Greek\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ canon\\,\\ the\\ Septuagint\\.\\ \\ \\;Why\\ Jews\\ in\\ the\\ Diaspora\\ \\(dispersion\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ after\\ the\\ Babylonian\\ Captivity\\)\\ chose\\ to\\ adopt\\ the\\ Apocrypha\\ when\\ the\\ Jews\\ in\\ Israel\\ did\\ not\\ is\\ something\\ Pelikan\\ admits\\ he\\ cannot\\ explain\\ definitively\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Though\\ they\\ were\\ once\\ recognized\\ as\\ second\\-class\\ texts\\ by\\ the\\ church\\,\\ most\\ of\\ Christendom\\ during\\ most\\ of\\ Christian\\ history\\ has\\ and\\ still\\ do\\ simply\\ treat\\ them\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ all\\ the\\ books\\ of\\ the\\ Apocrypha\\ are\\ Jewish\\ in\\ origin\\,\\ they\\ have\\ played\\ a\\ more\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ Christian\\ history\\ than\\ in\\ Jewish\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Not\\ Spake\\ but\\ Speaketh\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ the\\ Persistence\\ of\\ the\\ Oral\\ Torah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;Not\\ spake\\ but\\ speaketh\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ coined\\ by\\ Raph\\ Waldo\\ Emerson\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ conviction\\ that\\ divine\\ revelation\\ was\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ confined\\ to\\ any\\ sacred\\ book\\ or\\ inspired\\ individual\\,\\ but\\ continues\\ into\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Christianity\\,\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ today\\,\\ has\\ to\\ the\\ contrary\\ embraced\\ a\\ devout\\ and\\ persevering\\ engagement\\ with\\ the\\ pages\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jewish\\ tradition\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ embraces\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ oral\\ Torah\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ is\\ God\\ speaking\\ to\\ and\\ through\\ his\\ servant\\ Moses\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\.\\ \\ \\;Moses\\ wrote\\ down\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ heard\\ from\\ God\\ in\\ the\\ Torah\\,\\ and\\ part\\ he\\ kept\\ unwritten\\,\\ handing\\ it\\ on\\ in\\ oral\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ oral\\ tradition\\ is\\ the\\ passing\\ on\\ of\\ the\\ vowels\\ that\\ completed\\ the\\ continuous\\ lines\\ of\\ consonants\\ that\\ comprised\\ the\\ early\\ Hebrew\\ texts\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ vowels\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ committed\\ to\\ memory\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ transmitted\\ written\\ text\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;THLRDSMSHPHRDLCKNTHNGHMKSMLDWNNGRNPSTRSHLDSMTWTRNPLCSFRPS\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ pg\\.\\ 74\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Glosses\\ and\\ Paraphrases\\ of\\ the\\ Sacred\\ Text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\As\\ fluency\\ in\\ Hebrew\\ declined\\ among\\ Jews\\,\\ Aramaic\\ replaced\\ it\\ as\\ the\\ common\\ language\\ of\\ those\\ in\\ Palestine\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Diaspora\\.\\ \\ \\;Arabic\\,\\ Yiddish\\,\\ and\\ Ladino\\ replaced\\ it\\ in\\ other\\ regions\\.\\ \\ \\;Hebrew\\ was\\ revived\\ as\\ a\\ spoken\\ language\\ for\\ Jews\\ only\\ in\\ modern\\ times\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ early\\ as\\ the\\ fifth\\ or\\ fourth\\ century\\ BCE\\,\\ there\\ are\\ accounts\\ of\\ Judaic\\ worship\\ being\\ presented\\ first\\ in\\ Hebrew\\ and\\ then\\ again\\ in\\ Aramaic\\ so\\ everyone\\ in\\ attendance\\ could\\ understand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jewish\\ liturgical\\ practice\\ had\\ to\\ resort\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ Targum\\,\\ an\\ Aramaic\\ translation\\ and\\ paraphrase\\,\\ as\\ fluency\\ in\\ Hebrew\\ declined\\ among\\ Jews\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ of\\ these\\ Targums\\ were\\ put\\ into\\ writing\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ sheer\\ mass\\ and\\ complexity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Applications\\ and\\ Amplifications\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Hundreds\\ of\\ minute\\ hygienic\\,\\ dietary\\,\\ and\\ ritual\\ prescriptions\\ are\\ presented\\ as\\ binding\\ law\\ in\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ Leviticus\\.\\ \\ \\;Halakhah\\ is\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ interpretations\\ of\\ this\\ Law\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ law\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ six\\ days\\ work\\ may\\ be\\ done\\,\\ but\\ on\\ the\\ seventh\\ day\\ you\\ shall\\ have\\ a\\ Sabbath\\ of\\ complete\\ rest\\,\\ holy\\ to\\ the\\ LORD\\;\\ whoever\\ does\\ any\\ work\\ on\\ it\\ shall\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\You\\ shall\\ kindle\\ no\\ fire\\ throughout\\ your\\ settlements\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ day\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ modern\\ Diaspora\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ Reform\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Orthodox\\ Judaism\\ have\\ diverged\\ over\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ biblical\\ laws\\ and\\ over\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ adjustments\\ of\\ traditional\\ observance\\,\\ such\\ as\\ kosher\\ diet\\,\\ to\\ a\\ predominantly\\ Gentile\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Legends\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sayings\\ of\\ the\\ Fathers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ Divine\\ Name\\ revealed\\ to\\ Moses\\ at\\ the\\ burning\\ bush\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ehyeh\\-Asher\\-Ehyeh\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ sometimes\\ translated\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ that\\ I\\ am\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;From\\ its\\ four\\ consonants\\,\\ YHWH\\,\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ Tetragrammaton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Universality\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ God\\ of\\ Israel\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ tribal\\ deity\\ but\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ nations\\,\\ so\\ which\\ laws\\ apply\\ to\\ whom\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ are\\ other\\ nations\\ and\\ peoples\\ to\\ learn\\ of\\ their\\ role\\ in\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creation\\?\\ \\ \\;Pelikan\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ many\\ similarities\\ that\\ exist\\ between\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\ despite\\ the\\ significant\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ religions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\\\Talmud\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ collection\\ of\\ ancient\\ rabbinic\\ writings\\ on\\ Jewish\\ law\\ and\\ tradition\\;\\ extensive\\ volumes\\ of\\ closely\\ written\\,\\ highly\\ allusive\\,\\ and\\ consistently\\ intertextual\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Targum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;translation\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jewish\\ liturgical\\ practice\\ had\\ to\\ resort\\ to\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ this\\ Aramaic\\ translation\\ and\\ paraphrase\\ as\\ fluency\\ in\\ Hebrew\\ declined\\ among\\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Halakhah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\YHWH\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Tetragrammaton\\;\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ that\\ I\\ am\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ Originally\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ehyeh\\-Asher\\-Ehyeh\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ The\\ Law\\ and\\ the\\ Prophets\\ Fulfilled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\The\\ Christian\\ tradition\\ embraces\\ Jesus\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prophecy\\ fulfilled\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Prior\\ to\\ the\\ coming\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ the\\ Messiah\\,\\ the\\ scriptures\\ had\\ not\\ been\\ fulfilled\\.\\ \\ \\;Upon\\ his\\ coming\\,\\ they\\ were\\ fulfilled\\ in\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;once\\ and\\ for\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Paul\\,\\ once\\ the\\ Jewish\\ Saul\\ of\\ Tarsus\\,\\ had\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;heavenly\\ vision\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Jesus\\ and\\ converted\\ to\\ Christianity\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ first\\ attempts\\ at\\ conversion\\ and\\ theological\\ debate\\ took\\ place\\ at\\ synagogues\\ with\\ Jews\\,\\ to\\ whom\\ he\\ still\\ felt\\ a\\ strong\\ devotion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baptizing\\ the\\ Tanakh\\ as\\ the\\ Christian\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ standpoint\\ \\(a\\ Christian\\ speaking\\ to\\ a\\ Jew\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\[the\\ texts\\]\\ are\\ contained\\ in\\ your\\ Scriptures\\,\\ or\\ rather\\ not\\ yours\\,\\ but\\ ours\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ we\\ believe\\ them\\;\\ but\\ you\\,\\ though\\ you\\ read\\ them\\,\\ do\\ not\\ catch\\ the\\ spirit\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christians\\ came\\ to\\ call\\ themselves\\ both\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ new\\ Israel\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ true\\ Israel\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ eventually\\ called\\ the\\ Tanakh\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Old\\ Testament\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ heretical\\ Marcion\\ of\\ Pontus\\ proposed\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ Christian\\ God\\,\\ Father\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ was\\ different\\ than\\ the\\ Jewish\\ God\\&mdash\\;He\\ was\\ a\\ God\\ of\\ love\\ but\\ not\\ of\\ law\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Redeemer\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ Creator\\.\\ \\ \\;Marcion\\ also\\ proposed\\ that\\ a\\ New\\ Testament\\ should\\ replace\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ church\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rejection\\ of\\ Marcion\\&rsquo\\;s\\ teaching\\ served\\ to\\ confirm\\ the\\ growing\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ one\\ Bible\\ that\\ consisted\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ Testaments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jewish\\ translation\\ of\\ Jewish\\ scripture\\ into\\ the\\ Greek\\ Septuagint\\ became\\ the\\ Christian\\ Bible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\ were\\ adopted\\ by\\ Christianity\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ instruction\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ adults\\ about\\ their\\ moral\\ duties\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ biblical\\ laws\\ and\\ restrictions\\ took\\ a\\ back\\ seat\\ to\\ these\\ 10\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jesus\\ almost\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\ Adam\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ undoes\\ by\\ his\\ obedience\\ the\\ mortal\\ damage\\ that\\ the\\ first\\ Adam\\ had\\ done\\ by\\ his\\ disobedience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fundamental\\ category\\ for\\ the\\ Christian\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ was\\ prophecy\\ and\\ fulfillment\\,\\ as\\ applied\\ above\\ all\\ to\\ the\\ life\\,\\ death\\,\\ and\\ resurrection\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ had\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;foreshadowed\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;overshadowed\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ him\\ as\\ the\\ fulfillment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paul\\ set\\ the\\ precedent\\ and\\ established\\ authority\\ for\\ the\\ allegorical\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ as\\ meaningless\\ without\\ its\\ essential\\ New\\ Testament\\ counterpart\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Formation\\ of\\ a\\ Second\\ Testament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\Latin\\ couplet\\ describing\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ New\\ and\\ Old\\ Testaments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ New\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ concealed\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Old\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ revealed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Factors\\ contributing\\ to\\ the\\ separation\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ canonization\\ of\\ a\\ second\\,\\ exclusively\\ Christian\\ Testament\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ adoption\\ of\\ a\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Testament\\ in\\ a\\ language\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ original\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\They\\ still\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ obeying\\ the\\ same\\ Law\\ and\\ reading\\ the\\ same\\ Prophets\\ and\\ chanting\\ the\\ same\\ Psalms\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\&rdquo\\;\\ Testament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ much\\ smaller\\ than\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ but\\ has\\ wielded\\ an\\ influence\\ far\\ out\\ of\\ proportion\\ to\\ its\\ modest\\ size\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;most\\ Christians\\ and\\ general\\ readers\\ are\\ far\\ more\\ familiar\\ with\\ its\\ content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ includes\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ early\\ Christian\\ literature\\ in\\ several\\ quite\\ distinct\\ genres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ these\\ literatures\\ share\\ a\\ common\\ setting\\ within\\ the\\ communal\\ life\\ of\\ early\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ 27\\ books\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ make\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ biography\\ of\\ Jesus\\ extremely\\ difficult\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ composed\\ to\\ bear\\ witness\\ to\\ a\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ God\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ through\\ those\\ events\\,\\ not\\ to\\ satisfy\\ historical\\ curiosity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Gospels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ Gospels\\ are\\ the\\ testimony\\ of\\ faith\\ to\\ the\\ basic\\ redemptive\\ events\\ and\\ actions\\ of\\ God\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ believing\\ community\\ has\\ been\\ constituted\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ are\\ the\\ events\\ surrounding\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ early\\ life\\ is\\ recounted\\,\\ as\\ are\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ healing\\ miracles\\ and\\ the\\ sending\\ of\\ the\\ twelve\\ disciples\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ goes\\ with\\ his\\ disciples\\ to\\ Jerusalem\\ and\\ prepares\\ them\\ for\\ the\\ events\\ of\\ his\\ suffering\\ by\\ his\\ warnings\\ and\\ examples\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ detailed\\ accounts\\ of\\ the\\ suffering\\ and\\ death\\ of\\ Jesus\\ dominate\\ these\\ books\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Four\\ Gospels\\ exist\\:\\ Matthew\\,\\ Mark\\,\\ Luke\\,\\ John\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Acts\\ of\\ the\\ Apostles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Apostles\\ is\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ the\\ Gospel\\ of\\ Luke\\,\\ and\\ hence\\ a\\ link\\ between\\ the\\ Gospels\\ and\\ the\\ Epistles\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ orients\\ the\\ readers\\ of\\ the\\ Epistles\\.\\ \\ \\;Early\\ in\\ the\\ book\\,\\ Peter\\ is\\ the\\ chief\\ character\\,\\ and\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ 12\\ Apostles\\.\\ \\ \\;Jesus\\ famously\\ says\\ to\\ Peter\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ are\\ Peter\\,\\ the\\ Rock\\;\\ and\\ on\\ this\\ rock\\ I\\ will\\ build\\ my\\ church\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ later\\ chapters\\ describe\\ the\\ missionary\\ journeys\\ of\\ Paul\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Epistles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\21\\ Epistles\\ exist\\.\\ \\ \\;More\\ than\\ half\\ were\\ allegedly\\ written\\ by\\ Paul\\.\\ \\ \\;Pages\\ 110\\-113\\ detail\\ the\\ topics\\ of\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ the\\ Epistles\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ interested\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Book\\ of\\ Revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ last\\ book\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\,\\ known\\ as\\ Apocalypse\\,\\ details\\ the\\ visions\\ of\\ a\\ seer\\ who\\ glimpses\\ the\\ eventual\\ victory\\ of\\ the\\ church\\ over\\ its\\ enemies\\ through\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ such\\ prediction\\ involves\\ the\\ binding\\ of\\ Satan\\ and\\ a\\ reign\\ of\\ Christ\\ that\\ would\\ last\\ a\\ thousand\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Christian\\ Bible\\ in\\ the\\ Christian\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ establishment\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ testament\\ in\\ the\\ church\\ alongside\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ was\\ driven\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ need\\ to\\ discover\\ whatever\\ resources\\ it\\ could\\ to\\ bind\\ it\\ to\\ its\\ past\\ and\\ to\\ guarantee\\ its\\ continuance\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ the\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ circulation\\ of\\ writings\\ that\\ bore\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ apostles\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ contain\\ apostolic\\ teaching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Acknowledged\\ Books\\ and\\ Disputed\\ Books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\The\\ earliest\\ pieces\\ of\\ Christian\\ literature\\ to\\ be\\ collected\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ letters\\ of\\ Paul\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Book\\ of\\ Revelation\\ was\\ probably\\ contested\\ more\\ than\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ books\\ canonized\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ association\\ with\\ heretical\\ and\\ schismatic\\ movements\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ excluded\\ and\\ disputed\\ books\\ are\\ discussed\\,\\ but\\ in\\ list\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;Nothing\\ helpful\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Formation\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ Canon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Agreement\\ on\\ the\\ disputed\\ books\\ was\\ approaching\\ by\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ and\\ the\\ canon\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ was\\ gaining\\ general\\ acceptance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Second\\ Trullan\\ Council\\ of\\ 692\\,\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Quinisext\\,\\ may\\ be\\ taken\\ to\\ have\\ formally\\ closed\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ canon\\ for\\ East\\ and\\ West\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Old\\ Testament\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ similar\\ treatment\\ until\\ 1546\\ at\\ the\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\,\\ and\\ still\\ arouses\\ dispute\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Apocrypha\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ The\\ Peoples\\ of\\ the\\ Book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bible\\ divided\\ Jews\\ from\\ Christians\\ partially\\ because\\ Jews\\ were\\ reading\\ it\\ in\\ Hebrew\\ and\\ Christians\\ in\\ Latin\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ distinct\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ understandings\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ through\\ these\\ languages\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jerome\\ was\\ a\\ Christian\\ who\\ recognized\\ this\\ problem\\ and\\ saw\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;truth\\ in\\ Hebrew\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ understanding\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jerome\\ wrote\\ the\\ Vulgate\\ which\\ be\\ came\\ the\\ accepted\\ Bible\\ of\\ Europe\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ Latin\\ bible\\ based\\ directly\\ on\\ the\\ Hebrew\\.\\ It\\ became\\ important\\ for\\ passing\\ on\\ tradition\\ of\\ Western\\ civilization\\ through\\ the\\ Latin\\.\\ After\\ some\\ time\\,\\ however\\,\\ it\\ lost\\ its\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ Hebrew\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jews\\ and\\ the\\ Christians\\ have\\ distinct\\ differences\\ in\\ their\\ traditions\\ of\\ interpretations\\.\\ The\\ Jews\\ always\\ checked\\ elaboration\\ and\\ extreme\\ interpretation\\ by\\ maintaining\\ a\\ dedication\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ text\\ actually\\ said\\.\\ Christians\\,\\ however\\ used\\ \\&ldquo\\;glosses\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ or\\ margin\\ notes\\,\\ to\\ provide\\ literal\\,\\ allegorical\\,\\ moral\\ and\\ eschataological\\ interpretation\\,\\ with\\ a\\ \\ \\;focus\\ on\\ the\\ allegorical\\.\\ Christians\\ also\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ Jewish\\ interpretation\\ by\\ adding\\ graphic\\ art\\ to\\ their\\ Bible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ Islam\\ added\\ a\\ dimension\\ to\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\.\\ Islam\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ historical\\ narrative\\ as\\ the\\ medium\\ like\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\,\\ but\\ shared\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ one\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ supreme\\ authority\\ of\\ revelation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\:\\ The\\ Canon\\ and\\ Its\\ Critics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biblical\\ scholarship\\ made\\ possible\\ by\\ printing\\ technology\\.\\ It\\ was\\ also\\ enhanced\\ by\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ university\\ as\\ initiator\\ of\\ intellectual\\ change\\,\\ discovery\\,\\ and\\ controversy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ led\\ to\\ increased\\ critique\\ and\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ specifically\\ about\\ what\\ was\\ the\\ true\\ teachings\\ and\\ what\\ did\\ not\\ belong\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Enlightenment\\ attempted\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ common\\ faith\\ that\\ brought\\ the\\ two\\ competing\\ faiths\\ that\\ reconciled\\ them\\ both\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ also\\ brought\\ up\\ questions\\ against\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\ like\\ can\\ the\\ same\\ historical\\-critical\\ study\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ analyze\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ its\\ authorship\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\-Critical\\ Method\\ of\\ studying\\ questioned\\ the\\ traditional\\ ascription\\ of\\ authorship\\ to\\ moses\\,\\ and\\ it\\ equated\\ God\\ with\\ Nature\\,\\ and\\ Creator\\ and\\ Universe\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ also\\ threatened\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ scientific\\ discoveries\\ and\\ theories\\.\\ It\\ attacked\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ saying\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ misled\\ and\\ misled\\ his\\ followers\\ in\\ his\\ assumption\\ of\\ the\\ Son\\ of\\ God\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ criticisms\\ and\\ new\\ perspectives\\ to\\ interpretation\\ raised\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ bringing\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ closer\\ together\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ created\\ anti\\-Semitism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Canonization\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\(Mark\\ Brettler\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Although\\ impossible\\ to\\ know\\ for\\ sure\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ contemporaneous\\ documents\\ describing\\ the\\ process\\,\\ the\\ author\\ makes\\ an\\ educated\\ attempt\\ to\\ reconstruct\\ the\\ canonization\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ When\\ used\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ bible\\,\\ the\\ canon\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ books\\ included\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ all\\ other\\ texts\\ are\\ excluded\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ the\\ bible\\ are\\ sufficient\\ in\\ themselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ canon\\ developed\\ in\\ stages\\,\\ not\\ at\\ one\\ time\\,\\ and\\ consists\\ of\\ three\\ parts\\.\\ The\\ Torah\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ section\\ to\\ be\\ canonized\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ Nevi\\&rsquo\\;im\\ \\(Prophets\\)\\ and\\ Kethuvim\\ \\(Writings\\)\\,\\ together\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ Tanakh\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(an\\ acronym\\ for\\ the\\ three\\ books\\-TNK\\)\\.\\ The\\ total\\ number\\ of\\ books\\ included\\ in\\ these\\ is\\ 24\\.\\ Likely\\ that\\ the\\ tripartite\\ canon\\ is\\ primary\\ and\\ it\\ reflects\\ the\\ gradual\\ nature\\ of\\ canonization\\ \\(Kethuvim\\,\\ which\\ was\\ canonized\\ before\\ Nevi\\&rsquo\\;im\\,\\ contains\\ books\\ which\\ seem\\ like\\ they\\ should\\ belong\\ in\\ Nevi\\&rsquo\\;im\\)\\.\\ The\\ Torah\\ was\\ canonized\\ in\\ the\\ Persian\\ period\\,\\ the\\ Nevi\\&rsquo\\;im\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ Persian\\ or\\ early\\ Greek\\ period\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Kethuvim\\ around\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ Temple\\ \\(70\\ CE\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Canon\\ was\\ flexible\\ around\\ the\\ fringes\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\many\\ different\\ accounts\\ of\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ cannons\\ with\\ different\\ numbers\\ of\\ books\\,\\ or\\ different\\ orderings\\ and\\ today\\ the\\ Christian\\ bible\\ has\\ four\\ parts\\.\\ Evidence\\ suggests\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ canonization\\,\\ the\\ bible\\ circulated\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ versions\\ and\\ different\\ communities\\ may\\ canonized\\ different\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ book\\.\\ Central\\ question\\:\\ Why\\ were\\ some\\ texts\\ excluded\\?\\ Canonical\\ status\\ for\\ a\\ book\\ or\\ group\\ of\\ books\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ community\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ of\\ their\\ centrality\\,\\ authority\\,\\ sacredness\\,\\ and\\ inspiration\\.\\ Song\\ of\\ Songs\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ canon\\,\\ but\\ for\\ ambiguous\\ reasons\\.\\ Was\\ it\\ canonized\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ allegorical\\ nature\\,\\ or\\ because\\ people\\ later\\ believed\\ it\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ Solomon\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ final\\ stages\\ of\\ canonization\\ were\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\ Temple\\-\\ intensified\\ crisis\\ that\\ began\\ with\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Temple\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unlikely\\ that\\ canonization\\ is\\ a\\ purely\\ top\\-down\\ process\\.\\ Designation\\ of\\ the\\ canon\\ was\\ probably\\ due\\ to\\ recognition\\ from\\ a\\ large\\ segment\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ act\\ of\\ canonization\\ was\\ very\\ inclusive\\,\\ with\\ books\\ from\\ many\\ different\\ genres\\ and\\ points\\ of\\ view\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bold\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chart\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(You\\ guys\\ should\\ probably\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ yourselves\\,\\ but\\ here\\ are\\ some\\ key\\ features\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jewish\\ Canon\\:\\ 3\\ Parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Protestant\\ Canon\\:\\ 5\\ Parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Roman\\ Catholic\\/Orthodox\\ Canon\\:\\ 4\\ Parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christian\\ Canons\\ do\\ not\\ include\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ \\(so\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bible\\ Canon\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ only\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ old\\ testament\\ books\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ books\\ from\\ the\\ Jewish\\ Canon\\ are\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ two\\,\\ but\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ Christian\\ ones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inner\\-biblical\\ Interpretation\\ \\(Benjamin\\ Sommer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biblical\\ interpretation\\ begins\\ within\\ the\\ bible\\ itself\\ with\\ biblical\\ authors\\ commenting\\ on\\ other\\ biblical\\ texts\\,\\ especially\\ after\\ an\\ early\\ protocanoncial\\ set\\ of\\ texts\\ became\\ sacred\\.\\ Foretold\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ later\\ biblical\\ scholars\\;\\ the\\ religion\\ that\\ generated\\ the\\ bible\\ foreshadows\\ the\\ religions\\ generated\\ by\\ the\\ bible\\.\\ Biblical\\ authors\\ utilized\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ their\\ predecessor\\ in\\ several\\ ways\\:\\ explicit\\ quotes\\ \\(using\\ intros\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ accordance\\ with\\ what\\ is\\ written\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ borrowing\\ imagery\\ and\\ phrasing\\ without\\ explicit\\ citation\\ \\(more\\ common\\-\\ allows\\ for\\ new\\ text\\ to\\ repeat\\,\\ reinterpret\\,\\ and\\ shift\\ attention\\;\\ may\\ be\\ called\\ a\\ literary\\ allusion\\;\\ later\\ rabbinic\\ texts\\ would\\ borrow\\ these\\ techniques\\ of\\ inner\\-biblical\\ interpretation\\)\\,\\ nearly\\ verbatim\\ repetition\\ with\\ small\\ but\\ significant\\ changes\\ that\\ alter\\ meaning\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Legal\\ laws\\ in\\ Deut\\.\\ 12\\-16\\ and\\ Ex\\.\\ 21\\-23\\)\\,\\ and\\ comments\\ about\\ passages\\ were\\ penned\\ into\\ the\\ bible\\ itself\\ \\(comments\\ accidentally\\ copied\\ by\\ scribes\\ when\\ rewriting\\ bible\\)\\.\\ Rabbi\\ typically\\ compiled\\ collections\\ if\\ interpretive\\ comments\\ on\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ known\\ as\\ midrashim\\.\\ Goals\\ of\\ inner\\-biblical\\ interpretation\\ include\\:\\ explaining\\ problematic\\ passages\\ \\(example\\-\\ Dan\\ 9\\.2\\:\\ reinterpreting\\ prophecy\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ true\\;\\ Passover\\ Sacrifice\\-\\ discussed\\ in\\ lecture\\-Chronicles\\ reinterprets\\ it\\ to\\ include\\ both\\ fire\\ and\\ boiling\\)\\,\\ revising\\ earlier\\ text\\ by\\ directly\\ contradicting\\ it\\ or\\ omitting\\ it\\ \\(Rabbis\\ later\\ copied\\ precedent\\.\\ It\\ is\\ sometimes\\ difficult\\ to\\ tell\\ whether\\ text\\ is\\ interpreting\\ or\\ revising\\ earlier\\ text\\.\\ Biblical\\ authors\\ also\\ use\\ older\\ text\\ to\\ bolster\\ and\\ emphasize\\ their\\ own\\ writing\\ by\\ drawing\\ parallels\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inner\\-biblical\\ interpretation\\ allows\\ for\\ text\\ to\\ remain\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midrash\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ post\\-biblical\\ invention\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ Biblical\\ means\\ of\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ which\\ the\\ Rabbis\\ inherited\\ from\\ the\\ biblical\\ authors\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gulf\\ between\\ post\\-biblical\\ \\(Rabbinic\\)\\ writings\\ and\\ the\\ actual\\ biblical\\ text\\ is\\ actually\\ quite\\ small\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ similar\\ ways\\ of\\ reinterpretation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Midrash\\ and\\ Jewish\\ Interpretation\\ \\(David\\ Stern\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Midrash\\ is\\ the\\ specific\\ name\\ for\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ biblical\\ interpretation\\ as\\ practiced\\ by\\ the\\ Rabbis\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Israel\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ five\\ centuries\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ era\\.\\ More\\ recently\\,\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ all\\ interpretations\\ of\\ biblical\\ text\\,\\ including\\ creative\\,\\ non\\-traditional\\ ones\\.\\ The\\ history\\ of\\ Midrash\\ begins\\ in\\ inner\\-biblical\\ interpretation\\.\\ Rabbis\\ used\\ general\\ interpretative\\ techniques\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ other\\ biblical\\ scholars\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Also\\ shared\\ four\\ ancient\\ beliefs\\ about\\ the\\ Bible\\ scripture\\:\\ that\\ the\\ Bible\\ was\\ a\\ cryptic\\ document\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\ was\\ a\\ perfect\\ document\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ always\\ relevant\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\ was\\ of\\ divine\\ origin\\.\\ Rabbis\\ had\\ some\\ unique\\ beliefs\\ as\\ well\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\(what\\ the\\ called\\ the\\ Written\\ Torah\\)\\ was\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ revelations\\ given\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ Israel\\.\\ The\\ other\\ was\\ an\\ Oral\\ Torah\\,\\ which\\ the\\ Rabbis\\ believed\\ included\\ everything\\ that\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;Judaism\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ not\\ explicitly\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ Torah\\.\\ These\\ two\\ Torahs\\ were\\ understood\\ to\\ be\\ complementary\\.\\ Rabbis\\ derived\\ many\\ of\\ their\\ interpretations\\ from\\ puns\\,\\ probably\\ because\\ they\\ learned\\ the\\ Torah\\ by\\ hearing\\ it\\ read\\ aloud\\.\\ Rabbis\\ were\\ also\\ extremely\\ close\\ readers\\.\\ Some\\ scholars\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Christian\\ biblical\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ between\\ midrash\\ \\(seeing\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ front\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ text\\)\\ and\\ allegory\\ \\(seeing\\ behind\\ it\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ problematic\\ because\\ midrash\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ allegory\\.\\ Main\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ is\\ that\\ Christian\\ interpretation\\ in\\ more\\ systematic\\ and\\ heavily\\ theorized\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ the\\ anxiety\\ of\\ proving\\ the\\ relevance\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\.\\ Midrash\\ driven\\ by\\ fear\\ of\\ rejection\\ of\\ Judaism\\.\\ Other\\ distinguishing\\ feature\\ of\\ Midrash\\ is\\ the\\ singular\\ literary\\ form\\,\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ being\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\proem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ that\\ Rabbis\\ meant\\ for\\ Midrash\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ preparing\\ sermons\\ and\\ lessons\\,\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ transcripts\\ of\\ actual\\ lessons\\.\\ Halakha\\ is\\ midrash\\ that\\ investigates\\ law\\ and\\ legal\\ material\\ and\\ aggadah\\ is\\ narrative\\ and\\ theological\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Midrash\\ now\\ refers\\ generally\\ to\\ all\\ biblical\\ interpretation\\,\\ but\\ in\\ particular\\ to\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ ancient\\ Rabbis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midrash\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ an\\ exegesis\\ of\\ the\\ heard\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midrash\\ constantly\\ demonstrates\\ that\\ Scripture\\ may\\ mean\\ something\\ other\\ what\\ it\\ says\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Clear\\ distinctions\\ between\\ Christian\\ and\\ Jewish\\ interpretation\\:\\ Christian\\ more\\ allegorical\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ need\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;find\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jesus\\ in\\ old\\ testament\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midrash\\ inhabits\\ \\&ldquo\\;grey\\ area\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ part\\ interpretation\\,\\ part\\ creative\\ composition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Midrash\\ still\\ very\\ powerful\\ Jewish\\ tool\\ for\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chicago\\ Statement\\ on\\ Biblical\\ Inerrancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Written\\ in\\ 1978\\ by\\ representatives\\ of\\ American\\ Protestant\\ Churches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gives\\ primacy\\ to\\ seeking\\ the\\ intention\\ of\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ Biblical\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Declares\\ biblical\\ text\\ as\\ fact\\ and\\ completely\\ without\\ error\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bible\\ may\\ appear\\ to\\ contradict\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Asserts\\ that\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ unquestionably\\ the\\ word\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advocates\\ worried\\ that\\ accepting\\ one\\ error\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ would\\ open\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pandora\\&rsquo\\;s\\ box\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ Week\\ 3\\,\\ Lecture\\ 1\\ Notes\\.\\ Professor\\ Cohen\\ provides\\ a\\ short\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ statement\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ Articles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Parting\\ of\\ the\\ Ways\\ \\(Morton\\ Enslin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Author\\ sees\\ the\\ Christian\\ and\\ Jewish\\ churches\\ as\\ forever\\ separated\\ and\\ insists\\ that\\ a\\ divided\\ church\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ faith\\.\\ Christianity\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ Jewish\\ movement\\ and\\ like\\ the\\ Jews\\,\\ Christians\\ believed\\ their\\ religion\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ revelation\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ that\\ Jesus\\ the\\ a\\ central\\ part\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relation\\ with\\ mankind\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ died\\ to\\ save\\ them\\ \\(was\\ the\\ literal\\ Passover\\ sacrifice\\)\\,\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\.\\ Jesus\\ believed\\ himself\\ an\\ apocalyptic\\ prophet\\ who\\ had\\ come\\ to\\ prepare\\ men\\ for\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ final\\ judgment\\.\\ These\\ were\\ not\\ anti\\-Jewish\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ varying\\ attitudes\\ among\\ the\\ Jews\\ to\\ his\\ message\\.\\ The\\ wealthy\\ and\\ the\\ intellectuals\\ did\\ not\\ accept\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ message\\-\\ reason\\ for\\ anti\\-wealthy\\/Pharisee\\/scribe\\ themes\\ in\\ the\\ Gospels\\.\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ influence\\,\\ even\\ after\\ his\\ death\\,\\ was\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ his\\ parts\\ \\(he\\ had\\ a\\ tremendously\\,\\ affecting\\ personality\\)\\.\\ His\\ influence\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ supposed\\ supernatural\\ characteristics\\.\\ After\\ his\\ death\\,\\ his\\ followers\\ declared\\ Jesus\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Son\\ of\\ Man\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ further\\ indication\\ of\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ his\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ still\\ not\\ broken\\ away\\ from\\ Judaism\\ at\\ this\\ point\\.\\ The\\ important\\ thing\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Jesus\\ at\\ first\\ was\\ that\\ his\\ followers\\ looked\\ at\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ horrible\\ crime\\ committed\\ by\\ the\\ unbelievers\\.\\ Later\\,\\ Paul\\ would\\ deem\\ Christ\\ holy\\ \\&ldquo\\;because\\ he\\ was\\ crucified\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;despite\\ being\\ crucified\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ followers\\ spread\\ the\\ word\\ and\\ recruited\\ new\\ followers\\-\\ the\\ gentiles\\ that\\ converted\\ are\\ called\\ proselytes\\.\\ Paul\\ was\\ a\\ first\\ a\\ fanatic\\ Jew\\,\\ but\\ converted\\ to\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ message\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ overcoming\\ the\\ Jewish\\ problem\\ with\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ crucifixion\\.\\ He\\ was\\ convinced\\ that\\ he\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ God\\,\\ but\\,\\ inn\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ he\\ still\\ remained\\ Jewish\\,\\ although\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ Jewish\\ law\\ was\\ restricted\\ for\\ these\\ new\\ Christians\\.\\ Paul\\ believed\\ that\\ Jesus\\&rsquo\\;\\ death\\ fulfilled\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promise\\ and\\ lifted\\ the\\ Law\\ from\\ Christians\\.\\ Another\\ significant\\ departure\\ was\\ the\\ naming\\ of\\ Jesus\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lord\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ the\\ Christians\\ and\\ the\\ emphasis\\ on\\ salvation\\ in\\ Christianity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Parting\\ of\\ ways\\ was\\ a\\ gradual\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ himself\\ was\\ Jewish\\,\\ did\\ not\\ start\\ the\\ Christian\\ movement\\,\\ merely\\ inspired\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Paul\\ was\\ Jewish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christianity\\ marked\\ by\\ the\\ change\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\ was\\ holy\\ despite\\ crucifixion\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\ was\\ holy\\ because\\ of\\ crucifixion\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jesus\\ brought\\ a\\ message\\ of\\ eschatology\\,\\ or\\ of\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ time\\/judgment\\ day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ incorporation\\ of\\ gentiles\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ an\\ entirely\\ different\\ religion\\ \\(because\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ Jewish\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ Week\\ 4\\:\\ Lecture\\ 1\\ notes\\ for\\ more\\ info\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jewish\\ Food\\ Laws\\ in\\ Early\\ Christian\\ Community\\ Discourse\\ \\(Peter\\ Tomson\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jewish\\ food\\ laws\\ were\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ defining\\ and\\ reinforcing\\ community\\ for\\ the\\ Jews\\.\\ Christian\\ movement\\ radically\\ reinterpreted\\ the\\ food\\ laws\\,\\ and\\ when\\ non\\-jews\\ began\\ to\\ join\\ community\\ and\\ separate\\ away\\,\\ the\\ writings\\ on\\ food\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ were\\ revised\\ even\\ further\\.\\ New\\ Testament\\ is\\ both\\ a\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Christian\\ text\\,\\ but\\ became\\ central\\ text\\ for\\ Christians\\ as\\ they\\ sought\\ to\\ separate\\ themselves\\.\\ Christians\\ began\\ to\\ interpret\\ both\\ Testaments\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ an\\ ant\\-Jewish\\ self\\-definition\\-\\ considered\\ themselves\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;true\\&rdquo\\;\\ people\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Laws\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ exclusive\\ discourse\\ for\\ both\\ Christians\\ and\\ Jews\\,\\ where\\ they\\ take\\ on\\ either\\ the\\ anti\\-Jewish\\ or\\ anti\\-Gentile\\ community\\ symbol\\ respectively\\.\\ Food\\ a\\ powerful\\ tool\\/symbol\\ for\\ a\\ community\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ dependence\\ on\\ it\\.\\ Thus\\ food\\ laws\\ are\\ highly\\ effective\\ for\\ defining\\ groups\\.\\ In\\ Jewish\\ community\\ discourse\\,\\ laws\\ effective\\ in\\ expressing\\ openness\\ or\\ exclusiveness\\.\\ Many\\ Christian\\ writers\\ largely\\ misunderstand\\ the\\ food\\ laws\\ or\\ confuse\\ them\\ with\\ other\\ laws\\ \\(purity\\,\\ idolatry\\)\\.\\ Claim\\ that\\ god\\ made\\ everything\\ pure\\ is\\ invalid\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;purity\\&rdquo\\;\\ does\\ not\\ apply\\ to\\ the\\ food\\ laws\\.\\ Dietary\\ laws\\ are\\ absolute\\,\\ purity\\ laws\\ are\\ often\\ reinterpreted\\.\\ Christians\\ reject\\ Jewish\\ laws\\,\\ but\\ make\\ contradiction\\ prohibitions\\ within\\ own\\ \\ \\;community\\.\\ Paul\\ imagined\\ a\\ community\\ in\\ which\\ Jews\\ and\\ non\\-Jews\\ lived\\ in\\ harmony\\;\\ was\\ angered\\ by\\ Jewish\\ self\\-segregation\\ which\\ he\\ \\(perhaps\\ mistakenly\\)\\ attributed\\ to\\ food\\ laws\\ \\(was\\ probably\\ related\\ to\\ idolatry\\ which\\ Paul\\ himself\\ opposed\\)\\.\\ Argument\\ made\\ by\\ Christians\\ that\\ Jesus\\ abolished\\ food\\ laws\\ in\\ the\\ gospel\\ hand\\-washing\\ story\\ is\\ false\\ because\\ it\\ confounds\\ dietary\\ and\\ purity\\ laws\\.\\ Author\\ of\\ Luke\\-Acts\\ seems\\ to\\ embrace\\ Jew\\-Gentile\\ relations\\ and\\ open\\ community\\ discourse\\,\\ respecting\\ both\\ traditions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\New\\ Testament\\ was\\ both\\ a\\ Christian\\ and\\ Jewish\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Food\\ laws\\ highly\\ effective\\ way\\ of\\ defining\\ groups\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ centrality\\ to\\ community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christian\\ authors\\ often\\ confound\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ Jewish\\ law\\ in\\ their\\ arguments\\ against\\ food\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contradictions\\ make\\ clear\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ food\\ laws\\ that\\ bothered\\ Christian\\ forefathers\\,\\ but\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ Jewish\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Christian\\ Church\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fully\\ develop\\ its\\ anti\\-jewish\\ readings\\ of\\ biblical\\ text\\ until\\ after\\ the\\ Bar\\-Kokhaba\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 3\\ Bible\\ Reading\\:\\ Exodus\\ 1\\-20\\,\\ 32\\-34\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\academic\\ agnosticism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ modern\\ scholars\\ cannot\\ prove\\ or\\ disprove\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ given\\ biblical\\ book\\ is\\ divinely\\ inspired\\ or\\ not\\ though\\ the\\ traditionalist\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ Exodus\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\,\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ Moses\\ and\\ was\\ inspired\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\migra\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;that\\ which\\ is\\ read\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ the\\ Torah\\ is\\ read\\ as\\ the\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ Sabbath\\ liturgy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\omnisignificant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ all\\ details\\ have\\ meaning\\ because\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ divinely\\ inspired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\infallible\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ eternally\\ true\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ writings\\ are\\ without\\ mistakes\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;inerrant\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ they\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ that\\ way\\ because\\ God\\ exists\\ outside\\ of\\ time\\;\\ no\\ contradictions\\,\\ simply\\ have\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ the\\ consistent\\ and\\ true\\ deeper\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\exegesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ critical\\ explanation\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ \\(legal\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;halakhic\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ non\\-legal\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;aggadic\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ Jews\\;\\ theological\\ and\\ allegorical\\ for\\ Christians\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Overall\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Exodus\\ \\=\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;departure\\ from\\ Egypt\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Greek\\;\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\;\\ narrates\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Israel\\ from\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Moses\\ \\(history\\ of\\ Israel\\ however\\ lacks\\ historical\\ detail\\ simply\\ has\\ narrates\\ events\\ because\\ of\\ historical\\ significance\\)\\;\\ transition\\ from\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ promises\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ a\\ permanent\\ relationship\\ with\\ Israel\\ to\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ these\\ promises\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Themes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ God\\ stands\\ in\\ a\\ special\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ Israel\\ through\\ a\\ covenant\\ and\\ revealed\\ law\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\)\\;\\ God\\ rewards\\ the\\ righteous\\ and\\ punishes\\ the\\ wicked\\,\\ both\\ individually\\ and\\ collectively\\,\\ both\\ of\\ Israel\\ and\\ of\\ other\\ nations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ch\\ 1\\:\\ genealogy\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sons\\ of\\ Israel\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ explain\\ existence\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ population\\ in\\ Egypt\\ as\\ slaves\\ under\\ pharaoh\\;\\ describes\\ oppression\\ and\\ killing\\ of\\ baby\\ Hebrew\\ boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 2\\:\\ story\\ of\\ Moses\\ as\\ son\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ woman\\ who\\ grows\\ up\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;son\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Pharaoh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\,\\ kills\\ a\\ slave\\ master\\ for\\ striking\\ a\\ slave\\,\\ flees\\ from\\ Pharaoh\\ to\\ Midian\\,\\ marries\\ Zipporah\\ a\\ daughter\\ of\\ Jethro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 3\\:\\ Moses\\ has\\ the\\ burning\\ bush\\ experience\\ during\\ which\\ God\\ says\\ he\\ has\\ seen\\ the\\ suffering\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Egypt\\ and\\ now\\ instructs\\ Moses\\ to\\ lead\\ them\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;land\\ flowing\\ with\\ milk\\ and\\ honey\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Moses\\ asks\\ God\\ how\\ he\\ can\\ prove\\ he\\ is\\ speaking\\ the\\ truth\\ and\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ sent\\ him\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\weird\\ part\\ that\\ say\\ that\\ God\\ tried\\ to\\ killed\\ Moses\\ but\\ then\\ his\\ wife\\ circumcised\\ their\\ son\\ and\\ God\\ was\\ appeased\\ \\(importance\\ of\\ circumcision\\-\\-\\-examine\\ this\\ respect\\ to\\ relationship\\ with\\ God\\;\\ bodily\\ change\\ represents\\ and\\ indicates\\ spiritual\\ one\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 5\\:\\ Moses\\ and\\ Aaron\\ go\\ to\\ Egypt\\ to\\ Pharaoh\\,\\ asks\\ for\\ Israelites\\ to\\ be\\ freed\\,\\ but\\ Pharaoh\\ only\\ makes\\ their\\ plight\\ worse\\ \\(no\\ straw\\ for\\ bricks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 6\\:\\ LORD\\ speaks\\ to\\ Moses\\ of\\ His\\ covenant\\ with\\ the\\ Israelites\\,\\ genealogy\\ of\\ Moses\\ and\\ Aaron\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 7\\:\\ miracles\\-\\-\\-rod\\ becomes\\ snake\\,\\ magicians\\ do\\ the\\ same\\,\\ and\\ Moses\\&rsquo\\;\\ snake\\ eats\\ the\\ snakes\\ of\\ the\\ magicians\\;\\ turns\\ the\\ Nile\\ river\\ water\\ into\\ blood\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ turned\\ to\\ blood\\,\\ but\\ magicians\\ did\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 8\\:\\ plague\\ of\\ frogs\\,\\ lice\\,\\ swarms\\ of\\ insects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 9\\:\\ pestilence\\ amongst\\ the\\ livestock\\ and\\ animals\\ all\\ die\\,\\ plague\\ of\\ boils\\,\\ hail\\,\\ Pharaoh\\ said\\ they\\ could\\ go\\ and\\ then\\ once\\ Moses\\ made\\ the\\ hail\\ stop\\,\\ he\\ changed\\ his\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 10\\:\\ locusts\\,\\ darkness\\ for\\ 3\\ days\\,\\ Pharaoh\\ said\\ they\\ could\\ go\\ again\\ but\\ then\\ he\\ changed\\ his\\ mind\\ again\\ \\&ldquo\\;LORD\\ stiffened\\ his\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 11\\:\\ first\\-born\\ of\\ Egypt\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ LORD\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 12\\:\\ lamb\\ ritual\\ with\\ blood\\ on\\ doorposts\\ and\\ eat\\ the\\ lamb\\ roasted\\ \\=\\ seder\\ meal\\ \\(with\\ unleavened\\ bread\\,\\ eat\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;your\\ loins\\ girded\\,\\ your\\ sandals\\ on\\ your\\ feet\\,\\ and\\ your\\ staff\\ in\\ your\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ you\\ shall\\ eat\\ it\\ hurriedly\\:\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ Passover\\ offering\\ to\\ the\\ LORD\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ with\\ unleavened\\ bread\\-\\-\\-symbolic\\ for\\ remembrance\\ of\\ exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\ so\\ eat\\ as\\ in\\ a\\ hurry\\ to\\ leave\\)\\;\\ describes\\ Israelite\\ journey\\ from\\ Rameses\\ to\\ Succoth\\ about\\ 600\\,000\\ men\\ on\\ foot\\,\\ aside\\ from\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 13\\:\\ LORD\\ orders\\ Moses\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;consecrate\\&rdquo\\;\\ every\\ first\\ born\\ to\\ the\\ Him\\;\\ Moses\\ tells\\ the\\ people\\ about\\ seder\\ tradition\\ which\\ shall\\ \\&ldquo\\;serve\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ on\\ your\\ hand\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ reminder\\ on\\ your\\ forehead\\-\\-\\-in\\ order\\ that\\ the\\ Teaching\\ of\\ the\\ LORD\\ may\\ be\\ in\\ your\\ mouth\\-\\-\\-that\\ with\\ a\\ mighty\\ hand\\ the\\ LORD\\ freed\\ you\\ from\\ Egypt\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ God\\ lead\\ the\\ Israelites\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;way\\ of\\ the\\ wilderness\\ and\\ the\\ Sea\\ of\\ Reeds\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ a\\ pillar\\ of\\ cloud\\ by\\ day\\ and\\ fire\\ by\\ night\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 14\\:\\ Israelites\\ are\\ disliking\\ the\\ wilderness\\ and\\ want\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Egypt\\;\\ God\\ stiffens\\ the\\ Pharaoh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ pursue\\ them\\ and\\ God\\ might\\ show\\ his\\ glory\\ \\(show\\ off\\)\\ to\\ the\\ Egyptians\\ by\\ drowning\\ the\\ army\\ in\\ the\\ Sea\\ of\\ Reeds\\ after\\ Moses\\ parts\\ it\\ with\\ his\\ rod\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 15\\:\\ Israelites\\ sing\\ a\\ song\\ of\\ glory\\ and\\ praise\\ to\\ the\\ LORD\\ talking\\ about\\ God\\ destroying\\ His\\ enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 16\\:\\ into\\ the\\ wilderness\\ of\\ Sim\\ and\\ Israelites\\ doubt\\ again\\ and\\ the\\ LORD\\ feeds\\ them\\ with\\ bread\\ \\&ldquo\\;omer\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;manna\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ sky\\ \\(miracle\\)\\,\\ quail\\,\\ and\\ dew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 17\\:\\ no\\ water\\ to\\ drink\\,\\ Moses\\ strikes\\ a\\ rock\\ with\\ his\\ rod\\ and\\ water\\ springs\\ forth\\ \\(miracle\\)\\;\\ Israel\\ fights\\ Amalek\\ \\(whenever\\ Moses\\ held\\ up\\ his\\ hand\\,\\ Israelites\\ won\\,\\ otherwise\\,\\ they\\ lost\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 18\\:\\ Jethro\\ of\\ Midian\\ \\(Moses\\ father\\-in\\-law\\)\\ goes\\ to\\ join\\ Moses\\ with\\ his\\ family\\;\\ Jethro\\ asks\\ Moses\\ why\\ he\\ works\\ to\\ hard\\ and\\ Moses\\ says\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ instruct\\ the\\ Israelites\\ and\\ teach\\ them\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;laws\\ and\\ teachings\\ of\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Jethro\\ recommends\\ that\\ he\\ appoint\\ a\\ helper\\ and\\ he\\ took\\ the\\ advice\\ and\\ appointed\\ head\\ over\\ the\\ pwople\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 19\\:\\ wilderness\\ of\\ Sinai\\ at\\ front\\ of\\ Mount\\ Sinai\\ and\\ Moses\\ went\\ up\\ to\\ God\\ and\\ God\\ declares\\ Israel\\ as\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;holy\\ nation\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ God\\ commanded\\ Moses\\ to\\ tells\\ the\\ Children\\ of\\ Israel\\ his\\ orders\\/laws\\/commandments\\;\\ threaten\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ people\\ see\\ God\\ by\\ going\\ up\\ the\\ mountain\\ they\\ will\\ die\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 20\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\10\\ commandments\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(the\\ first\\ couple\\ have\\ longer\\ explanations\\,\\ like\\ the\\ Sabbath\\,\\ and\\ no\\ idols\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ God\\ in\\ a\\ thick\\ cloud\\ on\\ the\\ mountain\\;\\ and\\ he\\ orders\\ them\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;make\\ an\\ altar\\ on\\ earth\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ on\\ it\\ your\\ burnt\\ offerings\\ and\\ your\\ sacrifices\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 32\\:\\ Moses\\ long\\ in\\ coming\\ down\\ from\\ the\\ mountain\\ \\=\\ golden\\ calf\\ and\\ idolatry\\ saying\\ of\\ the\\ image\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ is\\ your\\ god\\,\\ oh\\ Israel\\,\\ who\\ brought\\ you\\ out\\ of\\ Egypt\\;\\ God\\ angry\\ but\\ Moses\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ reason\\ with\\ him\\ \\(interesting\\ because\\ if\\ God\\ is\\ infallible\\ and\\ omniscient\\ then\\ no\\ one\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ change\\ His\\ mind\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ He\\ is\\ emotional\\ and\\ affected\\ by\\ Moses\\ reasons\\)\\;\\ Moses\\ confronts\\ Aaron\\ about\\ the\\ idol\\ and\\ he\\ says\\ the\\ people\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;bent\\ on\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ need\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;god\\ to\\ lead\\&rdquo\\;\\ them\\;\\ people\\ out\\ of\\ control\\;\\ God\\ makes\\ them\\ account\\ for\\ their\\ sins\\ by\\ sending\\ a\\ plague\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 33\\:\\ God\\ says\\ He\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ before\\ the\\ people\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ destroy\\ them\\,\\ Moses\\ speak\\ to\\ God\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ pillar\\ of\\ cloud\\ in\\ his\\ tent\\ \\&ldquo\\;face\\ to\\ face\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ close\\ relationship\\ between\\ God\\ and\\ Moses\\ \\(Moses\\ favored\\ by\\ God\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ch\\ 34\\:\\ carving\\ of\\ commandments\\ into\\ two\\ tablets\\ of\\ stone\\ by\\ God\\;\\ God\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;compassionate\\ and\\ gracious\\,\\ slow\\ to\\ anger\\,\\ abounding\\ in\\ kindness\\ and\\ faithfulness\\,\\ extending\\ kindness\\ to\\ the\\ thousandth\\ generation\\,\\ forgiving\\ iniquity\\,\\ transgression\\,\\ and\\ sin\\;\\ yet\\ He\\ does\\ not\\ remit\\ all\\ punishment\\,\\ but\\ visit\\ the\\ iniquity\\ of\\ parents\\ upon\\ children\\ and\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\,\\ upon\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ fourth\\ generations\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ convenant\\,\\ wonders\\ so\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ with\\ you\\ shall\\ see\\ how\\ awesome\\ are\\ the\\ LORD\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deeds\\ which\\ I\\ will\\ perform\\ for\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ God\\ drives\\ out\\ other\\ groups\\ of\\ peoples\\ to\\ make\\ room\\ for\\ the\\ Israelites\\,\\ all\\ first\\ borns\\ \\(sons\\ and\\ animals\\)\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ LORD\\,\\ repeats\\ the\\ 10\\ commandments\\;\\ Moses\\ came\\ down\\ from\\ the\\ mountain\\ with\\ radiant\\ skin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\bold\\ text\\ means\\ significant\\ passage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ sort\\ of\\ character\\ is\\ God\\ in\\ this\\ portion\\ of\\ Exodus\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\God\\ of\\ emotion\\ \\(anger\\,\\ envy\\,\\ pride\\)\\ also\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ infallible\\ because\\ influenced\\ by\\ Moses\\ when\\ deciding\\ not\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ Israelites\\ as\\ punishment\\ for\\ their\\ idolatry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Likes\\ to\\ show\\ off\\ his\\ glory\\ with\\ miracles\\ \\(plagues\\,\\ parting\\ of\\ the\\ Sea\\ of\\ Reeds\\,\\ manna\\ from\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ water\\ from\\ the\\ rock\\,\\ pillars\\ of\\ fire\\ and\\ cloud\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Does\\ he\\ treat\\ Pharaoh\\ and\\ the\\ Egyptians\\ fairly\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\,\\ many\\ of\\ them\\ are\\ innocent\\ and\\ have\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Pharaoh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ enslave\\ the\\ Israelites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ it\\ is\\ God\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;hardens\\ Pharaoh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ hardly\\ seems\\ fair\\ that\\ he\\ punishes\\ him\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.seems\\ like\\ it\\ is\\ simply\\ to\\ glorify\\ God\\-\\-\\-see\\ Sea\\ of\\ Reeds\\ incident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ miracles\\.\\ Discuss\\.\\ Why\\ are\\ there\\ so\\ many\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\to\\ glorify\\ God\\-\\-\\-to\\ \\&ldquo\\;show\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ prove\\ to\\ the\\ Israelites\\ and\\ other\\ groups\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ God\\,\\ over\\ other\\ Gods\\ \\(it\\ seems\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Make\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ golden\\ calf\\ story\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hebrews\\ want\\ a\\ more\\ tangible\\ God\\ because\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ they\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ in\\ Egypt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Make\\ an\\ idol\\ against\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\God\\ wants\\ to\\ kill\\ them\\,\\ but\\ Moses\\ reasons\\ with\\ him\\-\\-\\-important\\ because\\ indicates\\ a\\ more\\ human\\-like\\ aspect\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personality\\;\\ not\\ omniscient\\ or\\ infallible\\ if\\ He\\ can\\ have\\ his\\ opinion\\ swayed\\ by\\ a\\ human\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\There\\ are\\ two\\ accounts\\ of\\ the\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\ here\\ \\(ch20\\ and\\ ch34\\)\\-\\-\\-look\\ at\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Circumcision\\ Readings\\ Summaries\\ Literature\\ and\\ Arts\\ C\\-70\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Paul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Luke\\ 2\\:21\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ passage\\ shows\\ how\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Christians\\ believe\\ they\\ are\\ circumcised\\ through\\ the\\ circumcision\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ 2\\:25\\-29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ Jew\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ one\\ inwardly\\.\\ \\ \\;Circumcision\\ is\\ an\\ outwardly\\ act\\ and\\ therefore\\ is\\ insignificant\\.\\ Real\\ circumcision\\ is\\ the\\ circumcision\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romans\\ 4\\:9\\-12\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ considered\\ Abraham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faith\\,\\ and\\ called\\ him\\ righteous\\,\\ yet\\ when\\ this\\ happened\\,\\ Abraham\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ been\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;Abraham\\ was\\ circumcised\\ later\\,\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\,\\ demonstrating\\ in\\ his\\ flesh\\ the\\ faith\\ in\\ his\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\;Abraham\\ is\\ consequently\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ all\\ who\\ believe\\ though\\ not\\ circumcised\\ and\\ he\\ received\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perfect\\ holiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Galatians\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ tells\\ the\\ Galatian\\ believers\\ to\\ stand\\ fast\\ in\\ the\\ faith\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ Jesus\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ says\\ that\\ you\\ come\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ not\\ by\\ following\\ some\\ laws\\ \\(ie\\ circumcision\\)\\ but\\ by\\ inwardly\\ finding\\ your\\ spirit\\.\\ \\ \\;Abiding\\ by\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ not\\ showing\\ faith\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ circumcision\\ of\\ Christ\\ is\\ not\\ annulled\\ and\\ through\\ Christ\\ all\\ Christians\\ are\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ephesians\\ 2\\:11\\-13\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Remember\\ that\\ you\\ were\\ once\\ gentiles\\,\\ without\\ Christ\\ and\\ uncircumcised\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ now\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\ you\\ have\\ found\\ God\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ circumcised\\ through\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philippians\\ 3\\:2\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Christians\\ worship\\ God\\ in\\ spirit\\ and\\ rejoice\\ in\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;Christians\\ do\\ not\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ flesh\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Colossians\\ 2\\:8\\-15\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ circumcised\\ through\\ the\\ circumcision\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\ hung\\ on\\ the\\ cross\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;blotted\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ ordinances\\ that\\ were\\ previously\\ held\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ Justin\\ Martyr\\ on\\ Circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ cites\\ two\\ verses\\,\\ one\\ from\\ Exodus\\ and\\ one\\ from\\ Leviticus\\.\\ The\\ Exodus\\ reference\\ tells\\ people\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;circumcise\\ the\\ hardness\\ of\\ your\\ hearts\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ recognize\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greatness\\.\\ The\\ Leviticus\\ reference\\ is\\ a\\ threat\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ cut\\ the\\ Israelites\\ off\\ from\\ their\\ land\\ in\\ which\\ He\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ as\\ those\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncircumcised\\ hearts\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Justin\\ first\\ puts\\ forth\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ circumcision\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ designate\\ Jewish\\ people\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ punishing\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ says\\ that\\ Christians\\ would\\ also\\ observe\\ circumcision\\,\\ the\\ Sabbath\\,\\ etc\\.\\ if\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ these\\ things\\ were\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ Jews\\ by\\ God\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ transgressions\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ hardness\\ of\\ their\\ hearts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ answers\\ Trypho\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ about\\ why\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ observe\\ the\\ same\\ customs\\ with\\ a\\ few\\ new\\ arguments\\ against\\ circumcision\\.\\ Adam\\,\\ Abraham\\ before\\ his\\ circumcision\\,\\ Lot\\ etc\\.\\ were\\ all\\ uncircumcised\\ and\\ yet\\ held\\ favor\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ God\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ Justin\\ says\\ that\\ circumcision\\ is\\ necessary\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ Jews\\ who\\ have\\ committed\\ sins\\ displeasing\\ to\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ says\\ that\\ since\\ God\\ is\\ all\\-knowing\\ and\\ immutable\\ over\\ time\\ then\\ we\\ must\\ know\\ that\\ since\\ Abraham\\,\\ Moses\\ and\\ other\\ righteous\\ men\\ could\\ be\\ uncircumcised\\ and\\ not\\ observe\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ and\\ still\\ be\\ pleasing\\ to\\ God\\,\\ then\\ these\\ things\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ necessary\\.\\ Also\\ Justin\\ argues\\ that\\ women\\ can\\ be\\ righteous\\ as\\ well\\ and\\ yet\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ circumcised\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\-9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Justin\\ cites\\ passages\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\ that\\ support\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ circumcised\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ he\\ accepts\\ God\\ and\\ Christ\\.\\ To\\ conclude\\,\\ Justin\\ establishes\\ that\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ scriptures\\ support\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ observe\\ these\\ rituals\\ to\\ be\\ righteous\\ by\\ God\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Summary\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ COMMON\\ IDEAS\\ shared\\ by\\ Paul\\ and\\ Justin\\ include\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ spiritual\\ circumcision\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ necessary\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ spiritual\\ belief\\ that\\ matters\\ not\\ physical\\ modifications\\.\\ Both\\ use\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ men\\ before\\ Abraham\\ and\\ Abraham\\ himself\\ had\\ been\\ righteous\\ before\\ circumcision\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DIFFERENCES\\ are\\ that\\ Justin\\ differs\\ from\\ Paul\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ identifies\\ circumcision\\ as\\ a\\ mark\\ for\\ punishment\\ \\(this\\ idea\\ is\\ not\\ adopted\\ by\\ future\\ Christians\\)\\ and\\ puts\\ forth\\ the\\ argument\\ about\\ women\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Paul\\ mentions\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ Christ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ circumcision\\ means\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ else\\ afterwards\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ circumcised\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exodus\\ 19\\:1\\-23\\:19\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\ is\\ the\\ narrative\\ of\\ God\\ getting\\ ready\\ to\\ hand\\ down\\ the\\ commandments\\ to\\ Moses\\ and\\ the\\ Israelites\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ tells\\ them\\ to\\ remain\\ pure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\ gives\\ the\\ ten\\ commandments\\ and\\ establishes\\ the\\ covenant\\ between\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ Israelites\\ by\\ giving\\ them\\ rules\\ to\\ obey\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ offers\\ no\\ punishment\\ for\\ disobeying\\,\\ just\\ gives\\ the\\ law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\ includes\\ many\\ other\\ laws\\ that\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ slaves\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ gives\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ wrongs\\ men\\ can\\ do\\ to\\ other\\ men\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ punishment\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ gives\\ rules\\ for\\ dealing\\ in\\ oxen\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\ talks\\ about\\ livestock\\ even\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ then\\ says\\ not\\ to\\ wrong\\ a\\ stranger\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ it\\ says\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ first\\ born\\ among\\ your\\ sons\\ and\\ among\\ your\\ cattle\\ to\\ the\\ Lord\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\ is\\ more\\ rules\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ to\\ oppress\\ a\\ stranger\\,\\ to\\ share\\ your\\ wealth\\ of\\ food\\ with\\ others\\ who\\ have\\ little\\,\\ to\\ return\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ox\\ to\\ him\\,\\ and\\ it\\ reiterates\\ to\\ rest\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ day\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ verse\\ 14\\ it\\ describes\\ the\\ three\\ feasts\\ in\\ the\\ year\\ very\\ briefly\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Feast\\ of\\ unleavened\\ Bread\\,\\ the\\ Feast\\ of\\ the\\ Harvest\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Feast\\ of\\ the\\ Ingathering\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leviticus\\ 11\\,\\ 15\\,\\ 18\\,\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\ discusses\\ the\\ food\\ laws\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ may\\ eat\\ animals\\ with\\ true\\ hooves\\ \\(that\\ have\\ clefts\\ in\\ the\\ hooves\\)\\ and\\ who\\ chew\\ the\\ cud\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ means\\ no\\ rabbits\\ and\\ no\\ pigs\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\ only\\ eat\\ fish\\ that\\ have\\ scales\\ all\\ over\\ their\\ bodies\\,\\ meaning\\ no\\ shell\\ fish\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ lists\\ birds\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ eaten\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ eagle\\ and\\ the\\ hawk\\.\\ \\ \\;Winged\\ swarming\\ things\\ that\\ walk\\ on\\ all\\ fours\\ are\\ also\\ forbidden\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ are\\ unclean\\ if\\ you\\ touch\\ animal\\ carcasses\\ or\\ eat\\ lizards\\ or\\ snakes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\ is\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ cleanliness\\ and\\ purity\\.\\ \\ \\;Any\\ discharge\\ a\\ man\\ has\\ makes\\ him\\ unclean\\,\\ and\\ it\\ goes\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Whenever\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ discharge\\ you\\ are\\ unclean\\ and\\ cannot\\ go\\ to\\ temple\\ or\\ touch\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ they\\ touch\\ you\\,\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ unclean\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ says\\ you\\ are\\ unclean\\ for\\ 7\\ days\\ after\\ a\\ discharge\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ gives\\ directions\\ for\\ how\\ to\\ become\\ clean\\,\\ such\\ as\\ bathing\\ and\\ having\\ clean\\ sheets\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\18\\ says\\ never\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ nakedness\\ of\\ anyone\\ in\\ your\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ it\\ is\\ saying\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ incest\\ in\\ your\\ family\\ or\\ you\\ are\\ BAD\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ says\\ not\\ to\\ have\\ relations\\ with\\ your\\ neighbor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ should\\ not\\ lie\\ with\\ another\\ man\\ as\\ he\\ would\\ with\\ a\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;Bestiality\\ is\\ wrong\\ also\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\ is\\ a\\ review\\ of\\ some\\ laws\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ eat\\ the\\ whole\\ animal\\ the\\ day\\ you\\ sacrifice\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ must\\ not\\ pick\\ your\\ harvest\\ bare\\ so\\ poor\\ people\\ can\\ eat\\ some\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ steal\\ or\\ use\\ the\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ in\\ vane\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ should\\ faithfully\\ observe\\ all\\ the\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deuteronomy\\ 5\\,\\ 27\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\ is\\ the\\ ten\\ commandments\\ again\\.\\ \\ \\;Moses\\ starts\\ by\\ telling\\ the\\ Israelites\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ who\\ God\\ took\\ out\\ of\\ Egypt\\,\\ not\\ their\\ fathers\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ will\\ go\\ over\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ ten\\ commandments\\ below\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\ tells\\ them\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ altar\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ the\\ Lord\\ when\\ they\\ arrive\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Milk\\ and\\ Honey\\ that\\ God\\ will\\ bring\\ them\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ says\\ repeatedly\\ that\\ anyone\\ who\\ disobeys\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\ will\\ be\\ cursed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Compare\\ the\\ two\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ ten\\ commandments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ commandment\\,\\ which\\ asserts\\ the\\ singularity\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ prohibition\\ of\\ other\\ gods\\,\\ is\\ identical\\ in\\ both\\ instances\\ of\\ the\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\.\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ interesting\\ that\\ the\\ commandment\\ mentions\\ that\\ Gods\\ saved\\ the\\ Hebrews\\ from\\ Egypt\\ and\\ bondage\\,\\ perhaps\\ to\\ remind\\ the\\ people\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ duty\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ God\\&\\#39\\;s\\ power\\ and\\ singularity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ commandment\\,\\ which\\ prohibits\\ graven\\ images\\,\\ is\\ also\\ identical\\ in\\ both\\ instances\\.\\ God\\ assures\\ the\\ Hebrews\\ that\\ straying\\ from\\ this\\ law\\ and\\ praying\\ or\\ bowing\\ to\\ other\\ images\\ would\\ pass\\ on\\ guilt\\ to\\ future\\ generations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ commandments\\,\\ which\\ prohibits\\ \\"\\;taking\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ Lord\\ in\\ vain\\,\\"\\;\\ or\\ swearing\\ falsely\\ by\\ that\\ name\\,\\ is\\ yet\\ again\\ identical\\ in\\ both\\ chapters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ fourth\\ commandment\\,\\ regarding\\ the\\ Sabbath\\,\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ exists\\ a\\ discrepancy\\,\\ or\\ simply\\ a\\ difference\\,\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ instances\\ of\\ the\\ Ten\\ Commandments\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Exodus\\ version\\,\\ it\\ reads\\,\\ \\"\\;Rememeber\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ day\\ and\\ keep\\ it\\ holy\\"\\;\\ while\\ the\\ Deuteronomy\\ version\\ reads\\,\\ \\"\\;Observe\\ the\\ Sabbath\\ day\\ and\\ keep\\ it\\ holy\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ difference\\ in\\ one\\ word\\ makes\\ all\\ the\\ difference\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Exodus\\ version\\,\\ God\\ recounts\\ the\\ creation\\ story\\ and\\ how\\ He\\ \\"\\;hallowed\\"\\;\\ the\\ seventh\\ day\\ and\\ made\\ it\\ holy\\.\\ This\\ goes\\ along\\ with\\ remembering\\ the\\ Sabbath\\,\\ because\\ God\\ causes\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ \\"\\;remember\\"\\;\\ the\\ creation\\ story\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ sanctified\\ the\\ Sabbath\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Deuteronomy\\ version\\,\\ God\\ recounts\\ how\\ he\\ saved\\ the\\ Hebrews\\ from\\ Egypt\\,\\ and\\ for\\ that\\ reason\\ the\\ people\\ should\\ \\"\\;observe\\"\\;\\ God\\&\\#39\\;s\\ commandment\\ of\\ resting\\ and\\ allowing\\ slaves\\ to\\ rest\\ on\\ the\\ Sabbath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ more\\ minor\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ versions\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ fifth\\ commandment\\.\\ The\\ Exodus\\ version\\ of\\ this\\ commandment\\ orders\\ the\\ Israelites\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;honor\\ your\\ father\\ and\\ mother\\,\\ as\\ the\\ Lord\\ your\\ God\\ has\\ commanded\\ you\\,\\ that\\ you\\ may\\ long\\ endure\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ that\\ the\\ Lord\\ your\\ God\\ is\\ assigning\\ you\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Deuteronomy\\ version\\,\\ meanwhile\\,\\ inserts\\ after\\ \\&ldquo\\;endure\\&rdquo\\;\\ an\\ additional\\ reason\\ why\\ the\\ Israelites\\ should\\ follow\\ this\\ commandment\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ you\\ may\\ fare\\ well\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ JSB\\,\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ addition\\ reflects\\ the\\ overall\\ trend\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\ to\\ use\\ these\\ sorts\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;motivational\\&rdquo\\;\\ strategies\\ \\(p\\.\\ 377\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ third\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ texts\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ Tenth\\ Commandment\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ two\\ crucial\\ components\\ is\\ switched\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Exodus\\ account\\,\\ the\\ Commandments\\ instruct\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ not\\ covet\\ your\\ neighbor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ house\\:\\ you\\ shall\\ not\\ covet\\ your\\ neighbor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\,\\ or\\ his\\ male\\ or\\ female\\ slave\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Deuteronomy\\ account\\,\\ meanwhile\\,\\ reads\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ not\\ covet\\ your\\ neighbor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\.\\ You\\ shall\\ not\\ crave\\ your\\ neighbor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\,\\ or\\ his\\ field\\,\\ or\\ his\\ male\\ or\\ female\\ slave\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ JSB\\,\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ order\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;house\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;wife\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ significant\\,\\ as\\ it\\ reflects\\ Deuteronomy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ enlightened\\ view\\ of\\ women\\,\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ regarded\\ as\\ property\\.\\ The\\ placement\\ of\\ wife\\ before\\ house\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\ might\\ also\\ reflect\\ that\\ coveting\\ a\\ neighbor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wife\\ is\\ seen\\ by\\ God\\ as\\ even\\ more\\ offensive\\ than\\ coveting\\ his\\ material\\ goods\\,\\ as\\ coveting\\ a\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ shows\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ sacred\\ and\\ holy\\ bond\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 2\\:\\ Love\\ thy\\ neighbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Today\\,\\ the\\ requirement\\ to\\ treat\\ your\\ fellow\\ man\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ respect\\ and\\ courtesy\\ you\\ would\\ wish\\ to\\ be\\ treated\\ yourself\\ is\\ considered\\ the\\ overarching\\ principle\\ governing\\ moral\\ Judeo\\-Christian\\ interpersonal\\ interactions\\.\\ As\\ the\\ JSB\\ comments\\,\\ this\\ command\\ has\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;generalized\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ brief\\ encapsulation\\ of\\ the\\ Torah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethics\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ Leviticus\\ 19\\:18\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ command\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ your\\ fellow\\ as\\ yourself\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ surprising\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ much\\ less\\ prominent\\ and\\ more\\ narrowly\\ applied\\ than\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ popular\\ interpretation\\ suggests\\.\\ The\\ preceding\\ verse\\ \\(Leviticus\\ 19\\:17\\)\\ instructs\\ one\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ people\\ one\\ is\\ angry\\ with\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ silently\\ resenting\\ them\\,\\ and\\ orders\\ one\\ never\\ to\\ take\\ vengeance\\ or\\ bear\\ a\\ grudge\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ one\\ must\\ love\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbor\\ as\\ oneself\\.\\ In\\ this\\ context\\,\\ then\\,\\ the\\ axiom\\ of\\ loving\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbor\\ applies\\ specifically\\ to\\ forgiving\\ others\\,\\ treating\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ \\&ldquo\\;understanding\\ and\\ forgiveness\\ one\\ normally\\ extends\\ towards\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ shortcomings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(JSB\\,\\ pg\\.\\ 254\\)\\.\\ At\\ first\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ this\\ Biblical\\ perspective\\ and\\ the\\ popular\\ interpretation\\ may\\ seem\\ small\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Biblical\\ context\\ actually\\ omits\\ quite\\ a\\ lot\\.\\ It\\ only\\ commands\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ be\\ understanding\\ of\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ shortcomings\\;\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ benevolence\\ and\\ charity\\ which\\ we\\ generally\\ associate\\ with\\ loving\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbor\\.\\ \\[paragraph\\ break\\]\\ The\\ placement\\ of\\ the\\ command\\ within\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ also\\ surprisingly\\ undistinguished\\.\\ I\\ would\\ have\\ expected\\ such\\ a\\ famous\\ maxim\\ to\\ be\\ prominently\\ displayed\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ commandments\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ it\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ Leviticus\\ 19\\,\\ after\\ several\\ seemingly\\ less\\ important\\ rules\\,\\ including\\ the\\ proper\\ ways\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ God\\ and\\ to\\ harvest\\ a\\ field\\.\\ The\\ command\\ to\\ love\\ your\\ neighbor\\ is\\ so\\ nondescript\\ in\\ context\\ that\\,\\ when\\ I\\ first\\ read\\ this\\ response\\ topic\\,\\ I\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ remember\\ having\\ seen\\ the\\ command\\ in\\ Leviticus\\.\\ \\[paragraph\\ break\\]\\ Despite\\ the\\ command\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relatively\\ narrow\\ application\\ and\\ nondescript\\ placement\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ however\\,\\ its\\ modern\\ generalization\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ rule\\ of\\ Judeo\\-Christian\\ morality\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ it\\ summarizes\\ the\\ attitude\\ of\\ Leviticus\\ quite\\ well\\.\\ Leviticus\\ often\\ instructs\\ readers\\ to\\ treat\\ others\\ with\\ compassion\\,\\ and\\ to\\ consider\\ how\\ they\\ would\\ feel\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ place\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ Leviticus\\ 19\\:33\\-14\\ states\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;When\\ a\\ stranger\\ resides\\ with\\ you\\ in\\ your\\ land\\,\\ you\\ shall\\ not\\ wrong\\ him\\.\\ \\&hellip\\;You\\ shall\\ love\\ him\\ as\\ yourself\\,\\ for\\ you\\ were\\ strangers\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Leviticus\\ instructs\\ readers\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ of\\ their\\ neighbor\\,\\ and\\ to\\ treat\\ the\\ neighbor\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ compassion\\ they\\ would\\ wish\\ to\\ be\\ shown\\ themselves\\.\\ Here\\,\\ the\\ command\\ to\\ love\\ your\\ neighbor\\ as\\ yourself\\ does\\ seem\\ closer\\ to\\ our\\ modern\\,\\ broader\\ interpretation\\,\\ requiring\\ readers\\ to\\ treat\\ other\\ people\\ with\\ empathy\\.\\ Overall\\,\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ Leviticus\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ compassion\\ for\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fellow\\ man\\.\\ \\[paragraph\\ break\\]\\ Also\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ Leviticus\\ considers\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ God\\ inseparable\\ from\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationships\\ with\\ other\\ people\\.\\ As\\ the\\ JSB\\ notes\\,\\ ending\\ commands\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ the\\ Lord\\&rdquo\\;\\ implies\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;decency\\ and\\ honesty\\,\\ ostensibly\\ pertaining\\ to\\ interpersonal\\ affairs\\,\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ divine\\ concerns\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;Love\\ your\\ fellow\\ as\\ yourself\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ completed\\ \\(after\\ a\\ colon\\)\\ with\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ the\\ Lord\\&rdquo\\;\\ demonstrates\\ that\\ forgiving\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbors\\,\\ and\\ showing\\ them\\ compassion\\,\\ is\\ a\\ religious\\ act\\.\\ \\[paragraph\\ break\\]\\ In\\ conclusion\\,\\ although\\ Leviticus\\&rsquo\\;\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ command\\ to\\ love\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fellow\\ man\\ is\\ rather\\ inconspicuous\\,\\ and\\ the\\ context\\ implies\\ a\\ narrow\\ application\\,\\ the\\ modern\\ generalization\\ of\\ this\\ command\\ as\\ a\\ foundational\\ principle\\ of\\ Judeo\\-Christian\\ morals\\ is\\ not\\ off\\ the\\ mark\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ it\\ agrees\\ with\\ and\\ aptly\\ summarizes\\ the\\ message\\ of\\ Leviticus\\,\\ which\\ equates\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbor\\ to\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ God\\.\\ Although\\ this\\ specific\\ phrase\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ intended\\ to\\ mean\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ now\\,\\ our\\ modern\\ interpretation\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ very\\ true\\ to\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 3\\:\\ Food\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ think\\ the\\ food\\ laws\\ are\\ pretty\\ self\\ explanatory\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ section\\ we\\ discussed\\ the\\ possible\\ reasons\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ might\\ be\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ Israelites\\ from\\ other\\ people\\ as\\ a\\ special\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ could\\ be\\ cultural\\,\\ that\\ back\\ then\\ many\\ animals\\ were\\ associated\\ with\\ social\\ stereotypes\\ \\(ie\\.\\ Pigs\\ are\\ gluttonous\\,\\ rabbits\\ are\\ slutty\\)\\,\\ so\\ cutting\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ diet\\ was\\ important\\ to\\ stay\\ a\\ good\\ person\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ animals\\ deemed\\ unclean\\ could\\ have\\ actually\\ been\\ more\\ prone\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ sick\\ by\\ carrying\\ more\\ diseases\\,\\ so\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ another\\ reason\\ that\\ caused\\ them\\ to\\ rise\\ that\\ way\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ who\\ read\\ the\\ bible\\ literally\\ will\\ obviously\\ believe\\ that\\ God\\ handed\\ them\\ down\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ a\\ cultural\\ phenomenon\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ religious\\ reasons\\ include\\ to\\ stay\\ pure\\ as\\ directed\\ by\\ the\\ Lord\\ and\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ Israelites\\ from\\ other\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\ 4\\:\\ Understanding\\ of\\ law\\ in\\ the\\ torah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Law\\ in\\ the\\ Torah\\ is\\ best\\ defined\\ as\\ those\\ commandments\\ given\\ from\\ God\\ to\\ the\\ ancient\\ Israelites\\ through\\ the\\ divine\\ revelation\\ at\\ Mt\\.\\ Sinai\\.\\ In\\ these\\ commandments\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ explicit\\ prohibition\\ of\\ certain\\ activities\\-\\-for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ shellfish\\-\\-and\\ the\\ obligation\\ to\\ perform\\ religious\\ rites\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ circumcision\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ male\\ infants\\.\\ The\\ commandments\\ contained\\ in\\ the\\ revelation\\ outline\\ everyday\\ conduct\\ much\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ our\\ modern\\ laws\\ outline\\ our\\ contemporary\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ this\\ definition\\ of\\ law\\ would\\ seem\\ to\\ exclude\\ any\\ understanding\\ of\\ proper\\,\\ righteous\\ behavior\\ that\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ through\\ the\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ what\\ are\\ we\\ to\\ make\\ of\\ the\\ near\\-sacrifice\\ of\\ Isaac\\ in\\ Genesis\\?\\ There\\ are\\ lessons\\ to\\ be\\ learned\\ from\\ this\\ story\\ \\(although\\ not\\ everyone\\ may\\ agree\\ on\\ them\\)\\-\\-a\\ need\\ to\\ prioritize\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ God\\ above\\ all\\ else\\,\\ for\\ instance\\.\\ Does\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ lesson\\ count\\ as\\ \\"\\;law\\"\\;\\?\\ Or\\ must\\ we\\ restrict\\ \\"\\;law\\"\\;\\ to\\ only\\ the\\ rules\\ outlined\\ in\\ the\\ excerpts\\ we\\ read\\ this\\ week\\ from\\ Exodus\\ and\\ Leviticus\\ and\\ in\\ other\\ similar\\ passages\\?\\ I\\ am\\ inclined\\ towards\\ the\\ latter\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ as\\ Torah\\ law\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ restricted\\ for\\ practical\\,\\ logical\\ purposes\\ \\.\\ \\(If\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ no\\ good\\,\\ solid\\ definition\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ law\\ is\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ very\\ hard\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ it\\.\\)\\ However\\,\\ we\\ can\\ accept\\ that\\ outside\\ of\\ that\\ accepted\\ law\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ of\\ value\\ to\\ be\\ learned\\ from\\ in\\ the\\ Torah\\;\\ stories\\ from\\ Moses\\ at\\ the\\ Burning\\ Bush\\ to\\ Jonah\\ inside\\ of\\ the\\ fish\\ can\\ teach\\ about\\ proper\\,\\ ethical\\ behavior\\,\\ even\\ when\\ they\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ include\\ explicit\\ giving\\ of\\ divine\\ law\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\typology\\-\\ things\\ that\\ represent\\ Jesus\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\allegory\\-\\ things\\ that\\ have\\ both\\ a\\ literal\\ and\\ symbollic\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\midrash\\-\\ explication\\ of\\ Biblical\\ texts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Halakah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ explications\\ of\\ Bibical\\ Laws\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Haggadah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ explications\\ of\\ Biblical\\ narratives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mishnah\\-\\ the\\ first\\ rabbinic\\ text\\:\\ the\\ Mishnah\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ midrash\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\canonization\\-\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ deciding\\ which\\ text\\ will\\ be\\ sacred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\circumcision\\-\\ cutting\\ of\\ foreskin\\ from\\ male\\ penis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Barnabas\\-\\ traveling\\ companion\\ of\\ Paul\\ in\\ the\\ Acts\\;\\ used\\ allegory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\omnisignificant\\-\\ idea\\ that\\ every\\ word\\/letter\\/etc\\ in\\ Bible\\ carries\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ meaning\\;\\ extension\\ from\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\covenant\\-\\ berit\\;\\ contract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\587\\/6\\ BCE\\-\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ temple\\;\\ rebuilt\\ about\\ 70\\ years\\ after\\ that\\;\\ destroyed\\ again\\ in\\ 70\\ CE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mitzvot\\-\\ commandments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;parting\\ of\\ the\\ ways\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ the\\ begining\\ of\\ the\\ divide\\ between\\ Judaism\\ and\\ Christianity\\;\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\;\\ more\\ pronounced\\ after\\ the\\ Bar\\ Kokhba\\ War\\ \\[Enslin\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\eschatological\\-\\ things\\ having\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ end\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Logos\\-\\ greek\\ for\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\apology\\-\\ defense\\,\\ Justin\\ the\\ Martyr\\ wrote\\ 1st\\ and\\ 2nd\\ Apology\\ and\\ Dialogue\\ with\\ Trypho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\berit\\-\\ covenent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sign\\ of\\ the\\ covenant\\-\\ circumcision\\;\\ rainbow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\apotropaic\\-\\ \\"\\;turning\\ away\\"\\;\\ warding\\ away\\ \\[of\\ evil\\]\\ ie\\:\\ circumsision\\,\\ blook\\ on\\ door\\ during\\ Passover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\metonym\\-\\ \\;\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ characteristic\\ to\\ identify\\ a\\ more\\ complex\\ entity\\ and\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ basic\\ characteristics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\kashrut\\-\\ written\\ food\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 36, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Hebrew_Bible_Midterm_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Purusits of Happiness - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "happiness"], "text": null, "id": 67, "html": "\\\\\\Hist\\_B\\-40\\_Final\\_Exam\\_Study\\_Guide\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=m0tazYRimFnV1hoGKbgtnw\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c36\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c35\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c38\\{max\\-width\\:511\\.2pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:49\\.5pt\\ 50\\.4pt\\ 49\\.5pt\\ 50\\.4pt\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c15\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c26\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c25\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c1\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c37\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c34\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-bottom\\:13pt\\}\\.c12\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c21\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffff00\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c32\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Final\\ Exam\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ Studies\\ B\\-40\\:\\ Pursuits\\ of\\ Happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1763\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\End\\ of\\ the\\ seven\\ years\\&rsquo\\;\\ war\\,\\ proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ \\(removed\\ France\\ from\\ American\\ land\\)\\.\\ Some\\ argue\\ was\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ war\\.\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Paris\\ caused\\ France\\ to\\ leave\\ North\\ America\\-\\ British\\ gain\\ North\\ American\\ territories\\.\\ British\\ have\\ accrued\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ debt\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ taxation\\ issues\\.\\ Felt\\ the\\ colonists\\ benefited\\ from\\ the\\ war\\ a\\ lot\\ so\\ naturally\\ they\\ should\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ war\\.\\ Smallpox\\.\\ Pontiac\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rebellion\\.\\ Pontiac\\ is\\ a\\ Delaware\\ leader\\-\\ first\\ war\\ for\\ American\\ independence\\,\\ coalition\\ of\\ native\\ American\\ tribes\\ fighting\\ for\\ independence\\ against\\ the\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pontiac\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\With\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Paris\\,\\ signed\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ France\\ ignored\\ its\\ North\\ American\\ Allies\\ and\\ divided\\ up\\ the\\ continent\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\.\\ The\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ however\\,\\ expected\\ the\\ English\\ to\\ continue\\ the\\ custom\\ of\\ lavishing\\ gifts\\ to\\ prove\\ sincerity\\.\\ This\\ was\\ not\\ unrealistic\\;\\ they\\ had\\ seen\\ the\\ vast\\ amount\\ of\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ English\\ were\\ even\\ wealthier\\ than\\ the\\ French\\.\\ They\\ were\\ unaware\\ that\\ the\\ English\\ wealth\\ had\\ been\\ mostly\\ credit\\.\\ What\\ Native\\ Americans\\ did\\ not\\ expect\\ to\\ see\\ was\\ the\\ British\\ occupation\\ of\\ the\\ string\\ of\\ French\\ forts\\ that\\ taken\\.\\ This\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Great\\ Britain\\ had\\ virtually\\ cut\\ off\\ their\\ supply\\ of\\ powder\\ and\\ lead\\,\\ convinced\\ them\\ that\\ what\\ the\\ Redcoat\\ said\\ and\\ did\\ were\\ two\\ different\\ things\\.\\ The\\ British\\ had\\ some\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Military\\ Governor\\ Jeffery\\ Amherst\\ did\\ not\\ see\\ a\\ reason\\ for\\ negotiations\\ because\\ he\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ viewed\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ subjugated\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ lost\\ a\\ war\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ subjects\\.\\ London\\ fully\\ expected\\ that\\ with\\ the\\ war\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conclusion\\,\\ expenses\\ would\\ fall\\.\\ Amherst\\ operated\\ under\\ the\\ philosophy\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ duty\\ to\\ help\\ these\\ conquered\\ people\\ learn\\ to\\ be\\ responsible\\ citizens\\ who\\ stood\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ Empire\\.\\ These\\ ancient\\ inhabitants\\,\\ who\\ had\\ never\\ even\\ considered\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ obeisance\\ to\\ the\\ French\\,\\ could\\ only\\ conclude\\ that\\ this\\ new\\ English\\ father\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ things\\ occurred\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ rebellion\\.\\ One\\ was\\ nature\\;\\ famine\\ and\\ disease\\ rampaged\\ through\\ the\\ Indian\\ population\\ creating\\ fear\\ and\\ discontent\\.\\ Secondly\\,\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ prophet\\ named\\ Neolin\\ preached\\ the\\ powerful\\ message\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ Great\\ Spirit\\ Father\\ needed\\ to\\ forsake\\ the\\ white\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ They\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ purify\\ the\\ hallowed\\ ground\\ that\\ their\\ Father\\ had\\ given\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ blood\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ man\\.\\ The\\ great\\ Indian\\ Ottowa\\ Chief\\ Pontiac\\ believed\\ Neolin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ message\\ and\\ issued\\ a\\ challenge\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ his\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ short\\ order\\ Pontiac\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ organize\\ the\\ Native\\ North\\ Americans\\ as\\ never\\ before\\.\\ They\\ swept\\ down\\ in\\ coordinated\\ attacks\\ and\\ seized\\ no\\ less\\ than\\ 10\\ forts\\ in\\ the\\ Great\\ Lakes\\,\\ Ohio\\ Valley\\,\\ Illinois\\ territory\\ and\\ Pennsylvania\\.\\ They\\ laid\\ siege\\ to\\ Forts\\ Detroit\\,\\ Pitt\\ and\\ Niagara\\;\\ all\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ summer\\.\\ London\\ hurried\\ to\\ finalize\\ legislation\\ that\\ would\\ ease\\ the\\ violence\\.\\ On\\ October\\ 7\\,\\ the\\ Proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ set\\ the\\ boundary\\ between\\ Colonial\\ and\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ the\\ line\\ traversing\\ the\\ ridge\\ of\\ the\\ Appalachian\\ Mountains\\.\\ This\\,\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ wavering\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ Indian\\ Union\\ brought\\ about\\ the\\ Treaty\\ at\\ Fort\\ Niagara\\ that\\ ended\\ the\\ rebellion\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ Act\\ of\\ Parliament\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ major\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\ just\\ 12\\ years\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gift\\-giving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\refer\\ to\\ Calloway\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ traders\\ offered\\ gifts\\ to\\ Native\\ Americans\\ during\\ the\\ Seven\\ Year\\&\\#39\\;s\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ exchange\\ kept\\ an\\ amicable\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ and\\ the\\ French\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ tradition\\ discontinued\\ when\\ English\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ French\\ territory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ took\\ place\\ between\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ eventually\\ this\\ gift\\-giving\\ receded\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ gift\\-giving\\ became\\ problematic\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Indians\\ expected\\ the\\ British\\ to\\ lubricate\\ their\\ diplomacy\\ with\\ gifts\\,\\ as\\ the\\ French\\ had\\ done\\,\\ but\\ Britain\\,\\ on\\ the\\ brink\\ of\\ financial\\ ruin\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ expensive\\ war\\ it\\ had\\ ever\\ fought\\,\\ cut\\ back\\ on\\ expensive\\ gift\\ giving\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Calloway\\ 67\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ end\\ of\\ gift\\-giving\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ Pontiac\\&rsquo\\;s\\ War\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Calloway\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ Franklin\\ had\\ put\\ his\\ finger\\ on\\ the\\ root\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ three\\ months\\ earlier\\ when\\ he\\ urged\\ Britain\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ giving\\ gifts\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ Indians\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(67\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Page\\ 67\\ provides\\ a\\ good\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rage\\ Militaire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Rage\\ Militaire\\,\\ as\\ the\\ French\\ call\\ a\\ passion\\ for\\ arms\\,\\ has\\ taken\\ possession\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ Continent\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Royster\\ 25\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Somewhat\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ commitment\\ to\\ American\\ independence\\,\\ which\\ grew\\ during\\ the\\ war\\,\\ this\\ sentiment\\ vanished\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 1776\\ and\\ never\\ returned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Loudest\\ moments\\ were\\ in\\ 1775\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exemplified\\ by\\ militia\\ drills\\ to\\ prepare\\ for\\ armed\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ on\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ replaced\\ the\\ militia\\ at\\ the\\ focal\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ determination\\ to\\ surpass\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Desired\\ to\\ replace\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ dumb\\ show\\ with\\ only\\ practical\\ drills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rage\\ was\\ only\\ popular\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ militia\\ seemed\\ a\\ realistic\\ way\\ to\\ defend\\ the\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Whitefield\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Whitefield\\ \\(1714\\ \\-\\ 1770\\)\\ was\\ an\\ Anglican\\ itinerant\\ minister\\ whose\\ preaching\\ in\\ America\\ triggered\\ the\\ Christian\\ revivals\\ a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Great\\ Awakening\\,\\"\\;\\ during\\ which\\ people\\ divided\\ into\\ Old\\ Lights\\ and\\ New\\ Lights\\ and\\ stirred\\ up\\ religious\\ choice\\.\\ Thousands\\ of\\ enthusiasts\\ came\\ to\\ hear\\ him\\ speak\\.\\ In\\ his\\ autobiography\\,\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ recollects\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ attended\\ a\\ revival\\ meeting\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\ in\\ 1739\\ and\\ was\\ greatly\\ impressed\\ with\\ Whitefield\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ draw\\ huge\\ crowds\\.\\ Despite\\ being\\ a\\ deist\\ himself\\ and\\ valuing\\ reason\\ over\\ emotion\\,\\ Franklin\\ admired\\ Whitefield\\.\\ Whitefield\\ was\\ also\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ preach\\ to\\ the\\ enslaved\\.\\ Phillis\\ Wheatley\\ wrote\\ a\\ poem\\ in\\ his\\ memory\\ after\\ he\\ died\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ term\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ luxury\\ goods\\ that\\ were\\ imported\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\ from\\ Britain\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ derisive\\ label\\ meant\\ to\\ characterize\\ these\\ goods\\ as\\ frivolous\\ and\\ unnecessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\America\\ was\\ dependent\\ on\\ foreign\\ markets\\ for\\ certain\\ luxury\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ had\\ used\\ luxury\\ goods\\ as\\ visual\\ signifiers\\ of\\ their\\ wealth\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ portraits\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ term\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ course\\ reading\\ by\\ T\\.\\ H\\.\\ Breen\\,\\ Breen\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ Americans\\ \\&ldquo\\;could\\ communicate\\ their\\ political\\ grievances\\ through\\ goods\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ could\\ make\\ political\\ statements\\ through\\ what\\ they\\ did\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ consume\\,\\ had\\ economic\\ ways\\ of\\ expressing\\ their\\ solidarity\\ through\\ boycotts\\,\\ non\\-consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consumer\\ goods\\ became\\ politicized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Colonists\\ resisted\\ British\\ taxes\\ through\\ boycotts\\ and\\ pacts\\ of\\ non\\-consumption\\,\\ they\\ pledged\\ not\\ to\\ buy\\ certain\\ goods\\ from\\ Britain\\,\\ though\\ usually\\ made\\ exceptions\\ for\\ necessary\\ goods\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ make\\ on\\ their\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discourse\\ from\\ the\\ Great\\ Awakening\\ and\\ other\\ religious\\ groups\\ and\\ enlightenment\\ thinkers\\ who\\ privileged\\ reason\\ all\\ contributed\\ to\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ restraint\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ going\\ without\\ luxury\\ goods\\,\\ particularly\\ British\\ luxury\\ goods\\,\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ show\\ personal\\ virtue\\ and\\ restraint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ The\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\&rdquo\\;\\ represents\\ the\\ politicization\\ of\\ consumer\\ goods\\ during\\ the\\ period\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\,\\ a\\ politicization\\ which\\ both\\ helped\\ bring\\ the\\ American\\ people\\ together\\ and\\ voice\\ opposition\\ to\\ British\\ taxation\\ policies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stamp\\ Act\\ Riots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Throughout\\ British\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\,\\ colonial\\ taxation\\ had\\ been\\ effective\\ way\\ to\\ generate\\ revenue\\ for\\ Great\\ Britain\\,\\ even\\ though\\ opposition\\ already\\ occurred\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\ in\\ 1765\\ by\\ the\\ Parliament\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ direct\\ attempt\\ to\\ impose\\ taxation\\ on\\ the\\ American\\ colonies\\ and\\ was\\ an\\ effort\\ of\\ Britain\\ to\\ reduce\\ their\\ debt\\ incurred\\ during\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ required\\ all\\ legal\\ documents\\ to\\ carry\\ a\\ tax\\ stamp\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ act\\ met\\ resistance\\ unseen\\ by\\ prior\\ taxation\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ resistance\\ included\\ all\\ colonial\\ assemblies\\ sending\\ petitions\\ of\\ protest\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ Stamp\\ Act\\ Congress\\ petitioning\\ Parliament\\ and\\ the\\ King\\ to\\ repeal\\ the\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;Local\\ colonial\\ protests\\,\\ led\\ by\\ colonial\\ merchants\\ and\\ landowners\\,\\ created\\ a\\ coalition\\ within\\ the\\ colonies\\ extending\\ from\\ New\\ England\\ to\\ Georgia\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ associations\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Sons\\ of\\ Liberty\\ believed\\ that\\ no\\ taxes\\ should\\ be\\ imposed\\ upon\\ colonists\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\ and\\ spawned\\ greater\\ rebellions\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ protests\\ often\\ turned\\ violent\\ and\\ destructive\\ through\\ mass\\ involvement\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ caused\\ tax\\ distributors\\ to\\ eventually\\ resign\\ their\\ commissions\\ thus\\ causing\\ the\\ taxes\\ to\\ never\\ be\\ effectively\\ collected\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Act\\ was\\ eventually\\ repealed\\ on\\ March\\ 18\\,\\ 1765\\ but\\ the\\ parliament\\ continued\\ to\\ affirm\\ its\\ power\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ colonies\\ through\\ its\\ passing\\ of\\ the\\ Declaratory\\ Act\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ continuation\\ of\\ incidents\\ continued\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ concerns\\ which\\ furthered\\ the\\ alignment\\ of\\ the\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\ towards\\ a\\ unified\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberty\\ Trees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ famous\\ elm\\ tree\\ that\\ was\\ in\\ Boston\\ in\\ the\\ days\\ before\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ rallying\\ point\\ for\\ the\\ growing\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ England\\ In\\ following\\ years\\ almost\\ every\\ American\\ town\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ Liberty\\ Tree\\&mdash\\;a\\ symbol\\ of\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ individual\\ liberty\\ and\\ resistance\\ to\\ tyranny\\.\\ \\(remember\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bostonians\\ Paying\\ the\\ Excise\\ Man\\&mdash\\;tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\ tax\\ collector\\ under\\ liberty\\ tree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Boston\\ Liberty\\ Tree\\ originated\\ when\\ the\\ Sons\\ of\\ Liberty\\ hung\\ effigies\\ of\\ two\\ tax\\ collectors\\ from\\ said\\ tree\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protest\\ the\\ stamp\\ act\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ tree\\ was\\ positioned\\ such\\ that\\ whenever\\ someone\\ entered\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Boston\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ walk\\ by\\ and\\ see\\ the\\ tree\\,\\ thereby\\ warning\\ them\\ of\\ the\\ town\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sentiments\\ toward\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ British\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Townshend\\ Acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ series\\ of\\ acts\\ passed\\ beginning\\ in\\ 1767\\ by\\ the\\ Parliament\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ colonies\\ in\\ North\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\ was\\ to\\ raise\\ revenue\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ governors\\ and\\ judges\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ independent\\ of\\ colonial\\ control\\,\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ more\\ effective\\ means\\ of\\ enforcing\\ compliance\\ with\\ trade\\ regulations\\,\\ to\\ punish\\ the\\ province\\ of\\ New\\ York\\ for\\ failing\\ to\\ comply\\ with\\ the\\ 1765\\ Quartering\\ Act\\,\\ and\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ precedent\\ that\\ the\\ British\\ Parliament\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\ met\\ with\\ resistance\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ prompting\\ the\\ occupation\\ of\\ Boston\\ by\\ British\\ troops\\ in\\ 1768\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ Boston\\ Massacre\\ of\\ 1770\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ influential\\ colonial\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\ was\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ twelve\\ essays\\ by\\ John\\ Dickinson\\ entitled\\ \\"\\;Letters\\ from\\ a\\ Farmer\\ in\\ Pennsylvania\\"\\;\\,\\ which\\ began\\ appearing\\ in\\ December\\ 1767\\.\\ Eloquently\\ articulating\\ ideas\\ already\\ widely\\ accepted\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ Dickinson\\ argued\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ difference\\ between\\ \\"\\;internal\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;external\\"\\;\\ taxes\\,\\ and\\ that\\ any\\ taxes\\ imposed\\ on\\ the\\ colonies\\ by\\ Parliament\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ raising\\ a\\ revenue\\ were\\ unconstitutional\\.\\ Dickinson\\ warned\\ colonists\\ not\\ to\\ concede\\ to\\ the\\ taxes\\ just\\ because\\ the\\ rates\\ were\\ low\\,\\ since\\ this\\ would\\ set\\ a\\ dangerous\\ precedent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Merchants\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\,\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ smugglers\\,\\ organized\\ economic\\ boycotts\\ to\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ their\\ British\\ counterparts\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ repeal\\ of\\ the\\ Townshend\\ Acts\\.\\ Boston\\ merchants\\ organized\\ the\\ first\\ non\\-importation\\ agreement\\,\\ which\\ called\\ for\\ merchants\\ to\\ suspend\\ importation\\ of\\ certain\\ British\\ goods\\ effective\\ 1\\ January\\ 1769\\.\\ Merchants\\ in\\ other\\ colonial\\ ports\\,\\ including\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ and\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ eventually\\ joined\\ the\\ boycott\\.\\ In\\ Virginia\\,\\ the\\ non\\-importation\\ effort\\ was\\ organized\\ by\\ George\\ Washington\\ and\\ George\\ Mason\\.\\ When\\ the\\ Virginia\\ House\\ of\\ Burgesses\\ passed\\ a\\ resolution\\ stating\\ that\\ Parliament\\ had\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ tax\\ Virginians\\ without\\ their\\ consent\\,\\ Governor\\ Lord\\ Botetourt\\ dissolved\\ the\\ assembly\\.\\ The\\ members\\ met\\ at\\ Raleigh\\ Tavern\\ and\\ adopted\\ a\\ boycott\\ agreement\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;Association\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ act\\ directly\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ occupation\\ of\\ Boston\\ by\\ British\\ troops\\ to\\ maintain\\ order\\ after\\ several\\ riots\\ broke\\ out\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ Boston\\ tea\\ party\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Townshend\\ duty\\ on\\ tea\\ was\\ retained\\ when\\ the\\ 1773\\ Tea\\ Act\\ was\\ passed\\,\\ which\\ allowed\\ the\\ East\\ India\\ Company\\ to\\ ship\\ tea\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ The\\ Boston\\ Tea\\ Party\\ soon\\ followed\\,\\ which\\ set\\ the\\ stage\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tarring\\ and\\ Feathering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ powerful\\ revolt\\ tactic\\ used\\ by\\ patriots\\ to\\ torture\\ and\\ intimidate\\ tax\\ collectors\\;\\ Author\\ Irvin\\ refers\\ to\\ tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\ in\\ this\\ quote\\:\\ \\"\\;by\\ participating\\ in\\ a\\ shared\\ ritual\\,\\ patriots\\.\\.\\.began\\ to\\ perceive\\ that\\ theirs\\ was\\ a\\ common\\ cause\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ cartoon\\,\\ called\\ \\"\\;The\\ Bostonians\\ Paying\\ the\\ Excise\\ Man\\"\\;\\ featured\\ in\\ London\\ in\\ 1774\\ was\\ shown\\ in\\ class\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/upload\\.wikimedia\\.org\\/wikipedia\\/commons\\/9\\/9a\\/1774\\_lynching\\.jpg\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ practice\\ commonly\\ done\\ by\\ the\\ Liberty\\ Tree\\ Boys\\,\\ and\\ others\\ to\\ tax\\ collectors\\.\\ It\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ humiliate\\ and\\ drive\\ its\\ victims\\ from\\ the\\ town\\.\\ It\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ scare\\ people\\ into\\ supporting\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ cause\\&rdquo\\;\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ mob\\ tactic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homespun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ very\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\ during\\ boycotts\\ and\\ protests\\ of\\ British\\ taxation\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ self\\-reliance\\ of\\ the\\ colonies\\ and\\ to\\ avoid\\ British\\ taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ consumption\\,\\ particularly\\ consumption\\ of\\ British\\ cloth\\,\\ had\\ been\\ driving\\ the\\ British\\ economy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ boycotting\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ exert\\ pressure\\ on\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homespun\\ cloth\\ tended\\ to\\ be\\ cheaper\\ and\\ coarser\\ than\\ British\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wearing\\ homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ patriotism\\ and\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ pride\\ for\\ some\\ colonists\\,\\ people\\ who\\ still\\ wore\\ more\\ luxurious\\ imported\\ fabrics\\ were\\ criticized\\ for\\ being\\ frivolous\\,\\ were\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ loyalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Still\\,\\ even\\ during\\ boycotts\\,\\ many\\ colonists\\ had\\ wardrobes\\ compiled\\ from\\ pieces\\ that\\ were\\ both\\ homespun\\ and\\ imported\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spinning\\ parties\\ were\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ get\\ publicly\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ effort\\ and\\ to\\ drum\\ up\\ patriotism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ before\\ the\\ boycotts\\,\\ it\\ made\\ economic\\ sense\\ for\\ Americans\\ to\\ utilize\\ homespun\\ cloth\\,\\ so\\ they\\ gradually\\ had\\ begun\\ replacing\\ imports\\ with\\ locally\\ made\\ cloth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shirts\\ could\\ be\\ made\\ of\\ cheap\\ homespun\\ linen\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ collar\\ and\\ cuffs\\ \\(parts\\ that\\ were\\ visible\\ under\\ a\\ coat\\)\\ were\\ made\\ of\\ better\\ quality\\ linen\\ it\\ would\\ still\\ look\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ Homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ way\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ discontent\\ with\\ Britain\\ and\\ assert\\ the\\ independence\\ and\\ patriotism\\ of\\ the\\ colonists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Boston\\ Massacre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Boston\\ Massacre\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ several\\ events\\ that\\ turned\\ colonial\\ sentiment\\ against\\ British\\ rule\\.\\ Each\\ of\\ these\\ events\\ followed\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ Britain\\ asserting\\ its\\ control\\,\\ and\\ the\\ colonists\\ chafing\\ under\\ the\\ increased\\ regulation\\.\\ Events\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Tea\\ Act\\ and\\ the\\ ensuing\\ Boston\\ Tea\\ Party\\ were\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ crumbling\\ relationship\\ between\\ Britain\\ and\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\ While\\ it\\ took\\ five\\ years\\ from\\ the\\ Massacre\\ to\\ outright\\ revolution\\,\\ it\\ foreshadowed\\ the\\ violent\\ rebellion\\ to\\ come\\.\\ It\\ also\\ demonstrated\\ how\\ British\\ authority\\ galvanized\\ colonial\\ opposition\\ and\\ protest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refers\\ to\\ an\\ incident\\ involving\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ five\\ civilians\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ British\\ troops\\ on\\ March\\ 5\\,\\ 1770\\,\\ the\\ legal\\ aftermath\\ of\\ which\\ helped\\ spark\\ the\\ rebellion\\ in\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ colonies\\ in\\ America\\,\\ which\\ culminated\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\ A\\ tense\\ situation\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ heavy\\ British\\ military\\ presence\\ in\\ Boston\\ boiled\\ over\\ to\\ incite\\ brawls\\ between\\ soldiers\\ and\\ civilians\\ and\\ eventually\\ led\\ to\\ troops\\ discharging\\ their\\ muskets\\ after\\ being\\ attacked\\ by\\ a\\ rioting\\ crowd\\.\\ Three\\ civilians\\ were\\ killed\\ at\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ shooting\\,\\ and\\ two\\ died\\ after\\ the\\ incident\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crispus\\ Attucks\\ is\\ rumored\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ shot\\,\\ who\\ was\\ an\\ African\\ American\\ sailor\\ in\\ the\\ crowd\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Which\\ side\\ started\\ the\\ massacre\\ is\\ not\\ entirely\\ clear\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ crowd\\ of\\ 300\\-400\\ people\\ gathered\\ around\\ yelling\\ at\\ the\\ soldiers\\ guarding\\ the\\ state\\ house\\,\\ whether\\ the\\ soldiers\\ were\\ struck\\ first\\ or\\ fired\\ first\\ is\\ unknown\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ that\\ is\\ known\\ is\\ that\\ five\\ citizens\\ were\\ killed\\,\\ and\\ the\\ soldiers\\ were\\ tried\\.\\ \\ \\;John\\ Adams\\ was\\ the\\ attorney\\ for\\ the\\ soldiers\\,\\ which\\ gave\\ him\\ incredible\\ notoriety\\,\\ whether\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\.\\ \\ \\;Adams\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ 8\\ soldiers\\ off\\ with\\ a\\ simple\\ manslaughter\\ charge\\,\\ which\\ established\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ had\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ a\\ fair\\ and\\ impartial\\ trial\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Citizen\\-soldier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ was\\ agreed\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ soldier\\ would\\ return\\ to\\ civil\\ society\\ after\\ defeating\\ the\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ in\\ the\\ service\\ he\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ soldier\\ yet\\ would\\ not\\ serve\\ the\\ army\\ before\\ all\\ others\\ by\\ issuing\\ or\\ obeying\\ orders\\ that\\ violated\\ civil\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ revolutionaries\\ expected\\ that\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ citizen\\-soldier\\ would\\ lead\\ him\\ to\\ surpass\\ his\\ mercenary\\,\\ brutalized\\ enemies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ he\\ fought\\ to\\ preserve\\ his\\ standing\\ as\\ a\\ citizen\\ against\\ those\\ who\\ would\\ make\\ him\\ a\\ slave\\,\\ his\\ pride\\ in\\ civil\\ society\\ would\\ help\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ stronger\\ than\\ his\\ opponents\\ in\\ combat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soldiers\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ independent\\ choice\\ as\\ the\\ citizens\\;\\ had\\ to\\ follow\\ orders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ HE\\ was\\ a\\ soldier\\,\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ always\\ conduct\\ himself\\ as\\ civilian\\ citizens\\ might\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Camp\\ followers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Large\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ army\\ camps\\ who\\ accompanied\\ husbands\\ or\\ were\\ simply\\ women\\ set\\ adrift\\ in\\ the\\ maelstrom\\ of\\ war\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ \\(Masquerade\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Representative\\ passage\\ from\\ Masquerade\\ page\\ 10\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;several\\ thousand\\ women\\ were\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ army\\.\\ In\\ 1782\\,\\ when\\ Sampson\\ entered\\ an\\ army\\ of\\ about\\ 11\\,ooo\\ at\\ West\\ Point\\,\\ a\\ \\"\\;Return\\ of\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ children\\ in\\ the\\ several\\ regiments\\"\\;\\ accounted\\ for\\ 4o5\\ women\\.\\ \\"\\;Camp\\ followers\\"\\;\\ was\\ their\\ derogatory\\ name\\,\\ but\\ as\\ their\\ importance\\ grew\\ on\\ him\\,\\ George\\ Washington\\ called\\ them\\ \\"\\;Women\\ of\\ the\\ army\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ historian\\ Holly\\ A\\.\\ Mayer\\ sums\\ up\\ their\\ roles\\:\\ \\"\\;They\\ cooked\\ the\\ food\\,\\ did\\ the\\ wash\\,\\ mended\\ clothing\\,\\ took\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ sick\\ and\\ wounded\\,\\ helped\\ their\\ fellow\\ women\\,\\ lay\\ with\\ men\\,\\ and\\ then\\ bore\\ and\\ raised\\ their\\ children\\.\\"\\;\\ Indeed\\,\\ eighteenth\\-century\\ armies\\ could\\ not\\ function\\ without\\ such\\ women\\.\\ Occasionally\\,\\ a\\ camp\\ follower\\ fought\\ alongside\\ her\\ partner\\.\\ Decades\\ later\\,\\ \\"\\;Molly\\ Pitcher\\"\\;\\ was\\ a\\ generic\\ name\\ for\\ several\\ women\\ attached\\ to\\ artillery\\ units\\ who\\ replaced\\ their\\ fallen\\ husbands\\ at\\ their\\ cannons\\.\\ Other\\ women\\ took\\ over\\ more\\ prosaic\\ military\\ chores\\,\\ like\\ Sarah\\ Osborn\\,\\ who\\ on\\ one\\ occasion\\ put\\ on\\ her\\ husband\\&\\#39\\;s\\ overcoat\\,\\ shouldered\\ his\\ gun\\,\\ and\\ took\\ his\\ place\\ on\\ sentinel\\ duty\\.\\ Such\\ women\\,\\ unlike\\ most\\ women\\ warriors\\,\\ were\\ visibly\\ female\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ had\\ camp\\ followers\\ as\\ well\\,\\ often\\ escaped\\ slaves\\,\\ which\\ they\\ used\\ in\\ smallpox\\ schemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ July\\ 13\\,\\ 1781\\,\\ General\\ Alexander\\ Leslie\\ outlined\\ his\\ plan\\ in\\ a\\ letter\\ \\ \\;to\\ Cornwallis\\.\\ \\"\\;Above\\ 700\\ Negroes\\ are\\ come\\ down\\ the\\ River\\ in\\ the\\ Small\\ Pox\\,\\"\\;\\ he\\ wrote\\.\\ \\"\\;I\\ shall\\ distribute\\ them\\ about\\ the\\ Rebell\\ Plantations\\.\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\ Even\\ if\\ they\\ pardoned\\ their\\ actions\\ by\\ saying\\ they\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ support\\ so\\ many\\ camp\\ followers\\,\\ British\\ officers\\ were\\ inevitably\\ aware\\ that\\ sick\\ African\\ Americans\\ might\\ communicate\\ smallpox\\ to\\ the\\ enemy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Fenn\\ 132\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Valley\\ Forge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Winter\\ of\\ 1777\\-78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ winter\\ encampment\\ of\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ since\\ it\\ had\\ begun\\ to\\ recruit\\ men\\ routinely\\ for\\ three\\ years\\ or\\ the\\ duration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ winter\\ encampment\\ of\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ that\\ accomplished\\ substantial\\ training\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ winter\\ encampment\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ army\\ suffered\\ severe\\ and\\ general\\ hardship\\ due\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Currency\\ depreciation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poorly\\ organized\\ supply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Significance\\:\\ test\\ of\\ national\\ survival\\ amid\\ hardships\\ caused\\ in\\ large\\ part\\ by\\ fellow\\ revolutionaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ facts\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\8\\-10\\ men\\ deserted\\ every\\ day\\ \\(Royster\\ 196\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Site\\ of\\ many\\ bloody\\ duels\\ between\\ officers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baron\\ Van\\ Steuben\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\May\\ 5\\,\\ 1778\\:\\ Friedrich\\ Wilhelm\\ August\\ Heinrich\\ Ferdinand\\,\\ Baron\\ von\\ Steuben\\,\\ was\\ named\\ inspector\\ general\\ of\\ the\\ Army\\ of\\ the\\ Unites\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\ months\\ before\\ his\\ appointment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Served\\ as\\ a\\ volunteer\\ training\\ officer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Best\\ way\\ for\\ a\\ foreign\\ officer\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ paying\\ job\\ from\\ Congress\\ was\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ need\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Personal\\ efforts\\ on\\ the\\ parade\\ ground\\,\\ book\\ of\\ Regulations\\,\\ and\\ his\\ supervision\\ of\\ an\\ inspectorate\\ at\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ command\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ introduced\\ a\\ new\\ attitude\\ toward\\ discipline\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ degree\\ of\\ economy\\ into\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Succeeded\\ Conway\\,\\ who\\ resigned\\ as\\ inspector\\ general\\,\\ upon\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ resignation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sympathetic\\ insight\\ and\\ aloof\\ rigor\\ allowed\\ him\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ public\\ spirit\\ that\\ kept\\ soldiers\\ in\\ service\\ and\\ helped\\ him\\ to\\ deflect\\ or\\ overcome\\ their\\ resistance\\ to\\ working\\ together\\ under\\ orders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Worked\\ directly\\ with\\ men\\,\\ not\\ through\\ sergeants\\ as\\ predecessors\\ did\\,\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ drills\\ designed\\ to\\ increase\\ their\\ courage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polly\\ Baker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polly\\ Baker\\ was\\ a\\ pseudonym\\ used\\ by\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ in\\ 1747\\.\\ He\\ published\\ a\\ speech\\ by\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Polly\\ Baker\\ which\\ deals\\ with\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ put\\ on\\ trial\\ for\\ having\\ an\\ illegitimate\\ child\\.\\ The\\ speech\\ pointed\\ out\\ the\\ unfairness\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ judicial\\ system\\ charging\\ women\\ for\\ having\\ illegitimate\\ children\\ while\\ not\\ charging\\ the\\ fathers\\.\\ It\\ was\\ common\\ for\\ writers\\ and\\ journalists\\ to\\ use\\ false\\ names\\ when\\ they\\ published\\ their\\ writings\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\,\\ and\\ Franklin\\ used\\ many\\ aliases\\ to\\ express\\ his\\ ideas\\ throughout\\ his\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ easily\\ explained\\ by\\ the\\ God\\-as\\-a\\-clockmacker\\ concept\\;\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ supreme\\ and\\ natural\\ being\\ that\\ created\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ proceed\\ to\\ meddle\\ in\\ affairs\\ of\\ human\\ life\\.\\ Deism\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ Enlightenment\\ philosophy\\.\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\ wrote\\ in\\ his\\ autobiography\\:\\ \\"\\;Some\\ books\\ against\\ Deism\\ fell\\ into\\ my\\ hands\\;\\ they\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ substance\\ of\\ sermons\\ preached\\ at\\ Boyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lectures\\.\\ It\\ happened\\ that\\ they\\ wrought\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ me\\ quite\\ contrary\\ to\\ what\\ was\\ intended\\ by\\ them\\;\\ for\\ the\\ arguments\\ of\\ the\\ Deists\\,\\ which\\ were\\ quoted\\ to\\ be\\ refuted\\,\\ appeared\\ to\\ me\\ much\\ stronger\\ than\\ the\\ refutations\\;\\ in\\ short\\,\\ I\\ soon\\ became\\ a\\ thorough\\ Deist\\.\\ My\\ arguments\\ perverted\\ some\\ others\\,\\ particularly\\ Collins\\ and\\ Ralph\\;\\ but\\ each\\ of\\ them\\ having\\ afterwards\\ wrong\\&\\#39\\;d\\ me\\ greatly\\ without\\ the\\ least\\ compunction\\,\\ and\\ recollecting\\ Keith\\&\\#39\\;s\\ conduct\\ towards\\ me\\ \\(who\\ was\\ another\\ freethinker\\)\\ and\\ my\\ own\\ towards\\ Vernon\\ and\\ Miss\\ Read\\,\\ which\\ at\\ times\\ gave\\ me\\ great\\ trouble\\,\\ I\\ began\\ to\\ suspect\\ that\\ this\\ doctrine\\,\\ tho\\&\\#39\\;\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ true\\,\\ was\\ not\\ very\\ useful\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;having\\ succeeded\\ in\\ life\\ unaided\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ \\"\\;self\\-made\\ man\\"\\;\\ in\\ this\\ course\\ includes\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ \\(refer\\ to\\ Masquerade\\)\\ and\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ \\(refer\\ to\\ his\\ autobiography\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Franklin\\ was\\ largely\\ responsible\\ for\\ incorporating\\ this\\ quality\\ into\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ American\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;Franklin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autobiography\\ touts\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ rise\\ from\\ a\\ normal\\ Boston\\ family\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ men\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ his\\ day\\:\\ a\\ diplomat\\,\\ inventor\\,\\ politician\\,\\ and\\ author\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ that\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ rise\\ was\\ possible\\ became\\ a\\ defining\\ feature\\ of\\ American\\ life\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ later\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ American\\ Dream\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;While\\ in\\ other\\ countries\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ status\\ at\\ birth\\ determined\\ their\\ status\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ their\\ life\\,\\ Franklin\\ and\\ others\\ proved\\ that\\ in\\ America\\ one\\ could\\ climb\\ the\\ ranks\\ through\\ hard\\ work\\ and\\ virtue\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ represented\\ a\\ cultural\\ break\\ from\\ Britain\\ and\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ American\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scottish\\ Enlightenment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hume\\,\\ Smith\\,\\ Hutcheson\\ were\\ important\\ thinkers\\;\\ communitarianism\\ \\(the\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ in\\ a\\ moral\\ sense\\ is\\ a\\ feeling\\ for\\ other\\ people\\)\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ theme\\;\\ noted\\ in\\ class\\ while\\ discussing\\ Jefferson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ \\"\\;pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\"\\;\\ in\\ place\\ of\\ \\"\\;property\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\ \\-\\ some\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ just\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ copy\\ Locke\\ all\\ the\\ way\\,\\ others\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ chose\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ Scottish\\ Enlightenment\\ idea\\ of\\ communitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Despotism\\ of\\ the\\ Petticoat\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Refers\\ to\\ womens\\&\\#39\\;\\ sexual\\ power\\ over\\ men\\;\\ the\\ phrase\\ was\\ used\\ by\\ John\\ Adams\\ in\\ his\\ correspondence\\ with\\ Abigail\\:\\ \\"\\;We\\ have\\ only\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ masters\\,\\ and\\ rather\\ than\\ give\\ up\\ this\\,\\ which\\ would\\ completely\\ subject\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ despotism\\ of\\ the\\ petticoat\\,\\ I\\ hope\\ General\\ Washington\\ and\\ all\\ our\\ brave\\ heroes\\ would\\ fight\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adams\\ and\\ others\\ who\\ would\\ have\\ employed\\ this\\ phrase\\ were\\ likely\\ responding\\ to\\ a\\ growing\\ sentiment\\ among\\ women\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ especially\\ well\\-educated\\ women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ become\\ painfully\\ aware\\ of\\ their\\ subjugation\\ to\\ men\\,\\ and\\ some\\ even\\ likened\\ their\\ situation\\ to\\ slavery\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ rhetoric\\ that\\ was\\ flying\\ around\\,\\ men\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ growing\\ a\\ bit\\ wary\\ of\\ yet\\ another\\ insurrection\\:\\ that\\ of\\ their\\ women\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Simon\\ Cognew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Simon\\ Cognew\\ was\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ whose\\ tribe\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;commonly\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ South\\ Shore\\ Indians\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ inhabited\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ eastern\\ Massachusetts\\ including\\ Cape\\ Cod\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ Bay\\ Colony\\ continually\\ encroached\\ on\\ their\\ land\\ \\(bequeathed\\ to\\ them\\ on\\ November\\ 20\\,\\ 1666\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Mass\\ Bay\\ Colony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ General\\ Court\\ refused\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ Cognew\\ wrote\\ a\\ petition\\ to\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ England\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ his\\ petition\\ he\\ describes\\ in\\ detail\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ tribe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ land\\ and\\ asks\\ the\\ king\\ to\\ intervene\\ directly\\ on\\ their\\ behalf\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ also\\ describes\\ his\\ attempted\\ abduction\\ into\\ slavery\\ \\(in\\ which\\ a\\ ship\\ master\\ told\\ Cognew\\ that\\ his\\ vessel\\ was\\ bound\\ for\\ England\\ but\\ in\\ fact\\ endeavored\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Indies\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Luckily\\ for\\ Cognew\\ they\\ were\\ shipwrecked\\ off\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ Hispaniola\\,\\ where\\ he\\ and\\ others\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ crew\\ of\\ an\\ English\\ war\\ ship\\ in\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\ \\;Cognew\\ describes\\ that\\ when\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;made\\ his\\ case\\ \\(the\\ plight\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ Shore\\ Indians\\)\\ known\\ to\\ Admiral\\ Coates\\ \\[the\\ master\\ of\\ his\\ ship\\,\\ we\\ assume\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ was\\ discharged\\ from\\ service\\ and\\ sent\\ by\\ a\\ merchant\\ ship\\ to\\ England\\,\\ where\\,\\ we\\ assume\\,\\ he\\ writes\\ this\\ petition\\ to\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ language\\ herein\\ is\\ highly\\ respectful\\ and\\ performative\\ of\\ his\\ subordination\\ to\\ the\\ king\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ uses\\ language\\ like\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Your\\ Petitioner\\ therefore\\ humbly\\ submits\\ himself\\ to\\ Your\\ Majesty\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Royal\\ Goodness\\ and\\ Justice\\ and\\ humbly\\ prays\\ that\\ Your\\ Majesty\\ would\\ be\\ graciously\\ pleased\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ hard\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ said\\ Indians\\ into\\ your\\ Royal\\ consideration\\ \\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ full\\ petition\\ can\\ be\\ read\\ on\\ the\\ course\\ website\\.\\ \\ \\;Go\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Syllabus\\ and\\ Course\\ Readings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Course\\ Documents\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(at\\ bottom\\ of\\ page\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Readings\\ for\\ Week\\ Beginning\\ Oct\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;petition\\.pdf\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elopement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;to\\ run\\ off\\ secretly\\ to\\ be\\ married\\,\\ usually\\ without\\ the\\ consent\\ or\\ knowledge\\ of\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Read\\ elopement\\ notices\\,\\ or\\ advertisements\\ in\\ class\\;\\ these\\ ads\\ were\\ written\\ by\\ husbands\\ of\\ eloped\\ wives\\;\\ by\\ advertising\\ such\\ a\\ familial\\ issue\\,\\ husband\\ hopes\\ to\\ ruin\\ his\\ ex\\-wife\\&\\#39\\;s\\ reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Refer\\ to\\ lecture\\ 10\\/7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ this\\ course\\,\\ elopement\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ have\\ to\\ involve\\ getting\\ married\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ elopement\\ notices\\ \\(Go\\ to\\ course\\ website\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Syllabus\\ and\\ Course\\ Readings\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Course\\ Documents\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Readings\\ for\\ Week\\ Beginning\\ Oct\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;swords\\ ads\\.pdf\\)\\,\\ elopement\\ meant\\ that\\ a\\ wife\\ had\\ run\\ away\\ from\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ often\\ absconding\\ with\\ household\\ goods\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ customary\\,\\ when\\ this\\ happened\\,\\ for\\ husbands\\ to\\ publish\\ ads\\ in\\ the\\ local\\ newspaper\\ announcing\\ their\\ wife\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;elopement\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ describing\\ in\\ detail\\ all\\ goods\\ that\\ she\\ stole\\ when\\ she\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ ads\\ resemble\\ runaway\\ slave\\ ads\\ in\\ their\\ content\\ and\\ tone\\:\\ they\\ often\\ describe\\ what\\ she\\ has\\ with\\ her\\,\\ and\\ they\\ warn\\ others\\ not\\ to\\ harbor\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ slave\\ ads\\,\\ though\\,\\ they\\ stress\\ the\\ shame\\ that\\ the\\ runaway\\ has\\ incurred\\ upon\\ herself\\ and\\ her\\ \\&ldquo\\;loving\\&rdquo\\;\\ husband\\ and\\ entreat\\ her\\ to\\ return\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ ads\\,\\ however\\,\\ seek\\ only\\ to\\ damage\\ the\\ reputation\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\.\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\ wives\\ would\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ad\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ rebuttal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Series\\ of\\ paintings\\ by\\ William\\ Hogarth\\ \\ \\;printed\\ in\\ 1735\\.\\ The\\ series\\ shows\\ the\\ decline\\ and\\ fall\\ of\\ Tom\\ Rakewell\\,\\ the\\ spendthrift\\ son\\ and\\ heir\\ of\\ a\\ rich\\ merchant\\,\\ who\\ comes\\ to\\ London\\,\\ wastes\\ all\\ his\\ money\\ on\\ luxurious\\ living\\,\\ prostitution\\ and\\ gambling\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ consequence\\ is\\ imprisoned\\ in\\ the\\ Fleet\\ Prison\\ and\\ ultimately\\ Bedlam\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ paintings\\ depict\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ a\\ harlot\\ to\\ disrupt\\ a\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\,\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ public\\ sexual\\ feelings\\ and\\ the\\ proper\\ high\\-class\\ sentimentality\\,\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ luxurious\\ living\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Simon\\ Cognew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;freedom\\ from\\ arbitrary\\ or\\ despotic\\ government\\ or\\ control\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Liberty\\ is\\ a\\ theme\\ throughout\\ this\\ course\\ and\\ throughout\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ ran\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ masters\\/plantations\\ to\\ gain\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\British\\ \\(Dunmore\\)\\ tried\\ to\\ use\\ freeing\\ of\\ slaves\\ as\\ advantage\\ against\\ colonists\\;\\ it\\ brought\\ opportunity\\ for\\ slaves\\ to\\ become\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ field\\ of\\ social\\ medicine\\ seeks\\ to\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ understand\\ how\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ conditions\\ impact\\ health\\,\\ disease\\ and\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ medicine\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ foster\\ conditions\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ understanding\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ healthier\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ idea\\ particularly\\ applies\\ to\\ the\\ argument\\ for\\/against\\ inoculation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\For\\:\\ Because\\ inoculation\\ gives\\ people\\ a\\ less\\ severe\\ strain\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\,\\ this\\ would\\ inevitably\\ save\\ more\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\:\\ Because\\ the\\ poor\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ afford\\ the\\ inoculation\\ \\(or\\ the\\ work\\ they\\ would\\ miss\\ because\\ of\\ it\\)\\,\\ it\\ is\\ unfair\\ to\\ inoculate\\ anyone\\ because\\ the\\ disease\\ would\\ still\\ spread\\,\\ except\\ those\\ without\\ the\\ inoculation\\ would\\ still\\ get\\ the\\ normal\\ version\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Born\\ in\\ 1745\\ in\\ a\\ suburb\\ of\\ Philadelphia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1760\\ he\\ received\\ a\\ five\\-year\\ degree\\ from\\ Princeton\\,\\ then\\ studied\\ medicine\\ at\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Edinburgh\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ colonies\\ in\\ 1769\\ when\\ he\\ opened\\ a\\ medical\\ practice\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ professor\\ of\\ Chemistry\\ at\\ Penn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ sons\\ of\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ was\\ selected\\ to\\ attend\\ the\\ provincial\\ conference\\ to\\ send\\ delegates\\ to\\ the\\ Continental\\ Congress\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ appointed\\ to\\ represent\\ Pennsylvania\\ at\\ the\\ Continental\\ Congress\\ and\\ signed\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1777\\ he\\ became\\ surgeon\\-general\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ department\\ of\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\.\\ Conflicts\\ with\\ the\\ Army\\ Medical\\ service\\,\\ specifically\\ with\\ Dr\\.\\ William\\ Shippen\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ led\\ to\\ Rush\\&\\#39\\;s\\ resignation\\ in\\ 1778\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rush\\ spoke\\ out\\ about\\ removal\\ of\\ Washington\\ as\\ general\\ after\\ several\\ defeats\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;Rush\\ ultimately\\ regretted\\ speaking\\ out\\ against\\ Washington\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ amends\\ with\\ the\\ hero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rush\\ was\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ abolitionist\\ movie\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1766\\ when\\ Rush\\ set\\ out\\ for\\ his\\ studies\\ in\\ Edinburgh\\,\\ was\\ outraged\\ by\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ 100\\ slave\\ ships\\ in\\ Liverpool\\ harbor\\.\\ As\\ a\\ prominent\\ Presbyterian\\ doctor\\ and\\ professor\\ of\\ chemistry\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ he\\ provided\\ a\\ bold\\ and\\ respected\\ voice\\ against\\ slave\\ trade\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ ignored\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ highlight\\ of\\ his\\ involvement\\ in\\ abolishing\\ slavery\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ pamphlet\\ he\\ wrote\\ that\\ appeared\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\,\\ Boston\\,\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ in\\ 1773\\ entitled\\ \\"\\;An\\ Address\\ to\\ the\\ Inhabitants\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ Settlements\\ in\\ America\\,\\ upon\\ Slave\\-Keeping\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ this\\ first\\ of\\ his\\ many\\ attacks\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ evils\\ of\\ his\\ day\\,\\ he\\ not\\ only\\ assailed\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ but\\ the\\ entire\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Rush\\ argued\\ scientifically\\ that\\ Negroes\\ were\\ not\\ by\\ nature\\ intellectually\\ or\\ morally\\ inferior\\.\\ Any\\ apparent\\ evidence\\ to\\ the\\ contrary\\ was\\ only\\ the\\ perverted\\ expression\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ which\\ \\"\\;is\\ so\\ foreign\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\,\\ that\\ the\\ moral\\ faculties\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ understanding\\ are\\ debased\\,\\ and\\ rendered\\ torpid\\ by\\ it\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harry\\ Washington\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Harry\\ Washington\\ was\\ a\\ slave\\ belonging\\ to\\ General\\ George\\ Washington\\ who\\ defected\\ after\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Proclamation\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ belonged\\ to\\ a\\ company\\ in\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\ called\\ the\\ Black\\ Pioneers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ in\\ a\\ painting\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ George\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slave\\.\\ He\\ went\\ to\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\ for\\ his\\ freedom\\ with\\ many\\ other\\ slaves\\.\\ He\\ went\\ to\\ Africa\\ \\(Sierra\\ Leone\\)\\ with\\ many\\ other\\ slaves\\.\\ Did\\ not\\ succeed\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Forgotten\\ Fifth\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nash\\ reorients\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ early\\ America\\,\\ and\\ reveals\\ the\\ perilous\\ choices\\ of\\ the\\ founding\\ fathers\\ that\\ shaped\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#39\\;s\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;Nash\\ tells\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ fervor\\ arousing\\ a\\ struggle\\ for\\ freedom\\ that\\ spiraled\\ into\\ the\\ largest\\ slave\\ rebellion\\ in\\ American\\ history\\,\\ as\\ blacks\\ fled\\ servitude\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ the\\ British\\,\\ who\\ promised\\ freedom\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ military\\ service\\.\\ The\\ Revolutionary\\ Army\\ never\\ matched\\ the\\ British\\ offer\\,\\ and\\ most\\ histories\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ have\\ ignored\\ this\\ remarkable\\ story\\.\\ The\\ conventional\\ wisdom\\ says\\ that\\ abolition\\ was\\ impossible\\ in\\ the\\ fragile\\ new\\ republic\\.\\ Nash\\,\\ however\\,\\ argues\\ that\\ an\\ unusual\\ convergence\\ of\\ factors\\ immediately\\ after\\ the\\ war\\ created\\ a\\ unique\\ opportunity\\ to\\ dismantle\\ slavery\\.\\ The\\ founding\\ fathers\\&\\#39\\;\\ failure\\ to\\ commit\\ to\\ freedom\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ waning\\ of\\ abolitionism\\ just\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ reached\\ its\\ peak\\.\\ In\\ the\\ opening\\ decades\\ of\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\,\\ as\\ Nash\\ demonstrates\\,\\ their\\ decision\\ enabled\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ white\\ supremacy\\ to\\ take\\ root\\,\\ and\\ with\\ it\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ an\\ irreparable\\ national\\ fissure\\.\\ The\\ moral\\ failure\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ was\\ paid\\ for\\ in\\ the\\ 1860s\\ with\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ 600\\,000\\ Americans\\ killed\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Harris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Involved\\ in\\ the\\ burning\\ of\\ the\\ hated\\ British\\ revenue\\ schooner\\,\\ HMS\\ Gaspee\\,\\ by\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ patriots\\ in\\ 1772\\ as\\ \\&\\#39\\;America\\&\\#39\\;s\\ First\\ Blow\\ for\\ Freedom\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joseph\\ Harris\\ was\\ a\\ North\\ Carolina\\ private\\ \\(nothing\\ more\\ than\\ what\\ is\\ already\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ guide\\,\\ not\\ in\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ most\\ that\\ I\\ found\\ on\\ google\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virginia\\,\\ November\\,\\ 1775\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ November\\ of\\ 1775\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\,\\ the\\ Royal\\ Governor\\ in\\ Virginia\\,\\ issued\\ a\\ proclamation\\ that\\ all\\ able\\ bodied\\ males\\ who\\ fought\\ for\\ the\\ Loyalist\\ cause\\ would\\ be\\ granted\\ freedom\\.\\ This\\ was\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ desperation\\ as\\ the\\ rebels\\ \\(Americans\\)\\ had\\ taken\\ virtual\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ only\\ a\\ 300\\ man\\ army\\ remained\\ there\\ under\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ command\\.\\ More\\ than\\ 800\\ runaways\\ joined\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Loyalist\\ forces\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ proclamation\\.\\ This\\ collection\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ proclamation\\ is\\ particularly\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ course\\ as\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ colonies\\ vulnerability\\ when\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ population\\ within\\ the\\ states\\ and\\ displayed\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ mobilized\\ to\\ rebellion\\.\\ Many\\ loyalist\\ slave\\ owners\\ in\\ Virginia\\ lost\\ runaways\\ to\\ the\\ proclamation\\ and\\ were\\ unhappy\\ with\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ move\\-\\ fearing\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ massive\\ slave\\ rebellion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Virginia\\ Declaration\\ was\\ Virginia\\&\\#39\\;s\\ quick\\ response\\ to\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ proclamation\\.\\ The\\ VA\\ Declaration\\ said\\ that\\ offering\\ freedom\\ to\\ slaves\\ struck\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ VA\\ society\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ runaways\\ could\\ face\\ the\\ death\\ penalty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evacuation\\ of\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ November\\ 25\\,\\ 1983\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ Troops\\ and\\ Loyalist\\ refugees\\ sailed\\ from\\ New\\ York\\ Harbor\\ for\\ England\\.\\ The\\ Union\\ Jack\\ was\\ promptly\\ stripped\\ from\\ all\\ the\\ flag\\ poles\\ and\\ replaced\\ with\\ the\\ Stars\\ and\\ Stripes\\.\\ The\\ Evacuation\\ was\\ negotiated\\ by\\ General\\ Washington\\ and\\ Sir\\ Guy\\ Carleton\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ Commander\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ forces\\ in\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Evacuation\\ was\\ controversial\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ British\\ shipped\\ out\\ not\\ only\\ their\\ troops\\ and\\ Loyalist\\ refugees\\ from\\ the\\ colonies\\ but\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ who\\ had\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ British\\ ranks\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Osnabrug\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Osnaburg\\ cloth\\ was\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ cheap\\,\\ inexpensive\\ and\\ coarse\\ linen\\.\\ \\ \\;Slave\\ clothing\\ was\\ often\\ made\\ of\\ osnaburg\\ cloth\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ frequently\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Runaway\\ Ads\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Described\\ in\\ Shane\\ and\\ Graham\\ White\\ reading\\,\\ page\\ 153\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Type\\ of\\ cloth\\ that\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ slaves\\;\\ very\\ cheap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heavy\\,\\ coarse\\ cotton\\ in\\ a\\ plain\\ weave\\,\\ for\\ grain\\ sacks\\ and\\ sportswear\\ and\\ also\\ finished\\ into\\ cretonne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phyllis\\ Wheatley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ African\\ American\\ woman\\ who\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ first\\ published\\ African\\ American\\ poet\\;\\ her\\ masters\\ lived\\ in\\ Boston\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ they\\ ones\\ who\\ taught\\ her\\ to\\ write\\.\\ her\\ writing\\ refuted\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ African\\ Americans\\ were\\ intellectually\\ inferior\\;\\ some\\ believed\\ that\\ her\\ poems\\ were\\ in\\ fact\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ white\\ person\\ and\\ published\\ under\\ her\\ name\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ point\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Was\\ slave\\ in\\ Boston\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ poet\\.\\ She\\ was\\ brought\\ from\\ Africa\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ eight\\,\\ and\\ was\\ bought\\ by\\ a\\ family\\ \\(Wheatly\\)\\ that\\ taught\\ her\\ how\\ to\\ write\\.\\ She\\ was\\ acclaimed\\ nationwide\\ and\\ was\\ popular\\ especially\\ during\\ the\\ revoltion\\.\\ She\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;Poems\\ on\\ Various\\ Subjects\\:\\ Religious\\ and\\ Moral\\ She\\ was\\ also\\ praised\\ by\\ George\\ Wahsington\\.\\ She\\ was\\ eventually\\ let\\ go\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whiskey\\ Rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ farmers\\ in\\ PA\\ distilled\\ their\\ surplus\\ wheat\\ into\\ whiskey\\ to\\ make\\ money\\,\\ but\\ a\\ 1791\\ excise\\ tax\\ on\\ whiskey\\ seriously\\ hurt\\ the\\ market\\ for\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tensions\\ flared\\ into\\ a\\ rebellion\\ of\\ these\\ frontier\\ farmers\\ in\\ 1794\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ frontier\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ safety\\ valve\\,\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ discontented\\ people\\ to\\ move\\ and\\ be\\ farther\\ from\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Washington\\ demonstrated\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ and\\ his\\ power\\ as\\ commander\\ in\\ chief\\ of\\ the\\ army\\ by\\ calling\\ in\\ troops\\ to\\ put\\ down\\ the\\ rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ established\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ government\\ and\\ helped\\ contain\\ the\\ energies\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\wanted\\ people\\ to\\ get\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ nation\\ through\\ voting\\ and\\ the\\ political\\ process\\ rather\\ than\\ fighting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ Whiskey\\ Rebellion\\ helped\\ with\\ the\\ reestablishment\\ of\\ order\\ after\\ the\\ Revolution\\ by\\ demonstrating\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ and\\ asserting\\ that\\ tactics\\ of\\ mob\\ violence\\ would\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ an\\ effective\\ political\\ tool\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ nation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philip\\ Freneau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\American\\ poet\\ and\\ nationalist\\ during\\ Revolutionary\\ era\\ \\(1752\\-1832\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ known\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ Poet\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrote\\ many\\ anti\\-British\\ pieces\\,\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ capture\\ and\\ detention\\ by\\ British\\ for\\ six\\ weeks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chosen\\ by\\ James\\ Madison\\ and\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ head\\ the\\ National\\ Gazette\\,\\ which\\ criticized\\ federalists\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ Washington\\ administration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrote\\ poem\\,\\ American\\ Liberty\\,\\ A\\ Poem\\,\\ see\\ Royster\\ p\\.112\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helped\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ frame\\ a\\ petition\\ to\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Representatives\\ and\\ published\\ a\\ poem\\ in\\ tribute\\ to\\ her\\,\\ see\\ Young\\ p\\.\\ 191\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1787\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Delegates\\ begin\\ arriving\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ new\\ Constitution\\ for\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ delegates\\ begin\\ to\\ convene\\ a\\ Constitutional\\ Convention\\ intended\\ to\\ amend\\ the\\ Articles\\ of\\ Confederation\\.\\ However\\,\\ a\\ new\\ Constitution\\ for\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ eventually\\ produced\\.\\ George\\ Washington\\ presides\\ over\\ the\\ Convention\\.\\ The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Congress\\ enacts\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Ordinance\\ establishing\\ governing\\ rules\\ for\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Territory\\.\\ It\\ also\\ establishes\\ procedures\\ for\\ the\\ admission\\ of\\ new\\ states\\ and\\ limits\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hopi\\ pueblo\\ of\\ Oraibi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oraibi\\ is\\ a\\ village\\ in\\ Arizona\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Hopis\\ were\\ the\\ native\\ Americans\\ of\\ that\\ village\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Franciscan\\ missionary\\,\\ Francisco\\ Tomas\\ Garces\\ approached\\ Oraibi\\ in\\ 1776\\ in\\ service\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\ crown\\,\\ he\\ sought\\ to\\ open\\ a\\ road\\ between\\ Oraibi\\ and\\ Alta\\,\\ California\\ and\\ he\\ also\\ hoped\\ to\\ bring\\ Christianity\\ to\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ instill\\ hospitality\\ toward\\ the\\ Spaniards\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ received\\ no\\ hospitality\\ upon\\ his\\ arrival\\ and\\ was\\ strongly\\ urged\\ by\\ the\\ Hopi\\ to\\ leave\\ immediately\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Pox\\ Americana\\,\\ 135\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rebellion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Shay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rebellions\\ was\\ an\\ armed\\ uprising\\ in\\ Massachusetts\\ from\\ 1786\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1787\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ led\\ by\\ Daniel\\ Shay\\ and\\ he\\ commanded\\ a\\ militia\\ formed\\ of\\ those\\ known\\ as\\ Shaysites\\ or\\ Regulators\\,\\ mostly\\ composed\\ of\\ farmers\\ angered\\ by\\ the\\ financially\\ troubling\\ taxation\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rebellion\\ included\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ the\\ Springfield\\ armory\\/court\\ which\\ controlled\\ the\\ processing\\ of\\ financial\\ confiscations\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pay\\ their\\ taxes\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rebellion\\ ended\\ with\\ the\\ Shaysites\\ being\\ fined\\,\\ imprisoned\\,\\ or\\ sentenced\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1788\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ general\\ pardon\\ and\\ all\\ but\\ two\\ rebels\\ had\\ their\\ verdict\\ reversed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ rebellion\\ caused\\ a\\ reevaluation\\ of\\ the\\ Articles\\ of\\ Confederation\\ and\\ helped\\ create\\ the\\ Constitutional\\ Convention\\ which\\ began\\ in\\ May\\,\\ 1787\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pennsylvania\\,\\ 1788\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ 1788\\ Act\\ in\\ Pennsylvania\\ cleared\\ up\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ loopholes\\ of\\ the\\ state\\&\\#39\\;s\\ 1780\\ Act\\ providing\\ for\\ the\\ gradual\\ abolition\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ The\\ 1780\\ regulations\\ said\\ that\\ no\\ child\\ born\\ in\\ PA\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\ and\\ that\\ those\\ born\\ to\\ slaves\\ would\\ be\\ servants\\ until\\ 28\\ years\\ of\\ age\\ and\\ then\\ granted\\ freedom\\.\\ It\\ also\\ called\\ for\\ the\\ gradual\\ emancipation\\ of\\ all\\ slaves\\.\\ These\\ regulations\\ were\\ circumvented\\ by\\ certain\\ slave\\ owners\\ and\\ the\\ 1788\\ Act\\ filled\\ the\\ loopholes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ other\\ states\\ like\\ Massachusetts\\ were\\ moving\\ towards\\ abolition\\ through\\ judicial\\ processes\\,\\ Pennsylvania\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ state\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ through\\ legislation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Francis\\ Hopkinson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pennsylvanian\\ native\\,\\ studied\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ridiculed\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ loyalist\\ sympathizers\\ with\\ political\\ satires\\ through\\ works\\ including\\ \\"\\;A\\ Pretty\\ Story\\"\\;\\ \\(relationship\\ between\\ GB\\ and\\ colonies\\)\\ and\\ \\"\\;Battle\\ of\\ the\\ Kegs\\"\\;\\ \\(satire\\ taunting\\ the\\ British\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Delegate\\ to\\ Continental\\ Congress\\,\\ Declaration\\ signer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Advocate\\ of\\ federal\\ constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claims\\ credit\\ for\\ designing\\ American\\ flag\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Contrast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Written\\ by\\ Royall\\ Tyler\\,\\ a\\ New\\ England\\ lawyer\\ and\\ former\\ officer\\ belonging\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ wealthiest\\ and\\ most\\ influential\\ families\\ of\\ the\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ performed\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ 1787\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ American\\ play\\ ever\\ performed\\ in\\ public\\ by\\ company\\ of\\ professional\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Popular\\ among\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expresses\\ political\\ and\\ ideological\\ concerns\\ about\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#39\\;s\\ republic\\ character\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ central\\ theme\\ is\\ conflict\\ between\\ virtue\\ and\\ luxury\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ is\\ New\\ York\\ upper\\-class\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mary\\ Wollstonecraft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ 18th\\ century\\ British\\ writer\\,\\ philosopher\\,\\ and\\ feminist\\.\\ Published\\ Vindication\\ of\\ the\\ Rights\\ of\\ Woman\\ \\(1797\\)\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ makes\\ a\\ plea\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ take\\ personal\\ action\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ throw\\ off\\ \\"\\;slavish\\ dependence\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;slavish\\ obedience\\.\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;She\\ stood\\ on\\ the\\ most\\ radical\\ and\\ liberal\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ feminism\\ spectrum\\ and\\ was\\ an\\ anathema\\ to\\ conservative\\ federalists\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ Herman\\ Mann\\,\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ biographer\\,\\ had\\ read\\ Wollstonecraft\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Vindication\\ and\\ was\\ conscious\\ of\\ the\\ inequality\\ in\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ women\\,\\ and\\ took\\ it\\ into\\ account\\ when\\ writing\\ Sampson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ biography\\ and\\ lecture\\ speeches\\ to\\ avoid\\ resemblance\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ infamous\\ and\\ controversial\\ Wollstonecraft\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Defined\\ as\\ \\"\\;moral\\ excellence\\"\\;\\;\\ theme\\ throughout\\ the\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ term\\ is\\ mentioned\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ adjectives\\ describing\\ a\\ good\\ Republican\\ citizen\\ \\(refer\\ to\\ lecture\\ 11\\/20\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonists\\ strived\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ \\"\\;virtue\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ that\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\ lived\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ \\"\\;virtue\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ defined\\ by\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Silence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Speak\\ not\\ but\\ what\\ may\\ benefit\\ others\\ or\\ yourself\\;\\ avoid\\ trifling\\ conversation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sincerity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Use\\ no\\ hurtful\\ deceit\\;\\ think\\ innocently\\ and\\ justly\\,\\ and\\,\\ if\\ you\\ speak\\,\\ speak\\ accordingly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Wrong\\ none\\ by\\ doing\\ injuries\\,\\ or\\ omitting\\ the\\ benefits\\ that\\ are\\ your\\ duty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chastity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Rarely\\ use\\ venery\\ but\\ for\\ health\\ or\\ offspring\\,\\ never\\ to\\ dullness\\,\\ weakness\\,\\ or\\ the\\ injury\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ or\\ another\\&\\#39\\;s\\ peace\\ or\\ reputation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Imitate\\ Jesus\\ and\\ Socrates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Virtue\\-\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Temperance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Eat\\ not\\ to\\ dullness\\;\\ drink\\ not\\ to\\ elevation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Order\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Let\\ all\\ your\\ things\\ have\\ their\\ places\\;\\ let\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ your\\ business\\ have\\ its\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Resolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Resolve\\ to\\ perform\\ what\\ you\\ ought\\;\\ perform\\ without\\ fail\\ what\\ you\\ resolve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frugality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Make\\ no\\ expense\\ but\\ to\\ do\\ good\\ to\\ others\\ or\\ yourself\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ waste\\ nothing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moderation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Avoid\\ extremes\\;\\ forbear\\ resenting\\ injuries\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ you\\ think\\ they\\ deserve\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Lose\\ no\\ time\\;\\ be\\ always\\ employed\\ in\\ something\\ useful\\;\\ cut\\ off\\ all\\ unnecessary\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cleanliness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Tolerate\\ no\\ uncleanliness\\ in\\ body\\,\\ clothes\\,\\ or\\ habitation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tranquility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Be\\ not\\ disturbed\\ at\\ trifles\\,\\ or\\ at\\ accidents\\ common\\ or\\ unavoidable\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Errata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Errata\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ that\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ indicate\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ errors\\ in\\ a\\ written\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ apologize\\ but\\ I\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ how\\ this\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ben\\ Franklin\\ calls\\ his\\ blunders\\ errata\\.\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ his\\ autobiography\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Female\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Written\\ by\\ Herman\\ Mann\\ with\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cooperation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Published\\ in\\ 1797\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Described\\ by\\ Young\\ in\\ Masquerade\\ to\\ be\\ \\"\\;part\\ memoir\\,\\ part\\ novel\\,\\ part\\ factual\\,\\ in\\ good\\ part\\ fantasy\\"\\;\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ was\\ presented\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ American\\ Heroine\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cites\\ many\\ distortions\\ by\\ Mann\\,\\ including\\ Sampson\\ in\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Yorktown\\,\\ which\\ took\\ place\\ before\\ her\\ enlistment\\,\\ also\\ fantasizes\\ adventures\\ among\\ western\\ Indians\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Hudson\\ Valley\\,\\ Mann\\ eventually\\ confesses\\ that\\ he\\ wishes\\ it\\ were\\ better\\ researched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ borrows\\ from\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ other\\ works\\,\\ including\\ The\\ Female\\ Soldier\\;\\ The\\ Surprising\\ Life\\ and\\ Adventures\\ of\\ Hannah\\ Snell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emphasizes\\ patriotism\\ and\\ a\\ \\"\\;framing\\ moment\\"\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ lovely\\ young\\ woman\\ of\\ good\\ character\\ could\\ do\\ something\\ unusual\\ because\\ her\\ country\\ needed\\ her\\,\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ feminine\\ \\(Prof\\.\\ Ulrich\\,\\ from\\ lecture\\ Dec\\.\\ 2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ were\\ published\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amazon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Originally\\ referred\\ to\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ female\\ warriors\\ who\\ lived\\ in\\ South\\ America\\,\\ but\\ later\\ drawn\\ upon\\ to\\ make\\ political\\ statements\\.\\ In\\ 18th\\ century\\ America\\,\\ an\\ Amazon\\ could\\ be\\ women\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ \\(literal\\ meaning\\)\\.\\ In\\ a\\ broader\\ sense\\,\\ it\\ refers\\ to\\ females\\ who\\ step\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ gender\\ role\\ and\\ take\\ on\\ male\\ attributes\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ good\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Abigail\\ Adams\\ in\\ 1776\\ had\\ pledged\\ that\\ women\\ would\\ \\"\\;become\\ a\\ Race\\ of\\ Amazons\\"\\;\\ if\\ men\\ were\\ all\\ called\\ to\\ battle\\ and\\ America\\ was\\ still\\ attacked\\.\\ Examples\\ of\\ amazons\\:\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\,\\ Hannah\\ Snell\\,\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ Iraq\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hannah\\ Snell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ woman\\ who\\ fought\\ for\\ the\\ British\\ army\\ in\\ King\\ George\\&rsquo\\;s\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ became\\ a\\ popular\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ during\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\,\\ her\\ likeness\\ \\(a\\ drawing\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ in\\ a\\ dress\\ and\\ tri\\-corner\\ hat\\ holding\\ a\\ gun\\ and\\ a\\ powder\\ horn\\)\\ was\\ often\\ used\\ by\\ printers\\ on\\ broadsides\\ and\\ pamphlets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ image\\ was\\ often\\ used\\ on\\ printed\\ materials\\ that\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ directly\\ related\\ to\\ Snell\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ printers\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ many\\ woodcuts\\ to\\ choose\\ from\\,\\ so\\ they\\ reused\\ images\\,\\ might\\ put\\ her\\ image\\ on\\ something\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ a\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hannah\\ Snell\\ is\\ also\\ loosely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ popular\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ Amazons\\,\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ ancient\\ woman\\ worriers\\ who\\ had\\ their\\ own\\ all\\-female\\ society\\ and\\ were\\ legendary\\ for\\ being\\ terrifying\\ fighters\\.\\ During\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\,\\ women\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ war\\ or\\ otherwise\\ stepped\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ normal\\ female\\ sphere\\ were\\ likened\\ to\\ Amazons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ During\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\,\\ Hannah\\ Snell\\ became\\ an\\ iconic\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ bravely\\ broke\\ free\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ female\\ sphere\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ a\\ noble\\ cause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Masterless\\ Woman\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Masterless\\ Woman\\ is\\ a\\ phrase\\ that\\ Alfred\\ Young\\ uses\\ to\\ describe\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ term\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ before\\ Sampson\\ joined\\ the\\ revolution\\,\\ she\\ was\\ an\\ independent\\,\\ single\\ female\\ with\\ her\\ own\\ income\\ and\\ therefore\\ she\\ was\\ \\&lsquo\\;masterless\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prudence\\ Punderson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prudence\\ Punderson\\ \\(1758\\-1784\\)\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ Preston\\,\\ CT\\.\\ Her\\ needlework\\,\\ done\\ before\\ her\\ marriage\\,\\ is\\ titled\\ \\"\\;The\\ First\\,\\ Second\\ and\\ Last\\ Scenes\\ of\\ Mortality\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ represents\\ three\\ stages\\ of\\ life\\:\\ infancy\\,\\ womanhood\\,\\ and\\ death\\.\\ The\\ scene\\ features\\ the\\ furnishings\\ of\\ a\\ wealthy\\ CT\\ drawing\\ room\\,\\ an\\ African\\ American\\ servant\\ \\(the\\ \\"\\;wench\\ Jenny\\,\\"\\;\\ who\\ was\\ included\\ as\\ property\\ in\\ her\\ father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ will\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ coffin\\ which\\ alludes\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Clarissa\\ Harlowe\\,\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ resisted\\ evil\\ suitors\\ and\\ struggled\\ between\\ tyranny\\ and\\ anarchy\\.\\ Her\\ embroidery\\ symbolizes\\ Prudence\\&\\#39\\;s\\ struggle\\ over\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ marry\\ the\\ man\\ she\\ loves\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ patriot\\/congregationalist\\,\\ which\\ her\\ Loyalist\\ father\\ does\\ not\\ approve\\ of\\.\\ It\\ represents\\ the\\ personal\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ religious\\ dilemma\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ woman\\ right\\ after\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ohio\\ Valley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ war\\,\\ the\\ Ohio\\ Valley\\ represented\\ the\\ western\\ boundary\\ of\\ available\\ land\\ for\\ colonists\\,\\ land\\ speculators\\ and\\ the\\ British\\.\\ The\\ Proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ set\\ the\\ Appalachians\\ as\\ the\\ western\\ boundary\\ of\\ the\\ colonies\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ Crown\\&\\#39\\;s\\ effort\\ to\\ maintain\\ good\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ after\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Paris\\.\\ In\\ subsequent\\ years\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ Revolution\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\ became\\ the\\ borderline\\ of\\ land\\ available\\ to\\ colonists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ both\\ the\\ British\\ and\\ Americans\\ maintained\\ a\\ neutral\\ position\\ with\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\ indians\\-\\ later\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ British\\ armed\\ many\\ native\\ Americans\\ along\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\ and\\ sent\\ them\\ on\\ raiding\\ parties\\ into\\ Ohio\\ and\\ neighboring\\ state\\ towns\\.\\ This\\ led\\ to\\ much\\ strife\\ and\\ fighting\\ between\\ stationed\\ continental\\ army\\ troops\\ in\\ the\\ west\\ and\\ the\\ British\\ troops\\ in\\ Detroit\\ and\\ the\\ indians\\ between\\ who\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ Crown\\-\\ these\\ conflicts\\ played\\ out\\ along\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Post\\ war\\ the\\ British\\ signed\\ these\\ lands\\ over\\ to\\ the\\ Americans\\ yet\\ did\\ not\\ put\\ any\\ provisions\\ into\\ the\\ treaty\\ regarding\\ their\\ allies\\ \\(the\\ indians\\)\\ claim\\ to\\ lands\\ along\\ the\\ Ohio\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Land\\ speculators\\ from\\ the\\ east\\ savored\\ this\\ land\\ and\\ moved\\ west\\.\\ The\\ indians\\ there\\ were\\ pushed\\ west\\ by\\ white\\ settlers\\ but\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ Northwest\\ Indian\\ Wars\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ hold\\ as\\ much\\ land\\ as\\ possible\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tanigrhisson\\ \\(half\\ king\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ May\\ of\\ 1754\\,\\ George\\ Washington\\ marched\\ several\\ hundred\\ troops\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ forts\\ near\\ the\\ Great\\ Lakes\\ and\\ the\\ forks\\ of\\ the\\ Ohio\\ river\\ to\\ protect\\ Virginia\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interests\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ French\\ sent\\ Ensign\\ Jumonville\\ up\\ from\\ Fort\\ Duquesne\\ to\\ warn\\ them\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;Tanighrisson\\ alerted\\ Washington\\ to\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ French\\ party\\,\\ guided\\ him\\ to\\ their\\ camp\\,\\ and\\ encouraged\\ him\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ surprise\\ attack\\.\\ \\ \\;Washington\\ did\\ just\\ that\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ May\\ 28\\,\\ 1754\\,\\ wounding\\ Jumonville\\ before\\ he\\ could\\ explain\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ come\\ on\\ a\\ diplomatic\\ mission\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ French\\ called\\ for\\ a\\ ceasefire\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ parley\\ with\\ their\\ assailants\\,\\ but\\ Tanighrisson\\ cut\\ off\\ the\\ chances\\ for\\ a\\ diplomatic\\ resolution\\ by\\ bashing\\ in\\ Jumonville\\&\\#39\\;s\\ skull\\ and\\ washing\\ his\\ hands\\ in\\ the\\ dead\\ man\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brains\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ but\\ 21\\ men\\ were\\ killed\\.\\ Tanighrisson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ act\\ triggered\\ events\\ that\\ ranged\\ unimaginably\\ far\\ beyond\\ his\\ control\\,\\ however\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ French\\ counterattack\\ quickly\\ escalated\\ into\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ Indian\\ War\\,\\ which\\ spread\\ to\\ Europe\\ as\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\&\\#39\\;\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ 1763\\ France\\&\\#39\\;s\\ empire\\ lay\\ in\\ ruins\\ and\\ Britain\\ was\\ in\\ at\\ least\\ theoretical\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ eastern\\ half\\ of\\ North\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sally\\ Hemings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\American\\ slave\\ owned\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ half\\ sister\\ of\\ Jefferson\\&\\#39\\;s\\ wife\\ Martha\\,\\ and\\ also\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ had\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ extent\\ of\\ interracial\\ interactions\\ between\\ whites\\ and\\ their\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jefferson\\ emancipated\\ Sally\\ Hemings\\&\\#39\\;\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relationship\\ with\\ Jefferson\\ became\\ public\\ in\\ early\\ 19th\\ century\\ \\(James\\ Aiken\\,\\ Newburyport\\,\\ \\"\\;outed\\"\\;\\ the\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ Lecture\\ 11\\/25\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Jefferson\\ Puzzle\\ for\\ more\\ evidence\\ of\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cumberland\\ Gap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ mountain\\ pass\\ across\\ the\\ Appalachians\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ Kentucky\\,\\ Tennessee\\,\\ and\\ Virginia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ American\\ history\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ symbolize\\ an\\ opening\\ between\\ European\\ and\\ North\\ American\\ settlements\\,\\ it\\ became\\ iconic\\ soon\\ after\\ the\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Crossing\\ the\\ gap\\ violated\\ old\\ British\\ proclamation\\ lines\\ that\\ restricted\\ settlement\\,\\ so\\ crossing\\ the\\ gap\\ also\\ reinforced\\ that\\ Americans\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ subject\\ to\\ British\\ authority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1852\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Daniel\\ Boone\\ Escorting\\ Settlers\\ Through\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ this\\ was\\ painted\\,\\ the\\ US\\ already\\ had\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ territory\\ of\\ the\\ continental\\ US\\,\\ but\\ was\\ still\\ struggling\\ with\\ the\\ Indians\\ for\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ Daniel\\ Boone\\ as\\ a\\ border\\ figure\\,\\ a\\ transitional\\ figure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ is\\ wearing\\ a\\ European\\ hat\\,\\ a\\ buckskin\\ coat\\,\\ Indian\\ leggings\\ and\\ moccasins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boone\\ was\\ born\\ a\\ Quaker\\ in\\ PA\\ in\\ 1734\\,\\ but\\ his\\ family\\ was\\ expelled\\ from\\ the\\ Quaker\\ meeting\\ because\\ their\\ children\\ married\\ non\\-Quakers\\,\\ they\\ ended\\ up\\ moving\\ around\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boone\\ went\\ on\\ long\\ hunts\\ every\\ year\\ to\\ help\\ sustain\\ the\\ family\\,\\ served\\ in\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\ and\\ then\\ became\\ a\\ professional\\ hunter\\,\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ brought\\ him\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ Indians\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ occasionally\\ captured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ Transylvania\\ Company\\ bought\\ Kentucky\\ from\\ a\\ Cherokee\\ \\(though\\ the\\ Cherokee\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ own\\ the\\ land\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\)\\,\\ he\\ then\\ sold\\ this\\ land\\ to\\ settlers\\ and\\ had\\ Boone\\ build\\ a\\ road\\ through\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Boone\\ brought\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ other\\ families\\ over\\ the\\ Gap\\,\\ they\\ settled\\ Boonesborough\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Turner\\ Thesis\\ \\(which\\ posits\\ American\\ history\\ as\\ an\\ ever\\-moving\\ frontier\\)\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\,\\ Turner\\ talks\\ about\\ civilization\\ progressing\\ through\\ the\\ gap\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wildlife\\,\\ to\\ Indians\\,\\ to\\ trader\\/hunters\\,\\ to\\ cattle\\ herders\\,\\ to\\ farmers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ natural\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Americas\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ Bone\\ Lick\\ \\=\\ a\\ salt\\ lick\\ at\\ a\\ bend\\ in\\ the\\ Ohio\\ River\\ \\(in\\ what\\ is\\ today\\ Kentucky\\)\\,\\ was\\ very\\ boggy\\ and\\ many\\ animals\\ got\\ stuck\\ in\\ the\\ boggy\\ soil\\ and\\ were\\ fossilized\\ there\\;\\ a\\ mastodon\\ skeleton\\ was\\ found\\ at\\ Big\\ Bone\\ Lick\\ and\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ proof\\ that\\ the\\ Americas\\ could\\ sustain\\ large\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\SIGNIFICANCE\\:\\ The\\ Cumberland\\ Gap\\ was\\ a\\ mountain\\ pass\\ that\\ connected\\ the\\ original\\ British\\ settlements\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ west\\ and\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ symbolize\\ the\\ American\\ potential\\ for\\ expansion\\ and\\ progress\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethiopian\\ regiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\ was\\ comprised\\ of\\ roughly\\ 800\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ in\\ Virginia\\ under\\ the\\ command\\ of\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\-\\ VA\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Royal\\ Governor\\.\\ These\\ slaves\\ came\\ together\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ 1775\\ Proclamation\\ that\\ all\\ able\\ bodied\\ males\\ who\\ served\\ the\\ loyalist\\ cause\\ in\\ the\\ military\\ would\\ be\\ granted\\ freedom\\.\\ \\(see\\ VA\\,\\ November\\ 1775\\ id\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ regiment\\ was\\ hastily\\ trained\\ and\\ fought\\ alongside\\ British\\ Regulars\\.\\ At\\ Kemp\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Landing\\,\\ Dunmore\\&\\#39\\;s\\ forces\\ \\(Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\ plus\\ British\\ Regulars\\)\\ beat\\ the\\ rebel\\ forces\\.\\ They\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ be\\ beaten\\ at\\ Great\\ Bridge\\ by\\ the\\ rebel\\ troops\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smallpox\\ took\\ a\\ harsh\\ toll\\ on\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ Regiment\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 1776\\,\\ 300\\ slaves\\ and\\ the\\ British\\ regulars\\ sailed\\ for\\ New\\ York\\ with\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#1\\:\\ Who\\ won\\ and\\ who\\ lost\\ the\\ American\\ revolution\\?\\ \\;\\ Be\\ specific\\,\\ define\\ your\\ terms\\,\\ create\\ an\\ argumentative\\ and\\ arguable\\ thesis\\ and\\ support\\ it\\ with\\ examples\\ from\\ primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ sources\\.\\ \\;Although\\ you\\ need\\ not\\ discuss\\ every\\ possible\\ angle\\ on\\ this\\ question\\,\\ a\\ good\\ answer\\ will\\ note\\ change\\ over\\ time\\ and\\ variation\\ among\\ regions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ elements\\:\\ \\"\\;Founding\\ Fathers\\,\\"\\;\\ Loyalists\\,\\ runaway\\ slave\\ ads\\,\\ women\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quakers\\,\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ readings\\:\\ runaway\\ slave\\/wife\\ ads\\,\\ Wood\\,\\ Masquerade\\,\\ Calloway\\,\\ Royster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THESIS\\:\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ history\\ declares\\ the\\ Revolution\\ as\\ a\\ victory\\ for\\ all\\ Americans\\,\\ it\\ ultimately\\ succeeded\\ in\\ completely\\ liberating\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ individuals\\:\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ The\\ premise\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\&mdash\\;why\\ did\\ it\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ contingency\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ The\\ French\\ and\\ Indian\\ War\\ created\\ an\\ antagonistic\\ relationship\\ between\\ American\\ colonists\\ and\\ British\\ soldiers\\.\\ Without\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ common\\ enemy\\,\\ the\\ Americans\\ found\\ much\\ at\\ fault\\ with\\ their\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-they\\ were\\ being\\ taxed\\ for\\ the\\ F\\+I\\ War\\ despite\\ their\\ lack\\ of\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-The\\ Proclamation\\ of\\ 1763\\ restricted\\ their\\ movements\\ into\\ a\\ territory\\ that\\ they\\ thought\\ could\\ rightfully\\ be\\ theirs\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ chance\\ to\\ \\(mention\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ DEFINITE\\ losers\\ in\\ this\\ aspect\\&mdash\\;source\\:\\ Calloway\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-a\\ sum\\ of\\ situations\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ became\\ increasingly\\ evident\\ to\\ them\\ that\\ the\\ rights\\ that\\ the\\ \\"\\;founding\\ fathers\\"\\;\\&mdash\\;basically\\ moderately\\ well\\-off\\,\\ well\\-educated\\ men\\&mdash\\;deemed\\ people\\ of\\ their\\ position\\ deserved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;self\\-made\\"\\;\\ individual\\-a\\ \\"\\;winning\\ element\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;a\\.\\ The\\ Revolutionary\\ period\\ created\\ the\\ opportunity\\ for\\ individuals\\ to\\ redefine\\ themselves\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ egalitarian\\ setting\\.\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ individuals\\ who\\ took\\ this\\ opportunity\\ to\\ seize\\ more\\ attention\\ than\\ normally\\ would\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ someone\\ of\\ his\\ position\\.\\ It\\ might\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ mention\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ tone\\ between\\ his\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ autobiography\\ and\\ the\\ second\\.\\ Also\\,\\ mention\\ his\\ methodical\\ pursuit\\ of\\ redefinition\\.\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ Gannett\\ is\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;b\\.\\ Who\\ joined\\ the\\ army\\?\\ Poor\\ men\\ with\\ little\\ land\\,\\ seeing\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ advance\\ themselves\\.\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ victory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Sources\\:\\ Royster\\,\\ Masquerade\\ \\(Young\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HOWEVER\\,\\ as\\ Royster\\ suggests\\,\\ the\\ issues\\ of\\ back\\ pay\\ and\\ the\\ difficulties\\ many\\ had\\ with\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ more\\ well\\-off\\ officers\\ in\\ the\\ army\\.\\ To\\ what\\ degree\\ were\\ old\\ societal\\ divisions\\ maintained\\ or\\ altered\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ war\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Freedom\\ of\\ Expression\\-\\ For\\ some\\ the\\ Revolution\\ resulted\\ in\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ liberate\\ themselves\\ from\\ their\\ traditional\\ roles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Women\\ were\\ temporarily\\ released\\ from\\ their\\ customary\\ roles\\ and\\ could\\ evoke\\ revolutionary\\ rhetoric\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ liberty\\.\\ Evidence\\:\\ runaway\\ wife\\ ads\\&mdash\\;they\\ increasingly\\ took\\ control\\ of\\ their\\ position\\ and\\ justified\\ it\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\"\\;rights\\"\\;\\ of\\ persons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Abigail\\ Adams\\ ran\\ the\\ family\\ farm\\ and\\ other\\ women\\ participated\\ more\\ freely\\ in\\ commercial\\ life\\.\\ For\\ sources\\,\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ readings\\ on\\ commercial\\ life\\ in\\ colonial\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Also\\,\\ women\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ adapt\\ their\\ domestic\\ habits\\ to\\ become\\ expressions\\ of\\ patriotism\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ spinning\\ parties\\ were\\ had\\ and\\ homespun\\ cloth\\ became\\ a\\ popular\\ method\\ to\\ show\\ their\\ support\\ \\ \\;\\(look\\ at\\ Pruitt\\ reading\\,\\ spinning\\ articles\\,\\ Sentiments\\ of\\ An\\ American\\ Woman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ despite\\ this\\ temporary\\ release\\,\\ eventually\\ women\\ were\\ relegated\\ to\\ their\\ domestic\\ roles\\ and\\ such\\ liberties\\ were\\ deemed\\ improper\\.\\ AND\\ remember\\ who\\ eventually\\ had\\ their\\ voices\\ directly\\ heard\\ within\\ the\\ Constitution\\ \\(the\\ rich\\,\\ educated\\,\\ white\\ males\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\.\\ Representation\\ in\\ the\\ Constitution\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ sort\\ of\\ representation\\ as\\ that\\ which\\ the\\ Americans\\ had\\ rebelled\\ against\\.\\ While\\ their\\ interests\\ were\\ more\\ directly\\ represented\\ than\\ under\\ British\\ rule\\,\\ many\\ Americans\\ still\\ were\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-mention\\ debates\\ from\\ Constitutional\\ Conventions\\ \\(3\\/5ths\\ Compromise\\,\\ bicameral\\ legislature\\,\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ new\\ government\\ resembled\\ that\\ of\\ Great\\ Britain\\,\\ enfranchisement\\&mdash\\;how\\ long\\ it\\ took\\ for\\ property\\ requirements\\ to\\ disappear\\,\\ freed\\ slaves\\/women\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ vote\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-Also\\,\\ writers\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ group\\ that\\ we\\ mentioned\\ before\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-Evidence\\ for\\ this\\ point\\ comes\\ from\\ Gordon\\ Wood\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ Constitution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*For\\ conclusion\\:\\ \\ \\;develop\\ personal\\ opinion\\,\\ based\\ on\\ these\\ points\\ of\\ evidence\\,\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ victors\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ and\\ to\\ what\\ degree\\ it\\ successfully\\ accomplished\\ its\\ goals\\.\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ argument\\ for\\ varying\\ degrees\\ of\\ success\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ chronological\\ scope\\ of\\ your\\ essay\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ term\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ more\\ are\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ of\\ victors\\,\\ while\\ on\\ a\\ larger\\ scale\\,\\ fewer\\ groups\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ \\"\\;won\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\On\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ America\\ won\\ the\\ revolution\\.\\ However\\,\\ both\\ Britain\\ and\\ the\\ US\\ suffered\\ great\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Americans\\ won\\ by\\ gaining\\ not\\ only\\ their\\ independence\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ new\\ ideals\\ and\\ social\\ orders\\ which\\ transformed\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ social\\ orders\\,\\ hierarchies\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ sides\\ lost\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ economic\\ cost\\ and\\ lives\\ that\\ were\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ revolution\\ divided\\ the\\ colonists\\ by\\ forcing\\ the\\ colonists\\ to\\ pick\\ sides\\ b\\/w\\ loyalist\\ and\\ patriots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ brought\\ the\\ deadly\\ disease\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\ to\\ the\\ forefront\\ which\\ was\\ detrimental\\ to\\ Americans\\ much\\ more\\ so\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ to\\ Europeans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\However\\,\\ this\\ also\\ allowed\\ for\\ medical\\ advancement\\ like\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ inoculation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ brought\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ slavery\\ to\\ the\\ forefront\\ after\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proclamation\\ in\\ 1776\\ to\\ free\\ slaves\\ who\\ joined\\ the\\ British\\ Army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ this\\,\\ Washington\\ allowed\\ African\\ Americans\\ to\\ serve\\ in\\ the\\ patriot\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ altered\\ gender\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amazons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Deborah\\ Samson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lady\\ Liberty\\ as\\ a\\ fighting\\ symbol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Camp\\ followers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ common\\ man\\ was\\ glorified\\ during\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ben\\ Franklin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Americans\\ faced\\ many\\ challenges\\ while\\ gaining\\ independence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Localism\\ vs\\.\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difficulty\\ n\\ Congress\\ supplying\\ an\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ local\\ interest\\ vs\\.\\ national\\ unity\\ solve\\ these\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Colonists\\ were\\ afraid\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\ central\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ revolution\\ radicalized\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ the\\ interest\\ and\\ prosperity\\ of\\ ordinary\\ people\\,\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ was\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\:\\ African\\ American\\ Slave\\ and\\ Native\\ Americans\\ also\\ suffered\\ great\\ losses\\,\\ much\\ more\\ losses\\ than\\ benefits\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ important\\ points\\/battle\\ of\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ revolution\\ was\\ sparked\\ b\\/c\\ Brittan\\ started\\ taxing\\ the\\ colonists\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ pay\\ off\\ the\\ huge\\ debts\\ incurred\\ during\\ the\\ 7yr\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ British\\ drove\\ George\\ Washington\\ out\\ of\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ in\\ 1776\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ Americans\\ had\\ little\\ hope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Burgoyne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surrender\\ at\\ Saratoga\\,\\ 1777\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ war\\,\\ the\\ Americans\\ now\\ had\\ hope\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ actually\\ win\\ the\\ war\\,\\ the\\ British\\ feeling\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ fighting\\ a\\ way\\ 3\\,000\\ miles\\ away\\ from\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Britain\\ did\\ not\\ cut\\ commercial\\ ties\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ after\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\though\\ the\\ Americans\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ rebellious\\,\\ Britain\\ still\\ saw\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ value\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wood\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ American\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pretty\\ much\\ just\\ states\\ the\\ facts\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ from\\ before\\ the\\ war\\,\\ to\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ to\\ the\\ after\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discussion\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ b\\/w\\ nationalism\\ and\\ localism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Radicalism\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Benjamin\\ Rush\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ Method\\ for\\ Inoculating\\ for\\ Small\\ Pox\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elizabeth\\ Fenn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pox\\ Americana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Young\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Masquerade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Lectures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.16\\-Boycotts\\,\\ Riots\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Coming\\ of\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ shows\\ how\\ the\\ revolution\\ divided\\ the\\ colonists\\ with\\ practices\\ such\\ as\\ tarring\\ and\\ feathering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.23\\-Liberty\\ and\\ Slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Dunmore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proclamation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.4\\-Amazons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.30\\-Franklin\\ as\\ an\\ Archetypal\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ showed\\ Franklin\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ glorified\\ self\\-made\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#2\\:\\ Slavery\\ was\\ legal\\ in\\ all\\ thirteen\\ of\\ the\\ colonies\\ that\\ broke\\ away\\ from\\ England\\ in\\ 1776\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ did\\ slavery\\&mdash\\;as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ reality\\&mdash\\;shape\\ public\\ events\\ and\\ private\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ imperial\\ conflict\\,\\ the\\ war\\ for\\ independence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ nation\\?\\ Support\\ your\\ answer\\ with\\ specific\\ details\\ drawn\\ from\\ materials\\ you\\ have\\ encountered\\ this\\ semester\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ Major\\ Points\\ to\\ Consider\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Colonists\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ slavery\\ an\\ egregious\\ injustice\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ socially\\ bred\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ hierarchical\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Colonists\\ generally\\ viewed\\ slavery\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ order\\ of\\ a\\ monarchical\\ society\\ and\\ as\\ an\\ aspect\\ of\\ general\\ brutality\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ pre\\-modern\\ times\\;\\ slavery\\ originally\\ regarded\\ as\\ most\\ base\\ and\\ degraded\\ status\\ in\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ many\\ ranks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Few\\ people\\ questioned\\ the\\ inequalities\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ order\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ order\\ they\\ had\\ ever\\ known\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Jean\\ Lee\\)\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;slavery\\ was\\ a\\ fundamental\\,\\ acceptable\\,\\ thoroughly\\ American\\ institution\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Philip\\ Morgan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ simply\\ did\\ not\\ view\\ slaves\\ as\\ humans\\&mdash\\;hence\\ the\\ trading\\,\\ auctioning\\,\\ etc\\.\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rinah\\ a\\ Negro\\ Wench\\ big\\ with\\ child\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;a\\ sullen\\ Slut\\ but\\ easily\\ kept\\ down\\ if\\ you\\ exert\\ your\\ Authority\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(33\\ in\\ Calloway\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ assault\\ of\\ slave\\ women\\ by\\ white\\ masters\\;\\ violators\\ rarely\\ punished\\,\\ slave\\ viewed\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;damaged\\&rdquo\\;\\ property\\ at\\ best\\.\\ A\\ lot\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;unleashed\\ deep\\-seated\\ anxieties\\ and\\ attitudes\\ about\\ interracial\\ sex\\,\\ violence\\,\\ and\\ power\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Calloway\\ 33\\)\\ especially\\ concerning\\ black\\ men\\ who\\ forced\\ themselves\\ onto\\ white\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Adams\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;our\\ struggle\\ has\\ loosened\\ the\\ bands\\ of\\ Government\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ his\\ statement\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ independent\\ and\\ dependent\\ people\\,\\ a\\ social\\ order\\ in\\ which\\ certain\\ individuals\\ need\\ others\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ function\\ effectively\\ in\\ society\\;\\ like\\ women\\,\\ slaves\\ are\\ just\\ different\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ require\\ inclusion\\ in\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ dependency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ the\\ colonists\\ were\\ implicated\\ in\\ African\\ slavery\\,\\ a\\ national\\ institution\\ that\\ benefited\\ nearly\\ every\\ white\\ American\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\/5\\ of\\ 2\\.5\\ million\\ American\\ population\\ \\(so\\ 500\\,000\\)\\ was\\ enslaved\\ in\\ 1776\\.\\ Virginia\\ had\\ most\\ slaves\\ \\(20\\,000\\,\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ population\\)\\;\\ though\\ most\\ of\\ slaves\\ held\\ by\\ southerners\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ a\\ large\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ north\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ But\\ there\\ existed\\ an\\ obvious\\&mdash\\;and\\ unsettling\\&mdash\\;contradiction\\ between\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ the\\ Revolution\\ and\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ 1776\\,\\ nearly\\ every\\ American\\ leader\\ knew\\ that\\ its\\ continued\\ existence\\ violated\\ everything\\ the\\ Revolution\\ was\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\July\\ 4\\,\\ 1776\\ \\&mdash\\;\\ delegates\\ approved\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\;\\ reign\\ of\\ George\\ III\\ aimed\\ to\\ establish\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ Tyranny\\ over\\ these\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Congress\\ removed\\ a\\ quarter\\ of\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ original\\ draft\\,\\ including\\ a\\ passage\\ blaming\\ George\\ III\\ for\\ horrors\\ of\\ slave\\ trade\\&mdash\\;South\\ Carolina\\ and\\ Georgia\\ objected\\ to\\ passage\\ and\\ some\\ northern\\ delegates\\ were\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;little\\ tender\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\ because\\ though\\ colonists\\ had\\ very\\ few\\ slaves\\ themselves\\,\\ states\\ had\\ been\\ \\&ldquo\\;pretty\\ considerable\\ carriers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolutionary\\ Americans\\ sought\\ to\\ fight\\ what\\ they\\ perceived\\ to\\ be\\ enslavement\\ under\\ the\\ British\\ monarchy\\.\\ Thomas\\ Paine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ American\\ Crisis\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Dec\\.\\ 1776\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Britain\\,\\ with\\ an\\ army\\ to\\ enforce\\ her\\ tyranny\\,\\ has\\ declared\\ that\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ right\\ \\(not\\ only\\ to\\ tax\\)\\ but\\ to\\ bind\\ us\\ in\\ all\\ cases\\ whatsoever\\,\\ and\\ if\\ being\\ bound\\ in\\ that\\ manner\\,\\ is\\ not\\ slavery\\,\\ then\\ is\\ there\\ not\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\ slavery\\ on\\ earth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Revolutionary\\ Americans\\ also\\ understood\\ slavery\\&mdash\\;George\\ Washington\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ crisis\\ is\\ arrived\\ when\\ we\\ must\\ assert\\ our\\ rights\\&hellip\\;till\\ custom\\&hellip\\;will\\ make\\ us\\ as\\ tame\\ and\\ abject\\ slaves\\,\\ as\\ the\\ blacks\\ we\\ rule\\ over\\ with\\ such\\ arbitrary\\ sway\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ The\\ Revolution\\ represented\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;first\\ mass\\ slave\\ rebellion\\ in\\ American\\ history\\,\\ initiated\\ the\\ first\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\,\\ produced\\ the\\ first\\ reconstruction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gary\\ Nash\\:\\ slavery\\ debate\\ did\\ not\\ begin\\ in\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ but\\ during\\ the\\ Revolution\\;\\ running\\ away\\ was\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ first\\ massive\\ slave\\ revolt\\ in\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ slave\\ rebellion\\ asserted\\ itself\\ through\\ running\\ away\\,\\ legal\\ efforts\\ to\\ change\\ laws\\ or\\ use\\ laws\\ to\\ win\\ freedom\\,\\ and\\ the\\ written\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Runaway\\ slaves\\ faced\\ corporal\\ punishment\\,\\ dismemberment\\ or\\ branding\\,\\ and\\ being\\ sold\\ at\\ public\\ auctions\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ harbored\\ or\\ assisted\\ runaway\\ slaves\\ were\\ subject\\ to\\ fines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaves\\ used\\ British\\ army\\ as\\ opportunity\\ for\\ freedom\\;\\ British\\ army\\ was\\ perhaps\\ the\\ greatest\\ single\\ instrument\\ of\\ emancipation\\ in\\ America\\ until\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\;\\ freed\\ tens\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ slaves\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ England\\;\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ war\\,\\ British\\ settled\\ former\\ slaves\\ in\\ Canada\\,\\ West\\ Indies\\,\\ and\\ other\\ parts\\;\\ in\\ 1783\\,\\ when\\ British\\ evacuated\\ NY\\,\\ they\\ took\\ about\\ 1000\\ runaway\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Large\\ number\\ of\\ runaways\\ from\\ Washington\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Harry\\ Washington\\,\\ who\\ worked\\ at\\ Mt\\.\\ Vernon\\ to\\ join\\ Lord\\ Dunmore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Groups\\ used\\ legal\\ actions\\ and\\ money\\ to\\ free\\ slaves\\;\\ many\\ freedom\\ suits\\ during\\ 1760s\\&mdash\\;ex\\-slave\\ sues\\ for\\ his\\ right\\ to\\ free\\ status\\ in\\ court\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ my\\ master\\ freed\\ me\\ before\\ his\\ death\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phillis\\ Wheatley\\&mdash\\;prodigy\\ slave\\ poet\\ who\\ wrote\\ for\\ liberty\\ against\\ oppression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peculiar\\ style\\ of\\ clothing\\ with\\ African\\ influences\\ \\(from\\ the\\ reading\\)\\;\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ slaves\\&rsquo\\;\\ independence\\ from\\ inevitable\\ cultural\\ subordination\\ involved\\ in\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ The\\ concepts\\ of\\ freedom\\ and\\ liberty\\ during\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\ had\\ great\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ chattel\\ slavery\\,\\ which\\ would\\ undergo\\ great\\ reevaluation\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Admittedly\\,\\ the\\ Revolution\\ did\\ not\\ eradicate\\ the\\ enslavement\\ of\\ half\\ million\\ blacks\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ more\\ black\\ slaves\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ era\\ than\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ verge\\ of\\ expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Revolution\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ helping\\ to\\ eventually\\ end\\ slavery\\ in\\ America\\ by\\ ending\\ a\\ social\\ and\\ intellectual\\ environment\\ that\\ had\\ permitted\\ slavery\\ to\\ persist\\ without\\ any\\ serious\\ questioning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Republican\\ citizenship\\ brought\\ into\\ question\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;personal\\ dependency\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ its\\ history\\,\\ America\\ had\\ to\\ face\\ slavery\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ commonplace\\ practice\\,\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ aberration\\,\\ or\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;peculiar\\ institution\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ requiring\\ justification\\;\\ slavery\\ became\\ a\\ contradiction\\&mdash\\;how\\ could\\ Americans\\ fight\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ liberty\\ while\\ enslaving\\ blacks\\ themselves\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ways\\ Revolution\\ worked\\ to\\ weaken\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\:\\ 1774\\,\\ Continental\\ Congress\\ urged\\ abolishment\\ of\\ slave\\ trade\\ \\(6\\ northern\\ states\\ followed\\ suit\\)\\;\\ 1775\\,\\ Philadelphia\\ Quakers\\ formed\\ first\\ antislavery\\ society\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ other\\ similar\\ societies\\ emerged\\ elsewhere\\;\\ during\\ war\\,\\ Congress\\,\\ northern\\ states\\,\\ and\\ MD\\ freed\\ slaves\\ who\\ enlisted\\ in\\ their\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1804\\,\\ every\\ northern\\ state\\ committed\\ itself\\ to\\ emancipation\\ in\\ some\\ form\\;\\ number\\ of\\ free\\ blacks\\ in\\ North\\ had\\ grown\\ from\\ several\\ hundred\\ in\\ 1770\\ to\\ nearly\\ 50\\,000\\ by\\ 1810\\;\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ leaders\\ disapproved\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ assumed\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ die\\ away\\ \\(obviously\\ not\\ the\\ case\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\See\\ for\\ More\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Benjamin\\ Franklin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Address\\ to\\ the\\ Public\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(219\\ in\\ Franklin\\ autobiography\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Slavery\\ is\\ such\\ an\\ atrocious\\ debasement\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ that\\ its\\ very\\ extirpation\\,\\ if\\ not\\ performed\\ with\\ solicitous\\ care\\,\\ may\\ sometimes\\ open\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ serious\\ evils\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slavery\\ has\\ made\\ quick\\ assimilation\\ difficult\\ through\\ the\\ subversion\\ of\\ mindset\\;\\ consequently\\,\\ the\\ ex\\-slave\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ and\\ may\\ prove\\ \\&ldquo\\;prejudicial\\ to\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Society\\ should\\ instruct\\ and\\ advise\\ ex\\-slaves\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ the\\ exercise\\ and\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ civil\\ liberty\\,\\ to\\ promote\\ in\\ them\\ habits\\ of\\ industry\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ all\\,\\ slavery\\ is\\ counter\\-productive\\,\\ and\\ reduces\\ humans\\ to\\ a\\ useless\\,\\ unhappy\\ brute\\ that\\ cannot\\ really\\ contribute\\ to\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Argument\\:\\ The\\ war\\ for\\ independence\\ caused\\ Americans\\ to\\ question\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ dependent\\ relationships\\,\\ with\\ slavery\\ as\\ the\\ dominant\\ metaphor\\ for\\ such\\ relationships\\.\\ Because\\ people\\ had\\ questioned\\ and\\ often\\ condemned\\ these\\ relationships\\ slavery\\ became\\ a\\ divisive\\ issue\\ following\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\People\\ compared\\ dependency\\ on\\ luxury\\ with\\ slavery\\,\\ and\\ urged\\ people\\ against\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(T\\.H\\.\\ Breen\\)\\:\\ Colonists\\ viewed\\ tea\\,\\ considered\\ a\\ luxury\\,\\ as\\ a\\ badge\\ of\\ slavery\\ symbolizing\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ empire\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ the\\ introduction\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ tyrant\\ then\\ the\\ virtuous\\ heart\\ can\\ bind\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Tis\\ vices\\ only\\ can\\ enslave\\ the\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ barters\\ country\\,\\ honor\\,\\ faith\\,\\ to\\ save\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ life\\,\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ free\\ in\\ person\\,\\ is\\ a\\ slave\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ he\\,\\ enchain\\&rsquo\\;d\\,\\ imprison\\&rsquo\\;d\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ he\\ be\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ lifts\\ his\\ arm\\ for\\ liberty\\,\\ is\\ free\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\,\\ 8\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ this\\ passage\\,\\ Rowson\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ vices\\,\\ like\\ love\\ of\\ luxury\\,\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fetnah\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ characters\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ wish\\ for\\ liberty\\&hellip\\;\\ is\\ the\\ poor\\ bird\\ that\\ is\\ confined\\ in\\ a\\ cage\\&hellip\\;\\ consoled\\ for\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ its\\ freedom\\.\\ No\\!\\ tho\\&rsquo\\;\\ its\\ prison\\ is\\ of\\ golden\\ wire\\,\\ its\\ food\\ delicious\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ overwhelm\\&rsquo\\;d\\ with\\ caresses\\,\\ its\\ little\\ heart\\ still\\ pants\\ for\\ liberty\\:\\ gladly\\ would\\ it\\ seek\\ the\\ fields\\ of\\ air\\,\\ and\\ even\\ perched\\ upon\\ a\\ naked\\ bough\\,\\ exulting\\,\\ carol\\ forth\\ its\\ song\\,\\ nor\\ once\\ regret\\ the\\ splendid\\ house\\ of\\ bondage\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\,\\ 13\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ people\\ compared\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dependence\\ on\\ men\\ with\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mary\\ Wollstonecraft\\ compared\\ women\\ who\\ remain\\ dependent\\ on\\ men\\,\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ comfort\\ and\\ luxury\\,\\ are\\ in\\ effect\\,\\ slaves\\.\\ She\\ argues\\ that\\ women\\ should\\ become\\ free\\ through\\ education\\ and\\ cultivation\\ of\\ reason\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\ 11\\/20\\/08\\,\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\.\\ Ulrich\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ race\\ slavery\\ and\\ sex\\/gender\\ slavery\\ come\\ together\\ in\\ many\\ documents\\ \\(Lecture\\ 11\\/20\\/08\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ compared\\ the\\ colonists\\ dependence\\ on\\ England\\ with\\ slavery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ one\\ colonist\\ asks\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Who\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ a\\ man\\,\\ but\\ would\\ rather\\ forego\\ the\\ elegancies\\ and\\ luxuries\\ of\\ life\\,\\ than\\ entail\\ slavery\\ on\\ his\\ unborn\\ posterity\\ till\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ time\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Breen\\,\\ 98\\-99\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breen\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ writes\\ that\\ many\\ colonists\\ viewed\\ tea\\ as\\ a\\ badge\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ This\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ the\\ boycotts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ Because\\ slavery\\ had\\ been\\ such\\ a\\ dominant\\ metaphor\\,\\ which\\ stood\\ so\\ strongly\\ against\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ worldview\\,\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ divisive\\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ the\\ Northwest\\ ordinance\\ prohibits\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ newly\\ purchased\\ territories\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;There\\ shall\\ be\\ neither\\ slavery\\ nor\\ involuntary\\ servitude\\ in\\ the\\ said\\ territory\\,\\ otherwise\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ punishment\\ of\\ crimes\\ whereof\\ the\\ party\\ shall\\ have\\ been\\ duly\\ convicted\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Provided\\,\\ always\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ That\\ any\\ person\\ escaping\\ into\\ the\\ same\\,\\ from\\ whom\\ labor\\ or\\ service\\ is\\ lawfully\\ claimed\\ in\\ any\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ States\\,\\ such\\ fugitive\\ may\\ be\\ lawfully\\ reclaimed\\ and\\ conveyed\\ to\\ the\\ person\\ claiming\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ labor\\ or\\ service\\ as\\ aforesaid\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Northwest\\ Ordinance\\,\\ Article\\ 6\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Constitution\\ of\\ 1808\\ promised\\ to\\ end\\ international\\ importation\\ of\\ slaves\\ \\(Wood\\,\\ 128\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 1804\\,\\ every\\ Northern\\ state\\ had\\ committed\\ itself\\ to\\ emancipation\\ in\\ one\\ form\\ or\\ another\\ \\(Wood\\,\\ 128\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gordon\\ Wood\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Now\\,\\ however\\,\\ republican\\ citizenship\\ suddenly\\ brought\\ into\\ question\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ personal\\ dependency\\.\\ For\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ their\\ history\\ Americans\\ were\\ compelled\\ to\\ confront\\ the\\ slavery\\ in\\ their\\ midst\\ as\\ an\\ aberration\\,\\ as\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;peculiar\\ institution\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\,\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ to\\ retain\\ it\\ to\\ explain\\ and\\ justify\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Wood\\,\\ 127\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ readings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baubles\\ of\\ Britain\\ \\(Breen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slaves\\ in\\ Algiers\\ \\(Rowson\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ American\\ Revolution\\ \\(Wood\\)\\ pages\\ 126\\-129\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rebel\\ against\\ Rebel\\ \\(Holton\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Northwest\\ Ordinance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#3\\:\\ On\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ learned\\ this\\ semester\\ about\\ competing\\ ideas\\ about\\ happiness\\,\\ write\\ a\\ detailed\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Reuben\\ Barn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ watercolor\\ of\\ the\\ Bennett\\ Family\\ of\\ Poland\\,\\ a\\ small\\ town\\ in\\ Maine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(overleaf\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ slide\\ under\\ \\&lsquo\\;slideshow\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;miscellaneous\\&rsquo\\;\\ on\\ our\\ website\\)\\.\\ Support\\ your\\ interpretation\\ with\\ details\\ from\\ lectures\\,\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ other\\ visual\\ images\\ encountered\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/my\\.harvard\\.edu\\/icb\\/icb\\.do\\?keyword\\=k40043\\&\\;pageid\\=icb\\.page188005\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ONE\\ THING\\ TO\\ NOTE\\:\\ It\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ tell\\ in\\ the\\ watercolor\\ the\\ exact\\ date\\ they\\ were\\ married\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ 1772\\ or\\ 1779\\.\\ This\\ makes\\ a\\ big\\ difference\\ when\\ analyzing\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ This\\ watercolor\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ family\\ during\\ the\\ Revolution\\,\\ and\\ how\\ families\\ became\\ more\\ united\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ adversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ family\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jean\\ bodin\\:\\ A\\ household\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ a\\ master\\,\\ wife\\ and\\ 3\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ were\\ there\\ no\\ slaves\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slaves\\ were\\ often\\ in\\ paintings\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prudence\\ punderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ needlework\\,\\ george\\ washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slave\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ his\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incredible\\ that\\ all\\ their\\ children\\ survived\\ for\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Or\\ did\\ they\\?\\ Was\\ \\ \\;one\\ or\\ more\\ added\\ in\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ a\\ whole\\ family\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ different\\ sort\\ of\\ marriage\\ \\-\\ equality\\ between\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ stand\\ in\\ equal\\ proportion\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ hold\\ each\\ other\\ \\-\\ the\\ husband\\ rests\\ his\\ hand\\ on\\ her\\ belly\\ \\-\\ is\\ she\\ pregnant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\David\\ hume\\:\\ marriage\\ should\\ be\\ equal\\ between\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Francis\\ Hutchinson\\ \\-\\ marriage\\ \\=\\ reciprocal\\ relationship\\ of\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ whole\\ family\\ is\\ linked\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opposite\\ from\\ Abigail\\ adams\\ who\\,\\ though\\ a\\ strong\\ woman\\,\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ completely\\ respected\\ by\\ her\\ husband\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ married\\ in\\ 1779\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Significant\\ because\\ lots\\ of\\ families\\ had\\ babies\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\ \\(masquerade\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ did\\ they\\ wait\\ so\\ long\\ to\\ get\\ married\\?\\ Perhaps\\ delayed\\ by\\ the\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Would\\ also\\ suggest\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ lower\\ class\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ much\\ less\\ acceptable\\ for\\ socially\\ respectable\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ 9\\ kids\\ in\\ 15\\ years\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ children\\ very\\ early\\ on\\ \\-\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ only\\ 18\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ only\\ 22\\ \\-\\ showed\\ how\\ the\\ unstability\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ situation\\ forced\\ people\\ to\\ start\\ their\\ lives\\ early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ they\\ were\\ married\\ in\\ 1772\\,\\ then\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ even\\ more\\ true\\ \\(though\\ it\\ would\\ rule\\ out\\ the\\ children\\ born\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ the\\ tranquility\\ of\\ private\\ life\\ and\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ particularly\\ wealthy\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wear\\ fancy\\ clothes\\,\\ only\\ very\\ simple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Men\\ look\\ like\\ 1768\\ paul\\ revere\\ painting\\ \\(from\\ lecture\\ oct\\.\\ 13\\)\\,\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ like\\ jeremiah\\ lee\\ or\\ john\\ hancock\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ do\\ not\\ display\\ wealth\\,\\ or\\ workmanship\\,\\ just\\ the\\ closeness\\ of\\ their\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ see\\ the\\ strain\\ on\\ them\\,\\ do\\ not\\ look\\ particularly\\ happy\\,\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ hardships\\ of\\ life\\ \\(and\\ the\\ revolution\\?\\)\\ on\\ their\\ faces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lean\\ on\\ each\\ other\\ for\\ moral\\ support\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ two\\ eldest\\ children\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ have\\ their\\ heads\\ bowed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yet\\ the\\ sense\\ you\\ get\\ from\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ togetherness\\,\\ not\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ watercolor\\ in\\ general\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\ simple\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Their\\ dress\\,\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ color\\,\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ any\\ setting\\/background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nothing\\ gives\\ off\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ grandeur\\ or\\ wealth\\,\\ everything\\ points\\ to\\ them\\ not\\ being\\ very\\ well\\ off\\/lower\\ social\\ standing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Especially\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ children\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\painting\\ also\\ seems\\ to\\ serve\\ two\\ purposes\\:\\ a\\ family\\ portrait\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ family\\ tree\\ \\(all\\ of\\ the\\ dates\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ family\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ that\\ unique\\,\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ anything\\ is\\ too\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ ordinary\\ at\\ first\\ glance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\they\\ seem\\ to\\ just\\ be\\ a\\ mother\\ and\\ father\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nothing\\ like\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ Hannah\\ snell\\,\\ where\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ living\\ contradiction\\,\\ everything\\ here\\ is\\ relatively\\ typical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\lectures\\ used\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sept\\.\\ 25\\ \\-\\ defining\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\oct\\.\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\oct\\.\\ 9\\ \\-\\ sex\\ and\\ sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\oct\\.\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dec\\.\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\dec\\.\\ 4\\-\\ prudence\\ punderson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\a\\ lecture\\ on\\ family\\?\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ I\\ had\\ it\\ in\\ my\\ notes\\,\\ only\\ the\\ one\\ on\\ marriage\\,\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ it\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ to\\ add\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\prudence\\ punderson\\ embroidery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ Washington\\ family\\ \\-\\ by\\ Edward\\ savage\\ 1896\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paul\\ revere\\ 1768\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\john\\ hancock\\/jeremiah\\ lee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\masquerade\\ also\\ useful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 29\\,\\ 2008\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ learned\\ this\\ semester\\ about\\ competing\\ ideas\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\ write\\ a\\ detailed\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Reuben\\ Barn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ watercolor\\ of\\ the\\ Bennett\\ Family\\ of\\ Poland\\,\\ a\\ small\\ town\\ in\\ Maine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(overleaf\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ slide\\ under\\ \\&lsquo\\;slideshow\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;miscellaneous\\&rsquo\\;\\ on\\ our\\ website\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Support\\ your\\ interpretation\\ with\\ details\\ from\\ lectures\\,\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ other\\ visual\\ images\\ encountered\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ an\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ problem\\ \\(1700s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philosophical\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ conflict\\ between\\ long\\ term\\ and\\ short\\ term\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ expressed\\ in\\ close\\ relationships\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ look\\ up\\ \\&ldquo\\;happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Oxford\\ dictionary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Good\\ fortune\\ or\\ luck\\ in\\ life\\ or\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ affair\\;\\ success\\,\\ prosperity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Success\\ in\\ the\\ Bennett\\ family\\,\\ number\\ of\\ children\\ as\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ bounty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hap\\ \\-\\ event\\,\\ synonym\\ for\\ luck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Related\\ to\\ mishap\\,\\ haphazard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ good\\ luck\\,\\ hoping\\ for\\ best\\,\\ happens\\ to\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ read\\ about\\ bad\\ things\\ happening\\ in\\ Calloway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Security\\ and\\ happiness\\ \\-\\ hoping\\/you\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ abrupt\\ end\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\God\\ or\\ providence\\ determines\\ outcome\\;\\ we\\ can\\ pray\\ to\\ God\\ in\\ this\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ state\\ of\\ pleasurable\\ content\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ which\\ results\\ from\\ success\\ or\\ the\\ attainment\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ considered\\ good\\ \\-\\ can\\ be\\ pursued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ \\.\\ Successful\\ or\\ felicitous\\ aptitude\\,\\ fitness\\,\\ suitability\\,\\ or\\ appropriateness\\;\\ felicity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 1764\\ Gazette\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Observe\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ the\\ Constitution\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jefferson\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ Union\\ be\\ appropriate\\ when\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;happiness\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ an\\ obsession\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Enlightenment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ownership\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ houses\\ is\\ fundamental\\ to\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\ and\\ it\\ leads\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Territory\\ ownership\\ between\\ Spanish\\,\\ French\\,\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ownership\\ of\\ Americans\\ vs\\.\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daniel\\ Boone\\ and\\ moving\\ West\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unlike\\ George\\ Washington\\,\\ whose\\ family\\ and\\ property\\ are\\ depicted\\ in\\ a\\ portrait\\,\\ the\\ Bennett\\ family\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ members\\ and\\ its\\ members\\ only\\,\\ not\\ by\\ land\\ or\\ slaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;I\\ can\\ truly\\ say\\ I\\ had\\ rather\\ be\\ at\\ Mount\\ Vernon\\ with\\ a\\ friend\\ or\\ two\\ about\\ me\\ than\\ to\\ be\\ attended\\ at\\ the\\ seat\\ of\\ government\\ by\\ the\\ officers\\ of\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ representatives\\ of\\ every\\ power\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Washington\\ to\\ David\\ Stuart\\,\\ 1790\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Statement\\ by\\ victorious\\ leader\\ of\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ pomp\\,\\ the\\ turmoil\\,\\ the\\ bustle\\ and\\ splendor\\ of\\ office\\ have\\ drawn\\ but\\ deeper\\ sighs\\ for\\ the\\ tranquil\\ and\\ irresponsible\\ occupations\\ of\\ private\\ life\\,\\ for\\ the\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ an\\ affectionate\\ intercourse\\ with\\ you\\,\\ my\\ neighbors\\ and\\ friends\\,\\ and\\ the\\ endearments\\ of\\ family\\ love\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ to\\ the\\ Citizens\\ of\\ Albemarle\\ County\\,\\ 1809\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ craves\\ interpersonal\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Similar\\ to\\ Barn\\ portrait\\ in\\ that\\ interpersonal\\ relationship\\ between\\ spouses\\ and\\ between\\ siblings\\ define\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ members\\ are\\ arm\\-in\\-arm\\ suggesting\\ their\\ closeness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genteel\\ culture\\ becomes\\ middle\\ class\\ culture\\ idealized\\ tranquil\\ landscapes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Household\\,\\ family\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;private\\ affections\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\ Jefferson\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\After\\ traveling\\ through\\ the\\ Shenadoah\\ Valley\\ in\\ 1760\\,\\ Andrew\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Burnaby\\ wrote\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ could\\ not\\ but\\ reflect\\ with\\ pleasure\\ on\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ these\\ people\\;\\ and\\ think\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\ happiness\\ in\\ this\\ life\\,\\ that\\ they\\ enjoy\\ it\\.\\ Far\\ from\\ the\\ bustle\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ they\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ delightful\\ climate\\,\\ and\\ richest\\ soil\\ imaginable\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ In\\ perfect\\ liberty\\:\\ they\\ are\\ ignorant\\ of\\ want\\,\\ and\\ acquainted\\ with\\ but\\ few\\ vices\\.\\ Their\\ inexperience\\ of\\ the\\ elegancies\\ of\\ life\\ precludes\\ any\\ regret\\ that\\ they\\ possess\\ not\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ enjoying\\ them\\:\\ but\\ they\\ possess\\ what\\ many\\ princes\\ would\\ give\\ half\\ their\\ dominions\\ for\\,\\ health\\,\\ content\\,\\ and\\ tranquility\\ of\\ mind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Idea\\ that\\ happiness\\ is\\ not\\ solely\\ defined\\ by\\ animate\\ objects\\ and\\ wealth\\,\\ but\\ by\\ content\\ family\\ and\\ tranquility\\ as\\ Barn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\ would\\ suggest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1763\\-1775\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Think\\ of\\ George\\ Washington\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\ in\\ 7\\ Years\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\GW\\ is\\ a\\ land\\ surveyor\\ and\\ spectator\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ his\\ portrait\\,\\ GW\\ and\\ family\\ are\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ map\\.\\ \\ \\;GW\\ is\\ grounded\\ in\\ private\\ aspect\\ of\\ his\\ home\\ while\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ globe\\ and\\ a\\ map\\ from\\ which\\ he\\ chooses\\ land\\ and\\ derives\\ happiness\\ from\\ material\\.\\ In\\ the\\ background\\,\\ there\\ is\\ open\\ air\\ and\\ land\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;about\\ expansion\\ and\\ his\\ place\\ on\\ world\\ stage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ drives\\ the\\ 7\\ years\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ too\\ many\\ British\\ people\\ so\\ they\\ set\\ up\\ lots\\ of\\ land\\ for\\ everyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\:\\ A\\ Philosophical\\ Concept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ Treatises\\ on\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Essay\\ Concerning\\ human\\ Understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1690\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Francis\\ Hutcheson\\ \\(1694\\-1746\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Inquiry\\ into\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ our\\ ideas\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ virtue\\ \\(1726\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Age\\ of\\ Enlightenment\\Is\\ it\\ enough\\ to\\ pursue\\ individual\\ happiness\\ or\\ is\\ common\\ good\\ important\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ liberty\\ of\\ rationale\\ choices\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ true\\ happiness\\,\\ lamp\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ what\\ will\\ be\\ long\\ term\\ good\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ short\\-term\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;God\\ gave\\ two\\ commandments\\&rdquo\\;\\ said\\ to\\ Adam\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Earth\\ is\\ yours\\,\\ dominion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\ with\\ the\\ sweat\\ of\\ your\\ brow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ apply\\ labor\\ to\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\English\\ worked\\ on\\ land\\ they\\ though\\ Indians\\ did\\ not\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ through\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Bennett\\ family\\ portrait\\ is\\ a\\ display\\ of\\ all\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;Happiness\\ can\\ be\\ attained\\ through\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;offspring\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ portrait\\ caption\\ says\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ spouses\\&rsquo\\;\\ liberty\\ in\\ pursuing\\ a\\ family\\ size\\ of\\ 9\\ throughout\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ Era\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ challenges\\ associated\\ with\\ boycotts\\ of\\ British\\ goods\\ and\\ luxuries\\ and\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ a\\ consistent\\ and\\ supportive\\ monarchy\\.\\ \\ \\;Property\\ is\\ not\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ portrait\\;\\ the\\ family\\ is\\ emphasized\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ clothing\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ view\\ here\\ as\\ property\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ styled\\ similarly\\,\\ each\\ individual\\ has\\ a\\ unique\\ accent\\ to\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ clothing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clothing\\ is\\ obviously\\ different\\ in\\ patterns\\ but\\ even\\ the\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ black\\ outfits\\ have\\ slight\\ differences\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ property\\ as\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ personality\\ and\\ uniqueness\\;\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ Era\\ find\\ happiness\\ in\\ separating\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ Deborah\\ Sampson\\ is\\ a\\ renaissance\\ woman\\,\\ taking\\ on\\ roles\\ unusual\\ for\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\;Similarly\\,\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ is\\ a\\ Renaissance\\ Man\\,\\ inventing\\ and\\ producing\\ for\\ the\\ New\\ World\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ESSAY\\ \\#4\\:\\ Write\\ a\\ detailed\\ interpretation\\ of\\ John\\ Trumbull\\&rdquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ A\\ good\\ answer\\ will\\ consider\\ particular\\ details\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ general\\ themes\\,\\ and\\ will\\ situate\\ the\\ painting\\ in\\ the\\ cultural\\ and\\ social\\ history\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ America\\.\\ You\\ can\\ find\\ the\\ image\\ at\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.mfa\\.org\\/collections\\/search\\_art\\.asp\\?recview\\=true\\&\\;id\\=34260\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ A\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ Background\\ of\\ Trumbull\\:\\ Trumbull\\ learned\\ from\\ Benjamin\\ West\\ how\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ history\\ painter\\.\\ They\\ would\\ insert\\ factually\\ accurate\\ details\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Trumbull\\ was\\ present\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\ \\(1775\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Comparisons\\ in\\ style\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ West\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Wolfe\\ \\(1771\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ Background\\ about\\ Joseph\\ Warren\\:\\ \\ \\;Warren\\ was\\ a\\ popular\\ physician\\ who\\ advocated\\ inoculation\\ and\\ cleanliness\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ became\\ politically\\ involved\\ and\\ promoted\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ 1760s\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ commissioned\\ as\\ a\\ general\\ on\\ 1775\\,\\ but\\ since\\ his\\ term\\ did\\ not\\ begin\\ until\\ after\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\,\\ he\\ was\\ fighting\\ as\\ a\\ volunteer\\ in\\ the\\ ranks\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ this\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bunker\\ Hill\\ \\(June\\ 17\\,1775\\)\\ took\\ place\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ waning\\.\\ The\\ Rage\\ Militaire\\ had\\ vanished\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 1776\\ \\(Royster\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Yet\\ a\\ few\\ heroes\\ were\\ highly\\ regarded\\ for\\ their\\ courage\\ to\\ readily\\ go\\ into\\ fight\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bunker\\ Hill\\,\\ though\\ a\\ loss\\ for\\ the\\ colonists\\,\\ marks\\ the\\ greatest\\ losses\\ to\\ the\\ British\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Bunker\\ Hill\\ has\\ been\\ celebrated\\ as\\ a\\ victory\\ as\\ it\\ entered\\ popular\\ tales\\ about\\ the\\ mite\\ of\\ the\\ inexperienced\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ against\\ experienced\\ troops\\ and\\ deplete\\ their\\ numbers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;memory\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ about\\ how\\ future\\ generations\\ shaped\\ how\\ the\\ Revolution\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ remembered\\.\\ \\ \\;Trumbull\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dramatic\\ painting\\ would\\ have\\ contributed\\ to\\ these\\ resolute\\ patriotic\\ sentiments\\ as\\ the\\ colonists\\ wave\\ their\\ flag\\ with\\ pride\\ and\\ fend\\ off\\ the\\ encircling\\ British\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Details\\ in\\ the\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ war\\ was\\ fought\\ by\\ citizen\\-soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Blue\\ revolutionaries\\ on\\ the\\ left\\:\\ all\\ wearing\\ different\\ clothing\\ while\\ a\\ uniform\\ mass\\ of\\ red\\ is\\ charging\\ upon\\ them\\.\\ Relates\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ colonists\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ standing\\ army\\ before\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ had\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ Continental\\ Army\\ \\ \\;\\(filled\\ with\\ volunteers\\ who\\ served\\ short\\ terms\\,\\ often\\ of\\ only\\ one\\ year\\)\\ and\\ local\\ militias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ Coats\\:\\ all\\ wearing\\ white\\ wigs\\:\\ gives\\ the\\ impression\\ they\\ are\\ wiser\\ and\\ richer\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ the\\ revolutionaries\\ are\\ these\\ young\\ men\\ with\\ loose\\ brown\\ hair\\,\\ poorer\\ and\\ commoners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Red\\ coats\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ all\\ brandishing\\ swords\\,\\ while\\ one\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\ has\\ his\\ bayonet\\ pointed\\ at\\ the\\ stomach\\ of\\ Warren\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ revolutionaries\\ all\\ have\\ rifles\\-\\-\\-much\\ less\\ elegant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ colonists\\ and\\ red\\ coats\\ have\\ fallen\\,\\ but\\ the\\ subject\\ and\\ the\\ lighting\\ are\\ focused\\ are\\ upon\\ the\\ white\\ glowing\\ body\\ of\\ Warren\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warren\\ is\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ patriot\\:\\ fighting\\ for\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ cause\\ even\\ before\\ battle\\ broke\\ out\\;\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ a\\ superior\\ position\\ in\\ society\\ \\(a\\ doctor\\ and\\ soon\\-to\\-be\\ general\\)\\ fighting\\ alongside\\ the\\ other\\ men\\ as\\ a\\ normal\\ volunteer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ opposing\\ flags\\ waving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\To\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\:\\ a\\ slave\\ standing\\ behind\\ the\\ colonist\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trumbull\\ showing\\ that\\ blacks\\ did\\ fight\\?\\ \\ \\;H\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ is\\ holding\\ a\\ rifle\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ dressed\\ differently\\:\\ in\\ earthy\\ tones\\ and\\ brown\\.\\ \\ \\;Direct\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ dandy\\ soldier\\ standing\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ him\\ with\\ the\\ ruffled\\ shirt\\,\\ the\\ tilted\\ hat\\,\\ the\\ clean\\ breaches\\,\\ and\\ the\\ feather\\ in\\ his\\ hat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stance\\ of\\ the\\ Americans\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ British\\:\\ self\\-preservation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\British\\ soldiers\\ are\\ mostly\\ leaning\\ forward\\ in\\ an\\ attacking\\ position\\ while\\ American\\ soldiers\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ defensive\\ stance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Americans\\ on\\ the\\ defensive\\;\\ opposing\\ tyranny\\ both\\ politically\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ battle\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ Essay\\ B\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ John\\ Trumbull\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ illustrative\\ of\\ several\\ important\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\ in\\ its\\ particular\\ details\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ general\\ themes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Background\\ Information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\John\\ Trumbull\\ Background\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Trumbull\\ was\\ a\\ soldier\\ in\\ 1775\\ during\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ Harvard\\ graduate\\ and\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ governor\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ left\\ the\\ army\\ after\\ he\\ felt\\ a\\ potential\\ appointment\\ insulted\\ his\\ honor\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ London\\,\\ where\\ he\\ met\\ Benjamin\\ West\\,\\ a\\ historical\\ painter\\.\\ West\\ taught\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ historical\\ painter\\ and\\ he\\ imitated\\ West\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\ from\\ the\\ Seven\\ Years\\ War\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\,\\ June\\ 1775\\:\\ \\(wikipedia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;took\\ place\\ on\\ June\\ 17\\,\\ 1775\\ on\\ Breed\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hill\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Siege\\ of\\ Boston\\ during\\ the\\ American\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\.\\ General\\ Israel\\ Putnam\\ was\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ forces\\,\\ while\\ Major\\-General\\ William\\ Howe\\ commanded\\ the\\ British\\ forces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ the\\ night\\ of\\ June\\ 16\\,\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ intelligence\\ that\\ the\\ British\\ were\\ soon\\ to\\ attempt\\ the\\ capture\\ of\\ undefended\\ high\\ ground\\ around\\ Boston\\,\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ stealthily\\ occupied\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\ and\\ Breed\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hill\\.\\ The\\ British\\ mounted\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ those\\ positions\\ the\\ following\\ day\\.\\ After\\ two\\ assaults\\ on\\ the\\ Colonial\\ lines\\ were\\ repulsed\\ with\\ significant\\ British\\ casualties\\,\\ the\\ British\\ finally\\ captured\\ the\\ positions\\ on\\ the\\ third\\ assault\\,\\ after\\ the\\ defenders\\ ran\\ out\\ of\\ ammunition\\.\\ The\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ retreated\\ over\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\ to\\ Cambridge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ result\\ was\\ a\\ victory\\ for\\ the\\ British\\,\\ they\\ suffered\\ their\\ greatest\\ losses\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ war\\:\\ over\\ 800\\ wounded\\ and\\ 226\\ killed\\,\\ including\\ a\\ notably\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ officers\\.\\ Their\\ immediate\\ objective\\ \\(the\\ capture\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\)\\ was\\ achieved\\,\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ significantly\\ alter\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ siege\\.\\ It\\ did\\,\\ however\\,\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ relatively\\ inexperienced\\ Colonial\\ forces\\ were\\ willing\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ to\\ experienced\\ troops\\ in\\ a\\ pitched\\ battle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ MFA\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Warren\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Hill\\,\\ 17\\ June\\ 1775\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ Revolutionary\\ War\\ subject\\ that\\ Trumbull\\ completed\\.\\ Joseph\\ Warren\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ players\\ in\\ the\\ events\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ outbreak\\ of\\ war\\.\\ A\\ popular\\ and\\ innovative\\ physician\\,\\ Warren\\ plunged\\ into\\ politics\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1760s\\.\\ He\\ accepted\\ a\\ commission\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ general\\ on\\ June\\ 14\\,\\ 1775\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ as\\ a\\ volunteer\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ killed\\ three\\ days\\ later\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Bunker\\ Hill\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\General\\ Themes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accurate\\ representation\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ fought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indian\\,\\ Black\\,\\ Poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\MA\\ Soldiers\\/\\ New\\ England\\-\\ disreputable\\ because\\ so\\ many\\ black\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\George\\ Washington\\ ordered\\ no\\ enlisting\\ of\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Had\\ to\\ rescind\\ orders\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fill\\ quotas\\-\\ many\\ freemen\\ volunteered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Savagery\\ of\\ British\\-\\ stabbing\\ dead\\ man\\,\\ American\\ comrade\\ staving\\ off\\ further\\ bayonet\\ attack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warren\\&\\#39\\;s\\ heroism\\ \\-captured\\ the\\ imagination\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ public\\,\\ popular\\ painting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Composition\\ like\\ Benjamin\\ West\\&\\#39\\;s\\ iconic\\ Death\\ of\\ General\\ Wolfe\\ \\(1771\\)\\-\\ immortalize\\ and\\ memorialize\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Particular\\ Details\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uniforms\\ for\\ British\\,\\ Varied\\ uniforms\\/\\ outfits\\ for\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Younger\\ Americans\\,\\ Older\\ British\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rifleman\\-\\ from\\ backcountry\\ Virginia\\,\\ more\\ accurate\\ than\\ a\\ musket\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dramatic\\ skyline\\ with\\ light\\ focusing\\ on\\ Warren\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lamentation\\ of\\ Christ\\-\\ bayonets\\ in\\ center\\ of\\ page\\ form\\ cross\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actual\\ participants\\,\\ both\\ American\\ and\\ British\\,\\ in\\ the\\ surrounding\\ fray\\ are\\ recognizable\\ as\\ portraits\\,\\ including\\ William\\ Howe\\,\\ Henry\\ Clinton\\,\\ and\\ William\\ Prescott\\ \\(who\\ allegedly\\ gave\\ the\\ order\\ to\\ his\\ American\\ soldiers\\ not\\ to\\ fire\\ until\\ \\"\\;you\\ see\\ the\\ whites\\ of\\ their\\ eyes\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 27, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Hist_B-40_Final_Exam_Study_Guide_1.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 07:03:23.517009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cognitive Psychology - Lecture Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "cognitive", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 93, "html": "\\\\\\Psych\\_13\\_Lecture\\_Notes\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=m0tazYRimFnV1hoGKbgtnw\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c5\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:130\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c22\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:129\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c20\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:128\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c18\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:117pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:198pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:234pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c27\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c21\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c24\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c23\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c26\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c25\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\2\\<\\;missed\\ first\\ 20\\ minutes\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ Search\\ and\\ Attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\;missed\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spatial\\ neglect\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tend\\ to\\ neglect\\ things\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ when\\ something\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ visual\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attention\\ initially\\ deployed\\ to\\ specific\\ location\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attention\\ then\\ fixated\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Given\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hold\\ central\\ fixation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\attend\\ to\\ moving\\ dot\\ \\(either\\ in\\ left\\ visual\\ field\\ or\\ right\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attention\\ to\\ left\\:\\ right\\ activation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attention\\ o\\ right\\:\\ left\\ AND\\ right\\ activation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moran\\ \\&\\;\\ Desimone\\ \\(1985\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monkey\\ taught\\ to\\ attend\\ to\\ green\\ bar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ green\\ bar\\ is\\ present\\,\\ then\\ cell\\ w\\/\\ that\\ receptive\\ field\\ fires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monkey\\ taught\\ to\\ attend\\ to\\ other\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ green\\ bar\\ is\\ present\\,\\ cell\\ that\\ detects\\ green\\ bar\\ in\\ that\\ receptive\\ field\\ does\\ not\\ fire\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lesson\\:\\ attention\\ plays\\ a\\ big\\ role\\ in\\ visual\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bottom\\ Up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stimuli\\ drives\\ what\\ gets\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ more\\ attractive\\ stimuli\\ is\\ what\\ gets\\ picked\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Top\\ Down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goals\\ drive\\ what\\ gets\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ if\\ monkey\\ knows\\ will\\ be\\ rewarded\\ for\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ will\\ look\\ for\\ that\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attention\\ and\\ Object\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treisman\\ Account\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Feature\\ Integration\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attention\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;stimulus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;patterns\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;then\\ object\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;perception\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Baylis\\ and\\ Driver\\ \\(1993\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Comparison\\ of\\ angles\\ is\\ easier\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ one\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Harder\\ when\\ thinking\\ about\\ two\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lesson\\:\\ attention\\ changes\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Object\\ based\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divided\\ Attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ tasks\\ are\\ often\\ harder\\ than\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dual\\ task\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\:\\ time\\ sharing\\ is\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lab\\:\\ process\\ sharing\\ is\\ rare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beware\\ of\\ difference\\ between\\ alternating\\ b\\/t\\ tasks\\ vs\\ dual\\-tasking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ and\\ when\\?\\ Two\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Domain\\ specific\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ the\\ use\\ common\\ domain\\-specific\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Read\\ and\\ speaking\\ simultaneously\\ uses\\ same\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allport\\ et\\ al\\ \\(1972\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Repeat\\ words\\ from\\ one\\ ear\\,\\ memorize\\ from\\ other\\ ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ poor\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Repeat\\ words\\ from\\ one\\ ear\\,\\ memorize\\ words\\ from\\ visual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Repeat\\ words\\ from\\ one\\ ear\\,\\ memorize\\ pictures\\ from\\ visual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Best\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lesson\\:\\ more\\ interference\\ when\\ have\\ similar\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ with\\ complex\\ tasks\\,\\ if\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ an\\ expert\\ and\\ has\\ formalized\\ a\\ separate\\ process\\,\\ then\\ less\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Domain\\ general\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ they\\ use\\ common\\ domain\\-general\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Broad\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ that\\ cut\\ across\\ domains\\ take\\ up\\ limited\\ capacity\\ and\\ thus\\ interfere\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;na\\ï\\;ve\\ notion\\ of\\ attention\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ limited\\ capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ working\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ response\\ initiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Link\\ up\\ stimuli\\ and\\ selecting\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kahneman\\ \\(1973\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limited\\ mental\\ resources\\,\\ just\\ like\\ effort\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nature\\ of\\ tasks\\ is\\ irrelevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doing\\ primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ \\(different\\)\\ tasks\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;slower\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Response\\ Selector\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visual\\ stimulus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;press\\ key\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hear\\ a\\ tone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;say\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ time\\ in\\ between\\ different\\ stimuli\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;faster\\ reaction\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lesson\\:\\ time\\ for\\ selecting\\ response\\ is\\ what\\ impairs\\ parallel\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ does\\ practice\\ improve\\ performance\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spelke\\ et\\ al\\ \\(1976\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intensive\\ training\\ 5\\ hours\\ per\\ week\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Read\\ short\\ stories\\ for\\ comprehension\\ while\\ taking\\ dictation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ six\\ months\\,\\ almost\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Practice\\ significantly\\ reduces\\ interference\\ effects\\,\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ this\\ negate\\ previous\\ two\\ theories\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ necessarily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Decreases\\ resources\\ needed\\ to\\ complete\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ how\\ we\\ do\\ tasks\\ so\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ use\\ common\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\expert\\ typists\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Minimize\\ need\\ for\\ response\\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lesson\\:\\ automaticity\\ decreases\\ need\\ for\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ Automaticity\\ \\&\\;\\ Attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Controlled\\ Processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limited\\ experience\\,\\ requires\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Automatic\\ Processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ experience\\,\\ requires\\ less\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Far\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ interfere\\ w\\/\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Housekeeping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Today\\ and\\ Thursday\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reisberg\\,\\ Chapters\\ 5\\ \\&\\;\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corkin\\ S\\ \\(2002\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Friday\\ by\\ 8pm\\ Lab\\ Report\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exam\\ on\\ Tuesday\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Format\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Short\\ answer\\ 1\\ word\\ to\\ 4\\ sentences\\ \\-\\ concise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ what\\ is\\ retrograde\\ amnesia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ what\\ is\\ serial\\ exhaustive\\ search\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ characterize\\ the\\ functional\\ difference\\ between\\ dorsal\\ and\\ ventral\\ stream\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fill\\ in\\ data\\ pattern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Material\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ material\\ since\\ beginning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ on\\ lecture\\ \\+\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Major\\ concepts\\ and\\ critical\\ theories\\,\\ along\\ with\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Coglab\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neurons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ regions\\ of\\ brain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ talked\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parts\\ of\\ visual\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Section\\ will\\ be\\ reviewing\\ for\\ exam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Email\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Easy\\ to\\ remember\\ vs\\.\\ hard\\ to\\ remember\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repressed\\ memory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amnesia\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ infancy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anterograde\\ Amnesia\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ retrograde\\ amnesia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\H\\.M\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ age\\ of\\ 27\\,\\ removal\\ of\\ bilateral\\ medial\\ temporal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ surgery\\,\\ could\\ not\\ remember\\ anything\\ since\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\-term\\ memory\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Short\\-term\\ memory\\ intact\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ to\\ carry\\ on\\ conversation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Often\\ caused\\ by\\ Korsakoff\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Syndrome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thiamine\\ deficiency\\,\\ alcoholism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Medial\\ temporal\\ lobes\\,\\ subcortical\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Atkinson\\ \\&\\;\\ Schiffren\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Modal\\ Model\\ of\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Incoming\\ information\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;early\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;short\\ term\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Short\\ term\\ memory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;loss\\ OR\\ transfer\\ to\\ long\\ term\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Retrieval\\ from\\ long\\ term\\ memory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;short\\ term\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Short\\-term\\ memory\\ is\\ severely\\ limited\\,\\ based\\ on\\ \\#\\ of\\ items\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\-term\\ memory\\ has\\ vast\\ capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Material\\ must\\ pass\\ though\\ STM\\ to\\ LTM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rehearsal\\ needed\\ to\\ keep\\ items\\ in\\ STM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transfer\\ to\\ LTM\\ depends\\ on\\ time\\ in\\ STM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serial\\ Position\\ Effects\\ in\\ Free\\ Recall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Primacy\\ effect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ remember\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\transfer\\ of\\ first\\ few\\ words\\ to\\ LTM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ rehearsal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recency\\ effect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ remember\\ last\\ few\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Words\\ still\\ in\\ STM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Given\\ short\\ term\\ distracter\\,\\ eliminates\\ recency\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Faster\\ presentation\\ rate\\ eliminates\\ primacy\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Challenges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rehearsal\\ alone\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ lead\\ directly\\ to\\ LTM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\:\\ memory\\ span\\ not\\ a\\ fixed\\ number\\ of\\ items\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Verbal\\ memory\\ is\\ what\\ can\\ silently\\ repeat\\ in\\ 2\\-3\\ seconds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Variations\\ across\\ language\\ \\(length\\ of\\ words\\ for\\ digits\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Welsh\\ \\<\\;\\ English\\ \\<\\;\\ Chinese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Longer\\ words\\ for\\ digits\\,\\ less\\ digit\\ span\\ per\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ who\\ speak\\ faster\\ have\\ longer\\ memory\\ spans\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Baddeley\\ Slave\\ Systems\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Central\\ executive\\ controls\\ slave\\ systems\\ \\(sense\\ specific\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ sketchpad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61663\\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Central\\ executive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61663\\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;phonological\\ loop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ STM\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hard\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ remember\\ more\\ complex\\ items\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modularity\\ \\(\\?\\?\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ true\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ accepted\\?\\ Why\\ should\\ we\\ care\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ seems\\ true\\ to\\ varying\\ degrees\\ for\\ different\\ cognitive\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ good\\ theory\\ b\\/c\\:\\ falsifiable\\,\\ generates\\ questions\\,\\ organizes\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;specialization\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ modularity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ modules\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fodor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\:\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Module\\ like\\ systems\\ are\\ not\\ innate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Models\\ vs\\ Computational\\ Models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Models\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\ so\\ far\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ computational\\ models\\,\\ only\\ diagrams\\ of\\ how\\ they\\ work\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ no\\ exhaustive\\ equations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revisions\\ to\\ Atkinson\\ \\&\\;\\ Schiffrin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Keep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LTM\\ vast\\,\\ STM\\ limited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Must\\ pass\\ through\\ STM\\ to\\ LTM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eliminate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\STM\\ based\\ on\\ number\\ of\\ items\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rehearsal\\ needed\\ to\\ keep\\ items\\ in\\ STM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transfer\\ to\\ LTM\\ depends\\ on\\ time\\ in\\ STM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Revise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\STM\\ much\\ more\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Baddely\\&rsquo\\;s\\ model\\ within\\ STM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Housekeeping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reisberg\\ Chap\\ 5\\ \\&\\;\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Corkin\\ S\\ \\(2002\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Friday\\ by\\ 8pm\\:\\ Lab\\ Report\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exam\\ on\\ March\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revision\\ of\\ the\\ Modal\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ View\\ of\\ Working\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ just\\ seven\\ items\\ through\\ rehearsal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Activation\\ spreads\\ automatically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unattended\\ traces\\ lose\\ activation\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slave\\ systems\\ used\\ to\\ maintain\\ activation\\ of\\ memory\\ traces\\ via\\ rehearsal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Articulator\\ loop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visio\\-sketch\\ pad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rehearsal\\ along\\ does\\ not\\ strengthen\\ memory\\ traces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ Notions\\ of\\ Memory\\ Traces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Activation\\ of\\ memory\\ trace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Current\\ accessibility\\ of\\ trace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strength\\ of\\ memory\\ trace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ability\\ to\\ retrieve\\ trace\\ at\\ a\\ later\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ gets\\ encoded\\ in\\ long\\ term\\ memory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deep\\ semantic\\ elaborative\\ rehearsal\\!\\ NOT\\ shallow\\ rehearsal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Craik\\ \\&\\;\\ Lockhart\\ \\(1974\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\ \\(Hyde\\ \\&\\;\\ Jenkins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sequence\\ of\\ words\\,\\ testing\\ for\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Factor\\ 1\\:\\ orientating\\ \\(look\\ for\\ letter\\,\\ rate\\ pleasantness\\ of\\ word\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Factor\\ 2\\:\\ type\\ of\\ learning\\ \\(incidental\\,\\ intentional\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Factor\\ 1\\:\\ deep\\ encoding\\ \\>\\;\\>\\;\\ shallow\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Factor\\:\\ learning\\ intentional\\ or\\ not\\ does\\ not\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ determines\\ depth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Complexity\\?\\ Meaning\\?\\ Time\\ spent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Upside\\ down\\ sentences\\ remembered\\ better\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;encoding\\ time\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elaborateness\\ of\\ Processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ dependence\\ on\\ rehearsal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depends\\ on\\ interconnectivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Connection\\ between\\ Acquisition\\ and\\ Retrieval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ we\\ encode\\ material\\ determines\\ how\\ well\\ we\\ can\\ retrieve\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Depend\\ on\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ only\\ know\\ what\\ was\\ encoded\\ by\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ recall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maybe\\ we\\ encode\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ but\\ loss\\ of\\ recall\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\State\\ dependant\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotional\\,\\ drug\\ induced\\ state\\,\\ same\\ room\\ all\\ have\\ effect\\ on\\ learning\\/recall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ if\\ learn\\ drunk\\,\\ remember\\ better\\ drunk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Encoding\\ specificity\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ if\\ learn\\ underwater\\,\\ test\\ better\\ underwater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Activation\\ of\\ associated\\ connections\\ spreads\\ automatically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Activates\\ nodes\\ of\\ situation\\,\\ then\\ spreads\\ to\\ other\\ nodes\\ of\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Review\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Viewpoint\\ Dependent\\ and\\ Viewpoint\\ Independent\\ models\\ of\\ Object\\ Recognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Independent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ recognize\\ from\\ any\\ angle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ recognize\\ whole\\ object\\ b\\/c\\ trying\\ to\\ break\\ it\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dependent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recognize\\ from\\ any\\ angle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Always\\ get\\ the\\ big\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easier\\ to\\ quickly\\ recognize\\ things\\ in\\ normal\\ orientation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subjects\\ recognize\\ objects\\ more\\ often\\ in\\ original\\ orientation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Counter\\:\\ but\\ also\\ changes\\ the\\ geons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neurons\\ specifically\\ recognize\\ certain\\ orientations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similarities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ visual\\ analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\-D\\ analysis\\ included\\ \\(but\\ at\\ different\\ points\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Feature\\ Net\\ and\\ Interactive\\ Activation\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recognize\\ word\\ like\\ forms\\ easier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Feature\\ Net\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thresholds\\ of\\ activation\\,\\ frequency\\ of\\ bigrams\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interactive\\ Activation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Top\\ down\\,\\ high\\-level\\ recognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Context\\ effects\\ as\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bottleneck\\/Filtering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ stimuli\\ are\\ filtered\\/selected\\ for\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ selection\\ filter\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neuro\\-imaging\\ studies\\ show\\ more\\ activity\\ early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Late\\ selection\\ filter\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\:\\ cocktail\\ party\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perceptual\\ load\\ model\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;leaky\\ filters\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Verbal\\ task\\ vs\\.\\ other\\ tasks\\ for\\ seeing\\ how\\ much\\ attention\\ resource\\ spill\\-over\\ there\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ easier\\ when\\ frequency\\ effect\\ is\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Double\\ Dissociation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\X\\ not\\ Y\\,\\ but\\ also\\ Y\\ not\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Useful\\ for\\ prosopagnosics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Face\\ Processing\\ vs\\.\\ Object\\ Processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Object\\ processes\\ things\\,\\ then\\ puts\\ them\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Face\\ processing\\ more\\ holistic\\,\\ judges\\ relative\\ relations\\ between\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attentive\\ processes\\ prior\\ to\\ object\\ recognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Feature\\ Integration\\ Theory\\ \\(Treisman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Feature\\ maps\\ detect\\ color\\,\\ some\\ detect\\ orientation\\,\\ motion\\,\\ curvature\\,\\ depth\\ etc\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ capacity\\ limited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connecting\\ everything\\ requires\\ attentional\\ spotlight\\ that\\ does\\ have\\ limited\\ capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Object\\ recognition\\ then\\ influences\\ how\\ attention\\ is\\ allocated\\ as\\ events\\ continue\\ to\\ unfold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attentional\\ Cueing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Positive\\ paradigm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spatial\\ cuing\\ of\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ attention\\ clings\\ to\\ object\\ initially\\ recognized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ target\\ presented\\,\\ faster\\ recognition\\ because\\ attentional\\ spotlight\\ already\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ cant\\ we\\ unite\\ attention\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cant\\ reduce\\ to\\ once\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Different\\ Types\\ of\\ Memory\\ \\/\\/Feb\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amnesics\\ \\(H\\.M\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Classical\\ conditioning\\ \\(bell\\ \\+\\ puff\\ of\\ air\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;blink\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Motor\\ learning\\ \\(mirror\\ drawing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sequence\\ learning\\ \\(A\\ always\\ follows\\ DB\\,\\ reaction\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perceptual\\ learning\\ \\(w\\/\\ black\\ square\\ covering\\ objects\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\/Affective\\ Learning\\ \\(like\\ person\\ more\\ even\\ though\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ why\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Declarative\\ Memory\\ \\(explicit\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amnesics\\ unable\\ to\\ learn\\ new\\ declarative\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Semantic\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Facts\\,\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Episodic\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Time\\ and\\ space\\ are\\ associated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Identified\\ by\\ particular\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Procedural\\ Memory\\ \\(implicit\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Able\\ to\\ learn\\ new\\ procedural\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditioning\\,\\ motor\\,\\ perceptual\\,\\ etc\\ see\\ above\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ available\\ for\\ conscious\\ recall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amnesics\\ represent\\ single\\ dissociation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explicit\\ memory\\ can\\ be\\ impaired\\ when\\ procedural\\ intact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parkinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Patients\\ provide\\ double\\ dissociation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Good\\ at\\ learning\\ declarative\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ poor\\ at\\ learning\\ procedural\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Predicting\\ weather\\,\\ amnesics\\ do\\ okay\\ \\(improve\\ just\\ like\\ control\\ group\\)\\,\\ but\\ PD\\ patients\\ do\\ not\\ improve\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amnesics\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ rules\\,\\ PD\\ patients\\ do\\ learn\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\/\\/March\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Process\\ Purity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ task\\ taps\\ just\\ one\\ underlying\\ cognitive\\ skill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tasks\\ are\\ rarely\\ process\\ pure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\;\\?\\?\\?\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ mystery\\ of\\ infantile\\ amnesia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.5\\ years\\ old\\ for\\ first\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\usually\\ never\\ before\\ 18\\-24\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\memories\\ closely\\ correlated\\ with\\ beginning\\ of\\ talking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\usually\\ in\\ episodic\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\;\\?\\?\\?\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ children\\ have\\ poor\\ episodic\\ memory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontal\\ lobe\\ development\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depth\\ of\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memories\\ are\\ left\\ unstructured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ appropriate\\ schemas\\ and\\ scripts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retrieval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ cues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Babies\\ placed\\ in\\ familiar\\ crib\\ remember\\ to\\ kick\\ faster\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ measures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relearning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Birth\\ language\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;learn\\ in\\ college\\ \\=\\ significant\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Priming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Response\\ is\\ faster\\ because\\ of\\ prior\\ exposure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ we\\ forget\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Encoding\\ failure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ penny\\ layout\\ because\\ its\\ not\\ relevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Failure\\ to\\ retrieve\\ \\(role\\ of\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ fast\\ drop\\-off\\,\\ then\\ gradually\\ stabilize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gradual\\ decay\\ from\\ biological\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiments\\ from\\ body\\ temperate\\ of\\ cold\\-blooded\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Interference\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Competition\\ between\\ memories\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Proactive\\ \\(forward\\ acting\\)\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Something\\ in\\ past\\ influences\\ new\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retroactive\\ \\(backwards\\ acting\\)\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\New\\ learning\\ affects\\ past\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memory\\ for\\ Complex\\ Events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ memory\\ permanent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\View\\ 1\\:\\ everything\\ is\\ stored\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Penfield\\&rsquo\\;s\\ electrical\\ stimulus\\ experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memory\\ loss\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ activation\\ failures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\only\\ 7\\%\\ of\\ people\\ had\\ flashback\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reconstruction\\ can\\ take\\ place\\ at\\ retrieval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Schema\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ our\\ world\\ knowledge\\ as\\ template\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fill\\ in\\ our\\ blanks\\ with\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Note\\:\\ Schemas\\ vs\\ Scripts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Schemas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mental\\ representation\\ of\\ \\ \\;situation\\,\\ scene\\,\\ or\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ farm\\:\\ animals\\,\\ house\\,\\ barn\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scripts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ schema\\ for\\ an\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Going\\ to\\ a\\ restaurant\\:\\ sit\\ down\\,\\ order\\,\\ wait\\,\\ eat\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frameworks\\ for\\ new\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sources\\ of\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allow\\ us\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ novel\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ can\\ also\\ fill\\ in\\ holes\\ that\\ will\\ cause\\ memory\\ errors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\ from\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Misinformation\\ Effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Question\\ immediately\\ after\\ seeing\\ accident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ fast\\ were\\ the\\ cars\\ going\\ when\\ they\\ hit\\ each\\ other\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ fast\\ were\\ the\\ cars\\ going\\ when\\ they\\ smashed\\ into\\ each\\ other\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ No\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\do\\ you\\ remember\\ glass\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;smash\\&rdquo\\;\\ remember\\ glass\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ other\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\note\\:\\ if\\ source\\ is\\ more\\ credible\\,\\ then\\ more\\ prone\\ to\\ misinformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Source\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ of\\ precisely\\ when\\ and\\ were\\ you\\ obtained\\ a\\ particular\\ piece\\ of\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Source\\ memory\\ is\\ extremely\\ fallible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\ of\\ reading\\ phone\\ book\\ names\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immediate\\ ratings\\ do\\ not\\ rate\\ more\\ famous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Later\\ ratings\\ see\\ familiar\\ names\\ as\\ more\\ famous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Source\\ amnesia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Source\\ confusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Semantic\\ Association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\/\\/March\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critiques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Traumatic\\ amnesia\\ is\\ well\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forgetting\\ is\\ very\\ common\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remembering\\ after\\ long\\ delay\\ is\\ common\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Laboratory\\ conditions\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reflect\\ reality\\ \\(b\\/c\\ not\\ real\\ trauma\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recovered\\ Memory\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Individuals\\ better\\ at\\ blocking\\ out\\ undesirable\\ content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ repressed\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Direct\\ Forgetting\\ Task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Told\\ either\\ to\\ remember\\ or\\ forget\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ w\\/\\ no\\ repressed\\ memories\\ no\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ remember\\ words\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ told\\ to\\ forget\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ Construction\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Individuals\\ more\\ prone\\ to\\ errors\\ in\\ memory\\ \\(source\\ amnesia\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ likely\\ to\\ recover\\ false\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DRM\\ False\\ Memory\\ Paradigm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prototypes\\ Lab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Those\\ w\\/\\ recovered\\ memories\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ say\\ they\\ saw\\ lure\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recovered\\ memories\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ source\\ amnesia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Events\\ suggested\\,\\ imagined\\,\\ considered\\ may\\ become\\ memories\\ which\\ seem\\ real\\ to\\ the\\ remember\\-er\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ people\\ can\\ agree\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Injustice\\ happens\\,\\ trauma\\ happens\\,\\ forgetting\\ happens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memories\\ from\\ hypnosis\\ or\\ guided\\ imagery\\ very\\ unreliable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memories\\ can\\ be\\ upsetting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cost\\ of\\ misunderstanding\\ memory\\ has\\ large\\ cost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ordinarily\\,\\ memory\\ is\\ quite\\ accurate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Understanding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;guidance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ interviewing\\ witnesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guiding\\ eye\\ witness\\ identification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Choosing\\ therapeutic\\ techniques\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Talking\\ with\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\What\\ is\\ Semantic\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ kinds\\ of\\ declarative\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Episodic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Autobiographical\\ memories\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Semantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Generalizations\\ of\\ episodic\\ memories\\ \\(concepts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ are\\ they\\ organized\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ use\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Semantic\\ knowledge\\ support\\ induction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\)\\ language\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ a\\ referent\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ no\\ referent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Schemas\\:\\ structured\\ knowledge\\ of\\ objects\\ and\\ functions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\)\\ chair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\i\\.e\\,\\)\\ bus\\ has\\ a\\ driver\\,\\ so\\ expect\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Scripts\\:\\ structured\\ knowledge\\ of\\ typical\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\)\\ going\\ to\\ a\\ restaurant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ We\\ Need\\ in\\ a\\ Memory\\ System\\:\\ Declarative\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attends\\ to\\ meaningful\\/relevant\\ info\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ generalize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ relate\\ new\\ info\\ to\\ old\\ info\\ \\(many\\ retrieval\\ paths\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generalization\\ can\\ occur\\ at\\ many\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hierarchical\\ Model\\ of\\ Semantic\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\TLC\\ Model\\ \\(Teachable\\ Language\\ Comprehender\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Animals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dogs\\,\\ cats\\,\\ birds\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;individual\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ type\\ has\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\TYPES\\ \\(kinds\\)\\,\\ not\\ TOKENS\\ \\(individuals\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hierarchical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Characteristics\\ stored\\ at\\ the\\ most\\ efficient\\ \\(highest\\)\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ cow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;bovine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mammal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;milk\\,\\ NOT\\ cow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;milk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ amnesiacs\\ who\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ a\\ specific\\ category\\/class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ can\\ make\\ generalizations\\ at\\ many\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sentence\\ Verification\\ Task\\:\\ Collins\\ \\&\\;\\ Quillian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Canary\\ is\\ a\\ canary\\,\\ canary\\ is\\ a\\ bird\\,\\ canary\\ is\\ an\\ animal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Properties\\ and\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ nodes\\ or\\ steps\\,\\ slower\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\:\\ typicality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ because\\ stronger\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(cow\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ milk\\)\\ faster\\ than\\ \\(cow\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hooves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ though\\ more\\ nodes\\/steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tangent\\:\\ semantic\\ and\\ episodic\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abstraction\\ Theory\\:\\ semantic\\ are\\ formed\\ from\\ episodes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instance\\ Theory\\:\\ semantic\\ are\\ overlapping\\ of\\ episodes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spreading\\ Activation\\ Model\\ of\\ Semantic\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abstract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NO\\ MORE\\ strict\\ hierarchy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dense\\ network\\ of\\ interconnected\\ nodes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Search\\ by\\ spreading\\ activation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Properties\\ can\\ be\\ stored\\ at\\ multiple\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connection\\ links\\ encode\\ strength\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Activation\\ spreads\\ faster\\ across\\ links\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Activation\\ is\\ a\\ limited\\ resource\\,\\ also\\ dissipates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Associative\\ or\\ Semantic\\ Priming\\/Lexical\\ Decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Word\\ parings\\ make\\ second\\ word\\ retrieval\\ faster\\ because\\ first\\ one\\ partially\\ warms\\ up\\/activates\\ second\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recency\\ Effect\\ for\\ Category\\ Retrieval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Words\\ with\\ semantic\\ relationships\\ help\\ next\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ separation\\ between\\ linked\\ semantic\\ words\\ slows\\ reaction\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ A\\,\\ fruit\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\ faster\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ A\\,\\ dog\\ P\\,\\ fruit\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fan\\ Effect\\ \\(Anderson\\ 1976\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Episodic\\ and\\ Semantic\\ Memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ each\\ association\\,\\ the\\ resources\\ allocated\\ get\\ spread\\ out\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Constant\\ firing\\ rate\\ for\\ each\\ node\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Firing\\ to\\ spokes\\ takes\\ division\\ of\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\,\\ more\\ associations\\ \\(greater\\ fan\\ size\\)\\ increases\\ reaction\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiment\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Control\\ size\\ of\\ fans\\ \\(doctor\\ in\\ the\\ park\\,\\ fireman\\ in\\ bank\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Manipulate\\ fan\\ size\\ and\\ test\\ sentence\\ recognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Supports\\ fan\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memorize\\ fantasy\\ facts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Say\\ \\&ldquo\\;yes\\&rdquo\\;\\ if\\ either\\ true\\,\\ or\\ memorized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ size\\ of\\ fan\\ of\\ fantasy\\ facts\\ impair\\ response\\ times\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yes\\,\\ being\\ presented\\ with\\/learning\\ more\\ fantasy\\ facts\\ slows\\ reaction\\ times\\ for\\:\\ false\\ facts\\,\\ experimentally\\ true\\ \\(fantasy\\)\\ facts\\,\\ and\\ true\\ facts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\True\\ \\<\\;\\ Fantasy\\ \\<\\;\\ False\\ in\\ reaction\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ all\\ three\\ increase\\ in\\ reaction\\ time\\ when\\ more\\ fantasy\\ facts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ also\\ increase\\ the\\ probably\\ of\\ memory\\ trace\\ being\\ found\\ during\\ retrieval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increases\\ network\\ and\\ context\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ has\\ dissipation\\ effects\\ and\\ priming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thinking\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ A\\&rdquo\\;\\ will\\ help\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ interfere\\ after\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ A\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;dog\\ C\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;fruit\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\ will\\ be\\ slower\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Connectionism\\/Parallel\\ Distributed\\ Processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Connectionist\\ models\\/Connectionism\\ \\(aka\\ neural\\ network\\ theory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ the\\ mind\\ might\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ pattern\\ recognition\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ node\\,\\ but\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ connections\\ through\\ a\\ network\\ of\\ nodes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Looking\\ at\\ activation\\ pattern\\ between\\ nodes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ from\\ spreading\\ activation\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\more\\ general\\,\\ more\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\more\\ computationally\\ precise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ learn\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ strictly\\ hierarchical\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ node\\ is\\ widely\\ distributed\\ and\\ connected\\ to\\ thousands\\ of\\ nodes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ triggered\\,\\ parallel\\ processing\\ activates\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ it\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;thinking\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ actually\\ activating\\ those\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;knowing\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ having\\ the\\ connections\\ in\\ place\\ to\\ be\\ ready\\ when\\ activated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;learning\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ strengthening\\ of\\ certain\\ connections\\/weights\\ through\\ repetition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Response\\ to\\ strictly\\ hierarchical\\ system\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Effects\\ of\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Content\\ addressability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\memory\\ of\\ person\\ \\&\\;\\ his\\/her\\ properties\\:\\ always\\ from\\ person\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;properties\\,\\ but\\ what\\ about\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Good\\ system\\ of\\ pattern\\ recognition\\ and\\ generalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\accounts\\ for\\ complexity\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\(not\\ always\\ just\\ one\\ input\\ to\\ some\\ output\\/node\\ activation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Biological\\ plausibility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ nodes\\ or\\ areas\\ \\(no\\ executive\\ function\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Good\\ system\\ of\\ information\\ storage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\very\\ efficient\\ in\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ distributed\\ and\\ localized\\,\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ executive\\ function\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ tie\\ it\\ together\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\McClelland\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Schemas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Try\\ to\\ identify\\ Jets\\ and\\ Sharks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Name\\,\\ occupation\\,\\ age\\,\\ gang\\ affiliation\\,\\ marital\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neuron\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Get\\ activated\\,\\ fire\\,\\ spread\\ the\\ activation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ no\\ one\\-to\\-one\\ connection\\ necessarily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parallel\\ model\\ to\\ the\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Weighted\\ activations\\ from\\ inputs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;activation\\ and\\ output\\ of\\ neuron\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ be\\ excitatory\\ or\\ inhibitory\\ weights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inhibitory\\:\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ Shark\\,\\ inhibit\\ Jet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Context\\ addressable\\ connections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Properties\\ link\\ to\\ hidden\\ nodes\\,\\ which\\ activate\\ names\\ proportionally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connectionist\\ Models\\ \\(continued\\)\\ \\/\\/\\ March\\ 12th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Properties\\ of\\ Connectionist\\ Models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Weights\\ of\\ activation\\ of\\ inputs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;outputs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rules\\ about\\ thresholds\\ for\\ activation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ be\\ described\\ rigorously\\ as\\ set\\ of\\ equations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ be\\ trained\\!\\ Not\\ hand\\-wired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ start\\/train\\ a\\ connectionist\\ model\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ initial\\ connection\\ weights\\ are\\ small\\ random\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Input\\ pattern\\ is\\ applied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Model\\ produces\\ output\\ \\(garbage\\ b\\/c\\ weights\\ are\\ random\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Learning\\ Algorithm\\ Keys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Feedback\\ \\(loop\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ back\\ propagation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Trial\\ and\\ error\\ \\-\\ go\\ back\\,\\ tweak\\ connection\\ weights\\,\\ test\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ of\\ connectionist\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Irregular\\ present\\ and\\ past\\ tense\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Start\\ with\\ random\\ associations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ after\\ adjustments\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;spling\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;splang\\&rdquo\\;\\ b\\/c\\ ing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ trained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Concept\\ of\\ a\\ Concept\\ \\/\\/March\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ representations\\ that\\ serve\\ particular\\ mental\\ functions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cognitive\\ economy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ increased\\ efficiency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Infer\\ unseen\\ properties\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ supports\\ induction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Communication\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ efficiently\\ convey\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ a\\ theory\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.what\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ say\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ concept\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ how\\ concepts\\ can\\ incorporate\\ many\\ different\\ things\\,\\ but\\ still\\ distinguish\\ between\\ similar\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ how\\ the\\ concepts\\ arose\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ how\\ concepts\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\.\\ how\\ do\\ word\\ meanings\\ \\(concepts\\)\\ combine\\ to\\ yield\\ phrases\\ with\\ meanings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\-so\\-Great\\ Theories\\ of\\ Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothesis\\ 1\\:\\ Concepts\\ like\\ dictionary\\ definitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inevitably\\ circular\\ \\(dogs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;animal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;legs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dogs\\)\\,\\ grounded\\ in\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothesis\\ 2\\:\\ Concepts\\ are\\ specific\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ on\\ objects\\ and\\ references\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;dog\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ all\\ dogs\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ seen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ allow\\ for\\ abstractions\\,\\ kinds\\,\\ generalizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ label\\ nonexistent\\ objects\\ or\\ intangible\\ items\\ or\\ things\\ have\\ not\\ seen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothesis\\ 3\\:\\ Concepts\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;pictures\\ in\\ the\\ head\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Triangle\\ \\=\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ triangle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ since\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ specific\\,\\ then\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capture\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Classical\\ Theory\\ \\(Definitional\\ Theory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Set\\ of\\ properties\\ that\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\individually\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mutually\\ sufficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ Triangles\\ are\\:\\ 3\\ sided\\,\\ straight\\ lines\\,\\ closed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ concepts\\ triggered\\ by\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\#1\\:\\ Primitive\\ Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sensory\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ based\\ on\\ neuropsychology\\,\\ built\\-in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ red\\,\\ salty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\perceptual\\ trigger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\innate\\,\\ simple\\,\\ sensory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\#2\\:\\ Complex\\ Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\several\\ innate\\ categories\\ combine\\ to\\ make\\ concept\\ lemon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ yellow\\,\\ sour\\,\\ oval\\,\\ object\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\grouped\\ together\\ because\\ reliably\\ co\\-occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Satisfies\\ our\\ requirements\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Categorization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gives\\ criteria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Discrete\\ criteria\\ differentiates\\ different\\/similar\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Origination\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ experiences\\ of\\ associations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Interrelations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overlapping\\ criteria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Combinations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ each\\ word\\ contributes\\ its\\ features\\ to\\ set\\ of\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Too\\ black\\ and\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ reality\\,\\ people\\ have\\ gradations\\,\\ judge\\ things\\ on\\ a\\ continuum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ bird\\:\\ penguins\\ less\\ birdy\\,\\ eagles\\ more\\ birdy\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ games\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ necessary\\ and\\ sufficient\\ conditions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prototype\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ premise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ a\\ prototype\\ with\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;family\\ of\\ features\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ features\\ of\\ the\\ prototype\\ you\\ have\\,\\ more\\ like\\ the\\ concept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fewer\\ features\\ of\\ the\\ prototype\\ you\\ have\\,\\ less\\ like\\ the\\ concept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Family\\ resemblance\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Features\\ associated\\ with\\ category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Weighted\\ by\\ probability\\ that\\ instances\\ of\\ category\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ round\\ for\\ fruit\\ is\\ medium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prototypes\\ come\\ from\\ exemplars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contextual\\ effects\\ on\\ what\\ a\\ prototype\\ is\\ \\-\\ flexibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fun\\,\\ competition\\,\\ skill\\,\\ luck\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ common\\,\\ but\\ not\\ always\\ applicable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prototype\\ Theory\\ \\(continued\\)\\ \\/\\/March\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ many\\ examples\\,\\ form\\ a\\ single\\ prototype\\/representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Central\\ concept\\ connected\\ to\\ examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ distance\\ to\\ each\\ example\\ to\\ central\\ concept\\,\\ how\\ much\\ it\\ affects\\ the\\ prototype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explains\\ sentence\\ verification\\ results\\ \\(faster\\ b\\/c\\ more\\ features\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Explains\\ category\\ membership\\ ratings\\ \\(graded\\,\\ not\\ absolute\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consistent\\ with\\ feature\\ listing\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PROBLEM\\:\\ AGG\\,\\ Typicality\\ Problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ a\\ category\\ shows\\ typicality\\ effects\\,\\ it\\ MUST\\ have\\ a\\ prototype\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ it\\ has\\ NO\\ prototype\\ structure\\,\\ it\\ will\\ NOT\\ show\\ typicality\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AGG\\ test\\ this\\ contra\\-positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ for\\ very\\ well\\ defined\\ categories\\,\\ strong\\ typicality\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Ordinary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Well\\-DeFined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\+\\ Prototype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Fast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Fast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\-\\ Prototype\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Slow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Slow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\So\\ these\\ consistent\\ typicality\\ effects\\ do\\ not\\ prove\\ that\\ ordinary\\ categories\\ have\\ a\\ prototype\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PROBLEM\\:\\ Compositionality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ not\\ explain\\ how\\ compositions\\ can\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Combine\\ two\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ new\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ what\\ if\\ combine\\ the\\ wrong\\ features\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Dual\\ Theory\\ of\\ Concepts\\ \\(Armstrong\\,\\ Gleitman\\ \\&\\;\\ Gleitman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Definitions\\ for\\ reasoning\\ and\\ determining\\ category\\ membership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ grandmother\\ is\\ mother\\ of\\ a\\ parent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ fish\\ are\\ cold\\ blooded\\,\\ x\\ chamber\\ hearts\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Prototypes\\ for\\ quick\\ identification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ look\\ for\\ prototypical\\ features\\ of\\ grandmother\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exemplar\\ Model\\ \\(see\\ text\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concepts\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ definitions\\ or\\ summary\\ representations\\ \\(unlike\\ other\\ two\\ models\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ of\\ all\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ concept\\ that\\ are\\ stored\\ in\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ Concept\\ bird\\:\\ all\\ exemplars\\ of\\ bird\\ in\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ close\\ to\\ other\\ examples\\,\\ then\\ typical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\if\\ far\\ away\\ from\\ other\\ examples\\,\\ then\\ atypical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Challenges\\ to\\ all\\ these\\ theories\\ \\(all\\ are\\ feature\\ theories\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perceptual\\ similarity\\ not\\ necessary\\ or\\ sufficient\\ for\\ categorization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ lemon\\,\\ fake\\ lemon\\,\\ mutilated\\ lemon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ importance\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ pizza\\ and\\ quarter\\ depend\\ on\\ diameter\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quarters\\ are\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ size\\,\\ but\\ pizza\\&rsquo\\;s\\ vary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Size\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ quarter\\,\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ for\\ the\\ pizza\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biological\\ kinds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Falcon\\ more\\ like\\ bat\\ than\\ flamingo\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ features\\,\\ but\\ adults\\ still\\ relate\\ falcon\\ to\\ flamingo\\ when\\ comparing\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Transplanted\\ Tomcat\\ Example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Change\\ one\\ example\\ into\\ having\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perceptual\\ features\\ are\\ insufficient\\ for\\ categorization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ for\\ both\\ prototype\\ and\\ exemplar\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ Similarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Too\\ broad\\,\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ features\\ \\(ex\\ plums\\ and\\ lawnmowers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ narrow\\ in\\ on\\ relevant\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concepts\\ are\\ Theories\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Theory\\-Theory\\ or\\ Core\\ Knowledge\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ are\\ some\\ categories\\ natural\\ and\\ other\\ unnatural\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\-Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concepts\\ have\\ tight\\ relationships\\ to\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gain\\ their\\ meaning\\ from\\ a\\ network\\ of\\ interrelated\\ concepts\\ and\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ concepts\\ divided\\ into\\ different\\ domains\\ \\(core\\ knowledge\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Core\\ knowledge\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ cognitive\\ skills\\ have\\ been\\ important\\ through\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.understanding\\ others\\,\\ language\\,\\ physical\\ reasoning\\,\\ face\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Innate\\ cognitive\\ ability\\,\\ even\\ among\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolution\\ has\\ made\\ brain\\ into\\ a\\ pocket\\ knife\\ with\\ core\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ to\\ modularity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Domain\\ specificity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Core\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Development\\ of\\ Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perceptual\\ categorization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ examples\\ and\\ kits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kids\\ looking\\ a\\ cat\\ pictures\\,\\ get\\ tired\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ group\\ see\\ cat\\ pictures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ group\\ sees\\ dog\\ pictures\\ next\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ children\\ do\\ have\\ separation\\ of\\ concepts\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ categorization\\ by\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ function\\ begins\\ to\\ be\\ important\\ in\\ infancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ deeper\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\like\\ very\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ animals\\ all\\ drink\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\eventually\\ conceptual\\ similarity\\ \\>\\;\\ perceptual\\ similarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Older\\ children\\ start\\ examining\\ relationships\\ between\\ concepts\\ and\\ thinking\\ about\\ function\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ for\\ categorization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ broad\\,\\ not\\ specific\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conceptual\\/Categorical\\ Hierarchies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ build\\ from\\ top\\ \\(most\\ general\\)\\ down\\ to\\ specific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ general\\ concepts\\ \\(inanimate\\ objects\\,\\ people\\,\\ living\\ things\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Higher\\ level\\ term\\/Super\\-ordinate\\ level\\ \\(furniture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ level\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ level\\ at\\ which\\ we\\ describe\\ most\\ objects\\ \\(chair\\)\\ \\*\\*\\ most\\ frequent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subordinate\\ level\\ \\(dining\\ room\\ table\\,\\ Picasso\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kids\\ Learn\\ basic\\ level\\ words\\ first\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\most\\ common\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Easiest\\ to\\ describe\\ perceptually\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Level\\ at\\ which\\ we\\ typically\\ function\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ and\\ Theory\\ of\\ Conception\\ Development\\ \\(continued\\)\\/\\/\\ March\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recap\\:\\ Concepts\\ are\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Get\\ their\\ meaning\\ from\\ network\\ of\\ interrelated\\ concepts\\ and\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;functional\\&rdquo\\;\\ role\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;inferential\\&rdquo\\;\\ role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\divided\\ into\\ different\\ domains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\many\\ given\\ by\\ evolution\\ \\(core\\ knowledge\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Development\\ of\\ object\\ concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ categorization\\ by\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ function\\ begins\\ to\\ be\\ important\\ in\\ infancy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ deeper\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\like\\ very\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ animals\\ all\\ drink\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\eventually\\ conceptual\\ similarity\\ \\>\\;\\ perceptual\\ similarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Further\\ development\\ of\\ artifact\\ concepts\\ \\(non\\-natural\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ mature\\ artifact\\ concepts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ on\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Function\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ History\\ of\\ use\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Intentions\\ of\\ creator\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adults\\ show\\ \\#2\\ and\\ \\#3\\ are\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ rely\\ on\\ appearance\\ and\\ function\\ \\(but\\ can\\ use\\ intent\\ for\\ some\\ categorization\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Straw\\ \\(crumpled\\ up\\)\\ and\\ cup\\ \\(cut\\ in\\ half\\)\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adults\\ still\\ count\\ them\\,\\ children\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intended\\ function\\ vs\\.\\ current\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ to\\ be\\ plate\\,\\ found\\ and\\ used\\ as\\ Frisbee\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\adults\\ see\\ plate\\,\\ kids\\ inconsistent\\ in\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Does\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reliance\\ on\\ physical\\ properties\\ reflect\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Simply\\ more\\ concrete\\ concepts\\ in\\ early\\ childhood\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Still\\ developing\\ abstract\\ concepts\\ and\\ using\\ physical\\ as\\ clues\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Changing\\ Theories\\ of\\ Natural\\ Kinds\\ \\(Development\\ of\\ Na\\ï\\;ve\\ Biology\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ can\\ distinguish\\ between\\ animals\\,\\ humans\\,\\ and\\ inanimate\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Preschoolers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Understand\\ inheritance\\,\\ know\\ growth\\ makes\\ bigger\\ and\\ more\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ are\\ essentialists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Living\\ things\\ have\\ an\\ internal\\ causal\\ property\\ that\\ makes\\ them\\ what\\ they\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiment\\:\\ even\\ after\\ physical\\ changes\\ to\\ a\\ cat\\,\\ still\\ define\\ as\\ cat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ children\\ acquire\\ biological\\ knowledge\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Socio\\-cultural\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ input\\ from\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Modularity\\ Nativism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ born\\ with\\ biology\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Theory\\-theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ initial\\ theory\\ based\\ on\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ psychology\\ and\\ theory\\ of\\ artifacts\\ \\(combine\\ the\\ two\\ to\\ get\\ biology\\ theory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\early\\ biological\\ theory\\ \\(4\\-8\\ yo\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\alive\\ \\=\\ able\\ to\\ behave\\ and\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cars\\ and\\ wind\\,\\ not\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\death\\ as\\ life\\ under\\ altered\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\late\\ biological\\ theory\\ \\(9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\then\\,\\ theory\\ altered\\ to\\ become\\ living\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\alive\\ \\=\\ have\\ bodily\\ functions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\concepts\\ distinguished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\death\\ as\\ cessation\\ of\\ bodily\\ functions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Takes\\ awhile\\ to\\ go\\ from\\ theory\\ 1\\ to\\ theory\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ causes\\ this\\ transition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ William\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Syndrome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conceptually\\ impaired\\,\\ but\\ good\\ at\\ rote\\ memorization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Test\\ 1\\:\\ asked\\ about\\ biological\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ cats\\ have\\ legs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Test\\ 2\\:\\ asked\\ about\\ biological\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bike\\,\\ cars\\,\\ moon\\ alive\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ theory\\ change\\ is\\ by\\ knowledge\\ acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\young\\ kids\\ \\<\\;\\ WS\\ \\&\\;\\ older\\ kids\\ when\\ about\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ theory\\ change\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ theory\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\WS\\ \\&\\;\\ young\\ kids\\ \\<\\;\\ older\\ kids\\ when\\ about\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Results\\:\\ WS\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ old\\ kids\\ regarding\\ knowledge\\,\\ not\\ developed\\ for\\ concepts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ as\\ young\\ kids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Carey\\ Article\\ \\(Section\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Argument\\:\\ teachers\\ should\\ not\\ teach\\ new\\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ facility\\ conceptual\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concepts\\:\\ how\\ people\\ represent\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ problems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Belief\\ revision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Concepts\\ vs\\.\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ individual\\ concepts\\ change\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\integration\\ of\\ two\\ concepts\\ into\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\differentiation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ divide\\ up\\ speed\\,\\ for\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reassessment\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implications\\ for\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Six\\ recommendations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Review\\ \\(Interlude\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Definitional\\ theory\\:\\ set\\ of\\ individually\\ necessary\\ and\\ mutually\\ sufficient\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prototype\\ theory\\:\\ central\\ model\\ with\\ weighted\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exemplar\\ theory\\:\\ set\\ of\\ memories\\ as\\ examples\\ to\\ compare\\ to\\,\\ no\\ central\\ definition\\ or\\ summary\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prototype\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\:\\ typicality\\ ratings\\ \\(that\\ are\\ stable\\)\\,\\ prototypical\\ exemplars\\ verified\\ faster\\,\\ shared\\ features\\ with\\ other\\ category\\ members\\ predict\\ typicality\\ rating\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Counterarguments\\:\\ see\\ stable\\ ratings\\ for\\ well\\-defined\\ concepts\\,\\ typicality\\ for\\ well\\-defined\\ concepts\\ also\\ predicts\\ verification\\ time\\,\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ combinations\\/aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ compositional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ with\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Describe\\ some\\ problems\\ that\\ plague\\ all\\ feature\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ necessary\\ features\\ for\\ many\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abstract\\ characteristics\\ seem\\ critical\\ for\\ many\\ concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Perceptual\\ similarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Outline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ evolved\\ systems\\ for\\ representing\\ numbers\\ \\(\\&\\;\\ their\\ limitations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ approx\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Small\\ exact\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ acquisition\\ of\\ exact\\ number\\ \\(integers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mental\\ arithmetic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ Approximate\\ Numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adults\\ have\\ a\\ system\\ for\\ representing\\ approximate\\ numerosity\\ with\\ large\\ sets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ represent\\ large\\ numerical\\ magnitudes\\ without\\ verbal\\ counting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ very\\ fast\\ estimations\\ and\\ comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Representations\\ are\\ approx\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiments\\ show\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ratios\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ key\\ \\(Weber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abstract\\-ness\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\even\\ good\\ at\\ comparing\\ \\#dots\\ vs\\ \\#auditory\\ tones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ good\\ at\\ comparing\\ \\#sum\\ of\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ dots\\ vs\\ \\#one\\ set\\ of\\ dots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ good\\ at\\ cross\\-modal\\ \\(add\\ dots\\ and\\ tones\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\;\\?\\?\\?\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\:\\ rats\\ hit\\ lever\\ A\\ certain\\ number\\ of\\ times\\,\\ then\\ hit\\ lever\\ B\\ for\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Learn\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ approximate\\,\\ but\\ not\\ exact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ and\\ more\\ noise\\ at\\ larger\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Repeatedly\\ show\\ same\\ number\\ of\\ dots\\ in\\ each\\ set\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Look\\ at\\ it\\,\\ then\\ get\\ bored\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Show\\ new\\ number\\ of\\ dots\\ interspersed\\ with\\ old\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jump\\ in\\ attention\\ when\\ change\\ in\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Able\\ to\\ represent\\ quantities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ only\\ for\\ larger\\ ratios\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limitations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ engaged\\ with\\ sets\\ less\\ than\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ noise\\ with\\ larger\\ sets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Less\\ distinguishing\\ with\\ smaller\\ ratios\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Small\\ Exact\\ Numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Enumeration\\ in\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\,2\\,3\\ all\\ processed\\ equally\\ quickly\\ \\(parallel\\ to\\ Sternberg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\subitizing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ small\\ exact\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\higher\\ numbers\\ require\\ more\\ time\\ \\(verbal\\ counting\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dishabituation\\ shows\\ that\\ infants\\ can\\ distinguish\\ 1\\-3\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ choose\\ box\\ w\\/\\ 3\\ crackers\\ over\\ box\\ w\\/\\ 2\\ crackers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ no\\ effect\\ between\\ 3\\ and\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ no\\ effect\\ with\\ large\\ ratio\\ of\\ 1\\ and\\ 4\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Counter\\-intuitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ also\\ add\\ and\\ subtract\\ small\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Objects\\ behind\\ screens\\,\\ possible\\ and\\ impossible\\ outcomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ impossible\\ outcomes\\ of\\ addition\\,\\ longer\\ look\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Have\\ to\\ wait\\ until\\ 3\\-4\\ yrs\\ to\\ process\\ 3\\+\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Object\\ file\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Low\\ level\\ perceptual\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Processes\\ thing\\-thing\\-thing\\,\\ not\\ set\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;3\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Limitations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Only\\ up\\ to\\ 4\\ objects\\ \\(3\\ in\\ infants\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ clear\\ it\\ represents\\ numbers\\ \\(thing\\-thing\\-thing\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;3\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ System\\:\\ Integers\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infinite\\ set\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Precise\\ numerosity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spans\\ range\\ of\\ large\\ and\\ small\\ number\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Acquisition\\ of\\ Exact\\ Number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ counting\\ represents\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;5\\ counting\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ to\\ one\\ correspondence\\ with\\ word\\ to\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stable\\ order\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ always\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cardinality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ number\\ of\\ objects\\ \\=\\ last\\ number\\ stated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Order\\ irrelevance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ count\\ left\\ to\\ right\\,\\ right\\ to\\ left\\,\\ whatever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abstraction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ any\\ kind\\ of\\ object\\ can\\ be\\ counted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Young\\ children\\ violate\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ principles\\,\\ need\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothesis\\ 1\\:\\ Gelman\\ \\&\\;\\ Gallistel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ have\\ innate\\ number\\ representation\\,\\ but\\ need\\ to\\ learn\\ to\\ count\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ learning\\ a\\ second\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothesis\\ 2\\:\\ Carey\\ \\&\\;\\ Spelke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ must\\ create\\ number\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evidence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wynn\\ Pointing\\ Task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kids\\ who\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ count\\,\\ but\\ not\\ sure\\ about\\ numerosity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ cards\\ with\\ different\\ number\\ of\\ objects\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;point\\ to\\ the\\ card\\ with\\ x\\ objects\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ children\\ can\\ distinguish\\ 1\\ from\\ other\\ numbers\\,\\ but\\ not\\ 2\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ children\\ distinguish\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\ from\\ other\\ numbers\\,\\ not\\ 3\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;3\\ knowers\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ distinguish\\ 1\\-3\\,\\ but\\ 4\\+\\ are\\ all\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;4\\ knowers\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ up\\ to\\ 10\\ \\=\\ full\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\takes\\ 1\\-2\\ years\\ after\\ able\\ to\\ count\\ before\\ understanding\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\understanding\\ of\\ natural\\ numbers\\ involves\\ more\\ than\\ counting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Temporary\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ have\\ two\\ innate\\ systems\\ to\\ represent\\ magnitude\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Object\\ files\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ limited\\ to\\ small\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analog\\ magnitude\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ approx\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Integrate\\ both\\ into\\ third\\ via\\ learning\\ into\\ natural\\/integer\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ 4\\-5\\,\\ children\\ have\\ representation\\ of\\ positive\\ integers\\ up\\ to\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ Arithmetic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ what\\ degree\\ to\\ large\\ number\\ approximations\\ continue\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ numerical\\ comparisons\\ after\\ development\\ of\\ integer\\ system\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ only\\ using\\ exact\\ integer\\ system\\,\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ faster\\ when\\ numbers\\ are\\ close\\ \\(easier\\ subtraction\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ debunked\\ by\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ analog\\ magnitude\\ system\\ has\\ effect\\,\\ then\\ large\\ differences\\ should\\ be\\ faster\\ to\\ process\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ translate\\ numbers\\ into\\ analog\\ magnitudes\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ primitive\\ number\\ systems\\ on\\ everyday\\ numerical\\ comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\:\\ neuro\\-imaging\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ exact\\ number\\ tasks\\ use\\ same\\ areas\\ as\\ large\\ approx\\ number\\ tasks\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intraparietal\\ sulcus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ large\\ approx\\ number\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ that\\ intraparietal\\ sulcus\\ also\\ involved\\ in\\ exact\\ number\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ use\\ primitive\\ large\\ approx\\ systems\\ in\\ new\\ integer\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linguistic\\ Encoding\\ of\\ Math\\ Facts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Using\\ words\\ as\\ place\\ holders\\ for\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evidence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Word\\-length\\ effect\\ on\\ arithmetic\\ calculations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bilingual\\ arithmetic\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phonological\\ length\\ effects\\ disappear\\ when\\ using\\ approximations\\ instead\\ of\\ exact\\ numbers\\ \\(b\\/c\\ bypass\\ need\\ to\\ use\\ words\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ learn\\ mental\\ arithmetic\\ faster\\ with\\ languages\\ with\\ short\\ number\\ words\\,\\ languages\\ with\\ transparent\\ wording\\ \\(ex\\.\\ regular\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19977\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vs\\.\\ irregular\\ thirteen\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Link\\ Between\\ Cognition\\ and\\ Emotion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organizational\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Separate\\ systems\\?\\ \\(modular\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cognition\\ is\\ information\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotion\\ is\\ reaction\\ to\\ that\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Single\\ system\\?\\ \\(combined\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cognition\\ is\\ process\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ response\\,\\ emotion\\ is\\ response\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interacting\\ systems\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instead\\ of\\ cognition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emotion\\,\\ both\\ have\\ effect\\ on\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Terminology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Valence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ negative\\ or\\ positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arousal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ highly\\ intense\\ or\\ low\\ intensity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Emotion\\ influences\\ Attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotional\\ Stroop\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Emotional\\ stimuli\\ attract\\ more\\ attention\\ and\\ creates\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\more\\ difficult\\ to\\ name\\ color\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;horrific\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;mountain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visual\\ search\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Search\\ speed\\ faster\\ for\\ emotional\\ stimulus\\ in\\ field\\ of\\ neutral\\ stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Search\\ speed\\ slower\\ for\\ neutral\\ stimulus\\ in\\ field\\ of\\ emotional\\ stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Face\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ upside\\ down\\,\\ happy\\ and\\ sad\\ faces\\ have\\ same\\ reaction\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ right\\-side\\ up\\,\\ sad\\ faces\\ detected\\ faster\\ \\(emotion\\ matters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Emotion\\ influences\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Flashbulb\\ Memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\highly\\ emotional\\ pivotal\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\vivid\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necc\\.\\ accurate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Word\\-Digit\\ pairing\\ memory\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neutral\\ word\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ digit\\ pair\\ forgotten\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emotional\\ word\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ digit\\ pair\\ remembered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Suggests\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neuro\\-chemical\\,\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ high\\ stress\\,\\ emotional\\ memory\\ advantage\\ disappears\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\?\\ During\\ encoding\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Better\\ attended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\?\\ After\\ encoding\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gains\\ more\\ significance\\ after\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neutral\\ stimuli\\ preceding\\ highly\\ emotional\\ stimuli\\ better\\ remembered\\,\\ but\\ only\\ with\\ short\\ lag\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\What\\ is\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ ability\\ to\\ attribute\\ mental\\ states\\ to\\ self\\ and\\ others\\,\\ and\\ to\\ use\\ those\\ mental\\ states\\ to\\ predict\\ and\\ explain\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Closely\\ related\\ to\\ Theory\\-Theory\\ of\\ Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conceptual\\ theories\\ are\\ divided\\ in\\ different\\ domains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ToM\\ is\\ way\\ to\\ explain\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ ball\\ hit\\ ball\\,\\ Homer\\ chasing\\ Bart\\,\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perception\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Belief\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Reaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Basic\\ Emotions\\/Physiology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Desire\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Reaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ do\\ we\\ use\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agency\\ Detectors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ an\\ object\\ an\\ agent\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Biological\\ Motion\\ Processing\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effortless\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ easy\\ to\\ see\\ dots\\ as\\ walking\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ found\\ even\\ in\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rich\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ determine\\ if\\ sad\\ or\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Contingent\\ Behavior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ behavior\\ that\\ depends\\ on\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gaze\\ following\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ object\\ that\\ either\\ responds\\ to\\ infant\\ or\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ follow\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gaze\\ and\\ contingent\\ object\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gaze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ not\\ follow\\ non\\-contingent\\ object\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gaze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Faces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ above\\ experiment\\,\\ object\\ with\\ face\\ elicits\\ gaze\\ following\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ do\\ we\\ develop\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ Components\\ of\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gaze\\ following\\ at\\ nine\\ months\\ for\\ sure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ that\\ 3\\ month\\ olds\\ as\\ well\\ \\(after\\ controlling\\ for\\ infants\\&rsquo\\;\\ hesitancy\\ to\\ disengage\\ from\\ faces\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Desire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ Directed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\5\\ month\\ olds\\ expect\\ actions\\ to\\ be\\ goal\\ directed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\infants\\ more\\ surprised\\ when\\ arm\\ reaching\\ to\\ new\\ goal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\as\\ opposed\\ to\\ reaching\\ from\\ new\\ path\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ only\\ when\\ actions\\ performed\\ by\\ animate\\ agent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ effect\\ for\\ metal\\ rods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ only\\ when\\ intentional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\;\\?\\?\\>\\;\\ Rationality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ expect\\ agents\\ to\\ act\\ rationally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ wall\\,\\ ball\\ jumps\\ over\\ walls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ without\\ wall\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ surprised\\ by\\ ball\\ jumping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Infants\\ expect\\ ball\\ goes\\ straight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beliefs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ NOT\\ PRESENT\\ UNTIL\\ 5\\ YRS\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ of\\ belief\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Predictions\\ based\\ on\\ false\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Depends\\ heavily\\ on\\ age\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ yr\\ olds\\ do\\ worse\\ than\\ chance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ egocentric\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ yr\\ olds\\ do\\ better\\ than\\ chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exp\\.\\)\\ Kids\\ see\\ Sally\\ taking\\ ball\\ out\\ of\\ box\\ \\(Anne\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ will\\ Anne\\ look\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ yr\\ olds\\:\\ look\\ where\\ ball\\ is\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ yr\\ olds\\:\\ look\\ in\\ box\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exp\\.\\)\\ Box\\ of\\ Smarties\\ \\(secretly\\ show\\ pencils\\ in\\ the\\ box\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ will\\ friend\\ \\(who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\)\\ think\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ box\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ yr\\ olds\\:\\ pencils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\ yr\\ olds\\:\\ Smarties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Converging\\ Evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ talk\\ about\\ wants\\ and\\ desires\\ by\\ age\\ 2\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talk\\ about\\ beliefs\\ until\\ age\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ fail\\ to\\ understand\\ emotions\\ that\\ depend\\ on\\ beliefs\\ until\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ shame\\,\\ pride\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reasoning\\ about\\ False\\ Representations\\ is\\ Hard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Take\\ picture\\ of\\ apple\\ on\\ tree\\,\\ but\\ apples\\ falls\\ from\\ tree\\ later\\,\\ where\\ is\\ the\\ apple\\ in\\ the\\ picture\\?\\ \\(false\\ representation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Requires\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strong\\ working\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Response\\ inhibition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4\\ yr\\ olds\\ and\\ Alzheimers\\ are\\ better\\ at\\ false\\ belief\\ than\\ false\\ photograph\\,\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Belief\\ understanding\\ is\\ privileged\\ b\\/c\\ separate\\ module\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\13\\ month\\ olds\\ might\\ understand\\ false\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ toddlers\\ have\\ difficulty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explanation\\:\\ belief\\ understanding\\ may\\ be\\ masked\\ on\\ explicit\\ tasks\\ by\\ the\\ slow\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\:\\ is\\ it\\ a\\ Module\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Support\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolutionarily\\ important\\?\\ Humans\\ are\\ social\\ beings\\ and\\ cooperate\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brain\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;pocket\\ knife\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ tools\\/modules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Object\\ recognition\\,\\ face\\ recognition\\,\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rapid\\ and\\ consistent\\ development\\ of\\ many\\ abilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinct\\ neural\\ bias\\:\\ specifically\\ dedicated\\ brain\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ brain\\ regions\\ respond\\ more\\ to\\ false\\ beliefs\\ than\\ false\\ photographs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\False\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ Anne\\,\\ lasagna\\,\\ change\\ food\\ on\\ dish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Temporo\\-parietal\\ junction\\*\\ specific\\ to\\ social\\ cognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Medial\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\*\\ specific\\ to\\ social\\ cognition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Posterior\\ cingulated\\ cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\False\\ photographs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ Volcano\\,\\ satellite\\ photos\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abnormal\\ case\\ study\\:\\ Autism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\abnormal\\ social\\/communicative\\ development\\,\\ genetic\\,\\ lifelong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ as\\ strong\\ with\\ gaze\\ following\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\delayed\\ onset\\ of\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\lack\\ of\\ pretend\\ play\\ \\(an\\ example\\ of\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ skill\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Much\\ better\\ at\\ false\\ photographs\\ than\\ false\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ brain\\ in\\ Autism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Movie\\ about\\ shapes\\ and\\ emotions\\ \\(bully\\,\\ hiding\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Non\\-Autistic\\ kids\\ describe\\ as\\ story\\ and\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ state\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Autistic\\ kids\\ describe\\ as\\ shapes\\ and\\ motions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Physical\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Activity\\ in\\ brain\\ for\\ social\\ vs\\ non\\-social\\ movies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Big\\ difference\\ in\\ normal\\ subjects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Small\\ difference\\ in\\ Autistic\\ subjects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conclusions\\ about\\ Autisim\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Impaired\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ module\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ deficits\\ in\\ cognition\\ of\\ language\\ that\\ case\\ this\\ effect\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lack\\ of\\ motivation\\ or\\ interest\\ in\\ social\\ relationships\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\ Unique\\ to\\ Humans\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Leading\\ evidence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ evidence\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chimps\\ do\\ have\\ gaze\\ following\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ instinctual\\?\\ Or\\ do\\ they\\ really\\ understand\\ sight\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ detect\\ based\\ on\\ body\\ orientation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ detect\\ if\\ eyes\\ blindfolded\\ vs\\ mouth\\ blindfolded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Depends\\ heavily\\ on\\ the\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ better\\ in\\ competitive\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chimps\\ realize\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Help\\ humans\\ to\\ accomplish\\ their\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chimps\\ can\\ learn\\ through\\ observation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Basic\\ tool\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ copy\\ exact\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\ learn\\ to\\ turn\\ light\\ on\\ with\\ their\\ heads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ animals\\ represent\\ mental\\ states\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ follow\\ gazes\\ \\&\\;\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ interpret\\ basic\\ intentional\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ evidence\\ that\\ they\\ surpass\\ human\\ 3\\ yr\\ old\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Ubiquitous\\ cognitive\\ skill\\ that\\ humans\\ use\\ often\\ and\\ develop\\ early\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ At\\ least\\ partially\\ distinct\\ from\\ other\\ cognitive\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Capacities\\ that\\ adults\\ have\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ present\\ in\\ animals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Lecture\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structure\\ of\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Speech\\ errors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Speech\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ is\\ uniquely\\ human\\ \\&ldquo\\;human\\ essence\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Almost\\ all\\ humans\\ learn\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ so\\ is\\ math\\,\\ art\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ how\\ is\\ language\\ tied\\ together\\ with\\ other\\ uniquely\\ human\\ abilities\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Modularity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\humans\\ have\\ these\\ unique\\,\\ independent\\ modules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Language\\ changes\\ human\\ thought\\ in\\ certain\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\allows\\ us\\ to\\ have\\ other\\ unique\\ abilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ combinatorial\\ thought\\ \\(Spelke\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Language\\ and\\ other\\ abilities\\ depend\\ on\\ another\\ ability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ innate\\ social\\ learning\\ \\(Tomasello\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Properties\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Overall\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Behaviorist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ View\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ complicated\\ habit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utterances\\ associated\\ with\\ stimulus\\,\\ operant\\ condition\\ based\\ on\\ feedback\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grammar\\ is\\ a\\ complicated\\ \\&ldquo\\;word\\ chain\\ device\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Associations\\ between\\ sequences\\ of\\ words\\ \\(6x6x6\\ terms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ constrain\\ word\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ shallowness\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chomsky\\ \\(1959\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ word\\ does\\ not\\ predict\\ the\\ next\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ grammar\\ depend\\ on\\ previous\\ associations\\ \\(behaviorists\\)\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ why\\ is\\ this\\ sentence\\ grammatical\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ explain\\ language\\,\\ need\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ levels\\ of\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rules\\ for\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ representations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ are\\ mental\\ constructs\\ \\(against\\ behaviorists\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ origins\\ of\\ cognitive\\ revolution\\ in\\ American\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rules\\ \\-\\ Grammar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Set\\ of\\ \\ \\;rules\\ to\\ help\\ govern\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ no\\ rules\\,\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ individually\\ learn\\ 10\\^30\\ unique\\ sentences\\ \\<\\;20\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\language\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\productive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\creative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(can\\ embed\\ one\\ sentence\\ in\\ another\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\grammar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ set\\ of\\ mental\\ rules\\ that\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\/produce\\ novel\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\discrete\\ combinatory\\ system\\ \\(like\\ genetic\\ code\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\words\\ maintain\\ individual\\ properties\\ \\(unlike\\ paint\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ combine\\ to\\ create\\ new\\ meaning\\ for\\ sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ These\\ rules\\ describe\\ language\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ prescribe\\ linguistic\\ behavior\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\prescriptive\\ rules\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ \\&ldquo\\;should\\&rdquo\\;\\ talk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\usually\\ formally\\ taught\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ double\\ negatives\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\descriptive\\ rules\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ language\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;actually\\ spoken\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\from\\ implicit\\ knowledge\\ of\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ verb\\ agrees\\ with\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ the\\ article\\ comes\\ before\\ noun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\African\\ American\\ vernacular\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perfectly\\ good\\ descriptive\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ prescriptive\\ rules\\ against\\ dialect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ These\\ rules\\ are\\ implicit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ aware\\ of\\ when\\ learning\\ as\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\adults\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ know\\ these\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ articulate\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\thus\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ teach\\ them\\ to\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\example\\:\\ pronouns\\ \\(verb\\ changes\\ object\\/subject\\ of\\ washing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ promised\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ wash\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;promised\\ Bill\\ to\\ wash\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;persuaded\\ Bill\\ to\\ wash\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ persuaded\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ wash\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Arbitrariness\\ \\-\\ Lexicon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Very\\ little\\ connection\\ between\\ sounds\\ of\\ words\\ and\\ meanings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ Dog\\ and\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Words\\ combine\\ in\\ odd\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ blueberries\\ \\(b\\/c\\ blue\\)\\,\\ cranberries\\ \\(what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cran\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ parkways\\ \\(drive\\)\\ and\\ driveways\\ \\(park\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ tree\\ house\\ \\(in\\ a\\ tree\\)\\ and\\ dog\\ house\\ \\(not\\ in\\ a\\ dog\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ things\\ must\\ be\\ memorized\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Language\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Grammar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Words\\ \\(Lexicon\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\-\\-systematic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-arbitrary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\-\\-rule\\-generated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-memorized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\Knowing\\ Language\\ is\\ knowing\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Properties\\ of\\ words\\ \\(Lexicon\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phonology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sound\\ of\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Semantics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ meaning\\ of\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Structure\\ of\\ language\\ \\(Grammar\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ word\\ combine\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ combinations\\ mean\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Universal\\ Design\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Levels\\ of\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phonemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\categories\\ of\\ speech\\ sounds\\ \\(vowels\\/consonants\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\contrastive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ changing\\ phonemes\\ changes\\ meaning\\ of\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ English\\,\\ not\\ Japanese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\combine\\ in\\ rule\\-governed\\ fashion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;tl\\&rdquo\\;\\ cannot\\ start\\ word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morphemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\smallest\\ meaningful\\ unit\\ of\\ language\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\beginning\\ of\\ arbitrariness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\combine\\ to\\ form\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;re\\-\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rule\\-governed\\ combination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\complete\\ meanings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\have\\ syntactic\\ categories\\ \\(adj\\,\\ verb\\,\\ noun\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\stored\\ as\\ lexicon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phrases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\also\\ have\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\noun\\ phrase\\:\\ \\(article\\)\\ \\+\\ \\(adjective\\)\\ \\+\\ noun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\also\\ rule\\-governed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\gruffly\\ grack\\ \\=\\ a\\ grack\\ that\\ is\\ gruffly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Levels\\ of\\ Rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phonetics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ sounds\\ produced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phonology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ phonemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morphology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ morphemes\\ and\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syntax\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ phrases\\ and\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Words\\ are\\ grouped\\ into\\ phrases\\ and\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rules\\ of\\ syntax\\ govern\\ how\\ words\\ combine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*\\*Grammatical\\ rules\\ permit\\ the\\ productivity\\ of\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sentence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Noun\\ Phrase\\ \\+\\ Verb\\ Phrase\\ \\+\\ Sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Faulkner\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Pinker\\ said\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Faulkner\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ fields\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\+semantics\\:\\ study\\ of\\ meanings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\+pragmatics\\:\\ how\\ context\\ influences\\ language\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\+discourse\\:\\ how\\ sentence\\ combine\\ to\\ form\\ larger\\ units\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ from\\ speech\\ errors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ use\\ rules\\ of\\ language\\ to\\ build\\ structures\\ on\\ the\\ fly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creating\\ new\\ sentences\\,\\ words\\,\\ sequence\\ of\\ sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Breakdowns\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Speech\\ Errors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slips\\ of\\ the\\ Tongue\\ \\(Spoonerisms\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;you\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hi\\<\\/span\\>\\ssed\\ all\\ my\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\my\\<\\/span\\>\\stery\\ lectures\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;he\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\s\\<\\/span\\>\\hoving\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\le\\<\\/span\\>\\opard\\ to\\ his\\ flock\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Types\\ of\\ slips\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anticipation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\L\\<\\/span\\>\\eading\\ list\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ reading\\ list\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exchange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sp\\<\\/span\\>\\eer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\B\\<\\/span\\>\\ill\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ spill\\ beer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perseveration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beef\\ n\\<\\/span\\>\\ee\\<\\/span\\>\\dle\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ beef\\ noodle\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Facts\\ about\\ slips\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slips\\ occur\\ within\\ a\\ level\\,\\ between\\ objects\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ type\\/category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Word\\ level\\:\\ nouns\\ w\\/\\ nouns\\,\\ verbs\\ w\\/\\ verbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phoneme\\ level\\:\\ consonants\\ w\\/\\ consonants\\,\\ vowels\\ w\\/\\ vowels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\DON\\&rsquo\\;T\\ cross\\ levels\\ \\(words\\ w\\/\\ phonemes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\DON\\&rsquo\\;T\\ cross\\ types\\/categories\\ \\(consonants\\ w\\/\\ vowels\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ we\\ have\\ syntactic\\ and\\ phonemic\\ representations\\ at\\ these\\ levels\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;slots\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ categories\\ that\\ are\\ sometimes\\ switched\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Models\\ of\\ Speech\\ Production\\ are\\ very\\ complicated\\,\\ include\\ many\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brief\\ Tour\\ of\\ Speech\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phonemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vowels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loud\\,\\ unimpeded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vary\\ by\\:\\ placement\\ of\\ tongue\\,\\ rounding\\ of\\ lips\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consonants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ must\\ be\\ impeded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Classified\\ by\\ place\\ of\\ articulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lips\\:\\ m\\,\\ b\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dental\\:\\ t\\,\\ n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Palatal\\:\\ g\\,\\ k\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ classified\\ by\\ kind\\ of\\ articulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stop\\:\\ p\\,\\ b\\,\\ d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nasal\\:\\ n\\,\\ m\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sound\\ through\\ nose\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fricative\\:\\ ch\\,\\ th\\,\\ f\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ sound\\ from\\ around\\ tongue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ features\\:\\ voicing\\ \\(movement\\ of\\ vocal\\ cords\\)\\,\\ creaky\\ voice\\,\\ clicks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*Phonemes\\ are\\ a\\ bundle\\ of\\ features\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phonological\\ rules\\ typically\\ refer\\ to\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Plural\\ markers\\ w\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;z\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ though\\ two\\ are\\ different\\ sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perception\\ of\\ Phonemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ identify\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speaker\\ brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sound\\ production\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sound\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;listening\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;listener\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Levels\\:\\ linguistic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;physiological\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;acoustic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;physiological\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;linguistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\String\\ Fallacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speech\\ sounds\\ are\\ separable\\ and\\ sequential\\,\\ like\\ beads\\ on\\ a\\ string\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discrete\\ units\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speech\\ sounds\\ are\\ merged\\ together\\ in\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affected\\ by\\ sounds\\ next\\ to\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ Problems\\ of\\ Speech\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Segmentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Where\\ does\\ one\\ phoneme\\ end\\ and\\ the\\ next\\ begins\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Invariance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ identify\\ phonemes\\ in\\ different\\ contexts\\ \\(speaker\\,\\ tone\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hints\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Top\\ down\\ processing\\:\\ context\\ has\\ effect\\ on\\ speech\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phoneme\\ restoration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ex\\.\\)\\ blurred\\ out\\ legislature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reduction\\ of\\ repeated\\ words\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ say\\ common\\ word\\ faster\\,\\ more\\ blurred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ complex\\ features\\ of\\ phonemes\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;d\\&rdquo\\;\\ chart\\ is\\ different\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;di\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;du\\&rdquo\\;\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ later\\ context\\ of\\ vowel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\,\\ the\\ beginning\\ point\\ is\\ near\\ 1300\\ frequency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speech\\ sounds\\ vary\\ along\\ a\\ continuum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ our\\ perception\\ of\\ sound\\ is\\ discrete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Categorical\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ adults\\,\\ In\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universal\\ stages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Universality\\ of\\ acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critical\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Categorical\\ Perception\\ \\(despite\\ continuous\\ stimulus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Identification\\:\\ sharp\\ ba\\-da\\-ga\\ identification\\ curve\\,\\ very\\ categorical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discrimination\\:\\ sharp\\ peaks\\ near\\ categorical\\ boundaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ not\\ much\\ discrimination\\ within\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Development\\ of\\ Speech\\ Perception\\ in\\ Infants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Infants\\/Newborns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Method\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Human\\ Amplitude\\ Sucking\\ Procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pacifier\\ sucking\\ results\\ in\\ sound\\ stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Habituation\\ after\\ a\\ while\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Switch\\ stimulus\\ \\(voice\\ onset\\ time\\ \\=\\ phoneme\\ category\\ boundaries\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Predictions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Innate\\ categorical\\ perception\\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\remain\\ habituated\\ within\\ category\\,\\ dis\\-habituate\\ b\\/t\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Untuned\\ sensitivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dis\\-habituate\\ within\\ category\\ and\\ between\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Insensitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\remain\\ habitutated\\ within\\ category\\ and\\ between\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Results\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\YES\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dis\\-habituation\\ at\\ categorical\\ boundaries\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Newborns\\ are\\ universal\\ listeners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ability\\ to\\ perceive\\ speech\\ categorically\\ is\\ innate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Newborns\\ sensitive\\ to\\ nearly\\ every\\ phonological\\ distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Regardless\\ of\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Older\\ Infants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Method\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Conditioned\\ Head\\ Turn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trained\\ with\\ 2\\ different\\ auditory\\ stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ change\\ in\\ stimuli\\ \\=\\ toy\\ lights\\ up\\,\\ baby\\ turns\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adjust\\ stimuli\\ differences\\,\\ see\\ if\\ baby\\ continues\\ to\\ turn\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ non\\-native\\ languages\\ \\-\\ Hindi\\ and\\ Salish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Results\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\6\\-8\\ months\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ universal\\ listeners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\8\\-10\\ months\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hindi\\ distinction\\,\\ but\\ losing\\ Salish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\10\\-12\\ months\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lost\\ ability\\ to\\ notice\\ Hindi\\ and\\ Salish\\ contrasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ Development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\-Linguistic\\ Communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Before\\ children\\ begin\\ speaking\\,\\ they\\ develop\\ communicative\\ skills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Turn\\ taking\\ in\\ interactions\\ at\\ 3\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Joint\\ attention\\:\\ ability\\ to\\ follow\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eye\\ gaze\\ at\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gesture\\ and\\ vocalize\\ to\\ request\\ objects\\ at\\ 8\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Developments\\ in\\ Sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Make\\ same\\ sounds\\ regardless\\ of\\ native\\ language\\ at\\ 6\\ months\\ \\(even\\ deaf\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reflects\\ motor\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Babbling\\ changes\\ to\\ reflect\\ native\\ language\\ after\\ 6\\ months\\ \\(deaf\\ too\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reflects\\ linguistic\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Single\\-Word\\ Speaker\\:\\ 12\\-24\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Holophrases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 6\\ month\\ block\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Single\\ words\\ used\\ to\\ express\\ entire\\ proposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\b\\/c\\ lack\\ articulatory\\ capacity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\/c\\ lack\\ mental\\ capacity\\ for\\ larger\\ propositions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\b\\/c\\ lack\\ knowledge\\ of\\ language\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ seen\\ in\\ immigrant\\ children\\ of\\ 3\\-4\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tend\\ to\\ be\\ concrete\\ nouns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\,\\ children\\ know\\ considerably\\ more\\ than\\ they\\ speak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Look\\ at\\ either\\ of\\ big\\ bird\\/cookie\\ monster\\ tickling\\ pictures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Know\\ subject\\/object\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Telegraphic\\ Speech\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 18\\-30\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ to\\ three\\ word\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ correct\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leave\\ out\\ function\\ morphemes\\ \\(\\-ed\\,\\ \\-ing\\)\\ and\\ other\\ grammar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grammatical\\ Explosion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 24\\-36\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Appearance\\ of\\ grammatical\\ morphemes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ndash\\;ing\\,\\ plural\\ \\&ldquo\\;s\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ past\\ tense\\ marker\\ \\(\\-ed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Over\\-regularization\\ Errors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Child\\ applies\\ a\\ regular\\ rule\\ to\\ irregular\\ or\\ novel\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\-ed\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;sayed\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;said\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strong\\ evidence\\ he\\/she\\ has\\ the\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universal\\ phases\\ in\\ early\\ language\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pre\\-linguistic\\ phase\\ \\(8\\-13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ word\\ speech\\ \\(12\\-24\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Telegraphic\\ speech\\ \\(18\\-30\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grammatical\\ explosion\\ \\(24\\-36\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Near\\ perfect\\ syntax\\ by\\ 4\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ are\\ there\\ universal\\ phases\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parental\\ teaching\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Meh\\,\\ not\\ so\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brain\\ maturation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Correlated\\ with\\ motor\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cognitive\\ development\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Need\\ concepts\\ of\\ past\\ tense\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stages\\ caused\\ by\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ learning\\ device\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biological\\ machinery\\ that\\ determines\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ the\\ only\\ possible\\ way\\ to\\ learn\\ language\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Acquiring\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ is\\ universal\\ to\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\,\\ language\\ is\\ also\\ limited\\ to\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ learn\\ the\\ language\\ that\\ they\\ hear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ can\\ be\\ both\\ innate\\ and\\ learned\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ can\\ we\\ separate\\ those\\ two\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ biological\\ capacity\\ for\\ language\\ development\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Models\\ for\\ Natural\\ Experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ vary\\ things\\ about\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ very\\ things\\ about\\ the\\ learner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cross\\-cultural\\ Variations\\ \\-\\ Environmental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;American\\ Middle\\ Class\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\children\\ must\\ be\\ taught\\ to\\ speak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\children\\ often\\ alone\\ in\\ home\\ with\\ adult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\converse\\ with\\ them\\ from\\ birth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\using\\ \\&ldquo\\;babytalk\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\much\\ higher\\ in\\ pitch\\,\\ much\\ wider\\ changes\\ in\\ pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Trackton\\&rdquo\\;\\ rural\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\belief\\ that\\ children\\ are\\ unteachable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\one\\ adult\\ watching\\ many\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\little\\ conversation\\ with\\ children\\ until\\ they\\ can\\ hold\\ the\\ floor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\no\\ evidence\\ of\\ adaptations\\ in\\ talking\\ to\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kalui\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Discourage\\ babbling\\ and\\ early\\ talking\\ b\\/c\\ supernatural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parent\\ speaks\\ for\\ child\\ as\\ way\\ to\\ teach\\ them\\ to\\ speak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ children\\ says\\ recognizable\\ words\\,\\ teach\\ them\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ on\\ assertiveness\\,\\ not\\ vocabulary\\ and\\ grammar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ varies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ at\\ which\\ adults\\ speak\\ to\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amount\\ of\\ speech\\ to\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nature\\ of\\ speech\\ \\(babytalk\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consistent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hear\\ lots\\ of\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Related\\ to\\ physical\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meaningful\\ social\\ contexts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Provisional\\ Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Variations\\ in\\ experience\\ do\\ not\\ prevent\\ children\\ from\\ rapidly\\ acquiring\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ all\\ these\\ children\\ have\\ rich\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ due\\ to\\ child\\,\\ or\\ due\\ to\\ environment\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Absence\\ of\\ Linguistic\\ Experience\\ \\-\\ Environmental\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Home\\ Sign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ deaf\\ children\\ born\\ to\\ hearing\\ parents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parents\\ use\\ home\\ sign\\ gestural\\ systems\\,\\ not\\ formal\\ sign\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Goldin\\-Meadow\\ and\\ Mylander\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\-4\\ years\\ old\\ \\,\\ no\\ ASL\\,\\ profound\\ hearing\\ loss\\,\\ no\\ English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\deitic\\ gesture\\:\\ points\\ indicate\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\point\\ to\\ object\\,\\ similar\\ object\\,\\ or\\ place\\ of\\ earlier\\ gesture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\characterizing\\ gestures\\:\\ iconic\\,\\ indicate\\ actions\\ or\\ attributes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\similar\\ progression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\first\\ words\\/signs\\ at\\ age\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rudimentary\\ sentences\\ at\\ age\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\elaborations\\ at\\ 2\\.5\\-3\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sequences\\ are\\ systematic\\ and\\ consistent\\ for\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\word\\ order\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creolization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Nicaraguan\\ Sign\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ access\\ to\\ signed\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ oralist\\ school\\ created\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pidgin\\ emerges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creolization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Age\\ matters\\:\\ younger\\ learners\\ are\\ more\\ fluent\\ and\\ grammatical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Input\\ matters\\:\\ those\\ who\\ enter\\ when\\ language\\ is\\ more\\ mature\\ are\\ more\\ fluent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Environmental\\ Summaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Children\\ acquire\\ language\\ in\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ environments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Will\\ structure\\ chaotic\\ input\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ create\\ language\\ in\\ absence\\ of\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Innate\\ linguistic\\ abilities\\ which\\ fill\\ in\\ gaps\\ in\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ is\\ by\\ product\\ of\\ developing\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ Learner\\ is\\ an\\ Isolate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Against\\ behaviorist\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ enough\\ systematic\\ feedback\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parents\\ correct\\ truth\\ of\\ statements\\,\\ not\\ grammar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Children\\ make\\ very\\ few\\ errors\\,\\ already\\ learned\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ Yes\\/No\\ question\\ construction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Create\\ by\\ moving\\ auxiliary\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ not\\ always\\ by\\ first\\ or\\ second\\ in\\ order\\ of\\ sentence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Find\\ by\\ locating\\ main\\ clause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ no\\ obvious\\ indicator\\ of\\ main\\ clause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yet\\,\\ children\\ master\\ by\\ age\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ even\\ shown\\ in\\ errors\\,\\ tag\\ questions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;amn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ I\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ us\\ born\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ born\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ are\\ born\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ isolated\\,\\ they\\ develop\\ and\\ produce\\ complicated\\ language\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effects\\ of\\ innateness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Critical\\ Periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Window\\ or\\ time\\ in\\ development\\,\\ when\\ experience\\ will\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\ that\\ they\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ before\\ or\\ after\\ critical\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ sparrow\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exposure\\ only\\ during\\ 20\\ and\\ 70\\ days\\ to\\ get\\ full\\ sparrow\\ songs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ exposed\\ before\\ of\\ after\\,\\ develops\\ sub\\-songs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ there\\ a\\ critical\\ period\\ for\\ language\\ acquisition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isabelle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cut\\ off\\ by\\ age\\ 6\\,\\ normal\\ by\\ age\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genie\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ isolated\\ from\\ 20\\ months\\ to\\ 13\\ years\\,\\ kept\\ pidgin\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chelsea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ born\\ deaf\\,\\ diagnosed\\ as\\ retarded\\,\\ hearing\\ restored\\ at\\ age\\ 31\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\but\\ no\\ progress\\ beyond\\ 2\\ word\\ sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ critical\\ period\\ that\\ closes\\ around\\ age\\ 13\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ need\\ to\\ consider\\ other\\ effects\\ from\\ these\\ cases\\ \\(limited\\ social\\ interactions\\,\\ trauma\\,\\ etc\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sapir\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ our\\ thoughts\\ are\\ fundamentally\\ influenced\\ by\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chomsky\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ language\\ is\\ a\\ mirror\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Have\\ to\\ assume\\ that\\ some\\ pre\\-linguistic\\ notions\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Which\\ comes\\ first\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ development\\?\\ In\\ evolution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Are\\ fundamental\\ aspects\\ of\\ cognition\\ universal\\ or\\ dependent\\ on\\ language\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ Proposals\\ \\(from\\ least\\ controversial\\ to\\ most\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ communicates\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ influences\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ shapes\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ creates\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ Communicates\\ Thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Study\\ when\\ language\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ express\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\:\\ Nicaraguan\\ Sign\\ Language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Early\\ cohorts\\ lack\\ signs\\ for\\ left\\ and\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ this\\ mean\\ that\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ about\\ left\\ and\\ right\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ really\\,\\ they\\ notice\\ the\\ errors\\ and\\ are\\ frustrated\\ by\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Effect\\ of\\ language\\ on\\ communication\\ \\!\\=\\ effect\\ of\\ language\\ on\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ Influences\\ Thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speaker\\ words\\ can\\ consciously\\ shape\\ subsequent\\ thoughts\\ in\\ listener\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Persuasion\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ can\\ also\\ influence\\ unconscious\\ thought\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\:\\ misinformation\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Labels\\ affect\\ perception\\ and\\ recall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ picture\\,\\ described\\ as\\ window\\ vs\\.\\ diamond\\ in\\ rectangle\\,\\ then\\ draw\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subject\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drawing\\ looks\\ more\\ like\\ window\\ or\\ like\\ shapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Linguistic\\ Relativity\\ \\(language\\ shapes\\ thought\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speakers\\ of\\ different\\ languages\\ will\\ tend\\ to\\ think\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Depends\\ on\\ what\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ habitually\\ encoded\\ in\\ their\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Habits\\ of\\ language\\ become\\ habits\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ attention\\,\\ memory\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Make\\ us\\ more\\ aware\\ of\\ certain\\ things\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ elephant\\ ate\\ the\\ peanuts\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\English\\,\\ mandarin\\,\\ Russian\\,\\ Turkish\\:\\ differ\\ in\\ markers\\ for\\ tense\\,\\ male\\/female\\,\\ extent\\,\\ witnessed\\ or\\ hearsay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\English\\ speaker\\ thinks\\ more\\ about\\ tense\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Turkish\\ speakers\\ think\\ more\\ about\\ how\\ they\\ heard\\ about\\ info\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Russian\\ speakers\\ think\\ about\\ if\\ task\\ finished\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linguistic\\ Determinism\\ \\(Whorfian\\ hypothesis\\)\\ \\(language\\ creates\\ thought\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ determines\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ think\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ construct\\ reality\\ from\\ \\<\\;\\?\\?\\?\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ I\\ can\\ verbalize\\ it\\,\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ about\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\ with\\ Whorf\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;language\\ determines\\ thought\\ because\\ language\\ is\\ different\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\circular\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\need\\ an\\ independent\\ measure\\ of\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\often\\ based\\ on\\ poor\\ linguistics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\because\\ languages\\ are\\ translatable\\,\\ languages\\ must\\ use\\ same\\ concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ thoughts\\ cant\\ be\\ linguistic\\ b\\/c\\ animals\\ and\\ infants\\ have\\ thoughts\\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\not\\ all\\ divisions\\ of\\ reality\\ seem\\ equally\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\some\\ \\&ldquo\\;gavagai\\&rdquo\\;\\ interpretations\\ more\\ natural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\common\\ word\\ for\\ all\\ dogs\\ \\(as\\ cognitive\\ concept\\)\\ across\\ all\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\what\\ limits\\ the\\ concepts\\ that\\ languages\\ can\\ express\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\:\\ Language\\ and\\ Color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kind\\ of\\ against\\ linguistic\\ relativism\\ \\&\\;\\ determinism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ cut\\ up\\ color\\ wheel\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ \\(red\\,\\ green\\,\\ orange\\,\\ etc\\ vs\\ warm\\,\\ cool\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ not\\ arbitrary\\ \\(no\\ discontinuous\\ chunks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiment\\:\\ Heider\\ \\&\\;\\ Oliver\\,\\ English\\ vs\\ Dani\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\English\\:\\ specific\\ words\\ for\\ blue\\ and\\ yellow\\,\\ and\\ dark\\ and\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dani\\:\\ word\\ for\\ warm\\ and\\ light\\,\\ word\\ for\\ dark\\ and\\ blue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ in\\ categorization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\English\\:\\ expect\\ sensitivity\\ to\\ differences\\ across\\ boundaries\\,\\ not\\ within\\ boundaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\b\\/c\\ language\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ treat\\ them\\ as\\ different\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dani\\:\\ only\\ one\\ boundary\\,\\ so\\ expect\\ sensitivity\\ within\\ boundary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similarity\\ space\\ for\\ color\\ names\\ varies\\ with\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarity\\ space\\ for\\ color\\ memory\\ \\&\\;\\ ID\\ is\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ blurring\\ across\\ boundaries\\ for\\ Dani\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Caveats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tasks\\ that\\ encourage\\ verbal\\ encoding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ language\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tasks\\ that\\ are\\ perceptual\\ in\\ nature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;less\\ language\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ boundaries\\ are\\ in\\ conflict\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ language\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Universal\\ effects\\ are\\ always\\ observed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Privileged\\ status\\ of\\ focal\\ colors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Color\\ perception\\ is\\ biologically\\ constrained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\:\\ Language\\ and\\ Space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kind\\ of\\ against\\ linguistic\\ relativism\\ and\\ determinism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mapping\\ from\\ concepts\\ to\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Space\\ is\\ continuous\\,\\ but\\ language\\ chops\\ it\\ up\\ \\(digital\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ language\\ concepts\\ group\\ together\\ events\\ and\\ objects\\ which\\ are\\ perceptually\\ distinct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ these\\ linguistic\\ categories\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universalist\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Universal\\ set\\ of\\ spatial\\ concepts\\/primitives\\ available\\ before\\ learn\\ the\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Word\\ learning\\ is\\ mapping\\ words\\ to\\ these\\ concepts\\ \\(linking\\ of\\ circles\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ languages\\ chop\\ up\\ concepts\\ differently\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ dutch\\ has\\ many\\ words\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Too\\ many\\ concepts\\ for\\ children\\ to\\ sort\\ out\\ and\\ map\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Revised\\ Universalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pre\\-linguistic\\ children\\ have\\ multi\\-dimensional\\ concept\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ natural\\ language\\ spatial\\ concepts\\ are\\ areas\\ or\\ vectors\\ in\\ this\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Word\\ learning\\ is\\ mapping\\ words\\ to\\ these\\ vectors\\ \\(assigning\\ direction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Whorfian\\ Alternative\\:\\ Linguistic\\ Determinism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ learning\\ leads\\ to\\ concept\\ acquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ do\\ these\\ concepts\\ from\\?\\ How\\ can\\ you\\ acquire\\ them\\ if\\ you\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ had\\ them\\ before\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ English\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ or\\ in\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\ Korean\\ \\&ldquo\\;kkita\\ or\\ nohta\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;fit\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\English\\:\\ support\\ or\\ containment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Korean\\:\\ tight\\ fit\\ or\\ loose\\ fit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shows\\ dis\\-habituation\\ so\\ concepts\\ are\\ available\\ to\\ English\\ speaking\\ kids\\ even\\ though\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ learned\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Support\\ universalist\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ do\\ show\\ for\\ adults\\ an\\ effect\\ of\\ language\\ on\\ salience\\ of\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ on\\ habituation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\:\\ Language\\ and\\ Number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Better\\ evidence\\ for\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\ and\\ relativism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Besides\\ small\\ and\\ large\\ systems\\,\\ an\\ integer\\ system\\ \\(uses\\ language\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ Piraha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ independent\\:\\ small\\ exact\\,\\ large\\ approx\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Language\\ dependent\\:\\ large\\ exact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Piraha\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ exact\\ language\\ system\\ in\\ their\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ when\\ copying\\ tallies\\,\\ piraha\\ cannot\\ copy\\ down\\ more\\ than\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ system\\ for\\ large\\ exact\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reformations\\ of\\ Linguistic\\ Relativity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mechanisms\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ effect\\ of\\ language\\ on\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Habitual\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ grammatical\\ distinction\\ affects\\ attention\\ of\\ world\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Languages\\ vary\\ in\\ which\\ distinctions\\ are\\ syntactically\\ realize\\ or\\ mandatory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ gender\\ difference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ John\\ Lucy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maya\\ \\(classifier\\ language\\)\\ vs\\.\\ English\\ \\(count\\ nouns\\)\\ on\\ Root\\ nouns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\English\\ more\\ accurate\\ with\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mayans\\ more\\ accurate\\ with\\ substance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ see\\ correlation\\ point\\ below\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Thinking\\ of\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slobin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ speakers\\ must\\ attend\\ to\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ situation\\ to\\ speak\\ different\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\example\\:\\ English\\ speakers\\ encode\\ manner\\ of\\ motion\\ in\\ verb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spanish\\ speakers\\ focus\\ on\\ encoding\\ path\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Language\\ use\\ in\\ cognitive\\ tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ color\\ study\\ as\\ verbal\\ loop\\/rehearsal\\,\\ or\\ perception\\ task\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cases\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\STM\\:\\ verbal\\ rehearsal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LTM\\:\\ verbal\\ encoding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Categorization\\:\\ use\\ language\\ labels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mental\\ operations\\ and\\ reasoning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ conditional\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\English\\ has\\ conditional\\ form\\ \\&ldquo\\;if\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ \\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chinese\\ has\\ no\\ formal\\ conditional\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chinese\\ students\\ have\\ poor\\ reasoning\\ with\\ conditional\\ statements\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ really\\,\\ subsequent\\ research\\ falsified\\ \\(translation\\,\\ instructions\\,\\ examples\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ difficulties\\ arise\\ when\\ testing\\ across\\ two\\ populations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problems\\/Questions\\ with\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ the\\ tasks\\ measure\\ thought\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Or\\ effects\\ on\\ linguistics\\ on\\:\\ language\\ use\\,\\ communication\\,\\ beliefs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reasoning\\ from\\ correlations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ A\\ is\\ correlated\\ to\\ B\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ could\\ cause\\ B\\ \\(language\\ affects\\ thought\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\ could\\ cause\\ A\\ \\(thought\\ affects\\ language\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Both\\ A\\ and\\ B\\ caused\\ by\\ third\\ variable\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ and\\ thought\\ both\\ affected\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Culture\\,\\ education\\,\\ cognitive\\ strategies\\,\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Final\\ Points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Non\\-controversial\\ claims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ communicates\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ language\\ impedes\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ influences\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ labels\\ affect\\ perceptual\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Controversial\\ claims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ shapes\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loose\\/tight\\ spatial\\ relation\\,\\ color\\ \\(maybe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ creates\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ exact\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\3\\ Puzzles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\False\\ Positive\\ Problem\\ \\(see\\ Representative\\ Bias\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\/1000\\ have\\ disease\\,\\ test\\ has\\ 5\\%\\ false\\ positive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\50\\ tested\\ positive\\,\\ only\\ 1\\ has\\ it\\ \\=\\ 2\\%\\,\\ not\\ 95\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sugar\\ \\(see\\ Confirmation\\ Bias\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sugar\\ causes\\ hyperactivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parents\\ doubt\\ evidence\\ against\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;ing\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\_n\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(see\\ Conjuction\\ Fallacy\\/Availability\\ Heuristic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ many\\ words\\ end\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;ing\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ end\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\_n\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Higher\\ estimates\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;ing\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\_n\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ Thinking\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pre\\-Theoretical\\ Notion\\ \\(characteristics\\ different\\ from\\ many\\ things\\ studied\\ before\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Process\\ often\\ accessible\\ to\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Applies\\ across\\ questions\\ which\\ vary\\ widely\\ in\\ content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guides\\ our\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ often\\ be\\ verbalized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modularity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fodor\\:\\ modular\\ perceptual\\ systems\\ \\(vision\\,\\ audition\\)\\,\\ modular\\ input\\ systems\\ \\(object\\ recognition\\,\\ language\\)\\,\\ all\\ go\\ to\\ central\\ workspace\\ \\(higher\\ cognitive\\ functions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thought\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ is\\ thought\\ \\(central\\ processor\\)\\ non\\-modular\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ domain\\ specific\\ \\(no\\ dedicated\\ input\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ entirely\\ innate\\ \\(new\\ ways\\ to\\ think\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ shallow\\ well\\-defined\\ output\\ \\(no\\ clear\\ output\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ informationally\\ encapsulated\\ \\(can\\ draw\\ upon\\ other\\ information\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ mandatory\\ \\(often\\ give\\ up\\ before\\ finish\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Four\\ traditional\\ divisions\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Just\\ traditional\\ divisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Normative\\ theory\\ vs\\.\\ descriptive\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Normative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ we\\ should\\ think\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ correct\\ conclusion\\ the\\ most\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Logic\\ \\=\\ n\\.t\\.\\ or\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Statistics\\ \\=\\ n\\.t\\.\\ of\\ inductive\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Economics\\ \\=\\ n\\.t\\.\\ of\\ decision\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Descriptive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Characterizing\\ how\\ we\\ actually\\ think\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experimental\\ psychologist\\,\\ behavioral\\ economists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Judgments\\ \\(Induction\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Na\\ï\\;ve\\ Statistics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Induction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reasoning\\ from\\ examples\\ \\(to\\ generalizations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Involves\\ uncertainty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constraints\\ may\\ decrease\\ uncertainty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Probabilistic\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Content\\ matters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ I\\ saw\\ 99\\ swans\\,\\ all\\ were\\ white\\,\\ swans\\ are\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heuristics\\ vs\\.\\ Algorithms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Algorithms\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ always\\ provides\\ optimal\\ solution\\ if\\ carried\\ out\\ to\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heuristics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ short\\ cut\\ which\\ may\\ not\\ provide\\ best\\ answer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Availability\\ Heuristic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\For\\ estimating\\ frequency\\ of\\ probability\\ of\\ event\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ relevant\\ is\\ it\\ in\\ memory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Availability\\ likely\\ correlated\\ with\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memory\\ is\\ content\\ addressable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organization\\ of\\ memory\\ leads\\ to\\ biases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Salient\\ cases\\ given\\ too\\ much\\ weight\\ \\(shark\\ attacks\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tversky\\ and\\ Kahneman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\39\\ famous\\ names\\ \\(19\\ very\\ famous\\ women\\,\\ 20\\ kind\\ of\\ famous\\ men\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ recall\\ smaller\\,\\ more\\ famous\\ group\\ \\(women\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hindsight\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ the\\ event\\ has\\ happened\\,\\ outcome\\ that\\ occurred\\ is\\ more\\ available\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Representative\\ Heuristic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assume\\ that\\ one\\ example\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Assume\\ if\\ something\\ has\\ typical\\ traits\\,\\ then\\ belong\\ to\\ category\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ normative\\ statistical\\ theory\\ of\\ categorization\\ is\\ complex\\ \\(when\\ no\\ diagnostic\\ information\\,\\ if\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ relative\\ frequency\\,\\ if\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ correlation\\ of\\ traits\\ with\\ category\\,\\ if\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ weight\\ of\\ factors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pros\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Less\\ math\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Requires\\ less\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Systematic\\ errors\\ in\\ judgments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Belief\\ that\\ less\\ information\\ is\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ guess\\ major\\ of\\ 20\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\70\\%\\ of\\ students\\ are\\ psych\\,\\ 10\\%\\ are\\ math\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\90\\%\\ of\\ math\\ watch\\ cartoons\\,\\ only\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ psychology\\ majors\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jill\\ watches\\ cartoons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ often\\ mistakenly\\ say\\ Jill\\ is\\ a\\ math\\ major\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conjunction\\ Fallacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Normative\\ theory\\:\\ Joint\\ probability\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ independent\\ probability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linda\\ is\\ \\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\(typical\\ hippie\\ statements\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ Linda\\ a\\:\\ A\\.\\ bank\\ teller\\,\\ B\\.\\ bank\\ teller\\ with\\ feminist\\ sentiments\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\89\\%\\ rate\\ say\\ B\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ A\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ helped\\ with\\ education\\ of\\ statistics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Confirmation\\ Bias\\ \\(belief\\ bias\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tend\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ evidence\\ that\\ supports\\ our\\ current\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ not\\ seek\\ out\\ old\\ evidence\\ that\\ could\\ disconfirm\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ run\\ across\\ contrary\\ evidence\\,\\ discount\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deductive\\ Reasoning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Na\\ï\\;ve\\ Logic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Deduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drawing\\ valid\\ conclusions\\ from\\ set\\ of\\ premises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ done\\ correctly\\,\\ not\\ probabilistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Content\\ does\\ not\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ syllogisms\\:\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ mortal\\,\\ Socrates\\ is\\ a\\ man\\,\\ Socrates\\ is\\ mortal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Logic\\ \\&\\;\\ Deductive\\ Reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Provides\\ normative\\ theory\\ of\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syllogism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ premises\\,\\ if\\ true\\,\\ lead\\ to\\ conclusion\\ \\(very\\ complex\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\;see\\ examples\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\small\\ changes\\ can\\ invalid\\ the\\ syllogism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\rules\\ governing\\ syllogisms\\ are\\ very\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\very\\ hard\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ distinguish\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\do\\ better\\ when\\ given\\ concrete\\ or\\ practical\\ terms\\/examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;but\\ deduction\\ should\\ not\\ depend\\ on\\ terms\\/examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\so\\ humans\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rely\\ purely\\ on\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ Strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ may\\ use\\ belief\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\rate\\ conclusions\\ as\\ correct\\ when\\ they\\ like\\ to\\ conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;dogs\\ are\\ true\\ friends\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ also\\ like\\ syllogisms\\ that\\ sound\\ like\\ valid\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\read\\ more\\ into\\ statements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;all\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ and\\ only\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\turn\\ OR\\ into\\ XOR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conditional\\ Statements\\:\\ if\\ P\\,\\ then\\ Q\\ \\(only\\ false\\ when\\ P\\ is\\ true\\ AND\\ Q\\ is\\ false\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ of\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ logic\\,\\ context\\,\\ belief\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wason\\ Selection\\ Task\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ card\\ has\\ a\\ D\\,\\ then\\ must\\ have\\ 3\\ on\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Good\\ at\\ turning\\ over\\ D\\ \\-\\ Modus\\ Ponens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poor\\ at\\ turning\\ over\\ 7\\ \\-\\ Modus\\ Tolens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Incorrectly\\ turn\\ over\\ extra\\ card\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ confirmation\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;if\\&rdquo\\;\\ misinterpretation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\logical\\ if\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ p\\,\\ then\\ q\\,\\ p\\ is\\ sufficient\\ but\\ not\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cause\\ and\\ effect\\ if\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ p\\ is\\ necessary\\ and\\ sufficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ may\\ mistakenly\\ think\\ cause\\/effect\\ if\\ is\\ intended\\ \\(partial\\ explanation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interim\\ Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ often\\ fail\\ to\\ apply\\ logical\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\base\\ judgments\\ on\\ surface\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\approve\\ of\\ arguments\\ that\\ confirm\\ their\\ prior\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\make\\ inferences\\ about\\ meaning\\ of\\ logical\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\do\\ better\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ natural\\/familiar\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ better\\ on\\ familiar\\ problems\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Case\\-based\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Humans\\ to\\ not\\ convert\\ problems\\ into\\ logical\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Must\\ depend\\ on\\ experiences\\,\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pragmatic\\ reasoning\\ schemata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capture\\ common\\ features\\ of\\ situations\\ that\\ we\\ frequently\\ think\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ permission\\,\\ cause\\-and\\-effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Assume\\ that\\ experience\\ shapes\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ differ\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\PRS\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ invoke\\ common\\ schema\\,\\ then\\ optimal\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Case\\ base\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ more\\ similar\\ scenario\\ to\\ prior\\ cases\\,\\ better\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiment\\:\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ vs\\ Michigan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ given\\ no\\ rationale\\,\\ people\\ do\\ poorly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Except\\ for\\ HK\\ envelope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experience\\ matters\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ given\\ rationale\\,\\ all\\ people\\ do\\ well\\ \\(experience\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\b\\/c\\ invokes\\ permission\\ schema\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Decision\\ Making\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Na\\ï\\;ve\\ Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ about\\ choices\\ \\(basically\\,\\ any\\ choice\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\On\\ what\\ basis\\ do\\ we\\ make\\ these\\ decisions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ we\\ do\\ a\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\,\\ or\\ are\\ we\\ less\\ \\&ldquo\\;reasonable\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Utility\\ Theory\\ \\(normative\\ theory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Look\\ at\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ own\\ goals\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ expected\\ utility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expected\\ utility\\ \\=\\ probability\\ of\\ particular\\ outcome\\ x\\ utility\\ \\(outcome\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\*probability\\ affected\\ by\\ representative\\,\\ availability\\,\\ confirmation\\ heuristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*see\\ previous\\ lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Utility\\ is\\ a\\ subjective\\ measure\\ of\\ worth\\,\\ varies\\ across\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ what\\ about\\ when\\ outcome\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ match\\ what\\ we\\ think\\ we\\ want\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ change\\ the\\ weights\\ of\\ criteria\\,\\ reverse\\ justification\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\ of\\ practical\\ uses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organization\\,\\ retirement\\ choices\\,\\ rent\\ or\\ buy\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Impractical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Missing\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncertain\\ about\\ own\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interaction\\ between\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ we\\ make\\ decisions\\ quickly\\,\\ do\\ we\\ use\\ utility\\ theory\\?\\ NO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Framing\\ Effects\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Disease\\ example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\.\\ save\\ 200\\ for\\ sure\\ OR\\ B\\.\\ P\\(1\\/3\\)\\ save\\ 600\\,\\ P\\(2\\/3\\)\\ lose\\ 600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\prefer\\ certainty\\ for\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\.\\ lose\\ 400\\ for\\ sure\\ OR\\ B\\.\\ P\\(1\\/3\\)\\ lose\\ 0\\,\\ P\\(2\\/3\\)\\ lose\\ 600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\prefer\\ to\\ risk\\ more\\ to\\ avoid\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\economically\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ changes\\ in\\ risk\\ and\\ framing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Custody\\ example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Difference\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;award\\&rdquo\\;\\ custody\\ to\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;deny\\&rdquo\\;\\ custody\\ to\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Influence\\ of\\ Alternatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adding\\ another\\ worse\\ alternative\\ makes\\ people\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ choose\\ option\\ \\(Sony\\ vs\\ Aiwa\\ example\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adding\\ a\\ third\\ option\\ changes\\ decision\\ between\\ existing\\ two\\ \\(car\\ example\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Decision\\ Heuristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elimination\\ by\\ Aspects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ on\\ single\\ feature\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ and\\ eliminate\\ alternatives\\ that\\ are\\ poor\\ on\\ that\\ dimension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NOT\\ looking\\ at\\ decision\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Choice\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ Justified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Custody\\ example\\,\\ more\\ volatile\\ parent\\ gives\\ REASON\\ for\\ awarding\\ or\\ denying\\,\\ average\\ parent\\ gives\\ no\\ REASON\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Satisficing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Trying\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ satisfactory\\ choice\\,\\ not\\ optimal\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Something\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ enough\\,\\ not\\ absolute\\ best\\ choice\\ \\(by\\ waiting\\ on\\ more\\ information\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sony\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seek\\ gain\\,\\ avoid\\ loss\\ \\(regardless\\ of\\ magnitude\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sure\\ gain\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ risky\\ gain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Risky\\ loss\\ better\\ than\\ sure\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Disease\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ making\\ decisions\\,\\ look\\ for\\ choice\\ we\\ can\\ best\\ justify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Simple\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Weigh\\ utility\\,\\ follow\\ uility\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Complex\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Grab\\ on\\ to\\ some\\ aspect\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ rationalize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\May\\ depend\\ on\\ framing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Problem\\ Solving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Definitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ solving\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ any\\ kind\\ of\\ thinking\\ directed\\ toward\\ handling\\ of\\ particular\\ situation\\ involving\\ both\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ responses\\ and\\ selection\\ among\\ possible\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ situation\\ where\\ someone\\ wants\\ to\\ attain\\ a\\ goal\\ for\\ which\\ no\\ simple\\,\\ direct\\ means\\ is\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Well\\-defined\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ has\\ a\\ clear\\ cut\\ solution\\,\\ can\\ use\\ algorithm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crosswords\\,\\ minimization\\/maximization\\,\\ Tower\\ of\\ Hanoi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ill\\-defined\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ multiple\\ possible\\ solutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Writing\\ good\\ song\\,\\ find\\ ideal\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ typically\\ solve\\ ill\\-defined\\ problems\\ by\\ transforming\\ into\\ well\\-defined\\ by\\ adding\\ constraints\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Four\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\ or\\ description\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ solution\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Description\\ of\\ objects\\ relevant\\ to\\ achieving\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ of\\ operations\\ or\\ allowable\\ actions\\ toward\\ a\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ of\\ constraints\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ violated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Herb\\ Simon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ general\\ schema\\ for\\ problem\\ solving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ Solving\\ Steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Create\\ initial\\ representation\\ of\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Use\\ heuristics\\ to\\ plan\\ potential\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ If\\ fails\\,\\ reformulate\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Execute\\ a\\ procedure\\ to\\ implement\\ plan\\,\\ test\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Theory\\ of\\ Human\\ Problem\\ Solving\\ \\(Newell\\ \\&\\;\\ Simon\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ try\\ to\\ develop\\ problem\\ space\\ \\(description\\ of\\ possible\\ moves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Search\\ this\\ space\\ for\\ path\\ to\\ goal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Research\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ determines\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ problem\\ space\\ person\\ represents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ people\\ search\\ problem\\ space\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ are\\ some\\ people\\ better\\ at\\ solving\\ certain\\ problems\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\?\\ Better\\ representation\\?\\ Better\\ heuristics\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Representations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tea\\ Ceremony\\ \\(verbal\\/social\\)\\ \\=\\ Tower\\ of\\ Hanoi\\ \\(visual\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Isomorphic\\ Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\-1\\ correspondence\\ between\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\-1\\ correspondence\\ between\\ operators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Identical\\/Parallel\\ problem\\ spaces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ Tower\\ of\\ Hanoi\\ easier\\ to\\ search\\ through\\ than\\ Tea\\ Ceremony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ that\\ representation\\ \\(types\\ of\\ contents\\)\\ affect\\ search\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Working\\ memory\\ can\\ maintain\\ only\\ small\\ part\\ of\\ problem\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sometimes\\ cannot\\ represent\\ entire\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ chess\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Search\\ Heuristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anagram\\ solving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ZUQRAT\\ easier\\ to\\ solve\\ \\(QUARTZ\\)\\ than\\ TAUMER\\ \\(MATURE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ heuristics\\ force\\ us\\ to\\ put\\ U\\ after\\ Q\\,\\ reduces\\ problem\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ TAUMER\\,\\ any\\ letter\\ can\\ be\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Algorithm\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ systematic\\ search\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Impractical\\ for\\ most\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Heuristic\\ \\(rule\\ of\\ thumb\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reducing\\ the\\ problem\\ space\\ by\\ focusing\\ on\\ promising\\ possibilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Faster\\ than\\ algorithm\\ but\\ may\\ not\\ locate\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Search\\ Heuristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Difference\\-Reduction\\ Method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Compare\\ next\\ possible\\ problem\\ states\\:\\ breadth\\-first\\ search\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Move\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ 8\\ cups\\,\\ 4\\ in\\ 5\\ cups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ people\\ try\\ to\\ make\\ current\\ state\\ as\\ much\\ like\\ goal\\ state\\ as\\ possible\\ most\\ directly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caveat\\:\\ this\\ changes\\ depending\\ on\\ what\\ stage\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Definition\\ of\\ similarity\\ depends\\ on\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ have\\ local\\ max\\ or\\ local\\ min\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goal\\:\\ get\\ to\\ bakery\\ across\\ the\\ street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\May\\ end\\ up\\ walked\\ directly\\ to\\ window\\,\\ not\\ to\\ door\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Means\\-End\\ Analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\General\\ Problem\\ Solver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ blindly\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ like\\ walking\\ directly\\ to\\ goal\\ as\\ in\\ difference\\ reduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Steps\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Compare\\ current\\ \\&\\;\\ goal\\ states\\,\\ see\\ difference\\ \\(travel\\ distance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Find\\ best\\ operator\\ to\\ reduce\\ this\\ difference\\ \\(airplane\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Where\\ to\\ find\\ operator\\?\\ \\(airport\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ operator\\?\\ \\(taxi\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ embedded\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ recursive\\/hierarchical\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Largely\\ about\\ finding\\ appropriate\\ operators\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ to\\ people\\ locate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memories\\ of\\ objects\\ and\\ functions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Functional\\ Fixedness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ Candle\\,\\ box\\ of\\ matches\\,\\ tacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Box\\ of\\ matches\\ connected\\ to\\ candle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ of\\ as\\ ledge\\ to\\ hold\\ candle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ Two\\ strings\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ tools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ of\\ tools\\ as\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ as\\ weight\\ used\\ to\\ swing\\ one\\ rope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Set\\ Effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ constantly\\ use\\ one\\ procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Try\\ to\\ use\\ procedure\\ again\\,\\ even\\ if\\ not\\ applicable\\ to\\ new\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ B\\-2C\\-A\\ over\\ and\\ over\\,\\ use\\ again\\ even\\ when\\ A\\+C\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Uniquely\\ Human\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Insight\\ and\\ means\\ end\\ are\\ unique\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Monkeys\\ can\\ create\\ tower\\ of\\ boxes\\ to\\ get\\ banana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ similar\\ behavior\\ even\\ when\\ no\\ reward\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ behaviors\\ designed\\ to\\ problem\\ solve\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Problem\\ space\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Depends\\ on\\ format\\ of\\ problem\\,\\ memory\\ limitations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Search\\ the\\ problem\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Use\\ difference\\ reduction\\ or\\ means\\ end\\ search\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Why\\ are\\ some\\ people\\ better\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ next\\ lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expertise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Where\\ does\\ expertise\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ practice\\ vs\\.\\ innate\\ differences\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Why\\ is\\ are\\ there\\ parallels\\ across\\ different\\ domains\\?\\ Ex\\.\\)\\ 10\\ years\\ to\\ become\\ expert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Experiment\\ \\(S\\.F\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\.F\\:\\ work\\/study\\ student\\,\\ average\\ grades\\,\\ for\\ 1\\.5\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memorizing\\ sequences\\,\\ increases\\ if\\ correct\\,\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ time\\ describe\\ how\\ he\\ did\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ end\\ of\\ study\\,\\ can\\ memorize\\ up\\ to\\ 80\\ digits\\ from\\ starting\\ point\\ of\\ around\\ 20\\ digits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mnemonic\\ associates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memorized\\ as\\ race\\ times\\ and\\ qualities\\ of\\ racers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Researchers\\ using\\ non\\-race\\ convertible\\ sequences\\ \\=\\ S\\.F\\.\\ fail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ fundamental\\ change\\ in\\ memory\\,\\ but\\ in\\ tactics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retrieval\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hierarchical\\ ordering\\ \\(tree\\ diagram\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seen\\ by\\ how\\ he\\ produces\\ the\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prosody\\ \\-\\ repeating\\ numbers\\ in\\ small\\ chunks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recall\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ faster\\ when\\ asked\\ about\\ same\\ sub\\-group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ and\\ Expertise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chess\\ Masters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ it\\ because\\ of\\ better\\ memory\\ abilities\\?\\ No\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiment\\:\\ remember\\ better\\ when\\ meaningful\\ chess\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ random\\ assortment\\,\\ just\\ normal\\ memory\\ capabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Eye\\-Movements\\ in\\ Reproduction\\ Tasks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ copying\\ board\\,\\ masters\\ do\\ so\\ in\\ groups\\ of\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Novices\\ copy\\ one\\-by\\-one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ experts\\ at\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Information\\ is\\ chunked\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Information\\ is\\ chunked\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ useful\\ procedures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chunks\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ problem\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Searches\\ by\\ experts\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ searches\\ by\\ novices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rethinking\\ our\\ Ideas\\ about\\ Thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ to\\ integrate\\ information\\ from\\ \\ \\;motor\\ planning\\,\\ number\\,\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ navigation\\,\\ language\\,\\ vision\\,\\ other\\ modules\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Domain\\-general\\,\\ non\\-modular\\ central\\ processor\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Initial\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thought\\ as\\ central\\ planning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Same\\ mechanism\\ regardless\\ of\\ content\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ really\\:\\ pragmatic\\ reasoning\\ schemata\\ which\\ vary\\ across\\ domain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ Wason\\ card\\ selection\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ really\\:\\ often\\ use\\ heuristics\\ and\\ approximations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Open\\ to\\ introspection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ really\\:\\ conscious\\ justifications\\ may\\ follow\\ real\\ decision\\ making\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Are\\ our\\ heuristics\\ really\\ irrational\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ our\\ goal\\ really\\ to\\ maximize\\ utility\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Or\\ just\\ to\\ be\\ content\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ our\\ strategies\\ are\\ well\\ adapted\\ to\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ context\\ of\\ human\\ problem\\ solving\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ lots\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ and\\ incomplete\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perhaps\\ our\\ strategies\\ optimize\\ use\\ of\\ our\\ cognitive\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Extra\\ energy\\ for\\ algorithms\\ not\\ worth\\ our\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Utility\\ maximization\\ depends\\ on\\ stable\\ preferences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ we\\ are\\ very\\ poor\\ predictors\\ of\\ how\\ changes\\ will\\ affect\\ our\\ own\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\History\\ of\\ Imagery\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Introspectionists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Possible\\ to\\ have\\ thought\\ without\\ images\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Galton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Describe\\ your\\ breakfast\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ people\\ with\\ rich\\ images\\,\\ other\\ have\\ vague\\ or\\ no\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ demand\\ characteristics\\ \\&ldquo\\;picture\\ that\\ rises\\ before\\ your\\ mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eye\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cognitive\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ we\\ study\\ image\\ objectively\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ all\\ thought\\ symbolic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ for\\ visual\\ scenes\\ \\(Shepard\\ 1967\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Delays\\ of\\ one\\ hour\\ and\\ one\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\After\\ one\\ hour\\,\\ 99\\%\\ accurate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ one\\ year\\ 63\\%\\ accurate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Are\\ we\\ remembering\\ the\\ pictures\\?\\ Or\\ are\\ we\\ recoding\\ them\\?\\ \\(verbal\\ re\\-description\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Questions\\ about\\ Mental\\ Imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1970\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ 1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\are\\ mental\\ images\\ distinctly\\ visual\\ representations\\,\\ or\\ are\\ the\\ abstract\\ propositions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1980\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ 1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\does\\ mental\\ imagery\\ use\\ visual\\ neural\\ machinery\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\difference\\ between\\ perceptual\\ representations\\ and\\ mental\\ images\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Recently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ all\\ thought\\ imagistic\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Embodied\\ cognition\\:\\ all\\ thought\\ is\\ intrinsically\\ linked\\ perceptual\\ and\\ motor\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Extreme\\ view\\:\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ have\\ symbols\\,\\ only\\ have\\ percepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alternative\\ view\\:\\ conceptual\\/perceptual\\/motor\\ closely\\ related\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Is\\ there\\ multimodal\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ Models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Analogical\\ Representation\\ \\(Kosslyn\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visual\\ memory\\ stored\\ using\\ picture\\-like\\ code\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ memory\\ is\\ like\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relations\\ represented\\ implicitly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ kind\\ of\\ representation\\ for\\ each\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Propositional\\ Representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visual\\ memory\\ is\\ stored\\ using\\ a\\ word\\-like\\ code\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ memory\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relations\\ represented\\ explicitly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Same\\ kind\\ of\\ representation\\ for\\ each\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Image\\ Scanning\\ Task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Time\\ will\\ depend\\ on\\ distance\\ between\\ points\\ of\\ mental\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memorize\\ map\\ of\\ an\\ island\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Independent\\ variable\\ is\\ starting\\ point\\ and\\ distance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dependent\\ variable\\ is\\ response\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yes\\,\\ linear\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alternative\\ Hypotheses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Demand\\ characteristics\\ \\(subjects\\ pleasing\\ experimenter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Problem\\ is\\ solved\\ with\\ a\\ propositional\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\maybe\\ measure\\ by\\ nodes\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ inches\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ Rotation\\ Task\\ \\(Shepard\\ \\&\\;\\ Metlzer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Speeded\\ decision\\ \\(no\\ time\\ to\\ process\\ experimenter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desires\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Independent\\ variable\\ is\\ degree\\ of\\ rotation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dependent\\ variable\\ is\\ response\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ analogical\\,\\ then\\ degrees\\ should\\ be\\ correlated\\ linearly\\ with\\ r\\.t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ propositional\\,\\ then\\ certain\\ angles\\ \\(like\\ 90\\,\\ 180\\)\\ should\\ be\\ fast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ indeed\\ linear\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ Scaling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Form\\ image\\ of\\ rabbit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ next\\ to\\ elephant\\,\\ one\\ next\\ to\\ fly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ask\\ about\\ details\\ of\\ rabbit\\ \\(whiskers\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ rabbit\\ was\\ relatively\\ large\\,\\ faster\\ response\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ time\\ to\\ zoom\\ in\\ on\\ smaller\\ picture\\ \\(next\\ to\\ elephant\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Interference\\ Task\\/Mental\\ Scanning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Find\\ two\\ tasks\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ the\\ secondary\\ task\\ interferes\\ with\\ primary\\ task\\,\\ then\\ overlapping\\ processes\\ or\\ representations\\ \\(use\\ controls\\ to\\ eliminate\\ general\\ effects\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Primary\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\scan\\ around\\ T\\,\\ say\\ if\\ corner\\ is\\ at\\ extremity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Secondary\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\verbal\\ OR\\ tapping\\ \\(motor\\,\\ spatial\\?\\)\\ OR\\ pointing\\ \\(spatial\\,\\ visual\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\pointing\\ has\\ enormous\\ interference\\ relative\\ to\\ tapping\\ and\\ verbal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\seems\\ like\\ mental\\ scanning\\ takes\\ visual\\ and\\ spatial\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Control\\:\\ find\\ nouns\\ in\\ a\\ sentence\\ \\(verbal\\,\\ tapping\\,\\ pointing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Now\\,\\ \\ \\;vocal\\ responses\\ slower\\,\\ but\\ pointing\\ relatively\\ fast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Summary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Response\\ to\\ remembered\\ images\\ is\\ much\\ like\\ response\\ to\\ actual\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spatially\\ manipulating\\ mental\\ images\\ uses\\ the\\ same\\ machinery\\ as\\ that\\ used\\ for\\ spatial\\ aspects\\ of\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ mental\\ rotation\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ brook\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interference\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neural\\ Basis\\ of\\ Visual\\ Imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evidence\\ from\\ neuropsychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kerr\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blind\\ people\\ can\\ still\\ do\\ image\\ scanning\\,\\ implies\\ mental\\ imagery\\ may\\ be\\ spatial\\,\\ not\\ visual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Farah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ brain\\ damage\\ that\\ creates\\ color\\ blindness\\ results\\ in\\ inability\\ to\\ create\\ color\\ mental\\ images\\,\\ implies\\ imagery\\ is\\ visual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ mental\\ imagery\\ is\\ simultaneously\\ spatial\\ and\\ visual\\ \\(where\\ and\\ what\\ streams\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spatial\\ neglect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ patients\\ can\\ only\\ remember\\ buildings\\ on\\ particular\\ side\\ when\\ told\\ to\\ imagine\\ themselves\\ either\\ facing\\ or\\ looking\\ out\\ from\\ church\\ \\(plaza\\ in\\ Milan\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bi\\-lateral\\ temporal\\ lobe\\ damage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ bad\\ at\\ visual\\ imagery\\ tasks\\ \\(stars\\ on\\ flag\\)\\,\\ but\\ normal\\ performance\\ on\\ spatial\\ imagery\\ tasks\\ \\(mental\\ rotation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ imagery\\ and\\ visual\\ abilities\\ ever\\ show\\ a\\ disassociation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ patient\\ image\\ it\\ but\\ not\\ perceive\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ someone\\ see\\ something\\ but\\ not\\ imagine\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\R\\.M\\.\\ and\\ C\\.K\\.\\ show\\ double\\ dissociation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imagery\\ is\\ like\\ perception\\,\\ but\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Imagery\\ is\\ top\\-down\\,\\ perception\\ is\\ bottom\\-up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Same\\ neural\\ systems\\ underpin\\ these\\ two\\ systems\\ \\(perception\\ and\\ imagery\\)\\,\\ but\\ used\\ differently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ from\\ Neuro\\-imaging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ how\\ degree\\ of\\ rotation\\ in\\ mental\\ rotation\\ experiment\\ affects\\ parietal\\ \\(where\\)\\ vs\\.\\ temporal\\ \\(what\\)\\ lobes\\ \\-\\ fMRI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\More\\ blood\\ flow\\ to\\ parietal\\,\\ no\\ increase\\ to\\ temporal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\See\\ how\\ perception\\ vs\\.\\ imagery\\ affects\\ blood\\ flow\\ to\\ occipital\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Increase\\ in\\ blood\\ flow\\ to\\ perceptual\\ area\\ \\(occipital\\ lobe\\)\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ high\\ when\\ imagining\\ as\\ when\\ actually\\ perceiving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\April\\ 30\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dual\\-Coding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similarities\\ and\\ differences\\ between\\ imagery\\ and\\ abstract\\ \\(verbal\\)\\ representations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Imagery\\ and\\ Abstraction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pavio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dual\\ coding\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concrete\\ words\\ remembered\\ better\\ than\\ abstract\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claim\\:\\ two\\ codes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Abstract\\ verbal\\ code\\:\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Concrete\\ visual\\ code\\:\\ only\\ for\\ visualizable\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perceptual\\ and\\ Verbal\\ Memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ distinct\\ classes\\ of\\ mental\\ representations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Perceptual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Verbal\\ \\(no\\,\\ symbolic\\ or\\ abstract\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symbolic\\ representations\\ have\\ the\\ following\\ properties\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Serial\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hierarchical\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experiment\\:\\ three\\ objects\\ in\\ triangle\\ formation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Check\\ for\\ same\\ objects\\ in\\ both\\ same\\ formation\\ and\\ linear\\ formation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Do\\ this\\ again\\ with\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hypothesize\\ verbal\\ information\\ gets\\ recoded\\ in\\ serial\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ images\\ keep\\ triangle\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Results\\ confirm\\ this\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maybe\\ we\\ have\\ two\\ separate\\ classes\\ of\\ representations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Linguistic\\ stimuli\\ encoded\\ as\\ abstract\\ symbols\\,\\ not\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Non\\-linguistic\\ stimuli\\ encoded\\ perceptually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\Background\\/Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\William\\ James\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Awareness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;consciousness\\ OR\\ consciousness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;awareness\\ OR\\ neither\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Free\\ will\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ control\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ do\\ we\\?\\ Think\\ about\\ dichotic\\ listening\\ task\\,\\ still\\ hearing\\ info\\ in\\ other\\ ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ Philosophers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Wildly\\ divergent\\ views\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ it\\ even\\ science\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ scientifically\\ study\\-able\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ Theories\\ of\\ Consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consciousness\\ and\\ the\\ observed\\ universe\\ are\\ comprised\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ be\\ explained\\ in\\ physical\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consciousness\\ and\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\ are\\ two\\ completely\\ different\\ entities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Spirit\\ vs\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Access\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\understanding\\ cognitive\\ consequences\\ of\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Phenomenological\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\what\\ accounts\\ for\\ the\\ experience\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\understanding\\ the\\ experience\\ \\(hard\\ problem\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Neural\\ correlates\\ of\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ when\\ conscious\\ vs\\ unconscious\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ on\\ 1\\ \\&\\;\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aspects\\ of\\ hard\\ question\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ consciousness\\?\\ Are\\ animals\\ conscious\\?\\ Is\\ a\\ computer\\/robot\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Does\\ it\\ affect\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\?\\ How\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ can\\ a\\ physical\\ system\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ consciousness\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\:\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ adaptive\\ value\\?\\ What\\ problem\\ was\\ it\\ designed\\ to\\ solve\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\To\\ deal\\ with\\ complexity\\?\\ Theory\\ of\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\ for\\ self\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ way\\ of\\ measuring\\ consciousness\\ \\(on\\/off\\ switch\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\big\\ problem\\ for\\ anesthesia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ neural\\ processes\\ that\\ can\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ decent\\ idea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Take\\ Aways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ cognition\\ is\\ possible\\ without\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Diverse\\ brain\\ sites\\ implicated\\ in\\ conscious\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Attention\\ gates\\ conscious\\ awareness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ cognition\\ is\\ possible\\ without\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Things\\ that\\ are\\ unconscious\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Processes\\ by\\ which\\ we\\ extract\\ information\\ \\(language\\,\\ memory\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\UCS\\ inferences\\ that\\ generate\\ CS\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\.\\)\\ familiar\\ name\\ and\\ famousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\UCS\\ processes\\ which\\ influence\\ CS\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Semantic\\ priming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decision\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Automatic\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stroop\\ effect\\,\\ driving\\ familiar\\ path\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Examples\\ of\\ the\\ Cognitive\\ Unconscious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lesion\\ studies\\:\\ blindsight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ lesion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\unable\\ to\\ perceive\\ visual\\ stimuli\\ in\\ blind\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\,\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ better\\ guess\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ blind\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Seen\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\other\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;visual\\ areas\\ besides\\ occipital\\ lobe\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\consciousness\\ is\\ tapping\\ higher\\ stream\\,\\ not\\ perception\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Awareness\\ depends\\ heavily\\ on\\ speed\\ of\\ stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Prosopagnosia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Individuals\\ severely\\ impaired\\ in\\ recognizing\\ familiar\\ faces\\,\\ but\\ some\\ preserved\\ knowledge\\ of\\ faces\\ that\\ taps\\ unconscious\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bauer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ see\\ recurring\\ face\\,\\ cant\\ match\\ to\\ a\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\,\\ skin\\ shows\\ response\\&hellip\\;\\ \\=\\ awareness\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Renault\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ERP\\ response\\ different\\ for\\ recurring\\ vs\\ nonrecurring\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Amnesiacs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ learn\\ declarative\\ memories\\,\\ but\\ do\\ well\\ in\\ non\\-declarative\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\unaware\\ that\\ they\\ learned\\,\\ but\\ they\\ did\\!\\ no\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ mirror\\ tracing\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Normal\\ People\\:\\ Masked\\ Priming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unaware\\/not\\ CS\\ of\\ briefly\\ presented\\ and\\ masked\\ stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\But\\ brain\\ scanning\\ shows\\ response\\ to\\ prime\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visuo\\-spatial\\ neglect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Even\\ though\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ flames\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ of\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ aware\\ of\\ anything\\ wrong\\ with\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\BUT\\ always\\ pick\\ the\\ house\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ on\\ fire\\ \\ \\;\\(even\\ though\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ it\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ high\\ level\\ process\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negates\\ theory\\ that\\ verbal\\ responses\\ must\\ be\\ conscious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lesion\\:\\ Neglect\\ 2\\ on\\ left\\ side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Book\\ on\\ left\\,\\ rabbit\\ on\\ right\\,\\ then\\ identify\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;chair\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slow\\ response\\,\\ no\\ prime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rabbit\\ on\\ left\\,\\ table\\ on\\ right\\,\\ then\\ identify\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;chair\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fast\\ response\\,\\ see\\ right\\ side\\ prime\\ of\\ table\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Table\\ on\\ left\\,\\ rabbit\\ on\\ right\\,\\ then\\ identify\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;chair\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Not\\ aware\\ of\\ left\\ side\\,\\ but\\ table\\ still\\ primes\\ faster\\ RS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ there\\ neural\\ properties\\ that\\ determine\\ what\\ is\\ conscious\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hypotheses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Some\\ regions\\ necessary\\ and\\ sufficient\\ for\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\privileged\\ role\\ of\\ particular\\ brain\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\.\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ consciousness\\ center\\ \\(Cartesian\\ theater\\&hellip\\;\\)\\,\\ but\\ who\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\B\\.\\ brain\\ systems\\ that\\ produce\\ consciousness\\ as\\ a\\ by\\-product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Consciousness\\ is\\ special\\ state\\ of\\ integration\\ among\\ brain\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crick\\ \\&\\;\\ Koch\\ \\(from\\ visual\\ awareness\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Binding\\ problem\\ of\\ many\\ different\\ features\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\ triangle\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parallel\\ to\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synchronized\\ by\\ oscillations\\/beats\\ of\\ neuron\\ firing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Consciousness\\ as\\ a\\ graded\\ property\\ of\\ neural\\ information\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\levels\\ of\\ consciousness\\,\\ sometimes\\ aware\\,\\ sometimes\\ less\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\)\\ driving\\ familiar\\ route\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\better\\ representation\\,\\ then\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ enter\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\more\\ aware\\ of\\ things\\ in\\ ventral\\ stream\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slower\\,\\ more\\ high\\ fidelity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\subliminal\\ perception\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ good\\ representation\\,\\ not\\ conscious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Visuo\\-spatial\\ neglect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ Privileged\\ systems\\:\\ outputs\\ of\\ intact\\ perception\\ are\\ disconnected\\ from\\ necessary\\ consciousness\\ centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Integration\\ across\\ brain\\ systems\\:\\ neglect\\ weakens\\ representation\\ of\\ stimulus\\,\\ does\\ not\\ affect\\ other\\ areas\\,\\ does\\ not\\ start\\ oscillations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Graded\\ property\\ of\\ processes\\:\\ processing\\ is\\ present\\,\\ but\\ degraded\\ and\\ too\\ weak\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Diverse\\ brain\\ sites\\ implicated\\ in\\ conscious\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Need\\ to\\ tease\\ apart\\ process\\ from\\ stimuli\\ vs\\ processes\\ due\\ to\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bistability\\:\\ focus\\ on\\ things\\ where\\ consciousness\\ flip\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\,\\ stimuli\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cube\\,\\ face\\/vase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Binocular\\ rivalry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Different\\ images\\ projected\\ to\\ each\\ eye\\ \\(face\\,\\ house\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Do\\ not\\ see\\ a\\ blend\\,\\ see\\ either\\ one\\ or\\ the\\ other\\ in\\ turn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fusiform\\ face\\ area\\:\\ lights\\ up\\ when\\ see\\ as\\ face\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parahippocampal\\ place\\ area\\:\\ lights\\ up\\ when\\ see\\ as\\ house\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ which\\ way\\ is\\ causality\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Area\\ MT\\:\\ activated\\ for\\ moving\\ stimuli\\,\\ but\\ also\\ for\\ after\\-effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ discount\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;hypothesis\\,\\ there\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ designated\\ area\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\.\\ still\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ still\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Attention\\ gates\\ conscious\\ awareness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Already\\ shown\\,\\ need\\ activation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Priming\\ w\\/\\ amygdala\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\ also\\ need\\ attention\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ makes\\ info\\ available\\ to\\ other\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attentional\\ blink\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ looking\\ for\\ target\\,\\ then\\ two\\ targets\\ in\\ rapid\\ succession\\ will\\ force\\ you\\ to\\ miss\\ second\\ target\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Target\\ 1\\ occupies\\ attention\\,\\ target\\ two\\ is\\ still\\ processed\\,\\ but\\ not\\ aware\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ consciousness\\ good\\ for\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\UCS\\ good\\ for\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Automatic\\ processes\\,\\ more\\ modular\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guided\\ by\\ familiarity\\ and\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Makes\\ low\\ demands\\ on\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\CS\\ good\\ for\\:\\ \\-some\\ aspect\\ of\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Overriding\\ errors\\ from\\ UCS\\ \\(fixing\\ mistakes\\ from\\ typing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Novel\\ tasks\\ \\(like\\ problem\\ solving\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Integrating\\ information\\ from\\ different\\ processors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Selecting\\ new\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neuronal\\ Workspace\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Combines\\ all\\ three\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ CS\\ needs\\ to\\ have\\ sustained\\ activity\\ of\\ a\\ representation\\ \\(\\#3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\slow\\,\\ stable\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\ Attention\\ allows\\ sustaining\\ activity\\ across\\ different\\ brain\\ regions\\ \\(\\#2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\attention\\ allows\\ synchronous\\ firing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\ Special\\ \\&ldquo\\;workspace\\&rdquo\\;\\ neurons\\ dedicated\\ to\\ maintaining\\ synchrony\\ \\(\\#1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\dedicated\\ processes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Creates\\ coherent\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Maintains\\ representation\\ for\\ longer\\ period\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allows\\ reflective\\ processing\\,\\ like\\ hypothetical\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Allows\\ resolution\\ of\\ conflicts\\ between\\ lower\\ level\\ representations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Guides\\ intentional\\ action\\:\\ feel\\ more\\ comfortable\\ doing\\ things\\ when\\ conscious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 40, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Psych_13_Lecture_Notes_2.doc", "desc": "Lecture Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture Summaries", "tags": ["harvard", "classics", "augustus"], "text": null, "id": 127, "html": "\\\\\\Lecture\\ Summaries\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\;text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-117pt\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c8\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c10\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucius\\ Brutus\\ \\(\\=\\ L\\.\\ Junius\\ Brutus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ introduced\\ consulship\\ in\\ 508\\ after\\ last\\ king\\ was\\ expelled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucretia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ rape\\ symbolic\\ of\\ royal\\ abuse\\ of\\ power\\;\\ leads\\ to\\ Roman\\ abhorrence\\ for\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;king\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(rex\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romulus\\ and\\ Remus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ mythological\\ founding\\ brothers\\ of\\ Rome\\;\\ Romulus\\ kills\\ Remus\\,\\ calls\\ city\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rome\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ origin\\ of\\ competitive\\ nature\\ of\\ Romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcus\\ Cicero\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ consul\\ held\\ office\\ with\\ Gaius\\ Antonius\\ in\\ 63\\,\\ the\\ year\\ Augustus\\ was\\ born\\,\\ put\\ down\\ conspiracy\\ and\\ uprising\\ by\\ L\\.\\ Catilina\\ \\(\\=\\ Catiline\\)\\ in\\ 63\\-62\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gnaeus\\ Pompeius\\ \\(\\=\\ Pompey\\ the\\ Great\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ shared\\ power\\ with\\ and\\ later\\ fought\\ against\\/\\ lost\\/died\\ in\\ war\\ with\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ at\\ Pharsalus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcus\\ Crassus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ member\\ of\\ unofficial\\ pact\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;First\\ Triumvirate\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ him\\,\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\,\\ and\\ Gnaeus\\ Pompeius\\;\\ killed\\ in\\ 53\\ while\\ leading\\ invasion\\ of\\ Parthia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mos\\ maiorum\\ \\"\\;custom\\ of\\ the\\ ancestors\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ written\\ constitution\\,\\ Romans\\ relied\\ on\\ set\\ of\\ practices\\ sanctioned\\ by\\ tradition\\ or\\ custom\\,\\ and\\ assumed\\ that\\ custom\\ and\\ consensus\\ would\\ settle\\ most\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\novus\\ homo\\/\\ novi\\ homines\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ men\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ men\\ whose\\ family\\ had\\ not\\ already\\ produced\\ a\\ consul\\ had\\ harder\\ time\\ reaching\\ the\\ consulship\\,\\ but\\ they\\ made\\ up\\ a\\ noticeable\\ fraction\\ of\\ consuls\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ period\\ of\\ Republic\\ \\(Cicero\\ most\\ famous\\ example\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cursus\\ honorum\\ \\"\\;sequence\\ of\\ offices\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ strictly\\ defined\\ shape\\ of\\ political\\ careers\\,\\ starting\\ with\\ military\\ service\\,\\ and\\ then\\ going\\ through\\ quaestor\\,\\ tribune\\ of\\ people\\,\\ aedile\\,\\ praetor\\,\\ and\\ finally\\,\\ consul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\imperium\\ \\&ldquo\\;executive\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ power\\ held\\ by\\ consul\\,\\ distinct\\ from\\ auctoritas\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;authority\\&rdquo\\;\\ carried\\ by\\ the\\ Roman\\ senate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gloria\\ \\&ldquo\\;lasting\\ renown\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ focus\\ of\\ Roman\\ competition\\ in\\ political\\ sphere\\;\\ only\\ path\\ to\\ glory\\ was\\ in\\ public\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SPQR\\ \\&ldquo\\;Senate\\ and\\ People\\ of\\ Rome\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ encapsulates\\ Rome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-image\\ as\\ a\\ republic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dictator\\ \\(and\\ Dictator\\ Perpetuo\\)\\ \\"\\;Dictator\\ For\\ Life\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ title\\ assumed\\ by\\ Caesar\\ shortly\\ before\\ his\\ assassination\\ in\\ 44\\ giving\\ him\\ sole\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Importance\\ of\\ Being\\ Caesar\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pompeii\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;First\\ to\\ print\\ coins\\ with\\ his\\ face\\ on\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ odd\\ to\\ Rome\\,\\ since\\ Rome\\ was\\ surrounded\\ by\\ monarchies\\.\\ Printing\\ a\\ leader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ on\\ the\\ coin\\ was\\ standard\\ monarchical\\ practice\\.\\ Pompeii\\&rsquo\\;s\\ move\\ further\\ suggested\\ that\\ democratic\\ leadership\\ was\\ turning\\ monarchical\\ or\\ dictatorial\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ VI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agrippa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Main\\ advisor\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;husband\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ adopted\\ as\\ son\\-in\\-law\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;intended\\ successor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agrippa\\ \\&ldquo\\;Posthumus\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Son\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Agrippa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ black\\ sheep\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agrippina\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Daughter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Agrippa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ars\\ Amatoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\written\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ovid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ his\\ banishment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustus\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Last\\ 3\\ decades\\:\\ question\\ of\\ successors\\ tumultuous\\,\\ shamed\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ named\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pater\\ Patriae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ lost\\ 3\\ legions\\ in\\ Germany\\,\\ d\\.\\ 14\\ AD\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drusus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Son\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Livia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ d\\.\\ 9\\ BC\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gaius\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;grandson\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ adopted\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ potential\\ successor\\,\\ designated\\ consul\\ 5\\ years\\ in\\ advance\\,\\ Parthia\\ mission\\ featured\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ovid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ars\\ Amatoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ d\\.\\ 4\\ AD\\,\\ mentioned\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Iullus\\ Antonius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Son\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mark\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ lover\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julia\\ \\(I\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Daughter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ second\\ wife\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Scribonia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ banished\\ for\\ adultery\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iullus\\ Antonius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ others\\ in\\ 2\\ BC\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;\\ shame\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Suetonius\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julia\\ \\(II\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Granddaughter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ daughter\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Agrippa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ banished\\ for\\ adultery\\ in\\ 8\\ AD\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ involved\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ovid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Claudii\\ family\\,\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wife\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ mother\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tiberius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Drusus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ named\\ Augusta\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Queen\\ Mother\\ with\\ influence\\ over\\ policy\\,\\ scheming\\ or\\ murderous\\ image\\ from\\ Roman\\ ambivalence\\ toward\\ powerful\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lucius\\ Caesar\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;grandson\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ adopted\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ potential\\ successor\\,\\ designated\\ consul\\ 5\\ years\\ in\\ advance\\,\\ d\\.\\ 2\\ AD\\,\\ mentioned\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marcellus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Son\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Octavia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\C\\.\\ Claudius\\ Marcellus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;husband\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;intended\\ successor\\,\\ fated\\ death\\ lamented\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Book\\ VI\\,\\ buried\\ in\\ Augustus\\&rsquo\\;\\ Mausoleum\\,\\ memorialized\\ by\\ Theatre\\ of\\ Marcellus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mark\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Father\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Iullus\\ Antonius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;husband\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Octavia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Octavia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sister\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Mother\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Marcellus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Married\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\C\\.\\ Claudius\\ Marcellus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mark\\ Antony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ovid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Mocked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gaius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ars\\ Amatoria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ scandal\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ banished\\ to\\ the\\ Black\\ Sea\\ in\\ 8AD\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pater\\ Patriae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Father\\ of\\ the\\ Country\\,\\ title\\ awarded\\ to\\ Augustus\\ in\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(last\\)\\ consulship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scribonia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Second\\ wife\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ mother\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tiberius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Son\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Livia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ti\\.\\ Claudius\\ Nero\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ jealous\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gaius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lucius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ withdrew\\ to\\ Rhodes\\,\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;husband\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ adopted\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;after\\ death\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gaius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ real\\ successor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Princeps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ti\\.\\ Claudius\\ Nero\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;husband\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Livia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ father\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tiberius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Drusus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pantheon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\-a\\ temple\\ for\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ the\\ ruler\\ and\\ his\\ gods\\,\\ built\\ by\\ Agrippa\\.\\ It\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ Aug\\.\\ program\\ of\\ cultural\\ renewal\\ and\\ building\\ program\\,\\ which\\ tries\\ to\\ give\\ Rome\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ prosperity\\ after\\ the\\ chaos\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ The\\ emperor\\ Hadrian\\ built\\ the\\ standing\\ Pantheon\\ 125\\ yrs\\.\\ after\\ Aug\\.\\ after\\ the\\ original\\ one\\ was\\ destroyed\\ in\\ a\\ fire\\.\\ The\\ inscription\\ on\\ the\\ pediment\\ was\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ original\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Marcus\\ Agrippa\\.\\ Son\\ of\\ Lucius\\,\\ consul\\ for\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;time\\,\\ built\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agrippa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;one\\ of\\ Aug\\.\\ closest\\ advisors\\ and\\ indispensable\\ friend\\.\\ He\\ was\\ by\\ Aug\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\ before\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ was\\ assassinated\\.\\ He\\ won\\ the\\ naval\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\ and\\ overlooks\\ Aug\\.\\ building\\ programs\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ succeed\\ Aug\\.\\ He\\ married\\ Julia\\,\\ Aug\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Temple\\ of\\ Apollo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;on\\ the\\ Palatine\\,\\ the\\ oldest\\ continuously\\ inhabited\\ part\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\ Aug\\.\\ built\\ it\\ because\\ Apollo\\ played\\ a\\ decisive\\ role\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\,\\ intervening\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ Aug\\,\\ and\\ Agrippa\\.\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ show\\ devotion\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\.\\ The\\ temple\\ complex\\ also\\ includes\\ a\\ public\\ library\\,\\ first\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mausoleum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;Aug\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mausoleum\\ was\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Aug\\.\\ building\\ program\\ that\\ started\\ even\\ before\\ Aug\\.\\ had\\ complete\\ control\\ of\\ Roman\\ politics\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ an\\ imposing\\ structure\\ that\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ permanent\\.\\ Aug\\.\\ started\\ building\\ it\\ before\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Actium\\ after\\ he\\ revealed\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ to\\ contrast\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Antony\\ wishes\\ to\\ be\\ buried\\ in\\ Egypt\\ with\\ Cleopatra\\.\\ It\\ was\\ Aug\\.\\ counterstatment\\ to\\ Antony\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maecenas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;Aug\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advisor\\ in\\ the\\ domestic\\ and\\ cultural\\ realm\\.\\ He\\ is\\ most\\ famous\\ for\\ being\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;patron\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Virgil\\ and\\ Horace\\.\\ He\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ equestrian\\ class\\ \\(knights\\,\\ not\\ Senatorial\\)\\.\\ He\\ was\\ extremely\\ influential\\ but\\ prefer\\ to\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\ He\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ mediator\\/negotiator\\ between\\ Antony\\ and\\ Oct\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Res\\ Gestae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;the\\ list\\ of\\ Aug\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ achievement\\ that\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ carved\\ on\\ two\\ bronze\\ tablets\\ to\\ be\\ displayed\\ outside\\ his\\ mausoleum\\,\\ so\\ his\\ career\\ could\\ be\\ better\\ connected\\ with\\ his\\ tomb\\.\\ Many\\ copies\\ of\\ it\\ were\\ dispersed\\ throughout\\ the\\ empire\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ best\\-preserved\\ copies\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ temple\\ in\\ Ankara\\,\\ Turkey\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cornelius\\ Gallus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;he\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ Aug\\&rsquo\\;s\\ close\\ advisors\\ who\\ tried\\ to\\ seek\\ personal\\ glory\\ at\\ Aug\\.\\&rsquo\\;s\\ expense\\,\\ and\\ was\\ asked\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\ in\\ 26\\-27\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ Prefect\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ poet\\ and\\ soldier\\;\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ poems\\ survived\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\ His\\ case\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ limits\\ on\\ personal\\ ambition\\ in\\ the\\ Principate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imperator\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;the\\ title\\ given\\ to\\ Aug\\.\\ It\\ essentially\\ means\\ emperor\\ in\\ English\\.\\ It\\ originally\\ means\\ commander\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ Republican\\ term\\.\\ As\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ roles\\ ad\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Princeps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Aug\\.\\ was\\ the\\ commander\\-in\\-chief\\.\\ It\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\ as\\ the\\ general\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ emperor\\ usually\\ receives\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ permanent\\ title\\,\\ though\\ during\\ Aug\\.\\ time\\ it\\ was\\ renewed\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ and\\ Aug\\.\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ personal\\ honor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crassus\\&mdash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ general\\ who\\ led\\ the\\ army\\ against\\ the\\ Parthian\\ in\\ 53BC\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ worst\\ military\\ defeat\\ in\\ Roman\\ history\\.\\ The\\ army\\ was\\ completely\\ destroyed\\ and\\ its\\ legionary\\ standard\\ has\\ captured\\ by\\ the\\ Parthian\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Focus\\:\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ literary\\ world\\ as\\ Rome\\ moves\\ \\from\\ republic\\ to\\ principate\\,\\ and\\ major\\ literary\\ figures\\.\\ \\\\\\-\\ as\\ rome\\ moves\\ from\\ republic\\ to\\ principate\\,\\ is\\ there\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ \\&\\#39\\;libertas\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\or\\ liberty\\ of\\ speech\\?\\ contrast\\ catallus\\&\\#39\\;\\ shocking\\ review\\ of\\ pompey\\ and\\ \\julius\\ caesar\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 50\\ BC\\,\\ with\\ ovid\\&\\#39\\;s\\ exile\\ in\\ 8\\ AD\\.\\ \\\\\\-\\ A\\&\\#39\\;s\\ lifetime\\ was\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ Latin\\ literature\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ roman\\ \\history\\.\\ traditional\\ roman\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ literature\\ and\\ poetry\\ \\-\\-\\ \\poetry\\ was\\ a\\ low\\ status\\ activity\\ \\[unlike\\ with\\ the\\ greeks\\]\\;\\ poetry\\ not\\ a\\ \\career\\ or\\ serious\\ pursuit\\ for\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ roman\\ elite\\;\\ major\\ figures\\ \\in\\ poetry\\ were\\ mostly\\ outsiders\\ or\\ dependent\\ on\\ powerful\\ romans\\;\\ \\upper\\-class\\ romans\\ would\\ use\\ poetry\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ or\\ relaxation\\ \\[exemplified\\ \\by\\ cicero\\ in\\ his\\ youth\\,\\ before\\ he\\ realized\\ its\\ importance\\ and\\ gave\\ the\\ \\speech\\ in\\ defense\\ of\\ archias\\]\\,\\ and\\ was\\ legitimized\\ as\\ entertainment\\ only\\ \\at\\ ludi\\ \\[games\\]\\ in\\ theatres\\;\\ some\\ elites\\ would\\ use\\ poetry\\ as\\ history\\ or\\ \\oratory\\,\\ both\\ connected\\ to\\ public\\ life\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ essential\\ to\\ perpetuating\\ \\one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ gloria\\.\\ poetry\\&\\#39\\;s\\ chief\\ practical\\ value\\ was\\ its\\ gift\\ of\\ FAME\\,\\ and\\ \\thus\\ only\\ epics\\ or\\ epic\\-styled\\ historical\\ poetry\\ were\\ placed\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ \\the\\ hierarchy\\ \\[Homer\\,\\ and\\ other\\ tragedians\\ of\\ Greek\\]\\.\\ \\\\\\-\\ changes\\:\\ cicero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\&\\#39\\;in\\ defense\\ of\\ archias\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\[62\\ BC\\]\\ shows\\ enlightened\\ \\traditionalist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ attitudes\\ on\\ poetry\\;\\ cicero\\ claims\\ social\\ value\\ for\\ \\archias\\&\\#39\\;\\ poetry\\ because\\ it\\ commemorates\\ roman\\ achievements\\ \\[including\\ \\cicero\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\]\\.\\ shows\\ still\\ what\\ the\\ jury\\ valued\\ \\[i\\.e\\.\\ commemoration\\ of\\ \\rome\\ is\\ good\\!\\]\\ \\\\\\-\\ \\"\\;new\\ poets\\"\\;\\ \\[poetae\\ novi\\]\\ around\\ 60\\ B\\.C\\.\\ \\-\\ not\\ the\\ clients\\ type\\;\\ these\\ \\poets\\ were\\ of\\ good\\ breed\\;\\ catallus\\ is\\ best\\ known\\.\\ \\\\\\-\\ poetry\\ now\\ written\\ with\\ pride\\ by\\ respectable\\ romans\\;\\ its\\ purpose\\ is\\ \\personal\\ satisfaction\\,\\ appreciation\\ of\\ refined\\ few\\;\\ cultivation\\ of\\ small\\ \\poetic\\ forms\\ and\\ scorn\\ for\\ \\&\\#39\\;vulgar\\&\\#39\\;\\,\\ bloated\\ subjects\\ and\\ forms\\ \\\\[historical\\ epic\\ rejected\\]\\.\\ Callimachus\\&\\#39\\;\\ influence\\,\\ champion\\ of\\ refined\\ \\and\\ learned\\ poetry\\ from\\ the\\ Greeks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ VIII\\ \\\\Horace\\ \\(65\\ BCE\\-8\\ CE\\)\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ generation\\ of\\ poets\\ \\(born\\ 70\\-65\\)\\,\\ along\\ \\with\\ Virgil\\ and\\ Cornelius\\ Gallus\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ Satires\\,\\ Epodes\\,\\ Odes\\,\\ Epistles\\,\\ \\Carmen\\ Saeculare\\.\\ Friend\\ of\\ Brutus\\ and\\ fought\\ with\\ him\\ at\\ Philippi\\.\\ Virgil\\ \\introduced\\ Horace\\ to\\ Maecenas\\ in\\ 38\\ BCE\\,\\ who\\ soon\\ after\\ gave\\ Horace\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sabine\\ \\farm\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Very\\ close\\ to\\ August\\ us\\,\\ who\\ commissioned\\ Carmen\\ Saeculare\\,\\ an\\ ode\\ for\\ the\\ \\Ludi\\ Saeculare\\,\\ games\\ put\\ on\\ in\\ 17\\ BCE\\.\\ Maecenas\\&rsquo\\;\\ will\\ asks\\ Augustus\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;remember\\ \\my\\ friend\\ Horatius\\ Flaccus\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\\\Calvus\\ first\\ generation\\ poet\\ \\(died\\ 47\\ BCE\\)\\ \\\\Cinna\\ first\\ generation\\ poet\\.\\ Wrote\\ poem\\ Zmyrna\\,\\ which\\ Catullus\\ praises\\ in\\ poem\\ \\95\\.\\ Killed\\ by\\ pro\\-Julius\\ Caesar\\ mob\\ due\\ to\\ identity\\ mistake\\ after\\ JC\\ assasinated\\.\\ \\\\Cornelius\\ Gallus\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(69\\ BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 27\\/26\\ BCE\\)\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ generation\\ of\\ poets\\,\\ \\also\\ Prefect\\ of\\ Egypt\\.\\ Encouraged\\ to\\ commit\\ suicide\\ in\\ 27\\ or\\ 26\\ BCE\\ after\\ he\\ had\\ \\his\\ name\\ inscribed\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ a\\ pyramid\\.\\ \\\\Callimachus\\ greek\\ poet\\ of\\ the\\ Hellenistic\\ era\\ \\(late\\ 4th\\ century\\ BCE\\ onwards\\)\\.\\ \\Notable\\ sayings\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ big\\ book\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ nuisance\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;I\\ detest\\ everything\\ that\\ is\\ \\vulgar\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\\\"\\;thundering\\ is\\ Zeus\\&\\#39\\;\\ job\\,\\ not\\ mine\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\ \\\\\\-\\ Juxtaposition\\ of\\ the\\ immortal\\ fame\\/gloria\\/monument\\ sought\\ by\\ poets\\ and\\ \\the\\ physical\\ frailty\\ by\\ which\\ poems\\ were\\ written\\ \\(papyrus\\ roll\\)\\ \\\\-\\ Hierarchy\\ of\\ poetic\\ forms\\ is\\ inherited\\ from\\ the\\ Greeks\\;\\ Homeric\\ epic\\ at\\ \\the\\ top\\,\\ some\\ poets\\ shun\\ the\\ high\\ forms\\ on\\ purpose\\ \\(including\\ Virgil\\,\\ who\\ \\later\\ changed\\ his\\ mind\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ creates\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cursus\\ honorum\\,\\ and\\ \\poets\\ tend\\ to\\ move\\ up\\ the\\ ladder\\ from\\ low\\ to\\ high\\ over\\ their\\ careers\\.\\ \\\\-\\ Poetical\\ canon\\ creates\\ competition\\ among\\ poets\\;\\ inclusivity\\ vs\\.\\ \\exclusivity\\ of\\ what\\ a\\ culture\\ deems\\ canonical\\ \\(What\\ is\\ the\\ cutoff\\ for\\ \\worthy\\/lasting\\ poetry\\?\\ \\ \\;Who\\ is\\ great\\ and\\ who\\ is\\ merely\\ good\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ first\\ \\Romans\\ merely\\ translated\\ Greek\\ poems\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ tried\\ to\\ surpass\\ with\\ \\Latin\\ poetry\\ to\\ be\\ included\\ in\\ canon\\ with\\ the\\ great\\ Greek\\ poems\\.\\ \\\\-\\ Horace\\&\\#39\\;s\\ summit\\ is\\ Odes\\ \\(lyric\\ poetry\\,\\ great\\ metrical\\ difficulty\\)\\,\\ \\writes\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ poetic\\ immortality\\ in\\ his\\ poems\\.\\ \\ \\;Moves\\ from\\ \\immortalizing\\ the\\ patron\\ to\\ immortalizing\\ the\\ poets\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Seems\\ like\\ a\\ \\trend\\ towards\\ arrogance\\/personal\\ ambition\\.\\ \\ \\;Contrast\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ \\widespread\\ personal\\ political\\ ambition\\ under\\ Augustus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homer\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Greatest\\ Greek\\ epic\\ poet\\,\\ wrote\\ the\\ Iliad\\ and\\ the\\ Odyssey\\;\\ Virgil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Aeneid\\ draws\\ much\\ from\\ Homer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Aeneas\\ is\\ a\\ Homeric\\ character\\,\\ draws\\ on\\ universal\\ familiarity\\ of\\ the\\ Homeric\\ stories\\;\\ form\\,\\ style\\,\\ narrative\\ of\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ all\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ Homer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virgil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\ \\;Roman\\ poet\\,\\ his\\ last\\ and\\ most\\ ambitious\\ work\\ was\\ the\\ Aeneid\\;\\ ordered\\ the\\ manuscript\\ to\\ be\\ burned\\,\\ but\\ Augustus\\ himself\\ overruled\\ the\\ wish\\;\\ Aeneid\\ challenged\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ single\\ great\\ predecessor\\ in\\ epic\\ poems\\,\\ Homer\\;\\ Aeneid\\ was\\ when\\ V\\.\\ was\\ still\\ at\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ poem\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;something\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ Iliad\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ classic\\ even\\ before\\ it\\ was\\ completed\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Roman\\ founder\\-figure\\/exiled\\ Trojan\\ whom\\ the\\ Aeneid\\ is\\ written\\ about\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Venus\\ and\\ father\\ of\\ Iulus\\,\\ traditionally\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ gens\\ Iulia\\ \\(to\\ which\\ Julius\\ Caesar\\ belonged\\ and\\ Octavian\\/Augustus\\ was\\ linked\\ by\\ adoption\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pius\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(loyal\\ or\\ devoted\\)\\ to\\ family\\,\\ to\\ gods\\,\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ his\\ people\\,\\ serves\\ a\\ cause\\ outside\\ of\\ himself\\ \\(conflicts\\ of\\ personal\\ feelings\\ and\\ duty\\ to\\ his\\ people\\/gods\\/fate\\)\\,\\ in\\ Books\\ 1\\-6\\ wanders\\,\\ in\\ book\\ 7\\-12\\,\\ wages\\ war\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ seducer\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;relationships\\&rdquo\\;\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ out\\ so\\ well\\ for\\ him\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dido\\)\\,\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ Underworld\\ where\\ he\\ sees\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;future\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dido\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ her\\ brother\\,\\ Pygmalion\\,\\ killed\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ so\\ she\\ left\\ Phoenicia\\ and\\ founded\\ a\\ city\\ in\\ Carthage\\,\\ had\\ a\\ relationship\\ with\\ Aeneas\\ which\\ ultimately\\ did\\ not\\ work\\ out\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\ and\\ her\\ claims\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ her\\ husband\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ not\\,\\ very\\ passionate\\,\\ stabbed\\ herself\\ with\\ his\\ sword\\ after\\ he\\ left\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Characters\\ and\\ People\\ spoken\\ about\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ XI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hero\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leader\\ in\\ Troy\\ but\\ leaves\\ after\\ defeat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Arrives\\ in\\ Carthage\\,\\ and\\ has\\ affair\\ with\\ Dido\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Will\\ eventually\\ found\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instead\\ of\\ carrying\\ gold\\ and\\ silver\\,\\ carries\\ his\\ father\\ out\\ of\\ Troy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Known\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pietas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Virgil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Full\\ Name\\:\\ Publius\\ Vergilius\\ Maro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Poet\\ who\\ wrote\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Friend\\ of\\ Augustus\\,\\ Praises\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Promised\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ temple\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ poetry\\ with\\ Caesar\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Georgics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Works\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ecologues\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Georgics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lived\\ 70BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 19BCE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jupiter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ that\\ prophesizes\\ war\\ with\\ Carthage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portrays\\ sense\\ of\\ order\\,\\ like\\ Augustus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anchises\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Father\\ of\\ Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slept\\ with\\ Aphrodite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stole\\ horses\\ from\\ Tros\\ and\\ bred\\ 6\\,\\ two\\ he\\ gave\\ to\\ his\\ son\\ Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ carried\\ by\\ his\\ son\\ Aeneas\\ out\\ of\\ Troy\\,\\ Aeneas\\ chose\\ him\\ instead\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\gold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Livy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Full\\ name\\:\\ Titus\\ Livius\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Likely\\ lived\\ 64BCE\\-12CE\\ but\\ maybe\\ 64BCE\\-17CE\\ or\\ even\\ 59BCE\\-17CE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Life\\ long\\ writer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ too\\ close\\ to\\ Augustus\\,\\ actually\\ praised\\ Pompey\\,\\ but\\ not\\ offending\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ab\\ urbe\\ condita\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ roman\\ history\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\wrote\\,\\ but\\ little\\ still\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Began\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ as\\ the\\ Aeneid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Juno\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\God\\ that\\ was\\ upset\\ by\\ leader\\ of\\ Troy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tries\\ to\\ impede\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Her\\ anger\\ seeps\\ into\\ Aeneas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portrays\\ sense\\ of\\ chaotic\\ passion\\ likeness\\ of\\ Augustus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 50, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/2007_Lecture_Summary.doc", "desc": "Lecture Summaries"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Stat 104 - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "statistics"], "text": null, "id": 106, "html": "\\\\\\Stat\\ 104\\ \\-\\ Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 45, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/stat104_final_study_sheet.pdf", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-08-22 03:39:19.267101+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Guide to Jello", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 232, "html": null, "course_id": 25, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/jello.pdf", "desc": "How to make Jello"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aesthetics and Interpretive Understanding 31 - Ame", "tags": ["american-musicals", "aesth-and-intp-31"], "text": null, "id": 3, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\_review\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c21\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c17\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c10\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c19\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ARONOWITZ\\:\\ FRAMING\\ DISEASE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#39\\;Framing\\ disease\\:\\ an\\ underappreciated\\ mechanism\\ for\\ the\\ social\\ patterning\\ of\\ health\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Social\\ Science\\ \\&\\;\\ Medicine\\ 67\\(1\\)\\:\\ 1\\-9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Take\\ Away\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ \\&lsquo\\;Framing\\ disease\\:\\ an\\ underappreciated\\ mechanism\\ for\\ the\\ social\\ patterning\\ of\\ health\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ Aronowitz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\talks\\ about\\ how\\ \\&lsquo\\;framing\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ he\\ refers\\ to\\ later\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ social\\ construction\\ of\\ disease\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ can\\ greatly\\ influence\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ diseases\\ are\\ perceived\\ and\\ diagnosed\\ in\\ a\\ society\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ numerous\\ examples\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ social\\ framing\\ can\\ sometimes\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ incorrect\\ or\\ over\\ diagnosis\\ based\\ on\\ seeming\\ societal\\ norms\\ in\\ a\\ community\\.\\ In\\ one\\ example\\,\\ Aronowitz\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ asthma\\ has\\ been\\ rising\\ in\\ the\\ urban\\ poor\\ communities\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ led\\ to\\ countless\\ cases\\ of\\ incorrect\\ diagnosis\\ to\\ children\\ who\\ merely\\ expressed\\ symptoms\\ of\\ wheezing\\.\\ Ultimately\\ he\\ illustrates\\ how\\ societal\\ framing\\ of\\ a\\ situation\\ can\\ greatly\\ affect\\ health\\ problems\\ in\\ that\\ community\\,\\ and\\ that\\ knowledge\\ of\\ this\\ framing\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ more\\ material\\ influences\\ is\\ essential\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ accurate\\ diagnosis\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\ to\\ look\\ for\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Social\\ \\&ldquo\\;framing\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Concept\\ that\\ a\\ culture\\,\\ society\\ creates\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;frames\\&rsquo\\;\\ diseases\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Framing\\&rdquo\\;\\ health\\ disparities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Will\\ Rogers\\ phenomenon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ Okies\\ migrated\\ to\\ California\\ both\\ states\\&rsquo\\;\\ IQ\\&rsquo\\;s\\ went\\ up\\.\\ \\(Meaning\\ that\\ the\\ okies\\ were\\ less\\ intelligent\\ that\\ then\\ average\\ Oklahoman\\,\\ but\\ more\\ intelligent\\ than\\ the\\ average\\ Californian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aronowitz\\ relates\\ to\\ cancer\\ statistics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ quotes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ use\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\framing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\somewhat\\ euphemistically\\ for\\ what\\ is\\ often\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ social\\ construction\\ of\\ disease\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Aronowitz\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ relate\\ to\\ Rosenberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ piece\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ society\\ \\&ldquo\\;frames\\&rdquo\\;\\ diseases\\.\\ Rosenberg\\ argues\\ that\\ society\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ deciding\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ a\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;The\\ mechanism\\ by\\ which\\ social\\ factors\\ lead\\ to\\ health\\ disease\\ in\\ the\\ bodies\\ of\\ individuals\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Aronowitz\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ relate\\ to\\ Kleinman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ diseases\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ how\\ illnesses\\ reflect\\ social\\ factors\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ created\\ by\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Consider\\ the\\ highly\\ gendered\\ framing\\ of\\ headache\\ diagnosis\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ today\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Aronowitz\\ 3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relates\\ to\\ Kleinman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ article\\-\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Fullwiley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ piece\\ on\\ Senegalese\\ women\\ when\\ it\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ these\\ women\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ bigger\\ and\\ slower\\ and\\ sicker\\ as\\ they\\ got\\ older\\-\\ expected\\ it\\,\\ so\\ it\\ became\\ true\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FULLWILEY\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#39\\;Out\\ from\\ Under\\ the\\ Skin\\:\\ Disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Etiology\\,\\ Biology\\ and\\ Society\\:\\ A\\ commentary\\ on\\ Robert\\ Aronowitz\\&\\#39\\;\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Science\\ \\&\\;\\ Medicine\\ 67\\(1\\)\\:\\ 4\\-17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fullwiley\\ recognizes\\ Aronwitz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ interdisciplinary\\ approach\\ to\\ illness\\ that\\ includes\\ social\\,\\ economic\\,\\ racial\\,\\ ethnic\\,\\ and\\ gender\\ factors\\.\\ \\;\\ Yet\\,\\ she\\ cautions\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ stress\\ on\\ these\\ factors\\ may\\ nudge\\ biology\\,\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ mix\\,\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\ also\\ brings\\ into\\ play\\ the\\ effect\\ that\\ thought\\ and\\ beliefs\\ have\\ on\\ illness\\.\\ The\\ actual\\ reality\\ of\\ a\\ held\\ belief\\ is\\ of\\ less\\ importance\\ than\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ that\\ belief\\ is\\ accepted\\ by\\ the\\ individual\\ or\\,\\ even\\ more\\ so\\,\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\;\\ An\\ acceptance\\ of\\ what\\ may\\ be\\ considered\\ erroneous\\ by\\ reason\\ or\\ science\\ may\\ become\\ real\\ through\\ belief\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ socially\\ accepted\\ beliefs\\ impact\\ the\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ illness\\ experience\\.\\ \\;\\ With\\ this\\ understanding\\,\\ one\\ obviously\\ cannot\\ separate\\ the\\ disease\\ from\\ its\\ host\\,\\ the\\ patient\\,\\ nor\\ the\\ patient\\ from\\ its\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ mentions\\ how\\ \\;pharmaceutical\\ \\;companies\\ have\\ lowered\\ the\\ threshold\\ for\\ disease\\ b\\/c\\ earlier\\ \\;strategies\\ \\;have\\ been\\ too\\ effective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ROSENBERG\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disease\\ in\\ History\\:\\ Frames\\ and\\ Framers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ framing\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ Rosenberg\\ argues\\,\\ has\\ been\\ sorely\\ overlooked\\.\\ In\\ the\\ framework\\ of\\ disease\\ rests\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ an\\ illness\\ to\\ either\\ be\\ considered\\ imperative\\ and\\ worthy\\ of\\ government\\ spending\\ \\(ESRD\\)\\ or\\ trivial\\ and\\ consequently\\ neglected\\ \\(tuberculosis\\)\\,\\ perhaps\\ even\\ stigmatized\\ \\(homosexuality\\)\\.\\ In\\ all\\ cases\\,\\ the\\ attitudes\\ and\\ moral\\ values\\ of\\ a\\ society\\ classify\\ an\\ illness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ process\\ of\\ disease\\ definition\\ and\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ these\\ definitions\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ considered\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ study\\ of\\ disease\\ has\\ instead\\ been\\ reductionist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Dropsy\\-\\ example\\ of\\ disease\\ that\\ came\\ to\\ understood\\ in\\ fundamentally\\ different\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-new\\ label\\-\\ ESRD\\-\\ this\\ new\\ definition\\ stemmed\\ from\\ technological\\ advances\\ helped\\ allot\\ government\\ aid\\ to\\ patient\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-this\\ type\\ of\\ definition\\ and\\ redefinition\\ \\"\\;demands\\ scholarly\\ attention\\"\\;\\ \\(6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Tuberculosis\\-\\ victims\\ deteriorated\\ slowly\\,\\ hospitals\\ would\\ not\\ admit\\ them\\ as\\ incurable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-thus\\,\\ a\\ challenge\\ to\\ policy\\ makers\\ and\\ physicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-state\\,\\ local\\ governments\\ slow\\ to\\ respond\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Disease\\ entities\\ become\\ \\"\\;actors\\"\\;\\ in\\ health\\ and\\ illness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Suicide\\-\\ framing\\ of\\ behavior\\ and\\ subsequent\\ laws\\ underscore\\ social\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-This\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ homosexuality\\,\\ although\\ gays\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ frame\\ themselves\\ in\\ this\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Mammography\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ framing\\ \\(diagnosis\\ by\\ technology\\,\\ but\\ without\\ symptoms\\)\\ that\\ changes\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ life\\ drastically\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SINGER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Take\\-home\\ message\\:\\ Adaptation\\ is\\ not\\ this\\ straightforward\\ environment\\-molds\\-organism\\ model\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ taught\\ in\\ middle\\ school\\:\\ the\\ organism\\ molds\\ the\\ environment\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Look\\ at\\ how\\ humans\\ have\\ impacted\\ the\\ environment\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ science\\ and\\ history\\/poli\\ sci\\/anthropology\\ do\\ not\\ form\\ a\\ dichotomy\\:\\ human\\-environment\\ interactions\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ the\\ larger\\ political\\ economy\\ and\\ social\\ context\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\we\\ are\\ changing\\ nature\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ nature\\ is\\ changing\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nature\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ given\\ a\\ separate\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ human\\ biology\\ adapts\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\our\\ hierarchical\\ social\\ structures\\ and\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\human\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;influences\\ also\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\biological\\ anthropologists\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ tend\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ biological\\ anthropology\\,\\ and\\ not\\ examine\\ issues\\ of\\ political\\ economy\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ that\\ cause\\ those\\ biological\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\for\\ example\\:\\ instead\\ of\\ focusing\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\why\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ environment\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ disrupted\\,\\ by\\ who\\,\\ and\\ why\\,\\ bio\\-anthro\\ only\\ focuses\\ on\\ how\\ exactly\\ the\\ disturbance\\ impacts\\ the\\ environment\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ remedy\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\our\\ various\\ disciplines\\ have\\ on\\ blinders\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\ is\\ room\\ and\\ a\\ desire\\ for\\ synthesis\\ to\\ integrate\\ science\\ and\\ critical\\ reflection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cartesianism\\ and\\ cases\\ of\\ bison\\ betularia\\ and\\ pneumoconiosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\cartesianism\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ that\\ things\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ independent\\ parts\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ a\\ summary\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ infinite\\ \\#\\ of\\ ways\\ of\\ dividing\\ out\\ \\&ldquo\\;separate\\ parts\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\application\\:\\ ecological\\ niches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\everything\\ already\\ occupies\\ its\\ ecological\\ niche\\,\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ so\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;adapting\\ to\\ fit\\ your\\ ecological\\ niche\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\if\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ shaping\\ effect\\ of\\ organisms\\ on\\ the\\ environment\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ environment\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ organism\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\oxygenation\\ itself\\ is\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;co\\-evolution\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ biosphere\\ and\\ its\\ inhabitants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\the\\ Enlightenment\\ naturalist\\ vision\\:\\ nature\\ is\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ order\\&mdash\\;nature\\ is\\ sacred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nature\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ are\\ not\\:\\ in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ nature\\ and\\ man\\ are\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ discrete\\ realms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\gorillas\\:\\ the\\ ones\\ that\\ Fossey\\ observed\\ were\\ fearful\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ conditioned\\ to\\ be\\ so\\ by\\ poachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\however\\,\\ the\\ ones\\ that\\ Ndoki\\ observed\\ were\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ point\\?\\ humans\\ alter\\ the\\ environment\\ which\\ alters\\ organism\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\biston\\ betularia\\:\\ the\\ pepper\\ moth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\with\\ the\\ industrial\\ revolution\\ and\\ the\\ sooty\\ smokestacks\\ and\\ buildings\\ caused\\ by\\ industrialization\\,\\ the\\ white\\ pepper\\ moth\\ became\\ a\\ black\\ pepper\\ moth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\organism\\ affected\\ by\\ societal\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\pneumoconiosis\\&mdash\\;termed\\ \\&ldquo\\;miner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ asthma\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\because\\ coal\\ companies\\ controlled\\ the\\ medical\\ care\\ their\\ employees\\ received\\,\\ they\\ brushed\\ away\\ serious\\ lung\\ conditions\\ as\\ just\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ job\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ were\\ psychological\\ studies\\ written\\ about\\ miner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lung\\&mdash\\;these\\ people\\ are\\ crazy\\ for\\ thinking\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ sick\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\nature\\ is\\ socially\\ constructed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\serves\\ interests\\ that\\ are\\ unequally\\ distributed\\ across\\ social\\ divisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ making\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ and\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\humans\\ and\\ the\\ nonhuman\\ environment\\ make\\ up\\ an\\ intertwined\\,\\ dynamic\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ conflicting\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\just\\ as\\ our\\ actions\\ affect\\ nature\\,\\ nature\\ affects\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\AIDS\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ East\\ Side\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ social\\ policies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\there\\ is\\ a\\ higher\\ seroprevalence\\ there\\ among\\ newborns\\ than\\ in\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ NYC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\people\\ started\\ moving\\ out\\,\\ people\\ started\\ dying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\social\\ networks\\ disappearing\\,\\ those\\ left\\ turn\\ more\\ to\\ drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ point\\:\\ the\\ medical\\ epidemic\\ of\\ AIDS\\ in\\ NYC\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ policies\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\you\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ human\\ population\\ as\\ one\\ cohesive\\ population\\ thanks\\ to\\ inequality\\ along\\ class\\,\\ race\\,\\ etc\\.\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ wealthy\\ and\\ privileged\\ are\\ like\\ a\\ different\\ population\\ from\\ the\\ poor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Marx\\ makes\\ the\\ argument\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ that\\ what\\ benefits\\ the\\ wealthy\\ actually\\ takes\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\blacks\\ and\\ hypertension\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\high\\ propensity\\ for\\ hypertension\\ in\\ African\\ Americans\\ could\\ be\\ accounted\\ for\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\societal\\ influences\\:\\ stress\\ from\\ discrimination\\,\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\genetic\\ influences\\:\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ retain\\ salt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\high\\ hypertension\\ rates\\ in\\ Af\\-Ams\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ exposure\\ that\\ a\\ certain\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ society\\ caused\\,\\ and\\ the\\ legacy\\ of\\ that\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ discrimination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ economy\\ and\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\emergence\\ of\\ class\\ inequality\\ has\\ greatly\\ accelerated\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ humans\\ change\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\:\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ over\\ nature\\ is\\ really\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ over\\ other\\ men\\,\\ using\\ nature\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\:\\ toward\\ a\\ dialectical\\ biological\\ anthropology\\&mdash\\;KEY\\ IDEAS\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\)\\ adaptation\\ must\\ be\\ assessed\\ within\\ a\\ specific\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\)\\ adaptation\\ comes\\ with\\ a\\ cost\\:\\ the\\ organism\\ changes\\ the\\ environment\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ environment\\ changes\\ the\\ organism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\)\\ human\\-environment\\ interactions\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ the\\ larger\\ political\\ economy\\ and\\ social\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\)\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ particular\\ responses\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\differentiated\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;among\\ social\\ strata\\&mdash\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ the\\ overall\\ human\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\FULLWILEY\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Biosocial\\ suffering\\:\\ order\\ and\\ illness\\ in\\ Urban\\ West\\ Africa\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Biosocieties\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1\\(4\\)\\:\\ 421\\-438\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Take\\ Away\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Biosocial\\ Suffering\\:\\ Order\\ and\\ Illness\\ in\\ Urban\\ West\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Fullwiley\\ examines\\ patients\\ of\\ Dakar\\,\\ Senegal\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ told\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ sickle\\ cell\\ trait\\.\\ While\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ benign\\ trait\\,\\ the\\ patients\\ complain\\ of\\ experiencing\\ great\\ emotional\\ and\\ physical\\ pain\\.\\ Fullwiley\\ examines\\ how\\ these\\ people\\ attribute\\ their\\ emotional\\ suffering\\ for\\ social\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ economic\\ poverty\\,\\ their\\ busy\\ schedules\\,\\ or\\ family\\ issues\\,\\ with\\ the\\ sickle\\ cell\\ trait\\,\\ though\\ the\\ doctors\\ say\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ healthy\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\ to\\ look\\ for\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sickle\\ Cell\\ Trait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Article\\ talks\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ benign\\ sickle\\ cell\\ trait\\ that\\ Senegalese\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ attribute\\ to\\ causing\\ their\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Biosocial\\ Suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ way\\ that\\ societal\\ and\\ physiological\\ distress\\ is\\ articulated\\ through\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ possession\\ of\\ a\\ genetic\\ trait\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Awa\\ Ngom\\,\\ Sukeyena\\ Niang\\,\\ Khady\\ Tall\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Patients\\ that\\ Fullwiley\\ looks\\ at\\ in\\ her\\ article\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ have\\ sickle\\ cell\\ trait\\ and\\ express\\ suffering\\ and\\ pain\\ because\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ quotes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Dirianke\\ women\\ often\\ use\\ illness\\,\\ some\\ disease\\ or\\ symptom\\ as\\ a\\ reason\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;drag\\&rsquo\\;\\ themselves\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ To\\ be\\ sick\\,\\ fatigued\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ to\\ seem\\ so\\,\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ beauty\\ ideal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(492\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ relate\\ to\\ Farmer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;Aids\\ and\\ Accusations\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\ about\\ how\\ Hatian\\ women\\ hold\\ themselves\\ to\\ a\\ similar\\ mindset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ sickle\\ trait\\ suffering\\,\\ seen\\ to\\ be\\ abnormal\\ from\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ of\\ Western\\ science\\,\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ expression\\ that\\ is\\ quite\\ normal\\ as\\ order\\ where\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ mind\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ body\\ \\&lsquo\\;finds\\ itself\\ again\\ in\\ things\\&rsquo\\;\\ in\\ this\\ cultural\\ and\\ environmental\\ context\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(423\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relates\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Beyond\\ the\\ Body\\ Proper\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;when\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ body\\ reacts\\ to\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\ and\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KLEINMAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;Everything\\ that\\ Really\\ Matters\\"\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Suffering\\,\\ Subjectivity\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Remaking\\ of\\ Human\\ Experience\\&\\#39\\;\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harvard\\ Theological\\ Review\\ 90\\(3\\)\\:\\ 315\\-35\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ an\\ anthropologist\\,\\ Kleinman\\ humbly\\ approaches\\ the\\ issues\\ of\\ suffering\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ interviewed\\ many\\ individuals\\ nearing\\ death\\ or\\ emotionally\\ close\\ to\\ another\\ at\\ death\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gate\\.\\ \\;\\ Many\\ described\\ positive\\ feelings\\,\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\ and\\ clarity\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ displayed\\ little\\ trepidation\\ and\\ profound\\ resiliency\\ alongside\\ this\\ hardship\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ his\\ interviews\\ with\\ patients\\,\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ really\\ matters\\&rdquo\\;\\ arose\\ again\\ and\\ again\\.\\ \\;\\ How\\ do\\ dying\\ patients\\ come\\ to\\ this\\ solace\\ despite\\ extreme\\ suffering\\?\\ \\;\\ Maybe\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ suffering\\ itself\\ somehow\\ provides\\ a\\ rewarding\\ experience\\,\\ with\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ bring\\ meaning\\ and\\ transformation\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ all\\ that\\ was\\ once\\ well\\ broke\\ down\\,\\ his\\ interviewees\\ \\ \\;found\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ reorder\\ their\\ worlds\\ and\\ bring\\ meaning\\ to\\ the\\ \\;chaos\\ \\(through\\ religion\\,\\ meaning\\,\\ order\\,\\ perception\\ of\\ suffering\\,\\ belief\\ in\\ society\\,\\ diagnosis\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MERLEAU\\-PONTY\\:\\ PHENOMOLOGY\\ OF\\ PERCEPTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ highlights\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ discreet\\/embodied\\ subjects\\,\\ each\\ with\\ a\\ unique\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ author\\ downplays\\ science\\ because\\ of\\ this\\ inherent\\ subjectivity\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ playing\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Our\\ bodies\\ comprise\\ the\\ nexus\\ between\\ the\\ subject\\ \\(our\\ perception\\)\\ and\\ the\\ object\\ \\(the\\ world\\)\\.\\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ perception\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ world\\-making\\ activity\\.\\ The\\ author\\ calls\\ for\\ a\\ \\"\\;return\\ to\\ things\\ themselves\\"\\;\\ to\\ achieve\\ direct\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Phenomenology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-study\\ of\\ essences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ philosophy\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ always\\ \\"\\;already\\ there\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-efforts\\ are\\ directed\\ toward\\ making\\ a\\ direct\\/primitive\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ manner\\ or\\ style\\ of\\ thinking\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-We\\ are\\ nothing\\ but\\ bits\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ such\\ that\\ all\\ knowledge\\ comes\\ from\\ particular\\ points\\ of\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-this\\ means\\ we\\ are\\ entities\\ that\\ transcend\\ our\\ ancestors\\,\\ history\\,\\ and\\ even\\ knowledge\\/consciousness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Therefore\\,\\ science\\ must\\ be\\ scrutinized\\ for\\ being\\ a\\ subjective\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-it\\ is\\ a\\ sequel\\/amplification\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ that\\ constitutes\\ perceived\\ things\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-not\\ a\\ science\\ or\\ an\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-the\\ background\\ for\\ all\\ acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-as\\ such\\,\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ setting\\ of\\ our\\ thoughts\\ and\\ perceptions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-We\\ are\\ each\\ not\\ a\\ \\"\\;source\\ of\\ intrinsic\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ a\\ subject\\ destined\\ to\\ the\\ world\\"\\;\\ \\(137\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phenomenal\\ field\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-science\\ fixes\\ and\\ objectifies\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-the\\ scientific\\ field\\ was\\ not\\ aware\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ \\"\\;working\\ on\\ a\\ presupposition\\"\\;\\ \\(141\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-author\\ calls\\ for\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ or\\ actual\\ experience\\,\\ prior\\ to\\ objective\\ world\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-asks\\ us\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-phenomenology\\ is\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;advent\\ of\\ being\\ to\\ consciousness\\"\\;\\ \\(146\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ can\\ never\\ know\\ ourselves\\ as\\ unreflective\\ beings\\ \\(since\\ reflecting\\ is\\ always\\ involved\\ in\\ this\\ knowing\\)\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ we\\ cannot\\ be\\ pure\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SCHEPER\\-HUGHES\\ AND\\ LOCK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ MINDFUL\\ BODY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Take\\-home\\ message\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ three\\ bodies\\,\\ the\\ individual\\ body\\ \\(our\\ own\\ bodies\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ perceive\\ the\\ world\\,\\ mind\\/body\\ dualism\\,\\ body\\ image\\)\\,\\ the\\ social\\ body\\ \\(the\\ extension\\ of\\ our\\ bodies\\ as\\ metaphor\\ in\\ society\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ body\\ politic\\ \\(society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ and\\ what\\ makes\\ societies\\ work\\)\\.\\ For\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ three\\ bodies\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ distinct\\ Western\\ view\\ and\\ often\\ very\\ different\\ views\\ by\\ other\\ cultures\\.\\ The\\ three\\ bodies\\ are\\ LINKED\\ through\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ are\\ inevitably\\ connected\\ to\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\three\\ bodies\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ individual\\ body\\&mdash\\;we\\ each\\ have\\ our\\ own\\ bodies\\,\\ though\\ how\\ we\\ understand\\ our\\ bodies\\ and\\ our\\ bodies\\&rsquo\\;\\ relation\\ to\\ our\\ souls\\ etc\\.\\ is\\ highly\\ variable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\social\\ body\\:\\ how\\ our\\ bodies\\ represent\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ around\\ us\\ \\(the\\ body\\ in\\ health\\ vs\\.\\ sickness\\ can\\ mirror\\ society\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\social\\ body\\ is\\ like\\ th\\ population\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ body\\ politic\\ governs\\ the\\ social\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ individual\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\during\\ a\\ grand\\ rounds\\ presentation\\,\\ a\\ woman\\ describing\\ her\\ headaches\\ attributes\\ them\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\ beting\\ her\\,\\ and\\ social\\ issues\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ facing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\medical\\ student\\ demands\\:\\ but\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\real\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cause\\ of\\ the\\ headache\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\this\\ has\\ happened\\ as\\ far\\ back\\ as\\ Hippocrates\\&rsquo\\;\\ time\\,\\ this\\ desire\\ to\\ separate\\ medicine\\ and\\ social\\ suffering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cartesian\\ dualism\\:\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ treat\\ conditions\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ wholly\\ somatic\\ or\\ wholly\\ psychological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\soul\\ is\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ theology\\ and\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ science\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ nature\\/culture\\ opposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\crux\\ of\\ Western\\ metaphyhsics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\but\\ then\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ thought\\ that\\ rather\\ than\\ being\\ against\\ each\\ other\\,\\ culture\\ is\\ rooted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;biology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\pain\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ either\\ biological\\ or\\ social\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\and\\ once\\ the\\ biological\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ pain\\ is\\ discovered\\,\\ the\\ social\\/psychological\\ is\\ swept\\ to\\ the\\ side\\ and\\ forgotten\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(Corbett\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ tendency\\ now\\ to\\ claim\\ both\\ the\\ illness\\ and\\ disease\\ experience\\ as\\ medical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ we\\ individualize\\ and\\ specify\\ instead\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ social\\ causes\\ broadly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\dualisms\\:\\ mind\\/body\\,\\ nature\\/culture\\,\\ individual\\/society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ Western\\ thing\\&mdash\\;other\\ cultures\\ have\\ monistic\\ views\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\for\\ example\\,\\ Chinese\\ yin\\-yang\\:\\ is\\ a\\ dynamic\\ equilibrium\\,\\ not\\ a\\ dichotomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Islamic\\ cosmology\\ stresses\\ complementarity\\ of\\ all\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ Western\\ culture\\ has\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;analytic\\ urge\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;see\\ the\\ comparison\\ of\\ Tennyson\\ poem\\ and\\ Japanese\\ poem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Person\\,\\ self\\,\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ tendency\\ in\\ Western\\ thought\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ person\\ as\\ a\\ bounded\\,\\ unique\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ other\\ societies\\,\\ the\\ individual\\ body\\-self\\ is\\ inextricably\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\!Kung\\ who\\ do\\ a\\ weekly\\ dance\\-cleansing\\ ritual\\,\\ where\\ the\\ entire\\ tribe\\ comes\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cuna\\ Indians\\ say\\ they\\ have\\ eight\\ bodies\\,\\ each\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ body\\ part\\:\\ the\\ thief\\ is\\ govered\\ by\\ his\\ hand\\,\\ the\\ intellectual\\ by\\ his\\ head\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Western\\ thought\\ says\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ self\\,\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ schizophrenic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\other\\ societies\\,\\ though\\,\\ allow\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ possessed\\ and\\ manifest\\ different\\ persons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Body\\ imagery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\social\\ dimensions\\ of\\ the\\ body\\:\\ depression\\ in\\ Chinese\\ people\\ is\\ manifested\\ in\\ bodily\\ aches\\,\\ pains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\connection\\!\\ to\\ Fullwiley\\ and\\ Senegalese\\ sickle\\-cell\\ disease\\ as\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ social\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\bodily\\ organs\\ can\\ take\\ on\\ great\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ backbone\\,\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ the\\ liver\\,\\ blood\\ \\(bad\\ blood\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ SOCIAL\\ BODY\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ body\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\body\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ and\\ symbol\\ for\\ ideas\\ and\\ people\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\healthy\\ body\\ is\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ healthy\\ society\\ \\(balance\\,\\ harmony\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ whereas\\ illness\\ and\\ death\\ is\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ poorly\\ functioning\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ embodied\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\this\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ symbolic\\ and\\ metaphorical\\ extension\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ into\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\for\\ example\\ the\\ laying\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ town\\ in\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ a\\ body\\,\\ with\\ the\\ chief\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\ where\\ the\\ head\\ would\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\quote\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Manning\\ and\\ Fabrega\\ \\(1973\\)\\ have\\ summarized\\ the\\ major\\ differences\\ between\\ most\\ of\\ these\\ non\\-Western\\ ethnomedical\\ systems\\ and\\ moder\\ biomedicine\\.\\ In\\ the\\ latter\\ body\\ and\\ self\\ are\\ understood\\ as\\ distinct\\ and\\ separable\\ entities\\;\\ illnessresides\\ in\\ either\\ the\\ body\\ or\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ Social\\ relations\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ partitioned\\,\\ segmented\\,\\ and\\ situational\\-generally\\ as\\ discontinuous\\ with\\ health\\ or\\ sickness\\.\\ By\\ contrast\\,\\ many\\ ethnomedical\\ systems\\ do\\ not\\ logically\\ distinguish\\ body\\,\\ mind\\,\\ and\\ self\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ illness\\ cannot\\ be\\ situated\\ in\\ mind\\ or\\ body\\ alone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\our\\ modern\\ world\\ lacks\\ human\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ body\\ is\\ too\\-often\\ compared\\ to\\ a\\ machine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\we\\ are\\ controlled\\ by\\,\\ though\\ we\\ control\\,\\ the\\ machines\\ that\\ define\\ daily\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\is\\ our\\ humanity\\ being\\ compromised\\ in\\ this\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ BODY\\ POLITIC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inside\\ the\\ body\\ politic\\ is\\ good\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ outside\\ is\\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ is\\ the\\ concept\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ witch\\ hunts\\,\\ political\\ hungs\\,\\ accusations\\ of\\ sorcery\\ in\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ times\\ of\\ unrest\\,\\ the\\ individual\\ body\\ blends\\ into\\ the\\ politic\\ as\\ in\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ body\\ politic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ witch\\-fearing\\ societies\\,\\ nail\\ clippings\\,\\ hair\\,\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ to\\ affect\\ the\\ body\\ politic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ societal\\ view\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ culturally\\ correct\\ body\\&mdash\\;strong\\,\\ lean\\,\\ beautiful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sick\\ body\\ is\\ seen\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ quick\\ of\\ nature\\ but\\ as\\ your\\ failure\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\our\\ American\\ societal\\ demands\\ are\\ contradictory\\:\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ supposed\\ to\\ like\\ being\\ sensual\\ and\\ fun\\-loving\\ and\\ unrestrained\\,\\ but\\ also\\ disciplined\\ and\\ productive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\this\\ causes\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ individual\\ body\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ eating\\ disorders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ body\\ politic\\ can\\ exert\\ control\\ over\\ individual\\ bodies\\ \\(think\\ Foucault\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\by\\ disciplining\\ individuals\\ through\\ institutions\\ such\\ as\\ schools\\,\\ prisons\\,\\ barracks\\,\\ these\\ individuals\\ embody\\ the\\ categories\\ that\\ society\\ sets\\,\\ and\\ perpetuates\\ those\\ categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\through\\ medicalization\\,\\ also\\,\\ the\\ body\\ politic\\ exerts\\ an\\ influence\\ on\\ individual\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\medicine\\ says\\ something\\ is\\ a\\ disease\\,\\ so\\ the\\ individual\\ accepts\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\various\\ social\\ symptoms\\ are\\ channeled\\ into\\ disease\\ categories\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ easier\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ that\\ way\\:\\ example\\ hermaphroditism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\CONNECTION\\:\\ Rosenberg\\!\\ a\\ disease\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ disease\\ until\\ society\\ deems\\ it\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EMOTIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\emotions\\ provide\\ an\\ impt\\ \\&ldquo\\;missing\\ link\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ social\\ body\\,\\ individual\\ body\\,\\ and\\ body\\ politic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ moments\\ of\\ deep\\ emotion\\,\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\ become\\ one\\&mdash\\;i\\.e\\.\\ during\\ pain\\,\\ grief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;waves\\ of\\ fellow\\-feeling\\&rdquo\\;\\ wash\\ over\\ us\\ in\\ moments\\ of\\ dance\\,\\ singing\\,\\ where\\ we\\ feel\\ at\\ one\\ with\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\nocebo\\ and\\ placebo\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\can\\ be\\ powerful\\ healers\\ or\\ can\\ bring\\ disease\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Connection\\!\\!\\ Fullwiley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Senegales\\ examples\\,\\ Haitian\\ AIDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\nocebo\\ are\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ perception\\ of\\ sorcery\\,\\ witchcraft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\placebo\\ are\\ effects\\ of\\ religious\\ catharsis\\,\\ drama\\,\\ ritual\\,\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\AIDS\\ AND\\ ACCUSATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Farmer\\ judged\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\.\\ Point\\ out\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ traditional\\ conflict\\ with\\ modern\\.\\ Vudo\\-\\ dicothimized\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mano\\ looses\\ social\\ network\\ as\\ he\\ blames\\ his\\ friends\\&mdash\\;gives\\ him\\ human\\ agency\\.\\ Can\\ be\\ positive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Farmer\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ explain\\ the\\ complementary\\ aspects\\ between\\ traditional\\ and\\ modern\\ medicine\\ in\\ healing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Look\\ at\\ how\\ he\\ showed\\ his\\ thought\\ process\\ and\\ methodologies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Aids\\ brought\\ stigma\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Really\\ looks\\ at\\ back\\ story\\-\\ whole\\ time\\ interlacing\\ macro\\/\\ micro\\ issues\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;See\\ many\\ perspectives\\-\\ priest\\,\\ doctor\\,\\ and\\ peasant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Importance\\ of\\ linguistics\\,\\ rhetoric\\,\\ and\\ tone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Cosmologies\\ of\\ why\\ things\\ happened\\ are\\ less\\ judged\\,\\ but\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ people\\ think\\ of\\ these\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;History\\ allows\\ trajectory\\.\\ He\\ incorporates\\ stories\\ of\\ causation\\ and\\ how\\ these\\ propelled\\ into\\ situations\\ of\\ precariousness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Farmer\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ not\\ take\\ this\\ position\\ of\\ eternalistic\\ physician\\-\\ but\\ trying\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ medical\\ anthropology\\ about\\ situating\\ people\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ cosmologies\\ and\\ then\\ how\\ medicine\\ can\\ be\\ overlain\\ on\\ these\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ specificity\\ on\\ how\\ hatians\\ have\\ suffered\\ this\\ epidemic\\ of\\ other\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Mult\\-\\ level\\ analysis\\.\\ Accusations\\ in\\ medical\\ realm\\ were\\ as\\ unfounded\\ as\\ accusations\\ in\\ the\\ village\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Caused\\ tensions\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ trust\\,\\ racism\\,\\ great\\ reproductions\\ economically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;When\\ someone\\ accuses\\ another\\ of\\ sourcery\\-\\>\\;\\ leads\\ to\\ many\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Shows\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ immune\\ to\\ mutual\\ implictiosn\\ of\\ power\\.\\ We\\ are\\ all\\ still\\ operating\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ as\\ these\\ villagers\\ of\\ this\\ unfounded\\,\\ superstitious\\,\\ \\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Trying\\ to\\ level\\ the\\ playing\\ field\\-\\ farmer\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ say\\ biomedicine\\-\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ blame\\ and\\ irrationality\\ that\\ travel\\ with\\ it\\ in\\ regard\\ to\\ where\\ HIV\\ came\\ from\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;His\\ use\\ of\\ history\\ is\\ important\\.\\ Begins\\ with\\ local\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ village\\,\\ then\\ says\\ must\\ go\\ out\\ and\\ see\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ united\\ states\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ affected\\ which\\ parts\\ of\\ Haiti\\à\\;\\ so\\ important\\ to\\ do\\ interdisciplinary\\ work\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Helps\\ to\\ interpret\\ these\\ statistics\\-\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ how\\ people\\ have\\ talked\\ about\\ pandemic\\ and\\ spred\\ of\\ the\\ numbers\\.\\.\\ Don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ loose\\ the\\ human\\ element\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Take\\ into\\ consideration\\ the\\ social\\ concepts\\ of\\ numbers\\.\\ Numbers\\ are\\ not\\ neutral\\-\\ like\\ case\\ studies\\,\\ have\\ life\\ histories\\.\\ To\\ think\\ abut\\ how\\ epidemiology\\ works\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ accounting\\ and\\ documenting\\.\\.\\ think\\ about\\ what\\ questions\\ are\\ asked\\,\\ how\\ categories\\ come\\ to\\ have\\ salience\\.\\ These\\ change\\ over\\ time\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ historical\\ resonance\\ in\\ certain\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ social\\ understanding\\ of\\ hardship\\,\\ sickness\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ things\\ fit\\ into\\ this\\ model\\ BEFORE\\ aids\\ came\\ into\\ the\\ scene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Need\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ wary\\ of\\ blanket\\ global\\ statements\\,\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ understand\\ about\\ the\\ virus\\.\\ As\\ people\\ begin\\ to\\ have\\ more\\ encounters\\ with\\ the\\ clinic\\.\\.\\ in\\ their\\ cosmology\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ complete\\-\\ the\\ blood\\.\\ Who\\ singled\\ me\\ out\\?\\ Why\\ Me\\?\\ Beyond\\ bodily\\ physical\\ mechanism\\,\\ farmer\\ wants\\ us\\ to\\ see\\ why\\ jelousy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Aids\\ is\\ one\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Above\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ poverty\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ economic\\ situation\\ which\\ for\\ most\\ people\\ has\\ rendered\\ them\\ powerless\\.\\ Mano\\ was\\ singled\\ out\\ because\\ he\\ had\\ 3\\ jobs\\ in\\ an\\ environment\\ of\\ scarcity\\.\\ These\\ different\\ registers\\ in\\ understanding\\ suffering\\ or\\ blame\\.\\ These\\ things\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ be\\ decoupled\\.\\ Can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ understand\\ disease\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ other\\ registers\\ of\\ suffering\\ and\\ of\\ blame\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Disease\\ is\\ just\\ 1\\ element\\ of\\ people\\ suffering\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Real\\ problems\\ lay\\ in\\ the\\ circles\\ of\\ blame\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ consuming\\ poverty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;School\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ so\\ powerful\\.\\ Farmer\\ emphasizes\\ social\\ development\\ and\\ sustainable\\ development\\ to\\ give\\ people\\ feelings\\ of\\ empowerment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Luckless\\ girl\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ getting\\ sick\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Anita\\-\\ is\\ when\\ people\\ start\\ to\\ wonder\\ what\\ this\\ disease\\ is\\.\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ innocent\\ getting\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ People\\ began\\ relying\\ on\\ a\\ different\\ type\\ of\\ anaytic\\.\\ Then\\ wondered\\ more\\ of\\ this\\ disease\\ of\\ sida\\.\\ She\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ fit\\ the\\ framework\\ of\\ blame\\-\\ as\\ she\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ merit\\ this\\&mdash\\;people\\ wonder\\ about\\ the\\ newness\\ of\\ sida\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Not\\ a\\ fixed\\ cultural\\ model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ many\\ dynamics\\ farmer\\ describes\\,\\ that\\ describes\\ a\\ dynamism\\ that\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ fixed\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ documentation\\ of\\ how\\ certain\\ situations\\ come\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Silence\\ about\\ politics\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ person\\&\\#39\\;s\\ control\\à\\;\\ creates\\ an\\ ambiance\\ of\\ anxiety\\.\\ Aids\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ \\"\\;The\\ Last\\ Thing\\"\\;\\-\\ what\\ more\\ could\\ happen\\ to\\ us\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Frame\\ something\\ as\\ natural\\-\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ to\\ blame\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Unnatural\\-\\ get\\ at\\ human\\ agency\\ and\\ structure\\ at\\ base\\ which\\ is\\ quite\\ characterstic\\ of\\ how\\ people\\ in\\ Africa\\ and\\ Haiti\\ think\\ of\\ causation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ idea\\ of\\ agency\\ and\\ idea\\ of\\ it\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ back\\ in\\ literature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Focus\\ on\\ who\\ had\\ ill\\ intention\\ and\\ caused\\ bad\\ thing\\ to\\ happen\\ to\\ this\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Haiti\\-\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ only\\ countries\\ had\\ a\\ successful\\ slave\\ revolt\\.\\ Their\\ revolution\\ and\\ pride\\-\\ indominable\\.\\ Resist\\ bondage\\ seen\\ throughout\\ Americas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Ideology\\ and\\ framings\\ in\\ science\\ and\\ about\\ cause\\ and\\ effect\\ thus\\ blame\\.\\ In\\ science\\ it\\ is\\ rendered\\ neutral\\,\\ done\\ as\\ an\\ experiment\\.\\ Cultural\\ perspective\\ is\\ about\\ blame\\.\\ Rarely\\ do\\ people\\ in\\ science\\ deconstruct\\ mechanism\\ of\\ cause\\-\\ which\\ is\\ so\\ particular\\ and\\ parallel\\ to\\ magic\\ or\\ blame\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Haitians\\ are\\ modern\\à\\;\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ international\\ connections\\.\\ The\\ ways\\ that\\ Haitians\\ have\\ created\\ their\\ own\\ economies\\,\\ Haitian\\ creole\\,\\ and\\ hybridity\\ of\\ doom\\.\\ The\\ global\\ international\\ formation\\ of\\ all\\ things\\ Haitian\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ these\\ interations\\ and\\ characteristics\\ that\\ re\\ so\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ how\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ modernity\\.\\ How\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necesairly\\ a\\ temporal\\ state\\ of\\ affairs\\,\\ but\\ a\\ form\\ where\\ things\\ come\\ together\\ and\\ borrow\\ from\\ other\\ cultural\\ forms\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ new\\.\\.\\ Ech\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ is\\ the\\ produc\\ of\\ these\\ different\\ international\\ things\\ coming\\ together\\.\\ This\\ macro\\-social\\ model\\ of\\ disease\\ is\\ quite\\ modern\\ in\\ that\\ rationality\\ accounts\\ for\\ how\\ diseases\\ happen\\ in\\ science\\,\\ and\\ detailing\\ how\\ a\\ specific\\ entity\\ exists\\ or\\ not\\.\\.\\ Think\\ about\\ etiology\\ of\\ accusation\\ and\\ the\\ cause\\ and\\ effect\\ of\\ a\\ disease\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ sida\\.\\ Is\\ ultimately\\ modern\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Calls\\ into\\ question\\.\\ That\\ tendancy\\ becomes\\ limited\\ when\\ think\\ about\\ social\\ context\\.\\ If\\ Haitians\\ have\\ already\\ figure\\ this\\ out\\,\\ maybe\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ modern\\ then\\ us\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 2, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Midterm_review_1.doc", "desc": "1st midterm"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 07:03:23.517009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Stat 104 - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "statistics"], "text": null, "id": 102, "html": "\\\\\\stat104\\_final\\_study\\_sheet\\_2\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{max\\-width\\:576pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:18pt\\ 18pt\\ 72pt\\ 18pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 45, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/stat104_final_study_sheet_2.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 18:56:28.629534+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 277, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still11.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "WGS 1168", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 104, "html": "\\\\\\WGS\\ 1168\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:64\\.8pt\\ 72pt\\ 64\\.8pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\;text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-align\\:left\\}\\.c6\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Culture\\ and\\ Belief\\ 31\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Saints\\,\\ Heretics\\ and\\ Atheists\\:\\ \\ \\;An\\ Historical\\ Introduction\\ to\\ the\\ Philosophy\\ of\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spring\\ 2012\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syllabus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Information\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\;Mondays\\ and\\ Wednesdays\\ 1\\:00\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\:00\\,\\ Harvard\\ Hall\\ 201\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Professor\\:\\ \\ \\;Jeffrey\\ McDonough\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Office\\ Hours\\:\\ \\ \\;314\\ Emerson\\ Hall\\,\\ TBA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\-mail\\:\\ jkmcdon\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Web\\ Page\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/isites\\.harvard\\.edu\\/k80581\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ Texts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(available\\ at\\ the\\ Coop\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Augustine\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Free\\ Choice\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ translated\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Williams\\ \\(Indianapolis\\,\\ Indiana\\:\\ \\ \\;Hackett\\ Publishing\\ Company\\,\\ 1993\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;ISBN\\:\\ \\ \\;0\\-87220\\-188\\-0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anselm\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Three\\ Philosophical\\ Dialogues\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ translated\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Williams\\ \\(Indianapolis\\,\\ Indiana\\:\\ \\ \\;Hackett\\ Publishing\\ Company\\,\\ 2002\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;ISBN\\:\\ \\ \\;O\\-87220\\-611\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aquinas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Summary\\ of\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ trans\\.\\ and\\ edited\\ by\\ Richard\\ J\\.\\ Regan\\ \\(Indianapolis\\,\\ Indiana\\:\\ \\ \\;Hackett\\ Publishing\\ Company\\,\\ 2003\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;ISBN\\:\\ \\ \\;0\\-87220\\-657\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Hume\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\,\\ Second\\ Edition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ edited\\ by\\ Richard\\ H\\.\\ Popkin\\ \\(Indianapolis\\,\\ Indiana\\:\\ \\ \\;Hackett\\ Publishing\\ Company\\,\\ 1980\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;ISBN\\:\\ \\ \\;0\\-87220\\-402\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Muhammad\\ Ali\\ Khalidi\\,\\ ed\\.\\,\\ and\\ trans\\.\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Medieval\\ Islamic\\ Philosophical\\ Writings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(New\\ York\\:\\ \\ \\;Cambridge\\ University\\ Press\\ 2005\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;ISBN\\:\\ \\ \\;0\\-521\\-52963\\-8\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedrich\\ Nietzsche\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Genealogy\\ of\\ Morality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ translated\\ Maudemarie\\ Clark\\ and\\ Alan\\ J\\.\\ Swensen\\ \\(Indianapolis\\,\\ Indiana\\:\\ \\ \\;Hackett\\ Publishing\\ Company\\,\\ 1998\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;ISBN\\:\\ \\ \\;0\\-87220\\-283\\-6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baruch\\ Spinoza\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ translated\\ by\\ Samuel\\ Shirley\\,\\ edited\\ by\\ Seymour\\ Feldman\\ \\(Indianapolis\\,\\ Indiana\\:\\ \\ \\;Hackett\\ Publishing\\ Company\\,\\ 1992\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;ISBN\\:\\ 0\\-872201\\-309\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Course\\ Description\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ course\\ offers\\ an\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ intellectual\\ reflection\\ on\\ religion\\ and\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ tradition\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ it\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ read\\ roughly\\ a\\ half\\ dozen\\ perennial\\ works\\ drawn\\ from\\ authors\\ ranging\\ from\\ Augustine\\ of\\ Hippo\\ to\\ Friedrich\\ Nietzsche\\.\\ \\ \\;Along\\ the\\ way\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ think\\,\\ discuss\\,\\ and\\ write\\ about\\ such\\ topics\\ as\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ sin\\,\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ evil\\,\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ devil\\,\\ the\\ attributes\\ of\\ God\\,\\ the\\ argument\\ from\\ design\\,\\ and\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ religion\\ and\\ morality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Requirements\\ and\\ Grading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Reading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ability\\ to\\ read\\ texts\\ carefully\\ and\\ thoughtfully\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ skills\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ philosophy\\ can\\ help\\ to\\ foster\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ order\\ to\\ better\\ understand\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ taught\\,\\ and\\ to\\ promote\\ informed\\ classroom\\ discussions\\,\\ required\\ readings\\ should\\ be\\ completed\\ before\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ readings\\ are\\ typically\\ short\\,\\ but\\ also\\ very\\ difficult\\,\\ and\\ students\\ who\\ wish\\ to\\ do\\ well\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ are\\ encouraged\\ to\\ read\\ the\\ assigned\\ texts\\ more\\ than\\ once\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;Exams\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ aims\\ of\\ this\\ course\\ is\\ to\\ help\\ students\\ gain\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ central\\ themes\\ in\\ our\\ shared\\ intellectual\\ history\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ promote\\ that\\ aim\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ to\\ provide\\ students\\ with\\ an\\ alternative\\ means\\ of\\ being\\ evaluated\\,\\ a\\ mid\\-term\\ and\\ final\\ exam\\ will\\ be\\ administered\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ exams\\ are\\ intended\\ to\\ test\\ comprehension\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ covered\\ in\\ required\\ readings\\,\\ lectures\\,\\ and\\ discussion\\ section\\,\\ and\\ will\\ not\\ require\\ outside\\ reading\\ or\\ research\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Short\\ writing\\ assignments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ give\\ students\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ develop\\ their\\ writing\\ and\\ evaluative\\ skills\\,\\ 11\\ writing\\ topics\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ semester\\ \\(typically\\ requiring\\ 1\\-3\\ pages\\ of\\ writing\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(You\\ might\\ be\\ asked\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ to\\ flesh\\ out\\ an\\ objection\\ to\\ an\\ argument\\ in\\ the\\ reading\\,\\ or\\ explain\\ what\\ you\\ think\\ is\\ the\\ central\\ point\\ of\\ a\\ difficult\\ text\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;Students\\ are\\ required\\ to\\ complete\\ only\\ 5\\ of\\ writing\\ assignments\\ and\\ may\\ submit\\ up\\ to\\ 6\\ assignments\\.\\ \\ \\;Those\\ completing\\ 6\\ assignments\\ will\\ have\\ their\\ lowest\\ score\\ dropped\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ a\\ student\\ turns\\ in\\ more\\ than\\ 6\\ assignments\\,\\ only\\ the\\ first\\ 6\\ will\\ be\\ graded\\.\\ \\ \\;Late\\ assignments\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ accepted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\ \\;Grading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Student\\ grades\\ will\\ be\\ determined\\ by\\ their\\ performance\\ on\\ their\\ exams\\,\\ writing\\ assignments\\,\\ and\\ participation\\ in\\ discussion\\ sections\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ mid\\-term\\ will\\ count\\ for\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ a\\ student\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grade\\,\\ the\\ final\\ exam\\ 30\\%\\,\\ and\\ collective\\ writing\\ assignments\\ 45\\%\\.\\ \\ \\;Regular\\ attendance\\ in\\ lecture\\ and\\ discussion\\ section\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ participation\\ in\\ discussion\\ section\\,\\ is\\ expected\\,\\ and\\ grades\\ for\\ most\\ students\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ affected\\ by\\ participation\\.\\ \\ \\;Exceptionally\\ helpful\\ contributions\\ to\\ discussion\\,\\ or\\ conversely\\ failure\\ to\\ regularly\\ attend\\ class\\ or\\ become\\ productively\\ involved\\ in\\ discussion\\,\\ may\\ result\\ in\\ the\\ raising\\ or\\ lowering\\ of\\ a\\ student\\&rsquo\\;s\\ final\\ grade\\ by\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ a\\ full\\ letter\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ from\\ a\\ B\\+\\ to\\ an\\ A\\-\\ or\\ from\\ a\\ B\\+\\ to\\ a\\ B\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\ \\;Special\\ Needs\\ and\\ Emergencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Students\\ requiring\\ special\\ assistance\\ are\\ encouraged\\ to\\ inform\\ either\\ the\\ professor\\ or\\ teaching\\ fellow\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ will\\ do\\ everything\\ we\\ can\\ to\\ help\\.\\ \\ \\;Absences\\ from\\ class\\ or\\ exam\\ periods\\,\\ and\\ late\\ papers\\,\\ will\\ be\\ dealt\\ with\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ policies\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ Faculty\\ of\\ Arts\\ and\\ Sciences\\ handbooks\\.\\ \\ \\;Students\\ should\\ expect\\ that\\ failure\\ to\\ attend\\ an\\ exam\\ without\\ an\\ excuse\\ deemed\\ legitimate\\ by\\ those\\ policies\\ will\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ score\\ of\\ zero\\ for\\ that\\ exam\\.\\ \\ \\;Requests\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ professor\\ or\\ teaching\\ fellow\\ prior\\ to\\ an\\ absence\\ or\\ due\\ date\\ may\\ result\\ in\\ special\\ accommodation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tentative\\ Schedule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ January\\ 23\\:\\ Plato\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Euthyphro\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Euthyphro\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Plato\\;\\ available\\ on\\-line\\ at\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/classics\\.mit\\.edu\\/Plato\\/euthyfro\\.html\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ January\\ 25\\:\\ Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Free\\ Choice\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;Book\\ I\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Free\\ Choice\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Augustine\\ \\(pages\\ 1\\-28\\ in\\ the\\ Williams\\ translation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ January\\ 30\\:\\ Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;On\\ Free\\ Choice\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;Book\\ II\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Free\\ Choice\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Augustine\\ \\(pages\\ 29\\-69\\ in\\ the\\ Williams\\ translation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 1\\:\\ Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Free\\ Choice\\ of\\ Will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;Book\\ III\\,\\ Chapters\\ 1\\-9\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Free\\ Choice\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Augustine\\ \\(pages\\ 69\\-91\\ in\\ the\\ Williams\\ translation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Optional\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;Book\\ III\\,\\ Chapters\\ 10\\-25\\,\\ \\(pages\\ 91\\-124\\ in\\ the\\ Williams\\ translation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#1\\ due\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(5\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ February\\ 6\\:\\ \\ \\;Anselm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ Freedom\\ of\\ Choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Preface\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Anselm\\ \\ \\;\\(Williams\\ trans\\.\\ pp\\ 1\\-2\\)\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ Freedom\\ of\\ Choice\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Anselm\\ \\(Williams\\ trans\\.\\ pp\\.\\ 31\\-51\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Optional\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;On\\ Truth\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Anselm\\ \\(Williams\\ trans\\.\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\-30\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(6\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 8\\:\\ \\ \\;Anselm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Devil\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Devil\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Anselm\\,\\ Chapters\\ 1\\-14\\ \\(Williams\\ trans\\.\\ pages\\ 52\\-82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#2\\ due\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(7\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ February\\ 13\\:\\ Anselm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Devil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ Fall\\ of\\ the\\ Devil\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Anselm\\,\\ Chapters\\ 15\\-28\\ \\(Williams\\ trans\\.\\ pages\\ 82\\-100\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Anselm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ontological\\ Argument\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ Proslogium\\ available\\ at\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.anselm\\.edu\\/homepage\\/dbanach\\/anselm\\.htm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(8\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 15\\:\\ Al\\-Ghazali\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rescuer\\ from\\ Error\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rescuer\\ from\\ Error\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Al\\-Ghazali\\,\\ pages\\ 59\\-78\\ in\\ Khalidi\\ translation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#3\\ due\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Monday\\,\\ February\\ 20\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ President\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Day\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(9\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 22\\:\\ Al\\-Ghazali\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rescuer\\ from\\ Error\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rescuer\\ from\\ Error\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Al\\-Ghazali\\,\\ pages\\ 79\\-98\\ in\\ Khalidi\\ translation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Optional\\ reading\\:\\ Ibn\\ Rushd\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Incoherence\\ of\\ the\\ Incoherence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ pages\\ 155\\-180\\ in\\ Khalidi\\ translation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(10\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ February\\ 27\\:\\ Aquinas\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summa\\ Theologica\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ Summary\\ of\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(abridged\\ from\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summa\\ Theologica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ pages\\ 3\\ \\-19\\ in\\ Regan\\ edition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#4\\ due\\ before\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(11\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 29\\:\\ Aquinas\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summa\\ Theologica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Summary\\ of\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(abridged\\ from\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summa\\ Theologica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ pages\\ 20\\-38\\ in\\ Regan\\ edition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(12\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ March\\ 5\\:\\ Aquinas\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summa\\ Theologica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ new\\ reading\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ catching\\ up\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#5\\ due\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(13\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ March\\ 7\\:\\ Aquinas\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summa\\ Theologica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ q\\.\\ 22\\-23\\,\\ 25\\,\\ 44\\-49\\,\\ 103\\-105\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Summary\\ of\\ Philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(abridged\\ from\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Summa\\ Theologica\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ pages\\ 38\\-60\\ in\\ Regan\\ edition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monday\\,\\ March\\ 12\\:\\ Spring\\ Break\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wednesday\\,\\ March\\ 14\\:\\ Spring\\ Break\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ classes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(14\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ March\\ 19\\:\\ Pascal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Wager\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Wager\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ available\\ on\\ course\\ web\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#6\\ due\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(15\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ March\\ 21\\:\\ \\ \\;MID\\-TERM\\ EXAM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(16\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ March\\ 26\\:\\ Spinoza\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;Spinoza\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Part\\ I\\,\\ and\\ Appendix\\ to\\ Part\\ I\\ \\(read\\ through\\ quickly\\ for\\ the\\ big\\ picture\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#7\\ due\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(17\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ March\\ 28\\:\\ Spinoza\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ TBA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(18\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ April\\ 2\\:\\ Spinoza\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;TBA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#8\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(19\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 4\\:\\ Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Parts\\ I\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ III\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(20\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ April\\ 9\\:\\ Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Parts\\ IV\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ V\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#9\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(21\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 11\\:\\ Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Parts\\ VI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ IX\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(22\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ April\\ 16\\:\\ Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;Hume\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogues\\ Concerning\\ Natural\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Parts\\ X\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ XII\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#10\\ due\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(23\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 18\\:\\ Nietzsche\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Genealogy\\ of\\ Morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ Treatise\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Good\\ and\\ Evil\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Good\\ and\\ Bad\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(pages\\ 9\\-33\\ in\\ Clark\\ and\\ Swensen\\ translation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(24\\)\\ Monday\\,\\ April\\ 23\\:\\ Nietzsche\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Genealogy\\ of\\ Morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Second\\ Treatise\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Guilt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bad\\ Conscience\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Related\\ Matters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(pages\\ 35\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 66\\ in\\ Clark\\ and\\ Swensen\\ translation\\)\\ \\(We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ focus\\ on\\ sections\\ 1\\-8\\ and\\ 16\\-25\\,\\ so\\ if\\ pressed\\ for\\ time\\ you\\ might\\ skim\\ sections\\ 8\\-15\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Short\\ writing\\ assignment\\ \\#11\\ due\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(25\\)\\ Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 25\\:\\ Nietzsche\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\On\\ the\\ Genealogy\\ of\\ Morality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Required\\ reading\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Third\\ Treatise\\:\\ \\ \\;What\\ Do\\ Ascetic\\ Ideals\\ Mean\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(pages\\ 67\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 118\\ in\\ Clark\\ and\\ Swensen\\ translation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ FINAL\\ EXAM\\ GROUP\\ \\#\\ 6\\ \\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 46, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/2012_Syllabus1-3.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Review", "tags": ["harvard", "psychology"], "text": null, "id": 143, "html": "\\\\\\Midterm\\ Review\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c14\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:75pt\\}\\.c35\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:117pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:162pt\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c38\\{list\\-style\\-position\\:inside\\;text\\-indent\\:45pt\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c39\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c34\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39\\.4pt\\}\\.c50\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:147pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c25\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c32\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c36\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:22\\.5pt\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c49\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c47\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c41\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:111pt\\}\\.c52\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:207pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c51\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c27\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c48\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c44\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c42\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c46\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c37\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c19\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c40\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c30\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c24\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:23\\.2pt\\}\\.c21\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c43\\{margin\\-left\\:99pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Sci\\ B\\-62\\ Midterm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 1\\:\\ INTRO\\ TO\\ THE\\ HUMAN\\ MIND\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 1\\ \\(all\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\science\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ the\\ observable\\ actions\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ or\\ animal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\mind\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sensations\\,\\ perceptions\\,\\ memories\\,\\ thoughts\\,\\ dreams\\,\\ motives\\,\\ emotional\\ feelings\\,\\ and\\ other\\ subjective\\ experiences\\;\\ unconscious\\ knowledge\\ and\\ operating\\ rules\\ that\\ are\\ built\\ into\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ provide\\ foundation\\ for\\ organizing\\ behavior\\ and\\ conscious\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\science\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ all\\ attempts\\ to\\ answer\\ questions\\ through\\ the\\ systematic\\ collection\\ and\\ logical\\ analysis\\ of\\ objectively\\ observable\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ Foundation\\ Ideas\\ for\\ Psychology\\:\\ A\\ Historical\\ Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\founding\\ of\\ psychology\\ as\\ formal\\,\\ scientific\\ discipline\\ \\=\\ 1879\\,\\ Wilhelm\\ Wundt\\,\\ in\\ Germany\\,\\ opened\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;university\\ based\\ psych\\.\\ lab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ fundamental\\ ideas\\ of\\ psych\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Behavior\\ and\\ mental\\ experiences\\ have\\ physical\\ causes\\,\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ amenable\\ to\\ scientific\\ analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ way\\ a\\ person\\ behaves\\,\\ thinks\\,\\ and\\ feels\\ is\\ modified\\,\\ over\\ time\\,\\ by\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experiences\\ in\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ machinery\\,\\ which\\ produces\\ behavior\\ and\\ mental\\ experiences\\,\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ evolution\\ by\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Idea\\ of\\ Physical\\ Causation\\ of\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\idea\\ of\\ scientific\\ explanation\\ for\\ human\\ behavior\\ took\\ firm\\ hold\\ in\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\(Enlightenment\\)\\,\\ church\\ maintained\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dualism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ conjoined\\ entities\\ of\\ a\\ material\\ body\\ and\\ an\\ immaterial\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Descartes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Version\\ of\\ Dualism\\:\\ Focus\\ on\\ the\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Descartes\\ challenged\\ view\\ of\\ dualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\performed\\ dissections\\ of\\ animals\\ and\\ of\\ human\\ cadavers\\,\\ began\\ to\\ regard\\ body\\ as\\ complex\\ machine\\ that\\ generates\\ its\\ own\\ heat\\ and\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ moving\\ even\\ without\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\even\\ complex\\ behaviors\\ occur\\ trough\\ mechanical\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Thomas\\ Hobbes\\ and\\ the\\ Philsophy\\ of\\ Materialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hobbes\\ was\\ going\\ much\\ further\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ of\\ Hobbes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Leviathan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Hobbes\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ spirit\\,\\ or\\ soul\\,\\ is\\ a\\ meaningless\\ concept\\,\\ and\\ nothing\\ exists\\ but\\ matter\\ and\\ energy\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\materialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Century\\ Physiology\\:\\ Learning\\ About\\ the\\ Machine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\by\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ there\\ had\\ been\\ much\\ progress\\ with\\ the\\ science\\ of\\ physiology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Increased\\ Understanding\\ of\\ Reflexes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\basic\\ arrangement\\ of\\ nervous\\ system\\,\\ \\(central\\ NS\\ \\=\\ brain\\ and\\ spinal\\ cord\\)\\,\\ \\(peripheral\\ nerves\\ connect\\ the\\ CNS\\ to\\ sense\\ organs\\ and\\ muscles\\)\\ was\\ understood\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\reflexology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ suggestion\\ that\\ all\\ human\\ behavior\\ occurs\\ through\\ reflexes\\:\\ that\\ even\\ so\\-called\\ voluntary\\ actions\\ are\\ actually\\ complex\\ reflexes\\ involving\\ higher\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Concept\\ of\\ Localization\\ of\\ Function\\ in\\ the\\ Brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\idea\\ that\\ specific\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ serve\\ specific\\ functions\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ mental\\ experience\\ and\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ figures\\:\\ Johannes\\ Muller\\,\\ Pierre\\ Flourens\\,\\ Paul\\ Broca\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Idea\\ That\\ the\\ Mind\\ and\\ Behavior\\ Are\\ Shaped\\ by\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\besides\\ helping\\ to\\ inspire\\ research\\ in\\ physiology\\,\\ materialist\\ philosophy\\ of\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ England\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ school\\ of\\ though\\ known\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\British\\ empiricism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Locke\\,\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\,\\ Mill\\,\\ Hartley\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\empiricism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ human\\ knowledge\\ and\\ thought\\ derive\\ ultimately\\ from\\ sensory\\ experience\\ \\(vision\\,\\ hearing\\,\\ touch\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Empiricist\\ Concept\\ of\\ Association\\ by\\ Contiguity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\thoughts\\ are\\ not\\ products\\ of\\ free\\ will\\,\\ but\\ reflections\\ of\\ ones\\ experiences\\ in\\ the\\ physical\\ and\\ social\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\most\\ basic\\ operating\\ principle\\ of\\ mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ machinery\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ law\\ of\\ association\\ by\\ contiguity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(an\\ idea\\ proposed\\ by\\ Aristotle\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ contiguity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\refers\\ to\\ closeness\\ in\\ space\\ or\\ time\\,\\ and\\ the\\ LOABC\\ can\\ be\\ stated\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ a\\ person\\ experiences\\ two\\ environmental\\ events\\ \\(stimuli\\,\\ or\\ sensations\\)\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ or\\ one\\ right\\ after\\ the\\ other\\ \\(contiguously\\)\\,\\ those\\ two\\ events\\ will\\ become\\ associated\\ \\(bound\\ together\\)\\ in\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ one\\ event\\ will\\,\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ tend\\ to\\ elicity\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ the\\ other\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Nativist\\ Response\\ to\\ Empiricism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\opposite\\ of\\ empiricism\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nativism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ view\\ that\\ some\\ knowledge\\ and\\ rules\\ of\\ operation\\ are\\ native\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\,\\ are\\ inborn\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ acquired\\ from\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\to\\ learn\\ anything\\,\\ any\\ entity\\ must\\ contain\\ some\\ initial\\ machinery\\,\\ already\\ built\\ into\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Idea\\ That\\ the\\ Machinery\\ of\\ Behavior\\ and\\ Mind\\ Evolved\\ Through\\ Natural\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Darwin\\ \\(1809\\-1882\\)\\ marked\\ a\\ new\\ age\\ in\\ philosophy\\ when\\ published\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Origin\\ of\\ Species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natural\\ Selection\\ and\\ the\\ Analysis\\ of\\ the\\ Functions\\ of\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\living\\ things\\ evolve\\ gradually\\,\\ over\\ generations\\,\\ by\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\because\\ of\\ evolution\\,\\ the\\ innate\\ characteristics\\ of\\ any\\ given\\ species\\ of\\ plant\\ or\\ animal\\ can\\ be\\ examined\\ for\\ the\\ functions\\ they\\ serve\\ in\\ allowed\\ individuals\\ to\\ survive\\ and\\ reproduce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Application\\ of\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ideas\\ to\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\argued\\ that\\ basic\\ forms\\ of\\ human\\ emotional\\ expressions\\ are\\ inherited\\,\\ as\\ are\\ those\\ of\\ other\\ animals\\,\\ and\\ may\\ have\\ evolved\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ communicate\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emotions\\ or\\ intentions\\ of\\ others\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ kind\\ improves\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chance\\ of\\ survival\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ SCOPE\\ OF\\ PSYCHOLOGY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Varieties\\ of\\ Explanations\\ in\\ Psychology\\,\\ and\\ Their\\ Application\\ to\\ Sexual\\ Jealousy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\psychologists\\ strive\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\explain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mental\\ experiences\\ and\\ behavior\\ \\(what\\ causes\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ or\\ that\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Level\\ of\\ Analysis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ level\\,\\ or\\ type\\,\\ of\\ causal\\ process\\ that\\ is\\ studied\\;\\ \\ \\;a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavior\\ can\\ be\\ examined\\ at\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Neural\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ brain\\ as\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Genetic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ genes\\ as\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Evolutionary\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ natural\\ selection\\ as\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ indidivudal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prior\\ experiences\\ with\\ environment\\ as\\ \\ \\;\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cognitive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ knowledge\\ or\\ beliefs\\ as\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Social\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ influence\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ as\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Cultural\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ the\\ culture\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ person\\ develops\\ as\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Developmental\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Level\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\ age\\-related\\ changes\\ as\\ cause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ analysis\\ correspond\\ to\\ different\\ psychological\\ research\\:\\ behavioral\\ neuroscience\\,\\ behavioral\\ genetics\\,\\ evolutionary\\ psych\\,\\ psych\\ of\\ learning\\,\\ cognitive\\ psych\\,\\ social\\ psych\\,\\ cultural\\ psych\\,\\ and\\ developmental\\ psych\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Connections\\ of\\ Psychology\\ to\\ Other\\ Scholarly\\ Fields\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ characterize\\ psychology\\ in\\ spectrum\\ of\\ disciplines\\ that\\ form\\ departments\\ of\\ typical\\ colleges\\:\\ 1\\.\\ natural\\ sciences\\ \\(bio\\,\\ chem\\,\\ physics\\)\\ 2\\.\\ social\\ sciences\\ \\(sociology\\,\\ anthropology\\,\\ political\\ science\\,\\ economics\\)\\ 3\\.\\ humanities\\ \\(languages\\,\\ philosophy\\,\\ art\\,\\ and\\ music\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ psych\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ all\\ 3\\ of\\ the\\ broad\\ divisions\\,\\ directly\\ in\\ the\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ natural\\ science\\ end\\,\\ tied\\ to\\ biology\\,\\ on\\ social\\ science\\ end\\,\\ tied\\ to\\ sociology\\ and\\ anthropology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Psychology\\ as\\ a\\ Profession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\in\\ academic\\ departments\\ in\\ universities\\ and\\ colleges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\clinical\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\elementary\\ and\\ secondary\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\business\\ and\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 2\\ \\&\\;\\ 3\\:\\ PSYCHOANALYSIS\\,\\ BEHAVIORISM\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ MODERN\\ APPROACHES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 2\\ \\(all\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fact\\ \\-\\ an\\ objective\\ statement\\,\\ usually\\ based\\ on\\ direct\\ observation\\,\\ that\\ reasonable\\ observers\\ agree\\ is\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theory\\ \\-\\ an\\ idea\\,\\ or\\ a\\ conceptual\\ model\\,\\ that\\ is\\ designed\\ to\\ explain\\ existing\\ facts\\ and\\ make\\ predictions\\ about\\ new\\ facts\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ discovered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hypothesis\\ \\-\\ any\\ predictions\\ about\\ new\\ facts\\ that\\ is\\ made\\ from\\ a\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Lessons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ value\\ of\\ skepticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ value\\ of\\ careful\\ observations\\ under\\ controlled\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ observer\\-expectancy\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Research\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ research\\ design\\:\\ experiments\\,\\ correlation\\ studies\\,\\ descriptive\\ studies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Independent\\ variable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ variable\\ that\\ is\\ hypothesized\\ to\\ cause\\ some\\ effect\\ on\\ another\\ variable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dependent\\ variable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ variable\\ that\\ is\\ hypothesized\\ to\\ be\\ affected\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Experiment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ procedure\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ researcher\\ systematically\\ manipulates\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ independent\\ variables\\ and\\ looks\\ for\\ changes\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ dependent\\ variables\\,\\ while\\ keeping\\ all\\ other\\ variables\\ constant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Correlation\\ study\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ study\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ researchers\\ does\\ not\\ manipulate\\ any\\ variable\\ but\\ observes\\ or\\ measures\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ \\ \\;variables\\ to\\ find\\ relationships\\ between\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Descriptive\\ study\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ aim\\ of\\ research\\ is\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ or\\ set\\ of\\ individuals\\ without\\ systematically\\ investigating\\ relationships\\ between\\ specific\\ variables\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ setting\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ study\\ is\\ conducted\\:\\ field\\ and\\ laboratory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Laboratory\\ study\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;any\\ research\\ study\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ subjects\\ are\\ brought\\ to\\ a\\ specifically\\ designated\\ area\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ set\\ up\\ to\\ facilitate\\ the\\ researcher\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collection\\ of\\ data\\ or\\ control\\ over\\ environmental\\ conditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Field\\ study\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;any\\ research\\ study\\ conducted\\ in\\ a\\ setting\\ other\\ than\\ a\\ laboratory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ data\\-collection\\ method\\:\\ self\\-report\\ and\\ observation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Self\\-report\\ methods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;procedures\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ rate\\ or\\ describe\\ their\\ own\\ behavior\\ or\\ mental\\ state\\ in\\ some\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Observational\\ methods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;include\\ all\\ procedures\\ by\\ which\\ researchers\\ observe\\ and\\ record\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ interest\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ rely\\ on\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ self\\-reports\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Naturalistic\\ observation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ researcher\\ avoids\\ interfering\\ with\\ the\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Statistical\\ Methods\\ in\\ Psychology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Descriptive\\ Statistics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;used\\ to\\ summarize\\ sets\\ of\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Know\\ terms\\:\\ mean\\,\\ median\\,\\ variability\\,\\ standard\\ deviation\\,\\ correlation\\ coefficient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inferential\\ Statistics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;help\\ researchers\\ decide\\ how\\ confident\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ in\\ judging\\ that\\ the\\ results\\ observed\\ are\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Know\\ term\\:\\ statistically\\ significant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Components\\ of\\ a\\ Test\\ of\\ Statistical\\ Significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ observed\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ number\\ of\\ individual\\ subjects\\ or\\ observations\\ in\\ the\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ variability\\ of\\ the\\ data\\ within\\ each\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Bias\\ in\\ Psychology\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bias\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ nonrandom\\ effects\\ caused\\ by\\ some\\ factor\\ or\\ factors\\ extraneous\\ to\\ the\\ research\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biased\\ sample\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ group\\ are\\ initially\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ of\\ another\\ group\\,\\ or\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ larger\\ population\\ that\\ the\\ researcher\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\,\\ then\\ that\\ group\\ is\\ a\\ biased\\ sample\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Error\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ random\\ variability\\ in\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Valid\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;when\\ a\\ measurement\\ procedure\\ measures\\ or\\ predicts\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ measure\\ or\\ predict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Observer\\-expectancy\\ effects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ bias\\ that\\ researchers\\ have\\ that\\ can\\ affect\\ how\\ they\\ behave\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ observe\\ when\\ recording\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subject\\-expectancy\\ effects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ effects\\ on\\ experiments\\ that\\ result\\ from\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ expectations\\ during\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Double\\-blind\\ experiment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;any\\ experiment\\ in\\ which\\ both\\ the\\ observer\\ and\\ the\\ subjects\\ are\\ kept\\ blind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethical\\ Issues\\ in\\ Psychology\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Research\\ with\\ Humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ possibility\\ of\\ discomfort\\ or\\ harm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ deception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\ Research\\ with\\ Animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Many\\ procedures\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ unethical\\ with\\ humans\\ are\\ performed\\ with\\ animals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animals\\ must\\ be\\ well\\ cared\\ for\\ and\\ not\\ suffer\\ from\\ any\\ unnecessary\\ deprivation\\ or\\ pain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 15\\ \\(558\\-563\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personality\\ as\\ Mental\\ Processes\\ I\\:\\ Psychodynamic\\ and\\ Humanistic\\ Views\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Elements\\ of\\ the\\ Psychodynamic\\ Perspective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sigmund\\ Freud\\ \\(1856\\-1939\\)\\ was\\ the\\ pioneer\\ of\\ clinical\\ psychology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Coined\\ the\\ term\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\psychoanalysis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ refer\\ to\\ his\\ method\\ of\\ treatment\\ and\\ to\\ his\\ theory\\ of\\ personality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\psychodynamic\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ guiding\\ premises\\ of\\ which\\ are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\people\\ are\\ often\\ unconscious\\ of\\ their\\ motives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\processes\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\defense\\ mechanisms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\work\\ within\\ the\\ mind\\ to\\ keep\\ unacceptable\\ or\\ anxiety\\-producing\\ motives\\ and\\ thoughts\\ out\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Concept\\ of\\ Unconscious\\ Motivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ true\\ reasons\\ for\\ our\\ behavior\\ remain\\ mysteries\\ to\\ us\\;\\ our\\ own\\ explanations\\ are\\ just\\ plausible\\ but\\ false\\ rationalizations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ the\\ conscious\\ mind\\ attempts\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ logical\\ ways\\,\\ Freud\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ least\\ logical\\ elements\\ of\\ thought\\ and\\ behavior\\ could\\ give\\ clues\\ to\\ the\\ unconscious\\ mind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sex\\ and\\ Aggression\\ as\\ Motivating\\ Forces\\ in\\ Freud\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Since\\ society\\ demands\\ we\\ control\\ our\\ expressions\\ of\\ sex\\ and\\ aggression\\,\\ Freud\\ decided\\ many\\ of\\ behaviors\\ are\\ disguised\\ manifestations\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ fundamental\\ drives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Social\\ Drives\\ as\\ Motives\\ in\\ Other\\ Psychodynamic\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Freud\\ viewed\\ humans\\ as\\ basically\\ asocial\\,\\ forced\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ other\\ theorists\\ view\\ humans\\ as\\ fundamentally\\ social\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Karen\\ Horney\\ developed\\ theory\\ focused\\ on\\ security\\ as\\ an\\ inborn\\ human\\ need\\;\\ fundamental\\ emotion\\ in\\ her\\ theory\\ is\\ basic\\ anxiety\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Object\\ relations\\ theories\\ of\\ personality\\:\\ personality\\ is\\ dictated\\ by\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ interactions\\ between\\ objects\\ \\(people\\)\\ to\\ whom\\ a\\ child\\ feels\\ attached\\ early\\ in\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Alfred\\ Alder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ centered\\ on\\ need\\ to\\ feel\\ competent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Inferiority\\ complex\\:\\ people\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ feeling\\ of\\ inferiority\\ and\\ go\\ through\\ life\\ acting\\ incompetent\\ and\\ dependent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Superiority\\ complex\\:\\ go\\ through\\ life\\ trying\\ to\\ prove\\ they\\ are\\ better\\ than\\ others\\,\\ to\\ mask\\ feeling\\ of\\ inferiority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Idea\\ that\\ the\\ Mind\\ Defends\\ Itself\\ Against\\ Anxiety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Defense\\ mechanisms\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ processes\\ that\\ operate\\ to\\ reduce\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consciousness\\ of\\ wishes\\,\\ memories\\,\\ and\\ other\\ thoughts\\ that\\ would\\ threaten\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\-esteem\\ or\\ in\\ other\\ ways\\ provoke\\ a\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ anxiety\\ or\\ insecurity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Repression\\:\\ how\\ anxiety\\-producing\\ thoughts\\ are\\ pushed\\ out\\ or\\ kept\\ out\\ of\\ conscious\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Displacement\\:\\ an\\ unacceptable\\ unconscious\\ wish\\ is\\ redirected\\ toward\\ a\\ more\\ acceptable\\ alternative\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\e\\.g\\.\\ sucking\\ on\\ breast\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sucking\\ on\\ lollipop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sublimation\\:\\ displacement\\ toward\\ energies\\ valued\\ by\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reaction\\ Formation\\:\\ conversion\\ of\\ a\\ frightening\\ wish\\ into\\ its\\ safer\\ opposite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\e\\.g\\.\\ latent\\ homosexuality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;homophobia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Projection\\:\\ a\\ person\\ consciously\\ experiences\\ an\\ unconscious\\ drive\\ or\\ wish\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ were\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rationalization\\:\\ use\\ of\\ conscious\\ reasoning\\ to\\ explain\\ away\\ anxiety\\-provoking\\ thoughts\\ or\\ feelings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contemporary\\ Research\\ on\\ Defense\\ Mechanisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Studies\\ of\\ Repression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Controversy\\ Concerning\\ Repression\\ of\\ Traumatic\\ Memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Childhood\\ memories\\ are\\ very\\ susceptible\\ to\\ power\\ of\\ suggestion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recovered\\ memories\\ are\\ often\\ impossible\\ to\\ corroborate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Studies\\ have\\ shown\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ remember\\ traumatic\\ events\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ wish\\ they\\ could\\ forget\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traumatic\\ memories\\ generally\\ follow\\ same\\ rules\\ as\\ other\\ memories\\:\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ forget\\ events\\ before\\ age\\ of\\ seven\\,\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ forget\\ events\\ rarely\\ talked\\ about\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repression\\ may\\ apply\\ primarily\\ to\\ cases\\ where\\ abuse\\ was\\ only\\ apparent\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ the\\ perpetrator\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Repression\\ of\\ Emotional\\ Feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ people\\ regularly\\ repress\\ emotional\\ feelings\\ that\\ accompany\\ disturbing\\ events\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repressors\\:\\ people\\ who\\ exhibit\\ repression\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Repressors\\ claim\\ not\\ to\\ feel\\ emotional\\ stress\\ although\\ their\\ physiological\\ stress\\ levels\\ are\\ high\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distinction\\ Between\\ Mature\\ and\\ Immature\\ Defensive\\ Styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immature\\ defenses\\:\\ defenses\\ presumed\\ to\\ distort\\ reality\\ the\\ most\\ and\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ ineffective\\ behavior\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Projection\\ included\\ in\\ this\\ category\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intermediate\\ defenses\\ \\(neurotic\\ defenses\\)\\:\\ presumed\\ to\\ involve\\ less\\ distortion\\ of\\ reality\\ and\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ somewhat\\ more\\ effective\\ coping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\repression\\ and\\ reaction\\ formation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mature\\ defenses\\:\\ presumed\\ to\\ involve\\ least\\ distortion\\ of\\ reality\\ and\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ adaptive\\ behaviors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suppression\\ is\\ most\\ common\\:\\ conscious\\ avoidance\\ of\\ negative\\ thinking\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Humor\\ also\\ included\\ in\\ this\\ category\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 3\\ \\(p\\.\\ 59\\-62\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polygenic\\ Characteristics\\ and\\ Selective\\ and\\ Breeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Characteristics\\ that\\ derive\\ from\\ variation\\ at\\ a\\ single\\ gene\\ locus\\ are\\ typically\\ categorical\\ in\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polygenic\\ characteristics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;characteristics\\ that\\ vary\\ in\\ a\\ continuous\\ way\\ are\\ generally\\ affected\\ by\\ many\\ genes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Selective\\ breeding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;how\\ a\\ characteristic\\ can\\ be\\ modified\\ over\\ successive\\ generations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ Tryon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ first\\ long\\-term\\,\\ systematic\\ study\\ of\\ selective\\ breeding\\ in\\ psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tryon\\ wanted\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ type\\ of\\ behavior\\ that\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ behavior\\ frequently\\ studied\\ by\\ psychologists\\ could\\ be\\ strongly\\ influenced\\ by\\ variation\\ in\\ genes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\See\\ pp\\.\\ 59\\-60\\ for\\ details\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Single\\ Gene\\ Traits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Single\\-gene\\ traits\\ are\\ categorical\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mendelian\\ patterns\\ of\\ inheritance\\ indicate\\ single\\-gene\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Examples\\ are\\ breed\\ differences\\ in\\ fearfulness\\ in\\ dogs\\ and\\ a\\ language\\ disorder\\ in\\ the\\ KE\\ family\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polygenic\\ Traits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Polygenic\\ traits\\ \\(influence\\ by\\ many\\ gene\\ pairs\\)\\ are\\ continuous\\ \\(present\\ in\\ varying\\ degrees\\)\\ and\\ often\\ fit\\ a\\ normal\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Through\\ selective\\ breeding\\,\\ a\\ trait\\ can\\ be\\ strengthened\\ or\\ weakened\\ gradually\\ over\\ generations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ example\\ is\\ Tryon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ breeding\\ of\\ rats\\ for\\ maze\\ ability\\,\\ which\\ illustrates\\ certain\\ general\\ lessons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 4\\ \\(all\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\BASIC\\ PROCESSES\\ OF\\ LEARNING\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ any\\ process\\ through\\ which\\ experience\\ at\\ one\\ time\\ can\\ alter\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavior\\ at\\ a\\ future\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Classical\\ Conditioning\\ I\\:\\ Fundamentals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Classical\\ Conditioning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ learning\\ process\\ that\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ new\\ reflexes\\ \\(also\\ sometimes\\ called\\ Pavlovian\\ Conditioning\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reflex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ simple\\,\\ relatively\\ automatic\\,\\ stimulus\\-response\\ sequence\\ mediated\\ by\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ reflex\\,\\ must\\ be\\ mediated\\ by\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ \\(a\\ reaction\\,\\ like\\ falling\\ after\\ being\\ pushed\\,\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ reflex\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ reflexes\\ are\\ mediated\\ by\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\,\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ modified\\ by\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Habituation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(one\\ way\\ to\\ modify\\ experience\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ decline\\ in\\ the\\ magnitude\\ of\\ a\\ reflexive\\ response\\ when\\ the\\ stimulus\\ is\\ repeated\\ several\\ times\\ in\\ succession\\.\\ If\\ you\\ heard\\ a\\ loud\\ noise\\ many\\ times\\ \\(fire\\ bell\\)\\ it\\ at\\ first\\ makes\\ you\\ jump\\ or\\ tense\\ your\\ muscles\\,\\ but\\ after\\ hearing\\ it\\ many\\ times\\ over\\,\\ it\\ elicits\\ no\\ visible\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pavlov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Initial\\ Discovery\\ of\\ Classical\\ Conditioning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pavlov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dogs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ivan\\ Pavlov\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ dog\\&rsquo\\;s\\ salivary\\ ducts\\ with\\ a\\ glass\\ tube\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ then\\ presents\\ a\\ neutral\\ stimulus\\ that\\ would\\ ordinarily\\ produce\\ no\\ changes\\ in\\ salivation\\ \\(the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conditioned\\ stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ bell\\,\\ to\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unconditioned\\ stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;such\\ as\\ meat\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ dog\\ automatically\\ responds\\ to\\ meat\\,\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ neutral\\ stimulus\\ \\(bell\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ successive\\ procedures\\ with\\ the\\ bell\\ preceding\\ the\\ delivery\\ of\\ the\\ meat\\,\\ the\\ dog\\ will\\ salivate\\ with\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ bell\\ alone\\,\\ even\\ though\\ no\\ meat\\ comes\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ salivating\\ is\\ both\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\unconditioned\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conditioned\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(they\\ are\\ always\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ classical\\ conditioning\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ is\\ between\\ the\\ stimuli\\)\\ \\ \\;CHECK\\ OUT\\ PAGE\\ 93\\ BOTTOM\\ FOR\\ AN\\ EXCELLENT\\ DIAGRAM\\ OF\\ HOW\\ IT\\ WORKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Several\\ phenomena\\ occur\\ along\\ with\\ conditioning\\,\\ first\\ of\\ which\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Extinction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ If\\ the\\ bell\\ sounds\\ and\\ food\\ is\\ not\\ brought\\ out\\ over\\ many\\ trials\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ salivation\\ for\\ every\\ trial\\ \\(this\\ makes\\ sense\\ evolutionarily\\ because\\ if\\ the\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ no\\ longer\\ signaled\\ meat\\,\\ then\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ remember\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ signal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spontaneous\\ Recovery\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Even\\ after\\ extinction\\ occurs\\,\\ the\\ connection\\ can\\ be\\ reestablished\\ spontaneously\\ after\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ \\(DIAGRAM\\ ON\\ PAGE\\ 95\\ TOP\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ a\\ single\\ pairing\\ of\\ the\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ \\(bell\\)\\ with\\ the\\ UCS\\ \\(meat\\)\\ can\\ fully\\ reestablish\\ the\\ conditioned\\ reflex\\ and\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Generalization\\ and\\ Discrimination\\ in\\ Classical\\ Conditioning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Generalization\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ animals\\ not\\ only\\ show\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ stimuli\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ things\\ that\\ closely\\ resemble\\ the\\ conditioned\\ stimuli\\ \\(different\\ bells\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Magnitude\\ of\\ response\\ depends\\ on\\ degree\\ of\\ similarity\\ between\\ two\\ stimuli\\ \\-\\ so\\ if\\ the\\ new\\ bell\\ sound\\ was\\ close\\ in\\ frequency\\,\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ response\\,\\ but\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ different\\ frequency\\,\\ they\\ would\\ respond\\,\\ but\\ weakly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discrimination\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ abolishing\\ generalization\\,\\ or\\ discriminating\\ between\\ two\\ different\\ stimuli\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ dog\\ that\\ was\\ conditioned\\ to\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ square\\ also\\ generalized\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ a\\ gray\\ square\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ discrimination\\ training\\,\\ they\\ present\\ the\\ food\\ with\\ the\\ black\\ square\\ but\\ not\\ with\\ the\\ gray\\ square\\,\\ so\\ the\\ dog\\ no\\ longer\\ responds\\ to\\ the\\ grey\\ square\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ way\\ of\\ studying\\ an\\ animal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sensory\\ capacities\\ \\(you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ask\\ a\\ dog\\ when\\ it\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ tell\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ shades\\ of\\ gray\\,\\ but\\ you\\ can\\ tell\\ based\\ on\\ its\\ responses\\ to\\ the\\ stimuli\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Generalization\\ in\\ Humans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ SUBJECTIVE\\ INTERPRETATION\\ OF\\ STIMULI\\ AFFECTS\\ RESPONSE\\ \\-\\ Russian\\ schoolboy\\ conditioned\\ to\\ salivate\\ to\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;good\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ salivate\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;bad\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Phrase\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Soviet\\ army\\ was\\ victorious\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ interpreted\\ as\\ good\\,\\ and\\ the\\ boy\\ salivates\\.\\ \\ \\;Phrase\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pupil\\ was\\ rude\\ to\\ teacher\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ interpreted\\ as\\ bad\\,\\ and\\ the\\ boy\\ does\\ not\\ salivate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Classical\\ Conditioning\\ II\\:\\ Beyond\\ the\\ Fundamentals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Classical\\ Conditioning\\ as\\ evidence\\ for\\ Behaviorism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behaviorism\\ argues\\ that\\ psychology\\ should\\ avoid\\ terms\\ that\\ refer\\ to\\ mental\\ entities\\,\\ such\\ as\\ thoughts\\,\\ emotions\\,\\ and\\ motives\\,\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ directly\\ observed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ instead\\,\\ focus\\ on\\ relationship\\ between\\ observable\\ events\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stimuli\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ observable\\ reactions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ responses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ learned\\ in\\ Classical\\ Conditioning\\?\\ \\ \\;Behaviorists\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ dog\\ learned\\ a\\ new\\ stimulus\\-response\\ connection\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\stimulus\\-response\\ theory\\ of\\ classical\\ conditioning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ between\\ the\\ new\\ stimulus\\ \\(bell\\)\\ and\\ the\\ response\\ \\(salivation\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Evidence\\ from\\ numerous\\ studies\\ and\\ Pavlov\\ disagree\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pavlov\\ argued\\ that\\ connection\\ is\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ stimuli\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ dog\\ establishes\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ bell\\ and\\ the\\ meat\\,\\ not\\ the\\ bell\\ and\\ salivating\\ \\(stimulus\\-stimulus\\ theory\\ of\\ classical\\ conditioning\\)\\ DIAGRAM\\ OF\\ BOTH\\ THEORIES\\ PAGE\\ 98\\ TOP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ Revamping\\ of\\ Pavlov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ findings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Expectancy\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ According\\ to\\ expectancy\\ theory\\,\\ all\\ responses\\,\\ including\\ salivation\\,\\ occur\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ EXPECTATION\\ of\\ food\\,\\ not\\ the\\ food\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ shown\\ by\\ other\\ accompanying\\ responses\\,\\ such\\ as\\ tail\\ wagging\\,\\ and\\ responses\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ occur\\ with\\ the\\ bell\\ alone\\,\\ such\\ as\\ chewing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conditioning\\ Depends\\ on\\ the\\ Predictive\\ Value\\ of\\ the\\ Conditioned\\ Stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ must\\ precede\\ the\\ unconditioned\\ stimulus\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ \\(bell\\)\\ occurs\\ after\\ meat\\,\\ then\\ the\\ conditioning\\ will\\ not\\ occur\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditioning\\ depends\\ not\\ just\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ pairings\\ of\\ the\\ potential\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ with\\ the\\ unconditioned\\ stimulus\\ but\\ also\\,\\ negatively\\,\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ the\\ potential\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ occurs\\ without\\ being\\ followed\\ immediately\\ by\\ the\\ unconditioned\\ stimulus\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ if\\ bell\\ occurs\\ more\\ times\\ than\\ not\\ with\\ the\\ meat\\,\\ then\\ it\\ will\\ get\\ conditioned\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ bell\\ occurs\\ infrequently\\ with\\ the\\ meat\\,\\ then\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ get\\ conditioned\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditioning\\ is\\ ineffective\\ when\\ the\\ animal\\ already\\ has\\ a\\ good\\ predictor\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ one\\ stimulus\\ already\\ reliably\\ predicts\\ the\\ meat\\,\\ then\\ another\\ new\\ stimulus\\ will\\ not\\ get\\ conditioned\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ \\(also\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\blocking\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ DIAGRAM\\ ON\\ PAGE\\ 100\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditioning\\ natural\\,\\ biological\\ responses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Little\\ Albert\\ played\\ happily\\ with\\ a\\ lab\\ rat\\,\\ but\\ then\\ they\\ conditioned\\ the\\ rat\\ \\(conditioned\\ stimulus\\)\\ with\\ a\\ loud\\ noise\\ \\(unconditioned\\ stimulus\\)\\ that\\ provoked\\ a\\ fear\\ response\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ several\\ procedures\\,\\ Little\\ Albert\\ had\\ the\\ fear\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ rat\\ alone\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ animals\\ such\\ as\\ rabbits\\ that\\ resembled\\ the\\ rat\\ \\(generalization\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditioned\\ hunger\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ appetizer\\ effect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ taste\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ morsel\\ makes\\ you\\ hungrier\\ than\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sexual\\ Arousal\\,\\ Hunger\\,\\ and\\ Fear\\ can\\ all\\ be\\ conditioned\\ with\\ neutral\\ stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conditioned\\ Drug\\ Reactions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bodily\\ Reactions\\ to\\ drugs\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ conditioned\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ with\\ dogs\\,\\ paired\\ a\\ tone\\ with\\ injections\\ that\\ made\\ the\\ dog\\ restless\\ and\\ made\\ it\\ vomit\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ several\\ trials\\,\\ dogs\\ responded\\ to\\ the\\ tone\\ alone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Smell\\ of\\ Coffee\\ for\\ habitual\\ caffeine\\ drinkers\\ causes\\ the\\ same\\ response\\ as\\ the\\ caffeine\\ itself\\ \\(in\\ a\\ lesser\\ form\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conditioned\\ Compensatory\\ Reactions\\ to\\ Drugs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ stimulus\\ that\\ reliably\\ precedes\\ delivery\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ produces\\ a\\ conditioned\\ response\\ that\\ is\\ opposite\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\&rsquo\\;s\\ direct\\ effect\\ \\(if\\ morphine\\ lowers\\ heart\\ beat\\,\\ then\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ reliable\\ stimulus\\ before\\-hand\\ will\\ cause\\ the\\ heart\\-beat\\ to\\ rise\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ because\\ only\\ responses\\ that\\ occur\\ in\\ a\\ reflexive\\ manner\\ through\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ can\\ be\\ conditioned\\ \\(not\\ reactions\\ to\\ drugs\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ counteractive\\ effects\\,\\ however\\,\\ are\\ reflexive\\,\\ and\\ are\\ therefore\\ conditioned\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ conditioning\\ of\\ such\\ reflexes\\ is\\ normally\\ useful\\ because\\ it\\ allows\\ the\\ counteraction\\ to\\ begin\\ even\\ before\\ the\\ potentially\\ harmful\\ stimulus\\ strikes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Drug\\ tolerance\\ occurs\\ when\\ drugs\\ are\\ taken\\ repeatedly\\,\\ and\\ are\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ conditioned\\ compensatory\\ reaction\\ to\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ a\\ drug\\ addict\\ becomes\\ habituated\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ conditioning\\ of\\ neutral\\ stimuli\\,\\ they\\ will\\ need\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ they\\ then\\ take\\ that\\ high\\ amount\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ in\\ an\\ unfamiliar\\ environment\\,\\ the\\ conditioning\\ cues\\ are\\ not\\ present\\,\\ and\\ the\\ counteraction\\ will\\ not\\ occur\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ often\\ leads\\ to\\ physiological\\ overdose\\ and\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conditioned\\ compensatory\\ reaction\\ to\\ drugs\\ also\\ explains\\ relapse\\ after\\ withdrawal\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ treatment\\ in\\ a\\ facility\\ without\\ the\\ stimuli\\ that\\ cause\\ the\\ counteractive\\ effect\\,\\ the\\ patients\\ no\\ longer\\ feel\\ the\\ urge\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ drug\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ brought\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ environments\\ filled\\ with\\ the\\ conditioning\\ cues\\ that\\ cause\\ the\\ urge\\,\\ their\\ body\\ responds\\ in\\ a\\ counteractive\\ way\\ \\(feels\\ like\\ withdrawal\\ symptoms\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ urge\\ then\\ causes\\ them\\ to\\ take\\ drugs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Operant\\ Conditioning\\ I\\:\\ Fundamentals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ respond\\ to\\ stimuli\\,\\ but\\ also\\ behave\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ actively\\ produce\\ or\\ obtain\\ certain\\ environmental\\ changes\\ or\\ stimuli\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ responses\\ are\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\operant\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\operant\\ conditioning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ learning\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ effect\\,\\ or\\ consequence\\,\\ of\\ a\\ response\\ affects\\ the\\ future\\ rate\\ of\\ production\\ of\\ that\\ response\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thorndike\\&rsquo\\;s\\ puzzle\\ box\\ \\(example\\ of\\ operant\\ conditioning\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Thorndike\\ places\\ cats\\ in\\ puzzle\\ box\\,\\ cat\\ then\\ tries\\ multiple\\ things\\ to\\ get\\ out\\,\\ but\\ only\\ pressing\\ a\\ lever\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ box\\ will\\ get\\ it\\ out\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ first\\,\\ the\\ cat\\ will\\ by\\ accident\\ touch\\ the\\ lever\\,\\ but\\ with\\ successive\\ trials\\,\\ will\\ escape\\ more\\ quickly\\ with\\ the\\ conditioned\\ action\\ of\\ pressing\\ the\\ lever\\ \\(DIAGRAMS\\ ON\\ PAGE\\ 106\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thorndike\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Puzzle\\-Box\\ Procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Edward\\ Lee\\ Thorndike\\,\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\ American\\ Psychologist\\ set\\ up\\ experiments\\ with\\ cats\\ in\\ wooden\\ cages\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ would\\ deprive\\ them\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ then\\ place\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ cage\\ with\\ food\\ nearby\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ cages\\ could\\ be\\ opened\\ by\\ pressing\\ a\\ simple\\ lever\\ or\\ pulling\\ a\\ loop\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ first\\ the\\ cats\\ would\\ make\\ many\\ useless\\ movements\\ until\\ they\\ accidentally\\ opened\\ the\\ cage\\,\\ but\\ after\\ many\\ successive\\ trials\\,\\ the\\ cats\\ almost\\ immediately\\ hit\\ the\\ lever\\ and\\ released\\ themselves\\ from\\ the\\ cage\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Thorndike\\ concluded\\ that\\ learning\\ was\\ a\\ trial\\-and\\-error\\ process\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Thorndike\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Law\\ of\\ Effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Responses\\ that\\ produce\\ a\\ satisfying\\ effect\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ situation\\ become\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\ again\\ in\\ that\\ situation\\,\\ and\\ responses\\ that\\ produce\\ a\\ discomforting\\ effect\\ become\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\ again\\ in\\ that\\ situation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Skinner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Method\\ of\\ Studying\\ and\\ Describing\\ Operant\\ Conditioning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ B\\.F\\.\\ Skinner\\ was\\ a\\ behaviorist\\ who\\ studied\\ at\\ Harvard\\.\\ \\ \\;Built\\ \\"\\;Skinner\\ box\\,\\"\\;\\ a\\ cage\\ with\\ a\\ lever\\ that\\ an\\ animal\\ can\\ operate\\ to\\ produce\\ an\\ effect\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ food\\ or\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Better\\ than\\ Thorndike\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cages\\ because\\ the\\ animal\\ could\\ react\\ again\\ in\\ the\\ situation\\ because\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ leave\\ the\\ box\\.\\)\\ \\ \\;Coined\\ terms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Operant\\ Response\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ any\\ behavioral\\ act\\ that\\ has\\ some\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ environment\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Operant\\Conditioning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ an\\ operant\\ response\\ changes\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ the\\ response\\&\\#39\\;s\\ recurrence\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reinforcer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ stimulus\\ change\\ that\\ occurs\\ after\\ a\\ response\\ and\\ that\\ increases\\ the\\ subsequent\\ frequency\\ of\\ that\\ response\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conditioned\\ Reinforcer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ has\\ reinforcing\\ value\\ because\\ of\\ previous\\ learning\\.\\ Ex\\.\\ People\\ learn\\ what\\ money\\ can\\ buy\\ so\\ they\\ behave\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ allow\\ them\\ to\\ earn\\ more\\ of\\ it\\.\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Operant\\ Conditioning\\ Without\\ Awareness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Awareness\\,\\ which\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ mental\\ phenomenon\\,\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ useful\\ construct\\ for\\ explaining\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;Experiment\\ in\\ which\\ adults\\ listened\\ to\\ music\\ over\\ which\\ static\\ was\\ occasionally\\ superimposed\\ was\\ conducted\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ static\\ could\\ be\\ turned\\ off\\ by\\ a\\ twitch\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ thumb\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ participants\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ control\\ the\\ static\\ at\\ all\\ and\\ others\\ only\\ knew\\ that\\ something\\ they\\ might\\ do\\ could\\ control\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ subjects\\ in\\ both\\ groups\\ learned\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ thumb\\-twitch\\ response\\,\\ but\\ none\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ conscious\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ had\\ learned\\ without\\ awareness\\.\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Shaping\\ of\\ New\\ Operant\\ Responses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ If\\ a\\ subject\\ never\\ produces\\ a\\ desired\\ response\\ so\\ the\\ response\\ cannot\\ be\\ reinforced\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shaping\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ successively\\ closer\\ approximations\\ to\\ the\\ desired\\ response\\ are\\ reinforced\\ until\\ the\\ desired\\ response\\ finally\\ occurs\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ reinforced\\,\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ desired\\ response\\.\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Extinction\\ of\\ Operantly\\ Conditioned\\ Responses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ An\\ operantly\\ conditioned\\ response\\ declines\\ in\\ rate\\ and\\ eventually\\ disappears\\ if\\ it\\ no\\ longer\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ reinforcer\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\extinction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ not\\ unlearning\\,\\ because\\ often\\ a\\ single\\ reinforced\\ response\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ recovery\\ of\\ the\\ response\\ behavior\\.\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Schedules\\ of\\ Partial\\ Reinforcement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\(A\\ particular\\ response\\ only\\ sometimes\\ produces\\ a\\ reinforcer\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fixed\\-ratio\\ schedule\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ A\\ reinforcer\\ occurs\\ after\\ every\\ nth\\ response\\,\\ where\\ n\\ is\\ some\\ whole\\ number\\ greater\\ than\\ 1\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Variable\\-ratio\\ schedule\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Like\\ a\\ fixed\\-ratio\\ schedule\\ except\\ that\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ \\;responses\\ required\\ before\\ reinforcement\\ varies\\ unpredictably\\ around\\ an\\ average\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Fixed\\-interval\\ schedule\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ A\\ fixed\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ must\\ elapse\\ between\\ one\\ \\;reinforced\\ response\\ and\\ the\\ next\\.\\ \\ \\;Any\\ response\\ occurring\\ before\\ that\\ time\\ \\;elapses\\ is\\ not\\ reinforced\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Variable\\-interval\\ schedule\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Like\\ a\\ fixed\\-interval\\ schedule\\ except\\ the\\ period\\ that\\ \\;must\\ elapse\\ before\\ a\\ response\\ will\\ be\\ reinforced\\ varies\\ unpredictable\\ around\\ an\\ average\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ratio\\ schedules\\ produce\\ reinforcers\\ at\\ a\\ rate\\ that\\ is\\ directly\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ responding\\ and\\ tend\\ to\\ produce\\ rapid\\ responding\\ while\\ interval\\ schedules\\ tend\\ to\\ produce\\ low\\ response\\ rates\\.\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Distinction\\ Between\\ Positive\\ and\\ Negative\\ Reinforcement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Reinforcement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\refers\\ to\\ any\\ process\\ that\\ increases\\ the\\ likelihood\\ that\\ a\\ particular\\ response\\ will\\ occur\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Positive\\ Reinforcement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;occurs\\ when\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ some\\ stimulus\\ following\\ a\\ response\\ makes\\ the\\ response\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ recur\\,\\ making\\ the\\ stimulus\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\positive\\ reinforcer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Negative\\ Reinforcement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;occurs\\ when\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ some\\ stimulus\\ following\\ a\\ response\\ makes\\ the\\ response\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\,\\ making\\ the\\ stimulus\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\negative\\ reinforcer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Distinction\\ Between\\ Reinforcement\\ and\\ Punishment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Punishment\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ reinforcement\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ consequence\\ of\\ a\\ response\\ decreases\\ the\\ likelihood\\ that\\ the\\ response\\ will\\ recur\\.\\ \\ \\;Can\\ also\\ be\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Positive\\ \\=\\ Arrival\\ of\\ electric\\ shock\\,\\ scolding\\.\\ \\ \\;Negative\\ \\=\\ Removal\\ of\\ food\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Discrimination\\ Training\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ To\\ reinforce\\ the\\ animal\\&\\#39\\;s\\ response\\ when\\ a\\ specific\\ stimulus\\ is\\ present\\ and\\ to\\ extinguish\\ the\\ response\\ when\\ the\\ stimulus\\ is\\ absent\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ stimulus\\ used\\ in\\ such\\ training\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\discriminative\\ stimulus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discrimination\\ and\\ Generalization\\ as\\ an\\ Index\\ of\\ Concept\\ Understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\generalization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ occurs\\ in\\ classical\\ conditioning\\ also\\ occurs\\ in\\ operant\\ conditioning\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ generalization\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ test\\ an\\ animal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ understanding\\ of\\ a\\ concept\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\concept\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ rule\\ for\\ categorizing\\ stimuli\\ into\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Means\\-end\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ animal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ knowledge\\ or\\ belief\\ that\\ a\\ particular\\ response\\,\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ situation\\,\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ particular\\ effect\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evidence\\ That\\ Animals\\ Keep\\ Track\\ of\\ the\\ Relative\\ Value\\ of\\ Rewards\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reward\\ Contrast\\ Effects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;involve\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ response\\ rate\\ when\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ reward\\ changes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Negative\\ and\\ Positive\\ Contrast\\ Effects\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ reward\\ contrast\\ effects\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Overjustification\\ Effect\\ in\\ Humans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Occurs\\ when\\ the\\ reward\\ presumably\\ provides\\ an\\ unneeded\\ justification\\ for\\ engaging\\ in\\ the\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ person\\ begins\\ to\\ perceive\\ something\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ play\\ as\\ work\\ and\\ therefore\\ loses\\ interest\\ when\\ the\\ reward\\ is\\ withheld\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Play\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Play\\ serves\\ no\\ useful\\ immediate\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;Especially\\ seen\\ in\\ mammals\\.\\ \\ \\;Play\\ imitates\\ more\\ serious\\ actions\\ but\\ in\\ contexts\\ where\\ the\\ serious\\ action\\ would\\ be\\ inappropriate\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ play\\ occurs\\ without\\ the\\ corresponding\\ drive\\ state\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ playing\\ animals\\ that\\ pretend\\ to\\ fight\\ are\\ not\\ angry\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Play\\ involves\\ repetitive\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;Play\\ often\\ combines\\ several\\ types\\ of\\ serious\\ behaviors\\.\\ \\ \\;During\\ social\\ play\\,\\ animals\\ often\\ exhibit\\ special\\ play\\ signals\\ similar\\ to\\ smiling\\.\\ German\\ philosopher\\ and\\ naturalist\\ Karl\\ Groos\\ first\\ proposed\\ the\\ widely\\ accepted\\ belief\\ that\\ play\\ evolved\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ survival\\ skills\\ in\\ young\\ mammals\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Exploration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Exploration\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ curiosity\\,\\ helps\\ animals\\ learn\\ about\\ something\\ rather\\ than\\ learn\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ as\\ does\\ play\\.\\ \\ \\;Exploration\\,\\ which\\ is\\ often\\ mixed\\ with\\ fear\\,\\ helps\\ an\\ animal\\ determine\\ whether\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ safe\\ or\\ unsafe\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Patrolling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\refers\\ to\\ an\\ animal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ periodically\\ explore\\ even\\ a\\ familiar\\ environment\\ as\\ if\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ anything\\ has\\ changed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Latent\\ Learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ learning\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ immediately\\ demonstrated\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Observational\\ Learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Learning\\ by\\ watching\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Stimulus\\ Enhancement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ salience\\ or\\ attractiveness\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ that\\ the\\ observed\\ individual\\ is\\ acting\\ upon\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Goal\\ Enhancement\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ an\\ increased\\ drive\\ to\\ obtain\\ rewards\\ similar\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ observed\\ individual\\ is\\ receiving\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Imitation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\refers\\ to\\ instances\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ observer\\ reproduces\\ the\\ specific\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ observed\\ individual\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bandura\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Classic\\ Research\\ on\\ Observational\\ Learning\\ by\\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ People\\ learn\\ specific\\ motor\\ skills\\ \\(driving\\,\\ performing\\ surgery\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ general\\ styles\\ of\\ behavior\\ through\\ observational\\ learning\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ Aversion\\ Learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Rats\\ who\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ particular\\ type\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ then\\ made\\ to\\ feel\\ ill\\ several\\ hours\\ later\\ showed\\ an\\ aversion\\ to\\ that\\ particular\\ food\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ psychologists\\ believe\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ classical\\ conditioning\\ because\\ the\\ aversion\\ only\\ occurs\\ if\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ has\\ passed\\ between\\ eating\\ the\\ food\\ and\\ feeling\\ ill\\,\\ demonstrating\\ awareness\\ that\\ illness\\ caused\\ by\\ food\\ takes\\ time\\ to\\ take\\ effect\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ rats\\ only\\ show\\ an\\ aversion\\ to\\ similar\\ foods\\ that\\ taste\\ and\\ smell\\ like\\ the\\ particular\\ food\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ those\\ that\\ just\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ food\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ chemical\\ properties\\ of\\ food\\ that\\ determine\\ whether\\ they\\ will\\ make\\ the\\ rat\\ sick\\,\\ not\\ the\\ food\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ properties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Food\\ Preference\\ Learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ When\\ rats\\ are\\ deprived\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ mineral\\ or\\ vitamin\\ essential\\ to\\ health\\,\\ they\\ learn\\ to\\ prefer\\ the\\ flavor\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ food\\ that\\ contains\\ that\\ mineral\\ or\\ vitamin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Learning\\ in\\ Food\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Animals\\ tend\\ to\\ eat\\ the\\ foods\\ which\\ they\\ see\\ other\\,\\ particularly\\ older\\,\\ members\\ of\\ their\\ species\\ eating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Innate\\ Biases\\ in\\ Fear\\-Related\\ Learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Martin\\ Seligman\\ proposed\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ biologically\\ predisposed\\ to\\ acquire\\ fears\\ of\\ situations\\ and\\ objects\\,\\ such\\ as\\ rats\\ and\\ snakes\\,\\ that\\ posed\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ our\\ evolutionary\\ ancestors\\ and\\ are\\ less\\ disposed\\ to\\ acquire\\ fears\\ of\\ other\\ situations\\ and\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imprinting\\ in\\ Precocial\\ Birds\\:\\ Learning\\ to\\ Identify\\ One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Mother\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Young\\ precocial\\ birds\\ \\(birds\\ that\\ can\\ walk\\ immediately\\ after\\ birth\\)\\ can\\ learn\\ to\\ identify\\ and\\ follow\\ something\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ their\\ mother\\ shortly\\ after\\ being\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\,\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ even\\ switch\\ to\\ following\\ their\\ actual\\ mother\\.\\ \\ \\;Konrad\\ Lorenz\\ labeled\\ this\\ phenomenon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\imprinting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ term\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ very\\ sudden\\ and\\ apparently\\ irreversible\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ learning\\ process\\ involved\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\critical\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ time\\ frame\\ during\\ which\\ imprinting\\ can\\ occur\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialized\\ Place\\-Learning\\ Abilities\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Birds\\ who\\ hide\\ seeds\\ in\\ many\\ locations\\ and\\ return\\ to\\ find\\ them\\ and\\ fish\\ who\\ return\\ to\\ their\\ birthplace\\ years\\ later\\ to\\ hatch\\ their\\ own\\ eggs\\ have\\ enlarged\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ for\\ spatial\\ perceptions\\ and\\ are\\ better\\ than\\ humans\\ at\\ remembering\\ exact\\ locations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 4\\:\\ EVOLUTION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 3\\ \\(p\\.\\ 49\\-67\\,\\ 87\\-89\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Genetic\\ and\\ Evolutionary\\ Foundations\\ of\\ Biology\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\adaptiveness\\ of\\ behavior\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Charles\\ Darwin\\ theory\\ of\\ evolution\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ species\\ are\\ to\\ varying\\ degrees\\ similar\\ to\\ one\\ another\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\common\\ ancestry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ all\\ species\\ are\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\ unique\\ because\\ natural\\ selection\\ has\\ adapted\\ each\\ species\\ to\\ the\\ unique\\ aspects\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ is\\ lives\\ and\\ reproduces\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ of\\ Basic\\ Genetic\\ Mechanisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\+How\\ Genes\\ Affect\\ Behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Genes\\ never\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\produce\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ behavior\\ per\\ say\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ only\\ role\\ they\\ have\\ is\\ in\\ building\\ and\\ modifying\\ physical\\ structures\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ gene\\ \\&lsquo\\;for\\&rsquo\\;\\ music\\ will\\ promote\\ growth\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genes\\ affect\\ the\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ development\\ through\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ protein\\ molecules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Structural\\ proteins\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;control\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ cells\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\enzyme\\ proteins\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\control\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ reactions\\ in\\ each\\ cell\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*Now\\ for\\ a\\ quick\\ overview\\ of\\ how\\ DNA\\ works\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ a\\ sperm\\ and\\ an\\ egg\\ form\\ to\\ make\\ you\\ \\&\\;\\ your\\ genetic\\ code\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ a\\ replica\\ this\\ code\\ \\(DNA\\)\\ is\\ in\\ every\\ nucleus\\ in\\ every\\ cell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ there\\ is\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ template\\ for\\ creating\\ RNA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ RNA\\ in\\ turn\\ serves\\ a\\ template\\ for\\ creating\\ proteins\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gene\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ the\\ particular\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ DNA\\ that\\ encodes\\ for\\ a\\ single\\ protein\\ \\(we\\ have\\ 30\\,000\\ genes\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Genes\\ work\\ only\\ through\\ interaction\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Environment\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ anything\\ outside\\ the\\ genes\\:\\ food\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ your\\ bloodstream\\,\\ your\\ bedroom\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ can\\ turn\\ genes\\ \\&lsquo\\;on\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;off\\&rsquo\\;\\ depending\\ on\\ their\\ interaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ environmental\\ experience\\ activates\\ genes\\,\\ which\\ produce\\ proteins\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ alter\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ some\\ neural\\ circuits\\ and\\ thereby\\ change\\ behavior\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Genotype\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ set\\ of\\ genes\\ that\\ we\\ inherit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phenotype\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ observable\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individuals\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ genotypes\\ will\\ have\\ different\\ phenotypes\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ differing\\ environments\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ twins\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ Genes\\ Are\\ Passed\\ Along\\ in\\ Sexual\\ Reproduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(this\\ has\\ little\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ psychology\\ \\&\\;\\ will\\ likely\\ not\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ test\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\DNA\\ is\\ structured\\ in\\ 23\\ pairs\\ of\\ chromosomes\\.\\ \\ \\;22\\ of\\ these\\ are\\ true\\ pairs\\,\\ the\\ remained\\ pair\\ determines\\ sex\\ \\(M\\=XY\\ W\\=XX\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cells\\ divided\\ to\\ produce\\ new\\ cells\\ through\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mitosis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Chromosomes\\ are\\ exactly\\ replicated\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cells\\ divide\\ to\\ produced\\ egg\\ or\\ sperm\\ cells\\ through\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\meiosis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ chromosomes\\ duplicate\\ themselves\\ once\\ and\\ then\\ divide\\ twice\\,\\ leaving\\ each\\ haploid\\ with\\ only\\ half\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ DNA\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ random\\ division\\ results\\ on\\ the\\ diversity\\ of\\ offspring\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\When\\ a\\ sperm\\ and\\ an\\ egg\\ until\\ they\\ form\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\zygote\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ has\\ a\\ full\\ set\\ of\\ 23\\ paired\\ chromosomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ zygote\\ then\\ grows\\ and\\ through\\ mitosis\\,\\ forms\\ a\\ new\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ random\\ diversity\\ helps\\ select\\ genes\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ changing\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ genes\\ that\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ location\\ are\\ sometimes\\ identical\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\homozygous\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ they\\ are\\ different\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\heterozygous\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ at\\ that\\ particular\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\locus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Different\\ genes\\ that\\ occupy\\ the\\ same\\ locus\\ are\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\alleles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ blue\\ eyes\\ and\\ brown\\ eyes\\ are\\ alleles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ locus\\ is\\ heterozygous\\ then\\ one\\ gene\\ will\\ be\\ dominant\\ \\(featured\\)\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ will\\ be\\ recessive\\.\\ Still\\ some\\ genes\\ blend\\ equally\\ \\(flower\\ color\\)\\.\\ \\[this\\ was\\ discovered\\ by\\ monk\\ Gregor\\ Mendel\\ with\\ the\\ peas\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Inheritance\\ of\\ Behavioral\\ Traits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\ of\\ Single\\-Gene\\ \\(Mendelian\\)\\ Behavioral\\ Traits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\First\\ example\\ is\\ about\\ breeding\\ fearful\\ \\(basenji\\)\\ dogs\\ with\\ friendly\\ \\(cocker\\ spaniel\\)\\ dogs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\ example\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ really\\ unlucky\\ family\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ language\\ disorder\\ that\\ gets\\ passed\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ examples\\ just\\ prove\\ Mendel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ they\\ also\\ show\\ that\\ a\\ single\\ gene\\ can\\ have\\ multiple\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Polygenic\\ Characteristics\\ and\\ Selective\\ Breeding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Most\\ genetic\\ traits\\ are\\ not\\ so\\ binary\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ usually\\ have\\ a\\ range\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ measure\\ that\\ range\\ with\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\normal\\ distribution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bell\\ curve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Characteristics\\ that\\ vary\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ are\\ usually\\ effected\\ by\\ many\\ genes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ can\\ control\\ these\\ traits\\ through\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\selective\\ breeding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ mating\\ animals\\ with\\ the\\ desired\\ traits\\ \\(domesticating\\ dogs\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(IN\\ LECTURE\\)\\ A\\ guy\\ named\\ Tryon\\ breed\\ mice\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ they\\ ran\\ a\\ maze\\ and\\ created\\ a\\ bright\\ strain\\ a\\ dull\\ strain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scientist\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ measurements\\ of\\ humans\\ that\\ are\\ normally\\ distributed\\ \\(IQ\\,\\ personality\\,\\ etc\\)\\ are\\ due\\ to\\ genetics\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ do\\ this\\ by\\ comparing\\ scores\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ closely\\ related\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evolution\\ by\\ Natural\\ Selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Selective\\ breeding\\ by\\ humans\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\artificial\\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ However\\ the\\ same\\ occurs\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ which\\ Darwin\\ dubbed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\natural\\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ selection\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ obstacles\\ to\\ reproduction\\ that\\ are\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ natural\\ environment\\:\\ predators\\,\\ food\\ supply\\,\\ weather\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animals\\ vary\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ offspring\\ they\\ produce\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ produced\\ none\\ because\\ they\\ die\\ early\\ and\\ others\\ produce\\ many\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ genetic\\ variation\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\natural\\ selection\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\relies\\ on\\ if\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\)\\ the\\ variability\\ produced\\ by\\ reproduction\\ and\\ b\\)\\ genetic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mutations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ cell\\ mitosis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Old\\ theory\\ by\\ Lamarck\\ said\\ that\\ practice\\ creates\\ changes\\ in\\ genetics\\ \\(giraffes\\ stretching\\ out\\ their\\ necks\\ over\\ time\\)\\.\\ This\\ theory\\ of\\ inheritance\\ of\\ acquired\\ characteristics\\ is\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\ spur\\ on\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\ the\\ varying\\ beak\\ sizes\\ of\\ the\\ Galapagos\\ sparrow\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ hard\\-shelled\\ seeds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ evolution\\ has\\ no\\ foresight\\,\\ it\\ occurs\\ only\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ current\\ condition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Saying\\ evolution\\ has\\ foresight\\ makes\\ humans\\ make\\ three\\ mistakes\\ 1\\)\\ that\\ some\\ creatures\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ evolved\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ others\\ 2\\)\\ that\\ evolution\\ occurs\\ with\\ a\\ purpose\\ or\\ future\\ intent\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ that\\ natural\\ selection\\ is\\ a\\ moral\\ force\\,\\ that\\ what\\ it\\ creates\\ is\\ somehow\\ right\\ or\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natural\\ Selection\\ as\\ a\\ Foundation\\ for\\ Functionalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Functionalism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\explains\\ behavior\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ accomplishes\\ for\\ the\\ behaving\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ultimate\\ and\\ Proximate\\ Explanations\\ for\\ Behavior\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ultimate\\ explanations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;Statements\\ about\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ the\\ behavior\\ plays\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ survival\\ or\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ the\\ behavior\\ helps\\ the\\ gene\\ make\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proximate\\ explanation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\explanations\\ that\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ mechanism\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ function\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ discuss\\ the\\ physiological\\ conditions\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ example\\ the\\ U\\.E\\.\\ for\\ why\\ a\\ bird\\ sings\\ is\\ because\\ if\\ attracts\\ a\\ mate\\ and\\ then\\ more\\ babies\\ are\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ P\\.E\\.\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ daylight\\ in\\ spring\\ releases\\ a\\ hormone\\ that\\ increases\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ song\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ birds\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Because\\ all\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\ are\\ created\\ from\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ we\\ ask\\ ourselves\\ how\\ all\\ our\\ behaviors\\ promoted\\ survival\\ of\\ our\\ ancestors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ drives\\ are\\ obvious\\ \\(breathing\\,\\ eating\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ however\\ some\\ are\\ less\\ clear\\ \\(guilt\\,\\ sleeping\\ 8hrs\\ a\\ day\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Limitations\\ on\\ Functionalist\\ Thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Some\\ traits\\ we\\ have\\ are\\ not\\ favored\\ by\\ functionalist\\ explanation\\ of\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Some\\ traits\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vestigial\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ left\\ over\\ from\\ our\\ ancestors\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ grasping\\ reflex\\ in\\ babies\\ is\\ left\\ over\\ from\\ when\\ our\\ ape\\ like\\ ancestors\\ uses\\ to\\ cling\\ to\\ the\\ hair\\ on\\ the\\ underside\\ of\\ their\\ mothers\\ as\\ they\\ traveled\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vestigial\\ traits\\ remind\\ us\\ that\\ nearly\\ every\\ trait\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ inherited\\ was\\ developed\\ in\\ conditions\\ that\\ were\\ quite\\ different\\ from\\ today\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Some\\ traits\\ are\\ side\\ effects\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ for\\ other\\ traits\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\spandrels\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ belly\\ button\\ is\\ a\\ spandrel\\ of\\ the\\ umbilical\\ cord\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proclivities\\ for\\ art\\ and\\ music\\ may\\ be\\ directly\\ selected\\ by\\ attracting\\ mates\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ may\\ be\\ selected\\ indirectly\\ through\\ the\\ natural\\ selection\\ for\\ planning\\,\\ construction\\,\\ and\\ communication\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Some\\ traits\\ result\\ simply\\ from\\ chance\\.\\ \\ \\;Mutations\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ selected\\ against\\ can\\ develop\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\genetic\\ drift\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ schizophrenia\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ Artic\\ Circle\\ because\\ the\\ small\\,\\ isolated\\ community\\ allowed\\ for\\ the\\ genetic\\ drift\\ of\\ that\\ trait\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Evolved\\ mechanism\\ cannot\\ always\\ deal\\ effectively\\ with\\ every\\ situation\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ at\\ times\\ guilt\\ helps\\ maintain\\ our\\ relationships\\ with\\ others\\,\\ but\\ sometimes\\ it\\ is\\ crippling\\ and\\ incapacitates\\ us\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ mainly\\ true\\ for\\ many\\ emotional\\ traits\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Final\\ Words\\ of\\ Caution\\:\\ Two\\ Fallacies\\ to\\ Avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Naturalistic\\ Fallacy\\ is\\ mistakenly\\ equating\\ what\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;natural\\&rsquo\\;\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;moral\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;right\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Natural\\ selection\\ promotes\\ self\\-interested\\ traits\\ as\\ dictated\\ by\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ nature\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;right\\&rsquo\\;\\ then\\ aggressive\\ domination\\ by\\ men\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;right\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ can\\ get\\ manipulated\\ into\\ moralizing\\ social\\ Darwinism\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;survival\\ of\\ the\\ fittest\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Deterministic\\ Fallacy\\ is\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ genetic\\ influences\\ on\\ our\\ behavior\\ take\\ control\\ of\\ our\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ \\;Genes\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ directly\\ influence\\ our\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ times\\ we\\ behave\\ contrary\\ to\\ our\\ biological\\ direction\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ behave\\ in\\ a\\ moral\\ fashion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURE\\ 5\\:\\ NATURE\\ \\&\\;\\ NURTURE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\p\\.\\ 372\\-381\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Heritability\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ variation\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ trait\\,\\ within\\ a\\ particular\\ population\\ of\\ individuals\\,\\ stems\\ from\\ genetic\\ differences\\ among\\ those\\ individuals\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ environmental\\ differences\\.\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Is\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\heritability\\ coefficient\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\variance\\ due\\ to\\ genetics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;total\\ variance\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ heritability\\ coefficient\\ ranges\\ from\\ 0\\.00\\ to\\ 1\\.00\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;0\\.00\\ \\=\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ variance\\ results\\ from\\ genetic\\ differences\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.00\\ \\=\\ all\\ the\\ variance\\ results\\ from\\ genetic\\ differences\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Galton\\ \\(1876\\)\\ studied\\ fraternal\\ twins\\ \\&\\;\\ identical\\ twins\\.\\ The\\ correlation\\ between\\ identical\\ twins\\&rsquo\\;\\ IQs\\ was\\ higher\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ fraternal\\ twins\\&rsquo\\;\\ IQs\\.\\ As\\ the\\ subjects\\ grew\\ older\\,\\ the\\ correlation\\ between\\ the\\ fraternal\\ twins\\&rsquo\\;\\ IQs\\ decreased\\ whereas\\ that\\ correlation\\ between\\ the\\ identical\\ twins\\&rsquo\\;\\ IQs\\ remained\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ study\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ IQ\\ variation\\ for\\ younger\\ people\\ is\\ influenced\\ more\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;by\\ the\\ environment\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ adults\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effect\\ of\\ Environment\\ on\\ IQ\\:\\ Studies\\ of\\ adopted\\ children\\ \\(genetically\\ unrelated\\)\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ families\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ positive\\ correlation\\ was\\ found\\ in\\ IQ\\ scores\\ when\\ the\\ subjects\\ were\\ children\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;No\\ correlation\\ at\\ all\\ was\\ found\\ once\\ the\\ subjects\\ reached\\ adulthood\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Families\\ have\\ an\\ influence\\ on\\ IQ\\ during\\ childhood\\,\\ but\\ the\\ effect\\ fades\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ when\\ the\\ children\\ become\\ adults\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effect\\ of\\ Personality\\/Life\\ Experience\\ on\\ Intelligence\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Higher\\ scorers\\ on\\ personality\\ tests\\ measuring\\ openness\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ higher\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;IQs\\ than\\ people\\ who\\ score\\ lower\\ on\\ personality\\ \\ \\;\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Men\\ who\\ work\\ at\\ intellectually\\-stimulating\\ jobs\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ greater\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ intellectual\\ flexibility\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ work\\ at\\ more\\ physically\\-oriented\\ jobs\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(Kohn\\ and\\ Schooler\\,\\ 2001\\)\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Intellectual\\ activity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;greater\\ fluid\\ intelligence\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heritability\\ coefficients\\ found\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\within\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\groups\\ cannot\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ infer\\ the\\ difference\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\groups\\;\\ heritability\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ group\\ differences\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Ex\\.\\ 1\\:\\ Differences\\ in\\ IQ\\ scores\\ between\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ Americans\\ are\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;caused\\ by\\ the\\ environment\\ rather\\ than\\ genetic\\ differences\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Ex\\.\\ 2\\:\\ Studies\\ of\\ involuntary\\ minorities\\ \\(those\\ who\\ are\\ oppressed\\ in\\ their\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;society\\,\\ like\\ the\\ Buraku\\ outcasts\\ in\\ Japan\\ or\\ blacks\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\)\\ show\\ that\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;their\\ social\\ status\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ IQ\\ scores\\ lower\\ than\\ the\\ general\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;populace\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Global\\ cultural\\ influence\\ on\\ intelligence\\:\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ worldwide\\ improvement\\ in\\ IQ\\ scores\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ created\\.\\ James\\ Flynn\\ suggests\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ increased\\ cultural\\ exchange\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;people\\ are\\ exposed\\ to\\ more\\ information\\,\\ ideas\\,\\ problems\\,\\ which\\ are\\ intellectually\\ stimulating\\.\\ Also\\,\\ better\\ prenatal\\ care\\ \\&\\;\\ nutrition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;healthier\\ brain\\ development\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURES\\ 6\\ \\&\\;\\ 7\\:\\ THE\\ BRAIN\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(all\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neurons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ nerve\\ cells\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nerve\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ bundle\\ of\\ axons\\ of\\ many\\ neurons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Central\\ nervous\\ system\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ consists\\ of\\ brain\\ \\&\\;\\ spinal\\ cord\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peripheral\\ nervous\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ extensions\\ from\\ the\\ central\\ nervous\\ system\\;\\ consists\\ of\\ nerves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ Kinds\\ of\\ Neurons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sensory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ carry\\ info\\ from\\ sensory\\ organs\\ through\\ the\\ nervous\\ to\\ the\\ central\\ nervous\\ system\\ \\(CNS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Motor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ carry\\ messages\\ out\\ from\\ CNS\\,\\ through\\ nerves\\,\\ to\\ operate\\ muscles\\ \\&\\;\\ glands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interneurons\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ exist\\ within\\ the\\ CNS\\ and\\ carry\\ messages\\ from\\ one\\ set\\ of\\ neurons\\ to\\ another\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Vastly\\ outnumbers\\ the\\ two\\ other\\ types\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parts\\ of\\ the\\ Neuron\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cell\\ body\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ contains\\ cell\\ nucleus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dendrites\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ thin\\ extensions\\ that\\ branch\\ off\\ from\\ the\\ neuron\\ and\\ receive\\ signals\\ from\\ other\\ neurons\\;\\ increase\\ surface\\ area\\ for\\ more\\ contact\\ from\\ other\\ neurons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Axon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ long\\,\\ tube\\-like\\ extension\\ from\\ cell\\ body\\ that\\ carries\\ messages\\ to\\ other\\ neurons\\;\\ can\\ be\\ extremely\\ long\\ \\(several\\ feet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Axon\\ terminal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ small\\ swelling\\ at\\ the\\ branched\\-off\\ ends\\ of\\ an\\ axon\\;\\ releases\\ chemical\\ transmitter\\ molecules\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Myelin\\ sheath\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ fatty\\ white\\ casing\\ around\\ the\\ axons\\ of\\ some\\ neurons\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Action\\/Resting\\ Potential\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Action\\ potential\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ or\\ none\\&rdquo\\;\\ firings\\ of\\ the\\ neuron\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ more\\ negatively\\ charged\\ particles\\ inside\\ the\\ cell\\ than\\ outside\\ \\(\\-70\\ millivolts\\)\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ charge\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ resting\\ potential\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neurons\\ fire\\ when\\ a\\ wave\\ of\\ electrical\\ charge\\ travels\\ across\\ the\\ neuron\\ membrane\\ from\\ one\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ axon\\ to\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Depolarization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ sodium\\ is\\ forced\\ across\\ membrane\\ into\\ axon\\ through\\ concentration\\ force\\ and\\ electrical\\ force\\,\\ making\\ the\\ charge\\ more\\ positive\\ inside\\ the\\ cell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cell\\ reaches\\ threshold\\ at\\ \\-65\\ mV\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repolarization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ potassium\\ ions\\ move\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ reestablish\\ the\\ resting\\ potential\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sodium\\-potassium\\ pumps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;return\\ sodium\\ ions\\ outside\\ \\&\\;\\ potassium\\ ions\\ inside\\ the\\ cell\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Action\\ potentials\\ move\\ down\\ the\\ axon\\ faster\\ when\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ 1\\)\\ The\\ axons\\ has\\ a\\ large\\ diameter\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ 2\\)\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ myelin\\ sheath\\,\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ action\\ potential\\ can\\ skip\\ from\\ one\\ node\\ to\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ the\\ next\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Synaptic\\ Transmission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Synapse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ junction\\ b\\/w\\ each\\ axon\\ terminal\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ cell\\ body\\ or\\ dendrite\\ of\\ the\\ receiving\\ neuron\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neurotransmitter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ chemical\\ substance\\ released\\ when\\ an\\ action\\ potential\\ reaches\\ an\\ axon\\ terminal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fast\\ Synapses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ brief\\,\\ immediate\\ effects\\ on\\ post\\-synaptic\\ neuron\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\At\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\excitatory\\ synapse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ channels\\ allow\\ positive\\ charges\\ into\\ the\\ receiving\\ neuron\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;increases\\ rate\\ of\\ action\\ potentials\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inhibitory\\ synapse\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ channels\\ allow\\ negative\\ charges\\ into\\ the\\ receiving\\ neuron\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;decreases\\ rate\\ of\\ action\\ potentials\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slow\\ synapses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ produce\\ sustained\\ effects\\,\\ including\\ effects\\ that\\ underlie\\ drives\\ \\&\\;\\ moods\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gray\\ \\&\\;\\ White\\ Matter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ the\\ Central\\ Nervous\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;White\\ matter\\ consists\\ of\\ white\\ myelin\\ sheaths\\ around\\ axons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Gray\\ matter\\ consists\\ of\\ clusters\\ of\\ cell\\ bodies\\,\\ which\\ are\\ dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Studying\\ the\\ Human\\ Brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Electroencephalogram\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(EEG\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ placing\\ electrodes\\ on\\ the\\ scalp\\ to\\ monitor\\ the\\ brain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ continuous\\ electrical\\ activity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Positron\\ emission\\ tomography\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(PET\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ injecting\\ radioactive\\ substance\\ into\\ blood\\ \\&\\;\\ measuring\\ radioactivity\\ emitted\\ from\\ each\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Functional\\ magnetic\\ resonance\\ imaging\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(fMRI\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ creating\\ a\\ magnetic\\ file\\ around\\ the\\ head\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;hemoglobin\\ molecules\\ carrying\\ oxygen\\ give\\ off\\ radio\\ waves\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ detected\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ blood\\ in\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Studying\\ the\\ Non\\-Human\\ Brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Creating\\ lesions\\ electrically\\ or\\ chemically\\ to\\ destroy\\ a\\ specific\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ assess\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ that\\ part\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stimulating\\ specific\\ brain\\ areas\\ with\\ a\\ wire\\ electrode\\ or\\ by\\ chemical\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recording\\ neural\\ activity\\ in\\ specific\\ areas\\ with\\ electrodes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Organization\\ of\\ Nervous\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sensory\\-perceptual\\ hierarchy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ receives\\ sensory\\ data\\ about\\ both\\ the\\ body\\&rsquo\\;s\\ internal\\ \\&\\;\\ external\\ environment\\,\\ then\\ analyzes\\ those\\ data\\ to\\ make\\ decisions\\ based\\ on\\ needs\\ or\\ perceived\\ threats\\/opportunities\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Info\\ flows\\ from\\ sensory\\ receptors\\ \\(bottom\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;brain\\ \\(top\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Motor\\-control\\ hierarchy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ brain\\ makes\\ decisions\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ body\\ should\\ do\\,\\ then\\ muscles\\ are\\ targeted\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ those\\ actions\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Info\\ flows\\ from\\ top\\ to\\ bottom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Peripheral\\ Nervous\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peripheral\\ Nervous\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Skeletal\\ Motor\\ System\\ \\(stimulates\\ skeletal\\ muscles\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parasympathetic\\ division\\ \\(promotes\\ energy\\ conservation\\,\\ digestion\\,\\ growth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sympathetic\\ division\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Fight\\ or\\ Flight\\&rdquo\\;\\ response\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(excites\\ the\\ body\\:\\ increased\\ blood\\ flow\\,\\ faster\\ heart\\ rate\\,\\ higher\\ blood\\ pressure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Automatic\\ Motor\\ System\\ \\(modulates\\ activity\\ in\\ visceral\\ muscles\\ \\&\\;\\ glands\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Central\\ Nervous\\ System\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spinal\\ cord\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ connects\\ spinal\\ nerves\\ to\\ brain\\ \\&\\;\\ organizes\\ simple\\ reflexes\\;\\ severing\\ of\\ spinal\\ cord\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;paralysis\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ascending\\ tracts\\ \\-\\ carry\\ somatosensory\\ info\\ up\\ to\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\descending\\ tracts\\ \\-\\ carry\\ motor\\ control\\ commands\\ from\\ brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flexon\\ reflex\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;causes\\ the\\ limb\\ to\\ automatically\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ potentially\\ damaging\\ stimuli\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ pulling\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ pinprick\\ or\\ touching\\ a\\ stove\\)\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ flexon\\ reflex\\ exists\\ even\\ when\\ animals\\&rsquo\\;\\ spinal\\ cords\\ and\\ brains\\ are\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ surgically\\ separated\\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Occurs\\ b\\/c\\ the\\ reflex\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ messages\\ to\\ be\\ sent\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ brain\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&\\;\\ back\\ down\\ again\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Spinal\\ cord\\ contains\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pattern\\ generators\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ networks\\ of\\ neurons\\ that\\ cyclically\\ stimulate\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ produce\\ bursts\\ of\\ actions\\ potentials\\ \\\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Explains\\ why\\ a\\ headless\\ chicken\\ can\\ run\\ around\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Subcortical\\ Structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brainstem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\medulla\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\midbrain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\brainstem\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ spinal\\ cord\\ but\\ more\\ elaborate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\spinal\\ cord\\ is\\ site\\ of\\ entry\\ of\\ spinal\\ nerves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\brainstem\\ is\\ site\\ of\\ entry\\ of\\ most\\ of\\ cranial\\ nerves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\also\\ has\\ ascending\\ and\\ descending\\ tracts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ has\\ some\\ neural\\ center\\ for\\ reflexes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\postural\\ reflexes\\-\\ medulla\\ and\\ pons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\help\\ maintain\\ balance\\ while\\ standing\\/moving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\vital\\ reflexes\\-\\ medulla\\ and\\ pons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\regulate\\ breathing\\ and\\ heart\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\midbrain\\ also\\ helps\\ with\\ movement\\ patter\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ eating\\ drinking\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\thalamus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ relay\\ station\\ that\\ connects\\ various\\ parts\\ of\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cerebellum\\ and\\ basal\\ ganglia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cerebellum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\produces\\ learned\\,\\ skilled\\,\\ well\\-coordinated\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\baseball\\,\\ musical\\ instruments\\,\\ typing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\basal\\ ganglia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ability\\ to\\ coordinate\\ slower\\ deliberate\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\walking\\,\\ reaching\\ out\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\both\\ guide\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\both\\ use\\ sensory\\ info\\ to\\ guide\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\basal\\ ganglia\\ use\\ info\\ in\\ a\\ feedback\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sensory\\ input\\ to\\ an\\ ongoing\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cerebellum\\ uses\\ feed\\-forward\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\uses\\ info\\ to\\ program\\ the\\ appropriate\\ force\\ and\\ timing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\limbic\\ system\\ and\\ hypothalamus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\limbic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ border\\ dividing\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ older\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\amygdala\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hippocampus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\connected\\ by\\ a\\ circuit\\ that\\ wraps\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\involved\\ in\\ regulation\\ of\\ basic\\ drives\\ and\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hippocampus\\ important\\ also\\ for\\ keeping\\ tacking\\ of\\ spatial\\ location\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\hypothalamus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ small\\ and\\ important\\ for\\ regulating\\ internal\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\influencing\\ activity\\ of\\ \\ \\;autonomic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\controlling\\ release\\ of\\ certain\\ hormones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cerebral\\ cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\left\\ and\\ right\\ hemispheres\\ \\(figure\\ 5\\.17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hemispheres\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ four\\ lobes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\occipital\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ has\\ visual\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\temporal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ has\\ auditory\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\parietal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ has\\ somatosensory\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\frontal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ involved\\ in\\ planning\\ of\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\premotor\\ area\\-\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ primary\\ motor\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\involved\\ in\\ choosing\\ a\\ spec\\.\\ movement\\ to\\ be\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\3\\ areas\\ of\\ cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\primary\\ sensory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\signals\\ from\\ sensory\\ nerves\\ and\\ tracts\\ via\\ nerves\\ to\\ thalamus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\visual\\ area\\ in\\ occipital\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\auditory\\ area\\ in\\ temporal\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\somatosensory\\ area\\ in\\ parietal\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\motor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sends\\ axons\\ to\\ motor\\ neurons\\ in\\ brain\\ stem\\/spinal\\ cord\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\association\\-\\ planning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\principle\\ of\\ topographic\\ organization\\-\\ parts\\ of\\ motor\\ and\\ sensory\\ areas\\ correspond\\ to\\ those\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hierarchical\\ organization\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\chart\\ on\\ pg\\ 157\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\asymmetry\\ of\\ higher\\ functions\\ of\\ cerebral\\ cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\corpus\\ callosum\\-\\ bundle\\ of\\ axons\\ that\\ connect\\ the\\ two\\ hemispheres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\big\\ diff\\.s\\ between\\ spheres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\large\\ area\\ in\\ left\\ for\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\right\\ for\\ nonverbal\\,\\ visuospatial\\ analysis\\ of\\ info\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\split\\ brain\\ syndrome\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\corpus\\ collosum\\ is\\ cut\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\only\\ cerebral\\ cortex\\ and\\ some\\ parts\\ of\\ limbic\\ system\\ are\\ divided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\motor\\ center\\ that\\ control\\ movements\\ of\\ larger\\ muscles\\ \\(legs\\,\\ arms\\ etc\\)\\ are\\ located\\ in\\ lower\\ undivided\\ parts\\ of\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\left\\ hemisphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\aphasia\\-\\ loss\\ of\\ language\\ ability\\ from\\ brain\\ damage\\ to\\ left\\ hemisphere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;interpreter\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ makes\\ logical\\ interpretations\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ have\\ happened\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\broca\\&rsquo\\;s\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ just\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ motor\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\articulating\\ words\\ in\\ fluent\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\transforming\\ grammatically\\ complex\\ sentences\\ into\\ simpler\\ ones\\ to\\ understand\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\broca\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aphasia\\ \\(non\\ fluent\\ aphasia\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\sentences\\ will\\ only\\ be\\ 3\\ or\\ 4\\ words\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ex\\.\\ What\\ did\\ you\\ do\\ today\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Buy\\ bread\\ store\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wernicke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Area\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ just\\ behind\\ motor\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\comes\\ up\\ with\\ nouns\\ and\\ words\\ that\\ have\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wernicke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aphasia\\ \\(fluent\\ aphasia\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ use\\ only\\ articles\\ and\\ nonsense\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nothing\\ the\\ \\&hellip\\;\\(crap\\ word\\)\\&hellip\\;these\\ are\\ \\&hellip\\;\\(crap\\ word\\)\\&hellip\\;and\\ these\\ and\\ this\\ one\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ living\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hormones\\-\\ \\(this\\ was\\ not\\ covered\\ much\\ in\\ class\\)\\ chemical\\ messengers\\ secreted\\ into\\ the\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Classic\\ hormones\\ secreted\\ by\\ endocrine\\ glands\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Evolutionary\\ origin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Multicellular\\ animals\\ wanted\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ group\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sent\\ out\\ chemical\\ messengers\\ to\\ coordinate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Animals\\ grew\\ more\\ complex\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;2\\ routes\\ for\\ chemical\\ messages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Nervous\\ system\\-\\ fast\\,\\ specific\\,\\ point\\ to\\ point\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Made\\ neurotransmitters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Circulatory\\ system\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Slow\\ diffuse\\ widespread\\ communication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ chemical\\ messangers\\ evolved\\ into\\ hormones\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Main\\ diff\\.\\ between\\ hormone\\ and\\ neuotransmitter\\ is\\ distance\\ that\\ each\\ must\\ travel\\ fromits\\ site\\ of\\ release\\ to\\ site\\ of\\ action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neurotransmitters\\ go\\ 20\\ nm\\ across\\ cleft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hormones\\ entire\\ circulatory\\ sys\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neurohormones\\-\\ released\\ by\\ axon\\ terminals\\ into\\ capillaries\\ and\\ blood\\ stream\\,\\ not\\ synaptic\\ cleft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hormones\\ affect\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Growth\\ of\\ peripheral\\ bodily\\ structures\\ \\(muscles\\ bones\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Metabolic\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amt\\.\\ of\\ energy\\ avail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Act\\ in\\ brain\\ to\\ influence\\ drives\\ and\\ moods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\diff\\.\\ between\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;testosterone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cortisol\\ \\(fight\\ or\\ flight\\ hormone\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hormones\\ are\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ brain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;master\\ endocrine\\ gland\\&rdquo\\;\\ produces\\ homones\\ that\\ stimulate\\ production\\ of\\ other\\ hormones\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ controls\\ the\\ pituitary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\posterior\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(rear\\ part\\ of\\ pituitary\\)\\ made\\ of\\ neurosecretory\\ cells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\extend\\ from\\ hypothalamus\\ and\\ secrete\\ neurohormones\\ \\ \\;into\\ bed\\ of\\ capillaries\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\anterior\\ lobe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ brain\\ \\ \\;but\\ is\\ connected\\ by\\ capillaries\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\neurosecretory\\ cells\\ in\\ hypothalamus\\ produce\\ releasing\\ factors\\ \\(neurohormones\\)\\ that\\ are\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ capillaries\\ and\\ taken\\ to\\ anterior\\ pituitary\\ where\\ they\\ cause\\ production\\ and\\ release\\ of\\ pituitary\\ hormones\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Drugs\\-\\ act\\ like\\ hormones\\ \\(go\\ through\\ blood\\ to\\ target\\ tissue\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capillaries\\ in\\ brain\\ are\\ less\\ porous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ are\\ tighly\\ round\\ by\\ fatty\\ clial\\ cells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ and\\ capillaries\\ form\\ blood\\-brain\\ barrier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ drugs\\ work\\ by\\ enhancing\\ or\\ blocking\\ synaptic\\ transmission\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ act\\ on\\ pre\\-synaptic\\ neuron\\ to\\ facilitate\\ or\\ inhibit\\ release\\ of\\ transmitter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Affects\\ amt\\.\\ that\\ enter\\ the\\ cleft\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ act\\ in\\ cleft\\ to\\ inhibit\\ or\\ enhance\\ the\\ processes\\ that\\ terminate\\ the\\ transmitter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ make\\ them\\ stay\\ longer\\/shorter\\ in\\ the\\ binding\\ sites\\ and\\ produce\\ effects\\ for\\ a\\ longer\\/shorter\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ act\\ on\\ post\\-synaptic\\ bind\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Produce\\ same\\ effect\\ as\\ transmitter\\ or\\ blocks\\ it\\ from\\ entering\\ site\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 8\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(p\\.\\ 263\\-278\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Psychology\\ of\\ Vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Physical\\ world\\ and\\ our\\ sight\\ are\\ NOT\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\;\\ visual\\ perceptions\\ are\\ subjective\\,\\ psychological\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ the\\ Eye\\ Works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Photoreceptors\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ specialized\\ light\\-detecting\\ cells\\ \\(in\\ many\\ multi\\-cellular\\ animals\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolution\\ of\\ eye\\:\\ Photoreceptors\\ become\\ concentrated\\ in\\ groups\\ forming\\ \\&ldquo\\;eye\\-spots\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ then\\ pits\\ form\\ where\\ \\&ldquo\\;eye\\-spots\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\,\\ then\\ membrane\\ grows\\ over\\ pit\\,\\ then\\ crude\\ lens\\ develops\\,\\ finally\\ present\\ eye\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Functional\\ Organization\\ of\\ Eye\\ \\(Structure\\ and\\ Transduction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Retina\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ photoreceptors\\ lie\\ on\\ the\\ retina\\,\\ a\\ membrane\\ at\\ rear\\ interior\\ of\\ eye\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cornea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ clear\\ covering\\ for\\ front\\ of\\ eyeball\\,\\ convex\\ curve\\ helps\\ in\\ focusing\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ opaque\\,\\ pigmented\\,\\ made\\ of\\ muscle\\ fibers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ increases\\ or\\ decreases\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ pupil\\ controlling\\ how\\ much\\ light\\ enters\\ eye\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lens\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ behind\\ iris\\,\\ adjustable\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ focus\\ light\\ rays\\ at\\ a\\ point\\ on\\ the\\ retina\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Orientation\\ of\\ image\\ on\\ retina\\ does\\ not\\ matter\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ brain\\ interprets\\ information\\ consistently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Transduction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ stimulus\\ from\\ environment\\ generates\\ electrical\\ changes\\ in\\ neurons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Two\\ types\\ of\\ photoreceptors\\ perform\\ transduction\\ in\\ eye\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rods\\ and\\ cones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cones\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ sharply\\ focused\\ color\\ vision\\ in\\ bright\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mostly\\ concentrated\\ on\\ fovea\\ \\(pin\\-head\\ sized\\ area\\ on\\ retina\\ most\\ directly\\ in\\ line\\ of\\ sight\\ specialized\\ for\\ high\\ visual\\ acuity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\6\\ million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rods\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ less\\ focused\\ vision\\ in\\ dim\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everywhere\\ on\\ retina\\ except\\ fovea\\,\\ most\\ concentrated\\ in\\ ring\\ 20\\%\\ away\\ from\\ fovea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\120\\ million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photochemicals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rods\\ have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rhodopsin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ under\\ go\\ structural\\ change\\ when\\ hit\\ by\\ light\\,\\ start\\ transduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ cones\\ each\\ have\\ own\\ type\\ of\\ photochemical\\,\\ same\\ roles\\ as\\ in\\ rods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Electrical\\ impulses\\ from\\ photoreceptors\\ goes\\ to\\ optic\\ nerve\\ which\\ runs\\ to\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Blind\\ spot\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ place\\ where\\ optic\\ nerve\\ leaves\\ eyeball\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Differences\\ between\\ Cone\\ Vision\\ and\\ Rod\\ Vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cone\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ aka\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\photoptic\\ vision\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bright\\-light\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ high\\ acuity\\ \\(fine\\ detail\\)\\ and\\ color\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rod\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ aka\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\scotopic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\vision\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dim\\-light\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;specialized\\ for\\ sensitivity\\ \\(vision\\ in\\ very\\ dim\\ light\\)\\ but\\ lacks\\ acuity\\ and\\ capacity\\ to\\ distinguish\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sensitive\\ enough\\ to\\ let\\ human\\ see\\ candle\\ flame\\ 30\\ miles\\ away\\ if\\ no\\ other\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roles\\ of\\ Rods\\ and\\ Cones\\ in\\ Dark\\ Adaptation\\ and\\ Light\\ Adaptation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dark\\ Adaptation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ increase\\ in\\ sensitivity\\ when\\ in\\ low\\-light\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Light\\ Adaptation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ more\\ rapid\\ decrease\\ in\\ sensitivity\\ in\\ highly\\ lit\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Iris\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\constricts\\ in\\ bright\\ light\\ and\\ dilates\\ in\\ dim\\ light\\ \\(16x\\ more\\ light\\ let\\ in\\ when\\ dilated\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Temporary\\ changes\\ in\\ sensitivities\\ of\\ visual\\ neurons\\ also\\ affect\\ adaptation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BIGGEST\\ CONTRIBUTION\\ TO\\ ADAPTATION\\:\\ photochemicals\\ in\\ Rods\\ and\\ Cones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bright\\ light\\ breaks\\ down\\ rhodopsin\\ into\\ two\\ inactive\\ substances\\ in\\ rods\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rods\\ nonfunctional\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ vision\\ performed\\ by\\ cones\\ on\\ fovea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Step\\ into\\ dark\\ light\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rods\\ still\\ not\\ activated\\ so\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ anything\\,\\ yet\\ over\\ 25\\ minutes\\ rods\\ regenerate\\ fully\\ and\\ sight\\ possible\\ in\\ dim\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Photochemicals\\ bread\\ down\\ in\\ similar\\ pattern\\,\\ but\\ change\\ is\\ much\\ smaller\\ than\\ in\\ rods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Neural\\ Convergence\\ as\\ a\\ Basis\\ for\\ Differences\\ Between\\ Rod\\ and\\ Cone\\ Vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rods\\ and\\ cones\\ have\\ synapses\\ to\\ short\\ neurons\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bipolar\\ cells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bipolar\\ cells\\ have\\ synapses\\ with\\ longer\\ neurons\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ganglion\\ cells\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(axons\\ make\\ up\\ optic\\ nerve\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neural\\ Convergence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\many\\ rods\\ synapse\\ to\\ same\\ bipolar\\ cell\\,\\ many\\ bipolar\\ cells\\ synapse\\ to\\ same\\ single\\ ganglion\\ \\(funneling\\ of\\ action\\ potentials\\ to\\ same\\ ganglion\\ cell\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rods\\ sensitivity\\ from\\ this\\ funneling\\ effect\\ of\\ convergence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(output\\ of\\ many\\ rods\\ in\\ dim\\ light\\ gathered\\ to\\ generate\\ activity\\ in\\ ganglion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Convergence\\ DECREASES\\ acuity\\ by\\ undermining\\ distinctness\\ of\\ each\\ rod\\&rsquo\\;s\\ signal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ convergence\\,\\ preserve\\ distinctness\\ of\\ each\\ cone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ signal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ high\\ acuity\\,\\ but\\ far\\ less\\ sensitive\\ to\\ light\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seeing\\ Colors\\ \\(color\\ depends\\ on\\ wavelength\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Color\\ varies\\ with\\ the\\ physical\\ stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Light\\ has\\ constant\\ speed\\ of\\ 186\\,000\\ miles\\ per\\ second\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Light\\ \\=\\ electromagnetic\\ energy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ photons\\ pulsate\\ in\\ wavelike\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Electromagnetic\\ spectrum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ humans\\ can\\ only\\ see\\ range\\ from\\ 400\\ to\\ 700\\ nanometer\\ wavelengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ light\\ \\=\\ all\\ visible\\ wavelengths\\ \\(with\\ some\\ non\\-visible\\ ones\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(From\\ shortest\\ to\\ longest\\ in\\ wavelength\\)\\ violet\\,\\ blue\\,\\ blue\\-green\\,\\ green\\,\\ green\\-yellow\\,\\ yellow\\,\\ orange\\,\\ red\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Objects\\ reflect\\ different\\ wavelengths\\ of\\ light\\ because\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pigments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pigments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ chemicals\\ that\\ absorb\\ some\\ wavelengths\\,\\ thus\\ not\\ allowing\\ these\\ wavelengths\\ to\\ be\\ reflected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subtractive\\ Color\\ Mixing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ mixing\\ pigments\\ creates\\ perception\\ of\\ color\\ by\\ subtracting\\ \\(absorbing\\)\\ some\\ light\\ waves\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ reflected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Additive\\ Color\\ Mixing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ opposite\\ of\\ subtractive\\ color\\ mixing\\,\\ occurs\\ when\\ colored\\ lights\\ are\\ mixed\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ pigments\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ PSYCHOLOGICAL\\ laws\\ of\\ additive\\ color\\ mixing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Three\\-primaries\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ three\\ different\\ wavelengths\\ of\\ light\\ \\(primaries\\)\\ can\\ be\\ mixed\\ \\(in\\ correct\\ proportions\\)\\ to\\ match\\ any\\ color\\ we\\ see\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ long\\ wave\\ \\(red\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ short\\ wave\\ \\(blue\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ mid\\-length\\ wave\\ \\(green\\/green\\-yellow\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Law\\ of\\ Complementarity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ two\\ certain\\ wavelengths\\ when\\ added\\ together\\ produce\\ visual\\ sensation\\ of\\ white\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wavelengths\\ in\\ this\\ pair\\ are\\ complements\\ to\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Standard\\ Chromaticity\\ Diagram\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;illustrates\\ both\\ law\\,\\ with\\ saturated\\ \\(single\\ wavelength\\ colors\\)\\ on\\ edge\\ of\\ diagram\\ and\\ increasingly\\ unsaturated\\ \\(white\\ is\\ fully\\ unsaturated\\)\\ towards\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\FACTS\\ OF\\ COLOR\\ MIXING\\ ARE\\ AS\\ SEEN\\ IN\\ CHROMATICITY\\ DIAGRAM\\ BASED\\ ON\\ PSYCHOLOGICAL\\ INTERPRETATION\\,\\ NOT\\ PHYSICS\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(wavelengths\\ of\\ light\\ do\\ not\\ physically\\ blend\\ together\\ into\\ white\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ Classic\\ Theories\\ of\\ Color\\ Vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Trichromatic\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ combined\\ activity\\ of\\ three\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ receptors\\,\\ each\\ most\\ sensitive\\ to\\ different\\ range\\ of\\ wavelengths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explains\\ three\\-primaries\\ law\\ \\(but\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ law\\ of\\ complementarity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ types\\ of\\ cones\\ actually\\ exist\\ in\\ eye\\,\\ each\\ has\\ photochemical\\ most\\ sensitive\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ primaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exception\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dichromats\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ have\\ only\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ cone\\ photochemicals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;color\\ blindness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ common\\ is\\ red\\-green\\ in\\ males\\ \\(defective\\ gene\\ is\\ recessive\\ on\\ X\\ chromosome\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Opponent\\ Process\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ explains\\ law\\ of\\ complementarity\\ with\\ blue\\-yellow\\ opponent\\ neurons\\ \\(excited\\ by\\ blue\\ and\\ inhibited\\ by\\ yellow\\ or\\ vice\\ versa\\)\\,\\ green\\ red\\ opponent\\ neuron\\ \\(excited\\ by\\ green\\ and\\ inhibited\\ by\\ red\\ or\\ vice\\ versa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\brightness\\ detectors\\ \\(distinguish\\ bright\\ from\\ dim\\ light\\ and\\ excited\\ by\\ any\\ wavelength\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mix\\ blue\\ and\\ yellow\\ \\(or\\ green\\ and\\ red\\)\\ equally\\ and\\ opponent\\ neurons\\ will\\ cancel\\ each\\ other\\ out\\,\\ we\\ perceive\\ the\\ mixture\\ as\\ white\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Color\\ Afterimages\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ complementary\\ after\\ images\\ explained\\ by\\ opponent\\ process\\ theory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neuron\\ stimulated\\ by\\ image\\ get\\ fatigued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ eyes\\ to\\ white\\ surface\\ \\(reflects\\ all\\ light\\)\\,\\ but\\ fatigued\\ neurons\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respond\\ with\\ same\\ strength\\ as\\ rest\\ of\\ neurons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Opponent\\ color\\ of\\ fatigued\\ neurons\\ appears\\ in\\ after\\ image\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(Stare\\ at\\ green\\ and\\ black\\ flag\\,\\ switch\\ eyes\\ to\\ white\\ paper\\ and\\ see\\ red\\ and\\ white\\ flag\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Originally\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ contradictory\\,\\ now\\ understood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\opponent\\ process\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\trichromatic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;combine\\ to\\ create\\ color\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\three\\ types\\ of\\ cones\\,\\ and\\ they\\ feed\\ into\\ ganglion\\ cells\\ in\\ pattern\\ translating\\ trichromatic\\ code\\ into\\ opponent\\-process\\ code\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seeing\\ Forms\\ and\\ Patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Object\\ perception\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ unconscious\\ problem\\ solving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enhancement\\ of\\ Contours\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Objects\\ principally\\ defined\\ by\\ contours\\ \\(edges\\,\\ borders\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Exaggeration\\ of\\ Contrast\\ at\\ Contours\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Aid\\ in\\ detecting\\ objects\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ visual\\ system\\ exaggerates\\ amount\\ of\\ physical\\ change\\ across\\ contours\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lateral\\ Inhibition\\ as\\ Mechanism\\ for\\ Enhancing\\ Contours\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ neurons\\ in\\ retina\\ and\\ visual\\ areas\\ of\\ brain\\ have\\ inhibitory\\ connections\\ with\\ neighboring\\ neurons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proportionately\\,\\ activity\\ in\\ a\\ neuron\\ declines\\ when\\ its\\ neighboring\\ neurons\\ are\\ active\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Detection\\ and\\ Integration\\ of\\ Stimulus\\ Features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Any\\ object\\ we\\ see\\ has\\ set\\ of\\ elementary\\ stimulus\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Feature\\ Detectors\\ in\\ Visual\\ Cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brain\\ registers\\ some\\ stimulus\\ features\\ in\\ individual\\ neurons\\ in\\ visual\\ area\\ of\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Primary\\ Visual\\ Area\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ cerebral\\ cortex\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ neurons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hubel\\ and\\ Wiesel\\ Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Record\\ activity\\ of\\ individual\\ neurons\\ in\\ primary\\ visual\\ cortex\\ of\\ cats\\ when\\ animals\\ view\\ simple\\ black\\/white\\ patterns\\ of\\ different\\ shapes\\,\\ sizes\\,\\ orientations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Discover\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\FEATURE\\ DETECTORS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Single\\ neurons\\ sensitive\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ set\\ of\\ stimulus\\ information\\ \\(particular\\ orientation\\,\\ color\\,\\ rate\\ of\\ movement\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\.e\\.\\ one\\ neuron\\ might\\ detect\\ yellow\\ bar\\ on\\ blue\\ background\\ at\\ 15\\%\\ clockwise\\ moving\\ slowly\\ right\\ to\\ left\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treisman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Two\\-Stage\\ Feature\\-Integration\\ Theory\\ of\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Based\\ on\\ behavioral\\ evidence\\ concerning\\ speed\\ at\\ which\\ people\\ perceive\\ various\\ stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ stimulus\\ consists\\ of\\ primitive\\ sensory\\ features\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ visual\\ system\\ detects\\ these\\ features\\ and\\ then\\ integrates\\ them\\ in\\ two\\ distinct\\ steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Detection\\ of\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Parallel\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Integration\\ of\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Serial\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ requires\\ more\\ time\\,\\ leads\\ to\\ perceiving\\ whole\\,\\ spatially\\ organized\\ patterns\\ and\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Treisman\\ measured\\ effect\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;distractors\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(non\\-target\\ stimuli\\)\\ on\\ detection\\ and\\ integration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ long\\ as\\ target\\ differs\\ from\\ distractors\\ in\\ primitive\\ feature\\,\\ number\\ of\\ distractors\\ irrelevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ target\\ differs\\ from\\ distractors\\ in\\ conjoining\\ of\\ two\\/more\\ features\\ also\\ present\\ in\\ distractors\\,\\ number\\ of\\ distractors\\ directly\\ proportional\\ to\\ time\\ for\\ locating\\ target\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Easier\\ to\\ identify\\ primitive\\ features\\ than\\ put\\ them\\ together\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\illusion\\ conjunctions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ mismatching\\ of\\ primitive\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Parallel\\ processing\\ \\(stage\\ 1\\)\\ registers\\ features\\ independent\\ of\\ spatial\\ relations\\,\\ joined\\ perceptually\\ in\\ serial\\ processing\\ \\(stage\\ 2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\:\\ man\\ with\\ damage\\ in\\ both\\ hemispheres\\ to\\ parietal\\ cortex\\ critical\\ to\\ spatial\\ location\\ of\\ stimuli\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ could\\ recognize\\ primitive\\ features\\ but\\ had\\ difficulty\\ piecing\\ them\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 286\\-289\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Gestalt\\ Principles\\ of\\ Perceptual\\ Grouping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gestalt\\ psychology\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Preceded\\ Triesman\\ theory\\,\\ in\\ early\\ 1900s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argued\\ we\\ automatically\\ perceive\\ whole\\,\\ organized\\ patterns\\ and\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gestalt\\:\\ Ger\\.\\ for\\ organized\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mind\\ must\\ be\\ understood\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ organized\\ wholes\\,\\ not\\ elementary\\ parts\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ whole\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ its\\ parts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ the\\ whole\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ parts\\ are\\ organized\\,\\ not\\ just\\ by\\ the\\ parts\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Built\\-in\\ rules\\ for\\ Organizing\\ Stimulus\\ Elements\\ into\\ Wholes\\:\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ is\\ innately\\ predisposed\\ to\\ certain\\ rules\\ or\\ Principles\\ of\\ Grouping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Proximity\\:\\ objects\\ close\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ tend\\ to\\ form\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarity\\:\\ stimulus\\ elements\\ that\\ resemble\\ each\\ other\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ same\\ object\\;\\ helps\\ distinguish\\ between\\ adjacent\\ or\\ overlapping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Closure\\:\\ tend\\ to\\ see\\ forms\\ entirely\\ closed\\ in\\ by\\ border\\,\\ ignore\\ gaps\\ in\\ border\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ continuation\\:\\ when\\ lines\\ intersect\\,\\ we\\ group\\ segments\\ to\\ form\\ continuous\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ movement\\:\\ when\\ things\\ move\\ together\\,\\ we\\ see\\ them\\ as\\ parts\\ of\\ same\\ object\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ form\\:\\ perceptual\\ system\\ strives\\ to\\ produce\\ percepts\\ that\\ are\\ elegant\\&mdash\\;simple\\,\\ uncluttered\\,\\ symmetrical\\,\\ regular\\,\\ predictable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Figure\\ and\\ Ground\\:\\ our\\ automatic\\ tendency\\ to\\ divide\\ any\\ visual\\ scene\\ into\\ figure\\ \\(the\\ object\\ that\\ attracts\\ attention\\)\\ and\\ ground\\ \\(the\\ background\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reversible\\ figure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ mind\\ can\\ vacillate\\ when\\ figure\\/ground\\ cues\\ are\\ ambiguous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ same\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ figure\\ cannot\\ be\\ simultaneously\\ perceived\\ as\\ figure\\ and\\ ground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ that\\ Wholes\\ can\\ Affect\\ the\\ Perception\\ of\\ Parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unconscious\\ inference\\:\\ visual\\ system\\ using\\ sensory\\ input\\ from\\ a\\ scene\\ to\\ drawn\\ inferences\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ actually\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ has\\ hit\\ upon\\ a\\ solution\\,\\ it\\ may\\ create\\ or\\ distort\\ features\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ are\\ consistent\\ with\\ that\\ inference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illusory\\ contours\\:\\ the\\ perceptual\\ system\\ uses\\ the\\ initial\\ stimulus\\ input\\ to\\ infer\\ that\\ a\\ object\\ must\\ be\\ present\\,\\ because\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ most\\ sense\\,\\ and\\ then\\ it\\ creates\\ that\\ object\\,\\ by\\ influencing\\ contour\\-detection\\ processes\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Illusory\\ lightness\\ differences\\:\\ squares\\ of\\ same\\ shade\\ of\\ gray\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ will\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ lighter\\ or\\ darker\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ shade\\ that\\ surrounds\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lateral\\ inhibition\\ might\\ help\\ explain\\ it\\,\\ but\\ not\\ everyone\\ agrees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ brain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unconscious\\ inference\\ that\\ darker\\ background\\ is\\ in\\ shadow\\,\\ so\\ gray\\ square\\ must\\ be\\ \\&lsquo\\;glowing\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Top\\-Down\\ Control\\ within\\ the\\ Brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Control\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ higher\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;top\\-down\\ control\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brings\\ to\\ bear\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ calculations\\ based\\ o\\ the\\ sensory\\ information\\ plus\\ other\\ information\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ derived\\ from\\ previous\\ experience\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ larger\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ stimulus\\ appears\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Control\\ that\\ comes\\ more\\ directly\\ from\\ sensory\\ input\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;bottom\\-up\\ control\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brings\\ in\\ the\\ sensory\\ information\\ that\\ is\\ actually\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ stimulus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURES\\ 8\\ \\&\\;\\ 9\\:\\ PERCEPTION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 278\\-286\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Treisman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Two\\-Stage\\ Feature\\ Integration\\ Theory\\ of\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anne\\ Triesman\\ \\(1986\\,\\ 1998\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Theory\\ of\\ perception\\ called\\ feature\\-integration\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Any\\ perceived\\ stiumulus\\,\\ even\\ a\\ simple\\ one\\,\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ primitive\\ sensory\\ features\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ color\\,\\ slant\\ of\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\system\\ must\\ detect\\ and\\ integrate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ direction\\ and\\ integration\\ of\\ features\\ occur\\ sequentially\\,\\ in\\ two\\ fundamentally\\ different\\ steps\\ of\\ stages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\detection\\ of\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Occurs\\ instantaneously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Parallel\\ processing\\-\\ step\\ occurs\\ simultaneously\\ on\\ all\\ parts\\ of\\ stimulus\\ array\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\i\\.e\\.\\ our\\ visual\\ system\\ picks\\ up\\ at\\ once\\ all\\ primitive\\ features\\ of\\ all\\ objects\\ whose\\ light\\ strikes\\ our\\ retinas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\integration\\ of\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Requires\\ more\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Leads\\ eventually\\ to\\ our\\ perception\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Serial\\ processing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ occurs\\ sequentially\\ at\\ one\\ spatial\\ location\\ at\\ a\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gestalt\\ Principles\\ of\\ Perceptual\\ Grouping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gestalt\\ psychology\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Preceded\\ Triesman\\ theory\\,\\ in\\ early\\ 1900s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Argued\\ we\\ automatically\\ perceive\\ whole\\,\\ organized\\ patterns\\ and\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Gestalt\\:\\ Ger\\.\\ for\\ organized\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mind\\ must\\ be\\ understood\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ organized\\ wholes\\,\\ not\\ elementary\\ parts\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ whole\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ its\\ parts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ the\\ whole\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ parts\\ are\\ organized\\,\\ not\\ just\\ by\\ the\\ parts\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Built\\-in\\ rules\\ for\\ Organizing\\ Stimulus\\ Elements\\ into\\ Wholes\\:\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ is\\ innately\\ predisposed\\ to\\ certain\\ rules\\ or\\ Principles\\ of\\ Grouping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Proximity\\:\\ objects\\ close\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ tend\\ to\\ form\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similarity\\:\\ stimulus\\ elements\\ that\\ resemble\\ each\\ other\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ same\\ object\\;\\ helps\\ distinguish\\ between\\ adjacent\\ or\\ overlapping\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Closure\\:\\ tend\\ to\\ see\\ forms\\ entirely\\ closed\\ in\\ by\\ border\\,\\ ignore\\ gaps\\ in\\ border\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ continuation\\:\\ when\\ lines\\ intersect\\,\\ we\\ group\\ segments\\ to\\ form\\ continuous\\ lines\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Common\\ movement\\:\\ when\\ things\\ move\\ together\\,\\ we\\ see\\ them\\ as\\ parts\\ of\\ same\\ object\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Good\\ form\\:\\ perceptual\\ system\\ strives\\ to\\ produce\\ percepts\\ that\\ are\\ elegant\\&mdash\\;simple\\,\\ uncluttered\\,\\ symmetrical\\,\\ regular\\,\\ predictable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Figure\\ and\\ Ground\\:\\ our\\ automatic\\ tendency\\ to\\ divide\\ any\\ visual\\ scene\\ into\\ figure\\ \\(the\\ object\\ that\\ attracts\\ attention\\)\\ and\\ ground\\ \\(the\\ background\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Reversible\\ figure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ mind\\ can\\ vacillate\\ when\\ figure\\/ground\\ cues\\ are\\ ambiguous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ the\\ same\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ figure\\ cannot\\ be\\ simultaneously\\ perceived\\ as\\ figure\\ and\\ ground\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evidence\\ that\\ Wholes\\ can\\ Affect\\ the\\ Perception\\ of\\ Parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unconscious\\ inference\\:\\ visual\\ system\\ using\\ sensory\\ input\\ from\\ a\\ scene\\ to\\ drawn\\ inferences\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ actually\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Once\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ has\\ hit\\ upon\\ a\\ solution\\,\\ it\\ may\\ create\\ or\\ distort\\ features\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ are\\ consistent\\ with\\ that\\ inference\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illusory\\ contours\\:\\ the\\ perceptual\\ system\\ uses\\ the\\ initial\\ stimulus\\ input\\ to\\ infer\\ that\\ a\\ object\\ must\\ be\\ present\\,\\ because\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ most\\ sense\\,\\ and\\ then\\ it\\ creates\\ that\\ object\\,\\ by\\ influencing\\ contour\\-detection\\ processes\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Illusory\\ lightness\\ differences\\:\\ squares\\ of\\ same\\ shade\\ of\\ gray\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ will\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ lighter\\ or\\ darker\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ shade\\ that\\ surrounds\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lateral\\ inhibition\\ might\\ help\\ explain\\ it\\,\\ but\\ not\\ everyone\\ agrees\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Could\\ be\\ brain\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unconscious\\ inference\\ that\\ darker\\ background\\ is\\ in\\ shadow\\,\\ so\\ gray\\ square\\ must\\ be\\ \\&lsquo\\;glowing\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Top\\-Down\\ Control\\ within\\ the\\ Brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Control\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ higher\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;top\\-down\\ control\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brings\\ to\\ bear\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ calculations\\ based\\ o\\ the\\ sensory\\ information\\ plus\\ other\\ information\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ derived\\ from\\ previous\\ experience\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ larger\\ context\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ stimulus\\ appears\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Control\\ that\\ comes\\ more\\ directly\\ from\\ sensory\\ input\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;bottom\\-up\\ control\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brings\\ in\\ the\\ sensory\\ information\\ that\\ is\\ actually\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ stimulus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 292\\-301\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seeing\\ in\\ Three\\ Dimensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Cues\\ for\\ Depth\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Binocular\\ Cues\\ for\\ Depth\\:\\ two\\ types\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\eye\\ convergence\\;\\ less\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ inward\\ turning\\ of\\ the\\ eyes\\ that\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Actually\\ a\\ poor\\ distance\\ cue\\ even\\ for\\ objects\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ eyes\\ and\\ useless\\ one\\ for\\ objects\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ few\\ feet\\ away\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\binocular\\ disparity\\;\\ more\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ slightly\\ different\\ views\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ eyes\\ have\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ object\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Degree\\ of\\ disparity\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ cue\\ to\\ judge\\ an\\ object\\&rsquo\\;s\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ eyes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Neurons\\ in\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ visual\\ cortex\\ close\\ to\\ primary\\ visual\\ area\\ respond\\ best\\ to\\ stimuli\\ that\\ are\\ presented\\ to\\ both\\ eyes\\ at\\ slightly\\ disparate\\ locations\\ on\\ the\\ retina\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ neurons\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ ideally\\ designed\\ to\\ permit\\ depth\\ perception\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Illusions\\ of\\ Depth\\ Created\\ by\\ Binocular\\ Disparity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stereopsis\\:\\ ability\\ to\\ see\\ depth\\ from\\ binocular\\ disparity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stereoscope\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ device\\ that\\ allows\\ two\\ images\\ seen\\ from\\ different\\ eyes\\ to\\ fuse\\ perceptually\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ image\\ containing\\ depth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monocular\\ Cues\\ for\\ Depth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Motion\\ Parallax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ valuable\\ monocular\\ cue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ changed\\ view\\ of\\ a\\ scene\\ or\\ object\\ when\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ moves\\ sideways\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ similar\\ to\\ binocular\\ disparity\\;\\ this\\ is\\ sometimes\\ called\\ binocular\\ parallax\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pictorial\\ Cues\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ processes\\ to\\ infer\\ depth\\ in\\ two\\-dimensional\\ pictures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Occlusion\\:\\ something\\ that\\ cuts\\ off\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ another\\ thing\\ shows\\ that\\ it\\ sits\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Relative\\ image\\ size\\ for\\ familiar\\ objects\\:\\ mountain\\ \\>\\;\\ woman\\;\\ if\\ woman\\ appears\\ bigger\\,\\ she\\ must\\ be\\ closer\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Linear\\ perspective\\:\\ parallel\\ lines\\ appear\\ to\\ converge\\ as\\ they\\ grow\\ more\\ distant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Texture\\ gradient\\:\\ gradual\\ decrease\\ in\\ the\\ size\\ and\\ spacing\\ of\\ texture\\ elements\\ indicates\\ depth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Position\\ relative\\ to\\ horizon\\:\\ closer\\ to\\ horizon\\,\\ farther\\ from\\ vantage\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Differential\\ lighting\\ of\\ surfaces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Role\\ of\\ Depth\\ Cues\\ in\\ Size\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ability\\ to\\ judge\\ size\\ of\\ object\\ intimately\\ tied\\ to\\ ability\\ to\\ judge\\ its\\ distance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Size\\ constancy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ ability\\ to\\ see\\ an\\ object\\ as\\ unchanged\\ in\\ size\\,\\ despite\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ size\\ as\\ it\\ moves\\ father\\ away\\ or\\ closer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\familiarity\\ with\\ objects\\ helps\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessary\\ if\\ cues\\ for\\ distance\\ are\\ available\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unconscious\\ Depth\\ Processing\\ as\\ a\\ Basis\\ for\\ Size\\ Illusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\depth\\-processing\\ theory\\:\\ one\\ object\\ in\\ Ponzo\\/Muller\\-Lyer\\ illusions\\ appears\\ larger\\ because\\ of\\ distance\\ cues\\,\\ which\\ operate\\ as\\ some\\ early\\ stage\\ of\\ perceptual\\ process\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ one\\ object\\ is\\ judged\\ to\\ be\\ farther\\ away\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ but\\ the\\ two\\ produce\\ the\\ same\\-size\\ retinal\\ image\\,\\ then\\ the\\ object\\ judged\\ as\\ farther\\ away\\ will\\ be\\ judged\\ as\\ larger\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Moon\\ Illusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Moon\\ looks\\ larger\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ horizon\\,\\ smaller\\ when\\ high\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ but\\ always\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ objective\\ size\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ explanation\\ dating\\ back\\ to\\ Ptolemy\\:\\ our\\ visual\\ system\\ did\\ not\\ evolve\\ to\\ judge\\ such\\ huge\\ distances\\ as\\ that\\ from\\ the\\ earth\\ to\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ so\\ we\\ automatically\\ assess\\ its\\ distance\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ more\\ familiar\\ early\\ objects\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ our\\ perceptual\\ system\\ assumes\\ the\\ moon\\ is\\ farther\\ away\\ at\\ the\\ horizon\\ than\\ at\\ the\\ zenith\\&mdash\\;refer\\ back\\ to\\ \\(II\\.\\ c\\.\\ ii\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ with\\ this\\ objection\\:\\ people\\ actually\\ perceive\\ the\\ opposite\\;\\ when\\ the\\ moon\\ looks\\ bigger\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ closer\\,\\ not\\ farther\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Therefore\\ we\\ must\\ differentiate\\ between\\ conscious\\ and\\ unconscious\\ assessments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unconscious\\ processes\\ tell\\ us\\ the\\ moon\\ is\\ farther\\ away\\ than\\ usual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unconscious\\ processes\\ also\\ tell\\ us\\ the\\ moon\\ is\\ larger\\ than\\ usual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ know\\ the\\ moon\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ grow\\ or\\ shrink\\;\\ therefore\\ large\\ appearance\\ must\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ closeness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ explanation\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;farther\\-larger\\-nearer\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 7\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(P\\.\\ 245\\-254\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sound\\ \\&\\;\\ Its\\ Transduction\\ by\\ the\\ Ear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ as\\ a\\ Physical\\ Stimulus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ is\\ a\\ vibration\\ of\\ air\\ that\\ can\\ described\\ as\\ a\\ wave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Amplitude\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ the\\ waves\\ which\\ indicates\\ the\\ total\\ pressure\\ exerted\\ by\\ the\\ molecules\\ of\\ air\\ as\\ they\\ move\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\.\\ \\ \\;Amplitude\\ corresponds\\ to\\ loudness\\,\\ which\\ is\\ measured\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decibels\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frequency\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Rate\\ at\\ which\\ molecules\\ of\\ air\\ move\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\.\\ \\ \\;Frequency\\ corresponds\\ to\\ pitch\\,\\ which\\ is\\ measured\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hertz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hertz\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Number\\ of\\ complete\\ waves\\ \\(or\\ cycles\\)\\ per\\ second\\ generated\\ by\\ the\\ sound\\ source\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ sounds\\,\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ from\\ instruments\\ or\\ even\\ a\\ tuning\\ fork\\,\\ consist\\ of\\ many\\ tones\\ at\\ once\\.\\ \\ \\;Pure\\ tones\\ only\\ exist\\ in\\ lab\\ settings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ the\\ Ear\\ Works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Evolved\\ from\\ sense\\ of\\ touch\\.\\ \\ \\;Hearing\\ based\\ on\\ magnifying\\ pressure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Outer\\ ear\\:\\ consists\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pinna\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(outer\\ flap\\ of\\ skin\\ and\\ cartilage\\)\\ and\\ auditory\\ canal\\,\\ which\\ ends\\ at\\ the\\ eardrum\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ tympanic\\ membrane\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Purpose\\ of\\ outer\\ ear\\ is\\ to\\ funnel\\ sound\\ inward\\ to\\ auditory\\ canal\\,\\ where\\ the\\ sound\\ make\\ the\\ vibrate\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ eardrum\\ to\\ vibrate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Middle\\ ear\\:\\ \\ \\;separated\\ from\\ outer\\ ear\\ by\\ eardrum\\.\\ \\ \\;Main\\ structures\\ are\\ three\\ tiny\\ bones\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ossicles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Ossicles\\ individually\\ known\\ as\\ hammer\\,\\ anvil\\,\\ and\\ stirrup\\,\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ shape\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ossicles\\ are\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ eardrum\\ on\\ one\\ end\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\oval\\ window\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ membrane\\ of\\ the\\ cochlea\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Purpose\\:\\ When\\ eardrum\\ vibrates\\,\\ ossicles\\ push\\ against\\ oval\\ window\\,\\ which\\ is\\ 30\\ times\\ smaller\\ than\\ eardrum\\,\\ thus\\ exerting\\ 30\\ times\\ more\\ pressure\\,\\ which\\ enables\\ transduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inner\\ ear\\/Cochlea\\:\\ \\ \\;Transduction\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ cochlea\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fluid\\ filled\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\outer\\ duct\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ starts\\ at\\ oval\\ window\\,\\ goes\\ to\\ tip\\ of\\ cochlea\\,\\ and\\ ends\\ in\\ round\\ window\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inner\\ duct\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ sandwiched\\ between\\ outer\\ duct\\ pathways\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ floor\\ of\\ inner\\ duct\\ lies\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\basilar\\ membrane\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ on\\ which\\ are\\ located\\ receptor\\ cells\\ for\\ hearing\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hair\\ cells\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Tiny\\ hairs\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cilia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;protude\\ from\\ hair\\ cells\\ and\\ touch\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tectorial\\ membrane\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ inner\\ duct\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ side\\ that\\ touches\\ the\\ inner\\ duct\\,\\ each\\ hair\\ cells\\ forms\\ synapse\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\auditory\\ neurons\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;whose\\ axons\\ form\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\auditory\\ nerve\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;which\\ runs\\ to\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Process\\ of\\ transduction\\:\\ \\ \\;Ossicles\\ vibrate\\ from\\ sound\\ against\\ oval\\ window\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ initiates\\ vibration\\ in\\ fluid\\ of\\ outer\\ duct\\ of\\ cochlea\\,\\ which\\ produces\\ up\\/down\\ wave\\ motion\\ of\\ basilar\\ membrane\\.\\ \\ \\;Hairs\\ in\\ basilar\\ membrane\\ bend\\ against\\ tectorial\\ membrane\\,\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ move\\ with\\ up\\/down\\ wave\\ motion\\ of\\ basilar\\ membrane\\.\\ \\ \\;Hair\\ cells\\&rsquo\\;\\ membrane\\ gets\\ physically\\ changed\\ from\\ bending\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ electrical\\ charge\\ across\\ the\\ membrane\\,\\ causing\\ each\\ hair\\ cell\\ to\\ release\\ neurotransmitter\\ molecules\\ at\\ their\\ synapses\\ with\\ auditory\\ neurons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deafness\\ and\\ Hearing\\ Aids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conduction\\ deafness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Occurs\\ when\\ ossicles\\ cannot\\ vibrate\\ due\\ to\\ being\\ too\\ rigid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conventional\\ hearing\\ aids\\ bypass\\ ossicles\\ by\\ magnifying\\ sound\\ so\\ other\\ bones\\ in\\ face\\ can\\ carry\\ vibration\\ to\\ cochlea\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sensorineural\\ deafness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Occurs\\ when\\ cochlea\\,\\ hair\\ cells\\,\\ or\\ auditory\\ neurons\\ damaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cochlear\\ implants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ help\\ by\\ transforming\\ sound\\ into\\ electrical\\ impulses\\ which\\ are\\ fed\\ to\\ cochlea\\ via\\ implanted\\ wires\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pitch\\ Perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Traveling\\ Wave\\ as\\ a\\ Basis\\ for\\ Frequency\\ Coding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ is\\ pitch\\ determined\\ in\\ basilar\\ membrane\\?\\ \\ \\;Vibration\\ enters\\ basilar\\ membrane\\,\\ setting\\ off\\ up\\/down\\ wave\\ that\\ reaches\\ peak\\ and\\ then\\ quickly\\ dissipates\\.\\ \\ \\;Position\\ from\\ oval\\ window\\ of\\ where\\ the\\ peak\\ occurs\\ determines\\ the\\ pitch\\ of\\ the\\ sound\\.\\ \\ \\;High\\ frequencies\\ peak\\ closer\\ to\\ oval\\ window\\,\\ sending\\ of\\ rapid\\ firing\\ of\\ neurons\\ close\\ to\\ oval\\ window\\,\\ which\\ is\\ interpreted\\ by\\ brain\\ as\\ high\\ pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ Sensory\\ Consequences\\ of\\ the\\ Traveling\\-Wave\\ Mechanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Auditory\\ masking\\:\\ ability\\ of\\ one\\ sound\\ to\\ mask\\ another\\.\\ \\ \\;Traveling\\ wave\\ in\\ basilar\\ membrane\\ explains\\ why\\ lower\\ pitches\\ \\(bassoons\\)\\ can\\ mask\\ higher\\ frequencies\\ \\(piccolos\\)\\,\\ but\\ not\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\ \\ \\;Loud\\ bassoon\\ encompasses\\ entire\\ portion\\ of\\ basilar\\ membrane\\,\\ while\\ loud\\ piccolo\\ encompasses\\ only\\ short\\ beginning\\ section\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ we\\ age\\ we\\ lose\\ ability\\ to\\ hear\\ high\\ pitches\\ because\\ beginning\\ section\\ of\\ basilar\\ membrane\\ used\\ by\\ all\\ pitches\\,\\ while\\ lower\\ pitches\\ use\\ seldom\\ used\\ section\\ of\\ basilar\\ membrane\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ Code\\ for\\ Frequency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Super\\ low\\ pitches\\ also\\ depend\\ on\\ timing\\ of\\ bursting\\ of\\ action\\ potentials\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tonotopic\\ Arrangement\\ of\\ the\\ Primary\\ Auditory\\ Cortex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ neuron\\ in\\ primary\\ auditory\\ cortex\\ is\\ sensitive\\ to\\ specific\\ frequency\\.\\ \\ \\;Neurons\\ in\\ primary\\ auditory\\ cortex\\ arranged\\ tonotopically\\,\\ with\\ high\\ frequencies\\ on\\ one\\ end\\ and\\ low\\ frequencies\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Making\\ Sense\\ of\\ Sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Locating\\ Sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ localization\\ depends\\ on\\ timing\\ of\\ when\\ sound\\ wave\\ hits\\ one\\ ear\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;Sound\\ coming\\ from\\ the\\ right\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ hits\\ the\\ right\\ ear\\ before\\ it\\ hits\\ the\\ left\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Analyzing\\ Patterns\\ of\\ Auditory\\ Input\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Beyond\\ primary\\ auditory\\ area\\ are\\ cortical\\ areas\\ that\\ respond\\ just\\ to\\ specific\\ sets\\ of\\ frequencies\\,\\ direction\\ of\\ sound\\,\\ bursts\\ of\\ sound\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ are\\ just\\ beginning\\ to\\ understand\\ why\\ or\\ how\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phonemic\\ Restoration\\:\\ An\\ Auditory\\ Illusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phonemes\\ are\\ individual\\ vowel\\ and\\ consonant\\ sounds\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ words\\ \\(basically\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ syllables\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phoneme\\ restoration\\:\\ experiment\\ where\\ letters\\ are\\ covered\\ by\\ small\\ noises\\,\\ like\\ a\\ cough\\,\\ and\\ participant\\ actually\\ hears\\ covered\\ sound\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ not\\ erased\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ context\\ we\\ hear\\ deleted\\ syllable\\ even\\ after\\ the\\ manipulated\\ word\\ can\\ effect\\ our\\ perception\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ heard\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ explained\\ by\\ our\\ hearing\\ being\\ a\\ brief\\ auditory\\ sensory\\ memory\\,\\ which\\ is\\ modifiable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Letters\\ cannot\\ be\\ replaced\\ by\\ silence\\,\\ must\\ be\\ replaced\\ by\\ noise\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pinker\\ demonstrated\\ this\\ with\\ tone\\ broken\\ by\\ white\\ noise\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ louder\\ the\\ white\\ noise\\,\\ the\\ more\\ it\\ seemed\\ like\\ the\\ tone\\ was\\ not\\ broken\\,\\ but\\ just\\ momentarily\\ drowned\\ out\\ by\\ white\\ noise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LECTURES\\ 10\\ \\&\\;\\ 11\\:\\ COGNITIVE\\ PROCESSES\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 9\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ Information\\-Processing\\ Model\\ of\\ the\\ Mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ is\\ a\\ model\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Model\\ \\=\\ theory\\ in\\ cognitive\\ psychology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ representation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Boxes\\ represent\\ components\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lines\\ represent\\ movement\\ of\\ information\\ between\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Combined\\ these\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ processes\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\ test\\ models\\ by\\ using\\ them\\ to\\ develop\\ hypotheses\\ about\\ how\\ people\\ will\\ perform\\ tasks\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ model\\ is\\ successful\\ if\\ it\\ leads\\ to\\ accurate\\ predictions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ models\\ generally\\ do\\ not\\ aim\\ at\\ neural\\-level\\ explanations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Modal\\ Model\\ of\\ the\\ Mind\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ general\\ framework\\ for\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modal\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;standard\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Memory\\ stores\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ places\\ memory\\ is\\ held\\ and\\ operated\\ on\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sensory\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Working\\ memory\\ \\(short\\-term\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Long\\-term\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stores\\ characterized\\ by\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Function\\ \\(role\\ it\\ plays\\ in\\ overall\\ system\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capacity\\ \\(for\\ holding\\ memory\\ at\\ any\\ given\\ instant\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duration\\ \\(length\\ of\\ time\\ it\\ holds\\ information\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Control\\ processes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ govern\\ processing\\ of\\ information\\ within\\ stores\\ and\\ movement\\ of\\ information\\ between\\ stores\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rehearsal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encoding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Retrieval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ stores\\ breakdown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sensory\\ Memory\\:\\ The\\ Brief\\ Prolongation\\ of\\ Sensory\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Small\\ amount\\ of\\ information\\ stays\\ in\\ information\\-processing\\ system\\ briefly\\;\\ one\\ second\\ for\\ sights\\,\\ several\\ seconds\\ for\\ sounds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ sense\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ different\\ sensory\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ sensory\\ memory\\ briefly\\ holds\\ ALL\\ information\\ that\\ enters\\ system\\,\\ whether\\ we\\ are\\ paying\\ attention\\ or\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Function\\:\\ to\\ hold\\ information\\ long\\ enough\\ for\\ unconscious\\ processes\\ to\\ decide\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ enough\\ to\\ move\\ to\\ next\\ store\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ only\\ become\\ conscious\\ of\\ certain\\ bits\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ go\\ to\\ our\\ working\\ memory\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ selective\\ process\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\attention\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Working\\ memory\\:\\ Conscious\\ Perception\\ and\\ Thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ major\\ workplace\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Seat\\ of\\ conscious\\ thought\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Also\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;short\\-term\\ memory\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Information\\ can\\ enter\\ this\\ store\\ from\\ both\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ two\\ stores\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capacity\\ is\\ very\\ small\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Long\\ Term\\ Memory\\:\\ The\\ Mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Library\\ of\\ Information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Corresponds\\ closely\\ to\\ our\\ everyday\\ notion\\ of\\ memory\\:\\ stored\\ representation\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ we\\ know\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Capacity\\ is\\ essentially\\ limitless\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Differences\\ between\\ long\\-\\ and\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Long\\-term\\ memory\\ is\\ passive\\ \\/\\ short\\-term\\ is\\ active\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Short\\-term\\ has\\ short\\ duration\\ \\/\\ Long\\-term\\ has\\ long\\ duration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Control\\ Processes\\:\\ The\\ Mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Information\\ Transport\\ Systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attention\\:\\ controls\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ information\\ from\\ the\\ sensory\\ store\\ into\\ working\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Capacity\\ of\\ sensory\\ store\\ is\\ large\\,\\ capacity\\ of\\ working\\ memory\\ is\\ small\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attention\\ must\\ restrict\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ information\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Encoding\\:\\ controls\\ movement\\ from\\ working\\ memory\\ into\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ store\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ encoding\\ is\\ not\\ deliberate\\;\\ incidental\\ result\\ of\\ interest\\ we\\ devote\\ to\\ certain\\ information\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Retrieval\\:\\ controls\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ information\\ from\\ long\\-term\\ store\\ into\\ working\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ we\\ typically\\ call\\ \\&ldquo\\;recalling\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;remembering\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ we\\ actively\\ search\\ our\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\;\\ usually\\ retrieval\\ works\\ automatically\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Attention\\:\\ The\\ Portal\\ to\\ Consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ selection\\ has\\ endowed\\ us\\ with\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ attention\\ that\\ can\\ meet\\ two\\ competing\\ needs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ need\\ to\\ focus\\ mental\\ processes\\ on\\ task\\ at\\ hand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ need\\ to\\ monitor\\ stimuli\\ outside\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ focus\\ that\\ might\\ indicate\\ approaching\\ danger\\ or\\ benefit\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\General\\ Model\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\preattentive\\ processing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;explains\\ how\\ the\\ mind\\ does\\ both\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Everything\\ we\\ sense\\ enters\\ briefly\\ into\\ sensory\\ memory\\,\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ analyzed\\ for\\ its\\ relevance\\ to\\ task\\ at\\ hand\\ and\\ significance\\ to\\ our\\ survival\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Logically\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ some\\ \\&ldquo\\;attention\\ gate\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ the\\ sensory\\ store\\ and\\ working\\ memory\\ store\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ gate\\ must\\ be\\ operated\\ by\\ higher\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Ability\\ to\\ Focus\\ Attention\\ and\\ Ignore\\ the\\ Irrelevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Selective\\ Listening\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cocktail\\-party\\ phenomenon\\:\\ we\\ can\\ focus\\ our\\ attention\\ on\\ one\\ voice\\ and\\ ignore\\ nearer\\,\\ louder\\ ones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiments\\ using\\ recordings\\ of\\ multiple\\ voices\\ show\\ that\\ subjects\\ can\\ easily\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadow\\&rdquo\\;\\ one\\ voice\\&mdash\\;repeat\\ what\\ it\\ says\\&mdash\\;as\\ long\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ physical\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ voices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Usually\\ people\\ were\\ unaware\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ other\\ voice\\ was\\ saying\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Selective\\ Viewing\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Irvin\\ Rock\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Gutman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ classic\\ experiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subjects\\ presented\\ with\\ slides\\ containing\\ two\\ shapes\\ of\\ different\\ colors\\,\\ and\\ asked\\ to\\ attend\\ only\\ one\\ color\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subjects\\ could\\ recall\\ the\\ shapes\\ in\\ the\\ attended\\ color\\ afterward\\,\\ but\\ could\\ not\\ recall\\ the\\ shapes\\ in\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hidden\\&rdquo\\;\\ Gorilla\\ Experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shown\\ in\\ lecture\\:\\ only\\ 50\\ percent\\ of\\ test\\ subjects\\ noticed\\ the\\ gorilla\\ walking\\ across\\ the\\ screen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Ability\\ to\\ Shift\\ Attention\\ to\\ Significant\\ Stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Auditory\\ sensory\\ memory\\ \\=\\ echoic\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brief\\ memory\\ trace\\ for\\ a\\ specific\\ sound\\ \\=\\ echo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Echo\\ fades\\ over\\ span\\ of\\ seconds\\,\\ disappears\\ in\\ less\\ than\\ 10\\ sec\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ experiment\\ presented\\ subjects\\ with\\ two\\ voices\\.\\ They\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ attend\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ them\\.\\ Sometimes\\ the\\ other\\ voice\\ would\\ say\\ the\\ subject\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\,\\ and\\ one\\-third\\ of\\ subjects\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ report\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ is\\ assigned\\ special\\ meaning\\ and\\ importance\\ by\\ preattentive\\ processing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visual\\ sensory\\ memory\\ \\=\\ iconic\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brief\\ memory\\ trace\\ for\\ visual\\ stimulus\\ \\=\\ icon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\George\\ Sterling\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experiment\\ proposed\\ that\\ a\\ memory\\ store\\ must\\ hold\\ visually\\ presented\\ info\\ for\\ about\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ beyond\\ termination\\ of\\ stimulus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Effect\\ of\\ Practice\\ on\\ Attentional\\ Capacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Attention\\ Gate\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ sensory\\ memory\\ and\\ working\\ memory\\ is\\ narrow\\.\\ The\\ average\\ person\\ could\\ only\\ locate\\ three\\ stimulus\\ items\\ on\\ an\\ array\\ after\\ a\\ masking\\ stimulus\\ was\\ flashed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experiments\\ done\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ videogames\\ show\\ that\\ young\\ men\\ who\\ played\\ action\\ games\\ regularly\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ identify\\ 4\\.9\\ items\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ 3\\.3\\ for\\ non\\-players\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Another\\ experiment\\ showed\\ a\\ dramatic\\ increase\\ in\\ attentional\\ capacity\\ among\\ subjects\\ who\\ played\\ an\\ action\\ game\\ one\\ hour\\ a\\ day\\ for\\ 10\\ days\\.\\ The\\ increase\\ was\\ dramatic\\ compared\\ to\\ another\\ test\\ group\\ that\\ played\\ Tetris\\,\\ a\\ puzzle\\ game\\ that\\ requires\\ focus\\ on\\ one\\ object\\ at\\ a\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unconscious\\,\\ Automatic\\ Processing\\ of\\ Stimulus\\ Input\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unconscious\\ Priming\\ of\\ Mental\\ Concepts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Priming\\:\\ the\\ activation\\,\\ by\\ sensory\\ input\\,\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ is\\ already\\ stored\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ experienced\\ consciously\\,\\ but\\ influences\\ consciousness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Such\\ activation\\ can\\ occur\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ priming\\ stimulus\\ is\\ not\\ consciously\\ perceived\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ contextual\\ information\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ attending\\ to\\ can\\ help\\ us\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ hearing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Automatic\\,\\ Obligatory\\ Processing\\ of\\ Stimuli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tasks\\ such\\ as\\ driving\\ a\\ car\\ or\\ reading\\ become\\ automatic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ reading\\,\\ the\\ task\\ also\\ becomes\\ obligatory\\&mdash\\;impossible\\ to\\ suppress\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stroop\\ Interference\\ Effect\\:\\ we\\ cannot\\ easily\\ name\\ the\\ colors\\ of\\ words\\ when\\ the\\ words\\ are\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ different\\ colors\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brain\\ Mechanisms\\ of\\ Attention\\ and\\ Preattentive\\ Processing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stimuli\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ attended\\ to\\ nevertheless\\ activate\\ sensory\\ and\\ perceptual\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Attention\\ magnifies\\ the\\ activity\\ that\\ stimuli\\ produce\\ in\\ sensory\\ and\\ perceptual\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nerual\\ mechanisms\\ in\\ anterior\\ \\(forward\\)\\ portions\\ of\\ the\\ cortex\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ shifts\\ in\\ attention\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Working\\ Memory\\:\\ The\\ Active\\,\\ Conscious\\ Mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Consists\\ of\\ three\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Phonological\\ loop\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ responsible\\ for\\ holding\\ verbal\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visuo\\-spatial\\ sketchpad\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ responsible\\ for\\ holding\\ visual\\ and\\ spatial\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Central\\ executive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ responsible\\ for\\ coordinating\\ the\\ mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activities\\ and\\ for\\ bringing\\ new\\ information\\ into\\ working\\ memory\\ from\\ the\\ sensory\\ and\\ long\\-term\\ stores\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Verbal\\ Working\\ Memory\\:\\ The\\ Phonological\\ Loop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ number\\ of\\ pronounceable\\ items\\ that\\ a\\ person\\ can\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ and\\ report\\ back\\ accurately\\ after\\ a\\ brief\\ delay\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\span\\ of\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Might\\ be\\ better\\ to\\ call\\ it\\ span\\ of\\ the\\ phonological\\ loop\\ of\\ working\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ span\\ for\\ single\\-syllable\\ words\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ for\\ multiple\\-syllable\\ words\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visual\\ Working\\ Memory\\:\\ The\\ Visuospatial\\ Sketchpad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Experimental\\ data\\ suggests\\ that\\ mental\\ images\\ are\\ indeed\\ stored\\ spatially\\,\\ like\\ pictures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Testing\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Working\\ Memory\\:\\ Dual\\-Task\\ Performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ are\\ better\\ at\\ doing\\ two\\ mental\\ tasks\\ at\\ once\\ if\\ they\\ involve\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ working\\-memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Few\\ real\\-world\\ tasks\\ are\\ purely\\ visual\\ or\\ purely\\ verbal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\,\\ continued\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Working\\ Memory\\:\\ the\\ Active\\,\\ Conscious\\ Mind\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Working\\ memory\\ \\=\\ center\\ of\\ conscious\\ perception\\ and\\ thought\\.\\ Consists\\ of\\ separate\\ but\\ interacting\\ components\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Phonological\\ loop\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;responsible\\ for\\ holding\\ verbal\\ info\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visuospatial\\ sketchpad\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;holding\\ visual\\ and\\ spatial\\ info\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Central\\ executive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;corrdinating\\ the\\ mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activities\\ and\\ for\\ bringing\\ new\\ info\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Phonological\\ loop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Span\\ of\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ number\\ of\\ pronounceable\\ items\\ that\\ a\\ person\\ can\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ and\\ report\\ back\\ accurately\\ after\\ a\\ brief\\ delay\\.\\ The\\ phonological\\ loop\\ \\=\\ part\\ of\\ working\\ mem\\ that\\ hold\\ on\\ to\\ verbal\\ info\\ by\\ subvocally\\ repeating\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ ppl\\ can\\ keep\\ in\\ working\\ mem\\ as\\ much\\ info\\ as\\ they\\ can\\ state\\ aloud\\ in\\ 2\\ secs\\ \\(speak\\ quickly\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ larger\\ span\\)\\.\\ Any\\ intervention\\ that\\ interferes\\ with\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ articulate\\ the\\ words\\ to\\ be\\ remembered\\ interferes\\ with\\ verbal\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\ \\(span\\ for\\ single\\-syllable\\ words\\ \\>\\;\\ span\\ for\\ multi\\-syllable\\ words\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Everyday\\ life\\,\\ use\\ phonological\\ loop\\ for\\ useful\\ work\\ \\(bring\\ ideas\\ together\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ words\\,\\ solve\\ pbs\\,\\ make\\ plans\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Visuospatial\\ sketchpad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Also\\ think\\ with\\ mental\\ pictures\\.\\ Use\\ visuospatial\\ sketchpads\\ to\\ make\\ judgments\\ about\\ spatial\\ relationships\\ by\\ picturing\\ them\\ in\\ our\\ minds\\,\\ and\\ examining\\/scanning\\ these\\ pictures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Limits\\ of\\ working\\ memory\\:\\ dual\\-task\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ppl\\ much\\ better\\ at\\ doing\\ two\\ mental\\ tasks\\ at\\ once\\ if\\ 1\\ task\\ involves\\ the\\ phonological\\ loop\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ involves\\ the\\ visuospatial\\ sketchpad\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phonological\\ loop\\ and\\ visuospatial\\ sketchpad\\ are\\ two\\ separate\\ components\\ of\\ working\\ memory\\ rather\\ than\\ two\\ aspects\\ of\\ same\\ components\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ interfere\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Real\\ life\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ few\\ tasks\\ are\\ purely\\ visual\\ or\\ purely\\ verbal\\.\\ Always\\ involves\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ both\\ \\(which\\ is\\ why\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ drive\\ whilst\\ speaking\\ on\\ the\\ phone\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brain\\ areas\\ involved\\ in\\ working\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Verbal\\ areas\\ of\\ cortex\\:\\ phonological\\ loop\\&mdash\\;people\\ who\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ words\\ in\\ working\\ mem\\ manifest\\ extra\\ neural\\ activity\\ in\\ portions\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ hemisphere\\ that\\ are\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ articulating\\ words\\ and\\ listening\\ to\\ words\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Visual\\ areas\\ of\\ cortex\\:\\ holding\\ visual\\ info\\ in\\ the\\ visuospatial\\ sketchpad\\ involves\\ mental\\ processes\\ akin\\ to\\ looking\\ and\\ seeing\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ damage\\ in\\ either\\ pathways\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\-and\\-how\\&rdquo\\;\\ have\\ comparable\\ deficits\\ in\\ visual\\ working\\ mem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prefrontal\\ cortex\\&mdash\\;appears\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ neural\\ hub\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ executive\\ portion\\ of\\ working\\ mem\\ \\(organization\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Encoding\\ Information\\ into\\ Long\\-Term\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Maintenance\\ Rehearsal\\:\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ hold\\ info\\ in\\ working\\ mem\\ for\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Encoding\\ Rehearsal\\:\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ encodes\\ info\\ into\\ the\\ long\\-term\\ store\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Elaboration\\ promotes\\ encoding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elaboration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ thinking\\ about\\ something\\ helps\\ us\\ remember\\ it\\ \\=\\ tie\\ a\\ structure\\ of\\ info\\ that\\ already\\ exists\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ mem\\,\\ engage\\ with\\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ things\\ with\\ tips\\ \\(white\\ hair\\&mdash\\;Peter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gray\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Application\\ for\\ learning\\:\\ engage\\ with\\ text\\,\\ ask\\ yourself\\ questions\\,\\ focus\\ on\\ ideas\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Organization\\ promotes\\ Encoding\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ creating\\ links\\ among\\ items\\ that\\ would\\ otherwise\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ separate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Chunking\\&mdash\\;group\\ adjacent\\ items\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ a\\ single\\ item\\ \\(sequence\\ of\\ letters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ remember\\ situations\\ or\\ solve\\ pbs\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ contextual\\ info\\ already\\ encoded\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\ to\\ make\\ entire\\ structure\\ of\\ info\\ easily\\ accessible\\ to\\ working\\ memory\\,\\ until\\ pb\\ is\\ solved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Important\\ in\\ formation\\ of\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\ because\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ remember\\ something\\,\\ a\\ person\\ must\\ already\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ info\\ about\\ possible\\ and\\ likely\\ ways\\ that\\ such\\ items\\ might\\ be\\ arranged\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hierarchical\\ organization\\&mdash\\;most\\ useful\\ format\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Visualization\\ promotes\\ Encoding\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ encode\\ visual\\ scenes\\ into\\ long\\-term\\ mem\\.\\ Example\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;mental\\ walk\\&rdquo\\;\\ whereby\\ people\\ to\\ memorize\\ words\\ imagine\\ themselves\\ walking\\ and\\ dropping\\ objects\\ somewhere\\,\\ and\\ then\\ mentally\\ walk\\ route\\ again\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brain\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ Long\\-Term\\-Mem\\ encoding\\ \\-\\ \\ \\;H\\.\\ M\\.\\ who\\ lost\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ form\\ new\\ explicit\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\HM\\ treated\\ for\\ severe\\ epilepsy\\,\\ portion\\ of\\ temporal\\ love\\,\\ limbic\\ system\\ were\\ removed\\.\\ He\\ still\\ remembers\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\ before\\ 1940s\\.\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ keep\\ short\\ term\\ mem\\,\\ the\\ minute\\ he\\ is\\ distracted\\ his\\ attention\\ shifts\\ and\\ he\\ forgets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Temporal\\-lobe\\ amnesia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ areas\\ of\\ destruction\\ are\\ correlated\\ with\\ hippocampus\\ and\\ cortical\\ structures\\ closely\\ connected\\ to\\ hippocampus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anterograde\\ amnesia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ loss\\ of\\ capacity\\ to\\ form\\ long\\-term\\ mem\\ that\\ occrur\\ after\\ injury\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Retrograde\\ amnesia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ loss\\ of\\ mem\\ of\\ events\\ that\\ occurred\\ before\\ the\\ injury\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Time\\ graded\\ nature\\ of\\ retrograde\\ amnesia\\ suggests\\ that\\ long\\-term\\ mem\\ are\\ encoded\\ in\\ brain\\ in\\ at\\ least\\ two\\ different\\ forms\\:\\ Labile\\ and\\ solid\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Consolidation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ process\\ of\\ going\\ from\\ labile\\ to\\ solid\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Retrieving\\ Information\\ from\\ Long\\-Term\\ Memory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ have\\ to\\ find\\ items\\ encoded\\ into\\ our\\ mem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ associations\\ and\\ memory\\ retrieval\\ cues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Associations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ connections\\ that\\ link\\ different\\ long\\-term\\ mem\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Retrieval\\ Cue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ stimulus\\ or\\ thought\\ that\\ primes\\ a\\ particular\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Association\\ for\\ retrieval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Association\\ by\\ contiguity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;some\\ concepts\\ are\\ associated\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ occurred\\ together\\ \\(plates\\ and\\ napkin\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Association\\ by\\ similarity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&mdash\\;items\\ that\\ share\\ one\\ of\\ more\\ properties\\ in\\ common\\ are\\ linked\\ in\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mind\\&rsquo\\;s\\ storehouse\\ of\\ knowledge\\ \\=\\ vast\\ network\\ of\\ mental\\ concepts\\ linked\\ by\\ associations\\ \\(example\\:\\ a\\ person\\ can\\ recognize\\ the\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\apple\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;more\\ quickly\\ if\\ the\\ previous\\ word\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pear\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;red\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\than\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Elaborative\\ rehearsal\\ creates\\ easily\\ retrievable\\ memories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\How\\ you\\ place\\ info\\ in\\ network\\ of\\ association\\ has\\ big\\ effect\\ on\\ how\\ easily\\ retrievable\\ it\\ is\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ the\\ more\\ mental\\ associations\\ you\\ create\\ in\\ learning\\ the\\ new\\ item\\ of\\ info\\ the\\ more\\ ways\\ will\\ be\\ available\\ for\\ you\\ to\\ retrieve\\ it\\ later\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Experience\\ with\\ nouns\\ to\\ remember\\.\\ Cues\\ to\\ remember\\ the\\ nouns\\ were\\ either\\ self\\-generated\\ properties\\ of\\ that\\ noun\\ or\\ some\\ generated\\ by\\ others\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ subjects\\ who\\ had\\ self\\-generated\\ properties\\ could\\ recall\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ nouns\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Contextual\\ stimuli\\&mdash\\;similar\\ context\\ provides\\ cues\\ to\\ retrieve\\ memories\\.\\ Recalling\\ information\\ is\\ easier\\ if\\ in\\ same\\ context\\ as\\ when\\ one\\ learned\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Memory\\ construction\\ as\\ source\\ of\\ distortion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Remembering\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ active\\,\\ inferential\\ process\\ guided\\ by\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ general\\ knowledge\\ and\\ intuitions\\ about\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ by\\ cues\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ environment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Memories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ constructions\\,\\ built\\ and\\ rebuilt\\ from\\ various\\ sources\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ often\\ when\\ you\\ remember\\ a\\ memory\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ exactly\\ all\\ details\\ of\\ it\\,\\ but\\ remember\\ some\\ parts\\ and\\ your\\ mind\\ fills\\ in\\ the\\ gaps\\ through\\ logic\\ and\\ knowledge\\.\\ Process\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ distortions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Effects\\ of\\ preexisting\\ beliefs\\:\\ fitting\\ memories\\ to\\ schemas\\ and\\ scripts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Schema\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ generalized\\ mental\\ representation\\,\\ or\\ concept\\,\\ of\\ any\\ given\\ class\\ of\\ objects\\,\\ scenes\\,\\ or\\ events\\ \\(eg\\.\\ We\\ share\\ schema\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ room\\,\\ everyone\\ basically\\ agrees\\ on\\ what\\ a\\ living\\ room\\ looks\\ like\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scripts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ schemas\\ that\\ involved\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ events\\ in\\ time\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ space\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ affect\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ remember\\ events\\ and\\ objects\\ later\\.\\ We\\ tend\\ to\\ remember\\ any\\ living\\ room\\ as\\ being\\ like\\ the\\ one\\ we\\ imagine\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\False\\ eyewitness\\ memories\\:\\ effects\\ of\\ suggestion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Memory\\ construction\\ affected\\ by\\ events\\ that\\ happened\\ after\\ the\\ event\\ being\\ remembered\\ was\\ encoded\\.\\ False\\ memories\\ can\\ be\\ created\\ easily\\ through\\ suggestions\\ or\\ encouragements\\.\\ eg\\.\\ People\\ viewing\\ car\\ accident\\ film\\,\\ subjects\\ asked\\ how\\ fast\\ the\\ cars\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\smashed\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;into\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Subjects\\ with\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\smashed\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ question\\ estimated\\ faster\\ speed\\ than\\ others\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\False\\ memories\\ of\\ childhood\\ experiences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Techniques\\ of\\ suggestion\\,\\ encouragement\\,\\ and\\ imagination\\ can\\ create\\ false\\ memories\\ of\\ childhood\\ experiences\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ can\\ be\\ abetted\\ by\\ imagination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mental\\ imagery\\ sharply\\ increases\\ reported\\ memory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ study\\ subjects\\ asked\\ to\\ imagine\\ a\\ painful\\ medical\\ procedure\\ and\\ then\\ report\\ if\\ they\\ remembered\\ whether\\ the\\ procedure\\ had\\ ever\\ been\\ done\\ to\\ them\\&mdash\\;20\\%\\ in\\ imagination\\ condition\\ \\(had\\ to\\ imagine\\ vivid\\ images\\ of\\ what\\ happened\\)\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ 5\\%\\ in\\ control\\ condition\\ \\(think\\ about\\ event\\ as\\ way\\ of\\ remembering\\ it\\)\\ said\\ they\\ could\\ remember\\ that\\ event\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Childhood\\ memories\\ are\\ even\\ more\\ subject\\ to\\ distortion\\ by\\ suggestion\\ and\\ imagination\\ than\\ are\\ memories\\ acquired\\ later\\ in\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Source\\ confusion\\ and\\ social\\ pressure\\ as\\ causes\\ of\\ false\\-memory\\ construction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Source\\ confusion\\&mdash\\;events\\ that\\ are\\ conceptually\\ linked\\ but\\ came\\ from\\ different\\ sources\\ may\\ become\\ confounded\\ in\\ memory\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Memory\\ of\\ actual\\ traffic\\ accident\\ becomes\\ confounded\\ with\\ memory\\ of\\ what\\ cross\\-examiner\\ implied\\ about\\ accident\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Social\\ pressure\\&mdash\\;eg\\.\\ Psychologist\\ may\\ imply\\ that\\ some\\ event\\ happened\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ task\\ to\\ remember\\ those\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Multiple\\ Memory\\ Systems\\:\\ Beyond\\ the\\ Modal\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Modal\\ model\\ does\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ memories\\ that\\ can\\ affect\\ behavior\\ without\\ becoming\\ conscious\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Distinctions\\ among\\ explicit\\-\\ and\\ implicit\\-memory\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Explicit\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Explicit\\ Mem\\ \\=\\ type\\ of\\ mem\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ brought\\ into\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consciousness\\.\\ Provides\\ content\\ of\\ conscious\\ thought\\ and\\ is\\ highly\\ flexible\\.\\ Called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\explicit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;because\\ can\\ be\\ assessed\\ through\\ explicit\\ tests\\ in\\ which\\ person\\ is\\ asked\\ to\\ report\\ directly\\ what\\ he\\/she\\ remembers\\ about\\ particular\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Episodic\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ explicit\\ memory\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ past\\ experiences\\.\\ Memory\\ of\\ yourself\\ experiencing\\ a\\ certain\\ event\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Semantic\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ explicit\\ memory\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ tied\\ mentally\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ past\\ experience\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ includes\\ knowledge\\ of\\ word\\ meanings\\,\\ facts\\,\\ ideas\\ and\\ schemas\\ that\\ constitutions\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ general\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implicit\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ type\\ of\\ mem\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ eneter\\ into\\ the\\ contents\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ Assessed\\ through\\ implicit\\ tests\\ in\\ which\\ mem\\ is\\ not\\ reported\\ directly\\ but\\ inferred\\ from\\ behavioral\\ responses\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Memory\\ for\\ balancing\\ on\\ bicycle\\ tested\\ not\\ be\\ asking\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ it\\,\\ but\\ by\\ asking\\ to\\ do\\ it\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Classical\\ conditioning\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ internal\\ changes\\ that\\ lead\\ a\\ person\\ or\\ animal\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ conditioned\\ stimuli\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Procedural\\ memory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ includes\\ motor\\ skills\\,\\ habits\\,\\ and\\ unconsciously\\ learned\\ rules\\.\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Learning\\ how\\ to\\ ride\\ a\\ bike\\,\\ improvement\\ is\\ retained\\ from\\ 1\\ practice\\ test\\ to\\ other\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Priming\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ activation\\,\\ by\\ sensory\\ input\\,\\ of\\ info\\ that\\ is\\ already\\ stored\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ Helps\\ us\\ keep\\ stream\\ of\\ thought\\ running\\ along\\ consistent\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Neuropsychological\\ evidence\\ for\\ separate\\ memory\\ systems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Implicit\\ memory\\ remains\\ intact\\ in\\ temporal\\-lobe\\ amnesia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Deficits\\ in\\ temporal\\-lobe\\ amnesia\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ entirely\\ with\\ explicit\\ memory\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subjects\\ with\\ explicit\\ mem\\ deficit\\ told\\ to\\ trace\\ a\\ pattern\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ only\\ in\\ its\\ mirror\\ image\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ normal\\ improvements\\ from\\ session\\ to\\ session\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cannot\\ consciously\\ remember\\ anything\\ at\\ all\\ about\\ learning\\ experience\\,\\ will\\ always\\ say\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ their\\ first\\ time\\,\\ but\\ they\\ will\\ still\\ improve\\ session\\ after\\ session\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Semantic\\ memory\\ kept\\,\\ episodic\\ memory\\ lost\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Developmental\\ amnesia\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ bilateral\\ damage\\ to\\ hippocampus\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ structures\\ surrounding\\ it\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ damage\\ in\\ episodic\\-memory\\ encoding\\ \\(hippocampus\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ episodic\\ mem\\)\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ semantic\\-memory\\ encoding\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ they\\ can\\ remember\\ new\\ information\\ without\\ remembering\\ how\\ they\\ learnt\\ that\\ information\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Other\\ evidence\\ of\\ semantic\\ memory\\ without\\ episodic\\ memory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Loss\\ of\\ episodic\\ memory\\ and\\ conservation\\ of\\ semantic\\ memory\\ happens\\ more\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Older\\ people\\ are\\ familiar\\ with\\ process\\ of\\ knowing\\ without\\ knowing\\ how\\ they\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Young\\ children\\&mdash\\;during\\ first\\ 4\\ years\\,\\ children\\ acquire\\ enormous\\ amount\\ of\\ semantic\\ info\\ yet\\ no\\ one\\ remembers\\ much\\ about\\ first\\ 4\\ years\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\ develops\\ more\\ slowly\\ in\\ childhood\\ and\\ tends\\ to\\ suffer\\ more\\ damage\\ in\\ old\\ age\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\,\\ crucial\\ in\\ planning\\ and\\ complex\\ thought\\,\\ may\\ be\\ essential\\ for\\ our\\ sense\\ of\\ ourselves\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTER\\ 6\\:\\ SLEEP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p\\.\\ 202\\-203\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Sleep\\ Drive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sleep\\ \\=\\ condition\\ of\\ relative\\ unresponsiveness\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\ \\+\\ drive\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ a\\ sleepy\\ person\\ will\\ expend\\ efforts\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sleep\\ operates\\ like\\ regulatory\\ drive\\,\\ except\\ that\\ it\\ only\\ regulates\\ sleep\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ other\\ regulatory\\ drives\\ such\\ as\\ hunger\\ which\\ regulate\\ hunger\\,\\ amount\\ of\\ glucose\\,\\ effort\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sleepiness\\ controlled\\ by\\ amount\\ of\\ sleep\\ deprivation\\ and\\ biological\\ clock\\ that\\ keeps\\ time\\ with\\ the\\ 24\\-hour\\ day\\-night\\ cycle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;To\\ study\\ sleep\\,\\ scientist\\ use\\ electroencephalogram\\ \\(EEG\\)\\ to\\ show\\ electrical\\ activity\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Awake\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\nonattentive\\&mdash\\;regular\\ waves\\ called\\ alpha\\ waves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\attentive\\&mdash\\;low\\-amplitude\\,\\ fast\\ and\\ irregular\\ wavs\\ called\\ beta\\ waves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Asleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Non\\ REM\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stage\\ 1\\&mdash\\;transition\\ state\\ when\\ falling\\ asleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\State\\ 2\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ stage\\ 4\\&mdash\\;successively\\ deeper\\ stages\\ of\\ true\\ sleep\\.\\ As\\ sleep\\ depends\\,\\ delta\\ waves\\ get\\ slow\\,\\ irregular\\ and\\ high\\-amplitude\\.\\ Consequence\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ muscle\\ tension\\,\\ heart\\ rate\\,\\ breathing\\ rate\\ decline\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\REM\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(rapid\\-eye\\-movement\\ sleep\\)\\&mdash\\;when\\ the\\ subject\\ reaches\\ state\\ 4\\,\\ sleep\\ starts\\ to\\ lighten\\ again\\,\\ returning\\ through\\ stages\\ 3\\ and\\ 2\\ and\\ then\\ to\\ REM\\ sleep\\.\\ Person\\ still\\ sounds\\ asleep\\,\\ muscle\\ tension\\ more\\ relaxed\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ stages\\,\\ high\\ arousal\\ \\(breathing\\ and\\ heart\\ rate\\ rapid\\,\\ penile\\ erection\\ in\\ males\\,\\ eyes\\ move\\ rapidly\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ under\\ the\\ closed\\ eyelids\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ when\\ most\\ dreams\\ occur\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 55, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/MIDTERM-Grays.doc", "desc": "1st midterm"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Soundscapes Final Study Guide", "tags": ["soundscapes", "harvard", "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding-17"], "text": null, "id": 7, "html": "\\\\\\Soundscapes\\_study\\_guide\\_chapters\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c20\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c26\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c23\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c17\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Soundscapes\\ Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\ 2009\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Listening\\ to\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ sound\\ organized\\ in\\ ways\\ meaningful\\ to\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ specific\\ time\\ and\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Musicians\\ may\\ reproduce\\,\\ reshape\\ or\\ discard\\ familiar\\ sounds\\ each\\ time\\ they\\ conceive\\ and\\ perform\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ music\\ culture\\ organizes\\ in\\ distinct\\ ways\\ the\\ four\\ main\\ characteristics\\ of\\ sound\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intensity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\ \\(definition\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ purposeful\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ quality\\,\\ intensity\\,\\ pitch\\ and\\ duration\\ of\\ sound\\.\\ Music\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ sound\\ waves\\ that\\ affect\\ the\\ eardrums\\ and\\ set\\ into\\ motion\\ a\\ multi\\-stage\\ process\\ of\\ auditory\\ perception\\.\\ \\(Leading\\ English\\ language\\ dictionary\\ cautions\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ impossible\\ have\\ one\\ set\\ definition\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ forms\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ world\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inuit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\khoomi\\,\\ katajjaq\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(throat\\ singing\\)\\ \\-\\ vocal\\ game\\ generally\\ done\\ by\\ two\\ women\\.\\ Creates\\ a\\ distinct\\ sound\\,\\ women\\ make\\ \\&ldquo\\;voiced\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;voiceless\\&rdquo\\;\\ sounds\\ at\\ once\\ \\(Listening\\ Guide\\ 4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\ You\\ Should\\ Know\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ distinctive\\ vibrations\\ of\\ a\\ voice\\ or\\ instrument\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tone\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ a\\ sound\\ arising\\ from\\ acoustical\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ harmonic\\ series\\.\\ Also\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\timbre\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ Sources\\ \\-\\ Voice\\:\\ vibrato\\ vs\\.\\ a\\ straight\\ tone\\,\\ raspy\\ vs\\.\\ clear\\,\\ nasal\\ vs\\.\\ throaty\\,\\ warm\\ vs\\.\\ cold\\,\\ head\\ voice\\/falsetto\\ vs\\.\\ chest\\ voice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sound\\ Sources\\ \\-\\ Instrument\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mbuti\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\musical\\ bow\\ from\\ the\\ Congo\\,\\ Steel\\ Drums\\ from\\ Dominica\\,\\ 8\\-holed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\duduk\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ Armenia\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\krar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(harp\\)\\ from\\ Ethiopia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Classification\\ of\\ Musical\\ Instruments\\ \\(organology\\)\\:\\ Sachs\\-Hornbostel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idiophones\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\instruments\\ that\\ are\\ self\\-sounding\\ \\(produce\\ sound\\ by\\ being\\ vibrated\\)\\.\\ They\\ include\\ gongs\\,\\ rattles\\,\\ bells\\,\\ your\\ hands\\ and\\ feet\\.\\ Sub\\-catergories\\:\\ striking\\,\\ shaking\\,\\ scraping\\ or\\ stamping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chordophones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;have\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ vibrating\\ strings\\ as\\ the\\ sound\\ source\\.\\ They\\ include\\,\\ lutes\\,\\ harps\\,\\ lyres\\,\\ zithers\\,\\ guitars\\.\\ Sub\\-catergories\\:\\ plucked\\,\\ bowed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aerophones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;instruments\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ enclosed\\ column\\ of\\ air\\ vibrates\\ to\\ produce\\ sound\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ flute\\,\\ a\\ saxaphone\\,\\ a\\ didjeridu\\ and\\ a\\ bagpipe\\.\\ Sub\\-categories\\:\\ trumpets\\/horns\\,\\ pipes\\ \\(flutes\\ and\\ reed\\ instruments\\)\\ and\\ free\\ aereophones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Membranophones\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Instruments\\ whose\\ sound\\ is\\ produced\\ by\\ stretching\\ a\\ membrane\\ over\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ openings\\,\\ they\\ are\\ classified\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ shapes\\ \\(cylindrical\\,\\ hourglass\\,\\ bowl\\,\\ goblet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Electrophones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ was\\ added\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ include\\ instruments\\ that\\ produce\\ sound\\ electronically\\ \\(synthesizer\\,\\ electric\\ guitar\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ human\\ voice\\ is\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ this\\ musical\\ classification\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intensity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ perceived\\ loudness\\ or\\ softness\\ of\\ a\\ sound\\.\\ Often\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\volume\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ is\\ measured\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decibel\\ meter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ human\\ ear\\ cannot\\ quantify\\ intensity\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crescendo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ intensity\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decrescendo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ a\\ decrease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ highness\\ or\\ lowness\\ of\\ a\\ sound\\.\\ The\\ fundamental\\ of\\ the\\ harmonc\\ series\\ vibrates\\ at\\ a\\ specific\\ frequency\\,\\ a\\ faster\\ vibration\\ produces\\ a\\ higher\\ pitch\\,\\ a\\ slower\\ vibration\\ produces\\ a\\ lower\\ pitch\\.\\ When\\ the\\ frequency\\ is\\ doubled\\,\\ the\\ ear\\ perceives\\ the\\ sound\\ as\\ the\\ same\\ pitch\\,\\ but\\ at\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\,\\ called\\ an\\ octave\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\range\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ an\\ instrument\\ or\\ voice\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ to\\ the\\ lowest\\ note\\ it\\ can\\ produce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ just\\ as\\ music\\ organizes\\ pitch\\,\\ it\\ also\\ shapes\\ time\\.\\ Duration\\ is\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pulse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rhythm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ a\\ broader\\ sense\\.\\ Music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rate\\ of\\ speed\\ or\\ pace\\ is\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tempo\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ musical\\ piece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strophic\\ is\\ most\\ common\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ all\\ verses\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ melody\\ \\(sometimes\\ interspersed\\ with\\ refrains\\ or\\ choruses\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Texture\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ perceived\\ relationship\\ pf\\ simultaneous\\ musical\\ sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monophonic\\:\\ literally\\,\\ a\\ single\\ sound\\,\\ a\\ solo\\ voice\\ or\\ instrument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biphonic\\:\\ two\\ distinct\\ lines\\,\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ drone\\ \\(one\\ note\\)\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ a\\ melody\\ \\(ex\\.\\ A\\ single\\ bagpipe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homophonic\\:\\ when\\ a\\ melody\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ other\\ vocal\\ or\\ instrumental\\ parts\\,\\ playing\\ on\\ roughly\\ the\\ same\\ rhythm\\ as\\ the\\ melody\\ \\(can\\ be\\ harmony\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ barbershop\\ quartet\\,\\ Wreck\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ 97\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polyphonic\\:\\ has\\ many\\ different\\ rhythms\\ and\\ instruments\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ anything\\ currently\\ in\\ Top\\ 40\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heterophony\\:\\ lots\\ of\\ instruments\\ playing\\ basically\\ the\\ same\\ rhythmic\\ patterns\\ and\\ melody\\,\\ some\\ with\\ ornamentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Melody\\:\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ pitches\\,\\ also\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tune\\&rdquo\\;\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\ of\\ a\\ song\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ornamentation\\:\\ melodic\\,\\ rhythmic\\ and\\ timbral\\ elaborations\\ or\\ decorations\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\grace\\ notes\\,\\ accents\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\glissandos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phrase\\:\\ a\\ brief\\ section\\ of\\ music\\,\\ analogous\\ to\\ a\\ phrase\\ of\\ spoken\\ language\\ that\\ sounds\\ somewhat\\ complete\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ while\\ not\\ self\\-sufficient\\.\\ Phrases\\ may\\ be\\ separated\\ by\\ breaths\\ or\\ pauses\\.\\ Melodies\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ phrases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meter\\:\\ a\\ term\\ describing\\ the\\ regular\\ pulse\\ of\\ much\\ Western\\ Classical\\ music\\,\\ and\\ its\\ division\\ into\\ groupings\\ of\\ two\\,\\ three\\,\\ four\\ or\\ six\\ beats\\ per\\ measure\\.\\ Duple\\,\\ tripe\\ and\\ quadruple\\ meters\\ are\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;simple\\&rdquo\\;\\ meters\\.\\ There\\ is\\ often\\ free\\ meter\\ or\\ free\\ rhythm\\ in\\ Eastern\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syncopation\\:\\ a\\ rhythmic\\ effect\\ that\\ provides\\ an\\ unexpected\\ accent\\,\\ temporarily\\ unsettles\\ the\\ meter\\,\\ establishes\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ stressed\\ and\\ unstressed\\ beats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Improvisation\\:\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ composing\\ music\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ performed\\,\\ drawing\\ on\\ preexisting\\ patterns\\ and\\ styles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Setting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Study\\ of\\ Local\\ Musics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Every\\ city\\,\\ town\\ and\\ village\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ distinctive\\ musical\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ can\\ map\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soundscapes\\ by\\ asking\\ what\\ makes\\ up\\ musical\\ life\\,\\ where\\ is\\ music\\ performed\\,\\ when\\ is\\ music\\ heard\\,\\ who\\ makes\\ music\\ and\\ why\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soundscapes\\ existing\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ often\\ interact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soundscapes\\ in\\ different\\ locales\\ may\\ share\\ sounds\\,\\ settings\\ and\\ significances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Setting\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ its\\ broadest\\ sense\\,\\ encompasses\\ the\\ multiple\\ contexts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ city\\,\\ concert\\ hall\\,\\ park\\,\\ home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ which\\ music\\ is\\ conceived\\,\\ created\\,\\ transmitted\\,\\ performed\\ and\\ remembered\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Accra\\,\\ Ghana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Since\\ Accra\\ is\\ a\\ port\\ on\\ the\\ western\\ coast\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ magnet\\ for\\ cultural\\ exchange\\.\\ Capital\\ of\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 17\\:\\ Ewe\\ Song\\ and\\ Dance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ for\\ social\\ events\\ and\\ funerals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ substantial\\ amount\\ of\\ music\\-making\\ in\\ Accra\\ occurs\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ religious\\ rituals\\,\\ there\\ are\\ Christian\\ churches\\ on\\ nearly\\ every\\ block\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ much\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ people\\ in\\ Accra\\ still\\ listen\\ to\\ cassettes\\,\\ which\\ have\\ been\\ replaced\\ in\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 21\\:\\ Cow\\ Lane\\ Sextet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ was\\ originally\\ written\\ for\\ instruments\\,\\ but\\ is\\ performed\\ on\\ computer\\ because\\ the\\ composer\\ could\\ not\\ find\\ competent\\ instrumentalists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Mumbai\\,\\ India\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Until\\ 1996\\ it\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ Bombay\\.\\ Mumbai\\ blends\\ traditions\\ from\\ every\\ other\\ part\\ of\\ India\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ their\\ music\\ is\\ religious\\ \\(Hindi\\)\\ like\\ Accra\\,\\ there\\ are\\ multiple\\-day\\ festivals\\ in\\ which\\ music\\ plays\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 22\\:\\ Jay\\ Ganesh\\ \\(Praise\\ Ganesh\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recording\\ is\\ played\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ worship\\ service\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\puja\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ to\\ rectify\\ any\\ mistakes\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ ritual\\ just\\ preformed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mumbai\\ is\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Indian\\ film\\ industry\\:\\ Bollywood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ singer\\ Lata\\ Mangeshkar\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Guiness\\ Book\\ of\\ World\\ Records\\ for\\ having\\ recorded\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ of\\ songs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 23\\:\\ Mum\\-bhai\\ \\(rap\\ song\\)\\ from\\ 1998\\ film\\ Bombay\\ Boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Boston\\,\\ USA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basically\\ every\\ type\\ of\\ world\\ music\\ is\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ is\\ performed\\ in\\ Symphony\\ Hall\\,\\ in\\ the\\ T\\ stations\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ city\\,\\ Boston\\ churches\\,\\ Harvard\\ Square\\ \\(one\\ of\\ the\\ liveliest\\ neighborhood\\ settings\\ for\\ musical\\ performance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\British\\,\\ Irish\\,\\ Italian\\,\\ Portuguese\\,\\ Haitian\\,\\ Cape\\ Verdeans\\ arrived\\ in\\ Boston\\ early\\,\\ their\\ music\\ is\\ well\\ represented\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 25\\:\\ Ballad\\ of\\ Buddy\\ McClean\\ \\(Irish\\-American\\ Ballad\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ commemoration\\ of\\ a\\ local\\ hero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defining\\ musical\\ community\\:\\ College\\ campuses\\ \\(Balinese\\ Gamelan\\:\\ metal\\ idiophones\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Folk\\ music\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ part\\ of\\ Boston\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\,\\ folk\\ music\\ revival\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\,\\ many\\ anti\\-Vietnam\\ protest\\ songs\\ \\(Joan\\ Baez\\,\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\,\\ Peter\\ Paul\\ and\\ Mary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Significance\\:\\ Music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Meaning\\ in\\ Everyday\\ Life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meaning\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Is\\ shaped\\ by\\ the\\ sounds\\ and\\ the\\ settings\\ of\\ the\\ musical\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Can\\ persist\\ in\\ across\\ different\\ musical\\ genres\\ and\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Is\\ different\\ for\\ different\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Can\\ change\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Music\\ can\\ convey\\ meanings\\ in\\ three\\ distinct\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ sound\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ imitate\\ or\\ refer\\ to\\ other\\ sounds\\,\\ drawing\\ on\\ sonic\\ characteristics\\ held\\ in\\ common\\ \\(like\\,\\ khoomi\\ singing\\ drawing\\ from\\/mimicking\\ the\\ sounds\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Music\\ sound\\ can\\ communicate\\ specific\\ meanings\\ within\\ individual\\ cultures\\ or\\ subcultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ individual\\ listener\\ who\\ experiences\\ the\\ sound\\ and\\ interprets\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ way\\,\\ ultimately\\ constructing\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ son\\ according\\ to\\ highly\\ variable\\ factors\\ ranging\\ from\\ prior\\ experience\\ to\\ personal\\ idiosyncrasies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Music\\ can\\ often\\,\\ on\\ occasion\\,\\ speak\\ \\(see\\ example\\ of\\ Ghanaian\\ talking\\ drum\\,\\ the\\ Asante\\ atumpan\\ in\\ LG\\ 20\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sometimes\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ speechless\\ by\\ a\\ musical\\ experience\\,\\ unable\\ to\\ articulate\\ its\\ power\\,\\ let\\ alone\\ describe\\ music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ precise\\ meaning\\ in\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Certain\\ meanings\\ may\\ be\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ some\\ but\\ disputed\\ or\\ rejected\\ by\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ South\\ Indian\\ Raga\\ Nilambari\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\The\\ sound\\ of\\ raga\\ can\\ convey\\ meanings\\ on\\ both\\ experiential\\ and\\ emotional\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raga\\ Nilambari\\ is\\ so\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ lullabies\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ lullaby\\ raga\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ South\\ India\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Indian\\ diaspora\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raga\\ Nilambari\\ can\\ be\\ best\\ represented\\ in\\ Indian\\ sagram\\ notation\\,\\ which\\ provides\\ names\\ for\\ the\\ seven\\ main\\ scale\\ of\\ degrees\\ in\\ ascending\\ order\\-\\ Sa\\ Ri\\ Ga\\ Ma\\ Pa\\ Dha\\ Ni\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ A\\ system\\ similar\\ but\\ not\\ identical\\ to\\ the\\ Western\\ notion\\ of\\ scale\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Each\\ scale\\ degree\\ within\\ the\\ raga\\ is\\ termed\\ svara\\,\\ which\\ identifies\\ both\\ its\\ particular\\ place\\ or\\ position\\ within\\ the\\ melody\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ combined\\ with\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ ornament\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ gamaka\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ tonic\\ or\\ first\\ and\\ most\\ prominent\\ svara\\,\\ Sa\\,\\ and\\ Pa\\,\\ the\\ fifth\\ svara\\,\\ are\\ fixed\\ in\\ their\\ pitch\\ level\\.\\ The\\ Sa\\ and\\ Pa\\ are\\ usually\\ reinforced\\ by\\ a\\ drone\\ \\,\\ sometimes\\ played\\ by\\ a\\ plucked\\ instrument\\ called\\ a\\ tambura\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ many\\ other\\ ragas\\,\\ the\\ nilambari\\ has\\ some\\ variations\\ in\\ the\\ svara\\ order\\ of\\ for\\ the\\ ascending\\ \\(aroha\\)\\ and\\ the\\ descending\\ \\(avaroha\\)\\ melodic\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Ascent\\:\\ Sa\\ Ri\\ Ga\\ Ma\\ Dha\\ Pa\\ Dha\\ Ni\\ Sa\\ \\,Descent\\:\\ Sa\\ Ni\\ Pa\\ Ma\\ Ga\\ Ri\\ Ga\\ Sa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ LG\\ 34\\ on\\ pg\\.\\ 132\\,\\ Mrs\\.\\ Jeyalakshmi\\ Sundar\\,\\ a\\ \\ \\;South\\ Indian\\ Brahmin\\ woman\\ from\\ a\\ village\\ in\\ Tamil\\ Nadu\\ state\\,\\ performs\\ a\\ lullaby\\ called\\ Araro\\ Ariraro\\,\\ which\\ symbolizes\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ rocking\\ a\\ crying\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ Tamil\\ word\\ for\\ lullaby\\ is\\ talattu\\ which\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;tongue\\-rocking\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ an\\ expression\\ borne\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ syllables\\ known\\ as\\ vocables\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ convey\\ literal\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ South\\ India\\,\\ lullabies\\ are\\ sung\\ in\\ homes\\ and\\ distributed\\ on\\ commercial\\ recordings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ raga\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ sleep\\-inducing\\ impact\\ on\\ deities\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ on\\ humans\\.\\ Today\\,\\ the\\ raga\\ nilambari\\ is\\ played\\ in\\ Hindu\\ temples\\ in\\ South\\ India\\ on\\ the\\ nagasvram\\,\\ a\\ double\\-reed\\ aerophone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ During\\ rituals\\ in\\ the\\ temple\\,\\ the\\ nagasvram\\ accompanies\\ moments\\ when\\ the\\ deity\\ is\\ being\\ awakened\\,\\ bathed\\,\\ or\\ put\\ to\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ can\\ also\\ hear\\ raga\\ nilambari\\ in\\ compositions\\ by\\ South\\ Indian\\ composers\\ with\\ texts\\ that\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ raga\\&rsquo\\;s\\ significance\\ as\\ a\\ lullaby\\ for\\ the\\ gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ LG\\ 35\\ on\\ pg\\.\\ 135\\,\\ you\\ can\\ hear\\ a\\ kirtanam\\,\\ aka\\ kritti\\,\\ composed\\ by\\ Ponniah\\ Pillai\\ \\ \\;in\\ the\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ titled\\ Amba\\ Nilambari\\,\\ which\\ is\\ still\\ popular\\ today\\ as\\ a\\ concert\\ piece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ free\\ rhythm\\ of\\ the\\ lullaby\\ in\\ LG\\ 34\\,\\ the\\ rhythmic\\ framework\\ for\\ the\\ classical\\ kritti\\ in\\ the\\ LG\\ 35\\ is\\ a\\ tala\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Tala\\ is\\ an\\ Indian\\ term\\ denoting\\ time\\ cycles\\ consisting\\ of\\ fixed\\ number\\ of\\ counts\\.\\ The\\ cycles\\ are\\ subdivided\\ into\\ units\\ with\\ different\\ numbers\\ of\\ beats\\,\\ sometimes\\ of\\ irregular\\ lengths\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Raga\\ nilambari\\ provides\\ a\\ clear\\ instance\\ of\\ a\\ consistent\\ meaning\\ conveyed\\ by\\ music\\ over\\ long\\ periods\\ of\\ time\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ across\\ different\\ repertories\\ and\\ broad\\ geographical\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Effect\\ of\\ Music\\ on\\ the\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\In\\ their\\ union\\ of\\ sound\\ and\\ bodily\\ motion\\,\\ lullabies\\ provide\\ an\\ excellent\\ example\\ of\\ musical\\ entertainment\\ \\,\\ an\\ expression\\ used\\ by\\ psychologists\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ alignment\\ of\\ bodily\\ motion\\ during\\ a\\ musical\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ studies\\ of\\ music\\ have\\ noted\\ its\\ apparent\\ ability\\ to\\ alter\\ mental\\ states\\ or\\ even\\ to\\ induce\\ a\\ trance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Some\\ researchers\\ hypothesize\\ that\\ the\\ repetitive\\ nature\\ of\\ musical\\ sound\\ cause\\ brain\\ waves\\ to\\ trigger\\ an\\ altered\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Quinceanera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\A\\ tradition\\ celebrated\\ in\\ Latino\\ communities\\ in\\ North\\,\\ South\\,\\ and\\ Central\\ America\\ that\\ marks\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ teenage\\ girls\\ in\\ adulthood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ central\\ musical\\ event\\ marking\\ the\\ Quinceanera\\ is\\ a\\ party\\ hosted\\ by\\ the\\ birthday\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ specific\\ music\\ performed\\ at\\ the\\ celebration\\;\\ the\\ choice\\ depends\\ on\\ whether\\ the\\ family\\ is\\ of\\ Mexican\\ \\,\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\,\\ Dominican\\,\\ or\\ another\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Members\\ of\\ the\\ Mexican\\ American\\ community\\ hire\\ live\\ mariachi\\ bands\\ whenever\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mariachi\\:\\ name\\ for\\ a\\ Mexican\\ or\\ Mexican\\-American\\ instrumental\\ ensemble\\ of\\ plucked\\ and\\ bowed\\ instruments\\ of\\ various\\ types\\ with\\ trumpets\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ ensemble\\ became\\ standardized\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Mariachi\\ ensembles\\ usually\\ consist\\ of\\ Mexican\\ guitarron\\ \\(a\\ large\\,\\ plucked\\ string\\ bass\\ guitar\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ belly\\)\\ and\\ the\\ vihuela\\ \\(a\\ smaller\\,\\ strummed\\ folk\\ guitar\\)\\,\\ alone\\ or\\ with\\ a\\ harp\\,\\ which\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ rhythm\\ instruments\\ of\\ the\\ ensemble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ played\\ by\\ mariachi\\ bands\\ at\\ a\\ Quinceanera\\ range\\ from\\ traditional\\ romantic\\ songs\\ to\\ innovative\\ pieces\\ adapting\\ rhythms\\ from\\ salsa\\ and\\ other\\ Latin\\ dance\\ styles\\ to\\ mariachi\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ mariachi\\ ensemble\\ is\\ performed\\ on\\ vastly\\ different\\ occasions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ the\\ same\\ song\\,\\ performed\\ at\\ times\\ of\\ joy\\ and\\ at\\ times\\ of\\ sorrow\\,\\ gains\\ power\\ with\\ each\\ rendition\\,\\ accumulating\\ an\\ ever\\-expanding\\ set\\ of\\ associations\\ for\\ individuals\\ and\\ the\\ communities\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ apart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Here\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ a\\ performance\\ closely\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ setting\\,\\ providing\\ a\\ marker\\ contrast\\ to\\ one\\-to\\-one\\ correspondence\\ between\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ raga\\ nilambari\\ and\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bagpipe\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\The\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipe\\ extends\\ way\\ beyond\\ its\\ Scottish\\ and\\ Irish\\ roots\\,\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ emperor\\ Nero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Many\\ regions\\ \\(Western\\ and\\ Eastern\\ Europe\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ Balkans\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ India\\)\\ have\\ one\\ of\\ more\\ type\\ of\\ bagpipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Differences\\ in\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipe\\ can\\ result\\ in\\ remarkably\\ different\\ sound\\ quality\\ and\\ volume\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ recent\\ introduction\\ of\\ synthetic\\ materials\\ by\\ bagpipe\\ makers\\ has\\ changed\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ the\\ Scottish\\ and\\ Irish\\ bagpipe\\ ensembles\\ have\\ proliferated\\ worldwide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Scottish\\ Highland\\ Bagpipe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Scottish\\ Highland\\ Bagpipe\\ has\\ an\\ airtight\\ bag\\/air\\ reservoir\\ \\(made\\ out\\ of\\ sheep\\ or\\ goat\\ skin\\ in\\ the\\ past\\)\\ which\\ has\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ wood\\ inserted\\ into\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chanter\\ \\(eight\\ finger\\ holes\\ and\\ can\\ only\\ use\\ nine\\ pitches\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ melody\\.\\ Has\\ a\\ double\\ reed\\ that\\ is\\ concealed\\ from\\ view\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Blowpipe\\ \\(\\ player\\ blows\\ air\\ into\\ the\\ bag\\ but\\ non\\-return\\ valve\\ prevent\\ air\\ from\\ escaping\\ the\\ bag\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;usually\\ three\\,\\ drone\\ pipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;No\\ finger\\ holes\\ and\\ sound\\ a\\ single\\,\\ continuous\\ pitch\\.\\ In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ pitch\\ has\\ such\\ strong\\ harmonics\\ that\\ listener\\ may\\ think\\ that\\ extra\\ pipes\\ are\\ being\\ sounded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;All\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ pipe\\ are\\ sewn\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;stocks\\&rdquo\\;\\ along\\ the\\ exterior\\ of\\ the\\ skin\\ or\\ rubber\\ bag\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ reeds\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ pipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Once\\ bag\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ air\\,\\ player\\ compresses\\ the\\ arm\\ to\\ push\\ air\\ through\\ the\\ chanter\\ and\\ the\\ drone\\ pipes\\,\\ causing\\ the\\ reeds\\ to\\ vibrate\\ and\\ bagpipe\\ to\\ sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Loud\\,\\ piercing\\ sound\\,\\ appropriate\\ for\\ their\\ customary\\ use\\ outside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Tuning\\ of\\ bagpipe\\ is\\ fixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Difficult\\ to\\ play\\ \\(breathe\\ into\\ blowpipe\\,\\ squeeze\\ the\\ bag\\,\\ and\\ finger\\ the\\ chanter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Loud\\ chanter\\,\\ additional\\ drones\\ to\\ balance\\ chanter\\,\\ and\\ long\\ blowpipe\\ make\\ more\\ suitable\\ for\\ outdoor\\ use\\ and\\ marching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Grace\\ notes\\/gracing\\:\\ very\\ short\\ notes\\ that\\ adorn\\ the\\ otherwise\\ continuous\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ chanter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cutting\\:\\ insertion\\ of\\ grace\\ note\\ to\\ divide\\ the\\ sound\\ into\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ distinct\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Doubling\\:\\ group\\ of\\ several\\ grace\\ notes\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ pitch\\ as\\ the\\ note\\ being\\ ornamented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Grips\\:\\ several\\ rapid\\ fire\\ grace\\ notes\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ chanter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ range\\.\\ They\\ sound\\ like\\ the\\ squawk\\ of\\ a\\ breaking\\ voice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Bagpipe\\ makers\\ use\\ synthetic\\ materials\\ for\\ the\\ bags\\,\\ pipes\\,\\ and\\ reeds\\ to\\ reduce\\ difficulty\\ in\\ bagpipe\\ maintenance\\ and\\ tuning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Change\\ in\\ material\\ has\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ sound\\ that\\ can\\ overwhelm\\ the\\ ear\\ and\\ permeate\\ the\\ entire\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Commands\\ attentions\\ to\\ highly\\ ornamented\\ melody\\ and\\ more\\ stable\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Setting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Death\\ and\\ commemoration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Pibroch\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ MacCrimmons\\:\\ usually\\ laments\\ or\\ commemorations\\ for\\ particular\\ people\\ or\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Consists\\ of\\ slow\\ and\\ long\\ \\ \\;ground\\/melody\\ with\\ subsequent\\ extended\\ variations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ bagpipes\\ are\\ often\\ played\\ at\\ funerals\\ and\\ other\\ ceremonies\\ by\\ pipers\\ in\\ formal\\ dress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ use\\ has\\ moved\\ into\\ the\\ forefront\\ post\\-2001\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Entertainment\\ and\\ dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\8\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Ceilidhs\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(festive\\ gatherings\\)\\ and\\ urging\\ the\\ listener\\ to\\ tap\\,\\ clap\\,\\ march\\,\\ and\\ dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Competition\\ and\\ concerts\\ \\(especially\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Canada\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\9\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Pipe\\ bands\\ reflect\\ combination\\ of\\ long\\-time\\ tradition\\,\\ recent\\ innovation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ diverse\\ occasions\\ associated\\ with\\ bagpipe\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wide\\ range\\ of\\ meanings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Same\\ songs\\ at\\ different\\ pace\\ can\\ have\\ different\\ meanings\\ and\\ evoke\\ very\\ different\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ music\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ prescribes\\ or\\ limits\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ responses\\ that\\ it\\ evokes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\From\\ lullabies\\ to\\ bagpipe\\ laments\\,\\ musical\\ sounds\\ gains\\ and\\ lends\\ significance\\ from\\ its\\ presence\\ as\\ lived\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Our\\ perceptions\\ of\\ musical\\ meaning\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ complex\\ process\\,\\ one\\ shaped\\ by\\ subtle\\ interaction\\ of\\ ear\\,\\ mind\\,\\ and\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ travels\\ easily\\ with\\ migrating\\ communities\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ portable\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ transmitted\\ orally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ musical\\ styles\\ are\\ maintained\\ when\\ groups\\ migrate\\;\\ others\\ are\\ transformed\\ or\\ discarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\-making\\ can\\ embody\\ and\\ reenact\\ the\\ migration\\ process\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ commemorate\\ the\\ homeland\\ left\\ behind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ closely\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ migration\\ process\\ because\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ portable\\.\\ When\\ people\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ migrate\\,\\ songs\\,\\ dances\\,\\ and\\ memories\\ of\\ their\\ musical\\ life\\ may\\ be\\ among\\ their\\ few\\ surviving\\ possessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ modern\\ transportation\\ has\\ allowed\\ mass\\ movements\\ to\\ occur\\ more\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recorded\\ music\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ changing\\ technologies\\ have\\ reinforced\\ musical\\ transmission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immigrant\\ communities\\ are\\ often\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;diaspora\\ communities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Improved\\ communications\\ and\\ opportunities\\ for\\ travel\\ have\\ allowed\\ travel\\ between\\ new\\ home\\ and\\ ancestral\\ homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ move\\ for\\ different\\ reasons\\ and\\ settle\\ for\\ varying\\ lengths\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\ migration\\ \\(happens\\ more\\)\\ and\\ voluntary\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ other\\ factors\\,\\ not\\ just\\ forced\\/voluntary\\,\\ can\\ affect\\ the\\ sound\\,\\ setting\\,\\ and\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Voluntary\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ choice\\ motivated\\ by\\ an\\ attraction\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ locale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ to\\ North\\ America\\ for\\ religious\\ and\\ economic\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ British\\ migrants\\ brought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ballads\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ Virginia\\ and\\ Kentucky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oral\\ transmission\\ \\(from\\ person\\ to\\ person\\)\\ vs\\.\\ written\\ transmission\\ \\(through\\ song\\ texts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ often\\ overlap\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Chinese\\ folk\\ songs\\ in\\ which\\ oral\\ transmission\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ songbooks\\ containing\\ the\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Chinese\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Voluntary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Began\\ around\\ 1850\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ attraction\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;pull\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ wave\\ of\\ immigrants\\ were\\ attracted\\ by\\ the\\ California\\ gold\\ rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1860s\\,\\ to\\ help\\ construct\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ \\&ldquo\\;push\\&rdquo\\;\\ factors\\ that\\ drove\\ them\\ away\\ of\\ their\\ homeland\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ anarchy\\,\\ famine\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ crisis\\ in\\ mid\\-nineteenth\\ century\\ China\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ intolerance\\.\\ Only\\ in\\ 1960s\\,\\ were\\ restrictions\\ eased\\ through\\ the\\ Refugee\\ Relief\\ Acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ immigrants\\ considered\\ themselves\\ temporary\\ sojourners\\&hellip\\;\\ most\\ were\\ motivated\\ by\\ economic\\ gain\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ return\\ home\\ rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ they\\ were\\ strongly\\ motivated\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ cultural\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ many\\ spent\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LG41\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Ng\\ Comes\\ to\\ the\\ Gold\\ Mountain\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ relives\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ Chinese\\ migration\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Belongs\\ to\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ compositions\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\muyu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ transmitted\\ both\\ orally\\ and\\ in\\ written\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncle\\ Ng\\ continued\\ to\\ sing\\ of\\ his\\ dream\\ of\\ becoming\\ rich\\ and\\ making\\ enough\\ money\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Taishan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ maintained\\ the\\ longtime\\ tradition\\ of\\ immigrant\\ Taishanese\\ who\\ felt\\ responsible\\ to\\ their\\ homeland\\ and\\ their\\ relatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muyu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sung\\ by\\ men\\ or\\ women\\,\\ public\\ and\\ private\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provides\\ insights\\ into\\ both\\ the\\ attraction\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ the\\ difficult\\ circumstances\\ at\\ home\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transmits\\ valuable\\ info\\ about\\ modern\\ process\\ of\\ immigration\\.\\ Also\\ conveys\\ ideas\\ about\\ immigration\\ that\\ reflect\\ the\\ older\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ sojourner\\ who\\ wishes\\ to\\ return\\ home\\ rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ adds\\ vocables\\ to\\ the\\ text\\ when\\ performing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\muyu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ Arab\\ Migration\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Began\\ as\\ voluntary\\,\\ then\\ at\\ some\\ later\\ point\\ included\\ some\\ forced\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immigrants\\ from\\ Greater\\ Syria\\ discovered\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;entrepreneurial\\ Eden\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1870s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economic\\ downturn\\ caused\\ by\\ opening\\ of\\ Suez\\ Canal\\ in\\ 1869\\,\\ and\\ the\\ breakup\\ of\\ the\\ Ottoman\\ empire\\ in\\ 1917\\ were\\ the\\ final\\ precipitating\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wave\\ of\\ immigrants\\ included\\ some\\ who\\ were\\ forced\\ after\\ being\\ dislocated\\ by\\ the\\ Arab\\-Israeli\\ conflict\\ in\\ 1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Chain\\ migration\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ individuals\\ sent\\ for\\ other\\ family\\ members\\ and\\ friends\\&hellip\\;\\ contributed\\ to\\ formation\\ of\\ large\\ Arab\\ American\\ communities\\ in\\ Detroit\\ and\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constant\\ flow\\ of\\ people\\ until\\ 1924\\ kept\\ connections\\ with\\ homeland\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importing\\ and\\ publishing\\ recordings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;musical\\ styles\\ traveled\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ from\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ homeland\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Syria\\,\\ Lebanon\\,\\ Egypt\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lebanese\\ singer\\ Hanan\\ Harouni\\ settled\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ mid\\-1940s\\&hellip\\;\\ she\\ brought\\ the\\ vocal\\ quality\\ and\\ ornaments\\ typical\\ of\\ Lebanese\\ traditional\\ music\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LG42\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ mostly\\ immigrants\\,\\ including\\ Arab\\ Muslim\\,\\ Christian\\,\\ Iraqi\\-born\\ Jewish\\ musicians\\&hellip\\;\\ shows\\ the\\ various\\ national\\ and\\ religious\\ backgrounds\\ in\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ Arab\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Song\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mawwal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\ traditional\\ Arab\\ form\\ that\\ alternates\\ sections\\ of\\ free\\ and\\ regular\\ rhythms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ in\\ Arab\\ mode\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\huzam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ colloquial\\ in\\ language\\ and\\ content\\,\\ commenting\\ on\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ Arab\\ lute\\ and\\ zither\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ud\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qanum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Live\\ concerts\\ of\\ Arab\\ music\\ featuring\\ famous\\ musicians\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ are\\ often\\ mounted\\ e\\.g\\.\\ famous\\ Lebanese\\ singer\\ Fairuz\\ at\\ the\\ Garden\\ Arena\\ of\\ the\\ MGM\\ Grand\\ in\\ Vegas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fairuz\\ has\\ long\\ represented\\ Lebanon\\ and\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ through\\ her\\ musical\\ performances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ her\\ Vegas\\ concert\\,\\ she\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ an\\ ensemble\\ that\\ included\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ instruments\\ and\\ Western\\ instruments\\.\\ Such\\ an\\ event\\ reconnects\\ the\\ Lebanese\\ and\\ other\\ Arab\\ Americans\\ with\\ their\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ homelands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forced\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Set\\ into\\ motion\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;push\\&rdquo\\;\\ factors\\ beyond\\ individual\\ or\\ community\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ result\\ from\\ violent\\ or\\ disastrous\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ African\\ Forced\\ Migrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conquest\\ and\\ slavery\\ continue\\ to\\ reverberate\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ American\\ life\\ and\\ musical\\ styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ 1619\\ when\\ the\\ first\\ ship\\ carrying\\ African\\ slaves\\ arrived\\ in\\ Jamestown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ musical\\ repertories\\ show\\ traces\\ of\\ the\\ painful\\ experiences\\ during\\ the\\ slave\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ influential\\ is\\ the\\ black\\ spiritual\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ musical\\ expression\\ of\\ slaves\\ converted\\ to\\ New\\ World\\ Christianity\\ from\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\ of\\ these\\ songs\\ dates\\ from\\ the\\ period\\ around\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1868\\,\\ first\\ collection\\ of\\ spirituals\\ edited\\ by\\ William\\ Francis\\ Allen\\,\\ was\\ published\\&hellip\\;\\ preserved\\ and\\ romanticized\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\&rsquo\\;\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ written\\ notation\\ alone\\ could\\ not\\,\\ however\\,\\ show\\ the\\ distinctive\\ vocal\\ style\\ or\\ subtle\\ variations\\ in\\ intonation\\ and\\ pitch\\ of\\ the\\ oral\\ renditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ spirituals\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ sung\\ in\\ a\\ heterophonic\\ texture\\ or\\ with\\ a\\ soloist\\ and\\ chorus\\ alternating\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;call\\-and\\-response\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transmitted\\ through\\ oral\\ tradition\\ with\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ improvisation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ spiritual\\ was\\ transmitted\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ contexts\\ and\\ in\\ contrasting\\ musical\\ styles\\ e\\.g\\.\\ LG43\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nobody\\ Knows\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;example\\ by\\ Huddie\\ Ledbetter\\.\\ Recorded\\ while\\ in\\ jail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;example\\ by\\ Paul\\ Robeson\\,\\ who\\ attended\\ Rutgers\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ JD\\ from\\ Columbia\\.\\ Recorded\\ in\\ a\\ concert\\ hall\\.\\ His\\ version\\ provides\\ great\\ contrast\\ in\\ temp\\,\\ rhythm\\ and\\ vocal\\ style\\ to\\ Ledbetter\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ dramatically\\ different\\ channels\\ of\\ transmission\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ song\\ within\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ community\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ both\\ versions\\ give\\ expression\\ to\\ a\\ shared\\ heritage\\ of\\ suffering\\ stemming\\ from\\ slavery\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ strong\\ influence\\ of\\ Christian\\ belief\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Vietnamese\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Forced\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ control\\ of\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ declaration\\ of\\ independence\\ by\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\ in\\ 1945\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ fighting\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ 1954\\&hellip\\;\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ divided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ involvement\\ ended\\ by\\ the\\ 1973\\ peace\\ talks\\ in\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1975\\ Saigon\\,\\ capital\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\,\\ fell\\ to\\ the\\ North\\,\\ 200\\,000\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ sought\\ refuge\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ other\\ countries\\&hellip\\;\\ soon\\ afterward\\,\\ Vietnam\\ reunited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Between\\ 1978\\ and\\ 1985\\,\\ \\½\\;\\ million\\ left\\ Vietnan\\,\\ by\\ mid\\-1990s\\,\\ up\\ to\\ 1\\.3\\ million\\,\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ whom\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rich\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Orange\\ County\\,\\ Washington\\ DV\\,\\ NYC\\,\\ east\\ coast\\ of\\ NJ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wave\\ of\\ less\\ educated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;New\\ Orleans\\ and\\ Houston\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Preservation\\ of\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vietnamese\\ is\\ still\\ widely\\ spoken\\ by\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ maintain\\ their\\ Buddhist\\ religion\\ and\\ make\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ observe\\ Tet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ mid\\-1980s\\,\\ Vietnamese\\ diaspora\\ communities\\ in\\ large\\ urban\\ centers\\ have\\ hosted\\ large\\ popular\\ musical\\ events\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\da\\ vu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditional\\ music\\ is\\ performed\\ by\\ residents\\ who\\ maintain\\ the\\ music\\ traditions\\ and\\ instruments\\ of\\ homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Perfume\\ Traditional\\ Ensemble\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ Hue\\ toured\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ for\\ 2\\ weeks\\ in\\ 1995\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LG44\\ type\\ of\\ chamber\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ca\\ Hue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Text\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ mythological\\ princess\\ who\\ sacrifices\\ personal\\ gain\\ for\\ her\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditional\\ instrument\\ heard\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dan\\ bau\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\ single\\ string\\,\\ resonating\\ chamber\\,\\ and\\ a\\ small\\ bamboo\\ shaft\\&hellip\\;\\ plucked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ has\\ been\\ said\\ the\\ instrument\\ can\\ render\\ all\\ possible\\ sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LG45\\,\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ solo\\ electrically\\ amplified\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dan\\ bau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refugees\\ were\\ traumatized\\ both\\ by\\ their\\ escape\\ from\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ their\\ enforced\\ stay\\ in\\ refugee\\ camps\\ in\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ and\\ Philippines\\&hellip\\;\\ surprisingly\\,\\ there\\ many\\ different\\ styles\\ of\\ music\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\,\\ including\\ Buddhist\\ chant\\,\\ Vietnamese\\ folk\\ and\\ chamber\\,\\ and\\ Western\\ popular\\ and\\ classical\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ musical\\ style\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ factor\\ that\\ determined\\ music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\,\\ boundaries\\ between\\ formerly\\ distinctive\\ musical\\ categories\\ were\\ blurring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ in\\ refugee\\ camps\\ sang\\ mainly\\ sad\\ songs\\ and\\ love\\ songs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Love\\ songs\\ and\\ sad\\ songs\\ nostalgic\\ for\\ pre\\-1975\\ Vietnam\\ were\\ banned\\ by\\ the\\ Communist\\ regime\\ when\\ it\\ reunified\\ in\\ 1975\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ the\\ singing\\ of\\ these\\ songs\\ were\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ political\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\ was\\ that\\ of\\ compose\\ Pham\\ Duy\\&hellip\\;\\ his\\ songs\\ written\\ before\\ 1975\\ represent\\ about\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ internationally\\ distributed\\ Vietnamese\\ recordings\\ outside\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ songs\\ are\\ patriotic\\ songs\\.\\ These\\ songs\\ have\\ been\\ banned\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ since\\ 1975\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pham\\ Duy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\National\\ Road\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\song\\ cycle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tells\\ of\\ a\\ traveler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\ through\\ Vietnam\\ from\\ north\\ to\\ south\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Celebrates\\ the\\ cultural\\ diversity\\ and\\ regional\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ trace\\ aspects\\ of\\ its\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ both\\ Vietnamese\\ and\\ Western\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Influenced\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tan\\ nhac\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ style\\ that\\ combined\\ Western\\ instruments\\ and\\ Vietnamese\\ instruments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ of\\ the\\ songs\\ draw\\ on\\ traditional\\ melodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consists\\ of\\ 19\\ songs\\ grouped\\ in\\ 3\\ sections\\&hellip\\;\\ north\\,\\ central\\,\\ and\\ south\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Pham\\ Duy\\:\\ LG46\\ \\+\\ 47\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ p\\.\\ 205\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ p\\.\\ 210\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tet\\ celebrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synthesized\\ songs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;CD\\ distributions\\,\\ worldwide\\ distributions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Significance\\ p\\.\\ 211\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Powerful\\ significance\\ for\\ composer\\ and\\ evokes\\ deep\\ response\\ from\\ diaspora\\ Vietnamese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ performed\\ openly\\ in\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pham\\ Duy\\ has\\ used\\ music\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ political\\ resistance\\ since\\ the\\ 1940s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;survives\\ only\\ abroad\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ musical\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ deep\\ divide\\ between\\ Vietnamese\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ diaspora\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Musical\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ traveler\\ through\\ Vietnam\\ evokes\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ sounds\\ and\\ sights\\ of\\ different\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ performed\\,\\ it\\ reenacts\\ the\\ composer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\ through\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ become\\ an\\ ironic\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ forced\\ migration\\ and\\ dispersal\\ shared\\ by\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ community\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ hear\\ the\\ texts\\ and\\ sounds\\ of\\ Vietnamese\\ music\\ transformed\\ within\\ changing\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ musical\\ sound\\ continues\\ to\\ change\\ and\\ is\\ adaptable\\,\\ it\\ still\\ carries\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ meaning\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ transmitted\\ through\\ oral\\ and\\ written\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;embeds\\ traces\\ of\\ Western\\ influence\\ in\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\ and\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ traditional\\ Vietnamese\\ values\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ case\\ studies\\,\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ migration\\ never\\ entirely\\ recedes\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ experienced\\ it\\,\\ as\\ push\\ and\\ pull\\ factors\\ continue\\ to\\ exercise\\ their\\ power\\ long\\ after\\ the\\ initial\\ period\\ of\\ displacement\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\ an\\ ongoing\\ dialogue\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ local\\ and\\ global\\ networks\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ apart\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Musical\\ transmission\\ plays\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\,\\ providing\\ stabilizing\\ factors\\ that\\ can\\ at\\ once\\ ground\\ individual\\ and\\ community\\ experience\\ within\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ familiar\\ and\\ provide\\ a\\ channel\\ for\\ adaptation\\ to\\ new\\ settings\\ and\\ challenges\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Performing\\ and\\ listening\\ to\\ music\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Transmit\\ memories\\ of\\ people\\,\\ places\\,\\ and\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commemorate\\ people\\ and\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reconcile\\ the\\ past\\ with\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Three\\ associations\\ between\\ music\\ and\\ memory\\.\\ Songs\\ remind\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ song\\,\\ associations\\ about\\ the\\ song\\ has\\ been\\ performed\\ before\\ \\(ex\\:\\ new\\ years\\ and\\ auld\\ lang\\ syne\\)\\,\\ and\\ remembering\\ how\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ music\\ itself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Corrido\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ type\\ of\\ ballad\\&mdash\\;strophic\\,\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\.\\ Musical\\ phrases\\ help\\ remember\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emerged\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ Mexican\\ resistance\\ to\\ American\\ domination\\ during\\ and\\ just\\ before\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ \\(1846\\-1848\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hero\\ Corridos\\ \\(1910\\-20\\)\\ ex\\:\\ Gregorio\\ Cortez\\ who\\ shot\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ killer\\,\\ the\\ Texas\\ town\\ Sherrif\\.\\ Flees\\ to\\ Mexico\\,\\ kills\\ another\\ sheriff\\,\\ captured\\,\\ sentenced\\ for\\ life\\.\\ Later\\ acquitted\\ by\\ the\\ Texas\\ governor\\ \\=\\ Milestone\\ for\\ Mexican\\ civil\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Victim\\ Corridos\\ \\(1930s\\)\\ to\\ inspire\\ community\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ as\\ they\\ integrate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolutionary\\ Corridos\\ for\\ a\\ bad\\ president\\,\\ Carlos\\ Salinas\\ de\\ Gotari\\ \\(1988\\-94\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narco\\ Corridos\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ gangster\\ rap\\ \\&ldquo\\;Los\\ tigres\\ del\\ norte\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ a\\ band\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Jazz\\ Funeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ Louis\\ Armstrong\\.\\ Had\\ two\\ funerals\\:\\ normal\\ in\\ NYC\\ and\\ jazz\\ in\\ New\\ Orleans\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ huge\\&mdash\\;had\\ gained\\ a\\ white\\ audience\\ for\\ jazz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Band\\ provided\\ by\\ member\\-based\\ funeral\\ societies\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ tradition\\ from\\ Ghana\\.\\ Members\\ form\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\ line\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ funeral\\ reception\\,\\ and\\ ceremony\\ re\\-enforces\\ their\\ collectivity\\.\\ Lead\\ procession\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Band\\ improvises\\ on\\ well\\-known\\ songs\\ in\\ dense\\ polyphony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jazz\\ band\\ walks\\ in\\ front\\,\\ then\\ hearse\\,\\ then\\ mourners\\ and\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hymns\\ \\(like\\ amazing\\ grace\\)\\ and\\ dirges\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ home\\,\\ then\\ more\\ as\\ they\\ walk\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ graveside\\.\\ Hearse\\ passes\\ between\\ band\\ as\\ it\\ reaches\\ the\\ grave\\,\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;turning\\ the\\ body\\ loose\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ After\\ burial\\,\\ happy\\ songs\\ \\(like\\ When\\ the\\ Saints\\ go\\ Marching\\ in\\)\\ and\\ dancing\\ to\\ celebrate\\ eternal\\ life\\.\\ Band\\ leads\\ returning\\ procession\\,\\ walking\\ through\\ important\\ places\\ where\\ person\\ lived\\ as\\ commemoration\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instruments\\:\\ coronet\\ w\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;wah\\-wah\\ sound\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ mute\\ which\\ frequently\\ plays\\ a\\ solo\\.\\ Can\\ have\\ saxophone\\,\\ trumpet\\,\\ violin\\,\\ bass\\,\\ snare\\ drums\\,\\ clarinets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ Katrina\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ giant\\ jazz\\ funeral\\ to\\ commemorate\\ everyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Pizmon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pizmon\\ \\(plural\\ pizmonim\\)\\ literally\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;adoration\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;praise\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ is\\ most\\ commonly\\ associate\\ with\\ the\\ Syrian\\ Jewish\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Involves\\ creating\\ a\\ song\\ by\\ setting\\ a\\ new\\ text\\ to\\ an\\ existing\\ melody\\,\\ aka\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contrafactum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(plural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contrafacta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ pizmons\\ borrow\\ their\\ tunes\\ from\\ Arab\\ songs\\,\\ and\\ so\\ are\\ based\\ within\\ the\\ Arab\\ musical\\ system\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maquam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ maquam\\ \\(plural\\ maqamat\\)\\ is\\ a\\ category\\ of\\ melodies\\ that\\ share\\ pitch\\ content\\,\\ range\\,\\ and\\ characteristic\\ ornaments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Arab\\ music\\ theory\\ defines\\ a\\ maquam\\ as\\ a\\ basic\\ scale\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ sections\\ of\\ four\\ pitches\\ each\\,\\ called\\ tetrachords\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Musicians\\ learn\\ to\\ recognize\\ maquam\\ by\\ the\\ distinctive\\ intervals\\ between\\ the\\ four\\ lower\\ pitches\\ \\(lower\\ tetrachord\\)\\ and\\ the\\ four\\ higher\\ pitches\\ \\(upper\\ tetrachord\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maquam\\ nahawand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Type\\ of\\ maquam\\ that\\ was\\ particularly\\ attractive\\ and\\ memorable\\ after\\ the\\ migration\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ world\\ because\\ it\\ sounds\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ minor\\ scale\\ of\\ Western\\ music\\ \\(example\\,\\ LG\\ 50\\ Pg\\.\\ 238\\ Attah\\ El\\ Kabbir\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Attah\\ El\\ Kabbir\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\,\\ vocalized\\ introduction\\ \\(called\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\layali\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ The\\ song\\ features\\ a\\ soloist\\ and\\ chorus\\ accompanied\\ by\\ an\\ \\&lsquo\\;ud\\,\\ which\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ heterophonic\\ texture\\.\\ The\\ song\\ also\\ features\\ the\\ well\\-know\\ Arab\\,\\ three\\-part\\ form\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\muwashshah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ which\\ returns\\ after\\ a\\ contrasting\\ middle\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Today\\,\\ the\\ song\\ can\\ be\\ founded\\ being\\ performed\\ in\\ synagogues\\ in\\ Israel\\,\\ Mexico\\ City\\ and\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Settings\\ of\\ Pizmon\\ Performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bar\\ mitzvahs\\,\\ wedding\\,\\ and\\ special\\ Sabbath\\ afternoon\\ songfest\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sebet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ held\\ by\\ Syrian\\ Jews\\ to\\ celebrate\\ special\\ occasions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sebet\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ introduced\\ to\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ provides\\ a\\ regular\\ time\\ for\\ music\\ making\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ entire\\ family\\ can\\ participate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haflah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ Arabic\\ word\\ referring\\ to\\ certain\\,\\ special\\ occasions\\ celebrated\\ in\\ the\\ Syrian\\ Jewish\\ community\\ \\ \\;such\\ as\\ anniversaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unlike\\ the\\ unaccompanied\\ pizmonim\\ sung\\ in\\ Sebet\\,\\ the\\ haflah\\ usually\\ features\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\ by\\ a\\ synthesizer\\,\\ drums\\,\\ violin\\,\\ qanun\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;ud\\,\\ and\\ flute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Musical\\ Sources\\ of\\ Diaspora\\ Pizmon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sources\\ included\\,\\ but\\ were\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\,\\ records\\ imported\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ and\\ even\\ classic\\ Christmas\\ songs\\ like\\ O\\ Tannenbaum\\ \\(example\\,\\ the\\ pizmon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Milfalot\\ Elohim\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ Because\\ the\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ Christmas\\ carol\\ from\\ which\\ it\\ derives\\ its\\ melody\\ have\\ replaced\\ the\\ older\\ associations\\ to\\ the\\ melody\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ groom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ high\\ school\\ song\\,\\ the\\ melody\\ of\\ Milfalot\\ Elohim\\ is\\ classified\\ by\\ Syrian\\ Jews\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maquam\\ ajam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;even\\ though\\ the\\ melody\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ Arab\\ song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Continuing\\ Use\\ of\\ the\\ Arab\\ Melodies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Wheat\\ Song\\&rdquo\\;\\(composed\\ in\\ 1946\\ for\\ a\\ scene\\ in\\ an\\ Egyptian\\ movie\\,\\ see\\ LG\\ 52\\ pg\\.246\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ Syrian\\ Jews\\ love\\ this\\ song\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ played\\ at\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pizmon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ramach\\ Evarai\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(composed\\ for\\ a\\ bar\\ mitzvah\\ in\\ 1982\\,\\ see\\ LG\\ 53\\,\\ pg\\.252\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ contrafactum\\ that\\ follows\\ precisely\\ the\\ same\\ form\\,\\ melody\\,\\ and\\ rhythm\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ Wheat\\ Song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ substitutes\\ a\\ new\\ instrumental\\ introduction\\ and\\ eliminates\\ the\\ women\\ chorus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Although\\ carrying\\ memories\\ of\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ life\\,\\ which\\ are\\ attached\\ to\\ its\\ melody\\,\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ text\\ of\\ this\\ song\\ establishes\\ an\\ entirely\\ Jewish\\ framework\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ metaphorical\\ meaning\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ young\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ entire\\ body\\ should\\ be\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ service\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ content\\ of\\ this\\ pizmon\\ contains\\ the\\ residue\\ of\\ a\\ dual\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Arab\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ pizmon\\ incorporates\\ a\\ hybrid\\ identity\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ sustain\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ remarkable\\ Jewish\\-Arab\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bonding\\ text\\ to\\ a\\ melody\\ establishes\\ a\\ durable\\ memory\\ that\\ can\\ more\\ easily\\ be\\ recalled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ of\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ sing\\ complete\\ songs\\ many\\ years\\ after\\ we\\ have\\ heard\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ music\\ is\\ often\\ used\\ to\\ commemorate\\ events\\ and\\ memorialize\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Music\\,\\ Mobility\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Global\\ Marketplace\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Traveling\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ silk\\ road\\ extended\\ from\\ Japan\\ to\\ Italy\\,\\ winding\\ its\\ way\\ across\\ China\\ and\\ Inner\\ Asia\\,\\ where\\ it\\ divided\\ into\\ several\\ routes\\,\\ terminating\\ in\\ Venice\\ and\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ double\\ page\\ 286\\-287\\ for\\ detailed\\ timeline\\ of\\ silk\\ road\\.\\ Main\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\:\\ Chinese\\ envoy\\ journeys\\ into\\ Inner\\ Asia\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ horses\\ and\\ allies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\:\\ Silk\\ reaches\\ Rome\\:\\ Beginning\\ of\\ trade\\ between\\ China\\ and\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crusades\\ and\\ Marco\\ Polo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Third\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ of\\ silk\\ production\\.\\ Europeans\\ become\\ independent\\ of\\ Oriental\\ cultures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modern\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suez\\ Canal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Queen\\ Victoria\\ declared\\ Empress\\ of\\ India\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ founds\\ \\&ldquo\\;Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Silk\\ Road\\&rsquo\\;s\\ New\\ Setting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jan\\.\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 2002\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 36\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;annual\\ Smithsonian\\ Folklife\\ Festival\\ in\\ D\\.C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Silk\\ Road\\:\\ Connecting\\ Cultures\\,\\ Creating\\ Trust\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1\\.3\\ million\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ original\\ Silk\\ Road\\ \\=\\ cross\\-cultural\\ contact\\,\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ reenactment\\ conceived\\ by\\ one\\ man\\:\\ Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ \\(launched\\ project\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Born\\ to\\ Chinese\\ parents\\ in\\ Paris\\,\\ 1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\crosses\\ frequently\\ and\\ deliberately\\ between\\ soundscapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\graduated\\ from\\ Harvard\\ 1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hush\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1992\\)\\ listed\\ as\\ Top\\ Classical\\ Crossover\\ Album\\ in\\ Billboards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\15\\ Grammy\\ awards\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Soul\\ of\\ The\\ Tango\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(album\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\collaborated\\ with\\ Cuban\\ and\\ Brazilian\\ musicians\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Obrigado\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instruments\\ in\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\quanun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ originated\\ in\\ Arab\\ Middle\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ud\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ ancestor\\ of\\ European\\ lute\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Connecting\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Sounds\\ and\\ Significances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1998\\,\\ beginning\\ of\\ project\\,\\ 2\\ goals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\present\\ music\\ and\\ musicians\\ from\\ cultures\\ along\\ the\\ ancient\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commission\\ new\\ music\\ from\\ composers\\ from\\ these\\ regions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Began\\ as\\ global\\ musical\\ initiative\\,\\ but\\ draws\\ heavily\\ on\\ subcultural\\/intercultural\\ musical\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multiple\\ aspects\\ of\\ project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sponsoring\\ concert\\ tours\\ by\\ traditional\\ musicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Producing\\ recordings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collaborating\\ with\\ institutions\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Smithsonian\\)\\ to\\ produce\\ festivals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Team\\ of\\ scholars\\ \\(ethnomusicologists\\)\\ provides\\ necessary\\ expertise\\ in\\ musical\\ and\\ cultural\\ content\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Global\\ corporate\\ sponsors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;financial\\ resources\\ for\\ project\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ funder\\:\\ Aga\\ Khan\\ Trust\\ for\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Challenge\\:\\ insuring\\ historical\\ and\\ cultural\\ accuracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Editors\\ believe\\ they\\ achieved\\ this\\ by\\ concentrating\\ on\\ central\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ Northern\\ Silk\\ Road\\ as\\ a\\ coherent\\ musical\\ realm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Important\\ artist\\ featured\\ on\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\ CD\\:\\ Wu\\ Man\\ \\(she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ a\\ woman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virtuoso\\ player\\ of\\ Chinese\\ plucked\\ lute\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pipa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pipa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;derived\\ from\\ Central\\ Asia\\ lutes\\ that\\ traveled\\ to\\ China\\ on\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ collaborated\\ with\\ many\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ US\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brian\\ Eno\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kronos\\ Quartet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ Philharmonic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tan\\ Dun\\ \\(composer\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crouching\\ Tiger\\,\\ Hidden\\ Dragon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Recording\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Silk\\ Road\\:\\ A\\ Musical\\ Caravan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;playing\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Chinese\\ instrumental\\ piece\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\High\\ Little\\ Moon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ LG57\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ \\(artistic\\ director\\)\\ invited\\ 58\\ composers\\ and\\ musicians\\ to\\ attend\\ 9\\-day\\ workshop\\ at\\ Tanglewood\\ Music\\ Center\\ to\\ rehearse\\ new\\ works\\ commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ project\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Project\\ hosted\\ forums\\ for\\ Europeans\\ musicians\\ to\\ ensure\\ non\\-Western\\ music\\ be\\ represented\\ in\\ manner\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ exoticize\\ or\\ essentialize\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\August\\ 2001\\:\\ 24\\ musicians\\ meet\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ and\\ produce\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Silk\\ Road\\ Ensemble\\:\\ When\\ Strangers\\ Meet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instruments\\:\\ \\(among\\ others\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pipa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sheng\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Chinese\\ mouth\\ organ\\ made\\ of\\ bamboo\\ pipes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethical\\ Considerations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ethnomusicology\\ started\\ with\\ European\\ colonization\\ of\\ Africa\\ and\\ Asia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\deals\\ with\\ relationship\\ between\\ musicians\\ and\\ broader\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ claims\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ alien\\,\\ seemingly\\ impenetrable\\ of\\ even\\ uncivilized\\ cultures\\ is\\ first\\ achieved\\ by\\ listening\\ to\\ their\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scholars\\ collaborate\\ with\\ research\\ associates\\ and\\ musicians\\ to\\ ensure\\ traditions\\ are\\ conserved\\ and\\ represented\\ in\\ manner\\ consistent\\ with\\ desires\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ transmit\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Musical\\ mobility\\ \\(radio\\,\\ CD\\,\\ internet\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ discovering\\ new\\ worlds\\,\\ but\\ this\\ implies\\ a\\ translation\\ and\\ modification\\ of\\ sound\\ through\\ different\\ interpretations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ always\\ true\\ to\\ original\\ music\\ in\\ original\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ Hawaiian\\ music\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gamelan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ of\\ this\\,\\ ethnomusicology\\ determines\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ original\\ culture\\ should\\ remain\\ in\\ new\\ interpretation\\,\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ can\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Dance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dance\\ transforms\\ a\\ basic\\ rhythm\\ into\\ a\\ distinctive\\ set\\ of\\ physical\\ movements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ invites\\ anyone\\ to\\ participate\\ who\\ can\\ master\\ its\\ basic\\ movements\\,\\ whatever\\ their\\ cultural\\ background\\,\\ social\\ experience\\,\\ or\\ musical\\ expertise\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ accommodates\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ meaning\\ from\\ recreational\\ to\\ political\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ illustrates\\ different\\ views\\ of\\ gender\\ and\\ sexuality\\ in\\ different\\ societies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dance\\ transforms\\ the\\ most\\ basic\\ physical\\ unit\\ \\(pulse\\)\\ into\\ rhythmic\\ patterns\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ and\\ heard\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ relationship\\ of\\ movement\\ and\\ music\\ varies\\ widely\\ among\\ music\\ traditions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ plays\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ communicating\\ a\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ emotions\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Replicates\\ stories\\ and\\ familiar\\ scene\\ from\\ lit\\.\\ and\\ mythology\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Makes\\ a\\ statement\\ about\\ the\\ time\\,\\ the\\ place\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ performing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Choreographical\\ approaches\\-\\ description\\ of\\ style\\ and\\ steps\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contextual\\ approach\\-\\ stresses\\ what\\ dance\\ tells\\ us\\ about\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hearing\\ and\\ feeling\\ the\\ Dance\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dance\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ intense\\ competition\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ empower\\ both\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duple\\ and\\ quadruple\\ beats\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ match\\ these\\ musical\\ patterns\\ to\\ movements\\ of\\ feet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Waltz\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ 3\\ beat\\ pattern\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Moving\\ through\\ time\\ and\\ space\\ with\\ Bhangra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bhangra\\ is\\ a\\ tradition\\ associated\\ with\\ South\\ Asian\\ diaspora\\ communities\\ in\\ Great\\ Britain\\ and\\ North\\ America\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ accessible\\ dance\\ style\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quadruple\\ meter\\ and\\ strong\\ rhythm\\ emphasized\\ throughout\\ by\\ percussion\\ instruments\\ and\\ vocal\\ accents\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historical\\ roots\\ in\\ the\\ Punjab\\ region\\ of\\ South\\ Asia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Played\\ at\\ events\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ harvest\\ festival\\ \\(baisakhi\\)\\ in\\ Punjab\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Usually\\ men\\ perform\\.\\ The\\ related\\ dance\\ that\\ women\\ perform\\ is\\ the\\ Giddha\\,\\ which\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ hand\\ claps\\ rather\\ than\\ drum\\ beats\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dhol\\:\\ two\\ headed\\ drum\\ that\\ is\\ beaten\\ with\\ the\\ curve\\ stick\\.\\ The\\ beat\\ of\\ the\\ dhol\\ represents\\ festivity\\ and\\ is\\ only\\ played\\ by\\ a\\ man\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jhummar\\-\\ traditional\\ beat\\.\\ People\\ danced\\ all\\ night\\ during\\ the\\ rainy\\ season\\ along\\ the\\ river\\ baks\\ and\\ for\\ Sufi\\ rituals\\ it\\ was\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ Bhangra\\ repertory\\ only\\ after\\ Indian\\ Independence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jhummar\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ common\\ Bhangra\\ motion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 59\\ \\(Jhummar\\)\\ shows\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ heard\\ with\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ instruments\\ like\\ the\\ monochord\\,\\ \\ \\;a\\ double\\ flute\\,\\ and\\ an\\ idiophone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ would\\ have\\ remained\\ a\\ harvest\\ tradition\\ in\\ India\\-\\ but\\ Punjabi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ migrated\\ in\\ large\\ numbers\\,\\ and\\ most\\ were\\ of\\ the\\ Sikh\\ religion\\.\\ Now\\ bhangra\\ is\\ performed\\ at\\ weddings\\ and\\ celebrations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ become\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ the\\ South\\ Asian\\ youth\\ to\\ affirm\\ their\\ identity\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ way\\ within\\ a\\ hostile\\ and\\ exclusionary\\ British\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commercial\\ recording\\ of\\ Bhangra\\ combining\\ traditional\\ Bhangra\\ with\\ urban\\ black\\ music\\ and\\ modern\\ technology\\.\\ It\\ had\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ culture\\ and\\ society\\ in\\ Great\\ Britain\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grew\\ and\\ expanded\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ America\\.\\ Now\\ many\\ college\\ campuses\\ have\\ intercollegiate\\ dance\\ competitions\\.\\ The\\ new\\ updated\\,\\ technologically\\ sophisticated\\ form\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ students\\ to\\ construct\\ their\\ own\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ their\\ parents\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sound\\ of\\ Bhangra\\ music\\ is\\ now\\ combined\\ with\\ modern\\ urban\\ dance\\ styles\\,\\ but\\ the\\ text\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ conflicting\\ currents\\ of\\ tradition\\ and\\ innovation\\ within\\ South\\ Asian\\ communities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\South\\ Asian\\ notion\\ of\\ clear\\ gender\\ roles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ separate\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ team\\ at\\ competition\\ where\\ traditional\\ Indian\\ dress\\ is\\ worn\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ often\\ mixed\\ with\\ hip\\-hop\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ Polka\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Originated\\ in\\ central\\ Europe\\ among\\ the\\ Czech\\ speaking\\ people\\ of\\ Bohemia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powerful\\ but\\ flexible\\ symbol\\ of\\ national\\ and\\ ethnic\\ identity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ gets\\ it\\ name\\ from\\ the\\ Czech\\ word\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;half\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ represents\\ the\\ signature\\ step\\.\\ It\\ could\\ also\\ derive\\ its\\ name\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;polska\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ Czech\\ term\\ for\\ a\\ Polish\\ girl\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Performed\\ in\\ duple\\ meter\\,\\ by\\ couples\\ and\\ cultivated\\ in\\ urban\\ ballrooms\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Became\\ popular\\ throughout\\ Europe\\,\\ India\\,\\ and\\ made\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ to\\ Mexico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ had\\ a\\ major\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ musical\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ Midwest\\ because\\ immigrants\\ brought\\ Polka\\ music\\ and\\ dance\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ WWI\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ accordian\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ Polka\\ whenever\\ and\\ wherever\\ the\\ dance\\ was\\ performed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brass\\ bands\\ supplemented\\ by\\ an\\ accordian\\ usually\\ accompanied\\ the\\ polka\\;\\ lower\\ brass\\ instruments\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ sousaphone\\ emphasize\\ strong\\ duple\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 61\\:\\ Beer\\ barrel\\ polka\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beer\\ barrel\\ polka\\ was\\ famous\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ appearance\\ on\\ jukeboxes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ brought\\ the\\ polka\\ to\\ working\\ class\\ people\\ of\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ ethnic\\ backgrounds\\;\\ they\\ also\\ reinforced\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ the\\ polka\\ among\\ Mexican\\ Americans\\,\\ who\\ since\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ had\\ danced\\ the\\ polka\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Longoria\\-\\ performer\\ of\\ Beer\\ Barrel\\-\\ professional\\ musician\\-\\ gave\\ his\\ accordian\\ a\\ distinctive\\ sound\\ \\&ldquo\\;sonido\\ ronco\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ hoarse\\ sound\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polkas\\ are\\ performed\\ at\\ weddings\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ played\\ during\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ mass\\.\\ The\\ polka\\ mass\\ keeps\\ the\\ traditional\\ texts\\,\\ but\\ it\\ adds\\ new\\ texts\\ sung\\ to\\ familiar\\ popular\\ melodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ long\\ life\\,\\ although\\ its\\ popularity\\ has\\ reduced\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\ with\\ Bhangra\\,\\ is\\ has\\ not\\ crossed\\ over\\ into\\ the\\ mass\\ youth\\ market\\,\\ nor\\ has\\ it\\ transformed\\ its\\ musical\\ style\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Tango\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Group\\ of\\ closely\\ related\\ soundscapes\\ that\\ share\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ sound\\ and\\ meaning\\ while\\ retaining\\ their\\ individual\\ settings\\ and\\ historical\\ framework\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ tango\\ emerged\\ in\\ Argentina\\ with\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ Bandeon\\,\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ button\\ accordion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ musical\\ style\\ and\\ choreography\\ is\\ the\\ myth\\ and\\ the\\ exaggerated\\ postures\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;compadrito\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ man\\ who\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ less\\)\\,\\ a\\ typle\\ of\\ urban\\ gaucho\\,\\ both\\ lover\\ and\\ pimp\\,\\ dressed\\ in\\ a\\ tight\\ black\\ suit\\ and\\ high\\-heeled\\ shoes\\.\\ The\\ interaction\\ between\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ dancers\\ is\\ distinctive\\:\\ the\\ man\\ moves\\ forward\\,\\ dominating\\ the\\ woman\\ so\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ retreat\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sounds\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quadruple\\ meter\\,\\ strongly\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ bass\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ quadruple\\ beat\\ is\\ often\\ embellished\\ in\\ the\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\ with\\ a\\ long\\-short\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ a\\ long\\ beat\\ followed\\ by\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ half\\ its\\ duration\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;harbanera\\&rdquo\\;\\ rhythm\\,\\ after\\ the\\ Cuban\\ rhythm\\ from\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ derived\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circular\\ dance\\ that\\ moves\\ counterclockwise\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ steps\\ include\\ the\\ fan\\-\\ female\\ partner\\ is\\ swung\\ out\\ to\\ one\\ side\\ by\\ the\\ male\\.\\ This\\ often\\ used\\ in\\ Latin\\ dances\\ like\\ the\\ Chacha\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\La\\ Cumparsita\\ \\(listening\\ guide\\ 62\\)\\-\\ classic\\ tango\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tango\\ has\\ now\\ moved\\ from\\ the\\ feet\\ to\\ the\\ mouth\\-\\ and\\ now\\ tango\\ music\\ was\\ sung\\.\\ Tango\\ music\\ was\\ depressing\\ and\\ melancholy\\,\\ which\\ reflected\\ the\\ difficult\\ socioeconomic\\ conditions\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ tango\\ emerged\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ instrumental\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\,\\ which\\ maintains\\ a\\ constant\\ temp\\,\\ the\\ sung\\ tango\\ is\\ more\\ irregular\\,\\ slowing\\ down\\ and\\ speeding\\ up\\ for\\ dramatic\\ purposes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ singer\\ slows\\ down\\ and\\ speeds\\ up\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ words\\-\\ lyrics\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ express\\ views\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ life\\ in\\ highly\\ pessimistic\\,\\ fatalistic\\ and\\ often\\ pathologically\\ dramatic\\ terms\\ in\\ la\\ cumparsita\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Early\\ home\\ of\\ the\\ tango\\ was\\ the\\ caf\\é\\;\\ and\\ bordellos\\ of\\ the\\ slums\\ of\\ Buenos\\ aires\\.\\ Tango\\ lyrics\\ drew\\ on\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ dialect\\ of\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Organs\\ grinders\\ also\\ played\\ tango\\ throughout\\ the\\ streets\\ of\\ the\\ arrabal\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ slums\\,\\ it\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ poverty\\,\\ low\\ social\\ class\\ and\\ ill\\ repute\\ in\\ Argentina\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moved\\ to\\ Paris\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tango\\ slowly\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ elite\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ and\\ association\\ with\\ poverty\\,\\ nationalism\\,\\ and\\ cosmopolitanism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ of\\ instruments\\ like\\ violin\\,\\ piano\\ and\\ bandoneon\\ in\\ Adios\\ Nonino\\ shows\\ complex\\ orchestration\\ and\\ colorful\\ instrumetation\\ techniques\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tango\\ began\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ audience\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rapidly\\ growing\\ middle\\-class\\ ballroom\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\International\\ style\\ is\\ simpler\\ than\\ the\\ Argentinean\\ tango\\,\\ and\\ is\\ highly\\ choreographed\\ for\\ competitions\\.\\ American\\ style\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ dance\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ competitions\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Significance\\ of\\ the\\ tango\\,\\ given\\ its\\ roots\\ in\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ slums\\ and\\ its\\ heavy\\ sexual\\ overtones\\,\\ remains\\ in\\ dispute\\ in\\ Argentina\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ of\\ lust\\ and\\ anger\\,\\ with\\ themes\\ of\\ sexuality\\ and\\ male\\ dominance\\ are\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ dance\\.\\ Aggressive\\ body\\ posture\\ shows\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ masculine\\ dominance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ and\\ Polka\\ migrated\\ with\\ their\\ communities\\ of\\ origin\\,\\ however\\ Tango\\ migrated\\ due\\ to\\ channels\\ of\\ technology\\ and\\ travel\\.\\ All\\ three\\ dances\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ politics\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ artistic\\ marketplace\\.\\ They\\ have\\ all\\ been\\ receptive\\ to\\ innovation\\ and\\ have\\ taken\\ on\\ new\\ meanings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Ritual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(according\\ to\\ the\\ book\\&hellip\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ quite\\ right\\ to\\ me\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\ serves\\ in\\ ritual\\ settings\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shape\\ and\\ order\\ the\\ rituals\\ that\\ celebrate\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enact\\ and\\ convey\\ the\\ ritual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ symbolic\\ power\\ and\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Empower\\ the\\ participants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ marks\\ and\\ shapes\\ important\\ life\\ ceremonies\\ and\\ rites\\ of\\ passage\\ \\(weddings\\,\\ funerals\\,\\ bar\\ mitzvahs\\)\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helps\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ experience\\ a\\ more\\-than\\-words\\ or\\ transcendent\\ feeling\\.\\ Trance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ Buddhist\\ Chant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chant\\ is\\ a\\ vocal\\ style\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ clarity\\ and\\ precise\\ articulation\\ of\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ chant\\ shows\\ influence\\ from\\ khoomii\\ singing\\.\\ It\\ is\\ biphonic\\,\\ with\\ one\\ man\\ simultaneously\\ singing\\ a\\ low\\ drone\\ and\\ high\\ harmonic\\.\\ Called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tantra\\ voice\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chant\\ helps\\ those\\ practicing\\ it\\,\\ usually\\ monks\\,\\ to\\ unite\\ with\\ the\\ diety\\ by\\ connecting\\ sound\\,\\ breathing\\,\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ mantra\\ is\\ a\\ repeated\\ ritual\\ phrase\\ or\\ formula\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rhythmic\\ complexity\\ that\\ Western\\ music\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ categorize\\,\\ based\\ off\\ of\\ principles\\ of\\ time\\ important\\ to\\ Bhuddist\\ belief\\.\\ What\\ sound\\ like\\ multiple\\ beats\\ to\\ us\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;afterbeats\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ free\\ rhythm\\ that\\ expands\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ a\\ beat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ exile\\ from\\ Tibet\\,\\ chant\\ was\\ only\\ performed\\ in\\ religious\\ contexts\\.\\ Now\\,\\ the\\ Gyuto\\ Tantric\\ choir\\ has\\ performed\\ and\\ recorded\\ a\\ CD\\,\\ gaining\\ support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Santeria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ religion\\ that\\ incorporates\\ Yoruba\\ tradition\\ and\\ Nigerian\\ language\\ with\\ aspects\\ of\\ Catholicism\\.\\ Huge\\ new\\ wave\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 1800s\\ added\\ in\\ and\\ re\\-inforced\\ Yoruba\\ customs\\ to\\ pre\\-existing\\ slave\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cabildos\\:\\ cultural\\ and\\ linguistic\\ groups\\ that\\ worshipped\\ together\\ and\\ helped\\ eachother\\.\\ Banned\\ by\\ Cuban\\ government\\ in\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lucumi\\ cult\\ goes\\ underground\\,\\ keeps\\ alive\\ Yoruba\\ religion\\.\\ Each\\ African\\ deity\\ was\\ combined\\ with\\ a\\ Catholic\\ saint\\-\\-easy\\ to\\ hide\\.\\ Called\\ orishas\\ or\\ santos\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ orisha\\ has\\ own\\ music\\,\\ rhythm\\,\\ dances\\ and\\ herbs\\ associated\\ to\\ achieve\\ trance\\ and\\ relationship\\ with\\ them\\ to\\ ask\\ advice\\ and\\ offer\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\.\\ Possession\\ by\\ the\\ orisha\\ is\\ desired\\ for\\ the\\ advanced\\ but\\ dangerous\\ for\\ the\\ inexperienced\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Loud\\ call\\-and\\-response\\ chant\\ in\\ Yoruba\\ and\\ Spanish\\ and\\ three\\ bata\\ drums\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Following\\ Cuban\\ revolution\\,\\ refugee\\ Santeros\\ settle\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ do\\ public\\ performances\\&mdash\\;stark\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ earlier\\ secrecy\\.\\ Helps\\ to\\ combat\\ intolerance\\ and\\ accusations\\ of\\ witchcraft\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ethiopian\\ Christian\\ Chant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ church\\ was\\ central\\ to\\ Ethiopian\\ political\\ and\\ cultural\\ life\\ from\\ the\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1974\\:\\ Last\\ Ethiopian\\ emperor\\ overthrown\\;\\ starts\\ Diaspora\\ and\\ diminishes\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chants\\ called\\ zema\\,\\ attributed\\ to\\ Saint\\ Yared\\ who\\ wrote\\ them\\ under\\ inspiration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinct\\ musical\\ notation\\.\\ Smallest\\ unit\\ is\\ a\\ phrase\\,\\ not\\ an\\ individual\\ pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ modes\\.\\ Ge\\&rsquo\\;ez\\ mode\\ for\\ God\\ the\\ Father\\ and\\ Hymnary\\ before\\ Sunday\\ services\\,\\ Araray\\ for\\ Jesus\\ and\\ daily\\ morning\\ services\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;Ezl\\ for\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\ and\\ use\\ during\\ Holy\\ Week\\ \\&\\;\\ Easter\\.\\ Sacred\\ language\\ also\\ called\\ Ge\\&rsquo\\;ez\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highly\\ educated\\ church\\ musicians\\ called\\ debteras\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Performed\\ in\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ \\(ideally\\)\\ 24\\ debteras\\ facing\\ eachother\\,\\ chanting\\ with\\ drums\\ holding\\ prayer\\ staffs\\ but\\ then\\ putting\\ them\\ down\\ to\\ dance\\ with\\ the\\ lines\\ advancing\\ toward\\ eachother\\.\\ Faster\\ and\\ faster\\,\\ then\\ sudden\\ silence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mid\\-70s\\ large\\ US\\ presence\\,\\ but\\ no\\ churches\\.\\ Use\\ video\\ and\\ import\\ musicians\\,\\ other\\ aspects\\ go\\ by\\ the\\ wayside\\ and\\ hymnary\\ is\\ shortened\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Ethiopia\\,\\ new\\ regime\\ trains\\ little\\ clergy\\,\\ placing\\ tradition\\ at\\ risk\\.\\ Underground\\ youth\\ Sunday\\ school\\ classes\\ make\\ choirs\\ and\\ disseminate\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ music\\:\\ Sunday\\ School\\ songs\\ in\\ Amharic\\.\\ Women\\ can\\ participate\\ too\\,\\ since\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;90s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Spread\\ to\\ the\\ US\\:\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choirs\\,\\ women\\ more\\ powerful\\ in\\ absence\\ of\\ clergy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ takes\\ care\\ to\\ preserve\\ music\\ that\\ transmits\\ belief\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ requires\\ flexibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ and\\ \\ \\;Ethiopian\\ chants\\ tried\\ to\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ were\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ change\\.\\ Will\\ they\\ still\\ help\\ people\\ find\\ transcendence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Access\\ to\\ homeland\\ broken\\ for\\ Cubans\\ and\\ Tibetans\\ in\\ exile\\,\\ but\\ still\\ in\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ events\\ forced\\ inclusion\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ Santeria\\ and\\ Ethiopian\\ chant\\,\\ made\\ Tibetan\\ monks\\ sell\\ their\\ music\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Politics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ frequently\\ used\\ for\\ symbolic\\ communication\\ in\\ political\\ contexts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ can\\ convey\\ official\\ ideologies\\,\\ as\\ in\\ national\\ anthems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ can\\ convey\\ what\\ cannot\\ be\\ spoken\\ publicly\\,\\ giving\\ voice\\ to\\ political\\ resistance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ displays\\ of\\ political\\ power\\,\\ conveying\\ national\\ identity\\ and\\ official\\ ideologies\\ through\\ symbolic\\ acts\\ \\(singing\\ a\\ national\\ anthem\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Open\\ musical\\ displays\\ of\\ power\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\public\\ transcripts\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;affirm\\ an\\ existing\\ power\\ structure\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hidden\\ transcripts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;describe\\ musical\\ performances\\ and\\ repertories\\ that\\ embed\\ messages\\ through\\ metaphorical\\ or\\ coded\\ terms\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Musics\\ of\\ Power\\ and\\ Resistance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Because\\ of\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ communicate\\ in\\ subtle\\ ways\\,\\ music\\ has\\ historically\\ been\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ assert\\ power\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ give\\ voice\\ to\\ overlooked\\ groups\\ or\\ suppressed\\ issues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Musical\\ styles\\ are\\ really\\ flexible\\;\\ they\\ can\\ begin\\ within\\ a\\ soundscape\\ as\\ an\\ emblem\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ and\\ then\\ move\\ to\\ broader\\ audiences\\ as\\ vehicles\\ of\\ pop\\ entertainment\\.\\ Ex\\-\\ African\\ American\\ hip\\ hop\\ is\\ example\\ of\\ flexibility\\-\\ began\\ as\\ hidden\\ transcript\\ of\\ urban\\ black\\ resistance\\ to\\ oppressive\\ institutions\\;\\ still\\ remains\\ an\\ important\\ medium\\ of\\ political\\ expression\\ while\\ becoming\\ entertainment\\ for\\ a\\ broader\\ audience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ traditions\\ contain\\ aspects\\ of\\ both\\ resistance\\ and\\ conciliation\\;\\ contradictory\\ tendencies\\ are\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ Shoshone\\ powwow\\ music\\ \\(explained\\ later\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ The\\ Birth\\ of\\ a\\ National\\ Anthem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ can\\ challenge\\ inequitable\\ power\\ relations\\.\\ Ex\\-\\ South\\ African\\ song\\ Nkosi\\ Sikelel\\&rsquo\\;\\ iAfrika\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Lord\\,\\ Bless\\ Africa\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ LISTENING\\ GUIDE\\ 70\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Originated\\ as\\ Christian\\ hymn\\ then\\ quickly\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ musical\\ emblem\\ of\\ political\\ resistance\\ and\\ was\\ made\\ into\\ official\\ national\\ anthem\\ in\\ 1990s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inspired\\ resistance\\ against\\ apartheid\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;separation\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ the\\ official\\ laws\\ of\\ racial\\ segregation\\ enforced\\ in\\ South\\ African\\ and\\ became\\ an\\ international\\ symbol\\ of\\ victory\\ in\\ the\\ fight\\ for\\ racial\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Story\\ of\\ this\\ anthem\\ begins\\ with\\ Enoch\\ Mankayi\\ Sontonga\\,\\ who\\ composed\\ this\\ song\\ and\\ performed\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ ordination\\ of\\ a\\ minister\\.\\ He\\ composed\\ only\\ the\\ melody\\,\\ first\\ verse\\,\\ and\\ chorus\\.\\ 7\\ more\\ verses\\ were\\ added\\ by\\ South\\ African\\ Poet\\,\\ S\\.E\\.K\\.\\ Mqhayi\\.\\ The\\ text\\ is\\ sung\\ in\\ different\\ languages\\ and\\ varied\\ by\\ singers\\ during\\ performances\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ standard\\ version\\ of\\ standard\\ translation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ internal\\ repetition\\ within\\ the\\ melody\\ and\\ rhythm\\ of\\ the\\ 5\\ phrases\\ of\\ the\\ song\\&rsquo\\;s\\ refrain\\,\\ which\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ indigenous\\ South\\ African\\ Melodies\\ \\(short\\,\\ repeated\\ segments\\ termed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\iterative\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strophic\\ structure\\;\\ usually\\ includes\\ call\\ and\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Song\\ influenced\\ by\\ western\\ music\\ and\\ harmony\\ introduced\\ by\\ Western\\ missionaries\\ and\\ choral\\ groups\\.\\ Terms\\ derived\\ from\\ English\\ for\\ the\\ four\\ voice\\ parts\\ in\\ Western\\ harmony\\ was\\ adopted\\ by\\ South\\ Americans\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(bass\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thena\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(tenor\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\altha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(alto\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fast\\ pathi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(soprano\\)\\.\\ Homophonic\\ texture\\ reflects\\ strong\\ western\\ influence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anthem\\ became\\ focus\\ of\\ controversy\\ and\\ target\\ of\\ repression\\,\\ banned\\ by\\ the\\ South\\ African\\ government\\ as\\ subversive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ apartheid\\ and\\ Nelson\\ Mandela\\ assuming\\ South\\ African\\ presidency\\,\\ this\\ anthem\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ original\\ anthem\\,\\ The\\ Call\\ of\\ South\\ Africa\\,\\ were\\ both\\ used\\ as\\ dual\\ national\\ anthems\\,\\ reflecting\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ towards\\ reconciliation\\ after\\ a\\ divided\\ history\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ use\\ of\\ two\\ anthems\\ was\\ awkward\\,\\ so\\ the\\ government\\ composed\\ a\\ single\\,\\ composite\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\ New\\ anthem\\ consists\\ of\\ four\\ verses\\ in\\ four\\ different\\ languages\\.\\ New\\ anthem\\ has\\ also\\ met\\ controversy\\ and\\ protest\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ years\\,\\ Nkosi\\ Sikelel\\&rsquo\\;\\ iAfrika\\ has\\ continued\\ to\\ have\\ multiple\\ layers\\ of\\ meaning\\-\\ Christian\\ hymn\\,\\ a\\ song\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ and\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ LG\\ 70\\ for\\ what\\ to\\ listen\\ for\\.\\ LG\\ 71\\ is\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ songs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ another\\ African\\ leader\\ captured\\ the\\ imagination\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ in\\ North\\ American\\ and\\ the\\ Caribbean\\-\\ Ethiopia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ras\\ Tafari\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ the\\ throne\\ as\\ Emperor\\ Haile\\ Selassie\\ in\\ 1930\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethiopia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ successful\\ fight\\ for\\ independence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ courage\\ of\\ its\\ emperor\\ when\\ its\\ autonomy\\ was\\ challenged\\ by\\ the\\ Italian\\ invasion\\ in\\ 1935\\,\\ provided\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ Rastafarian\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ movement\\ that\\ became\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ reggae\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Rastafarian\\ movement\\ had\\ roots\\ in\\ Marcus\\ Garvey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Back\\ to\\ Africa\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ sought\\ to\\ reclaim\\ black\\ pride\\ through\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ Africa\\.\\ After\\ being\\ deported\\ to\\ Jamaica\\,\\ he\\ and\\ others\\ predicted\\ that\\ the\\ crowning\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ king\\ in\\ Africa\\ would\\ presage\\ deliverance\\ for\\ all\\ black\\ people\\,\\ pointing\\ to\\ passages\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ that\\ forecast\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Lion\\ of\\ Judah\\ \\(people\\ thought\\ Ras\\ Tafari\\ was\\ this\\ Lion\\)\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ his\\ accession\\ brought\\ the\\ downfall\\ of\\ white\\ colonial\\ powers\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Babylon\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ West\\ Indies\\,\\ Ethiopians\\ and\\ Rastafarians\\ were\\ formed\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ new\\ emperor\\.\\ Rastafarianism\\ developed\\ rituals\\ and\\ symbols\\,\\ inventing\\ new\\ traditions\\.\\ Their\\ symbols\\ are\\ green\\,\\ yellow\\,\\ and\\ red\\ like\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ flag\\,\\ dreadlock\\ hairstyles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ mind\\-altering\\ substances\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\,\\ no\\ single\\ musical\\ style\\.\\ Several\\ Jamaican\\ musics\\ influenced\\ styles\\,\\ which\\ were\\ also\\ influenced\\ from\\ styles\\ like\\ jazz\\ and\\ R\\&\\;B\\ from\\ outside\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ groups\\ like\\ Toots\\ and\\ the\\ Maytals\\ were\\ playing\\ a\\ predecessor\\ of\\ reggae\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\ska\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ indigenous\\ Jamaican\\ rhythm\\ that\\ emphasized\\ the\\ off\\-beats\\ in\\ a\\ quadruple\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\.\\ Ska\\ was\\ followed\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rock\\ steady\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ much\\ slower\\ tempo\\,\\ anchored\\ by\\ a\\ drum\\ and\\ bass\\ line\\.\\ Its\\ texts\\ discussed\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ reggae\\ came\\ on\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ being\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;comin\\&rsquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ people\\,\\ an\\ everyday\\ thing\\,\\ meaning\\ regular\\,\\ majority\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ suffering\\,\\ ghetto\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peter\\ Tosh\\,\\ who\\ helped\\ develop\\ reggae\\&rsquo\\;s\\ musical\\ and\\ political\\ profile\\,\\ protested\\ inequality\\ through\\ political\\ action\\ and\\ performances\\.\\ Famous\\ protest\\ music\\ includes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Look\\ over\\ LG\\ 72\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rhythm\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ Rastafarian\\ reggae\\ tradition\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ resistance\\ in\\ lyrics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Riddim\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ derived\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;rhythm\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ where\\ its\\ meaning\\ includes\\ the\\ main\\ beat\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ second\\ and\\ fourth\\ off\\ beats\\,\\ tempo\\,\\ relationship\\ between\\ bass\\ and\\ rhythm\\ instruments\\,\\ and\\ repeating\\ patterns\\ formed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ strong\\,\\ regular\\ pulse\\ of\\ twos\\ and\\ fours\\,\\ crosscut\\ by\\ syncopated\\ counter\\-rhythms\\.\\ Rastafarian\\ beliefs\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ address\\ the\\ political\\ situation\\.\\ Electronic\\ organ\\ heard\\ is\\ innovative\\ \\(very\\ popular\\ in\\ rock\\ and\\ reggae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bob\\ Marley\\-\\ HUGE\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ reggae\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;roots\\ reggae\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ New\\ reggae\\ styles\\ include\\ synthesizers\\ providing\\ beats\\ and\\ texts\\ focusing\\ more\\ on\\ relationships\\ than\\ Rastafarianism\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dub\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\ remixes\\ and\\ alters\\ recordings\\ as\\ a\\ backdrop\\ for\\ improvised\\ vocal\\ solos\\ with\\ political\\ texts\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ragamuffin\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\ dominated\\ by\\ sounds\\ produced\\ digitally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\ entered\\ mass\\ culture\\ through\\ cult\\ music\\ and\\ commercial\\ music\\ \\(think\\ Sublime\\)\\.\\ Has\\ mixed\\ with\\ other\\ soundscapes\\ like\\ Bhangra\\.\\ Reggaeton\\ emerged\\ as\\ a\\ dance\\ style\\ music\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ which\\ uses\\ Spanish\\ rap\\ with\\ dancehall\\ reggae\\,\\ and\\ deals\\ with\\ drugs\\,\\ crime\\,\\ and\\ sex\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\,\\ besides\\ signifying\\ resistance\\ to\\ social\\,\\ racial\\ and\\ economic\\ inequities\\,\\ also\\ has\\ many\\ love\\ songs\\.\\ Many\\ surface\\ qualities\\ of\\ reggae\\ have\\ been\\ adopted\\ by\\ white\\ musicians\\ \\(Paul\\ McCartney\\,\\ Eric\\ Clapton\\)\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ commercial\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ The\\ Shoshone\\ Powwow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Unlike\\ other\\ traditions\\ that\\ have\\ traveled\\,\\ Native\\ American\\ musics\\ have\\ stayed\\ in\\ North\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ very\\ dispersed\\ because\\ pf\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Canadian\\ expansion\\ and\\ policies\\,\\ driving\\ them\\ to\\ different\\ places\\.\\ The\\ Shoshones\\ had\\ to\\ abandon\\ their\\ traditional\\ pattern\\ of\\ hunting\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ pressures\\ of\\ expansion\\ and\\ urbanization\\.\\ Life\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ poverty\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ and\\ female\\ roles\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Setting\\ of\\ Shoshone\\ Indian\\ Days\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Powwow\\-\\ first\\ held\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ referred\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;religious\\ practitioners\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ healing\\ ceremonies\\ \\(first\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;pawwaw\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ Powwow\\ made\\ its\\ way\\ into\\ English\\ and\\ is\\ applied\\ to\\ any\\ type\\ of\\ gathering\\.\\ First\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ Indianness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powwows\\ are\\ mounted\\ all\\ over\\ North\\ American\\,\\ mainly\\ during\\ the\\ summer\\ months\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eastern\\ Shoshone\\ festival\\ is\\ held\\ on\\ a\\ warm\\ summer\\ weekend\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;powwow\\ circuit\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ draws\\ participants\\ from\\ all\\ over\\.\\ Held\\ on\\ the\\ Wind\\ River\\ Reservation\\ in\\ town\\ of\\ Fort\\ Washakie\\,\\ center\\ of\\ Shoshone\\ tribal\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circular\\ wooden\\ arbor\\ is\\ focus\\ of\\ powwow\\ activities\\.\\ Spectators\\ sit\\ under\\ the\\ shelter\\ of\\ the\\ arbor\\ on\\ wooden\\ bleachers\\ or\\ folding\\ chairs\\.\\ Large\\ space\\ in\\ center\\ is\\ planted\\ with\\ grass\\ and\\ is\\ reserved\\ for\\ dancers\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ large\\ pole\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ with\\ no\\ ritual\\ significance\\,\\ but\\ it\\ supports\\ speakers\\ to\\ broadcast\\ the\\ narration\\ by\\ the\\ master\\ of\\ ceremonies\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ drum\\ groups\\ that\\ accompany\\ dancing\\.\\ There\\ are\\ refreshment\\ stands\\ and\\ small\\ shops\\ around\\ the\\ arbor\\.\\ Tipis\\ house\\ those\\ who\\ stay\\ there\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ days\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ night\\,\\ dance\\ competitions\\ are\\ held\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ intertribal\\ powwow\\ has\\ several\\ drum\\ groups\\ that\\ take\\ turns\\.\\ Each\\ group\\ sets\\ up\\ bass\\ drum\\ under\\ a\\ different\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ arbor\\,\\ and\\ 4\\-6\\ drummers\\ gather\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ around\\ the\\ large\\ drum\\.\\ Most\\ participants\\ are\\ Native\\ American\\,\\ but\\ some\\ are\\ of\\ other\\ backgrounds\\.\\ Although\\ drummers\\ are\\ predominantly\\ male\\,\\ some\\ are\\ female\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ all\\-female\\ drum\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ Days\\ celebrations\\=\\ people\\ camp\\ out\\,\\ socialize\\,\\ play\\ games\\-\\ emphasizes\\ Native\\ American\\ cultural\\ values\\ of\\ generosity\\ and\\ public\\ honoring\\.\\ Evenings\\ of\\ Indian\\ Days\\ are\\ given\\ over\\ to\\ powwows\\,\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ tons\\ of\\ dance\\ competitions\\.\\ Competitions\\ play\\ an\\ important\\ role\\-\\ the\\ youngest\\ dancers\\ compete\\ for\\ cash\\.\\ Dance\\ and\\ music\\ competitions\\ are\\ critical\\ to\\ powwow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ success\\,\\ and\\ prizes\\ can\\ be\\ baller\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powwow\\ dances\\ contain\\:\\ 1\\)\\ competitive\\ dances\\ performed\\ by\\ registered\\ participants\\ in\\ full\\ regalia\\;\\ 2\\)\\ special\\ dances\\ for\\ public\\ entertainment\\ and\\ display\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;hoop\\ dances\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ 3\\)\\ intertribal\\ dances\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ attendees\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ dancers\\ progress\\ clockwise\\ around\\ the\\ arbor\\,\\ marking\\ the\\ tempo\\ of\\ the\\ drum\\ with\\ step\\ patterns\\ that\\ carry\\ hidden\\ meanings\\.\\ Has\\ traditional\\ \\(old\\ choreography\\)\\ or\\ fancy\\ styles\\ \\(free\\ form\\,\\ faster\\ tempo\\)\\.\\ Fancy\\ dances\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ popular\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ competitive\\ dances\\ are\\ the\\ Traditional\\ and\\ Fancy\\ War\\ Dances\\ for\\ men\\.\\ Fancy\\ War\\ dance\\ has\\ added\\ spins\\ and\\ twirls\\.\\ In\\ traditional\\,\\ men\\ wear\\ small\\ feathered\\ bustle\\ with\\ eagle\\ feathers\\ and\\ breastplate\\.\\ For\\ Fancy\\,\\ they\\ wear\\ two\\ large\\ bustles\\ with\\ feathers\\ and\\ ribbons\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ have\\ Traditional\\ or\\ Fancy\\ Shawl\\ Dance\\,\\ a\\ circular\\ dance\\ wearing\\ basic\\ dress\\,\\ moccasins\\,\\ and\\ leggings\\ with\\ a\\ shawl\\ if\\ Traditional\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emcee\\ offers\\ commentary\\ on\\ performances\\ and\\ political\\ issues\\,\\ giving\\ speeches\\ on\\ historical\\ subjects\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ past\\ injustices\\ and\\ calling\\ for\\ equal\\ rights\\ and\\ opportunities\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Flag\\ Song\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sound\\ and\\ Significance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Powwow\\ begins\\ with\\ Flag\\ Entry\\,\\ procession\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ contestants\\ in\\ regalia\\,\\ who\\ dance\\ single\\ file\\ around\\ the\\ area\\,\\ then\\ they\\ present\\ the\\ colors\\ and\\ flags\\.\\ This\\ flag\\ presentation\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ the\\ Flag\\ Song\\,\\ signaled\\ by\\ a\\ slow\\ drum\\ rhythm\\.\\ Participants\\ remove\\ their\\ hats\\ and\\ stand\\ during\\ this\\ performance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transmission\\ of\\ songs\\ from\\ one\\ community\\ to\\ another\\ is\\ quite\\ common\\ as\\ powwows\\ incorporate\\ the\\ musics\\ of\\ many\\ tribes\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Flag\\ Song\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ slow\\,\\ deliberate\\ tempo\\ punctuated\\ by\\ the\\ drum\\ on\\ every\\ other\\ beat\\.\\ A\\ series\\ of\\ drumbeats\\ \\&ldquo\\;honor\\ beats\\&rdquo\\;\\ gives\\ a\\ clue\\ to\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ drum\\ sound\\.\\ A\\ sliding\\ drum\\ and\\ voice\\ flourish\\ is\\ heard\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ flag\\ song\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ ululation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helene\\ Furlong\\ sings\\ an\\ octave\\ above\\ her\\ brother\\,\\ entering\\ after\\ him\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;seconding\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ vocal\\ line\\.\\ The\\ text\\ consists\\ of\\ vocables\\ mainly\\ set\\ in\\ syllabic\\ style\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ high\\,\\ tense\\ vocal\\ quality\\ allows\\ male\\ singers\\ to\\ sing\\ clearly\\ for\\ long\\ hours\\.\\ Northern\\ singers\\ also\\ place\\ their\\ vocables\\ between\\ drumbeats\\ \\&ldquo\\;singing\\ off\\ the\\ beat\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ voices\\ more\\ audible\\.\\ LG\\ 73\\ has\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Shoshone\\ repertory\\ contains\\ many\\ Flag\\ Songs\\ for\\ the\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ Colors\\,\\ conveying\\ several\\ different\\ political\\ messages\\;\\ most\\ important\\,\\ they\\ honor\\ particular\\ people\\ and\\ events\\,\\ or\\ offer\\ formal\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ flag\\,\\ country\\,\\ and\\ veterans\\.\\ It\\ has\\ great\\ significance\\ for\\ Native\\ American\\ veterans\\ of\\ armed\\ services\\,\\ who\\ compose\\ new\\ Flag\\ Songs\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ conflicts\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ served\\.\\ LG\\ 74\\ song\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ sung\\ during\\ the\\ Grand\\ Entry\\,\\ honoring\\ tribe\\ members\\ recently\\ returned\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Honoring\\ Warriors\\ in\\ Song\\:\\ The\\ War\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\War\\ Dance\\ songs\\ make\\ overt\\ political\\ statement\\,\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ once\\ performed\\ for\\ armed\\ conflict\\.\\ Present\\-day\\ War\\ dances\\ mimic\\ traditional\\ fighting\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ hear\\ how\\ customary\\ gender\\ roles\\ shape\\ performance\\ style\\;\\ women\\ traditionally\\ enter\\ after\\ the\\ opening\\ section\\ and\\ then\\ sing\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ through\\.\\ The\\ male\\ vocal\\ style\\ alternates\\ loud\\ and\\ soft\\ pulses\\ on\\ an\\ unbroken\\ tone\\.\\ The\\ song\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ decisive\\ final\\ drumbeat\\.\\ War\\ Dance\\ also\\ connected\\ to\\ nature\\ \\(like\\ how\\ a\\ chicken\\ would\\ dance\\.\\.\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ Dance\\ Song\\ is\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ powwow\\,\\ sung\\ and\\ drummed\\ during\\ both\\ traditional\\ war\\ Dances\\ and\\ the\\ Fancy\\ ones\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LG\\ 74\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Changing\\ Settings\\ of\\ Powwow\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Powwow\\ has\\ shifted\\ to\\ new\\ settings\\ like\\ rodeos\\ and\\ football\\ half\\-time\\ shows\\.\\ New\\ audiences\\ as\\ well\\.\\ American\\ Indian\\ Dance\\ Theatre\\ performs\\ traditional\\ and\\ new\\ choreography\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powwow\\ provides\\ opportunity\\ for\\ socializing\\ and\\ celebrating\\ Native\\ American\\ identity\\,\\ it\\ also\\ reaffirms\\ the\\ vitality\\ and\\ political\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ The\\ powwow\\ transmits\\ and\\ affirms\\ Native\\ American\\ power\\ both\\ inside\\ and\\ outside\\ the\\ immediate\\ setting\\.\\ This\\ is\\ evident\\ in\\ the\\ clear\\ division\\ between\\ intertribal\\ and\\ contest\\ dances\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ emcee\\ who\\ speaks\\ to\\ insiders\\ and\\ also\\ translates\\ for\\ insiders\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\ music\\ can\\ signify\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ identity\\,\\ nationality\\,\\ place\\,\\ ethnicity\\,\\ race\\,\\ class\\,\\ religion\\,\\ and\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ constructs\\ the\\ identities\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Text\\,\\ melody\\,\\ vocal\\ style\\,\\ instrumentation\\,\\ and\\ body\\ motion\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ performance\\ of\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ introduction\\ identifies\\ key\\ ways\\ to\\ identify\\ components\\ of\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subtle\\ components\\ of\\ identity\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ Muzak\\,\\ which\\ is\\ background\\ music\\ to\\ public\\ spaces\\ that\\ utilizes\\ familiar\\ Western\\ elements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Identity\\ can\\ be\\ hard\\ to\\ describe\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ubiquitous\\ or\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Identity\\ is\\ expressed\\ or\\ reinforced\\ through\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;musical\\ choices\\ also\\ provide\\ a\\ guide\\ to\\ how\\ we\\ perceive\\ others\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ ourselves\\ and\\ how\\ our\\ perceptions\\ of\\ cultural\\ difference\\ shape\\ our\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ music\\ is\\ transmitted\\ in\\ communities\\ linked\\ by\\ descent\\,\\ like\\ Native\\ American\\ music\\ \\(see\\ chap\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ musical\\ traditions\\ are\\ continuously\\ shaped\\ by\\ new\\ experiences\\-\\ see\\ bagpipe\\ chap\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Persian\\ flutist\\ Reza\\ Vali\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Born\\ in\\ Iran\\ but\\ educated\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;knowledge\\ of\\ western\\ musical\\ instruments\\ and\\ styles\\ was\\ acquired\\ at\\ home\\ in\\ West\\ Asia\\ and\\ further\\ developed\\ in\\ Europe\\&rdquo\\;\\ 424\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\performed\\ flute\\ at\\ The\\ Concerto\\ for\\ Flue\\ and\\ Orchestra\\ for\\ Boston\\ Modern\\ Orchestra\\ Project\\.\\ His\\ pieces\\ use\\ Western\\ orchestral\\ instruments\\,\\ cbut\\ there\\ is\\ Iranian\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ flute\\ player\\ hums\\ to\\ resemble\\ Persian\\ flute\\,\\ the\\ ney\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ western\\ idiophones\\ in\\ percussion\\ section\\,\\ also\\ Persian\\ frame\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;influenced\\ by\\ Persian\\ classical\\ and\\ folk\\ music\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ by\\ the\\ Persian\\ visual\\ arts\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;pitch\\ content\\ and\\ melodies\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ movement\\ draw\\ on\\ the\\ Pershian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dashti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dastgah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Persian\\ music\\ system\\,\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maqam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ melody\\ distinguished\\ by\\ pitch\\ content\\,\\ melodic\\ contours\\,\\ and\\ ornamentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\listening\\ guide\\ 76\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ ney\\ has\\ 2\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ octaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\improvises\\ in\\ datgah\\ homayoun\\ mode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\melodic\\ countours\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gushe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\player\\ begins\\ low\\ and\\ goes\\ up\\ and\\ octave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\listening\\ guide\\ 77\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\uses\\ Persian\\ flute\\ effects\\ while\\ playing\\ Western\\ instruments\\ sand\\ Western\\ harmonics\\-\\ sings\\ and\\ plays\\ flue\\ for\\ Persian\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Western\\ idiophones\\ with\\ Persian\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Influence\\ my\\ classical\\ and\\ folk\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\:\\ pitch\\ and\\ melody\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dashti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mode\\,\\ static\\ composition\\ rather\\ than\\ Western\\ linear\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Song\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ composition\\ for\\ solo\\ flute\\ which\\ the\\ player\\ sings\\ and\\ plays\\ in\\ polyphony\\ \\(voice\\ \\&\\;\\ flute\\ create\\ different\\ melodies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ combining\\ Western\\ and\\ Persian\\ influences\\,\\ he\\ is\\ commenting\\ on\\ more\\ than\\ individual\\ and\\ community\\ identity\\,\\ but\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;broader\\ questions\\ regarding\\ music\\ and\\ intercultural\\ identities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ combination\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ ethics\\ in\\ music\\:\\ is\\ borrowing\\ music\\ still\\ cultural\\ significant\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Descent\\ \\&\\;\\ affinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Karaoke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Started\\ in\\ japan\\ in\\ 1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technology\\ \\&\\;\\ setting\\ based\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Setting\\:\\ bars\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technology\\:\\ video\\ with\\ lyrics\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritualized\\ performance\\-\\ see\\ 7\\ rules\\ on\\ pg\\ 438\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represents\\ japans\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kata\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ patterned\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Participation\\ in\\ public\\ singing\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ of\\ kabuki\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instruments\\:\\ noh\\ drum\\ and\\ taiko\\ drum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 79\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\enka\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;song\\,\\ which\\ is\\ like\\ karaoke\\ but\\ singer\\ must\\ also\\ imitate\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ performer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ song\\ is\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;transience\\ of\\ natural\\ beauty\\ and\\ conjures\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Karaoke\\ has\\ spread\\ internationally\\ to\\ a\\ different\\ communities\\ \\(Chinese\\ Americans\\)\\ and\\ different\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cajun\\ Music\\ \\&\\;\\ Zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Creoles\\:\\ heterogeneous\\ people\\ of\\ Frech\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ African\\ and\\ afro\\-caribbean\\ descent\\ based\\ in\\ New\\ Orleans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajuns\\:\\ from\\ a\\ French\\ colony\\ in\\ Acadia\\ in1755\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajun\\ music\\:\\ developed\\ from\\ cross\\ cultural\\ interaction\\ between\\ French\\ and\\ other\\ ethnicities\\ of\\ the\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cowboy\\ songs\\ such\\ as\\ listening\\ guide\\ 80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cajun\\ song\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ means\\ of\\ preserving\\ the\\ special\\ Cajun\\ French\\ dialect\\,\\ and\\,\\ by\\ extension\\,\\ Cajun\\ identity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Signifcance\\:\\ to\\ revive\\ the\\ lost\\ language\\,\\ keep\\ traditions\\,\\ family\\,\\ and\\ social\\ life\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajun\\ music\\ became\\ influence\\ by\\ country\\ music\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ radio\\ and\\ touring\\ musicians\\-\\ and\\ this\\ marks\\ the\\ transition\\ of\\ Cajun\\ culture\\ to\\ broader\\ American\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intersections\\ of\\ Cajun\\ and\\ Creole\\:\\ mostly\\ lower\\ class\\ Cajuns\\ and\\ Creoles\\ worked\\ together\\,\\ which\\ fostered\\ cross\\ cultural\\/racial\\ exchange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divisions\\ of\\ Cajun\\ \\&\\;\\ Creole\\:\\ names\\ of\\ places\\,\\ language\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ style\\ of\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cajun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emerged\\ after\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajun\\ ensemble\\ base\\ with\\ washboard\\ as\\ distinctive\\ instrument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 81\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mostly\\ male\\ dominated\\,\\ notable\\ woman\\ figure\\:\\ Queen\\ Ida\\ \\(listening\\ guide\\ 82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Musical\\ Community\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ musical\\ community\\ is\\ a\\ collectivity\\ constituted\\ through\\ and\\ marked\\ by\\ music\\ making\\,\\ with\\ musical\\ performances\\ constructing\\ both\\ social\\ relationships\\ and\\ symbolic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Descent\\ Community\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ collectivity\\ based\\ on\\ shared\\ historical\\ relationships\\ \\(real\\ or\\ imagined\\)\\ defined\\ by\\ ethnic\\,\\ national\\,\\ or\\ religious\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dissent\\ Community\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ collectivity\\ based\\ on\\ shared\\ ideology\\ or\\ conviction\\ \\(tacit\\ or\\ explicit\\)\\,\\ usually\\ of\\ a\\ minority\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ a\\ dominant\\ majority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Affinity\\ Community\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ collectivity\\ emerging\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ instance\\ from\\ individual\\ preferences\\ for\\ affiliation\\,\\ \\ \\;rather\\ than\\ from\\ an\\ ascribed\\ category\\ or\\ specific\\ ideological\\ connection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ summary\\,\\ we\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ identify\\ how\\ music\\ intersects\\ with\\ identity\\ in\\ the\\ three\\ case\\ studies\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Persian\\ flutist\\ Vali\\ composed\\ music\\ that\\ mixed\\ Persian\\ musical\\ form\\,\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ flute\\ techniques\\ with\\ Western\\ instruments\\ Western\\ classical\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Karaoke\\ was\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ reading\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ depth\\ in\\ class\\.\\ Karaoke\\ is\\ a\\ participatory\\ form\\ of\\ music\\ that\\ exemplifies\\ a\\ deeper\\ philosophy\\ in\\ Japanese\\ culture\\.\\ Its\\ global\\ expansion\\ in\\ other\\ cultures\\ has\\ redefined\\ karaoke\\ and\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ different\\ meaning\\ for\\ other\\ cultural\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ text\\ presents\\ how\\ Cajun\\ and\\ Creole\\ cultural\\ identify\\ differ\\ and\\ converge\\ on\\ music\\,\\ specifically\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ music\\ and\\ identity\\,\\ larger\\ themes\\ from\\ earlier\\ chapters\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ woven\\ in\\ to\\ any\\ analysis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\ Listening\\ Guides\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bhangra\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pujab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;region\\ in\\ India\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dohl\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;drums\\ \\(8\\ beats\\)\\,\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ be\\ performed\\ in\\ rainy\\ season\\ to\\ bring\\ good\\ crops\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ song\\ about\\ a\\ wedding\\ \\(multicultural\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yo\\ Yo\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ American\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hoi\\ Hoi\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\punjab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bhangra\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ male\\ dance\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\giddha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ female\\ counterpart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polka\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Beer\\ Barrel\\ Polka\\,\\ originated\\ in\\ Czech\\ region\\ of\\ bohemia\\.\\ Migrated\\ to\\ texas\\.\\ strophic\\,\\ upbeat\\ duple\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conjunto\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ensemble\\ \\(musical\\ style\\ originated\\ on\\ the\\ Texas\\-Mexico\\ border\\)\\,\\ button\\ accordion\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ instrument\\.\\ Polyphonic\\.\\ Longoria\\ is\\ the\\ accordian\\ player\\,\\ Mexican\\,\\ famous\\,\\ served\\ in\\ WWII\\.\\ Lively\\ dance\\,\\ weddings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tango\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;La\\ cumparsita\\&rdquo\\;\\ two\\ bandoneones\\,\\ two\\ violins\\,\\ piano\\,\\ bass\\.\\ Moderate\\ quad\\ meter\\,\\ tango\\ rhythms\\ \\(staccato\\)\\ Orchestra\\ T\\í\\;pica\\.\\ For\\ dancers\\ and\\ listeners\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\ one\\ is\\ Carlos\\ Gardel\\ \\(singer\\,\\ died\\ in\\ a\\ tragic\\ plane\\ crash\\ in\\ 1935\\)\\ classic\\ vocal\\ tango\\.\\ Melancholy\\ love\\ lyrics\\,\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ Tango\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Adios\\ Nonino\\&rdquo\\;\\ composed\\ in\\ memory\\ of\\ his\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\piano\\,\\ minor\\,\\ from\\ the\\ 80s\\,\\ for\\ a\\ concert\\ hall\\,\\ combo\\ of\\ Tango\\ \\+\\ Western\\ concert\\ music\\ \\+\\ jazz\\.\\ Astor\\ Piazzolla\\,\\ created\\ purely\\ instrumental\\ tango\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\ Listening\\ Guides\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ Chant\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gyuto\\ monks\\,\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ record\\ the\\ chant\\,\\ only\\ did\\ it\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ exiled\\ in\\ 1959\\.\\ Fundamental\\ pitch\\ hovers\\ around\\ C\\,\\ moved\\ up\\ by\\ one\\ half\\ pitch\\,\\ then\\ sinks\\ to\\ B\\.\\ can\\ hear\\ the\\ harmonics\\,\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ concept\\ of\\ beat\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santer\\í\\;a\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Afro\\-cuban\\ religion\\,\\ song\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ service\\,\\ call\\ and\\ response\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ soloist\\ and\\ chorus\\.\\ Moderate\\ quadruple\\ with\\ complex\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bhata\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\drums\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chango\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ god\\ they\\ are\\ praying\\ to\\.\\ Songs\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ induce\\ possession\\ of\\ someone\\ by\\ the\\ god\\.\\ Each\\ god\\ has\\ a\\ specific\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\.\\ The\\ religion\\ went\\ to\\ NY\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethiopian\\ Christian\\ Chant\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\chant\\ for\\ a\\ Christmas\\ hymnal\\,\\ vocal\\ slides\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ge\\&rsquo\\;ez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mode\\ \\(like\\ pentatonic\\/major\\)\\.\\ Solo\\ voice\\,\\ then\\ chorus\\ of\\ voices\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dabtaras\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hyper\\ educated\\ musicians\\,\\ when\\ they\\ went\\ into\\ exile\\,\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ at\\ risk\\ of\\ extinction\\.\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sunday\\ school\\ songs\\,\\ strophic\\ hymn\\ \\(emerged\\ because\\ after\\ the\\ diaspora\\,\\ gov\\ at\\ home\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ train\\ new\\ male\\ musicians\\,\\ so\\ women\\ and\\ children\\ started\\ to\\ do\\ it\\,\\ started\\ in\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sunday\\ schools\\.\\)\\ other\\ songs\\ were\\ in\\ an\\ ancient\\ sacred\\ language\\,\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ in\\ Amharic\\ \\(Ethiopian\\ language\\)\\.\\ Most\\ songs\\ about\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\ Listening\\ Guide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\South\\ African\\ National\\ Anthem\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ was\\ in\\ 3\\ african\\ languages\\,\\ later\\ was\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\ strophic\\ hymn\\ with\\ verse\\ and\\ refrain\\,\\ moderate\\ quadruple\\ meter\\,\\ homophonic\\.\\.\\ Second\\ is\\ Kuumba\\ singers\\,\\ call\\ and\\ response\\ is\\ from\\ African\\ tradition\\,\\ homophony\\ is\\ western\\ tradition\\,\\ Afrikans\\ and\\ English\\ was\\ added\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reggae\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\&rdquo\\;\\ Peter\\ Tosh\\,\\ The\\ Wailers\\.\\ 1970s\\,\\ polyphony\\,\\ electrophones\\.\\ Bullfrog\\ noise\\ being\\ made\\ by\\ a\\ guitar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Native\\ American\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shoshone\\ Flag\\ song\\,\\ for\\ ritual\\ ceremony\\,\\ for\\ a\\ dance\\.\\ Flag\\ song\\ replaces\\ the\\ American\\ national\\ anthem\\,\\ significance\\ for\\ veterans\\ of\\ armed\\ conflicts\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\ one\\ is\\ to\\ honor\\ the\\ Indians\\ who\\ fought\\ in\\ Desert\\ Storm\\.\\ War\\ Dance\\ Song\\ \\(different\\ than\\ Flag\\ Dance\\)\\ more\\ uptempo\\,\\ duple\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 3, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Soundscapes_study_guide_chapters_1.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 07:03:23.517009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction to Sociology - Review", "tags": ["harvard", "sociology"], "text": null, "id": 101, "html": "\\\\\\SOC\\_10\\-Introduction\\_to\\_Sociology\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c19\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c1\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c16\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:46pt\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:7\\.2pt\\}\\.c15\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:31\\.5pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:11pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-13\\.5pt\\}\\.c25\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c4\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\}\\.c8\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c9\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\CHAPTER\\ 9\\:\\ CONCEPTS\\ AND\\ THEORIES\\ OF\\ STRATIFICATION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;One\\-dimensional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;Class\\ based\\ on\\ relationship\\ to\\ means\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9702\\;Bourgeoisie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9702\\;Proletariat\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;Middle\\ class\\ and\\ lower\\ classes\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\historically\\ relevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Karl\\ Marx\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\historically\\ relevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\-tier\\ system\\ highlights\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\antagonistic\\ material\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\classes\\ in\\ capitalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61590\\;The\\ material\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ exploiters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\depends\\ upon\\ the\\ material\\ deprivations\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\exploited\\ \\(a\\ \\&ldquo\\;zero\\-sum\\ game\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61590\\;This\\ involves\\ the\\ exclusion\\ of\\ the\\ exploited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ access\\ to\\ and\\ control\\ over\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\productive\\ resources\\ \\(enforcement\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\property\\ rights\\ by\\ the\\ state\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61590\\;The\\ material\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ exploiters\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marx\\ and\\ Exploitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\depends\\ upon\\ the\\ efforts\\ of\\ the\\ exploited\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\produce\\&mdash\\;the\\ exploiters\\ need\\ the\\ exploited\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\work\\ hard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;Multi\\-dimensional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;Property\\-\\-one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\commodity\\ and\\ credit\\ markets\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\determine\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ chances\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;Most\\ important\\ class\\ situation\\ is\\ whether\\ or\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\not\\ one\\ owns\\ property\\ or\\ valuable\\ skills\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;A\\ class\\,\\ then\\ is\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ share\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ same\\ economically\\ shaped\\ life\\ chances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Max\\ Weber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ same\\ economically\\ shaped\\ life\\ chances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61591\\;It\\ is\\ a\\ gradational\\,\\ not\\ a\\ relational\\,\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\1\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Stark\\,\\ what\\ two\\ inescapable\\ facts\\ about\\ social\\ stratification\\ have\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sociologists\\ had\\ to\\ contend\\ with\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\,\\ stratification\\ has\\ many\\ undesirable\\ consequences\\:\\ People\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ stratification\\ systems\\ often\\ suffer\\ greatly\\,\\ both\\ physically\\ and\\ emotionally\\.\\ Second\\,\\ some\\ degree\\ of\\ stratification\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ unavoidable\\ feature\\ of\\ social\\ structure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ How\\ did\\ Karl\\ Marx\\ define\\ the\\ great\\ classes\\ of\\ capitalist\\ societies\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marx\\ broke\\ society\\ into\\ 2\\ main\\ classes\\:\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bourgeoisie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\proletariat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ They\\ were\\ defined\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ different\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\means\\ of\\ production\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\everything\\ besides\\ human\\ labor\\ that\\ goes\\ into\\ producing\\ wealth\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bourgeoisie\\ owns\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\ while\\ the\\ proletariat\\ is\\ everyone\\ who\\ does\\ not\\ won\\ such\\ means\\ and\\ therefore\\ must\\ sell\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ own\\ such\\ means\\ and\\ therefore\\ must\\ sell\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ labor\\ to\\ the\\ bourgeoisie\\.\\ Marx\\ realized\\ that\\ not\\ everyone\\ fit\\ into\\ these\\ two\\ groups\\ but\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ significantly\\ affect\\ history\\.\\ One\\ of\\ these\\ groups\\ was\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ which\\ he\\ believed\\ would\\ be\\ crushed\\ and\\ forced\\ into\\ the\\ proletariat\\ as\\ the\\ capitalist\\ system\\ evolved\\.\\ He\\ also\\ dismissed\\ vagrants\\,\\ gypsies\\,\\ beggars\\,\\ and\\ criminals\\ into\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lumpenproletariat\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ believed\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ no\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ impeding\\ revolutionary\\ struggle\\.\\ Farmers\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ his\\ conception\\ because\\ believed\\ the\\ drama\\ of\\ historical\\ change\\ would\\ occur\\ in\\ the\\ urban\\ industrial\\ sector\\.\\ Mark\\ defined\\ a\\ capitalist\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ society\\ having\\ a\\ free\\ market\\ economy\\ based\\ on\\ private\\ ownership\\ of\\ property\\.\\ \\*Marx\\ warned\\ of\\ a\\ coming\\ communist\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ How\\ did\\ Max\\ Weber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;class\\&rdquo\\;\\ differ\\ from\\ Karl\\ Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ class\\ included\\ material\\ position\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ real\\ class\\ people\\ must\\ be\\ similarly\\ placed\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ share\\ comparable\\ prospects\\,\\ but\\ they\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ ware\\ of\\ their\\ circumstances\\,\\ their\\ mutual\\ interests\\ and\\ their\\ common\\ class\\ enemy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Class\\ Consciousness\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\ placed\\ more\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ economic\\ dimension\\ and\\ implied\\ that\\ all\\ other\\ differences\\ in\\ position\\ among\\ people\\ in\\ society\\ are\\ wholly\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ property\\ ownership\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weber\\ defined\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\class\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ similar\\ \\&ldquo\\;life\\ chances\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ determined\\ by\\ their\\ economic\\ position\\ in\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ their\\ material\\ possessions\\ and\\ their\\ opportunities\\ for\\ income\\,\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Property\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Weber\\ stressed\\ class\\ membership\\ based\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\objective\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;economic\\ position\\,\\ unlike\\ Marx\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ reserve\\ the\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\class\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ for\\ groups\\ that\\ had\\ organized\\ for\\ class\\ conflict\\.\\ Further\\,\\ Weber\\ realized\\ that\\ in\\ some\\ circumstances\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\control\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ property\\ might\\ be\\ independent\\ of\\ ownership\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ central\\ claims\\ of\\ Gerhard\\ Lenski\\&rsquo\\;s\\ status\\ inconsistency\\ theory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ 3\\ basic\\ dimensions\\ of\\ society\\,\\ property\\,\\ prestige\\,\\ and\\ power\\,\\ and\\ if\\ these\\ can\\ vary\\ independently\\ of\\ one\\ another\\,\\ then\\ individuals\\ or\\ groups\\ can\\ hold\\ different\\ rank\\ \\(or\\ status\\)\\,\\ thus\\ status\\ inconsistency\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Status\\ Inconsistency\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ built\\ on\\ the\\ proposition\\ that\\ persons\\ who\\ experience\\ status\\ inconsistency\\ will\\ be\\ frustrated\\ and\\ will\\ therefore\\ support\\ political\\ movements\\ aimed\\ at\\ changing\\ the\\ stratification\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ people\\ rank\\ higher\\ on\\ one\\ status\\ dimension\\ than\\ on\\ another\\,\\ they\\ will\\ emphasize\\ their\\ highest\\ claim\\ to\\ rank\\ and\\ deemphasize\\ their\\ lowest\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hick\\&rdquo\\;\\ millionaire\\ \\(people\\ lacking\\ education\\ and\\ social\\ graces\\ who\\ hit\\ rich\\)\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ vulgar\\ rich\\ \\(status\\ inconsistency\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ wealthy\\ people\\)\\.\\ Lenski\\ argued\\ that\\ persons\\ who\\ are\\ denied\\ the\\ social\\ rank\\ that\\ they\\ believe\\ they\\ deserve\\ become\\ antagonistic\\ toward\\ the\\ rules\\ governing\\ toward\\ the\\ rules\\ governing\\ status\\ in\\ their\\ society\\.\\ People\\ suffering\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\status\\ inconsistency\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;will\\ favor\\ political\\ actions\\ aimed\\ against\\ upper\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ status\\ groups\\;\\ that\\ is\\ they\\ will\\ support\\ liberal\\ and\\ radical\\ parties\\ and\\ proposals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ structural\\ and\\ exchange\\ mobility\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ mobility\\ depends\\ on\\ rules\\ governing\\ how\\ people\\ gain\\ or\\ keep\\ their\\ position\\ may\\ make\\ mobility\\ difficult\\ or\\ easy\\.\\ Second\\,\\ whatever\\ the\\ rules\\,\\ structural\\ changes\\ in\\ society\\ can\\ influence\\ mobility\\.\\ When\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ upper\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ status\\ positions\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ increases\\,\\ some\\ upward\\ mobility\\ is\\ inevitable\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Structural\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;requires\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ statuses\\ in\\ a\\ society\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\exchange\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ when\\ some\\ people\\ rise\\ to\\ fill\\ positions\\ made\\ available\\ because\\ other\\ people\\ have\\ fallen\\ in\\ the\\ status\\ system\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ How\\ does\\ involvement\\ in\\ cosmopolitan\\ networks\\ advantage\\ upper\\-class\\ persons\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cosmopolitan\\ networks\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ reach\\,\\ members\\ have\\ advantages\\ of\\ vis\\ \\&ndash\\;a\\-\\ vis\\ the\\ placement\\ of\\ members\\ in\\ the\\ stratification\\ system\\,\\ and\\ access\\ to\\ more\\ information\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ sustain\\ rather\\ different\\ and\\ more\\ elaborate\\ cultures\\ than\\ local\\ networks\\ can\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Gaetano\\ Mosca\\,\\ why\\ is\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ social\\ stratification\\ impossible\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\ propositions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Human\\ societies\\ cannot\\ exist\\ without\\ political\\ organization\\ in\\ the\\ broadest\\ sense\\ to\\ mean\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ coordination\\ and\\ decision\\ making\\ in\\ human\\ activities\\&ndash\\;\\ group\\ life\\ requires\\ mutual\\ undertakings\\,\\ and\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ individuals\\ must\\ be\\ directed\\ and\\ coordinated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Whenever\\ there\\ is\\ political\\ organization\\ \\(or\\ society\\)\\,\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ inequalities\\ in\\ power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Because\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ inherently\\ self\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ serving\\,\\ people\\ with\\ greater\\ power\\ will\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ exploit\\ others\\ and\\ therefore\\ to\\ material\\ advantages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Why\\ is\\ Kingsley\\ Davis\\ and\\ Wilbert\\ Moore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ explanation\\ of\\ social\\ stratification\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;supply\\ and\\ demand\\&rdquo\\;\\ argument\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;With\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Functionalist\\ Theory\\ of\\ stratification\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\certain\\ positions\\ are\\ more\\ important\\ and\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ fulfill\\ adequately\\.\\ These\\ positions\\ require\\ qualities\\ that\\ are\\ naturally\\ rare\\ or\\ that\\ require\\ a\\ considerable\\ preliminary\\ investment\\ in\\ time\\,\\ training\\,\\ and\\ effort\\.\\ Davis\\ and\\ Moore\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ produce\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ motivation\\ is\\ to\\ adjust\\ the\\ reward\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ a\\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ to\\ ensure\\ an\\ adequate\\ supply\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ people\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ attach\\ higher\\ rewards\\ to\\ the\\ positions\\ that\\ are\\ most\\ important\\ and\\ hardest\\ to\\ fulfill\\.\\ \\*Stratification\\ thus\\ exists\\ because\\ the\\ positions\\ in\\ society\\ differ\\ in\\ their\\ importance\\ to\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ competent\\ people\\ dill\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ positions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ theory\\ of\\ stratification\\,\\ how\\ did\\ social\\ inequality\\ develop\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\evolutionary\\ theory\\ of\\ stratification\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;holds\\ that\\ because\\ culture\\ accumulates\\ in\\ human\\ societies\\,\\ eventually\\ it\\ happens\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ master\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ a\\ group\\&rsquo\\;s\\ culture\\.\\ At\\ that\\ point\\ cultural\\ specialization\\,\\ or\\ a\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ occurs\\.\\ Since\\ some\\ specialties\\ will\\ be\\ more\\ valued\\ than\\ other\\,\\ inequality\\,\\ or\\ stratification\\,\\ will\\ exist\\.\\ The\\ notion\\ of\\ replaceability\\ is\\ pertinent\\ in\\ determining\\ the\\ relative\\ advantage\\ of\\ one\\ specialty\\ over\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ conflict\\ theory\\ of\\ stratification\\,\\ why\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ stratification\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\than\\ mere\\ functional\\ necessity\\ requires\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;First\\,\\ because\\ people\\ high\\ in\\ the\\ stratification\\ system\\ will\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ their\\ position\\ to\\ exploit\\ others\\,\\ a\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ makes\\ societies\\ more\\ stratified\\ than\\ can\\ be\\ accounted\\ for\\ the\\ functionalist\\ theory\\ alone\\.\\ Examples\\ are\\ monopolies\\,\\ exploitation\\ and\\ replaceability\\.\\ \\(p\\.\\ 249\\-250\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Terms\\ and\\ IDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Means\\ of\\ Production\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Everything\\,\\ except\\ human\\ labor\\,\\ that\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ produce\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bourgeoisie\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ for\\ the\\ class\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ own\\ the\\ means\\;\\ the\\ employer\\ or\\ owner\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Proletariat\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Marx\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ for\\ the\\ class\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ own\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\;\\ the\\ employee\\ or\\ the\\ working\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lumpenproletariat\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Literally\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ragamuffin\\ proletariat\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ the\\ people\\ on\\ the\\ very\\ bottom\\ of\\ society\\,\\ whom\\ Marx\\ labeled\\ the\\ social\\ scum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Class\\ Consciousness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ concept\\ Marx\\ used\\ to\\ identify\\ the\\ awareness\\ of\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ class\\ of\\ their\\ class\\ interests\\ and\\ enemies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\False\\ Consciousness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ term\\ Marx\\ applied\\ to\\ members\\ of\\ one\\ class\\ who\\ think\\ they\\ have\\ common\\ interests\\ with\\ members\\ of\\ another\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Subjective\\ Class\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ class\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ thinks\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ belongs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Property\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ term\\ many\\ sociologists\\ use\\ to\\ identify\\ that\\ Weber\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\class\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Property\\ includes\\ all\\ economic\\ resources\\ and\\ opportunities\\ owned\\ or\\ controlled\\ by\\ an\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prestige\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Social\\ honor\\ or\\ respect\\;\\ synonymous\\ with\\ Weber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ term\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\status\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Power\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ ability\\ to\\ get\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ despite\\ the\\ opposition\\ of\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\;\\ synonymous\\ with\\ Weber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ term\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\power\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Status\\ Inconsistency\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Condition\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ holds\\ a\\ higher\\ position\\ \\(or\\ status\\)\\ on\\ one\\ dimension\\ of\\ stratification\\ than\\ another\\,\\ For\\ Example\\,\\ an\\ uneducated\\ millionaire\\ displays\\ status\\ inconsistency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Status\\ Inconsistency\\ Theories\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Theories\\ built\\ on\\ the\\ proposition\\ that\\ persons\\ who\\ experience\\ status\\ inconsistency\\ will\\ be\\ frustrated\\ and\\ will\\ therefore\\ support\\ political\\ movements\\ aimed\\ at\\ changing\\ the\\ stratification\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\Amount\\ of\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ depends\\ on\\ rules\\ governing\\ how\\ people\\ gain\\ or\\ keep\\ their\\ position\\ may\\ make\\ mobility\\ difficult\\ or\\ easy\\.\\ Second\\,\\ whatever\\ the\\ rules\\,\\ structural\\ changes\\ in\\ society\\ can\\ influence\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*Achieved\\ Status\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ position\\ gained\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ merit\\,\\ or\\ achievement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*Scriptive\\ Status\\ Rules\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ are\\ placed\\ in\\ status\\ positions\\ because\\ of\\ certain\\ traits\\ beyond\\ their\\ control\\,\\ such\\ as\\ firmly\\ background\\,\\ race\\,\\ sex\\,\\ or\\ place\\ of\\ birth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Structural\\ Mobility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mobility\\ that\\ occurs\\ because\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ relative\\ distribution\\ of\\ upper\\ and\\ lower\\ statuses\\ in\\ a\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exchange\\ Mobility\\ \\ \\;\\-\\ Mobility\\ that\\ occurs\\ because\\ some\\ people\\ fall\\ in\\ the\\ stratification\\ system\\,\\ thereby\\ making\\ room\\ for\\ others\\ to\\ rise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cultural\\ Capital\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Assets\\ based\\ on\\ knowledge\\,\\ style\\,\\ speech\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;purchase\\&rsquo\\;\\ privileges\\ and\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Utopian\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ One\\ who\\ tries\\ to\\ design\\ a\\ perfect\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anarchists\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Followers\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ philosophy\\ that\\ regards\\ the\\ state\\ as\\ inevitably\\ repressive\\ and\\ unjust\\ and\\ who\\ therefore\\ purpose\\ to\\ destroy\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ live\\ without\\ laws\\ or\\ government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Functionalist\\ Theory\\ of\\ stratification\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ theory\\ that\\ holds\\ that\\ inequality\\ is\\ built\\ into\\ the\\ rules\\ into\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ any\\ society\\ because\\ some\\ roles\\ are\\ more\\ important\\ and\\ harder\\ to\\ fill\\,\\ and\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ qualified\\ people\\ will\\ seek\\ to\\ fill\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ position\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ reward\\ these\\ positions\\ more\\ highly\\ than\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Replacability\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ functional\\ importance\\ of\\ a\\ role\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ other\\ roles\\ can\\ substitute\\ for\\ or\\ take\\ on\\ the\\ duties\\ of\\ that\\ particular\\ role\\.\\ For\\ Example\\,\\ a\\ doctor\\ can\\ easily\\ substitute\\ for\\ an\\ orderly\\,\\ but\\ the\\ reverse\\ is\\ not\\ so\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\*Functional\\ Importance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ consequences\\ for\\ the\\ continued\\ operation\\ of\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Evolutionary\\ theory\\ of\\ Stratification\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ theory\\ that\\ holds\\ that\\ because\\ culture\\ accumulates\\ in\\ human\\ societies\\,\\ eventually\\ it\\ happens\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ master\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ a\\ group\\&rsquo\\;s\\ culture\\.\\ At\\ that\\ point\\ cultural\\ specialization\\,\\ or\\ a\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ occurs\\.\\ Since\\ some\\ specialties\\ will\\ be\\ more\\ valued\\ than\\ other\\,\\ inequality\\,\\ or\\ stratification\\,\\ will\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conflict\\ Theory\\ of\\ Stratification\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ theory\\ that\\ holds\\ that\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\ will\\ always\\ exploit\\ their\\ positions\\ in\\ a\\ n\\ effort\\ to\\ gain\\ a\\ larger\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ rewards\\ in\\ a\\ society\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ societies\\ will\\ often\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ stratified\\ than\\ functionalism\\ can\\ explain\\.\\ Put\\ another\\ way\\,\\ this\\ theory\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ conflicts\\ and\\ compromises\\ between\\ contending\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Exploitation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ All\\ profit\\ in\\ an\\ exchange\\ in\\ excess\\ of\\ the\\ minimum\\ amount\\ needed\\ to\\ cause\\ an\\ exchange\\ to\\ occur\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Professions\\ Occupational\\ organization\\ that\\ can\\ prevent\\ their\\ functions\\ from\\ being\\ performed\\ by\\ those\\ not\\ certified\\ as\\ adequately\\ trained\\ and\\ qualified\\ in\\ an\\ extensive\\ body\\ of\\ knowledge\\ and\\ technique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Occupational\\ organizations\\ that\\ can\\ prevent\\ their\\ functions\\ from\\ being\\ performed\\ by\\ those\\ not\\ certified\\ as\\ adequately\\ trained\\ and\\ qualified\\ in\\ an\\ extensive\\ body\\ of\\ knowledge\\ and\\ technique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\CHAPTER\\ 11\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\RACIAL\\ AND\\ ETHNIC\\ INEQUALITY\\ AND\\ CONFLICT\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ In\\ your\\ text\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chapter\\ on\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ inequality\\ and\\ conflict\\,\\ why\\ did\\ the\\ author\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\choose\\ to\\ discuss\\ \\&ldquo\\;intergroup\\ conflicts\\&rdquo\\;\\ generally\\ rather\\ than\\ focusing\\ only\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;interracial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\conflicts\\&rdquo\\;\\ specifically\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Since\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ hatred\\,\\ prejudice\\ and\\ discrimination\\ among\\ groups\\ is\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ race\\.\\ The\\ term\\ intergroup\\ conflict\\ encompasses\\ all\\ such\\ disputes\\,\\ whether\\ they\\ are\\ over\\ culture\\ or\\ over\\ skin\\ color\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Gordon\\ Allport\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ contact\\,\\ under\\ what\\ conditions\\ will\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\between\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ groups\\ reduce\\ or\\ increase\\ prejudice\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contact\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ make\\ relations\\ between\\ two\\ groups\\ better\\,\\ he\\ argues\\;\\ often\\,\\ it\\ will\\ make\\ relations\\ worse\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ conditions\\ under\\ which\\ that\\ contact\\ occurs\\.\\ Prejudice\\ will\\ decrease\\ if\\ two\\ groups\\ with\\ equal\\ status\\ have\\ contact\\.\\ But\\ prejudice\\ will\\ increase\\ or\\ remain\\ high\\ if\\ it\\ occurs\\ under\\ conditions\\ of\\ status\\ inequality\\,\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ group\\ is\\ dominant\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ subordinate\\.\\ Prejudice\\ will\\ intensify\\ if\\ the\\ groups\\ are\\ engaged\\ in\\ competition\\.\\ Prejudice\\ will\\ decline\\ if\\ the\\ groups\\ cooperate\\ to\\ pursue\\ common\\ goals\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ In\\ what\\ ways\\ does\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ black\\-white\\ contact\\ through\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\support\\ Gordon\\ Allport\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ contact\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Much\\ of\\ this\\ accounts\\ for\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ race\\ relations\\ to\\ improve\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ until\\ recently\\.\\ White\\ merchants\\ had\\ contact\\ with\\ African\\ American\\ customers\\ and\\ not\\ with\\ African\\ American\\ merchants\\.\\ White\\ children\\ had\\ contact\\ primarily\\ with\\ African\\ American\\ servants\\,\\ and\\ not\\ with\\ African\\ American\\ teachers\\ or\\ students\\.\\ Such\\ contacts\\ reinforced\\ white\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ superior\\.\\ The\\ inequality\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ forced\\ African\\ Americans\\ to\\ submit\\ and\\ caused\\ whites\\ to\\ perceive\\ them\\ as\\ submissive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Why\\ do\\ \\&ldquo\\;middleman\\ minorities\\&rdquo\\;\\ often\\ become\\ \\&ldquo\\;scapegoats\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ conflicts\\ within\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dominant\\ group\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Middlemen\\ serve\\ as\\ both\\ links\\ and\\ buffers\\ between\\ the\\ upper\\ and\\ lower\\ classes\\.\\ They\\ often\\ diffuse\\ potential\\ class\\ conflicts\\ by\\ becoming\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ frustration\\ and\\ anger\\.\\ Such\\ as\\ the\\ Jews\\ in\\ Europe\\ during\\ WW2\\ and\\ the\\ Indians\\ in\\ African\\ societies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ How\\ did\\ Californians\\ prior\\ to\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ contain\\ Japanese\\ American\\ economic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\competition\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ put\\ into\\ internment\\ camps\\ for\\ fear\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ still\\ loyal\\ to\\ Japan\\.\\ Thousands\\ of\\ farms\\ and\\ small\\ businesses\\ were\\ lost\\ forever\\,\\ while\\ many\\ others\\ were\\ sold\\ for\\ next\\ to\\ nothing\\ by\\ desperate\\ people\\ forced\\ to\\ leave\\ for\\ a\\ camp\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Why\\ have\\ many\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ begun\\ their\\ upward\\ mobility\\ in\\ America\\ by\\ running\\ small\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\businesses\\ within\\ neighborhoods\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ concentrated\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ want\\ to\\ band\\ together\\ for\\ self\\ help\\,\\ to\\ maintain\\ familiar\\ features\\ of\\ their\\ native\\ culture\\ and\\ to\\ use\\ their\\ own\\ language\\ in\\ daily\\ life\\.\\ By\\ buying\\ within\\ their\\ own\\ community\\ and\\ by\\ reinvesting\\ the\\ profits\\,\\ immigrant\\ groups\\ gain\\ economic\\ freedom\\.\\ An\\ enclave\\ economy\\ creates\\ an\\ increasingly\\ successful\\ group\\ of\\ entrepreneurs\\ within\\ the\\ ethnic\\ community\\ and\\ that\\ ties\\ of\\ ethnic\\ solidarity\\ forces\\ these\\ business\\ owners\\ to\\ give\\ their\\ workers\\ a\\ better\\ deal\\ than\\ would\\ employers\\ from\\ outside\\ their\\ enclave\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ middle\\ class\\ facilitate\\ the\\ upward\\ mobility\\ of\\ a\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\immigrant\\ group\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Once\\ one\\ group\\ has\\ reached\\ economic\\ stability\\ their\\ jobs\\ will\\ usually\\ change\\ and\\ they\\ will\\ suddenly\\ move\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ neighborhoods\\ that\\ they\\ once\\ populated\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ move\\ to\\ more\\ middle\\ class\\ neighborhoods\\.\\ Therefore\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ void\\ which\\ must\\ be\\ filled\\ by\\ the\\ immigrant\\ workers\\ who\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ take\\ these\\ positions\\.\\ For\\ example\\ Mexican\\ immigrants\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ taking\\ over\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ businesses\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ Chinese\\ worked\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ What\\ factors\\ help\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ Cuban\\ Americans\\ relative\\ to\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ Mexican\\-Americans\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cuban\\ Americans\\ came\\ here\\ because\\ of\\ political\\ persecution\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ already\\ professionals\\ with\\ substantial\\ wealth\\.\\ When\\ they\\ came\\ here\\ many\\ already\\ new\\ English\\ and\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ assimilate\\ much\\ more\\ and\\ occupy\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ positions\\ they\\ once\\ held\\ in\\ Cuba\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ In\\ what\\ ways\\ was\\ the\\ experience\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\ migrating\\ from\\ the\\ South\\ to\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\North\\ from\\ the\\ 1940s\\ onward\\ similar\\ to\\ immigrant\\ groups\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ century\\ such\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rural\\ Southern\\ Italians\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\During\\ WW2\\ many\\ African\\ Americans\\ moved\\ up\\ north\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ the\\ defense\\ industry\\.\\ They\\ had\\ no\\ former\\ education\\ or\\ work\\ experience\\ other\\ than\\ subsistence\\ farming\\ and\\ no\\ experience\\ leaving\\ in\\ large\\ cities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ How\\ has\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ African\\ Americans\\ outnumber\\ all\\ other\\ previously\\ disadvantaged\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ minorities\\ created\\ hindrances\\ to\\ economic\\ progress\\ and\\ full\\ acceptance\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sheer\\ numbers\\ prevent\\ African\\ Americans\\ from\\ adopting\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ tactics\\ other\\ groups\\ have\\.\\ The\\ economic\\ conflict\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ factor\\ in\\ prejudice\\ and\\ discrimination\\,\\ the\\ large\\ African\\ American\\ population\\ has\\ made\\ them\\ a\\ bigger\\ threat\\ to\\ whites\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Terms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Intergroup\\ conflict\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;conflict\\ between\\ groups\\ that\\ are\\ racially\\ or\\ culturally\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Race\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;a\\ human\\ group\\ having\\ some\\ biological\\ features\\ that\\ set\\ it\\ off\\ from\\ other\\ human\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethnic\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ groups\\ that\\ think\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ sharing\\ special\\ bonds\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ culture\\ that\\ set\\ them\\ apart\\ from\\ others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caste\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ a\\ stratification\\ system\\ wherein\\ cultural\\ or\\ racial\\ differences\\ are\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ ascribing\\ status\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Allport\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ theory\\ holding\\ the\\ contact\\ between\\ groups\\ will\\ improve\\ relations\\ only\\ if\\ the\\ groups\\ are\\ of\\ equal\\ status\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ compete\\ with\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ American\\ dilemma\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ term\\ used\\ by\\ Gunnar\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ contradiction\\ of\\ society\\ committed\\ to\\ democratic\\ ideals\\ but\\ sustaining\\ racial\\ segregation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Markers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ noticeable\\ differences\\ between\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ groups\\ that\\ become\\ associated\\ with\\ status\\ conflicts\\ between\\ \\ \\;the\\ groups\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultural\\ divison\\ of\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ radical\\ or\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ tend\\ to\\ specialize\\ in\\ a\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ occupations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Middlemen\\ minorities\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ racial\\ or\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ restricted\\ to\\ a\\ limited\\ range\\ of\\ occupations\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ lower\\,\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ stratification\\ system\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enclave\\ economy\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ theory\\ that\\ proposes\\ that\\ the\\ spatial\\ concentration\\ of\\ an\\ ethnic\\ group\\ permits\\ it\\ to\\ create\\ its\\ own\\ business\\ enterprises\\,\\ thus\\ speeding\\ the\\ economic\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Visibility\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ racial\\ or\\ an\\ ethnic\\ group\\ can\\ be\\ recognized\\-how\\ easily\\ those\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ group\\ can\\ pass\\ as\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\CHAPTER\\ 12\\:\\ GENDER\\ AND\\ INEQUALITY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Public\\ Space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;those\\ sites\\ and\\ contexts\\ that\\ our\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\understands\\ to\\ be\\ open\\ to\\ all\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;situational\\ disadvantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Strangers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Advantage\\-disadvantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\can\\ go\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Appearance\\ dependent\\ \\~\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Semi\\ Public\\ Space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\ Stores\\,\\ schools\\,\\ restaurants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\ Purposeful\\ presence\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\repeated\\ encounters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Men\\ hold\\ rights\\ of\\ definition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\causing\\ women\\ to\\ question\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ belonging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\ Abuses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ exclusionary\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9702\\;expected\\ to\\ stay\\ away\\ from\\ certain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\places\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ exploitative\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9702\\;disrupt\\ privacy\\;\\ draw\\ inspection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ evaluative\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9702\\;characterization\\ and\\ judgment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harassment\\ Types\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Access\\ Information\\ Intrusion\\:\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\attempt\\ by\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ gain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\information\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\future\\ whereabouts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Exploitations\\ of\\ Presence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\same\\ set\\ of\\ communicated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\messages\\ and\\ conundrums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\relayed\\ on\\ nonverbal\\ channels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ exploit\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\presence\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ place\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(121\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Street\\ Remarks\\:\\ comments\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\insults\\,\\ and\\ evaluations\\ made\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\strangers\\ toward\\ women\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Female\\ Harassment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Romanticized\\ Approach\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Typically\\ expressed\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ who\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\espoused\\ traditional\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gender\\ roles\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\ Public\\ Harassment\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Flattery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\ also\\ Gallantry\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Proof\\ of\\ Flattery\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\ Public\\ Harassment\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Courtship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\ Public\\ Harassment\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ Result\\ of\\ Men\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\ Harassment\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fault\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Male\\ Harassment\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Situationally\\ advantaged\\ in\\ public\\ places\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ whining\\ minority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Harassment\\ seen\\ as\\ rare\\ or\\ trivial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\ no\\ big\\ deal\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Public\\ Places\\ as\\ Romantic\\ Frontiers\\ for\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Men\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\disadvantaged\\ in\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\places\\,\\ not\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Romance\\,\\ Flattered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\undesirable\\ women\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\well\\ \\(so\\ magnanimous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ \\&ldquo\\;gallant\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\sex\\ ratio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ persons\\ of\\ one\\ gender\\,\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ persons\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ gender\\,\\ usually\\ expressed\\ as\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ males\\ per\\ 100\\ females\\.\\ Sex\\ ratios\\ are\\ social\\ structures\\.\\ \\(331\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\infanticide\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ killing\\ infants\\ soon\\ after\\ their\\ birth\\,\\ often\\ done\\ by\\ simply\\ abandoning\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ doors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dyadic\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ the\\ capacity\\ of\\ each\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ dyad\\ to\\ impose\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ will\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ member\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\power\\ dependence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ the\\ dependence\\ of\\ one\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ dyad\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\<\\/span\\>\\ability\\ to\\ achieve\\ their\\ goals\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\outside\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ dyad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\structural\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ power\\ based\\ on\\ statuses\\ within\\ social\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\feminism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ An\\ ideology\\ having\\ three\\ essential\\ features\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\opposition\\ to\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ stratification\\ based\\ on\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\belief\\ that\\ biology\\ does\\ not\\ consign\\ females\\ to\\ inferior\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sense\\ of\\ common\\ experience\\ and\\ purpose\\ among\\ women\\ to\\ direct\\ their\\ efforts\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\illegitamcy\\ ratio\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ all\\ births\\ that\\ occur\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Jones\\ states\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Society\\ A\\ treats\\ women\\ worse\\ than\\ Society\\ B\\ because\\ the\\ men\\ in\\ Society\\ A\\ are\\ more\\ sexist\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ wrong\\,\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ with\\ that\\ statement\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ incorrect\\ because\\ the\\ statement\\ is\\ a\\ circular\\ argument\\.\\ It\\ says\\ in\\ effect\\ that\\ women\\ are\\ subjected\\ to\\ greater\\ sexism\\ where\\ the\\ culture\\ is\\ more\\ sexist\\.\\ This\\ entirely\\ misses\\ the\\ question\\ that\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ answered\\:\\ Why\\ are\\ some\\ cultures\\ more\\ sexist\\?\\ Sex\\ roles\\ and\\ relationships\\ have\\ long\\ been\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ males\\ to\\ females\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ How\\ did\\ sex\\ ratios\\ typically\\ vary\\ regionally\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ up\\ through\\ the\\ 1880s\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\why\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Although\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ had\\ more\\ males\\ than\\ females\\ in\\ 1880\\,\\ local\\ sex\\ ratios\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ those\\ that\\ determined\\ the\\ relative\\ number\\ of\\ husbands\\ or\\ wives\\ individuals\\ faced\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ usually\\ differed\\ greatly\\ from\\ the\\ national\\ average\\.\\ In\\ 1880\\,\\ many\\ states\\ on\\ the\\ Eastern\\ Seaboard\\ had\\ a\\ substantial\\ excess\\ of\\ women\\,\\ whereas\\ many\\ western\\ states\\ had\\ huge\\ excesses\\ of\\ men\\.\\ Extremely\\ unbalanced\\ sex\\ ratios\\ often\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ periods\\ of\\ rapid\\ and\\ large\\-scale\\ migration\\ or\\ immigration\\.\\ Typically\\,\\ this\\ involves\\ the\\ departure\\ of\\ young\\ men\\ in\\ pursuit\\ of\\ economic\\ opportunity\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ place\\ from\\ which\\ men\\ are\\ moving\\ and\\ a\\ shortage\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ area\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ men\\ are\\ migrating\\.\\ The\\ 1850\\ Census\\ found\\ that\\ California\\ men\\ outnumbered\\ women\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ twelve\\ to\\ one\\,\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ sex\\ ratio\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ 1849\\ Gold\\ Rush\\.\\ Back\\ East\\,\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ these\\ young\\ men\\ was\\ denoted\\ in\\ the\\ 1850\\ Massachusetts\\ Census\\,\\ where\\ the\\ ratio\\ stood\\ at\\ 96\\.5\\ men\\ per\\ 100\\ women\\.\\ This\\ imbalance\\ was\\ concentrated\\ in\\ the\\ prime\\ marriage\\ age\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ How\\ can\\ health\\ and\\ diet\\ deficiencies\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ females\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ addition\\ to\\ having\\ higher\\ infant\\ and\\ childhood\\ mortality\\ rates\\,\\ males\\ also\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ rate\\ of\\ fetal\\ deaths\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ female\\ fetuses\\ are\\ more\\ robust\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ higher\\ rate\\ of\\ survival\\ in\\ the\\ womb\\.\\ This\\ becomes\\ especially\\ significant\\ among\\ populations\\ suffering\\ from\\ inadequate\\ nutrition\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ medical\\ care\\.\\ In\\ such\\ circumstances\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ little\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ males\\ to\\ females\\ at\\ birth\\,\\ and\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ females\\ will\\ emerge\\ in\\ childhood\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ female\\ infanticide\\.\\ Male\\ fetal\\ deaths\\ have\\ played\\ a\\ major\\ role\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ marked\\ shortage\\ of\\ males\\ among\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ What\\ kinds\\ of\\ practices\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ males\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ major\\ cause\\ of\\ imbalanced\\ sex\\ ratios\\ with\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ males\\ is\\ female\\ infanticide\\.\\ Many\\ human\\ societies\\ have\\ systematically\\ killed\\ a\\ substantial\\ proportion\\ of\\ female\\ infants\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sometimes\\ through\\ selective\\ neglect\\,\\ but\\ most\\ often\\ by\\ smothering\\ them\\ or\\ by\\ abandoning\\ then\\ to\\ die\\ from\\ exposure\\ and\\ dehydration\\.\\ Certain\\ sexual\\ practices\\ can\\ also\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ males\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ extreme\\ excess\\ of\\ male\\ births\\ among\\ Orthodox\\ Jews\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ strict\\ norms\\ governing\\ when\\ intercourse\\ occurs\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\.\\ \\(Talmudic\\ law\\ forbids\\ intercourse\\ during\\ and\\ for\\ seven\\ days\\ following\\ menstruation\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ intercourse\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\ just\\ prior\\ to\\ ovulation\\,\\ and\\ some\\ evidence\\ indicates\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ when\\ the\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reproductive\\ tract\\ are\\ most\\ favorable\\ to\\ Y\\ sperm\\ and\\ hence\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ proportion\\ of\\ males\\ being\\ conceived\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Guttenberg\\ and\\ Secord\\,\\ how\\ do\\ males\\ use\\ structural\\ power\\ to\\ limit\\ their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\disadvantages\\ in\\ dyadic\\ power\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ regular\\,\\ long\\-term\\ excess\\ of\\ males\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\[Marcia\\ Guttentag\\ and\\ Paul\\ F\\.\\ Secord\\ studied\\ the\\ connections\\ between\\ sex\\ ratios\\ and\\ gender\\ roles\\ and\\ relations\\.\\ The\\ capacity\\ of\\ each\\ member\\ in\\ a\\ dyadic\\,\\ or\\ two\\ person\\,\\ relationship\\ to\\ impose\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ will\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ member\\ is\\ called\\ dyadic\\ power\\.\\ A\\ social\\ circumstance\\ that\\ can\\ greatly\\ influence\\ dyadic\\ power\\ is\\ the\\ sex\\ ratio\\ with\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ dyad\\ is\\ located\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ individual\\ member\\ whose\\ sex\\ is\\ in\\ short\\ supply\\ has\\ a\\ stronger\\ position\\ and\\ is\\ less\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ partner\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ number\\ of\\ alternative\\ relationships\\ available\\ to\\ him\\ or\\ her\\.\\ When\\ women\\ are\\ in\\ short\\ supply\\,\\ they\\ can\\ select\\ from\\ among\\ several\\ suitors\\;\\ when\\ men\\ are\\ in\\ short\\ supply\\,\\ then\\ can\\ pick\\ from\\ several\\ available\\ women\\.\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;An\\ unfavorable\\ sex\\ ratio\\ causes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\power\\ dependencies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ dyadic\\ relationships\\ for\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ sex\\ in\\ excess\\ supply\\.\\ From\\ this\\ it\\ follows\\ that\\ men\\ will\\ experience\\ power\\ dependence\\ in\\ their\\ dyadic\\ relations\\ with\\ women\\ when\\ women\\ are\\ in\\ short\\ supply\\;\\ this\\ unbalances\\ their\\ relative\\ abilities\\ to\\ achieve\\ their\\ goals\\ outside\\ the\\ dyad\\.\\ Structural\\ power\\ is\\ power\\ based\\ on\\ statuses\\ within\\ social\\ structures\\.\\ Lack\\ of\\ dyadic\\ power\\ motivates\\ men\\ to\\ shape\\ the\\ rules\\ governing\\ status\\ to\\ favor\\ them\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ in\\ this\\ circumstance\\ men\\ also\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ greater\\ numbers\\ on\\ their\\ side\\.\\ Men\\ organize\\ to\\ create\\ social\\ structures\\ based\\ on\\ norms\\ governing\\ appropriate\\ sex\\-role\\ behavior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ norms\\ that\\ serve\\ to\\ limit\\ the\\ dyadic\\ bargaining\\ power\\ of\\ women\\ by\\ limiting\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ form\\ additional\\ dyadic\\ relations\\.\\ Both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ will\\ internalize\\ these\\ norms\\.\\ Examples\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Brides\\ shall\\ be\\ virgins\\.\\ This\\ reduces\\ the\\ margins\\ within\\ which\\ women\\ can\\ form\\ alternative\\ dyads\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wives\\ shall\\ be\\ chaste\\.\\ This\\ reduces\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ options\\ to\\ find\\ alternatives\\ outside\\ the\\ dyad\\,\\ once\\ it\\ is\\ formed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ shall\\ devote\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ roles\\ of\\ wife\\ and\\ mother\\.\\ This\\ tends\\ to\\ discourage\\ both\\ divorce\\ and\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ careers\\ outside\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ This\\ typically\\ leads\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defining\\ women\\ as\\ temperamentally\\ unsuited\\ to\\ positions\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ authority\\,\\ which\\ facilitates\\ male\\ control\\ of\\ laws\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ customs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Why\\ was\\ there\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;marriage\\ squeeze\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ American\\ women\\ during\\ the\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 1970s\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;American\\ women\\ faced\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;marriage\\ squeeze\\&rdquo\\;\\ during\\ the\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 1970s\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ boom\\.\\ When\\ a\\ population\\ grows\\ rapidly\\,\\ younger\\ cohorts\\ are\\ always\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ ones\\ before\\ them\\.\\ Since\\ women\\ from\\ younger\\ cohorts\\ tend\\ to\\ marry\\ men\\ from\\ older\\ cohorts\\,\\ women\\ baby\\ boomers\\ faced\\ an\\ acute\\ shortage\\ of\\ slightly\\ older\\ men\\ to\\ marry\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ men\\ their\\ own\\ age\\ had\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ slightly\\ younger\\ women\\ to\\ choose\\ from\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ What\\ kinds\\ of\\ backgrounds\\ were\\ typical\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ feminists\\ in\\ America\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ feminism\\ of\\ the\\ 1960s\\ was\\ a\\ direct\\ outgrowth\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ that\\ began\\ to\\ attract\\ women\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ This\\ feminism\\ of\\ the\\ 1910s\\ and\\ 1920s\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ small\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ its\\ early\\ appeal\\ was\\ limited\\ to\\ women\\ of\\ two\\ very\\ different\\ and\\ unusual\\ backgrounds\\.\\ The\\ first\\ were\\ women\\ active\\ in\\ leftist\\ politics\\ and\\ union\\ organization\\,\\ often\\ women\\ employed\\ in\\ the\\ garment\\ industry\\.\\ The\\ second\\ were\\ young\\ female\\ intellectuals\\ and\\ artists\\ ready\\ to\\ explore\\ bohemian\\ lifestyles\\,\\ avant\\-garde\\ women\\.\\ These\\ women\\ typically\\ were\\ well\\ educated\\,\\ often\\ at\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ colleges\\,\\ and\\ frequently\\,\\ their\\ mothers\\ had\\ been\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ women\\ movement\\.\\ While\\ the\\ suffragist\\ movement\\ rapidly\\ attracted\\ a\\ massive\\ popular\\ base\\,\\ feminism\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ movement\\ among\\ small\\,\\ often\\ elite\\,\\ groups\\ and\\ grew\\ slowly\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ reasons\\,\\ other\\ than\\ sex\\ discrimination\\,\\ for\\ the\\ gender\\ wage\\-gap\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\among\\ full\\-time\\,\\ year\\ round\\ workers\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ women\\ have\\ entered\\ many\\ occupations\\ once\\ closed\\ to\\ them\\,\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ concentrated\\ in\\ the\\ relatively\\ lower\\ paying\\ occupations\\,\\ and\\ remain\\ very\\ underrepresented\\ in\\ some\\ high\\-paying\\ jobs\\.\\ While\\ sex\\ discrimination\\ is\\ no\\ doubt\\ involved\\ in\\ these\\ patterns\\,\\ additional\\ factors\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ comparisons\\.\\ One\\ is\\ that\\ because\\ female\\ employment\\ rates\\ have\\ risen\\ rapidly\\,\\ the\\ average\\ working\\ woman\\ is\\ considerably\\ younger\\ than\\ the\\ average\\ working\\ man\\.\\ This\\ means\\ the\\ average\\ male\\ benefits\\ from\\ greater\\ seniority\\ and\\ a\\ longer\\ opportunity\\ to\\ have\\ accrued\\ raises\\.\\ Another\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ gender\\ wage\\ gap\\ is\\ turnover\\.\\ Women\\ change\\ jobs\\ more\\ often\\ than\\ do\\ men\\,\\ and\\ they\\ take\\ time\\ out\\ from\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\ more\\ often\\.\\ Again\\,\\ this\\ influences\\ seniority\\ and\\ experience\\.\\ One\\ reason\\ for\\ this\\ higher\\ turnover\\ rate\\ is\\ maternity\\ and\\ child\\ rearing\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ tendency\\ of\\ families\\ to\\ move\\ when\\ it\\ benefits\\ the\\ husband\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\,\\ thus\\ causing\\ wives\\ to\\ quit\\ jobs\\ and\\ seek\\ new\\ ones\\,\\ is\\ another\\ reason\\ for\\ turnover\\.\\ A\\ final\\ consideration\\ is\\ sex\\ role\\ socialization\\.\\ One\\ aspect\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ women\\ still\\ tend\\ to\\ shun\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ activities\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ high\\ incomes\\,\\ like\\ majors\\ or\\ careers\\ in\\ the\\ sciences\\ and\\ engineering\\.\\ Also\\,\\ cultural\\ definitions\\ of\\ the\\ characteristics\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ effective\\ leader\\ are\\ traits\\ regarded\\ as\\ masculine\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ traits\\ associated\\ with\\ femininity\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ inappropriate\\ for\\ leadership\\ roles\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ chosen\\ as\\ leaders\\ to\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ socialized\\ to\\ perceive\\ that\\ women\\ lack\\ appropriate\\ leadership\\ traits\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ men\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ hold\\ supervisory\\ positions\\ and\\ hence\\ to\\ earn\\ higher\\ salaries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ How\\ did\\ some\\ of\\ what\\ early\\ feminists\\ advocated\\ unwittingly\\ cause\\ problems\\ for\\ American\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\women\\ that\\ later\\ feminists\\ would\\ find\\ themselves\\ battling\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Unlike\\ the\\ woman\\ movement\\ before\\ them\\,\\ early\\ feminists\\ did\\ not\\ advocate\\ ending\\ the\\ double\\ standard\\ of\\ morality\\ by\\ restricting\\ males\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ complete\\ sexual\\ freedom\\ for\\ females\\.\\ Seeing\\ sexual\\ desire\\ as\\ healthy\\ and\\ joyful\\,\\ they\\ assumed\\ that\\ free\\ women\\ could\\ meet\\ men\\ as\\ equals\\ on\\ the\\ terrain\\ of\\ sexual\\ desire\\ just\\ as\\ on\\ the\\ terrain\\ of\\ political\\ representation\\ or\\ professional\\ expertise\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ early\\ feminists\\ were\\ far\\ from\\ acknowledging\\ publicly\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ submergence\\ of\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ individuality\\ and\\ personality\\ in\\ heterosexual\\ love\\ relationships\\,\\ or\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sexual\\ exploitation\\ of\\ women\\ who\\ purposely\\ broke\\ the\\ bounds\\ of\\ conventional\\ sexual\\ restraint\\.\\ As\\ women\\ battled\\ to\\ free\\ themselves\\ of\\ dehumanizing\\ limits\\,\\ they\\ unleashed\\ forces\\ that\\ tended\\ to\\ impose\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ dehumanization\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ What\\ have\\ been\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ a\\ relative\\ shortage\\ of\\ men\\ for\\ African\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ women\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ consequences\\ for\\ African\\ American\\ women\\ faced\\ with\\ an\\ acute\\ shortage\\ of\\ men\\ was\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ employment\\.\\ By\\ \\ \\;1900\\,\\ when\\ only\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ all\\ American\\ women\\ were\\ employed\\ outside\\ the\\ home\\,\\ 43\\.2\\%\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ women\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ compared\\ with\\ 14\\.6\\ percent\\ of\\ native\\-born\\ white\\ women\\.\\ But\\ the\\ primary\\ consequence\\ has\\ been\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ nuclear\\ family\\,\\ with\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ number\\ of\\ one\\-parent\\ families\\ and\\ children\\ born\\ out\\ of\\ wedlock\\.\\ \\[Fossett\\ and\\ Kiecolt\\ found\\ that\\ variations\\ in\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ sex\\ ratio\\ were\\ highly\\ correlated\\ with\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ one\\-parent\\ families\\ among\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\ Where\\ relatively\\ more\\ potential\\ husbands\\ were\\ available\\,\\ more\\ women\\ married\\.\\ Also\\,\\ as\\ Guttentag\\ and\\ Secord\\ predicted\\,\\ African\\ American\\ men\\ are\\ far\\ less\\ likely\\ than\\ other\\ American\\ men\\ to\\ desire\\ to\\ marry\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Experiments\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ whole\\ chapter\\ is\\ mostly\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ research\\ of\\ Guttentag\\ and\\ Secord\\,\\ and\\ their\\ theories\\ regarding\\ sex\\ ratios\\ and\\ sex\\ roles\\.\\ The\\ answer\\ to\\ \\#\\ 5\\ goes\\ over\\ the\\ main\\ points\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\CHAPTER\\ 13\\:\\ THE\\ FAMILY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\I\\.\\ The\\ Godly\\ Family\\ in\\ New\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Between\\ 1629\\ and\\ 1640\\,\\ 20\\,000\\ Puritans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\came\\ to\\ New\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Purpose\\:\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ Godly\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ Functions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Family\\ life\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ private\\ sphere\\,\\ cut\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ public\\ realm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Economic\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Welfare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Family\\ Interconnections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Live\\-in\\ servants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ High\\ rates\\ of\\ marriage\\ and\\ remarriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Intermarriage\\ as\\ a\\ business\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Marriage\\ was\\ an\\ economic\\,\\ not\\ romantic\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\institution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Changes\\:\\ 1640\\-1776\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Diminished\\ parental\\ control\\ over\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marriages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ A\\ different\\ conception\\ of\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Redefinition\\ of\\ family\\ functions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ The\\ Democratic\\ Family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Alexis\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Tocqueville\\,\\ a\\ 26\\-year\\-old\\ French\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nobleman\\ visits\\ US\\ in\\ 1831\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Wrote\\ about\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\&rdquo\\;\\ family\\ form\\ emerging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\among\\ middle\\ class\\ from\\ 1770\\-1830\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ He\\ called\\ this\\ family\\ form\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;democratic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\family\\&rdquo\\;\\ after\\ the\\ political\\ experiment\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\young\\ country\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Democratic\\ Family\\&rdquo\\;\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ A\\ marriage\\ relationship\\ emphasizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\companionship\\ and\\ mutual\\ affection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ A\\ more\\ intense\\ concern\\ for\\ proper\\ upbringing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ A\\ new\\ division\\ of\\ sex\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Companionate\\ Family\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1900\\-1930\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Signs\\ of\\ Crisis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Discovery\\ of\\ high\\ divorce\\ rate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Birthrates\\ dropping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Restlessness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ women\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Response\\:\\ a\\ new\\ family\\ ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ Reactionary\\ forces\\:\\ return\\ to\\ Victorian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ideal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61551\\;\\ New\\ conception\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;companionate\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Spouses\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;friends\\ and\\ lovers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Children\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;pals\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\1\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ major\\ criticisms\\ of\\ George\\ Peter\\ Murdock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ family\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ What\\ main\\ features\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ life\\ of\\ most\\ pre\\-modern\\ societies\\ are\\ described\\ in\\ your\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\text\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ In\\ what\\ ways\\ described\\ in\\ your\\ text\\ do\\ Japanese\\ differ\\ from\\ Americans\\ and\\ Canadians\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\their\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ marriage\\ and\\ family\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ reasons\\ why\\ the\\ typical\\ household\\ in\\ traditional\\ Europe\\ was\\ so\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\smaller\\ than\\ scholars\\ expected\\ given\\ the\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ births\\ per\\ woman\\ of\\ the\\ time\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Assuming\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ males\\ makes\\ women\\ more\\ valuable\\,\\ why\\ were\\ husbands\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\traditional\\ Europe\\ often\\ indifferent\\ or\\ even\\ happy\\ about\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ their\\ wives\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ major\\ factors\\ behind\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ romantic\\ attachments\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marriage\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ How\\ can\\ it\\ be\\ true\\ that\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ marriages\\ breaking\\ up\\ could\\ be\\ much\\ greater\\ than\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ getting\\ divorced\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ What\\ were\\ the\\ major\\ findings\\ by\\ Katherine\\ Trent\\ and\\ Scott\\ South\\ about\\ what\\ factors\\ drive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\up\\ divorce\\ rates\\ in\\ some\\ countries\\ more\\ than\\ others\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Jerry\\ Jacobs\\ and\\ Frank\\ Furstenberg\\,\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ woman\\ is\\ least\\ likely\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marry\\ a\\ second\\ husband\\ who\\ is\\ as\\ successful\\ her\\ first\\ husband\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Lynn\\ White\\ and\\ Alan\\ Booth\\,\\ how\\ does\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ stepchildren\\ affect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marital\\ happiness\\ following\\ remarriage\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\CHAPTER\\ 14\\:\\ RELIGION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ Levels\\ of\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Macro\\ \\(society\\-wide\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Meso\\ \\(institutions\\&mdash\\;denominations\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\congregations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Micro\\ \\(individual\\ belief\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\behavior\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Definition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\religious\\ economy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\consists\\ of\\ all\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ religious\\ activity\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ any\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\society\\.\\ It\\ includes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ A\\ \\&ldquo\\;market\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ current\\ and\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\adherents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ organizations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\seeking\\ to\\ attract\\ or\\ maintain\\ adherents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ and\\ the\\ religious\\ culture\\ offered\\ by\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\organization\\(s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Demand\\&rdquo\\;\\ Side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;What\\ does\\ this\\ mean\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\religion\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61608\\;Quantity\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;How\\ much\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61608\\;Quality\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;What\\ kind\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Beliefs\\,\\ practices\\ and\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;tension\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Tension\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ church\\ and\\ sect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ The\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\group\\ and\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\characterized\\ by\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Distinctiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Separation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Antagonism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Sect\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;high\\ tension\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Church\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;low\\ tension\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Market\\ Niches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Proposition\\:\\ All\\ religious\\ economies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\include\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ relatively\\ stable\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\niches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Niches\\ are\\ market\\ segments\\ of\\ potential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\adherents\\ sharing\\ particular\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\preferences\\ \\(needs\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\expectations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Basic\\ Niches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;What\\ if\\ we\\ rank\\ people\\ according\\ to\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\intensity\\ of\\ their\\ religious\\ desires\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;taste\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ strictness\\ and\\ tension\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Result\\ might\\ look\\ like\\ a\\ bell\\ curve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Niche\\ Straddling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Some\\ organizations\\ straddle\\ across\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\niches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Potential\\ for\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ organizations\\ \\&\\#61550\\;Some\\ organizations\\ can\\ contain\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ of\\ local\\ autonomy\\ \\(Southern\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Baptists\\)\\ or\\ inner\\ sects\\ \\(Catholic\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\orders\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Niche\\ Composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Why\\ is\\ there\\ such\\ diversity\\ of\\ religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\preferences\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Different\\ demographics\\ shape\\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tastes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Socialization\\ is\\ the\\ biggest\\ shaper\\ of\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Demand\\ Preferences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Are\\ relatively\\ stable\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Means\\ that\\ in\\ an\\ unregulated\\ market\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pluralism\\ will\\ develop\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;No\\ one\\ firm\\ can\\ meet\\ the\\ variety\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\religious\\ needs\\ \\(can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ both\\ strict\\ and\\ lax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supply\\ Side\\ and\\ Regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;To\\ the\\ degree\\ that\\ a\\ religious\\ economy\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\unregulated\\ and\\ market\\ forces\\ prevail\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\these\\ niches\\ will\\ be\\ visible\\ and\\ will\\ sustain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\ set\\ of\\ specialized\\ religious\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Even\\ in\\ highly\\ regulated\\ economies\\,\\ these\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\will\\ tend\\ to\\ exist\\,\\ but\\ less\\ distinctly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dynamics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;The\\ primary\\ \\&ldquo\\;action\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ religious\\ markets\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NOT\\ individual\\-level\\ switching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;It\\ is\\ how\\ religious\\ \\&ldquo\\;firms\\&rdquo\\;\\ switch\\ niches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;This\\ \\&ldquo\\;niche\\ switching\\&rdquo\\;\\ among\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\organizations\\ has\\ the\\ greatest\\ impact\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\religious\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Competition\\ is\\ key\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;The\\ key\\ dynamic\\ here\\ is\\ competition\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\religious\\ choice\\,\\ not\\ just\\ pluralism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Competition\\ increases\\ participation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;BUT\\:\\ conflict\\ can\\ sometimes\\ substitute\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\choice\\ \\(Ireland\\,\\ Poland\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\1\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ essential\\ features\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ included\\ in\\ any\\ adequate\\ sociological\\ definition\\ of\\ religion\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Religion\\ must\\ have\\ socially\\ organized\\ beliefs\\ and\\ activities\\ that\\ offer\\ solutions\\ to\\ questions\\ of\\ ultimate\\ meaning\\ that\\ posit\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ supernatural\\.\\ Just\\ having\\ questions\\ of\\ ultimate\\ meaning\\ is\\ too\\ broad\\,\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ distinguish\\ between\\ religious\\ and\\ antireligious\\ positions\\.\\ Many\\ questions\\ of\\ ultimate\\ meaning\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ answered\\ by\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ supernatural\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ your\\ text\\,\\ when\\ do\\ religions\\ function\\ to\\ sustain\\ the\\ moral\\ order\\,\\ and\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ religions\\ do\\ not\\ function\\ in\\ this\\ way\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Fear\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ was\\ a\\ motive\\ to\\ enforce\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ morality\\.\\ Religion\\ sustains\\ moral\\ order\\ by\\ asserting\\ itself\\ not\\ only\\ over\\ conduct\\ but\\ over\\ the\\ conscience\\.\\ Religions\\ with\\ no\\ moral\\ codes\\ \\(Lhotas\\)\\ or\\ do\\ not\\ support\\ the\\ moral\\ order\\ \\(Roman\\ mythology\\)\\ do\\ not\\ function\\ this\\ way\\.\\ Moral\\ functions\\ of\\ religion\\ requires\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ supernatural\\ beings\\ as\\ deeply\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ humans\\ toward\\ one\\ another\\.\\ Images\\ of\\ Gods\\ as\\ conscious\\,\\ powerful\\,\\ morally\\ concerned\\ beings\\ function\\ to\\ sustain\\ the\\ moral\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ What\\ explanation\\ and\\ evidence\\ do\\ many\\ sociologists\\ give\\ for\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ gender\\ differences\\ in\\ religiosity\\ are\\ similar\\ to\\ gender\\ differences\\ in\\ criminality\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ higher\\ men\\ scored\\ on\\ a\\ standardized\\ measure\\ of\\ femininity\\,\\ the\\ more\\ religious\\ they\\ were\\.\\ The\\ higher\\ women\\ scored\\ on\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ masculinity\\,\\ the\\ less\\ religious\\ they\\ were\\.\\ Men\\ are\\ more\\ inclined\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ short\\-term\\ gratifications\\,\\ riskier\\,\\ and\\ have\\ weaker\\ self\\-control\\ than\\ women\\.\\ This\\ causes\\ them\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ risky\\ actions\\ such\\ as\\ crime\\.\\ Analogous\\ to\\ criminality\\,\\ religiosity\\ provides\\ long\\-term\\ benefits\\ and\\ is\\ risk\\-averse\\.\\ Men\\ reject\\ religious\\ beliefs\\ as\\ risk\\-taking\\ behavior\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ key\\ differences\\ between\\ churches\\ and\\ sects\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Churches\\ intellectualize\\ religious\\ teachings\\ and\\ restrain\\ emotionalism\\ in\\ their\\ services\\.\\ They\\ offer\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Gods\\ as\\ somewhat\\ remote\\ from\\ daily\\ life\\ and\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Ects\\ stress\\ emotionalism\\ and\\ individual\\ mystical\\ experiences\\ and\\ tend\\ toward\\ fundamentalism\\ rather\\ than\\ intellectualism\\ in\\ their\\ teachings\\.\\ They\\ present\\ their\\ gods\\ as\\ close\\ at\\ hand\\,\\ taking\\ an\\ active\\ interest\\ and\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ individuals\\.\\ Churches\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ cosmopolitan\\ networks\\,\\ while\\ sects\\ consist\\ of\\ intense\\ local\\ networks\\.\\ Churches\\ provide\\ for\\ the\\ religious\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ and\\ upper\\ classes\\.\\ Sects\\ cater\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ low\\ stratification\\ system\\.\\ Churches\\ have\\ low\\ tension\\ while\\ sects\\ have\\ high\\ tension\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ What\\ facts\\ convinced\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ your\\ text\\ that\\ secularization\\ is\\ not\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ religion\\ in\\ a\\ so\\-called\\ \\&ldquo\\;age\\ of\\ science\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Secularization\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ aspect\\ of\\ religious\\ change\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-limiting\\ process\\ that\\ leads\\ not\\ to\\ irreligion\\ but\\ to\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ sources\\ of\\ religion\\.\\ Church\\-sect\\ theory\\ suggests\\ that\\ many\\ religious\\ bodies\\ are\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ becoming\\ worldly\\.\\ We\\ must\\ expect\\ the\\ trend\\ toward\\ secularization\\ to\\ produce\\ religious\\ reactions\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ form\\ sects\\ \\(revival\\)\\.\\ As\\ secularization\\ weakens\\ some\\ organizations\\,\\ new\\ ones\\ revive\\ less\\ worldly\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ faith\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ What\\ characterizes\\ leaders\\ of\\ new\\ religions\\ who\\ are\\ successful\\ in\\ attracting\\ followers\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Leaders\\ of\\ new\\ religions\\ must\\ have\\ charisma\\ to\\ attract\\ followers\\.\\ They\\ inspire\\ faith\\ in\\ others\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ an\\ unusual\\ ability\\ to\\ form\\ attachments\\ to\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ What\\ does\\ the\\ growth\\ or\\ decline\\ of\\ Protestant\\ denominations\\ whose\\ members\\ mostly\\ do\\ or\\ do\\ not\\ embrace\\ Bible\\ literalism\\ suggest\\ about\\ the\\ thesis\\ that\\ secularization\\ is\\ inevitable\\ as\\ science\\ triumphs\\ over\\ faith\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;As\\ some\\ denominations\\ are\\ eroded\\ by\\ secularization\\,\\ new\\ sects\\ erupt\\ and\\ seize\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ attract\\ members\\ to\\ a\\ less\\ secularized\\ faith\\,\\ thus\\ reviving\\ and\\ revitalizing\\ the\\ religious\\ tradition\\.\\ If\\ secularization\\ weakens\\ the\\ holding\\ power\\ of\\ religious\\ organizations\\,\\ then\\ denominations\\ like\\ the\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ and\\ Southern\\ Baptist\\ Convention\\ \\(big\\ daddies\\)\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ showing\\ signs\\ of\\ decline\\.\\ If\\ secularization\\ is\\ inevitable\\ as\\ science\\ triumphs\\ over\\ faith\\,\\ then\\ the\\ denominations\\ holding\\ the\\ Bible\\ literalism\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ ones\\ in\\ the\\ decline\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ What\\ kinds\\ of\\ people\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ join\\ cults\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Unattached\\ newcomers\\ moving\\ in\\ the\\ West\\ have\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ join\\ cults\\ and\\ form\\ attachments\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attached\\ to\\ such\\ large\\ organizations\\.\\ People\\ who\\ have\\ grown\\ up\\ with\\ parents\\ claiming\\ no\\ religious\\ affiliation\\ or\\ not\\ active\\ members\\ of\\ any\\ faith\\ tend\\ to\\ join\\ cults\\.\\ To\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ people\\ grow\\ up\\ in\\ irreligious\\ homes\\,\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ potential\\ converts\\ to\\ cult\\ movements\\ will\\ exist\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ What\\ do\\ rates\\ of\\ conventional\\ church\\ involvements\\ and\\ cult\\ movements\\ in\\ Europe\\ versus\\ America\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ extreme\\ secularization\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Contrary\\ to\\ popular\\ beliefs\\,\\ Europe\\ is\\ awash\\ in\\ nonstandard\\ religious\\ movements\\ and\\ have\\ far\\ more\\ numerous\\ cult\\ groups\\ and\\ new\\ religions\\ than\\ there\\ has\\ ever\\ been\\ in\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ What\\ evidence\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ on\\ formerly\\ communist\\ countries\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ thesis\\ that\\ severe\\ repression\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ aggressive\\ promotion\\ of\\ atheism\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ dominance\\ of\\ the\\ latter\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;After\\ seizing\\ power\\ in\\ Russia\\,\\ the\\ communist\\ embarked\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;scientific\\ atheism\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ destroying\\ almost\\ all\\ churches\\ and\\ discriminating\\ against\\ religious\\ followers\\.\\ With\\ the\\ breakup\\ of\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\,\\ religious\\ repression\\ subsided\\.\\ Large\\ numbers\\ of\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ identify\\ themselves\\ as\\ religious\\.\\ There\\ was\\ an\\ abrupt\\ growth\\ in\\ religiosity\\ and\\ the\\ disappearance\\ of\\ atheism\\.\\ However\\,\\ Soviet\\ educational\\ efforts\\ to\\ root\\ our\\ religion\\ caused\\ unconventional\\ beliefs\\ \\(cult\\ formations\\)\\ to\\ prosper\\.\\ Applied\\ to\\ Russia\\,\\ this\\ principle\\ would\\ lead\\ us\\ to\\ expect\\ nontraditional\\ beliefs\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ popular\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ pression\\ of\\ conventional\\ churches\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Religious\\ Economy\\:\\ The\\ set\\ of\\ competing\\ faiths\\,\\ and\\ their\\ adherents\\,\\ within\\ a\\ given\\ society\\ or\\ geographical\\ area\\ of\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Secularization\\:\\ The\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ particular\\ religious\\ organizations\\ become\\ more\\ worldly\\ and\\ offer\\ a\\ less\\ vivid\\ and\\ less\\ active\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ supernatural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Revival\\:\\ Movements\\ within\\ religious\\ organizations\\,\\ or\\ the\\ breaking\\ away\\ of\\ new\\ organizations\\,\\ to\\ reaffirm\\ less\\ secularized\\ versions\\ of\\ a\\ faith\\ \\(see\\ sect\\ formation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Religious\\ innovation\\:\\ The\\ appearance\\ of\\ new\\ religions\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ either\\ by\\ founding\\ a\\ new\\ faith\\ \\(cult\\ formation\\)\\ or\\ by\\ importing\\ a\\ new\\ faith\\ from\\ another\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Ultimate\\ meaning\\,\\ questions\\ about\\:\\ Questions\\ about\\ the\\ very\\ meaning\\ of\\ life\\,\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ reality\\-\\ for\\ example\\,\\ Does\\ life\\ have\\ a\\ purpose\\?\\ Is\\ death\\ the\\ end\\?\\ Why\\ do\\ we\\ suffer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Supernatural\\:\\ That\\ which\\ is\\ beyond\\ natural\\ laws\\ and\\ limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\)\\ Religion\\:\\ Any\\ socially\\ organized\\ pattern\\ of\\ beliefs\\ and\\ practices\\ concerning\\ ultimate\\ meaning\\ that\\ assumes\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ supernatural\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\)\\ Religious\\ pluralism\\:\\ The\\ existence\\ of\\ several\\ religions\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\)\\ Churches\\:\\ Religious\\ bodies\\ in\\ a\\ relatively\\ low\\ state\\ of\\ tension\\ with\\ their\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\)\\ Sects\\:\\ Religious\\ bodies\\ in\\ a\\ relatively\\ high\\ state\\ of\\ tension\\ with\\ their\\ environment\\ but\\ which\\ remain\\ within\\ the\\ conventional\\ religious\\ tradition\\(s\\)\\ of\\ their\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\)\\ Sect\\ formation\\:\\ The\\ breaking\\ off\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ from\\ a\\ conventional\\ religion\\ to\\ move\\ into\\ a\\ higher\\ degree\\ of\\ tension\\ with\\ the\\ environment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\)\\ Church\\-sect\\ theory\\:\\ The\\ proposition\\ that\\,\\ in\\ time\\,\\ successful\\ sects\\ will\\ be\\ transformed\\ into\\ churches\\,\\ thereby\\ creating\\ the\\ conditions\\ for\\ the\\ eruption\\ of\\ new\\ sects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\)\\ Cults\\:\\ religious\\ movements\\ that\\ represent\\ faiths\\ that\\ are\\ new\\ and\\ unconventional\\ in\\ a\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\)\\ Cult\\ formation\\:\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ or\\ persons\\ with\\ new\\ revelations\\ succeed\\ in\\ gathering\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ followers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\)\\ Charisma\\:\\ The\\ unusual\\ ability\\ of\\ some\\ religious\\ leaders\\ to\\ influence\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;CHAPTER\\ 15\\:\\ POLITICS\\ AND\\ THE\\ STATE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ How\\ did\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ commons\\&rdquo\\;\\ come\\ about\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ commons\\&rdquo\\;\\ occurred\\ when\\ individual\\ herd\\ owners\\ in\\ England\\ began\\ to\\ overgraze\\ the\\ commons\\ causing\\ erosion\\ and\\ destruction\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ declining\\ land\\ capabilities\\,\\ people\\ continued\\ to\\ maintiain\\ unsustainable\\ numbers\\ of\\ livestock\\.\\ Traditionally\\,\\ the\\ commons\\ was\\ uncultivated\\ land\\ of\\ a\\ lord\\&rsquo\\;s\\ estate\\ that\\ common\\ people\\ could\\ use\\ for\\ livestock\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ was\\ only\\ an\\ effective\\ agreement\\ when\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ limited\\ population\\ from\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ factors\\ such\\ as\\ war\\,\\ disease\\,\\ and\\ famine\\.\\ With\\ rapid\\ population\\ growth\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ livestock\\ increased\\ leading\\ to\\ overgrazing\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ lord\\ would\\ reclaim\\ his\\ land\\,\\ close\\ the\\ land\\,\\ and\\ withhold\\ access\\ from\\ common\\ people\\.\\ The\\ elite\\ class\\ now\\ controlled\\ the\\ enclosed\\ grazing\\ land\\ and\\ grew\\ rich\\ and\\ powerful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ contradiction\\ in\\ human\\ interactions\\ today\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ commons\\&rdquo\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;many\\ things\\ vital\\ to\\ humans\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\social\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;beings\\ conflict\\ with\\ things\\ vital\\ to\\ humans\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ To\\ provide\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ or\\ collective\\ good\\,\\ people\\ often\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ surrender\\ considerable\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ lives\\ to\\ leaders\\ and\\ governments\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ idea\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ throughout\\ the\\ chapter\\&hellip\\;\\.with\\ different\\ theories\\ and\\ possible\\ solutions\\ applied\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Mancur\\ Olsen\\,\\ why\\ are\\ governments\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ public\\ goods\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mancur\\ Olsen\\ says\\ that\\ governments\\ are\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ provision\\ of\\ public\\ goods\\ because\\ coercion\\ \\/the\\ use\\ of\\ force\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ the\\ best\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ group\\.\\ The\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ and\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ collide\\ when\\ there\\ are\\ collective\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ addressed\\ and\\ public\\ goods\\ to\\ be\\ produced\\.\\ Olsen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ point\\ rests\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ commons\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ the\\ lords\\ could\\ not\\ simply\\ tell\\ the\\ tenants\\ to\\ stop\\ overgrazing\\;\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\force\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ people\\ to\\ stop\\ using\\ the\\ land\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Robert\\ Nozick\\,\\ what\\ should\\ be\\ meant\\ by\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ has\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;monopoly\\ of\\ the\\ legitimate\\ use\\ of\\ physical\\ force\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ Nozick\\ developed\\ the\\ idea\\ in\\ saying\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ a\\ state\\ claims\\ monopoly\\ on\\ deciding\\ who\\ may\\ use\\ force\\ when\\ it\\ says\\ that\\ only\\ it\\ mat\\ decide\\ who\\ may\\ use\\ force\\ and\\ under\\ what\\ conditions\\;\\ it\\ reserves\\ to\\ itself\\ the\\ sole\\ right\\ to\\ pass\\ on\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ and\\ permissibility\\ of\\ any\\ use\\ of\\ force\\ within\\ its\\ boundaries\\;\\ furthermore\\ it\\ claims\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ punish\\ all\\ those\\ who\\ violate\\ its\\ claimed\\ monopoly\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(420\\)\\.\\ The\\ text\\ book\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ controlling\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ force\\,\\ individuals\\ have\\ greater\\ security\\ from\\ force\\ of\\ physical\\ coercion\\ from\\ other\\ individuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ Marxist\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ private\\ property\\ and\\ repression\\ differ\\ from\\ the\\ classical\\ English\\ view\\ of\\ this\\ relationship\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marxism\\ holds\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ private\\ property\\ is\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ repression\\ and\\ exploitation\\.\\ The\\ ruling\\ class\\ becomes\\ rich\\ and\\ exploits\\ the\\ poor\\ through\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ private\\ property\\ and\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ enforcement\\ and\\ protection\\ of\\ this\\ right\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ Marx\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ masses\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ liberated\\ if\\ property\\ rights\\ were\\ completely\\ abolished\\.\\ The\\ English\\ view\\ stemmed\\ from\\ the\\ central\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ private\\ property\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ English\\ believed\\ that\\ state\\ repression\\ centered\\ on\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ use\\ force\\ to\\ annex\\ property\\,\\ the\\ prevention\\ of\\ this\\ ability\\ would\\ limit\\ the\\ state\\.\\ A\\ king\\ could\\ not\\ seize\\ just\\ any\\ land\\,\\ go\\ to\\ war\\,\\ or\\ obtain\\ his\\ luxuries\\ from\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ farms\\ without\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ English\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ could\\ be\\ tamed\\ if\\ taxes\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ imposed\\ or\\ collected\\ without\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ those\\ being\\ taxed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(424\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ text\\ book\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ commons\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ if\\ it\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ solved\\ through\\ dividing\\ the\\ property\\ and\\ putting\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ individual\\ herd\\ owners\\.\\ The\\ rights\\ of\\ the\\ landowners\\ are\\ then\\ discussed\\ and\\ debated\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ essential\\ differences\\ between\\ elitist\\ and\\ pluralist\\ states\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ an\\ elitist\\ state\\,\\ a\\ single\\ and\\ elite\\ group\\ possesses\\ all\\ the\\ power\\.\\ This\\ group\\ rules\\,\\ and\\ although\\ it\\ may\\ have\\ some\\ internal\\ power\\ struggles\\,\\ the\\ small\\ elite\\ have\\ total\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ its\\ coercive\\ powers\\.\\ A\\ pluralist\\ state\\ has\\ rules\\ governing\\ state\\ power\\ that\\ are\\ maintained\\ through\\ the\\ competition\\ of\\ several\\ groups\\.\\ Power\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ equally\\ distributed\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ dispersed\\ among\\ different\\ groups\\.\\ While\\ elitist\\ states\\ are\\ ruled\\ by\\ single\\ minorities\\,\\ pluralist\\ states\\ have\\ power\\ distributed\\ through\\ shifting\\ coalitions\\ of\\ several\\ groups\\ \\(427\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ What\\ factors\\ prevent\\ societies\\ from\\ adopting\\ direct\\ democracy\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ of\\ a\\ New\\ England\\ town\\ meeting\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Factors\\ that\\ prevent\\ society\\ from\\ adopting\\ direct\\ democracy\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ of\\ a\\ New\\ England\\ town\\ meeting\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ size\\ and\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ decisions\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ made\\.\\ Direct\\ democracy\\ only\\ effectively\\ works\\ with\\ tiny\\ populations\\.\\ Also\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ political\\ involvement\\ in\\ many\\ people\\ and\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ participate\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ interest\\ and\\ information\\ might\\ result\\ in\\ uninformed\\ or\\ irresponsible\\ decisions\\.\\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ indifference\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ practicality\\ makes\\ representative\\ democracy\\ a\\ better\\ system\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Before\\ scientific\\ public\\ opinion\\ polling\\ was\\ developed\\,\\ how\\ were\\ politicians\\ often\\ misled\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ wanted\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Due\\ to\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ accurate\\ public\\ opinion\\ polling\\,\\ politicians\\ were\\ often\\ misled\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ majority\\ wanted\\.\\ Often\\,\\ minorities\\ can\\ lead\\ massive\\ campaigns\\ of\\ letter\\ \\&ndash\\;writing\\,\\ public\\ demonstrations\\,\\ and\\ attract\\ a\\ disproportional\\ amount\\ of\\ media\\ attention\\.\\ Even\\ early\\ polls\\ were\\ incredibly\\ misleading\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ 1936\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Literary\\ Digest\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\collected\\ postcards\\ from\\ millions\\ of\\ individuals\\ to\\ assist\\ in\\ predicting\\ the\\ winner\\ of\\ the\\ presidential\\ candidate\\.\\ The\\ seemingly\\ obvious\\ results\\ were\\ very\\ wrong\\.\\ Until\\ recently\\,\\ many\\ officials\\ were\\ only\\ able\\ to\\ guess\\ about\\ public\\ opinion\\ with\\ very\\ little\\ assistance\\.\\ Scientific\\ public\\ polling\\ \\(Gallup\\ polls\\ were\\ groundbreaking\\ in\\ this\\ area\\)\\ are\\ incredibly\\ helpful\\ in\\ ensuring\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ representative\\ democracy\\ actually\\ has\\ candidates\\ who\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ population\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feelings\\ on\\ certain\\ issues\\ \\(429\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Alfred\\ Hunter\\ and\\ Margaret\\ Denton\\,\\ why\\ are\\ females\\ under\\-represented\\ in\\ the\\ Canadian\\ House\\ of\\ Commons\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hunter\\ and\\ Denton\\ seemed\\ to\\ observe\\ that\\ uncontrolled\\ variables\\ raised\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ gender\\ that\\ caused\\ the\\ underrepresentation\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ Canadian\\ House\\ of\\ Commons\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ already\\ existing\\ male\\ candidates\\ in\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Commons\\ means\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ incumbents\\ trying\\ for\\ reelection\\ are\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ men\\.\\ They\\ therefore\\ have\\ a\\ higher\\ chance\\ of\\ reelection\\ based\\ off\\ of\\ factors\\ such\\ as\\ name\\ familiarity\\ and\\ previously\\ favorable\\ responses\\ from\\ the\\ general\\ population\\.\\ It\\ was\\ also\\ noted\\ that\\ women\\ were\\ chosen\\ as\\ party\\ candidates\\ when\\ their\\ specific\\ party\\ was\\ doing\\ poorly\\.\\ Since\\ women\\ were\\ running\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;lost\\ cause\\&rdquo\\;\\ seats\\,\\ it\\ meant\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ party\\ would\\ generally\\ have\\ more\\ support\\ and\\ usually\\ win\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ Hunter\\ and\\ Denton\\ seemed\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ women\\ and\\ men\\ had\\ equal\\ \\&lsquo\\;vote\\-getting\\&rsquo\\;\\ abilities\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ functioning\\ on\\ an\\ equal\\ playing\\ field\\ of\\ party\\,\\ incumbency\\,\\ and\\ competitiveness\\ \\(434\\-435\\)\\.\\ It\\ was\\ these\\ other\\ factors\\,\\ and\\ not\\ only\\ gender\\,\\ that\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ women\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ Canadian\\ House\\ of\\ Commons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ What\\ does\\ survey\\ evidence\\ suggest\\ about\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ have\\ an\\ ideology\\ that\\ informs\\ their\\ political\\ judgments\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ surveys\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ seem\\ to\\ show\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ correlation\\ between\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beliefs\\ or\\ agreements\\ with\\ statements\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ would\\ do\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ while\\ some\\ people\\ may\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ traditional\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ women\\ this\\ would\\ not\\ stop\\ them\\ from\\ voting\\ for\\ a\\ female\\ candidate\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Stark\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;most\\ Americans\\ who\\ hold\\ this\\ \\[unusual\\]\\ pattern\\ of\\ beliefs\\ do\\ not\\ see\\ their\\ views\\ as\\ inconsistent\\ or\\ muddled\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ trying\\ to\\ remain\\ in\\ tune\\ with\\ an\\ ideology\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(438\\)\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ as\\ though\\ the\\ survey\\ evidence\\ rejects\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ most\\ people\\ have\\ an\\ ideology\\ that\\ informs\\ their\\ political\\ judgments\\ as\\ many\\ Americans\\ seem\\ to\\ ignore\\ policy\\,\\ issue\\,\\ and\\ ideological\\ matters\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ making\\ political\\ decisions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Why\\ are\\ educated\\ people\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ consistent\\ ideologies\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\McClosky\\ seemed\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ political\\ delegates\\ had\\ the\\ highest\\ level\\ of\\ ideological\\ consistency\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ their\\ positions\\ and\\ roles\\ as\\ politicians\\.\\ They\\ are\\ continually\\ challenged\\ and\\ inconsistencies\\ are\\ daily\\ pointed\\ out\\,\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ they\\ have\\ very\\ internally\\ consistent\\ political\\ views\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ Republican\\ would\\ usually\\ have\\ very\\ clear\\ and\\ defined\\ views\\ that\\ drastically\\ differ\\ from\\ a\\ Democrat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ on\\ several\\ key\\ points\\.\\ While\\ college\\ educated\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ this\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ pressure\\ to\\ be\\ consistent\\,\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ sensitive\\ to\\ clear\\ and\\ apparent\\ inconsistencies\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ education\\.\\ Jobs\\ that\\ require\\ higher\\ education\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ clergy\\,\\ professors\\,\\ journalists\\,\\ and\\ other\\ professions\\ also\\ include\\ outside\\ pressures\\ to\\ be\\ consistent\\ with\\ their\\ worldviews\\.\\ In\\ general\\,\\ politically\\ active\\ \\(even\\ if\\ this\\ just\\ means\\ sort\\ of\\ interested\\)\\ people\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ educated\\ and\\ experience\\ greater\\ pressure\\ to\\ be\\ true\\ to\\ their\\ ideologies\\ and\\ have\\ regular\\,\\ reliable\\,\\ and\\ consistent\\ opinions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ or\\ collective\\ goods\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Things\\ necessary\\ for\\ group\\ life\\ that\\ individual\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ society\\ cannot\\ provide\\ for\\ themselves\\ and\\ that\\ require\\ cooperative\\ actions\\ by\\ many\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\State\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ organized\\ monopoly\\ on\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ force\\ \\(or\\ coercion\\)\\ within\\ a\\ society\\;\\ synonymous\\ with\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pluralism\\,\\ pluralist\\ state\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ system\\ or\\ a\\ society\\ in\\ which\\ power\\ is\\ dispersed\\ among\\ many\\ competing\\ elites\\ who\\ act\\ to\\ limit\\ one\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ and\\ therefore\\ minimize\\ the\\ repression\\ and\\ exploitation\\ of\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elitist\\ state\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ society\\ ruled\\ by\\ a\\ single\\ elite\\ group\\;\\ such\\ states\\ repress\\ and\\ exploit\\ nonelite\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Power\\ elite\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ term\\ C\\.\\ Wright\\ Mills\\ used\\ to\\ identify\\ an\\ inner\\ circle\\ of\\ military\\,\\ government\\,\\ and\\ business\\ leaders\\ he\\ believed\\ controls\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ideology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\ connected\\ set\\ of\\ strongly\\ held\\ beliefs\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ few\\ very\\ abstract\\ ideas\\,\\ used\\ to\\ guide\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reactions\\ to\\ external\\ events\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ political\\ ideology\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ decide\\ how\\ societies\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ run\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Panel\\ studies\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Public\\ opinion\\ surveys\\ that\\ interview\\ the\\ same\\ respondents\\ several\\ times\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Ideas\\/Themes\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ commons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ Goods\\ and\\ the\\ State\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pluralist\\ vs\\.\\ Elite\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Role\\ of\\ the\\ Public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ American\\ Voter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\CHAPTER\\ 16\\:\\ THE\\ INTERPLAY\\ BETWEEN\\ EDUCATION\\ AND\\ OCCUPATION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1919\\-1930\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;The\\ race\\ riots\\ of\\ 1900\\-1920\\ pushed\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\together\\ into\\ the\\ ghettoes\\ for\\ safety\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;When\\ migration\\ expanded\\ in\\ 1920s\\,\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arrivals\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ accommodated\\ in\\ small\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Enormous\\ housing\\ pressure\\ drove\\ some\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\blacks\\ to\\ attempt\\ leaving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\White\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Whites\\ responded\\ by\\ attempting\\ to\\ buy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\houses\\ and\\ other\\ means\\ of\\ keeping\\ blacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;When\\ all\\ else\\ failed\\,\\ violence\\ was\\ a\\ routine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\occurrence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\&ldquo\\;Improvement\\ associations\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ restrictive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\covenants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Segregation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Between\\ 1910\\ and\\ 1940\\ the\\ foundation\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\laid\\ for\\ the\\ Black\\ Belt\\ on\\ Chicago\\&rsquo\\;s\\ South\\ Side\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Decline\\ of\\ old\\ integrationist\\ elite\\,\\ replaced\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ black\\ elite\\ based\\ on\\ segregated\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;This\\ sets\\ the\\ stage\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ wave\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\migration\\ in\\ the\\ 1940s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Unlike\\ black\\ ghettoes\\,\\ immigrant\\ enclaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\were\\ never\\ homogeneous\\ and\\ always\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\contained\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ nationalities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ majority\\ of\\ European\\ ethnics\\ did\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\live\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\&rdquo\\;\\ enclaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ For\\ European\\ immigrants\\,\\ their\\ ethnic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ghettoes\\ were\\ a\\ fleeting\\,\\ transitory\\ stage\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ group\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assimilation\\ history\\ \\(Guest\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weed\\ research\\ in\\ text\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Housing\\ Violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Housing\\ pressures\\ again\\ drive\\ some\\ middle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\class\\ blacks\\ to\\ attempt\\ moving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Some\\ public\\ housing\\ is\\ created\\ for\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\workers\\&mdash\\;but\\ for\\ whites\\ only\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;Elsewhere\\,\\ black\\ families\\ met\\ with\\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Government\\ Role\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Home\\ Owner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Loan\\ Corporation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ FHA\\ and\\ VA\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;redlining\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ The\\ construction\\ of\\ highways\\ cleared\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\neighborhoods\\ and\\ made\\ the\\ suburbs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ High\\-rise\\ public\\ housing\\ built\\ in\\ 1950s\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1960s\\ solidified\\ the\\ segregated\\ ghetto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\&ldquo\\;No\\ other\\ group\\ in\\ the\\ contemporary\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\comes\\ close\\ to\\ this\\ level\\ of\\ isolation\\ within\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\urban\\ society\\.\\ US\\ Hispanics\\ are\\ also\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ disadvantaged\\;\\ yet\\ in\\ no\\ metropolitan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\area\\ are\\ they\\ hypersegregated\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 77\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61565\\;\\&ldquo\\;Among\\ those\\ areas\\ where\\ a\\ large\\ share\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\African\\ Americans\\ live\\,\\ segregation\\ persists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\at\\ extremely\\ high\\ levels\\ that\\ far\\ surpass\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\experience\\ of\\ other\\ racial\\ or\\ ethnic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\minorities\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 81\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Why\\ do\\ people\\ give\\ some\\ occupations\\ higher\\ occupational\\ prestige\\ rankings\\ than\\ others\\?\\ The\\ more\\ training\\ an\\ occupation\\ requires\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ pay\\ if\\ offers\\,\\ the\\ greater\\ the\\ public\\ prestige\\.\\ People\\ rate\\ a\\ job\\ by\\ importance\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ people\\ assume\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ put\\ in\\ many\\ years\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ preparation\\ for\\ an\\ unimportant\\ job\\ nor\\ will\\ society\\ pay\\ high\\-salaries\\ for\\ an\\ unimportant\\ job\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ What\\ major\\ shifts\\ have\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ century\\ in\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ work\\ people\\ do\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technological\\ advancements\\,\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ century\\,\\ made\\ the\\ agricultural\\ work\\ of\\ 10\\ men\\ equal\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ 2\\,\\ plus\\ new\\ technology\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ shift\\ from\\ mostly\\ agricultural\\ work\\ in\\ this\\ country\\,\\ to\\ factory\\ work\\ and\\ other\\ skilled\\ jobs\\,\\ to\\ education\\ based\\ employment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ What\\ reasons\\ are\\ given\\ in\\ your\\ text\\ for\\ why\\ more\\ women\\ are\\ entering\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ today\\ than\\ in\\ times\\ past\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ many\\ reasons\\.\\ It\\ began\\ on\\ the\\ East\\ Coast\\,\\ where\\ the\\ unfavorable\\ sex\\ ratio\\ forced\\ women\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ themselves\\ by\\ working\\.\\ Second\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ reduction\\ in\\ fertility\\.\\ Since\\ women\\ were\\ not\\ pregnant\\ and\\ taking\\ care\\ of\\ infants\\ as\\ often\\,\\ it\\ freed\\ them\\ to\\ pursue\\ career\\.\\ Technological\\ advances\\,\\ such\\ as\\ washing\\ machines\\ and\\ dish\\ washers\\,\\ decreased\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ housework\\ a\\ woman\\ had\\,\\ so\\ they\\ could\\ take\\ jobs\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ home\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ How\\ do\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ dropout\\ among\\ African\\ Americans\\ increase\\ their\\ unemployment\\ rates\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Undoubtedly\\,\\ discrimination\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ acquiring\\ a\\ skilled\\ manual\\ occupation\\ and\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ decline\\ in\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ unskilled\\ jobs\\.\\ High\\ school\\ drop\\-outs\\ are\\ also\\ counted\\ as\\ unemployed\\,\\ and\\ African\\ Americans\\ are\\ least\\ likely\\ to\\ complete\\ high\\ school\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Why\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ infer\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;education\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ person\\ has\\ by\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;schooling\\&rdquo\\;\\ they\\ have\\ had\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Education\\ refers\\ to\\ what\\ a\\ person\\ has\\ learned\\,\\ while\\ schooling\\ refers\\ to\\ time\\ spent\\ in\\ an\\ organization\\ that\\ educates\\ people\\,\\ culminating\\ in\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ certificate\\ or\\ diploma\\.\\ But\\ there\\ are\\ types\\ of\\ education\\ that\\ lie\\ outside\\ of\\ school\\,\\ such\\ as\\ life\\ experience\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ you\\ can\\ not\\ infer\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ education\\ a\\ person\\ has\\ by\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ diplomas\\ he\\ has\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Why\\ are\\ analysts\\ certain\\ that\\ poor\\ average\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ comprehensive\\ study\\ of\\ American\\ literacy\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ blamed\\ on\\ the\\ scores\\ being\\ dragged\\ down\\ by\\ school\\ dropouts\\ and\\/or\\ new\\ immigrants\\ with\\ poor\\ English\\ skills\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ with\\ four\\-year\\ college\\ degrees\\ score\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ levels\\ of\\ both\\ quantitative\\ and\\ qualitative\\ literacy\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ government\\ must\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ flawed\\ school\\ systems\\ as\\ the\\ fault\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ How\\ did\\ Barbara\\ Heyns\\ use\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ learning\\ over\\ summer\\ vacations\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ schools\\ have\\ a\\ real\\ impact\\ on\\ learning\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ her\\ findings\\,\\ while\\ summer\\ education\\ made\\ no\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ verbal\\ achievement\\ scores\\ of\\ higher\\-income\\ students\\,\\ low\\-income\\ students\\ lost\\ ground\\ over\\ the\\ summer\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ Heyns\\ concluded\\ that\\ school\\ did\\ matter\\,\\ and\\ might\\ benefit\\ from\\ a\\ shorter\\ break\\.\\ For\\ higher\\-income\\ students\\ maintain\\ what\\ they\\ learned\\ during\\ the\\ year\\,\\ but\\ poorer\\ students\\ regressed\\ over\\ the\\ long\\ break\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ What\\ evidence\\ is\\ given\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ to\\ question\\ claims\\ that\\ students\\ in\\ public\\ schools\\ do\\ worse\\ academically\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ Catholic\\ schools\\ only\\ because\\ the\\ latter\\ get\\ students\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\privileged\\ backgrounds\\ to\\ start\\ with\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ study\\ by\\ Coleman\\,\\ Hoffer\\,\\ and\\ Kilgore\\ in\\ 1982\\,\\ showed\\ that\\ when\\ comparing\\ students\\ from\\ similar\\ backgrounds\\,\\ Catholic\\ school\\ students\\ did\\ notably\\ better\\.\\ At\\ all\\ socioeconomic\\ levels\\,\\ public\\ school\\ students\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ drop\\ out\\ that\\ Catholic\\ school\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Why\\ is\\ a\\ college\\ degree\\ not\\ worth\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ advanced\\ industrial\\ countries\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ median\\ level\\ of\\ education\\ in\\ industrialized\\ nations\\ has\\ increased\\.\\ Having\\ a\\ college\\ degree\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ as\\ astounding\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ generation\\ ago\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ a\\ person\\ must\\ complete\\ more\\ graduate\\ programs\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ same\\ educational\\ advantage\\ as\\ their\\ parents\\ did\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ According\\ to\\ John\\ Meyer\\,\\ in\\ what\\ ways\\ do\\ low\\-quality\\ schools\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ socializing\\ effects\\ on\\ students\\ as\\ high\\-quality\\ schools\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;Theory\\ of\\ Educational\\ Functions\\:\\ One\\ level\\ of\\ education\\ is\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ social\\ status\\.\\ A\\ PhD\\ has\\ more\\ gravitas\\ than\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ degree\\.\\ The\\ status\\ is\\ related\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ degree\\ not\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ education\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ degree\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ a\\ A\\.B\\ from\\ Harvard\\ is\\ comparable\\ to\\ A\\.B\\.\\ at\\ an\\ obsecure\\ state\\ school\\.\\ One\\ has\\ the\\ status\\ that\\ his\\ degree\\ gives\\ him\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ the\\ difficulty\\ of\\ the\\ school\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Other\\ Studies\\ not\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Heyneman\\ and\\ Loxley\\:\\ School\\ Effects\\ Worldwide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1983\\-\\ sample\\ of\\ 10\\,000\\ schools\\,\\ 50\\,000\\ teachers\\,\\ and\\ 260\\,000\\ students\\ from\\ 29\\ different\\ countries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ poorer\\ students\\ rely\\ on\\ school\\ more\\ than\\ wealthier\\ students\\ for\\ their\\ education\\.\\ Can\\ this\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ countries\\?\\ Do\\ children\\ from\\ poorer\\ countries\\ more\\ dependent\\ of\\ school\\ than\\ those\\ from\\ wealthier\\ countries\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Findings\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Kids\\ in\\ wealthier\\ countries\\ learn\\ more\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ years\\,\\ though\\ this\\ could\\ be\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ schools\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ poorer\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ the\\ less\\ student\\ backgrounds\\ influence\\ school\\ performance\\,\\ probably\\ because\\ school\\ is\\ a\\ scarce\\ resource\\ in\\ these\\ countries\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ The\\ poorer\\ the\\ nation\\,\\ the\\ greater\\ the\\ economic\\ returns\\ for\\ getting\\ an\\ education\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Occupational\\ Prestige\\:\\ The\\ respect\\ people\\ receive\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ their\\ job\\;\\ often\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ score\\ on\\ a\\ standard\\ system\\ for\\ rating\\ occupations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scientific\\ Management\\:\\ The\\ application\\ of\\ scientific\\ techniques\\ to\\ increase\\ efficiency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Labor\\ Force\\:\\ Those\\ person\\ who\\ are\\ employed\\ or\\ seeking\\ employment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unemployed\\:\\ persons\\ of\\ legal\\ working\\ age\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ enrolled\\ in\\ school\\,\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ job\\,\\ and\\ who\\ are\\ actively\\ looking\\ for\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Education\\:\\ what\\ a\\ person\\ has\\ learned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schooling\\:\\ Amount\\ of\\ time\\ spent\\ in\\ an\\ institution\\ dedicated\\ to\\ educating\\ and\\ which\\ often\\ confers\\ degrees\\ diplomas\\ on\\ those\\ ho\\ complete\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ enrollment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Allocation\\ theories\\:\\ theories\\ that\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ primary\\ function\\ of\\ schools\\ is\\ to\\ allocate\\ status\\,\\ to\\ place\\ students\\ in\\ the\\ stratification\\ system\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ train\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\CHAPTER\\ 19\\:\\ URBANIZATION\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\Why\\ were\\ large\\ cities\\ impossible\\ until\\ agriculture\\ became\\ industrialized\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ in\\ advanced\\ agrarian\\ societies\\,\\ it\\ took\\ about\\ ninety\\-five\\ people\\ on\\ farms\\ to\\ feed\\ five\\ people\\ in\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ kept\\ cities\\ very\\ small\\.\\ Until\\ modern\\ times\\ cities\\ were\\ inhabited\\ mainly\\ by\\ the\\ ruling\\ elite\\ and\\ the\\ servants\\,\\ laborers\\ etc\\.\\.Cities\\ survived\\ by\\ taxing\\ farmers\\ and\\ were\\ limited\\ in\\ size\\ by\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ surplus\\ food\\ the\\ rural\\ population\\ produced\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ move\\ this\\ surplus\\ from\\ farms\\ to\\ city\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ general\\ factors\\ kept\\ mortality\\ rates\\ high\\ in\\ preindustrial\\ cities\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ major\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ high\\ mortality\\ rates\\ in\\ cities\\ was\\ the\\ high\\ incidence\\ of\\ infectious\\ diseases\\.\\ Disease\\ in\\ cities\\ was\\ also\\ caused\\ by\\ filth\\,\\ especially\\ by\\ the\\ contamination\\ of\\ water\\ and\\ food\\.\\ \\ \\;Sewage\\ treatment\\ was\\ also\\ unknown\\ in\\ preindustrial\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;Garbage\\ was\\ not\\ collected\\ and\\ was\\ strewn\\ everywhere\\.\\ Population\\ density\\ also\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ unhealthiness\\ of\\ preindustrial\\ cities\\ as\\ people\\ were\\ packed\\ very\\ closely\\ together\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Why\\ did\\ preindustrial\\ occupational\\ specialists\\ need\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ cities\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Specialists\\ must\\ depend\\ on\\ one\\ another\\ for\\ the\\ many\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ provide\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ exchanges\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ manage\\ when\\ people\\ live\\ far\\ apart\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ skilled\\ craftsmen\\,\\ merchants\\,\\ physicians\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\ gathered\\ in\\ the\\ cities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Why\\ does\\ industrialization\\ require\\ urbanization\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Industrialization\\ made\\ it\\ possible\\ for\\ most\\ people\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ made\\ it\\ necessary\\:\\ Industrialization\\ requires\\ the\\ concentration\\ of\\ highly\\ specialized\\ workers\\.\\ \\ \\;To\\ summarize\\ industrialization\\ requires\\ urbanization\\ because\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ coordinated\\ activities\\ of\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ specialized\\ workers\\ who\\ must\\ perform\\ their\\ tasks\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ central\\ locations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;Why\\ did\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Census\\ and\\ Statistics\\ Canada\\ begin\\ using\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;metropolis\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ restricting\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;city\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recognizing\\ that\\ many\\ surrounding\\ areas\\ are\\ functionally\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ central\\ city\\,\\ the\\ US\\ Census\\ substituted\\ the\\ term\\ metropolitan\\ area\\ for\\ city\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ lump\\ suburbs\\ with\\ their\\ central\\ city\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ unit\\:\\ the\\ metropolis\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(means\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\ city\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\What\\ evidence\\ is\\ there\\ that\\ people\\ generally\\ prefer\\ decentralized\\ to\\ centralized\\ metropolises\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ the\\ chance\\ to\\ move\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ city\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ outskirts\\,\\ millions\\ did\\ so\\ as\\ fast\\ as\\ they\\ could\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\ people\\ running\\ large\\ industrial\\ and\\ business\\ firms\\ have\\ joined\\ in\\ the\\ move\\ to\\ less\\ dense\\ areas\\,\\ taking\\ their\\ plants\\ and\\ offices\\ with\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Third\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ people\\ have\\ been\\ migrating\\ from\\ the\\ old\\,\\ high\\-density\\ cities\\ to\\ the\\ new\\,\\ decentralized\\ metropolitan\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ and\\ West\\.\\ Fourth\\,\\ people\\ avoid\\ public\\ transportation\\ whenever\\ possible\\ hence\\ they\\ prefer\\ a\\ metropolis\\ constructed\\ with\\ auto\\ transportation\\ in\\ mind\\:\\ a\\ freeway\\ city\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\According\\ to\\ Robert\\ Park\\ and\\ Ernest\\ Burgess\\,\\ why\\ do\\ members\\ of\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ move\\ out\\ of\\ ethnic\\ neighborhoods\\ as\\ they\\ succeed\\ in\\ America\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ occurs\\ first\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ better\\ neighborhoods\\;\\ second\\,\\ because\\ they\\ no\\ longer\\ are\\ so\\ tied\\ to\\ their\\ traditional\\ culture\\;\\ and\\ third\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ shed\\ the\\ stigma\\ of\\ low\\ status\\:\\ they\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ regarded\\ as\\ undesirable\\ neighbors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;What\\ has\\ analysis\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Census\\ data\\ comparing\\ 1990\\ and\\ 2000\\ shown\\ about\\ the\\ degrees\\ of\\ and\\ shifts\\ in\\ residential\\ segregation\\ in\\ American\\ cities\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ newly\\ built\\ cities\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ an\\ south\\ are\\ the\\ least\\ segregated\\&mdash\\;these\\ cities\\ have\\ had\\ no\\ longstanding\\ black\\ neighborhoods\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ dismantle\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ ten\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ segregated\\ American\\ cities\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;old\\&rdquo\\;\\ industrial\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ important\\ aspect\\ is\\ that\\ things\\ are\\ getting\\ better\\;\\ the\\ dissimilarity\\ score\\ was\\ lower\\ in\\ 2000\\ than\\ in\\ 1990\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Louis\\ Wirth\\,\\ how\\ does\\ city\\ life\\ encourage\\ people\\ to\\ become\\ \\ \\;withdrawn\\ from\\ others\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ occurs\\ first\\ of\\ all\\ because\\ city\\ people\\ so\\ often\\ interact\\ with\\ complete\\ strangers\\.\\ \\ \\;Such\\ interactions\\ are\\ necessarily\\ impersonal\\,\\ and\\ this\\ impersonality\\ becomes\\ a\\ habit\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\ cities\\ threaten\\ to\\ overload\\ the\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ senses\\,\\ forcing\\ them\\ to\\ shut\\ out\\ and\\ ignore\\ most\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ we\\ become\\ insensitive\\ and\\ unresponsive\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ What\\ did\\ Walter\\ Gove\\,\\ Michael\\ Hughes\\,\\ and\\ Omer\\ Galle\\ discover\\ about\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ effect\\ of\\ excessive\\ crowding\\ of\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ immediate\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ in\\ crowded\\ homes\\ experienced\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ privacy\\ and\\ an\\ overload\\ of\\ demands\\ from\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ caused\\ them\\ to\\ withdraw\\,\\ both\\ by\\ staying\\ away\\ from\\ home\\ ad\\ by\\ being\\ unresponsive\\ to\\ other\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ household\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ withdrawal\\ had\\ negative\\ consequences\\ for\\ attachments\\ and\\ mental\\ health\\.\\ \\ \\;Effects\\ of\\ crowding\\ began\\ to\\ show\\ up\\ when\\ there\\ was\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ person\\ per\\ room\\ in\\ a\\ household\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Emily\\ Wilken\\-\\ CHAPTER\\ 20\\:\\ THE\\ ORGANIZATIONAL\\ AGE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Causes\\ of\\ Expansion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Big\\ Business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Global\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Big\\ Government\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;World\\ affairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Regulating\\ markets\\/business\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Entitlements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ does\\ this\\ mean\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ Kinds\\ of\\ Persons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Natural\\ persons\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Corporate\\ actors\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ The\\ rise\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\corporate\\ actors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Legal\\ foundations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Business\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Growth\\ in\\ 20th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asymmetry\\ of\\ Relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;When\\ natural\\ persons\\ deal\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\corporate\\ actors\\,\\ they\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\usually\\ at\\ a\\ disadvantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Size\\ and\\ resources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Potential\\ exchange\\ partners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;But\\&mdash\\;sometimes\\ persons\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\exact\\ costs\\ from\\ corporate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\actors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risk\\ and\\ Responsibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Is\\ life\\ riskier\\ now\\ than\\ it\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\50\\ years\\ ago\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Objectively\\ \\&ndash\\;no\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Subjectively\\ \\&ndash\\;yes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;\\ Why\\ the\\ discrepancy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relationships\\ and\\ Risks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Customer\\ \\&ndash\\;FDA\\ type\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Employee\\ \\&ndash\\;OSHA\\ type\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Neighbor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ EPA\\ type\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Citizen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Agent\\ Orange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\type\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ risks\\ are\\ greater\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Size\\ and\\ power\\ means\\ they\\ can\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hurt\\ more\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Differentiation\\ in\\ structure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;organized\\ irresponsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Constraints\\ difficult\\ to\\ apply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61550\\;Internalization\\ of\\ norms\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Qs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\1\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ main\\ characteristics\\ which\\ distinguish\\ formal\\ organizations\\ from\\ older\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ organization\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Formal\\ organizations\\ depend\\ on\\ clear\\ statements\\ of\\ goals\\:\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ organization\\&rsquo\\;s\\ purpose\\?\\ \\ \\;They\\ also\\ require\\ suitable\\ operating\\ principles\\ and\\ procedures\\ to\\ work\\ towards\\ achieving\\ these\\ goals\\.\\ \\ \\;Leaders\\ of\\ formal\\ organizations\\ must\\ be\\ selected\\ and\\ trained\\ in\\ the\\ operating\\ principles\\ of\\ the\\ group\\.\\ \\ \\;Clear\\ lines\\ of\\ authority\\ and\\ communication\\ are\\ necessary\\ for\\ coordinating\\ activities\\ and\\ transmitting\\ information\\ and\\ orders\\.\\ \\ \\;Communications\\ between\\ subgroups\\ must\\ be\\ written\\ and\\ kept\\ on\\ file\\ to\\ avoid\\ confusion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ What\\ two\\ major\\ organizational\\ innovations\\ were\\ highly\\ developed\\ by\\ Helmuth\\ von\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moltke\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ in\\ command\\ of\\ the\\ Prussian\\ army\\,\\ Moltke\\ developed\\ a\\ military\\ system\\ which\\ employed\\ very\\ highly\\ trained\\ officers\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ officers\\ were\\ educated\\ at\\ \\ \\;a\\ war\\ academy\\ and\\ only\\ the\\ best\\ were\\ chosen\\ to\\ be\\ trained\\ later\\ for\\ the\\ General\\ Staff\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ military\\ education\\ made\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;interchangeable\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ all\\ the\\ Prussian\\ army\\&rsquo\\;s\\ generals\\ would\\ act\\ in\\ similar\\ ways\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ consistent\\ training\\.\\ \\ \\;Moltke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ other\\ development\\ was\\ the\\ divisional\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ realized\\ that\\ smaller\\ units\\ were\\ more\\ easily\\ organized\\ so\\ he\\ standardized\\ divisions\\ of\\ the\\ army\\ in\\ so\\ detailed\\ a\\ manner\\ that\\ commanders\\ could\\ easily\\ move\\ from\\ one\\ division\\ to\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ How\\ did\\ Gustavus\\ Swift\\ organize\\ his\\ meat\\ company\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Swift\\ created\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;vertically\\ integrated\\&rdquo\\;\\ meat\\ company\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Swift\\ \\&\\;\\ Co\\.\\ controlled\\ each\\ step\\ of\\ the\\ meat\\ supply\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\ than\\ creating\\ geographical\\ divisions\\ relative\\ to\\ his\\ Chicago\\,\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\,\\ Omaha\\,\\ St\\.\\ Joseph\\,\\ St\\.\\ Paul\\,\\ and\\ Fort\\ Worth\\ packing\\ plants\\,\\ he\\ created\\ functionally\\ specialized\\ divisions\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ a\\ marketing\\ division\\,\\ a\\ meat\\-packing\\ division\\,\\ a\\ shipping\\ division\\,\\ a\\ sales\\ division\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ division\\ had\\ a\\ manager\\ who\\ was\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ subordinate\\ managers\\ and\\ who\\ also\\ received\\ orders\\ from\\ corporate\\ headquarters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ How\\ are\\ people\\ chosen\\ for\\ and\\ promoted\\ in\\ their\\ positions\\ differently\\ in\\ the\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\described\\ by\\ Max\\ Weber\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ officials\\ of\\ traditional\\ agrarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europe\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Weber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rational\\ bureaucracy\\,\\ managerial\\ appointment\\ and\\ promotion\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ merit\\ and\\ skill\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ favoritism\\.\\ \\ \\;Government\\ officials\\ in\\ traditional\\ agrarian\\ society\\ were\\ appointed\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ loyalty\\ to\\ the\\ king\\ in\\ power\\:\\ kings\\ would\\ ask\\ a\\ nobleman\\ of\\ his\\ court\\ to\\ do\\ whatever\\ job\\ he\\ needed\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\,\\ these\\ appointees\\ had\\ little\\ aptitude\\ and\\ no\\ training\\ for\\ their\\ jobs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ major\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Max\\ Weber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ bureaucracy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ major\\ criticisms\\ are\\ that\\ Weber\\ ignored\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ what\\ goes\\ on\\ in\\ organizations\\&mdash\\;the\\ conflicts\\,\\ the\\ cliques\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sidestepping\\ of\\ rules\\ and\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ command\\.\\ \\ \\;Philip\\ Selznick\\ said\\ that\\ organizations\\ cannot\\ act\\ like\\ machines\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ humans\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ book\\ cited\\ goal\\ displacement\\ \\(if\\ the\\ formal\\ goals\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\ threaten\\ its\\ existence\\,\\ the\\ goals\\ will\\ be\\ changed\\)\\,\\ goal\\ conflict\\ \\(different\\ groups\\ within\\ an\\ organization\\ pursue\\ different\\,\\ possibly\\ conflicting\\ goals\\ than\\ the\\ organization\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\)\\,\\ and\\ informal\\ relations\\ \\(members\\ of\\ the\\ organization\\ working\\ directly\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ rather\\ than\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ command\\)\\ as\\ situations\\ that\\ Weber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideal\\ bureaucracy\\ model\\ had\\ ignored\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ How\\ do\\ those\\ who\\ use\\ the\\ natural\\ systems\\ approach\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ in\\ formal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\organizations\\ people\\ pursue\\ a\\ single\\ set\\ of\\ goals\\?\\ Provide\\ an\\ example\\ that\\ illustrates\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\natural\\ systems\\ approach\\ to\\ this\\ issue\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ who\\ use\\ the\\ natural\\ systems\\ approach\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ actual\\ goals\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ the\\ stated\\ goals\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ overarching\\ goal\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ survival\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ means\\ that\\ sometimes\\ there\\ are\\ conflicting\\ goals\\ within\\ an\\ organization\\;\\ natural\\ system\\ theorists\\ believe\\ that\\ different\\ groups\\ pursue\\ goal\\ unrelated\\ to\\ and\\ sometimes\\ conflicting\\ with\\ the\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ organization\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ example\\ of\\ managers\\ who\\ approve\\ unnecessarily\\ lavish\\ expenses\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ entertainment\\,\\ which\\ cause\\ the\\ company\\ to\\ lose\\ profits\\,\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ natural\\ systems\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ goals\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ your\\ text\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ conflicting\\ views\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ natural\\ systems\\ and\\ the\\ rational\\ systems\\ approaches\\ to\\ formal\\ organizations\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stark\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ conflicting\\ views\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ systems\\ and\\ rational\\ systems\\ approaches\\ is\\ complementarily\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ not\\ mutually\\ exclusive\\:\\ neither\\ one\\ completely\\ explains\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ formal\\ organizations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ In\\ what\\ ways\\ did\\ the\\ ultimate\\ solution\\ to\\ Du\\ Pont\\&rsquo\\;s\\ struggle\\ to\\ successfully\\ manage\\ its\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\diversification\\ following\\ World\\ War\\ I\\ combine\\ the\\ approaches\\ of\\ both\\ Gustavus\\ Swift\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Helmuth\\ von\\ Moltke\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Like\\ Swift\\,\\ each\\ autonomous\\ division\\ was\\ specialized\\:\\ one\\ specialized\\ in\\ paint\\,\\ one\\ in\\ chemicals\\,\\ one\\ in\\ fertilizers\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ Moltke\\,\\ each\\ autonomous\\ division\\ was\\ also\\ organized\\ like\\ a\\ military\\ divisional\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ specialized\\ autonomous\\ division\\ was\\ like\\ its\\ own\\ independent\\ mini\\-company\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ business\\ version\\ of\\ Moltke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strategy\\,\\ every\\ autonomous\\ division\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ units\\:\\ purchasing\\,\\ manufacturing\\,\\ research\\ and\\ development\\,\\ marketing\\,\\ and\\ sales\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ head\\ managers\\ of\\ these\\ mini\\-companies\\ would\\ then\\ report\\ to\\ DuPont\\ headquarters\\,\\ although\\ they\\ were\\ virtually\\ independent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ According\\ to\\ James\\ Thompson\\,\\ under\\ what\\ conditions\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\ less\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\willing\\ to\\ exercise\\ discretion\\ in\\ making\\ choices\\ and\\ decisions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ person\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ willing\\ to\\ exercise\\ discretion\\ in\\ making\\ decisions\\ \\(1\\)\\ the\\ more\\ his\\ position\\ in\\ an\\ organization\\ depends\\ on\\ other\\ positions\\ \\[attempt\\ to\\ pass\\ responsibility\\]\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ the\\ more\\ serious\\ the\\ potential\\ consequences\\ of\\ an\\ error\\ are\\ perceived\\ to\\ be\\ \\[attempt\\ to\\ share\\ responsibility\\]\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ their\\ actions\\ or\\ think\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ control\\ conditions\\ affecting\\ decisions\\ \\(because\\ they\\ are\\ subordinates\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\-up\\ manager\\)\\,\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ exercise\\ discretion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ your\\ text\\,\\ why\\ have\\ government\\ bureaucracies\\ become\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\centralized\\ as\\ they\\ have\\ grown\\,\\ though\\ private\\ companies\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\growth\\ without\\ decentralizing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ private\\ companies\\ are\\ not\\ making\\ enough\\ profit\\,\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ adjust\\ the\\ ways\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ organized\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ they\\ do\\ not\\,\\ then\\ they\\ run\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ becoming\\ bankrupt\\.\\ \\ \\;Decentralization\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ spread\\ out\\ responsibilities\\ and\\ management\\ so\\ that\\ a\\ company\\ can\\ be\\ its\\ most\\ efficient\\.\\ \\ \\;Government\\ bureaucracies\\,\\ however\\,\\ cannot\\ go\\ broke\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ decentralize\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ their\\ power\\ is\\ concentrated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Formal\\ organization\\&mdash\\;a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ rational\\ organization\\&mdash\\;a\\ group\\ created\\ to\\ pursue\\ definite\\ goals\\ with\\ developed\\ tactics\\ for\\ achieving\\ the\\ goals\\.\\ \\ \\;Members\\ are\\ selected\\ and\\ trained\\ to\\ fill\\ roles\\ and\\ communications\\ and\\ operations\\ based\\ upon\\ written\\ rules\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Divisional\\ system\\&mdash\\;organization\\ of\\ military\\ troops\\ into\\ small\\,\\ identical\\ units\\,\\ each\\ containing\\ all\\ military\\ units\\ \\(infantry\\,\\ artillery\\,\\ and\\ cavalry\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Geographical\\ divisions\\&mdash\\;divisions\\ made\\ by\\ breaking\\ an\\ organization\\ into\\ smaller\\ units\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ geography\\ and\\ making\\ each\\ unit\\ relatively\\ independent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Functional\\ divisions\\&mdash\\;divisions\\ made\\ by\\ breaking\\ an\\ organization\\ into\\ smaller\\ units\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ specialized\\ functions\\ \\(marketing\\,\\ manufacturing\\,\\ purchasing\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vertical\\ integration\\&mdash\\;one\\ organization\\ includes\\ divisions\\ that\\ have\\ control\\ over\\ every\\ step\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ production\\ and\\ distribution\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ or\\ service\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spoils\\ system\\&mdash\\;winners\\ take\\ over\\ government\\ jobs\\ after\\ each\\ election\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bureaucracy\\&mdash\\;according\\ to\\ Weber\\&mdash\\;formal\\ organization\\ based\\ on\\ functional\\ specialization\\;\\ clear\\,\\ hierarchical\\ lines\\ of\\ authority\\;\\ expert\\ training\\ of\\ managers\\;\\ decision\\ making\\ depending\\ on\\ rational\\ rules\\ aimed\\ at\\ effective\\ pursuit\\ of\\ goals\\;\\ appointment\\ and\\ promotion\\ of\\ managers\\ on\\ their\\ merit\\;\\ activities\\ conducted\\ by\\ written\\ communications\\ and\\ records\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Management\\&mdash\\;coordination\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rational\\ system\\ approach\\&mdash\\;emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ official\\ and\\ intended\\ characteristics\\ of\\ organizations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Natural\\ system\\ approach\\&mdash\\;emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ informal\\ and\\ unintended\\ characteristics\\ of\\ organizations\\ \\(more\\ sociologically\\ based\\;\\ more\\ based\\ on\\ natural\\ human\\ responses\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\ displacement\\&mdash\\;what\\ occurs\\ when\\ the\\ official\\ goals\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\ are\\ ignored\\ or\\ changed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Goal\\ conflict\\&mdash\\;one\\ goal\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\ limits\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ that\\ organization\\ to\\ achieve\\ other\\ goals\\;\\ desire\\ to\\ avoid\\ losses\\ during\\ a\\ strike\\ will\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ goal\\ to\\ minimize\\ labor\\ costs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Span\\ of\\ control\\&mdash\\;number\\ of\\ subordinates\\ one\\ manager\\ can\\ adequately\\ supervise\\,\\ often\\ estimated\\ as\\ 7\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diversified\\ organization\\&mdash\\;organization\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ specialized\\ but\\ instead\\ pursues\\ a\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ goals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Autonomous\\ divisions\\&mdash\\;parts\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\,\\ each\\ which\\ includes\\ a\\ full\\ set\\ of\\ functional\\ divisions\\.\\ \\ \\;DuPont\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ autonomous\\ divisions\\ after\\ seeing\\ that\\ its\\ decision\\ to\\ split\\ up\\ into\\ general\\ functional\\ divisions\\ \\(marketing\\,\\ sales\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ was\\ not\\ working\\ \\(too\\ much\\ product\\ diversity\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Decentralization\\&mdash\\;dispersing\\ of\\ authority\\ from\\ a\\ few\\ central\\ administrators\\ to\\ persons\\ directly\\ engaged\\ in\\ activities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blau\\&rsquo\\;s\\ administrative\\ theory\\&mdash\\;the\\ larger\\ the\\ organization\\,\\ the\\ greater\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ total\\ resources\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ devoted\\ to\\ management\\ functions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Management\\ by\\ objectives\\&mdash\\;managers\\ and\\ subordinates\\ agree\\ on\\ goals\\ that\\ subordinates\\ will\\ try\\ to\\ achieve\\;\\ subordinates\\ then\\ have\\ maximum\\ freedom\\ in\\ how\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ reach\\ their\\ objectives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EXPERIMENTS\\&mdash\\;There\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ any\\ in\\ my\\ chapter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ McCallum\\&mdash\\;superintendent\\ of\\ the\\ Erie\\ Railroad\\;\\ realized\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ impossible\\ to\\ control\\ his\\ huge\\ company\\;\\ split\\ his\\ railroad\\ into\\ geographical\\ divisions\\ of\\ manageable\\ size\\;\\ divisions\\ made\\ access\\ to\\ national\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ local\\ markets\\ possible\\;\\ also\\ provided\\ a\\ rough\\ outline\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ operate\\ a\\ large\\ firm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ already\\ talked\\ about\\ Swift\\ and\\ DuPont\\ a\\ lot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Peter\\ Blau\\&mdash\\;formulated\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ organization\\;\\ said\\ organizational\\ growth\\ causes\\ differentiation\\ \\(must\\ be\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ manageable\\ units\\ as\\ an\\ organization\\ grows\\)\\ and\\ as\\ they\\ become\\ differentiated\\,\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ administrative\\ component\\ increases\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ components\\ \\(the\\ greater\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ units\\,\\ the\\ more\\ managers\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ coordinate\\ them\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\afkera\\@gmail\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\rebeccascaife\\@gmail\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\cmestral\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\czhu\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\jramirez\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\mansour\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\evwilkin\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\chainey\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carlos\\ De\\ Mestrel\\-\\ CHAPTER\\ 13\\:\\ THE\\ FAMILY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 44, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/SOC_10-Introduction_to_Sociology.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 01:48:36.425155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Soundscapes Final Study Guide", "tags": ["soundscapes", "harvard", "aesthetics-and-interpretive-understanding-17"], "text": null, "id": 4, "html": "\\\\\\Soundscapes\\_study\\_guide\\_chapters\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c8\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c6\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39pt\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c25\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c27\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c22\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c23\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c4\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Soundscapes\\ Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\ 2009\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Listening\\ to\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ sound\\ organized\\ in\\ ways\\ meaningful\\ to\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ specific\\ time\\ and\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Musicians\\ may\\ reproduce\\,\\ reshape\\ or\\ discard\\ familiar\\ sounds\\ each\\ time\\ they\\ conceive\\ and\\ perform\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ music\\ culture\\ organizes\\ in\\ distinct\\ ways\\ the\\ four\\ main\\ characteristics\\ of\\ sound\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intensity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\ \\(definition\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ purposeful\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ quality\\,\\ intensity\\,\\ pitch\\ and\\ duration\\ of\\ sound\\.\\ Music\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ sound\\ waves\\ that\\ affect\\ the\\ eardrums\\ and\\ set\\ into\\ motion\\ a\\ multi\\-stage\\ process\\ of\\ auditory\\ perception\\.\\ \\(Leading\\ English\\ language\\ dictionary\\ cautions\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ impossible\\ have\\ one\\ set\\ definition\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ forms\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ world\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Inuit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\khoomi\\,\\ katajjaq\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(throat\\ singing\\)\\ \\-\\ vocal\\ game\\ generally\\ done\\ by\\ two\\ women\\.\\ Creates\\ a\\ distinct\\ sound\\,\\ women\\ make\\ \\&ldquo\\;voiced\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;voiceless\\&rdquo\\;\\ sounds\\ at\\ once\\ \\(Listening\\ Guide\\ 4\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\ You\\ Should\\ Know\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ distinctive\\ vibrations\\ of\\ a\\ voice\\ or\\ instrument\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tone\\ color\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ a\\ sound\\ arising\\ from\\ acoustical\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ harmonic\\ series\\.\\ Also\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\timbre\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ Sources\\ \\-\\ Voice\\:\\ vibrato\\ vs\\.\\ a\\ straight\\ tone\\,\\ raspy\\ vs\\.\\ clear\\,\\ nasal\\ vs\\.\\ throaty\\,\\ warm\\ vs\\.\\ cold\\,\\ head\\ voice\\/falsetto\\ vs\\.\\ chest\\ voice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sound\\ Sources\\ \\-\\ Instrument\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mbuti\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\musical\\ bow\\ from\\ the\\ Congo\\,\\ Steel\\ Drums\\ from\\ Dominica\\,\\ 8\\-holed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\duduk\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ Armenia\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\krar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(harp\\)\\ from\\ Ethiopia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Classification\\ of\\ Musical\\ Instruments\\ \\(organology\\)\\:\\ Sachs\\-Hornbostel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Idiophones\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\instruments\\ that\\ are\\ self\\-sounding\\ \\(produce\\ sound\\ by\\ being\\ vibrated\\)\\.\\ They\\ include\\ gongs\\,\\ rattles\\,\\ bells\\,\\ your\\ hands\\ and\\ feet\\.\\ Sub\\-catergories\\:\\ striking\\,\\ shaking\\,\\ scraping\\ or\\ stamping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chordophones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;have\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ vibrating\\ strings\\ as\\ the\\ sound\\ source\\.\\ They\\ include\\,\\ lutes\\,\\ harps\\,\\ lyres\\,\\ zithers\\,\\ guitars\\.\\ Sub\\-catergories\\:\\ plucked\\,\\ bowed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aerophones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;instruments\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ enclosed\\ column\\ of\\ air\\ vibrates\\ to\\ produce\\ sound\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ flute\\,\\ a\\ saxaphone\\,\\ a\\ didjeridu\\ and\\ a\\ bagpipe\\.\\ Sub\\-categories\\:\\ trumpets\\/horns\\,\\ pipes\\ \\(flutes\\ and\\ reed\\ instruments\\)\\ and\\ free\\ aereophones\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Membranophones\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Instruments\\ whose\\ sound\\ is\\ produced\\ by\\ stretching\\ a\\ membrane\\ over\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ openings\\,\\ they\\ are\\ classified\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ shapes\\ \\(cylindrical\\,\\ hourglass\\,\\ bowl\\,\\ goblet\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Electrophones\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ was\\ added\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ include\\ instruments\\ that\\ produce\\ sound\\ electronically\\ \\(synthesizer\\,\\ electric\\ guitar\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ human\\ voice\\ is\\ not\\ included\\ in\\ this\\ musical\\ classification\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intensity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ perceived\\ loudness\\ or\\ softness\\ of\\ a\\ sound\\.\\ Often\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\volume\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ is\\ measured\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decibel\\ meter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ human\\ ear\\ cannot\\ quantify\\ intensity\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crescendo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ intensity\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\decrescendo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ a\\ decrease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ highness\\ or\\ lowness\\ of\\ a\\ sound\\.\\ The\\ fundamental\\ of\\ the\\ harmonc\\ series\\ vibrates\\ at\\ a\\ specific\\ frequency\\,\\ a\\ faster\\ vibration\\ produces\\ a\\ higher\\ pitch\\,\\ a\\ slower\\ vibration\\ produces\\ a\\ lower\\ pitch\\.\\ When\\ the\\ frequency\\ is\\ doubled\\,\\ the\\ ear\\ perceives\\ the\\ sound\\ as\\ the\\ same\\ pitch\\,\\ but\\ at\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\,\\ called\\ an\\ octave\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\range\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ an\\ instrument\\ or\\ voice\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ to\\ the\\ lowest\\ note\\ it\\ can\\ produce\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ just\\ as\\ music\\ organizes\\ pitch\\,\\ it\\ also\\ shapes\\ time\\.\\ Duration\\ is\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pulse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rhythm\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ a\\ broader\\ sense\\.\\ Music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rate\\ of\\ speed\\ or\\ pace\\ is\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tempo\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Form\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ musical\\ piece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Strophic\\ is\\ most\\ common\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ all\\ verses\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ melody\\ \\(sometimes\\ interspersed\\ with\\ refrains\\ or\\ choruses\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Texture\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ perceived\\ relationship\\ pf\\ simultaneous\\ musical\\ sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monophonic\\:\\ literally\\,\\ a\\ single\\ sound\\,\\ a\\ solo\\ voice\\ or\\ instrument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Biphonic\\:\\ two\\ distinct\\ lines\\,\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ drone\\ \\(one\\ note\\)\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ a\\ melody\\ \\(ex\\.\\ A\\ single\\ bagpipe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homophonic\\:\\ when\\ a\\ melody\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ other\\ vocal\\ or\\ instrumental\\ parts\\,\\ playing\\ on\\ roughly\\ the\\ same\\ rhythm\\ as\\ the\\ melody\\ \\(can\\ be\\ harmony\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ barbershop\\ quartet\\,\\ Wreck\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ 97\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polyphonic\\:\\ has\\ many\\ different\\ rhythms\\ and\\ instruments\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ anything\\ currently\\ in\\ Top\\ 40\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Heterophony\\:\\ lots\\ of\\ instruments\\ playing\\ basically\\ the\\ same\\ rhythmic\\ patterns\\ and\\ melody\\,\\ some\\ with\\ ornamentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Other\\ Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Melody\\:\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ pitches\\,\\ also\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tune\\&rdquo\\;\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\ of\\ a\\ song\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ornamentation\\:\\ melodic\\,\\ rhythmic\\ and\\ timbral\\ elaborations\\ or\\ decorations\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\grace\\ notes\\,\\ accents\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\glissandos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Phrase\\:\\ a\\ brief\\ section\\ of\\ music\\,\\ analogous\\ to\\ a\\ phrase\\ of\\ spoken\\ language\\ that\\ sounds\\ somewhat\\ complete\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ while\\ not\\ self\\-sufficient\\.\\ Phrases\\ may\\ be\\ separated\\ by\\ breaths\\ or\\ pauses\\.\\ Melodies\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ phrases\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Meter\\:\\ a\\ term\\ describing\\ the\\ regular\\ pulse\\ of\\ much\\ Western\\ Classical\\ music\\,\\ and\\ its\\ division\\ into\\ groupings\\ of\\ two\\,\\ three\\,\\ four\\ or\\ six\\ beats\\ per\\ measure\\.\\ Duple\\,\\ tripe\\ and\\ quadruple\\ meters\\ are\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;simple\\&rdquo\\;\\ meters\\.\\ There\\ is\\ often\\ free\\ meter\\ or\\ free\\ rhythm\\ in\\ Eastern\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Syncopation\\:\\ a\\ rhythmic\\ effect\\ that\\ provides\\ an\\ unexpected\\ accent\\,\\ temporarily\\ unsettles\\ the\\ meter\\,\\ establishes\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ stressed\\ and\\ unstressed\\ beats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Improvisation\\:\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ composing\\ music\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ performed\\,\\ drawing\\ on\\ preexisting\\ patterns\\ and\\ styles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Setting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Study\\ of\\ Local\\ Musics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Every\\ city\\,\\ town\\ and\\ village\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ distinctive\\ musical\\ profile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ can\\ map\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soundscapes\\ by\\ asking\\ what\\ makes\\ up\\ musical\\ life\\,\\ where\\ is\\ music\\ performed\\,\\ when\\ is\\ music\\ heard\\,\\ who\\ makes\\ music\\ and\\ why\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soundscapes\\ existing\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ often\\ interact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Soundscapes\\ in\\ different\\ locales\\ may\\ share\\ sounds\\,\\ settings\\ and\\ significances\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Setting\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ its\\ broadest\\ sense\\,\\ encompasses\\ the\\ multiple\\ contexts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ city\\,\\ concert\\ hall\\,\\ park\\,\\ home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ which\\ music\\ is\\ conceived\\,\\ created\\,\\ transmitted\\,\\ performed\\ and\\ remembered\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Accra\\,\\ Ghana\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Since\\ Accra\\ is\\ a\\ port\\ on\\ the\\ western\\ coast\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ magnet\\ for\\ cultural\\ exchange\\.\\ Capital\\ of\\ the\\ Gold\\ Coast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 17\\:\\ Ewe\\ Song\\ and\\ Dance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ for\\ social\\ events\\ and\\ funerals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ substantial\\ amount\\ of\\ music\\-making\\ in\\ Accra\\ occurs\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ religious\\ rituals\\,\\ there\\ are\\ Christian\\ churches\\ on\\ nearly\\ every\\ block\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ much\\ of\\ Africa\\,\\ people\\ in\\ Accra\\ still\\ listen\\ to\\ cassettes\\,\\ which\\ have\\ been\\ replaced\\ in\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 21\\:\\ Cow\\ Lane\\ Sextet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ was\\ originally\\ written\\ for\\ instruments\\,\\ but\\ is\\ performed\\ on\\ computer\\ because\\ the\\ composer\\ could\\ not\\ find\\ competent\\ instrumentalists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Mumbai\\,\\ India\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Until\\ 1996\\ it\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ Bombay\\.\\ Mumbai\\ blends\\ traditions\\ from\\ every\\ other\\ part\\ of\\ India\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ of\\ their\\ music\\ is\\ religious\\ \\(Hindi\\)\\ like\\ Accra\\,\\ there\\ are\\ multiple\\-day\\ festivals\\ in\\ which\\ music\\ plays\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 22\\:\\ Jay\\ Ganesh\\ \\(Praise\\ Ganesh\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recording\\ is\\ played\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ worship\\ service\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\puja\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ to\\ rectify\\ any\\ mistakes\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ ritual\\ just\\ preformed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mumbai\\ is\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Indian\\ film\\ industry\\:\\ Bollywood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ singer\\ Lata\\ Mangeshkar\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ Guiness\\ Book\\ of\\ World\\ Records\\ for\\ having\\ recorded\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ of\\ songs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 23\\:\\ Mum\\-bhai\\ \\(rap\\ song\\)\\ from\\ 1998\\ film\\ Bombay\\ Boys\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Boston\\,\\ USA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Basically\\ every\\ type\\ of\\ world\\ music\\ is\\ represented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ is\\ performed\\ in\\ Symphony\\ Hall\\,\\ in\\ the\\ T\\ stations\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ city\\,\\ Boston\\ churches\\,\\ Harvard\\ Square\\ \\(one\\ of\\ the\\ liveliest\\ neighborhood\\ settings\\ for\\ musical\\ performance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\British\\,\\ Irish\\,\\ Italian\\,\\ Portuguese\\,\\ Haitian\\,\\ Cape\\ Verdeans\\ arrived\\ in\\ Boston\\ early\\,\\ their\\ music\\ is\\ well\\ represented\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 25\\:\\ Ballad\\ of\\ Buddy\\ McClean\\ \\(Irish\\-American\\ Ballad\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ commemoration\\ of\\ a\\ local\\ hero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Defining\\ musical\\ community\\:\\ College\\ campuses\\ \\(Balinese\\ Gamelan\\:\\ metal\\ idiophones\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Folk\\ music\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ part\\ of\\ Boston\\&rsquo\\;s\\ history\\,\\ folk\\ music\\ revival\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\,\\ many\\ anti\\-Vietnam\\ protest\\ songs\\ \\(Joan\\ Baez\\,\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\,\\ Peter\\ Paul\\ and\\ Mary\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Significance\\:\\ Music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Meaning\\ in\\ Everyday\\ Life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ meaning\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Is\\ shaped\\ by\\ the\\ sounds\\ and\\ the\\ settings\\ of\\ the\\ musical\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Can\\ persist\\ in\\ across\\ different\\ musical\\ genres\\ and\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Is\\ different\\ for\\ different\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Can\\ change\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Music\\ can\\ convey\\ meanings\\ in\\ three\\ distinct\\ ways\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ sound\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ imitate\\ or\\ refer\\ to\\ other\\ sounds\\,\\ drawing\\ on\\ sonic\\ characteristics\\ held\\ in\\ common\\ \\(like\\,\\ khoomi\\ singing\\ drawing\\ from\\/mimicking\\ the\\ sounds\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Music\\ sound\\ can\\ communicate\\ specific\\ meanings\\ within\\ individual\\ cultures\\ or\\ subcultures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ individual\\ listener\\ who\\ experiences\\ the\\ sound\\ and\\ interprets\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ way\\,\\ ultimately\\ constructing\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ son\\ according\\ to\\ highly\\ variable\\ factors\\ ranging\\ from\\ prior\\ experience\\ to\\ personal\\ idiosyncrasies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Music\\ can\\ often\\,\\ on\\ occasion\\,\\ speak\\ \\(see\\ example\\ of\\ Ghanaian\\ talking\\ drum\\,\\ the\\ Asante\\ atumpan\\ in\\ LG\\ 20\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sometimes\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ speechless\\ by\\ a\\ musical\\ experience\\,\\ unable\\ to\\ articulate\\ its\\ power\\,\\ let\\ alone\\ describe\\ music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ precise\\ meaning\\ in\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Certain\\ meanings\\ may\\ be\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ some\\ but\\ disputed\\ or\\ rejected\\ by\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ South\\ Indian\\ Raga\\ Nilambari\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\The\\ sound\\ of\\ raga\\ can\\ convey\\ meanings\\ on\\ both\\ experiential\\ and\\ emotional\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raga\\ Nilambari\\ is\\ so\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ lullabies\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ lullaby\\ raga\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ South\\ India\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Indian\\ diaspora\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Raga\\ Nilambari\\ can\\ be\\ best\\ represented\\ in\\ Indian\\ sagram\\ notation\\,\\ which\\ provides\\ names\\ for\\ the\\ seven\\ main\\ scale\\ of\\ degrees\\ in\\ ascending\\ order\\-\\ Sa\\ Ri\\ Ga\\ Ma\\ Pa\\ Dha\\ Ni\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ A\\ system\\ similar\\ but\\ not\\ identical\\ to\\ the\\ Western\\ notion\\ of\\ scale\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Each\\ scale\\ degree\\ within\\ the\\ raga\\ is\\ termed\\ svara\\,\\ which\\ identifies\\ both\\ its\\ particular\\ place\\ or\\ position\\ within\\ the\\ melody\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ combined\\ with\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ ornament\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ gamaka\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ tonic\\ or\\ first\\ and\\ most\\ prominent\\ svara\\,\\ Sa\\,\\ and\\ Pa\\,\\ the\\ fifth\\ svara\\,\\ are\\ fixed\\ in\\ their\\ pitch\\ level\\.\\ The\\ Sa\\ and\\ Pa\\ are\\ usually\\ reinforced\\ by\\ a\\ drone\\ \\,\\ sometimes\\ played\\ by\\ a\\ plucked\\ instrument\\ called\\ a\\ tambura\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Like\\ many\\ other\\ ragas\\,\\ the\\ nilambari\\ has\\ some\\ variations\\ in\\ the\\ svara\\ order\\ of\\ for\\ the\\ ascending\\ \\(aroha\\)\\ and\\ the\\ descending\\ \\(avaroha\\)\\ melodic\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Ascent\\:\\ Sa\\ Ri\\ Ga\\ Ma\\ Dha\\ Pa\\ Dha\\ Ni\\ Sa\\ \\,Descent\\:\\ Sa\\ Ni\\ Pa\\ Ma\\ Ga\\ Ri\\ Ga\\ Sa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ LG\\ 34\\ on\\ pg\\.\\ 132\\,\\ Mrs\\.\\ Jeyalakshmi\\ Sundar\\,\\ a\\ \\ \\;South\\ Indian\\ Brahmin\\ woman\\ from\\ a\\ village\\ in\\ Tamil\\ Nadu\\ state\\,\\ performs\\ a\\ lullaby\\ called\\ Araro\\ Ariraro\\,\\ which\\ symbolizes\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ rocking\\ a\\ crying\\ child\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ Tamil\\ word\\ for\\ lullaby\\ is\\ talattu\\ which\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;tongue\\-rocking\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ an\\ expression\\ borne\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ syllables\\ known\\ as\\ vocables\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ convey\\ literal\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ South\\ India\\,\\ lullabies\\ are\\ sung\\ in\\ homes\\ and\\ distributed\\ on\\ commercial\\ recordings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ raga\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ sleep\\-inducing\\ impact\\ on\\ deities\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ on\\ humans\\.\\ Today\\,\\ the\\ raga\\ nilambari\\ is\\ played\\ in\\ Hindu\\ temples\\ in\\ South\\ India\\ on\\ the\\ nagasvram\\,\\ a\\ double\\-reed\\ aerophone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ During\\ rituals\\ in\\ the\\ temple\\,\\ the\\ nagasvram\\ accompanies\\ moments\\ when\\ the\\ deity\\ is\\ being\\ awakened\\,\\ bathed\\,\\ or\\ put\\ to\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ can\\ also\\ hear\\ raga\\ nilambari\\ in\\ compositions\\ by\\ South\\ Indian\\ composers\\ with\\ texts\\ that\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ raga\\&rsquo\\;s\\ significance\\ as\\ a\\ lullaby\\ for\\ the\\ gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ LG\\ 35\\ on\\ pg\\.\\ 135\\,\\ you\\ can\\ hear\\ a\\ kirtanam\\,\\ aka\\ kritti\\,\\ composed\\ by\\ Ponniah\\ Pillai\\ \\ \\;in\\ the\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ titled\\ Amba\\ Nilambari\\,\\ which\\ is\\ still\\ popular\\ today\\ as\\ a\\ concert\\ piece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ free\\ rhythm\\ of\\ the\\ lullaby\\ in\\ LG\\ 34\\,\\ the\\ rhythmic\\ framework\\ for\\ the\\ classical\\ kritti\\ in\\ the\\ LG\\ 35\\ is\\ a\\ tala\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Tala\\ is\\ an\\ Indian\\ term\\ denoting\\ time\\ cycles\\ consisting\\ of\\ fixed\\ number\\ of\\ counts\\.\\ The\\ cycles\\ are\\ subdivided\\ into\\ units\\ with\\ different\\ numbers\\ of\\ beats\\,\\ sometimes\\ of\\ irregular\\ lengths\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Raga\\ nilambari\\ provides\\ a\\ clear\\ instance\\ of\\ a\\ consistent\\ meaning\\ conveyed\\ by\\ music\\ over\\ long\\ periods\\ of\\ time\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ across\\ different\\ repertories\\ and\\ broad\\ geographical\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Effect\\ of\\ Music\\ on\\ the\\ Body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\In\\ their\\ union\\ of\\ sound\\ and\\ bodily\\ motion\\,\\ lullabies\\ provide\\ an\\ excellent\\ example\\ of\\ musical\\ entertainment\\ \\,\\ an\\ expression\\ used\\ by\\ psychologists\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ alignment\\ of\\ bodily\\ motion\\ during\\ a\\ musical\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ studies\\ of\\ music\\ have\\ noted\\ its\\ apparent\\ ability\\ to\\ alter\\ mental\\ states\\ or\\ even\\ to\\ induce\\ a\\ trance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Some\\ researchers\\ hypothesize\\ that\\ the\\ repetitive\\ nature\\ of\\ musical\\ sound\\ cause\\ brain\\ waves\\ to\\ trigger\\ an\\ altered\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Quinceanera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\A\\ tradition\\ celebrated\\ in\\ Latino\\ communities\\ in\\ North\\,\\ South\\,\\ and\\ Central\\ America\\ that\\ marks\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ teenage\\ girls\\ in\\ adulthood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ central\\ musical\\ event\\ marking\\ the\\ Quinceanera\\ is\\ a\\ party\\ hosted\\ by\\ the\\ birthday\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ specific\\ music\\ performed\\ at\\ the\\ celebration\\;\\ the\\ choice\\ depends\\ on\\ whether\\ the\\ family\\ is\\ of\\ Mexican\\ \\,\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\,\\ Dominican\\,\\ or\\ another\\ background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Members\\ of\\ the\\ Mexican\\ American\\ community\\ hire\\ live\\ mariachi\\ bands\\ whenever\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mariachi\\:\\ name\\ for\\ a\\ Mexican\\ or\\ Mexican\\-American\\ instrumental\\ ensemble\\ of\\ plucked\\ and\\ bowed\\ instruments\\ of\\ various\\ types\\ with\\ trumpets\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ ensemble\\ became\\ standardized\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Mariachi\\ ensembles\\ usually\\ consist\\ of\\ Mexican\\ guitarron\\ \\(a\\ large\\,\\ plucked\\ string\\ bass\\ guitar\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ belly\\)\\ and\\ the\\ vihuela\\ \\(a\\ smaller\\,\\ strummed\\ folk\\ guitar\\)\\,\\ alone\\ or\\ with\\ a\\ harp\\,\\ which\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ rhythm\\ instruments\\ of\\ the\\ ensemble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ played\\ by\\ mariachi\\ bands\\ at\\ a\\ Quinceanera\\ range\\ from\\ traditional\\ romantic\\ songs\\ to\\ innovative\\ pieces\\ adapting\\ rhythms\\ from\\ salsa\\ and\\ other\\ Latin\\ dance\\ styles\\ to\\ mariachi\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ mariachi\\ ensemble\\ is\\ performed\\ on\\ vastly\\ different\\ occasions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ the\\ same\\ song\\,\\ performed\\ at\\ times\\ of\\ joy\\ and\\ at\\ times\\ of\\ sorrow\\,\\ gains\\ power\\ with\\ each\\ rendition\\,\\ accumulating\\ an\\ ever\\-expanding\\ set\\ of\\ associations\\ for\\ individuals\\ and\\ the\\ communities\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ apart\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Here\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ a\\ performance\\ closely\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ setting\\,\\ providing\\ a\\ marker\\ contrast\\ to\\ one\\-to\\-one\\ correspondence\\ between\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ raga\\ nilambari\\ and\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bagpipe\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\The\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipe\\ extends\\ way\\ beyond\\ its\\ Scottish\\ and\\ Irish\\ roots\\,\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ emperor\\ Nero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Many\\ regions\\ \\(Western\\ and\\ Eastern\\ Europe\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ Balkans\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ India\\)\\ have\\ one\\ of\\ more\\ type\\ of\\ bagpipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Differences\\ in\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipe\\ can\\ result\\ in\\ remarkably\\ different\\ sound\\ quality\\ and\\ volume\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ recent\\ introduction\\ of\\ synthetic\\ materials\\ by\\ bagpipe\\ makers\\ has\\ changed\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ the\\ Scottish\\ and\\ Irish\\ bagpipe\\ ensembles\\ have\\ proliferated\\ worldwide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Scottish\\ Highland\\ Bagpipe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Scottish\\ Highland\\ Bagpipe\\ has\\ an\\ airtight\\ bag\\/air\\ reservoir\\ \\(made\\ out\\ of\\ sheep\\ or\\ goat\\ skin\\ in\\ the\\ past\\)\\ which\\ has\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ wood\\ inserted\\ into\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Chanter\\ \\(eight\\ finger\\ holes\\ and\\ can\\ only\\ use\\ nine\\ pitches\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ melody\\.\\ Has\\ a\\ double\\ reed\\ that\\ is\\ concealed\\ from\\ view\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Blowpipe\\ \\(\\ player\\ blows\\ air\\ into\\ the\\ bag\\ but\\ non\\-return\\ valve\\ prevent\\ air\\ from\\ escaping\\ the\\ bag\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;usually\\ three\\,\\ drone\\ pipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;No\\ finger\\ holes\\ and\\ sound\\ a\\ single\\,\\ continuous\\ pitch\\.\\ In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ pitch\\ has\\ such\\ strong\\ harmonics\\ that\\ listener\\ may\\ think\\ that\\ extra\\ pipes\\ are\\ being\\ sounded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;All\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ pipe\\ are\\ sewn\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;stocks\\&rdquo\\;\\ along\\ the\\ exterior\\ of\\ the\\ skin\\ or\\ rubber\\ bag\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ reeds\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ pipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Once\\ bag\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ air\\,\\ player\\ compresses\\ the\\ arm\\ to\\ push\\ air\\ through\\ the\\ chanter\\ and\\ the\\ drone\\ pipes\\,\\ causing\\ the\\ reeds\\ to\\ vibrate\\ and\\ bagpipe\\ to\\ sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Loud\\,\\ piercing\\ sound\\,\\ appropriate\\ for\\ their\\ customary\\ use\\ outside\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Tuning\\ of\\ bagpipe\\ is\\ fixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Difficult\\ to\\ play\\ \\(breathe\\ into\\ blowpipe\\,\\ squeeze\\ the\\ bag\\,\\ and\\ finger\\ the\\ chanter\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Loud\\ chanter\\,\\ additional\\ drones\\ to\\ balance\\ chanter\\,\\ and\\ long\\ blowpipe\\ make\\ more\\ suitable\\ for\\ outdoor\\ use\\ and\\ marching\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Grace\\ notes\\/gracing\\:\\ very\\ short\\ notes\\ that\\ adorn\\ the\\ otherwise\\ continuous\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ chanter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cutting\\:\\ insertion\\ of\\ grace\\ note\\ to\\ divide\\ the\\ sound\\ into\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ distinct\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Doubling\\:\\ group\\ of\\ several\\ grace\\ notes\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ pitch\\ as\\ the\\ note\\ being\\ ornamented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Grips\\:\\ several\\ rapid\\ fire\\ grace\\ notes\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ chanter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ range\\.\\ They\\ sound\\ like\\ the\\ squawk\\ of\\ a\\ breaking\\ voice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Bagpipe\\ makers\\ use\\ synthetic\\ materials\\ for\\ the\\ bags\\,\\ pipes\\,\\ and\\ reeds\\ to\\ reduce\\ difficulty\\ in\\ bagpipe\\ maintenance\\ and\\ tuning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Change\\ in\\ material\\ has\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ bagpipes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ sound\\ that\\ can\\ overwhelm\\ the\\ ear\\ and\\ permeate\\ the\\ entire\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Commands\\ attentions\\ to\\ highly\\ ornamented\\ melody\\ and\\ more\\ stable\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Setting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Death\\ and\\ commemoration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Pibroch\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ MacCrimmons\\:\\ usually\\ laments\\ or\\ commemorations\\ for\\ particular\\ people\\ or\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Consists\\ of\\ slow\\ and\\ long\\ \\ \\;ground\\/melody\\ with\\ subsequent\\ extended\\ variations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ bagpipes\\ are\\ often\\ played\\ at\\ funerals\\ and\\ other\\ ceremonies\\ by\\ pipers\\ in\\ formal\\ dress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ use\\ has\\ moved\\ into\\ the\\ forefront\\ post\\-2001\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Entertainment\\ and\\ dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\8\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Ceilidhs\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(festive\\ gatherings\\)\\ and\\ urging\\ the\\ listener\\ to\\ tap\\,\\ clap\\,\\ march\\,\\ and\\ dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Competition\\ and\\ concerts\\ \\(especially\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Canada\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\9\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Pipe\\ bands\\ reflect\\ combination\\ of\\ long\\-time\\ tradition\\,\\ recent\\ innovation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ diverse\\ occasions\\ associated\\ with\\ bagpipe\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Wide\\ range\\ of\\ meanings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Same\\ songs\\ at\\ different\\ pace\\ can\\ have\\ different\\ meanings\\ and\\ evoke\\ very\\ different\\ emotions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ music\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ prescribes\\ or\\ limits\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ responses\\ that\\ it\\ evokes\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\From\\ lullabies\\ to\\ bagpipe\\ laments\\,\\ musical\\ sounds\\ gains\\ and\\ lends\\ significance\\ from\\ its\\ presence\\ as\\ lived\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\o\\ Our\\ perceptions\\ of\\ musical\\ meaning\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ complex\\ process\\,\\ one\\ shaped\\ by\\ subtle\\ interaction\\ of\\ ear\\,\\ mind\\,\\ and\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ travels\\ easily\\ with\\ migrating\\ communities\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ portable\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ transmitted\\ orally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ musical\\ styles\\ are\\ maintained\\ when\\ groups\\ migrate\\;\\ others\\ are\\ transformed\\ or\\ discarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\-making\\ can\\ embody\\ and\\ reenact\\ the\\ migration\\ process\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ commemorate\\ the\\ homeland\\ left\\ behind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ closely\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ migration\\ process\\ because\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ portable\\.\\ When\\ people\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ migrate\\,\\ songs\\,\\ dances\\,\\ and\\ memories\\ of\\ their\\ musical\\ life\\ may\\ be\\ among\\ their\\ few\\ surviving\\ possessions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ modern\\ transportation\\ has\\ allowed\\ mass\\ movements\\ to\\ occur\\ more\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Recorded\\ music\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ changing\\ technologies\\ have\\ reinforced\\ musical\\ transmission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immigrant\\ communities\\ are\\ often\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;diaspora\\ communities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Improved\\ communications\\ and\\ opportunities\\ for\\ travel\\ have\\ allowed\\ travel\\ between\\ new\\ home\\ and\\ ancestral\\ homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\People\\ move\\ for\\ different\\ reasons\\ and\\ settle\\ for\\ varying\\ lengths\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\ migration\\ \\(happens\\ more\\)\\ and\\ voluntary\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ other\\ factors\\,\\ not\\ just\\ forced\\/voluntary\\,\\ can\\ affect\\ the\\ sound\\,\\ setting\\,\\ and\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Voluntary\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\By\\ choice\\ motivated\\ by\\ an\\ attraction\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ locale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ to\\ North\\ America\\ for\\ religious\\ and\\ economic\\ opportunities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ British\\ migrants\\ brought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ballads\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ Virginia\\ and\\ Kentucky\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oral\\ transmission\\ \\(from\\ person\\ to\\ person\\)\\ vs\\.\\ written\\ transmission\\ \\(through\\ song\\ texts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\They\\ often\\ overlap\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Chinese\\ folk\\ songs\\ in\\ which\\ oral\\ transmission\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ songbooks\\ containing\\ the\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Chinese\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Voluntary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Began\\ around\\ 1850\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ attraction\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;pull\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ wave\\ of\\ immigrants\\ were\\ attracted\\ by\\ the\\ California\\ gold\\ rush\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1860s\\,\\ to\\ help\\ construct\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Also\\ \\&ldquo\\;push\\&rdquo\\;\\ factors\\ that\\ drove\\ them\\ away\\ of\\ their\\ homeland\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Political\\ anarchy\\,\\ famine\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ crisis\\ in\\ mid\\-nineteenth\\ century\\ China\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lots\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ intolerance\\.\\ Only\\ in\\ 1960s\\,\\ were\\ restrictions\\ eased\\ through\\ the\\ Refugee\\ Relief\\ Acts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ immigrants\\ considered\\ themselves\\ temporary\\ sojourners\\&hellip\\;\\ most\\ were\\ motivated\\ by\\ economic\\ gain\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ return\\ home\\ rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ they\\ were\\ strongly\\ motivated\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ cultural\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ many\\ spent\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LG41\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Uncle\\ Ng\\ Comes\\ to\\ the\\ Gold\\ Mountain\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ relives\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ Chinese\\ migration\\ process\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Belongs\\ to\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ compositions\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\muyu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ transmitted\\ both\\ orally\\ and\\ in\\ written\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Uncle\\ Ng\\ continued\\ to\\ sing\\ of\\ his\\ dream\\ of\\ becoming\\ rich\\ and\\ making\\ enough\\ money\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Taishan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ maintained\\ the\\ longtime\\ tradition\\ of\\ immigrant\\ Taishanese\\ who\\ felt\\ responsible\\ to\\ their\\ homeland\\ and\\ their\\ relatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Muyu\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sung\\ by\\ men\\ or\\ women\\,\\ public\\ and\\ private\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Provides\\ insights\\ into\\ both\\ the\\ attraction\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ the\\ difficult\\ circumstances\\ at\\ home\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transmits\\ valuable\\ info\\ about\\ modern\\ process\\ of\\ immigration\\.\\ Also\\ conveys\\ ideas\\ about\\ immigration\\ that\\ reflect\\ the\\ older\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ sojourner\\ who\\ wishes\\ to\\ return\\ home\\ rich\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ adds\\ vocables\\ to\\ the\\ text\\ when\\ performing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\muyu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ Arab\\ Migration\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Began\\ as\\ voluntary\\,\\ then\\ at\\ some\\ later\\ point\\ included\\ some\\ forced\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immigrants\\ from\\ Greater\\ Syria\\ discovered\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;entrepreneurial\\ Eden\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1870s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Economic\\ downturn\\ caused\\ by\\ opening\\ of\\ Suez\\ Canal\\ in\\ 1869\\,\\ and\\ the\\ breakup\\ of\\ the\\ Ottoman\\ empire\\ in\\ 1917\\ were\\ the\\ final\\ precipitating\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wave\\ of\\ immigrants\\ included\\ some\\ who\\ were\\ forced\\ after\\ being\\ dislocated\\ by\\ the\\ Arab\\-Israeli\\ conflict\\ in\\ 1948\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Chain\\ migration\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ individuals\\ sent\\ for\\ other\\ family\\ members\\ and\\ friends\\&hellip\\;\\ contributed\\ to\\ formation\\ of\\ large\\ Arab\\ American\\ communities\\ in\\ Detroit\\ and\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Constant\\ flow\\ of\\ people\\ until\\ 1924\\ kept\\ connections\\ with\\ homeland\\ alive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Importing\\ and\\ publishing\\ recordings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;musical\\ styles\\ traveled\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ from\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ homeland\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Syria\\,\\ Lebanon\\,\\ Egypt\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lebanese\\ singer\\ Hanan\\ Harouni\\ settled\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ mid\\-1940s\\&hellip\\;\\ she\\ brought\\ the\\ vocal\\ quality\\ and\\ ornaments\\ typical\\ of\\ Lebanese\\ traditional\\ music\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LG42\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ mostly\\ immigrants\\,\\ including\\ Arab\\ Muslim\\,\\ Christian\\,\\ Iraqi\\-born\\ Jewish\\ musicians\\&hellip\\;\\ shows\\ the\\ various\\ national\\ and\\ religious\\ backgrounds\\ in\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ Arab\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Song\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mawwal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\ traditional\\ Arab\\ form\\ that\\ alternates\\ sections\\ of\\ free\\ and\\ regular\\ rhythms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Set\\ in\\ Arab\\ mode\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\huzam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ colloquial\\ in\\ language\\ and\\ content\\,\\ commenting\\ on\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ Arab\\ lute\\ and\\ zither\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ud\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\qanum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Live\\ concerts\\ of\\ Arab\\ music\\ featuring\\ famous\\ musicians\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ are\\ often\\ mounted\\ e\\.g\\.\\ famous\\ Lebanese\\ singer\\ Fairuz\\ at\\ the\\ Garden\\ Arena\\ of\\ the\\ MGM\\ Grand\\ in\\ Vegas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fairuz\\ has\\ long\\ represented\\ Lebanon\\ and\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ through\\ her\\ musical\\ performances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ her\\ Vegas\\ concert\\,\\ she\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ an\\ ensemble\\ that\\ included\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ instruments\\ and\\ Western\\ instruments\\.\\ Such\\ an\\ event\\ reconnects\\ the\\ Lebanese\\ and\\ other\\ Arab\\ Americans\\ with\\ their\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ homelands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forced\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Set\\ into\\ motion\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;push\\&rdquo\\;\\ factors\\ beyond\\ individual\\ or\\ community\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ result\\ from\\ violent\\ or\\ disastrous\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ African\\ Forced\\ Migrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conquest\\ and\\ slavery\\ continue\\ to\\ reverberate\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ American\\ life\\ and\\ musical\\ styles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ 1619\\ when\\ the\\ first\\ ship\\ carrying\\ African\\ slaves\\ arrived\\ in\\ Jamestown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ musical\\ repertories\\ show\\ traces\\ of\\ the\\ painful\\ experiences\\ during\\ the\\ slave\\ era\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ influential\\ is\\ the\\ black\\ spiritual\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ musical\\ expression\\ of\\ slaves\\ converted\\ to\\ New\\ World\\ Christianity\\ from\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ early\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\ of\\ these\\ songs\\ dates\\ from\\ the\\ period\\ around\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1868\\,\\ first\\ collection\\ of\\ spirituals\\ edited\\ by\\ William\\ Francis\\ Allen\\,\\ was\\ published\\&hellip\\;\\ preserved\\ and\\ romanticized\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\&rsquo\\;\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ written\\ notation\\ alone\\ could\\ not\\,\\ however\\,\\ show\\ the\\ distinctive\\ vocal\\ style\\ or\\ subtle\\ variations\\ in\\ intonation\\ and\\ pitch\\ of\\ the\\ oral\\ renditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ spirituals\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ sung\\ in\\ a\\ heterophonic\\ texture\\ or\\ with\\ a\\ soloist\\ and\\ chorus\\ alternating\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;call\\-and\\-response\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transmitted\\ through\\ oral\\ tradition\\ with\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ improvisation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ spiritual\\ was\\ transmitted\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ contexts\\ and\\ in\\ contrasting\\ musical\\ styles\\ e\\.g\\.\\ LG43\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nobody\\ Knows\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;example\\ by\\ Huddie\\ Ledbetter\\.\\ Recorded\\ while\\ in\\ jail\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;example\\ by\\ Paul\\ Robeson\\,\\ who\\ attended\\ Rutgers\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ JD\\ from\\ Columbia\\.\\ Recorded\\ in\\ a\\ concert\\ hall\\.\\ His\\ version\\ provides\\ great\\ contrast\\ in\\ temp\\,\\ rhythm\\ and\\ vocal\\ style\\ to\\ Ledbetter\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ dramatically\\ different\\ channels\\ of\\ transmission\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ song\\ within\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ community\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ both\\ versions\\ give\\ expression\\ to\\ a\\ shared\\ heritage\\ of\\ suffering\\ stemming\\ from\\ slavery\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ strong\\ influence\\ of\\ Christian\\ belief\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Vietnamese\\ Migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Forced\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\French\\ control\\ of\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ declaration\\ of\\ independence\\ by\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\ in\\ 1945\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ fighting\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ 1954\\&hellip\\;\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ divided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\.S\\.\\ involvement\\ ended\\ by\\ the\\ 1973\\ peace\\ talks\\ in\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1975\\ Saigon\\,\\ capital\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\,\\ fell\\ to\\ the\\ North\\,\\ 200\\,000\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ sought\\ refuge\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ other\\ countries\\&hellip\\;\\ soon\\ afterward\\,\\ Vietnam\\ reunited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Between\\ 1978\\ and\\ 1985\\,\\ \\½\\;\\ million\\ left\\ Vietnan\\,\\ by\\ mid\\-1990s\\,\\ up\\ to\\ 1\\.3\\ million\\,\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ whom\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ rich\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Orange\\ County\\,\\ Washington\\ DV\\,\\ NYC\\,\\ east\\ coast\\ of\\ NJ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wave\\ of\\ less\\ educated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;New\\ Orleans\\ and\\ Houston\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Preservation\\ of\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Vietnamese\\ is\\ still\\ widely\\ spoken\\ by\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ maintain\\ their\\ Buddhist\\ religion\\ and\\ make\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ observe\\ Tet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ mid\\-1980s\\,\\ Vietnamese\\ diaspora\\ communities\\ in\\ large\\ urban\\ centers\\ have\\ hosted\\ large\\ popular\\ musical\\ events\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\da\\ vu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditional\\ music\\ is\\ performed\\ by\\ residents\\ who\\ maintain\\ the\\ music\\ traditions\\ and\\ instruments\\ of\\ homeland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Perfume\\ Traditional\\ Ensemble\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ Hue\\ toured\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ for\\ 2\\ weeks\\ in\\ 1995\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\LG44\\ type\\ of\\ chamber\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ca\\ Hue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Text\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ mythological\\ princess\\ who\\ sacrifices\\ personal\\ gain\\ for\\ her\\ country\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Traditional\\ instrument\\ heard\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dan\\ bau\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&hellip\\;\\ single\\ string\\,\\ resonating\\ chamber\\,\\ and\\ a\\ small\\ bamboo\\ shaft\\&hellip\\;\\ plucked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ has\\ been\\ said\\ the\\ instrument\\ can\\ render\\ all\\ possible\\ sounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LG45\\,\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ solo\\ electrically\\ amplified\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dan\\ bau\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Refugees\\ were\\ traumatized\\ both\\ by\\ their\\ escape\\ from\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ their\\ enforced\\ stay\\ in\\ refugee\\ camps\\ in\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ and\\ Philippines\\&hellip\\;\\ surprisingly\\,\\ there\\ many\\ different\\ styles\\ of\\ music\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\,\\ including\\ Buddhist\\ chant\\,\\ Vietnamese\\ folk\\ and\\ chamber\\,\\ and\\ Western\\ popular\\ and\\ classical\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Thus\\,\\ musical\\ style\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ factor\\ that\\ determined\\ music\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\,\\ boundaries\\ between\\ formerly\\ distinctive\\ musical\\ categories\\ were\\ blurring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\People\\ in\\ refugee\\ camps\\ sang\\ mainly\\ sad\\ songs\\ and\\ love\\ songs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Love\\ songs\\ and\\ sad\\ songs\\ nostalgic\\ for\\ pre\\-1975\\ Vietnam\\ were\\ banned\\ by\\ the\\ Communist\\ regime\\ when\\ it\\ reunified\\ in\\ 1975\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thus\\ the\\ singing\\ of\\ these\\ songs\\ were\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ political\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\ was\\ that\\ of\\ compose\\ Pham\\ Duy\\&hellip\\;\\ his\\ songs\\ written\\ before\\ 1975\\ represent\\ about\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ internationally\\ distributed\\ Vietnamese\\ recordings\\ outside\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ of\\ songs\\ are\\ patriotic\\ songs\\.\\ These\\ songs\\ have\\ been\\ banned\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ since\\ 1975\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pham\\ Duy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\National\\ Road\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\song\\ cycle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tells\\ of\\ a\\ traveler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\ through\\ Vietnam\\ from\\ north\\ to\\ south\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Celebrates\\ the\\ cultural\\ diversity\\ and\\ regional\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ trace\\ aspects\\ of\\ its\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ both\\ Vietnamese\\ and\\ Western\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Influenced\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tan\\ nhac\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ style\\ that\\ combined\\ Western\\ instruments\\ and\\ Vietnamese\\ instruments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ of\\ the\\ songs\\ draw\\ on\\ traditional\\ melodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consists\\ of\\ 19\\ songs\\ grouped\\ in\\ 3\\ sections\\&hellip\\;\\ north\\,\\ central\\,\\ and\\ south\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ Pham\\ Duy\\:\\ LG46\\ \\+\\ 47\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sound\\ p\\.\\ 205\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ p\\.\\ 210\\-11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tet\\ celebrations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Synthesized\\ songs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;CD\\ distributions\\,\\ worldwide\\ distributions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Significance\\ p\\.\\ 211\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Powerful\\ significance\\ for\\ composer\\ and\\ evokes\\ deep\\ response\\ from\\ diaspora\\ Vietnamese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ performed\\ openly\\ in\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pham\\ Duy\\ has\\ used\\ music\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ political\\ resistance\\ since\\ the\\ 1940s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;survives\\ only\\ abroad\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ musical\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ deep\\ divide\\ between\\ Vietnamese\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ diaspora\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Musical\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ traveler\\ through\\ Vietnam\\ evokes\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ sounds\\ and\\ sights\\ of\\ different\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ performed\\,\\ it\\ reenacts\\ the\\ composer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ journey\\ through\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ become\\ an\\ ironic\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ forced\\ migration\\ and\\ dispersal\\ shared\\ by\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ community\\ abroad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ hear\\ the\\ texts\\ and\\ sounds\\ of\\ Vietnamese\\ music\\ transformed\\ within\\ changing\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ musical\\ sound\\ continues\\ to\\ change\\ and\\ is\\ adaptable\\,\\ it\\ still\\ carries\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ meaning\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ transmitted\\ through\\ oral\\ and\\ written\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ National\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;embeds\\ traces\\ of\\ Western\\ influence\\ in\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\ and\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ traditional\\ Vietnamese\\ values\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ case\\ studies\\,\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ migration\\ never\\ entirely\\ recedes\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ experienced\\ it\\,\\ as\\ push\\ and\\ pull\\ factors\\ continue\\ to\\ exercise\\ their\\ power\\ long\\ after\\ the\\ initial\\ period\\ of\\ displacement\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\ an\\ ongoing\\ dialogue\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ local\\ and\\ global\\ networks\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ apart\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Musical\\ transmission\\ plays\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\,\\ providing\\ stabilizing\\ factors\\ that\\ can\\ at\\ once\\ ground\\ individual\\ and\\ community\\ experience\\ within\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ familiar\\ and\\ provide\\ a\\ channel\\ for\\ adaptation\\ to\\ new\\ settings\\ and\\ challenges\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Performing\\ and\\ listening\\ to\\ music\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Transmit\\ memories\\ of\\ people\\,\\ places\\,\\ and\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commemorate\\ people\\ and\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reconcile\\ the\\ past\\ with\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Three\\ associations\\ between\\ music\\ and\\ memory\\.\\ Songs\\ remind\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ song\\,\\ associations\\ about\\ the\\ song\\ has\\ been\\ performed\\ before\\ \\(ex\\:\\ new\\ years\\ and\\ auld\\ lang\\ syne\\)\\,\\ and\\ remembering\\ how\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ music\\ itself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Corrido\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ type\\ of\\ ballad\\&mdash\\;strophic\\,\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\.\\ Musical\\ phrases\\ help\\ remember\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emerged\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ Mexican\\ resistance\\ to\\ American\\ domination\\ during\\ and\\ just\\ before\\ the\\ Mexican\\-American\\ War\\ \\(1846\\-1848\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hero\\ Corridos\\ \\(1910\\-20\\)\\ ex\\:\\ Gregorio\\ Cortez\\ who\\ shot\\ his\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ killer\\,\\ the\\ Texas\\ town\\ Sherrif\\.\\ Flees\\ to\\ Mexico\\,\\ kills\\ another\\ sheriff\\,\\ captured\\,\\ sentenced\\ for\\ life\\.\\ Later\\ acquitted\\ by\\ the\\ Texas\\ governor\\ \\=\\ Milestone\\ for\\ Mexican\\ civil\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Victim\\ Corridos\\ \\(1930s\\)\\ to\\ inspire\\ community\\ to\\ take\\ action\\ as\\ they\\ integrate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Revolutionary\\ Corridos\\ for\\ a\\ bad\\ president\\,\\ Carlos\\ Salinas\\ de\\ Gotari\\ \\(1988\\-94\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Narco\\ Corridos\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ gangster\\ rap\\ \\&ldquo\\;Los\\ tigres\\ del\\ norte\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ a\\ band\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ Jazz\\ Funeral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ Louis\\ Armstrong\\.\\ Had\\ two\\ funerals\\:\\ normal\\ in\\ NYC\\ and\\ jazz\\ in\\ New\\ Orleans\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ huge\\&mdash\\;had\\ gained\\ a\\ white\\ audience\\ for\\ jazz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Band\\ provided\\ by\\ member\\-based\\ funeral\\ societies\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ tradition\\ from\\ Ghana\\.\\ Members\\ form\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;second\\ line\\&rdquo\\;\\ at\\ the\\ funeral\\ reception\\,\\ and\\ ceremony\\ re\\-enforces\\ their\\ collectivity\\.\\ Lead\\ procession\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Band\\ improvises\\ on\\ well\\-known\\ songs\\ in\\ dense\\ polyphony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jazz\\ band\\ walks\\ in\\ front\\,\\ then\\ hearse\\,\\ then\\ mourners\\ and\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hymns\\ \\(like\\ amazing\\ grace\\)\\ and\\ dirges\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ home\\,\\ then\\ more\\ as\\ they\\ walk\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ graveside\\.\\ Hearse\\ passes\\ between\\ band\\ as\\ it\\ reaches\\ the\\ grave\\,\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;turning\\ the\\ body\\ loose\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ After\\ burial\\,\\ happy\\ songs\\ \\(like\\ When\\ the\\ Saints\\ go\\ Marching\\ in\\)\\ and\\ dancing\\ to\\ celebrate\\ eternal\\ life\\.\\ Band\\ leads\\ returning\\ procession\\,\\ walking\\ through\\ important\\ places\\ where\\ person\\ lived\\ as\\ commemoration\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instruments\\:\\ coronet\\ w\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;wah\\-wah\\ sound\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ mute\\ which\\ frequently\\ plays\\ a\\ solo\\.\\ Can\\ have\\ saxophone\\,\\ trumpet\\,\\ violin\\,\\ bass\\,\\ snare\\ drums\\,\\ clarinets\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ Katrina\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ giant\\ jazz\\ funeral\\ to\\ commemorate\\ everyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Pizmon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pizmon\\ \\(plural\\ pizmonim\\)\\ literally\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;adoration\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;praise\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ is\\ most\\ commonly\\ associate\\ with\\ the\\ Syrian\\ Jewish\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Involves\\ creating\\ a\\ song\\ by\\ setting\\ a\\ new\\ text\\ to\\ an\\ existing\\ melody\\,\\ aka\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contrafactum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(plural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contrafacta\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Most\\ pizmons\\ borrow\\ their\\ tunes\\ from\\ Arab\\ songs\\,\\ and\\ so\\ are\\ based\\ within\\ the\\ Arab\\ musical\\ system\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maquam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Each\\ maquam\\ \\(plural\\ maqamat\\)\\ is\\ a\\ category\\ of\\ melodies\\ that\\ share\\ pitch\\ content\\,\\ range\\,\\ and\\ characteristic\\ ornaments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Arab\\ music\\ theory\\ defines\\ a\\ maquam\\ as\\ a\\ basic\\ scale\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ sections\\ of\\ four\\ pitches\\ each\\,\\ called\\ tetrachords\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Musicians\\ learn\\ to\\ recognize\\ maquam\\ by\\ the\\ distinctive\\ intervals\\ between\\ the\\ four\\ lower\\ pitches\\ \\(lower\\ tetrachord\\)\\ and\\ the\\ four\\ higher\\ pitches\\ \\(upper\\ tetrachord\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Maquam\\ nahawand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Type\\ of\\ maquam\\ that\\ was\\ particularly\\ attractive\\ and\\ memorable\\ after\\ the\\ migration\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ world\\ because\\ it\\ sounds\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ minor\\ scale\\ of\\ Western\\ music\\ \\(example\\,\\ LG\\ 50\\ Pg\\.\\ 238\\ Attah\\ El\\ Kabbir\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Attah\\ El\\ Kabbir\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\,\\ vocalized\\ introduction\\ \\(called\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\layali\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ The\\ song\\ features\\ a\\ soloist\\ and\\ chorus\\ accompanied\\ by\\ an\\ \\&lsquo\\;ud\\,\\ which\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ heterophonic\\ texture\\.\\ The\\ song\\ also\\ features\\ the\\ well\\-know\\ Arab\\,\\ three\\-part\\ form\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\muwashshah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ which\\ returns\\ after\\ a\\ contrasting\\ middle\\ section\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Today\\,\\ the\\ song\\ can\\ be\\ founded\\ being\\ performed\\ in\\ synagogues\\ in\\ Israel\\,\\ Mexico\\ City\\ and\\ New\\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Settings\\ of\\ Pizmon\\ Performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bar\\ mitzvahs\\,\\ wedding\\,\\ and\\ special\\ Sabbath\\ afternoon\\ songfest\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sebet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ held\\ by\\ Syrian\\ Jews\\ to\\ celebrate\\ special\\ occasions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Sebet\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ introduced\\ to\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ provides\\ a\\ regular\\ time\\ for\\ music\\ making\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ entire\\ family\\ can\\ participate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Haflah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ Arabic\\ word\\ referring\\ to\\ certain\\,\\ special\\ occasions\\ celebrated\\ in\\ the\\ Syrian\\ Jewish\\ community\\ \\ \\;such\\ as\\ anniversaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Unlike\\ the\\ unaccompanied\\ pizmonim\\ sung\\ in\\ Sebet\\,\\ the\\ haflah\\ usually\\ features\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\ by\\ a\\ synthesizer\\,\\ drums\\,\\ violin\\,\\ qanun\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;ud\\,\\ and\\ flute\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Musical\\ Sources\\ of\\ Diaspora\\ Pizmon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sources\\ included\\,\\ but\\ were\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\,\\ records\\ imported\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ and\\ even\\ classic\\ Christmas\\ songs\\ like\\ O\\ Tannenbaum\\ \\(example\\,\\ the\\ pizmon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Milfalot\\ Elohim\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ Because\\ the\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ Christmas\\ carol\\ from\\ which\\ it\\ derives\\ its\\ melody\\ have\\ replaced\\ the\\ older\\ associations\\ to\\ the\\ melody\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ groom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ high\\ school\\ song\\,\\ the\\ melody\\ of\\ Milfalot\\ Elohim\\ is\\ classified\\ by\\ Syrian\\ Jews\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maquam\\ ajam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;even\\ though\\ the\\ melody\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ Arab\\ song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Continuing\\ Use\\ of\\ the\\ Arab\\ Melodies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Wheat\\ Song\\&rdquo\\;\\(composed\\ in\\ 1946\\ for\\ a\\ scene\\ in\\ an\\ Egyptian\\ movie\\,\\ see\\ LG\\ 52\\ pg\\.246\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ Syrian\\ Jews\\ love\\ this\\ song\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ played\\ at\\ parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pizmon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ramach\\ Evarai\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(composed\\ for\\ a\\ bar\\ mitzvah\\ in\\ 1982\\,\\ see\\ LG\\ 53\\,\\ pg\\.252\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ contrafactum\\ that\\ follows\\ precisely\\ the\\ same\\ form\\,\\ melody\\,\\ and\\ rhythm\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ Wheat\\ Song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ substitutes\\ a\\ new\\ instrumental\\ introduction\\ and\\ eliminates\\ the\\ women\\ chorus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Although\\ carrying\\ memories\\ of\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ life\\,\\ which\\ are\\ attached\\ to\\ its\\ melody\\,\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ text\\ of\\ this\\ song\\ establishes\\ an\\ entirely\\ Jewish\\ framework\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ metaphorical\\ meaning\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ young\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ entire\\ body\\ should\\ be\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ service\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ content\\ of\\ this\\ pizmon\\ contains\\ the\\ residue\\ of\\ a\\ dual\\ Jewish\\ and\\ Arab\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ pizmon\\ incorporates\\ a\\ hybrid\\ identity\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ sustain\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ remarkable\\ Jewish\\-Arab\\ heritage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bonding\\ text\\ to\\ a\\ melody\\ establishes\\ a\\ durable\\ memory\\ that\\ can\\ more\\ easily\\ be\\ recalled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ of\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ sing\\ complete\\ songs\\ many\\ years\\ after\\ we\\ have\\ heard\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ music\\ is\\ often\\ used\\ to\\ commemorate\\ events\\ and\\ memorialize\\ individuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Music\\,\\ Mobility\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Global\\ Marketplace\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Traveling\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ silk\\ road\\ extended\\ from\\ Japan\\ to\\ Italy\\,\\ winding\\ its\\ way\\ across\\ China\\ and\\ Inner\\ Asia\\,\\ where\\ it\\ divided\\ into\\ several\\ routes\\,\\ terminating\\ in\\ Venice\\ and\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ double\\ page\\ 286\\-287\\ for\\ detailed\\ timeline\\ of\\ silk\\ road\\.\\ Main\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\:\\ Chinese\\ envoy\\ journeys\\ into\\ Inner\\ Asia\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ horses\\ and\\ allies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ BC\\:\\ Silk\\ reaches\\ Rome\\:\\ Beginning\\ of\\ trade\\ between\\ China\\ and\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Second\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Crusades\\ and\\ Marco\\ Polo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Third\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Industrialization\\ of\\ silk\\ production\\.\\ Europeans\\ become\\ independent\\ of\\ Oriental\\ cultures\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modern\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Suez\\ Canal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Queen\\ Victoria\\ declared\\ Empress\\ of\\ India\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ founds\\ \\&ldquo\\;Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Silk\\ Road\\&rsquo\\;s\\ New\\ Setting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Jan\\.\\ 26\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 2002\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 36\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;annual\\ Smithsonian\\ Folklife\\ Festival\\ in\\ D\\.C\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Silk\\ Road\\:\\ Connecting\\ Cultures\\,\\ Creating\\ Trust\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1\\.3\\ million\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Although\\ original\\ Silk\\ Road\\ \\=\\ cross\\-cultural\\ contact\\,\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ reenactment\\ conceived\\ by\\ one\\ man\\:\\ Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ \\(launched\\ project\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Born\\ to\\ Chinese\\ parents\\ in\\ Paris\\,\\ 1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\crosses\\ frequently\\ and\\ deliberately\\ between\\ soundscapes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\graduated\\ from\\ Harvard\\ 1976\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hush\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1992\\)\\ listed\\ as\\ Top\\ Classical\\ Crossover\\ Album\\ in\\ Billboards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\15\\ Grammy\\ awards\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Soul\\ of\\ The\\ Tango\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(album\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\collaborated\\ with\\ Cuban\\ and\\ Brazilian\\ musicians\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Obrigado\\ Brazil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instruments\\ in\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\quanun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ originated\\ in\\ Arab\\ Middle\\ East\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\ud\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ ancestor\\ of\\ European\\ lute\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Connecting\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Sounds\\ and\\ Significances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1998\\,\\ beginning\\ of\\ project\\,\\ 2\\ goals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\present\\ music\\ and\\ musicians\\ from\\ cultures\\ along\\ the\\ ancient\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\commission\\ new\\ music\\ from\\ composers\\ from\\ these\\ regions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Began\\ as\\ global\\ musical\\ initiative\\,\\ but\\ draws\\ heavily\\ on\\ subcultural\\/intercultural\\ musical\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multiple\\ aspects\\ of\\ project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sponsoring\\ concert\\ tours\\ by\\ traditional\\ musicians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Producing\\ recordings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Collaborating\\ with\\ institutions\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Smithsonian\\)\\ to\\ produce\\ festivals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Team\\ of\\ scholars\\ \\(ethnomusicologists\\)\\ provides\\ necessary\\ expertise\\ in\\ musical\\ and\\ cultural\\ content\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Global\\ corporate\\ sponsors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;financial\\ resources\\ for\\ project\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ funder\\:\\ Aga\\ Khan\\ Trust\\ for\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Challenge\\:\\ insuring\\ historical\\ and\\ cultural\\ accuracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Editors\\ believe\\ they\\ achieved\\ this\\ by\\ concentrating\\ on\\ central\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ Northern\\ Silk\\ Road\\ as\\ a\\ coherent\\ musical\\ realm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Important\\ artist\\ featured\\ on\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\ CD\\:\\ Wu\\ Man\\ \\(she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ a\\ woman\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Virtuoso\\ player\\ of\\ Chinese\\ plucked\\ lute\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pipa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pipa\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;derived\\ from\\ Central\\ Asia\\ lutes\\ that\\ traveled\\ to\\ China\\ on\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Has\\ collaborated\\ with\\ many\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ US\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Brian\\ Eno\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kronos\\ Quartet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ York\\ Philharmonic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tan\\ Dun\\ \\(composer\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Crouching\\ Tiger\\,\\ Hidden\\ Dragon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\On\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Recording\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Silk\\ Road\\:\\ A\\ Musical\\ Caravan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;playing\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ Chinese\\ instrumental\\ piece\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\High\\ Little\\ Moon\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ LG57\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ \\(artistic\\ director\\)\\ invited\\ 58\\ composers\\ and\\ musicians\\ to\\ attend\\ 9\\-day\\ workshop\\ at\\ Tanglewood\\ Music\\ Center\\ to\\ rehearse\\ new\\ works\\ commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ project\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Project\\ hosted\\ forums\\ for\\ Europeans\\ musicians\\ to\\ ensure\\ non\\-Western\\ music\\ be\\ represented\\ in\\ manner\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ exoticize\\ or\\ essentialize\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\August\\ 2001\\:\\ 24\\ musicians\\ meet\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ and\\ produce\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Silk\\ Road\\ Ensemble\\:\\ When\\ Strangers\\ Meet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Instruments\\:\\ \\(among\\ others\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\pipa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\sheng\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Chinese\\ mouth\\ organ\\ made\\ of\\ bamboo\\ pipes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethical\\ Considerations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Ethnomusicology\\ started\\ with\\ European\\ colonization\\ of\\ Africa\\ and\\ Asia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\deals\\ with\\ relationship\\ between\\ musicians\\ and\\ broader\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ claims\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ alien\\,\\ seemingly\\ impenetrable\\ of\\ even\\ uncivilized\\ cultures\\ is\\ first\\ achieved\\ by\\ listening\\ to\\ their\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Scholars\\ collaborate\\ with\\ research\\ associates\\ and\\ musicians\\ to\\ ensure\\ traditions\\ are\\ conserved\\ and\\ represented\\ in\\ manner\\ consistent\\ with\\ desires\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ transmit\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Musical\\ mobility\\ \\(radio\\,\\ CD\\,\\ internet\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ discovering\\ new\\ worlds\\,\\ but\\ this\\ implies\\ a\\ translation\\ and\\ modification\\ of\\ sound\\ through\\ different\\ interpretations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ always\\ true\\ to\\ original\\ music\\ in\\ original\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ex\\:\\ Hawaiian\\ music\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gamelan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Because\\ of\\ this\\,\\ ethnomusicology\\ determines\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ original\\ culture\\ should\\ remain\\ in\\ new\\ interpretation\\,\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ can\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Dance\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dance\\ transforms\\ a\\ basic\\ rhythm\\ into\\ a\\ distinctive\\ set\\ of\\ physical\\ movements\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ invites\\ anyone\\ to\\ participate\\ who\\ can\\ master\\ its\\ basic\\ movements\\,\\ whatever\\ their\\ cultural\\ background\\,\\ social\\ experience\\,\\ or\\ musical\\ expertise\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ accommodates\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ meaning\\ from\\ recreational\\ to\\ political\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ illustrates\\ different\\ views\\ of\\ gender\\ and\\ sexuality\\ in\\ different\\ societies\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dance\\ transforms\\ the\\ most\\ basic\\ physical\\ unit\\ \\(pulse\\)\\ into\\ rhythmic\\ patterns\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ and\\ heard\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ relationship\\ of\\ movement\\ and\\ music\\ varies\\ widely\\ among\\ music\\ traditions\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ plays\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ communicating\\ a\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ emotions\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Replicates\\ stories\\ and\\ familiar\\ scene\\ from\\ lit\\.\\ and\\ mythology\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Makes\\ a\\ statement\\ about\\ the\\ time\\,\\ the\\ place\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ performing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Choreographical\\ approaches\\-\\ description\\ of\\ style\\ and\\ steps\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Contextual\\ approach\\-\\ stresses\\ what\\ dance\\ tells\\ us\\ about\\ society\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hearing\\ and\\ feeling\\ the\\ Dance\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dance\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ intense\\ competition\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ empower\\ both\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duple\\ and\\ quadruple\\ beats\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ match\\ these\\ musical\\ patterns\\ to\\ movements\\ of\\ feet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Waltz\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ 3\\ beat\\ pattern\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Moving\\ through\\ time\\ and\\ space\\ with\\ Bhangra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bhangra\\ is\\ a\\ tradition\\ associated\\ with\\ South\\ Asian\\ diaspora\\ communities\\ in\\ Great\\ Britain\\ and\\ North\\ America\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ accessible\\ dance\\ style\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Quadruple\\ meter\\ and\\ strong\\ rhythm\\ emphasized\\ throughout\\ by\\ percussion\\ instruments\\ and\\ vocal\\ accents\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Historical\\ roots\\ in\\ the\\ Punjab\\ region\\ of\\ South\\ Asia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Played\\ at\\ events\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ harvest\\ festival\\ \\(baisakhi\\)\\ in\\ Punjab\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Usually\\ men\\ perform\\.\\ The\\ related\\ dance\\ that\\ women\\ perform\\ is\\ the\\ Giddha\\,\\ which\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ hand\\ claps\\ rather\\ than\\ drum\\ beats\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dhol\\:\\ two\\ headed\\ drum\\ that\\ is\\ beaten\\ with\\ the\\ curve\\ stick\\.\\ The\\ beat\\ of\\ the\\ dhol\\ represents\\ festivity\\ and\\ is\\ only\\ played\\ by\\ a\\ man\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jhummar\\-\\ traditional\\ beat\\.\\ People\\ danced\\ all\\ night\\ during\\ the\\ rainy\\ season\\ along\\ the\\ river\\ baks\\ and\\ for\\ Sufi\\ rituals\\ it\\ was\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ Bhangra\\ repertory\\ only\\ after\\ Indian\\ Independence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jhummar\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ common\\ Bhangra\\ motion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 59\\ \\(Jhummar\\)\\ shows\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ heard\\ with\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ instruments\\ like\\ the\\ monochord\\,\\ \\ \\;a\\ double\\ flute\\,\\ and\\ an\\ idiophone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ would\\ have\\ remained\\ a\\ harvest\\ tradition\\ in\\ India\\-\\ but\\ Punjabi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ migrated\\ in\\ large\\ numbers\\,\\ and\\ most\\ were\\ of\\ the\\ Sikh\\ religion\\.\\ Now\\ bhangra\\ is\\ performed\\ at\\ weddings\\ and\\ celebrations\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ become\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ the\\ South\\ Asian\\ youth\\ to\\ affirm\\ their\\ identity\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ way\\ within\\ a\\ hostile\\ and\\ exclusionary\\ British\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Commercial\\ recording\\ of\\ Bhangra\\ combining\\ traditional\\ Bhangra\\ with\\ urban\\ black\\ music\\ and\\ modern\\ technology\\.\\ It\\ had\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ culture\\ and\\ society\\ in\\ Great\\ Britain\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Grew\\ and\\ expanded\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ America\\.\\ Now\\ many\\ college\\ campuses\\ have\\ intercollegiate\\ dance\\ competitions\\.\\ The\\ new\\ updated\\,\\ technologically\\ sophisticated\\ form\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ students\\ to\\ construct\\ their\\ own\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ their\\ parents\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sound\\ of\\ Bhangra\\ music\\ is\\ now\\ combined\\ with\\ modern\\ urban\\ dance\\ styles\\,\\ but\\ the\\ text\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ conflicting\\ currents\\ of\\ tradition\\ and\\ innovation\\ within\\ South\\ Asian\\ communities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\South\\ Asian\\ notion\\ of\\ clear\\ gender\\ roles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ separate\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ team\\ at\\ competition\\ where\\ traditional\\ Indian\\ dress\\ is\\ worn\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ often\\ mixed\\ with\\ hip\\-hop\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ Polka\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Originated\\ in\\ central\\ Europe\\ among\\ the\\ Czech\\ speaking\\ people\\ of\\ Bohemia\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powerful\\ but\\ flexible\\ symbol\\ of\\ national\\ and\\ ethnic\\ identity\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ gets\\ it\\ name\\ from\\ the\\ Czech\\ word\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;half\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ represents\\ the\\ signature\\ step\\.\\ It\\ could\\ also\\ derive\\ its\\ name\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;polska\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ Czech\\ term\\ for\\ a\\ Polish\\ girl\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Performed\\ in\\ duple\\ meter\\,\\ by\\ couples\\ and\\ cultivated\\ in\\ urban\\ ballrooms\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Became\\ popular\\ throughout\\ Europe\\,\\ India\\,\\ and\\ made\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ way\\ to\\ Mexico\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ had\\ a\\ major\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ musical\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ Midwest\\ because\\ immigrants\\ brought\\ Polka\\ music\\ and\\ dance\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ WWI\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ accordian\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ Polka\\ whenever\\ and\\ wherever\\ the\\ dance\\ was\\ performed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Brass\\ bands\\ supplemented\\ by\\ an\\ accordian\\ usually\\ accompanied\\ the\\ polka\\;\\ lower\\ brass\\ instruments\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ sousaphone\\ emphasize\\ strong\\ duple\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ Guide\\ 61\\:\\ Beer\\ barrel\\ polka\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Beer\\ barrel\\ polka\\ was\\ famous\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ appearance\\ on\\ jukeboxes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ brought\\ the\\ polka\\ to\\ working\\ class\\ people\\ of\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ ethnic\\ backgrounds\\;\\ they\\ also\\ reinforced\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ the\\ polka\\ among\\ Mexican\\ Americans\\,\\ who\\ since\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ had\\ danced\\ the\\ polka\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Longoria\\-\\ performer\\ of\\ Beer\\ Barrel\\-\\ professional\\ musician\\-\\ gave\\ his\\ accordian\\ a\\ distinctive\\ sound\\ \\&ldquo\\;sonido\\ ronco\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ hoarse\\ sound\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Polkas\\ are\\ performed\\ at\\ weddings\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ played\\ during\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ mass\\.\\ The\\ polka\\ mass\\ keeps\\ the\\ traditional\\ texts\\,\\ but\\ it\\ adds\\ new\\ texts\\ sung\\ to\\ familiar\\ popular\\ melodies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ long\\ life\\,\\ although\\ its\\ popularity\\ has\\ reduced\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\ with\\ Bhangra\\,\\ is\\ has\\ not\\ crossed\\ over\\ into\\ the\\ mass\\ youth\\ market\\,\\ nor\\ has\\ it\\ transformed\\ its\\ musical\\ style\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Tango\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Group\\ of\\ closely\\ related\\ soundscapes\\ that\\ share\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ sound\\ and\\ meaning\\ while\\ retaining\\ their\\ individual\\ settings\\ and\\ historical\\ framework\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ tango\\ emerged\\ in\\ Argentina\\ with\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ Bandeon\\,\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ button\\ accordion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ main\\ musical\\ style\\ and\\ choreography\\ is\\ the\\ myth\\ and\\ the\\ exaggerated\\ postures\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;compadrito\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ man\\ who\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ less\\)\\,\\ a\\ typle\\ of\\ urban\\ gaucho\\,\\ both\\ lover\\ and\\ pimp\\,\\ dressed\\ in\\ a\\ tight\\ black\\ suit\\ and\\ high\\-heeled\\ shoes\\.\\ The\\ interaction\\ between\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ dancers\\ is\\ distinctive\\:\\ the\\ man\\ moves\\ forward\\,\\ dominating\\ the\\ woman\\ so\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ retreat\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sounds\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quadruple\\ meter\\,\\ strongly\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ bass\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strong\\ quadruple\\ beat\\ is\\ often\\ embellished\\ in\\ the\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\ with\\ a\\ long\\-short\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ a\\ long\\ beat\\ followed\\ by\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ half\\ its\\ duration\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;harbanera\\&rdquo\\;\\ rhythm\\,\\ after\\ the\\ Cuban\\ rhythm\\ from\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ derived\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circular\\ dance\\ that\\ moves\\ counterclockwise\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ steps\\ include\\ the\\ fan\\-\\ female\\ partner\\ is\\ swung\\ out\\ to\\ one\\ side\\ by\\ the\\ male\\.\\ This\\ often\\ used\\ in\\ Latin\\ dances\\ like\\ the\\ Chacha\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\La\\ Cumparsita\\ \\(listening\\ guide\\ 62\\)\\-\\ classic\\ tango\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tango\\ has\\ now\\ moved\\ from\\ the\\ feet\\ to\\ the\\ mouth\\-\\ and\\ now\\ tango\\ music\\ was\\ sung\\.\\ Tango\\ music\\ was\\ depressing\\ and\\ melancholy\\,\\ which\\ reflected\\ the\\ difficult\\ socioeconomic\\ conditions\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ tango\\ emerged\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ instrumental\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\,\\ which\\ maintains\\ a\\ constant\\ temp\\,\\ the\\ sung\\ tango\\ is\\ more\\ irregular\\,\\ slowing\\ down\\ and\\ speeding\\ up\\ for\\ dramatic\\ purposes\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ singer\\ slows\\ down\\ and\\ speeds\\ up\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ words\\-\\ lyrics\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ express\\ views\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ life\\ in\\ highly\\ pessimistic\\,\\ fatalistic\\ and\\ often\\ pathologically\\ dramatic\\ terms\\ in\\ la\\ cumparsita\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Early\\ home\\ of\\ the\\ tango\\ was\\ the\\ caf\\é\\;\\ and\\ bordellos\\ of\\ the\\ slums\\ of\\ Buenos\\ aires\\.\\ Tango\\ lyrics\\ drew\\ on\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ dialect\\ of\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Organs\\ grinders\\ also\\ played\\ tango\\ throughout\\ the\\ streets\\ of\\ the\\ arrabal\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ slums\\,\\ it\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ poverty\\,\\ low\\ social\\ class\\ and\\ ill\\ repute\\ in\\ Argentina\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Moved\\ to\\ Paris\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tango\\ slowly\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ elite\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Setting\\ and\\ association\\ with\\ poverty\\,\\ nationalism\\,\\ and\\ cosmopolitanism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Use\\ of\\ instruments\\ like\\ violin\\,\\ piano\\ and\\ bandoneon\\ in\\ Adios\\ Nonino\\ shows\\ complex\\ orchestration\\ and\\ colorful\\ instrumetation\\ techniques\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tango\\ began\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ audience\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rapidly\\ growing\\ middle\\-class\\ ballroom\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\International\\ style\\ is\\ simpler\\ than\\ the\\ Argentinean\\ tango\\,\\ and\\ is\\ highly\\ choreographed\\ for\\ competitions\\.\\ American\\ style\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ dance\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ competitions\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Significance\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Significance\\ of\\ the\\ tango\\,\\ given\\ its\\ roots\\ in\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ slums\\ and\\ its\\ heavy\\ sexual\\ overtones\\,\\ remains\\ in\\ dispute\\ in\\ Argentina\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ of\\ lust\\ and\\ anger\\,\\ with\\ themes\\ of\\ sexuality\\ and\\ male\\ dominance\\ are\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ dance\\.\\ Aggressive\\ body\\ posture\\ shows\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ masculine\\ dominance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bhangra\\ and\\ Polka\\ migrated\\ with\\ their\\ communities\\ of\\ origin\\,\\ however\\ Tango\\ migrated\\ due\\ to\\ channels\\ of\\ technology\\ and\\ travel\\.\\ All\\ three\\ dances\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ politics\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ artistic\\ marketplace\\.\\ They\\ have\\ all\\ been\\ receptive\\ to\\ innovation\\ and\\ have\\ taken\\ on\\ new\\ meanings\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Ritual\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(according\\ to\\ the\\ book\\&hellip\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ seem\\ quite\\ right\\ to\\ me\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\ serves\\ in\\ ritual\\ settings\\ to\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Shape\\ and\\ order\\ the\\ rituals\\ that\\ celebrate\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enact\\ and\\ convey\\ the\\ ritual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ symbolic\\ power\\ and\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Empower\\ the\\ participants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ marks\\ and\\ shapes\\ important\\ life\\ ceremonies\\ and\\ rites\\ of\\ passage\\ \\(weddings\\,\\ funerals\\,\\ bar\\ mitzvahs\\)\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helps\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ experience\\ a\\ more\\-than\\-words\\ or\\ transcendent\\ feeling\\.\\ Trance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ Buddhist\\ Chant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Chant\\ is\\ a\\ vocal\\ style\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ clarity\\ and\\ precise\\ articulation\\ of\\ words\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ chant\\ shows\\ influence\\ from\\ khoomii\\ singing\\.\\ It\\ is\\ biphonic\\,\\ with\\ one\\ man\\ simultaneously\\ singing\\ a\\ low\\ drone\\ and\\ high\\ harmonic\\.\\ Called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tantra\\ voice\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chant\\ helps\\ those\\ practicing\\ it\\,\\ usually\\ monks\\,\\ to\\ unite\\ with\\ the\\ diety\\ by\\ connecting\\ sound\\,\\ breathing\\,\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ mantra\\ is\\ a\\ repeated\\ ritual\\ phrase\\ or\\ formula\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rhythmic\\ complexity\\ that\\ Western\\ music\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ categorize\\,\\ based\\ off\\ of\\ principles\\ of\\ time\\ important\\ to\\ Bhuddist\\ belief\\.\\ What\\ sound\\ like\\ multiple\\ beats\\ to\\ us\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;afterbeats\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ free\\ rhythm\\ that\\ expands\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ a\\ beat\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Before\\ exile\\ from\\ Tibet\\,\\ chant\\ was\\ only\\ performed\\ in\\ religious\\ contexts\\.\\ Now\\,\\ the\\ Gyuto\\ Tantric\\ choir\\ has\\ performed\\ and\\ recorded\\ a\\ CD\\,\\ gaining\\ support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Santeria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\An\\ Afro\\-Cuban\\ religion\\ that\\ incorporates\\ Yoruba\\ tradition\\ and\\ Nigerian\\ language\\ with\\ aspects\\ of\\ Catholicism\\.\\ Huge\\ new\\ wave\\ of\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 1800s\\ added\\ in\\ and\\ re\\-inforced\\ Yoruba\\ customs\\ to\\ pre\\-existing\\ slave\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cabildos\\:\\ cultural\\ and\\ linguistic\\ groups\\ that\\ worshipped\\ together\\ and\\ helped\\ eachother\\.\\ Banned\\ by\\ Cuban\\ government\\ in\\ 1888\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lucumi\\ cult\\ goes\\ underground\\,\\ keeps\\ alive\\ Yoruba\\ religion\\.\\ Each\\ African\\ deity\\ was\\ combined\\ with\\ a\\ Catholic\\ saint\\-\\-easy\\ to\\ hide\\.\\ Called\\ orishas\\ or\\ santos\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Each\\ orisha\\ has\\ own\\ music\\,\\ rhythm\\,\\ dances\\ and\\ herbs\\ associated\\ to\\ achieve\\ trance\\ and\\ relationship\\ with\\ them\\ to\\ ask\\ advice\\ and\\ offer\\ animal\\ sacrifices\\.\\ Possession\\ by\\ the\\ orisha\\ is\\ desired\\ for\\ the\\ advanced\\ but\\ dangerous\\ for\\ the\\ inexperienced\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Loud\\ call\\-and\\-response\\ chant\\ in\\ Yoruba\\ and\\ Spanish\\ and\\ three\\ bata\\ drums\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Following\\ Cuban\\ revolution\\,\\ refugee\\ Santeros\\ settle\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ and\\ do\\ public\\ performances\\&mdash\\;stark\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ earlier\\ secrecy\\.\\ Helps\\ to\\ combat\\ intolerance\\ and\\ accusations\\ of\\ witchcraft\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Ethiopian\\ Christian\\ Chant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ church\\ was\\ central\\ to\\ Ethiopian\\ political\\ and\\ cultural\\ life\\ from\\ the\\ start\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1974\\:\\ Last\\ Ethiopian\\ emperor\\ overthrown\\;\\ starts\\ Diaspora\\ and\\ diminishes\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chants\\ called\\ zema\\,\\ attributed\\ to\\ Saint\\ Yared\\ who\\ wrote\\ them\\ under\\ inspiration\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distinct\\ musical\\ notation\\.\\ Smallest\\ unit\\ is\\ a\\ phrase\\,\\ not\\ an\\ individual\\ pitch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Three\\ modes\\.\\ Ge\\&rsquo\\;ez\\ mode\\ for\\ God\\ the\\ Father\\ and\\ Hymnary\\ before\\ Sunday\\ services\\,\\ Araray\\ for\\ Jesus\\ and\\ daily\\ morning\\ services\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;Ezl\\ for\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\ and\\ use\\ during\\ Holy\\ Week\\ \\&\\;\\ Easter\\.\\ Sacred\\ language\\ also\\ called\\ Ge\\&rsquo\\;ez\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Highly\\ educated\\ church\\ musicians\\ called\\ debteras\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Performed\\ in\\ two\\ lines\\ of\\ \\(ideally\\)\\ 24\\ debteras\\ facing\\ eachother\\,\\ chanting\\ with\\ drums\\ holding\\ prayer\\ staffs\\ but\\ then\\ putting\\ them\\ down\\ to\\ dance\\ with\\ the\\ lines\\ advancing\\ toward\\ eachother\\.\\ Faster\\ and\\ faster\\,\\ then\\ sudden\\ silence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mid\\-70s\\ large\\ US\\ presence\\,\\ but\\ no\\ churches\\.\\ Use\\ video\\ and\\ import\\ musicians\\,\\ other\\ aspects\\ go\\ by\\ the\\ wayside\\ and\\ hymnary\\ is\\ shortened\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ Ethiopia\\,\\ new\\ regime\\ trains\\ little\\ clergy\\,\\ placing\\ tradition\\ at\\ risk\\.\\ Underground\\ youth\\ Sunday\\ school\\ classes\\ make\\ choirs\\ and\\ disseminate\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ music\\:\\ Sunday\\ School\\ songs\\ in\\ Amharic\\.\\ Women\\ can\\ participate\\ too\\,\\ since\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;90s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ Spread\\ to\\ the\\ US\\:\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choirs\\,\\ women\\ more\\ powerful\\ in\\ absence\\ of\\ clergy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\It\\ takes\\ care\\ to\\ preserve\\ music\\ that\\ transmits\\ belief\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ requires\\ flexibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ and\\ \\ \\;Ethiopian\\ chants\\ tried\\ to\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ were\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ change\\.\\ Will\\ they\\ still\\ help\\ people\\ find\\ transcendence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Access\\ to\\ homeland\\ broken\\ for\\ Cubans\\ and\\ Tibetans\\ in\\ exile\\,\\ but\\ still\\ in\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Political\\ events\\ forced\\ inclusion\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ Santeria\\ and\\ Ethiopian\\ chant\\,\\ made\\ Tibetan\\ monks\\ sell\\ their\\ music\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Politics\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ is\\ frequently\\ used\\ for\\ symbolic\\ communication\\ in\\ political\\ contexts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ can\\ convey\\ official\\ ideologies\\,\\ as\\ in\\ national\\ anthems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ can\\ convey\\ what\\ cannot\\ be\\ spoken\\ publicly\\,\\ giving\\ voice\\ to\\ political\\ resistance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ displays\\ of\\ political\\ power\\,\\ conveying\\ national\\ identity\\ and\\ official\\ ideologies\\ through\\ symbolic\\ acts\\ \\(singing\\ a\\ national\\ anthem\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Open\\ musical\\ displays\\ of\\ power\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\public\\ transcripts\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;affirm\\ an\\ existing\\ power\\ structure\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Hidden\\ transcripts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;describe\\ musical\\ performances\\ and\\ repertories\\ that\\ embed\\ messages\\ through\\ metaphorical\\ or\\ coded\\ terms\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Musics\\ of\\ Power\\ and\\ Resistance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Because\\ of\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ communicate\\ in\\ subtle\\ ways\\,\\ music\\ has\\ historically\\ been\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ assert\\ power\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ give\\ voice\\ to\\ overlooked\\ groups\\ or\\ suppressed\\ issues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Musical\\ styles\\ are\\ really\\ flexible\\;\\ they\\ can\\ begin\\ within\\ a\\ soundscape\\ as\\ an\\ emblem\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ and\\ then\\ move\\ to\\ broader\\ audiences\\ as\\ vehicles\\ of\\ pop\\ entertainment\\.\\ Ex\\-\\ African\\ American\\ hip\\ hop\\ is\\ example\\ of\\ flexibility\\-\\ began\\ as\\ hidden\\ transcript\\ of\\ urban\\ black\\ resistance\\ to\\ oppressive\\ institutions\\;\\ still\\ remains\\ an\\ important\\ medium\\ of\\ political\\ expression\\ while\\ becoming\\ entertainment\\ for\\ a\\ broader\\ audience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ traditions\\ contain\\ aspects\\ of\\ both\\ resistance\\ and\\ conciliation\\;\\ contradictory\\ tendencies\\ are\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ Shoshone\\ powwow\\ music\\ \\(explained\\ later\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ The\\ Birth\\ of\\ a\\ National\\ Anthem\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Music\\ can\\ challenge\\ inequitable\\ power\\ relations\\.\\ Ex\\-\\ South\\ African\\ song\\ Nkosi\\ Sikelel\\&rsquo\\;\\ iAfrika\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Lord\\,\\ Bless\\ Africa\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ LISTENING\\ GUIDE\\ 70\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Originated\\ as\\ Christian\\ hymn\\ then\\ quickly\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ musical\\ emblem\\ of\\ political\\ resistance\\ and\\ was\\ made\\ into\\ official\\ national\\ anthem\\ in\\ 1990s\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Inspired\\ resistance\\ against\\ apartheid\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;separation\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ the\\ official\\ laws\\ of\\ racial\\ segregation\\ enforced\\ in\\ South\\ African\\ and\\ became\\ an\\ international\\ symbol\\ of\\ victory\\ in\\ the\\ fight\\ for\\ racial\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Story\\ of\\ this\\ anthem\\ begins\\ with\\ Enoch\\ Mankayi\\ Sontonga\\,\\ who\\ composed\\ this\\ song\\ and\\ performed\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ ordination\\ of\\ a\\ minister\\.\\ He\\ composed\\ only\\ the\\ melody\\,\\ first\\ verse\\,\\ and\\ chorus\\.\\ 7\\ more\\ verses\\ were\\ added\\ by\\ South\\ African\\ Poet\\,\\ S\\.E\\.K\\.\\ Mqhayi\\.\\ The\\ text\\ is\\ sung\\ in\\ different\\ languages\\ and\\ varied\\ by\\ singers\\ during\\ performances\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ standard\\ version\\ of\\ standard\\ translation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ internal\\ repetition\\ within\\ the\\ melody\\ and\\ rhythm\\ of\\ the\\ 5\\ phrases\\ of\\ the\\ song\\&rsquo\\;s\\ refrain\\,\\ which\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ indigenous\\ South\\ African\\ Melodies\\ \\(short\\,\\ repeated\\ segments\\ termed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\iterative\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strophic\\ structure\\;\\ usually\\ includes\\ call\\ and\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Song\\ influenced\\ by\\ western\\ music\\ and\\ harmony\\ introduced\\ by\\ Western\\ missionaries\\ and\\ choral\\ groups\\.\\ Terms\\ derived\\ from\\ English\\ for\\ the\\ four\\ voice\\ parts\\ in\\ Western\\ harmony\\ was\\ adopted\\ by\\ South\\ Americans\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(bass\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thena\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(tenor\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\altha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(alto\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fast\\ pathi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(soprano\\)\\.\\ Homophonic\\ texture\\ reflects\\ strong\\ western\\ influence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Anthem\\ became\\ focus\\ of\\ controversy\\ and\\ target\\ of\\ repression\\,\\ banned\\ by\\ the\\ South\\ African\\ government\\ as\\ subversive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ apartheid\\ and\\ Nelson\\ Mandela\\ assuming\\ South\\ African\\ presidency\\,\\ this\\ anthem\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ original\\ anthem\\,\\ The\\ Call\\ of\\ South\\ Africa\\,\\ were\\ both\\ used\\ as\\ dual\\ national\\ anthems\\,\\ reflecting\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ towards\\ reconciliation\\ after\\ a\\ divided\\ history\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\However\\,\\ use\\ of\\ two\\ anthems\\ was\\ awkward\\,\\ so\\ the\\ government\\ composed\\ a\\ single\\,\\ composite\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\ New\\ anthem\\ consists\\ of\\ four\\ verses\\ in\\ four\\ different\\ languages\\.\\ New\\ anthem\\ has\\ also\\ met\\ controversy\\ and\\ protest\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Over\\ the\\ years\\,\\ Nkosi\\ Sikelel\\&rsquo\\;\\ iAfrika\\ has\\ continued\\ to\\ have\\ multiple\\ layers\\ of\\ meaning\\-\\ Christian\\ hymn\\,\\ a\\ song\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ and\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ LG\\ 70\\ for\\ what\\ to\\ listen\\ for\\.\\ LG\\ 71\\ is\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ songs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Reggae\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\During\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ another\\ African\\ leader\\ captured\\ the\\ imagination\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ in\\ North\\ American\\ and\\ the\\ Caribbean\\-\\ Ethiopia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ras\\ Tafari\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ the\\ throne\\ as\\ Emperor\\ Haile\\ Selassie\\ in\\ 1930\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ethiopia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ successful\\ fight\\ for\\ independence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ courage\\ of\\ its\\ emperor\\ when\\ its\\ autonomy\\ was\\ challenged\\ by\\ the\\ Italian\\ invasion\\ in\\ 1935\\,\\ provided\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ Rastafarian\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ movement\\ that\\ became\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ reggae\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Rastafarian\\ movement\\ had\\ roots\\ in\\ Marcus\\ Garvey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Back\\ to\\ Africa\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ sought\\ to\\ reclaim\\ black\\ pride\\ through\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ Africa\\.\\ After\\ being\\ deported\\ to\\ Jamaica\\,\\ he\\ and\\ others\\ predicted\\ that\\ the\\ crowning\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ king\\ in\\ Africa\\ would\\ presage\\ deliverance\\ for\\ all\\ black\\ people\\,\\ pointing\\ to\\ passages\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ that\\ forecast\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Lion\\ of\\ Judah\\ \\(people\\ thought\\ Ras\\ Tafari\\ was\\ this\\ Lion\\)\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ his\\ accession\\ brought\\ the\\ downfall\\ of\\ white\\ colonial\\ powers\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Babylon\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ West\\ Indies\\,\\ Ethiopians\\ and\\ Rastafarians\\ were\\ formed\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ new\\ emperor\\.\\ Rastafarianism\\ developed\\ rituals\\ and\\ symbols\\,\\ inventing\\ new\\ traditions\\.\\ Their\\ symbols\\ are\\ green\\,\\ yellow\\,\\ and\\ red\\ like\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ flag\\,\\ dreadlock\\ hairstyles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ mind\\-altering\\ substances\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\First\\,\\ no\\ single\\ musical\\ style\\.\\ Several\\ Jamaican\\ musics\\ influenced\\ styles\\,\\ which\\ were\\ also\\ influenced\\ from\\ styles\\ like\\ jazz\\ and\\ R\\&\\;B\\ from\\ outside\\ Jamaica\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ groups\\ like\\ Toots\\ and\\ the\\ Maytals\\ were\\ playing\\ a\\ predecessor\\ of\\ reggae\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\ska\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ indigenous\\ Jamaican\\ rhythm\\ that\\ emphasized\\ the\\ off\\-beats\\ in\\ a\\ quadruple\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\.\\ Ska\\ was\\ followed\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rock\\ steady\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ much\\ slower\\ tempo\\,\\ anchored\\ by\\ a\\ drum\\ and\\ bass\\ line\\.\\ Its\\ texts\\ discussed\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Then\\ reggae\\ came\\ on\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ being\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;comin\\&rsquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ people\\,\\ an\\ everyday\\ thing\\,\\ meaning\\ regular\\,\\ majority\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ suffering\\,\\ ghetto\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Peter\\ Tosh\\,\\ who\\ helped\\ develop\\ reggae\\&rsquo\\;s\\ musical\\ and\\ political\\ profile\\,\\ protested\\ inequality\\ through\\ political\\ action\\ and\\ performances\\.\\ Famous\\ protest\\ music\\ includes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Look\\ over\\ LG\\ 72\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rhythm\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ Rastafarian\\ reggae\\ tradition\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ resistance\\ in\\ lyrics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Riddim\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ derived\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;rhythm\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ where\\ its\\ meaning\\ includes\\ the\\ main\\ beat\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ second\\ and\\ fourth\\ off\\ beats\\,\\ tempo\\,\\ relationship\\ between\\ bass\\ and\\ rhythm\\ instruments\\,\\ and\\ repeating\\ patterns\\ formed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ strong\\,\\ regular\\ pulse\\ of\\ twos\\ and\\ fours\\,\\ crosscut\\ by\\ syncopated\\ counter\\-rhythms\\.\\ Rastafarian\\ beliefs\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ address\\ the\\ political\\ situation\\.\\ Electronic\\ organ\\ heard\\ is\\ innovative\\ \\(very\\ popular\\ in\\ rock\\ and\\ reggae\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bob\\ Marley\\-\\ HUGE\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Early\\ reggae\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;roots\\ reggae\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ New\\ reggae\\ styles\\ include\\ synthesizers\\ providing\\ beats\\ and\\ texts\\ focusing\\ more\\ on\\ relationships\\ than\\ Rastafarianism\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dub\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\ remixes\\ and\\ alters\\ recordings\\ as\\ a\\ backdrop\\ for\\ improvised\\ vocal\\ solos\\ with\\ political\\ texts\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ragamuffin\\&rdquo\\;\\ style\\ dominated\\ by\\ sounds\\ produced\\ digitally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\ entered\\ mass\\ culture\\ through\\ cult\\ music\\ and\\ commercial\\ music\\ \\(think\\ Sublime\\)\\.\\ Has\\ mixed\\ with\\ other\\ soundscapes\\ like\\ Bhangra\\.\\ Reggaeton\\ emerged\\ as\\ a\\ dance\\ style\\ music\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ which\\ uses\\ Spanish\\ rap\\ with\\ dancehall\\ reggae\\,\\ and\\ deals\\ with\\ drugs\\,\\ crime\\,\\ and\\ sex\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reggae\\,\\ besides\\ signifying\\ resistance\\ to\\ social\\,\\ racial\\ and\\ economic\\ inequities\\,\\ also\\ has\\ many\\ love\\ songs\\.\\ Many\\ surface\\ qualities\\ of\\ reggae\\ have\\ been\\ adopted\\ by\\ white\\ musicians\\ \\(Paul\\ McCartney\\,\\ Eric\\ Clapton\\)\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ commercial\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ The\\ Shoshone\\ Powwow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Unlike\\ other\\ traditions\\ that\\ have\\ traveled\\,\\ Native\\ American\\ musics\\ have\\ stayed\\ in\\ North\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ very\\ dispersed\\ because\\ pf\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Canadian\\ expansion\\ and\\ policies\\,\\ driving\\ them\\ to\\ different\\ places\\.\\ The\\ Shoshones\\ had\\ to\\ abandon\\ their\\ traditional\\ pattern\\ of\\ hunting\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ pressures\\ of\\ expansion\\ and\\ urbanization\\.\\ Life\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ poverty\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Male\\ and\\ female\\ roles\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Setting\\ of\\ Shoshone\\ Indian\\ Days\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Powwow\\-\\ first\\ held\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ referred\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;religious\\ practitioners\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ healing\\ ceremonies\\ \\(first\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;pawwaw\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ Powwow\\ made\\ its\\ way\\ into\\ English\\ and\\ is\\ applied\\ to\\ any\\ type\\ of\\ gathering\\.\\ First\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ Indianness\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powwows\\ are\\ mounted\\ all\\ over\\ North\\ American\\,\\ mainly\\ during\\ the\\ summer\\ months\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eastern\\ Shoshone\\ festival\\ is\\ held\\ on\\ a\\ warm\\ summer\\ weekend\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;powwow\\ circuit\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ draws\\ participants\\ from\\ all\\ over\\.\\ Held\\ on\\ the\\ Wind\\ River\\ Reservation\\ in\\ town\\ of\\ Fort\\ Washakie\\,\\ center\\ of\\ Shoshone\\ tribal\\ life\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Circular\\ wooden\\ arbor\\ is\\ focus\\ of\\ powwow\\ activities\\.\\ Spectators\\ sit\\ under\\ the\\ shelter\\ of\\ the\\ arbor\\ on\\ wooden\\ bleachers\\ or\\ folding\\ chairs\\.\\ Large\\ space\\ in\\ center\\ is\\ planted\\ with\\ grass\\ and\\ is\\ reserved\\ for\\ dancers\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ large\\ pole\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ with\\ no\\ ritual\\ significance\\,\\ but\\ it\\ supports\\ speakers\\ to\\ broadcast\\ the\\ narration\\ by\\ the\\ master\\ of\\ ceremonies\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ drum\\ groups\\ that\\ accompany\\ dancing\\.\\ There\\ are\\ refreshment\\ stands\\ and\\ small\\ shops\\ around\\ the\\ arbor\\.\\ Tipis\\ house\\ those\\ who\\ stay\\ there\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ days\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ night\\,\\ dance\\ competitions\\ are\\ held\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modern\\ intertribal\\ powwow\\ has\\ several\\ drum\\ groups\\ that\\ take\\ turns\\.\\ Each\\ group\\ sets\\ up\\ bass\\ drum\\ under\\ a\\ different\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ arbor\\,\\ and\\ 4\\-6\\ drummers\\ gather\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ around\\ the\\ large\\ drum\\.\\ Most\\ participants\\ are\\ Native\\ American\\,\\ but\\ some\\ are\\ of\\ other\\ backgrounds\\.\\ Although\\ drummers\\ are\\ predominantly\\ male\\,\\ some\\ are\\ female\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ all\\-female\\ drum\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Indian\\ Days\\ celebrations\\=\\ people\\ camp\\ out\\,\\ socialize\\,\\ play\\ games\\-\\ emphasizes\\ Native\\ American\\ cultural\\ values\\ of\\ generosity\\ and\\ public\\ honoring\\.\\ Evenings\\ of\\ Indian\\ Days\\ are\\ given\\ over\\ to\\ powwows\\,\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ tons\\ of\\ dance\\ competitions\\.\\ Competitions\\ play\\ an\\ important\\ role\\-\\ the\\ youngest\\ dancers\\ compete\\ for\\ cash\\.\\ Dance\\ and\\ music\\ competitions\\ are\\ critical\\ to\\ powwow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ success\\,\\ and\\ prizes\\ can\\ be\\ baller\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powwow\\ dances\\ contain\\:\\ 1\\)\\ competitive\\ dances\\ performed\\ by\\ registered\\ participants\\ in\\ full\\ regalia\\;\\ 2\\)\\ special\\ dances\\ for\\ public\\ entertainment\\ and\\ display\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;hoop\\ dances\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ 3\\)\\ intertribal\\ dances\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ attendees\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ dancers\\ progress\\ clockwise\\ around\\ the\\ arbor\\,\\ marking\\ the\\ tempo\\ of\\ the\\ drum\\ with\\ step\\ patterns\\ that\\ carry\\ hidden\\ meanings\\.\\ Has\\ traditional\\ \\(old\\ choreography\\)\\ or\\ fancy\\ styles\\ \\(free\\ form\\,\\ faster\\ tempo\\)\\.\\ Fancy\\ dances\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ popular\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Main\\ competitive\\ dances\\ are\\ the\\ Traditional\\ and\\ Fancy\\ War\\ Dances\\ for\\ men\\.\\ Fancy\\ War\\ dance\\ has\\ added\\ spins\\ and\\ twirls\\.\\ In\\ traditional\\,\\ men\\ wear\\ small\\ feathered\\ bustle\\ with\\ eagle\\ feathers\\ and\\ breastplate\\.\\ For\\ Fancy\\,\\ they\\ wear\\ two\\ large\\ bustles\\ with\\ feathers\\ and\\ ribbons\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Women\\ have\\ Traditional\\ or\\ Fancy\\ Shawl\\ Dance\\,\\ a\\ circular\\ dance\\ wearing\\ basic\\ dress\\,\\ moccasins\\,\\ and\\ leggings\\ with\\ a\\ shawl\\ if\\ Traditional\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emcee\\ offers\\ commentary\\ on\\ performances\\ and\\ political\\ issues\\,\\ giving\\ speeches\\ on\\ historical\\ subjects\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ past\\ injustices\\ and\\ calling\\ for\\ equal\\ rights\\ and\\ opportunities\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Flag\\ Song\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sound\\ and\\ Significance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Powwow\\ begins\\ with\\ Flag\\ Entry\\,\\ procession\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ contestants\\ in\\ regalia\\,\\ who\\ dance\\ single\\ file\\ around\\ the\\ area\\,\\ then\\ they\\ present\\ the\\ colors\\ and\\ flags\\.\\ This\\ flag\\ presentation\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ the\\ Flag\\ Song\\,\\ signaled\\ by\\ a\\ slow\\ drum\\ rhythm\\.\\ Participants\\ remove\\ their\\ hats\\ and\\ stand\\ during\\ this\\ performance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transmission\\ of\\ songs\\ from\\ one\\ community\\ to\\ another\\ is\\ quite\\ common\\ as\\ powwows\\ incorporate\\ the\\ musics\\ of\\ many\\ tribes\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Flag\\ Song\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ slow\\,\\ deliberate\\ tempo\\ punctuated\\ by\\ the\\ drum\\ on\\ every\\ other\\ beat\\.\\ A\\ series\\ of\\ drumbeats\\ \\&ldquo\\;honor\\ beats\\&rdquo\\;\\ gives\\ a\\ clue\\ to\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ drum\\ sound\\.\\ A\\ sliding\\ drum\\ and\\ voice\\ flourish\\ is\\ heard\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ flag\\ song\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ ululation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Helene\\ Furlong\\ sings\\ an\\ octave\\ above\\ her\\ brother\\,\\ entering\\ after\\ him\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;seconding\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ vocal\\ line\\.\\ The\\ text\\ consists\\ of\\ vocables\\ mainly\\ set\\ in\\ syllabic\\ style\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ high\\,\\ tense\\ vocal\\ quality\\ allows\\ male\\ singers\\ to\\ sing\\ clearly\\ for\\ long\\ hours\\.\\ Northern\\ singers\\ also\\ place\\ their\\ vocables\\ between\\ drumbeats\\ \\&ldquo\\;singing\\ off\\ the\\ beat\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ voices\\ more\\ audible\\.\\ LG\\ 73\\ has\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Shoshone\\ repertory\\ contains\\ many\\ Flag\\ Songs\\ for\\ the\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ Colors\\,\\ conveying\\ several\\ different\\ political\\ messages\\;\\ most\\ important\\,\\ they\\ honor\\ particular\\ people\\ and\\ events\\,\\ or\\ offer\\ formal\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ flag\\,\\ country\\,\\ and\\ veterans\\.\\ It\\ has\\ great\\ significance\\ for\\ Native\\ American\\ veterans\\ of\\ armed\\ services\\,\\ who\\ compose\\ new\\ Flag\\ Songs\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ conflicts\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ served\\.\\ LG\\ 74\\ song\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ sung\\ during\\ the\\ Grand\\ Entry\\,\\ honoring\\ tribe\\ members\\ recently\\ returned\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Honoring\\ Warriors\\ in\\ Song\\:\\ The\\ War\\ Dance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\War\\ Dance\\ songs\\ make\\ overt\\ political\\ statement\\,\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ once\\ performed\\ for\\ armed\\ conflict\\.\\ Present\\-day\\ War\\ dances\\ mimic\\ traditional\\ fighting\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ hear\\ how\\ customary\\ gender\\ roles\\ shape\\ performance\\ style\\;\\ women\\ traditionally\\ enter\\ after\\ the\\ opening\\ section\\ and\\ then\\ sing\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ through\\.\\ The\\ male\\ vocal\\ style\\ alternates\\ loud\\ and\\ soft\\ pulses\\ on\\ an\\ unbroken\\ tone\\.\\ The\\ song\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ decisive\\ final\\ drumbeat\\.\\ War\\ Dance\\ also\\ connected\\ to\\ nature\\ \\(like\\ how\\ a\\ chicken\\ would\\ dance\\.\\.\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\War\\ Dance\\ Song\\ is\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ powwow\\,\\ sung\\ and\\ drummed\\ during\\ both\\ traditional\\ war\\ Dances\\ and\\ the\\ Fancy\\ ones\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\LG\\ 74\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Changing\\ Settings\\ of\\ Powwow\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Powwow\\ has\\ shifted\\ to\\ new\\ settings\\ like\\ rodeos\\ and\\ football\\ half\\-time\\ shows\\.\\ New\\ audiences\\ as\\ well\\.\\ American\\ Indian\\ Dance\\ Theatre\\ performs\\ traditional\\ and\\ new\\ choreography\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Powwow\\ provides\\ opportunity\\ for\\ socializing\\ and\\ celebrating\\ Native\\ American\\ identity\\,\\ it\\ also\\ reaffirms\\ the\\ vitality\\ and\\ political\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ The\\ powwow\\ transmits\\ and\\ affirms\\ Native\\ American\\ power\\ both\\ inside\\ and\\ outside\\ the\\ immediate\\ setting\\.\\ This\\ is\\ evident\\ in\\ the\\ clear\\ division\\ between\\ intertribal\\ and\\ contest\\ dances\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ emcee\\ who\\ speaks\\ to\\ insiders\\ and\\ also\\ translates\\ for\\ insiders\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\:\\ Music\\ and\\ Identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\ music\\ can\\ signify\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ identity\\,\\ nationality\\,\\ place\\,\\ ethnicity\\,\\ race\\,\\ class\\,\\ religion\\,\\ and\\ gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ constructs\\ the\\ identities\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Text\\,\\ melody\\,\\ vocal\\ style\\,\\ instrumentation\\,\\ and\\ body\\ motion\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ performance\\ of\\ identity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ introduction\\ identifies\\ key\\ ways\\ to\\ identify\\ components\\ of\\ identity\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Subtle\\ components\\ of\\ identity\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ to\\ Muzak\\,\\ which\\ is\\ background\\ music\\ to\\ public\\ spaces\\ that\\ utilizes\\ familiar\\ Western\\ elements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Identity\\ can\\ be\\ hard\\ to\\ describe\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ubiquitous\\ or\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Identity\\ is\\ expressed\\ or\\ reinforced\\ through\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;musical\\ choices\\ also\\ provide\\ a\\ guide\\ to\\ how\\ we\\ perceive\\ others\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ ourselves\\ and\\ how\\ our\\ perceptions\\ of\\ cultural\\ difference\\ shape\\ our\\ lives\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ music\\ is\\ transmitted\\ in\\ communities\\ linked\\ by\\ descent\\,\\ like\\ Native\\ American\\ music\\ \\(see\\ chap\\ 9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Some\\ musical\\ traditions\\ are\\ continuously\\ shaped\\ by\\ new\\ experiences\\-\\ see\\ bagpipe\\ chap\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Persian\\ flutist\\ Reza\\ Vali\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Born\\ in\\ Iran\\ but\\ educated\\ in\\ the\\ west\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;knowledge\\ of\\ western\\ musical\\ instruments\\ and\\ styles\\ was\\ acquired\\ at\\ home\\ in\\ West\\ Asia\\ and\\ further\\ developed\\ in\\ Europe\\&rdquo\\;\\ 424\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\performed\\ flute\\ at\\ The\\ Concerto\\ for\\ Flue\\ and\\ Orchestra\\ for\\ Boston\\ Modern\\ Orchestra\\ Project\\.\\ His\\ pieces\\ use\\ Western\\ orchestral\\ instruments\\,\\ cbut\\ there\\ is\\ Iranian\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ flute\\ player\\ hums\\ to\\ resemble\\ Persian\\ flute\\,\\ the\\ ney\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Many\\ western\\ idiophones\\ in\\ percussion\\ section\\,\\ also\\ Persian\\ frame\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;influenced\\ by\\ Persian\\ classical\\ and\\ folk\\ music\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ by\\ the\\ Persian\\ visual\\ arts\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;pitch\\ content\\ and\\ melodies\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ movement\\ draw\\ on\\ the\\ Pershian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dashti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dastgah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ Persian\\ music\\ system\\,\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maqam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ melody\\ distinguished\\ by\\ pitch\\ content\\,\\ melodic\\ contours\\,\\ and\\ ornamentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\listening\\ guide\\ 76\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\the\\ ney\\ has\\ 2\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ octaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\improvises\\ in\\ datgah\\ homayoun\\ mode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\melodic\\ countours\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gushe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\player\\ begins\\ low\\ and\\ goes\\ up\\ and\\ octave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\listening\\ guide\\ 77\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\uses\\ Persian\\ flute\\ effects\\ while\\ playing\\ Western\\ instruments\\ sand\\ Western\\ harmonics\\-\\ sings\\ and\\ plays\\ flue\\ for\\ Persian\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Western\\ idiophones\\ with\\ Persian\\ drums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Influence\\ my\\ classical\\ and\\ folk\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\:\\ pitch\\ and\\ melody\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dashti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mode\\,\\ static\\ composition\\ rather\\ than\\ Western\\ linear\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Song\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ composition\\ for\\ solo\\ flute\\ which\\ the\\ player\\ sings\\ and\\ plays\\ in\\ polyphony\\ \\(voice\\ \\&\\;\\ flute\\ create\\ different\\ melodies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\By\\ combining\\ Western\\ and\\ Persian\\ influences\\,\\ he\\ is\\ commenting\\ on\\ more\\ than\\ individual\\ and\\ community\\ identity\\,\\ but\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;broader\\ questions\\ regarding\\ music\\ and\\ intercultural\\ identities\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ combination\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ ethics\\ in\\ music\\:\\ is\\ borrowing\\ music\\ still\\ cultural\\ significant\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Descent\\ \\&\\;\\ affinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Karaoke\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Started\\ in\\ japan\\ in\\ 1972\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technology\\ \\&\\;\\ setting\\ based\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Setting\\:\\ bars\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Technology\\:\\ video\\ with\\ lyrics\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ritualized\\ performance\\-\\ see\\ 7\\ rules\\ on\\ pg\\ 438\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Represents\\ japans\\ idea\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\kata\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ patterned\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Participation\\ in\\ public\\ singing\\ is\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ of\\ kabuki\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instruments\\:\\ noh\\ drum\\ and\\ taiko\\ drum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 79\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\enka\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;song\\,\\ which\\ is\\ like\\ karaoke\\ but\\ singer\\ must\\ also\\ imitate\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ performer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ song\\ is\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;transience\\ of\\ natural\\ beauty\\ and\\ conjures\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mother\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Karaoke\\ has\\ spread\\ internationally\\ to\\ a\\ different\\ communities\\ \\(Chinese\\ Americans\\)\\ and\\ different\\ settings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Cajun\\ Music\\ \\&\\;\\ Zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Creoles\\:\\ heterogeneous\\ people\\ of\\ Frech\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ African\\ and\\ afro\\-caribbean\\ descent\\ based\\ in\\ New\\ Orleans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajuns\\:\\ from\\ a\\ French\\ colony\\ in\\ Acadia\\ in1755\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajun\\ music\\:\\ developed\\ from\\ cross\\ cultural\\ interaction\\ between\\ French\\ and\\ other\\ ethnicities\\ of\\ the\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cowboy\\ songs\\ such\\ as\\ listening\\ guide\\ 80\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Cajun\\ song\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ means\\ of\\ preserving\\ the\\ special\\ Cajun\\ French\\ dialect\\,\\ and\\,\\ by\\ extension\\,\\ Cajun\\ identity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Signifcance\\:\\ to\\ revive\\ the\\ lost\\ language\\,\\ keep\\ traditions\\,\\ family\\,\\ and\\ social\\ life\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajun\\ music\\ became\\ influence\\ by\\ country\\ music\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ radio\\ and\\ touring\\ musicians\\-\\ and\\ this\\ marks\\ the\\ transition\\ of\\ Cajun\\ culture\\ to\\ broader\\ American\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intersections\\ of\\ Cajun\\ and\\ Creole\\:\\ mostly\\ lower\\ class\\ Cajuns\\ and\\ Creoles\\ worked\\ together\\,\\ which\\ fostered\\ cross\\ cultural\\/racial\\ exchange\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Divisions\\ of\\ Cajun\\ \\&\\;\\ Creole\\:\\ names\\ of\\ places\\,\\ language\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ style\\ of\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cajun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Emerged\\ after\\ WWII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cajun\\ ensemble\\ base\\ with\\ washboard\\ as\\ distinctive\\ instrument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Listening\\ guide\\ 81\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mostly\\ male\\ dominated\\,\\ notable\\ woman\\ figure\\:\\ Queen\\ Ida\\ \\(listening\\ guide\\ 82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Musical\\ Community\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ musical\\ community\\ is\\ a\\ collectivity\\ constituted\\ through\\ and\\ marked\\ by\\ music\\ making\\,\\ with\\ musical\\ performances\\ constructing\\ both\\ social\\ relationships\\ and\\ symbolic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Descent\\ Community\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ collectivity\\ based\\ on\\ shared\\ historical\\ relationships\\ \\(real\\ or\\ imagined\\)\\ defined\\ by\\ ethnic\\,\\ national\\,\\ or\\ religious\\ identity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dissent\\ Community\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ collectivity\\ based\\ on\\ shared\\ ideology\\ or\\ conviction\\ \\(tacit\\ or\\ explicit\\)\\,\\ usually\\ of\\ a\\ minority\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ a\\ dominant\\ majority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Affinity\\ Community\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ collectivity\\ emerging\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ instance\\ from\\ individual\\ preferences\\ for\\ affiliation\\,\\ \\ \\;rather\\ than\\ from\\ an\\ ascribed\\ category\\ or\\ specific\\ ideological\\ connection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ summary\\,\\ we\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ identify\\ how\\ music\\ intersects\\ with\\ identity\\ in\\ the\\ three\\ case\\ studies\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Persian\\ flutist\\ Vali\\ composed\\ music\\ that\\ mixed\\ Persian\\ musical\\ form\\,\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ flute\\ techniques\\ with\\ Western\\ instruments\\ Western\\ classical\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;Karaoke\\ was\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ reading\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ depth\\ in\\ class\\.\\ Karaoke\\ is\\ a\\ participatory\\ form\\ of\\ music\\ that\\ exemplifies\\ a\\ deeper\\ philosophy\\ in\\ Japanese\\ culture\\.\\ Its\\ global\\ expansion\\ in\\ other\\ cultures\\ has\\ redefined\\ karaoke\\ and\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ different\\ meaning\\ for\\ other\\ cultural\\ identities\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ the\\ text\\ presents\\ how\\ Cajun\\ and\\ Creole\\ cultural\\ identify\\ differ\\ and\\ converge\\ on\\ music\\,\\ specifically\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\zydeco\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ music\\ and\\ identity\\,\\ larger\\ themes\\ from\\ earlier\\ chapters\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ woven\\ in\\ to\\ any\\ analysis\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\ Listening\\ Guides\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bhangra\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pujab\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;region\\ in\\ India\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dohl\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;drums\\ \\(8\\ beats\\)\\,\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ be\\ performed\\ in\\ rainy\\ season\\ to\\ bring\\ good\\ crops\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ song\\ about\\ a\\ wedding\\ \\(multicultural\\)\\ \\&ldquo\\;Yo\\ Yo\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ American\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hoi\\ Hoi\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\punjab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bhangra\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ male\\ dance\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\giddha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ female\\ counterpart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polka\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Beer\\ Barrel\\ Polka\\,\\ originated\\ in\\ Czech\\ region\\ of\\ bohemia\\.\\ Migrated\\ to\\ texas\\.\\ strophic\\,\\ upbeat\\ duple\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conjunto\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ensemble\\ \\(musical\\ style\\ originated\\ on\\ the\\ Texas\\-Mexico\\ border\\)\\,\\ button\\ accordion\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ instrument\\.\\ Polyphonic\\.\\ Longoria\\ is\\ the\\ accordian\\ player\\,\\ Mexican\\,\\ famous\\,\\ served\\ in\\ WWII\\.\\ Lively\\ dance\\,\\ weddings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tango\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;La\\ cumparsita\\&rdquo\\;\\ two\\ bandoneones\\,\\ two\\ violins\\,\\ piano\\,\\ bass\\.\\ Moderate\\ quad\\ meter\\,\\ tango\\ rhythms\\ \\(staccato\\)\\ Orchestra\\ T\\í\\;pica\\.\\ For\\ dancers\\ and\\ listeners\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\ one\\ is\\ Carlos\\ Gardel\\ \\(singer\\,\\ died\\ in\\ a\\ tragic\\ plane\\ crash\\ in\\ 1935\\)\\ classic\\ vocal\\ tango\\.\\ Melancholy\\ love\\ lyrics\\,\\ pessimistic\\ view\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ Tango\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Adios\\ Nonino\\&rdquo\\;\\ composed\\ in\\ memory\\ of\\ his\\ father\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\piano\\,\\ minor\\,\\ from\\ the\\ 80s\\,\\ for\\ a\\ concert\\ hall\\,\\ combo\\ of\\ Tango\\ \\+\\ Western\\ concert\\ music\\ \\+\\ jazz\\.\\ Astor\\ Piazzolla\\,\\ created\\ purely\\ instrumental\\ tango\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\ Listening\\ Guides\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tibetan\\ Chant\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gyuto\\ monks\\,\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ record\\ the\\ chant\\,\\ only\\ did\\ it\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ exiled\\ in\\ 1959\\.\\ Fundamental\\ pitch\\ hovers\\ around\\ C\\,\\ moved\\ up\\ by\\ one\\ half\\ pitch\\,\\ then\\ sinks\\ to\\ B\\.\\ can\\ hear\\ the\\ harmonics\\,\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ concept\\ of\\ beat\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Santer\\í\\;a\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Afro\\-cuban\\ religion\\,\\ song\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ service\\,\\ call\\ and\\ response\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ soloist\\ and\\ chorus\\.\\ Moderate\\ quadruple\\ with\\ complex\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bhata\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\drums\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chango\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ god\\ they\\ are\\ praying\\ to\\.\\ Songs\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ induce\\ possession\\ of\\ someone\\ by\\ the\\ god\\.\\ Each\\ god\\ has\\ a\\ specific\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\.\\ The\\ religion\\ went\\ to\\ NY\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethiopian\\ Christian\\ Chant\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\chant\\ for\\ a\\ Christmas\\ hymnal\\,\\ vocal\\ slides\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ge\\&rsquo\\;ez\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mode\\ \\(like\\ pentatonic\\/major\\)\\.\\ Solo\\ voice\\,\\ then\\ chorus\\ of\\ voices\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dabtaras\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hyper\\ educated\\ musicians\\,\\ when\\ they\\ went\\ into\\ exile\\,\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ at\\ risk\\ of\\ extinction\\.\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sunday\\ school\\ songs\\,\\ strophic\\ hymn\\ \\(emerged\\ because\\ after\\ the\\ diaspora\\,\\ gov\\ at\\ home\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ train\\ new\\ male\\ musicians\\,\\ so\\ women\\ and\\ children\\ started\\ to\\ do\\ it\\,\\ started\\ in\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sunday\\ schools\\.\\)\\ other\\ songs\\ were\\ in\\ an\\ ancient\\ sacred\\ language\\,\\ this\\ one\\ is\\ in\\ Amharic\\ \\(Ethiopian\\ language\\)\\.\\ Most\\ songs\\ about\\ the\\ Virgin\\ Mary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\ Listening\\ Guide\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\South\\ African\\ National\\ Anthem\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ was\\ in\\ 3\\ african\\ languages\\,\\ later\\ was\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\ strophic\\ hymn\\ with\\ verse\\ and\\ refrain\\,\\ moderate\\ quadruple\\ meter\\,\\ homophonic\\.\\.\\ Second\\ is\\ Kuumba\\ singers\\,\\ call\\ and\\ response\\ is\\ from\\ African\\ tradition\\,\\ homophony\\ is\\ western\\ tradition\\,\\ Afrikans\\ and\\ English\\ was\\ added\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reggae\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\&rdquo\\;\\ Peter\\ Tosh\\,\\ The\\ Wailers\\.\\ 1970s\\,\\ polyphony\\,\\ electrophones\\.\\ Bullfrog\\ noise\\ being\\ made\\ by\\ a\\ guitar\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Native\\ American\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Shoshone\\ Flag\\ song\\,\\ for\\ ritual\\ ceremony\\,\\ for\\ a\\ dance\\.\\ Flag\\ song\\ replaces\\ the\\ American\\ national\\ anthem\\,\\ significance\\ for\\ veterans\\ of\\ armed\\ conflicts\\.\\ \\ \\;Second\\ one\\ is\\ to\\ honor\\ the\\ Indians\\ who\\ fought\\ in\\ Desert\\ Storm\\.\\ War\\ Dance\\ Song\\ \\(different\\ than\\ Flag\\ Dance\\)\\ more\\ uptempo\\,\\ duple\\ meter\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 3, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Soundscapes_study_guide_chapters.doc", "desc": "Final Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-30 03:42:08.172454+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chinese Bb - Class Notes", "tags": ["harvard", "chinese", "bb"], "text": null, "id": 13, "html": "\\\\\\ChineseBb\\_\\-\\_Main\\_Grammar\\_Structures\\_Lessons\\_24\\-28\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c21\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:180pt\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c14\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:126pt\\}\\.c11\\{margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c17\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c18\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c22\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ \\&\\#21602\\;\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ action\\ verbs\\,\\ this\\ structure\\ means\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ do\\ you\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ non\\-action\\ verbs\\ \\(\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ this\\ structure\\ means\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;how\\ is\\ it\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;How\\ come\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\&hellip\\;\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#38291\\;\\&\\#21443\\;\\&\\#21152\\;\\&\\#26202\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ homework\\;\\ how\\ do\\ I\\ have\\ time\\ to\\ attend\\ the\\ party\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21083\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#24931\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ just\\ came\\ to\\ America\\,\\ how\\ is\\ he\\ used\\ to\\ it\\ already\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\?\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ American\\,\\ how\\ come\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ speak\\ English\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dependent\\ clause\\ w\\/Question\\ Word\\,\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ Main\\ clause\\ w\\/\\ Question\\ Word\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#35504\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#24171\\;\\&\\#21161\\;\\&\\#35504\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whoever\\ I\\ like\\ I\\ will\\ help\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Both\\ parts\\ of\\ sentence\\,\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\have\\ to\\ follow\\ S\\ V\\ O\\ grammar\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ \\&\\#35504\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#35504\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#24171\\;\\&\\#21161\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ \\&\\#35504\\;\\ has\\ to\\ come\\ after\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\ in\\ both\\ clauses\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#37666\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#38291\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#21738\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ I\\ have\\ money\\ and\\ time\\,\\ wherever\\ I\\ want\\ to\\ go\\ I\\ will\\ go\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Whichever\\ company\\ gives\\ me\\ lots\\ of\\ money\\,\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ go\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#21496\\;\\&\\#32102\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#37666\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#36984\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whichever\\ class\\ is\\ interesting\\,\\ I\\ will\\ choose\\ that\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#35504\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#24171\\;\\&\\#21161\\;\\&\\#35504\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whoever\\&rsquo\\;s\\ old\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ help\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38500\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&hellip\\;Example\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\,\\ Example\\ \\+\\ Subject\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\/\\&\\#20063\\;\\/\\&\\#36996\\;\\ \\+\\ Verb\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ structure\\ with\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\ is\\ exclusive\\.\\ \\ \\;Translates\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;except\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ structure\\ with\\ \\&\\#20063\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#36996\\;\\ is\\ inclusive\\.\\ \\ \\;Translates\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ addition\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;besides\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38500\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ addition\\ to\\ Gao\\ laoshi\\,\\ other\\ people\\ also\\ speak\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#38500\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#22806\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25976\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#36996\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#36984\\;\\&\\#20462\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ addition\\ to\\ Chinese\\ class\\,\\ math\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ required\\ course\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36996\\;\\ is\\ only\\ right\\ if\\ each\\ example\\ is\\ an\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#20063\\;\\ is\\ correct\\ whether\\ an\\ example\\ is\\ an\\ object\\ or\\ a\\ subject\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Difficulty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&\\#38627\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38627\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\difficult\\ in\\ general\\,\\ or\\ difficult\\ to\\ understand\\ conceptually\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Only\\ functions\\ as\\ an\\ adjective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22256\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\hard\\ to\\ accomplish\\ physically\\ or\\ through\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\can\\ function\\ as\\ a\\ noun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S1\\ \\&\\#20808\\;\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ S2\\&\\#20877\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#24460\\;\\ S3\\ \\(\\&\\#20877\\;\\)\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Describes\\ sequential\\ actions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\?\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#24460\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#32244\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#28450\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ do\\ you\\ study\\ Chinese\\?\\ \\ \\;Every\\ day\\ I\\ first\\ go\\ to\\ class\\,\\ then\\ do\\ the\\ homework\\,\\ and\\ lastly\\ practice\\ characters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ can\\ put\\ different\\ subjects\\ in\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#39151\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#20241\\;\\&\\#24687\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#24460\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#20808\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#24460\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#20877\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#35342\\;\\&\\#35542\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#36984\\;\\&\\#23560\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\&\\#36984\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26089\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\They\\ choose\\ their\\ majors\\ early\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;each\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\+\\ MW\\ \\+\\ polysyllabic\\ noun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\+\\ monosyllabic\\ noun\\ \\(no\\ MW\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\not\\ all\\ polysyllabic\\ nouns\\ can\\ b\\ shortened\\ 2the\\ monosyllabic\\ noun\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ have\\ 2remember\\ each\\ one\\ by\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ b\\ shortened\\ to\\ \\&\\#22283\\;\\.\\ \\(\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Can\\ b\\ shortened\\ to\\ \\&\\#26657\\;\\ \\(\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21508\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\each\\ of\\ us\\ has\\ our\\ own\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#38291\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\each\\ has\\ his\\ own\\ room\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\ M\\ \\+\\ N\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\ \\+\\ Adj\\/Verb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ way\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\every\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;person\\ has\\ his\\ own\\ favorite\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Other\\ way\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\each\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;person\\ has\\ his\\ own\\ favorite\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37666\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\each\\ country\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ currency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Or\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#21508\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#24049\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37666\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\ \\+\\ \\[A\\&\\#36996\\;\\&\\#26159\\;B\\/wh\\-questions\\/\\ V\\ not\\ V\\ \\/\\ S\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21542\\;\\ \\+\\ clause\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#33756\\;\\&\\#36996\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#30332\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#33756\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ say\\ if\\ I\\ like\\ Chinese\\ or\\ French\\ food\\ better\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20006\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Negating\\ Assumptions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20006\\;\\ emphasizes\\ disagreement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\ \\&\\#65291\\;\\&\\#20006\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\/\\&\\#27794\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38614\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20006\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ speaks\\ Chinese\\ really\\ well\\ but\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20006\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#32026\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#22290\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\.\\ \\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ just\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;yr\\ students\\ who\\ live\\ on\\ campus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#28858\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32147\\;\\&\\#30050\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20006\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#30050\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ thought\\ he\\ graduated\\ but\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22810\\;\\/\\&\\#23569\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\&\\#26089\\;\\/\\&\\#26202\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Giving\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\suggestions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22810\\;\\/\\&\\#23569\\;\\ V\\-O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#25033\\;\\&\\#35442\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#32244\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ practice\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#35731\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#22810\\;bei\\&\\#35506\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ teachers\\ often\\ ask\\ us\\ to\\ memorize\\ texts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33298\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#25033\\;\\&\\#35442\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35258\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ sick\\,\\ you\\ should\\ sleep\\ more\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26089\\;\\/\\&\\#26202\\;\\ V\\-O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Description\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\VOV\\+\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ \\(\\&\\#24456\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ \\[\\&\\#22810\\;\\/\\&\\#23569\\;\\/\\&\\#26089\\;\\/\\&\\#26202\\;\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35258\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\you\\ sleep\\ a\\ lot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29694\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35258\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#26202\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\right\\ now\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ bed\\ late\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Only\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&\\#21482\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\(no\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Vegetarians\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#34092\\;\\&\\#33756\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#32905\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Bookworms\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20107\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ Only\\ Harvard\\ students\\ have\\ Chinese\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\GRAMMAR\\ REMINDERS\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Time\\ point\\ is\\ before\\ the\\ verb\\,\\ time\\ duration\\ is\\ after\\ the\\ verb\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Time\\ point\\ \\+\\ V\\(OV\\)\\ \\+\\ Time\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36899\\;\\ \\+\\ Ex\\.\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\ \\+\\ comment\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;even\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36899\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35469\\;\\&\\#35672\\;\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#21602\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ Even\\ the\\ teacher\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recognize\\ this\\ character\\,\\ so\\ how\\ should\\ I\\ know\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adjective\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\special\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21517\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ has\\ a\\ special\\ name\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adverb\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\especially\\,\\ specially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#35430\\;\\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ test\\ is\\ especially\\ hard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\(psychological\\ type\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#24597\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#39340\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ especially\\ fears\\ big\\ horses\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ \\(NP\\/PP\\/VP\\,\\ clause\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#35504\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#29105\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#29305\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nice\\ to\\ everyone\\,\\ especially\\ his\\ teacher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\#\\ less\\ than\\ 10\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\#\\#\\#\\ \\+\\ MW\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22810\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\(dividable\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20841\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ than\\ 2\\ hours\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19977\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ than\\ 3\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\#\\ more\\ than\\ 10\\ or\\ multiples\\ of\\ 10\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\#\\#\\#\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22810\\;\\ \\+\\ MW\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21315\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#28450\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ than\\ 1\\,000\\ characters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ than\\ 20\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\+\\ clause\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ seems\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#20006\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\they\\ speak\\ Chinese\\ well\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ Chinese\\ really\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#23565\\;\\ \\+\\ Somebody\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\ \\+\\ \\(S\\)\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;in\\ the\\ opinion\\ of\\ so\\-and\\-so\\,\\ \\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ us\\,\\ Chinese\\ is\\ hard\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subject\\ has\\ 2\\ positions\\:\\ before\\,\\ n\\ after\\,\\ \\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ example\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#27700\\;\\&\\#24179\\;\\&\\#25552\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#27604\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\my\\ Chinese\\ level\\ has\\ improved\\,\\ for\\ example\\ I\\ now\\ like\\ to\\ speak\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35352\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35352\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ memorize\\,\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ remembering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#35422\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ have\\ to\\ memorize\\ many\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#28450\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\ OR\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#28450\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#26041\\;\\&\\#27861\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\there\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ remember\\ characters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ successfully\\ memorize\\/remember\\,\\ the\\ immediate\\ result\\ of\\ remembering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ have\\ to\\ memorize\\ lots\\ of\\ words\\ but\\ usually\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ some\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\,\\ some\\ I\\ can\\ remember\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\=\\ long\\-term\\ status\\ of\\ remembering\\ something\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#29694\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29978\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ remember\\ that\\ yesterday\\ I\\ memorized\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ words\\,\\ but\\ now\\ I\\ remember\\ nothing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35422\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#23567\\;\\&\\#25976\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#35422\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ the\\ words\\ I\\ studied\\ last\\ semester\\,\\ I\\ only\\ remember\\ a\\ minority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pleasant\\/unpleasant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\/\\&\\#38627\\;\\ \\(\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21507\\;\\/\\&\\#30475\\;\\/\\&\\#32893\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#38627\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#38627\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#32893\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#32893\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#38627\\;\\&\\#32893\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Easy\\/hard\\ \\-\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\/\\&\\#38627\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ O\\ \\+\\ Mod\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#38627\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#33521\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\speaking\\ English\\ is\\ easy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\O\\ \\+\\ Mod\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\/\\&\\#38627\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#33891\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chinese\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ understand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#33891\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chinese\\ is\\ eas\\<\\/span\\>\\ier\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ understand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ Mod\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\/\\&\\#38627\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ action\\ easily\\ happens\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(this\\ pattern\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ for\\ tendencies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#33288\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easily\\ unhappy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22914\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20908\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#20919\\;\\&\\#27700\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#35258\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#33298\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ you\\ drink\\ cold\\ water\\ during\\ the\\ Winter\\,\\ you\\ will\\ easily\\ feel\\ uncomfortable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\(SB\\/Sth\\ looks\\ \\+\\ Adj\\ \\+\\ VP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\refers\\ to\\ something\\ obvious\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#33288\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ looks\\ unhappy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#23481\\;\\&\\#26131\\;\\&\\#23531\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\some\\ characters\\ look\\ easy\\ to\\ write\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(clause\\)\\ refers\\ to\\ something\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ infer\\ or\\ guess\\ at\\ given\\ a\\ certain\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#37202\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ looks\\ like\\ he\\ drank\\ a\\ lot\\ yesterday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#26152\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#32771\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ looks\\ like\\ he\\ did\\ poorly\\ on\\ the\\ test\\ yesterday\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Never\\ put\\ a\\ subject\\ before\\ \\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ clause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ S1\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ the\\ clauses\\ are\\ very\\ short\\,\\ the\\ first\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ can\\ be\\ omitted\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ like\\ him\\,\\ you\\ should\\ tell\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ is\\ so\\ short\\,\\ we\\ omit\\ the\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ clause\\.\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ done\\ eating\\,\\ please\\ come\\ find\\ me\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#23436\\;\\&\\#39151\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;First\\ conjunction\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ is\\ omitted\\ here\\.\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ Adj\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\/\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24537\\;\\.\\ \\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\,\\ but\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ busy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\/\\&\\#21487\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\I\\ memorize\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ but\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remember\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#35352\\;\\&\\#20303\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ both\\ structures\\,\\ do\\ not\\ use\\ modifiers\\ in\\ the\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ clause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ patterns\\ can\\ replace\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#38614\\;\\&\\#28982\\;\\&hellip\\;\\,\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\ \\+\\ Adj\\/V\\ \\(\\=\\ exclamation\\,\\ really\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ really\\ like\\ studying\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ \\+\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20551\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\(\\=\\ jia3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35441\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\what\\ I\\ said\\ is\\ true\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35441\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20551\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\what\\ he\\ said\\ is\\ false\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\ \\=\\ real\\ \\(not\\ fake\\,\\ not\\ kidding\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Seriously\\,\\ I\\ like\\ studying\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\=\\ truly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\ \\=\\ authentic\\,\\ genuine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22320\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\=\\ formally\\,\\ really\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#33021\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ China\\ I\\ can\\ truly\\,\\ formally\\ study\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adv\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\(\\=truly\\ systematically\\,\\ formally\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30495\\;\\&\\#27491\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ formally\\ study\\ Chinese\\ at\\ Harvard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20845\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32004\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\&\\#32004\\;B\\ \\+\\ \\(Time\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22312\\;\\ \\+\\ place\\)\\ \\+\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#32004\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26202\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#19971\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#38651\\;\\&\\#24433\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ asked\\ me\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ movie\\ at\\ Harvard\\ at\\ 7pm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\A\\ \\&\\#36319\\;\\ B\\ \\&\\#32004\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\ \\+\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\ \\+\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#38291\\;\\&\\#22240\\;\\&\\#28858\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24050\\;\\&\\#32147\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#21516\\;\\&\\#23627\\;\\&\\#32004\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\But\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ time\\ because\\ I\\ already\\ agreed\\ to\\ meet\\ up\\ with\\ my\\ roommate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#32004\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#38291\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ already\\ agreed\\ what\\ time\\ to\\ have\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\ \\=\\ ba3\\ \\=\\ \\(MW\\ for\\ umbrella\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#38632\\;\\&\\#20632\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\one\\ umbrella\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26032\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ \\(NP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#21205\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#33995\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#25151\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ newly\\ built\\ house\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#26032\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ newly\\ arrived\\ student\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ TW\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tian\\ laoshi\\ has\\ a\\ girlfriend\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ 5\\ years\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#27506\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ use\\ \\&\\#26089\\;\\ to\\ say\\ this\\ action\\ happened\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ ago\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#26089\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tian\\ laoshi\\ had\\ a\\ girlfriend\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ ago\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26089\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#30693\\;\\&\\#36947\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ knew\\ it\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ ago\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21029\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21029\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\ \\=\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ something\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\ in\\ this\\ pattern\\,\\ it\\ means\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21029\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Stop\\ doing\\ something\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\,\\ it\\ means\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Stop\\ doing\\ something\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#33288\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ unhappy\\ anymore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#24613\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worry\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23478\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#38626\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#26657\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36960\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#21448\\;\\&\\#33298\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ My\\ house\\ is\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ school\\ \\/\\ is\\ big\\ and\\ comfortable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22235\\;\\&\\#21475\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ my\\ family\\ has\\ four\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20840\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29031\\;\\&\\#29255\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ this\\ is\\ my\\ whole\\ family\\&rsquo\\;s\\ photograph\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Family\\ members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#29105\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\/\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#23458\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ his\\ family\\ members\\ are\\ very\\ warm\\ \\/\\ good\\ guests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24859\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\(\\&\\#30340\\;\\)\\&\\#23478\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ really\\ love\\ my\\ family\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\PW\\ \\+\\ \\(N\\ \\+\\ localizer\\)\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32025\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#23531\\;\\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ paper\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ characters\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25918\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\put\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&\\#25850\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\place\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(more\\ careful\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24202\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#36023\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ bed\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ clothes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\NP\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#25850\\;\\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#26550\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#35242\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Shows\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ subject\\,\\ showing\\ you\\ cherish\\ the\\ object\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#29240\\;\\&\\#35242\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#23531\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#20449\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\letter\\ written\\ by\\ my\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23229\\;\\&\\#23229\\;\\&\\#35242\\;\\&\\#25163\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#34081\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dishes\\ cooked\\ by\\ my\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\mother\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#26997\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ pattern\\ takes\\ NO\\ modifier\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#38283\\;\\&\\#24515\\;\\&\\#26997\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\!\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ really\\ happy\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adverbial\\ of\\ manners\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adj\\/NP\\/VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22320\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#25033\\;\\&\\#35442\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\you\\ should\\ study\\ Chinese\\ as\\ best\\ as\\ you\\ can\\.\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#24931\\;\\ as\\ a\\ noun\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\habit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#24931\\;\\/\\&\\#22750\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#24931\\;\\ \\=\\ good\\ habit\\ \\/\\ bad\\ habit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26089\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#24931\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\getting\\ up\\ early\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ habit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#25307\\;\\&\\#24453\\;\\&\\#23458\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#24931\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ habit\\ for\\ Chinese\\ people\\ to\\ host\\ guests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#39636\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ noun\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ understand\\ something\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ an\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#35242\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#39636\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ is\\ my\\ personal\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#23565\\;\\ \\+\\ Sth\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#39636\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ have\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ something\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#25307\\;\\&\\#24453\\;\\&\\#23458\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#24931\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#39636\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\We\\ understand\\ that\\ Chinese\\ people\\ are\\ experienced\\ at\\ \\ \\;hosting\\ guests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\As\\ verb\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ experience\\,\\ to\\ understand\\ or\\ feel\\ something\\ through\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#39636\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#19979\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ feel\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ experienced\\ life\\ in\\ America\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#39636\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\/Clause\\ \\(\\=\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ understand\\ or\\ feel\\ through\\ experience\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#39636\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#32654\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#27171\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ experienced\\ that\\ China\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#19971\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\(\\&\\#27491\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22312\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(\\&\\#27491\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21602\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\(\\&\\#27491\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#22312\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21602\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Verb\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\ \\+\\ \\(O\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Indicates\\ something\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ or\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Translates\\ well\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\-ing\\&rdquo\\;\\ ending\\ verbs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\ used\\ before\\ action\\ verbs\\ to\\ show\\ progression\\ of\\ actions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33879\\;also\\ used\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ a\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#22312\\;\\ shows\\ progression\\ of\\ an\\ action\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#33879\\;\\ shows\\ continuation\\ of\\ a\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Posture\\ verbs\\ \\+\\&\\#33879\\;\\ \\(\\&\\#31449\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#22352\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#36538\\;\\ \\(tang3\\)\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#31449\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ stand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#22352\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ sit\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#36538\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ lie\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35258\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36538\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ when\\ I\\ sleep\\,\\ I\\ lie\\ down\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#38283\\;\\/\\&\\#38364\\;\\/\\&\\#25850\\;\\/\\&\\#25918\\;\\/\\&\\#25343\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25850\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ place\\ carefully\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ put\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25343\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ take\\/to\\ hold\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#38364\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#29128\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\teacher\\ is\\ turning\\ off\\ the\\ light\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#25850\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\teacher\\ is\\ placing\\ the\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ table\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\N\\ \\+\\ localizer\\ \\+\\ \\(\\&\\#25850\\;\\/\\&\\#25918\\;\\/\\&\\#25343\\;\\/\\&\\#22352\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#26377\\;\\/\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Structure\\ for\\ an\\ existential\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;there\\ is\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ sentence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#25850\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#21644\\;\\&\\#21253\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ book\\ and\\ a\\ bag\\ on\\ the\\ table\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#26550\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#25850\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ the\\ book\\ shelf\\ has\\ one\\ book\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#23460\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#22352\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20123\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ the\\ classroom\\ has\\ some\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Adverbial\\ Markers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\ \\+\\ \\(O\\)\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\(O\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ verbs\\ done\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ main\\ verb\\ goes\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ secondary\\ verb\\ goes\\ first\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ smiling\\ talks\\ on\\ the\\ phone\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#31505\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ said\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ smile\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#36538\\;\\(tang3\\)\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35258\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ sleeps\\ lying\\ down\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#39340\\;\\&\\#31449\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#30561\\;\\&\\#35258\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ horse\\ sleeps\\ standing\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21809\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#21733\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#38651\\;\\&\\#35222\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ sings\\ songs\\ while\\ watching\\ TV\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ how\\ the\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\ goes\\ between\\ the\\ V\\ \\&\\;\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26159\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\(co\\-agents\\/time\\/place\\/manners\\)\\ \\+\\ V\\(O\\)\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ 2describe\\ or\\ ask\\ questions\\ about\\ known\\ past\\ events\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#24590\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ how\\&rsquo\\;d\\ you\\ come\\ to\\ Harvard\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ predicate\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#30340\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Predicate\\ can\\ be\\ anything\\ \\(but\\ \\&\\#26159\\;\\ always\\ goes\\ before\\ it\\!\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ express\\ and\\ emphasize\\ an\\ opinion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adj\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32016\\;\\&\\#32004\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#20919\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ New\\ York\\ is\\ very\\ cold\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Model\\ \\+\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23229\\;\\&\\#23229\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#24456\\;\\&\\#24859\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\,\\ \\=\\ his\\ mom\\ loves\\ him\\ very\\ much\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ Potential\\ complement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ they\\ will\\ certainly\\ come\\ get\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\=\\ one\\ week\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ good\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ to\\ study\\ Chinese\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\New\\ situation\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\It\\ can\\ also\\ show\\ that\\ a\\ new\\ situation\\ is\\ about\\ to\\ change\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26149\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#24555\\;\\&\\#35201\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ Spring\\ is\\ soon\\ to\\ come\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24555\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25033\\;\\&\\#35442\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25033\\;\\&\\#35442\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#39151\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\ to\\ eat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26202\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20116\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25033\\;\\&\\#35442\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#31811\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ at\\ 5\\ o\\&rsquo\\;clock\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\ to\\ play\\ basketball\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ you\\ can\\ just\\ use\\ this\\ structure\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Bare\\ verb\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#39151\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\=\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\ to\\ eat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\=\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ coming\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;at\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20063\\;\\/\\&\\#37117\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\/\\&\\#27794\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#27171\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\&\\#27963\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\&\\#24847\\;\\&\\#24605\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ life\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ interesting\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#38291\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\ has\\ no\\ time\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\(PP\\)\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20063\\;\\/\\&\\#37117\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\ \\+\\ adj\\/V\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ girls\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ him\\ at\\ all\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#23401\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#40670\\;\\&\\#20818\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#29105\\;\\&\\#24773\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ nice\\ to\\ anyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\had\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\ \\=\\ suggestion\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;you\\&rsquo\\;d\\ better\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#24037\\;\\&\\#20316\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ better\\ find\\ a\\ job\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#27700\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ you\\&rsquo\\;d\\ better\\ drink\\ more\\ water\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21029\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#31811\\;\\&\\#29699\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ you\\&rsquo\\;d\\ better\\ stop\\ playing\\ basketball\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20241\\;\\&\\#24687\\;\\&\\#20241\\;\\&\\#24687\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ you\\ should\\ rest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26368\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#29694\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#38283\\;\\&\\#22987\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ you\\ should\\ start\\ reading\\ Chinese\\ books\\ now\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36255\\;\\ \\=\\ MW\\ for\\ actions\\,\\ trips\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\#\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36255\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ informal\\ compared\\ to\\ \\&\\#27425\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#26143\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20841\\;\\&\\#36255\\;\\&\\#33258\\;\\&\\#30001\\;\\&\\#24066\\;\\&\\#22580\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ market\\ twice\\ per\\ week\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\ \\+\\ Adj\\/V\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;more\\ and\\ more\\ Adj\\/V\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#21916\\;\\&\\#27489\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20294\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#38627\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#24537\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ like\\ Chinese\\ more\\ and\\ more\\,\\ but\\ it\\ gets\\ harder\\ and\\ harder\\,\\ so\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ busier\\ and\\ busier\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#24863\\;\\&\\#33288\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ We\\ are\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Verb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adverb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\+\\ Adj\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ with\\ verbs\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ look\\,\\ to\\ taste\\,\\ to\\ sound\\,\\ to\\ listen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32893\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\=\\ to\\ sound\\ like\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#33288\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\ looks\\ unhappy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ succeed\\ in\\ recalling\\ something\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ remembered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Negation\\:\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\.\\ OR\\ \\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#20160\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#35469\\;\\&\\#35672\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\do\\ you\\ remember\\ or\\ not\\ when\\ you\\ first\\ met\\ your\\ girlfriend\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#21482\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#25214\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ have\\ no\\ choice\\ but\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ Chinese\\ girlfriend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#31532\\;\\&\\#20108\\;\\&\\#21313\\;\\&\\#20843\\;\\&\\#35506\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\S\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ Completion\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ change\\ of\\ state\\ that\\ an\\ action\\ effects\\ on\\ an\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ complement\\ expresses\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ action\\,\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ resultative\\ complement\\ like\\ \\&\\#20102\\;or\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ verb\\ here\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ action\\ verb\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ with\\ verbs\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ directly\\ affect\\ something\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ verb\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ mention\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\#35527\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ the\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ noun\\ phrase\\ in\\ the\\ structure\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ definite\\,\\ something\\/somebody\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ known\\ by\\ speaker\\ \\&\\;\\ listener\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;He\\ bought\\ 3\\ books\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ because\\ the\\ books\\ are\\ indefinite\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;He\\ bought\\ this\\ book\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ You\\ can\\ use\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ here\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ book\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ definite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ washed\\ the\\ cucumber\\ clean\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#40643\\;\\&\\#29916\\;\\&\\#27927\\;\\&\\#20094\\;\\&\\#28136\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ threw\\ the\\ book\\ onto\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#25172\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ gave\\ me\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\=\\ \\(in\\ this\\ sentence\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ complement\\.\\ \\ \\;Because\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ action\\,\\ the\\ book\\ ends\\ up\\ being\\ w\\ you\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ already\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\,\\ so\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ complement\\.\\)\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#32102\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ bw\\ structure\\ w\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\ and\\ without\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\With\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wash\\ the\\ cucumber\\ clean\\ \\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#40643\\;\\&\\#29916\\;\\&\\#27927\\;\\&\\#20094\\;\\&\\#28136\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Modifier\\,\\ or\\ negation\\ verbs\\,\\ go\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\,\\ bc\\ we\\ regard\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\ as\\ a\\ predicate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#38272\\;\\&\\#25171\\;\\&\\#38283\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ the\\ teacher\\ opened\\ the\\ door\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ tidied\\ up\\ the\\ dorm\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#23487\\;\\&\\#33293\\;\\&\\#25910\\;\\&\\#25342\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Without\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Resultative\\ complement\\,\\ prepositional\\ phrase\\ \\(pp\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ character\\ he\\ wrote\\ it\\ incorrectly\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23531\\;\\&\\#37679\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ OR\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23383\\;\\&\\#23531\\;\\&\\#37679\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23487\\;\\&\\#33293\\;\\&\\#25910\\;\\&\\#25342\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#21966\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ tomorrow\\ will\\ you\\ tidy\\ your\\ room\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#23487\\;\\&\\#33293\\;\\&\\#25910\\;\\&\\#25342\\;\\&\\#22909\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ tidied\\ my\\ room\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Directional\\ complement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ book\\,\\ not\\ what\\ the\\ teacher\\ did\\ to\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#21253\\;\\&\\#29702\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25343\\;\\&\\#20986\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Focus\\ is\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ teacher\\ did\\ to\\ the\\ book\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#25791\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32102\\;\\ sth\\ to\\ sb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ gave\\ me\\ these\\ 2\\ books\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#20841\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#32102\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Give\\ me\\ your\\ book\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#32102\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\.\\ OR\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#32102\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\/\\&\\#33879\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#21507\\;\\/\\&\\#21917\\;\\/\\&\\#33457\\;\\(\\&\\#37666\\;\\)\\/\\&\\#27927\\;\\/\\&\\#25830\\;\\/\\ \\[\\&\\#25343\\;\\/\\&\\#24118\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\]\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Usually\\ we\\ use\\ complement\\ of\\ result\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ actions\\,\\ but\\ these\\ verbs\\ inherently\\ show\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ these\\ actions\\,\\ so\\ they\\ do\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ the\\ complement\\ for\\ it\\ and\\ thus\\ make\\ a\\ complement\\ unnecessary\\ and\\ redundant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ these\\ situations\\,\\ the\\ complement\\ can\\ b\\ \\&\\#20102\\;or\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#38632\\;\\&\\#20632\\;\\&\\#24118\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ take\\ your\\ umbrella\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Verbs\\ used\\ with\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#21917\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#38364\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#38283\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#33457\\;\\(\\&\\#28154\\;\\)\\,\\ \\&\\#27927\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#24536\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25171\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#29399\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#27700\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ the\\ dog\\ drank\\ the\\ water\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Verbs\\ used\\ with\\ \\&\\#33879\\;\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#25343\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#24118\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Model\\,\\ Modifier\\,\\ Time\\ Expression\\,\\ Negation\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#25226\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#25172\\;\\&\\#22312\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ teacher\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ throw\\ the\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ table\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\You\\ always\\ throw\\ the\\ clothes\\ onto\\ the\\ desk\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#32317\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#25226\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#25172\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Sth\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#28415\\;\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\+\\ \\&\\#19968\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#26550\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ books\\ fill\\ up\\ the\\ bookshelf\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;this\\ place\\ is\\ filled\\ up\\ with\\ something\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ place\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ indefinite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#24202\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ clothes\\ fill\\ up\\ the\\ bed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\+\\ localizer\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#25918\\;\\/\\&\\#25850\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#23460\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#22352\\;\\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ the\\ classroom\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ sitting\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\+\\ localizer\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;this\\ place\\ is\\ filled\\ up\\ with\\ something\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#26550\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ the\\ bookshelf\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ books\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#23460\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#29983\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ the\\ classroom\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ students\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\+\\ localizer\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#25918\\;\\/\\&\\#25850\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\ \\+\\ NP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ noun\\ phrase\\ here\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ indefinite\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ stands\\ a\\ teacher\\ in\\ the\\ classroom\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#25945\\;\\&\\#23460\\;\\&\\#37324\\;\\&\\#31449\\;\\&\\#33879\\;\\&\\#19968\\;\\&\\#20301\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\.\\ \\(you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ speaking\\ of\\ a\\ specific\\,\\ known\\ teacher\\ here\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#28415\\;\\ \\+\\ N\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\+\\ sth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ first\\ noun\\ \\=\\ place\\ word\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sth\\&rdquo\\;\\ cannot\\ take\\ any\\ quantifiers\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&\\#24190\\;\\&\\#26412\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ desk\\ is\\ filled\\ up\\ with\\ books\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#26360\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ floor\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ dirty\\ clothes\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\&\\#39634\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\NP\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#28415\\;\\ \\+\\ PW\\ \\(no\\ localizer\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&\\#19978\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Subject\\ and\\ verb\\ are\\ in\\ passive\\ voice\\ relation\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sth\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ receiver\\ of\\ the\\ action\\,\\ not\\ the\\ agent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ meaning\\ as\\ the\\ previous\\ grammar\\ pattern\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ desk\\ is\\ filled\\ up\\ with\\ books\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#26360\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#26700\\;\\&\\#23376\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ floor\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ dirty\\ clothes\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#39634\\;\\&\\#34915\\;\\&\\#26381\\;\\&\\#25918\\;\\&\\#24471\\;\\&\\#28415\\;\\&\\#22320\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ as\\ Noun\\ \\(used\\ with\\ \\&\\#20570\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36889\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#26159\\;\\ \\&\\#23565\\;\\/\\&\\#37679\\;\\ \\&\\#24471\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ this\\ decision\\ was\\ correct\\/bad\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#29238\\;\\&\\#27597\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24120\\;\\&\\#24171\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ my\\ parents\\ often\\ help\\ me\\ make\\ decisions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Negation\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\ \\(\\+\\&\\#19981\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ the\\ placement\\ of\\ \\&\\#19981\\;\\ in\\ the\\ structure\\,\\ in\\ between\\ \\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\ and\\ the\\ VP\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ guests\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ coming\\ so\\ we\\ decided\\ not\\ to\\ buy\\ that\\ much\\ fruit\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#23458\\;\\&\\#20154\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25152\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20497\\;\\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#36023\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#40636\\;\\&\\#22810\\;\\&\\#27700\\;\\&\\#26524\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#26089\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ decided\\ long\\ ago\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ Harvard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27770\\;\\&\\#23450\\;\\&\\#30050\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#24460\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#20570\\;\\&\\#32769\\;\\&\\#24107\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ decided\\ after\\ graduation\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ teacher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\ \\+\\ Time\\ Expression\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\(\\&hellip\\;\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\)\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;Since\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Completed\\ event\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\ \\+\\ Time\\ Expression\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20841\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\ \\=\\ since\\ two\\ years\\ ago\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ day\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ girlfriend\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ high\\ school\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Harvard\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#24819\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#21704\\;\\&\\#20315\\;\\&\\#22823\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#19978\\;\\&\\#20491\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#26399\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\&\\#38283\\;\\&\\#22987\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#25991\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ since\\ last\\ semester\\ I\\ have\\ started\\ to\\ study\\ Chinese\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Progression\\ of\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ the\\ time\\ I\\ saw\\ him\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ sweeping\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#35211\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#26178\\;\\&\\#20505\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23601\\;\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Habitual\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\ \\+\\ Time\\ Expression\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Starting\\ from\\ two\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ he\\ worked\\ out\\ everyday\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20841\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#20197\\;\\&\\#21069\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#27599\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#37117\\;\\&\\#37723\\;\\&\\#37706\\;\\&\\#36523\\;\\&\\#39636\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\since\\ the\\ day\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ girlfriend\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ interested\\ in\\ study\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#37027\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#23565\\;\\&\\#23416\\;\\&\\#32722\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#36234\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#33288\\;\\&\\#36259\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ you\\ have\\ model\\ verbs\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ clause\\,\\ the\\ \\&\\#23601\\;\\ is\\ optional\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\From\\ tomorrow\\,\\ I\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talk\\ to\\ him\\ anymore\\.\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#26126\\;\\&\\#22825\\;\\&\\#36215\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#26371\\;\\&\\#36319\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#35498\\;\\&\\#35441\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#36942\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ to\\ describe\\ a\\ past\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;Here\\,\\ it\\ refers\\ to\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ you\\ have\\ experienced\\ something\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\With\\ \\&\\#20102\\;\\,\\ the\\ emphasis\\ is\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ something\\ happened\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\,\\ its\\ emphasis\\ is\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ you\\ understand\\ an\\ experience\\ that\\ you\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ had\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#27794\\;\\(\\&\\#26377\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Must\\ keep\\ the\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ when\\ you\\ negate\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ I\\ have\\ never\\ had\\ a\\ Chinese\\ girlfriend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#21966\\;\\?\\ \\/\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#27794\\;\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#21860\\;\\&\\#37202\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ have\\ you\\ drank\\ beer\\ before\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#21860\\;\\&\\#37202\\;\\&\\#21966\\;\\?\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#30475\\;\\&\\#21040\\;\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21917\\;\\&\\#21860\\;\\&\\#37202\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ have\\ you\\ seen\\ him\\ drink\\ beer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\&\\#21966\\;\\?\\ \\/\\ \\&\\#20320\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\?\\ \\=\\ have\\ you\\ had\\ a\\ Chinese\\ girlfriend\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Verbs\\ that\\ cannot\\ go\\ with\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#26159\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#35469\\;\\&\\#35672\\;\\,\\ \\&\\#25033\\;\\&\\#35442\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#30050\\;\\&\\#26989\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ are\\ things\\ that\\ only\\ happen\\ once\\ in\\ a\\ lifetime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20102\\;vs\\.\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Relevance\\ to\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20102\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ time\\ point\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ having\\ a\\ certain\\ type\\ of\\ experience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ a\\ specific\\ event\\ has\\ been\\ mentioned\\ before\\ in\\ context\\,\\ then\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ with\\ this\\ specific\\ time\\ point\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20102\\;is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ past\\,\\ but\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#25105\\;\\&\\#30340\\;\\&\\#36774\\;\\&\\#20844\\;\\&\\#23460\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ to\\ my\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#24180\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#20102\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ last\\ year\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#21435\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ to\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\ \\+\\&\\#19981\\;\\/\\&\\#27794\\;\\(\\&\\#26377\\;\\)\\ \\+\\ V\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ never\\ \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\ \\+\\ VP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#19981\\;used\\ to\\ negate\\ a\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#19981\\;\\&\\#21507\\;\\&\\#24039\\;\\&\\#20811\\;\\&\\#21147\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\ has\\ never\\ eaten\\ chocolate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\+\\ V\\/Adj\\ \\+\\ \\&\\#36942\\;\\ \\+\\ O\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#39640\\;\\&\\#33288\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ happy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&\\#20182\\;\\&\\#24478\\;\\&\\#20358\\;\\&\\#27794\\;\\&\\#26377\\;\\&\\#36942\\;\\&\\#20013\\;\\&\\#22283\\;\\&\\#22899\\;\\&\\#26379\\;\\&\\#21451\\;\\.\\ \\=\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ never\\ had\\ a\\ Chinese\\ girlfriend\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 8, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/ChineseBb_-_Main_Grammar_Structures_Lessons_24-28.doc", "desc": "Lectures 24-28"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 286, "html": "\\\\\\1030FinalmidtermSG\\_1\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c28\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:144pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:0\\.5pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0pt\\ 5\\.4pt\\}\\.c3\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c6\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c9\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c5\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c0\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c33\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c30\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-0\\.1pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c24\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{color\\:\\#00ff00\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"TimesNewRomanPSMT\\\"\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"TimesNewRomanPSMT\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"TimesNewRomanPSMT\\\"\\}\\.c15\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c21\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c18\\{color\\:\\#00ffff\\}\\.c11\\{color\\:\\#ff6400\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c27\\{color\\:\\#0000ce\\}\\.c34\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c25\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c29\\{color\\:\\#ff00ff\\}\\.c4\\{vertical\\-align\\:sub\\}\\.c20\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-bottom\\:12pt\\}\\.c8\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c14\\{color\\:\\#ff0000\\}\\.c31\\{color\\:\\#9c3266\\}\\.c16\\{color\\:\\#6500ce\\}\\.c32\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c19\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c26\\{color\\:\\#820081\\}\\.c23\\{color\\:\\#00ff00\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ In\\ the\\ 1030\\ Midterm\\ Study\\ Group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\Julia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nikolus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rose\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Ifedayo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dan\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Carmen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Erin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sam\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\=\\ 8\\ people\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PLEASE\\ see\\ your\\ assignments\\ below\\.\\ Outlines\\ of\\ Readings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\DUE\\ Monday\\ Night\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ we\\ can\\ start\\ studying\\ for\\ Thursday\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Exam\\.\\ Email\\ me\\ \\@\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ygudish\\@gmail\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\gudish\\@fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\ THANKS\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ even\\ color\\-coded\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ nothing\\ gets\\ confusing\\.\\ Everyone\\ should\\ have\\ one\\ day\\ completely\\ assigned\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ also\\ one\\ extra\\ reading\\ \\(Nik\\ and\\ Dan\\ lucked\\ out\\ for\\ the\\ extra\\ one\\)\\.\\ I\\ tried\\ my\\ best\\ to\\ make\\ everything\\ fair\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ feel\\ you\\ are\\ overloaded\\,\\ let\\ me\\ know\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Introduction\\ \\(Jan\\ 31\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ROSE\\ YAN\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Beshears\\,\\ John\\,\\ James\\ Choi\\,\\ David\\ Laibson\\,\\ Brigitte\\ Madrian\\ \\(2007\\)\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\How\\ are\\ preferences\\ revealed\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\?\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Gabaix\\,\\ Xavier\\ and\\ David\\ Laibson\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Shrouded\\ Attributes\\,\\ Consumer\\ Myopia\\,\\ and\\ Information\\ Suppression\\ in\\ Competitive\\ Markets\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Quarterly\\ Journal\\ of\\ Economics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;121\\ \\(2\\)\\,\\ May\\ 2006\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 505\\-540\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Introduction\\ is\\ required\\.\\ Rest\\ of\\ paper\\ is\\ optional\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Gabaix\\,\\ Xavier\\ and\\ David\\ Laibson\\ \\(forthcoming\\)\\ \\"\\;The\\ Seven\\ Properties\\ of\\ Good\\ Models\\"\\;\\ in\\ eds\\ Andrew\\ Caplin\\ and\\ Andrew\\ Schotter\\ The\\ Methodologies\\ of\\ Modern\\ Economics\\:\\ Foundations\\ of\\ Positive\\ and\\ Normative\\ Economics\\ \\,\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\.\\ \\(LINK\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;Introduction\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\&ndash\\;5\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Bounded\\ rationality\\ \\(Feb\\.\\ 5\\,\\ 7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ERIN\\ MILES\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Camerer\\,\\ Colin\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\"\\;\\ Behavioral\\ game\\ theory\\:\\ Experiments\\ on\\ Behavioral\\ Interaction\\,\\ forthcoming\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Dennett\\,\\ Daniel\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Cognitive\\ Wheels\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ of\\ AI\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ W\\.\\ Pylyshyn\\ \\(Ed\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Robot\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Dilemma\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ in\\ Artificial\\ Intelligence\\,\\ Ablex\\ Publishing\\ Corporation\\:\\ Norwood\\ \\,\\ N\\.J\\.\\ \\,\\ 1987\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 41\\&ndash\\;64\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Nagel\\,\\ Rosemarie\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Unraveling\\ in\\ Guessing\\ Games\\:\\ An\\ Experimental\\ Study\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Economic\\ Review\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;85\\(5\\)\\,\\ December\\ 1995\\,\\ 1313\\&ndash\\;26\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;Mental\\ Accounting\\ Matters\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 241\\&ndash\\;268\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 50\\&ndash\\;62\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Camerer\\,\\ Colin\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ \\"\\;\\ Introduction\\ \\.\\"\\;\\ Behavioral\\ game\\ theory\\:\\ Experiments\\ on\\ Behavioral\\ Interaction\\,\\ forthcoming\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intro\\:\\ The\\ introduction\\ is\\ pretty\\ simple\\ stuff\\ \\(general\\ background\\ about\\ game\\ theory\\ not\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ course\\)\\;\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ made\\ note\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ important\\ definitions\\ and\\ points\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nash\\ Equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ all\\ players\\ choosing\\ strategies\\ that\\ are\\ best\\ responses\\ to\\ all\\ other\\ players\\&rsquo\\;\\ strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Behavioral\\ Game\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ what\\ people\\ actually\\ do\\ in\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-game\\ theory\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ predict\\ what\\ people\\ do\\,\\ give\\ advice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ simply\\ meant\\ to\\ describe\\ what\\ rational\\ players\\ would\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-hard\\ to\\ use\\ field\\ data\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ often\\ too\\ many\\ variables\\,\\ hard\\ to\\ fully\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\-Price\\/Vickrey\\ Auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ high\\ bidder\\ pays\\ the\\ price\\ offered\\ by\\ the\\ second\\-highest\\ bidder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\-Value\\ Auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ most\\ optimistic\\ bidder\\ wins\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ problematic\\,\\ you\\ probably\\ paid\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ object\\ was\\ worth\\ \\(empirics\\ show\\ that\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ consider\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*game\\ theory\\ not\\ always\\ perfect\\,\\ but\\ descriptive\\ failure\\ is\\ prescriptive\\ opportunity\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ Examples\\:\\ The\\ majority\\ of\\ this\\ chapter\\ centers\\ on\\ going\\ through\\ 3\\ main\\ experiments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-all\\ examples\\ show\\ how\\ behavioral\\ game\\ theory\\ can\\ explain\\ what\\ people\\ do\\ more\\ accurately\\ by\\ extending\\ analytic\\ game\\ theory\\ to\\ include\\ how\\ plays\\ feel\\,\\ limited\\ strategic\\ thinking\\,\\ and\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ games\\ are\\ simple\\ with\\ real\\ money\\ rewards\\ \\(to\\ simulate\\ real\\ financial\\ incentives\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Ultimatum\\ Bargaining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ simplest\\ kind\\ of\\ bargaining\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ realistic\\ for\\ most\\ bargaining\\ situations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-useful\\ for\\ measuring\\ how\\ people\\ feel\\ about\\ allocations\\ of\\ money\\ between\\ themselves\\ and\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ is\\ a\\ possibility\\ for\\ gain\\ from\\ exchange\\,\\ one\\ player\\ makes\\ a\\ take\\-it\\-or\\-leave\\-it\\ offer\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ divide\\ that\\ gain\\ \\(between\\ reservation\\ price\\ and\\ seller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cost\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ experiments\\:\\ Player\\ 1\\ has\\ \\$10\\,\\ can\\ offer\\ Player\\ 2\\ any\\ amount\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Player\\ 2\\ can\\ accept\\ \\(the\\ trade\\ occurs\\)\\ OR\\ reject\\ \\(both\\ receive\\ nothing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assumptions\\:\\ players\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-interested\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-says\\ that\\ Player\\ 1\\ should\\ offer\\ lowest\\ possible\\ amount\\,\\ Player\\ 2\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;should\\ accept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ reality\\,\\ people\\ also\\ feel\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ unfairness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ typically\\ offer\\ between\\ 4\\ and\\ 5\\ dollars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-offers\\ much\\ less\\ than\\ half\\ will\\ be\\ rejected\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reciprocal\\ unfairness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ survival\\ \\(pays\\ to\\ get\\ angry\\ in\\ the\\ LR\\)\\,\\ culture\\ \\(more\\ family\\ close\\ by\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-data\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\ shows\\ different\\ sharing\\ tendencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Path\\-dependent\\ coordination\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Continental\\ divide\\&rdquo\\;\\ games\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-players\\ pick\\ numbers\\ between\\ 1\\-14\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ represents\\ their\\ location\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-higher\\ payoff\\ if\\ others\\ pick\\ numbers\\ close\\ to\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-payoffs\\ such\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ equilibria\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 12\\ and\\ 3\\ \\(otherwise\\,\\ would\\ get\\ a\\ higher\\ payoff\\ by\\ bidding\\ above\\/below\\ the\\ median\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-medians\\ below\\ 7\\ \\=\\ basin\\ of\\ attraction\\ for\\ equilibrium\\ of\\ 3\\,\\ medians\\ above\\ 7\\ \\=\\ basin\\ of\\ attraction\\ for\\ equilibrium\\ of\\ 12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-12\\ equilibrium\\ pays\\ more\\ to\\ players\\ than\\ the\\ 3\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ end\\ up\\ at\\ higher\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*may\\ be\\ impossible\\ to\\ solve\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ multiple\\ equilbria\\ by\\ pure\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Beauty\\ games\\ and\\ iterated\\ dominance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-N\\ players\\ simultaneously\\ choose\\ a\\ number\\ x\\ in\\ the\\ interval\\ \\[0\\,\\ 100\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-then\\ take\\ the\\ average\\ number\\,\\ multiple\\ by\\ p\\ \\(p\\<\\;1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-player\\ closest\\ to\\ this\\ target\\ wins\\ a\\ prize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-analytical\\ game\\ theory\\:\\ people\\ should\\ not\\ stop\\ interating\\ degrees\\ of\\ reasoning\\ until\\ their\\ reach\\ a\\ best\\-response\\ point\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ mean\\ \\=\\ 50\\,\\ thus\\ choose\\ 35\\&hellip\\;but\\ if\\ everyone\\ chooses\\ 35\\,\\ then\\ optimal\\ value\\ closer\\ to\\ 25\\&hellip\\;but\\ if\\ everyone\\ chooses\\ 25\\,\\ then\\ optimal\\ value\\ closer\\ to\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-would\\ lead\\ to\\ everyone\\ choosing\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\dominance\\ solvable\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ be\\ solved\\ by\\ iterated\\ application\\ of\\ dominance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\dominated\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ one\\ that\\ yields\\ lower\\ payoff\\ than\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-e\\.g\\.\\,\\ choosing\\ a\\ number\\ above\\ p100\\ always\\ dominated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-results\\ show\\ that\\ players\\ use\\ 0\\-3\\ steps\\ of\\ reasoning\\;\\ few\\ chose\\ the\\ Nash\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*similar\\ reasoning\\ before\\ crashes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ foresee\\ the\\ fall\\,\\ you\\ often\\ do\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;backward\\ induct\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ present\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Does\\ people\\ actually\\ play\\ according\\ to\\ game\\ theory\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ ultimatum\\ game\\,\\ can\\ explain\\ by\\ combining\\ social\\ utility\\ with\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;analytical\\ game\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-in\\ continental\\ divide\\ and\\ beauty\\ contest\\,\\ people\\ converge\\ to\\ equilibrium\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;in\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*goal\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ disprove\\ game\\ theory\\,\\ but\\ to\\ IMPROVE\\ it\\ by\\ finding\\ regularity\\ that\\ inspires\\ new\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-need\\ to\\ combine\\ controlled\\ experiments\\,\\ field\\ observation\\,\\ and\\ theorizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-sometimes\\,\\ it\\ takes\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ for\\ a\\ game\\ theory\\ equilibrium\\ to\\ be\\ reach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-possible\\ explanation\\ for\\ deviation\\ from\\ expectations\\:\\ people\\ not\\ playing\\ the\\ game\\ the\\ experimenter\\ intended\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Dennett\\,\\ Daniel\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Cognitive\\ Wheels\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ of\\ AI\\ \\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ W\\.\\ Pylyshyn\\ \\(Ed\\.\\)\\ \\,\\ The\\ Robot\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Dilemma\\:\\ The\\ Frame\\ Problem\\ in\\ Artificial\\ Intelligence\\,\\ Ablex\\ Publishing\\ Corporation\\:\\ Norwood\\ \\,\\ N\\.J\\.\\ \\,\\ 1987\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 41\\&ndash\\;64\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ investigates\\ current\\ research\\ being\\ undertaken\\ to\\ model\\ human\\ thought\\ processes\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ humans\\,\\ we\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;phenomenological\\ level\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ our\\ thoughts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ conscious\\ thoughts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ understand\\ what\\ makes\\ our\\ thoughts\\ what\\ they\\ are\\.\\ \\ \\;Use\\ of\\ AI\\ has\\,\\ to\\ date\\,\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ proxy\\ for\\ this\\ underlying\\ form\\ of\\ human\\ intelligence\\.\\ \\ \\;Dennett\\ writes\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ frustrations\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ truly\\ \\&ldquo\\;intelligent\\&rdquo\\;\\ AI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ namely\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ robots\\ currently\\ are\\ incapable\\ of\\ tackling\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;framing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Framing\\ refers\\ to\\ assessing\\ a\\ situation\\,\\ pulling\\ relevant\\ details\\ from\\ the\\ infinite\\ pieces\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ surround\\ us\\,\\ performing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\caritas\\ paribus\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reasoning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robots\\ \\(and\\ humans\\)\\ must\\ store\\ information\\ systematically\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ synthesized\\ and\\ accessed\\ quickly\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ short\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ intelligent\\ agent\\ must\\ engage\\ in\\ swift\\ information\\-sensitive\\ planning\\ which\\ produces\\ reliable\\ but\\ flexible\\ expectations\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ its\\ actions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;We\\ know\\ that\\ these\\ expectations\\ exist\\ because\\ we\\ can\\ observe\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;startled\\ reaction\\&rdquo\\;\\ exhibited\\ when\\ expectations\\ are\\ not\\ met\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robotic\\ systems\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;cognitive\\ wheels\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ may\\ yield\\ emergent\\ systems\\ that\\ model\\ the\\ intermediate\\ levels\\ of\\ human\\ thought\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\ level\\ of\\ conscious\\ thought\\ but\\ above\\ the\\ molecular\\ level\\)\\.\\ Dennet\\ believes\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ robots\\ may\\ not\\ truly\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ model\\ the\\ way\\ a\\ human\\ mind\\ works\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ may\\ just\\ be\\ linking\\ cognitive\\ wheels\\ with\\ the\\ phenomenological\\ level\\,\\ missing\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ middle\\.\\ \\ \\;Despite\\ this\\ fact\\,\\ however\\,\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ AI\\ has\\ led\\ researchers\\ to\\ uncover\\ many\\ questions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ framing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ prove\\ relevant\\ to\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Nagel\\,\\ Rosemarie\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Unraveling\\ in\\ Guessing\\ Games\\:\\ An\\ Experimental\\ Study\\ \\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ American\\ Economic\\ Review\\,\\ 85\\(5\\)\\,\\ December\\ 1995\\,\\ 1313\\&ndash\\;26\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-an\\ article\\ describing\\ the\\ p\\-beauty\\ game\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Game\\ Set\\-Up\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-players\\ simultaneously\\ state\\ a\\ number\\ in\\ the\\ closed\\ interval\\ \\[0\\,\\ 100\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ mean\\ of\\ these\\ numbers\\ is\\ multiplied\\ by\\ a\\ parameter\\ p\\ \\(known\\ to\\ all\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-winner\\ \\=\\ player\\ closest\\ to\\ mean\\*p\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ receives\\ a\\ fixed\\ sum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-four\\ rounds\\ of\\ the\\ game\\,\\ same\\ players\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*only\\ one\\ Nash\\ equilibrium\\ for\\ p\\<\\;1\\:\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*for\\ p\\=1\\:\\ infinite\\ Nash\\ equilibria\\ with\\ all\\ choosing\\ the\\ same\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*\\ p\\>\\;1\\,\\ \\<\\;0\\:\\ two\\ equilibria\\,\\ 0\\ and\\ 100\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Definitions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Zero\\-order\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ players\\ selects\\ a\\ strategy\\ at\\ random\\ without\\ forming\\ beliefs\\ \\ \\;or\\ picks\\ a\\ salient\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ this\\ game\\,\\ a\\ zero\\-order\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ round\\ is\\ 50\\ \\(mean\\ random\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;answer\\)\\,\\ in\\ later\\ rounds\\:\\ mean\\ of\\ previous\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\order\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ player\\ thinks\\ others\\ choose\\ a\\ strategy\\ at\\ random\\,\\ then\\ chooses\\ his\\ best\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ this\\ game\\,\\ for\\ period\\ 1\\:\\ 50p\\,\\ in\\ later\\ periods\\:\\ previous\\ mean\\*p\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\order\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ player\\ thinks\\ others\\ form\\ first\\-order\\ beliefs\\,\\ then\\ chooses\\ his\\ best\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-in\\ this\\ game\\,\\ for\\ period\\ 1\\:\\ 50p\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ later\\ periods\\:\\ previous\\ mean\\*p\\*p\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-modal\\ depth\\ of\\ reasoning\\ does\\ not\\ increase\\ over\\ time\\,\\ though\\ the\\ median\\ choice\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-0\\ was\\ chosen\\ very\\ infrequently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-data\\ corresponded\\ relatively\\ highly\\ to\\ clumping\\ of\\ choices\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;neighborhood\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ iteration\\ steps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-many\\ players\\ performed\\ \\~2\\ iteration\\ steps\\,\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ playing\\ optimally\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-in\\ later\\ rounds\\,\\ behavior\\ moved\\ toward\\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-rate\\ of\\ decrease\\ toward\\ equilibrium\\ dependant\\ on\\ p\\ \\(smaller\\ p\\ \\=\\ faster\\ convergence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-learning\\ theory\\:\\ people\\ who\\ lose\\ tend\\ to\\ adjust\\ their\\ guesses\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ winners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-subjects\\ increase\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;adjustment\\ factor\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ optimal\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;adjustment\\ factor\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\adjustment\\ factor\\ \\=\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ guess\\ divided\\ by\\ the\\ mean\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;from\\ the\\ previous\\ period\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Mental\\ Accounting\\ Matters\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 14\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 241\\&ndash\\;268\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mental\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ the\\ set\\ of\\ cognitive\\ operations\\ used\\ by\\ individuals\\ and\\ households\\ to\\ organize\\,\\ evaluate\\,\\ and\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ financial\\ activities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ main\\ factors\\ addressed\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ how\\ outcomes\\ are\\ perceived\\/experienced\\,\\ how\\ decisions\\ are\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;made\\/evaluated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ the\\ assignment\\ of\\ activities\\ to\\ specific\\ accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\)\\ the\\ frequency\\ with\\ which\\ accounts\\ are\\ evaluated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Framing\\ of\\ Losses\\ and\\ Gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-assumption\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ function\\ of\\ prospect\\ theory\\ \\(concave\\ gain\\ fct\\,\\ convex\\ loss\\ fct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\mental\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ elementary\\ outcomes\\ that\\ are\\ evaluated\\ jointly\\ and\\ the\\ manner\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ combined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-there\\ are\\ multiple\\ ways\\ to\\ frame\\ decisions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\minimal\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(just\\ look\\ at\\ differences\\ between\\ choices\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\topical\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(just\\ look\\ at\\ consequences\\ of\\ choices\\ relative\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ reference\\ level\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\comprehensive\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(incorporate\\ all\\ factors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-people\\ generally\\ perform\\ piecemeal\\,\\ topical\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\hedonic\\ framing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ people\\ code\\ combinations\\ of\\ events\\ to\\ make\\ themselves\\ as\\ happy\\ as\\ possible\\ \\(according\\ to\\ value\\ fct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-segregate\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-integrate\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-integrate\\ smaller\\ losses\\ with\\ larger\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-segregate\\ small\\ gains\\ from\\ larger\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\*very\\ useful\\ in\\ marketing\\ \\(EX\\:\\ rebate\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ price\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;reduction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\*not\\ always\\ consistent\\ with\\ data\\ \\(EX\\:\\ people\\ unable\\ to\\ combine\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;losses\\,\\ seem\\ to\\ feel\\ them\\ one\\ at\\ a\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mental\\ Accounting\\ Decision\\ Making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Transaction\\ Utility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-when\\ people\\ make\\ a\\ purchase\\,\\ they\\ get\\ both\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\acquisition\\ utility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(measure\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ relative\\ to\\ its\\ price\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\transaction\\ utility\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(the\\ perceived\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;deal\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Opening\\ and\\ Closing\\ Accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ see\\ paper\\ losses\\ as\\ more\\ serious\\ than\\ realized\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-firms\\ cash\\ in\\ on\\ this\\ to\\ manipulate\\ data\\ to\\ maximize\\ utility\\ over\\ the\\ value\\ fct\\:\\ report\\ small\\ gains\\,\\ trim\\ down\\ large\\ gains\\,\\ exaggerate\\ losses\\ \\(people\\ will\\ only\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ these\\ final\\ reports\\ of\\ loss\\/gain\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advance\\ Purchases\\,\\ Sunk\\ Costs\\,\\ and\\ Payment\\ Depreciation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ want\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;balance\\ the\\ books\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ mental\\ account\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ make\\ up\\ for\\ sunk\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-often\\,\\ initial\\ purchases\\ seen\\ as\\ investments\\,\\ then\\ actual\\ consumption\\ seen\\ as\\ free\\ \\(consumption\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ timeshare\\ vacation\\ homes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ ignore\\ sunk\\ costs\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ over\\ time\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ gym\\ a\\ lot\\ in\\ the\\ month\\ of\\ a\\ payment\\,\\ then\\ attendance\\ decreases\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Payment\\ Decoupling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-consumers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ the\\ meter\\ running\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\flat\\ rate\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-best\\ example\\:\\ the\\ credit\\ card\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ separation\\ of\\ payment\\ and\\ purchase\\ makes\\ the\\ payment\\ less\\ salient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Budgeting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-three\\ levels\\ of\\ money\\:\\ expenditures\\,\\ wealth\\,\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-expenditures\\ grouped\\ in\\ budgets\\ \\(food\\,\\ housing\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ wealth\\ into\\ accounts\\ \\(checking\\,\\ pension\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;rainy\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ income\\ into\\ categories\\ \\(windfall\\,\\ regular\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consumption\\ Categories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-households\\ with\\ tighter\\ budgets\\ have\\ more\\ explicit\\ budgeting\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-small\\,\\ routine\\ expenses\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;booked\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(thus\\ the\\ appeal\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;penny\\ a\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\ donations\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implications\\ of\\ Violations\\ of\\ Fungibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-one\\ budget\\ may\\ be\\ spent\\ up\\ to\\ its\\ limit\\ while\\ other\\ accounts\\ have\\ unspent\\ funds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-EX\\:\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ just\\ paid\\ \\$50\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ play\\ \\(instead\\ of\\ a\\ parking\\ ticket\\)\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ pay\\ \\$50\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ basketball\\ game\\ \\(funds\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;fun\\&rdquo\\;\\ account\\ already\\ exhausted\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Self\\-Control\\ and\\ Gift\\ Giving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-some\\ budgets\\ set\\ \\&ldquo\\;too\\ low\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ control\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-might\\ not\\ spend\\ money\\ on\\ items\\ even\\ if\\ valued\\ about\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-thus\\,\\ gifts\\ of\\ items\\ slightly\\ more\\ luxurious\\ than\\ a\\ consumer\\ buys\\ are\\ highly\\ valued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-often\\,\\ self\\-control\\ leads\\ to\\ people\\ paying\\ premiums\\ for\\ smaller\\ quantities\\ of\\ goods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wealth\\ Accounts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-can\\ deal\\ with\\ self\\-control\\ by\\ placing\\ funds\\ in\\ accounts\\ that\\ are\\ off\\-limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-households\\ that\\ put\\ more\\ money\\ in\\ retirement\\ savings\\ accounts\\ do\\ not\\ reduce\\ funds\\ in\\ other\\ accounts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ save\\ more\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Income\\ Accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-people\\ tend\\ to\\ match\\ the\\ seriousness\\ of\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ money\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ put\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\:\\ dividends\\ \\(after\\ taxes\\)\\ worth\\ less\\ than\\ share\\ repurchases\\,\\ but\\ firms\\ still\\ pay\\ dividends\\ b\\/c\\ people\\ spend\\ dividends\\,\\ not\\ shares\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Choice\\ Bracketing\\ and\\ Dynamic\\ Mental\\ Accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-how\\ boundaries\\ are\\ set\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ decisions\\/outcomes\\ are\\ grouped\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prior\\ Outcomes\\ and\\ Risky\\ Choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-more\\ likely\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ risky\\ bet\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ day\\ of\\ losses\\ b\\/c\\ desperate\\ to\\ break\\ even\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-a\\ prior\\ gain\\ can\\ also\\ stimulate\\ risk\\ taking\\ \\(money\\ gained\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\*today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ winnings\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ amount\\ wagered\\,\\ but\\ yesterday\\&rsquo\\;s\\ do\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Narrow\\ Framing\\ and\\ Myopic\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-loss\\-averse\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ willing\\ to\\ take\\ risks\\ if\\ they\\ combine\\ many\\ bets\\ together\\ than\\ if\\ they\\ consider\\ one\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-over\\ the\\ long\\ horizon\\,\\ taking\\ risks\\ with\\ \\+\\ expected\\ value\\ a\\ good\\ strategy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ people\\ cannot\\ think\\ beyond\\ the\\ bet\\ at\\ hand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\:\\ taxi\\ cab\\ drivers\\ should\\ drive\\ more\\ on\\ good\\ days\\,\\ actually\\ drive\\ more\\ on\\ bad\\ days\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shows\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ hit\\ a\\ target\\ earnings\\ level\\ per\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Diversification\\ Heuristic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-diversification\\ bias\\:\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ varied\\ choices\\,\\ even\\ if\\ making\\ the\\ same\\ choice\\ again\\ and\\ again\\ would\\ make\\ them\\ better\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-mental\\ accounting\\ procedures\\ economize\\ on\\ time\\ and\\ deal\\ with\\ self\\-control\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-should\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ modify\\ mental\\ accounting\\ rules\\ to\\ achieve\\ certain\\ goals\\,\\ not\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ mental\\ accounting\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrong\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 50\\&ndash\\;62\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\ couple\\ definitions\\ for\\ review\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\common\\ value\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ good\\ being\\ auctioned\\ off\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ to\\ all\\ bidders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\low\\ price\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ bidder\\ with\\ the\\ lowest\\ bid\\ wins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\second\\ price\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ item\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ highest\\ bidder\\ at\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ highest\\ bid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ reading\\ opens\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ situation\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ applies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ man\\ brings\\ a\\ jar\\ filled\\ with\\ coins\\ to\\ a\\ bar\\ and\\ auctions\\ it\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ most\\ cases\\,\\ the\\ average\\ bid\\ will\\ be\\ below\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ coins\\ \\(due\\ to\\ risk\\ aversion\\)\\,\\ but\\ the\\ winning\\ bid\\ will\\ exceed\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ coins\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ reading\\ introduces\\ readers\\ to\\ the\\ curse\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ occurs\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ winning\\ bid\\ might\\ exceed\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ for\\ sale\\ or\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ expert\\&rsquo\\;s\\ estimate\\ so\\ winning\\ is\\ disappoint\\ \\(even\\ if\\ the\\ winning\\ bid\\ is\\ below\\ the\\ value\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\.\\ \\ \\;Rational\\ bidders\\ must\\ distinguish\\ 1\\)\\ the\\ expected\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ for\\ sale\\,\\ conditioned\\ on\\ prior\\ information\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ expected\\ value\\ conditioned\\ on\\ winning\\ the\\ auction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ more\\ people\\ bid\\,\\ one\\ must\\ bid\\ more\\ aggressively\\ to\\ win\\,\\ and\\ one\\ is\\ also\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ overestimate\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ for\\ sale\\ if\\ one\\ wins\\ \\(contradictory\\ pressures\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\,\\ Thaler\\ runs\\ through\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ experimental\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ curse\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ The\\ jar\\ of\\ coins\\ example\\ \\(run\\ in\\ class\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ You\\ are\\ company\\ A\\,\\ making\\ an\\ offer\\ to\\ acquire\\ company\\ T\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ value\\ of\\ T\\ depends\\ on\\ an\\ oil\\ exploration\\ program\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ between\\ 0\\ and\\ \\$100\\ per\\ share\\.\\ \\ \\;Company\\ T\\,\\ once\\ under\\ the\\ management\\ of\\ Company\\ A\\,\\ will\\ be\\ worth\\ 50\\%\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;Company\\ T\\ knows\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ oil\\ exploration\\ program\\ but\\ you\\ do\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ price\\ do\\ you\\ offer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-asymmetric\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-must\\ consider\\ what\\ your\\ bid\\ being\\ accepted\\ means\\ about\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Company\\ T\\&rsquo\\;s\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-if\\ you\\ do\\ this\\ calculation\\,\\ you\\ expect\\ to\\ lose\\ \\.25B\\ for\\ every\\ value\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;of\\ your\\ bid\\ that\\ is\\ accepted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-learning\\ for\\ this\\ problem\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ slow\\ and\\ rare\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Students\\ given\\ a\\ signal\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ range\\ around\\ the\\ real\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ good\\,\\ then\\ bid\\ in\\ a\\ sealed\\ auction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-bidders\\ more\\ close\\ to\\ rationality\\ when\\ in\\ a\\ smaller\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Low\\ price\\ auction\\ with\\ construction\\ managers\\ \\(experts\\ in\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ bidding\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-same\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-probably\\ learn\\ a\\ rule\\ of\\ thumb\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ transferable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thaler\\ next\\ provides\\ field\\ data\\ for\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ book\\ publishing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ books\\ auctioned\\ do\\ not\\ earn\\ their\\ advances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ baseball\\ free\\ agents\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ solved\\ by\\ collusion\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ teamrs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ off\\-shore\\ oil\\ and\\ gas\\ leases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ winning\\ bidders\\ outbid\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;price\\ bidders\\ often\\ by\\ factors\\ of\\ 4\\ or\\ more\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ 100\\ difference\\ between\\ highest\\ and\\ lowest\\ bidders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ firms\\ making\\ losses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ excessive\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ oil\\ to\\ be\\ found\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-researchers\\ looked\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ factor\\ that\\ winners\\ could\\ have\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;multiplied\\ their\\ bid\\ by\\ and\\ still\\ won\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ Texaco\\,\\ it\\ was\\ \\.15\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ corporate\\ takeovers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ firms\\ pay\\ substantial\\ premiums\\ above\\ market\\ price\\ to\\ acquire\\ another\\ firm\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ gain\\ to\\ the\\ buyer\\ v\\.\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-researchers\\ believe\\ that\\ firms\\ are\\ over\\-confident\\ and\\ weight\\ their\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;valuation\\ of\\ a\\ firm\\ more\\ highly\\ than\\ the\\ market\\&rsquo\\;s\\ valuation\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\hubris\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;hypothesis\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-given\\ EMH\\,\\ often\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ mistaken\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-another\\ answer\\:\\ strong\\-form\\ market\\ inefficiencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-data\\ from\\ markets\\ support\\ the\\ hubris\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ concludes\\ with\\ closing\\ commentary\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-bidders\\ act\\ irrationality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ flaw\\ in\\ the\\ efficient\\ market\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-scientific\\ analysis\\ often\\ imputes\\ scientific\\ behavior\\ in\\ its\\ subjects\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ realize\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\,\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ exploit\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ your\\ competitors\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-share\\ new\\ knowledge\\ with\\ competitors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ profitable\\ for\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-variations\\ of\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\ seen\\ in\\ other\\ situations\\:\\ hiring\\ people\\ \\(interview\\ more\\,\\ expect\\ a\\ better\\ employee\\,\\ often\\ disappointed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-key\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ winner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curse\\:\\ a\\ cognitive\\ illusion\\,\\ majority\\ of\\ players\\ make\\ a\\ systematic\\ mistake\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ market\\ outcomes\\ then\\ diverge\\ from\\ predictions\\ of\\ economic\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ biases\\ \\(Feb\\ 12\\)\\ JULIA\\ GUDISH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Tversky\\,\\ Amos\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kahneman\\.\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;Introduction\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Judgment\\ under\\ Uncertainty\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ Biases\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\&ndash\\;22\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Tversky\\,\\ Amos\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kahneman\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Belief\\ in\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Small\\ Numbers\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Judgment\\ under\\ Uncertainty\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ Biases\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 2\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 23\\&ndash\\;31\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tversky\\,\\ Amos\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kahneman\\,\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;Evidential\\ Impact\\ of\\ Base\\ Rates\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Judgment\\ under\\ Uncertainty\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ Biases\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 10\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 153\\&ndash\\;162\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Belief\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amos\\ Tversky\\ and\\ Daniel\\ Kehneman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ psychologists\\ have\\ an\\ exaggerated\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ successfully\\ replicating\\ an\\ obtained\\ finding\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\:\\ people\\ have\\ strong\\ intuitions\\ about\\ random\\ samplings\\;\\ that\\ these\\ intuitions\\ are\\ wrong\\ in\\ fundamental\\ respects\\;\\ that\\ these\\ intuitions\\ are\\ shared\\ by\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ subjects\\ and\\ by\\ trained\\ scientists\\;\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ applied\\ with\\ unfortunate\\ consequences\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ scientific\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ view\\ a\\ sample\\ randomly\\ drawn\\ from\\ a\\ population\\ as\\ highly\\ representative\\ AND\\ expect\\ any\\ two\\ sample\\ drawn\\ from\\ a\\ particular\\ population\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ similar\\ to\\ one\\ about\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ population\\ than\\ sampling\\ theory\\ predicts\\ \\(aka\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fairness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ coin\\ flip\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ estimate\\ HTHT\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Subjects\\ act\\ as\\ if\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\every\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;segment\\ of\\ a\\ random\\ sequence\\ must\\ reflect\\ the\\ true\\ population\\ \\(Gambler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fallacy\\)\\.\\ Misconception\\ of\\ the\\ fairness\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ chance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Belief\\ that\\ a\\ random\\ process\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;self\\-correcting\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;errors\\ will\\ cancel\\ each\\ other\\ out\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ But\\,\\ laws\\ of\\ chance\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ that\\ way\\.\\ Deviations\\ are\\ not\\ canceled\\ as\\ sampling\\ proceeds\\,\\ they\\ are\\ merely\\ diluted\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Representative\\ hypothesis\\ and\\ self\\-correcting\\ processes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\*Law\\ of\\ Large\\ Numbers\\ guarantees\\ that\\ very\\ large\\ samples\\ will\\ indeed\\ be\\ highly\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ from\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ drawn\\.\\ But\\,\\ people\\ have\\ exaggerated\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ conclusions\\ based\\ on\\ small\\ samples\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Statistical\\ tests\\ protect\\ the\\ scientific\\ community\\ against\\ overly\\ hasty\\ rejections\\ of\\ the\\ null\\ hypothesis\\ \\(Type\\ I\\ error\\)\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ comparable\\ safeguards\\ against\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ failing\\ to\\ confirm\\ a\\ valid\\ research\\ hypothesis\\ \\(Type\\ II\\ error\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ representation\\ hypothesis\\ were\\ true\\,\\ we\\ would\\ expect\\ all\\ samples\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ almost\\ all\\ replications\\ of\\ a\\ valid\\ hypothesis\\ should\\ be\\ statistically\\ significant\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrary\\ to\\ widespread\\ belief\\,\\ a\\ case\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ that\\ a\\ replication\\ sample\\ should\\ often\\ be\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ original\\-\\-\\-because\\ by\\ regression\\ effects\\,\\ the\\ initially\\ significant\\ coefficients\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ reduced\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ review\\,\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ that\\ the\\ believer\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\ practices\\ science\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ gambles\\ his\\ research\\ hypothesis\\ on\\ small\\ samples\\ without\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ odds\\ against\\ him\\ are\\ unreasonably\\ high\\.\\ He\\ overestimates\\ power\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ undue\\ confidence\\ in\\ early\\ trends\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ stability\\ of\\ observed\\ patterns\\.\\ He\\ overestimates\\ significance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ evaluating\\ replications\\,\\ he\\ has\\ unreasonably\\ high\\ expectations\\ about\\ the\\ replicability\\ of\\ significant\\ results\\.\\ He\\ underestimates\\ the\\ breadth\\ of\\ confidence\\ intervals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ rarely\\ attributes\\ a\\ deviation\\ of\\ results\\ from\\ expectations\\ to\\ sampling\\ variability\\,\\ because\\ he\\ find\\ a\\ causal\\ \\&ldquo\\;explanation\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;for\\ any\\ discrepancy\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ he\\ has\\ little\\ opportunity\\ to\\ recognize\\ sampling\\ variation\\ in\\ action\\.\\ His\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ will\\ forever\\ remain\\ intact\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ number\\ be\\ abolished\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ controlled\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ try\\ to\\ correct\\ for\\ it\\ in\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ learn\\ to\\ recognize\\ its\\ existence\\ and\\ take\\ the\\ necessary\\ precautions\\.\\ Obvious\\ precaution\\ is\\ computation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ estimated\\ significance\\ level\\ in\\ a\\ replication\\ depends\\ critically\\ on\\ sample\\ size\\.\\ Unrealistic\\ expectations\\ concerning\\ the\\ replicability\\ of\\ significance\\ levels\\ may\\ be\\ corrected\\ if\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ size\\ and\\ significant\\ is\\ clarifies\\,\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ computed\\ size\\ of\\ observed\\ effects\\ is\\ routinely\\ reported\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recognize\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ small\\ numbers\\ is\\ a\\ cognitive\\ or\\ perceptual\\ bias\\ \\&ndash\\;intuitive\\ expectations\\ governed\\ by\\ a\\ consistent\\ misperception\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ rather\\ than\\ by\\ opportunistic\\ wishful\\ thinking\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Regard\\ statistical\\ intuitions\\ with\\ proper\\ suspicious\\ and\\ replace\\ impression\\ formation\\ by\\ computation\\ whenever\\ possible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Prospect\\ Theory\\ \\(Feb\\ 14\\)\\ IFEDAYO\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Benartzi\\,\\ Shlomo\\ and\\ Richard\\ Thaler\\.\\ \\"\\;Myopic\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\ and\\ the\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 17\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 301\\&ndash\\;316\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Kahneman\\,\\ Daniel\\ and\\ Amos\\ Tversky\\.\\ \\"\\;Choices\\,\\ Values\\,\\ and\\ Frames\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ Choices\\,\\ Values\\ and\\ Frames\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\&ndash\\;16\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Endowment\\ Effect\\,\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\,\\ and\\ Status\\ Quo\\ Bias\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 6\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 63\\&ndash\\;78\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Myopic\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\ and\\ the\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ S\\.\\ Benartzi\\ and\\ R\\.\\ Thaler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Summary\\:\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ secure\\ long\\-run\\ advantage\\ in\\ investment\\ in\\ stocks\\ \\(7\\%\\ real\\ return\\)\\ instead\\ of\\ bonds\\ \\(1\\%\\)\\,\\ yet\\ individuals\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ it\\ \\(equity\\ premium\\ puzzle\\)\\.\\ Myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\ means\\ despite\\ long\\-run\\ net\\ gains\\,\\ short\\-run\\ losses\\ trouble\\ us\\.\\ It\\ implies\\ that\\ we\\ evaluate\\ the\\ relative\\ gains\\ between\\ stocks\\ and\\ bonds\\ too\\ frequently\\,\\ making\\ us\\ too\\ risk\\-averse\\.\\ They\\ estimate\\ that\\ the\\ time\\ horizon\\ for\\ re\\-evaluating\\ a\\ portfolio\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ year\\,\\ making\\ sense\\ as\\ reports\\,\\ meetings\\ with\\ advisors\\ and\\ taxes\\ are\\ generally\\ annual\\.\\ Given\\ the\\ 1\\-year\\ evaluation\\ period\\ \\(despite\\ an\\ investment\\ you\\ might\\ plan\\ to\\ hold\\ for\\ 25\\ years\\)\\ and\\ loss\\-aversion\\ of\\ 2\\.77\\,\\ the\\ optimal\\ stock\\-bond\\ ratio\\ is\\ 1\\:1\\ or\\ 50\\%\\ in\\ stocks\\,\\ 50\\%\\ in\\ bonds\\.\\ If\\ the\\ public\\ extended\\ their\\ evaluation\\ period\\ the\\ premium\\ \\(net\\ difference\\ in\\ return\\ between\\ stocks\\ and\\ bonds\\)\\ would\\ diminish\\ rapidly\\.\\ Organizations\\ face\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ as\\ individuals\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ principal\\-agent\\ problem\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ short\\-run\\ gains\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\/\\ Concepts\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ equity\\ premium\\ puzzle\\:\\ Stocks\\ consistently\\ outperform\\ bonds\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ hundred\\ years\\ \\(by\\ about\\ 7\\%\\ annually\\)\\,\\ yet\\ individuals\\ are\\ averse\\ to\\ investment\\ in\\ stocks\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ aversion\\:\\ Individuals\\ are\\ more\\ sensitive\\ to\\ losses\\ than\\ gains\\ \\(article\\ estimates\\ a\\ ratio\\ of\\ 2\\:1\\ and\\ uses\\ a\\ value\\ of\\ 2\\.77\\)\\.\\ The\\ marginal\\ disutility\\ of\\ a\\ loss\\ is\\ greater\\ in\\ absolute\\ value\\ than\\ the\\ marginal\\ utility\\ of\\ a\\ gain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mental\\ accounting\\:\\ How\\ individuals\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ financial\\ outcomes\\ \\(transactions\\,\\ investments\\)\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ completely\\ rational\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Samuelson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bet\\:\\ 50\\-50\\ odds\\ of\\ winning\\ \\$200\\ and\\ losing\\ \\$100\\.\\ Respondent\\ rejects\\ the\\ one\\-time\\ game\\ but\\ agrees\\ to\\ playing\\ the\\ game\\ 100\\ times\\.\\ Samuelson\\ proved\\ a\\ theorem\\ that\\ his\\ friend\\ was\\ irrational\\,\\ that\\ the\\ expected\\ payoff\\ was\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ each\\ step\\ \\(0\\.5\\*200\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 0\\.5\\*100\\ \\=\\ \\+\\$50\\)\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ here\\ argue\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ framing\\ of\\ one\\ time\\ period\\ versus\\ an\\ infrequent\\ evaluation\\ over\\ 100\\ rounds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evaluation\\ period\\:\\ The\\ interval\\ at\\ which\\ an\\ investor\\ reassesses\\ his\\ portfolio\\;\\ generally\\ about\\ 1\\ year\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Planning\\ horizon\\:\\ The\\ length\\ of\\ time\\ an\\ investor\\ plans\\ to\\ save\\ income\\.\\ For\\ retirement\\ 30\\ years\\ away\\,\\ the\\ planning\\ horizon\\ is\\ 30\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myopia\\:\\ short\\-sightedness\\;\\ not\\ looking\\ out\\ for\\ the\\ long\\-term\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\:\\ too\\-frequent\\ evaluations\\ of\\ losses\\ leads\\ to\\ suboptimal\\ allocations\\ of\\ risky\\ assets\\.\\ Risk\\ and\\ loss\\ aversion\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ lead\\ individuals\\ to\\ assess\\ their\\ balance\\ sheets\\ too\\ often\\.\\ By\\ checking\\ their\\ balance\\ sheets\\ too\\ often\\ they\\ limit\\ the\\ amount\\ they\\ risk\\ losing\\ from\\ period\\ to\\ period\\ by\\ hedging\\ their\\ risk\\ with\\ bonds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\More\\ notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Is\\ the\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\ Real\\:\\ In\\ short\\,\\ yes\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ look\\ at\\ all\\-bond\\ and\\ all\\-stock\\ portfolios\\ and\\ conclude\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ 25\\ year\\ careers\\ since\\ 1942\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ better\\ off\\ in\\ all\\ stocks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Weil\\ turns\\ the\\ question\\ around\\ and\\ asks\\ not\\ why\\ are\\ stock\\ returns\\ so\\ high\\,\\ but\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\ are\\ T\\-bill\\ \\(bond\\)\\ rates\\ so\\ low\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Why\\ do\\ organizations\\ face\\ myopic\\ loss\\ aversion\\:\\ Principal\\-agent\\ problem\\.\\ Pension\\ funds\\ outlive\\ the\\ job\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ funds\\ manager\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ funds\\ manager\\ seeks\\ short\\ run\\ gains\\ \\(in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ his\\ job\\,\\ appear\\ shrewd\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ investors\\ who\\ must\\ account\\ for\\ near\\ term\\ losses\\,\\ these\\ long\\-run\\ results\\ may\\ have\\ little\\ significance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Secondly\\,\\ university\\ endowments\\ have\\ finite\\ planning\\ horizons\\ \\(of\\ the\\ board\\ members\\ and\\ the\\ agents\\)\\.\\ Universities\\ have\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ year\\-to\\-year\\ spending\\ which\\ shortens\\ the\\ evaluation\\ horizon\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\:\\ Prospect\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prospect\\ Theory\\ \\(Kahneman\\ and\\ Tversky\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ theory\\ that\\ describes\\ actions\\;\\ is\\ not\\ normative\\ \\(prescriptive\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weighted\\ value\\ function\\ to\\ measure\\ risk\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ changes\\ not\\ levels\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consider\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61552\\;\\(p\\)\\ as\\ a\\ subjective\\ weight\\ on\\ event\\ with\\ probability\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\p\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ is\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\change\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ magnitude\\ x\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ gamble\\ \\(60\\%\\ \\+\\$10\\,\\ 40\\%\\ \\-\\$10\\)\\ would\\ be\\ valued\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61552\\;\\(0\\.6\\)\\ \\&\\#61655\\;\\ v\\(10\\)\\ \\ \\;\\+\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#61552\\;\\(0\\.4\\)\\ \\&\\#61655\\;\\ v\\(\\-10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ the\\ prospect\\ theoretic\\ value\\ is\\ dependent\\ upon\\ two\\ functions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ valuation\\ of\\ probability\\ \\=\\ \\&\\#61552\\;\\(p\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ valuation\\ of\\ a\\ change\\ \\=\\ v\\(x\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ page\\ six\\ in\\ lecture\\ 5\\ for\\ a\\ piecewise\\ linear\\ example\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ Aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ loss\\ of\\ size\\ \\&\\#61508\\;\\ is\\ about\\ twice\\ as\\ important\\ \\(think\\ utility\\)\\ as\\ a\\ gain\\ of\\ \\&\\#61508\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ are\\ indifferent\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\:\\ \\(100\\%\\ \\+\\$0\\)\\ and\\ B\\:\\ \\(50\\%\\ \\+\\$20\\,\\ \\ \\;50\\%\\ \\+\\$10\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ aversion\\ discourages\\ trade\\;\\ people\\ weight\\ more\\ heavily\\ what\\ is\\ lost\\ compared\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ gained\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ harder\\ to\\ make\\ all\\ parties\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;better\\ off\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mugs\\ experiments\\ \\(Kahneman\\,\\ Knetch\\ and\\ Thaler\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\½\\;\\ the\\ class\\ is\\ given\\ mugs\\,\\ asked\\ to\\ write\\ their\\ willingness\\ to\\ sell\\,\\ or\\ willingness\\ to\\ accept\\ \\(WTA\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\½\\;\\ the\\ class\\ without\\ mugs\\,\\ asked\\ to\\ write\\ willingness\\ to\\ buy\\,\\ or\\ willingness\\ to\\ pay\\ \\(WTP\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Without\\ loss\\ aversion\\;\\ \\½\\;\\ the\\ mugs\\ should\\ be\\ traded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Median\\ WTP\\ \\=\\ \\$2\\.50\\ and\\ median\\ WTA\\ \\=\\ \\$5\\.25\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ mugs\\ are\\ traded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supressing\\ loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assume\\ a\\ game\\ where\\ the\\ expected\\ payoff\\ is\\ positive\\,\\ but\\ loss\\ aversion\\ means\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ the\\ bet\\ in\\ just\\ one\\ round\\ of\\ play\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ gambles\\ \\(N\\)\\ rises\\,\\ the\\ mean\\ gain\\ rises\\ proportionally\\ to\\ N\\ while\\ the\\ standard\\ deviation\\ rises\\ with\\ the\\ square\\ root\\ of\\ N\\ \\(\\&radic\\;N\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Risk\\ Aversion\\ in\\ the\\ Gain\\ Domain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disease\\ framing\\ scenario\\.\\ Two\\ cases\\ where\\ disease\\ is\\ perceived\\ differently\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ wording\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ Case\\ \\(I\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ A\\:\\ 200\\ are\\ saved\\.\\ \\(67\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ B\\:\\ 600\\ are\\ saved\\ with\\ probability\\ 1\\/3\\.\\ 0\\ saved\\ with\\ probability\\ 2\\/3\\.\\ \\(33\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Second\\ Case\\.\\ \\(II\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ A\\:\\ 400\\ will\\ die\\.\\ \\(33\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ B\\:\\ 0\\ die\\ with\\ probability\\ 1\\/3\\ and\\ 600\\ die\\ with\\ probability\\ 2\\/3\\.\\ \\(67\\%\\ choose\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ \\(I\\)\\ the\\ valuation\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ gain\\ domain\\,\\ that\\ is\\ we\\ were\\ dealing\\ with\\ probabilites\\ of\\ two\\ possible\\ gains\\ \\(saves\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\(200\\)\\ \\>\\;\\ \\(2\\/3\\)\\ \\&\\#61655\\;\\ v\\(0\\)\\ \\ \\;\\+\\ \\ \\;1\\/3\\ \\&\\#61655\\;\\ v\\(600\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ \\(II\\)\\ the\\ value\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ loss\\ domain\\.\\ We\\ faced\\ two\\ negative\\ outcomes\\ and\\ prospect\\ theory\\ says\\ we\\ value\\ this\\ much\\ differently\\.\\ Recall\\,\\ losses\\ hurt\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ gains\\ are\\ enjoyed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\(\\-400\\)\\ \\<\\;\\ \\(2\\/3\\)\\ \\&\\#61655\\;\\ v\\(\\-600\\)\\ \\+\\ \\(1\\/3\\)\\ \\&\\#61655\\;\\ v\\(0\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Properties\\ of\\ v\\(x\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ deals\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\changes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ has\\ a\\ kink\\ at\\ zero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slope\\ for\\ positive\\ changes\\ is\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Slope\\ for\\ negative\\ changes\\ is\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ is\\ concave\\ \\(risk\\ averse\\)\\ in\\ gain\\ \\(positive\\ values\\ of\\ x\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\v\\(x\\)\\ is\\ convex\\ \\(risk\\ seeking\\)\\ in\\ loss\\ \\(negative\\ values\\ of\\ x\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Properties\\ of\\ \\&\\#61552\\;\\(p\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ is\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;bonus\\&rdquo\\;\\ utility\\ to\\ certainty\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;bonus\\&rdquo\\;\\ utility\\ to\\ some\\ small\\ chance\\ instead\\ of\\ zero\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Applications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Equity\\ premium\\:\\ stocks\\ are\\ unattractive\\ unless\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ return\\ \\(see\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Equity\\ Premium\\ Puzzle\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Target\\ earnings\\:\\ cab\\ drivers\\ adjust\\ their\\ hours\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ target\\ level\\ of\\ earnings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asymmetric\\ price\\ elasticities\\:\\ price\\ increases\\ cut\\ spending\\ more\\ than\\ price\\ decreases\\ induce\\ spending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Status\\ quo\\ bias\\:\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ change\\ investments\\ or\\ trade\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Long\\-shot\\ effects\\:\\ people\\ overvalue\\ long\\-shot\\ gambles\\,\\ like\\ a\\ lottery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Over\\-insurance\\ effect\\:\\ people\\ buy\\ too\\ much\\ insurance\\ for\\ events\\ that\\ are\\ very\\ unlikely\\ to\\ happen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kahneman\\,\\ Daniel\\ and\\ Amos\\ Tversky\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Choices\\,\\ Values\\,\\ and\\ Frames\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-16\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Abstract\\ \\&\\;\\ Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Cognitive\\ and\\ psychophysical\\ determinants\\ of\\ choice\\ in\\ both\\ risky\\ and\\ riskless\\ contexts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\psychophysics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;examines\\ relationships\\ btwn\\ physical\\ stimuli\\ and\\ mental\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Psychophysics\\ of\\ value\\ induce\\ risk\\ aversion\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ gains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ risk\\ seeking\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ losses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Psychophysics\\ of\\ chance\\ induce\\ overweighting\\ of\\ sure\\ things\\ and\\ of\\ improbable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;events\\,\\ relevant\\ to\\ events\\ of\\ moderate\\ probability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Decision\\ problems\\ can\\ be\\ framed\\ in\\ multiple\\ ways\\ that\\ induce\\ different\\ preferences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ runs\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ invariance\\ criterion\\ of\\ rational\\ choice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Mental\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(process\\ by\\ which\\ ppl\\ organize\\ transaction\\ outcomes\\)\\ explains\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;some\\ anomalies\\ of\\ consumer\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Acceptability\\ of\\ an\\ option\\ can\\ depend\\ on\\ whether\\ a\\ negative\\ outcome\\ is\\ evaluated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;as\\ a\\ cost\\ or\\ as\\ an\\ uncompensated\\ loss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ study\\ of\\ decisions\\ addresses\\ both\\ normative\\ and\\ descriptive\\ questions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Normative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;analysis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nature\\ of\\ rationality\\ and\\ logic\\ of\\ decision\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Descriptive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;analysis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beliefs\\ and\\ preferences\\ as\\ they\\ are\\,\\ not\\ as\\ they\\ should\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Analyses\\ commonly\\ distinguish\\ risky\\ and\\ riskless\\ choices\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ examples\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;risky\\:\\ gamble\\ that\\ yields\\ monetary\\ outcomes\\ with\\ specified\\ probabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;riskless\\:\\ transaction\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ good\\/service\\ is\\ exchanged\\ for\\ money\\/labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Risky\\ Choice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ generally\\ made\\ without\\ advance\\ knowledge\\ of\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Daniel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bernoulli\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1738\\)\\:\\ Why\\ are\\ ppl\\ generally\\ risk\\ averse\\?\\ \\ \\;Why\\ does\\ risk\\ aversion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;decrease\\ with\\ increasing\\ wealth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Ppl\\ do\\ not\\ evaluate\\ prospects\\ by\\ the\\ expectation\\ of\\ their\\ monetary\\ outcomes\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;rather\\ by\\ the\\ expectation\\ of\\ the\\ subjective\\ value\\ of\\ these\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Subjective\\ value\\,\\ or\\ utility\\,\\ is\\ a\\ concave\\ function\\ of\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Customary\\ to\\ describe\\ decision\\ outcomes\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ total\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Appears\\ psychologically\\ unrealistic\\;\\ ppl\\ do\\ not\\ normally\\ think\\ of\\ relatively\\ small\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;outcomes\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ states\\ of\\ wealth\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ gains\\,\\ losses\\,\\ and\\ neutral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;outcomes\\ \\(status\\ quo\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assumption\\ that\\ psychophysical\\ analysis\\ should\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ \\(rather\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;than\\ to\\ total\\ assets\\)\\ is\\ ventral\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\prospect\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Obtain\\ S\\-shaped\\ subjective\\ value\\ function\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;defined\\ on\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ total\\ wealth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;concave\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ gains\\ and\\ convex\\ in\\ the\\ domain\\ of\\ losses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;considerably\\ steeper\\ for\\ losses\\ than\\ for\\ gains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ \\$X\\ is\\ more\\ aversive\\ than\\ a\\ gain\\ of\\ \\$X\\ is\\ attractive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assumption\\ of\\ risk\\ aversion\\ plays\\ a\\ central\\ role\\ in\\ economic\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Convexity\\ of\\ value\\ of\\ losses\\ entails\\ risk\\ seeking\\ in\\ this\\ domain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ confirmed\\ by\\ many\\ studies\\;\\ also\\ applicable\\ to\\ nonmonetary\\ outcomes\\ \\(hrs\\ of\\ pain\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;S\\-shaped\\ value\\ function\\ has\\ implications\\ that\\ are\\ normatively\\ unacceptable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Neumann\\ and\\ Morgenstern\\ \\(1947\\)\\:\\ rational\\ decision\\ axioms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\transitivity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ if\\ A\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ B\\ and\\ B\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ C\\,\\ then\\ A\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\substitution\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ if\\ A\\ is\\ preferred\\ to\\ B\\,\\ then\\ an\\ even\\ chance\\ to\\ get\\ A\\ or\\ C\\ is\\ preferred\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;to\\ an\\ even\\ chance\\ to\\ get\\ B\\ or\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Convincing\\ evidence\\ that\\ ppl\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ obey\\ the\\ substitution\\ axiom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;All\\ analyses\\ of\\ rational\\ choice\\ employ\\ principles\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dominance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\invariance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Framing\\ of\\ Outcomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Possible\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ gamble\\ can\\ be\\ framed\\ as\\ either\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ relative\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;status\\ quo\\ or\\ as\\ asset\\ positions\\ that\\ incorporate\\ initial\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Invariance\\ requires\\ that\\ framing\\ should\\ not\\ alter\\ the\\ preference\\ order\\ \\(but\\ it\\ does\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Failure\\ of\\ invariance\\ if\\ both\\ pervasive\\ and\\ robust\\:\\ common\\ among\\ both\\ sophisticated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;and\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ respondents\\;\\ not\\ eliminated\\ when\\ same\\ respondents\\ answer\\ two\\ equivalent\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;but\\ differently\\ framed\\ questions\\ within\\ a\\ few\\ minutes\\.\\ \\ \\;Framing\\ effects\\ resemble\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;perceptual\\ illusions\\ more\\ than\\ computational\\ errors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Dominance\\ requirement\\ of\\ rational\\ choice\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ violated\\ via\\ framing\\ \\(pp\\.\\ 5\\-6\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\>\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Invariance\\ is\\ normatively\\ essential\\,\\ intuitively\\ compelling\\,\\ and\\ psychologically\\ unfeasible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Only\\ two\\ ways\\ to\\ guarantee\\ invariance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Adopt\\ a\\ procedure\\ that\\ transforms\\ equivalent\\ versions\\ of\\ any\\ problem\\ into\\ the\\ same\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;canonical\\ representation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Evaluate\\ oppositions\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ their\\ actuarial\\ rather\\ than\\ their\\ psychological\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;consequences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Conclusion\\:\\ frame\\ invariance\\ cannot\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ hold\\.\\ \\ \\;Good\\ practice\\ to\\ test\\ robustness\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;preferences\\ by\\ deliberate\\ attempts\\ to\\ frame\\ decision\\ problem\\ in\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Psychophysics\\ of\\ Chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assumed\\ so\\ far\\:\\ Bernoullian\\ expectation\\ rule\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ value\\/utility\\ of\\ an\\ uncertain\\ prospect\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;obtained\\ by\\ adding\\ utilities\\ of\\ possible\\ outcomes\\,\\ each\\ weighted\\ by\\ its\\ own\\ probability\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\category\\-boundary\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ change\\ from\\ impossib\\.\\ to\\ possib\\.\\ or\\ from\\ possib\\.\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;certainty\\ has\\ a\\ bigger\\ impact\\ than\\ a\\ comparable\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ scale\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Graphically\\,\\ decision\\ weights\\ are\\ regressive\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ stated\\ probabilities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Underweighting\\ of\\ moderate\\ and\\ high\\ probabilities\\ relative\\ to\\ sure\\ things\\ contributes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;to\\ risk\\ aversion\\ in\\ gains\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ attractiveness\\ of\\ positive\\ gambles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ also\\,\\ risk\\ seeking\\ in\\ losses\\ by\\ attenuating\\ the\\ aversiveness\\ of\\ negative\\ gambles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Low\\ probabilities\\ are\\ overweighted\\,\\ and\\ very\\ low\\ probabilities\\ are\\ either\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;overweighted\\ quite\\ grossly\\ or\\ neglected\\ altogether\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\ highly\\ unstable\\ decision\\ weights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;reverses\\ pattern\\;\\ enhances\\ value\\ of\\ long\\ shots\\ and\\ amplifies\\ aversiveness\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;small\\ chance\\ of\\ severe\\ loss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Nonlinearity\\ of\\ decision\\ weights\\ inevitably\\ leads\\ to\\ violations\\ of\\ invariance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Pseudo\\-certainty\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ event\\ that\\ is\\ actually\\ uncertain\\ is\\ weighted\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ certain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Aversion\\ to\\ probabilistic\\ insurance\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ half\\ the\\ premium\\ to\\ be\\ covered\\ on\\ odd\\ days\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;of\\ month\\)\\ is\\ significant\\ for\\ three\\ reasons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Undermines\\ classical\\ explanation\\ of\\ insurance\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ concave\\ utility\\ function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Probabilistic\\ insurance\\ represents\\ many\\ forms\\ of\\ protective\\ action\\,\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;typically\\ reduce\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ some\\ hazard\\ without\\ eliminating\\ it\\ altogether\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Acceptability\\ of\\ insurance\\ can\\ be\\ manipulated\\ by\\ framing\\ of\\ the\\ contingencies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\V\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Formulation\\ Effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Subjects\\ adopt\\ descriptions\\ of\\ outcomes\\ as\\ given\\ in\\ the\\ question\\ and\\ evaluated\\ outcomes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;accordingly\\ as\\ gains\\ or\\ losses\\.\\ \\ \\;Statistics\\ of\\ treatment\\ outcomes\\ described\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;mortality\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ survival\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ surgery\\ was\\ relatively\\ less\\ attractive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Formulation\\ effects\\ can\\ occur\\ fortuitously\\,\\ without\\ anyone\\ being\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ frame\\ on\\ the\\ ultimate\\ decision\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Evaluation\\ of\\ outcomes\\ is\\ susceptible\\ to\\ formulation\\ effects\\ because\\ of\\ nonlinearity\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;value\\ function\\ and\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ evaluate\\ options\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ reference\\ point\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;that\\ is\\ suggested\\ or\\ implied\\ by\\ the\\ statement\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VI\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Transactions\\ and\\ Trades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;An\\ option\\ is\\ acceptable\\ if\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ its\\ advantages\\ exceeds\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;disadvantages\\;\\ this\\ analysis\\ assumes\\ psychological\\,\\ but\\ not\\ physical\\,\\ separability\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\.\\ \\(see\\ example\\,\\ p\\.\\ 11\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Minimal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;account\\ includes\\ only\\ differences\\ btwn\\ the\\ two\\ options\\ and\\ disregards\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;features\\ that\\ they\\ share\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Topical\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;account\\ relates\\ consequences\\ of\\ possible\\ choices\\ to\\ reference\\ level\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;determined\\ by\\ context\\ within\\ which\\ decision\\ arises\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Comprehensive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;account\\ evaluates\\ option\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\,\\ say\\,\\ monthly\\ expenses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ consumers\\ tend\\ to\\ exercise\\ a\\ topical\\ organization\\ of\\ accounts\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ Topical\\ organization\\ of\\ mental\\ accounts\\ leads\\ ppl\\ to\\ evaluate\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;relative\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ absolute\\ terms\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ large\\ variations\\ in\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;money\\ is\\ exchanged\\ for\\ other\\ things\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ observations\\ run\\ counter\\ to\\ the\\ standard\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;rational\\ theory\\ of\\ consumer\\ behavior\\,\\ which\\ assumes\\ invariance\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;recognize\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ mental\\ accounting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ normative\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ mental\\ accounting\\ is\\ questionable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ Proposal\\:\\ Systematic\\ examination\\ of\\ alternative\\ framings\\ offers\\ a\\ useful\\ reflective\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;device\\ that\\ can\\ help\\ decision\\ makers\\ assess\\ the\\ values\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ consequences\\ of\\ their\\ choices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Losses\\ and\\ Costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Assume\\ that\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ defines\\ the\\ reference\\ level\\ for\\ all\\ attributes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Advantages\\ of\\ alternative\\ options\\ evaluated\\ as\\ gains\\;\\ disadvantages\\ as\\ losses\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Losses\\ loom\\ larger\\ than\\ gains\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ bias\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ retaining\\ status\\ quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Thaler\\ \\(1980\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\endowment\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;describes\\ ppl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reluctance\\ to\\ part\\ from\\ assets\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;in\\ their\\ endowment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\ Buying\\ prices\\ significantly\\ lower\\ than\\ selling\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Contrast\\ with\\ standard\\ economic\\ theory\\:\\ buying\\ and\\ selling\\ prices\\ coincide\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;except\\ for\\ transaction\\ costs\\ and\\ effects\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Generally\\,\\ loss\\ aversion\\ favors\\ stability\\ over\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;Combination\\ of\\ adaptation\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;loss\\ aversion\\ provides\\ limited\\ protection\\ against\\ regret\\ and\\ envy\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;attractiveness\\ of\\ foregone\\ alternatives\\ and\\ of\\ others\\&rsquo\\;\\ endowments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Loss\\ aversion\\ and\\ consequent\\ endowment\\ effect\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;in\\ routine\\ economic\\ exchanges\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ certain\\ cases\\,\\ a\\ disadvantage\\ can\\ be\\ framed\\ as\\ either\\ a\\ cost\\ of\\ a\\ loss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cost\\-loss\\ discrepancy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;can\\ lead\\ to\\ failures\\ of\\ invariance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\dead\\-loss\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subjective\\ state\\ can\\ be\\ improved\\ by\\ framing\\ negative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\outcomes\\ as\\ costs\\ rather\\ than\\ as\\ losses\\ \\(see\\ p\\.\\ 15\\ for\\ example\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VII\\.\\ Concluding\\ Remarks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;A\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Concepts\\ of\\ utility\\ and\\ value\\ are\\ commonly\\ used\\ in\\ two\\ distinct\\ senses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\experience\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ pleasure\\ or\\ pain\\,\\ satisfaction\\ or\\ anguish\\ in\\ the\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;actual\\ experience\\ of\\ an\\ outcome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\decision\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ contribution\\ of\\ an\\ anticipated\\ outcome\\ to\\ the\\ overall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\attractiveness\\ or\\ aversiveness\\ of\\ an\\ option\\ in\\ a\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;B\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Distinction\\ btwn\\ the\\ two\\ is\\ rarely\\ explicit\\ in\\ decision\\ theory\\;\\ assumed\\ that\\ they\\ coincide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&\\#61664\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;idealized\\ decision\\ maker\\ able\\ to\\ predict\\ future\\ experiences\\ with\\ perfect\\ accuracy\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;evaluate\\ options\\ accordingly\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;C\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;hedonic\\ psychophysics\\:\\ most\\ basic\\ problem\\ is\\ determination\\ of\\ level\\ of\\ adaptation\\ or\\ aspiration\\ that\\ separates\\ positive\\ from\\ negative\\ outcomes\\.\\ \\ \\;Hedonic\\ reference\\ point\\ is\\ largely\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ objective\\ status\\ quo\\ and\\ affected\\ by\\ expectations\\ and\\ social\\ comparisons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\-\\ Complexity\\ and\\ subtlety\\ of\\ hedonic\\ experience\\ make\\ it\\ difficult\\ for\\ decision\\ maker\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;anticipate\\ the\\ actual\\ experience\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;D\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ common\\ mismatch\\ of\\ decision\\ values\\ and\\ experience\\ values\\ introduces\\ an\\ additional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;element\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ in\\ many\\ decision\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Endowment\\ Effect\\,\\ Loss\\ Aversion\\,\\ Status\\ Quo\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Circle\\,\\ Ch6\\,\\ pp\\ 63\\-78\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Opening\\ scenario\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ an\\ economist\\ bought\\ wine\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ ago\\ at\\ very\\ low\\ prices\\.\\ Now\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ wine\\ has\\ greatly\\ appreciated\\ \\(\\$200\\ at\\ auction\\)\\.\\ The\\ economist\\ drinks\\ his\\ wine\\ ever\\ so\\ often\\,\\ however\\ he\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ willing\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ wine\\ at\\ the\\ auction\\ price\\ nor\\ is\\ he\\ willing\\ to\\ buy\\ additional\\ wine\\ at\\ that\\ price\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ definitions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Endowment\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ fact\\ that\\ people\\ often\\ demand\\ much\\ more\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ an\\ object\\ than\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ to\\ acquire\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Status\\ quo\\ bias\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ preference\\ for\\ the\\ current\\ state\\ that\\ biases\\ someone\\ against\\ from\\ both\\ buying\\ and\\ selling\\ an\\ item\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ disutility\\ of\\ giving\\ up\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ greater\\ tan\\ the\\ utility\\ associated\\ with\\ acquiring\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Endowment\\ Effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Experiment\\ by\\ Knetsch\\ \\&\\;\\ Sinden\\ \\(1984\\)\\.\\ Subjects\\ were\\ given\\ either\\ a\\ lottery\\ ticket\\ or\\ \\$2\\,\\ and\\ given\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ trade\\ later\\.\\ Few\\ people\\ choose\\ to\\ trade\\.\\ Economists\\ questioned\\ whether\\ this\\ effect\\ would\\ still\\ occur\\ if\\ subjects\\ were\\ exposed\\ to\\ a\\ market\\ environment\\ with\\ learning\\ opportunities\\ \\(not\\ true\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ subjects\\ are\\ designated\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sellers\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ mugs\\.\\ They\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ mug\\ and\\ then\\ were\\ asked\\ if\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ sell\\ at\\ different\\ prices\\,\\ from\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ \\$\\.25\\ to\\ \\$9\\.25\\.\\ Subjects\\ designated\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;buyers\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ asked\\ if\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ buy\\ at\\ those\\ same\\ prices\\.\\ Subjects\\ designated\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;choosers\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ choose\\ between\\ selecting\\ a\\ mug\\ or\\ selecting\\ money\\ at\\ the\\ different\\ prices\\.\\ The\\ scenario\\ of\\ the\\ choosers\\ is\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ sellers\\ \\(keep\\ your\\ mug\\ or\\ sell\\ it\\ to\\ get\\ money\\)\\,\\ however\\ the\\ choosers\\ behaved\\ like\\ buyers\\.\\ The\\ median\\ reservation\\ prices\\ were\\:\\ Sellers\\-\\$7\\.12\\;\\ Choosers\\-\\$3\\.12\\;\\ Buyers\\-\\ \\$2\\.87\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ economy\\,\\ indifference\\ curves\\ do\\ not\\ cross\\.\\ People\\ should\\ be\\ indifferent\\ to\\ keeping\\ an\\ item\\ and\\ trading\\ an\\ item\\ at\\ specific\\ prices\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ true\\ if\\ loss\\ aversion\\ is\\ present\\.\\ In\\ an\\ example\\ with\\ pens\\ and\\ money\\,\\ pens\\ were\\ worth\\ more\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ started\\ with\\ the\\ pens\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ started\\ with\\ money\\.\\ They\\ should\\ be\\ equally\\ valued\\ by\\ both\\ groups\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\;\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ indifference\\ curves\\ cross\\.\\ The\\ main\\ effect\\ of\\ endowment\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ enhance\\ the\\ appeal\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ one\\ owns\\,\\ only\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ giving\\ it\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Status\\ Quo\\ Bias\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ implication\\ of\\ loss\\ aversion\\ is\\ that\\ individuals\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ tendency\\ to\\ remain\\ at\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ because\\ the\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ leaving\\ it\\ loom\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ advantages\\ \\(known\\ as\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ bias\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examples\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ experiment\\ has\\ two\\ groups\\.\\ In\\ one\\ group\\,\\ the\\ subjects\\ have\\ hypothetically\\ inherited\\ a\\ large\\ sum\\ of\\ money\\ and\\ are\\ considering\\ investing\\ in\\:\\ a\\ moderate\\ risk\\ company\\,\\ a\\ high\\-risk\\ company\\,\\ treasury\\ bills\\,\\ or\\ municipal\\ bonds\\.\\ This\\ group\\ is\\ the\\ neutral\\ group\\ with\\ no\\ defined\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ The\\ second\\ group\\ is\\ presented\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\,\\ except\\ they\\ have\\ inherited\\ a\\ portfolio\\ of\\ cash\\ and\\ securities\\ that\\ is\\ significantly\\ invested\\ in\\ a\\ moderate\\-risk\\ company\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ inheriting\\ just\\ cash\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\,\\ with\\ a\\ defined\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ Other\\ scenarios\\ like\\ this\\ were\\ investigated\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Results\\ imply\\ that\\ the\\ alternative\\ becomes\\ significantly\\ more\\ popular\\ when\\ designated\\ as\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ \\(if\\ given\\ a\\ portfolio\\ invested\\ in\\ moderate\\-risk\\ company\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ popular\\ to\\ keep\\ this\\ instead\\ of\\ choosing\\ another\\ portfolio\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ New\\ Jersey\\ and\\ Pennsylvania\\,\\ two\\ automobile\\ insurances\\ are\\ offered\\:\\ a\\ cheaper\\ one\\ without\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ sue\\ and\\ a\\ more\\ expensive\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ sue\\.\\ New\\ Jersey\\ offers\\ the\\ cheaper\\ policy\\ as\\ the\\ default\\,\\ with\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ switch\\.\\ 83\\%\\ of\\ the\\ drivers\\ have\\ elected\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ the\\ default\\.\\ In\\ PA\\,\\ the\\ new\\ law\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ default\\ is\\ the\\ expensive\\ policy\\,\\ with\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ opt\\ for\\ the\\ cheaper\\ one\\.\\ While\\ it\\ is\\ unknown\\ still\\ how\\ PA\\ has\\ responded\\ to\\ this\\ new\\ policy\\,\\ it\\ is\\ predicted\\ that\\ more\\ Pennsylvanians\\ will\\ elect\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ more\\ expensive\\ one\\ \\(the\\ default\\ option\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\ Aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ general\\,\\ a\\ given\\ difference\\ between\\ two\\ options\\ will\\ have\\ greater\\ impact\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ two\\ disadvantages\\ than\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ two\\ advantages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Example\\:\\ One\\ group\\ of\\ subjects\\ are\\ told\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ exposed\\ to\\ a\\ rare\\ fatal\\ disease\\ and\\ face\\ a\\ \\.001\\ chance\\ of\\ a\\ painless\\ death\\ within\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ weeks\\.\\ They\\ are\\ then\\ asked\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ \\(WTP\\)\\ for\\ a\\ vaccine\\,\\ to\\ be\\ purchased\\ immediately\\.\\ Another\\ group\\ is\\ asked\\ how\\ much\\ compensation\\ they\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ accept\\ \\(WTA\\)\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ a\\ medical\\ experiment\\ where\\ they\\ faced\\ a\\ \\.001\\ chance\\ of\\ a\\ quick\\ painless\\ death\\.\\ The\\ price\\ for\\ the\\ second\\ group\\ was\\ drastically\\ higher\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ group\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Comparing\\ WTA\\ scenarios\\ to\\ WTP\\ scenarios\\,\\ WTA\\ responses\\ greatly\\ exceed\\ WTP\\ responses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Judgments\\ of\\ Fairness\\ and\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\foregone\\ gains\\ are\\ less\\ painful\\ than\\ perceived\\ losses\\ \\(an\\ implication\\ of\\ endowment\\ effect\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Neuroeconomics\\ \\(Feb\\ 19\\)\\ SAM\\ TELLER\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Berns\\,\\ Gregory\\,\\ David\\ Laibson\\,\\ and\\ George\\ Loewenstein\\ \\(2007\\)\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Intertemporal\\ choice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ toward\\ an\\ integrative\\ framework\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ Trends\\ in\\ Cognitive\\ Sciences\\ \\,\\ 11\\(11\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 482\\-8\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Kahneman\\,\\ D\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Maps\\ of\\ Bounded\\ Rationality\\:\\ Psychology\\ for\\ Behavioral\\ Economics\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Economic\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ December\\ 2003\\,\\ 1449\\-1475\\.\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ McClure\\,\\ Sam\\,\\ David\\ Laibson\\,\\ George\\ Loewenstein\\,\\ and\\ Jonathan\\ D\\.\\ Cohen\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Separate\\ Neural\\ Systems\\ Value\\ Immediate\\ and\\ Delayed\\ Monetary\\ Rewards\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;306\\,\\ October\\ 15\\ 2004\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Sanfey\\ AG\\ et\\ al\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Neural\\ Basis\\ of\\ Economic\\ Decision\\-Making\\,\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ Science\\ \\(300\\)\\ 1755\\-57\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;6\\.\\ \\;\\ Social\\ Preferences\\ and\\ Self\\-serving\\ Biases\\ \\(February\\ 21\\)\\ NIKOLUS\\ RAY\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ De\\ Quervain\\ DJ\\-F\\,\\ Fischbacher\\ U\\,\\ Treyer\\ V\\,\\ Schellhammer\\ M\\,\\ Schnyder\\ U\\,\\ Buck\\ A\\,\\ Fehr\\ E\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ neural\\ basis\\ of\\ altruistic\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ 2004\\,\\ Vol\\.\\ 305\\,\\ 1254\\-1258\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;Cooperation\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\ Ch\\.\\ 2\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 6\\&ndash\\;20\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;The\\ Ultimatum\\ Game\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 21\\&ndash\\;35\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Weinstein\\,\\ Neil\\ D\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Unrealistic\\ Optimism\\ About\\ Future\\ Life\\ Events\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Personality\\ and\\ Social\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ 39\\ \\(1980\\)\\,\\ 806\\&ndash\\;820\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ Behavioral\\ Finance\\ \\(February\\ 26\\,\\ 28\\,\\ March\\ 4\\,\\ 6\\,\\ 11\\,\\ 13\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\.\\ Theory\\ of\\ Efficient\\ Markets\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\*\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\CARMEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\.\\ Limited\\ Arbitrage\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 4\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\JULIA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mitchell\\,\\ Mark\\,\\ Lasse\\ Heje\\ Pedersen\\,\\ and\\ Todd\\ Pulvino\\,\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Slow\\ Moving\\ Capital\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\American\\ Economic\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ERIN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\ Chapter\\ 4\\,\\ Andrei\\ Shleifer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Summary\\ of\\ Performance\\-Based\\ Arbitrage\\ \\(PBA\\)\\:\\ Recall\\ the\\ principal\\-agent\\ problem\\.\\ We\\ consider\\ the\\ principal\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ investors\\ \\(the\\ owners\\ of\\ funds\\)\\ and\\ the\\ agents\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ arbitrageurs\\ \\(allocators\\ of\\ funds\\)\\.\\ We\\ are\\ given\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ Periods\\:\\ t\\ \\=\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\,\\ and\\ 3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Single\\ Asset\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;M\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ payout\\ of\\ exactly\\ V\\ in\\ period\\ t\\ \\=\\ 3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Principal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Owners\\ of\\ funds\\ to\\ be\\ allocated\\ by\\ arbitrageurs\\.\\ We\\ assume\\ all\\ principal\\ to\\ be\\ trying\\ to\\ maximize\\ their\\ earnings\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assumed\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ understanding\\ of\\ what\\ an\\ arbitrageur\\ is\\ doing\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ explained\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ possibility\\ to\\ be\\ lied\\ to\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ only\\ assess\\ arbitrageurs\\ on\\ past\\-performance\\ and\\ allocates\\ money\\ accordingly\\.\\ Uses\\ Bayesian\\ updating\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;T\\&rdquo\\;\\ investors\\ in\\ a\\ subset\\ of\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Arbitrageurs\\.\\ Principal\\ knows\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ arbitrageurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constant\\ marginal\\ costs\\ which\\ are\\ equal\\ amongst\\ all\\ investors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bertrand\\ competition\\ over\\ price\\ means\\ that\\ price\\ equals\\ marginal\\ cost\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assumed\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ one\\ asset\\ \\(M\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\(t\\)\\ is\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ M\\ held\\ by\\ arbitrageurs\\ at\\ time\\ t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\R\\(t\\)\\ is\\ the\\ amount\\ invested\\ in\\ M\\;\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ the\\ funds\\ available\\ at\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ discretion\\.\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ M\\ at\\ time\\ t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ price\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ value\\ then\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\ buys\\ all\\ of\\ M\\ he\\ can\\ \\(thus\\ dividing\\ his\\ wealth\\ \\(F\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ by\\ the\\ asset\\ price\\ \\(P\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\)\\.\\ If\\ price\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ value\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ buy\\ any\\ of\\ M\\.\\ In\\ real\\ life\\,\\ however\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ prudent\\ to\\ short\\ sell\\ the\\ stock\\ \\(or\\ buy\\ a\\ put\\ option\\)\\;\\ good\\ practice\\ to\\ try\\.\\ Ignore\\ borrowing\\ rate\\ \\(r\\ \\=\\ 0\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\ that\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\ might\\ be\\ aware\\ that\\ the\\ irrational\\ investors\\ might\\ continue\\ their\\ mispricing\\.\\ Therefore\\ there\\ is\\ incentive\\ to\\ wait\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ mispricing\\ deepens\\ in\\ period\\ two\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amount\\ of\\ funds\\ in\\ period\\ t\\=2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ the\\ performance\\-based\\ arbitrage\\ factor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ part\\ F\\(1\\+R\\)\\ is\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ investment\\ made\\ in\\ period\\ 1\\,\\ independent\\ of\\ actions\\ by\\ the\\ investors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ part\\ F\\(a\\-1\\)R\\ is\\ the\\ adjustment\\ investors\\ make\\ in\\ period\\ 2\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ performance\\ in\\ period\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ \\=\\ 1\\ then\\ investors\\ are\\ neutral\\,\\ do\\ not\\ change\\ investments\\ in\\ period\\ two\\ regardless\\ of\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ \\>\\;\\ 1\\,\\ then\\ if\\ the\\ return\\ is\\ negative\\,\\ so\\ is\\ this\\ entire\\ term\\,\\ thus\\ funds\\ are\\ taken\\ away\\ proportionally\\ with\\ the\\ amount\\ lost\\.\\ Likewise\\,\\ if\\ the\\ return\\ is\\ positive\\,\\ then\\ the\\ whole\\ term\\ is\\ positive\\ and\\ the\\ arbitrageur\\ is\\ trusted\\ with\\ even\\ more\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Noise\\ Traders\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Generator\\ of\\ small\\ fluctuations\\ in\\ price\\.\\ These\\ deviations\\ can\\ drive\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ M\\ away\\ from\\ fundamentals\\ \\(true\\ value\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\N\\(t\\)\\ is\\ the\\ quantity\\ held\\ by\\ noise\\ traders\\ in\\ period\\ t\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;shock\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;sentiment\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ noise\\ traders\\ \\(in\\ our\\ example\\ below\\,\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ pessimism\\)\\;\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ M\\ at\\ time\\ t\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constraints\\ on\\ S\\.\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ge\\;\\ 0\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Either\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ funds\\ available\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ correct\\ the\\ mispricing\\ or\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ equal\\ to\\ zero\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ asset\\ is\\ correctly\\ valued\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\An\\ example\\,\\ given\\ these\\ equations\\.\\ We\\ assume\\ M\\ \\=\\ 1\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ 1\\ \\=\\ N\\(t\\)\\ \\+\\ A\\(t\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intuitively\\,\\ the\\ price\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ value\\ \\(V\\)\\ minus\\ S\\ \\(the\\ amount\\ of\\ pessimism\\ that\\ drives\\ the\\ price\\ down\\)\\ plus\\ the\\ buying\\ that\\ drives\\ the\\ price\\ upwards\\ \\(F\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\,\\ however\\,\\ we\\ solve\\ for\\ the\\ price\\ in\\ period\\ two\\,\\ given\\ period\\ 1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ fully\\ invested\\ equilibrium\\,\\ dP\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/dS\\ \\<\\;\\-1\\ and\\ d\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(dS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\;0\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ arbitrageurs\\ are\\ fully\\ invested\\,\\ prices\\ fall\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ for\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ noise\\ trader\\ shock\\ at\\ time\\ 2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rises\\ \\(PBA\\ is\\ more\\ intense\\)\\,\\ price\\ movement\\ is\\ higher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ derivative\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ resiliency\\ of\\ a\\ market\\.\\ As\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ PBA\\,\\ the\\ market\\ becomes\\ weaker\\ at\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ move\\ prices\\ to\\ fundamentals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Three\\ cases\\ involving\\ period\\ two\\.\\ Recall\\ that\\ period\\ three\\ value\\ is\\ set\\ at\\ V\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Case\\ 1\\,\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Case\\ 2\\,\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Case\\ 3\\,\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ any\\ negative\\ sentiment\\,\\ price\\ moves\\ back\\ to\\ its\\ fundamental\\ value\\,\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ V\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\No\\ change\\ in\\ sentiment\\ means\\ that\\ no\\ additional\\ trades\\ are\\ made\\;\\ arbitrageurs\\ wait\\ for\\ period\\ three\\ where\\ they\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Pessimism\\ deepens\\ and\\ rational\\ arbitrageurs\\ lose\\ money\\ as\\ performance\\-minded\\ investors\\ are\\ disappointed\\ with\\ the\\ results\\.\\ Recall\\ that\\ the\\ arbitrageurs\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ convince\\ the\\ investors\\ that\\ the\\ asset\\ is\\ worth\\ V\\ at\\ t\\ \\=\\ 3\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Arbitrageurs\\ are\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Arbitrageurs\\ are\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Arbitrageurs\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\Because\\ markets\\ have\\ noise\\ \\(modeled\\ here\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;sentiment\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;pessimism\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ arbitrageurs\\ who\\ can\\ normally\\ \\&ldquo\\;fix\\&rdquo\\;\\ markets\\ by\\ returning\\ the\\ price\\ to\\ its\\ fundamental\\ value\\ cannot\\.\\ They\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ because\\ the\\ short\\-run\\ reasoning\\ of\\ the\\ investors\\ actually\\ pulls\\ funds\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ arbitrageurs\\ who\\ would\\ otherwise\\ buy\\ up\\ the\\ undervalued\\ asset\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ despite\\ being\\ rational\\ and\\ sharp\\ about\\ fundamental\\ values\\ of\\ assets\\,\\ performance\\-based\\ arbitrage\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ inefficient\\ market\\ that\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ return\\ prices\\ to\\ their\\ true\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consider\\ the\\ stock\\ market\\ bubble\\:\\ could\\ any\\ one\\ rational\\ arbitrageur\\ have\\ held\\ his\\ job\\ very\\ long\\ if\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ move\\ against\\ investor\\ sentiment\\ and\\ short\\-sell\\ or\\ buy\\ put\\ options\\ early\\ in\\ the\\ bubble\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\.\\ Closed\\ End\\ Mutual\\ Funds\\ and\\ Other\\ Pricing\\ Puzzles\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;DAN\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 3\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Lamont\\,\\ Owen\\ and\\ Richard\\ Thaler\\,\\ 2003\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ market\\ add\\ and\\ subtract\\?\\ Mispricing\\ in\\ tech\\ stock\\ carve\\-outs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Political\\ Economy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;2003\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Shleifer\\,\\ Andrei\\,\\ 1986\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Do\\ Demand\\ Curves\\ for\\ Stocks\\ Slope\\ Down\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;41\\,\\ p\\.\\ 579\\&ndash\\;590\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Rashes\\,\\ Michael\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Massively\\ Confused\\ Investors\\ Making\\ Conspicuously\\ Ignorant\\ Choices\\ \\(MCI\\&ndash\\;MCIC\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;56\\(5\\)\\,\\ p\\.\\ 1911\\-1927\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Huberman\\,\\ Gur\\ and\\ Tomer\\ Regev\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Contagious\\ Speculation\\ and\\ a\\ Cure\\ for\\ Cancer\\:\\ A\\ Non\\-Event\\ that\\ Made\\ Stock\\ Prices\\ Soar\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;56\\(1\\)\\,\\ p\\.\\ 387\\-396\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Cooper\\,\\ Michael\\ J\\.\\,\\ Orlin\\ Dimitrov\\,\\ and\\ P\\.\\ Raghaendra\\ Rau\\,\\ 2001\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\A\\ rose\\.com\\ by\\ any\\ other\\ name\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;56\\(6\\)\\,\\ p\\.\\ 2371\\-2388\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\.\\ Return\\ Predictability\\ CARMEN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\*\\ Thaler\\,\\ Richard\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ A\\ Mean\\ Reverting\\ Walk\\ Down\\ Wall\\ Street\\ \\,\\"\\;\\ in\\ The\\ Winner\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Curse\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 12\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 151\\&ndash\\;167\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Lakonishok\\,\\ Josef\\,\\ Andrei\\ Shleifer\\,\\ and\\ Robert\\ Vishny\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Contrarian\\ investment\\,\\ extrapolation\\,\\ and\\ risk\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Finance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;49\\:5\\ \\(1994\\)\\,\\ 1541\\&ndash\\;1578\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Hong\\,\\ Harrison\\ and\\ Jeremy\\ C\\.\\ Stein\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Disagreement\\ and\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Economic\\ Perspectives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ \\;21\\:2\\ \\(2007\\)\\,\\ 109\\-128\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Baker\\,\\ Malcolm\\ and\\ Jeffrey\\ Wurgler\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Investor\\ Sentiment\\ in\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Economic\\ Perspectives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\ 21\\:2\\ \\(2007\\)\\,\\ 129\\-151\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\ \\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Efficient\\ Markets\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ concept\\ has\\ been\\ central\\ to\\ world\\ of\\ finance\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ 30\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Implies\\ that\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Investors\\ are\\ fully\\ rational\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\ market\\ prices\\ fully\\ reflect\\ all\\ available\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Average\\ investors\\ cannot\\ hope\\ to\\ beat\\ the\\ market\\,\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ passive\\ portfolio\\ than\\ an\\ actively\\ managed\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ versions\\ of\\ EMH\\ \\(strong\\ implies\\ semi\\-strong\\,\\ semi\\-strong\\ implies\\ weak\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weak\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ investors\\ cannot\\ make\\ money\\ off\\ of\\ predictions\\ from\\ old\\ news\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Semi\\-strong\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ investors\\ cannot\\ profit\\ from\\ any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\public\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;information\\,\\ since\\ this\\ news\\ is\\ immediately\\ incorporated\\ into\\ price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strong\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ investors\\ cannot\\ profit\\ from\\ any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\public\\ or\\ private\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;information\\,\\ because\\ private\\ information\\ quickly\\ leaks\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theoretical\\ foundations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assume\\ investors\\ are\\ rational\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ price\\ securities\\ rationally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ investors\\ are\\ not\\ rational\\,\\ their\\ aggregate\\ price\\ valuations\\ of\\ stocks\\ cancel\\ out\\ \\(they\\ are\\ irrational\\ but\\ uncorrelated\\,\\ these\\ mistakes\\ cancel\\ each\\ other\\ out\\;\\ if\\ some\\ people\\ overprice\\ a\\ stock\\,\\ others\\ will\\ undervalue\\ it\\,\\ and\\ the\\ overall\\ price\\ is\\ still\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fundamental\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ net\\ present\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ firm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ future\\ cash\\ flows\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ when\\ investor\\ irrationality\\ is\\ correlated\\,\\ arbitrageurs\\ invade\\ the\\ market\\ and\\ push\\ price\\ to\\ fundamentals\\,\\ irrational\\ investors\\ are\\ pushed\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ market\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Empirical\\ foundations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ news\\ hits\\ the\\ market\\,\\ its\\ price\\ reacts\\ quickly\\ and\\ correctly\\ to\\ incorporate\\ the\\ news\\,\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ price\\ trends\\/reversals\\ following\\ initial\\ impact\\ of\\ news\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prices\\ should\\ not\\ change\\ if\\ information\\ about\\ asset\\&rsquo\\;s\\ value\\ does\\ not\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Data\\ supports\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weak\\ version\\:\\ Fama\\ \\(1965\\)\\ found\\ that\\ stock\\ prices\\ follow\\ a\\ random\\ walk\\,\\ that\\ the\\ price\\ on\\ any\\ given\\ day\\ is\\ equally\\ as\\ likely\\ to\\ rise\\ or\\ fall\\ given\\ its\\ performance\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Semi\\-strong\\:\\ in\\ event\\ study\\ methodology\\,\\ Fama\\ \\(1969\\)\\ found\\ that\\ prices\\ initially\\ begin\\ to\\ rise\\ as\\ private\\ information\\ is\\ slowly\\ leaked\\,\\ then\\ on\\ day\\ of\\ news\\ event\\ the\\ price\\ jumps\\ as\\ information\\ is\\ publicly\\ revealed\\,\\ and\\ the\\ event\\ is\\ not\\ followed\\ by\\ price\\ trends\\ up\\ or\\ down\\ \\&\\#61664\\;\\ indicates\\ that\\ public\\ news\\ is\\ incorporated\\ accurately\\ and\\ quickly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theoretical\\ challenges\\ to\\ EMH\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Investors\\ are\\ fully\\ rational\\:\\ wrong\\!\\ They\\ are\\ not\\ fully\\ rational\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ have\\ faulty\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ risk\\:\\ people\\ care\\ more\\ about\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ rather\\ than\\ overall\\ wealth\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\prospect\\ theory\\,\\ loss\\ aversion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ do\\ not\\ follow\\ Bayes\\ rule\\ when\\ updating\\ expectations\\:\\ people\\ take\\ a\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recent\\ history\\ as\\ representative\\ of\\ future\\ returns\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\representativeness\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Their\\ decisions\\ are\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ framing\\ of\\ a\\ problem\\ \\(see\\ lecture\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Framing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Irrational\\ investors\\ have\\ uncorrelated\\ behaviors\\:\\ wrong\\!\\ Irrational\\ investors\\ often\\ behave\\ the\\ same\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Investor\\ sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ deviations\\ caused\\ by\\ irrational\\ investors\\ should\\ be\\ equalized\\ by\\ rational\\ arbitrageurs\\:\\ wrong\\!\\ Most\\ arbitrage\\ is\\ not\\ successful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Success\\ of\\ arbitrage\\ relies\\ on\\ availability\\ of\\ close\\ substitutes\\ in\\ assets\\,\\ this\\ is\\ scarcely\\ the\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Empirical\\ challenges\\ to\\ EMH\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenge\\ to\\ weak\\ form\\ hypothesis\\:\\ according\\ to\\ DeBondt\\ and\\ Thaler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\winner\\ and\\ loser\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;portfolios\\,\\ investors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\achieve\\ better\\ returns\\ using\\ past\\ company\\ information\\ \\(namely\\,\\ the\\ returns\\ of\\ growth\\/value\\ stocks\\ in\\ the\\ preceding\\ 5\\ years\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenge\\ to\\ semi\\-strong\\ form\\ hypothesis\\:\\ small\\ stocks\\ earn\\ higher\\ returns\\ than\\ large\\ stocks\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ January\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\January\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ challenge\\:\\ 22\\%\\ drop\\ in\\ stock\\ prices\\ 10\\/19\\/1987\\ even\\ though\\ no\\ special\\ news\\ was\\ announced\\,\\ this\\ implies\\ that\\ something\\ \\(investor\\ sentiment\\ perhaps\\)\\ besides\\ news\\ drives\\ markets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Mean\\ Reverting\\ Walk\\ Down\\ Wall\\ Street\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mean\\ Reversion\\:\\ in\\ games\\ of\\ chance\\,\\ extremes\\ are\\ followed\\ by\\ less\\ extreme\\ outcomes\\ \\(bring\\ outcomes\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ mean\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ EMH\\,\\ because\\ one\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ predict\\ future\\ returns\\ based\\ on\\ past\\ returns\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ mean\\ reversion\\ idea\\ is\\ more\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ investor\\ sentiment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Supporting\\ Evidence\\:\\ winner\\ and\\ loser\\ portfolios\\,\\ value\\ and\\ growth\\ stocks\\,\\ psychological\\ evidence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Short\\ term\\ mean\\ reversion\\:\\ if\\ prices\\ change\\ drastically\\ within\\ a\\ short\\ period\\,\\ neither\\ risk\\ nor\\ size\\ has\\ changed\\ significantly\\,\\ investor\\ sentiment\\ must\\ be\\ at\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ winner\\ portfolios\\ experience\\ less\\ change\\ in\\ abnormal\\ returns\\ than\\ loser\\ portfolios\\?\\ Perhaps\\ because\\ for\\ losers\\,\\ the\\ overreaction\\ effect\\ and\\ the\\ excess\\ premium\\ effect\\ push\\ prices\\ down\\.\\ For\\ winner\\ portfolios\\,\\ these\\ effects\\ work\\ in\\ opposite\\ directions\\.\\ Excess\\ price\\ premium\\:\\ for\\ losers\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ high\\ risk\\ of\\ bankruptcy\\ \\(pushing\\ prices\\ down\\)\\,\\ for\\ winners\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ high\\ \\&ldquo\\;down\\-side\\ potential\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ prices\\ to\\ fall\\ eventually\\ \\(pushes\\ stock\\ prices\\ down\\ too\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contrarian\\ investment\\,\\ extrapolation\\,\\ and\\ risk\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\:\\ value\\ strategies\\ yield\\ higher\\ return\\ than\\ growth\\ strategies\\,\\ not\\ because\\ value\\ stocks\\ are\\ riskier\\,\\ but\\ because\\ the\\ strategy\\ exploits\\ the\\ suboptimal\\ behavior\\ of\\ typical\\ investors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Na\\ï\\;ve\\ investors\\ are\\ too\\ optimistic\\ about\\ companies\\ that\\ have\\ done\\ well\\ recently\\ \\(and\\ thus\\ overprice\\ them\\)\\ and\\ are\\ too\\ pessimistic\\ about\\ companies\\ that\\ have\\ done\\ poorly\\ recently\\ \\(and\\ thus\\ underprice\\ them\\)\\.\\ Contrarian\\ investors\\ bet\\ against\\ these\\ naive\\ investors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\:\\ do\\ value\\ stocks\\ outperform\\ growth\\ stocks\\?\\ Yes\\,\\ according\\ to\\ data\\ comparing\\ past\\ performance\\,\\ current\\ and\\ extrapolated\\ future\\ performance\\ of\\ companies\\ according\\ to\\ investors\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Question\\:\\ are\\ value\\ stocks\\ fundamentally\\ riskier\\ than\\ growth\\ stocks\\?\\ No\\,\\ based\\ on\\ examinations\\ of\\ standard\\ deviations\\ of\\ returns\\ of\\ stocks\\ and\\ frequency\\ of\\ superior\\ performance\\ of\\ value\\ stocks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ classify\\ a\\ value\\ stock\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ to\\ market\\ ratio\\:\\ high\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Price\\ to\\ earnings\\ ratio\\:\\ low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cash\\ flow\\ to\\ price\\:\\ high\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Past\\ growth\\ in\\ sales\\:\\ low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Using\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ past\\ returns\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ multiples\\ to\\ choose\\ value\\ stocks\\,\\ value\\ strategies\\ have\\ consistently\\ beat\\ growth\\ strategies\\ by\\ 10\\-11\\%\\ per\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disagreement\\ and\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trading\\ Volume\\:\\ high\\ volume\\ of\\ trading\\ is\\ correlated\\ with\\ higher\\ prices\\,\\ overtrading\\ can\\ \\(and\\ has\\)\\ be\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ market\\ bubbles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mechanisms\\ that\\ can\\ generate\\ investor\\ disagreement\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gradual\\ Information\\ flow\\:\\ some\\ investors\\ receive\\ information\\ before\\ others\\,\\ and\\ this\\ causes\\ disagreement\\ regarding\\ valuation\\ of\\ the\\ stock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limited\\ Attention\\:\\ due\\ to\\ cognitive\\ overload\\,\\ most\\ investors\\ make\\ decisions\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ small\\ set\\ of\\ publicly\\ available\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heterogeneous\\ Priors\\:\\ even\\ when\\ news\\ is\\ made\\ public\\,\\ investors\\ can\\ disagree\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ update\\ their\\ valuations\\ of\\ stock\\,\\ because\\ they\\ might\\ have\\ different\\ models\\/intuitions\\/expectations\\ guiding\\ their\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Investor\\ Sentiment\\ in\\ the\\ Stock\\ Market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\:\\ stocks\\ that\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ arbitrage\\ or\\ difficult\\ to\\ value\\ are\\ most\\ subject\\ to\\ investor\\ sentiment\\ mis\\-pricing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarendon\\ Lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Model\\ Investor\\ Sentiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Under\\-reaction\\:\\ security\\ prices\\ under\\-react\\ to\\ news\\ such\\ as\\ earnings\\ announcements\\,\\ momentum\\ evidence\\ for\\ short\\ term\\ \\(positive\\ news\\ contributes\\ to\\ price\\ trend\\ upwards\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overreaction\\:\\ in\\ longer\\ term\\,\\ prices\\ overreact\\ to\\ consistent\\ news\\ that\\ points\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ direction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Model\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ psychological\\ concepts\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representativeness\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(investors\\ view\\ recent\\ good\\ news\\ as\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overall\\ value\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conservatism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(slow\\ update\\ of\\ models\\ as\\ new\\ information\\ is\\ revealed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conservatism\\:\\ psychological\\ experiments\\ reveal\\ that\\ given\\ new\\ information\\,\\ subjects\\ tend\\ to\\ not\\ update\\ their\\ expectations\\ about\\ the\\ future\\ enough\\.\\ This\\ supports\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ underreaction\\:\\ conservative\\ individuals\\ do\\ not\\ react\\ enough\\ in\\ face\\ of\\ new\\ information\\ of\\ company\\ earnings\\ and\\ other\\ public\\ announcement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Representativeness\\:\\ this\\ heuristic\\ says\\ predicts\\ that\\ investors\\ see\\ patterns\\ in\\ truly\\ random\\ sequences\\.\\ Given\\ consistent\\,\\ long\\ term\\,\\ positive\\ information\\ about\\ a\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ earning\\,\\ an\\ investor\\ might\\ attribute\\ these\\ \\(actually\\ random\\)\\ findings\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ company\\,\\ the\\ amazing\\ CEO\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ equations\\ to\\ know\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\F\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1\\ \\+\\ a\\(p\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/p\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ V\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ S\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ P\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\=\\ V\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ S\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ F\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dp\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\/dS\\ \\=\\ p\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/\\(p\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ aF\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\.\\ Bubbles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ Clarendon\\ lectures\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ROSE\\ YAN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Garber\\,\\ Peter\\,\\ M\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Famous\\ First\\ Bubbles\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Journal\\ of\\ Economic\\ Perspectives\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;4\\ \\(1990\\)\\,\\ 35\\&ndash\\;54\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\SAM\\ TELLER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\ Asness\\,\\ Clifford\\,\\ 2000\\.\\ \\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bubble\\ Logic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\,\\"\\;\\ AQR\\ Capital\\ Management\\,\\ mimeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\IFEDAYO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Positive\\ Feedback\\ Investment\\ Strategies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ feedback\\ trading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ when\\ investors\\ buy\\ securities\\ after\\ price\\ rise\\ and\\ sell\\ after\\ price\\ fall\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ arbitrageurs\\ can\\ anticipate\\ noise\\ trader\\ demand\\,\\ they\\ can\\ pursue\\ strategy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ they\\ receive\\ goods\\ news\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ anticipation\\ noise\\ traders\\,\\ they\\ will\\ buy\\ more\\ today\\ and\\ drive\\ prices\\ up\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tomorrow\\,\\ while\\ noise\\ traders\\ are\\ driving\\ prices\\ higher\\,\\ they\\ can\\ sell\\ and\\ stabilize\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ combination\\ of\\ positive\\ feedback\\ and\\ reversion\\ to\\ mean\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ review\\ of\\ a\\ price\\ bubble\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ bubbles\\ start\\ with\\ initial\\ good\\ news\\,\\ called\\ displacement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rare\\ tulips\\ are\\ valuable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ response\\,\\ smart\\ money\\ seeks\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ the\\ asset\\ and\\ claim\\ them\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ positive\\ feedback\\ trading\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ done\\ through\\ financial\\ instruments\\ or\\ other\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;E\\.g\\.\\ producing\\ more\\ tulips\\ or\\ allowing\\ people\\ to\\ speculate\\ on\\ tulip\\ prices\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;There\\ is\\ generally\\ authoritative\\ blessing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ which\\ further\\ propagates\\ the\\ bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eventually\\,\\ the\\ bubbles\\ crashes\\,\\ could\\ result\\ in\\ an\\ adverse\\ political\\ reaction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Famous\\ First\\ Bubbles\\ by\\ Peter\\ Garber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ wants\\ to\\ explain\\:\\ the\\ Dutch\\ tulipmania\\,\\ the\\ Mississippi\\ Bubble\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Sea\\ Bubble\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ show\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ not\\ bubbles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tulipmania\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ a\\ true\\ bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Standard\\ discussions\\ of\\ tulipmania\\ neglect\\ discussions\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ market\\ fundamental\\ prices\\ of\\ the\\ bulbs\\ should\\ have\\ been\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ tulip\\ market\\ involved\\ in\\ tulipmania\\ was\\ a\\ rare\\ breed\\ of\\ bulbs\\ that\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ a\\ mosaic\\ virus\\,\\ which\\ created\\ beautiful\\,\\ feathered\\ patterns\\ in\\ the\\ flower\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ led\\ the\\ bulb\\ to\\ initially\\ sell\\ for\\ a\\ high\\ price\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ high\\ fundamental\\ value\\,\\ because\\ the\\ bulbs\\ were\\ rare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ as\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ rare\\ bulbs\\ increased\\,\\ the\\ prices\\ fell\\ and\\ bulbs\\ sold\\ at\\ their\\ reproduction\\ cost\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ bulbs\\ now\\ had\\ a\\ low\\ fundamental\\ value\\,\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ rare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ price\\ decline\\ was\\ large\\,\\ but\\ not\\ as\\ legendary\\ as\\ people\\ have\\ made\\ it\\ out\\ to\\ be\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\South\\ Sea\\ Bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ South\\ Sea\\ Company\\ entered\\ into\\ an\\ agreement\\ to\\ refinance\\ all\\ the\\ outstanding\\ debt\\ of\\ Parliament\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ companies\\&rsquo\\;\\ strategy\\ involved\\ inviting\\ debtors\\ to\\ convert\\ their\\ debt\\ into\\ shares\\ of\\ the\\ company\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ bubble\\ companies\\,\\ who\\ began\\ to\\ speculate\\ on\\ the\\ debt\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Parliament\\ passed\\ a\\ law\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bubble\\ Act\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ ban\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ these\\ corporations\\.\\ Led\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\ sale\\ of\\ the\\ stock\\ of\\ these\\ companies\\ and\\ the\\ stock\\ of\\ South\\ Seas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ collapse\\ of\\ share\\ price\\,\\ which\\ upset\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ converted\\ their\\ debt\\ into\\ shares\\.\\ \\ \\;Parliament\\ turned\\ against\\ the\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Share\\ prices\\ fell\\ even\\ further\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ bubble\\,\\ because\\ the\\ share\\ prices\\ never\\ rose\\ above\\ fundamental\\ prices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Mississippi\\ Bubble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Not\\ a\\ real\\ bubble\\,\\ because\\ reduction\\ in\\ price\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ radical\\ shift\\ in\\ monetary\\ policy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/1030FinalmidtermSG_1.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 18:56:28.629534+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture Notes 2/14/05", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 278, "html": "\\\\\\February\\ 141\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c3\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\February\\ 14\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphysical\\ Poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Elegies\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;Metaphysical\\&rdquo\\;\\ issues\\ in\\ the\\ elegies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paper\\ is\\ on\\:\\ \\(a\\ close\\ reading\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;A\\ nocturnal\\ upon\\ St\\.\\ Lucy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ day\\,\\ being\\ the\\ shortest\\ day\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 116\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ sun\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ go\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ tropic\\ of\\ capricorn\\ \\(the\\ goat\\)\\ where\\ it\\ turned\\ around\\ and\\ came\\ back\\.\\ \\ \\;People\\ feared\\ that\\ one\\ day\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ return\\ and\\ the\\ world\\ would\\ be\\ plunged\\ into\\ darkness\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\,\\ on\\ St\\.\\ Lucy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ day\\,\\ people\\ pray\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ return\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;the\\ lesser\\ son\\ has\\ gone\\ to\\ the\\ goat\\ \\[Capricorn\\]\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Goats\\ are\\ symbols\\ of\\ lust\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ lustiness\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ in\\ the\\ spring\\ causes\\ the\\ new\\ plants\\ to\\ grow\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ spring\\ as\\ a\\ lusty\\ time\\ for\\ humans\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ notion\\ of\\ nothingness\\ \\(also\\ alchemy\\ which\\ is\\ innately\\ transformation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-How\\ can\\ some\\ thing\\ be\\ no\\ thing\\ \\(nothing\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ Absence\\ is\\ still\\ something\\&hellip\\;\\ a\\ hole\\ in\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ he\\ playing\\ with\\ words\\ or\\ saying\\ how\\ things\\ actually\\ are\\&hellip\\;\\ metaphysical\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ world\\?\\ \\ \\;\\(night\\,\\ mournfulness\\,\\ lack\\,\\ decay\\,\\ light\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphysics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Traditionally\\ concerned\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;being\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;being\\ and\\ not\\ being\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;in\\ Greek\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ kai\\ me\\ on\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1590s\\,\\ the\\ period\\ after\\ Donne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ marriage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-His\\ most\\ raucous\\ period\\,\\ where\\ he\\ presents\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ rake\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(pornographic\\ elegies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Trying\\ to\\ distinguish\\ himself\\ from\\ Spenser\\,\\ who\\ wrote\\ pastorals\\ and\\ the\\ Fairy\\ Queen\\ \\(sp\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ revived\\ the\\ classics\\ with\\ this\\ opus\\,\\ imitating\\ Vergil\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ idealized\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ Fairy\\ Queen\\ by\\ refining\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\eroticism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;into\\ pure\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Donne\\ instead\\ embraces\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\eroticism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Elegy\\ 13\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\[Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fields\\ of\\ knowledge\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\physics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(independent\\ being\\ but\\ not\\ free\\ from\\ change\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\art\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(no\\ independent\\ being\\,\\ but\\ freedom\\ from\\ change\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Metaphysics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Thus\\ he\\ determined\\ that\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ some\\ thing\\ that\\ is\\ beyond\\ both\\ aspects\\&mdash\\;independent\\ and\\ free\\ from\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ called\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Theologike\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ by\\ this\\ he\\ meant\\ beyond\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ which\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ perfect\\ and\\ free\\ from\\ change\\/mutability\\&hellip\\;\\ he\\ based\\ this\\ on\\ the\\ cosmology\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ \\(the\\ sphere\\ of\\ the\\ fixed\\ stars\\,\\ the\\ farthest\\ of\\ the\\ nine\\ crystalline\\ spheres\\&mdash\\;think\\ Dante\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Farthest\\ sphere\\ \\=\\ Primum\\ Mobile\\ \\(prime\\ mover\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ God\\,\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ causes\\ this\\ sphere\\ to\\ move\\ which\\ imparts\\ movement\\ on\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ spheres\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Everything\\ beyond\\ the\\ moon\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ Metaphysical\\&hellip\\;\\ independent\\ being\\ and\\ freedom\\ from\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ craters\\ on\\ the\\ visible\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\ made\\ people\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ mutability\\ of\\ things\\ started\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Christian\\ interpretation\\:\\ there\\ is\\ change\\ and\\ mutability\\ below\\ the\\ moon\\ because\\ of\\ sin\\.\\ \\ \\;Sin\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ slow\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ and\\ mankind\\ \\(death\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ claim\\ that\\ love\\ will\\ last\\ forever\\.\\ \\ \\;Love\\ as\\ something\\ metaphysical\\ leads\\ the\\ poet\\ to\\ call\\ his\\ lover\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\ stars\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Since\\ sex\\ has\\ a\\ beginning\\ and\\ end\\ and\\ exchanges\\,\\ birth\\,\\ growth\\,\\ decay\\,\\ and\\ death\\,\\ that\\ means\\ that\\ love\\ is\\ not\\ innately\\ sexual\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(Sex\\ is\\ inevitably\\ entangled\\ with\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ must\\ think\\ about\\ death\\ if\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ sex\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Donne\\ uses\\ sex\\ to\\ undermine\\ Spenser\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idealistic\\ cosmic\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Elegy\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ although\\ an\\ elaborate\\ joke\\,\\ has\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ metaphysical\\ in\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-It\\ is\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Love\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Progress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ is\\ traveling\\ to\\ his\\ love\\ on\\ a\\ sea\\ voyage\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ comparing\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ poems\\ that\\ called\\ love\\ an\\ astral\\ voyage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ compares\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ to\\ her\\ body\\,\\ with\\ his\\ voyage\\ going\\ to\\ her\\ Vagina\\ \\(India\\-shape\\,\\ position\\ at\\ the\\ midsection\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 31, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/February 141.doc", "desc": "Classnotes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:34:28.034334+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 266, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still1.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:35:37.108028+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 267, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still2.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:40:04.999424+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 268, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still3.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:42:42.193928+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 269, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still4.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:42:42.193928+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 270, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/test8.txt", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:54:20.746830+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 271, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still5.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:55:56.658846+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 272, "html": null, "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still6.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-06 02:50:00.953778+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Classnotes from 2/23/05", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 265, "html": null, "course_id": 31, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/February 23.doc", "desc": "Lecture notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "America and Vietnam - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "america", "vietnam"], "text": null, "id": 69, "html": "\\\\\\HSB\\_68\\_Midterm\\_Study\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c23\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c25\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:upper\\-roman\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c19\\{padding\\-left\\:18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c22\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c24\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c28\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-3\\.9pt\\;margin\\-left\\:39\\.8pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-align\\:center\\;padding\\-bottom\\:18pt\\}\\.c2\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c21\\{color\\:\\#000080\\}\\.c30\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-bottom\\:18pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c26\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c27\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:19pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HSB\\ 68\\ Midterm\\ Study\\ Guide\\,\\ Fall\\ 2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NSC\\ 68\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\.\\ Background\\ \\-\\ During\\ the\\ past\\ 35\\ years\\,\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ power\\ that\\ once\\ existed\\ and\\ prevented\\ hegemony\\ by\\ any\\ particular\\ country\\ was\\ destroyed\\ through\\ revolutions\\ and\\ war\\.\\ \\ \\;Power\\ has\\ gravitated\\ to\\ the\\ USSR\\ and\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ \\;USSR\\ not\\ motivated\\ by\\ hegemony\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ a\\ fanatic\\ faith\\ that\\ desires\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ atomic\\ war\\ is\\ a\\ terrible\\ option\\,\\ the\\ Kremlin\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ expand\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ civilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\II\\.\\ \\ \\;Fundamental\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ and\\ defend\\ a\\ free\\ and\\ democratic\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\III\\.\\ \\ \\;Fundamental\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ Kremlin\\ is\\ to\\ expand\\ authority\\ by\\ creating\\ puupet\\ states\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ looking\\ at\\ Eurasian\\ land\\ mass\\,\\ but\\ US\\ prime\\ enemy\\ in\\ non\\ soviet\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ \\ \\;Underlying\\ conflict\\ in\\ realm\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ values\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nature\\ of\\ conflict\\ \\-\\ It\\ is\\ slavery\\ versus\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;Freedom\\ welcomes\\ diversity\\,\\ slavery\\ does\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Soviet\\ Uniion\\ demands\\ power\\ over\\ all\\ within\\ and\\ also\\ over\\ all\\ sattelite\\ states\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ complete\\ antithesis\\ to\\ our\\ value\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objectives\\ \\-\\ Make\\ ourselves\\ strong\\ both\\ militarily\\ and\\ politically\\.\\ \\ \\;Must\\ take\\ world\\ leadership\\ in\\ helping\\ to\\ build\\ functioning\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ systems\\ in\\ the\\ free\\ world\\.\\ Try\\ to\\ frustrate\\ the\\ soviet\\ design\\ either\\ externally\\ or\\ internally\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ suceeding\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ the\\ soviets\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ our\\ superior\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ we\\ go\\ to\\ war\\,\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ unavoidable\\,\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ change\\ our\\ objectives\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ do\\ not\\ wish\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ Russia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Means\\ \\-\\ Force\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ resort\\ for\\ a\\ free\\ society\\,\\ not\\ so\\ for\\ the\\ soviets\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ a\\ military\\ victory\\ wont\\ win\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ win\\ by\\ demonstrating\\ our\\ superiority\\ to\\ the\\ soviet\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ not\\ go\\ into\\ global\\ war\\ unless\\ it\\ is\\ called\\ for\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ must\\ try\\ to\\ contain\\ conflicts\\ to\\ wars\\ of\\ limited\\ objectives\\,\\ otherwise\\ we\\ will\\ alienate\\ the\\ soviet\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THE\\ NATIONAL\\ SECURITY\\ STRATEGY\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.A\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Given\\ by\\ President\\ Bush\\ Sept\\.\\ 17\\,\\ 2002\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\overview\\ of\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ International\\ Strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ struggle\\=\\ destructive\\ totalitarian\\ vision\\ vs\\.\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\to\\ fight\\ terrorism\\ we\\ \\&ldquo\\;must\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ every\\ too\\ in\\ our\\ arsenal\\-\\ military\\ power\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\America\\ will\\ help\\ nations\\ that\\ need\\ assistance\\ in\\ combating\\ terror\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;history\\ will\\ judge\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;harshly\\ those\\ who\\ saw\\ this\\ coming\\ danger\\ but\\ failed\\ to\\ act\\&hellip\\;the\\ only\\ path\\ to\\ peace\\ and\\ security\\ is\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;nations\\ that\\ enjoy\\ freedom\\ must\\ actively\\ fight\\ terror\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Goals\\ for\\ U\\.S\\.\\ gov\\.\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\aspire\\ for\\ human\\ dignity\\ \\ \\;\\(by\\ speaking\\ freely\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\strengthen\\ alliances\\ to\\ defeat\\ global\\ terrorism\\ and\\ prevent\\ attacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\defuse\\ regional\\ conflicts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\prevent\\ threats\\ with\\ weapons\\ of\\ mass\\ destruction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;ignite\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ global\\ econ\\.\\ growth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\expand\\ circle\\ of\\ development\\ by\\ opening\\ societies\\ and\\ building\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(The\\ article\\ is\\ 20\\ pages\\ restating\\ the\\ same\\ lofty\\ goals\\ again\\ and\\ again\\.\\ Although\\ some\\ might\\ see\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ as\\ a\\ mistake\\ that\\ America\\ is\\ repeating\\ now\\ in\\ Iraq\\,\\ president\\ Bush\\ and\\ the\\ advisors\\ behind\\ this\\ speech\\ seem\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ taking\\ action\\ is\\ always\\ the\\ only\\ suitable\\ option\\ when\\ protecting\\ democracy\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Roots\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Commitment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Major\\ Problems\\ in\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ chapter\\ deals\\ with\\ how\\ the\\ US\\ initially\\ got\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ conflict\\ and\\ how\\ that\\ involvement\\ escalated\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Arguably\\ the\\ first\\ US\\ involvement\\ was\\ in\\ 1950\\ when\\ the\\ US\\ first\\ started\\ giving\\ the\\ French\\ Financial\\ aid\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ involvement\\ is\\ caused\\ mostly\\ by\\ two\\ factors\\,\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ communism\\ taking\\ over\\ the\\ region\\ \\(domino\\ effect\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ French\\ post\\ WWII\\.\\ After\\ the\\ war\\ France\\ is\\ still\\ reconstructing\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ needed\\ the\\ economic\\ supports\\ Vietnam\\ offered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Policy\\ toward\\ Indochina\\ of\\ 1948\\ stated\\ the\\ above\\ as\\ objectives\\.\\ As\\ well\\ as\\ improving\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\.\\ And\\ to\\ prevent\\ Chinese\\ involvement\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;penetration\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repeated\\ through\\ all\\ the\\ documents\\ is\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ Communism\\ and\\ the\\ need\\ protect\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ against\\ Communism\\ at\\ all\\ costs\\.\\ Communism\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ threat\\ from\\ both\\ USSR\\ and\\ Chinese\\ involvement\\.\\ As\\ well\\ as\\ insurgents\\ inside\\.\\ Though\\ insurgents\\ were\\ generally\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ aided\\ and\\ inspired\\ by\\ either\\ China\\ or\\ the\\ USSR\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ documents\\ Ho\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ communist\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ nationalist\\ or\\ revolutionary\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ Americas\\ inability\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ conflict\\ and\\ its\\ major\\ players\\.\\ He\\ is\\ also\\ commonly\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ USSR\\ and\\ Red\\ China\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ first\\ essay\\ by\\ Hearden\\ the\\ important\\ points\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roosevelt\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ goal\\ for\\ Indochina\\ should\\ be\\ independence\\ and\\ he\\ would\\ allow\\ post\\ war\\ colonial\\ rule\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ if\\ independence\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ ultimate\\ goal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ho\\ is\\ quoted\\ as\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ French\\ are\\ forgiven\\ and\\ weak\\ but\\ if\\ the\\ Chinese\\ come\\ they\\ will\\ never\\ leave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bao\\ Dai\\ was\\ a\\ puppet\\ government\\ set\\ up\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ Americans\\,\\ which\\ was\\ greatly\\ unsupported\\ by\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Americans\\ also\\ wanted\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;save\\&rdquo\\;\\ Vietnam\\ from\\ communism\\ because\\ Japan\\ was\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ key\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ an\\ Asian\\ economy\\.\\ Yet\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ Japan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ raw\\ materials\\ would\\ come\\ from\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\,\\ specifically\\ Vietnam\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ believed\\ by\\ enforcing\\ a\\ policy\\ of\\ containment\\,\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ Asian\\ economy\\ which\\ would\\ also\\ strengthen\\ the\\ American\\ Economy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ McMahon\\ Essay\\ makes\\ similar\\ points\\ to\\ Hearden\\,\\ be\\ the\\ new\\ important\\ ideas\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ho\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ would\\ support\\ his\\ goals\\;\\ he\\ saw\\ his\\ situation\\ as\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ communism\\ from\\ the\\ cold\\ war\\ carrying\\ over\\ into\\ policy\\ implemented\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Focus\\ should\\ be\\ put\\ on\\ post\\ war\\ Europe\\ and\\ the\\ economic\\ recovery\\ that\\ should\\ continue\\ there\\.\\ Vietnam\\ is\\ key\\ in\\ economic\\ recovery\\ of\\ Europe\\ because\\ of\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ connection\\ to\\ colonial\\ France\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ Japan\\ as\\ an\\ economic\\ superpower\\ in\\ the\\ region\\,\\ pulling\\ raw\\ materials\\ from\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ was\\ making\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ Vietnam\\.\\ They\\ were\\ telling\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ intervene\\ to\\ stop\\ communism\\ where\\ ever\\ it\\ showed\\.\\ And\\ Vietnam\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ example\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ America\\ could\\ potentially\\ squash\\ communism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ still\\ confused\\ this\\ Quote\\ from\\ the\\ McMahon\\ Article\\ basically\\ sums\\ up\\ the\\ chapter\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Indochina\\ became\\ crucial\\ to\\ Truman\\ administration\\ planners\\ by\\ the\\ late\\ 1940\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ of\\ perceived\\ relationship\\ between\\ stability\\ in\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ and\\ economic\\ recovery\\ in\\ Western\\ Europe\\ and\\ Japan\\.\\ U\\.S\\.\\ intervention\\ in\\ Indochina\\ formed\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ carefully\\ conceived\\,\\ if\\ ultimately\\ flawed\\,\\ effort\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ economic\\ resources\\ of\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ for\\ the\\ West\\ while\\ denying\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ communist\\ powers\\.\\ It\\ grew\\,\\ in\\ short\\,\\ from\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overall\\ Cold\\ War\\ strategy\\ for\\ containing\\ Soviet\\ power\\ and\\ influence\\,\\ a\\ strategy\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ blurring\\ of\\ distinctions\\ between\\ core\\ and\\ periphery\\ and\\ elevated\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ into\\ a\\ national\\ security\\ concern\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ order\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(73\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\ Major\\ Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Document\\ 1\\,\\ President\\ Eisenhower\\ appeals\\ to\\ British\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ Winston\\ S\\.\\ Churchill\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;united\\ action\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ help\\ save\\ the\\ French\\ garrison\\ at\\ Dienbienphu\\.\\ \\ \\;Document\\ 2\\ is\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ Eisenhower\\&rsquo\\;s\\ press\\ conference\\ of\\ April\\ 7\\,\\ 1954\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ spells\\ out\\ what\\ he\\ means\\ by\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;domino\\ theory\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ Indochina\\.\\ \\ \\;Vo\\ Nguyen\\ Giap\\,\\ the\\ victorious\\ Vietnamese\\ commander\\ at\\ Dienbienphu\\,\\ assesses\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ that\\ battle\\ in\\ Document\\ 3\\.\\ \\ \\;Document\\ 4\\ is\\ the\\ final\\ declaration\\ of\\ the\\ Geneva\\ Conference\\,\\ July\\ 21\\,\\ 1954\\,\\ which\\ established\\ a\\ temporary\\ division\\ between\\ northern\\ and\\ southern\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ set\\ forth\\ procedures\\ for\\ eventual\\ unification\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ remaining\\ documents\\ in\\ this\\ chapter\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ regime\\ of\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ an\\ April\\ 28\\,\\ 1955\\ National\\ Security\\ Council\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ sect\\ crisis\\ that\\ nearly\\ toppled\\ Diem\\ from\\ power\\,\\ sharp\\ differences\\ among\\ top\\ U\\.S\\.\\ officials\\ on\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ abilities\\ come\\ to\\ light\\.\\ \\ \\;Document\\ 6\\ is\\ a\\ declaration\\ by\\ the\\ government\\ of\\ Vietnam\\,\\ issued\\ on\\ August\\ 9\\,\\ 1955\\,\\ renouncing\\ any\\ negotiations\\ with\\ the\\ communist\\ regime\\ in\\ the\\ north\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ January\\ 1\\,\\ 1957\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Ambassador\\ Elbridge\\ Durbrow\\ alerted\\ Washington\\ to\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ difficulties\\ that\\ plagued\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regime\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Document\\ 8\\,\\ a\\ National\\ Security\\ Council\\ discussion\\ of\\ May\\ 9\\,\\ 1960\\,\\ Eisenhower\\ and\\ other\\ leading\\ officials\\ ponder\\ South\\ Vietnam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deepening\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ opening\\ essay\\,\\ David\\ L\\.\\ Anderson\\ of\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Indianapolis\\ offers\\ a\\ critical\\ summary\\ of\\ Eisenhower\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vietnam\\ policy\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ contends\\ that\\ while\\ Eisenhower\\ may\\ deserve\\ high\\ marks\\ for\\ choosing\\ not\\ to\\ rescue\\ the\\ beleaguered\\ French\\ garrison\\ at\\ Dienbienphu\\,\\ his\\ administration\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subsequent\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ Diem\\ regime\\ represented\\ a\\ massive\\ intervention\\ in\\ Vietnamese\\ affairs\\.\\ \\ \\;Anderson\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Eisenhower\\ administration\\&rsquo\\;s\\ generous\\ economic\\,\\ military\\,\\ and\\ political\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ Saigon\\ government\\ that\\ it\\ helped\\ to\\ establish\\ never\\ proved\\ sufficient\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ viable\\ nation\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\,\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ became\\ tied\\ to\\ a\\ corrupt\\,\\ inefficient\\,\\ and\\ unrepresentative\\ regime\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ that\\ never\\ commanded\\ popular\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ process\\,\\ it\\ sowed\\ the\\ seeds\\ for\\ future\\ troubles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ next\\ selection\\,\\ Ronald\\ H\\.\\ Spector\\,\\ a\\ leading\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ historian\\ and\\ professor\\ of\\ history\\ at\\ George\\ Washington\\ University\\,\\ analyzes\\ the\\ shortcomings\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ American\\ military\\ advisory\\ mission\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ depicts\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ Vietcong\\ insurgency\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\ as\\ an\\ ominous\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ regime\\,\\ one\\ that\\ American\\ military\\ advisers\\ had\\ not\\ adequately\\ prepared\\ South\\ Vietnam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ armed\\ forces\\ to\\ meet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Problems\\:\\ ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Wages\\ of\\ War\\ \\-\\ Michael\\ Hunt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Talks\\ about\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ on\\ the\\ Vietamese\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ how\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ scar\\ was\\ more\\ psychological\\ than\\ physical\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ went\\ in\\ it\\ blindly\\.\\ \\ \\;Tried\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ up\\ with\\ Persian\\ gulf\\ and\\ other\\ sure\\ wins\\.\\ \\ \\;American\\ leadership\\ should\\ be\\ held\\ more\\ accountable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Necessary\\ War\\ \\-\\ Michael\\ Lind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\End\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\ and\\ demise\\ of\\ the\\ far\\ left\\ allows\\ us\\ now\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ a\\ proxy\\ war\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ not\\ self\\-contained\\.\\ \\ \\;Radical\\ left\\ looked\\ at\\ it\\ as\\ the\\ evils\\ of\\ capitalist\\ imperialism\\.\\ \\ \\;Realists\\ or\\ neoisolationists\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ tragic\\ mistake\\.\\ \\ \\;Conservatives\\ blame\\ the\\ masses\\ and\\ the\\ leadership\\ for\\ preventing\\ victory\\ by\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\ \\;Cold\\ War\\ liberals\\ or\\ liberal\\ anticommunists\\ of\\ the\\ Truman\\,\\ Kennedy\\,\\ and\\ Johnson\\ admin\\ seemed\\ to\\ have\\ disappeared\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ in\\ at\\ first\\ to\\ defend\\ credibility\\ as\\ a\\ sperpower\\ against\\ communism\\.\\ \\ \\;Necesarry\\ to\\ leave\\ to\\ preserve\\ public\\ support\\ for\\ rest\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;Idea\\ that\\ we\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ gone\\ in\\,\\ but\\ since\\ we\\ did\\ we\\ should\\ have\\ gone\\ all\\ out\\,\\ while\\ enticing\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ \\;Indochina\\ worth\\ a\\ limited\\ war\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ was\\ fought\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Only\\ winner\\ was\\ Soviet\\ Union\\.\\ \\ \\;Cuased\\ US\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ isolationism\\ for\\ a\\ while\\.\\ \\ \\;Vitnam\\,\\ China\\,\\ US\\,\\ Cambodians\\,\\ Laotions\\ all\\ lost\\.\\ \\ \\;Goal\\ to\\ free\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ last\\ goal\\.\\ \\ \\;SEA\\ power\\ politics\\ more\\ important\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ important\\ was\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ Soviet\\ defeat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Grand\\ Delusion\\ \\-\\ Robert\\ Mann\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Huge\\ negative\\ impact\\ on\\ American\\ society\\,\\ politics\\,\\ diplomacy\\.\\ \\ \\;Americans\\ now\\ wary\\ of\\ their\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ America\\ has\\ the\\ scar\\ of\\ defeat\\.\\ \\ \\;Every\\ military\\ action\\ is\\ tainted\\ by\\ Vietnam\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Congress\\ has\\ gotten\\ confrontational\\ with\\ executive\\ branch\\ since\\ then\\.\\ Myths\\ people\\ had\\:\\ Vietnman\\ controlled\\ by\\ Beijing\\ or\\ Moscow\\,\\ success\\ of\\ Eisenhower\\ and\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\,\\ that\\ America\\ was\\ doing\\ well\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ military\\ not\\ political\\ war\\,\\ Johnson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intentions\\ to\\ no\\ wider\\ war\\,\\ Golf\\ of\\ Tonkin\\ incident\\,\\ miltary\\ victory\\ was\\ possible\\,\\ steps\\ taken\\ by\\ US\\ presidents\\ for\\ peace\\.\\ \\ \\;Vietnam\\ a\\ grand\\ delusion\\ that\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ avoided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sourcebook\\ Readings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h5\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Land\\ Reform\\ in\\ North\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\Carried\\ out\\ a\\ large\\ land\\ reform\\ campaign\\ between\\ 1953\\ and\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Abolish\\ landlordism\\,\\ pave\\ way\\ for\\ coop\\ farming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Teams\\ of\\ cadres\\ trained\\ and\\ sent\\ into\\ village\\ for\\ purpose\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ live\\,\\ eat\\,\\ work\\ w\\/peasant\\.\\ Cadre\\ would\\ convince\\ peasant\\ he\\ was\\ poor\\ because\\ of\\ oppression\\ of\\ landlords\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ defeated\\ if\\ they\\ united\\ and\\ fought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\ were\\ then\\ supposed\\ to\\ withdraw\\ into\\ the\\ background\\;\\ however\\,\\ many\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ patience\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ and\\ told\\ them\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ at\\ every\\ stage\\ or\\ worked\\ for\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landlords\\&rsquo\\;\\ land\\ given\\ to\\ agricultural\\ laborers\\,\\ poor\\ peasants\\,\\ middle\\ peasants\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Avg\\ landlord\\ should\\ have\\ got\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ former\\ tenants\\ were\\ getting\\,\\ but\\ were\\ left\\ with\\ less\\ land\\ than\\ anyone\\ else\\ in\\ village\\,\\ often\\ deprived\\ of\\ homes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Impossible\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ many\\ were\\ actually\\ killed\\ from\\ N\\.\\ Viet\\ press\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ those\\ w\\/massive\\ crimes\\ were\\ only\\ recorded\\ as\\ having\\ made\\ to\\ bow\\ head\\ and\\ admit\\ crime\\ \\(even\\ those\\ crimes\\ merited\\ death\\ sentence\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Two\\ explanations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Few\\ executions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Party\\ kept\\ silent\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ ashamed\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Estimates\\ of\\ people\\ killed\\ vary\\ from\\ 3\\,000\\ to\\ 15\\,000Party\\ wanted\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ few\\ executions\\,\\ but\\ not\\ too\\ many\\ in\\ each\\ area\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Question\\ of\\ whether\\ this\\ information\\ was\\ accurate\\.\\ \\(Communist\\ sources\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Slaughter\\ of\\ innocent\\ victims\\ \\(often\\ described\\ in\\ anti\\-Communist\\ propaganda\\)\\ never\\ took\\ place\\,\\ says\\ author\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Middle\\ peasants\\ in\\ first\\ villages\\ made\\ up\\ most\\ of\\ Party\\ membership\\;\\ willing\\ to\\ implement\\ policies\\ favoring\\ poor\\ peasants\\.\\ Believed\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ accepted\\ policies\\ of\\ revolution\\,\\ could\\ keep\\ leading\\ positions\\ in\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Landlords\\ were\\ the\\ enemy\\;\\ most\\ who\\ had\\ joined\\ French\\ forces\\ had\\ been\\ ordinary\\ peasants\\ and\\ were\\ assumed\\ to\\ be\\ basically\\ good\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Policy\\ of\\ giving\\ peasants\\/laborers\\ role\\ in\\ politics\\ disastrously\\ misapplied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Promoted\\ too\\ rapidly\\,\\ without\\ adequate\\ training\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Considered\\ great\\ accomplishment\\ to\\ expose\\ a\\ reactionary\\/landlord\\ someone\\ who\\ had\\ not\\ previously\\ been\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ one\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ therefore\\ many\\ people\\ wrongly\\ classified\\ \\(potentially\\ 30\\,000\\+\\ households\\ wrongly\\ classified\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Differences\\ from\\ Stalinist\\ purges\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Great\\ majority\\ of\\ persecuted\\ lived\\ through\\ attacks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ recognized\\ some\\ mistakes\\ \\(mislabels\\)\\ and\\ gave\\ back\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Some\\ were\\ reclassified\\ again\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;rich\\ peasants\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ previously\\ been\\ labeled\\ \\&ldquo\\;landlord\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agricultural\\ production\\ rose\\ rapidly\\ while\\ land\\ reform\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ \\(food\\ shortage\\ decreased\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ \\&rsquo\\;56\\,\\ shortage\\ was\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Politically\\,\\ results\\ were\\ less\\ satisfactory\\:\\ less\\ self\\-confidence\\,\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ leaders\\ \\(poor\\ peasants\\ had\\ important\\ posts\\ in\\ village\\)\\.\\ Prestige\\ and\\ unity\\ seriously\\ shaken\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ World\\ Transformed\\ Summary\\:\\\\Ninh\\ meticulously\\ analyzes\\ the\\ successive\\ Party\\ pronouncements\\ on\\ cultural\\matters\\,\\ emphasizing\\ their\\ \\&lsquo\\;preoccupation\\ with\\ organization\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ their\\determination\\ to\\ articulate\\ a\\ definitive\\ vision\\ of\\ socialist\\ culture\\.\\ Her\\ use\\of\\ archival\\ sources\\ enables\\ her\\ to\\ pay\\ particular\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ Ministry\\ of\\Culture\\ which\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tellingly\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inherited\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ wartime\\ Ministry\\ of\\Propaganda\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;came\\ to\\ have\\ formidable\\ power\\ over\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ intellectual\\life\\ of\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ Ninh\\ chronicles\\ the\\ internal\\ difficulties\\ faced\\ by\\ the\\Ministry\\ in\\ trying\\ to\\ develop\\ socialist\\ culture\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ astute\\observation\\ that\\ it\\ often\\ evaluated\\ its\\ success\\ in\\ quantitative\\ rather\\ than\\qualitative\\ terms\\,\\ a\\ tendency\\ which\\ at\\ times\\ allowed\\ it\\ to\\ sidestep\\ questions\\about\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ actually\\ changed\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thinking\\.\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ themes\\ is\\ the\\ increasing\\ \\&lsquo\\;contraction\\ of\\ private\\ space\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\heavy\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ upon\\ society\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ to\\ which\\ intellectuals\\ were\\particularly\\ subject\\.\\ The\\ period\\ of\\ the\\ anti\\-French\\ Resistance\\ \\(1946\\-54\\)\\ is\\still\\ considerably\\ under\\ researched\\,and\\ Ninh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ makes\\ a\\ substantial\\contribution\\ to\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ these\\ years\\.\\ It\\ is\\ well\\ known\\ that\\ over\\the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ struggle\\,\\ the\\ gradual\\ consolidation\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ strategic\\position\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ weakening\\ of\\ its\\ united\\ front\\ approach\\ and\\ a\\ concomitant\\hardening\\ of\\ its\\ Marxist\\ ideology\\.\\ This\\ change\\ was\\ most\\ clearly\\ manifested\\ in\\its\\ policies\\ towards\\ landowners\\ and\\ intellectuals\\.\\ Ninh\\ chronicles\\ the\\transition\\ from\\ the\\ rather\\ heady\\ early\\ days\\ of\\ the\\ Resistance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ writers\\and\\artists\\ flocked\\ to\\ the\\ DRV\\-held\\ liberated\\ zones\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ patriotism\\and\\ loyalty\\ to\\ the\\ Party\\ which\\ had\\ led\\ them\\ to\\ independence\\ in\\ 1945\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ a\\ time\\of\\ increasingly\\ heavy\\-handed\\ indoctrination\\ \\(from\\ around\\ mid\\-1948\\ onward\\)\\ and\\subjection\\ to\\ ideological\\ control\\.\\ This\\ change\\,\\ she\\ shows\\,\\ produced\\ polarization\\within\\ the\\ ranks\\ of\\ intellectuals\\ between\\ those\\ who\\ acquiesced\\ to\\ Party\\ control\\and\\ those\\ who\\ resisted\\ it\\.\\ The\\ resulting\\ ferment\\ and\\ frustration\\ boiled\\ over\\\\(after\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ the\\ French\\)\\ in\\ the\\ Nh\\â\\;n\\ Van\\&ndash\\;Giai\\ Ph\\#m\\ affair\\,\\ named\\ for\\the\\ two\\ short\\-lived\\ publications\\ which\\ served\\ as\\ forums\\ for\\ criticism\\ from\\artists\\ and\\ writers\\.\\ This\\ Vietnamese\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;Hundred\\ Flowers\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\in\\ China\\ lasted\\ for\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ months\\ before\\ being\\ quashed\\ by\\ the\\ Party\\.\\\\A\\ criticism\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ raised\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ articles\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\,\\ well\\,\\ soulless\\ in\\its\\ treatment\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ anguished\\ and\\ bitter\\ struggle\\ for\\ many\\intellectuals\\.\\ This\\ reviewer\\ remembers\\ watching\\ a\\ video\\ produced\\ by\\ overseas\\Vietnamese\\ some\\ years\\ ago\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ well\\-known\\ composer\\ Phum\\ Duy\\ movingly\\described\\ how\\ he\\ shed\\ tears\\ when\\ he\\ left\\ the\\ Resistance\\ zone\\ in\\ the\\ jungle\\ to\\return\\ to\\ French\\-controlled\\ H\\à\\;noi\\,\\ having\\ permanently\\ broken\\ with\\ the\\ Party\\.\\How\\ many\\ other\\ artists\\ made\\ this\\ same\\ painful\\ decision\\?\\ We\\ get\\ some\\understanding\\ of\\ the\\ tensions\\ between\\ various\\ groups\\ and\\ factions\\ of\\intellectuals\\,\\ but\\ perhaps\\ not\\ enough\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\ turmoil\\ many\\individuals\\ experienced\\.\\ In\\ this\\ respect\\ the\\ author\\ has\\ somewhat\\ limited\\herself\\ by\\ relying\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ on\\ materials\\ published\\ in\\ H\\à\\;noi\\.\\ Sources\\published\\ in\\ the\\ former\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ the\\ post\\-1975\\ community\\ would\\surely\\ offer\\ some\\ additional\\ insights\\ from\\ a\\ different\\ ideological\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Land\\ Reform\\ and\\ Land\\ Reform\\ Errors\\ in\\ North\\ Vietnam\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Edwin\\ E\\ Moise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Between\\ 1953\\ and\\ 1956\\,\\ the\\ Lao\\ Dong\\ \\(Worker\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\ Party\\ launched\\ five\\ waves\\ of\\ land\\ reform\\ throughout\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Republic\\ of\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reform\\ had\\ both\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ goals\\.\\ \\ \\;Economically\\ the\\ aim\\ was\\ to\\ overhaul\\ the\\ farming\\ system\\ by\\ redistributing\\ and\\ collectivizing\\ land\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ plan\\ was\\ to\\ abolish\\ landlordism\\ and\\ put\\ the\\ land\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ peasants\\,\\ while\\ hopefully\\ increasing\\ agricultural\\ production\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ sense\\ the\\ reform\\ was\\ moderately\\ successful\\.\\ \\ \\;Politically\\,\\ however\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ as\\ successful\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ powerful\\ leadership\\ of\\ peasants\\ to\\ run\\ their\\ own\\ fields\\,\\ the\\ reform\\ created\\ a\\ paranoid\\ group\\ of\\ cadres\\ and\\ unqualified\\ peasants\\ focused\\ only\\ on\\ crushing\\ often\\ imaginary\\ reactionary\\ landlord\\ plots\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ reform\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ landless\\ peasants\\,\\ left\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ targeted\\ the\\ rich\\ peasants\\ and\\ landlords\\ for\\ reprisals\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ would\\ send\\ an\\ outside\\ cadre\\ to\\ each\\ village\\ to\\ persuade\\ the\\ peasants\\ to\\ rise\\ up\\ against\\ the\\ elites\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ theory\\ a\\ cadre\\ would\\ go\\ in\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ teaching\\ one\\ peasant\\ that\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ cot\\ can\\,\\ who\\ would\\ then\\ go\\ on\\ and\\ convince\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ peasants\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ this\\ point\\ the\\ cadre\\ should\\ have\\ backed\\ down\\ and\\ let\\ the\\ peasants\\ make\\ decisions\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ replace\\ the\\ village\\ leadership\\,\\ but\\ more\\ often\\ then\\ not\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stick\\ to\\ this\\ plan\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ were\\ many\\ excesses\\ in\\ the\\ land\\ reform\\ program\\.\\ \\ \\;Once\\ the\\ cadres\\ and\\ peasants\\ got\\ the\\ power\\,\\ they\\ were\\ brutal\\ with\\ the\\ landlords\\.\\ \\ \\;Reports\\ of\\ landlord\\ executions\\ range\\ from\\ Nixon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ of\\ 500\\,000\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ recent\\ and\\ more\\ likely\\ academic\\ claim\\ of\\ 5\\,000\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ the\\ reforms\\ went\\ on\\ the\\ term\\ landlord\\ encompassed\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reforms\\ were\\ originally\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ directed\\ at\\ a\\ small\\ elite\\ of\\ landlords\\,\\ but\\ it\\ quickly\\ became\\ a\\ witch\\ hunt\\ for\\ peasants\\ only\\ slightly\\ better\\ off\\ than\\ their\\ neighbors\\ or\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ refused\\ to\\ treat\\ people\\ loosely\\ accused\\ of\\ being\\ landlords\\ as\\ their\\ enemies\\.\\ \\ \\;Overall\\ about\\ 30\\,000\\ peasant\\ households\\ were\\ wrongly\\ classified\\ as\\ landlords\\.\\ \\ \\;Peasants\\ with\\ any\\ degree\\ of\\ political\\ knowledge\\ were\\ considered\\ suspicious\\ and\\ often\\ were\\ attacked\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ reform\\ even\\ imploded\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ accusing\\ thousands\\ of\\ experienced\\ and\\ loyal\\ cadres\\ of\\ having\\ connections\\ with\\ the\\ old\\ order\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Unlike\\ the\\ similar\\ Stalinist\\ purges\\,\\ the\\ mistakes\\ and\\ excesses\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ reform\\ were\\ not\\ covered\\ up\\ or\\ shoved\\ off\\ onto\\ scapegoats\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ party\\ apologized\\ for\\ the\\ excesses\\ and\\ attempted\\ to\\ right\\ any\\ wrongs\\ that\\ they\\ could\\.\\ \\ \\;Fifty\\ percent\\ of\\ those\\ classified\\ as\\ landlords\\ during\\ the\\ reform\\ were\\ reclassified\\.\\ \\ \\;Truong\\ Chinh\\,\\ the\\ general\\ secretary\\ of\\ the\\ Lao\\ Dong\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ resign\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Although\\ the\\ land\\ reform\\ was\\ violent\\,\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ it\\ was\\ indicative\\ of\\ a\\ bloodbath\\ following\\ a\\ communist\\ victory\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ excesses\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ at\\ least\\ reasonably\\ logical\\.\\ \\ \\;Executions\\ occurred\\ only\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ in\\ each\\ village\\ to\\ cause\\ fear\\,\\ they\\ knew\\ that\\ more\\ than\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ hurting\\ their\\ cause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;As\\ for\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ carrying\\ on\\ both\\ a\\ socialist\\ and\\ nationalist\\ revolution\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ article\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ inherent\\ contradiction\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ the\\ two\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ communists\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ only\\ with\\ a\\ social\\ revolution\\ can\\ you\\ mobilize\\ the\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ a\\ true\\ nationalist\\ revolution\\.\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ social\\ revolutionaries\\ need\\ money\\,\\ so\\ they\\ invariably\\ appeal\\ to\\ some\\ larger\\ power\\ for\\ support\\ and\\ aid\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ could\\ be\\ argued\\ that\\ with\\ this\\ aid\\ they\\ become\\ communist\\ puppets\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ communist\\ puppet\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ true\\ nationalist\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ article\\ seems\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ although\\ both\\ revolutions\\ can\\ coexist\\,\\ in\\ most\\ situations\\ one\\ will\\ be\\ more\\ dominant\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ theory\\ this\\ situation\\ was\\ stronger\\ on\\ the\\ socialist\\ side\\,\\ because\\ the\\ plan\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ liberate\\ the\\ peasants\\ but\\ to\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ real\\ power\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ did\\ not\\ work\\ out\\ so\\ well\\ because\\ peasants\\ were\\ promoted\\ too\\ rapidly\\ without\\ any\\ training\\ or\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ in\\ theory\\ they\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ receive\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ old\\ ruling\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ article\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ 1975\\,\\ so\\ presumably\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ relevant\\ information\\ was\\ not\\ yet\\ available\\ as\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ just\\ finally\\ coming\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ last\\ few\\ pages\\ are\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ land\\ reforms\\ and\\ collectivization\\ that\\ was\\ still\\ going\\ on\\ when\\ the\\ he\\ was\\ writing\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ could\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ facts\\ and\\ figures\\ presented\\,\\ but\\ the\\ general\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ seems\\ to\\ still\\ hold\\ true\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intellectual\\ Dissent\\:\\ The\\ Nhan\\ Van\\ Giai\\ Pham\\ Period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ article\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ period\\ following\\ Dein\\ Bien\\ Phu\\,\\ and\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ nationalistic\\ pride\\ which\\ ensued\\,\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ the\\ \\ \\;conflict\\ which\\ arose\\ between\\ intellectuals\\ and\\ the\\ Party\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cultural\\ officials\\.\\ Tran\\ Dan\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ writer\\ to\\ document\\ prolifically\\ the\\ event\\ in\\ his\\ novel\\ \\&ldquo\\;Men\\ upon\\ men\\,\\ waves\\ upon\\ waves\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Intellectuals\\ began\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ army\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ their\\ solidarity\\ and\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ struggle\\,\\ but\\ were\\ oppressed\\ by\\ officials\\ and\\ heavily\\ censored\\.\\ The\\ resulting\\ period\\ of\\ intellectual\\ supression\\ was\\ called\\ the\\ Nhan\\ Van\\ Giai\\ Pham\\ period\\,\\ named\\ after\\ two\\ major\\ literary\\ works\\/\\ journals\\ published\\ during\\ the\\ time\\,\\ Nhan\\ Van\\ and\\ Giai\\ Pham\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Take\\ Home\\ Points\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ article\\ incorporates\\ many\\ specific\\ work\\ names\\ and\\ authors\\,\\ many\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ remember\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ worth\\ knowing\\ the\\ in\\ North\\ Vietnam\\,\\ post\\ Dien\\ Bien\\ Phu\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ divide\\ between\\ intellectual\\ leadership\\ and\\ the\\ intellectual\\ community\\,\\ and\\ officials\\ responded\\ harshly\\ to\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ intellectual\\ dissent\\ streaming\\ from\\ the\\ authors\\ of\\ the\\ period\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\McMahon\\ Ch\\.\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relevant\\ Intro\\ Documents\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Military\\ Adviser\\ Gen\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Maxwell\\ Taylor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;urges\\ Kennedy\\ to\\ deploy\\ a\\ military\\ force\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;significant\\ value\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ Vietnam\\ to\\ assist\\ the\\ weak\\ forces\\ currently\\ deployed\\.\\ This\\ dispatch\\ should\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\increase\\ tensions\\ and\\ risk\\ escalation\\ into\\ a\\ major\\ war\\ in\\ Asia\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\b\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Provide\\ reserve\\ backup\\ to\\ GVN\\ forces\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\c\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;raise\\ national\\ morale\\ and\\ show\\ seriousness\\ of\\ US\\ intent\\ to\\ resist\\ a\\ Communist\\ takeover\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Taylor\\ cautions\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Our\\ forces\\ should\\ not\\ engage\\ in\\ small\\-scale\\ guerrilla\\ operations\\ in\\ the\\ jungle\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dean\\ Rusk\\ Robert\\ McNamara\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;emphasize\\ the\\ danger\\ of\\ losing\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ to\\ the\\ Communists\\.\\ 20\\ million\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ free\\ world\\ would\\ be\\ \\&\\#39\\;lost\\&\\#39\\;\\ should\\ this\\ takeover\\ occur\\.\\ They\\ endorse\\ a\\ plan\\ to\\ send\\ troops\\ and\\ equipment\\ to\\ \\&\\#39\\;improve\\ SVN\\ morale\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ defend\\ SVN\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Early\\ Army\\ Adviser\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;recalls\\ that\\ following\\ his\\ service\\ from\\ 1962\\-3\\ \\&ldquo\\;almost\\ no\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ Washington\\ area\\ knew\\ we\\ had\\ anything\\ like\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ in\\ Vietnam\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Ouch\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mike\\ Mansfield\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;questions\\ American\\ policy\\.\\ Take\\ home\\ note\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ role\\ is\\ and\\ must\\ remain\\ secondary\\ in\\ present\\ circumstances\\.\\ It\\ is\\ their\\ country\\,\\ their\\ future\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ at\\ stake\\,\\ not\\ ours\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\JFK\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\acknowledges\\ the\\ weakness\\ of\\ the\\ SVN\\ government\\ in\\ an\\ interview\\ with\\ Cronkite\\,\\ declares\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\.\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ itself\\ who\\ have\\ to\\ win\\ or\\ lose\\ this\\ struggle\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Kennedy\\ acknowledges\\ Domino\\ Theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\acknowledges\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ and\\ urges\\ the\\ US\\ not\\ to\\ thwart\\ it\\.\\ Believes\\ next\\ government\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ successful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\McGeorge\\ Bundy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\expresses\\ reservations\\ with\\ the\\ coup\\,\\ and\\ states\\ that\\ any\\ coup\\ to\\ be\\ supported\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ likelihood\\ of\\ success\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\H\\.\\ C\\.\\ Lodge\\ and\\ Diem\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ final\\ conversation\\ before\\ Diem\\ is\\ killed\\.\\ Diem\\ calls\\ up\\ Lodge\\ mid\\ takeover\\,\\ Lodge\\ is\\ as\\ shady\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ and\\ skirts\\ any\\ issue\\ of\\ Diem\\&\\#39\\;s\\ safety\\,\\ urging\\ Diem\\ to\\ call\\ regarding\\ any\\ issues\\ of\\ personal\\ safety\\.\\ Shhadddyy\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essays\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mike\\ Hunt\\ \\&ldquo\\;Perils\\ of\\ Interventionism\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Hunt\\ begins\\ by\\ attacking\\ Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ character\\,\\ and\\ shallow\\ knowledge\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ A\\ similar\\ crisis\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ Laos\\ in\\ \\&\\#39\\;60\\,\\ and\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ co\\.\\ operated\\ strictly\\ based\\ on\\ Domino\\ theory\\ oriented\\ concerns\\.\\ More\\ indecision\\ by\\ the\\ administration\\ led\\ to\\ poor\\ decisions\\ and\\ more\\ conflict\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ crisis\\,\\ Kennedy\\ was\\ perplexed\\ and\\ indecisive\\.\\ More\\ of\\ Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ decisions\\ into\\ 1963\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Hunt\\,\\ were\\ based\\ purely\\ on\\ domestic\\ popularity\\,\\ in\\ attempt\\ to\\ secure\\ reelection\\.\\ Hunt\\ concludes\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ while\\ impossible\\ to\\ predict\\,\\ Kennedy\\ left\\ Johnson\\ an\\ impossible\\ situation\\ in\\ Vietnam\\,\\ resulting\\ from\\ an\\ administration\\ attempting\\ to\\ police\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ not\\ appear\\ weak\\.\\ \\(Eisenhower\\ lost\\ NVM\\ earlier\\,\\ Kennedy\\ promised\\ to\\ preserve\\ SVN\\ by\\ \\&\\#39\\;paying\\ any\\ price\\,\\ and\\ bearing\\ any\\ burden\\&\\#39\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Kaiser\\ \\&ldquo\\;Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Prudent\\ and\\ Cautious\\ Policy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ This\\ essay\\ contradicts\\ strongly\\ Hunt\\&\\#39\\;s\\ attacks\\.\\ Kaiser\\ presents\\ Kennedy\\ as\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ prudent\\ foreign\\ policy\\ maker\\,\\ and\\ backs\\ up\\ the\\ administration\\&\\#39\\;s\\ actions\\ with\\ keen\\ respect\\ to\\ US\\ military\\ safety\\,\\ the\\ low\\ public\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ actions\\.\\ Kaiser\\ presents\\ the\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Buddhist\\ crisis\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ logical\\ and\\ well\\ thought\\-out\\ response\\,\\ and\\ concludes\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ while\\ Kennedy\\ was\\ handed\\ a\\ turbulent\\ mess\\ from\\ Eisenhower\\,\\ he\\ was\\ well\\ on\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ placating\\ the\\ situation\\ with\\ carefully\\ crafted\\ policy\\.\\ Whereas\\ Johnson\\ responded\\ poorly\\ to\\ the\\ events\\,\\ Kaiser\\ deduces\\ that\\ Kennedy\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ resolve\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Take\\ Home\\ Point\\ from\\ Essays\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ conflicting\\ opinions\\ of\\ Kennedy\\&\\#39\\;s\\ policy\\.\\ a\\)\\ Indecisive\\ and\\ ineffective\\,\\ or\\ b\\)\\ Prudent\\ and\\ cautious\\.\\ Hunt\\ claims\\ Kennedy\\ wouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ done\\ any\\ better\\ than\\ Johnson\\ in\\ resolving\\ crisis\\,\\ whereas\\ Kaiser\\ predicts\\ that\\ Kennedy\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ resolve\\ the\\ crisis\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ record\\ of\\ JFK\\&\\#39\\;s\\ term\\ in\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JFK\\ and\\ the\\ DIEM\\ COUP\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ John\\ Prados\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Main\\ point\\:\\ The\\ US\\ clearly\\ aided\\ the\\ coup\\ through\\ military\\ support\\,\\ monetary\\ support\\ and\\ public\\ pressure\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ murders\\ of\\ Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\ were\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ immediate\\ plans\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ US\\ had\\ chosen\\ to\\ help\\ organize\\ and\\ support\\ a\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ government\\ headed\\ by\\ President\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Diem\\ had\\ come\\ to\\ power\\ through\\ being\\ elected\\ as\\ Prime\\ Minister\\ in\\ 1954\\ and\\ conducting\\ some\\ coups\\ and\\ staged\\ elections\\ to\\ become\\ President\\ under\\ the\\ banner\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;republic\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ banned\\ all\\ other\\ political\\ parties\\ and\\ claimed\\ he\\ would\\ reform\\ the\\ state\\ based\\ upon\\ US\\ pressure\\ after\\ 1954\\ but\\ never\\ enacted\\ any\\ policies\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ people\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ were\\ not\\ content\\ with\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ leadership\\ either\\ and\\ tried\\ a\\ military\\ coup\\ in\\ November\\ of\\ 1960\\ and\\ in\\ February\\ of\\ 1962\\.\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ in\\ response\\,\\ reassigned\\ military\\ officials\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ any\\ political\\ reforms\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ 1961\\ to\\ 1963\\ the\\ US\\ continued\\ increasing\\ levels\\ of\\ support\\ to\\ Saigon\\,\\ operating\\ off\\ of\\ military\\ and\\ CIA\\ information\\ that\\ the\\ troop\\ ratio\\ between\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ the\\ guerillas\\ was\\ strengthening\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ 1963\\ one\\ of\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brothers\\ ordered\\ military\\ fire\\ onto\\ Buddhist\\ religious\\ marchers\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ their\\ flying\\ parade\\ flags\\ \\(because\\ they\\ were\\ restricted\\ only\\ flying\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ state\\ flags\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ of\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ a\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ archbishop\\ perpetuated\\ the\\ conflict\\ through\\ the\\ fall\\ and\\ summer\\ of\\ 1963\\.\\ \\ \\;Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Nhu\\,\\ the\\ third\\ of\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ was\\ the\\ main\\ problem\\ in\\ Saigon\\,\\ as\\ a\\ manipulator\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ there\\,\\ and\\ ensured\\ that\\ no\\ Buddhist\\ reforms\\ would\\ be\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ Buddhist\\ demonstrations\\ and\\ immolations\\ continued\\ in\\ Saigon\\ the\\ US\\ had\\ conflicts\\ supporting\\ a\\ government\\ that\\ was\\ violating\\ human\\ rights\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ situation\\ worsened\\ and\\ Diem\\ called\\ for\\ martial\\ law\\ in\\ August\\ of\\ 1963\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ CIA\\ began\\ researching\\ what\\ a\\ coup\\ would\\ amount\\ to\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ first\\ stage\\ of\\ US\\ support\\ for\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ August\\ 1963\\,\\ State\\ Department\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Roger\\ Hilsman\\ gave\\ the\\ green\\ light\\ for\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Diem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ October\\ of\\ 1963\\,\\ phase\\ two\\,\\ final\\ preparations\\ were\\ made\\ for\\ action\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ When\\ the\\ coup\\ did\\ begin\\,\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ generals\\ gave\\ the\\ US\\ only\\ four\\ minutes\\ warning\\,\\ then\\ cut\\ off\\ telephone\\ service\\ through\\ the\\ following\\ day\\,\\ November\\ 2\\,\\ and\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subsequent\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ has\\ been\\ reported\\ \\(by\\ Robert\\ McNamara\\ and\\ Arthur\\ Schlesinger\\)\\ that\\ on\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ November\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ when\\ Michael\\ Forrestal\\ reported\\ the\\ death\\ to\\ JFK\\ he\\ was\\ genuinely\\ surprised\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ last\\ White\\ House\\ discussions\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ coup\\ neglected\\ to\\ consider\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\ to\\ Diem\\ physically\\.\\ \\ \\;Although\\ the\\ last\\ phone\\ conversation\\ of\\ Ambassador\\ Lodge\\ and\\ Diem\\ clearly\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ no\\ longer\\ supported\\ him\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ evidence\\ that\\ JFK\\ particularly\\ called\\ for\\ his\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Major\\ Problems\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\:\\ We\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ discussed\\ any\\ of\\ this\\ in\\ section\\ or\\ lecture\\,\\ so\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ if\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americans\\ in\\ Combat\\&rdquo\\;\\ focuses\\ of\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ for\\ American\\ troops\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ two\\ documents\\ are\\ letters\\ from\\ troops\\ to\\ family\\ members\\.\\ The\\ first\\ one\\ tells\\ of\\ the\\ typical\\ horrors\\ of\\ war\\,\\ how\\ one\\ is\\ forever\\ changed\\,\\ how\\ watching\\ someone\\ die\\ is\\ the\\ worst\\ part\\ of\\ war\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ the\\ second\\ letter\\,\\ a\\ troop\\ explains\\ that\\ while\\ conditions\\ are\\ terrible\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ so\\ hard\\&rdquo\\;\\ because\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;probably\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ doing\\ hardly\\ a\\ damn\\ thing\\ at\\ all\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ seems\\ to\\ characterize\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unlike\\ other\\ wars\\ in\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ were\\ no\\ Normandies\\ or\\ Gettysburgs\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Doc\\ 3\\)\\;\\ the\\ war\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ fought\\ in\\ battles\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ guerilla\\ war\\ of\\ attrition\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ times\\ soldiers\\ were\\ just\\ waiting\\ for\\ weeks\\ on\\ end\\.\\ Also\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;none\\ of\\ the\\ encounters\\ achieved\\ anything\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Doc\\ 3\\)\\.\\ The\\ third\\ document\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ savagery\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Americans\\ to\\ killing\\ civilians\\ and\\ prisoners\\,\\ but\\ then\\ says\\ the\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;rough\\ conditions\\ imposed\\ by\\ the\\ climate\\ and\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ played\\ a\\ larger\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ than\\ any\\ innate\\ evil\\ of\\ American\\ soldiers\\.\\ The\\ next\\ two\\ documents\\ are\\ testimonials\\ by\\ one\\ soldier\\ who\\ witnessed\\ and\\ one\\ who\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ My\\ Lai\\ massacre\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Doc\\ 6\\,\\ Colin\\ Powell\\ discusses\\ his\\ two\\ tours\\ of\\ duty\\,\\ comparing\\ Saigon\\ in\\ 1962\\ to\\ 1968\\.\\ The\\ city\\ had\\ been\\ destroyed\\;\\ the\\ American\\ troops\\ were\\ much\\ less\\ motivated\\ and\\ lacked\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\.\\ The\\ question\\ \\&ldquo\\;why\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ clearly\\ on\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ minds\\ by\\ that\\ time\\.\\ Doc\\ 8\\ is\\ a\\ detailed\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ sorry\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Armed\\ Forces\\ by\\ a\\ colonel\\&mdash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ army\\ that\\ now\\ remains\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ approaching\\ collapse\\,\\ with\\ individual\\ units\\ avoiding\\ or\\ having\\ refused\\ combat\\,\\ murdering\\ their\\ officers\\ and\\ noncmissioned\\ officers\\,\\ drug\\ ridden\\,\\ and\\ dispirited\\ where\\ not\\ near\\-mutinous\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ the\\ last\\ document\\,\\ a\\ soldier\\ recollects\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ glad\\ to\\ leave\\ Vietnam\\,\\ but\\ was\\ unsure\\ why\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ pulling\\ out\\,\\ explaining\\ that\\ the\\ situation\\ was\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ always\\ been\\.\\ He\\ seems\\ to\\ imply\\ that\\ leaving\\ without\\ accomplishing\\ anything\\ underscores\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ real\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ essays\\ gives\\ a\\ pretty\\ succinct\\ analysis\\.\\ The\\ first\\ essay\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ demographics\\ of\\ the\\ men\\ fighting\\.\\ It\\ characterizes\\ Vietnam\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;working\\ class\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ that\\ 80\\ per\\ cent\\ of\\ soldiers\\ came\\ from\\ working\\ class\\ or\\ poor\\ backgrounds\\.\\ Thinking\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ nearly\\ representative\\ of\\ their\\ young\\ generation\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ \\(probably\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;youngest\\&rdquo\\;\\ war\\ America\\ has\\ fought\\ as\\ well\\)\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ nation\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ appreciate\\ their\\ efforts\\,\\ troops\\ were\\ demoralized\\.\\ They\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;encountered\\ a\\ reality\\ utterly\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ official\\ justifications\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ presented\\ by\\ U\\.S\\.\\ policymakers\\.\\ The\\ second\\ essay\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ difficult\\ conditions\\ of\\ war\\ that\\ faced\\ U\\.S\\.\\ soldiers\\ with\\ graphic\\ detail\\.\\ It\\ explains\\ that\\ while\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ troops\\ were\\ completely\\ committed\\ to\\ fighting\\ for\\ their\\ country\\;\\ over\\ the\\ years\\,\\ the\\ guerilla\\ warfare\\,\\ rough\\ climate\\,\\ disease\\,\\ racial\\ tension\\ \\(it\\ was\\ the\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\,\\ and\\ failure\\ by\\ officers\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ real\\ purpose\\ for\\ being\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ all\\ contributed\\ to\\ a\\ waning\\ morale\\ and\\ a\\ worsening\\ situation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Portraits\\ of\\ its\\ People\\ At\\ War\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VIETNAM\\ IS\\ THE\\ PLACE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Starts\\ with\\ Eisenhower\\ warning\\ JFK\\ that\\ Laos\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ key\\ to\\ the\\ entire\\ area\\ of\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;JFK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ background\\:\\ favored\\ French\\,\\ feared\\ the\\ menace\\ of\\ a\\ monolithic\\ Communism\\,\\ said\\ that\\ Vietnam\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;proving\\ ground\\ for\\ democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ reiterated\\ the\\ domino\\ theory\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\,\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ soft\\ on\\ Communism\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\JFK\\ rejected\\ neutrality\\ for\\ S\\.\\ Vietnam\\ even\\ though\\ Hanoi\\ was\\ prepared\\ to\\ accept\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ rejected\\ withdrawal\\,\\ yet\\ balked\\ at\\ plunging\\ into\\ total\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dean\\ Rusk\\ \\(secretary\\ of\\ state\\)\\,\\ Robert\\ McNamara\\ \\(defense\\ secretary\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\April\\ 1961\\:\\ JFK\\ creates\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;task\\ force\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ prepare\\ economic\\,\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ military\\ programs\\ aimed\\ at\\ preventing\\ Communist\\ domination\\ of\\ S\\.\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;George\\ Ball\\ \\(deputy\\ under\\ secretary\\ of\\ state\\)\\ took\\ hold\\ of\\ project\\.\\ \\ \\;JFK\\ sent\\ hundreds\\ of\\ advisers\\ to\\ Vietnam\\.\\ \\ \\;Replaced\\ Ambassador\\ Durbrow\\ \\(who\\ annoyed\\ Diem\\)\\ with\\ Frederick\\ Nolting\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diem\\ actually\\ recoiled\\ at\\ thought\\ of\\ American\\ troops\\:\\ would\\ undermine\\ nationalist\\ pretensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Just\\ wanted\\ size\\ of\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ armed\\ forces\\ to\\ increase\\,\\ and\\ with\\ that\\ American\\ aid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ mid\\-October\\ 1961\\,\\ Diem\\ reversed\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\;Said\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ welcome\\ American\\ combat\\ soldiers\\,\\ but\\ JFK\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ready\\ to\\ put\\ troops\\ in\\ yet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Maxwell\\ Taylor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ message\\ to\\ Kennedy\\:\\ proposed\\ an\\ initial\\ commitment\\ to\\ Vietnam\\ of\\ 8\\,000\\ US\\ combat\\ troops\\ disguised\\ as\\ logistical\\ legions\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ a\\ flood\\&hellip\\;at\\ as\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;advance\\ party\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ test\\ out\\ how\\ hard\\ fighting\\ there\\ would\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taylor\\ had\\ lost\\ sight\\ of\\ problem\\:\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ were\\ losing\\ faith\\ in\\ Diem\\&hellip\\;So\\ this\\ proposal\\ was\\ rejected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throughout\\ the\\ JFK\\ administration\\,\\ they\\ went\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ about\\ whether\\ they\\ should\\ go\\ ahead\\ or\\ show\\ restraint\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ growing\\ US\\ military\\ involvement\\ was\\ kept\\ secret\\;\\ partly\\ because\\ violated\\ Geneva\\ and\\ partly\\ to\\ deceive\\ the\\ public\\.\\ \\ \\;US\\ withdrawal\\ unthinkable\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ by\\ early\\ 1962\\,\\ despite\\ verbal\\ devotion\\ to\\ common\\ goal\\,\\ the\\ JFK\\ administration\\ and\\ Diem\\ regime\\ were\\ going\\ along\\ different\\ tracks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\US\\ establishment\\ was\\ split\\ amongst\\ those\\ who\\ favored\\ a\\ stronger\\ political\\,\\ economic\\,\\ and\\ social\\ faction\\ versus\\ those\\ who\\ favored\\ a\\ stronger\\ military\\ approach\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\ there\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Strategic\\ Hamlet\\&rdquo\\;\\ program\\:\\ corral\\ peasants\\ into\\ armed\\ stockades\\,\\ depriving\\ Vietcong\\ of\\ their\\ support\\.\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\:\\ saw\\ them\\ as\\ means\\ to\\ spread\\ influence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Operation\\ Sunrise\\:\\ March\\ 1962\\ pilot\\ program\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ strategic\\ hamlets\\&hellip\\;failed\\ miserably\\,\\ peasants\\ rallied\\ to\\ Vietcong\\.\\ \\ \\;With\\ US\\ approval\\ and\\ financing\\,\\ the\\ Diem\\ government\\ continued\\ same\\ mistake\\ elsewhere\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Programs\\ converted\\ peasants\\ into\\ Vietcong\\ sympathizers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nhu\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ peasants\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ interestingly\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ program\\ was\\ run\\ by\\ Colonel\\ Pham\\ Ngoc\\ Thao\\,\\ a\\ secret\\ communist\\ operative\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Late\\ 1962\\,\\ brought\\ in\\ US\\ helicopters\\ to\\ ferry\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ troops\\ to\\ action\\ or\\ attack\\ battlefield\\ before\\ landing\\ with\\ guns\\.\\ \\ \\;Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ stop\\ guerrillas\\,\\ as\\ they\\ adapted\\ and\\ dug\\ trenches\\ and\\ tunnels\\ as\\ shelter\\ against\\ the\\ raids\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Diem\\ preferred\\ having\\ US\\ helicopters\\ fight\\ war\\ for\\ him\\,\\ as\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ minimize\\ casualties\\&hellip\\;also\\,\\ confirmed\\ conviction\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ fighting\\ a\\ military\\ conflict\\,\\ not\\ a\\ political\\/economic\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diem\\ army\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shortcomings\\ apparent\\ in\\ January\\ 1963\\,\\ at\\ Ap\\ Bac\\,\\ village\\ in\\ Mekong\\ Delta\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ inferior\\ Vietcong\\ contingent\\ mauled\\ S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ division\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ general\\ commander\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ was\\ a\\ Diem\\ loyalist\\ who\\ was\\ pretty\\ much\\ incompetent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vietcong\\ were\\ outnumbered\\ 10\\ to\\ 1\\.\\ Yet\\ they\\ won\\ the\\ battle\\ \\(only\\ 3\\ deaths\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\:\\ 61\\ soldiers\\ killed\\,\\ a\\ hundred\\ wounded\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\US\\ Lieutenant\\ Colonel\\ John\\ Paul\\ Vann\\ resigned\\&hellip\\;S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ prospects\\ dim\\ unless\\ Diem\\ overhauled\\ regime\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JFK\\ refused\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ Ap\\ Bac\\ as\\ a\\ loss\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\February\\ 1962\\:\\ first\\ attempt\\ at\\ killing\\ Diem\\,\\ aerial\\ assassination\\.\\ \\ \\;Diem\\ escaped\\ by\\ jumping\\ into\\ a\\ fortified\\ cellar\\.\\ \\ \\;Dug\\ himself\\ deeper\\ into\\ his\\ own\\ family\\,\\ whom\\ he\\ could\\ trust\\.\\ \\ \\;Delegated\\ more\\ authority\\ to\\ Nhu\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Nhu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ for\\ people\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;personalism\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;human\\ dignity\\ as\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ modern\\ materialism\\&hellip\\;\\ too\\ abstract\\ for\\ masses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nhu\\&rsquo\\;s\\ real\\ talent\\ was\\ organizational\\&hellip\\;built\\ spy\\ groups\\.\\ \\ \\;Mme\\.\\ Nhu\\ was\\ even\\ worse\\ for\\ the\\ Saigon\\ government\\&rsquo\\;s\\ credibility\\.\\ \\ \\;Sexually\\ suggestive\\,\\ she\\ became\\ S\\.\\ Vietnam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ dynamic\\ prude\\&hellip\\;S\\.\\ Vietnamese\\ people\\ scorned\\ her\\ sanctimonious\\ decrees\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ they\\ honestly\\ believed\\ victory\\ was\\ near\\.\\ Only\\ Mike\\ Mansfield\\,\\ Senate\\ Majority\\ Leader\\,\\ delivered\\ a\\ brutally\\ frank\\ report\\:\\ failures\\ with\\ Diem\\,\\ and\\ also\\ emphasized\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ their\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ Kennedy\\ would\\ not\\ retreat\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ End\\ of\\ the\\ Diem\\&rdquo\\;\\ From\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vietnam\\:\\ A\\ History\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\President\\ Ngo\\ Dinh\\ Diem\\ and\\ his\\ brother\\ Nhu\\ were\\ killed\\ on\\ November\\ 1\\,\\ 1963\\.\\ Diem\\ had\\ been\\ ruling\\ Vietnam\\ since\\ 1955\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ dedicate\\ politician\\ his\\ downfall\\ is\\ often\\ attributed\\ to\\ his\\ inflexible\\ pride\\ and\\ the\\ ambitions\\ of\\ his\\ family\\,\\ especially\\ those\\ of\\ his\\ brother\\ Nhu\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ Madame\\ Nhu\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ first\\ lady\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ because\\ Diem\\ was\\ unmarried\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diem\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ rule\\ like\\ an\\ emperor\\ and\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ permanent\\ communist\\ threat\\ and\\ the\\ opposing\\ factions\\ alienated\\ by\\ his\\ autocracy\\.\\ The\\ complot\\ against\\ him\\ was\\ leaded\\ by\\ several\\ generals\\ who\\ either\\ envied\\ his\\ power\\ or\\ antagonized\\ his\\ style\\.\\ His\\ collapse\\ however\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ possible\\ without\\ American\\ complicity\\.\\ Kennedy\\ distrusted\\ his\\ intentions\\ to\\ conciliate\\ with\\ dissident\\ groups\\ and\\ named\\ Republican\\ and\\ former\\ political\\ rival\\ Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\ Ambassador\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Since\\ his\\ appointment\\,\\ Ambassador\\ Lodge\\ became\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ the\\ anti\\-Diem\\ movement\\.\\ Seeing\\ first\\ hand\\ that\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ generals\\ were\\ getting\\ impatient\\ of\\ not\\ receiving\\ U\\.S\\.\\ approval\\ for\\ the\\ coup\\,\\ Lodge\\ himself\\ sent\\ a\\ cable\\ to\\ Washington\\ urging\\ for\\ imminent\\ measures\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ are\\ launched\\ on\\ a\\ course\\ from\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ respectable\\ turning\\ back\\:\\ the\\ overthrow\\ of\\ the\\ Diem\\ government\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ even\\ proposed\\ that\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ should\\ cease\\ help\\ to\\ Diem\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ possible\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ adequately\\ signal\\ the\\ generals\\ to\\ proceed\\ with\\ the\\ coup\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ Lodge\\ regarding\\ the\\ coup\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ his\\ continues\\ insistence\\ on\\ it\\,\\ but\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ unlike\\ many\\ others\\,\\ the\\ President\\ actually\\ listened\\ to\\ him\\.\\ By\\ giving\\ him\\ the\\ discretion\\ to\\ suspend\\ U\\.S\\.\\ aid\\ to\\ Diem\\,\\ Kennedy\\ literally\\ handed\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mandate\\ to\\ manage\\ American\\ policy\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ When\\ the\\ Kennedy\\ administration\\ grew\\ even\\ more\\ reluctant\\ to\\ commit\\ publicly\\ to\\ either\\ encourage\\ or\\ covert\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ Lodge\\ recommended\\ Kennedy\\ to\\ tell\\ General\\ Minh\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ not\\ attempt\\ to\\ thwart\\ the\\ coup\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Kennedy\\ embraced\\ the\\ term\\ and\\ the\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ generals\\ finally\\ received\\ the\\ hint\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ awaiting\\ for\\ so\\ long\\ and\\ proceeded\\ as\\ planned\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ Diem\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ dissident\\ generals\\ \\(three\\ weeks\\ before\\ Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ assassination\\)\\ Saigon\\ welcomed\\ his\\ downfall\\,\\ political\\ prisoners\\ were\\ liberated\\,\\ repressive\\ measure\\ were\\ drastically\\ diminished\\ and\\ in\\ general\\ everybody\\ saw\\ this\\ event\\ as\\ the\\ prospect\\ for\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;shorter\\ war\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Figures\\ and\\ Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Duong\\ Van\\ Minh\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Was\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ officers\\ plotting\\ against\\ Diem\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lieutenant\\ Colonel\\ Lucien\\ Conein\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\CIA\\ agent\\ who\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ liaison\\ with\\ the\\ generals\\ that\\ conspired\\ to\\ overthrow\\ Diem\\.\\ His\\ special\\ contact\\ was\\ General\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Tran\\ Van\\ Don\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Both\\ were\\ born\\ in\\ France\\ and\\ had\\ been\\ friends\\ for\\ years\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\General\\ Dinh\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Commander\\ of\\ the\\ Saigon\\ military\\ region\\ and\\ thus\\ a\\ key\\ figure\\ in\\ the\\ Diem\\ coup\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Buddhists\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Buddhist\\ activists\\ staged\\ mass\\ protests\\ and\\ even\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\self\\-immolations\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;culminating\\ in\\ several\\ coup\\ attempts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strategic\\ Hamlet\\ Program\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ Strategic\\ Hamlet\\ Program\\ was\\ a\\ plan\\ by\\ the\\ governments\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\South\\ Vietnam\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;during\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ War\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ combat\\ the\\ Communist\\ insurgency\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\population\\ transfer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ 1961\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ advisors\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Diem\\ regime\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ began\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ a\\ plan\\ attempted\\ to\\ isolate\\ rural\\ peasants\\ from\\ contact\\ with\\ and\\ influence\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\National\\ Liberation\\ Front\\ \\(NLF\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ Strategic\\ Hamlet\\ Program\\,\\ along\\ with\\ its\\ predecessor\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Rural\\ Community\\ Development\\ Program\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ shaping\\ of\\ events\\ in\\ South\\ Vietnam\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 1950s\\ and\\ early\\ 1960s\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ programs\\ attempted\\ to\\ separate\\ rural\\ peasants\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Communist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\insurgents\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ creating\\ fortified\\ villages\\ and\\ forcing\\ the\\ peasants\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ active\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\.\\ The\\ program\\ backfired\\ drastically\\ and\\ ultimately\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ support\\ for\\ Diem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regime\\ and\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ sympathy\\ for\\ Communist\\ efforts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;JFK\\ and\\ the\\ Diem\\ Coup\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Main\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ introduction\\ and\\ succeeding\\ documents\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;President\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ U\\.S\\.\\ officials\\ pushed\\ for\\ the\\ 1963\\ coup\\ against\\ Diem\\ without\\ really\\ considering\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\ to\\ Diem\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ bulk\\ of\\ their\\ conversations\\ and\\ documents\\ discuss\\ whether\\ to\\ support\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ whether\\ to\\ contribute\\ to\\ a\\ coup\\,\\ whether\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ enough\\ time\\ to\\ call\\ a\\ coup\\ off\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ there\\ are\\ enough\\ military\\ commanders\\ against\\ Diem\\ to\\ overwhelm\\ the\\ commanders\\ loyal\\ to\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;By\\ around\\ August\\ of\\ 1963\\,\\ JFK\\ and\\ his\\ staff\\ knew\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ continue\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ main\\ problem\\ \\(and\\ the\\ main\\ problem\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ commanders\\ in\\ Vietnam\\)\\ was\\ actually\\ with\\ Nhu\\;\\ Nhu\\ was\\ the\\ one\\ consolidating\\ power\\,\\ advising\\ Diem\\ not\\ to\\ compromise\\ with\\ the\\ Buddhists\\,\\ who\\ might\\ ascend\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ position\\ in\\ government\\ if\\ Diem\\ ever\\ stepped\\ aside\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ much\\ pressure\\ on\\ Diem\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ Nhu\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ pretty\\ much\\ agreed\\ on\\ that\\ Diem\\ and\\ Nhu\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;Siamese\\ twins\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Nolting\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ reluctant\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ a\\ coup\\ against\\ Diem\\,\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ alternative\\ and\\ no\\ successor\\.\\ \\ \\;General\\ Paul\\ Harkins\\ supported\\ making\\ last\\ efforts\\ toward\\ Diem\\,\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ get\\ him\\ to\\ reform\\,\\ even\\ though\\ former\\ Ambassador\\ Henry\\ Cabot\\ Lodge\\ believed\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ dangerous\\ for\\ the\\ coup\\ plotters\\,\\ whom\\ Diem\\ might\\ crack\\ down\\ on\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ final\\ agreement\\ involved\\ officials\\ not\\ attempting\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ Diem\\ until\\ the\\ coup\\ was\\ ready\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Since\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ was\\ mainly\\ interested\\ in\\ removing\\ Nhu\\ from\\ the\\ government\\,\\ it\\ left\\ the\\ military\\ generals\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ take\\ Diem\\ out\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ only\\ wanted\\ to\\ keep\\ its\\ hand\\ hidden\\ from\\ the\\ plans\\,\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ player\\ in\\ the\\ plot\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ worried\\ whether\\ the\\ coup\\ had\\ enough\\ strength\\ to\\ succeed\\ \\(it\\ was\\ estimated\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ supported\\ the\\ plotters\\ than\\ Diem\\)\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ it\\ should\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ sway\\ uncertain\\ commanders\\ into\\ the\\ fold\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ warned\\ that\\ the\\ coup\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ attempted\\ if\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ look\\ like\\ it\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ succeed\\.\\ \\ \\;If\\ the\\ coup\\ failed\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ would\\ either\\ have\\ to\\ pull\\ out\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ or\\ bring\\ troops\\ in\\ to\\ install\\ its\\ own\\ government\\.\\ \\ \\;JFK\\ himself\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ chances\\ of\\ the\\ rebel\\ generals\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ could\\ build\\ up\\ military\\ forces\\ to\\ help\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Novels\\/Movies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Quiet\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Author\\:\\ Graham\\ Greene\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Titles\\ of\\ some\\ other\\ works\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ author\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\.o\\.\\:\\ A\\ Burnt\\-Out\\ Case\\,\\ The\\ Power\\ and\\ the\\ Glory\\,\\ The\\ Heart\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Matter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Title\\:\\ The\\ Quiet\\ American\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explain\\ the\\ title\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ characters\\ in\\ the\\ book\\,\\ the\\ American\\ diplomat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pyle\\,\\ is\\ a\\ quiet\\ person\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Date\\ of\\ Publication\\:\\ 1965\\ 4\\.\\ Edition\\:\\ Penguin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ published\\ \\:\\ 1955\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Genre\\:\\ Novel\\ of\\ character\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Theme\\(s\\)\\:\\ \\-War\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ of\\ French\\ army\\ against\\ Vietminh\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Relation\\ between\\ British\\ reporter\\,\\ Chinese\\ woman\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\American\\ diplomat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Personal\\ involvement\\ in\\ acts\\ of\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ List\\ of\\ \\(main\\)\\ characters\\ and\\ description\\ of\\ them\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Fowler\\,\\ a\\ British\\ reporter\\,\\ who\\ has\\ left\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ living\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ with\\ a\\ Chinese\\ woman\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ report\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\without\\ too\\ much\\ personal\\ involvement\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Phuong\\,\\ an\\ obedient\\ Chinese\\ woman\\,\\ searching\\ the\\ security\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marriage\\ and\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ bearing\\ children\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ Pyle\\,\\ a\\ US\\-diplomat\\,\\ getting\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ French\\-Chinese\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\war\\ without\\ enough\\ understanding\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ Narrative\\ Technique\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ author\\ is\\ permanently\\ present\\ near\\ Fowler\\ and\\ tells\\ about\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mans\\ feelings\\,\\ thoughts\\ and\\ the\\ events\\ occurring\\ to\\ Fowler\\ or\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\writes\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ Fowler\\ himself\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ a\\)\\ Time\\ lapse\\:\\ A\\ couple\\ of\\ months\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ In\\ what\\ time\\ or\\ period\\ is\\ the\\ story\\ situated\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ early\\ fifties\\,\\ during\\ the\\ French\\ colonial\\ war\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\.\\ Style\\:\\ Reporter\\ like\\ style\\,\\ short\\ sentences\\,\\ colloquial\\ language\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\.\\ Stray\\ notes\\:\\ none\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ What\\ is\\ YOUR\\ OWN\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ work\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ book\\,\\ especially\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ mixture\\ of\\ war\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\events\\ and\\ the\\ excellent\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ relationships\\ between\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ main\\ characters\\ in\\ the\\ book\\:\\ Pyle\\,\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Phuong\\.\\ So\\ many\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\years\\ after\\ the\\ French\\-Vietnamese\\ war\\ still\\ an\\ interesting\\ story\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ Short\\ summary\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ British\\ reporter\\,\\ Fowler\\,\\ has\\ left\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ lives\\ in\\ Saigon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\during\\ the\\ French\\-Vietnamese\\ war\\ with\\ a\\ Chinese\\ woman\\,\\ Phuong\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\while\\ his\\ wive\\ is\\ still\\ in\\ the\\ UK\\.\\ An\\ American\\ diplomat\\,\\ Pyle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arrives\\ who\\ has\\ read\\ some\\ books\\ about\\ China\\ and\\ has\\ some\\ nave\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ideas\\ on\\ influencing\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ events\\.\\ The\\ diplomat\\ falls\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\love\\ with\\ Phuong\\ who\\,\\ after\\ some\\ time\\ starts\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ him\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\because\\ he\\ promises\\ to\\ marry\\ her\\.\\ Pyle\\ gets\\ involved\\ in\\ local\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\underground\\ war\\-activities\\ \\(supporting\\ a\\ third\\ force\\)\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ the\\ killing\\ of\\ innocent\\ people\\.\\ As\\ Fowler\\ discovers\\ these\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\activities\\,\\ he\\ is\\ so\\ much\\ worried\\ and\\ annoyed\\,\\ that\\ he\\ uses\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\private\\ Chinese\\ relations\\ to\\ have\\ Pyle\\ killed\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ Pyle\\ has\\ saved\\ his\\ life\\ during\\ a\\ nightly\\ trip\\ near\\ Saigon\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ with\\ this\\ murder\\ that\\ the\\ book\\ begins\\.\\ Alternatively\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\events\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ the\\ murder\\ are\\ described\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowlers\\ wife\\ accepts\\ a\\ divorce\\ and\\ Fowler\\ can\\ marry\\ Phuong\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NAAM\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Graham\\ Greene\\ 4B3\\,\\ 1\\-11\\-1987\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Quiet\\ American\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowler\\ is\\ a\\ British\\ reporter\\ living\\ in\\ Saigon\\ during\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\French\\-Indochina\\-war\\.\\ He\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ events\\ round\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\death\\ of\\ an\\ American\\ diplomat\\ because\\ the\\ mistress\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\diplomat\\ lived\\ with\\ Fowler\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ and\\ Fowler\\ was\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\friend\\ of\\ the\\ diplomat\\ \\(Pyle\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/1\\ Fowler\\ waits\\ for\\ Pyle\\,\\ together\\ with\\ Phuong\\,\\ his\\ former\\ mistress\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\which\\ is\\ now\\ Pyles\\ girl\\ friend\\ and\\ wife\\-to\\-be\\.\\ They\\ smoke\\ opium\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\until\\ the\\ police\\ arrives\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ interrogated\\ at\\ the\\ police\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\office\\ by\\ Vigot\\.\\ Fowler\\ identifies\\ the\\ corps\\.\\ Pyle\\,\\ the\\ diplomat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\is\\ wounded\\ in\\ the\\ chest\\,\\ but\\ the\\ real\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ is\\ mud\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\his\\ lungs\\.\\ Fowler\\ tells\\ the\\ bad\\ news\\ to\\ Phuong\\ afterwards\\,\\ who\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\decides\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ Fowler\\ again\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/2\\ The\\ first\\ meeting\\ between\\ Pyle\\ and\\ Fowler\\ is\\ described\\,\\ right\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\after\\ Pyles\\ arrival\\.\\ They\\ discuss\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ diplomatic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\correspondent\\ York\\ Harding\\,\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ great\\ influence\\ on\\ Pyles\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\thinking\\.\\ York\\ Hardings\\ book\\"\\;The\\ advance\\ of\\ red\\ China\\"\\;\\ suggests\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ Vietnam\\ needs\\ a\\ \\"\\;third\\ force\\"\\;\\.Fowler\\ is\\ rather\\ critical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\about\\ Pyles\\ innocent\\ ideas\\ and\\ behaviour\\.\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Phuong\\ go\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ get\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ Phuong\\ from\\ Pyles\\ home\\,where\\ they\\ meet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vigot\\ and\\ realize\\ that\\ Pyles\\ dog\\,\\ present\\ on\\ a\\ photograph\\,has\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\also\\ disappeared\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/3\\ The\\ first\\ meeting\\ between\\ Pyle\\ and\\ Phuong\\,\\ together\\ with\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ at\\ the\\ continental\\ bar\\,\\ where\\ war\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ north\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\discussed\\.Afterwards\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ the\\ 500\\ girls\\ is\\ visited\\.\\ Pyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dances\\ with\\ Phuong\\ and\\ starts\\ to\\ love\\ her\\.\\ The\\ innocent\\ Pyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\suggests\\ to\\ leave\\ the\\ house\\ before\\ the\\ evening\\ starts\\ getting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rude\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/4\\ The\\ war\\ scene\\ near\\ Phat\\ Diem\\ is\\ described\\:a\\ church\\ full\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\refugees\\,a\\ walk\\ with\\ 12\\ combatants\\.Fowler\\ is\\ present\\ when\\ they\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\meet\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ dead\\ bodies\\ in\\ a\\ canal\\.\\ When\\ Fowler\\ wants\\ to\\ get\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\asleep\\ in\\ the\\ office\\ quarter\\,\\ Pyle\\ appears\\,\\ he\\ has\\ followed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowler\\ all\\ alone\\ despite\\,all\\ dangers\\,\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ love\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\with\\ Phuong\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ marry\\ her\\ and\\ get\\ children\\.\\ Fowler\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\marry\\ Phuong\\ because\\ his\\ wife\\ refuses\\ to\\ divorce\\ \\(she\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roman\\-Catholic\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\/5\\ Pyle\\ succeeds\\ in\\ finding\\ air\\ transport\\ to\\ Saigon\\ via\\ Hanoi\\.\\ In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hanoi\\ Pyle\\ has\\ left\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ Fowler\\,\\ thanking\\ Fowler\\ that\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ been\\ reasonable\\,remaining\\ friends\\ and\\ promising\\ not\\ to\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Phuong\\ before\\ Fowler\\ is\\ back\\.Fowler\\ is\\ three\\ weeks\\ underway\\.\\ He\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\attends\\ several\\ events\\ eg\\.\\ a\\ press\\ conference\\ of\\ a\\ French\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\officer\\,admitting\\ he\\ needs\\ more\\ helicopters\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wounded\\ people\\.\\ Pyle\\ also\\ receives\\ a\\ telegram\\ in\\ Hanoi\\ that\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ to\\ leave\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ months\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\/1\\ Fowler\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ tell\\ Phuong\\ about\\ his\\ departure\\,\\ he\\ reflects\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ activities\\ in\\ Saigon\\;\\ rumours\\ say\\ Pyle\\ is\\ there\\ to\\ work\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\with\\ a\\ \\"\\;third\\ force\\"\\;\\.Pyle\\ asks\\ his\\ newspaper\\ to\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stay\\ in\\ Saigon\\.Thomas\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Alden\\ Pyle\\ meet\\ again\\.\\ Pyle\\ has\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\brought\\ his\\ dog\\,\\ which\\ Thomas\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ like\\.\\ They\\ discuss\\ Phuong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\again\\.\\ Fowler\\ tells\\ Phuong\\ about\\ his\\ coming\\ departure\\,\\ Phuong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wants\\ to\\ join\\ him\\.\\ However\\ she\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ even\\ know\\ the\\ difference\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\between\\ the\\ USA\\ and\\ the\\ UK\\ and\\ starts\\ thinking\\:\\ what\\ does\\ she\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\really\\ want\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\/2\\ Eighty\\ kilometers\\ North\\ of\\ Saigon\\ Pyle\\ and\\ Fowler\\ happen\\ to\\ meet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\again\\.\\ As\\ Pyles\\ Buick\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ ride\\,\\ he\\ joins\\ Fowler\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lack\\ petrol\\ \\(apparently\\ stolen\\)\\ they\\ get\\ stuck\\ near\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\watch\\-tower\\,\\ that\\ during\\ the\\ night\\ is\\ guarded\\ by\\ two\\ young\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnamese\\ soldiers\\.\\ The\\ Vietminh\\ arrives\\,\\ summons\\ the\\ two\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Westerns\\ to\\ come\\ out\\.\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Pyle\\ happen\\ to\\ escape\\ via\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\water\\ in\\ the\\ rice\\ fields\\.\\ Fowler\\ breaks\\ his\\ leg\\ during\\ a\\ jump\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ the\\ watch\\-tower\\,\\ Pyle\\ saves\\ his\\ life\\ by\\ carrying\\ him\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\away\\.After\\ a\\ stay\\ in\\ hospital\\,\\ Fowler\\ returns\\ home\\ where\\ Phuong\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\takes\\ care\\ of\\ him\\.\\ His\\ wife\\ has\\ sent\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ answer\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\divorce\\ request\\,\\ saying\\"\\;no\\"\\;\\.\\ Fowler\\ lies\\ to\\ Phuong\\ and\\ Pyle\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\ divorce\\ procedure\\ is\\ started\\(later\\ on\\ Phuongs\\ sister\\,\\ who\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\read\\ and\\ speak\\ English\\ discovers\\ the\\ truth\\)\\.\\ Via\\ Dominguez\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnamese\\ friend\\ and\\ helper\\,\\ Fowler\\ visits\\ messrs\\ Hou\\ and\\ Heng\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\who\\ show\\ him\\ drums\\ with\\ diolacton\\ and\\ a\\ mould\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bicycle\\-pumplike\\ objects\\.Pyle\\ comes\\ along\\ to\\ Fowlers\\ house\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tell\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ marry\\ Phuong\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ sent\\ away\\ by\\ Fowler\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\/1\\ Vigot\\,\\ the\\ policeman\\ meets\\ Fowler\\ two\\ weeks\\ after\\ Pyles\\ death\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pyles\\ dog\\ has\\ been\\ found\\.Prior\\ to\\ Pyles\\ death\\:\\ Phuong\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\apparently\\ seeing\\ Pyle\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ times\\.\\ As\\ Fowler\\ is\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\street\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ bicyclettes\\ explode\\:\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\demonstration\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ general\\ Th\\,\\ the\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;third\\ force\\"\\;\\.Fowler\\ realizes\\ that\\ Pyle\\ is\\ funding\\ and\\ supporting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\these\\ activities\\ by\\ supplying\\ money\\ and\\ plastic\\ bombing\\ material\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ thinks\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ dangerous\\ to\\ do\\ that\\.\\ In\\ Mr\\ Muoi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ garage\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\finds\\ a\\ press\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ \\"\\;pump\\ parts\\"\\;\\ that\\ caused\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\explosions\\.Coming\\ home\\ Fowler\\ discovers\\ Phuong\\ has\\ gone\\.\\ He\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\discusses\\ Pyles\\ behaviour\\ at\\ the\\ American\\ legation\\,\\ but\\ Pyle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ present\\.Fowler\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ north\\,\\ joining\\ a\\ bombing\\ command\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\doing\\ dive\\-bombing\\.It\\ makes\\ clear\\ how\\ cruel\\ this\\ is\\,also\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\captain\\ realizes\\ this\\.\\ He\\ hates\\ doing\\ it\\.\\ After\\ the\\ raid\\ they\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\visit\\ an\\ opium\\ and\\ whore\\ house\\.\\ Fowler\\ is\\ to\\ tired\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\but\\ smoke\\ opium\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\/2\\ Coming\\ home\\ at\\ Saigon\\,\\ the\\ lonely\\ Fowler\\ meets\\ Pyle\\ in\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\apartment\\.There\\ is\\ a\\ letter\\ from\\ Fowlers\\ employer\\ telling\\ he\\ may\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stay\\ another\\ year\\ in\\ Saigon\\.\\ Pyle\\ hasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ married\\ Phuong\\ yet\\,\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wants\\ to\\ do\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ American\\ way\\"\\;\\:\\ at\\ home\\ with\\ parents\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\family\\ present\\.Fowler\\ and\\ Pyle\\ remain\\ Friends\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\war\\.\\ Fowler\\ warns\\ Pyle\\ not\\ to\\ trust\\ general\\ Th\\.Fowler\\ looks\\ for\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ flat\\.\\ After\\ visiting\\ one\\ he\\ observes\\ a\\ cruel\\ plastic\\ bombing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accident\\ in\\ the\\ street\\.\\ Later\\ Pyle\\ explains\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\upset\\ a\\ parade\\ with\\ officers\\.\\ The\\ parade\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cancelled\\,\\ innocent\\ civilians\\ have\\ now\\ been\\ killed\\.\\ Phuong\\ had\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\been\\ warned\\ by\\ Pyle\\ to\\ stay\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ region\\,\\ she\\ hasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ been\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\hurt\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\/1\\ Fowler\\ and\\ Vigot\\ discuss\\ York\\ Hardings\\ ideas\\ and\\ the\\ influence\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ ideas\\ of\\ this\\ author\\ had\\ on\\ Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ thinking\\.Analysis\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dirt\\ on\\ Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ dog\\&\\#39\\;s\\ feet\\ has\\ made\\ clear\\ Pyle\\ has\\ visited\\ Fowler\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\short\\ before\\ his\\ death\\.\\ Vigot\\ confirms\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ convinced\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fowler\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ kill\\ Pyle\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\/2\\ What\\ did\\ happen\\ actually\\ \\?Fowler\\ and\\ Heng\\ have\\ met\\:\\ Fowler\\ tells\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ Pyle\\&\\#39\\;s\\ behaviour\\ is\\ getting\\ too\\ dangerous\\,\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stopped\\.\\ Fowler\\ will\\ make\\ an\\ appointment\\ with\\ Pyle\\ to\\ have\\ dinner\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\at\\ the\\ Vieux\\ Moulin\\.\\ Pyle\\ has\\ apparently\\ been\\ killed\\ by\\ Hengs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\,\\ on\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ restaurant\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\/3\\ Fowler\\ comes\\ home\\,\\ a\\ telegram\\ from\\ his\\ wife\\ tells\\ that\\ she\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\suddenly\\ changed\\ her\\ mind\\,\\ as\\ Fowler\\ had\\ asked\\ and\\ accepts\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\divorce\\.\\ Phuong\\ is\\ very\\ glad\\ and\\ runs\\ to\\ her\\ sister\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\news\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ William\\ J\\.\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Eugene\\ Burdick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Plot\\ Summary\\ Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\First\\ published\\ in\\ 1958\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;exposed\\ in\\ graphic\\ detail\\ the\\ reasons\\ why\\ American\\ diplomacy\\ was\\ failing\\ in\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\ in\\ the\\ 1950\\&\\#39\\;s\\ and\\ the\\ reasons\\ why\\ communism\\ was\\ succeeding\\.\\ As\\ a\\ chronicle\\ of\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ influence\\ in\\ Asia\\,\\ it\\ caused\\ quite\\ a\\ diplomatic\\ fury\\.\\ Its\\ lessons\\ seem\\ startlingly\\ urgent\\ today\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ turmoil\\ in\\ Central\\ America\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\.\\ Whether\\ the\\ foreign\\ policy\\ errors\\ this\\ book\\ dramatizes\\ have\\ been\\ corrected\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ question\\,\\ and\\ one\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ usefully\\ debated\\ in\\ the\\ classroom\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ harbinger\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ failure\\ in\\ Vietnam\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;seems\\ a\\ terribly\\ prophetic\\ book\\.\\ How\\ could\\ the\\ warnings\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Burdick\\ sounded\\ have\\ gone\\ unheeded\\?\\ An\\ examination\\ of\\ their\\ book\\ shows\\ us\\ precisely\\ how\\,\\ for\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;knowledgeable\\ and\\ skillful\\ executors\\ of\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\ \\(those\\ who\\ believe\\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ things\\ we\\ do\\ must\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ whose\\ friendship\\ we\\ need\\-\\-not\\ just\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ propaganda\\"\\;\\)\\ are\\ routinely\\ replaced\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ know\\ less\\,\\ care\\ less\\,\\ and\\ are\\ eminently\\ less\\ qualified\\ to\\ serve\\ those\\ interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ novel\\ opens\\ with\\ one\\ such\\ individual\\-\\-the\\ \\"\\;Honorable\\"\\;\\ Louis\\ Sears\\,\\ ambassador\\ to\\ the\\ fictitious\\ country\\ of\\ Sarkhan\\,\\ a\\ small\\ underdeveloped\\ nation\\ in\\ which\\ communist\\ and\\ American\\ interests\\ are\\ vying\\ for\\ supremacy\\.\\ Sears\\ has\\ assumed\\ his\\ post\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ stopgap\\.\\ Between\\ three\\ terms\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\ and\\ an\\ anticipated\\ federal\\ judgeship\\ \\"\\;with\\ a\\ long\\ tenure\\,\\"\\;\\ he\\&\\#39\\;s\\ simply\\ filling\\ time\\ in\\ a\\ \\"\\;cushy\\"\\;\\ job\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ entertainment\\ budget\\ and\\ lavish\\ living\\ conditions\\,\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ he\\ had\\ never\\ heard\\ of\\,\\ serving\\ people\\ he\\ thinks\\ of\\ as\\ \\"\\;little\\ monkeys\\.\\"\\;\\ A\\ caricature\\ depicting\\ Sears\\ as\\ a\\ braying\\ mule\\ has\\ appeared\\ in\\ a\\ local\\ Sarkhanese\\ newspaper\\,\\ making\\ clear\\ just\\ how\\ the\\ American\\ ambassador\\ is\\ perceived\\:\\ Sears\\ is\\ the\\ prototype\\ of\\ \\"\\;the\\ ugly\\ American\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ following\\ chapter\\ presents\\ the\\ Russian\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Sarkhan\\,\\ Louis\\ Krupitzyn\\,\\ a\\ thorough\\ professional\\ whose\\ two\\-year\\ training\\ period\\ has\\ included\\ instruction\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ and\\ the\\ customs\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ sent\\ to\\ serve\\ in\\.\\ His\\ entire\\ staff\\ is\\ fluent\\ in\\ Sarkhanese\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ cultural\\ nuances\\ which\\ distinguish\\ the\\ Sarkhanese\\ people\\.\\ The\\ Soviet\\ ambassador\\ molds\\ himself\\ into\\ this\\ pattern\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ Sarkhan\\.\\ He\\ diets\\,\\ losing\\ forty\\ pounds\\;\\ he\\ studies\\ ballet\\,\\ reads\\ Sarkhanese\\ literature\\ and\\ drama\\,\\ and\\ becomes\\ a\\ skillful\\ nose\\ flute\\ player\\-\\-all\\ as\\ a\\ prelude\\ to\\ effective\\ diplomacy\\.\\ Equipped\\ with\\ his\\ country\\&\\#39\\;s\\ long\\-range\\ political\\ goals\\ for\\ Sarkhan\\ and\\ a\\ clear\\ strategy\\,\\ the\\ ambassador\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ take\\ actions\\ designed\\ to\\ promote\\ the\\ communist\\ interest\\ in\\ Sarkhan\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ not\\ the\\ least\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ \\"\\;small\\ ways\\,\\"\\;\\ which\\ include\\ \\"\\;educating\\"\\;\\ the\\ population\\ by\\ degrees\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ Krupitzyn\\ instigates\\ deliberate\\ acts\\ of\\ espionage\\ designed\\ to\\ further\\ strengthen\\ the\\ communist\\ position\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ Russian\\ informer\\ planted\\ at\\ an\\ American\\ embassy\\ as\\ translator\\ supplies\\ key\\ information\\ about\\ an\\ American\\ rice\\ shipment\\ which\\ the\\ Russians\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ political\\ advantage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Where\\ the\\ American\\ ambassador\\ is\\ crude\\ and\\ bumbling\\,\\ the\\ Russian\\ is\\ refined\\ and\\ skillful\\.\\ This\\ theme\\ is\\ echoed\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ reference\\ to\\ Burma\\,\\ Ceylon\\,\\ Indonesia\\,\\ Vietnam\\,\\ Cambodia\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Philippines\\-\\-all\\ the\\ countries\\ the\\ novel\\ examines\\.\\ Still\\,\\ there\\ are\\ individuals\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ fall\\ into\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ ugly\\ American\\.\\ These\\ are\\ tough\\,\\ hardworking\\ Americans\\ with\\ a\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ human\\ decency\\ and\\ an\\ innate\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ help\\ people\\.\\ These\\ individuals\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ win\\ friends\\ for\\ America\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ that\\ they\\ help\\ improve\\ the\\ living\\ conditions\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ desperately\\ need\\ it\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ infusion\\ of\\ big\\ American\\ dollars\\ and\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ big\\ American\\ projects\\ that\\ these\\ nations\\ need\\,\\ the\\ authors\\&\\#39\\;\\ examples\\ assert\\,\\ but\\ individuals\\ who\\ contribute\\ their\\ skills\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ underdeveloped\\ nations\\ with\\ problems\\ they\\ themselves\\ have\\ identified\\.\\ In\\ the\\ book\\ these\\ individuals\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Father\\ Finian\\,\\ the\\ Jesuit\\ priest\\ who\\ enables\\ the\\ anticommunist\\ groups\\ of\\ Burma\\ to\\ understand\\ and\\ to\\ counter\\ the\\ tactics\\ of\\ those\\ communists\\ who\\ are\\ threatening\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ of\\ their\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Cowlin\\,\\ the\\ American\\ dairy\\ farmer\\ who\\ sees\\ how\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ milk\\ into\\ the\\ economy\\ of\\ Sarkhan\\ can\\ turn\\ its\\ failures\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Edward\\ Hillandale\\,\\ the\\ Air\\ Force\\ colonel\\ whose\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ all\\ things\\ Filipino\\ convince\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ province\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ crude\\ and\\ contemptuous\\ and\\ rich\\,\\ thereby\\ influencing\\ a\\ crucial\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tom\\ Knox\\,\\ an\\ American\\ economic\\ consultant\\ and\\ passionate\\ chicken\\ farmer\\ who\\ shows\\ the\\ Cambodians\\ how\\ to\\ turn\\ scrawny\\ chickens\\ into\\ fat\\,\\ lucrative\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Homer\\ Atkins\\,\\ field\\ engineer\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ whose\\ ingenious\\ water\\ pump\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ as\\ a\\ small\\ nonprofit\\ industry\\ for\\ the\\ struggling\\ farmers\\ in\\ the\\ dry\\ provinces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\The\\ lesson\\ is\\ clear\\.\\ These\\ decent\\ Americans\\ who\\ remain\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ countries\\ they\\ are\\ working\\ in\\ are\\ also\\ America\\&\\#39\\;s\\ best\\ ambassadors\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ three\\ years\\ after\\ this\\ book\\&\\#39\\;s\\ initial\\ publication\\,\\ John\\ F\\.\\ Kennedy\\ established\\ the\\ Peace\\ Corps\\,\\ whose\\ philosophy\\ and\\ methods\\ closely\\ parallel\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ small\\-scale\\,\\ people\\-oriented\\ assistance\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Burdick\\ depict\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ individual\\ Americans\\ cannot\\ match\\ the\\ communist\\ effort\\ to\\ dominate\\ in\\ underdeveloped\\ nations\\,\\ the\\ book\\ warns\\.\\ All\\ the\\ good\\ they\\ do\\ is\\ easily\\ undermined\\ by\\ the\\ failures\\ of\\ high\\-level\\ diplomats\\ and\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ clear\\ strategy\\ for\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ these\\ nations\\ face\\.\\ If\\ the\\ blundering\\ Ambassador\\ Sears\\ and\\ his\\ counterpart\\ and\\ eventual\\ successor\\ in\\ Sarkhan\\,\\ Joe\\ Bing\\,\\ create\\ hostility\\ rather\\ than\\ friendship\\ for\\ America\\,\\ Ambassador\\ MacWhite\\,\\ who\\ serves\\ between\\ them\\,\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ can\\ reverse\\ this\\ process\\ through\\ genuine\\ concern\\ for\\ the\\ population\\ and\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ coherent\\ principles\\ designed\\ to\\ address\\ Sarkhan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ most\\ pressing\\ problems\\-\\-underdevelopment\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ and\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ communism\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ MacWhite\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ ambassador\\:\\ respectful\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ and\\ customs\\ of\\ his\\ country\\,\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ training\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ all\\ diplomatic\\ personnel\\,\\ learned\\ in\\ communist\\ literature\\ and\\ the\\ methodology\\ which\\ underlies\\ the\\ communist\\ attempts\\ to\\ gain\\ power\\ in\\ poor\\ nations\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ help\\ prevent\\ similar\\ situations\\ in\\ his\\ country\\,\\ MacWhite\\ goes\\ to\\ observe\\ firsthand\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ military\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ He\\ dissects\\ the\\ failures\\ they\\ made\\ at\\ the\\ battle\\ for\\ Dien\\ Bien\\ Phu\\ and\\ studies\\ communist\\ strategy\\ and\\ Vietnamese\\ terrain\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ these\\ mistakes\\.\\ Then\\ he\\ reports\\ his\\ findings\\ to\\ the\\ senior\\ French\\ military\\ command\\ and\\ their\\ American\\ advisors\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;Since\\ December\\ of\\ 1946\\ the\\ French\\ have\\ been\\ fighting\\ a\\ war\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ maneuvered\\ by\\ the\\ Communists\\ precisely\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ which\\ Mao\\ outlined\\ in\\ this\\ pamphlet\\.\\ You\\ are\\ a\\ military\\ man\\-\\-you\\ will\\ please\\ excuse\\ my\\ bluntness\\-\\-but\\ you\\ made\\ every\\ mistake\\ Mao\\ wanted\\ you\\ to\\.\\ You\\ ignored\\ his\\ every\\ lesson\\ for\\ fighting\\ on\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ terrain\\.\\ You\\ neglected\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ cooperation\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\,\\ even\\ though\\ Mao\\ proved\\ long\\ ago\\ that\\ Asians\\ will\\ not\\ fight\\ otherwise\\.\\.\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ French\\ commander\\ replies\\:\\ \\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ suggesting\\,\\ Ambassador\\ MacWhite\\,\\ that\\ the\\ nation\\ which\\ produced\\ Napoleon\\ now\\ has\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ primitive\\ Chinese\\ for\\ military\\ instruction\\,\\ I\\ can\\ tell\\ you\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ making\\ a\\ mistake\\,\\ you\\&\\#39\\;re\\ being\\ insulting\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ report\\ submitted\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ Senate\\ is\\ similarly\\ handled\\.\\ The\\ report\\ is\\ contradicted\\ by\\ the\\ testimony\\ of\\ an\\ American\\ senator\\ who\\ has\\ spent\\ a\\ brief\\ week\\ touring\\ Vietnam\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ describe\\ the\\ week\\&\\#39\\;s\\ tour\\ as\\ being\\ carefully\\ orchestrated\\ by\\ American\\ embassy\\ officials\\ determined\\ not\\ to\\ allow\\ the\\ senator\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ badly\\ things\\ are\\ going\\ both\\ militarily\\ and\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ American\\ attempt\\ to\\ \\"\\;win\\ friends\\"\\;\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ for\\ the\\ West\\.\\ The\\ Senate\\&\\#39\\;s\\ dismissal\\ of\\ MacWhite\\&\\#39\\;s\\ report\\ on\\ conditions\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ the\\ Foreign\\ Office\\ dismissal\\ of\\ MacWhite\\ himself\\ as\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Sarkhan\\ point\\ to\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\ failures\\ as\\ serious\\ as\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ careful\\ selection\\ and\\ training\\ of\\ its\\ diplomatic\\ personnel\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ another\\ ugly\\ American\\ replaces\\ MacWhite\\ in\\ Sarkhan\\.\\ As\\ for\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ America\\ to\\ learn\\ from\\ the\\ mistakes\\ of\\ the\\ French\\,\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ fiction\\;\\ it\\ is\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ exposing\\ the\\ ineptitude\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ shape\\ foreign\\ policy\\,\\ Lederer\\ and\\ Burdick\\ point\\ out\\ the\\ way\\ costly\\ mistakes\\ are\\ made\\-\\-costly\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ United\\ Sates\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ even\\ more\\ costly\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ citizens\\ whose\\ lives\\ and\\ well\\-being\\ are\\ at\\ stake\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ book\\ that\\ is\\ certain\\ to\\ deepen\\ students\\&\\#39\\;\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ international\\ affairs\\.\\ Its\\ terse\\,\\ episodic\\ style\\ and\\ its\\ many\\ portraits\\ of\\ individuals\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ diplomacy\\ give\\ readers\\ an\\ important\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ dimensions\\ of\\ the\\ problems\\ which\\ receive\\ such\\ cursory\\ treatment\\ on\\ the\\ nightly\\ news\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Ugly\\ American\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ mandatory\\ reading\\ for\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ a\\ participatory\\ democracy\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ understanding\\ the\\ mistake\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ their\\ repetition\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 29, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HSB_68_Midterm_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 18:56:28.629534+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Notes 3/2/05", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 279, "html": "\\\\\\March\\ 2\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c4\\{margin\\-right\\:18pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c6\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c5\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\March\\ 2\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Metaphysical\\ Poetry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ the\\ Progress\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\&rdquo\\;\\ Second\\ anniversary\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Stunning\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ beheading\\ and\\ the\\ blood\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ parting\\ of\\ the\\ Red\\ Sea\\ that\\ floods\\ the\\ Egyptian\\ soldiers\\ while\\ the\\ body\\ convulses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rhetorical\\ Excessiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-An\\ imbalance\\ of\\ the\\ formal\\ qualities\\ of\\ art\\ and\\ the\\ emotions\\ expressed\\ therein\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Greek\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ ancient\\ style\\ yields\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Hellenistic\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Bursting\\ through\\ the\\ containment\\ of\\ the\\ previous\\ Greek\\ style\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\)\\ Tendency\\ towards\\ classicism\\,\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;2\\)\\ The\\ other\\ impulse\\ Hellenistic\\,\\ satirical\\,\\ romantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ is\\ the\\ breaking\\ of\\ those\\ boundaries\\ \\(the\\ sublime\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Soaring\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ plane\\ of\\ vision\\ by\\ breaking\\ the\\ confines\\ of\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ is\\ a\\ tendency\\ of\\ modernity\\ \\(transcendentalism\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-But\\ this\\ risks\\ being\\ ridiculous\\ or\\ hyperbolic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Donne\\ produces\\ this\\ second\\ type\\ of\\ art\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-This\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ subjectivity\\ of\\ the\\ Artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Classical\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ lend\\ themselves\\ to\\ subjectivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Artistic\\ emotion\\ as\\ a\\ creator\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ through\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-All\\ of\\ Donne\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ the\\ spectacular\\ dramatization\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ event\\ of\\ metaphysical\\ decay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Refusing\\ the\\ ontological\\ decay\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Me\\:\\ \\-KUHN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Donne\\ does\\ not\\ really\\ believe\\ the\\ metaphors\\ of\\ science\\ that\\ he\\ writes\\ about\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ rhetorical\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\self\\-assertive\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;device\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(what\\ does\\ that\\ second\\ part\\ mean\\&hellip\\;self\\ assertive\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ personality\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ fore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Creativity\\ had\\ not\\ yet\\ become\\ an\\ adjective\\ for\\ the\\ artist\\ \\(only\\ by\\ vasari\\ for\\ Michelangelo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-But\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ has\\ a\\ mystical\\ creative\\ power\\ was\\ not\\ common\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Me\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ Donne\\ shows\\ himself\\ as\\ distinct\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ Poet\\ had\\ a\\ similar\\ meaning\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ creative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Poesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;means\\ \\&ldquo\\;making\\ or\\ fashioning\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Craftsmanship\\ or\\ brining\\ something\\ new\\ into\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Creative\\ generally\\ is\\ conceived\\ today\\ as\\ prophecy\\ or\\ shaman\\ ability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ artist\\ is\\ the\\ important\\ part\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ art\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ communication\\ with\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(visual\\ symbolic\\ communication\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-That\\ phenomenon\\ begins\\ in\\ the\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(this\\ is\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ Modernity\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ artist\\ takes\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ religion\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Donne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ undergoes\\ an\\ experience\\ on\\ our\\ behalf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Spenser\\ is\\ detached\\ and\\ merely\\ delivers\\ an\\ experience\\ to\\ us\\&hellip\\;\\ an\\ experience\\ without\\ truth\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ an\\ imaginative\\ truth\\ \\(imagining\\ fairy\\ land\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-It\\ is\\ mysterious\\ but\\ allegorical\\ of\\ reality\\ \\(we\\ undergo\\ the\\ experience\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\we\\ take\\ the\\ drug\\ of\\ allegory\\ and\\ find\\ the\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ real\\ \\(Teskey\\ says\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Donne\\ undergoes\\ the\\ experience\\ on\\ our\\ behalf\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Instead\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ linear\\ situation\\ rather\\ than\\ triangular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ experience\\ is\\ mediated\\ by\\ the\\ poet\\ and\\ sent\\ to\\ us\\ directly\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ experience\\ the\\ excitement\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ being\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ improvisational\\ aspect\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beyond\\ extreme\\ states\\ of\\ mind\\ and\\ the\\ dramatization\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ artist\\ wields\\ a\\ shamanistic\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ artist\\ must\\ undergo\\ a\\ transformation\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ undergoes\\ an\\ experience\\ on\\ our\\ behalf\\ by\\ dramatizing\\ this\\ transformation\\&hellip\\;\\ all\\ for\\ this\\ prophetic\\ purpose\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ln\\.\\ 90\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ dying\\ body\\ making\\ a\\ harmonious\\ sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Because\\ it\\ is\\ leading\\ the\\ soul\\ to\\ heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Relativism\\,\\ because\\ he\\ holds\\ nothing\\ absolute\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ look\\ beyond\\ the\\ Aesthetic\\ Paradigm\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ \\ \\;\\(kuhn\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(ln\\.\\ 175\\-220\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Sitting\\ in\\ a\\ Dark\\ room\\ waiting\\ for\\ light\\ to\\ come\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-While\\ he\\ contemplates\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ Elizabeth\\ Drury\\ whose\\ path\\ to\\ heaven\\ is\\ direct\\ like\\ a\\ bullet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(200\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;All\\ Eye\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ all\\ spiritual\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-She\\ shoots\\ past\\ the\\ planets\\ and\\ past\\ the\\ fixed\\ stars\\ \\(firmament\\)\\,\\ which\\ he\\ calls\\ \\&ldquo\\;beads\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LOOK\\ AT\\ THIS\\ FOR\\ THE\\ PAPER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Creationism\\ \\(obviously\\ not\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ connotation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-God\\ creates\\ each\\ individual\\ soul\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ birth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-It\\ is\\ killed\\ immediately\\ by\\ original\\ sin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-The\\ soul\\ has\\ a\\ second\\ birth\\,\\ potentially\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Grace\\,\\ spiritual\\ rebirth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Going\\ to\\ heaven\\ is\\ the\\ third\\ birth\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\ \\(lns\\.\\ 210\\-215\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-He\\ makes\\ Elizabeth\\ Drury\\ into\\ a\\ transcendent\\ prophecy\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\&ldquo\\;Thou\\ art\\ the\\ proclamation\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ the\\ trumpet\\,\\ at\\ whose\\ voice\\ the\\ people\\ came\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ poem\\ shows\\ his\\ obsession\\ with\\ death\\ and\\ dying\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 31, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/March 2.doc", "desc": "Classnotes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 280, "html": "\\\\\\E\\_s\\+Cookies\\+3\\+Debits\\+\\_\\+Credits\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:95\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:0\\.5pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\ 0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\}\\.c2\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:301\\.1pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:0\\.5pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\ 0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\}\\.c1\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:27pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:0\\.5pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\ 0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\}\\.c8\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:27\\.9pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:0\\.5pt\\;padding\\:0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\ 0pt\\ 5\\.8pt\\}\\.c4\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c7\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c15\\{font\\-size\\:28pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c5\\{height\\:11pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:36pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.1500000000000001\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\E\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cookies\\ Case\\ Journal\\ Entries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Check\\ Formula\\:\\ A\\ \\=\\ L\\ \\+\\ SE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&Delta\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;A\\ \\=\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&Delta\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;L\\ \\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&Delta\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;SE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\a\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$10\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Contributed\\ Capital\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+SE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$10\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\b\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$25\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Bank\\ Loan\\ Payable\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$25\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\c\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Prepaid\\ Rent\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$12\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$12\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\d\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Scooters\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$15\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$15\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\e\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$25\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Unearned\\ Revenue\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$25\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\f\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Utility\\ Expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$\\ \\ \\;\\ 500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$\\ \\ \\;\\ 500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\g\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Appliances\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$7\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$7\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\h\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Computer\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$2\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$2\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\i\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cash\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$69\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Sales\\ Revenue\\ \\(\\+R\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$69\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\j\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Wage\\ Expense\\ \\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$23\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$23\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\k\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cooking\\ supplies\\ Inventory\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$1\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Accounts\\ Payable\\ \\(\\-L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\$1\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\l\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cooking\\ supplies\\ Inventory\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$18\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$18\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\m\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Miscellaneous\\ Expenses\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\$2\\,400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Cash\\ \\ \\;\\ \\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\$2\\,400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\n\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Scooter\\ Expenses\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$1\\,600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cash\\ \\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$1\\,600\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\o\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Unearned\\ Revenue\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$15\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Sales\\ Revenue\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+R\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$15\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\p\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Bank\\ interest\\ expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$1\\,250\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Interest\\ Payable\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$1\\,250\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\q\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Utility\\ Expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\,\\-SE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$1\\,400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Utilities\\ Payable\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$1\\,400\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\r\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Wage\\ expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$2\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Wages\\ Payable\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$2\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cost\\ Of\\ Goods\\ Sold\\ expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$18\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Cooking\\ Supplies\\ Inventory\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$18\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\t\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cost\\ Of\\ Goods\\ Sold\\ expense\\ \\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$1\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Account\\ Payable\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$1\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\u\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Rent\\ Expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$6\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Prepaid\\ Rent\\ \\(\\+R\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$6\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\v\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Depreciation\\ Expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$3\\,875\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Accumulated\\ Depreciation\\ Scooters\\ \\ \\;\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$2\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Accumulated\\ Depreciation\\ Computer\\ \\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;625\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Accumulated\\ Depreciation\\ Appliances\\(\\-A\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;750\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\w\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Dr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Tax\\ expense\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+E\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\$\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Cr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Taxes\\ Payable\\ \\ \\;\\(\\+L\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\$\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/E_s+Cookies+3+Debits+_+Credits.docx", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 281, "html": "\\\\\\Intro\\ MCM\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-5pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:4\\.9pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-10\\.7pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-10\\.6pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c0\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-10\\.7pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:10\\.6pt\\}\\.c11\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c3\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c8\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Helvetica\\\"\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\MCM\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\industrial\\ modernity\\;\\ arose\\ with\\ IRev\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Industr\\.\\ Rev\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\mid\\/late\\ 18th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;masses\\ emerge\\ onto\\ the\\ world\\ scene\\ of\\ politics\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mass\\ move\\ to\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mass\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ technologies\\ meant\\ to\\ carry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distribute\\ images\\,\\ sounds\\,\\ writing\\ to\\ unprecedented\\ masses\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\modernity\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ technologies\\ geared\\ towards\\ mass\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cheap\\ print\\ text\\,\\ newspapers\\,\\ tabloids\\ \\&\\;\\ pic\\ mags\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ 19th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\photography\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\print\\ in\\ newspapers\\,\\ make\\ identical\\ images\\ from\\ same\\ negatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\radio\\,\\ sound\\ recordings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wide\\ geographic\\ range\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cinema\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\mid\\?\\ 19th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;first\\ global\\ mass\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ made\\ in\\ one\\ place\\,\\ screened\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\global\\ distribution\\ makes\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\television\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\late\\ 19th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\spreads\\ from\\ richest\\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\digital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\late\\ 20th\\ \\&\\;\\ 21st\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cell\\ phones\\,\\ internet\\,\\ personal\\ computer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\miniaturized\\,\\ portable\\ connectivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;new\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\all\\ this\\ has\\ occurred\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ short\\ span\\ of\\ time\\ \\[within\\ living\\ memory\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernity\\ makes\\ new\\ media\\,\\ it\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\characterized\\ by\\ the\\ constant\\ emergence\\ of\\ new\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ cultural\\ production\\ is\\ made\\ with\\ awareness\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\media\\/mediation\\ defines\\/major\\ determinant\\ modern\\ culture\\ \\(art\\,\\ politics\\,\\ consumerism\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\ into\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\equalizing\\ proliferation\\ of\\ modern\\ technologies\\ is\\ now\\ directly\\ tied\\ with\\ social\\ structure\\ and\\ hierarchies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ media\\ without\\ taking\\ it\\ for\\ granted\\:\\ stimulating\\ concepts\\!\\ defamiliarize\\ media\\ with\\ concepts\\ to\\ analyze\\ the\\ very\\ familiar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ medium\\ produces\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\texts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(photographs\\,\\ films\\,\\ written\\ language\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\-\\ objects\\ for\\ our\\ reading\\ and\\ studying\\ that\\ appear\\ complete\\ in\\ themselves\\.\\ Texts\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\.\\ How\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conceptualize\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;media\\ texts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consider\\ certain\\ media\\ as\\ a\\ medium\\.\\ Compare\\/contrast\\ social\\/cultural\\ functions\\ \\-\\ how\\ do\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ media\\ interact\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Intro MCM.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 282, "html": "\\\\\\Intro\\ MCM1\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c10\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c5\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-10\\.7pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-10\\.7pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:10\\.6pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-10\\.6pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c11\\{padding\\-left\\:\\-5pt\\;margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:4\\.9pt\\}\\.c2\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c4\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Helvetica\\\"\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\MCM\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\industrial\\ modernity\\;\\ arose\\ with\\ IRev\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Industr\\.\\ Rev\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\mid\\/late\\ 18th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;masses\\ emerge\\ onto\\ the\\ world\\ scene\\ of\\ politics\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mass\\ move\\ to\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\mass\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ technologies\\ meant\\ to\\ carry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Distribute\\ images\\,\\ sounds\\,\\ writing\\ to\\ unprecedented\\ masses\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\modernity\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ technologies\\ geared\\ towards\\ mass\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cheap\\ print\\ text\\,\\ newspapers\\,\\ tabloids\\ \\&\\;\\ pic\\ mags\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ 19th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\photography\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\print\\ in\\ newspapers\\,\\ make\\ identical\\ images\\ from\\ same\\ negatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\radio\\,\\ sound\\ recordings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\wide\\ geographic\\ range\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\cinema\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\mid\\?\\ 19th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;first\\ global\\ mass\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ made\\ in\\ one\\ place\\,\\ screened\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\global\\ distribution\\ makes\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\television\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\late\\ 19th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\spreads\\ from\\ richest\\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\digital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\late\\ 20th\\ \\&\\;\\ 21st\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\cell\\ phones\\,\\ internet\\,\\ personal\\ computer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\miniaturized\\,\\ portable\\ connectivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;new\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\all\\ this\\ has\\ occurred\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ short\\ span\\ of\\ time\\ \\[within\\ living\\ memory\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Modernity\\ makes\\ new\\ media\\,\\ it\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\characterized\\ by\\ the\\ constant\\ emergence\\ of\\ new\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\all\\ cultural\\ production\\ is\\ made\\ with\\ awareness\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\media\\/mediation\\ defines\\/major\\ determinant\\ modern\\ culture\\ \\(art\\,\\ politics\\,\\ consumerism\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\also\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\ into\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\equalizing\\ proliferation\\ of\\ modern\\ technologies\\ is\\ now\\ directly\\ tied\\ with\\ social\\ structure\\ and\\ hierarchies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ media\\ without\\ taking\\ it\\ for\\ granted\\:\\ stimulating\\ concepts\\!\\ defamiliarize\\ media\\ with\\ concepts\\ to\\ analyze\\ the\\ very\\ familiar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ medium\\ produces\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\texts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(photographs\\,\\ films\\,\\ written\\ language\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\-\\ objects\\ for\\ our\\ reading\\ and\\ studying\\ that\\ appear\\ complete\\ in\\ themselves\\.\\ Texts\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\.\\ How\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conceptualize\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;media\\ texts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Consider\\ certain\\ media\\ as\\ a\\ medium\\.\\ Compare\\/contrast\\ social\\/cultural\\ functions\\ \\-\\ how\\ do\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ media\\ interact\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Intro MCM1.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:59:54.592833+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "asdf", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 275, "html": null, "course_id": 3, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still9.doc", "desc": "asdf"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "test", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 283, "html": "\\\\\\KN\\ Ideo\\ Workshop\\ Notes\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=CdbwpQLlIZtDjvH77yATM\\-JJkxX1ThrNI2lVJuufFXk\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Garamond\\\"\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\KarmaNotes\\.org\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDEO\\ Workshop\\ Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(10\\/1\\/12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Design\\ the\\ Experience\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ big\\ idea\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ virtual\\ space\\ for\\ students\\ to\\ share\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ problem\\ does\\ it\\ solve\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Student\\ stress\\ when\\ cramming\\ for\\ exams\\ alone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[We\\ learn\\ better\\ together\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ is\\ involved\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Students\\ \\(and\\ some\\ instructors\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ they\\ interact\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\File\\ Sharing\\;\\ Voting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ people\\ hear\\ about\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ friends\\ and\\ classmates\\ via\\ email\\ lists\\,\\ in\\ conversation\\,\\ and\\ on\\ Facebook\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ posters\\ and\\ other\\ grass\\ roots\\ marketing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ librarians\\,\\ professors\\,\\ and\\ TAs\\ \\(best\\ but\\ most\\ rare\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ they\\ try\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ study\\ for\\ mid\\ terms\\ and\\ final\\ exams\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Because\\ they\\ slept\\ through\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ join\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ do\\ they\\ stay\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ aced\\ that\\ test\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ feels\\ good\\ to\\ share\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ community\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ open\\ education\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ building\\ KarmaNotes\\.org\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ want\\ to\\ help\\ students\\ to\\ feel\\ like\\ a\\ community\\ and\\ to\\ share\\ knowledge\\ freely\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ will\\ join\\ our\\ community\\,\\ because\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ study\\ for\\ exams\\ using\\ all\\ the\\ best\\ resources\\:\\ not\\ just\\ their\\ notes\\,\\ Cliff\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Notes\\,\\ or\\ SparkNotes\\,\\ but\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ best\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ tell\\ their\\ classmates\\ and\\ friends\\ to\\ join\\ too\\,\\ because\\ the\\ more\\ people\\ who\\ join\\ and\\ share\\,\\ the\\ more\\ everyone\\ benefits\\ from\\ common\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ \\;Plus\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ easy\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ free\\,\\ and\\ it\\ helps\\ them\\ learn\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ paid\\ by\\ users\\ who\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ site\\ to\\ download\\ notes\\ just\\ before\\ final\\ exams\\.\\ \\ \\;Desperate\\ late\\-adopters\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ access\\ to\\ our\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ key\\ assumptions\\ are\\ that\\ students\\ will\\ form\\ a\\ community\\ of\\ knowledge\\ sharing\\,\\ members\\ will\\ maintain\\ and\\ improve\\ their\\ portions\\ of\\ the\\ community\\,\\ and\\ some\\ students\\ will\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ urgent\\ access\\ to\\ our\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ test\\ these\\ assumptions\\,\\ we\\ are\\ launching\\ an\\ early\\ beta\\,\\ we\\ are\\ soliciting\\ user\\ feedback\\,\\ and\\ we\\ will\\ constantly\\ innovate\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ our\\ members\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Vocabulary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Members\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Students\\ \\&\\;\\ Scholars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Share\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notes\\,\\ Study\\ Guides\\,\\ P\\-sets\\,\\ et\\.\\ al\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Variety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Karma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Open\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/KN Ideo Workshop Notes.docx", "desc": "TEST"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 284, "html": "\\\\\\About\\ Stacks\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c4\\{color\\:\\#231f20\\;font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c1\\{color\\:\\#231f20\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c6\\{color\\:\\#231f20\\;font\\-size\\:25pt\\}\\.c3\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Documents\\ Stack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Welcome\\ to\\ Mac\\ OS\\ X\\ Snow\\ Leopard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Dock\\ in\\ Snow\\ Leopard\\ includes\\ Stacks\\,\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ use\\ to\\ quickly\\ access\\ frequently\\ used\\ files\\ and\\ applications\\ right\\ from\\ the\\ Dock\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stacks\\ are\\ simple\\ to\\ create\\.\\ Just\\ drag\\ any\\ folder\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ Dock\\ and\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ stack\\.\\ Click\\ a\\ stack\\ and\\ it\\ springs\\ from\\ the\\ Dock\\ in\\ either\\ a\\ fan\\ or\\ a\\ grid\\.\\ To\\ open\\ a\\ file\\ in\\ a\\ stack\\,\\ click\\ the\\ file\\ once\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mac\\ OS\\ X\\ Snow\\ Leopard\\ includes\\ three\\ premade\\ stacks\\ called\\ Documents\\,\\ Downloads\\,\\ and\\ Applications\\.\\ You\\ opened\\ this\\ file\\ from\\ the\\ Documents\\ stack\\.\\ The\\ Documents\\ stack\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ place\\ to\\ keep\\ things\\ like\\ presentations\\,\\ spreadsheets\\,\\ and\\ word\\ processing\\ files\\.\\ You\\ can\\ drag\\ files\\ to\\ the\\ stack\\ or\\ save\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ stack\\ from\\ an\\ application\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Documents\\ Downloads\\ Applications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stacks\\ automatically\\ display\\ their\\ contents\\ in\\ a\\ fan\\ or\\ a\\ grid\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ items\\ in\\ the\\ stack\\.\\ You\\ can\\ also\\ view\\ the\\ stack\\ as\\ a\\ list\\.\\ If\\ you\\ prefer\\ one\\ style\\ over\\ the\\ other\\,\\ you\\ can\\ set\\ the\\ stack\\ to\\ always\\ open\\ in\\ that\\ style\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stacks\\ intelligently\\ show\\ the\\ most\\ relevant\\ items\\ first\\,\\ or\\ you\\ can\\ set\\ the\\ sort\\ order\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ items\\ you\\ care\\ about\\ most\\ always\\ appear\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ stack\\.\\ To\\ customize\\ a\\ stack\\,\\ position\\ the\\ pointer\\ over\\ the\\ stack\\ icon\\ and\\ hold\\ down\\ the\\ mouse\\ button\\ until\\ a\\ menu\\ appears\\.\\ Choose\\ the\\ settings\\ you\\ want\\ from\\ the\\ menu\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ remove\\ a\\ file\\ from\\ a\\ stack\\,\\ just\\ open\\ the\\ stack\\ and\\ drag\\ the\\ item\\ out\\ to\\ where\\ you\\ want\\ it\\.\\ To\\ delete\\ a\\ file\\,\\ move\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ Trash\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ when\\ you\\»\\;re\\ done\\ reading\\ this\\ document\\,\\ feel\\ free\\ to\\ throw\\ it\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TM\\ and\\ \\©\\;\\ 2009\\ Apple\\ Inc\\.\\ All\\ rights\\ reserved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/About Stacks.pdf", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 285, "html": "\\\\\\Intro\\ MCM2\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c7\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c5\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-7\\.3pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:79\\.4pt\\}\\.c8\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c3\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-13pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c0\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-7\\.4pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:43\\.4pt\\}\\.c1\\{margin\\-right\\:0pt\\;text\\-indent\\:\\-7\\.4pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c10\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Helvetica\\\"\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Helvetica\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\\MCM\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\industrial\\ modernity\\;\\ arose\\ with\\ IRev\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Industr\\.\\ Rev\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mid\\/late\\ 18th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;masses\\ emerge\\ onto\\ the\\ world\\ scene\\ of\\ politics\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mass\\ move\\ to\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mass\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ technologies\\ meant\\ to\\ carry\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representations\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distribute\\ images\\,\\ sounds\\,\\ writing\\ to\\ unprecedented\\ masses\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\modernity\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ technologies\\ geared\\ towards\\ mass\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cheap\\ print\\ text\\,\\ newspapers\\,\\ tabloids\\ \\&\\;\\ pic\\ mags\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ 19th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\photography\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\print\\ in\\ newspapers\\,\\ make\\ identical\\ images\\ from\\ same\\ negatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\radio\\,\\ sound\\ recordings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\wide\\ geographic\\ range\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cinema\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mid\\?\\ 19th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;first\\ global\\ mass\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ made\\ in\\ one\\ place\\,\\ screened\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\global\\ distribution\\ makes\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\television\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\late\\ 19th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\spreads\\ from\\ richest\\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\digital\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\late\\ 20th\\ \\&\\;\\ 21st\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cell\\ phones\\,\\ internet\\,\\ personal\\ computer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\miniaturized\\,\\ portable\\ connectivity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;new\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\all\\ this\\ has\\ occurred\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ short\\ span\\ of\\ time\\ \\[within\\ living\\ memory\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Modernity\\ makes\\ new\\ media\\,\\ it\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\characterized\\ by\\ the\\ constant\\ emergence\\ of\\ new\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\all\\ cultural\\ production\\ is\\ made\\ with\\ awareness\\ of\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ media\\&rdquo\\;\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\media\\/mediation\\ defines\\/major\\ determinant\\ modern\\ culture\\ \\(art\\,\\ politics\\,\\ consumerism\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\also\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\ into\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\equalizing\\ proliferation\\ of\\ modern\\ technologies\\ is\\ now\\ directly\\ tied\\ with\\ social\\ structure\\ and\\ hierarchies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\what\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ media\\ without\\ taking\\ it\\ for\\ granted\\:\\ stimulating\\ concepts\\!\\ defamiliarize\\ media\\ with\\ concepts\\ to\\ analyze\\ the\\ very\\ familiar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fundamental\\ Issues\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ medium\\ produces\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\texts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(photographs\\,\\ films\\,\\ written\\ language\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\-\\ objects\\ for\\ our\\ reading\\ and\\ studying\\ that\\ appear\\ complete\\ in\\ themselves\\.\\ Texts\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\representations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\.\\ How\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conceptualize\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;media\\ texts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consider\\ certain\\ media\\ as\\ a\\ medium\\.\\ Compare\\/contrast\\ social\\/cultural\\ functions\\ \\-\\ how\\ do\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ media\\ interact\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Intro MCM2.doc", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Stat 104 Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "statistics"], "text": null, "id": 105, "html": "\\\\\\Stat\\ 104\\ Final\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{max\\-width\\:576pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:18pt\\ 18pt\\ 72pt\\ 18pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 45, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/stat104_final_study_sheet.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Parametric Equations. Ch 3.5", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 287, "html": "\\\\\\calc\\ 3\\.5\\ parametric\\ eq\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 64, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/calc 3.5 parametric eq.pdf", "desc": "Parametric Equations"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 288, "html": "\\\\\\assignment\\_4\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c0\\{text\\-align\\:right\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:259\\.2pt\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:74\\.6pt\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:232\\.3pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:2\\.6pt\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:26\\.6pt\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-indent\\:280\\.8pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-indent\\:150pt\\}\\.c6\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-indent\\:50\\.6pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-indent\\:91\\.9pt\\}\\.c21\\{text\\-indent\\:270pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\91\\.305\\ Computer\\ Architecture\\ Homework\\ \\#4\\ Due\\ Monday\\,\\ October\\ 18\\,\\ 2010\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\October\\ 1\\,\\ 2010\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ This\\ assignment\\ is\\ due\\ on\\ Monday\\,\\ October\\ 18\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ All\\ of\\ your\\ submissions\\ must\\ include\\ a\\ minimum\\ of\\ four\\ separate\\ files\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ File\\ 1\\:\\ A\\ short\\ write\\-up\\ that\\ first\\ specifies\\ what\\ you\\ think\\ your\\ degree\\ of\\ success\\ with\\ a\\ project\\ is\\ \\(from\\ 0\\%\\ to\\ 100\\%\\)\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ brief\\ discussion\\ of\\ your\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ project\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ detailed\\ description\\ of\\ any\\ problems\\ that\\ you\\ were\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ resolve\\ for\\ this\\ project\\.\\ Failure\\ to\\ specifically\\ provide\\ this\\ information\\ will\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ 0\\ grade\\ on\\ your\\ assignment\\.\\ If\\ you\\ do\\ not\\ disclose\\ problems\\ in\\ your\\ write\\-up\\ and\\ problems\\ are\\ detected\\ when\\ your\\ program\\ is\\ tested\\,\\ you\\ will\\ receive\\ a\\ grade\\ of\\ 0\\.\\ Make\\ sure\\ that\\ you\\ include\\ your\\ email\\ address\\ in\\ your\\ write\\-up\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ corrector\\ can\\ email\\ you\\ your\\ grade\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ File\\(s\\)\\ 2\\(a\\,\\ b\\,\\ c\\,\\ \\.\\.\\.\\)\\:\\ For\\ this\\ assignment\\ you\\ must\\ submit\\ 3\\ files\\ which\\ will\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ your\\ complete\\ new\\ commented\\ microcode\\ source\\ code\\,\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ an\\ \\.mc\\ file\\,\\ as\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ your\\ complete\\ new\\ commented\\ flex\\ source\\ file\\,\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ an\\ \\.ll\\ file\\,\\ as\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ your\\ complete\\ new\\ commented\\ masm\\ C\\ source\\ file\\,\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ an\\ \\.c\\ file\\,\\ as\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ File\\ 3\\:\\ A\\ make\\ file\\ to\\ build\\ your\\ assignment\\.\\ This\\ file\\ must\\ be\\ named\\ Makefile\\.\\ \\(The\\ makefile\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ direct\\ the\\ build\\ of\\ the\\ masm\\ assembler\\ after\\ modifications\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ File\\ 4\\:\\ A\\ file\\ that\\ includes\\ your\\ resulting\\ output\\ run\\(s\\)\\ from\\ your\\ project\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ simple\\ text\\ file\\ that\\ shows\\ your\\ output\\,\\ but\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ you\\ annotate\\ it\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ self\\ descriptive\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ detailed\\ output\\ is\\ well\\ identified\\.\\ Use\\ the\\ script\\ command\\ from\\ the\\ shell\\ as\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\ to\\ capture\\ all\\ screen\\ output\\ to\\ a\\ file\\.\\ This\\ file\\ must\\ show\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ building\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ masm\\ tool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ assembly\\ into\\ object\\ files\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ test\\ files\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ mic1\\ execution\\ using\\ the\\ new\\ microcode\\ and\\ the\\ resulting\\ debug\\ dump\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ test\\ files\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Make\\ sure\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ files\\ is\\ appropriately\\ annotated\\ for\\ readability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ files\\ described\\ above\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ files\\ placed\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ your\\ subdirectories\\,\\ and\\ this\\ subdirectory\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ target\\ of\\ your\\ submit\\ command\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ submit\\ syntax\\ issued\\ from\\ a\\ shell\\ prompt\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\submit\\ bsun\\ 305hw4\\ assign4\\_dir\\ where\\ assign4\\_dir\\ is\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ directory\\ with\\ exactly\\ your\\ required\\ submission\\ files\\ in\\ it\\.\\ Baochen\\ Sun\\ \\(baochens\\@gmail\\.com\\)\\ is\\ the\\ TA\\ and\\ assignment\\ corrector\\ for\\ this\\ course\\,\\ and\\ he\\ will\\ email\\ you\\ your\\ grade\\ and\\ any\\ details\\ about\\ points\\ you\\ may\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\have\\ lost\\ on\\ each\\ assignment\\.\\ It\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ you\\ include\\ your\\ email\\ address\\ in\\ the\\ write\\-up\\ portion\\ of\\ your\\ submission\\,\\ so\\ Baochen\\ can\\ return\\ your\\ grade\\ to\\ you\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ You\\ will\\ provide\\ a\\ new\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ MIC\\-1\\ microcode\\ which\\ will\\ support\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ three\\ new\\ MACRO\\ machine\\ instructions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RSHIFT\\ \\<\\;argument\\ is\\ value\\ 0\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 15\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Right\\ shift\\ the\\ current\\ accumulator\\ by\\ the\\ argument\\ number\\ of\\ bits\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ zero\\-fill\\ operation\\ and\\ the\\ argument\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ value\\ between\\ 0\\ and\\ 15\\ \\(a\\ four\\ bit\\ magnitude\\ only\\ value\\,\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ least\\ significant\\ 4\\ bits\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MULT\\ \\<\\;argument\\ is\\ value\\ 0\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 63\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\multiply\\ the\\ value\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ stack\\ by\\ the\\ six\\ bit\\ immediate\\ value\\ in\\ the\\ instruction\\ \\(remember\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ using\\ 10\\ bit\\ opcodes\\ here\\)\\.\\ The\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ multiplication\\ should\\ replace\\ the\\ value\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ stack\\,\\ provided\\ that\\ no\\ overflow\\ occurred\\.\\ If\\ the\\ multiplication\\ would\\ overflow\\ a\\ 16\\ bit\\ result\\,\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ stack\\ must\\ not\\ be\\ changed\\.\\ After\\ the\\ operation\\,\\ the\\ accumulator\\ must\\ be\\ set\\ to\\ 0\\ if\\ the\\ multiplication\\ succeeded\\,\\ and\\ \\-1\\ if\\ an\\ overflow\\ occurred\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DIV\\ \\<\\;no\\ arguments\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\divide\\ the\\ 16\\ bit\\ 2s\\ complement\\ number\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ stack\\ location\\ SP\\ \\(the\\ dividend\\)\\ by\\ the\\ 16\\ bit\\ 2s\\ complement\\ number\\ at\\ the\\ location\\ just\\ under\\ the\\ top\\ location\\ SP\\+1\\ \\(the\\ divisor\\)\\,\\ and\\ push\\ on\\ two\\ new\\ locations\\ with\\ SP\\-1\\ having\\ the\\ \\(unsigned\\)\\ remainder\\ of\\ the\\ division\\ and\\ SP\\-2\\ \\(new\\ top\\ of\\ stack\\)\\ having\\ the\\ 16\\ bit\\ 2s\\ complement\\ quotient\\.\\ If\\ the\\ absolute\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ divisor\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ absolute\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ dividend\\,\\ the\\ quotient\\ should\\ be\\ set\\ to\\ 0\\ and\\ the\\ remainder\\ set\\ to\\ the\\ dividend\\,\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ divisor\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ 0\\ \\(this\\ is\\ an\\ illegal\\ case\\)\\ the\\ remainder\\ should\\ be\\ set\\ to\\ \\-1\\ and\\ the\\ quotient\\ should\\ be\\ set\\ to\\ 0\\.\\ After\\ the\\ operation\\,\\ the\\ accumulator\\ must\\ be\\ set\\ to\\ 0\\ if\\ the\\ division\\ was\\ legal\\,\\ and\\ \\-1\\ if\\ an\\ attempt\\ was\\ made\\ to\\ divide\\ by\\ 0\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ approach\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ use\\ here\\ is\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ op\\-code\\ field\\ from\\ 7\\ bits\\ \\(as\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ INSP\\ and\\ DESP\\ instructions\\ for\\ example\\)\\ to\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ 10\\ bits\\,\\ using\\ the\\ eighth\\ bit\\ as\\ a\\ gateway\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ bit\\-on\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ break\\ out\\ to\\ a\\ 10\\ bit\\ op\\-code\\,\\ while\\ bit\\-off\\ means\\ a\\ 7\\ bit\\ op\\-code\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Since\\ bit\\ 8\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ gateway\\,\\ the\\ 10\\ bit\\ op\\-code\\ will\\ provide\\ us\\ with\\ 4\\ new\\ combinations\\,\\ and\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ use\\ them\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 1111111\\ 1\\ 00\\ mmmmmm\\ for\\ MULT\\ \\(6\\ bit\\ multiplier\\ field\\ mmmmmm\\ as\\ operand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 1111111\\ 1\\ 01\\ xxssss\\ for\\ RSHIFT\\ \\(4\\ bit\\ shift\\ field\\ ssss\\ as\\ operand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 1111111\\ 1\\ 10\\ xxxxxx\\ for\\ DIV\\ \\(no\\ operand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ 1111111\\ 1\\ 11\\ xxxxxx\\ for\\ HALT\\ \\(no\\ operand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ A\\ collection\\ of\\ test\\ masm\\ programs\\ are\\ included\\ with\\ this\\ assignment\\,\\ and\\ you\\ must\\ show\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ assemble\\,\\ run\\ and\\ provide\\ correct\\ output\\ for\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ tests\\.\\ The\\ source\\ code\\ for\\ each\\ test\\ will\\ be\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ class\\ web\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ attached\\ examples\\ shown\\ below\\ should\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ template\\ for\\ the\\ work\\ flow\\ of\\ this\\ assignment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Re\\-write\\ the\\ mic1\\ microcode\\ and\\ build\\ a\\ new\\ promfile\\ source\\ that\\ includes\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ required\\ new\\ instructions\\.\\ You\\ must\\ comment\\ this\\ microcode\\ to\\ show\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ additions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Re\\-write\\ the\\ masm\\ assembler\\ to\\ include\\ support\\ for\\ your\\ new\\ macro\\ instructions\\,\\ providing\\ comments\\ in\\ the\\ code\\ and\\ the\\ flex\\ specification\\ file\\ to\\ highlight\\ your\\ new\\ code\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Assemble\\ the\\ supplied\\ assembly\\ test\\ programs\\ into\\ object\\ files\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ run\\ with\\ the\\ mic1\\ emulator\\.\\ Test\\ code\\ available\\ on\\-line\\ at\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.cs\\.uml\\.edu\\/\\~bill\\/cs305\\/assignment\\_4\\_help\\_dir\\/\\ or\\ directly\\ on\\ mercury\\ at\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\~bill\\/cs305\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Run\\ the\\ test\\ object\\ files\\ in\\ the\\ mic1\\ emulator\\ using\\ your\\ new\\ microcode\\ and\\ using\\ the\\ embedded\\ de\\-bugger\\ to\\ display\\ your\\ results\\ for\\ each\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ submitted\\ directory\\ should\\ contain\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ write\\-up\\ first\\ \\(make\\ sure\\ you\\ discuss\\ all\\ the\\ steps\\ you\\ took\\ to\\ get\\ this\\ assignment\\ completed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ commented\\ microcode\\ source\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ commented\\ masm\\ sources\\ \\(\\.c\\ and\\ \\.ll\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Your\\ masm\\ Makefile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ The\\ output\\ of\\ mic1\\ runs\\ for\\ each\\ test\\ program\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Original\\ Microcode\\ \\(\\~bill\\/cs305\\/promfile\\.txt\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\70\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ ac\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111101\\ \\=\\ SWAP\\ \\}\\ 71\\:ac\\ \\:\\=\\ sp\\;\\ 72\\:sp\\ \\:\\=\\ a\\;\\ goto\\ 0\\;\\ 73\\:alu\\ \\:\\=\\ tir\\;\\ if\\ n\\ then\\ goto\\ 76\\;\\ 74\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ band\\(ir\\,\\ smask\\)\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111110\\ \\=\\ INSP\\ \\}\\ 75\\:sp\\ \\:\\=\\ sp\\ \\+\\ a\\;\\ goto\\ 0\\;\\ 76\\:tir\\ \\:\\=\\ tir\\ \\+\\ tir\\;\\ if\\ n\\ then\\ goto\\ 80\\;\\ 77\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ band\\(ir\\,\\ smask\\)\\;\\ \\{\\ 11111110\\ \\=\\ DESP\\ \\}\\ 78\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ inv\\(a\\)\\;\\ 79\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ a\\ \\+\\ 1\\;\\ goto\\ 75\\;\\ 80\\:rd\\;\\ wr\\;\\ \\{\\ 11111111\\ \\=\\ HALT\\ \\}\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extended\\ Microcode\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\70\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ ac\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111101\\ \\=\\ SWAP\\ \\}\\ 71\\:ac\\ \\:\\=\\ sp\\;\\ 72\\:sp\\ \\:\\=\\ a\\;\\ goto\\ 0\\;\\ 73\\:alu\\ \\:\\=\\ tir\\;\\ if\\ n\\ then\\ goto\\ 76\\;\\ 74\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ band\\(ir\\,\\ smask\\)\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111110\\ \\=\\ INSP\\ \\}\\ 75\\:sp\\ \\:\\=\\ sp\\ \\+\\ a\\;\\ goto\\ 0\\;\\ 76\\:tir\\ \\:\\=\\ tir\\ \\+\\ tir\\;\\ if\\ n\\ then\\ goto\\ 80\\;\\ 77\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ band\\(ir\\,\\ smask\\)\\;\\ \\{\\ 11111110\\ \\=\\ DESP\\ \\}\\ 78\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ inv\\(a\\)\\;\\ 79\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ a\\ \\+\\ 1\\;\\ goto\\ 75\\;\\ 80\\:tir\\ \\:\\=\\ tir\\ \\+\\ tir\\;\\ if\\ n\\ then\\ goto\\ 97\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111\\ 1111\\ 1x\\ \\=\\ HALT\\ \\}\\ 81\\:alu\\ \\:\\=\\ tir\\ \\+\\ tir\\;\\ if\\ n\\ then\\ goto\\ 89\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111\\ 1111\\ 01\\ \\=\\ RSHIFT\\ \\}\\ 82\\:mar\\ \\:\\=\\ sp\\;\\ a\\ \\:\\=\\ sp\\ \\+\\ 1\\;\\ rd\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111\\ 1111\\ 00\\ \\=\\ NAND\\ \\}\\ 83\\:rd\\;\\ 84\\:mar\\ \\:\\=\\ a\\;\\ b\\ \\:\\=\\ mbr\\;\\ rd\\;\\ 85\\:rd\\;\\ 86\\:c\\ \\:\\=\\ mbr\\;\\ 87\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ band\\(b\\,\\ c\\)\\;\\ 88\\:ac\\ \\:\\=\\ inv\\(a\\)\\;\\ goto\\ 0\\;\\ 89\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ lshift\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111\\ 1111\\ 01\\ \\=\\ RSHIFT\\ \\}\\ 90\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ lshift\\(a\\ \\+\\ 1\\)\\;\\ 91\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ lshift\\(a\\ \\+\\ 1\\)\\;\\ 92\\:a\\ \\:\\=\\ a\\ \\+\\ 1\\;\\ 93\\:b\\ \\:\\=\\ band\\(ir\\,\\ a\\)\\;\\ 94\\:b\\ \\:\\=\\ b\\ \\+\\ \\(\\-1\\)\\;\\ if\\ n\\ then\\ goto\\ 96\\;\\ 95\\:ac\\ \\:\\=\\ rshift\\(ac\\)\\;\\ goto\\ 94\\;\\ 96\\:goto\\ 0\\;\\ 97\\:rd\\;\\ wr\\;\\ \\{\\ 1111\\ 1111\\ 1x\\ \\=\\ HALT\\ \\}\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Original\\ Flex\\ Scanner\\ \\(\\~bill\\/cs305\\/MasmSrc\\/mic1symasm\\.ll\\)\\ \\#define\\ LODD\\ 1\\ \\#define\\ STOD\\ 2\\ \\#define\\ ADDD\\ 3\\ \\#define\\ SUBD\\ 4\\ \\#define\\ JPOS\\ 5\\ \\#define\\ JZER\\ 6\\ \\#define\\ JUMP\\ 7\\ \\#define\\ LOCO\\ 8\\ \\#define\\ LODL\\ 9\\ \\#define\\ STOL\\ 10\\ \\#define\\ ADDL\\ 11\\ \\#define\\ SUBL\\ 12\\ \\#define\\ JNEG\\ 13\\ \\#define\\ JNZE\\ 14\\ \\#define\\ CALL\\ 15\\ \\#define\\ PSHI\\ 16\\ \\#define\\ POPI\\ 17\\ \\#define\\ PUSH\\ 18\\ \\#define\\ POP\\ 19\\ \\#define\\ RETN\\ 20\\ \\#define\\ SWAP\\ 21\\ \\#define\\ INSP\\ 22\\ \\#define\\ DESP\\ 23\\ \\#define\\ HALT\\ 24\\ \\#define\\ INTEG\\ 25\\ \\#define\\ JUNK\\ 26\\ \\#define\\ LABEL\\ 27\\ \\#define\\ LOC\\ 28\\ \\#define\\ STR\\ 29\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\%\\%\\ \\[Ll\\]\\[Oo\\]\\[Dd\\]\\[Dd\\]\\ return\\(LODD\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Ss\\]\\[Tt\\]\\[Oo\\]\\[Dd\\]\\ return\\(STOD\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Aa\\]\\[Dd\\]\\[Dd\\]\\[Dd\\]\\ return\\(ADDD\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Ii\\]\\[Nn\\]\\[Ss\\]\\[Pp\\]\\ return\\(INSP\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Dd\\]\\[Ee\\]\\[Ss\\]\\[Pp\\]\\ return\\(DESP\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Hh\\]\\[Aa\\]\\[Ll\\]\\[Tt\\]\\ return\\(HALT\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\:\\ \\:\\ \\\\\\"\\;\\.\\+\\\\\\"\\;\\ return\\(STR\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\?\\[0\\-9\\]\\[0\\-9\\]\\*\\ return\\(INTEG\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[A\\-Za\\-z\\]\\[0\\-9A\\-Za\\-z\\]\\*\\:\\ return\\(LABEL\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\.LOC\\ return\\(LOC\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\;\\.\\*\\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;\\ \\|\\ \\"\\;\\\\t\\"\\;\\ \\|\\ \\"\\;\\\\r\\"\\;\\ \\|\\ \\"\\;\\\\n\\"\\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[\\^\\ \\\\t\\\\r\\\\n\\]\\*\\ return\\(JUNK\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Original\\ MASM\\ Assemble\\ \\(\\~bill\\/cs305\\/MasmSrc\\/\\ mic1symasm\\.c\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\p1\\ \\=\\ fopen\\(\\"\\;\\/tmp\\/passone\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;w\\+\\"\\;\\)\\;\\ unlink\\(\\"\\;\\/tmp\\/passone\\"\\;\\)\\;\\ while\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\{\\ switch\\(tok\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ 1\\:\\ switch\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ INTEG\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\str\\_12\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 0000\\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_12\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\ case\\ LABEL\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ U0000000000000000\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ yytext\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\ default\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ LODD\\ is\\ \\%s\\ on\\ line\\ \\%d\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yytext\\,\\ pc\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ break\\;\\ case\\ 2\\:\\ switch\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ INTEG\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\str\\_12\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 0001\\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_12\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\ case\\ LABEL\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ U0001000000000000\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ yytext\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\ default\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ STOD\\ is\\ \\%s\\ on\\ line\\ \\%d\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\yytext\\,\\ pc\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ 23\\:\\ if\\(\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\ \\!\\=\\ INTEG\\)\\{\\ \\/\\*\\ DESP\\ \\*\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ DESP\\ is\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,yytext\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ str\\_8\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 11111110\\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_8\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ 24\\:\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 1111111100000000\\\\n\\"\\;\\,pc\\)\\;\\ \\/\\*\\ HALT\\ \\*\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ 25\\:\\ str\\_16\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ \\/\\*\\ INTEG\\ \\*\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_16\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ 27\\:\\ if\\ \\(label\\_pc\\ \\=\\=\\ pc\\)\\{\\ \\/\\*\\ LABEL\\ \\*\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ U0000000000000000\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ yytext\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\ \\}\\ search\\_sym\\_table\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ update\\_sym\\_table\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ label\\_pc\\ \\=\\ pc\\;\\ pc\\-\\-\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ 28\\:\\ if\\(\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\ \\!\\=\\ INTEG\\)\\{\\ \\/\\*\\ LOC\\ \\*\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ \\.LOC\\ is\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,yytext\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ if\\(\\(temp\\ \\=\\ \\(\\(unsigned\\ short\\)atoi\\(yytext\\)\\ \\)\\)\\ \\<\\;\\ pc\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ \\.LOC\\ is\\ \\%s\\,\\ TOO\\ SMALL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\!\\\\n\\"\\;\\,yytext\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ pc\\ \\=\\ temp\\ \\-\\ 1\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ 29\\:\\ i\\=1\\;\\ \\/\\*\\ STR\\ \\*\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\do\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\if\\(\\*\\(yytext\\+i\\)\\ \\=\\=\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\\\\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bstr\\_16\\(0\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ binstr\\_16\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\ \\}\\ temp\\ \\=\\ \\(unsigned\\ short\\)\\*\\(yytext\\+i\\+\\+\\)\\;\\ if\\(\\*\\(yytext\\+i\\)\\ \\!\\=\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\\\\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\)\\{\\ temp\\ \\=\\ \\(temp\\ \\|\\ \\(\\(unsigned\\ short\\)\\*\\(yytext\\+i\\)\\ \\<\\;\\<\\;\\ 8\\)\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ bstr\\_16\\(temp\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ binstr\\_16\\)\\;\\ \\}while\\(\\*\\(yytext\\+i\\+\\+\\)\\ \\!\\=\\ \\&\\#39\\;\\\\\\"\\;\\&\\#39\\;\\ \\&\\;\\&\\;\\ \\+\\+pc\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\/\\*\\ JUNK\\ \\*\\/\\ case\\ 26\\:\\ fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Unrecognized\\ token\\ is\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,yytext\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\exit\\(26\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\/\\*\\ default\\ \\*\\/\\ default\\:\\ fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Default\\ case\\,\\ unrecoverable\\ error\\\\n\\"\\;\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\exit\\(26\\)\\;\\ \\}\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extended\\ Flex\\ Scanner\\ \\#define\\ LODD\\ 1\\ \\#define\\ STOD\\ 2\\ \\#define\\ ADDD\\ 3\\ \\#define\\ SUBD\\ 4\\ \\#define\\ JPOS\\ 5\\ \\#define\\ JZER\\ 6\\ \\#define\\ JUMP\\ 7\\ \\#define\\ LOCO\\ 8\\ \\#define\\ LODL\\ 9\\ \\#define\\ STOL\\ 10\\ \\#define\\ ADDL\\ 11\\ \\#define\\ SUBL\\ 12\\ \\#define\\ JNEG\\ 13\\ \\#define\\ JNZE\\ 14\\ \\#define\\ CALL\\ 15\\ \\#define\\ PSHI\\ 16\\ \\#define\\ POPI\\ 17\\ \\#define\\ PUSH\\ 18\\ \\#define\\ POP\\ 19\\ \\#define\\ RETN\\ 20\\ \\#define\\ SWAP\\ 21\\ \\#define\\ INSP\\ 22\\ \\#define\\ DESP\\ 23\\ \\#define\\ HALT\\ 24\\ \\#define\\ INTEG\\ 25\\ \\#define\\ JUNK\\ 26\\ \\#define\\ LABEL\\ 27\\ \\#define\\ LOC\\ 28\\ \\#define\\ STR\\ 29\\ \\#define\\ MULT\\ 30\\ \\#define\\ RSHIFT\\ 31\\ \\#define\\ DIV\\ 32\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\%\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Ll\\]\\[Oo\\]\\[Dd\\]\\[Dd\\]\\ return\\(LODD\\)\\;\\ \\[Ss\\]\\[Tt\\]\\[Oo\\]\\[Dd\\]\\ return\\(STOD\\)\\;\\ \\[Aa\\]\\[Dd\\]\\[Dd\\]\\[Dd\\]\\ return\\(ADDD\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\:\\ \\:\\ \\[Hh\\]\\[Aa\\]\\[Ll\\]\\[Tt\\]\\ return\\(HALT\\)\\;\\ \\[Mm\\]\\[Uu\\]\\[Ll\\]\\[Tt\\]\\ return\\(MULT\\)\\;\\ \\[Rr\\]\\[Ss\\]\\[Hh\\]\\[Ii\\]\\[Ff\\]\\[Tt\\]\\ return\\(RSHIFT\\)\\;\\ \\[Dd\\]\\[Ii\\]\\[Vv\\]\\ return\\(DIV\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\"\\;\\.\\+\\\\\\"\\;\\ return\\(STR\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\?\\[0\\-9\\]\\[0\\-9\\]\\*\\ return\\(INTEG\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[A\\-Za\\-z\\]\\[0\\-9A\\-Za\\-z\\]\\*\\:\\ return\\(LABEL\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\.LOC\\ return\\(LOC\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\;\\.\\*\\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;\\ \\|\\ \\"\\;\\\\t\\"\\;\\ \\|\\ \\"\\;\\\\r\\"\\;\\ \\|\\ \\"\\;\\\\n\\"\\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[\\^\\ \\\\t\\\\r\\\\n\\]\\*\\ return\\(JUNK\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Extended\\ MASM\\ Assembler\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ DESP\\:\\ if\\(\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\ \\!\\=\\ INTEG\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ DESP\\ is\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,yytext\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ str\\_8\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 11111110\\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_8\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ HALT\\:\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 1111111111000000\\\\n\\"\\;\\,pc\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ MULT\\:\\ if\\(\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\ \\!\\=\\ INTEG\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ MULT\\ is\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,yytext\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ str\\_6\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 1111111100\\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_6\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ RSHIFT\\:\\ if\\(\\(tok\\=yylex\\(\\)\\)\\ \\!\\=\\ INTEG\\)\\{\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(stderr\\,\\"\\;Bad\\ operand\\ after\\ RSHIFT\\ is\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,yytext\\)\\;\\ exit\\(1\\)\\;\\ \\}\\ str\\_6\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 1111111101\\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_6\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ DIV\\:\\ fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ 1111111110000000\\\\n\\"\\;\\,pc\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ INTEG\\:\\ str\\_16\\(yytext\\)\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ cstr\\_16\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ LABEL\\:\\ if\\ \\(label\\_pc\\ \\=\\=\\ pc\\)\\{\\ \\/\\*\\ for\\ \\<\\;\\ lbx\\:\\ lby\\:\\ \\>\\;\\ \\*\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fprintf\\(p1\\,\\"\\;\\%d\\ U0000000000000000\\ \\%s\\\\n\\"\\;\\,\\ pc\\,\\ yytext\\)\\;\\ break\\;\\ \\}\\ search\\_sym\\_table\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ update\\_sym\\_table\\(yytext\\)\\;\\ label\\_pc\\ \\=\\ pc\\;\\ pc\\-\\-\\;\\ break\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/assignment_4.pdf", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 289, "html": "\\\\\\hw5\\.asm\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:11pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c1\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\start\\:\\ lodd\\ on\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4095\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Initialize\\ XMTR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4093\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Initialize\\ RCVR\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ xbsywt\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Call\\ busy\\ wait\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ init\\ finished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mainloop\\:\\ lodd\\ cnt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jzer\\ addition\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subd\\ c1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ cnt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\loco\\ 0\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Init\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\inputloop\\:\\ call\\ rbsywt\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Busy\\ Wait\\ for\\ User\\ Input\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ 4092\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subd\\ c48\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Subtract\\ Acii\\ offset\\ 48\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ tmpvar\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Store\\ in\\ temp\\ result\\ var\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jneg\\ mainloop\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;If\\ return\\ char\\ entered\\,\\ exit\\ loop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mult\\ 10\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Shift\\ previous\\ result\\ on\\ stack\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pop\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Get\\ Mult\\ result\\ off\\ stack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\addd\\ tmpvar\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Add\\ to\\ temp\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Push\\ result\\ back\\ on\\ stack\\ for\\ next\\ iteration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jump\\ inputloop\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;loop\\ to\\ grab\\ next\\ char\\ off\\ rcvr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\addition\\:\\ pop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\addl\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\insp\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jneg\\ overflow\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;If\\ neg\\ overflow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subd\\ cOF\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jpos\\ overflow\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;If\\ bigger\\ then\\ 32767\\ overflow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\outputloop\\:\\ pop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ tmpvar\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LOCO\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ tmpvar\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\div\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ tmpvar\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Store\\ quotient\\ in\\ tmp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pop\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Get\\ remainder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\addd\\ c48\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4094\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ xbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\overflow\\:\\ halt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nextw\\:\\ pshi\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Loop\\ to\\ send\\ 2\\ Bytes\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ String\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\addd\\ c1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ pstr1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jzer\\ crnl\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4094\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subd\\ c255\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jneg\\ crnl\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ sb\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\insp\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\push\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ xbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4094\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ xbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ pstr1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jump\\ nextw\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\crnl\\:\\ lodd\\ cr\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Send\\ Carriage\\ Return\\ \\+\\ New\\ Line\\ to\\ Screen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4094\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ xbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ nl\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4094\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ xbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ on\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4093\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\retn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\over1\\:\\ lodd\\ cr\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4094\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\call\\ xbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ nl\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ 4094\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\halt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\xbsywt\\:\\ lodd\\ 4095\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Busy\\ Wait\\ for\\ Xmtr\\ Function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subd\\ mask\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jneg\\ xbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\retn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\rbsywt\\:\\ lodd\\ 4093\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Busy\\ Wait\\ for\\ Rcvr\\ Function\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subd\\ mask\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jneg\\ rbsywt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\retn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sb\\:\\ loco\\ 8\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Switch\\ bytes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\loop1\\:\\ jzer\\ finish\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\subd\\ c1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stod\\ lpcnt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodl\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jneg\\ add1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\addl\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stol\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ lpcnt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jump\\ loop1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\add1\\:\\ addl\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\addd\\ c1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\stol\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lodd\\ lpcnt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\jump\\ loop1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\finish\\:\\ lodl\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\retn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lpcnt\\:\\ 0\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;Data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mask\\:\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\on\\:\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nl\\:\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cr\\:\\ 13\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cnt\\:\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c1\\:\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c255\\:\\ 255\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c48\\:\\ 48\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cOF\\:\\ 32768\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tmpvar\\:\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pstr1\\:\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\str1\\:\\ \\"\\;Please\\ enter\\ an\\ Integer\\ between\\ 1\\ and\\ 32767\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\str2\\:\\ \\"\\;The\\ sum\\ of\\ these\\ intergers\\ is\\:\\"\\;\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/hw5.asm.txt", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 291, "html": "\\\\\\CS\\ 105\\ class\\ notes\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=PPcutrfjJnXeSrzpOE\\-0Jf2aXkZ\\_hkhpY07LpyURRlY\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{color\\:\\#111111\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Lucida\\ Grande\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c26\\{color\\:\\#003399\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"inherit\\\"\\}\\.c22\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c16\\{color\\:\\#111111\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Lucida\\ Grande\\\"\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c18\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\}\\.c34\\{color\\:\\#003399\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c14\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.125\\;padding\\-top\\:12pt\\}\\.c25\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-bottom\\:12pt\\}\\.c23\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c24\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c20\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c17\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c33\\{color\\:\\#386eff\\}\\.c30\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\}\\.c32\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Lucida\\ Grande\\\"\\}\\.c21\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Wingdings\\\"\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-bottom\\:18pt\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c31\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Helvetica\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Privacy\\ and\\ Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/6\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ define\\ privacy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Immoral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ne\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;illegal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ne\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;creepy\\ all\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Immoral\\:\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Illegality\\:\\ held\\ accountable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Be\\ clear\\ about\\ your\\ distinctions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ privacy\\ with\\ exceptions\\:\\ certain\\ symptoms\\ are\\ required\\ by\\ law\\ to\\ be\\ submitted\\ to\\ public\\ health\\.\\ If\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ minor\\,\\ your\\ parens\\ have\\ your\\ medical\\ rights\\,\\ power\\ of\\ medical\\ attorney\\,\\ unconscious\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tension\\ in\\ privacy\\ is\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ none\\ of\\ your\\ business\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ have\\ you\\ got\\ to\\ hide\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\:\\ separated\\ private\\ life\\ \\(within\\ home\\)\\ from\\ public\\ life\\.\\ This\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\;has\\ changed\\ a\\ lot\\ as\\ what\\ is\\ private\\ vs\\ public\\ expands\\ and\\ contracts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Person\\ vs\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Description\\,\\ reductionism\\,\\ coherentist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essential\\ right\\:\\ unalienable\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ limited\\ by\\ any\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Instrumental\\ right\\:\\ legal\\ right\\,\\ with\\ bounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Domestic\\ abuse\\,\\ murder\\,\\ medical\\ records\\,\\ right\\ to\\ life\\,\\ speech\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ want\\ privacy\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\intimacy\\,\\ autonomy\\,\\ self\\-determination\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prescriptive\\:\\ here\\ is\\ an\\ invation\\ of\\ privacy\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technology\\ allows\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ privacy\\ to\\ be\\ invaded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ privacy\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constitution\\:\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\,\\ right\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ secure\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\ Search\\ and\\ seizure\\ only\\ with\\ a\\ warrant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\:\\ freedom\\ from\\ the\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\:\\ there\\ are\\ rights\\ granted\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ constitution\\.\\ Privacy\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ rights\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roe\\ vs\\.\\ Wade\\:\\ PRIVACY\\ case\\.\\ Constitution\\ has\\ penumbral\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ privacy\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ those\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ granted\\ through\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constitution\\ Grants\\ us\\ privacy\\ from\\ the\\ government\\.\\ Common\\ Law\\ protects\\ our\\ privacy\\ from\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ invade\\ my\\ privacy\\,\\ trespass\\/inrustion\\/harmed\\ my\\ reputation\\,\\ I\\ can\\ sue\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ common\\ law\\.\\ Enforced\\ through\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ private\\ action\\-\\ citizen\\ \\(not\\ government\\)\\ makes\\ claim\\ against\\ another\\ person\\.\\ Changes\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\/truth\\,\\ amount\\ of\\ evidence\\ needed\\.\\ Different\\ places\\ differ\\ in\\ WHO\\ enforces\\ laws\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Westin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Reserve\\ information\\ from\\ others\\.\\ Informational\\ privacy\\.\\ Around\\ the\\ time\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ 70\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ large\\ databases\\ were\\ growing\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ have\\ privacy\\ if\\ you\\ control\\ the\\ information\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Access\\ to\\ gather\\,\\ access\\ to\\ view\\,\\ access\\ to\\ disperse\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ privacy\\ violated\\ if\\ no\\ one\\ uses\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whose\\ information\\ is\\ it\\?\\ Consumer\\ or\\ company\\?\\ Photos\\-\\ Facebook\\&rsquo\\;s\\ or\\ citizen\\&rsquo\\;s\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ are\\ getting\\ \\ \\;a\\ free\\ product\\,\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ is\\ something\\ enforced\\?\\ Federal\\ Trade\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/11\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Latanya\\ Sweeney\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foundations\\ of\\ Privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;control\\ over\\ something\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ access\\ something\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Privacy\\ from\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;privacy\\ from\\ corporations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Creepy\\ \\&ne\\;\\ immoral\\ \\ \\;\\&ne\\;\\ illegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ Technology\\ save\\ privacy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ got\\ us\\ in\\,\\ can\\ it\\ get\\ us\\ out\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Society\\ believes\\ that\\ utility\\ and\\ pirvacy\\ is\\ a\\ trade\\-off\\,\\ but\\ in\\ reality\\ you\\ CAN\\ have\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technology\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ protect\\ privacy\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ challenges\\ it\\,\\ mostly\\ because\\ things\\ like\\ facebook\\ work\\ better\\ with\\ the\\ more\\ information\\ you\\ add\\ \\(as\\ do\\ all\\ modern\\ websites\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ players\\:\\ data\\ subject\\,\\ recipient\\,\\ and\\ provider\\.\\ Sometimes\\ subject\\ \\=\\ provider\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;Who\\ holds\\ the\\ power\\ sometimes\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Viox\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Data\\ Explosion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smaller\\,\\ cheaper\\ hard\\ drives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1995\\,\\ Hillary\\ Clinton\\:\\ Hospitals\\ store\\ and\\ publish\\ hospital\\ discharge\\ information\\ online\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dead\\ beat\\ dads\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Directory\\ of\\ new\\ hires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1974\\:\\ Fair\\ information\\ practices\\ virtually\\ only\\ applied\\ to\\ government\\ because\\ government\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ entity\\ wealthy\\ enough\\.\\ If\\ Zuckerberg\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ England\\,\\ he\\ never\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ launch\\ facebook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ collect\\ it\\ if\\ you\\ can\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2000\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ Exchange\\ data\\ for\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ way\\:\\ De\\-identification\\,\\ and\\ then\\ its\\ ok\\ to\\ share\\.\\ But\\ still\\ a\\ high\\ \\(sometimes\\ 87\\%\\)\\ of\\ still\\ figuring\\ it\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ way\\:\\ Informed\\ Consent\\.\\ You\\ know\\ and\\ accept\\ the\\ risk\\ before\\ going\\ forward\\.\\ BUT\\ virtually\\ none\\ tell\\ you\\ who\\ THEY\\ are\\ authorized\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ data\\ to\\ down\\ the\\ line\\.\\ Now\\ \\=\\ DEAD\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harvard\\ Student\\ \\@college\\ email\\:\\ school\\ can\\ access\\ at\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1500\\ Americans\\ have\\ consented\\ to\\ publish\\ records\\ online\\ for\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ you\\ tell\\ about\\ yourself\\,\\ you\\ tell\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ other\\ people\\.\\ What\\ restrictions\\ lie\\ here\\?\\ What\\ freedom\\ do\\ individuals\\ have\\ to\\ release\\ information\\,\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ reveals\\ information\\ about\\ other\\ people\\?\\ Ex\\)\\ Hereditary\\ diseases\\.\\ Right\\ now\\,\\ people\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ publish\\ a\\ book\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;tell\\ all\\ about\\ everything\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Unbelievably\\ murky\\.\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ twin\\,\\ do\\ you\\ own\\ your\\ sequence\\?\\ Right\\ now\\,\\ if\\ you\\ wanna\\ share\\ it\\,\\ you\\ can\\ share\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ privacy\\ and\\ technology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Threat\\ model\\ based\\ on\\ occurrence\\ and\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ decide\\ with\\ code\\ how\\ users\\ will\\ engage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Google\\ map\\ cannot\\ film\\ in\\ Europe\\ because\\ it\\ will\\ capture\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;POLICY\\ DOC\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;HOW\\ TO\\ WRITE\\ A\\ POLICY\\ DOC\\&rdquo\\;\\ notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SAY\\ THE\\ MOST\\ IMPORTANT\\ THING\\ FIRST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Identify\\ problem\\ and\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\offer\\ solutions\\ and\\ action\\/position\\ audience\\ should\\ take\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\why\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ other\\ solutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\feasibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\steps\\ to\\ take\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\obstacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\?\\ Government\\ mandate\\?\\ Market\\ incentives\\?\\ Campaigns\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tradeoffs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\take\\ a\\ stand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ evidence\\,\\ persuasive\\,\\ succinct\\,\\ realistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Presentation\\:\\ Bullet\\ points\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/13\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ Harvard\\ look\\ at\\ your\\ email\\?\\ Yes\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ pain\\ in\\ the\\ ass\\,\\ so\\ they\\ likely\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ A\\ firing\\ offense\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ through\\ proper\\ procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\-18\\-2012\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Focult\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Panopticon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ think\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ watched\\,\\ you\\ will\\ act\\ differently\\.\\ Build\\ an\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ always\\ have\\ to\\ assume\\ you\\ are\\ being\\ watched\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WHO\\?\\ Is\\ watching\\?\\ What\\ are\\ their\\ motives\\?\\ WHERE\\ are\\ you\\ being\\ watched\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ are\\ just\\ recording\\ video\\,\\ you\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ consent\\ of\\ the\\ person\\.\\ If\\ you\\ want\\ audio\\,\\ you\\ need\\ consent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\ I\\ of\\ 18\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Code\\ Section\\ 2510\\ of\\ the\\ Electronic\\ Communications\\ Privacy\\ Act\\ of\\ 1986\\ states\\ that\\ video\\ surveillance\\ cameras\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ watching\\ and\\ recording\\ citizens\\ without\\ their\\ knowledge\\ or\\ consent\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ no\\ sound\\ is\\ recorded\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\Read\\ more\\:\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Legal\\ Issues\\ Concerning\\ Surveillance\\ Cameras\\ \\|\\ eHow\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.ehow\\.com\\/about\\_6049703\\_legal\\-issues\\-concerning\\-surveillance\\-cameras\\.html\\#ixzz26qNybLHs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Related\\ to\\ wiretapping\\ laws\\ because\\ tape\\ recorders\\ were\\ invented\\ before\\ videorecorders\\.\\ Lip\\ reading\\ is\\ legal\\.\\ You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ your\\ conversation\\ recorded\\ without\\ consent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ public\\?\\ What\\ is\\ private\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\School\\ computers\\ given\\ to\\ students\\ with\\ webcams\\ to\\ watch\\ them\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DHCP\\:\\ Harvard\\ network\\ makes\\ it\\ so\\ my\\ IP\\ address\\ is\\ different\\ in\\ a\\ classroom\\ than\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ Starbucks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Copyright\\ laws\\ use\\ IP\\ addresses\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ who\\ is\\ illegally\\ pirating\\ music\\ and\\ videos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\ student\\ machines\\ running\\ OS2\\&hellip\\;how\\?\\ Virtual\\ machines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cookies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WWW\\ was\\ invented\\ to\\ share\\ scientific\\ papers\\ on\\ the\\ internet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ guy\\ came\\ along\\ and\\ invented\\ first\\ browser\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;transactions\\.\\ Client\\ must\\ store\\ information\\ and\\ send\\ it\\ over\\ every\\ time\\ you\\ need\\ information\\.\\ Cookies\\ started\\ off\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ serveers\\ to\\ know\\ who\\ they\\ are\\ talking\\ to\\.\\ Cookies\\ are\\ stored\\ on\\ client\\,\\ so\\ client\\ can\\ send\\ information\\ to\\ server\\.\\ Initially\\,\\ only\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ information\\ needed\\ for\\ transaction\\ was\\ stored\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.but\\ this\\ information\\ grew\\.\\ Now\\ browser\\ will\\ get\\ code\\ from\\ server\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Java\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Security\\ Model\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Javascript\\ \\(NOT\\ SIMILAR\\ TO\\ JAVA\\)\\.\\ Javascript\\ knows\\ what\\ OTHER\\ sites\\ you\\ have\\ been\\ to\\,\\ which\\ helps\\ with\\ ads\\.\\ If\\ you\\ reset\\ your\\ cookies\\,\\ your\\ ad\\ preferences\\ will\\ change\\ and\\ you\\ will\\ lose\\ \\&ldquo\\;remembered\\&rdquo\\;\\ passwords\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Internet\\ sites\\ know\\ my\\ preferences\\:\\ invasion\\ of\\ privacy\\ or\\ customer\\ service\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Store\\ knows\\ girl\\ is\\ pregnant\\ before\\ her\\ dad\\ does\\,\\ but\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amazon\\ can\\ recommend\\ me\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\-20\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;social\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;autonomy\\,\\ privacy\\,\\ self\\-control\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Congressional\\ directive\\ to\\ track\\ homeless\\ people\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ save\\ money\\.\\ Privacy\\ laws\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unduplicative\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HUD\\:\\ Homeless\\ Management\\ Information\\ Systems\\ \\(HMIS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Client\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ information\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;shelter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;planning\\ office\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;accounting\\ office\\ \\(HUD\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lawsuits\\ threatened\\ because\\ most\\ homeless\\ people\\ were\\ women\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ victims\\ of\\ domestic\\ violence\\ and\\ were\\ hiding\\ from\\ stalkers\\ with\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Information\\ extracted\\:\\ NOT\\ NAME\\,\\ NOT\\ SS\\#\\,\\ but\\ it\\ did\\ include\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unique\\ identifier\\ UID\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Encoding\\ information\\ in\\ UID\\&hellip\\;stupid\\ because\\ its\\ easy\\ to\\ decode\\ when\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DOB\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethnicity\\/race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Veteran\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disabling\\ condition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Residence\\ prior\\ to\\ program\\ entry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Code\\ of\\ last\\ permanent\\ address\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ entry\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ exit\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Income\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-cash\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physical\\ disability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Planning\\ office\\ got\\ AGGREGATE\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ population\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ fingerprint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Threat\\:\\ planning\\ office\\ has\\ lots\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NEWS\\ BLAST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/13\\/12u\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\News\\:\\ \\ \\;Senate\\ Bill\\ is\\ amending\\ 1986\\ privacy\\ law\\ so\\ you\\ need\\ a\\ warrant\\ to\\ view\\ emails\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\House\\:\\ warrantless\\ wiretapping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Japan\\:\\ RSA\\ and\\ prime\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ private\\ company\\ tracks\\ where\\ you\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ phone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/18\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Microsoft\\&rsquo\\;s\\ internet\\ 10\\,\\ to\\ be\\ released\\ in\\ October\\,\\ will\\ automatically\\ come\\ with\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;do\\ not\\ track\\&rdquo\\;\\ setting\\,\\ which\\ people\\ can\\ opt\\ to\\ have\\ if\\ they\\ want\\.\\ This\\ will\\ devastate\\ advertisement\\ companies\\,\\ because\\ consumers\\ tend\\ not\\ to\\ change\\ preset\\ technology\\ options\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Other\\ browsers\\ are\\ adding\\ it\\,\\ but\\ microsoft\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ automatic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.post\\-gazette\\.com\\/stories\\/business\\/technology\\/when\\-the\\-privacy\\-button\\-is\\-already\\-pressed\\-653623\\/\\#ixzz26mbctltW\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.foxnews\\.com\\/us\\/2012\\/09\\/12\\/texas\\-school\\-district\\-defends\\-use\\-student\\-tracking\\-mart\\-id\\-card\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/20\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Keller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosecutors\\ said\\ the\\ investigation\\ into\\ Keller\\ began\\ in\\ October\\ 2010\\,\\ when\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Postal\\ Inspection\\ Service\\ and\\ foreign\\ law\\ enforcement\\ began\\ an\\ investigation\\ into\\ a\\ foreign\\ movie\\ production\\ company\\ that\\ operated\\ a\\ website\\ offering\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ DVDs\\ and\\ streaming\\ videos\\ featuring\\ young\\ boys\\.They\\ said\\ Keller\\ had\\ placed\\ online\\ orders\\ with\\ the\\ company\\ 19\\ different\\ times\\,\\ and\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ videos\\ he\\ received\\ featured\\ nude\\ minor\\ boys\\ undressing\\,\\ wrestling\\,\\ showering\\ and\\ playing\\ Twister\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/bdtonline\\.com\\/cnhi\\/x1052798425\\/Childrens\\-Hospital\\-doctor\\-accused\\-of\\-buying\\-child\\-porn\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Law\\ enforcement\\ reported\\ that\\ they\\ discovered\\ Keller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transactions\\ in\\ a\\ search\\ of\\ the\\ customer\\ database\\ of\\ a\\ movie\\ production\\ company\\,\\ which\\ sold\\ explicit\\ DVDs\\ and\\ streaming\\ media\\ featuring\\ underage\\ boys\\ on\\ their\\ website\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ Criminal\\ Complaint\\ at\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ District\\ Court\\.\\ Keller\\ allegedly\\ received\\ 19\\ orders\\ between\\ July\\ 2009\\ and\\ January\\ 2011\\,\\ including\\ 50\\ DVDs\\ that\\ totaled\\ over\\ \\$2695\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ affidavit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Postal\\ Inspection\\ Service\\ began\\ investigating\\ the\\ company\\ in\\ October\\ 2010\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ August\\ 4\\,\\ 2011\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Department\\ of\\ Justice\\,\\ Criminal\\ Division\\,\\ Child\\ Exploitation\\ and\\ Obscenity\\ Section\\ \\(CEOS\\)\\ issued\\ an\\ administrative\\ subpoena\\ to\\ Comcast\\ Cable\\ Communications\\ for\\ information\\ concerning\\ an\\ e\\-mail\\ address\\ discovered\\ during\\ the\\ search\\ of\\ the\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ customer\\ database\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ affidavit\\.\\ The\\ affidavit\\ also\\ revealed\\ that\\ on\\ May\\ 2\\,\\ 2012\\,\\ CEOS\\ issued\\ an\\ additional\\ subpoena\\ to\\ Comcast\\ Cable\\ Communications\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ subpoenas\\ yielded\\ records\\ which\\ confirmed\\ that\\ the\\ e\\-mail\\ address\\ belonged\\ to\\ Keller\\.\\ The\\ records\\ also\\ showed\\ the\\ addresses\\ of\\ his\\ previous\\ and\\ current\\ residences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yesterday\\ the\\ court\\ authorized\\ a\\ search\\ warrant\\ for\\ Keller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ current\\ address\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.phillipian\\.net\\/articles\\/2012\\/09\\/13\\/dr\\-richard\\-keller\\-former\\-medical\\-director\\-arrested\\-child\\-porn\\-allegations\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ cookies\\ stored\\ by\\ computer\\ or\\ by\\ the\\ user\\ logged\\ on\\?\\ One\\ the\\ same\\ \\&ldquo\\;logged\\ on\\&rdquo\\;\\ user\\,\\ can\\ you\\ have\\ multiple\\ cookie\\ accounts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\-25\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abine\\:\\ online\\ privacy\\ company\\ \\(guest\\ speaker\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DNT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deleteme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Privacywatch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\&rdquo\\;\\ information\\.\\ What\\ do\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ delete\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Average\\ websites\\ shares\\ your\\ information\\ with\\ 13\\ other\\ companies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Turning\\ off\\ cookies\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\:\\ companies\\ find\\ ways\\ around\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imagine\\ what\\ facebook\\ will\\ do\\ if\\ it\\ wants\\ to\\ sell\\ your\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ background\\ checks\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ mixed\\ up\\ with\\ criminals\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Youtube\\ allows\\ face\\ blurring\\ when\\ you\\ submit\\ videos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Several\\ ways\\ to\\ identify\\ a\\ user\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IP\\ address\\,\\ browser\\,\\ cookies\\,\\ etags\\,\\ parameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Websites\\ draw\\ 1\\-pixel\\ \\ \\;images\\ from\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;party\\ websites\\,\\ who\\ can\\ then\\ recognize\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ reading\\ pixel\\ information\\,\\ companies\\ can\\ take\\ screen\\ shots\\ of\\ your\\ computer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ making\\ the\\ right\\ criteria\\,\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ adds\\ that\\ target\\ just\\ one\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Panopticlick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\www\\.spokeo\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ online\\ search\\ engine\\ for\\ people\\:\\ name\\,\\ age\\,\\ location\\,\\ social\\ networks\\,\\ family\\ members\\,\\ income\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ software\\:\\ know\\ how\\ person\\ voted\\ based\\ on\\ address\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.abine\\.com\\/marketing\\/howitworks\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;deletes\\ your\\ personal\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\advertising\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ share\\ your\\ information\\:\\ runs\\ through\\ an\\ aggregator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\can\\ we\\ pay\\ companies\\ to\\ delete\\ our\\ past\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Companies\\ probably\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ all\\ their\\ data\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ becoming\\ a\\ liability\\ since\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ protect\\ it\\ all\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;it\\ could\\ get\\ leaked\\ and\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ sued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robbers\\ can\\ monitor\\ twitters\\ to\\ see\\ when\\ people\\ go\\ on\\ vacation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\-2\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ verify\\ information\\ without\\ breaching\\ privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Documents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ records\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insurance\\,\\ loans\\,\\ bank\\ accounts\\,\\ IDs\\,\\ birth\\ certificate\\,\\ driver\\&rsquo\\;s\\ license\\,\\ social\\ security\\ card\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Driver\\&rsquo\\;s\\ license\\ \\(state\\)\\,\\ birth\\ certificate\\ \\(county\\)\\,\\ passports\\ \\(country\\)\\,\\ death\\ certificate\\ \\(county\\)\\,\\ from\\ different\\ places\\,\\ often\\ do\\ not\\ verify\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ How\\ did\\ documents\\ get\\ issued\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ trust\\/authority\\ level\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ the\\ issuing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\give\\ dead\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birth\\ certificate\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crests\\:\\ complex\\,\\ expensive\\,\\ difficult\\ to\\ duplicate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Higher\\ currency\\ designs\\ are\\ more\\ complex\\ and\\ difficult\\ to\\ reproduce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notaries\\:\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ getting\\ bribed\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ trust\\ the\\ people\\ making\\ the\\ crests\\?\\ That\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sell\\ fake\\ ones\\ to\\ the\\ black\\ market\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VULNERABILITY\\?\\ How\\ possible\\ is\\ it\\ to\\ recreate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COST\\?\\ How\\ much\\ does\\ it\\ cost\\ to\\ reproduce\\ the\\ thing\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ trusting\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VALUE\\ of\\ successful\\ exploitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DETECTION\\:\\ how\\ hard\\/easy\\ is\\ it\\ to\\ detect\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COST\\ OF\\ DETECTION\\:\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ investigation\\ costs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COST\\ OF\\ NON\\-DETECTION\\:\\ for\\ investigators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PENALTY\\:\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ repercussions\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ caught\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\College\\ application\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Getting\\ someone\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ SAT\\ for\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Almost\\ all\\ college\\ apps\\ come\\ in\\ electronically\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Electronic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;photoshop\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;printer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fax\\ machine\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ something\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;look\\ right\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ is\\ it\\ fair\\ to\\ reject\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ can\\ we\\ make\\ forging\\ documents\\ more\\ expensive\\ than\\ its\\ worth\\?\\ How\\ can\\ we\\ raise\\ the\\ stakes\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ caught\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unit\\ 3\\:\\ Authentication\\ of\\ People\\ using\\ a\\ Number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Princeton\\ used\\ applicant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\,\\ DOB\\,\\ SSN\\ to\\ log\\ into\\ Yale\\&rsquo\\;s\\ applicant\\ portal\\ to\\ find\\ admissions\\ packet\\ to\\ students\\,\\ and\\ then\\ offer\\ them\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dropbox\\ hashing\\ function\\:\\ 160\\ bit\\ hash\\ identifies\\ document\\,\\ \\~0\\%\\ chance\\,\\ but\\ not\\ \\=0\\%\\.\\ Used\\ by\\ media\\ companies\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ mp3s\\ or\\ videos\\ have\\ been\\ uploaded\\ illegally\\ on\\ dropbox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Send\\ the\\ hash\\,\\ send\\ the\\ document\\,\\ make\\ sure\\ they\\ match\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-fingerprint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\paired\\ cryptology\\:\\ k\\ codes\\,\\ k\\-1\\ decodes\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ andover\\ uses\\ k\\ to\\ encrypt\\ my\\ text\\,\\ Harvard\\ uses\\ k\\-1\\ to\\ decrypt\\ it\\.\\ Easy\\ to\\ decrypt\\,\\ impossible\\ to\\ encrypt\\ without\\ private\\ key\\.\\ If\\ you\\ alter\\ the\\ document\\,\\ the\\ input\\ key\\ is\\ different\\ and\\ it\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ decrypt\\ properly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TurnItIn\\ does\\ not\\ flag\\ plagiarism\\,\\ it\\ flags\\ similarities\\.\\ So\\,\\ it\\ also\\ flags\\ direct\\ quotes\\ in\\ essays\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\False\\ positive\\:\\ accusing\\ someone\\ of\\ plagiarism\\ who\\ is\\ innocent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\False\\ negative\\:\\ failing\\ to\\ accuse\\ a\\ guilty\\ person\\/plagiarized\\ document\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Both\\ may\\ have\\ immense\\ consequences\\,\\ but\\ we\\ will\\ never\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ school\\ exists\\?\\ New\\ charter\\ school\\?\\ Schools\\ abroad\\?\\ In\\ China\\,\\ Chinese\\ schools\\ have\\ incentives\\ to\\ give\\ kids\\ good\\ transcripts\\ because\\ it\\ makes\\ the\\ school\\ look\\ good\\ if\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ student\\ get\\ into\\ Harvard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ taking\\ online\\ tests\\?\\ Interviews\\ for\\ someone\\ else\\?\\ SAT\\ for\\ someone\\ else\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ of\\ Phone\\ Lines\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ line\\:\\ multiple\\ houses\\ shared\\ the\\ same\\ phone\\ line\\,\\ so\\ houses\\ had\\ to\\ coordinate\\ to\\ use\\ phone\\.\\ If\\ someone\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ sneaky\\/inconsiderate\\,\\ they\\ technically\\ could\\ pick\\ up\\ the\\ phone\\ while\\ their\\ neighbor\\ was\\ using\\ the\\ phone\\ and\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ conversation\\ \\(Just\\ like\\ now\\,\\ I\\ could\\ technically\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conversation\\ with\\ another\\ house\\ phone\\ if\\ he\\ used\\ our\\ home\\ landline\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ people\\ dialed\\ out\\,\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ operator\\,\\ who\\ connected\\ them\\ to\\ whom\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ call\\.\\ Operators\\ often\\ HAD\\ to\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ conversations\\ to\\ judge\\ quality\\ of\\ call\\ \\(make\\ sure\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ static\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1928\\ Early\\ Olmstead\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Case\\ 1928\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Declared\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ privacy\\ on\\ phone\\ lines\\.\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ wiretapping\\ and\\ listening\\ in\\ is\\ legal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ technology\\ advanced\\,\\ houses\\ stopped\\ sharing\\ phones\\,\\ and\\ people\\ no\\ longer\\ used\\ operators\\ to\\ dial\\ out\\.\\ It\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ assumed\\ that\\ people\\ were\\ listening\\ in\\ on\\ your\\ call\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1934\\ Federal\\ Communications\\ Act\\ by\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ A\\ warrant\\ is\\ now\\ required\\ to\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ call\\.\\ Warrants\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ get\\ and\\ require\\ evidence\\ \\&ldquo\\;beyond\\ reasonable\\ doubt\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ However\\,\\ with\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\court\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(which\\ is\\ really\\ easy\\ to\\ get\\,\\ literally\\ just\\ tell\\ the\\ judge\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ interested\\ in\\ this\\ info\\ for\\ my\\ case\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ a\\ court\\ order\\ in\\ 5\\ minutes\\)\\,\\ people\\ can\\ get\\ access\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pen\\ registers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ are\\ records\\ of\\ the\\ numbers\\ dialed\\ in\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ phone\\ line\\.\\ Pen\\ registers\\ do\\ not\\ reveal\\ WHAT\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ conversation\\ is\\,\\ but\\ it\\ they\\ reveal\\ WHO\\ the\\ conversation\\ was\\ with\\ \\(which\\ is\\ sometimes\\ just\\ as\\ important\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berger\\ 1967\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ People\\ using\\ telephones\\ have\\ a\\ reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ Privacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHANGE\\ IN\\ CONSTITUTIONAL\\ LAW\\ REFLECTS\\ CHANGE\\ IN\\ TECHNOLOGY\\.\\ Right\\ now\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ courts\\ have\\ some\\ catching\\ up\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reflect\\ modern\\ technology\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recent\\ voicemail\\ scandal\\ in\\ Europe\\:\\ Cell\\ phones\\ come\\ with\\ default\\ passwords\\ for\\ voicemail\\.\\ In\\ America\\,\\ each\\ cellphone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ default\\ password\\ is\\ unique\\.\\ In\\ Europe\\,\\ cell\\ phone\\ default\\ passwords\\ are\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ \\(Europe\\ and\\ US\\ use\\ different\\ cell\\ phone\\ companies\\)\\.\\ This\\ made\\ it\\ VERY\\ easy\\ for\\ people\\ in\\ Europe\\ to\\ hack\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voicemails\\ \\(anyone\\ can\\ call\\ in\\ to\\ their\\ voicemail\\ from\\ any\\ phone\\&hellip\\;they\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ input\\ a\\ password\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Closing\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Is\\ hacking\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voicemail\\ illegal\\?\\ Should\\ it\\ be\\?\\ What\\ about\\ text\\ messages\\?\\ What\\ about\\ landlines\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ privacy\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/18\\/2012\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wiretapping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Listening\\ to\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ calls\\ without\\ them\\ knowing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oxford\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;informal\\ exchange\\ of\\ ideas\\ by\\ spoken\\ words\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\conversation\\ vs\\.\\ communication\\:\\ merging\\ and\\ will\\ merge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\does\\ it\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ updated\\ to\\ include\\ text\\ messages\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Temporal\\:\\ real\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sign\\ language\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intimate\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Private\\ \\(1\\-1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;semi\\-private\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;semi\\-public\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bi\\-directional\\ conversation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blog\\ post\\,\\ twitter\\,\\ CS50\\ EdEx\\,\\ Science\\ Center\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\America\\ has\\ 2\\,175\\ privacy\\ laws\\ \\(state\\ \\+\\ federal\\)\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\~40\\/state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europe\\:\\ blanket\\ law\\,\\ technology\\ must\\ get\\ approved\\ before\\ it\\ hits\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-party\\ laws\\:\\ only\\ need\\ permission\\ of\\ one\\ person\\ to\\ record\\ conversation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alaska\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\-party\\ \\(\\=all\\-parties\\)\\ laws\\:\\ must\\ require\\ both\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ permission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Massachusetts\\,\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Misdemeanor\\ vs\\.\\ felony\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ third\\ person\\ joins\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ conversation\\ without\\ permission\\,\\ do\\ they\\ become\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;party\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ conversation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ across\\ different\\ states\\?\\ Calls\\ with\\ England\\?\\ Skype\\ calls\\ landline\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Speakerphone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Classroom\\ \\=\\ public\\ address\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LAW\\:\\ WE\\ CAN\\ VIDEOTAPE\\ PEOPLE\\ IN\\ PUBLIC\\ WITHOUT\\ SOUND\\.\\ But\\ we\\ can\\ NOT\\ record\\ conversations\\ without\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constitution\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ videotape\\ police\\,\\ but\\ mom\\ got\\ arrested\\ for\\ videotaping\\ child\\ getting\\ on\\ school\\ bus\\ \\(got\\ driver\\ on\\ camera\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cellphone\\ tapping\\:\\ no\\ longer\\ can\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;connect\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ wire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ a\\ voice\\ recording\\ from\\ my\\ own\\ cell\\ phone\\ conversation\\ with\\ someone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Text\\ messages\\ not\\ currently\\ covered\\ by\\ wiretapping\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pen\\ register\\:\\ show\\ phone\\ numbers\\ dialed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Packet\\ sniffer\\:\\ used\\ \\ \\;a\\ lot\\ in\\ free\\ wifi\\ services\\ \\(password\\ could\\ go\\ in\\ the\\ clear\\)\\.\\ Not\\ allowed\\ on\\ Harvard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campus\\,\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ through\\ broadband\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ a\\ voice\\ text\\ a\\ recording\\,\\ a\\ text\\,\\ or\\ a\\ voicemail\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ one\\ person\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ video\\ for\\ 5\\ minutes\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ hour\\ long\\ video\\?\\ What\\ if\\ the\\ clips\\ including\\ just\\ one\\ person\\ are\\ clipped\\,\\ photoshopped\\,\\ and\\ compiled\\ into\\ a\\ video\\ that\\ only\\ includes\\ them\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ technology\\ is\\ changing\\ is\\ so\\ rapid\\,\\ and\\ the\\ crossover\\ between\\ email\\ and\\ text\\ is\\ already\\ ambiguous\\.\\ As\\ it\\ is\\,\\ I\\ can\\ send\\ a\\ text\\ message\\ from\\ my\\ email\\ to\\ a\\ phone\\ number\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ someone\\ oversees\\ my\\ text\\ and\\ shares\\ the\\ content\\,\\ is\\ that\\ my\\ fault\\?\\ What\\ if\\ they\\ overhear\\ a\\ voicemail\\ that\\ I\\ play\\ back\\ because\\ the\\ volume\\ is\\ too\\ loud\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biometrics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fingerprint\\ \\(fingers\\ can\\ swell\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iris\\ scan\\ \\(does\\ not\\ really\\ change\\ over\\ time\\,\\ but\\ artificial\\ colored\\ contacts\\?\\)\\,\\ retina\\ scan\\ \\(behind\\ the\\ eye\\,\\ changes\\ if\\ a\\ cataract\\ develops\\,\\ must\\ be\\ super\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ machine\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\face\\ recognition\\ \\(photos\\?\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gait\\ \\(algorithmically\\ check\\ walk\\)\\,\\ injuries\\?\\ Intentionally\\ change\\ walk\\?\\ Heels\\ vs\\.\\ flats\\ vs\\.\\ sneakers\\,\\ speed\\,\\ nerves\\,\\ \\(invasion\\ of\\ how\\ you\\ feel\\?\\ Is\\ this\\ true\\ of\\ speech\\ too\\?\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\keyboard\\ typing\\ \\(rhythm\\,\\ arc\\ of\\ fingers\\,\\ speed\\,\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ keyboard\\,\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ check\\ if\\ someone\\ else\\ steals\\ your\\ password\\,\\ easy\\ to\\ intentionally\\ change\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\signature\\ \\(used\\ everywhere\\,\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ and\\ practice\\ writing\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DNA\\ \\(similarities\\ in\\ families\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;privacy\\.\\ Can\\ identical\\ twin\\ object\\?\\)\\.\\ DNA\\ can\\ change\\ with\\ too\\ much\\ sun\\ exposure\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ can\\ have\\ 2\\ sets\\ of\\ DNA\\,\\ voices\\,\\ pheromones\\/smell\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Machines\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ some\\ biometrics\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenge\\:\\ duplicates\\,\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Up\\ close\\ \\(overt\\,\\ consensual\\)\\ vs\\.\\ distance\\ \\(covert\\,\\ target\\ oblivious\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\False\\ positives\\ and\\ false\\ negatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ ok\\ to\\ get\\ without\\ their\\ permission\\,\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ not\\ ok\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biometrics\\:\\ Identification\\ vs\\.\\ Verification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Project\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinese\\ internet\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Privacy\\ over\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ DNA\\,\\ physical\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alaskalandsinc\\.\\ Spy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Birth\\ certificate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advertising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ security\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/CS 105 class notes.docx", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 293, "html": "\\\\\\CC\\_WEB\\_VIDEO\\_Agreement\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=36F4yglUrWz2Q1gNYlYw9Q\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:20pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Helvetica\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c1\\{padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Agreement\\ and\\ Disclaimer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Affiliation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ hereby\\ request\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ or\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ CC\\_WEB\\_VIDEO\\ dataset\\,\\ comprising\\ videos\\ downloaded\\ from\\ Internet\\,\\ from\\ Video\\ Retrieval\\ Group\\ \\(VIREO\\)\\,\\ City\\ University\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\,\\ and\\ Informedia\\ Group\\ from\\ Carnegie\\ Mellon\\ University\\,\\ in\\ exchange\\ of\\ the\\ dataset\\ access\\.\\ I\\ fully\\ agree\\ to\\ the\\ following\\ terms\\ and\\ conditions\\ with\\ complete\\ understanding\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ I\\ understand\\ that\\ the\\ copy\\ right\\ of\\ videos\\ in\\ the\\ dataset\\ fully\\ belongs\\ to\\ their\\ owners\\.\\ In\\ no\\ event\\,\\ shall\\ City\\ University\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ and\\ Carnegie\\ Mellon\\ University\\ be\\ liable\\ for\\ any\\ incidents\\,\\ or\\ damages\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ direct\\ or\\ indirect\\ usage\\ of\\ the\\ dataset\\ by\\ requesting\\ researchers\\.\\ 2\\.\\ The\\ dataset\\ should\\ be\\ only\\ used\\ for\\ non\\-commercial\\ research\\ and\\/or\\ educational\\ purposes\\.\\ 3\\.\\ City\\ University\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ and\\ Carnegie\\ Mellon\\ University\\ make\\ no\\ representations\\ or\\ warranties\\ regarding\\ the\\ dataset\\,\\ including\\ but\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ warranties\\ of\\ non\\-infringement\\,\\ merchantability\\ or\\ fitness\\ for\\ a\\ particular\\ purpose\\.\\ 4\\.\\ Researcher\\ shall\\ defend\\ and\\ indemnify\\ City\\ University\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ and\\ Carnegie\\ Mellon\\ University\\,\\ including\\ their\\ employees\\,\\ trustees\\ and\\ officers\\,\\ and\\ agents\\,\\ against\\ any\\ claims\\ arising\\ from\\ Researcher\\&\\#39\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ dataset\\.\\ 5\\.\\ Researcher\\ may\\ provide\\ research\\ associates\\ and\\ colleagues\\ with\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ dataset\\ provided\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ also\\ agreed\\ to\\ be\\ bound\\ by\\ the\\ terms\\ and\\ conditions\\ stated\\ in\\ this\\ agreement\\.\\ 6\\.\\ An\\ electronic\\ document\\,\\ such\\ as\\ email\\,\\ containing\\ the\\ signed\\ form\\,\\ from\\ requesting\\ researcher\\ is\\ regarded\\ as\\ an\\ electronic\\ signature\\ on\\ the\\ form\\,\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ legal\\ effect\\ as\\ a\\ hardcopy\\ signature\\.\\ 7\\.\\ City\\ University\\ of\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ and\\ Carnegie\\ Mellon\\ University\\ reserve\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ terminate\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ dataset\\ at\\ any\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Please\\ print\\,\\ fill\\ out\\,\\ sign\\,\\ scan\\,\\ and\\ then\\ return\\ to\\ wuxiao\\@cs\\.cityu\\.edu\\.hk\\ via\\ email\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Name\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Signature\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Affiliation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Date\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/CC_WEB_VIDEO_Agreement.pdf", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Class Notes", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 292, "html": "\\\\\\CS\\ 105\\ class\\ notes1\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=PPcutrfjJnXeSrzpOE\\-0Jf2aXkZ\\_hkhpY07LpyURRlY\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c31\\{color\\:\\#003399\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"inherit\\\"\\}\\.c5\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c22\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c35\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c33\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c1\\{text\\-align\\:right\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c25\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c34\\{color\\:\\#003399\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\}\\.c3\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c26\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\\"\\}\\.c11\\{line\\-height\\:1\\.125\\;padding\\-top\\:12pt\\}\\.c7\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c18\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-18pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c28\\{color\\:\\#111111\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Lucida\\ Grande\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Helvetica\\\"\\}\\.c24\\{background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-bottom\\:18pt\\}\\.c32\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Lucida\\ Grande\\\"\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c16\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-bottom\\:12pt\\}\\.c20\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c27\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c17\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c29\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Wingdings\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c21\\{color\\:\\#386eff\\}\\.c23\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Privacy\\ and\\ Technology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/6\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ define\\ privacy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Immoral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ne\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;illegal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ne\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;creepy\\ all\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Immoral\\:\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Illegality\\:\\ held\\ accountable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Be\\ clear\\ about\\ your\\ distinctions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ privacy\\ with\\ exceptions\\:\\ certain\\ symptoms\\ are\\ required\\ by\\ law\\ to\\ be\\ submitted\\ to\\ public\\ health\\.\\ If\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ minor\\,\\ your\\ parens\\ have\\ your\\ medical\\ rights\\,\\ power\\ of\\ medical\\ attorney\\,\\ unconscious\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tension\\ in\\ privacy\\ is\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ none\\ of\\ your\\ business\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ have\\ you\\ got\\ to\\ hide\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aristotle\\:\\ separated\\ private\\ life\\ \\(within\\ home\\)\\ from\\ public\\ life\\.\\ This\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\;has\\ changed\\ a\\ lot\\ as\\ what\\ is\\ private\\ vs\\ public\\ expands\\ and\\ contracts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Person\\ vs\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Description\\,\\ reductionism\\,\\ coherentist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essential\\ right\\:\\ unalienable\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ limited\\ by\\ any\\ means\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Instrumental\\ right\\:\\ legal\\ right\\,\\ with\\ bounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Domestic\\ abuse\\,\\ murder\\,\\ medical\\ records\\,\\ right\\ to\\ life\\,\\ speech\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ want\\ privacy\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\intimacy\\,\\ autonomy\\,\\ self\\-determination\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prescriptive\\:\\ here\\ is\\ an\\ invation\\ of\\ privacy\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technology\\ allows\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ privacy\\ to\\ be\\ invaded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ privacy\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constitution\\:\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\,\\ right\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ secure\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\ Search\\ and\\ seizure\\ only\\ with\\ a\\ warrant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\:\\ freedom\\ from\\ the\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;amendment\\:\\ there\\ are\\ rights\\ granted\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ constitution\\.\\ Privacy\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ rights\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roe\\ vs\\.\\ Wade\\:\\ PRIVACY\\ case\\.\\ Constitution\\ has\\ penumbral\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ privacy\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ those\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ granted\\ through\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constitution\\ Grants\\ us\\ privacy\\ from\\ the\\ government\\.\\ Common\\ Law\\ protects\\ our\\ privacy\\ from\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ you\\ invade\\ my\\ privacy\\,\\ trespass\\/inrustion\\/harmed\\ my\\ reputation\\,\\ I\\ can\\ sue\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ common\\ law\\.\\ Enforced\\ through\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ private\\ action\\-\\ citizen\\ \\(not\\ government\\)\\ makes\\ claim\\ against\\ another\\ person\\.\\ Changes\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\/truth\\,\\ amount\\ of\\ evidence\\ needed\\.\\ Different\\ places\\ differ\\ in\\ WHO\\ enforces\\ laws\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Westin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Reserve\\ information\\ from\\ others\\.\\ Informational\\ privacy\\.\\ Around\\ the\\ time\\ 60\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ 70\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ large\\ databases\\ were\\ growing\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\ have\\ privacy\\ if\\ you\\ control\\ the\\ information\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Access\\ to\\ gather\\,\\ access\\ to\\ view\\,\\ access\\ to\\ disperse\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ privacy\\ violated\\ if\\ no\\ one\\ uses\\ it\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whose\\ information\\ is\\ it\\?\\ Consumer\\ or\\ company\\?\\ Photos\\-\\ Facebook\\&rsquo\\;s\\ or\\ citizen\\&rsquo\\;s\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ are\\ getting\\ \\ \\;a\\ free\\ product\\,\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ is\\ something\\ enforced\\?\\ Federal\\ Trade\\ commission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/11\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Latanya\\ Sweeney\\ Lecture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foundations\\ of\\ Privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;control\\ over\\ something\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ to\\ access\\ something\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Privacy\\ from\\ government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;privacy\\ from\\ corporations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Creepy\\ \\&ne\\;\\ immoral\\ \\ \\;\\&ne\\;\\ illegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ Technology\\ save\\ privacy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ got\\ us\\ in\\,\\ can\\ it\\ get\\ us\\ out\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Society\\ believes\\ that\\ utility\\ and\\ pirvacy\\ is\\ a\\ trade\\-off\\,\\ but\\ in\\ reality\\ you\\ CAN\\ have\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Technology\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ protect\\ privacy\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ challenges\\ it\\,\\ mostly\\ because\\ things\\ like\\ facebook\\ work\\ better\\ with\\ the\\ more\\ information\\ you\\ add\\ \\(as\\ do\\ all\\ modern\\ websites\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ players\\:\\ data\\ subject\\,\\ recipient\\,\\ and\\ provider\\.\\ Sometimes\\ subject\\ \\=\\ provider\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;Who\\ holds\\ the\\ power\\ sometimes\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Viox\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Data\\ Explosion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smaller\\,\\ cheaper\\ hard\\ drives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1995\\,\\ Hillary\\ Clinton\\:\\ Hospitals\\ store\\ and\\ publish\\ hospital\\ discharge\\ information\\ online\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dead\\ beat\\ dads\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Directory\\ of\\ new\\ hires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1974\\:\\ Fair\\ information\\ practices\\ virtually\\ only\\ applied\\ to\\ government\\ because\\ government\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ entity\\ wealthy\\ enough\\.\\ If\\ Zuckerberg\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ England\\,\\ he\\ never\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ launch\\ facebook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1990\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ collect\\ it\\ if\\ you\\ can\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2000\\&rsquo\\;s\\:\\ Exchange\\ data\\ for\\ services\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ way\\:\\ De\\-identification\\,\\ and\\ then\\ its\\ ok\\ to\\ share\\.\\ But\\ still\\ a\\ high\\ \\(sometimes\\ 87\\%\\)\\ of\\ still\\ figuring\\ it\\ out\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Old\\ way\\:\\ Informed\\ Consent\\.\\ You\\ know\\ and\\ accept\\ the\\ risk\\ before\\ going\\ forward\\.\\ BUT\\ virtually\\ none\\ tell\\ you\\ who\\ THEY\\ are\\ authorized\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ data\\ to\\ down\\ the\\ line\\.\\ Now\\ \\=\\ DEAD\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harvard\\ Student\\ \\@college\\ email\\:\\ school\\ can\\ access\\ at\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1500\\ Americans\\ have\\ consented\\ to\\ publish\\ records\\ online\\ for\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ you\\ tell\\ about\\ yourself\\,\\ you\\ tell\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ other\\ people\\.\\ What\\ restrictions\\ lie\\ here\\?\\ What\\ freedom\\ do\\ individuals\\ have\\ to\\ release\\ information\\,\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ reveals\\ information\\ about\\ other\\ people\\?\\ Ex\\)\\ Hereditary\\ diseases\\.\\ Right\\ now\\,\\ people\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ publish\\ a\\ book\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;tell\\ all\\ about\\ everything\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Unbelievably\\ murky\\.\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ twin\\,\\ do\\ you\\ own\\ your\\ sequence\\?\\ Right\\ now\\,\\ if\\ you\\ wanna\\ share\\ it\\,\\ you\\ can\\ share\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ privacy\\ and\\ technology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Threat\\ model\\ based\\ on\\ occurrence\\ and\\ impact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ decide\\ with\\ code\\ how\\ users\\ will\\ engage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Google\\ map\\ cannot\\ film\\ in\\ Europe\\ because\\ it\\ will\\ capture\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;POLICY\\ DOC\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;HOW\\ TO\\ WRITE\\ A\\ POLICY\\ DOC\\&rdquo\\;\\ notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SAY\\ THE\\ MOST\\ IMPORTANT\\ THING\\ FIRST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Identify\\ problem\\ and\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\offer\\ solutions\\ and\\ action\\/position\\ audience\\ should\\ take\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\why\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ other\\ solutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\feasibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\steps\\ to\\ take\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\obstacles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\technology\\?\\ Government\\ mandate\\?\\ Market\\ incentives\\?\\ Campaigns\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tradeoffs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\take\\ a\\ stand\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ evidence\\,\\ persuasive\\,\\ succinct\\,\\ realistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Presentation\\:\\ Bullet\\ points\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/13\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ Harvard\\ look\\ at\\ your\\ email\\?\\ Yes\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ pain\\ in\\ the\\ ass\\,\\ so\\ they\\ likely\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ A\\ firing\\ offense\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ through\\ proper\\ procedure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\-18\\-2012\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Focult\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Panopticon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ think\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ being\\ watched\\,\\ you\\ will\\ act\\ differently\\.\\ Build\\ an\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ always\\ have\\ to\\ assume\\ you\\ are\\ being\\ watched\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WHO\\?\\ Is\\ watching\\?\\ What\\ are\\ their\\ motives\\?\\ WHERE\\ are\\ you\\ being\\ watched\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ are\\ just\\ recording\\ video\\,\\ you\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ consent\\ of\\ the\\ person\\.\\ If\\ you\\ want\\ audio\\,\\ you\\ need\\ consent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\ I\\ of\\ 18\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Code\\ Section\\ 2510\\ of\\ the\\ Electronic\\ Communications\\ Privacy\\ Act\\ of\\ 1986\\ states\\ that\\ video\\ surveillance\\ cameras\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ watching\\ and\\ recording\\ citizens\\ without\\ their\\ knowledge\\ or\\ consent\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ no\\ sound\\ is\\ recorded\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\Read\\ more\\:\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Legal\\ Issues\\ Concerning\\ Surveillance\\ Cameras\\ \\|\\ eHow\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.ehow\\.com\\/about\\_6049703\\_legal\\-issues\\-concerning\\-surveillance\\-cameras\\.html\\#ixzz26qNybLHs\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Related\\ to\\ wiretapping\\ laws\\ because\\ tape\\ recorders\\ were\\ invented\\ before\\ videorecorders\\.\\ Lip\\ reading\\ is\\ legal\\.\\ You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ your\\ conversation\\ recorded\\ without\\ consent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ public\\?\\ What\\ is\\ private\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\School\\ computers\\ given\\ to\\ students\\ with\\ webcams\\ to\\ watch\\ them\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DHCP\\:\\ Harvard\\ network\\ makes\\ it\\ so\\ my\\ IP\\ address\\ is\\ different\\ in\\ a\\ classroom\\ than\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ Starbucks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Copyright\\ laws\\ use\\ IP\\ addresses\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ who\\ is\\ illegally\\ pirating\\ music\\ and\\ videos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\ student\\ machines\\ running\\ OS2\\&hellip\\;how\\?\\ Virtual\\ machines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cookies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WWW\\ was\\ invented\\ to\\ share\\ scientific\\ papers\\ on\\ the\\ internet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ guy\\ came\\ along\\ and\\ invented\\ first\\ browser\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;transactions\\.\\ Client\\ must\\ store\\ information\\ and\\ send\\ it\\ over\\ every\\ time\\ you\\ need\\ information\\.\\ Cookies\\ started\\ off\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ serveers\\ to\\ know\\ who\\ they\\ are\\ talking\\ to\\.\\ Cookies\\ are\\ stored\\ on\\ client\\,\\ so\\ client\\ can\\ send\\ information\\ to\\ server\\.\\ Initially\\,\\ only\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ information\\ needed\\ for\\ transaction\\ was\\ stored\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.but\\ this\\ information\\ grew\\.\\ Now\\ browser\\ will\\ get\\ code\\ from\\ server\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Java\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Security\\ Model\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Javascript\\ \\(NOT\\ SIMILAR\\ TO\\ JAVA\\)\\.\\ Javascript\\ knows\\ what\\ OTHER\\ sites\\ you\\ have\\ been\\ to\\,\\ which\\ helps\\ with\\ ads\\.\\ If\\ you\\ reset\\ your\\ cookies\\,\\ your\\ ad\\ preferences\\ will\\ change\\ and\\ you\\ will\\ lose\\ \\&ldquo\\;remembered\\&rdquo\\;\\ passwords\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Internet\\ sites\\ know\\ my\\ preferences\\:\\ invasion\\ of\\ privacy\\ or\\ customer\\ service\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Store\\ knows\\ girl\\ is\\ pregnant\\ before\\ her\\ dad\\ does\\,\\ but\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amazon\\ can\\ recommend\\ me\\ products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\-20\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;social\\ good\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\ \\&ldquo\\;autonomy\\,\\ privacy\\,\\ self\\-control\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Congressional\\ directive\\ to\\ track\\ homeless\\ people\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ save\\ money\\.\\ Privacy\\ laws\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unduplicative\\ accounting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\HUD\\:\\ Homeless\\ Management\\ Information\\ Systems\\ \\(HMIS\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Client\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ information\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;shelter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;planning\\ office\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;accounting\\ office\\ \\(HUD\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lawsuits\\ threatened\\ because\\ most\\ homeless\\ people\\ were\\ women\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ victims\\ of\\ domestic\\ violence\\ and\\ were\\ hiding\\ from\\ stalkers\\ with\\ children\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Information\\ extracted\\:\\ NOT\\ NAME\\,\\ NOT\\ SS\\#\\,\\ but\\ it\\ did\\ include\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unique\\ identifier\\ UID\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Encoding\\ information\\ in\\ UID\\&hellip\\;stupid\\ because\\ its\\ easy\\ to\\ decode\\ when\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DOB\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ethnicity\\/race\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gender\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Veteran\\ status\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Disabling\\ condition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Residence\\ prior\\ to\\ program\\ entry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Code\\ of\\ last\\ permanent\\ address\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ entry\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ exit\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Income\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Non\\-cash\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Physical\\ disability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&hellip\\;etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Planning\\ office\\ got\\ AGGREGATE\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\About\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ population\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ fingerprint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Threat\\:\\ planning\\ office\\ has\\ lots\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\NEWS\\ BLAST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/13\\/12u\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\News\\:\\ \\ \\;Senate\\ Bill\\ is\\ amending\\ 1986\\ privacy\\ law\\ so\\ you\\ need\\ a\\ warrant\\ to\\ view\\ emails\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\House\\:\\ warrantless\\ wiretapping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Japan\\:\\ RSA\\ and\\ prime\\ numbers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\new\\ private\\ company\\ tracks\\ where\\ you\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ phone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/18\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Microsoft\\&rsquo\\;s\\ internet\\ 10\\,\\ to\\ be\\ released\\ in\\ October\\,\\ will\\ automatically\\ come\\ with\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;do\\ not\\ track\\&rdquo\\;\\ setting\\,\\ which\\ people\\ can\\ opt\\ to\\ have\\ if\\ they\\ want\\.\\ This\\ will\\ devastate\\ advertisement\\ companies\\,\\ because\\ consumers\\ tend\\ not\\ to\\ change\\ preset\\ technology\\ options\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Other\\ browsers\\ are\\ adding\\ it\\,\\ but\\ microsoft\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ automatic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.post\\-gazette\\.com\\/stories\\/business\\/technology\\/when\\-the\\-privacy\\-button\\-is\\-already\\-pressed\\-653623\\/\\#ixzz26mbctltW\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.foxnews\\.com\\/us\\/2012\\/09\\/12\\/texas\\-school\\-district\\-defends\\-use\\-student\\-tracking\\-mart\\-id\\-card\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\/20\\/12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Keller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prosecutors\\ said\\ the\\ investigation\\ into\\ Keller\\ began\\ in\\ October\\ 2010\\,\\ when\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Postal\\ Inspection\\ Service\\ and\\ foreign\\ law\\ enforcement\\ began\\ an\\ investigation\\ into\\ a\\ foreign\\ movie\\ production\\ company\\ that\\ operated\\ a\\ website\\ offering\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ DVDs\\ and\\ streaming\\ videos\\ featuring\\ young\\ boys\\.They\\ said\\ Keller\\ had\\ placed\\ online\\ orders\\ with\\ the\\ company\\ 19\\ different\\ times\\,\\ and\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ videos\\ he\\ received\\ featured\\ nude\\ minor\\ boys\\ undressing\\,\\ wrestling\\,\\ showering\\ and\\ playing\\ Twister\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/bdtonline\\.com\\/cnhi\\/x1052798425\\/Childrens\\-Hospital\\-doctor\\-accused\\-of\\-buying\\-child\\-porn\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Law\\ enforcement\\ reported\\ that\\ they\\ discovered\\ Keller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ transactions\\ in\\ a\\ search\\ of\\ the\\ customer\\ database\\ of\\ a\\ movie\\ production\\ company\\,\\ which\\ sold\\ explicit\\ DVDs\\ and\\ streaming\\ media\\ featuring\\ underage\\ boys\\ on\\ their\\ website\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ Criminal\\ Complaint\\ at\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ District\\ Court\\.\\ Keller\\ allegedly\\ received\\ 19\\ orders\\ between\\ July\\ 2009\\ and\\ January\\ 2011\\,\\ including\\ 50\\ DVDs\\ that\\ totaled\\ over\\ \\$2695\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ affidavit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Postal\\ Inspection\\ Service\\ began\\ investigating\\ the\\ company\\ in\\ October\\ 2010\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ August\\ 4\\,\\ 2011\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Department\\ of\\ Justice\\,\\ Criminal\\ Division\\,\\ Child\\ Exploitation\\ and\\ Obscenity\\ Section\\ \\(CEOS\\)\\ issued\\ an\\ administrative\\ subpoena\\ to\\ Comcast\\ Cable\\ Communications\\ for\\ information\\ concerning\\ an\\ e\\-mail\\ address\\ discovered\\ during\\ the\\ search\\ of\\ the\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ customer\\ database\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ affidavit\\.\\ The\\ affidavit\\ also\\ revealed\\ that\\ on\\ May\\ 2\\,\\ 2012\\,\\ CEOS\\ issued\\ an\\ additional\\ subpoena\\ to\\ Comcast\\ Cable\\ Communications\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\These\\ subpoenas\\ yielded\\ records\\ which\\ confirmed\\ that\\ the\\ e\\-mail\\ address\\ belonged\\ to\\ Keller\\.\\ The\\ records\\ also\\ showed\\ the\\ addresses\\ of\\ his\\ previous\\ and\\ current\\ residences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yesterday\\ the\\ court\\ authorized\\ a\\ search\\ warrant\\ for\\ Keller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ current\\ address\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.phillipian\\.net\\/articles\\/2012\\/09\\/13\\/dr\\-richard\\-keller\\-former\\-medical\\-director\\-arrested\\-child\\-porn\\-allegations\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ cookies\\ stored\\ by\\ computer\\ or\\ by\\ the\\ user\\ logged\\ on\\?\\ One\\ the\\ same\\ \\&ldquo\\;logged\\ on\\&rdquo\\;\\ user\\,\\ can\\ you\\ have\\ multiple\\ cookie\\ accounts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\-25\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abine\\:\\ online\\ privacy\\ company\\ \\(guest\\ speaker\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DNT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Deleteme\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Privacywatch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\&rdquo\\;\\ information\\.\\ What\\ do\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ delete\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Average\\ websites\\ shares\\ your\\ information\\ with\\ 13\\ other\\ companies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Turning\\ off\\ cookies\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\:\\ companies\\ find\\ ways\\ around\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Imagine\\ what\\ facebook\\ will\\ do\\ if\\ it\\ wants\\ to\\ sell\\ your\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ background\\ checks\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ mixed\\ up\\ with\\ criminals\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Youtube\\ allows\\ face\\ blurring\\ when\\ you\\ submit\\ videos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Several\\ ways\\ to\\ identify\\ a\\ user\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IP\\ address\\,\\ browser\\,\\ cookies\\,\\ etags\\,\\ parameters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Websites\\ draw\\ 1\\-pixel\\ \\ \\;images\\ from\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;party\\ websites\\,\\ who\\ can\\ then\\ recognize\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ reading\\ pixel\\ information\\,\\ companies\\ can\\ take\\ screen\\ shots\\ of\\ your\\ computer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\By\\ making\\ the\\ right\\ criteria\\,\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ adds\\ that\\ target\\ just\\ one\\ person\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Panopticlick\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\www\\.spokeo\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ an\\ online\\ search\\ engine\\ for\\ people\\:\\ name\\,\\ age\\,\\ location\\,\\ social\\ networks\\,\\ family\\ members\\,\\ income\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campaign\\ software\\:\\ know\\ how\\ person\\ voted\\ based\\ on\\ address\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.abine\\.com\\/marketing\\/howitworks\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;deletes\\ your\\ personal\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\advertising\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ share\\ your\\ information\\:\\ runs\\ through\\ an\\ aggregator\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\can\\ we\\ pay\\ companies\\ to\\ delete\\ our\\ past\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Companies\\ probably\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ all\\ their\\ data\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ becoming\\ a\\ liability\\ since\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ protect\\ it\\ all\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;it\\ could\\ get\\ leaked\\ and\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ get\\ sued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robbers\\ can\\ monitor\\ twitters\\ to\\ see\\ when\\ people\\ go\\ on\\ vacation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\-2\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trust\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ verify\\ information\\ without\\ breaching\\ privacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Documents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Medical\\ records\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Insurance\\,\\ loans\\,\\ bank\\ accounts\\,\\ IDs\\,\\ birth\\ certificate\\,\\ driver\\&rsquo\\;s\\ license\\,\\ social\\ security\\ card\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Driver\\&rsquo\\;s\\ license\\ \\(state\\)\\,\\ birth\\ certificate\\ \\(county\\)\\,\\ passports\\ \\(country\\)\\,\\ death\\ certificate\\ \\(county\\)\\,\\ from\\ different\\ places\\,\\ often\\ do\\ not\\ verify\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ How\\ did\\ documents\\ get\\ issued\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ trust\\/authority\\ level\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ the\\ issuing\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\give\\ dead\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ birth\\ certificate\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crests\\:\\ complex\\,\\ expensive\\,\\ difficult\\ to\\ duplicate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Higher\\ currency\\ designs\\ are\\ more\\ complex\\ and\\ difficult\\ to\\ reproduce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notaries\\:\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ getting\\ bribed\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ trust\\ the\\ people\\ making\\ the\\ crests\\?\\ That\\ they\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ sell\\ fake\\ ones\\ to\\ the\\ black\\ market\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VULNERABILITY\\?\\ How\\ possible\\ is\\ it\\ to\\ recreate\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COST\\?\\ How\\ much\\ does\\ it\\ cost\\ to\\ reproduce\\ the\\ thing\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ trusting\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VALUE\\ of\\ successful\\ exploitation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DETECTION\\:\\ how\\ hard\\/easy\\ is\\ it\\ to\\ detect\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COST\\ OF\\ DETECTION\\:\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ investigation\\ costs\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\COST\\ OF\\ NON\\-DETECTION\\:\\ for\\ investigators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PENALTY\\:\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ repercussions\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ caught\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\College\\ application\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Getting\\ someone\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ SAT\\ for\\ you\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Almost\\ all\\ college\\ apps\\ come\\ in\\ electronically\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Electronic\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;photoshop\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;printer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fax\\ machine\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ something\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;look\\ right\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ is\\ it\\ fair\\ to\\ reject\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ can\\ we\\ make\\ forging\\ documents\\ more\\ expensive\\ than\\ its\\ worth\\?\\ How\\ can\\ we\\ raise\\ the\\ stakes\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ caught\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unit\\ 3\\:\\ Authentication\\ of\\ People\\ using\\ a\\ Number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Princeton\\ used\\ applicant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\,\\ DOB\\,\\ SSN\\ to\\ log\\ into\\ Yale\\&rsquo\\;s\\ applicant\\ portal\\ to\\ find\\ admissions\\ packet\\ to\\ students\\,\\ and\\ then\\ offer\\ them\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dropbox\\ hashing\\ function\\:\\ 160\\ bit\\ hash\\ identifies\\ document\\,\\ \\~0\\%\\ chance\\,\\ but\\ not\\ \\=0\\%\\.\\ Used\\ by\\ media\\ companies\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ mp3s\\ or\\ videos\\ have\\ been\\ uploaded\\ illegally\\ on\\ dropbox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Send\\ the\\ hash\\,\\ send\\ the\\ document\\,\\ make\\ sure\\ they\\ match\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-fingerprint\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\paired\\ cryptology\\:\\ k\\ codes\\,\\ k\\-1\\ decodes\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ andover\\ uses\\ k\\ to\\ encrypt\\ my\\ text\\,\\ Harvard\\ uses\\ k\\-1\\ to\\ decrypt\\ it\\.\\ Easy\\ to\\ decrypt\\,\\ impossible\\ to\\ encrypt\\ without\\ private\\ key\\.\\ If\\ you\\ alter\\ the\\ document\\,\\ the\\ input\\ key\\ is\\ different\\ and\\ it\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ decrypt\\ properly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TurnItIn\\ does\\ not\\ flag\\ plagiarism\\,\\ it\\ flags\\ similarities\\.\\ So\\,\\ it\\ also\\ flags\\ direct\\ quotes\\ in\\ essays\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\False\\ positive\\:\\ accusing\\ someone\\ of\\ plagiarism\\ who\\ is\\ innocent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\False\\ negative\\:\\ failing\\ to\\ accuse\\ a\\ guilty\\ person\\/plagiarized\\ document\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Both\\ may\\ have\\ immense\\ consequences\\,\\ but\\ we\\ will\\ never\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ school\\ exists\\?\\ New\\ charter\\ school\\?\\ Schools\\ abroad\\?\\ In\\ China\\,\\ Chinese\\ schools\\ have\\ incentives\\ to\\ give\\ kids\\ good\\ transcripts\\ because\\ it\\ makes\\ the\\ school\\ look\\ good\\ if\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ student\\ get\\ into\\ Harvard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ taking\\ online\\ tests\\?\\ Interviews\\ for\\ someone\\ else\\?\\ SAT\\ for\\ someone\\ else\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ of\\ Phone\\ Lines\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Party\\ line\\:\\ multiple\\ houses\\ shared\\ the\\ same\\ phone\\ line\\,\\ so\\ houses\\ had\\ to\\ coordinate\\ to\\ use\\ phone\\.\\ If\\ someone\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ sneaky\\/inconsiderate\\,\\ they\\ technically\\ could\\ pick\\ up\\ the\\ phone\\ while\\ their\\ neighbor\\ was\\ using\\ the\\ phone\\ and\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ conversation\\ \\(Just\\ like\\ now\\,\\ I\\ could\\ technically\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ brother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conversation\\ with\\ another\\ house\\ phone\\ if\\ he\\ used\\ our\\ home\\ landline\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ people\\ dialed\\ out\\,\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ operator\\,\\ who\\ connected\\ them\\ to\\ whom\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ call\\.\\ Operators\\ often\\ HAD\\ to\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ conversations\\ to\\ judge\\ quality\\ of\\ call\\ \\(make\\ sure\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ static\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1928\\ Early\\ Olmstead\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Case\\ 1928\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Declared\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ privacy\\ on\\ phone\\ lines\\.\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ wiretapping\\ and\\ listening\\ in\\ is\\ legal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Then\\,\\ technology\\ advanced\\,\\ houses\\ stopped\\ sharing\\ phones\\,\\ and\\ people\\ no\\ longer\\ used\\ operators\\ to\\ dial\\ out\\.\\ It\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ assumed\\ that\\ people\\ were\\ listening\\ in\\ on\\ your\\ call\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1934\\ Federal\\ Communications\\ Act\\ by\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ A\\ warrant\\ is\\ now\\ required\\ to\\ listen\\ in\\ on\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ call\\.\\ Warrants\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ get\\ and\\ require\\ evidence\\ \\&ldquo\\;beyond\\ reasonable\\ doubt\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ However\\,\\ with\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\court\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(which\\ is\\ really\\ easy\\ to\\ get\\,\\ literally\\ just\\ tell\\ the\\ judge\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ interested\\ in\\ this\\ info\\ for\\ my\\ case\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ a\\ court\\ order\\ in\\ 5\\ minutes\\)\\,\\ people\\ can\\ get\\ access\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pen\\ registers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ are\\ records\\ of\\ the\\ numbers\\ dialed\\ in\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ phone\\ line\\.\\ Pen\\ registers\\ do\\ not\\ reveal\\ WHAT\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ conversation\\ is\\,\\ but\\ it\\ they\\ reveal\\ WHO\\ the\\ conversation\\ was\\ with\\ \\(which\\ is\\ sometimes\\ just\\ as\\ important\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berger\\ 1967\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ People\\ using\\ telephones\\ have\\ a\\ reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ Privacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHANGE\\ IN\\ CONSTITUTIONAL\\ LAW\\ REFLECTS\\ CHANGE\\ IN\\ TECHNOLOGY\\.\\ Right\\ now\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ courts\\ have\\ some\\ catching\\ up\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reflect\\ modern\\ technology\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recent\\ voicemail\\ scandal\\ in\\ Europe\\:\\ Cell\\ phones\\ come\\ with\\ default\\ passwords\\ for\\ voicemail\\.\\ In\\ America\\,\\ each\\ cellphone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ default\\ password\\ is\\ unique\\.\\ In\\ Europe\\,\\ cell\\ phone\\ default\\ passwords\\ are\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ \\(Europe\\ and\\ US\\ use\\ different\\ cell\\ phone\\ companies\\)\\.\\ This\\ made\\ it\\ VERY\\ easy\\ for\\ people\\ in\\ Europe\\ to\\ hack\\ other\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voicemails\\ \\(anyone\\ can\\ call\\ in\\ to\\ their\\ voicemail\\ from\\ any\\ phone\\&hellip\\;they\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ input\\ a\\ password\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Closing\\ Questions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Is\\ hacking\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ voicemail\\ illegal\\?\\ Should\\ it\\ be\\?\\ What\\ about\\ text\\ messages\\?\\ What\\ about\\ landlines\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ reasonable\\ expectation\\ of\\ privacy\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\10\\/18\\/2012\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wiretapping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Listening\\ to\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ calls\\ without\\ them\\ knowing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oxford\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;informal\\ exchange\\ of\\ ideas\\ by\\ spoken\\ words\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\conversation\\ vs\\.\\ communication\\:\\ merging\\ and\\ will\\ merge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\does\\ it\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ updated\\ to\\ include\\ text\\ messages\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Temporal\\:\\ real\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sign\\ language\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Intimate\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Private\\ \\(1\\-1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;semi\\-private\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;semi\\-public\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bi\\-directional\\ conversation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Blog\\ post\\,\\ twitter\\,\\ CS50\\ EdEx\\,\\ Science\\ Center\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\America\\ has\\ 2\\,175\\ privacy\\ laws\\ \\(state\\ \\+\\ federal\\)\\ \\ \\;\\=\\ \\~40\\/state\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Europe\\:\\ blanket\\ law\\,\\ technology\\ must\\ get\\ approved\\ before\\ it\\ hits\\ market\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\-party\\ laws\\:\\ only\\ need\\ permission\\ of\\ one\\ person\\ to\\ record\\ conversation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alaska\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\-party\\ \\(\\=all\\-parties\\)\\ laws\\:\\ must\\ require\\ both\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ permission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Massachusetts\\,\\ California\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Misdemeanor\\ vs\\.\\ felony\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ a\\ third\\ person\\ joins\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ conversation\\ without\\ permission\\,\\ do\\ they\\ become\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;party\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ conversation\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ happens\\ across\\ different\\ states\\?\\ Calls\\ with\\ England\\?\\ Skype\\ calls\\ landline\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Speakerphone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Classroom\\ \\=\\ public\\ address\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LAW\\:\\ WE\\ CAN\\ VIDEOTAPE\\ PEOPLE\\ IN\\ PUBLIC\\ WITHOUT\\ SOUND\\.\\ But\\ we\\ can\\ NOT\\ record\\ conversations\\ without\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Constitution\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ videotape\\ police\\,\\ but\\ mom\\ got\\ arrested\\ for\\ videotaping\\ child\\ getting\\ on\\ school\\ bus\\ \\(got\\ driver\\ on\\ camera\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cellphone\\ tapping\\:\\ no\\ longer\\ can\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;connect\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ wire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ a\\ voice\\ recording\\ from\\ my\\ own\\ cell\\ phone\\ conversation\\ with\\ someone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Text\\ messages\\ not\\ currently\\ covered\\ by\\ wiretapping\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pen\\ register\\:\\ show\\ phone\\ numbers\\ dialed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Packet\\ sniffer\\:\\ used\\ \\ \\;a\\ lot\\ in\\ free\\ wifi\\ services\\ \\(password\\ could\\ go\\ in\\ the\\ clear\\)\\.\\ Not\\ allowed\\ on\\ Harvard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ campus\\,\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ through\\ broadband\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Is\\ a\\ voice\\ text\\ a\\ recording\\,\\ a\\ text\\,\\ or\\ a\\ voicemail\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ one\\ person\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ video\\ for\\ 5\\ minutes\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ hour\\ long\\ video\\?\\ What\\ if\\ the\\ clips\\ including\\ just\\ one\\ person\\ are\\ clipped\\,\\ photoshopped\\,\\ and\\ compiled\\ into\\ a\\ video\\ that\\ only\\ includes\\ them\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ technology\\ is\\ changing\\ is\\ so\\ rapid\\,\\ and\\ the\\ crossover\\ between\\ email\\ and\\ text\\ is\\ already\\ ambiguous\\.\\ As\\ it\\ is\\,\\ I\\ can\\ send\\ a\\ text\\ message\\ from\\ my\\ email\\ to\\ a\\ phone\\ number\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ someone\\ oversees\\ my\\ text\\ and\\ shares\\ the\\ content\\,\\ is\\ that\\ my\\ fault\\?\\ What\\ if\\ they\\ overhear\\ a\\ voicemail\\ that\\ I\\ play\\ back\\ because\\ the\\ volume\\ is\\ too\\ loud\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biometrics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fingerprint\\ \\(fingers\\ can\\ swell\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\iris\\ scan\\ \\(does\\ not\\ really\\ change\\ over\\ time\\,\\ but\\ artificial\\ colored\\ contacts\\?\\)\\,\\ retina\\ scan\\ \\(behind\\ the\\ eye\\,\\ changes\\ if\\ a\\ cataract\\ develops\\,\\ must\\ be\\ super\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ machine\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\face\\ recognition\\ \\(photos\\?\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gait\\ \\(algorithmically\\ check\\ walk\\)\\,\\ injuries\\?\\ Intentionally\\ change\\ walk\\?\\ Heels\\ vs\\.\\ flats\\ vs\\.\\ sneakers\\,\\ speed\\,\\ nerves\\,\\ \\(invasion\\ of\\ how\\ you\\ feel\\?\\ Is\\ this\\ true\\ of\\ speech\\ too\\?\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\keyboard\\ typing\\ \\(rhythm\\,\\ arc\\ of\\ fingers\\,\\ speed\\,\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ keyboard\\,\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ check\\ if\\ someone\\ else\\ steals\\ your\\ password\\,\\ easy\\ to\\ intentionally\\ change\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\signature\\ \\(used\\ everywhere\\,\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ and\\ practice\\ writing\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\DNA\\ \\(similarities\\ in\\ families\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;privacy\\.\\ Can\\ identical\\ twin\\ object\\?\\)\\.\\ DNA\\ can\\ change\\ with\\ too\\ much\\ sun\\ exposure\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ can\\ have\\ 2\\ sets\\ of\\ DNA\\,\\ voices\\,\\ pheromones\\/smell\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Machines\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ some\\ biometrics\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Challenge\\:\\ duplicates\\,\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Up\\ close\\ \\(overt\\,\\ consensual\\)\\ vs\\.\\ distance\\ \\(covert\\,\\ target\\ oblivious\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\False\\ positives\\ and\\ false\\ negatives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ ok\\ to\\ get\\ without\\ their\\ permission\\,\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ not\\ ok\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Biometrics\\:\\ Identification\\ vs\\.\\ Verification\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Project\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chinese\\ internet\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Privacy\\ over\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ DNA\\,\\ physical\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alaskalandsinc\\.\\ Spy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Birth\\ certificate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Advertising\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ security\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\11\\-15\\-12\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abstract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ paragraph\\,\\ complete\\ summary\\ of\\ entire\\ paper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Pick\\ up\\ check\\,\\ cash\\ check\\,\\ print\\ photo\\ from\\ CVS\\,\\ call\\ back\\ mom\\,\\ call\\ back\\ Jeremy\\,\\ print\\ out\\ visa\\ forms\\,\\ make\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ freshmen\\ events\\,\\ gather\\ receipts\\ from\\ last\\ night\\,\\ finish\\ chinese\\ hw\\,\\ insurance\\ on\\ bike\\ and\\ computer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 66, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/CS 105 class notes1.docx", "desc": "Lecture notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:57:29.019991+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "asdfasdf", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 273, "html": null, "course_id": 3, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still7.doc", "desc": "asdf"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 17:59:54.592833+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "foo bar test", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 274, "html": null, "course_id": 3, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still8.doc", "desc": "test"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.101727+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 1: What is a Book? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 294, "html": "\\Reading\\:\\\r\\\\\\\\ A\\ New\\ Introduction\\ to\\ Bibliography\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ Philip\\ Gaskell\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Appropriately\\ for\\ a\\ class\\ on\\ this\\ subject\\,\\ the\\ freshman\\ seminar\\ The\\ Book\\:\\ From\\ Gutenberg\\ to\\ the\\ Internet\\ is\\ held\\ in\\ Houghton\\,\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rare\\ books\\ library\\.\\ I\\ set\\ out\\ well\\-prepared\\ for\\ my\\ first\\ day\\ of\\ class\\,\\ armed\\ with\\ a\\ backpack\\ of\\ shiny\\ pens\\ and\\ pristine\\ new\\ notebooks\\.\\ Yet\\ when\\ I\\ arrived\\ at\\ Houghton\\,\\ the\\ guard\\ directed\\ to\\ me\\ a\\ locker\\ where\\ I\\ was\\ to\\ dump\\ all\\ of\\ my\\ belongings\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ no\\ ink\\ or\\ pocketed\\ notebooks\\ allowed\\ in\\ the\\ library\\.\\ \\ \\What\\ is\\ this\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\ I\\ thought\\,\\ feeling\\ stripped\\ of\\ my\\ scholarly\\ tools\\.\\ My\\ classmates\\ stood\\ around\\ looking\\ similarly\\ befuddled\\ in\\ the\\ locker\\ room\\.\\ When\\ a\\ librarian\\ appeared\\ to\\ lead\\ us\\ up\\ a\\ winding\\ staircase\\ to\\ our\\ seminar\\ room\\,\\ she\\ placated\\ our\\ unsettled\\ looks\\ by\\ assuring\\ is\\ that\\ upstairs\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ paper\\,\\ pencils\\,\\ and\\&\\#8230\\;Darnton\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Darnton\\,\\ who\\ leads\\ the\\ seminar\\,\\ is\\ a\\ prominent\\ historian\\ and\\ a\\ leading\\ expert\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ He\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ long\\-time\\ history\\ professor\\ at\\ Princeton\\ University\\ until\\ this\\ fall\\,\\ when\\ he\\ joined\\ Harvard\\ as\\ the\\ director\\ of\\ Harvard\\ University\\ Library\\.\\&\\#8220\\;I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ a\\ freshman\\ too\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ joked\\,\\ dissipating\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ tension\\ that\\ surrounded\\ our\\ bizarre\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ class\\ in\\ the\\ Houghton\\ lobby\\.\\ After\\ a\\ short\\ introduction\\ of\\ himself\\ and\\ the\\ requirements\\ of\\ the\\ course\\&\\#8212\\;readings\\,\\ two\\ oral\\ presentations\\,\\ and\\ a\\ 20\\ page\\ research\\ paper\\&\\#8212\\;Professor\\ Darnton\\ jumped\\ right\\ into\\ the\\ material\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ reading\\ for\\ our\\ first\\ class\\ consisted\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ Philip\\ Gaskell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ formidable\\ \\A\\ New\\ Introduction\\ to\\ Bibliography\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ Bibliography\\,\\ as\\ I\\ very\\ quickly\\ learned\\,\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ worked\\ cited\\ pages\\ you\\ tack\\ onto\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ your\\ research\\ paper\\;\\ bibliography\\ is\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ books\\ as\\ material\\ objects\\.\\ Gaskell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ is\\ very\\ dry\\ and\\ technical\\,\\ but\\ it\\ provides\\ a\\ detailed\\ introduction\\ to\\ bibliography\\ as\\ the\\ title\\ promised\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Before\\ delving\\ into\\ anymore\\ details\\ though\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ like\\ to\\ pull\\ back\\ and\\ look\\ at\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ foundational\\ questions\\ of\\ this\\ course\\:\\ What\\ is\\ a\\ book\\?\\ At\\ first\\ glance\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ seems\\ obvious\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ rectangular\\ blocks\\ of\\ paper\\ that\\ line\\ the\\ shelves\\ of\\ every\\ library\\.\\ But\\ a\\ closer\\ examination\\ reveals\\ at\\ the\\ boundaries\\ are\\ blurred\\.\\ Are\\ the\\ Egyptian\\ papyrus\\ scrolls\\ books\\?\\ Are\\ a\\ merchant\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ accounting\\ notebooks\\ books\\?\\ Are\\ published\\ pamphlets\\ books\\?\\ Is\\ a\\ book\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ its\\ physical\\ pages\\ or\\ the\\ contents\\ of\\ its\\ pages\\?\\ The\\ answer\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ say\\,\\ lies\\ somewhere\\ in\\ between\\.\\ \\ For\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ this\\ seminar\\,\\ our\\ research\\ on\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ will\\ begin\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ book\\ first\\ became\\ a\\ major\\ force\\ in\\ Western\\ civilization\\&\\#8212\\;with\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bibles\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ answer\\ to\\ whether\\ a\\ book\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ material\\ properties\\ or\\ its\\ contents\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ not\\ static\\.\\ Nowadays\\,\\ we\\ often\\ scoff\\ at\\ those\\ superficial\\ enough\\ to\\ judge\\ books\\ by\\ their\\ covers\\.\\ Gaskell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ singular\\ fixation\\ on\\ the\\ physical\\ properties\\ of\\ a\\ book\\,\\ however\\,\\ reflects\\ the\\ attitude\\ toward\\ books\\ during\\ the\\ hand\\-press\\ period\\ \\(roughly\\ 1500\\-1800\\)\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Paper\\ consciousness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ the\\ term\\ used\\ by\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\.\\ Advertising\\ for\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ period\\ would\\ often\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ paper\\ quality\\ or\\ typography\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ Just\\ imagine\\ a\\ book\\ being\\ sold\\ with\\ the\\ sticker\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Set\\ in\\ \\Comic\\ Sans\\<\\/a\\>\\!\\&\\#8221\\;\\ these\\ days\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ it\\ was\\ paper\\ that\\ was\\ most\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ printing\\ of\\ a\\ book\\.\\ For\\ a\\ run\\ of\\ 1000\\ copies\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ paper\\ would\\ account\\ for\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ book\\.\\ Books\\ were\\ also\\ sold\\ in\\ loose\\ sheets\\,\\ which\\ one\\ then\\ took\\ to\\ the\\ bookbinder\\ to\\ be\\ folded\\,\\ cut\\ and\\ bound\\.\\ A\\ sheet\\ was\\ both\\ the\\ unit\\ of\\ production\\ and\\ calculation\\.\\ To\\ give\\ us\\ some\\ insight\\ into\\ the\\ making\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ read\\ about\\ it\\ in\\ Gaskell\\,\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ had\\ us\\ book\\ up\\ a\\ sheet\\ of\\ paper\\ on\\ our\\ own\\ and\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ imposition\\,\\ or\\ how\\ the\\ pages\\ on\\ set\\ on\\ a\\ sheet\\.\\ Below\\,\\ is\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ quarto\\,\\ a\\ sheet\\ of\\ paper\\ that\\ will\\ become\\ four\\ leafs\\ or\\ eight\\ pages\\.\\ Other\\ common\\ forms\\ are\\ folio\\ \\(as\\ in\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ First\\ Folio\\,\\ two\\ leafs\\)\\ and\\ octavo\\ \\(eight\\ leafs\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Also\\ interesting\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ making\\ paper\\ in\\ the\\ 16th\\ to\\ 18th\\ centuries\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ wood\\ pulp\\,\\ paper\\ was\\ made\\ from\\ linen\\ recycled\\ from\\ rags\\.\\ Rag\\ pickers\\ would\\ go\\ around\\ house\\ to\\ house\\ collecting\\ old\\ clothing\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ wetted\\,\\ rotted\\,\\ beaten\\,\\ and\\ boiled\\.\\ This\\ \\&\\#8220\\;stuff\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(yes\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ technical\\ term\\)\\ was\\ dried\\ on\\ a\\ wire\\ mould\\ where\\ it\\ eventually\\ become\\ paper\\.\\ Wire\\ designs\\ on\\ the\\ mould\\ would\\ make\\ a\\ watermark\\ on\\ the\\ paper\\.\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ passed\\ around\\ a\\ stack\\ of\\ 18th\\ century\\ books\\ and\\ asked\\ us\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ paper\\ looking\\ for\\ remnants\\ of\\ petticoats\\.\\ No\\ recognizable\\ bits\\ of\\ old\\ clothing\\ were\\ found\\,\\ unfortunately\\.\\ Although\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ making\\ paper\\ may\\ sound\\ long\\,\\ it\\ was\\ still\\ many\\ times\\ cheaper\\ than\\ vellum\\.\\ It\\ had\\ been\\ estimated\\ that\\ one\\ Bible\\ in\\ vellum\\ was\\ made\\ from\\ the\\ skin\\ of\\ 200\\ sheep\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ most\\ of\\ us\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ \\(re\\)invention\\ of\\ movable\\ type\\ as\\ the\\ defining\\ moment\\ in\\ publishing\\,\\ one\\ can\\ also\\ argue\\ that\\ paper\\ is\\ the\\ factor\\ that\\ freed\\ books\\ from\\ their\\ status\\ as\\ luxury\\ items\\.\\ As\\ books\\ became\\ more\\ commonplace\\,\\ their\\ physical\\ properties\\ became\\ less\\ important\\ relative\\ to\\ their\\ contents\\.\\ The\\ class\\ devoted\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\,\\ and\\ I\\ accordingly\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ words\\,\\ to\\ describing\\ the\\ physical\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ books\\.\\ As\\ much\\ as\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ about\\ a\\ physical\\ book\\,\\ I\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ much\\ richer\\ history\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ ideas\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ that\\ vein\\,\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ also\\ showed\\ us\\ an\\ 18th\\ century\\ \\&\\#8220\\;blue\\ book\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(no\\ relation\\,\\ thankfully\\,\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;blue\\&\\#8221\\;\\ but\\ actually\\ pink\\ books\\ used\\ during\\ final\\ exams\\.\\)\\ Instead\\,\\ these\\ formed\\ the\\ underground\\ literature\\ of\\ pre\\-Revolution\\ France\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ printing\\ press\\ was\\ heavily\\ censored\\ in\\ France\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ these\\ books\\ were\\ printed\\ in\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Fertile\\ cresent\\&\\#8221\\;\\ outside\\ of\\ France\\.\\ They\\ were\\ often\\ pornographic\\,\\ but\\ philosophical\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ Underground\\ books\\ were\\ sometimes\\ printed\\ under\\ the\\ made\\ up\\ printing\\ house\\ of\\ Pierre\\ Marteau\\ or\\ Peter\\ Hammer\\,\\ an\\ in\\-joke\\ among\\ publishers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Having\\ spent\\ so\\ far\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ past\\ of\\ books\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ also\\ like\\ to\\ project\\ into\\ the\\ future\\.\\ Although\\ a\\ historian\\,\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ has\\ looked\\ into\\ the\\ future\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ past\\.\\ He\\ is\\ supporter\\ of\\ electronic\\ publishing\\ and\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ Gutenburg\\ e\\-program\\.\\ My\\ personal\\ love\\ for\\ books\\ is\\ equaled\\ only\\ by\\ my\\ love\\ for\\ the\\ Internet\\ \\(hence\\ the\\ last\\ \\blog\\ \\<\\/a\\>I\\ wrote\\)\\,\\ so\\ my\\ greatest\\ interest\\ naturally\\ lies\\ at\\ the\\ intersection\\ of\\ the\\ two\\.\\ With\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ I\\ believe\\ we\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ cusp\\ at\\ another\\ reading\\ revolution\\,\\ and\\ looking\\ head\\ can\\ perhaps\\ shed\\ some\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ past\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ this\\ entry\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ books\\ as\\ material\\ objects\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ digital\\ age\\,\\ the\\ material\\ object\\ becomes\\ even\\ less\\ important\\.\\ When\\ books\\ were\\ hand\\-made\\ objects\\,\\ each\\ letter\\ laboriously\\ written\\ by\\ hand\\,\\ they\\ emanated\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ sanctity\\.\\ As\\ digital\\ books\\ become\\ easily\\ and\\ readily\\ available\\,\\ does\\ the\\ written\\ word\\ become\\ somewhat\\ cheapened\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ those\\ are\\ some\\ ideas\\ for\\ me\\ to\\ chew\\ on\\ throughout\\ the\\ course\\.\\ In\\ my\\ first\\ post\\,\\ I\\ have\\ iindeed\\ managed\\ to\\ go\\ from\\ Gutenberg\\ to\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ Next\\ week\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ be\\ setting\\ our\\ own\\ type\\ and\\ printing\\ a\\ sheet\\ during\\ class\\.\\ Off\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ a\\ pithy\\,\\ intelligent\\-sounding\\ quote\\ to\\ print\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 1: What is a Book? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.128833+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introductory Life Sciences at Harvard: More Than Your Typical AP Science Course", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 295, "html": "\\\\\\An\\ enemy\\ agent\\ stealthily\\ slips\\ into\\ the\\ heavily\\ guarded\\ compound\\ using\\ a\\ stolen\\ identification\\ card\\ and\\ lifted\\ fingerprints\\,\\ carefully\\ evading\\ the\\ guards\\ that\\ patrol\\ every\\ square\\ inch\\ of\\ the\\ restricted\\ area\\.\\ He\\ enters\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ peripheral\\ buildings\\,\\ pausing\\ to\\ allow\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ many\\ gadgets\\ to\\ activate\\ before\\ extracting\\ a\\ small\\ storage\\ disk\\ from\\ within\\ and\\ making\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ central\\ building\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ compound\\'s\\ center\\ of\\ operations\\.\\ There\\,\\ he\\ quickly\\ transfers\\ the\\ data\\ on\\ the\\ disk\\ to\\ the\\ compound\\'s\\ mainframe\\,\\ meticulously\\ hiding\\ the\\ foreign\\ bits\\ among\\ existing\\ information\\ so\\ that\\ no\\ signs\\ of\\ his\\ tampering\\ remain\\.\\ As\\ he\\ completes\\ his\\ task\\,\\ he\\ thinks\\ about\\ the\\ future\\,\\ about\\ the\\ new\\ future\\ he\\ has\\ just\\ created\\ starting\\ with\\ this\\ one\\ compromised\\ compound\\.\\ Silently\\ chuckling\\ to\\ himself\\,\\ he\\ imagines\\ the\\ day\\ when\\ he\\ mobilizes\\ his\\ army\\ to\\ conquer\\ his\\ enemies\\ from\\ within\\,\\ weakening\\ and\\ destroying\\ them\\ before\\ they\\ even\\ have\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ react\\.\\ True\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ many\\ casualties\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\.\\ But\\ he\\ knows\\ that\\ eventually\\,\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ victorious\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ plot\\ summary\\ of\\ a\\ Hollywood\\ movie\\?\\ \\(No\\.\\ At\\ least\\,\\ not\\ of\\ any\\ I\\ know\\ of\\.\\)\\ A\\ really\\ bad\\ attempt\\ at\\ writing\\ a\\ suspenseful\\ short\\ story\\?\\ \\(Well\\,\\ let\\'s\\ leave\\ this\\ question\\ alone\\ for\\ now\\.\\)\\ How\\ about\\ an\\ allegory\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ HIV\\ infects\\ human\\ cells\\?\\ \\(Yes\\!\\ Okay\\,\\ so\\ you\\ can\\ answer\\ affirmatively\\ to\\ the\\ second\\ question\\ also\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ unbelievable\\ as\\ it\\ may\\ sound\\,\\ the\\ HIV\\ infection\\ process\\ plays\\ much\\ like\\ a\\ science\\ fiction\\ movie\\ \\(or\\ novel\\ for\\ those\\ partial\\ to\\ print\\ media\\)\\.\\ Granted\\,\\ viruses\\ don\\'t\\ think\\ or\\ chuckle\\ to\\ themselves\\ \\(as\\ far\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ anyway\\)\\,\\ but\\ the\\ basic\\ idea\\ of\\ infiltrating\\ a\\ foreign\\ environment\\ and\\ commandeering\\ the\\ environment\\'s\\ resources\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ purposes\\ remains\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ though\\,\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ much\\ more\\ elegant\\ about\\ the\\ biological\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ virus\\ accomplishes\\ its\\ goal\\,\\ something\\ much\\ more\\ intriguing\\ and\\ awe\\-inspiring\\ than\\ the\\ cheap\\ circuitry\\ of\\ super\\ spies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\That\\ elegance\\ is\\ what\\ Life\\ Sciences\\ 1a\\ seeks\\ to\\ portray\\ through\\ its\\ integrated\\ teaching\\ of\\ basic\\ chemical\\ principles\\ and\\ real\\-world\\ biological\\ systems\\.\\ Unlike\\ your\\ typical\\ AP\\ science\\ course\\ in\\ which\\ isolated\\ systems\\ were\\ taught\\ \\(and\\ were\\ then\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ memorized\\ by\\ you\\,\\ the\\ student\\)\\,\\ Life\\ Sciences\\ 1a\\ strives\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ more\\ holistic\\ view\\ of\\ biological\\ pathways\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ providing\\ enough\\ nitty\\-gritty\\ detail\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ must\\ know\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\ about\\ everything\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\I\\ hope\\ that\\ my\\ posts\\ will\\ succeed\\ in\\ their\\ goal\\ of\\ depicting\\ the\\ wonders\\ of\\ molecular\\ biology\\ and\\ inspire\\ you\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ subject\\ \\(even\\ if\\ just\\ in\\ passing\\)\\.\\ \\ So\\ to\\ start\\ off\\,\\ here\\'s\\ a\\ promotional\\ video\\ created\\ by\\ Harvard\\'s\\ Molecular\\ and\\ Cellular\\ Biology\\ department\\.\\ Enjoy\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\Link\\ \\(requires\\ Flash\\)\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/multimedia\\.mcb\\.harvard\\.edu\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introductory Life Sciences at Harvard: More Than Your Typical AP Science Course"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.138812+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 3: The Gutenberg Bible Up Close and Personal", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 296, "html": "\\\\For\\ anyone\\ who\\ hasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ had\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ in\\ person\\ or\\ simply\\ prefers\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ own\\ home\\,\\ the\\ \\University\\ of\\ Texas\\<\\/a\\>\\ has\\ scanned\\ the\\ entire\\ Bible\\ and\\ uploaded\\ the\\ images\\ online\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\During\\ our\\ workshop\\ this\\ week\\,\\ William\\ Stoneman\\,\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ Houghton\\ Library\\,\\ gave\\ a\\ presentation\\ and\\ brought\\ several\\ goodies\\ with\\ him\\.\\ As\\ this\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ rare\\ books\\ library\\,\\ he\\ of\\ course\\ brought\\ out\\ a\\ dozen\\ rare\\ books\\,\\ including\\ the\\ first\\ volume\\ of\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\.\\ Before\\ we\\ got\\ to\\ see\\ and\\ touch\\ the\\ rare\\ books\\ though\\,\\ he\\ had\\ us\\ go\\ through\\ an\\ exercise\\ teaching\\ us\\ how\\ to\\ look\\ at\\,\\ not\\ just\\ read\\,\\ books\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ job\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ historian\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\ like\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ detective\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ about\\ putting\\ together\\ clues\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ function\\ and\\ history\\ of\\ a\\ book\\.\\ For\\ this\\ exercise\\ too\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Stoneman\\ brought\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ printed\\ materials\\,\\ including\\ a\\ one\\-sheet\\ poster\\,\\ a\\ coffee\\ table\\ book\\ about\\ exhibitions\\ in\\ the\\ Yenching\\ Library\\,\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ Beowulf\\ he\\ owned\\ as\\ an\\ undergrad\\,\\ and\\ a\\ dictionary\\ of\\ saints\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Stoneman\\ had\\ us\\ closely\\ examine\\ all\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ Beowulf\\ was\\ in\\ Old\\ English\\,\\ and\\ the\\ particular\\ copy\\ had\\ penciled\\ translations\\ of\\ each\\ line\\ in\\ modern\\ English\\ From\\ these\\ notes\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Stoneman\\ joked\\,\\ one\\ can\\ see\\ when\\ he\\ skipped\\ class\\.\\ The\\ ultimate\\ purpose\\ of\\ this\\ exercise\\ was\\ to\\ hone\\ our\\ skills\\ as\\ detectives\\,\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ saw\\ the\\ rare\\ books\\,\\ we\\ could\\ look\\ at\\ them\\ as\\ book\\ historians\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\,\\ the\\ Holy\\ Grail\\ of\\ books\\ was\\ wheeled\\ into\\ our\\ classroom\\.\\ As\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ appeared\\,\\ we\\ all\\ held\\ our\\ breaths\\,\\ amazed\\ that\\ this\\ piece\\ of\\ history\\ which\\ had\\ just\\ sparked\\ so\\ much\\ discussion\\ was\\ actually\\ sitting\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ our\\ eyes\\.\\ I\\ edged\\ closer\\,\\ and\\ when\\ told\\ we\\ could\\ actually\\ touch\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ stretched\\ my\\ fingers\\ out\\ cautiously\\,\\ afraid\\ that\\ my\\ touch\\ would\\ somehow\\ mar\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\ The\\ pages\\ were\\ remarkably\\ crisp\\ and\\ the\\ ink\\ remarkably\\ black\\ for\\ a\\ 500\\ year\\ old\\ book\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Amazingly\\,\\ we\\ were\\ given\\ complete\\ freedom\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\ pages\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ Because\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ pages\\ were\\ printed\\ with\\ 40\\ lines\\ before\\ Gutenberg\\ filed\\ down\\ his\\ letters\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ more\\ economical\\ 42\\ lines\\,\\ we\\ also\\ stood\\ there\\ counting\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ lines\\ per\\ page\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Stoneman\\ informed\\ us\\ that\\ this\\ particular\\ Gutenberg\\ had\\ been\\ washed\\,\\ and\\ one\\ could\\ still\\ smell\\ the\\ cleaning\\ chemicals\\ in\\ the\\ gutter\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\(Plagued\\ by\\ a\\ stuffy\\ nose\\,\\ I\\ decided\\ against\\ it\\ but\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ my\\ classmates\\ did\\ indeed\\ smell\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\.\\)\\ Where\\ old\\ technology\\ met\\ new\\,\\ several\\ of\\ my\\ classmates\\ whipped\\ out\\ cell\\ phones\\ and\\ took\\ photos\\ with\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\.\\ There\\ is\\ even\\ a\\ class\\ photo\\ with\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\,\\ although\\ the\\ highlight\\,\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ the\\ only\\ rare\\ book\\ we\\ saw\\.\\ There\\ were\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ printed\\ material\\,\\ from\\ almanacs\\ to\\ manuscripts\\ to\\ Bibles\\,\\ and\\ their\\ juxtaposition\\ underscored\\ both\\ the\\ similarities\\ and\\ differences\\ of\\ manuscript\\ and\\ early\\ print\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 3: The Gutenberg Bible Up Close and Personal"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.148582+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 2: What is Book History? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 297, "html": "\\Reading\\:\\\r\\From\\ \\\\The\\ Book\\ History\\ Reader\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ Books\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Robert\\ Darnton\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Bibliography\\,\\ Pure\\ Bibliography\\,\\ and\\ Literary\\ Studies\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Fredson\\ Bowers\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Book\\ as\\ an\\ Expressive\\ Form\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ D\\.\\ F\\.\\ McKenzie\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ of\\ the\\ privileges\\ or\\ drawback\\ \\(depending\\ on\\ how\\ you\\ see\\ it\\)\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ emerging\\ field\\ of\\ study\\ is\\ how\\ easily\\ one\\ gets\\ pulled\\ into\\ a\\ metadiscussion\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ \\ book\\ history\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ even\\ decided\\ what\\ exactly\\ to\\ call\\ this\\ field\\.\\ The\\ French\\ call\\ it\\ \\l\\&\\#8217\\;histoire\\ du\\ livre\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ the\\ Germans\\ \\Geschichte\\ des\\ Buchwesen\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ but\\ in\\ English\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;history\\ of\\ books\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;book\\ history\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ or\\ a\\ modified\\ form\\ of\\ bibliography\\,\\ each\\ with\\ its\\ nuances\\ of\\ meaning\\.\\ The\\ essays\\ we\\ read\\ this\\ week\\ each\\ reflect\\ a\\ different\\ stance\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ means\\.\\ They\\ all\\ represent\\ important\\ historical\\ voices\\ that\\ have\\ shaped\\ the\\ field\\.\\ Having\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ lead\\ the\\ discussion\\ was\\ daunting\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ we\\ were\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ discussing\\ our\\ interpretations\\ of\\ his\\ writing\\ in\\ his\\ presence\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\ also\\ very\\ rewarding\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ rich\\ knowledge\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ ideas\\ that\\ have\\ formed\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ recall\\,\\ our\\ discussion\\ last\\ week\\ focused\\ on\\ bibliography\\ but\\ this\\ week\\,\\ we\\ finally\\ crossed\\ the\\ bridge\\ into\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ Darnton\\,\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ Books\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ answers\\ the\\ question\\ in\\ a\\ larger\\ sociological\\ context\\.\\ His\\ most\\ famous\\ contribution\\ is\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;communications\\ circuit\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ includes\\ the\\ usual\\ suspects\\:\\ authors\\,\\ publishers\\,\\ readers\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ printers\\,\\ suppliers\\,\\ shippers\\,\\ bookshippers\\,\\ and\\ books\\ binders\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ communications\\ circuit\\ recognizes\\ the\\ importance\\ every\\ person\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ and\\ dissemination\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ \\ and\\ ties\\ them\\ together\\ with\\ intellectual\\,\\ economic\\,\\ and\\ political\\ factors\\.\\ \\(Click\\ on\\ the\\ thumbnail\\ for\\ a\\ schematic\\ figure\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\In\\ contrast\\ to\\ Darnton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ book\\ history\\,\\ which\\ carves\\ out\\ a\\ wider\\ swath\\,\\ Bowers\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Bibliography\\,\\ Pure\\ Bibliography\\,\\ and\\ Literary\\ Studies\\&\\#8221\\;\\ epitomizes\\ the\\ tradition\\ view\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;book\\ history\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ pure\\ bibliography\\.\\ Bower\\,\\ whose\\ essay\\ from\\ 1952\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ oldest\\ essay\\ that\\ we\\ read\\,\\ represents\\ the\\ orthodox\\ bibliographer\\.\\ His\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ one\\ true\\ of\\ text\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ works\\,\\ a\\ Holy\\ Grail\\ for\\ bibliographers\\.\\ \\(Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ manuscripts\\ do\\ not\\ survive\\ today\\,\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ printed\\ editions\\ of\\ his\\ works\\ were\\ undoubtedly\\ edited\\ and\\ revised\\ by\\ another\\ hand\\.\\ We\\ therefore\\ have\\ no\\ way\\ of\\ knowing\\ what\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ plays\\,\\ as\\ he\\ originally\\ wrote\\ them\\,\\ are\\ like\\.\\ Much\\ more\\ on\\ Shakespeare\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\.\\)\\ Bowers\\ sees\\ bibliography\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;servant\\ to\\ the\\ humanities\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ field\\ steeped\\ in\\ scientific\\ rigor\\.\\ So\\ for\\ Bowers\\,\\ bibliography\\ is\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\,\\ that\\ end\\ being\\ literary\\ studies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Our\\ discussion\\ specifically\\ contrasted\\ Bowers\\ with\\ MacKenzie\\ whose\\ view\\,\\ summed\\ up\\ very\\ simplistically\\,\\ is\\ that\\ studying\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ an\\ ends\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ The\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ servant\\ to\\ no\\ one\\.\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ characterized\\ MacKenzie\\ as\\ an\\ enfant\\ terrible\\ of\\ the\\ field\\.\\ In\\ his\\ essay\\,\\ MacKenzie\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ hesitate\\ to\\ attack\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ statements\\ about\\ bibliography\\ by\\ Sir\\ Walter\\ Greg\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ the\\ bibliographer\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ is\\ the\\ pieces\\ of\\ paper\\ or\\ parchment\\ covered\\ with\\ certain\\ written\\ nor\\ printed\\ signs\\.\\ With\\ these\\ signs\\ he\\ is\\ concerned\\ merely\\ as\\ arbitrary\\ marks\\.\\ Their\\ meaning\\ is\\ no\\ business\\ of\\ his\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ MacKenzie\\ completely\\ turns\\ this\\ idea\\ on\\ its\\ head\\ and\\ belies\\ the\\ bibliographer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ goal\\ finding\\ the\\ one\\ true\\ text\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ as\\ one\\ classmate\\ observed\\,\\ MacKenzie\\ is\\ as\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ mistakes\\ in\\ the\\ text\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\MacKenzie\\ also\\ attacks\\ New\\ Criticism\\,\\ which\\ was\\ popularized\\ by\\ the\\ essay\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Intentional\\ Fallacy\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ New\\ Criticism\\ throws\\ out\\ the\\ author\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ intent\\ and\\ looks\\ only\\ at\\ the\\ text\\ when\\ interpreting\\ a\\ literary\\ work\\.\\ MacKenzie\\ argues\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ still\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ author\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ intent\\,\\ but\\ study\\ it\\ through\\ rigor\\ and\\ textual\\ analysis\\.\\ He\\ does\\ this\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ epigraph\\ that\\ prefaces\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Intentional\\ Fallacy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ studying\\ the\\ misinterpretation\\ of\\ the\\ quote\\ by\\ the\\ authors\\ of\\ the\\ essay\\.\\ What\\ I\\ finally\\ took\\ away\\ from\\ MacKenzie\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ essay\\ was\\ his\\ emphasis\\ on\\ meaning\\.\\ The\\ meaning\\,\\ however\\,\\ comes\\ not\\ only\\ from\\ the\\ author\\,\\ but\\ all\\ the\\ intermediaries\\ who\\ have\\ edited\\,\\ printed\\,\\ and\\ distributed\\ a\\ text\\.\\ It\\ places\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ squarely\\ in\\ a\\ sociological\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ literary\\,\\ context\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Put\\ that\\ way\\,\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ really\\ becomes\\ one\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ communication\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ be\\ that\\ oral\\,\\ written\\,\\ pictorial\\,\\ or\\ digital\\.\\ What\\ both\\ MacKenzie\\ and\\ Darnton\\ do\\ is\\ emphasize\\ the\\ interdisciplinary\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ books\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ simply\\ history\\ or\\ sociology\\ or\\ philosophy\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ field\\ is\\ ultimately\\ much\\ richer\\ and\\ worthy\\ of\\ exploration\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 2: What is Book History? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.160352+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 2: Hot Off the Presses", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 298, "html": "\\The\\ course\\ is\\ structured\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ first\\ hour\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ is\\ devoted\\ to\\ a\\ seminar\\ discussion\\.\\ The\\ second\\ half\\ is\\ devoted\\ to\\ a\\ workshop\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ hands\\-on\\ experiences\\ with\\ history\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ basement\\ of\\ Lamont\\ Library\\,\\ buried\\ amidst\\ stacks\\ of\\ microfilms\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ nook\\ devoted\\ to\\ historical\\ documents\\ of\\ a\\ more\\ ancient\\ kind\\.\\ I\\ speak\\,\\ obviously\\,\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ printing\\ press\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ staff\\ of\\ experience\\ printers\\ who\\ helped\\ us\\ do\\ our\\ own\\ typesetting\\ and\\ printing\\.\\ The\\ whole\\ thing\\ was\\ thrilling\\ and\\ altogether\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ difficult\\ than\\ I\\ expected\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ began\\ with\\ a\\ quiz\\ of\\ sorts\\.\\ Susan\\,\\ who\\ was\\ giving\\ us\\ the\\ demonstration\\,\\ had\\ deliberately\\ printed\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\epitaph\\<\\/a\\>\\ with\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ mistakes\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ them\\ were\\ obvious\\ \\(wrong\\ letter\\,\\ upside\\-down\\ letter\\,\\ missing\\ letter\\)\\ but\\ others\\ were\\ only\\ visible\\ to\\ a\\ trained\\ typesetter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ eye\\:\\ wrong\\ font\\,\\ wrong\\ point\\ size\\,\\ off\\-center\\ spacing\\.\\ Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ just\\ say\\ that\\ we\\,\\ including\\ our\\ professor\\ all\\ had\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ trouble\\ with\\ this\\ exercise\\.\\ Susan\\ had\\ taunted\\ us\\ with\\ the\\ boast\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ one\\ mistake\\ we\\ would\\ never\\ find\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\,\\ we\\ never\\ did\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ actual\\ typesetting\\,\\ we\\ each\\ got\\ to\\ set\\ our\\ own\\ names\\.\\ Easy\\ right\\?\\ We\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ been\\ writing\\ our\\ names\\ for\\ years\\ now\\.\\ Wrong\\.\\ Typesetting\\ involves\\ finding\\ itsy\\-bitsy\\ pieces\\ of\\ metal\\ and\\ setting\\ them\\ backwards\\ and\\ upside\\,\\ no\\ mean\\ feat\\ when\\ you\\ mix\\ up\\ your\\ u\\ and\\ n\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ or\\ p\\,\\ q\\,\\ b\\,\\ and\\ d\\&\\#8217\\;s\\.\\ Uppercase\\ letters\\ \\(so\\ named\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ usually\\ placed\\ in\\ a\\ case\\ above\\ the\\ letters\\ in\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;lower\\ case\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ were\\ slighter\\ easier\\.\\ It\\ took\\ each\\ of\\ us\\ approximately\\ 15\\ minutes\\ to\\ set\\ our\\ names\\ exactly\\ right\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ step\\ was\\ putting\\ your\\ block\\ to\\ the\\ press\\ and\\ setting\\ them\\ so\\ it\\ was\\ perfectly\\ aligned\\.\\ Thankfully\\,\\ Susan\\ did\\ this\\ for\\ us\\ because\\ the\\ process\\ involved\\ painstaking\\ meticulousness\\,\\ which\\ I\\ personally\\ do\\ not\\ have\\.\\ She\\ adjusted\\ the\\ furniture\\ \\(wood\\ blocks\\ inside\\ the\\ press\\ that\\ filled\\ up\\ the\\ empty\\ space\\)\\ until\\ every\\ line\\ and\\ every\\ page\\ was\\ perfectly\\ aligned\\.\\ We\\ then\\ each\\ got\\ to\\ ink\\ and\\ press\\ to\\ print\\ our\\ own\\ souvenirs\\.\\ It\\ was\\ only\\ then\\ that\\ I\\ made\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ a\\ printing\\ press\\ and\\ how\\ one\\ literally\\ had\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;press\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ paper\\ we\\ printed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ I\\ ended\\ up\\ taking\\ away\\ was\\ more\\ than\\ this\\ piece\\ of\\ paper\\ though\\.\\ It\\ struck\\ me\\,\\ while\\ I\\ was\\ setting\\ type\\ and\\ pressing\\,\\ how\\ much\\ more\\ effort\\ and\\ time\\ went\\ into\\ printing\\ this\\ page\\.\\ I\\ sit\\ in\\ my\\ room\\,\\ surrounded\\ by\\ dozens\\ of\\ books\\ and\\ hundreds\\ of\\ printed\\ pages\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ easy\\ to\\ forget\\ how\\ difficult\\ it\\ once\\ was\\ to\\ print\\ a\\ book\\.\\ Each\\ page\\ must\\ be\\ set\\,\\ inked\\,\\ pressed\\,\\ and\\ folded\\ by\\ hand\\,\\ so\\ the\\ craftsmanship\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ authorship\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ is\\ prized\\.\\ I\\ just\\ wrote\\ and\\ published\\ over\\ a\\ thousand\\ words\\ about\\ my\\ class\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ all\\ that\\ took\\ was\\ some\\ brain\\ power\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ clicks\\ of\\ the\\ mouse\\.\\ In\\ an\\ era\\ in\\ which\\ words\\ are\\ cheap\\(er\\)\\,\\ has\\ the\\ written\\ word\\ lost\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ sacrilege\\ and\\ meaning\\?\\ Or\\ has\\ its\\ meaning\\ simply\\ changed\\?\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 2: Hot Off the Presses"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.170907+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 3: The Gutenberg Bible in History", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 299, "html": "\\Reading\\:\\\r\\\\\\\\ Johann\\ Gutenberg\\ and\\ his\\ Bible\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ Janet\\ Ing\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ history\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ create\\ cultural\\ heroes\\.\\ Individuals\\ are\\ pinpointed\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;movers\\ and\\ shakers\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ celebrated\\ as\\ heroes\\ in\\ of\\ Western\\ culture\\.\\ Christopher\\ Columbus\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\-\\-and\\ the\\ reason\\ I\\ bring\\ this\\ up\\-\\-Johann\\ Gutenberg\\ is\\ another\\.\\ A\\ 15th\\ century\\ printer\\ raised\\ from\\ obscurity\\ in\\ the\\ 1800s\\,\\ Gutenberg\\ is\\ now\\ hailed\\ as\\ the\\ inventor\\ of\\ movable\\ type\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ even\\ called\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;father\\ of\\ the\\ printing\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Yet\\ little\\ is\\ known\\ about\\ the\\ man\\ himself\\,\\ and\\ much\\ of\\ his\\ story\\ is\\ speculative\\ rather\\ than\\ factual\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ in\\ this\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ class\\,\\ we\\ examined\\ the\\ legacy\\ of\\ Johann\\ Gutenberg\\ and\\ his\\ Bible\\.\\ I\\ will\\ sum\\ up\\ the\\ main\\ points\\ here\\,\\ but\\ anyone\\ further\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ Johann\\ Gutenberg\\ and\\ his\\ Bible\\ should\\ read\\ Janet\\ Ing\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ comprehensive\\ but\\ compact\\ book\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ name\\.\\ There\\ exists\\ an\\ overwhelming\\ quantity\\ of\\ scholarship\\ on\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\,\\ but\\ Ing\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ does\\ a\\ remarkable\\ job\\ of\\ outlining\\ a\\ basic\\ history\\ while\\ sorting\\ through\\ the\\ many\\ controversies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Ing\\ begins\\ her\\ book\\ with\\ an\\ incomplete\\ biography\\ of\\ Johann\\ Gutenberg\\ of\\ Mainz\\.\\ His\\ birth\\ date\\ is\\ unknown\\ \\(estimated\\ to\\ be\\ around\\ 1400\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ lived\\ in\\ obscurity\\ during\\ his\\ lifetime\\.\\ Verified\\ primary\\ documents\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ court\\ case\\,\\ an\\ Archbishop\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ payment\\ to\\ Gutenberg\\&\\#8212\\;only\\ indirectly\\ reference\\ Gutenberg\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ printer\\ and\\ give\\ no\\ hint\\ at\\ all\\ to\\ his\\ invention\\ of\\ movable\\ type\\.\\ It\\ was\\ not\\ until\\ 1474\\,\\ after\\ his\\ death\\,\\ that\\ the\\ first\\ unambiguous\\ reference\\ to\\ Gutenberg\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ role\\ as\\ the\\ inventor\\ of\\ movable\\ type\\ appeared\\.\\ Even\\ then\\,\\ the\\ statement\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ hearsay\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;they\\ say\\ Gutenberg\\ invented\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\ was\\ how\\ the\\ book\\ moved\\ it\\.\\ Gutenberg\\ hasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ always\\ been\\ credited\\ with\\ the\\ invention\\ of\\ movable\\ type\\ either\\.\\ Into\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\,\\ Johann\\ Fust\\,\\ one\\ of\\ Gutenberg\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ business\\ partners\\,\\ was\\ recognized\\ as\\ the\\ true\\ inventor\\ of\\ movable\\ type\\.\\ There\\ were\\ even\\ supposed\\ \\&\\#8220\\;true\\ versions\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ that\\ claimed\\ Gutenberg\\ was\\ the\\ wicked\\ younger\\ brother\\ who\\ stole\\ Fust\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ invention\\.\\ Confusions\\ about\\ other\\ details\\&\\#8212\\;whether\\ Gutenberg\\ was\\ based\\ in\\ Strasburg\\ or\\ Mainz\\,\\ whether\\ his\\ name\\ was\\ Gutenberg\\ or\\ Glensfleich\\&\\#8212\\;also\\ abounded\\.\\ Gutenberg\\ has\\ only\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ two\\ centuries\\ as\\ the\\ unambiguous\\ inventor\\ of\\ movable\\ type\\.\\ Despite\\ how\\ easily\\ and\\ quickly\\ we\\ connect\\ Gutenberg\\ with\\ the\\ printing\\ press\\,\\ his\\ story\\ is\\ muddled\\ in\\ uncertainty\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ physical\\ object\\,\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ more\\ certain\\ to\\ us\\.\\ It\\ was\\ first\\ printed\\ by\\ Gutenberg\\ in\\ 1455\\.\\ Approximately\\ 180\\ copies\\,\\ two\\ volumes\\ each\\,\\ were\\ printed\\ on\\ vellum\\ and\\ paper\\,\\ with\\ 11\\ perfect\\ copies\\ and\\ 37\\ incomplete\\ ones\\ surviving\\ today\\.\\ \\ Ing\\ goes\\ into\\ extraordinary\\ detail\\ about\\ the\\ physical\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\,\\ which\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ took\\ as\\ an\\ endorsement\\ of\\ pure\\ bibliography\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ of\\ history\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ there\\ were\\ originally\\ two\\ Bibles\\ that\\ competed\\ for\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;first\\ book\\ printed\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ one\\ of\\ 36\\ lines\\ per\\ page\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ 42\\ lines\\ per\\ page\\,\\ respectively\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ B36\\ and\\ B42\\ Bibles\\.\\ Through\\ a\\ comparative\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ two\\,\\ bibliographers\\ determined\\ that\\ the\\ B36\\ was\\ derivative\\ of\\ B42\\.\\ To\\ save\\ paper\\ in\\ the\\ B42\\ Bible\\,\\ the\\ printers\\ had\\ dealt\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;widows\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ last\\ word\\ of\\ a\\ paragraph\\ that\\ dangled\\ onto\\ a\\ new\\ by\\ itself\\,\\ by\\ setting\\ it\\ off\\ in\\ red\\ ink\\ as\\ the\\ last\\ word\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ next\\ page\\.\\ The\\ printer\\ of\\ the\\ B36\\ printer\\ did\\ not\\ understand\\ this\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ simply\\ printed\\ the\\ widow\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ line\\.\\ Ing\\ also\\ looked\\ at\\ analyses\\ of\\ the\\ ink\\ and\\ paper\\ \\(especially\\ the\\ watermark\\)\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ chronology\\ of\\ when\\ each\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ was\\ printed\\.\\ She\\ concludes\\ that\\ different\\ sections\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ were\\ being\\ printed\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ on\\ different\\ presses\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ the\\ production\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ was\\ entirely\\ revolutionary\\,\\ the\\ look\\ and\\ feel\\ of\\ it\\ consciously\\ mimics\\ a\\ traditional\\ manuscript\\.\\ The\\ typeface\\ used\\ by\\ Gutenberg\\ was\\ made\\ to\\ look\\ like\\ of\\ the\\ Gothic\\ script\\ used\\ by\\ monks\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\ Like\\ earlier\\ manuscripts\\,\\ it\\ is\\ laid\\ out\\ with\\ two\\ columns\\ per\\ page\\.\\ Also\\ printed\\ with\\ each\\ Bible\\ was\\ a\\ \\rubrication\\ \\<\\/a\\>guide\\,\\ which\\ showed\\ rubricators\\ where\\ to\\ apply\\ the\\ red\\ ink\\,\\ harking\\ to\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ decorating\\ manuscripts\\.\\ \\(The\\ Gutenberg\\ Bibles\\ were\\ sold\\ as\\ sheets\\ of\\ paper\\,\\ to\\ be\\ bound\\ and\\ rubricated\\ at\\ the\\ buyer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ discretion\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ physical\\ similarity\\ of\\ a\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ to\\ a\\ manuscript\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ undermine\\ its\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ Western\\ culture\\.\\ As\\ the\\ first\\ printed\\ book\\,\\ its\\ worth\\ transcends\\ the\\ millions\\ a\\ copy\\ would\\ fetch\\ in\\ an\\ auction\\.\\ Harvard\\ is\\ fortunate\\ enough\\ to\\ own\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\.\\ The\\ second\\ volume\\ is\\ on\\ display\\ in\\ Widener\\ Library\\,\\ in\\ a\\ memorial\\ room\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ collector\\ and\\ Harvard\\ alumnus\\ Henry\\ Elkins\\ Widener\\,\\ for\\ whom\\ the\\ library\\ was\\ built\\ after\\ his\\ death\\ aboard\\ the\\ Titanic\\.\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ mentioned\\ the\\ irrational\\ architecture\\ of\\ Widener\\ Library\\,\\ which\\ anyone\\ who\\ has\\ tried\\ to\\ navigate\\ the\\ stacks\\ are\\ attest\\ to\\.\\ The\\ room\\ that\\ houses\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ and\\ the\\ memorial\\ to\\ Henry\\ Elkins\\ Widener\\ stands\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ library\\.\\ The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ library\\ circles\\ around\\ it\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;cult\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Inspired\\ by\\ our\\ seminar\\,\\ a\\ classmate\\ and\\ I\\ took\\ the\\ trek\\ to\\ Widener\\ to\\ visit\\ this\\ \\&\\#8220\\;shrine\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ after\\ class\\.\\ Yet\\ behind\\ a\\ glass\\ case\\,\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ felt\\ distant\\ and\\ remote\\,\\ after\\ having\\ seen\\ the\\ \\first\\ volume\\ in\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ intimate\\ setting\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 3: The Gutenberg Bible in History"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.182757+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 4: The English Bible", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 300, "html": "\\Reading\\:\\\r\\\\\\ Let\\ it\\ Go\\ Among\\ Our\\ People\\:\\ An\\ Illustrated\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\ from\\ John\\ Wycliff\\ to\\ the\\ King\\ James\\ Version\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\David\\ Price\\,\\ Charles\\ C\\.\\ Ryrie\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\ not\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ we\\ are\\ most\\ familiar\\ with\\ but\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ the\\ most\\ convoluted\\ history\\ of\\ European\\ vernacular\\ Bibles\\.\\ Early\\ English\\ Bibles\\ originated\\ from\\ heretical\\ movements\\,\\ so\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\ was\\ banned\\ for\\ 127\\ years\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ illegal\\ to\\ both\\ own\\ and\\ read\\.\\ Price\\ and\\ Ryan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\,\\ \\Let\\ it\\ Go\\ Among\\ Our\\ People\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ goes\\ into\\ great\\ detail\\ on\\ eight\\ or\\ so\\ different\\ translations\\,\\ culminating\\ with\\ the\\ King\\ James\\ Version\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ literary\\ masterpiece\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ authors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ various\\ translations\\ and\\ publications\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\ were\\ largely\\ motivated\\ by\\ political\\ forces\\.\\ \\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mean\\ political\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ state\\ politics\\ \\(though\\ they\\ certainly\\ played\\ a\\ role\\)\\,\\ but\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ rivalry\\ to\\ each\\ new\\ translation\\.\\ The\\ importance\\ of\\ each\\ translation\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ understood\\ by\\ considering\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ in\\ the\\ religious\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ summed\\ up\\ the\\ thesis\\ of\\ Let\\ it\\ Go\\ Among\\ Our\\ People\\ as\\ a\\ motivation\\ for\\ studying\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ by\\ studying\\ it\\,\\ we\\ can\\ understand\\ how\\ it\\ penetrated\\ English\\ society\\ and\\ consequently\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ He\\ gave\\ his\\ thesis\\ while\\ tottering\\ on\\ one\\ foot\\ \\(Atonement\\ readers\\,\\ does\\ this\\ ring\\ a\\ bell\\?\\)\\ \\-\\-\\ \\ it\\ was\\ some\\ \\ sight\\ to\\ see\\ our\\ professor\\ attempting\\ to\\ balance\\ on\\ one\\ foot\\ while\\ stringing\\ together\\ an\\ intelligent\\ sentence\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\ harder\\ than\\ one\\ would\\ think\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ try\\ it\\!\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ how\\ did\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\ did\\ penetrated\\ English\\ society\\?\\ The\\ first\\ complete\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ in\\ English\\,\\ the\\ Wycliffite\\ Bible\\,\\ was\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ followers\\ of\\ John\\ Wycliffe\\ in\\ the\\ 1370s\\.\\ Because\\ Wycliffe\\ believed\\ in\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ direct\\ access\\ to\\ God\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ word\\,\\ he\\ supported\\ a\\ translation\\ into\\ the\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ language\\.\\ But\\ the\\ translation\\ from\\ Latin\\ was\\ awkward\\ and\\ literal\\,\\ so\\ it\\ never\\ quite\\ caught\\ on\\ in\\ England\\.\\ As\\ it\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ Latin\\ Vulgate\\,\\ which\\ itself\\ was\\ translated\\ and\\ existed\\ in\\ several\\ different\\ versions\\,\\ the\\ Wycliffite\\ Bible\\ was\\ not\\ reliable\\ either\\.\\ Ironically\\,\\ papal\\ opposition\\ to\\ Wycliff\\,\\ who\\ was\\ denounced\\ as\\ a\\ heretic\\,\\ then\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ ban\\ of\\ English\\ translations\\ in\\ England\\.\\ This\\ was\\ in\\ spite\\ of\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ vernacular\\ Bibles\\ throughout\\ the\\ Continent\\,\\ Martin\\ Luther\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ German\\ translation\\ being\\ the\\ preeminent\\ example\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Erasmus\\&\\#8217\\;\\ compilation\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ New\\ Testament\\ during\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ provided\\ the\\ first\\ reliable\\ text\\ from\\ which\\ to\\ translate\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ William\\ Tynsdale\\ used\\ Eramus\\&\\#8217\\;\\ text\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Luther\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ German\\ version\\,\\ for\\ his\\ translation\\ in\\ 1525\\.\\ \\ Tynsdale\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ translation\\ was\\ originally\\ printed\\ as\\ an\\ octavo\\,\\ whose\\ smaller\\ size\\ that\\ allowed\\ for\\ easy\\ transportation\\ and\\ smuggling\\.\\ It\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ covert\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ highly\\ partisan\\ stances\\,\\ most\\ notably\\ anti\\-Catholic\\ notes\\ in\\ the\\ margins\\.\\ Tyndale\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ translation\\ was\\ colloquial\\ and\\ vivacious\\;\\ Price\\ and\\ Ryrie\\ describe\\ it\\ as\\ feeling\\ like\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ was\\ just\\ written\\ yesterday\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Relatively\\ speaking\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ as\\ no\\ text\\ written\\ half\\ a\\ century\\ ago\\ would\\ really\\ sound\\ modern\\.\\)\\ Tynsdale\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ fate\\ was\\ not\\ so\\ fortunate\\,\\ and\\ his\\ religious\\ views\\ led\\ to\\ be\\ later\\ exiled\\ from\\ England\\ and\\ burned\\ at\\ the\\ stake\\,\\ later\\ to\\ be\\ revered\\ as\\ a\\ martyr\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 1535\\,\\ shortly\\ after\\ England\\ officially\\ broke\\ from\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\,\\ Miles\\ Coverdale\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ new\\ translation\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ that\\ transcribed\\ the\\ entire\\ Bible\\ in\\ English\\.\\ Politics\\ is\\ further\\ entangled\\ in\\ the\\ publication\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ as\\ the\\ wood\\ engraving\\ on\\ the\\ title\\ page\\ shows\\ King\\ Henry\\ VII\\ larger\\ than\\ God\\.\\ The\\ first\\ authorized\\ Bible\\,\\ simply\\ called\\ The\\ Great\\ Bible\\,\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ 1539\\.\\ \\ Where\\ these\\ Bibles\\ were\\ once\\ created\\ for\\ churches\\ and\\ monasteries\\,\\ the\\ Great\\ Bible\\ was\\ actually\\ received\\ and\\ read\\ by\\ the\\ common\\ people\\.\\ The\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ Psalms\\ from\\ this\\ edition\\ is\\ still\\ used\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ a\\ complete\\ reversal\\ of\\ English\\ law\\ from\\ two\\ centuries\\ earlier\\,\\ the\\ 1547\\ Injunctions\\ expanded\\ a\\ government\\ mandate\\ to\\ disseminate\\ scripture\\,\\ sparking\\ a\\ rash\\ of\\ Edwardian\\ Bibles\\.\\ The\\ Geneva\\ Bible\\ by\\ William\\ Whittingham\\ become\\ the\\ new\\ dominate\\ edition\\.\\ From\\ the\\ typesetting\\ to\\ the\\ woodcuts\\ that\\ were\\ transposed\\ straight\\ from\\ French\\ editions\\,\\ the\\ Geneva\\ Bible\\ was\\ heavily\\ influenced\\ by\\ French\\ editions\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ A\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ comparison\\ of\\ French\\ and\\ English\\ versions\\ demonstrates\\ how\\ the\\ idioms\\ and\\ the\\ syntax\\ of\\ the\\ source\\ language\\ greatly\\ shape\\ the\\ translation\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&\\#8220\\;through\\ a\\ glass\\ darkly\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ what\\ Price\\ and\\ Ryrie\\ call\\ a\\ stylistic\\ breakthrough\\ informed\\ by\\ the\\ French\\ phrase\\ \\&\\#8220\\;en\\ obscurit\\&\\#233\\;\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Tynsdale\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ phrase\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ a\\ dark\\ speaking\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ clunkier\\ but\\ conforms\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ Greek\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Although\\ England\\ had\\ officially\\ become\\ Protestant\\,\\ Catholic\\ sentiments\\ had\\ not\\ completely\\ disappeared\\.\\ A\\ Catholic\\ Bible\\ in\\ English\\ appeared\\ in\\ 1582\\.\\ Published\\ in\\ France\\,\\ it\\ is\\ commonly\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ Douais\\-Rheims\\ Bible\\.\\ This\\ Bible\\ too\\ was\\ a\\ highly\\ partisan\\ text\\ that\\ virulently\\ attacked\\ Protestants\\ in\\ its\\ marginal\\ notes\\,\\ but\\ it\\ received\\ widespread\\ attention\\ in\\ England\\ after\\ William\\ Fulke\\ published\\ a\\ criticism\\ of\\ this\\ Catholic\\ Bible\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ here\\ that\\ we\\ reach\\ the\\ climax\\ of\\ our\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\:\\ the\\ King\\ James\\ Version\\.\\ As\\ history\\ often\\ has\\ it\\,\\ this\\ momentous\\ literary\\ and\\ social\\ achievement\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ according\\ to\\ Price\\ and\\ Ryrie\\ at\\ least\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ was\\ \\&\\#8220\\;an\\ accident\\ of\\ history\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ When\\ James\\,\\ a\\ Scot\\,\\ took\\ over\\ the\\ English\\ crown\\,\\ he\\ had\\ to\\ appease\\ the\\ English\\ Protestants\\.\\ In\\ an\\ offhand\\ remark\\ during\\ a\\ heated\\ debate\\,\\ the\\ catalyst\\ for\\ the\\ KJV\\ was\\ born\\.\\ The\\ KJV\\ bears\\ his\\ name\\ but\\ James\\ himself\\ was\\ not\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ translation\\;\\ instead\\,\\ the\\ KJV\\ was\\ written\\,\\ remarkably\\,\\ by\\ six\\ committees\\ throughout\\ England\\.\\ The\\ committees\\ were\\ comprised\\ of\\ diverse\\ Protestant\\ views\\,\\ and\\ every\\ effort\\ was\\ made\\ for\\ neutrality\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ translation\\.\\ Despite\\ having\\ multiple\\ authors\\,\\ the\\ KJV\\ is\\ extraordinarily\\ uniform\\ in\\ style\\.\\ What\\ we\\ in\\ English\\ associate\\ with\\ Biblical\\ sounding\\ prose\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ KJV\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ is\\ formed\\ by\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ from\\ which\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ was\\ translated\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&\\#8220\\;And\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ pass\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ a\\ direct\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ \\way\\e\\<\\/sup\\>h\\&\\#238\\;\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\.\\ The\\ KJV\\ is\\ also\\ responsible\\ for\\ introducing\\ many\\ Hebrew\\ idioms\\ into\\ English\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;to\\ pour\\ out\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ heart\\&\\#8221\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;like\\ a\\ lamb\\ to\\ the\\ slaughter\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ the\\ seminal\\ English\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ seminal\\ text\\ of\\ Western\\ culture\\,\\ the\\ KJV\\ has\\ shaped\\ both\\ our\\ language\\ and\\ our\\ culture\\.\\ Four\\ hundred\\ years\\ later\\ and\\ an\\ ocean\\ away\\,\\ the\\ KJV\\ still\\ dominates\\,\\ found\\ in\\ homes\\,\\ churches\\,\\ and\\ hotel\\ rooms\\ throughout\\ our\\ country\\.\\ Can\\ any\\ other\\ text\\ claim\\ such\\ a\\ legacy\\?\\ Yet\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ earlier\\ translations\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ ignored\\ either\\,\\ as\\ the\\ KJV\\ was\\ not\\ created\\ in\\ a\\ vacuum\\.\\ The\\ long\\ convoluted\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\ does\\,\\ however\\,\\ culminate\\ with\\ the\\ King\\ James\\ Version\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Trivia\\:\\ The\\ so\\-called\\ Wicked\\ Bible\\ was\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ sabotage\\ from\\ a\\ rival\\ printer\\.\\ The\\ Second\\ Commandment\\ in\\ this\\ Bible\\ read\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;thou\\ shalt\\ commit\\ adultery\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 4: The English Bible"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.195248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 4: Bibles Galore ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 301, "html": "\\Having\\ spent\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ discussing\\ the\\ English\\ Bible\\,\\ we\\ were\\ knee\\ deep\\ looking\\ at\\ historical\\ Bibles\\ during\\ workshop\\.\\ No\\ longer\\ restricted\\ to\\ only\\ English\\ Bibles\\,\\ Susan\\ Halpert\\ of\\ the\\ Houghton\\ Library\\ brought\\ out\\ Greek\\,\\ Latin\\,\\ Hebrew\\,\\ German\\,\\ French\\,\\ polyglot\\ \\(multiple\\ language\\)\\ and\\ even\\ a\\ Massachuset\\ language\\ Bible\\ \\(more\\ on\\ this\\ one\\ later\\)\\.\\ Amazingly\\,\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ class\\ of\\ eight\\ students\\,\\ every\\ single\\ language\\ with\\ the\\ exception\\ of\\ Massachuset\\ could\\ be\\ read\\ by\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ person\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ follows\\ is\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ Bibles\\ in\\ roughly\\ chronological\\ order\\ that\\ we\\ saw\\ in\\ class\\.\\ Readers\\ from\\ my\\ last\\ post\\ will\\ see\\ some\\ familiar\\ names\\.\\ Try\\ as\\ I\\ might\\ though\\,\\ I\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ convey\\ complete\\ entire\\ richness\\ of\\ this\\ experience\\.\\ The\\ tactile\\ sensation\\ of\\ a\\ 500\\-year\\-old\\ sheet\\ of\\ parchment\\,\\ the\\ heftiness\\ of\\ a\\ large\\ tome\\,\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ history\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ air\\ I\\ breathe\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ transcribed\\ in\\ words\\.\\ Anyone\\ with\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ Houghton\\ Library\\,\\ please\\ please\\ go\\ look\\ at\\ these\\ books\\ in\\ person\\.\\ The\\ Houghton\\ Library\\ is\\ a\\ terribly\\ underused\\ resource\\.\\ Digital\\ scans\\ of\\ several\\ of\\ these\\ Bibles\\ are\\ also\\ available\\ online\\;\\ I\\ will\\ link\\ where\\ appropriate\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ an\\ incomplete\\ picture\\,\\ these\\ scans\\ will\\ tell\\ you\\ more\\ than\\ my\\ exposition\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Commentary\\ on\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ Bibles\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ anything\\ to\\ say\\ after\\ looking\\ at\\ these\\ Bibles\\ yourself\\,\\ sound\\ off\\ in\\ the\\ comments\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Gospel\\ of\\ Thomas\\.\\ ca\\.\\ 200\\-250\\.\\ Greek\\.\\ Fragment\\ of\\ a\\ papyrus\\ scroll\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Digital\\ Version\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\This\\ first\\ \\\"Bible\\\"\\ that\\ we\\ looked\\ was\\ actually\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ Gospels\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Bible\\.\\ N\\.T\\.\\ Gospels\\.\\ ca\\ 1273\\ \\-\\ 1325\\.\\ Greek\\.\\ Vellum\\ and\\ Paper\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Bible\\.\\ Vulgate\\.\\ ca\\.\\ 1280\\ Latin\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Digital\\ Version\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\C\\'est\\ la\\ Bible\\ hystoriale\\.\\ 1373\\.\\ French\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Digital\\ Version\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Similar\\ to\\ England\\,\\ the\\ publishing\\ of\\ vernacular\\ Bibles\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ particularly\\ common\\ practice\\ in\\ 14th\\ century\\ France\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ la\\ Bible\\ historiale\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ retold\\ in\\ French\\ \\-\\-\\ was\\ a\\ more\\ common\\.\\ This\\ particular\\ volume\\ belonged\\ to\\ Charles\\ V\\ of\\ France\\ and\\ features\\ absolutely\\ stunning\\ illumination\\ and\\ gold\\-leaf\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Wycliffite\\ Bible\\.\\ ca\\.\\ 1400\\.\\ Middle\\ English\\.\\ Vellum\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Digital\\ Version\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\The\\ English\\ translation\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ prohibition\\ of\\ future\\ English\\ translations\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Bible\\.\\ Leaf\\ from\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\.\\ ca\\.\\ 1450\\-1455\\.\\ Latin\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Digital\\ scan\\ of\\ a\\ different\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ from\\ the\\ British\\ Library\\.\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Complustensian\\ Polyglot\\ Bible\\.\\ 1522\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Digital\\ scan\\ of\\ one\\ page\\.\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\One\\ of\\ six\\ total\\ volumes\\,\\ this\\ one\\ was\\ the\\ four\\ volumes\\ containing\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\.\\ The\\ preface\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ explains\\ the\\ layout\\ of\\ three\\ parallel\\ columns\\ on\\ each\\ page\\ \\-\\-\\ Hebrew\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\,\\ Latin\\ Vulgate\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ and\\ Greek\\ Septuagint\\ \\-\\-\\ which\\ mirrors\\ Jesus\\ \\(the\\ Roman\\ Church\\)\\ at\\ his\\ crucification\\,\\ positioned\\ between\\ two\\ thieves\\ \\(Judaism\\ and\\ the\\ Eastern\\ Church\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Das\\ Allte\\ Testament\\ Deutsch\\ by\\ Martin\\ Luther\\.\\ 1523\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Photo\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\Martin\\ Luther\\'s\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ that\\ caused\\ so\\ much\\ storm\\ during\\ the\\ Protestant\\ Reformation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Newe\\ Testament\\ by\\ William\\ Tyndale\\.\\ 1536\\.\\ English\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Digital\\ Version\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Great\\ Bible\\.\\ 1540\\.\\ English\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\Scans\\ from\\ the\\ Great\\ Bible\\:\\ \\Leaf\\ 1\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\Leaf\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Geneva\\ Bible\\.\\ 1578\\.\\ English\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\Digital\\ scans\\:\\\\ Leaf\\ 1\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\Leaf\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Note\\ the\\ Roman\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ Gothic\\ typeface\\.\\ It\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ readable\\ for\\ modern\\ readers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Bible\\ Massachuset\\.\\ 1985\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\A\\ Bible\\ in\\ the\\ \\local\\ Native\\ American\\ language\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ the\\ Cambridge\\ area\\.\\ The\\ language\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ transcribed\\ phonetically\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ Anglicisms\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 4: Bibles Galore "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.206865+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 5: When a Picture is Worth More Than 1000 Words", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 302, "html": "\\Reading\\\r\\\\Printmaking\\ and\\ Visual\\ Communication\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ William\\ Ivins\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ the\\ book\\ a\\ verbal\\ or\\ a\\ visual\\ medium\\?\\ I\\ think\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;right\\&\\#8221\\;\\ answer\\ would\\ include\\ both\\,\\ but\\ the\\ modern\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ certainly\\ focuses\\ on\\ words\\ rather\\ than\\ images\\.\\ William\\ Ivins\\ argues\\ the\\ opposite\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Printing\\ and\\ Visual\\ Communication\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ making\\ a\\ case\\ for\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ images\\ over\\ text\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ use\\ Ivins\\&\\#8217\\;\\ own\\ words\\,\\ the\\ gist\\ of\\ his\\ argument\\ goes\\ like\\ this\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ exact\\ repetition\\ of\\ pictorial\\ statements\\ has\\ had\\ incalculable\\ effects\\ upon\\ knowledge\\ and\\ thought\\,\\ upon\\ science\\ and\\ technology\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Sitting\\ in\\ my\\ neurobiology\\ class\\ the\\ next\\ day\\,\\ I\\ could\\ see\\ Ivins\\&\\#8217\\;\\ point\\&\\#8212\\;to\\ use\\ an\\ apt\\ phrase\\&\\#8212\\;illustrated\\ perfectly\\.\\ I\\ cannot\\ imagine\\ explaining\\ the\\ subunits\\ and\\ divisions\\ of\\ a\\ voltage\\-gated\\ sodium\\ channel\\ using\\ in\\ only\\ words\\.\\ One\\ glance\\ at\\ a\\ diagram\\ and\\ the\\ structure\\ becomes\\ immediately\\ clear\\,\\ whereas\\ a\\ long\\ rambling\\ verbal\\ description\\ still\\ leaves\\ room\\ for\\ error\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Printmaking\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ is\\ what\\ enables\\ the\\ exact\\ reproduction\\ of\\ images\\.\\ Ivins\\ goes\\ on\\ further\\ to\\ discount\\ any\\ artistic\\ merit\\ in\\ printmaking\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ bold\\ step\\ considering\\ Ivins\\ is\\ most\\ famous\\ as\\ a\\ curator\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ Metropolitan\\ Museum\\ of\\ Art\\.\\ \\ His\\ book\\,\\ written\\ \\(entirely\\ from\\ memory\\,\\ he\\ claims\\)\\ after\\ a\\ long\\ distinguished\\ career\\,\\ reads\\ like\\ a\\ polemic\\ tract\\ aimed\\ at\\ shocking\\ the\\ art\\ world\\.\\ Upfront\\ in\\ his\\ preface\\,\\ Ivins\\ disparages\\ the\\ cultural\\ achievements\\ of\\ the\\ Greeks\\ and\\ Romans\\,\\ reserving\\ his\\ esteem\\ for\\ the\\ technological\\ achievements\\ of\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ instead\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Consequently\\,\\ Ivins\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ does\\ not\\,\\ as\\ commonly\\ accepted\\,\\ rediscover\\ classical\\ culture\\ but\\ breaks\\ away\\ from\\ it\\.\\ \\(In\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ not\\ straying\\ too\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ books\\,\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ his\\ argument\\ here\\.\\ Needless\\ to\\ say\\,\\ Ivins\\ deviates\\ far\\ from\\ standard\\ views\\.\\)\\ But\\ it\\ is\\ during\\ the\\ Renaissance\\ that\\ printmaking\\ first\\ began\\,\\ prompting\\ the\\ visual\\ communication\\ revolution\\ championed\\ by\\ Ivins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Woodcuts\\ and\\ engravings\\ \\(descriptions\\ of\\ techniques\\ to\\ come\\ in\\ the\\ workshop\\ post\\)\\ were\\ first\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1400\\ and\\ become\\ widespread\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\ Printmaking\\ actually\\ comes\\ before\\ Gutenberg\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ printing\\ press\\ \\(1455\\)\\.\\ Ivins\\ also\\ downplays\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ a\\ printing\\ press\\ by\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ print\\.\\ A\\ piece\\ of\\ text\\ copied\\ into\\ a\\ different\\ handwriting\\ would\\ still\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ meaning\\,\\ whereas\\ an\\ image\\ copied\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ style\\ gives\\ an\\ entirely\\ different\\ impression\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ printing\\ press\\,\\ which\\ reproduces\\ text\\,\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ revolutionary\\ as\\ printmaking\\,\\ which\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ allows\\ of\\ the\\ exact\\ reproduction\\ of\\ images\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ printmaking\\,\\ like\\ any\\ new\\ technique\\,\\ took\\ some\\ time\\ before\\ realizing\\ its\\ full\\ potential\\.\\ Early\\ woodcuts\\ with\\ edifying\\ aims\\ often\\ lacked\\ realism\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ botany\\ books\\ would\\ tweak\\ the\\ pictures\\ of\\ plants\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ symmetrical\\ rather\\ than\\ realistic\\.\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ prints\\ in\\ the\\ \\Nuremburg\\ Chronicle\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ a\\ book\\ that\\ contained\\ pictures\\ of\\ several\\ European\\ cities\\,\\ were\\ composed\\ almost\\ entirely\\ of\\ fantasy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ 16th\\ century\\,\\ Ivins\\ argues\\ that\\ printmaking\\ actually\\ went\\ downhill\\.\\ Visual\\ communication\\ developed\\ a\\ standardized\\ syntax\\ that\\ conformed\\ all\\ images\\ to\\ a\\ similar\\ style\\ rather\\ than\\ realism\\.\\ Marc\\ Antonion\\ and\\ Lucas\\ of\\ Leydon\\ were\\ the\\ two\\ men\\ most\\ instrumental\\ in\\ developing\\ this\\ style\\,\\ though\\ ironically\\,\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ intention\\ of\\ standardizing\\ the\\ printmaking\\ syntax\\.\\ Their\\ personal\\ styles\\ simply\\ became\\ co\\-opted\\ by\\ other\\ print\\-makers\\.\\ \\(In\\ the\\ image\\ to\\ the\\ right\\,\\ the\\ syntax\\ of\\ the\\ engraving\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ shading\\,\\ which\\ follows\\ the\\ contours\\ of\\ the\\ figure\\.\\ Alternatively\\,\\ shading\\ can\\ be\\ composed\\ of\\ straight\\ lines\\ at\\ an\\ angle\\.\\)\\ \\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ printmaking\\ became\\ \\ increasingly\\ more\\ commercial\\,\\ turning\\ into\\ businesses\\ governed\\ by\\ economic\\ principles\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\ and\\ specialization\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ no\\ engraving\\ is\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ worker\\.\\ \\(Perhaps\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ reason\\ Ivins\\ so\\ summarily\\ discounts\\ that\\ artistic\\ value\\ prints\\.\\ They\\ were\\ commercial\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ readily\\ identifiable\\ artist\\ to\\ canonize\\.\\)\\ A\\ drafter\\ draws\\ the\\ original\\ design\\ onto\\ the\\ wood\\ or\\ copper\\ plate\\,\\ an\\ engraver\\ carves\\ it\\,\\ and\\ the\\ printer\\ prints\\ it\\.\\ Often\\,\\ multiple\\ engravers\\ would\\ work\\ on\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ image\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ this\\ \\&\\#8220\\;tyranny\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ eventually\\ broken\\&\\#8212\\;by\\ photography\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\.\\ The\\ photograph\\ is\\ exactly\\ reproducible\\,\\ and\\ it\\ lacks\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;syntax\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ so\\ distorts\\ printmaking\\.\\ Ivins\\ especially\\ argues\\ for\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ photography\\ in\\ art\\ catalogs\\.\\ Ask\\ two\\ artists\\ to\\ sketch\\ Michelangelo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ David\\,\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ drawings\\ will\\ look\\ different\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ use\\ the\\ same\\ materials\\ and\\ approach\\ it\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ angle\\.\\ Printmaking\\ can\\ only\\ capture\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ it\\ cannot\\ capture\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;how\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Photography\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ captures\\ an\\ object\\ without\\ the\\ human\\ filter\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Perhaps\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ because\\ I\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ time\\,\\ but\\ I\\ take\\ issue\\ with\\ Ivins\\&\\#8217\\;\\ elevation\\ of\\ photography\\ to\\ the\\ perfect\\ solution\\.\\ In\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ Photoshop\\ and\\ manipulation\\ is\\ the\\ norm\\,\\ Ivins\\&\\#8217\\;\\ reliance\\ on\\ photography\\ almost\\ feels\\ outdated\\.\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mean\\ to\\ trivialize\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ photography\\ on\\ both\\ science\\ and\\ art\\,\\ but\\ speaking\\ of\\ photography\\ as\\ an\\ visual\\ form\\ without\\ syntax\\ is\\ completely\\ erroneous\\.\\ There\\ are\\ conventions\\ and\\ standards\\ in\\ photography\\ as\\ well\\.\\ I\\ do\\ wonder\\ if\\ my\\ views\\ are\\ somewhat\\ motivated\\ by\\ the\\ technology\\ around\\ me\\.\\ As\\ Ivins\\ argues\\ for\\ the\\ visual\\ communication\\ revolution\\,\\ I\\ think\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ on\\ the\\ crest\\ of\\ another\\ communication\\ revolution\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ digital\\ one\\.\\ In\\ our\\ world\\,\\ photography\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ as\\ Ivins\\ knew\\ it\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ refreshing\\ force\\ it\\ once\\ was\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 5: When a Picture is Worth More Than 1000 Words"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.218887+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 5: Printmaking Workshop ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 303, "html": "\\For\\ our\\ workshop\\ this\\ week\\,\\ a\\ whole\\ room\\ of\\ prints\\ was\\ laid\\ out\\ for\\ our\\ perusal\\,\\ from\\ 15th\\ century\\ woodcuts\\ to\\ 19th\\ century\\ lithographs\\.\\ But\\ in\\ true\\ Ivins\\-fashion\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ realized\\ that\\ describing\\ these\\ prints\\ in\\ words\\ to\\ you\\ dear\\ readers\\ is\\ completely\\ futile\\.\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ none\\ of\\ Harvard\\'s\\ print\\ collection\\ is\\ available\\ online\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\ different\\ techniques\\ of\\ printmaking\\ and\\ point\\ you\\ to\\ the\\ \\Metropolitan\\ Museum\\ of\\ Art\\<\\/a\\>\\ website\\ for\\ the\\ visual\\ accompaniment\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ online\\ archive\\ of\\ printmaking\\ and\\ appropriately\\,\\ many\\ of\\ those\\ prints\\ were\\ probably\\ curated\\ by\\ Ivins\\ himself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Techniques\\ for\\ non\\-photographic\\ printmaking\\ can\\ be\\ generally\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ categories\\:\\ relief\\,\\ intaglio\\,\\ and\\ planographic\\.\\ These\\ three\\ categories\\ describe\\ the\\ surface\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ printed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Relief\\ printing\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ nonprinting\\ areas\\ are\\ carved\\ away\\,\\ so\\ the\\ printing\\ area\\ is\\ raised\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ relief\\ printing\\ on\\ wood\\:\\ woodcut\\ and\\ wood\\ engraving\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ being\\ that\\ woodcut\\ is\\ cut\\ into\\ the\\ plank\\ side\\ and\\ wood\\ engraving\\ the\\ grain\\ end\\.\\ \\ Metal\\ plates\\ are\\ also\\ sometimes\\ used\\.\\ \\Woodcut\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ of\\ these\\ techniques\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ earliest\\.\\ By\\ the\\ 16th\\ century\\,\\ woodcuts\\ had\\ become\\ supplanted\\ by\\ copperplates\\ in\\ all\\ but\\ the\\ cheapest\\ books\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Copperplates\\ are\\ usually\\ used\\ in\\ engraving\\,\\ an\\ \\intaglio\\ printing\\<\\/a\\>\\ process\\ where\\ the\\ image\\ you\\ want\\ is\\ incised\\ into\\ a\\ plate\\ or\\ block\\.\\ In\\ \\engraving\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ a\\ design\\ is\\ incised\\ into\\ a\\ metal\\ printing\\ plate\\,\\ ink\\ is\\ rubbed\\ into\\ the\\ design\\,\\ and\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ paper\\ is\\ placed\\ on\\ top\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ entire\\ contraption\\ is\\ squeezed\\ through\\ a\\ machine\\ for\\ the\\ ink\\ to\\ be\\ printed\\ onto\\ the\\ paper\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ this\\ squeezing\\ process\\,\\ the\\ metal\\ plates\\ wore\\ out\\ quickly\\ and\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ replaced\\ often\\.\\ \\Etching\\ \\<\\/a\\>uses\\ acid\\ rather\\ than\\ tools\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ initial\\ design\\ in\\ the\\ metal\\ plate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lithography\\ \\<\\/a\\>is\\ the\\ primary\\ planographic\\ printing\\ process\\.\\ A\\ design\\ is\\ drawn\\ using\\ an\\ oily\\ substance\\ on\\ a\\ slab\\ of\\ stone\\,\\ usually\\ limestone\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ The\\ stone\\ is\\ then\\ treated\\ with\\ gum\\ arabic\\ that\\ sticks\\ only\\ the\\ non\\-oily\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ stone\\.\\ Water\\-based\\ ink\\ only\\ sticks\\ to\\ the\\ gum\\ arabic\\,\\ and\\ oil\\-based\\ ink\\ to\\ the\\ oily\\ substance\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Note\\:\\ The\\ Met\\ website\\ covers\\ more\\ techniques\\ than\\ we\\ discussed\\ in\\ class\\.\\ It\\'s\\ fantastic\\ \\-\\-\\ please\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ them\\!\\ \\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 5: Printmaking Workshop "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.228631+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 6: Shakespeare's First Folio", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 304, "html": "\\Reading\\:\\\r\\\\\\ The\\ First\\ Folio\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\ \\(pdf\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Peter\\ Blayney\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ I\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ quite\\ made\\ it\\ obvious\\,\\ the\\ format\\ of\\ my\\ seminar\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ a\\ student\\ makes\\ an\\ individual\\ presentation\\ on\\ the\\ readings\\,\\ the\\ class\\ uses\\ the\\ presentation\\ as\\ a\\ jumping\\ off\\ point\\ for\\ discussion\\,\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ makes\\ some\\ brilliant\\ concluding\\ remarks\\,\\ and\\ a\\ hands\\-on\\ workshop\\ follows\\.\\ Usually\\,\\ my\\ blog\\ posts\\ are\\ derived\\ from\\ an\\ amalgamation\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ three\\ plus\\ my\\ own\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ I\\ write\\ a\\ separate\\ blog\\ post\\ on\\ the\\ workshop\\.\\ This\\ week\\,\\ it\\ was\\ my\\ turn\\ for\\ the\\ presentation\\.\\ Alas\\,\\ dear\\ readers\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ be\\ getting\\ an\\ unusually\\ heavy\\ dose\\ of\\ me\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Having\\ read\\ only\\ one\\-fifth\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ theatrical\\ oeuvre\\ \\(7\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ 38\\ surviving\\ plays\\)\\,\\ I\\ first\\ approached\\ this\\ presentation\\ with\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ unease\\.\\ Would\\ I\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ highlights\\ of\\ \\Henry\\ VI\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Parts\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\,\\ and\\ 3\\?\\ Or\\ wait\\,\\ was\\ it\\ \\Henry\\ IV\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ had\\ 3\\ parts\\?\\ But\\ my\\ fears\\ were\\ allayed\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ I\\ cracked\\ open\\ Peter\\ Blayney\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\The\\ First\\ Folio\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Blayney\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ life\\ or\\ even\\ his\\ plays\\,\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ title\\ plainly\\ suggests\\,\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clearly\\ an\\ affirmation\\ of\\ bibliography\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ classical\\ sense\\.\\ Publishing\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ commenced\\ in\\ 1622\\,\\ several\\ years\\ after\\ Shakespeare\\ had\\ died\\ in\\ 1616\\.\\ The\\ people\\ whom\\ Blayney\\ instead\\ elevates\\ in\\ importance\\ are\\ the\\ publishers\\,\\ printers\\,\\ and\\ even\\ collectors\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ his\\ status\\ as\\ a\\ cultural\\ icon\\,\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ actual\\ identity\\ is\\ less\\ important\\ than\\ how\\ we\\ perceive\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ efforts\\ of\\ the\\ publishers\\,\\ printers\\,\\ and\\ collectors\\ who\\ have\\ make\\ his\\ works\\ available\\ to\\ us\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ understand\\ the\\ monumental\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\,\\ one\\ must\\ consider\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ publishing\\ world\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 17th\\ century\\.\\ The\\ folio\\ format\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ 4\\ pages\\ per\\ sheet\\ of\\ paper\\ so\\ each\\ page\\ was\\ approximately\\ 17\\&\\#8221\\;\\ x\\ 22\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ was\\ expensive\\ and\\ usually\\ reserved\\ for\\ reference\\ books\\ or\\ the\\ collected\\ writings\\ of\\ important\\ authors\\,\\ but\\ \\never\\ \\<\\/em\\>plays\\.\\ Even\\ Shakespeare\\ himself\\ did\\ not\\ consider\\ his\\ plays\\ worthy\\ of\\ publication\\;\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ sonnets\\ that\\ he\\ cared\\ about\\.\\ Ironically\\,\\ his\\ plays\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ widely\\ read\\ nowadays\\ thanks\\ to\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\ The\\ First\\ Folio\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;first\\&\\#8221\\;\\ not\\ only\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ \\(nearly\\)\\ complete\\ publication\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ plays\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ folio\\ exclusively\\ to\\ plays\\ by\\ any\\ writer\\.\\ It\\ contains\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ 36\\ plays\\:\\ 14\\ previously\\ published\\,\\ 4\\ published\\ previously\\ only\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Bad\\ Quartos\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(that\\ were\\ likely\\ reconstructed\\ from\\ memory\\ by\\ the\\ actors\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ whopping\\ 18\\ plays\\ published\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ Since\\ none\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ original\\ manuscripts\\,\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ plays\\ would\\ not\\ exist\\ today\\ if\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Blayney\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ is\\ actually\\ an\\ exhibition\\ catalogue\\ for\\ the\\ Folger\\ Shakespeare\\ Library\\.\\ Although\\ small\\ in\\ size\\,\\ it\\ is\\ large\\ in\\ the\\ breadth\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ it\\ covers\\.\\ Returning\\ readers\\ will\\ notice\\ parallels\\ with\\ Janet\\ Ing\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ \\history\\ of\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Both\\ Ing\\ and\\ Blayney\\ use\\ a\\ rigorous\\ bibliography\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ histories\\ of\\ their\\ respective\\ books\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ Blayney\\ delves\\ deep\\ into\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ Charlton\\ Hinman\\,\\ who\\ used\\ bibliography\\ to\\ identify\\ and\\ reconstruct\\ the\\ individuals\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ printing\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hinman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ bibliographical\\ work\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ compositors\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ men\\ who\\ set\\ type\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ worked\\ in\\ the\\ shop\\ run\\ by\\ William\\ Jaggard\\,\\ the\\ printer\\.\\ Using\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;do\\-go\\-here\\&\\#8221\\;\\ test\\,\\ Hinman\\ compared\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ spelling\\ variations\\ in\\ do\\(e\\)\\,\\ go\\(e\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\(e\\)re\\ to\\ identity\\ at\\ least\\ 5\\ individual\\ compositors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(Sidenote\\:\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ standard\\ spelling\\ in\\ English\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ By\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\,\\ however\\,\\ spelling\\ in\\ printed\\ books\\ had\\ become\\ more\\ consistent\\ owing\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ compositors\\ had\\ to\\ distribute\\ \\ the\\ letters\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ pages\\ after\\ they\\ were\\ printed\\,\\ so\\ consistent\\ spelling\\ made\\ for\\ easier\\ distribution\\.\\ A\\ superb\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ unexpected\\ influence\\ of\\ technology\\ on\\ our\\ culture\\.\\)\\ Of\\ special\\ note\\ is\\ Compositor\\ B\\,\\ a\\ permanent\\ employee\\ of\\ the\\ shop\\ who\\ set\\ over\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\ Compositor\\ E\\,\\ notable\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;his\\ extreme\\ lack\\ of\\ skill\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ most\\ likely\\ an\\ apprentice\\ of\\ the\\ shop\\.\\ Although\\ he\\ made\\ frequent\\ mistakes\\ in\\ his\\ when\\ setting\\ type\\,\\ he\\ did\\ improve\\ and\\ his\\ habits\\ began\\ to\\ match\\ that\\ of\\ Compositor\\ B\\,\\ from\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ extrapolate\\ that\\ Compositor\\ B\\ was\\ teaching\\ the\\ apprentice\\.\\ So\\ wrapped\\ in\\ the\\ grand\\ intellectual\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ is\\ this\\ personal\\ story\\.\\ But\\ so\\ what\\?\\ What\\ does\\ this\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\?\\ Blayney\\,\\ and\\ Hinman\\ too\\,\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ knowing\\ the\\ habits\\ of\\ compositors\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ recognize\\ the\\ human\\ errors\\ in\\ the\\ play\\ and\\ get\\ at\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;true\\ text\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ Hinman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ illustrates\\,\\ the\\ mistakes\\ in\\ a\\ text\\ are\\ crucial\\ to\\ its\\ bibliographical\\ history\\.\\ We\\ should\\ also\\ examine\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ casting\\ off\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ dividing\\ up\\ the\\ manuscript\\ into\\ pages\\ for\\ printing\\.\\ As\\ you\\ might\\ be\\ thinking\\,\\ this\\ was\\ an\\ imprecise\\ process\\ that\\ would\\ sometimes\\ lead\\ to\\ problems\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ probably\\ safe\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ compositor\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ themselves\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ respect\\ for\\ Shakespeare\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ now\\.\\ When\\ in\\ a\\ bind\\,\\ they\\ would\\ get\\ creative\\ with\\ the\\ text\\:\\ setting\\ verse\\ as\\ prose\\,\\ breaking\\ up\\ verse\\ into\\ half\\-lines\\,\\ deleting\\ lines\\,\\ and\\ even\\ inserting\\ lines\\.\\ Having\\ studied\\ Shakespeare\\ and\\ knowing\\ how\\ much\\ scrutiny\\ goes\\ into\\ every\\ last\\ letter\\ of\\ a\\ word\\,\\ I\\ was\\ shocked\\ to\\ realize\\ how\\ much\\ power\\ these\\ compositors\\ held\\ over\\ the\\ text\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Equally\\ shocking\\ was\\ how\\ little\\ the\\ printers\\ cared\\ about\\ mistakes\\ in\\ the\\ text\\.\\ After\\ type\\ is\\ set\\,\\ a\\ page\\ is\\ usually\\ printed\\ and\\ then\\ corrected\\,\\ thus\\ becoming\\ a\\ proofsheet\\.\\ However\\,\\ neither\\ the\\ variant\\ texts\\ nor\\ that\\ proofsheets\\ were\\ thrown\\ away\\;\\ all\\ found\\ their\\ way\\ into\\ the\\ final\\ copy\\.\\ For\\ this\\ reason\\,\\ no\\ two\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ are\\ identical\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\After\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ left\\ the\\ printing\\ press\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ commercial\\ success\\ and\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ second\\ run\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ status\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ playwright\\ to\\ be\\ published\\ in\\ folio\\ was\\ no\\ doubt\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ popularity\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ unlikely\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ reverence\\ of\\ his\\ writings\\ as\\ literature\\.\\ When\\ Blout\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ publishers\\ \\(take\\ note\\,\\ printer\\ and\\ publisher\\ distinct\\)\\ registered\\ the\\ copyright\\ of\\ Antony\\ and\\ Cleopatra\\,\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ forgotten\\ that\\ he\\ already\\ owned\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Accordingly\\,\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ did\\ not\\ achieve\\ its\\ mythical\\ status\\ until\\ much\\ later\\.\\ The\\ earliest\\ editors\\ and\\ collectors\\ did\\ not\\ realize\\ that\\ all\\ later\\ folios\\ were\\ simply\\ reprints\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ and\\ thus\\ inferior\\ due\\ with\\ additional\\ mistakes\\.\\ The\\ Third\\ Folio\\ included\\ several\\ plays\\ then\\ erroneously\\ attributed\\ to\\ Shakespeare\\,\\ so\\ many\\ institutions\\ replaced\\ the\\ \\(now\\ more\\ valuable\\)\\ First\\ Folio\\ with\\ the\\ Third\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ a\\ more\\ \\&\\#8220\\;complete\\&\\#8221\\;\\ edition\\.\\ By\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\,\\ collectors\\ began\\ to\\ recognize\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ \\(around\\ the\\ same\\ like\\ as\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\ was\\ revived\\,\\ I\\ may\\ add\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Blayney\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ focuses\\ on\\ one\\ particular\\ collector\\,\\ Henry\\ Folger\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ of\\ the\\ Folger\\ Shakespeare\\ Library\\,\\ which\\ also\\ commissioned\\ Blayney\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\.\\ Folger\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ desire\\ to\\ especially\\ collect\\ First\\ Folios\\ stemmed\\ from\\ a\\ commitment\\ to\\ the\\ scholarship\\ and\\ the\\ quest\\ to\\ find\\ all\\ the\\ variant\\ texts\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\ His\\ collection\\ contains\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ 82\\ First\\ Folios\\,\\ though\\ that\\ includes\\ many\\ incomplete\\ copies\\ and\\ many\\,\\ many\\ fragments\\.\\ Folger\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ efforts\\,\\ which\\ were\\ bequeathed\\ to\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ Folger\\ Shakespeare\\ Library\\ in\\ DC\\,\\ were\\ instrumental\\ in\\ Hinman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ bibliographical\\ studies\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ Blayney\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ is\\ as\\ much\\ a\\ tribute\\ to\\ Folger\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ Shakespeare\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ memorial\\ to\\ the\\ printer\\ William\\ Jaggard\\,\\ the\\ publishers\\ the\\ Edward\\ Blout\\ and\\ Isaac\\ Jaggard\\,\\ the\\ anonymous\\ Compositor\\ B\\,\\ scholars\\ like\\ Charlton\\ Hinman\\ and\\ Peter\\ Blayney\\,\\ and\\ anyone\\ who\\ has\\ played\\ a\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\ In\\ this\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ evident\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ are\\ needed\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ cultural\\ phenomenal\\ like\\ this\\ possible\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 6: Shakespeare's First Folio"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.242040+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 6: The Importance of a Shakespeare Play You Probably Haven't Heard Of ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 305, "html": "\\I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ like\\ to\\ take\\ this\\ entry\\ to\\ discuss\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ copyright\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ affected\\ the\\ finished\\ product\\ that\\ we\\ saw\\ in\\ the\\ workshop\\.\\ Most\\ specifically\\,\\ I\\ want\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ controversy\\ that\\ surrounded\\ the\\ play\\ \\Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ almost\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\ For\\ anyone\\ into\\ law\\,\\ I\\ promise\\,\\ \\much\\ more\\<\\/em\\>\\ on\\ copyright\\ next\\ week\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\,\\ what\\ resembled\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ copyright\\ was\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ Stationer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Company\\,\\ a\\ guild\\ of\\ printers\\ in\\ England\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Copyright\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ bestowed\\ upon\\ printers\\ \\(not\\ authors\\ as\\ we\\ now\\ do\\)\\ to\\ publish\\ a\\ particular\\ work\\.\\ As\\ it\\ happened\\,\\ when\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ publishers\\,\\ Isaac\\ Jaggard\\ and\\ Edward\\ Blout\\,\\ were\\ readying\\ the\\ volume\\,\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ publish\\ \\Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\<\\/em\\>\\ belonged\\ to\\ one\\ Henry\\ Walley\\.\\ Walley\\ refused\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ rights\\ for\\ reasons\\ that\\ were\\ mostly\\ economic\\,\\ as\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ unsold\\ copies\\ of\\ \\Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ he\\ feared\\ would\\ become\\ worthless\\ if\\ printed\\ in\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ registering\\ the\\ unpublished\\ Shakespeare\\ plays\\,\\ Jaggard\\ and\\ Blout\\ discovered\\ that\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ \\Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\<\\/em\\>\\ actually\\ belonged\\ to\\ James\\ Roberts\\ who\\ had\\ registered\\ the\\ play\\ 20\\ years\\ before\\,\\ not\\ to\\ Walley\\.\\ The\\ publishers\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ fact\\ to\\ leverage\\ Wallace\\ into\\ giving\\ over\\ the\\ rights\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ happen\\ until\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ had\\ already\\ begun\\ print\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ there\\ actually\\ exist\\ a\\ couple\\ different\\ variations\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ solely\\ due\\ to\\ Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\:\\ \\ one\\ with\\ the\\ final\\ page\\ of\\ the\\ previous\\ play\\ canceled\\ and\\ another\\ with\\ the\\ prologue\\ of\\ Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\.\\ \\(Remember\\ that\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ entire\\ text\\,\\ no\\ two\\ First\\ Folios\\ are\\ identical\\.\\)\\ For\\ the\\ workshop\\,\\ we\\ were\\ given\\ the\\ privilege\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ two\\ different\\ First\\ Folios\\ and\\ a\\ Second\\ Folio\\ along\\ with\\ numerous\\ Quartos\\ and\\ other\\ sundry\\ texts\\.\\ The\\ benefit\\ of\\ this\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ was\\ the\\ comparing\\ several\\ different\\ editions\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ \\Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\<\\/em\\>\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ in\\ the\\ table\\ of\\ contents\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ but\\ in\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Second\\.\\ Both\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ also\\ contained\\ the\\ prologue\\ of\\ Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ I\\ ultimately\\ gained\\ from\\ this\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ class\\ is\\,\\ as\\ one\\ classmate\\ put\\ it\\,\\ how\\ much\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ practicalities\\ of\\ publishing\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ build\\ up\\ in\\ our\\ minds\\ the\\ mythical\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\ Yet\\ the\\ nitty\\-gritty\\ realities\\,\\ such\\ as\\ copyright\\ skirmishes\\,\\ dictated\\ the\\ printing\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ comparison\\ of\\ the\\ variations\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ page\\ of\\ Troilus\\ and\\ Cressida\\.\\ \\(Click\\ to\\ enlarge\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Synergistic\\ plug\\:\\ Inspired\\ to\\ read\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\?\\ Read\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ the\\ full\\-text\\ with\\ annotations\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\More\\ links\\ of\\ interest\\:\\\r\\\\A\\ digital\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ First\\ Folio\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\Folger\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ First\\ Folio\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 6: The Importance of a Shakespeare Play You Probably Haven't Heard Of "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.252134+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 7: The Evolution of Copyright ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 306, "html": "\\Reading\\\r\\\\Authors\\ and\\ Owners\\:\\ The\\ Invention\\ of\\ Copyright\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Mark\\ Rose\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ I\\ promised\\ last\\ week\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ about\\ copyright\\ to\\ be\\ discussed\\,\\ so\\ let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ delve\\ right\\ in\\.\\ Mark\\ Rose\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ purports\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;invention\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ copyright\\,\\ but\\ I\\ find\\ the\\ word\\ choice\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ little\\ misleading\\.\\ Copyright\\ is\\ a\\ concept\\ that\\ was\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ be\\ shaped\\ by\\ the\\ cultural\\ and\\ intellectual\\ of\\ a\\ society\\.\\ To\\ speak\\ of\\ an\\ \\&\\#8220\\;invention\\&\\#8221\\;\\ seems\\ to\\ imply\\ an\\ inventor\\ who\\ shouted\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Eureka\\!\\ Voila\\ copyright\\!\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Perhaps\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;evolution\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ copyright\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ better\\ title\\?\\ Read\\ on\\ and\\ feel\\ free\\ to\\ disagree\\ with\\ me\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Rose\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ focuses\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ on\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ copyright\\ in\\ England\\,\\ which\\ he\\ justifies\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ advanced\\ civilization\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ I\\ have\\ already\\ addressed\\ copyright\\ in\\ 17th\\ England\\ while\\ discussing\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\First\\ Folio\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ but\\ Rose\\ delves\\ into\\ the\\ issue\\ in\\ much\\ greater\\ detail\\.\\ Essentially\\,\\ there\\ existed\\ two\\ parallel\\ systems\\ of\\ regulation\\,\\ one\\ being\\ the\\ royal\\ printing\\ patents\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ the\\ Stationer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Company\\,\\ a\\ guild\\.\\ As\\ an\\ important\\ distinction\\ from\\ modern\\ copyright\\,\\ the\\ privilege\\ rested\\ with\\ the\\ printer\\ rather\\ the\\ author\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ press\\ regulation\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ Crown\\ \\(the\\ Stationer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Company\\ is\\ backed\\ by\\ a\\ royal\\ charter\\ too\\)\\,\\ Rose\\ discusses\\ the\\ intertwining\\ of\\ copyright\\ and\\ censorship\\ into\\ one\\ regime\\ of\\ regulation\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ laws\\ passed\\ to\\ prohibit\\ the\\ anonymous\\ publication\\ of\\ pamphlets\\ curbed\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ anonymously\\ printing\\ a\\ work\\ for\\ which\\ the\\ printer\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ permission\\ to\\ print\\ but\\ also\\ prevented\\ political\\ radicals\\ from\\ hiding\\ behind\\ anonymity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Rose\\ identifies\\ two\\ shifting\\ forces\\ that\\ have\\ defined\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ copyright\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\.\\ First\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ authorship\\ and\\ the\\ author\\ as\\ the\\ original\\ genius\\.\\ At\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\,\\ there\\ exists\\ no\\ cult\\ of\\ the\\ author\\ that\\ exists\\ today\\.\\ As\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ authorship\\ becomes\\ stronger\\,\\ we\\ will\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ rights\\ to\\ the\\ printing\\ of\\ a\\ work\\ are\\ eventually\\ transferred\\ over\\ to\\ the\\ author\\.\\ The\\ second\\ force\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ literary\\ property\\.\\ Up\\ through\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\,\\ the\\ arts\\ were\\ dominated\\ by\\ the\\ patronage\\ system\\,\\ so\\ while\\ an\\ author\\ was\\ credited\\ as\\ the\\ creator\\ of\\ the\\ works\\,\\ ownership\\ rested\\ with\\ the\\ patron\\.Ownership\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ writing\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ not\\ the\\ physical\\ piece\\ of\\ writing\\ but\\ the\\ writing\\ itself\\-\\-\\ is\\ obviously\\ completely\\ different\\ from\\ ownership\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ land\\.\\ It\\ involves\\ the\\ recognition\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ own\\ something\\ intangible\\ and\\ expect\\ to\\ profit\\ from\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Statute\\ of\\ Anne\\ in\\ 1710\\,\\ recognized\\ as\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ modern\\ copyright\\,\\ touches\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ issues\\.\\ While\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ resolve\\ them\\ once\\ and\\ for\\ all\\,\\ the\\ Statute\\ of\\ Anne\\ laid\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ our\\ current\\ concepts\\ of\\ copyright\\ with\\ two\\ fundamental\\ concepts\\:\\ authors\\,\\ not\\ publishers\\,\\ are\\ legally\\ recognized\\ as\\ proprietors\\ of\\ their\\ works\\ and\\ the\\ author\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ exclusive\\ rights\\ are\\ limited\\ to\\ 28\\ years\\,\\ after\\ which\\ the\\ works\\ pass\\ into\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Statute\\ of\\ Anne\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ be\\-all\\-end\\-all\\ of\\ copyright\\ law\\.\\ Over\\ the\\ next\\ few\\ decades\\,\\ open\\ borders\\ with\\ Ireland\\ and\\ Scotland\\ along\\ with\\ varying\\ interpretations\\ of\\ common\\ law\\ property\\ rights\\ were\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ heated\\ debate\\ on\\ copyright\\.\\ The\\ case\\ of\\ \\Donaldson\\ v\\.\\ Becket\\<\\/em\\>\\ settled\\ the\\ dispute\\ over\\ the\\ perpetuity\\ of\\ copyright\\ in\\ England\\ once\\ and\\ for\\ all\\.\\ The\\ court\\ ruled\\ that\\ Parliament\\ could\\ indeed\\ set\\ limits\\ to\\ the\\ term\\ of\\ a\\ copyright\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ copyright\\ expires\\,\\ it\\ enters\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Rose\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\,\\ written\\ in\\ 1993\\,\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ copyright\\ moving\\ into\\ the\\ digital\\ age\\.\\ In\\ his\\ mediation\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ copyright\\ he\\ concludes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Copyright\\ is\\ deeply\\ rooted\\ in\\ our\\ conception\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ individuals\\ with\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ modest\\ grade\\ of\\ singularity\\,\\ some\\ degrees\\ of\\ personality\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(142\\)\\.\\ Although\\ some\\ of\\ my\\ classmates\\ took\\ issue\\ with\\ Rose\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ characterization\\,\\ I\\ believe\\ he\\ is\\ fundamentally\\ correct\\.\\ Our\\ respect\\ for\\ copyright\\ is\\ born\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ original\\ vision\\,\\ and\\ this\\ artistic\\ expression\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ imagination\\.\\ Copyright\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ is\\ about\\ protecting\\ originality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ semester\\,\\ I\\ took\\ a\\ \\seminar\\ \\<\\/a\\>on\\ Internet\\ law\\ where\\ copyright\\ was\\ obvious\\ a\\ big\\ topic\\.\\ I\\ could\\ spout\\ on\\ for\\ paragraphs\\ and\\ paragraphs\\ about\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ copyright\\ reform\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ technological\\ developments\\ of\\ the\\ digital\\ age\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ Rose\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ looks\\ back\\ on\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ copyright\\,\\ but\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ also\\ like\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ a\\ few\\ resources\\ that\\ look\\ forward\\ at\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ copyright\\.\\ The\\ obvious\\ name\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ mention\\ is\\ Lawrence\\ Lessig\\,\\ Stanford\\ Law\\ professor\\ and\\ perhaps\\ the\\ utmost\\ authority\\ and\\ advocate\\ on\\ copyright\\ reform\\.\\ For\\ any\\ readers\\ in\\ the\\ Boston\\/Cambridge\\ area\\,\\ Lessig\\ will\\ be\\ giving\\ a\\ \\talk\\ \\<\\/a\\>at\\ Harvard\\ Law\\ School\\ open\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ on\\ April\\ 4\\.\\ \\ Lessig\\ is\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ Creative\\ Commons\\,\\ which\\ releases\\ Creative\\ Commons\\ licenses\\ that\\ are\\ less\\ restrictive\\ than\\ traditional\\ copyright\\ licenses\\.\\ Personally\\,\\ I\\ believe\\ that\\ Creative\\ Commons\\ represents\\ another\\ step\\ in\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ copyright\\.\\ From\\ Rose\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ copyright\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ static\\ notion\\ in\\ 17th\\ century\\ England\\,\\ and\\ it\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ 21th\\ century\\ either\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 7: The Evolution of Copyright "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.263414+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 7: Book Binding and Preservation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 307, "html": "\\Today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ workshop\\ actually\\ had\\ little\\ direct\\ correlation\\ with\\ the\\ class\\ discussion\\.\\ We\\ took\\ field\\ trip\\ to\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Library\\ Preservation\\ Center\\ for\\ a\\ very\\ hands\\-on\\ lesson\\ on\\ book\\ binding\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ we\\'ve\\ discussed\\ before\\,\\ early\\ books\\ were\\ sold\\ as\\ loose\\ sheets\\ of\\ paper\\,\\ and\\ owners\\ would\\ have\\ them\\ bound\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ preferences\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Houghton\\ Library\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ extensive\\ collection\\ of\\ books\\ from\\ the\\ collection\\ of\\ Thomas\\ Hollis\\ \\(who\\ also\\ gives\\ his\\ namesake\\ to\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ library\\ search\\ engine\\ HOLLIS\\ and\\ my\\ freshman\\ dorm\\)\\.\\ On\\ the\\ spine\\ of\\ every\\ book\\ in\\ Hollis\\&\\#8217\\;\\ library\\ were\\ an\\ owl\\ and\\/or\\ Phrygian\\ cap\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ binding\\ process\\ begins\\ when\\ the\\ sheets\\ are\\ folded\\ and\\ stitched\\ together\\,\\ which\\ we\\ all\\ got\\ to\\ try\\ our\\ hand\\ at\\.\\ Rather\\ there\\ try\\ to\\ recreate\\ the\\ experience\\,\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ lovely\\ \\video\\<\\/a\\>\\ showing\\ a\\ book\\ being\\ stitched\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Afterwards\\,\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ put\\ into\\ a\\ vice\\ and\\ the\\ spine\\ rounded\\ with\\ a\\ hammer\\ to\\ prepare\\ for\\ the\\ wooden\\ boards\\.\\ We\\ examined\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ sheep\\,\\ calf\\,\\ and\\ pig\\ leather\\ used\\ in\\ book\\ binding\\.\\ In\\ lieu\\ of\\ photos\\,\\ here\\ are\\ some\\ comprehensive\\ sites\\ for\\ the\\ latent\\ bookbinder\\ in\\ you\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\AboutBookbinding\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\A\\ Walkthrough\\ of\\ the\\ Entire\\ Bookbinding\\ process\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\History\\ of\\ Bookbinding\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\How\\ to\\ Bind\\ Your\\ Own\\ Book\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ session\\,\\ we\\ took\\ a\\ walk\\ around\\ the\\ preservation\\ center\\ to\\ observe\\ the\\ conservators\\ in\\ their\\ natural\\ habitat\\.\\ One\\ conservator\\ was\\ rebinding\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ John\\ Hancock\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ finances\\.\\ \\(Turns\\ out\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ great\\ businessman\\ as\\ one\\ would\\ think\\.\\ There\\ was\\ some\\ talk\\ of\\ him\\ stealing\\ funds\\ from\\ Harvard\\ to\\ cover\\ his\\ own\\ expenses\\.\\ Interesting\\ story\\,\\ but\\ not\\ fact\\ checked\\!\\)\\ Of\\ particular\\ interest\\,\\ though\\,\\ were\\ a\\ few\\ pieces\\ from\\ the\\ Theater\\ Collection\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ follow\\ Harvard\\ news\\,\\ you\\ may\\ recall\\ a\\ \\flood\\ in\\ the\\ Pusey\\ Library\\ Stacks\\<\\/a\\>\\ a\\ couple\\ weeks\\ ago\\.\\ On\\ March\\ 12\\,\\ a\\ drain\\ pipe\\ in\\ Pusey\\ burst\\ and\\ spilled\\ over\\ 500\\ gallons\\ of\\ water\\.\\ Luckily\\,\\ Library\\ Collections\\ Emergency\\ Team\\ \\(LECT\\)\\ arrived\\ shortly\\ thereafter\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ At\\ the\\ preservation\\ center\\,\\ there\\ were\\ a\\ few\\ watercolors\\ from\\ the\\ Theater\\ Collection\\ that\\ had\\ become\\ wet\\ in\\ the\\ flood\\.\\ Because\\ watercolors\\ actually\\ become\\ insoluble\\ over\\ time\\,\\ the\\ paintings\\ themselves\\ had\\ little\\ damage\\ except\\ for\\ wrinkling\\ due\\ to\\ being\\ wet\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ mount\\ of\\ the\\ one\\ watercolor\\ was\\ of\\ poor\\ quality\\ and\\ had\\ actually\\ bent\\ and\\ stained\\ the\\ watercolor\\.\\ The\\ conservators\\ discussed\\ the\\ plans\\ for\\ these\\ watercolors\\ \\(dampen\\ and\\ flatten\\)\\ but\\ emphasized\\ that\\ the\\ damage\\ was\\ quite\\ small\\ given\\ the\\ gallons\\ of\\ water\\ that\\ poured\\ into\\ the\\ stacks\\.\\ So\\ not\\ only\\ did\\ we\\ get\\ out\\ hands\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ action\\,\\ we\\ got\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ experts\\ in\\ action\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 7: Book Binding and Preservation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.273899+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 8: The Books of Prerevolutionary France ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 308, "html": "\\Week\\ 8\\:\\ The\\ book\\ trade\\,\\ diffusion\\ of\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ Enlightenment\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Readings\\:\\\r\\\\-\\&\\#8220\\;Reading\\,\\ Writing\\,\\ and\\ Publishing\\&\\#8221\\;\\ from\\ \\The\\ Literary\\ Underground\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Regime\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Robert\\ Darnton\\\r\\\\-\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Encyclop\\&\\#233\\;die\\ Wars\\ of\\ Prerevolutionary\\ France\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Robert\\ Darnton\\\r\\\\-\\&\\#8220\\;Readers\\ Respond\\ to\\ Rousseau\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ from\\ \\The\\ Great\\ Cat\\ Massacre\\ and\\ Other\\ Episodes\\ in\\ French\\ Cultural\\ History\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Robert\\ Darnton\\\r\\\\\\-The\\ Forbidden\\ Bestsellers\\ of\\ Prerevolutionary\\ France\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Robert\\ Darnton\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ historian\\,\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ area\\ of\\ specialization\\ is\\ prerevolutionary\\ France\\,\\ and\\ he\\ truly\\ is\\ the\\ top\\ scholar\\ of\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\ France\\.\\ So\\ the\\ follows\\ that\\ our\\ readings\\ this\\ week\\ include\\ three\\ essays\\ and\\ a\\ book\\ all\\ written\\ by\\ him\\.\\ I\\ once\\ had\\ a\\ conversation\\ with\\ another\\ professor\\ of\\ mine\\ about\\ the\\ appropriateness\\ of\\ professors\\ teaching\\ their\\ own\\ papers\\ and\\ books\\ to\\ their\\ classes\\.\\ I\\ had\\ originally\\ answered\\ no\\,\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ my\\ econ\\ class\\ where\\ my\\ professor\\ has\\ teaching\\ his\\ models\\ that\\ were\\ frankly\\ beyond\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ the\\ class\\.\\ But\\ sitting\\ in\\ class\\ today\\,\\ I\\ came\\ to\\ appreciate\\ the\\ rare\\ opportunity\\ of\\ engaging\\ an\\ author\\ in\\ a\\ dialogue\\ about\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ \\ work\\.\\ While\\ it\\ seemed\\ at\\ first\\ strange\\ to\\ be\\ explaining\\ the\\ theses\\ of\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ works\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ him\\,\\ he\\ was\\ incredibly\\ open\\ to\\ analysis\\ and\\ critique\\.\\ Even\\ more\\ interesting\\ was\\ how\\ he\\ presents\\ an\\ insider\\ perspective\\ on\\ history\\ as\\ an\\ academic\\ discipline\\:\\ how\\ history\\ as\\ an\\ academic\\ discipline\\ works\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ how\\ research\\ is\\ done\\,\\ how\\ historians\\ interact\\,\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ evolves\\ over\\ time\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Prof\\ Darnton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\ broke\\ new\\ ground\\ in\\ paying\\ attention\\ to\\ underground\\ literature\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\ and\\ prerevolutionary\\ France\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Reading\\,\\ Writing\\,\\ and\\ Publishing\\&\\#8221\\;\\ begins\\ with\\ attempts\\ to\\ answer\\ the\\ question\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ did\\ the\\ Frenchmen\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Various\\ studies\\ using\\ auction\\ catalogues\\ for\\ private\\ libraries\\,\\ requests\\ for\\ permissions\\ to\\ publish\\ books\\,\\ the\\ number\\ book\\ reviews\\,\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ fundamentally\\ flawed\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ exclude\\ a\\ crucial\\ and\\ flourishing\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ trade\\:\\ the\\ illegal\\ trade\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ studies\\ have\\ been\\ mutually\\ contradictory\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ graph\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(On\\ an\\ amusing\\ sidenote\\,\\ the\\ essay\\ suggests\\ looking\\ at\\ each\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bar\\ graph\\ as\\ a\\ girl\\ and\\ each\\ black\\ stripe\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ her\\ two\\-piece\\ bathing\\ suit\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(223\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ contradictions\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bikini\\ effect\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ During\\ class\\,\\ Darnton\\ interjected\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ now\\ finds\\ the\\ metaphor\\,\\ written\\ years\\ ago\\ \\ not\\ so\\ appropriate\\,\\ especially\\ after\\ a\\ female\\ friend\\ chewed\\ him\\ out\\ for\\ it\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ rather\\ than\\ use\\ quantitative\\ history\\,\\ Darnton\\ suggests\\ looking\\ at\\ publishing\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ determine\\ what\\ Frenchmen\\ read\\.\\ Along\\ the\\ way\\,\\ he\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ this\\ question\\ is\\ a\\ \\question\\ mal\\ pos\\&\\#233\\;e\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ with\\ 9\\,600\\,000\\ literate\\ French\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ overall\\ reading\\ scheme\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ world\\ of\\ publishing\\,\\ which\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ study\\,\\ can\\ also\\ provide\\ an\\ avenue\\ to\\ understanding\\ the\\ literary\\ culture\\ of\\ 18th\\ century\\ France\\.\\ This\\ rests\\ on\\ three\\ hypotheses\\:\\ the\\ patterns\\ of\\ book\\ publication\\ and\\ dissemination\\ determined\\ what\\ people\\ read\\,\\ there\\ existed\\ legal\\ and\\ clandestine\\ circuits\\,\\ and\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ illuminate\\ the\\ Old\\ Regime\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ culture\\ and\\ politics\\ \\(228\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ underground\\ publishing\\ was\\ a\\ byzantine\\ affair\\ that\\ involved\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ people\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;literary\\ buccaneers\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Darnton\\ calls\\ them\\,\\ from\\ foreign\\ mule\\-drivers\\ to\\ provincial\\ book\\ dealers\\ to\\ Parisian\\ distributors\\.\\ It\\ traded\\ in\\ both\\ pirated\\ and\\ banned\\ books\\.\\ The\\ legal\\ trade\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ was\\ a\\ highly\\ organized\\ guild\\ that\\ reflected\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Regime\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 1783\\,\\&\\#160\\;\\ the\\ foreign\\ minister\\ Vergennes\\ issued\\ an\\ order\\ that\\ made\\ the\\ illegal\\ book\\ trade\\ highly\\ unprofitable\\,\\ if\\ not\\ impossible\\.\\ Previously\\,\\ provincial\\ booksellers\\ had\\ allied\\ with\\ illegal\\ foreign\\ publishers\\ by\\ taking\\ advantage\\ of\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ \\acquits\\ \\&\\#224\\;\\ caution\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ customs\\ permit\\.\\ The\\ provincial\\ seller\\ could\\ endorse\\ the\\ \\acquit\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ certify\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ a\\ shipment\\ of\\ illegal\\ books\\ before\\ either\\ selling\\ the\\ books\\ himself\\ or\\ relaying\\ to\\ Paris\\.\\ By\\ mandating\\ that\\ all\\ book\\ imports\\ must\\ be\\ inspected\\ by\\ the\\ guild\\ in\\ Paris\\,\\ Vergennes\\&\\#8217\\;\\ order\\ undercut\\ this\\ practice\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ made\\ it\\ prohibitively\\ expensive\\ to\\ import\\ books\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ extra\\ journey\\ to\\ Paris\\.\\ Although\\ this\\ order\\ hit\\ the\\ illegal\\ market\\ hard\\,\\ it\\ caused\\ a\\ dip\\ in\\ legal\\ publishing\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Darnton\\ attributes\\ the\\ overall\\ \\&\\#8220\\;crisis\\ in\\ publishing\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ Vergennes\\&\\#8217\\;\\ overzealousness\\ in\\ cracking\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ illegal\\ book\\ trade\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ \\libelles\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ was\\ the\\ initial\\ motivation\\ for\\ the\\ 1783\\ law\\.\\ \\Libelles\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ classified\\ under\\ \\livres\\ philophiques\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(philosophical\\ books\\)\\,\\ were\\ essentially\\ tawdry\\ \\&\\#8220\\;expos\\&\\#233\\;s\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ royal\\ government\\.\\ Titles\\ like\\ \\Les\\ amours\\ de\\ Charlot\\ de\\ Toinette\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\Essais\\ historique\\ sur\\ la\\ vie\\ de\\ Marie\\-Antoinette\\<\\/em\\>\\ were\\ replete\\ with\\ pornography\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ title\\ implies\\,\\ libel\\.\\ Vergennes\\ was\\ so\\ concerned\\ about\\ these\\ \\libelles\\ \\<\\/em\\>because\\ in\\ an\\ era\\ were\\ politics\\ was\\ governed\\ by\\ personalities\\ rather\\ than\\ policy\\,\\ these\\ books\\ had\\ a\\ potentially\\ devastating\\ impact\\ on\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ \\(Undoubtedly\\,\\ similar\\ sentiments\\ still\\ exist\\ today\\,\\ if\\ Eliot\\ Spitzer\\ is\\ any\\ example\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Yet\\,\\ Darnton\\ argues\\,\\ the\\ Vargennes\\&\\#8217\\;\\ reaction\\ to\\ these\\ \\libelles\\ \\<\\/em\\>did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ intended\\ effect\\ of\\ saving\\ the\\ Old\\ Regime\\.\\ As\\ these\\ \\libelles\\ \\<\\/em\\>were\\ classified\\ to\\ be\\ illegal\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ philosophical\\ works\\ of\\ Rousseau\\,\\ d\\&\\#8217\\;Holbach\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;its\\ most\\ advanced\\ philosophy\\ with\\ its\\ most\\ debased\\ pornography\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ philosophy\\ became\\ radicalized\\.\\ As\\ philosophy\\ turned\\ this\\ corner\\,\\ so\\ did\\ the\\ country\\ in\\ 1789\\.\\ \\ While\\ so\\ direct\\ connection\\ is\\ drawn\\,\\ implied\\ is\\ a\\ link\\ between\\ the\\ literary\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\ with\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ much\\ time\\ was\\ devoted\\ to\\ this\\ one\\ reading\\ because\\ it\\ provides\\ the\\ general\\ framework\\ to\\ understanding\\ reading\\,\\ writing\\,\\ publishing\\,\\ and\\ 18th\\ century\\ France\\.\\ The\\ other\\ readings\\ discuss\\ in\\ greater\\ detail\\ specific\\ works\\ and\\ their\\ role\\ in\\ society\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ The\\ Encyclopedia\\,\\ the\\ seminal\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\,\\ is\\ of\\ particular\\ interest\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\ for\\ ideas\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Encyclop\\&\\#233\\;die\\ Wars\\ of\\ the\\ Prerevolutionary\\ France\\&\\#8221\\;\\ traces\\ the\\ dissemination\\ of\\ this\\ book\\ throughout\\ France\\.\\ Despite\\ its\\ only\\ semi\\-legal\\ status\\,\\ there\\ existed\\ in\\ France\\ between\\ 14000\\-16000\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ in\\ the\\ prerevolutionary\\ era\\.\\ The\\ Encylopedia\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ publication\\ history\\ also\\ reflects\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ of\\ entrepreneurship\\ capitalist\\ spirit\\ that\\ fostered\\ intense\\ \\(and\\ sometimes\\ dishonest\\)\\ competition\\ between\\ publishers\\.\\ Of\\ particular\\ interest\\ are\\ Panckouke\\ and\\ Duplain\\,\\ two\\ publishers\\ who\\ colluded\\ to\\ bully\\ or\\ buy\\ out\\ anyone\\ else\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ print\\ the\\ Encyclopedia\\ because\\ they\\ realized\\ the\\ immense\\ profit\\ to\\ be\\ made\\.\\ Not\\ satisfied\\ with\\ sharing\\ the\\ profits\\ with\\ his\\ business\\ partner\\ even\\,\\ Duplain\\ kept\\ hidden\\ a\\ subscriptions\\ list\\ of\\ the\\ Encyclopedia\\ and\\ told\\ Panckouke\\ the\\ book\\ was\\ not\\ selling\\ well\\.\\ Panckouke\\,\\ however\\,\\ suspected\\ his\\ partner\\ and\\ eventually\\ him\\ found\\ out\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ is\\ most\\ important\\ about\\ the\\ Encyclopedia\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ publication\\ history\\ is\\ its\\ progression\\ from\\ edition\\ to\\ edition\\,\\ becoming\\ cheaper\\,\\ decreasing\\ in\\ illustrations\\ and\\ quality\\,\\ but\\ increasing\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ it\\ reached\\.\\ The\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ folio\\,\\ the\\ most\\ expensive\\,\\&\\#160\\;\\ equaled\\ 3500\\ loaves\\ of\\ bread\\,\\ and\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ even\\ a\\ cheap\\ quarto\\ edition\\ equaled\\ a\\ year\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ worth\\ of\\ bread\\ for\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ five\\.\\ Economically\\,\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ folio\\ editions\\ were\\ so\\ expensive\\ they\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ penetrated\\ beyond\\ the\\ wealthy\\ world\\ of\\ salons\\ and\\ courtiers\\.\\ But\\ as\\ cheaper\\ editions\\ became\\ available\\ as\\ quartos\\,\\ they\\ became\\ cheap\\ even\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ luxury\\ items\\ bought\\ by\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ As\\ the\\ Encyclopedia\\ became\\ available\\ more\\ to\\ people\\,\\ its\\ ideas\\ were\\ disseminated\\ among\\ a\\ wider\\ range\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Readers\\ Respond\\ to\\ Rousseau\\&\\#8221\\;\\ details\\ the\\ reception\\ of\\ another\\ book\\,\\ which\\ despite\\ the\\ authorship\\ of\\ Rousseau\\,\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ opposite\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ spectrum\\.\\ A\\ sentimental\\ romantic\\ novel\\,\\ \\La\\ nouvelle\\ H\\&\\#233\\;l\\&\\#246\\;ise\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ the\\ biggest\\ bestseller\\ of\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\ but\\ a\\ far\\ cry\\ from\\ the\\ highbrow\\ philosophy\\ of\\ The\\ Encyclopedia\\.\\ In\\ this\\ essay\\,\\ Darnton\\ attempts\\ to\\ get\\ at\\ how\\,\\ not\\ just\\ what\\,\\ the\\ French\\ read\\.\\ There\\ exists\\ a\\ dossier\\ of\\ letters\\ to\\ a\\ publisher\\ of\\ Rousseau\\ from\\ Jean\\ Ranson\\,\\ an\\ adoring\\ fan\\ of\\ the\\ writer\\.\\ Ranson\\ is\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ cult\\ that\\ grew\\ up\\ around\\ \\La\\ nouvelle\\ H\\&\\#233\\;l\\&\\#246\\;ise\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ to\\ modern\\ sensibilities\\,\\ would\\ be\\ maudlin\\ romantic\\ tale\\.\\ This\\ novel\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ departure\\ from\\ other\\ works\\ because\\ Rousseau\\ in\\ fact\\ directs\\ the\\ reading\\ of\\ his\\ novel\\ and\\ toys\\ with\\ the\\ fictionality\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\.\\ The\\ author\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ detached\\ commenter\\ but\\ an\\ active\\ emotional\\ \\ propagator\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\ is\\ thus\\ that\\ the\\ heart\\ speaks\\ to\\ the\\ heart\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ writes\\ Rousseau\\.\\ The\\ overwhelming\\ emotional\\ response\\ of\\ readers\\ that\\ makes\\ this\\ novel\\ so\\ revolutionary\\.\\ \\La\\ nouvelle\\ H\\&\\#233\\;l\\&\\#246\\;ise\\ \\<\\/em\\>was\\ perhaps\\ the\\ first\\ novel\\ to\\ receive\\ a\\ substantial\\ amount\\ of\\ fan\\ mail\\.\\ A\\ classmate\\,\\ in\\ what\\ I\\ think\\ is\\ an\\ apt\\ comparison\\,\\ called\\ this\\ the\\ Titanic\\ of\\ 18th\\ century\\ France\\.\\ By\\ changing\\ this\\ relationship\\ between\\ reader\\ and\\ reading\\ material\\,\\ Rousseau\\ catalyzed\\ a\\ groundswell\\ of\\ emotional\\ response\\ to\\ writing\\.\\ It\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ tempting\\ to\\ link\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ excessive\\ emotion\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ overall\\ aim\\ of\\ all\\ these\\ readings\\ then\\,\\ point\\ to\\ some\\ link\\ with\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ obviously\\ no\\ coincidence\\ that\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\ focuses\\ on\\ a\\ period\\ right\\ before\\ the\\ Revolution\\.\\ But\\ causality\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ prove\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ never\\ explicitly\\ laid\\ out\\.\\ I\\ find\\ it\\ hard\\ to\\ believe\\ for\\ there\\ to\\ be\\ no\\ connection\\ at\\ all\\,\\ but\\ to\\ what\\ degree\\?\\ That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ probably\\ a\\ question\\ much\\ more\\ complex\\ than\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ prepared\\ to\\ answer\\ here\\,\\ but\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ leave\\ you\\ to\\ chew\\ on\\ that\\.\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 8: The Books of Prerevolutionary France "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.288363+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 8: L'Encyclopedie and Other Clandestine Books Workshop ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 309, "html": "\\\\ The\\ discussion\\ of\\ today\\'s\\ class\\ was\\ a\\ complete\\ departure\\ from\\ earlier\\ discussions\\ about\\ bibliography\\.\\ The\\ physical\\ appearance\\ of\\ these\\ books\\ merited\\ very\\ little\\ discussion\\.\\ When\\ it\\ came\\ time\\ for\\ workshop\\,\\ however\\,\\ a\\ closer\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ books\\ showed\\ what\\ one\\ can\\ page\\ books\\ buy\\ their\\ cover\\ pages\\,\\ if\\ not\\ their\\ covers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Below\\ is\\ a\\ comparison\\ of\\ two\\ books\\ both\\ about\\ Louis\\ XV\\.\\ On\\ the\\ left\\ is\\ a\\ legal\\ book\\,\\ it\\ contains\\ the\\ real\\ names\\ and\\ address\\ of\\ its\\ publisher\\.\\ For\\ obvious\\ reasons\\,\\ illegal\\ books\\ did\\ not\\ disclose\\ that\\ sort\\ of\\ information\\,\\ instead\\ inserting\\ in\\-jokes\\ and\\ made\\ up\\ locations\\.\\ To\\ the\\ right\\,\\ is\\ an\\ illegal\\ book\\ that\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ published\\ in\\ \\Ville\\-Franche\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(Free\\ City\\)\\ \\chez\\ la\\ Veuve\\ Libert\\&\\#233\\;\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(at\\ the\\ shop\\ of\\ Widow\\ Liberty\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\(\\Click\\ to\\ enlarge\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ also\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ title\\ page\\ of\\ \\\"\\ superlegal\\\"\\ book\\,\\ one\\ that\\ had\\ obtained\\ both\\ the\\ censor\\'s\\ approval\\ and\\ the\\ king\\'s\\ privilege\\.\\ How\\ can\\ you\\ tell\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ page\\ of\\ \\Nouveau\\ voyage\\ aux\\ isles\\ de\\ l\\'Amerique\\<\\/em\\>\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ also\\ looked\\ at\\ some\\ passages\\ from\\ the\\ notes\\ of\\ the\\ censors\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ book\\,\\ which\\ I\\ will\\ excerpt\\ here\\ with\\ my\\ amateur\\ translations\\.\\ I\\ think\\ you\\ will\\ be\\ surprised\\ at\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ comments\\.\\\r\\\\\\Approbation\\ du\\ R\\.P\\.\\ Jumelet\\,\\ Professeur\\ de\\ Tehologie\\\r\\J\\'ai\\ eu\\ du\\ plaisir\\ en\\ le\\ lisant\\.\\ Il\\ y\\ a\\ une\\ infinit\\&\\#233\\;\\ de\\ choses\\ tr\\&\\#232\\;s\\-curieuses\\;\\ il\\ y\\ a\\ m\\&\\#234\\;me\\ quelques\\ faits\\ tr\\&\\#232\\;s\\ surprenants\\.\\ Mais\\ las\\ simplicit\\&\\#233\\;\\ de\\ la\\ narration\\ et\\ la\\ probit\\&\\#233\\;\\ de\\ l\\'Autuer\\ font\\ une\\ preuve\\ de\\ la\\ verit\\&\\#233\\;\\ de\\ ce\\ qu\\'il\\ y\\ raconte\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ read\\ with\\ it\\ pleasure\\.\\ There\\ were\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ very\\ interesting\\ things\\;\\ there\\ were\\ also\\ some\\ surprising\\ facts\\.\\ But\\ the\\ simplicity\\ of\\ the\\ naration\\ and\\ the\\ integrity\\ of\\ the\\ author\\ are\\ proof\\ to\\ the\\ veracity\\ of\\ the\\ book\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Approbation\\ de\\ M\\.\\ Henry\\ Besnife\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\Professeur\\ de\\ Botanique\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\Il\\ sera\\ difficile\\ d\\'en\\ commencer\\ la\\ lecture\\ sans\\ \\&\\#233\\;prouver\\ cette\\ douce\\ quoiqu\\'avide\\,\\ curiosit\\&\\#233\\;\\ qui\\ nous\\ porte\\ a\\ poursuivre\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ begin\\ the\\ book\\ without\\ feeling\\ this\\ gentle\\ but\\ hungry\\ curiosity\\ to\\ continue\\ reading\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Censors\\?\\ Hmm\\,\\ this\\ sounds\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ like\\ book\\ reviews\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Darnton\\ characterizes\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ positive\\ censorship\\ that\\ carries\\ with\\ it\\ a\\ \\\"stamp\\ of\\ approval\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Also\\ included\\ for\\ this\\ book\\ was\\ the\\ king\\'s\\ privilege\\,\\ which\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ the\\ king\\ addressing\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ Of\\ particular\\ interest\\ were\\ phrases\\ like\\ \\\"CAR\\ TEL\\ EST\\ NOTRE\\ PLAISIR\\\"\\ \\(because\\ thus\\ is\\ my\\ pleasure\\)\\ bolded\\ in\\ the\\ text\\.\\ This\\ is\\ utterly\\ distinct\\ from\\ our\\ modern\\ notions\\ of\\ copyright\\ law\\,\\ where\\ we\\ grant\\ the\\ right\\ as\\ innate\\ to\\ the\\ creator\\.\\ The\\ privilege\\ is\\ also\\ considered\\ property\\,\\ as\\ 1\\/4\\ of\\ this\\ privilege\\ has\\ been\\ sold\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\,\\ so\\ says\\ the\\ text\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Finally\\,\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ a\\ police\\ lo\\.\\ The\\ man\\ in\\ question\\ was\\ none\\ other\\ than\\ Denis\\ Diderot\\,\\ a\\ writer\\ of\\ the\\ Encyclopedia\\.\\ Under\\ the\\ summary\\ section\\,\\ someone\\ has\\ written\\ \\\"\\C\\'est\\ un\\ gar\\&\\#231\\;on\\ plein\\ d\\'esprit\\,\\ main\\ extr\\&\\#234\\;mement\\ dangereux\\.\\\"\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(He\\ is\\ a\\ spirit\\ boy\\,\\ but\\ extremely\\ dangerous\\.\\)\\ In\\ case\\ anyone\\ is\\ wondering\\,\\ the\\ document\\ also\\ says\\ Diderot\\ was\\ 36\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ writing\\.\\ So\\ why\\ is\\ Diderot\\ so\\ dangerous\\?\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ opened\\ up\\ the\\ Encyclopedia\\ to\\ an\\ entry\\ entitled\\ cannibalism\\,\\ which\\ goes\\ through\\ the\\ subject\\ comprehensively\\ and\\ scientifically\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ entry\\,\\ it\\ says\\ \\\"SEE\\ ALSO\\ Eucharist\\.\\\"\\ And\\ \\that\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ why\\ the\\ Encyclopedia\\ was\\ so\\ dangerous\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 8: L'Encyclopedie and Other Clandestine Books Workshop "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.299190+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 9: Samuel Johnson ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 310, "html": "\\Reading\\:\\ \\Printing\\,\\ Technology\\,\\ Letters\\,\\ and\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ Alvin\\ Kernan\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ start\\ out\\ with\\ an\\ honest\\ question\\:\\ How\\ many\\ of\\ you\\ know\\ who\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\ is\\?\\ Now\\,\\ how\\ many\\ of\\ you\\ have\\ read\\ something\\ written\\ by\\ him\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Do\\ not\\ worry\\ if\\ you\\ answered\\ \\&\\#8220\\;no\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ one\\ or\\ both\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ questions\\.\\ A\\ short\\ survey\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ class\\ today\\ revealed\\ at\\ most\\ of\\ us\\ had\\ not\\ heard\\ him\\ before\\ and\\ none\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ ever\\ read\\ anything\\ written\\ by\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\.\\ Yet\\ a\\ quick\\ Wikipedia\\ search\\ turns\\ up\\ a\\ fairly\\ extensive\\ article\\ \\(which\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ inclined\\ to\\ treat\\ as\\ accurate\\)\\ that\\ calls\\ Johnson\\ \\&\\#8220\\;one\\ of\\ England\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ best\\ know\\ literary\\ figures\\&\\#8230\\;the\\ most\\ quoted\\ English\\ writer\\ after\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8230\\;\\.one\\ of\\ the\\ outstanding\\ figures\\ of\\ 18th\\ century\\ England\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ So\\ what\\ explains\\ this\\ discrepancy\\?\\ Was\\ there\\ something\\ lost\\ in\\ the\\ jump\\ across\\ the\\ pond\\?\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ we\\ never\\ quite\\ answered\\ this\\ question\\ during\\ class\\.\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ chalked\\ up\\ it\\ to\\ Johnson\\ being\\ unpopular\\ in\\ the\\ high\\ school\\ curriculum\\,\\ but\\ then\\ I\\ ask\\ why\\ is\\ Johnson\\ not\\ taught\\ in\\ the\\ US\\?\\ Is\\ this\\ the\\ chicken\\ or\\ the\\ egg\\?\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ truly\\ interested\\ in\\ this\\ question\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ post\\ any\\ theories\\ you\\ might\\ have\\!But\\ enough\\ about\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ obscurity\\.\\ I\\ assure\\ you\\ that\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\ is\\ indeed\\ a\\ notable\\ figure\\ in\\ English\\ printing\\ and\\ literature\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ has\\ been\\ \\ referenced\\ in\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ readings\\ this\\ semester\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ most\\ definitely\\ worthy\\ of\\ an\\ entire\\ seminar\\ class\\ devoted\\ to\\ him\\.\\ For\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ begin\\ with\\ a\\ short\\ summary\\ of\\ his\\ major\\ achievements\\.\\ Johnson\\,\\ as\\ Kernan\\ portrays\\ him\\ in\\ Printing\\,\\ Technology\\,\\ Letters\\,\\ and\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\,\\ is\\ best\\ described\\ a\\ working\\-class\\ writer\\.\\ Put\\ simply\\,\\ Johnson\\ was\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Grub\\ Street\\ writer\\&\\#8221\\;\\;\\ he\\ wrote\\ for\\ money\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ both\\ very\\ prolific\\ and\\ very\\ good\\.\\ Johnson\\ wrote\\ poems\\,\\ biographies\\,\\ introductions\\,\\ prefaces\\ to\\ Shakespeare\\,\\ literary\\ criticism\\,\\ essays\\ on\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ his\\ crowning\\ achievement\\,\\ A\\ Dictionary\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Language\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Kernan\\ looks\\ at\\ Johnson\\ primarily\\ through\\ the\\ lens\\ of\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ reading\\,\\ writing\\,\\ and\\ publishing\\ that\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\.\\ Although\\ printing\\ had\\ been\\ available\\ in\\ England\\ since\\ the\\ 16th\\ century\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ until\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\ that\\ printing\\ became\\ common\\ in\\ tandem\\ with\\ rising\\ literacy\\ rates\\ and\\ new\\ technology\\ that\\ lowered\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ paper\\ and\\ printing\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ Kernan\\ identifies\\ other\\ major\\ changes\\ in\\ letters\\ \\(he\\ uses\\ literature\\ to\\ describe\\ a\\ canon\\ of\\ works\\ and\\ letters\\ as\\ the\\ aggregate\\ of\\ all\\ printed\\ material\\)\\:\\ the\\ novel\\ becoming\\ a\\ major\\ literary\\ form\\,\\ prose\\ increasing\\ in\\ prestige\\ vis\\ a\\ vis\\ poetry\\,\\ legalization\\ of\\ author\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ copyright\\,\\ proliferation\\ of\\ libraries\\,\\ decline\\ of\\ patronage\\,\\ and\\ emergence\\ of\\ literary\\ criticism\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ that\\ understand\\ that\\ a\\ literary\\ culture\\ flourished\\ in\\ England\\ even\\ before\\ the\\ printing\\ press\\ become\\ common\\.\\ This\\ courtly\\ order\\ of\\ letters\\ belonged\\ to\\ the\\ province\\ of\\ gentleman\\,\\ who\\ shared\\ and\\ copied\\ poetry\\ by\\ hand\\.\\ This\\ literary\\ culture\\ also\\ treated\\ the\\ cheapness\\ of\\ printing\\ with\\ much\\ disdain\\.\\ Kernan\\ uses\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ Alexander\\ Pope\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ satirical\\ \\Dunciad\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ thoroughly\\ denounces\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ writing\\ for\\ money\\ and\\ portrays\\ print\\ as\\ a\\ destructive\\ force\\ of\\ literature\\.\\ This\\ attitude\\ is\\ probably\\ difficult\\ for\\ the\\ modern\\ reader\\ to\\ sympathize\\ with\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ that\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ who\\ decry\\ blogging\\ as\\ a\\ degradation\\ of\\ journalism\\ and\\ writing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ that\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ technology\\ was\\ inevitable\\,\\ and\\ Johnson\\ exemplified\\ the\\ new\\ letters\\ that\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\.\\ A\\ famous\\ writer\\ during\\ his\\ lifetime\\,\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ stature\\ was\\ solidified\\ with\\ James\\ Boswell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ biography\\ Life\\ of\\ Johnson\\,\\ claimed\\ by\\ some\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ greatest\\ biographies\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ language\\.\\ Boswell\\ was\\ personally\\ acquainted\\ with\\ Johnson\\,\\ and\\ he\\ conducted\\ extensive\\ research\\ and\\ interviews\\.\\ In\\ the\\ biography\\,\\ Boswell\\ compares\\ Johnson\\ to\\ Odysseus\\,\\ struggling\\ against\\ manifold\\ challenges\\ to\\ his\\ publication\\ career\\,\\ but\\ Kernan\\ alludes\\ to\\ another\\ Greek\\ hero\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Aeneas\\,\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ from\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ something\\ old\\,\\ begins\\ something\\ new\\.\\ Kernan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ certainly\\ buys\\ into\\ the\\ mythologization\\ of\\ Johnson\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ his\\ book\\ places\\ too\\ much\\ emphasis\\ on\\ this\\ one\\ man\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Or\\ maybe\\ not\\.\\ Although\\ Johnson\\ had\\ many\\ achievements\\,\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ to\\ be\\ said\\ about\\ his\\ dictionary\\ alone\\.\\ The\\ simple\\ thought\\ of\\ any\\ one\\ many\\ undertaking\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ writing\\ a\\ dictionary\\ is\\ nearly\\ inconceivable\\.\\ Influenced\\ by\\ friend\\ of\\ mine\\,\\ a\\ linguistics\\ major\\ and\\ Oxford\\ English\\ Dictionary\\ \\(OED\\)\\ enthusiast\\,\\ I\\ once\\ entertained\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ lexicographer\\.\\ Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ just\\ say\\ that\\ career\\ interest\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ last\\ long\\.\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dictionary\\ was\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ perfect\\ and\\ it\\ reflects\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ wrote\\ it\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ discounting\\ his\\ remarkable\\ achievement\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ these\\ \\&\\#8220\\;flaws\\&\\#8221\\;\\ are\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ parts\\ of\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dictionary\\.\\ During\\ our\\ workshop\\,\\ we\\ were\\ lucky\\ enough\\ to\\ browse\\ an\\ edition\\ of\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dictionary\\ while\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ and\\ John\\,\\ the\\ Houghton\\ reference\\ librarian\\ who\\ catalogued\\ the\\ Donald\\ and\\ Mary\\ Hyde\\ Collection\\ of\\ Dr\\.\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\ \\(more\\ on\\ this\\ later\\)\\,\\ pointed\\ a\\ few\\ definitions\\ of\\ particularly\\ interest\\:\\\r\\\\Oats\\:\\ A\\ grain\\,\\ which\\ in\\ England\\ is\\ generally\\ given\\ to\\ horses\\,\\ but\\ in\\ Scotland\\ appears\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ people\\.\\\r\\Patron\\:\\ One\\ who\\ countenances\\,\\ supports\\ or\\ protects\\.\\ Commonly\\ a\\ wretch\\ who\\ supports\\ with\\ insolence\\,\\ and\\ is\\ paid\\ with\\ flattery\\.\\\r\\Whig\\:\\ The\\ name\\ of\\ a\\ faction\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\While\\ we\\ often\\ perceive\\ the\\ dictionary\\ as\\ a\\ standardized\\,\\ institutional\\ tool\\,\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dictionary\\ is\\ also\\ imbued\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ personal\\ aura\\.\\ One\\ senses\\ a\\ personal\\ story\\ and\\ struggle\\ behind\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ his\\ dictionary\\.\\ From\\ the\\ definitions\\ above\\,\\ you\\ can\\ already\\ divine\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ political\\ views\\ and\\ his\\ unsurprisingly\\ harsh\\ opinion\\ of\\ patronage\\.\\ Looking\\ at\\ the\\ dictionary\\ at\\ a\\ macro\\ level\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ interesting\\ to\\ see\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ as\\ he\\ progresses\\ through\\ the\\ book\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ total\\ number\\ of\\ pages\\ devoted\\ to\\ B\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ those\\ devoted\\ to\\ S\\,\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ more\\ words\\ in\\ the\\ English\\ language\\ beginning\\ with\\ S\\ than\\ B\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Perhaps\\ even\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ writing\\ of\\ the\\ dictionary\\ is\\ linked\\ with\\ the\\ patronage\\ \\(or\\ rather\\,\\ the\\ lack\\ thereof\\)\\ from\\ Lord\\ Chesterfield\\.\\ While\\ Johnson\\ was\\ writing\\ his\\ dictionary\\,\\ he\\ sought\\ out\\ the\\ patronage\\ of\\ Lord\\ Chesterfield\\ unsuccessfully\\.\\ A\\ painting\\ in\\ our\\ seminar\\ room\\ depicts\\ Johnson\\ sitting\\ in\\ Chesterfield\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ waiting\\ room\\,\\ ignored\\ among\\ the\\ bustle\\ of\\ servants\\ and\\ other\\ commoners\\.\\ So\\ yes\\,\\ Johnson\\ has\\ been\\ looking\\ down\\ from\\ the\\ walls\\ at\\ all\\ us\\ all\\ semester\\,\\ and\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ largely\\ ignored\\ until\\ today\\.\\ After\\ he\\ had\\ completed\\ the\\ dictionary\\,\\ Lord\\ Chesterfield\\ heard\\ of\\ the\\ achievement\\ and\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ connecting\\ his\\ name\\ to\\ it\\.\\ Outraged\\ at\\ this\\ aboutface\\,\\ Johnson\\ set\\ a\\ scathing\\ letter\\ to\\ Chesterfield\\ in\\ reply\\,\\ denouncing\\ the\\ very\\ concept\\ of\\ patronage\\.\\ \\(Now\\ you\\ see\\ why\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ patron\\ was\\ so\\ harsh\\.\\)\\ Kernan\\ goes\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ call\\ this\\ letter\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ facsimile\\ of\\ which\\ we\\ saw\\ in\\ workshop\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;magna\\ carta\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ printing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Given\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ praise\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ little\\ easier\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ cult\\ that\\ surrounds\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\.\\ The\\ Houghton\\ Library\\ has\\ a\\ magnificent\\ collection\\ of\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ books\\ and\\ related\\ paraphernalia\\ owing\\ to\\ the\\ bequest\\ of\\ Donald\\ and\\ Mary\\ Hyde\\,\\ who\\ were\\ great\\ enthusiasts\\ of\\ Johnson\\.\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ had\\ met\\ Mary\\ Hyde\\ in\\ person\\ and\\ spoke\\ to\\ her\\ dedication\\ to\\ the\\ collection\\.\\ We\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ peek\\ into\\ the\\ Houghton\\ storage\\ room\\,\\ which\\ contained\\ a\\ modern\\ style\\ portrait\\ of\\ the\\ Hydes\\ in\\ 18th\\ century\\ costume\\ and\\ hair\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ bizarre\\ to\\ say\\ the\\ least\\.\\ Other\\ items\\ in\\ the\\ collection\\ include\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ teapot\\,\\ portraits\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ friends\\,\\ two\\ rooms\\ of\\ books\\ \\,\\ and\\ hundreds\\ of\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ letters\\.\\ John\\,\\ the\\ curator\\,\\ has\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\catablog\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ his\\ work\\ from\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ cataloguing\\ the\\ Hyde\\ collection\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Other\\ links\\ of\\ interest\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Digital\\ archive\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ Harvard\\'s\\ collection\\ of\\ letters\\ by\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Samuel\\ Johnson\\'s\\ writings\\<\\/a\\>\\ online\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Digital\\ books\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ and\\ about\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 9: Samuel Johnson "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.313101+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 10: Reading in America", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 311, "html": "\\Readings\\ from\\ \\\\Reading\\ in\\ America\\:\\ Literature\\ \\&\\;\\ Social\\ History\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ edited\\ by\\ Cathy\\ N\\.\\ Davidson\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Life\\ and\\ Times\\ of\\ Charlotte\\ Temple\\:\\ The\\ Biography\\ of\\ a\\ Book\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Cathy\\ Davidson\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Antebellum\\ Reading\\ and\\ the\\ Ironies\\ of\\ Technological\\ Innovation\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Ronald\\ J\\.\\ Zboray\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Sense\\ and\\ Sensibility\\:\\ A\\ Case\\ Study\\ of\\ Women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Reading\\ in\\ Late\\-Victorian\\ America\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Barbara\\ Sicherman\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Reflections\\ on\\ the\\ Changing\\ Publishing\\ Objectives\\ of\\ Secular\\ Black\\ Book\\ Publishers\\,\\ 1900\\-1986\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Donald\\ Franklin\\ Joyce\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Becoming\\ Noncanonical\\:\\ The\\ Case\\ against\\ Willa\\ Cather\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Sharon\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Brien\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Book\\-of\\-the\\-Month\\ Club\\ and\\ the\\ General\\ Reader\\:\\ The\\ Uses\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Serious\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Fiction\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Janice\\ A\\.\\ Radway\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Literacy\\ and\\ the\\ Mass\\ Media\\:\\ The\\ Political\\ Implications\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ Donald\\ Lazere\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;How\\ do\\ we\\ read\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ seminal\\ question\\ of\\ this\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ class\\.\\ Deceptively\\ simple\\,\\ the\\ question\\ merits\\ ample\\ discussion\\ before\\ arriving\\ at\\ an\\ answer\\.\\ The\\ topic\\ at\\ hand\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ how\\ we\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ how\\ we\\ string\\ together\\ sounds\\ \\&\\#224\\;\\ la\\ Hooked\\ on\\ Phonetics\\,\\ but\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ meanings\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ story\\,\\ characters\\,\\ ideas\\,\\ etc\\.\\ represented\\.\\ To\\ further\\ complicate\\ the\\ issue\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ attempt\\ a\\ historical\\ survey\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;how\\ we\\ read\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ If\\ we\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ someone\\ alive\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ downright\\ impossible\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ someone\\ long\\ dead\\.\\ The\\ essays\\ we\\ read\\ this\\ week\\ attempt\\ to\\ answer\\ this\\ question\\ with\\ different\\ methods\\ and\\ from\\ different\\ angles\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Three\\ of\\ these\\ essays\\ particularly\\ interested\\ me\\ and\\ my\\ classmates\\,\\ thus\\ they\\ were\\ also\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ discussion\\.\\ If\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ to\\ start\\ chronologically\\,\\ the\\ most\\ historically\\-focused\\ of\\ these\\ essays\\ is\\ Cathy\\ Davidson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Life\\ and\\ Times\\ of\\ Charlotte\\ Temple\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Davidson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ essay\\ is\\ similar\\ in\\ scope\\ to\\ several\\ other\\ works\\ we\\ have\\ read\\ for\\ this\\ course\\,\\ which\\ traced\\ the\\ writing\\,\\ dissemination\\,\\ and\\ response\\ of\\ one\\ book\\ through\\ time\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ \\Gutenberg\\ Bible\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ First\\ Folio\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\L\\&\\#8217\\;Encylop\\&\\#233\\;die\\,\\ and\\ Rousseau\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\La\\ nouvelle\\ H\\&\\#233\\;l\\&\\#246\\;ise\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ These\\ books\\ are\\ probably\\ are\\ all\\ familiar\\ to\\ you\\ and\\ stand\\ out\\,\\ in\\ at\\ least\\ some\\ capacity\\,\\ as\\ landmarks\\ in\\ our\\ intellectual\\ history\\.\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\?\\ Perhaps\\ not\\ so\\ much\\.\\ First\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ 1791\\ and\\ having\\ gone\\ through\\ 200\\ American\\ editions\\,\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ American\\ bestseller\\ and\\ the\\ bestselling\\ book\\ in\\ America\\ until\\ Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Uncle\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Cabin\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ story\\ is\\ a\\ fairly\\ archetypal\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;seduction\\ genre\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ young\\ Charlotte\\ Temple\\ is\\ seduced\\ by\\ a\\ British\\ soldier\\ and\\ brought\\ to\\ America\\,\\ where\\ she\\ is\\ abandoned\\ and\\ dies\\ in\\ childbirth\\.\\ \\(For\\ those\\ of\\ you\\ who\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mind\\ that\\ I\\ just\\ gave\\ away\\ the\\ ending\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ sorry\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ you\\ can\\ read\\ it\\ here\\ at\\ \\Project\\ Gutenberg\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ also\\ published\\ in\\ England\\ by\\ William\\ Lane\\,\\ best\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ Harlequin\\ romance\\ publisher\\ of\\ his\\ time\\,\\ to\\ little\\ consequence\\.\\ In\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ book\\ exploded\\ in\\ popularity\\ and\\ reached\\ through\\ all\\ social\\ strata\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\During\\ our\\ discussion\\,\\ it\\ was\\ tempting\\ to\\ compare\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ modern\\ publishing\\ blockbusters\\ such\\ as\\ \\The\\ Da\\ Vinci\\ Code\\<\\/em\\>\\ or\\ \\Harry\\ Potter\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ While\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ still\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ analyze\\ what\\ cultural\\ phenomenon\\ those\\ books\\ are\\ supposed\\ reflect\\,\\ it\\ is\\ somewhat\\ easier\\ to\\ contextualize\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\ with\\ historical\\ distance\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Davidson\\,\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ first\\ bestseller\\ in\\ America\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ American\\ bestseller\\.\\ Simply\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ story\\ itself\\,\\ one\\ observes\\ that\\ Charlotte\\ Temple\\ is\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ immigration\\,\\ an\\ experience\\ that\\ particularly\\ appeals\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ sensibility\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ British\\ one\\.\\ Secondly\\,\\ Davidson\\ focuses\\ on\\ one\\ line\\ about\\ the\\ author\\ printed\\ on\\ the\\ cover\\ Charlotte\\ Temple\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ edition\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;by\\ Susana\\ Rowson\\,\\ actress\\ of\\ New\\ Theatre\\ Philadelphia\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ seeks\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ American\\ origin\\ of\\ this\\ book\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ she\\ breathes\\ new\\ life\\ into\\ an\\ old\\ maxim\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Although\\ one\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ judge\\ a\\ book\\ by\\ its\\ cover\\,\\ one\\ can\\ read\\ what\\ a\\ given\\ cover\\ signified\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\ represents\\ another\\ trend\\ in\\ history\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ ascendance\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\ as\\ a\\ literary\\ form\\.\\ The\\ novel\\,\\ as\\ fiction\\,\\ allows\\ for\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;dialogue\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ two\\-way\\ relationship\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ between\\ the\\ reader\\ and\\ the\\ text\\.\\ If\\ is\\ only\\ when\\ read\\ does\\ the\\ novel\\ becomes\\ \\&\\#8220\\;alive\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ not\\ surprisingly\\ then\\,\\ that\\ fact\\ and\\ fiction\\ become\\ blurred\\ when\\ the\\ novel\\ is\\ so\\ imbued\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\(Just\\ think\\ about\\ all\\ those\\ books\\ and\\ documentaries\\ piggy\\-backing\\ off\\ of\\ \\The\\ Da\\ Vinci\\ Code\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ claiming\\ to\\ analyze\\ what\\ is\\ true\\ in\\ it\\.\\)\\ A\\ fake\\ grave\\ erected\\ for\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ Charlotte\\ Temple\\ in\\ Trinity\\ Churchyard\\ attracted\\ more\\ visitors\\ than\\ the\\ graves\\ of\\ Alexander\\ Hamilton\\ or\\ Robert\\ Fulton\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ \\Charlotte\\ Temple\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ we\\ then\\ jumped\\ into\\ an\\ examination\\ of\\ more\\ \\&\\#8220\\;serious\\&\\#8221\\;\\ fiction\\,\\ not\\ highbrow\\ but\\ distinctly\\ middlebrow\\.\\ Janice\\ Radway\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ essay\\ is\\ a\\ spectacular\\ piece\\ on\\ the\\ inner\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ \\Book\\ of\\ the\\ Month\\ Club\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ While\\ the\\ BOMC\\ has\\ now\\ faded\\ in\\ prominence\\,\\ it\\ was\\ once\\ the\\ Oprah\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Book\\ Club\\ of\\ its\\ day\\.\\ And\\ like\\ Oprah\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Book\\ Club\\,\\ its\\ selections\\ were\\ represented\\ an\\ intertwining\\ of\\ commercial\\ and\\ quality\\.\\ Radway\\ does\\ a\\ sociological\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ editors\\ who\\ comprise\\ the\\ BOMC\\ and\\ delves\\ into\\ analyzing\\ the\\ thought\\ processes\\ of\\ these\\ men\\,\\ who\\ as\\ a\\ demographic\\ are\\ predominately\\ well\\-educated\\,\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ and\\ white\\.\\ She\\ describes\\ BOMC\\ as\\ a\\ particularly\\ non\\-elitist\\,\\ non\\-hierarchal\\ institution\\ with\\ a\\ collegial\\ work\\ atmosphere\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ seeks\\ to\\ associate\\ with\\ higher\\ culture\\.\\ In\\ reading\\ the\\ internal\\ memos\\ of\\ the\\ editors\\,\\ Radway\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ editors\\ chose\\ books\\ not\\ according\\ to\\ their\\ personal\\ taste\\ but\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;hunch\\,\\ intuition\\,\\ and\\ luck\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ audience\\ would\\ like\\.\\ Editors\\ would\\ often\\ recommend\\ books\\,\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ is\\ \\The\\ Unbearable\\ Lightness\\ of\\ Being\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ that\\ they\\ believed\\ would\\ challenged\\ their\\ readers\\.\\ Because\\ what\\ we\\ read\\ is\\ influenced\\ strongly\\ by\\ recommendations\\,\\ bestseller\\ lists\\,\\ reviews\\,\\ book\\ clubs\\,\\ etc\\,\\ this\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ BOMC\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ reading\\ as\\ an\\ examination\\ of\\ the\\ intermediaries\\ who\\ shape\\ our\\ reading\\ patterns\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ Prof\\ Darnton\\ drew\\ a\\ conclusion\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;dominated\\ dominating\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ the\\ editors\\ who\\ dominated\\ the\\ BOMC\\,\\ essentially\\ the\\ arbiters\\ of\\ taste\\ for\\ their\\ readers\\,\\ were\\ in\\ turn\\ influenced\\ by\\ a\\ larger\\ dominating\\ force\\ of\\ culture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Perhaps\\ similar\\ conclusions\\ can\\ be\\ drawn\\ for\\ canonization\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ classification\\ of\\ middlebrow\\ literature\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Being\\ Noncanonical\\&\\#8221\\;\\ traces\\ the\\ rise\\ and\\ fall\\ of\\ Willa\\ Cather\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ American\\ writer\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 1920s\\,\\ she\\ was\\ treated\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ writers\\,\\ but\\ through\\ the\\ 1930s\\,\\ she\\ became\\ demoted\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ minor\\ writer\\ by\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\ of\\ literary\\ critics\\.\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Brien\\ explains\\ this\\ phenomenon\\ as\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ deliberate\\ construction\\ of\\ a\\ literary\\ canon\\.\\ As\\ masculinity\\ became\\ equated\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;grand\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ femininity\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;small\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ inclusion\\ of\\ Willa\\ Cather\\,\\ a\\ writer\\ of\\ domestic\\ novels\\,\\ seemed\\ unsightly\\ in\\ the\\ literary\\ canon\\.\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Brien\\ leaves\\ Cather\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ultimate\\ legacy\\ open\\-ended\\ as\\ this\\ question\\ of\\ canonization\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ evershifting\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ could\\ like\\ to\\ end\\ this\\ entry\\ on\\ a\\ different\\ but\\ related\\ note\\.\\ In\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ class\\,\\ the\\ discussion\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ as\\ open\\ discussion\\ are\\ sometimes\\ liable\\ to\\ do\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ veered\\ off\\ on\\ a\\ tangential\\ direction\\ into\\ a\\ rather\\ heady\\ topic\\:\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ literature\\.\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ open\\ an\\ entirely\\ new\\ can\\ of\\ worms\\ here\\,\\ but\\ the\\ discussion\\ did\\ produce\\ an\\ interesting\\ question\\ that\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ pose\\.\\ In\\ the\\ last\\ century\\,\\ has\\ there\\ been\\ a\\ book\\ that\\ has\\ impacted\\ the\\ collective\\ conscious\\ as\\ widely\\ and\\ pervasively\\ as\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\?\\ \\(To\\ contextualize\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\,\\ see\\ last\\ week\\'s\\ \\class\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ A\\ book\\ that\\ is\\ both\\ widely\\ read\\ by\\ the\\ public\\ and\\ canonized\\?\\ Essentially\\,\\ does\\ literature\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ transfixing\\ and\\ transforming\\ power\\ that\\ it\\ had\\ in\\ the\\ past\\?\\ I\\ would\\ argue\\ yes\\,\\ and\\ use\\ The\\ Catcher\\ in\\ the\\ Rye\\ as\\ my\\ evidence\\.\\ Agreement\\,\\ dissent\\?\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 10: Reading in America"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.326981+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 11: Into the Future ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 312, "html": "\\Reading\\:\\\r\\\\Book\\ Business\\:\\ Past\\,\\ Present\\,\\ and\\ Future\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ by\\ Jason\\ Epstein\\\r\\Starting\\ with\\ Gutenberg\\ and\\ his\\ printing\\ press\\,\\ this\\ course\\ has\\ proceeded\\ in\\ roughly\\ chronological\\ order\\.\\ We\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ covered\\ the\\ historical\\ highlights\\-\\-Shakespeare\\,\\ copyright\\,\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\,\\ Samuel\\ Johnson\\,\\ etc\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ now\\ we\\ have\\ arrived\\ at\\ the\\ present\\ and\\ are\\ even\\ looking\\ into\\ the\\ scary\\,\\ uncertain\\ future\\.\\ \\ We\\ have\\ essentially\\ traced\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ from\\ its\\ birth\\ to\\ its\\ death\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ it\\.\\ As\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ text\\ becomes\\ digitalized\\,\\ the\\ physical\\ book\\ becomes\\ obsolete\\.\\ But\\ the\\ book\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ remains\\,\\ right\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Jason\\ Epstein\\,\\ in\\ \\Book\\ Business\\:\\ Past\\,\\ Present\\,\\ Future\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ certainly\\ answers\\ this\\ question\\ with\\ optimism\\.\\ Epstein\\ was\\,\\ and\\ arguably\\ still\\ is\\,\\ a\\ giant\\ in\\ the\\ publishing\\ world\\.\\ He\\ essentially\\ invented\\ the\\ quality\\ paperback\\ with\\ the\\ launch\\ of\\ Anchor\\ Books\\ during\\ his\\ time\\ at\\ Doubleday\\.\\ On\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ literary\\ criticism\\,\\ he\\ also\\ co\\-founded\\ the\\ \\New\\ York\\ Review\\ of\\ Books\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ 1963\\.\\ This\\ book\\ is\\ his\\ memoir\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ publishing\\ industry\\;\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ nostalgic\\ throwback\\ to\\ the\\ old\\ days\\ of\\ publishing\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ look\\ forward\\ into\\ to\\ promises\\ of\\ the\\ future\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Epstein\\ began\\ his\\ career\\ in\\ 1950\\ as\\ an\\ editor\\ with\\ Doubleday\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ launched\\ his\\ career\\,\\ Epstein\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ look\\ back\\ on\\ his\\ time\\ at\\ Doubleday\\ too\\ fondly\\,\\ but\\ he\\ does\\ credit\\ Doubleday\\ with\\ teaching\\ him\\ one\\ thing\\:\\ the\\ business\\ of\\ making\\ money\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;For\\ \\[Doubleday\\]\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;books\\ were\\ a\\ commodity\\&\\#8212\\;one\\ whose\\ individual\\ peculiarities\\ were\\ an\\ unavoidable\\ convenience\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(40\\)\\.\\ Epstein\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dedication\\ to\\ Anchor\\ Books\\ shows\\ that\\ he\\ obviously\\ espouses\\ a\\ different\\ view\\.\\ Anchor\\ Books\\ were\\ inspired\\ in\\ part\\ by\\ Epstein\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ experience\\ with\\ the\\ hardcover\\ books\\ that\\ he\\ coveted\\ at\\ the\\ Eighth\\ Street\\ Bookstore\\,\\ a\\ massive\\ candy\\-shop\\ kind\\ of\\ store\\ for\\ literary\\ types\\.\\ At\\ the\\ time\\,\\ all\\ serious\\ fiction\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ hardcover\\ editions\\ while\\ mass\\-market\\ paperbacks\\ were\\ printed\\ on\\ cheap\\ ground\\ wool\\ and\\ bound\\ with\\ cellophane\\ covers\\.\\ Epstein\\ identified\\ a\\ niche\\ market\\ in\\ between\\,\\ and\\ Anchor\\ Books\\ filled\\ gap\\ of\\ quality\\ books\\ in\\ paperback\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 1958\\,\\ Epstein\\ left\\ Doubleday\\ to\\ work\\ at\\ Random\\ House\\,\\ which\\ he\\ affectionately\\ calls\\ a\\ second\\ family\\.\\ His\\ time\\ at\\ Random\\ House\\ was\\ the\\ good\\ ol\\&\\#8217\\;\\ times\\.\\ W\\.H\\.\\ Auden\\ would\\ arrive\\ at\\ the\\ office\\ in\\ slippers\\ delivering\\ his\\ latest\\ manuscript\\ and\\ Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\ would\\ present\\ his\\ storyboards\\ for\\ \\Green\\ Eggs\\ and\\ Ham\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ As\\ an\\ editor\\,\\ Epstein\\ was\\ especially\\ conscious\\ of\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ developing\\ a\\ valuable\\ backlist\\ of\\ titles\\ that\\ will\\ sell\\ for\\ many\\ years\\.\\ This\\ he\\ found\\ compatible\\ with\\ a\\ true\\ appreciation\\ for\\ literature\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Yet\\ the\\ book\\ business\\,\\ pressured\\ by\\ economic\\ realities\\,\\ changed\\ into\\ something\\ else\\ entirely\\.\\ Epstein\\ pins\\ the\\ blame\\ on\\ suburbanization\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ chain\\ bookstores\\ like\\ Barnes\\ \\&\\;\\ Nobel\\ and\\ Borders\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ Random\\ House\\ was\\ bought\\ by\\ a\\ larger\\ conglomerate\\,\\ and\\ the\\ intimate\\ workplace\\ was\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ corporate\\ setting\\.\\ The\\ high\\ rents\\ of\\ suburban\\ malls\\ forced\\ bookstores\\ to\\ sell\\ books\\ with\\ high\\-turnover\\;\\ bookstores\\ no\\ longer\\ became\\ interested\\ in\\ making\\ money\\ from\\ books\\ on\\ the\\ backlist\\.\\ Subsequently\\,\\ this\\ increased\\ pressure\\ on\\ publishing\\ houses\\ to\\ churn\\ out\\ bestsellers\\ rather\\ than\\ develop\\ their\\ backlists\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ all\\ hope\\ is\\ not\\ lost\\!\\ Epstein\\ looks\\ at\\ technology\\ with\\ great\\ optimism\\.\\ He\\ envisions\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ ATM\\/Espresso\\ machine\\ for\\ books\\,\\ where\\ you\\ can\\ have\\ books\\ printed\\ on\\ demand\\.\\ Without\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ physical\\ space\\ or\\ rent\\,\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ economics\\ is\\ broken\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Book\\ Business\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ 2001\\,\\ ends\\ on\\ this\\ note\\.\\ While\\ seven\\ years\\ in\\ history\\ can\\ be\\ mostly\\ dismissed\\,\\ seven\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\ is\\ certainly\\ not\\.\\ In\\ 2001\\,\\ we\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ Facebook\\ or\\ MySpace\\ or\\ bittorrent\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ none\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ were\\ even\\ invented\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ these\\ three\\ applications\\ \\(along\\ many\\,\\ many\\ others\\)\\ have\\ significantly\\ changed\\ the\\ way\\ many\\ people\\ use\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ So\\ my\\ point\\ is\\,\\ while\\ Epstein\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ predictions\\ for\\ the\\ future\\ may\\ have\\ made\\ sense\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ his\\ writing\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ a\\ little\\ skeptical\\ of\\ their\\ application\\ given\\ the\\ changes\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ seven\\ years\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ example\\,\\ Epstein\\ goes\\ into\\ great\\ length\\ about\\ Amazon\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ failed\\ business\\ model\\ and\\ predicted\\ its\\ eminent\\ demise\\.\\ Although\\ Amazon\\.com\\ was\\ indeed\\ going\\ though\\ financial\\ trouble\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ it\\ pulled\\ through\\ and\\ obviously\\ still\\ exists\\ today\\,\\ making\\ headlines\\ like\\ this\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Amazon\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Profit\\ More\\ Than\\ Doubles\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ Epstein\\ was\\ wrong\\ to\\ see\\ Amazon\\.com\\ as\\ a\\ total\\ failure\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ business\\,\\ but\\ a\\ business\\ that\\ sells\\ literature\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ Amazon\\.com\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ business\\ model\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ that\\ truly\\ restores\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ backlist\\.\\ Unrestrained\\ by\\ shelf\\ space\\,\\ the\\ site\\ can\\ stock\\ thousands\\ and\\ thousands\\ of\\ specialty\\ and\\ obscure\\ titles\\.\\ Perhaps\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ heard\\ of\\ the\\ term\\ the\\ long\\ tail\\,\\ coined\\ by\\ Chris\\ Anderson\\,\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ new\\ business\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ relying\\ on\\ a\\ few\\ best\\ sellers\\,\\ sites\\ like\\ Amazon\\ and\\ Netflix\\ generate\\ revenue\\ from\\ the\\ sale\\ of\\ many\\ small\\-volume\\ movers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Speaking\\ of\\ Amazon\\.com\\,\\ though\\,\\ I\\ was\\ surprised\\ that\\ the\\ \\Kindle\\ \\ \\<\\/a\\>warranted\\ only\\ one\\ mention\\ in\\ class\\ \\(followed\\ by\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Kindle\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ E\\-books\\ have\\ been\\ around\\ for\\ several\\ years\\ now\\,\\ but\\ none\\ have\\ particularly\\ caught\\ on\\ though\\ Kindle\\ is\\,\\ arguably\\,\\ having\\ some\\ success\\.\\ It\\ is\\ when\\ I\\ think\\ about\\ Kindle\\,\\ but\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ most\\ skeptical\\ about\\ Epstein\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ATM\\/Espresso\\ machine\\ book\\ press\\.\\ In\\ a\\ digital\\ age\\,\\ paper\\ is\\ almost\\&\\#8230\\;cumbersome\\.\\ Kindle\\,\\ which\\ itself\\ is\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ a\\ paperback\\,\\ can\\ hold\\ 200\\ books\\ and\\ can\\ instanteously\\ download\\ books\\,\\ newspapers\\,\\ and\\ blogs\\ on\\ a\\ wireless\\ network\\.\\ Such\\ wireless\\ connectivity\\,\\ however\\,\\ was\\ unthinkable\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ Epstein\\ wrote\\ his\\ book\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/iframe\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Yet\\ even\\ Kindle\\,\\ I\\ think\\,\\ has\\ too\\ many\\ vestiges\\ of\\ the\\ analog\\ age\\.\\ When\\ Kindle\\ first\\ hit\\ the\\ shelves\\,\\ a\\ fellow\\ intern\\ of\\ mine\\ at\\ the\\ Digital\\ Natives\\ project\\ made\\ an\\ insightful\\ \\blog\\ pos\\<\\/a\\>t\\ about\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;digital\\ immigrant\\&\\#8221\\;\\ design\\ of\\ Kindle\\.\\ \\ Most\\ of\\ us\\,\\ myself\\ included\\,\\ are\\ uncomfortable\\ with\\ reading\\ books\\ on\\ screens\\,\\ insomuch\\ that\\ I\\ once\\ spent\\ \\$30\\ printing\\ out\\ a\\ free\\ digital\\ textbook\\.\\ Yet\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ reading\\ this\\ blog\\ online\\ \\(or\\ maybe\\ even\\ on\\ an\\ iPhone\\.\\)\\ Who\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ to\\ say\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ future\\ wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ transfer\\ all\\ their\\ reading\\ to\\ some\\ digital\\ device\\?\\ Actually\\,\\ I\\ think\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ inevitable\\.\\ We\\ prefer\\ to\\ turn\\ physical\\ pages\\ because\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ how\\ we\\ learned\\ to\\ read\\.\\ As\\ a\\ generation\\ of\\ readers\\ come\\ to\\ age\\ surrounded\\ by\\ laptops\\ and\\ smart\\ phones\\,\\ books\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ their\\ physical\\ forms\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ have\\ evolved\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 11: Into the Future "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.339978+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Thoughts", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 313, "html": "\\It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ and\\ \\&\\#8216\\;tis\\ the\\ season\\ for\\ evaluations\\ galore\\.\\ Between\\ various\\ surveys\\,\\ the\\ freshman\\ evaluation\\ and\\ the\\ CUE\\ \\(Course\\ Evaluation\\)\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ spent\\ the\\ past\\ week\\ seriously\\ reflecting\\ on\\ my\\ freshman\\ year\\.\\ Academically\\,\\ this\\ year\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ whirlwind\\ of\\ challenges\\,\\ frustrations\\,\\ and\\ rewards\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ This\\ freshman\\ seminar\\ has\\ covered\\ all\\ three\\ fronts\\.\\ Mostly\\ challenges\\ and\\ rewards\\ though\\,\\ the\\ only\\ frustration\\ coming\\ when\\ I\\ was\\ knee\\-deep\\ into\\ my\\ 20\\ page\\ research\\ paper\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ change\\ my\\ thesis\\.\\ \\(More\\ on\\ this\\ later\\.\\)\\ But\\ when\\ the\\ freshman\\ evaluation\\ asked\\ for\\ my\\ most\\ rewarding\\ academic\\ experience\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ I\\ unequivocally\\ answered\\ with\\ my\\ two\\ freshman\\ seminars\\.\\ The\\ first\\,\\ Cyberspace\\ in\\ Court\\,\\ was\\ blogged\\ about\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ the\\ fall\\.\\ The\\ second\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ this\\ class\\,\\ The\\ History\\ of\\ Books\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ think\\ in\\ both\\ cases\\ though\\,\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;reward\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ mostly\\ unrelated\\ to\\ the\\ contents\\ of\\ the\\ class\\.\\ Although\\ we\\ certainly\\ covered\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ material\\ and\\ read\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ pages\\,\\ my\\ unphotographic\\ memory\\ hasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ memorized\\ the\\ dimensions\\ of\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\.\\ Reading\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ earlier\\ entries\\ from\\ nearly\\ four\\ months\\ ago\\,\\ I\\ find\\ myself\\ coming\\ across\\ things\\ I\\ had\\ forgotten\\.\\ \\ \\ My\\ parents\\ are\\,\\ ironically\\,\\ fond\\ of\\ reminding\\ me\\ how\\ useless\\ the\\ facts\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ learning\\ in\\ class\\ are\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Are\\ you\\ really\\ going\\ to\\ remember\\ Green\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Theorem\\ or\\ the\\ chronology\\ of\\ Busby\\ Berkeley\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ musicals\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ they\\ asked\\ while\\ I\\ was\\ studying\\ for\\ finals\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ fall\\ semester\\.\\ \\(And\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ right\\,\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ remember\\ either\\ anymore\\.\\)\\ Funny\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ say\\,\\ but\\ of\\ course\\,\\ my\\ parents\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ expect\\ that\\ the\\ \\$40\\,000\\ they\\ pay\\ each\\ year\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ waste\\.\\ \\ According\\ to\\ them\\,\\ learning\\ is\\ about\\ acquiring\\ a\\ skill\\ set\\ to\\ be\\ applied\\ toward\\ problem\\ solving\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ What\\ that\\ self\\-improvement\\ book\\ jargon\\ boils\\ down\\ to\\,\\ is\\ that\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ learned\\ from\\ this\\ course\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ learn\\.\\ About\\ how\\ to\\ tackle\\ a\\ question\\ like\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ book\\ history\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ About\\ how\\ to\\ skim\\ through\\ 200\\ pages\\ of\\ reading\\ and\\ condense\\ it\\ into\\ an\\ oral\\ report\\.\\ About\\ how\\ to\\ research\\ a\\ topic\\ as\\ obscure\\ as\\ pop\\-up\\ books\\ and\\ live\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ twenty\\ page\\ paper\\ on\\ it\\.\\ \\ About\\ how\\ to\\ study\\ history\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ an\\ undecided\\ freshman\\,\\ I\\ spent\\ this\\ past\\ semester\\ dabbling\\ in\\ various\\ different\\ classes\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ German\\,\\ neurobiology\\,\\ and\\ a\\ math\\-heavy\\ economics\\ course\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ each\\ involving\\ different\\ ways\\ of\\ thinking\\ and\\ learning\\.\\ My\\ freshman\\ seminar\\ was\\,\\ surprisingly\\,\\ the\\ only\\ course\\ where\\ I\\ read\\ books\\ not\\ textbooks\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ only\\ course\\ where\\ I\\ wrote\\ an\\ analytical\\ paper\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ fairly\\ long\\ one\\ at\\ that\\.\\ \\ \\ Before\\ this\\ class\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ never\\ written\\ a\\ research\\ paper\\ over\\,\\ oh\\ twelve\\ pages\\,\\ and\\ the\\ 2\\ sitting\\ in\\ the\\ tens\\ digit\\ caused\\ me\\ pretty\\ of\\ anxiety\\ as\\ the\\ due\\ date\\ approached\\ closer\\ and\\ closer\\.\\ Add\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ I\\ had\\ chosen\\,\\ on\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ a\\ whim\\,\\ to\\ research\\ toy\\ and\\ movable\\ books\\,\\ a\\ decision\\ I\\ can\\ only\\ characterize\\ as\\ masochistically\\ inclined\\ but\\ probably\\ influenced\\ by\\ my\\ childhood\\ wonder\\ at\\ pop\\-up\\ books\\.\\ Surprisingly\\,\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Library\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ books\\ I\\ needed\\,\\ so\\ I\\ spent\\ many\\ hours\\ in\\ the\\ Rare\\ Books\\ Reading\\ Room\\ at\\ the\\ Boston\\ Public\\ Library\\.\\ At\\ first\\ an\\ annoyance\\,\\ it\\ became\\ some\\ of\\ my\\ most\\ enjoyable\\ hours\\ as\\ Harvard\\ was\\ whipped\\ into\\ a\\ frenzy\\ with\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ finals\\.\\ The\\ real\\ life\\-saver\\ with\\ this\\ paper\\ was\\ an\\ email\\ thread\\ between\\ my\\ classmates\\ and\\ me\\.\\ Here\\ we\\ poured\\ out\\ our\\ anxieties\\,\\ our\\ doubts\\,\\ and\\ finally\\,\\ our\\ triumphs\\.\\ This\\ interaction\\ with\\ my\\ classmates\\,\\ distinctly\\ different\\ from\\ impersonal\\ hundred\\ people\\ lectures\\,\\ was\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ made\\ my\\ seminars\\ so\\ rewarding\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Although\\ I\\ ran\\ into\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ the\\ Harvard\\ University\\ Library\\ while\\ researching\\ for\\ my\\ paper\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fair\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ this\\ seminar\\ actually\\ opened\\ my\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ depth\\ of\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ library\\ resources\\.\\ My\\ workshops\\ were\\ undoubtedly\\ the\\ best\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ experience\\.\\ Truth\\ to\\ be\\ told\\,\\ I\\ found\\ a\\ little\\ difficulty\\ conveying\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ workshops\\ in\\ this\\ blog\\.\\ Here\\ was\\ an\\ experience\\ that\\ could\\ not\\,\\ like\\ a\\ professor\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\,\\ be\\ reduced\\ into\\ word\\ displayed\\ on\\ a\\ computer\\ screen\\.\\ How\\ can\\ anyone\\ sitting\\ in\\ front\\ an\\ ultramodern\\ laptop\\ experience\\ the\\ awe\\ of\\ smelling\\ the\\ pages\\ of\\ the\\ Gutenberg\\ Bible\\?\\ The\\ transcendent\\ real\\-life\\ piece\\ was\\ not\\ there\\.\\ Perhaps\\ here\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ run\\ into\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ a\\ blog\\.\\ Or\\ perhaps\\,\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ the\\ written\\ word\\.\\ Or\\ actually\\,\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ my\\ skill\\ with\\ the\\ written\\ word\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\With\\ that\\ somber\\&\\#160\\;\\ note\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ leave\\ you\\ with\\ my\\ final\\ paper\\ whose\\ subject\\,\\ toy\\ and\\ movable\\ books\\,\\ certainly\\ transcended\\ the\\ written\\ word\\ to\\ take\\ full\\ advantage\\ of\\ pictures\\ and\\ movable\\ parts\\.\\ The\\ paper\\ focused\\ on\\ emergence\\ of\\ toy\\ and\\ movable\\ books\\ in\\ Victorian\\ England\\ through\\ the\\ lens\\ of\\ an\\ emerging\\ idea\\ of\\ childhood\\ and\\ increasing\\ class\\ differences\\.\\ Full\\ paper\\ in\\ pdf\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\P\\.S\\.\\ Haven\\'t\\ quite\\ gotten\\ enough\\ of\\ book\\ history\\?\\ This\\ \\research\\ guide\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ put\\ together\\ by\\ the\\ librarians\\ for\\ our\\ seminar\\ paper\\.\\ It\\'s\\ a\\ fantastic\\ resource\\ of\\ all\\ things\\ book\\ history\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 67, "file_path": "", "desc": "Final Thoughts"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.383680+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Declaring Independence", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 315, "html": "\\\\\\\\\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\McCarthy\\ begins\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ radical\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ declaration\\ is\\ its\\ articulation\\ of\\ equality\\ as\\ a\\ fundamental\\ ideal\\ to\\ pursue\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ points\\ to\\ an\\ important\\ distinction\\ in\\ Jefferson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ particular\\ articulation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ for\\ Locke\\,\\ equality\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ state\\ of\\ being\\ that\\ precedes\\ governmental\\ structures\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ however\\,\\ revises\\ Locke\\ from\\ \\&\\#8220\\;life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ property\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ natural\\ rights\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ simply\\ given\\ but\\ must\\ constantly\\ be\\ \\aspired\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\.\\ \\(I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ always\\ wondered\\ about\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ little\\ switcheroo\\ here\\,\\ and\\ my\\ flimsy\\,\\ knee\\-jerk\\ reaction\\ was\\ to\\ assume\\ that\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ preferred\\ lofty\\ rhetoric\\ over\\ base\\ \\&\\#8220\\;property\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ McCarthy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ idea\\ makes\\ the\\ shift\\ significant\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\ declaration\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ protest\\ into\\ something\\ akin\\ to\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;permanent\\ revolution\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ only\\ without\\ the\\ Marxism\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ Declaration\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ grievances\\ left\\ out\\ is\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ accusation\\ that\\ the\\ king\\ imposed\\ slavery\\ on\\ the\\ colonies\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ empire\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ mercantile\\ system\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ disingenuous\\,\\ of\\ course\\ \\(McCarthy\\ calls\\ it\\ \\&\\#8220\\;psychic\\ displacement\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\,\\ since\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ a\\ life\\-long\\ slaveholder\\ himself\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(The\\ redcoats\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ exactly\\ twisting\\ his\\ arm\\ when\\ \\Sally\\ Hemings\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ working\\ on\\ his\\ plantation\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ particular\\ grievance\\ was\\ left\\ out\\ because\\ the\\ committee\\ thought\\ any\\ mention\\ of\\ slavery\\ would\\ expose\\ the\\ colonies\\ to\\ the\\ charge\\ of\\ hypocrisy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Deleting\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ race\\ insulated\\ them\\ from\\ this\\ charge\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\John\\ and\\ Abigail\\ Adams\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ March\\,\\ 1776\\ John\\ Adams\\ was\\ having\\ an\\ extensive\\ correspondence\\ with\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Abigail\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ describes\\ to\\ her\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ nation\\,\\ and\\ Abigail\\ writes\\ a\\ letter\\ of\\ protest\\ to\\ John\\ \\(which\\ Stauffer\\ kindly\\ reenacts\\ for\\ us\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Abigail\\ \\(channeled\\ by\\ Stauffer\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ complete\\ with\\ falsetto\\!\\)\\ urges\\ John\\ Adams\\ to\\ conceptualize\\ freedom\\ in\\ the\\ broadest\\ terms\\ possible\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ she\\ wanted\\ particular\\ attention\\ paid\\ to\\ women\\,\\ who\\,\\ she\\ assures\\ John\\,\\ are\\ quite\\ thirsty\\ for\\ freedom\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ actually\\ threatens\\ rebellion\\ by\\ women\\ if\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ women\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ clearly\\ articulated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\John\\ \\(here\\ played\\ by\\ McCarthy\\)\\ replies\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;you\\ are\\ so\\ saucy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Is\\ this\\ actually\\ a\\ quote\\?\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>John\\ Adams\\ loves\\ it\\,\\ though\\ he\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ about\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ first\\-wave\\ feminist\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ McCarthy\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ agree\\ that\\ she\\ was\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ very\\ saucy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ little\\ exchange\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ opening\\ salvos\\ of\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ or\\ nascent\\ revolutions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ power\\ within\\ most\\ every\\ protest\\ movement\\.\\ \\(And\\,\\ if\\ you\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ noticed\\ yet\\,\\ this\\ is\\ bound\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ running\\ thread\\ throughout\\ the\\ course\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Religion\\ helped\\ to\\ provide\\ specifics\\ for\\ the\\ alternative\\,\\ higher\\ vision\\ of\\ society\\ that\\ is\\ crucial\\ to\\ the\\ protest\\ tradition\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ prophetic\\ tradition\\ can\\ manifest\\ itself\\ in\\ both\\ conservative\\ and\\ radical\\ forms\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ example\\,\\ both\\ Osama\\ bin\\ Laden\\ and\\ George\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\ both\\ draw\\ upon\\ prophetic\\ traditions\\ to\\ validate\\ their\\ actions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Warning\\:\\ a\\ brief\\ time\\-line\\ tangent\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ few\\ snapshots\\ of\\ the\\ symbolic\\ use\\ of\\ July\\ 4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ in\\ American\\ protests\\ great\\ and\\ small\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Seneca\\ Falls\\ Convention\\ \\(1848\\)\\ borrows\\ heavily\\ from\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\July\\ 4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\,\\ \\ 1855\\<\\/st1\\:date\\>\\:\\ Whitman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Leaves\\ of\\ Grass\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ published\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Henry\\ Thoreau\\ goes\\ to\\ Walden\\ on\\ July\\ 4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\John\\ Brown\\ planned\\ his\\ invasion\\ of\\ Harper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Ferry\\ on\\ July\\ 4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\ \\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\,\\ nothing\\ is\\ inconsequential\\ as\\ Tim\\ and\\ John\\ relate\\ the\\ above\\ theme\\ of\\ Independence\\ Day\\ \\(and\\ not\\ the\\ Will\\ Smith\\ movie\\)\\ to\\ Lincoln\\.\\.\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Abraham\\ Lincoln\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ a\\ counterexample\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ conservative\\ republican\\,\\ he\\ was\\ horrified\\ by\\ people\\ drawing\\ upon\\ the\\ Declaration\\ for\\ political\\ inspiration\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ downplay\\ its\\ significance\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ focuses\\ instead\\ on\\ the\\ Constitution\\ as\\ a\\ more\\ conservative\\ document\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ \\\\Lincoln\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ reverses\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ 1850s\\ \\(especially\\ after\\ the\\ Dred\\ Scott\\ decision\\)\\ and\\ begins\\ to\\ view\\ the\\ Declaration\\ as\\ the\\ foundation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\,\\ now\\,\\ turns\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ \\David\\ Walker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Appeal\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1829\\)\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ Context\\ \\(1776\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ 1804\\)\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ All\\ northern\\ states\\ develop\\ plans\\ for\\ gradual\\ emancipation\\,\\ while\\ slavery\\ becomes\\ ever\\ more\\ entrenched\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ free\\ slaves\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ American\\ Colonization\\ Society\\ committed\\ itself\\ to\\ using\\ federal\\ funding\\ to\\ remove\\ free\\ blacks\\ voluntarily\\,\\ the\\ premise\\ being\\ that\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ cannot\\ coexist\\ peacefully\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>David\\ Walker\\ offers\\ an\\ explicit\\ critique\\ of\\ colonization\\ plans\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ learn\\ to\\ coexist\\ it\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ apocalyptic\\ violence\\!\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Walker\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ saw\\ white\\ racism\\ as\\ the\\ motive\\ behind\\ the\\ colonization\\ plans\\.\\ \\(Interestingly\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ proponents\\ of\\ repatriation\\ to\\ \\Africa\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ the\\ Black\\ Nationalist\\ Marcus\\ Garvey\\,\\ but\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ another\\ story\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ point\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ massive\\ return\\ to\\ \\Africa\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ enduring\\ idea\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ from\\ people\\ of\\ various\\ political\\ persuasions\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\ on\\ David\\ Walker\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ He\\ was\\ born\\ free\\ in\\ \\\\Wilmington\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\ \\North\\ Carolina\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ and\\ traveled\\ extensively\\ and\\ moved\\ to\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ in\\ the\\ 1820s\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ self\\-published\\ three\\ editions\\ of\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Appeal\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ was\\ surprisingly\\ radical\\ and\\ distributed\\ secretively\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ stitched\\ copies\\ of\\ his\\ appeal\\ into\\ the\\ linings\\ of\\ the\\ jackets\\ of\\ free\\ black\\ sailors\\,\\ who\\ would\\ then\\ take\\ them\\ onto\\ their\\ ships\\ and\\ send\\ them\\ to\\ other\\ port\\ cities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\r\\David\\ Walker\\'s\\ \\\"Appeal\\\"\\ \\(1829\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\The\\ Appeal\\ is\\ structured\\ as\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ Constitution\\ \\(\\read\\ it\\ with\\ annotations\\ of\\ this\\ site\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\:\\ it\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ preamble\\ and\\ is\\ followed\\ with\\ four\\ articles\\ on\\ 1\\)\\ Slavery\\ 2\\)\\ Ignorance\\ 3\\)\\ The\\ Religion\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\ and\\ 4\\)\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Colonization\\ Scheme\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Walker\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ creates\\ an\\ alternative\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\,\\ the\\ People\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ collective\\ group\\ that\\ is\\ both\\ black\\ and\\ \\diasporic\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ he\\ imagines\\ a\\ global\\ black\\ community\\.\\ This\\ is\\ considered\\ the\\ first\\ expression\\ of\\ black\\ nationalism\\.\\ \\(And\\,\\ hence\\,\\ my\\ point\\:\\ the\\ trajectory\\ of\\ black\\ nationalism\\ somehow\\ reverses\\ along\\ the\\ way\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ it\\ begins\\ with\\ \\\\Walker\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rejection\\ of\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;return\\ to\\ \\Africa\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ movement\\,\\ it\\ would\\ begin\\ to\\ embrace\\ it\\ with\\ people\\ like\\ Garvey\\ and\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ who\\ began\\ adopting\\ the\\ segregationist\\ impulses\\ of\\ white\\ racism\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Rhetorically\\,\\ the\\ Appeal\\ reads\\ like\\ a\\ sermon\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ poses\\ questions\\,\\ invoking\\ the\\ call\\-and\\-response\\ style\\ popular\\ in\\ black\\ churches\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Professor\\ McCarthy\\ recommend\\ reading\\ it\\ aloud\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ full\\ effect\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\ Frames\\ for\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ Appeal\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\)\\ As\\ a\\ religious\\ text\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ writes\\ as\\ a\\ prophet\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ assumes\\ a\\ shared\\ Christian\\ theology\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ alludes\\ to\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ sin\\ and\\ redemption\\,\\ the\\ resurrection\\ and\\ the\\ apocalypse\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\)\\ As\\ a\\ political\\ text\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ writes\\ as\\ a\\ citizen\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ critique\\ of\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ as\\ hypocritical\\ is\\ important\\ here\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\)\\ As\\ an\\ historical\\ text\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ writes\\ as\\ a\\ scholar\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Appeal\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ in\\ which\\ \\\\Walker\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ shows\\ off\\ his\\ education\\.\\ He\\ creates\\ a\\ counter\\-historical\\ narrative\\ about\\ emerging\\ black\\ traditions\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ including\\ the\\ slave\\ revolt\\ in\\ \\\\Haiti\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ no\\ less\\ than\\ create\\ a\\ black\\ political\\ history\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ counterpart\\ to\\ David\\ Walker\\ is\\ William\\ Apess\\ He\\ lived\\ in\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ in\\ the\\ 1820s\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ part\\ white\\ and\\ part\\ Native\\ American\\ \\(probably\\)\\ through\\ his\\ Pequot\\ grandmother\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ time\\,\\ it\\ was\\ impossible\\ to\\ self\\-identify\\ as\\ mixed\\-race\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ chose\\ Native\\ American\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ a\\ common\\ claim\\ for\\ mixed\\ race\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ entirely\\ white\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ individuals\\ throughout\\ American\\ history\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Check\\ out\\ \\Philip\\ Deloria\\'s\\ \\Playing\\ Indian\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ hankering\\ for\\ the\\ history\\ of\\,\\ well\\,\\ being\\ Indian\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Incidentally\\,\\ if\\ you\\ think\\ your\\ race\\-dar\\ is\\ pretty\\ good\\,\\ check\\ out\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ him\\ below\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Apess\\ was\\ abandoned\\ by\\ his\\ parents\\ and\\ raised\\ by\\ grandmother\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ drunk\\,\\ and\\ he\\ became\\ ward\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ before\\ becoming\\ an\\ indentured\\ servant\\ until\\ 21\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Later\\,\\ he\\ became\\ an\\ itinerant\\ Methodist\\ minister\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ autobiogrpahy\\,\\ \\The\\ Son\\ of\\ the\\ Forest\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ known\\ book\\ published\\ by\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ became\\ progressively\\ more\\ political\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ issued\\ his\\ own\\ Indian\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ the\\ Mashpee\\ tribe\\ in\\ \\Cape\\ Cod\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ declaring\\ they\\ would\\ rule\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ was\\ partially\\ successful\\,\\ actually\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\His\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Eulogy\\ on\\ \\King\\ Philip\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1837\\)\\ was\\ his\\ last\\ piece\\ of\\ protest\\ literature\\,\\ delivered\\ in\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ \\(I\\ should\\ note\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ this\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ on\\ the\\ occasion\\ of\\ King\\ Philip\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ death\\,\\ which\\ happened\\ during\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ uprising\\ in\\ 1676\\,\\ well\\ before\\ Apess\\ was\\ born\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Eulogy\\ attacks\\ the\\ evils\\ committed\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ compares\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ leader\\ to\\ George\\ Washington\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ process\\,\\ Apess\\ inverts\\ racial\\ stereotypes\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ Christians\\ seem\\ savage\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ values\\ behavior\\ and\\ ideals\\ over\\ skin\\ color\\,\\ and\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ King\\ Philip\\ behaved\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ Christian\\ than\\ Christians\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(He\\ actually\\ recites\\ the\\ Lord\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Prayer\\ in\\ King\\ Philips\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ language\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ goes\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ denounce\\ Christian\\ missionary\\ work\\,\\ which\\ is\\ ironic\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ missionary\\ himself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ general\\,\\ Apess\\ begins\\ to\\ separate\\ Christianity\\ from\\ its\\ strict\\ theology\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ essentially\\ says\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ need\\ Christianity\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ saved\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ the\\ Eulogy\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ rights\\ rather\\ than\\ religion\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Instead\\ of\\ millennialism\\,\\ he\\ advocates\\ a\\ secularized\\ version\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Eulogy\\ is\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ close\\ relationship\\ between\\ secular\\ protest\\ and\\ religious\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Declaring Independence"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.400828+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Slavery and Abolition", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 316, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Our\\ esteemed\\ lecturers\\ have\\ encouraged\\ the\\ students\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ from\\ all\\ points\\ along\\ the\\ political\\ spectrum\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ inform\\ the\\ class\\ of\\ any\\ acts\\ of\\ protest\\ happening\\ locally\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Someone\\ from\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Anti\\-War\\ Coalition\\ \\(HAWC\\!\\)\\ informs\\ the\\ class\\ that\\ they\\ meet\\ every\\ Wednesday\\ at\\ \\noon\\<\\/st1\\:time\\>\\ in\\ Harvard\\ Yard\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ peace\\ walk\\ against\\ the\\ war\\ in\\ Iraq\\ \\(and\\ one\\ sheepish\\ blogger\\ feels\\ slightly\\ guilty\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ aware\\ of\\ these\\ protest\\ walks\\.\\.\\.\\ though\\ now\\ that\\ he\\ digs\\ back\\ into\\ his\\ memory\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ dim\\ recollection\\ of\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ them\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ begin\\ with\\ some\\ images\\,\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ \\(traced\\ by\\ Paul\\ Revere\\)\\ of\\ the\\ Boston\\ Massacre\\:\\\\ \\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ portrayed\\ as\\ an\\ assassination\\ or\\ an\\ execution\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ tightly\\-knit\\ line\\ of\\ British\\ soldiers\\ opening\\ fire\\ on\\ civilians\\ at\\ close\\ range\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ not\\ nearly\\ how\\ the\\ massacre\\ happened\\ \\(\\\"massacre\\\"\\ is\\ itself\\ a\\ little\\,\\ shall\\ we\\ say\\,\\ hyperbolic\\ \\-\\ only\\ five\\ people\\ died\\,\\ after\\ all\\.\\ Sounds\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ riot\\ to\\ me\\.\\.\\.\\ or\\ perhaps\\ a\\ particularly\\ avid\\ British\\ football\\ match\\)\\,\\ but\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ misrepresentation\\ of\\ events\\ makes\\ possible\\ the\\ accurate\\ representation\\ of\\ emotions\\.\\\\ It\\ is\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ the\\ primary\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ protest\\ to\\ incite\\ action\\.\\ Accuracy\\ is\\ often\\ secondary\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ we\\ see\\ John\\ Trumbull\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ painting\\ of\\ the\\ signing\\ of\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\ \\(also\\ on\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ \\$2\\ bill\\!\\)\\:\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Trumbull\\'s\\ rendering\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ performance\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ complete\\ with\\ an\\ audience\\,\\ prominent\\ signers\\ and\\ a\\ staged\\,\\ central\\ document\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Trumbull\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ actually\\ attempts\\ to\\ invoke\\ a\\ sacred\\ quality\\ to\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ which\\ bordered\\ on\\ the\\ blasphemous\\ for\\ the\\ Puritans\\ and\\ Quakers\\ opposed\\ to\\ all\\ graven\\ images\\.\\ \\(I\\'m\\ not\\ entirely\\ sold\\ on\\ the\\ painting\\'s\\ sacral\\ qualities\\,\\ but\\ the\\ stateliness\\ of\\ the\\ composition\\ is\\ palpable\\.\\ Check\\ out\\ the\\ flowing\\ red\\ banners\\ at\\ top\\ center\\ \\-\\ a\\ nice\\ contrast\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ those\\ pale\\ wigs\\ the\\ delegates\\ are\\ wearing\\.\\ The\\ lighting\\,\\ in\\ any\\ case\\,\\ is\\ as\\ grandiloquent\\ as\\ it\\ gets\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Next\\,\\ we\\ see\\ paintings\\ from\\ the\\ \\\"Struggle\\\"\\ series\\ by\\ Jacob\\ Lawrence\\,\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ protest\\ artist\\ whom\\ Stauffer\\ estimates\\ as\\ being\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ preeminent\\ protest\\ artists\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Century\\.\\\\\\ One\\ painting\\ offers\\ a\\ nice\\ contrast\\ to\\ \\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>Paul\\ Revere\\'s\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Boston\\ Massacre\\.\\ Lawrence\\ depicts\\ Crispus\\ Attucks\\ \\(one\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ victims\\,\\ who\\ was\\ black\\)\\ falling\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ \\\\Lawrence\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ radical\\ formalism\\ tries\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ collective\\ mind\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\ and\\ revolutionaries\\ he\\ depicts\\,\\ and\\ his\\ modernist\\ formalism\\ is\\ well\\-suited\\ to\\ his\\ subject\\ matter\\ because\\,\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>as\\ Toni\\ Morrison\\ argues\\ \\(and\\ others\\,\\ notably\\ Paul\\ Gilroy\\ in\\ \\\\The\\ Black\\ Atlantic\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\,\\ slaves\\ might\\ be\\ considered\\ the\\ first\\ modernists\\ \\(the\\ arguments\\ here\\ ultimately\\ involve\\ Hegel\\ and\\ his\\ famous\\ master\\/slave\\ dialectic\\,\\ but\\ that\\'s\\ another\\ story\\ for\\ another\\ day\\.\\ In\\ general\\,\\ I\\ can\\'t\\ help\\ but\\ think\\ that\\ Lawrence\\ owes\\ something\\ to\\ the\\ murals\\ of\\ \\Diego\\ Rivera\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\ His\\ lines\\ aren\\'t\\ nearly\\ as\\ angular\\ as\\ Lawrence\\'s\\ but\\ they\\'re\\ stark\\ and\\ monumental\\ in\\ similar\\ ways\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ plan\\ and\\ cross\\-section\\ of\\ a\\ slaver\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ a\\ diagram\\ of\\ the\\ cross\\-section\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ ship\\:\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\I\\'m\\ not\\ sure\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ precise\\ print\\ that\\ Stauffer\\ is\\ showing\\,\\ but\\ you\\ get\\ the\\ point\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>Images\\ like\\ this\\ were\\ first\\ distributed\\ to\\ ship\\ builders\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maximize\\ profits\\ by\\ designing\\ their\\ ships\\ to\\ transport\\ as\\ many\\ slaves\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\(Rationalized\\ organization\\ was\\ key\\ here\\ \\-\\ put\\ too\\ many\\ slaves\\ on\\ a\\ ship\\,\\ and\\ disease\\ will\\ spread\\.\\ The\\ slavers\\ start\\ losing\\ money\\.\\)\\\\ Later\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>British\\ anti\\-slavery\\ societies\\ used\\ diagrams\\ like\\ these\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ exposing\\ the\\ inhumanity\\ of\\ the\\ industry\\.\\ \\(There\\'s\\ really\\ something\\ coldly\\ calculating\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ this\\.\\.\\.\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ preview\\ of\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ precision\\ Henry\\ Ford\\ would\\ develop\\ in\\ his\\ automobile\\ factories\\.\\ Capitalism\\ has\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ dehumanize\\,\\ or\\ so\\ the\\ Marxist\\ argument\\ goes\\.\\ And\\ slavery\\ is\\ \\\"capitalism\\ with\\ it\\'s\\ clothes\\ off\\\"\\ \\-\\ I\\ wish\\ I\\ could\\ remember\\ who\\ said\\ that\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>Here\\ is\\ the\\ popular\\ image\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Am\\ I\\ not\\ a\\ Man\\ and\\ a\\ Brother\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ originally\\ by\\ Josiah\\ Wedgewood\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Who\\ is\\ this\\ kneeling\\,\\ supplicating\\ slave\\ praying\\ to\\?\\ God\\ or\\ the\\ humanitarian\\ whites\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ paternalism\\ inherent\\ in\\ this\\ image\\,\\ a\\ not\\-so\\-subtle\\ need\\ to\\ see\\ slaves\\ pleading\\ for\\ their\\ freedom\\.\\ As\\ time\\ goes\\ on\\,\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ becomes\\ increasingly\\ more\\ active\\ and\\ muscular\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Stauffer\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ toes\\ and\\ legs\\ suggest\\ he\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ verge\\ of\\ springing\\ up\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ also\\ see\\ a\\ few\\ pro\\-slavery\\ images\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ shows\\ us\\ a\\ domestic\\ scene\\ impossibly\\ happy\\ slaves\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ drawing\\ that\\ shows\\ a\\ well\\-clothed\\,\\ well\\-fed\\ slave\\ family\\ with\\ a\\ cabin\\ complete\\ with\\ \\curtains\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\(My\\ guess\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ weren\\'t\\ too\\ many\\ curtains\\ in\\ slave\\ quarters\\.\\)\\ A\\ second\\ image\\ comes\\ from\\ ethnographers\\ who\\ offer\\ diagrams\\ of\\ \\\"western\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"African\\\"\\ skull\\ shapes\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\\"prove\\\"\\ that\\ slaves\\ are\\ biologically\\ closer\\ to\\ apes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Their\\ logic\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ versions\\ of\\ phrenology\\ and\\ early\\ physical\\ anthropology\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Phrenology\\ was\\ en\\ vogue\\ for\\ a\\ large\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ before\\ being\\ debunked\\ before\\ the\\ century\\ ends\\&\\#8230\\;\\ though\\ that\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ stop\\ the\\ Nazis\\ from\\ leveling\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ arguments\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Two\\ portraits\\ of\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ are\\ really\\ striking\\.\\ Here\\'s\\ one\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ one\\ shows\\ him\\ particularly\\ well\\-dressed\\ and\\ refined\\,\\ as\\ if\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>he\\ wanted\\ his\\ appearance\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ direct\\ rebuttal\\ to\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ African\\-Americans\\ were\\ somehow\\ savage\\ or\\ less\\ human\\.\\ Douglass\\ cultivated\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ a\\ respectable\\ but\\ defiant\\ abolitionist\\,\\ and\\ he\\ went\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ advertise\\ it\\ \\-\\ he\\ had\\ an\\ engraving\\ of\\ his\\ image\\ included\\ in\\ his\\ publications\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Henry\\ David\\ Thoreau\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ now\\ shift\\ back\\ to\\ texts\\ and\\ to\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ godfathers\\ of\\ modern\\ protest\\ literature\\ \\(an\\ inspiration\\ to\\ Gandhi\\ and\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ to\\ name\\ only\\ two\\)\\:\\ Henry\\ David\\ Thoreau\\.\\ He\\ graduated\\ from\\ Harvard\\ in\\ 1837\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ never\\ married\\ and\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ hold\\ a\\ job\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ taught\\ at\\ the\\ public\\ school\\ in\\ \\\\Concord\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ quit\\ his\\ job\\ after\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\ in\\ protest\\ against\\ the\\ school\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ corporal\\ punishment\\ policy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thoreau\\ believed\\ strongly\\ in\\ a\\ higher\\ law\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ human\\ laws\\,\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ justification\\ for\\ his\\ protests\\ \\(sound\\ familiar\\?\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\One\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ arguments\\ in\\ \\\"Resistance\\ to\\ Civil\\ Government\\\"\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ become\\ machines\\ as\\ they\\ serve\\ the\\ state\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ they\\ serve\\ with\\ their\\ bodies\\ \\(as\\ soldiers\\)\\ rather\\ than\\ their\\ minds\\,\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ Thoreau\\'s\\ goals\\ is\\ to\\ recover\\ \\(or\\ maintain\\)\\ a\\ full\\ sense\\ of\\ his\\ humanity\\.\\ This\\ is\\ another\\ early\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ growing\\ critique\\ of\\ industrial\\ capitalism\\ that\\ will\\ become\\ increasingly\\ important\\ through\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ and\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ Thoreau\\ moves\\ to\\ Walden\\ on\\ \\July\\ \\ 4\\,\\ 1845\\<\\/st1\\:date\\>\\ and\\ declares\\ his\\ own\\ independence\\ from\\ the\\ government\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ kept\\ a\\ journal\\ there\\ and\\ published\\ \\Walden\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ 1894\\.\\ He\\ was\\ living\\ by\\ the\\ pond\\ for\\ a\\ little\\ over\\ 2\\ years\\,\\ and\\ his\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ escape\\ materialism\\ and\\ simplify\\ his\\ life\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ his\\ most\\ earnest\\ attempt\\ to\\ live\\ the\\ tenets\\ of\\ Transcendentalism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ is\\ Transcendentalism\\?\\ Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ snapshot\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\6\\ Major\\ components\\ of\\ Transcendentalism\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ Self\\-reliance\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ Solitude\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ Contemplation\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ Closeness\\ to\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\5\\.\\ Nature\\ establishes\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ connection\\ with\\ a\\ higher\\ power\\<\\/p\\>\\6\\.\\ Transcending\\ the\\ material\\ world\\ through\\ these\\ principles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ Mexican\\ War\\ \\(which\\ leads\\ to\\ annexation\\ of\\ \\\\Texas\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\ state\\)\\ begins\\ while\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ at\\ Walden\\,\\ and\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Thoreau\\ believes\\ the\\ war\\ is\\ unjust\\ and\\ refuses\\ to\\ pay\\ his\\ poll\\ tax\\,\\ which\\ would\\ help\\ to\\ fund\\ the\\ war\\.\\ Ralph\\ Waldo\\ Emerson\\ visited\\ him\\ in\\ jail\\ and\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Henry\\,\\ what\\ are\\ you\\ doing\\ in\\ there\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Thoreau\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ response\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Ralph\\,\\ what\\ are\\ you\\ doing\\ \\out\\ there\\<\\/em\\>\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Not\\-so\\-subtle\\ critique\\ of\\ Thoreau\\'s\\ mentor\\:\\ The\\ only\\ just\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ that\\ imprisons\\ unjustly\\ is\\ in\\ prison\\.\\ There\\'s\\ actually\\ a\\ play\\ called\\ \\The\\ Night\\ Thoreau\\ Spent\\ in\\ Jail\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\ It\\'s\\ rarely\\ produced\\,\\ but\\ worth\\ the\\ read\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ an\\ avid\\ Thoreauvian\\.\\ Thoreau\\ isn\\'t\\ clear\\ about\\ how\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ leave\\ jail\\ after\\ only\\ one\\ night\\,\\ but\\ the\\ speculation\\ is\\ that\\ Emerson\\ paid\\ his\\ tax\\ for\\ him\\.\\ It\\'s\\ hard\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ but\\ marvel\\ at\\ \\\"Resistance\\ to\\ Civil\\ Government\\,\\\"\\ but\\ one\\ has\\ to\\ wonder\\ how\\ Thoreau\\'s\\ voice\\ might\\ have\\ changed\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ in\\ jail\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ years\\.\\ Or\\ for\\ a\\ lifetime\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ shifts\\ back\\ to\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\,\\ who\\ was\\ arguably\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ black\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ 1852\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ books\\ were\\ read\\ widely\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ banned\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\Background\\:\\ He\\ was\\ born\\ a\\ slave\\ and\\ had\\ no\\ public\\ education\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ a\\ popular\\,\\ tireless\\ public\\ speaker\\ when\\ being\\ a\\ public\\ speaker\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ profession\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>You\\ could\\ very\\ easily\\ become\\ wealthy\\ doing\\ it\\,\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ the\\ self\\-made\\ man\\.\\ Douglass\\ was\\ a\\ paid\\ lecturer\\ by\\ the\\ Anti\\-Slavery\\ society\\ for\\ ten\\ years\\.\\ Public\\ speaking\\,\\ however\\,\\ required\\ a\\ democratic\\ voice\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ something\\ not\\ too\\ refined\\ and\\ yet\\ had\\ lost\\ its\\ provincial\\ dialect\\ \\(whether\\ it\\ was\\ from\\ \\\\Mississippi\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ or\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\)\\.\\ Douglass\\ had\\ to\\ cultivate\\ this\\ voice\\ deliberately\\,\\ and\\ he\\ does\\ so\\ by\\ reading\\ the\\ Columbian\\ Orator\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ an\\ elocution\\ manual\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ which\\ teaches\\ him\\ to\\ lose\\ his\\ accent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Stay\\ tuned\\.\\ Next\\ week\\ we\\'re\\ promised\\ readings\\ from\\ Douglass\\'s\\ speeches\\,\\ which\\ \\(if\\ they\\ are\\ at\\ all\\ like\\ the\\ renditions\\ we\\'ve\\ been\\ given\\ of\\ John\\ and\\ Abigail\\ Adams\\)\\ are\\ sure\\ to\\ be\\ riveting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Slavery and Abolition"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.417271+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Wars and Words", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 317, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Today\\ we\\ are\\ inching\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ which\\ will\\ surely\\ be\\ perilously\\ close\\ next\\ week\\,\\ when\\ we\\ discuss\\ \\\\Uncle\\ Tom\\'s\\ Cabin\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\-\\ the\\ book\\ that\\,\\ in\\ theory\\,\\ started\\ the\\ whole\\ mess\\.\\ McCarthy\\ begins\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ with\\ Thoreau\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Resistance\\ to\\ Civil\\ Government\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1848\\)\\,\\ which\\ has\\ its\\ origins\\ in\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ lectures\\ that\\ Thoreau\\ gave\\ about\\ his\\ refusal\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ subject\\ of\\ an\\ unjust\\ state\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ influence\\ of\\ Thoreau\\ extends\\ beyond\\ the\\ famous\\ examples\\ of\\ Gandhi\\ and\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Junior\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thoreau\\'s\\ signature\\ concept\\ \\-\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ \\-\\ influenced\\ the\\ Danish\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ Nazis\\,\\ opposition\\ to\\ apartheid\\ in\\ \\\\South\\ \\ \\ Africa\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ the\\ \\Darfur\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ genocide\\ and\\ the\\ \\\\Guantanamo\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Bay\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ military\\ prisons\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Like\\ other\\ protest\\ writers\\,\\ Thoreau\\ speaks\\ as\\ a\\ prophet\\,\\ though\\ his\\ conception\\ of\\ God\\ is\\ more\\ flexible\\ \\(and\\ vague\\)\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ Jefferson\\ or\\ Paine\\.\\ The\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ Thoreau\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ state\\'s\\ laws\\ must\\ be\\ secondary\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ God\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;we\\ should\\ be\\ men\\ first\\ and\\ subjects\\ afterward\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ we\\ are\\ complicit\\ in\\ the\\ unjust\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ whenever\\ we\\ make\\ ourselves\\ its\\ obedient\\ subjects\\,\\ then\\ we\\ also\\ corrupt\\ ourselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ state\\ back\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ track\\ is\\ for\\ \\individuals\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ take\\ charge\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thoreau\\ places\\ his\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\one\\<\\/em\\>\\ HONEST\\ man\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ abolish\\ slavery\\,\\ to\\ clog\\ the\\ machinery\\ of\\ an\\ unjust\\ state\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ purify\\ oneself\\ before\\ creating\\ a\\ crisis\\ in\\ the\\ culture\\ at\\ large\\.\\ \\(Notice\\ how\\ this\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\ that\\ translates\\ into\\ larger\\,\\ systemic\\ changes\\ dovetails\\ nicely\\ with\\ the\\ basic\\ concepts\\ of\\ Transcendentalism\\ outlined\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\.\\ The\\ light\\ of\\ truth\\ comes\\ from\\ within\\ yourself\\.\\ But\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ that\\ light\\ is\\ far\\ beyond\\ yourself\\.\\ To\\ this\\ day\\,\\ the\\ equivalence\\ drawn\\ between\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ public\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ political\\ rhetoric\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Douglass\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ shifts\\ to\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;What\\ to\\ the\\ Slave\\ is\\ the\\ Fourth\\ of\\ July\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(1852\\)\\ In\\ the\\ 1840s\\ Douglass\\ spoke\\ extemporaneously\\,\\ but\\ as\\ time\\ goes\\ on\\ he\\ begins\\ to\\ write\\ his\\ speeches\\ out\\ beforehand\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ worried\\ that\\ the\\ comedy\\ in\\ his\\ extemporaneous\\ speeches\\ \\(he\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ mimic\\,\\ apparently\\)\\ was\\ turning\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ clown\\.\\ \\(It\\'s\\ virtually\\ impossible\\ to\\ find\\ any\\ traces\\ of\\ clownishness\\ in\\ this\\ particular\\ speech\\.\\)\\ Although\\ it\\'s\\ written\\ for\\ the\\ occasion\\ of\\ the\\ 4th\\ of\\ July\\,\\ he\\ actually\\ gives\\ the\\ speech\\ on\\ July\\ 5\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ tradition\\ among\\ African\\ Americans\\ to\\ celebrate\\ on\\ the\\ following\\ day\\.\\ \\ Why\\?\\ Safety\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Everyone\\ got\\ drunk\\ on\\ the\\ fourth\\ \\-\\ getting\\ drunk\\ was\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ liberty\\ people\\ were\\ celebrating\\ \\-\\ but\\ public\\ drunkenness\\ often\\ led\\ to\\ racially\\-charged\\ conflicts\\ and\\ violence\\ against\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\\\ \\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>they\\ often\\ waited\\ to\\ celebrate\\ the\\ next\\ day\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Douglass\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rhetorical\\ strategy\\ is\\ a\\ classical\\ double\\ reversal\\,\\ complete\\ with\\ a\\ thesis\\,\\ antithesis\\ and\\ synthesis\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thesis\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ He\\ praises\\ the\\ Founding\\ Fathers\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ set\\ his\\ audience\\ at\\ ease\\,\\ though\\ with\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ pronouns\\ he\\ indicates\\ that\\ this\\ holiday\\ is\\ for\\ \\&\\#8220\\;you\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ white\\ audience\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Antithesis\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ He\\ brings\\ the\\ uses\\ of\\ the\\ Declaration\\ to\\ the\\ present\\ and\\ his\\ tone\\ suddenly\\ shifts\\ to\\ a\\ harsh\\ Jeremiad\\ that\\ scolds\\ his\\ audience\\,\\ and\\ he\\ proceeds\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ grievances\\ about\\ present\\-day\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ similar\\ to\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ grievances\\ in\\ the\\ Declaration\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Douglass\\ ultimately\\ blames\\ the\\ churches\\,\\ which\\ take\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ an\\ oppressive\\ government\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ camp\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;oppressors\\,\\ tyrants\\,\\ man\\-stealers\\ and\\ thugs\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Douglass\\ didn\\'t\\ pull\\ any\\ punches\\.\\ Much\\ like\\ Thoreau\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ draw\\ the\\ moral\\ lines\\ as\\ starkly\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ there\\'s\\ no\\ middle\\ ground\\.\\ Douglass\\ wants\\ to\\ highlight\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\ how\\ absurd\\ it\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ institutions\\ charged\\ most\\ with\\ upholding\\ the\\ moral\\ standards\\ of\\ a\\ culture\\ should\\ fail\\ so\\ spectacularly\\.\\ He\\ was\\ so\\ vehement\\ about\\ this\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ claimed\\ he\\ had\\ renounced\\ his\\ Christian\\ faith\\.\\ By\\ his\\ standards\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ he\\ was\\ simply\\ upholding\\ it\\ better\\ than\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ This\\ is\\ directly\\ parallel\\ to\\ the\\ arguments\\ that\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ would\\ argue\\ one\\ century\\ later\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Synthesis\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ After\\ an\\ hour\\-long\\ attack\\ he\\ lifts\\ his\\ audience\\ back\\ up\\ and\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ message\\ of\\ hope\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Despite\\ the\\ recently\\-passed\\ Fugitive\\ Slave\\ Law\\ \\(which\\ makes\\ it\\ a\\ crime\\ to\\ aid\\ an\\ escaped\\ slave\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ \\-\\ even\\ if\\ they\\'ve\\ made\\ it\\ to\\ a\\ \\\"free\\\"\\ state\\)\\,\\ we\\ can\\ still\\ hearken\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ founding\\ principles\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ He\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ values\\ he\\ champions\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ though\\ he\\ is\\ careful\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ those\\ principles\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ upheld\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\George\\ Fitzhugh\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ turns\\ briefly\\ to\\ George\\ Fitzhugh\\,\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ pro\\-slavery\\ writer\\ in\\ the\\ 1850s\\.\\\\ \\ The\\ text\\ for\\ the\\ class\\ is\\ \\\"Cannibals\\,\\ All\\!\\\"\\ \\(1857\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>Fitzhugh\\ compares\\ slave\\ labor\\ to\\ wage\\ labor\\ and\\ argues\\ that\\ wage\\ laborers\\ are\\ actually\\ worse\\ off\\.\\ Why\\,\\ you\\ ask\\?\\ Because\\ unlike\\ the\\ slave\\,\\ the\\ poor\\ wage\\ laborer\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ anyone\\ to\\ oversee\\ and\\ protect\\ him\\.\\ But\\ of\\ course\\.\\ The\\ wage\\ laborer\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ decisions\\ of\\ the\\ capitalist\\,\\ who\\ will\\ pay\\ him\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ possible\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ work\\ done\\.\\ Professor\\ McCarthy\\ jumps\\ in\\ and\\ notes\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ aggressive\\ critiques\\ of\\ industrial\\ capitalism\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\-century\\ comes\\ from\\ pro\\-slavery\\ writers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Slaves\\,\\ Fitzhugh\\ thinks\\,\\ are\\ the\\ happiest\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ They\\ don\\'t\\ need\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ anything\\ because\\ the\\ Master\\ is\\ doing\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ worrying\\ for\\ you\\.\\ \\(It\\'s\\ like\\ being\\ sheltered\\ from\\ the\\ capitalist\\ storm\\ by\\ being\\ thrown\\ in\\ jail\\.\\ I\\ suppose\\ the\\ logic\\ works\\ if\\ you\\ really\\,\\ desperately\\ want\\ it\\ to\\ work\\.\\ At\\ points\\ in\\ Fitzhugh\\'s\\ screed\\ he\\ casually\\ mentions\\ that\\ wage\\ laborers\\ have\\ no\\ rights\\ whereas\\ slaves\\ are\\ entirely\\ protected\\ by\\ the\\ law\\.\\ This\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ would\\ seem\\ to\\ contract\\ the\\ facts\\,\\ but\\ Fitzhugh\\ doesn\\'t\\ happen\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ those\\.\\ It\\'s\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ true\\ just\\ because\\ he\\ says\\ it\\'s\\ true\\.\\ Mental\\ note\\:\\ always\\ pay\\ attention\\ when\\ people\\ make\\ claims\\ without\\ being\\ specific\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walt\\ Whitman\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\After\\ our\\ brief\\ journey\\ into\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ supporter\\,\\ we\\ turn\\ to\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(who\\,\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ in\\ \\Leaves\\ of\\ Grass\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ bathes\\ and\\ feeds\\ a\\ fugitive\\ slave\\ \\-\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ the\\ full\\ text\\ to\\ \\Leaves\\ of\\ Grass\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ Professor\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ Whitman\\ creates\\ through\\ poetry\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ millennial\\ and\\ egalitarian\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ time\\,\\ poetry\\ was\\ still\\ considered\\ high\\ culture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Whitman\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ trans\\-Atlantic\\ movement\\ that\\ speaks\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ working\\ men\\ \\(Turning\\ the\\ diction\\ of\\ poetry\\ into\\ the\\ diction\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ on\\ the\\ streets\\ was\\ a\\ big\\ part\\ of\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\'s\\ poetic\\ philosophy\\ when\\ he\\ published\\ \\\\Lyrical\\ Ballads\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Whitman\\'s\\ poetry\\,\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\,\\ marks\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ \\ British\\ Romanticism\\ coming\\ over\\ to\\ American\\ shores\\.\\)\\ After\\ he\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ publisher\\,\\ Whitman\\ self\\-published\\ \\Leaves\\ of\\ Grass\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ 1855\\ \\(ultimately\\,\\ there\\ were\\ 12\\ editions\\ of\\ the\\ volume\\ by\\ 1892\\ \\-\\ this\\ goes\\ to\\ show\\ you\\ how\\ unconventional\\ his\\ free\\-verse\\ poetry\\ was\\.\\ He\\ couldn\\'t\\ find\\ someone\\ willing\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ risk\\ on\\ it\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Whitman\\'s\\ influence\\ extends\\ to\\ Hart\\ Crane\\,\\ Jean\\ Toomer\\ and\\ Allen\\ Ginsberg\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ Century\\ \\(and\\,\\ I\\ should\\ mention\\,\\ his\\ free\\ verse\\ style\\ derives\\ not\\ from\\ Wordsworth\\ but\\ from\\ the\\ zaniest\\ British\\ Romanticist\\ of\\ them\\ all\\:\\ \\William\\ Blake\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\ Whitman\\'s\\ influence\\ extends\\ well\\ beyond\\ American\\ shores\\,\\ and\\ it\\ includes\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ British\\ authors\\ E\\.\\ M\\.\\ Forester\\,\\ W\\.\\ H\\.\\ Auden\\,\\ D\\.H\\.\\ Lawrence\\ and\\ Thomas\\ Mann\\ but\\ also\\ \\(surprisingly\\?\\)\\ the\\ Russian\\ revolutionaries\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Several\\ editions\\ were\\ translated\\ and\\ published\\ in\\ Russian\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ the\\ \\Russian\\ Revolution\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ A\\ 1914\\ edition\\ was\\ seized\\ by\\ the\\ Czar\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ censors\\,\\ who\\ identified\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ threat\\,\\ and\\ a\\ 1919\\ edition\\ was\\ issued\\ by\\ Red\\ Army\\ Deputies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ myth\\ is\\ that\\ Whitman\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ enjoy\\ popularity\\ until\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\,\\ but\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ his\\ poetry\\ reared\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\ very\\ early\\,\\ and\\ as\\ evidence\\ of\\ that\\ early\\ popularity\\,\\ Professor\\ McCarthy\\ reads\\ a\\ letter\\ sent\\ to\\ Whitman\\ by\\ a\\ working\\ woman\\ who\\ proclaims\\ herself\\ to\\ be\\ a\\)\\ unattractive\\ b\\)\\ 32\\&\\#160\\;\\ c\\)\\ desperately\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ Walt\\ and\\ d\\)\\ with\\ a\\ womb\\ that\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;clean\\ and\\ pure\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ last\\ point\\ is\\ key\\ because\\,\\ yes\\,\\ she\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ready\\ to\\ have\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;man\\ child\\&\\#8221\\;\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ worry\\,\\ though\\,\\ her\\ motives\\ are\\ pure\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ about\\ lust\\,\\ Walt\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ deep\\,\\ passionate\\ love\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ is\\ swept\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ passion\\ of\\ the\\ letter\\ as\\ he\\ reads\\ it\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ arms\\ stretched\\ out\\,\\ head\\ thrown\\ back\\,\\ voice\\ at\\ once\\ booming\\ and\\ tremulous\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ an\\ inspiring\\ performance\\.\\ Walt\\'s\\ response\\?\\ He\\ scrawls\\ on\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ envelope\\ \\\"\\?Insane\\ Asylum\\?\\\"\\ He\\ later\\ recants\\ this\\.\\ Why\\ should\\ he\\ judge\\ a\\ woman\\ clearly\\ taken\\ by\\ the\\ exact\\ passion\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ evoke\\.\\ \\(By\\ the\\ way\\,\\ Leaves\\ of\\ Grass\\ wasn\\'t\\ only\\ censored\\ by\\ the\\ Russian\\ Czar\\.\\ It\\ was\\ also\\ censored\\ as\\ pornography\\ in\\ the\\ good\\ ol\\'\\ U\\.S\\.\\ of\\ A\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ wraps\\ up\\ lecture\\ by\\ telling\\ us\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ identify\\ six\\ important\\ influences\\ on\\ Whitman\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ Emerson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Individualism\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ Quakers\\ \\(those\\ Quakers\\ keep\\ popping\\ up\\ in\\ this\\ course\\,\\ don\\'t\\ they\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ The\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ Italian\\ opera\\ \\(Whitman\\ loved\\ it\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\5\\.\\ Turbulence\\ over\\ slavery\\<\\/p\\>\\6\\.\\ Championing\\ of\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\For\\ Whitman\\,\\ poetry\\ creates\\ the\\ conditions\\ for\\ a\\ pluralist\\ society\\ that\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ burdened\\ by\\ sin\\,\\ and\\ he\\ writes\\ poetry\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ art\\ itself\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ democracy\\.\\ \\(There\\ are\\ affinities\\ between\\ Thoreau\\'s\\ civil\\ disobedience\\ \\(a\\ single\\ person\\ clogging\\ the\\ machine\\ of\\ the\\ state\\)\\ and\\ Whitman\\'s\\ ability\\ to\\ shift\\ from\\ the\\ individual\\ \\-\\ the\\ \\\"loafing\\\"\\ soul\\ \\-\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ someone\\ who\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ every\\ person\\ he\\ sees\\.\\ Transcendentalism\\ and\\ Whitman\\'s\\ poetry\\ are\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ kindred\\.\\ Whitman\\ had\\ an\\ early\\ admirer\\ in\\ Ralph\\ Waldo\\ Emerson\\,\\ who\\ also\\ happened\\ to\\ be\\ Thoreau\\'s\\ mentor\\.\\ Emerson\\ himself\\ had\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ the\\ protest\\ spirit\\ \\(he\\ resigned\\ as\\ a\\ clergyman\\)\\ but\\ never\\ became\\ quite\\ as\\ radical\\ as\\ Thoreau\\ or\\ Whitman\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Wars and Words"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.433503+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "John Brown", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 318, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Before\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\,\\ the\\ protest\\ music\\ coming\\ through\\ the\\ speakers\\ is\\ a\\ rendition\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Amazing\\ Grace\\&\\#8221\\;\\ led\\ by\\ someone\\ who\\ sounds\\ remarkably\\ like\\ Jimmy\\ Durante\\.\\ You\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ really\\ have\\ to\\ hear\\ it\\ to\\ believe\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Taking\\ up\\ Whitman\\ again\\,\\ Stauffer\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ preface\\ of\\ \\Song\\ of\\ Myself\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ note\\ how\\ Whitman\\ views\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ as\\ a\\ nation\\ that\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ reborn\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ because\\ a\\ new\\ dispensation\\ has\\ arrived\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ burdened\\ by\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ \\(lucky\\ us\\!\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Democracy\\ itself\\ takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ and\\ the\\ boundlessness\\ in\\ Whitman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ free\\ verse\\ form\\ mimics\\ the\\ boundlessness\\ of\\ that\\ democracy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Interestingly\\,\\ Stauffer\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ ellipses\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ his\\ poetry\\ \\(the\\ \\\"\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\)\\ allow\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ fill\\ in\\ the\\ spaces\\ that\\ he\\ leaves\\ open\\ and\\,\\ effectively\\,\\ to\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ poetic\\ act\\ itself\\.\\ \\(Whitman\\'s\\ ellipses\\ remind\\ me\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ Dickinson\\'s\\ famous\\ dashes\\.\\ She\\ was\\ writing\\ at\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ as\\ Whitman\\.\\ What\\'s\\ going\\ on\\ here\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Perhaps\\ Whitman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ most\\ important\\ poetic\\ and\\ philosophical\\ trope\\ is\\ to\\ collapse\\ dichotomies\\ \\(like\\ sacred\\/profane\\,\\ black\\/white\\ and\\ body\\/soul\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ famously\\ declares\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ am\\ the\\ poet\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ man\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ writes\\ against\\ a\\ sentimentalist\\ tradition\\ that\\ separates\\ and\\ privileges\\ the\\ soul\\ over\\ the\\ body\\.\\ For\\ him\\,\\ to\\ have\\ one\\ is\\ necessarily\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ make\\ holy\\ whatever\\ I\\ touch\\&\\#8230\\;\\ the\\ scent\\ of\\ these\\ armpits\\ is\\ aroma\\ finer\\ than\\ prayer\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Say\\ what\\ you\\ will\\ about\\ Whitman\\,\\ but\\ he\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ back\\ off\\ from\\ his\\ own\\ postulations\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>You\\ want\\ to\\ unite\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ spirit\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ includes\\ your\\ armpits\\,\\ my\\ friends\\,\\ and\\ Walt\\ revels\\ in\\ it\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Whitman\\ has\\ been\\ attacked\\ by\\ recent\\ critics\\ for\\ his\\ empathy\\ because\\ it\\ denies\\ legitimate\\ and\\ profound\\ differences\\ between\\ people\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dubious\\ that\\ a\\ white\\ male\\ poet\\ can\\ proclaim\\ to\\ be\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ runaway\\ slave\\ or\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ woman\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ defends\\ Whitman\\ on\\ this\\ point\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ empathy\\ for\\ Whitman\\ is\\ an\\ ideal\\ that\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ realized\\ but\\ must\\ always\\ be\\ aspired\\ to\\ nevertheless\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ about\\ the\\ curious\\ title\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Leaves\\ of\\ Grass\\&\\#8221\\;\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Grass\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ leaves\\,\\ after\\ all\\.\\ Actually\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;leaves\\&\\#8221\\;\\ refers\\ \\(presumably\\)\\ to\\ sacred\\ books\\ published\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(possibly\\ invoking\\ \\&\\#8220\\;leaves\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;pages\\&\\#8221\\;\\?\\)\\,\\ while\\ \\&\\#8220\\;grass\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ printer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ slang\\ for\\ casual\\ compositions\\ that\\ journalists\\ would\\ compose\\ in\\ their\\ spare\\ time\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ the\\ title\\ itself\\ fuses\\ holiness\\ and\\ slang\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Brown\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tim\\ McCarthy\\ shifts\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ \\John\\ Brown\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Brown\\ led\\ a\\ raid\\ on\\ Harper\\'s\\ Ferry\\ in\\ Virginia\\ in\\ 1859\\ with\\ about\\ 20\\ other\\ men\\.\\ \\(Harper\\'s\\ Ferry\\ was\\ a\\ federal\\ armory\\,\\ and\\ Brown\\'s\\ plan\\ was\\ to\\ arm\\ slaves\\ with\\ the\\ weapons\\ they\\ would\\ seize\\.\\ In\\ the\\ process\\ the\\ raid\\ killed\\ seven\\ people\\.\\)\\ Brown\\ spent\\ six\\ weeks\\ in\\ a\\ jail\\ in\\ \\\\Virginia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ before\\ been\\ executed\\ \\(many\\ people\\ wanted\\ to\\ execute\\ him\\ immediately\\)\\,\\ and\\ during\\ that\\ time\\ he\\ wrote\\ about\\ 100\\ letters\\ that\\ were\\ circulated\\ among\\ abolitionists\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ used\\ his\\ letters\\ to\\ manipulate\\ his\\ public\\ reputation\\ in\\ newspapers\\ throughout\\ the\\ states\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ pious\\ family\\ man\\ \\(he\\ had\\ 20\\ children\\ with\\ two\\ wives\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\!\\)\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>he\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ visible\\ in\\ the\\ abolitionist\\ movement\\ until\\ quite\\ late\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ nomadic\\,\\ usually\\ living\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ abolitionist\\ city\\ centers\\.\\ He\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ a\\ prolific\\ writer\\ or\\ a\\ gifted\\ orator\\,\\ though\\ he\\ openly\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ embraced\\ violence\\ as\\ an\\ abolitionist\\ solution\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1855\\-56\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ sons\\ took\\ up\\ arms\\ against\\ pro\\-slavery\\ forces\\ and\\ families\\ in\\ \\\\Kansas\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\ He\\ lived\\ among\\ African\\-Americans\\ in\\ an\\ integrated\\ community\\ called\\ North\\ Elba\\ in\\ upstate\\ \\\\New\\ York\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ story\\ of\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ raid\\ on\\ Harper\\'s\\ Ferry\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ letters\\ he\\ wrote\\ in\\ the\\ six\\ weeks\\ that\\ followed\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ print\\ culture\\ \\(again\\)\\ changes\\ the\\ political\\ mood\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ McCarthy\\ identifies\\ four\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ John\\ Brown\\ controls\\ his\\ own\\ representation\\ in\\ his\\ letters\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\He\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ manufactured\\ his\\ martyrdom\\ as\\ Christian\\.\\ \\(comparing\\ his\\ prison\\ time\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ of\\ Paul\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ letters\\ often\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ invoke\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ God\\ being\\ on\\ his\\ side\\ \\(which\\ was\\ very\\ divisive\\ because\\ this\\ effectively\\ makes\\ Brown\\ either\\ heroic\\ or\\ blasphemous\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ fuses\\ old\\ testament\\ with\\ new\\ testament\\ to\\ fuse\\ deliverance\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ redemption\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\He\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presents\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ family\\ patriarch\\.\\ In\\ reality\\,\\ he\\ was\\ often\\ away\\ from\\ home\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1850s\\,\\ but\\ he\\ encouraged\\ others\\ to\\ send\\ money\\ to\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ children\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ while\\ he\\ was\\ in\\ jail\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\He\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fashions\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ Founding\\ Father\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ invokes\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ the\\ founding\\ fathers\\ and\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ revolution\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ calls\\ attention\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ his\\ lineage\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ an\\ ancestor\\,\\ Peter\\ Brown\\,\\ came\\ over\\ on\\ the\\ Mayflower\\.\\ His\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ grandfather\\ fought\\ in\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ army\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Throughout\\ the\\ raid\\ of\\ Harper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Fairy\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ fights\\ with\\ a\\ pistol\\ and\\ a\\ saber\\ that\\ belonged\\ to\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\He\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ characterizes\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ slave\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ racial\\ egalitarianism\\ that\\ draws\\ a\\ close\\ correspondence\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ the\\ races\\ and\\ embraces\\ full\\ sympathy\\ with\\ slaves\\ as\\ brothers\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\(As\\ you\\ may\\ notice\\,\\ John\\ Brown\\ wasn\\'t\\ short\\ on\\ self\\-righteousness\\.\\ Linking\\ himself\\ with\\ a\\ family\\ lineage\\ deeply\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ grain\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ self\\-fashioning\\,\\ it\\'s\\ self\\-mythologizing\\.\\ It\\ implies\\ that\\ there\\'s\\ something\\ inherent\\ in\\ the\\ Brown\\ Blood\\ that\\ has\\ bequeathed\\ John\\ a\\ spirit\\ of\\ revolution\\.\\ It\\ sounds\\ nice\\,\\ but\\ its\\ exactly\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ blood\\ argument\\ that\\ justifies\\ the\\ racism\\ supporting\\ slavery\\.\\ No\\ matter\\ what\\ his\\ ancestors\\ were\\,\\ I\\'ve\\ always\\ thought\\ that\\ John\\ Brown\\ may\\ have\\ a\\ descendant\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ Irish\\ playwright\\.\\ OK\\,\\ John\\ Brown\\ doesn\\'t\\ really\\ have\\ anything\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Samuel\\ Beckett\\,\\ but\\ they\\ certainly\\ look\\ alike\\ \\-\\ I\\'ll\\ let\\ you\\ be\\ the\\ judge\\.\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ I\\'m\\ going\\ to\\ play\\ devil\\'s\\ advocate\\ with\\ the\\ lecturers\\ and\\ weigh\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ ongoing\\ debate\\ about\\ John\\ Brown\\.\\ Was\\ he\\ a\\ selfless\\,\\ dedicated\\ human\\ being\\ or\\ a\\ fanatical\\ nutcase\\?\\ Surely\\ these\\ two\\ categories\\ aren\\'t\\ mutually\\ exclusive\\,\\ but\\ the\\ guy\\ is\\ at\\ least\\ partly\\ a\\ nutcase\\.\\ There\\ only\\ difference\\ between\\ John\\ Brown\\ and\\ the\\ modern\\-day\\ abortion\\ clinic\\ bomber\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ liberal\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ agree\\ with\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ abolitionism\\ than\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ anti\\-abortionists\\.\\ When\\ we\\ say\\ we\\'re\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ bombing\\ of\\ abortion\\ clinics\\,\\ we\\ mean\\ that\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ your\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ a\\ fetus\\,\\ it\\'s\\ simply\\ not\\ a\\ morally\\ valid\\ response\\ \\-\\ political\\,\\ revolutionary\\ or\\ otherwise\\.\\ At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ McCarthy\\ notes\\ that\\ Brown\\ invokes\\ Thoreau\\ when\\ he\\ offers\\ to\\ give\\ his\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ justice\\.\\ Maybe\\ so\\,\\ but\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ recall\\ Thoreau\\ ever\\ \\killing\\ \\<\\/em\\>anyone\\.\\ Thoreau\\ would\\ have\\ found\\ John\\ Brown\\ appalling\\.\\ And\\ the\\ kicker\\?\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ John\\ Brown\\ killed\\ was\\ a\\ freed\\ black\\ man\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "John Brown"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.465385+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Civil War Violence and the Rise of Realism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 320, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\Readings\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\\"The\\ Constitution\\ of\\ the\\ Confederate\\ States\\ of\\ America\\\"\\ and\\ Rebecca\\ Harding\\ Davis\\,\\ \\\"Life\\ in\\ the\\ Iron\\-Mills\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ horrifying\\ photograph\\ of\\ a\\ starving\\,\\ emaciated\\ Civil\\ War\\ prisoner\\,\\ which\\ was\\ originally\\ requested\\ for\\ medical\\ purposes\\ \\(foreshadowing\\ the\\ medical\\ experiments\\ carried\\ out\\ by\\ Nazi\\ scientists\\ in\\ the\\ concentration\\ camps\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ prisoner\\ is\\ a\\ victim\\ of\\ the\\ horrible\\ conditions\\ for\\ Union\\ soldiers\\ in\\ Confederate\\ Andersonville\\ prison\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ commander\\ of\\ \\Andersonville\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ Confederate\\ officer\\ to\\ be\\ executed\\ for\\ war\\ crimes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ uses\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ growing\\ influence\\ of\\ images\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ to\\ late\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ \\(the\\ burgeoning\\ print\\ culture\\ that\\ Stauffer\\ and\\ McCarthy\\ have\\ been\\ discussing\\ the\\ past\\ few\\ weeks\\ increasingly\\ blends\\ with\\ visual\\ culture\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\ still\\ too\\ early\\ to\\ print\\ photographs\\ in\\ newspapers\\,\\ so\\ Harper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Magazine\\ often\\ cut\\ and\\ print\\ engravings\\ based\\ on\\ photographs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ongoing\\ John\\ Brown\\ Debate\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Resolved\\!\\ \\(kind\\ of\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ very\\ debate\\ that\\ your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ has\\ raised\\ the\\ past\\ two\\ weeks\\ about\\ John\\ Brown\\:\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ reconcile\\ John\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ messianic\\ message\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ killed\\ people\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ somewhat\\ problematic\\.\\ \\(In\\ fact\\,\\ McCarthy\\ is\\ a\\ reader\\ of\\ this\\ humble\\ blog\\ \\(Hi\\,\\ Tim\\!\\)\\,\\ and\\ your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ had\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ issue\\ after\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ with\\ both\\ McCarthy\\ and\\ Stauffer\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ point\\ should\\ be\\ cleared\\ up\\:\\ Thoreau\\ \\supported\\<\\/em\\>\\ John\\ Brown\\ and\\ his\\ violent\\ uprising\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\ do\\ we\\ reconcile\\ his\\ support\\ with\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\?\\ One\\ way\\ is\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ Thoreau\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ as\\ much\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\ as\\ posterity\\ has\\ assumed\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ Gandhi\\ and\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ were\\ emphasizing\\ principles\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\ that\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ entirely\\ explicit\\ in\\ Thoreau\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ is\\ slightly\\ humbled\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ thing\\ all\\ three\\ of\\ us\\ can\\ agree\\ upon\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ this\\:\\ John\\ Brown\\ is\\ a\\ prophet\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ tradition\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ calling\\ down\\ the\\ wrath\\ of\\ God\\ against\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ self\\-fashioning\\ has\\ less\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ gospels\\ in\\ particular\\ than\\ it\\ does\\ with\\ a\\ synthesis\\ of\\ Old\\ Testament\\ blood\\ redemption\\ with\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\ Book\\ of\\ Revelations\\:\\ the\\ end\\ times\\ are\\ at\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ the\\ bill\\ is\\ now\\ due\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Jesus\\ comes\\ as\\ a\\ lamb\\ and\\ returns\\ as\\ the\\ lion\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>John\\ Brown\\ is\\ theologically\\ more\\ attuned\\ to\\ prophets\\ like\\ Isaiah\\ and\\ John\\ in\\ Revelations\\,\\ and\\ my\\ hunch\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ crucial\\ for\\ Brown\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ explicit\\ connection\\ to\\ Jesus\\ as\\ well\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ justify\\ murder\\:\\ only\\ the\\ Hand\\ of\\ God\\ can\\ take\\ away\\ life\\ justly\\,\\ and\\ that\\ Old\\ Testament\\ righteousness\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ routed\\ through\\ New\\ Testament\\ redemption\\ in\\ some\\ way\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ violence\\ and\\ destruction\\ in\\ Revelations\\ provides\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ routes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ there\\ you\\ have\\ it\\,\\ folks\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Extracurricular\\ enlightenment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Consider\\ this\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ bonus\\ material\\ on\\ your\\ Protest\\ Lit\\ DVD\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Culture\\ of\\ Violence\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ sketches\\ the\\ growing\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ in\\ the\\ years\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ One\\ early\\ example\\ was\\ \\Nat\\ Turner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Rebellion\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(1831\\)\\,\\ which\\ scared\\ the\\ hell\\ out\\ of\\ southern\\ slave\\ owners\\ \\(Turner\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ killed\\ 57\\ white\\ people\\ before\\ the\\ rebellion\\ ended\\)\\.\\ While\\ abolitionists\\ like\\ William\\ Lloyd\\ Garrison\\ articulate\\ doctrines\\ of\\ non\\-violent\\ resistance\\ to\\ slavery\\,\\ these\\ temperate\\ voices\\ were\\ harder\\ to\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ 1850s\\.\\ A\\ culture\\ of\\ political\\ violence\\ was\\ rising\\ partly\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ the\\ Fugitive\\ Slave\\ Law\\ \\(see\\ last\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ blog\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ \\Kansas\\-Nebraska\\ Act\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(1854\\)\\ repealed\\ the\\ \\\\Missouri\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ Compromise\\ that\\ prohibited\\ slaves\\ in\\ the\\ former\\ Louisiana\\ Purchase\\.\\ The\\ act\\ divided\\ \\\\Nebraska\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ into\\ two\\ states\\,\\ and\\ the\\ residents\\ of\\ those\\ states\\ were\\ to\\ decide\\ the\\ slavery\\ issue\\.\\ This\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Bleeding\\ Kansas\\&\\#8221\\;\\ events\\.\\ Both\\ pro\\-\\ and\\ anti\\-slavery\\ people\\ start\\ moving\\ into\\ the\\ new\\ territories\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ tip\\ the\\ balance\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ favor\\.\\\\ \\ McCarthy\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ ensuing\\ violence\\ \\(of\\ which\\ John\\ Brown\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ part\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>as\\ an\\ inner\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ a\\ prelude\\ to\\ the\\ full\\ civil\\ war\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ 1856\\,\\ violence\\ reaches\\ the\\ Senate\\ \\(oh\\,\\ yes\\,\\ even\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ World\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Greatest\\ Deliberative\\ Body\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ marred\\ by\\ violence\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Charles\\ Sumner\\,\\ an\\ outspoken\\ abolitionist\\ senator\\.\\ Delivered\\ a\\ speech\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Crime\\ of\\ Kansas\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ decries\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ pro\\-slavery\\ actions\\ in\\ Kansas\\.\\ Senator\\ Preston\\ Brooks\\ \\(a\\ cousin\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ Sumner\\ lambasted\\)\\ caned\\ Sumner\\ \\nearly\\ to\\ death\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ took\\ him\\ 3\\ years\\ to\\ recover\\ \\(the\\ image\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ this\\ section\\ is\\ a\\ rendering\\ of\\ the\\ beating\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Constitution\\ of\\ the\\ Confederate\\ States\\ of\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Both\\ sides\\ make\\ increasingly\\ bold\\ claims\\ to\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ Constitution\\ itself\\.\\\\\\ Lincoln\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ announces\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ he\\ is\\ elected\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ not\\ recognize\\ any\\ act\\ of\\ secession\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ patently\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ use\\ force\\ if\\ necessary\\.Secession\\ was\\ justified\\ in\\ constitutional\\ terms\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ only\\ four\\ days\\ in\\ 1861\\,\\ several\\ delegates\\ from\\ southern\\ states\\ gathered\\ to\\ draft\\ \\\"\\The\\ Constitution\\ of\\ the\\ confederate\\ States\\ of\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ \\(59\\ of\\ the\\ 60\\ delegates\\ were\\ slave\\ owners\\)\\.\\ It\\ was\\ ratified\\ \\March\\ 11\\,\\ 1861\\<\\/st1\\:date\\>\\ and\\ lasted\\ through\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ Ultimately\\ 11\\ Southern\\ states\\ signed\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ verbatim\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ Constitution\\ \\-\\ the\\ entire\\ Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\ were\\ encorporated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\ major\\ components\\ to\\ the\\ Confederate\\ Constitution\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ \\Limited\\ Government\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ It\\ did\\ not\\ state\\ that\\ a\\ central\\ government\\ is\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ the\\ general\\ welfare\\,\\ and\\ it\\ actually\\ hampered\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ wage\\ war\\.\\ Lacks\\ a\\ federal\\ judiciary\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\(\\(really\\?\\?\\)\\)\\ state\\ courts\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ Supreme\\ court\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ \\Emphasis\\ on\\ States\\&\\#8217\\;\\ Rights\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ invoked\\ in\\ the\\ preamble\\ itself\\ which\\ speaks\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;each\\ state\\ acting\\ in\\ its\\ sovereign\\ and\\ independent\\ character\\&\\#8230\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ has\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ more\\ perfect\\ \\Union\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Rather\\,\\ we\\ have\\ \\&\\#8220\\;permanent\\ federal\\ government\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ tone\\ here\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ indication\\ of\\ a\\ larger\\ philosophical\\ shift\\:\\ the\\ confederacy\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ static\\ and\\ unchanging\\ rather\\ than\\ aspirational\\.\\ Forget\\ about\\ the\\ Jeffersonian\\ \\pursuit\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ happiness\\.\\ The\\ confederacy\\ valued\\ tradition\\ and\\ stability\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ \\Strong\\ support\\ for\\ Slavery\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Rather\\ than\\ occluding\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ race\\,\\ the\\ confederate\\ constitution\\ addressed\\ it\\ directly\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;slavery\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;negroes\\&\\#8221\\;\\ are\\ mentioned\\ repeatedly\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Interestingly\\,\\ it\\ prohibits\\ slave\\ trade\\ from\\ the\\ African\\ continent\\ \\-\\ you\\ can\\ only\\ buy\\ and\\ sell\\ slaves\\ already\\ in\\ the\\ confederacy\\.\\ Why\\?\\ McCarthy\\ argues\\ that\\ people\\ were\\ worried\\ that\\ the\\ importation\\ of\\ African\\ slaves\\ might\\ incite\\ more\\ slave\\ rebellions\\ \\(the\\ specter\\ of\\ Nat\\ Turner\\ looms\\ large\\)\\ and\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>they\\ also\\ thought\\ \\Europe\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ support\\ the\\ confederacy\\ if\\ they\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ outlaw\\ the\\ African\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rise\\ of\\ Literary\\ Realism\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ takes\\ over\\ and\\ begins\\ by\\ pointing\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ transformed\\ American\\ culture\\,\\ which\\ required\\ the\\ transformation\\ of\\ American\\ literature\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ postbellum\\ period\\,\\ literary\\ expression\\ becomes\\ more\\ hierarchical\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Atlantic\\ Monthly\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ is\\ high\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ sensationalist\\ magazines\\ as\\ well\\ \\(The\\ Police\\ Gazette\\)\\.\\ Beyond\\ that\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ general\\ shift\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ sentimental\\ fiction\\ of\\ writers\\ like\\ Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\ and\\ towards\\ realist\\ fiction\\.\\ This\\ shift\\ is\\ partly\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ violence\\.\\ 620\\,000\\ Americans\\ died\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ more\\ than\\ in\\ all\\ other\\ wars\\ combined\\ \\(until\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\)\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ virtually\\ every\\ surviver\\ has\\ a\\ friend\\ or\\ family\\ member\\ killed\\ or\\ wounded\\ in\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Rebecca\\ Harding\\ Davis\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Life\\ in\\ the\\ Iron\\-Mills\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ \\(1861\\)\\ is\\ often\\ considered\\ the\\ first\\ work\\ in\\ American\\ realist\\ literature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Rebecca\\ Harding\\ Davis\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Aspects\\ of\\ Realism\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\Realist\\ literature\\ reflects\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ fiction\\ has\\ become\\ an\\ accepted\\ medium\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ you\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ to\\ apologize\\ for\\ writing\\ fiction\\ and\\ defend\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ truth\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>The\\ term\\ \\&\\#8220\\;realism\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ first\\ used\\ in\\ \\\\France\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ in\\ the\\ 1830s\\ for\\ painters\\ who\\ went\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ studio\\ to\\ find\\ their\\ subject\\ matter\\.\\ \\(In\\ general\\,\\ realism\\ ventures\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ everyday\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\.\\ Out\\ with\\ the\\ meticulous\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ preening\\ bourgeoisie\\ and\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ factories\\ and\\ the\\ struggling\\ workers\\ upon\\ whose\\ backs\\ that\\ luxury\\ is\\ built\\.\\)\\\r\\\\Realism\\ rejects\\ abstract\\ ideals\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ beauty\\ and\\ justice\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ \\\"Life\\ in\\ the\\ Iron\\-Mills\\,\\\"\\ Deborah\\ and\\ Hugh\\ Wolfe\\ drink\\ and\\ steal\\ but\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ consider\\ it\\ wrong\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ clear\\ distinctions\\ between\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\ are\\ now\\ muddled\\.\\ Realist\\ literature\\ generally\\ displaces\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ God\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Traditional\\ religious\\ themes\\ have\\ become\\ secularized\\,\\ and\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ God\\ no\\ longer\\ seems\\ palpable\\ in\\ human\\ affairs\\.\\ This\\ reflects\\ the\\ apocalyptic\\ sensibility\\ that\\ came\\ with\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ apocalypse\\ had\\ come\\ but\\ the\\ new\\ age\\ is\\ nowhere\\ in\\ sight\\.\\ This\\ loss\\ of\\ God\\ is\\ especially\\ important\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ sentimentalism\\,\\ because\\ \\\"feeling\\ right\\ in\\ your\\ heart\\,\\\"\\ Stowe\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideal\\,\\ depended\\ upon\\ God\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ influence\\ providing\\ that\\ moral\\ feeling\\ from\\ within\\.\\ Hugh\\ dies\\ a\\ suicide\\,\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ martyr\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ offers\\ redemption\\ through\\ art\\ \\(he\\'s\\ a\\ naturally\\ gifted\\ sculptor\\)\\ rather\\ than\\ faith\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Realist\\ fiction\\ also\\ indicates\\ the\\ masculinization\\ of\\ society\\.\\ This\\ is\\ partly\\ because\\ the\\ marketplace\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ the\\ war\\ mentality\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ has\\ invaded\\ the\\ domestic\\ \\(and\\ previously\\ feminine\\)\\ sphere\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ home\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ factory\\.\\ War\\ becomes\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ life\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ this\\ metaphor\\ bears\\ the\\ traces\\ of\\ Darwinism\\,\\ which\\ was\\ becoming\\ increasingly\\ influential\\ towards\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Civil War Violence and the Rise of Realism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.498233+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lynching and Ida B. Wells Barnett", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 322, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ warning\\:\\ graphic\\ content\\.\\ Viewer\\ discretion\\ is\\ advised\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ lecture\\ will\\ end\\ with\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ photographs\\ of\\ lynchings\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ ugly\\ truth\\,\\ and\\ this\\ course\\ wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ true\\ to\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ protest\\ literature\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ tradition\\ invested\\ in\\ exposing\\ ugly\\ truths\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ if\\ it\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ address\\ these\\ issues\\ frankly\\.\\ \\(I\\ will\\ extend\\ the\\ introductory\\ warnings\\ to\\ all\\ Intrepid\\ Blog\\ Readers\\ because\\ I\\ plan\\ on\\ posting\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ the\\ images\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ blog\\ post\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lynchings\\ must\\ be\\ understood\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ Reconstruction\\ \\(1865\\-1876\\)\\,\\ which\\ was\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ first\\ experiment\\ with\\ biracial\\ democracy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Unfortunately\\,\\ it\\ ended\\ prematurely\\ and\\ bitterly\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Various\\ forms\\ of\\ white\\ repression\\ \\(some\\ legal\\ and\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ black\\ codes\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ replaced\\ slavery\\.\\ Southern\\ states\\ and\\ communities\\ sought\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ labor\\ of\\ 4\\ million\\ recently\\-emancipated\\ slaves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Some\\ of\\ those\\ laws\\ fined\\ \\&\\#8220\\;vagrancy\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ was\\ punishable\\ by\\ whipping\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Some\\ codes\\ made\\ it\\ illegal\\ to\\ preach\\ without\\ a\\ license\\ \\(this\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ combat\\ the\\ black\\ church\\,\\ which\\,\\ as\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\ tells\\ us\\ in\\ \\\\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ was\\ the\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ social\\ institution\\ in\\ among\\ Black\\ Americans\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ predating\\ even\\ the\\ black\\ family\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Political\\ repression\\ included\\ poll\\ taxes\\,\\ literacy\\ requirements\\ and\\ physical\\ intimidation\\.\\ \\ All\\ of\\ these\\ laws\\ varied\\ from\\ state\\ to\\ state\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ most\\ repressive\\ in\\ \\\\Mississippi\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ and\\ \\\\South\\ Carolina\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\ \\ \\Jim\\ Crow\\<\\/a\\>\\ laws\\ were\\ of\\ a\\ slightly\\ different\\ order\\:\\ they\\ were\\ either\\ state\\-wide\\ or\\ federal\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Their\\ function\\ was\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\ custom\\ of\\ segregation\\ into\\ a\\ legal\\ institution\\,\\ and\\ \\(contrary\\ to\\ popular\\ belief\\)\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ actually\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ \\North\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ the\\ antebellum\\ period\\.\\ \\(Segregation\\ laws\\ were\\ most\\ necessary\\ in\\ those\\ areas\\ where\\ interracial\\ interaction\\ was\\ most\\ extensive\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ keep\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ separate\\ is\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ strictly\\ Southern\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ natural\\ that\\ these\\ laws\\ sprouted\\ in\\ the\\ North\\ first\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ all\\,\\ they\\ were\\ unnecessary\\ in\\ the\\ South\\,\\ where\\ the\\ entire\\ system\\ of\\ slavery\\ made\\ \\&\\#8220\\;segregation\\&\\#8221\\;\\ unnecessary\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ \\\\Plessy\\ v\\.\\ Ferguso\\<\\/em\\>n\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Decision\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(1896\\)\\ was\\ the\\ landmark\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ decision\\ which\\ declared\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;separate\\ but\\ equal\\&\\#8221\\;\\ facilities\\ are\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ land\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ major\\ arm\\ of\\ extra\\-legal\\ repression\\ was\\ the\\ Ku\\ Klux\\ Klan\\ \\(whose\\ \\website\\ \\<\\/a\\>currently\\ informs\\ us\\ that\\ the\\ Klan\\ \\\"DOES\\ NOT\\ endorse\\ Barack\\ Obama\\ for\\ president\\,\\\"\\ just\\ in\\ case\\ you\\ weren\\'t\\ sure\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ KKK\\ began\\ around\\ 1866\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ fraternity\\ organized\\ around\\ white\\ supremacy\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Congress\\ has\\ never\\ passed\\ anti\\-lynching\\ legislation\\ \\(though\\ the\\ \\Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\ of\\ 1964\\<\\/a\\>\\ addresses\\ the\\ issue\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lynching\\ Statistics\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\1882\\-1968\\:\\ 4\\,743\\ people\\ \\(3\\,446\\ black\\)\\ were\\ lynched\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ 80\\%\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\1882\\-1901\\:\\ lynchings\\ at\\ a\\ rate\\ of\\ roughly\\ 100\\ per\\ year\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Peak\\ lynching\\ year\\:\\ 1892\\ \\-\\ 230\\ lynchings\\ \\(and\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ only\\ the\\ \\reported\\<\\/em\\>\\ lynchings\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\1889\\-1920\\:\\ 3\\,224\\ people\\ \\(3163\\ were\\ black\\ men\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ida\\ B\\.\\ Wells\\ Barnett\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wells\\ Barnett\\ was\\ a\\ lone\\,\\ staunch\\ crusader\\ against\\ lynchings\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ was\\ born\\ to\\ slave\\ parents\\ in\\ \\\\Mississippi\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ in\\ 1862\\ and\\ educated\\ at\\ \\\\Fisk\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\University\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ \\\\Tennessee\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\ \\ In\\ 1891\\ she\\ became\\ the\\ coeditor\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\Memphis\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ \\Free\\ Speech\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ an\\ anti\\-racist\\ and\\ abolitionist\\ newspaper\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ she\\ began\\ writing\\ about\\ lynchings\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ journalist\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ covering\\ the\\ issue\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1892\\ her\\ press\\ was\\ burned\\ by\\ a\\ mob\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Wells\\ Barnett\\ exposed\\ the\\ central\\ logic\\ of\\ lynchings\\:\\ that\\ black\\ men\\ posed\\ a\\ sexual\\ threat\\ to\\ white\\ women\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ might\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ womanhood\\ masks\\ the\\ economic\\ threat\\ that\\ free\\ black\\ labor\\ posed\\ to\\ poor\\ white\\ Southerners\\.\\ \\ She\\ lectured\\ abroad\\ and\\ tried\\ to\\ organized\\ white\\ feminists\\ against\\ lynching\\ and\\ racism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ efforts\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ very\\ successful\\ until\\ the\\ year\\ before\\ her\\ death\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1930\\,\\ the\\ Association\\ of\\ Southern\\ Women\\ for\\ the\\ Prevention\\ of\\ Lynching\\ was\\ founded\\ partly\\ because\\ of\\ her\\ influence\\.\\ \\(While\\ your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ diminish\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ ASWPL\\,\\ the\\ pessimist\\ in\\ him\\ cannot\\ help\\ but\\ notice\\ that\\ this\\ group\\ was\\ not\\ founded\\ until\\ about\\ 10\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ 30\\-year\\ apex\\ of\\ lynching\\ that\\ began\\ around\\ 1890\\ had\\ already\\ passed\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\She\\ writes\\ like\\ a\\ prosecutor\\ making\\ a\\ legal\\ case\\ against\\ lynching\\.\\ She\\ uses\\ a\\ completely\\ secular\\ voice\\ that\\ allows\\ the\\ facts\\ to\\ speak\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\(We\\ might\\ also\\ take\\ this\\ move\\ from\\ the\\ pamphleteering\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ semester\\ to\\ journalism\\ as\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ the\\ progression\\ of\\ print\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ education\\ became\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ available\\,\\ protest\\ writers\\ seem\\ more\\ willing\\ to\\ allow\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ reasoned\\ decision\\ without\\ being\\ prodded\\ by\\ the\\ writer\\ herself\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Wells\\ Barnett\\ noted\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;miscegenation\\ laws\\&\\#8221\\;\\ only\\ restricted\\ black\\ men\\ in\\ their\\ relationships\\ with\\ white\\ women\\,\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ the\\ stated\\ goal\\ of\\ miscegenation\\ laws\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ mixing\\ of\\ races\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ exactly\\ match\\ the\\ legal\\ tactics\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Nothing\\ prevented\\ white\\ men\\ from\\ fathering\\ children\\ with\\ black\\ women\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Wells\\ Barnett\\ explicitly\\ advocated\\ for\\ interracial\\ relationships\\.\\ \\(And\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ she\\ is\\ well\\ ahead\\ of\\ her\\ time\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ pluralists\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\-Century\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ forebears\\ of\\ late\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Century\\ multiculturalism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ celebrated\\ diversity\\ by\\ maintaining\\ cultural\\ \\(and\\,\\ yes\\,\\ reproductive\\)\\ distinctions\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\While\\ her\\ journalism\\ often\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ bare\\ facts\\ of\\ lynching\\,\\ Wells\\ Barnett\\ provokes\\ the\\ reader\\ into\\ response\\ and\\ action\\ as\\ explicitly\\ as\\ anyone\\ else\\ discussed\\ in\\ this\\ course\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ offers\\ a\\ clear\\ roadmap\\ for\\ protest\\:\\ boycott\\ businesses\\,\\ increase\\ journalism\\,\\ protect\\ your\\ homes\\ with\\ guns\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ hands\\ over\\ the\\ responsibility\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\She\\ describes\\ lynchings\\ in\\ brutal\\ detail\\,\\ using\\ what\\ McCarthy\\ refers\\ to\\ \\(via\\ Clifford\\ Geertz\\ in\\ \\\\The\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Cultures\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;thick\\ description\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ She\\ tries\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ empathy\\ through\\ shock\\ value\\,\\ and\\ she\\ repeats\\ details\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ calm\\ objectivity\\ of\\ the\\ journalist\\ leaves\\ space\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ fill\\ with\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ own\\ emotions\\,\\ which\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ avoid\\ seeming\\ like\\ propaganda\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ takes\\ over\\ and\\ begins\\ with\\ 3\\ anecdotes\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1998\\.\\ \\\\Jasper\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\TX\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ James\\ Byrd\\ is\\ lynched\\ by\\ white\\ supremacists\\ who\\ beat\\ him\\ unconscious\\ and\\ dragg\\ him\\ along\\ the\\ road\\ from\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ their\\ pickup\\ truck\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\1998\\.\\ \\\\Laramie\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\WY\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Matthew\\ Shepherd\\ is\\ beaten\\ and\\ left\\ to\\ die\\ on\\ a\\ fence\\ for\\ being\\ gay\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ died\\ on\\ life\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Contrast\\ this\\ with\\ \\\\Newman\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\Georgia\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ 1899\\:\\ 2\\,000\\ white\\ Georgians\\ gathered\\ to\\ lynch\\ Sam\\ Hose\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ special\\ excursion\\ train\\ was\\ commissioned\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ demand\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ spectacle\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ killed\\ his\\ white\\ employer\\ in\\ self\\-defense\\,\\ though\\ it\\ was\\ reported\\ as\\ a\\ cold\\-blooded\\ murder\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ Hose\\ raping\\ the\\ man\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ wife\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Spectators\\ cut\\ off\\ his\\ ears\\,\\ fingers\\,\\ genitals\\ and\\ skinned\\ his\\ face\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ tied\\ him\\ to\\ a\\ tree\\,\\ doused\\ it\\ with\\ gasoline\\ and\\ set\\ him\\ on\\ fire\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ heart\\ and\\ liver\\ were\\ removed\\ and\\ cut\\ into\\ pieces\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ crowd\\ fought\\ for\\ these\\ and\\ his\\ bones\\ for\\ souvenirs\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ knuckles\\ were\\ displayed\\ in\\ an\\ \\\\Atlanta\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ grocery\\ store\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lynchings\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ communal\\ events\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ performed\\ as\\ sacred\\ rituals\\ and\\ often\\ presided\\ over\\ by\\ Southern\\ clergymen\\ \\(sometimes\\ saying\\ prayers\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Lynch\\ mobs\\ considered\\ themselves\\ ethical\\ and\\ law\\-abiding\\.\\ A\\ carnivalesque\\ atmosphere\\ surrounded\\ most\\ lynchings\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Newspapers\\ would\\ announce\\ lynchings\\ in\\ advance\\.\\ Employers\\ released\\ workers\\.\\ Parents\\ sent\\ notes\\ to\\ teachers\\ to\\ excuse\\ their\\ children\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Postcards\\ were\\ made\\ from\\ pictures\\ of\\ the\\ lynched\\ corpse\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ a\\ common\\ form\\ of\\ disseminating\\ the\\ event\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ lynching\\ symbolically\\ restores\\ the\\ slave\\ society\\ lost\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ also\\ argues\\ \\(via\\ Orlando\\ Patterson\\)\\ that\\ a\\ lynching\\ resembles\\ a\\ ritual\\ of\\ human\\ sacrifice\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\-holding\\ cultures\\ for\\ millennia\\.\\ Sacrifice\\ functions\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ to\\ atone\\ for\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Fire\\ was\\ often\\ involved\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Social\\ functions\\ of\\ lynching\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ It\\ affirms\\ white\\ supremacy\\ \\(stoking\\ fear\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ It\\ prevents\\ miscegenation\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ It\\ prevents\\ economic\\ competition\\ between\\ whites\\ and\\ blacks\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ It\\ prevents\\ lower\\ class\\ whites\\ and\\ blacks\\ from\\ uniting\\ against\\ wealthy\\ whites\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\Billie\\ Holiday\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Strange\\ Fruit\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ which\\ was\\ playing\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ hall\\ before\\ the\\ lecture\\ today\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ song\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ poem\\ by\\ a\\ Jewish\\ schoolteacher\\ named\\ Abel\\ Meeropole\\ \\(who\\ was\\ himself\\ inspired\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ poem\\ after\\ seeing\\ a\\ photograph\\ of\\ two\\ lynched\\ bodies\\ in\\ Indiana\\)\\.\\\\ Holiday\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ first\\ sang\\ \\\"Strange\\ Fruit\\\"\\ in\\ \\\\New\\ \\ \\ York\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ in\\ 1939\\ in\\ an\\ integrated\\ nightclub\\,\\ and\\ it\\ quickly\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ her\\ signature\\ songs\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\Time\\<\\/em\\>\\ voted\\ it\\ the\\ best\\ song\\ in\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ \\-\\ and\\ perhaps\\ more\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ single\\ event\\ it\\ moved\\ the\\ fact\\ of\\ lynching\\ into\\ the\\ white\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\(It\\'s\\ worth\\ considering\\ why\\ a\\ song\\ would\\ do\\ this\\ given\\ how\\ prevalent\\ \\-\\ and\\ jarring\\ \\-\\ the\\ images\\ of\\ lynching\\ are\\.\\ It\\ may\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ subject\\ was\\ too\\ disturbing\\ to\\ broach\\ with\\ photographs\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ required\\ the\\ indirect\\ lead\\ of\\ Holiday\\'s\\ voice\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ end\\ with\\ some\\ images\\ from\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Without\\ Sanctuary\\&\\#8221\\;\\ exhibition\\ in\\ \\\\New\\ York\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ in\\ 2000\\ \\(You\\ can\\ find\\ the\\ full\\ archive\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Without\\ Sanctuary\\&\\#8221\\;\\ photographs\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ flash\\ movie\\ with\\ commentary\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Jesse\\ Washington\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\You\\ are\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ charred\\ remains\\ of\\ this\\ man\\'s\\ body\\.\\ Every\\ single\\ person\\ in\\ this\\ photograph\\ \\(men\\,\\ women\\ and\\ children\\)\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ camera\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ integral\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ lynching\\ ritual\\ \\(which\\ underscores\\ the\\ implicit\\ sexual\\ fears\\)\\ was\\ to\\ castrate\\ the\\ body\\.\\ In\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ bizarre\\ twists\\ to\\ this\\ morbid\\ spectacle\\,\\ the\\ wound\\ where\\ this\\ man\\'s\\ genitals\\ have\\ been\\ removed\\ is\\ covered\\ up\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ It\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ lynch\\ mob\\ has\\ discovered\\ some\\ wellspring\\ of\\ shame\\ and\\ decorum\\ about\\ \\photographing\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ man\\'s\\ body\\ after\\ they\\ have\\ gone\\ through\\ the\\ effort\\ of\\ torturing\\,\\ mutilating\\ and\\ killing\\ him\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ There\\ are\\ times\\ when\\ words\\ \\-\\ or\\ blog\\ posts\\ or\\ speeches\\ or\\ lectures\\ \\-\\ are\\ bound\\ to\\ fail\\ you\\.\\ And\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ times\\ is\\ now\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lynching and Ida B. Wells Barnett"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.552572+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Muckraking and Genre Anxiety", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 325, "html": "\\\\Readings\\:\\\r\\\\Upton\\ Sinclair\\,\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\HBO\\'s\\ \\The\\ Wire\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Jamie\\ Jones\\,\\ the\\ Head\\ TF\\ for\\ Protest\\ Lit\\,\\ will\\ deliver\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ on\\ Muckraking\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ addition\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ candidate\\,\\ she\\ spent\\ years\\ working\\ at\\ the\\ Boston\\ Globe\\ and\\ is\\ well\\-versed\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ and\\ aesthetics\\ of\\ journalism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>The\\ concept\\ Jones\\ wishes\\ to\\ explore\\ via\\ muckraking\\ is\\ what\\ she\\ calls\\ \\&\\#8220\\;genre\\ anxiety\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wherein\\ texts\\ yearn\\ to\\ discover\\ truth\\ and\\ worry\\ openly\\ about\\ their\\ authenticity\\ and\\ ability\\ to\\ discover\\ that\\ truth\\ as\\ they\\ compete\\ with\\ other\\ genres\\.\\ \\(Maybe\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ because\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ has\\ me\\ thinking\\ about\\ Darwinism\\,\\ but\\ Jones\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ idea\\ reminds\\ me\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ a\\ population\\ of\\ different\\ genres\\ competing\\ for\\ that\\ scarce\\,\\ all\\-important\\ commodity\\:\\ the\\ Truth\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ our\\ culture\\ develops\\,\\ the\\ truth\\-getting\\ genre\\ influencing\\ the\\ most\\ artists\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\ wins\\ out\\.\\ And\\ now\\ I\\ promise\\ to\\ end\\ all\\ Darwinian\\ comparisons\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ pre\\-eminent\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ Muckraking\\ movement\\,\\ though\\ Sinclair\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ choice\\ of\\ fiction\\ is\\ unusual\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ should\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ primarily\\ a\\ movement\\ within\\ journalism\\ rather\\ than\\ fiction\\.\\ The\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ saw\\ major\\ transformations\\ in\\ the\\ industry\\ of\\ journalism\\.\\ Newspaper\\ circulations\\ were\\ burgeoning\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ give\\ you\\ an\\ idea\\:\\ In\\ 1900\\,\\ there\\ were\\ six\\ times\\ as\\ many\\ daily\\ newspapers\\ as\\ there\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ 1860s\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1892\\,\\ 10\\ newspapers\\ could\\ boast\\ a\\ circulation\\ of\\ more\\ than\\ 100\\,000\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ 1914\\,\\ 30\\ newspapers\\ reach\\ the\\ 100\\,000\\ mark\\.\\ The\\ revenues\\ of\\ journalism\\ shifted\\ from\\ subscriptions\\ to\\ advertising\\,\\ which\\ changes\\ a\\ paper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ its\\ readers\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>From\\ a\\ financial\\ standpoint\\,\\ they\\ are\\ cultivating\\ consumers\\ of\\ products\\ \\other\\<\\/em\\>\\ than\\ just\\ their\\ newspapers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Two\\ strategies\\ were\\ commonly\\ used\\ to\\ boost\\ circulation\\:\\ Prices\\ were\\ slashed\\ and\\ the\\ news\\ itself\\ was\\ made\\ more\\ marketable\\ and\\ sensational\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Illustrations\\ were\\ added\\,\\ headlines\\ were\\ bigger\\,\\ scandals\\ were\\ emphasized\\ \\(in\\ short\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ grown\\ to\\ love\\ and\\ cherish\\ about\\ newspapers\\ had\\ their\\ origins\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\)\\ Warring\\ Dailies\\ provided\\ their\\ own\\ source\\ of\\ interest\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ famous\\ New\\ York\\ Dailies\\:\\ \\Joseph\\ Pulitzer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\The\\ World\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ \\William\\ Randolph\\ Hearst\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\The\\ New\\ York\\ Journal\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\(Orson\\ Wells\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\Citizen\\ Kane\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ movies\\ of\\ all\\ time\\,\\ is\\ loosely\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ Hearst\\,\\ if\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ like\\ a\\ peak\\ into\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ a\\ Muckraking\\ tycoon\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Jones\\ draws\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ story\\ journalism\\ and\\ information\\ journalism\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Story\\ journalism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;yellow\\&\\#8221\\;\\ journalism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ aimed\\ for\\ the\\ sensational\\ and\\ the\\ scandalous\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ produced\\ information\\ journalism\\,\\ which\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ conservatism\\,\\ accuracy\\ and\\ decency\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Times\\&\\#8217\\;\\ motto\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;All\\ the\\ news\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fit\\ to\\ print\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ reflects\\ those\\ upstanding\\ values\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Beneath\\ these\\ features\\ lie\\ strong\\ class\\ distinctions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Information\\ papers\\ were\\ much\\ smaller\\,\\ but\\ they\\ wrote\\ for\\ consumers\\ with\\ higher\\ purchasing\\ power\\ \\(and\\,\\ presumably\\,\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ sustain\\ profits\\ from\\ lower\\ circulation\\ because\\ their\\ advertisers\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ more\\ money\\ to\\ reach\\ those\\ markets\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ trend\\ throughout\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ was\\ to\\ emphasize\\ news\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ large\\ opinion\\ pieces\\ and\\ editorials\\.\\ \\(It\\ may\\ be\\ useful\\ to\\ view\\ early\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ newspapers\\ in\\ relation\\ the\\ small\\ but\\ vibrant\\ pamphlet\\ industry\\ that\\ we\\ discussed\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ semester\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Gone\\ are\\ the\\ days\\ when\\ readers\\ purchase\\ print\\ material\\ primarily\\ to\\ hear\\ someone\\ fulminate\\ about\\ the\\ abuses\\ of\\ government\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>People\\ wanted\\ news\\&\\#8230\\;\\ though\\ I\\ guess\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ fulminating\\ news\\.\\)\\ As\\ a\\ gauge\\ of\\ shifting\\ priorities\\,\\ salaries\\ for\\ reporters\\ doubled\\ between\\ 1870\\-1890\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Many\\ of\\ these\\ reporters\\ were\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ reform\\ crusades\\ \\-\\ features\\ that\\ would\\ target\\ local\\ corruption\\,\\ monopolies\\,\\ or\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ natural\\ disasters\\.\\ \\(For\\ your\\ further\\ reading\\ pleasure\\,\\ Jones\\ suggests\\ \\Frank\\ Luther\\ Mott\\ and\\ his\\ work\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ newspapers\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Teddy\\ Roosevelt\\ popularized\\ the\\ term\\ \\&\\#8220\\;muckrakers\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ a\\ speech\\ that\\ was\\ somewhat\\ condemnatory\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Roosevelt\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ granted\\ that\\ investigative\\ journalism\\ had\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ value\\ when\\ practiced\\ in\\ moderation\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;But\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ never\\ does\\ anything\\ else\\&\\#8230\\;\\ speedily\\ becomes\\ not\\ a\\ help\\ to\\ society\\&\\#8230\\;\\ but\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ potent\\ forces\\ of\\ evil\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Ouch\\!\\)\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ soul\\-searching\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ ongoing\\ question\\ about\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ investigative\\ journalism\\ is\\ a\\ positive\\ influence\\ or\\ scurrilous\\ raking\\ of\\ muck\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ encourages\\ genre\\ anxiety\\ within\\ journalism\\ and\\ fiction\\ alike\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lincoln\\ Stephens\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ Muckrakers\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ investigated\\ political\\ corruption\\ in\\ major\\ cities\\ across\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ and\\ his\\ prose\\ was\\ explicitly\\ moralistic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>See\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ his\\ attacks\\ on\\ Senator\\ Nelson\\ Aldrich\\ \\(R\\-RI\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ scope\\ of\\ his\\ article\\ goes\\ far\\ beyond\\ Aldrich\\ and\\ the\\ entire\\ state\\ of\\ \\\\Rhode\\ \\ \\ Island\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ until\\ Stephens\\ throws\\ us\\ his\\ lofty\\,\\ closing\\ line\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;there\\ is\\ no\\ reform\\ but\\ reform\\,\\ and\\ reform\\ begins\\ at\\ home\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ serious\\ standards\\ of\\ objectivity\\ are\\ already\\ undergoing\\ revisions\\ as\\ muckrakers\\ begin\\ to\\ moralize\\ soon\\ after\\ they\\ assemble\\ their\\ facts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Upton\\ Sinclair\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Sinclair\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ identify\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ journalist\\.\\ He\\ thought\\ of\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ novelist\\.\\ His\\ trade\\ is\\ \\literature\\ \\<\\/em\\>rather\\ than\\ mere\\ reportage\\!\\ \\(If\\ you\\'re\\ interested\\ in\\ taking\\ a\\ closer\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ shifting\\ definitions\\ of\\ literary\\ labor\\ around\\ this\\ time\\,\\ check\\ out\\ Christopher\\ Wilson\\'s\\ \\\\Labor\\ of\\ Words\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Literature\\ at\\ first\\ was\\ an\\ escape\\ for\\ Sinclair\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ He\\ went\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ Great\\ American\\ Novel\\,\\ and\\ somewhere\\ along\\ the\\ line\\ he\\ accidentally\\ burned\\ down\\ his\\ tent\\ and\\ almost\\ starved\\,\\ but\\ he\\ actually\\ finished\\ the\\ novel\\.\\ He\\ had\\ \\$8\\ to\\ his\\ name\\.\\\\ \\ Sadly\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>his\\ novel\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ wanted\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ accused\\ of\\ being\\ out\\ of\\ touch\\ with\\ the\\ civilized\\ world\\.\\ \\(That\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ painful\\ slap\\ in\\ the\\ face\\.\\)\\ After\\ receiving\\ a\\ banking\\ job\\ he\\ hated\\,\\ he\\ escapes\\ into\\ the\\ woods\\ again\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ though\\ this\\ time\\ it\\ was\\ more\\ like\\ exile\\ than\\ escape\\ \\(he\\ and\\ his\\ wife\\ had\\ a\\ baby\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ commissioned\\ by\\ a\\ prominent\\ socialist\\ magazine\\ \\(it\\ had\\ a\\ circulation\\ of\\ 300\\,000\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sinclair\\ went\\ to\\ \\\\Chicago\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ for\\ 7\\ weeks\\ and\\ blended\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ meat\\ packing\\ workers\\ quite\\ easily\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ month\\ he\\ declared\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ the\\ story\\ but\\ no\\ characters\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ some\\ might\\ argue\\ that\\ it\\ shows\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ Jurgis\\ is\\ a\\ composite\\ character\\ who\\ endures\\ the\\ collective\\ travails\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ community\\:\\ he\\ works\\ tirelessly\\,\\ his\\ child\\ dies\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\,\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ arrested\\,\\ becomes\\ a\\ hobo\\,\\ involves\\ himself\\ in\\ organized\\ crime\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ embroils\\ himself\\ in\\ socialism\\.\\ A\\ common\\ criticism\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ that\\ too\\ much\\ happens\\ to\\ be\\ believed\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ too\\ many\\ facts\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ overt\\ propaganda\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sinclair\\ defends\\ himself\\ against\\ these\\ charges\\,\\ and\\ in\\ a\\ manifesto\\ he\\ declares\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;All\\ art\\ is\\ propaganda\\.\\ It\\ is\\ universally\\ and\\ inescapably\\ propaganda\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(But\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ say\\ something\\ like\\ this\\ without\\ exploding\\ any\\ usable\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&\\#8220\\;propaganda\\&\\#8221\\;\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Sinclair\\ chose\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ novel\\ because\\ he\\ argued\\ that\\ newspapers\\ are\\ inadequate\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ too\\ beholden\\ to\\ their\\ advertisers\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ them\\ mouthpieces\\ for\\ yet\\ another\\ corporation\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ But\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ genres\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ between\\ reporting\\ and\\ novel\\-writing\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ productive\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ gives\\ us\\ insight\\ into\\ what\\ Sinclair\\ thinks\\ is\\ real\\ and\\ worth\\ reporting\\.\\ In\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ Life\\ Means\\ to\\ Me\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(which\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ Norton\\ Critical\\ Edition\\ of\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\ Sinclair\\ explains\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ spared\\ no\\ pains\\ to\\ get\\ every\\ detail\\ exact\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ compares\\ the\\ narrative\\ to\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;statistical\\ compilation\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ genre\\ anxiety\\ because\\ in\\ defense\\ of\\ his\\ novel\\ he\\ instinctively\\ goes\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ literature\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ justify\\ his\\ novel\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\An\\ example\\ of\\ present\\-Day\\ muckracking\\ is\\ \\Fast\\ Food\\ Nation\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ a\\ descendent\\ of\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(interestingly\\,\\ a\\ show\\ of\\ hands\\ reveals\\ that\\ substantially\\ more\\ students\\ have\\ read\\ \\Fast\\ Food\\ Nation\\<\\/em\\>\\ than\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\-\\ before\\ this\\ week\\,\\ of\\ course\\!\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ updated\\ examination\\ of\\ the\\ food\\ industry\\ reveals\\ that\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ still\\ an\\ oligopoly\\.\\ The\\ top\\ four\\ firms\\ own\\ 84\\%\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ cattle\\,\\ and\\ market\\ concentration\\ is\\ at\\ highest\\ levels\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ recorded\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ populations\\ working\\ in\\ the\\ meat\\ industry\\ are\\ still\\ mostly\\ immigrants\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Jones\\ also\\ notes\\ the\\ rapid\\ rise\\ of\\ \\YouTube\\ videos\\<\\/a\\>\\ showing\\ conditions\\ in\\ meat\\ packing\\ plants\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ Wire\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Jones\\ shifts\\ gears\\ to\\ the\\ HBO\\ series\\ \\The\\ Wire\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ she\\ claims\\ draws\\ tremendous\\ power\\ from\\ its\\ own\\ genre\\ anxiety\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Wire\\ \\<\\/em\\>chronicles\\ Baltimore\\ from\\ 5\\ perspectives\\ or\\ angles\\ \\(one\\ for\\ each\\ season\\)\\,\\ and\\ like\\ previous\\ acts\\ of\\ Muckraking\\,\\ the\\ creators\\ of\\ \\The\\ Wire\\<\\/em\\>\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ bringing\\ new\\ social\\ material\\ to\\ the\\ forefront\\ of\\ their\\ genre\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ fifth\\ season\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ failings\\ of\\ journalism\\,\\ with\\ reference\\ particularly\\ \\(and\\ explicitly\\)\\ to\\ the\\ \\\\Baltimore\\ Sun\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ creators\\,\\ David\\ Simon\\,\\ worked\\ for\\ \\The\\ Sun\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ claims\\ that\\ good\\ reporters\\ are\\ hamstrung\\ by\\ editors\\ who\\ are\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ winning\\ prizes\\ than\\ finding\\ substantial\\ news\\ stories\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Following\\ his\\ disenchantment\\ with\\ journalism\\,\\ he\\ switched\\ to\\ television\\ \\(and\\ the\\ ease\\ of\\ this\\ move\\ is\\ itself\\ indicative\\ of\\ how\\ both\\ types\\ of\\ writing\\ can\\ overlap\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ opening\\ music\\ for\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ is\\ \\Tom\\ Waits\\'s\\ \\\"Down\\ in\\ the\\ Hole\\,\\\"\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ opening\\ music\\ for\\ \\The\\ Wire\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ the\\ song\\ earns\\ high\\ praise\\ from\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ \\(especially\\ the\\ live\\ version\\ in\\ which\\ Tom\\-as\\-preacher\\ laments\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Lord\\ is\\ very\\,\\ very\\ busy\\ man\\&\\#8230\\;\\ but\\ Jesus\\ is\\ always\\ lookin\\&\\#8217\\;\\ at\\ the\\ big\\ picture\\&\\#8230\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ \\hear\\ it\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Trust\\ me\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Simon\\ claims\\ to\\ have\\ chosen\\ the\\ song\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ heavy\\ irony\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ skewers\\ misplaced\\ faith\\ in\\ post\\-industrial\\ Gods\\ and\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ prophetic\\ tradition\\ is\\ now\\ purely\\ ironic\\.\\ \\(Jones\\ is\\ unsatisfied\\ with\\ the\\ way\\ Simon\\ invokes\\ terms\\ like\\ \\&\\#8220\\;postmodernism\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;post\\-industrialism\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ not\\ sure\\ what\\ her\\ beef\\ is\\ with\\ postmodernism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ everyone\\ has\\ beef\\ with\\ the\\ term\\ postmodernism\\,\\ including\\ postmodernists\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\ it\\ seems\\ as\\ if\\ \\&\\#8220\\;post\\-industrial\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ particularly\\ appropriate\\ for\\ a\\ series\\ like\\ \\The\\ Wire\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ all\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ our\\ country\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ exportation\\ of\\ blue\\ collar\\ labor\\ to\\ third\\ world\\ countries\\ that\\ created\\ the\\ urban\\ blight\\ that\\ has\\ destroyed\\ cities\\ like\\ \\\\Baltimore\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ irony\\ and\\ protest\\ literature\\ is\\ the\\ stuff\\ that\\ dissertations\\ are\\ made\\ of\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lest\\ you\\ think\\ the\\ opening\\ song\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ironic\\ blast\\ is\\ the\\ bottom\\ line\\ of\\ The\\ Wire\\,\\ David\\ Simon\\ insists\\ on\\ his\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ the\\ show\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ authenticity\\ by\\ issuing\\ a\\ call\\ to\\ protest\\ in\\ a\\ recent\\ issue\\ of\\ \\Time\\ Magazine\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ he\\ asks\\ that\\ anyone\\ serving\\ on\\ jury\\ duty\\ should\\ vote\\ to\\ acquit\\ any\\ non\\-violent\\ criminals\\.\\ \\(Note\\:\\ Neither\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ guest\\ lecturer\\ nor\\ this\\ course\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ full\\-time\\ lecturers\\ nor\\ the\\ Teaching\\ Fellows\\ nor\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ is\\ officially\\ endorsing\\ this\\ act\\ of\\ protest\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Muckraking and Genre Anxiety"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.603022+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Grapes of Wrath", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 328, "html": "\\\\Reading\\:\\ John\\ Steinbeck\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\n\\Stauffer\\ and\\ McCarthy\\ are\\ back\\ in\\ business\\ after\\ Spring\\ Break\\,\\ and\\ the\\ business\\ at\\ hand\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ books\\ in\\ history\\:\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\.McCarthy\\ begins\\ with\\ some\\ background\\ on\\ the\\ \\Dust\\ Bowl\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ agricultural\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ southern\\ plains\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ labeled\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ worst\\ ecological\\ disasters\\ in\\ human\\ history\\.\\ \\ He\\ stresses\\ that\\ the\\ massive\\ drought\\ creating\\ the\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ was\\ as\\ much\\ man\\-made\\ as\\ ecological\\,\\ and\\ throughout\\ his\\ novel\\ Steinbeck\\ probes\\ the\\ close\\ relationship\\ between\\ man\\ and\\ nature\\.The\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ began\\ when\\ topsoil\\ from\\ the\\ plains\\ began\\ blowing\\ east\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sometimes\\ ending\\ up\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ the\\ coast\\.\\ The\\ Dust\\ Bowl\\ covered\\ a\\ 150\\,000\\ square\\ mile\\ area\\ that\\ included\\ Kansas\\,\\ New\\ \\ \\ Mexico\\,\\ Oklahoma\\ and\\ parts\\ of\\ Texas\\.60\\%\\ of\\ the\\ farmers\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ fled\\,\\ mostly\\ to\\ California\\.In\\ the\\ spring\\ of\\ 1930\\,\\ 3\\ million\\ people\\ were\\ unemployed\\.In\\ 1932\\,\\ 12\\ million\\ people\\ were\\ unemployed\\.\\ \\(This\\ was\\ about\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ population\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ that\\ percentage\\ fool\\ you\\.This\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ \\"\\;unemployment\\ rate\\,\\"\\;\\ which\\ today\\ measures\\ only\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ looked\\ for\\ a\\ job\\ during\\ the\\ past\\ two\\ weeks\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ the\\ workforce\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ the\\ population\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\)Only\\ one\\ state\\ \\(Florida\\)\\ had\\ enough\\ rain\\ to\\ sustain\\ itself\\.The\\ shortage\\ of\\ water\\ in\\ 1930\\ was\\ roughly\\ 700\\ tons\\ per\\ day\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;So\\ how\\ were\\ humans\\ partly\\ responsible\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ this\\?While\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ rainfall\\ was\\ beyond\\ human\\ control\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ soil\\ erosion\\ was\\ exacerbated\\ by\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ crop\\ rotation\\.That\\ is\\,\\ farms\\ were\\ focusing\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ cash\\ crop\\ grown\\ year\\ after\\ year\\.\\(When\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ plowed\\ for\\ planting\\ season\\ there\\ were\\ effectively\\ no\\ plants\\ and\\ root\\ systems\\ to\\ keep\\ topsoil\\ in\\ place\\ \\-\\ and\\ unlike\\ before\\,\\ large\\ swaths\\ of\\ the\\ region\\ had\\ been\\ converted\\ to\\ agricultural\\ use\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;During\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ western\\ expansion\\ and\\ settlement\\,\\ the\\ land\\ was\\ seen\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ Jeffersonian\\ freedom\\ and\\ independence\\,\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\ with\\ Jefferson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideal\\ of\\ an\\ agrarian\\ society\\ of\\ independent\\ yeoman\\ farmers\\,\\ in\\ your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ humble\\ opinion\\:\\ People\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ultimately\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ independent\\.\\ They\\ ultimately\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ rich\\,\\ thinking\\ independence\\ will\\ come\\ with\\ their\\ wealth\\.\\ It\\ was\\ only\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ time\\ before\\ agriculture\\ became\\ a\\ profit\\-based\\ industry\\ like\\ everything\\ else\\.\\ And\\ yes\\,\\ Tommy\\ J\\.\\,\\ I\\ have\\ 20\\/20\\ hindsight\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;The\\ drought\\ and\\ the\\ depression\\ hit\\ simultaneously\\ in\\ 1930\\,\\ but\\ McCarthy\\ wants\\ to\\ stress\\ a\\ fact\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ often\\ acknowledged\\:\\ There\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ depression\\ in\\ many\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ and\\ the\\ Midwest\\ since\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\-\\ long\\ before\\ the\\ stock\\ market\\ crash\\ of\\ 1929\\.\\ \\(And\\,\\ lest\\ you\\ forget\\ what\\ the\\ South\\ was\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ turn\\ back\\ to\\ \\;\\Du\\ Bois\\ in\\ \\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folks\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\ In\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ double\\ whammy\\,\\ people\\ start\\ to\\ blame\\ God\\ and\\ themselves\\ \\(Is\\ America\\ paying\\ for\\ past\\ sins\\?\\ Was\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ not\\ quite\\ enough\\ payback\\?\\)\\,\\ but\\ Steinbeck\\ also\\ represents\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ blaming\\ God\\ to\\ responding\\ in\\ practical\\ ways\\,\\ including\\ the\\ raft\\ of\\ New\\ Deal\\ policies\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\From\\ here\\,\\ Professor\\ Stauffer\\ takes\\ over\\.Perhaps\\ more\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ novel\\ on\\ this\\ syllabus\\,\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\ achieved\\ popular\\ and\\ critical\\ success\\ that\\ continues\\ to\\ this\\ day\\.It\\ won\\ both\\ the\\ Pulitzer\\ Prize\\ and\\ the\\ National\\ Book\\ Award\\.It\\ was\\ the\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ best\\ selling\\ novel\\ ever\\ in\\ paperback\\:\\ 14\\.6\\ million\\ copies\\ sold\\ \\(as\\ of\\ 1982\\!\\)\\.\\ Popular\\ opinion\\ was\\ as\\ polarized\\ about\\ the\\ novel\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ about\\ politics\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.Like\\ \\Uncle\\ Tom\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cabin\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ parodies\\,\\ including\\ \\Of\\ Human\\ Kindness\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\(my\\ favorite\\ title\\)\\ \\The\\ Plums\\ of\\ Plenty\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ popularity\\ might\\ itself\\ be\\ an\\ index\\ of\\ class\\-based\\ dissent\\ not\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\ but\\ beyond\\.In\\ the\\ 1980s\\ \\(the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Me\\ Generation\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ corporate\\ greed\\,\\ \\Reaganomics\\ \\<\\/a\\>and\\ \\Gordon\\ Gekko\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ the\\ sales\\ dropped\\ considerably\\,\\ but\\ they\\ rose\\ again\\ after\\ the\\ internet\\ bubble\\ burst\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ this\\ decade\\.Stauffer\\ predicts\\ that\\ the\\ sales\\ are\\ bound\\ to\\ go\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ impending\\ economic\\ problems\\ today\\.\\ \\(And\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;d\\ like\\ to\\ take\\ Stauffer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prediction\\ to\\ the\\ bank\\ and\\ make\\ money\\ on\\ our\\ collective\\ misery\\,\\ put\\ your\\ money\\ down\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Stauffer\\ focuses\\ on\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ central\\ themes\\:\\ the\\ secularization\\ of\\ Christian\\ tropes\\.Steinbeck\\ said\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ about\\ desire\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ desire\\ for\\ food\\,\\ shelter\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ sex\\,\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ life\\.He\\ was\\ responding\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ America\\ is\\ symbolic\\ of\\ a\\ Biblical\\ garden\\.From\\ the\\ founding\\ of\\ the\\ country\\,\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ has\\ been\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\,\\ and\\ Steinbeck\\ links\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ a\\ post\\-lapsarian\\ garden\\ were\\ everyone\\ is\\ getting\\ kicked\\ out\\ by\\ a\\ vengeful\\ God\\ \\(And\\ if\\ I\\ ever\\ get\\ my\\ hands\\ on\\ the\\ person\\ that\\ ate\\ the\\ apple\\ this\\ time\\ around\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Steinbeck\\ secularizes\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ apocalypse\\ as\\ well\\.Instead\\ of\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ decreed\\ from\\ on\\ high\\,\\ we\\ get\\ word\\ that\\ a\\ massive\\,\\ secular\\ change\\ is\\ coming\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ never\\ quite\\ clear\\ what\\ that\\ change\\ will\\ be\\.\\ The\\ title\\ itself\\ suggests\\ apocalypse\\.\\ It\\ comes\\ from\\ The\\ Battle\\ Hymn\\ of\\ the\\ Republic\\ but\\ also\\ from\\ \\Revelations\\ 14\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ in\\ whichGod\\ is\\ seeking\\ vengeance\\ against\\ a\\ sinful\\ society\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Jim\\ Casy\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ primary\\ evidence\\ that\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ secularized\\ Christian\\ narrative\\.His\\ initials\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ J\\.C\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ suggest\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ although\\ here\\ the\\ preacher\\ becomes\\ a\\ union\\ activist\\.For\\ Steinbeck\\,\\ Casy\\ moves\\ away\\ from\\ Christ\\ to\\ a\\ gospel\\ of\\ love\\ for\\ humanity\\.\\ Rose\\ of\\ Sharon\\ \\(the\\ pregnant\\ young\\ woman\\ of\\ the\\ Joad\\ family\\)\\ is\\ also\\ drawn\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\ In\\ \\Song\\ of\\ Solomon\\ Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Rose\\ of\\ Sharon\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;dark\\ but\\ comely\\&rdquo\\;\\ outsider\\.Here\\,\\ she\\ is\\ symbolically\\ dark\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ holistic\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ any\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\ is\\ understandable\\ only\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\.It\\ is\\ like\\ an\\ ecosystem\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ organism\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ fully\\ understood\\ outside\\ of\\ its\\ behavior\\ within\\ its\\ environment\\.\\ Steinbeck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ conspicuous\\ literary\\ technique\\ is\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;interchapters\\.\\&rdquo\\;Almost\\ every\\ odd\\ chapter\\ shifts\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Joads\\ and\\ depicts\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ in\\ oblique\\ or\\ iconic\\ terms\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ four\\ functions\\ of\\ the\\ interchapters\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ They\\ make\\ the\\ plight\\ of\\ one\\ family\\ \\(the\\ Joads\\)\\ the\\ plight\\ of\\ America\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ They\\ implicate\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ reader\\ \\(the\\ narrator\\ often\\ uses\\ \\&ldquo\\;you\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ gesture\\ to\\ the\\ coming\\ conversion\\ of\\ consciousness\\ from\\ the\\ struggles\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ struggles\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ They\\ expose\\ the\\ greed\\ of\\ the\\ landowning\\ capitalists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\.\\ The\\ subjects\\ and\\ characters\\ of\\ the\\ interchapters\\ connect\\ explicitly\\ to\\ nature\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ see\\ Chapter\\ 1\\ in\\ which\\ nature\\ becomes\\ both\\ a\\ subject\\ and\\ an\\ object\\:\\ it\\ is\\ personified\\ and\\ has\\ agency\\.Steinbeck\\ reminds\\ his\\ readers\\ of\\ their\\ species\\ status\\ by\\ describing\\ nature\\ in\\ human\\ terms\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ putting\\ humans\\ thoroughly\\ within\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ novel\\ effectively\\ flattens\\ what\\ Owen\\ Lovejoy\\ calls\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ great\\ chain\\ of\\ being\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ vast\\ hierarchy\\ with\\ humans\\ occupying\\ the\\ coveted\\ position\\ at\\ the\\ top\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Steinbeck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ famous\\ turtle\\ \\(that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\,\\ a\\ \\famous\\<\\/em\\>\\ turtle\\)\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 3\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ illustration\\ of\\ this\\ last\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ interchapters\\.A\\ land\\ turtle\\ struggles\\ to\\ cross\\ a\\ scalding\\ hot\\ highway\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ he\\ almost\\ gets\\ hit\\ by\\ a\\ car\\ \\(twice\\)\\.This\\ is\\ essentially\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ Joad\\ family\\.The\\ first\\ driver\\ \\(a\\ women\\)\\ nearly\\ sacrifices\\ herself\\ to\\ avoid\\ hitting\\ the\\ turtle\\ while\\ the\\ second\\ \\(a\\ man\\)\\ tries\\ to\\ kill\\ it\\,\\ illustrating\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ threaten\\ society\\.\\ \\(Note\\:\\ much\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ novel\\,\\ Al\\ Joad\\ swerves\\ the\\ car\\ in\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ kill\\ an\\ animal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ drought\\ victims\\ have\\ their\\ blood\\ sport\\!\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ Tom\\ himself\\ severs\\ a\\ snake\\ with\\ the\\ car\\.\\ Make\\ of\\ this\\ what\\ you\\ will\\,\\ dear\\ reader\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Regardless\\,\\ the\\ turtle\\ is\\ tenacious\\,\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ nearly\\ helpless\\ turtle\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ its\\ destination\\ is\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ myth\\ of\\ Sisyphus\\ endlessly\\ rolling\\ a\\ rock\\ up\\ a\\ hill\\ only\\ to\\ have\\ it\\ roll\\ down\\ once\\ again\\.\\Albert\\ Camus\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ your\\ second\\ favorite\\ existentialist\\ \\(following\\ \\Jean\\-Paul\\ Sartre\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ whose\\ books\\ might\\ be\\ retitled\\ \\Heidegger\\ for\\ Dummies\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\[see\\ your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ for\\ Trademark\\ details\\]\\)\\,\\ thinks\\ of\\ \\Sisyphus\\ \\<\\/a\\>as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ human\\ existence\\,\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ presents\\ Steinbeck\\ as\\ an\\ existentialist\\ like\\ Camus\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ turtle\\ \\(and\\,\\ by\\ extension\\,\\ the\\ Joad\\ family\\)\\ is\\ existential\\ in\\ its\\ wanderings\\:\\ it\\ simply\\ puts\\ one\\ foot\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ get\\ by\\ moment\\-by\\-moment\\.By\\ picking\\ up\\ the\\ turtle\\ in\\ Chapter\\ 4\\,\\ Tom\\ symbolically\\ links\\ the\\ interchapters\\ with\\ the\\ Joad\\ chapters\\.The\\ link\\ between\\ Tom\\ and\\ the\\ turtle\\ breaks\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ being\\ and\\ effectively\\ makes\\ them\\ the\\ same\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ turtle\\,\\ the\\ Joad\\ odyssey\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ progression\\ toward\\ a\\ definite\\ goal\\.No\\ one\\ knows\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ once\\ they\\ get\\ to\\ California\\.\\ \\(Later\\,\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ moments\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\,\\ the\\ turtle\\ finally\\ gets\\ away\\,\\ hours\\ later\\ and\\,\\ amazingly\\,\\ heads\\ in\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ direction\\ he\\ was\\ going\\ earlier\\ that\\ day\\.\\ Somehow\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ admire\\ the\\ turtle\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ admire\\ Sisyphus\\ \\(or\\ maybe\\ Camus\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ the\\ Joad\\-existentialism\\ connection\\ is\\ a\\ tough\\ call\\.While\\ the\\ Joads\\ often\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;put\\ one\\ foot\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ other\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ wend\\ through\\ the\\ nuts\\-and\\-bolts\\ of\\ their\\ journey\\ without\\ thinking\\ about\\ its\\ trajectory\\,\\ the\\ end\\ shows\\ Tom\\ \\(following\\ Casy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lead\\)\\ trying\\ to\\ piece\\ the\\ larger\\ scheme\\ of\\ things\\ together\\.Like\\ Casy\\,\\ Tom\\ is\\ ultimately\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ life\\ beyond\\ his\\ existence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ very\\ non\\-existential\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\.\\ But\\ back\\ to\\ Stauffer\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Steinbeck\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ process\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ goal\\.His\\ characters\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ journey\\ itself\\,\\ partly\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\.Tom\\ and\\ Ma\\ Joad\\ are\\ existential\\ reformers\\ rather\\ than\\ dreamers\\ trying\\ to\\ craft\\ a\\ utopia\\.In\\ fact\\,\\ for\\ Tom\\,\\ dreaming\\ will\\ kill\\ you\\.\\ His\\ decision\\ to\\ structure\\ his\\ novel\\ with\\ an\\ irregular\\ rhythm\\ comes\\ from\\ \\(surprise\\!\\)\\ listening\\ to\\ Tchaikovsky\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ every\\ other\\ chapter\\ is\\ an\\ interchapter\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Stauffer\\ ends\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ iconic\\ image\\ from\\ the\\ 1930s\\ \\(and\\ by\\ \\"\\;iconic\\"\\;\\ Stauffer\\ means\\ an\\ image\\ that\\ is\\ instantly\\ convertible\\ into\\ a\\ monumental\\ symbol\\,\\ something\\ that\\ represents\\ a\\ large\\ idea\\,\\ an\\ epoch\\,\\ a\\ nation\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dorothea\\ Lang\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Migrant\\ Mother\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Stauffer\\ believes\\ that\\ what\\ gives\\ the\\ photo\\ its\\ iconic\\ power\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ closely\\ cropped\\.\\\\ Lang\\ shot\\ about\\ 20\\ photos\\ of\\ this\\ woman\\,\\ but\\ none\\ were\\ as\\ tightly\\ framed\\ as\\ this\\ one\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ image\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>linked\\ to\\ scriptural\\ icons\\ and\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ form\\ a\\ trinity\\ with\\ the\\ mother\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\ surprising\\ as\\ an\\ iconic\\ link\\,\\ however\\,\\ as\\ images\\ of\\ all\\ three\\ persons\\ of\\ the\\ trinity\\ are\\ somewhat\\ scarce\\ \\-\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ is\\ rarely\\ personified\\ at\\ all\\.\\ If\\ we\\'re\\ drawing\\ scriptural\\ comparisons\\,\\ wouldn\\'t\\ a\\ Madonna\\ and\\ child\\ be\\ the\\ more\\ obvious\\ template\\?\\ Admittedly\\,\\ this\\ doesn\\'t\\ look\\ much\\ like\\ a\\ Madonna\\ and\\ child\\,\\ either\\.\\ What\\'s\\ striking\\ to\\ me\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ children\\ have\\ buried\\ their\\ faces\\,\\ which\\ contributes\\ to\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ this\\ woman\\'s\\ face\\ and\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ the\\ iconic\\ value\\ of\\ her\\ gaze\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Grapes of Wrath"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.619800+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "More Grapes, More Wrath", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 329, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ intro\\ music\\ for\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ is\\ \\Bruce\\ Springsteen\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Ghost\\ of\\ Tom\\ Joad\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ tribute\\ to\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ speech\\ posted\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ blog\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ change\\ things\\ up\\,\\ Stauffer\\ begins\\ lecture\\ today\\ and\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ resistance\\ in\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Stauffer\\ looks\\ at\\ Steinbeck\\'s\\ novel\\ through\\ Albert\\ Hershman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ \\\\Exit\\,\\ Voice\\ and\\ Loyalty\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ which\\ examines\\ how\\ organizations\\ and\\ states\\ come\\ together\\ and\\ break\\ apart\\.\\ Exit\\,\\ voice\\ and\\ loyalty\\ are\\ the\\ basic\\ forms\\ of\\ resistance\\.\\ The\\ simple\\ act\\ of\\ leaving\\ is\\,\\ for\\ the\\ Joad\\ family\\,\\ migration\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ form\\ of\\ protest\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Voice\\ \\-\\ speaking\\ out\\ against\\ a\\ faltering\\ system\\ \\-\\ is\\ represented\\ prominently\\ by\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ Jim\\ Casy\\ as\\ he\\ becomes\\ a\\ union\\ organizer\\ with\\ Tom\\ following\\ in\\ his\\ footsteps\\.\\ \\(Suddenly\\,\\ near\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\,\\ Casy\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ stop\\ talking\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ as\\ if\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ been\\ inspired\\ to\\ a\\ political\\ version\\ of\\ his\\ old\\ preaching\\ self\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Loyalty\\ is\\ the\\ more\\ problematic\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ state\\ or\\ organization\\ in\\ decline\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ Steinbeck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ novel\\,\\ loyalty\\ to\\ the\\ family\\ remains\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ matched\\ by\\ loyalty\\ to\\ the\\ existing\\ economic\\ system\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ all\\ the\\ conservative\\ backlash\\ to\\ the\\ book\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ radicals\\ opposed\\ to\\ basic\\ economic\\ structures\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ reformers\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Their\\ protests\\ happen\\ \\within\\<\\/em\\>\\ existing\\ structures\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Muley\\ \\Graves\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ is\\ the\\ exception\\ to\\ Hershman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ three\\-option\\ response\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ Graves\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ embraces\\ a\\ feudal\\ form\\ of\\ resistance\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ voice\\,\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ exit\\ and\\ has\\ no\\ form\\ of\\ loyalty\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ refers\\ to\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ graveyard\\ ghost\\ and\\ effectively\\ resigns\\ himself\\ to\\ a\\ childlike\\ form\\ of\\ resistance\\ that\\ can\\ gain\\ nothing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\However\\,\\ loyalty\\ \\(in\\ both\\ the\\ novel\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ struggles\\ of\\ the\\ thirties\\)\\ prevents\\ the\\ entry\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ into\\ the\\ collective\\ bargaining\\ sphere\\ because\\ class\\ loyalty\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\U\\.S\\.\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ so\\ often\\ gets\\ routed\\ through\\ race\\ loyalty\\.\\ \\(Think\\ back\\ to\\ those\\ lectures\\ about\\ lynching\\:\\ capitalists\\ and\\ large\\ landowners\\ had\\ something\\ to\\ gain\\ by\\ encouraging\\ racial\\ tensions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ long\\ as\\ poor\\ people\\ are\\ divided\\ into\\ separate\\,\\ color\\-based\\ constituencies\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ identity\\ politics\\ and\\ class\\ politics\\ often\\ work\\ against\\ one\\ another\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Notice\\ how\\ African\\ Americans\\ are\\ entirely\\ absent\\ from\\ the\\ mass\\ exodus\\ to\\ \\\\California\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Downplaying\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ in\\ mainstream\\ protest\\ literature\\ is\\ also\\ apparent\\ in\\ Sinclair\\ and\\ Agee\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Why\\?\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ is\\ a\\ danger\\ in\\ referring\\ to\\ your\\ struggle\\ as\\ a\\ protest\\ against\\ \\&\\#8220\\;wage\\ slavery\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ term\\ competes\\ with\\ \\(and\\ perhaps\\ diminishes\\)\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ chattel\\ slavery\\ and\\ its\\ structural\\ descendants\\ in\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ While\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ true\\,\\ Stauffer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ second\\ explanation\\ seems\\ more\\ convincing\\:\\ Steinbeck\\ was\\ well\\ aware\\ that\\ racism\\ was\\ alive\\ and\\ well\\ \\(it\\ was\\ at\\ its\\ highpoint\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\ and\\ through\\ the\\ 30s\\)\\ and\\ that\\ adding\\ a\\ racial\\ dimension\\ would\\ be\\ problematic\\ for\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ readers\\.\\ \\(This\\ makes\\ me\\ think\\ that\\ a\\ certain\\ discipline\\ may\\ be\\ required\\ for\\ any\\ protest\\ platform\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ more\\ carefully\\ we\\ examine\\ a\\ social\\ problem\\,\\ the\\ more\\ clearly\\ that\\ problem\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ so\\ many\\ other\\ social\\ injustices\\,\\ but\\ trying\\ to\\ compass\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ will\\ explode\\ your\\ platform\\.\\ Perhaps\\.\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ trying\\ to\\ cut\\ Steinbeck\\ a\\ break\\ here\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ poignant\\ ending\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\ has\\ Rose\\ of\\ Sharon\\ \\(whose\\ baby\\ is\\ stillborn\\)\\ nursing\\ a\\ starving\\ man\\ with\\ her\\ milk\\ in\\ an\\ empty\\ freight\\ car\\ after\\ torrential\\ rains\\.\\ \\(The\\ genius\\ of\\ this\\ scene\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ either\\ incredibly\\ depressing\\ or\\ mysteriously\\ inspiring\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ image\\ aligns\\ the\\ orbits\\ of\\ two\\ radically\\ different\\ emotions\\.\\ It\\'s\\ brilliant\\.\\)\\ Stauffer\\ reveals\\ that\\ Steinbeck\\ has\\ taken\\ this\\ scene\\ from\\ Guy\\ de\\ Maupassant\\,\\ a\\ French\\ realist\\ writer\\,\\ whose\\ short\\ story\\ \\&\\#8220\\;A\\ Mid\\ Summer\\ Idyll\\&\\#8221\\;\\ shows\\ a\\ nursemaid\\ on\\ a\\ train\\ feeds\\ a\\ starving\\ man\\.\\ \\(For\\ the\\ record\\,\\ in\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ his\\ editor\\,\\ \\Steinbeck\\ claims\\ \\<\\/a\\>never\\ to\\ have\\ read\\ the\\ story\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ notes\\ that\\ here\\ again\\ Steinbeck\\ secularizes\\ a\\ Christian\\ trope\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ this\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Madonna\\ and\\ Child\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ feeding\\ an\\ adult\\,\\ the\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ present\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ future\\ generation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ his\\ existentialist\\ theme\\ and\\ the\\ pragmatic\\ New\\ Deal\\ ethos\\ that\\ spurns\\ utopian\\,\\ teleological\\ trajectories\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\,\\ in\\ case\\ you\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ notice\\,\\ this\\ final\\ image\\ happens\\ on\\ the\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ day\\ after\\ the\\ stillbirth\\,\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ miraculous\\,\\ Christian\\ regeneration\\ and\\ rebirth\\ after\\ hopelessness\\ and\\ despair\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Finally\\,\\ the\\ ending\\ highlights\\ Steinbeck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ethic\\ of\\ compassion\\,\\ which\\ links\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ Christianity\\ to\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ is\\ now\\&\\#8230\\;\\ \\Anecdote\\ Time\\<\\/em\\>\\!\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ Professor\\ Stauffer\\ was\\ a\\ young\\ lad\\ growing\\ up\\ in\\ \\\\Des\\ Moines\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\Iowa\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ his\\ favorite\\ pastime\\ was\\ vandalizing\\ rich\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ property\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ and\\ a\\ buddy\\ \\(whose\\ name\\ I\\ have\\ judiciously\\ redacted\\)\\ would\\ go\\ out\\ at\\ night\\ to\\ the\\ well\\-to\\-do\\ neighborhoods\\ of\\ \\\\Des\\ \\ \\ Moines\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ rip\\ out\\ the\\ flowers\\ from\\ their\\ front\\ lawns\\ and\\ destroy\\ their\\ bushes\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>During\\ one\\ particularly\\ zealous\\ night\\ of\\ rage\\,\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ friend\\ cut\\ down\\ a\\ tree\\ with\\ a\\ saw\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Throughout\\ all\\ of\\ this\\,\\ Stauffer\\ imagined\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ activist\\.\\ \\(We\\ can\\ only\\ imagine\\ why\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ activism\\ was\\ taken\\ out\\ on\\ vegetation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ guessing\\ he\\ was\\ playing\\ it\\ safe\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Cut\\ down\\ a\\ tree\\ and\\ rich\\ Des\\ Moinians\\ plant\\ another\\ one\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Smash\\ a\\ few\\ windows\\ and\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ got\\ a\\ problem\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Soon\\ thereafter\\ Stauffer\\ moved\\ away\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ year\\ later\\ he\\ read\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ recognized\\ himself\\ in\\ poor\\ Muley\\ Graves\\ \\(hiding\\ from\\ the\\ cops\\ like\\ a\\ child\\)\\,\\ and\\ this\\ bothered\\ him\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ vandalism\\ seemed\\ foolish\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ abandoned\\ his\\ juvenile\\ delinquency\\ and\\,\\ yes\\,\\ his\\ life\\ was\\ transformed\\ by\\ literature\\ \\(it\\ can\\ happen\\ to\\ you\\,\\ too\\!\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ friend\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ read\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ ended\\ up\\ in\\ jail\\.\\ \\(I\\ wonder\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ time\\ to\\ read\\ in\\ there\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Right\\ after\\ insisting\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ never\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ destroyed\\ anyone\\ else\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ property\\,\\ Professor\\ McCarthy\\ takes\\ over\\ and\\ plays\\ a\\ recording\\ of\\ Franklin\\ D\\.\\ Roosevelt\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ inaugural\\ address\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;this\\ great\\ nation\\ will\\ endure\\ as\\ it\\ has\\ endured\\&\\#8230\\;\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ fear\\ is\\ fear\\ itself\\&\\#8230\\;\\ nameless\\,\\ unreasoning\\,\\ unjustified\\ terror\\&\\#8230\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>FDR\\ keeps\\ referring\\ to\\ capitalists\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ money\\ changers\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ villains\\ that\\ Jesus\\ routes\\ just\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ before\\ his\\ death\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ clear\\,\\ he\\ makes\\ it\\ explicit\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ \\&\\#8220\\;restore\\ that\\ temple\\ \\[of\\ Democracy\\]\\ to\\ the\\ ancient\\ truths\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\When\\ \\Roosevelt\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ took\\ office\\ in\\ 1933\\,\\ 13\\ million\\ people\\ were\\ unemployed\\:\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ full\\ \\third\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ the\\ workforce\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ he\\ got\\ the\\ nomination\\ by\\ the\\ Democratic\\ Party\\ he\\ flew\\ to\\ \\\\Chicago\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ to\\ accept\\ it\\,\\ which\\ was\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ norm\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ conveyed\\ his\\ sense\\ of\\ urgency\\ and\\ action\\,\\ and\\ upon\\ receiving\\ the\\ nomination\\ FDR\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ pledge\\ myself\\ to\\ a\\ New\\ Deal\\ for\\ the\\ American\\ people\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ basic\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ excesses\\ of\\ capitalism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Ronald\\ Reagan\\,\\ many\\ years\\ later\\,\\ reverses\\ this\\ philosophy\\,\\ declaring\\ government\\ the\\ problem\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ solution\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\FDR\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ election\\ marked\\ a\\ crucial\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ country\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ mood\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ his\\ first\\ week\\ in\\ office\\ he\\ received\\ 50\\,000\\ letter\\ and\\ telegrams\\ of\\ thanks\\ and\\ support\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ employed\\ 70\\ mailroom\\ clerks\\ \\(Herbert\\ Hoover\\,\\ the\\ preceding\\ president\\,\\ employed\\ one\\)\\.\\ He\\ immediately\\ began\\ regular\\ radio\\ addresses\\ to\\ the\\ nation\\ \\(he\\ called\\ them\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fireside\\ chats\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ during\\ which\\ he\\ sought\\ to\\ replace\\ fear\\ and\\ paralysis\\ with\\ courage\\ and\\ action\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ he\\ often\\ used\\ the\\ word\\ \\&\\#8220\\;paralysis\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ was\\ poignant\\ coming\\ from\\ \\Roosevelt\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ crippled\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ polio\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ therefore\\ embodied\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ paralysis\\ to\\ courage\\.\\ He\\ stressed\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ put\\ people\\ back\\ to\\ work\\ not\\ for\\ money\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ thrill\\ of\\ creative\\ effort\\ and\\ self\\-sufficiency\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ him\\,\\ the\\ nation\\ itself\\ is\\ a\\ family\\,\\ and\\ he\\ wanted\\ this\\ broad\\ conception\\ of\\ solidarity\\ to\\ transform\\ private\\ interests\\ into\\ the\\ public\\ good\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ New\\ Deal\\ ethos\\ lies\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Not\\ only\\ do\\ the\\ novel\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ characters\\ look\\ for\\ ways\\ to\\ reign\\ in\\ excesses\\ of\\ capitalism\\,\\ but\\ the\\ government\\-sponsored\\,\\ self\\-run\\ Weedpatch\\ Camp\\ resembles\\ New\\ Deal\\ project\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ novel\\ celebrates\\ the\\ collective\\ spirit\\ and\\ collective\\ organization\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ reiterates\\ a\\ point\\ made\\ by\\ Stauffer\\:\\ The\\ New\\ Deal\\ \\(like\\ the\\ Joad\\ family\\)\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ revolutionary\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ seemed\\ that\\ way\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\ reformist\\,\\ and\\ a\\ government\\ camp\\ like\\ Weedpatch\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ this\\:\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ haven\\ for\\ those\\ suffering\\ the\\ most\\.\\ \\(It\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ a\\ utopian\\ civilization\\ that\\ will\\ sweep\\ the\\ continent\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ novel\\ illustrates\\ how\\ corporate\\ greed\\ and\\ a\\ natural\\ disaster\\ can\\ inspire\\ courage\\ and\\ perseverance\\,\\ just\\ as\\ FDR\\ would\\ have\\ wanted\\.\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\ elements\\ of\\ Steinbeck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ social\\ vision\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ Exposure\\ and\\ critique\\ of\\ social\\ conditions\\.\\ \\(This\\ novel\\ is\\ a\\ detailed\\ documentary\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ Exploration\\ of\\ social\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\(Especially\\ in\\ the\\ Interchapters\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ Transformation\\ of\\ social\\ units\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ the\\ novel\\ progresses\\,\\ the\\ old\\ units\\ of\\ individualism\\,\\ the\\ nuclear\\ family\\ and\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ God\\ break\\ down\\,\\ and\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ new\\ frames\\ of\\ solidarity\\ emerge\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\,\\ this\\ novel\\ represents\\ the\\ eclipse\\ of\\ the\\ Jeffersonian\\ vision\\ of\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Whereas\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ vision\\ was\\ progressive\\ \\(expanding\\ ever\\-westward\\)\\,\\ Steinbeck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ vision\\ is\\ regressive\\:\\ the\\ land\\ had\\ become\\ dead\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Steinbeck\\ bleak\\ landscape\\ implicitly\\ asks\\,\\ What\\ are\\ we\\ to\\ do\\ now\\ that\\ the\\ Jeffersonian\\ vision\\ is\\ dead\\?\\ The\\ narrative\\ thus\\ becomes\\ a\\ guide\\ ushering\\ us\\ across\\ the\\ threshold\\ from\\ American\\ antiquity\\ to\\ American\\ modernity\\.\\ \\(This\\ brings\\ up\\ a\\ larger\\ question\\:\\ when\\ did\\ the\\ old\\ ideal\\ of\\ independent\\ American\\ agrarians\\ die\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1870s\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\?\\ Perhaps\\ Reconstruction\\ marked\\ th\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ end\\ and\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ marked\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ end\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Grapes\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ Race\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>Aside\\ from\\ the\\ political\\ transformations\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\,\\ there\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ significant\\ cultural\\ transformation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Works\\ Progress\\ Administration\\ \\(a\\ major\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ Deal\\)\\ employed\\ artists\\ to\\ catalogue\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ experiences\\ \\(Dorothea\\ Lang\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ was\\ employed\\ through\\ the\\ WPA\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ in\\ the\\ thirties\\ comes\\ from\\ these\\ representations\\.\\ McCarthy\\ calls\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ Slave\\ Narrative\\ Documentary\\ Project\\,\\ a\\ program\\ funded\\ by\\ the\\ WPA\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ project\\ documented\\ stories\\ and\\ memories\\ of\\ aging\\ former\\ slaves\\ before\\ they\\ passed\\ away\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Much\\ of\\ the\\ raw\\ material\\ we\\ have\\ of\\ the\\ antebellum\\ years\\ comes\\ from\\ this\\ project\\ \\(there\\ are\\ about\\ 24\\ volumes\\ of\\ material\\)\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ is\\ confident\\ that\\ Steinbeck\\ knew\\ about\\ this\\ project\\,\\ and\\ while\\ he\\ agrees\\ that\\ the\\ novel\\ erases\\ race\\ explicitly\\,\\ Steinbeck\\ does\\ implicitly\\ map\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ experience\\ onto\\ the\\ Joads\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ probably\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ explicit\\ about\\ race\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ politics\\ and\\ cultural\\ forces\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\(See\\ Stauffer\\'s\\ point\\ about\\ class\\-race\\ tensions\\ above\\.\\)\\\r\\\\See\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ events\\ of\\ chapters\\ 26\\ through\\ 28\\:\\ The\\ Joads\\ become\\ strikebreakers\\,\\ who\\ were\\ typically\\ African\\ American\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ allowed\\ into\\ the\\ labor\\ unions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tom\\ kills\\ the\\ overseer\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ his\\ being\\ lynched\\ is\\ apparent\\,\\ he\\ is\\ hidden\\ by\\ his\\ own\\ family\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ family\\ then\\ turns\\ North\\,\\ the\\ promised\\ land\\ of\\ fugitive\\ slave\\ narratives\\.\\ \\(And\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ details\\ that\\ link\\ the\\ Joads\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Okies\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ general\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Many\\ of\\ the\\ racist\\ stereotypes\\ about\\ African\\ Americans\\ are\\ thrust\\ onto\\ the\\ Joads\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ presumably\\ ignorant\\,\\ dirty\\ and\\ closer\\ to\\ animals\\ than\\ human\\ beings\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ one\\ man\\ says\\ to\\ another\\ \\[I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ paraphrasing\\]\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;How\\ would\\ you\\ like\\ your\\ sister\\ to\\ go\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ them\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ pro\\-segregationist\\ slogan\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ blatant\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ Okie\\/black\\ connection\\.\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "More Grapes, More Wrath"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.254532+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "VISION II", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 640, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\VISION\\ II\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ GEORGE\\ ALVAREZ\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ sentences\\ in\\ square\\ brackets\\ are\\ comments\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\For\\ this\\ class\\ we\\ read\\ a\\ chapter\\ about\\ mid\\-level\\ vision\\ \\(Nakayama\\,\\ He\\ and\\ Shimojo\\)\\ and\\ a\\ chapter\\ about\\ object\\ recognition\\ \\(Spelke\\)\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ read\\ a\\ paper\\ about\\ the\\ reverse\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ visual\\ perception\\,\\ that\\ connects\\ high\\ level\\ vision\\ and\\ low\\ level\\ vision\\ discussing\\ what\\ information\\ is\\ available\\ to\\ the\\ subject\\ and\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ training\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/font\\>\\Afterwards\\,\\ we\\ read\\ four\\ papers\\ about\\ attention\\,\\ expressing\\ different\\ views\\ about\\ how\\ it\\ works\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Nakayama\\,\\ He\\ and\\ Shimojo\\,\\ Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Visual\\ Surface\\ Representation\\:\\ A\\ Critical\\ Link\\ between\\ Lower\\-level\\ and\\ Higher\\-level\\ vision\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\INTRODUCTION\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\`We\\ believe\\ that\\ a\\ surface\\ representation\\ forms\\ a\\ critical\\ intermediate\\ stage\\ of\\ vision\\ poised\\ between\\ the\\ earliest\\ pickup\\ of\\ image\\ information\\ and\\ later\\ stages\\,\\ such\\ as\\ object\\ recognition\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ it\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ first\\ stage\\ of\\ neural\\ information\\ processing\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ available\\ to\\ us\\ as\\ conscious\\ perceivers\\.\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Surface\\ completion\\.\\ Helmholtz\\ \\(1910\\)\\:\\ we\\ make\\ \\ \\`unconscious\\ inferences\\'\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Anatomy\\ of\\ vision\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Single\\ cell\\ recordings\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Cells\\ with\\ separate\\ but\\ highly\\ similar\\ receptive\\ fields\\ in\\ the\\ two\\ eyes\\ \\(Barlow\\ 1967\\)\\:\\ basis\\ of\\ stereoscopic\\ vision\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Cells\\ selective\\ for\\ direction\\ of\\ motion\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\PHENOMENOLOGICAL\\ STUDIES\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Face\\ \\/vase\\ vs\\ rabbit\\/duck\\ illusions\\.\\ The\\ first\\ one\\ involves\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ depth\\,\\ and\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ surfaces\\.\\ The\\ second\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ object\\ recognition\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Model\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ image\\ features\\ \\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\ surfaces\\ \\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\ where\\,\\ what\\ streams\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Amodal\\ completion\\ of\\ occluded\\ surfaces\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\ has\\ three\\ rules\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ When\\ different\\ regions\\ corresponding\\ to\\ different\\ surfaces\\ meet\\,\\ only\\ one\\ region\\ can\\ \\`own\\'\\ the\\ border\\ between\\ them\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ Under\\ conditions\\ of\\ surface\\ opacity\\,\\ a\\ border\\ is\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\ region\\ that\\ is\\ coded\\ as\\ being\\ in\\ front\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ A\\ region\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ own\\ a\\ border\\ is\\ effectively\\ unbounded\\.\\ Unbounded\\ regions\\ can\\ connect\\ to\\ other\\ unbouded\\ regionsto\\ form\\ larger\\ surfaces\\ completing\\ behind\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\This\\ completion\\ is\\ called\\ \\`amodal\\'\\ after\\ Michotte\\ and\\ Kanisza\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\T\\ junctions\\:\\ the\\ stem\\ is\\ considered\\ continuing\\ back\\ under\\ the\\ occluding\\ surface\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Experiment\\ with\\ a\\ stereogram\\ showing\\ Bs\\ covered\\ by\\ a\\ spot\\.\\ Without\\ fusion\\ one\\ does\\ not\\ notice\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ Bs\\,\\ with\\ fusion\\ the\\ Bs\\ are\\ recognized\\ despite\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ T\\ junctions\\.\\ Thus\\ T\\ junctions\\ are\\ not\\ necessary\\ for\\ surface\\ completion\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Experiment\\ with\\ a\\ stereogram\\,\\ it\\ shows\\ a\\ C\\ covered\\ by\\ a\\ rectangle\\ if\\ the\\ rectangle\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ in\\ front\\ or\\ two\\ Us\\ \\(one\\ upright\\,\\ one\\ inverted\\)\\ if\\ the\\ rectangle\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ background\\.\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ authors\\ conclude\\ that\\ \\`our\\ perception\\ of\\ recognizable\\ objects\\ can\\ be\\ dramatically\\ influenced\\ by\\ visual\\ surface\\ representation\\'\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\[But\\ the\\ results\\ show\\ that\\ depth\\ influences\\ object\\ recognition\\.\\ There\\ is\\ nothing\\ about\\ surfaces\\ in\\ the\\ data\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Object\\ recognition\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Face\\ experiment\\:\\ when\\ the\\ bars\\ are\\ coded\\ as\\ in\\ front\\ the\\ face\\ is\\ perceived\\ \\(like\\ a\\ windowpane\\)\\,\\ otherwise\\ it\\ is\\ not\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Kanisza\\'s\\ triangle\\.\\ Subjective\\ sinusoidal\\ contour\\.\\ \\[How\\ do\\ they\\ tell\\ us\\ whether\\ surface\\ recognition\\ happens\\ before\\ object\\ recognition\\?\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Fish\\ silhouettes\\ \\[4\\ possibilities\\!\\ Both\\ tails\\ in\\ front\\,\\ both\\ heads\\ in\\ front\\ a\\ fish\\ in\\ front\\ or\\ the\\ other\\ fish\\ in\\ front\\.\\]\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\[When\\ we\\ see\\ both\\ tails\\ in\\ front\\,\\ the\\ objects\\ are\\ onto\\ intersecting\\ surfaces\\.\\.\\.\\ is\\ this\\ a\\ problem\\ for\\ this\\ surface\\ based\\ theory\\?\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Da\\ Vinci\\ stereopsis\\.\\ Occluding\\ objects\\:\\ some\\ visual\\ information\\ is\\ available\\ only\\ to\\ one\\ eye\\ due\\ to\\ information\\ at\\ edge\\ of\\ object\\ is\\ occluded\\ for\\ the\\ other\\ eye\\.\\ Stereograms\\ in\\ which\\ some\\ information\\ is\\ available\\ only\\ to\\ one\\ eye\\ generate\\ illusory\\ contours\\ as\\ those\\ that\\ would\\ produce\\ an\\ equivalent\\ loss\\ of\\ information\\.\\ It\\ is\\ argued\\ that\\ a\\ surface\\ is\\ inferred\\ by\\ the\\ different\\ information\\ from\\ the\\ two\\ eyes\\.\\ Therefore\\ surface\\ representation\\ must\\ happen\\ when\\ information\\ from\\ 2\\ eyes\\ is\\ still\\ separated\\,\\ and\\ pre\\-consciously\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ case\\ in\\ early\\ visual\\ processing\\ \\(V1\\,\\ or\\ V2\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\EXPERIMENTAL\\ STUDIES\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Ls\\ and\\ Ts\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\To\\ show\\ that\\ surface\\ representation\\ takes\\ place\\ before\\ texture\\ segregation\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ use\\ a\\ visual\\ search\\ experiment\\ \\(find\\ upright\\ Ls\\ amidst\\ inverted\\ Ls\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ 3\\ conditions\\:\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Ls\\ appear\\ in\\ front\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Ls\\ appear\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ \\(after\\ surface\\ completion\\ they\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ squares\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Ls\\ appear\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ but\\ a\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ Ls\\ and\\ the\\ black\\ square\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ Ls\\ are\\ not\\ seen\\ as\\ squares\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\In\\ condition\\ 2\\ the\\ task\\ is\\ harder\\ \\(interpretation\\:\\ because\\ both\\ targets\\ and\\ distractors\\ are\\ squares\\)\\.\\ If\\ it\\ were\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ stimuli\\ in\\ front\\ are\\ more\\ salient\\,\\ we\\ should\\ expect\\ the\\ same\\ when\\ the\\ Ls\\ are\\ in\\ front\\ in\\ condition\\ 3\\.\\ But\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ happen\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Aperture\\ problem\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ motion\\ of\\ a\\ diagonal\\ grating\\ seen\\ through\\ an\\ aperture\\ is\\ locally\\ indistinguishable\\ in\\ two\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ vertically\\ moving\\ surface\\ or\\ to\\ a\\ horizontally\\ moving\\ surface\\.\\ But\\ if\\ we\\ see\\ also\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ surface\\ moving\\,\\ the\\ movement\\ appears\\ to\\ go\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ surface\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Apparent\\ motion\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Images\\ flashed\\ at\\ different\\ positions\\ on\\ a\\ screen\\ appear\\ to\\ move\\.\\ Having\\ 4\\ flashing\\ squares\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ whether\\ vertical\\ motion\\ or\\ horizontal\\ motion\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ horizontal\\ and\\ vertical\\ distances\\ of\\ the\\ squares\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ authors\\ run\\ an\\ experiment\\ in\\ which\\ two\\ white\\ bars\\ are\\ either\\ perceived\\ in\\ front\\ \\(as\\ two\\ bars\\)\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ \\(in\\ which\\ case\\ they\\ complete\\ behind\\ the\\ front\\ structure\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ square\\)\\.\\ Four\\ of\\ these\\ item\\/occluder\\ stimuli\\ are\\ shown\\ in\\ a\\ screen\\,\\ two\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\ row\\ and\\ two\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ row\\.\\ Those\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ row\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ tilt\\.\\ When\\ the\\ white\\ bars\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ in\\ front\\,\\ a\\ greater\\ horizontal\\ distance\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ vertical\\ apparent\\ motion\\.\\\\\r\\\nInterpretation\\:\\ when\\ the\\ bars\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ in\\ front\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ move\\ vertically\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ translate\\ and\\ rotate\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ to\\ move\\ horizontally\\,\\ they\\ can\\ simply\\ translate\\.\\ When\\ the\\ bars\\ are\\ perceived\\ in\\ the\\ background\\,\\ they\\ are\\ completed\\ into\\ a\\ square\\,\\ thus\\ no\\ rotation\\ is\\ needed\\ for\\ vertical\\ motion\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Amodal\\ \\`leakage\\'\\ is\\ where\\ if\\ we\\ see\\ one\\ surface\\ occluded\\ by\\ another\\,\\ we\\ infer\\ that\\ the\\ behind\\ object\\ has\\ more\\ to\\ it\\ behind\\ the\\ front\\ surface\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ use\\ the\\ above\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ motion\\ perception\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ a\\ surface\\ level\\ representation\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ one\\ based\\ on\\ image\\ shape\\ or\\ position\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Apparent\\ motion\\ on\\ planes\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\J\\.J\\.\\ Gibson\\ \\(and\\ Marr\\)\\ argued\\ that\\ space\\ is\\ not\\ perceived\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ three\\ dimensional\\ coordinates\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ surfaces\\ that\\ fill\\ space\\ \\(Marr\\'s\\ 2\\ \\-1\\/2\\-d\\ level\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Nakayama\\ and\\ colleagues\\ run\\ an\\ experiment\\ in\\ which\\ squares\\ are\\ flashed\\ at\\ different\\ depths\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\There\\ are\\ three\\ conditions\\:\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ plane\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ with\\ two\\ squares\\ on\\ it\\ plane\\,\\ and\\ two\\ in\\ front\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ slanted\\ plane\\ supports\\ all\\ the\\ 4\\ squares\\,\\ which\\ are\\ perpendicular\\ to\\ that\\ plane\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ four\\ square\\ lie\\ on\\ an\\ implicit\\ slanted\\ plane\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Perceptual\\ matches\\ are\\ preferred\\ for\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ perceived\\ plane\\.In\\ condition\\ 1\\,\\ with\\ the\\ increase\\ of\\ binocular\\ disparity\\ \\(thus\\ of\\ perceived\\ depth\\)\\,\\ the\\ motion\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ plane\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ in\\ conditions\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\,\\ motion\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ in\\ depth\\ even\\ when\\ depth\\ increases\\.\\ So\\,\\ condition\\ 2\\ tears\\ apart\\ effects\\ due\\ to\\ distances\\ and\\ effects\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ squares\\ lie\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ surface\\,\\ because\\ even\\ if\\ depth\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ in\\ condition\\ 1\\,\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ slanted\\ plane\\ changes\\ the\\ effects\\.\\ Condition\\ 3\\ tears\\ apart\\ effects\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ an\\ object\\ and\\ effects\\ due\\ to\\ implicit\\ surface\\ representations\\,\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ object\\,\\ but\\ the\\ implicit\\ surface\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ squares\\ is\\ sufficient\\ to\\ produce\\ results\\ equivalent\\ to\\ condition\\ 2\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hypothesis\\:\\ motion\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ surfaces\\ because\\ attention\\ is\\.\\ Cavanagh\\ 1992\\:\\ shifting\\ attention\\ leads\\ to\\ apparent\\ motion\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\POSSIBLE\\ MECHANISMS\\ OF\\ VISUAL\\ SURFACE\\ PERCEPTION\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Proposal\\:\\ surface\\ perception\\ begins\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ V1\\.\\ Surface\\ recognition\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ object\\ recognition\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\pag\\ 46\\:\\ \\`critical\\ aspects\\ of\\ surface\\ perception\\ are\\ determined\\ by\\ very\\ unusual\\ sorts\\ of\\ information\\,\\ of\\ a\\ class\\ not\\ generally\\ available\\ to\\ us\\ as\\ conscious\\ perceivers\\&rdquo\\;\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>explicit\\ eye\\-of\\-origin\\ information\\ is\\ not\\ available\\ to\\ us\\ as\\ perceivers\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Cells\\ in\\ the\\ striate\\ cortex\\ are\\ the\\ only\\ cells\\ that\\ can\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ eye\\-of\\-origin\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ only\\ ones\\ from\\ which\\ DaVinci\\'s\\ illusion\\ can\\ arise\\.\\ \\[But\\ this\\ could\\ just\\ mean\\ that\\ the\\ cells\\ that\\ give\\ us\\ the\\ conscious\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ Da\\ Vinci\\ illusion\\ get\\ input\\ from\\ the\\ striate\\ cortex\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ link\\ between\\ very\\-low\\-level\\-vision\\ and\\ surfaces\\ \\&ldquo\\;perception\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ yet\\ to\\ be\\ established\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\V2\\ neurons\\ respond\\ to\\ subjective\\ contours\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Page\\ 51\\:\\ in\\ the\\ experiment\\ subjects\\ see\\ transparent\\ surfaces\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ linear\\ interpolation\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Generic\\ view\\ principle\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;when\\ faced\\ with\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ surface\\ interpretation\\ of\\ an\\ image\\,\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ assumes\\ it\\ is\\ viewing\\ the\\ scene\\ from\\ a\\ generic\\,\\ not\\ an\\ accidental\\,\\ vantage\\ point\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Penrose\\ triangle\\.\\ Misperceived\\ object\\.\\ \\[It\\ takes\\ a\\ while\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;impossible\\&rdquo\\;\\ object\\.\\ What\\ it\\ tells\\ us\\ is\\ that\\ plausibility\\ of\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ assessed\\ at\\ a\\ local\\ level\\.\\.\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ Penrose\\ triangle\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ an\\ impossible\\ object\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ generic\\ view\\ principle\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Spelke\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\The\\ development\\ of\\ object\\ perception\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;This\\ paper\\ is\\ really\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ computational\\ level\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ it\\ was\\ given\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\PERCEIVING\\ OBJECTS\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Parsing\\:\\ dividing\\ the\\ scene\\ into\\ parts\\.\\ Two\\ issues\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ individuation\\ \\(philosophy\\)\\:\\ finding\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ an\\ object\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\in\\ psychology\\ and\\ computer\\ vision\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;unit\\ formation\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ identity\\ \\(philosophy\\)\\:\\ determining\\ which\\ experiences\\ belong\\ to\\ a\\ single\\ entity\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\in\\ psychophysics\\ and\\ computer\\ vision\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;correspondence\\ problem\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Why\\ do\\ we\\ parse\\ the\\ couple\\ of\\ a\\ car\\ and\\ a\\ trailer\\ into\\ car\\-trailer\\ vs\\ bumperless\\ car\\+trailer\\ and\\ a\\ bumper\\?\\ \\[The\\ importance\\ of\\ action\\.\\ Objects\\ as\\ units\\ for\\ action\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Recognition\\:\\ recognizing\\ that\\ those\\ parts\\ are\\ of\\ particular\\ \\`kinds\\'\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Some\\ central\\ questions\\ for\\ understanding\\ object\\ recognition\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\)\\ what\\ is\\ an\\ object\\ for\\ a\\ human\\ perceiver\\?\\ Is\\ there\\ one\\ or\\ multiple\\ levels\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ divide\\ the\\ world\\ into\\ objects\\?\\ \\[For\\ instance\\:\\ pen\\,\\ body\\ and\\ top\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\)\\ At\\ what\\ point\\/points\\ in\\ visual\\ analysis\\ does\\ object\\ perception\\ occur\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\)\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ detecting\\ boundaries\\ in\\ space\\ and\\ recognizing\\ object\\ constancy\\ in\\ time\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\4\\)\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ processes\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ object\\ processing\\ in\\ real\\ time\\ situations\\ and\\ in\\ situations\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ arbitrary\\ time\\ and\\ freedom\\ of\\ movement\\ to\\ gather\\ all\\ the\\ information\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\5\\)\\ On\\ what\\ processes\\ does\\ object\\ recognition\\ depend\\?\\ Which\\ are\\ general\\ and\\ which\\ domain\\ or\\ category\\-specific\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Gestalt\\ psychology\\ proposed\\ general\\ principles\\ based\\ on\\ which\\ scenes\\ are\\ parsed\\.\\ General\\ principles\\ criticized\\ in\\ philosophy\\,\\ psychology\\ and\\ artificial\\ intelligence\\ because\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ parse\\ objects\\ as\\ humans\\ do\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\page\\ 302\\:\\ example\\ with\\ object\\ identity\\ \\[Identity\\ and\\ constancy\\ are\\ two\\ very\\ different\\ things\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ word\\ identity\\ has\\ different\\ meanings\\ if\\ applied\\ to\\ dog\\ or\\ to\\ car\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Kind\\ based\\ approaches\\ to\\ perception\\:\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ and\\ look\\ for\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ reality\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\support\\.\\ This\\ approach\\ led\\ to\\ computer\\ vision\\ models\\ that\\ work\\ decently\\ \\(Ullman\\ 1989\\)\\.\\ Peterson\\ 1995\\:\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ in\\ a\\ vase\\-person\\ illusion\\ subjects\\ recognize\\ the\\ person\\ even\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ coded\\ as\\ background\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Problems\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ Sometimes\\ we\\ recognize\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ a\\ thing\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ what\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ We\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ classify\\ an\\ object\\ when\\ we\\ perceive\\ its\\ change\\ \\[Is\\ this\\ really\\ a\\ problem\\?\\ The\\ model\\ can\\ be\\ retested\\ every\\ say\\ 50ms\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\ Kind\\ based\\ models\\ do\\ not\\ explain\\ how\\ children\\ acquire\\ the\\ models\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Proposal\\:\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ general\\ principles\\ and\\ kind\\-based\\ strategies\\.\\ \\[The\\ mix\\ must\\ be\\ chosen\\ well\\ to\\ explain\\ how\\ the\\ kinds\\ develop\\ in\\ children\\.\\]\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\STUDY\\ OF\\ INFANTS\\'\\ PERCEPTION\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ boundary\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ front\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Simplest\\ example\\ according\\ to\\ Gestalt\\ psychologists\\:\\ 2\\ dimensional\\ figure\\-ground\\ scheme\\.\\ Infants\\ do\\ not\\ reach\\ for\\ borders\\ in\\ a\\ 2D\\ figure\\-ground\\,\\ so\\ maybe\\ that\\ is\\ an\\ interpretation\\ that\\ develops\\ later\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Studies\\ with\\ a\\ big\\ object\\ in\\ the\\ background\\,\\ a\\ small\\ object\\ in\\ front\\:\\ children\\ reach\\ for\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ front\\ when\\ they\\ move\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ or\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ adjacent\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\pag\\ 310\\:\\ duck\\ and\\ truck\\ experiment\\ \\[Could\\ the\\ results\\ just\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ children\\ could\\ classify\\ the\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ movement\\,\\ but\\ perceiving\\ the\\ objects\\ as\\ 2\\ in\\ both\\ cases\\?\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Infants\\ perceive\\ unity\\ of\\ a\\ center\\ occluded\\ object\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ common\\ motion\\ of\\ its\\ visible\\ parts\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Objects\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ which\\ appear\\ at\\ different\\ times\\:\\ children\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ reconstruct\\ the\\ shape\\ only\\ after\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ year\\ of\\ life\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Ability\\ to\\ perceive\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ a\\ partially\\ occluded\\ object\\ arises\\ at\\ around\\ 2\\ months\\ \\(but\\ this\\ result\\ does\\ not\\ hold\\ in\\ all\\ cases\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ change\\?\\ Improvement\\ in\\ visual\\ resolution\\ or\\ development\\ of\\ object\\-processing\\ systems\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Infants\\'\\ processing\\ of\\ objects\\ seems\\ to\\ assume\\ 2\\ fundamental\\ properties\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ objects\\ are\\ \\`cohesive\\'\\:\\ internally\\ connected\\ and\\ externally\\ bounded\\ \\(cohesion\\)\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ objects\\ influence\\ one\\ another\\'s\\ motion\\ only\\ if\\ they\\ touch\\ \\(contact\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Michotte\\:\\ perceivers\\ maximize\\ smoothness\\ of\\ object\\ movement\\ \\(continuity\\)\\.\\ Spelke\\ and\\ colleagues\\:\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ happen\\ in\\ infants\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Adults\\ use\\ shape\\ and\\ color\\ information\\ to\\ determine\\ identity\\,\\ children\\ do\\ not\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Adults\\:\\ different\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ elephant\\ and\\ the\\ truck\\.\\ Infants\\:\\ no\\ difference\\ in\\ looking\\ times\\.\\ How\\ come\\?\\ \\[Maybe\\ looking\\ time\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ reflect\\ object\\ identity\\?\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Xu\\ and\\ Carey\\'s\\ interpretation\\:\\ perception\\ of\\ distinctness\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ object\\ categories\\.\\ Children\\ do\\ not\\ use\\ that\\ information\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;\\\\\\infants\\ appear\\ to\\ perceive\\ object\\ identity\\ in\\ accord\\ with\\ the\\ principle\\ that\\ objects\\ exist\\ continuously\\ and\\ move\\ on\\ paths\\ that\\ are\\ connected\\ over\\ space\\ and\\ time\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(principle\\ of\\ continuity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Summary\\:\\ principles\\ of\\ cohesion\\,\\ contact\\ and\\ continuity\\.\\ Those\\ principles\\ are\\ not\\ sufficient\\ to\\ explain\\ all\\ cases\\ \\(like\\ occluded\\ stationary\\ objects\\ or\\ different\\ objects\\ that\\ touch\\.\\)\\ The\\ authors\\ hypothesize\\ that\\ developmental\\ change\\ leads\\ to\\ solutions\\ for\\ these\\ problems\\ in\\ adults\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\University\\,\\ church\\ moved\\ from\\ one\\ place\\ to\\ another\\,\\ and\\ duck\\ violate\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ cohesion\\,\\ continuity\\ and\\ contact\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\University\\:\\ not\\ cohesive\\,\\ church\\:\\ not\\ continuous\\,\\ duck\\:\\ moves\\ by\\ internal\\ motion\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ principles\\ of\\ cohesion\\,\\ continuity\\ and\\ contact\\ might\\ still\\ influence\\ object\\ recognition\\ in\\ adults\\ \\(Gutheil\\,\\ Spelke\\ and\\ Hayes\\ 1995\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Ahissar\\ and\\ Hochstein\\ 2004\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\The\\ reverse\\ hierarchy\\ theory\\ of\\ visual\\ perceptual\\ learning\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ claim\\:\\ Perceptual\\ learning\\ \\(practice\\-induced\\ improvement\\)\\ modifies\\ our\\ representations\\ and\\ thus\\ affects\\ all\\ subsequent\\ perception\\.\\ Their\\ claim\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ top\\-down\\ process\\ for\\ specific\\ perceptual\\ tasks\\ \\(which\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ name\\)\\.\\ Specifically\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\Practice\\-induced\\ improvement\\ on\\ specific\\ perceptual\\ tasks\\ consists\\ of\\ top\\-down\\ increase\\ in\\ usability\\ first\\ of\\ high\\ order\\ information\\ and\\ then\\ of\\ low\\ order\\ information\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ learning\\ first\\ happens\\ at\\ high\\ levels\\,\\ and\\ only\\ when\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ sufficient\\,\\ it\\ will\\ progress\\ backwards\\ to\\ input\\ levels\\ where\\ the\\ signal\\-to\\-noise\\ ratio\\ is\\ better\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\The\\ mechanism\\ of\\ this\\ process\\ is\\ a\\ cascade\\ of\\ top\\-to\\-bottom\\ modifications\\ \\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\that\\ favor\\ task\\-relevant\\ information\\ and\\ prune\\ irrelevant\\,\\ information\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Evidence\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\ To\\ distinguish\\ low\\ level\\ features\\,\\ it\\ takes\\ longer\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Eureka\\ effect\\:\\ subjects\\ never\\ learn\\ a\\ hard\\ task\\ if\\ given\\ only\\ hard\\ trial\\ when\\ the\\ hard\\ trial\\ involves\\ perceiving\\ a\\ hard\\ to\\ perceive\\ high\\ level\\ object\\ that\\ is\\ buried\\ in\\ a\\ mess\\ of\\ low\\ level\\ features\\ \\(like\\ Jesus\\ in\\ an\\ inkblot\\)\\.\\ But\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ given\\ easy\\ trials\\,\\ they\\ first\\ learn\\ the\\ easy\\ trials\\ and\\ then\\ learn\\ the\\ hard\\ trials\\ immediately\\.\\ Further\\,\\ once\\ one\\ sees\\ the\\ object\\ he\\ can\\ never\\ not\\ see\\ it\\.\\ They\\ claim\\ that\\ what\\\\\\ \\;limits\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ performance\\ initially\\ is\\ accessibility\\ of\\ relevant\\ information\\,\\ not\\ its\\ absence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\ 3\\-d\\ pop\\-out\\ effects\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\.\\ Change\\ blindness\\:\\ because\\ representation\\ is\\ at\\ an\\ abstract\\ higher\\ level\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Psycho\\-anatomy\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\making\\ inferences\\ from\\ behavioral\\ effects\\ to\\ the\\ brain\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Challenges\\ to\\ RHT\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\small\\ receptive\\ fields\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ also\\ in\\ higher\\ order\\ visual\\ areas\\,\\ thus\\ also\\ specific\\ learning\\ could\\ depend\\ on\\ high\\ order\\ areas\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ authors\\ state\\ \\`the\\ assumption\\ that\\ average\\ receptive\\ field\\ properties\\ denote\\ the\\ areas\\'\\ functional\\ resolution\\ is\\ sensible\\'\\ \\[I\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ this\\ means\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ quite\\ meaningless\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Electrophysiological\\ evidence\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ IT\\ representations\\ rapidly\\ tune\\ towards\\ task\\ relevant\\ features\\ \\[So\\?\\ So\\ there\\ is\\ learning\\ in\\ IT\\.\\ But\\ without\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ timing\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ order\\ areas\\,\\ it\\ is\\ useless\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ theory\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ Changes\\ in\\ IT\\ are\\ not\\ orientation\\ specific\\,\\ but\\ changes\\ in\\ V4\\ are\\.\\ \\[Every\\ theory\\ could\\ predict\\ this\\.\\ Just\\ because\\ IT\\ is\\ a\\ higher\\ order\\ area\\.\\ This\\ does\\ not\\ support\\ this\\ theory\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ To\\ be\\ interesting\\ as\\ a\\ test\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\,\\ we\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ timing\\ of\\ those\\ changes\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\ Inconsistency\\ between\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ Ghose\\ and\\ Schoups\\ explained\\ by\\ RHT\\:\\ their\\ monkeys\\ had\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ expertise\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Levels\\ of\\ expertise\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ Na\\ï\\;ve\\ performers\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ Mildly\\ trained\\ performers\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\ Highly\\ trained\\ performers\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\RHT\\ and\\ perception\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\RHT\\ predicts\\ that\\ odd\\ elements\\ pop\\ out\\ depending\\ on\\ their\\ ecological\\ relevance\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\So\\ why\\ orientation\\,\\ size\\ and\\ color\\ differences\\ pop\\ out\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Answer\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ They\\ pop\\ out\\ only\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ distractors\\ \\[So\\?\\ How\\ would\\ RHT\\ predict\\ that\\?\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ Those\\ differences\\ are\\ important\\ for\\ object\\ identification\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\:\\ 2\\ conditions\\:\\ pop\\ out\\ or\\ serial\\ scrutiny\\.\\ The\\ first\\ was\\ not\\ impaired\\ during\\ rTMS\\ after\\ 100\\-600ms\\ of\\ stimulus\\ onset\\,\\ the\\ second\\ was\\.\\ \\[Well\\,\\ serial\\ scrutiny\\ takes\\ longer\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\RHT\\:\\ \\`neo\\-Gestalt\\'\\ view\\ of\\ perceptual\\ learning\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Alvarez\\ and\\ Cavanagh\\ 2005\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Independent\\ resources\\ for\\ attentional\\ tracking\\ in\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ right\\ visual\\ hemifields\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\ 1\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Rotating\\ gratings\\ either\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ hemifield\\ or\\ the\\ opposite\\ one\\:\\ subject\\ have\\ to\\ choose\\ a\\ line\\ on\\ the\\ gratings\\ and\\ track\\ it\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Accuracy\\ drops\\ if\\ subjects\\ have\\ to\\ track\\ two\\ gratings\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ hemifield\\,\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ if\\ subjects\\ have\\ to\\ track\\ two\\ gratings\\ in\\ two\\ different\\ hemifields\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\ 2\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\In\\ experiment\\ 1\\ all\\ same\\-hemifield\\ targets\\ were\\ vertically\\ aligned\\,\\ while\\ all\\ different\\-hemifield\\ targets\\ were\\ horizontally\\ aligned\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ check\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ horizontal\\ vs\\ vertical\\ alignment\\ effect\\ by\\ showing\\ couples\\ of\\ targets\\ either\\ horizontally\\ aligned\\ or\\ vertically\\ aligned\\ but\\ alwa\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ hemifield\\.\\ No\\ difference\\ between\\ horizontal\\ and\\ vertical\\.\\ No\\ difference\\ due\\ to\\ eccentricity\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\ 3\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ authors\\ study\\ whether\\ the\\ results\\ hold\\ also\\ for\\ a\\ different\\ task\\:\\ tracking\\ moving\\ dots\\.\\ They\\ do\\,\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ subjects\\ can\\ track\\ 4\\ dots\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ 2\\ per\\ hemifield\\,\\ and\\ only\\ 2\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ hemifield\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Discussion\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ authors\\ claim\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ independent\\ attentional\\ resources\\ in\\ the\\ two\\ hemifields\\.\\ To\\ do\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ reject\\ the\\ following\\ alternatives\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ crowding\\ is\\ more\\ effective\\ inside\\ hemifield\\ \\(no\\,\\ see\\ exp\\ 1\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ grouping\\ might\\ be\\ easier\\ across\\ hemifields\\ \\(Yantis\\ 1992\\)\\ \\(no\\ symmetries\\ for\\ grouping\\,\\ other\\ research\\ suggests\\ that\\ grouping\\ is\\ stronger\\ inside\\ hemifield\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Cavanagh\\ and\\ Alvarez\\:\\ 4\\ foci\\ of\\ attention\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Yantis\\:\\ quadrilateral\\ undergoing\\ non\\ rigid\\ transformations\\ \\[the\\ authors\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ integration\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ quadrilateral\\ takes\\ place\\ later\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Posner\\:\\ one\\ rapidly\\ moving\\ focus\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ view\\ can\\ not\\ explain\\ the\\ independent\\ resources\\ for\\ the\\ two\\ hemifields\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Carlson\\,\\ Alvarez\\ and\\ Cavanagh\\ 2007\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Quadrantic\\ deficit\\ reveals\\ anatomical\\ constraints\\ on\\ selection\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Visual\\ field\\ is\\ fragmented\\ into\\ quadrants\\ at\\ level\\ of\\ V2\\,\\ V3\\,\\ and\\ possibly\\ V4\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\ 1\\:\\ 2\\ wheels\\ with\\ gratings\\ rotating\\ at\\ same\\ speed\\ within\\ trials\\,\\ different\\ speed\\ across\\ trials\\.\\ Participants\\ tracked\\ a\\ spoke\\ on\\ each\\ wheel\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Attentional\\ interference\\ manipulated\\ by\\:\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Varying\\ distance\\ between\\ targets\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Varying\\ the\\ quadrant\\ in\\ the\\ visual\\ field\\ keeping\\ constant\\ distance\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Increased\\ distance\\ increased\\ the\\ speed\\ at\\ which\\ targets\\ are\\ trackable\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ whether\\ they\\ were\\ separated\\ by\\ the\\ vertical\\ or\\ the\\ horizontal\\ meridian\\.\\ \\ \\[against\\ the\\ one\\ spot\\ of\\ attention\\ theory\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Targets\\ were\\ tracked\\ at\\ higher\\ speed\\ when\\ in\\ different\\ quadrants\\.\\ Marginally\\ higher\\ speed\\ thresholds\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ visual\\ field\\ \\(p\\=0\\.054\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ claim\\ that\\ increasing\\ the\\ cortical\\ distance\\ between\\ stimuli\\ helps\\ with\\ attention\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ theory\\ that\\ the\\ quadrantic\\ representations\\ are\\ in\\ V2\\ and\\ V3\\.\\ This\\ could\\ be\\ the\\ case\\ because\\ of\\ receptive\\ fields\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\ 2\\:\\ the\\ authors\\ measure\\ performance\\ at\\ fixed\\ speed\\ with\\ 4\\ discs\\ rather\\ than\\ 2\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2a\\:\\ Lower\\ performance\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\ visual\\ field\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2b\\:\\ Performance\\ decreases\\ when\\ the\\ pair\\ of\\ pinwheels\\ is\\ rotated\\ away\\ from\\ tangential\\ orientation\\ \\(perpendicular\\ to\\ a\\ line\\ drawn\\ from\\ fixation\\)\\,\\ and\\ was\\ worst\\ at\\ a\\ radial\\ orientation\\ \\(parallel\\ to\\ a\\ line\\ drawn\\ from\\ fixation\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2c\\:\\ Retinocentric\\ or\\ allocentric\\ reference\\ frame\\?\\ Performance\\ changed\\ when\\ the\\ head\\ rotated\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ quadrants\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ eye\\/brain\\ and\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\model\\:\\ parietal\\ areas\\ project\\ an\\ attentive\\ field\\ to\\ early\\ visual\\ areas\\ through\\ a\\ feedback\\ process\\ that\\ generates\\ a\\ suppressive\\ surround\\ around\\ the\\ target\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Torralbo\\ and\\ Beck\\ 2008\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Perceptual\\-Load\\-Induced\\ Selection\\ as\\ a\\ Result\\ of\\ Local\\ Competitive\\ Interactions\\ in\\ Visual\\ Cortex\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;Visual\\ perceptual\\ load\\ \\=\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ close\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ those\\ that\\ compete\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ representations\\.\\ \\;\\"\\;Tasks\\ that\\ induce\\ strong\\ competitive\\ interactions\\ among\\ potential\\ target\\ items\\ should\\ require\\ a\\ strong\\ top\\-down\\ bias\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ competition\\ and\\ select\\ the\\ target\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\With\\ high\\ visual\\ load\\,\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ distracted\\ as\\ much\\ by\\ distractors\\ because\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ attentional\\ resources\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ drawn\\ to\\ distractors\\.\\ The\\ more\\ perceptual\\ load\\ of\\ the\\ task\\,\\ the\\ less\\ distracted\\ one\\ gets\\ \\(high\\ density\\ displays\\ show\\ less\\ distraction\\)\\.\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ low\\ load\\,\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ greater\\ attentional\\ resources\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ encode\\ both\\ distracting\\ and\\ target\\ stimuli\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ compete\\ for\\ representation\\,\\ slowing\\ you\\ down\\,\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Several\\ papers\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ distracting\\ information\\ can\\ be\\ ignored\\ depends\\ on\\ perceptual\\ load\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ definition\\ of\\ what\\ constitutes\\ high\\ or\\ low\\ perceptual\\ load\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Unattended\\ information\\:\\ when\\ is\\ it\\ blocked\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ Broadbent\\ 1958\\:\\ early\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ Deutsch\\ and\\ Deutsch\\ 1963\\:late\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ perceptual\\ load\\ \\(Lavie\\ 1995\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Much\\ empirical\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ latter\\,\\ but\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ no\\ definition\\ of\\ perceptual\\ load\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ concept\\ of\\ exhausted\\ capacity\\ difficult\\ to\\ reconcile\\ with\\ the\\ brain\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ authors\\ propose\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ competition\\ for\\ neural\\ representation\\ of\\ simultaneously\\ presented\\ objects\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ competition\\ constitutes\\ perceptual\\ load\\.\\ They\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ proposal\\ is\\ in\\ agreement\\ with\\ the\\ previous\\ literature\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ predictions\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ distance\\ between\\ target\\ items\\ should\\ affect\\ intensity\\ of\\ interaction\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ interactions\\ should\\ happen\\ in\\ V1\\-V4\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ local\\ information\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\ 1\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\A\\ \\distractor\\<\\/em\\>\\ letter\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ center\\:\\ X\\,\\ Z\\ or\\ R\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Task\\:\\ look\\ for\\ a\\ Z\\ or\\ an\\ X\\ in\\ the\\ letters\\ in\\ the\\ periphery\\ and\\ ignore\\ the\\ distractor\\ in\\ 2\\ X\\ 3\\ design\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Factor\\ 1\\:\\ compatibility\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Compatible\\ \\-\\ looking\\ for\\ X\\ when\\ distractor\\ is\\ an\\ X\\ \\(or\\ Z\\ when\\ distractor\\ is\\ Z\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Incompatible\\ \\-\\ Looking\\ for\\ X\\ when\\ distractor\\ is\\ Z\\ \\(or\\ vice\\ versa\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ incompatible\\ because\\ they\\ share\\ a\\ line\\ segment\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Neutral\\ \\-\\ Looking\\ for\\ either\\ X\\ or\\ Z\\ when\\ distractor\\ is\\ R\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Factor\\ 2\\:\\ density\\,\\ high\\ or\\ low\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\RTs\\ in\\ high\\ density\\ trials\\ longer\\ than\\ RTs\\ in\\ low\\ density\\ trials\\.\\ The\\ crucial\\ finding\\ is\\ that\\ while\\ the\\ incompatible\\ distractor\\ was\\ equal\\ across\\ trials\\,\\ the\\ compatible\\ and\\ neutral\\ ones\\ varied\\ according\\ to\\ density\\,\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ both\\ more\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ incompatible\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ high\\ density\\ array\\.\\ So\\,\\ when\\ perceptual\\ load\\ was\\ high\\ \\(searching\\ for\\ a\\ letter\\ in\\ dense\\ array\\)\\,\\ then\\ people\\ were\\ more\\ able\\ to\\ ignore\\ the\\ compatible\\ and\\ neutral\\ distractors\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experiment\\ 2\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ authors\\ manipulate\\ whether\\ the\\ distractor\\ falls\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ hemifield\\ of\\ the\\ target\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\compatible\\ trials\\ \\(the\\ target\\ letter\\ is\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ center\\)\\ vs\\ incompatible\\ trials\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Faster\\ RTs\\ in\\ compatible\\ trials\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Faster\\ RTs\\ when\\ the\\ target\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ hemifield\\ together\\ with\\ other\\ distractors\\.\\ The\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ distractors\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ hemifield\\ the\\ subject\\ can\\ attend\\ them\\ more\\ easily\\,\\ then\\ they\\ access\\ representations\\ and\\ they\\ compete\\ with\\ the\\ target\\ for\\ representation\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\[work\\ by\\ Handy\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Some\\ researchers\\ manipulated\\ perceptual\\ load\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ local\\ competition\\ \\(Handy\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2001\\,\\ Lavie\\ 1995\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Serences\\ and\\ Yantis\\ 2006\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Selective\\ visual\\ attention\\ and\\ perceptual\\ coherence\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Notion\\ of\\ coherence\\ field\\ \\(Rensink\\ 2000\\)\\:\\ joint\\ activity\\ across\\ stages\\ of\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ \\(distributed\\ representation\\ composed\\ of\\ activity\\ in\\ visual\\ areas\\ at\\ different\\ levels\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Desimone\\ and\\ Duncan\\:\\ biased\\ competition\\:\\ when\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ stimulus\\ ends\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ receptive\\ field\\ of\\ a\\ neuron\\,\\ attentional\\ mechanisms\\ may\\ lead\\ the\\ neuron\\ to\\ respond\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ attended\\ stimulus\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Role\\ of\\ different\\ brain\\ regions\\ for\\ attention\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\FMRI\\ experiment\\:\\ regions\\ of\\ topographically\\ organized\\ visual\\ cortex\\ were\\ more\\ active\\ when\\ attention\\ was\\ paid\\ to\\ the\\ contralateral\\ \\(preferred\\)\\ visual\\ field\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Yantis\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2002\\:\\ regions\\ of\\ IPS\\ activated\\ depending\\ on\\ direction\\ of\\ attentional\\ shift\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\`The\\ neural\\ representation\\ of\\ an\\ attended\\ stimulus\\ is\\ more\\ robust\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ other\\ competing\\ objects\\ at\\ every\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Transient\\ signal\\ in\\ SPL\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ switch\\ in\\ attention\\ between\\ locations\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Two\\ possible\\ interpretations\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ tends\\ to\\ an\\ incoherent\\ state\\,\\ the\\ SPL\\ makes\\ it\\ coherent\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ the\\ \\ visual\\ system\\ tends\\ to\\ coherent\\ states\\,\\ the\\ SPL\\ switches\\ from\\ one\\ to\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Sources\\ of\\ attentional\\ control\\ \\(SPL\\:\\ switch\\ signal\\)\\ vs\\.\\ targets\\ \\(visual\\ areas\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Is\\ this\\ dichotomy\\ appropriate\\ or\\ should\\ we\\ think\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ a\\ continuum\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "VISION II"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.482093+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Native American and Feminist Protests", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 321, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ picks\\ up\\ where\\ we\\ left\\ off\\ last\\ week\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ realism\\ as\\ an\\ international\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ responds\\ to\\ modernization\\,\\ the\\ incorporation\\ of\\ industries\\,\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ bureaucracies\\ and\\ the\\ alienation\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ this\\ massive\\ social\\ transformation\\.\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>Modernization\\ also\\ features\\ a\\ reconceptualization\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ primarily\\ through\\ Charles\\ Darwin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\Origin\\ of\\ Species\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Darwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ makes\\ nature\\ a\\ battleground\\ \\(that\\ is\\,\\ because\\ too\\ many\\ animals\\ are\\ competing\\ for\\ limited\\ resources\\ such\\ as\\ food\\ and\\ space\\,\\ only\\ the\\ fittest\\ will\\ survive\\ \\-\\ the\\ endless\\ competition\\ for\\ food\\ in\\ Darwin\\'s\\ theory\\ is\\ a\\ sharp\\ turn\\ from\\ romantic\\ and\\ classical\\ notions\\ that\\ nature\\ is\\ balanced\\ and\\ harmonious\\)\\.\\ Darwin\\'s\\ image\\ of\\ nature\\ meshes\\ with\\ the\\ trauma\\ and\\ aftermath\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ The\\ national\\ mood\\ has\\ darkened\\ considerably\\,\\ and\\ realist\\ fiction\\ reflects\\ that\\ darkened\\ mood\\ quite\\ well\\.\\ Stauffer\\ is\\ careful\\ to\\ point\\ out\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ sentimentalism\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ disappear\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ realism\\.\\ \\ In\\ fact\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ sentimentality\\ intensifies\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Realism\\ and\\ sentimentalism\\ create\\ an\\ important\\ dialectic\\ for\\ decades\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Helen\\ Hunt\\ \\\\Jackson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\A\\ Century\\ of\\ Dishonor\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Wounded\\ Knee\\ Massacre\\<\\/p\\>\\If\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ was\\ difficult\\ on\\ the\\ South\\,\\ it\\ was\\ also\\ difficult\\ for\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\ 20\\,000\\ Native\\ Americans\\ fought\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ but\\ federal\\ removals\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\ from\\ their\\ lands\\ only\\ accelerated\\ after\\ the\\ war\\.\\ In\\ 1876\\,\\ Sioux\\ warriors\\ defeated\\ Custer\\'s\\ troops\\ at\\ \\Little\\ Big\\ Horn\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ but\\ this\\ only\\ gave\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Army\\ an\\ excuse\\ to\\ assume\\ control\\ of\\ all\\ Sioux\\ territories\\ and\\ treat\\ all\\ Sioux\\ warriors\\ as\\ prisoners\\ of\\ war\\.\\ In\\ 1890\\,\\ the\\ 7\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Army\\ regiment\\ \\(the\\ same\\ regiment\\ commanded\\ by\\ General\\ Custer\\)\\ massacred\\ 300\\ Sioux\\ in\\ \\\\\\Wounded\\ \\ \\ Knee\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\South\\ Dakota\\.\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Helen\\ Hunt\\ Jackson\\,\\ \\ middle\\ class\\ housewife\\ from\\ \\Massachusetts\\,\\ \\<\\/st1\\:place\\>was\\ Converted\\ to\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ Indian\\ reform\\ in\\ 1879\\ after\\ hearing\\ a\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ lecture\\ by\\ Standing\\ Bear\\.\\ \\\\A\\ Century\\ of\\ Dishonor\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(1889\\)\\ represents\\ Helen\\ Hunt\\ Jackson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ self\\-education\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ US\\ relations\\ with\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ detailed\\ account\\ of\\ various\\ crimes\\ against\\ various\\ Native\\ American\\ nations\\.\\ \\(While\\ most\\ people\\ saw\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ a\\ monolithic\\ group\\,\\ she\\ treats\\ them\\ as\\ specific\\,\\ diverse\\ nations\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Her\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ century\\ of\\ dishonor\\,\\ destruction\\ and\\ broken\\ treaties\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ everyone\\ aware\\ of\\ that\\ history\\ \\(she\\ herself\\ knew\\ nothing\\ of\\ the\\ plight\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\ until\\ that\\ lecture\\ she\\ attended\\ in\\ Boston\\)\\.\\ Stauffer\\ notes\\ that\\ she\\ cuts\\ against\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ the\\ Jeremiad\\.\\ For\\ her\\,\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ a\\ murderer\\ towards\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\\\ An\\ exhaustive\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ facts\\ replaces\\ the\\ strident\\ voice\\ calling\\ for\\ repentance\\ and\\ redemption\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\But\\ her\\ book\\ largely\\ failed\\ \\(at\\ least\\ if\\ we\\'re\\ judging\\ its\\ success\\ by\\ it\\'s\\ popularity\\)\\.\\ Few\\ people\\ bought\\ it\\,\\ and\\ even\\ f\\\\<\\/span\\>ewer\\ were\\ converts\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ cause\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Why\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ answer\\ is\\ that\\ while\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ very\\ good\\ history\\,\\ history\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ appropriate\\ protest\\ genre\\ in\\ the\\ Gilded\\ Age\\.\\ It\\ wasn\\'t\\ likely\\ to\\ gain\\ wide\\ popularity\\ with\\ a\\ public\\ uninterested\\ in\\ detailed\\ histories\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ sShe\\ was\\ criticized\\ by\\ being\\ anti\\-sentimental\\ and\\ giving\\ us\\ a\\ laundry\\ list\\ of\\ facts\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ she\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ credentials\\ as\\ an\\ historian\\,\\ so\\ she\\ was\\ ignored\\ by\\ academic\\ establishment\\.\\\\ \\(This\\ sounds\\ like\\ a\\ good\\ argument\\.\\ And\\ to\\ this\\ I\\'d\\ only\\ add\\ that\\ by\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ and\\ early\\ 20th\\ centuries\\ Americans\\ were\\ eager\\ to\\ imagine\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ a\\ vanished\\ race\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ difficult\\ to\\ mobilize\\ interest\\ in\\ a\\ population\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ consider\\ extinct\\.\\ Thinking\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\ as\\ already\\ vanished\\ was\\ strangely\\ nationalistic\\:\\ a\\ vanished\\ race\\ can\\ be\\ romanticized\\ much\\ more\\ easily\\ than\\ a\\ living\\ race\\,\\ and\\ linking\\ extinct\\ Native\\ Americans\\ to\\ a\\ nationalist\\ spirit\\ of\\ America\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ patriotism\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ realism\\ is\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ expose\\ \\&\\#8220\\;democratic\\ hypocrisy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(and\\ because\\ this\\ theory\\ is\\ still\\ gestating\\ for\\ Stauffer\\,\\ he\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ enlist\\ our\\ help\\ with\\ it\\ \\-\\ send\\ him\\ an\\ email\\!\\)\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ before\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;freedom\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ a\\ debatable\\ term\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ freedom\\ \\&\\#8220\\;from\\ bondage\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ freedom\\ \\&\\#8220\\;to\\ own\\ slaves\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ freedom\\ from\\ government\\,\\ freedom\\ for\\ self\\-government\\ were\\ all\\ viable\\ interpretations\\.\\ But\\ the\\ postwar\\ amendments\\ \\(13th\\,\\ 14th\\ and\\ 15th\\)\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>make\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ freedom\\ is\\ entirely\\ incompatible\\ with\\ slavery\\ and\\ unequal\\ treatment\\ under\\ the\\ law\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ hypocrisy\\ of\\ slave\\ owners\\ espousing\\ freedom\\ is\\ more\\ explicit\\,\\ and\\ realist\\ literature\\ helps\\ to\\ expose\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\(Another\\ way\\ to\\ describe\\ democratic\\ hypocrisy\\ is\\ this\\:\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\ often\\ conflict\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ things\\ I\\ do\\ or\\ acquire\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ freedom\\ often\\ make\\ me\\ superior\\ to\\ you\\,\\ and\\ if\\ we\\ really\\ want\\ some\\ measure\\ of\\ equality\\ \\(economic\\,\\ educational\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ it\\ will\\ require\\ curtailing\\ freedoms\\.\\ This\\ conflict\\ is\\ irresolvable\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ \\\"democratic\\ hypocrisy\\\"\\ isn\\'t\\ just\\ a\\ judgment\\.\\ It\\'s\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ permanent\\ tension\\ within\\ our\\ society\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ few\\ brief\\ words\\ about\\ Ely\\ Parker\\,\\ a\\ Seneca\\ from\\ \\\\Rochester\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\ \\NY\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ who\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ close\\ friend\\ of\\ Henry\\ Morgan\\ \\(considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ founders\\ of\\ modern\\ Anthropology\\)\\.\\ \\ In\\ 1891\\,\\ Parker\\ gave\\ a\\ speech\\ to\\ commemorate\\ monument\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ Tammany\\ Regiment\\ that\\ fought\\ at\\ \\\\Gettysburg\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ depicts\\ a\\ reunion\\ between\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ between\\ whites\\ and\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\-\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ He\\ does\\ this\\,\\ however\\,\\ at\\ the\\ exclusion\\ of\\ blacks\\ \\(and\\,\\ I\\ might\\ at\\,\\ by\\ invoking\\ a\\ sanitized\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ relations\\ between\\ Native\\ Americans\\ and\\ Europeans\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charlotte\\ Perkins\\ Gilman\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ takes\\ over\\ and\\ offers\\ a\\ caveat\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ appended\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\ syllabus\\:\\ These\\ writers\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ entirely\\ consistent\\ in\\ their\\ protests\\,\\ and\\ they\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ saints\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ often\\ internal\\ contradictions\\ in\\ their\\ views\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ one\\ strand\\ of\\ protest\\ literature\\ functions\\ as\\ a\\ counter\\-narrative\\,\\ as\\ a\\ revisionist\\ history\\ that\\ documents\\ a\\ forgotten\\ past\\.\\ Helen\\ Hunt\\ Jackson\\ represents\\ this\\ version\\ of\\ protest\\,\\ whereas\\ Charlotte\\ Perkins\\ Gilman\\ represents\\ a\\ different\\ style\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ Gilman\\ was\\ the\\ grandniece\\ of\\ Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\.\\ She\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 1860\\ and\\ lived\\ in\\ \\\\Hartford\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\Connecticut\\.\\ She\\ studied\\ painting\\ and\\ drawing\\ at\\ the\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ School\\ of\\ Design\\.\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ She\\ married\\ the\\ artist\\ Charles\\ Stetson\\ in\\ 1884\\ after\\ resisting\\ his\\ proposals\\ for\\ 2\\ years\\ \\(she\\ swore\\ never\\ to\\ marry\\ because\\ she\\ believed\\ it\\ would\\ ruin\\ her\\ career\\)\\.\\ She\\ became\\ pregnant\\ immediately\\ and\\ suffered\\ from\\ postpartum\\ depression\\.\\ Her\\ doctor\\ diagnosed\\ her\\ with\\ \\neurasthenia\\ \\<\\/a\\>and\\ recommended\\ a\\ \\\"rest\\ cure\\\"\\:\\ stay\\ at\\ home\\.\\ No\\ books\\.\\ No\\ art\\.\\ Keep\\ your\\ baby\\ with\\ you\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ in\\ short\\,\\ the\\ worst\\ possible\\ prescription\\.\\ She\\ suffered\\ a\\ nervous\\ breakdown\\.\\ In\\ 1888\\ headed\\ to\\ \\\\California\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ with\\ her\\ child\\ and\\ she\\ launched\\ a\\ literary\\ and\\ lecturing\\ career\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ she\\ left\\ her\\ child\\ in\\ the\\ custody\\ of\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ divorced\\ him\\ \\(she\\ would\\ later\\ marry\\ George\\ Gilman\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ 39\\)\\.\\ She\\ penned\\ a\\ feminist\\ utopia\\ called\\ \\Herland\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\(1915\\)\\,\\ which\\ McCarthy\\ describes\\ as\\ a\\ region\\ where\\ \\&\\#8220\\;she\\-mothers\\ rule\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Gilman\\ wrote\\ both\\ fiction\\ and\\ non\\-fiction\\ with\\ a\\ feminist\\ slant\\,\\ though\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ critiques\\ Gilman\\ often\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ emotional\\ and\\ psychological\\ costs\\ of\\ patriarcy\\.\\ \\(In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ Gilman\\ was\\ ahead\\ of\\ her\\ time\\.\\ \\\"The\\ personal\\ is\\ political\\\"\\ wouldn\\'t\\ become\\ a\\ feminist\\ motto\\ until\\ second\\ wave\\ feminism\\ after\\ World\\ War\\ II\\.\\)\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Yellow\\ Wallpaper\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ \\-\\ Gilman\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mention\\ anything\\ about\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rights\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ letter\\ explaining\\ her\\ reasons\\ for\\ writing\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Gilman\\'s\\ diary\\ technique\\ in\\ \\\"The\\ Yellow\\ Wallpaper\\\"\\ places\\ us\\ directly\\ inside\\ the\\ protagonist\\'s\\ thoughts\\.\\ \\(The\\ wallpaper\\ itself\\ basically\\ functions\\ as\\ a\\ \\Rorchach\\ inkblot\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\ The\\ protagonist\\ presents\\ herself\\ as\\ a\\ faithful\\ loving\\ wife\\,\\ with\\ a\\ well\\-intentioned\\ husband\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>who\\ infantilizes\\ her\\ nonetheless\\ \\(notice\\ that\\ the\\ story\\ takes\\ place\\,\\ technically\\,\\ in\\ \\a\\ room\\ of\\ one\\'s\\ own\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ room\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ cross\\ between\\ a\\ prison\\ and\\ a\\ nursery\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ story\\ relies\\ upon\\ dramatic\\ irony\\ \\-\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ reader\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ knowledge\\ and\\ the\\ narrator\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ innocence\\,\\ which\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ makes\\ the\\ story\\ so\\ effective\\.\\ We\\ know\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ protagonist\\ than\\ she\\ knows\\ about\\ herself\\.\\ It\\ also\\ features\\ an\\ ambiguous\\ ending\\:\\ the\\ \\\"rational\\\"\\ husband\\ faints\\ when\\ he\\ breaks\\ into\\ her\\ upstairs\\ room\\ and\\ sees\\ how\\ mentally\\ unraveled\\ she\\ has\\ become\\,\\ and\\ she\\ continues\\ to\\ \\\"creep\\\"\\ around\\ the\\ room\\ and\\ over\\ her\\ fainted\\ husband\\.\\ \\(Gilman\\'s\\ version\\ of\\ protest\\ literature\\ emphasizes\\ empathy\\ and\\ diminishes\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ calling\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ form\\ of\\ action\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ \\\"The\\ Yellow\\ Wallpaper\\\"\\ depicts\\ the\\ problem\\ \\-\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ depression\\ among\\ women\\ \\-\\ as\\ vividly\\ as\\ possible\\ with\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ this\\ portrayal\\ will\\ itself\\ move\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ action\\.\\ \\ In\\ a\\ way\\,\\ though\\,\\ Gilman\\'s\\ short\\ story\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ counter\\-narrative\\:\\ she\\ uncovers\\ a\\ social\\ problem\\ overlooked\\ by\\ the\\ growing\\ profession\\ of\\ psychology\\ and\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Native American and Feminist Protests"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.515816+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Souls of Black Folk", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 323, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Reading\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\ on\\ W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ He\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 1868\\,\\ the\\ year\\ of\\ the\\ \\14\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ amendment\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ ratification\\,\\ and\\ died\\ on\\ the\\ morning\\ of\\ the\\ \\March\\ on\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ in\\ 1963\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ Professor\\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ this\\ effectively\\ means\\ that\\ his\\ life\\ spanned\\ two\\ reconstructions\\:\\ the\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ reconstruction\\ and\\ the\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ African\\ American\\ to\\ earn\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ from\\ Harvard\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ a\\ sociologist\\ by\\ training\\ and\\ authored\\ a\\ classic\\ work\\ in\\ American\\ sociology\\ \\-\\ \\The\\ Philadelphia\\ Negro\\:\\ A\\ Study\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(1899\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Near\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ his\\ passport\\ was\\ revoked\\ while\\ in\\ \\\\Ghana\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ wanted\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ but\\ his\\ request\\ was\\ denied\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ suspected\\ of\\ communist\\ involvement\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Among\\ the\\ many\\ ways\\ to\\ read\\ \\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ as\\ history\\,\\ as\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ essays\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ life\\ during\\ the\\ restoration\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Du\\ Bois\\ experienced\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ many\\ binaries\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ lived\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ North\\ and\\ the\\ South\\,\\ in\\ rural\\ and\\ urban\\ areas\\,\\ among\\ educated\\ and\\ uneducated\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ born\\ and\\ raised\\ in\\ Great\\ Barrington\\,\\ Massachusetts\\ and\\ attended\\ college\\ at\\ Fisk\\ in\\ \\\\Nashville\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ which\\ was\\ his\\ first\\ exposure\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ community\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Harvard\\ required\\ him\\ to\\ repeat\\ his\\ undergraduate\\ work\\ before\\ they\\ would\\ admit\\ him\\ into\\ graduate\\ school\\ because\\ the\\ university\\ did\\ not\\ recognize\\ his\\ work\\ at\\ Fisk\\,\\ a\\ Negro\\ college\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ later\\ went\\ to\\ \\\\Atlanta\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\University\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ \\\\Georgia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ fully\\ immersed\\ in\\ post\\ reconstruction\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Double\\-Consciousness\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Du\\ Bois\\ defines\\ double\\-consciousness\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ hallmark\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ identity\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ sense\\ of\\ always\\ looking\\ at\\ oneself\\ through\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ others\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ effectively\\ means\\ that\\ African\\ Americans\\ are\\ always\\ aware\\ of\\ being\\ both\\ black\\ and\\ American\\.\\ \\(Another\\ way\\ to\\ put\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\,\\ while\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ aware\\ of\\ ourselves\\,\\ double\\-consciousness\\ means\\ that\\ overlaying\\ your\\ own\\ image\\ of\\ yourself\\ is\\ another\\ person\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ image\\ of\\ you\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ the\\ doubling\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ image\\ of\\ yourself\\ with\\ a\\ constant\\ awareness\\ of\\ white\\ Americans\\'\\ image\\ of\\ your\\ black\\ identity\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Double\\ consciousness\\ is\\ partially\\ derived\\ from\\ Hegel\\,\\ whom\\ Du\\ Bois\\ studied\\ while\\ in\\ \\\\Germany\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Hegel\\ develops\\ a\\ similar\\ parallel\\ in\\ his\\ famous\\ Master\\/Slave\\ dialectic\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ master\\ and\\ slave\\ develop\\ a\\ mutual\\ dependency\\ that\\ generates\\ self\\-consciousness\\ and\\ modernity\\ itself\\ \\(Let\\ it\\ be\\ known\\ that\\ Hegel\\ is\\ dense\\ reading\\,\\ but\\ for\\ those\\ interested\\ in\\ a\\ powerful\\ and\\ accessible\\ explication\\ of\\ the\\ Master\\/Slave\\ dialectic\\ check\\ out\\ Alexandre\\ Koj\\&\\#232\\;ve\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ excellent\\ piece\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Du\\ Bois\\ places\\ great\\ importance\\ on\\ the\\ divided\\ self\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ division\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ eventually\\ merge\\ into\\ a\\ unity\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ simply\\ a\\ burden\\,\\ double\\-consciousness\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ strength\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ gives\\ African\\ Americans\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ rise\\ above\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;veil\\&\\#8221\\;\\ placed\\ between\\ themselves\\ and\\ white\\ Americans\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Possibly\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ compensating\\ for\\ his\\ unusual\\ upbringing\\ compared\\ to\\ most\\ African\\ Americans\\,\\ Du\\ Bois\\ establishes\\ his\\ authenticity\\ in\\ the\\ forward\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ recognized\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bone\\ of\\ the\\ bone\\ and\\ flesh\\ of\\ the\\ flesh\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ all\\ black\\ people\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ he\\ is\\ eager\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ fundamental\\ humanism\\:\\ his\\ soul\\ is\\ the\\ common\\ bond\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ share\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ first\\ chapter\\ Du\\ Bois\\ asks\\ rhetorically\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;How\\ does\\ it\\ feel\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ second\\ chapter\\ and\\ beyond\\ he\\ transfers\\ the\\ burden\\ from\\ the\\ Negro\\ problem\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;race\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ an\\ entire\\ ideological\\ regime\\ is\\ seriously\\ flawed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Du\\ Bois\\ challenges\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ progress\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reconstruction\\ South\\ is\\ a\\ prime\\ example\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ particularly\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ public\\ schooling\\ in\\ the\\ reconstructed\\ South\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tax\\-supported\\ public\\ schools\\ began\\ sprouting\\ up\\ across\\ the\\ South\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ reconstruction\\,\\ but\\ as\\ time\\ went\\ on\\ the\\ support\\ and\\ funding\\ for\\ these\\ schools\\ plummeted\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\/Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ Debate\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\<\\/p\\>\\Du\\ Bois\\ first\\ encountered\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ when\\ he\\ moved\\ to\\ \\\\Atlanta\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ influential\\ black\\ thinker\\ in\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ shared\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ education\\ for\\ African\\ Americans\\,\\ but\\ they\\ differed\\ over\\ what\\ that\\ education\\ should\\ be\\.\\\\\\ Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ advocated\\ industrial\\ education\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ agricultural\\ and\\ mechanical\\ training\\ \\(we\\ see\\ the\\ vestiges\\ of\\ this\\ in\\ so\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ A\\&\\;M\\ schools\\ around\\ the\\ country\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ incensed\\ Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ that\\ \\(implicitly\\ or\\ explicitly\\)\\ Washington\\ wanted\\ African\\ Americans\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ civil\\ rights\\ and\\ political\\ power\\ until\\ some\\ later\\ date\\.\\ \\(In\\ a\\ way\\,\\ this\\ resembles\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;go\\ slow\\&\\#8221\\;\\ approach\\ advocated\\ by\\ Southern\\ moderates\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ era\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ problem\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;go\\ slow\\&\\#8221\\;\\ arguments\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ essentially\\ a\\ euphemism\\ for\\ doing\\ nothing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Neither\\ Washington\\ nor\\ the\\ Southern\\ moderates\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Century\\ had\\ a\\ road\\ map\\ for\\ equal\\ rights\\.\\ How\\ long\\ should\\ African\\ Americans\\ spend\\ making\\ themselves\\ economically\\ indispensable\\ before\\ they\\ demand\\ equal\\ rights\\?\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Atlanta\\ Compromise\\&\\#8221\\;\\ speech\\ in\\ 1895\\ he\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ all\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ purely\\ social\\ we\\ can\\ be\\ as\\ separate\\ as\\ the\\ fingers\\,\\ yet\\ one\\ as\\ the\\ hand\\ in\\ all\\ things\\ essential\\ to\\ mutual\\ progress\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Du\\ Bois\\ believes\\ this\\ validates\\ white\\ supremacy\\ and\\ political\\ inaction\\ among\\ African\\ Americans\\,\\ and\\ it\\ undoubtedly\\ suggests\\ a\\ regime\\ of\\ segregation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Du\\ Bois\\ thinks\\ civil\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ wait\\,\\ and\\ he\\ closes\\ his\\ chapter\\ in\\ \\Souls\\ \\<\\/em\\>devoted\\ to\\ the\\ Washington\\ debate\\ with\\ a\\ quotation\\ from\\ the\\ Declaration\\ of\\ Independence\\.\\ He\\ therefore\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ firmly\\ within\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ US\\ protest\\ literature\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Du\\ Bois\\ believed\\ deeply\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ scholarship\\ to\\ affect\\ social\\ change\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ blurred\\ distinctions\\ between\\ the\\ academy\\ and\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ vision\\ of\\ education\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ liberal\\ education\\ \\(and\\ to\\ the\\ education\\ he\\ himself\\ received\\)\\,\\ in\\ which\\ students\\ would\\ be\\ steeped\\ in\\ the\\ canon\\ of\\ great\\ thinkers\\ across\\ the\\ centuries\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Each\\ chapter\\ in\\ \\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/em\\>\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ quotation\\ from\\ a\\ European\\ American\\ writer\\ coupled\\ with\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ measures\\ from\\ an\\ African\\ American\\ song\\,\\ which\\ Du\\ Bois\\ refers\\ to\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Sorrow\\ Songs\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Beginning\\ his\\ chapters\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ is\\ an\\ instantiation\\ of\\ double\\-consciousness\\,\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ two\\ traditions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Du\\ Bois\\ argues\\ that\\ these\\ songs\\ are\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ single\\ spiritual\\ heritage\\ of\\ this\\ nation\\ and\\ the\\ greatest\\ gift\\ of\\ the\\ Negro\\ people\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Du\\ Bois\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ eloquence\\ throughout\\ this\\ volume\\ softens\\ what\\ might\\ otherwise\\ be\\ a\\ startling\\ contention\\:\\ that\\ African\\ Americans\\ are\\ the\\ spiritual\\ backbone\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ reminds\\ us\\ that\\ historical\\ circumstances\\ shaped\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ Washington\\ and\\ Du\\ Bois\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ was\\ willing\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ pragmatic\\ because\\ he\\ lived\\ through\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ avoid\\ this\\ apocalypse\\ at\\ all\\ cost\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ willing\\ to\\ compromise\\ to\\ avoid\\ another\\ war\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ general\\,\\ older\\ African\\ Americans\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ including\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\!\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ espoused\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ far\\ more\\ than\\ Du\\ Bois\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ contrast\\,\\ Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ born\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ \\(and\\,\\ we\\ should\\ note\\,\\ he\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ North\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ touring\\ the\\ unreconstructed\\ South\\ must\\ have\\ effected\\ Du\\ Bois\\ deeply\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ escape\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ hadn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ grown\\ up\\ there\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ never\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ underclass\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ black\\ belt\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contemporary\\ praise\\ for\\ \\Souls\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Henry\\ James\\ called\\ it\\ the\\ only\\ southern\\ book\\ of\\ any\\ distinction\\ published\\ in\\ many\\ years\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>James\\ Weldon\\ Johnson\\ thought\\ the\\ book\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ of\\ the\\ century\\ \\(and\\ Johnson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ book\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Autobiography\\ of\\ an\\ Ex\\-Colored\\ Man\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ integrates\\ Du\\ Bois\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ double\\-consciousness\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ sociologist\\ Max\\ Weber\\ arranged\\ to\\ translate\\ souls\\ into\\ German\\ and\\ offered\\ to\\ write\\ an\\ intro\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>William\\ James\\ said\\ \\Souls\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ only\\ literature\\ published\\ by\\ a\\ Harvard\\ graduate\\ in\\ 40\\ years\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ sold\\ 200\\ a\\ week\\ during\\ its\\ first\\ year\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ high\\ number\\,\\ considering\\ its\\ radicalism\\.\\ And\\,\\ after\\ five\\ years\\,\\ 10\\,000\\ copies\\ had\\ been\\ sold\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ scourge\\ of\\ lynching\\ \\(\\see\\ lecture\\ \\#9\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ partly\\ inspired\\ the\\ volume\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ in\\ \\\\Atlanta\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ lynching\\ of\\ Sam\\ Hose\\,\\ and\\ he\\ remarked\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ lynching\\ pulled\\ me\\ off\\ my\\ feet\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ faith\\ in\\ dispassionate\\ social\\ research\\ was\\ irreparably\\ shaken\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ this\\,\\ and\\ Souls\\ marks\\ a\\ turn\\ away\\ from\\ systematic\\ sociology\\ and\\ towards\\ more\\ accessible\\ and\\ moving\\ prose\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Because\\ nine\\ essays\\ were\\ published\\ elsewhere\\ as\\ journalism\\,\\ they\\ read\\ somewhat\\ quickly\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Du\\ Bois\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ reader\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ attention\\ quickly\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ rewrote\\ these\\ articles\\ and\\ added\\ five\\ more\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ mixture\\ of\\ genres\\ is\\ purposeful\\ \\-\\ history\\,\\ fiction\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;Of\\ the\\ Coming\\ of\\ John\\\"\\)\\,\\ autobiography\\,\\ and\\ the\\ incorporation\\ of\\ myth\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ Du\\ Bois\\ divides\\ history\\ into\\ a\\ before\\ and\\ after\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ prose\\ evokes\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ including\\ the\\ sufferings\\ and\\ wanderings\\ of\\ a\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ followed\\ by\\ spiritual\\ triumph\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Souls of Black Folk"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.570782+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Let Us Now Praise Famous Men", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 326, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Reading\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ James\\ Agee\\ and\\ Walker\\ Evans\\,\\ \\Let\\ Us\\ Now\\ Praise\\ Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Zoe\\ Trodd\\,\\ a\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ candidate\\ in\\ American\\ Civilization\\,\\ delivers\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ is\\,\\ among\\ other\\ things\\,\\ the\\ editor\\ of\\ \\American\\ Protest\\ Literature\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ a\\ compilation\\ of\\ writings\\ from\\ the\\ protest\\ tradition\\.\\ She\\ begins\\ by\\ noting\\ that\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ this\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ reading\\ \\-\\ \\Let\\ Us\\ Now\\ Praise\\ Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\(Ecclesiastes\\,\\ I\\ believe\\)\\ and\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ memorial\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ no\\ memorial\\ of\\ their\\ own\\,\\ which\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\,\\ James\\ Agee\\ and\\ Walker\\ Evans\\ applied\\ to\\ the\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ stands\\ as\\ a\\ memorial\\ to\\ a\\ class\\ of\\ workers\\ overlooked\\ by\\ many\\ Americans\\,\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ also\\ explicitly\\ a\\ call\\ to\\ action\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ first\\ thing\\ to\\ note\\ about\\ \\Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ project\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ stylistic\\ innovations\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ writer\\ \\James\\ Agee\\<\\/a\\>\\ teamed\\ up\\ with\\ \\photographer\\ Walker\\ Evans\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\(And\\,\\ hearkening\\ back\\ to\\ last\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ might\\ note\\ that\\ projects\\ like\\ these\\ were\\ not\\ unique\\ to\\ Agee\\ and\\ Evans\\ and\\ may\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ grow\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ newspaper\\ industry\\.\\ It\\ had\\ been\\ making\\ great\\ strides\\ in\\ bringing\\ together\\ text\\ and\\ photography\\ to\\ present\\ stories\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ we\\ notice\\ about\\ Agee\\ is\\ his\\ frankly\\ sexual\\ imagination\\,\\ his\\ embarrassing\\ manner\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ remembers\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ masturbating\\ in\\ his\\ grandfather\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ house\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Evans\\ found\\ Agee\\ somewhat\\ overwhelming\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ an\\ excitable\\ figure\\ who\\ would\\ change\\ his\\ accent\\ when\\ among\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ \\(and\\,\\ apparently\\,\\ he\\ could\\ get\\ away\\ with\\ it\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Evans\\ and\\ Agee\\,\\ however\\,\\ are\\ strikingly\\ different\\ artists\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ difficulty\\ of\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ style\\ is\\ a\\ counterpoint\\ to\\ the\\ stark\\ deliberateness\\ of\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ photographs\\ of\\ the\\ tenant\\ farmers\\&\\#8217\\;\\ families\\ and\\ houses\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Evans\\ criticized\\ the\\ stylizations\\ of\\ art\\ photographers\\ and\\ preferred\\ disinterested\\,\\ stark\\ realism\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Many\\ of\\ his\\ portraits\\ feature\\ flat\\ light\\ schemes\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Contrast\\ this\\ with\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ expressive\\ prose\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ counter\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ restraint\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Trodd\\ argues\\ that\\ Agee\\ follows\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ in\\ that\\ Agee\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ subjects\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ an\\ observant\\ writer\\.\\ \\(The\\ Whitmanian\\ influence\\ is\\ clearly\\ present\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ especially\\ when\\ Agee\\'s\\ attention\\ to\\ serial\\ details\\ takes\\ off\\ into\\ rhapsodic\\ flights\\ that\\ end\\ up\\ surveying\\ the\\ entire\\ cosmos\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Agee\\ follows\\ the\\ Whitmanian\\ \\ example\\ of\\ democratic\\ enthusiasm\\,\\ but\\ I\\ cannot\\ help\\ but\\ think\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ always\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ steps\\ off\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ hearing\\ Whitman\\ again\\ through\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ Whitman\\ makes\\ you\\ realize\\ just\\ how\\ \\disciplined\\<\\/em\\>\\ Whitman\\ can\\ be\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ right\\.\\ I\\ put\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Whitman\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;disciplined\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ sentence\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Think\\ about\\ it\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\[For\\ more\\ on\\ Whitman\\,\\ see\\ \\\\\"Lecture\\ 4\\:\\ Wars\\ and\\ Words\\\"\\<\\/a\\>\\]\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Agee\\ and\\ Evans\\ had\\ been\\ commissioned\\ for\\ the\\ project\\ by\\ \\Fortune\\ \\<\\/em\\>magazine\\ in\\ 1936\\,\\ but\\ the\\ manuscript\\ was\\ ten\\ times\\ longer\\ than\\ \\Fortune\\ \\<\\/em\\>wanted\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ trouble\\ finding\\ another\\ publisher\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\ finally\\ published\\ in\\ 1941\\,\\ but\\ by\\ then\\ the\\ moment\\ was\\ lost\\ and\\ it\\ quickly\\ went\\ out\\ of\\ print\\.\\ \\(The\\ plight\\ of\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ easy\\ sell\\ when\\ fascism\\ and\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ are\\ monopolizing\\ your\\ attention\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Not\\ all\\ was\\ lost\\,\\ though\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ white\\ civil\\ rights\\ activists\\ used\\ it\\ as\\ something\\ like\\ a\\ manual\\ for\\ breaking\\ down\\ the\\ barriers\\ between\\ rich\\ and\\ poor\\,\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ as\\ they\\ made\\ their\\ pilgrimages\\ down\\ south\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Critics\\ thought\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ writing\\ was\\ overwrought\\,\\ pompous\\ and\\ mannered\\.\\ \\(What\\ does\\ Agee\\ mean\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\\"The\\ lamplight\\ pulses\\ like\\ wounded\\ honey\\\"\\?\\ When\\ he\\ doesn\\'t\\ remind\\ us\\ of\\ Whitman\\ he\\ can\\ remind\\ us\\ of\\ more\\ eccentric\\ avant\\-garde\\ poets\\ like\\ \\Mina\\ Loy\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Shelter\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ he\\ provides\\ a\\ 15\\,000\\-word\\ description\\ of\\ houses\\ that\\ is\\ almost\\ painfully\\ detailed\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Critics\\ also\\ argued\\ that\\ Agee\\ was\\ too\\ present\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ writing\\.\\ He\\ made\\ his\\ anxieties\\ about\\ his\\ own\\ project\\ \\(the\\ ethical\\ implications\\ of\\ turning\\ people\\ into\\ writing\\ subjects\\)\\ all\\ too\\ plain\\.\\ \\(This\\ book\\ is\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ as\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ problems\\ about\\ writing\\ about\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ question\\&\\#8230\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ not\\ write\\ a\\ traditional\\ narrative\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\ are\\ 4\\ possible\\ answers\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Agee\\ was\\ guided\\ by\\ the\\ principle\\ that\\ each\\ person\\ is\\ unique\\,\\ and\\ the\\ next\\ best\\ thing\\ to\\ straight\\ description\\ \\(which\\ is\\ bound\\ to\\ fail\\ to\\ capture\\ each\\ person\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ uniqueness\\)\\ is\\ to\\ record\\ his\\ response\\ to\\ them\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ imitate\\ the\\ consciousness\\ of\\ his\\ interactions\\ with\\ these\\ individuals\\.\\ \\(This\\ technique\\ \\-\\ whereby\\ the\\ writing\\ hand\\ of\\ the\\ reporter\\ becomes\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ the\\ subject\\ she\\ covers\\ \\-\\ would\\ become\\ prominent\\ again\\ in\\ the\\ post\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ writers\\ collectively\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ New\\ Journalists\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Tom\\ Wolfe\\,\\ Hunter\\ Thompson\\ and\\ Norman\\ Mailer\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ Agee\\ believed\\ that\\ reality\\ was\\ messy\\,\\ and\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>he\\ wanted\\ to\\ record\\ it\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ messiness\\.\\ This\\ meant\\ drawing\\ portraits\\ that\\ were\\ complex\\ and\\ less\\ easily\\ understood\\,\\ all\\ with\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ this\\ complexity\\ would\\ lend\\ dignity\\ to\\ subjects\\ so\\ easily\\ turned\\ into\\ two\\-dimensional\\ types\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ Agee\\ developed\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ guilt\\ by\\ even\\ attempting\\ this\\ project\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ had\\ been\\ born\\ a\\ tenant\\ farmer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ son\\,\\ and\\ his\\ circular\\,\\ repetitive\\ style\\ pleased\\ him\\ because\\ he\\ hoped\\ that\\ the\\ earnest\\ brutality\\ and\\ boredom\\ might\\ mimic\\ the\\ repetitive\\,\\ dreary\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ farmers\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ lives\\ with\\ which\\ he\\ sympathized\\ but\\ knew\\ he\\ no\\ longer\\ really\\ shared\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ Agee\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ language\\ a\\ performance\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ book\\ is\\ an\\ event\\ in\\ time\\ between\\ writer\\ and\\ reader\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ actually\\ includes\\ a\\ cast\\ list\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ as\\ if\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ performative\\ aspect\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(It\\ seems\\ that\\ this\\ cast\\ of\\ characters\\ cuts\\ both\\ ways\\.\\ A\\ performance\\ may\\ make\\ the\\ text\\ more\\ interactive\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ he\\ must\\ also\\ lift\\ his\\ people\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ place\\ them\\ on\\ the\\ stage\\,\\ which\\ means\\ Agee\\ is\\ creating\\ the\\ same\\ aesthetic\\ distance\\ he\\ claims\\ to\\ abjure\\.\\ In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ writing\\ is\\ the\\ drama\\ of\\ a\\ writer\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ two\\ different\\ things\\ at\\ once\\:\\ his\\ experimental\\ passages\\ aim\\ at\\ those\\ unnameable\\ qualities\\ that\\ make\\ people\\ who\\ they\\ are\\ while\\ his\\ detailed\\ passages\\ obsessively\\ document\\ the\\ material\\ conditions\\ of\\ their\\ physical\\ environment\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Photographs\\ of\\ Walker\\ Evans\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ success\\ of\\ \\Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\ depends\\ upon\\ the\\ dialogue\\ between\\ text\\ and\\ images\\.\\ \\(I\\ wonder\\ how\\ the\\ dialogic\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ project\\ are\\ hindered\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ photographs\\ are\\ relegated\\ to\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ text\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Agee\\ often\\ tries\\ to\\ imitate\\ the\\ camera\\,\\ which\\ he\\ calls\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ central\\ instrument\\ of\\ our\\ time\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\-\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>he\\ was\\ himself\\ a\\ frustrated\\ photographer\\ and\\ filmmaker\\ and\\ sees\\ the\\ world\\ photographically\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Here\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ Evans\\'\\ photographs\\ from\\ \\Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\ the\\ child\\ appears\\ as\\ a\\ fairy\\ or\\ an\\ angel\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ sheets\\ behind\\ him\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ wings\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\ the\\ child\\ is\\ also\\ behind\\ bars\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Trodd\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ Evans\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ fairy\\ tales\\ that\\ have\\ gone\\ awry\\.\\ \\(I\\ think\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ things\\ to\\ say\\ about\\ this\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ that\\ those\\ sheets\\ really\\ \\do\\ \\<\\/em\\>look\\ like\\ an\\ angel\\'s\\ wings\\ \\-\\ almost\\ uncannily\\ so\\ once\\ you\\ notice\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ But\\ the\\ second\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ by\\ making\\ this\\ observation\\ we\\ may\\ be\\ doing\\ something\\ that\\ Evans\\ explicitly\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ us\\ to\\ do\\.\\ Perhaps\\ this\\ version\\ of\\ symbolic\\ reading\\ is\\ the\\ aestheticizing\\ turn\\ that\\ betrays\\ his\\ fascination\\ with\\ the\\ plain\\,\\ blunt\\ styles\\ of\\ the\\ ordinary\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ throughout\\ his\\ images\\.\\ Perhaps\\ we\\ can\\ go\\ further\\ with\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ commonplace\\ observation\\:\\ this\\ child\\ seems\\ preternaturally\\ old\\.\\ There\\ may\\ be\\ something\\ of\\ the\\ brawny\\ workman\\ in\\ his\\ posture\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ grip\\ of\\ his\\ dirty\\ fingers\\.\\ It\\ isn\\'t\\ with\\ candor\\ that\\ he\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ camera\\.\\ He\\ is\\ nonplussed\\.\\ He\\'s\\ already\\ too\\ old\\ for\\ someone\\ his\\ age\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Evans\\ and\\ Agee\\ wanted\\ to\\ acknowledge\\ a\\ painful\\ beauty\\,\\ but\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ he\\ does\\ this\\ he\\ becomes\\ apologetic\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ afraid\\ that\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ images\\ may\\ cut\\ down\\ their\\ power\\ \\(it\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ calling\\ something\\ beautiful\\ effectively\\ sequesters\\ that\\ thing\\ from\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ by\\ locking\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ private\\ space\\ of\\ aesthetics\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Evans\\ was\\ fascinated\\ by\\ billboards\\ and\\ signs\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ saw\\ language\\ everywhere\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ captions\\ to\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ photographs\\,\\ Trodd\\ argues\\ that\\ photographs\\ hold\\ internal\\ captions\\ with\\ the\\ signs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\If\\ reviewers\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ happy\\ with\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ prose\\,\\ they\\ liked\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ art\\.\\ His\\ images\\ are\\ filled\\ with\\ allusions\\ and\\ quotations\\ of\\ other\\ well\\-known\\ photographs\\ and\\ paintings\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ the\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ propaganda\\ is\\ more\\ effective\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ aesthetically\\ enjoyable\\ \\(This\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ debate\\ in\\ critical\\ theory\\ \\-\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ \\Frankfurt\\ School\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ See\\ Theodor\\ Adorno\\ and\\ Herbert\\ Marcuse\\'s\\ essay\\ \\\"The\\ Affirmative\\ Character\\ of\\ Culture\\,\\\"\\ which\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ pleasure\\ of\\ art\\ effectively\\ destroys\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ protest\\ the\\ power\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ society\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\[Another\\ 2007\\ course\\,\\ \\Nazi\\ Cinema\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ covers\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ propaganda\\ and\\ aesthetics\\ in\\ much\\ more\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\Read\\ it\\ on\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\]\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Evans\\ was\\ resisting\\ classic\\ 1930s\\ images\\ such\\ as\\ endless\\ straight\\ roads\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ focusing\\ on\\ props\\,\\ Evans\\ emphasized\\ the\\ selection\\ and\\ sequencing\\ of\\ his\\ photographs\\.\\ One\\ of\\ his\\ artistic\\ strategies\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ double\\-page\\ spread\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ pairing\\ of\\ images\\ side\\-by\\-side\\ would\\ begin\\ to\\ tell\\ a\\ story\\ as\\ they\\ interact\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ jarring\\ photograph\\ of\\ a\\ tenant\\ farmer\\'s\\ family\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Evans\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ capture\\ poverty\\,\\ but\\ across\\ from\\ this\\ image\\ is\\ a\\ vacant\\ kitchen\\.\\ \\(The\\ effect\\,\\ I\\ think\\,\\ is\\ to\\ empty\\ out\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ solidarity\\ that\\ the\\ above\\ image\\ connotes\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ projects\\ against\\ which\\ Agee\\ and\\ Evans\\ defined\\ themselves\\ was\\ the\\ collaboration\\ between\\ the\\ writer\\ Erskine\\ Caldwell\\ and\\ Margaret\\ Bourke\\-White\\ in\\ \\You\\ Have\\ Seen\\ Their\\ Faces\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(1937\\)\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ well\\-known\\ image\\ from\\ that\\ collection\\:\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>The\\ people\\ in\\ this\\ collection\\ were\\ often\\ made\\ to\\ seem\\ monumental\\ or\\ iconic\\.\\ There\\ weren\\'t\\ individuals\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ Types\\.\\ Images\\ and\\ text\\ were\\ interwoven\\ \\in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ Trodd\\ thinks\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>facile\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Agee\\ thinks\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ obscene\\ to\\ be\\ prying\\ into\\ these\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lives\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ be\\ parading\\ their\\ suffering\\ before\\ a\\ complacent\\ readership\\.\\ For\\ Agee\\ and\\ Evans\\,\\ iconic\\ representations\\ promoted\\ pity\\,\\ and\\,\\ by\\ contrast\\,\\ Agee\\ wanted\\ his\\ project\\ to\\ protest\\ such\\ oversimplified\\ reportage\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ representations\\ became\\ very\\ personal\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ his\\ subjects\\ representative\\ figures\\ and\\ explore\\ their\\ uniqueness\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ farcical\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ Caldwell\\/Bourke\\-White\\ method\\ of\\ documentation\\ in\\ which\\ every\\ line\\ and\\ image\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ laden\\ with\\ universal\\ significance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Trodd\\ ends\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ taking\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ Agee\\'s\\ advice\\:\\ he\\ implores\\ his\\ readers\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ 7\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ symphony\\ and\\ play\\ it\\ as\\ loudly\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ For\\ Agee\\,\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ be\\ inside\\ the\\ music\\ \\-\\ to\\ experience\\ its\\ beauty\\ so\\ deeply\\ that\\ it\\ generates\\ pain\\ \\-\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ should\\ approach\\ this\\ book\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Beethoven\\ starts\\ blasting\\ from\\ the\\ speakers\\.\\ The\\ students\\ clap\\.\\ Somewhere\\,\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ rooms\\ down\\ the\\ hall\\,\\ a\\ student\\ lifts\\ up\\ his\\ head\\,\\ hears\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ 7th\\ muffled\\ by\\ the\\ walls\\,\\ and\\ wonders\\ if\\ he\\ should\\ go\\ outside\\.\\ He\\ should\\.\\ It\\'s\\ time\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Let Us Now Praise Famous Men"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.365008+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Age of Revolution", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 314, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Welcome\\ to\\ the\\ wonderful\\ world\\ of\\ American\\ Protest\\ Literature\\.\\ \\ I\\ am\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ grad\\ student\\ instructors\\ for\\ the\\ course\\,\\ and\\ I\\'ll\\ be\\ posting\\ a\\ new\\ blog\\ for\\ each\\ lecture\\.\\ I\\'m\\ a\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ candidate\\ in\\ the\\ English\\ Department\\,\\ and\\ I\\ happen\\ to\\ have\\ taught\\ with\\ John\\ Stauffer\\ before\\.\\ Professor\\ Stauffer\\ is\\ a\\ tenured\\ faculty\\ member\\ in\\ the\\ English\\ Department\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ current\\ chair\\ of\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ American\\ Civilization\\ program\\.\\ \\ If\\ this\\ isn\\'t\\ enough\\ fire\\ power\\,\\ he\\'s\\ co\\-teaching\\ the\\ course\\ with\\ Tim\\ McCarthy\\,\\ who\\ holds\\ positions\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ Kennedy\\ School\\ of\\ Government\\ and\\ the\\ History\\ and\\ Literature\\ Department\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ interdisciplinarity\\ is\\ what\\ this\\ course\\ is\\ about\\ \\-\\ fiction\\,\\ photography\\,\\ political\\ theory\\,\\ non\\-fiction\\,\\ music\\ \\-\\-\\ anything\\ under\\ the\\ sun\\ that\\ protests\\.\\ Tim\\ McCarthy\\ has\\ just\\ started\\ his\\ own\\ blog\\,\\ actually\\,\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ it\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/enterthetimzone\\.blogspot\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ red\\-meat\\ lecture\\ of\\ American\\ Protest\\ Literature\\,\\ and\\ before\\ Professor\\ Stauffer\\ begins\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ listening\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Go\\ Down\\,\\ Moses\\&\\#8221\\;\\ over\\ the\\ speaker\\ system\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ seems\\ that\\ protest\\ music\\ will\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ fabric\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ spectacular\\ Tupac\\ explosion\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ should\\ also\\ note\\ that\\ these\\ lectures\\ are\\ actually\\ performed\\ tag\\-team\\ style\\,\\ with\\ John\\ Stauffer\\ and\\ Tim\\ McCarthy\\ sharing\\ the\\ stage\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ hour\\ as\\ they\\ deliver\\ their\\ respective\\ segments\\ \\(though\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ because\\ that\\ wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ protest\\.\\ That\\ would\\ be\\ anarchy\\,\\ and\\ this\\ class\\ has\\ very\\ little\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ anarchy\\.\\ Sorry\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ mentions\\ that\\ tomorrow\\ is\\ Super\\ Tuesday\\ and\\ encourages\\ the\\ students\\ to\\ exercise\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ post\\-revolutionary\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ and\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ ideas\\ about\\ Universal\\ Freedom\\ and\\ self\\ sovereignty\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Age\\ of\\ Revolution\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ age\\ inaugurates\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ universal\\ freedom\\,\\ which\\ Stauffer\\ compares\\ to\\ an\\ illicit\\ drug\\ \\(it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ intoxicating\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ trendy\\&\\#8230\\;\\ but\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ it\\ happens\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ of\\ charge\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ idea\\,\\ at\\ least\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Until\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ revolution\\,\\ slave\\ revolts\\ were\\ primarily\\ about\\ reversing\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ power\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ turning\\ slaves\\ into\\ masters\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ abolishing\\ slavery\\ altogether\\.\\ \\(Stauffer\\ cites\\ the\\ Spartacus\\ slave\\ rebellion\\ in\\ \\\\Rome\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ as\\ an\\ example\\.\\)\\ The\\ language\\ of\\ universal\\ rights\\ simply\\ was\\ not\\ available\\ before\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Revolution\\,\\ and\\ he\\ notes\\ that\\ Quaker\\ ideology\\ was\\ crucial\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ this\\ language\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ especially\\ as\\ it\\ posits\\ the\\ \\\\kingdom\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ \\ of\\ \\God\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ being\\ within\\ the\\ individual\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ a\\ heavenly\\ sphere\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ means\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ \\&\\#8220\\;dripping\\ with\\ sin\\&\\#8221\\;\\ but\\ innately\\ good\\,\\ even\\ sacred\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ a\\ premise\\ of\\ Paine\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Common\\ Sense\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ age\\ of\\ revolution\\ also\\ develops\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ sympathy\\ \\(especially\\ in\\ Adam\\ Smith\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Theory\\ of\\ Moral\\ Sentiments\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tim\\ McCarthy\\ steps\\ into\\ the\\ fray\\ and\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ universal\\ freedom\\ are\\ transnational\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ they\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ originate\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ principle\\ medium\\ for\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ these\\ ideas\\ was\\ the\\ printed\\ word\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ revolution\\ of\\ the\\ printing\\ industry\\ \\(and\\ the\\ steady\\ rise\\ in\\ literacy\\ rates\\)\\ made\\ the\\ political\\ revolution\\ possible\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Between\\ 1720\\ and\\ 1760\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ master\\ printers\\ \\(this\\ is\\ a\\ technical\\ term\\,\\ I\\ swear\\)\\ rose\\ from\\ 9\\ to\\ 42\\,\\ and\\ it\\ doubled\\ again\\ to\\ 82\\ by\\ 1776\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ not\\ just\\ talking\\ about\\ books\\ here\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ pamphlets\\ \\(like\\ Tom\\ Paine\\&\\#8217\\;s\\!\\)\\,\\ posters\\ and\\ newspapers\\ were\\ crucial\\ for\\ stoking\\ revolutionary\\ fervor\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>1\\,500\\ pamphlets\\ were\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ colonies\\ by\\ 1783\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Pamphlets\\ were\\ often\\ either\\ responses\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ event\\ \\(say\\,\\ the\\ Stamp\\ Act\\)\\ or\\ else\\ responses\\ to\\ other\\ pamphlets\\ \\(which\\ Professor\\ McCarthy\\ likens\\ to\\ a\\ list\\ serv\\ today\\)\\.\\\\ \\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>a\\ public\\ dialogue\\ begins\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ via\\ pamphlets\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ other\\ seismic\\ shift\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1700s\\ is\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ nation\\-states\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Believe\\ it\\ or\\ not\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\ is\\ a\\ recent\\ phenomenon\\,\\ and\\ print\\ culture\\ is\\ instrumental\\ in\\ the\\ idea\\'s\\ formation\\ because\\ it\\ helps\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ a\\ singular\\ public\\ connected\\ to\\ others\\,\\ a\\ nation\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ sense\\ of\\ a\\ unitary\\ public\\ \\(that\\ you\\,\\ living\\ in\\ Brooklyn\\,\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Maude\\,\\ living\\ in\\ Boise\\)\\ happened\\ largely\\ because\\ print\\ culture\\ created\\ an\\ expanded\\ conception\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ could\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ collectively\\ singular\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>People\\ were\\ addressed\\ \\-\\ and\\ addressed\\ others\\ \\-\\ \\en\\ masse\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Background\\ on\\ \\Tom\\ Paine\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Common\\ Sense\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ tract\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ January\\,\\ 1776\\,\\ and\\ it\\ went\\ through\\ 50\\ editions\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ year\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Before\\ its\\ publication\\,\\ the\\ colonists\\ were\\ deeply\\ divided\\ about\\ what\\ they\\ were\\ fighting\\ for\\ \\(separation\\ from\\ \\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\?\\ Simple\\ representation\\?\\ What\\?\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ delegates\\ assembled\\ at\\ the\\ constitutional\\ congress\\ in\\ 1775\\ actually\\ sought\\ independence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Common\\ Sense\\<\\/em\\>\\ comes\\ along\\,\\ and\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ an\\ immediate\\ best\\-seller\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\120\\,000\\ copies\\ sold\\ in\\ 3\\ months\\<\\/p\\>\\500\\,000\\ copies\\ sold\\ within\\ the\\ year\\<\\/p\\>\\Population\\ of\\ colonies\\:\\ 1\\.6\\ Million\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ put\\ this\\ in\\ perspective\\,\\ this\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ selling\\ 100\\ million\\ copies\\ of\\ a\\ book\\ today\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ text\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ population\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Professor\\ McCarthy\\ suggests\\ that\\ John\\ Stauffer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ first\\ book\\ sold\\ almost\\ as\\ much\\,\\ which\\ can\\ only\\ make\\ Stauffer\\ chuckle\\ and\\ dream\\.\\ If\\,\\ however\\,\\ you\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ help\\ make\\ that\\ dream\\ come\\ true\\,\\ \\Click\\ Here\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Tom\\ Paine\\ forged\\ a\\ new\\ political\\ language\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ among\\ the\\ first\\ writers\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ term\\ \\&\\#8220\\;republic\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ sense\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Paine\\ himself\\ grew\\ up\\ comparatively\\ poor\\ and\\ made\\ his\\ career\\ through\\ the\\ printing\\ industry\\,\\ which\\ he\\ learned\\ from\\ the\\ ground\\ up\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ depicts\\ Paine\\ as\\ a\\ bohemian\\,\\ and\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ founding\\ fathers\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ too\\ keen\\ on\\ the\\ guy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Paine\\ was\\ brought\\ to\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ by\\ Ben\\ Franklin\\,\\ who\\ had\\ read\\ some\\ of\\ Paine\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ journalism\\.\\ He\\ was\\ honest\\ about\\ being\\ an\\ ambitious\\ man\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ precisely\\ personal\\ ambition\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ founding\\ fathers\\ thought\\ was\\ dangerous\\ to\\ republicanism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\ can\\ you\\ reconcile\\ the\\ collective\\ good\\ with\\ personal\\ gain\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ question\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ simply\\ leave\\ unanswered\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ is\\ a\\ three\\-part\\ power\\ to\\ Common\\ Sense\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rhetorical\\ Power\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ He\\ uses\\ the\\ first\\-person\\ singular\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ the\\ plural\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ aspect\\ of\\ confrontation\\ and\\ contestation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ refuses\\ to\\ spell\\ out\\ words\\ like\\ \\&\\#8220\\;King\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\\\Britain\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ dirty\\!\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Wash\\ out\\ your\\ mouth\\!\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Paine\\ also\\ emphasized\\ the\\ treasonous\\ aspect\\ of\\ revolution\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Why\\ lie\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ dangerous\\ stuff\\,\\ folks\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Kings\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ happen\\ to\\ like\\ rebels\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Accept\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philosophical\\ Power\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Kings\\ are\\ sacrilegious\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ compares\\ the\\ hereditary\\ succession\\ of\\ kings\\ to\\ original\\ sin\\ \\(where\\ every\\ individual\\ is\\ plagued\\ by\\ the\\ sin\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ Paine\\,\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ do\\ nothing\\ more\\ than\\ protect\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\,\\ ironically\\,\\ Paine\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rage\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ his\\ common\\ sense\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ was\\ so\\ influential\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>You\\ have\\ to\\ admire\\ a\\ guy\\ willing\\ to\\ stick\\ it\\ to\\ what\\ was\\ arguably\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ nation\\ on\\ the\\ planet\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Of\\ course\\,\\ he\\ might\\ also\\ have\\ been\\ crazy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Or\\ just\\ more\\ ambitious\\ than\\ we\\ might\\ have\\ thought\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prophetic\\ Power\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ drawn\\ from\\ his\\ Quaker\\ roots\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Paine\\ writes\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ knows\\ God\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ will\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ King\\ of\\ America\\,\\ he\\ insists\\,\\ is\\ God\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ Paine\\ despises\\ organized\\ religion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ steps\\ in\\,\\ and\\ he\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ thought\\ independence\\ akin\\ to\\ going\\ off\\ the\\ ledge\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Very\\ risky\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ all\\,\\ the\\ colonists\\ were\\ the\\ least\\ taxed\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ western\\ world\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ basis\\ did\\ they\\ have\\ for\\ independence\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ there\\ were\\ over\\ 90\\ declarations\\ of\\ independence\\ passed\\ by\\ municipalities\\ and\\ colonies\\ throughout\\ 1776\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ so\\ the\\ gathering\\ of\\ support\\ for\\ independence\\ was\\ accruing\\ from\\ small\\ quarters\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ colonies\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ unanimous\\ at\\ first\\,\\ but\\ consensus\\ gathers\\ quickly\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ five\\-member\\ drafting\\ committee\\ for\\ the\\ declaration\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ youngest\\,\\ and\\ selected\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ principle\\ author\\ partly\\ because\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ damn\\ smart\\,\\ but\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ selected\\ also\\ because\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ southern\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ convention\\ wanted\\ to\\ shore\\ up\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ south\\ and\\ to\\ rebut\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ this\\ revolution\\ was\\ manufactured\\ by\\ northeastern\\ elites\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ kind\\ of\\ like\\ John\\ F\\.\\ Kennedy\\ having\\ Lyndon\\ Johnson\\ as\\ his\\ running\\ mate\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Put\\ a\\ southern\\ guy\\ on\\ the\\ ticket\\,\\ and\\ suddenly\\ your\\ cause\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ as\\ provincial\\ and\\ \\New\\ \\ England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ as\\ it\\ might\\ seem\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ oral\\ component\\ of\\ this\\ written\\ declaration\\:\\ pause\\ marks\\ were\\ inserted\\ so\\ that\\ public\\ readers\\ of\\ the\\ declaration\\ would\\ know\\ where\\ to\\ place\\ emphasis\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ reads\\ a\\ portion\\ the\\ declaration\\ with\\ the\\ pause\\ marks\\ that\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ wanted\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ emphasizes\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&\\#8220\\;one\\ People\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Interestingly\\,\\ the\\ Declaration\\ fell\\ out\\ of\\ favor\\ quickly\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ until\\ the\\ mid\\-19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ that\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ reclaim\\ the\\ language\\ and\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ declaration\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ may\\ be\\ because\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ list\\ 27\\ grievances\\,\\ and\\ God\\ help\\ you\\ if\\ you\\ ever\\ have\\ to\\ read\\ all\\ of\\ them\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ about\\ the\\ declaration\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ whole\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ order\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ more\\ perfect\\ union\\&\\#8221\\;\\ bit\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ \\preamble\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ just\\ getting\\ started\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ real\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ declaration\\ is\\ a\\ tortuous\\ legal\\ argument\\ justifying\\ the\\ dissolution\\ of\\ legal\\ bonds\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ bit\\ surprising\\ as\\ a\\ document\\ of\\ protest\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ very\\ careful\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ colonists\\ are\\ playing\\ by\\ the\\ rules\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ King\\ \\(oops\\ K\\&\\#8212\\;g\\!\\)\\ has\\ acted\\ unlawfully\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\John\\ Locke\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\\2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Treatise\\ on\\ Government\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ a\\ primary\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ declaration\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Four\\ main\\ ideas\\ are\\ taken\\ directly\\ from\\ Locke\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ Men\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ natural\\ rights\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ God\\-given\\ rights\\ both\\ precede\\ and\\ supercede\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ civil\\ government\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ All\\ legitimate\\ governments\\ derive\\ their\\ powers\\ from\\ the\\ consent\\ of\\ the\\ government\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ When\\ governments\\ violate\\ the\\ public\\ good\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ to\\ dissolve\\ the\\ bonds\\ of\\ government\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Sound\\ familiar\\?\\ \\\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\While\\ Paine\\ uses\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;you\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ uses\\ the\\ republican\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\,\\ incidentally\\,\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ distinction\\,\\ though\\ I\\ suspect\\ our\\ professors\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ tension\\ between\\ the\\ individualist\\ spirit\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ and\\ the\\ united\\,\\ collective\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\ that\\ was\\ created\\,\\ partly\\,\\ by\\ print\\ culture\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ one\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ still\\ with\\ us\\ today\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\One\\ key\\ aspect\\ of\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ language\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ shifts\\ from\\ addressing\\ parliament\\ to\\ listing\\ grievances\\ against\\ the\\ King\\ in\\ particular\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ creates\\ a\\ dynamic\\ of\\ many\\ against\\ one\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\,\\ the\\ People\\,\\ are\\ really\\ just\\ angry\\ at\\ one\\ particular\\ guy\\ who\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ doing\\ us\\ wrong\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Does\\ that\\ sound\\ fair\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>No\\,\\ it\\ sounds\\ tyrannical\\,\\ folks\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Downright\\ tyrannical\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ like\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ founders\\,\\ is\\ a\\ Deist\\ and\\ claims\\ God\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ authority\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ translate\\ hereditary\\ privilege\\ \\(which\\ also\\ happened\\ to\\ be\\ justified\\ by\\ divine\\ power\\)\\ into\\ representative\\ government\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ this\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ dangerous\\ move\\,\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ all\\ pretty\\ leery\\ of\\ any\\ official\\ ties\\ between\\ the\\ government\\ and\\ any\\ religion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Age of Revolution"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.587842+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Let Us Continue to Praise Famous Men", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 327, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Reading\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ James\\ Agee\\ and\\ Walker\\ Evans\\,\\ \\Let\\ Us\\ Now\\ Praise\\ Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\ is\\ the\\ third\\ installment\\ in\\ our\\ guest\\ lecture\\ triple\\-header\\ \\(Stauffer\\ and\\ McCarthy\\ are\\ preparing\\ themselves\\,\\ apparently\\,\\ for\\ a\\ strenuous\\ post\\-Spring\\ Break\\ extravaganza\\.\\ Stay\\ tuned\\!\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Celeste\\-Marie\\ Bernier\\<\\/a\\>\\ comes\\ to\\ us\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ from\\ the\\ \\\\University\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ of\\ \\Nottingham\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ and\\ she\\ will\\ talk\\ about\\ aesthetics\\,\\ narrative\\ and\\ documentary\\ modes\\ in\\ \\Let\\ Us\\ now\\ Praise\\ Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Her\\ specialty\\ is\\ photography\\ and\\ visual\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ book\\ forthcoming\\ this\\ year\\ entitled\\ \\African\\ American\\ Visual\\ Arts\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Bernier\\ begins\\ by\\ discussing\\ the\\ photographer\\ Dorothea\\ Lang\\,\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ a\\ German\\ concentration\\ camp\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ and\\ described\\ using\\ a\\ camera\\ as\\ almost\\ a\\ relief\\,\\ a\\ barrier\\ between\\ herself\\ and\\ the\\ horror\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ her\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ was\\ a\\ relief\\ for\\ Lang\\ would\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ primary\\ problems\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ speaks\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;iron\\ anguish\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ feels\\ towards\\ the\\ subjects\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ him\\,\\ but\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ boundaries\\ between\\ subjects\\ and\\ viewers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Bernier\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ grief\\ of\\ incommunicability\\:\\ how\\ words\\ \\(and\\ images\\)\\ \\fail\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ communicate\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Agee\\ and\\ Evans\\ show\\ their\\ audience\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ their\\ respective\\ media\\ and\\ insist\\ that\\ by\\ recognizing\\ what\\ we\\ cannot\\ know\\ we\\ become\\ more\\ sensitive\\,\\ more\\ empathetic\\ participants\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ documentary\\ is\\ an\\ exposition\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ lived\\,\\ a\\ report\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ Evans\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;photography\\ was\\ nothing\\ whatsoever\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ art\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\,\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ rejection\\ of\\ artistry\\,\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ art\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Evans\\ is\\ preoccupied\\ with\\ both\\ the\\ artlessness\\ and\\ artfulness\\ of\\ his\\ medium\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>61\\ photographs\\ open\\ the\\ modern\\ edition\\ of\\ \\Famous\\ Men\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ though\\ the\\ original\\ edition\\ included\\ only\\ half\\ of\\ that\\ number\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ focus\\ our\\ attention\\ on\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ array\\ of\\ images\\,\\ Bernier\\ remains\\ silent\\ as\\ a\\ slide\\ show\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ photographs\\ streams\\ across\\ the\\ projection\\ screen\\ at\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ room\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\ quite\\ an\\ effective\\ moment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ so\\ easy\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ tempting\\,\\ even\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ flip\\ through\\ the\\ photographs\\ quickly\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ you\\ pick\\ up\\ your\\ copy\\ of\\ famous\\ men\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Somehow\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ discipline\\ to\\ give\\ every\\ photograph\\ equal\\ attention\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ with\\ last\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\,\\ Bernier\\ notes\\ that\\ these\\ photographs\\ come\\ with\\ no\\ introduction\\,\\ no\\ textual\\ markers\\ and\\ no\\ captions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ argues\\ that\\ Evans\\ and\\ Agee\\ want\\ to\\ accentuate\\ the\\ impotence\\ of\\ the\\ reader\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ eye\\,\\ and\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ she\\ means\\ by\\ this\\ we\\ should\\ consider\\ this\\ project\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ documentary\\ genre\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Famous\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\Men\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ resistant\\ to\\ the\\ documentary\\ mode\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ documentary\\ presents\\ facts\\ objectively\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ editorializing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ defies\\ comment\\ and\\ makes\\ interpretation\\ superfluous\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Traditionally\\,\\ the\\ documentary\\ writer\\ must\\ remain\\ aloof\\ and\\ omniscient\\ while\\ the\\ human\\ subjects\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ probed\\ and\\ prodded\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ documentaries\\ almost\\ inevitably\\ create\\ a\\ power\\ dynamic\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ viewer\\ and\\ reader\\ \\(to\\ say\\ nothing\\ of\\ the\\ reporter\\)\\ is\\ empowered\\ while\\ the\\ subject\\ is\\ disempowered\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Agee\\ and\\ Evans\\ want\\ to\\ disempower\\ the\\ viewer\\ and\\,\\ consequently\\,\\ ennoble\\ their\\ subjects\\.\\ \\(The\\ captions\\ achieve\\ this\\,\\ I\\ think\\,\\ because\\ you\\ never\\ really\\ know\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ photograph\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Names\\,\\ places\\,\\ locations\\ are\\ all\\ withdrawn\\,\\ and\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ something\\ jarring\\ about\\ being\\ stripped\\ of\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ rudimentary\\ \\&\\#8220\\;facts\\&\\#8221\\;\\ about\\ the\\ images\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ viewer\\ must\\ see\\ the\\ images\\ denuded\\ from\\ as\\ much\\ context\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ So\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ look\\.\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ No\\ information\\.\\ Just\\ an\\ image\\.\\ A\\ \\Fortune\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\Magazine\\<\\/em\\>\\ editor\\ remarked\\ on\\ seeing\\ the\\ manuscript\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\ was\\ pessimistic\\&\\#8230\\;\\ impractical\\,\\ indignant\\,\\ lyrical\\ and\\ always\\ personal\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ question\\ to\\ keep\\ you\\ up\\ at\\ night\\:\\ \\What\\ are\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ processes\\ that\\ make\\ something\\ political\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Part\\ of\\ me\\ wants\\ Bernier\\ to\\ devote\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ hour\\ to\\ precisely\\ this\\ question\\,\\ though\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ difficult\\ to\\ say\\ how\\ far\\ we\\ could\\ get\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ text\\ is\\ equally\\ about\\ the\\ poetics\\ and\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ seeing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\ makes\\ the\\ sublime\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ mundane\\,\\ the\\ epic\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ ordinary\\,\\ the\\ divine\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ humane\\ \\(and\\ inhumane\\)\\,\\ the\\ dignified\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ pathetic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ a\\ non\\-voyeuristic\\ aesthetic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ they\\ want\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ visual\\ tourist\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ debate\\ about\\ the\\ objective\\ truth\\ of\\ documentation\\ \\(and\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ inevitably\\ subjective\\)\\ comes\\ about\\ in\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ writing\\ style\\,\\ which\\ is\\ achronological\\ and\\ repetitive\\.\\ Bernier\\ argues\\ that\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ prose\\ replicates\\ the\\ camera\\ eye\\ in\\ its\\ roving\\ nature\\,\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ panorama\\ and\\ the\\ close\\-up\\,\\ and\\ here\\ she\\ begins\\ to\\ turn\\ back\\ on\\ her\\ own\\ argument\\ by\\ suggesting\\ that\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ too\\ limited\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ at\\ war\\ with\\ the\\ documentary\\ style\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ war\\ is\\ larger\\:\\ it\\ is\\ against\\ language\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ limitations\\ and\\ ability\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ truth\\.\\ \\(Not\\ only\\ is\\ this\\ true\\ of\\ Agee\\,\\ but\\ anxiety\\ about\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ medium\\ is\\ an\\ enduring\\ preoccupation\\ of\\ writers\\ and\\ artists\\ in\\ general\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ we\\ might\\ argue\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ single\\ major\\ writer\\ who\\ has\\ not\\ at\\ some\\ point\\ written\\ about\\ the\\ weakness\\ and\\ inadequacy\\ of\\ words\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ palpable\\ suffering\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ crucial\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ emblematic\\ of\\ his\\ self\\-lacerating\\ conflict\\ about\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ and\\ identify\\ with\\ his\\ subjects\\.\\ \\(Another\\ way\\ to\\ put\\ this\\ in\\ terms\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ already\\ discussed\\ this\\ semester\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ Agee\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ turn\\ empathy\\ into\\ sympathy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ he\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ turn\\ an\\ imaginative\\ feeling\\ for\\ another\\ person\\ into\\ a\\ sympathetic\\ feeling\\ \\with\\<\\/em\\>\\ a\\ person\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ feeling\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ complete\\ identification\\ with\\ that\\ person\\ rather\\ than\\ from\\ the\\ imaginative\\ leap\\ of\\ empathy\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ text\\ is\\ self\\-reflexive\\ in\\ readership\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ authorship\\:\\ as\\ a\\ reader\\ you\\ become\\ aware\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ looking\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ Agee\\ is\\ aware\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ looking\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ is\\ resistant\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ murdering\\ of\\ museum\\ staring\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ the\\ subjects\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ How\\ effective\\ is\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ work\\ of\\ protest\\?\\ And\\ pay\\ attention\\,\\ dear\\ reader\\,\\ because\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ trenchant\\ question\\ of\\ the\\ hour\\:\\ What\\ change\\ can\\ you\\ expect\\ from\\ protest\\ literature\\ if\\ your\\ literature\\ invokes\\ the\\ powerlessness\\ of\\ your\\ readers\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Bernier\\ begins\\ to\\ parse\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ close\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ farmers\\ \\(he\\ was\\ sleeping\\ on\\ the\\ flea\\-ridden\\ mattresses\\ while\\ Evans\\ was\\ down\\ the\\ road\\ in\\ the\\ motel\\!\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ provocative\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ Agee\\ remembers\\ masturbating\\ in\\ the\\ various\\ rooms\\ of\\ his\\ grandfather\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ house\\,\\ but\\ what\\ interests\\ her\\ is\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\:\\ he\\ juxtaposes\\ this\\ memory\\ with\\ the\\ sacred\\ qualities\\ in\\ the\\ farm\\ family\\ with\\ whom\\ he\\ is\\ currently\\ living\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ potential\\ critique\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ Agee\\ is\\ eager\\ to\\ see\\ them\\ as\\ only\\ good\\,\\ only\\ divine\\.\\ \\(And\\,\\ with\\ this\\ juxtaposition\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ they\\ are\\ divine\\ in\\ a\\ particularly\\ Whitmanian\\ tradition\\ wherein\\ divinity\\ and\\ sexuality\\ go\\ hand\\-in\\-hand\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Features\\ of\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ Photography\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ deconstruction\\ of\\ the\\ photographic\\ portrait\\.\\ The\\ individuals\\ are\\ anonymous\\.\\ Think\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ individual\\ and\\ type\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Use\\ of\\ randomness\\ as\\ a\\ creative\\ principle\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ staging\\ and\\ premeditation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Use\\ of\\ signs\\ \\(on\\ stores\\,\\ streets\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ photos\\ are\\ reflections\\ on\\ the\\ appropriation\\ of\\ the\\ consumer\\ image\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Pop\\ culture\\,\\ trash\\,\\ detritus\\ all\\ communicate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Ambiguity\\ \\(See\\ Alan\\ Trachtenberg\\ in\\ \\Reading\\ American\\ Photographs\\<\\/em\\>\\ for\\ more\\ on\\ this\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Evans\\ develops\\ an\\ ambiguity\\ between\\ documentary\\ and\\ artistic\\ modes\\ within\\ his\\ photographs\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Evans\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ a\\ documentary\\ project\\ changes\\ when\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ cannot\\ fully\\ know\\ or\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ subject\\ becomes\\ palpable\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ the\\ Preamble\\ to\\ \\Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ poem\\ alludes\\ to\\ \\King\\ Lear\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ drama\\ of\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tragedy\\ unfolds\\ after\\ Lear\\ asks\\ Cordelia\\ \\(one\\ of\\ his\\ three\\ daughters\\)\\ to\\ declare\\ her\\ love\\ for\\ him\\,\\ and\\ she\\ responds\\ with\\ nothing\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Nothing\\ can\\ come\\ of\\ nothing\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ the\\ King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\,\\ outraged\\ response\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Nothingness\\,\\ absence\\,\\ limitation\\,\\ failure\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ words\\ relevant\\ to\\ \\King\\ Lear\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ crucial\\ markers\\ in\\ this\\ text\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\(Perhaps\\ Agee\\ has\\ Lear\\'s\\ famous\\ line\\ in\\ mind\\,\\ but\\ I\\ believe\\ that\\ opening\\ poem\\ refers\\ to\\ Edgar\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ Edgar\\ is\\ framed\\ by\\ his\\ brother\\ Edmund\\ and\\ is\\ subsequently\\ disowned\\ by\\ his\\ father\\.\\ Edgar\\ adopts\\ the\\ disguise\\ of\\ a\\ madman\\ and\\ is\\ wandering\\ around\\ on\\ the\\ heath\\ when\\ he\\ almost\\ literally\\ bumps\\ into\\ Lear\\,\\ who\\ \\(by\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ play\\)\\ is\\ feeble\\,\\ blind\\ and\\ aware\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ misjudgments\\ about\\ his\\ daughters\\.\\ I\\ can\\ only\\ begin\\ to\\ see\\ why\\ Agee\\ would\\ be\\ interested\\ in\\ Edgar\\ beyond\\ saying\\ that\\ these\\ farmers\\ may\\ be\\ like\\ the\\ disinherited\\ son\\ driven\\ to\\ despair\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Let Us Continue to Praise Famous Men"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 18:05:14.664656+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "asdfasdf", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 276, "html": null, "course_id": 3, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/antoerh test still10.doc", "desc": "asdf"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.637287+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rigts Movement", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 330, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Readings\\:\\ \\\"Letter\\ from\\ a\\ Birmingham\\ Jail\\\"\\ and\\ King\\'s\\ 1963\\ \\\"I\\ Have\\ a\\ Dream\\\"\\ speech\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ begins\\ by\\ referring\\ to\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ era\\ \\(from\\ roughly\\ 1945\\-1970\\)\\ as\\ the\\ second\\ of\\ two\\ Great\\ Awakenings\\ in\\ American\\ social\\ history\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ first\\ great\\ awakening\\ was\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ era\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Pressing\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ sweeping\\ social\\ changes\\ and\\ religious\\ revivals\\,\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ protest\\ artist\\ converts\\ individuals\\ to\\ social\\ change\\ much\\ like\\ a\\ revivalist\\ preacher\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ fevered\\ pitch\\ of\\ the\\ revivalist\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ inspiration\\ was\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ era\\ by\\ the\\ magnetic\\ personalities\\ of\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ James\\ Baldwin\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\International\\ affairs\\ also\\ figured\\ prominently\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>World\\ War\\ II\\ and\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ helped\\ transform\\ race\\ relations\\ within\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\?\\ The\\ extensive\\ economic\\ and\\ military\\ mobilization\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ fight\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ and\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ increased\\ national\\ dependence\\ on\\ their\\ welfare\\ and\\ integration\\ into\\ mainstream\\ American\\ life\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ enemies\\ prompted\\ American\\ leaders\\ embrace\\ their\\ egalitarian\\ traditions\\ by\\ using\\ embarrassing\\ racial\\ problems\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ as\\ a\\ propaganda\\ tool\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ \\Soviet\\ \\ Union\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ used\\ unequal\\ treatment\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ as\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ was\\ hypocritical\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ advancing\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ \\(It\\ wasn\\'t\\ easy\\ wooing\\ third\\ world\\ countries\\ to\\ align\\ with\\ the\\ US\\ against\\ a\\ nuclear\\-armed\\ Soviet\\ Union\\ when\\ you\\'re\\ looking\\ at\\ pictures\\ of\\ American\\ policemen\\ attacking\\ defenseless\\ black\\ people\\ with\\ dogs\\\\.\\ Viz\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\[For\\ a\\ detailed\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ and\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\,\\ check\\ out\\ these\\ two\\ books\\ by\\ Thomas\\ \\Borstelmann\\ \\<\\/a\\>and\\ Mary\\ \\Dudziak\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\]\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Joe\\ Louis\\ vs\\.\\ Max\\ Schmeling\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Public\\ opinion\\ regarding\\ race\\ relations\\ shifted\\ rapidly\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ international\\ problems\\,\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ bouts\\ between\\ African\\ American\\ boxer\\ Joe\\ Louis\\ and\\ the\\ German\\ Max\\ Schmeling\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ shift\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ first\\ fought\\ in\\ 1936\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ most\\ white\\ Americans\\ embraced\\ Schmeling\\,\\ but\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ their\\ rematch\\ in\\ 1938\\,\\ Louis\\ was\\ now\\ widely\\ championed\\ as\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Brown\\ Bomber\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ a\\ war\\ with\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\ became\\ increasingly\\ apparent\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ notes\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ masses\\ of\\ white\\ Americans\\ cheered\\ on\\ as\\ a\\ black\\ man\\ beat\\ up\\ a\\ white\\ man\\.\\ \\(Louis\\ lost\\ to\\ Schmeling\\ after\\ 12\\ rounds\\ in\\ their\\ first\\ bout\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ rematch\\ Joe\\ Louis\\ knocked\\ out\\ Schmeling\\ in\\ only\\ two\\ rounds\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Nazism\\ forced\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ to\\ confront\\ its\\ own\\ racism\\,\\ and\\ as\\ Communism\\ replaced\\ Nazism\\ as\\ the\\ threat\\ \\du\\ jour\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ calls\\ for\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ reform\\ only\\ intensified\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ President\\ Truman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ administration\\,\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ widely\\ regarded\\ for\\ its\\ stellar\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ record\\ \\(though\\,\\ importantly\\,\\ it\\ ended\\ segregation\\ within\\ the\\ Army\\ during\\ the\\ war\\)\\,\\ issued\\ a\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ report\\ in\\ 1947\\ cautioning\\ that\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ ignore\\ world\\ opinion\\ about\\ internal\\ affairs\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Suddenly\\,\\ with\\ the\\ war\\ now\\ over\\ and\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ emerging\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ global\\ powers\\,\\ self\\-consciousness\\ becomes\\ a\\ dominant\\ emotion\\ driving\\ policy\\ decisions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Presidents\\ Truman\\,\\ Eisenhower\\,\\ Kennedy\\ and\\ Johnson\\ all\\ sought\\ to\\ avoid\\ public\\ embarrassments\\ involving\\ racism\\,\\ and\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ activists\\ realized\\ that\\ this\\ provided\\ an\\ opening\\ for\\ their\\ agenda\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>MLK\\,\\ Malcolm\\ X\\,\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ had\\ an\\ excellent\\ sense\\ of\\ their\\ public\\ personae\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ they\\ performed\\ freedom\\ and\\ were\\ very\\ effective\\ at\\ using\\ the\\ media\\ to\\ wage\\ their\\ battles\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ begins\\ with\\ an\\ anecdote\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ happens\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ grandson\\ of\\ Joseph\\ Armstrong\\ DeLaine\\,\\ an\\ activist\\ who\\ challenged\\ school\\ segregation\\ in\\ \\\\South\\ Carolina\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ his\\ anecdote\\ is\\ to\\ illustrate\\ how\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\ was\\ essentially\\ a\\ grassroots\\ activity\\ beginning\\ well\\ before\\ the\\ 1954\\ Brown\\ vs\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ case\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>African\\ American\\ churches\\ \\(still\\ the\\ predominant\\ social\\ institution\\ in\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ community\\,\\ as\\ W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ DuBois\\ argued\\)\\ were\\ crucial\\ to\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ these\\ protests\\,\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ Thurgood\\ Marshall\\ and\\ the\\ NAACP\\ became\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ national\\ legal\\ defense\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\ was\\ already\\ well\\ under\\ way\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\ was\\ catalyzed\\ by\\ the\\ \\\\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ case\\ of\\ 1954\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ court\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ decision\\ was\\ unanimous\\:\\ separate\\ education\\ is\\ inherently\\ unequal\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ it\\ made\\ racial\\ segregation\\ in\\ schools\\ illegal\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ groundwork\\ for\\ this\\ decision\\ was\\ four\\ court\\ cases\\ waged\\ locally\\ in\\ \\\\Kansas\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\,\\ \\\\South\\ Carolina\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\,\\ \\\\Delaware\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ and\\ \\\\Virginia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Briggs\\ v\\.\\ Elliott\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ \\\\South\\ Carolina\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ four\\ cases\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ \\Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\<\\/em\\>\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ decision\\.\\ \\(Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ should\\ add\\ that\\ the\\ testimony\\ of\\ psychologist\\ Kenneth\\ Clark\\ in\\ the\\ Briggs\\ case\\ was\\ a\\ crucial\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ decision\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Clark\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ ran\\ \\an\\ experiment\\<\\/a\\>\\ which\\ he\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ young\\ black\\ children\\ frequently\\ prefer\\ white\\ dolls\\ to\\ black\\ dolls\\ because\\ they\\ associate\\ blackness\\ with\\ negative\\ connotations\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ argued\\ that\\ segregated\\ school\\ systems\\ contribute\\ to\\ negative\\ self\\-images\\ among\\ black\\ children\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thanks\\ to\\ this\\ testimony\\,\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ abolished\\ segregated\\ schooling\\ as\\ inherently\\ disadvantageous\\ to\\ black\\ children\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ things\\ have\\ improved\\?\\ Well\\,\\ check\\ \\this\\<\\/em\\>\\ out\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ experiment\\ was\\ run\\ again\\ recently\\,\\ and\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ got\\ a\\ long\\ way\\ to\\ go\\:\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dec\\.\\ 1\\,\\ 1955\\<\\/st1\\:date\\>\\:\\ Rosa\\ Parks\\ effectively\\ begins\\ the\\ \\\\Montgomery\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ bus\\ boycott\\ when\\ she\\ refuses\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ her\\ seat\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ was\\ the\\ treasurer\\ of\\ the\\ local\\ NAACP\\ chapter\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Shortly\\ thereafter\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ fresh\\ from\\ a\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ program\\ at\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\University\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ arrived\\ in\\ \\\\Montgomery\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ to\\ take\\ up\\ the\\ position\\ as\\ pastor\\ of\\ a\\ Baptist\\ church\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ point\\ reinforces\\ his\\ earlier\\ emphasis\\ on\\ grassroots\\ organization\\:\\ MLK\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ titular\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ a\\ follower\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ becomes\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ movement\\ after\\ local\\ people\\ began\\ organizing\\ the\\ bus\\ boycott\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Soon\\,\\ those\\ grass\\ roots\\ cover\\ the\\ whole\\ country\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1957\\ King\\ helped\\ form\\ the\\ Southern\\ Christian\\ Leadership\\ Conference\\,\\ a\\ much\\ larger\\ organization\\ that\\ he\\ leads\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\For\\ the\\ last\\ 15\\ minutes\\ of\\ lecture\\ we\\ listen\\ to\\ a\\ recording\\ of\\ the\\ 1963\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ March\\ speech\\ in\\ its\\ entirety\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\When\\ the\\ clip\\ finishes\\,\\ McCarthy\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ simply\\ say\\ goodbye\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ an\\ act\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ follow\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ you\\ watch\\ this\\,\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ cadences\\ of\\ his\\ voice\\,\\ which\\ seem\\ to\\ climb\\ up\\ and\\ down\\ an\\ entire\\ scale\\ as\\ he\\ draws\\ out\\ certain\\ syllables\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ why\\ King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ speeches\\ \\(and\\ those\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ presidential\\ candidate\\,\\ whose\\ name\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ mentioned\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ are\\ often\\ added\\ to\\ mashups\\ and\\ remixes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ almost\\ begging\\ to\\ be\\ set\\ to\\ music\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Add\\ to\\ that\\ his\\ way\\ with\\ metaphors\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ has\\ given\\ the\\ Negro\\ people\\ a\\ bad\\ check\\&\\#8230\\;\\ we\\ refuse\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ bank\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ bankrupt\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ his\\ intention\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;hew\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\ of\\ despair\\ a\\ stone\\ of\\ hope\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rigts Movement"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.652491+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "MLK, Malcolm X, and James Baldwin", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 331, "html": "\\\\\\\\\\Readings\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Letter\\ from\\ a\\ \\\\Birmingham\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ Jail\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ James\\ Baldwin\\,\\ \\The\\ Fire\\ Next\\ Time\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ begins\\ lecture\\ today\\ by\\ noting\\ that\\ King\\ evolved\\ considerably\\ over\\ time\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ great\\ influence\\ of\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ Have\\ a\\ Dream\\&\\#8221\\;\\ speech\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ tends\\ to\\ freeze\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ particular\\,\\ static\\ ideological\\ moment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ late\\ sixties\\,\\ King\\ became\\ a\\ strong\\ critic\\ of\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>He\\ declared\\ his\\ opposition\\ in\\ a\\ famous\\ address\\ in\\ 1967\\,\\ after\\ which\\ President\\ Johnson\\ never\\ spoke\\ to\\ King\\ again\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ broadening\\ platform\\:\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ active\\ in\\ Civil\\ Rights\\,\\ but\\ also\\ spoke\\ out\\ against\\ global\\ militarization\\ and\\ he\\ called\\ to\\ abolish\\ poverty\\ and\\ economic\\ inequalities\\.\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>McCarthy\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ have\\ a\\ dream\\&\\#8221\\;\\ refrain\\ of\\ King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ speech\\ happens\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ 17\\-minute\\ speech\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Why\\ has\\ this\\ been\\ the\\ phrase\\ history\\ has\\ immortalized\\?\\ McCarthy\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ because\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ the\\ moment\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ freeze\\ him\\ is\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ optimism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\When\\ we\\ examine\\ the\\ speech\\ in\\ its\\ entirety\\,\\ that\\ optimism\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\ more\\ complicated\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ metaphors\\ is\\ an\\ economic\\ one\\:\\ a\\ promissory\\ note\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ bank\\ of\\ justice\\ to\\ black\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ marked\\ \\&\\#8220\\;insufficient\\ funds\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ anticipates\\ his\\ own\\ growing\\ critiques\\ of\\ economic\\ inequality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ promissory\\ note\\ is\\ implicitly\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ Constitution\\,\\ which\\ had\\ offered\\ an\\ unfulfilled\\ promise\\ of\\ equality\\ to\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>The\\ structure\\ of\\ King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ speech\\ shifts\\ from\\ reality\\ to\\ dream\\ and\\ back\\ to\\ reality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ documents\\ the\\ injustice\\ of\\ black\\ reality\\ before\\ shifting\\ to\\ a\\ hopeful\\ aspiration\\ for\\ the\\ future\\ and\\ finally\\ calling\\ people\\ to\\ action\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>One\\ of\\ his\\ rhetorical\\ methods\\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ integration\\ is\\ to\\ reference\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ draws\\ upon\\ his\\ personal\\ experiences\\ of\\ activism\\ in\\ communities\\ throughout\\ the\\ country\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ imagine\\ how\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ brought\\ together\\.\\ \\(The\\ diversity\\ of\\ individuals\\ gets\\ mapped\\ onto\\ the\\ different\\ landscapes\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ country\\,\\ almost\\ as\\ if\\ landscapes\\ were\\ personified\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ loves\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ hills\\ of\\ \\\\California\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ are\\ \\&\\#8220\\;curvaceous\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ this\\ bodily\\ description\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ an\\ accident\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8220\\;Letter\\ from\\ a\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\Birmingham\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\\\ Jail\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\King\\ was\\ imprisoned\\ for\\ his\\ involvement\\ in\\ a\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Campaign\\ in\\ \\\\Birmingham\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\Alabama\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Birmingham\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ campaign\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ that\\ was\\ widely\\ covered\\ by\\ the\\ media\\,\\ and\\ because\\ King\\ believed\\ that\\ \\\\Birmingham\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ segregated\\ city\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ he\\ thought\\ he\\ could\\ count\\ on\\ the\\ local\\ authorities\\ to\\ resist\\ the\\ demonstrations\\ with\\ force\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ enlisted\\ children\\ in\\ the\\ protest\\ marches\\ as\\ well\\,\\ a\\ highly\\ controversial\\ move\\ since\\ this\\ put\\ them\\ directly\\ into\\ harm\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ way\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\King\\ wrote\\ an\\ extended\\ letter\\ on\\ fragments\\ and\\ scraps\\ of\\ paper\\ snuck\\ into\\ his\\ cell\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ letter\\ was\\ spurred\\ by\\ eight\\ white\\ clergymen\\ who\\ wrote\\ their\\ own\\ public\\ letter\\ trying\\ to\\ convince\\ the\\ protesters\\ to\\ stop\\ demonstrating\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ patient\\ for\\ their\\ rights\\.\\ \\(Like\\ many\\ moderates\\,\\ they\\ advocated\\ the\\ infamous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;go\\ slow\\&\\#8221\\;\\ approach\\,\\ which\\ was\\ effectively\\ a\\ euphemism\\ for\\ doing\\ nothing\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ letter\\ evokes\\ the\\ Biblical\\ letters\\ of\\ Paul\\,\\ whom\\ King\\ references\\ for\\ his\\ extensive\\ travels\\ as\\ an\\ early\\ evangelist\\ for\\ Christianity\\.\\ \\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ circumstances\\ of\\ King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ letter\\ are\\ also\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ Paul\\,\\ since\\ both\\ men\\ were\\ writing\\ from\\ jail\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\King\\ argued\\ that\\ segregation\\ violates\\ both\\ democratic\\ and\\ Christian\\ principles\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ writing\\ to\\ multiple\\ audiences\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ responds\\ specifically\\ to\\ the\\ white\\ moderate\\ clergymen\\,\\ because\\ he\\ emphasized\\ that\\ no\\ American\\ should\\ ever\\ be\\ considered\\ an\\ outsider\\ anywhere\\ within\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ appealed\\ to\\ a\\ larger\\,\\ national\\ sense\\ of\\ solidarity\\ that\\ would\\ trump\\ any\\ loyalties\\ to\\ regionalism\\ \\(because\\ it\\ was\\ loyalty\\ to\\ regionalism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ the\\ ostensibly\\ Southern\\ of\\ \\\\Birmingham\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ Way\\ of\\ Life\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ formed\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ these\\ protest\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ \\&\\#8220\\;outsiders\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Malcolm\\ X\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ shifts\\ the\\ discussion\\ to\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ James\\ Baldwin\\,\\ two\\ notably\\ less\\ \\&\\#8220\\;moderate\\&\\#8221\\;\\ figures\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ Baldwin\\ are\\ descendants\\ of\\ Frederick\\ Douglass\\ and\\ the\\ abolitionists\\ of\\ the\\ antebellum\\ period\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ thinks\\ of\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ particular\\ as\\ a\\ Thoreauvian\\ writer\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Unlike\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ not\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ the\\ trenches\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ struggles\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ worked\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ through\\ his\\ writing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\James\\ Cone\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\,\\ Malcolm\\ and\\ Martin\\,\\ first\\ puts\\ forth\\ the\\ thesis\\ that\\ Malcolm\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ radicalism\\ made\\ King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ moderate\\ stance\\ palatable\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ accepted\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ mainstream\\ Americans\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ Stauffer\\ reiterates\\ a\\ point\\ made\\ by\\ McCarthy\\:\\ we\\ see\\ King\\ as\\ moderate\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ most\\ moderate\\ moments\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ remembered\\ and\\ canonized\\ as\\ American\\ history\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ King\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ all\\ carried\\ guns\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ we\\ hear\\ an\\ audio\\ clip\\ of\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ talking\\ about\\ non\\-violence\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ says\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ is\\ criminal\\ to\\ teach\\ a\\ man\\ not\\ to\\ defend\\ himself\\&\\#8221\\;\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ faced\\ with\\ danger\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ wants\\ white\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ \\&\\#8220\\;shocked\\ awake\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Baldwin\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\ Baldwin\\ should\\ underscore\\ the\\ crucial\\ importance\\ of\\ religion\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ era\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Though\\ he\\ is\\ read\\ in\\ secular\\ terms\\,\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ firmly\\ within\\ the\\ Christian\\ tradition\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ support\\ this\\ point\\,\\ Stauffer\\ calls\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ \\William\\ James\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ noted\\ that\\ the\\ varieties\\ of\\ religious\\ expression\\ all\\ assume\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ wrong\\ about\\ us\\ as\\ we\\ stand\\,\\ and\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ saved\\ by\\ connecting\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ power\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ even\\ if\\ he\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ invoke\\ a\\ specific\\ God\\,\\ is\\ at\\ least\\ religious\\ in\\ a\\ Jamesian\\ sense\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ higher\\ power\\ is\\ Love\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ has\\ a\\ pluralistic\\ view\\ of\\ American\\ society\\ because\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ integration\\ is\\ completely\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ assimilation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ Du\\ Bois\\ advocates\\ a\\ hyphenated\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ articulates\\ a\\ pluralism\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ than\\ two\\ perspectives\\ of\\ reality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Pluralism\\ is\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ members\\ of\\ different\\ groups\\ should\\ maintain\\ autonomous\\ traditions\\ and\\ communities\\ as\\ they\\ participate\\ within\\ a\\ larger\\ society\\.\\ \\(To\\ put\\ this\\ another\\ way\\,\\ Pluralism\\ is\\ an\\ antecedent\\ of\\ multiculturalism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ maintain\\ and\\ foster\\ cultural\\ differences\\ because\\ the\\ alternative\\ is\\ a\\ homogenous\\ mass\\ culture\\ that\\ harms\\ everyone\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Pluralism\\ began\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Century\\,\\ when\\ people\\ started\\ freaking\\ out\\ about\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ mass\\ culture\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ a\\ succinct\\ and\\ influential\\ example\\ of\\ pluralist\\ thought\\ check\\ out\\ \\Horace\\ Kallen\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Democracy\\ \\ vs\\.\\ the\\ Melting\\ Pot\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ For\\ the\\ record\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ not\\ convinced\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ is\\ a\\ pluralist\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ \\The\\ Fire\\ Next\\ Time\\<\\/em\\>\\ he\\ explicitly\\ calls\\ us\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;achieve\\ our\\ country\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ remake\\ it\\ in\\ new\\,\\ inclusive\\ terms\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Pluralist\\ arguments\\ usually\\ want\\ to\\ preserve\\ cultures\\ as\\ they\\ are\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ wants\\ to\\ refashion\\ things\\ entirely\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ is\\ thoroughly\\ Hegelian\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ believes\\ ideas\\ shape\\ material\\ forces\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Which\\ religion\\ you\\ follow\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ will\\ determine\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ go\\ about\\ your\\ life\\ and\\ business\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ idea\\ in\\ \\The\\ Fire\\ Next\\ Time\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;love\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ for\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ bursts\\ free\\ from\\ any\\ essentializing\\ restrains\\ but\\ is\\ nevertheless\\ anchored\\ within\\ a\\ Judeo\\-Christian\\ tradition\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;love\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ Steinbeck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ collective\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Like\\ Tom\\ Joad\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ be\\ there\\&\\#8221\\;\\ speech\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ \\The\\ Grapes\\ of\\ Wrath\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ also\\ exhibits\\ a\\ faith\\ in\\ an\\ unseen\\ world\\ that\\ will\\ transform\\ the\\ material\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ yet\\ while\\ Steinbeck\\ secularizes\\ society\\,\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ sacralizes\\ society\\.\\ While\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ refers\\ to\\ religion\\ as\\ a\\ gimmick\\ \\(as\\ a\\ spiritual\\ revenge\\ fantasy\\ against\\ earthly\\ oppressors\\)\\,\\ he\\ is\\ careful\\ to\\ distinguish\\ religion\\ from\\ spirituality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Rejecting\\ the\\ Christian\\ church\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ rejecting\\ the\\ entirety\\ of\\ the\\ ethos\\ that\\ goes\\ with\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ describes\\ love\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ state\\ of\\ being\\,\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ grace\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ is\\ anchored\\ in\\ a\\ spiritual\\ sensibility\\.\\ It\\ is\\ really\\ only\\ love\\ that\\ is\\ durable\\ enough\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ integrated\\ and\\ egalitarian\\ vision\\ that\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ creates\\ for\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\When\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ published\\ \\The\\ Fire\\ Next\\ Time\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ 1963\\,\\ he\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ forefront\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ was\\ even\\ a\\ contender\\ for\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\ this\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ highpoint\\ of\\ his\\ fame\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ movement\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ he\\ saw\\ himself\\ as\\ an\\ artist\\ rather\\ than\\ an\\ activist\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Movement\\ was\\ also\\ complicated\\ by\\ his\\ sexuality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ he\\ never\\ defined\\ himself\\ as\\ gay\\,\\ he\\ made\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ \\(and\\ sexual\\ attraction\\ to\\)\\ men\\ very\\ clear\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Because\\ of\\ this\\,\\ opponents\\ \\(both\\ black\\ and\\ white\\)\\ referred\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Martin\\ Luther\\ Queen\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(MLK\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ people\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ him\\ to\\ get\\ too\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ movement\\,\\ thinking\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ better\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ gay\\ rights\\ movement\\ instead\\.\\ For\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ vicious\\ appraisals\\ of\\ one\\ writer\\ for\\ another\\,\\ check\\ out\\ Eldridge\\ Cleaver\\'s\\ attack\\ on\\ Baldwin\\ in\\ \\\\Soul\\ on\\ Ice\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Stauffer\\ and\\ McCarthy\\ believe\\ that\\ interest\\ in\\ James\\ Baldwin\\ has\\ fallen\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ but\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ must\\ very\\ humbly\\,\\ and\\ very\\ vigorously\\,\\ disagree\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ scholarly\\ interest\\ in\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ definitely\\ dropped\\ in\\ the\\ eighties\\ and\\ early\\ nineties\\,\\ the\\ last\\ 10\\ years\\ has\\ shown\\ a\\ renaissance\\ for\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Nearly\\ half\\ of\\ everything\\ written\\ about\\ him\\&\\#8211\\;\\ books\\,\\ articles\\,\\ chapters\\,\\ biographies\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ has\\ been\\ published\\ within\\ the\\ past\\ 10\\ years\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Last\\ summer\\,\\ an\\ international\\ conference\\ devoted\\ to\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ convened\\ in\\ \\\\London\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ the\\ first\\ in\\ several\\ years\\,\\ and\\ another\\ international\\ conference\\ will\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ Boston\\ in\\ the\\ Spring\\ of\\ 2009\\\\\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ And\\ I\\ am\\ now\\ officially\\ done\\ defending\\ Baldwin\\'s\\ cred\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Fire\\ Next\\ Time\\<\\/em\\>\\ consists\\ of\\ two\\ Parts\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;My\\ Dungeon\\ Shook\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ a\\ letter\\ to\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ nephew\\,\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Down\\ at\\ the\\ Cross\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ originally\\ published\\ in\\ \\The\\ New\\ Yorker\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ first\\ part\\ is\\ a\\ personalized\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ concerns\\ he\\ analyzes\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ part\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ central\\ issue\\ that\\ he\\ raises\\ throughout\\:\\ integration\\ must\\ be\\ achieved\\ through\\ a\\ mystical\\ notion\\ of\\ love\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Baldwin\\ believes\\ that\\ whites\\ see\\ in\\ blacks\\ their\\ own\\ fears\\,\\ which\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ suppress\\ and\\ ignore\\ and\\ otherwise\\ project\\ onto\\ black\\ people\\,\\ and\\ so\\ blacks\\ must\\ love\\ whites\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ check\\ the\\ fears\\ of\\ white\\ people\\.\\ \\(Unlike\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ and\\ Malcolm\\ X\\,\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ concerns\\ himself\\ with\\ the\\ underlying\\ causes\\ of\\ racism\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ often\\ than\\ not\\,\\ he\\ settles\\ on\\ quasi\\-Freudian\\ explanations\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Interestingly\\,\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ suffering\\ most\\ in\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ scenario\\ are\\ not\\ black\\ people\\ under\\ the\\ thumb\\ from\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ laws\\ but\\ the\\ white\\ people\\ who\\ support\\ and\\ enact\\ them\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ fearful\\ and\\ incapable\\ of\\ knowing\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Baldwin\\ effectively\\ makes\\ racism\\ \\everyone\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/em\\>\\ problem\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "MLK, Malcolm X, and James Baldwin"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.670651+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Two Feminist Voices", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 332, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\Readings\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ Betty\\ Friedan\\,\\ \\The\\ Feminine\\ Mystique\\<\\/em\\>\\;\\ Audrey\\ Lorde\\,\\ \\Sister\\ Outsider\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ begins\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\ sketch\\ of\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ his\\ grandmother\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Grandma\\ McCarthy\\ \\(was\\ it\\ his\\ paternal\\ grandmother\\?\\)\\ was\\ the\\ oldest\\ of\\ 16\\ Irish\\ immigrant\\ children\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Her\\ father\\ made\\ it\\ clear\\ to\\ her\\ that\\ an\\ education\\ was\\ unnecessary\\ for\\ girls\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ she\\ paid\\ her\\ father\\ heed\\ under\\ his\\ roof\\,\\ she\\ ran\\ away\\ from\\ home\\ after\\ her\\ senior\\ year\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ and\\ attended\\ \\\\\\Plattsburgh\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\State\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ \\\\New\\ \\ \\ York\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\,\\ where\\ she\\ was\\ the\\ founder\\ and\\ captain\\ of\\ the\\ university\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ first\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ basketball\\ team\\.\\ After\\ graduating\\,\\ she\\ moved\\ to\\ \\\\New\\ \\ \\ York\\ City\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ public\\ school\\ teacher\\.\\ Of\\ course\\,\\ she\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ forget\\ dad\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ advice\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ wrote\\ home\\ and\\ told\\ her\\ father\\ that\\ school\\ \\was\\<\\/em\\>\\ necessary\\ for\\ women\\,\\ and\\ she\\ not\\ only\\ devoted\\ her\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ training\\ of\\ young\\ women\\ for\\ higher\\ education\\,\\ but\\ she\\ also\\ became\\ the\\ first\\ woman\\ teacher\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ union\\ president\\ in\\ \\\\New\\ \\ \\ York\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\State\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ before\\ retiring\\ in\\ 1971\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ sketches\\ this\\ story\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ New\\ Woman\\ of\\ this\\ age\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ someone\\ with\\ intense\\ ambition\\ despite\\ limited\\ opportunities\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ also\\ happened\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ neighbor\\ of\\ Betty\\ Friedan\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ wants\\ us\\ to\\ imagine\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ second\\ wave\\ feminism\\ as\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\:\\ it\\ happened\\ locally\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ waves\\ of\\ feminism\\ began\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ and\\ lasted\\ through\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ decades\\ of\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ the\\ ballot\\,\\ perhaps\\ most\\ memorably\\ through\\ Elizabeth\\ Cady\\ Stanton\\ and\\ Susan\\ B\\.\\ Anthony\\,\\ and\\ it\\ culminated\\ in\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Amendment\\ in\\ 1920\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ suffrage\\ was\\ the\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ wave\\,\\ McCarthy\\ notes\\ that\\ an\\ Equal\\ Rights\\ Amendment\\ \\(a\\ key\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ feminist\\ platform\\ of\\ the\\ 1980s\\)\\ was\\ first\\ conceived\\ in\\ 1923\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Second\\ Wave\\ Feminism\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ had\\ a\\ larger\\ array\\ of\\ goals\\,\\ including\\ increased\\ access\\ to\\ birth\\ control\\,\\ equal\\ pay\\ for\\ equal\\ work\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ divorce\\ and\\ child\\ care\\ laws\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Betty\\ Friedan\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Betty\\ Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\The\\ Feminine\\ Mystique\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ 1963\\,\\ and\\ it\\ became\\ an\\ immediate\\ best\\-seller\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ argues\\ that\\ \\The\\ Feminine\\ Mystique\\<\\/em\\>\\ catalyzed\\ a\\ shift\\ already\\ happening\\ throughout\\ American\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ fifties\\ and\\ early\\ sixties\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Much\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ Friedan\\ uses\\ was\\ culled\\ from\\ her\\ own\\ observations\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ example\\,\\ she\\ sent\\ out\\ a\\ questionnaire\\ to\\ her\\ \\\\Smith\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\College\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ classmates\\ during\\ her\\ 15\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ reunion\\,\\ and\\ the\\ responses\\ she\\ got\\ about\\ their\\ lives\\ as\\ housewives\\ formed\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ her\\ research\\ \\(More\\ on\\ this\\ later\\)\\.\\ Like\\ other\\ texts\\ during\\ this\\ semester\\ \\(think\\ of\\ Du\\ Bois\\ and\\ Agee\\/Evans\\)\\,\\ Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ text\\ is\\ a\\ mixture\\ of\\ different\\ genres\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ part\\ oral\\ history\\,\\ part\\ autobiography\\,\\ part\\ pop\\ culture\\ survey\\,\\ part\\ sociology\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>No\\ matter\\ what\\ it\\ is\\,\\ it\\ meets\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ criteria\\ for\\ Protest\\ Literature\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ identifies\\ and\\ names\\ a\\ problem\\:\\ the\\ mystique\\ of\\ femininity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ documents\\ the\\ problems\\ effects\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ illustrates\\ the\\ problem\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ significance\\ and\\ pervasiveness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ calls\\ for\\ action\\ and\\ social\\ change\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Shortly\\ after\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ published\\,\\ the\\ first\\ chapter\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Organization\\ of\\ Women\\ \\(NOW\\)\\ is\\ founded\\ in\\ 1966\\,\\ and\\ Friedan\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ president\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ feminine\\ mystique\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ problem\\ Friedan\\ names\\ and\\ identifies\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ highest\\ value\\ and\\ social\\ commitment\\ for\\ women\\ is\\ the\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ femininity\\,\\ which\\ is\\ mysterious\\,\\ intuitive\\ and\\ elusive\\ to\\ scientific\\ scrutiny\\.\\ \\(In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ mystique\\ is\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ an\\ essential\\,\\ unbridgeable\\ difference\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\)\\ The\\ corollary\\ to\\ this\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ troubles\\ is\\ their\\ insistence\\ that\\ they\\ be\\ like\\ men\\,\\ which\\ amounts\\ to\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ natural\\ order\\ of\\ things\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Friedan\\ writes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\ is\\ my\\ thesis\\ that\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ for\\ women\\ today\\ is\\ not\\ sexual\\,\\ but\\ a\\ problem\\ of\\ identity\\&\\#8230\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Our\\ culture\\ does\\ not\\ allow\\ women\\ to\\ grow\\ and\\ fulfill\\ their\\ needs\\ and\\ potential\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ observations\\ should\\ be\\ placed\\ against\\ the\\ backdrop\\ of\\ the\\ massive\\ cultural\\ shifts\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ fifteen\\ years\\ after\\ World\\ War\\ II\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ era\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;New\\ Woman\\&\\#8221\\;\\ ended\\ with\\ the\\ war\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ women\\ who\\ moved\\ into\\ the\\ factories\\ during\\ the\\ war\\ years\\ moved\\ back\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ sphere\\ just\\ as\\ quickly\\ when\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ over\\.\\ \\Rosie\\ the\\ Riveter\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ quickly\\ replaced\\ by\\ \\June\\ Cleaver\\<\\/a\\>\\ as\\ the\\ feminine\\ icon\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ the\\ Happy\\ Housewife\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ regression\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ a\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ \\(And\\ so\\ when\\ someone\\ tells\\ you\\ that\\ they\\ support\\ \\&\\#8220\\;traditional\\&\\#8221\\;\\ family\\ values\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ that\\ those\\ values\\ involve\\ a\\ father\\ at\\ work\\ with\\ a\\ mother\\ at\\ home\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ you\\ can\\ tell\\ them\\ that\\ the\\ tradition\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ refer\\ is\\ really\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ fifteen\\-year\\ fad\\.\\ In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ there\\'s\\ no\\ shortage\\ of\\ people\\ these\\ days\\ who\\ are\\ convinced\\ that\\ \\feminism\\ is\\ evil\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Urban\\ populations\\ fled\\ to\\ newly\\-created\\ suburbs\\ designed\\ for\\ families\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Birth\\ and\\ marriage\\ rates\\ rose\\ rapidly\\ \\(and\\ the\\ average\\ age\\ at\\ marriage\\ was\\ substantially\\ younger\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Strict\\ gender\\ codes\\ were\\ all\\ the\\ rage\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ heroism\\ and\\ toughness\\ defined\\ masculinity\\ while\\ women\\ were\\ sensitive\\ and\\ nurturing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>All\\ of\\ this\\ was\\ bolstered\\ by\\ the\\ consumer\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ fifties\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Magazine\\ ads\\ \\(within\\ a\\ burgeoning\\ magazine\\ industry\\)\\ depicted\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ kitchen\\ using\\ their\\ domestic\\ appliances\\ with\\ impossible\\ glee\\ and\\ dignity\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>All\\ of\\ these\\ changes\\ happened\\ quickly\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ mostly\\ from\\ 1945\\ to\\ 1955\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Friedan\\ replaces\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ happy\\ housewife\\ with\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ trapped\\ housewife\\,\\ but\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>her\\ analysis\\ must\\ wrestle\\ with\\ a\\ paradox\\:\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ becoming\\ more\\ open\\ \\(colleges\\ access\\,\\ social\\ mobility\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ prosperous\\,\\ so\\ why\\ are\\ women\\ returning\\ home\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ conceives\\ of\\ the\\ feminine\\ mystique\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ larger\\ identity\\ crisis\\ for\\ which\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ domesticity\\ was\\ a\\ temporary\\ answer\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Friedan\\ argued\\ that\\ because\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ is\\ not\\ determined\\ by\\ her\\ biology\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ consciousness\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ culture\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ and\\ that\\ shift\\ can\\ only\\ begin\\ after\\ the\\ recognition\\ that\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ identity\\ is\\ happening\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\When\\ Stauffer\\ takes\\ over\\ he\\ extends\\ McCarthy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ reading\\ of\\ Friedan\\ and\\ her\\ context\\ before\\ segueing\\ into\\ a\\ critique\\ of\\ Friedman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ analysis\\ via\\ Audrey\\ Lorde\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>According\\ to\\ the\\ feminine\\ mystique\\,\\ not\\ only\\ must\\ women\\ experience\\ orgiastic\\ fulfillment\\ while\\ cleaning\\ the\\ house\\,\\ they\\ were\\ shamed\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;freaks\\&\\#8221\\;\\ if\\ they\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ years\\,\\ a\\ best\\-seller\\ on\\ the\\ market\\ \\(even\\ as\\ \\The\\ Feminine\\ Mystique\\<\\/em\\>\\ made\\ its\\ grand\\ appearance\\)\\ was\\ Dr\\.\\ Spock\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\Baby\\ and\\ Childcare\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ doctor\\ diminishes\\ the\\ satisfaction\\ of\\ having\\ a\\ job\\ by\\ comparing\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ supreme\\ importance\\ of\\ raising\\ a\\ child\\ properly\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Often\\,\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ child\\ care\\ was\\ stoked\\ by\\ fears\\ of\\ juvenile\\ delinquency\\ \\(another\\ source\\ of\\ paranoia\\ at\\ the\\ time\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ official\\ is\\ quoted\\ as\\ saying\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Show\\ me\\ a\\ delinquent\\ child\\ and\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ show\\ you\\ a\\ working\\ mother\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Whether\\ or\\ not\\ Spock\\ incited\\ the\\ trend\\,\\ the\\ rejection\\ of\\ careers\\ was\\ definitely\\ prevalent\\:\\ half\\ of\\ all\\ middle\\ class\\ wives\\ \\never\\ \\<\\/em\\>worked\\ for\\ pay\\ in\\ 1955\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ reads\\ the\\ class\\ a\\ few\\ letters\\ sent\\ to\\ Betty\\ Friedan\\ by\\ appreciative\\ housewives\\ across\\ the\\ country\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(There\\ are\\ piles\\ of\\ these\\ letters\\ in\\ archives\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ apparent\\ that\\ Friedan\\ has\\ tapped\\ into\\ the\\ geist\\ of\\ middle\\ class\\ women\\ that\\ not\\ yet\\ been\\ expressed\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Containment\\ Culture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Historically\\,\\ the\\ appeal\\ of\\ domesticity\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ forties\\ and\\ fifties\\ makes\\ sense\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ and\\ World\\ War\\ II\\,\\ the\\ American\\ middle\\ class\\ was\\ begging\\ for\\ security\\ and\\ prosperity\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Betty\\ Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ analysis\\ responds\\ more\\ specifically\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;culture\\ of\\ containment\\&\\#8221\\;\\ applied\\ to\\ middle\\ class\\ women\\,\\ which\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ containment\\ in\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ international\\ security\\ that\\ enables\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ prosperity\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Stauffer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ operative\\ metaphor\\ guiding\\ American\\ foreign\\ policy\\ for\\ decades\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;containment\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ was\\ applied\\ to\\ domestic\\ culture\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ overarching\\ foreign\\ policy\\ principle\\ of\\ containment\\ was\\ first\\ articulated\\ by\\ George\\ Kennan\\ in\\ a\\ famous\\ \\(among\\ history\\ geeks\\)\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Long\\ Telegram\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ sent\\ in\\ 1946\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ \\Soviet\\ Union\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ would\\ not\\ endanger\\ national\\ security\\ if\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ contained\\ within\\ a\\ clearly\\ defined\\ sphere\\ of\\ influence\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ policy\\ of\\ containing\\ the\\ Soviet\\ threat\\ was\\ mapped\\ onto\\ the\\ containment\\ of\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ sexuality\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ postwar\\ years\\ indicates\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ sexuality\\ and\\ warfare\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;blonde\\ bombshell\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ a\\ not\\-so\\-subtle\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ nuclear\\ bomb\\ that\\ equates\\ unleashing\\ the\\ nuclear\\ bomb\\ to\\ explosive\\ female\\ sexuality\\.\\ Also\\ consider\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ term\\ \\&\\#8220\\;nuclear\\ family\\&\\#8221\\;\\ emerges\\ in\\ the\\ English\\ language\\ in\\ 1947\\:\\ containing\\ the\\ nuclear\\ bomb\\ again\\ resembles\\ the\\ containment\\ of\\ sexuality\\ within\\ safe\\ family\\ structures\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ \\Life\\ Magazine\\<\\/em\\>\\ cover\\ story\\ in\\ 1959\\ featured\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ sheltered\\ honeymoon\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ couple\\ decided\\ to\\ spend\\ their\\ honeymoon\\ in\\ a\\ bomb\\ shelter\\ \\(Ahh\\,\\ the\\ canned\\ food\\,\\ the\\ kerosene\\ lamps\\,\\ the\\ romance\\&\\#8230\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ offers\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ excellent\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ two\\ ideas\\:\\ the\\ sexual\\ containment\\ in\\ the\\ domestic\\ sphere\\ and\\ the\\ containment\\ of\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ nuclear\\ warfare\\.\\ \\(Another\\ fascinating\\ correspondence\\ along\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bombshell\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;nuclear\\ family\\&\\#8221\\;\\ line\\ is\\ the\\ word\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\bikini\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ was\\ coined\\ from\\ the\\ site\\ of\\ multiple\\,\\ publicly\\-acknowledged\\ atmospheric\\ tests\\ of\\ nuclear\\ bombs\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Somehow\\ that\\ terror\\ got\\ routed\\ back\\ through\\ then\\-scandalous\\ \\swimwear\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ connections\\ may\\ seem\\ like\\ sneaking\\ through\\ the\\ back\\ alleys\\ of\\ cultural\\ history\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Fair\\ enough\\,\\ but\\ when\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ back\\ alleys\\ to\\ investigate\\,\\ you\\ begin\\ to\\ realize\\:\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ traffic\\ is\\.\\ For\\ more\\ on\\ this\\ perspective\\ on\\ Cold\\ War\\ culture\\,\\ check\\ out\\ Alan\\ Nadel\\'s\\ \\\\Containment\\ Culture\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Audrey\\ Lorde\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ the\\ broad\\ sense\\,\\ Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ focuses\\ on\\ middle\\ class\\ white\\ women\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ she\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ comparatively\\ blind\\ to\\ working\\ class\\ and\\ minority\\ women\\ \\(After\\ all\\,\\ as\\ McCarthy\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\ she\\ surveyed\\ her\\ Smith\\ College\\ classmates\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ what\\ sociologists\\ call\\ a\\ \\\"\\snowball\\ sample\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ sample\\ of\\ individuals\\ gathered\\ from\\ a\\ small\\ niche\\ of\\ a\\ population\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ an\\ accurate\\ representation\\ of\\ a\\ society\\ your\\ sample\\ must\\ be\\ random\\,\\ and\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ liberal\\ arts\\ college\\ graduates\\ is\\ far\\ from\\ random\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ defense\\,\\ she\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ pretending\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ social\\ scientist\\,\\ but\\ her\\ method\\ is\\ telling\\ nonetheless\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Audrey\\ Lorde\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ Harlem\\ to\\ Caribbean\\ immigrants\\,\\ and\\ when\\ she\\ arrives\\ on\\ the\\ scene\\ in\\ the\\ seventies\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ third\\ wave\\ feminism\\ she\\ redefines\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ personal\\ is\\ political\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ making\\ the\\ political\\ accessible\\ to\\ people\\ she\\ believes\\ have\\ been\\ left\\ out\\ of\\ earlier\\ discussions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Lorde\\ revises\\ Friedan\\ by\\ basing\\ her\\ essays\\ and\\ poetry\\ on\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ difference\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ critiques\\ as\\ overly\\ simplistic\\ the\\ tendency\\ to\\ imagine\\ a\\ binary\\ opposition\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Class\\,\\ race\\,\\ region\\,\\ religion\\ are\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ gender\\ to\\ the\\ feminine\\ experience\\.\\ \\(In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ while\\ Friedan\\ discusses\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ American\\ woman\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ monolithic\\ terms\\,\\ Lorde\\ is\\ quick\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ that\\ this\\ category\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ the\\ feminine\\ mystique\\ would\\ suggest\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lorde\\ emphasizes\\ difference\\ over\\ unity\\ and\\ empathy\\ in\\ her\\ poetry\\ and\\ essays\\,\\ but\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ she\\ does\\ this\\ by\\ revising\\ \\&\\#8220\\;empathy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ returns\\ the\\ concept\\ to\\ its\\ original\\ meaning\\.\\ Stauffer\\ glosses\\ the\\ etymology\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;empathy\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ dates\\ back\\ to\\ German\\ in\\ 1872\\,\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ philosophical\\ term\\ to\\ applied\\ to\\ visual\\ art\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ particularly\\ abstraction\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Empathy\\ replaces\\ sympathy\\ by\\ attempting\\ to\\ blur\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ subject\\ and\\ object\\,\\ and\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ clear\\ that\\ empathy\\ is\\ always\\ an\\ ideal\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ unlike\\ sympathy\\,\\ it\\ is\\ never\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ fully\\ realized\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ implicit\\ in\\ Lorde\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ critique\\ because\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ empathy\\ \\(like\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ the\\ iconic\\ Woman\\ described\\ by\\ many\\ feminists\\)\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ presumes\\ to\\ achieve\\ sameness\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ denying\\ differences\\ among\\ women\\,\\ feminists\\ replicate\\ the\\ patriarchy\\ they\\ oppose\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ patriarchy\\ that\\ is\\ all\\-too\\-happy\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ simplified\\ \\(or\\ contained\\!\\)\\ terms\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lorde\\ preserves\\ difference\\ by\\ focusing\\ on\\ community\\.\\ \\(And\\ here\\ \\&\\#8220\\;community\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ something\\ like\\ an\\ enclave\\ of\\ difference\\ that\\ distinguishes\\ itself\\ from\\ the\\ surrounding\\ society\\.\\ See\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ Will\\ Kymlicka\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\Liberalism\\,\\ Community\\ and\\ Culture\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ In\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Master\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Tools\\ Will\\ Never\\ Dismantle\\ the\\ Master\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ House\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Lorde\\ indicates\\ how\\ the\\ presumption\\ of\\ sameness\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ master\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tools\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ argues\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ also\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ master\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tools\\,\\ and\\ Lorde\\ uses\\ language\\ as\\ her\\ primary\\ tool\\.\\ In\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Poetry\\ Is\\ Not\\ a\\ Luxury\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ she\\ argues\\ that\\ language\\ creates\\ a\\ political\\ and\\ personal\\ consciousness\\ \\(and\\ here\\ she\\ essentially\\ continues\\ Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ argument\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ consciousness\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ by\\ other\\ means\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ than\\ simple\\ awareness\\ or\\ education\\,\\ Lorde\\ makes\\ a\\ case\\ for\\ poetry\\ as\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ distilled\\ expressions\\ of\\ profound\\ experience\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lorde\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ difference\\ is\\ really\\ a\\ gradient\\:\\ there\\ are\\ various\\ levels\\ of\\ community\\ and\\ difference\\ that\\ become\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ precise\\ until\\,\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ analysis\\,\\ differences\\ can\\ be\\ located\\ within\\ the\\ individual\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ differences\\,\\ the\\ Outsider\\ becomes\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ community\\ that\\ becomes\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ inspiration\\ not\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ Outsider\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ imagined\\ insiders\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Two Feminist Voices"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.728815+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Vietnam and New Journalism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 335, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Reading\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ Michael\\ Herr\\,\\ \\Dispatches\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ intro\\ music\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ is\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\'s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Blowin\\&\\#8217\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Wind\\&\\#8221\\;\\ followed\\ by\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Masters\\ of\\ War\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Welcome\\ to\\ the\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ era\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ begins\\ where\\ the\\ last\\ blog\\ post\\ ended\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ wants\\ to\\ clarify\\ a\\ few\\ things\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ Kevin\\ Bales\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ specifically\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ address\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ questions\\ Bales\\ was\\ asked\\ by\\ students\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Regarding\\ Thomas\\ Clarkson\\ and\\ his\\ group\\ of\\ 12\\ abolitionists\\,\\ McCarthy\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ Bales\\ is\\ doing\\ what\\ all\\ savvy\\ public\\ speakers\\ do\\:\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ appealing\\ to\\ his\\ audience\\ \\(undergrads\\!\\)\\,\\ though\\ strangely\\ the\\ questioner\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ received\\ this\\ as\\ elitist\\ \\(a\\ slight\\ thrill\\ of\\ tension\\ must\\ be\\ sweeping\\ over\\ the\\ lecture\\ hall\\ right\\ now\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ clear\\ McCarthy\\ wants\\ to\\ set\\ the\\ record\\ straight\\ just\\ in\\ case\\ the\\ attitude\\ motivating\\ those\\ questions\\ was\\,\\ well\\,\\ holier\\-than\\-thou\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Bales\\ is\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ largely\\ responsible\\ for\\ sparking\\ an\\ abolitionist\\ movement\\ to\\ free\\ 27\\ million\\ people\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ What\\ have\\ these\\ guys\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ room\\ been\\ doing\\ with\\ \\their\\<\\/em\\>\\ time\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Of\\ course\\,\\ this\\ is\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ speaking\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ is\\ sticking\\ to\\ history\\ here\\&\\#8230\\;\\)\\ \\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ clear\\:\\ the\\ twelve\\ people\\ who\\ formed\\ the\\ Committee\\ for\\ the\\ Abolition\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\ Trade\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ excluding\\ anyone\\ from\\ participating\\ in\\ their\\ cause\\.\\ There\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ other\\ people\\ to\\ exclude\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ first\\ twelve\\ to\\ come\\ together\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ abolishing\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ abolishing\\ slavery\\ itself\\ \\(which\\ had\\ been\\ abolished\\ in\\ \\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ at\\ the\\ time\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Nat\\ Turner\\<\\/p\\>\\From\\ here\\,\\ McCarthy\\ delves\\ into\\ a\\ discussion\\ about\\ the\\ posture\\ of\\ protest\\ movements\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ engage\\ in\\ protests\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ minority\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ spheres\\ of\\ power\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ sought\\ to\\ influence\\ the\\ center\\ and\\ transform\\ institutions\\ of\\ power\\.\\ \\(In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ protesters\\ generally\\ are\\ not\\ staunch\\ rebels\\ trying\\ to\\ tear\\ down\\ society\\'s\\ institutions\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Rather\\,\\ they\\ typically\\ change\\ institutions\\ from\\ within\\.\\)\\ \\ This\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ question\\ \\(or\\ another\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ question\\?\\)\\ from\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ that\\ McCarthy\\ wants\\ to\\ address\\:\\ why\\ not\\ emphasize\\ slave\\ revolts\\ and\\ slave\\ agency\\ question\\?\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ some\\ sense\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ issue\\ to\\ raise\\.\\ \\ Pro\\-slavery\\ advocates\\ \\(or\\ apologists\\ after\\ the\\ war\\)\\ perpetuated\\ a\\ myth\\ that\\ slaves\\ had\\ no\\ role\\ whatsoever\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ emancipation\\ and\\ that\\ outsider\\ abolitionists\\ were\\ the\\ primary\\ cause\\ for\\ emancipation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ this\\ myth\\ was\\ a\\ consensus\\ among\\ historians\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ we\\ call\\ \\&\\#8220\\;slave\\ agency\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ a\\ relatively\\ new\\ idea\\ \\(dating\\ from\\ the\\ 1950s\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ slave\\ agency\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ neatly\\ translate\\ into\\ Slave\\ Rebellion\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ outright\\ slave\\ revolts\\ are\\ exceedingly\\ rare\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ there\\ were\\ only\\ four\\ major\\ planned\\ slave\\ revolts\\ from\\ 1776\\ to\\ emancipation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ was\\ in\\ 1800\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ Denmark\\ Vesey\\'s\\ 1822\\ rebellion\\,\\ Nat\\ Turner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rebellion\\ in\\ 1831\\ and\\ a\\ little\\-known\\ \\\\Louisiana\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ slave\\ revolt\\ in\\ 1811\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ result\\ of\\ these\\ revolts\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ pretty\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Instead\\ of\\ freedom\\,\\ they\\ yielded\\ far\\ more\\ violence\\ and\\ increased\\ repression\\ against\\ slaves\\ \\(and\\ abolitionists\\)\\ in\\ retaliation\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Frederick\\ Douglass\\,\\ by\\ the\\ way\\,\\ refused\\ to\\ join\\ John\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rebellion\\ because\\ he\\ thought\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ idea\\ was\\ folly\\ and\\ doomed\\ to\\ failure\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Haitian\\ Revolution\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ the\\ important\\ exception\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Hey\\,\\ Tim\\,\\ were\\ you\\ reading\\ yesterday\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ blog\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ Intrepid\\ Minds\\ think\\ alike\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ slave\\ revolts\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ really\\ successful\\,\\ constant\\ acts\\ of\\ resistance\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ effective\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ are\\ the\\ small\\ acts\\ of\\ slaves\\ that\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ make\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ newspapers\\:\\ poor\\ work\\,\\ slow\\ work\\,\\ ruining\\ crops\\,\\ escape\\,\\ destroying\\ tools\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vietnam\\ War\\ Photography\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ takes\\ the\\ spotlight\\ now\\ and\\ shifts\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ and\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ photography\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Even\\ in\\ this\\ age\\ of\\ doctored\\ photos\\,\\ people\\ link\\ photography\\ to\\ objective\\ truth\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ medium\\,\\ photographs\\ transformed\\ public\\ opinion\\ about\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ because\\ they\\ seemed\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ immediate\\ truth\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ in\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ begins\\ by\\ showing\\ the\\ famous\\ Eddie\\ Adams\\ photo\\ shot\\ in\\ Saigon\\ 1968\\ of\\ a\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ executing\\ a\\ Vietcong\\ officer\\ in\\ civilian\\ clothes\\ \\(I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ like\\ to\\ note\\ something\\ important\\ about\\ this\\ image\\:\\ we\\ misread\\ it\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ officer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ face\\ is\\ largely\\ turned\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ camera\\,\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ Vietcong\\ officer\\ is\\ in\\ civilian\\ clothes\\ we\\ often\\ image\\ that\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ witnessing\\ is\\ an\\ \\American\\<\\/em\\>\\ soldier\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ execution\\ of\\ a\\ \\civilian\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ if\\ this\\ has\\ been\\ studied\\ at\\ all\\,\\ but\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ curious\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ if\\ the\\ American\\ public\\ in\\ 1968\\ accurately\\ understood\\ what\\ they\\ were\\ witnessing\\ after\\ the\\ initial\\ news\\ stories\\ about\\ this\\ execution\\ were\\ aired\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Adams\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;\\ image\\ appeared\\ in\\ February\\,\\ 1968\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ short\\ film\\ shot\\ with\\ a\\ movie\\ camera\\ right\\ next\\ to\\ \\Adams\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Both\\ the\\ image\\ and\\ a\\ segment\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ were\\ shown\\ on\\ NBC\\ nightly\\ news\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Public\\ opinion\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ shifted\\ dramatically\\ in\\ the\\ months\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ this\\ image\\ was\\ shown\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ early\\ 1968\\ marked\\ the\\ largest\\ shift\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\ about\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ ever\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Before\\ the\\ \\Adams\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ image\\,\\ 25\\%\\ was\\ against\\ the\\ war\\ while\\ 45\\%\\ was\\ in\\ favor\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ the\\ image\\,\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ was\\ against\\ the\\ war\\ while\\ 40\\%\\ remained\\ hawkish\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ attribute\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ to\\ this\\ photograph\\,\\ of\\ course\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>During\\ these\\ same\\ months\\,\\ the\\ Vietcong\\ waged\\ the\\ surprise\\ Tet\\ Offensive\\,\\ which\\ the\\ media\\ largely\\ reported\\ as\\ a\\ loss\\ for\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Military\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ second\\ set\\ of\\ images\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ 1969\\ \\My\\ Lai\\ Massacre\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\ An\\ army\\ photographer\\ named\\ Haeberle\\ witnessed\\ it\\ and\\ sent\\ it\\ to\\ his\\ hometown\\ paper\\ in\\ \\\\Cleveland\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ The\\ State\\ Department\\ urged\\ the\\ paper\\ not\\ to\\ publish\\ the\\ images\\,\\ insisting\\ the\\ massacre\\ never\\ happened\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ published\\ them\\ anyway\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\One\\ of\\ the\\ soldiers\\ who\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ massacre\\ was\\ later\\ interviewed\\ by\\ Mike\\ Wallace\\.\\ When\\ Wallace\\ pressed\\ for\\ details\\,\\ the\\ soldier\\ confirmed\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ killed\\ men\\,\\ women\\ and\\ children\\.\\ Wallace\\ asks\\,\\ \\\"And\\ babies\\?\\\"\\ The\\ soldier\\ repsonded\\,\\ \\\"And\\ babies\\.\\\"\\ This\\ macabre\\ exchange\\ was\\ subsequently\\ printed\\ over\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ several\\ dead\\ bodies\\ in\\ a\\ gully\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ above\\ image\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ Kent\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\State\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ image\\ shot\\ by\\ John\\ Filo\\,\\ a\\ photography\\ student\\.\\ National\\ Guardsman\\ killed\\ for\\ Kent\\ State\\ students\\ at\\ a\\ protest\\ in\\ 1970\\.\\ While\\ we\\ are\\ naturally\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ young\\ woman\\ screaming\\,\\ Stauffer\\ draws\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ background\\,\\ some\\ looking\\ on\\ in\\ shock\\ while\\ others\\ seem\\ almost\\ unaware\\.\\ \\ The\\ photograph\\ seems\\ to\\ pull\\ us\\ into\\ its\\ moral\\ orbit\\:\\ Will\\ I\\ be\\ passive\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ above\\ shows\\ children\\ fleeing\\ a\\ napalm\\ strike\\.\\ The\\ girl\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ frame\\ has\\ ripped\\ off\\ her\\ clothes\\ in\\ a\\ futile\\ attempt\\ to\\ stop\\ her\\ skin\\ from\\ burning\\.\\ \\(Angry\\ Note\\:\\ Napalm\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ gasoline\\ jelly\\ that\\ sticks\\ to\\ whatever\\ it\\ touches\\.\\ It\\ was\\ \\developed\\ at\\ Harvard\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ an\\ emeritus\\ professor\\ named\\ Louis\\ Fieser\\ in\\ 1943\\,\\ who\\ received\\ his\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ under\\ the\\ guidance\\ of\\ James\\ Conant\\,\\ Harvard\\'s\\ President\\.\\ Conant\\ was\\ instrumental\\ in\\ linking\\ Harvard\\'s\\ scientific\\ research\\ to\\ military\\ purposes\\ and\\ funding\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ tuition\\ paid\\ to\\ Harvard\\ partially\\ funded\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ things\\ like\\ napalm\\ and\\ other\\ Weapons\\ of\\ Mass\\ Destruction\\.\\ Napalm\\ was\\ sold\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ military\\ \\(at\\ a\\ profit\\,\\ of\\ course\\)\\ by\\ \\Dow\\ Chemical\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Last\\ year\\,\\ Dow\\ Chemical\\ made\\ a\\ net\\ profit\\ of\\ \\$2\\.9\\ billion\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ \\the\\ list\\ of\\ products\\<\\/a\\>\\ Dow\\ Chemical\\ sells\\.\\ If\\ you\\ choose\\ not\\ to\\ purchase\\ those\\ products\\,\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ will\\ understand\\.\\ For\\ information\\ about\\ whom\\ you\\ can\\ contact\\ at\\ Dow\\ Chemical\\ about\\ this\\ issue\\ and\\ others\\,\\ click\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Dispatches\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Michael\\ Herr\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ writing\\ aims\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ reader\\ feel\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ immediate\\ discomfort\\ that\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ discomfort\\ evoked\\ by\\ these\\ images\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Herr\\ writes\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ while\\ it\\ was\\ happening\\ \\(though\\ the\\ volume\\ of\\ his\\ collected\\ and\\ revised\\ essays\\,\\ \\Dispatches\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>was\\ published\\ after\\ the\\ war\\)\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Herr\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\ spent\\ 2\\ years\\ in\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ beginning\\ in\\ 1967\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ book\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\ got\\ rave\\ reviews\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ differed\\ in\\ all\\ previous\\ American\\ wars\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\ 1\\)\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ media\\ war\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ unreal\\ war\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ two\\ features\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ one\\ another\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\ unreal\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ public\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ conventional\\ journalism\\ and\\ its\\ emphasis\\ on\\ objectivity\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Herr\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ impossible\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ real\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ is\\ like\\ from\\ traditional\\ reporting\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ focusing\\ on\\ plausible\\ objectivity\\,\\ journalism\\ leaves\\ the\\ narrator\\ \\(the\\ reporter\\)\\ out\\,\\ but\\ by\\ leaving\\ out\\ the\\ narrator\\ journalism\\ must\\ also\\ leave\\ out\\ the\\ intense\\ subjective\\ experiences\\ that\\ shape\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ events\\ associated\\ with\\ war\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\New\\ Journalism\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\New\\ Journalism\\ arose\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ era\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ limitations\\ that\\ journalistic\\ conventions\\ imposed\\ upon\\ the\\ war\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ coverage\\ \\(and\\ I\\ guess\\ we\\ might\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ extreme\\ experiences\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ highlighted\\ limitations\\ to\\ the\\ genre\\ that\\ were\\ always\\ there\\)\\.\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ might\\ think\\ of\\ James\\ Agee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Let\\ Us\\ Now\\ Praise\\ Famous\\ Men\\<\\/em\\>\\ as\\ a\\ forebear\\ to\\ New\\ Journalism\\.\\ \\(Remember\\ the\\ way\\ Agee\\ kept\\ insinuating\\ himself\\,\\ his\\ own\\ imagination\\ and\\ fantasies\\ about\\ his\\ tenant\\ farmer\\ subjects\\?\\ That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ common\\ device\\ of\\ New\\ Journalism\\.\\)\\ \\&\\#8220\\;New\\ Journalism\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ coined\\ by\\ Tom\\ Wolfe\\ in\\ 1967\\,\\ and\\ other\\ practitioners\\ include\\ Joan\\ Didion\\,\\ Norman\\ Mailer\\ and\\ Truman\\ Capote\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Features\\ of\\ New\\ Journalism\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ The\\ author\\ becomes\\ a\\ central\\ character\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ It\\ includes\\ fictional\\ elements\\ and\\ highly\\ dramatized\\ action\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ It\\ aspires\\ to\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ fiction\\ by\\ highlighting\\ subjective\\ responses\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ under\\ investigation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ It\\ breaks\\ down\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ viewer\\ and\\ viewed\\,\\ representation\\ and\\ referent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\5\\.\\ Its\\ narrative\\ style\\ seeks\\ empathy\\ and\\ connectedness\\ between\\ the\\ narrator\\ and\\ the\\ subjects\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(If\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ interested\\ in\\ picking\\ through\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ highlights\\ of\\ New\\ Journalism\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ check\\ out\\ Tom\\ Wolfe\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\The\\ Electric\\ Kool\\-Aid\\ Acid\\ Test\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Joan\\ Didion\\'s\\ \\Slouching\\ Towards\\ Bethlehem\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Norman\\ Mailer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Armies\\ of\\ the\\ Night\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Truman\\ Capote\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\In\\ Cold\\ Blood\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ Hunter\\ Thompson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Fear\\ and\\ Loathing\\ in\\ Las\\ Vegas\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\For\\ Herr\\,\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ New\\ Journalism\\ was\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ write\\ authentically\\ and\\ capture\\ a\\ hallucinatory\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ war\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Herr\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ combine\\ his\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ with\\ the\\ war\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ larger\\ significance\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ a\\ journey\\ of\\ the\\ author\\ through\\ his\\ own\\ consciousness\\,\\ which\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ \\Dispatches\\<\\/em\\>\\ highlights\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ progresses\\ from\\ innocence\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ chapter\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;Breathing\\ In\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ to\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ chapter\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;Breathing\\ Out\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Along\\ the\\ way\\,\\ Herr\\ searches\\ for\\ forms\\ of\\ representation\\ that\\ can\\ capture\\ this\\ consciousness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enter\\ the\\ Postmodern\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\,\\ New\\ Journalism\\ flourishes\\ in\\ a\\ niche\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ war\\,\\ in\\ the\\ gap\\ between\\ mass\\ media\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ the\\ war\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ reality\\.\\ \\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ Herr\\ recalls\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ map\\ of\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ and\\ realizing\\ how\\ inadequate\\ the\\ map\\ is\\ as\\ a\\ chart\\ for\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ country\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ map\\ and\\ the\\ territory\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ gap\\ between\\ language\\ and\\ reality\\.\\ \\(It\\ seems\\ as\\ if\\ Stauffer\\ is\\ hinting\\ at\\ Baudrillard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ quotation\\ in\\ \\\\Simulacra\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\and\\ Simulation\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ map\\ precedes\\ the\\ territory\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ essentially\\ means\\ that\\ our\\ representations\\ and\\ narratives\\ about\\ things\\ are\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ the\\ things\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ hunch\\,\\ a\\ fleeting\\ attempt\\ to\\ perform\\ my\\ own\\ New\\ Journalism\\ by\\ delving\\ into\\ The\\ Mind\\ of\\ Stauffer\\ from\\ the\\ very\\ back\\ of\\ this\\ lecture\\ room\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ New\\ Journalism\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ crack\\ in\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ news\\ outlets\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Think\\ about\\ it\\:\\ \\Walter\\ Cronkite\\<\\/a\\>\\ always\\ ended\\ his\\ broadcasts\\ with\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;And\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Such\\ a\\ bold\\ claim\\ to\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ reality\\ is\\ almost\\ unthinkable\\ today\\.\\ \\(Suddenly\\,\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ wonders\\ if\\ good\\ ol\\&\\#8217\\;\\ Walter\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ source\\ for\\ \\Run\\ DMC\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ burst\\ onto\\ the\\ hip\\ hop\\ scene\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ eighties\\ with\\ the\\ refrain\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ like\\ that\\,\\ and\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ all\\,\\ as\\ Jim\\ Morrison\\ told\\ us\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;rap\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ news\\ is\\ read\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ media\\ had\\ more\\ autonomy\\ in\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ than\\ in\\ every\\ other\\ previous\\ war\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ blamed\\ for\\ \\\\U\\.S\\.\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ defeat\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ an\\ important\\,\\ new\\ development\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ population\\ could\\ witness\\ the\\ conflict\\ between\\ the\\ official\\ statement\\ and\\ the\\ eyewitness\\ report\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Again\\,\\ the\\ \\Tet\\ Offensive\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ event\\:\\ the\\ military\\ declared\\ victory\\ while\\ the\\ media\\ generally\\ reported\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ disaster\\.\\ \\(Not\\ to\\ split\\ hairs\\,\\ but\\ this\\ partly\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ how\\ we\\ define\\ \\&\\#8220\\;victory\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ Vietcong\\ failed\\ to\\ achieve\\ any\\ major\\ objectives\\ in\\ their\\ surprise\\ raid\\,\\ but\\ what\\ was\\ so\\ shocking\\ is\\ the\\ very\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ event\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ attack\\ was\\ coordinated\\ throughout\\ the\\ country\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ involved\\ the\\ simultaneous\\ coordination\\ of\\ hundreds\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ people\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ the\\ military\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ clue\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ say\\ the\\ least\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ tremendous\\ intelligence\\ failure\\,\\ and\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ change\\ the\\ dynamic\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ wake\\-up\\ call\\ for\\ Americans\\:\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ up\\ against\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Think\\ twice\\ before\\ you\\ fuck\\ with\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ fighting\\ outsiders\\ for\\ centuries\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>You\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ badly\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ wanted\\ to\\ win\\?\\ Check\\ out\\ the\\ \\Cu\\ Chi\\ tunnels\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ muddled\\ relationship\\ between\\ truth\\ and\\ representation\\ marks\\ postmodernism\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ entrance\\ into\\ popular\\ culture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Virtually\\ all\\ of\\ Herr\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ articles\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ conflation\\ of\\ reality\\ and\\ fiction\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Repeatedly\\,\\ Vietnam\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ a\\ movie\\,\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ Herr\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ habit\\ of\\ treating\\ war\\ as\\ a\\ movie\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ shame\\ of\\ voyeurism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ if\\ watching\\ a\\ tragedy\\ becomes\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ it\\ no\\ longer\\ becomes\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ fetishize\\ the\\ object\\ you\\ are\\ watching\\ \\(as\\ Agee\\ and\\ Evans\\ may\\ have\\ fetishized\\ the\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ they\\ documented\\)\\.\\ But\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ downside\\:\\ when\\ watching\\ is\\ voyeuristic\\,\\ it\\ renders\\ the\\ viewer\\ powerless\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ the\\ trade\\-off\\ that\\ Americans\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ taken\\ because\\ Americans\\ do\\ indeed\\ feel\\ a\\ diminished\\ sense\\ of\\ political\\ efficacy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Vietnam and New Journalism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.830910+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Fluff or Nutter?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 339, "html": "\\\\\\<\\/iframe\\>\\\\<\\/iframe\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Welcome\\ to\\ PPtime\\,\\ Positive\\ Psych\\ time\\,\\ that\\ is\\.\\ If\\ you\\ made\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ lecture\\ you\\ probably\\ heard\\ him\\ crack\\ the\\ PP\\ joke\\.\\ If\\ not\\,\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ worry\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ sure\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ make\\ it\\ again\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ am\\ a\\ senior\\ who\\ took\\ Psych\\ 1\\ many\\ semesters\\ ago\\ and\\ am\\ enrolling\\ in\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ wondering\\ if\\ it\\ will\\ actually\\ change\\ my\\ life\\,\\ like\\ \\12\\%\\ of\\ Cue\\ guide\\ respondents\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ noted\\,\\ or\\ if\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ nice\\,\\ fluffy\\ senior\\ spring\\ class\\?\\ Somewhat\\ of\\ an\\ open\\-minded\\ skeptic\\,\\ my\\ blog\\ will\\ invariably\\ be\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ ways\\ of\\ positivism\\ at\\ times\\,\\ but\\ I\\ swear\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ be\\ on\\ my\\ best\\ behavior\\.\\ After\\ all\\,\\ Tal\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ mean\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/object\\>You\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ seen\\ him\\ on\\ the\\ Daily\\ Show\\ \\(above\\)\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ \\Boston\\ Globe\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\-\\ now\\ you\\ see\\ him\\ live\\!\\ He\\ seems\\ humble\\ and\\ wise\\ or\\ maybe\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ his\\ endearing\\,\\ Israeli\\ accent\\?\\ He\\ opened\\ the\\ first\\ class\\ \\(after\\ some\\ unidentified\\ \\&\\#8216\\;happy\\&\\#8217\\;\\ music\\ during\\ passing\\)\\ by\\ bringing\\ us\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ years\\ as\\ an\\ undergrad\\ at\\ Harvard\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ doing\\ well\\ socially\\,\\ academically\\ \\(as\\ a\\ CS\\ major\\)\\ and\\ athletically\\ \\(as\\ a\\ Squash\\ player\\)\\ but\\ was\\ unhappy\\.\\ He\\ turned\\ to\\ Psychology\\ for\\ the\\ answer\\,\\ switching\\ his\\ concentration\\ to\\ Psych\\ and\\ Philosophy\\.\\ He\\ wishes\\ a\\ Positive\\ Psych\\ class\\ had\\ be\\ been\\ offered\\ then\\;\\ this\\ discipline\\ has\\ changed\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ teaches\\ it\\.\\ As\\ he\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ learn\\ is\\ to\\ teach\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ first\\ time\\ he\\ taught\\ the\\ course\\ was\\ in\\ 2002\\ as\\ an\\ 8\\-person\\ seminar\\,\\ then\\ in\\ 2005\\ to\\ 300\\ students\\ and\\ most\\ recently\\ in\\ 2006\\ to\\ over\\ 800\\ students\\,\\ what\\ was\\ then\\ the\\ biggest\\ class\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ even\\ bigger\\ than\\ Introduction\\ to\\ Economics\\.\\ This\\ captured\\ media\\ attention\\.\\ Tal\\ explained\\ that\\ time\\ and\\ time\\ again\\ reporters\\ would\\ tell\\ him\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ expected\\ him\\ to\\ be\\ different\\,\\ more\\ extroverted\\ and\\ taller\\.\\ He\\ explained\\ they\\ were\\ looking\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\ place\\:\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ \\&\\#8220\\;looking\\ at\\ the\\ messenger\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ message\\.Positive\\ Psych\\ courses\\ around\\ the\\ US\\ are\\ often\\ the\\ largest\\ classes\\ at\\ their\\ respective\\ universities\\.\\ High\\ schools\\,\\ elementary\\ schools\\ and\\ even\\ governments\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ introduce\\ them\\ as\\ well\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;self\\ help\\ movement\\&\\#8221\\;\\ has\\ become\\ increasingly\\ popular\\ in\\ mainstream\\ America\\.\\ However\\,\\ he\\ explains\\,\\ these\\ seminars\\ lack\\ substance\\ as\\ they\\ \\&\\#8220\\;overpromise\\ and\\ underdeliver\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Academic\\ positive\\ psychology\\ does\\ have\\ this\\ substance\\ but\\ most\\ people\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ read\\ academic\\ psych\\ journals\\ so\\ its\\ impact\\ is\\ limited\\.\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ connect\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;mainstream\\ and\\ ivory\\ tower\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ rigor\\,\\ empiricism\\ and\\ substance\\ from\\ academia\\ and\\ merge\\ it\\ with\\ the\\ accessibility\\ of\\ the\\ self\\-help\\ movement\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ course\\ will\\ be\\ taught\\ on\\ two\\ levels\\:\\ one\\ being\\ academic\\ \\(through\\ studies\\,\\ research\\ and\\ scholarly\\ work\\)\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ applied\\.He\\ hopes\\ and\\ expects\\ that\\ students\\ will\\ apply\\ everything\\ they\\ read\\ to\\ their\\ daily\\ life\\ \\(luckily\\,\\ sections\\ and\\ response\\ papers\\ will\\ essentially\\ force\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ this\\)\\.In\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;housekeeping\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ he\\ calls\\ it\\:\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ teaching\\ at\\ Harvard\\ \\(hmm\\&\\#8230\\;\\)\\.\\ During\\ lecture\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ times\\ when\\ he\\ asks\\ the\\ class\\ to\\ take\\ \\&\\#8220\\;time\\-ins\\&\\#8221\\;\\-\\ which\\ are\\ silent\\ moments\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ life\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ him\\ to\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ research\\ on\\ silence\\.\\ David\\ Foster\\ and\\ Mathew\\ Wilson\\ of\\ MIT\\ did\\ a\\ study\\ where\\ they\\ scanned\\ rat\\ brains\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ the\\ rodents\\ went\\ through\\ a\\ maze\\.\\ They\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ rats\\ that\\ went\\ though\\ the\\ race\\ many\\ times\\ typically\\ learned\\ slower\\ than\\ rats\\ which\\ took\\ time\\ in\\ between\\.\\ Thus\\ they\\ concluded\\ that\\ mental\\ \\&\\#8220\\;replay\\&\\#8221\\;\\ leads\\ to\\ learning\\ and\\ memory\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ when\\ we\\ reflect\\,\\ we\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ retain\\.\\ This\\ discussion\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ following\\ quote\\ from\\ Parker\\ Palmer\\:\\\r\\\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ courage\\ to\\ teach\\-\\ words\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ sole\\ medium\\ of\\ exchange\\ in\\ teaching\\ and\\ learning\\-\\ we\\ educate\\ with\\ silence\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Silence\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ said\\ and\\ heard\\&\\#8230\\;in\\ authentic\\ education\\,\\ silence\\ is\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ trustworthy\\ matrix\\ for\\ the\\ inner\\ work\\ students\\ must\\ do\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ learning\\ of\\ the\\ deepest\\ sort\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Next\\,\\ Professor\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ PP\\.\\ The\\ foundations\\ of\\ PP\\ come\\ form\\ \\Humanistic\\ Psychology\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ existing\\ psychology\\ of\\ time\\.\\ Oft\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;third\\ force\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ complement\\ behaviorism\\ \\(Skinner\\,\\ Watson\\,\\ Thorndike\\)\\ and\\ psychoanalysis\\ \\(Freud\\,\\ Adler\\,\\ Yoon\\)\\.\\ While\\ behaviorism\\ looked\\ at\\ human\\ entity\\ as\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ behaviors\\,\\ the\\ humanistic\\ approach\\ also\\ considered\\ our\\ spirits\\,\\ souls\\,\\ cognition\\ and\\ thoughts\\.\\ Psychoanalysis\\ sought\\ to\\ understand\\ humans\\ through\\ the\\ subconscious\\,\\ often\\ studying\\ defenses\\ and\\ dark\\ forces\\ such\\ as\\ neuroses\\ which\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ However\\,\\ humanistic\\ psychology\\ lacked\\ a\\ rigorous\\ methodology\\ and\\ its\\ study\\ of\\ kindness\\,\\ love\\,\\ morality\\,\\ self\\ actualization\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ largely\\ morphed\\ into\\ the\\ present\\-day\\ self\\-help\\ movement\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Ben\\-Shahar\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;grandparents\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ PP\\-\\ Abraham\\ Maslow\\,\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ President\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Psychological\\ Association\\ and\\ wrote\\ \\Toward\\ a\\ Psychology\\ of\\ Being\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>Karen\\ Horney\\,\\ a\\ psychoanalyst\\ trained\\ by\\ Freud\\,\\ argued\\ that\\ instead\\ of\\ focusing\\ just\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\,\\ we\\ must\\ also\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ positive\\.\\ Aaron\\ Antonovsky\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ health\\,\\ coined\\ the\\ term\\ \\&\\#8220\\;salutogenesis\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(the\\ origin\\ of\\ health\\)\\.\\ He\\ also\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;parents\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ PP\\.\\ Martin\\ Seligman\\,\\ who\\ was\\ also\\ President\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Psychological\\ Association\\,\\ worked\\ to\\ bridge\\ the\\ ivory\\ tower\\ and\\ the\\ mainstream\\ and\\ formally\\ introduced\\ positive\\ psych\\ by\\ studying\\ love\\,\\ relationships\\,\\ self\\ esteem\\,\\ resilience\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ Ellen\\ Langer\\ and\\ Philip\\ Stone\\,\\ both\\ Harvard\\ professors\\ and\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ thesis\\ advisors\\,\\ have\\ also\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ role\\.\\ Philip\\ Stone\\ taught\\ the\\ first\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ class\\ at\\ Harvard\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ first\\ in\\ country\\ in\\ 1999\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Tal\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ explain\\ that\\ Psychology\\ 1504\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ just\\ about\\ information\\,\\ but\\ also\\ about\\ transformation\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ that\\ by\\ transformation\\ he\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ changing\\ perceptions\\ of\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ life\\.\\ To\\ explain\\ this\\ concept\\,\\ he\\ cites\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ an\\ athlete\\ who\\ comes\\ in\\ eighth\\ in\\ a\\ race\\,\\ after\\ expecting\\ to\\ come\\ in\\ third\\,\\ and\\ can\\ either\\ see\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ disaster\\ or\\ as\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ learn\\ and\\ improve\\.\\ Again\\ citing\\ his\\ time\\ as\\ an\\ undergrad\\,\\ Tal\\ explains\\ that\\ you\\ may\\ have\\ everything\\ and\\ not\\ appreciate\\ it\\ or\\ have\\ nothing\\ and\\ be\\ thankful\\ for\\ everything\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ proclaims\\ that\\ a\\ theme\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ \\(in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ remember\\ this\\ phrase\\,\\ he\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ repeat\\ it\\)\\ is\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;happiness\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ contingent\\ on\\ our\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\ than\\ on\\ our\\ state\\ or\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ our\\ bank\\ account\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ is\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;covering\\ less\\,\\ uncovering\\ more\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ This\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ will\\,\\ hopefully\\,\\ uncover\\ the\\ potential\\ we\\ have\\ had\\ inside\\ of\\ us\\ all\\ along\\.\\ He\\ cites\\ Michelangelo\\ who\\ saw\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ stone\\ and\\ in\\ it\\ saw\\ David\\ and\\ knew\\ he\\ just\\ had\\ to\\ chip\\ away\\ the\\ excess\\ stone\\.\\ In\\ our\\ situation\\,\\ Tal\\ hopes\\ we\\ will\\ rid\\ of\\ our\\ limitations\\ and\\ barriers\\ and\\ chip\\ away\\ our\\ fears\\ of\\ failure\\ and\\ perfectionism\\.\\ Sound\\ familiar\\,\\ Harvard\\ students\\?\\ Of\\ course\\ this\\ slide\\ contains\\ inspirational\\ quotes\\ from\\ great\\ thinkers\\:\\\r\\1\\-\\ Thoreau\\-\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ soul\\ grows\\ more\\ by\\ subtraction\\,\\ not\\ addition\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\2\\-\\ Lao\\ Tzu\\-\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ pursuit\\ of\\ knowledge\\,\\ every\\ day\\ something\\ is\\ acquired\\:\\ in\\ pursuit\\ of\\ wisdom\\,\\ every\\ day\\ something\\ is\\ acquired\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ he\\ explains\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ searching\\ for\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;wow\\&\\#8221\\;\\ factor\\,\\ there\\ is\\ none\\.\\ Tal\\ explains\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ emperor\\ of\\ quick\\ fixes\\ has\\ no\\ clothes\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ again\\,\\ overpromising\\ and\\ underdelivering\\.\\ Followed\\ by\\ another\\ great\\ quote\\,\\ this\\ time\\ from\\ Voltaire\\-\\ \\&\\#8220\\;common\\ sense\\ is\\ not\\ that\\ common\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Tal\\ hopes\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ we\\ will\\ thank\\ him\\ for\\ reminding\\ me\\ us\\ of\\ something\\ we\\ already\\ know\\,\\ not\\ about\\ teaching\\ us\\ something\\ new\\;\\ \\ reminding\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ David\\ that\\ is\\ inside\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ us\\.\\ And\\ another\\ quote\\ from\\ Archibald\\ MaCleish\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ is\\ wrong\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ great\\ discoveries\\ of\\ science\\-\\ information\\ is\\ always\\ better\\ than\\ ignorance\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ information\\ or\\ what\\ ignorance\\.\\ What\\ is\\ wrong\\ is\\ the\\ belief\\ behind\\ information\\,\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ information\\ will\\ change\\ the\\ world\\.\\ It\\ wont\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Tal\\ takes\\ a\\ step\\ back\\ \\(literally\\ and\\ metaphorically\\)\\ and\\ speaks\\ to\\ the\\ cynics\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ who\\ are\\ thinking\\ that\\ this\\ approach\\ is\\ na\\&\\#239\\;ve\\ and\\ idealistic\\.\\ He\\ counters\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ na\\&\\#239\\;ve\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ but\\ idealistic\\ it\\ is\\ note\\.\\ And\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ idealism\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ change\\.\\ What\\ now\\,\\ cynics\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ explains\\ that\\ this\\ class\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ providing\\ the\\ definitive\\ answers\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ life\\,\\ but\\ about\\ identifying\\ the\\ right\\ questions\\.\\ In\\ his\\ view\\,\\ education\\ is\\ the\\ \\quest\\<\\/em\\>\\ for\\ information\\ and\\ transformation\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ must\\ begin\\ with\\ a\\ \\question\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Cue\\ quote\\ from\\ Peter\\ Drucker\\ \\(who\\ he\\ describes\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>as\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ management\\ \\&\\#8216\\;thinker\\&\\#8217\\;\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\)\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ most\\ common\\ source\\ of\\ mistakes\\ in\\ management\\ decisions\\ is\\ the\\ emphasis\\ on\\ finding\\ the\\ right\\ answers\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ right\\ questions\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Tal\\ clarifies\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ relativist\\ and\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ some\\ questions\\ have\\ definitive\\ answers\\\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8220\\;Education\\ is\\ no\\ less\\ about\\ questions\\,\\ though\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Tal\\ points\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ a\\ study\\ which\\ followed\\ an\\ MBA\\ class\\ for\\ 20\\ years\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ these\\ students\\ were\\ all\\ extremely\\ successful\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ finances\\,\\ impact\\ and\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\.\\ However\\,\\ within\\ this\\ group\\ was\\ a\\ smaller\\ subset\\ which\\ was\\ extraordinarily\\ successful\\.\\ What\\ distinguished\\ this\\ small\\ group\\ from\\ the\\ pack\\ was\\ not\\ their\\ IQs\\ or\\ their\\ career\\ path\\,\\ it\\ was\\\r\\1\\-\\ their\\ confidence\\,\\ drive\\,\\ and\\ motivation\\ \\(belief\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\ as\\ we\\ will\\ discuss\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ course\\)\\\r\\and\\\r\\2\\-\\ they\\ were\\ always\\ asking\\ questions\\:\\ of\\ bosses\\,\\ employees\\,\\ partners\\,\\ family\\,\\ friends\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\ they\\ were\\ life\\-long\\ learners\\.\\ As\\ Bishop\\ Creighton\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ one\\ real\\ object\\ of\\ education\\ is\\ to\\ leave\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ continually\\ asking\\ questions\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ what\\ exactly\\ are\\ the\\ right\\ questions\\,\\ you\\ may\\ ask\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\ they\\ are\\ questions\\ like\\ \\&\\#8216\\;How\\ can\\ we\\ help\\ ourselves\\ and\\ others\\-\\ individuals\\,\\ communities\\ and\\ society\\-\\ become\\ happier\\?\\&\\#8217\\;\\ Note\\ he\\ says\\ happier\\,\\ not\\ happy\\.\\ Key\\ concept\\ alert\\!\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Happiness\\ is\\ a\\ lifelong\\ pursuit\\.\\ This\\ class\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ that\\ pursuit\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ explains\\ Tal\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Going\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ class\\,\\ he\\ explains\\ that\\ is\\ it\\ not\\ a\\ survey\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;selective\\ exploration\\ of\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ questions\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ eclectic\\ course\\ as\\ Tal\\ draws\\ on\\ his\\ experience\\ in\\ academia\\,\\ consulting\\,\\ cognitive\\,\\ clinical\\ and\\ social\\ psychology\\.\\ The\\ class\\ focuses\\ on\\ Western\\ Psychology\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ particularly\\ cross\\ cultural\\,\\ as\\ it\\ instead\\ focuses\\ the\\ universal\\.\\ Here\\ he\\ references\\ the\\ Dalai\\ Lama\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ discomfort\\ in\\ discussing\\ cultural\\ differences\\ at\\ a\\ meeting\\.\\ Interesting\\&\\#8230\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ class\\ will\\ be\\ horizontally\\ and\\ vertically\\ integrated\\.\\ Vertically\\,\\ everything\\ will\\ be\\ interconnected\\;\\ as\\ we\\ go\\ along\\ we\\ will\\ hopefully\\ have\\ a\\ deeper\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ material\\.\\ Horizontally\\,\\ every\\ part\\ reinforces\\ every\\ other\\ part\\:\\ lectures\\,\\ sections\\,\\ response\\ papers\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ project\\ \\(a\\ written\\ presentation\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ present\\ only\\ to\\ your\\ friends\\)\\ are\\ all\\ connected\\ \\(are\\ they\\ usually\\ not\\?\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ slide\\ is\\ entitled\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\ is\\ not\\ English\\ 10a\\ or\\ Math\\ 55\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ have\\ less\\ \\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>reading\\ and\\ less\\ work\\ \\(sweet\\!\\)\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ about\\ rigorous\\ fun\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ fun\\ to\\ study\\ ourselves\\.\\ \\(Speak\\ for\\ yourself\\,\\ Tal\\)\\ The\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ will\\ be\\ simple\\,\\ not\\ simplistic\\\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Quote\\ time\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ would\\ not\\ give\\ a\\ fig\\ for\\ the\\ simplicity\\ on\\ this\\ side\\ of\\ complexity\\,\\ but\\ I\\ would\\ give\\ my\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ simplicity\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ complexity\\&\\#8221\\;\\-\\ Oliver\\ Wendell\\ Holmes\\.\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Referring\\ back\\ momentarily\\ to\\ Peter\\ Drucker\\,\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ modern\\ management\\,\\ Tal\\ tells\\ the\\ audience\\ of\\ 900\\ or\\ so\\ students\\ that\\ Drucker\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>lived\\ until\\ he\\ was\\ 94\\.\\ In\\ his\\ old\\ age\\ it\\ became\\ difficult\\ to\\ visit\\ organizations\\ to\\ consult\\ them\\ on\\ their\\ management\\ so\\ he\\ would\\ invite\\ leaders\\ of\\ world\\-wide\\ organizations\\ to\\ visit\\ his\\ home\\ over\\ the\\ weekend\\ and\\ would\\ tell\\ them\\ \\&\\#8220\\;on\\ Monday\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ tell\\ me\\ how\\ great\\ it\\ was\\;\\ tell\\ me\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ doing\\ differently\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Tal\\ instructs\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ do\\ the\\ same\\,\\ explaining\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ spend\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ talking\\ about\\ change\\ and\\ that\\ most\\ change\\,\\ \\(organization\\ and\\ personal\\)\\ fails\\.\\ Behavioral\\ change\\ must\\ accompany\\ cognitive\\ and\\ emotional\\ change\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Tal\\ ends\\ the\\ first\\ class\\ by\\ discussing\\ his\\ motivation\\ in\\ designing\\ the\\ course\\,\\ which\\ was\\ mostly\\ internal\\-\\ that\\ is\\ thinking\\ about\\ what\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ wanted\\ as\\ undergrad\\.\\ He\\ encourages\\ everyone\\ in\\ Sanders\\ Theater\\ to\\ look\\ inside\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ well\\.\\ All\\ response\\ papers\\ \\(graded\\ pass\\/fail\\)\\,\\ sections\\,\\ etc\\.\\ should\\ be\\ approached\\ with\\ personal\\ issues\\ in\\ mind\\.\\ After\\ all\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ is\\ most\\ personal\\ is\\ most\\ general\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\ must\\ remember\\ that\\ knowledge\\ of\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ deep\\ nature\\ is\\ also\\ simultaneously\\ knowledge\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ in\\ general\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ according\\ to\\ Abraham\\ Maslow\\.\\ And\\ also\\ C\\.S\\.\\ Lewis\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;there\\ is\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ and\\ only\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\ universe\\,\\ which\\ we\\ know\\ more\\ about\\ than\\ we\\ could\\ learn\\ from\\ external\\ observation\\.\\ That\\ one\\ thing\\ is\\ ourselves\\.\\ We\\ have\\,\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\,\\ inside\\ information\\,\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ know\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Head\\ Teaching\\ Fellow\\,\\ Shawn\\ Achor\\ speaks\\ briefly\\.\\ Tal\\ tells\\ the\\ class\\ that\\ Shawn\\ will\\ teach\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ humor\\ because\\&\\#8230\\;he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ funny\\.\\ There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ endearing\\ self\\-deprecation\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ talking\\ about\\.\\ Shawn\\ explains\\ that\\ they\\ took\\ a\\ survey\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ last\\ year\\ and\\ to\\ their\\ surprise\\ found\\ that\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ was\\ enrolling\\ in\\ PP\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ depressed\\,\\ a\\ third\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ optimistic\\ and\\ a\\ third\\ of\\ other\\ miscellaneous\\ reasons\\ \\(easy\\ class\\,\\ perhaps\\?\\)\\.\\ They\\ also\\ found\\ that\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ enrolled\\ students\\ were\\ an\\ officer\\ of\\ a\\ club\\,\\ and\\ about\\ 35\\%\\ were\\ the\\ president\\ of\\ a\\ club\\.\\ And\\ perhaps\\ more\\ interestingly\\:\\ the\\ average\\ number\\ of\\ romantic\\ relationships\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ was\\ between\\ 0\\ and\\ 1\\ and\\ the\\ average\\ number\\ of\\ sexual\\ partners\\ was\\ between\\ 0\\ and\\ \\.5\\ \\(anyone\\ know\\ what\\ \\.5\\ means\\!\\?\\)\\ Since\\ PP\\ students\\ come\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ university\\,\\ this\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ random\\ sampling\\ of\\ Harvard\\ students\\-\\ pretty\\ jaw\\-dropping\\ statistics\\,\\ no\\?\\ Makes\\ you\\ wonder\\ if\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ any\\ relationship\\ between\\ depression\\/pessimism\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ free\\ time\\ and\\ sexual\\ experiences\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ while\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ deciding\\ whether\\ Psych\\ 1504\\ should\\ go\\ on\\ your\\ study\\ card\\ think\\ about\\ whether\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ willing\\ to\\ spend\\ time\\ \\&\\#8220\\;looking\\ inside\\ of\\ yourself\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ be\\ exposed\\ to\\ at\\ least\\ fifteen\\ random\\ quotes\\ from\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ favorite\\ thinkers\\ every\\ lecture\\.\\ There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ got\\ to\\ be\\ something\\ to\\ this\\ class\\ if\\ more\\ students\\ are\\ enrolling\\ in\\ it\\ than\\ in\\ Introduction\\ to\\ Economics\\.\\ Maybe\\ they\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ their\\ numbers\\ up\\ \\(GPA\\ and\\/or\\ number\\ of\\ romantic\\ partners\\)\\.\\ Or\\ maybe\\,\\ like\\ me\\,\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ optimistic\\ because\\,\\ well\\,\\ why\\ not\\ be\\ happier\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Fluff or Nutter?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.848139+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "What is HIV?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 340, "html": "\\\\HIV\\,\\ or\\ Human\\ Immunodeficiency\\ Virus\\,\\ is\\ perhaps\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ viruses\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\.\\ Transmitted\\ by\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ bodily\\ fluids\\ \\(including\\ blood\\,\\ breast\\ milk\\,\\ semen\\,\\ and\\ vaginal\\ fluid\\)\\,\\ HIV\\ targets\\ immune\\ cells\\,\\ triggering\\ their\\ destruction\\ and\\ thereby\\ weakening\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ of\\ the\\ host\\.\\ If\\ left\\ untreated\\,\\ HIV\\ can\\ cause\\ the\\ onset\\ of\\ Acquired\\ Immunodeficiency\\ Syndrome\\ \\(AIDS\\)\\,\\ a\\ condition\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ is\\ severely\\ compromised\\ and\\ weakened\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ that\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ defend\\ itself\\ against\\ any\\ infections\\,\\ including\\ those\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ had\\ previously\\ developed\\ immunity\\.\\ According\\ to\\ a\\ \\2006\\ report\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ the\\ \\Joint\\ United\\ Nations\\ Programme\\ on\\ AIDS\\ \\(UNAIDS\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ an\\ estimated\\ 38\\.6\\ million\\ individuals\\ were\\ living\\ with\\ AIDS\\ in\\ the\\ year\\ 2005\\,\\ with\\ an\\ estimated\\ 4\\.1\\ million\\ becoming\\ newly\\ infected\\ and\\ an\\ estimated\\ 2\\.8\\ million\\ losing\\ their\\ lives\\ as\\ a\\ direct\\ consequence\\ of\\ acquiring\\ the\\ condition\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Worldwide\\,\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ have\\ been\\ spent\\ on\\ HIV\\ treatments\\ and\\ vaccines\\,\\ but\\ unfortunately\\,\\ these\\ efforts\\ have\\ only\\ been\\ partially\\ successful\\.\\ While\\ the\\ lifespan\\ of\\ treated\\ individuals\\ has\\ been\\ greatly\\ increased\\,\\ there\\ exists\\ no\\ cure\\ to\\ this\\ day\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ rapid\\ mutation\\ rate\\ of\\ the\\ virus\\ and\\ the\\ toxicity\\ of\\ existing\\ treatments\\.\\ Research\\ on\\ the\\ virus\\ continues\\ to\\ this\\ day\\ with\\ the\\ hope\\ of\\ finding\\ new\\ molecular\\ pathways\\ within\\ the\\ viral\\ life\\ cycle\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ safely\\ and\\ effectively\\ inhibited\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "What is HIV?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.856643+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The HIV Life Cycle", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 341, "html": "\\Like\\ all\\ viruses\\,\\ HIV\\ lacks\\ the\\ framework\\ required\\ for\\ self\\-replication\\ and\\ is\\ thus\\ required\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ replication\\ machinery\\ of\\ a\\ host\\ cell\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ propagate\\.\\ To\\ this\\ end\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ has\\ evolved\\ a\\ very\\ sophisticated\\ system\\ of\\ infiltrating\\ the\\ cell\\ and\\ adding\\ its\\ own\\ genetic\\ information\\ into\\ that\\ of\\ its\\ host\\,\\ thereby\\ \\\"reprogramming\\\"\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ produce\\ viral\\ proteins\\ and\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\.\\ Much\\ like\\ the\\ spies\\ and\\ hackers\\ of\\ Hollywood\\ movies\\,\\ HIV\\ comes\\ equipped\\ with\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ gadgets\\ \\(in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ specialized\\ proteins\\ of\\ course\\!\\)\\ that\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ invade\\ a\\ host\\ cell\\ and\\ tamper\\ with\\ its\\ cellular\\ machinery\\.\\ Using\\ these\\ gadgets\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ stealthily\\ injects\\ new\\ information\\ into\\ the\\ cell\\ program\\ and\\ causes\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ produce\\ more\\ viruses\\,\\ eventually\\ spreading\\ the\\ infection\\ until\\ the\\ host\\ organism\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ effectively\\ fight\\ back\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ discussing\\ how\\ HIV\\ infects\\ cells\\,\\ we\\ will\\ focus\\ on\\ four\\ main\\ phases\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ life\\ cycle\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Fusion\\ of\\ the\\ virus\\ with\\ the\\ cell\\ \\(transfer\\ of\\ viral\\ material\\ into\\ the\\ cell\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Insertion\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ into\\ the\\ host\\ genome\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Production\\ of\\ viral\\ proteins\\ for\\ self\\-replication\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Assembly\\ and\\ subsequent\\ release\\ of\\ new\\ viruses\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "The HIV Life Cycle"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.865475+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The HIV Genome", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 342, "html": "\\\\Before\\ we\\ begin\\ discussing\\ the\\ mechanisms\\ by\\ which\\ HIV\\ carries\\ out\\ its\\ task\\,\\ let\\'s\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ gain\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ virus\\ itself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Like\\ organisms\\,\\ viruses\\ contain\\ a\\ genome\\ encoding\\ proteins\\ that\\ are\\ needed\\ for\\ reproduction\\.\\ HIV\\ is\\ a\\ retrovirus\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ a\\ virus\\ that\\ possesses\\ an\\ RNA\\ genome\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ DNA\\ genome\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ HIV\\,\\ two\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ RNA\\ genome\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ each\\ viral\\ particle\\,\\ with\\ genes\\ as\\ depicted\\ in\\ the\\ figure\\ below\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\\As\\ you\\ may\\ have\\ noticed\\,\\ the\\ HIV\\ genome\\ is\\ rather\\ short\\ \\(9749\\ nucleotides\\ in\\ length\\)\\,\\ but\\ contains\\ several\\ different\\ genes\\,\\ some\\ of\\ which\\ overlap\\ with\\ other\\ genes\\.\\ Now\\ you\\ may\\ be\\ asking\\,\\ \\\"How\\ is\\ the\\ virus\\ able\\ to\\ generate\\ different\\ protein\\ products\\ if\\ the\\ genes\\ overlap\\?\\\"\\ The\\ answer\\?\\ Alternative\\ splicing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ eukaryotes\\,\\ mRNA\\ that\\ is\\ transcribed\\ from\\ the\\ original\\ DNA\\ genome\\ must\\ be\\ processed\\ before\\ it\\ is\\ exported\\ from\\ the\\ nucleus\\ to\\ the\\ cytoplasm\\ for\\ translation\\.\\ More\\ specifically\\,\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ modifications\\ are\\ performed\\ on\\ the\\ mRNA\\ transcript\\:\\ 5\\'\\ capping\\ \\(in\\ which\\ a\\ reversed\\,\\ methylated\\ guanosine\\ is\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ 5\\'\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ transcript\\)\\,\\ polyadenylation\\ \\(in\\ which\\ a\\ string\\ of\\ adenine\\ residues\\ are\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ 3\\'\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ transcript\\)\\,\\ and\\ splicing\\ \\(in\\ which\\ the\\ non\\-coding\\ intron\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ transcript\\ are\\ removed\\,\\ leaving\\ only\\ the\\ coding\\ exon\\ regions\\)\\.\\ HIV\\ takes\\ advantage\\ of\\ this\\ existing\\ system\\,\\ manipulating\\ it\\ to\\ produce\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ that\\ are\\ spliced\\ differently\\ and\\ therefore\\ produce\\ different\\ proteins\\,\\ thus\\ allowing\\ it\\ to\\ code\\ for\\ multiple\\ proteins\\ using\\ the\\ same\\ nucleotide\\ sequence\\.\\ As\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\,\\ the\\ locations\\ of\\ the\\ genes\\ within\\ the\\ genome\\ are\\ indicative\\ of\\ the\\ point\\ during\\ the\\ viral\\ life\\ cycle\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ protein\\ is\\ most\\ needed\\,\\ a\\ direct\\ consequence\\ of\\ splicing\\ regulation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\For\\ your\\ reference\\,\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ genes\\ and\\ the\\ functions\\ of\\ the\\ proteins\\ for\\ which\\ they\\ code\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\r\\\\Env\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ the\\ precursor\\ of\\ the\\ gp120\\ and\\ gp41\\ glycoproteins\\ \\(see\\ \\phase\\ 1\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Gag\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ structural\\ proteins\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ capside\\ protein\\ p24\\,\\ the\\ nucleocapsid\\ proteins\\ p6\\ and\\ p7\\,\\ and\\ the\\ protective\\ matrix\\ protein\\ p17\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Nef\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ interferes\\ with\\ cellular\\ pathways\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ infected\\ cells\\ alive\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ causing\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ uninfected\\ cells\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Pol\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ many\\ important\\ enzymes\\ that\\ are\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ virus\\ during\\ its\\ life\\ cycle\\.\\ These\\ proteins\\ include\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\ \\(see\\ \\phase\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\,\\ integrase\\ \\(see\\ phase\\ 2\\)\\,\\ and\\ HIV\\ protease\\ \\(see\\ \\phase\\ 4\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Rev\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ regulates\\ splicing\\ of\\ HIV\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ \\(see\\ \\phase\\ 3\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Tat\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ a\\ transcriptional\\ activator\\ protein\\ \\(see\\ \\phase\\ 3\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Tev\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ is\\ not\\ present\\ in\\ all\\ HIV\\ specimens\\,\\ but\\ codes\\ for\\ a\\ protein\\ similar\\ to\\ Tat\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Vpr\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ import\\ of\\ viral\\ genetic\\ material\\ into\\ the\\ nucleus\\ for\\ insertion\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Vpu\\:\\ this\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ a\\ protein\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ budding\\ of\\ new\\ viruses\\ from\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ potential\\ copyright\\ issues\\,\\ my\\ supply\\ of\\ images\\ and\\ diagrams\\ is\\ somewhat\\ limited\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ images\\ or\\ diagrams\\ that\\ are\\ available\\ for\\ free\\ non\\-commercial\\ use\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Creative\\ Commons\\)\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ contribute\\,\\ please\\ contact\\ me\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "The HIV Genome"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.875355+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Phase 1: Infiltrating the Cell (Membrane Fusion)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 343, "html": "\\\\Phase\\ 1\\ marks\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ infection\\ \\-\\ the\\ initial\\ infiltration\\ of\\ the\\ guarded\\ compound\\.\\ In\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ virus\\ to\\ propagate\\,\\ it\\ must\\ first\\ find\\ a\\ target\\ to\\ infect\\ and\\ commandeer\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ HIV\\,\\ recognition\\ of\\ target\\ cells\\ is\\ mediated\\ by\\ glycoproteins\\ on\\ the\\ outer\\ membrane\\ of\\ the\\ virus\\ capsid\\,\\ which\\ contact\\ receptors\\ on\\ the\\ outer\\ surface\\ of\\ immune\\ cells\\ and\\ trigger\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ conformational\\ changes\\ that\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ membrane\\ with\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\,\\ thereby\\ depositing\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ and\\ proteins\\ into\\ the\\ cytoplasm\\ of\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Specifically\\,\\ recognition\\ of\\ the\\ target\\ cell\\ is\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ glycoprotein\\ gp120\\,\\ which\\ binds\\ to\\ CD4\\ receptors\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ immune\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\ This\\ interaction\\ causes\\ a\\ conformational\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ glycoprotein\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ it\\ to\\ interact\\ with\\ other\\ receptors\\ on\\ the\\ membrane\\,\\ namely\\ the\\ chemokine\\ receptors\\ CCR5\\ and\\ CXCR4\\.\\ By\\ binding\\ to\\ these\\ particular\\ receptors\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ is\\ exploiting\\ the\\ system\\ used\\ by\\ signal\\ transduction\\ pathways\\,\\ using\\ a\\ \\\"fake\\ ID\\\"\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\ in\\ place\\ of\\ the\\ normal\\ ligands\\ required\\ for\\ propagating\\ a\\ cellular\\ signals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ the\\ binding\\ of\\ the\\ virus\\ to\\ the\\ receptors\\ triggers\\ another\\ conformational\\ change\\,\\ this\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ glycoprotein\\ gp41\\.\\ Embedded\\ within\\ the\\ gp41\\ glycoprotein\\ is\\ a\\ small\\ hydrophobic\\ protein\\ called\\ the\\ fusion\\ peptide\\,\\ which\\ is\\ released\\ and\\ inserted\\ into\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\ membrane\\ upon\\ the\\ conformation\\ change\\ induced\\ in\\ gp41\\.\\ This\\ in\\ turn\\ causes\\ one\\ final\\ conformation\\ change\\ in\\ gp41\\,\\ triggering\\ a\\ spontaneous\\ rearrangement\\ of\\ both\\ membranes\\ into\\ one\\ combined\\ membrane\\.\\ This\\ process\\ is\\ fueled\\ by\\ the\\ \\\"snapping\\\"\\ of\\ gp41\\ domains\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ favorable\\ hairpin\\ arrangement\\ \\(much\\ like\\ a\\ mousetrap\\)\\,\\ which\\ releases\\ enough\\ energy\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ energy\\ barrier\\ of\\ rearranging\\ the\\ membranes\\.\\ This\\ act\\ causes\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ capsid\\ contents\\ into\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ where\\ the\\ enzymes\\ packaged\\ within\\ the\\ original\\ viral\\ particle\\ begin\\ to\\ work\\ by\\ utilizing\\ the\\ nutrients\\ and\\ raw\\ materials\\ present\\ within\\ the\\ cytoplasm\\.\\ In\\ essence\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ has\\ \\\"picked\\ the\\ lock\\\"\\ and\\ let\\ itself\\ into\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\,\\ where\\ it\\ will\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ nutrients\\ and\\ other\\ resources\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\ has\\ to\\ offer\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ you\\ might\\ have\\ guessed\\,\\ much\\ money\\ and\\ effort\\ has\\ been\\ spent\\ researching\\ treatments\\ that\\ prevent\\ this\\ critical\\ phase\\ of\\ the\\ infection\\ process\\.\\ Certain\\ treatments\\ work\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ chemokine\\ co\\-receptors\\,\\ while\\ others\\ work\\ by\\ disrupting\\ the\\ fusion\\ process\\ after\\ recognition\\ has\\ already\\ taken\\ place\\.\\ One\\ particular\\ class\\ of\\ drugs\\,\\ known\\ as\\ fusion\\ inhibitors\\,\\ works\\ by\\ binding\\ to\\ gp41\\,\\ preventing\\ the\\ final\\ membrane\\ rearrangement\\ and\\ thus\\ preventing\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ viral\\ materials\\ into\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ such\\ drugs\\ are\\ limited\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ small\\ time\\ window\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ must\\ act\\ for\\ treatment\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\.\\ Such\\ drugs\\ essentially\\ \\\"race\\ against\\ the\\ clock\\\"\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ gp41\\ before\\ the\\ conformational\\ change\\ occurs\\,\\ a\\ race\\ that\\ unfortunately\\ is\\ more\\ often\\ lost\\ than\\ won\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ potential\\ copyright\\ issues\\,\\ my\\ supply\\ of\\ images\\ and\\ diagrams\\ is\\ somewhat\\ limited\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ images\\ or\\ diagrams\\ that\\ are\\ available\\ for\\ free\\ non\\-commercial\\ use\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Creative\\ Commons\\)\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ contribute\\,\\ please\\ contact\\ me\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "Phase 1: Infiltrating the Cell (Membrane Fusion)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.884965+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Phase 2: Injecting the New Program (Viral Genome Insertion)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 344, "html": "\\\\You\\'ve\\ probably\\ heard\\ of\\ computer\\ viruses\\ that\\ automatically\\ copy\\ themselves\\ from\\ computer\\ to\\ computer\\,\\ hiding\\ themselves\\ among\\ the\\ millions\\ of\\ legitimate\\ files\\ to\\ evade\\ removal\\ while\\ they\\ secretly\\ perform\\ their\\ evil\\ deeds\\.\\ But\\ did\\ you\\ know\\ that\\ biological\\ viruses\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\?\\ The\\ infection\\ process\\ of\\ a\\ cell\\ by\\ a\\ virus\\ is\\ really\\ not\\ that\\ much\\ different\\ from\\ a\\ computer\\ virus\\ infecting\\ a\\ network\\ of\\ computers\\ \\-\\ both\\ involve\\ an\\ insertion\\ of\\ foreign\\ data\\ into\\ the\\ existing\\ pool\\ of\\ information\\ followed\\ by\\ execution\\ of\\ that\\ foreign\\ data\\ by\\ the\\ host\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Welcome\\ to\\ phase\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ infection\\ process\\.\\ At\\ this\\ stage\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ takes\\ on\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ super\\-hacker\\,\\ inserting\\ its\\ own\\ genome\\ into\\ that\\ of\\ its\\ host\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\ will\\ unknowingly\\ generate\\ viral\\ proteins\\.\\ In\\ the\\ biological\\ world\\,\\ however\\,\\ things\\ are\\ not\\ quite\\ as\\ straightforward\\ as\\ copying\\ data\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ digital\\ realm\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ steps\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ process\\,\\ involving\\ sophisticated\\ enzymes\\ that\\ perform\\ the\\ intricate\\ tasks\\ of\\ converting\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ from\\ one\\ form\\ into\\ another\\ and\\ splicing\\ the\\ resulting\\ copy\\ into\\ the\\ existing\\ host\\ genome\\.\\ As\\ we\\ will\\ discuss\\ later\\,\\ these\\ enzymes\\ are\\ also\\ high\\-priority\\ targets\\ for\\ drug\\ treatments\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ indispensable\\ roles\\ in\\ the\\ infection\\ cycle\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\After\\ fusion\\ of\\ the\\ membranes\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ dumping\\ of\\ viral\\ RNA\\ and\\ proteins\\ has\\ occurred\\,\\ the\\ actual\\ infection\\ cycle\\ begins\\ in\\ earnest\\.\\ The\\ enzyme\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\,\\ which\\ is\\ packaged\\ within\\ the\\ virus\\ itself\\,\\ begins\\ \\\"translating\\\"\\ the\\ viral\\ RNA\\ genome\\ into\\ DNA\\,\\ as\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\ genome\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ DNA\\,\\ not\\ RNA\\.\\ Reverse\\ transcriptase\\ has\\ three\\ major\\ roles\\,\\ acting\\ as\\ a\\ RNA\\-dependent\\ DNA\\ polymerase\\ \\(to\\ \\\"reverse\\ transcribe\\\"\\ the\\ original\\ RNA\\ genome\\ into\\ DNA\\)\\,\\ as\\ a\\ RNAse\\ \\(to\\ degrade\\ the\\ original\\ RNA\\ strand\\)\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ DNA\\-dependent\\ DNA\\ polymerase\\ \\(to\\ synthesize\\ the\\ complementary\\ DNA\\ strand\\ to\\ form\\ double\\-stranded\\ DNA\\)\\.\\ The\\ raw\\ materials\\ used\\ for\\ these\\ processes\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ nucleotide\\ triphosphates\\)\\ are\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ cytoplasm\\ of\\ the\\ host\\ \\-\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ virus\\'s\\ dependence\\ on\\ its\\ host\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ the\\ original\\ RNA\\ genome\\ has\\ been\\ converted\\ into\\ DNA\\ form\\,\\ and\\ the\\ enzyme\\ integrase\\ takes\\ over\\,\\ performing\\ modifications\\ on\\ the\\ newly\\ synthesized\\ product\\ before\\ inserting\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ host\\ genome\\.\\ At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ provirus\\,\\ as\\ its\\ genome\\ has\\ been\\ permanently\\ embedded\\ within\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ Its\\ genes\\ are\\ indistinguishable\\ from\\ those\\ that\\ were\\ originally\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ begins\\ to\\ unwittingly\\ transcribe\\ and\\ translate\\ viral\\ proteins\\,\\ ensuring\\ its\\ own\\ eventual\\ death\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ others\\ around\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drugs\\ that\\ act\\ during\\ this\\ phase\\ work\\ by\\ inhibiting\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\ or\\ integrase\\.\\ Possibly\\ the\\ most\\ well\\-known\\ HIV\\ drug\\ is\\ the\\ nucloside\\ analog\\ AZT\\,\\ which\\ works\\ by\\ disrupting\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\ activity\\ through\\ the\\ premature\\ termination\\ of\\ reverse\\ transcripts\\.\\ An\\ analog\\ of\\ the\\ thymidine\\ nucleoside\\,\\ AZT\\ is\\ identical\\ to\\ the\\ normal\\ base\\ in\\ every\\ respect\\ except\\ that\\ it\\ lacks\\ a\\ 3\\'\\ hydroxyl\\ group\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ replaced\\ with\\ an\\ azide\\ group\\ instead\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ phosphodiester\\ bonds\\ involves\\ a\\ nucleophilic\\ attack\\ by\\ the\\ 3\\'\\ hydroxyl\\ group\\,\\ incorporation\\ of\\ AZT\\ prematurely\\ terminates\\ the\\ process\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ nucleophile\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ continue\\ elongation\\ of\\ the\\ nucleic\\ acid\\ chain\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\ has\\ a\\ higher\\ binding\\ affinity\\ for\\ AZT\\ than\\ for\\ the\\ normal\\ thymidine\\ nucleoside\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ it\\ prefers\\ AZT\\ over\\ the\\ actual\\ base\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\ lacks\\ the\\ proofreading\\ capability\\ present\\ in\\ other\\ polymerases\\ and\\ thus\\ cannot\\ correct\\ any\\ misincorporations\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ AZT\\ is\\ highly\\ specific\\ and\\ generally\\ very\\ effective\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\However\\,\\ even\\ AZT\\ has\\ its\\ drawbacks\\.\\ While\\ the\\ DNA\\ polymerases\\ used\\ in\\ DNA\\ replication\\ are\\ typically\\ unaffected\\ by\\ AZT\\ \\(as\\ they\\ have\\ higher\\ binding\\ affinity\\ for\\ the\\ proper\\ thymidine\\ nucleoside\\)\\,\\ other\\ polymerases\\ in\\ human\\ cells\\ are\\ more\\ susceptible\\.\\ These\\ include\\ polymerases\\ that\\ replicate\\ mitochondrial\\ DNA\\ and\\ telomerases\\ \\(which\\ are\\ human\\ reverse\\ transcriptases\\ that\\ prevent\\ DNA\\ shortening\\)\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ misincorporate\\ AZT\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ thymidine\\.\\ This\\ misincorporation\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ AZT\\ toxicity\\,\\ which\\ prevents\\ the\\ drug\\ from\\ being\\ used\\ at\\ high\\ doses\\ for\\ prolonged\\ periods\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ potential\\ copyright\\ issues\\,\\ my\\ supply\\ of\\ images\\ and\\ diagrams\\ is\\ somewhat\\ limited\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ images\\ or\\ diagrams\\ that\\ are\\ available\\ for\\ free\\ non\\-commercial\\ use\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Creative\\ Commons\\)\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ contribute\\,\\ please\\ contact\\ me\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "Phase 2: Injecting the New Program (Viral Genome Insertion)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.896351+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Why PP?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 345, "html": "\\There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ no\\ better\\ way\\ to\\ start\\ lecture\\ on\\ a\\ rainy\\ Tuesday\\ morning\\ than\\ with\\ some\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ music\\.\\\r\\\\Tal\\ begins\\ by\\ recounting\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ he\\ taught\\ the\\ course\\ two\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ He\\ was\\ very\\ sick\\ and\\ his\\ mentor\\,\\ Philip\\ Stone\\,\\ to\\ whom\\ he\\ dedicates\\ this\\ class\\,\\ had\\ just\\ passed\\ away\\.\\ His\\ doctor\\ called\\ at\\ midnight\\ telling\\ his\\ wife\\,\\ Tamara\\,\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Beth\\ Israel\\ hospital\\ immediately\\.\\ On\\ the\\ drive\\ down\\ \\\\Memorial\\ \\ \\ Drive\\<\\/st1\\:address\\>\\<\\/st1\\:street\\>\\ \\(as\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ tutor\\ in\\ Leverett\\ house\\ at\\ the\\ time\\)\\ he\\ thought\\ about\\ what\\ he\\ would\\ do\\ if\\ he\\ only\\ had\\ a\\ year\\ left\\ to\\ live\\.\\ He\\ decided\\ that\\ personally\\,\\ he\\ would\\ spend\\ as\\ much\\ time\\ with\\ his\\ family\\,\\ and\\ professionally\\,\\ he\\ would\\ leave\\ behind\\ a\\ coherent\\ body\\ of\\ work\\ about\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\.\\ Luckily\\,\\ Tal\\ is\\ alive\\ and\\ well\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ research\\ on\\ positive\\ psychology\\.\\ David\\ Myers\\ \\(who\\ wrote\\ the\\ \\Social\\ Psychology\\ Textbook\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ used\\ in\\ various\\ Harvard\\ courses\\)\\,\\ looked\\ at\\ psychological\\ abstracts\\ between\\ 1967\\ and\\ 2000\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ ratio\\ between\\ negative\\ and\\ positive\\ research\\.\\ He\\ found\\ 5\\,584\\ articles\\ on\\ Anger\\,\\ 41\\,416\\ articles\\ on\\ Anxiety\\ and\\ 54\\,040\\ articles\\ on\\ Depression\\.\\ When\\ looking\\ at\\ positive\\ research\\ he\\ found\\ 415\\ articles\\ on\\ Joy\\,\\ 1\\,710\\ on\\ Happiness\\ and\\ 2\\.582\\ on\\ Life\\ Satisfaction\\.\\ He\\ thus\\ found\\ a\\ \\ratio\\ of\\ 21\\ to\\ 1\\ of\\ positive\\ to\\ negative\\ psychological\\ research\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>a\\ very\\ depressing\\ ratio\\ indeed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Thus\\ he\\ concluded\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>that\\\\ studies\\ focus\\ on\\ what\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ work\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ that\\ \\psychology\\ needs\\ help\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>As\\ Maslow\\ says\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ science\\ of\\ psychology\\ has\\ been\\ far\\ more\\ successful\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ positive\\ side\\,\\ it\\ has\\ revealed\\ to\\ us\\ as\\ much\\ about\\ man\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ shortcomings\\,\\ his\\ illnesses\\,\\ his\\ sins\\,\\ but\\ little\\ about\\ his\\ potentialities\\,\\ his\\ virtues\\,\\ his\\ achievable\\ aspirations\\,\\ or\\ his\\ psychological\\ height\\ It\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ psychology\\ has\\ voluntarily\\ restricted\\ itself\\ to\\ only\\ half\\ its\\ rightful\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ than\\ the\\ darker\\,\\ meaner\\ half\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\While\\ this\\ balance\\ of\\ research\\ may\\ seem\\ unhealthy\\ it\\ also\\ reflects\\ reality\\.\\ Depression\\ rates\\ today\\ are\\ ten\\ times\\ higher\\ than\\ in\\ 1960\\.\\ We\\ know\\ this\\ both\\ because\\ depression\\ is\\ more\\ closely\\ studied\\ and\\ more\\ often\\ diagnosed\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ suicide\\ numbers\\ have\\ risen\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ mean\\ age\\ for\\ depression\\ today\\ is\\ 14\\.5\\ \\(compared\\ to\\ 29\\.5\\ in\\ 1960\\)\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ mental\\ health\\ crisis\\ on\\ campuses\\ nationwide\\.\\ Couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ possibly\\ be\\ at\\ Harvard\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\According\\ to\\ a\\ \\2004\\ study\\<\\/a\\>\\ conducted\\ by\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Crimson\\,\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ Harvard\\ students\\ experienced\\ depression\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ year\\ and\\ 47\\%\\ of\\ students\\ have\\ experienced\\ depression\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ not\\ functioning\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ year\\.\\ A\\ more\\ \\academic\\ study\\<\\/a\\>\\ done\\ by\\ Richard\\ Kadison\\,\\ who\\ was\\ Director\\ of\\ Harvard\\ Mental\\ Health\\ Services\\ until\\ 2005\\,\\ surveyed\\ 13\\,500\\ college\\ students\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ 45\\%\\ of\\ them\\ had\\ experienced\\ depression\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ not\\ functioning\\ and\\ 94\\%\\ of\\ them\\ felt\\ overwhelmed\\ and\\ stressed\\ by\\ daily\\ tasks\\.\\ Yikes\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ focusing\\ on\\ what\\ works\\ instead\\ of\\ what\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\.\\ As\\ Marty\\ Seligman\\ \\notes\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\&\\#8220\\;the\\ aim\\ of\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ is\\ to\\ catalyze\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ psychology\\ from\\ a\\ preoccupation\\ only\\ with\\ repairing\\ the\\ worst\\ things\\ in\\ life\\ to\\ \\also\\<\\/em\\>\\ building\\ the\\ best\\ qualities\\ in\\ life\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Precisely\\ this\\ paradigm\\ shift\\ has\\ occurred\\ in\\ academic\\ psychology\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ 50\\ years\\.\\ Post\\ WWII\\ traditional\\ psychology\\ asked\\ \\&\\#8216\\;why\\ do\\ individuals\\ fail\\?\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\ However\\,\\ little\\ change\\ came\\ about\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ After\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ the\\ positive\\ psychological\\ approach\\ began\\ to\\ rephrase\\ the\\ questions\\ to\\ \\&\\#8216\\;what\\ makes\\ some\\ individuals\\ succeed\\ despite\\ unfavorable\\ circumstance\\?\\&\\#8217\\;\\ As\\ Tal\\ notes\\,\\ in\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Frost\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;that\\ made\\ all\\ the\\ difference\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Out\\ of\\ this\\ approach\\,\\ came\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ Masten\\ and\\ Reed\\ on\\ \\resilience\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>They\\ define\\ resilience\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ class\\ of\\ phenomenon\\ characterized\\ by\\ patterns\\ of\\ positive\\ adaptation\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ significant\\ adversity\\ or\\ risk\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ They\\ studied\\ ordinary\\ children\\ who\\ had\\ the\\ following\\ characteristics\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ extraordinary\\ results\\:\\ \\optimism\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(as\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\)\\,\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\faith\\ and\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ meaning\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(\\&\\#8220\\;we\\ have\\ an\\ innate\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ idealistic\\,\\ thus\\ idealistic\\ is\\ realistic\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\,\\ \\prosocial\\ behavior\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(helping\\ others\\ helps\\ ourselves\\)\\,\\ \\focusing\\ on\\ strengths\\,\\ setting\\ goals\\,\\ having\\ a\\ role\\ model\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ \\social\\ support\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(most\\ significant\\ factor\\;\\ key\\ is\\ identifying\\ the\\ right\\ people\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ led\\ Tal\\ to\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ questions\\ and\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ create\\ possibility\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\ \\from\\ pathogenic\\ questions\\ to\\ salutogenic\\ questions\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Aaron\\ Antonovsky\\ said\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;illness\\ is\\ important\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ equally\\ important\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ successful\\ cases\\.\\ All\\ those\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ science\\ are\\ aware\\ that\\ important\\ advances\\ come\\ with\\ formulation\\ of\\ new\\ questions\\.\\ The\\ question\\ is\\ the\\ breakthrough\\;\\ the\\ answer\\ comes\\ with\\ difficulty\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ question\\ that\\ is\\ important\\.\\ The\\ salutogenic\\ question\\,\\ I\\ submit\\ you\\,\\ is\\ a\\ radically\\ new\\ question\\,\\ which\\ provides\\ the\\ impetus\\ for\\ formulating\\ and\\ new\\ paradigm\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ health\\ and\\ illness\\.\\ It\\ has\\ serious\\ implications\\ for\\ researcher\\ and\\ clinician\\,\\ biological\\ and\\ social\\ scientist\\ alike\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ order\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ Tal\\ showed\\ an\\ \\image\\ \\<\\/a\\>for\\ 30\\ seconds\\,\\ asking\\ the\\ class\\ to\\ count\\ how\\ many\\ geometric\\ shapes\\ there\\ are\\?\\ After\\ the\\ 30\\ seconds\\ elapsed\\,\\ the\\ answers\\ were\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ place\\.\\ He\\ then\\ asked\\ what\\ time\\ was\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ clock\\,\\ how\\ many\\ kids\\ were\\ present\\ on\\ the\\ bus\\ and\\ what\\ was\\ the\\ color\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ most\\ object\\.\\ No\\ one\\ had\\ the\\ answers\\ so\\ he\\ cracked\\ some\\ jokes\\ about\\ how\\ Harvard\\ kids\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ count\\ or\\ read\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ exercise\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ questions\\ focus\\ us\\ and\\ this\\ ability\\ can\\ sometimes\\ hinder\\ and\\ blind\\ us\\.\\ He\\ draws\\ an\\ example\\ to\\ human\\ relationships\\ where\\ most\\ post\\-\\ honeymoon\\ stage\\ couples\\ ask\\ \\what\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ wrong\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>In\\ Stavros\\ and\\ Torres\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\book\\ on\\ relationships\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ they\\ write\\ that\\ we\\ \\&\\#8220\\;see\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ looking\\ for\\ and\\ we\\ miss\\ much\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ looking\\ for\\ even\\ thought\\ it\\ is\\ there\\&\\#8230\\;our\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ heavily\\ influenced\\ by\\ where\\ we\\ place\\ our\\ attention\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Most\\ people\\ focus\\ on\\ weaknesses\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ in\\ others\\ and\\ in\\ their\\ relationships\\.\\ He\\ asks\\ rhetorically\\ whether\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ focuses\\ on\\ weaknesses\\ and\\ not\\ strengths\\,\\ virtues\\ or\\ passions\\ can\\ experience\\ confidence\\,\\ self\\ respect\\ and\\ happiness\\?\\ Perhaps\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ so\\ many\\ relationships\\ fail\\ and\\ why\\ depression\\ is\\ increasing\\ dramatically\\.\\ Thus\\ the\\ lesson\\ of\\ the\\ day\\:\\ \\the\\ questions\\ we\\ ask\\ will\\ largely\\ dictate\\ our\\ individual\\ paths\\,\\ our\\ interpersonal\\ relationships\\ and\\ our\\ organizations\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ ends\\ the\\ class\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ his\\ role\\ model\\,\\ \\Marva\\ Collins\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Born\\ in\\ \\\\Alabama\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ to\\ African\\ American\\ and\\ Native\\ American\\ parents\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ discrimination\\,\\ she\\ was\\ told\\ by\\ her\\ father\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ secretary\\ so\\ she\\ did\\.\\ However\\,\\ she\\ loved\\ to\\ teach\\ so\\ she\\ went\\ to\\ night\\ school\\,\\ got\\ a\\ teaching\\ certificate\\,\\ moved\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\ to\\ \\\\Chicago\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ teach\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ school\\.\\ Marva\\ wanted\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ harsh\\ realities\\ of\\ crime\\,\\ drugs\\ and\\ hopelessness\\ in\\ her\\ elementary\\ school\\ class\\.\\ She\\ told\\ her\\ students\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ stop\\ blaming\\ others\\ and\\ cultivated\\ their\\ strengths\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ thus\\ taught\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;unteachable\\&\\#8221\\;\\ students\\ to\\ read\\ Shakespeare\\ and\\ Emerson\\ and\\ do\\ high\\ school\\ math\\ by\\ the\\ fourth\\ grade\\.\\ Marva\\ left\\ the\\ public\\ school\\ system\\ and\\ opened\\ her\\ own\\ school\\ in\\ her\\ kitchen\\,\\ which\\ she\\ called\\ West\\ Side\\ Preparatory\\.\\ All\\ of\\ her\\ students\\,\\ initially\\ public\\ school\\ dropouts\\ graduated\\ elementary\\ and\\ high\\ school\\,\\ and\\ even\\ college\\.\\ Marva\\ lived\\ in\\ poverty\\ because\\ her\\ students\\ often\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ afford\\ to\\ pay\\ her\\.\\ In\\ 1979\\,\\ the\\ Producer\\ of\\ CBS\\&\\#8217\\;\\ 60\\ minutes\\,\\ created\\ a\\ segment\\ on\\ Marva\\,\\ making\\ her\\ famous\\ overnight\\.\\ In\\ November\\ of\\ 1980\\,\\ Ronal\\ Reagan\\ called\\ Marva\\ to\\ offer\\ her\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ Secretary\\ of\\ Education\\.\\ She\\ turned\\ him\\ down\\ because\\ she\\ loved\\ to\\ teach\\ and\\ felt\\ that\\ her\\ place\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ classroom\\.\\ She\\ did\\ the\\ same\\ when\\ George\\ Bush\\ Sr\\.\\ called\\ her\\.\\ Later\\ a\\ wealthy\\ philanthropist\\ donated\\ tens\\ of\\ millions\\ of\\ dollars\\ to\\ her\\ school\\ and\\ now\\ there\\ are\\ dozens\\ of\\ Marva\\ Collins\\ schools\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ country\\ educating\\ thousands\\ of\\ students\\ who\\ go\\ on\\ to\\ become\\ politicians\\,\\ lawyers\\,\\ doctors\\ and\\ teachers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Marva\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ unique\\ approach\\ is\\ best\\ exemplified\\ by\\ her\\ disciplining\\ tactic\\-\\ if\\ students\\ did\\ someone\\ wrong\\,\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ hundred\\ reasons\\ why\\ they\\ were\\ too\\ wonderful\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\.\\ The\\ pillars\\ of\\ Marva\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ methodology\\ are\\ being\\\\ tough\\ and\\ respectful\\<\\/strong\\>\\ with\\ her\\ students\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;there\\ are\\ many\\ nice\\ ex\\-CEOs\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\,\\ asking\\ them\\ to\\ have\\ \\role\\ models\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(she\\ herself\\ is\\ one\\ and\\ they\\ identify\\ more\\ in\\ their\\ schoolwork\\)\\,\\ \\high\\ expectations\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ \\optimism\\ and\\ faith\\ in\\ future\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ She\\ also\\ asks\\ her\\ student\\ to\\ \\take\\ responsibility\\ instead\\ of\\ blaming\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\\\ focus\\ on\\ strengths\\ instead\\ of\\ deficiencies\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ strongly\\ recommends\\ her\\ book\\ for\\ all\\ students\\ interested\\ in\\ teaching\\,\\ leadership\\,\\ parenting\\ and\\ well\\,\\ anything\\ else\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/iframe\\>\\\r\\\\Again\\ Tal\\ urges\\ us\\ to\\ be\\\\ active\\ agents\\ instead\\ of\\ passive\\ victims\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>A\\ passive\\ victim\\ ruminates\\,\\ experiences\\ self\\-pity\\,\\ frustration\\,\\ anger\\ and\\ blame\\ others\\ while\\ an\\ active\\ agent\\ experiences\\ their\\ pain\\ then\\ takes\\ responsibility\\,\\ gains\\ confidence\\,\\ hope\\ and\\ optimism\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ knight\\ in\\ shining\\ armor\\ \\(really\\!\\?\\)\\,\\ so\\ we\\ must\\ all\\ take\\ responsibility\\ for\\ our\\ actions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Why PP?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.912293+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Why Positive Psych? Continued", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 346, "html": "\\Tal\\ begins\\ lecturing\\ on\\ Thursday\\ to\\ a\\ slightly\\ smaller\\ audience\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ \\Harvard\\ Crimson\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ 587\\ students\\ have\\ enrolled\\ in\\ Psychology\\ 1504\\ this\\ semester\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;down\\ 30\\ percent\\ from\\ the\\ 846\\ students\\ it\\ last\\ enrolled\\ in\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ 2006\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ That\\ means\\ Introduction\\ to\\ Economics\\ is\\ once\\ again\\ the\\ largest\\ class\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ order\\ has\\ been\\ restored\\,\\ whew\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\ Tal\\ reviews\\ the\\ first\\ reasons\\ to\\ study\\ Positive\\ Psych\\ from\\ the\\ previous\\ lecture\\ \\-\\ \\the\\ importance\\ of\\ focusing\\ on\\ what\\ works\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\the\\ questions\\ we\\ ask\\ will\\ largely\\ dictate\\ our\\ individual\\ paths\\,\\ our\\ interpersonal\\ relationships\\ and\\ our\\ organizations\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ The\\ next\\ reason\\ to\\ study\\ this\\ discipline\\ is\\ because\\ \\happiness\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ negation\\ of\\ unhappiness\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Although\\ they\\ are\\ interconnected\\,\\ happiness\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ spontaneously\\ arise\\ when\\ we\\ take\\ unhappiness\\ and\\ depression\\ away\\,\\ which\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ conventional\\ wisdom\\ of\\ even\\ practicing\\ psychologists\\.\\ Tal\\ explains\\ that\\ experiences\\ are\\ on\\ a\\ spectrum\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\-\\ \\neurosis\\,\\ anger\\,\\ anxiety\\,\\ depression\\,\\ psychosis\\<\\/u\\>\\ 0\\ \\wellbeing\\,\\ satisfaction\\,\\ joy\\,\\ excitement\\,\\ happiness\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\+\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Disease\\ Model\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\Focus\\ on\\ weaknesses\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\ Overcoming\\ deficiencies\\<\\/p\\>\\Avoiding\\ pain\\<\\/p\\>\\Running\\ from\\ unhappiness\\<\\/p\\>\\Neutral\\ state\\ \\(0\\)\\ as\\ ceiling\\<\\/p\\>\\Tensionless\\ is\\ ideal\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Health\\ Model\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\Focus\\ on\\ strengths\\\r\\\\Building\\ competencies\\<\\/p\\>\\Seeking\\ pleasure\\<\\/p\\>\\Pursuing\\ happiness\\<\\/p\\>\\No\\ ceiling\\<\\/p\\>\\Creative\\ tension\\ is\\ ideal\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ health\\ model\\ is\\ what\\ Positive\\ Psych\\ focuses\\ on\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ last\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ main\\ reasons\\ to\\ study\\ PP\\,\\ is\\ because\\ it\\ can\\\\ prevent\\ the\\ negative\\ through\\ cultivating\\ capacity\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>PP\\ helps\\ us\\ deal\\ with\\ negative\\ experiences\\ and\\ emotions\\ by\\ cultivating\\ personal\\ strengths\\,\\ passions\\,\\ healthy\\ relationships\\ and\\ thinking\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ meaningful\\.\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ can\\ thus\\ help\\ us\\ be\\ more\\ successful\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\ultimate\\ currency\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(wellbeing\\ and\\ happiness\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ difference\\ of\\ \\the\\ Health\\ Model\\ vs\\ the\\ Disease\\ Model\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ He\\ explains\\ that\\ the\\ health\\ model\\ believes\\ illness\\ is\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ illness\\ while\\ the\\ disease\\ model\\ believes\\ health\\ is\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ illness\\.\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ Maslow\\ states\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ \\[neurosis\\]\\ is\\ a\\ falling\\ short\\ of\\ what\\ one\\ could\\ have\\ been\\,\\ and\\ even\\,\\ one\\ could\\ say\\,\\ of\\ what\\ one\\ should\\ have\\ been\\,\\ biologically\\ speaking\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ if\\ one\\ had\\ grown\\ and\\ developed\\ in\\ an\\ unimpeded\\ way\\.\\ Human\\ and\\ personal\\ possibilities\\ have\\ been\\ lost\\.\\ The\\ world\\ has\\ been\\ narrowed\\,\\ and\\ so\\ has\\ consciousness\\.\\ Capacities\\ have\\ been\\ inhibited\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ are\\ ill\\ because\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ do\\ what\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ do\\,\\ which\\ is\\ cultivate\\ ourselves\\.\\ And\\ according\\ to\\ Seligman\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;we\\ have\\ discovered\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ human\\ strengths\\ that\\ act\\ as\\ buffers\\ against\\ mental\\ illness\\:\\ courage\\,\\ future\\-mindedness\\,\\ optimism\\,\\ interpersonal\\ skill\\,\\ faith\\,\\ work\\ ethic\\,\\ hope\\,\\ honesty\\,\\ perseverance\\,\\ the\\ capacity\\ for\\ flow\\ and\\ insight\\,\\ to\\ name\\ several\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ prevention\\ in\\ this\\ new\\ century\\ will\\ be\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ science\\ of\\ human\\ strength\\ whose\\ mission\\ will\\ be\\ to\\ understand\\ and\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ foster\\ these\\ virtues\\ in\\ young\\ people\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Thus\\,\\\\ cultivating\\ capacity\\ will\\ help\\ us\\ build\\ a\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\stronger\\ \\&\\#8220\\;psychological\\ immune\\ system\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>as\\ \\Nathaniel\\ Branden\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ explains\\.\\ We\\ will\\ get\\ ill\\ less\\ often\\ and\\ can\\ heal\\ faster\\ when\\ we\\ do\\ get\\ ill\\.\\ With\\ more\\ mindfulness\\,\\ meaning\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\ and\\ optimism\\ we\\ can\\ transform\\ our\\ perception\\ and\\ be\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ inevitable\\ difficulties\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\And\\ another\\ Seligman\\ quote\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ movement\\ is\\ to\\ remind\\ our\\ field\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ deformed\\.\\ Psychology\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ weakness\\,\\ and\\ damage\\;\\ it\\ also\\ is\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ strength\\ and\\ virtue\\.\\ Treatment\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ fixing\\ what\\ is\\ wrong\\;\\ it\\ also\\ is\\ building\\ what\\ is\\ right\\.\\ Psychology\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ illness\\ or\\ health\\;\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ work\\,\\ education\\,\\ insight\\,\\ love\\,\\ growth\\,\\ and\\ play\\.\\ And\\ in\\ this\\ quest\\ for\\ what\\ is\\ best\\,\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ does\\ not\\ rely\\ on\\ wishful\\ thinking\\,\\ self\\-deception\\ or\\ hand\\-waving\\;\\ instead\\ it\\ tries\\ to\\ adapt\\ what\\ is\\ best\\ in\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\ to\\ the\\ unique\\ problems\\ that\\ human\\ behavior\\ presents\\ in\\ all\\ its\\ complexity\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ Tal\\ begins\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ 5\\ basic\\ premises\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ which\\ he\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ discuss\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ lectures\\.\\ Here\\ they\\ are\\ long\\ with\\ their\\ opposites\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\-\\ Bridge\\ building\\ vs\\.\\ division\\ and\\ separation\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>2\\-\\ Change\\ is\\ possible\\ vs\\.\\ chance\\ is\\ elusive\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>3\\-\\ Internal\\ factors\\ primarily\\ determine\\ happiness\\ vs\\.\\ happiness\\ is\\ primarily\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ external\\ circumstances\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>4\\-\\ Human\\ nature\\ must\\ be\\ obeyed\\ vs\\.\\ human\\ nature\\ must\\ be\\ perfected\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>5\\-\\ Happiness\\ is\\ and\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ ultimate\\ and\\ vs\\.\\ Happiness\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ secondary\\ pursuit\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\To\\ the\\ first\\,\\ \\Bridge\\ building\\ vs\\.\\ division\\ and\\ separation\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#184\\;\\ Tal\\ discusses\\ the\\ important\\ of\\ \\bridging\\ the\\ Ivory\\ Tower\\ and\\ \\\\Main\\ Street\\<\\/st1\\:address\\>\\<\\/st1\\:street\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>that\\ is\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>academia\\ and\\ grim\\ reality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tal\\ quotes\\ his\\ thesis\\ advisor\\,\\ Alfred\\ North\\ Whitehead\\,\\ who\\ said\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ careful\\ shielding\\ of\\ a\\ university\\ from\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ us\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ chill\\ interest\\ and\\ to\\ defeat\\ progress\\.\\ Celibacy\\ does\\ not\\ suit\\ a\\ university\\.\\ It\\ must\\ mate\\ itself\\ with\\ action\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Tal\\ stresses\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ psychology\\,\\ one\\ that\\ leaves\\ the\\ lab\\,\\ interacts\\ with\\ outside\\ world\\ and\\ applies\\ reality\\ to\\ its\\ research\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\\\ need\\ for\\ practical\\ idealists\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(sound\\ familiar\\,\\ Harvard\\ students\\?\\)\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Practical\\ idealists\\ have\\ an\\ internal\\ desire\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ difference\\ and\\ are\\ generous\\ with\\ their\\ time\\ and\\ money\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ world\\ a\\ better\\ place\\.\\ He\\ feels\\ that\\ both\\ Harvardians\\ and\\ Americans\\ are\\ both\\ falsely\\ stereotyped\\ in\\ this\\ respect\\.\\ Harvard\\ students\\ from\\ the\\ College\\ to\\ HBS\\ to\\ HMS\\ do\\ community\\ service\\ in\\ some\\ form\\ and\\ most\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ long\\ after\\ graduation\\ by\\ working\\ for\\ NGOs\\,\\ donating\\ money\\ and\\ sitting\\ on\\ Boards\\ of\\ non\\-profits\\.\\ He\\ also\\ suggests\\ that\\ despite\\ preconceptions\\ to\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ Americans\\ empirically\\ donate\\ the\\ most\\ and\\ spend\\ the\\ most\\ time\\ volunteering\\ \\(at\\ least\\ 4\\ hours\\ a\\ week\\ on\\ average\\,\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ study\\ done\\ at\\ \\\\Dartmouth\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\However\\,\\ \\goodwill\\ and\\ idealism\\ are\\ not\\ sufficient\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>citing\\ the\\ Cambridge\\-Somerville\\ Youth\\ study\\,\\ where\\ a\\ 5\\ year\\ intervention\\ involving\\ academic\\,\\ psychiatric\\ and\\ athletic\\ help\\ to\\ 250\\ children\\ from\\ at\\ risk\\ populations\\ in\\ \\\\Cambridge\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ resulted\\ in\\ equal\\ or\\ negative\\ effects\\ on\\ various\\ success\\ indicators\\ for\\ the\\ research\\ group\\.\\ Tal\\ suggests\\ that\\\\ psychology\\ can\\ help\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Here\\ are\\ some\\ examples\\ of\\ how\\ applying\\ research\\ can\\ go\\ a\\ long\\ way\\.\\ These\\ concepts\\ will\\ be\\ discussed\\ at\\ length\\ in\\ later\\ lectures\\.\\ In\\ the\\ classroom\\,\\ the\\ Pygmalion\\ effect\\ explains\\ why\\ teachers\\&\\#8217\\;\\ expectations\\ become\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\.\\ For\\ increasing\\ self\\-esteem\\\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>indiscriminately\\ praising\\ people\\ can\\ hurt\\ more\\ than\\ it\\ helps\\ according\\ to\\ Carol\\ Dweck\\ of\\ Stanford\\ and\\ the\\ self\\-efficacy\\ research\\ of\\ Albert\\ Bandura\\.\\ Bridging\\ the\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\ is\\ another\\ important\\ concept\\;\\ studies\\ show\\ that\\ yoga\\ diminishes\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ prisoners\\ becoming\\ second\\ time\\ offenders\\.\\ Also\\,\\ meditating\\ transforms\\ our\\ brain\\,\\ making\\ us\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ positive\\ emotions\\ and\\ more\\ resilient\\ to\\ painful\\ emotions\\ and\\ exercising\\ three\\ times\\ a\\ week\\ can\\ have\\ profound\\ psychological\\ effects\\.\\ In\\ terms\\ of\\ conflict\\ resolution\\,\\ psychological\\ research\\ has\\ questioned\\ the\\ contact\\ hypothesis\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ getting\\ people\\ together\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ help\\ and\\ often\\ worsens\\ conflict\\ situations\\ and\\ what\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ done\\ is\\ defining\\ and\\ working\\ towards\\ a\\ super\\ ordinate\\ goal\\ which\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ carried\\ out\\ together\\ with\\ conflicting\\ group\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ he\\ discusses\\ the\\ \\change\\ is\\ possible\\ vs\\.\\ change\\ is\\ elusive\\ \\<\\/strong\\>premise\\.\\ He\\ mentions\\ the\\ \\Minnesota\\ Twin\\ Study\\<\\/a\\>\\ conducted\\ by\\ Lykken\\ and\\ Tellegan\\ as\\ evidence\\ to\\ the\\ latter\\ \\(change\\ is\\ elusive\\)\\.\\ The\\ study\\ confronted\\ the\\ nature\\ vs\\.\\ nurture\\ question\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ that\\ were\\ reared\\ apart\\.\\ The\\ results\\ showed\\ mind\\-boggling\\ similarities\\ in\\ personalities\\,\\ well\\-being\\ and\\ happiness\\ levels\\ despite\\ being\\ raised\\ in\\ radically\\ different\\ environments\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ researchers\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ their\\ work\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ may\\ be\\ that\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ happier\\ is\\ as\\ futile\\ as\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ taller\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ counterproductive\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ study\\ which\\ is\\ rather\\ depressing\\ for\\ those\\ us\\ not\\ born\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;happy\\ genes\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ extremely\\ well\\-cited\\,\\ even\\ making\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ front\\ page\\ of\\ the\\ \\New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ 1996\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ However\\,\\ Tal\\ holds\\ that\\ change\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ possible\\.\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ just\\ studying\\ the\\ average\\ can\\ be\\ deceiving\\ and\\ makes\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;statisticians\\ drowned\\ in\\ a\\ pool\\ with\\ average\\ depth\\ of\\ 10\\ inches\\&\\#8221\\;\\ joke\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ Lykken\\ and\\ Tellegan\\,\\ essentially\\ retracted\\ their\\ previous\\ comments\\ in\\ a\\ 2005\\ \\Time\\ magazine\\ issue\\ on\\ Happiness\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Also\\,\\ exceptions\\ can\\ prove\\ the\\ rule\\,\\ since\\ the\\ outliers\\ are\\ often\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ to\\ study\\.\\ Studying\\ the\\ best\\,\\ or\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;growing\\ tip\\ statistics\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ Maslow\\ coined\\ it\\,\\ are\\ extremely\\ important\\ in\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\According\\ to\\ Abraham\\ Maslow\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ research\\ design\\ means\\ is\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ our\\ conception\\ of\\ statistics\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ of\\ sampling\\ theory\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ I\\ am\\ frankly\\ espousing\\ here\\ is\\ what\\ I\\ have\\ been\\ calling\\ \\&\\#8216\\;growing\\-tip\\ statistics\\,\\'\\ taking\\ my\\ title\\ from\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ growing\\ tip\\ of\\ a\\ plant\\ that\\ the\\ greatest\\ genetic\\ action\\ takes\\ place\\.\\.\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ fast\\ a\\ human\\ being\\ can\\ run\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ use\\ to\\ average\\ out\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;good\\ sample\\&\\#8217\\;\\ of\\ the\\ population\\;\\ it\\ is\\ far\\ better\\ to\\ collect\\ Olympic\\ gold\\ medal\\ winners\\ and\\ see\\ how\\ well\\ they\\ can\\ do\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ possibilities\\ for\\ spiritual\\ growth\\,\\ value\\ growth\\,\\ or\\ moral\\ development\\ in\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ then\\ I\\ maintain\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ learn\\ most\\ by\\ studying\\ our\\ most\\ moral\\,\\ ethical\\,\\ or\\ saintly\\ people\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>On\\ the\\ whole\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ fair\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ human\\ history\\ is\\ a\\ record\\ of\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ human\\ nature\\ has\\ been\\ sold\\ short\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ highest\\ possibilities\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ have\\ practically\\ always\\ been\\ underrated\\.\\.\\.\\.\\ Certainly\\ it\\ seems\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ clear\\ that\\ what\\ we\\ call\\ \\&\\#8216\\;normal\\&\\#8217\\;\\ in\\ psychology\\ is\\ really\\ a\\ psychopathology\\ of\\ the\\ average\\,\\ so\\ undramatic\\ and\\ so\\ widely\\ spread\\ that\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ even\\ notice\\ it\\ ordinarily\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\Tal\\ argues\\ that\\ everyone\\ benefits\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>from\\ learning\\ from\\ the\\ best\\ and\\ applying\\ to\\ everyone\\ else\\.\\ This\\ also\\ applies\\ to\\ studying\\ our\\ personal\\ best\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ takes\\ a\\ step\\ back\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ and\\ reviews\\ the\\ two\\ big\\ ideas\\ in\\ PP\\ that\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ covered\\ thus\\ far\\,\\ \\1\\-\\ lets\\ study\\ what\\ works\\,\\ 2\\-lets\\ study\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ what\\ works\\ \\(growing\\ tip\\ statistics\\)\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Tal\\ concludes\\ by\\ suggesting\\ that\\ societal\\ change\\ is\\ necessary\\ and\\ practical\\ idealists\\ must\\ be\\ brought\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ \\\\Manhattan\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ Project\\-scale\\ endeavor\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ meaningful\\ difference\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Why Positive Psych? Continued"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.928859+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Meditations and Ruminations", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 347, "html": "\\This\\ Tuesday\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ began\\ with\\ the\\ heartwarming\\ melody\\ E\\verybody\\ Hurts\\ Sometimes\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Tal\\ continues\\ where\\ he\\ left\\ off\\ last\\ week\\ by\\ discussing\\ the\\ second\\ premise\\ of\\ PP\\-\\ \\change\\ is\\ possible\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ He\\ adds\\ that\\ change\\ is\\ possible\\ starting\\ with\\ individuals\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\ \\the\\ power\\ of\\ one\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ As\\ Ralph\\ Waldo\\ Emerson\\ said\\ \\&\\#8220\\;all\\ history\\ is\\ a\\ record\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ minorities\\,\\ and\\ of\\ minorities\\ of\\ one\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ Margaret\\ Meade\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;never\\ doubt\\ that\\ a\\ small\\ group\\ of\\ thoughtful\\,\\ committed\\ citizens\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ ever\\ has\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\He\\ explains\\ that\\ human\\ networks\\ are\\ exponential\\.\\ Akin\\ to\\ the\\ \\pay\\ it\\ forward\\<\\/strong\\>\\ concept\\ smiles\\,\\ laughter\\ and\\ even\\ good\\ deeds\\ are\\ contagious\\.\\ If\\ you\\ make\\ 3\\ people\\ smile\\,\\ within\\ 20\\ degrees\\ of\\ separation\\ the\\ entire\\ world\\ will\\ be\\ smiling\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Finally\\,\\ he\\ says\\,\\ \\we\\ underestimate\\ our\\ capacity\\ to\\ effect\\ change\\ because\\ we\\ underestimate\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ an\\ \\exponential\\ function\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/objectwidth\\=\\\"425\\\"height\\=\\\"355\\\"\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/paramname\\=\\\"wmode\\\"value\\=\\\"transparent\\\"\\>\\<\\/paramname\\=\\\"movie\\\"value\\=\\\"http\\:\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pay\\ it\\ Forward\\<\\/em\\>\\ trailer\\<\\/p\\>\\Moving\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ third\\ premise\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\,\\ \\(\\internal\\ factors\\,\\ not\\ external\\ circumstances\\,\\ primarily\\ determine\\ happiness\\<\\/strong\\>\\)\\\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Tal\\ begins\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\subjective\\ well\\-being\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ He\\ mentions\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ correlation\\ between\\ brain\\ scans\\,\\ fMRIs\\,\\ EEGs\\ and\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ self\\-evaluation\\ of\\ well\\ being\\.\\ He\\ then\\ discusses\\ \\Dan\\ Gilbert\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\ \\<\\/a\\>on\\ \\affective\\ forecasting\\<\\/strong\\>\\ where\\ he\\ interviewed\\ professors\\ immediately\\ before\\,\\ immediately\\ after\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ months\\ after\\ getting\\ their\\ tenure\\ decisions\\.\\ Immediately\\ before\\,\\ they\\ predicted\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ news\\ was\\ good\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ ecstatic\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ lives\\ and\\ otherwise\\ would\\ be\\ devastated\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\.\\ Right\\ after\\ getting\\ their\\ decision\\ this\\ was\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ case\\.\\ However\\ we\\ he\\ interviewed\\ them\\ a\\ few\\ months\\ later\\ almost\\ everyone\\ had\\ gone\\ back\\ to\\ their\\ previous\\ level\\ of\\ well\\-being\\.\\ Similar\\ research\\ has\\ been\\ conducted\\ on\\ lottery\\ winners\\ and\\ accident\\ victims\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ \\external\\ circumstances\\ make\\ little\\ difference\\ on\\ our\\ well\\-being\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Furthermore\\,\\ \\Ed\\ Diener\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ happiness\\ levels\\ shows\\ that\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\income\\ matters\\ little\\ \\<\\/strong\\>beyond\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ our\\ basic\\ needs\\ are\\ met\\.\\ Furthermore\\ research\\ shows\\\\ no\\ change\\ in\\ well\\-being\\ across\\ generations\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ even\\ though\\ our\\ generation\\ is\\ much\\ wealthier\\ than\\ the\\ last\\.\\ He\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ \\place\\ of\\ residence\\ is\\ irrelevant\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ whether\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ \\California\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ or\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ our\\ well\\-being\\ levels\\ are\\ unaffected\\.\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ Seasonal\\ Effectiveness\\ Disorder\\ \\(SAD\\)\\ has\\ any\\ impact\\.\\ \\What\\ does\\ matter\\ is\\ form\\ of\\ government\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ people\\ living\\ in\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>democratic\\ countries\\ have\\ higher\\ average\\ levels\\ of\\ well\\-being\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ live\\ under\\ oppression\\.\\ I\\ wonder\\ where\\ socialist\\ systems\\ fit\\ in\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ concludes\\ this\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ \\change\\ is\\ not\\ elusive\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Expectations\\ matter\\ a\\ lot\\ \\(not\\ high\\ vs\\.\\ low\\ expectations\\ but\\ instead\\ avoiding\\ unrealistic\\ expectations\\ that\\ certain\\ experiences\\ or\\ accomplishments\\ will\\ transform\\ our\\ wellbeing\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ getting\\ a\\ great\\ job\\,\\ getting\\ into\\ Harvard\\)\\.\\ \\Our\\ readiness\\ and\\ potential\\ to\\ experience\\ happiness\\ is\\ mostly\\ dependent\\ on\\ our\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ not\\ on\\ our\\ status\\ or\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ our\\ bank\\ account\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Thus\\ he\\ encourages\\ a\\ \\focus\\ on\\ transformation\\ instead\\ of\\ on\\ success\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ fourth\\ premise\\ of\\ positive\\ psychology\\ is\\ that\\\\ human\\ nature\\ must\\ be\\ obeyed\\,\\ not\\ perfected\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Tal\\ talks\\ about\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;intellectual\\ hero\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Thomas\\ Sowell\\,\\ whose\\ book\\\\,\\ \\A\\ Conflict\\ of\\ Visions\\<\\/a\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>he\\ recommends\\ to\\ all\\ those\\ interested\\ in\\ politics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Sowell\\ divides\\ people\\ into\\ \\two\\ camps\\:\\ the\\ constrained\\ vision\\ and\\ unconstrained\\ vision\\ camps\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ each\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ characteristics\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\constrained\\ vision\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\human\\ nature\\ is\\ immutable\\<\\/p\\>\\flaws\\ are\\ inevitable\\<\\/p\\>\\acceptance\\ of\\ flaws\\<\\/p\\>\\we\\ must\\ channel\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\Adam\\ Smith\\ and\\ Ayn\\ Rand\\ are\\ two\\ representations\\ of\\ this\\ vision\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Francis\\ Bacon\\ who\\ said\\ \\&\\#8220\\;nature\\ to\\ be\\ commanded\\ must\\ be\\ obeyed\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ People\\ of\\ this\\ camp\\ often\\ support\\ capitalism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\unconstrained\\ vision\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\human\\ nature\\ can\\ be\\ improved\\<\\/p\\>\\flaws\\ are\\ perfectible\\<\\/p\\>\\solutions\\ exist\\<\\/p\\>\\we\\ must\\ change\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Jefferson\\,\\ Jean\\-Jacques\\ Rousseau\\ and\\ George\\ Bernard\\ Shaw\\ represent\\ this\\ camp\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Benjamin\\ Constant\\ who\\ said\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ is\\ for\\ self\\-perfectioning\\ that\\ destiny\\ calls\\ us\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ These\\ individuals\\ often\\ support\\ utopianism\\ and\\ communism\\.\\ How\\ do\\ these\\ camps\\ divide\\ along\\ partisan\\ lines\\,\\ one\\ might\\ wonder\\?\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\\\{democracy\\:3\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Positive\\ psychologists\\ often\\ fall\\ into\\ the\\ constrained\\ vision\\ camp\\,\\ believing\\ that\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ immutable\\ and\\ our\\ role\\ is\\ to\\ understand\\ nature\\ and\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ use\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\At\\ this\\ point\\ Tal\\ stresses\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ \\permitting\\ oneself\\ to\\ be\\ human\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ kinds\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ experience\\ painful\\ emotions\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>psychopaths\\ and\\ dead\\ people\\.\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ only\\ Americans\\ who\\ struggle\\ to\\ experience\\ their\\ painful\\ emotions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Daniel\\ Wegner\\<\\/a\\>\\\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ study\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ \\ironic\\ processing\\<\\/strong\\>\\ shows\\ us\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ suppress\\ a\\ natural\\ phenomenon\\ \\(such\\ as\\ a\\ negative\\ emotion\\)\\,\\ it\\ merely\\ intensifies\\.\\ Tal\\ asks\\ the\\ class\\ not\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ a\\ pink\\ elephant\\ for\\ 10\\ seconds\\-\\ obviously\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ rejecting\\ our\\ nature\\ leads\\ to\\ unhappiness\\ and\\ when\\ people\\ lie\\ about\\ how\\ good\\ they\\ feel\\ \\(what\\ he\\ calls\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ Great\\ Deception\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\,\\ it\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Great\\ Depression\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ the\\ ultimate\\ currency\\.\\ We\\ must\\ instead\\ practice\\ active\\ acceptance\\ and\\ be\\ true\\ to\\ reality\\.\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ calling\\ this\\ course\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Positive\\ Psychology\\&\\#8217\\;\\ is\\ almost\\ a\\ misnomer\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ instead\\ about\\ Reality\\ Psychology\\,\\ where\\ we\\ shift\\ the\\ pendulum\\ and\\ build\\ our\\ psychological\\ immune\\ systems\\ instead\\ of\\ ignoring\\ the\\ negative\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ the\\ mantra\\ of\\ Alcoholics\\ Anonymous\\ goes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;God\\,\\ grant\\ me\\ the\\ serenity\\ to\\ accept\\ the\\ things\\ I\\ cannot\\ change\\,\\ the\\ courage\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ things\\ I\\ can\\ change\\,\\ and\\ the\\ wisdom\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ difference\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Reinhold\\ Niebuhr\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ end\\ with\\ a\\ group\\ meditation\\,\\ where\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ asked\\ to\\ close\\ our\\ eyes\\,\\ sit\\ up\\ straight\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ our\\ breathing\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;breathe\\ out\\ your\\ emotions\\ with\\ each\\ exhalation\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Tal\\ instructs\\.\\ Verdict\\-\\ Tal\\ is\\ a\\ super\\ guru\\ and\\ meditating\\ in\\ class\\ is\\ super\\ cool\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Meditations and Ruminations"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.942539+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Are Beliefs Self Fulfilling?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 348, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Thursday\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ coincides\\ with\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ appearance\\ in\\\\ The\\ Harvard\\ Crimson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\<\\/em\\>weekly\\ \\Fifteen\\ Minutes\\ \\<\\/em\\>magazine\\ in\\ an\\ article\\ entitled\\ \\15\\ Questions\\ with\\ Tal\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ lecture\\ begins\\ with\\ two\\ somewhat\\ random\\ shameless\\ plugs\\ for\\ post\\ graduation\\:\\ one\\ being\\ \\Teach\\ for\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ \\Masters\\ of\\ Applied\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\(MAPP\\)\\ at\\ UPenn\\,\\ purportedly\\ the\\ first\\ masters\\ in\\ PP\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Marty\\ Seligman\\ is\\ the\\ founder\\ and\\ director\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\Positive\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Psychology\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Center\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ and\\ the\\ program\\ combines\\ on\\-site\\ learning\\ and\\ distance\\ learning\\ in\\ an\\ Executive\\ Education\\ type\\ model\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ then\\ discusses\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ premises\\:\\\\ happiness\\ is\\ and\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ ultimate\\ pursuit\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>As\\ Aristotle\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;happiness\\ is\\ the\\ meaning\\ and\\ purpose\\ of\\ life\\,\\ the\\ whole\\ aim\\ and\\ end\\ of\\ human\\ existence\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ According\\ to\\ William\\ James\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;If\\ we\\ were\\ to\\ ask\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\&\\#8216\\;What\\ is\\ human\\ life\\'s\\ chief\\ concern\\?\\&\\#8217\\;\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ answers\\ we\\ should\\ receive\\ would\\ be\\:\\ \\&\\#8216\\;It\\ is\\ happiness\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ gain\\,\\ how\\ to\\ keep\\,\\ how\\ to\\ recover\\ happiness\\,\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ for\\ most\\ men\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ the\\ secret\\ motive\\ of\\ all\\ they\\ do\\,\\ and\\ of\\ all\\ they\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ endure\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ And\\,\\ the\\ Dalai\\ Lama\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Whether\\ one\\ believes\\ in\\ religion\\ or\\ not\\,\\ whether\\ one\\ believes\\ in\\ this\\ religion\\ or\\ that\\ religion\\,\\ the\\ very\\ purpose\\ of\\ our\\ life\\ is\\ happiness\\,\\ the\\ very\\ motion\\ of\\ our\\ life\\ is\\ towards\\ happiness\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\,\\ Tal\\ discusses\\ \\what\\ is\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\good\\ about\\ positive\\ emotions\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>First\\ off\\,\\ it\\ feels\\ good\\ to\\ feel\\ good\\.\\ According\\ to\\ \\Fredrickson\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\positive\\ emotions\\ broaden\\ and\\ build\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\ Fredrickson\\ explains\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;we\\ should\\ work\\ to\\ cultivate\\ positive\\ emotions\\ in\\ ourselves\\ and\\ in\\ those\\ around\\ us\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ end\\ states\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ but\\ also\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ achieving\\ psychological\\ growth\\ and\\ improved\\ psychological\\ and\\ physical\\ health\\ over\\ time\\.\\.\\.\\ I\\ call\\ this\\ the\\ broaden\\-and\\-build\\ theory\\ of\\ positive\\ emotions\\ because\\ positive\\ emotions\\ appear\\ to\\ \\broaden\\<\\/em\\>\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ momentary\\ thought\\-action\\ repertoires\\ and\\ \\build\\<\\/em\\>\\ their\\ enduring\\ personal\\ resources\\.\\.\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Through\\ experiences\\ of\\ positive\\ emotions\\ people\\ \\transform\\<\\/em\\>\\ themselves\\,\\ becoming\\ more\\ creative\\,\\ knowledgeable\\,\\ resilient\\,\\ socially\\ integrated\\,\\ and\\ healthy\\ individuals\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Tal\\ explains\\ that\\ unlike\\ positive\\ emotions\\,\\ negative\\ emotions\\ narrow\\ and\\ constrict\\,\\ thus\\ potentially\\ leading\\ one\\ down\\ a\\ downward\\ vicious\\ cycle\\.\\ Positive\\ emotions\\ also\\ help\\ us\\ to\\ overcome\\ negative\\ emotions\\;\\ can\\ increase\\ creativity\\,\\ motivation\\ and\\ energy\\;\\ and\\ lead\\ to\\ success\\ and\\ physical\\ health\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ \\people\\ often\\ fill\\ guilty\\ pursuing\\ their\\ own\\ unhappiness\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>However\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ valid\\ because\\ \\happiness\\ is\\ a\\ positive\\ sum\\ game\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ contagious\\.\\ As\\ the\\ Buddha\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;thousands\\ of\\ candles\\ can\\ be\\ lighted\\ from\\ a\\ single\\ candle\\,\\ and\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ candle\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ shortened\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Happiness\\ never\\ decreases\\ by\\ being\\ shared\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Happiness\\ also\\ often\\ results\\ in\\ better\\ relationships\\ as\\ it\\ makes\\ us\\ more\\ tolerant\\ and\\ accepting\\ of\\ others\\.\\\r\\\\According\\ to\\ Isen\\,\\ \\helping\\ ourselves\\ helps\\ others\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ and\\ according\\ to\\ \\Lyubomirsky\\<\\/a\\>\\\\,\\ \\helping\\ others\\ helps\\ ourselves\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\spreading\\ happiness\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ He\\ references\\ \\Mahatma\\ Gandhi\\<\\/a\\>\\\\,\\ telling\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ traveled\\ from\\ afar\\ to\\ ask\\ Gandhi\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ her\\ son\\ to\\ stop\\ eating\\ sugar\\.\\ He\\ told\\ her\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;please\\ come\\ back\\ in\\ a\\ month\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ When\\ she\\ did\\ he\\ told\\ her\\ son\\ to\\ stop\\ eating\\ too\\ much\\ sugar\\ and\\ when\\ asked\\ why\\ he\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ said\\ it\\ a\\ month\\ ago\\,\\ he\\ explained\\ that\\ he\\ too\\ was\\ eating\\ too\\ much\\ sugar\\ a\\ month\\ ago\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ moral\\ of\\ the\\ story\\,\\ as\\ Gandhi\\ explains\\,\\ is\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;be\\ the\\ change\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ other\\ worlds\\,\\ \\lead\\ by\\ example\\ because\\ people\\ listen\\ more\\ to\\ what\\ you\\ do\\ that\\ what\\ you\\ say\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ demonstrates\\ this\\ concept\\ with\\ an\\ exercise\\ where\\ he\\ asks\\ the\\ class\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ circle\\ with\\ their\\ hand\\ and\\ put\\ it\\ on\\ their\\ cheek\\.\\ Meanwhile\\,\\ he\\ puts\\ his\\ hand\\ on\\ his\\ chin\\ and\\ not\\ surprisingly\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ 600\\ students\\ do\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ then\\ begins\\ the\\ next\\ topic\\ on\\ the\\ syllabus\\:\\\\ beliefs\\ as\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>He\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Roger\\ Bannister\\,\\ who\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ man\\ to\\ ever\\ run\\ a\\ mile\\ in\\ less\\ than\\ 4\\ minutes\\ on\\ May\\ 6\\ 1954\\.\\ Until\\ then\\,\\ doctors\\ and\\ scientists\\ thought\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ impossible\\ to\\ run\\ a\\ mile\\ in\\ under\\ 4\\ minutes\\.\\ In\\ the\\ following\\ year\\,\\ 37\\ runners\\ ran\\ a\\ mile\\ in\\ under\\ 4\\ minutes\\ and\\ the\\ year\\ after\\ that\\ 300\\ runners\\ did\\ the\\ same\\.\\ Guess\\ what\\ the\\ moral\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ is\\.\\ Yes\\\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>beliefs\\ are\\ a\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\.\\ Tal\\ explains\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ discuss\\ how\\ beliefs\\ shape\\ reality\\,\\ how\\ to\\ optimize\\ your\\ optimism\\ and\\ raise\\ your\\ beliefs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ \\Pygmalion\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ who\\ looked\\ for\\ an\\ ideal\\ woman\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ Greek\\ empire\\ and\\ finally\\ carved\\ her\\ out\\ of\\ ivory\\ and\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\.\\ \\Robert\\ Rosenthal\\<\\/a\\>\\ conducted\\ a\\ study\\ with\\ brought\\ \\Pygmalion\\ to\\ the\\ classroom\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>In\\ his\\ study\\,\\ teachers\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ several\\ of\\ their\\ elementary\\ school\\ students\\ were\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fast\\ spurters\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ identified\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ highest\\ potential\\.\\ They\\ were\\ actually\\ randomly\\ chosen\\.\\ However\\,\\ because\\ the\\ teachers\\ believed\\ those\\ students\\ were\\ capable\\ of\\ learning\\ quickly\\,\\ their\\ beliefs\\ were\\ self\\-fulfilling\\.\\ This\\ group\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fast\\ spurters\\&\\#8221\\;\\ significantly\\ improved\\ significantly\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ control\\ group\\ in\\ both\\ English\\ and\\ Math\\ and\\ their\\ IQ\\ increased\\ dramatically\\ over\\ the\\ year\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\.\\ The\\ opposite\\ of\\ this\\ study\\ was\\ also\\ conducted\\ where\\ students\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ their\\ teacher\\ was\\ ranked\\ extremely\\ highly\\ by\\ other\\ teachers\\.\\ These\\ students\\ outperformed\\ control\\ group\\ student\\ and\\ these\\ teachers\\ were\\ ranked\\ higher\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ study\\.\\ Jamieson\\ investigated\\ the\\ \\Pygmalion\\ effect\\ in\\ the\\ workplace\\ \\<\\/strong\\>in\\ a\\ study\\ which\\ informed\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>leaders\\ who\\ their\\ \\&\\#8220\\;highest\\ potential\\&\\#8221\\;\\ employees\\ were\\ \\(they\\ were\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ randomly\\ chosen\\)\\.\\ These\\ employees\\ were\\ found\\ to\\ have\\ increased\\ performance\\ and\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ stay\\ and\\ grow\\ at\\ the\\ organization\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ Johann\\ Wolfgang\\ von\\ Goethe\\ said\\ \\&\\#8220\\;treat\\ a\\ man\\ as\\ a\\ he\\ is\\ and\\ he\\ will\\ remain\\ as\\ he\\ is\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Treat\\ a\\ man\\ as\\ he\\ can\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ and\\ he\\ shall\\ become\\ as\\ he\\ can\\ and\\ should\\ be\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ Tal\\ discusses\\ \\the\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\power\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>He\\ refers\\ to\\ \\\\Milgram\\<\\/a\\>\\\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Obedience\\ to\\ Authority\\<\\/strong\\>\\ experiment\\.\\ In\\ this\\ famous\\ experiment\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ participants\\ were\\ instructed\\ to\\ shock\\ other\\ participants\\.\\ They\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ experiment\\ must\\ go\\ on\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ most\\ followed\\ instructions\\ despite\\ cries\\ of\\ pain\\ from\\ the\\ participants\\ \\(the\\ cries\\ of\\ pain\\ were\\ faked\\,\\ but\\ the\\ horrifying\\ results\\ are\\ nonetheless\\ shocking\\)\\.\\ This\\ showed\\ that\\ obedience\\ to\\ authority\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ concept\\,\\ not\\ just\\ one\\ relevant\\ to\\ Holocaust\\ \\\\Germany\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ \\\\Zimbardo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Prison\\ Experiment\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ another\\ famous\\ experiment\\ which\\ took\\ participants\\ off\\ the\\ street\\ and\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ them\\ to\\ role\\ play\\ as\\ either\\ prisoner\\ or\\ warden\\.\\ The\\ experiment\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ stopped\\ early\\ because\\ the\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ wardens\\ were\\ abusing\\ the\\ prisoners\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ experiments\\ demonstrate\\ how\\ powerful\\ a\\ situation\\ may\\ be\\ in\\ influencing\\ normal\\ people\\ to\\ act\\ extraordinarily\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/object\\>We\\ can\\ also\\ study\\ \\the\\ \\(positive\\)\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>In\\ 1979\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Ellen\\ J\\.\\ Langer\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ placed\\ men\\ above\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 75\\ in\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;1959\\&\\#8221\\;\\ resort\\ for\\ a\\ week\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ their\\ mental\\ and\\ biological\\ age\\ decreased\\.\\ In\\ 1989\\,\\ she\\ conducted\\ another\\ study\\ where\\ she\\ tested\\ their\\ eyesight\\ and\\ it\\ had\\ improved\\ as\\ they\\ \\&\\#8216\\;played\\ the\\ role\\&\\#8217\\;\\ of\\ a\\ younger\\ person\\.Lastly\\,\\ Tal\\ discusses\\ the\\ concept\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>of\\\\ \\positive\\ priming\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>John\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Bargh\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>primed\\ people\\ with\\ words\\ associated\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;old\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ then\\ measured\\ how\\ fast\\ they\\ walked\\.\\ He\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ primed\\ group\\ walked\\ slower\\ than\\ the\\ control\\ group\\.\\\r\\\\The\\ question\\ remains\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ create\\ environments\\ where\\ our\\ most\\ moral\\ and\\ successful\\ selves\\ can\\ be\\ brought\\ out\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Are Beliefs Self Fulfilling?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.957981+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Learn to Fail or Fail to Learn", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 349, "html": "\\Tal\\ returns\\ to\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\Positive\\ Priming\\ \\<\\/strong\\>with\\ the\\ research\\ of\\ \\Dijksterhuis\\&\\;\\ Van\\ Knippenberg\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>who\\ primed\\ study\\ participants\\ by\\ asking\\ them\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ typical\\ characteristics\\ of\\ three\\ different\\ archetypes\\:\\ a\\ soccer\\ hooligan\\,\\ a\\ secretary\\ or\\ a\\ professor\\.\\ Next\\ the\\ participants\\ took\\ intelligence\\ and\\ memory\\ tests\\.\\ It\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ described\\ the\\ soccer\\ hooligan\\ did\\ the\\ worst\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ described\\ the\\ professor\\ did\\ the\\ best\\.\\\r\\\\Tal\\ recommends\\ that\\ we\\ \\create\\ a\\ positive\\ environment\\<\\/strong\\>\\ by\\ putting\\ up\\ \\pictures\\<\\/strong\\>\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ places\\ that\\ we\\ love\\,\\ \\pleasant\\ objects\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(memorabilia\\,\\ flowers\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ \\quotes\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;you\\ know\\ I\\ love\\ quotes\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ says\\)\\.\\ Surrounding\\ ourselves\\ with\\ \\books\\,\\ films\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\\\ music\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;listen\\ to\\ it\\ mindfully\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ that\\ we\\ enjoy\\ can\\ also\\ help\\.\\ These\\ images\\ prime\\ you\\ on\\ a\\ subconscious\\ level\\;\\ \\&\\#8216\\;even\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ see\\ them\\,\\ you\\ see\\ them\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ then\\ launches\\ into\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ some\\ seminal\\ works\\ of\\ \\the\\ Self\\-H\\<\\/strong\\>\\elp\\ Movement\\.\\ \\Think\\ and\\ Grow\\ Rich\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ is\\ worldwide\\ bestseller\\,\\ having\\ sold\\ more\\ than\\ 60million\\ copies\\ sold\\.\\ Napoleon\\ Hill\\ urges\\ his\\ readers\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;whatever\\ your\\ mind\\ can\\ conceive\\ and\\ believe\\ it\\ can\\ achieve\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;whether\\ you\\ think\\ you\\ can\\ or\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\-\\ you\\ are\\ right\\.\\ Another\\ renowned\\ work\\ is\\ \\\\The\\ Power\\ of\\ Positive\\ Thinking\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Norman\\ Vincent\\ Peale\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>writes\\ that\\ you\\ must\\ \\&\\#8220\\;have\\ great\\ hopes\\ and\\ dare\\ to\\ go\\ all\\ out\\ for\\ them\\.\\ Have\\ great\\ dreams\\ and\\ dare\\ to\\ live\\ them\\.\\ Have\\ tremendous\\ expectations\\ and\\ believe\\ in\\ them\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ last\\ self\\-help\\ work\\ he\\ discusses\\ is\\ \\\\The\\ Secret\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/strong\\>by\\ Rhonda\\ Byrne\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ discusses\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ attraction\\-\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ attract\\ to\\ your\\ life\\ all\\ that\\ you\\ believe\\ in\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Why\\ is\\ the\\ Professor\\ of\\ an\\ academic\\ course\\ on\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ mentioning\\ these\\ self\\-help\\ movement\\ books\\ you\\ might\\ ask\\?\\ To\\ make\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ course\\!\\ Tal\\ says\\ that\\ these\\ books\\ provide\\ only\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ equation\\,\\ the\\ other\\ half\\ being\\ hard\\ work\\ and\\ failure\\.\\ As\\ he\\ mentioned\\ in\\ previous\\ lectures\\,\\ these\\ books\\ overpromise\\ and\\ underdeliver\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ destructive\\ at\\ times\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ attraction\\ can\\ lead\\ one\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ everything\\ in\\ their\\ life\\ is\\ their\\ own\\ fault\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ self\\-efficacy\\,\\ which\\ he\\ describes\\ as\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;scientific\\ term\\ for\\ believing\\ in\\ oneself\\.\\ Albert\\ Bandura\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>won\\ a\\ researchers\\ prize\\ in\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ last\\ year\\ for\\ his\\ work\\ in\\ this\\ field\\.\\ He\\ says\\ \\&\\#8220\\;beliefs\\ in\\ personal\\ efficacy\\ affect\\ life\\ choices\\,\\ level\\ of\\ motivation\\,\\ quality\\ of\\ functioning\\,\\ resilience\\ to\\ adversity\\ and\\ vulnerability\\ to\\ stress\\ and\\ depression\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Also\\,\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;people\\ who\\ regard\\ themselves\\ as\\ highly\\ efficacious\\ act\\,\\ think\\,\\ and\\ feel\\ differently\\ from\\ those\\ who\\ perceive\\ themselves\\ as\\ inefficacious\\.\\ They\\ produce\\ their\\ own\\ future\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ simply\\ fortell\\ it\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Thus\\,\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ scribes\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ lives\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ others\\ prescribing\\ for\\ them\\ and\\ that\\ s\\elf\\-\\ efficacy\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\can\\ be\\ cultivated\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nathaniel\\ Branden\\ research\\ on\\ self\\-esteem\\ \\<\\/strong\\>stated\\ that\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;\\<\\/strong\\>the\\ level\\ of\\ our\\ self\\-esteem\\ has\\ profound\\ consequences\\ for\\ every\\ aspect\\ of\\ our\\ existence\\;\\ how\\ we\\ operate\\ in\\ the\\ workplace\\,\\ how\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ people\\,\\ how\\ high\\ we\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ rise\\,\\ how\\ much\\ we\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ achieve\\-\\ and\\,\\ in\\ the\\ personal\\ realm\\,\\ with\\ whom\\ we\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\,\\ how\\ we\\ interact\\ with\\ our\\ spouse\\,\\ children\\ and\\ friends\\,\\ what\\ level\\ of\\ personal\\ happiness\\ we\\ attain\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ correlation\\ between\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ well\\-being\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ Tal\\ discusses\\ the\\\\ Placebo\\ Effect\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ the\\ research\\ of\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Herbert\\ Be\\<\\/a\\>\\nson\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\(of\\ HMS\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>He\\ conducted\\ a\\ study\\ where\\ he\\ gave\\ pills\\ to\\ pregnant\\ women\\ with\\ stomach\\ problems\\ \\(morning\\ sickness\\)\\;\\ he\\ gave\\ one\\ group\\ sugar\\ pills\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ pills\\ with\\ Ipecac\\ \\(a\\ drug\\ which\\ elicits\\ vomiting\\)\\.\\ Both\\ groups\\ stomach\\ issues\\ were\\ alleviated\\ and\\ their\\ nausea\\ and\\ vomiting\\ ceased\\.\\ This\\ showed\\ the\\ powerful\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ Don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ try\\ this\\ at\\ home\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ another\\ study\\ conducted\\ in\\ \\\\Japan\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ allergic\\ to\\ certain\\ plants\\ were\\ brought\\ into\\ the\\ lab\\;\\ the\\ plant\\ was\\ placed\\ on\\ their\\ right\\ forearm\\ another\\ non\\-allergic\\ plant\\ touched\\ their\\ left\\ forearm\\.\\ Their\\ right\\ arm\\ flared\\ up\\.\\ However\\,\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ the\\ plant\\ they\\ were\\ allergic\\ to\\ touched\\ their\\ left\\ forearm\\ instead\\ \\(which\\ was\\ not\\ actually\\ so\\)\\,\\ their\\ left\\ arm\\ flared\\ up\\ instead\\.\\ How\\ did\\ these\\ studies\\ adhere\\ to\\ ethical\\ codes\\ is\\ a\\ question\\ for\\ another\\ day\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ crux\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ was\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ mechanism\\ which\\ make\\ beliefs\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ vml\\ 1\\]\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\<\\/v\\:formulas\\>\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/v\\:shapetype\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/v\\:shape\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!vml\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Congruence\\,\\ or\\ consistency\\,\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ matching\\ our\\ brain\\ does\\ between\\ perception\\ and\\ reality\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Tal\\,\\ there\\ are\\ four\\ \\ways\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\to\\ create\\ consistency\\:\\ 1\\-\\ update\\ schema\\;\\ 2\\-\\ ignore\\ or\\ discard\\ external\\ information\\ which\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ match\\ schema\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(this\\ happens\\ very\\ often\\)\\;\\ \\3\\-\\ actively\\ seek\\ confirmation\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\(ie\\:\\ if\\ you\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ vote\\ for\\ Bush\\ you\\ will\\ focus\\ on\\ his\\ failures\\ more\\ than\\ his\\ strengths\\)\\;\\ \\4\\-\\ creating\\ a\\ new\\ reality\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(such\\ as\\ Bannister\\ did\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Interpretation\\ can\\ be\\ subjective\\ or\\ objective\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>Thomas\\ Edison\\ was\\ working\\ \\(to\\ no\\ avail\\)\\ with\\ scientific\\ community\\ to\\ create\\ light\\ bulb\\ for\\ years\\.\\ He\\ even\\ said\\ he\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\ failed\\ \\[his\\]\\ way\\ to\\ success\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ scientists\\ who\\ fail\\ the\\ most\\ times\\ are\\ also\\ the\\ most\\ successful\\.\\ Babe\\ Ruth\\,\\ another\\ quintessential\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ concept\\,\\ had\\ th\\ most\\ home\\ runs\\ but\\ also\\ countless\\ strikeouts\\ during\\ his\\ illustrious\\ career\\.\\ Another\\ big\\ lesson\\ for\\ this\\ class\\:\\ \\Learn\\ to\\ fail\\ or\\ fail\\ to\\ learn\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Tal\\ continues\\ with\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\optimism\\ and\\ pessimism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>Seligman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\ shows\\ that\\ pessimists\\ are\\ realistic\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ short\\ term\\ and\\ long\\ terms\\ goals\\ while\\ optimists\\ are\\ unrealistic\\ about\\ short\\ term\\ goals\\,\\ but\\ realist\\ about\\ long\\ term\\ goals\\.\\ Use\\ the\\ above\\ mechanism\\ to\\ follow\\ this\\ logic\\:\\ A\\ pessimist\\ has\\ low\\ expectations\\ and\\ thus\\ low\\ motivation\\ and\\ performance\\.\\ His\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ did\\ poorly\\,\\ as\\ expected\\.\\ When\\ a\\ pessimist\\ succeeds\\ beyond\\ expectations\\,\\ he\\ interprets\\ it\\ as\\ luck\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ optimists\\ have\\ high\\ expectations\\ and\\ motivation\\.\\ If\\ they\\ performance\\ lower\\ than\\ expectation\\ they\\ interpretation\\ the\\ situation\\ an\\ informative\\ learning\\ experience\\ and\\ strive\\ to\\ improve\\ until\\ he\\ matches\\ his\\ unrealistic\\ beliefs\\ with\\ reality\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Interpretation\\ style\\ can\\ be\\ permanent\\ or\\ temporary\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(I\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ do\\ it\\ vs\\.\\ I\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ do\\ it\\ this\\ time\\)\\,\\ \\pervasive\\ or\\ specific\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(I\\ am\\ bad\\ at\\ life\\ vs\\.\\ I\\ need\\ work\\ on\\ this\\ specific\\ element\\)\\\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Ultimately\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ optimists\\ and\\ pessimists\\.\\ An\\ example\\ of\\ an\\ optimistic\\ ideology\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ great\\ success\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ Matt\\ Biondi\\ at\\ the\\ 1988\\ Seoul\\ Olympics\\.\\ He\\ was\\ expected\\ to\\ bring\\ home\\ 7\\ gold\\ medals\\ in\\ swimming\\.\\ After\\ getting\\ bronze\\ in\\ his\\ first\\ two\\ races\\,\\ Matt\\,\\ an\\ optimist\\,\\ interpreted\\ these\\ shortcomings\\ as\\ temporary\\ and\\ specific\\,\\ learned\\ from\\ them\\ and\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ win\\ 5\\ gold\\ medals\\ during\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ competition\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ shown\\ that\\ \\optimism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\can\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\improve\\ mental\\ and\\ physical\\ health\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>It\\ can\\ boost\\ your\\ immune\\ system\\,\\ and\\ make\\ you\\ live\\ a\\ longer\\ and\\ happier\\ life\\.\\ Tal\\ also\\ highly\\ recommends\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Karen\\ Reivich\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\,\\ entitled\\ \\\\The\\ Resilience\\ Factor\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ for\\ more\\ work\\ on\\ resilience\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ there\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\ unrealistic\\ beliefs\\?\\ Can\\ we\\ optimize\\ optimism\\?\\ Tal\\ acts\\ out\\ a\\ story\\ from\\ his\\ childhood\\ when\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ crush\\ on\\ a\\ girl\\ named\\ Rina\\.\\ His\\ mother\\ kept\\ boosting\\ his\\ confidence\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Jewish\\ mother\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ kosher\\ Pygmalion\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\ \\(or\\ so\\ Tal\\ speaks\\)\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Rina\\ was\\ older\\ and\\ taller\\ than\\ Tal\\.\\ After\\ a\\ dance\\ of\\ sorts\\ to\\ Eye\\ of\\ the\\ Tiger\\,\\ we\\ learn\\ that\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ get\\ the\\ girl\\ because\\ his\\ expectations\\ were\\ unrealistic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ concept\\ also\\ applies\\ to\\ life\\-threatening\\ situations\\.\\ According\\ to\\ US\\ Army\\ Admiral\\ Jim\\ Stockdale\\:\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>people\\ who\\ survived\\ in\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ were\\ those\\ who\\ believed\\ they\\ would\\ get\\ out\\,\\ but\\ also\\ had\\ realistic\\ beliefs\\ about\\ the\\ timeline\\ and\\ difficulty\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ He\\ says\\ \\&\\#8220\\;you\\ must\\ never\\ loose\\ faith\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ prevail\\ in\\ the\\ end\\-\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ never\\ afford\\ to\\ lose\\-\\ with\\ the\\ discipline\\ to\\ confront\\ the\\ most\\ brutal\\ facts\\ of\\ your\\ current\\ reality\\,\\ whatever\\ they\\ might\\ be\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\According\\ to\\ Abraham\\ Maslow\\,\\ \\positive\\ thinking\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;false\\ optimism\\ sooner\\ or\\ later\\ means\\ disillusionment\\,\\ anger\\ and\\ hopelessness\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&\\#8220\\;secret\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ success\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>according\\ to\\ Tal\\ is\\ optimism\\,\\ passion\\ and\\ hard\\ work\\.\\ Without\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ three\\ elements\\,\\ success\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ attain\\.\\ Again\\ quoting\\ Thomas\\ Jefferson\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ a\\ great\\ believer\\ in\\ luck\\,\\ and\\ I\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ harder\\ I\\ work\\,\\ the\\ luckier\\ I\\ get\\&\\#8221\\;\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;There\\ is\\ no\\ substitute\\ for\\ hard\\ work\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ few\\ questions\\ remain\\.\\ What\\ about\\ Happiness\\ and\\ Self\\-Esteem\\?\\ Do\\ high\\ expectations\\ lead\\ to\\ disappointment\\?\\ William\\ James\\,\\ posited\\ that\\ self\\ esteem\\=\\ success\\/pretensions\\,\\ in\\ other\\ terms\\ \\=what\\ we\\ achieve\\/what\\ we\\ are\\ aspire\\.\\ This\\ formula\\ was\\ later\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ flawed\\.\\ In\\ reality\\,\\ our\\ self\\-esteem\\ undulates\\ around\\ our\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ depending\\ around\\ circumstance\\ in\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ raise\\ our\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ through\\ \\coping\\ vs\\.\\ avoidance\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>According\\ to\\ \\Bem\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\\\ self\\ perception\\ theory\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>we\\ derive\\ conclusions\\ about\\ ourselves\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ we\\ derive\\ conclusions\\ about\\ others\\-\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ behavior\\.\\ So\\ if\\ you\\ see\\ yourself\\ behave\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ you\\ see\\ yourself\\ to\\ have\\ certain\\ characteristics\\ and\\ potentially\\ higher\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ Another\\ tip\\ is\\ to\\ \\realize\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ actual\\ failure\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ usually\\ much\\ less\\ painful\\ than\\ imagined\\.\\ And\\ of\\ course\\,\\ \\success\\ leads\\ to\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\more\\ success\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Learn to Fail or Fail to Learn"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.974540+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Diagram", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 350, "html": "Belief\\/Performance\\ cycle", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Diagram"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.982849+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Create Your Own Reality", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 351, "html": "\\Tal\\ finishes\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\beliefs\\ as\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\ \\<\\/strong\\>by\\ discussing\\ \\becoming\\ an\\ optimist\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Some\\ tips\\ are\\ 1\\-\\ \\just\\ do\\ it\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(take\\ action\\)\\ 2\\-\\ \\image\\ it\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(visualize\\)\\ and\\ 3\\-\\ \\cognitive\\ therapy\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(rational\\ thinking\\)\\.\\\r\\\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ \\taking\\ actions\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Bandura\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ self\\-help\\ movement\\ really\\ falls\\ short\\ here\\ when\\ it\\ instructs\\ to\\ just\\ praise\\ oneself\\.\\ Rather\\ than\\ just\\ talk\\,\\ we\\ need\\ action\\-\\ we\\ must\\ apply\\ hard\\ work\\ and\\ coping\\,\\ as\\ these\\ elements\\ contribute\\ to\\ success\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ contribute\\ to\\ self\\-efficacy\\ and\\ then\\ feeds\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ loop\\ and\\ instills\\ more\\ hard\\ work\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\&\\#8220\\;\\Failure\\ is\\ underrated\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Tal\\ wishes\\ that\\ each\\ of\\ us\\ fails\\ more\\ and\\ interprets\\ it\\ correctly\\.\\ When\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ give\\ ourselves\\ the\\ permission\\ to\\ fail\\,\\ a\\ downward\\ spiral\\ is\\ created\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;To\\ dare\\ is\\ to\\ lose\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ footing\\ momentarily\\.\\ Not\\ to\\ dare\\ is\\ to\\ lose\\ oneself\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Soren\\ Kierkegaard\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ the\\ second\\ point\\,\\ \\visualization\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ imagining\\ success\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Remember\\,\\ 56\\%\\ of\\ athletes\\&\\#8217\\;\\ successes\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ optimism\\ and\\ confidence\\.\\ He\\ then\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ becoming\\ a\\ teacher\\ and\\ had\\ to\\ increase\\ his\\ confidence\\.\\ What\\ he\\ found\\ helpful\\ was\\ a\\ lesson\\ from\\ athletics\\ \\(recall\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ Squash\\ champion\\)\\ \\-\\ visualization\\.\\ Visualization\\ works\\ because\\ \\the\\ mind\\ is\\ a\\ simulator\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>according\\ to\\ Stephen\\ Kosslyn\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\research\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ \\brain\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ real\\ and\\ the\\ imaginary\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ whether\\ you\\ move\\ your\\ hand\\ or\\ think\\ about\\ moving\\ your\\ hand\\,\\ the\\ same\\ neurons\\ are\\ fired\\.\\ The\\ key\\ is\\ to\\ \\focus\\ on\\ the\\ journey\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ destination\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\Taylor\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ study\\ of\\ \\students\\&\\#8217\\;\\ visualization\\<\\/strong\\>\\ had\\ one\\ group\\ imagine\\ getting\\ an\\ \\&\\#8216\\;A\\&\\#8217\\;\\ and\\ another\\ group\\ imagine\\ getting\\ an\\ \\&\\#8216\\;A\\&\\#8217\\;\\ but\\ also\\ preparing\\ and\\ studying\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ The\\ second\\ group\\ was\\ far\\ more\\ successful\\.\\ Two\\ more\\ important\\ elements\\ for\\ visualization\\ \\are\\ involving\\ different\\ senses\\ and\\ evoking\\ emotion\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ have\\ a\\ dream\\&\\#8221\\;\\ speech\\ captures\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ creating\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ success\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\Lastly\\,\\ \\cognitive\\ therapy\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ thoughts\\ drive\\ emotions\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Sometimes\\ our\\ thoughts\\ are\\ irrational\\ and\\ this\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\ irrationally\\ evaluate\\ ourselves\\ as\\ having\\ negative\\ characteristics\\ which\\ then\\ leads\\ to\\ difficult\\ emotions\\.\\ \\Cognitive\\ therapy\\ restores\\ rationality\\ and\\ realism\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ therapy\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ \\extremely\\ effective\\ and\\ fast\\-acting\\ in\\ treating\\ anxiety\\ and\\ depression\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ However\\,\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ thought\\ processing\\ is\\ \\an\\ acquired\\ skill\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Tal\\ combines\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ Karen\\ Reivich\\,\\ Marty\\ Seligman\\ and\\ others\\ in\\ \\summarizing\\ the\\ main\\ concepts\\ of\\ cognitive\\ therapy\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ He\\ urges\\ us\\ to\\ \\avoid\\ the\\ 3M\\&\\#8217\\;s\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\-\\\\ Magnifying\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(exaggerating\\)\\ which\\ is\\ comprised\\ of\\:a\\.\\ \\permanent\\ and\\ pervasive\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(over\\-generalizing\\)\\ and\\ b\\-\\ \\all\\ or\\ nothing\\ thinking\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\-\\ \\Minimizing\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(underplaying\\)\\ which\\ involves\\:\\ a\\:\\ \\tunnel\\ vision\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(look\\ at\\ the\\ extremes\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ big\\ picture\\)\\ and\\ b\\-\\ \\dismissal\\ of\\ the\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\-\\\\ Making\\ up\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(fabricating\\)\\ which\\ involves\\ a\\-\\ \\personalization\\ of\\ blame\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ b\\-\\ \\emotional\\ reasoning\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ important\\ questions\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ when\\ practicing\\ cognitive\\ therapy\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Is\\ my\\ conclusion\\ tied\\ to\\ reality\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ rational\\?\\ Am\\ I\\ ignoring\\ \\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>something\\ important\\?\\ What\\ important\\ evidence\\ do\\ I\\ still\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ consideration\\?\\ What\\ am\\ I\\ magnifying\\?\\ What\\ am\\ I\\ minimizing\\?\\ Am\\ I\\ ignoring\\ anything\\ that\\ is\\ going\\ well\\?\\ Am\\ I\\ ignoring\\ anything\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ going\\ well\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ big\\ picture\\?\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Research\\ done\\ by\\ \\Diener\\ and\\ Seligma\\<\\/a\\>n\\ on\\ \\extremely\\ happy\\ people\\ \\<\\/strong\\>showed\\ that\\ these\\ individuals\\ \\experienced\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ negative\\ emotions\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ is\\ they\\ \\recovered\\ quicker\\ because\\ of\\ different\\ cognitive\\ interpretation\\<\\/strong\\>s\\ \\(they\\ are\\ optimists\\,\\ not\\ pessimists\\)\\.\\ Their\\ beliefs\\ were\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\ which\\ created\\ upward\\ spirals\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ next\\ topic\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ is\\\\ Focus\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Ed\\ Diener\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ appears\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ people\\ perceive\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ happiness\\ than\\ objective\\ circumstances\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\\\ emotions\\ are\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ external\\ \\and\\<\\/em\\>\\ the\\ internal\\;\\ our\\ focus\\ is\\ our\\ choice\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ And\\ from\\ our\\ good\\ man\\ Ralph\\ Waldo\\ Emerson\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;to\\ the\\ different\\ minds\\,\\ the\\ same\\ world\\ is\\ a\\ hell\\ and\\ a\\ heaven\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ William\\ Shakespeare\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;nothing\\ is\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ but\\ thinking\\ makes\\ it\\ so\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Howe\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ reads\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ the\\ book\\ \\Way\\ of\\ the\\ Peaceful\\ Warrior\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ this\\ point\\.\\ \\ The\\ moral\\ of\\ the\\ story\\:\\ \\if\\ we\\ understand\\ that\\ we\\ often\\ create\\ our\\ own\\ reality\\,\\ we\\ can\\ change\\ our\\ focus\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ archetypes\\<\\/strong\\>\\ that\\ capture\\ how\\ to\\ cognitively\\ reconstruct\\ reality\\ are\\ \\the\\ fault\\ finder\\ and\\ the\\ benefit\\-finder\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ The\\ \\fault\\ finder\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ the\\ constant\\ complainer\\ whose\\ thoughts\\ \\could\\ lead\\ to\\ resignation\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ As\\ Thoreau\\:\\ says\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ fault\\-finder\\ will\\ find\\ faults\\ even\\ in\\ paradise\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ The\\ \\benefit\\-finder\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ one\\ who\\ makes\\ lemonade\\ when\\ life\\ hands\\ them\\ lemons\\,\\ but\\ this\\ mentality\\ \\could\\ lead\\ to\\ detachment\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Emerson\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ invariable\\ mark\\ of\\ wisdom\\ is\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ miraculous\\ in\\ the\\ common\\.\\ We\\ exist\\ on\\ a\\ continuum\\ and\\ Tal\\ urges\\ to\\ move\\ closer\\ to\\ benefit\\-finder\\,\\ as\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ benefits\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Thus\\,\\ we\\ \\co\\-create\\ our\\ reality\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Here\\ Tal\\ cites\\ his\\ favorite\\ poem\\,\\ by\\ R\\.L\\.\\ Sharp\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ it\\ strange\\,that\\ princes\\ and\\ kings\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ And\\ clowns\\,\\ that\\ caper\\ in\\ sawdust\\ rings\\<\\/p\\>\\And\\ ordinary\\ folk\\,\\ like\\ you\\ and\\ me\\<\\/p\\>\\Are\\ builders\\,\\ of\\ eternity\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ each\\ is\\ given\\ a\\ bag\\ of\\ tools\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ shapeless\\ mass\\,\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ rules\\<\\/p\\>\\And\\ each\\ must\\ make\\,\\ ere\\ life\\ has\\ flown\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ stumbling\\ block\\,\\ or\\ stepping\\ stone\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ get\\ a\\ large\\ piece\\ of\\ stone\\-\\ will\\ we\\ create\\ a\\ beautiful\\ David\\ or\\ a\\ barrier\\ to\\ our\\ success\\?\\ The\\ stone\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ presence\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ responsible\\ for\\,\\ but\\ what\\ we\\ do\\ with\\ it\\ we\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\.\\ \\Everything\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ interpretation\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>According\\ to\\ Anne\\ Harbison\\,\\ one\\ should\\ \\&\\#8220\\;never\\ let\\ a\\ good\\ crisis\\ go\\ to\\ waste\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ applies\\ to\\ all\\ aspect\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\,\\ both\\ personal\\ and\\ interpersonal\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Create Your Own Reality"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.996530+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "A Question of Interpretation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 352, "html": "\\\\Tal\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\benefit\\ finders\\ and\\ fault\\ finders\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\Benefit\\ finder\\ \\<\\/strong\\>know\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ things\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ may\\ take\\ a\\ while\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;that\\ too\\ shall\\ pass\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ their\\ motto\\)\\.\\ They\\ give\\ themselves\\ permission\\ to\\ be\\ human\\ and\\ understand\\ that\\ negatove\\ feelings\\ are\\ temporary\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ benefits\\ to\\ being\\ a\\ benefit\\ finder\\ \\(no\\ pun\\ intended\\)\\.\\ First\\ off\\,\\ you\\ feel\\ better\\ and\\ your\\ \\well\\-being\\ is\\ higher\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Susan\\ Thompson\\ interviewed\\ \\\\California\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ residents\\ after\\ fires\\ burned\\ down\\ their\\ homes\\;\\ she\\ identified\\ the\\ benefit\\-finders\\ and\\ followed\\ up\\ with\\ them\\ only\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ happier\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ and\\ were\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ negative\\ symptoms\\ physically\\ and\\ mentally\\.\\ \\Glen\\ Affleck\\<\\/a\\>\\ studied\\ the\\ \\health\\ benefits\\ of\\ benefit\\-finding\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>He\\ studied\\ individuals\\ who\\ had\\ heart\\ attacks\\ and\\ identified\\ those\\ who\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ wake\\-up\\ call\\.\\ These\\ people\\ changed\\ their\\ lifestyle\\,\\ reducing\\ their\\ chances\\ of\\ second\\ heart\\ attack\\.\\\\ Julian\\ Bower\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>identified\\ benefit\\-finders\\ among\\ AIDS\\ patients\\;\\ this\\ group\\ was\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ alive\\ 4\\-9\\ years\\ later\\.\\ \\King\\ and\\ Miner\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>used\\ interventions\\ by\\ asking\\ some\\ cancer\\ patients\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ perceived\\ benefits\\ and\\ others\\ about\\ the\\ down\\-sides\\ of\\ their\\ disease\\.\\ The\\ people\\ who\\ wrote\\ about\\ benefits\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ Benefit\\-finding\\ and\\ optimism\\ also\\ \\affect\\ longevity\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ \\nun\\ study\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>conducted\\ by\\ \\Danner\\ et\\ al\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ asked\\ nuns\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ their\\ experiences\\ after\\ they\\ completed\\ their\\ nun\\ training\\ in\\ their\\ 20s\\.\\ They\\ found\\ no\\ correlation\\ between\\ IQ\\,\\ geographic\\ location\\ or\\ levels\\ of\\ beliefs\\ with\\ longevity\\;\\ \\the\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ predicted\\ longevity\\ was\\ positive\\ feeling\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>The\\ researchers\\ divided\\ the\\ nuns\\ into\\ four\\ quartiles\\ of\\ positive\\ feelings\\.\\ They\\ found\\,\\ with\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ statistical\\ significance\\,\\ that\\ at\\ age\\ of\\ 85\\,\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ cheerful\\ quartile\\ was\\ alive\\ and\\ 34\\%\\ of\\ the\\ least\\ cheerful\\ quartile\\ was\\ alive\\.\\ At\\ age\\ 94\\,\\ 54\\%\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ cheerful\\ quartile\\ was\\ alive\\ and\\ 11\\%\\ of\\ the\\ least\\ cheerful\\ quartile\\ was\\ alive\\.\\\r\\\\Because\\ the\\ media\\ portrays\\ largely\\ negative\\ events\\,\\ optimists\\ are\\ sometimes\\ perceived\\ to\\ be\\ detached\\ from\\ reality\\.\\ Tal\\ pulls\\ up\\ CNN\\ and\\ Reuters\\ headlines\\ from\\ last\\ week\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ how\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ news\\ stories\\ are\\ negative\\.\\ Ellen\\ DeGeneres\\,\\ one\\ of\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;favorite\\ psychologists\\&\\#8221\\;\\ comments\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\The\\ media\\ bias\\ is\\ towards\\ the\\ negative\\,\\ it\\ acts\\ as\\ a\\ magnifying\\ glass\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ looking\\ glass\\.\\ It\\ accentuates\\ the\\ negative\\ and\\ under\\-represents\\ the\\ positive\\,\\ often\\ making\\ us\\ pessimistic\\.\\ The\\ media\\ highlights\\ frauds\\ \\(Martha\\ Stewart\\,\\ Enron\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ ignores\\ the\\ millions\\ of\\ honest\\ transactions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ key\\ is\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ \\90\\%\\ full\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ glass\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ \\focus\\ creates\\ reality\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ This\\ negative\\ media\\ focus\\ makes\\ it\\ seem\\ that\\ to\\ succeed\\ in\\ politics\\ and\\ business\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ dishonest\\.\\ This\\ becomes\\ a\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\ because\\ it\\ turns\\ away\\ honest\\ people\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ chatter\\ in\\ our\\ minds\\ is\\ negative\\ because\\ neural\\ pathways\\ have\\ been\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ media\\,\\ among\\ other\\ things\\.\\ People\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ thing\\ Ghandi\\ did\\ for\\ \\\\India\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ was\\ make\\ it\\ proud\\ of\\ itself\\.\\ Are\\ we\\ proud\\ to\\ be\\ Americans\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\[Also\\ see\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ unpublished\\ article\\ about\\ accepting\\ our\\ leaders\\ for\\ who\\ they\\ are\\ and\\ controlling\\ our\\ urge\\ to\\ say\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Yes\\,\\ but\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\]\\<\\/p\\>Next\\ Tal\\ moves\\ to\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ \\appreciation\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Appreciation\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ 1\\-\\ valuing\\,\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ recognizing\\ the\\ best\\ in\\ people\\;\\ 2\\-\\ increasing\\ in\\ value\\.\\ \\When\\ we\\ appreciate\\ the\\ good\\,\\ it\\ increases\\ in\\ value\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Unfortunately\\,\\ the\\ opposite\\ is\\ also\\ true\\.\\ \\(As\\ in\\ the\\ example\\ cited\\ in\\ previous\\ lectures\\,\\ many\\ relationships\\ fail\\ after\\ the\\ honeymoon\\ phase\\ because\\ of\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\ aspects\\.\\)\\ \\Appreciation\\ creates\\ a\\ growth\\ spiral\\,\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ genuine\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>According\\ to\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Oprah\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ you\\ focus\\ on\\ expands\\,\\ and\\ when\\ you\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ goodness\\ in\\ your\\ life\\,\\ you\\ create\\ more\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Opportunities\\,\\ relationship\\,\\ even\\ money\\ flowed\\ my\\ way\\ when\\ I\\ learned\\ to\\ be\\ grateful\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ happened\\ in\\ my\\ life\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\\How\\ can\\ we\\ correct\\ the\\ false\\ schema\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>you\\ may\\ ask\\.\\ On\\ the\\ \\societal\\ level\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ we\\ can\\ \\create\\ good\\ news\\ \\<\\/strong\\>about\\ technological\\ innovation\\,\\ peace\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ \\Good\\ News\\ Network\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ \\Gimundo\\ \\<\\/a\\>are\\ online\\ publication\\ that\\ focus\\ on\\ positive\\ news\\.\\ Why\\ not\\ start\\ your\\ day\\ with\\ these\\ publications\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ Wall\\ Street\\ Journal\\?\\ \\Art\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ another\\ way\\.\\ Artists\\,\\ writers\\ and\\ musicians\\ focus\\ on\\ light\\,\\ heroism\\ and\\ human\\ potential\\.\\ \\Studies\\ which\\ focus\\ on\\ what\\ works\\ and\\ the\\ extra\\-ordinary\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(like\\ positive\\ psychology\\ does\\,\\ coincidently\\)\\ can\\ also\\ change\\ the\\ schema\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Aside\\ from\\ the\\ media\\,\\ \\adaptation\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ another\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>reason\\ we\\ often\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\.\\ Humans\\ in\\ some\\ ways\\ like\\ \\change\\ detectors\\<\\/strong\\>\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\protect\\ ourselves\\ form\\ danger\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\and\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ overcome\\ difficulties\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ coin\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ take\\ positive\\ things\\ for\\ granted\\.\\\\ Is\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ do\\ both\\-\\ adapt\\ to\\ the\\ negative\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ positives\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Or\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;eating\\ the\\ cake\\ and\\ leaving\\ it\\ whole\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ Tal\\ calls\\ it\\.\\ Tal\\ tells\\ a\\ well\\-known\\ Jewish\\ tale\\ about\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ lives\\ in\\ shtetl\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ home\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ family\\ who\\ is\\ driving\\ each\\ other\\ nuts\\.\\ When\\ he\\ asks\\ his\\ rabbi\\ for\\ advice\\,\\ the\\ man\\ tells\\ him\\ to\\ bring\\ a\\ chicken\\,\\ then\\ a\\ cow\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ horse\\ into\\ his\\ home\\.\\ These\\ animals\\ make\\ the\\ cramped\\ space\\ even\\ worse\\,\\ however\\ after\\ he\\ takes\\ them\\ out\\,\\ everything\\ seems\\ much\\ better\\.\\ The\\ question\\ is\\ \\must\\ something\\ external\\ and\\ extraordinary\\ happen\\ before\\ we\\ learn\\ to\\ appreciate\\ the\\ ordinary\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Not\\ if\\ we\\ cultivate\\ \\the\\ habit\\ of\\ gratitude\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ Brother\\ David\\ Steindl\\-Rast\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ \\\\gratefulness\\,\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ prayer\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ his\\ \\website\\ \\<\\/a\\>to\\ learn\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ gratitude\\.\\ Brother\\ David\\ writes\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;why\\ not\\ start\\ by\\ surveying\\ a\\ typical\\ day\\?\\ What\\ is\\ it\\ you\\ tend\\ to\\ tackle\\ with\\ spontaneous\\ mindfulness\\,\\ so\\ that\\ without\\ an\\ effort\\ your\\ whole\\ heart\\ is\\ in\\ it\\?\\ Maybe\\ its\\ that\\ first\\ cup\\ of\\ coffee\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\,\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ warms\\ you\\ and\\ wakes\\ you\\ up\\,\\ or\\ taking\\ your\\ dog\\ for\\ a\\ walk\\,\\ or\\ giving\\ a\\ little\\ child\\ a\\ piggyback\\ ride\\&\\#8230\\;\\[It\\ is\\]\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ practice\\,\\ of\\ doing\\ it\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\,\\ till\\ it\\ becomes\\ second\\ nature\\&\\#8230\\;\\.Gratefulness\\ is\\ the\\ measure\\ of\\ our\\ aliveness\\.\\ Are\\ we\\ not\\ dead\\ to\\ whatever\\ we\\ take\\ for\\ granted\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ then\\ turn\\ to\\ \\research\\ on\\ gratitude\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Emmons\\ and\\ McCullough\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>split\\ participants\\ into\\ four\\ groups\\,\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ keep\\ a\\ journal\\ every\\ night\\ about\\ 1\\-gratitude\\,\\ 2\\-hassles\\,\\ 3\\-superior\\ or\\ 4\\-control\\.\\ Six\\ months\\ later\\,\\ their\\ success\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ benevolence\\ and\\ health\\ were\\ measure\\;\\ the\\ hassles\\ were\\ the\\ worst\\ off\\ and\\ the\\ gratitude\\ was\\ the\\ best\\.\\ Also\\ see\\ Emmons\\&\\#8217\\;\\ book\\ \\\\happy\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Physiological\\ benefits\\ were\\ also\\ found\\ by\\ \\McCraty\\ and\\ Childre\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ There\\ are\\ benefits\\ of\\ \\trait\\ gratefulness\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Tal\\ has\\ been\\ writing\\ in\\ a\\ \\gratitude\\ journal\\<\\/strong\\>\\ every\\ night\\ since\\ 1999\\ when\\ Oprah\\ \\&\\#8220\\;told\\ him\\ to\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ shares\\ his\\ entry\\ from\\ last\\ night\\:\\ G\\-d\\,\\ family\\,\\ wife\\ Tammy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ pea\\ soup\\,\\ office\\ hours\\,\\ yoga\\,\\ beep\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;we\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ some\\ censure\\ in\\ this\\ class\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ This\\ exercise\\ is\\ most\\ effective\\ if\\ done\\ every\\ day\\,\\ as\\ it\\ becomes\\ habit\\,\\ according\\ to\\ research\\ done\\ by\\ \\\\\\Sonja\\ Lyubomirsky\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ order\\ to\\\\ maintain\\ freshness\\ \\<\\/strong\\>use\\ \\variety\\,\\ mindfulness\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(pay\\ attention\\ to\\ things\\ in\\ your\\ life\\ and\\ you\\ may\\ see\\ things\\ you\\ have\\ never\\ seen\\ before\\)\\ and\\ \\visualize\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>As\\ Kossyln\\ found\\,\\ children\\,\\ unlike\\ adults\\,\\ visualize\\ words\\.\\ Why\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ we\\ do\\ the\\ same\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ ends\\ lecture\\ on\\ a\\ more\\ somber\\ note\\,\\ talking\\ about\\ his\\ role\\ model\\ of\\ benefit\\ finding\\,\\ his\\ Romanian\\ grandmother\\.\\ When\\ Hitler\\ invaded\\ \\\\Romania\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ in\\ 1940\\,\\ she\\ was\\ taken\\ to\\ Aushwitz\\ with\\ her\\ family\\.\\ Her\\ brothers\\ and\\ parents\\ were\\ murdered\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ her\\ eyes\\.\\ She\\ and\\ her\\ sister\\ survived\\.\\ The\\ British\\ who\\ liberated\\ the\\ camp\\ almost\\ left\\ her\\ in\\ the\\ camp\\ to\\ die\\ as\\ she\\ weighed\\ a\\ mere\\ 54\\ lbs\\.\\ His\\ grandmother\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ live\\ a\\ long\\ and\\ full\\ life\\,\\ despite\\ many\\ other\\ hardships\\ that\\ ensued\\-\\ an\\ arrest\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ refuge\\ in\\ \\\\Israel\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ and\\ three\\ stillbirths\\.\\ She\\ always\\ reminded\\ Tal\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;beautiful\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Amen\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "A Question of Interpretation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.011971+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Gratitude and Change", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 353, "html": "\\\\Tal\\ continues\\ the\\ discussion\\ on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Gratitude\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\.\\ \\Why\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ more\\ people\\ benefit\\-finders\\ given\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ benefits\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>According\\ to\\ William\\ James\\ it\\ takes\\ 21\\ days\\ to\\ change\\ a\\ habit\\.\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ chipping\\ away\\ negativity\\ and\\ co\\-creating\\ your\\ reality\\ with\\ the\\ right\\ questions\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\According\\ to\\ research\\ done\\ by\\ \\Marty\\ Seligman\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\\\expressing\\ gratitude\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ is\\ also\\ important\\.\\ You\\ must\\ take\\ time\\ to\\ reflect\\ and\\ tell\\ people\\ by\\ phone\\,\\ letter\\ or\\ in\\-person\\ why\\ you\\ are\\ grateful\\ for\\ them\\.\\ This\\ intervention\\ creates\\ the\\ \\largest\\ boost\\ to\\ your\\ well\\-being\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ a\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>win\\-win\\ situation\\!\\ This\\ must\\ be\\ done\\ regularly\\ \\(weekly\\,\\ bi\\-weekly\\ or\\ monthly\\)\\,\\ because\\ the\\ spike\\ to\\ your\\ well\\-being\\ goes\\ away\\ in\\ about\\ a\\ month\\ after\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ acts\\.\\ Lyubomirsky\\ also\\ found\\ that\\ well\\-being\\ improves\\ even\\ if\\ a\\ letter\\ is\\ written\\ and\\ not\\ sent\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lyubomirsky\\ et\\.\\ al\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>asked\\ study\\ participants\\ to\\ share\\ their\\ best\\ and\\ worst\\ experiences\\.\\ They\\ were\\ divided\\ into\\ four\\ groups\\-\\ one\\ group\\ wrote\\ about\\ their\\ experiences\\,\\ one\\ talked\\ about\\ them\\ and\\ one\\ thought\\ about\\ them\\ \\(and\\ a\\ fourth\\ was\\ the\\ control\\)\\,\\ all\\ on\\ 3\\ consecutive\\ days\\ for\\ 15\\ minutes\\.\\ The\\ researchers\\ measured\\ their\\ mental\\ and\\ physical\\ well\\-bring\\ before\\ the\\ study\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ four\\ weeks\\ after\\ and\\ found\\ the\\ following\\ results\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ thus\\ found\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ analyzing\\ and\\ replaying\\.\\ Analyzing\\ negative\\ experiences\\ \\(such\\ as\\ in\\ therapy\\)\\ is\\ productive\\,\\ while\\ ruminating\\ creates\\ a\\ downward\\ spiral\\.\\ However\\,\\ when\\ we\\ analyze\\ positive\\ experiences\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ help\\ \\(perhaps\\ this\\ detracts\\ from\\ their\\ spontaneity\\)\\,\\ but\\ ruminating\\ does\\ help\\.\\ The\\ gratitude\\ exercise\\ is\\ about\\ replaying\\ the\\ experience\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ tangible\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ veterans\\ experienced\\ PTSD\\ while\\ Holocaust\\ survivors\\ experience\\ Post\\ Traumatic\\ Stress\\ Disorder\\ at\\ far\\ lesser\\ rates\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ popular\\ war\\ so\\ the\\ veterans\\ were\\ unable\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\ openly\\ when\\ they\\ returned\\ home\\;\\ instead\\ they\\ just\\ ruminated\\ and\\ replayed\\ their\\ experiences\\ in\\ their\\ mind\\.\\ After\\ the\\ Holocaust\\,\\ however\\,\\ people\\ talked\\ about\\ their\\ experiences\\ constantly\\.\\ \\This\\ shows\\ how\\ important\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ support\\ group\\ of\\ friends\\,\\ family\\,\\ a\\ journal\\ or\\ a\\ therapist\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ Tal\\ admitted\\ in\\ a\\ previous\\ lecture\\,\\ he\\ loves\\ quotes\\.\\ This\\ lecture\\ does\\ not\\ fall\\ short\\.\\ He\\ cites\\ Brother\\ David\\ Steindl\\-Rast\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ morality\\ of\\ gratitude\\-\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;given\\&\\#8217\\;\\ world\\,\\ what\\ brings\\ fulfillment\\ is\\ gratefulness\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ response\\ of\\ our\\ heart\\ to\\ this\\ given\\ life\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ fullness\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Also\\,\\ Galway\\ Kinnel\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;to\\ live\\ and\\ die\\ in\\ gratefulness\\,\\ if\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ other\\ virtue\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\\\Cicero\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;gratitude\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ greatest\\ virtue\\,\\ but\\ the\\ parent\\ of\\ all\\ others\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Last\\ but\\ not\\ least\\ he\\ cites\\ Helen\\ Keller\\,\\ who\\ graduated\\ \\cum\\ laude\\<\\/em\\>\\ from\\ \\\\Radcliffe\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\College\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ 1904\\ \\(who\\ knew\\!\\?\\)\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ wondered\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ possible\\ to\\ walk\\ for\\ an\\ hour\\ through\\ the\\ woods\\ and\\ see\\ nothing\\ of\\ note\\.\\ I\\ who\\ cannot\\ see\\ find\\ hundreds\\ of\\ things\\:\\ the\\ delicate\\ symmetry\\ of\\ a\\ leaf\\,\\ the\\ smooth\\ skin\\ of\\ a\\ silver\\ birch\\,\\ the\\ rough\\,\\ shaggy\\ bark\\ of\\ a\\ pine\\.\\ I\\ who\\ am\\ blind\\ can\\ give\\ one\\ hint\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ see\\:\\ use\\ your\\ eyes\\ as\\ if\\ tomorrow\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ been\\ stricken\\ blind\\.\\ Hear\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ voices\\,\\ the\\ songs\\ of\\ a\\ bird\\,\\ the\\ mighty\\ strains\\ of\\ an\\ orchestra\\ as\\ if\\ you\\ would\\ be\\ stricken\\ deaf\\ tomorrow\\.\\ Touch\\ each\\ object\\ as\\ if\\ tomorrow\\ your\\ tactile\\ sense\\ would\\ fail\\.\\ \\ Smell\\ the\\ perfume\\ of\\ flowers\\,\\ taste\\ with\\ relish\\ each\\ morsel\\,\\ as\\ if\\ tomorrow\\ you\\ could\\ never\\ taste\\ or\\ smell\\ again\\.\\ Make\\ the\\ most\\ of\\ every\\ sense\\.\\ Glory\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ facets\\ and\\ pleasures\\ and\\ beauty\\ which\\ the\\ world\\ reveals\\ to\\ you\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ next\\ topic\\ of\\ discussion\\ is\\ \\Change\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Tal\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ change\\.\\ \\Change\\ is\\ hard\\ \\<\\/strong\\>as\\ many\\ studies\\ have\\ demonstrated\\ \\(namely\\ the\\ twin\\ study\\ conducted\\ by\\ \\Lykken\\ \\&\\;\\ Tellegan\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\Daniel\\ Gilbert\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ on\\ affective\\ forecasting\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ \\Cambridge\\-Somerville\\ study\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ But\\ \\it\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\is\\ possible\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\ it\\ is\\ erroneous\\ to\\ look\\ just\\ at\\ the\\ average\\,\\ as\\ the\\ exception\\ can\\ prove\\ the\\ rule\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Until\\ 1998\\,\\ neuroscientists\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ was\\ fixed\\ by\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 3\\.\\ Eventually\\ they\\ realized\\ otherwise\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ \\neuroplasticity\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ coined\\ by\\ \\Richard\\ Davidson\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\ suggests\\ that\\ neurons\\ develop\\ and\\ grow\\ throughout\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ muscle\\,\\ if\\ you\\ use\\ it\\,\\ it\\ will\\ grow\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ consists\\ of\\ neural\\ pathways\\,\\ or\\ channels\\ which\\ are\\ like\\ a\\ river\\ with\\ tributaries\\.\\ Every\\ time\\ a\\ connection\\ is\\ made\\ between\\ neurons\\,\\ that\\ path\\ grows\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\ Neural\\ pathways\\ are\\ thus\\ self\\-reinforcing\\.\\ An\\ experience\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ gravitate\\ towards\\ already\\ existing\\ neural\\ pathways\\.\\ When\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ remember\\ something\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ make\\ connections\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\\\ habits\\ are\\ fortified\\ pathways\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ you\\ play\\ tennis\\ you\\ eventually\\ \\&\\#8220\\;groove\\&\\#8221\\;\\ pathways\\ and\\ it\\ becomes\\ automatic\\.\\ When\\ people\\ practice\\ a\\ sport\\ or\\ music\\ regularly\\,\\ their\\ brains\\ become\\ thicker\\ in\\ certain\\ areas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\{For\\ more\\ information\\ on\\ neuroscience\\,\\ see\\ \\this\\ blog\\ post\\ from\\ Steven\\ Pinker\\'s\\ course\\ The\\ Human\\ Mind\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ also\\ on\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\}\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ \\healthy\\ and\\ unhealthy\\ pathways\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>It\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ that\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ more\\ action\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ side\\ of\\ their\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\ are\\ happier\\.\\ Scientists\\ learned\\ this\\ because\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ accidents\\ and\\ damaged\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ of\\ their\\ brain\\ wound\\ up\\ happier\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ same\\ trigger\\ can\\ have\\ different\\ responses\\ in\\ different\\ people\\.\\ We\\ can\\ also\\ transform\\ our\\ own\\ brains\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ meditation\\ and\\ yoga\\ makes\\ one\\'s\\ brain\\ more\\ active\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ side\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ \\two\\ types\\ of\\ change\\:\\ gradual\\ and\\ acute\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>However\\,\\ neither\\ is\\ a\\ quick\\ fix\\;\\ the\\ acute\\ approach\\ take\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ mental\\ preparation\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ the\\ change\\ process\\ can\\ be\\ as\\ enjoyable\\ as\\ the\\ outcome\\.\\ Tal\\ quotes\\ Marty\\ Seligman\\ here\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ belief\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ rely\\ on\\ shortcuts\\ to\\ gratification\\ and\\ bypass\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ personal\\ strengths\\ and\\ virtues\\ is\\ folly\\.\\ \\ It\\ leads\\.\\.\\.\\ to\\ legions\\ of\\ humanity\\ who\\ are\\ depressed\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ great\\ wealth\\ and\\ are\\ starving\\ to\\ death\\ spiritually\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ ends\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ \\fallacy\\ of\\ a\\ quick\\ fix\\-solution\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ He\\ notes\\ that\\ until\\ 1930\\,\\ the\\ self\\-help\\ movement\\ was\\ about\\ character\\ change\\ and\\ going\\ through\\ hardship\\.\\ Since\\ then\\ it\\ became\\ about\\ quick\\ fixes\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ consequently\\ send\\ a\\ decline\\ in\\ well\\-being\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ 7\\ Habits\\ of\\ Highly\\ Effective\\ People\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\\by\\ Stephen\\ \\<\\/span\\>Covey\\ is\\ on\\ of\\ the\\ \\best\\ self\\-\\ help\\ books\\ as\\ it\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ change\\ is\\ time\\ consuming\\.\\ Are\\ you\\ saying\\ you\\ recommend\\ a\\ self\\-help\\ book\\,\\ Tal\\?\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Gratitude and Change"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.025941+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The ABC's of Change", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 354, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Tal\\ begins\\ lecture\\ by\\ posing\\ the\\ difficult\\ question\\:\\\\ do\\ you\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ change\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Langer\\ and\\ Thompson\\ \\(1989\\)\\ brought\\ in\\ participants\\ and\\ asked\\ them\\ whether\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ rid\\ of\\ certain\\ negative\\ characteristics\\ like\\ rigidity\\,\\ gullibility\\ and\\ grimness\\.\\ They\\ also\\ asked\\ them\\ how\\ important\\ is\\ it\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ consistent\\,\\ trustworthy\\ and\\ serious\\?\\ The\\ researchers\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ participants\\ were\\ much\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ change\\ if\\ they\\ associated\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ characteristics\\ together\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ list\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\If\\ the\\ participant\\ focused\\ on\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ rigidity\\ and\\ increasing\\ consistency\\ they\\ were\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ rigidity\\ due\\ to\\ this\\ association\\ and\\ not\\ wanting\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ consistency\\;\\ the\\ same\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ pairs\\.\\ It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ keep\\ one\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\We\\ must\\ find\\ a\\ more\\ nuanced\\ understanding\\ of\\ what\\ change\\ is\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ section\\ will\\ do\\ a\\ \\sentence\\ completion\\ exercise\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>devised\\ by\\ \\Nathanial\\ Branden\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ to\\ identify\\ what\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\.\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ ABC\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ of\\ psychology\\:\\ Affect\\,\\ Behavior\\ and\\ Cognition\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>We\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ gradual\\ and\\ acute\\ changes\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ categories\\;\\ these\\ six\\ approaches\\ to\\ change\\ are\\ interconnected\\ and\\ we\\ \\need\\ all\\ three\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>In\\ order\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ lasting\\ change\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ use\\ force\\ in\\ our\\ intervention\\ and\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ our\\ changes\\ become\\ habit\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Happiness\\ is\\ comprised\\ of\\ a\\ genetic\\ set\\ range\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(which\\ determines\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ happiness\\)\\,\\\\ external\\ circumstances\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(which\\ matter\\ 10\\%\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\intentional\\ activities\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(which\\ matters40\\%\\)\\ as\\ \\Lyubomirsky\\ et\\.\\ al\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\ found\\.\\ The\\ intentional\\ activities\\ component\\ is\\ what\\ Psychology\\ 1504\\ is\\ all\\ about\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Now\\ we\\ focus\\ on\\\\ affect\\ which\\ is\\ synonymous\\ with\\ emotion\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Gradual\\ change\\ in\\ this\\ area\\ is\\\\ mindfulness\\ meditation\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>As\\ Jon\\ Kabatt\\-Zin\\ said\\ \\&\\#8220\\;cultivating\\ mindfulness\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ deep\\ realms\\ of\\ relaxation\\,\\ calmness\\,\\ and\\ insight\\ within\\ yourself\\&\\#8230\\;The\\ path\\ to\\ it\\ in\\ any\\ moment\\ lies\\ no\\ farther\\ than\\ your\\ own\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\ your\\ own\\ breathing\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;All\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ be\\ mindful\\.\\ All\\ it\\ involves\\ is\\ cultivating\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ moment\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ And\\ according\\ to\\ Tara\\ Bennett\\-Goleman\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;mindfulness\\ means\\ seeing\\ things\\ as\\ they\\ are\\,\\ without\\ trying\\ to\\ change\\ them\\.\\ The\\ point\\ is\\ to\\ dissolve\\ our\\ reactions\\ to\\ disturbing\\ emotions\\,\\ being\\ careful\\ not\\ to\\ reject\\ the\\ emotions\\ itself\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Acute\\ emotional\\ change\\<\\/strong\\>\\ can\\ take\\ some\\ lessons\\ from\\ \\Post\\ Traumatic\\ Stress\\ Disorder\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(PTSD\\)\\ which\\ is\\ widely\\ studied\\.\\ PTSD\\ is\\ a\\ negative\\ shock\\ treatment\\ which\\ creates\\ new\\ pathways\\ that\\ can\\ affect\\ us\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ Research\\ on\\ Post\\ Traumatic\\ Growth\\ done\\ by\\ \\Tedeschi\\ and\\ Calhoun\\<\\/a\\>\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ very\\ resilient\\ and\\ gain\\ much\\ that\\ is\\ positive\\ from\\ trauma\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ seek\\ positive\\ growth\\ and\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ feel\\ guilty\\ about\\ it\\.\\ Is\\ there\\ an\\ emotional\\ equivalent\\ to\\ trauma\\?\\ Can\\ a\\ single\\ experience\\ create\\ a\\ positive\\ channel\\ that\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ permanent\\ increase\\ in\\ well\\-being\\,\\ calm\\ and\\ positive\\ memories\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\Maslow\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\ focuses\\ on\\ \\acute\\ change\\ through\\ peak\\ experience\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ In\\ Maslow\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ words\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;this\\ is\\ more\\ hypothesis\\ than\\ well\\-grounded\\ research\\.\\ The\\ term\\ peak\\ experience\\ is\\ a\\ generalization\\ for\\ the\\ best\\ moments\\ for\\ the\\ human\\ being\\,\\ for\\ the\\ happiest\\ moments\\ in\\ life\\,\\ for\\ experiences\\ of\\ ecstasy\\,\\ rapture\\,\\ bliss\\,\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ joy\\.\\ I\\ found\\ that\\ such\\ experiences\\ came\\ from\\ profound\\ aesthetic\\ experiences\\ such\\ as\\ creative\\ ecstasies\\,\\ momnts\\ of\\ mature\\ love\\,\\ perfect\\ sexual\\ experiences\\,\\ parental\\ love\\,\\ experiences\\ of\\ natural\\ childbirth\\,\\ and\\ many\\ others\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Post\\-peak\\ experiences\\ order\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(PPEO\\)\\,\\ as\\ Tal\\ calls\\ it\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ \\peak\\ experiences\\ can\\ change\\ brain\\ order\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Maslow\\ explains\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;peak\\ experiences\\ often\\ have\\ consequences\\.\\.\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ can\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ there\\ as\\ psychotherapy\\,\\ if\\ one\\ keeps\\ his\\ goals\\ right\\,\\ and\\ if\\ one\\ knows\\ just\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ about\\,\\ and\\ if\\ one\\ is\\ conscious\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ going\\ toward\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ can\\ certainly\\ talk\\,\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ of\\ the\\ breaking\\ up\\ of\\ symptoms\\,\\ like\\ the\\ breaking\\ up\\ of\\ cliches\\,\\ of\\ anxieties\\,\\ or\\ the\\ like\\;\\ or\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ we\\ can\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ spontaneity\\,\\ and\\ of\\ courage\\,\\ and\\ of\\ Olympian\\ or\\ Godlike\\ humor\\ and\\ suchness\\,\\ sensory\\ awareness\\,\\ body\\ awareness\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Now\\ we\\ must\\ answer\\ two\\ important\\ questions\\:\\ \\how\\ can\\ we\\ have\\ more\\ peak\\ experiences\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\how\\ can\\ we\\ enhance\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\PPEO\\<\\/strong\\>\\ afterwards\\?\\ Some\\ ways\\ to\\ answer\\ the\\ first\\ question\\ \\(increasing\\ peak\\ experiences\\)\\ are\\:\\ 1\\-\\ \\acceptance\\ of\\ painful\\ emotions\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(permission\\ to\\ be\\ human\\)\\,\\ 2\\-\\ \\mindfulness\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ 3\\-\\ \\music\\ and\\ dance\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>4\\-\\\\ having\\ meaningful\\ goals\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>5\\-\\\\ taking\\ time\\ \\<\\/strong\\>to\\ do\\ things\\ for\\ ourselves\\\\.\\ And\\ to\\ enhance\\ PPEO\\ \\<\\/strong\\>we\\ can\\\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>1\\-\\\\ replay\\ and\\ imagine\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>2\\-\\ \\keep\\ a\\ journal\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(where\\ you\\ describe\\,\\ not\\ analyze\\,\\ positive\\ peak\\ experiences\\)\\,\\ 3\\-\\ \\take\\ time\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ 4\\-\\\\ take\\ action\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Behavior\\:\\ Taking\\ Action\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Most\\ people\\ return\\ to\\ their\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ after\\ experiencing\\ a\\ temporary\\ high\\,\\ while\\ others\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ base\\ level\\ afterwards\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ happier\\ group\\ introduces\\ immediate\\ behavioral\\ change\\ after\\ learning\\ about\\ interventions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Permanent\\ change\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ following\\ mechanism\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attitude\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8593\\;\\&\\#8595\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Behavior\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ change\\ our\\ behavior\\ by\\ changing\\ our\\ habits\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Attitude\\ and\\ behavior\\ must\\ match\\ however\\.\\ Classes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ one\\,\\ can\\ introduce\\ attitudinal\\ change\\,\\ but\\ you\\ must\\ change\\ your\\ own\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ then\\ discusses\\ research\\ on\\\\ changing\\ attitude\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Schein\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/a\\>asked\\ prisoners\\ of\\ war\\ in\\ \\\\Korea\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ to\\ write\\ home\\ about\\ the\\ positive\\ ways\\ they\\ were\\ treated\\.\\ This\\ made\\ them\\ feel\\ more\\ positively\\ towards\\ their\\ captors\\.\\ \\Festinger\\ \\<\\/a\\>writes\\ about\\ \\cognitive\\ dissonance\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ uncomfortable\\ feeling\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ holding\\ two\\ conflicting\\ thoughts\\ simultaneously\\.\\ \\Bem\\ \\<\\/a\\>studied\\ s\\elf\\-perception\\ theory\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ we\\ judge\\ others\\ much\\ like\\ we\\ judge\\ ourselves\\.\\ \\Ekman\\ \\<\\/a\\>studied\\ the\\ \\facial\\ feedback\\ hypothesis\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ our\\ bodies\\ release\\ chemicals\\ which\\ match\\ our\\ facial\\ expressions\\.\\ Building\\ o\\ this\\,\\ \\body\\ feedback\\ hypothesis\\ \\<\\/strong\\>suggests\\ that\\ how\\ you\\ present\\ your\\ body\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\.\\ \\Myers\\ \\<\\/a\\>coined\\ another\\ strategy\\:\\\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fake\\ it\\ till\\ you\\ make\\ it\\&\\#8221\\;\\,\\<\\/strong\\>that\\ is\\,\\ role\\-play\\ acting\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ until\\ you\\ actually\\ learn\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ about\\ permission\\ to\\ be\\ human\\,\\ you\\ may\\ ask\\.\\ The\\ best\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ actively\\ acceptance\\ painful\\ emotions\\ but\\ still\\ choose\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ deem\\ to\\ be\\ most\\ helpful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ discussion\\ on\\\\ coping\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Coping\\ is\\ about\\ is\\ about\\ exiting\\ your\\ comfort\\ zone\\ and\\ entering\\ your\\ stretch\\ zone\\.\\ We\\ must\\ attain\\ \\optimum\\ levels\\ of\\ discomfort\\<\\/strong\\>\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ other\\ ways\\ to\\ change\\.\\ \\(See\\ \\Bednar\\ and\\ Peterson\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ on\\ this\\ topic\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "The ABC's of Change"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.040113+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Change and Goals", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 355, "html": "\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Tal\\ begins\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ discussing\\ research\\ on\\\\ overcoming\\ shyness\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Haemmerlie\\ \\&\\;\\ Montgomery\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>recruited\\ shy\\,\\ heterosexual\\ men\\ for\\ the\\ study\\ which\\ was\\ supposedly\\ about\\ taking\\ a\\ test\\.\\ When\\ they\\ arrived\\ at\\ the\\ test\\ site\\,\\ the\\ participants\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ wait\\ because\\ the\\ study\\ was\\ running\\ late\\.\\ In\\ the\\ waiting\\ room\\ was\\ a\\ female\\ \\&\\#8220\\;confederate\\&\\#8221\\;\\ who\\ was\\ instructed\\ to\\ strike\\ up\\ conversation\\ with\\ the\\ man\\ and\\ express\\ interest\\ and\\ excitement\\ in\\ them\\ for\\ 12\\ minutes\\.\\ The\\ woman\\ then\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ experiment\\ room\\ and\\ 5\\ other\\ women\\ speak\\ with\\ the\\ participant\\ for\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ 72\\ minutes\\ of\\ conversation\\ before\\ they\\ enter\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;real\\ experiment\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ next\\ day\\ the\\ participants\\ are\\ invited\\ for\\ same\\ experiment\\.\\ The\\ researchers\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ participants\\ became\\ less\\ shy\\,\\ especially\\ around\\ women\\ immediately\\ after\\ the\\ experiment\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ six\\ months\\ later\\ when\\ they\\ debriefed\\ by\\ the\\ researchers\\.\\ Moral\\ of\\ the\\ story\\:\\ \\success\\ breeds\\ success\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\According\\ to\\ Chapters\\ of\\ the\\ Fathers\\,\\ a\\ famous\\ Jewish\\ text\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;those\\ whose\\ deeds\\ exceed\\ their\\ wisdom\\,\\ their\\ wisdom\\ shall\\ endure\\;\\ but\\ those\\ whose\\ wisdom\\ exceeds\\ their\\ deeds\\,\\ their\\ wisdom\\ shall\\ not\\ endure\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ then\\ discusses\\\\ Dan\\ Millman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Advice\\ on\\ Change\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ As\\ we\\ discussed\\ in\\ earlier\\ lectures\\,\\ Dan\\ Millman\\ is\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ \\Way\\ of\\ the\\ Peaceful\\ Warrior\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ suggests\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ your\\ life\\,\\ chose\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ basic\\ methods\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#8220\\;1\\-\\ You\\ can\\ direct\\ your\\ energy\\ and\\ attention\\ toward\\ trying\\ to\\ fix\\ your\\ mind\\,\\ find\\ your\\ focus\\,\\ affirm\\ your\\ power\\,\\ free\\ your\\ emotions\\ and\\ visualize\\ positive\\ outcomes\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ finally\\ develop\\ the\\ confidence\\ to\\ display\\ the\\ courage\\ to\\ discover\\ the\\ determination\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ commitment\\ to\\ feel\\ sufficiently\\ motivated\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ Or\\ you\\ can\\ just\\ do\\ it\\.\\\"\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\When\\ approaching\\ change\\ one\\ must\\ attain\\ \\optimum\\ level\\ of\\ discomfort\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ \\take\\ actions\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ change\\ \\<\\/strong\\>here\\ are\\ some\\ suggestions\\:\\ increase\\ confidence\\ by\\ taking\\ risks\\,\\ reduce\\ stress\\ by\\ simplifying\\,\\ become\\ more\\ positive\\ by\\ practicing\\ gratefulness\\ and\\ imagine\\ \\(expose\\ yourself\\ through\\ visualization\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ Jim\\ Loehr\\ and\\ Tony\\ Schwartz\\,\\ reported\\ in\\ their\\ book\\ \\The\\ Power\\ of\\ Full\\ Engagement\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ by\\ on\\ an\\ experiment\\ in\\ which\\ participants\\ were\\ invited\\ to\\ the\\ waiting\\ room\\ where\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>there\\ was\\ a\\ plate\\ of\\ freshly\\-baked\\ chocolate\\ chip\\ cookies\\.\\ The\\ participants\\ were\\ told\\ that\\ the\\ cookies\\ are\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ experiment\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ touch\\ them\\.\\ After\\ waiting\\ beside\\ the\\ cookies\\,\\ the\\ participants\\ were\\ brought\\ in\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ near\\ impossible\\ test\\.\\ Next\\ they\\ replaced\\ the\\ cookies\\ with\\ red\\ beet\\ roots\\ and\\ told\\ the\\ participants\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\ The\\ beet\\ roots\\ group\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ persevere\\ more\\ during\\ the\\ difficult\\ exam\\.\\ So\\,\\ it\\ would\\ appear\\ that\\ the\\ chocolate\\ chip\\ group\\ needed\\ to\\ use\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ their\\ self\\-discipline\\ not\\ to\\ touch\\ the\\ cookies\\&\\#160\\;\\ and\\ had\\ little\\ left\\ for\\ the\\ exam\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ Loher\\ and\\ Schwartz\\ state\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\building\\ rituals\\ requires\\ defining\\ very\\ precise\\ behaviors\\ and\\ performing\\ them\\ at\\ very\\ specific\\ times\\-\\ motivated\\ by\\ deeply\\ held\\ values\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Tal\\ quells\\ our\\ fears\\ that\\ this\\ will\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ our\\ creativity\\ or\\ spontaneity\\ and\\ shares\\ that\\ he\\ ritualistic\\ schedules\\ two\\ dates\\ a\\ month\\ with\\ his\\ wife\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ we\\ apply\\ self\\-discipline\\ to\\ create\\ rituals\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\we\\ can\\ increase\\ productivity\\ and\\ creativity\\.\\ It\\ takes\\ 30\\ days\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ new\\ ritual\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\First\\ we\\ make\\ our\\ habits\\ then\\ our\\ habits\\ make\\ us\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ introduce\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ rituals\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ so\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ overextend\\ your\\ self\\-discipline\\.\\ Again\\ from\\ Jim\\ Loehr\\ and\\ Tony\\ Schwartz\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;incremental\\ change\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ ambitious\\ failure\\&\\#8230\\;success\\ feeds\\ on\\ itself\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ the\\ Dalai\\ Lama\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;there\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ anything\\ that\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ made\\ easier\\ through\\ constant\\ familiarity\\ and\\ training\\.\\ Through\\ training\\ we\\ can\\ channel\\ we\\ can\\ transform\\ ourselves\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ John\\ Kotter\\,\\ an\\ HBS\\ Professor\\ has\\ done\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ research\\ which\\ found\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ large\\-scale\\,\\ organizational\\ change\\ we\\ need\\ small\\ successes\\ to\\ build\\ on\\.\\ Tal\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ he\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ wait\\ for\\ Squash\\ season\\ to\\ be\\ over\\ sophomore\\ year\\ at\\ Harvard\\ because\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ bad\\ season\\ and\\ was\\ injured\\;\\ was\\ excited\\ to\\ catch\\ up\\ on\\ work\\ once\\ season\\ ended\\.\\ But\\ it\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ work\\ because\\ he\\ stopped\\ his\\ rituals\\.\\ He\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ become\\ productive\\ again\\ until\\ he\\ created\\ new\\ rituals\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ now\\ move\\ on\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ C\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ Psychology\\:\\ \\Cognition\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ which\\ are\\ our\\ thoughts\\.\\ More\\ specifically\\,\\ we\\ discuss\\ \\gradual\\ change\\ through\\ cognitive\\ reconstruction\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Interpretation\\ occurs\\ via\\ neural\\ pathways\\.\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ fault\\-finder\\ you\\ will\\ use\\ your\\ positive\\ pathways\\ to\\ interpret\\ experiences\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\ for\\ benefit\\-finders\\.\\ The\\ study\\ which\\ looked\\ at\\ twins\\ who\\ were\\ abused\\ by\\ father\\ found\\ that\\ one\\ twin\\ became\\ a\\ messed\\-up\\ alcohol\\ who\\ abused\\ his\\ wife\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ was\\ successful\\ with\\ a\\ loving\\ marriage\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ is\\:\\ one\\ was\\ a\\ passive\\ victim\\ and\\ the\\ other\\,\\ an\\ active\\ agent\\.\\ Unfortunately\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ shortcuts\\,\\ \\changing\\ our\\ interpretation\\ style\\ takes\\ time\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ concept\\:\\ \\Tomaka\\ et\\ al\\<\\/a\\>\\ found\\ that\\ framing\\ experiences\\ as\\ \\challenges\\ or\\ threats\\ \\<\\/strong\\>makes\\ a\\ difference\\.\\ Framing\\ difficult\\ situations\\ is\\ a\\ conscious\\ decision\\,\\ if\\ we\\ learn\\ to\\ see\\ things\\ as\\ a\\ challenge\\ we\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ successful\\.\\ \\Schachter\\ and\\ Singer\\<\\/a\\>\\ shot\\ participants\\ with\\ epinephrine\\ \\(which\\ increases\\ adrenaline\\)\\,\\ but\\ told\\ them\\ it\\ was\\ Vitamin\\ C\\.\\ Were\\ asked\\ to\\ fill\\ out\\ a\\ questionnaire\\ with\\ provocative\\ questions\\.\\ \\(For\\ example\\:\\ how\\ many\\ men\\ did\\ your\\ mom\\ sleep\\ with\\ before\\ she\\ married\\ your\\ dad\\?\\)\\.\\ A\\ confederate\\ is\\ sitting\\ next\\ to\\ them\\ in\\ waiting\\ room\\ filling\\ out\\ the\\ study\\ and\\ getting\\ engaged\\.\\ The\\ epinephrine\\-injected\\ group\\ got\\ a\\ lot\\ angrier\\ than\\ the\\ control\\ group\\.\\ Another\\ survey\\ had\\ no\\ provocative\\ questions\\;\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ confederate\\ started\\ dancing\\ with\\ a\\ hula\\-hoop\\.\\ The\\ adrenaline\\ group\\ got\\ a\\ lot\\ happier\\ than\\ the\\ control\\ group\\.\\ Thus\\ \\arousal\\ can\\ be\\ interpreted\\ as\\ euphoria\\ or\\ anger\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Ross\\ and\\ Samuels\\<\\/a\\>\\ studied\\ \\cooperation\\ and\\ competition\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ They\\ asked\\ participants\\ to\\ name\\ their\\ most\\ generous\\ and\\ benevolent\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ their\\ most\\ competitive\\ and\\ cut\\-throat\\ friends\\.\\ These\\ people\\ were\\ invited\\ to\\ the\\ experiment\\ and\\ asked\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ same\\ game\\.\\ The\\ game\\ was\\ either\\ called\\ the\\ community\\ game\\ or\\ the\\ Wall\\ Street\\ game\\.\\ The\\ result\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ their\\ friends\\ identified\\ them\\ was\\ irrelevant\\ but\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ \\(and\\ thus\\ the\\ framing\\)\\ was\\ correlated\\ with\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ players\\.\\ \\How\\ we\\ frame\\ the\\ situation\\ can\\ make\\ all\\ the\\ difference\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Lisa\\ Lareau\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>studied\\ \\volunteering\\ as\\ privilege\\ or\\ duty\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ If\\ you\\ reframe\\ volunteering\\ as\\ a\\ privilege\\,\\ people\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ volunteer\\.\\ \\Schnarch\\ \\<\\/a\\>asked\\ the\\ question\\ whether\\ \\relationships\\ are\\ about\\ being\\ known\\ or\\ being\\ validated\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Primarily\\,\\ long\\ term\\ successful\\ relationships\\ have\\ the\\ primary\\ objective\\ of\\ being\\ known\\,\\ not\\ validated\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Failure\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ framed\\ as\\ an\\ opportunity\\ or\\ a\\ disaster\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\(we\\ will\\ talk\\ more\\ about\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ Perfectionism\\ lecture\\.\\)\\ \\Crum\\ and\\ Langer\\<\\/a\\>\\ studied\\ whether\\ \\work\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ exercise\\ or\\ chore\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Worked\\ with\\ cleaning\\ ladies\\ at\\ a\\ hotel\\,\\ where\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\ was\\ told\\ that\\ their\\ work\\ was\\ physical\\ exercise\\ and\\ showed\\ them\\ how\\ many\\ calories\\ they\\ were\\ burning\\;\\ both\\ the\\ experimental\\ and\\ control\\ groups\\ were\\ explained\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ physical\\ exercise\\.\\ The\\ researchers\\ tested\\ them\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ physical\\ and\\ psychological\\ measures\\ \\(BMI\\,\\ fat\\ in\\ blood\\,\\ blood\\ pressure\\,\\ weight\\,\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ anxiety\\,\\ depression\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ found\\ no\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ control\\ group\\ and\\ much\\ better\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ intervention\\ group\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ explains\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ research\\ on\\ \\acute\\ cognitive\\ change\\,\\ or\\ the\\ \\\\Eureka\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ Experience\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>as\\ it\\ is\\ sometimes\\ called\\.\\ The\\ creative\\ process\\ is\\ very\\ lengthy\\ and\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ various\\ steps\\ \\(According\\ to\\ Howard\\ Gardner\\,\\ extraordinary\\ individuals\\ need\\ 10\\ years\\ of\\ preparation\\)\\.\\ Here\\ are\\ the\\ steps\\:\\ 1\\-\\ \\preparation\\ and\\ immersion\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ 2\\-\\ \\incubation\\ and\\ idle\\ time\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(no\\ coincidence\\ that\\ we\\ get\\ our\\ best\\ ideas\\ in\\ the\\ shower\\ or\\ wake\\ up\\ with\\ solutions\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\)\\,\\ 3\\-\\ \\eureka\\ and\\ insight\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ 4\\\\-\\ evaluation\\ and\\ reality\\ test\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>5\\-\\ \\elaboration\\ and\\ coherence\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(write\\ the\\ symphony\\,\\ make\\ the\\ business\\ plan\\)\\.\\ The\\ step\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ forgotten\\ is\\ incubation\\.\\ Our\\ leaders\\ today\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ take\\ enough\\ time\\ off\\ which\\ is\\ absolutely\\ necessary\\ for\\ creativity\\.\\ Tal\\ often\\ takes\\ management\\ teams\\ on\\ retreat\\ with\\ no\\ agenda\\ when\\ he\\ consults\\ for\\ organizations\\.\\ According\\ to\\ JP\\ Morgan\\,\\ arguable\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ greatest\\ entrepreneur\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ can\\ do\\ a\\ year\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ in\\ nine\\ months\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ twelve\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Also\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Joseph\\ Campbell\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;you\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ room\\,\\ or\\ a\\ certain\\ hour\\ or\\ so\\ a\\ day\\,\\ when\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ newspapers\\ that\\ morning\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ who\\ your\\ friends\\ are\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ you\\ owe\\ anybody\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ anybody\\ owes\\ to\\ you\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ you\\ can\\ simply\\ experience\\ and\\ bring\\ forth\\ what\\ you\\ are\\ and\\ what\\ you\\ might\\ be\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ creative\\ incubation\\.\\ \\ At\\ first\\,\\ you\\ may\\ find\\ that\\ nothing\\ happens\\ there\\.\\ \\ But\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ \\[such\\]\\ a\\ sacred\\ place\\ and\\ use\\ it\\,\\ something\\ eventually\\ will\\ happen\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ draws\\ an\\ analogy\\ to\\ making\\ love\\,\\ where\\ you\\ need\\ foreplay\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ orgasm\\.\\ Hmm\\&\\#8230\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Change and Goals"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.055970+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Carpe Diem", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 356, "html": "\\Journaling\\ epitomizes\\ the\\ ABC\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ of\\ chance\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Tal\\.\\ \\Coping\\ through\\ writing\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ \\Jamie\\ Pennebaker\\<\\/a\\>\\ found\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ healthy\\ process\\.\\ Pennebaker\\ brought\\ in\\ participants\\ on\\ 4\\ consecutive\\ days\\ and\\ asked\\ them\\ to\\ spend\\ 15\\ minutes\\ writing\\ about\\ their\\ most\\ difficult\\ experiences\\.\\ More\\ specifically\\,\\ he\\ asked\\ them\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ ABCs\\:\\ their\\ emotions\\ \\(affect\\)\\,\\ what\\ they\\ did\\ \\(behavior\\)\\ and\\ analyze\\ it\\ \\(cognition\\)\\.\\ During\\ the\\ four\\ days\\,\\ the\\ participants\\ felt\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ anxiety\\ \\(relative\\ to\\ the\\ control\\ group\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ once\\ the\\ four\\ days\\ expired\\,\\ their\\ anxiety\\ levels\\ dipped\\ below\\ the\\ initial\\ level\\ and\\ stabilized\\ there\\.\\ This\\ intervention\\ also\\ strengthened\\ their\\ physical\\ immune\\ system\\ as\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ 50\\%\\ drop\\ in\\ visits\\ to\\ the\\ doctor\\.\\ These\\ people\\ became\\ more\\ social\\ as\\ their\\ general\\ emotional\\ well\\-being\\ increased\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ were\\ \\gender\\ differences\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ men\\ benefited\\ substantially\\ more\\ than\\ woman\\.\\ This\\ probably\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ emotional\\ repression\\ of\\ men\\ in\\ our\\ culture\\.\\ These\\ results\\ were\\ cross\\-cultural\\.\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ his\\ book\\,\\ \\Opening\\ Up\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\\r\\\\Pennebaker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ students\\,\\ \\Burton\\ and\\ King\\<\\/a\\>\\ conducted\\ the\\ opposite\\ study\\ where\\ they\\ asked\\ participants\\ to\\ write\\ about\\ intense\\ positive\\ experiences\\.\\ They\\ found\\ similar\\ results\\-\\ the\\ participants\\&\\#8217\\;\\ moods\\ were\\ more\\ positive\\ and\\ they\\ visited\\ the\\ doctor\\ less\\ often\\.\\ The\\ instructions\\ did\\ not\\ ask\\ the\\ participants\\ to\\ analyze\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ replay\\.\\ This\\ differs\\ from\\ the\\ \\Lyubomirsky\\ \\<\\/a\\>study\\ where\\ participants\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ analyze\\ \\(rather\\ than\\ replay\\)\\ positive\\ experiences\\ and\\ saw\\ negative\\ results\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ \\mechanism\\ behind\\ journaling\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\.\\ When\\ you\\ replay\\ you\\ fortify\\ neural\\ pathways\\ and\\ release\\ tension\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ had\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ \\coherence\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(by\\ creating\\ a\\ story\\ around\\ disconnected\\ experiences\\)\\ in\\ their\\ writing\\ had\\ the\\ most\\ positive\\ effects\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ therapy\\ works\\.\\ In\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Jamie\\ Pennebaker\\:\\ \\\"an\\ artifact\\ of\\ our\\ ambiguous\\ and\\ unpredictable\\ world\\ is\\ the\\ anxiety\\ of\\ not\\ attaining\\ completion\\ and\\ not\\ understanding\\ a\\ simple\\ cause\\-and\\-effect\\ explanation\\ for\\ traumatic\\ disturbances\\.\\ \\ Alas\\,\\ we\\ naturally\\ search\\ for\\ meaning\\ and\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ events\\;\\ it\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ control\\ and\\ predictability\\ over\\ our\\ lives\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Antonovsky\\,\\ who\\ coined\\ the\\ term\\ neurogenesis\\,\\ also\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ coherence\\.\\ Important\\ \\elements\\ of\\ coherence\\ are\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ comprehensibility\\,\\ manageability\\ and\\ meaningfulness\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ In\\ Antonovsky\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ words\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ global\\ orientation\\ that\\ expresses\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ one\\ has\\ a\\ pervasive\\,\\ enduring\\ though\\ dynamic\\ feeling\\ of\\ confidence\\ that\\ 1\\-\\ the\\ stimuli\\ deriving\\ from\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ internal\\ and\\ external\\ environments\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ living\\ are\\ structured\\,\\ predictable\\ and\\ explicable\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ the\\ resources\\ are\\ available\\ to\\ one\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ demands\\ posed\\ by\\ these\\ stimuli\\;\\ and\\ \\(3\\)\\ these\\ demands\\ are\\ challenges\\,\\ worthy\\ of\\ investment\\ and\\ engagement\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ summarizes\\ the\\ ABCs\\ of\\ change\\ with\\ this\\ diagram\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ three\\ are\\ \\interconnected\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ low\\ self\\ esteem\\ \\(affect\\)\\,\\ you\\ do\\ nothing\\ to\\ fix\\ it\\ \\(behavior\\)\\ and\\ this\\ lowers\\ your\\ perception\\ of\\ yourself\\ \\(cognition\\)\\ until\\ you\\ reach\\ learned\\ helplessness\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\ \\(affect\\)\\,\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ motivation\\ and\\ you\\ put\\ yourself\\ in\\ situations\\ which\\ build\\ confidence\\ \\(behavior\\)\\ and\\ thus\\ have\\ more\\ positive\\ evaluation\\ of\\ yourself\\ \\(cognition\\)\\,\\ thus\\ an\\ upward\\ spiral\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\When\\ you\\ intervene\\ you\\ can\\ start\\ at\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ elements\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ social\\ phobia\\,\\ you\\ can\\ start\\ with\\ medication\\ or\\ meditation\\ which\\ involve\\ affect\\\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Or\\ you\\ can\\ start\\ with\\ exposure\\ to\\ social\\ situations\\ as\\ cognitive\\ therapy\\ suggests\\.\\ You\\ can\\ also\\ deal\\ with\\ cognition\\ by\\ changing\\ your\\ perception\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thoreau\\ quote\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ know\\ of\\ no\\ more\\ encouraging\\ fact\\ than\\ the\\ unquestionable\\ ability\\ of\\ man\\ to\\ elevate\\ his\\ life\\ by\\ a\\ conscious\\ endeavor\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ paint\\ a\\ particular\\ picture\\,\\ or\\ to\\ carve\\ a\\ statue\\,\\ and\\ so\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ few\\ objects\\ beautiful\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ glorious\\ to\\ carve\\ and\\ paint\\ the\\ very\\ atmosphere\\ and\\ medium\\ through\\ which\\ we\\ look\\,\\ which\\ morally\\ we\\ can\\ do\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ affect\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ day\\,\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ of\\ arts\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ now\\ move\\ on\\ to\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\goal\\ setting\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ its\\ theory\\ and\\ practice\\.\\ If\\ you\\ \\focus\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ know\\ where\\ you\\ are\\ going\\,\\ you\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ get\\ there\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Abraham\\ Maslow\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;being\\ focused\\ on\\ a\\ task\\ produces\\ organization\\ for\\ efficiency\\ both\\ within\\ the\\ organism\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ also\\ makes\\ us\\ more\\ \\resilient\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ As\\ we\\ already\\ discussed\\,\\ beliefs\\ are\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\.\\ Tal\\ makes\\ an\\ interesting\\ \\analogy\\ to\\ running\\ with\\ a\\ knapsack\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ hitting\\ a\\ wall\\.\\ You\\ can\\ turn\\ around\\,\\ take\\ out\\ your\\ sledge\\ hammer\\ or\\ throw\\ your\\ knapsack\\ over\\ the\\ wall\\ because\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ necessity\\ \\(you\\ need\\ your\\ knapsack\\)\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Necessity\\ creates\\ invention\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ \\words\\ create\\ worlds\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ And\\ some\\ wisdom\\ from\\ WH\\ \\Murray\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;When\\ we\\ commit\\,\\ we\\ make\\ things\\ happen\\.\\ We\\ all\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\ see\\ things\\ we\\ hadn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ seen\\ before\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ \\goals\\ and\\ well\\-being\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ attainment\\ of\\ goals\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ happiness\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ them\\.\\ \\Goals\\ liberate\\ us\\ to\\ enjoy\\ the\\ present\\.\\ Future\\ goals\\ are\\ the\\ means\\ and\\ present\\ experiences\\ are\\ the\\ ends\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Why\\ do\\ so\\ many\\ superstars\\ experience\\ depression\\,\\ go\\ to\\ rehab\\ and\\ commit\\ suicide\\?\\ This\\ could\\ be\\ because\\ they\\ think\\ being\\ famous\\ will\\ make\\ them\\ happy\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ their\\ base\\ level\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ people\\ sometimes\\ turn\\ to\\ drugs\\ and\\ alcohol\\,\\ because\\ these\\ substance\\ allow\\ you\\ to\\ escape\\ reality\\.\\ A\\ quote\\ from\\ Tal\\'s\\ book\\ \\Happier\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ is\\:\\ \\\"happiness\\ not\\ about\\ making\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ peak\\ of\\ the\\ mountain\\;\\ nor\\ is\\ it\\ about\\ climbing\\ aimlessly\\ around\\ the\\ mountain\\;\\ happiness\\ is\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ climbing\\ toward\\ the\\ peak\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ David\\ Watson\\ writes\\ in\\ the\\ \\Handbook\\ of\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\<\\/a\\>\\\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Contemporary\\ researchers\\ emphasize\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ striving\\ after\\ goals\\&\\#8212\\;rather\\ than\\ goal\\ attainment\\ per\\ se\\&\\#8212\\;that\\ is\\ crucial\\ for\\ happiness\\ and\\ positive\\ affectivity\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ Myers\\ and\\ Diener\\ explains\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Happiness\\ grows\\ less\\ from\\ the\\ passive\\ experience\\ of\\ desirable\\ circumstances\\ than\\ from\\ involvement\\ in\\ valued\\ activities\\ and\\ progress\\ toward\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ goals\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Tal\\ also\\ cites\\ Gwendolyn\\ Brooks\\'\\ poem\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Live\\ not\\ for\\ battles\\ won\\.\\\r\\Live\\ not\\ for\\ the\\-end\\-of\\-the\\-song\\.\\\r\\Live\\ for\\ the\\ along\\.\\\r\\\\Not\\ all\\ goals\\ are\\ created\\ equal\\.\\ \\Self\\-concordant\\ goals\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\are\\ the\\ most\\ beneficial\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ These\\ goals\\ are\\ aligned\\ with\\ our\\ personal\\ interest\\ and\\ values\\.\\ They\\ are\\ \\freely\\ chosen\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ you\\ \\voluntary\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ college\\ mentor\\ advised\\ him\\ to\\ identify\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ could\\ do\\,\\ and\\ then\\ those\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ those\\ he\\ really\\,\\ really\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ those\\ he\\ really\\,\\ really\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ then\\ do\\ those\\.\\ \\Lead\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;spiritual\\ life\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ one\\ where\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ deep\\ emotional\\ connection\\ to\\ what\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ doing\\.\\ As\\ \\Sheldon\\ and\\ Houser\\-Marko\\<\\/a\\>\\ write\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\[Becoming\\ self\\ concordant\\]\\ is\\ a\\ difficult\\ skill\\,\\ requiring\\ both\\ accurate\\ self\\-perceptual\\ abilities\\ ant\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ resist\\ social\\ pressures\\ that\\ may\\ sometimes\\ push\\ one\\ in\\ appropriate\\ directions\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\Life\\ is\\ too\\ short\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ do\\;\\ it\\ is\\ barely\\ long\\ enough\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ ends\\ lecture\\ by\\ showing\\ a\\ clip\\ from\\ The\\ Dead\\ Poets\\ Society\\,\\ where\\ Robin\\ Williams\\ encourages\\ his\\ students\\ to\\ \\do\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ and\\ make\\ their\\ own\\ legacy\\.\\ Carpe\\ Diem\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Carpe Diem"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.071410+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Values in Action", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 357, "html": "\\\\The\\ Benefits\\ of\\ Self\\-Concordance\\<\\/strong\\>\\ are\\ many\\.\\ For\\ one\\,\\ they\\ \\increase\\ your\\ well\\-being\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ They\\ also\\ \\resolve\\ internal\\ conflicts\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(because\\ it\\ focuses\\ you\\ on\\ what\\ you\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ do\\,\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ groups\\ in\\ interpersonal\\ conflict\\ need\\ to\\ work\\ towards\\ a\\ common\\ goal\\ as\\ \\Sharif\\ \\<\\/span\\>found\\)\\.\\ They\\ also\\ \\increase\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ success\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(\\&\\#8220\\;do\\ it\\ better\\ with\\ pleasure\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\ A\\ lot\\ of\\ research\\ shows\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ engaged\\ in\\ a\\ self\\-concordant\\ goal\\,\\ we\\ enter\\ an\\ \\upward\\ spiral\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ pursue\\ more\\ of\\ these\\ goals\\.\\ \\Sheldon\\ and\\ Elliot\\<\\/a\\>\\ found\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\trickle\\ effect\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ as\\ positive\\ emotions\\ trickle\\ down\\ to\\ other\\ areas\\ of\\ your\\ life\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ enjoyable\\ \\(like\\ a\\ candle\\ in\\ a\\ dark\\ room\\)\\.\\ \\Ellen\\ Langer\\<\\/a\\>\\ studied\\ members\\ of\\ old\\ age\\ homes\\;\\ she\\ randomly\\ divided\\ them\\ into\\ two\\ groups\\,\\ gave\\ one\\ group\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ support\\ and\\ assistance\\ and\\ had\\ the\\ other\\ group\\ do\\ everything\\ themselves\\ \\(ie\\ \\-\\ water\\ plants\\,\\ set\\ routines\\)\\.\\ She\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ latter\\ group\\ was\\ more\\ energetic\\ and\\ independent\\.\\ 18\\ months\\ later\\ they\\ were\\ also\\ 50\\%\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ alive\\.\\ The\\ moral\\:\\ \\self\\-concordant\\ goals\\ have\\ health\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ This\\ explains\\ why\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ is\\ higher\\ in\\ free\\ society\\ than\\ in\\ oppressive\\ societies\\,\\ where\\ people\\ lack\\ choice\\.\\\r\\\\Tal\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ \\Values\\ in\\ Action\\ \\(VIA\\)\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Chris\\ Peterson\\ and\\ Martin\\ Seligman\\ began\\ \\Positive\\ Psychology\\'s\\ alternative\\ to\\ Diagnostic\\ and\\ Statistical\\ Manual\\ of\\ Mental\\ Disorders\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(DSM\\)\\.\\ They\\ identified\\ 24\\ \\character\\ strengths\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ ways\\ to\\ measure\\ them\\.\\ These\\ characteristics\\ are\\ cross\\ cultural\\ and\\ universally\\ admired\\,\\ thus\\ getting\\ at\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ Another\\ key\\ aspect\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ moral\\ value\\ beyond\\ talents\\ and\\ abilities\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ these\\ virtues\\ must\\ be\\ used\\ only\\ for\\ good\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ humor\\ which\\ is\\ hurtful\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ virtue\\.\\ These\\ virtues\\ are\\ about\\ a\\ self\\-concordant\\ journey\\.\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ their\\ book\\ \\Character\\ Strengths\\ and\\ Virtues\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Strength\\ criteria\\<\\/strong\\>\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ \\the\\ real\\ you\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ According\\ to\\ William\\ James\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ have\\ often\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ define\\ a\\ man\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ character\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ seek\\ out\\ the\\ particular\\ mental\\ or\\ moral\\ attitude\\ in\\ which\\,\\ when\\ it\\ came\\ upon\\ him\\,\\ he\\ felt\\ himself\\ most\\ deeply\\ and\\ intensively\\ active\\ and\\ alive\\.\\ At\\ such\\ moments\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ voice\\ inside\\ which\\ speaks\\ and\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8216\\;This\\ is\\ the\\ real\\ me\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\From\\ these\\ strengths\\ we\\ get\\ energy\\ and\\ motivation\\.\\ They\\ are\\ also\\ associated\\ with\\ growth\\ and\\ improvement\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ is\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ these\\ 24\\ strengths\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Wisdom\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-Creativity\\\r\\\\-Curiosity\\\r\\\\-Judgment\\\r\\\\-Love\\ of\\ Learning\\\r\\\\-Perspective\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Courage\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-Bravery\\\r\\\\-Industry\\\r\\\\-Authenticity\\\r\\\\-Zest\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Justice\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-Citizenship\\\r\\\\-Fairness\\\r\\\\-Leadership\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Love\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-Intimacy\\\r\\\\-Kindness\\\r\\\\-Social\\ Intelligence\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Temperance\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-Forgiveness\\\r\\\\-Humility\\\r\\\\-Prudence\\\r\\\\-Self\\-Control\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Transcendence\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-Awe\\\r\\\\-Gratitude\\\r\\\\-Hope\\\r\\\\-Humor\\\r\\\\-Spirituality\\\r\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ \\build\\ capacity\\ \\<\\/strong\\>one\\ must\\ follow\\ these\\ steps\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Identify\\ your\\ character\\ strengths\\ by\\ taking\\ the\\ \\online\\ test\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(which\\ consists\\ of\\ 240\\ questions\\ and\\ takes\\ 30\\ minutes\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\From\\ the\\ top\\ 10\\,\\ chose\\ the\\ 5\\ that\\ best\\ fulfill\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;strength\\ criteria\\&\\#8221\\;\\ described\\ above\\ \\(providing\\ energy\\ and\\ motivation\\ and\\ fuelign\\ growth\\ and\\ improvement\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Chose\\ one\\ character\\ strength\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ following\\ week\\ use\\ the\\ strength\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\ every\\ day\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Each\\ night\\,\\ briefly\\ describe\\ how\\ you\\ used\\ your\\ strength\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ way\\ and\\ how\\ you\\ intend\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ strength\\ in\\ a\\ another\\ way\\ tomorrow\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\You\\ can\\ also\\ apply\\ VIA\\ to\\ \\problem\\ solving\\ \\<\\/strong\\>by\\ identify\\ your\\ character\\ strengths\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ problem\\ you\\ are\\ dealing\\ with\\ and\\ then\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ apply\\ your\\ character\\ strengths\\ to\\ solving\\ the\\ problem\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Amy\\ Wrzesniewski\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ studied\\ \\work\\ orientation\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ people\\ either\\ see\\ their\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ Job\\,\\ a\\ Career\\ or\\ a\\ Calling\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>The\\ following\\ chart\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ her\\ study\\:\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\While\\ you\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ see\\ your\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ calling\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ leader\\ or\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\-skilled\\ job\\,\\ these\\ lessons\\ can\\ be\\ applied\\ at\\ any\\ level\\.\\ Tal\\ makes\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ investment\\ bankers\\ who\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ money\\ and\\ hairdressers\\ who\\ love\\ their\\ clients\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Abraham\\ Maslow\\ put\\ it\\ best\\ when\\ he\\ said\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ is\\ certainly\\ true\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ evade\\ our\\ constitutionally\\ suggested\\ vocations\\ \\(call\\,\\ destiny\\,\\ task\\ in\\ life\\,\\ mission\\)\\.\\ So\\ often\\ we\\ run\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ responsibilities\\ dictated\\ \\(or\\ rather\\ suggested\\)\\ by\\ nature\\,\\ by\\ fate\\,\\ even\\ sometimes\\ by\\ accident\\,\\ just\\ as\\ Jonah\\ tired\\-\\ in\\ vain\\-\\ to\\ run\\ away\\ from\\ \\his\\<\\/em\\>\\ fate\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Sound\\ familiar\\,\\ anyone\\?\\ Why\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ this\\?\\ Perhaps\\ we\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ or\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ social\\-acceptable\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ noble\\ or\\ lucrative\\.\\ However\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Tal\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\the\\ most\\ noble\\ thing\\ is\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ that\\ inner\\ voice\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\ are\\ some\\ tips\\ on\\ setting\\ goals\\.\\ As\\ \\Claypool\\ and\\ Cangemi\\<\\/a\\>\\ found\\,\\ \\writing\\ goals\\ down\\<\\/strong\\>\\ makes\\ a\\ difference\\.\\ Also\\,\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ to\\ set\\ \\lifelines\\ not\\ deadlines\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ dates\\ by\\ which\\ we\\ wish\\ to\\ achieve\\ certain\\ goals\\.\\ As\\ research\\ by\\ Ajzen\\ and\\ Fishbein\\ shows\\,\\ \\making\\ goals\\ specific\\ \\<\\/strong\\>has\\ important\\ affects\\.\\ \\Locke\\ \\<\\/a\\>talks\\ about\\ \\stretch\\ goals\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ goals\\ that\\ best\\ facilitate\\ the\\ journey\\.\\ Ellen\\ Langer\\ did\\ a\\ study\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ asked\\ two\\ groups\\ of\\ participants\\ to\\ describe\\ their\\ achievements\\,\\ one\\ group\\ just\\ spoke\\ about\\ their\\ successes\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ group\\ had\\ to\\ \\break\\ them\\ down\\ into\\ steps\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>This\\ latter\\ group\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ positive\\ in\\ their\\ evaluations\\ of\\ future\\ successes\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ \\break\\ down\\ long\\ term\\ goals\\ into\\ medium\\ term\\ goals\\,\\ then\\ into\\ short\\ term\\ goals\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ into\\ an\\ action\\ plan\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dealing\\ with\\ stress\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ the\\ next\\ topic\\.\\ Richard\\ Kadison\\,\\ the\\ director\\ of\\ \\Harvard\\ Univsity\\ Health\\ Services\\,\\<\\/a\\>\\ explains\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ a\\ recent\\ survey\\ of\\ 13\\,500\\ college\\ students\\,\\ nearly\\ 45\\%\\ percent\\ reported\\ being\\ so\\ depressed\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ difficulty\\ functioning\\,\\ and\\ 94\\%\\ percent\\ reported\\ feeling\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ everything\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ do\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Its\\ not\\ just\\ Harvard\\,\\ its\\ campuses\\ across\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Why\\ is\\ this\\?\\ \\Students\\ have\\ too\\ much\\ to\\ do\\ which\\ creates\\ feelings\\ of\\ being\\ overwhelmed\\ and\\ stress\\ and\\ ultimately\\ depression\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Ellen\\ Degenereres\\ puts\\ it\\ best\\ \\(as\\ usual\\)\\ when\\ she\\ talks\\ about\\ \\\"Too\\ Busy\\ Syndrome\\\"\\ \\(TBD\\)\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\There\\ are\\ many\\ \\costs\\ of\\ stress\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ It\\ n\\egatively\\ impacts\\ our\\ psychological\\ and\\ physical\\ health\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\reduces\\ our\\ productivity\\ and\\ creativity\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ How\\ can\\ we\\ reduce\\ stress\\ by\\ reframing\\ questions\\?\\ Traditional\\ psychologists\\ asked\\ why\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ people\\ stressed\\ while\\ positive\\ psychologists\\ ask\\ \\what\\ do\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ successful\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ lead\\ a\\ healthy\\ and\\ happy\\ life\\ do\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ The\\ answer\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ \\set\\ rituals\\ for\\ both\\ work\\ and\\ recovery\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>First\\ off\\,\\ \\stress\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ recovery\\ is\\.\\ Work\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ marathon\\,\\ it\\ is\\ sprint\\ intervals\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(from\\ \\The\\ Power\\ of\\ Full\\ Engagement\\<\\/a\\>\\\\)\\.\\ Loehr\\ and\\ Schwartz\\ recommend\\ creating\\ a\\ ritual\\ of\\ 60\\ to\\ 120\\ minutes\\ of\\ work\\ \\(sprint\\)\\ followed\\ by\\ 15\\ minutes\\ of\\ recovery\\ \\(not\\ emailing\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ just\\ relaxing\\)\\.\\ This\\ will\\ make\\ you\\ more\\ energized\\,\\ productive\\ and\\ happier\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ ends\\ by\\ suggesting\\ that\\ \\we\\ need\\ multi\\-level\\ recovery\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\Micro\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(minutes\\,\\ hours\\)\\ \\mezzo\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(nights\\,\\ days\\)\\ \\and\\ macro\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(weeks\\,\\ months\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Note\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Posts\\ will\\ resume\\ on\\ April\\ 1\\ after\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Spring\\ Break\\ Vacation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Values in Action"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.737374+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 17 (4/15/08)- Kinship and Socialization", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 394, "html": "\\One\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ altruism\\ can\\ evolve\\ without\\ invoking\\ group\\ level\\ selection\\/adaptation\\ is\\ reciprocity\\,\\ which\\ was\\ discussed\\ last\\ lecture\\,\\ this\\ lecture\\ will\\ be\\ about\\ another\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ selfish\\ genes\\ can\\ create\\ altruistic\\ individuals\\.\\ Reciprocity\\ works\\ when\\ the\\ benefits\\ that\\ individuals\\ receive\\ through\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ outweigh\\ the\\ costs\\ invested\\ by\\ each\\.\\ There\\ is\\ another\\ way\\ though\\ in\\ which\\ selfish\\ genes\\ can\\ engineer\\ unselfish\\ organisms\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ through\\ kin\\ selection\\.\\ Kin\\ selection\\ basically\\ is\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ a\\ gene\\ helping\\ \\copies\\ of\\ itself\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ other\\ organisms\\.\\ How\\ can\\ a\\ gene\\ know\\ what\\ other\\ organisms\\ have\\ copies\\ of\\ it\\?\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ ways\\:\\ the\\ green\\-beard\\ effect\\ \\(not\\ covered\\ here\\)\\,\\ and\\ through\\ kinship\\ relationships\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ actuality\\ we\\ share\\ over\\ 99\\%\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ genes\\ with\\ all\\ individuals\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ important\\ for\\ the\\ discussion\\ below\\.\\ It\\ is\\ \\genetic\\ differences\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ evolution\\ acts\\ upon\\.\\ So\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ notation\\ below\\ where\\ I\\ say\\ \\\"share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ one\\'s\\ genes\\\"\\ actually\\ is\\ shorthand\\ for\\ \\\"shares\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ one\\'s\\ genes\\.\\\"\\ I\\ just\\ wanted\\ to\\ distinguish\\ this\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ potential\\ point\\ of\\ confusion\\,\\ and\\ I\\ find\\ it\\ easier\\ to\\ conceptualize\\ it\\ the\\ first\\ way\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ reality\\ the\\ second\\ case\\.\\ This\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ huge\\ stumbling\\ block\\ in\\ understanding\\ kin\\ selection\\,\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ we\\ share\\ 99\\.9\\%\\ of\\ our\\ genes\\ with\\ the\\ entire\\ human\\ population\\,\\ so\\ why\\ aren\\'t\\ we\\ altruistic\\ to\\ everyone\\?\\ The\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\ question\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ irrelevant\\ because\\ the\\ genes\\ that\\ we\\ all\\ share\\ are\\ in\\ some\\ sense\\ \\\"invisible\\\"\\ to\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ as\\ it\\ can\\ only\\ work\\ on\\ variation\\,\\ and\\ obviously\\ if\\ we\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ given\\ gene\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ variation\\ there\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Genetic\\ Inheritance\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ inheritance\\ works\\ our\\ genes\\ can\\ \\\"know\\\"\\ what\\ the\\ probability\\ is\\ of\\ them\\ existing\\ in\\ another\\ family\\ member\\.\\ We\\ share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ our\\ genes\\ with\\ our\\ mother\\,\\ and\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ our\\ genes\\ with\\ our\\ father\\.\\ We\\ share\\ 50\\%\\ with\\ all\\ siblings\\,\\ and\\ 50\\%\\ with\\ all\\ children\\.\\ Therefore\\ we\\ also\\ share\\ 12\\.5\\%\\ with\\ all\\ cousins\\,\\ 25\\%\\ with\\ all\\ nephews\\ and\\ nieces\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Coefficient\\_of\\_relationship\\<\\/a\\>\\ Roughly\\,\\ a\\ gene\\ will\\ spread\\ through\\ the\\ population\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ cost\\ incurred\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ benefit\\ bestowed\\ multiplied\\ by\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ the\\ gene\\ would\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ person\\'s\\ body\\.\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ Hamilton\\'s\\ Rule\\ and\\ is\\ succintly\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ formula\\ \\ C\\<\\;rB\\ where\\ C\\=cost\\ to\\ altruistic\\ organism\\,\\ B\\=benefit\\ to\\ receiving\\ organism\\,\\ and\\ r\\=proportion\\ of\\ shared\\ genes\\ \\(r\\=\\.5\\ for\\ siblings\\,\\ \\.25\\ for\\ nephews\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Kin\\_selection\\<\\/a\\>\\ Because\\ our\\ bodies\\ are\\ just\\ \\vehicles\\<\\/em\\>\\ built\\ by\\ genes\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ genes\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ in\\ our\\ genes\\'\\ best\\ interest\\ to\\ build\\ vehicles\\ which\\ help\\ copies\\ of\\ themselves\\ in\\ other\\ vehicles\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ level\\ of\\ explanation\\ for\\ nepotism\\.\\ The\\ proximate\\ level\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ psychological\\ architecture\\ that\\ makes\\ us\\ feel\\ love\\ for\\ our\\ family\\ members\\,\\ and\\ willingness\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ for\\ their\\ well\\-being\\.\\ This\\ distinction\\ has\\ also\\ caused\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ historical\\ confusion\\,\\ and\\ must\\ be\\ kept\\ separate\\,\\ the\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ our\\ feelings\\ of\\ familial\\ love\\ and\\ loyalty\\ \\(proximate\\ explanation\\)\\ evolved\\ because\\ we\\ share\\ a\\ proportion\\ of\\ our\\ genes\\ \\(ultimate\\ explanation\\)\\,\\ not\\ that\\ we\\ help\\ our\\ family\\ in\\ some\\ odd\\ gene\\ calculating\\ way\\ \\(just\\ like\\ we\\ have\\ sex\\ because\\ it\\ feels\\ good\\,\\ not\\ to\\ reproduce\\,\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ two\\ separate\\ levels\\ of\\ explanation\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Eusociality\\:\\ an\\ extreme\\ example\\ of\\ kin\\ selection\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ may\\ have\\ noticed\\ that\\ ants\\ and\\ bees\\ act\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ superorganism\\,\\ where\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ our\\ cells\\ specialize\\ to\\ make\\ us\\ efficient\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\ machines\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ as\\ though\\ individual\\ bees\\/ants\\ specialize\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ hive\\/colony\\ an\\ efficient\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\ machine\\.\\ This\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ them\\ having\\ undergone\\ selection\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ at\\ the\\ group\\ level\\ \\(although\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ heuristic\\,\\ and\\ is\\ mathematically\\ equivalent\\ to\\ kin\\ selection\\)\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ special\\ type\\ of\\ inheritance\\,\\ called\\ \\haplodiploidy\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Sparing\\ you\\ the\\ details\\,\\ bees\\ share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ with\\ their\\ offspring\\,\\ but\\ they\\ share\\ 75\\%\\ with\\ their\\ sisters\\ \\(remember\\ we\\ share\\ 50\\%\\)\\ with\\ our\\ siblings\\.\\ This\\ also\\ means\\ that\\ they\\ share\\ a\\ \\(theoretical\\)\\ minimum\\ of\\ 37\\.5\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ with\\ their\\ nieces\\ \\(we\\ share\\ 25\\%\\)\\.\\ They\\ are\\ therefore\\ \\very\\ closely\\ related\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ their\\ nieces\\ compared\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ children\\.\\ This\\ being\\ the\\ case\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ equally\\ beneficial\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ kid\\,\\ or\\ help\\ their\\ sister\\ have\\ a\\ kid\\.\\ Given\\ this\\,\\ they\\ will\\ do\\ better\\ if\\ they\\ get\\ one\\ sister\\ to\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ kids\\,\\ while\\ everyone\\ else\\ just\\ helps\\ here\\ out\\ \\(because\\ the\\ groups\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ productive\\ than\\ individuals\\ alone\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ societies\\ of\\ the\\ eusocial\\ insects\\:\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ queen\\,\\ with\\ many\\ sterile\\ classes\\ of\\ workers\\,\\ soldiers\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ our\\ cells\\ specialize\\ to\\ create\\ organs\\,\\ which\\ are\\ specialized\\ for\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ organism\\,\\ the\\ individual\\ bees\\ specialize\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ superorganism\\ of\\ the\\ hive\\.\\ This\\ is\\ actually\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ the\\ depiction\\ here\\,\\ but\\ this\\ explanation\\ is\\ adequate\\ for\\ the\\ material\\ here\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ further\\ discussion\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Eusociality\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Nepotistic\\ emotions\\:\\ the\\ proximate\\ level\\ explanation\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Nepotism\\ and\\ familial\\ love\\ is\\ another\\ cultural\\ universal\\.\\ Familial\\ love\\ is\\ essentially\\ the\\ psychological\\ mechanism\\ that\\ gets\\ our\\ genes\\ to\\ help\\ out\\ copies\\ of\\ themselves\\ in\\ other\\ bodies\\.\\ Notice\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ genes\\ we\\ share\\ with\\ individuals\\ in\\ our\\ families\\,\\ the\\ closer\\ we\\ feel\\ to\\ them\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ closer\\ to\\ our\\ siblings\\ than\\ to\\ our\\ cousins\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ likely\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ more\\)\\.\\ Do\\ not\\ confuse\\ the\\ ultimate\\ and\\ proximate\\ level\\ explanations\\ here\\ as\\ mentioned\\ above\\.\\ The\\ proximate\\ level\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ help\\ our\\ family\\ members\\ because\\ we\\ love\\ them\\,\\ the\\ ultimate\\ level\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ emotions\\ like\\ love\\ to\\ get\\ us\\ to\\ help\\ our\\ family\\ members\\ \\(this\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ proximate\\/ultimate\\ explanations\\ for\\ sex\\:\\ it\\ feels\\ good\\ and\\ to\\ pass\\ on\\ one\\'s\\ genes\\ respectively\\)\\.\\ People\\ universally\\ feel\\ closer\\ bonds\\ to\\ kin\\ vs\\.\\ non\\-kin\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ like\\ no\\ coincidence\\ that\\ in\\ social\\ groups\\ that\\ require\\ self\\-sacrifice\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ family\\ metaphors\\ \\(brothers\\ in\\ arms\\,\\ mother\\ country\\,\\ blood\\ brothers\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\ cults\\,\\ armies\\,\\ new\\ religions\\,\\ and\\ terrorist\\ cells\\ always\\ invoke\\ family\\ metaphors\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ create\\ a\\ more\\ cohesive\\ group\\ atmosphere\\.\\ There\\ also\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ greater\\ tribalism\\ in\\ societies\\ that\\ practice\\ some\\ level\\ of\\ cousin\\ inbreeding\\ \\(which\\ helps\\ concentrate\\ how\\ much\\ individuals\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ more\\ distant\\ family\\ members\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ universal\\ traits\\ of\\ family\\ structures\\ across\\ societies\\.\\ There\\ is\\ always\\ a\\ foundation\\ of\\ mother\\,\\ child\\,\\ and\\ male\\ relatives\\,\\ but\\ the\\ important\\ male\\ relatives\\ vary\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ society\\.\\ In\\ \\matrilocal\\<\\/em\\>\\ societies\\,\\ where\\ families\\ are\\ centered\\ around\\ home\\ of\\ the\\ mother\\'s\\ extended\\ family\\,\\ the\\ important\\ males\\ in\\ children\\'s\\ lives\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ uncles\\.\\ These\\ are\\ often\\ societies\\ in\\ which\\ male\\ partners\\ are\\ often\\ absent\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ cannot\\ assure\\ paternity\\.\\ In\\ \\patrilocal\\ \\<\\/em\\>societies\\ the\\ family\\ usually\\ is\\ centered\\ around\\ the\\ father\\'s\\ extended\\ family\\ and\\ the\\ father\\ is\\ the\\ significant\\ male\\,\\ because\\ he\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ assured\\ of\\ paternity\\ \\(because\\ his\\ wife\\ is\\ always\\ around\\ his\\ family\\)\\.\\ In\\ tribal\\ societies\\,\\ as\\ the\\ social\\ groups\\ increase\\ in\\ size\\,\\ eventually\\ they\\ fission\\ \\(usually\\ at\\ between\\ 100\\-200\\ members\\ large\\)\\,\\ which\\ very\\ closely\\ corresponds\\ to\\ expectations\\ from\\ calculations\\ of\\ the\\ relatedness\\ index\\ \\(r\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ \\cinderella\\ effect\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ that\\ step\\-children\\ are\\ more\\ often\\ abused\\,\\ is\\ a\\ cultural\\ universal\\.\\ Being\\ a\\ step\\-child\\ is\\ the\\ biggest\\ risk\\ factor\\ for\\ child\\ abuse\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ striking\\ graph\\ from\\ the\\ research\\ of\\ Margo\\ Wilson\\ and\\ Martin\\ Daly\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ is\\ a\\ trade\\-off\\ for\\ any\\ organism\\ between\\ bearing\\ children\\ and\\ caring\\ for\\ children\\ that\\ one\\ already\\ has\\ \\(quantity\\ vs\\.\\ quality\\ of\\ offspring\\)\\.\\ A\\ parent\\ must\\ then\\ decide\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ investment\\ that\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ child\\.\\ \\Parental\\ investment\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ effort\\ expended\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ one\\ offspring\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ other\\ offspring\\ \\(future\\ or\\ existing\\)\\.\\ The\\ conflict\\ comes\\ up\\ here\\ because\\ while\\ a\\ parent\\ wants\\ to\\ optimize\\ their\\ reproductive\\ output\\ by\\ spreading\\ investment\\ across\\ children\\,\\ the\\ children\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ more\\ investment\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Robert\\ Trivers\\,\\ using\\ similar\\ genetic\\ relatedness\\ proportions\\ as\\ before\\,\\ we\\ can\\ predict\\ how\\ much\\ investment\\ children\\ want\\,\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ parents\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ them\\.\\ A\\ parent\\ shares\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ genes\\ with\\ all\\ children\\,\\ and\\ so\\ should\\ want\\ to\\ invest\\ in\\ each\\ equally\\ \\(more\\ or\\ less\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ over\\-simplification\\)\\.\\ A\\ child\\ shares\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ its\\ genes\\ with\\ all\\ siblings\\,\\ but\\ 100\\%\\ with\\ itself\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ a\\ child\\ will\\ want\\ more\\ investment\\ in\\ him\\ or\\ herself\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ siblings\\,\\ while\\ a\\ parent\\ would\\ like\\ this\\ to\\ be\\ equal\\.\\ Given\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ pie\\ and\\ two\\ children\\,\\ a\\ parent\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ each\\ 50\\%\\,\\ while\\ each\\ child\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ 67\\%\\ for\\ themselves\\,\\ with\\ 33\\%\\ to\\ their\\ siblings\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Parent\\-offspring\\_conflict\\\r\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ conflict\\ is\\ evident\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ instances\\,\\ such\\ as\\ children\\ resisting\\ weaning\\,\\ wanting\\ more\\ parental\\ investment\\ than\\ the\\ parent\\ wants\\ to\\ give\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ diseases\\ that\\ women\\ can\\ get\\ when\\ pregnant\\,\\ such\\ as\\ diabetes\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ biochemical\\ child\\-parent\\ conflict\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ fetus\\ releases\\ hormones\\ or\\ other\\ biofunctional\\ molecules\\ to\\ elicit\\ more\\ nutritional\\ investment\\ from\\ the\\ mother\\,\\ and\\ she\\ counters\\ with\\ other\\ molecular\\ stoppers\\.\\ Infanticide\\ is\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\.\\ Infanticide\\ is\\ extremely\\ common\\ in\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ paradoxical\\ from\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ perspective\\,\\ until\\ one\\ takes\\ parental\\ investment\\ into\\ account\\.\\ If\\ a\\ woman\\ is\\ having\\ a\\ child\\ in\\ a\\ bad\\ situation\\,\\ then\\ the\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ baby\\ may\\ be\\ extremely\\ costly\\,\\ and\\ the\\ baby\\ may\\ still\\ not\\ thrive\\ \\(especially\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ father\\)\\.\\ Circumstances\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ cost\\-payoff\\ ratio\\ is\\ higher\\ than\\ killing\\ the\\ baby\\ and\\ investing\\ in\\ future\\ offspring\\ will\\ encourage\\ infanticide\\.\\ This\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ extreme\\ example\\ of\\ parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Babies\\ fight\\ back\\ with\\ their\\ best\\ weapon\\:\\ \\cuteness\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ Mother\\-infant\\ bonding\\ is\\ thus\\ not\\ automatic\\,\\ but\\ must\\ be\\ forged\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ babies\\ being\\ cute\\.\\ Children\\ can\\ also\\ fight\\ for\\ their\\ idealized\\ investment\\ quantity\\ by\\ \\crying\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ reactions\\ in\\ adults\\.\\ Perhaps\\ brattiness\\ and\\ tantrums\\ \\(as\\ paradoxical\\ tactics\\,\\ making\\ the\\ kid\\ seem\\ needier\\,\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ threat\\ of\\ going\\ out\\ of\\ control\\ if\\ the\\ parent\\ does\\ not\\ give\\ in\\)\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ child\\'s\\ investment\\-invoking\\ weapon\\.\\ It\\ can\\ be\\ almost\\ as\\ if\\ a\\ child\\ \\(or\\ adolescent\\)\\ is\\ taking\\ themself\\ hostage\\,\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ parent\\ hates\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ kid\\ in\\ pain\\,\\ they\\ give\\ in\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Implications\\ of\\ parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ implications\\ of\\ parent\\-offspring\\ conflict\\ is\\ that\\ parents\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ as\\ responsible\\ for\\ their\\ adult\\ children\\'s\\ personality\\ as\\ people\\ think\\,\\ or\\ maybe\\ not\\ even\\ really\\ responsible\\ \\at\\ all\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ shocking\\ to\\ common\\ sense\\,\\ but\\ then\\ it\\ wouldn\\'t\\ be\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ human\\ development\\ and\\ behavior\\ that\\ runs\\ against\\ common\\ sense\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ for\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ parent\\'s\\ socialization\\ for\\ a\\ kid\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ parent\\'s\\ benefit\\,\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ kid\\'s\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ to\\ be\\ equally\\ nice\\ to\\ self\\ and\\ sister\\,\\ whereas\\ kid\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ nicer\\ to\\ self\\ than\\ sister\\)\\.\\ Children\\ should\\ therefore\\ resist\\ this\\ socialization\\ and\\ develop\\ their\\ own\\ personality\\ as\\ a\\ strategy\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ best\\ interests\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ to\\ test\\ personality\\ measures\\,\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ \\MMPI\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>which\\ is\\ a\\ battery\\ of\\ over\\ 500\\ statements\\ that\\ evaluate\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ personality\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ an\\ explanation\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ further\\ links\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ to\\ the\\ official\\ sites\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Minnesota\\_Multiphasic\\_Personality\\_Inventory\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ There\\ are\\ five\\ major\\ personality\\ dimensions\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Openness\\/nonopenness\\ to\\ experience\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ How\\ willing\\ one\\ is\\ to\\ experience\\ new\\ things\\ \\(daring\\ to\\ conforming\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Conscientiousness\\/undirectedness\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ how\\ careful\\ or\\ careless\\ someone\\ is\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Extraversion\\/intraversion\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ that\\ is\\ sociable\\ or\\ retiring\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Agreeableness\\/antagonism\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ courteous\\ or\\ nice\\ vs\\.\\ rude\\ and\\ suspicious\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Neuroticism\\/stability\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ does\\ one\\ constantly\\ worry\\ or\\ are\\ they\\ calm\\ and\\ self\\-satisfied\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\What\\ determines\\ people\\'s\\ personality\\ on\\ these\\ dimensions\\?\\ The\\ first\\ answer\\ people\\ always\\ give\\ is\\ \\ that\\ it\\ is\\ from\\ parents\\.\\ There\\ are\\ strong\\ correlations\\ between\\ parenting\\ styles\\/personalities\\ and\\ adult\\ children\\'s\\ personalities\\.\\ This\\ would\\ seem\\ to\\ lend\\ credence\\ to\\ this\\ position\\,\\ but\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ parents\\ influence\\ their\\ children\\ through\\ sharing\\ genes\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ through\\ the\\ environment\\ provided\\ by\\ parenting\\.\\ So\\,\\ then\\ is\\ it\\ the\\ shared\\ genes\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ parents\\ that\\ spank\\ have\\ more\\ violent\\ children\\,\\ not\\ because\\ spanking\\ is\\ causing\\ this\\,\\ but\\ because\\ genes\\ for\\ violence\\ cause\\ spanking\\ and\\ violence\\ later\\)\\?\\ or\\ the\\ parenting\\ style\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ spanking\\ really\\ does\\ cause\\ adults\\ to\\ be\\ violent\\)\\?\\ This\\ is\\ evaluated\\ using\\ techniques\\ from\\ behavioral\\ genetics\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Teasing\\ apart\\ genetic\\ variance\\ and\\ environmental\\ variance\\ in\\ personality\\ differences\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ three\\ main\\ techniques\\ here\\:\\ twin\\ method\\,\\ adoption\\ method\\,\\ and\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ method\\.\\ The\\ \\twin\\ method\\ \\<\\/em\\>looks\\ at\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ monozygotic\\ and\\ dizygotic\\ twins\\.\\ \\Monozygotic\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(or\\ identical\\)\\ twins\\ share\\ 100\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ and\\ \\dizygotic\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(or\\ fraternal\\)\\ twins\\ share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\,\\ just\\ like\\ normal\\ siblings\\.\\ This\\ technique\\ assumes\\ that\\ identical\\ twins\\ share\\ their\\ environment\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ extent\\ as\\ fraternal\\ twins\\ \\(which\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ 100\\%\\ true\\)\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ page\\ with\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ twin\\ studies\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/ibgwww\\.colorado\\.edu\\/twinsites\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ The\\ \\adoption\\ method\\ \\<\\/em\\>looks\\ at\\ variability\\ between\\ biological\\ siblings\\ raised\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ family\\ vs\\.\\ biological\\ siblings\\ raised\\ in\\ different\\ families\\.\\ And\\ the\\ \\twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ method\\<\\/em\\>\\ looks\\ at\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ variance\\ in\\ personality\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ separated\\ into\\ three\\ causal\\ categories\\:\\ heritability\\,\\ shared\\ \\(common\\)\\ environment\\,\\ and\\ nonshared\\ environment\\.\\ \\Heritability\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ \\%\\ of\\ variance\\ due\\ to\\ genetic\\ differences\\,\\ the\\ \\shared\\ environment\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ \\%\\ of\\ variance\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\ shared\\ by\\ twins\\/siblings\\ but\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ siblings\\ or\\ twins\\ \\(such\\ as\\ family\\ raised\\ in\\ together\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\nonshared\\ environment\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ \\%\\ of\\ variance\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\ not\\ shared\\ by\\ siblings\\/twins\\,\\ such\\ as\\ different\\ families\\,\\ accidents\\,\\ diseases\\,\\ schools\\,\\ etc\\.\\ I\\ will\\ analyze\\ each\\ category\\ and\\ what\\ counts\\ as\\ evidence\\ for\\ it\\ from\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ methods\\ below\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Heritability\\ evidence\\ from\\ twin\\ studies\\ would\\ be\\ when\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ than\\ dizygotic\\ twins\\.\\ Evidence\\ from\\ the\\ adoption\\ method\\ would\\ give\\ high\\ heritability\\ when\\ biological\\ siblings\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ than\\ adopted\\ siblings\\.\\ Evidence\\ for\\ this\\ from\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ would\\ be\\ high\\ when\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ are\\ highly\\ similar\\.\\ This\\ last\\ line\\ of\\ evidence\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ convincing\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ essentially\\ show\\ that\\ those\\ with\\ shared\\ genes\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ than\\ those\\ without\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Shared\\ environment\\ evidence\\ includes\\:\\ similarities\\ between\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ and\\ dizygotic\\ twins\\ in\\ twin\\ method\\,\\ adoptive\\ siblings\\ being\\ as\\ similar\\ as\\ biological\\ siblings\\ in\\ adoptive\\ studies\\,\\ and\\,\\ again\\ most\\ convincingly\\,\\ high\\ when\\ twins\\ reared\\ apart\\ are\\ less\\ similar\\ than\\ twins\\ raised\\ together\\ in\\ twins\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ studies\\.\\ These\\ all\\ show\\ high\\ similarity\\ ratings\\ corresponding\\ with\\ relationships\\ in\\ which\\ individuals\\ share\\ an\\ environment\\,\\ but\\ not\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Nonshared\\ environment\\ evidence\\ includes\\ \\(with\\ each\\ study\\ respectively\\ as\\ above\\)\\:\\ high\\ when\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ are\\ raised\\ together\\ and\\ not\\ similar\\,\\ what\\'s\\ left\\ over\\ in\\ adoption\\ studis\\ after\\ the\\ genes\\ and\\ shared\\ environment\\ are\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\,\\ and\\ high\\ when\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ raised\\ together\\ show\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ variation\\ in\\ personality\\.\\ This\\ is\\ essentially\\ the\\ \\\"leftover\\ variance\\.\\\"\\ Nobody\\ has\\ a\\ great\\ explanation\\ for\\ what\\ the\\ causal\\ factors\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ \\\"nonshared\\ environment\\\"\\ or\\ even\\ exactly\\ what\\ it\\ means\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ variance\\ left\\ over\\ after\\ the\\ genetic\\ factors\\ and\\ shared\\ environment\\ factors\\ are\\ accounted\\ for\\.\\ In\\ personal\\ communication\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ told\\ me\\ that\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ stochastic\\ factors\\ \\(chance\\ events\\)\\,\\ and\\ I\\ tend\\ to\\ agree\\ with\\ his\\ assessment\\.\\ We\\ all\\ \\\"feel\\ like\\\"\\ our\\ personalities\\ had\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ from\\ somewhere\\,\\ and\\ are\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ are\\ by\\ necessity\\,\\ so\\ no\\ one\\ wants\\ to\\ admit\\ for\\ this\\ possibility\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ does\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ explanation\\,\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ quite\\ reasonable\\ that\\ small\\ random\\ variations\\ could\\ have\\ huge\\ downstream\\ consequences\\ for\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ our\\ personalities\\.\\ How\\ many\\ things\\ have\\ you\\ done\\,\\ or\\ places\\ you\\ have\\ been\\,\\ on\\ a\\ whim\\,\\ that\\ later\\ ended\\ up\\ having\\ a\\ significant\\ impact\\ on\\ your\\ life\\ and\\ personality\\?\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 17 (4/15/08)- Kinship and Socialization"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.777762+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 19 (4/22/08)- Love and Sex II", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 396, "html": "\\This\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ last\\ lecture\\,\\ and\\ will\\ pick\\ up\\ where\\ the\\ last\\ blog\\ left\\ off\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Psychology\\ of\\ Beauty\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ advocated\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\ is\\ that\\ beauty\\ is\\ an\\ external\\ cue\\ for\\ the\\ biological\\ fitness\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ \\(especially\\ as\\ mates\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Beauty\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ \\ a\\ number\\ of\\ different\\,\\ apparently\\ unrelated\\,\\ interpersonal\\ evaluations\\,\\ where\\ pretty\\ people\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ smarter\\,\\ kinder\\,\\ more\\ honest\\,\\ stronger\\,\\ more\\ nurturant\\ and\\ sensitive\\,\\ and\\ more\\ sociable\\ and\\ outgoing\\.\\ Good\\ looks\\ are\\ also\\ correlated\\ with\\ better\\ life\\ outcomes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ cues\\ for\\ good\\ health\\ that\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ beautiful\\ in\\ both\\ sexes\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ overall\\ health\\,\\ absence\\ of\\ deformities\\,\\ good\\ \\(parasite\\ free\\)\\ skin\\,\\ healthy\\ teeth\\,\\ shiny\\ healthy\\ hair\\,\\ symmetry\\,\\ and\\ features\\ of\\ average\\ size\\ and\\ shape\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ features\\ are\\ found\\ beautiful\\ cross\\-culturally\\,\\ and\\ all\\ correlate\\ strongly\\ with\\ good\\ health\\ and\\ robust\\ genes\\.\\ Symmetry\\ is\\ an\\ indication\\ of\\ good\\ health\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ indication\\ of\\ successful\\ development\\.\\ In\\ a\\ bilaterally\\ symmetrical\\ organism\\,\\ any\\ fluctuation\\ in\\ symmetry\\ of\\ features\\ is\\ an\\ indication\\ of\\ disrupted\\ development\\.\\ Symmetrical\\ men\\ \\(and\\ women\\)\\ are\\ more\\ attractive\\ \\(women\\ even\\ find\\ symmetrical\\ men\\ more\\ attractive\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ only\\ smelling\\ shirts\\ that\\ they\\ wore\\,\\ and\\ the\\ man\\ is\\ not\\ even\\ present\\!\\ This\\ must\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ smelling\\ something\\ that\\ correlates\\ with\\ symmetry\\ such\\ as\\ body\\ odors\\,\\ that\\ correlate\\ with\\ good\\ genes\\ as\\ well\\,\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ non\\-technical\\ article\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.divinecaroline\\.com\\/article\\/22081\\/42913\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ Symmetry\\ in\\ men\\ correlates\\ with\\ intelligence\\ and\\ health\\,\\ and\\ it\\ predicts\\ income\\ and\\ sexual\\ activity\\ as\\ well\\.\\ People\\ of\\ \\\"average\\ proportions\\\"\\ are\\ found\\ very\\ attractive\\ because\\ the\\ average\\ phenotype\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"fittest\\,\\\"\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ sense\\ what\\ natural\\ selection\\ is\\ \\\"trying\\ to\\ achieve\\.\\\"\\ When\\ pictures\\ are\\ averaged\\ by\\ putting\\ pictures\\ of\\ faces\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ each\\ other\\,\\ the\\ resulting\\ \\\"average\\\"\\ face\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ being\\ more\\ attractive\\ than\\ most\\ single\\ faces\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ average\\ eliminates\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ deviations\\ due\\ to\\ accidents\\,\\ deformations\\,\\ poor\\ development\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Average\\ here\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ average\\ in\\ attractiveness\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ average\\ proportions\\ \\(such\\ as\\ nose\\ size\\,\\ proportions\\ of\\ eyes\\ to\\ nose\\,\\ length\\ from\\ lip\\ to\\ nose\\ as\\ a\\ ratio\\ of\\ forehead\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ differences\\ as\\ well\\ between\\ what\\ is\\ found\\ attractive\\ in\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ \\(the\\ above\\ features\\ are\\ attractive\\ features\\ in\\ both\\ sexes\\)\\.\\ We\\ could\\ predict\\ that\\ cues\\ to\\ fertility\\,\\ normal\\ hormones\\,\\ and\\ the\\ right\\ sex\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ found\\ attractive\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Women\\ find\\ physical\\ features\\ that\\ correlate\\ with\\ high\\ testosterone\\ attractive\\ such\\ as\\ big\\ jaws\\,\\ and\\ brow\\ ridges\\ \\(\\\"chiseled\\ features\\\"\\)\\.\\ Men\\ tend\\ to\\ find\\ feminine\\ features\\ more\\ attractive\\ such\\ as\\ small\\ jaws\\ \\(seen\\ as\\ \\\"high\\ cheekbones\\\"\\)\\,\\ small\\ noses\\,\\ and\\ lush\\ lips\\.\\ Female\\ attractiveness\\ cues\\ also\\ include\\ signs\\ of\\ youth\\ and\\ nulliparity\\ \\(nulliparity\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ has\\ never\\ had\\ a\\ child\\)\\,\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\,\\ lips\\,\\ and\\ skin\\ these\\ can\\ be\\ features\\ that\\ correlate\\ with\\ youth\\,\\ such\\ as\\ blond\\ hair\\,\\ big\\ eyes\\,\\ big\\ lips\\,\\ bright\\ cheeks\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ biology\\,\\ which\\ creates\\ that\\ which\\ works\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ optimal\\ designs\\,\\ oftentimes\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ rules\\ programmed\\ in\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"more\\ is\\ better\\.\\\"\\ The\\ classic\\ example\\ is\\ in\\ gulls\\,\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ peck\\ a\\ red\\ spot\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ beak\\ of\\ their\\ parent\\ to\\ get\\ fed\\,\\ the\\ bigger\\ and\\ brighter\\ the\\ spot\\ \\(or\\ with\\ extra\\ spots\\)\\ the\\ more\\ the\\ bird\\ will\\ peck\\.\\ Researchers\\ can\\ actually\\ create\\ artificial\\ stimuli\\ that\\ get\\ a\\ greater\\ response\\ than\\ the\\ real\\ thing\\ if\\ the\\ animal\\ just\\ follows\\ the\\ \\\"more\\ is\\ better\\\"\\ rule\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ these\\ exagerrated\\ stimuli\\ do\\ not\\ actually\\ exist\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ are\\ painted\\ on\\ by\\ researchers\\,\\ the\\ rule\\ \\\"more\\ is\\ better\\\"\\ will\\ produce\\ effective\\ behavior\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\.\\ Because\\ there\\ are\\ reasonable\\ limits\\ to\\ how\\ bright\\ or\\ big\\ a\\ spot\\ can\\ be\\ on\\ a\\ parent\\'s\\ beak\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ all\\ the\\ chick\\ needs\\ to\\ know\\ is\\ \\\"peck\\ harder\\ the\\ redder\\/bigger\\ the\\ spot\\,\\\"\\ and\\ this\\ rule\\ of\\ thumb\\ will\\ program\\ in\\ effective\\ behavior\\.\\ This\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ increased\\ behavior\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ \\Supernormal\\ Stimulus\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ A\\ supernormal\\ stimulus\\ is\\ a\\ stimulus\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ actually\\ exist\\ in\\ nature\\ \\(like\\ a\\ HUGE\\ red\\ spot\\)\\,\\ but\\ that\\ can\\ exploit\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ behavioral\\ rules\\ of\\ thumb\\ where\\ \\\"more\\ is\\ better\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ humans\\ because\\ makeup\\,\\ plastic\\ surgery\\,\\ and\\ tricks\\ of\\ photography\\ create\\ people\\ so\\ beautiful\\,\\ that\\ they\\ really\\ could\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ nature\\ \\(think\\ Budweiser\\ Girls\\ or\\ Playboy\\ centerfolds\\)\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ more\\ on\\ super\\ stimuli\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Supernormal\\_stimulus\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\ As\\ this\\ page\\ notes\\,\\ beauty\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ superstimulus\\ we\\ have\\ created\\,\\ junk\\ food\\ like\\ Skittles\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ considered\\ super\\ stimuli\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Male\\ beauty\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ poorly\\ understood\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ research\\ of\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ obtain\\ any\\ consensus\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ attractive\\ in\\ males\\.\\ In\\ some\\ studies\\ more\\ masculine\\ faces\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ testosterone\\-influenced\\,\\ are\\ found\\ more\\ attractive\\.\\ In\\ other\\ studies\\ they\\ have\\ found\\ that\\ some\\ feminization\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ man\\'s\\ face\\ more\\ attractive\\.\\ In\\ recent\\ work\\ under\\ David\\ Buss\\,\\ there\\ are\\ findings\\ that\\ what\\ women\\ find\\ attractive\\ is\\ largely\\ determined\\ by\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\.\\ Women\\ who\\ are\\ ovulating\\ tend\\ to\\ find\\ more\\ masculine\\ traits\\ more\\ attractive\\,\\ and\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ not\\,\\ tend\\ to\\ find\\ more\\ feminine\\ faces\\ more\\ attractive\\ \\(as\\ these\\ are\\ the\\ faces\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ belong\\ to\\ non\\-threatening\\ males\\ who\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ invest\\)\\.\\ This\\ stems\\ from\\ female\\ \\\"strategies\\\"\\ for\\ partner\\ selection\\ vs\\.\\ short\\-term\\/cheating\\ partners\\.\\ Females\\ \\\"look\\ for\\\"\\ investing\\ males\\ as\\ long\\-term\\ partners\\,\\ and\\ this\\ correlates\\ with\\ more\\ feminized\\ features\\,\\ while\\ they\\ seek\\ out\\ the\\ males\\ with\\ the\\ best\\ genes\\ for\\ short\\-term\\ partners\\,\\ and\\ this\\ correlates\\ with\\ very\\ masculine\\ features\\ \\(again\\,\\ this\\ is\\ on\\ average\\,\\ and\\ is\\ an\\ ultimate\\ explanation\\)\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ differences\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ find\\ attractive\\ when\\,\\ women\\ tend\\ to\\ find\\ very\\ masculine\\ features\\ attractive\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ ovulating\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ at\\ any\\ other\\ time\\,\\ and\\ this\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ contradictory\\ research\\ findings\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ has\\ been\\ teased\\ apart\\,\\ and\\ I\\ recommend\\ checking\\ out\\ \\The\\ Evolution\\ of\\ Desire\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ David\\ Buss\\ for\\ more\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ following\\ diagram\\ lists\\ out\\ many\\ features\\ on\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ super\\ stimuli\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ models\\)\\ that\\ research\\ has\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ attractive\\ in\\ men\\ or\\ women\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\One\\ final\\ note\\ should\\ be\\ added\\ here\\ about\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ makeup\\.\\ Makeup\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ to\\ exagerrate\\ features\\ that\\ are\\ found\\ attractive\\,\\ creating\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ a\\ super\\ stimulus\\.\\ Think\\ about\\ what\\ makeup\\ does\\:\\ coverup\\ and\\ rouge\\ makes\\ skin\\ look\\ healthier\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ exagerrating\\ cheekbones\\ \\(which\\ makes\\ jaws\\ look\\ smaller\\)\\,\\ lipstick\\ makes\\ lips\\ look\\ younger\\ and\\ bigger\\,\\ eye\\ makeup\\ makes\\ the\\ eyes\\ look\\ proportionally\\ larger\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Clothing\\ also\\ enhances\\ the\\ waist\\ to\\ hip\\ ratio\\ \\(so\\ that\\ women\\ have\\ a\\ waist\\:hip\\ ratio\\ of\\ \\.7\\,\\ and\\ so\\ men\\ have\\ a\\ waist\\:hip\\ ratio\\ of\\ \\.9\\)\\.\\ Cosmetic\\ surgery\\ also\\ accentuates\\ these\\ features\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ what\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ calls\\ the\\ \\\"tyranny\\ of\\ beauty\\ technology\\.\\\"\\ We\\ evaluate\\ how\\ attractive\\ people\\ are\\ by\\ evaluating\\ them\\ against\\ others\\,\\ and\\ now\\ because\\ of\\ modern\\ technology\\ we\\ are\\ surrounded\\ by\\ images\\ of\\ \\\"beauty\\ freaks\\\"\\ or\\ supermodels\\.\\ This\\ has\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ what\\ we\\ judge\\ as\\ \\\"beautiful\\,\\\"\\ and\\ causes\\ us\\ to\\ all\\ feel\\ \\\"ugly\\,\\\"\\ and\\ give\\ us\\ unreasonable\\ expectations\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ level\\ of\\ beauty\\ we\\ should\\ desire\\,\\ and\\ expect\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sexual\\ Jealousy\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ coin\\.\\ Humans\\ seem\\ especially\\ prone\\ to\\ this\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ sexual\\ adaptations\\ that\\ are\\ fairly\\ unique\\ to\\ our\\ species\\.\\ Females\\ have\\ concealed\\ fertilization\\ \\(and\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ go\\ through\\ estruous\\)\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ uncertainty\\ of\\ paternity\\.\\ The\\ worst\\ case\\ scenario\\ for\\ a\\ man\\,\\ evolutionarily\\ speaking\\,\\ is\\ to\\ raise\\ another\\ male\\'s\\ child\\,\\ or\\ being\\ \\cuckolded\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ men\\ show\\ emotional\\ adaptations\\ \\(jealousy\\)\\ to\\ prevent\\ this\\.\\ Given\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ success\\ objects\\ and\\ women\\ are\\ sex\\ objects\\,\\ that\\ men\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ sure\\ of\\ paternity\\,\\ and\\ women\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ sure\\ of\\ prolonged\\ investment\\,\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\ predictions\\ \\(that\\ have\\ been\\ borne\\ out\\)\\ about\\ what\\ makes\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ jealous\\.\\ Men\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ jealous\\ over\\ real\\ or\\ perceived\\ \\sexual\\ infidelity\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ women\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ jealous\\ over\\ real\\ or\\ perceived\\ \\emotional\\ infidelity\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ violence\\ against\\ women\\,\\ or\\ attempted\\ sexual\\ control\\,\\ or\\ male\\-male\\ violence\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ man\\ attacks\\ a\\ rival\\.\\ Jealousy\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ number\\ one\\ motive\\ for\\ murder\\ \\(or\\ reputation\\ defense\\,\\ which\\ is\\ also\\ related\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Patriarchy\\ and\\ the\\ \\\"ownership\\ of\\ women\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ emotions\\ of\\ sexual\\ jealousy\\ lead\\ societies\\ to\\ be\\ structured\\ to\\,\\ in\\ some\\ sense\\,\\ own\\ and\\ control\\ women\\.\\ Marriage\\ is\\ a\\ transfer\\ of\\ ownership\\ of\\ women\\ from\\ father\\ to\\ husband\\.\\ In\\ many\\ societies\\ men\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ bride\\ \\(dowries\\)\\,\\ or\\ are\\ slaves\\ for\\ the\\ future\\ father\\-in\\-law\\ to\\ earn\\ the\\ bride\\.\\ There\\ are\\ ownership\\ badges\\ such\\ as\\ rings\\,\\ names\\,\\ forms\\ of\\ address\\.\\ Other\\ examples\\ of\\ forms\\ of\\ oppression\\ and\\ control\\ include\\:\\ chaperones\\,\\ veils\\,\\ wigs\\,\\ chadors\\ \\&\\;\\ burkas\\,\\ segregation\\ by\\ sex\\,\\ confinement\\,\\ and\\ genital\\ mutilation\\ \\(to\\ assure\\ virginity\\ or\\ to\\ control\\ lust\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ double\\ standard\\ for\\ adultery\\ in\\ most\\ societies\\,\\ with\\ women\\ being\\ punished\\ much\\ more\\ severly\\ \\(and\\ this\\ is\\ often\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ property\\ violation\\,\\ with\\ the\\ \\\"thief\\\"\\ having\\ to\\ pay\\ redress\\)\\.\\ Elopement\\ is\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ theft\\ from\\ the\\ father\\,\\ rape\\ has\\ often\\ been\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ offense\\ against\\ the\\ husband\\ or\\ father\\,\\ and\\ marital\\ rape\\ has\\ been\\ traditionally\\ legal\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Love\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ three\\ types\\ of\\ love\\:\\ lust\\,\\ romantic\\ passion\\,\\ and\\ companionate\\ love\\.\\ These\\ three\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ psychology\\ characterized\\ by\\ different\\ brain\\ chemistry\\.\\ Testosterone\\ controls\\ lust\\.\\ Dopamine\\ and\\ PEA\\ \\(Phenyl\\ ethyl\\ aniline\\-\\ an\\ amphetamine\\-like\\ neurotransmitter\\)\\ control\\ romantic\\ passion\\,\\ or\\ limerance\\.\\ Vasopressin\\ and\\ oxytocin\\ control\\ companionate\\ love\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Social\\ constructivism\\ upholds\\ that\\ romantic\\ love\\ is\\ a\\ recent\\ invention\\.\\ C\\.S\\.\\ Lewis\\ argued\\ that\\ love\\ was\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ medieval\\ troubadours\\ singing\\ of\\ adulterous\\ love\\ of\\ a\\ knight\\ for\\ a\\ lady\\.\\ Some\\ have\\ argued\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ Hollywood\\,\\ or\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"commodification\\ of\\ sexual\\ desire\\ to\\ embed\\ childbearing\\ in\\ a\\ capitalistic\\ system\\ of\\ ownership\\ and\\ property\\ transfer\\.\\\"\\ This\\ view\\ is\\ largely\\ rejected\\ now\\ due\\ to\\ cross\\-cultural\\ studies\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ universality\\ of\\ romantic\\ love\\.\\ There\\ are\\ numerous\\ cultural\\ differences\\ in\\ when\\ and\\ how\\ people\\ can\\ act\\ on\\ love\\,\\ but\\ the\\ emotion\\ is\\ universal\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ state\\ of\\ being\\ in\\ love\\ is\\ not\\ restricted\\ by\\ age\\,\\ sex\\,\\ sexual\\ orientation\\,\\ or\\ ethnic\\ groups\\.\\ The\\ universal\\ states\\/symptoms\\ of\\ love\\ include\\:\\ \\\"special\\ meaning\\\"\\ of\\ beloved\\,\\ focused\\ attention\\,\\ intrusive\\ thinking\\,\\ aggrandization\\ of\\ beloved\\,\\ mood\\ swings\\-ectasy\\ to\\ despair\\,\\ insomnia\\,\\ nervousness\\,\\ anorexia\\,\\ intense\\ energy\\,\\ neediness\\,\\ need\\ for\\ reciprocation\\,\\ looking\\ for\\ clues\\ of\\ the\\ other\\'s\\ love\\,\\ changed\\ priorities\\,\\ emotional\\ dependence\\,\\ empathy\\,\\ sexual\\ desire\\,\\ sexual\\ exclusivity\\,\\ sexual\\ jealousy\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ involuntary\\ or\\ uncontrollable\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ romantic\\ love\\?\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ can\\ be\\ most\\ easily\\ understood\\,\\ by\\ thinking\\ of\\ dating\\ as\\ a\\ \\\"mating\\ market\\.\\\"\\ Everyone\\ is\\ seeking\\ the\\ ideal\\ partner\\,\\ but\\ we\\ may\\ never\\ find\\ this\\ ideal\\ partner\\,\\ furthermore\\,\\ they\\ may\\ not\\ want\\ us\\ if\\ we\\ do\\ find\\ them\\.\\ This\\ mating\\ market\\ tends\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ \\assortative\\ mating\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ basically\\ means\\ the\\ most\\ desirable\\ of\\ both\\ sexes\\ end\\ up\\ together\\,\\ the\\ next\\ most\\ desirable\\ end\\ up\\ together\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\ \\(by\\ the\\ way\\ this\\ is\\ usually\\ what\\ people\\ mean\\ when\\ they\\ say\\ people\\ make\\ a\\ good\\ couple\\ or\\ are\\ well\\-matched\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ trade\\-off\\ in\\ value\\ vs\\.\\ time\\.\\ If\\ we\\ keep\\ seeking\\ out\\ the\\ perfect\\ mate\\,\\ we\\ may\\ never\\ find\\ one\\ at\\ all\\.\\ Romantic\\ passion\\ seems\\ like\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ principles\\ of\\ \\\"smart\\ shopping\\,\\\"\\ as\\ our\\ choices\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ capricious\\,\\ and\\ involuntary\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ tactic\\ to\\ solve\\ \\\"the\\ commitment\\ problem\\.\\\"\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ commit\\ to\\ a\\ relationship\\ we\\ are\\ implicitly\\ foregoing\\ other\\ mating\\ opportunities\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ an\\ inherent\\ problem\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ trust\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ will\\ forego\\ these\\ opportunities\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ waiting\\ for\\ someone\\ better\\ to\\ come\\ along\\ and\\ then\\ ditching\\ the\\ relationship\\.\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ paradoxical\\ tactics\\ come\\ into\\ their\\ own\\.\\ Love\\ is\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ pulling\\ off\\ the\\ steering\\ wheel\\ and\\ holding\\ it\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ in\\ a\\ game\\ of\\ chicken\\.\\ Romance\\ is\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ tactic\\ where\\ one\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ control\\,\\ thus\\ ensuring\\ that\\ they\\ fulfill\\ their\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ bargain\\ because\\ they\\ cannot\\ help\\ it\\.\\ In\\ love\\ we\\ cannot\\ give\\ anyone\\ collateral\\ like\\ we\\ do\\ in\\ economic\\ situations\\ like\\ mortgaging\\ a\\ house\\,\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ \\\"guarantee\\ our\\ promises\\\"\\ in\\ some\\ other\\ way\\.\\ Because\\ commitments\\ are\\ inherently\\ untrustworthy\\,\\ and\\ we\\ cannot\\ give\\ collateral\\,\\ we\\ are\\ seized\\ by\\ an\\ uncontrollable\\ emotion\\,\\ and\\ show\\ many\\ signs\\ of\\ devotion\\ \\(think\\ of\\ the\\ promises\\ in\\ any\\ love\\ song\\)\\,\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ not\\ re\\-neg\\ on\\ our\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ bargain\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Companionate\\ Love\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ psychologically\\ and\\ neurochemically\\ different\\ from\\ romantic\\ love\\ and\\ lust\\.\\ It\\ is\\ controlled\\ by\\ oxytocin\\ and\\ vasopressin\\.\\ Oxytocin\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"cuddle\\ neurotransmitter\\,\\\"\\ it\\ is\\ released\\ during\\ nursing\\ in\\ females\\,\\ during\\ orgasm\\ in\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ it\\ is\\ higher\\ in\\ people\\ who\\ report\\ being\\ in\\ love\\,\\ and\\ as\\ an\\ oral\\ spray\\ given\\ to\\ people\\ it\\ greatly\\ increases\\ cooperative\\/trusting\\ behavior\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ fascinating\\ article\\ on\\ the\\ oxytocin\\ spray\\ leading\\ to\\ more\\ cooperative\\ behavior\\:\\ \\discover2008\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Vasopressin\\ and\\ oxytocin\\ are\\ very\\ similarly\\ structured\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ major\\ effects\\ on\\ different\\ animals\\'\\ bonding\\,\\ including\\ humans\\.\\ Meadow\\ voles\\ are\\ a\\ promiscuous\\ species\\,\\ and\\ prarie\\ voles\\ are\\ a\\ monogamous\\ species\\.\\ The\\ prarie\\ voles\\ have\\ more\\ vasopressin\\ receptors\\ in\\ the\\ reward\\ system\\.\\ Geneticists\\ have\\ \\\"inserted\\\"\\ genes\\ for\\ vasopressin\\ sensitivity\\ in\\ meadow\\ voles\\,\\ and\\ they\\ tend\\ towards\\ monogamy\\,\\ and\\ have\\ given\\ vasopressin\\ blockers\\ to\\ prarie\\ voles\\,\\ who\\ then\\ become\\ promiscuous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ mechanism\\ for\\ long\\-term\\ love\\ could\\ be\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\,\\ in\\ which\\ both\\ partners\\ pay\\ costs\\,\\ but\\ get\\ more\\ benefits\\ over\\ the\\ long\\-term\\.\\ However\\,\\ research\\ shows\\ that\\ marriage\\ based\\ upon\\ this\\ tends\\ not\\ to\\ work\\,\\ as\\ both\\ partners\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ unhappy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ marriage\\ tends\\ to\\ fail\\.\\ Another\\ \\(underrated\\)\\ mechanism\\ for\\ companionate\\ love\\ \\(and\\ friendship\\)\\ is\\ mutualism\\.\\ \\Mutualism\\ \\<\\/em\\>or\\ \\symbiosis\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ biological\\ arrangement\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ organism\\ provides\\ a\\ benefit\\ to\\ another\\ with\\ no\\ cost\\ \\(or\\ even\\ a\\ benefit\\)\\ to\\ themself\\.\\ Friends\\ and\\ partners\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ interests\\,\\ tastes\\,\\ friends\\,\\ enemies\\,\\ and\\ temperament\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ both\\ can\\ act\\ to\\ benefit\\ the\\ other\\,\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ benefitting\\ themself\\ \\(like\\ if\\ they\\ both\\ like\\ to\\ do\\ some\\ activity\\)\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ \\\"virtuous\\ circle\\,\\\"\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ has\\ a\\ \\\"selfish\\\"\\ stake\\ in\\ your\\ survival\\ and\\ well\\-being\\.\\ This\\ also\\ means\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ similar\\ \\\"selfish\\\"\\ stake\\ in\\ the\\ other\\'s\\ survival\\ and\\ well\\-being\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ positive\\-feedback\\ loop\\ that\\ just\\ leads\\ to\\ more\\ positive\\ feelings\\ and\\ behaviors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ genetic\\ fates\\ of\\ a\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\ are\\ aligned\\ as\\ such\\ to\\ a\\ very\\ large\\ degree\\ because\\ they\\ each\\ have\\ a\\ stake\\ in\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ \\(their\\ children\\)\\.\\ Because\\ both\\ of\\ their\\ genetic\\ interests\\ are\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ one\\ package\\ \\(the\\ children\\)\\,\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ mutualism\\.\\ This\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ only\\ if\\ their\\ genetic\\ fates\\ are\\ truly\\ tied\\ together\\ however\\,\\ that\\ is\\ if\\:\\ 1\\)they\\ are\\ both\\ monogamous\\,\\ 2\\)they\\ both\\ favor\\ their\\ own\\ children\\ over\\ their\\ parents\\,\\ brothers\\,\\ sisters\\,\\ nieces\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)they\\ both\\ die\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ \\\"ideal\\\"\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\,\\ and\\ should\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ wonderful\\ Tolstoy\\-esque\\ mutualism\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ call\\ \\\"true\\ love\\.\\\"\\ In\\ fact\\ these\\ conditions\\ are\\ good\\ predictors\\ of\\ what\\ causes\\ marital\\ strife\\:\\ infidelity\\,\\ inlaws\\,\\ and\\ age\\ differences\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ gives\\ one\\ interesting\\ final\\ closing\\ thought\\ here\\ on\\ love\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ ultimate\\ interests\\ from\\ Donald\\ Symons\\.\\ Given\\ that\\ an\\ \\\"ideal\\\"\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\ would\\ have\\ completely\\ overlapping\\ interests\\,\\ they\\ would\\ need\\ no\\ special\\ motivation\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ other\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ strong\\ or\\ intense\\ emotions\\ about\\ love\\ at\\ all\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ if\\ all\\ our\\ interests\\ always\\ lined\\ up\\ with\\ our\\ mate\\'s\\,\\ then\\ we\\ would\\ love\\ our\\ mates\\ as\\ we\\ love\\ ourselves\\.\\ We\\ only\\ metaphorically\\ \\\"love\\ ourselves\\,\\\"\\ and\\ don\\'t\\ feel\\ the\\ throes\\ of\\ passion\\ about\\ ourselves\\ ever\\ because\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ need\\ to\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ best\\ interest\\.\\ So\\,\\ while\\ this\\ may\\ sound\\ great\\,\\ if\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ mating\\ interests\\ lined\\ up\\ perfectly\\,\\ it\\ may\\ also\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ no\\ love\\ whatsoever\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 19 (4/22/08)- Love and Sex II"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.797465+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 20 (4/24/08)- Aggression", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 397, "html": "\\\\\"\\[Without\\ organized\\ society\\]\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ place\\ for\\ industry\\,\\ because\\ the\\ fruit\\ thereof\\ is\\ uncertain\\:\\ and\\ consequently\\ no\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\;\\ no\\ navigation\\,\\ nor\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ commodities\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ imported\\ by\\ sea\\;\\ no\\ commodious\\ building\\;\\ no\\ instruments\\ of\\ moving\\ and\\ removing\\ such\\ things\\ as\\ require\\ much\\ force\\;\\ no\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\;\\ no\\ account\\ of\\ time\\;\\ no\\ arts\\;\\ no\\ letters\\;\\ no\\ society\\;\\ and\\ which\\ is\\ worst\\ of\\ all\\,\\ continual\\ fear\\,\\ and\\ danger\\ of\\ violent\\ death\\;\\ and\\ \\the\\ life\\ of\\ man\\,\\ solitary\\,\\ poor\\,\\ nasty\\,\\ brutish\\,\\ and\\ short\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-Thomas\\ Hobbes\\,\\ \\Leviathan\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ 1651\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Western\\ Philosophy\\ and\\ Aggression\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ polarized\\ perspectives\\ on\\ violence\\ in\\ western\\ philosophy\\,\\ embodied\\ by\\ Thomas\\ Hobbes\\,\\ and\\ Jean\\-Jacques\\ Rousseau\\.\\ Thomas\\ Hobbes\\ essentially\\ argued\\ that\\ man\\ is\\ naturally\\ aggressive\\,\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ need\\ social\\ forces\\ \\(such\\ as\\ the\\ police\\)\\ to\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Rousseau\\ claimed\\ that\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ man\\ is\\ peaceful\\,\\ and\\ rather\\,\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ society\\ that\\ corrupts\\ and\\ turns\\ man\\ violent\\.\\ While\\ neither\\ is\\ right\\ exactly\\,\\ anthropology\\ has\\ borne\\ out\\ Hobbes\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ Rousseau\\.\\ Ironically\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ Hobbes\\'\\ idealogy\\ was\\ very\\ influential\\ in\\ Great\\ Britain\\,\\ while\\ Rousseau\\ inspired\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\,\\ where\\ anarchy\\ caused\\ many\\ unnecessary\\ deaths\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Napolean\\.\\ I\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ typical\\,\\ social\\ structures\\ built\\ out\\ of\\ cynicism\\ of\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ man\\ and\\ government\\ usually\\ guarantee\\ the\\ most\\ rights\\ and\\ well\\-being\\,\\ while\\ those\\ built\\ upon\\ some\\ idealized\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ man\\,\\ be\\ it\\ the\\ noble\\ savage\\ or\\ the\\ ubermensch\\,\\ are\\ usually\\ the\\ most\\ miserable\\ and\\ repressive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Myth\\ of\\ the\\ Peaceful\\ Savage\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ people\\ believe\\ that\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\ are\\ utopian\\ and\\ very\\ peaceful\\.\\ This\\ is\\ often\\ assumed\\ in\\ discussions\\ of\\ North\\ American\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ but\\ is\\ false\\,\\ they\\ were\\ constantly\\ at\\ war\\.\\ Anthropology\\ in\\ other\\ cultures\\ also\\ does\\ not\\ bear\\ this\\ out\\.\\ Napolean\\ Chagnon\\,\\ who\\ studied\\ the\\ Yanomamo\\ \\(\\\"The\\ Fierce\\ People\\\"\\)\\,\\ argued\\ strongly\\ against\\ this\\ myth\\.\\ He\\ claimed\\ that\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ adults\\ in\\ this\\ Amazonian\\ society\\ had\\ lost\\ a\\ family\\ member\\ to\\ violence\\,\\ 44\\%\\ of\\ men\\ had\\ killed\\ someone\\,\\ and\\ \\30\\%\\ of\\ men\\ were\\ killed\\ by\\ other\\ men\\!\\<\\/em\\>\\ Lawrence\\ Keeley\\ has\\,\\ in\\ comparing\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\'\\ warfare\\ and\\ modern\\ warfare\\,\\ argued\\ that\\ in\\ \\\"primitive\\ warfare\\\"\\:\\ mobilization\\ is\\ more\\ complete\\,\\ battles\\ are\\ more\\ frequent\\,\\ casualties\\ are\\ higher\\,\\ prisoners\\ are\\ fewer\\,\\ and\\ weapons\\ are\\ more\\ damaging\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ review\\ of\\ his\\ book\\ touching\\ on\\ the\\ major\\ myths\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/brneurosci\\.org\\/reviews\\/war\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ The\\ following\\ graph\\ illustrates\\ this\\ point\\ well\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Aggression\\ in\\ animals\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Individual\\ aggression\\ is\\ very\\ common\\ in\\ many\\ animal\\ species\\ \\(especially\\ male\\-on\\-male\\ violence\\)\\,\\ but\\ collective\\ aggression\\ is\\ rare\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ only\\ documented\\ cases\\ of\\ collective\\ or\\ group\\ aggression\\ in\\ other\\ species\\ in\\ animals\\ include\\ chimpanzees\\,\\ and\\ dolphins\\.\\ Jane\\ Goodall\\ documented\\ that\\ chimpanzees\\ committed\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ genocide\\ between\\ groups\\ of\\ chimpanzees\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ reasons\\ why\\ collective\\ aggression\\ is\\ so\\ rare\\ in\\ animals\\,\\ there\\ are\\ similar\\ cognitive\\ problems\\ in\\ collective\\ aggression\\,\\ as\\ with\\ altruism\\,\\ such\\ as\\ defection\\ through\\ cowardice\\ \\(let\\ the\\ other\\ guys\\ fight\\,\\ and\\ then\\ reap\\ the\\ benefits\\)\\.\\ As\\ with\\ altruism\\ there\\ are\\ usually\\ genetic\\ factors\\ involved\\ in\\ which\\ related\\ males\\ band\\ together\\ for\\ coalitional\\ aggression\\ like\\ kin\\ selection\\ \\(lions\\ do\\ this\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ do\\ we\\ \\(organisms\\)\\ fight\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Again\\ here\\,\\ Hobbes\\ really\\ nails\\ it\\ with\\ his\\ three\\ reasons\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Competition\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(for\\ gains\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ feature\\ of\\ Darwinian\\ Evolution\\,\\ \\\"he\\ who\\ monopolizes\\ the\\ most\\ resources\\,\\ wins\\.\\\"\\ So\\,\\ we\\ compete\\ for\\ resources\\.\\ Resources\\ can\\ include\\ many\\ things\\,\\ specifically\\ here\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ competition\\-generating\\ \\\"resource\\\"\\ is\\ the\\ females\\ of\\ the\\ species\\.\\ This\\ doesn\\'t\\ necessarily\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ females\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ less\\ investing\\ sex\\ competes\\ over\\ the\\ more\\ investing\\ sex\\.\\ There\\ is\\ substantial\\ evidence\\ of\\ killing\\ over\\ women\\ in\\ many\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\,\\ and\\ amongst\\ the\\ Yanomamo\\,\\ men\\ who\\ had\\ killed\\ had\\ twice\\ as\\ many\\ wives\\ and\\ twice\\ as\\ many\\ children\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ had\\ not\\.\\ There\\ is\\ often\\ much\\ violence\\ also\\ to\\ avenge\\ prior\\ violence\\,\\ which\\ creates\\ blood\\ feuds\\.\\ Men\\ often\\ kill\\ to\\ abduct\\ women\\,\\ and\\ men\\ often\\ kill\\ other\\ men\\ to\\ avenge\\ abduction\\,\\ adultery\\,\\ or\\ prior\\ killings\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ across\\ all\\ known\\ societies\\,\\ males\\ commit\\ drastically\\ more\\ violent\\ acts\\ than\\ men\\.\\ Across\\ 35\\ samples\\ of\\ homicide\\ statistics\\ in\\ 14\\ countries\\,\\ collected\\ by\\ Daly\\ \\&\\;\\ Wilson\\,\\ men\\ were\\ found\\ to\\ kill\\ 26\\ times\\ more\\ often\\ than\\ women\\.\\ Men\\ are\\ also\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ risky\\ behavior\\ \\(just\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ stereotypical\\ adrenaline\\ junkie\\,\\ and\\ think\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ winners\\ of\\ the\\ Darwin\\ Awards\\.\\.\\.almost\\ 100\\%\\ male\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Diffidence\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(for\\ self\\-protection\\ or\\ safety\\)\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ calls\\ this\\ the\\ \\\"Hobbesian\\ Trap\\,\\\"\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ paradox\\ of\\ violence\\ starting\\ to\\ preempt\\ violence\\.\\ \\\"Let\\'s\\ do\\ it\\ to\\ them\\ before\\ they\\ do\\ it\\ to\\ us\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"the\\ best\\ defense\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ offense\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ exemplified\\ in\\ the\\ \\\"burglar\\ in\\ the\\ basement\\,\\\"\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ burglar\\ and\\ a\\ homeowner\\ who\\ walks\\ in\\ on\\ them\\ are\\ pointing\\ guns\\ at\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ neither\\ wants\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\,\\ but\\ has\\ to\\ because\\ they\\ think\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ victim\\ first\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ aggressor\\.\\ This\\ Hobbesian\\ trap\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ many\\ wars\\ \\(think\\ World\\ War\\ 1\\,\\ which\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ wanted\\ but\\ everyone\\ just\\ acted\\ \\\"in\\ defense\\,\\\"\\ and\\ the\\ six\\-day\\ war\\)\\.\\ This\\ also\\ has\\ frightening\\ implications\\ for\\ nuclear\\ warfare\\ and\\ arms\\ buildups\\,\\ and\\ fear\\ of\\ surprise\\ attack\\.\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ Hobbesian\\ trap\\ is\\ deterrence\\,\\ such\\ that\\ \\\"we\\ won\\'t\\ attack\\ first\\,\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ attacked\\ we\\ will\\ retaliate\\ surely\\ and\\ severly\\.\\\"\\ Here\\ we\\ stumble\\ into\\ more\\ Strangelovian\\ domains\\.\\ There\\ are\\ 3\\ prerequisites\\ for\\ mutually\\ assured\\ destruction\\ to\\ work\\:\\ 1\\)credibility\\ of\\ no\\-first\\-strike\\ policy\\ \\(transparency\\)\\,\\ 2\\)\\ ability\\ to\\ survive\\ the\\ first\\ strike\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ resolve\\ to\\ carry\\ this\\ out\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ self\\-destructive\\.\\ This\\ is\\ obvious\\ in\\ nuclear\\ warfare\\,\\ but\\ should\\ echo\\ themes\\ from\\ human\\ interpersonal\\ aggression\\ as\\ well\\,\\ through\\ the\\ Law\\ of\\ Retaliation\\,\\ \\\"\\Lex\\ Talionis\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"an\\ eye\\ for\\ an\\ eye\\,\\ or\\ a\\ tooth\\ for\\ a\\ tooth\\.\\\"\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Glory\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(increasing\\ reputation\\ and\\ honor\\)\\.\\ Humans\\ are\\ obsessed\\ with\\ their\\ reputations\\,\\ and\\ will\\ hurt\\ others\\ to\\ better\\ their\\ reputations\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ deterrence\\ mentioned\\ above\\ in\\ individual\\ terms\\,\\ is\\ \\\"how\\ does\\ one\\ convince\\ another\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ bluffing\\?\\\"\\ In\\ come\\ the\\ paradoxical\\ tactics\\ once\\ again\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ third\\ prerequisite\\ above\\.\\ If\\ we\\ get\\ so\\ furiously\\ out\\ of\\ control\\ that\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ help\\ but\\ retaliate\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ known\\,\\ then\\ the\\ emotion\\ is\\ a\\ guarantee\\ of\\ retaliation\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ guys\\ with\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ aggression\\ can\\ also\\ serve\\ this\\ purpose\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ \\\"don\\'t\\ mess\\ with\\ me\\ because\\ I\\'m\\ nuts\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ probably\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ ultimate\\ reasons\\ for\\ why\\ guys\\ can\\ act\\ so\\ insanely\\ furious\\,\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ so\\ intimidating\\,\\ even\\ for\\ small\\ offenses\\.\\ Men\\ often\\ kill\\ for\\ honor\\ and\\ reputation\\ to\\ show\\ others\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ messed\\ with\\.\\ This\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ deterrent\\ against\\ infidelity\\ when\\ directed\\ towards\\ mates\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\ Honor\\ and\\ reputation\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Humans\\ are\\ evolved\\ for\\ an\\ environment\\ without\\ police\\,\\ where\\ the\\ only\\ security\\ that\\ one\\ is\\ guaranteed\\,\\ is\\ that\\ which\\ one\\ can\\ assure\\ for\\ themselves\\ through\\ aggression\\,\\ reputation\\,\\ and\\ honor\\.\\ Without\\ police\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ Thrasymachus\\ claims\\ in\\ Plato\\'s\\ \\Republic\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\\"justice\\ is\\ the\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ stronger\\.\\\"\\ Men\\ \\(in\\ all\\ cultures\\)\\ are\\ always\\ fighting\\,\\ often\\ to\\ the\\ death\\,\\ over\\ extremely\\ trivial\\ matters\\,\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ actually\\ fighting\\ for\\ is\\ their\\ honor\\ or\\ reputation\\.\\ This\\ is\\ so\\ that\\ others\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ be\\ pushed\\ around\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cultures\\ of\\ Honor\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ \\\"cultures\\ of\\ honor\\\"\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ wild\\ west\\ or\\ old\\ American\\ South\\,\\ men\\ are\\ especially\\ prone\\ to\\ reputation\\-protecting\\ violence\\.\\ The\\ factors\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ these\\ cultures\\ of\\ honor\\ are\\ \\cultures\\ without\\ police\\ or\\ official\\ means\\ for\\ retribution\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ cultures\\ with\\ mobile\\ wealth\\,\\ like\\ the\\ wild\\ west\\,\\ drug\\ cultures\\,\\ mafia\\,\\ gangs\\,\\ inner\\ cities\\,\\ the\\ Amazon\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ is\\ common\\ in\\ mountainous\\ regions\\ where\\ the\\ law\\ cannot\\ reach\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Sicily\\,\\ Southern\\ Appalachia\\,\\ the\\ Scottish\\ highlands\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Balkans\\.\\ A\\ striking\\ example\\/analogy\\ is\\ nation\\-states\\ dealing\\ with\\ each\\ other\\,\\ in\\ which\\ countries\\ go\\ to\\ war\\ to\\ defend\\ their\\ reputations\\,\\ believing\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ back\\ up\\ transgressions\\ against\\ them\\,\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ prone\\ to\\ attack\\ by\\ all\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ other\\ major\\ factor\\ for\\ cultures\\ of\\ honor\\ mentioned\\ above\\ is\\ very\\ \\mobile\\ wealth\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ such\\ as\\ dealers\\ of\\ jewelry\\,\\ and\\ drugs\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ amongst\\ herders\\ \\(cattle\\ are\\ easier\\ to\\ steal\\ than\\ land\\)\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ place\\.\\ Nisbett\\ and\\ Cohen\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ herder\\ culture\\ of\\ honor\\ from\\ Ireland\\ and\\ Scotland\\ was\\ imported\\ into\\ the\\ Southern\\ United\\ States\\,\\ and\\ that\\ these\\ cultural\\ patterns\\ exist\\ to\\ this\\ day\\.\\ Rates\\ of\\ violence\\ are\\ higher\\ in\\ the\\ South\\,\\ the\\ laws\\ reflect\\ this\\ culture\\ of\\ honor\\ allowing\\ much\\ more\\ lee\\-way\\ for\\ revenge\\,\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ involvement\\ in\\ sports\\,\\ and\\ many\\ more\\ people\\ go\\ into\\ the\\ military\\ \\(and\\ support\\ hawkish\\ policies\\)\\.\\ This\\ was\\ also\\ demonstrated\\ in\\ experiments\\ at\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Michigan\\,\\ where\\ subjects\\ had\\ to\\ squeeze\\ by\\ a\\ confederate\\ \\\"filing\\ papers\\.\\\"\\ As\\ the\\ students\\ went\\ by\\ the\\ confederate\\ muttered\\ \\\"asshole\\,\\\"\\ and\\ those\\ from\\ the\\ south\\ were\\ much\\ more\\ agitated\\,\\ had\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ cortisol\\,\\ and\\ showed\\ many\\ other\\ behaviors\\ of\\ \\\"swagger\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Aggression\\ among\\ groups\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ the\\ flip\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ coin\\ of\\ kin\\ selection\\.\\ Usually\\ collective\\ aggression\\ is\\ between\\ groups\\ of\\ men\\,\\ where\\ those\\ within\\ the\\ groups\\ are\\ all\\ related\\ \\(think\\ famous\\ blood\\ feuds\\ like\\ the\\ Hatfields\\ and\\ McCoys\\)\\.\\ Blood\\ feuds\\ are\\ based\\ upon\\ collective\\ revenge\\ \\(any\\ member\\ of\\ your\\ group\\ killed\\ for\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ our\\ group\\ killed\\)\\.\\ Ethnic\\ groups\\ often\\ act\\ as\\ groups\\ of\\ aggressors\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ robust\\ findings\\ from\\ social\\ psychology\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ sort\\ into\\ in\\-groups\\ and\\ out\\-groups\\ at\\ the\\ drop\\ of\\ a\\ hat\\.\\ These\\ can\\ then\\ often\\ lead\\ to\\ aggressive\\ encounters\\ between\\ these\\ minimally\\ defined\\ groups\\.\\ This\\ was\\ most\\ strikingly\\ demonstrated\\ in\\ the\\ Robber\\'s\\ Cave\\ Study\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Robber\\'s\\ Cave\\ Study\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ was\\ a\\ study\\ undertaken\\ at\\ a\\ boys\\ camp\\ with\\ 22\\ 11\\-year\\-old\\ WASP\\ boys\\.\\ These\\ were\\ all\\ well\\-adjusted\\ middle\\ class\\ boys\\,\\ who\\ the\\ researchers\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ groups\\:\\ the\\ Rattlers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Eagles\\.\\ The\\ kids\\ were\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ to\\ these\\ two\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ study\\ had\\ multiple\\ phases\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ intergroup\\ competition\\ and\\ cooperation\\ would\\ develop\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ phase\\ one\\ the\\ boys\\ lived\\ separately\\ for\\ one\\ week\\.\\ During\\ this\\ week\\,\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\ each\\ developed\\ distinctive\\ cultures\\,\\ with\\ the\\ rattlers\\ valuing\\ snake\\-like\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ acting\\ tough\\,\\ cursing\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ the\\ eagles\\ valuing\\ things\\ that\\ were\\ sort\\ of\\ eagle\\-like\\ or\\ high\\ minded\\ like\\ praying\\,\\ and\\ nude\\ swimming\\ \\(this\\ example\\ doesn\\'t\\ fit\\ the\\ explanation\\ exactly\\)\\.\\ The\\ boys\\ during\\ this\\ week\\ really\\ wanted\\ to\\ compete\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ kept\\ separate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\During\\ the\\ second\\ phase\\,\\ week\\ 2\\,\\ the\\ boys\\ were\\ put\\ in\\ direct\\ competition\\.\\ They\\ had\\ a\\ \\\"grand\\ tournament\\\"\\ with\\ sporting\\ events\\,\\ skits\\,\\ and\\ songs\\.\\ On\\ day\\ 1\\ here\\,\\ the\\ rattlers\\ won\\ at\\ baseball\\,\\ and\\ the\\ eagles\\ tore\\ down\\ the\\ rattler\\ banner\\ and\\ burned\\ it\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ fistfights\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ eagles\\ won\\ at\\ tug\\-of\\-war\\ and\\ the\\ rattlers\\ raided\\ their\\ cabin\\ at\\ night\\,\\ overturning\\ beds\\ and\\ stealing\\ clothing\\.\\ The\\ eagles\\ retaliated\\ with\\ a\\ raid\\ on\\ the\\ rattler\\ cabin\\ armed\\ with\\ bats\\ and\\ sticks\\,\\ and\\ everyone\\ entrenched\\ themselves\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ cabins\\ with\\ rocks\\ in\\ socks\\.\\ They\\ essentially\\ \\\"went\\ to\\ war\\\"\\ here\\ \\(of\\ course\\ 11\\-year\\-old\\ war\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ phase\\ 3\\ \\(week\\ 3\\)\\ they\\ brought\\ the\\ boys\\ together\\ in\\ noncompetitive\\ situations\\ like\\ filling\\ out\\ questionnaires\\,\\ movies\\,\\ and\\ eating\\ together\\.\\ The\\ two\\ groups\\ were\\ still\\ bitter\\ enemies\\,\\ and\\ just\\ intergroup\\ contact\\ was\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ divisive\\ differences\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ phase\\ 4\\ \\(week\\ 4\\)\\ they\\ brought\\ the\\ boys\\ together\\ to\\ solve\\ collective\\ problems\\ that\\ took\\ both\\ groups\\ working\\ together\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ problems\\.\\ For\\ example\\ they\\ orchestrated\\ a\\ broken\\ water\\ supply\\ pipe\\ that\\ the\\ boys\\ had\\ to\\ all\\ inspect\\ together\\,\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ truck\\ \\\"break\\ down\\\"\\ so\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ boys\\ had\\ to\\ pull\\ it\\ together\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ caused\\ reconciliation\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\,\\ who\\ ended\\ up\\ being\\ friendly\\ and\\ actually\\ riding\\ home\\ together\\ on\\ one\\ bus\\,\\ not\\ sitting\\ separately\\ in\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ study\\ is\\ explained\\ in\\ much\\ more\\ detail\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Muzafer\\_Sherif\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ the\\ end\\ the\\ parents\\ were\\ told\\ about\\ the\\ study\\ \\(which\\ would\\ not\\ pass\\ ethics\\ boards\\ today\\)\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ completely\\ unsurprised\\.\\ The\\ boys\\ all\\ had\\ a\\ great\\ time\\,\\ and\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ wonderful\\ camp\\ experience\\.\\ Both\\ reactions\\ show\\ just\\ how\\ normal\\ and\\ natural\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ intergroup\\ aggression\\ is\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Minimalist\\ prejudice\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ experiments\\ showing\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ act\\ like\\ this\\,\\ with\\ severe\\ animosity\\ to\\ the\\ outgroup\\,\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ groups\\ are\\ assigned\\ with\\ such\\ minimal\\ tasks\\ as\\ a\\ coin\\ flip\\.\\ As\\ soon\\ as\\ people\\ are\\ put\\ into\\ different\\ groups\\,\\ without\\ even\\ knowing\\ each\\ other\\ they\\ show\\ these\\ aggressive\\ intergroup\\ interactions\\.\\ In\\ a\\ classic\\ experiment\\ Henri\\ Tajfel\\,\\ split\\ people\\ into\\ groups\\ depending\\ on\\ whether\\ they\\ preferred\\ paintings\\ by\\ Klee\\ or\\ Kandinsky\\.\\ They\\ then\\ gave\\ people\\ a\\ task\\ to\\ divide\\ up\\ money\\ between\\ \\someone\\ else\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ their\\ own\\ group\\,\\ and\\ someone\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ group\\.\\ Remember\\ here\\ that\\ the\\ individuals\\ were\\ all\\ strangers\\,\\ and\\ had\\ just\\ been\\ divided\\ up\\ into\\ groups\\ on\\ the\\ flimsiest\\ pretext\\,\\ so\\ really\\ people\\ were\\ just\\ dividing\\ money\\ between\\ two\\ strangers\\.\\ People\\ would\\ split\\ the\\ money\\ incredibly\\ unfairly\\ to\\ the\\ outgroup\\ members\\,\\ including\\ giving\\ someone\\ in\\ their\\ group\\ less\\ overall\\ money\\,\\ just\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ they\\ got\\ more\\ money\\ than\\ the\\ person\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ group\\.\\ People\\ rated\\ others\\ from\\ the\\ other\\ group\\ as\\ less\\ likeable\\,\\ less\\ fair\\,\\ and\\ giving\\ a\\ lower\\ quality\\ of\\ work\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ their\\ ingroup\\.\\ They\\ then\\ replicated\\ this\\ with\\ just\\ a\\ coinflip\\,\\ yielding\\ the\\ same\\ results\\.\\ What\\ we\\ see\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ show\\ biases\\ against\\ out\\-group\\ members\\,\\ even\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ good\\ reason\\ for\\ them\\ being\\ in\\ another\\ group\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Minimal\\_groups\\_paradigm\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ While\\ this\\ website\\ discusses\\ his\\ theories\\ these\\ findings\\ would\\ be\\ explained\\ in\\ evolutionary\\ psychology\\ as\\ coalitional\\ psychology\\ \\(although\\ social\\ identity\\ theory\\ has\\ many\\ similarities\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ has\\ huge\\ implications\\ for\\ the\\ relevance\\ of\\ race\\,\\ ethnic\\,\\ and\\ sex\\ discrimination\\ in\\ the\\ job\\ market\\.\\ People\\ are\\ automatically\\ biased\\ against\\ those\\ in\\ other\\ groups\\,\\ even\\ being\\ willing\\ to\\ inflict\\ costs\\ upon\\ themselves\\,\\ just\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ group\\ come\\ out\\ better\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ out\\-group\\.\\ We\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ these\\ stone\\ age\\ biases\\ that\\ cause\\ problems\\ in\\ modern\\ society\\ such\\ as\\ discrimination\\,\\ and\\ out\\-group\\ bias\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ perhaps\\ a\\ definite\\ need\\ for\\ things\\ like\\ affirmative\\ action\\ to\\ correct\\ misrepresentation\\,\\ as\\ the\\ economic\\ argument\\ that\\ firms\\ always\\ will\\ act\\ in\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\ may\\ not\\ exactly\\ apply\\ here\\ \\(in\\ hiring\\ the\\ most\\ qualified\\ person\\ regardless\\ of\\ ethnicity\\ or\\ gender\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ decline\\ of\\ violence\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ information\\ on\\ in\\-groups\\ and\\ out\\-groups\\ coupled\\ with\\ \\\"natural\\\"\\ aggressive\\ tendencies\\,\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ little\\ disheartening\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ whole\\ story\\.\\ Hobbes\\ was\\ not\\ just\\ right\\ about\\ human\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ was\\ right\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ improve\\ our\\ lot\\ as\\ humans\\ \\(on\\ some\\ level\\,\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ think\\ we\\ need\\ a\\ dictator\\)\\.\\ \\ We\\ have\\ created\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ democratic\\ \\\"Leviathan\\.\\\"\\ Throughout\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ western\\ societies\\,\\ people\\ \\(especially\\ males\\)\\ have\\ a\\ much\\ lower\\ probability\\ of\\ dying\\ at\\ another\\ man\\'s\\ hands\\ \\(about\\ 100\\ times\\ less\\ likely\\ than\\ in\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\ \\.3\\%\\ chance\\ vs\\.\\ 30\\%\\ chance\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ illustrated\\ in\\ the\\ graph\\ below\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ logarithmic\\ graph\\,\\ so\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ decline\\ does\\ not\\ look\\ dramatic\\ it\\ represents\\ a\\ decrease\\ of\\ about\\ 10\\-fold\\ in\\ 800\\ years\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Furthermore\\,\\ we\\ see\\ people\\ live\\ better\\ now\\ and\\ are\\ \\\"nicer\\.\\\"\\ We\\ have\\ seen\\ a\\ massive\\ decline\\ in\\ many\\ types\\ of\\ violence\\ and\\ cruelty\\ such\\ as\\:\\ human\\ sacrifice\\,\\ genocide\\,\\ slavery\\,\\ deadly\\ ethnic\\ riots\\,\\ political\\ murder\\,\\ torture\\ and\\ mutilation\\ as\\ criminal\\ punishment\\,\\ capital\\ punishment\\ for\\ property\\ crimes\\ and\\ political\\ expression\\,\\ corporeal\\ punishment\\,\\ and\\ military\\ conscription\\.\\ So\\,\\ why\\ has\\ violence\\ declined\\?\\ We\\ have\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ today\\,\\ which\\ not\\ only\\ makes\\ us\\ more\\ peaceful\\,\\ but\\ seems\\ to\\ yield\\ huge\\ economic\\ benefits\\ as\\ well\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ \\\"democratic\\ Leviathan\\\"\\ \\(as\\ I\\ said\\ above\\,\\ Hobbes\\ was\\ mostly\\ right\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\'t\\ really\\ have\\ democracies\\ in\\ his\\ age\\)\\.\\ The\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ seems\\ to\\ eliminate\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ \\\"cultures\\ of\\ honor\\\"\\ and\\ their\\ resulting\\ cycles\\ of\\ violence\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ striking\\ graph\\ taken\\ from\\ an\\ Economist\\ article\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\We\\ also\\ have\\ seen\\ an\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"moral\\ circle\\\"\\ \\(this\\ is\\ an\\ idea\\ from\\ Peter\\ Singer\\)\\.\\ What\\ we\\ see\\ above\\ is\\ people\\ naturally\\ favor\\ those\\ in\\ their\\ \\\"in\\-group\\\"\\ and\\ disfavor\\ those\\ in\\ their\\ out\\-group\\.\\ Looking\\ a\\ moral\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ 2000\\ years\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ an\\ expansion\\ of\\ who\\ we\\ consider\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ in\\-group\\.\\ This\\ would\\ cause\\ us\\ to\\ expand\\ our\\ sense\\ of\\ empathy\\ to\\ others\\ that\\ we\\ include\\ in\\ our\\ ever\\-growing\\ circle\\ of\\ our\\ in\\-group\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ partially\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ \\\"empathy\\ technologies\\,\\\"\\ which\\ help\\ us\\ see\\ things\\ from\\ others\\'\\ perspectives\\,\\ such\\ as\\ journalism\\,\\ history\\,\\ and\\ realistic\\ fiction\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ with\\ expanding\\ ranges\\ of\\ international\\ economic\\ connectedness\\,\\ we\\ are\\ essentially\\ tying\\ our\\ interests\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ others\\ creating\\ a\\ relationship\\ of\\ international\\ mutualism\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 20 (4/24/08)- Aggression"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.690369+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tony Kushner and Gay Liberation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 333, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\:\\ Tony\\ Kushner\\,\\ \\Angels\\ in\\ America\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ may\\ not\\ capture\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ apocalypse\\ and\\ the\\ scourge\\ of\\ AIDS\\ featured\\ in\\ \\Angels\\ in\\ America\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ but\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ gay\\-friendly\\ nonetheless\\:\\ students\\ were\\ greeted\\ as\\ they\\ walked\\ into\\ lecture\\ today\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;YMCA\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ The\\ Village\\ People\\ \\(and\\ you\\ thought\\ a\\ Christian\\ physical\\ health\\ organization\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ \\fabulous\\<\\/em\\>\\!\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ begins\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\ overview\\ of\\ the\\ importance\\ on\\ sexuality\\ in\\ rise\\ of\\ Conceptual\\ Art\\ in\\ the\\ sixties\\ and\\ seventies\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ roots\\ of\\ Vietnam\\-era\\ conceptual\\ artists\\ are\\ with\\ the\\ \\DADA\\ movement\\<\\/a\\>\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\ that\\ stressed\\ an\\ aesthetics\\ of\\ nonsense\\ and\\ chaos\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ well\\-known\\ pieces\\ from\\ this\\ avant\\-garde\\ group\\ are\\ the\\ \\Marcel\\ Duchamp\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\#8220\\;ready\\-mades\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Here\\ is\\ his\\ urinal\\ \\(the\\ piece\\ is\\ named\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Fountain\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ signed\\ \\&\\#8220\\;R\\.\\ Mutt\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>Duchamp\\ formed\\ a\\ collective\\ opposed\\ to\\ aesthetic\\ narrowness\\,\\ and\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ open\\-mindedness\\ of\\ his\\ colleagues\\ in\\ the\\ collective\\ he\\ submitted\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Fountain\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ the\\ 1917\\ Independents\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ rejected\\ it\\,\\ and\\ Duchamp\\ resigned\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;Fountain\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ several\\ ready\\-mades\\ that\\ attempted\\ to\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ the\\ museum\\ and\\ define\\ all\\ experience\\ as\\ art\\,\\ which\\ amounted\\ to\\ a\\ radical\\,\\ democratic\\ aesthetic\\ that\\ located\\ art\\ \\everywhere\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\(In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ ready\\-mades\\ are\\ a\\ protest\\ against\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ art\\,\\ which\\ separates\\ art\\ from\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;real\\ world\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ safely\\ sequestering\\ it\\ in\\ museums\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Ready\\-mades\\ were\\ Duchamp\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ way\\ of\\ destroying\\ museums\\ as\\ the\\ special\\ location\\ of\\ art\\ within\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Note\\:\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;original\\&\\#8221\\;\\ urinal\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ already\\ a\\ deliciously\\ ironic\\ idea\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ Duchamp\\,\\ never\\ one\\ to\\ let\\ a\\ clever\\ idea\\ go\\ half\\-expressed\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;found\\&\\#8221\\;\\ several\\ more\\ urinals\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ placed\\ prominently\\ in\\ \\[surprise\\!\\]\\ the\\ most\\ well\\-funded\\ museums\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ canonization\\ of\\ DADAism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ avant\\-gardist\\ movements\\ in\\ general\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ representation\\ of\\ how\\ many\\ radical\\ protests\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ institution\\ they\\ reject\\.\\ Incidentally\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ urinals\\ was\\ \\attacked\\ with\\ a\\ hammer\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(twice\\!\\)\\ by\\ a\\ performance\\ artist\\,\\ which\\ is\\ brilliant\\.\\ There\\'s\\ no\\ better\\ way\\ to\\ destroy\\ the\\ aura\\ that\\ attaches\\ to\\ \\\"art\\\"\\ than\\ with\\ a\\ hammer\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stauffer\\ also\\ shows\\ some\\ images\\ by\\ Barbara\\ Kruger\\,\\ including\\ her\\ famous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Your\\ body\\ is\\ a\\ Battleground\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ underscores\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ personal\\ has\\ become\\ political\\:\\\r\\\\\\Kruger\\ has\\ a\\ background\\ in\\ commercial\\ graphic\\ art\\,\\ which\\ she\\ takes\\ into\\ the\\ museums\\,\\ declaring\\ it\\ fine\\ art\\.\\ \\(The\\ elephant\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ room\\ right\\ now\\ is\\ \\Andy\\ Warhol\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ did\\ much\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ how\\ these\\ experiments\\ are\\ updated\\ versions\\ of\\ Duchamp\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ critique\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ world\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ reason\\ why\\ Duchamp\\ enjoyed\\ a\\ resurgence\\ of\\ popularity\\ in\\ the\\ seventies\\.\\)\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Another\\ famous\\ piece\\ of\\ conceptual\\ art\\ was\\ Vito\\ Acconci\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Seedbed\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ 1970\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ \\\\New\\ \\ \\ York\\ City\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ gallery\\ had\\ all\\ blank\\ walls\\ with\\ an\\ inclined\\ floor\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ speaker\\ in\\ the\\ corner\\ whispered\\ sexual\\ fantasies\\ as\\ gallery\\ patrons\\ approached\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Three\\ times\\ a\\ week\\ for\\ eight\\ hours\\ each\\ day\\,\\ Acconci\\ lay\\ down\\ underneath\\ the\\ floor\\ \\(beneath\\ the\\ incline\\)\\ and\\ spoke\\ to\\ people\\ while\\ he\\ masturbated\\.\\ \\(And\\ you\\ thought\\ \\you\\<\\/em\\>\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ a\\ conceptual\\ artist\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Vito\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ example\\ can\\ be\\ an\\ inspiration\\ to\\ would\\-be\\ artists\\ everywhere\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>All\\ it\\ takes\\ is\\ an\\ irreverent\\ imagination\\,\\ a\\ clever\\ idea\\ and\\ hours\\ upon\\ hours\\ of\\,\\ um\\,\\ dedication\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Shifting\\ away\\ from\\ conceptual\\ art\\ to\\ photography\\,\\ Stauffer\\ then\\ shows\\ some\\ images\\ by\\ \\Nan\\ Goldin\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ photographed\\ a\\ circle\\ of\\ gay\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ eighties\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Ballad\\ of\\ Sexual\\ Dependency\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Goldin\\ captures\\ intimate\\ moments\\ mostly\\ between\\ gay\\ and\\ lesbian\\ couples\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ work\\ represents\\ yet\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ personal\\ becoming\\ political\\ in\\ art\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Goldin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ aesthetic\\ is\\ the\\ private\\,\\ candid\\ snapshot\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\ is\\ Goldin\\'s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Ivy\\ with\\ Marilyn\\&\\#8221\\;\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ final\\ series\\ of\\ photographs\\ are\\ from\\ \\Robert\\ Mapplethorpe\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ generally\\ had\\ two\\ kinds\\ of\\ images\\:\\ pristine\\ nudes\\ and\\ documentary\\ photographs\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\New\\ York\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ gay\\ scene\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ nudes\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ \\(and\\ controversial\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Mapplethorpe\\ revels\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ the\\ nude\\ body\\ in\\ art\\ history\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ compositions\\ are\\ beautiful\\.\\ The\\ printing\\ is\\ exquisite\\,\\ and\\ his\\ bodies\\ display\\ an\\ incredible\\ tonal\\ range\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ more\\ famous\\ nudes\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\'s\\ a\\ double\\ standard\\ behind\\ the\\ controversy\\ his\\ photographs\\ provoked\\:\\ while\\ the\\ art\\-going\\ public\\ was\\ more\\ than\\ happy\\ to\\ delight\\ in\\ the\\ centuries\\-long\\ tradition\\ of\\ female\\ nudity\\,\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ male\\ nude\\ was\\,\\ presumably\\,\\ going\\ \\too\\ far\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Angels\\ in\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\America\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tony\\ Kushner\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ sketches\\ the\\ context\\ for\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ gay\\ liberation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ Kushner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Angels\\ in\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ personal\\ anecdote\\ \\(a\\ now\\-familiar\\ custom\\ for\\ this\\ course\\:\\ charting\\ the\\ paths\\ between\\ the\\ literature\\ and\\ history\\ of\\ protest\\ to\\ personal\\,\\ individual\\ lives\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Kushner\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ McCarthy\\ coming\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ closet\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ the\\ Matthew\\ Shephard\\ tragedy\\ in\\ 1998\\,\\ Kushner\\ wrote\\ an\\ article\\ in\\ \\The\\ Nation\\<\\/em\\>\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Matthew\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Passion\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(You\\ can\\ read\\ the\\ article\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ was\\ incredibly\\ moved\\ by\\ the\\ piece\\ and\\ decided\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ time\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ closet\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ wrote\\ Kushner\\ a\\ letter\\ saying\\ it\\ had\\ saved\\ his\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ names\\ three\\ epochs\\ in\\ LGBTQ\\ history\\ \\(Note\\:\\ this\\ heavy\\ constellation\\ of\\ letters\\ stands\\ for\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Lesbian\\,\\ Gay\\,\\ Bisexual\\,\\ Transgender\\ and\\ Queer\\)\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Liberation\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ 1960s\\ through\\ rise\\ of\\ Reagan\\ in\\ 1980\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loss\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ 80s\\ through\\ debut\\ of\\ \\Angels\\ in\\ America\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ 1992\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Legal\\ Challenge\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ 1990s\\ to\\ today\\.\\ Health\\ care\\,\\ gays\\ in\\ military\\,\\ marriage\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ Coming\\ Out\\ Movement\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ being\\ out\\ is\\ the\\ premise\\ for\\ political\\ engagement\\,\\ though\\ McCarthy\\ believes\\ this\\ is\\ problematic\\ because\\ it\\ privileges\\ a\\ certain\\ type\\ of\\ LGBT\\ experience\\ and\\ favors\\ those\\ individuals\\ who\\ live\\ in\\ more\\ tolerant\\ communities\\ in\\ which\\ coming\\ out\\ is\\ comparatively\\ easy\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ general\\,\\ the\\ movement\\ embodies\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ optimism\\ and\\ faith\\ in\\ progress\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ designation\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;closet\\&\\#8221\\;\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ bizarre\\ history\\ \\(which\\ is\\ sketched\\ by\\ George\\ Chauncey\\ in\\ \\\\Gay\\ New\\ York\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ It\\ was\\ never\\ used\\ by\\ gay\\ people\\ before\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ The\\ closet\\ emerges\\ as\\ a\\ divisive\\ term\\ implying\\ that\\ silence\\ and\\ invisibility\\ is\\ the\\ manner\\ by\\ which\\ gay\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ understand\\ their\\ lives\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ may\\ only\\ have\\ been\\ true\\ during\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ \\&\\#8220\\;containment\\ culture\\&\\#8221\\;\\ described\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\.\\ \\(For\\ another\\ indispensable\\ volume\\ on\\ queer\\ theory\\ that\\ runs\\ with\\ the\\ metaphor\\ of\\ the\\ closet\\,\\ check\\ out\\ Eve\\ Kosofsky\\ Sedgwick\\'s\\ \\\\Epistemology\\ of\\ the\\ Closet\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ popular\\ myth\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ gay\\ liberation\\ movement\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ began\\ with\\ the\\ Stonewall\\ Riots\\ in\\ June\\,\\ 1969\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ revises\\ this\\ by\\ calling\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ lesser\\ known\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Homophile\\ Movement\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ fifties\\ and\\ sixties\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Homophile\\ Movement\\ laid\\ the\\ groundwork\\ for\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ the\\ sixties\\ and\\ seventies\\ by\\ forming\\ early\\ gay\\ and\\ lesbian\\ rights\\ organizations\\,\\ most\\ of\\ which\\ met\\ secretly\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ were\\ instrumental\\ in\\ describing\\ homosexuality\\ as\\ a\\ minority\\ experience\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ \\Stonewall\\ Riots\\<\\/a\\>\\ began\\ when\\ the\\ Stonewall\\ Inn\\ in\\ \\\\West\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Village\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ raided\\ by\\ police\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ night\\,\\ ostensibly\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ evidence\\ of\\ illegal\\ alcohol\\ sales\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ multiple\\ arrests\\,\\ a\\ riot\\ ensued\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ catalyst\\ for\\ the\\ gay\\ liberation\\ movement\\.\\ After\\ Stonewall\\,\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ gay\\ liberation\\ groups\\ emerge\\,\\ including\\ the\\ Gay\\ Activist\\ Alliance\\,\\ Gay\\ Liberation\\ Front\\ and\\ the\\ Radical\\ Lesbians\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ points\\ out\\ three\\ central\\ myths\\ about\\ Stonewall\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ It\\ came\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ blue\\.\\ \\(The\\ gay\\ community\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ police\\ raids\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ Spontaneous\\ riots\\ are\\ necessary\\ for\\ social\\ change\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ The\\ most\\ oppressed\\ people\\ of\\ a\\ movement\\ will\\ lead\\ the\\ movement\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(McCarthy\\ stresses\\ that\\ a\\ political\\ movement\\ requires\\ a\\ dialectic\\ between\\ the\\ margin\\ and\\ the\\ center\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ productive\\ and\\ powerful\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Reagan\\ Years\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ the\\ seventies\\,\\ gay\\ activists\\ tossed\\ out\\ the\\ conservative\\ business\\ attire\\ donned\\ by\\ the\\ earlier\\ Homophile\\ Movement\\ and\\ began\\ dressing\\ more\\ provocatively\\,\\ demanding\\ to\\ be\\ accepted\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ terms\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Suddenly\\,\\ cultural\\ representations\\ of\\ homosexuality\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ in\\ film\\ and\\ music\\,\\ for\\ example\\ \\(including\\ the\\ Village\\ People\\!\\)\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ were\\ everywhere\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ radical\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ gay\\ movement\\ intensified\\ the\\ backlash\\ against\\ the\\ gay\\ liberation\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ eighties\\.\\ \\(Notice\\ how\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ opposed\\ to\\ homosexuality\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ even\\ today\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ defend\\ their\\ position\\ in\\ terms\\ remarkably\\ like\\ pro\\-segregationists\\ in\\ the\\ South\\:\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fine\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ they\\ like\\ within\\ the\\ privacy\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ homes\\,\\ where\\ it\\ belongs\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ public\\.\\\\,\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>amounts\\ gay\\ people\\ getting\\ \\&\\#8220\\;uppity\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ flaunting\\ the\\ looser\\ social\\ restrictions\\ instead\\ of\\ recognizing\\ that\\ their\\ \\&\\#8220\\;place\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ decidedly\\ inferior\\ one\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Jerry\\ Falwell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Moral\\ Majority\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ conservative\\ reaction\\ to\\ these\\ cultural\\ changes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Anita\\ Bryant\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Save\\ Our\\ Children\\&\\#8221\\;\\ campaign\\ in\\ \\\\Miami\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ was\\ another\\ manifestation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Bryant\\ thought\\ that\\ homosexual\\ teachers\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ molest\\ school\\ children\\ than\\ straight\\ teachers\\,\\ and\\ her\\ organization\\ pushed\\ for\\ municipal\\ laws\\ to\\ ban\\ gay\\ teachers\\ from\\ schools\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Despite\\ zero\\ scientific\\ evidence\\ for\\ any\\ homosexual\\/pedophilia\\ connection\\,\\ she\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ alone\\ in\\ her\\ fears\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Bryant\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ local\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Save\\ Our\\ Children\\&\\#8221\\;\\ organization\\ soon\\ spawned\\ similar\\ municipal\\ organizations\\ throughout\\ the\\ country\\.\\ \\(If\\ you\\'re\\ interested\\,\\ \\here\\'s\\<\\/a\\>\\ a\\ nice\\ video\\ clip\\ of\\ Anita\\ Bryant\\ getting\\ hit\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ with\\ a\\ pie\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ pernicious\\ device\\ of\\ the\\ policies\\ of\\ the\\ 80s\\,\\ however\\,\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ a\\ conservative\\ crusade\\ against\\ homosexuals\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ systematic\\ denial\\ and\\ evasion\\ of\\ the\\ AIDS\\ epidemic\\ that\\ exploded\\ during\\ the\\ Reagan\\ administration\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Center\\ for\\ Disease\\ Control\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ first\\ report\\ on\\ the\\ disease\\ happened\\ in\\ 1981\\,\\ when\\ five\\ men\\ with\\ symptoms\\ of\\ an\\ unknown\\ disease\\ were\\ identified\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;AIDS\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ coined\\ in\\ 1982\\ by\\ the\\ CDC\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ official\\ press\\ conference\\ on\\ the\\ matter\\ \\(This\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ replace\\ the\\ misleading\\ term\\ then\\ bandied\\ about\\ by\\ the\\ press\\,\\ GRID\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Gay\\-Related\\ Immuno\\-Deficiency\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ 7\\ years\\,\\ the\\ Reagan\\ administration\\ largely\\ ignored\\ any\\ evidence\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ epidemic\\ and\\,\\ consequently\\,\\ did\\ about\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ possible\\ to\\ devote\\ public\\ resources\\ to\\ addressing\\ a\\ growing\\ health\\ problem\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ moment\\ that\\ may\\ best\\ capture\\ the\\ administration\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dismissive\\ attitude\\ may\\ be\\ Reagan\\ Press\\ Secretary\\ Larry\\ Speakes\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ reporter\\ in\\ 1982\\ about\\ the\\ issue\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ asked\\ about\\ the\\ disease\\,\\ Speakes\\ responded\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ AIDS\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ When\\ pressed\\,\\ Speakes\\ jokingly\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ it\\,\\ do\\ you\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ been\\ no\\ personal\\ experience\\ with\\ it\\ here\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ all\\ a\\ big\\ joke\\ in\\ the\\ press\\ room\\.\\ \\(You\\ can\\ find\\ the\\ transcript\\ of\\ the\\ press\\ conference\\ \\here\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ if\\ any\\ Intrepid\\ Readers\\ know\\ of\\ where\\ video\\ of\\ this\\ exchange\\ can\\ be\\ found\\,\\ please\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\please\\<\\/em\\>\\!\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ post\\ the\\ URL\\ as\\ a\\ comment\\ below\\.\\)\\ Only\\ in\\ 1987\\ did\\ Reagan\\ publicly\\ address\\ AIDS\\,\\ and\\ it\\ took\\ him\\ until\\ 1990\\ before\\ he\\ saw\\ fit\\ to\\ apologize\\ for\\ his\\ slow\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ epidemic\\.\\ \\(Better\\ late\\ than\\ never\\,\\ Ronnie\\!\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ sure\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ wonder\\ how\\ quick\\ the\\ response\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ if\\ the\\ disease\\ were\\ making\\ its\\ way\\ through\\ the\\ corner\\ offices\\ of\\ Fortune\\ 500\\ CEOs\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ floor\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ Stauffer\\ for\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ how\\ Kushner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Angels\\ in\\ America\\<\\/em\\>\\ taps\\ into\\ the\\ spiritual\\ and\\ prophetic\\ traditions\\ of\\ protest\\ literature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ very\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ indicates\\ these\\ traditions\\.\\ Kushner\\ once\\ explained\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ sources\\ for\\ the\\ title\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ local\\:\\ AIDS\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Saints\\ Disease\\ in\\ the\\ gay\\ community\\,\\ named\\ after\\ a\\ popular\\ disco\\ in\\ San\\ Fransisco\\.\\ \\ Kushner\\ conflates\\ \\\"Saints\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"Angels\\\"\\ and\\ noted\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ beautiful\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ gay\\ community\\ were\\ among\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ die\\.\\ The\\ second\\ source\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ high\\-brow\\:\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Walter\\ Benjamin\\ discussing\\ a\\ painting\\ by\\ Paul\\ Klee\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Theses\\ on\\ the\\ Philosophy\\ of\\ History\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ quotes\\ the\\ passage\\ from\\ Benjamin\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\&\\#8220\\;There\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ by\\ Klee\\ called\\ \\Angelus\\ Novus\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ It\\ shows\\ an\\ angel\\ who\\ seems\\ about\\ to\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ something\\ he\\ stares\\ at\\.\\ His\\ eyes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ wide\\,\\ his\\ mouth\\ is\\ open\\,\\ his\\ wings\\ are\\ spread\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ angel\\ of\\ history\\ must\\ look\\.\\ His\\ face\\ is\\ turned\\ toward\\ the\\ past\\.\\ Where\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ chain\\ of\\ events\\ appears\\ before\\ \\us\\,\\ he\\<\\/em\\>\\ sees\\ on\\ single\\ catastrophe\\,\\ which\\ keeps\\ piling\\ wreckage\\ upon\\ wreckage\\ and\\ hurls\\ it\\ at\\ his\\ feet\\.\\ The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ angel\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ stay\\,\\ awaken\\ the\\ dead\\,\\ and\\ make\\ whole\\ what\\ has\\ been\\ smashed\\.\\ But\\ a\\ storm\\ is\\ blowing\\ from\\ \\Paradise\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ and\\ has\\ got\\ caught\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ his\\ wings\\;\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ strong\\ that\\ the\\ angel\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ close\\ them\\.\\ This\\ storm\\ drives\\ him\\ irresistibly\\ into\\ the\\ future\\ to\\ which\\ his\\ back\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ turned\\,\\ while\\ the\\ pile\\ of\\ debris\\ before\\ him\\ grows\\ toward\\ the\\ sky\\.\\ What\\ we\\ call\\ progress\\ is\\ \\this\\<\\/em\\>\\ storm\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ angel\\ of\\ history\\ is\\ a\\ force\\ that\\ can\\ engender\\ a\\ profound\\ transformation\\ in\\ society\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ an\\ eschatological\\ leap\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Kushner\\ is\\ using\\ the\\ past\\ to\\ transform\\ the\\ present\\ much\\ like\\ the\\ way\\ Upton\\ Sinclair\\ imagined\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ history\\ made\\ apparent\\ in\\ socialism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Kushner\\ draws\\ upon\\ history\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ sacred\\ as\\ two\\ means\\ for\\ social\\ transformation\\.\\ \\(Though\\ I\\ have\\ no\\ doubt\\ that\\ Klee\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Angel\\ of\\ History\\ influences\\ Kushner\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ unlikely\\ that\\ Benjamin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ pessimism\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ also\\ play\\ a\\ part\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ all\\,\\ progress\\ is\\ really\\ the\\ accumulating\\ wreckage\\ of\\ time\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ the\\ bodies\\ of\\ Kushner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ heroes\\ seem\\ representative\\ of\\ that\\ wreckage\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Somehow\\ our\\ reading\\ of\\ Kushner\\ should\\ reconcile\\ two\\ very\\ different\\ ideas\\:\\ that\\ the\\ procession\\ of\\ suffering\\ has\\ finally\\ brought\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ end\\ is\\ a\\ redemptive\\ and\\ glorifying\\ salve\\ to\\ that\\ suffering\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ dramatic\\ devices\\ in\\ Kushner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ play\\ is\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ character\\ contrasts\\ to\\ reveal\\ tensions\\ and\\ comparisons\\ simultaneously\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Though\\ gay\\,\\ Louis\\ and\\ Prior\\ are\\ remarkably\\ ordinary\\ men\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ certainly\\ flawed\\,\\ but\\ fully\\ human\\ in\\ their\\ dimensions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ grotesque\\ characters\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ who\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ acknowledge\\ their\\ sexuality\\:\\ Roy\\,\\ Joe\\ and\\ Harper\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Harper\\ is\\ oblivious\\ to\\ her\\ own\\ world\\ and\\ in\\ denial\\ about\\ the\\ sexuality\\ of\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ Joe\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ represents\\ the\\ tragedy\\ of\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ married\\ to\\ closeted\\ gay\\ men\\,\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ cast\\ with\\ sympathy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Her\\ Mormonism\\ is\\ emblematic\\ of\\ doctrinal\\ Christianity\\,\\ which\\ provokes\\ the\\ guilt\\ about\\ sex\\ that\\ destroys\\ their\\ marriage\\ and\\ their\\ lives\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ highlight\\ the\\ contrasts\\ between\\ the\\ openly\\ gay\\ men\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ characters\\,\\ Kushner\\ repeatedly\\ uses\\ a\\ split\\ scene\\ technique\\,\\ whereby\\ two\\ independent\\ scenes\\ happen\\ simultaneously\\ \\(or\\ nearly\\ simultaneously\\)\\ on\\ the\\ stage\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Linking\\ both\\ storylines\\ so\\ clearly\\ demonstrates\\ how\\ Kushner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ characters\\ are\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ others\\ and\\ how\\ identity\\ is\\ almost\\ inevitably\\ defined\\ via\\ the\\ opposing\\ image\\ to\\ oneself\\ \\(At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ Harper\\ manages\\ to\\ invade\\ one\\ of\\ Prior\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dreams\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ fun\\ moments\\ in\\ a\\ drama\\ that\\ negotiates\\ its\\ horrible\\ pain\\ with\\ comedy\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Roy\\ Cohn\\ links\\ homosexuality\\ to\\ powerlessness\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ accepts\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\ that\\ has\\ marginalized\\ gay\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ and\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ naturalist\\ character\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ firmly\\ believes\\ that\\ you\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ change\\ the\\ material\\ structures\\ around\\ you\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ best\\ option\\ is\\ to\\ work\\ within\\ those\\ structures\\ for\\ your\\ own\\ advantage\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ exact\\ opposite\\ position\\ of\\ gay\\ activists\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ or\\,\\ really\\,\\ any\\ activist\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Finally\\,\\ the\\ Angel\\ that\\ appears\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Part\\ I\\ is\\ an\\ Angel\\ of\\ Death\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ Prior\\ dreams\\ of\\ having\\ sex\\ with\\ the\\ Angel\\ his\\ action\\ fuses\\ bodily\\ eroticism\\ with\\ spirituality\\,\\ a\\ move\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ familiar\\ to\\ us\\ at\\ least\\ since\\ Whitman\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ Stauffer\\ also\\ sees\\ an\\ influence\\ from\\ James\\ Baldwin\\ insofar\\ as\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ confronting\\ death\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ social\\ transformation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ we\\ live\\ as\\ though\\ death\\ is\\ at\\ hand\\,\\ transformation\\ is\\ sure\\ to\\ follow\\.\\ \\(And\\,\\ we\\ might\\ also\\ say\\,\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ stare\\ death\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ face\\ the\\ ultimate\\ truth\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ painful\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ we\\ will\\ equip\\ ourselves\\ with\\ the\\ knowledge\\ and\\ courage\\ we\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ material\\ structures\\ Roy\\ Cohn\\ is\\ convinced\\ are\\ here\\ to\\ stay\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ Kushner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ play\\ is\\ the\\ latest\\ rendition\\ of\\ an\\ enduring\\ theme\\ in\\ this\\ course\\:\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ social\\ change\\ requires\\ action\\,\\ it\\ always\\ depends\\ upon\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ truth\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tony Kushner and Gay Liberation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.749348+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Damn Hippies", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 336, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Material\\:\\ \\One\\ Flew\\ over\\ the\\ Cuckoo\\'s\\ Nest\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(1975\\ film\\)\\ and\\ speeches\\ by\\ Spiro\\ Agnew\\ and\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ more\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\ to\\ go\\ around\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ time\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ from\\ the\\ infamous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Dylan\\ goes\\ electric\\&\\#8221\\;\\ era\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Like\\ a\\ Rolling\\ Stone\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ something\\ amiss\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Something\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\.\\.\\.\\ quite\\&\\#8230\\;\\ right\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Wait\\ \\-\\ is\\ Stauffer\\ flying\\ solo\\ today\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ is\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ platform\\ at\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ hall\\ looks\\ a\\ little\\ lonely\\ on\\ this\\ sunny\\ Friday\\ afternoon\\,\\ and\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ because\\ Professor\\ McCarthy\\ cannot\\ be\\ here\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ Stauffer\\ soldiers\\ on\\,\\ like\\ a\\ Marx\\ without\\ his\\ Engels\\,\\ a\\ Sacco\\ without\\ his\\ Vanzetti\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ begins\\ where\\ he\\ left\\ off\\ last\\ week\\ by\\ discussing\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ voyeurism\\ in\\ Michael\\ Herr\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Dispatches\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ problem\\ of\\ voyeurism\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ fetishizes\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ watching\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ makes\\ viewing\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\ and\\ therefore\\ reduces\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ empathy\\ between\\ viewer\\ and\\ the\\ viewed\\,\\ rendering\\ the\\ viewer\\ comparatively\\ powerless\\ in\\ the\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\(The\\ powerlessness\\ of\\ watching\\ was\\ captured\\ quite\\ well\\ in\\ that\\ famous\\ \\\\Kent\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\State\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ image\\ posted\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ blog\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ means\\ that\\ voyeurism\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ to\\ be\\ solved\\ for\\ the\\ reporter\\ covering\\ sensational\\ material\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ Stauffer\\ notes\\,\\ knowledge\\ is\\ \\not\\<\\/em\\>\\ power\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ go\\ on\\ watching\\ began\\ to\\ seem\\ unethical\\ and\\ even\\ pornographic\\ to\\ Herr\\,\\ and\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>he\\ combats\\ the\\ passivity\\ of\\ voyeurism\\ by\\ emphasizing\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ as\\ responsible\\ for\\ what\\ you\\ see\\ as\\ you\\ are\\ for\\ what\\ you\\ do\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Herr\\ argues\\ that\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ an\\ ethical\\ responsibility\\ bound\\ up\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ looking\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ \\Dispatches\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ we\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ feel\\ the\\ chaos\\,\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ become\\ as\\ uncomfortable\\ as\\ he\\ was\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Part\\ of\\ this\\ means\\ blending\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ with\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ Americans\\ in\\ general\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Herr\\ ends\\ \\Dispatches\\<\\/em\\>\\ with\\ a\\ gnomic\\ statement\\ along\\ these\\ lines\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Vietnam\\ Vietnam\\ Vietnam\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ all\\ been\\ there\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ Flew\\ over\\ the\\ Cuckoo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Nest\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ reads\\ \\\\One\\ Flew\\ over\\ the\\ Cuckoo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Nest\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ as\\ an\\ elegy\\ for\\ the\\ counterculture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ movie\\ appeared\\ in\\ 1975\\ and\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ Ken\\ Kesey\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ novel\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ name\\ published\\ in\\ 1963\\.\\ \\(A\\ quick\\ show\\ of\\ hands\\ in\\ the\\ room\\,\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ about\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ has\\ read\\ \\One\\ Flew\\ over\\ the\\ Cuckoo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Nest\\<\\/em\\>\\ before\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Kesey\\ was\\ a\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ sixties\\ counterculture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ graduating\\ from\\ Stanford\\ he\\ enters\\ their\\ MFA\\ writing\\ program\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ as\\ Tom\\ Wolfe\\ and\\ Robert\\ Stone\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ get\\ a\\ little\\ extra\\ money\\,\\ Kesey\\ participates\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ Stanford\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ early\\ psychology\\ experiments\\ involving\\ trials\\ with\\ LSD\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ government\\ developed\\ LSD\\ as\\ \\a\\ way\\ to\\ incapacitate\\ soldiers\\ on\\ the\\ battlefield\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ later\\ considered\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ possible\\ truth\\ serum\\ for\\ suspected\\ communists\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Of\\ course\\,\\ that\\'s\\ not\\ exactly\\ how\\ it\\ played\\ out\\.\\ \\ Soon\\,\\ Kesey\\ was\\ dropping\\ acid\\ and\\ traveling\\ around\\ the\\ country\\ in\\ a\\ bus\\ with\\ a\\ group\\ he\\ called\\ \\the\\ Merry\\ Pranksters\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(For\\ the\\ full\\ account\\ of\\ Kesey\\ and\\ the\\ Merry\\ Pranksters\\,\\ check\\ out\\ Tom\\ Wolfe\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\The\\ Electric\\ Kool\\-Aid\\ Acid\\ Test\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ mentioned\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ blog\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Most\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ draft\\ of\\ Cuckoo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Nest\\ was\\ written\\ on\\ acid\\,\\ though\\ Kesey\\ thought\\ most\\ of\\ it\\ was\\ bad\\ and\\ ended\\ up\\ revising\\ these\\ sections\\ \\(Implicit\\ Moral\\:\\ Dropping\\ LSD\\ won\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ win\\ you\\ any\\ literary\\ awards\\.\\)\\ The\\ novel\\ is\\ told\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ Chief\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ patients\\ in\\ the\\ psychiatric\\ ward\\ who\\ pretends\\ to\\ be\\ deaf\\ and\\ mute\\,\\ and\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Kesey\\ sued\\ the\\ movie\\ studio\\ when\\ he\\ found\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ film\\ was\\ not\\ told\\ through\\ the\\ Chief\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ perspective\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Three\\ ways\\ \\Cuckoo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Nest\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ protest\\ literature\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ parable\\ about\\ fighting\\ the\\ establishment\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ refusal\\ to\\ surrender\\ to\\ a\\ closed\\ system\\.\\ The\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\ is\\ self\\-expression\\ and\\ subjective\\ freedom\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ protest\\ against\\ a\\ government\\ that\\ tries\\ to\\ control\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ consciousness\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>See\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ tranquilizers\\ and\\ lobotomies\\ performed\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ It\\ protests\\ the\\ existing\\ hierarchies\\ by\\ exposing\\ the\\ \\(fictional\\)\\ line\\ that\\ distinguishes\\ madness\\ and\\ sanity\\,\\ a\\ line\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ created\\ for\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ control\\ \\(see\\ \\Michel\\ Foucault\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ more\\ on\\ this\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ mark\\ of\\ insanity\\ instantly\\ de\\-legitimizes\\ the\\ ideas\\ and\\ actions\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ rebel\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ this\\ day\\,\\ John\\ Brown\\ is\\ described\\ as\\ insane\\ or\\ fanatical\\ rather\\ than\\ principled\\ and\\ dedicated\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ patients\\ in\\ the\\ asylum\\ are\\ probably\\ unfairly\\ tarnished\\ as\\ insane\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Consider\\ the\\ boating\\ trip\\:\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ these\\ patients\\ are\\ more\\ eccentric\\ than\\ mad\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ film\\ reveals\\ both\\ the\\ strengths\\ and\\ weakness\\ of\\ the\\ counterculture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ strengths\\ of\\ sixties\\ counterculture\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ It\\ highlights\\ daily\\ acts\\ of\\ resistance\\ by\\ making\\ the\\ personal\\ political\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ It\\ ennobles\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ even\\ glorifies\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ outsider\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ It\\ erases\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ or\\ blurs\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ rigid\\ line\\ separating\\ madness\\ and\\ sanity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ It\\ highlights\\ the\\ quest\\ for\\ self\\ expression\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\5\\.\\ It\\ struggles\\ to\\ actualize\\ a\\ free\\ spirit\\ within\\ a\\ closed\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ weaknesses\\ of\\ sixties\\ counterculture\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ McMurphy\\ is\\ defeated\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ a\\ crucial\\ moment\\,\\ he\\ chooses\\ not\\ to\\ escape\\ through\\ an\\ open\\ window\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ he\\ gets\\ a\\ frontal\\ \\lobotomy\\ \\<\\/a\\>and\\ is\\ smothered\\ to\\ death\\ by\\ Chief\\,\\ who\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ tolerate\\ McMurphy\\ becoming\\ a\\ vegetable\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ the\\ chief\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ escape\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ moral\\ victory\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ small\\ consolation\\ \\(especially\\ since\\ his\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ movie\\ is\\ reduced\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ How\\ the\\ movie\\ was\\ received\\ was\\ problematic\\:\\ most\\ people\\ thought\\ of\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ comedy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Audiences\\ cheered\\ when\\ McMurphy\\ tries\\ to\\ strangle\\ Nurse\\ Ratchett\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ was\\ somewhat\\ lost\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ The\\ movie\\ is\\ profoundly\\ misogynistic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ suggests\\ that\\ women\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ feared\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Nurse\\ Ratchett\\ is\\ virtually\\ the\\ archetypical\\ witch\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Women\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ source\\ and\\ origin\\ of\\ conformity\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ emblematic\\ of\\ the\\ gender\\ problems\\ circulating\\ throughout\\ the\\ counterculture\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ especially\\ within\\ the\\ anti\\-war\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ Stauffer\\ considers\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ remarkably\\ misogynistic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ nurse\\ is\\ a\\ stereotypical\\ female\\ authority\\ figure\\ who\\ has\\ subsumed\\ her\\ sexuality\\ and\\ humanity\\ to\\ righteousness\\ and\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\.\\ \\(This\\ definitely\\ seems\\ plausible\\,\\ but\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ work\\ Nurse\\ Ratchett\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ emblematic\\ of\\ Woman\\ rather\\ than\\ simple\\ a\\ particular\\ woman\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Many\\ of\\ the\\ orderlies\\ in\\ the\\ hospital\\ are\\ black\\,\\ and\\ so\\ part\\ of\\ me\\ wonders\\ if\\ the\\ suggestion\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;system\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ effective\\ because\\ it\\ uses\\ traditionally\\ exploited\\ people\\ to\\ do\\ its\\ dirty\\ work\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\These\\ points\\ are\\ a\\ platform\\ for\\ a\\ broader\\ critique\\ that\\ Stauffer\\ levels\\ against\\ the\\ sixties\\ counterculture\\:\\ a\\ protest\\ movement\\ is\\ doomed\\ whenever\\ the\\ protests\\ become\\ acts\\ of\\ consumption\\ rather\\ than\\ production\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ the\\ unfortunate\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ sixties\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ the\\ movie\\,\\ protesting\\ means\\ that\\ you\\ take\\ drugs\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ choosing\\ to\\ raise\\ consciousness\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ drugs\\ of\\ the\\ establishment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Think\\ of\\ Billy\\ in\\ the\\ movie\\:\\ his\\ moment\\ of\\ victory\\ is\\ when\\ he\\ asserts\\ his\\ manhood\\ by\\ having\\ sex\\ and\\ drinking\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ loses\\ his\\ stutter\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\ then\\ he\\ kills\\ himself\\ after\\ \\Nurse\\ Ratchett\\ threatens\\ to\\ tell\\ his\\ mother\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\ is\\ Stauffer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ trenchant\\ point\\:\\ redefining\\ protest\\ as\\ a\\ cultural\\ act\\ \\(an\\ expression\\ of\\ freedom\\ through\\ sexuality\\,\\ drugs\\ and\\ alcohol\\)\\ is\\ the\\ establishment\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ primary\\ method\\ of\\ co\\-opting\\ political\\ protest\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Whenever\\ capitalist\\ industries\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ money\\ from\\ the\\ activist\\ ethos\\,\\ they\\ effectively\\ reroute\\ political\\ transformation\\ back\\ through\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ consumption\\.\\ \\(A\\ recent\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ fad\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ now\\ largely\\ past\\,\\ thankfully\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ of\\ plastering\\ \\Che\\ Guevara\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ image\\ on\\ just\\ about\\ everything\\ possible\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ once\\ saw\\ the\\ standard\\ Che\\ image\\ on\\ a\\ wall\\ clock\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ mean\\,\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ vacuity\\ of\\ commodification\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Anti\\-capitalism\\ sells\\!\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ best\\ Che\\ shirt\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ has\\ ever\\ seen\\ had\\ a\\ caption\\ below\\ the\\ standard\\ image\\ that\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Your\\ Logo\\ Here\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Music\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ example\\ of\\ co\\-opted\\ political\\ expression\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ happened\\ with\\ hip\\ hop\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ rock\\ and\\ roll\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ a\\ large\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;market\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ identifies\\ with\\ a\\ musical\\ style\\,\\ it\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ cooptation\\ of\\ that\\ medium\\ by\\ business\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Rolling\\ Stones\\ concert\\ at\\ \\Altamont\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ 1968\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ marker\\ for\\ the\\ descent\\ of\\ rock\\ and\\ roll\\ \\(\\Altamont\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ like\\ \\\\Woodstock\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ evil\\ twin\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Stones\\ decided\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ Hell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Angels\\ motorcycle\\ gang\\ the\\ security\\ for\\ the\\ concert\\,\\ and\\ the\\ result\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ \\(with\\ a\\ gun\\)\\ was\\ \\stabbed\\ to\\ death\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Altamont\\ showed\\ that\\ the\\ counterculture\\ is\\ as\\ much\\ about\\ greed\\,\\ hype\\ and\\ hysteria\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ fighting\\ the\\ establishment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ an\\ absurdity\\ in\\ equating\\ music\\ with\\ revolution\\\\<\\/span\\>\\,\\ and\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ too\\ easy\\ to\\ divorce\\ cultural\\ protest\\ from\\ political\\ protest\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\For\\ many\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ sixties\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ nightmare\\ was\\ simply\\ to\\ mellow\\ out\\ and\\ relax\\ \\(See\\ the\\ \\Timothy\\ Leary\\<\\/a\\>\\ wing\\ of\\ sixties\\ radicalism\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Tune\\ in\\,\\ turn\\ on\\,\\ drop\\ out\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ resembles\\ Ken\\ Kesey\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ mantra\\ at\\ the\\ one\\ anti\\-Vietnam\\ rally\\ he\\ attended\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Fuck\\ it\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ the\\ seventies\\,\\ cultural\\ protest\\ replaced\\ political\\ protest\\ almost\\ entirely\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Heroin\\,\\ pot\\ and\\ acid\\ replaced\\ communism\\ and\\ socialism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Forget\\ about\\ the\\ military\\ industrial\\ complex\\!\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Drown\\ yourself\\ in\\ the\\ oceanic\\ happiness\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;be\\-in\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ its\\ quasi\\-religious\\ experience\\ and\\ pharmaceutical\\ community\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ sixties\\ quest\\ for\\ community\\ all\\ too\\ often\\ turned\\ into\\ acts\\ of\\ narcissism\\,\\ by\\ which\\ Stauffer\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ world\\ shifted\\ to\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ changing\\ your\\ particular\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>From\\ this\\ follows\\ the\\ fantasy\\ that\\ changing\\ your\\ own\\ perceptions\\ will\\ ultimately\\ change\\ the\\ world\\ itself\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Rolling\\ Stones\\'\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ Can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ Get\\ No\\ Satisfaction\\&\\#8221\\;\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ perfect\\ anthem\\ for\\ the\\ depoliticized\\ radicals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Man\\,\\ Stauffer\\ is\\ hitting\\ the\\ hippies\\ with\\ all\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ got\\&\\#8230\\;\\ The\\ backbone\\ of\\ the\\ counterculture\\ was\\ white\\,\\ middleclass\\,\\ suburban\\ youth\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ identify\\ with\\ prostitutes\\,\\ pimps\\,\\ gangsters\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ their\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ suburbs\\ and\\ at\\ college\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Drugs\\ were\\ essential\\ to\\ their\\ protest\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ illegal\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Legalizing\\ marijuana\\ and\\ LSD\\ may\\ have\\ done\\ more\\ to\\ reduce\\ drug\\ use\\ than\\ anything\\ the\\ DEA\\ managed\\ to\\ do\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Drugs\\ encouraged\\ people\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ present\\,\\ which\\ divorces\\ people\\ from\\ longer\\ sense\\ of\\ social\\ transformation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ counterculture\\ emerges\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ disconnection\\ between\\ the\\ child\\-centered\\ world\\ of\\ the\\ suburbs\\,\\ where\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ kids\\ grew\\ up\\ coddled\\ in\\ the\\ fifties\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cold\\ bureaucracy\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;real\\ world\\&\\#8221\\;\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\.\\ \\(It\\ sucks\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ like\\ \\Levittown\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ should\\ probably\\ offer\\ a\\ defense\\ for\\ these\\ damn\\ hippies\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ counterculture\\ was\\ far\\ more\\ a\\ cultural\\ revolution\\ than\\ a\\ political\\ one\\,\\ but\\ this\\ shouldn\\'t\\ discount\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ cultural\\ revolution\\ since\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ culture\\ and\\ politics\\ are\\ never\\ fully\\ separate\\.\\ The\\ narcissism\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ sixties\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ break\\ with\\ fifties\\ conformity\\ that\\ implicitly\\ perpetuated\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ practices\\ we\\ now\\ consider\\ reprehensible\\:\\ segregation\\,\\ sexism\\,\\ political\\ witch\\ hunts\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Turning\\ on\\ to\\ LSD\\ and\\ dropping\\ out\\ of\\ society\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ done\\ anything\\ to\\ get\\ us\\ out\\ of\\ Vietnam\\,\\ but\\ the\\ willingness\\ to\\ go\\ your\\ own\\ way\\,\\ to\\ evade\\ official\\ controls\\ and\\ narratives\\,\\ lies\\ as\\ deep\\ into\\ the\\ American\\ political\\ tradition\\ as\\ it\\ gets\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Here\\ Come\\ the\\ NeoCons\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ schism\\ between\\ political\\ and\\ cultural\\ rebels\\ became\\ a\\ full\\ rupture\\ by\\ around\\ 1970\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ in\\ 1965\\,\\ people\\ begin\\ to\\ skip\\ political\\ protest\\ for\\ cultural\\ protest\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ year\\,\\ Bob\\ Dylan\\ himself\\ shifted\\ from\\ political\\ folk\\ songs\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ narcissistic\\ thoughts\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Like\\ a\\ Rolling\\ Stone\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ tipping\\ point\\,\\ though\\,\\ was\\ 1968\\,\\ with\\ the\\ deaths\\ of\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ and\\ Bobby\\ Kennedy\\,\\ riots\\ across\\ the\\ country\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Tet\\ Offensive\\ in\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Radical\\ activists\\ start\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ their\\ protests\\,\\ and\\ these\\ apocalyptic\\ moments\\ highlight\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ transforming\\ society\\.\\ 1968\\ was\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ faith\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ neo\\-conservatism\\ really\\ happens\\ with\\ the\\ 1980\\ election\\ of\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\,\\ whom\\ Stauffer\\ considers\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ important\\ protester\\ of\\ the\\ right\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ right\\ as\\ he\\ might\\ have\\ been\\,\\ Reagan\\ absorbed\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ lessons\\ brought\\ in\\ by\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ postmodernism\\ in\\ the\\ sixties\\ and\\ seventies\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ Reagan\\ was\\ great\\ at\\ blurring\\ the\\ line\\ between\\ fiction\\ and\\ reality\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ his\\ status\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ actor\\-president\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ taken\\ lightly\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ recounts\\ an\\ anecdote\\ about\\ Reagan\\ early\\ in\\ his\\ career\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Before\\ he\\ was\\ an\\ actor\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ sportscaster\\ announcing\\ baseball\\ games\\ in\\ \\\\Des\\ \\ \\ Moines\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ day\\,\\ the\\ ticker\\ tape\\ reading\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ outs\\,\\ balls\\,\\ strikes\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ went\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ his\\ broadcast\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Instead\\ of\\ stopping\\ his\\ program\\,\\ Reagan\\ created\\ the\\ missing\\ portions\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ entirely\\ from\\ his\\ imagination\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ whole\\ series\\ of\\ legendary\\ foul\\ balls\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ the\\ ticker\\ tape\\ comes\\ back\\ on\\,\\ Reagan\\ slowly\\ adjusts\\ his\\ narrative\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ number\\ of\\ hits\\,\\ runs\\ and\\ outs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Features\\ of\\ NeoConservatism\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ The\\ military\\ is\\ good\\.\\ The\\ government\\ is\\ bad\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ We\\ won\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\,\\ which\\ legitimizes\\ the\\ arms\\ build\\-up\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ Defining\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ its\\ antithesis\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ communism\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ Embracing\\ rational\\ agents\\ over\\ the\\ irrational\\ visionaries\\ of\\ the\\ sixties\\<\\/p\\>\\5\\.\\ Embracing\\ \\laissez\\ faire\\<\\/em\\>\\ capitalism\\ and\\ supply\\-side\\ economics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ then\\ plays\\ two\\ sound\\ clips\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ first\\ is\\ from\\ Spiro\\ Agnew\\ \\(President\\ Nixon\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Vice\\ President\\)\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Agnew\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ are\\ so\\ overwhelmed\\ and\\ addled\\ by\\ drugs\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ respond\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;moderate\\ stimulation\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ that\\ \\\"life\\ is\\ visceral\\ rather\\ than\\ intellectual\\\"\\ these\\ days\\ and\\ that\\ \\\"the\\ social\\ sciences\\ can\\ accommodate\\ any\\ opinion\\&\\#8230\\;\\ the\\ student\\ goes\\ to\\ college\\ to\\ proclaim\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ learn\\.\\\"\\ He\\ also\\ bashes\\ intellectuals\\ as\\ effete\\ snobs\\.\\.\\.\\ and\\ its\\ apparent\\ that\\ Professor\\ Stauffer\\ doesn\\'t\\ feel\\ very\\ personally\\ wounded\\ by\\ Spiro\\'s\\ attack\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ final\\ clip\\ is\\ from\\ Reagan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ inaugural\\ address\\ in\\ 1980\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Reagan\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ economics\\,\\ replacing\\ Keynesian\\ economics\\,\\ which\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ has\\ the\\ role\\ in\\ jumpstarting\\ the\\ economy\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ trouble\\ and\\ that\\ federal\\ budget\\ deficits\\ can\\ be\\ good\\.\\ Reagan\\'s\\ famous\\ quotation\\:\\ \\\"Government\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ solution\\ to\\ our\\ problems\\.\\ Government\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\.\\\"\\ \\(What\\ do\\ you\\ get\\ when\\ the\\ people\\ you\\ put\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ your\\ government\\ think\\ that\\ government\\ is\\ fundamentally\\ inept\\?\\ Hmm\\.\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Damn Hippies"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.716015+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 16 (4/8/08)- Emotion II: social and moral emotions", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 393, "html": "\\This\\ lecture\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ social\\ emotions\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ involve\\ mating\\ and\\ kinship\\,\\ which\\ will\\ be\\ dealt\\ with\\ in\\ a\\ future\\ lecture\\.\\ These\\ are\\ social\\/moral\\ emotions\\ but\\ are\\ a\\ fundamentally\\ different\\ kind\\ of\\ social\\ emotion\\ due\\ to\\ how\\ evolution\\ works\\,\\ and\\ so\\ will\\ be\\ dealt\\ with\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ lecture\\ will\\ also\\ be\\ using\\ concepts\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ mathematical\\ world\\ of\\ game\\ theory\\,\\ specifically\\ the\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\ and\\ the\\ game\\ of\\ chicken\\,\\ so\\ I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ discuss\\ these\\ right\\ here\\ first\\.\\ \\Game\\ Theory\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ branch\\ of\\ mathematics\\ similar\\ somewhat\\ in\\ structure\\ to\\ Boolean\\ Algebra\\,\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ lay\\ person\\ on\\ the\\ street\\ may\\ not\\ recognize\\ it\\ as\\ mathematics\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ logical\\ calculus\\.\\ Game\\ Theory\\ is\\ the\\ mathematical\\ understanding\\ of\\ rationality\\ in\\ strategic\\ interactions\\ involving\\ competition\\ and\\ conflict\\.\\ Here\\ are\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ good\\ resources\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Game\\_theory\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/plato\\.stanford\\.edu\\/entries\\/game\\-theory\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\First\\,\\ The\\ Prisoner\\'s\\ Dilemma\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ game\\ modeled\\ after\\ two\\ criminals\\ that\\ have\\ both\\ committed\\ a\\ crime\\,\\ have\\ been\\ caught\\,\\ and\\ are\\ now\\ being\\ interrogated\\ in\\ separate\\ rooms\\ so\\ that\\ neither\\ can\\ communicate\\ with\\ the\\ other\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ this\\ is\\ relevant\\ is\\ not\\ because\\ we\\ actually\\ care\\ about\\ prisoners\\,\\ but\\ because\\ this\\ model\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ social\\ interactions\\ in\\ which\\ two\\ people\\ cannot\\ communicate\\,\\ and\\ must\\ decide\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ cooperate\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ or\\ not\\.\\ For\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\,\\ there\\ must\\ exist\\ a\\ certain\\ ranking\\ of\\ payoffs\\ for\\ cooperation\\ or\\ non\\-cooperation\\ as\\ explained\\ below\\.\\ Let\\'s\\ imagine\\ that\\ if\\ neither\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ prisoners\\ rats\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ one\\ they\\ will\\ both\\ get\\ 6\\ months\\ in\\ jail\\ \\(plea\\ bargaining\\)\\;\\ if\\ they\\ both\\ rat\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ one\\ they\\ will\\ get\\ 5\\ years\\ in\\ jail\\;\\ if\\ one\\ rats\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ does\\ not\\,\\ then\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ rats\\ goes\\ free\\ or\\ gets\\ 0\\ time\\ \\(because\\ he\\ is\\ now\\ not\\ guilty\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ unfortunate\\ cooperator\\ who\\ was\\ ratted\\ upon\\ gets\\ 10\\ years\\.\\ You\\ may\\ notice\\ that\\ the\\ \\\"payoffs\\,\\\"\\ as\\ the\\ results\\ are\\ called\\,\\ for\\ cooperation\\ are\\ either\\ 6\\ months\\ or\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ does\\.\\ The\\ payoffs\\ for\\ defection\\ are\\ 0\\ time\\,\\ or\\ 5\\ years\\ respectively\\.\\ The\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ matters\\ for\\ this\\ model\\ to\\ hold\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ payoff\\ is\\ when\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ cooperates\\ and\\ you\\ defect\\,\\ \\#2\\ is\\ when\\ you\\ both\\ cooperate\\,\\ \\#3\\ is\\ when\\ you\\ both\\ defect\\,\\ and\\ \\#4\\ is\\ when\\ you\\ cooperate\\ and\\ he\\ defects\\.\\ The\\ paradox\\ with\\ the\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ \\always\\ best\\ not\\ to\\ cooperate\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ If\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ defects\\,\\ you\\ better\\ defect\\ too\\ so\\ you\\ get\\ 5\\ years\\ instead\\ of\\ 10\\.\\ If\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ cooperates\\,\\ you\\ still\\ do\\ better\\ by\\ defecting\\ because\\ you\\ will\\ go\\ free\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ get\\ 6\\ months\\.\\ This\\ information\\ will\\ be\\ crucial\\ below\\ in\\ understanding\\ how\\ human\\ cooperation\\ with\\ non\\-kin\\ evolves\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Prisoner\\'s\\_dilemma\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ \\Game\\ of\\ Chicken\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(or\\ Hawk\\-Dove\\ game\\)\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ coordination\\ game\\ modeled\\ after\\ the\\ stereotypical\\ teenager\\ game\\ of\\ driving\\ at\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ whoever\\ swerves\\ loses\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ obvious\\ here\\,\\ what\\ I\\ will\\ talk\\ about\\ is\\ the\\ logic\\ instead\\.\\ The\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ win\\ at\\ the\\ game\\ of\\ chicken\\ is\\ to\\ convince\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ not\\ swerve\\,\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ wanted\\ to\\,\\ therefore\\ he\\ must\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ a\\ collision\\.\\ Imagine\\ two\\ drivers\\ careening\\ toward\\ each\\ other\\,\\ when\\ one\\ saws\\ off\\ his\\ steering\\ wheel\\ and\\ holds\\ it\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ for\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ to\\ see\\.\\ Now\\ they\\ other\\ guy\\ knows\\ that\\ if\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ swerve\\,\\ there\\ will\\ definitely\\ be\\ an\\ accident\\,\\ because\\ the\\ first\\ guy\\ obviously\\ cannot\\ swerve\\,\\ \\even\\ if\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Here\\,\\ being\\ out\\ of\\ control\\ actually\\ puts\\ you\\ in\\ control\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ paradox\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ of\\ chicken\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Game\\_of\\_chicken\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Two\\ fundamental\\ types\\ of\\ emotions\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ lecture\\ we\\ dealt\\ with\\ two\\ emotions\\ about\\ things\\,\\ fear\\ and\\ disgust\\.\\ These\\ are\\ very\\ straightforward\\ emotions\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ evoked\\ by\\ either\\ the\\ presence\\ or\\ absence\\ of\\ some\\ stimuli\\ \\(although\\ this\\ is\\ oversimplified\\ because\\ the\\ emotion\\ of\\ disgust\\ actually\\ interacts\\ with\\ some\\ aspects\\ of\\ our\\ moral\\ reasoning\\ systems\\)\\.\\ This\\ lecture\\ \\(and\\ next\\ lecture\\)\\ will\\ be\\ dealing\\ with\\ emotions\\ about\\ other\\ people\\ such\\ as\\ love\\ of\\ family\\ \\(next\\ week\\'s\\ lectures\\)\\,\\ love\\,\\ lust\\,\\ jealousy\\ \\(all\\ three\\ of\\ which\\ will\\ be\\ dealt\\ with\\ next\\ week\\ as\\ well\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ ones\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ deal\\ with\\ today\\:\\ sympathy\\,\\ gratitude\\,\\ trust\\,\\ anger\\,\\ liking\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ crucial\\ difference\\ between\\ emotions\\ about\\ things\\ and\\ emotions\\ about\\ people\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ emotions\\ about\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ complicated\\ because\\ other\\ people\\ also\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ emotions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Organismal\\ Interaction\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ organisms\\ can\\ interact\\:\\ mutualism\\,\\ in\\ which\\ both\\ \\\"cooperate\\\"\\ due\\ to\\ mutual\\ benefit\\;\\ we\\ can\\ impost\\ costs\\ on\\ others\\ through\\ predation\\,\\ parasitism\\,\\ and\\ aggression\\;\\ we\\ can\\ benefit\\ others\\ while\\ imposing\\ a\\ cost\\ upon\\ ourselves\\,\\ this\\ is\\ \\altruism\\<\\/em\\>\\ as\\ strictly\\ defined\\ by\\ biologists\\;\\ or\\ we\\ can\\ impose\\ costs\\ on\\ others\\ and\\ ourselves\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ competition\\,\\ punishment\\,\\ or\\ spite\\.\\ This\\ lecture\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ emotions\\ that\\ are\\ necessary\\ for\\ altruism\\ to\\ exist\\ in\\ an\\ evolutionarily\\ stable\\ way\\.\\ Again\\,\\ \\altruism\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ this\\ context\\ has\\ a\\ strictly\\ limited\\ biological\\ definition\\ of\\ helping\\ an\\ unrelated\\ organism\\ at\\ a\\ cost\\ to\\ oneself\\.\\ Altruism\\ is\\ a\\ puzzle\\ from\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ because\\ evolution\\ is\\ a\\ fundamentally\\ competitive\\ process\\,\\ so\\,\\ how\\ can\\ a\\ trait\\ evolve\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ benefits\\ another\\ while\\ inflicting\\ costs\\ on\\ oneself\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ does\\ altruism\\ evolve\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ problem\\ up\\ until\\ the\\ 1960\\'s\\ was\\ through\\ a\\ process\\ called\\ \\group\\ selection\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ In\\ biology\\,\\ it\\ is\\ understood\\ that\\ adaptations\\ exist\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ at\\ which\\ selection\\ takes\\ place\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ cells\\ in\\ our\\ eyes\\ are\\ specialized\\ and\\ \\\"work\\ together\\\"\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ functional\\ organ\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ organism\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ eye\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ individual\\ level\\ selection\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ an\\ adaptation\\ designed\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Group\\ level\\ adaptations\\,\\ show\\ similar\\ design\\ features\\,\\ but\\ with\\ individuals\\ specializing\\ instead\\ of\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ behaving\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ benefit\\ the\\ group\\.\\ Bees\\ and\\ ants\\ have\\ undergone\\ group\\ selection\\ \\(or\\ kin\\ selection\\ depending\\ on\\ how\\ we\\ frame\\ our\\ viewpoint\\)\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ show\\ adaptations\\ that\\ benefit\\ the\\ group\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ bees\\ will\\ suicidally\\ sting\\ us\\,\\ because\\ while\\ it\\ hurts\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ it\\ benefits\\ the\\ group\\.\\ The\\ classic\\ treatment\\ on\\ levels\\ of\\ selection\\ and\\ adaptation\\ is\\ George\\ C\\.\\ Williams\\'\\ book\\,\\ Adaptation\\ and\\ Natural\\ Selection\\.\\ For\\ more\\ go\\ here\\:\\\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Group\\_selection\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Currently\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ ongoing\\ debate\\ about\\ levels\\ of\\ selection\\ and\\ psychology\\,\\ and\\ more\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ Wikipedia\\ page\\,\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ this\\ lecture\\ takes\\ the\\ neodarwinian\\ orthodox\\ viewpoint\\,\\ rejecting\\ group\\ selection\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ group\\ level\\ adaptations\\.\\ Supposed\\ examples\\ of\\ group\\ selected\\ altruism\\ \\(at\\ the\\ species\\ or\\ ecosystem\\ level\\)\\ include\\ the\\ following\\:\\ lemmings\\ committing\\ suicide\\ to\\ save\\ species\\ from\\ starvation\\,\\ stags\\ fighting\\ so\\ only\\ the\\ best\\ males\\ pass\\ on\\ their\\ genes\\,\\ wolves\\ eat\\ only\\ the\\ sick\\ and\\ old\\ deer\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ deer\\ species\\ strong\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ fundamental\\ problem\\ with\\ group\\ selection\\ is\\ that\\ group\\ selected\\ traits\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ infiltration\\ by\\ selfish\\ defectors\\.\\ If\\ everyone\\ is\\ just\\ unconditionally\\ helping\\ everyone\\ else\\,\\ and\\ then\\ someone\\ comes\\ along\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ help\\,\\ they\\ receive\\ the\\ benefit\\ without\\ paying\\ the\\ cost\\,\\ making\\ them\\ evolutionarily\\ \\\"fitter\\,\\\"\\ and\\ thus\\ their\\ genes\\ will\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ population\\.\\ This\\ will\\ destroy\\ the\\ group\\ level\\ adaptation\\ for\\ unconditional\\ cooperation\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ general\\ rule\\ of\\ thumb\\,\\ selection\\ at\\ a\\ lower\\ level\\ will\\ disrupt\\ or\\ destroy\\ adaptations\\ at\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Genes\\ as\\ the\\ units\\ of\\ selection\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ major\\ conclusion\\ that\\ emerged\\ from\\ the\\ modern\\ synthesis\\ that\\ created\\ modern\\ biology\\,\\ or\\ neodarwinism\\,\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ unit\\ of\\ selection\\ is\\ the\\ gene\\.\\ This\\ statement\\ is\\ not\\ uncontroversial\\,\\ but\\ is\\ the\\ majority\\ opinion\\ among\\ modern\\ biologists\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ that\\ the\\ gene\\ is\\ the\\ unit\\ of\\ selection\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ individual\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ clone\\ ourselves\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ we\\ send\\ only\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ our\\ genes\\ into\\ each\\ offspring\\.\\ Individuals\\ die\\,\\ genes\\ are\\ potentially\\ immortal\\.\\ Genes\\ are\\ the\\ replicators\\ that\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ evolution\\.\\ Most\\ genes\\ are\\ passed\\ on\\ intact\\ in\\ reproduction\\.\\ Richard\\ Dawkin\\'s\\ metaphor\\ is\\ very\\ helpful\\ here\\ in\\ seeing\\ genes\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"replicators\\,\\\"\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ fundamental\\ unit\\ of\\ selection\\,\\ and\\ individuals\\ as\\ merely\\ \\\"vehicles\\\"\\ that\\ are\\ built\\ by\\ genes\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ genes\\.\\ These\\ \\\"vehicles\\\"\\ then\\ behave\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ the\\ genes\\.\\ It\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ because\\ organisms\\ are\\ the\\ vehicles\\ for\\ the\\ genes\\,\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ genes\\'\\ best\\ interest\\ to\\ construct\\ good\\ vehicles\\,\\ so\\ this\\ usually\\ leads\\ to\\ individual\\ level\\ selection\\ as\\ described\\ above\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ treatment\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Gene\\-centered\\_view\\_of\\_evolution\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\and\\ here\\ is\\ Richard\\ Dawkins\\'\\ home\\ page\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/richarddawkins\\.net\\/\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Evolution\\ of\\ altruism\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Altruism\\ is\\ rare\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\,\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ absent\\ entirely\\.\\ There\\ are\\ numerous\\ examples\\ of\\ individuals\\ acting\\ selfishly\\ to\\ the\\ detriment\\ of\\ the\\ group\\.\\ Gulls\\ will\\ eat\\ other\\ gulls\\'\\ eggs\\,\\ penguins\\ will\\ push\\ other\\ penguins\\ into\\ the\\ water\\ to\\ test\\ for\\ seals\\.\\ There\\ are\\,\\ however\\,\\ limited\\ examples\\ of\\ altruism\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\.\\ Some\\ birds\\ will\\ forego\\ breeding\\ themselves\\ \\(for\\ a\\ season\\)\\ to\\ help\\ with\\ their\\ siblings\\ at\\ the\\ nest\\,\\ there\\ is\\ mutual\\ grooming\\ in\\ many\\ primates\\ \\(and\\ other\\ social\\ animals\\)\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ food\\ sharing\\,\\ such\\ as\\ among\\ vampire\\ bats\\ and\\ primates\\.\\ So\\,\\ how\\ did\\ these\\ cases\\ evolve\\?\\ How\\ can\\ \\\"selfish\\\"\\ \\(nonaltruistic\\)\\ genes\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ unselfish\\ \\(altruistic\\)\\ behavior\\?\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ mechanisms\\ by\\ which\\ altruism\\ can\\ evolve\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Kin\\ selection\\/inclusive\\ fitness\\,\\ colloquially\\ known\\ as\\ nepotism\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Reciprocation\\ \\(can\\ be\\ direct\\ reciprocity\\,\\ indirect\\ reciprocity\\,\\ or\\ network\\ reciprocity\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Reciprocity\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ gains\\ through\\ trading\\,\\ either\\ simultaneously\\,\\ such\\ as\\ trading\\ meat\\ for\\ fruit\\,\\ or\\ in\\ time\\,\\ such\\ giving\\ meat\\ now\\ to\\ get\\ meat\\ later\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ the\\ reciprocation\\ that\\ takes\\ place\\ non\\-simultaneously\\,\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ cheating\\,\\ such\\ as\\ if\\ I\\ give\\ you\\ meat\\ now\\,\\ and\\ you\\ never\\ return\\ the\\ favor\\.\\ The\\ giant\\ of\\ the\\ theoretical\\ biology\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ is\\ Robert\\ Trivers\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\,\\ his\\ work\\ is\\ really\\ the\\ place\\ to\\ start\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ vulnerability\\ of\\ reciprocity\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ limitations\\ or\\ requirements\\ to\\ what\\ kinds\\ of\\ reciprocity\\ can\\ evolve\\,\\ and\\ what\\ conditions\\ must\\ be\\ met\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Roles\\ must\\ reverse\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ benefit\\ should\\ be\\ much\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ cost\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Organisms\\ must\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ recognize\\ individuals\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\They\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ remember\\ whether\\ these\\ individuals\\ owe\\ them\\ or\\ whether\\ they\\ owe\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ remember\\ who\\ the\\ deadbeat\\ cheaters\\ are\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ reciprocate\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Last\\,\\ the\\ organism\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ grant\\ or\\ withold\\ behaviors\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ above\\ stipulations\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\All\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ preventative\\ mechanisms\\ for\\ avoiding\\ exploitation\\ through\\ cheaters\\.\\ The\\ last\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ requirements\\ can\\ be\\ turned\\ into\\ predictions\\ about\\ psychology\\,\\ and\\ in\\ fact\\ predicts\\ much\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ observe\\ in\\ human\\ capacities\\ and\\ social\\ behaviors\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ formal\\ support\\ for\\ this\\ model\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ coming\\ first\\ from\\ the\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ formal\\ game\\-theoretical\\ modeling\\ of\\ cooperation\\ \\(altruism\\)\\ and\\ defection\\ \\(cheating\\)\\.\\ As\\ explained\\ above\\ the\\ paradox\\ in\\ a\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\ is\\ that\\ both\\ are\\ collectively\\ better\\ off\\ if\\ they\\ cooperate\\,\\ but\\ the\\ most\\ logical\\ decision\\,\\ individually\\,\\ is\\ to\\ defect\\ for\\ both\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ does\\.\\ The\\ tradgedy\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ situation\\ is\\ that\\ both\\ parties\\ are\\ worse\\ off\\ if\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ cooperate\\,\\ but\\ the\\ most\\ rational\\ decision\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ does\\ is\\ to\\ not\\ cooperate\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ \\Nash\\ Equilibrium\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ pair\\ or\\ set\\ of\\ strategies\\ such\\ that\\ each\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ other\\,\\ so\\ no\\ one\\ could\\ improve\\ their\\ situation\\ by\\ behaving\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ solution\\:\\ The\\ iterated\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ these\\ \\\"prisoners\\\"\\ will\\ encounter\\ each\\ other\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ times\\,\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ knows\\ when\\ the\\ last\\ encounter\\ will\\ occur\\.\\ William\\ D\\.\\ Hamilton\\,\\ and\\ Robert\\ Axelrod\\ tested\\ whether\\ this\\ could\\ solve\\ the\\ problem\\ by\\ holding\\ a\\ experiment\\ that\\ consisted\\ of\\ a\\ computer\\ tournament\\ involving\\ an\\ iterated\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\.\\ In\\ this\\ tournament\\ people\\ submitted\\ strategies\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ computer\\ programs\\,\\ and\\ then\\ these\\ computer\\ programs\\ competed\\.\\ Amazingly\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ simplest\\ entries\\ won\\,\\ a\\ tit\\-for\\-tat\\ strategy\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ strategy\\ that\\ says\\,\\ \\\"cooperate\\ if\\ your\\ opponent\\ cooperated\\ with\\ you\\ last\\ time\\,\\ do\\ not\\ if\\ they\\ did\\ not\\\"\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Tit\\_for\\_tat\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Human\\ cognitive\\ adaptations\\ to\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ appears\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ that\\ are\\ adapted\\ to\\ solving\\ the\\ interated\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ end\\ up\\ cooperating\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ getting\\ constant\\ defection\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Humans\\ have\\ amazing\\ abilities\\ to\\ recognize\\ people\\ by\\ faces\\ and\\ voices\\,\\ and\\ have\\ extensive\\ biographical\\ memory\\ to\\ go\\ with\\ these\\ recognition\\ mechanisms\\.\\ The\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ is\\ extensive\\,\\ with\\ such\\ findings\\ as\\ specialized\\ brain\\ areas\\ that\\ process\\ faces\\ and\\ voices\\.\\ This\\ would\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ requirement\\ \\#3\\ above\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Humans\\ have\\ a\\ \\\"cheater\\ detector\\\"\\ module\\ that\\ is\\ specialized\\ to\\ scan\\ the\\ social\\ environment\\ for\\ people\\ that\\ get\\ a\\ benefit\\ without\\ paying\\ a\\ cost\\ \\(these\\ would\\ be\\ akin\\ to\\ defectors\\ paired\\ with\\ cooperators\\ in\\ the\\ prisoner\\'s\\ dilemma\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ necessary\\ adaptation\\ to\\ prevent\\ exploitation\\ of\\ cooperators\\ by\\ defectors\\.\\ The\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ comes\\ primarily\\ from\\ the\\ Wason\\ Selection\\ Task\\,\\ and\\ is\\ covered\\ extensively\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ reasoning\\.\\ This\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ requirement\\ \\#4\\ above\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\These\\ abilities\\ are\\ amazing\\,\\ and\\ take\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ computing\\ ability\\.\\ Many\\ biologists\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ our\\ brains\\ are\\ so\\ big\\.\\ These\\ types\\ of\\ situations\\ tend\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ cognitive\\ arms\\ race\\ for\\ defection\\ paired\\ with\\ deception\\,\\ and\\ then\\ detection\\ of\\ the\\ deception\\.\\ Which\\ leads\\ to\\ better\\ deception\\ abilities\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ better\\ detection\\ abilities\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\.\\.\\ This\\ can\\ create\\ very\\ advanced\\ social\\ intelligence\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ as\\ though\\ much\\ of\\ our\\ social\\ intelligence\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ cognitive\\ arms\\ races\\ spurred\\ on\\ by\\ the\\ requirements\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ as\\ well\\:\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\ smartest\\ animals\\ are\\ social\\ \\(dolphins\\,\\ primates\\,\\ dogs\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ parrots\\)\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ the\\ smartest\\ and\\ also\\ show\\ the\\ highest\\ levels\\ of\\ cooperation\\ with\\ non\\-kin\\,\\ this\\ would\\ also\\ explain\\ why\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ module\\.\\ This\\ may\\ also\\ be\\ what\\ facilitated\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ language\\,\\ as\\ the\\ better\\ and\\ more\\ clearly\\ two\\ organisms\\ can\\ communicate\\,\\ the\\ easier\\ it\\ is\\ for\\ a\\ complicated\\ strategic\\ behavior\\ like\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ to\\ evolve\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ also\\ have\\ emotional\\ \\(not\\ just\\ cognitive\\)\\ adaptations\\ that\\ seem\\ adapted\\ for\\ employing\\ a\\ tit\\-for\\-tat\\ strategy\\ in\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\,\\ which\\ are\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ requirement\\ \\#5\\ above\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Liking\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ initiate\\ an\\ altruistic\\ partnership\\ with\\ those\\ likely\\ to\\ reciprocate\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Anger\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ partially\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ being\\ cheated\\,\\ to\\ avoid\\ and\\/or\\ punish\\ cheaters\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Gratitude\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ being\\ helped\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ return\\ the\\ favor\\ in\\ the\\ future\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\There\\ are\\ even\\ more\\ subtle\\ emotions\\ adapted\\ to\\ the\\ nuances\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ like\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Sympathy\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ motivates\\ us\\ to\\ help\\ those\\ in\\ need\\ \\(who\\ therefore\\ get\\ the\\ most\\ benefit\\ for\\ the\\ cost\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Guilt\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ signals\\ that\\ one\\ realizes\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ reciprocate\\ properly\\,\\ and\\ motivates\\ extra\\ compensation\\ to\\ make\\ up\\ for\\ this\\ so\\ the\\ altruistic\\ relationship\\ is\\ not\\ lost\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Shame\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ self\\-punishment\\ when\\ one\\ did\\ not\\ reciprocate\\ properly\\,\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ showing\\ that\\ future\\ defection\\ is\\ unlikely\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Gossip\\ and\\ Reputation\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Trading\\ favors\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ called\\ \\\"direct\\ reciprocity\\,\\\"\\ but\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ can\\ evolve\\ through\\ a\\ mechanism\\ called\\ \\\"indirect\\ reciprocity\\.\\\"\\ Indirect\\ reciprocity\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ reciprocation\\ in\\ which\\ cooperators\\ cooperate\\ with\\ other\\ cooperators\\.\\ They\\ know\\ who\\ is\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ cooperator\\ through\\ reputation\\.\\ Reputation\\ can\\ be\\ affected\\ by\\ actions\\ or\\ gossip\\,\\ and\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ universal\\ appeal\\ of\\ gossip\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ universal\\ desire\\ to\\ maintain\\ honor\\ and\\ commitment\\.\\ Reputational\\ aspects\\ can\\ be\\ tested\\ using\\ the\\ Ultimatum\\ Game\\ \\(amongst\\ others\\)\\.\\ The\\ Ultimatum\\ Game\\ works\\ by\\ giving\\ one\\ research\\ subject\\ some\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\,\\ say\\ \\$10\\,\\ and\\ then\\ allowing\\ them\\ to\\ give\\ any\\ amount\\ to\\ a\\ second\\ subject\\.\\ The\\ second\\ subject\\ can\\ then\\ decide\\ to\\ accept\\ or\\ reject\\ the\\ offer\\,\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ reject\\,\\ then\\ neither\\ subject\\ gets\\ anything\\.\\ The\\ receiver\\'s\\ most\\ \\\"rational\\\"\\ strategy\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ accept\\ any\\ offer\\ above\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\(as\\ they\\ either\\ get\\ money\\ or\\ they\\ don\\'t\\,\\ therefore\\ the\\ proposer\\'s\\ most\\ \\\"rational\\\"\\ strategy\\ \\(knowing\\ the\\ receiver\\'s\\ most\\ \\\"rational\\\"\\ strategy\\)\\ should\\ be\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ very\\ low\\ offer\\,\\ say\\ \\$1\\.\\ Well\\,\\ when\\ this\\ actually\\ happens\\ the\\ offer\\ is\\ rejected\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ receivers\\ will\\ reject\\ offers\\ much\\ lower\\ than\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ amount\\.\\ The\\ proposers\\ know\\ this\\ and\\ usually\\ offer\\ between\\ 40\\-50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ total\\.\\ This\\ is\\ hard\\ for\\ \\\"rational\\ actor\\\"\\ models\\ in\\ economics\\ and\\ politics\\ to\\ explain\\.\\ These\\ people\\ seem\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ acting\\ rationally\\,\\ so\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\?\\ The\\ reason\\ that\\ people\\ act\\ \\\"nonrationally\\\"\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ angry\\ over\\ being\\ treated\\ unfairly\\.\\ This\\ has\\ been\\ confirmed\\ through\\ fMRI\\ research\\ with\\ people\\ playing\\ the\\ Ultimatum\\ game\\.\\ The\\ anger\\ areas\\ do\\ not\\ light\\ up\\ when\\ the\\ proposal\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ computer\\,\\ so\\ it\\ can\\'t\\ just\\ be\\ anger\\ at\\ receiving\\ a\\ small\\ offer\\,\\ but\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ spite\\ reaction\\ towards\\ the\\ proposer\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ propose\\ such\\ a\\ low\\ offer\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ for\\ this\\ response\\ is\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ receiver\\ accepts\\ the\\ low\\ offer\\,\\ it\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ negative\\ impact\\ on\\ their\\ reputation\\.\\ Proposers\\ generally\\ anticipate\\ this\\ and\\ offer\\ 40\\-50\\%\\ in\\ Ultimatum\\ Games\\,\\ but\\ will\\ offer\\ much\\ smaller\\ amounts\\ in\\ the\\ Dictator\\ Game\\ \\(where\\ the\\ receiver\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ option\\ to\\ reject\\ the\\ offer\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ paradoxical\\ rationality\\ of\\ irrational\\ passion\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Irrational\\ passion\\ can\\ be\\ self\\-destructive\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ term\\,\\ but\\ beneficial\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\.\\ The\\ receiver\\'s\\ spite\\ above\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ irrational\\,\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ forcing\\ a\\ person\\ into\\ action\\ by\\ having\\ them\\ be\\ out\\ of\\ control\\.\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ truly\\ convince\\ someone\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ settle\\ for\\ less\\ than\\ what\\ you\\ deserve\\ is\\ if\\ they\\ know\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ not\\ help\\ this\\ reaction\\.\\ So\\,\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ emotion\\ which\\ forces\\ this\\ reaction\\,\\ call\\ it\\ spite\\ or\\ indignation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ knows\\ it\\,\\ this\\ will\\ help\\ prevent\\ them\\ from\\ giving\\ you\\ a\\ low\\ offer\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ easily\\ understood\\ by\\ analyzing\\ the\\ Game\\ of\\ Chicken\\,\\ which\\ can\\ show\\ the\\ paradoxical\\ advantages\\ of\\ lack\\ of\\ control\\.\\ As\\ explained\\ above\\,\\ in\\ the\\ game\\ of\\ chicken\\ where\\ two\\ cars\\ are\\ driving\\ at\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ swerves\\ loses\\,\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ win\\ is\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ swerve\\.\\ If\\ one\\ driver\\ disconnects\\ their\\ steering\\ wheel\\,\\ and\\ throws\\ it\\ out\\ the\\ window\\,\\ they\\ cannot\\ swerve\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ guy\\ must\\,\\ therefore\\ allowing\\ the\\ driver\\ without\\ the\\ steering\\ wheel\\ to\\ win\\.\\ Our\\ \\\"irrational\\\"\\ emotions\\ are\\ essentially\\ a\\ way\\ to\\\"throw\\ our\\ steering\\ wheels\\ out\\ the\\ window\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ can\\ also\\ explain\\ genuine\\ altruism\\ and\\ generosity\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Dictator\\ game\\ \\(where\\ receivers\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ an\\ option\\ to\\ reject\\)\\ many\\ still\\ make\\ generous\\ offers\\.\\ We\\ tip\\ in\\ places\\ where\\ we\\ will\\ never\\ return\\,\\ we\\ donate\\ blood\\,\\ and\\ many\\ people\\ regularly\\ commit\\ amazing\\ acts\\ of\\ altruism\\,\\ such\\ as\\ firefighters\\ in\\ emergencies\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ paradox\\ from\\ the\\ standpoint\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\.\\ Why\\ and\\ how\\ could\\ this\\ evolve\\?\\ \\ This\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ irrational\\ emotion\\ problem\\.\\ Genuine\\ altruism\\ is\\ a\\ mechanism\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ can\\ generate\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ always\\ cooperating\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ benefits\\ through\\ more\\ cooperative\\ encounters\\.\\ Niceness\\ can\\ therefore\\ be\\ genuine\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ calculated\\,\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ \\\"irrational\\\"\\ reaction\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ reverse\\ equivalent\\ of\\ throwing\\ one\\'s\\ steering\\ wheel\\ out\\ the\\ window\\.\\ Essentially\\ one\\ is\\ building\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ cooperating\\ to\\ ensure\\ future\\ cooperation\\ with\\ others\\ by\\ having\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ cooperating\\ in\\ an\\ uncalculating\\ fashion\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 16 (4/8/08)- Emotion II: social and moral emotions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.712219+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Kevin Bales - The New Slavery", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 334, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Reading\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ Kevin\\ Bales\\,\\ \\Disposable\\ People\\:\\ New\\ Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Global\\ Economy\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ guest\\ lecture\\ is\\ by\\ Kevin\\ Bales\\,\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ \\\\Disposable\\ People\\:\\ New\\ Slavery\\ in\\ the\\ Global\\ Economy\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Bales\\ is\\ a\\ modern\\-day\\ abolitionist\\,\\ an\\ academic\\ and\\ an\\ activist\\.\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ president\\ of\\ Free\\ the\\ Slaves\\ \\(\\www\\.freetheslaves\\.net\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ and\\ the\\ leading\\ expert\\ on\\ the\\ 27\\ million\\ slaves\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ today\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Bales\\ shares\\ with\\ us\\ the\\ Powerpoint\\ presentation\\ he\\ has\\ delivered\\ for\\ his\\ international\\ book\\ tour\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ begins\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ 2008\\ marks\\ the\\ 200\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ anniversary\\ of\\ the\\ abolition\\ of\\ the\\ international\\ slave\\ trade\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ Though\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ surprising\\,\\ the\\ first\\ human\\ rights\\ campaign\\ began\\ with\\ an\\ energetic\\ response\\ to\\ an\\ undergraduate\\ essay\\ question\\ posed\\ by\\ the\\ Cambridge\\ University\\ President\\ for\\ the\\ annual\\ Latin\\ essay\\ contest\\:\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Is\\ it\\ moral\\ to\\ enslave\\ someone\\ against\\ their\\ will\\?\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Thomas\\ Clarkson\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ an\\ enterprising\\ student\\ who\\ did\\ extensive\\ research\\ \\(he\\ drew\\ the\\ famous\\ diagram\\ of\\ the\\ cross\\ section\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ ship\\)\\ and\\ ultimately\\ won\\ the\\ prize\\ \\(and\\ you\\ can\\ read\\ the\\ English\\ translation\\ of\\ that\\ prize\\-winning\\ essay\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ importantly\\,\\ he\\ helped\\ end\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\ in\\ \\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ by\\ co\\-founding\\ the\\ Committee\\ for\\ the\\ Abolition\\ of\\ the\\ Slave\\ Trade\\ \\(its\\ descendant\\ is\\ \\Anti\\-Slavery\\ International\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ still\\ around\\ today\\)\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Bales\\ stresses\\ that\\ this\\ organization\\ essentially\\ began\\ with\\ 12\\ people\\ sitting\\ around\\ a\\ table\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ audacity\\ to\\ propose\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ end\\ an\\ industry\\ that\\ is\\ about\\ as\\ extensive\\ as\\ the\\ global\\ automotive\\ industry\\ is\\ today\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Bales\\ notes\\ that\\ slavery\\ flourishes\\ in\\ times\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ upheaval\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Anything\\ that\\ pushes\\ large\\ segments\\ of\\ a\\ population\\ into\\ desperate\\ vulnerability\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ social\\ unrest\\,\\ abject\\ poverty\\,\\ global\\ population\\ growth\\,\\ drought\\ and\\ famine\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ engine\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Modern\\ slavery\\ happens\\ when\\ these\\ desperate\\ conditions\\ are\\ joined\\ with\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ legal\\ structures\\ that\\ allow\\ for\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;harvesting\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ vulnerable\\ people\\ for\\ slavery\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Most\\ people\\ who\\ come\\ into\\ slavery\\ today\\ are\\ enticed\\ simply\\ by\\ the\\ prospect\\ of\\ employment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ fundamental\\ relationship\\ between\\ master\\ and\\ slave\\ is\\ essentially\\ the\\ same\\ today\\ as\\ it\\ has\\ always\\ been\\:\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ upon\\ violence\\ and\\ physical\\ power\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ entirely\\ \\new\\<\\/em\\>\\ about\\ modern\\ slavery\\ is\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ slaves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Adjusted\\ for\\ inflation\\,\\ the\\ average\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ through\\ the\\ centuries\\ has\\ been\\ about\\ \\$40\\,000\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ average\\ price\\ today\\:\\ \\$100\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ highest\\ price\\ for\\ a\\ slave\\ is\\ roughly\\ \\$10\\,000\\,\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ research\\ Bales\\ encountered\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ debt\\ bondage\\ in\\ \\\\India\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ that\\ was\\ as\\ cheap\\ as\\ 62\\ \\cents\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Why\\ the\\ price\\ collapse\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ sudden\\ increase\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ population\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Since\\ World\\ War\\ II\\,\\ the\\ globe\\ has\\ expanded\\ from\\ 2\\ billion\\ people\\ to\\ over\\ 7\\ billion\\ today\\,\\ which\\ is\\ entirely\\ unprecedented\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Unlike\\ ever\\ before\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ endless\\ supply\\ of\\ labor\\ from\\ large\\ populations\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ begging\\ for\\ work\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ price\\ collapse\\ is\\ the\\ hallmark\\ of\\ modern\\ slavery\\:\\ disposable\\ people\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Rather\\ than\\ purchasing\\ a\\ slave\\ for\\ life\\,\\ modern\\ slaveholders\\ simply\\ use\\ people\\ as\\ slaves\\ for\\ short\\ periods\\ of\\ time\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ until\\ they\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ be\\ exploited\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ are\\ simply\\ replaced\\ by\\ others\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Bales\\ estimates\\ that\\ 27\\ million\\ people\\ are\\ slaves\\ today\\.\\ While\\ this\\ is\\ clearly\\ more\\ than\\ is\\ tolerable\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ smallest\\ proportion\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ population\\ ever\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ enslaved\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ also\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ smallest\\ proportion\\ of\\ global\\ production\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ in\\ global\\ economic\\ terms\\,\\ it\\ can\\ easily\\ be\\ overlooked\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ implication\\ of\\ his\\ observations\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ ending\\ slavery\\ is\\ not\\ insurmountable\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ not\\ talking\\ about\\ ending\\ a\\ trillion\\-dollar\\ industry\\,\\ and\\ the\\ practical\\ costs\\ of\\ ending\\ slavery\\ for\\ our\\ own\\ lives\\ are\\ minimal\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ won\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ fight\\ a\\ war\\ to\\ stop\\ slavery\\ as\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ did\\,\\ when\\ slavery\\ was\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ southern\\ economy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ win\\ moral\\ or\\ legal\\ arguments\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ end\\ slavery\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ everyone\\ agrees\\ that\\ slavery\\ should\\ be\\ banished\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Every\\ single\\ country\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ a\\ law\\ against\\ slavery\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ enforced\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ problems\\ are\\ primarily\\ that\\ people\\ lack\\ awareness\\ and\\ have\\ not\\ committed\\ resources\\ to\\ stopping\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Consider\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ government\\ funding\\:\\ there\\ are\\ 17\\,000\\ new\\ slaves\\ imported\\ into\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ happens\\ to\\ match\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ murdered\\ every\\ year\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>However\\,\\ across\\ the\\ country\\ there\\ are\\ 26\\,000\\ police\\ departments\\,\\ and\\ while\\ every\\ one\\ has\\ a\\ homicide\\ department\\,\\ only\\ five\\ have\\ personnel\\ devoted\\ to\\ slave\\ trafficking\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\$100\\ million\\ devoted\\ is\\ devoted\\ to\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ vs\\.\\ \\$4\\-6\\ \\billion\\<\\/em\\>\\ devoted\\ to\\ homicide\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Law\\ enforcement\\ officers\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ even\\ have\\ the\\ training\\ to\\ recognize\\ when\\ a\\ modern\\ slavery\\ crime\\ is\\ happening\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bottom\\ Lines\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ much\\ would\\ it\\ cost\\ to\\ free\\ slaves\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\The\\ resources\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ locate\\,\\ free\\ and\\ rehabilitate\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ four\\ in\\ \\\\India\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ self\\-sufficient\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ is\\ \\$150\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ a\\ boy\\ in\\ \\\\Ghana\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ freedom\\ costs\\ \\$400\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ \\(where\\ rehabilitation\\ programs\\ run\\ three\\ years\\)\\ the\\ cost\\ is\\ roughly\\ \\$30\\,000\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ total\\,\\ Bales\\ estimates\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ cost\\ \\$10\\.8\\ billion\\ to\\ free\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\ held\\ globally\\ today\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ way\\ of\\ comparison\\ this\\ is\\ how\\ much\\ money\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ spent\\ on\\ the\\ Big\\ Dig\\ or\\ what\\ Americans\\ spend\\ on\\ organic\\ food\\ last\\ year\\ or\\ how\\ much\\ the\\ military\\ spends\\ in\\ only\\ three\\ weeks\\ in\\ \\\\Iraq\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ even\\ this\\ small\\ cost\\ is\\ deceptive\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ return\\ on\\ this\\ investment\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Freedom\\ Dividend\\\"\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ \\$21\\.6\\ billion\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ economy\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ including\\ the\\ slaveholders\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ benefit\\ economically\\ in\\ a\\ region\\ in\\ which\\ slavery\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\.\\ \\(While\\ it\\ may\\ seem\\ tasteless\\ to\\ start\\ crunching\\ numbers\\ in\\ this\\ way\\,\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ economic\\ analysis\\ is\\ to\\ wage\\ an\\ imminent\\ critique\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ all\\ accept\\ slavery\\ as\\ wrong\\ on\\ moral\\ and\\ humanitarian\\ principles\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ than\\ oppose\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ argument\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ moral\\ one\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ the\\ slaveholder\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ economic\\ argument\\,\\ Bales\\ wants\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ even\\ if\\ we\\ follow\\ the\\ callously\\ greedy\\ logic\\ of\\ the\\ slaveholder\\,\\ the\\ whole\\ practice\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ all\\ lose\\ money\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Not\\ only\\ is\\ it\\ morally\\ bad\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ economically\\ bad\\.\\)\\\r\\\\Finally\\,\\ Bales\\ explains\\ that\\ emancipation\\ is\\ a\\ process\\,\\ not\\ an\\ event\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ the\\ worst\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ botched\\ emancipation\\ is\\ what\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ in\\ the\\ reconstruction\\ years\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Though\\ plans\\ had\\ been\\ made\\ to\\ provide\\ \\&\\#8220\\;40\\ acres\\ and\\ a\\ mule\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ help\\ transition\\ each\\ slave\\ to\\ self\\-sustainability\\,\\ those\\ promises\\ were\\ never\\ kept\\,\\ which\\ effectively\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ emancipation\\ was\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ one\\-time\\ event\\ happening\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ still\\ living\\ with\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ an\\ emancipation\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ happen\\ efficiently\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Bales\\ devotes\\ the\\ last\\ ten\\ minutes\\ of\\ his\\ time\\ to\\ questions\\ from\\ the\\ audience\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ student\\ asks\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Why\\ is\\ there\\ still\\ an\\ awareness\\ problem\\ about\\ slavery\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Bales\\ answers\\ that\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ rectifying\\ the\\ oblivion\\ about\\ modern\\ slavery\\ has\\ only\\ just\\ begun\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ when\\ Bales\\ first\\ published\\ Disposable\\ People\\ in\\ 1999\\ it\\ was\\ almost\\ entirely\\ uncharted\\ territory\\.\\ He\\ also\\ mentions\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ finally\\ gotten\\ a\\ foundation\\ to\\ sponsor\\ a\\ national\\ opinion\\ poll\\ about\\ slavery\\,\\ and\\ it\\ found\\ that\\ 75\\-85\\%\\ think\\ modern\\ slavery\\ exists\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Bales\\ concludes\\ from\\ this\\ that\\ awareness\\ about\\ the\\ issue\\ \\&\\#8220\\;is\\ an\\ inch\\ deep\\ and\\ a\\ mile\\ wide\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ People\\ have\\ a\\ vague\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ but\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ details\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Another\\ questioner\\ asks\\ about\\ his\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ 12\\ people\\ around\\ a\\ table\\ ending\\ slavery\\ \\(in\\ reference\\ to\\ Thomas\\ Clarkson\\ and\\ his\\ early\\ abolitionist\\ group\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ specifically\\,\\ the\\ questioner\\ wants\\ to\\ know\\ why\\ slave\\ uprisings\\ and\\ other\\ models\\ of\\ slave\\ agency\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ really\\ considered\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ professor\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ answer\\ is\\ that\\,\\ while\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ touch\\ on\\ it\\ in\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\,\\ he\\ speaks\\ extensively\\ about\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ local\\ slave\\ communities\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ about\\ slave\\ revolts\\,\\ Bales\\ believe\\ that\\ violence\\ is\\ typically\\ more\\ destructive\\ than\\ freeing\\,\\ and\\ he\\ wants\\ liberation\\ to\\ happen\\ without\\ the\\ violence\\.\\ \\(The\\ implicit\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ student\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ question\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ slaves\\ as\\ willful\\ individuals\\ is\\ diminished\\ when\\ the\\ solution\\ is\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ outsider\\ abolitionists\\ who\\ swoop\\ down\\ from\\ on\\ high\\ and\\ liberate\\ the\\ slaves\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ Bales\\ makes\\ it\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ his\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ solution\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ favors\\ a\\ top\\-down\\ approach\\ coupled\\ with\\ a\\ bottom\\-up\\ approach\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ disagree\\ with\\ the\\ questioner\\ on\\ the\\ efficacy\\ of\\ slave\\ rebellion\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ well\\ he\\ should\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Nat\\ Turner\\<\\/a\\>\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ end\\ slavery\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ long\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ slave\\ rebellions\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ \\Haitian\\ Revolution\\<\\/a\\>\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ revolt\\ that\\ changed\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ power\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Violence\\ may\\ sound\\ hardcore\\,\\ but\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ track\\ record\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Note\\:\\ Kevin\\ Bales\\ has\\ another\\ book\\ called\\ \\\\Ending\\ Slavery\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ that\\ details\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ solve\\ this\\ global\\ problem\\,\\ and\\ in\\ January\\,\\ 2009\\,\\ he\\ will\\ publish\\ \\The\\ Slave\\ Next\\ Door\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ focuses\\ on\\ slavery\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Kevin Bales - The New Slavery"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.769628+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Indians and Cowboys", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 337, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Readings\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ Dee\\ Brown\\,\\ \\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\ at\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\\Wounded\\ Knee\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\;\\ Vine\\ Deloria\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ \\Custer\\ Died\\ for\\ Your\\ Sins\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ is\\ working\\ overtime\\ \\(or\\ full\\ time\\)\\ because\\ McCarthy\\ is\\ out\\ again\\ today\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ the\\ duo\\ will\\ be\\ reunited\\ for\\ the\\ final\\ lecture\\ coming\\ up\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ begins\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ Dee\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\ at\\ \\Wounded\\ Knee\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ with\\ high\\ praise\\:\\ it\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ greatest\\ work\\ of\\ protest\\ literature\\ within\\ the\\ genre\\ of\\ history\\ in\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\.\\ His\\ point\\ of\\ comparison\\ is\\ Helen\\ Hunt\\ Jackson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\A\\ Century\\ of\\ Dishonor\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ published\\ in\\ 1885\\,\\ which\\ also\\ tries\\ to\\ capture\\ history\\ from\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\ perspective\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ why\\ Dee\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ would\\ be\\ so\\ much\\ more\\ powerful\\,\\ Stauffer\\ offers\\ us\\ a\\ theory\\ about\\ tectonic\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ relative\\ importance\\ of\\ genres\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ \\\\Jackson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ time\\,\\ history\\ was\\ an\\ unpopular\\ choice\\,\\ whereas\\ her\\ novel\\ \\\\Ramona\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\<\\/a\\>which\\ was\\ a\\ fictionalized\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ facts\\ she\\ collected\\ in\\ \\A\\ Century\\ of\\ Dishonor\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ became\\ a\\ huge\\ best\\-seller\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ 1970\\,\\ the\\ relative\\ importance\\ and\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ genres\\ had\\ reversed\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Why\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ the\\ novel\\ represented\\ a\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ history\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\ analogous\\ to\\ film\\ in\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ the\\ medium\\ by\\ which\\ Americans\\ understood\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Stauffer\\ believes\\ that\\ writers\\ now\\ have\\ to\\ adjust\\ their\\ craft\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ film\\,\\ which\\ Stauffer\\ thinks\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ more\\ powerful\\ form\\ of\\ protest\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Novels\\ filled\\ in\\ the\\ gaps\\ of\\ the\\ histories\\ written\\ by\\ the\\ elites\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Now\\,\\ however\\,\\ history\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ just\\ written\\ by\\ elites\\ \\(see\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ story\\ below\\)\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>History\\ is\\ increasingly\\ turning\\ to\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ forgotten\\ people\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ Stauffer\\ calls\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fourth\\ great\\ awakening\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(See\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Slave\\ Community\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ John\\ Blassingame\\)\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\If\\ historiography\\ has\\ become\\ democratized\\,\\ fiction\\ has\\ become\\ gentrified\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Since\\ World\\ War\\ II\\,\\ fiction\\ writers\\ have\\ been\\ trained\\ by\\ MFA\\ programs\\ at\\ major\\ universities\\ \\(Stanford\\ and\\ Iowa\\ are\\ two\\ prominent\\ examples\\)\\,\\ which\\ means\\ they\\ have\\ less\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ first\\-hand\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ writers\\ used\\ to\\ have\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Upton\\ Sinclair\\ or\\ John\\ Steinbeck\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ memoir\\ has\\ replaced\\ the\\ novel\\ as\\ the\\ primary\\ genre\\ among\\ creative\\ writers\\,\\ which\\ reflects\\ both\\ our\\ increasingly\\ narcissistic\\ society\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ \\(the\\ novel\\ was\\ considered\\ the\\ quintessential\\ genre\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Considering\\ all\\ of\\ this\\,\\ Dee\\ Brown\\ wisely\\ chose\\ history\\ to\\ get\\ his\\ message\\ out\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ \\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\ at\\ \\Wounded\\ Knee\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ 1971\\ it\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ best\\-selling\\ history\\ books\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Brown\\ was\\ an\\ amateur\\ historian\\ working\\ as\\ a\\ librarian\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ published\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ a\\ logging\\ cabin\\ in\\ \\\\Alabama\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ and\\ his\\ father\\ died\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ young\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ worked\\ as\\ a\\ reporter\\ in\\ \\\\Arkansas\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\,\\ went\\ to\\ Arkansas\\ State\\ College\\ and\\ ultimately\\ found\\ employment\\ as\\ a\\ government\\ librarian\\,\\ where\\ he\\ found\\ the\\ archives\\ for\\ his\\ book\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ book\\ by\\ a\\ white\\ man\\ written\\ entirely\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ a\\ Native\\ American\\,\\ and\\ Stauffer\\ compares\\ Brown\\ to\\ Mark\\ Twain\\ by\\ insisting\\ that\\ both\\ writers\\ maintained\\ their\\ keen\\ ears\\ for\\ common\\ speech\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ speech\\ Brown\\ invokes\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ inflected\\ by\\ Native\\ American\\ voices\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Custer\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ appears\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Hard\\ Backsides\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ name\\ for\\ the\\ General\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ some\\ degree\\,\\ Brown\\ imagines\\ himself\\ as\\ Native\\ American\\.\\ \\(More\\ on\\ this\\ later\\.\\)\\ Though\\ Brown\\ grew\\ up\\ falling\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ the\\ standard\\ frontier\\ myth\\ through\\ the\\ stories\\ he\\ heard\\ as\\ a\\ boy\\,\\ his\\ work\\ forces\\ Americans\\ to\\ confront\\ the\\ ugly\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ myth\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ wants\\ his\\ readers\\ to\\ confront\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ facing\\ eastward\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ pushed\\ further\\ and\\ further\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ seaboard\\ as\\ European\\ settlers\\ expanded\\ their\\ claims\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ Americans\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ their\\ origins\\ through\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ others\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ scope\\ of\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ is\\ about\\ as\\ comprehensive\\ as\\ it\\ gets\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ narrative\\ starts\\ as\\ far\\ back\\ as\\ \\\\Columbus\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ but\\ its\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ period\\ between\\ 1860\\-1890\\,\\ when\\ western\\ expansion\\ by\\ European\\ settlers\\ was\\ at\\ its\\ height\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ One\\ of\\ his\\ main\\ themes\\ throughout\\ \\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ that\\ Native\\ Americans\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ a\\ homogenous\\ group\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ support\\ another\\ important\\ claim\\:\\ the\\ decimation\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ peoples\\ is\\ not\\ predestined\\,\\ as\\ many\\ whites\\ wanted\\ to\\ believe\\.\\ \\(In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ witnessing\\ the\\ conflict\\ of\\ two\\ monolithic\\ cultures\\ that\\ produces\\ a\\ singular\\ Winner\\ and\\ Loser\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Western\\ expansion\\ involved\\ the\\ subjugation\\ of\\ a\\ wide\\ array\\ of\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ important\\ contingencies\\ that\\ shaped\\ each\\ group\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ultimate\\ fate\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;Manifest\\ Destiny\\&\\#8221\\;\\ justifies\\ the\\ breaches\\ of\\ frontier\\ treaties\\ by\\ cloaking\\ naked\\ greed\\ for\\ land\\ in\\ a\\ lofty\\ spiritual\\ garment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ God\\ ordained\\ Europeans\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ continent\\,\\ then\\ by\\ this\\ logic\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ the\\ dominant\\ race\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ welfare\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Because\\ he\\ wants\\ us\\ to\\ empathize\\ with\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ each\\ chapter\\ emphasizes\\ our\\ shock\\ by\\ ending\\ with\\ tragedy\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ he\\ shows\\ the\\ Indian\\ Wars\\ to\\ be\\ akin\\ to\\ dirty\\ murders\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ If\\ \\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\<\\/em\\>\\ errs\\,\\ it\\ errs\\ by\\ romanticizing\\ the\\ Indians\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ comes\\ close\\ to\\ playing\\ into\\ the\\ mythology\\ of\\ the\\ noble\\ heroic\\ frontier\\ figure\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ may\\ partly\\ be\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ epic\\ dimensions\\ Brown\\ sees\\ in\\ the\\ narrative\\ of\\ the\\ west\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ American\\ homer\\ telling\\ the\\ epic\\ \\(and\\ tragic\\)\\ tale\\ of\\ American\\ expansion\\,\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ has\\ come\\ as\\ close\\ as\\ Brown\\ has\\ to\\ encompassing\\ the\\ entire\\ west\\ from\\ the\\ Native\\ American\\ perspective\\.\\ \\(Given\\ the\\ vast\\ dimensions\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ project\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ difficult\\ \\not\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ enlarge\\ and\\ romanticize\\ the\\ heroes\\ of\\ your\\ drama\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Why\\ did\\ \\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\<\\/em\\>\\ sell\\ so\\ well\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ reason\\ is\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ tragic\\ scenes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Like\\ Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\,\\ Brown\\ is\\ good\\ at\\ ending\\ his\\ chapters\\ with\\ cliffhangers\\ that\\ keep\\ readers\\ engaged\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Another\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ writes\\ in\\ understated\\,\\ plain\\-spoken\\ prose\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ this\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ high\\ academic\\ or\\ literary\\ style\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ wants\\ to\\ embrace\\ a\\ usable\\ past\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ he\\ delves\\ into\\ the\\ past\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ present\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ his\\ book\\ is\\ a\\ history\\,\\ his\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ raise\\ awareness\\ among\\ white\\ Americans\\ and\\ redress\\ the\\ wrongs\\ perpetrated\\ against\\ Native\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Dee\\ Brown\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ too\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ transformation\\ of\\ white\\ society\\ but\\ rather\\ with\\ transforming\\ Native\\ American\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ book\\ had\\ a\\ powerful\\ impact\\ on\\ Native\\ Americans\\ themselves\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ Sioux\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ helped\\ spur\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ \\Wounded\\ Knee\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ 1973\\ to\\ protest\\ Federal\\ policies\\ and\\ accusations\\ of\\ police\\ brutality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ \\71\\-day\\ standoff\\<\\/a\\>\\ between\\ the\\ \\American\\ Indian\\ Movement\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ the\\ police\\ during\\ which\\ two\\ Sioux\\ were\\ killed\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ AIM\\ lies\\ a\\ deep\\ spirituality\\ and\\ the\\ connectedness\\ of\\ all\\ Indian\\ people\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>AIM\\ demanded\\ reparations\\ for\\ a\\ litany\\ of\\ broken\\ treaties\\ and\\ the\\ full\\ restoration\\ of\\ tribal\\ rights\\ originally\\ granted\\ to\\ reservations\\ in\\ a\\ 20\\-point\\ Indian\\ manifesto\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Playing\\ Indian\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ is\\ a\\ long\\ tradition\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ of\\ identifying\\ with\\ Indians\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ become\\ liberated\\ from\\ the\\ shackles\\ of\\ bourgeois\\ culture\\ and\\ as\\ an\\ identity\\ that\\ might\\ pave\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ revolution\\ and\\ social\\ change\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(For\\ more\\ on\\ this\\,\\ see\\ \\\\Playing\\ Indian\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ Philip\\ Deloria\\ \\-\\ Vine\\ Deloria\\'s\\ son\\.\\)\\ The\\ \\Boston\\ Tea\\ Party\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ when\\ British\\ colonists\\ dressed\\ as\\ Indians\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ protest\\ tariffs\\ on\\ imported\\ goods\\,\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ this\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Identifying\\ with\\ Native\\ Americans\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ source\\ of\\ empowerment\\ for\\ activists\\ because\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ imagination\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ noble\\ fighters\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Of\\ course\\,\\ performing\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Indianness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ means\\ creating\\ a\\ static\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ Indian\\ from\\ the\\ European\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ perspective\\,\\ and\\ it\\ often\\ has\\ little\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ how\\ Native\\ Americans\\ saw\\ themselves\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Playing\\ Indian\\ creates\\ a\\ simultaneous\\ desire\\ for\\ and\\ repulsion\\ with\\ the\\ Indians\\ themselves\\,\\ a\\ tense\\ dialectic\\ that\\ Stauffer\\ links\\ to\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ blackface\\ and\\ minstrelsy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Essentializing\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ Native\\ American\\ highlights\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ the\\ quest\\ for\\ empathy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Brown\\ himself\\ engages\\ in\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ playing\\ Indian\\.\\ \\(He\\ is\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ a\\ white\\ guy\\ from\\ \\\\Alabama\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ taking\\ on\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ Native\\ Americans\\ in\\ the\\ west\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ central\\ trope\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ is\\ what\\ Richard\\ Slotkin\\ calls\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\\\Regeneration\\ through\\ Violence\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ white\\ Americans\\,\\ making\\ oneself\\ new\\ in\\ the\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ meant\\ an\\ immersion\\ into\\ the\\ frontier\\ wilderness\\ and\\ fighting\\ the\\ dark\\ skinned\\ \\&\\#8220\\;savage\\&\\#8221\\;\\ other\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Slotkin\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ European\\ settlers\\ to\\ fight\\ their\\ own\\ instincts\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ repress\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ emerge\\ from\\ frontier\\ violence\\ with\\ their\\ central\\ whiteness\\ purified\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ also\\ wants\\ to\\ link\\ early\\ seventies\\ interest\\ in\\ Native\\ Americans\\ to\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\ The\\ AIM\\ protests\\ in\\ the\\ seventies\\ coincided\\ precisely\\ with\\ protests\\ against\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ a\\ war\\ which\\ was\\ defended\\ by\\ the\\ government\\ by\\ casting\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ Indian\\ War\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ the\\ Tet\\ offensive\\,\\ one\\ officer\\ was\\ quoted\\ as\\ saying\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;we\\ had\\ to\\ destroy\\ the\\ village\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ save\\ it\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ mimics\\ the\\ logic\\ of\\ white\\ frontier\\ settlers\\:\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ man\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ Indian\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;Indian\\ country\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ a\\ common\\ term\\ for\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ among\\ soldiers\\,\\ and\\ Michael\\ Herr\\ brings\\ out\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ and\\ the\\ Wild\\ West\\ in\\ \\Dispatches\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ soldiers\\ says\\ to\\ him\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;C\\&\\#8217\\;mon\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ take\\ you\\ to\\ play\\ cowboys\\ and\\ Indians\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Of\\ course\\,\\ this\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ new\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Indians\\ have\\ always\\ represented\\ the\\ savage\\ other\\ \\(noble\\ or\\ otherwise\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ new\\ is\\ that\\ after\\ the\\ images\\ from\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ become\\ so\\ public\\,\\ the\\ logic\\ of\\ defining\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ as\\ an\\ Indian\\ war\\ requires\\ us\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ as\\ the\\ Indians\\ because\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ the\\ savages\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ Native\\ American\\ activists\\ drew\\ upon\\ this\\ rich\\ paradox\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>From\\ their\\ perspective\\,\\ the\\ savagery\\ of\\ US\\ Army\\ in\\ the\\ \\My\\ Lai\\ Massacre\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ nothing\\ new\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>History\\ is\\ simply\\ repeating\\ itself\\ on\\ TV\\ screens\\ instead\\ of\\ out\\ in\\ western\\ territories\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\<\\/em\\>\\ suggests\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ Indian\\ and\\ see\\ him\\ as\\ the\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ virtues\\ Americans\\ once\\ claimed\\ as\\ their\\ own\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Readers\\ saw\\ this\\ book\\ as\\ a\\ spiritual\\ awakening\\:\\ it\\ opened\\ their\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ their\\ past\\.\\ \\(We\\ might\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ fascination\\ with\\ the\\ crimes\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ as\\ an\\ exorcism\\-by\\-history\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Owning\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ may\\ help\\ the\\ nation\\ to\\ rid\\ itself\\ of\\ the\\ living\\ demons\\ in\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vine\\ Deloria\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ \\Custer\\ Died\\ for\\ Your\\ Sins\\<\\/em\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Vine\\ Deloria\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ is\\ the\\ diametric\\ opposite\\ of\\ \\Bury\\ My\\ Heart\\ at\\ Wounded\\ Knee\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Deloria\\ is\\ writing\\ against\\ a\\ long\\ tradition\\ of\\ whites\\ \\(like\\ Brown\\)\\ claiming\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ friends\\ of\\ and\\ spokespersons\\ for\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\ For\\ Deloria\\,\\ white\\ empathy\\ for\\ Native\\ Americans\\ is\\ impossible\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ basic\\ stance\\ is\\:\\ you\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ understand\\ us\\,\\ and\\ you\\ do\\ more\\ damage\\ than\\ help\\ by\\ trying\\,\\ so\\ just\\ leave\\ us\\ alone\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>From\\ his\\ perspective\\,\\ empathy\\ is\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ racism\\,\\ forced\\ assimilation\\ and\\ exploitation\\ rather\\ than\\ productive\\ change\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Though\\ you\\ might\\ not\\ expect\\ it\\ from\\ his\\ message\\,\\ Deloria\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tone\\ is\\ humorous\\ and\\ sarcastic\\,\\ whereas\\ Brown\\ was\\ deadly\\ earnest\\ and\\ often\\ sentimental\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ vexed\\ relationship\\ between\\ empathy\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ important\\ ally\\ for\\ protest\\ literature\\ throughout\\ this\\ course\\,\\ and\\ playing\\ Indian\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ or\\,\\ more\\ generally\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;essentializing\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ people\\ you\\ wish\\ to\\ help\\,\\ whether\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ slaves\\,\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ women\\,\\ tenant\\ farmers\\ or\\ low\\-wage\\ workers\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Empathizing\\ with\\ others\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ co\\-opt\\ their\\ personality\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ turn\\ those\\ people\\ into\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ making\\,\\ even\\ if\\ that\\ image\\ serves\\ noble\\ purposes\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ perennial\\ problems\\ of\\ protest\\ writers\\,\\ and\\ it\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ any\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ problem\\ when\\ the\\ writer\\ writes\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ represents\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Betty\\ Friedan\\ and\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ essentialized\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\ and\\ Dee\\ Brown\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ wonders\\ if\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ever\\ a\\ way\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ problem\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sooner\\ or\\ later\\,\\ the\\ particular\\ people\\ and\\ incidents\\ a\\ writer\\ describes\\ will\\ become\\ representative\\ of\\ a\\ Social\\ Situation\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ protest\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>You\\ have\\ poignant\\ prose\\,\\ and\\ \\(for\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ anyway\\)\\ we\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ interested\\ in\\ poignant\\ prose\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ interested\\ in\\ words\\ and\\ images\\ that\\ change\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ alternative\\ to\\ essentialism\\ is\\ to\\ shine\\ a\\ light\\ on\\ a\\ social\\ problem\\ involving\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ we\\ present\\ as\\ beautifully\\ heterogeneous\\,\\ but\\ even\\ when\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ careful\\ to\\ do\\ that\\ we\\ often\\ fall\\ into\\ the\\ trap\\ of\\ essentialism\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ we\\ zoom\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ shared\\ social\\ problems\\ binding\\ that\\ heterogeneous\\ group\\ together\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ all\\,\\ Dee\\ Brown\\ took\\ great\\ pains\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ different\\ the\\ various\\ Native\\ American\\ nations\\ were\\ from\\ one\\ another\\,\\ but\\ this\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ prevent\\ their\\ common\\ bond\\ from\\ deepening\\ into\\ an\\ essential\\,\\ noble\\ character\\ possessed\\ by\\ people\\ throughout\\ the\\ Americas\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ categorical\\ thinking\\ is\\ an\\ inevitable\\ aspect\\ of\\ how\\ we\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ if\\ you\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ essentializing\\,\\ you\\ should\\ simply\\ be\\ aware\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ doing\\ it\\ and\\,\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ try\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ you\\ imagine\\ rather\\ than\\ your\\ own\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ quite\\ enough\\ from\\ me\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ end\\ is\\ coming\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ got\\ one\\ more\\ lecture\\ to\\ go\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ outlines\\ of\\ protest\\ literature\\ dissolve\\ into\\ the\\ \\present\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Indians and Cowboys"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.790763+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hip Hop Hits Harvard", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 338, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Ladies\\ and\\ Gentlemen\\,\\ this\\ is\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ line\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ listening\\ to\\ Tupac\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Changes\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ the\\ students\\ take\\ their\\ seats\\ before\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ begins\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Before\\ diving\\ into\\ hip\\ hop\\,\\ Stauffer\\ wants\\ us\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ images\\ from\\ the\\ \\Abu\\ Ghraib\\ prison\\ abuse\\ scandal\\<\\/a\\>\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ ago\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ caveat\\:\\ critical\\ distance\\ is\\ crucial\\ whenever\\ you\\ evaluate\\ photography\\ and\\ art\\,\\ and\\ the\\ requisite\\ distance\\ is\\ particularly\\ difficult\\ to\\ achieve\\ when\\ the\\ images\\ captured\\ are\\ so\\ recent\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Having\\ said\\ that\\,\\ Stauffer\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ Abu\\ Graib\\ images\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ been\\ as\\ effective\\ as\\ a\\ protest\\ as\\ the\\ images\\ taken\\ during\\ the\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ and\\ he\\ thinks\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ reasons\\ for\\ this\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>First\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ drawbacks\\ of\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ the\\ internet\\ is\\ that\\ internet\\ technology\\ reduces\\ the\\ iconic\\ importance\\ of\\ an\\ image\\ because\\ the\\ reception\\ is\\ not\\ simultaneous\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ the\\ famous\\ assassination\\ image\\ \\(shown\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ blog\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ was\\ revealed\\ before\\ the\\ entire\\ nation\\ during\\ the\\ evening\\ news\\,\\ reception\\ via\\ the\\ internet\\ is\\ more\\ staggered\\.\\ \\(Intrepid\\ Readers\\,\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ classroom\\ scene\\ for\\ you\\ to\\ contemplate\\:\\ At\\ precisely\\ the\\ moment\\ Stauffer\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ internet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tendency\\ to\\ defuse\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ shock\\ value\\ of\\ images\\,\\ a\\ student\\ sitting\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ me\\ is\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ you\\ guessed\\ it\\!\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ scrolling\\ through\\ countless\\ images\\ of\\ his\\ friends\\ on\\ Facebook\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ shirtless\\,\\ drunk\\,\\ dancing\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Last\\ weekend\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ party\\,\\ apparently\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>On\\ a\\ 15\\-foot\\ screen\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ classroom\\,\\ if\\ he\\ bothers\\ to\\ look\\ up\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ from\\ another\\ late\\-night\\,\\ shirtless\\ party\\ thousands\\ of\\ miles\\ away\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Only\\ his\\ friends\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ in\\ this\\ one\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ they\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ dancing\\ to\\ Fall\\ Out\\ Boy\\ after\\ a\\ few\\ rum\\ and\\ cokes\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ right\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Self\\-Involved\\,\\ this\\ is\\ my\\ protest\\ against\\ \\you\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ picture\\ you\\ missed\\:\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ getting\\ off\\ of\\ my\\ high\\ horse\\,\\ Stauffer\\ segues\\ into\\ the\\ second\\ reason\\ why\\ these\\ images\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ made\\ a\\ deeper\\ impact\\:\\ they\\ mostly\\ depict\\ psychological\\ torture\\,\\ not\\ physical\\ torture\\,\\ and\\,\\ for\\ whatever\\ reason\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ outrage\\ the\\ American\\ public\\ when\\ psychological\\ torture\\ is\\ involved\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ third\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ photographs\\ were\\ taken\\ by\\ amateurs\\ shooting\\ with\\ cellphones\\ and\\ low\\-quality\\ cameras\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Photography\\ can\\ be\\ dazzling\\ in\\ its\\ texture\\,\\ but\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ this\\ here\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Instead\\ of\\ tonal\\ richness\\ and\\ a\\ compelling\\ visual\\ dynamic\\ between\\ foreground\\ and\\ background\\,\\ the\\ compositions\\ are\\ flat\\ and\\ the\\ colors\\ are\\ somewhat\\ bland\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ shows\\ the\\ most\\ iconic\\ image\\ from\\ Abu\\ Ghraib\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Stauffer\\ notes\\ the\\ Ku\\ Klux\\ Klan\\ overtones\\ of\\ the\\ hood\\ \\(and\\ there\\'s\\ also\\ a\\ distinct\\ resemblance\\ to\\ the\\ crucifixion\\ here\\.\\)\\ Whatever\\ the\\ reasons\\,\\ Stauffer\\ is\\ clearly\\ disappointed\\ that\\ the\\ images\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ done\\ as\\ much\\ he\\ thought\\ they\\ might\\ when\\ the\\ story\\ originally\\ broke\\.\\ \\(I\\ think\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ things\\ to\\ say\\ about\\ Stauffer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ the\\ first\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ images\\ did\\ quite\\ a\\ bit\\ to\\ change\\ public\\ opinion\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ \\nosedive\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\<\\/a\\>\\ about\\ \\\\Iraq\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Also\\,\\ Stauffer\\ may\\ be\\ overemphasizing\\ the\\ import\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\Vietnam\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ images\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ difficult\\ to\\ gauge\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ something\\ like\\ the\\ assassination\\ photo\\ because\\ we\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ isolate\\ its\\ effects\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ he\\ mentioned\\,\\ the\\ assassination\\ image\\ corresponded\\ to\\ the\\ Tet\\ Offensive\\,\\ which\\ reshaped\\ opinions\\ about\\ the\\ war\\ drastically\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ other\\ thing\\ is\\ that\\ his\\ first\\ and\\ third\\ theories\\ may\\ be\\ flawed\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ precisely\\ simultaneous\\ reception\\ of\\ images\\ may\\ not\\ necessary\\,\\ especially\\ if\\ we\\ continue\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ images\\ as\\ documents\\ of\\ current\\ events\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ the\\ internet\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ with\\ 24\\-hour\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ news\\ stories\\ and\\ a\\ blogosphere\\ around\\ to\\ rehash\\ them\\ for\\ another\\ few\\ days\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ increases\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;real\\-time\\&\\#8221\\;\\ access\\ to\\ scandalous\\ images\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ objection\\ to\\ his\\ first\\ point\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ potential\\ objection\\ to\\ his\\ third\\ point\\:\\ if\\ the\\ internet\\ is\\ the\\ new\\ medium\\ for\\ images\\,\\ it\\ also\\ changes\\ how\\ we\\ react\\ to\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ images\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;truth\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ photography\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ linked\\ to\\ photography\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ practiced\\ by\\ professionals\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Truthful\\ images\\ are\\ increasingly\\ associated\\ with\\ precisely\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ amateur\\,\\ low\\-quality\\,\\ cell\\ phone\\ images\\ taken\\ at\\ Abu\\ Ghraib\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ shots\\ are\\ raw\\.\\ Well\\-composed\\,\\ professional\\ shots\\ are\\ suspect\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ when\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ hooded\\ man\\ standing\\ on\\ a\\ box\\ with\\ electrical\\ wires\\ attached\\ to\\ his\\ hands\\,\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ captivates\\ us\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ secrets\\ about\\ what\\ went\\ on\\ during\\ the\\ night\\ shift\\ at\\ an\\ Iraqi\\ prison\\ are\\ laid\\ bare\\ before\\ us\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ no\\ longer\\ about\\ embedded\\ correspondents\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ Army\\ documenting\\ itself\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ that\\ much\\ closer\\ to\\ these\\ scenes\\ of\\ torture\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Rise\\ of\\ Hip\\ Hop\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ statement\\ he\\ acknowledges\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ provocative\\ than\\ entirely\\ truthful\\,\\ but\\ provoke\\ us\\ he\\ must\\!\\:\\ while\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ students\\ think\\ hip\\ hop\\ began\\ with\\ Tupac\\,\\ he\\ thinks\\ that\\ hip\\ hop\\ died\\ with\\ Tupac\\.\\ \\(Whenever\\ people\\ talk\\ about\\ when\\ an\\ artform\\ has\\ died\\,\\ you\\ know\\ it\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ dead\\ yet\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>No\\ one\\ sits\\ around\\ talking\\ about\\ when\\ opera\\ died\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Because\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ care\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ why\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dead\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ sketches\\ out\\ the\\ facts\\ of\\ postindustrial\\ \\\\New\\ \\ \\ York\\ City\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ historical\\ conditions\\ that\\ helped\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ hip\\ hop\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Cities\\ are\\ losing\\ federal\\ funding\\ and\\ assistance\\ programs\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Combine\\ that\\ with\\ an\\ incredible\\ squeeze\\ on\\ the\\ labor\\ market\\ and\\ corporate\\ developers\\ buying\\ up\\ real\\ estate\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ convert\\ low\\-priced\\ housing\\ into\\ luxury\\ housing\\ and\\ you\\ have\\,\\ well\\,\\ the\\ perfect\\ recipe\\ for\\ growing\\ poverty\\ in\\ \\\\New\\ \\ \\ York\\ City\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ Large\\ structural\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ \\(industrial\\ jobs\\ were\\ shipped\\ overseas\\,\\ international\\ finance\\ and\\ technology\\ jobs\\ for\\ the\\ highly\\-educated\\ begin\\ to\\ replace\\ them\\)\\ had\\ a\\ disproportionately\\ large\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ city\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ status\\ as\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ financial\\ capital\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Ethnic\\ minorities\\ felt\\ the\\ burden\\ more\\ than\\ most\\:\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ Hispanics\\ and\\ 25\\%\\ blacks\\ were\\ living\\ in\\ poverty\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ War\\ on\\ Poverty\\ in\\ the\\ sixties\\ became\\ a\\ war\\ on\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ the\\ eighties\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ Ronald\\ Reagan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ hallmark\\ domestic\\ policies\\ was\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;War\\ on\\ Drugs\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ punished\\ cheap\\ crack\\ cocaine\\ much\\ more\\ severely\\ than\\ expensive\\ powder\\ cocaine\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Policies\\ like\\ this\\ increased\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ poor\\ and\\ minority\\ prison\\ inmates\\ dramatically\\.\\ \\(And\\ the\\ problem\\ has\\ only\\ gotten\\ \\worse\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>An\\ underground\\ economy\\ began\\ to\\ flourish\\ when\\ jobs\\ are\\ lost\\ and\\ the\\ legitimate\\ economy\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ provide\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ live\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ policy\\ problems\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ end\\ here\\:\\ The\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ amendment\\ was\\ vigorously\\ policed\\ and\\ contested\\ while\\ the\\ growing\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ amendment\\ \\(gun\\ ownership\\)\\ were\\ ignored\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1981\\ and\\ 1982\\ combined\\,\\ 43\\,000\\ Americans\\ were\\ murdered\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ give\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ comparison\\,\\ 58\\,000\\ American\\ soldiers\\ died\\ in\\ the\\ entire\\ Vietnam\\ War\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Early\\ Days\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ this\\ day\\,\\ hip\\ hop\\ remains\\ a\\ remarkably\\ contested\\ genre\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ some\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ quintessentially\\ postmodern\\,\\ others\\ think\\ it\\ draws\\ from\\ a\\ pre\\-modern\\ oral\\ tradition\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Some\\ see\\ hip\\ hop\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ critique\\ of\\ capitalism\\ while\\ others\\ think\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ complicit\\ with\\ capitalism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ either\\ reifies\\ stereotypes\\ or\\ it\\ breaks\\ them\\ down\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ either\\ integrates\\ multiethnic\\ communities\\ or\\ it\\ segregates\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ either\\ divisive\\ or\\ healing\\.\\ \\(If\\ this\\ sounds\\ like\\ people\\ are\\ reacting\\ to\\ particular\\ songs\\ and\\ artists\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ genre\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ be\\ on\\ to\\ something\\.\\ These\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ normally\\ the\\ debates\\ we\\ have\\ about\\ entire\\ genres\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ do\\ all\\ novelists\\ share\\ basic\\ ideological\\ features\\?\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\,\\ for\\ whatever\\ reason\\,\\ we\\ have\\ these\\ arguments\\ about\\ hip\\ hop\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Hip\\ Hop\\ began\\ in\\ the\\ \\South\\ Bronx\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ as\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ New\\ York\\'s\\ burgeoning\\ Afro\\-\\Caribbean\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ youth\\ culture\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ point\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ like\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ hip\\ hop\\ as\\ sprouting\\ from\\ the\\ mean\\ streets\\ of\\ the\\ \\Bronx\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ accurately\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ Paul\\ Gilroy\\ calls\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\The\\ Black\\ Atlantic\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ even\\ this\\ simplifies\\ the\\ issue\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ hip\\ hop\\ is\\ a\\ transnational\\ cultural\\ expression\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Jamaican\\ and\\ \\Caribbean\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ immigrants\\ settling\\ in\\ \\\\New\\ York\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ started\\ to\\ shift\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ \\\\New\\ York\\ City\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Block\\ parties\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ were\\ city\\ versions\\ of\\ \\dancehall\\ \\<\\/a\\>and\\ outdoor\\ parties\\ in\\ \\\\Jamaica\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ Jamaican\\ DJ\\ was\\ particularly\\ important\\:\\ \\DJ\\ Kool\\ Herc\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Herc\\ was\\ throwing\\ parties\\ in\\ the\\ \\South\\ Bronx\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ working\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ dual\\ turntable\\ system\\ used\\ in\\ \\\\Manhattan\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ discos\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Before\\ long\\,\\ he\\ began\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ same\\ song\\ on\\ both\\ turntables\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ only\\ instead\\ of\\ playing\\ the\\ entire\\ song\\ he\\ played\\ his\\ favorite\\ portion\\ of\\ it\\,\\ often\\ the\\ musical\\ \\&\\#8220\\;break\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ the\\ break\\ was\\ finished\\ on\\ one\\ turntable\\ he\\ began\\ playing\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ break\\ was\\ repeated\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Welcome\\ to\\ break\\ beats\\,\\ ladies\\ and\\ gentlemen\\,\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ hip\\ hop\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rhythm\\ technology\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ break\\,\\ the\\ Amen\\ Break\\,\\ check\\ out\\ \\this\\ short\\ video\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Jamaica\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ also\\ gave\\ us\\ dub\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ remixing\\ and\\ talking\\ over\\ songs\\ already\\ recorded\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ Herc\\ was\\ looping\\ break\\ beats\\ in\\ the\\ \\Bronx\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-seventies\\,\\ \\Lee\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Scratch\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Perry\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ in\\ \\\\Kingston\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ remixing\\ his\\ own\\ recordings\\ and\\ using\\ drum\\ machines\\ on\\ albums\\ like\\ \\\\Revolution\\ Dub\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Before\\ long\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ got\\ music\\ from\\ people\\ like\\ \\Afrika\\ Bambaataa\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ took\\ drum\\ machines\\,\\ dubbing\\ and\\ synthesized\\ music\\ to\\ an\\ extreme\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Check\\ out\\ this\\ video\\ of\\ Bambaataa\\'s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Planet\\ Rock\\&\\#8221\\;\\ for\\ some\\ great\\ footage\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ hip\\ hop\\ scene\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ eighties\\ looked\\ and\\ sounded\\ like\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ are\\ three\\ prominent\\ features\\ of\\ hip\\ hop\\ culture\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Graffiti\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ Tagging\\ public\\ spaces\\ with\\ names\\ and\\ symbols\\ became\\ popular\\ in\\ the\\ seventies\\,\\ and\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ gained\\ wider\\ interest\\ after\\ \\\\New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/em\\>\\ profile\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ graffiti\\ artist\\ \\Taki\\ 183\\<\\/a\\>\\ from\\ \\\\Morningside\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Heights\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Taki\\ and\\ graffiti\\ artists\\ frequently\\ tagged\\ subway\\ trains\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ send\\ your\\ name\\ throughout\\ all\\ five\\ boroughs\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ the\\ late\\ 70s\\ there\\ were\\ hundreds\\ of\\ graffiti\\ crews\\ \\bombing\\ \\<\\/a\\>in\\ defiance\\ of\\ the\\ increased\\ policing\\ procedures\\ of\\ the\\ transit\\ authority\\.\\ \\(For\\ 21st\\-century\\ versions\\,\\ check\\ out\\ \\laser\\ graffiti\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Break\\ Dancing\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ While\\ disco\\ dancing\\ is\\ fluid\\,\\ break\\ dancing\\ highlights\\ the\\ breaks\\ between\\ songs\\ and\\ within\\ songs\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ movements\\ of\\ break\\ dancers\\ emphasize\\ the\\ rupture\\ of\\ rhythmic\\ continuity\\ that\\ hip\\ hop\\ itself\\ loved\\ to\\ exploit\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ knows\\ whereof\\ he\\ speaks\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ studious\\ young\\ man\\ growing\\ up\\,\\ he\\ would\\ judge\\ the\\ break\\ dancing\\ competitions\\ that\\ often\\ took\\ place\\ at\\ someone\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ house\\ or\\ on\\ the\\ basketball\\ court\\.\\ \\(Check\\ out\\ the\\ movies\\ \\\\Beat\\ Street\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ \\\\Breakin\\&\\#8217\\;\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ both\\ from\\ 1984\\ \\-\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ forgotten\\ classic\\ by\\ Grandmaster\\ Flash\\ and\\ Grandmaster\\ Melle\\ Mel\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Beat\\ Street\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\]\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rap\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ aspect\\ of\\ hip\\ hop\\ culture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>DJs\\ were\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ scene\\ first\\,\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ they\\ played\\ drew\\ from\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ musical\\ sources\\ and\\ traditions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Toasting\\ was\\ an\\ early\\ form\\ of\\ rapping\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ DJs\\ playing\\ the\\ music\\ would\\,\\ well\\,\\ toast\\ people\\,\\ and\\ this\\ developed\\ into\\ a\\ boastful\\ form\\ of\\ storytelling\\ that\\ was\\ typically\\ playful\\ and\\ sexual\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ lyricism\\ of\\ hip\\ hop\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ MC\\ \\(the\\ \\\"master\\ of\\ ceremonies\\,\\\"\\ the\\ rapper\\)\\ and\\ the\\ DJ\\,\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ the\\ music\\,\\ the\\ human\\ and\\ the\\ technology\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ seems\\ the\\ music\\ is\\ also\\ woven\\ deep\\ into\\ the\\ fabric\\ of\\ McCarthy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ life\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ confesses\\ that\\ he\\ lost\\ his\\ virginity\\ to\\ Run\\ DMC\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ album\\ \\\\Raising\\ Hell\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Not\\ the\\ \\whole\\<\\/em\\>\\ album\\,\\ of\\ course\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ think\\ it\\ lasted\\ that\\ long\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\At\\ block\\ parties\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ seventies\\,\\ record\\ companies\\ started\\ to\\ approach\\ DJs\\ and\\ MCs\\ about\\ contracts\\,\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ breakthrough\\ hit\\ was\\ in\\ 1979\\,\\ when\\ The\\ Sugarhill\\ Gang\\ came\\ out\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Rapper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Delight\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ sold\\ several\\ million\\ copies\\ \\(and\\ which\\ gave\\ us\\ the\\ first\\ articulation\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&\\#8220\\;hip\\ hop\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1982\\,\\ Sugarhill\\ Records\\ produced\\ an\\ album\\ by\\ Grand\\ Master\\ Flash\\,\\ and\\ his\\ single\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Message\\&\\#8221\\;\\ made\\ it\\ big\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ listen\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ calls\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ syncopated\\ rhythms\\ and\\ the\\ social\\ realism\\ of\\ the\\ lyrics\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Not\\ only\\ does\\ it\\ describe\\ Flash\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ urban\\ surroundings\\ in\\ detail\\,\\ it\\ contains\\ a\\ warning\\ that\\ the\\ harshness\\ of\\ urban\\ poverty\\ could\\ potentially\\ result\\ in\\ violence\\.\\ \\(And\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ distinction\\ from\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Rapper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Delight\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ dance\\ song\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Rap\\ lyrics\\ were\\ sanitized\\ into\\ harmless\\ songs\\ of\\ celebration\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ when\\ Grand\\ Master\\ Flash\\ bursts\\ onto\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ hip\\ hop\\ lyricism\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ its\\ roots\\ in\\ the\\ spoken\\ word\\ performances\\ from\\ the\\ early\\ seventies\\ with\\ groups\\ like\\ \\The\\ Last\\ Poets\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ the\\ east\\ coast\\ and\\ \\The\\ Watts\\ Prophets\\<\\/a\\>\\ out\\ west\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ protest\\ lyricism\\ joined\\ the\\ technology\\ of\\ hip\\ hop\\.\\.\\.\\ but\\ if\\ anyone\\ has\\ an\\ earlier\\ example\\ \\-\\ before\\ 1982\\ \\-\\ let\\ us\\ know\\!\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\During\\ the\\ eighties\\,\\ the\\ east\\ coast\\ dominated\\ the\\ early\\ hip\\ hop\\ scene\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>L\\.L\\.\\ Cool\\ J\\,\\ Run\\ DMC\\ and\\ Public\\ Enemy\\ all\\ gained\\ national\\ attention\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>While\\ the\\ young\\ industry\\ was\\ dominated\\ by\\ male\\ artists\\ espousing\\ vigorous\\ heterosexuality\\,\\ there\\ were\\ female\\ MCs\\ as\\ well\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ was\\ \\Salt\\-n\\-Peppa\\<\\/a\\>\\ from\\ \\Queens\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Their\\ first\\ single\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Push\\ It\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1987\\)\\,\\ sold\\ 1\\ million\\ copies\\,\\ and\\ their\\ album\\,\\ \\Hot\\,\\ Cool\\ and\\ Vicious\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ went\\ platinum\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Salt\\-n\\-Peppa\\ laid\\ the\\ foundations\\ for\\ female\\ MCs\\ like\\ Foxy\\ Brown\\,\\ Li\\&\\#8217\\;l\\ Kim\\,\\ Eve\\,\\ Lauryn\\ Hill\\ and\\ Missy\\ Elliot\\ \\(the\\ jury\\ is\\ still\\ out\\ on\\ \\Lil\\ Mama\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ plays\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ Salt\\-n\\-Peppa\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Talk\\ about\\ Sex\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ he\\ explains\\ how\\ the\\ group\\ contributed\\ a\\ feminist\\ consciousness\\ to\\ hip\\ hop\\ as\\ they\\ retained\\ full\\ ownership\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ sexuality\\ and\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\ posed\\ an\\ alternative\\ to\\ hip\\ hop\\'s\\ often\\ misogynistic\\ lyrics\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Importantly\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Talk\\ about\\ Sex\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ used\\ by\\ AIDS\\ campaigns\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ nineties\\ as\\ an\\ anthem\\ for\\ awareness\\ and\\ education\\ as\\ the\\ primary\\ means\\ for\\ disease\\ prevention\\,\\ so\\ hip\\ hop\\ dovetails\\ with\\ other\\ movements\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\ definitely\\ true\\,\\ but\\ here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ double\\-edged\\ swords\\ of\\ hip\\ hop\\ \\(and\\,\\ well\\,\\ of\\ society\\)\\:\\ While\\ early\\ male\\ MCs\\ could\\ choose\\ between\\ being\\ brash\\,\\ fun\\ or\\ socially\\ critical\\,\\ female\\ MCs\\ became\\ prominent\\ primarily\\ by\\ highlighting\\ their\\ sexuality\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Push\\ It\\&\\#8221\\;\\ ain\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ about\\ impoverished\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ let\\ me\\ tell\\ ya\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ diminish\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ politically\\ active\\ female\\ MCs\\ like\\ \\SWV\\ \\<\\/a\\>or\\ \\Sister\\ Souljah\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ deny\\ that\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ been\\ more\\ difficult\\ for\\ female\\ MCs\\ to\\ break\\ through\\ when\\ they\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ drawing\\ attention\\ to\\ their\\ bodies\\ and\\ libidos\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\After\\ calling\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ contribution\\ of\\ women\\,\\ McCarthy\\ wants\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ clear\\ that\\ hip\\ hop\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ multicultural\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ DJs\\ always\\ sampled\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ genres\\ from\\ virtually\\ every\\ musical\\ style\\ available\\ on\\ vinyl\\,\\ and\\ MCs\\ came\\ in\\ all\\ colors\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ adds\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ emergence\\ recently\\ of\\ queer\\ hip\\ hop\\ clubs\\,\\ where\\ \\&\\#8220\\;keeping\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ D\\.L\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ new\\ significance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gangsta\\ Rap\\ and\\ Tupac\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\By\\ the\\ late\\ eighties\\ and\\ early\\ nineties\\,\\ rap\\ lyrics\\ became\\ increasingly\\ controversial\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Apparently\\,\\ people\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ thrilled\\ with\\ NWA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Fuck\\ the\\ Police\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Public\\ Enemy\\'s\\ \\\"\\Fight\\ the\\ Power\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ or\\ basically\\ any\\ song\\ \\2\\ Live\\ Crew\\<\\/a\\>\\ ever\\ wrote\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>2\\ Live\\ Crew\\ was\\ actually\\ prosecuted\\ on\\ \\obscenity\\ charges\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\Henry\\ Louis\\ Gates\\,\\ Jr\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\,\\ a\\ professor\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ testified\\ in\\ court\\ in\\ their\\ defense\\.\\ \\(Your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ remembers\\ fondly\\ when\\ this\\ controversy\\ erupted\\ in\\ his\\ very\\ own\\ county\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ happy\\ that\\ his\\ parents\\ never\\ bothered\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ his\\ precious\\ 2\\ Live\\ Crew\\ tape\\,\\ which\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ some\\ marker\\ of\\ early\\ adolescent\\ rebellion\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ consumer\\ market\\ for\\ hip\\ hop\\ shifted\\ to\\ white\\ urban\\ areas\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ moment\\ that\\ gangsta\\ rap\\ became\\ prominent\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ subgenre\\ of\\ gangsta\\ rap\\ exploded\\ in\\ late\\ eighties\\ and\\ early\\ nineties\\ with\\ acts\\ like\\ Ice\\ Cube\\,\\ Ice\\ T\\,\\ Biggy\\ Smalls\\ and\\ Tupac\\ as\\ it\\ appealed\\ to\\ the\\ rebelliousness\\ of\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ suburban\\ whites\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Just\\ as\\ we\\ found\\ way\\ back\\ with\\ Grand\\ Master\\ Flash\\,\\ gangsta\\ rap\\ lyrics\\ were\\ a\\ version\\ of\\ social\\ realism\\ featuring\\ the\\ raw\\ truth\\ of\\ urban\\ life\\:\\ poverty\\,\\ prostitution\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ unemployment\\,\\ murder\\,\\ imprisonment\\.\\ \\(Only\\ now\\,\\ the\\ line\\ between\\ the\\ corruption\\ MCs\\ rapped\\ about\\ and\\ their\\ own\\ lives\\ seemed\\ blurrier\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ lyrics\\ focused\\ on\\ elemental\\ struggles\\ for\\ power\\ between\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ police\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Before\\ long\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ struggle\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ only\\ with\\ the\\ police\\:\\ the\\ east\\ coast\\/west\\ coast\\ rivalry\\ began\\ just\\ as\\ gangsta\\ rap\\ was\\ becoming\\ big\\ business\\,\\ and\\ the\\ conflict\\ largely\\ involved\\ Bad\\ Boy\\ Records\\ on\\ the\\ east\\ coast\\ \\(founded\\ by\\ P\\.\\ Diddy\\)\\ and\\ Death\\ Row\\ Records\\ on\\ the\\ west\\ coast\\ \\(founded\\ by\\ \\Suge\\ Knight\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ order\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ class\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ how\\ that\\ rivalry\\ manifested\\ itself\\ in\\ the\\ recording\\ studio\\,\\ McCarthy\\ plays\\ Tupac\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ diss\\ track\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Hit\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Em\\ Up\\\"\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\African\\ American\\ cultural\\ critic\\ Nelson\\ George\\ said\\ that\\ this\\ rivalry\\ was\\ as\\ destructive\\ to\\ hip\\ hop\\ as\\ crack\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tupac\\ was\\ shot\\ the\\ day\\ before\\ the\\ verdict\\ on\\ his\\ sexual\\ abuse\\ trial\\ was\\ issued\\ \\(he\\ was\\ found\\ guilty\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tupac\\ considered\\ it\\ a\\ setup\\,\\ and\\ conspiracy\\ theories\\ involving\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ recording\\ industry\\ started\\ flying\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ spending\\ 4\\ \\&\\#189\\;\\ years\\ in\\ prison\\ on\\ a\\ rape\\ charge\\ many\\ considered\\ dubious\\,\\ he\\ acquired\\ iconic\\ status\\.\\ While\\ in\\ jail\\,\\ Tupac\\ signed\\ a\\ record\\ contract\\ with\\ Suge\\ Knight\\ from\\ Death\\ Row\\ Records\\,\\ and\\ he\\ began\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ harder\\ image\\ \\(There\\ were\\ far\\ fewer\\ songs\\ like\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Dear\\ Mama\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ far\\ more\\ like\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Hit\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Em\\ Up\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\ While\\ in\\ jail\\,\\ he\\ had\\ the\\ words\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Thug\\ Life\\&\\#8221\\;\\ tattooed\\ onto\\ his\\ stomach\\,\\ and\\ once\\ he\\ got\\ out\\ he\\ produced\\ \\\\All\\ Eyez\\ on\\ Me\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ with\\ Death\\ Row\\ in\\ 1996\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tupac\\ began\\ declaring\\ war\\ with\\ no\\ mercy\\,\\ so\\ the\\ playful\\ confrontations\\ long\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ genre\\ became\\ very\\ real\\ and\\ very\\ deadly\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1997\\,\\ after\\ leaving\\ a\\ Mike\\ Tyson\\ bout\\ in\\ \\\\Las\\ \\ \\ Vegas\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ Tupac\\ was\\ shot\\ multiple\\ times\\ while\\ riding\\ in\\ a\\ car\\ with\\ Suge\\ Knight\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ murder\\ is\\ still\\ unsolved\\,\\ and\\ McCarthy\\ mentions\\ that\\ Tupac\\ was\\ attempting\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ death\\ row\\ contract\\.\\ \\(McCarthy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ selection\\ of\\ details\\ here\\ is\\ important\\:\\ the\\ potential\\ contract\\ breech\\ is\\ among\\ the\\ biggest\\ pieces\\ of\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ \\Suge\\-Had\\-Tupac\\-Killed\\ Theory\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Tupac\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ death\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ solidified\\ his\\ status\\ as\\ what\\ Michael\\ Eric\\ Dyson\\ calls\\ a\\ black\\ saint\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Final\\ Words\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Our\\ two\\ lecturers\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ leave\\ us\\ with\\ some\\ final\\ words\\ before\\ we\\ wrap\\ up\\ a\\ semester\\ of\\ American\\ protest\\ literature\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ reminds\\ us\\ that\\ throughout\\ the\\ semester\\ they\\ have\\ been\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ art\\,\\ and\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ art\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ power\\ derives\\ from\\ the\\ role\\ it\\ has\\ played\\ for\\ centuries\\:\\ art\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ redeem\\ the\\ world\\,\\ to\\ change\\ it\\ by\\ its\\ enchanting\\ powers\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ and\\ McCarthy\\ want\\ us\\ to\\ reconceptualize\\ the\\ very\\ meaning\\ of\\ art\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ a\\ very\\ fundamental\\ sense\\,\\ art\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ escape\\ from\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ tries\\ to\\ influence\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Protest\\ art\\ asks\\ us\\ to\\ expand\\ our\\ vision\\ beyond\\ the\\ quotidian\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ syllabus\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ texts\\ \\(and\\ images\\)\\ not\\ considered\\ art\\ but\\ which\\ perform\\ the\\ traditional\\ role\\ art\\ has\\ played\\ for\\ centuries\\.\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\McCarthy\\ now\\ gives\\ us\\ his\\ final\\ words\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Because\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ members\\ has\\ been\\ sick\\,\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ been\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ continuity\\ of\\ generations\\,\\ what\\ we\\ owe\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ from\\ the\\ toil\\ of\\ previous\\ generations\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ will\\ give\\ to\\ the\\ generations\\ following\\ us\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>McCarthy\\ is\\ most\\ inspired\\ by\\ people\\ who\\ take\\ risks\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ even\\ if\\ he\\ disagrees\\ with\\ their\\ cause\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ shocked\\ by\\ how\\ few\\ people\\ in\\ history\\ have\\ actually\\ taken\\ risks\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ risk\\-aversion\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ frustrate\\ him\\ about\\ teaching\\ at\\ Harvard\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ he\\ looks\\ around\\ the\\ lecture\\ hall\\,\\ he\\ sees\\ extraordinary\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ well\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ problems\\ in\\ the\\ world\\:\\ they\\ are\\ bombarded\\ with\\ images\\,\\ with\\ knowledge\\ given\\ to\\ them\\ by\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ greatest\\ scholars\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ he\\ also\\ sees\\ people\\ who\\ take\\ for\\ granted\\ what\\ has\\ happened\\ before\\,\\ the\\ travails\\ of\\ countless\\ people\\ who\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ been\\ free\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ choices\\ we\\ now\\ have\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ he\\ watches\\ generations\\ before\\ him\\ pass\\ away\\,\\ McCarthy\\ wants\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ vast\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ we\\ have\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ question\\ that\\ ends\\ this\\ semester\\:\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 15\\ years\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ in\\ 50\\ years\\,\\ in\\ 100\\ years\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ will\\ you\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ index\\ of\\ the\\ books\\ read\\ by\\ future\\ generations\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Or\\ will\\ you\\ be\\ obscure\\ because\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ spent\\ your\\ time\\ changing\\ your\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ world\\ itself\\?\\\r\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\&\\#8220\\;Changes\\&\\#8221\\;\\ starts\\ playing\\ again\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ students\\ clap\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tim\\ and\\ John\\ hug\\ one\\ another\\ while\\ Tupac\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ voice\\,\\ miles\\ and\\ years\\ beyond\\ that\\ night\\ in\\ Las\\ Vegas\\,\\ raps\\ about\\ being\\ brothers\\ instead\\ of\\ distant\\ strangers\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ listening\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hip Hop Hits Harvard"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.085603+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 358, "html": "\\Hey\\ readers\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ you\\'ve\\ gotten\\ to\\ know\\ me\\ this\\ semester\\ and\\ you\\'ve\\ certainly\\ gotten\\ to\\ know\\ Tal\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\.\\ Now\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ know\\ you\\.\\ Well\\ I\\ can\\'t\\ speak\\ for\\ Tal\\ but\\ I\\ certainly\\ do\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Take\\ a\\ second\\ to\\ take\\ these\\ polls\\;\\ also\\ I\\ encourage\\ readers\\ to\\ comment\\ on\\ my\\ posts\\.\\ Creating\\ an\\ active\\ discussion\\ will\\ make\\ this\\ much\\ more\\ interesting\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\{democracy\\:5\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\{democracy\\:4\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\{democracy\\:6\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Also\\ for\\ any\\ of\\ you\\ Harvard\\ students\\ out\\ there\\ taking\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ \\(I\\ know\\ you\\ didn\\'t\\ study\\ for\\ yesterday\\'s\\ midterm\\ using\\ my\\ posts\\.\\.\\.\\)\\ I\\ welcome\\ you\\ to\\ blog\\ with\\ me\\!\\ Please\\ email\\ for\\ details\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Great\\ getting\\ to\\ know\\ you\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\PPTime1504\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.093764+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Stress!?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 359, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ we\\ return\\ from\\ Spring\\ Break\\,\\ Tal\\ completes\\ the\\ discussion\\ on\\ stress\\.\\ He\\ explains\\ that\\ stress\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ the\\ problem\\ as\\ stress\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\ is\\ actually\\ good\\.\\ Instead\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ \\lack\\ of\\ recovery\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ We\\ need\\ \\multiple\\ levels\\ of\\ recovery\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ \\micro\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(minutes\\,\\ hours\\)\\,\\ \\mezzo\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(nights\\,\\ days\\)\\ and\\ \\macro\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(weeks\\,\\ months\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ key\\ to\\ reducing\\ stress\\ is\\ \\focus\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\During\\ recovery\\,\\ quantity\\ affects\\ quality\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>The\\ takeaway\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ doing\\ too\\ many\\ different\\ activities\\ during\\ recovery\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ negative\\ impact\\,\\ like\\ listening\\ to\\ two\\ of\\ your\\ favorite\\ songs\\ at\\ once\\.\\ Too\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ is\\&\\#8230\\;too\\ much\\.\\ This\\ applies\\ to\\ work\\ as\\ well\\ where\\ \\multi\\-tasking\\ actually\\ detracts\\ more\\ than\\ it\\ adds\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ A\\ study\\ by\\ Glen\\ Wilson\\ found\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ IQ\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ tried\\ to\\ juggle\\ messages\\ and\\ work\\ fell\\ by\\ 10\\ points\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ equivalent\\ to\\ missing\\ a\\ whole\\ night\\'s\\ sleep\\ and\\ more\\ than\\ double\\ the\\ 4\\-point\\ fall\\ seen\\ after\\ smoking\\ marijuana\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ tip\\ is\\ to\\ \\simplify\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ You\\ must\\ identify\\ the\\ things\\ you\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ do\\ them\\.\\ \\Time\\ affluence\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(vs\\.\\ material\\ affluence\\)\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ predictor\\ of\\ well\\-being\\.\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ that\\ we\\ say\\ \\&\\#8220\\;yes\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ saying\\ \\&\\#8220\\;no\\&\\#8221\\;\\-\\ in\\ other\\ words\\ saying\\ no\\ to\\ offers\\ can\\ be\\ saying\\ yes\\ to\\ ourselves\\.\\ In\\ terms\\ of\\ \\optimum\\ levels\\ of\\ simplicity\\ \\<\\/strong\\>you\\ can\\ graph\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ x\\-axis\\ and\\ creativity\\,\\ productivity\\ and\\ happiness\\ on\\ the\\ y\\-axis\\.\\ The\\ graph\\ is\\ an\\ upside\\ down\\ parabola\\ \\(or\\ dome\\ shaped\\,\\ in\\ layman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ terms\\)\\:\\ on\\ right\\ you\\ are\\ too\\ busy\\,\\ burned\\ out\\ and\\ overworked\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ left\\,\\ you\\ are\\ procrastinating\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ again\\ cites\\ JPMorgan\\ in\\ saying\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ can\\ do\\ a\\ year\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ in\\ nine\\ months\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ twelve\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ Cyril\\ Northcote\\ Parkinson\\ who\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Work\\ expands\\ to\\ fill\\ the\\ time\\ available\\ for\\ its\\ completion\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Ring\\ a\\ bell\\,\\ Harvard\\ kids\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ quotes\\ Henry\\ David\\ Thoreau\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ point\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ stress\\-free\\ life\\,\\ so\\ we\\ much\\ simplify\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Simplicity\\,\\ simplicity\\,\\ simplicity\\!\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ say\\ let\\ your\\ affairs\\ be\\ as\\ two\\ or\\ three\\,\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ hundred\\ or\\ a\\ thousand\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ million\\ count\\ half\\ a\\ dozen\\.\\.\\.\\ In\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ this\\ chopping\\ sea\\ of\\ civilized\\ life\\,\\ such\\ are\\ the\\ clouds\\ and\\ storms\\ and\\ quicksands\\ and\\ the\\ thousand\\-and\\-one\\ items\\ to\\ be\\ allowed\\ for\\&\\#8230\\;\\ and\\ he\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ calculator\\ indeed\\ who\\ succeeds\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Simplify\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Simplify\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Next\\,\\ he\\ discusses\\ \\overcoming\\ procrastination\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Over\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ college\\ students\\ complain\\ about\\ procrastination\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ are\\ in\\ denial\\,\\ perhaps\\.\\ Procrastination\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ stress\\ and\\ depression\\.\\ Here\\ are\\ some\\ tips\\ to\\ overcome\\ it\\,\\ drawn\\ from\\ research\\ done\\ by\\ \\\\Hara\\ Estroff\\ Marano\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>1\\)\\ Just\\ do\\ it\\-\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ misconception\\ that\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ feel\\ inspired\\ to\\ do\\ work\\.\\ Instead\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ act\\ \\(behavior\\)\\ to\\ feel\\ inspired\\ \\(attitude\\)\\.\\ 2\\)\\ Reward\\ yourself\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>3\\)\\ The\\ team\\ approach\\ \\(work\\ with\\ other\\ people\\)\\ 4\\)\\ Set\\ goals\\,\\ make\\ plans\\ and\\ lists\\ \\(divide\\ and\\ conquer\\,\\ break\\ down\\ achievement\\)\\ 5\\)\\ give\\ yourself\\ permission\\ to\\ recreate\\ \\(permission\\ to\\ be\\ human\\,\\ to\\ procrastinate\\ at\\ times\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Stress!?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.104257+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Perfectionism vs. Excellence", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 360, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Tal\\ begins\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ \\perfectionism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ by\\ discussing\\ Warren\\ Dennis\\'\\ research\\ for\\ his\\ book\\ \\Geeks\\ and\\ Geezers\\<\\/a\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Dennis\\ compared\\ men\\ in\\ their\\ 20s\\ to\\ men\\ in\\ their\\ 70s\\.\\ He\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ one\\ common\\ element\\ was\\ they\\ had\\ all\\ experienced\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ \\significant\\ failure\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ a\\ crucible\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\.\\ And\\,\\ both\\ groups\\ saw\\ this\\ failure\\ as\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ their\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Perfectionism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\is\\ an\\ incapacitating\\ fear\\ of\\ failure\\ that\\ permeates\\ our\\ lives\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ areas\\ we\\ care\\ about\\ most\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>It\\ is\\ an\\ approach\\,\\ a\\ cognitive\\ and\\ emotional\\ schema\\,\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ for\\ the\\ journey\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\,\\ for\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ getting\\ from\\ point\\ A\\ to\\ point\\ B\\.\\ \\ A\\ person\\ committed\\ to\\ excellence\\ \\(which\\ Tal\\ uses\\ as\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ a\\ perfectionist\\&\\#8230\\;interesting\\ choice\\ of\\ words\\)\\ understands\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ fail\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ to\\ success\\,\\ thus\\ the\\ journey\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ B\\ looks\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ coil\\ than\\ a\\ straight\\ line\\,\\ while\\ perfectionists\\ thinks\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ straight\\ shoot\\ to\\ success\\,\\ from\\ A\\ to\\ B\\.\\ The\\ \\schema\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ following\\ chart\\ compares\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ perfectionist\\ and\\ one\\ committed\\ to\\ excellence\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\And\\ this\\ one\\ shows\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ both\\ paths\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Less\\ pain\\ more\\ gain\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>We\\ need\\ a\\ \\sustainable\\ approach\\ to\\ growth\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\ we\\ can\\ enjoy\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ excess\\.\\ Also\\,\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ procrastinate\\.\\ Self\\-confidence\\ is\\ higher\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ commit\\ to\\ excellence\\.\\ Learn\\ to\\ fail\\ or\\ fail\\ to\\ learn\\.\\ \\Wiseman\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ writes\\ that\\ we\\ must\\ make\\ deviations\\ and\\ be\\ spontaneous\\ in\\ our\\ lives\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ see\\ changes\\ and\\ put\\ ourselves\\ in\\ situations\\ where\\ we\\ can\\ be\\ lucky\\.\\ \\Simonton\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ writes\\ that\\ perfectionism\\ stunts\\ creativity\\.\\ The\\ 80\\/20\\ rule\\ is\\ key\\!\\ You\\ can\\ spend\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ get\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ done\\.\\ For\\ example\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ all\\ of\\ your\\ reading\\ \\(Did\\ a\\ Harvard\\ Professor\\ really\\ just\\ say\\ that\\!\\?\\)\\ We\\ have\\ times\\ in\\ our\\ day\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ more\\ productive\\-\\ we\\ get\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ our\\ work\\ done\\ in\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ the\\ day\\.\\ According\\ to\\ \\Csikszentmihalyi\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ perfectionists\\ are\\ much\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ experience\\ flow\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ we\\ discuss\\,\\ \\the\\ sources\\ of\\ perfectionism\\.\\ Our\\ social\\ environment\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\conditions\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\us\\<\\/strong\\>\\ from\\ a\\ young\\ age\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ destination\\ is\\ rewarded\\ \\(with\\ a\\ Christmas\\ bonus\\,\\ course\\ grade\\,\\ or\\ sticker\\ a\\ finger\\-painting\\ project\\)\\ we\\ believe\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ accepted\\ only\\ when\\ we\\ successfully\\ complete\\ a\\ task\\.\\ Few\\ institutions\\ reward\\ the\\ journey\\ and\\ even\\ fewer\\ reward\\ failure\\.\\ Failure\\ is\\ instead\\ treated\\ only\\ as\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ We\\ must\\ give\\ ourselves\\ permission\\ to\\ be\\ human\\.\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carol\\ Dweck\\<\\/a\\>\\ found\\ that\\ \\there\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\harmful\\ praise\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ She\\ studied\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ ten\\ year\\ olds\\ who\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ puzzle\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ One\\ group\\ was\\ told\\ they\\ were\\ very\\ smart\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ group\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ worked\\ really\\ hard\\.\\ Then\\ she\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ choose\\ between\\ two\\ puzzles\\ to\\ complete\\:\\ one\\ which\\ was\\ easy\\ and\\ another\\ which\\ was\\ hard\\ but\\ a\\ good\\ learning\\ experience\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;smart\\&\\#8221\\;\\ group\\ chose\\ the\\ hard\\ one\\,\\ and\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;hard\\-working\\&\\#8221\\;\\ group\\ chose\\ the\\ hard\\ one\\.\\ In\\ a\\ third\\ study\\,\\ she\\ had\\ the\\ children\\ attempt\\ to\\ complete\\ an\\ unsolvable\\ puzzle\\.\\ The\\ first\\ group\\ got\\ frustrated\\ and\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ enjoy\\ it\\ while\\ the\\ second\\ group\\ worked\\ harder\\ and\\ enjoyed\\ it\\ more\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ Dweck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ words\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;emphasizing\\ effort\\ gives\\ a\\ child\\ a\\ variable\\ that\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ can\\ control\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ Children\\<\\/span\\>\\ come\\ to\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ their\\ success\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Emphasizing\\ natural\\ intelligence\\ takes\\ it\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ child\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ control\\,\\ and\\ it\\ provides\\ no\\ good\\ recipe\\ for\\ responding\\ to\\ a\\ failure\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;When\\ you\\ praise\\ kids\\'\\ intelligence\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ fail\\,\\ they\\ think\\ they\\'re\\ not\\ smart\\ anymore\\,\\ and\\ they\\ lose\\ interest\\ in\\ their\\ work\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ contrast\\,\\ kids\\ praised\\ for\\ effort\\ show\\ no\\ impairment\\ and\\ often\\ are\\ energized\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ difficulty\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ order\\ to\\\\ overcome\\ perfectionism\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ is\\ \\self\\-awareness\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Then\\ we\\ must\\\\ focus\\ on\\,\\ and\\ reward\\,\\ effort\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Research\\ on\\ \\active\\ acceptance\\ \\<\\/strong\\>shows\\ that\\ perfectionism\\ is\\ a\\ neurosis\\,\\ and\\ neurotic\\ tendencies\\ never\\ completely\\ disappear\\.\\ Behavior\\ is\\ what\\ changes\\ attitude\\.\\ More\\ to\\ come\\ next\\ lecture\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Perfectionism vs. Excellence"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.116870+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Healthy Body, Healthy Mind", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 361, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\Today\\ we\\ complete\\ the\\ \\Perfectionism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ lecture\\ and\\ move\\ onto\\ the\\ \\Mind\\-Body\\<\\/strong\\>\\ lecture\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ continues\\ the\\ discussion\\ of\\\\ overcoming\\ perfectionism\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>As\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ lecture\\,\\ overcoming\\ perfectionism\\ begins\\ with\\\\ awareness\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>of\\ your\\ flaws\\ then\\ \\f\\ocus\\ on\\ and\\ reward\\ of\\ effort\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\Next\\,\\ one\\ needs\\ to\\ experience\\\\ active\\ acceptance\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\.\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ that\\ we\\ no\\ attempt\\ to\\ overcome\\ perfectionism\\ with\\ perfectionism\\;\\ the\\ Buddhists\\ say\\ that\\ neuroses\\ are\\ tools\\ for\\ growth\\.\\ And\\ of\\ course\\,\\ \\b\\ehavior\\ changes\\ attitude\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\The\\ next\\ tool\\ is\\\\ meditation\\ and\\ visualization\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>because\\ the\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>mind\\ looks\\ for\\ consistency\\ between\\ mental\\ visuals\\ and\\ reality\\ by\\ visualizing\\ overcoming\\ perfectionism\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ so\\ in\\ reality\\.\\ \\Setting\\ a\\ liberating\\ goal\\ or\\ vision\\ is\\ also\\ helpful\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Samuel\\ Coleridge\\,\\ a\\ British\\ philosopher\\,\\ once\\ said\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ he\\ will\\ write\\ his\\ \\magnum\\ opus\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(greatest\\ work\\\\)\\ \\<\\/em\\>until\\ then\\ everything\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;rough\\ draft\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\T\\he\\ Platinum\\ Rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ which\\ takes\\ the\\ Gold\\ Rule\\ and\\ flips\\ it\\,\\ thus\\ suggesting\\ not\\ to\\ do\\ onto\\ yourself\\ what\\ you\\ wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ want\\ done\\ to\\ others\\ and\\ do\\ onto\\ yourself\\ as\\ you\\ would\\ do\\ onto\\ others\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ apply\\ unrealistic\\ standards\\ unto\\ yourself\\.\\ \\Tsewe\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ Tibetan\\ means\\ compassion\\ onto\\ others\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ yourself\\ which\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Western\\ concept\\ of\\ \\compassion\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\which\\ refers\\ merely\\ as\\ kindness\\ to\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\ The\\ Dalai\\ Lama\\ was\\ appalled\\ by\\ this\\ unidirectional\\ Western\\ concept\\.\\ \\(And\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ Positive\\ thinking\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ got\\ to\\ do\\ everything\\ that\\ the\\ Dalai\\ Lama\\ says\\,\\ right\\?\\)\\ Lastly\\,\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ that\\ we\\ \\help\\ others\\ deal\\ with\\ perfectionism\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\by\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>leading\\ by\\ example\\;\\ sharing\\ stories\\ about\\ growth\\ \\(not\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ sharing\\ and\\ telling\\-\\ in\\ sharing\\ \\&\\#8220\\;both\\ of\\ us\\ get\\&\\#8221\\;\\ but\\ telling\\ \\&\\#8220\\;is\\ a\\ one\\ way\\ street\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ and\\ rewarding\\ the\\ journey\\ instead\\ of\\ outcome\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Before\\ moving\\ on\\,\\ Tal\\ takes\\ a\\ few\\ minutes\\ to\\ recap\\ the\\ lessons\\ of\\ Psych\\ 1504\\ so\\ far\\.\\ He\\ refers\\ to\\ this\\ summary\\ as\\ \\Applying\\ the\\ 3P\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\(an\\ alternative\\ to\\ the\\ 3Ms\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\The\\ main\\ topics\\ are\\ \\1\\)\\ Permission\\ to\\ be\\ Human\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ is\\ comprised\\ of\\ \\acceptance\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\\\ respect\\ for\\ reality\\,\\ 2\\)\\ Positive\\ thinking\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ includes\\ \\benefit\\ finding\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\,\\ \\seeing\\ failure\\ as\\ opportunity\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\and\\ sometimes\\\\ distracting\\ oneself\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\(that\\ is\\,\\ focusing\\ away\\ from\\ your\\ negative\\ thoughts\\ and\\ emotions\\ by\\ going\\ for\\ a\\ run\\,\\ for\\ example\\;\\ note\\ this\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ avoiding\\)\\ and\\ lastly\\,\\ \\3\\)\\ Perspective\\-\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ sweat\\ the\\ small\\ stuff\\&\\#8230\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(see\\ \\Richard\\ Carson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\<\\/a\\>\\ with\\ same\\ title\\)\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>a\\nd\\ practice\\\\ psychological\\ maturity\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\(which\\ can\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ willingly\\ shift\\ perspective\\)\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ begins\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ \\h\\ealthy\\ body\\,\\ healthy\\ mind\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\by\\ recounting\\ a\\ day\\ he\\ spent\\ in\\ the\\ home\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>Marty\\ Seligman\\.\\ \\(If\\ you\\ haven\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ gathered\\ from\\ the\\ course\\ already\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ visionary\\ in\\ Psychology\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ founders\\ of\\ Cognitive\\ Therapy\\ who\\ brought\\ Cognitive\\ Psychology\\ into\\ the\\ light\\ when\\ Behaviorism\\ was\\ dominant\\)\\.\\ Marty\\ said\\ to\\ Tal\\ \\&\\#8220\\;You\\ know\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\ with\\ Psychology\\ today\\?\\ Our\\ focus\\ has\\ mostly\\ been\\ neck\\-up\\,\\ while\\ most\\ of\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ us\\ is\\ neck\\-down\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ continues\\ by\\ suggesting\\ there\\ is\\ a\\\\ wonder\\ drug\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ which\\ will\\ make\\ you\\ feel\\ good\\,\\ enhance\\ your\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ improve\\ calm\\ and\\ thinking\\ and\\ make\\ you\\ more\\ attractive\\.\\ What\\ is\\ this\\ wonder\\ drug\\ you\\ may\\ ask\\?\\ Why\\ its\\ 30\\ minutes\\ of\\ physical\\ exercise\\ 4\\ times\\ a\\ week\\,\\ 15\\ minutes\\ of\\ mindfulness\\ 6\\-7\\ times\\ a\\ week\\,\\ 8hours\\ of\\ sleep\\ a\\ night\\ and\\ 12\\ hugs\\ a\\ day\\!\\ Tal\\ cites\\ Jon\\ Kabat\\-Zinn\\ who\\ writes\\ in\\ \\Full\\ Catastrophe\\ Living\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ fundamental\\ development\\ in\\ behavioral\\ medicine\\ is\\ the\\ recognition\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ think\\ about\\ health\\ as\\ being\\ solely\\ a\\ characteristic\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ or\\ the\\ mind\\ because\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\ are\\ interconnected\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ next\\ slide\\ is\\ entitled\\\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Exercise\\ and\\ Modernity\\&\\#8217\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>Today\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ reduction\\ of\\ physical\\ work\\ \\(Tal\\ tells\\ an\\ anecdote\\ about\\ how\\ we\\ used\\ to\\ have\\ to\\ chase\\ deer\\ and\\ lions\\ for\\ our\\ dinner\\ which\\ I\\ will\\ refrain\\ from\\ retelling\\ here\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ \\underprivilege\\ of\\ privilege\\<\\/strong\\>\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;luxury\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ never\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ physical\\ work\\.\\ We\\ live\\ a\\ sedentary\\ lifestyle\\,\\ both\\ at\\ work\\ and\\ in\\ our\\ leisure\\ activities\\.\\ This\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ rising\\ level\\ of\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\ Exercise\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ luxury\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ need\\.\\ Seneca\\,\\ a\\ Greek\\ philosopher\\,\\ once\\ said\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;our\\ forefathers\\ lived\\ every\\ jot\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ we\\,\\ when\\ they\\ provided\\ and\\ dressed\\ their\\ own\\ meat\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ hands\\;\\ lodged\\ upon\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ as\\ yet\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ vanity\\ of\\ gold\\ and\\ gems\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Positive\\ Psych\\ lecture\\ is\\ nothing\\ without\\ a\\ clip\\ from\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;favorite\\ psychologist\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Ellen\\ DeGeneres\\,\\ who\\ comments\\ on\\ how\\ lazy\\ we\\ are\\ today\\:\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\Next\\,\\ Tal\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\\\ power\\ of\\ exercise\\ in\\ overcoming\\ depression\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\\\\\Babyak\\ et\\ al\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ conducted\\ a\\ study\\ where\\ they\\ brought\\ in\\ 156\\ patients\\ with\\ Major\\ Depression\\ Disorder\\ \\(Eating\\ Disorders\\,\\ Suicidal\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ which\\ they\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ groups\\ \\(1\\-\\ exercise\\ group\\ \\(who\\ were\\ exposed\\ to\\ 30\\ minutes\\ of\\ moderate\\ exercise\\ three\\ times\\/week\\)\\,\\ 2\\-\\ medicine\\ group\\ \\(who\\ took\\ a\\ daily\\ SSRI\\,\\ Zoloft\\)\\ group\\ and\\ 3\\-\\ exercise\\ and\\ medicine\\ group\\)\\.\\ They\\ followed\\ the\\ groups\\ for\\ four\\ months\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ in\\ all\\ three\\ groups\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ people\\ improved\\ and\\ no\\ longer\\ had\\ Major\\ Depression\\.\\ No\\ significant\\ difference\\ among\\ the\\ groups\\ was\\ found\\ except\\ that\\ the\\ exercise\\ group\\ saw\\ results\\ somewhat\\ slower\\.\\ During\\ a\\ 10\\ month\\ follow\\ up\\ period\\ \\(when\\ participants\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ given\\ medication\\ or\\ pushed\\ to\\ exercise\\)\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ found\\ that\\ relapse\\ rates\\ in\\ the\\ medication\\ group\\ was\\ 38\\%\\ \\,\\ in\\ the\\ medication\\ and\\ exercise\\ group\\ was\\ 31\\%\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ exercise\\ only\\ group\\ was\\ 9\\%\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ do\\ away\\ with\\ medication\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ to\\ ask\\ if\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ exercise\\ is\\ enough\\.\\ \\\\McCann\\ and\\ Holmes\\ found\\ similar\\ results\\ in\\ patients\\<\\/span\\>with\\ dysthymia\\ \\(prolonged\\ depression\\)\\.\\ \\It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ not\\ that\\ exercise\\ is\\ like\\ an\\ anti\\-depressant\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ not\\ exercising\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ depressant\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Nature\\ to\\ be\\ commanded\\ must\\ be\\ obeyed\\;\\ nature\\ commanded\\ us\\ to\\ live\\ an\\ active\\ life\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\\\ psychological\\ benefits\\ of\\ exercise\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ include\\ enhanced\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ lower\\ anxiety\\ and\\ stress\\,\\ adjunctive\\ treatment\\ for\\ clinical\\ disorders\\ and\\ improved\\ cognitive\\ functioning\\.\\ The\\ \\physical\\ benefits\\<\\/strong\\>\\ are\\ weight\\ loss\\/control\\,\\ reducing\\ chronic\\ disease\\,\\ a\\ stronger\\ immune\\ system\\ and\\ better\\ sex\\ \\(because\\ it\\ enhances\\ libido\\ and\\ the\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>likelihood\\ of\\ orgasms\\)\\.\\ \\Thus\\ exercise\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ panacea\\,\\ but\\ it\\ can\\ help\\ a\\ lot\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Note\\:\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ Tal\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ run\\ outside\\ due\\ to\\ inclement\\ New\\ England\\ weather\\ he\\ jumps\\ on\\ his\\ trampoline\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ over\\-exercise\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>your\\ body\\ needs\\ time\\ to\\ recovery\\.\\ \\\\\\Dienstbier\\ \\&\\;\\ Zillig\\ \\(2002\\)\\ found\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\"repeated\\ workouts\\ that\\ are\\ too\\ intense\\ to\\ allow\\ complete\\ recovery\\ may\\ cause\\ endurance\\ athletes\\ to\\ experience\\ \\&\\#8216\\;staleness\\,\\&\\#8217\\;\\ a\\ syndrome\\ that\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ increased\\ psychological\\ symptoms\\ of\\ anxiety\\ with\\ increased\\ sympathetic\\ nervous\\ system\\,\\ catecholamine\\,\\ and\\ cortisol\\ base\\ rates\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ recommends\\ a\\ minimum\\ of\\ 30\\ minutes\\ of\\ exercise\\ every\\ other\\ day\\,\\ or\\ ideally\\-\\ 5\\-6\\ times\\ a\\ week\\.\\ But\\ leave\\ 1\\-4\\ days\\ a\\ week\\ to\\ recovery\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ your\\ bodily\\ needs\\.\\ Quantity\\ does\\ affect\\ quality\\:\\ on\\ a\\ graph\\ with\\ effort\\ on\\ x\\-axis\\ and\\ psychological\\ and\\ physiological\\ benefit\\ on\\ the\\ y\\-axis\\ the\\ curve\\ is\\ an\\ upside\\ down\\ parabola\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recovery\\ in\\ sports\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ also\\ important\\.\\ Derek\\ Clayton\\ ran\\ over\\ 100\\ miles\\ a\\ week\\ and\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ runners\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ never\\ became\\ the\\ best\\.\\ He\\ got\\ injured\\ due\\ to\\ over\\-excursion\\ and\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ train\\ for\\ a\\ month\\ before\\ a\\ big\\ race\\.\\ Decided\\ to\\ run\\ in\\ the\\ race\\ for\\ practice\\,\\ wound\\ up\\ winning\\ the\\ race\\ and\\ setting\\ a\\ world\\ record\\.\\ Recovery\\ is\\ important\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\You\\ must\\ consciously\\ overcome\\ barriers\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ introduce\\ exercise\\ into\\ your\\ daily\\ life\\.\\ The\\ barriers\\ are\\ pain\\/discomfort\\,\\ and\\ some\\ solutions\\ are\\ to\\ divide\\ and\\ conquer\\ \\(introduce\\ it\\ gradually\\)\\,\\ use\\ distracters\\ \\(TV\\,\\ music\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ social\\ support\\ \\(work\\ out\\ with\\ others\\!\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Healthy Body, Healthy Mind"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.131849+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Meditation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 362, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Tal\\ begins\\ lecture\\ this\\ sunny\\ Thursday\\ by\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>mentioning\\\\ trends\\ in\\ exercise\\ research\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>While\\ most\\ studies\\ in\\ this\\ area\\ are\\ tentative\\ pilot\\ studies\\ \\(as\\ the\\ sample\\ size\\ is\\ too\\ small\\)\\,\\ they\\ still\\ have\\ interesting\\ results\\.\\ In\\ terms\\ of\\ most\\ bang\\ for\\ your\\ buck\\,\\ the\\ best\\ exercise\\ is\\ \\aerobic\\ exercise\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ If\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ supplemented\\ with\\ \\weight\\ training\\<\\/strong\\>\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ even\\ better\\,\\ especially\\ as\\ you\\ get\\ older\\.\\ However\\,\\ weight\\ training\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ replacement\\ for\\ aerobic\\ exercise\\ as\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ psychological\\ effects\\.\\ \\Interval\\ training\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ great\\ too\\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ sprint\\ sessions\\ with\\ rest\\ in\\ between\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\ we\\ discuss\\ \\overcoming\\ barriers\\ to\\ introduce\\ psychical\\ exercise\\ into\\ your\\ daily\\ life\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ As\\ we\\ discussed\\ last\\ time\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ barriers\\ is\\ pain\\/discomfort\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ overcome\\ by\\ introducing\\ exercise\\ gradually\\,\\ using\\ distractors\\ and\\ social\\ support\\.\\ \\Another\\ barrier\\ is\\ time\\ commitment\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ When\\ you\\ are\\ stressed\\,\\ exercise\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ thing\\ that\\ should\\ go\\;\\ \\exercise\\ is\\ an\\ investment\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ the\\ more\\ you\\ do\\ it\\,\\ the\\ better\\ you\\ feel\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ energized\\ and\\ productive\\ you\\ are\\.\\ One\\ way\\ to\\ overcome\\ this\\ time\\ barrier\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ exercise\\ a\\ \\ritual\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ last\\ barrier\\ is\\ your\\ own\\ \\subconscious\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ If\\ your\\ subconscious\\ thinks\\ you\\ are\\ unworthy\\ of\\ feeling\\ better\\ from\\ exercise\\,\\ you\\ may\\ stop\\ exercising\\.\\ To\\ overcome\\ this\\ just\\ do\\ it\\ and\\ recognize\\ that\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ the\\ mind\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Exercise\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\ is\\ the\\ unsung\\ hero\\ of\\ psychological\\ interventions\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ John\\ Ratey\\,\\ a\\ professor\\ of\\ psychiatry\\ at\\ \\\\Harvard\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Medical\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\School\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ said\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ exercise\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ psychiatrist\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dream\\ treatment\\.\\ It\\ works\\ on\\ anxiety\\,\\ on\\ panic\\ disorder\\,\\ and\\ on\\ stress\\ in\\ general\\,\\ which\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ depression\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ it\\ generates\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ neurotransmitters\\&\\#8212\\;norepinephrine\\,\\ serotonin\\,\\ and\\ dopamine\\&\\#8212\\;that\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ our\\ most\\ important\\ psychiatric\\ medicines\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Having\\ a\\ bout\\ of\\ exercise\\ is\\ like\\ taking\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ Prozac\\ and\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ Ritalin\\,\\ right\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ go\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\In\\ his\\ book\\,\\ \\Spark\\<\\/a\\>\\\\,\\ Ratey\\ calls\\ for\\ an\\ \\exercise\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ He\\ notes\\ a\\ study\\ where\\ a\\ few\\ schools\\ who\\ introduced\\ aerobic\\ exercise\\ into\\ their\\ curricula\\ saw\\ obesity\\ levels\\ decrease\\,\\ school\\ performance\\ improve\\ significantly\\ and\\ violence\\ decrease\\ substantially\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ second\\ mind\\-body\\ intervention\\ is\\ \\meditation\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ types\\ of\\ meditation\\ \\(tai\\-chi\\,\\ yoga\\,\\ sitting\\ meditation\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ but\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ have\\ a\\ few\\ elements\\ in\\ common\\.\\ One\\ element\\ is\\ \\one\\-pointedness\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ be\\ prayer\\,\\ breathing\\,\\ posture\\,\\ etc\\,\\ they\\ all\\ focus\\ on\\ one\\ thing\\.\\ Another\\ is\\ \\deep\\ breathing\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ meditation\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ all\\ about\\ being\\ here\\ and\\ now\\.\\ When\\ you\\ loose\\ focus\\,\\ you\\ bring\\ it\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ \\(breathing\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Researchers\\ studied\\ the\\\\ ratio\\ of\\ left\\ to\\ right\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\ size\\ of\\ meditators\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(Happier\\ people\\ usually\\ have\\ larger\\ left\\ prefrontal\\ cortexes\\.\\)\\ The\\ normal\\ population\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ bell\\ curve\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ this\\ ratio\\,\\ but\\ the\\ meditators\\ were\\ off\\ the\\ charts\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ left\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\ size\\.\\ The\\ researchers\\ also\\ measured\\ the\\ meditators\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\startle\\ response\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ They\\ hypothesized\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ impossible\\ to\\ fully\\ suppress\\ the\\ startle\\ response\\ but\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ they\\ were\\ wrong\\-\\ professional\\ meditators\\ did\\ not\\ budge\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ startled\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Daniel\\ Goleman\\,\\ wrote\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Destructive\\ Emotions\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;given\\ that\\ the\\ larger\\ someone\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ startle\\,\\ the\\ more\\ intensely\\ that\\ person\\ tends\\ to\\ experience\\ upsetting\\ emotions\\,\\ Oser\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ performance\\ had\\ tantalizing\\ implications\\,\\ suggesting\\ a\\ remarkable\\ level\\ of\\ emotional\\ equanimity\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ \\growing\\-tip\\ statistics\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Goleman\\ also\\ writes\\ that\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8220\\;from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ neuroscience\\,\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ all\\ this\\ research\\ has\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ demonstrating\\ that\\ Oser\\ or\\ any\\ other\\ extraordinary\\ person\\ may\\ be\\ remarkable\\ in\\ him\\ or\\ herself\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ stretch\\ the\\ field\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ assumptions\\ about\\ human\\ possibility\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ these\\ key\\ assumptions\\ have\\ already\\ begun\\ to\\ expand\\,\\ in\\ part\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ neuroscience\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ supposition\\ about\\ the\\ malleability\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ itself\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ And\\ according\\ to\\ Lama\\ Oser\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ process\\ itself\\ has\\ some\\ extraordinary\\ qualities\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ The\\ important\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ process\\ is\\ within\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ anyone\\ who\\ applies\\ himself\\ or\\ herself\\ with\\ enough\\ determination\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ are\\ many\\ problems\\ with\\ this\\ research\\,\\ however\\.\\ First\\,\\ there\\ is\\ causation\\:\\ what\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ meditators\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ just\\ born\\ with\\ larger\\ left\\ prefrontal\\ cortexes\\.\\ But\\,\\ perhaps\\ more\\ importantly\\,\\ who\\ has\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ dedicate\\ to\\ such\\ long\\ meditations\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\Jon\\ Kabat\\-Zinn\\ conducted\\ research\\ on\\ \\mindfulness\\ meditation\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ He\\ took\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ participants\\ \\ interested\\ in\\ learning\\ to\\ meditate\\ and\\ divided\\ them\\ into\\ two\\ groups\\ \\-\\ one\\ group\\ who\\ started\\ the\\ meditation\\ workshop\\ immediately\\ and\\ another\\ group\\ who\\ would\\ start\\ in\\ 4\\ months\\.\\ After\\ the\\ workshop\\,\\ he\\ measured\\ the\\ anxiety\\ levels\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ completed\\ the\\ meditation\\ regime\\ \\(45\\ minutes\\ a\\ day\\ for\\ 8\\ weeks\\)\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ control\\ group\\.\\ He\\ found\\ a\\ decrease\\ in\\ anxiety\\,\\ a\\ positive\\ mood\\ change\\ and\\ activation\\ of\\ the\\ pre\\-frontal\\ cortex\\ in\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\.\\ He\\ also\\ found\\ a\\ stronger\\ immune\\ response\\ in\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mindfulness\\ therapy\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ another\\ important\\ topic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tal\\ recommends\\ Kabat\\-Zinn\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ \\The\\ Mindful\\ Way\\ Through\\ Depression\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ Research\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ experienced\\ depression\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ relapse\\.\\ Mindfulness\\ therapy\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ reduce\\ recurrence\\ of\\ depression\\ by\\ over\\ 50\\%\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ therapy\\ works\\ through\\ \\awareness\\/acceptance\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ fixing\\)\\\\ of\\ body\\ signals\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(a\\ physical\\ manifestation\\ in\\ certain\\ body\\ parts\\)\\.\\ When\\ we\\ ruminate\\ on\\ sad\\ emotions\\ we\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ old\\ neural\\ pathways\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ relapse\\;\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ mindful\\ we\\ can\\ \\create\\ alternative\\ neural\\ pathways\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ They\\ key\\ is\\ to\\ \\practice\\ \\<\\/strong\\>loosing\\ focus\\ and\\ coming\\ back\\ to\\ your\\ center\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Tal\\ ends\\ the\\ class\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ \\breathing\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ He\\ quotes\\ Dr\\.\\ Andrew\\ Weil\\ who\\ said\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;if\\ I\\ had\\ to\\ limit\\ my\\ advice\\ on\\ healthier\\ living\\ to\\ just\\ one\\ tip\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ simply\\ to\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ breathe\\ correctly\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ His\\ \\audio\\ collection\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ can\\ help\\ students\\ learn\\ proper\\ breathing\\ techniques\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Tal\\ also\\ recommends\\ Thomas\\ Crum\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\,\\ \\Three\\ Deep\\ Breaths\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ Proper\\ breathing\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ stress\\ and\\ anxiety\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ \\shallow\\ breathing\\<\\/strong\\>\\ while\\ calm\\ and\\ wellbeing\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ \\deep\\ breathing\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Meditation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.145523+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Sleep, Touch, Love...", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 363, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\In\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ we\\ discuss\\ the\\ remaining\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ Mind\\-Body\\ question\\:\\ \\Sleep\\ and\\ Touch\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ move\\ onto\\ the\\ next\\ topic\\,\\ \\Love\\ and\\ Relationships\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\,\\ we\\ discuss\\ \\sleep\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ In\\ the\\ era\\ pre\\-Edison\\,\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ slept\\ 10\\ hours\\/day\\ on\\ average\\.\\ Today\\ the\\ average\\ has\\ dropped\\ to\\ 7\\ hours\\/day\\.\\ Only\\ 25\\%\\ of\\ college\\ students\\ \\(19\\-29\\ year\\ olds\\)\\ get\\ their\\ 8\\ hours\\.\\ We\\ must\\ make\\ \\sleep\\ a\\ priority\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ The\\ effects\\ of\\ sleep\\ are\\ many\\-\\ it\\ \\maintains\\ our\\ immune\\ system\\,\\ increases\\ energy\\ levels\\,\\ controls\\ weight\\,\\ prevents\\ motor\\ accidents\\,\\ improves\\ cognitive\\ functioning\\,\\ controls\\ stress\\ and\\ anxiety\\ levels\\ and\\ decreases\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ depression\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\(Did\\ you\\ know\\ you\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ pleasant\\ dreams\\ later\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ night\\?\\)\\ Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ get\\ your\\ \\&\\#8220\\;happiness\\ sleep\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;beauty\\ sleep\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ sleep\\ tips\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>sleep\\ 8\\ hours\\/day\\ and\\ take\\ naps\\ if\\ you\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ make\\ all\\ 8\\ \\(they\\ have\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ extremely\\ effective\\)\\.\\ Watch\\ your\\ exercise\\ and\\ food\\ intake\\ late\\ at\\ night\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ having\\ trouble\\ falling\\ asleep\\.\\ Also\\,\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ your\\ internal\\ rhythms\\ to\\ determine\\ your\\ need\\ for\\ sleep\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Good\\ night\\,\\ good\\ life\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ According\\ to\\ William\\ Dement\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;effects\\ of\\ sleep\\ deprivation\\ on\\ health\\ and\\ well\\-being\\ have\\ been\\ documented\\ by\\ research\\.\\ Cognitive\\ skills\\ and\\ physical\\ performance\\ are\\ impaired\\ by\\ sleep\\ deprivation\\,\\ but\\ mood\\ is\\ affected\\ even\\ more\\.\\ People\\ who\\ get\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ full\\ night\\'s\\ sleep\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ feel\\ less\\ happy\\,\\ more\\ stressed\\,\\ more\\ physically\\ frail\\ and\\ more\\ mentally\\ and\\ physically\\ exhausted\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\ Sufficient\\ sleep\\ makes\\ us\\ feel\\ better\\,\\ happier\\,\\ more\\ vigorous\\ and\\ vital\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Getting\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ touch\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Americans\\ are\\ in\\ general\\ the\\ least\\ tactile\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\(could\\ it\\ be\\ true\\!\\?\\)\\ We\\ spend\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ indulging\\ our\\ other\\ senses\\ but\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ touch\\ enough\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ \\touch\\ is\\ a\\ physical\\ need\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Tiffany\\ Field\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\\\ Touch\\ Therapy\\<\\/a\\>\\ discusses\\ the\\ \\positive\\ benefits\\ of\\ touch\\ on\\ both\\ physical\\ and\\ mental\\ health\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Touch\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ for\\ a\\ better\\ sex\\ life\\.\\ Masters\\ and\\ Johnson\\ found\\ that\\ foreplay\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ means\\ towards\\ an\\ end\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Touch\\ is\\ a\\ physical\\ need\\<\\/strong\\>\\ just\\ as\\ sleep\\ and\\ exercise\\ are\\.\\ A\\ study\\ done\\ in\\ a\\ hospital\\ showed\\ that\\ premature\\ babies\\ who\\ were\\ kept\\ in\\ a\\ ward\\ where\\ they\\ were\\ touched\\ more\\ grow\\ more\\ both\\ mentally\\ and\\ physically\\.\\ \\Tiffany\\ Field\\ \\<\\/a\\>did\\ a\\ study\\ where\\ premature\\ babies\\ who\\ were\\ touched\\ for\\ 45\\ minutes\\ a\\ day\\ put\\ on\\ 47\\%\\ more\\ weight\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\.\\ These\\ babies\\ were\\ also\\ more\\ developed\\ cognitively\\ months\\ later\\.\\ A\\ tragic\\ experiment\\ also\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ 1989\\ under\\ the\\ Ceausescu\\,\\ dictator\\ in\\ \\\\Romania\\-\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ he\\ took\\ children\\ away\\ from\\ dissidents\\ and\\ raised\\ them\\ in\\ group\\ homes\\ where\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ get\\ any\\ touch\\.\\ Touch\\ deprivation\\ resulted\\ in\\ stunted\\ physical\\ and\\ cognitive\\ growth\\ and\\ cognitive\\ development\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\According\\ to\\ Virginia\\ Satir\\,\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;We\\ need\\ 4\\ hugs\\ a\\ day\\ for\\ survival\\.\\ We\\ need\\ 8\\ hugs\\ a\\ day\\ for\\ maintenance\\.\\ We\\ need\\ 12\\ hugs\\ a\\ day\\ for\\ growth\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Hug\\ research\\ done\\ by\\ Clipman\\ had\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ participants\\ give\\ 5\\ hugs\\ a\\ day\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ their\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\ improved\\ while\\ the\\ control\\ groups\\&\\#8217\\;\\ happiness\\ level\\ stayed\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\Hugs\\ are\\ a\\ win\\-win\\ situation\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ But\\ be\\ sure\\ to\\ respect\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ boundaries\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ recap\\:\\ the\\ \\wonder\\ drug\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\is\\ 30\\ minutes\\ of\\ exercise\\ at\\ least\\ 3\\ times\\ a\\ week\\,\\ at\\ least\\ 5\\ deep\\ breaths\\ a\\ day\\,\\ 8\\ hours\\ of\\ sleep\\ a\\ day\\ and\\ at\\ least\\ 5\\ but\\ ideally\\ 12\\ hugs\\ daily\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ brief\\ hiatus\\ of\\ Tal\\ lip\\-syncing\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ not\\ about\\ love\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ introduce\\ the\\ next\\ topic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relationships\\<\\/strong\\>\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ talking\\ about\\ topic\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ least\\ understood\\ one\\.\\ They\\ are\\ the\\ strongest\\ indicator\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ research\\ on\\ the\\\\ need\\ for\\ relationships\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Diener\\ and\\ Seligman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\ on\\ extremely\\ happy\\ people\\ showed\\ that\\ these\\ people\\ have\\ thriving\\ interpersonal\\ relationships\\.\\ Tal\\ revisits\\ the\\ Lasagna\\ principle\\ from\\ his\\ book\\ \\Happier\\ \\<\\/a\\>which\\ suggests\\ that\\ too\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ is\\ bad\\.\\ You\\ must\\ know\\ your\\ own\\ needs\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ which\\ determines\\ our\\ need\\ for\\ relationships\\ is\\ extroversion\\ and\\ introversion\\.\\ \\Brian\\ Little\\ \\<\\/a\\>wrote\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ an\\ innate\\ level\\ of\\ arousal\\;\\ extroverts\\ have\\ a\\ lower\\ level\\ than\\ optimal\\,\\ while\\ introverts\\ have\\ higher\\ than\\ optimum\\ levels\\ of\\ arousal\\.\\ Thus\\ introverts\\ need\\ to\\ reduce\\ arousal\\ by\\ spending\\ time\\ alone\\ while\\ extroverts\\ need\\ company\\ to\\ increase\\ their\\ level\\ of\\ arousal\\.\\ Introverts\\ sometimes\\ need\\ alcohol\\ \\&\\#8220\\;when\\ dancing\\ on\\ the\\ tables\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reduce\\ their\\ level\\ of\\ arousal\\ while\\ extroverts\\ need\\ coffee\\ to\\ increase\\ their\\ arousal\\.\\ When\\ introverts\\ act\\ like\\ extroverts\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\ it\\ is\\ enervating\\ and\\ they\\ need\\ a\\ recovery\\ period\\,\\ or\\ a\\ \\restorative\\ niche\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ Little\\ calls\\ it\\,\\ afterwards\\.\\ Restorative\\ niches\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ your\\ true\\ nature\\ \\(introvert\\ or\\ extrovert\\)\\.\\ According\\ to\\ David\\ Myers\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;there\\ are\\ few\\ stronger\\ predictors\\ of\\ happiness\\ than\\ a\\ close\\,\\ nurturing\\,\\ equitable\\,\\ intimate\\,\\ lifelong\\ companionship\\ with\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ best\\ friend\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ \\current\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\state\\ of\\ affairs\\<\\/strong\\>\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ relationships\\ is\\ somewhat\\ bleak\\.\\ \\Divorce\\ rates\\ are\\ very\\ high\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ that\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mean\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ stay\\ together\\ are\\ happy\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\failure\\ to\\ sustain\\ love\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Novelty\\ produces\\ heightened\\ arousal\\ levels\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Mook\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ exotic\\ is\\ erotic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Fiction\\ vs\\.\\ reality\\:\\ \\does\\ true\\ love\\ really\\ exist\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Leo\\ Buscaglia\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Perfect\\ love\\ is\\ rare\\ indeed\\-\\ for\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ lover\\ will\\ require\\ that\\ you\\ continually\\ have\\ the\\ subtlety\\ of\\ the\\ very\\ wise\\,\\ the\\ flexibility\\ of\\ a\\ child\\,\\ the\\ sensitivity\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ philosopher\\,\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ saint\\,\\ the\\ tolerance\\ of\\ the\\ scholar\\ and\\ fortitude\\ of\\ the\\ certain\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\Perfect\\ love\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ exist\\,\\ but\\ true\\ love\\ between\\ imperfect\\ humans\\ does\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reframing\\ questions\\:\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ relationships\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Traditional\\ psychologists\\ ask\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Why\\ do\\ so\\ many\\ long\\-term\\ relationships\\ fail\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ while\\ positive\\ psychologists\\ ask\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ makes\\ some\\ relationships\\ thrive\\ and\\ grow\\ stronger\\ over\\ time\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\Learning\\ from\\ what\\ works\\ best\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>In\\ his\\ book\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Ten\\ lessons\\ to\\ transform\\ your\\ marriage\\,\\ \\John\\ Gottman\\ \\<\\/a\\>writes\\:\\ \\ \\&\\#8220\\;at\\ first\\,\\ when\\ I\\ figured\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ predict\\ divorce\\,\\ I\\ thought\\ I\\ had\\ found\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ saving\\ marriages\\.\\.\\.But\\ like\\ so\\ many\\ experts\\ before\\ me\\,\\ I\\ was\\ wrong\\.\\ I\\ was\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ crack\\ the\\ code\\ to\\ saving\\ marriages\\ until\\ I\\ started\\ to\\ analyze\\ what\\ went\\ right\\ in\\ happy\\ marriages\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\David\\ Scnarch\\ writes\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Passionate\\ Marriage\\<\\/a\\>\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;cellulite\\ and\\ sexual\\ potential\\ are\\ highly\\ correlated\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ He\\ found\\ that\\ couples\\ have\\ their\\ best\\ sex\\ in\\ their\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\.\\ An\\ excellent\\ note\\ to\\ end\\ on\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Sleep, Touch, Love..."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.160196+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Let's Talk About Love", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 364, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Growing\\ tip\\ statistics\\ show\\ us\\ that\\ successful\\ relationships\\ have\\ the\\ following\\ elements\\ in\\ common\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>They\\ involve\\:\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\hard\\ work\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\striving\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ rather\\ than\\ validated\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\allowance\\ for\\ conflict\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\appreciation\\ of\\ the\\ positive\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\Now\\ we\\ will\\ discuss\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ elements\\ in\\ detail\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\-\\ \\Working\\ hard\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Most\\ people\\ live\\ under\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ a\\ lasting\\ relationship\\ is\\ \\finding\\<\\/strong\\>\\ the\\ right\\ person\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ so\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ It\\ is\\ about\\ \\cultivating\\ \\<\\/strong\\>the\\ right\\ relationship\\,\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ hard\\ work\\ comes\\ in\\.\\ Here\\ was\\ can\\ apply\\ \\Carol\\ Dweck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ research\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ praising\\ children\\ for\\ hard\\ work\\.\\ Understanding\\ this\\ concept\\ is\\ difficult\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ movie\\ industry\\.\\ We\\ have\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ \\movies\\ end\\ where\\ love\\ begins\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ Finding\\ the\\ right\\ person\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ the\\ hard\\ part\\,\\ living\\ happily\\ ever\\ after\\ is\\.\\ The\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;one\\ right\\ person\\&\\#8221\\;\\ theory\\ is\\ also\\ flawed\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Instead\\ it\\ is\\ about\\\\ cultivating\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;one\\ chosen\\&\\#8221\\;\\ relationship\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Being\\ together\\ by\\ doing\\ together\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>As\\ we\\ discussed\\ in\\ earlier\\ lectures\\,\\ Muzafar\\ Sherif\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ solving\\ inter\\-group\\ conflict\\ is\\ having\\ a\\ \\superordinate\\ goal\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>This\\ also\\ applies\\ to\\ relationships\\.\\ This\\ goal\\ must\\ be\\\\ mutually\\ meaningful\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>It\\ could\\ be\\ raising\\ kids\\,\\ working\\ on\\ a\\ project\\ together\\,\\ etc\\.\\ According\\ to\\ John\\ Gottman\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ the\\ strongest\\ marriages\\,\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\ share\\ a\\ deep\\ sense\\ of\\ meaning\\.\\ \\ They\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ just\\ \\&\\#8216\\;get\\ along\\&\\#8217\\;\\&\\#8212\\;they\\ also\\ support\\ each\\ other\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ hopes\\ and\\ aspirations\\ and\\ build\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ purpose\\ into\\ their\\ lives\\ together\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ have\\\\ active\\ love\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ \\relationship\\ rituals\\<\\/strong\\>\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sustain\\ love\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\-\\ \\Being\\ known\\ rather\\ than\\ validated\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Intimacy\\ is\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ long\\-term\\ passion\\.\\ It\\ can\\ be\\ cultivated\\ by\\ getting\\ to\\ know\\ one\\-another\\.\\ This\\ \\happens\\ gradually\\ over\\ time\\ by\\ opening\\ up\\,\\ sharing\\ and\\ revealing\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Try\\ to\\\\ express\\ yourself\\ instead\\ of\\ attempting\\ to\\ impress\\ \\<\\/strong\\>your\\ partner\\.\\ Also\\,\\ get\\ to\\ know\\ your\\ partner\\.\\ Tal\\ suggests\\ making\\ \\love\\ maps\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Schnarch\\ writes\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;intimacy\\ is\\ about\\ letting\\ yourself\\ really\\ be\\ known\\,\\ including\\ parts\\ that\\ you\\ or\\ your\\ partner\\ don\\'t\\ like\\.\\ \\ But\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ letting\\ \\\"warts\\\"\\ be\\ known\\.\\ \\ It\\ often\\ involves\\ showing\\ strengths\\ you\\'ve\\ been\\ hiding\\,\\ too\\.\\ \\ Most\\ approaches\\ focus\\ on\\ getting\\ your\\ partner\\'s\\ validation\\ and\\ acceptance\\ when\\ you\\ disclose\\.\\ \\ But\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ count\\ on\\ this\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ try\\,\\ it\\ inherently\\ limits\\ self\\-disclosure\\ because\\ you\\ won\\'t\\ say\\ things\\ your\\ partner\\ won\\'t\\ validate\\.\\ Resolving\\ gridlock\\ requires\\ intimacy\\ based\\ on\\ validating\\ yourself\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Random\\ side\\-note\\:\\ On\\ his\\ class\\ notes\\ every\\ day\\,\\ Tal\\ writes\\ \\&\\#8220\\;be\\ known\\&\\#8221\\;\\-\\ he\\ says\\ this\\ has\\ changed\\ his\\ relationships\\ with\\ his\\ students\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ \\Allowing\\ for\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ right\\ relationship\\,\\ according\\ to\\ \\Gottman\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\ \\ You\\ must\\ have\\ a\\\\ 5\\:1\\ positivity\\ ratio\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(ratio\\ between\\ positive\\ and\\ negative\\ interactions\\)\\.\\ The\\ importance\\ of\\ conflict\\ is\\ that\\ it\\\\ immunizes\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ You\\ \\must\\ extenuate\\ the\\ positive\\ without\\ eliminating\\ the\\ negative\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Love\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ details\\.\\ Love\\ boosters\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Fraenkl\\ are\\ \\&\\#8220\\;60\\ second\\ pleasure\\ points\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ found\\ that\\ these\\ bursts\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ big\\ difference\\.\\ Tal\\ recommends\\ \\making\\ it\\ extraordinary\\ by\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ ordinary\\,\\ demonstrating\\ interest\\,\\ showing\\ affection\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(touch\\,\\ smile\\,\\ flowers\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\paying\\ compliments\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ According\\ to\\ Mark\\ Twain\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ can\\ live\\ for\\ two\\ months\\ on\\ a\\ good\\ compliment\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\Empathy\\ is\\ the\\ number\\ one\\ predictor\\ of\\ lasting\\ relationships\\ \\<\\/strong\\>as\\ well\\ as\\ of\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ social\\ workers\\ and\\ psychologists\\.\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>And\\ of\\ course\\,\\\\ make\\ love\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Sex\\ makes\\ love\\ concrete\\,\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ called\\ making\\ love\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ communicate\\ in\\ the\\ bedroom\\ and\\ be\\ open\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;be\\ naked\\ physically\\ and\\ metaphorically\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Not\\ all\\ conflict\\ is\\ good\\,\\ \\positive\\ conflict\\ is\\ better\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>Positive\\ conflict\\ involves\\ \\affective\\ rather\\ than\\ cognitive\\ conflict\\.\\ Challenge\\ the\\ behavior\\,\\ not\\ the\\ person\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Avoid\\ hostility\\,\\ insults\\ and\\ contempt\\ and\\ keep\\ disputes\\ private\\ \\(to\\ remove\\ the\\ element\\ of\\ embarrassment\\)\\.\\ Gottman\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ predict\\ divorce\\ with\\ 90\\%\\ accuracy\\.\\ He\\ did\\ a\\ \\study\\ \\<\\/a\\>with\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ gay\\ couples\\.\\ \\ \\(This\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ women\\ are\\ better\\ physiologically\\ at\\ fighting\\;\\ on\\ average\\,\\ women\\ respond\\ when\\ criticized\\ while\\ men\\ often\\ switch\\ off\\.\\)\\ \\ He\\ found\\ that\\ gay\\ couples\\ fight\\ differently\\:\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ positive\\,\\ using\\ humor\\ and\\ affection\\ and\\ not\\ taking\\ the\\ negative\\ personally\\.\\ They\\ also\\ calm\\ down\\ and\\ soothe\\ one\\ another\\ more\\ during\\ conflict\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Titanium\\ Rule\\:\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;Do\\ not\\ do\\ unto\\ those\\ close\\ to\\ you\\ what\\ you\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ done\\ unto\\ others\\ \\(who\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ not\\ so\\ close\\ to\\ you\\)\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>According\\ to\\ John\\ Gottman\\,\\ deep\\ friendships\\ are\\ important\\ between\\ partners\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;At\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ my\\ program\\ is\\ the\\ simple\\ truth\\ that\\ happy\\ marriages\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ deep\\ friendship\\.\\ \\ By\\ this\\ I\\ mean\\ a\\ mutual\\ respect\\ for\\ and\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ each\\ other\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ company\\.\\ \\ These\\ couples\\ tend\\ to\\ know\\ each\\ other\\ intimately\\&\\#8212\\;they\\ are\\ well\\ versed\\ in\\ each\\ other\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ likes\\,\\ dislikes\\,\\ personality\\ quirks\\,\\ hopes\\,\\ and\\ dreams\\.\\ \\ They\\ have\\ an\\ abiding\\ regard\\ for\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ express\\ this\\ fondness\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ the\\ big\\ ways\\,\\ but\\ in\\ little\\ ways\\ day\\ in\\ and\\ day\\ out\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\:\\ \\Positive\\ Perception\\-\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Benefit\\ finding\\ in\\ a\\ relationship\\ is\\ key\\.\\ Having\\ \\positive\\ illusions\\ \\<\\/strong\\>of\\ your\\ partner\\\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ according\\ to\\\\ Sandra\\ Murray\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ is\\ incredibly\\ important\\.\\ She\\ argues\\ that\\ you\\ must\\ have\\ overly\\ positive\\ images\\ of\\ your\\ partner\\.\\ Tal\\ argues\\ that\\ because\\ of\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecies\\,\\ these\\ illusions\\ can\\ become\\ reality\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Abraham\\ Maslow\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;not\\ only\\ does\\ love\\ perceive\\ potentialities\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ actualizes\\ them\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Let's Talk About Love"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.173974+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Psychology of Funny", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 365, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Shawn\\ Achor\\,\\ the\\ head\\ TF\\,\\ conducts\\ a\\ lecture\\ today\\ on\\ \\The\\ Science\\ of\\ Humor\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Aside\\ from\\ TFing\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\,\\ Shawn\\ also\\ heads\\ up\\ a\\ positive\\ psychology\\ consulting\\ firm\\,\\ \\Aspirant\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ He\\ starts\\ by\\ explaining\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ a\\ single\\ processor\\ which\\ chooses\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ pain\\ and\\ suffering\\ or\\ positivity\\ and\\ optimism\\.\\ \\Humor\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ another\\ way\\ of\\ mindfully\\ perceiving\\ the\\ world\\,\\ analogous\\ to\\ optimism\\,\\ where\\ an\\ individual\\ heightens\\ awareness\\ of\\ potentials\\ in\\ a\\ situation\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ outline\\ of\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\1\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Psychology\\ of\\ humor\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\2\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Mental\\ and\\ physical\\ benefits\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\3\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Positive\\ Social\\ Benefits\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\4\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Pragmatic\\ steps\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\5\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ greatest\\ power\\ of\\ humor\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ laughter\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ According\\ to\\ Wikipedia\\ laughter\\ is\\ constituted\\ by\\ \\&\\#8220\\;rhythmic\\,\\ vocalized\\,\\ expiratory\\ and\\ involuntary\\ actions\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Fifteen\\ facial\\ muscles\\ contract\\,\\ the\\ epiglottis\\ half\\-closes\\ the\\ larynx\\,\\ blood\\ pressure\\ is\\ lowered\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ vascular\\ blood\\ flow\\,\\ and\\ the\\ abdominal\\,\\ respiratory\\,\\ facial\\,\\ leg\\ and\\ back\\ muscles\\ are\\ flexed\\.\\ What\\ a\\ work\\-out\\,\\ huh\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ we\\ study\\ changes\\ us\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\ There\\ is\\ a\\ 97\\ to\\ 3\\ ratio\\ of\\ negative\\ to\\ humor\\ research\\.\\ This\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ Medical\\ School\\ Syndrome\\,\\ when\\ med\\ students\\ think\\ they\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ diseases\\ they\\ are\\ learning\\ about\\ \\(like\\ Shawn\\'s\\ brother\\-in\\-law\\,\\ Bobo\\,\\ who\\ thought\\ he\\ had\\ menopause\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ talk\\ about\\ humor\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ There\\ are\\ always\\ definitional\\ problems\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ once\\ you\\ define\\ something\\ it\\ becomes\\ elusive\\.\\ Also\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ Dead\\ Frog\\ problem\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ jokes\\ like\\ dead\\ frogs\\ die\\ faster\\ the\\ more\\ you\\ dissect\\ them\\.\\ Also\\,\\ is\\ humor\\ genetic\\ or\\ environmental\\ and\\ if\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ former\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ generally\\ define\\ something\\ everyone\\ may\\ not\\ innately\\ have\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Psychology\\ of\\ Funny\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ Giants\\ of\\ humor\\ theory\\ are\\ Sigmund\\ Freud\\ and\\ Henri\\ Bergson\\ \\(and\\ Shawn\\ Achor\\-\\ ha\\!\\)\\.\\ \\\\Sigmund\\ Freud\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>wrote\\ a\\ book\\ called\\ \\The\\ Joke\\ and\\ Its\\ Relation\\ to\\ the\\ Unconscious\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ which\\ according\\ to\\ Shawn\\ was\\ not\\ very\\ funny\\ at\\ all\\.\\ Freud\\ said\\ that\\ humor\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;psychological\\ release\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ Freud\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ \\id\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(impulses\\)\\\\,\\ ego\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(the\\ balancer\\)\\\\ and\\ superego\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(reality\\)\\.\\ Humor\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;social\\ acceptable\\ envelope\\ of\\ id\\ desires\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ may\\ explain\\ why\\ so\\ much\\ of\\ our\\ humor\\ is\\ sexual\\ and\\ aggressive\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ Words\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ violate\\ many\\ of\\ our\\ social\\ constructions\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Steven\\ Colbert\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;sticks\\ and\\ stones\\ may\\ brake\\ my\\ bones\\ but\\ words\\ will\\ never\\ hurt\\ me\\,\\ unless\\ you\\ throw\\ a\\ dictionary\\ at\\ me\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\Henri\\ Bergson\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Laughter\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>explains\\ that\\ humor\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ \\&\\#8220\\;corrective\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ On\\ our\\ developmental\\ trajectory\\ as\\ humans\\,\\ jokes\\ are\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ skew\\ off\\ the\\ path\\ briefly\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Shawn\\ says\\ that\\ \\\\h\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\umor\\ is\\ a\\ mindful\\ lens\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>There\\ are\\ unscripted\\ social\\ rules\\.\\ Breaking\\ them\\ is\\ funny\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ mindset\\ \\(embrace\\ the\\ awkwardness\\ of\\ laying\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ elevator\\.\\ \\\\Humor\\ is\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ evaluative\\ stance\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\.\\ As\\ Wiseman\\ notes\\ in\\ \\The\\ Luck\\ Factor\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ we\\ evaluate\\ situations\\ with\\ counterfactuals\\.\\ \\\\The\\ alpha\\ press\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ is\\ our\\ objective\\ constraint\\ of\\ reality\\ and\\ \\\\beta\\ press\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ is\\ our\\ subjective\\ construal\\ of\\ reality\\.\\ The\\ beta\\ press\\ is\\ malleable\\;\\ humor\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ ways\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ beta\\ press\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\For\\ instance\\,\\ researchers\\ at\\ Harvard\\ Medical\\ School\\ asked\\ participants\\ to\\ play\\ Tetris\\ for\\ 5\\ hours\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ they\\ then\\ tried\\ to\\ make\\ everything\\ change\\ shapes\\ to\\ fit\\ into\\ straight\\ lines\\ \\(like\\ rearranging\\ the\\ bread\\ in\\ the\\ supermarket\\)\\.\\\\\\ The\\ Tetris\\ Effect\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>is\\ about\\ parsing\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Shawn\\,\\ humor\\ as\\ a\\ \\cognitive\\ afterimage\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ image\\ our\\ brain\\ retains\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ adaptive\\ or\\ harmful\\.\\ \\Humor\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ transformative\\ lens\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Peter\\ Berger\\ argues\\ that\\ humor\\ transcends\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\;\\ we\\ are\\ momentarily\\ suspended\\ from\\ reality\\.\\ This\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ \\peak\\ experiences\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Maslow\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ peak\\ experiences\\,\\ when\\ we\\ momentarily\\ put\\ on\\ the\\ cloak\\ of\\ self\\-actualization\\ and\\ the\\ ordinary\\ becomes\\ extraordinary\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Physical\\ and\\ mental\\ benefits\\ of\\ humor\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ are\\ two\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\-\\ the\\ \\sympathetic\\ nervous\\ system\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(which\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ fight\\ or\\ flight\\ reflexes\\)\\ and\\ the\\ \\parasympathetic\\ nervous\\ system\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(which\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ calming\\ our\\ body\\ and\\ rejuvenating\\ us\\)\\\\.\\ The\\ Soprano\\ effect\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(as\\ Shawn\\ calls\\ it\\)\\ is\\ the\\ chronic\\ activation\\ of\\ the\\ sympathetic\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\ We\\ get\\ addicted\\ to\\ boosts\\ from\\ our\\ sympathetic\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\ This\\ wears\\ down\\ our\\ bodies\\ and\\ eventually\\ makes\\ it\\ shut\\ down\\.\\ Humor\\,\\ like\\ mediation\\,\\ activates\\ the\\ parasympathetic\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Biology\\ of\\ Laughter\\.\\ \\ Laughter\\ is\\ both\\ medicine\\ and\\ exercise\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>It\\ increases\\ T\\-cells\\ \\(immune\\ system\\)\\,\\ gamma\\-interferon\\ \\(disease\\ fighting\\ protons\\)\\ and\\ B\\-cells\\ \\(make\\ antibodies\\)\\.\\ \\Sultanoff\\ \\<\\/a\\>found\\ that\\ laughter\\ also\\ decreases\\ serum\\ cortisol\\ \\(which\\ are\\ released\\ in\\ stressful\\ situations\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Mental\\ and\\ Physical\\ Benefits\\ of\\ Humor\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Even\\ small\\ doses\\ of\\ \\humor\\ benefit\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Kamata\\ studied\\ this\\ with\\ bronchial\\ asthma\\ patients\\-\\ he\\ exposed\\ them\\ to\\ dust\\ mites\\ and\\ had\\ them\\ come\\ back\\.\\ He\\ told\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\ a\\ joke\\ before\\ exposing\\ them\\ again\\ and\\ the\\ control\\ group\\ a\\ neutral\\ story\\.\\ He\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ experimental\\ group\\ flared\\ up\\ less\\ after\\ the\\ second\\ exposure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Humor\\ also\\ \\increases\\ pain\\ tolerance\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Zweyer\\ \\<\\/a\\>did\\ a\\ study\\ where\\ participants\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ hand\\ in\\ a\\ bucket\\ of\\ ice\\ water\\.\\ The\\ experimental\\ group\\ who\\ watched\\ a\\ humorous\\ video\\ in\\ the\\ meantime\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ hand\\ in\\ the\\ bucket\\ for\\ longer\\ than\\ a\\ control\\ group\\ who\\ were\\ shown\\ a\\ neutral\\ video\\.\\ Twenty\\ minutes\\ later\\ they\\ were\\ also\\ in\\ less\\ pain\\.\\ \\Hayashi\\ \\<\\/a\\>also\\ found\\ that\\ after\\ a\\ large\\ meal\\,\\ blood\\ sugar\\ levels\\ were\\ lower\\ in\\ Type\\ 2\\ diabetes\\ patients\\ who\\ experiences\\ a\\ humorous\\ situation\\.\\ \\Chapple\\ and\\ Zieland\\<\\/a\\>\\ found\\ decreases\\ of\\ stress\\ and\\ increases\\ of\\ remission\\ rates\\ in\\ patients\\ with\\ testicular\\ cancer\\ who\\ used\\ humor\\ as\\ a\\ coping\\ mechanism\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ social\\ effects\\ of\\ humor\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Fraley\\ brought\\ in\\ strangers\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ competitive\\ cooperative\\ or\\ awkward\\ game\\ \\(think\\ Twister\\)\\ and\\ asked\\ them\\ to\\ rate\\ the\\ attractiveness\\ of\\ their\\ peer\\.\\ The\\ people\\ who\\ played\\ the\\ awkward\\ game\\ \\(versus\\ those\\ playing\\ a\\ control\\ game\\)\\ rated\\ their\\ peers\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ attractive\\ and\\ they\\ felt\\ most\\ bonded\\ with\\ them\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Mirror\\ neurons\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ your\\ smiling\\ back\\ at\\ someone\\ who\\ smiles\\ at\\ you\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ reason\\ we\\ experience\\ pity\\ pain\\.\\ We\\ are\\ hard\\ wired\\ for\\ empathy\\ for\\ other\\ people\\.\\ In\\ dating\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ \\\\humor\\ is\\ desirable\\ in\\ mate\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ While\\ it\\ may\\ not\\ make\\ you\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ fight\\ off\\ a\\ lion\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\,\\ \\humor\\ is\\ a\\ signal\\ of\\ cognitive\\ fitness\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Eric\\ Bressler\\ found\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ differences\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ look\\ for\\ in\\ a\\ partner\\.\\ They\\ observed\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ flirting\\ at\\ a\\ bar\\.\\ The\\ females\\&\\#8217\\;\\ laughter\\ \\(and\\ not\\ the\\ males\\'\\ laughter\\)\\ was\\ correlated\\ with\\ how\\ much\\ the\\ female\\ liked\\ the\\ male\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ the\\ male\\ liked\\ the\\ female\\.\\ Laughter\\,\\ according\\ to\\ John\\ Goffman\\,\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ in\\ negotiation\\ and\\ marriage\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Humor\\ as\\ therapy\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pennebaker\\ \\<\\/a\\>found\\ that\\ humor\\ in\\ journaling\\ first\\ increases\\ stress\\ levels\\ then\\ levels\\ off\\ to\\ a\\ lower\\ level\\ than\\ before\\.\\ Shawn\\ recommends\\ having\\ cuddle\\ parties\\ or\\ laughing\\ groups\\ \\like\\ they\\ do\\ in\\ \\\\India\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Humor\\ can\\ also\\ transform\\ trauma\\ and\\ bad\\ days\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\ Ways\\ to\\ Increase\\ Humor\\ Level\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Journaling\\ funny\\ stories\\ unique\\ to\\ you\\ \\(as\\ you\\ write\\ gratitudes\\ to\\ increase\\ optimism\\)\\;\\ this\\ will\\ train\\ your\\ brain\\ to\\ find\\ funny\\ patterns\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\watch\\ funny\\ people\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\TQP\\-\\ two\\ question\\ process\\ \\(Why\\ am\\ I\\ so\\ funny\\?\\,\\ And\\ why\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ others\\ recognize\\ this\\?\\)\\ to\\ build\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\the\\ permission\\ to\\ be\\ subhuman\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Variety\\,\\ breaking\\ a\\ pattern\\ \\(male\\ mice\\ have\\ a\\ latency\\ period\\ after\\ having\\ sex\\ with\\ a\\ female\\ mouse\\,\\ this\\ latency\\ period\\ can\\ be\\ decreased\\ if\\ a\\ new\\ female\\ is\\ introduced\\:\\ moral\\ of\\ the\\ story\\:\\ we\\ are\\ hard\\ wired\\ for\\ variety\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Go\\ 100\\%\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\The\\ Greatest\\ power\\ of\\ humor\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\is\\ to\\ transform\\ trauma\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ and\\ a\\ bad\\ day\\.\\ John\\ Stewart\\'s\\ post\\ 9\\/11\\ response\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ this\\-\\ note\\ how\\ he\\ attempts\\ to\\ joke\\ but\\ pulls\\ himself\\ back\\ \\ in\\ an\\ utterly\\ emotional\\ response\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\Again\\,\\ humor\\ is\\ a\\ lens\\ just\\ like\\ optimism\\.\\ It\\ demands\\ a\\ mindfulness\\ to\\ potentialities\\,\\ increases\\ health\\,\\ sociability\\ and\\ decreases\\ stress\\.\\ And\\ its\\ power\\ as\\ a\\ therapeutic\\ reorientation\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ understated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Psychology of Funny"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.190857+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Salvaging Self-Esteem's Self Esteem", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 366, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Today\\ Tal\\ returns\\ to\\ complete\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ \\\\<\\/a\\>\\relationships\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ move\\ on\\ to\\ \\\\<\\/a\\>\\self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Refocusing\\ on\\ the\\ positive\\ \\<\\/strong\\>When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ relationships\\ its\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ questions\\.\\ We\\ are\\ taught\\ to\\ ask\\ questions\\ that\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ negative\\.\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ refocus\\ on\\ the\\ positive\\ such\\ as\\ What\\ am\\ I\\ grateful\\ for\\ in\\ my\\ partner\\?\\ What\\ is\\ wonderful\\ about\\ our\\ relationship\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Communicating\\ about\\ Positive\\ Events\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ also\\ extremely\\ important\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ research\\ done\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ issues\\ in\\ relationships\\ but\\ no\\ research\\ on\\ positive\\ communication\\.\\ \\\\Gable\\ et\\ al\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>found\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ couples\\ communicate\\ about\\ positive\\ events\\ is\\ a\\ better\\ predictor\\ of\\ long\\ term\\ success\\ than\\ how\\ they\\ communicate\\ about\\ negative\\ events\\.\\ We\\ must\\ respond\\ to\\ positive\\-event\\-disclosures\\.\\ \\Active\\ constructive\\ responding\\<\\/strong\\>\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ genuine\\ and\\ in\\ win\\-win\\ events\\.\\ \\ This\\ generates\\ upward\\ spirals\\,\\ thereby\\ promoting\\ the\\ positive\\.\\ This\\ also\\ builds\\ positive\\ capacity\\,\\ allowing\\ us\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ negative\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\As\\ he\\ wrote\\ his\\ dissertation\\ on\\ this\\ topic\\,\\ Tal\\ is\\ very\\ particular\\ to\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ He\\ also\\ feels\\ that\\ \\self\\-esteem\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ everything\\ else\\<\\/strong\\>\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ discussed\\ in\\ this\\ course\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Outline\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ lecture\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\1\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\2\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\What\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\.\\.\\.and\\ is\\ not\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\3\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ paradox\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\4\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Toward\\ a\\ new\\ understanding\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(AKA\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dissertation\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\-Dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\-Independent\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\-Unconditional\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ 5\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Enhancing\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Definition\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Nathaniel\\ Branden\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ definition\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;self\\-esteem\\ is\\ the\\ disposition\\ to\\ experience\\ oneself\\ as\\ \\competent\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ basic\\ challenges\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ as\\ \\worthy\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ also\\ comments\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;of\\ all\\ the\\ judgments\\ we\\ pass\\ in\\ our\\ lives\\,\\ none\\ is\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ we\\ pass\\ on\\ ourselves\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\High\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ good\\ mental\\ health\\,\\ high\\ quality\\ relationships\\,\\ success\\,\\ more\\ social\\ effectiveness\\ \\(emotional\\ intelligence\\)\\,\\ and\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\ \\Low\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ anxiety\\,\\ depression\\ and\\ psychosomatic\\ symptoms\\.\\ \\\\Branden\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\<\\/a\\>calls\\ self\\-esteem\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\the\\ immune\\ system\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Bednar\\ and\\ Peterson\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ found\\ that\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ most\\ emotional\\ and\\ behavioral\\ problems\\.\\ A\\ \\\\California\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ task\\ force\\ found\\ that\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\social\\ vaccine\\\"\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ there\\ is\\ criticism\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(anyone\\ else\\ still\\ wondering\\ what\\ that\\ means\\?\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\Baumeister\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/a\\>equates\\ self\\-esteem\\ with\\ narcissism\\ \\(arrogance\\ and\\ conceit\\)\\ and\\ unrealistic\\ evaluation\\ \\(which\\ can\\ harm\\ performance\\)\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Rollo\\ May\\,\\ \\\"the\\ person\\ who\\ feels\\ weak\\ becomes\\ a\\ bully\\,\\ the\\ inferior\\ persona\\ braggart\\;\\ a\\ flexing\\ of\\ muscles\\,\\ much\\ talk\\,\\ cockiness\\,\\ an\\ endeavor\\ to\\ brazen\\ it\\ out\\,\\ are\\ symptoms\\ of\\ covert\\ anxiety\\ in\\ a\\ person\\ or\\ a\\ group\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Salvaging\\ self\\-esteem\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Self\\-esteem\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ empty\\ reinforcement\\ or\\ pseudo\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ It\\ is\\ instead\\ founded\\ in\\ reality\\ \\(actual\\ performance\\ and\\ success\\)\\ and\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ hard\\ work\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nathaniel\\ Branden\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ \\6\\ pillars\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\integrity\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(matching\\ what\\ we\\ say\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ do\\;\\ keeping\\ your\\ word\\ communicates\\ that\\ your\\ word\\ and\\ thereby\\ yourself\\,\\ matters\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\self\\-awareness\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\purposefulness\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\taking\\ responsibility\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\self\\-acceptance\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\self\\-assertiveness\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(standing\\ up\\ for\\ yourself\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\More\\ criticisms\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>There\\ is\\ research\\ which\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ with\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\ have\\ anti\\-social\\ behavior\\ and\\ are\\ aggressive\\ and\\ uncooperative\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ \\the\\ paradox\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(which\\ \\Bednar\\ and\\ Peterson\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ explain\\:\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ not\\ associated\\ with\\ success\\ or\\ social\\ status\\)\\.\\ Tal\\ reads\\ this\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ found\\ my\\ success\\ confusing\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ my\\ lack\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ new\\ formulation\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Tal\\ divided\\ self\\-esteem\\ into\\ three\\ separate\\ constructs\\ in\\ his\\ \\\\dissertation\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\dependent\\,\\ independent\\,\\ and\\ unconditional\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>In\\ \\dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ worthiness\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ others\\ \\(important\\ decisions\\ are\\ made\\ based\\ on\\ other\\ people\\'s\\ approval\\)\\ and\\ competence\\ is\\ compared\\ to\\ others\\.\\ Most\\ psychologists\\ use\\ this\\ definition\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ Tal\\ draws\\ the\\ analogy\\ to\\ fairy\\ tales\\,\\ where\\ he\\ first\\ started\\ learning\\ about\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ The\\ Wicked\\ Witch\\ is\\ experiencing\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ when\\ she\\ asks\\ \\&\\#8220\\;mirror\\,\\ mirror\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\,\\ who\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ fairest\\ of\\ them\\ all\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ \\independent\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>worthiness\\ is\\ self\\-determined\\ and\\ competence\\ is\\ not\\ compared\\ to\\ others\\ but\\ only\\ to\\ oneself\\.\\ In\\ \\\\<\\/a\\>\\unconditional\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>worthiness\\ is\\ not\\ contingent\\ on\\ anyone\\.\\ Competence\\ is\\ interdependent\\.\\ People\\ with\\ unconditional\\ self\\-esteem\\ are\\ interdependent\\ and\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ one\\ with\\ others\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ self\\-esteem\\ follows\\ an\\ \\epigenetic\\ model\\-\\ \\<\\/strong\\>one\\ needs\\ to\\ get\\ past\\ the\\ first\\ stage\\ to\\ the\\ second\\ stage\\ and\\ so\\ forth\\.\\ The\\ significance\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ everyone\\ experiences\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ can\\ cultivate\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ potentially\\ unconditional\\ self\\-esteem\\ eventually\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Salvaging Self-Esteem's Self Esteem"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.206104+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Integrity, Trust, Time, and Happiness", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 367, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\Tal\\ begins\\ with\\&\\#160\\;a\\ clarification\\ on\\ \\unconditional\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>People\\ with\\ this\\ level\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ do\\ things\\ because\\ they\\ feel\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ done\\.\\ They\\ feel\\ interdependent\\ with\\ everyone\\ else\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ if\\ they\\ feel\\ a\\ good\\ book\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ written\\,\\ they\\ write\\ it\\,\\ without\\ comparing\\ its\\ success\\ with\\ others\\&\\#8217\\;\\ or\\ their\\ own\\ past\\ accomplishments\\.\\ They\\ also\\ would\\ be\\ happy\\ if\\ someone\\ else\\ wrote\\ the\\ book\\ if\\ they\\ could\\ make\\ a\\ bigger\\ impact\\ with\\ it\\.\\ Something\\ to\\ strive\\ for\\,\\ perhaps\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ hero\\,\\ Warren\\ Dennis\\,\\ taught\\ him\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\he\\ was\\ not\\ always\\ this\\ way\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ knew\\ his\\ own\\ worth\\,\\ was\\ humble\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ denial\\ of\\ his\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ Modesty\\ can\\ often\\ be\\ misinterpreted\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ conceit\\ \\(if\\ you\\ show\\ off\\ your\\ modesty\\)\\;\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ be\\ truly\\ modest\\?\\ Maslow\\ found\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ under\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 45\\ is\\ self\\-actualized\\.\\ Moral\\ of\\ the\\ story\\,\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ worry\\,\\ it\\ take\\ time\\.\\ We\\ must\\ also\\ cultivate\\ relationships\\ where\\ we\\ can\\ be\\ known\\,\\ and\\ thereby\\ be\\ actualized\\ and\\ build\\ our\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ having\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ First\\ off\\ independence\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ \\moral\\ behavior\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ worst\\ atrocities\\ in\\ history\\ were\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ obedience\\ to\\ authority\\,\\ group\\ think\\ and\\ various\\ \\&\\#8220\\;isms\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ People\\ with\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ need\\ a\\ charismatic\\ leader\\ or\\ a\\ group\\ to\\ give\\ them\\ accolades\\ and\\ are\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ the\\ previously\\ described\\ forces\\.\\ Those\\ that\\ are\\ true\\ to\\ their\\ principles\\ and\\ are\\ empathetic\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ do\\ good\\.\\ Another\\ benefit\\ is\\ \\better\\ cognitive\\ performance\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>People\\ with\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ think\\ inside\\ the\\ box\\ and\\ follow\\ the\\ path\\ already\\ taken\\;\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ independent\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ experience\\ creative\\ thinking\\,\\ because\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ true\\ to\\ themselves\\ and\\ not\\ allow\\ others\\ to\\ direct\\ their\\ paths\\.\\ Independent\\ people\\ will\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ commitment\\ to\\ \\continuous\\ learning\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\Levels\\ of\\ happiness\\ are\\ higher\\<\\/strong\\>\\ for\\ those\\ with\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ We\\ are\\ calmer\\ if\\ we\\ express\\ ourselves\\ and\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ others\\&\\#8217\\;\\ judgments\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Research\\ results\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\Kernis\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/a\\>studied\\ \\self\\-esteem\\ stability\\ \\<\\/strong\\>by\\ following\\ people\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ weeks\\ and\\ measured\\ their\\ state\\ \\(vs\\.\\ trait\\)\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>By\\ measuring\\ the\\ standard\\ deviation\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ spread\\,\\ he\\ found\\ that\\ self\\-esteem\\ stability\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ important\\ to\\ determining\\ whether\\ people\\ were\\ hostile\\ or\\ benevolent\\ than\\ average\\ level\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ Tal\\ studied\\ students\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\<\\/country\\-region\\>US\\ and\\ Singapore\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ instability\\ and\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ stability\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Happiness\\ and\\ flow\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Melissa\\ Christino\\,\\ one\\ of\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ undergraduate\\ students\\ found\\ that\\ those\\ with\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ experience\\ flow\\ in\\ athletics\\ and\\ had\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dissertation\\ \\Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\\dissertation\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\looked\\ for\\ correlations\\ between\\ \\narcissism\\,\\ generosity\\ and\\ hostility\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Narcissism\\ is\\ correlated\\ with\\ high\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ while\\ generosity\\ \\(actual\\ behavior\\ and\\ self\\-reported\\)\\ was\\ correlated\\ with\\ high\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ correlation\\ between\\ hostility\\ and\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ Richey\\ and\\ Ignaczyk\\ showed\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ \\perfectionism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ People\\ with\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ fail\\ and\\ learn\\,\\ while\\ those\\ with\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ were\\ more\\ afraid\\ of\\ failure\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ judged\\ as\\ a\\ result\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Self\\-esteem\\ and\\ relationships\\ \\<\\/strong\\>According\\ to\\ relationship\\-guru\\,\\ \\David\\ Schnarch\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\#8220\\;differentiation\\ is\\ your\\ ability\\ to\\ maintain\\ your\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ emotionally\\ and\\/or\\ physically\\ close\\ to\\ others\\-\\ especially\\ as\\ they\\ become\\ increasingly\\ important\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>to\\ you\\.\\ Differentiation\\ permits\\ you\\ to\\ maintain\\ your\\ own\\ course\\ when\\ lovers\\,\\ friends\\,\\ and\\ family\\ pressure\\ you\\ to\\ agree\\ to\\ conform\\.\\ Well\\-differentiated\\ people\\ can\\ agree\\ without\\ feeling\\ like\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ \\&\\#8216\\;loosing\\ themselves\\,\\&\\#8217\\;\\ and\\ can\\ disagree\\ without\\ feeling\\ alienated\\ and\\ embittered\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cultivating\\ Independent\\ and\\ Unconditional\\ Self\\-esteem\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\When\\ we\\ studied\\ the\\ ABC\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ of\\ Change\\,\\ the\\ most\\ effective\\ approach\\ was\\ to\\ change\\ your\\ behavior\\.\\ Recall\\ this\\ model\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Also\\ recall\\ \\self\\-perception\\ theory\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ which\\ suggests\\ that\\ if\\ behave\\ as\\ you\\ would\\ if\\ you\\ had\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\ then\\ your\\ mind\\ will\\ perceive\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\You\\ can\\ also\\ enhance\\ self\\-esteem\\ by\\ \\inducing\\ calm\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>becoming\\ a\\ \\slave\\ to\\ your\\ passions\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(as\\ we\\ did\\ for\\ our\\ homework\\ for\\ this\\ week\\,\\ imagine\\ how\\ you\\ would\\ live\\ your\\ life\\ if\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ aware\\ of\\ your\\ accomplishments\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ gave\\ you\\ accolades\\,\\ as\\ if\\ a\\ spell\\ of\\ anonymity\\ was\\ cast\\ on\\ you\\)\\\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Tal\\ shares\\ very\\ candidly\\ that\\ this\\ exercise\\ made\\ him\\ realize\\ that\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ PhD\\ and\\ do\\ research\\ but\\ instead\\ wanted\\ to\\ teach\\.\\ However\\,\\ he\\ realized\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\,\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ accolades\\ and\\ degrees\\,\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ complete\\ a\\ PhD\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ teach\\ at\\ a\\ university\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ this\\ realization\\ he\\ let\\ go\\ of\\ the\\ tenure\\ track\\ dream\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ PhDs\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ follow\\ his\\ passion\\ for\\ teaching\\,\\ albeit\\ not\\ at\\ Harvard\\ after\\ Thursday\\.\\ We\\ can\\ also\\ grow\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\ by\\ \\finding\\ flow\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\coping\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(stretching\\ ourselves\\,\\ learning\\ and\\ falling\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ grow\\)\\ and\\ \\practicing\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\humble\\ behavior\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Tal\\ cites\\ a\\ proverb\\ which\\ basically\\ says\\ \\&\\#8220\\;those\\ who\\ chase\\ after\\ honor\\,\\ honor\\ will\\ run\\ away\\ from\\ them\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ run\\ away\\ from\\ honor\\,\\ honor\\ will\\ chase\\ after\\ them\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Also\\ \\taking\\ time\\ and\\ simplifying\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\helps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>If\\ you\\ have\\ time\\,\\ you\\ can\\ think\\ about\\ these\\ questions\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ you\\ really\\,\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\<\\/font\\>\\\\Stage\\ model\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Daniel\\ Gilbert\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ on\\ \\cognitive\\ busyness\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\-\\ people\\ behave\\ very\\ differently\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ cognitively\\ busy\\ and\\ when\\ they\\ have\\ time\\.\\ They\\ found\\ that\\ in\\ Stage\\ 1\\,\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ very\\ busy\\,\\ we\\ conform\\ and\\ have\\ automatic\\ reactions\\.\\ This\\ is\\ our\\ dependent\\ self\\.\\ In\\ Stage\\ 2\\,\\ when\\ we\\ combine\\ reflection\\ and\\ action\\,\\ we\\ can\\ practice\\ self\\-reliance\\ and\\ are\\ more\\ independent\\ and\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ conform\\.\\ Tal\\ wonders\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\ if\\ the\\ Milgram\\ experiment\\ were\\ repeated\\ \\(which\\ is\\ impossible\\ now\\ due\\ to\\ human\\ subject\\ regulations\\ for\\ research\\)\\ and\\ the\\ participants\\ were\\ given\\ minutes\\ instead\\ of\\ seconds\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ instructions\\ of\\ the\\ experimenter\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\Integrity\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ component\\ of\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>Nathanial\\ Branden\\ instructs\\ his\\ clients\\ to\\ practice\\ integrity\\ for\\ one\\ week\\ \\(by\\ not\\ lying\\,\\ following\\ through\\ on\\ your\\ promises\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ Researchers\\ found\\ that\\ people\\ lie\\ about\\ three\\ times\\ a\\ day\\ on\\ average\\.\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ undergraduate\\ Philosophy\\ and\\ Psychology\\ thesis\\ was\\ about\\ the\\ psychological\\ and\\ emotional\\ repercussions\\ of\\ dishonesty\\.\\ When\\ you\\ tell\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ you\\ communicate\\ to\\ yourself\\ that\\ your\\ words\\ matter\\ and\\ thus\\ you\\ matter\\.\\ When\\ you\\ lie\\ you\\ are\\ communicating\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ good\\ enough\\ as\\ you\\ are\\.\\ Being\\ known\\ versus\\ being\\ validated\\ \\(\\Schnarch\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ uggests\\ that\\ we\\ work\\ to\\ express\\,\\ not\\ to\\ impress\\ and\\ assert\\ ourselves\\.\\ Tal\\ encourages\\ us\\ to\\ work\\ to\\ gradually\\ expand\\ our\\ integrity\\.\\ We\\ do\\ this\\ when\\ we\\ journal\\,\\ when\\ we\\ talk\\ to\\ loved\\ ones\\ and\\ when\\ we\\ talk\\ to\\ a\\ therapist\\.\\ \\Truth\\ sets\\ us\\ free\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ ends\\ class\\ by\\ reading\\ am\\ excerpt\\ from\\ Melissa\\ Christino\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\(Harvard\\ College\\ Class\\ of\\ 2002\\)\\ journal\\ which\\ she\\ included\\ in\\ her\\ thesis\\-\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Your\\ true\\ potential\\ lies\\ way\\,\\ way\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ depth\\ of\\ your\\ soul\\&\\#8230\\;\\ in\\ the\\ pit\\ of\\ your\\ stomach\\,\\ past\\ your\\ knowledge\\,\\ beyond\\ your\\ nervousness\\,\\ and\\ buried\\ under\\ your\\ fears\\ and\\ anxieties\\.\\ As\\ hidden\\ as\\ it\\ may\\ be\\,\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ there\\ I\\ know\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ there\\ because\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ felt\\ it\\ before\\,\\ and\\ I\\ know\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ there\\ in\\ others\\ too\\ because\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ seen\\ others\\ perform\\ miracles\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ faint\\ glow\\ of\\ unparalleled\\ potential\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ us\\,\\ and\\ we\\ find\\ it\\-\\ it\\ shines\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Integrity, Trust, Time, and Happiness"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.220619+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Grand Finale", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 368, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ last\\ lecture\\ of\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\,\\ Tal\\ outlines\\ the\\ following\\ \\eleven\\ tips\\ of\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\Oh\\,\\ the\\ questions\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ ask\\ \\(the\\ type\\ of\\ questions\\ you\\ ask\\ define\\ your\\ journey\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Believe\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ yourself\\ and\\ others\\ \\(beliefs\\ are\\ a\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Learn\\ to\\ fail\\ or\\ fail\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Give\\ yourself\\ the\\ permission\\ to\\ be\\ human\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Open\\ up\\ \\(journal\\ and\\/or\\ to\\ people\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Cultivate\\ the\\ benefit\\ finder\\ \\(express\\ gratitude\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Simplify\\ your\\ life\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Cultivate\\ relationships\\ \\(where\\ you\\ are\\ authentic\\ and\\ not\\ striving\\ to\\ be\\ validated\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Remember\\ the\\ mind\\-body\\ connection\\ \\(exercise\\,\\ meditate\\,\\ sleep\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Strive\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ rather\\ than\\ validated\\ \\(in\\ your\\ relationships\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Introduce\\ behavioral\\ change\\ NOW\\ \\(just\\ do\\ it\\ and\\ create\\ rituals\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\{democracy\\:7\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\{democracy\\:8\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ takes\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ ask\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ \\(yes\\,\\ there\\ are\\ 600\\ of\\ us\\)\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ microphone\\ and\\ share\\ what\\ they\\ have\\ found\\ most\\ enlightening\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\ Now\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ ask\\ you\\,\\ reader\\,\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aside\\ from\\ these\\ polls\\,\\ I\\ \\strongly\\ encourage\\ you\\ to\\ comment\\<\\/strong\\>\\ on\\ anything\\ I\\ have\\ discussed\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ then\\ talks\\ about\\ \\the\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\need\\ for\\ practical\\ idealism\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ difference\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ He\\ quotes\\ Abraham\\ Maslow\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ am\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ disinterested\\ and\\ impersonal\\ seeker\\ for\\ pure\\ cold\\ truth\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ am\\ also\\ very\\ definitely\\ interested\\ and\\ concerned\\ with\\ man\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fate\\,\\ with\\ his\\ ends\\ and\\ goals\\ and\\ with\\ his\\ future\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ help\\ improve\\ him\\ and\\ better\\ his\\ prospects\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ hope\\ to\\ help\\ teach\\ him\\ how\\ to\\ be\\ brotherly\\,\\ cooperative\\,\\ peaceful\\,\\ courageous\\,\\ and\\ just\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ think\\ science\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ hope\\ for\\ achieving\\ this\\,\\ and\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ sciences\\,\\ I\\ consider\\ psychology\\ most\\ important\\ to\\ this\\ end\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Indeed\\,\\ I\\ sometimes\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ either\\ be\\ saved\\ by\\ psychologists\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ the\\ very\\ broadest\\ sense\\&\\#8212\\;or\\ else\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ saved\\ at\\ all\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tal\\ reminds\\ us\\ that\\ we\\ often\\ underestimate\\ our\\ capacity\\ to\\ effect\\ change\\ because\\ we\\ underestimate\\ the\\ exponential\\ nature\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;paying\\ it\\ forward\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ Tal\\ tells\\ us\\ to\\ remember\\ to\\ \\take\\ care\\ of\\ ourselves\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\\\ spread\\ happiness\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>As\\ the\\ Buddha\\ said\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;thousands\\ of\\ candles\\ can\\ be\\ lighted\\ from\\ a\\ single\\ candle\\,\\ and\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ candle\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ shortened\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Happiness\\ never\\ decreases\\ by\\ being\\ shared\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ Gandhi\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Be\\ the\\ change\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ marks\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ many\\ things\\:\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ blog\\,\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ my\\ undergraduate\\ career\\ \\(as\\ this\\ is\\ my\\ last\\ lecture\\ as\\ a\\ Harvard\\ undergrad\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Tal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tenure\\ \\(or\\ lack\\ thereof\\)\\ at\\ Harvard\\.\\ Tal\\ is\\ met\\ with\\ thunderous\\ applause\\,\\ two\\ standing\\ ovations\\ and\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ gratitude\\ letters\\ written\\ by\\ TFs\\ and\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ class\\.\\ Thank\\ you\\ for\\ an\\ excellent\\ semester\\,\\ Tal\\.\\ You\\ have\\ taught\\ us\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ lessons\\ we\\ have\\ learned\\ in\\ college\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\P\\.S\\.\\ \\If\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ student\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ contribute\\ \\<\\/strong\\>to\\ The\\ Final\\ Club\\ in\\ any\\ way\\,\\ please\\ email\\ Andrew\\ Magliozzi\\ at\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\\\andrew\\@TheFinalClub\\.org\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ Thanks\\!\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Grand Finale"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.244682+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Fugue - Lecture 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 369, "html": "\\\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\(scroll\\ across\\ click\\ on\\ the\\ play\\ button\\ above\\ to\\ hear\\ movement\\ iii\\ of\\ the\\ Opus\\ 110\\ Piano\\ Sonata\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Welcome\\ dearest\\ readers\\.\\ If\\ you\\'ve\\ stumbled\\ across\\ this\\ blog\\,\\ you\\'ve\\ probably\\ got\\ at\\ least\\ some\\ interest\\ in\\ music\\,\\ and\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ enrolled\\ in\\ Music\\ 1B\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Before\\ I\\ begin\\,\\ a\\ disclaimer\\:\\ though\\ some\\ may\\ consider\\ me\\ a\\ musician\\ \\(I\\'ve\\ spent\\ some\\ combined\\ fourteen\\ years\\ on\\ piano\\ and\\ violin\\ lessons\\)\\,\\ I\\'d\\ like\\ to\\ write\\ to\\ you\\ as\\ a\\ lowly\\,\\ faithful\\ listener\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ an\\ ordinary\\ senior\\ in\\ this\\ Music\\ 1B\\ class\\.\\ After\\ all\\,\\ who\\ can\\ honestly\\ sit\\ through\\ any\\ of\\ Sean\\ Gallagher\\'s\\ performance\\/lectures\\ and\\ not\\ feel\\ both\\ enlightened\\ and\\ humbled\\?\\ So\\ as\\ the\\ class\\ progresses\\,\\ I\\ too\\ hope\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ blog\\ as\\ my\\ own\\ learning\\ experience\\,\\ a\\ contemplative\\ \\fugue\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ sorts\\ with\\ its\\ own\\ subject\\ and\\ countersubjects\\ \\(more\\ on\\ this\\ later\\)\\,\\ to\\ voice\\ my\\ own\\ conversations\\ with\\ music\\ appreciation\\.\\ Feel\\ free\\ to\\ argue\\ with\\ me\\ and\\ call\\ me\\ out\\ all\\ you\\ like\\.\\ I\\ even\\ look\\ forward\\ to\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ do\\ I\\ approach\\ this\\ class\\?\\ The\\ class\\ can\\ certainly\\ be\\ overwhelming\\,\\ especially\\ with\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ listening\\ that\\ actually\\ goes\\ on\\ during\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ and\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ terminology\\ that\\ Sean\\ Gallagher\\ throws\\ around\\.\\ But\\ one\\ key\\ point\\ that\\ I\\ find\\ myself\\ reminding\\ myself\\ of\\ is\\ that\\ terminology\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ vocabulary\\ that\\ we\\ use\\ to\\ discuss\\ and\\ describe\\ music\\.\\ Not\\ knowing\\ the\\ exact\\ terminology\\ doesn\\'t\\ prevent\\ one\\ from\\ enjoying\\ the\\ music\\,\\ or\\ even\\ building\\ a\\ personal\\ and\\ mental\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ music\\;\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ we\\ know\\ what\\ the\\ word\\ \\'sweet\\'\\ means\\ doesn\\'t\\ prevent\\ us\\ from\\ enjoying\\ M\\&\\;Ms\\.\\ With\\ time\\,\\ that\\ vocabulary\\ will\\ build\\.\\ For\\ now\\,\\ let\\'s\\ just\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ lecture\\ music\\ intently\\,\\ and\\ identify\\ flavors\\ that\\ we\\ enjoy\\ most\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ what\\ exactly\\ is\\ this\\ contemplative\\ fugue\\ that\\ I\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\?\\ To\\ put\\ it\\ simply\\,\\ a\\ fugue\\ is\\ a\\ musical\\ passage\\ consisting\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ individual\\ voices\\ that\\ is\\ echoed\\ or\\ \\'imitated\\'\\ throughout\\ the\\ passage\\.\\ It\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ short\\ melody\\ \\-\\ a\\ \\subject\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\-\\ which\\ recurs\\ in\\ different\\ voices\\ throughout\\ the\\ section\\ in\\ different\\ iterations\\ \\-\\ \\countersubjects\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\-\\ among\\ the\\ voices\\.\\ Diagrammatically\\,\\ you\\ may\\ see\\ a\\ fugue\\ something\\ like\\ this\\ \\(with\\ the\\ \\|\\ representing\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ time\\)\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Voice\\ \\(1\\)\\ \\-\\ Subject\\ \\|\\ Countersubject\\ A\\ \\|\\ Countersubject\\ B\\\r\\\\\r\\Voice\\ \\(2\\)\\ \\-\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ \\|\\ Subject\\ \\|\\ Countersubject\\ A\\\r\\\\\r\\Voice\\ \\(3\\)\\ \\-\\ \\-\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ \\|\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ \\|\\ Subject\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ a\\ fugue\\,\\ you\\ would\\ hear\\ the\\ initial\\ subject\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ voice\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ countersubject\\ A\\ and\\ the\\ simultaneous\\ entrance\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ voice\\.\\ It\\ sounds\\ complicated\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ indeed\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ Gallagher\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ fugues\\ is\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ rite\\ of\\ passage\\ for\\ fledgling\\ composers\\,\\ and\\,\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\,\\ even\\ for\\ performers\\.\\ The\\ fugue\\ is\\ probably\\ most\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ composer\\ Johann\\ Sebastian\\ Bach\\,\\ who\\ used\\ the\\ fugue\\ extensively\\ in\\ his\\ compositions\\,\\ and\\ whose\\ style\\ of\\ fugue\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ standard\\ to\\ meet\\.\\ Both\\ contemporary\\ and\\ historical\\ figures\\ have\\ penned\\ fugues\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ their\\ facility\\,\\ while\\ pianists\\ ranging\\ from\\ myself\\ to\\ Beethoven\\ have\\ played\\ the\\ fugues\\ in\\ Bach\\'s\\ \\Das\\ Wohltemperierte\\ Klavier\\<\\/em\\>\\ as\\ both\\ a\\ practical\\ and\\ compositional\\ learning\\ process\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(Ludwig\\ himself\\)\\<\\/p\\>Mirroring\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ the\\ fugue\\'s\\ composition\\ is\\ its\\ use\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ Beethoven\\ works\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ the\\ Beethoven\\ works\\ composed\\ between\\ 1815\\ and\\ 1827\\ include\\ fugues\\,\\ including\\ the\\ Opus\\ 131\\ String\\ Quartet\\ which\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ fugue\\ and\\ ends\\,\\ surprisingly\\,\\ with\\ a\\ frenetic\\ and\\ almost\\ angry\\ seventh\\ movement\\.\\ Consider\\ also\\ the\\ Opus\\ 110\\ piano\\ sonata\\,\\ whose\\ final\\ section\\ progresses\\ through\\ both\\ a\\ fugal\\ section\\,\\ and\\ the\\ inversion\\ of\\ this\\ fugue\\,\\ before\\ concluding\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ this\\ fugue\\,\\ and\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ idea\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ reiteration\\ with\\ a\\ slight\\ variation\\ \\+\\ countersubject\\?\\ Professor\\ Gallagher\\ suggests\\ the\\ real\\ life\\ analogy\\ of\\ the\\ fugue\\ as\\ an\\ \\\"embodiment\\ of\\ contemplation\\\"\\ \\-\\ an\\ idea\\ encroaches\\,\\ spins\\ around\\ in\\ our\\ minds\\ with\\ all\\ the\\ accompanying\\ ramifications\\ of\\ that\\ idea\\,\\ before\\ we\\ finally\\ settle\\ on\\ a\\ conclusion\\.\\ And\\ when\\ we\\ finally\\ settle\\ on\\ the\\ conclusion\\ of\\ Opus\\ 110\\'s\\ finale\\,\\ we\\ really\\ do\\ feel\\ that\\ this\\ ending\\ is\\ earned\\,\\ after\\ progressing\\ through\\ the\\ extreme\\ ranges\\ of\\ the\\ instrument\\ and\\ both\\ the\\ fugue\\ itself\\ and\\ its\\ inversion\\.\\ Could\\ it\\ be\\ that\\ we\\'ve\\ achieved\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ closure\\?\\ Some\\ sort\\ of\\ resolution\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Perhaps\\ this\\ closure\\ was\\ exactly\\ what\\ Beethoven\\ sought\\ in\\ his\\ latest\\ works\\.\\ We\\'re\\ reminded\\ of\\ his\\ personal\\ crisis\\ by\\ his\\ letters\\ to\\ his\\ brother\\ about\\ the\\ worlds\\ misery\\.\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ deafness\\,\\ and\\ his\\ continual\\ struggle\\ to\\ barely\\ scrape\\ by\\ and\\ make\\ ends\\ meet\\ are\\ obvious\\ contributors\\ to\\ any\\ misery\\ that\\ Beethoven\\ may\\ have\\ experienced\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ of\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ custody\\ troubles\\ for\\ his\\ nephew\\ Karl\\,\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ love\\ and\\ expectations\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ for\\ Karl\\.\\ Karl\\ lived\\ under\\ the\\ custody\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ living\\ composers\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ because\\ Beethoven\\ expected\\ Karl\\ to\\ emerge\\ from\\ under\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ own\\ gigantic\\ and\\ inescapable\\ musical\\ shadow\\,\\ Karl\\ attempted\\ suicide\\ in\\ 1826\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ all\\ these\\ facts\\ about\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ growing\\ introspection\\ and\\ inwardness\\.\\ We\\ also\\ have\\ these\\ musical\\ documents\\ \\-\\ these\\ notoriously\\ difficult\\-to\\-perform\\ late\\ works\\.\\ Maybe\\ then\\,\\ Beethoven\\ penned\\ these\\ pieces\\ more\\ as\\ a\\ manifestation\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ internal\\ struggles\\ than\\ as\\ compositions\\ for\\ the\\ musical\\ world\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ More\\ than\\ his\\ usual\\ commissions\\ which\\ were\\,\\ by\\ definition\\,\\ composed\\ for\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ enjoy\\,\\ I\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ these\\ late\\ Beethoven\\ works\\ were\\ more\\ for\\ himself\\ than\\ anybody\\ else\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Of\\ course\\,\\ this\\ seems\\ like\\ an\\ obvious\\ conclusion\\ \\-\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ really\\ divorce\\ ourselves\\ from\\ the\\ music\\ that\\ we\\ compose\\.\\ But\\ with\\ repeated\\ compositions\\ and\\ commissions\\,\\ it\\ isn\\'t\\ unreasonable\\ to\\ begin\\ to\\ enter\\ an\\ auto\\-pilot\\ mode\\ where\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ think\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ really\\ being\\ written\\.\\ With\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ constant\\ struggle\\ to\\ make\\ ends\\ meet\\,\\ and\\ the\\ constant\\ pressure\\ to\\ compose\\ and\\ publish\\ works\\,\\ perhaps\\ he\\ fell\\ into\\ a\\ cycle\\ of\\ automated\\ production\\.\\ \\(Though\\ even\\ these\\ auto\\-pilot\\ pieces\\ are\\ better\\ than\\ most\\.\\)\\ As\\ the\\ external\\ factors\\ began\\ build\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ unlikely\\ that\\ Beethoven\\ shifted\\ towards\\ introspection\\,\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ writing\\ music\\ purely\\ for\\ himself\\ and\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ music\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ that\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ late\\ works\\ were\\ his\\ return\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ more\\ personal\\ and\\ more\\ selfish\\ relationship\\ with\\ music\\,\\ we\\ as\\ an\\ audience\\ aren\\'t\\ necessarily\\ excluded\\ from\\ enjoying\\ these\\ pieces\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ we\\ should\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ unique\\ about\\ these\\ late\\ works\\ of\\ Beethoven\\,\\ and\\ their\\ fugues\\ that\\ inspire\\ our\\ own\\ contemplation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ so\\ I\\ hope\\ that\\ I\\'ve\\ laid\\ out\\ at\\ least\\ an\\ initial\\ subject\\ for\\ a\\ fugue\\ that\\ will\\ last\\ through\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ this\\ course\\.\\ To\\ listen\\ to\\ music\\ passively\\ is\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ but\\ to\\ grapple\\ with\\ the\\ music\\ and\\ attempt\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ inspirations\\ behind\\ it\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ruminations\\ that\\ it\\ hopes\\ to\\ inspire\\,\\ is\\ another\\.\\ That\\'s\\ all\\ for\\ now\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 71, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Fugue - Lecture 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.257584+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Beethoven's Panorama - Lecture 3", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 370, "html": "\\We\\ continue\\ our\\ exploration\\ of\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ late\\ works\\ with\\ an\\ in\\ depth\\ analysis\\ of\\ his\\ Opus\\ 131\\ String\\ Quartet\\.\\ Want\\ to\\ listen\\ along\\?\\ Unfortunately\\ I\\ can\\'t\\ find\\ an\\ open\\ source\\ recording\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ seventh\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ quartet\\ to\\ link\\ you\\ to\\,\\ and\\ I\\ can\\'t\\ legally\\ link\\ the\\ course\\ web\\ music\\ files\\.\\ But\\ feel\\ free\\ to\\ access\\ the\\ course\\ web\\ and\\ drift\\ away\\ as\\ we\\ go\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Before\\ we\\ get\\ into\\ what\\ the\\ Opus\\ 131\\ String\\ Quartet\\ actually\\ is\\,\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ what\\ it\\ \\is\\ not\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Beethoven\\ took\\ certain\\ liberties\\ in\\ his\\ work\\,\\ perhaps\\ intentionally\\,\\ and\\ often\\ did\\ not\\ follow\\ the\\ traditional\\ forms\\.\\ Professor\\ Gallagher\\ notes\\ that\\ a\\ Sonata\\ tends\\ to\\ have\\ three\\ movements\\ \\-\\ Beethoven\\ begins\\ to\\ add\\ fourth\\ movements\\.\\ And\\ even\\ though\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ symphonies\\ abide\\ by\\ the\\ usual\\ four\\ movement\\ structure\\,\\ he\\ paces\\ his\\ movements\\ much\\ differently\\ than\\ the\\ typical\\ fast\\ \\-\\ slow\\ \\-dance\\ \\-\\ finale\\ style\\.\\ In\\ place\\ of\\ the\\ lighthearted\\ conclusions\\ that\\ listeners\\ find\\ in\\ traditional\\ pre\\-Beethoven\\ symphonies\\ are\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ more\\ grand\\,\\ grave\\,\\ and\\ even\\ monstrous\\ fourth\\ movements\\.\\ So\\ it\\ comes\\ as\\ no\\ surprise\\ that\\ the\\ Opus\\ 131\\ String\\ Quartet\\ follows\\ in\\ this\\ vein\\ of\\ defying\\ conventions\\,\\ with\\ its\\ total\\ of\\ 7\\ \\(yes\\,\\ count\\ \\'em\\,\\ 7\\)\\ movements\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Gallagher\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ another\\ of\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ transgressions\\ \\-\\ the\\ reluctance\\ to\\ break\\ his\\ seven\\ movement\\ String\\ Quartet\\ into\\ discrete\\ sections\\.\\ \\ In\\ fact\\,\\ when\\ we\\ arrive\\ at\\ the\\ fifth\\ movement\\,\\ the\\ \\Scherzo\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(or\\ joke\\)\\,\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ the\\ joke\\'s\\ on\\ you\\;\\ there\\ is\\ almost\\ no\\ indicator\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ arrived\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ section\\.\\ The\\ frames\\ are\\ completely\\ removed\\ from\\ the\\ movements\\,\\ and\\ Gallagher\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ movements\\ bleed\\ directly\\ into\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Where\\ is\\ the\\ delineation\\?\\ Nowhere\\ to\\ be\\ found\\.\\ And\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ this\\ blurring\\?\\ A\\ sign\\ of\\ abandon\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ may\\ seem\\ that\\ structure\\ indicates\\ intent\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lack\\ thereof\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ recklessness\\.\\ We\\'re\\ all\\ taught\\ when\\ we\\'re\\ younger\\ to\\ construct\\ the\\ \\'five\\ paragraph\\ essay\\'\\ \\-\\ intro\\ body\\ body\\ body\\ conclusion\\,\\ hourglass\\ form\\,\\ broad\\ first\\ sentence\\,\\ broad\\ extrapolation\\ at\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ sentence\\.\\ \\ You\\ know\\ \\-\\ this\\ garbage\\ right\\ here\\:\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>Stick\\ to\\ that\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ you\\ get\\ your\\ point\\ across\\,\\ and\\ you\\'ll\\ ace\\ your\\ 6th\\ grade\\ composition\\ test\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ who\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ any\\ sophistication\\,\\ or\\ even\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ calculated\\ \\'intent\\'\\ in\\ our\\ most\\ basic\\ of\\ essays\\?\\ We\\ can\\ train\\ a\\ monkey\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ five\\ paragraph\\ essay\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ we\\ tend\\ to\\ find\\ writing\\ that\\ is\\ effusive\\,\\ and\\ even\\ abstract\\,\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ effective\\ and\\ appealing\\.\\ Streams\\ of\\ consciousness\\,\\ poetry\\ that\\ defies\\ all\\ conventions\\ of\\ capitalization\\ and\\ punctuation\\,\\ multiple\\ perspective\\ narratives\\ and\\ modernism\\.\\ So\\ too\\ do\\ we\\ find\\ Beethoven\\'s\\ blurring\\ of\\ the\\ boundaries\\ appealing\\.\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ push\\ the\\ analogy\\ too\\ far\\,\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ seem\\ that\\ Beethoven\\ is\\ evolving\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ strict\\ form\\ into\\ a\\ more\\ sophisticated\\ construction\\ scheme\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ seven\\ separate\\ ideas\\,\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ continuous\\ stream\\ \\-\\ a\\ single\\ musical\\ narrative\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ the\\ form\\ isn\\'t\\ the\\ only\\ area\\ from\\ which\\ Beethoven\\ attempts\\ to\\ remove\\ boundaries\\.\\ Professor\\ Gallagher\\ offers\\ up\\ the\\ insight\\ of\\ the\\ \\affect\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ timelessness\\ in\\ Opus\\ 131\\'s\\ opening\\ contemplative\\ fugue\\ \\(track\\ back\\ to\\ Fugues\\ \\-\\ Lecture\\ 2\\!\\)\\.\\ To\\ Professor\\ Gallagher\\,\\ it\\ is\\ almost\\ as\\ if\\ time\\ moves\\ slower\\ during\\ the\\ entrance\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ lone\\ voice\\.\\ Composers\\ can\\ shape\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ perceive\\ time\\,\\ and\\ a\\ faster\\ tempo\\ can\\ quicken\\ the\\ passage\\ of\\ time\\.\\ Here\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ beat\\,\\ no\\ obviously\\ discernible\\ meter\\.\\ No\\ regular\\ intervals\\ of\\ time\\ \\-\\ and\\ when\\ zoom\\ out\\,\\ we\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ quartet\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ regular\\ intervals\\ of\\ separation\\.\\ Does\\ time\\ go\\ into\\ low\\ gear\\?\\ Does\\ time\\ cease\\ to\\ exist\\ completely\\ when\\ there\\ isn\\'t\\ a\\ beat\\?\\ Think\\ of\\ it\\ this\\ way\\:\\ run\\ a\\ fast\\ mile\\ and\\ get\\ your\\ heart\\ pumping\\,\\ \\ then\\ try\\ listening\\ to\\ a\\ song\\ that\\ you\\ initially\\ thought\\ had\\ a\\ fast\\ tempo\\,\\ and\\ you\\'ll\\ realize\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ seem\\ so\\ fast\\ anymore\\.\\ Or\\ take\\ this\\ clock\\ for\\ example\\:\\ if\\ the\\ hour\\ hand\\ moves\\ at\\ 1\\/2\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ a\\ standard\\ 12\\ hour\\ clock\\,\\ is\\ time\\ moving\\ slower\\?\\ No\\,\\ but\\ our\\ perception\\ of\\ time\\ may\\ change\\.\\\r\\\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>The\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ time\\ is\\ relative\\ to\\ what\\ Gallagher\\ refers\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\'attack\\ of\\ the\\ beat\\'\\.\\ A\\ sustained\\ release\\ leaves\\ us\\ feeling\\ as\\ if\\ time\\ is\\ drawn\\ out\\.\\ With\\ no\\ attacking\\ beat\\,\\ the\\ rhythm\\ of\\ time\\ is\\ slowed\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ pause\\,\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ basic\\ of\\ delineations\\ is\\ removed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ if\\ we\\ deduce\\ some\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ Opus\\ 131\\ actually\\ \\is\\<\\/em\\>\\ from\\ the\\ above\\ outlined\\ set\\ of\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\'isn\\'t\\<\\/span\\>\\'s\\,\\ we\\'d\\ have\\ some\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ Opus\\ 131\\ as\\ an\\ intentionally\\ amorphous\\ piece\\ of\\ music\\ that\\ forces\\ a\\ contemplation\\ of\\ traditional\\ boundaries\\.\\ But\\ why\\?\\ Why\\ open\\ a\\ piece\\ with\\ a\\ timeless\\,\\ contemplative\\ fugue\\.\\ Why\\ replace\\ the\\ traditional\\ lighthearted\\ ending\\ with\\ a\\ conclusion\\ that\\ Gallagher\\ identifies\\ as\\ \\\"not\\ only\\ not\\ light\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ heavy\\ one\\ that\\ challenges\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ the\\ \\[string\\ quartet\\'s\\]\\ range\\ and\\ ups\\ the\\ ante\\?\\\"\\ Why\\ up\\ the\\ ante\\ and\\ why\\ challenge\\ the\\ establishment\\?\\ Gallagher\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ ending\\ is\\ harshness\\ bordering\\ on\\ the\\ ugly\\.\\ Harsh\\ is\\ an\\ understatement\\ \\-\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ frenetic\\ explosion\\ of\\ a\\ movement\\,\\ that\\ provokes\\ its\\ listeners\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ the\\ instrumentalists\\ who\\ are\\ performing\\ it\\.\\ But\\ isn\\'t\\ it\\ beautiful\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ the\\ human\\ experience\\?\\ Gallagher\\ argues\\ that\\ perhaps\\ we\\ can\\ interpret\\ the\\ piece\\ as\\ a\\ blurring\\ of\\ the\\ internal\\ and\\ the\\ external\\,\\ a\\ \\'rethinking\\ of\\ the\\ beautiful\\'\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ take\\ my\\ humble\\ opinion\\,\\ the\\ piece\\ is\\ a\\ filmstrip\\ without\\ the\\ dividers\\ between\\ each\\ frame\\.\\ But\\ instead\\ of\\ leaving\\ us\\ with\\ 7\\ disjointed\\ images\\,\\ Beethoven\\ offers\\ us\\ a\\ panorama\\ where\\ the\\ ideas\\ and\\ actions\\ of\\ each\\ are\\ stitched\\ together\\.\\ And\\ as\\ we\\ progress\\,\\ we\\ can\\ move\\ seamlessly\\ into\\ the\\ next\\ image\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ one\\ masterfully\\ photographed\\ wide\\-angle\\ shot\\.\\ And\\ it\\ takes\\ the\\ subtlest\\ of\\ listeners\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ photo\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ shot\\ isn\\'t\\ one\\ simultaneous\\ photo\\ in\\ time\\,\\ but\\ flowing\\ as\\ a\\ forward\\ progression\\ with\\ a\\ direction\\ towards\\ the\\ future\\.\\ In\\ our\\ own\\ lives\\,\\ we\\ look\\ for\\ milestones\\;\\ those\\ delineations\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ idea\\.\\ Our\\ 18th\\ birthday\\,\\ our\\ 21st\\ and\\ that\\ first\\ legal\\ drink\\.\\ Our\\ 5oth\\,\\ and\\ our\\ 100th\\.\\ But\\ what\\ we\\ really\\ hope\\ to\\ see\\ is\\ reflections\\ on\\ life\\ as\\ one\\ blurred\\ timeless\\ panorama\\ in\\ our\\ memories\\,\\ with\\ only\\ the\\ subtlest\\ and\\ faintest\\ of\\ divisions\\.\\ It\\ is\\,\\ as\\ Gallagher\\ suggests\\,\\ a\\ rethinking\\ of\\ the\\ beautiful\\,\\ a\\ portrayal\\ of\\ the\\ harsh\\ but\\ beautiful\\ human\\ experience\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Until\\ next\\ time\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 71, "file_path": "", "desc": "Beethoven's Panorama - Lecture 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.280653+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Early Poems", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 371, "html": "\\\\Readings\\ \\(from\\ the\\ Penguin\\ Collection\\)\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\John\\ Donne\\'s\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Elegy\\ 6\\:\\ The\\ Perfume\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\Satire\\ 3\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Elegy\\ 10\\:\\ Love\\'s\\ War\\\r\\\\Elegy\\ 18\\:\\\r\\Love\\'s\\ Progress\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\ contrasts\\ the\\ two\\ masks\\ of\\ early\\ Donne\\ as\\ lover\\,\\ Jack\\,\\ and\\ as\\ philosopher\\,\\ John\\,\\ in\\ \\The\\ Perfume\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\Love\\'s\\ War\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\Love\\'s\\ Progress\\<\\/em\\>\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ in\\ his\\ philosophical\\ poem\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\ search\\ for\\ religion\\,\\ \\Satire\\ III\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ First\\,\\ the\\ love\\ poems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ \\The\\ Perfume\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ we\\ are\\ presented\\ with\\ a\\ sexually\\ impatient\\ and\\ melodramatic\\ Jack\\ who\\ is\\ carrying\\ on\\ a\\ secret\\ love\\ affair\\ with\\ the\\ rich\\ man\\'s\\ daughter\\ and\\ found\\ out\\ when\\ her\\ father\\ smells\\ his\\ perfume\\ on\\ his\\ daughter\\.\\ \\ Then\\ we\\ find\\ a\\ witty\\ Jack\\ in\\ \\Love\\'s\\ War\\<\\/em\\>\\ addressing\\ his\\ lover\\,\\ comparing\\ their\\ love\\ to\\ war\\,\\ and\\ finding\\ love\\'s\\ war\\ more\\ glorious\\ than\\ war\\ with\\ men\\.\\ \\ Finally\\ to\\ the\\ impatient\\ Jack\\ who\\ desires\\ to\\ shock\\ in\\ \\Love\\'s\\ Progress\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ ironically\\ titled\\,\\ which\\ is\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ proceed\\ in\\ making\\ love\\ to\\ a\\ woman\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\ is\\ \\Love\\'s\\ Progress\\<\\/em\\>\\ still\\ shocking\\ to\\ us\\ today\\?\\ \\ Not\\ in\\ its\\ subject\\,\\ about\\ which\\ there\\ are\\ now\\ abundant\\ competing\\ theories\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ candid\\ when\\ compared\\ to\\ another\\ love\\ poems\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ period\\,\\ such\\ as\\ to\\ Spenser\\'s\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ of\\ chaste\\ and\\ chivalric\\ love\\ in\\ \\The\\ Faerie\\ Queene\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ What\\ retains\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ shock\\ is\\ the\\ grotesque\\ image\\ of\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ line\\,\\ which\\ we\\ will\\ not\\ go\\ into\\ here\\,\\ and\\ whose\\ effect\\ is\\ so\\ jarring\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ leisurely\\ pace\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ languid\\ pace\\ of\\ Love\\'s\\ Progress\\ is\\ set\\ by\\ the\\ journey\\,\\ marked\\ by\\ delays\\,\\ down\\ a\\ women\\'s\\ body\\ that\\ constitutes\\ the\\ larger\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ from\\ around\\ line\\ 35\\ onwards\\.\\ \\ The\\ explorer\\ travels\\ down\\ the\\ separate\\ physical\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\ from\\ her\\ head\\ down\\ which\\ he\\ says\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"chase\\ Misspent\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 71\\-72\\)\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\\"How\\ much\\ they\\ err\\,\\ that\\ set\\ out\\ at\\ the\\ face\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 40\\)\\.\\ \\ \\\"Rather\\ set\\ out\\ below\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 73\\)\\,\\ from\\ the\\ feet\\ up\\,\\ the\\ \\\"empty\\ and\\ ethereal\\ way\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 89\\)\\ to\\ reach\\ the\\ \\\"lower\\ tribute\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 93\\)\\,\\ the\\ \\\"centric\\ part\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 36\\)\\,\\ the\\ \\\"desired\\ place\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 38\\)\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ delayed\\ by\\ \\\"beauty\\'s\\ elements\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 90\\)\\.\\ \\ While\\ Donne\\ tries\\ to\\ divorce\\ classical\\ allusions\\ to\\ his\\ poem\\,\\ I\\ am\\ reminded\\ of\\ Odysseus\\'s\\ epic\\ ten\\ year\\ sea\\ journey\\ back\\ home\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ had\\ to\\ escape\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ temptations\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"springes\\,\\ snares\\,\\ fetters\\ and\\ manacles\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 42\\)\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reach\\ his\\ destination\\,\\ including\\ \\\"sirens\\'\\ songs\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 55\\)\\ and\\ \\\"shipwrecks\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 44\\)\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ How\\ convincing\\ is\\ the\\ comparison\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ between\\ the\\ sexes\\ to\\ the\\ war\\ between\\ men\\ in\\ Love\\'s\\ War\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ two\\ lines\\ set\\ the\\ tone\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ her\\ prevents\\ him\\ from\\ leaving\\ her\\,\\ whether\\ they\\ are\\ at\\ peace\\ or\\ at\\ war\\:\\ \\ \\ \\\"Till\\ I\\ have\\ peace\\ with\\ thee\\,\\ war\\ other\\ men\\,\\ \\ \\ And\\ when\\ I\\ have\\ peace\\,\\ can\\ I\\ leave\\ thee\\ then\\?\\\"\\ \\ \\ He\\ then\\ proceeds\\ to\\ list\\ ongoing\\ wars\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ Europe\\ or\\ potential\\ enemies\\,\\ which\\ do\\ not\\ compare\\ with\\ staying\\ with\\ her\\:\\ \\ \\ \\\"Here\\ let\\ me\\ war\\;\\ in\\ these\\ arms\\ let\\ me\\ lie\\;\\ \\ \\ Here\\ let\\ me\\ parley\\,\\ batter\\,\\ bleed\\ and\\ die\\.\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 29\\-30\\)\\ \\ \\ From\\ there\\,\\ he\\ makes\\ various\\ favorably\\ comparisons\\ between\\ their\\ love\\'s\\ war\\ favorably\\ against\\ war\\ between\\ men\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ dedicated\\ in\\ their\\ fighting\\:\\ \\ \\ \\\"Other\\ men\\ war\\ that\\ they\\ their\\ rest\\ may\\ gain\\,\\ \\ \\ But\\ we\\ will\\ rest\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ fight\\ again\\.\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 33\\-34\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ witty\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ images\\ are\\ a\\ bit\\ clumsy\\:\\ \\ \\ \\\"There\\ engines\\ far\\ off\\ breed\\ a\\ just\\ true\\ fear\\,\\ \\ \\ Near\\ thrusts\\,\\ pikes\\,\\ stabs\\,\\ yea\\ bullets\\ hurt\\ not\\ here\\.\\\"\\ \\(lines\\ 38\\-39\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ Donne\\ knew\\ of\\ course\\,\\ that\\ love\\ could\\ hurt\\ but\\ could\\ not\\ help\\ straining\\ the\\ simile\\ between\\ love\\ and\\ war\\ in\\ those\\ lines\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ what\\ is\\ certain\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ ends\\ the\\ poems\\ just\\ as\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ staying\\ where\\ he\\ is\\,\\ with\\ his\\ lover\\,\\ and\\ in\\ persuading\\ her\\ to\\ make\\ love\\ with\\ him\\:\\ \\ \\ \\\"\\.\\.\\.and\\ shall\\ not\\ I\\ do\\ then\\ \\ \\ More\\ glorious\\ service\\,\\ and\\ staying\\ to\\ make\\ men\\?\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Perfume\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ much\\ do\\ you\\ sympathize\\ with\\ the\\ sexually\\ impatient\\ youth\\ in\\ \\The\\ Perfume\\<\\/em\\>\\?\\ \\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ fun\\ and\\ dramatic\\,\\ recounting\\ the\\ game\\ of\\ wits\\ between\\ the\\ young\\ lovers\\ and\\ his\\ lover\\'s\\ rich\\ parents\\,\\ who\\ will\\ disinherit\\ her\\ if\\ they\\ discovered\\ their\\ love\\ affair\\.\\ \\ The\\ figures\\ of\\ the\\ suspicious\\ parents\\ are\\ comically\\ exaggerated\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ \\\"hydroptic\\ father\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 6\\)\\ with\\ \\\"glazed\\ eyes\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 7\\)\\ and\\ the\\ mother\\ who\\ \\\"watch\\ thy\\ entries\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 16\\)\\ and\\ \\\"confess\\/The\\ sins\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ youth\\'s\\ rank\\ lustiness\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 23\\-24\\)\\ so\\ that\\ her\\ daughter\\ will\\ do\\ the\\ same\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ poem\\ is\\ vivid\\ too\\,\\ as\\ Donne\\ tries\\ to\\ capture\\ how\\ real\\ people\\ speak\\.\\ \\ He\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ love\\ a\\ secret\\ except\\ for\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ a\\ loud\\ perfume\\,\\ which\\ he\\ addresses\\ from\\ line\\ 53\\ \\\"Only\\,\\ thou\\ bitter\\ sweet\\.\\\"\\ \\ Professor\\ Teskey\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ obscure\\ addressing\\ of\\ the\\ perfume\\,\\ though\\ humorous\\,\\ showed\\ the\\ paradoxical\\ nature\\ of\\ his\\ thought\\,\\ and\\ that\\ difficulty\\ made\\ his\\ poetry\\ made\\ him\\ unpopular\\ for\\ two\\ hundred\\ years\\ before\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ read\\ again\\.\\ \\ For\\ more\\ information\\ on\\ this\\ point\\,\\ a\\ \\short\\ piece\\ by\\ T\\.S\\.\\ Eliot\\ on\\ Metaphysical\\ Poets\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ their\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ English\\ poetry\\ is\\ thought\\ provoking\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Satire\\ III\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ love\\ poems\\ come\\ \\Satire\\ III\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\ It\\ is\\ my\\ favorite\\ of\\ Donne\\'s\\ poems\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ for\\ its\\ attitude\\ in\\ the\\ search\\ for\\ truth\\ among\\ the\\ different\\ religions\\ then\\ available\\ among\\ the\\ European\\ countries\\.\\ \\ \\ In\\ particular\\,\\ Donne\\'s\\ celebrated\\ lines\\ on\\ truth\\ are\\ as\\ relevant\\ to\\ us\\ today\\ as\\ when\\ he\\ wrote\\ them\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ choice\\ between\\ Catholism\\,\\ Anglicanism\\,\\ and\\ Protestantism\\ etc\\.\\:\\\r\\\\\\.\\.\\.On\\ a\\ huge\\ hill\\,\\\r\\Cragged\\ and\\ steep\\,\\ Truth\\ stands\\,\\ and\\ he\\ that\\ will\\\r\\Reach\\ her\\,\\ about\\ must\\ and\\ about\\ must\\ go\\,\\\r\\And\\ what\\ the\\ hill\\'s\\ suddenness\\ resists\\,\\ win\\ so\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\As\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\ explained\\ in\\ reminiscence\\ of\\ Dante\\'s\\ mountain\\ of\\ \\Purgatory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ you\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ climb\\ the\\ hill\\ which\\ is\\ steep\\ up\\,\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ circle\\ around\\ it\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ tortuous\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ you\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ go\\ straight\\ towards\\ the\\ truth\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ truth\\.\\ \\ You\\ have\\ to\\ imagine\\ what\\ the\\ errors\\ are\\,\\ of\\ yourself\\ and\\ others\\.\\ \\ To\\ pursue\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ rigorous\\,\\ tolerant\\ of\\ error\\,\\ and\\ use\\ error\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ truth\\.\\ \\ These\\ lines\\ are\\ followed\\ by\\ Donne\\ in\\ this\\ life\\ too\\,\\ in\\ his\\ eventual\\ conversion\\ to\\ Anglicanism\\.\\ \\ \\ This\\ tolerance\\ can\\ be\\ respected\\,\\ as\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ integrity\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 72, "file_path": "", "desc": "Early Poems"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.293978+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Donne - Songs and Sonnets", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 372, "html": "\\At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Renaissance\\,\\ sonnets\\ were\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ sexual\\ and\\ risqu\\&\\#233\\;\\,\\ as\\ those\\ of\\ classical\\ antiquity\\ such\\ as\\ Ovid\\'s\\.\\ However\\,\\ Donne\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ love\\ songs\\ and\\ sonnets\\ which\\ were\\ explored\\ in\\ this\\ class\\,\\ are\\ in\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ art\\ higher\\ than\\ the\\ early\\ love\\ poems\\ which\\ we\\ read\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ class\\.\\ They\\ contain\\ intense\\ reflections\\ of\\ a\\ brilliant\\ and\\ passionate\\ intelligence\\ on\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ love\\,\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ spirit\\,\\ and\\ the\\ youthful\\ desire\\ to\\ shock\\ is\\ considerably\\ less\\.\\ \\ The\\ experience\\ of\\ hearing\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\ read\\ these\\ poems\\ is\\ a\\ pleasure\\ that\\ lingers\\ after\\ the\\ bells\\ ring\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ class\\.\\ Air\\ and\\ Angels\\ The\\ first\\ thing\\ that\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\ says\\ about\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ meditated\\ on\\ this\\ poem\\ for\\ some\\ years\\ and\\ its\\ still\\ not\\ sure\\ that\\ he\\ understands\\ it\\ completely\\.\\ Despite\\ this\\,\\ the\\ professor\\ proceeded\\ to\\ illuminate\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ imaginative\\ and\\ moving\\ love\\ poems\\ in\\ the\\ English\\ language\\.\\ Some\\ background\\ first\\.\\ The\\ Renaissance\\ had\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ poetry\\ as\\ persuasion\\.\\ Milton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ poetry\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ uses\\ much\\ more\\ rhetoric\\ than\\ Donne\\ for\\ persuasion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ Donne\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ poems\\ are\\ like\\ riddles\\,\\ meant\\ to\\ involve\\ the\\ reader\\ in\\ a\\ careful\\ reading\\ and\\ to\\ wrestle\\ with\\ it\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ meaning\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ process\\,\\ persuade\\ us\\ of\\ its\\ truth\\.\\ \\ The\\ elements\\ of\\ complexity\\ and\\ textuality\\ in\\ Donne\\'s\\ poetry\\ have\\ literary\\ historical\\ importance\\,\\ and\\ has\\ influenced\\ our\\ modern\\ idea\\ of\\ literature\\ and\\ its\\ interpretation\\.\\ Yet\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ not\\ dry\\ at\\ all\\,\\ providing\\ rich\\ intellectual\\ pleasure\\ upon\\ reading\\ and\\ rereading\\.Air\\ and\\ Angels\\ has\\ an\\ ending\\ with\\ a\\ sting\\:\\&\\#8220\\;Just\\ such\\ disparityAs\\ is\\ \\&\\#8216\\;twixt\\ air\\ and\\ angels\\&\\#8217\\;\\ purity\\,\\'Twixt\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ love\\,\\ and\\ men\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ will\\ ever\\ be\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Air\\ is\\ the\\ purest\\ element\\,\\ but\\ an\\ angel\\ is\\ even\\ purer\\.\\ Thus\\ although\\ a\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ love\\ is\\ purer\\,\\ men\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ love\\ is\\ even\\ purer\\.\\ This\\ conclusion\\ divides\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ Donne\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ readers\\ were\\ mostly\\ women\\ and\\ the\\ witty\\ Donne\\ anticipates\\ their\\ likely\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ namely\\ immediate\\ contradiction\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ fun\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ like\\ to\\ be\\ shocked\\ by\\ Donne\\.\\ To\\ fully\\ understand\\ these\\ lines\\,\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\ told\\ us\\ some\\ biblical\\ hermeneutics\\.\\ Medieval\\ theologians\\ asked\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ how\\ angels\\ can\\ be\\ visible\\ to\\ humans\\.\\ Their\\ answer\\ was\\ that\\ angels\\ wear\\ compressed\\ air\\,\\ which\\ they\\ use\\ to\\ appear\\ to\\ humans\\.\\ Donne\\ takes\\ this\\ idea\\ to\\ build\\ a\\ love\\ poem\\,\\ working\\ out\\ to\\ his\\ poetical\\ satisfaction\\ to\\ problem\\ of\\ love\\ as\\ a\\ physical\\ and\\ non\\-physical\\ experience\\.\\ In\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ view\\,\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ this\\ answer\\ did\\ not\\ provide\\ Donne\\ with\\ complete\\ intellectual\\ satisfaction\\,\\ as\\ we\\ cannot\\ quite\\ untangle\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ spiritual\\ and\\ physical\\ love\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ tension\\ in\\ relationships\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ and\\ the\\ difficulties\\ between\\ them\\ arise\\ from\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ them\\,\\ which\\ were\\ suppressed\\ in\\ his\\ day\\,\\ and\\ continue\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ ours\\.\\ Donne\\ tries\\ to\\ bring\\ out\\ what\\ was\\ repressed\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ begins\\ what\\ loving\\ her\\ is\\ like\\ before\\ he\\ knew\\ her\\.\\ He\\ is\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\ spiritually\\ but\\ can\\ see\\ nothing\\ but\\ an\\ aura\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Still\\ when\\,\\ to\\ where\\ thou\\ wert\\,\\ I\\ came\\,\\ Some\\ lovely\\ glorious\\ nothing\\ I\\ did\\ see\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(lines\\ 5\\-6\\)\\.\\ \\ In\\ lines\\ 7\\-10\\:\\&\\#8220\\;But\\ since\\ my\\ soul\\,\\ whose\\ child\\ love\\ is\\,\\ Takes\\ limbs\\ of\\ flesh\\,\\ and\\ else\\ could\\ nothing\\ do\\,More\\ subtle\\ than\\ the\\ parent\\ isLove\\ must\\ not\\ be\\,\\ but\\ take\\ a\\ body\\ too\\&\\#8221\\;\\ His\\ soul\\ takes\\ physical\\ form\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ love\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ child\\,\\ because\\ is\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ his\\ parents\\&\\#8217\\;\\ love\\.\\ Unlike\\ some\\ Christians\\ who\\ think\\ that\\ a\\ body\\ is\\ inferior\\ to\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ Donne\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ soul\\ cannot\\ do\\ anything\\ without\\ a\\ body\\,\\ and\\ he\\ also\\ says\\ this\\ in\\ his\\ sermons\\ after\\ he\\ became\\ an\\ Anglican\\ preacher\\.\\ Bodily\\ possession\\ by\\ lovers\\ is\\ also\\ alluded\\ to\\.The\\ second\\ stanza\\ begins\\ with\\ an\\ obscure\\ image\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Whilst\\ thus\\ to\\ ballast\\ love\\,\\ I\\ thought\\,\\ And\\ so\\ more\\ steadily\\ to\\ have\\ gone\\,\\ With\\ wares\\ which\\ would\\ sink\\ admiration\\,\\ I\\ saw\\,\\ I\\ had\\ love\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ pinnace\\ overfraught\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ pinnace\\,\\ and\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ her\\ is\\ the\\ ballast\\ whose\\ weight\\ keeps\\ it\\ steady\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ pinnace\\ arrives\\ at\\ the\\ destination\\,\\ the\\ ballast\\ is\\ offloaded\\ and\\ precious\\ \\&\\#8220\\;wares\\&\\#8221\\;\\ are\\ put\\ on\\ board\\,\\ which\\ would\\ overwhelm\\ mere\\ admiration\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ love\\.\\ Nonetheless\\,\\ now\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ found\\ her\\,\\ he\\ is\\ overwhelmed\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Thy\\ every\\ hair\\ to\\ work\\ uponIs\\ much\\ too\\ much\\,\\ some\\ fitter\\ must\\ be\\ sought\\;For\\,\\ nor\\ in\\ nothing\\,\\ nor\\ in\\ thingsExtreme\\,\\ and\\ scatt\\&\\#8217\\;ring\\ bright\\,\\ can\\ love\\ inhere\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(lines\\ 19\\-22\\)\\ At\\ first\\,\\ his\\ spiritual\\ love\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ its\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\,\\ but\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ drowning\\ in\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\.\\ Even\\ one\\ of\\ her\\ hairs\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;much\\ too\\ much\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ Thus\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ love\\ someone\\ only\\ spiritually\\ or\\ just\\ physically\\,\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ real\\ communion\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Then\\ as\\ an\\ angel\\,\\ face\\ and\\ wings\\,Of\\ air\\,\\ not\\ pure\\ as\\ it\\,\\ yet\\ pure\\ doth\\ wear\\,So\\ thy\\ love\\ may\\ be\\ my\\ love\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ sphere\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(lines\\ 23\\-25\\)\\ Love\\ must\\ therefore\\ be\\ a\\ compound\\,\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ angel\\ wearing\\ air\\.\\ In\\ this\\ final\\ beautiful\\ image\\,\\ Donne\\ then\\ takes\\ Renaissance\\ idea\\ of\\ intelligence\\ causing\\ motion\\ \\(this\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\ three\\ quarters\\ of\\ a\\ century\\ before\\ Newton\\)\\,\\ and\\ of\\ a\\ universe\\ with\\ planets\\ of\\ crystal\\ spheres\\ created\\ by\\ God\\,\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ turned\\ by\\ an\\ angelic\\ mind\\,\\ whirling\\ and\\ producing\\ celestial\\ music\\.\\ In\\ such\\ a\\ universe\\,\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ angel\\ and\\ her\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ whirling\\ crystal\\ sphere\\.\\ They\\ are\\ whirling\\ together\\ but\\ that\\ means\\ there\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ them\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ As\\ women\\ will\\ invariably\\ contradict\\ this\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ wonderfully\\ symmetrical\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ Donne\\ contemplated\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ of\\ who\\ gets\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ air\\ and\\ who\\ the\\ angel\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ unsolved\\ and\\ this\\ reflects\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ relations\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ Blossom\\ \\ This\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ love\\ poems\\ he\\ wrote\\ to\\ married\\ women\\ \\(see\\ line\\ 12\\ on\\ a\\ \\\"forbidden\\ or\\ forbidding\\ tree\\\"\\)\\.\\ \\ Many\\ of\\ his\\ patrons\\ were\\ wealthy\\ ladies\\ and\\ Donne\\ would\\ supplement\\ his\\ income\\ by\\ pretending\\ to\\ love\\ them\\ in\\ such\\ poems\\.\\ \\ \\ In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ who\\ is\\ frustrated\\ in\\ his\\ love\\ is\\ planning\\ a\\ trip\\ to\\ London\\ and\\ is\\ thinking\\ of\\ whether\\ to\\ leave\\ his\\ heart\\ here\\ to\\ nestle\\ to\\ the\\ blossom\\ of\\ love\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ dramatic\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ complicated\\ at\\ times\\,\\ as\\ his\\ heart\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ him\\ have\\ a\\ dialogue\\,\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ himself\\.\\ \\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ lines\\ 25\\-32\\,\\ he\\ addresses\\ his\\ heart\\:\\ \\\"Well\\ then\\,\\ stay\\ here\\;\\ but\\ know\\,When\\ thou\\ hast\\ stayed\\ and\\ done\\ thy\\ most\\;A\\ naked\\ thinking\\ heart\\,\\ that\\ makes\\ no\\ show\\,Is\\ to\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ but\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ ghost\\;How\\ shall\\ she\\ know\\ my\\ heart\\;\\ or\\ having\\ none\\,Know\\ thee\\ for\\ one\\?Practice\\ may\\ make\\ her\\ know\\ some\\ other\\ part\\,But\\ take\\ my\\ word\\,\\ she\\ doth\\ not\\ know\\ a\\ heart\\.\\\"\\ \\ While\\ the\\ heart\\ wants\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ the\\ beloved\\ and\\ float\\ around\\ her\\,\\ his\\ mind\\ thinks\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ hopeless\\ idea\\ as\\ she\\ would\\ never\\ know\\,\\ especially\\ as\\ she\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ heart\\.\\ \\ \\ She\\ is\\ married\\,\\ and\\ is\\ having\\ practice\\ with\\ another\\ part\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ but\\ neither\\ of\\ them\\ have\\ a\\ heart\\.\\ \\ The\\ poem\\ ends\\ by\\ him\\ exclaiming\\:\\ \\\"For\\ God\\'s\\ sake\\,\\ if\\ you\\ can\\,\\ be\\ you\\ so\\ too\\:I\\ would\\ give\\ youThere\\,\\ to\\ another\\ friend\\,\\ whom\\ we\\ shall\\ findAs\\ glad\\ to\\ have\\ my\\ body\\,\\ as\\ my\\ mind\\.\\\"\\ In\\ the\\ previous\\ lines\\,\\ he\\ imagines\\ that\\ being\\ with\\ male\\ friends\\ will\\ make\\ him\\,\\ \\\"fresher\\,\\ and\\ more\\ fat\\\"\\ \\(line\\ 35\\)\\.\\ \\ He\\ has\\ become\\ thin\\ through\\ pining\\ for\\ her\\.\\ \\ He\\ wishes\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ his\\ heart\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\ who\\ would\\ accept\\ his\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\.\\ However\\,\\ his\\ frustrated\\ exclamation\\ \\\"For\\ God\\'s\\ sake\\\"\\ shows\\ how\\ likely\\ his\\ incalcitrant\\ heart\\ would\\ reply\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ Relic\\ \\ This\\ is\\ another\\ poem\\ to\\ a\\ married\\ woman\\.\\ \\ Donne\\ imagines\\ the\\ strangest\\ date\\ ever\\ conceived\\,\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ reunion\\ of\\ lovers\\ at\\ the\\ Last\\ Judgement\\,\\ where\\ the\\ lady\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ her\\ lover\\ by\\ the\\ braid\\ of\\ bright\\ hair\\ which\\ he\\ will\\ wear\\ underneath\\ his\\ clothes\\:\\\"A\\ bracelet\\ of\\ bright\\ hair\\ about\\ the\\ bone\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Will\\ he\\ not\\ let\\ us\\ alone\\,And\\ think\\ that\\ there\\ a\\ loving\\ couple\\ lies\\,Who\\ thought\\ that\\ this\\ device\\ might\\ be\\ some\\ wayTo\\ make\\ their\\ souls\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ busy\\ dayMeet\\ at\\ this\\ grave\\,\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ little\\ stay\\?\\\"\\ \\ Apart\\ from\\ the\\ strange\\ date\\ imagined\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ time\\,\\ Professor\\ Teskey\\ drew\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ exquisite\\ rhythm\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ with\\ enjambment\\ and\\ a\\ syncopated\\ rhythm\\ that\\ reminds\\ him\\ of\\ digging\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 72, "file_path": "", "desc": "Donne - Songs and Sonnets"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.439680+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 4 (2/12/08)- Evolution", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 380, "html": "\\I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ introduce\\ the\\ second\\ law\\ of\\ thermodynamics\\ here\\ just\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ evolution\\ in\\ explaining\\ life\\.\\ I\\ would\\ recommend\\ reading\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ Tooby\\'s\\ Primer\\ of\\ Evolutionary\\ Psychology\\ to\\ really\\ understand\\ the\\ connection\\ of\\ evolution\\ and\\ psychology\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Primer\\ of\\ Evolutionary\\ Psychology\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ second\\ law\\ of\\ thermodynamics\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ law\\ of\\ psychology\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ evolution\\ through\\ natural\\ selection\\ plays\\ in\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ psychology\\,\\ it\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ entropy\\,\\ complex\\,\\ functional\\ design\\,\\ and\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ adaptation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ law\\ of\\ thermodynamics\\ states\\ that\\ in\\ any\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ system\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ disorder\\ \\(entropy\\)\\ increases\\ through\\ time\\.\\ We\\ all\\ conceptually\\ understand\\ this\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ following\\ intuitions\\:\\ a\\ drinking\\ glass\\ can\\ fall\\ and\\ break\\,\\ but\\ pieces\\ of\\ glass\\ would\\ never\\ spontaneously\\ put\\ themselves\\ together\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ glass\\;\\ your\\ room\\ will\\ get\\ messy\\,\\ but\\ would\\ never\\ spontaneously\\ clean\\ itself\\;\\ a\\ deck\\ of\\ cards\\ in\\ order\\ will\\ become\\ more\\ disordered\\ through\\ shuffling\\,\\ but\\ would\\ not\\ likely\\ line\\ all\\ the\\ cards\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ they\\ were\\ bought\\ through\\ shuffling\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ increase\\ order\\ in\\ a\\ physical\\ system\\ is\\ to\\ put\\ energy\\ into\\ that\\ system\\ from\\ outside\\,\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ glass\\,\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ a\\ glassblower\\,\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ your\\ room\\ you\\ put\\ in\\ the\\ energy\\ to\\ organize\\ it\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ a\\ deck\\ of\\ cards\\ this\\ would\\ happen\\ if\\ you\\ sat\\ down\\ and\\ sorted\\ them\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ life\\ this\\ energy\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ sun\\;\\ plants\\ use\\ the\\ energy\\ in\\ sunlight\\ to\\ run\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ photosynthesis\\,\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ essentially\\ running\\ chemical\\ reactions\\ \\&\\#8220\\;uphill\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ We\\ then\\ eat\\ the\\ plants\\ \\(or\\ eat\\ other\\ animals\\ that\\ ate\\ the\\ plants\\)\\ and\\ use\\ the\\ energy\\ of\\ running\\ the\\ reactions\\ back\\ \\&\\#8220\\;downhill\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ order\\-making\\ work\\ \\(reversing\\ entropy\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Complexity\\ can\\ naturally\\ arise\\ in\\ physical\\ systems\\,\\ but\\ not\\ functionally\\ organized\\ complexity\\,\\ and\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ addresses\\ this\\ issue\\ in\\ \\How\\ the\\ Mind\\ Works\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ There\\ are\\ only\\ two\\ processes\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ of\\ that\\ can\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ \\functional\\ organized\\ complexity\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ human\\ engineering\\ \\(as\\ in\\ the\\ above\\ examples\\)\\ and\\ evolution\\ through\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ was\\ obviously\\ not\\ built\\ by\\ humans\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ functionally\\ complex\\ entity\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ of\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ \\(this\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ not\\ considering\\ the\\ creationist\\ argument\\,\\ which\\ science\\ rejects\\ outright\\ as\\ an\\ explanation\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ falsifiable\\)\\.\\ This\\ organized\\ complexity\\ is\\ what\\ \\Paley\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Problem\\<\\/em\\>\\ refers\\ to\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\William\\ Paley\\ was\\ a\\ theological\\ philosopher\\ before\\ Darwin\\ when\\ the\\ only\\ satisfying\\ argument\\ for\\ functional\\ complexity\\ was\\ human\\ engineering\\.\\ He\\ essentially\\ locked\\ onto\\ this\\ idea\\ of\\ functional\\ complexity\\ apparently\\ violating\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ entropy\\ and\\ used\\ the\\ functional\\ complexity\\ apparent\\ in\\ life\\ to\\ argue\\ for\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ God\\ \\(the\\ engineer\\)\\.\\ His\\ problem\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ imagine\\ that\\ you\\ stumble\\ upon\\ a\\ rock\\ in\\ the\\ forest\\,\\ this\\ rock\\ requires\\ no\\ special\\ explanation\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ easily\\ explained\\ by\\ natural\\ processes\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ violate\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ entropy\\;\\ now\\ imagine\\ that\\ you\\ find\\ a\\ watch\\,\\ this\\ watch\\ does\\ require\\ a\\ special\\ explanation\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ functional\\ complexity\\ that\\ appears\\ to\\ violate\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ entropy\\,\\ this\\ explanation\\ would\\ be\\ that\\ a\\ human\\ engineer\\ created\\ the\\ watch\\.\\ Paley\\ then\\ extrapolated\\ this\\ reasoning\\ to\\ functionally\\ complex\\ organs\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ eye\\ and\\ said\\ it\\ apparently\\ violates\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ entropy\\ with\\ its\\ functional\\ complexity\\ like\\ the\\ watch\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ there\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ designer\\,\\ and\\ that\\ designer\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ God\\.\\ Since\\ Darwin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ time\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ alternative\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ functional\\ complexity\\ in\\ organisms\\&\\#8212\\;this\\ explanation\\ is\\ \\natural\\ selection\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ physical\\ process\\ that\\ can\\ create\\ functional\\ complexity\\ \\(this\\ is\\ still\\ the\\ crux\\ of\\ the\\ evolution\\/intelligent\\ design\\ debate\\ today\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Natural\\ selection\\ creates\\ functional\\ complexity\\ through\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ \\adaptation\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Natural\\ selection\\ gives\\ things\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ having\\ been\\ engineered\\ for\\ a\\ purpose\\,\\ and\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\ it\\ does\\ \\&\\#8220\\;engineer\\&\\#8221\\;\\ things\\,\\ although\\ I\\ use\\ this\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ loose\\ analogy\\ because\\ nothing\\ is\\ consciously\\ thinking\\ through\\ evolution\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ designs\\,\\ and\\ nothing\\ is\\ designed\\ for\\ a\\ specific\\ purpose\\;\\ rather\\,\\ organisms\\ which\\ have\\ better\\ designs\\ out\\-reproduce\\ their\\ competitors\\,\\ giving\\ their\\ genes\\ a\\ larger\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ generation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ processes\\ that\\ create\\ organized\\ functional\\ complexity\\:\\ human\\ engineering\\ and\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ but\\ our\\ brains\\ only\\ have\\ good\\ intuition\\ about\\ engineering\\,\\ and\\ you\\ will\\ notice\\ that\\ biologists\\ use\\ the\\ vocabulary\\ of\\ engineering\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ evolution\\.\\ This\\ language\\ is\\ metaphorical\\ and\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ more\\ intuitional\\ understanding\\ of\\ evolution\\,\\ and\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ mistaken\\ as\\ literal\\.\\ Using\\ terms\\ of\\ intentional\\ design\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"design\\,\\\"\\ \\\"create\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"engineer\\\"\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\ anyone\\ believes\\ there\\ is\\ intentionality\\ involved\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ following\\ links\\ discuss\\ the\\ second\\ law\\ of\\ thermodynamics\\:\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Second\\_law\\_of\\_thermodynamics\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Entropy\\_and\\_life\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\This\\ is\\ a\\ link\\ to\\ my\\ favorite\\ article\\ ever\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ this\\ section\\.\\ This\\ article\\ is\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ book\\ attacking\\ evolutionary\\ psychology\\,\\ so\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ irrelevant\\ and\\ it\\ gets\\ good\\ on\\ page\\ 861\\ under\\ the\\ heading\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Organisms\\ as\\ seen\\ through\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ physicist\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ 3\\ pages\\ of\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ I\\ highly\\ recommend\\ it\\ as\\ it\\ gives\\ immense\\ insight\\ into\\ organisms\\ and\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ evolution\\ in\\ psychology\\:\\\r\\\\The\\ second\\ law\\ of\\ thermodynamics\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ law\\ of\\ psychology\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Evolutionary\\ evidence\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\Evolution\\ counters\\ creationist\\/intelligent\\ design\\ arguments\\ with\\ a\\ mountain\\ of\\ evidence\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ introduces\\ evidence\\ from\\ many\\ areas\\ for\\ evolution\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ creationism\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ The\\ \\fossil\\ record\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ including\\ extinct\\ animals\\ and\\ transitional\\ forms\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Embryology\\ and\\ development\\<\\/em\\>\\ show\\ many\\ \\vestigial\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(left\\ over\\ from\\ an\\ ancestor\\ like\\ the\\ appendix\\)\\ forms\\,\\ organs\\,\\ and\\ behaviors\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Biogeography\\<\\/em\\>\\ shows\\ continuities\\ and\\ discontinuities\\ that\\ are\\ strong\\ evidence\\ for\\ evolution\\ \\(such\\ as\\ Darwin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ finches\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Homologies\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ designs\\ inherited\\ from\\ a\\ shared\\ ancestor\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ hand\\,\\ the\\ bat\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ wing\\,\\ and\\ the\\ whale\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fin\\ all\\ have\\ 5\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fingers\\&\\#8221\\;\\ because\\ they\\ share\\ a\\ common\\ mammalian\\ ancestor\\ even\\ though\\ these\\ structures\\ serve\\ very\\ different\\ purposes\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Bad\\ design\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(engineering\\-wise\\)\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;panda\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ thumb\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ our\\ poorly\\ shaped\\ spines\\,\\ and\\ seminal\\ ducts\\ wrapping\\ around\\ the\\ ureter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ Effectiveness\\ of\\ \\artificial\\ selection\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ selective\\ breeding\\)\\:\\ all\\ dogs\\ came\\ from\\ one\\ wolf\\ species\\,\\ all\\ corn\\ has\\ been\\ created\\ from\\ grasses\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ extensively\\ in\\ laboratory\\ experiments\\ as\\ well\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Evidence\\ for\\ evolution\\ of\\ behavior\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\There\\ is\\ likewise\\ extremely\\ strong\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ brain\\ and\\ behavior\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Fossil\\ record\\ \\<\\/em\\>shows\\ striking\\ similarities\\ and\\ continuities\\ with\\ the\\ great\\ apes\\ \\(chimpanzees\\,\\ homo\\ erectus\\,\\ the\\ australopithecines\\,\\ gorillas\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Development\\<\\/em\\>\\ shows\\ striking\\ continuities\\.\\ The\\ grasping\\ reflexes\\ of\\ infants\\ are\\ a\\ vestigial\\,\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fossil\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ behavior\\ of\\ monkeys\\ needing\\ to\\ grasp\\ their\\ parents\\&\\#8217\\;\\ fur\\ to\\ travel\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ developing\\ embryos\\ have\\ gill\\ slits\\ early\\ on\\ \\(very\\ early\\ on\\)\\ that\\ then\\ disappear\\ because\\ we\\ no\\ longer\\ use\\ gills\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Biogeography\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ many\\ of\\ Darwin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ predictions\\ from\\ evolution\\ have\\ been\\ verified\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ humans\\ evolved\\ in\\ Africa\\ \\(which\\ he\\ predicted\\ based\\ on\\ chimpanzee\\ location\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Homologies\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ neural\\ structure\\ are\\ striking\\ \\(it\\ is\\ primarily\\ the\\ frontal\\ cortex\\ which\\ is\\ new\\)\\,\\ both\\ in\\ form\\ and\\ in\\ what\\ each\\ part\\ does\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Vestigial\\ behavioral\\ characters\\<\\/em\\>\\ such\\ as\\ goose\\ bumps\\,\\ which\\ are\\ there\\ because\\ if\\ we\\ had\\ more\\ hair\\ \\(like\\ our\\ ancestors\\)\\ the\\ goose\\ bumps\\ would\\ perk\\ up\\ the\\ fur\\ as\\ an\\ insulation\\ mechanism\\ \\(when\\ cold\\)\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ increase\\ appearance\\ of\\ size\\ \\(like\\ the\\ hair\\ standing\\ up\\ on\\ a\\ cat\\ with\\ fear\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Artificial\\ Selection\\ of\\ behavior\\<\\/em\\>\\ such\\ as\\ maze\\-running\\ in\\ rats\\ \\(where\\ maze\\-bright\\ and\\ a\\ maze\\ dull\\ rats\\ were\\ bred\\)\\,\\ or\\ the\\ docility\\ of\\ domesticated\\ animals\\ \\(why\\ a\\ wolf\\ would\\ growl\\ at\\ you\\,\\ but\\ a\\ dog\\ just\\ comes\\ up\\ and\\ wags\\ its\\ tail\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ humans\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Behavior\\ has\\ been\\ called\\ the\\ Extended\\ Phenotype\\ by\\ Richard\\ Dawkins\\ and\\ this\\ idea\\ is\\ developed\\ in\\ his\\ book\\,\\ \\The\\ Extended\\ Phenotype\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ short\\ summary\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Extended\\_phenotype\\\r\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/iframe\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ Darwin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ Natural\\ Selection\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ Paley\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ problem\\ accepted\\ today\\ \\(by\\ scientists\\ but\\ not\\ creationists\\ or\\ intelligent\\ design\\ adherents\\)\\.\\\r\\Components\\ of\\ the\\ theory\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Replicators\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(in\\ our\\ case\\ these\\ are\\ genes\\ encoded\\ in\\ our\\ DNA\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ Competition\\ for\\ resources\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ Copying\\ errors\\ \\(genetic\\ mutations\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ Differential\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ The\\ above\\ conditions\\ create\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ design\\ or\\ functional\\ complexity\\ \\(this\\ is\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;adaptedness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;adaptation\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ biology\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Here\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ video\\ by\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ giants\\ in\\ evolutionary\\ biology\\,\\ John\\ Maynard\\ Smith\\,\\ explaining\\ the\\ details\\,\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ part\\ 1\\ of\\ 6\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ youtube\\:\\ \\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>Here\\ is\\ a\\ link\\ to\\ \\a\\ great\\ site\\ that\\ goes\\ into\\ natural\\ selection\\ in\\ depth\\,\\ but\\ has\\ good\\ summaries\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ Common\\ Misconceptions\\ about\\ evolution\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\Before\\ I\\ list\\ these\\ I\\ just\\ want\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ that\\ our\\ intuitions\\ are\\ often\\ very\\ poor\\ guides\\ to\\ how\\ scientific\\ models\\ and\\ explanations\\ \\&\\#8220\\;should\\&\\#8221\\;\\ work\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ many\\ people\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ evolution\\ has\\ not\\ had\\ enough\\ time\\ to\\ create\\ what\\ is\\ observed\\ \\(this\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ intelligent\\ design\\ argument\\)\\,\\ and\\ this\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ complete\\ lack\\ of\\ intuition\\ about\\ geological\\ time\\ \\(time\\ on\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ millions\\-billions\\ of\\ years\\)\\.\\ This\\ mismatch\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ show\\ in\\ a\\ quick\\ thought\\ experiment\\,\\ think\\ of\\ 3000\\ years\\ ago\\;\\ now\\ think\\ of\\ one\\ million\\ years\\ ago\\;\\ and\\ now\\ of\\ one\\ billion\\.\\ You\\ may\\ notice\\ that\\ although\\ you\\ can\\ conceptualize\\ these\\ numbers\\,\\ they\\ all\\ subjectively\\ \\&\\#8220\\;feel\\&\\#8221\\;\\ about\\ the\\ same\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ we\\ conceptualize\\ them\\ all\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ really\\ long\\ time\\ ago\\&\\#8221\\;\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ by\\ multiple\\ orders\\ of\\ magnitude\\.\\ Even\\ professional\\ biologists\\ often\\ make\\ mistakes\\ when\\ their\\ intuitions\\ mislead\\ them\\ into\\ fallacious\\ thinking\\ about\\ evolution\\.\\ The\\ misconceptions\\ listed\\ below\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ necessarily\\ related\\ to\\ this\\,\\ but\\ I\\ want\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ consciously\\ aware\\ of\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Evolution\\ \\=\\ natural\\ selection\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ factors\\ in\\ evolution\\ than\\ just\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ Evolution\\ merely\\ means\\ \\\"change\\ through\\ time\\\"\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ even\\ limited\\ just\\ to\\ organisms\\,\\ stars\\ and\\ mountains\\ also\\ evolve\\,\\ but\\ neither\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ The\\ most\\ common\\ process\\ other\\ than\\ natural\\ selection\\ in\\ organismic\\ evolution\\ is\\ \\genetic\\ drift\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ just\\ basically\\ means\\ chance\\ is\\ involved\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ gives\\ the\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ 6\\ people\\ on\\ an\\ island\\,\\ 3\\ of\\ whom\\ are\\ brunettes\\,\\ if\\ these\\ three\\ get\\ struck\\ by\\ lightning\\ out\\ of\\ sheer\\ dumb\\ luck\\,\\ the\\ population\\ would\\ evolve\\ to\\ no\\ longer\\ have\\ brown\\ hair\\ for\\ no\\ reason\\ other\\ than\\ chance\\.\\ Genetic\\ drift\\ is\\ strongest\\ in\\ small\\ \\(founder\\)\\ populations\\.\\ \\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ introduces\\ Lamarckism\\ here\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ predecessor\\ to\\ Darwinism\\ as\\ an\\ explanation\\ of\\ evolution\\ and\\ is\\ very\\ intuitively\\ appealing\\ \\(as\\ discussed\\ above\\)\\,\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ valid\\ explanation\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ change\\,\\ nor\\ could\\ it\\ be\\ in\\ principle\\.\\ Its\\ two\\ core\\ tenets\\ were\\ \\inheritance\\ of\\ acquired\\ characteristics\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ the\\ \\use\\/disuse\\ principle\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ have\\ not\\ just\\ been\\ empirically\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ false\\,\\ but\\ have\\ actually\\ been\\ demonstrated\\ to\\ be\\ logically\\ impossible\\ as\\ generators\\ of\\ complex\\ functional\\ design\\.\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Lamarckism\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Natural\\ selection\\ is\\ a\\ \\tautological\\ \\<\\/em\\>argument\\ \\(a\\.k\\.a\\.\\ circular\\ argument\\)\\ and\\ is\\ thus\\ an\\ invalid\\ argument\\.\\ The\\ primary\\ paradox\\ here\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ statement\\ \\&\\#8220\\;survival\\ of\\ the\\ fittest\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ where\\ biologists\\ have\\ defined\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fittest\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ mean\\ those\\ who\\ survive\\,\\ so\\ essentially\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ circular\\ argument\\ saying\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ those\\ that\\ survive\\ \\(which\\ would\\ be\\ invalid\\ if\\ taken\\ at\\ face\\ value\\)\\.\\ This\\ paradox\\ is\\ resolved\\ however\\ through\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ inheritance\\.\\ Essentially\\ it\\ comes\\ down\\ to\\ causation\\ and\\ time\\.\\ If\\ A\\ causes\\ B\\,\\ then\\ A\\ must\\ have\\ preceded\\ B\\ in\\ time\\,\\ so\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ eyes\\ are\\ there\\ to\\ help\\ organisms\\ see\\,\\ sounds\\ like\\ positing\\ a\\ cause\\ after\\ the\\ effect\\,\\ which\\ is\\ impossible\\.\\ This\\ is\\ resolved\\ however\\ by\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\inheritance\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ if\\ eyes\\ help\\ organisms\\ see\\,\\ they\\ will\\ have\\ more\\ offspring\\,\\ who\\ will\\ also\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ see\\,\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ eyes\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ there\\ to\\ help\\ animals\\ see\\ without\\ necessitating\\ backward\\ causation\\.\\ This\\ is\\ given\\ an\\ eloquent\\ explanation\\ on\\ p\\.155\\-158\\ in\\ \\How\\ the\\ Mind\\ Works\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Natural\\ selection\\ constitutes\\ a\\ drive\\ to\\ greater\\ complexity\\/intelligence\\/anything\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ One\\ should\\ think\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;push\\&\\#8221\\;\\ from\\ behind\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;pull\\&\\#8221\\;\\ from\\ in\\ front\\ as\\ if\\ pulling\\ towards\\ a\\ goal\\ or\\ endpoint\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ something\\ has\\ \\&\\#8220\\;evolved\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ more\\ complex\\ or\\ intelligent\\ it\\ will\\ become\\.\\ Every\\ single\\ organism\\ on\\ earth\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ \\&\\#8220\\;equally\\ evolved\\&\\#8221\\;\\ because\\ all\\ organisms\\ have\\ been\\ evolving\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ \\(this\\ is\\ where\\ our\\ intuitions\\ may\\ mismatch\\ with\\ reality\\ again\\)\\.\\ A\\ bacterium\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ as\\ evolved\\ as\\ a\\ human\\,\\ because\\ both\\ have\\ had\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ to\\ evolve\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ more\\ complex\\ than\\ bacteria\\ is\\ because\\ humans\\ and\\ bacteria\\ \\occupy\\ different\\ ecological\\ niches\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\cognitive\\ niche\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ humans\\ occupy\\ requires\\ greater\\ complexity\\.\\ Often\\ evolution\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ less\\ complexity\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ less\\ complexity\\ is\\ generally\\ favored\\ if\\ the\\ complexity\\ is\\ not\\ needed\\ for\\ an\\ adaptive\\ purpose\\.\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Ascent\\ of\\ Man\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Great\\ Chain\\ of\\ Being\\&\\#8221\\;\\ arguments\\ come\\ from\\.\\ The\\ Great\\ Chain\\ of\\ Being\\ looks\\ at\\ organisms\\ as\\ forming\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ ladder\\ with\\ man\\ at\\ the\\ top\\.\\ This\\ is\\ incorrect\\ because\\ a\\ phylogenetic\\ history\\ should\\ actually\\ look\\ like\\ a\\ tree\\,\\ where\\ man\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ endpoint\\ on\\ one\\ branch\\.\\ Again\\,\\ all\\ organisms\\ alive\\ today\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ \\&\\#8220\\;equally\\ evolved\\&\\#8221\\;\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ all\\ been\\ evolving\\ for\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ amount\\ to\\ time\\ \\(as\\ long\\ as\\ we\\ all\\ trace\\ our\\ lineage\\ to\\ a\\ single\\ surviving\\ origin\\ of\\ life\\,\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ generally\\ agreed\\ that\\ we\\ do\\)\\.\\ It\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ noted\\ here\\ that\\ our\\ ancestor\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ chimpanzee\\,\\ rather\\ we\\ share\\ a\\ common\\ ancestor\\ with\\ chimpanzees\\ that\\ was\\ neither\\ human\\ nor\\ chimpanzee\\,\\ but\\ had\\ some\\ other\\ historical\\ form\\ and\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ around\\.\\ We\\ assume\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ probably\\ more\\ chimp\\-like\\ than\\ human\\-like\\ because\\ of\\ ecological\\ similarities\\,\\ but\\ we\\ did\\ not\\ \\&\\#8220\\;evolve\\ from\\ chimpanzees\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ rather\\ both\\ species\\ evolved\\ from\\ a\\ third\\ historical\\ species\\ that\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ around\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Organisms\\ strive\\ to\\ reproduce\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ This\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ major\\ point\\ of\\ contention\\ against\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ evolution\\ in\\ an\\ explanation\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\,\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ flawed\\ argument\\ because\\ it\\ mistakes\\ proximate\\ and\\ ultimate\\ levels\\ of\\ causation\\,\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ explanation\\.\\ The\\ \\proximate\\<\\/em\\>\\ level\\ of\\ explanation\\ is\\ why\\ an\\ organism\\ does\\ what\\ it\\ does\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ what\\ is\\ its\\ motivation\\)\\.\\ The\\ \\ultimate\\<\\/em\\>\\ level\\ of\\ causation\\ is\\ why\\ something\\ evolved\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ did\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ what\\ evolutionary\\ phenomena\\ explain\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\ and\\ not\\ some\\ other\\ way\\)\\.\\ An\\ easily\\ understandable\\ explanation\\ is\\ sex\\.\\ The\\ proximate\\ explanation\\ of\\ why\\ people\\ have\\ sex\\ is\\ because\\ it\\ feels\\ good\\.\\ The\\ ultimate\\ explanation\\ is\\ actually\\ an\\ explanation\\ not\\ only\\ of\\ why\\ they\\ have\\ sex\\,\\ but\\ of\\ why\\ it\\ feels\\ good\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ultimate\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ sex\\ is\\ how\\ organisms\\ reproduce\\,\\ which\\ is\\ paramount\\ in\\ evolution\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\ evolution\\ proceeds\\ through\\ reproduction\\ so\\ it\\ \\&\\#8220\\;engineers\\&\\#8221\\;\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ make\\ sex\\/reproduction\\ \\&\\#8220\\;feel\\ good\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ proximate\\ explanation\\ is\\ a\\ psychological\\ explanation\\ and\\ the\\ ultimate\\ explanation\\ is\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ explanation\\,\\ and\\ these\\ roughly\\ correspond\\ to\\ what\\ Niko\\ Tinbergen\\ called\\ the\\ mechanism\\ explanation\\ and\\ the\\ adaptation\\ explanation\\ of\\ biological\\ phenomena\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ good\\ table\\ with\\ \\\"evolutionary\\\"\\ corresponding\\ to\\ \\\"ultimate\\-level\\\"\\:\\\\ \\ These\\ two\\ phenomena\\ diverge\\ when\\ an\\ organism\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ environment\\ does\\ not\\ match\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ environment\\ that\\ the\\ organism\\ is\\ adapted\\ to\\,\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\Environment\\ of\\ Evolutionary\\ Adaptedness\\<\\/em\\>\\ or\\ EEA\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ sex\\ evolved\\ to\\ feel\\ good\\ for\\ reproductive\\ reasons\\,\\ but\\ now\\ with\\ the\\ invention\\ of\\ contraception\\ this\\ connection\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ necessary\\.\\ A\\ second\\ example\\ given\\ is\\ our\\ tastes\\ for\\ foods\\:\\ we\\ evolved\\ tastes\\ for\\ sweet\\ and\\ fatty\\/salty\\ foods\\ because\\ this\\ helped\\ with\\ nutrition\\ before\\ McDonalds\\ and\\ Hershey\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ were\\ around\\,\\ but\\ now\\ these\\ desires\\ cause\\ malnutrition\\ because\\ the\\ environment\\ has\\ changed\\ and\\ you\\ no\\ longer\\ need\\ to\\ put\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ effort\\ into\\ getting\\ a\\ Big\\ Mac\\.\\ Originally\\,\\ sweet\\ foods\\ corresponded\\ to\\ ripe\\ fruit\\,\\ which\\ is\\ quite\\ healthy\\,\\ and\\ fatty\\ foods\\ corresponded\\ to\\ meat\\,\\ which\\ was\\ more\\ rare\\ and\\ required\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ effort\\ to\\ obtain\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Every\\ trait\\ has\\ an\\ adaptive\\ explanation\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ false\\ because\\ adaptation\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ constraint\\ on\\ animals\\.\\ A\\ great\\ example\\ is\\ male\\ nipples\\.\\ Males\\ presumably\\ have\\ nipples\\,\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ adaptive\\,\\ but\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ give\\ both\\ males\\ and\\ females\\ nipples\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ give\\ just\\ females\\ nipples\\.\\ Just\\ because\\ an\\ organism\\ has\\ a\\ trait\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ mean\\ it\\ is\\ adaptive\\ \\(that\\ is\\,\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ it\\ increased\\ reproductive\\ success\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ through\\ its\\ good\\ design\\ incorporating\\ functional\\ complexity\\)\\.\\ It\\ could\\ also\\ be\\ a\\ spandrel\\ \\(defined\\ down\\ the\\ page\\)\\ or\\ just\\ random\\ noise\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\If\\ a\\ trait\\ evolved\\ in\\ humans\\ and\\ animals\\,\\ the\\ human\\ version\\ evolved\\ from\\ the\\ animal\\ one\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ mistaking\\ two\\ key\\ concepts\\ in\\ adaptationist\\ thinking\\,\\ \\homology\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\analogy\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ A\\ homologous\\ form\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ two\\ species\\ because\\ the\\ two\\ species\\ shared\\ a\\ common\\ ancestor\\,\\ and\\ an\\ analogous\\ form\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ two\\ species\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ both\\ evolved\\ a\\ similar\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ through\\ what\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\convergent\\ evolution\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ A\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ homology\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ mammal\\ limb\\ structures\\ are\\ built\\ of\\ a\\ skeletal\\ plan\\ of\\ having\\ 5\\ fingers\\ \\(although\\ many\\ have\\ lost\\ some\\ of\\ these\\,\\ like\\ horses\\)\\.\\ An\\ easy\\ example\\ of\\ an\\ analogous\\ trait\\ through\\ convergent\\ evolution\\ is\\ wings\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ birds\\ and\\ insects\\ both\\ have\\ wings\\ because\\ they\\ both\\ fly\\,\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ both\\ share\\ a\\ common\\ ancestor\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Humans\\ and\\ the\\ Cognitive\\ Niche\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ leaves\\ us\\ with\\ a\\ puzzle\\,\\ if\\ evolution\\ does\\ not\\ naturally\\ lead\\ to\\ greater\\ complexity\\ and\\ intelligence\\,\\ and\\ our\\ big\\ brains\\ are\\ \\&\\#8220\\;expensive\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(they\\ use\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ energy\\ and\\ are\\ a\\ risk\\ during\\ birth\\ and\\ later\\)\\,\\ then\\ why\\ did\\ they\\ evolve\\ they\\ way\\ they\\ did\\?\\ The\\ best\\ explanation\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ is\\ that\\ humans\\ occupied\\ what\\ has\\ been\\ called\\ the\\ \\cognitive\\ niche\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ this\\ means\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ stated\\ that\\ organisms\\ fit\\ their\\ environments\\ like\\ keys\\ fit\\ locks\\,\\ so\\ fish\\ are\\ well\\ designed\\ for\\ water\\,\\ and\\ moles\\ are\\ well\\ designed\\ for\\ burrowing\\ underground\\,\\ and\\ not\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ broad\\ explanation\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ true\\ in\\ very\\ fine\\ details\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ \\&\\#8220\\;lock\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ humans\\ fit\\ is\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\,\\ our\\ EEA\\,\\ and\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ \\\"key\\\"\\ is\\ our\\ brain\\,\\ with\\ its\\ resulting\\ behaviors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ must\\ be\\ remembered\\ that\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ like\\ a\\ \\camping\\ trip\\ that\\ lasts\\ a\\ lifetime\\<\\/em\\>\\ as\\ has\\ been\\ pointed\\ out\\ by\\ Leda\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ John\\ Tooby\\.\\ You\\ may\\ notice\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ essentially\\ nature\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ equivalent\\ of\\ spam\\ \\(as\\ pointed\\ out\\ by\\ Gary\\ Larson\\)\\,\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ sharp\\ teeth\\,\\ no\\ claws\\,\\ no\\ shells\\,\\ no\\ hair\\,\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ especially\\ fast\\,\\ and\\ are\\ essentially\\ easy\\ prey\\.\\ This\\ misses\\ one\\ crucial\\ fact\\,\\ however\\:\\ we\\ are\\ incredibly\\ clever\\,\\ and\\ despite\\ our\\ lack\\ of\\ external\\ defenses\\,\\ we\\ have\\ actually\\ taken\\ over\\ all\\ ecosystems\\ on\\ earth\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ being\\ exterminated\\.\\ The\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ our\\ defense\\ is\\ our\\ brain\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ have\\ adapted\\.\\ Our\\ brains\\ are\\ essentially\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ neural\\ adaptations\\ that\\ create\\ behavioral\\ adaptations\\ that\\ are\\ well\\-fitted\\ for\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ does\\ it\\ all\\ mean\\ for\\ psychology\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\The\\ brain\\ \\(due\\ to\\ its\\ complexity\\)\\ and\\ therefore\\ the\\ mind\\ must\\ be\\ products\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ If\\ one\\ wants\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ mind\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ design\\,\\ it\\ is\\ therefore\\ helpful\\ to\\ start\\ with\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ design\\ process\\,\\ namely\\ evolution\\.\\ Evolution\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ guide\\ of\\ where\\ to\\ even\\ start\\ looking\\ at\\ understanding\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ it\\ constrains\\ greatly\\ the\\ nature\\ that\\ a\\ valid\\ explanation\\ can\\ take\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ we\\ should\\ have\\ adaptations\\ for\\ solving\\ problems\\ our\\ ancestors\\ faced\\ in\\ the\\ EEA\\,\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ for\\ problems\\ faced\\ in\\ modern\\ society\\.\\ This\\ is\\ easily\\ illustrated\\ by\\ what\\ fears\\ and\\ phobias\\ people\\ naturally\\ have\\.\\ People\\ are\\ often\\ afraid\\ of\\ snakes\\ and\\ spiders\\,\\ which\\ would\\ have\\ posed\\ a\\ grave\\ threat\\ to\\ humans\\ in\\ the\\ EEA\\,\\ but\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ so\\ much\\ any\\ more\\,\\ yet\\ people\\ usually\\ do\\ not\\ fear\\ cars\\,\\ Big\\ Macs\\,\\ or\\ drugs\\ that\\ pose\\ a\\ huge\\ threat\\ to\\ us\\ today\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ back\\ then\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ is\\ not\\ adapted\\ to\\ our\\ new\\ environment\\ or\\ its\\ new\\ problems\\.\\ We\\ have\\ a\\ language\\ adaptation\\,\\ but\\ not\\ a\\ reading\\ adaptation\\,\\ we\\ have\\ predator\\-fearing\\ adaptations\\,\\ but\\ not\\ car\\-fearing\\ or\\ gun\\-fearing\\ adaptations\\,\\ we\\ love\\ fatty\\ foods\\ that\\ are\\ now\\ too\\ plentiful\\ and\\ give\\ us\\ heart\\ attacks\\.\\ This\\ is\\ all\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ mismatch\\ between\\ our\\ EEA\\ \\(the\\ Pleistocene\\,\\ on\\ the\\ African\\ savanna\\)\\ and\\ our\\ modern\\ environment\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ task\\ of\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ psychologist\\ is\\ to\\ disentangle\\ what\\ are\\ adaptations\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ architectural\\ by\\-products\\ \\(or\\ \\spandrels\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\,\\ and\\ what\\ these\\ adaptations\\ for\\ \\(avoiding\\ predators\\ but\\ not\\ cars\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ generally\\ accomplished\\ by\\ \\reverse\\-engineering\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ principle\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\,\\ often\\ when\\ one\\ looks\\ at\\ a\\ gadget\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ obvious\\ why\\ it\\ has\\ the\\ design\\ it\\ does\\ \\(Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ offered\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ olive\\ pitter\\)\\,\\ until\\ one\\ understands\\ what\\ it\\ was\\ designed\\ for\\ \\(what\\ problem\\ it\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ solve\\)\\.\\ Reverse\\-engineering\\ is\\ exactly\\ what\\ it\\ sounds\\ like\\,\\ one\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ problem\\,\\ such\\ as\\ avoiding\\ predators\\,\\ and\\ then\\ one\\ posits\\ how\\ this\\ problem\\ could\\ be\\ solved\\ like\\ a\\ software\\ engineer\\.\\ Then\\ experiments\\ are\\ done\\ to\\ check\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ this\\ \\&\\#8220\\;solution\\&\\#8221\\;\\ does\\ indeed\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ psychological\\ architecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ that\\ was\\ given\\ in\\ class\\ was\\ Margie\\ Profet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ analysis\\ of\\ pregnancy\\ sickness\\ as\\ an\\ adaptation\\ for\\ avoiding\\ ingesting\\ teratogens\\ \\(birth\\-defect\\ causing\\ chemicals\\)\\ during\\ pregnancy\\.\\ She\\ started\\ by\\ stating\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ that\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ trimester\\ need\\ to\\ avoid\\ ingesting\\ teratogens\\,\\ while\\ still\\ eating\\ enough\\ food\\ to\\ maintain\\ nutritional\\ and\\ energetic\\ needs\\.\\ She\\ then\\ elaborated\\ what\\ would\\ constitute\\ a\\ good\\ mechanism\\ to\\ do\\ this\\:\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ sensitive\\ to\\ smells\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ contain\\ teratogens\\ to\\ avoid\\ eating\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\,\\ women\\ should\\ vomit\\ foods\\ out\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ ingested\\ that\\ do\\ contain\\ them\\,\\ and\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ attracted\\ to\\ bland\\ foods\\ that\\ are\\ unlikely\\ to\\ contain\\ anything\\ that\\ could\\ harm\\ the\\ embryo\\.\\ She\\ then\\ went\\ into\\ many\\ fields\\ of\\ academia\\ to\\ pull\\ together\\ the\\ necessary\\ evidence\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ case\\,\\ that\\ many\\ raw\\ plants\\ are\\ toxic\\ to\\ embryos\\ but\\ not\\ adults\\ and\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ indeed\\ what\\ pregnant\\ women\\ tend\\ to\\ avoid\\ or\\ vomit\\ back\\ up\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ it\\ often\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ mornings\\ because\\ digestion\\ slows\\ in\\ pregnant\\ women\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ excellent\\ example\\ is\\ human\\ jealousy\\.\\ Humans\\ faced\\ a\\ problem\\ that\\ all\\ pair\\-bonding\\,\\ offspring\\-investing\\ species\\ face\\,\\ namely\\,\\ how\\ males\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ the\\ offspring\\ they\\ are\\ investing\\ in\\ are\\ their\\ own\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ females\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ that\\ the\\ male\\ will\\ invest\\ and\\ not\\ desert\\ the\\ offspring\\ once\\ they\\ are\\ conceived\\.\\ A\\ good\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ problem\\ would\\ consist\\ of\\ males\\ guarding\\ females\\,\\ and\\ becoming\\ uncontrollably\\ angry\\ at\\ hints\\ that\\ the\\ female\\ has\\ been\\ with\\ other\\ males\\ sexually\\.\\ For\\ females\\,\\ a\\ good\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ problem\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ seek\\ out\\ men\\ that\\ are\\ evaluated\\ as\\ likely\\ to\\ invest\\,\\ and\\ become\\ upset\\ by\\ seeing\\ the\\ male\\ showing\\ likelihood\\ of\\ abandonment\\ or\\ investment\\ in\\ another\\ female\\.\\ These\\ phenomena\\ have\\ been\\ studied\\ extensively\\ by\\ David\\ Buss\\ as\\ will\\ be\\ illustrated\\ in\\ later\\ lectures\\,\\ and\\ constitute\\ male\\ sexual\\ jealousy\\,\\ and\\ female\\ emotional\\ jealousy\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ rough\\ outline\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ glossing\\ over\\ details\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ how\\ reverse\\-engineering\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\:\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ problem\\ is\\ posited\\,\\ a\\ solution\\ is\\ suggested\\,\\ and\\ this\\ solution\\ is\\ then\\ modeled\\ and\\ will\\ guide\\ the\\ research\\ agenda\\ of\\ the\\ psychologist\\.\\\\<\\/ins\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/code\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 4 (2/12/08)- Evolution"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.467209+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 5 (2/14/08)- Nature and Nurture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 381, "html": "\\I\\ have\\ added\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ three\\ topics\\ as\\ additional\\ analysis\\ on\\ some\\ difficult\\ issues\\ this\\ class\\ addresses\\,\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ explain\\ away\\ some\\ misunderstandings\\ before\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ set\\ in\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ false\\ dichotomy\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ long\\-standing\\ debate\\ over\\ \\nature\\ vs\\.\\ nurture\\<\\/em\\>\\ has\\ not\\ only\\ been\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ irrelevant\\ \\(because\\ every\\ single\\ characteristic\\ is\\ both\\)\\,\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ poor\\ way\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ psychological\\ phenomena\\,\\ or\\ any\\ physical\\ characteristic\\ for\\ that\\ matter\\,\\ because\\ it\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ false\\ dichotomy\\.\\ I\\ say\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ false\\ dichotomy\\ because\\ it\\ misunderstands\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ genotypes\\ \\(genes\\)\\ create\\ phenotypes\\ \\(physical\\ characteristics\\)\\ as\\ explained\\ below\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ is\\ everything\\ both\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ nurture\\,\\ but\\ even\\ posing\\ this\\ question\\ misunderstands\\ biological\\ development\\ and\\ is\\ just\\ another\\ way\\ that\\ our\\ intuitions\\ misguide\\ us\\ in\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ biology\\ and\\ psychology\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ is\\ illustrated\\ very\\ well\\ in\\ \\How\\ the\\ Mind\\ Works\\<\\/em\\>\\ on\\ pages\\ 32\\-34\\ for\\ information\\ processing\\ systems\\,\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ add\\ a\\ biological\\ counterpart\\.\\ A\\ biologist\\ would\\ never\\ ask\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ question\\ about\\ any\\ other\\ physical\\ characteristic\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ \\"\\;is\\ a\\ kidney\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ genes\\ or\\ the\\ environment\\?\\"\\;\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ meaningless\\ question\\.\\ A\\ kidney\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ complex\\ development\\ in\\ which\\ genes\\ create\\ proteins\\ that\\ then\\ interact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ their\\ chemical\\/physical\\ environment\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ kidney\\.\\ It\\ is\\ both\\ nature\\ and\\ nurture\\,\\ and\\ this\\ explanation\\ has\\ taught\\ us\\ nothing\\ about\\ how\\ a\\ kidney\\ actually\\ develops\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ similar\\ types\\ of\\ analysis\\ in\\ traditional\\ social\\ science\\ that\\ biologists\\ would\\ also\\ see\\ as\\ false\\ dichotomies\\ such\\ as\\ biological\\ vs\\.\\ cultural\\ and\\ innate\\ vs\\.\\ learned\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Genotype\\ and\\ phenotype\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\nI\\ will\\ give\\ a\\ brief\\ and\\ vastly\\ oversimplified\\ explanation\\ here\\ of\\ how\\ genes\\ create\\ physical\\ characteristics\\ and\\ how\\ phenotypes\\ stem\\ from\\ genotypes\\.\\ A\\ \\genotype\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ genetic\\ constitution\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ what\\ genes\\ they\\ have\\ in\\ their\\ DNA\\.\\ A\\ \\phenotype\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ characteristics\\.\\ Genes\\ code\\ for\\ proteins\\ \\(which\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ primary\\ level\\ phenotype\\)\\,\\ which\\ then\\ interact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ their\\ physical\\ and\\ chemical\\ environments\\ to\\ create\\ physical\\ characteristics\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ oversimplification\\ because\\ this\\ process\\ has\\ many\\ feedback\\ loops\\ \\(an\\ environmental\\ cue\\ can\\ turn\\ genes\\ on\\ or\\ off\\,\\ behavior\\ can\\ turn\\ genes\\ on\\ or\\ off\\,\\ proteins\\ can\\ turn\\ genes\\ on\\ or\\ off\\,\\ not\\ to\\ mention\\ that\\ the\\ local\\ chemical\\ environment\\ often\\ interacts\\ with\\ proteins\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ The\\ general\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ genes\\ act\\ \\probabilistically\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ not\\ \\deterministically\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ if\\ an\\ individual\\ has\\ a\\ given\\ gene\\,\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ certain\\ chance\\ of\\ having\\ a\\ related\\ physical\\ characteristic\\ and\\ this\\ chance\\ is\\ rarely\\ 100\\%\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ lengthy\\ causal\\ chain\\ that\\ connects\\ genes\\ and\\ physical\\ characteristics\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ complex\\ characteristics\\ \\(like\\ most\\ neural\\ structures\\ that\\ instantiate\\ the\\ mind\\)\\ usually\\ are\\ under\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ many\\ genes\\,\\ so\\ any\\ one\\ gene\\ only\\ explains\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ actual\\ characteristics\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ possible\\ phenotypes\\ for\\ any\\ given\\ genotype\\ \\(in\\ biology\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ reaction\\ or\\ \\norm\\ of\\ reaction\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\.\\ Here\\ are\\ some\\ helpful\\ links\\ for\\ more\\ information\\ on\\ this\\ complicated\\ topic\\:\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Phenotype\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Norms\\_of\\_reaction\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRichard\\ Dawkins\\ has\\ also\\ illustrated\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ go\\ wrong\\ in\\ their\\ thinking\\ about\\ this\\ subject\\ because\\ they\\ use\\ the\\ metaphor\\ of\\ genes\\ as\\ blueprints\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ accurate\\.\\ On\\ a\\ blueprint\\ a\\ line\\ corresponds\\ to\\ a\\ feature\\ of\\ a\\ building\\ one\\-to\\-one\\,\\ but\\ genes\\ do\\ not\\ work\\ like\\ this\\.\\ He\\ proposes\\ that\\ genes\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ recipe\\ as\\ in\\ baking\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ clear\\ correlation\\ between\\ ingredients\\ and\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ finished\\ product\\.\\ Obviously\\ the\\ ingredients\\ and\\ their\\ ratios\\ are\\ important\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ sense\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ ingredient\\ contributes\\ only\\ one\\ feature\\,\\ like\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ blueprint\\ does\\.\\ Genes\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ recipes\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ supply\\ \\"\\;ingredients\\"\\;\\ that\\ can\\ build\\ physical\\ characteristics\\ given\\ the\\ proper\\ environment\\,\\ and\\ unlike\\ blueprints\\ in\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ rarely\\ a\\ one\\-to\\-one\\ correlation\\ between\\ gene\\ and\\ physical\\ characteristic\\.\\ Not\\ to\\ mention\\ that\\ features\\ from\\ blueprints\\ can\\ stand\\ alone\\ somewhat\\ meaningfully\\,\\ but\\ ingredients\\ in\\ a\\ cake\\ cannot\\ \\(flour\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ resembles\\ a\\ cake\\,\\ but\\ a\\ drawing\\ of\\ a\\ door\\ on\\ a\\ blue\\ print\\ is\\ always\\ the\\ same\\ and\\ always\\ maps\\ directly\\ onto\\ the\\ feature\\ of\\ a\\ door\\ in\\ a\\ building\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Heritability\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ last\\ difficult\\ issue\\ addressed\\ here\\ is\\ \\heritability\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Heritability\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ differences\\ in\\ physical\\ characteristics\\ across\\ individuals\\ can\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ genetic\\ differences\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ environmental\\ differences\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ measuring\\ how\\ much\\ some\\ feature\\ is\\ innate\\ or\\ under\\ genetic\\ control\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ variance\\ or\\ difference\\,\\ so\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ differences\\ in\\ a\\ trait\\ across\\ individuals\\ it\\ would\\ show\\ 0\\%\\ heritability\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ gave\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ phenotype\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;2\\ legs\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ humans\\ as\\ a\\ characteristic\\ that\\ is\\ definitely\\ under\\ very\\ strong\\ genetic\\ control\\,\\ but\\ would\\ basically\\ show\\ 0\\%\\ heritability\\ because\\ in\\ the\\ extremely\\ rare\\ case\\ where\\ a\\ baby\\ is\\ born\\ without\\ 2\\ legs\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ some\\ major\\ environmental\\ embryological\\ disturbance\\,\\ and\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ genetic\\ problem\\.\\ Heritability\\ of\\ a\\ trait\\ in\\ an\\ individual\\ is\\ also\\ meaningless\\ because\\ the\\ measure\\ assesses\\ variation\\ between\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ an\\ individual\\ cannot\\ show\\ variation\\ in\\ a\\ trait\\ within\\ themselves\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHeritability\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ group\\ differences\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ individual\\ variation\\ that\\ is\\ genetically\\ caused\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ easily\\ understood\\ from\\ a\\ grass\\ analogy\\ that\\ the\\ text\\-book\\ presents\\ and\\ that\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ also\\ discusses\\.\\ If\\ you\\ plant\\ two\\ similar\\ strains\\ of\\ grass\\ in\\ two\\ fields\\ the\\ differences\\ within\\ each\\ group\\ can\\ be\\ accounted\\ for\\ by\\ heritability\\ because\\ the\\ environment\\ \\(the\\ soil\\ or\\ water\\)\\ is\\ constant\\,\\ but\\ you\\ could\\ not\\ explain\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\ with\\ this\\ measure\\ because\\ the\\ two\\ fields\\ are\\ different\\.\\ So\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ maybe\\ one\\ group\\ of\\ grass\\ is\\ taller\\ on\\ average\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ because\\ it\\ got\\ more\\ water\\,\\ which\\ has\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ heritability\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nLastly\\,\\ heritability\\ can\\ only\\ show\\ correlations\\ and\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ demonstrate\\ causation\\.\\ It\\ can\\ only\\ say\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ variability\\ in\\ a\\ trait\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ genetic\\ effects\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ show\\ how\\.\\ Again\\,\\ genes\\ make\\ proteins\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\ interacting\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ their\\ environment\\ create\\ physical\\ characteristics\\,\\ genes\\ do\\ not\\ themselves\\ make\\ physical\\ characteristics\\ other\\ than\\ proteins\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nSee\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Heritability\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ more\\ on\\ this\\ measure\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ evidence\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;nurture\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ learning\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ are\\ \\not\\ enough\\ genes\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ create\\ behavior\\ without\\ environmental\\ input\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ are\\ obvious\\ c\\ross\\-cultural\\ differences\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ immigration\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ of\\ different\\ cultures\\ readily\\ adapt\\ to\\ new\\ ones\\.\\ A\\ child\\ with\\ a\\ Mandarin\\ Chinese\\ genotype\\ will\\ not\\ necessarily\\ grow\\ up\\ to\\ speak\\ Mandarin\\ Chinese\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ have\\ been\\ many\\ obvious\\ demonstrations\\ of\\ \\learning\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\practice\\ effects\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ humans\\ and\\ animals\\ \\(such\\ as\\ teaching\\ a\\ dog\\ to\\ sit\\ and\\ roll\\ over\\,\\ or\\ teaching\\ a\\ child\\ algebra\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Plasticity\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ This\\ just\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ actual\\ configuration\\ of\\ the\\ neural\\ configurations\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ change\\ with\\ environmental\\ input\\.\\ For\\ example\\ a\\ violinist\\ has\\ better\\ developed\\ sensory\\ and\\ motor\\ areas\\ for\\ the\\ left\\ hand\\,\\ which\\ are\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ fine\\ motor\\ movements\\ involved\\ in\\ playing\\ the\\ violin\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Complete\\ hardwiring\\ in\\ an\\ organism\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ a\\\\ rigid\\ behaving\\ and\\ stupid\\<\\/em\\>\\ organism\\.\\ Organisms\\ must\\ adjust\\ to\\ changes\\ and\\ differences\\ in\\ their\\ environment\\.\\ Environments\\ vary\\ greatly\\ from\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\ and\\ organism\\ to\\ organism\\,\\ organisms\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ engineered\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ regularities\\ in\\ the\\ environments\\ over\\ long\\ periods\\ of\\ time\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ evidence\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;nature\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ genetic\\ influence\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Something\\ has\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ structure\\ that\\ can\\ learn\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ incredibly\\ important\\ point\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ overlooked\\.\\ Rocks\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ learn\\,\\ and\\ neither\\ do\\ viruses\\,\\ so\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ something\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ that\\ can\\ learn\\,\\ and\\ that\\ structures\\ the\\ learning\\ process\\.\\ Some\\ possible\\ innate\\ structuring\\ for\\ learning\\ has\\ been\\ posited\\ for\\ the\\ following\\ domains\\ \\(as\\ a\\ small\\ subset\\)\\:\\ concepts\\ of\\ objects\\ and\\ causation\\,\\ number\\ sense\\ \\(subitization\\,\\ and\\ few\\/many\\,\\ more\\/less\\ mechanisms\\ amongst\\ others\\)\\,\\ spatial\\ representations\\,\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ \\(an\\ attribution\\ of\\ beliefs\\/desires\\ to\\ others\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ language\\ instinct\\ \\(the\\ language\\ acquisition\\ device\\)\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ domains\\ show\\ specialized\\ kinds\\ of\\ learning\\ only\\ explicable\\ by\\ a\\ genetically\\ programmed\\ structuring\\ of\\ the\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ do\\ the\\ learning\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Species\\ differences\\ must\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ genetic\\ aspects\\.\\ Breeds\\ of\\ dogs\\ \\(although\\ not\\ separate\\ species\\)\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ and\\ their\\ behavioral\\ characteristics\\ show\\ high\\ heritability\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Robustness\\ of\\ evolved\\ human\\ nature\\<\\/em\\>\\ such\\ as\\ how\\ easy\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ learn\\ spoken\\ language\\ \\(an\\ instinct\\)\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ how\\ difficult\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ read\\ \\(a\\ modern\\ social\\ construction\\)\\.\\ Other\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ robustness\\ of\\ evolved\\ behaviors\\ include\\ the\\ mismatch\\ of\\ our\\ evolved\\ human\\ nature\\ with\\ our\\ current\\ environment\\:\\ our\\ love\\ of\\ junk\\ food\\ \\(a\\ nutritional\\ mechanism\\ in\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\)\\,\\ our\\ easily\\ learned\\ fear\\ of\\ snakes\\ \\(a\\ danger\\ avoidance\\ mechanism\\ in\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\)\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ most\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ fear\\ for\\ cars\\/guns\\/drugs\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ have\\ been\\ \\many\\ observed\\ human\\ universals\\ across\\ all\\ cultures\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ has\\ been\\ extensively\\ documented\\ by\\ Donald\\ Brown\\,\\ who\\ has\\ noted\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ culture\\ that\\ are\\ universal\\ to\\ all\\ \\(or\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ vast\\ majority\\)\\ of\\ cultures\\,\\ and\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ these\\ was\\ shown\\ in\\ class\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/condor\\.depaul\\.edu\\/\\~mfiddler\\/hyphen\\/humunivers\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ a\\ \\complex\\ innate\\ structuring\\ of\\ the\\ neurons\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ the\\ brain\\ \\(although\\ this\\ is\\ flexible\\,\\ extremely\\ difficult\\ to\\ study\\/understand\\,\\ and\\ its\\ development\\ is\\ very\\ convoluted\\)\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ here\\ discusses\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ genotypes\\ and\\ phenotypes\\ that\\ I\\ address\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ this\\ entry\\,\\ specifically\\ he\\ mentions\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ known\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ how\\ proteins\\ create\\ the\\ observed\\ linkages\\ in\\ brains\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Observed\\ genetic\\ effects\\ of\\ single\\ genes\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Usually\\ any\\ complex\\ trait\\ \\(like\\ most\\ cognitive\\ adaptations\\)\\ is\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ many\\ genes\\,\\ but\\ sometimes\\ if\\ one\\ gene\\ is\\ knocked\\ out\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ disorder\\.\\ A\\ mutation\\ in\\ the\\ FOXP2\\ gene\\ has\\ been\\ linked\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ language\\ impairment\\ disorder\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ studies\\ on\\ lab\\ rats\\ have\\ added\\ genes\\ that\\ make\\ rats\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ learn\\ \\(an\\ outstanding\\ example\\ of\\ why\\ nature\\ vs\\.\\ nurture\\ is\\ an\\ ill\\-posed\\ question\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ case\\ of\\ genetically\\ structured\\ learning\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\High\\ heritability\\ of\\ many\\ intelligence\\ and\\ personality\\ differences\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(in\\ fact\\ almost\\ all\\ differences\\ are\\ heritable\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ load\\ of\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ coming\\ from\\ twin\\ studies\\,\\ which\\ are\\ helpful\\ because\\ \\monozygotic\\ twins\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(identical\\ twins\\)\\ share\\ 100\\%\\ or\\ their\\ genes\\,\\ and\\ \\dizygotic\\ twins\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(fraternal\\ twins\\)\\ share\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ just\\ like\\ typical\\ siblings\\.\\ These\\ twins\\ \\(those\\ separated\\ at\\ birth\\ vs\\.\\ those\\ raised\\ together\\ vs\\.\\ regular\\ siblings\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ are\\ then\\ compared\\ and\\ assessed\\ for\\ similarities\\ and\\ differences\\,\\ which\\ helps\\ to\\ tease\\ apart\\ heritability\\ of\\ traits\\ and\\ environmental\\ contributions\\.\\ Almost\\ all\\ psychological\\ differences\\ have\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ intermediate\\ to\\ high\\ heritability\\,\\ negating\\ many\\ ideas\\ attaching\\ paramount\\ importance\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\ \\(and\\ thus\\ Freudian\\ psychology\\ and\\ behaviorism\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\How\\ genes\\ and\\ environment\\ interact\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\nGene\\-environment\\ interation\\ is\\ very\\ complicated\\ and\\ the\\ Psychology\\ text\\-book\\ gives\\ an\\ excellent\\ analysis\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ explanation\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ blog\\.\\ These\\ questions\\ can\\ be\\ asked\\ in\\ some\\ sense\\,\\ but\\ not\\ usually\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ pop\\-culture\\ sense\\ laying\\ out\\ two\\ opposed\\ options\\ such\\ as\\ nature\\ vs\\.\\ nurture\\,\\ biological\\ vs\\.\\ cultural\\,\\ or\\ innate\\ vs\\.\\ learned\\.\\ A\\ question\\ like\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ intelligence\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ nature\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ nurture\\ \\(or\\ biological\\ vs\\.\\ cultural\\,\\ or\\ innate\\ vs\\.\\ learned\\)\\?\\ is\\ irrelevant\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ both\\.\\ These\\ are\\ essentially\\ meaningless\\ questions\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ correct\\ way\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ issue\\.\\ Similar\\ questions\\ can\\ be\\ asked\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ species\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ normal\\ and\\ non\\-standard\\ populations\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ different\\ races\\ and\\ groups\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ among\\ normal\\ individuals\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ sexes\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nNotice\\ that\\ all\\ questions\\ deal\\ with\\ \\differences\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ characteristics\\,\\ and\\ not\\ with\\ the\\ characteristics\\ themselves\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\ heritability\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ species\\-wide\\ traits\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ variability\\ in\\ traits\\;\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ characteristics\\ themselves\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Political\\ sensitivity\\ of\\ Genetic\\/biological\\ claims\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nE\\.O\\.\\ Wilson\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ and\\ prolific\\ biologists\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ century\\,\\ was\\ impugned\\ by\\ people\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ understand\\ biological\\ causation\\ and\\ therefore\\ misunderstood\\ what\\ he\\ said\\ in\\ his\\ landmark\\ book\\,\\ \\\\Sociobiology\\:\\ The\\ New\\ Synthesis\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ In\\ the\\ last\\ chapter\\ he\\ attributed\\ much\\ of\\ observed\\ gender\\ differences\\ to\\ our\\ evolutionary\\ history\\.\\ People\\ \\(most\\ of\\ whom\\ had\\ probably\\ never\\ actually\\ read\\ his\\ work\\)\\ took\\ this\\ to\\ mean\\ that\\ he\\ somehow\\ supported\\ the\\ socio\\-political\\ oppression\\ of\\ women\\.\\ Herrnstein\\ and\\ Murray\\ argued\\ in\\ their\\ book\\ The\\ Bell\\ Curve\\ that\\ IQ\\ and\\ race\\ co\\-vary\\ due\\ to\\ genetic\\ effects\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ environmental\\ effects\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ being\\ 100\\%\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\.\\ Harvard\\ President\\ Larry\\ Summers\\ suggested\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ reason\\ for\\ differential\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ genders\\ in\\ math\\ and\\ science\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ genetic\\ factors\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ instances\\ got\\ people\\ very\\ riled\\ up\\,\\ and\\ Larry\\ Summers\\ had\\ to\\ step\\ down\\ as\\ president\\ of\\ Harvard\\ because\\ of\\ it\\.\\ Historically\\ evolutionary\\ reasoning\\ like\\ this\\ has\\ been\\ used\\ to\\ perpetrate\\ horrible\\ injustices\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ the\\ case\\ every\\ time\\ human\\ behavior\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ evolution\\ or\\ genetics\\.\\ Often\\ the\\ controversy\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ misunderstanding\\ of\\ biological\\ development\\,\\ or\\ a\\ misunderstanding\\ of\\ how\\ ethics\\ and\\ biology\\ are\\ related\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ a\\ great\\ talk\\ on\\ the\\ issue\\ by\\ Steven\\ Pinker\\ see\\ \\;\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.ted\\.com\\/index\\.php\\/talks\\/steven\\_pinker\\_chalks\\_it\\_up\\_to\\_the\\_blank\\_slate\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Common\\ fears\\ that\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ politicize\\ these\\ statements\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;if\\ something\\ is\\ innate\\ then\\ races\\,\\ ethnic\\ groups\\,\\ sexes\\,\\ or\\ individuals\\ might\\ differ\\ innately\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;if\\ there\\ are\\ differences\\ between\\ people\\ some\\ inequality\\ would\\ result\\ even\\ in\\ a\\ fair\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;if\\ there\\ are\\ differences\\ between\\ groups\\ discrimination\\ would\\ be\\ justified\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\These\\ leave\\ people\\ to\\ conclude\\ that\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;it\\ would\\ be\\ best\\ if\\ nothing\\ is\\ genetic\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ blank\\ slates\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Responses\\ to\\ these\\ irrational\\ fears\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Moralistic\\ Fallacy\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\the\\ Naturalistic\\ Fallacy\\ \\<\\/em\\>are\\ two\\ major\\ logical\\ errors\\ people\\ make\\ in\\ this\\ domain\\.\\ The\\ moralistic\\ fallacy\\ states\\ that\\ ought\\ implies\\ what\\ is\\,\\ so\\ if\\ we\\ want\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ blank\\ slates\\ we\\ should\\ just\\ say\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ and\\ that\\ will\\ make\\ it\\ so\\.\\ The\\ naturalistic\\ fallacy\\ states\\ that\\ what\\ is\\ implies\\ what\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\,\\ so\\ if\\ something\\ like\\ war\\ exists\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ evolutionary\\ inheritance\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ morally\\ justified\\.\\ The\\ main\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ line\\ of\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ commiting\\ a\\ moral\\ stance\\ to\\ a\\ scientific\\ stance\\.\\ This\\ has\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ incredibly\\ poor\\ judgement\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ when\\ people\\ have\\ tied\\ a\\ belief\\ of\\ what\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ a\\ belief\\ of\\ what\\ is\\,\\ because\\ if\\ the\\ world\\ turns\\ out\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ want\\,\\ the\\ moral\\ argument\\ crumbles\\.\\ When\\ moral\\ arguments\\ are\\ predicated\\ on\\ a\\ foundation\\ of\\ statements\\ about\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ they\\ are\\ susceptible\\ to\\ falsification\\.\\ If\\ the\\ world\\ turns\\ out\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ wish\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ then\\ the\\ moral\\ argument\\ no\\ longer\\ has\\ any\\ foundation\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ Catholic\\ church\\ has\\ lost\\ much\\ of\\ its\\ strength\\ due\\ to\\ its\\ historical\\ attempts\\ to\\ tie\\ its\\ belief\\ systems\\ in\\ with\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ exists\\ \\(such\\ as\\ the\\ earth\\ being\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ or\\ being\\ 6000\\ years\\ old\\,\\ or\\ the\\ rejection\\ of\\ evolution\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTying\\ a\\ moral\\ issue\\ like\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;men\\ and\\ women\\ should\\ have\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ in\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ what\\ the\\ world\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ like\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ gender\\ differences\\ are\\ arbitrary\\ social\\ constructions\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ dangerous\\ because\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ proven\\ false\\ the\\ moral\\ argument\\ falls\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ the\\ moral\\ argument\\ should\\ be\\ grounded\\ in\\ ethical\\ arguments\\ such\\ as\\,\\ \\"\\;men\\ and\\ women\\ should\\ have\\ equal\\ opportunity\\ in\\ society\\ because\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ morally\\ right\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ argument\\ does\\ not\\ hinge\\ on\\ a\\ given\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ so\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ science\\ uncovers\\,\\ it\\ still\\ stands\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nI\\ think\\ that\\ a\\ further\\ point\\ should\\ be\\ made\\ here\\ as\\ well\\ that\\ relates\\ to\\ people\\ working\\ on\\ controversial\\ ideas\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ underpinnings\\ of\\ rape\\.\\ This\\ research\\ has\\ been\\ maligned\\ by\\ many\\ people\\ as\\ immoral\\ or\\ sexist\\ or\\ whatever\\,\\ but\\ I\\ think\\ this\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ naturalistic\\ fallacy\\.\\ People\\ researching\\ this\\ do\\ not\\ think\\ that\\ just\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ in\\ our\\ nature\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ is\\ somehow\\ justified\\,\\ any\\ more\\ than\\ cancer\\ researchers\\ are\\ researching\\ cancer\\ to\\ justify\\ it\\ as\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ our\\ nature\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ People\\ studying\\ these\\ issues\\ are\\ attempting\\ to\\ understand\\ them\\,\\ because\\ through\\ understanding\\ comes\\ power\\.\\ People\\ study\\ rape\\ like\\ they\\ study\\ cancer\\,\\ to\\ understand\\ it\\ and\\ therefore\\ possibly\\ treat\\ and\\ prevent\\ it\\,\\ not\\ to\\ justify\\ it\\!\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nGenerally\\ findings\\ are\\ misunderstood\\ and\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ above\\ discussion\\ of\\ heritability\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ actually\\ gave\\ an\\ excellent\\ discussion\\ of\\ this\\ in\\ an\\ article\\ in\\ The\\ New\\ Republic\\ on\\ IQ\\ differences\\ in\\ Ashkenazi\\ Jews\\.\\ I\\ think\\ this\\ article\\ applies\\ many\\ of\\ this\\ class\\&rsquo\\;s\\ topics\\ to\\ real\\ research\\ and\\ actual\\ science\\.\\ The\\ article\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/pinker\\.wjh\\.harvard\\.edu\\/articles\\/media\\/2006\\_06\\_17\\_thenewrepublic\\.html\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWe\\ need\\ to\\ recognize\\ that\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\ are\\ very\\ different\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ mismatch\\ of\\ our\\ statistical\\ intuitions\\ and\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\.\\ Humans\\ understand\\ group\\ differences\\ intuitively\\ as\\ A\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ B\\ so\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ A\\ are\\ one\\ way\\ and\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ B\\ are\\ another\\,\\ when\\ in\\ fact\\ group\\ differences\\ in\\ things\\ like\\ IQ\\ are\\ overlapping\\ bell\\ curves\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ men\\ are\\ on\\ average\\ taller\\ than\\ women\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ taller\\ than\\ all\\ women\\,\\ in\\ fact\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ women\\ that\\ are\\ taller\\ than\\ most\\ men\\.\\ Individuals\\ do\\ not\\ themselves\\ reflect\\ group\\ differences\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWe\\ need\\ to\\ distinguish\\ fairness\\ from\\ sameness\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ people\\ vary\\ in\\ abilities\\,\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ treat\\ everyone\\ equivalently\\.\\ One\\ should\\ not\\ equate\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\ \\(lack\\ of\\ discrimination\\)\\ with\\ equality\\ of\\ outcome\\ \\(with\\ lack\\ of\\ discrimination\\ some\\ will\\ still\\ end\\ up\\ better\\ than\\ others\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ theoretical\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ liberal\\ political\\ system\\,\\ guided\\ by\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ based\\ in\\ a\\ market\\ economy\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ communism\\.\\ The\\ first\\ attempts\\ to\\ secure\\ equal\\ opportunity\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ attempts\\ to\\ secure\\ equal\\ outcome\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Relevance\\ to\\ gender\\ and\\ feminism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ are\\ group\\ differences\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ in\\ which\\ groups\\ show\\ small\\ average\\ differences\\ in\\ some\\ specific\\ traits\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ overlap\\ in\\ the\\ group\\ distribution\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ differences\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ all\\ 100\\%\\ learned\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ substantial\\ evidence\\ to\\ this\\ extent\\ including\\ cross\\-cultural\\ universality\\,\\ some\\ traits\\ seen\\ in\\ other\\ primates\\,\\ hormone\\ evidence\\,\\ and\\ medical\\ anomalies\\ in\\ which\\ boys\\ raised\\ as\\ girls\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\ that\\ later\\ feel\\ like\\ their\\ genetic\\ sex\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ their\\ environmentally\\-bestowed\\ gender\\.\\ This\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ understood\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ and\\ all\\ women\\ reflect\\ these\\ differences\\.\\ Just\\ like\\ many\\ women\\ are\\ taller\\ than\\ most\\ men\\ even\\ though\\ men\\ are\\ taller\\ on\\ average\\,\\ many\\ women\\ are\\ better\\ than\\ most\\ men\\ at\\ many\\ \\&ldquo\\;male\\ tasks\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ still\\ exists\\ much\\ gender\\ discrimination\\,\\ so\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ reconcile\\ feminism\\ and\\ sex\\ differences\\.\\ This\\ is\\ easily\\ distinguished\\ in\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ Equity\\ Feminism\\ and\\ Gender\\ Feminism\\.\\ \\Equity\\ feminism\\ \\<\\/em\\>states\\ that\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ may\\ be\\ different\\ but\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ equally\\,\\ and\\ \\Gender\\ feminism\\<\\/em\\>\\ states\\ that\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ are\\ essentially\\ the\\ same\\ except\\ for\\ arbitrary\\ gender\\ social\\ constructions\\ enforcing\\ male\\ domination\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ equality\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ showing\\ no\\ sex\\ differences\\.\\ Needless\\ to\\ say\\ lack\\ of\\ sex\\ differences\\ is\\ demonstrably\\ false\\,\\ so\\ this\\ essentially\\ rules\\ out\\ gender\\ feminism\\,\\ but\\ equity\\ feminism\\ still\\ leaves\\ the\\ moral\\ argument\\ intact\\.\\ As\\ an\\ interesting\\ side\\ note\\,\\ Evolutionary\\ Psychology\\ \\(and\\ its\\ predecessor\\,\\ Sociobiology\\)\\ has\\ historically\\ been\\ maligned\\ as\\ sexist\\ and\\ promoting\\ male\\ political\\ dominance\\,\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ scientific\\ field\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ proportion\\ of\\ women\\.\\ Two\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ founders\\ of\\ the\\ discipline\\ are\\ women\\,\\ Leda\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ Margo\\ Wilson\\,\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ outspoken\\ proponents\\ of\\ equity\\ feminism\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 5 (2/14/08)- Nature and Nurture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.490628+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 3 (2/7/08)- The Multi-level Biological Approach", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 382, "html": "\\This\\ lecture\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ modern\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\,\\ or\\ cognitive\\ science\\.\\ The\\ general\\ approach\\ integrates\\ findings\\ and\\ approaches\\ from\\ many\\ fields\\ including\\ biology\\ and\\ computer\\ science\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ artificial\\ intelligence\\.\\ In\\ this\\ approach\\ the\\ brain\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ information\\-processor\\,\\ \\(which\\ is\\ what\\ a\\ computer\\ does\\)\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ \\\"designed\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"engineered\\\"\\ by\\ evolution\\ \\(I\\ use\\ these\\ words\\ metaphorically\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ consciously\\ designed\\ as\\ is\\ explained\\ next\\ lecture\\)\\.\\ Information\\-processing\\ just\\ means\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ informational\\ inputs\\,\\ which\\ get\\ transformed\\ by\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ algorithms\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ generate\\ outputs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ our\\ body\\ all\\ major\\ organs\\ serve\\ a\\ specified\\ purpose\\:\\ our\\ hearts\\ are\\ pumps\\,\\ our\\ lungs\\ do\\ gas\\ exchange\\,\\ and\\ our\\ livers\\ are\\ filters\\.\\ The\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ to\\ process\\ information\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ computer\\ of\\ sorts\\ \\(although\\ nothing\\ like\\ an\\ IBM\\ or\\ an\\ Apple\\)\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ hardware\\ and\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ software\\.\\ This\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ specifies\\ that\\,\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ beliefs\\ of\\ many\\ neuroscientists\\,\\ the\\ answers\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\/does\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ couched\\ in\\ information\\ processing\\ terms\\,\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ physiological\\ terms\\.\\ We\\ all\\ think\\ these\\ levels\\ of\\ analysis\\ \\(brain\\/mind\\)\\ are\\ connected\\,\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ knows\\ how\\ yet\\.\\ So\\,\\ as\\ a\\ rough\\ analogy\\,\\ if\\ one\\ wanted\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ Adobe\\ Acrobat\\ works\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ especially\\ helpful\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ transistors\\,\\ or\\ how\\ current\\ behaves\\ in\\ circuit\\,\\ or\\ even\\ how\\ \\\"nand\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"nor\\\"\\ gates\\ work\\.\\ Instead\\ the\\ answer\\ would\\ be\\ at\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ abstraction\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ information\\-processing\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ inputs\\ to\\ the\\ program\\,\\ then\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ these\\ inputs\\ in\\ the\\ program\\,\\ what\\ does\\ one\\ get\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ how\\ is\\ the\\ user\\-interface\\ structured\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ cognitive\\ psychology\\ today\\,\\ to\\ reverse\\-engineer\\ the\\ information\\-processing\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ This\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ difficult\\ task\\ that\\ science\\ has\\ ever\\ taken\\ on\\ and\\ will\\ require\\ input\\ from\\ many\\ fields\\,\\ and\\ many\\ traditionally\\ isolated\\ fields\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ tied\\ together\\.\\ This\\ vision\\ is\\ outlined\\ in\\ E\\.O\\.\\ Wilson\\'s\\ inspirational\\ book\\ \\Consilience\\:\\ The\\ Unity\\ of\\ Knowledge\\<\\/a\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ must\\ read\\ for\\ anyone\\ interested\\ in\\ where\\ cognitive\\ science\\ is\\ going\\ today\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ linking\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ sciences\\ and\\ natural\\ sciences\\,\\ which\\ historically\\ have\\ carried\\ out\\ research\\ independently\\ of\\ each\\ other\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Science\\ of\\ Mind\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ psychology\\ one\\ sees\\ modern\\ cognitive\\ science\\ replacing\\ behaviorism\\ starting\\ with\\ Chomsky\\'s\\ critiques\\ of\\ Skinner\\'s\\ book\\,\\ \\Verbal\\ Behavior\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ were\\ initially\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 50\\'s\\.\\ Around\\ this\\ time\\ the\\ mind\\ started\\ to\\ be\\ studied\\ in\\ computational\\ terms\\ rather\\ than\\ stimulus\\-response\\ terms\\ \\(although\\ this\\ had\\ been\\ happening\\ in\\ perceptual\\ sciences\\ previously\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ often\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"Cognitive\\ Revolution\\.\\\"\\ Behaviorism\\ was\\ very\\ self\\-consciously\\ scientific\\,\\ and\\ was\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ psychology\\ back\\ into\\ science\\ after\\ Freudian\\ psychology\\ had\\ made\\ it\\ unscientific\\ as\\ explained\\ last\\ lecture\\.\\ The\\ rejection\\ of\\ mental\\ concepts\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ quantify\\ them\\ and\\ therefore\\ measure\\ them\\ scientifically\\.\\ After\\ the\\ invention\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ computer\\ around\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ mental\\ terms\\ could\\ finally\\ be\\ introduced\\ without\\ making\\ the\\ whole\\ enterprise\\ unscientific\\ as\\ Freud\\ did\\.\\ This\\ is\\ very\\ typical\\ in\\ biology\\,\\ that\\ scientists\\ cannot\\ understand\\ what\\ organisms\\ are\\ doing\\ \\(the\\ design\\ of\\ their\\ adaptations\\)\\ until\\ a\\ human\\ engineering\\ analogue\\ is\\ invented\\.\\ A\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ SONAR\\ in\\ bats\\,\\ which\\ was\\ not\\ understood\\ until\\ after\\ we\\ invented\\ SONAR\\ during\\ World\\ War\\ 2\\.\\ Psychology\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ followed\\ a\\ very\\ similar\\ trajectory\\,\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ didn\\'t\\ really\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ even\\ ask\\ the\\ right\\ questions\\ until\\ we\\ invented\\ something\\ that\\ was\\ an\\ engineering\\ analogue\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ The\\ invention\\ of\\ the\\ computer\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ put\\ mental\\ terms\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ psychology\\ without\\ being\\ unscientific\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ traditional\\ solution\\ to\\ how\\ mental\\ entities\\ \\(like\\ beliefs\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ which\\ do\\ not\\ really\\ physically\\ exist\\)\\ could\\ somehow\\ be\\ causes\\ in\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\ was\\ \\dualism\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ Dualism\\ is\\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ \\\"the\\ ghost\\ in\\ the\\ machine\\\"\\ and\\ it\\ essentially\\ says\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ parts\\ to\\ consciousness\\,\\ one\\ is\\ physical\\,\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ and\\ body\\,\\ and\\ works\\ mechanically\\ like\\ a\\ machine\\;\\ while\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ free\\ will\\ and\\ consciousness\\,\\ and\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ So\\ you\\ have\\ matter\\ \\(the\\ body\\)\\ and\\ mind\\ \\(the\\ soul\\)\\.\\ This\\ was\\ in\\ fact\\ a\\ pretty\\ solid\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ time\\,\\ but\\ is\\ now\\ outdated\\ because\\ through\\ computer\\ engineering\\ we\\ roughly\\ understand\\ how\\ physical\\ processes\\ can\\ create\\ these\\ ephemeral\\ entities\\ of\\ thought\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ major\\ problems\\ for\\ dualism\\ that\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ its\\ rejection\\,\\ the\\ first\\ is\\ really\\ paramount\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ how\\ this\\ non\\-material\\ entity\\ \\(the\\ soul\\)\\ could\\ possibly\\ interact\\ with\\ matter\\ \\(the\\ body\\)\\.\\ A\\ great\\ comic\\ was\\ shown\\ in\\ class\\ about\\ a\\ ghost\\ that\\ can\\ go\\ through\\ walls\\,\\ but\\ can\\ also\\ somehow\\ catch\\ a\\ falling\\ towel\\,\\ which\\ doesn\\'t\\ make\\ sense\\ that\\ sometimes\\ it\\ wouldn\\'t\\ interact\\ with\\ matter\\ \\(the\\ wall\\)\\ and\\ sometimes\\ would\\ \\(the\\ towel\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ dualism\\'s\\ fatal\\ flaw\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ second\\ criticism\\ as\\ well\\ that\\ the\\ mind\\ seems\\ intimately\\ connected\\ to\\ physical\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ as\\ shown\\ through\\ electrical\\ stimulation\\,\\ chemical\\ stimulation\\ \\(drugs\\)\\,\\ strokes\\,\\ surgeries\\,\\ concussions\\,\\ and\\ the\\ apparent\\ link\\ of\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ with\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ brain\\ as\\ information\\-processor\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ soul\\,\\ how\\ are\\ we\\ so\\ smart\\,\\ and\\ what\\ are\\ free\\-will\\ and\\ consciousness\\?\\ We\\ have\\ a\\ broad\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ these\\ questions\\,\\ and\\ are\\ starting\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ an\\ answer\\ may\\ look\\ like\\ for\\ the\\ other\\ two\\.\\ \\Information\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ pattern\\ in\\ matter\\ or\\ energy\\ that\\ correlates\\ with\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Information\\ theory\\ is\\ a\\ fairly\\ new\\ area\\ of\\ inquiry\\ and\\ is\\ influencing\\ many\\ branches\\ of\\ knowledge\\,\\ for\\ example\\ genes\\ and\\ DNA\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ information\\ or\\ as\\ molecules\\ \\(both\\ conceptualizations\\ are\\ correct\\ but\\ focus\\ on\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ what\\ DNA\\ does\\)\\.\\ In\\ information\\-processing\\ terms\\ \\beliefs\\ \\<\\/em\\>are\\ information\\ representation\\ states\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\\\ Thinking\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\/are\\ the\\ transformations\\ of\\ representations\\ into\\ other\\ representations\\ \\(these\\ would\\ be\\ called\\ \\algorithms\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ computer\\ science\\,\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ the\\ term\\ please\\ go\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Algorithm\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ \\Desires\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ feedback\\ loops\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ most\\ easily\\ conceptualized\\ as\\ an\\ analogy\\ with\\ a\\ thermostat\\.\\ Essentially\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ desired\\ \\goal\\ state\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(such\\ as\\ 68\\ degrees\\ F\\)\\,\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ \\current\\ state\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(such\\ as\\ 65\\ degrees\\ F\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ defined\\ \\operation\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(turn\\ on\\ heater\\)\\ that\\ brings\\ these\\ two\\ states\\ closer\\ together\\.\\ You\\ may\\ also\\ notice\\ that\\ we\\ use\\ mentalistic\\ terms\\ with\\ computers\\ as\\ well\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"it\\ doesn\\'t\\ \\know\\<\\/em\\>\\ you\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ print\\,\\\"\\ \\\"it\\ doesn\\'t\\ \\want\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ let\\ me\\ italicize\\,\\\"\\ \\\"it\\'s\\ \\trying\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ find\\ the\\ file\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ of\\ great\\ importance\\ because\\ it\\ brings\\ mental\\ life\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\,\\ and\\ dualism\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ necessary\\ nor\\ are\\ extreme\\ claims\\ like\\ behaviorism\\'s\\ denial\\ of\\ mentality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ brains\\ are\\ not\\ literally\\ computers\\ \\(in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ that\\ refers\\ to\\ PCs\\,\\ turing\\ machines\\,\\ and\\ Von\\ Neumann\\ Architectures\\)\\ as\\ many\\ critics\\ have\\ pointed\\ out\\,\\ but\\ these\\ criticisms\\ really\\ miss\\ the\\ point\\.\\ I\\ will\\ use\\ the\\ term\\ \\\"computer\\\"\\ interchangeably\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ obvious\\ whether\\ by\\ \\\"computer\\\"\\ I\\ mean\\ \\\"PC\\ or\\ IBM\\ or\\ Apple\\\"\\,\\ or\\ I\\ mean\\ \\\"system\\ that\\ does\\ computation\\/information\\ processing\\.\\\"\\ No\\ one\\ believes\\ that\\ your\\ brain\\ is\\ identical\\ to\\ your\\ PC\\,\\ just\\ as\\ no\\ one\\ believes\\ that\\ an\\ eye\\ works\\ like\\ a\\ Kodak\\,\\ but\\ they\\ share\\ many\\ design\\ principles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fundamental\\ functions\\ are\\ the\\ same\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\ an\\ information\\-processor\\ like\\ a\\ computer\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\Computational\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ is\\ foundational\\ to\\ modern\\ cognitive\\ science\\.\\ This\\ is\\ well\\ explained\\,\\ complete\\ with\\ David\\ Marr\\'s\\ three\\ levels\\ of\\ analysis\\ at\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Computational\\_theory\\_of\\_mind\\\r\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Criticisms\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\ usually\\ point\\ out\\ differences\\ between\\ PCs\\ and\\ cognition\\ such\\ as\\:\\ computers\\ are\\ digital\\,\\ mental\\ processing\\ is\\ mostly\\ analogue\\ \\(presumably\\ anyways\\,\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ completely\\ know\\)\\;\\ computers\\ are\\ serial\\,\\ mental\\ processing\\ is\\ parallel\\;\\ computer\\ transistors\\ and\\ circuits\\ are\\ very\\ reliable\\ but\\ neurons\\ aren\\'t\\;\\ computers\\ deal\\ with\\ information\\ in\\ very\\ different\\ ways\\ than\\ brains\\ \\(that\\'s\\ why\\ computers\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ long\\ lists\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ complex\\ detailed\\ calculations\\,\\ but\\ bad\\ at\\ spatial\\ perception\\,\\ speech\\ perception\\,\\ and\\ almost\\ everything\\ that\\ seems\\ easy\\ to\\ us\\)\\.\\ These\\ criticisms\\ really\\ miss\\ the\\ point\\ because\\ the\\ Computational\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ brains\\ and\\ PCs\\ are\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\ of\\ task\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ an\\ eye\\ and\\ a\\ camera\\ have\\ many\\ similarities\\,\\ no\\ one\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ eye\\ and\\ camera\\ are\\ the\\ same\\,\\ or\\ that\\ they\\ accomplish\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ just\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ using\\ the\\ same\\ engineering\\ principles\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ neural\\ tissue\\ through\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ Natural\\ selection\\ can\\ only\\ \\\"see\\\"\\ and\\ therefore\\ act\\ on\\ an\\ organism\\'s\\ resulting\\ behavior\\.\\ So\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ designed\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ organisms\\ behavioral\\ adaptedness\\ to\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\,\\ through\\ the\\ behavior\\ generated\\ by\\ its\\ information\\ processing\\ \\\"programs\\,\\\"\\ technically\\ called\\ \\domain\\-specific\\ modules\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ That\\ was\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ technical\\ jargon\\,\\ so\\ check\\ this\\ out\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ unclear\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Modularity\\_of\\_mind\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(especially\\ the\\ paragraph\\ under\\ \\\"evolutionary\\ psychology\\,\\\"\\ the\\ paragraph\\ referring\\ to\\ Fodor\\ is\\ not\\ completely\\ relevant\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ note\\ on\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ will\\ usually\\ add\\ my\\ own\\ comments\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ but\\ I\\ thought\\ this\\ seemed\\ more\\ fitting\\ here\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ itself\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ theme\\ in\\ cognitive\\ science\\ and\\ should\\ make\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ concepts\\ easier\\ to\\ understand\\.\\ Many\\ fields\\ and\\ things\\ are\\ understood\\ on\\ multiple\\ levels\\ of\\ abstration\\.\\ Roughly\\,\\ it\\ usually\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ sum\\ up\\ parts\\ and\\ describe\\ systems\\ wholistically\\ as\\ the\\ parts\\ increase\\ in\\ number\\ due\\ to\\ describing\\ bigger\\ and\\ bigger\\ things\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ an\\ airplane\\ wing\\ can\\ be\\ \\(and\\ is\\)\\ thought\\ about\\ on\\ many\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\,\\ and\\ we\\ understand\\ them\\ all\\ to\\ connect\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ relevant\\ to\\ different\\ engineering\\ specialists\\ and\\ explanations\\ at\\ the\\ different\\ levels\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ different\\ despite\\ their\\ obvious\\ continuous\\ causal\\ connections\\.\\ The\\ wing\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ atoms\\ and\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ the\\ material\\ chemist\\ knows\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ this\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ especially\\ relevant\\ to\\ making\\ larger\\ parts\\,\\ like\\ flaps\\.\\ To\\ make\\ flaps\\ properties\\ of\\ materials\\ must\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\,\\ but\\ the\\ engineer\\ is\\ not\\ thinking\\ explicitly\\ about\\ metal\\ atoms\\ or\\ electrons\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ overall\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ wing\\ will\\ be\\ thought\\ out\\ as\\ a\\ shape\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ physical\\ laws\\ of\\ lift\\,\\ drag\\,\\ and\\ gravity\\,\\ without\\ any\\ consideration\\,\\ necessarily\\ of\\ one\\ small\\ part\\ or\\ the\\ materials\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ not\\ how\\ electrons\\ are\\ bonding\\ the\\ metal\\ atoms\\ together\\.\\ These\\ are\\ all\\ interrelated\\,\\ but\\ an\\ airplane\\ wing\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ on\\ many\\ different\\ levels\\ from\\ quarks\\,\\ to\\ atoms\\,\\ to\\ molecules\\,\\ to\\ materials\\,\\ to\\ shapes\\,\\ to\\ the\\ physics\\ of\\ flight\\.\\ A\\ great\\ explanation\\ of\\ abstraction\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ following\\ \\(see\\ especially\\ \\\"levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\\"\\)\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Abstraction\\_\\%28computer\\_science\\%29\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Psychology\\ can\\ likewise\\ be\\ understood\\ on\\ many\\ levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\ from\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ to\\ neurons\\,\\ to\\ neural\\ networks\\,\\ to\\ brain\\ anatomy\\ and\\ physiology\\,\\ to\\ simple\\ transduction\\ mechanisms\\ \\(converting\\ physical\\ stimulus\\ to\\ nerve\\ impulses\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ eye\\)\\,\\ to\\ various\\ levels\\ of\\ information\\-processing\\ models\\,\\ to\\ behavior\\.\\ Cognitive\\ science\\ and\\ this\\ class\\ will\\ primarily\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ highest\\ levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\,\\ but\\ evidence\\ will\\ be\\ pulled\\ in\\ from\\ almost\\ all\\ levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\,\\ furthermore\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ remembered\\ that\\ usually\\ a\\ phenomenon\\ has\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ explanation\\ stemming\\ from\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\ and\\ all\\ can\\ be\\ correct\\ despite\\ being\\ very\\ different\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Different\\ levels\\ of\\ understanding\\ the\\ mind\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ mentions\\ 5\\ specific\\ levels\\ of\\ abstraction\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\ studied\\ and\\ understood\\,\\ but\\ these\\ should\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ rough\\ groupings\\ with\\ subdivisions\\ within\\ them\\ and\\ many\\ relations\\ between\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Neurobiology\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(or\\ neuroscience\\,\\ or\\ psychobiology\\,\\ it\\ has\\ many\\ names\\)\\ is\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ neurons\\,\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ and\\ the\\ physiology\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ corresponding\\ to\\ the\\ \\\"\\hardware\\<\\/em\\>\\\"\\ in\\ a\\ computer\\.\\ This\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ \\proximate\\ level\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ explanation\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Information\\-processing\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ inputs\\,\\ representations\\,\\ algorithms\\ \\,\\ and\\ outputs\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ corresponding\\ to\\ the\\ \\\"\\software\\<\\/em\\>\\\"\\ in\\ a\\ computer\\.\\ This\\ also\\ corresponds\\ to\\ what\\ will\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ \\proximate\\ \\<\\/em\\>level\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ explanation\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Evolutionary\\ function\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ design\\ process\\ \\(evolution\\)\\ works\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ specifically\\ would\\ have\\ designed\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\.\\ This\\ would\\ correspond\\ to\\ studying\\ the\\ engineering\\ or\\ \\\\\"design\\ process\\<\\/em\\>\\\"\\ in\\ a\\ computer\\.\\ This\\ will\\ correspond\\ to\\ what\\ will\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ \\ultimate\\<\\/em\\>\\ level\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ explanation\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Phylogeny\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ This\\ could\\ weakly\\ correspond\\ to\\ studying\\ the\\ \\\"\\history\\<\\/em\\>\\\"\\ of\\ various\\ computer\\ devices\\,\\ but\\ the\\ computer\\ analogy\\ begins\\ to\\ break\\ down\\ here\\ because\\ PCs\\ only\\ evolve\\ conceptually\\,\\ but\\ not\\ through\\ natural\\ selection\\ like\\ the\\ mind\\ and\\ brain\\.\\ This\\ also\\ corresponds\\ the\\ the\\ \\ultimate\\ level\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ explanation\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Ontogeny\\ \\<\\/em\\>refers\\ to\\ \\development\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ analogy\\ to\\ computers\\ here\\ because\\ PCs\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ box\\ in\\ the\\ physical\\ state\\ they\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ in\\ \\(apart\\ from\\ some\\ changes\\ in\\ gates\\)\\ unless\\ pieces\\ are\\ added\\ or\\ lost\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ develop\\ like\\ biological\\ systems\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\It\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ these\\ refer\\ to\\ what\\ Niko\\ Tinbergen\\ called\\ the\\ four\\ areas\\ of\\ inquiry\\ in\\ biology\\:\\ \\Mechanism\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(neurobiology\\ and\\ information\\-processing\\)\\,\\ \\Adaptation\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(evolutionary\\ function\\)\\,\\ \\Phylogeny\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(same\\ as\\ above\\:\\ evolutionary\\ history\\)\\,\\ \\Ontogeny\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(same\\ as\\ above\\:\\ development\\ of\\ an\\ organism\\)\\.\\ Randolph\\ Nesse\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ great\\ table\\ of\\ these\\:\\\r\\\\\\\\How\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ mind\\ in\\ this\\ framework\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\My\\ favorite\\ explanation\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ given\\ by\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ Tooby\\ in\\ their\\ evolutionary\\ psychology\\ primer\\ so\\ here\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ html\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Evolutionary\\ psychology\\ primer\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ great\\ resource\\ for\\ more\\ information\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ UC\\ Santa\\ Barbara\\'s\\ Center\\ for\\ Evolutionary\\ Psychology\\ \\(which\\ is\\ where\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ Tooby\\ work\\,\\ and\\ where\\ the\\ primer\\ comes\\ from\\)\\.\\ You\\ can\\ go\\ there\\ through\\ this\\ link\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.psych\\.ucsb\\.edu\\/research\\/cep\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ class\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ discusses\\ two\\ examples\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\,\\ one\\ is\\ primarily\\ neurobiological\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ is\\ information\\-processing\\.\\ The\\ first\\ example\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ primarily\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ left\\ hemisphere\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ explains\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ study\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ information\\ representation\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ letter\\ \\\"A\\\"\\ is\\ represented\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Neurobiological\\ evidence\\ for\\ language\\ being\\ localized\\ in\\ the\\ left\\ hemisphere\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ claim\\ comes\\ from\\ many\\ sources\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ physical\\ variation\\ \\(especially\\ among\\ people\\ that\\ are\\ left\\-handed\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Neurophysiological\\ syndromes\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ aphasias\\ \\(speech\\ disorders\\)\\ result\\ from\\ damage\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ hemisphere\\.\\ Normal\\ function\\ is\\ often\\ studied\\ in\\ cognitive\\ science\\ through\\ disorders\\ and\\ seeing\\ how\\ things\\ go\\ wrong\\.\\ This\\ approach\\ is\\ often\\ used\\ to\\ delineate\\ what\\ counts\\ as\\ \\\"separate\\ mental\\ functions\\.\\\"\\ For\\ example\\ many\\ visual\\ disorders\\ show\\ very\\ specific\\ impairment\\ of\\ abilities\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ recognize\\ faces\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\ face\\-recognition\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ general\\ visual\\ processes\\,\\ but\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ specialized\\ module\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Dichoptic\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(two\\ visual\\ fields\\)\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>or\\ \\dichotic\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(two\\ ears\\)\\ presentation\\.\\ This\\ consists\\ of\\ giving\\ a\\ person\\ two\\ different\\ stimuli\\ in\\ each\\ ear\\ or\\ each\\ visual\\ field\\ \\(right\\ or\\ left\\ side\\)\\.\\ If\\ two\\ words\\ are\\ flashed\\ simultaneously\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ and\\ left\\ visual\\ field\\ the\\ one\\ flashed\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ visual\\ field\\ will\\ be\\ easier\\ to\\ articulate\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ \\contralateral\\<\\/em\\>\\ wiring\\ in\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ the\\ left\\ brain\\ controls\\ and\\ sees\\ the\\ right\\ side\\,\\ so\\ a\\ word\\ flashed\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ left\\ hemisphere\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\A\\ related\\ technique\\ relies\\ on\\ split\\-brain\\ patients\\.\\ \\Split\\-brain\\ patients\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ people\\ whose\\ hemispheres\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ communicate\\ very\\ well\\ due\\ to\\ having\\ their\\ \\corpus\\ collosum\\<\\/em\\>\\ severed\\.\\ So\\ a\\ psychologist\\ will\\ flash\\ a\\ picture\\ in\\ the\\ left\\ visual\\ field\\ of\\ a\\ split\\ brain\\ patient\\ \\(which\\ feeds\\ into\\ the\\ right\\ hemisphere\\)\\,\\ and\\ ask\\ them\\ what\\ it\\ was\\.\\ People\\ can\\ pick\\ the\\ object\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ objects\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ say\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ object\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ \\Wada\\ Test\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ where\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ anesthetized\\ using\\ barbiturates\\ such\\ as\\ sodium\\ amytal\\ or\\ sodium\\ amobarbitol\\ injected\\ into\\ the\\ carotid\\ artery\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ or\\ the\\ other\\.\\ This\\ will\\ essentially\\ put\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ sleep\\ so\\ the\\ functions\\ that\\ then\\ drop\\ out\\ can\\ be\\ inferred\\ to\\ reside\\ in\\ that\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ put\\ to\\ sleep\\.\\ You\\ can\\ check\\ out\\ this\\ site\\ for\\ more\\ information\\:\\ \\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Wada\\_test\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Neuroimaging\\<\\/em\\>\\ studies\\ such\\ as\\ fMRI\\ can\\ show\\ that\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ hemisphere\\ \\\"light\\ up\\\"\\ when\\ using\\ language\\,\\ such\\ as\\ inflecting\\ verbs\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ converting\\ \\\"walk\\\"\\ to\\ \\\"walked\\\"\\)\\.\\ What\\ fMRI\\ shows\\ is\\ regional\\ cerebral\\ blood\\ flow\\ or\\ rCBF\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ what\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ are\\ active\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ mentions\\ fMRI\\ research\\ he\\ did\\ with\\ Ned\\ Sahin\\ showing\\ that\\ when\\ people\\ mentally\\ convert\\ \\\"walk\\\"\\ to\\ \\\"walked\\\"\\ parts\\ of\\ their\\ left\\ hemisphere\\ show\\ lots\\ of\\ activity\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Michael\\ Posner\\ experiment\\ as\\ exemplar\\ of\\ information\\-processing\\ research\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ natural\\ question\\ arises\\,\\ how\\ does\\ one\\ study\\ the\\ information\\-processing\\ structure\\ \\(the\\ software\\)\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ directly\\ observable\\?\\ To\\ do\\ this\\,\\ models\\ are\\ made\\,\\ which\\ generate\\ falsifiable\\ \\(and\\ therefore\\ testable\\)\\ predictions\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ studied\\ in\\ this\\ area\\ such\\ as\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ informational\\ inputs\\ feeding\\ into\\ a\\ system\\,\\ how\\ is\\ the\\ information\\ represented\\,\\ what\\ algorithms\\ are\\ these\\ representations\\ subjected\\ to\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ The\\ Posner\\ experiment\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ study\\ trying\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ information\\ is\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ It\\ should\\ be\\ stated\\ that\\ this\\ study\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ difficult\\ to\\ understand\\ because\\ the\\ experiment\\ itself\\ is\\ using\\ measures\\ not\\ directly\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ it\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ study\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ very\\ typical\\ of\\ research\\ on\\ information\\-processing\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ cognitive\\ research\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\ and\\ I\\ highly\\ recommend\\ making\\ sure\\ you\\ understand\\ it\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ general\\ nature\\ of\\ research\\ on\\ cognition\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Posner\\ experiment\\ sets\\ out\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ we\\ represent\\ letters\\ in\\ thought\\,\\ is\\ it\\ spatial\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ connecting\\ lines\\)\\?\\ \\ or\\ semantic\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ concept\\ \\\"the\\ letter\\ \\'A\\'\\\"\\)\\?\\ This\\ study\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ difficult\\ to\\ understand\\ if\\ one\\ is\\ not\\ used\\ to\\ analyzing\\ cognitive\\ research\\,\\ so\\ I\\ will\\ keep\\ it\\ as\\ simple\\ as\\ possible\\ and\\ not\\ entertain\\ details\\ that\\ add\\ complexity\\ to\\ the\\ design\\ or\\ interpretation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ study\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ letters\\ flashed\\ upon\\ a\\ screen\\,\\ which\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ set\\ A\\,a\\,B\\,\\ and\\ b\\.\\ The\\ two\\ letters\\ are\\ either\\ flashed\\ simultaneously\\ or\\ after\\ a\\ short\\ delay\\.\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ two\\ \\independent\\ variables\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ letters\\ \\(same\\ or\\ different\\)\\ and\\ lag\\-time\\ vs\\.\\ no\\ lag\\-time\\.\\ The\\ subject\\ is\\ told\\ to\\ push\\ a\\ button\\ saying\\ either\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ letters\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ or\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ different\\.\\ The\\ measured\\ or\\ \\dependent\\ variable\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ how\\ long\\ it\\ takes\\ them\\ to\\ respond\\,\\ or\\ their\\ \\reaction\\ time\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ important\\ finding\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ \\\"A\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"a\\\"\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ a\\ semantic\\ representation\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ spatial\\ representation\\,\\ so\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ reaction\\ time\\ between\\ A\\/A\\ vs\\.\\ A\\/a\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ spatial\\ differences\\ and\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ represented\\ spatially\\;\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ reaction\\ time\\ between\\ A\\/A\\ and\\ A\\/a\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ which\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ the\\ semantic\\ representation\\.\\ When\\ the\\ stimulus\\ sets\\ A\\/A\\ and\\ A\\/a\\ are\\ flashed\\ on\\ the\\ screen\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ it\\ takes\\ people\\ about\\ 430\\ milliseconds\\ to\\ say\\ \\\"same\\\"\\ for\\ A\\/A\\ but\\ about\\ 525\\ milliseconds\\ to\\ say\\ \\\"same\\\"\\ for\\ A\\/a\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ representing\\ the\\ \\\"A\\\"\\ spatially\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ map\\ it\\ quicker\\.\\ If\\,\\ however\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ 1\\/2\\ second\\ lag\\-time\\ between\\ when\\ they\\ see\\ the\\ first\\ A\\ and\\ then\\ when\\ they\\ see\\ the\\ second\\ stimulus\\,\\ either\\ A\\ or\\ a\\,\\ then\\ this\\ difference\\ in\\ reaction\\ times\\ disappears\\.\\ So\\,\\ after\\ 1\\/2\\ second\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ format\\,\\ which\\ means\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ being\\ represented\\ semantically\\ \\(where\\ they\\ are\\ similar\\)\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ spatially\\ \\(where\\ they\\ are\\ dissimilar\\)\\.\\ We\\ know\\ this\\ because\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ reaction\\ times\\ disappears\\ once\\ a\\ half\\-second\\ lag\\-time\\ is\\ introduced\\ between\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\ stimuli\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ easily\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ graph\\ presented\\ in\\ class\\ that\\ I\\ have\\ added\\ below\\.\\ What\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ this\\ graph\\ is\\ the\\ time\\ on\\ the\\ x\\-axis\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ difference\\ in\\ reaction\\ times\\ when\\ the\\ interval\\ is\\ zero\\ seconds\\,\\ but\\ that\\ this\\ difference\\ begins\\ to\\ disappear\\ when\\ the\\ lag\\ time\\ is\\ half\\ a\\ second\\.\\ Again\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ reaction\\ times\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ concerned\\ about\\,\\ not\\ any\\ absolute\\ reaction\\ time\\ \\(although\\ it\\ is\\ revealing\\ that\\ it\\ also\\ takes\\ about\\ half\\ a\\ second\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ A\\ and\\ a\\ are\\ the\\ same\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 3 (2/7/08)- The Multi-level Biological Approach"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.513361+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 6 (2/19/08)- The Human Brain", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 383, "html": "\\\\The\\ Astonishing\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\"\\The\\ Astonishing\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/em\\>\\\"\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ our\\ beliefs\\,\\ desires\\,\\ feelings\\,\\ and\\ thinking\\ are\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ is\\ the\\ engine\\ of\\ reason\\ and\\ the\\ seat\\ of\\ what\\ has\\ traditionally\\ been\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ obvious\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ very\\ persistent\\ fallacy\\,\\ namely\\,\\ the\\ \\\"\\brain\\-as\\-PDA\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\fallacy\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\"\\ This\\ fallacy\\ is\\ that\\ your\\ brain\\ is\\ like\\ your\\ personal\\ digital\\ assistant\\ that\\ stores\\ your\\ memories\\,\\ does\\ calculations\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ misses\\ the\\ point\\ that\\ you\\ ARE\\ your\\ brain\\,\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ had\\ a\\ brain\\ transplant\\ you\\ WOULD\\ BE\\ a\\ different\\ person\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ nervous\\ system\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ brain\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ complex\\ organ\\,\\ and\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ complex\\ thing\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ of\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\.\\ It\\ consists\\ of\\ trillions\\ of\\ \\neurons\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ brain\\ cells\\.\\ \\Nerves\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ neurons\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ rather\\,\\ nerves\\ are\\ collections\\ of\\ neurons\\,\\ or\\ their\\ parts\\.\\ A\\ neuron\\ receives\\ information\\ from\\ its\\ \\dendrites\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ transmits\\ information\\ through\\ its\\ \\axon\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ axon\\ is\\ covered\\ in\\ myelin\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ the\\\\ myelin\\ sheath\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ helps\\ the\\ axon\\ pass\\ its\\ \\action\\ potential\\<\\/em\\>\\ faster\\.\\ The\\ nervous\\ system\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ having\\ three\\ major\\ distinctions\\:\\ inputs\\ or\\ receptors\\,\\ outputs\\ or\\ motor\\ neurons\\ that\\ interact\\ with\\ muscles\\,\\ and\\ interneurons\\ where\\ computation\\ happens\\ at\\ the\\ synapses\\.\\ \\ The\\ nervous\\ system\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ the\\ spinal\\ cord\\,\\ and\\ the\\ nerves\\ that\\ permeate\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Again\\,\\ nerves\\ are\\ collections\\ of\\ neurons\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ basic\\ divisions\\ of\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ are\\ hierarchical\\ and\\ start\\ with\\ the\\ \\peripheral\\<\\/em\\>\\/\\central\\ \\<\\/em\\>distinction\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ and\\ spinal\\ cord\\ are\\ the\\ central\\ nervous\\ system\\,\\ and\\ the\\ peripheral\\ nervous\\ system\\ is\\ everything\\ else\\.\\ The\\ peripheral\\ nervous\\ system\\ is\\ the\\ subdivided\\ into\\ the\\\\ skeletal\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(this\\ controls\\ your\\ voluntary\\ muscles\\)\\ and\\ the\\ \\autonomic\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(this\\ controls\\ automatic\\ behaviors\\ like\\ your\\ heart\\ beating\\,\\ digestion\\,\\ and\\ hormone\\ release\\)\\.\\ The\\ autonomic\\ system\\ is\\ then\\ again\\ subdivided\\ into\\ the\\ \\sympathetic\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(fight\\ or\\ flight\\)\\ and\\ the\\ \\parasympathetic\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(resting\\ and\\ digesting\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ \\brainstem\\<\\/em\\>\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ \\pons\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\\\ medulla\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ pons\\ and\\ medulla\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ basic\\ body\\ functions\\ like\\ your\\ heart\\ beating\\,\\ breathing\\,\\ digestion\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Above\\ the\\ brainstem\\ sit\\ the\\ \\midbrain\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\\\ thalamus\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>The\\ midbrain\\ is\\ complicated\\ and\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ responsible\\ for\\ knowing\\ what\\ it\\ does\\.\\ The\\ thalamus\\ is\\ the\\ brain\\'s\\ relay\\ station\\:\\ info\\ comes\\ in\\ and\\ gets\\ redirected\\ out\\ to\\ where\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ go\\,\\ and\\ then\\ outgoing\\ information\\ gets\\ fed\\ back\\ in\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ cerebrum\\ is\\ everything\\ above\\ the\\ midbrain\\ and\\ brainstem\\,\\ it\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ \\cerebrum\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ the\\ \\cerebral\\ cortex\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ cortex\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ outside\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ cerebrum\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ is\\ so\\ wrinkled\\ to\\ increase\\ its\\ surface\\ area\\ without\\ increasing\\ it\\ volume\\ too\\ much\\,\\ this\\ increases\\ computational\\ power\\,\\ while\\ minimizing\\ risk\\ of\\ injury\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNeurons\\ are\\ wired\\ together\\ to\\ form\\ \\neural\\ networks\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ these\\ networks\\ that\\ are\\ wholistically\\ productive\\ and\\ responsible\\ for\\ thought\\.\\ This\\ brings\\ up\\ the\\ debate\\ from\\ neuroscience\\ over\\ \\localization\\<\\/em\\>\\ vs\\.\\ \\mass\\ action\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ localization\\ is\\ that\\ psychological\\ functions\\ are\\ spatially\\ localized\\ in\\ specific\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ Karl\\ Lashley\\ studied\\ this\\ by\\ searching\\ for\\ the\\ \\engram\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ the\\ neural\\ basis\\ of\\ memory\\.\\ He\\ did\\ this\\ by\\ cutting\\ lesions\\ in\\ rats\\ brains\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ part\\ he\\ could\\ cut\\ where\\ the\\ rat\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ run\\ the\\ maze\\.\\ He\\ found\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ localized\\,\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ he\\ cut\\ the\\ worse\\ they\\ got\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ \\\"maze\\-engram\\\"\\ localized\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ He\\ used\\ this\\ result\\ to\\ infer\\ \\mass\\ action\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ thought\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ brain\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWhat\\ can\\ be\\ known\\ from\\ Lashley\\'s\\ research\\ is\\ that\\ strict\\ localization\\ is\\ not\\ correct\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ any\\ moderately\\ complex\\ thought\\ \\(like\\ maze\\-running\\)\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ sub\\-faculties\\ and\\ a\\ network\\ of\\ brain\\ areas\\.\\ No\\ complex\\ integrated\\ behavior\\ like\\ maze\\-running\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ localized\\ in\\ one\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ but\\ the\\ brain\\ does\\ have\\ astounding\\ specificity\\ for\\ specific\\ functions\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"Jennifer\\ Aniston\\ cell\\\"\\ that\\ was\\ found\\ in\\ one\\ man\\'s\\ temporal\\ lobe\\ which\\ fired\\ to\\ pictures\\ of\\ Jennifer\\ Aniston\\.\\ There\\ is\\ more\\ on\\ this\\ topic\\ and\\ the\\ \\\"Jennifer\\ Aniston\\ cell\\\"\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.newscientist\\.com\\/article\\.ns\\?id\\=dn7567\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIt\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ domain\\-specificity\\,\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ specialized\\ information\\-processing\\ module\\,\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ confused\\ with\\ localization\\,\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ process\\ that\\ is\\ localized\\ spatially\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ Domain\\-specificity\\ or\\ modularity\\ is\\ an\\ information\\-processing\\ concept\\,\\ and\\ localization\\ is\\ a\\ neurobiological\\ concept\\,\\ and\\ just\\ because\\ a\\ mental\\ module\\ is\\ domain\\-specific\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ it\\ is\\ necessarily\\ localized\\ in\\ one\\ location\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ cerebrum\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ cerebrum\\ has\\ 4\\ lobes\\ the\\ \\occipital\\ lobe\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ \\parietal\\ lobe\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ \\temporal\\ lobe\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\frontal\\ lobe\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ occipital\\ lobe\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ and\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ vision\\.\\ The\\ temporal\\ lobe\\ is\\ \\ behind\\ the\\ temples\\ and\\ ears\\.\\ The\\ frontal\\ lobe\\ is\\ in\\ front\\,\\ and\\ the\\ parietal\\ lobe\\ sits\\ between\\ the\\ frontal\\ and\\ occipital\\ lobes\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ major\\ fissures\\:\\ the\\ \\sylvian\\ fissure\\<\\/em\\>\\ separating\\ the\\ temporal\\ lobe\\ from\\ everything\\ else\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\central\\ fissure\\<\\/em\\>\\ which\\ runs\\ roughly\\ from\\ ear\\ to\\ ear\\ over\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ The\\ \\primary\\ motor\\ cortex\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ the\\ \\somatosensory\\ cortex\\<\\/em\\>\\ sit\\ on\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ sulcus\\ \\(the\\ central\\ fissure\\=the\\ central\\ sulcus\\)\\.\\ Wilder\\ Penfield\\ was\\ a\\ neurosurgeon\\ who\\ discovered\\ these\\ areas\\ while\\ doing\\ open\\-skull\\ surgery\\.\\ There\\ are\\ no\\ nerves\\ on\\ the\\ brain\\ so\\ this\\ surgery\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ while\\ the\\ patient\\ is\\ awake\\.\\ He\\ would\\ stimulate\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ electrically\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ patient\\ would\\ move\\ involuntarily\\,\\ or\\ feel\\ something\\ in\\ some\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ these\\ two\\ areas\\ were\\ mapped\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ image\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ amount\\ of\\ brain\\ that\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ body\\ parts\\ does\\ not\\ correlate\\ with\\ the\\ actual\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ parts\\.\\ If\\ the\\ body\\ parts\\ were\\ proportional\\ in\\ size\\ to\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ brain\\ matter\\ devoted\\ to\\ them\\ we\\ would\\ look\\ like\\ this\\:\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nAs\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ brain\\/mind\\ connections\\ he\\ introduces\\ Broca\\'s\\ aphasia\\ which\\ results\\ from\\ damage\\ to\\ Broca\\'s\\ area\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ massive\\ overgeneralization\\,\\ but\\ in\\ this\\ aphasia\\ people\\ lack\\ grammar\\ but\\ have\\ semantics\\.\\ In\\ Wernicke\\'s\\ aphasia\\,\\ which\\ results\\ from\\ damage\\ to\\ Wernicke\\'s\\ area\\,\\ people\\ lack\\ semantics\\ but\\ have\\ grammar\\ \\(again\\ a\\ massive\\ overgeneralization\\)\\.\\ The\\ video\\ below\\ this\\ paragraph\\ is\\ a\\ person\\ with\\ Wernicke\\'s\\ aphasia\\ and\\ the\\ one\\ above\\ is\\ a\\ person\\ with\\ Broca\\'s\\ aphasia\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Visual\\ System\\<\\/strong\\>To\\ some\\ extent\\ there\\ is\\ \\topographical\\ mapping\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ the\\ primary\\ visual\\ cortex\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ brain\\ areas\\ do\\ somewhat\\ reflect\\ the\\ shape\\ that\\ one\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ grid\\,\\ your\\ brain\\ will\\ show\\ somewhat\\ grid\\-like\\ firing\\ patterns\\.\\ This\\ is\\ quite\\ amazing\\ because\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ upside\\-down\\ retinal\\ image\\ paradox\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ by\\ any\\ means\\ necessary\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ there\\ is\\ probably\\ topographical\\ mapping\\ in\\ the\\ visual\\ cortex\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ easy\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ pattern\\ extraction\\,\\ not\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ or\\ the\\ only\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ problem\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ visual\\ system\\ alone\\ is\\ staggeringly\\ complex\\ with\\ many\\ interconnected\\ areas\\.\\ Our\\ sense\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ unified\\ visual\\ field\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ us\\ \\(like\\ a\\ picture\\ or\\ movie\\)\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ illusion\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ We\\ actually\\ have\\ many\\ \\visual\\ channels\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ all\\ process\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ information\\,\\ some\\ do\\ color\\,\\ some\\ do\\ shape\\,\\ some\\ do\\ orientation\\ of\\ lines\\,\\ some\\ do\\ movement\\,\\ some\\ do\\ faces\\,\\ etc\\.\\ These\\ \\\"channels\\\"\\ are\\ fed\\ through\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ and\\ integrated\\ for\\ conscious\\ perception\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Secondary\\ visual\\ areas\\<\\/em\\>\\ include\\ the\\ MT\\ and\\ the\\ V4\\,\\ which\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ some\\ aspects\\ of\\ color\\ vision\\,\\ and\\ when\\ this\\ is\\ damaged\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ see\\ color\\ or\\ \\achromatopsia\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ MT\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ perception\\ of\\ motion\\ and\\ damage\\ leads\\ to\\ \\motion\\-blindness\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ are\\ two\\ major\\ visual\\ systems\\,\\ the\\ \\\\\"what\\\"\\ system\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ \\ventral\\<\\/em\\>\\ system\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\\\\"where\\\"\\ system\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ \\dorsal\\<\\/em\\>\\ system\\.\\ Injury\\ to\\ the\\ what\\ system\\ causes\\ difficulty\\ with\\ object\\ discrimination\\,\\ but\\ not\\ location\\,\\ and\\ injury\\ to\\ the\\ where\\ system\\ shows\\ the\\ opposite\\ problem\\.\\ In\\ humans\\,\\ injury\\ to\\ the\\ where\\ system\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ causes\\ visual\\-field\\ \\neglect\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ One\\ with\\ neglect\\ is\\ not\\ blind\\,\\ but\\ will\\ forget\\ to\\ eat\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ food\\ on\\ their\\ plate\\,\\ or\\ will\\ forget\\ to\\ draw\\ things\\ on\\ the\\ \\\"blind\\-side\\\"\\ of\\ a\\ picture\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ very\\ counterintuitive\\ that\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ possible\\,\\ so\\ here\\ are\\ some\\ drawings\\ to\\ show\\ you\\ that\\ it\\ exists\\ as\\ such\\.\\ Patients\\ are\\ not\\ blind\\ in\\ any\\ sense\\ except\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ one\\ half\\ of\\ their\\ visual\\ field\\,\\ and\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ shown\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ experiments\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ humans\\,\\ injury\\ to\\ the\\ what\\ system\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ causes\\ \\agnosia\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(\\\"not\\-knowing\\\"\\)\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ cannot\\ recognize\\ objects\\.\\ The\\ specific\\ type\\ of\\ agnosia\\ depends\\ on\\ where\\ exactly\\ the\\ injury\\ affects\\.\\ \\Prosopagnosia\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ inability\\ to\\ recognize\\ faces\\.\\ This\\ results\\ from\\ damage\\ to\\ specific\\ areas\\ in\\ the\\ \\\"what\\\"\\ pathway\\.\\ People\\ with\\ this\\ can\\ recognize\\ objects\\,\\ but\\ not\\ faces\\,\\ even\\ the\\ faces\\ of\\ close\\ family\\ members\\.\\ The\\ \\fusiform\\ face\\ area\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"what\\\"\\ pathway\\ and\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ recognizing\\ faces\\.\\ The\\ \\parahippocampal\\ place\\ area\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"what\\\"\\ pathway\\ and\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ processing\\ places\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Frontal\\ Lobes\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ frontal\\ lobes\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ seat\\ of\\ \\short\\-term\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\decision\\-making\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ \\control\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ \\social\\ intelligence\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ seat\\ of\\ \\behavioral\\ inhibition\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ one\\ stops\\ themselves\\ from\\ executing\\ behaviors\\ such\\ as\\ stealing\\,\\ swearing\\,\\ and\\ using\\ violence\\.\\ The\\ case\\ of\\ \\Phineas\\ Gage\\<\\/em\\>\\ provided\\ the\\ first\\ well\\-documented\\ evidence\\ of\\ this\\.\\ He\\ had\\ a\\ railroad\\ spike\\ driven\\ through\\ his\\ head\\ and\\ skull\\.\\ It\\ was\\ really\\ hot\\ so\\ it\\ cauterized\\ the\\ injury\\ immediately\\,\\ allowing\\ him\\ to\\ live\\.\\ Gage\\ did\\ not\\ die\\ but\\ was\\ never\\ the\\ same\\ after\\.\\ His\\ personality\\ drastically\\ changed\\ \\(\\\"Gage\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ Gage\\\"\\)\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ inhibit\\ undesirable\\ actions\\ \\(he\\ became\\ a\\ real\\ jerk\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ nice\\ before\\)\\,\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ rational\\ plans\\.\\ The\\ damage\\ was\\ to\\ the\\ medial\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\,\\ and\\ he\\ lost\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ above\\-listed\\ abilities\\ that\\ the\\ frontal\\ cortex\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 6 (2/19/08)- The Human Brain"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.529976+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 7(2/21/08)- Neurons and Neural Computation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 384, "html": "\\\\Neurons\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Neural\\ computation\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ mechanism\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ uses\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ \\neurobiological\\<\\/em\\>\\ level\\ of\\ study\\ and\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ \\hardware\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ our\\ computational\\ organ\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ lowest\\ level\\ of\\ abstraction\\ in\\ psychological\\ analysis\\ and\\ inquiry\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ bridge\\ connecting\\ physical\\ processes\\ and\\ psychological\\ processes\\.\\ The\\ brain\\'s\\ units\\ are\\ neurons\\ and\\ look\\ like\\ this\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Neurons\\ work\\ using\\ electrochemistry\\.\\ They\\ use\\ sodium\\-potassium\\ pumps\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ ionic\\ differential\\ which\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ the\\ \\resting\\ potential\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ \\-70mV\\.\\ This\\ is\\ accomplished\\ by\\ having\\ more\\ negative\\ ions\\ inside\\ the\\ cell\\ than\\ outside\\.\\ When\\ a\\ neuron\\ is\\ stimulated\\ it\\ can\\ \\\"fire\\.\\\"\\ This\\ corresponds\\ to\\ gates\\ opening\\ and\\ letting\\ in\\ positive\\ ions\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ a\\ \\depolarization\\<\\/em\\>\\ up\\ to\\ \\+30mV\\.\\ The\\ cell\\ then\\ rapidly\\ \\repolarizes\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ restore\\ the\\ resting\\ potential\\.\\ This\\ process\\ happens\\ locally\\ in\\ an\\ axon\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ spatial\\ area\\,\\ and\\ when\\ it\\ happens\\ it\\ causes\\ the\\ adjacent\\ gates\\ to\\ open\\ as\\ well\\,\\ which\\ will\\ then\\ cause\\ a\\ depolarization\\ a\\ little\\ way\\ down\\ the\\ line\\ of\\ the\\ axon\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ a\\ \\\"wave\\ of\\ depolarization\\\"\\ that\\ moves\\ down\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ the\\ axon\\ and\\ this\\ wave\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ when\\ one\\ says\\ a\\ neuron\\ \\\"fires\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ an\\ \\action\\ potential\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ the\\ process\\ is\\ explained\\ in\\ depth\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Action\\_potential\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Maintaining\\ the\\ concentration\\ gradient\\ that\\ keeps\\ the\\ cell\\ at\\ its\\ resting\\ potential\\ is\\ highly\\ energy\\ intensive\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ reason\\ why\\ our\\ brains\\ use\\ so\\ much\\ energy\\.\\ Action\\ potentials\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ fundamental\\ part\\ of\\ neural\\ computation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ \\synapse\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ where\\ an\\ \\axon\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(output\\)\\ connects\\ with\\ a\\ \\dendrite\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(input\\)\\.\\ When\\ the\\ axon\\'s\\ wave\\ of\\ depolarization\\ reaches\\ the\\ axon\\'s\\ terminal\\,\\ the\\ transmission\\ medium\\ changes\\.\\ It\\ causes\\ \\synaptic\\ vesicles\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(little\\ balloons\\ of\\ neurotransmitters\\)\\ to\\ dump\\ their\\ chemical\\ contents\\ into\\ the\\ \\synaptic\\ cleft\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(the\\ spatial\\ gap\\ \\ between\\ axon\\ and\\ dendrite\\)\\,\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ then\\ taken\\ up\\ by\\ the\\ dendrite\\.\\ This\\ can\\ cause\\ the\\ receiving\\ neuron\\ to\\ fire\\ as\\ well\\,\\ and\\ the\\ process\\ starts\\ over\\ again\\.\\ So\\ at\\ the\\ synapse\\,\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ neuron\\'s\\ information\\ transmission\\ changes\\ from\\ electrical\\ to\\ chemical\\.\\ This\\ chemical\\ transmission\\ is\\ altered\\ by\\ drugs\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ where\\ their\\ effect\\ comes\\ from\\.\\ More\\ on\\ synapses\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Synapse\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Prozac\\ and\\ Zoloft\\ are\\ \\SSRI\\<\\/em\\>s\\ or\\ selective\\ serotonin\\ reuptake\\ inhibitors\\.\\ Essentially\\ serotonin\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ neurotransmitters\\ that\\ gets\\ dumped\\ into\\ the\\ synaptic\\ cleft\\,\\ and\\ after\\ it\\ is\\ dumped\\ it\\ is\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ both\\ the\\ dendrite\\ and\\ the\\ axon\\ \\(to\\ recycle\\ it\\)\\.\\ The\\ axon\\ picking\\ up\\ the\\ serotonin\\ is\\ called\\ \\reuptake\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ if\\ this\\ happens\\ too\\ rapidly\\,\\ there\\ won\\'t\\ be\\ enough\\ to\\ affect\\ the\\ dendrite\\ in\\ the\\ desired\\ way\\.\\ These\\ drugs\\ block\\ this\\ reuptake\\ process\\,\\ essentially\\ increasing\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ serotonin\\ in\\ the\\ synapse\\.\\ In\\ the\\ picture\\ above\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ affecting\\ the\\ reuptake\\ pump\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Synapses\\ can\\ be\\ \\excitatory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ increase\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\'s\\ probability\\ of\\ firing\\,\\ or\\ \\inhibitory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ decrease\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\'s\\ probability\\ of\\ firing\\.\\ Neurons\\ receive\\ inputs\\ from\\ all\\ of\\ thier\\ synapses\\,\\ add\\ these\\ up\\,\\ and\\ then\\ either\\ fire\\ or\\ don\\'t\\ fire\\ in\\ a\\ discrete\\ way\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ \\all\\-or\\-none\\ principle\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ neurons\\ do\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ \\feature\\ detectors\\<\\/em\\>\\ at\\ many\\ levels\\ of\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ eyeball\\,\\ and\\ in\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\.\\ Feature\\ detectors\\ are\\ neurons\\ that\\ respond\\ to\\ patterns\\ in\\ the\\ perceptual\\ input\\.\\ We\\ have\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ feature\\ detectors\\ in\\ our\\ eyes\\,\\ for\\ lines\\,\\ patterns\\,\\ colors\\,\\ etc\\.\\ We\\ also\\ have\\ face\\ detectors\\ in\\ neural\\ networks\\ in\\ higher\\ areas\\ of\\ visual\\ processing\\.\\ There\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ feature\\ detectors\\ in\\ many\\ levels\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ a\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ what\\ has\\ been\\ termed\\ \\\"massive\\ modularity\\.\\\"\\ See\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Visual\\_modularity\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ \\ \\Modularity\\ article\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ an\\ in\\ depth\\ discussion\\ of\\ modularity\\ from\\ two\\ major\\ proponents\\ and\\ experts\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ psychology\\,\\ Clark\\ Barrett\\ and\\ Robert\\ Kurzban\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Neurons\\ are\\ the\\ physical\\ basis\\ of\\ computation\\ \\(like\\ transistors\\ and\\ circuits\\ in\\ computers\\)\\.\\ Hardware\\ is\\ built\\ in\\ computers\\ to\\ allow\\ circuits\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ logical\\ or\\ boolean\\ functions\\ \\(addition\\ \\(and\\ gates\\)\\,\\ inversion\\ \\(not\\ gates\\)\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ A\\ great\\ analysis\\ is\\ given\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Logic\\_gate\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/whatis\\.techtarget\\.com\\/definition\\/0\\,\\,sid9\\_gci213512\\,00\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ These\\ gates\\ are\\ circuits\\ carrying\\ out\\ logical\\ operations\\ and\\ are\\ the\\ basic\\ building\\ blocks\\ of\\ computer\\ hardware\\.\\ Essentially\\ one\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ circuit\\ so\\ the\\ output\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ input\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ logical\\ functions\\.\\ In\\ an\\ \\\"and\\\"\\ gate\\ there\\ will\\ only\\ be\\ current\\ in\\ the\\ output\\ if\\ both\\ inputs\\ have\\ current\\,\\ and\\ in\\ an\\ \\\"or\\\"\\ gate\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ current\\ if\\ either\\ input\\ has\\ current\\,\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ \\\"and\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"or\\\"\\ logical\\ operators\\ in\\ formal\\ logic\\.\\ For\\ comparison\\ in\\ an\\ \\\"and\\\"\\ function\\ in\\ logic\\ the\\ conclusion\\ is\\ true\\ only\\ if\\ both\\ premises\\ are\\ true\\,\\ and\\ in\\ an\\ \\\"or\\\"\\ function\\ the\\ conclusion\\ is\\ true\\ if\\ either\\ premise\\ is\\ true\\.\\ Needless\\ to\\ say\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ brief\\ summary\\ of\\ hardware\\ computation\\ in\\ computers\\,\\ for\\ more\\ information\\ go\\ to\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/computer\\.howstuffworks\\.com\\/boolean\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\ or\\ check\\ out\\ the\\ book\\ \\Code\\:\\ The\\ Hidden\\ Language\\ of\\ Computer\\ Hardware\\ and\\ Software\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ Charles\\ Petzold\\.\\ Here\\ are\\ some\\ pictures\\ showing\\ how\\ neurons\\ can\\ be\\ put\\ together\\ to\\ create\\ some\\ basic\\ logic\\ gates\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\These\\ are\\ neural\\ analogues\\ of\\ logic\\ gates\\ in\\ computers\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ work\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\.\\ The\\ values\\ above\\ the\\ input\\ lines\\ are\\ the\\ weights\\ that\\ input\\ gets\\ at\\ the\\ synapse\\ when\\ that\\ input\\ neuron\\ fires\\.\\ The\\ numbers\\ in\\ the\\ circles\\ are\\ the\\ threshold\\ values\\ for\\ the\\ receiving\\ neuron\\ to\\ fire\\.\\ So\\ for\\ the\\ \\\"and\\\"\\ gate\\ with\\ one\\ input\\ it\\ would\\ only\\ be\\ \\.4\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ reach\\ the\\ threshold\\ of\\ \\.5\\ and\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\ does\\ not\\ fire\\.\\ But\\ if\\ both\\ inputs\\ are\\ coming\\ in\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ \\.4\\ \\+\\ \\.4\\=\\ \\.8\\ and\\ \\.8\\ is\\ above\\ the\\ threshold\\ of\\ \\.5\\,\\ so\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\ does\\ fire\\.\\ It\\ is\\ called\\ an\\ \\\"and\\\"\\ gate\\ because\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\ will\\ fire\\ if\\ and\\ only\\ if\\ input\\ 1\\ \\\\\"AND\\\"\\ \\<\\/em\\>input\\ 2\\ are\\ present\\.\\ This\\ is\\ just\\ like\\ an\\ \\\"and\\\"\\ logic\\ function\\ where\\ the\\ conclusion\\ would\\ be\\ true\\ only\\ if\\ premise\\ 1\\ and\\ premise\\ 2\\ were\\ both\\ true\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ proof\\ of\\ principle\\ that\\ computer\\ gates\\ and\\ neurons\\ can\\ carry\\ out\\ the\\ same\\ functions\\.\\ Neurons\\ can\\ also\\ do\\ statistical\\ computations\\ using\\ the\\ following\\ model\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Neural\\ computation\\ essentially\\ can\\ work\\ by\\ summing\\ up\\ inputs\\ \\(excitatory\\ adds\\,\\ inhibitory\\ subtracts\\)\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ some\\ criterion\\ is\\ met\\.\\ If\\ it\\ is\\,\\ the\\ recipient\\ cell\\ fires\\ \\(actually\\ it\\ would\\ just\\ increase\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ firing\\ because\\ they\\ always\\ fire\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\)\\.\\ Using\\ the\\ above\\ structures\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ the\\ same\\ logical\\ structures\\ that\\ build\\ the\\ hardware\\ inside\\ of\\ computers\\ \\(and\\ probably\\ more\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ proof\\ of\\ principle\\ that\\ neurons\\ can\\ build\\ logic\\ gates\\ \\(and\\,\\ or\\,\\ nor\\,\\ not\\,\\ nand\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ can\\ therefore\\ be\\ the\\ physical\\ basis\\ of\\ computation\\ in\\ our\\ brains\\ like\\ logic\\ gates\\ built\\ out\\ of\\ transistors\\ are\\ in\\ computer\\ hardware\\.\\ These\\ can\\ create\\ rule\\ structures\\ for\\ information\\-processing\\ programs\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ \\(embodying\\ thought\\ as\\ booleans\\ or\\ algebraic\\ rule\\ structures\\)\\.\\ By\\ aggregating\\ these\\ logical\\ structures\\ into\\ bigger\\ and\\ bigger\\ networks\\ we\\ can\\ get\\ much\\ more\\ complex\\ logical\\ systems\\,\\ and\\ in\\ fact\\ this\\ is\\ exactly\\ what\\ higher\\ level\\ computer\\ programming\\ languages\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ computer\\ software\\.\\ Some\\ concepts\\ use\\ \\\"fuzzy\\-logic\\,\\\"\\ that\\ is\\,\\ some\\ thoughts\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ or\\ none\\ like\\ algebra\\,\\ but\\ are\\ rather\\ like\\ approximations\\ with\\ degrees\\ of\\ confidence\\.\\ These\\ are\\ statistical\\ computations\\ and\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ carried\\ out\\ using\\ weights\\ of\\ inputs\\ of\\ networks\\ of\\ neurons\\ as\\ shown\\ above\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ picture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Local\\ \\<\\/em\\>neural\\ representations\\ are\\ representations\\ held\\ in\\ one\\ neuron\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ \\\"grandmother\\ cell\\\"\\ that\\ would\\ fire\\ only\\ to\\ your\\ grandma\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ in\\ class\\ mentioned\\ a\\ funny\\ anecdote\\ about\\ a\\ guy\\ who\\ was\\ actually\\ found\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ \\\"Jennifer\\ Aniston\\ cell\\\"\\ and\\ an\\ amusing\\ article\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.newscientist\\.com\\/article\\.ns\\?id\\=dn7567\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\Distributed\\<\\/em\\>\\ neural\\ representations\\ are\\ representations\\ that\\ are\\ an\\ emergent\\ property\\ of\\ a\\ structure\\ of\\ neurons\\.\\ The\\ information\\ in\\ distributed\\ networks\\ is\\ spread\\ across\\ a\\ network\\ of\\ neurons\\,\\ and\\ cannot\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ \\\"in\\\"\\ one\\ neuron\\.\\ Using\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ representations\\ and\\ functions\\ we\\ can\\ create\\ \\\"thinking\\ machines\\\"\\ similar\\ to\\ computers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\In\\ the\\ above\\ diagram\\ lines\\ with\\ arrows\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ are\\ excitatory\\ synapses\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ones\\ with\\ circles\\ are\\ inhibitory\\ synapses\\.\\ The\\ bottom\\ level\\ represents\\ low\\-level\\ feature\\ detectors\\,\\ and\\ each\\ level\\ up\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ one\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ abstraction\\.\\ These\\ kinds\\ of\\ neural\\ networks\\ can\\ replicate\\ things\\ our\\ brains\\ are\\ known\\ to\\ do\\ such\\ as\\ \\context\\ effects\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ identify\\ something\\ in\\ context\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ isolation\\ \\(it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ identify\\ a\\ letter\\ \\\"T\\\"\\ in\\ a\\ word\\ \\\"TRIP\\\"\\ than\\ the\\ letter\\ \\\"T\\\"\\ alone\\)\\.\\ It\\ can\\ also\\ accomplish\\ \\pattern\\ completion\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ completing\\ a\\ whole\\ image\\ from\\ just\\ fragmentary\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Neural\\ computation\\ works\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ the\\ inputs\\ to\\ a\\ cell\\ are\\ multiplied\\ by\\ their\\ \\\"statistical\\ weight\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ synapse\\,\\ these\\ inputs\\ are\\ summed\\,\\ if\\ this\\ hits\\ a\\ threshold\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\ fires\\.\\ Learning\\ could\\ work\\ by\\ changing\\ the\\ weights\\ of\\ the\\ synapses\\ or\\ changing\\ the\\ threshold\\ values\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ reached\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ fire\\.\\ \\Hebbian\\ learning\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ exactly\\ this\\ process\\,\\ when\\ two\\ neurons\\ fire\\ together\\ \\(correlated\\ firing\\)\\ their\\ synapses\\ are\\ strengthened\\ \\(changing\\ the\\ \\\"weight\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ synapse\\)\\.\\ Combination\\ of\\ transmitter\\ molecules\\ and\\ the\\ receiving\\ cell\\ firing\\ will\\ strengthen\\ the\\ synapse\\.\\ \\\"Cells\\ that\\ fire\\ together\\,\\ wire\\ together\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Neural\\ networks\\ and\\ psychology\\-from\\ hardware\\ to\\ software\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ things\\ were\\ theoretical\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ known\\ computational\\ features\\ of\\ neural\\ networks\\ that\\ do\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ patterns\\ of\\ experience\\.\\ Three\\ are\\ given\\ in\\ class\\.\\ \\Lateral\\ inhibition\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ when\\ one\\ cell\\ is\\ activated\\ it\\ will\\ inhibit\\ its\\ neighbor\\.\\ This\\ process\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ many\\ parts\\ of\\ brains\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ phenomena\\ that\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ our\\ visual\\ perception\\ of\\ edges\\.\\ This\\ works\\ by\\ exagerrating\\ the\\ features\\ that\\ constitute\\ an\\ edge\\ making\\ them\\ \\\"pop\\-out\\\"\\ in\\ our\\ visual\\ processing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Notice\\ that\\ all\\ neurons\\ have\\ lines\\ with\\ circles\\ on\\ the\\ ends\\ of\\ them\\ attached\\ to\\ each\\ neighboring\\ neuron\\,\\ these\\ represent\\ inhibitory\\ synapses\\.\\ Again\\,\\ the\\ arrows\\ represent\\ excitatory\\ synapses\\\r\\\\\r\\Lateral\\ inhibition\\ can\\ explain\\ phenomena\\ such\\ as\\ Mach\\ bands\\,\\ the\\ Hering\\ grid\\,\\ and\\ simultaneous\\ contrast\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\These\\ are\\ Mach\\ bands\\ above\\,\\ notice\\ how\\ the\\ color\\ strips\\ look\\ darker\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ than\\ the\\ left\\ side\\,\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ stripes\\ are\\ all\\ physically\\ uniform\\ in\\ color\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ lateral\\ inhibition\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ Hering\\ grid\\:\\ you\\ will\\ see\\ grey\\ squares\\ at\\ the\\ intersections\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ squares\\ \\(not\\ usually\\ the\\ exact\\ spot\\ where\\ you\\ are\\ looking\\ however\\)\\.\\ This\\ happens\\ because\\ the\\ neuron\\ is\\ excited\\ by\\ the\\ spot\\'s\\ intensity\\,\\ but\\ is\\ then\\ inhibited\\ 4\\-fold\\ from\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ bright\\ lines\\ above\\ and\\ below\\ it\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ lines\\ \\(everywhere\\ but\\ the\\ intersections\\)\\ the\\ neurons\\ are\\ only\\ inhibited\\ from\\ two\\ sides\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ black\\ on\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ sides\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ this\\ doesn\\'t\\ happen\\ where\\ you\\ are\\ looking\\ is\\ because\\ resolution\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ fine\\ grained\\ on\\ the\\ fovea\\ \\(the\\ focus\\ of\\ your\\ vision\\)\\.\\ Essentially\\ the\\ patches\\ are\\ so\\ small\\ that\\ no\\ \\\"square\\\"\\ is\\ small\\ enough\\ to\\ ellicit\\ this\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ fovea\\.\\ The\\ top\\ illusion\\ is\\ a\\ classic\\ Hering\\ grid\\,\\ the\\ bottom\\ is\\ a\\ much\\ cooler\\ and\\ more\\ striking\\ demonstration\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Simultaneous\\ contrast\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ same\\ colored\\ spot\\ will\\ look\\ brighter\\ when\\ surrounded\\ by\\ darkness\\,\\ and\\ darker\\ when\\ surrounded\\ by\\ brightness\\.\\ So\\ a\\ grey\\ spot\\ will\\ look\\ whiter\\ in\\ a\\ black\\ background\\ than\\ a\\ white\\ background\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ color\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ major\\ connection\\ between\\ neural\\ networks\\ and\\ psychology\\ is\\ \\opponent\\-process\\ circuits\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ are\\ neurons\\ that\\ fire\\ to\\ two\\ \\\"opposite\\\"\\ phenomena\\ in\\ opposite\\ ways\\.\\ So\\ a\\ cone\\ may\\ be\\ excited\\ by\\ red\\ and\\ inhibited\\ by\\ green\\ or\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\ This\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ see\\-saw\\ effect\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Habituation\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ third\\ mentioned\\ process\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ where\\ neurons\\ that\\ fire\\ a\\ lot\\ over\\ a\\ long\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ slow\\ down\\ their\\ firing\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ get\\ tired\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ after\\ being\\ in\\ cold\\ water\\ for\\ awhile\\ it\\ no\\ longer\\ feels\\ cold\\.\\ This\\ process\\ coupled\\ with\\ the\\ opponent\\ process\\ circuitry\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ color\\ after\\-images\\.\\ In\\ the\\ following\\ image\\ stare\\ at\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ for\\ 60\\ seconds\\ \\(don\\'t\\ move\\ your\\ eyes\\)\\ then\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ dot\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ and\\ you\\ will\\ see\\ the\\ Union\\ Jack\\ flag\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\This\\ last\\ illusion\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ Weekly\\ World\\ News\\ and\\ is\\ explained\\,\\ just\\ like\\ the\\ last\\ one\\ by\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ both\\ opponent\\-process\\ theory\\ and\\ habituation\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ easiest\\ way\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ images\\ is\\ through\\ an\\ analogy\\ with\\ a\\ see\\-saw\\.\\ In\\ this\\ analogy\\ imagine\\ a\\ photoreceptor\\ that\\ has\\ opposing\\ firing\\ patterns\\ one\\ is\\ black\\ and\\ one\\ is\\ white\\,\\ and\\ if\\ either\\ is\\ perceived\\ its\\ \\\"side\\ of\\ the\\ see\\-saw\\\"\\ gets\\ \\\"pushed\\ down\\.\\\"\\ So\\ one\\ could\\ see\\ black\\ by\\ pushing\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ black\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ teeter\\-totter\\ or\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ white\\ side\\.\\ Similarly\\,\\ if\\ both\\ sides\\ are\\ pushed\\ down\\,\\ neither\\ is\\ perceived\\.\\ These\\ are\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ our\\ opponent\\-process\\ photoreceptor\\,\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ see\\ both\\ black\\ and\\ white\\ simultaneously\\ in\\ one\\ area\\,\\ although\\ one\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ gray\\ as\\ what\\ is\\ perceived\\ when\\ the\\ teeter\\-totter\\ is\\ level\\ \\(either\\ both\\ sides\\ being\\ pushed\\ down\\ or\\ neither\\ side\\ being\\ pushed\\ down\\)\\;\\ although\\ this\\ is\\ probably\\ not\\ literally\\ true\\ it\\ helps\\ the\\ analogy\\ along\\.\\ The\\ visual\\ system\\ has\\ a\\ HUGE\\ range\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ can\\ detect\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ light\\ intensity\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ system\\ must\\ be\\ constantly\\ calibrating\\ itself\\;\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ see\\ anything\\ when\\ you\\ walk\\ into\\ a\\ movie\\ theater\\,\\ and\\ are\\ then\\ blinded\\ when\\ you\\ walk\\ out\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ why\\ good\\ pictures\\ require\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ fancy\\ machinery\\ or\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ attention\\ to\\ lighting\\,\\ because\\ cameras\\ do\\ not\\ calibrate\\ to\\ different\\ light\\ levels\\ like\\ our\\ eyes\\ do\\.\\ This\\ calibration\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ habituation\\ and\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ \\\"ready\\\"\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ see\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ varying\\ intensities\\,\\ furthermore\\ it\\ is\\ especially\\ well\\ designed\\ to\\ detect\\ \\differences\\<\\/span\\>\\ in\\ illumination\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ with\\ the\\ teeter\\-totter\\/opponent\\-process\\-photoreceptor\\-analogy\\ as\\ constantly\\ keeping\\ the\\ teeter\\-totter\\ level\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ sensitive\\ to\\ change\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\ is\\ the\\ explanation\\,\\ through\\ analogy\\,\\ of\\ these\\ visual\\ afteraffects\\ that\\ are\\ causing\\ the\\ illusions\\.\\ When\\ the\\ teeter\\-totter\\ photoreceptor\\ is\\ hit\\ by\\ white\\ light\\ from\\ the\\ Jesus\\ negative\\ image\\ it\\ \\\"pushes\\ the\\ white\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ teeter\\-totter\\ down\\.\\\"\\ When\\ it\\ is\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ \\\"down\\\"\\ this\\ photoreceptor\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ detect\\ anything\\ because\\ it\\ can\\'t\\ move\\ \\(like\\ an\\ adult\\ and\\ a\\ child\\ on\\ a\\ teeter\\-totter\\,\\ the\\ kid\\ is\\ stuck\\ in\\ the\\ air\\,\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ move\\)\\.\\ The\\ process\\ of\\ habituation\\ then\\ is\\ like\\ stacking\\ weights\\ on\\ the\\ black\\ side\\ to\\ bring\\ it\\ back\\ to\\ horizontal\\.\\ Then\\,\\ once\\ it\\ is\\ level\\,\\ black\\ is\\ \\\"heavier\\\"\\ to\\ equal\\ the\\ \\\"push\\\"\\ on\\ the\\ white\\ side\\.\\ When\\ one\\ then\\ looks\\ at\\ a\\ blank\\ page\\,\\ the\\ white\\ side\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ being\\ \\\"pushed\\\"\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ \\\"heavy\\\"\\ black\\ side\\ \\\"hits\\ the\\ ground\\\"\\ and\\ one\\ sees\\ black\\.\\ The\\ analogy\\ then\\ works\\ as\\ follows\\,\\ two\\ kids\\ are\\ on\\ a\\ teeter\\-totter\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ level\\.\\ Another\\ kid\\ jumps\\ \\(the\\ light\\ from\\ the\\ image\\)\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ and\\ that\\ side\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ \\(the\\ perception\\)\\.\\ To\\ bring\\ it\\ back\\ to\\ level\\ the\\ solitary\\ kid\\ is\\ given\\ weights\\ \\(habituation\\)\\ and\\ this\\ takes\\ a\\ little\\ time\\.\\ Then\\ when\\ the\\ third\\ kid\\ jumps\\ back\\ off\\ \\(looking\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ image\\)\\ the\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ weights\\ falls\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ \\(the\\ afterimage\\)\\.\\ This\\ analogy\\ is\\ imprecise\\ but\\ gets\\ the\\ gist\\ across\\.\\ The\\ human\\ eye\\ has\\ opponent\\-process\\ receptors\\ for\\ \\(at\\ least\\)\\ black\\ vs\\.\\ white\\,\\ red\\ vs\\.\\ green\\,\\ and\\ blue\\ vs\\.\\ yellow\\.\\ This\\ exact\\ same\\ process\\ is\\ taking\\ place\\ in\\ our\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ union\\ jack\\ afterimage\\ above\\ as\\ well\\ but\\ with\\ color\\ instead\\ of\\ just\\ black\\ and\\ white\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Much\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ known\\ about\\ visual\\ perception\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ through\\ similar\\ visual\\ illusions\\.\\ I\\ was\\ going\\ to\\ put\\ a\\ link\\ to\\ a\\ site\\ with\\ more\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ of\\ them\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ more\\ just\\ search\\ for\\ them\\ on\\ the\\ web\\ and\\ you\\ will\\ get\\ thousands\\ of\\ pages\\.\\ I\\ recommend\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ science\\ oriented\\ sites\\ as\\ they\\ often\\ explain\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 7(2/21/08)- Neurons and Neural Computation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.557855+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 8 (2/26/08)- Perception I: 3-D Vision", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 385, "html": "\\This\\ lecture\\ deals\\ with\\ how\\ we\\ get\\ 3\\-d\\ perception\\ from\\ two\\ 2\\-d\\ images\\ on\\ our\\ retinas\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ stereoscopic\\ vision\\ \\(depth\\ perception\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Illusions\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Illusions\\ are\\ extremely\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ tool\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ study\\ perception\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ illustrate\\ the\\ predictable\\ fallibility\\ of\\ visual\\ perception\\.\\ Illusions\\ negate\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ \\naive\\ realism\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ held\\ by\\ most\\ people\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ we\\ just\\ open\\ our\\ eyes\\ and\\ experience\\ the\\ objective\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ exactly\\ how\\ it\\ is\\.\\ Illusions\\ go\\ beyond\\ just\\ negating\\ this\\ position\\ and\\ actually\\ raise\\ doubts\\ about\\ all\\ knowledge\\,\\ for\\ if\\ we\\ cannot\\ trust\\ even\\ vision\\,\\ then\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ know\\ anything\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ Epistemology\\,\\ and\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ Descartes\\'\\ \\\"cogito\\ ergo\\ sum\\.\\\"\\ He\\ said\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ uncertain\\,\\ but\\ the\\ one\\ thing\\ we\\ can\\ know\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ exist\\.\\ \\\"I\\ think\\,\\ therefore\\ I\\ am\\,\\\"\\ means\\ that\\ I\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ thinking\\ if\\ I\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\,\\ so\\ because\\ I\\ am\\ thinking\\ I\\ know\\ that\\ I\\ exist\\.\\ \\Relativism\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\social\\ constructionism\\<\\/em\\>\\ took\\ these\\ ideas\\ to\\ an\\ extreme\\ and\\ say\\ that\\ truth\\ is\\ all\\ constructed\\ and\\ therefore\\ arbitrary\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ equally\\ extreme\\ philosophy\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ naive\\ realism\\.\\ Understanding\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ perceptual\\ illusions\\ helps\\ support\\ the\\ intermediate\\ position\\ that\\ most\\ cognitive\\ scientists\\ agree\\ with\\,\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ position\\ that\\ our\\ visual\\ systems\\ are\\ adaptive\\ but\\ fallible\\ mechanisms\\.\\ So\\,\\ we\\ see\\ \\\"truth\\\"\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ the\\ degree\\ that\\ that\\ truth\\ is\\ adaptive\\.\\ Most\\ visual\\ illusions\\ are\\ based\\ upon\\ exploiting\\ a\\ mechanism\\ that\\ gave\\ us\\ a\\ \\\"true\\\"\\ picture\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ in\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ contrived\\ context\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ of\\ vision\\ is\\ not\\ solvable\\ without\\ some\\ assumptions\\ \\\"programmed\\ into\\\"\\ the\\ computational\\ structure\\ responsible\\ for\\ vision\\.\\ Evolution\\ \\\"programmed\\ in\\\"\\ certain\\ assumptions\\ about\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ are\\ almost\\ always\\ true\\,\\ and\\ visual\\ illusions\\ are\\ merely\\ exemplars\\ of\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ these\\ assumptions\\ are\\ violated\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Visual\\ Perception\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ world\\ then\\?\\ We\\ use\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ these\\ \\\"assumptions\\\"\\ built\\ into\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ that\\ generate\\ a\\ good\\ approximation\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ actually\\ \\\"out\\ there\\\"\\ beyond\\ our\\ retinas\\.\\ We\\ have\\ \\size\\ constancy\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ roughly\\ means\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ near\\ object\\ is\\ bigger\\ than\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ object\\ far\\ away\\,\\ our\\ brains\\ perceive\\ them\\ as\\ being\\ the\\ same\\ size\\.\\ We\\ have\\ \\shape\\ constancy\\<\\/em\\>\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ same\\ shape\\ will\\ create\\ differently\\ shaped\\ images\\ depending\\ upon\\ its\\ orientation\\,\\ but\\ we\\ perceive\\ both\\ images\\ as\\ corresponding\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ shaped\\ objects\\.\\ Our\\ brains\\ put\\ together\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ cues\\ to\\ give\\ us\\ the\\ \\\"best\\ guess\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ based\\ upon\\ our\\ retinal\\ images\\.\\ The\\ ponzo\\ illusion\\ is\\ a\\ classic\\ case\\ of\\ our\\ size\\ constancy\\ mechanism\\ misleading\\ our\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ two\\ objects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ slanted\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ railroad\\ tracks\\ are\\ a\\ depth\\ cue\\,\\ and\\ the\\ further\\ object\\ \\(the\\ railroad\\ ties\\)\\ is\\ smaller\\,\\ so\\ if\\ both\\ lines\\ were\\ actually\\ equal\\ the\\ further\\ line\\ would\\ be\\ bigger\\.\\ The\\ ponzo\\ illusion\\ mimics\\ this\\ structure\\ so\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ top\\ line\\ as\\ bigger\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ same\\ size\\.\\ If\\ this\\ were\\ the\\ case\\ with\\ the\\ railroad\\ ties\\,\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ size\\ in\\ our\\ visual\\ image\\,\\ the\\ further\\ tie\\ would\\ indeed\\ be\\ bigger\\,\\ and\\ the\\ assumption\\ would\\ have\\ given\\ us\\ a\\ correct\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Depth\\ Perception\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ use\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ monocular\\ \\(one\\ eye\\)\\ cues\\ to\\ perceive\\ depth\\,\\ and\\ with\\ artificial\\ stimuli\\ these\\ can\\ cause\\ illusions\\.\\ Monocular\\ cues\\ to\\ depth\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\1\\.\\ Shading\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Our\\ visual\\ system\\ has\\ the\\ built\\ in\\ assumption\\ that\\ \\\"light\\ comes\\ from\\ above\\\"\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ sun\\.\\ This\\ can\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ clue\\ to\\ depth\\ based\\ on\\ where\\ something\\'s\\ shadow\\ lies\\.\\ The\\ following\\ circles\\ will\\ flip\\ from\\ being\\ concave\\ to\\ convex\\ solely\\ based\\ on\\ shading\\.\\ Notice\\ the\\ top\\ ones\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ are\\ popping\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ page\\ and\\ the\\ bottom\\ ones\\ look\\ like\\ they\\ are\\ poking\\ into\\ the\\ page\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\2\\.\\ Texture\\ gradients\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Another\\ assumption\\ is\\ that\\ texture\\ gradients\\ get\\ denser\\ the\\ further\\ away\\ they\\ are\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ easily\\ understood\\ through\\ a\\ picture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Notice\\ how\\ the\\ features\\ of\\ the\\ sunflowers\\ are\\ closer\\ together\\ the\\ further\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\ that\\ they\\ are\\.\\ For\\ more\\ information\\ you\\ can\\ also\\ go\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/psych\\.hanover\\.edu\\/krantz\\/art\\/texture\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\3\\.\\ Linear\\ perspective\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ lines\\ converge\\ as\\ they\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ us\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ causes\\ the\\ ponzo\\ illusion\\ coupled\\ with\\ size\\ constancy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\4\\.\\ Interposition\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ Closer\\ things\\ will\\ block\\ out\\ images\\ of\\ further\\ objects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\5\\.\\ Motion\\ Parallax\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ Closer\\ things\\ move\\ by\\ quicker\\ than\\ further\\ things\\ as\\ we\\ are\\ moving\\ by\\ them\\.\\ One\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ motion\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ cue\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ also\\ two\\ kinds\\ of\\ \\binocular\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(two\\-eyed\\)\\ cues\\ to\\ depth\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\1\\.\\ Binocular\\ convergence\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ subjective\\ experience\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ muscles\\ in\\ your\\ eyes\\.\\ If\\ both\\ eyes\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ object\\ their\\ angles\\ are\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ acute\\ as\\ the\\ image\\ gets\\ closer\\.\\ Think\\ of\\ a\\ triangle\\ with\\ the\\ apex\\ far\\ away\\ or\\ close\\,\\ and\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ angles\\ the\\ lines\\ make\\ at\\ the\\ other\\ two\\ angles\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\2\\.\\ Binocular\\ Parallax\\<\\/em\\>\\ or\\ \\Binocular\\ Disparity\\<\\/em\\>\\ relies\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ images\\ on\\ the\\ retinas\\ are\\ different\\ and\\ this\\ difference\\ depends\\ on\\ depth\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ \\Wayne\\'s\\ World\\<\\/em\\>\\ effect\\ of\\ \\\"left\\ eye\\,\\ right\\ eye\\,\\ left\\ eye\\,\\ right\\ eye\\.\\\"\\ If\\ you\\ close\\ one\\ eye\\ and\\ then\\ switch\\ you\\ will\\ notice\\ the\\ image\\ \\\"jumps\\.\\\"\\ The\\ further\\ away\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ less\\ it\\ will\\ \\\"jump\\.\\\"\\ The\\ amount\\ of\\ disparity\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ images\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ compute\\ distance\\ using\\ principles\\ from\\ trigonometry\\ \\(if\\ you\\ know\\ an\\ angle\\ and\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ a\\ side\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ distance\\ between\\ the\\ eyeballs\\,\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ compute\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ any\\ side\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ distance\\ of\\ the\\ object\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ two\\ cues\\ are\\ what\\ are\\ manipulated\\ to\\ create\\ stereoscopic\\ illusions\\.\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ illusions\\ famously\\ depicted\\ in\\ the\\ \\Magic\\ Eye\\<\\/em\\>\\ book\\ series\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ stereoscopes\\ work\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ quite\\ difficult\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ work\\ correctly\\.\\ Stereoscopes\\,\\ stereoscopic\\ illusions\\,\\ and\\ 3\\-d\\ movies\\ all\\ exploit\\ this\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ depth\\ illusion\\ by\\ giving\\ each\\ eye\\ two\\ slightly\\ different\\ images\\.\\ This\\ is\\ quite\\ difficult\\ however\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ two\\ reflexes\\ that\\ fight\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ illusion\\.\\ One\\ of\\ these\\ is\\ the\\ focusing\\ of\\ the\\ lens\\ of\\ the\\ eye\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ the\\ convergence\\ or\\ rangefinder\\ reflex\\ \\(\\#\\ 1\\ above\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ reflex\\ of\\ your\\ eyes\\ crossing\\ more\\ the\\ closer\\ something\\ is\\.\\ These\\ two\\ reflexes\\ are\\ coupled\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ it\\ takes\\ some\\ training\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ magic\\ eye\\ pictures\\ to\\ \\\"look\\ through\\ them\\.\\\"\\ One\\ wants\\ to\\ focus\\ their\\ lenses\\ on\\ a\\ close\\ object\\,\\ but\\ have\\ their\\ eyes\\ converge\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ were\\ a\\ far\\ away\\ object\\.\\ This\\ self\\-willed\\ version\\ of\\ decoupling\\ these\\ reflexes\\ is\\ called\\ \\free\\ fusion\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ this\\ is\\ how\\ magic\\-eye\\ works\\ and\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ learn\\.\\ Machines\\ that\\ decouple\\ these\\ reflexes\\ for\\ you\\ are\\ called\\ stereoscopes\\.\\ The\\ first\\ stereoscope\\ was\\ the\\ \\wheatstone\\ stereoscope\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ complicated\\ contraption\\ with\\ mirrors\\ and\\ screens\\.\\ A\\ more\\ accessible\\ stereoscope\\ was\\ the\\ \\Brewster\\'s\\ stereoscope\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ a\\ kid\\'s\\ \\\"viewmaster\\\"\\ toy\\ shown\\ below\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Some\\ 3\\-d\\ pictures\\ and\\ movies\\ work\\ through\\ \\color\\ anaglyph\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ red\\ and\\ blue\\ 3\\-d\\ pictures\\ with\\ the\\ red\\ and\\ blue\\ glasses\\.\\ These\\ are\\ just\\ two\\ images\\ and\\ one\\ is\\ blocked\\ for\\ each\\ eye\\.\\ So\\ the\\ red\\ picture\\ cannot\\ come\\ through\\ the\\ red\\ lens\\ and\\ the\\ blue\\ picture\\ cannot\\ come\\ through\\ the\\ blue\\ lens\\.\\ So\\ one\\ eye\\ sees\\ only\\ red\\ and\\ one\\ eye\\ sees\\ only\\ blue\\,\\ if\\ the\\ red\\ and\\ blue\\ pictures\\ are\\ slightly\\ offset\\ this\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ depth\\.\\ Some\\ 3\\-d\\ movies\\ work\\ through\\ \\polarizer\\ anaglyph\\<\\/em\\>\\ like\\ the\\ IMAX\\ 3\\-d\\ or\\ Captain\\ Eo\\ at\\ Disneyland\\.\\ This\\ works\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ color\\ anaglyph\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ than\\ using\\ color\\ to\\ create\\ two\\ different\\ images\\,\\ polarizers\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ vertically\\ polarized\\ and\\ a\\ horizontally\\ polarized\\ image\\.\\ Then\\ polarized\\ glasses\\ are\\ put\\ on\\,\\ one\\ vertical\\,\\ the\\ other\\ horizontal\\,\\ and\\ each\\ eye\\ gets\\ a\\ different\\ image\\.\\ These\\ are\\ usually\\ actually\\ diagonally\\ polarized\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ understand\\ conceptually\\ as\\ vertical\\ and\\ horizontal\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ principle\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ is\\ explained\\ in\\ more\\ depth\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/home\\.mindspring\\.com\\/\\~dmerriman\\/Imaxwrk\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\Virtual\\ reality\\<\\/em\\>\\ also\\ exploits\\ stereoscopic\\ principles\\ and\\ the\\ gives\\ each\\ eye\\ different\\ images\\ in\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ goggles\\.\\ This\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ done\\ with\\ a\\ computer\\ screen\\ in\\ which\\ glasses\\ filter\\ out\\ an\\ image\\ for\\ each\\ eye\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ images\\ are\\ flashed\\ so\\ quickly\\ that\\ it\\ seems\\ continuous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ \\autostereogram\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ technical\\ name\\ for\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ poster\\ that\\ I\\ have\\ been\\ referring\\ to\\ as\\ Magic\\ Eye\\ pictures\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\,\\ \\wallpaper\\ autostereograms\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\random\\ pattern\\ autostereograms\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Wallpaper\\ autostereograms\\ exploit\\ \\the\\ correspondence\\ problem\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ vision\\.\\ This\\ problem\\ is\\ \\\"how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ two\\ images\\ correspond\\ to\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ objects\\?\\\"\\ We\\ always\\ have\\ two\\ retinal\\ images\\ and\\ usually\\ two\\ similar\\ images\\ would\\ come\\ from\\ one\\ object\\.\\ If\\ we\\ construct\\ a\\ diagram\\ instead\\ of\\ repeating\\ objects\\ then\\ we\\ trick\\ the\\ brain\\ into\\ thinking\\ it\\ sees\\ one\\ object\\ when\\ in\\ fact\\ it\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ two\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ an\\ illusion\\ of\\ depth\\,\\ and\\ these\\ repeating\\ patterns\\ are\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ wallpaper\\ autostereograms\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ wallpaper\\ autostereogram\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ random\\ pattern\\ autostereograms\\ are\\ the\\ more\\ popular\\ posters\\ that\\ exploit\\ this\\ principle\\ and\\ work\\ in\\ a\\ related\\ but\\ different\\ way\\.\\ A\\ random\\ display\\ of\\ dots\\ are\\ created\\,\\ and\\ then\\ one\\ takes\\ that\\ image\\ and\\ shifts\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ shape\\ one\\ wants\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ over\\.\\ The\\ gap\\ is\\ filled\\ in\\ with\\ more\\ random\\ dots\\.\\ Then\\ these\\ pictures\\ are\\ overlaid\\ and\\ when\\ we\\ \\\"look\\ through\\ them\\\"\\ the\\ brain\\ gets\\ two\\ slightly\\ different\\ images\\ and\\ sees\\ depth\\.\\ This\\ is\\ surprising\\ because\\ it\\ shows\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ depth\\ and\\ solve\\ the\\ correspondence\\ problem\\ even\\ if\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ recognize\\ an\\ image\\ \\(its\\ just\\ random\\ dots\\)\\.\\ The\\ brain\\ solves\\ the\\ correspondence\\ problem\\ just\\ using\\ bits\\ of\\ texture\\,\\ and\\ then\\ it\\ sees\\ the\\ object\\ with\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"cyclopean\\ eye\\.\\\"\\ Cyclopean\\ vision\\ probably\\ helped\\ us\\ penetrate\\ camouflage\\ and\\ see\\ animals\\ hidden\\ in\\ trees\\ and\\ bushes\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ random\\-dot\\ autostereogram\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\There\\ is\\ an\\ extensive\\ gallery\\ of\\ autostereograms\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/david\\-pye\\.com\\/index\\.php\\?page\\=stereograms\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ excellent\\ wikipedia\\ article\\ here\\:\\\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Autostereogram\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ this\\ is\\ free\\ software\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ yourself\\:\\ \\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.beroux\\.com\\/english\\/softwares\\/bigle3d\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 8 (2/26/08)- Perception I: 3-D Vision"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.574018+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 9 (2/28/08)- Perception II: Visual and auditory scene analysis", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 386, "html": "\\The\\ world\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ three\\-dimensional\\ space\\,\\ but\\ our\\ retinal\\ images\\ are\\ two\\ dimensional\\ images\\ with\\ all\\ the\\ images\\ smooshed\\ together\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ tasks\\ of\\ perception\\ is\\ to\\ recover\\ objects\\ and\\ scenes\\ and\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ 2\\-d\\ images\\.\\ M\\.C\\.\\ Escher\\'s\\ drawings\\ show\\ how\\ fallible\\ this\\ can\\ be\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ before\\ we\\ get\\ into\\ this\\ subject\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ how\\ different\\ vision\\ is\\ than\\ one\\ would\\ perceive\\ it\\ to\\ be\\.\\ If\\ a\\ person\\ was\\ asked\\ about\\ vision\\ who\\ knew\\ nothing\\ about\\ how\\ perception\\ works\\ would\\ probably\\ say\\ something\\ akin\\ to\\ having\\ a\\ picture\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ This\\ Kodak\\ picture\\ theory\\ of\\ vision\\ is\\ incredibly\\ wrong\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ basic\\ way\\ it\\ works\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ thousands\\ of\\ feeds\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ are\\ dumped\\ into\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ our\\ brain\\ and\\ then\\ these\\ are\\ put\\ together\\ to\\ give\\ one\\ the\\ perception\\ of\\ seeing\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ picture\\.\\ In\\ fact\\ much\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ filled\\ in\\ by\\ our\\ brains\\ based\\ on\\ assumptions\\ and\\ approximations\\.\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ thank\\ Bruce\\ Bridgeman\\ for\\ supplying\\ me\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ image\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ \\\"actually\\ see\\\"\\ without\\ our\\ brains\\ filling\\ in\\.\\ In\\ fact\\ this\\ is\\ probably\\ more\\ than\\ we\\ actually\\ see\\ because\\ the\\ periphery\\ is\\ in\\ color\\,\\ but\\ it\\ gets\\ the\\ point\\ across\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Gestalt\\ laws\\ of\\ grouping\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Our\\ brain\\ uses\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ tricks\\ to\\ group\\ things\\ together\\ and\\ categorize\\ them\\ as\\ individual\\ objects\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ heuristics\\ \\(rules\\ of\\ thumb\\)\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ uses\\ to\\ consider\\ images\\ as\\ complete\\ objects\\.\\ The\\ first\\ 5\\ are\\ illustrated\\ in\\ this\\ picture\\ as\\ well\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\1\\.\\ \\Proximity\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\-\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ near\\ each\\ other\\ tend\\ to\\ get\\ grouped\\ together\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\Similarity\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\-\\ similar\\ objects\\ tend\\ to\\ get\\ grouped\\ together\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\3\\.\\ Continuity\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\-\\ lines\\ that\\ are\\ continuous\\ \\ are\\ assmed\\ to\\ belong\\ to\\ one\\ object\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\4\\.\\ Closure\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\-\\ arrays\\ of\\ lines\\ or\\ figures\\ that\\ seem\\ to\\ enclose\\ something\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ an\\ object\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\5\\.\\ Connectedness\\-\\-\\<\\/em\\>\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ connected\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ same\\ object\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\6\\.\\ The\\ \\Law\\ of\\ common\\ fate\\-\\-\\<\\/em\\>\\ things\\ that\\ move\\ together\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ object\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\7\\.\\ We\\ also\\ organize\\ objects\\ by\\ contours\\ according\\ to\\ foreground\\ and\\ background\\,\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ \\figure\\-ground\\ segregation\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ is\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ faces\\/vase\\ pictures\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ flips\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ between\\ two\\ images\\ depending\\ on\\ which\\ is\\ seen\\ and\\ the\\ figure\\ and\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ background\\.\\ This\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ any\\ recognizable\\ object\\,\\ it\\ will\\ happen\\ with\\ random\\ figure\\ drawings\\ as\\ well\\.\\ This\\ just\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ always\\ trying\\ to\\ parse\\ images\\ into\\ objects\\ against\\ backgrounds\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\8\\.\\ Illusory\\ contours\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ when\\ shapes\\ are\\ put\\ together\\ in\\ which\\ pieces\\ line\\ up\\ and\\ we\\ will\\ see\\ that\\ as\\ an\\ object\\.\\ So\\ if\\ we\\ set\\ up\\ three\\ pacman\\-like\\ shapes\\ so\\ that\\ their\\ \\\"mouths\\\"\\ line\\ up\\ we\\ will\\ see\\ a\\ triangle\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ actually\\ exist\\.\\ This\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ low\\-level\\ contrast\\ effects\\ such\\ as\\ lateral\\ inhibition\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\There\\ are\\ also\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ \\\"top\\-down\\\"\\ processes\\ in\\ vision\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ when\\ we\\ know\\ what\\ something\\ is\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ perceive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Shape\\ recognition\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Shape\\ recognition\\ seems\\ easy\\ subjectively\\,\\ but\\ is\\ actually\\ an\\ extremely\\ difficult\\ information\\-processing\\ problem\\ to\\ solve\\.\\ Our\\ brains\\ are\\ just\\ so\\ good\\ at\\ it\\,\\ that\\ we\\ feel\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ easy\\.\\ In\\ fact\\ the\\ subjective\\ ease\\ of\\ a\\ psychological\\ task\\ is\\ a\\ hallmark\\ of\\ adaptation\\,\\ or\\ design\\ by\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ Often\\ things\\ that\\ seem\\ easiest\\ to\\ us\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ hardest\\ information\\-processing\\ problems\\ for\\ engineers\\ to\\ solve\\.\\ \\ The\\ reason\\ this\\ is\\ so\\ hard\\ to\\ solve\\ is\\ that\\ nothing\\ actually\\ \\\"looks\\ like\\\"\\ its\\ actual\\ shape\\.\\ The\\ retinal\\ image\\ and\\ the\\ object\\'s\\ shape\\ are\\ very\\ different\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ unless\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ rectangle\\ straight\\ on\\,\\ it\\'s\\ retinal\\ image\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ trapezoid\\;\\ a\\ circle\\,\\ unless\\ viewed\\ straight\\ on\\,\\ will\\ be\\ an\\ oval\\ on\\ the\\ retina\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ we\\ see\\ circles\\ as\\ circles\\ and\\ rectangles\\ as\\ rectangles\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ create\\ these\\ shapes\\ on\\ our\\ retinas\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ article\\ on\\ the\\ mismatch\\ of\\ intuition\\ and\\ cognitive\\ structure\\ here\\ by\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ Tooby\\:\\ \\instinctblindess\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ brain\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ problem\\ using\\ three\\ mechanisms\\:\\ 1\\.\\ \\multiple\\ templates\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(so\\ you\\ would\\ have\\ some\\ trapezoid\\ shapes\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ for\\ rectangles\\)\\,\\ 2\\.\\ \\mental\\ transformations\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(flip\\ an\\ object\\ around\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ fits\\ a\\ set\\ template\\)\\,\\ and\\ 3\\.\\ o\\bject\\ centered\\ reference\\ frames\\<\\/em\\>\\ or\\ \\geon\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>Geons\\ are\\ basically\\ an\\ \\\"alphabet\\\"\\ of\\ basic\\ 3\\-d\\ shapes\\ that\\ we\\ add\\ together\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ to\\ create\\ \\\"object\\ templates\\.\\\"\\ In\\ the\\ following\\ picture\\ the\\ shapes\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ are\\ the\\ geons\\,\\ and\\ the\\ things\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ are\\ easily\\ recognizable\\ as\\ \\\"object\\-templates\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\We\\ couple\\ object\\-centered\\ reference\\ frames\\ and\\ mental\\ transformations\\ to\\ use\\ these\\ simple\\ pieces\\ to\\ recognize\\ objects\\.\\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ evidence\\ for\\ geons\\ is\\ that\\ objects\\ are\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ recognize\\ when\\ geon\\-boundaries\\ are\\ eliminated\\,\\ but\\ not\\ when\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ image\\ are\\ eliminated\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ obvious\\ reference\\ frames\\ for\\ vision\\.\\ The\\ \\viewer\\-centered\\ frame\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ x\\-axis\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\'s\\ left\\/right\\ axis\\,\\ the\\ y\\-axis\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\'s\\ head\\/foot\\ axis\\,\\ and\\ the\\ z\\-axis\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ viewer\\'s\\ front\\/back\\ axis\\.\\ The\\\\ object\\-centered\\ frame\\ \\<\\/em\\>essentially\\ places\\ these\\ axes\\ on\\/in\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ which\\ an\\ object\\ has\\ a\\ top\\ and\\ bottom\\ or\\ a\\ front\\ and\\ back\\:\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"idealized\\ template\\\"\\ of\\ an\\ object\\.\\ When\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ seen\\ in\\ another\\ position\\,\\ the\\ mind\\ rotates\\ it\\ to\\ fit\\ the\\ idealized\\ template\\.\\ This\\ allows\\ geons\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ work\\ and\\ objects\\ are\\ recognizable\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ retinal\\ image\\ does\\ not\\ match\\ a\\ shape\\ template\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ exactly\\.\\ Reference\\ frames\\ can\\ drastically\\ affect\\ our\\ perception\\ of\\ objects\\,\\ so\\ that\\ when\\ a\\ familiar\\ object\\ is\\ turned\\ sideways\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ difficult\\ to\\ recognize\\,\\ and\\ when\\ we\\ do\\ recognize\\ it\\ we\\ do\\ so\\ through\\ a\\ mental\\ rotation\\.\\ We\\ usually\\ use\\ gravity\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ orienting\\ axis\\ so\\ that\\ objects\\ are\\ seen\\ with\\ coordinates\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ were\\ sitting\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\.\\ We\\ often\\ also\\ line\\ axes\\ up\\ with\\ objects\\,\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ vertical\\ axis\\.\\ This\\ object\\-centered\\ reference\\ frame\\ goes\\ a\\ long\\ way\\ towards\\ solving\\ the\\ object\\ recognition\\ problem\\,\\ because\\ it\\ greatly\\ simplifies\\ the\\ problem\\ by\\ allowing\\ us\\ to\\ use\\ geons\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ not\\ requiring\\ an\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ shape\\ templates\\ to\\ accomodate\\ all\\ possible\\ orientations\\ of\\ shapes\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ intriguing\\ phenomenon\\ because\\ as\\ this\\ class\\ has\\ pointed\\ out\\,\\ the\\ information\\-processing\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ correspond\\ to\\ solving\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ an\\ intuitive\\ way\\ \\(like\\ how\\ the\\ upside\\-down\\ retinal\\ image\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ \\\"flipped\\ over\\\"\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ where\\ mental\\ rotation\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ spatial\\ rotation\\.\\ For\\ more\\ go\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Mental\\_rotation\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Auditory\\ scene\\ analysis\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Auditory\\ scene\\ analysis\\ is\\ extremely\\ similar\\ to\\ visual\\ scene\\ analysis\\.\\ Vision\\ is\\ supplied\\ with\\ two\\ 2\\-d\\ images\\,\\ and\\ our\\ perceptual\\ faculties\\ must\\ sort\\ these\\ images\\ into\\ 3\\-d\\ objects\\ in\\ a\\ 3\\-d\\ world\\.\\ Auditory\\ scene\\ analysis\\ is\\ a\\ similarly\\ structured\\ problem\\.\\ In\\ the\\ world\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ \\\"objects\\\"\\ making\\ different\\ noises\\,\\ but\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ the\\ ear\\ is\\ concerned\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ soundwaves\\ are\\ smooshed\\ together\\ into\\ a\\ singular\\ perception\\ of\\ sound\\ pressure\\ by\\ the\\ ear\\ \\(this\\ is\\ called\\ wave\\ superposition\\,\\ and\\ just\\ means\\ that\\ sound\\ waves\\ add\\ together\\ to\\ create\\ one\\ resulting\\ wave\\)\\.\\ The\\ ear\\ must\\ then\\ sort\\ this\\ singular\\ wave\\ into\\ pieces\\ corresponding\\ to\\ different\\ objects\\ or\\ sound\\ sources\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ degree\\ as\\ separating\\ out\\ different\\ frequencies\\.\\ Sound\\ coming\\ into\\ the\\ ear\\ is\\ split\\ into\\ different\\ frequencies\\ by\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ ear\\ and\\ ear\\ drum\\ \\(in\\ fact\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ our\\ ears\\ have\\ such\\ funny\\ shapes\\,\\ and\\ many\\ animals\\ have\\ similarly\\ funny\\-shaped\\ ears\\,\\ these\\ shapes\\ help\\ us\\ perceive\\ and\\ filter\\ sound\\)\\.\\ The\\ cochlea\\,\\ where\\ sound\\ is\\ perceived\\,\\ is\\ set\\ up\\ so\\ that\\ different\\ frequencies\\ activate\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ organ\\,\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ separate\\.\\ Before\\ we\\ go\\ on\\ I\\ should\\ mention\\ that\\ frequency\\ of\\ sound\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ pitch\\,\\ amplitude\\ of\\ sound\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ volume\\,\\ and\\ quality\\ of\\ sound\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ timbre\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ auditory\\ \\\"objects\\\"\\ correspond\\ to\\ visual\\ \\\"objects\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Space\\ in\\ vision\\ corresponds\\ to\\ frequency\\ and\\ time\\ in\\ audition\\.\\ Space\\ has\\ three\\ dimensions\\ \\(front\\-back\\,\\ right\\-left\\,\\ up\\-down\\)\\,\\ and\\ auditory\\ \\\"space\\\"\\ consists\\ of\\ two\\ dimensions\\ \\(frequency\\:\\ high\\-low\\,\\ and\\ time\\:\\ earlier\\-later\\)\\.\\ An\\ object\\ in\\ vision\\ corresponds\\ to\\ a\\ sound\\ source\\ in\\ audition\\ \\(although\\ I\\ call\\ sound\\ sources\\ \\\"auditory\\ objects\\\"\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ Just\\ like\\ vision\\,\\ there\\ are\\ also\\ gestalt\\ laws\\ of\\ grouping\\ in\\ audition\\:\\ \\proximity\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\continuation\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\common\\ fate\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(moving\\ together\\)\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ weird\\ but\\ is\\ easily\\ demonstrated\\ with\\ a\\ class\\ demonstration\\ of\\ frequencies\\.\\ When\\ two\\ frequencies\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ they\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ coming\\ from\\ 2\\ different\\ sources\\,\\ but\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ frequency\\,\\ they\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ coming\\ from\\ 1\\ source\\.\\ As\\ two\\ sound\\'s\\ frequencies\\ approach\\ each\\-other\\ in\\ a\\ quantitatively\\ continuous\\ way\\,\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ coming\\ from\\ two\\ sources\\ and\\ then\\ qualitatively\\ jump\\ to\\ a\\ perception\\ of\\ coming\\ from\\ one\\ source\\.\\ This\\ is\\ proximity\\ in\\ hearing\\ \\(similar\\ frequencies\\ are\\ heard\\ as\\ coming\\ from\\ one\\ source\\,\\ dissimilar\\ frequencies\\ are\\ heard\\ as\\ coming\\ from\\ multiple\\ sources\\)\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ mp3\\,\\ where\\ what\\ you\\ should\\ hear\\ initially\\ is\\ two\\ distinct\\ sounds\\.\\ As\\ the\\ low\\ tone\\ raises\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ it\\ sounds\\ like\\ the\\ rhythm\\ changes\\ to\\ a\\ \\\"galloping\\ rhythm\\\"\\ for\\ a\\ short\\ while\\ and\\ then\\ as\\ it\\ separates\\ again\\ you\\ will\\ hear\\ two\\ tones\\ again\\ \\(this\\ time\\ the\\ second\\ tone\\ is\\ higher\\)\\.\\ What\\ is\\ happening\\ is\\ that\\ your\\ brain\\ parses\\ the\\ sounds\\ into\\ two\\ separate\\ auditory\\ objects\\ when\\ their\\ frequencies\\ are\\ very\\ different\\,\\ but\\ then\\ when\\ the\\ frequencies\\ become\\ similar\\ enough\\ your\\ brain\\ parses\\ it\\ into\\ only\\ 1\\ object\\ so\\ the\\ rhythm\\ changes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Auditory\\ Object\\ Recording\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Continuity\\ is\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ sounds\\ that\\ sound\\ similar\\ and\\ are\\ broken\\ by\\ a\\ gap\\,\\ they\\ will\\ sound\\ like\\ the\\ same\\ sound\\ when\\ that\\ gap\\ is\\ filled\\ by\\ a\\ third\\ sound\\ that\\ is\\ different\\.\\ It\\ will\\ sound\\ like\\ one\\ sound\\ getting\\ interrupted\\,\\ not\\ as\\ two\\ sounds\\,\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ way\\ that\\ broken\\ lines\\,\\ when\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ pathway\\ will\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ a\\ continuous\\ object\\ with\\ something\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ it\\.\\ This\\ is\\ heard\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ next\\ sound\\ segment\\,\\ when\\ the\\ interrupting\\ white\\ noise\\ becomes\\ loud\\ enough\\ the\\ tone\\ will\\ sound\\ continuous\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ not\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Continuity\\ MP3\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Common\\ fate\\ is\\ merely\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ when\\ two\\ sounds\\ are\\ moving\\ toward\\ or\\ away\\ from\\ someone\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ perceived\\ as\\ coming\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ source\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 9 (2/28/08)- Perception II: Visual and auditory scene analysis"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.589914+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 10 (3/4/08)- Cognition I: Attention and consciousness", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 387, "html": "\\The\\ Computational\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\ is\\ powerful\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ an\\ explanatory\\ device\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ it\\ directs\\ research\\ and\\ describes\\ how\\ questions\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ should\\ be\\ framed\\.\\ The\\ research\\ program\\ outlined\\ by\\ the\\ Computational\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\ is\\ one\\ which\\ specifies\\ mental\\ representations\\,\\ algorithms\\,\\ inputs\\,\\ and\\ outputs\\,\\ just\\ as\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ a\\ computer\\ program\\ would\\ be\\ described\\.\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ Cognitive\\ Architecture\\ analogously\\ to\\ computer\\ program\\ architecture\\.\\ Cognitive\\ scientists\\ ask\\ \\\"what\\ kind\\ of\\ computational\\ device\\ is\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\?\\\"\\ \\ The\\ specific\\ questions\\ may\\ ask\\ how\\ a\\ computational\\ problem\\ is\\ divided\\ up\\ among\\ processors\\,\\ how\\ many\\ kinds\\ of\\ memory\\ there\\ are\\,\\ and\\ what\\ format\\ data\\ representations\\ take\\.\\ These\\ are\\ just\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ questions\\ and\\ are\\ phrased\\ very\\ broadly\\ here\\,\\ but\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ frame\\ the\\ lecture\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Feature\\ Integration\\ Theory\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ primary\\ distinction\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ in\\ models\\ of\\ cognitive\\ architecture\\ is\\ serial\\ vs\\.\\ parallel\\ processing\\.\\ \\Serial\\ processing\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ where\\ one\\ thing\\ is\\ processed\\ after\\ another\\ so\\ process\\ A\\ goes\\ to\\ B\\ goes\\ to\\ C\\ goes\\ to\\ D\\.\\ \\Parallel\\ processing\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ where\\ multiple\\ tasks\\ are\\ processed\\ simultaneously\\ so\\ A\\,\\ B\\,\\ C\\,\\ and\\ D\\ are\\ all\\ processed\\ at\\ once\\.\\ This\\ distinction\\ will\\ be\\ addressed\\ in\\ visual\\ attention\\ through\\ Anne\\ Triesman\\'s\\ \\Feature\\ Integration\\ Theory\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ influential\\ theory\\ has\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ levels\\,\\ representations\\,\\ and\\ processes\\ \\(some\\ parallel\\,\\ some\\ serial\\)\\.\\ This\\ theory\\ has\\ 4\\ parts\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\Feature\\ maps\\ \\<\\/em\\>are\\ different\\ low\\-level\\ features\\ including\\ color\\ maps\\,\\ contour\\ maps\\,\\ motion\\ maps\\,\\ and\\ orientation\\ maps\\.\\ There\\ is\\ some\\ evidence\\ as\\ well\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ low\\-level\\ preattentive\\ feature\\ maps\\ containing\\ more\\ complex\\,\\ but\\ evolutionarily\\ relevant\\ stimuli\\ such\\ as\\ faces\\,\\ snakes\\ and\\ spiders\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\2\\.\\ These\\ are\\ processed\\ everywhere\\ in\\ the\\ visual\\ field\\,\\ pre\\-attentively\\,\\ and\\ in\\ parallel\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ \\odd\\-man\\ out\\<\\/em\\>\\ effect\\ that\\ is\\ also\\ computed\\ pre\\-attentively\\,\\ everywhere\\,\\ in\\ parallel\\.\\ All\\ this\\ process\\ does\\ is\\ compute\\ whether\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ some\\ very\\ low\\-level\\ feature\\ that\\ is\\ represented\\ in\\ a\\ feature\\ map\\.\\ For\\ example\\ one\\ would\\ experience\\ an\\ odd\\-man\\ out\\ effect\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ green\\ dots\\ with\\ one\\ red\\ dot\\ mixed\\ in\\.\\ We\\ see\\ the\\ red\\ dot\\ immediately\\ and\\ effortlessly\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ Conjunctions\\ of\\ these\\ features\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ color\\+orientation\\)\\ are\\ computed\\ using\\ focal\\ attention\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ a\\ serial\\ manner\\.\\ This\\ serial\\ processing\\ is\\ slower\\ and\\ is\\ at\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ processing\\.\\ We\\ don\\'t\\ completely\\ understand\\ how\\ this\\ works\\,\\ but\\ it\\ requires\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ object\\ \\(although\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ vague\\,\\ because\\ then\\ \\\"attention\\\"\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ unpacked\\ and\\ specified\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ binding\\ problem\\ in\\ philosophy\\,\\ that\\ is\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ put\\ features\\ together\\ and\\ see\\ them\\ as\\ applying\\ to\\ any\\ given\\ object\\ \\(for\\ example\\ seeing\\ an\\ apple\\ as\\ red\\ and\\ round\\ and\\ shiny\\,\\ etc\\.\\ and\\ realizing\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ features\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ one\\ object\\)\\.\\ For\\ more\\ on\\ this\\ you\\ can\\ go\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Binding\\_problem\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ theory\\ makes\\ some\\ easily\\ testable\\ predictions\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ Single\\ features\\ \\\"pop\\-out\\\"\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ detected\\ in\\ parallel\\ \\(relatively\\ quickly\\)\\ in\\ an\\ array\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ Conjunctions\\ of\\ features\\ have\\ no\\ detectors\\ of\\ their\\ own\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ require\\ an\\ attention\\-based\\ serial\\ search\\ which\\ is\\ relatively\\ slow\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ searches\\ for\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ single\\ features\\ in\\ arrays\\ of\\ pictures\\ people\\ find\\ them\\ relatively\\ quickly\\,\\ but\\ in\\ searches\\ for\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ conjunctions\\ of\\ these\\ low\\-level\\ features\\,\\ people\\ take\\ much\\ longer\\ to\\ find\\ them\\.\\ This\\ theory\\ also\\ posits\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ paying\\ attention\\ to\\ a\\ stimulus\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ \\bind\\<\\/em\\>\\ these\\ features\\ together\\.\\ Binding\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ perceive\\ an\\ object\\ as\\ having\\ a\\ color\\,\\ a\\ shape\\,\\ a\\ movement\\,\\ etc\\.\\ When\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ pay\\ attention\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ connect\\ these\\ features\\ together\\ to\\ perceive\\ an\\ image\\ as\\ a\\ consolidated\\ whole\\.\\ This\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ \\illusory\\ conjunctions\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ bind\\ together\\ features\\ incorrectly\\.\\ When\\ we\\ pay\\ attention\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ these\\ illusory\\ conjunctions\\.\\ This\\ presents\\ a\\ distinction\\ that\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ we\\ are\\ paying\\ attention\\,\\ and\\ this\\ distinction\\ is\\ between\\ \\automatic\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\controlled\\<\\/em\\>\\ processing\\.\\ Automatic\\ processing\\ is\\ what\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ the\\ \\Stroop\\ Effect\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ Stroop\\ Effect\\ is\\ where\\ people\\ slow\\ down\\ when\\ features\\ are\\ crossed\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ word\\ \\\"green\\\"\\ written\\ in\\ red\\ ink\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ the\\ original\\ article\\ \\treisman\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Consciousness\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ consciousness\\?\\ This\\ word\\ has\\ at\\ least\\ 3\\ senses\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ specify\\ which\\ one\\ we\\ mean\\ in\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ The\\ first\\ definition\\ is\\ \\self\\-consciousness\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ just\\ an\\ awareness\\ of\\ one\\'s\\ self\\,\\ where\\ the\\ limbs\\ are\\,\\ what\\ one\\ is\\ doing\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ definition\\ is\\ the\\ \\\\\"easy\\\"\\ problem\\ of\\ consciousness\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ easy\\ to\\ answer\\,\\ but\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ frame\\ what\\ it\\ consists\\ of\\.\\ This\\ corresponds\\ to\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ aware\\ of\\.\\ For\\ example\\ your\\ heart\\ beating\\,\\ your\\ muscle\\ movements\\,\\ grammatical\\ syntax\\,\\ and\\ lower\\ visual\\ processing\\ are\\ not\\ conscious\\ processes\\ because\\ the\\ processing\\ is\\ not\\ available\\ to\\ introspection\\.\\ In\\ a\\ computational\\ sense\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ processing\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ brought\\ into\\ our\\ awareness\\ using\\ attention\\.\\ Your\\ decisions\\ and\\ beliefs\\ are\\ conscious\\ because\\ you\\ can\\ access\\ them\\ through\\ introspection\\ and\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ how\\ you\\ arrived\\ at\\ a\\ belief\\ \\(at\\ least\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\)\\.\\ Under\\ this\\ distinction\\,\\ preattentive\\ and\\ automatic\\ processing\\ are\\ unconscious\\ and\\ attention\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ bring\\ things\\ \\(that\\ can\\ be\\ accessed\\)\\ into\\ consciousness\\.\\ Consciousness\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ \\\"blackboard\\\"\\ representation\\.\\ Attention\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ bring\\ information\\ into\\ this\\ conscious\\ representation\\.\\ This\\ helps\\ us\\ to\\ attend\\ to\\ only\\ relevant\\ information\\,\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ consciously\\ process\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ many\\ illusions\\.\\ For\\ example\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ illusion\\ of\\ \\full\\ visual\\ awareness\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ we\\ feel\\ as\\ though\\ we\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ everything\\ in\\ our\\ full\\ visual\\ field\\.\\ This\\ is\\ patently\\ false\\ as\\ exemplified\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ examples\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ We\\ feel\\ like\\ we\\ \\\"see\\\"\\ everything\\ \\\"out\\ there\\,\\\"\\ when\\ in\\ fact\\ we\\ see\\ only\\ bits\\ and\\ pieces\\,\\ and\\ our\\ brains\\ fill\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ edge\\-to\\-edge\\ acuity\\.\\ In\\ the\\ following\\ pictures\\ we\\ think\\ we\\ see\\ like\\ the\\ upper\\ left\\ picture\\,\\ when\\ really\\ we\\ see\\ like\\ the\\ lower\\ right\\ picture\\ \\(actually\\ we\\ see\\ even\\ less\\,\\ and\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ in\\ color\\)\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\2\\.\\ We\\ have\\ a\\ blind\\ spot\\ where\\ our\\ optic\\ nerve\\ travels\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ brain\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ completely\\ unaware\\ of\\ because\\ our\\ brains\\ \\\"fill\\ in\\\"\\ the\\ missing\\ spot\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ We\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ severe\\ \\change\\ blindness\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Change\\ blindness\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ are\\ completely\\ unaware\\ of\\ a\\ MAJOR\\ change\\ in\\ two\\ similar\\ pictures\\.\\ Some\\ great\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/viscog\\.beckman\\.uiuc\\.edu\\/djs\\_lab\\/demos\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ We\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ severe\\ \\inattention\\ blindness\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ will\\ not\\ notice\\ a\\ MAJOR\\ event\\ in\\ our\\ visual\\ field\\ and\\ experience\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ attending\\ to\\.\\ Excellent\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ link\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ neurobiological\\ study\\ of\\ consciousness\\ studies\\ the\\ \\\"easy\\\"\\ problem\\ of\\ consciousness\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\.\\ The\\ fundamental\\ question\\ is\\ \\\"how\\ does\\ one\\ determine\\ the\\ neural\\ correlates\\ of\\ conscious\\ awareness\\?\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ fundamentally\\ just\\ an\\ issue\\ of\\ information\\ access\\.\\ In\\ neurobiology\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ studied\\ with\\ phenomena\\ that\\ correspond\\ to\\ one\\ input\\ with\\ two\\ conscious\\ states\\ \\(like\\ a\\ necker\\ cube\\)\\.\\ Binocular\\ rivalry\\ has\\ been\\ used\\ as\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ probe\\ for\\ the\\ neural\\ correlates\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ This\\ phenomenon\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ because\\ we\\ can\\ monitor\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ subjective\\ perceptions\\ flip\\.\\ To\\ do\\ this\\ one\\ trains\\ a\\ monkey\\ to\\ pull\\ one\\ lever\\ when\\ it\\ sees\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ and\\ another\\ lever\\ when\\ it\\ sees\\ another\\.\\ Then\\ neurons\\ are\\ measured\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ they\\ change\\ with\\ the\\ changing\\ perception\\.\\ This\\ research\\ shows\\ that\\ conscious\\ perception\\ sits\\ in\\ higher\\ visual\\ areas\\.\\ Essentially\\,\\ most\\ neurons\\ in\\ early\\ visual\\ areas\\ \\(V1\\ and\\ V2\\)\\ don\\'t\\ change\\ with\\ the\\ monkey\\'s\\ perception\\,\\ but\\ those\\ in\\ higher\\ areas\\ \\(the\\ inferotemporal\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"what\\\"\\ pathway\\)\\ do\\.\\ These\\ higher\\ parts\\ are\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ frontal\\ lobes\\ so\\ Crick\\ and\\ Koch\\ hypothesize\\ that\\ conscious\\ awareness\\ comes\\ from\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ that\\ connect\\ to\\ the\\ frontal\\ lobes\\.\\ This\\ meshes\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ \\\"blackboard\\\"\\ theory\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ executive\\ function\\ \\(decision\\ making\\)\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ frontal\\ lobes\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ second\\ neural\\ correlate\\ of\\ conciousness\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ frequencies\\ of\\ brain\\ oscillations\\ in\\ loops\\ of\\ activity\\ that\\ run\\ through\\ the\\ thalamus\\ and\\ cortex\\.\\ EEGs\\ show\\ that\\ brain\\ oscillations\\ correlate\\ with\\ different\\ states\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ Delta\\ waves\\ \\(3\\ hz\\)\\ correspond\\ to\\ deep\\,\\ dreamless\\ sleep\\,\\ Theta\\ waves\\ \\(4\\-7\\ hz\\)\\ correspond\\ to\\ drowsiness\\ and\\ sleep\\,\\ Alpha\\ waves\\ \\(\\ 8\\-12\\ Hz\\)\\ correspond\\ to\\ relaxation\\,\\ and\\ Beta\\ \\(12\\-30Hz\\)\\ and\\ Gamma\\ \\(25\\-100\\ Hz\\)\\ waves\\ correspond\\ to\\ alertness\\.\\ From\\ this\\ data\\ and\\ more\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ hypothesized\\ that\\ synchronized\\ gamma\\ firing\\ creates\\ consciousness\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ \\\"hard\\\"\\ problem\\ of\\ consciousness\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ third\\ definition\\ of\\ consciousness\\ is\\ the\\ sexy\\ question\\ of\\ consciousness\\,\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ subjective\\ experience\\ and\\ why\\ does\\ it\\ exist\\ at\\ all\\?\\ This\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ sentience\\,\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ like\\ to\\ experience\\,\\ or\\ \\qualia\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ hard\\ problem\\ of\\ consciousness\\ because\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ even\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ frame\\ the\\ problem\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ even\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ ask\\ questions\\ regarding\\ subjective\\ experience\\,\\ let\\ alone\\ formulate\\ answers\\.\\ This\\ is\\ brought\\ about\\ by\\ questions\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"could\\ a\\ computer\\ program\\ be\\ conscious\\?\\\"\\ \\\"Is\\ everyone\\'s\\ perception\\ of\\ red\\ the\\ same\\?\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"Can\\ there\\ be\\ zombies\\?\\\"\\ \\(where\\ a\\ zombie\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ outwardly\\ seems\\ human\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\'t\\ actually\\ have\\ any\\ subjective\\ conscious\\ experience\\)\\.\\ If\\ we\\ could\\ teleport\\ what\\ would\\ it\\ \\\"be\\ like\\\"\\ and\\ would\\ people\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ end\\?\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"other\\ minds\\\"\\ problem\\,\\ or\\ solipcism\\.\\ Also\\,\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ if\\ animals\\ are\\ conscious\\?\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ acceptable\\ theory\\ that\\ can\\ even\\ start\\ to\\ get\\ at\\ these\\ questions\\.\\ Here\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ we\\ have\\ though\\,\\ but\\ all\\ insufficient\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\Dualism\\ \\<\\/em\\>which\\ states\\ that\\ mind\\ and\\ matter\\ are\\ two\\ separate\\ things\\,\\ and\\ consciousness\\ is\\ a\\ property\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ The\\ problems\\ with\\ this\\ hypothesis\\ were\\ discussed\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ class\\.\\ The\\ first\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ refuted\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ neural\\ states\\ and\\ events\\ correlate\\ with\\ subjective\\ experience\\.\\ The\\ second\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ unclear\\ how\\ a\\ matterless\\ thing\\ like\\ a\\ soul\\ would\\ interact\\ with\\ matter\\ at\\ all\\ \\(also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"ghost\\ in\\ the\\ machine\\\"\\ problem\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\Eliminative\\ Behaviorism\\<\\/em\\>\\ states\\ that\\ sentience\\ makes\\ no\\ difference\\ to\\ anything\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ illusion\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ behaviorists\\ such\\ as\\ B\\.F\\.\\ Skinner\\.\\ Problem\\ 1\\ with\\ this\\ is\\ Descartes\\'\\ disproof\\,\\ \\\"I\\ think\\,\\ therefore\\ I\\ am\\.\\\"\\ This\\ just\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ thing\\ we\\ can\\ possibly\\ know\\ for\\ sure\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ exist\\ because\\ of\\ thinking\\ itself\\.\\ He\\ started\\ by\\ saying\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ know\\ anything\\ for\\ sure\\,\\ and\\ then\\ built\\ up\\ from\\ there\\ that\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ thinking\\ he\\ must\\ exist\\,\\ for\\ a\\ non\\-existent\\ entity\\ could\\ not\\ possibly\\ be\\ thinking\\.\\ Problem\\ 2\\ is\\ ethical\\,\\ namely\\,\\ if\\ people\\ are\\ just\\ robots\\ why\\ shouldn\\'t\\ we\\ hurt\\ them\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\Information\\ processing\\<\\/em\\>\\ states\\ that\\ sentience\\ merely\\ comes\\ from\\ information\\ access\\,\\ or\\ one\\ module\\ \\\"looking\\ at\\\"\\ another\\ module\\.\\ Problem\\ 1\\ is\\ how\\ does\\ this\\ somehow\\ create\\ consciousness\\?\\ Problem\\ 2\\ is\\ that\\ thermostats\\,\\ cars\\,\\ and\\ many\\ other\\ objects\\ also\\ do\\ this\\,\\ and\\ must\\ therefore\\ be\\ granted\\ some\\ level\\ of\\ consciousness\\ if\\ this\\ view\\ is\\ accepted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ \\Neural\\ Reductionism\\<\\/em\\>\\ states\\ that\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ brain\\ activity\\ generate\\ consciousness\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ explanation\\ above\\ of\\ 40Hz\\ waves\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ frontal\\ cortex\\.\\ There\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ here\\ as\\ above\\ in\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ absolutely\\ no\\ explanation\\ of\\ the\\ mechanism\\ for\\ how\\ these\\ processes\\ create\\ consciousness\\.\\ Another\\ potential\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ rules\\ out\\ consciousness\\ in\\ aliens\\ or\\ robots\\.\\ Not\\ everyone\\ would\\ agree\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\,\\ but\\ I\\ think\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ materialist\\ view\\ seriously\\ this\\ must\\ be\\ an\\ option\\,\\ that\\ consciousness\\ could\\ be\\ created\\ in\\ non\\-brain\\ systems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\5\\.\\ \\Quantum\\ gravity\\<\\/em\\>\\ states\\ that\\ consciousness\\ arises\\ from\\ quantum\\ mechanics\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ Specifically\\,\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ hypothesized\\ that\\ microtubules\\ are\\ small\\ enough\\ to\\ experience\\ quantum\\ effects\\,\\ and\\ so\\ these\\ are\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ has\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ problems\\ not\\ the\\ least\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ trying\\ to\\ put\\ forth\\ this\\ view\\ Roger\\ \\\"Penrose\\ had\\ to\\ reject\\ most\\ of\\ contemporary\\ neuroscience\\,\\ evolutionary\\ biology\\,\\ and\\ physics\\.\\\"\\ \\(Pinker\\,\\ How\\ the\\ Mind\\ Works\\,\\ p\\.98\\)\\ \\ Problem\\ 1\\ is\\ how\\ does\\ this\\ work\\?\\ There\\ is\\ really\\ no\\ reason\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ microtubules\\ have\\ anything\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ thought\\.\\ Problem\\ 2\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"weird\\=weird\\\"\\ fallacy\\.\\ This\\ argument\\ hinges\\ on\\ similarities\\ of\\ the\\ conceptual\\ weirdness\\ of\\ consciousness\\ and\\ the\\ conceptual\\ weirdness\\ of\\ quantum\\ mechanics\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ explanation\\ though\\ of\\ how\\ these\\ two\\ domains\\ would\\ have\\ any\\ causal\\ connection\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\6\\.\\ \\Cognitive\\ limitations\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(or\\ the\\ \\\"Mysterian\\\"\\ theory\\)\\ states\\ that\\ our\\ minds\\ just\\ are\\ not\\ wired\\ to\\ understand\\ consciousness\\.\\ This\\ just\\ means\\ that\\ our\\ brains\\ cannot\\ understand\\ consciousness\\ just\\ like\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ see\\ ultraviolet\\ light\\,\\ think\\ of\\ nothing\\,\\ hold\\ 1000\\ items\\ in\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\,\\ or\\ perceive\\ of\\ 11\\-dimensional\\ space\\.\\ Problem\\ 1\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ similarity\\ with\\ \\\"essentialist\\\"\\ theories\\ of\\ life\\ from\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ which\\ stated\\ that\\ because\\ people\\ didn\\'t\\ understand\\ how\\ life\\ worked\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ chemistry\\:\\ needless\\ to\\ say\\ this\\ was\\ wrong\\.\\ Problem\\ 2\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ correct\\.\\ Namely\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ say\\ definitively\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ never\\ understand\\ consciousness\\ because\\ we\\ now\\ understand\\ things\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ understood\\ before\\,\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ this\\ won\\'t\\ happen\\ here\\ as\\ well\\?\\ It\\ would\\ seem\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ from\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ perspective\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reason\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ an\\ adaptation\\ for\\ understanding\\ consciousness\\,\\ just\\ like\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reason\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ an\\ adaptation\\ to\\ understand\\ atoms\\,\\ there\\ was\\ never\\ a\\ selection\\ pressure\\ to\\ create\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ mental\\ module\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 10 (3/4/08)- Cognition I: Attention and consciousness"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.607333+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 11 (3/6/08)- Cognition II: Memory and Mental Representation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 388, "html": "\\\\Memory\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ fundamental\\ distinction\\ in\\ memory\\ is\\ between\\ short\\-term\\ and\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\,\\ but\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ broken\\ up\\ quite\\ a\\ bit\\ further\\ as\\ well\\.\\ There\\ is\\ extensive\\ experimental\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ distinction\\.\\ When\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ words\\ is\\ given\\ and\\ people\\ are\\ told\\ to\\ memorize\\ it\\ they\\ exhibit\\ what\\ are\\ known\\ as\\ \\primacy\\ effects\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\recency\\ effects\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ The\\ primacy\\ effect\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ remember\\ the\\ words\\ presented\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ list\\ better\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\.\\ The\\ recency\\ effect\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ delay\\ between\\ the\\ list\\ and\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ recall\\ the\\ words\\,\\ then\\ they\\ tend\\ to\\ recall\\ the\\ most\\ recent\\ words\\ \\(the\\ ones\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ list\\)\\ better\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\.\\ When\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ delay\\ between\\ the\\ list\\ and\\ recall\\,\\ the\\ recency\\ effect\\ disappears\\ \\(if\\ people\\ are\\ given\\ another\\ task\\ so\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ rehearse\\ the\\ words\\ in\\ short\\ term\\ memory\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ cannot\\ be\\ kept\\ in\\ short\\ term\\ memory\\.\\ The\\ primacy\\ effect\\ does\\ not\\ disappear\\ because\\ they\\ had\\ time\\ to\\ be\\ committed\\ to\\ long\\ term\\ memory\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ modal\\ model\\ of\\ memory\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ how\\ information\\ comes\\ into\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ goes\\ through\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\,\\ and\\ then\\ how\\ part\\ of\\ that\\ is\\ committed\\ to\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ Information\\ comes\\ into\\ \\sensory\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ where\\ it\\ goes\\ through\\ the\\ first\\ sorting\\ process\\,\\ and\\ most\\ is\\ dropped\\ out\\ based\\ on\\ what\\ one\\ is\\ paying\\ attention\\ to\\.\\ Then\\ it\\ goes\\ into\\ \\short\\-term\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ where\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ rehearsed\\ to\\ keep\\ it\\ there\\,\\ which\\ is\\ subjectively\\ perceived\\ as\\ picture\\ maintenance\\ or\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\\"echo\\-box\\.\\\"\\ This\\ echo\\-box\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ paying\\ attention\\ to\\ someone\\,\\ but\\ when\\ they\\ ask\\ us\\ \\\"are\\ you\\ listening\\ to\\ me\\?\\\"\\ we\\ can\\ quickly\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ last\\ thing\\ they\\ said\\.\\ Unrehearsed\\ information\\ is\\ quickly\\ lost\\.\\ From\\ here\\,\\ with\\ enough\\ rehearsal\\ or\\ with\\ certain\\ other\\ processes\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ encoded\\ to\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ Some\\ information\\ may\\ be\\ lost\\ from\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\ over\\ time\\.\\ To\\ retrieve\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\,\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ brought\\ back\\ into\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\\r\\\\\\There\\ is\\ neurophysiological\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ separation\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ hippocampus\\ \\(and\\ surrounding\\ Medial\\ Temporal\\-lobe\\)\\ is\\ the\\ structure\\ that\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ encoding\\ short\\-term\\ memories\\ into\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\.\\ The\\ most\\ famous\\ case\\ of\\ a\\ patient\\ who\\ lost\\ this\\ structure\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ H\\.M\\.\\ who\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ form\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\.\\ He\\ retained\\ old\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\,\\ and\\ can\\ have\\ new\\ short\\-term\\ memories\\,\\ but\\ he\\ cannot\\ form\\ new\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ fascinating\\ video\\ of\\ Clive\\ Wearing\\,\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ form\\ long\\-term\\ memories\\.\\\r\\\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\Long\\-term\\ memory\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ many\\ subdivisions\\ to\\ the\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\,\\ the\\ primary\\ division\\ here\\ is\\ between\\ \\explicit\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\implicit\\ memory\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ Explicit\\ memory\\ \\(also\\ called\\ \\declarative\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\ because\\ its\\ contents\\ can\\ be\\ put\\ into\\ words\\)\\ is\\ conscious\\,\\ or\\ available\\ to\\ introspection\\,\\ implicit\\ memory\\ \\(also\\ called\\ \\non\\-declarative\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\ is\\ unconscious\\,\\ or\\ not\\ available\\ to\\ introspection\\.\\ Implicit\\ memory\\ includes\\ \\classical\\ conditioning\\ effects\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(why\\ we\\ start\\ drooling\\ when\\ we\\ hear\\ the\\ dinner\\ bell\\ ring\\)\\,\\ \\procedural\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(how\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ a\\ task\\ like\\ getting\\ dressed\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\priming\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(explain\\)\\.\\ Explicit\\ memory\\ can\\ be\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ \\episodic\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ memory\\ of\\ stories\\ and\\ events\\,\\ and\\ \\semantic\\ memory\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ of\\ facts\\,\\ word\\ meanings\\,\\ and\\ general\\ knowledge\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ hippocampus\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ explicit\\ declarative\\ memory\\,\\ and\\ the\\ basal\\ ganglia\\ and\\ cerebellum\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ procedural\\ memory\\ like\\ muscle\\ memory\\ \\(how\\ we\\ throw\\ a\\ ball\\ without\\ thinking\\ through\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ sub\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ action\\)\\.\\ The\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ comes\\ from\\ patients\\ like\\ H\\.M\\ who\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ forming\\ new\\ long\\-term\\ procedural\\ memory\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ cannot\\ form\\ new\\ declarative\\ memories\\.\\ The\\ amygdala\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ emotional\\ coloring\\ of\\ memories\\,\\ and\\ can\\ actually\\ cause\\ horrific\\ memories\\ to\\ be\\ \\\"burned\\ into\\\"\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\ in\\ one\\ fell\\ swoop\\;\\ this\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ Post\\-traumatic\\ Stress\\ Disorder\\.\\ The\\ amygdala\\ helps\\ the\\ brain\\ sort\\ out\\ what\\ information\\ should\\ be\\ stored\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\ and\\ what\\ discarded\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ important\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ remember\\.\\ Importance\\ of\\ events\\ to\\ an\\ organism\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ emotion\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ this\\ is\\ \\\"why\\ we\\ feel\\\"\\ at\\ all\\.\\ People\\ always\\ speak\\ of\\ \\\"rational\\ thought\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"emotions\\,\\\"\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ diametrically\\ opposed\\,\\ however\\,\\ cognitive\\ science\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ emotion\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ rationality\\,\\ it\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ attribute\\ meaning\\ to\\ objects\\ and\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ the\\ amygdala\\ plays\\ such\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\ \\(it\\ is\\ an\\ emotional\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\)\\,\\ it\\ helps\\ sort\\ between\\ what\\ is\\ important\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ irrelevant\\,\\ and\\ can\\ therefore\\ be\\ discarded\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ committed\\ to\\ memory\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ more\\ information\\ on\\ this\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Emotion\\_and\\_memory\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ I\\ also\\ recommend\\ the\\ book\\ Why\\ We\\ Feel\\ by\\ Victor\\ Johnston\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Forms\\ of\\ mental\\ representation\\,\\ and\\ forms\\ of\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Computers\\ store\\ files\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ forms\\:\\ image\\ files\\ \\(\\.tif\\,\\ \\.jpg\\)\\,\\ text\\ files\\ \\(\\.doc\\,\\ \\.txt\\)\\,\\ sound\\ files\\ \\(\\.wav\\,\\ \\.mp3\\)\\,\\ database\\ files\\ \\(\\.xls\\)\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Human\\ memory\\ has\\ analogously\\ varied\\ forms\\ of\\ storage\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ obvious\\ and\\ well\\-understood\\ in\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ Before\\ we\\ discuss\\ this\\ we\\ shall\\ diverge\\ for\\ a\\ second\\ to\\ discuss\\ formal\\ definitions\\ of\\ information\\.\\ A\\ \\bit\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ information\\ is\\ \\\"one\\-piece\\\"\\ of\\ information\\,\\ formally\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ can\\ eliminate\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ alternatives\\.\\ If\\ there\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ alternatives\\,\\ then\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ bits\\ must\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ specify\\ which\\ alternative\\ is\\ true\\.\\ A\\ \\byte\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ 8\\ bits\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ so\\ a\\ byte\\ can\\ determine\\ between\\ 256\\ \\(or\\ \\ 2\\ to\\ the\\ 8th\\ power\\)\\ pieces\\ of\\ information\\.\\ To\\ understand\\ this\\ it\\ is\\ easiest\\ to\\ use\\ examples\\ using\\ binary\\.\\ Let\\'s\\ say\\ there\\ are\\ 4\\ different\\ objects\\ I\\ will\\ assign\\ each\\ object\\ a\\ \\\"number\\\"\\ in\\ binary\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ objects\\ are\\ 11\\,\\ 10\\,\\ 01\\,\\ and\\ 00\\.\\ One\\ needs\\ 2\\ pieces\\ of\\ information\\ to\\ determine\\ a\\ single\\ object\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ the\\ first\\ number\\ is\\ a\\ 0\\ or\\ a\\ 1\\,\\ and\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ the\\ second\\ number\\ is\\ a\\ 0\\ or\\ a\\ 1\\.\\ Two\\ bits\\ of\\ information\\ can\\ distinguish\\ 4\\ separate\\ objects\\.\\ 3\\ bits\\ of\\ information\\ can\\ determine\\ 8\\ separate\\ objects\\ \\(111\\,\\ 110\\,\\ 101\\,\\ 100\\,\\ 011\\,\\ 010\\,\\ 001\\,\\ and\\ 000\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ concrete\\ definition\\ that\\ quantifies\\ amount\\ of\\ information\\.\\ Memory\\ holds\\ information\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ first\\ attempt\\ to\\ quantify\\ it\\ tried\\ to\\ use\\ bits\\,\\ that\\ is\\ how\\ much\\ information\\ can\\ memory\\ hold\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ quantified\\ in\\ computers\\.\\ It\\ was\\ discovered\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ really\\ the\\ wrong\\ type\\ of\\ measurement\\ for\\ memory\\,\\ and\\ it\\ should\\ actually\\ be\\ measured\\ by\\ how\\ many\\ \\\"chunks\\\"\\ memory\\ can\\ hold\\.\\ A\\ chunk\\ would\\ be\\ considered\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ pointer\\ in\\ computer\\ jargon\\,\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ \\\"memory\\ object\\.\\\"\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ direct\\ correlation\\ to\\ bits\\,\\ because\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ bigger\\ or\\ smaller\\ \\\"objects\\.\\\"\\ More\\ on\\ bits\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Bit\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ an\\ excellent\\ discussion\\ of\\ bits\\ and\\ chunks\\ in\\ memory\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Chunking\\_\\%28psychology\\%29\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ types\\ of\\ storage\\ \\(or\\ mechanisms\\)\\ of\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ The\\ \\phonological\\ loop\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ our\\ \\\"voice\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"echo\\-box\\\"\\ in\\ short\\ term\\ memory\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ affected\\ by\\ asking\\ people\\ to\\ repeat\\ a\\ syllable\\ because\\ they\\ must\\ use\\ this\\ and\\ may\\ therefore\\ lose\\ other\\ things\\ they\\ are\\ \\\"holding\\\"\\ in\\ this\\ part\\ of\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ Broca\\'s\\ area\\ and\\ other\\ linguistic\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ are\\ used\\ here\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ maintaining\\ things\\ in\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ George\\ Miller\\'s\\ magical\\ 7\\ \\&\\#177\\;\\ 2\\ rule\\ states\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ hold\\ 7\\ plus\\ or\\ minus\\ two\\ \\\"things\\\"\\ in\\ this\\ area\\ of\\ our\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ \\\"Things\\\"\\ here\\ refer\\ to\\ \\\"chunks\\\"\\ of\\ information\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ varying\\ number\\ of\\ bits\\.\\ Human\\ working\\ memory\\ can\\ hold\\ a\\ maximum\\ of\\ 9\\ chunks\\ of\\ information\\ \\(think\\ of\\ this\\ as\\ 9\\ xs\\ and\\ os\\ in\\ a\\ pattern\\ i\\.e\\.\\ ooxxoxoxx\\)\\.\\ When\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ with\\ decimal\\ numbers\\ \\(1\\-10\\)\\ we\\ can\\ hold\\ 7\\ numbers\\ in\\ memory\\,\\ which\\ corresponds\\ to\\ 23\\ bits\\ of\\ information\\,\\ or\\ as\\ letters\\ we\\ can\\ hold\\ 7\\ letters\\ in\\ memory\\,\\ which\\ corresponds\\ to\\ 33\\ bits\\ of\\ information\\.\\ We\\ can\\ hold\\ 5\\ mono\\-syllabic\\ words\\ from\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ 1000\\ in\\ memory\\,\\ and\\ this\\ corresponds\\ to\\ 50\\ bits\\.\\ The\\ whole\\ point\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ bits\\ are\\ a\\ bad\\ unit\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ holding\\ in\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ \\\"Chunks\\\"\\ are\\ better\\ units\\,\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ hold\\ 7\\ \\&\\#177\\;\\ 2\\ chunks\\ of\\ information\\,\\ whether\\ that\\ is\\ numbers\\,\\ words\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ explains\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ easy\\ or\\ hard\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ remember\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ we\\ \\\"chunk\\\"\\ information\\ into\\ heuristics\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ remember\\ it\\ so\\ phone\\ numbers\\ are\\ represented\\ as\\ 1\\-\\(XXX\\)\\ xxx\\-xxxx\\,\\ and\\ not\\ 1xxxxxxxxxx\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ why\\ mnemonics\\ work\\ like\\ \\\"Kings\\ Play\\ Chess\\ On\\ Fine\\ Grained\\ Sand\\\"\\ to\\ remember\\ the\\ Linnean\\ biological\\ classification\\ system\\ of\\ Kingdom\\,\\ Phylum\\,\\ Class\\,\\ Order\\,\\ Family\\,\\ Genus\\,\\ Species\\,\\ or\\ \\\"Please\\ Excuse\\ My\\ Dear\\ Aunt\\ Sally\\\"\\ for\\ the\\ algebraic\\ ordering\\ of\\ operations\\.\\ These\\ turn\\ lists\\ into\\ sentences\\,\\ so\\ if\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\ can\\ be\\ remembered\\,\\ it\\ turns\\ the\\ list\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ items\\ into\\ just\\ 1\\ item\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ The\\ \\visuospatial\\ sketchpad\\<\\/em\\>\\ or\\ \\mental\\ imagery\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\ that\\ holds\\ mental\\ images\\.\\ Things\\ held\\ here\\ will\\ not\\ interfere\\ with\\ lists\\ of\\ words\\ being\\ held\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\ So\\ words\\ and\\ pictures\\ are\\ stored\\ separately\\ in\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\.\\ Imagery\\ is\\ used\\ in\\ many\\ kinds\\ of\\ reasoning\\,\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ actually\\ even\\ explicitly\\ use\\ images\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ as\\ I\\ count\\ through\\ days\\ I\\ picture\\ a\\ weekly\\ calendar\\ and\\ jump\\ from\\ box\\ to\\ box\\ to\\ help\\ me\\ keep\\ track\\.\\ Einstein\\ famously\\ claimed\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ theories\\ using\\ mental\\ imagery\\.\\ It\\ is\\ controversial\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ images\\ are\\ actually\\ stored\\ as\\ pictures\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ pieces\\ of\\ evidence\\ that\\ supports\\ this\\ hypothesis\\ however\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Mental\\ transormations\\<\\/em\\>\\ take\\ more\\ time\\ the\\ further\\ something\\ is\\ transformed\\.\\ So\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ if\\ I\\ ask\\ you\\ to\\ take\\ an\\ object\\ like\\ a\\ trash\\ can\\ and\\ tell\\ me\\ what\\ it\\ will\\ look\\ like\\ upside\\-down\\ \\(180\\ degree\\ rotation\\)\\,\\ it\\ will\\ take\\ you\\ longer\\ than\\ if\\ I\\ ask\\ you\\ to\\ tell\\ me\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ look\\ like\\ on\\ its\\ side\\ \\(90\\ degree\\ rotation\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ discussion\\ of\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/people\\.virginia\\.edu\\/\\~ls8j\\/perception\\/class8b\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ This\\ provides\\ evidence\\ that\\ this\\ image\\ is\\ not\\ pixel\\ based\\ \\(as\\ depth\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ 2\\-d\\ rotations\\)\\ but\\ \\\"object\\ based\\\"\\ and\\ not\\ digital\\ \\(discrete\\)\\ but\\ analogue\\ \\(continuous\\)\\.\\ There\\ have\\ been\\ two\\ elegant\\ experiments\\ that\\ show\\ that\\ these\\ rotations\\ are\\ actually\\ happening\\ by\\ showing\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ longer\\ processes\\,\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ more\\ difficult\\.\\ In\\ traditional\\ research\\ on\\ this\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ given\\ two\\ static\\ objects\\,\\ and\\ asked\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ same\\.\\ The\\ further\\ one\\ has\\ to\\ rotate\\ one\\ object\\ to\\ map\\ it\\ onto\\ another\\,\\ the\\ longer\\ the\\ task\\ takes\\ them\\.\\ To\\ show\\ that\\ these\\ mental\\ objects\\ are\\ indeed\\ \\\"objects\\\"\\ and\\ not\\ pictures\\ researchers\\ give\\ a\\ subject\\ one\\ object\\,\\ tell\\ them\\ to\\ spin\\ it\\ mentally\\,\\ and\\ then\\ show\\ them\\ a\\ second\\ image\\ and\\ ask\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ or\\ different\\,\\ and\\ this\\ reaction\\ time\\ difference\\ disappears\\.\\ The\\ other\\ experiment\\ gets\\ subjects\\ used\\ to\\ doing\\ 0\\ to\\ 180\\ degree\\ rotations\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ show\\ uni\\-modal\\ distributions\\ of\\ reaction\\ times\\ \\(so\\ all\\ subjects\\ are\\ doing\\ their\\ mental\\ rotations\\ the\\ same\\.\\ Then\\ another\\ problem\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ can\\ do\\ either\\ a\\ 225\\ degree\\ clockwise\\ rotation\\ or\\ a\\ 135\\ counterclockwise\\ rotation\\.\\ When\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ some\\ people\\ will\\ do\\ the\\ long\\ rotation\\,\\ and\\ take\\ longer\\,\\ while\\ others\\ will\\ go\\ the\\ shorter\\ route\\,\\ and\\ do\\ it\\ quicker\\.\\ This\\ gives\\ a\\ bi\\-modal\\ distribution\\ showing\\ through\\ reaction\\ times\\ that\\ some\\ are\\ doing\\ it\\ quicker\\ \\(135\\ degree\\ rotation\\)\\ than\\ others\\ \\(225\\ degree\\ rotation\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Does\\ visual\\ imagery\\ actually\\ use\\ the\\ early\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\,\\ where\\ visual\\ information\\ is\\ represented\\ spatially\\ or\\ \\topographically\\?\\ \\<\\/em\\>Kosslyn\\ et\\.al\\.\\ investigated\\ this\\ using\\ fMRI\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ people\\'s\\ brains\\ are\\ doing\\ when\\ they\\ do\\ a\\ mental\\ rotation\\.\\ First\\ they\\ gave\\ subjects\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ pictures\\ of\\ a\\ checkered\\ \\\"bow\\-tie\\\"\\ at\\ different\\ angles\\,\\ and\\ scanned\\ their\\ brains\\.\\ Then\\ they\\ had\\ subjects\\ imagine\\ a\\ checkered\\ \\\"bow\\-tie\\\"\\ picture\\ and\\ then\\ asked\\ them\\ to\\ rotate\\ it\\ mentally\\.\\ The\\ imagined\\ condition\\ showed\\ weaker\\ \\(because\\ it\\ is\\ imagined\\ but\\ not\\ seen\\)\\,\\ but\\ very\\ similar\\ activation\\ to\\ the\\ visual\\ condition\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ question\\ is\\ \\\"are\\ whole\\ images\\ stored\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ memory\\?\\\"\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ extensive\\ evidence\\ here\\ that\\ the\\ answer\\ is\\ no\\.\\ People\\ remember\\ the\\ \\\"gist\\\"\\ of\\ visual\\ scenes\\,\\ and\\ not\\ all\\ the\\ details\\.\\ Long\\-term\\ memory\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ store\\ detailed\\ images\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ outlines\\,\\ that\\ are\\ based\\ around\\ conceptual\\ super\\ structures\\.\\ So\\ our\\ long\\-term\\ \\\"visual\\ memory\\\"\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ conceptual\\ than\\ actually\\ visual\\.\\ We\\ then\\ reconstruct\\ the\\ image\\ when\\ we\\ send\\ the\\ concept\\ back\\ to\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\ for\\ retrieval\\.\\ This\\ is\\ one\\ reason\\ why\\ people\\'s\\ memories\\ are\\ so\\ flawed\\ in\\ visual\\ imagery\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ encoding\\ \\\"what\\ happened\\\"\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\\"what\\ they\\ saw\\.\\\"\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 11 (3/6/08)- Cognition II: Memory and Mental Representation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.626558+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 12 (3/18/08)- Concepts & Reasoning", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 389, "html": "\\\\ \\\"Systematically\\ inaccurate\\ mental\\ models\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ can\\ \\[often\\]\\ confer\\ functional\\ benefits\\ to\\ organisms\\ whose\\ aim\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ world\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ survive\\ and\\ reproduce\\ in\\ it\\\"\\ \\-from\\ a\\ piece\\ by\\ Peter\\ M\\.\\ Todd\\,\\ Ralph\\ Hertwig\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Ulrich\\ Hoffrage\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ lecture\\ has\\ a\\ theme\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ present\\ throughout\\ the\\ class\\,\\ but\\ is\\ especially\\ relevant\\ for\\ understanding\\ concepts\\ and\\ reasoning\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ that\\ our\\ minds\\ are\\ structured\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ maximize\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\,\\ and\\ are\\ therefore\\ structured\\ around\\ human\\ action\\ and\\ behavior\\ and\\ not\\ necessarily\\ structured\\ around\\ understanding\\ \\\"objective\\ truth\\.\\\"\\ Where\\ a\\ \\\"true\\ picture\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ increases\\ survival\\/reproduction\\ \\(such\\ as\\ in\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ vision\\)\\ our\\ minds\\ should\\ capture\\ and\\ create\\ \\\"truth\\,\\\"\\ however\\ sometimes\\ cognitive\\ processes\\ which\\ create\\ an\\ efficient\\ survival\\ machine\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ false\\ beliefs\\,\\ and\\ here\\ our\\ brains\\ will\\ not\\ capture\\ \\\"truth\\.\\\"\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ addressed\\ this\\,\\ and\\ shaped\\ the\\ lecture\\ around\\ it\\ quite\\ a\\ bit\\,\\ but\\ I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ point\\ even\\ more\\ forcefully\\,\\ and\\ bring\\ in\\ other\\ outside\\ sources\\.\\ I\\ will\\ be\\ developing\\ an\\ argument\\ here\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ covering\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ however\\,\\ it\\ will\\ capture\\ the\\ ideas\\ from\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ and\\ flesh\\ them\\ out\\ into\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ story\\.\\ These\\ ideas\\ can\\ most\\ accurately\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ Leda\\ Cosmides\\,\\ John\\ Tooby\\,\\ and\\ Gerd\\ Gigerenzer\\,\\ and\\ I\\ recommend\\ following\\ up\\ at\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.psych\\.ucsb\\.edu\\/research\\/cep\\<\\/a\\>\\ to\\ see\\ more\\ of\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ Tooby\\'s\\ work\\,\\ or\\ getting\\ Gerd\\ Gigerenzer\\'s\\ book\\ \\Simple\\ Heuristics\\ That\\ Make\\ Us\\ Smart\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\Concepts\\ and\\ Categories\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Concepts\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ mental\\ representations\\ that\\ stand\\ for\\ something\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ fundamental\\ types\\ of\\ concepts\\,\\ those\\ for\\ \\individuals\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(things\\)\\ and\\ those\\ for\\ \\categories\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Categories\\ are\\ immensely\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ things\\ without\\ being\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ details\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ categories\\:\\ Classical\\ categories\\,\\ and\\ family\\ resemblance\\ categories\\\\.\\ Classical\\ categories\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(also\\ called\\ aristotelian\\ categories\\,\\ all\\-or\\-none\\ categories\\,\\ or\\ rule\\-governed\\ categories\\)\\ are\\ basically\\ clean\\ cut\\ categories\\ that\\ specify\\ or\\ refer\\ to\\ one\\ group\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ some\\ set\\ of\\ shared\\ properties\\ \\(or\\ property\\)\\.\\ These\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ mental\\ definitions\\ consisting\\ of\\ properties\\ that\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ category\\ share\\ \\(necessary\\ conditions\\)\\ and\\ properties\\ that\\ only\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ that\\ category\\ share\\ \\(sufficient\\ conditions\\)\\.\\ A\\ great\\ example\\ would\\ be\\ \\\"even\\ numbers\\,\\\"\\ because\\ everything\\ either\\ is\\ or\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ this\\ category\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Wittgenstein\\ critiqued\\ this\\ conception\\ of\\ how\\ we\\ understand\\ categories\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ never\\ \\(or\\ extremely\\ rarely\\)\\ one\\ definition\\ that\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ category\\ share\\.\\ He\\ stated\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ common\\ properties\\,\\ instead\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ properties\\ shared\\ by\\ different\\ subsets\\ of\\ a\\ category\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ \\family\\ resemblance\\ \\<\\/em\\>definition\\ of\\ categories\\.\\ One\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ features\\ that\\ are\\ shared\\.\\ Not\\ all\\ members\\ have\\ all\\ features\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ each\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ collection\\ of\\ the\\ features\\ and\\ so\\ members\\ overlap\\ on\\ most\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ features\\.\\ The\\ more\\ of\\ these\\ features\\ that\\ any\\ given\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ category\\ has\\,\\ the\\ better\\ of\\ a\\ representative\\ that\\ member\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ category\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Categories\\:\\ Definitions\\ and\\ Prototypes\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Some\\ categories\\ do\\ have\\ clean\\ definitions\\,\\ but\\ most\\ do\\ not\\.\\ Classical\\ categories\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ \\\"definitional\\ categories\\,\\\"\\ and\\ family\\ resemblance\\ categories\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ \\\"prototype\\ categories\\.\\\"\\ \\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ classical\\ categories\\ is\\ that\\ even\\ strict\\ categories\\ usually\\ fall\\ apart\\ on\\ close\\ inspection\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ gives\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ definitional\\ category\\ \\\"bachelor\\.\\\"\\ The\\ definition\\ is\\ \\\"an\\ adult\\ human\\ male\\ who\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ married\\.\\\"\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ then\\ gives\\ numerous\\ examples\\ of\\ where\\ this\\ definition\\ really\\ falls\\ apart\\,\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ examples\\ below\\ either\\ fit\\ the\\ definition\\,\\ yet\\ no\\ one\\ would\\ say\\ they\\ fit\\ the\\ category\\,\\ or\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ The\\ classical\\ or\\ \\\"definition\\ model\\\"\\ of\\ category\\ cognition\\ therefore\\ seems\\ quite\\ flawed\\,\\ not\\ just\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ pin\\ down\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ we\\ obviously\\ violate\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ categorization\\ as\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ \\\"definitional\\ bachelors\\\"\\ above\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ cleanly\\ fit\\ in\\ the\\ \\\"bachelor\\ category\\.\\\"\\ Things\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ complex\\ and\\ so\\ often\\ do\\ not\\ fit\\ cleanly\\ into\\ well\\-defined\\ categories\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ approach\\ to\\ how\\ we\\ perceive\\ of\\ categories\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ family\\ resemblance\\ or\\ \\\"prototype\\ model\\.\\\"\\ Categories\\ usually\\ have\\ a\\ \\prototype\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"core\\ concept\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ exemplar\\ having\\ the\\ most\\ properties\\ that\\ belong\\ the\\ the\\ group\\.\\ Family\\ resemblance\\ categories\\ are\\ \\fuzzy\\ sets\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ just\\ means\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ unclear\\ cases\\,\\ such\\ is\\ \\\"is\\ garlic\\ a\\ vegetable\\?\\\"\\ \\\"is\\ an\\ SUV\\ a\\ car\\ or\\ truck\\?\\\"\\ \\\"did\\ Bill\\ Clinton\\ and\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\ have\\ sex\\?\\\"\\ \\\"Is\\ a\\ blastocyte\\ a\\ person\\?\\\"\\ These\\ fuzzy\\ sets\\ generate\\ many\\ social\\/ethical\\ debates\\,\\ usually\\ hinging\\ on\\ whether\\ people\\ put\\ different\\ examples\\ into\\ categories\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ questions\\ above\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Family\\ resemblance\\ categories\\ also\\ have\\ characteristic\\ non\\-defining\\ features\\.\\ These\\ are\\ features\\ that\\ most\\ exemplars\\ of\\ a\\ category\\ share\\ but\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ necessary\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ grandmas\\ are\\ usually\\ associated\\ with\\ chicken\\ soup\\,\\ gray\\ hair\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ but\\ many\\ non\\-grandmas\\ can\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ these\\ things\\,\\ and\\ many\\ grandmas\\ are\\ not\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ is\\ indeed\\ evidence\\ that\\ our\\ cognitive\\ categories\\ are\\ primarily\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ resemblance\\ type\\.\\ People\\ agree\\ on\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ membership\\ such\\ as\\:\\ a\\ robin\\ is\\ a\\ better\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ bird\\ than\\ a\\ chicken\\;\\ football\\ is\\ a\\ better\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ sport\\ than\\ wrestling\\;\\ a\\ carrot\\ is\\ a\\ better\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ vegetable\\ than\\ parsley\\ or\\ garlic\\;\\ and\\ murder\\ is\\ a\\ better\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ crime\\ than\\ vagrancy\\.\\ In\\ response\\-time\\ experiments\\ people\\ classify\\ prototypical\\ cases\\ quicker\\.\\ Kids\\ also\\ tend\\ to\\ use\\ words\\ with\\ prototypical\\ examples\\ first\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ is\\ also\\ evidence\\ that\\ we\\ use\\ classical\\ categorization\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ that\\ people\\ use\\ both\\ types\\ of\\ categorization\\ and\\ sort\\ of\\ switch\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\.\\ Classical\\ and\\ family\\ resemblance\\ categories\\ co\\-exist\\ in\\ cognition\\.\\ We\\ can\\ say\\ \\\"yes\\ or\\ no\\\"\\ to\\ whether\\ something\\ belongs\\ to\\ a\\ category\\ \\(classical\\ category\\)\\,\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ breath\\ say\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ that\\ category\\ \\(family\\ resemblance\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Every\\ entity\\ belongs\\ to\\ many\\ categories\\,\\ related\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ a\\ heirarchy\\.\\ One\\ level\\ will\\ be\\ psychologically\\ most\\ natural\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\basic\\ level\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ People\\ tend\\ to\\ agree\\ on\\ the\\ basic\\ level\\ that\\ things\\ should\\ be\\ classified\\ at\\.\\ In\\ the\\ diagram\\ below\\ the\\ left\\ most\\ category\\ is\\ the\\ basic\\ level\\ category\\ and\\ will\\ probably\\ be\\ your\\ first\\ response\\ when\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ pictured\\ objects\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ category\\ is\\ too\\ broad\\,\\ the\\ \\superordinate\\ category\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ the\\ far\\ right\\ is\\ too\\ specific\\,\\ the\\ \\subordinate\\ category\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ properties\\ of\\ object\\ classifications\\ at\\ the\\ basic\\ level\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\They\\ share\\ many\\ attributes\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\They\\ allow\\ similar\\ actions\\ to\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ them\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\They\\ have\\ similar\\ shapes\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\They\\ can\\ be\\ identified\\ by\\ common\\ shape\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Why\\ is\\ there\\ a\\ basic\\ level\\ of\\ categories\\?\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ we\\ really\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ theme\\ that\\ was\\ mentioned\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ blog\\,\\ and\\ this\\ question\\ really\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ why\\ we\\ use\\ categories\\ at\\ all\\.\\ The\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ bigger\\ question\\ of\\ why\\ we\\ use\\ categories\\ at\\ all\\,\\ is\\ that\\ using\\ categories\\ gives\\ us\\ intuitional\\ power\\.\\ Categories\\ greatly\\ enhance\\ human\\ reasoning\\ because\\ it\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ reason\\ about\\ groups\\ of\\ things\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ having\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ every\\ single\\ object\\ independently\\.\\ When\\ we\\ encounter\\ a\\ new\\ object\\ that\\ belongs\\ to\\ a\\ category\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ relearn\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ characteristics\\,\\ rather\\,\\ once\\ we\\ categorize\\ it\\,\\ we\\ can\\ infer\\ things\\ about\\ this\\ new\\ object\\,\\ without\\ having\\ to\\ first\\ witness\\ everything\\ firsthand\\.\\ When\\ we\\ encounter\\ a\\ new\\ dog\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ watch\\ it\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ idea\\ of\\ how\\ it\\ will\\ behave\\;\\ when\\ we\\ encounter\\ a\\ new\\ kind\\ of\\ apple\\,\\ we\\ know\\ we\\ can\\ eat\\ it\\ \\(and\\ even\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ will\\ taste\\ like\\)\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ basic\\ level\\ of\\ categorization\\ results\\ from\\ a\\ trade\\-off\\ in\\ achieving\\ this\\ goal\\.\\ Subordinate\\ categories\\ \\(Black\\ labrador\\)\\ are\\ rich\\ in\\ details\\ and\\ therefore\\ allow\\ lots\\ of\\ inferences\\,\\ but\\ are\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ assign\\,\\ and\\ have\\ few\\ representative\\ members\\.\\ Superordinate\\ categories\\ \\(animal\\)\\ are\\ easy\\ to\\ assign\\,\\ but\\ lack\\ many\\ details\\ \\(because\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ things\\ will\\ share\\ fewer\\ properties\\)\\ and\\ therefore\\ give\\ few\\ inferences\\.\\ So\\ the\\ basic\\ level\\ is\\ an\\ equilibrium\\ point\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ extremes\\,\\ giving\\ an\\ ease\\ of\\ assignment\\ that\\ then\\ allows\\ many\\ inferences\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ people\\ who\\ become\\ much\\ more\\ familiar\\ with\\ some\\ domain\\ \\\"shift\\ their\\ basic\\ level\\\"\\ because\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ more\\ precise\\ predictions\\,\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ more\\ exemplars\\ of\\ specific\\ or\\ subordinate\\ categories\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ fisherman\\ may\\ categorize\\ an\\ object\\ as\\ \\\"tuna\\,\\\"\\ whereas\\ a\\ non\\-fisherman\\ would\\ have\\ the\\ basic\\ level\\ of\\ just\\ \\\"fish\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ to\\ a\\ non\\-fisherman\\ all\\ fish\\ are\\ essentially\\ the\\ same\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ category\\ is\\ useful\\ \\(not\\ to\\ mention\\ they\\ lack\\ the\\ expertise\\ to\\ distinguish\\ them\\)\\.\\ But\\ to\\ a\\ fisherman\\,\\ who\\ needs\\ to\\ know\\ detailed\\ information\\ about\\ habitat\\,\\ preferences\\,\\ and\\ behavior\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\,\\ the\\ basic\\ level\\ can\\ shift\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ specific\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ similarities\\ that\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ share\\,\\ and\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ dial\\ into\\ these\\ similarities\\,\\ it\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ generate\\ predictions\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ objects\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ behave\\ around\\ them\\ \\(should\\ we\\ eat\\ them\\,\\ run\\ from\\ them\\,\\ hunt\\ them\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ without\\ having\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ every\\ single\\ object\\ independently\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ overwhelming\\.\\ Crucially\\,\\ the\\ basic\\ level\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ making\\ categories\\ \\useful\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ generating\\ predictions\\,\\ and\\ helping\\ us\\ organize\\ and\\ plan\\ our\\ behavior\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ we\\ categorize\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reason\\,\\ Reasoning\\,\\ Relevance\\,\\ and\\ Natural\\ Selection\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ section\\ is\\ my\\ addition\\,\\ and\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ but\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ should\\ help\\ frame\\ the\\ cognition\\ of\\ reasoning\\ parts\\ that\\ follow\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ help\\ in\\ understanding\\ why\\ human\\ cognition\\ has\\ the\\ design\\ it\\ does\\.\\ Evolution\\ creates\\ functional\\ complex\\ designs\\ that\\ increase\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\.\\ Our\\ \\\"cognitive\\ programs\\,\\\"\\ or\\ modules\\,\\ are\\ designed\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ are\\ because\\ they\\ increased\\ our\\ ancestors\\'\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\,\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ somehow\\ generated\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ \\\"objective\\ truth\\.\\\"\\ Oftentimes\\ understanding\\ \\\"truth\\\"\\ coincides\\ with\\ increased\\ survival\\/reproduction\\ and\\ here\\ we\\ can\\ expect\\ a\\ rather\\ accurate\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ resulting\\ from\\ cognition\\,\\ but\\ truth\\ and\\ survival\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ line\\ up\\ neatly\\.\\ An\\ example\\ of\\ truth\\ coinciding\\ with\\ survival\\ is\\ that\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ accurate\\ visual\\ perception\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ crucial\\ to\\ navigate\\ and\\ survive\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Our\\ vision\\ does\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ fairly\\ accurate\\ perception\\ of\\ \\\"what\\ is\\ out\\ there\\\"\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ for\\ these\\ aspects\\.\\ However\\,\\ our\\ visual\\ system\\ does\\ not\\ reflect\\ truth\\ in\\ other\\ aspects\\ and\\ these\\ \\\"false\\ impressions\\\"\\ can\\ be\\ grouped\\ in\\ two\\ basic\\ categories\\:\\ either\\ because\\ the\\ mechanism\\ fails\\ given\\ some\\ atypical\\ stimuli\\ \\(such\\ as\\ 3\\-d\\ movies\\)\\,\\ or\\ because\\ the\\ illusion\\ itself\\ was\\ adaptive\\ \\(such\\ as\\ exagerrations\\ of\\ how\\ high\\ cliffs\\ are\\ to\\ prevent\\ falling\\)\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ can\\ generally\\ expect\\ that\\ the\\ outputs\\ \\(conscious\\ thought\\ or\\ behavior\\)\\ of\\ cognition\\ will\\ not\\ reflect\\ \\\"objective\\ truth\\\"\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ adaptive\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ or\\ in\\ some\\ mismatched\\ environment\\ created\\ by\\ modern\\ society\\.\\ We\\ should\\ expect\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ generate\\ \\\"truth\\\"\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ crucial\\ to\\ survival\\ and\\ the\\ informational\\ input\\ is\\ something\\ our\\ ancestors\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ familiar\\ with\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ alluded\\ to\\ above\\,\\ natural\\ selection\\ can\\ only\\ \\\"build\\\"\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ use\\ reliable\\ and\\ recurrent\\ cues\\ from\\ the\\ environment\\ as\\ inputs\\.\\ We\\ have\\ ridiculous\\ amounts\\ of\\ demographic\\,\\ statistical\\,\\ and\\ documented\\ information\\ available\\ to\\ us\\ today\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ available\\ to\\ our\\ ancestors\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\ that\\ our\\ brains\\ evolved\\ in\\.\\ We\\ can\\ predict\\ many\\ things\\ like\\ how\\ dangerous\\ something\\ is\\ by\\ using\\ statistics\\ and\\ computers\\ today\\,\\ but\\ our\\ ancestors\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ this\\ convenience\\,\\ and\\ only\\ had\\ their\\ own\\ experiences\\ to\\ go\\ by\\ in\\ predicting\\ what\\ was\\ dangerous\\,\\ helpful\\,\\ good\\ to\\ eat\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ experiments\\ that\\ use\\ inputs\\ that\\ our\\ brains\\ are\\ not\\ designed\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ \\(such\\ as\\ percentages\\ like\\ 10\\%\\)\\,\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ wonder\\ that\\ people\\ cannot\\ reason\\ well\\ about\\ them\\,\\ but\\ often\\ when\\ these\\ inputs\\ are\\ changed\\ \\(to\\ frequencies\\ like\\ 10\\ in\\ 100\\)\\,\\ people\\ are\\ actually\\ very\\ accurate\\ at\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ task\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Traditional\\ cognitive\\ psychology\\ was\\ often\\ driven\\ by\\ checking\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ well\\ our\\ thought\\ processes\\ lined\\ up\\ with\\ \\\"objective\\ truth\\,\\\"\\ and\\ often\\ found\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ \\\"bad\\ logicians\\,\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"bad\\ staticians\\.\\\"\\ Traditional\\ cognitive\\ psychology\\ also\\ broke\\ domains\\ and\\ problems\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ evolutionarily\\ informed\\ researchers\\ would\\ reject\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ \\\"reasoning\\\"\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ typical\\ area\\ of\\ research\\ looking\\ for\\ general\\ purpose\\ reasoning\\ mechanisms\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ growing\\ body\\ of\\ research\\ showing\\ that\\ we\\ reason\\ about\\ different\\ situations\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ using\\ one\\ reasoning\\ mechanism\\ for\\ everything\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ the\\ experiments\\ showing\\ that\\ people\\ were\\ biased\\ and\\ illogical\\ were\\ testing\\ people\\ on\\ general\\ content\\-free\\ logic\\ principles\\ and\\ on\\ abstract\\ types\\ of\\ statistics\\.\\ \\ An\\ evolutionarily\\ informed\\ psychology\\ is\\ overturning\\ these\\ findings\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ illogical\\ and\\ showing\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ actually\\ reason\\ extremely\\ well\\ in\\ these\\ ways\\ when\\ given\\ problems\\ that\\ represent\\ domains\\ in\\ which\\ truth\\ and\\ survival\\/reproduction\\ line\\ up\\.\\ Furthermore\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ really\\ bad\\ it\\ is\\ usually\\ in\\ predictable\\ ways\\ \\(either\\ an\\ adaptive\\ illusion\\,\\ or\\ because\\ of\\ input\\ that\\ is\\ too\\ novel\\,\\ or\\ too\\ distant\\ from\\ the\\ input\\ that\\ the\\ cognitive\\ module\\ needs\\)\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ one\\ can\\ expect\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ at\\ reasoning\\ about\\ domains\\ that\\ were\\ evolutionarily\\ relevant\\,\\ like\\ social\\ exchange\\,\\ using\\ inputs\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ commonly\\ available\\ throughout\\ our\\ evolutionary\\ history\\,\\ like\\ frequencies\\,\\ but\\ not\\ probabilites\\.\\ This\\ concept\\ is\\ dealt\\ with\\ beautifully\\ in\\ a\\ fantastic\\ paper\\ by\\ Leda\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ John\\ Tooby\\ called\\ \\Are\\ Humans\\ Good\\ Intuitive\\ Staticians\\ After\\ All\\?\\ \\<\\/em\\>which\\ I\\ have\\ included\\ here\\:\\ \\intuitivestat96\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Deductive\\ and\\ Inductive\\ reasoning\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ major\\ types\\ of\\ formal\\ logical\\ reasoning\\:\\ deductive\\ and\\ inductive\\ reasoning\\.\\ Traditional\\ cognitive\\ psychology\\ has\\ researched\\ reasoning\\ in\\ these\\ domains\\ looking\\ for\\ some\\ general\\ reasoning\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ in\\ theory\\ would\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ reason\\ about\\ many\\ different\\ problems\\ humans\\ faced\\.\\ This\\ research\\ showed\\ humans\\ were\\ very\\ poor\\ at\\ this\\,\\ and\\ as\\ I\\ noted\\ above\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ psychological\\ perspective\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ foregone\\ conclusion\\ because\\ 1\\.\\ they\\ were\\ looking\\ for\\ general\\ purpose\\ reasoning\\ mechanisms\\ and\\ the\\ mind\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ modular\\,\\ and\\ 2\\.\\ they\\ were\\ using\\ inputs\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ necessarily\\ around\\ during\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ human\\ evolution\\ \\(not\\ ecologically\\ relevant\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Deductive\\ reasoning\\<\\/em\\>\\ moves\\ from\\ the\\ general\\ to\\ the\\ specific\\,\\ or\\ from\\ general\\ premises\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ conclusion\\.\\ The\\ classic\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ following\\:\\ All\\ men\\ are\\ mortal\\,\\ and\\ Socrates\\ is\\ a\\ man\\,\\ therefore\\ Socrates\\ is\\ mortal\\.\\ An\\ ideal\\ model\\ of\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\ should\\ follow\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ formal\\ logic\\,\\ and\\ in\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\ the\\ conclusions\\ are\\ certainties\\.\\ More\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Deductive\\_reasoning\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Inductive\\ reasoning\\<\\/em\\>\\ goes\\ from\\ the\\ specific\\ to\\ the\\ general\\,\\ or\\ from\\ specific\\ premises\\ to\\ a\\ general\\ conclusion\\.\\ This\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ inverse\\ of\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\ such\\ as\\:\\ Socrates\\,\\ Plato\\,\\ and\\ Aristotle\\ are\\ men\\;\\ Socrates\\ is\\ mortal\\;\\ Plato\\ is\\ mortal\\;\\ Aristotle\\ is\\ mortal\\;\\ therefore\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ mortal\\.\\ Inductive\\ reasoning\\ is\\ probabilistic\\ because\\ when\\ going\\ from\\ specific\\ to\\ general\\ one\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ completely\\ certain\\ \\(for\\ example\\ the\\ above\\ conclusion\\ could\\ be\\ wrong\\ if\\ there\\ were\\ some\\ other\\ man\\ not\\ listed\\ that\\ were\\ immortal\\)\\.\\ Science\\ is\\ inductive\\.\\ More\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\:\\\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Inductive\\_reasoning\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Normative\\ and\\ Descriptive\\ Models\\ of\\ Cognition\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Normative\\ models\\ \\<\\/em\\>are\\ how\\ people\\ \\should\\<\\/em\\>\\ think\\ \\(according\\ to\\ abstract\\ information\\-processing\\ principles\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\descriptive\\ models\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ how\\ people\\ \\do\\<\\/em\\>\\ think\\.\\ The\\ traditional\\ normative\\ model\\ for\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\ is\\ formal\\ logic\\,\\ and\\ the\\ traditional\\ normative\\ model\\ for\\ inductive\\ reasoning\\ is\\ probability\\ theory\\.\\ The\\ major\\ question\\ for\\ Psychology\\ then\\ becomes\\ how\\ similar\\ are\\ normative\\ and\\ descriptive\\ models\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ are\\ people\\ rational\\/logical\\?\\ This\\ depends\\ very\\ much\\ upon\\ the\\ domain\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ is\\ done\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\My\\ critique\\ above\\ on\\ the\\ traditional\\ approaches\\ was\\ a\\ critique\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ normative\\ model\\ should\\ be\\.\\ Traditionally\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ formal\\ logic\\/probability\\ theory\\ because\\ those\\ are\\ our\\ best\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ find\\ \\\"objective\\ truth\\\"\\ in\\ these\\ domains\\.\\ The\\ critique\\ from\\ evolutionary\\ psychology\\ is\\ that\\ evolution\\ most\\ likely\\ did\\ not\\ engineer\\ a\\ general\\ reasoning\\ process\\ akin\\ to\\ a\\ math\\ equation\\ applied\\ across\\ the\\ board\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ would\\ have\\ created\\ many\\ reasoning\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ are\\ specialized\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ specific\\ domains\\ or\\ areas\\ of\\ cognition\\ \\(like\\ social\\ reasoning\\,\\ reasoning\\ about\\ predators\\,\\ reasoning\\ about\\ mates\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ these\\ would\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ reason\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ maximizes\\ survival\\ and\\ reproduction\\,\\ not\\ that\\ maximizes\\ truth\\ production\\ necessarily\\ \\(although\\ where\\ these\\ overlap\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ normative\\ prediction\\)\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ the\\ evolutionarily\\ informed\\ normative\\ model\\ would\\ predict\\ that\\ the\\ mechanisms\\ would\\ need\\ specific\\ types\\ of\\ inputs\\,\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ any\\ abstract\\ input\\ would\\ activate\\ the\\ correct\\ reasoning\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ Test\\ of\\ Deductive\\ Reasoning\\:\\ The\\ Wason\\ Selection\\ Task\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\The\\ Wason\\ Selection\\ Task\\ is\\ a\\ classic\\ test\\ of\\ deductive\\ reasoning\\ used\\ in\\ cognitive\\ psychology\\ research\\.\\ It\\ is\\ easiest\\ shown\\ as\\ an\\ example\\.\\ A\\ person\\ is\\ given\\ a\\ word\\ problem\\ like\\ this\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\You\\ are\\ shown\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ four\\ cards\\ placed\\ on\\ a\\ table\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ has\\ a\\ number\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ and\\ a\\ coloured\\ patch\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\.\\ The\\ visible\\ faces\\ of\\ the\\ cards\\ show\\ 3\\,\\ 8\\,\\ red\\ and\\ brown\\.\\ Which\\ cards\\ should\\ you\\ turn\\ over\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ the\\ proposition\\ that\\ if\\ a\\ card\\ shows\\ an\\ even\\ number\\ on\\ one\\ face\\,\\ then\\ its\\ opposite\\ face\\ shows\\ a\\ \\red\\<\\/span\\>\\?\\ \\<\\/em\\>Then\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ shown\\ the\\ following\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\When\\ given\\ this\\ task\\ using\\ abstract\\ variables\\ as\\ the\\ above\\ example\\ people\\ do\\ very\\ poorly\\ \\(the\\ answer\\ is\\ \\\"8\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"brown\\\"\\)\\.\\ Most\\ people\\ will\\ say\\ \\\"8\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"8\\ \\&\\;\\ red\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ \\confirmation\\ bias\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ we\\ seek\\ evidence\\ to\\ confirm\\,\\ not\\ falsify\\ our\\ beliefs\\,\\ and\\ to\\ get\\ this\\ task\\ correct\\ we\\ must\\ try\\ to\\ falsify\\ the\\ proposition\\.\\ However\\,\\ when\\ content\\ is\\ inserted\\ into\\ this\\ logical\\ problem\\,\\ people\\ can\\ become\\ very\\ accurate\\.\\ If\\ we\\ change\\ the\\ content\\ from\\ colors\\ and\\ numbers\\ \\(3\\,8\\,red\\,brown\\)\\ to\\ socially\\ relevant\\ content\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"if\\ a\\ bar\\ patron\\ is\\ drinking\\ beer\\ he\\ must\\ be\\ over\\ 21\\.\\\"\\ When\\ given\\ the\\ same\\ pattern\\ of\\ options\\,\\ namely\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\A\\ guy\\ drinking\\ beer\\ \\(check\\ ID\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\A\\ guy\\ drinking\\ coke\\ \\(check\\ ID\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\A\\ guy\\ who\\ is\\ over\\ 21\\ \\(check\\ drink\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\A\\ guy\\ who\\ is\\ under\\ 21\\ \\(check\\ drink\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\people\\ nail\\ this\\ result\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ logically\\ equivalent\\ to\\ the\\ abstract\\ one\\ above\\ that\\ everyone\\ gets\\ wrong\\.\\ Leda\\ Cosmides\\ has\\ argued\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ cheater\\ detection\\ module\\ that\\ makes\\ us\\ great\\ logicians\\ when\\ the\\ content\\ applies\\ to\\ social\\ interaction\\,\\ where\\ ascertaining\\ truth\\ and\\ survival\\/reproduction\\ line\\ up\\ nicely\\.\\ Namely\\,\\ people\\ are\\ great\\ at\\ analyzing\\ situations\\ with\\ the\\ logical\\ structure\\,\\ \\\"if\\ you\\ take\\ a\\ benefit\\,\\ you\\ must\\ pay\\ a\\ cost\\,\\\"\\ because\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ prerequisite\\ specialized\\ domain\\ that\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ sociality\\ to\\ evolve\\ \\(specifically\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ people\\ will\\ get\\ it\\ predictably\\ wrong\\ if\\ these\\ premises\\ are\\ flipped\\ around\\.\\ Their\\ answer\\ will\\ be\\ wrong\\ logically\\,\\ but\\ correct\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ indeed\\ looking\\ for\\ people\\ violating\\ the\\ maxim\\,\\ \\\"if\\ you\\ take\\ a\\ benefit\\ you\\ must\\ pay\\ a\\ cost\\.\\\"\\ In\\ this\\ second\\ case\\ truth\\ does\\ not\\ line\\ up\\ with\\ survival\\/reproduction\\,\\ and\\ they\\ get\\ it\\ predictably\\ wrong\\ \\(the\\ answers\\ are\\ consistently\\ wrong\\ in\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ way\\)\\.\\ This\\ goes\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ reason\\ using\\ abstract\\ logical\\ principles\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ reason\\ about\\ different\\ situations\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ depending\\ on\\ their\\ relevance\\ to\\ our\\ survival\\/reproduction\\.\\ The\\ original\\ paper\\ by\\ Leda\\ Cosmides\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\:\\ \\\\The\\ logic\\ of\\ social\\ \\ \\ \\ exchange\\:\\ Has\\ natural\\ selection\\ shaped\\ how\\ humans\\ reason\\?\\ Studies\\ with\\ the\\ Wason\\ \\ \\ \\ selection\\ task\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ This\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ study\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ Evolutionary\\ Psychology\\ paradigm\\.\\ It\\'s\\ a\\ little\\ long\\,\\ but\\ well\\ worth\\ reading\\,\\ especially\\ for\\ anyone\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ biological\\ basis\\ of\\ morality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Are\\ people\\ good\\ statiticians\\?\\ An\\ analysis\\ of\\ Inductive\\ Reasoning\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\People\\ have\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ problems\\ with\\ statistical\\ reasoning\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\Misconceptions\\ of\\ chance\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ People\\ believe\\ that\\ if\\ a\\ coin\\ has\\ come\\ up\\ heads\\ 7\\ times\\ in\\ a\\ row\\,\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ heads\\ again\\.\\ Actually\\ every\\ single\\ coin\\-flip\\ has\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ probability\\ of\\ coming\\ up\\ either\\ heads\\ or\\ tails\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ the\\ \\gambler\\'s\\ fallacy\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>that\\ somehow\\ past\\ events\\ can\\ have\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ current\\ events\\.\\ This\\ also\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ belief\\ of\\ a\\ \\\"hot\\ hand\\\"\\ in\\ basketball\\.\\ The\\ \\\"hot\\ hand\\\"\\ phenomenon\\ has\\ been\\ tested\\ and\\ falsified\\.\\ The\\ fallacy\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ randomness\\ is\\ a\\ causal\\ process\\,\\ as\\ though\\ things\\ \\\"try\\ to\\\"\\ compensate\\ for\\ deviations\\ from\\ randomness\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ logically\\ impossible\\,\\ a\\ quarter\\ cannot\\ \\\"try\\ to\\ land\\ heads\\\"\\ just\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ landing\\ on\\ tails\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\Misconceptions\\ of\\ risk\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ People\\ are\\ not\\ afraid\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ risky\\ behaviors\\ \\(driving\\,\\ smoking\\,\\ eating\\ McDonald\\'s\\)\\,\\ whereas\\,\\ they\\ are\\ petrified\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ least\\ risky\\ behaviors\\ \\(flying\\,\\ shark\\ attacks\\,\\ lightning\\,\\ snakes\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ specific\\ pattern\\ here\\,\\ people\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\ \\ancestral\\ risks\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(snakes\\,\\ sharks\\,\\ spiders\\)\\ and\\ \\horrifying\\ events\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ \\no\\ control\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(planes\\)\\,\\ but\\ are\\ not\\ afraid\\ of\\ events\\ that\\ are\\ evolutionarily\\ novel\\ and\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ control\\ \\(McDonald\\'s\\,\\ cars\\,\\ smoking\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ factors\\ that\\ affect\\ risk\\ perception\\,\\ one\\ is\\ the\\ \\availability\\ heuristic\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ easier\\ something\\ is\\ to\\ imagine\\,\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ something\\ is\\ to\\ occur\\.\\ This\\ is\\ adaptive\\ when\\ figuring\\ out\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ things\\ encountered\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\ \\(if\\ one\\ sees\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ bear\\ attack\\ victims\\,\\ then\\ bears\\ are\\ probably\\ a\\ big\\ danger\\)\\,\\ but\\ maladaptive\\ when\\ these\\ are\\ misrepresented\\ \\(plane\\ crashes\\ are\\ front\\ page\\ news\\,\\ but\\ car\\ crashes\\ do\\ not\\ make\\ the\\ news\\)\\.\\ Another\\ bias\\ is\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ people\\ have\\ control\\ of\\ a\\ situation\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ natural\\ vs\\.\\ man\\-made\\ bias\\ \\(so\\ fear\\ of\\ spiders\\ and\\ snakes\\,\\ but\\ not\\ cars\\)\\.\\ Also\\ a\\ familiar\\ vs\\.\\ unfamiliar\\ bias\\ \\(where\\ the\\ unfamiliar\\ is\\ more\\ fearful\\)\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ would\\ be\\ expected\\ from\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ perspective\\,\\ people\\ have\\ adaptations\\ to\\ avoid\\ natural\\ dangers\\ like\\ predators\\,\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ afraid\\ of\\ things\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ control\\ \\(like\\ natural\\ disastors\\)\\,\\ and\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ afraid\\ of\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ unfamiliar\\ \\(they\\ could\\ be\\ harmful\\,\\ toxic\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ We\\ should\\ have\\ no\\ evolved\\ capacity\\ to\\ be\\ afraid\\ of\\ guns\\ and\\ cars\\ however\\ \\(just\\ observe\\ all\\ the\\ road\\ kill\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ obvious\\ animals\\ do\\ not\\ understand\\ or\\ fear\\ cars\\ at\\ all\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\Misperceptions\\ of\\ how\\ data\\ support\\ hypothesis\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ People\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ Bayes\\'\\ theorem\\ very\\ well\\ \\(shown\\ below\\)\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ calculate\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ something\\ is\\ true\\ given\\ a\\ data\\ set\\.\\ People\\ have\\ two\\ fallacies\\ here\\.\\ \\Base\\-rate\\ neglect\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ where\\ people\\ ignore\\ the\\ actual\\ prevalence\\ rates\\ of\\ something\\ happening\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ if\\ one\\ hears\\ hoof\\-beats\\ outside\\ the\\ window\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ horse\\ not\\ a\\ zebra\\ because\\ the\\ base\\-rate\\ of\\ horses\\ is\\ so\\ much\\ higher\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ US\\)\\.\\ The\\ other\\ fallacy\\ is\\ the\\ \\representativeness\\ heuristic\\<\\/em\\>\\ where\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ typical\\ an\\ observation\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ hypothesis\\,\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ true\\.\\ This\\ just\\ says\\ that\\ people\\ forget\\ to\\ consider\\ other\\ hypotheses\\ when\\ the\\ data\\ fits\\ the\\ first\\ one\\ so\\ well\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\Conjunction\\ fallacy\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ conjunction\\ fallacy\\ is\\ where\\ people\\ will\\ say\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ A\\ is\\ lower\\ than\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ A\\ \\&\\;\\ B\\ \\(which\\ is\\ logically\\ impossible\\)\\ if\\ B\\ is\\ typical\\ of\\ a\\ situation\\ and\\ A\\ is\\ not\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ easily\\ demonstrated\\ through\\ an\\ example\\ and\\ so\\ is\\ shown\\ below\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ conjunction\\ fallacy\\ above\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ say\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ options\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ options\\ \\(so\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ that\\ Linda\\ is\\ a\\ bank\\ teller\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\,\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ bank\\ teller\\)\\.\\ A\\ little\\ thought\\ shows\\ this\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ if\\ all\\ bank\\ tellers\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\ are\\ still\\ bank\\ tellers\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ bank\\ tellers\\ are\\ active\\ in\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\,\\ then\\ the\\ first\\ option\\ must\\ be\\ more\\ probable\\ in\\ all\\ cases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Bayes\\'\\ Theorem\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\p\\(H\\|D\\)\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ when\\ we\\ assess\\ how\\ likely\\ something\\ is\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ our\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ true\\ given\\ the\\ data\\ set\\ that\\ we\\ have\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\p\\(D\\)\\ is\\ just\\ an\\ assessment\\ of\\ how\\ likely\\ we\\ were\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ data\\ set\\ we\\ did\\.\\ Let\\'s\\ say\\ we\\ are\\ sampling\\ characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ at\\ random\\,\\ the\\ data\\ \\\"has\\ two\\ eyes\\\"\\,\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ p\\(D\\)\\ of\\ 99\\.9\\%\\ because\\ almost\\ all\\ people\\ have\\ two\\ eyes\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ we\\ got\\ that\\ data\\ is\\ almost\\ certain\\;\\ likewise\\ the\\ data\\ of\\ \\\"has\\ severe\\ hallucinations\\\"\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ p\\(D\\)\\ of\\ about\\ 1\\-2\\%\\ for\\ all\\ people\\ because\\ the\\ likelihood\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ get\\ that\\ data\\ from\\ any\\ given\\ person\\ would\\ be\\ 1\\-2\\%\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\p\\(D\\|H\\)\\ is\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ getting\\ a\\ specific\\ data\\,\\ \\assuming\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ true\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ so\\ for\\ example\\ having\\ severe\\ hallucinations\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ p\\(D\\|H\\)\\ of\\ 90\\%\\ if\\ our\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ \\\"has\\ schizophrenia\\,\\\"\\ but\\ would\\ be\\ about\\ 5\\%\\ if\\ our\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ \\\"does\\ not\\ have\\ schizophrenia\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ people\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\ often\\ have\\ hallucinations\\,\\ and\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ likely\\ datum\\ in\\ someone\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ whereas\\ without\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ it\\ is\\ rare\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ hallucinations\\ \\(although\\ some\\ still\\ do\\,\\ so\\ our\\ p\\(D\\|H\\)\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ 0\\%\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\p\\(H\\)\\ is\\ the\\ weirdest\\ term\\ in\\ the\\ equation\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ \\a\\ priori\\<\\/em\\>\\ or\\ \\prior\\ probability\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ our\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ true\\.\\ If\\ one\\ in\\ 100\\ people\\ has\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ then\\ p\\(H\\)\\ would\\ be\\ 1\\%\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ term\\ is\\ two\\-fold\\,\\ first\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ define\\ precisely\\,\\ and\\ second\\ this\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ available\\ information\\ in\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ you\\ categorize\\ a\\ situation\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ let\\'s\\ say\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ guy\\,\\ Bob\\,\\ who\\ we\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ diagnose\\.\\ Bob\\ is\\ 38\\,\\ has\\ a\\ brother\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\ and\\ an\\ uncle\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\.\\ If\\ we\\ take\\ the\\ prior\\ probability\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ \\\"men\\ 35\\-60\\\"\\ it\\ is\\,\\ say\\ 1\\%\\,\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ classify\\ him\\ as\\ \\\"men\\ 35\\-60\\ with\\ a\\ brother\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\\"\\ the\\ p\\(H\\)\\ jumps\\ to\\ 10\\%\\,\\ and\\ then\\ if\\ we\\ say\\ \\\"men\\ 35\\-60\\ with\\ a\\ brother\\ and\\ uncle\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\\"\\ the\\ p\\(H\\)\\ jumps\\ to\\ 15\\%\\.\\ Now\\ here\\ it\\ seems\\ relatively\\ easy\\ because\\ the\\ probability\\ should\\ probably\\ be\\ 15\\%\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ p\\(H\\)\\ depends\\ on\\ what\\ group\\ Bob\\ is\\ in\\.\\ We\\ could\\ say\\,\\ \\\"just\\ use\\ the\\ p\\(H\\)\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ specific\\ group\\ possible\\,\\\"\\ however\\,\\ the\\ more\\ information\\ we\\ get\\ the\\ smaller\\ the\\ sample\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ population\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ the\\ less\\ reliable\\ the\\ population\\ statistics\\ are\\.\\ So\\ if\\ we\\ take\\ the\\ group\\ \\\"men\\ between\\ 35\\-60\\,\\ with\\ a\\ brother\\ and\\ uncle\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ from\\ Kentucky\\,\\ that\\ was\\ a\\ Vietnam\\ vet\\,\\ and\\ never\\ married\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ we\\ will\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ group\\ that\\ just\\ includes\\ Bob\\.\\ Probabilities\\ are\\ meaningless\\ for\\ a\\ sample\\ set\\ of\\ 1\\,\\ so\\ we\\ have\\ just\\ invalidated\\ the\\ term\\ p\\(H\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ technical\\ problem\\,\\ however\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ dealt\\ with\\ by\\ laying\\ down\\ guidelines\\ for\\ which\\ group\\ we\\ set\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ contentious\\ issue\\ within\\ the\\ math\\ community\\,\\ with\\ many\\ saying\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ valid\\ way\\ of\\ even\\ analyzing\\ a\\ situation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ major\\ problem\\ with\\ p\\(H\\)\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ my\\ opening\\ ideas\\ of\\ this\\ blog\\,\\ namely\\ when\\ people\\ knew\\ at\\ most\\ 1000\\ people\\ in\\ their\\ entire\\ lives\\ \\(in\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\)\\,\\ how\\ could\\ they\\ possibly\\ calculate\\ risk\\ like\\ this\\?\\ They\\ would\\ have\\ really\\ struggled\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ term\\ p\\(H\\)\\ a\\ value\\,\\ so\\ how\\ could\\ this\\ mechanism\\ evolve\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ equipped\\ with\\ a\\ mechanism\\ that\\ can\\ deal\\ with\\ statistics\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ because\\ our\\ ancestors\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ relevant\\ inputs\\ available\\,\\ and\\ so\\ evolution\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ designed\\ a\\ mechanism\\ to\\ work\\ like\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Understanding\\ Bayes\\'\\ Theorem\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ so\\ here\\ is\\ an\\ online\\ tutorial\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/yudkowsky\\.net\\/bayes\\/bayes\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\ And\\ here\\ is\\ another\\ one\\ \\bayestutorial\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ our\\ reasoning\\ isn\\'t\\ so\\ bad\\ after\\ all\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\First\\ off\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ major\\ types\\ of\\ probability\\:\\ subjectivist\\ and\\ frequentist\\ definitions\\.\\ The\\ \\subjectivist\\ definition\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ confident\\ one\\ can\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ \\single\\ event\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ confidence\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ event\\ like\\ \\\"there\\ is\\ a\\ 90\\%\\ chance\\ of\\ rain\\ tomorrow\\.\\\"\\ The\\ \\frequentist\\ definition\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ what\\ proportion\\ of\\ events\\ have\\ a\\ given\\ outcome\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\.\\ This\\ is\\ based\\ upon\\ frequencies\\ of\\ events\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"it\\ rains\\ 100\\/365\\ days\\ per\\ year\\ on\\ average\\ in\\ Boston\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ distinction\\,\\ one\\ based\\ on\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ events\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ reasoning\\ about\\ just\\ one\\ event\\.\\ Single\\-event\\ probabilities\\ are\\ very\\ weird\\ because\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ large\\ sets\\ to\\ compare\\,\\ and\\ we\\ tend\\ to\\ lose\\ perspective\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ many\\ theoretical\\ staticians\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ that\\ a\\ one\\-time\\ event\\ probability\\ is\\ meaningful\\ or\\ even\\ possible\\ to\\ calculate\\ because\\ either\\ the\\ event\\ happens\\ or\\ it\\ does\\ not\\,\\ so\\ what\\ is\\ a\\ 90\\%\\ chance\\ of\\ rain\\ mean\\ when\\ it\\ will\\ either\\ rain\\ or\\ it\\ won\\'t\\.\\ The\\ evolutionary\\ psychological\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ that\\ people\\'s\\ conception\\ of\\ probability\\ is\\ frequentist\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ only\\ real\\ data\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ have\\ had\\ as\\ input\\ in\\ the\\ ancestral\\ environment\\ were\\ frequencies\\ of\\ events\\,\\ not\\ probabilities\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ people\\ are\\ pretty\\ good\\ at\\ reasoning\\ about\\ frequencies\\ of\\ events\\,\\ and\\ then\\ use\\ stereotypes\\,\\ memories\\,\\ judgements\\,\\ and\\ subjective\\ assessments\\ to\\ reason\\ about\\ single\\ events\\.\\ These\\ ideas\\ can\\ originally\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ Gerd\\ Gigerenzer\\ and\\ Leda\\ Cosmides\\ and\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ fantastic\\ article\\ again\\ on\\ Are\\ Humans\\ Good\\ Intuitive\\ Staticians\\ After\\ All\\?\\:\\ \\intuitivestat961\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ phenomenon\\ is\\ extremely\\ difficult\\ to\\ explain\\ briefly\\ so\\ I\\ really\\ recommend\\ at\\ least\\ skimming\\ over\\ the\\ article\\ above\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ struggling\\ with\\ it\\.\\ It\\ is\\ most\\ easily\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ examples\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ gave\\ in\\ class\\,\\ so\\ I\\ will\\ just\\ put\\ his\\ slides\\ below\\.\\ The\\ first\\ slide\\ presents\\ information\\ in\\ subjectivist\\ form\\ and\\ even\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ trained\\ doctors\\ routinely\\ get\\ the\\ answer\\ wrong\\.\\ The\\ second\\ slide\\ is\\ in\\ frequentist\\ form\\ and\\ even\\ untrained\\ adolescents\\ usually\\ get\\ this\\ right\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ good\\ statisticians\\ when\\ the\\ information\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ our\\ minds\\ can\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\ easily\\ \\(that\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ format\\ as\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ appeared\\ in\\ our\\ ancestral\\ environment\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\\\The\\ lesson\\ is\\ that\\ our\\ cognition\\ is\\ domain\\ specific\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ universal\\ statistical\\ or\\ logical\\ reasoning\\ mechanism\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ these\\ cognitive\\ modules\\ need\\ an\\ input\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ designed\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ input\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ form\\ that\\ was\\ around\\ 50\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 12 (3/18/08)- Concepts & Reasoning"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.654924+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 13 (3/20/08)- Language", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 390, "html": "\\Language\\ is\\ an\\ immensely\\ important\\ human\\ universal\\.\\ It\\ has\\ vast\\ expressive\\ power\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ its\\ rule\\-based\\ combinatorial\\ structure\\.\\ Many\\ have\\ in\\ fact\\ argued\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ reason\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\ taken\\ over\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ terrestrial\\ ecosystems\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ As\\ a\\ social\\ species\\ language\\ is\\ immensely\\ important\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ communicate\\ and\\ coordinate\\ our\\ actions\\.\\ \\ Language\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ universal\\,\\ and\\ unlike\\ other\\ things\\ that\\ have\\ become\\ universal\\ \\(such\\ as\\ coca\\-cola\\ and\\ math\\)\\,\\ language\\ is\\ not\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ technological\\ advancement\\,\\ for\\ \\ \\\"primitive\\\"\\ cultures\\ have\\ languages\\ that\\ are\\ equally\\ \\(and\\ often\\ more\\)\\ complex\\ compared\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ technological\\ societies\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ instinct\\,\\ just\\ like\\ mating\\ behaviors\\,\\ nutritive\\ behaviors\\ \\(eating\\)\\,\\ cooperative\\ behaviors\\ and\\ competitive\\ behaviors\\.\\ An\\ \\\"instinct\\\"\\ to\\ a\\ biologist\\ just\\ means\\ an\\ adapted\\ cognitive\\ module\\ leading\\ to\\ very\\ specific\\ adaptive\\ behaviors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Man\\ has\\ an\\ instinctive\\ tendency\\ to\\ speak\\,\\ as\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ babble\\ of\\ our\\ young\\ children\\ while\\ no\\ child\\ has\\ an\\ instinctive\\ tendency\\ to\\ bake\\,\\ brew\\,\\ or\\ write\\\"\\ \\ \\-Charles\\ Darwin\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ language\\ is\\ not\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Language\\ is\\ often\\ confused\\ with\\ communication\\,\\ thought\\,\\ writing\\,\\ etc\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ modern\\ conception\\ of\\ language\\ starting\\ with\\ the\\ theories\\ of\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\,\\ language\\ consists\\ of\\ words\\ and\\ rules\\.\\ These\\ can\\ be\\ spoken\\,\\ written\\,\\ or\\ signed\\,\\ but\\ fundamentally\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ mental\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ spoken\\ \\(or\\ signed\\)\\ behavior\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ not\\ written\\ language\\.\\ All\\ human\\ cultures\\ have\\ spoken\\ or\\ signed\\ language\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ cultures\\ have\\ written\\ languages\\.\\ Writing\\ was\\ invented\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ beginning\\ around\\ 5000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ Writing\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ invented\\ only\\ in\\ agricultural\\ cultures\\,\\ where\\ it\\ became\\ important\\ to\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ quantities\\ for\\ taxation\\,\\ and\\ trade\\.\\ Writing\\ systems\\ began\\ initially\\ as\\ systems\\ to\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ large\\ quantities\\,\\ and\\ gradually\\ expanded\\ to\\ include\\ symbolic\\ systems\\ that\\ could\\ represent\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ spoken\\ languages\\.\\ The\\ alphabetic\\ system\\ of\\ writing\\ was\\ only\\ invented\\ once\\ about\\ 3700\\ years\\ ago\\ \\(there\\ are\\ many\\ other\\ writing\\ systems\\ like\\ syllabaries\\,\\ and\\ logographic\\ systems\\)\\.\\ For\\ more\\ on\\ writing\\ systems\\ go\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Writing\\_system\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ \\\"writing\\ instinct\\\"\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ it\\ takes\\ years\\ of\\ schooling\\ to\\ read\\ and\\ write\\,\\ and\\ dyslexias\\ are\\ so\\ common\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ language\\ which\\ is\\ learned\\ automatically\\ by\\ age\\ 5\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ not\\ \\\"proper\\ grammar\\,\\\"\\ such\\ as\\ rules\\ like\\ not\\ splitting\\ infinitives\\,\\ or\\ not\\ ending\\ sentences\\ in\\ prepositions\\.\\ Many\\ rules\\ of\\ \\\"proper\\ language\\\"\\ in\\ fact\\ are\\ quite\\ nonsensical\\,\\ and\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ to\\ manners\\ \\(such\\ as\\ holding\\ the\\ knife\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ hand\\ and\\ fork\\ in\\ the\\ left\\)\\,\\ than\\ they\\ are\\ to\\ syntax\\ \\(grammar\\ rules\\)\\ as\\ thought\\ of\\ by\\ linguists\\ and\\ psychologists\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ these\\ rules\\ are\\ just\\ quirks\\ of\\ a\\ local\\ dialect\\ spoken\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ or\\ had\\ the\\ most\\ power\\ in\\ a\\ society\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ famous\\ quote\\ representing\\ this\\ idea\\ by\\ Max\\ Weinreich\\,\\ \\\"a\\ language\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ dialect\\ with\\ an\\ army\\ and\\ a\\ navy\\.\\\"\\ People\\ often\\ think\\ that\\ others\\ speak\\ poorly\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ just\\ speaking\\ a\\ different\\ dialect\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ argument\\ put\\ forth\\ by\\ linguists\\ in\\ making\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ ebonics\\ in\\ the\\ 90s\\.\\ The\\ point\\ was\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ were\\ saying\\ African\\-Americans\\ were\\ stupid\\ or\\ uneducated\\ as\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ they\\ used\\ language\\.\\ Linguists\\ argued\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ another\\ rule\\-governed\\ dialect\\,\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ \\\"dumber\\\"\\ or\\ less\\ sophisticated\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ dialect\\.\\ In\\ fact\\ BEV\\ \\(the\\ technical\\ term\\ for\\ ebonics\\)\\ has\\ some\\ constructions\\ that\\ are\\ more\\ complex\\ than\\ standard\\ english\\.\\ More\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Black\\_English\\_Vernacular\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ thought\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ think\\ in\\ language\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ common\\ misperception\\,\\ even\\ by\\ many\\ in\\ academia\\ \\(who\\ should\\ know\\ better\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ easily\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ showing\\ concepts\\ such\\ as\\ object\\ permanence\\ \\(studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ pre\\-linguistic\\ infants\\ see\\ objects\\ as\\ being\\ permanent\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ just\\ because\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ see\\ the\\ objects\\ the\\ kids\\ still\\ know\\ they\\ are\\ there\\)\\,\\ and\\ basic\\ arithmetic\\ \\(infants\\ also\\ know\\ that\\ if\\ one\\ object\\ goes\\ into\\ a\\ box\\,\\ and\\ then\\ another\\,\\ that\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ two\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ box\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ forms\\ of\\ thought\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ depend\\ on\\ language\\ such\\ as\\ spatial\\ cognition\\.\\ There\\ is\\ further\\ evidence\\ that\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ listed\\ as\\ follows\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Thinking\\ in\\ nonlinguistic\\ animals\\ \\(such\\ as\\ basic\\ arithmetic\\,\\ object\\ permanence\\,\\ and\\ spatial\\ cognition\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Mentalese\\,\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"language\\ of\\ thought\\,\\\"\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ like\\ a\\ spoken\\ language\\.\\ This\\ includes\\ all\\ non\\-linguistic\\ thought\\ in\\ adults\\,\\ like\\ mental\\ imagery\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ sentences\\ are\\ remembered\\ as\\ gists\\,\\ and\\ not\\ as\\ word\\ structures\\.\\ If\\ I\\ gave\\ you\\ a\\ sentence\\ to\\ remember\\ and\\ asked\\ you\\ to\\ reproduce\\ it\\,\\ you\\ would\\ get\\ the\\ idea\\ correct\\ but\\ the\\ exact\\ \\ words\\ wrong\\ in\\ your\\ reproduction\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ I\\ give\\ you\\ \\\"the\\ cat\\ was\\ chased\\ by\\ the\\ dog\\,\\\"\\ and\\ you\\ reproduce\\ \\\"the\\ dog\\ chased\\ the\\ cat\\\"\\)\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ thoughts\\ are\\ not\\ coded\\ in\\ linguistic\\ terms\\ or\\ else\\ you\\ would\\ reproduce\\ the\\ same\\ sentence\\ or\\ nothing\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Nonlinguistic\\ thinking\\ underlies\\ language\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ we\\ fill\\ in\\ the\\ blanks\\ where\\ sentences\\ do\\ not\\ specify\\ some\\ bit\\ of\\ information\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ the\\ shampoo\\ instructions\\,\\ \\\"wet\\ hair\\.\\ lather\\.\\ rinse\\.\\ repeat\\\"\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ we\\ only\\ repeat\\ once\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ go\\ on\\ and\\ on\\ forever\\,\\ even\\ though\\ this\\ information\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ instructions\\ \\(a\\ computer\\ would\\ not\\ understand\\ this\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ where\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ quite\\ get\\ the\\ right\\ word\\ to\\ describe\\ something\\ shows\\ that\\ our\\ thought\\ is\\ different\\ than\\ the\\ word\\ we\\ are\\ using\\ to\\ express\\ it\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Lastly\\,\\ if\\ thought\\ depends\\ on\\ language\\,\\ then\\ where\\ did\\ language\\ come\\ from\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\.\\ If\\ language\\ determines\\ thought\\ than\\ how\\ could\\ we\\ possibly\\ invent\\ new\\ things\\ for\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ words\\;\\ how\\ could\\ we\\ have\\ invented\\ the\\ internet\\ if\\ we\\ couldn\\'t\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ because\\ we\\ didn\\'t\\ have\\ a\\ word\\ for\\ it\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Language\\ does\\ not\\ \\\"determine\\ thought\\.\\\"\\ It\\ may\\ affect\\ thought\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ cause\\ thought\\,\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ in\\ any\\ interesting\\ way\\ \\(such\\ as\\ people\\ who\\ speak\\ different\\ languages\\ think\\ differently\\)\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ Whorfian\\ Hypothesis\\ or\\ the\\ \\Whorf\\-Sapir\\ Hypothesis\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ is\\ demonstrably\\ false\\ \\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ language\\ works\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\By\\ far\\ the\\ biggest\\ contributer\\ to\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ language\\ works\\ was\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\.\\ Chomsky\\'s\\ two\\ biggest\\ contributions\\ were\\ the\\ following\\ insights\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ \\creative\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\productive\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ rules\\ that\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ produce\\ and\\ understand\\ new\\ sentences\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ having\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ some\\ finite\\ number\\ of\\ sentences\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ memorized\\ \\(which\\ was\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ the\\ behaviorist\\ view\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ He\\ introduced\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ \\language\\ acquisition\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ If\\ we\\ observe\\ how\\ language\\ develops\\ in\\ children\\ we\\ get\\ immense\\ insight\\ into\\ how\\ it\\ works\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\His\\ conclusions\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ Language\\ has\\ \\syntax\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ rules\\ by\\ which\\ we\\ put\\ together\\ words\\ to\\ create\\ meaning\\,\\ however\\,\\ these\\ rules\\ do\\ not\\ rely\\ on\\ meaning\\ itself\\ as\\ exemplified\\ in\\ the\\ meaningless\\,\\ yet\\ syntactically\\ well\\-constructed\\ sentence\\ by\\ Chomsky\\:\\ Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ language\\ works\\ using\\ rules\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ connected\\ to\\ meaning\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ Syntax\\ is\\ \\not\\<\\/em\\>\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ linear\\,\\ word\\-by\\-word\\ associations\\ \\(as\\ argued\\ by\\ B\\.F\\.\\ Skinner\\)\\.\\ Skinner\\ argued\\ that\\ language\\ was\\ learned\\ or\\ conditioned\\ using\\ stimulus\\-response\\ theories\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ demonstrably\\ false\\.\\ People\\ make\\ up\\ and\\ understand\\ new\\ sentences\\,\\ they\\ have\\ never\\ heard\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ word\\ association\\ mechanisms\\ cannot\\ account\\ for\\ \\\"long\\-distance\\ dependencies\\\"\\ such\\ as\\ either\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.or\\,\\ and\\ if\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.then\\.\\ When\\ we\\ use\\ a\\ construction\\ like\\ either\\/or\\ we\\ start\\ a\\ sentence\\ with\\ one\\ word\\ \\(either\\)\\,\\ which\\ then\\ requires\\ that\\ way\\ down\\ the\\ line\\ we\\ complete\\ this\\ structure\\ with\\ another\\ clause\\ \\(beginning\\ with\\ \\\"or\\\"\\)\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ as\\ noted\\ above\\,\\ the\\ rules\\ can\\ create\\ well\\-formed\\ gibberish\\ sentences\\,\\ which\\ a\\ word\\ association\\ theory\\ cannot\\ account\\ for\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ Syntax\\ requires\\ a\\ \\hierarchical\\ phrase\\ structure\\<\\/em\\>\\ built\\ from\\ rules\\.\\ A\\ sentence\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ noun\\ phrase\\ \\(subject\\)\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ verb\\ phrase\\ \\(predicate\\)\\.\\ These\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ decomposed\\ into\\ smaller\\ pieces\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ noun\\ phrase\\ can\\ consist\\ of\\ a\\ determiner\\ \\(words\\ like\\ \\\"the\\,\\\"\\ \\\"a\\,\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"one\\\"\\)\\,\\ an\\ adjective\\,\\ a\\ noun\\,\\ and\\ a\\ prepositional\\ phrase\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ characteristic\\ of\\ syntax\\.\\ Sentences\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ decomposed\\ into\\ hierarchical\\ phrase\\ structure\\ trees\\ like\\ the\\ following\\ diagram\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Phrase\\ structure\\ in\\ grammar\\ is\\ what\\ explains\\ productivity\\ and\\ creativity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ what\\ allows\\ the\\ following\\ two\\ sentences\\ to\\ have\\ different\\ meanings\\:\\ Dog\\ bites\\ man\\ vs\\.\\ Man\\ bites\\ dog\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\It\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ \\express\\ unfamiliar\\ meanings\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ like\\ the\\ second\\ sentence\\ above\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\It\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ express\\ an\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ combinations\\.\\ Phrase\\ structure\\ coupled\\ with\\ recursion\\ \\(below\\)\\ is\\ what\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ possible\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ sentences\\,\\ explaining\\ productivity\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Syntax\\ also\\ helps\\ explain\\ \\recursion\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Recursion\\ is\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ embed\\ a\\ phrase\\ within\\ a\\ phrase\\ like\\ the\\ russian\\ dolls\\.\\ So\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ extend\\ \\\"the\\ boy\\ hit\\ the\\ ball\\\"\\ to\\ \\\"the\\ boy\\ with\\ the\\ hair\\ hit\\ the\\ ball\\\"\\ to\\ \\\"the\\ boy\\ with\\ the\\ hair\\ that\\ was\\ cut\\ hit\\ the\\ ball\\,\\\"\\ etc\\.\\ etc\\.\\ Recursion\\ can\\ give\\ us\\ phrase\\ structure\\ trees\\ that\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\Recursion\\ also\\ means\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ theoretical\\ limit\\ to\\ how\\ long\\ a\\ sentence\\ can\\ be\\ because\\ we\\ can\\ always\\ add\\ onto\\ it\\.\\ The\\ longest\\ sentence\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ Guinness\\ Book\\ of\\ World\\ Records\\ is\\ from\\ a\\ book\\ by\\ Faulkner\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ all\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ add\\ \\\"Faulkner\\ wrote\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\ and\\ now\\ the\\ sentence\\ is\\ even\\ longer\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ can\\ add\\ \\\"Guinness\\ noted\\ that\\ Faulkner\\ wrote\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\ only\\ to\\ be\\ bested\\ again\\ by\\ \\\"Pinker\\ mentioned\\ that\\ Guinness\\ noted\\ that\\ Faulkner\\ wrote\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\ etc\\.\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Phrase\\ structure\\ is\\ also\\ necessary\\ for\\ determining\\ a\\ sentence\\'s\\ meaning\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ creates\\ ambiguous\\ sentences\\ such\\ as\\ \\ \\\"On\\ tonight\\'s\\ program\\,\\ David\\ Letterman\\ will\\ discuss\\ sex\\ with\\ Dr\\.\\ Ruth\\.\\\"\\ This\\ becomes\\ ambiguous\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\ where\\ the\\ phrases\\ are\\ as\\ shown\\ below\\,\\ and\\ depending\\ how\\ we\\ classify\\ the\\ phrases\\,\\ we\\ get\\ different\\ meanings\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\These\\ kinds\\ of\\ ambiguities\\ are\\ another\\ piece\\ of\\ evidence\\ that\\ language\\ does\\ not\\ determine\\ thought\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ Chomsky\\ also\\ argued\\ that\\ even\\ phrase\\ structure\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ explain\\ syntax\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ mind\\ contains\\ an\\ abstract\\ knowledge\\ of\\ language\\ called\\ \\\"deep\\ structure\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ explain\\ contingencies\\ \\(dependencies\\ in\\ meaning\\)\\ across\\ the\\ \\\"surface\\ structure\\\"\\ of\\ sentences\\.\\ Deep\\ structure\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ formal\\ language\\ rules\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ where\\ a\\ sentence\\ \\\"originates\\.\\\"\\ Essentially\\,\\ he\\ argued\\ that\\ sentences\\ are\\ assembled\\ by\\ the\\ above\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\ in\\ deep\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ final\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\ can\\ undergo\\ transformations\\ that\\ move\\ words\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ deep\\ structure\\ in\\ the\\ surface\\ structure\\.\\ Transformational\\ rules\\ can\\ move\\,\\ delete\\,\\ and\\ add\\ words\\.\\ If\\ this\\ happens\\ a\\ \\\"trace\\\"\\ is\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ surface\\ structure\\ that\\ indicates\\ where\\ the\\ words\\ originated\\ in\\ deep\\ structure\\.\\ With\\ the\\ surface\\ structure\\ and\\ the\\ trace\\ knowledge\\ we\\ can\\ compute\\ the\\ meaning\\ and\\ role\\ of\\ words\\ in\\ the\\ surface\\ structure\\.\\ So\\ the\\ contingency\\,\\ or\\ dependency\\,\\ on\\ the\\ trace\\ is\\ where\\ many\\ words\\,\\ like\\ the\\ word\\ \\\"what\\\"\\ below\\,\\ get\\ their\\ meaning\\.\\ The\\ word\\ \\\"what\\\"\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ word\\ like\\ \\\"or\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"if\\\"\\ and\\ derives\\ its\\ meaning\\ from\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ sentence\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ word\\ like\\ \\\"cat\\,\\\"\\ which\\ has\\ meaning\\ independent\\ of\\ any\\ sentence\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ \\(it\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ this\\ but\\ this\\ gets\\ the\\ point\\ across\\)\\.\\ The\\ way\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\ \\\"What\\ did\\ John\\ eat\\?\\\"\\ is\\ through\\ a\\ transformational\\ rule\\ and\\ a\\ trace\\.\\ In\\ deep\\ structure\\ we\\ start\\ with\\ the\\ structure\\ \\\"John\\ eats\\ steak\\.\\\"\\ The\\ transformational\\ rule\\ then\\ says\\ \\\"move\\ the\\ object\\ \\(steak\\)\\ to\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\ and\\ replace\\ with\\ the\\ proper\\ question\\ word\\ \\(what\\)\\.\\\"\\ This\\ generates\\ our\\ sentence\\ \\\"What\\ did\\ John\\ eat\\ \\[trace\\]\\?\\\"\\ The\\ word\\ \\\"what\\\"\\ derives\\ its\\ meaning\\ as\\ referring\\ to\\ a\\ missing\\ object\\ in\\ this\\ sentence\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ replacing\\ the\\ object\\ that\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ deep\\ structure\\,\\ but\\ that\\ only\\ leaves\\ a\\ trace\\ in\\&\\#160\\;\\ the\\ surface\\ structure\\.\\ This\\ is\\ \\transformational\\ grammar\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Language\\ Acquisition\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Children\\ cannot\\ just\\ memorize\\ sentences\\,\\ but\\ must\\ generalize\\ rules\\ from\\ the\\ language\\ they\\ hear\\.\\ They\\ go\\ through\\ phases\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ make\\ predictable\\ types\\ of\\ sentences\\ that\\ have\\ limited\\ types\\ of\\ grammars\\.\\ Kids\\ learn\\ rules\\ and\\ then\\ use\\ these\\ rules\\ to\\ generate\\ forms\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ adding\\ an\\ \\-ed\\ to\\ a\\ verb\\ means\\ it\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ adding\\ \\-s\\ to\\ words\\ means\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ than\\ one\\,\\ etc\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ demonstrations\\ that\\ kids\\ are\\ using\\ language\\ productively\\,\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ spitting\\ words\\ out\\ of\\ some\\ memorized\\ list\\,\\ so\\ they\\ are\\ \\\"using\\ rules\\\"\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ regurgitating\\ words\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ Kids\\ overgeneralize\\ rules\\ to\\ create\\ words\\ they\\ never\\ could\\ have\\ heard\\,\\ such\\ as\\ saying\\ \\\"I\\ goed\\\"\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ irregular\\ \\\"I\\ went\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"I\\ sticked\\\"\\ not\\ \\\"I\\ stuck\\.\\\"\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Kids\\ will\\ generalize\\ rules\\ to\\ newly\\ learned\\ novel\\ words\\ \\(the\\ wug\\-test\\)\\.\\ If\\ children\\ are\\ shown\\ a\\ new\\ object\\ and\\ a\\ researcher\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ new\\ name\\,\\ like\\ \\\"wug\\,\\\"\\ and\\ then\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ shown\\ two\\ and\\ asked\\ to\\ name\\ them\\,\\ kids\\ will\\ say\\ \\\"wugs\\.\\\"\\ This\\ shows\\ they\\ are\\ using\\ a\\ rule\\,\\ namely\\ add\\ \\-s\\ to\\ a\\ word\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ plural\\,\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ regurgitating\\ some\\ memorized\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ word\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Chomsky\\ argued\\ that\\ children\\ must\\ have\\ an\\ innate\\ universal\\ grammar\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ of\\ abstract\\ specifications\\ for\\ a\\ grammar\\ of\\ human\\ language\\.\\ The\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ comes\\ from\\ \\the\\ poverty\\ of\\ the\\ stimulus\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ poverty\\ of\\ the\\ stimulus\\ is\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ children\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ enough\\ input\\ to\\ \\\"learn\\\"\\ these\\ rules\\,\\ and\\ must\\ therefore\\ know\\ something\\ about\\ them\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ examples\\ of\\ kids\\ seemingly\\ knowing\\ things\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ learned\\ from\\ input\\ alone\\.\\ Kids\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ correctly\\ form\\ questions\\ very\\ quickly\\,\\ and\\ don\\'t\\ make\\ certain\\ mistakes\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ \\\"learning\\ from\\ input\\.\\\"\\ For\\ example\\,\\ kids\\ always\\ know\\ which\\ verb\\ to\\ move\\ in\\ forming\\ complex\\ questions\\,\\ so\\ they\\ will\\ say\\ \\\"is\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ is\\ tall\\ here\\?\\\"\\ but\\ never\\ say\\ \\\"is\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ tall\\ is\\ here\\.\\\"\\ This\\ would\\ be\\ very\\ hard\\ to\\ explain\\ unless\\ we\\ grant\\ that\\ kids\\ have\\ some\\ innate\\ knowledge\\ about\\ phrase\\ structure\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Chomsky\\ has\\ been\\ critiqued\\ on\\ many\\ fronts\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\He\\ has\\ not\\ actually\\ gathered\\ data\\ on\\ what\\ children\\ actually\\ hear\\,\\ so\\ he\\ can\\'t\\ conclude\\ that\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ enough\\ input\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\He\\ hasn\\'t\\ shown\\ that\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ Universal\\ Grammar\\ are\\ specific\\ to\\ language\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ principles\\ of\\ general\\ cognition\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\He\\ hasn\\'t\\ shown\\ that\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ Universal\\ Grammar\\ hold\\ in\\ all\\ languages\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\He\\ hasn\\'t\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ non\\-behaviorist\\ models\\ are\\ incapable\\ of\\ acquiring\\ langauge\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\He\\ may\\ have\\ overestimated\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ phenomena\\ that\\ are\\ due\\ to\\ syntactic\\ rules\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ language\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Can\\ language\\ be\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ cognition\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ to\\ show\\ this\\.\\ One\\ way\\ is\\ to\\ show\\ a\\ neurological\\ \\double\\ dissociation\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ language\\/cognition\\ impairment\\.\\ One\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ some\\ people\\ with\\ neurological\\ damage\\ lose\\ linguistic\\ abilities\\,\\ but\\ show\\ no\\ other\\ cognitive\\ deficits\\,\\ and\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ people\\ who\\ show\\ cognitive\\ deficits\\,\\ but\\ no\\ impairment\\ in\\ linguistic\\ abilities\\.\\ The\\ first\\ case\\ has\\ been\\ demonstrated\\ in\\ the\\ medical\\ literature\\,\\ with\\ disorders\\ such\\ as\\ Broca\\'s\\ aphasia\\,\\ and\\ Specific\\ Language\\ Impairment\\ \\(SLI\\)\\.\\ There\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ evidence\\ presented\\ for\\ a\\ gene\\ causing\\ SLI\\,\\ the\\ FOXP2\\ gene\\.\\ The\\ inheritance\\ pattern\\ of\\ this\\ disorder\\ looks\\ like\\ the\\ inheritance\\ pattern\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ dominant\\ gene\\.\\ The\\ second\\ case\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ in\\ a\\ disorder\\ called\\ William\\'s\\ Syndrome\\.\\ People\\ with\\ William\\'s\\ Syndrome\\ typically\\ have\\ a\\ non\\-verbal\\ IQ\\ of\\ about\\ 50\\,\\ and\\ severe\\ impairment\\ in\\ spatial\\ cognition\\,\\ but\\ have\\ fantastic\\ linguistic\\ abilities\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Other\\ components\\ of\\ language\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ The\\ \\Mental\\ Lexicon\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"dictionary\\ in\\ our\\ brains\\\"\\ that\\ consists\\ of\\ pairings\\ between\\ arbitrary\\ symbols\\ \\(words\\)\\ and\\ concepts\\ \\(definitions\\)\\.\\ Ferdinand\\ de\\ Sassure\\ introduced\\ this\\ concept\\ through\\ his\\ philosophy\\ centered\\ around\\ \\\"the\\ arbitrariness\\ of\\ the\\ sign\\.\\\"\\ The\\ word\\ \\\"cat\\\"\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ resembles\\ the\\ actual\\ thing\\ \\\"cat\\,\\\"\\ and\\ so\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ arbitrary\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ word\\ defining\\ the\\ thing\\.\\ The\\ word\\ \\\"table\\\"\\ could\\ just\\ as\\ easily\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ thing\\ \\\"cat\\\"\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ so\\ designed\\.\\ Words\\ derive\\ their\\ meanings\\ by\\ our\\ pairing\\ of\\ the\\ arbitrary\\ sound\\ structure\\ with\\ the\\ concept\\ for\\ the\\ thing\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ and\\ historical\\ process\\.\\ Studies\\ show\\ that\\ adults\\ typically\\ have\\ a\\ vocabulary\\ of\\ about\\ 60\\,000\\ words\\,\\ which\\ means\\ we\\ must\\ learn\\ about\\ 1\\ word\\ every\\ 2\\ hours\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\Morphology\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ essentially\\ the\\ syntax\\ of\\ words\\.\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ rules\\ like\\ \\\"add\\ \\-ed\\ to\\ form\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\,\\\"\\ \\\"add\\ \\-s\\ to\\ form\\ the\\ plural\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ syntax\\.\\ In\\ word\\-order\\ languages\\ like\\ english\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ word\\ in\\ sentences\\ \\(subject\\,\\ object\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ is\\ indicated\\ by\\ word\\ order\\ \\(this\\ is\\ why\\ \\\"man\\ bites\\ dog\\\"\\ means\\ something\\ completely\\ different\\ from\\ \\\"dog\\ bites\\ man\\\"\\)\\.\\ In\\ word\\ order\\ languages\\ morphology\\ and\\ syntax\\ can\\ be\\ separated\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ languages\\ that\\ use\\ morphology\\ to\\ express\\ these\\ syntactic\\ relationships\\.\\ These\\ languages\\ are\\ inflectional\\ languages\\,\\ like\\ Latin\\ and\\ Russian\\,\\ and\\ they\\ express\\ these\\ relationships\\ using\\ morphological\\ inflection\\ \\(adding\\ suffixes\\ and\\ prefixes\\)\\.\\ In\\ these\\ languages\\ the\\ roles\\ that\\ words\\ play\\ in\\ sentences\\ \\(subject\\,\\ object\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ is\\ indicated\\ using\\ suffixes\\ and\\ prefixes\\.\\ In\\ these\\ languages\\ word\\ order\\ is\\ often\\ irrelevant\\ because\\ the\\ information\\ is\\ conveyed\\ with\\ morphology\\ \\(prefixes\\ and\\ suffixes\\)\\.\\ In\\ Latin\\ \\\"canis\\ hominem\\ mordet\\\"\\ means\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ \\\"hominem\\ canis\\ mordet\\\"\\ because\\ the\\ \\-em\\ suffix\\ means\\ object\\ and\\ the\\ \\-is\\ suffix\\ means\\ subject\\,\\ so\\ both\\ of\\ these\\ sentences\\ mean\\ \\\"dog\\ bites\\ man\\.\\\"\\ To\\ say\\ \\\"man\\ bites\\ dog\\\"\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ suffixes\\ that\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ flipped\\,\\ not\\ the\\ word\\ order\\,\\ giving\\ us\\ two\\ equal\\ ways\\ of\\ saying\\ this\\:\\ \\\"homo\\ canem\\ mordet\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"canem\\ homo\\ mordet\\.\\\"\\ In\\ these\\ languages\\ morphology\\ and\\ syntax\\ are\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\\\ Phonology\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ another\\ rule\\ governed\\ structure\\ in\\ language\\ that\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ sounds\\.\\ Phonology\\ is\\ the\\ sound\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ language\\,\\ and\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ fundamental\\ units\\ called\\ phonemes\\.\\ This\\ consists\\ of\\ formation\\ rules\\ that\\ say\\ that\\ some\\ sound\\ structures\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ such\\ as\\ stacking\\ certain\\ consonants\\.\\ For\\ example\\ \\\"krechtz\\\"\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ valid\\ english\\ sound\\ structure\\ word\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ sound\\ structure\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ word\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ adjustment\\ rules\\ such\\ as\\ how\\ \\-ed\\ is\\ pronounced\\ differently\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ \\\"walked\\,\\\"\\ \\\"jogged\\,\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"patted\\.\\\"\\ They\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ letters\\ but\\ are\\ actually\\ different\\ phonemes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ also\\ language\\ interfaces\\ such\\ as\\ speech\\ articulation\\.\\ The\\ \\source\\-articulation\\ model\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ how\\ we\\ generate\\ certain\\ sounds\\ using\\ muscles\\,\\ flaps\\ of\\ skin\\,\\ teeth\\,\\ and\\ airflow\\.\\ Essentially\\,\\ the\\ larynx\\ creates\\ a\\ non\\-descript\\ sound\\ which\\ is\\ then\\ filtered\\ to\\ create\\ all\\ the\\ different\\ sounds\\ of\\ language\\.\\ The\\ \\larynx\\<\\/em\\>\\ generates\\ a\\ buzzy\\ sound\\ source\\,\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ non\\-descript\\ noise\\ maker\\.\\ The\\ pharynx\\,\\ mouth\\,\\ lips\\,\\ and\\ nose\\ are\\ \\changeable\\ resonators\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ they\\ filter\\ the\\ sound\\ from\\ the\\ larynx\\ to\\ create\\ vowels\\.\\ The\\ lips\\,\\ tongue\\,\\ and\\ soft\\ palate\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ filtering\\ the\\ sound\\ from\\ the\\ larynx\\ through\\ the\\ constriction\\ of\\ the\\ vocal\\ tract\\,\\ which\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ create\\ consonants\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Pragmatics\\ and\\ inference\\ are\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ language\\ is\\ actually\\ used\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ why\\ do\\ people\\ say\\ \\\"if\\ you\\ could\\ pass\\ the\\ guacamole\\,\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ awesome\\?\\\"\\ Or\\ why\\ do\\ people\\ say\\ \\\"do\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ for\\ coffee\\?\\\"\\ when\\ they\\ mean\\ \\\"do\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\?\\\"\\ and\\ both\\ participants\\ in\\ the\\ conversation\\ know\\ it\\.\\ People\\ don\\'t\\ use\\ language\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ way\\ to\\ how\\ they\\ write\\ papers\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ interface\\ between\\ psychology\\ and\\ language\\.\\ One\\ reason\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ speak\\ in\\ clear\\,\\ concise\\,\\ complete\\ sentences\\ is\\ that\\ often\\ it\\ is\\ unnecessary\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ shared\\ knowledge\\ for\\ both\\ speaker\\ and\\ hearer\\ to\\ draw\\ on\\.\\ Another\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ don\\'t\\ just\\ use\\ language\\ to\\ communicate\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ achieve\\ goals\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ best\\ be\\ met\\ through\\ clear\\ communication\\.\\ This\\ is\\ addressed\\ in\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\'s\\ new\\ book\\,\\ \\The\\ Stuff\\ of\\ Thought\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 13 (3/20/08)- Language"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.676357+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 14 (4/1/08)- Cognitive Development ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 391, "html": "\\I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ start\\ this\\ blog\\ by\\ clarifying\\ two\\ related\\ technical\\ terms\\,\\ \\domain\\ general\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ \\domain\\ specific\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\.\\ These\\ terms\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ psychology\\ and\\ an\\ ongoing\\ debate\\ as\\ to\\ how\\ specific\\ aspects\\ of\\ cognition\\ are\\ processed\\.\\ The\\ traditional\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ abilities\\ that\\ we\\ use\\ to\\ solve\\ problems\\ across\\ the\\ board\\ like\\ \\\"learning\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"higher\\ reasoning\\,\\\"\\ or\\ some\\ \\\"statistical\\ mechanism\\,\\\"\\ which\\ we\\ then\\ apply\\ to\\ morality\\,\\ language\\,\\ social\\ behavior\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ domain\\ general\\ view\\,\\ that\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ general\\ purpose\\ computer\\ with\\ just\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ programs\\ that\\ we\\ use\\ for\\ almost\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ cognition\\.\\ Recent\\ findings\\ throw\\ much\\ doubt\\ onto\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ this\\ stance\\.\\ We\\ are\\ finding\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ that\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\ modular\\,\\ and\\ it\\ processes\\ different\\ things\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ meaning\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ language\\ module\\,\\ a\\ social\\ cognition\\ module\\,\\ a\\ folk\\-physics\\ module\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ domain\\ specific\\ view\\,\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ general\\ purpose\\ computer\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ numerous\\ specialized\\ programs\\,\\ each\\ attuned\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ domain\\.\\ Most\\ current\\ debates\\ don\\'t\\ really\\ doubt\\ this\\ idea\\,\\ and\\ now\\ are\\ centered\\ on\\ such\\ questions\\ as\\ \\ \\\"how\\ specific\\ is\\ any\\ given\\ module\\?\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"are\\ there\\ commonalities\\ across\\ modules\\?\\\"\\ More\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Domain\\_specificity\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Human\\ Development\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ are\\ an\\ altricial\\ species\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ a\\ precocial\\ species\\.\\ \\Precocial\\ species\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ species\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ long\\ developmental\\ periods\\.\\ These\\ animals\\ are\\ basically\\ born\\ with\\ adult\\ capacities\\,\\ and\\ are\\ usually\\ prey\\ species\\,\\ because\\ incompetent\\ babies\\ would\\ be\\ eaten\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ born\\ with\\ adult\\ capabilities\\.\\ Animals\\ like\\ deer\\ are\\ precocial\\ species\\,\\ and\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ see\\ and\\ run\\ almost\\ immediately\\ after\\ birth\\.\\ \\Altricial\\ species\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ species\\ that\\ are\\ born\\ very\\ immature\\ and\\ take\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ to\\ mature\\ into\\ adult\\ form\\.\\ More\\ on\\ this\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Altricial\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Primates\\ are\\ altricial\\ and\\ often\\ take\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ to\\ develop\\ adult\\ capacities\\ and\\ capabilities\\.\\ Humans\\ are\\ \\secondarily\\ altricial\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ not\\ only\\ are\\ we\\ descended\\ from\\ altricial\\ species\\,\\ but\\ due\\ to\\ our\\ large\\ heads\\ human\\ infants\\ are\\ born\\ much\\ more\\ immature\\ than\\ even\\ our\\ closest\\ ape\\ relatives\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ human\\ infants\\ are\\ about\\ nine\\ months\\ old\\ before\\ they\\ develop\\ the\\ motor\\ competence\\ of\\ a\\ newborn\\ chimpanzee\\.\\ This\\ is\\ obviously\\ an\\ imprecise\\ estimation\\,\\ but\\ I\\ have\\ heard\\ estimates\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ our\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ take\\ up\\ to\\ 18\\ months\\ to\\ catch\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ equivalence\\ of\\ those\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ born\\ chimpanzee\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ reasons\\ for\\ this\\ extreme\\ immaturity\\ at\\ birth\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ our\\ huge\\ heads\\.\\ If\\ human\\ babies\\ were\\ born\\ with\\ more\\ adult\\-like\\ mental\\ capacities\\ their\\ heads\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ fit\\ through\\ the\\ birth\\ canal\\.\\ The\\ second\\ reason\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ cognitive\\-developmental\\ adaptation\\-\\-our\\ long\\ childhood\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ to\\ a\\ cognitively\\ demanding\\ lifestyle\\.\\ Our\\ extraordinarily\\ long\\ childhood\\/adolescence\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ apprenticeship\\ in\\ becoming\\ human\\.\\ Our\\ time\\ of\\ birth\\ is\\ therefore\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ trade\\-off\\ of\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ crucial\\ things\\,\\ first\\ off\\ the\\ smarter\\ we\\ are\\,\\ the\\ bigger\\ our\\ melons\\;\\ and\\ the\\ female\\ reproductive\\ tract\\ can\\ only\\ fit\\ a\\ head\\ that\\ is\\ so\\ large\\.\\ Humans\\ are\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ vulnerable\\ animal\\ in\\ childbirth\\ due\\ to\\ many\\ baby\\'s\\ heads\\ getting\\ stuck\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ out\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ mother\\ and\\ child\\ \\(before\\ modern\\ medicine\\ of\\ course\\)\\.\\ The\\ other\\ trade\\ off\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ earlier\\ a\\ baby\\ is\\ born\\ the\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ predation\\ \\(and\\ disease\\)\\ it\\ is\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ earlier\\ it\\ can\\ start\\ learning\\ about\\ its\\ environment\\,\\ both\\ natural\\ and\\ social\\,\\ and\\ presumably\\ the\\ smarter\\ it\\ can\\ become\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Mechanisms\\ of\\ Developmental\\ Change\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Below\\ are\\ listed\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ humans\\ develop\\,\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ not\\ mutually\\ exclusive\\.\\ One\\ of\\ Chomsky\\'s\\ key\\ arguments\\ about\\ language\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ develops\\ more\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ learned\\,\\ but\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ learning\\ is\\ not\\ involved\\ \\(if\\ this\\ were\\ true\\ a\\ Chinese\\ baby\\ could\\ not\\ learn\\ english\\)\\.\\ So\\,\\ while\\ these\\ are\\ presented\\ as\\ different\\ mechanisms\\ and\\ processes\\ here\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ separate\\ in\\ human\\ development\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ all\\ learning\\ must\\ have\\ some\\ innate\\ structuring\\,\\ after\\ all\\ rocks\\ do\\ not\\ learn\\;\\ brains\\ need\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ architecture\\ that\\ enables\\,\\ motivates\\,\\ and\\ structures\\ learning\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ absolutely\\ fabulous\\ article\\ on\\ the\\ false\\ distinction\\ between\\ innate\\ characteristics\\ and\\ learned\\ characteristics\\ here\\:\\ \\innatelearned\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Learning\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ one\\ way\\ humans\\ develop\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ explicit\\ instruction\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Maturation\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ another\\ major\\ mechanism\\ of\\ \\ development\\.\\ Most\\ adult\\ neurons\\ are\\ formed\\ in\\ utero\\,\\ and\\ maturation\\/development\\ \\[counterintuitively\\]\\ consists\\ of\\ many\\ neurons\\ dying\\ off\\ in\\ early\\ childhood\\.\\ Synapses\\ peak\\ in\\ infancy\\ and\\ early\\ childhood\\,\\ as\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ graph\\ below\\.\\ Depending\\ on\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ infants\\ have\\ up\\ to\\ 50\\%\\ more\\ synapses\\ than\\ adults\\.\\ Myelination\\ \\(adding\\ on\\ of\\ myelin\\ sheaths\\)\\ happens\\ throughout\\ childhood\\ and\\ adolescence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ frontal\\ lobes\\ are\\ the\\ last\\ to\\ undergo\\ myelination\\.\\ Myelination\\ makes\\ neuronal\\ communication\\ faster\\ \\ and\\ therefore\\ makes\\ these\\ brain\\ areas\\ \\\"smarter\\.\\\"\\ The\\ frontal\\ lobes\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ planning\\,\\ decision\\ making\\,\\ and\\ control\\ of\\ emotion\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ adults\\ are\\ so\\ much\\ better\\ at\\ these\\ tasks\\ than\\ children\\,\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ more\\ thorough\\ myelination\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ areas\\ responsible\\ for\\ these\\ processes\\.\\ \\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Critical\\ periods\\ \\<\\/em\\>or\\ \\sensitive\\ periods\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ times\\ in\\ which\\ children\\'s\\ nervous\\ systems\\ \\\"expect\\\"\\ some\\ type\\ of\\ specific\\ input\\ so\\ that\\ a\\ specific\\ neural\\ structure\\ can\\ develop\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ common\\ biological\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ studied\\ extensively\\ throughout\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ link\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Critical\\_period\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ A\\ classic\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ imprinting\\ in\\ birds\\,\\ which\\ is\\ where\\ they\\ interpret\\ the\\ first\\ animal\\ they\\ see\\ as\\ their\\ mother\\.\\ This\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ birds\\ imprinting\\ on\\ researcher\\.\\ The\\ birds\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ had\\ one\\ specific\\ stimulus\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ imprinting\\,\\ the\\ ones\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ had\\ another\\,\\ Konrad\\ Lorenz\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\If\\ the\\ eyes\\ are\\ taped\\ over\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ year\\ in\\ experiments\\ with\\ monkeys\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ receive\\ the\\ needed\\ input\\ coming\\ in\\ from\\ the\\ eyes\\,\\ then\\ their\\ visual\\ perception\\ will\\ never\\ develop\\.\\ Humans\\ show\\ a\\ similar\\ sensitive\\ period\\ for\\ many\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\,\\ including\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ language\\ acquisition\\.\\ Children\\ can\\ easily\\ learn\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ languages\\,\\ especially\\ before\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 5\\-years\\-old\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ for\\ adults\\ to\\ learn\\ a\\ second\\ language\\,\\ and\\ adults\\ learn\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ qualitatively\\ different\\ way\\.\\ Children\\ have\\ strong\\ critical\\ period\\ limitations\\ for\\ phonology\\ \\(sounds\\ and\\ accents\\)\\,\\ an\\ intermediately\\ limiting\\ critical\\ period\\ for\\ syntax\\ and\\ morphology\\ \\(the\\ rules\\ of\\ a\\ language\\)\\,\\ and\\ possibly\\ no\\ limitations\\ of\\ a\\ critical\\ period\\ for\\ the\\ lexicon\\ \\(words\\)\\ because\\ we\\ learn\\ new\\ words\\ our\\ whole\\ lives\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Cognitive\\ Development\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\According\\ to\\ William\\ James\\,\\ the\\ child\\ somehow\\ learns\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ \\\"blooming\\,\\ buzzing\\,\\ confusion\\,\\\"\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ developmental\\ psychology\\ to\\ explain\\ how\\ children\\ somehow\\ develop\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ from\\ this\\ confusion\\.\\ Jean\\ Piaget\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ developmental\\ psychologist\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ for\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ a\\ scientist\\.\\ He\\ said\\ that\\ children\\ observe\\ effects\\ of\\ manipulations\\ on\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ create\\ theories\\ to\\ explain\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ works\\.\\ He\\ called\\ these\\ theories\\ \\schemes\\ \\<\\/em\\>or\\ \\schemas\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Schemas\\ consist\\ of\\ some\\ sensorimotor\\ experience\\ coupled\\ with\\ some\\ expectation\\ of\\ a\\ result\\.\\ These\\ are\\ children\\'s\\ theories\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ works\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ main\\ mechanisms\\ by\\ which\\ children\\ expand\\ and\\ elaborate\\ on\\ their\\ schemes\\:\\ assimilation\\ and\\ accomodation\\.\\ \\Assimilation\\<\\/span\\>\\ is\\ where\\ experience\\ fits\\ into\\ one\\ or\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ child\\'s\\ schemes\\,\\ and\\ the\\ kid\\ merely\\ adds\\ the\\ new\\ experience\\ into\\ an\\ existing\\ scheme\\,\\ possibly\\ expanding\\ the\\ scheme\\.\\ \\Accomodation\\<\\/span\\>\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ for\\ experience\\ that\\ doesn\\'t\\ conform\\ to\\ an\\ existing\\ scheme\\,\\ and\\ the\\ child\\ must\\ either\\ radically\\ change\\ the\\ scheme\\ or\\ create\\ a\\ new\\ one\\.\\ As\\ children\\ develop\\ further\\ they\\ then\\ take\\ these\\ concrete\\ understandings\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ abstract\\ through\\ \\reflective\\ abstaction\\<\\/span\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Piaget\\ also\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ influential\\ thinker\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ developmental\\ stages\\,\\ each\\ characterized\\ by\\ schemes\\ with\\ certain\\ mathematical\\/logical\\ properties\\.\\ His\\ posited\\ schemes\\ were\\ \\domain\\-general\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ that\\ is\\ these\\ logical\\ properties\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ apply\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ across\\ different\\ domains\\ of\\ knowledge\\ \\(objects\\,\\ people\\,\\ language\\,\\ numbers\\,\\ morality\\)\\.\\ Piaget\\'s\\ first\\ stage\\ \\(0\\-2\\ years\\ old\\)\\ is\\ the\\ \\sensorimotor\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ children\\ were\\ said\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ their\\ senses\\ and\\ actions\\,\\ characterized\\ by\\ behaviors\\ such\\ as\\ touching\\,\\ looking\\,\\ sucking\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ second\\ stage\\ \\(2\\-6\\ years\\ old\\)\\ is\\ the\\ \\preoperational\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ children\\ have\\ acquired\\ representations\\ such\\ as\\ words\\ and\\ images\\,\\ but\\ they\\ lack\\ concrete\\ logical\\ reasoning\\.\\ This\\ stage\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ \\egocentrism\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ take\\ another\\ person\\'s\\ perspective\\ \\(this\\ is\\ a\\ technical\\ definition\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ common\\ definition\\ similar\\ to\\ \\\"narcissism\\\"\\)\\.\\ The\\ third\\ stage\\ \\(7\\-11\\ years\\ old\\)\\ is\\ the\\ \\concrete\\ operational\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ acquire\\ logical\\ thinking\\ about\\ concrete\\ events\\,\\ and\\ can\\ grasp\\ concrete\\ analogies\\ and\\ arithmetic\\.\\ The\\ last\\ stage\\ \\(12\\ years\\ old\\ on\\)\\ is\\ the\\ \\formal\\ operational\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ abstract\\ reasoning\\,\\ especially\\ \\\"mature\\\"\\ moral\\ reasoning\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ stages\\ are\\ all\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ developmental\\ milestones\\ as\\ well\\ listed\\ in\\ the\\ table\\ below\\.\\\\There\\ have\\ been\\ many\\ critiques\\ of\\ Piaget\\.\\ He\\ did\\ not\\ do\\ experimental\\ research\\,\\ but\\ merely\\ observed\\ children\\ and\\ took\\ their\\ vocalizations\\ at\\ face\\ value\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ this\\ he\\ most\\ assuredly\\ underestimated\\ children\\'s\\ knowledge\\.\\ More\\ recent\\ research\\ shows\\ that\\ children\\ often\\ have\\ knowledge\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ explain\\ or\\ act\\ on\\.\\ Another\\ major\\ critique\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ idea\\ of\\ \\decallage\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ corresponds\\ to\\ his\\ idea\\ of\\ domain\\-general\\ processing\\.\\ He\\ believed\\ that\\ different\\ cognitive\\ domains\\ developed\\ in\\ different\\ stages\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ false\\ as\\ many\\ cogntive\\ abilities\\ do\\ not\\ develop\\ in\\ distinct\\ stages\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ones\\ that\\ do\\ correlate\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ domain\\ specific\\ abilities\\ listed\\ below\\ and\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ general\\ way\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.encyclopedia\\.com\\/doc\\/1O87\\-dcalage\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Domain\\ Specific\\ Development\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ alternative\\ to\\ Piaget\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ process\\ things\\ in\\ domain\\-specific\\ ways\\.\\ As\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ paragraph\\ in\\ the\\ blog\\,\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ we\\ understand\\ and\\ process\\ different\\ cognitive\\ domains\\ in\\ very\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ using\\ some\\ general\\ cognitive\\ processes\\ to\\ solve\\ all\\ cognitive\\ problems\\.\\ We\\ understand\\ language\\ differently\\ than\\ social\\ interactions\\,\\ which\\ we\\ understand\\ differently\\ than\\ physical\\ processes\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ Babies\\ develop\\ distinct\\ \\\"modules\\,\\\"\\ or\\ intuitive\\ theories\\ or\\ ways\\ of\\ knowing\\:\\ intuitive\\ physics\\,\\ intuitive\\ biology\\,\\ intuitive\\ psychology\\,\\ intuitive\\ design\\ \\(artifacts\\ and\\ tools\\)\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Each\\ of\\ these\\ domains\\ relies\\ on\\ core\\ knowledge\\ and\\ principles\\ that\\ are\\ fleshed\\ out\\ with\\ acquired\\ knowledge\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ test\\ babies\\ before\\ they\\ have\\ language\\,\\ but\\ researchers\\ have\\ devised\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ brilliant\\ and\\ elegant\\ techniques\\.\\ One\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ \\habituation\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ If\\ children\\ are\\ shown\\ something\\ new\\ they\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ for\\ awhile\\,\\ they\\ will\\ habituate\\ to\\ it\\,\\ become\\ bored\\,\\ and\\ then\\ look\\ away\\.\\ If\\ you\\ show\\ them\\ something\\ new\\ again\\,\\ they\\ will\\ follow\\ the\\ same\\ routine\\,\\ showing\\ surprise\\ and\\ staring\\ at\\ something\\ until\\ soon\\ they\\ habituate\\,\\ become\\ bored\\,\\ and\\ look\\ away\\.\\ This\\ technique\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ then\\ test\\ if\\ infants\\ find\\ things\\ different\\ from\\ each\\ other\\,\\ by\\ habituating\\ them\\ to\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ and\\ then\\ showing\\ them\\ another\\.\\ If\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ not\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ second\\ thing\\,\\ it\\ shows\\ they\\ perceive\\ it\\ as\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ first\\,\\ and\\ are\\ therefore\\ still\\ habituated\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ if\\ they\\ then\\ stare\\ at\\ the\\ second\\ thing\\,\\ it\\ shows\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ realize\\ it\\ is\\ something\\ different\\,\\ and\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ habituate\\ again\\.\\ This\\ technique\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ assess\\ children\\'s\\ intuitions\\ about\\ things\\ as\\ illustrated\\ by\\ the\\ following\\ example\\.\\ To\\ study\\ babies\\'\\ intuitions\\ about\\ how\\ objects\\ work\\/behave\\ \\(intuitive\\ physics\\)\\ the\\ researcher\\ will\\ show\\ the\\ baby\\ an\\ object\\,\\ which\\ is\\ occluded\\ by\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ screen\\ or\\ something\\,\\ and\\ let\\ the\\ baby\\ habituate\\.\\ Something\\ will\\ happen\\ like\\ perhaps\\ another\\ object\\ being\\ added\\ \\(but\\ both\\ are\\ hidden\\ behind\\ a\\ screen\\)\\,\\ then\\ the\\ screen\\ drops\\ and\\ reveals\\ either\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ objects\\ \\(where\\ two\\ went\\ in\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ condition\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ objects\\ \\(the\\ physically\\ realistic\\ case\\)\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ still\\ habituated\\ to\\ the\\ scene\\ showing\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ seeing\\ what\\ they\\ expected\\ to\\.\\ In\\ the\\ condition\\ where\\ only\\ one\\ object\\ is\\ present\\ \\(the\\ physically\\ impossible\\ case\\)\\ the\\ baby\\ will\\ stare\\ in\\ surprise\\ showing\\ that\\ their\\ intuitions\\ have\\ been\\ violated\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ intuitions\\ about\\ physical\\ situations\\ that\\ are\\ in\\ accord\\ with\\ some\\ physical\\ realities\\ of\\ objects\\.\\ More\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ here\\ at\\&\\#160\\;\\ the\\ page\\ of\\ an\\ influential\\ researcher\\ in\\ this\\ field\\ with\\ many\\ helpful\\ articles\\ as\\ well\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/pantheon\\.yale\\.edu\\/\\~kw77\\/Research\\.html\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Development\\ of\\ Intuitive\\ Physics\\ \\(knowledge\\ of\\ objects\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Habituation\\ research\\ has\\ shown\\ that\\ babies\\ have\\ a\\ prelinguistic\\ conception\\ of\\ objects\\.\\ They\\ conceive\\ of\\ objects\\ as\\ exhibiting\\ \\cohesion\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ things\\ that\\ move\\ together\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ object\\.\\ Babies\\ also\\ seem\\ to\\ show\\ understanding\\ of\\ \\continuity\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ objects\\ follow\\ continuous\\ spatiotemporal\\ trajectories\\ \\(they\\ do\\ not\\ disappear\\,\\ reappear\\,\\ or\\ pass\\ through\\ one\\ another\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ babies\\ still\\ need\\ to\\ flesh\\ out\\ their\\ general\\ understandings\\ of\\ objects\\,\\ and\\ must\\ learn\\ more\\ about\\ gravity\\,\\ inertia\\,\\ and\\ support\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Even\\ adults\\'\\ conceptions\\ of\\ intuitive\\ physics\\ are\\ not\\ that\\ great\\ compared\\ with\\ Newtonian\\ Physics\\ \\(although\\ they\\ are\\ great\\ at\\ predicting\\ trajectories\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ environments\\ we\\ evolved\\ into\\)\\.\\ Newtonian\\ Physics\\ sees\\ objects\\ as\\ naturally\\ moving\\ with\\ constant\\ velocities\\ unless\\ they\\ are\\ subjected\\ to\\ a\\ net\\ force\\.\\ Forces\\ add\\ together\\ as\\ vectors\\ to\\ determine\\ how\\ an\\ object\\'s\\ velocity\\ will\\ change\\.\\ People\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ see\\ objects\\ as\\ naturally\\ \\\"wanting\\\"\\ to\\ be\\ at\\ rest\\,\\ and\\ in\\ movement\\ it\\ is\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ \\\"filled\\\"\\ with\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ energetic\\ impetus\\ that\\ keeps\\ them\\ going\\ until\\ it\\ runs\\ out\\.\\ I\\ couldn\\'t\\ find\\ a\\ web\\ page\\ that\\ gives\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ explanation\\,\\ but\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ place\\ to\\ start\\ for\\ more\\ information\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/faculty\\.virginia\\.edu\\/perlab\\/research\\-details\\.php\\?researchID\\=ip\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Development\\ of\\ Intuitive\\ Psychology\\ \\(theory\\ of\\ mind\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\People\\'s\\ behavior\\ is\\ explained\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ beliefs\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ thinking\\ is\\ called\\ \\theory\\ of\\ mind\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Theory\\ of\\ mind\\ is\\ basically\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ thoughts\\ of\\ others\\.\\ This\\ ability\\ is\\ typically\\ tested\\ for\\ by\\ using\\ the\\ \\false\\ belief\\ task\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ children\\ can\\ separate\\ their\\ thoughts\\ and\\ beliefs\\ from\\ the\\ thoughts\\ and\\ beliefs\\ of\\ others\\.\\ The\\ false\\ belief\\ task\\ works\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ children\\ are\\ taken\\ into\\ a\\ room\\ with\\ an\\ experimenter\\ and\\ an\\ observer\\,\\ and\\ the\\ experimenter\\ hides\\ something\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ both\\ of\\ them\\ in\\ some\\ location\\,\\ let\\'s\\ call\\ this\\ location\\ \\\"X\\.\\\"\\ The\\ observer\\ then\\ leaves\\ the\\ room\\,\\ and\\ the\\ experimenter\\ moves\\ the\\ object\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ position\\,\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ call\\ \\\"Y\\.\\\"\\ Then\\ the\\ observer\\ returns\\ and\\ the\\ experimenter\\ asks\\ the\\ kid\\ where\\ the\\ observer\\ will\\ look\\ for\\ the\\ object\\.\\ Kids\\ with\\ a\\ developed\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ will\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ observer\\ will\\ look\\ in\\ location\\ X\\ \\(where\\ the\\ observer\\ last\\ saw\\ it\\)\\,\\ and\\ kids\\ that\\ have\\ not\\ yet\\ developed\\ this\\ capacity\\ will\\ say\\ Y\\ \\(where\\ the\\ kid\\ knows\\ it\\ is\\)\\ because\\ they\\ cannot\\ separate\\ their\\ ideas\\ from\\ the\\ ideas\\ held\\ by\\ others\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ variations\\ of\\ this\\ general\\ format\\ that\\ test\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ children\\'s\\ cognitive\\ development\\ of\\ intuitive\\ psychology\\.\\ 3\\-year\\ olds\\ fail\\ the\\ false\\ belief\\ task\\,\\ and\\ 4\\-year\\ olds\\ pass\\ it\\.\\ At\\ around\\ age\\ 4\\ children\\ begin\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ people\\'s\\ thoughts\\ vary\\,\\ are\\ private\\,\\ can\\ be\\ incorrect\\,\\ and\\ guide\\ their\\ actions\\.\\ These\\ tasks\\ are\\ difficult\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ even\\ 2\\ and\\ 3\\-year\\ old\\ children\\ do\\ have\\ some\\ intutive\\ psychological\\ abilities\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ pretense\\,\\ or\\ pretend\\ play\\ and\\ can\\ succeed\\ on\\ extremely\\ simple\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ tasks\\.\\ They\\ also\\ use\\ mental\\ state\\ verbs\\ like\\ \\\"think\\,\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"know\\.\\\"\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Theory\\_of\\_mind\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Autism\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ characterized\\ as\\ a\\ disorder\\ as\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\.\\ People\\ with\\ autism\\ are\\ socially\\ unresponsive\\,\\ and\\ detached\\;\\ they\\ attend\\ to\\ objects\\,\\ not\\ people\\;\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ engage\\ in\\ pretend\\ play\\;\\ and\\ even\\ older\\ autistic\\ children\\ fail\\ all\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ tasks\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ neuroimaging\\ research\\ that\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ with\\ autism\\ think\\ about\\ people\\ using\\ the\\ same\\ regions\\ of\\ their\\ brains\\ that\\ they\\ use\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ objects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Development\\ of\\ Intuitive\\ Biology\\ \\(living\\ things\\)\\ vs\\.\\ Intuitive\\ Design\\ \\(artifacts\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Children\\ know\\ very\\ early\\ on\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ \\animate\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ \\inanimate\\ objects\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Children\\ are\\ shocked\\ if\\ inanimate\\ objects\\ propel\\ themselves\\,\\ but\\ not\\ if\\ animate\\ objects\\ propel\\ themselves\\.\\ This\\ distinction\\ develops\\ very\\ early\\ \\(before\\ school\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Older\\ children\\ \\(7\\-year\\ olds\\ do\\ this\\,\\ 5\\-year\\ olds\\ don\\'t\\)\\ also\\ ascribe\\ an\\ \\essence\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ biological\\ kinds\\ \\(species\\)\\ but\\ not\\ artifacts\\.\\ Basically\\,\\ artifacts\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ their\\ shape\\ and\\ function\\,\\ and\\ animals\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ some\\ unalterable\\ internal\\ essence\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ black\\ cat\\ with\\ a\\ white\\ stripe\\ down\\ the\\ back\\,\\ that\\ smells\\,\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ cat\\,\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ skunk\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ retains\\ its\\ essense\\ of\\ \\\"catness\\\"\\ despite\\ its\\ change\\ in\\ appearace\\.\\ \\ But\\,\\ a\\ rake\\ that\\ is\\ hammered\\ out\\ like\\ a\\ shovel\\ does\\ not\\ retain\\ its\\ \\\"rakeness\\,\\\"\\ but\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ shovel\\.\\ If\\ a\\ coffeepot\\ has\\ holes\\ punched\\ in\\ the\\ side\\,\\ and\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ birdseed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ bird\\ feeder\\,\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ retain\\ its\\ \\\"coffeepotness\\.\\\"\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ artifacts\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ their\\ shape\\ and\\ function\\,\\ whereas\\ organisms\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ an\\ internal\\ essence\\ that\\ cannot\\ change\\ with\\ shape\\.\\ The\\ distinction\\ between\\ animate\\ and\\ inanimate\\ objects\\ appears\\ very\\ early\\,\\ and\\ is\\ then\\ elaborated\\ so\\ that\\ animate\\ objects\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ an\\ essence\\ at\\ around\\ 7\\ years\\ old\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 14 (4/1/08)- Cognitive Development "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.696416+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 15 (4/3/08)- Emotion Part I", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 392, "html": "\\I\\ just\\ want\\ to\\ briefly\\ mention\\ that\\ up\\ to\\ this\\ point\\ this\\ class\\ has\\ dealt\\ with\\ the\\ brain\\'s\\ communication\\ processes\\ as\\ local\\,\\ acting\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ the\\ neuron\\,\\ and\\ this\\ lecture\\ is\\ working\\ with\\ endocrine\\ communication\\,\\ which\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ extended\\ in\\ its\\ action\\,\\ and\\ can\\ include\\ the\\ whole\\ body\\.\\ Endocrine\\ communication\\ just\\ means\\ \\\"hormones\\,\\\"\\ which\\ are\\ chemicals\\ released\\ by\\ one\\ cell\\ or\\ organ\\,\\ which\\ diffuse\\ into\\ the\\ blood\\ stream\\,\\ and\\ are\\ thus\\ spread\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ body\\ \\(unlike\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ which\\ remain\\ in\\ the\\ synapse\\ \\[more\\ or\\ less\\]\\)\\.\\ These\\ hormones\\ can\\ therefore\\ exert\\ effects\\ on\\ organs\\ that\\ are\\ otherwise\\ unrelated\\.\\ This\\ is\\ common\\ when\\ many\\ organs\\ need\\ to\\ behave\\ in\\ a\\ specific\\ way\\ to\\ achieve\\ a\\ behavioral\\ response\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ is\\ emotion\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ obvious\\ question\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ emotion\\?\\ Emotions\\ are\\ what\\ guide\\ our\\ behavior\\.\\ Emotions\\ are\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ \\adaptive\\<\\/em\\>\\ but\\ \\conflicting\\<\\/em\\>\\ goals\\.\\ The\\ goal\\ of\\ anger\\ is\\ to\\ punish\\ disrespect\\ to\\ our\\ reputations\\,\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ fear\\ is\\ to\\ motivate\\ our\\ behavior\\ to\\ keep\\ us\\ safe\\ \\(either\\ fight\\ or\\ flight\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ emotion\\ of\\ love\\ drives\\ behavior\\ to\\ ensure\\ the\\ safety\\ of\\ our\\ family\\ members\\ and\\ friends\\.\\ Emotion\\ accomplishes\\ its\\ goals\\ by\\ moderating\\ attention\\,\\ physiological\\ responses\\ \\(like\\ changes\\ that\\ take\\ place\\ to\\ increase\\ physical\\ ability\\ and\\ stamina\\ in\\ the\\ fight\\ or\\ flight\\ response\\)\\,\\ and\\ creating\\ universal\\ facial\\ expressions\\ as\\ signals\\ to\\ others\\.\\ Emotion\\ is\\ often\\ juxtaposed\\ to\\ reason\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ two\\ alternatives\\,\\ however\\,\\ what\\ cognitive\\ neuroscience\\ has\\ discovered\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ 30\\ years\\ is\\ that\\ emotion\\ is\\ instead\\ the\\ very\\ core\\ of\\ reason\\.\\ Emotion\\ is\\ what\\ guides\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ without\\ emotion\\ life\\ would\\ be\\ meaningless\\ \\(as\\ it\\ is\\ for\\ some\\ patients\\ with\\ severe\\ limbic\\ damage\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Limbic\\ System\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ limbic\\ system\\ is\\ the\\ brain\\ structure\\ that\\ is\\ primarily\\ responsible\\ for\\ emotional\\ responses\\.\\ The\\ \\limbic\\ system\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ the\\ \\hippocampus\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\\\ amygdala\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ \\hypothalamus\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\\"old\\ cortex\\\"\\ consisting\\ of\\ the\\ \\cingulate\\ cortex\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ the\\ \\parahippocampal\\ gyrus\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ brain\\ system\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ phylogenetically\\ ancient\\ behaviors\\ characterized\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"four\\ F\\'s\\,\\\"\\ that\\ is\\ feeding\\,\\ fighting\\,\\ fleeing\\,\\ and\\ fucking\\.\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ primary\\ behaviors\\ that\\ are\\ regulated\\ by\\ the\\ limbic\\ system\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ limbic\\ system\\ is\\ highly\\ interconnected\\ with\\ the\\ frontal\\ lobes\\,\\ which\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ decision\\ making\\ and\\ higher\\ reason\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ phylogenetically\\ recent\\ brain\\ structure\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ become\\ highly\\ stressed\\ about\\ things\\ like\\ job\\ interviews\\,\\ which\\ are\\ understood\\ by\\ our\\ higher\\ reasoning\\ areas\\ of\\ our\\ brain\\,\\ whose\\ responses\\ are\\ then\\ fed\\ into\\ the\\ limbic\\ system\\.\\ The\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ fight\\ or\\ flight\\ response\\ works\\ follows\\ a\\ specific\\ order\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ brain\\ notices\\ a\\ stimuli\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ \\\"shadowy\\ figure\\\"\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ brain\\ interprets\\ it\\ as\\ fearsome\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Hypothalamus\\ releases\\ corticotropin\\-releasing\\ factor\\ into\\ anterior\\ pituitary\\ \\(which\\ is\\ where\\ many\\ hormones\\ come\\ from\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Anterior\\ pituitary\\ releases\\ corticotropin\\ \\(notices\\ last\\ step\\ was\\ \\\"corticotropin\\-releasing\\ factor\\,\\\"\\ these\\ are\\ two\\ different\\ substances\\,\\ and\\ the\\ releasing\\ factor\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ signal\\ to\\ release\\ the\\ corticotropin\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\In\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ the\\ adrenal\\ glands\\ release\\ cortisol\\ and\\ other\\ hormones\\ \\(this\\ group\\ of\\ hormones\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ colloquially\\ as\\ \\\"adrenalin\\,\\\"\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ hormone\\,\\ but\\ many\\ hormones\\ including\\ epinephrine\\,\\ norepinephrine\\,\\ cortisol\\,\\ and\\ others\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\These\\ hormones\\ affect\\ many\\ organs\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ creating\\ the\\ \\\"fight\\ or\\ flight\\\"\\ response\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ for\\ readying\\ the\\ body\\ for\\ either\\ running\\ or\\ fighting\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ includes\\ things\\ like\\ increased\\ heart\\ rate\\ and\\ heavy\\ breathing\\ \\(to\\ ready\\ the\\ body\\ for\\ physical\\ exertion\\)\\,\\ dilated\\ pupils\\ \\(to\\ increase\\ visual\\ awareness\\)\\,\\ and\\ release\\ of\\ bowels\\ and\\ urine\\ \\(to\\ end\\ digestion\\ processes\\,\\ lighten\\ the\\ load\\ and\\ get\\ ready\\ for\\ physical\\ exertion\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Darwin\\ and\\ Emotional\\ Expression\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Darwin\\ proposed\\ three\\ principles\\ to\\ explain\\ emotion\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Servicable\\ habits\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ principle\\ states\\ that\\ facial\\ expressions\\ and\\ emotional\\ expressions\\ in\\ general\\ get\\ us\\ ready\\ for\\ whatever\\ the\\ ensuing\\ behavior\\ will\\ be\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\ the\\ emotional\\ display\\ is\\ a\\ physiological\\ preparation\\ for\\ the\\ typical\\ behavior\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ situation\\ that\\ evokes\\ the\\ emotion\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ dog\\ will\\ bear\\ its\\ teeth\\ when\\ threatened\\ and\\ showing\\ aggressive\\ behavior\\ \\(fighting\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\\"flighting\\\"\\)\\,\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ getting\\ ready\\ to\\ use\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ fight\\.\\ Likewise\\,\\ a\\ dog\\ flattens\\ its\\ ears\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ afraid\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ not\\ get\\ bitten\\ off\\ in\\ a\\ fight\\.\\ From\\ a\\ modern\\ perspective\\,\\ these\\ behaviors\\ reflect\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ emotion\\,\\ but\\ the\\ adaptive\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ with\\ the\\ point\\ being\\ that\\ the\\ emotive\\ behaviors\\ are\\ the\\ adaptive\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ situation\\.Today\\ many\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ an\\ emotion\\ is\\ an\\ adaptive\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ situation\\!\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Antithesis\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ just\\ means\\ that\\ typically\\ \\\"opposite\\\"\\ emotional\\ states\\ usually\\ show\\ \\\"opposite\\\"\\ physiological\\ responses\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ dog\\ getting\\ ready\\ for\\ a\\ fight\\ will\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ first\\ picture\\ below\\,\\ and\\ a\\ dog\\ that\\ is\\ showing\\ submission\\ will\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ second\\ picture\\ below\\,\\ notice\\ that\\ the\\ responses\\ look\\ like\\ complete\\ opposites\\,\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ antithesis\\.\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Direct\\ action\\ of\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ original\\ principle\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ outdated\\ This\\ principle\\ states\\ that\\ our\\ emotional\\ responses\\ are\\ under\\ direct\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ like\\ reflexes\\.\\ Basically\\ emotional\\ reactions\\ are\\ not\\ under\\ conscious\\ control\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\There\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ problems\\ with\\ Darwin\\'s\\ theory\\ of\\ emotional\\ expression\\.\\ He\\ believed\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ adaptive\\ function\\ to\\ emotional\\ expression\\,\\ even\\ though\\ his\\ theories\\ can\\ be\\ framed\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ make\\ emotion\\ an\\ adaptive\\ response\\.\\ This\\ is\\ demonstrably\\ false\\.\\ He\\ also\\ used\\ a\\ Lamarckian\\ version\\ of\\ inheritance\\ in\\ understanding\\ emotion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\His\\ ideas\\ were\\ great\\ though\\,\\ and\\ they\\ still\\ survive\\,\\ although\\ in\\ a\\ slightly\\ altered\\ form\\.\\ Today\\ we\\ understand\\ servicable\\ habits\\ as\\ signals\\ that\\ convey\\ to\\ others\\ our\\ emotional\\ states\\.\\ This\\ would\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ signaling\\ theory\\ in\\ modern\\ biology\\,\\ and\\ I\\ have\\ a\\ great\\ link\\ on\\ signaling\\ theory\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Signalling\\_theory\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ The\\ modern\\ interpretation\\ of\\ his\\ antithesis\\ principle\\ goes\\ along\\ with\\ signaling\\ theory\\,\\ and\\ is\\ basically\\ just\\ so\\ that\\ signals\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ confused\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ This\\ allows\\ for\\ maximally\\ unconfusible\\ signals\\.\\ His\\ direct\\ action\\ of\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ corresponds\\ a\\ theory\\ in\\ signaling\\ theory\\,\\ which\\ states\\ that\\ signals\\ must\\ be\\ honest\\,\\ and\\ so\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ automatic\\,\\ this\\ prevents\\ bluffing\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ think\\ of\\ a\\ real\\ smile\\ vs\\.\\ a\\ feigned\\ smile\\,\\ anybody\\ can\\ usually\\ tell\\ the\\ difference\\,\\ easily\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ we\\ all\\ try\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ something\\ funny\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ interesting\\ before\\ a\\ picture\\ is\\ taken\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ hard\\ to\\ fake\\ a\\ smile\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ for\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ real\\ smile\\ is\\ controlled\\ by\\ ancient\\,\\ emotional\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ whereas\\ an\\ \\\"intentional\\\"\\ smile\\ is\\ elicited\\ by\\ planning\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ and\\ so\\ looks\\ false\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ explanation\\ of\\ honest\\ signaling\\ theory\\ \\(and\\ therefore\\ also\\ of\\ signaling\\ theory\\ in\\ general\\)\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/octavia\\.zoology\\.washington\\.edu\\/handicap\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Universality\\ of\\ Facial\\ Expressions\\ of\\ Emotion\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ was\\ a\\ \\cultural\\ conditioning\\ theory\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ stated\\ \\(in\\ a\\ typical\\ traditional\\ standard\\ social\\ science\\ way\\)\\ that\\ emotional\\ expressions\\ are\\ culturally\\ specific\\ and\\ are\\ learned\\.\\ This\\ was\\ disproved\\ by\\ Paul\\ Ekman\\ in\\ studies\\ with\\ New\\ Guinean\\ cultures\\.\\ He\\ showed\\ people\\ in\\ New\\ Guinea\\ pictures\\ of\\ Berkeley\\ students\\ expressing\\ emotions\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Ne\\ Guineans\\ easily\\ understood\\ the\\ meaning\\.\\ Conversely\\,\\ the\\ New\\ Guinean\\ facial\\ expressions\\ are\\ easily\\ interpretable\\ to\\ us\\.\\ He\\ recognized\\ 6\\ universal\\ emotional\\ expressions\\:\\ \\surprise\\,\\ fear\\,\\ disgust\\,\\ anger\\,\\ happiness\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\sadness\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ We\\ recognize\\ more\\ universal\\ facial\\ expressions\\ today\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ these\\ initial\\ 6\\ \\(although\\ not\\ strictly\\ emotional\\)\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ short\\ list\\ of\\ other\\ universal\\ emotional\\ expressions\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Greeting\\ with\\ an\\ \\eyebrow\\ flash\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ raising\\ the\\ eyebrows\\ upon\\ seeing\\ someone\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Flirting\\ gestures\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ culturally\\ univeral\\ flirting\\ gestures\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ discovered\\ by\\ anthropologists\\,\\ sociologists\\,\\ and\\ social\\ psychologists\\.\\ You\\ can\\ find\\ some\\ here\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ at\\ the\\ main\\ site\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/members\\.aol\\.com\\/nonverbal2\\/lovesig1\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Staring\\,\\ which\\ can\\ either\\ communicate\\ aggression\\ or\\ love\\/sexual\\ attraction\\.\\ When\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ love\\ stare\\ it\\ is\\ usually\\ called\\ gazing\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Many\\ expressions\\ of\\ play\\ and\\ laughter\\ are\\ also\\ culturally\\ universal\\ \\(in\\ fact\\,\\ we\\ share\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ sheepish\\ friendship\\ grin\\,\\ and\\ a\\ relaxed\\ playful\\ smile\\,\\ coupled\\ with\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ laugh\\,\\ with\\ chimpanzees\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\There\\ is\\ more\\ evidence\\ than\\ just\\ cross\\-cultural\\ studies\\ that\\ emotional\\ expressions\\ are\\ universal\\.\\ One\\ line\\ of\\ evidence\\ is\\ homologous\\ expressions\\ in\\ other\\ animals\\,\\ especially\\ other\\ primates\\.\\ Another\\ line\\ of\\ evidence\\ is\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ emotional\\ expressions\\ in\\ blind\\ and\\ deaf\\ children\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Emotions\\ About\\ Things\\ and\\ Universal\\ Emotions\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ of\\ our\\ emotions\\ are\\ adaptive\\,\\ and\\ guide\\ adaptive\\ behavior\\ in\\ humans\\.\\ Fear\\ is\\ a\\ classic\\ example\\ of\\ an\\ adaptive\\ emotion\\.\\ For\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ it\\ was\\ believed\\ \\(again\\ in\\ a\\ typical\\ outdated\\ social\\ science\\ way\\)\\ that\\ fear\\ was\\ conditioned\\.\\ There\\ are\\ major\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ theory\\ that\\ fear\\ is\\ conditioned\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Preparedness\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ monkeys\\ and\\ humans\\ easily\\ learn\\ to\\ fear\\ some\\ types\\ of\\ things\\,\\ but\\ not\\ others\\.\\ Monkeys\\ and\\ people\\ naturally\\ and\\ easily\\ learn\\ to\\ fear\\ snakes\\ and\\ other\\ predators\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Most\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ phobias\\ have\\ often\\ never\\ experienced\\ the\\ event\\ or\\ stimuli\\ that\\ they\\ fear\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ usually\\ those\\ with\\ phobias\\ have\\ the\\ least\\ amount\\ of\\ experience\\ with\\ the\\ thing\\ they\\ fear\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\There\\ are\\ many\\ stimuli\\ that\\ are\\ universally\\ feared\\,\\ or\\ easily\\ acquired\\ as\\ a\\ fear\\.\\ Arne\\ Ohman\\ has\\ researched\\ fears\\ of\\ snakes\\ and\\ spiders\\ and\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ national\\ geographic\\ article\\ on\\ this\\ work\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/news\\.nationalgeographic\\.com\\/news\\/2001\\/10\\/1004\\_snakefears\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Babies\\ universally\\ fear\\ strangers\\ and\\ separation\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ universal\\ fears\\ in\\ adults\\:\\ snakes\\,\\ spiders\\,\\ heights\\,\\ storms\\,\\ large\\ carnivores\\,\\ darkness\\,\\ blood\\,\\ strangers\\,\\ confinement\\,\\ deep\\ water\\,\\ social\\ scrutiny\\,\\ and\\ leaving\\ home\\ alone\\.\\ These\\ are\\ all\\ striking\\ ancestral\\ dangers\\,\\ and\\ people\\ are\\ adapted\\ to\\ naturally\\ develop\\ fears\\ to\\ these\\ ancestral\\ threats\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ fear\\ modern\\ dangers\\ such\\ as\\ guns\\,\\ fast\\ driving\\,\\ driving\\ without\\ a\\ seatbelt\\,\\ bicycling\\ without\\ a\\ helmet\\,\\ flammable\\ liquids\\,\\ electricity\\ \\(like\\ hairdryers\\ next\\ to\\ a\\ bathtub\\)\\,\\ or\\ things\\ like\\ loose\\ carpets\\ on\\ stairways\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ low\\ level\\ perceptual\\ abilities\\ that\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ these\\ fears\\ such\\ as\\ preattentional\\ awareness\\ of\\ snakes\\ and\\ spiders\\ \\(see\\ Ohman\\)\\,\\ and\\ visual\\ illusions\\ that\\ make\\ us\\ see\\ cliffs\\ as\\ higher\\ than\\ they\\ really\\ are\\ from\\ above\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ fear\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ easiest\\ disorders\\ to\\ treat\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ of\\ all\\ psychological\\ disorders\\,\\ phobias\\ are\\ the\\ easiest\\ to\\ treat\\.\\ Two\\ treatment\\ techniques\\ are\\\\ \\ flooding\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ patient\\ is\\ put\\ around\\ whatever\\ they\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\,\\ and\\ \\implosion\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ similar\\,\\ but\\ the\\ patient\\ imagines\\ being\\ around\\ the\\ thing\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\.\\ Similar\\,\\ but\\ less\\ intense\\ techniques\\ include\\ \\controlled\\ exposure\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ gets\\ as\\ relaxed\\ as\\ possible\\ and\\ slowly\\ the\\ fear\\ is\\ made\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ salient\\ to\\ the\\ patient\\,\\ and\\ \\desensitization\\<\\/em\\>\\ through\\ imagery\\ of\\ the\\ feared\\ object\\/scenario\\.\\ Another\\ technique\\ is\\ \\social\\ observation\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ confronting\\ these\\ same\\ objects\\/scenarios\\ without\\ fear\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ techniques\\ are\\ based\\ upon\\ classical\\ and\\ operant\\ conditioning\\ principles\\,\\ although\\ these\\ pre\\-loaded\\ fears\\ are\\ not\\ learned\\ through\\ conditioning\\,\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ overcome\\ through\\ conditioning\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ universal\\ emotion\\ is\\ \\disgust\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Disgust\\ is\\ an\\ emotion\\ that\\ drives\\ people\\ to\\ avoid\\ things\\ that\\ can\\ make\\ us\\ sick\\.\\ A\\ general\\ rule\\ of\\ thumb\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ find\\ disgusting\\ is\\ things\\ that\\ start\\ off\\ inside\\ of\\ the\\ body\\,\\ but\\ are\\ now\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ This\\ makes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ sense\\ from\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ \\(keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ antibiotics\\ are\\ a\\ VERY\\ recent\\ invention\\)\\,\\ because\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ can\\ make\\ us\\ sick\\.\\ Some\\ psychologists\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ disgust\\ is\\ irrational\\ because\\ people\\ cannot\\ explain\\ why\\ things\\ are\\ disgusting\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ classic\\ experiment\\ where\\ people\\ are\\ given\\ a\\ sanitized\\ glass\\ that\\ a\\ cockroach\\ was\\ in\\,\\ or\\ a\\ sanitized\\ glass\\ that\\ arsenic\\ was\\ in\\,\\ and\\ people\\ will\\ choose\\ to\\ drink\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ arsenic\\ glass\\ across\\ the\\ board\\,\\ even\\ though\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ dangerous\\ option\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ our\\ disgust\\ mechanism\\ is\\ adapted\\ for\\ a\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ soap\\ and\\ antibiotics\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\,\\ so\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ a\\ contaminating\\ object\\ has\\ had\\ contact\\ with\\ something\\ it\\ could\\ forever\\ have\\ bacteria\\ on\\ it\\ that\\ could\\ get\\ us\\ sick\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ most\\ disliked\\ foods\\ are\\ ones\\ that\\ people\\ associate\\ with\\ things\\ that\\ can\\ get\\ us\\ sick\\,\\ like\\ specific\\ body\\ parts\\ or\\ animals\\.\\ Inedibles\\ like\\ paper\\,\\ and\\ bad\\-tasting\\ vegetables\\ may\\ be\\ disliked\\,\\ but\\ these\\ do\\ not\\ cause\\ disgust\\ like\\ many\\ animal\\ products\\ do\\,\\ because\\ these\\ cannot\\ get\\ us\\ sick\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ a\\ general\\ rule\\ of\\ thumb\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ animal\\ products\\ and\\ parts\\ are\\ off\\ limits\\,\\ except\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ deemed\\ acceptable\\ \\(for\\ us\\ this\\ would\\ include\\ steaks\\,\\ pork\\ chops\\,\\ drumsticks\\,\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ acceptable\\,\\ but\\ snakes\\,\\ stomachs\\,\\ eyeballs\\,\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ not\\)\\.\\ This\\ generates\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ incorporating\\ an\\ object\\ into\\ one\\'s\\ body\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ facial\\ expression\\ that\\ is\\ coupled\\ with\\ this\\ emotion\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ \\contamination\\ by\\ contact\\<\\/em\\>\\ principle\\ as\\ noted\\ above\\,\\ where\\ anything\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ something\\ disgusting\\ is\\ now\\ disgusting\\ itself\\.\\ We\\ also\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ \\resemblance\\<\\/em\\>\\ principle\\,\\ where\\ something\\ that\\ looks\\ like\\ something\\ disgusting\\ is\\ also\\ considered\\ disgusting\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ site\\ that\\ has\\ great\\ links\\ to\\ follow\\ for\\ more\\ about\\ this\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Paul\\_Rozin\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ other\\ triggers\\ of\\ disgust\\ other\\ than\\ contaminated\\ animal\\ products\\.\\ Sex\\ with\\ inappropriate\\ partners\\ \\(like\\ siblings\\)\\ causes\\ disgust\\,\\ and\\ certain\\ body\\ violations\\ \\(like\\ sticking\\ a\\ needle\\ or\\ a\\ fish\\ hook\\ into\\ one\\'s\\ skin\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Development\\ of\\ Disgust\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Children\\ must\\ learn\\ what\\ is\\ disgusting\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ not\\ disgusting\\,\\ but\\ once\\ these\\ rules\\ have\\ been\\ laid\\ down\\ they\\ are\\ very\\ firmly\\ set\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ sensitive\\ period\\ for\\ disgust\\ where\\ below\\ 2\\-years\\ old\\ children\\ will\\ put\\ pretty\\ much\\ anything\\ in\\ their\\ mouth\\,\\ but\\ after\\ that\\ tastes\\ spontaneously\\ shrink\\ and\\ kids\\ become\\ picky\\ eaters\\.\\ After\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ eat\\ only\\ what\\ was\\ supplied\\ to\\ them\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ years\\,\\ and\\ their\\ tastes\\ rarely\\ expand\\ to\\ many\\ new\\ foods\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ new\\ foods\\ could\\ potentially\\ be\\ harmful\\ or\\ toxic\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ to\\ avoid\\ eating\\ foods\\ that\\ could\\ harm\\ us\\:\\ the\\ only\\ foods\\ we\\ \\\"know\\\"\\ are\\ safe\\ are\\ ones\\ we\\ have\\ tried\\ before\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ disgust\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Disgust\\ is\\ a\\ defense\\ against\\ biological\\ contaminants\\ like\\ pathogens\\ and\\ parasites\\.\\ This\\ is\\ easily\\ seen\\ by\\ what\\ we\\ find\\ disgusting\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Contaminated\\ food\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Contact\\ with\\ infectious\\ substances\\ \\(like\\ poop\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Contact\\ with\\ infectious\\ people\\ \\(we\\ find\\ pussing\\ blisters\\ and\\ coughing\\ on\\ food\\ disgusting\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Valerie\\ Curtis\\ has\\ tested\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ Disease\\ Theory\\ of\\ Disgust\\.\\ People\\ generally\\ find\\ the\\ most\\ infectious\\ things\\ the\\ most\\ disgusting\\.\\ So\\,\\ poop\\ is\\ worse\\ than\\ pus\\/blood\\,\\ which\\ is\\ worse\\ than\\ spit\\,\\ which\\ is\\ worse\\ than\\ pee\\,\\ which\\ is\\ worse\\ than\\ hair\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ completely\\ lines\\ up\\ with\\ their\\ order\\ of\\ level\\ of\\ infectiousness\\.\\ People\\ also\\ find\\ parasites\\ much\\ more\\ disgusting\\ than\\ dangerous\\ bugs\\,\\ open\\ wounds\\ more\\ disgusting\\ than\\ closed\\ wounds\\,\\ etc\\.\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Disgust\\ and\\ food\\ taboos\\ also\\ go\\ hand\\ in\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ reinforce\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ theories\\ for\\ these\\ taboos\\.\\ Food\\ taboos\\ are\\ often\\ justified\\ using\\ public\\ health\\ explanations\\ or\\ ecological\\ factors\\,\\ \\ which\\ are\\ both\\ completely\\ outdated\\ due\\ to\\ modern\\ developments\\ like\\ cooking\\.\\ Biologists\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ provide\\ better\\ answers\\ coming\\ from\\ optimal\\ foraging\\ theory\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ efficient\\ way\\ of\\ \\ obtaining\\ nutrition\\ and\\ energy\\ from\\ one\\'s\\ environment\\.\\ It\\ would\\ seem\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ these\\ food\\ taboos\\ were\\ invented\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ perpetually\\ reinforced\\ through\\ the\\ ages\\ because\\ all\\ children\\ learn\\ them\\ before\\ 2\\ years\\ old\\,\\ and\\ carry\\ on\\ the\\ traditions\\.\\ They\\ are\\ a\\ spandrel\\ of\\ our\\ adaptation\\ to\\ avoid\\ novel\\ foods\\ coupled\\ with\\ our\\ cultural\\ transmission\\ of\\ acceptable\\ foods\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 15 (4/3/08)- Emotion Part I"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.320502+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Drum roll please...", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 373, "html": "\\\\Ladies\\ and\\ Gentleman\\,\\ may\\ I\\ present\\ the\\ venerable\\ \\professor\\ of\\ sociology\\ at\\ Harvard\\ College\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Jason\\ Kaufman\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ The\\ class\\ is\\ \\Sociology\\ 153\\:\\ Media\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ Mind\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\*\\*\\*\\Cue\\ more\\ hip\\ than\\ hip\\ fanfare\\<\\/a\\>\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\[Enter\\ Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\.\\]\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\ music\\ continues\\.\\.\\.\\ slide\\ projection\\ shows\\ a\\ random\\ assortment\\ of\\ pics\\ from\\ pop\\ culture\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>There\\ is\\ no\\ definite\\ subject\\ matter\\ for\\ this\\ course\\ \\-\\-\\ that\\ is\\ to\\ say\\,\\ any\\ sociological\\ theory\\ that\\ would\\ describe\\ how\\ \\(all\\)\\ media\\ interact\\ with\\ and\\ within\\ American\\ society\\ must\\ constantly\\ adapt\\ to\\ increasingly\\ innovative\\ technologies\\ and\\ their\\ applications\\.\\ And\\ who\\ knows\\ what\\ new\\,\\ preconception\\-shattering\\ facebook\\ application\\ will\\ come\\ into\\ use\\ next\\ week\\.\\ \\ The\\ implications\\ of\\ this\\ on\\ the\\ course\\?\\ The\\ course\\'s\\ requirements\\ are\\ largely\\ geared\\ toward\\ the\\ student\\'s\\ \\own\\<\\/em\\>\\ analysis\\ of\\ how\\ media\\ affects\\ the\\ social\\ world\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ not\\ assignments\\.\\ Says\\ the\\ \\Syllabus\\ for\\ Sociology\\ 153\\:\\ Media\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ Mind\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\\\"Course\\ Requirements\\:\\ \\ Besides\\ attending\\ all\\ lectures\\ and\\ completing\\ weekly\\ reading\\ assignments\\,\\ all\\ students\\ must\\ attend\\ weekly\\ section\\ discussions\\,\\ write\\ six\\ 2\\-3\\ page\\ papers\\ \\(topics\\ assigned\\ by\\ me\\)\\,\\ and\\ one\\ 15\\-20\\ page\\ final\\ paper\\ \\(open\\-ended\\ research\\ paper\\)\\.\\ \\ There\\ will\\ be\\ NO\\ EXAMS\\.\\ \\ Nonetheless\\,\\ section\\ and\\ response\\ papers\\ will\\ cover\\ the\\ reading\\.\\ \\ Section\\ participation\\ will\\ count\\ for\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ your\\ final\\ grade\\,\\ the\\ final\\ paper\\ 42\\%\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cumulative\\ grade\\ on\\ the\\ six\\ short\\ essays\\ 48\\%\\.\\ \\ Emphasis\\ will\\ be\\ placed\\ on\\ developing\\ critical\\ reading\\ and\\ writing\\ skills\\.\\\"\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\The\\ audience\\ thinks\\ to\\ itself\\,\\ \\'Well\\,\\ he\\ looks\\ pretty\\ cool\\,\\ and\\ he\\ does\\ occasionally\\ drop\\ the\\ f\\-bomb\\ and\\ throw\\ in\\ a\\ sex\\ reference\\.\\ I\\ like\\ where\\ this\\ is\\ going\\.\\ Also\\ it\\'s\\ his\\ last\\ time\\ to\\ teach\\ the\\ class\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ which\\ he\\ says\\ is\\ the\\ class\\ that\\ he\\ wishes\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ Harvard\\ undergrad\\.\\.\\.Almost\\ sold\\.\\'\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\But\\ wait\\ a\\ minute\\,\\ what\\ is\\ sociology\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\ It\\'s\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ social\\ groups\\,\\ institutions\\ and\\ social\\ behavior\\.\\ One\\ key\\ concept\\ to\\ understanding\\ what\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ sociology\\ entails\\ is\\ \\'the\\ social\\ construction\\ of\\ reality\\.\\'\\ \\ A\\ social\\ construction\\ is\\ any\\ institutionalized\\ entity\\ or\\ artifact\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ that\\ is\\ \\'invented\\'\\ or\\ \\'constructed\\'\\ by\\ its\\ constituents\\.\\ \\ Furthermore\\,\\ cultures\\ and\\ societies\\ only\\ come\\ into\\ being\\ because\\ their\\ people\\ agree\\ to\\ behave\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ exist\\ and\\ follow\\ certain\\ conventional\\ rules\\,\\ which\\ are\\ themselves\\ social\\ constructions\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ we\\ have\\ certain\\ norms\\ in\\ Western\\ society\\ that\\ men\\ shouldn\\'t\\ wear\\ dresses\\.\\ \\ Stigmas\\ often\\ stick\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ do\\.\\ In\\ other\\ cultures\\,\\ however\\,\\ flowing\\ garments\\ are\\ \\ regularly\\ worn\\ by\\ men\\.\\ What\\ keeps\\ us\\ in\\ pants\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ all\\ tacitly\\ comply\\.\\ We\\,\\ the\\ American\\ public\\,\\ are\\ the\\ creators\\ and\\ bearers\\ of\\ American\\ notions\\ of\\ gender\\ status\\;\\ we\\ participate\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ making\\ of\\ and\\ adherence\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ order\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\[Cue\\ Kaufman\\'s\\ talk\\ on\\ the\\ attributes\\ that\\ a\\ person\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ sociologist\\.\\.\\.\\*Sigh\\*\\ Okay\\.\\.\\.\\ let\\'s\\ get\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ interesting\\ stuff\\]\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ key\\ to\\ doing\\ good\\ sociology\\ is\\ asking\\ good\\ questions\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ natural\\ sciences\\ or\\ \\'hard\\'\\ sciences\\,\\ these\\ questions\\ can\\ be\\ based\\ prior\\ research\\,\\ but\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ presuppose\\ a\\ unified\\ \\'reality\\'\\ that\\ is\\ observable\\ and\\ verifiable\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ in\\ sociology\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ other\\ \\'soft\\'\\ sciences\\)\\,\\ you\\ can\\ potentially\\ change\\ the\\ parameters\\ of\\ your\\ social\\ world\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Marx\\,\\ whose\\ study\\ of\\ his\\ society\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ imagine\\ a\\ completely\\ new\\ system\\ of\\ social\\ organization\\ that\\ later\\ became\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ reality\\ in\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ distinguishes\\ sociology\\ from\\ the\\ humanities\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ humanities\\ \\-\\-\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ film\\ studies\\,\\ \\'cultural\\ studies\\'\\,\\ English\\,\\ Comparative\\ Literature\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\-\\-\\ have\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ culture\\ that\\ focuses\\ on\\ canonical\\ texts\\,\\ which\\ require\\ interpretation\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ \\'symbolic\\ content\\'\\ of\\ archived\\ \\'cultural\\ objects\\'\\.\\ The\\ texts\\ are\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ mirror\\ of\\ society\\.\\ There\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ weak\\ or\\ flexible\\ standards\\ of\\ evidence\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ your\\ perspective\\;\\ the\\ \\'representativeness\\'\\ of\\ data\\ is\\ unquestioned\\.\\ The\\ basis\\ of\\ claims\\ is\\ existence\\ of\\ theories\\ that\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ relevant\\.\\ Sociology\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\,\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ \\entire\\<\\/em\\>\\ social\\ world\\ \\-\\-\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ few\\ canonical\\ texts\\.\\ Also\\,\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ rigorous\\ analysis\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ tangible\\ evidence\\,\\ not\\ just\\ theoretical\\ interpretation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ the\\ sociological\\ perspective\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ primary\\ approaches\\ to\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ culture\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\1\\)\\ \\'production\\ of\\ culture\\'\\ perspective\\:\\ This\\ view\\ focuses\\ on\\ organization\\ and\\ market\\ arrangements\\ underlying\\ the\\ actual\\ creation\\ of\\ difficult\\ cultural\\ forms\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ country\\/western\\ music\\ industry\\,\\ \\Jimmy\\ Rodgers\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ country\\ music\\ \\-\\-\\ helped\\ innovate\\ both\\ music\\ and\\ style\\.\\ The\\ \\'country\\'\\ style\\ is\\ a\\ fabrication\\ of\\ record\\ studios\\.\\ Rodgers\\ used\\ to\\ wear\\ a\\ coat\\ and\\ tie\\ during\\ performances\\ and\\ in\\ marketing\\ materials\\.\\ To\\ sell\\ records\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ record\\ studio\\ had\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ stereotype\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ buy\\ into\\.\\ As\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ record\\ industry\\,\\ it\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ cultural\\ expression\\ with\\ which\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ self\\-identify\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\2\\)\\ \\'reception\\ of\\ culture\\'\\ perspective\\:\\ \\ This\\ perspective\\ focuses\\ on\\ how\\ and\\ why\\ consumers\\ create\\,\\ define\\,\\ interpret\\,\\ and\\ disseminate\\ cultural\\ practices\\.\\ One\\ good\\ example\\ is\\ a\\ famous\\ study\\ of\\ \\Harlequin\\ Romance\\ Readers\\<\\/a\\>\\ called\\ \\Reading\\ the\\ Romance\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ writer\\ found\\ that\\ women\\ read\\ the\\ books\\ because\\ they\\ perceived\\ the\\ erotic\\ literature\\ \\(which\\ was\\ supposedly\\ misogynistic\\)\\ as\\ empowering\\ and\\ liberating\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\ ends\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ and\\ the\\ audience\\ thinks\\,\\ \\'Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\'s\\ theatrics\\ make\\ this\\ relatively\\ lightly\\ work\\-loaded\\ class\\ on\\ interesting\\ subject\\ matter\\ even\\ more\\ interesting\\.\\ SCORE\\.\\'\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\\\\[Exit\\ Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\.\\ \\]\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\'Score\\.\\.\\.\\'\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ \\Syllabus\\ for\\ Sociology\\ 153\\:\\ Media\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ Mind\\<\\/a\\>\\ says\\:\\\r\\\\\\\"Required\\ Readings\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ following\\ have\\ been\\ ordered\\ for\\ purchase\\ at\\ the\\ Coop\\.\\ \\ They\\ will\\ also\\ be\\ on\\ reserve\\ at\\ Lamont\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ Michael\\ Schudson\\.\\ \\ Advertising\\:\\ The\\ Uneasy\\ Persuasion\\ \\(Basic\\ Books\\,\\ 1986\\)\\.\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ David\\ Riesman\\.\\ \\ The\\ Lonely\\ Crowd\\ \\ \\(Yale\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2001\\)\\.\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ John\\ Berger\\.\\ \\ Ways\\ of\\ Seeing\\ \\(Penguin\\,\\ 1972\\)\\.\\\r\\4\\.\\ \\ Tom\\ Wolfe\\.\\ \\ The\\ Painted\\ Word\\ \\(Bantam\\,\\ 1999\\)\\.\\\r\\5\\.\\ \\ John\\ Seabrook\\,\\ Nobrow\\:\\ \\ The\\ Culture\\ of\\ Marketing\\ and\\ the\\ Marketing\\ of\\ Culture\\ \\(Vintage\\,\\ 2001\\)\\.\\\r\\6\\.\\ \\ Virginia\\ Postrel\\,\\ The\\ Substance\\ of\\ Style\\ \\(Perennial\\,\\ 2004\\)\\.\\\r\\7\\.\\ \\ Scott\\ McCloud\\,\\ Understanding\\ Comics\\:\\ The\\ Invisible\\ Art\\ \\(Harper\\ Perennial\\,\\ 1994\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Recommended\\,\\ but\\ not\\ required\\ books\\:\\\r\\8\\.\\ Jonathan\\ Freedman\\,\\ Media\\ Violence\\ and\\ Its\\ Effect\\ on\\\r\\Aggression\\:\\ \\ Assessing\\ the\\ Scientific\\ Evidence\\\r\\\\(University\\ of\\ Toronto\\ Press\\,\\ 2002\\)\\.\\\r\\9\\.\\ Paco\\ Underhill\\,\\ Why\\ We\\ Buy\\:\\ The\\ Science\\ of\\ Shopping\\\r\\\\(Touchstone\\,\\ 1999\\)\\.\\\"\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\'Sweet\\.\\'\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 73, "file_path": "", "desc": "Drum roll please..."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.342958+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tangents can be good too...", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 375, "html": "\\Today\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\ began\\ his\\ lecture\\ by\\ immediately\\ diverging\\ from\\ his\\ lecture\\ notes\\ \\(\\Lecture\\ 5\\:\\ Sociology\\ 153\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ Instead\\ he\\ talked\\ about\\ materials\\ related\\ to\\ what\\ his\\ most\\ recent\\ research\\ has\\ involved\\ \\-\\-\\ social\\ networking\\ websites\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ the\\ \\Facebook\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ \\MySpace\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Kaufman\\ implicitly\\ references\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ \\Erving\\ Goffman\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ wrote\\ about\\ the\\ \\presentation\\ of\\ self\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\-\\-\\ or\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ people\\'s\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\ and\\ identity\\.\\ Every\\ day\\ we\\ make\\ choices\\ based\\ on\\ what\\ image\\ of\\ ourselves\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ project\\ to\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ basic\\ things\\ about\\ this\\ behavior\\ that\\ we\\,\\ as\\ budding\\ sociologists\\,\\ should\\ note\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Social\\ networking\\ sites\\ provide\\ us\\ with\\ a\\ forum\\ that\\ forces\\ us\\ to\\ put\\ our\\ cultural\\ preferences\\ on\\ display\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>Prior\\ to\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ sites\\,\\ people\\ resorted\\ to\\ different\\ measures\\ \\-\\-\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ a\\ person\\'s\\ music\\ collection\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ showing\\ who\\ \\\"he\\ is\\\"\\ \\(like\\ that\\ guy\\ in\\ \\\\High\\ Fidelity\\)\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ social\\ networking\\ sites\\ are\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ advertising\\ ourselves\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\'\\The\\ Social\\ Network\\ Effect\\'\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ how\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ know\\ new\\ information\\ is\\ instrumental\\ in\\ how\\ we\\ treat\\ certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ new\\ products\\ and\\ cultural\\ trends\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\Our\\ cultural\\ preferences\\ are\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ the\\ group\\ we\\ are\\ in\\;\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ shaped\\ by\\ an\\ \\&\\#8216\\;evaluative\\ social\\ hierarchy\\&\\#8217\\;\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ liking\\ classical\\ music\\ is\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ high\\ society\\ taste\\;\\ if\\ you\\ admit\\ that\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ appreciate\\ classical\\ music\\,\\ you\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ by\\ some\\ as\\ inferior\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Then\\,\\ Kaufman\\ embarks\\ on\\ another\\,\\ more\\ pointed\\ tangent\\,\\ especially\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ non\\-student\\ readers\\ of\\ this\\ blog\\:\\ he\\ ponders\\ whether\\ the\\ current\\ model\\ of\\ American\\ universities\\ is\\ going\\ out\\-of\\-date\\.\\ He\\ seems\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ mode\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ lectures\\ live\\ before\\ a\\ class\\ filled\\ with\\ warm\\ bodies\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ go\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ Kaufman\\ muses\\,\\ he\\ could\\ just\\ produce\\ a\\ 24\\-hour\\ documentary\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ watch\\ and\\ write\\ a\\ paper\\ on\\.\\ \\This\\ sounds\\ like\\ an\\ interesting\\ concept\\,\\ but\\ is\\ it\\ feasible\\?\\ If\\ it\\ is\\,\\ why\\ the\\ hell\\ am\\ I\\ paying\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Harvard\\?\\ Would\\ this\\ work\\ for\\ all\\ fields\\ of\\ study\\?\\.\\.\\.Unlikely\\,\\ in\\ my\\ opinion\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ does\\ not\\ go\\ further\\ into\\ discussions\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ expendability\\,\\ but\\ reassuringly\\ notes\\ that\\ reading\\ our\\ assigned\\ material\\,\\ talking\\ with\\ our\\ teaching\\ fellows\\ and\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\ mulling\\ over\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ in\\ general\\ are\\ the\\ truly\\ important\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ experience\\.\\ \\Phew\\!\\ My\\ last\\ three\\ years\\ haven\\'t\\ been\\ a\\ complete\\ waste\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\\The\\ lecture\\ on\\ the\\ planned\\ content\\ now\\ begins\\.\\.\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\ There\\ are\\ four\\ basic\\ types\\ of\\ \\'cultural\\ criticism\\'\\,\\ which\\ I\\ will\\ discuss\\ more\\ clearly\\ below\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Future\\ shock\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ Frankfurt\\ school\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Negative\\ Classicism\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Mass\\ Society\\ Theory\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\Future\\ Shock\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ This\\ criticism\\ essentially\\ argues\\ that\\ technology\\ is\\ changing\\ faster\\ than\\ we\\ can\\ adapt\\ to\\ it\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ \\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ so\\ much\\ stuff\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ that\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ just\\ go\\ on\\ overload\\ and\\ reject\\ it\\ all\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ powerful\\ argument\\ before\\ the\\ personal\\ computer\\ was\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\.\\ Underlying\\ the\\ critique\\ is\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ we\\,\\ as\\ humans\\,\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ reach\\ a\\ cognitive\\ limit\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ limit\\ in\\ technological\\ capacity\\.\\ However\\,\\ Kaufman\\ notes\\,\\ with\\ each\\ new\\ generation\\,\\ we\\ adapt\\ cognitively\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ the\\ new\\ technologies\\ of\\ our\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Instead\\,\\ Kaufman\\ suggests\\,\\ such\\ critics\\ should\\ instead\\ focus\\ on\\ how\\ old\\ people\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ technology\\ of\\ the\\ young\\.\\ Roughly\\ speaking\\,\\ the\\ reason\\ it\\ gets\\ harder\\ for\\ old\\ people\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ new\\ technologies\\ is\\ that\\ older\\ people\\ know\\ fewer\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ up\\ on\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\ Although\\ you\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ young\\,\\ trend\\-setters\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ e\\-mail\\,\\ \\ it\\ helps\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ mode\\ of\\ communication\\ for\\ your\\ social\\ group\\.\\ \\ Many\\ older\\ folks\\ are\\ limited\\ by\\ the\\ company\\ they\\ keep\\ because\\ no\\ one\\ \\(except\\ for\\ perhaps\\ a\\ surly\\ grandchild\\)\\ is\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ technology\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\The\\ Frankfurt\\ School\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ In\\ the\\ 1930\\'s\\,\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ prominent\\ theorists\\,\\ social\\ researchers\\ and\\ philosophers\\ came\\ together\\ in\\ Frankfurt\\ \\(where\\ else\\)\\.\\ \\ One\\ of\\ their\\ major\\ arguments\\,\\ epitomized\\ in\\ Walter\\ Benjamin\\'s\\ essay\\ \\\\\"The\\ Work\\ of\\ Art\\ in\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Mechanical\\ Reproduction\\\"\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ was\\ that\\ humanity\\ turned\\ the\\ corner\\ when\\ we\\ gained\\ the\\ technology\\ to\\ cheaply\\ and\\ effortlessly\\ gain\\ and\\ reproduce\\ artworks\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ one\\ can\\ now\\ buy\\ reprints\\ of\\ famous\\ paintings\\ like\\ the\\ Mona\\ Lisa\\,\\ or\\,\\ even\\ better\\,\\ try\\ her\\ \\online\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ free\\.\\ The\\ critique\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ lose\\ sight\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ art\\ objects\\ if\\ their\\ rarity\\ is\\ decreased\\ by\\ the\\ proliferation\\ of\\ reproductions\\.\\ One\\ implication\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ getting\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ real\\ thing\\ becomes\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ artistic\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ have\\ ever\\ attempted\\ to\\ approach\\ the\\ actual\\ Mona\\ Lisa\\,\\ titled\\ \\La\\ Joconde\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ held\\ captive\\ behind\\ a\\ wall\\ of\\ plexiglass\\ and\\ approximately\\ 200\\ eager\\ tourists\\,\\ you\\ know\\ what\\ they\\'re\\ talking\\ about\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ Frankfurt\\ school\\,\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ worse\\:\\ this\\ utterly\\ degrades\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ and\\ intellectual\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ work\\ of\\ art\\.\\ \\Snobbery\\ or\\ respect\\?\\ \\ You\\ decide\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\Negative\\ Classicism\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>This\\ is\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ once\\ an\\ era\\ of\\ grand\\ works\\ of\\ art\\,\\ and\\ that\\ as\\ the\\ masses\\ have\\ gained\\ access\\ to\\ elite\\ works\\ of\\ art\\ \\(and\\ as\\ \\\"popular\\\"\\ culture\\ has\\ become\\ more\\ prevalent\\)\\,\\ civil\\ society\\ has\\ become\\ increasingly\\ corrupted\\.\\ The\\ implicit\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ elites\\ are\\ the\\ proper\\ stewards\\ of\\ culture\\.\\ \\ If\\ these\\ elite\\ arbiters\\ tell\\ us\\ that\\ Beethoven\\ is\\ great\\ and\\ someone\\ else\\ is\\ trash\\,\\ we\\ must\\ take\\ their\\ word\\ as\\ gospel\\.\\ Even\\ more\\ extreme\\ is\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ popular\\ culture\\ \\-\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ things\\ that\\ the\\ average\\ person\\ likes\\ \\-\\ \\ is\\ impoverishing\\ to\\ everyone\\ \\(elites\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ plebes\\)\\.\\ On\\ the\\ whole\\,\\ society\\ is\\ corrupted\\ by\\ giving\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\.\\ Proponents\\ of\\ this\\ critique\\ point\\ to\\ violence\\ in\\ the\\ media\\ \\-\\-\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\the\\ Basketball\\ Diaries\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\-\\-\\ as\\ reasons\\ why\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ violence\\ in\\ our\\ society\\ today\\.\\ \\Check\\ out\\ this\\ article\\ on\\ the\\ destructive\\ aspects\\ of\\ mediatized\\ violence\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ \\Mass\\ Society\\ Theory\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(\\David\\ Riesman\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\:\\ This\\ critique\\ \\-\\-\\ motivated\\ by\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ fascism\\ in\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\ \\-\\-\\ contended\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ take\\ have\\ an\\ uncritical\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ messages\\ of\\ their\\ media\\.\\ Or\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ media\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ nation\\ susceptible\\ to\\ dictatorship\\ because\\ people\\ lose\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ who\\ they\\ are\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ powerful\\ argument\\ when\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ many\\ otherwise\\ average\\ people\\ could\\ be\\ made\\ complicit\\ in\\ atrocious\\ behavior\\.\\ In\\ his\\ book\\ \\\\The\\ Lonely\\ Crowd\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ David\\ Riesman\\ expresses\\ concern\\ with\\ the\\ American\\ response\\ to\\ WWII\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ apathy\\ or\\ stagnation\\,\\ borne\\ of\\ complacency\\.\\ He\\ writes\\ of\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ \\'mass\\ conformity\\'\\ \\(his\\ writings\\ are\\ coincidental\\ with\\ the\\ emergency\\ of\\ the\\ \\suburb\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ \\ For\\ many\\,\\ this\\ time\\ was\\ great\\,\\ as\\ people\\ were\\ richer\\ and\\ more\\ prosperous\\.\\ However\\,\\ to\\ academics\\ like\\ Riesman\\,\\ this\\ was\\ deeply\\ troubling\\:\\ America\\ had\\ lots\\ its\\ moral\\ fiber\\ and\\ individuality\\.\\ This\\ view\\ merits\\ more\\ explanation\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Riesman\\ argues\\,\\ from\\ a\\ macro\\-historical\\ standpoint\\,\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ three\\ periods\\ of\\ social\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ \\'West\\'\\:\\ tradition\\-directed\\ \\(everything\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ Renaissance\\)\\,\\ inner\\-directed\\ \\(the\\ Renaissance\\ to\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\)\\,\\ and\\ other\\-directed\\ \\(from\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ to\\ the\\ present\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\During\\ the\\ \\tradition\\-directed\\ stage\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>people\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ doing\\ things\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ they\\'ve\\ always\\ been\\ done\\.\\ During\\ this\\ period\\,\\ people\\ are\\ having\\ babies\\ young\\ and\\ are\\ dying\\ young\\.\\ The\\ social\\ organization\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ old\\ people\\ are\\ constantly\\ socializing\\ the\\ young\\,\\ who\\ may\\ die\\ as\\ easily\\ as\\ they\\ might\\ live\\.\\ Consequently\\,\\ young\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ heavily\\ invested\\ in\\,\\ and\\ high\\ reverence\\ is\\ paid\\ to\\ elders\\ \\(the\\ transmitters\\ of\\ tradition\\)\\.\\ Culture\\ is\\ transmitted\\ orally\\.\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ Large\\-scale\\ innovation\\ is\\ rare\\.\\ The\\ social\\ standard\\ fostered\\ by\\ this\\ period\\ was\\ \\'shame\\,\\'\\ the\\ external\\ and\\ internal\\ marker\\ of\\ the\\ violation\\ of\\ some\\ norm\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ inner\\-directed\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\,\\ was\\ an\\ exciting\\ time\\ of\\ innovations\\ from\\ Renaissance\\ humanism\\ to\\ electricity\\.\\ Riesman\\ quite\\ obviously\\ thinks\\ this\\ period\\ was\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ all\\.\\ This\\ period\\ fostered\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ \\ \\'raw\\ individualism\\'\\ by\\ which\\ a\\ life\\ well\\-lived\\ was\\ one\\ where\\ you\\ discovered\\ your\\ unique\\ purpose\\ in\\ life\\ and\\ pursued\\ it\\ at\\ all\\ costs\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ people\\ would\\ go\\ against\\ what\\ society\\ tells\\ them\\ makes\\ sense\\,\\ and\\ would\\ forge\\ some\\ path\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ Though\\ people\\ still\\ didn\\'t\\ live\\ until\\ old\\ age\\,\\ more\\ babies\\ survived\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ more\\ investment\\ in\\ youth\\.\\ \\ Notably\\,\\ this\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ dominant\\ period\\ of\\ print\\ media\\,\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ nascence\\ of\\ other\\ new\\ media\\ \\-\\-\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ the\\ radio\\ and\\ television\\.\\ The\\ norm\\ during\\ this\\ stage\\ shifted\\ from\\ \\'shame\\'\\ to\\ \\'guilt\\'\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ fulfilling\\ your\\ individual\\ goal\\,\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ \\ feel\\ ashamed\\;\\ you\\ feel\\ guilty\\ because\\ you\\ are\\ betraying\\ yourself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ other\\-directed\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Riesman\\ posits\\,\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ softening\\ of\\ American\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ Individual\\ goals\\ in\\ this\\ period\\ have\\ become\\ limited\\ by\\ \\'I\\ want\\ to\\ fit\\ in\\'\\ mindsets\\.\\ Relative\\ to\\ his\\ depictions\\ of\\ other\\ epochs\\ of\\ Western\\ civilization\\,\\ this\\ portrayal\\ is\\ pretty\\ damning\\.\\ Riesman\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\'ve\\ become\\ like\\ sheep\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ \\'lonely\\ crowd\\'\\ are\\ malcontent\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ herd\\.\\ The\\ evolution\\ of\\ mass\\ media\\ such\\ as\\ TV\\ and\\ radio\\ has\\ changed\\ the\\ way\\ people\\ receive\\ information\\ about\\ their\\ social\\ purposes\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ exercising\\ our\\ \\'raw\\ individualism\\'\\,\\ we\\ now\\ participate\\ in\\ a\\ \\'mass\\ experience\\'\\ \\-\\-\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\\"Did\\ you\\ see\\ \\Survivor\\<\\/a\\>\\ last\\ night\\?\\\"\\ We\\ become\\ increasingly\\ oriented\\ toward\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\&\\#160\\;\\ our\\ perception\\ of\\ our\\ own\\ mission\\ in\\ life\\ becomes\\ more\\ complicated\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ As\\ people\\ of\\ this\\ latest\\ period\\,\\ we\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ transcend\\ the\\ age\\-limit\\ for\\ certain\\ diseases\\;\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ expect\\ that\\ our\\ children\\ will\\ live\\.\\ The\\ impact\\ on\\ our\\ life\\-views\\ is\\ this\\:\\ we\\ see\\ our\\ lives\\ as\\ an\\ extended\\ sojourn\\,\\ for\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ constantly\\ searching\\ for\\ the\\ meaning\\.\\ We\\ are\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ leisurely\\,\\ abundant\\ economy\\,\\ where\\ we\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ be\\ complacent\\ instead\\ of\\ worrying\\ about\\ making\\ a\\ living\\.\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Anxiety\\,\\&\\#8217\\;\\ both\\ superficial\\ and\\ profound\\,\\ is\\ now\\ the\\ agent\\ of\\ cultural\\ formation\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\'guilt\\'\\ or\\ \\'shame\\'\\ \\-\\-\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\\"Do\\ people\\ like\\ me\\?\\ Do\\ I\\ dress\\ well\\?\\ Is\\ my\\ taste\\ in\\ \\music\\ cool\\<\\/a\\>\\?\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"Is\\ my\\ job\\/relationship\\/current\\ lifestyle\\ fulfilling\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ How\\ do\\ I\\ know\\?\\\"\\\r\\\\This\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ lecture\\.\\ The\\ tangents\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ however\\,\\ stole\\ the\\ show\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ interesting\\ subject\\ matter\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\*\\GOLF\\ CLAP\\*\\\r\\\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 73, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tangents can be good too..."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.358965+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Who watches the watchmen? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 376, "html": "\\\\The\\ chef\\ today\\,\\ Professeur\\ Jason\\ Kaufman\\,\\ offers\\ a\\ two\\ dish\\ prix\\ fixe\\ menu\\:\\ what\\ \\&\\#8216\\;sociology\\&\\#8217\\;\\ is\\ and\\ what\\ \\&\\#8216\\;media\\&\\#8217\\;\\ are\\.\\ Bon\\ appetit\\!\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ sociological\\ approaches\\ to\\ culture\\,\\ says\\ Kaufman\\:\\\r\\\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1\\)\\ \\The\\ \\&\\#8216\\;production\\ of\\ culture\\&\\#8217\\;\\ perspective\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>this\\ perspective\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ institutional\\ and\\ market\\ arrangements\\ underlying\\ the\\ actual\\ creation\\ of\\ different\\ cultural\\ forms\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Country\\ and\\ Western\\&\\#8217\\;\\ style\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\(2\\)\\ \\The\\ \\&\\#8216\\;reception\\ of\\ culture\\&\\#8217\\;\\ perspective\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>this\\ perspective\\ focuses\\ on\\ how\\ and\\ why\\ consumers\\ demand\\ and\\ consume\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ famous\\ study\\ of\\ Harlequin\\ Romance\\ readers\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Reading\\ the\\ Romance\\&\\#8217\\;\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Today\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;\\conduit\\ model\\ of\\ cultural\\ transmission\\<\\/em\\>\\&\\#8217\\;\\.\\ Take\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ American\\ Idol\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ process\\ involved\\ in\\ \\American\\ Idol\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ we\\,\\ the\\ consumers\\ have\\ various\\ conduits\\ of\\ information\\ \\(the\\ show\\ itself\\,\\ the\\ Fox\\ website\\,\\ various\\ message\\ boards\\,\\ blogs\\ and\\ associated\\ twitter\\)\\.\\ \\ Similarly\\,\\ the\\ race\\ for\\ the\\ nomination\\ has\\ also\\ produced\\ a\\ proliferation\\ of\\ opinion\\:\\ celebrities\\ vouch\\ for\\ politicians\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\Chuck\\ Norris\\ for\\ Mike\\ Huckabee\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ news\\ networks\\ provide\\ us\\ the\\ \\'news\\,\\'\\ and\\ \\blog\\ writers\\<\\/a\\>\\ even\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\ relative\\ to\\ their\\ classes\\ \\(\\!\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ must\\ not\\ forget\\ how\\ we\\,\\ receivers\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ consumers\\ of\\ media\\,\\ also\\ share\\ \\ information\\ amongst\\ ourselves\\ in\\ real\\ time\\.\\ \\ Face\\-to\\-face\\ communication\\ is\\ perhaps\\ an\\ even\\ more\\ salient\\ conduit\\ than\\ channels\\ of\\ electronic\\ opinion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ major\\ question\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ ask\\ ourselves\\ is\\:\\ how\\ do\\ the\\ different\\ portals\\ or\\ conduits\\ of\\ information\\ differ\\?\\ \\ Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ American\\ Idol\\ and\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ reality\\ television\\.\\ As\\ a\\ music\\ producer\\,\\ you\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ ask\\ for\\ better\\ publicity\\ than\\ having\\ your\\ artist\\ have\\ several\\ weeks\\ of\\ constant\\ exposure\\ to\\ millions\\ of\\ television\\ viewers\\.\\ In\\ effect\\,\\ the\\ media\\ waves\\ are\\ saturated\\ with\\ your\\ product\\;\\ moreover\\,\\ people\\ have\\ a\\ personal\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ product\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ as\\ a\\ receiver\\,\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ something\\ about\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;home\\-town\\ hero\\&\\#8217\\;\\ that\\ is\\ appealing\\ to\\ us\\;\\ we\\,\\ the\\ consumers\\,\\ feel\\ as\\ though\\ we\\ chose\\ the\\ product\\ we\\ are\\ now\\ consuming\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ side\\ note\\,\\ one\\ reason\\ why\\ reality\\ television\\ has\\ become\\ so\\ prevalent\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ one\\ produces\\ a\\ such\\ a\\ show\\,\\ the\\ production\\ costs\\ are\\ significantly\\ lower\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ a\\ typical\\ TV\\ sitcom\\.\\ Because\\ reality\\ TV\\ shows\\ require\\ minimal\\ writing\\ staffs\\ and\\ no\\ fully\\-paid\\ cast\\,\\ producers\\ strip\\ such\\ shows\\ to\\ their\\ barest\\ costs\\ and\\ reap\\ huge\\ profits\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ no\\ surprise\\,\\ then\\,\\ that\\ these\\ cash\\ cows\\ are\\ popping\\ up\\ more\\ frequently\\ on\\ the\\ TV\\ \\'conduit\\.\\'\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ delightful\\ entre\\&\\#233\\;\\,\\ no\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ As\\ today\\'s\\ main\\ fare\\,\\ Professeur\\ Kaufman\\ will\\ present\\ some\\ information\\ on\\ \\Marshall\\ McLuhan\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ an\\ early\\ media\\ theorist\\ considered\\ by\\ many\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ founding\\ father\\ of\\ media\\ theory\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Marshall\\ McLuhan\\ was\\ an\\ extremely\\ eccentric\\ guy\\.\\ Though\\ he\\'s\\ considered\\ the\\ founding\\ father\\ of\\ media\\ theory\\,\\ he\\ never\\ watched\\ TV\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ He\\ was\\ also\\ very\\ religious\\,\\ and\\ toward\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ tried\\ to\\ patent\\ a\\ chemical\\ that\\ removed\\ the\\ smell\\ of\\ urine\\ from\\ clothes\\.\\ In\\ 1964\\,\\ he\\ produced\\ a\\ work\\ entitled\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\The\\ Medium\\ is\\ the\\ Message\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ wrote\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\ is\\ only\\ too\\ typical\\ that\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;content\\ of\\ any\\ medium\\ blinds\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ medium\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ revolutionized\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ people\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ conduits\\ themselves\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\McLuhan\\ offered\\ some\\ interesting\\ observations\\ on\\ media\\.\\ First\\:\\ \\new\\ media\\ accelerate\\ the\\ pace\\ of\\ information\\ exchange\\ and\\ therefore\\ \\&\\#8216\\;compress\\&\\#8217\\;\\ time\\ and\\ space\\ \\(as\\ social\\ constructs\\)\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ e\\-mail\\ has\\ shortened\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ correspondence\\ and\\ has\\ replaced\\ the\\ phone\\ call\\ in\\ many\\ situations\\.\\ Some\\ might\\ say\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ e\\-mail\\ has\\ fewer\\ present\\ levels\\ of\\ communication\\ than\\ a\\ phone\\ call\\ because\\ one\\ loses\\ the\\ sensory\\ experience\\ of\\ hearing\\ another\\ person\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ voice\\.\\ Yet\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ compression\\ has\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ reduced\\ the\\ sheer\\ volume\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ transmitted\\;\\ file\\ attachments\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ insertion\\ of\\ pictures\\ and\\ other\\ items\\ have\\ increased\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ communicative\\ matter\\ that\\ e\\-mails\\ can\\ include\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\McLuhan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ second\\ observation\\:\\ \\new\\ media\\ belittle\\ the\\ mind\\ \\(because\\ they\\ leave\\ too\\ little\\ to\\ the\\ imagination\\)\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ McLuhan\\ writes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;each\\ new\\ technology\\ creates\\ an\\ environment\\ that\\ is\\ itself\\ corrupt\\ and\\ degrading\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ However\\,\\ a\\ tricky\\ slip\\ is\\ involved\\ here\\:\\ McLuhan\\ seems\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ imagination\\ is\\ more\\ involved\\ in\\ less\\ visually\\ communicative\\ forms\\ of\\ media\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ radio\\ makes\\ us\\ use\\ our\\ imagination\\ more\\ than\\ television\\ does\\.\\ And\\ so\\,\\ McLuhan\\ presents\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ most\\ famous\\ distinctions\\:\\ \\\\&\\#8216\\;hot\\&\\#8217\\;\\ versus\\ \\&\\#8216\\;cold\\&\\#8217\\;\\ media\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ \\&\\#8216\\;hot\\&\\#8217\\;\\ media\\,\\ McLuhan\\ argues\\,\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ sensory\\ data\\ and\\ requires\\ low\\ participation\\ from\\ users\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ watching\\ a\\ movie\\ in\\ a\\ movie\\ theater\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ \\&\\#8216\\;cold\\&\\#8217\\;\\ media\\ involves\\ sparse\\ sensory\\ data\\ and\\ requires\\ high\\ participation\\ from\\ users\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ books\\.\\ Obviously\\,\\ this\\ distinction\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ implicit\\ assumption\\ that\\ more\\ sensory\\ data\\ somehow\\ translates\\ into\\ less\\ participation\\ from\\ media\\ users\\.\\ But\\ does\\ McLuhan\\ have\\ evidence\\ to\\ support\\ this\\ view\\?\\ Or\\,\\ perhaps\\ a\\ better\\ question\\,\\ are\\ his\\ categories\\ even\\ that\\ useful\\ given\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ media\\ that\\ combine\\ different\\ stimuli\\?\\ \\ For\\ instance\\,\\ how\\ are\\ we\\ to\\ compare\\ telephone\\ to\\ radio\\ media\\?\\ There\\ are\\ more\\ independent\\ tracks\\ of\\ sound\\ in\\ radio\\ media\\ than\\ the\\ telephone\\,\\ which\\ could\\ classify\\ the\\ telephone\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;cold\\&\\#8217\\;\\ form\\ of\\ media\\ and\\ the\\ radio\\ as\\ a\\ relatively\\ \\&\\#8216\\;hot\\&\\#8217\\;\\ one\\.\\ But\\ does\\ this\\ tell\\ us\\ anything\\ important\\ about\\ user\\ participation\\?\\ \\ One\\ would\\ certainly\\ imagine\\ that\\ a\\ user\\ having\\ a\\ telephone\\ conversation\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ engaged\\ \\(evaluating\\ tone\\,\\ imagining\\ subtle\\ expressions\\ of\\ his\\ interlocutor\\,\\ attempting\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ appropriate\\ response\\,\\ all\\ with\\ high\\ stakes\\)\\ than\\ would\\ a\\ listener\\ to\\ a\\ radio\\ program\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Kaufman\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ McLuhan\\,\\ while\\ trying\\ to\\ seem\\ very\\ socially\\ scientific\\,\\ \\ often\\ lacks\\ consistency\\ in\\ his\\ rubric\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ there\\ are\\ multiple\\ variables\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ in\\ classifying\\ different\\ conduits\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ redux\\ on\\ McLuhan\\:\\ media\\ vary\\ in\\ volume\\,\\ density\\,\\ speed\\,\\ variety\\ and\\ availability\\ of\\ information\\ that\\ they\\ provide\\.\\ They\\ thus\\ make\\ different\\ demands\\ on\\ audiences\\,\\ and\\ have\\ different\\ effects\\ on\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ media\\ conduits\\ matter\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ content\\ that\\ they\\ carry\\.\\ Kaufman\\ now\\ offers\\ his\\ critique\\ of\\ McLuhan\\.\\ First\\ of\\ all\\,\\ he\\ argues\\,\\ \\new\\ media\\ is\\ nothing\\ new\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Take\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ printing\\ press\\&\\#8217\\;\\ nascence\\ during\\ the\\ Protestant\\ Reformation\\ also\\ launched\\ \\the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ porn\\ industry\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Many\\ groups\\ condemn\\ the\\ Internet\\ as\\ the\\ ultimate\\ evil\\ in\\ purveyance\\ of\\ smut\\,\\ yet\\ \\Maxim\\ \\<\\/em\\>remains\\ on\\ the\\ low\\ shelves\\ of\\ Out\\-of\\-Town\\ News\\.\\ \\ Secondly\\,\\ Kaufman\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ \\\\&\\#8216\\;reception\\&\\#8217\\;\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ receiver\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ People\\ who\\ have\\ grown\\ up\\ in\\ different\\ social\\ and\\ temporal\\ contexts\\ have\\ different\\ relationships\\ to\\ media\\.\\ \\ Some\\ children\\ of\\ the\\ digital\\ age\\,\\ accustomed\\ to\\ flashy\\ image\\ and\\ explosive\\ sound\\,\\ watch\\ \\\\Pokemon\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ cartoons\\ without\\ distress\\,\\ while\\ others\\ find\\ them\\ overstimulating\\.\\ \\ The\\ \\Rambo\\<\\/a\\>\\ films\\,\\ which\\ were\\ perhaps\\ extreme\\ on\\ several\\ levels\\ in\\ McLuhan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ area\\,\\ do\\ not\\ appear\\ to\\ \\ induce\\ a\\ sensory\\ overload\\ in\\ viewers\\ of\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Finally\\,\\ for\\ your\\ digestif\\,\\ a\\ serving\\ of\\ conceptual\\ issues\\ for\\ Sociology\\ 153\\,\\ delightfully\\ crafted\\ by\\ master\\ chef\\ Kaufman\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Most\\ criticisms\\ of\\ media\\ and\\ pop\\ culture\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ fictitious\\ accounts\\ of\\ a\\ better\\,\\ happier\\,\\ saner\\,\\ and\\ more\\ socially\\ and\\ emotionally\\ fulfilling\\ time\\ in\\ past\\ history\\.\\ Kaufman\\ warns\\ that\\ you\\ cannot\\ trust\\ contemporary\\ accounts\\ of\\ social\\ change\\,\\ except\\ as\\ evidence\\ of\\ contemporary\\ perception\\ of\\ those\\ changes\\.\\ We\\ are\\ still\\ in\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ a\\ revolution\\,\\ and\\ we\\,\\ as\\ receivers\\,\\ are\\ still\\ acclimating\\ ourselves\\ to\\ new\\ technologies\\.\\ We\\ can\\ use\\ accounts\\ as\\ evidence\\ of\\ what\\ people\\ are\\ thinking\\ now\\,\\ of\\ what\\ they\\ perceive\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\ to\\ be\\,\\ but\\ we\\ really\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ how\\ this\\ is\\ all\\ going\\ to\\ pan\\ out\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Hm\\,\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ anticlimactic\\.\\ Kaufman\\'s\\ critique\\ of\\ McLuhan\\ has\\ shaken\\ my\\ sense\\ of\\ foundation\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ Is\\ the\\ professor\\ basically\\ saying\\ that\\ purported\\ experts\\ are\\ really\\ just\\ conjecture\\ artists\\?\\ Who\\ watches\\ the\\ watchmen\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ Is\\ there\\ no\\ one\\ who\\ can\\ hold\\ claim\\ to\\ a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ where\\ we\\,\\ as\\ media\\ consumers\\,\\ have\\ come\\ from\\,\\ and\\ where\\ we\\ are\\ going\\?\\ What\\ accounts\\ of\\ media\\ theory\\ can\\ we\\ trust\\?\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 73, "file_path": "", "desc": "Who watches the watchmen? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.374009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "A little close to home", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 377, "html": "\\\\Professor\\ Kaufman\\ gives\\ a\\ lecture\\ on\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ culture\\ perspective\\,\\ which\\ largely\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ determine\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ culture\\ from\\ a\\ sociological\\ perspective\\.\\ More\\ interestingly\\,\\ though\\,\\ Kaufman\\ \\ discusses\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ \\ \\'gate\\-keepers\\'\\ of\\ different\\ fields\\ who\\ determine\\ different\\ people\\'s\\ career\\ trajectories\\.\\ He\\ is\\ one\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ this\\.\\ Much\\ to\\ this\\ blogger\\'s\\ displeasure\\,\\ \\Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\ was\\ not\\ granted\\ tenure\\ at\\ Harvard\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ after\\ devoting\\ himself\\ to\\ an\\ academic\\ life\\ at\\ the\\ school\\ \\-\\-\\ both\\ as\\ student\\ and\\ professor\\.\\ Parts\\ of\\ this\\ lecture\\ hit\\ a\\ little\\ close\\ to\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ production\\ of\\ culture\\ perspective\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ advance\\ in\\ \\ the\\ sociological\\ study\\ of\\ culture\\.\\ There\\ were\\,\\ however\\,\\ two\\ primary\\ traditions\\ among\\ humanists\\ that\\ had\\ previously\\ accounted\\ for\\ the\\ social\\ dimensions\\ of\\ cultural\\ movements\\:\\\r\\\\1\\)\\ There\\'s\\ a\\ historical\\ progress\\ of\\ great\\ men\\ of\\ genius\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ tradition\\ suggests\\,\\ generally\\ speaking\\,\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ just\\ a\\ wonderful\\ and\\ coincidental\\ thing\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ great\\ men\\ of\\ genius\\ that\\ occurred\\ in\\ history\\ sequentially\\.\\ It\\'s\\ obvious\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ bias\\ toward\\ men\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Cultural\\ shifts\\ are\\ reflected\\ in\\ works\\ of\\ art\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ \\'reflection\\ theory\\'\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ middle\\ class\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ changes\\ in\\ expressions\\ in\\ media\\.\\ Take\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ this\\ more\\ specific\\ example\\:\\ the\\ \\'cause\\'\\ of\\ \\French\\ Impressionism\\ \\<\\/a\\>is\\ generally\\ associated\\ with\\ an\\ abandonment\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ \\'Academic\\'\\ style\\ of\\ French\\ painting\\.\\ The\\ French\\ Impressionistic\\ movement\\ rejected\\ former\\ conventions\\ of\\ form\\ and\\ composition\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ change\\ from\\ the\\ grandiose\\,\\ imperial\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ when\\ people\\ would\\ sell\\ their\\ paintings\\ on\\ commission\\ to\\ the\\ rich\\ and\\ elite\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Art\\ historians\\ would\\ likely\\ tell\\ us\\ that\\ this\\ revolutionary\\ generation\\ of\\ painters\\ reflects\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ French\\ society\\,\\ or\\ that\\ such\\ artistic\\ genius\\ simply\\ happened\\ to\\ emerge\\ and\\ was\\ then\\ fostered\\ by\\ the\\ social\\ climate\\ of\\ the\\ times\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sociologists\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\,\\ would\\ retort\\ that\\ market\\ dynamics\\ explain\\ why\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ French\\ paintings\\ changed\\ when\\ they\\ did\\ \\(\\\\Canvasses\\ and\\ Careers\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ White\\ and\\ White\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ In\\ earlier\\ periods\\,\\ sociologists\\ have\\ argued\\,\\ you\\ had\\ to\\ attend\\ a\\ royal\\ academy\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ successful\\ painter\\.\\ Consequently\\,\\ innovation\\ was\\ stifled\\ as\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ willing\\ to\\ give\\ money\\ to\\ an\\ artist\\ who\\ was\\ not\\ formally\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\'royal\\ institution\\'\\ of\\ painting\\.\\ This\\ hierarchy\\ started\\ to\\ collapse\\,\\ however\\,\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ broad\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ change\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ A\\ decrease\\ in\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ royal\\ institution\\ brought\\ about\\ a\\ gradual\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ medium\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Painters\\ outside\\ the\\ academy\\ were\\ given\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ chance\\.\\ Painters\\ could\\ now\\ make\\ paintings\\ without\\ a\\ buyer\\ in\\ mind\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gallery\\ system\\ was\\ born\\.\\ The\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ gallery\\ system\\ meant\\ an\\ entirely\\ new\\ and\\ diversified\\ market\\ where\\ painters\\ could\\ sell\\ their\\ wares\\.\\ This\\ market\\ expanded\\,\\ and\\ galleries\\ began\\ reaching\\ out\\ to\\ different\\ economic\\ classes\\,\\ which\\ further\\ meant\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ more\\ occupational\\ niches\\ for\\ painters\\ to\\ fill\\.\\ And\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ buyers\\ had\\ a\\ wider\\ range\\ of\\ options\\ from\\ which\\ to\\ choose\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ example\\,\\ which\\ was\\ discussed\\ in\\ \\\"\\American\\ National\\ Character\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ Novel\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ by\\ Wendy\\ Griswold\\,\\ addresses\\ what\\ \\&\\#8216\\;great\\ American\\ novels\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\Moby\\ Dick\\,\\ Huck\\ Finn\\,\\ The\\ Deerslayer\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\ say\\ about\\ American\\ national\\ character\\.\\ Typically\\,\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\ to\\ hear\\ the\\ answer\\ that\\ these\\ stories\\ depict\\ an\\ escape\\ from\\ society\\ into\\ nature\\,\\ or\\ portray\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ antagonistic\\ relationship\\ between\\ man\\ and\\ nature\\.\\ There\\ are\\,\\ however\\,\\ some\\ problems\\ with\\ this\\ view\\:\\\r\\\\a\\)\\ There\\'s\\ a\\ bias\\ to\\ the\\ works\\ that\\ we\\ now\\ think\\ are\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ period\\;\\ some\\ of\\ those\\ works\\ were\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ popular\\ in\\ their\\ times\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\b\\)\\ It\\ ignores\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Americans\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ are\\ reading\\ tons\\ and\\ tons\\ of\\ British\\ society\\ novels\\,\\ which\\ have\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ American\\ experience\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\c\\)\\ It\\ overlooks\\ the\\ supply\\-side\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ production\\ \\-\\-\\ factors\\.\\ Before\\ 1891\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ foreign\\ novels\\ had\\ no\\ copyright\\ protection\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ market\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ American\\ market\\ was\\ flooded\\ with\\ bootleg\\,\\ low\\-cost\\ novels\\ from\\ overseas\\,\\ which\\ put\\ American\\ authors\\ at\\ a\\ great\\ disadvantage\\.\\ Consequently\\,\\ American\\ writers\\ intentionally\\ created\\ a\\ style\\ of\\ novel\\ that\\ looked\\ as\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ British\\ novel\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ The\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ novel\\ actually\\ changed\\.\\ \\ We\\ may\\ conclude\\ from\\ this\\:\\ popular\\ taste\\ matters\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ topics\\ such\\ slavery\\ or\\ the\\ frontier\\)\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ production\\-side\\ factors\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ copyright\\ laws\\)\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\On\\ the\\ production\\ side\\,\\ there\\ are\\ six\\ key\\ factors\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Technology\\:\\ technological\\ changes\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ huge\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ cultural\\ fields\\ develop\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ new\\ technology\\ introduces\\ \\'exogenous\\'\\ impetus\\ for\\ change\\ in\\ art\\ production\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ Beethoven\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ composes\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ piano\\.\\ Beethoven\\ is\\ known\\ for\\ accentuating\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ really\\ loud\\ and\\ really\\ soft\\ passages\\ of\\ music\\.\\ One\\ way\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ his\\ foremost\\ stylistic\\ innovation\\ was\\ actually\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ innovation\\ in\\ the\\ instrument\\ that\\ he\\ used\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ his\\ instrument\\ was\\ superior\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ the\\ instrument\\ of\\ his\\ forebears\\.\\ Another\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ microphone\\.\\ Singers\\ like\\ Frank\\ Sinatra\\ had\\ very\\ small\\ voices\\,\\ but\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ sing\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ microphone\\.\\ In\\ the\\ past\\,\\ the\\ popular\\ form\\ of\\ singing\\ was\\ opera\\,\\ which\\ developed\\ as\\ it\\ did\\ because\\ singers\\ had\\ to\\ project\\ sound\\ without\\ any\\ amplification\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Law\\ and\\ regulation\\:\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ \\'exogenous\\'\\ factor\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ different\\ things\\ can\\ happen\\ outside\\ of\\ or\\ external\\ to\\ the\\ actually\\ industry\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ developed\\.\\ Laws\\ and\\ regulations\\ have\\ an\\ enormous\\ impact\\ on\\ what\\ artists\\ actually\\ product\\.\\ To\\ illustrate\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ \\(unpredictable\\)\\ factor\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ internet\\ and\\ digital\\ media\\.\\ Just\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ much\\ copyright\\ law\\ affected\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ \\[see\\ above\\]\\.\\ Or\\,\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ how\\ artists\\ will\\ be\\ paid\\ for\\ internet\\ radio\\ playing\\.\\ This\\ could\\ have\\ an\\ enormous\\ impact\\ on\\ how\\ internet\\ radio\\ evolves\\,\\ and\\ \\could\\ effect\\ the\\ entire\\ music\\ industry\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Industrial\\ structure\\:\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ endogenous\\ factor\\,\\ and\\ considers\\ how\\ firms\\ are\\ owned\\,\\ how\\ big\\ those\\ firms\\ are\\ and\\ how\\ many\\ firms\\ there\\ are\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ how\\ art\\/culture\\ production\\ is\\ physically\\ and\\ economically\\ organized\\.\\ Consider\\ the\\ \\movie\\ industry\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\ it\\'s\\ extremely\\ hard\\ to\\ make\\ and\\ market\\ a\\ movie\\ yourself\\,\\ without\\ getting\\ involved\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\,\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ major\\ motion\\ picture\\ companies\\.\\ Contrast\\ this\\ system\\ with\\ the\\ gallery\\ system\\ of\\ paintings\\.\\ How\\ will\\ this\\ shape\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ movie\\ history\\ versus\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ art\\ history\\?\\ The\\ basic\\ operating\\ necessities\\ drive\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ products\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Organizational\\ structure\\:\\ this\\ factor\\ looks\\ at\\ specific\\ firms\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ entire\\ industries\\.\\ Firms\\ can\\ be\\ organized\\ very\\ differently\\ \\-\\-\\ e\\.g\\.\\,\\ vertically\\ and\\ top\\-down\\ organizations\\ versus\\ horizontal\\ and\\ decentralized\\ organizations\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Occupational\\ careers\\:\\ this\\ factors\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ average\\ artist\\'s\\ career\\ trajectory\\ in\\ her\\ given\\ field\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ movie\\ industry\\ seems\\ to\\ hold\\ both\\ a\\ relatively\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ stars\\ at\\ one\\ time\\ and\\ stars\\ that\\ aren\\'t\\ terribly\\ diverse\\ in\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ characters\\ that\\ they\\ portray\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ \\Tom\\ Cruise\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ actor\\ making\\ the\\ same\\ kind\\ of\\ films\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ in\\ the\\ music\\ industry\\,\\ there\\'s\\ more\\ room\\ for\\ big\\ stars\\,\\ as\\ musicians\\,\\ generally\\ speaking\\,\\ do\\ drastically\\ different\\ things\\ with\\ their\\ medium\\.\\ So\\,\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ art\\ forms\\ where\\ you\\ can\\ reinvent\\ yourself\\ and\\ do\\ something\\ radically\\ new\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Consumer\\ market\\:\\ this\\ factor\\ consider\\ how\\ art\\ products\\ are\\ presented\\ to\\ consumers\\.\\ The\\ key\\ issues\\ to\\ consider\\ here\\ are\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Labeling\\:\\ these\\ are\\ signals\\ of\\ the\\ \\'categories\\'\\ of\\ products\\ to\\ consumers\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ term\\ \\\\'best\\-selling\\'\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ construct\\ different\\ categories\\ for\\ music\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ becoming\\ increasingly\\ hard\\ to\\ categorize\\ music\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ the\\ lines\\ dividing\\ genres\\ are\\ becoming\\ increasingly\\ blurred\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Legitimacy\\-building\\:\\ these\\ are\\ signals\\ about\\ the\\ \\'quality\\'\\ of\\ cultural\\ products\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ movie\\ industry\\ uses\\ \\'character\\-actors\\'\\ to\\ signal\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ a\\ film\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ Tom\\ Cruise\\ wouldn\\'t\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ bad\\ movie\\ \\(\\or\\ \\would\\ he\\<\\/a\\>\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Discourse\\-building\\:\\ critical\\ discourse\\ helps\\ establish\\ and\\ legitimize\\ genres\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ very\\ early\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ stages\\ of\\ hip\\-hop\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ struggle\\ in\\ classifying\\ rap\\ music\\.\\ Some\\ Harvard\\ students\\ started\\ a\\ magazine\\ called\\ \\\\The\\ Source\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ which\\ created\\ discourse\\ and\\ found\\ some\\ resolution\\ on\\ the\\ topic\\.\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ critics\\ helped\\ give\\ birth\\ to\\ the\\ genre\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Innovations\\ that\\ do\\ no\\ follow\\ conventions\\ require\\ extensive\\ \\&\\#8216\\;signal\\ processing\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\ in\\ order\\ to\\ gain\\ acceptance\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ there\\ is\\ often\\ an\\ innovation\\-penalty\\.\\ One\\ trick\\ to\\ get\\ around\\ this\\ problem\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ \\'discourse\\'\\ about\\ your\\ innovation\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ \\The\\ Source\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ hip\\-hop\\ journalism\\ changed\\ people\\'s\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ hip\\-hop\\ and\\ rap\\ as\\ legitimate\\ genres\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\There\\ are\\ \\'invisible\\ colleges\\'\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\,\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ king\\-makers\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ implicit\\ elite\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ core\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ make\\ decisions\\ about\\ who\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ top\\ echelons\\.\\ In\\ many\\ fields\\,\\ one\\ needs\\ to\\ find\\ them\\ and\\ gain\\ their\\ support\\ to\\ get\\ legitimized\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\A\\)\\ Different\\ cultural\\ fields\\ have\\ different\\ sort\\ of\\ \\'gatekeeping\\'\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ there\\ are\\ people\\ or\\ things\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ \\'in\\'\\.\\ Take\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ fields\\ of\\ academic\\ versus\\ the\\ film\\ industry\\.\\ In\\ academia\\,\\ one\\'s\\ peers\\ rate\\ you\\.\\ In\\ the\\ film\\ industry\\,\\ critics\\ rate\\ you\\.\\ These\\ two\\ systems\\ shape\\ and\\ constrain\\ what\\ people\\ do\\.\\ Consequently\\,\\ academia\\ is\\ less\\ innovative\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ argued\\,\\ than\\ the\\ film\\ industry\\.\\ The\\ point\\ to\\ take\\ home\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ \\'invisible\\ colleges\\'\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ within\\ an\\ industry\\ that\\ make\\ vital\\ decisions\\ about\\ people\\'s\\ trajectories\\.\\ These\\ are\\ incredibly\\ important\\ people\\.\\ And\\ so\\,\\ one\\ thing\\ we\\ always\\ need\\ to\\ ask\\ ourselves\\ is\\:\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ gatekeepers\\ in\\ our\\ chosen\\ field\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\B\\)\\ One\\'s\\ training\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ factors\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ marked\\ difference\\ between\\ theater\\ and\\ movie\\ acting\\.\\ These\\ differences\\ evoke\\ different\\ reactions\\ in\\ different\\ markets\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\C\\)\\ People\\ also\\ may\\ get\\ \\'labeled\\'\\ to\\ do\\ certain\\ things\\ \\-\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ \\'career\\ tracking\\'\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ novelists\\ get\\ labeled\\ as\\ certain\\ types\\ of\\ novelists\\ despite\\ their\\ best\\ efforts\\ to\\ break\\ their\\ mold\\ do\\ something\\ different\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ Stephen\\ King\\ will\\ likely\\ never\\ be\\ awarded\\ a\\ Pulitzer\\ Prize\\ for\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ novels\\,\\ even\\ if\\ he\\ writes\\ a\\ work\\ that\\ is\\ worthy\\ of\\ such\\ an\\ award\\,\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ \\'label\\'\\ as\\ a\\ trash\\,\\ horror\\ writer\\.\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ his\\ career\\ is\\ tracked\\ for\\ him\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\Regarding\\ occupational\\ careers\\,\\ Kaufman\\ notes\\,\\ there\\ are\\ things\\ we\\ should\\ consider\\:\\ \\This\\ is\\ where\\ it\\ starts\\ getting\\ a\\ little\\ close\\ to\\ home\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ his\\ final\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\ offers\\ these\\ observations\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\As\\ the\\ semester\\ continues\\,\\ Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\'s\\ internal\\ reflections\\ on\\ his\\ last\\ year\\ at\\ Harvard\\ are\\ becoming\\ increasingly\\ external\\.\\ Stay\\ tuned\\!\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/object\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 73, "file_path": "", "desc": "A little close to home"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.389538+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "But Wait! ...Is There More? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 378, "html": "\\\\Today\\ Prof\\.\\ Kaufman\\ invited\\ \\Ed\\ Valenti\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ man\\ behind\\ Ginsu\\ knives\\ and\\ pioneer\\ of\\ direct\\ TV\\ sales\\ marketing\\ \\-\\-\\ to\\ guest\\ lecture\\ our\\ class\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Valenti\\ is\\ most\\ famous\\ for\\ his\\ catch\\-phrase\\,\\ \\\"But\\ wait\\!\\ there\\'s\\ more\\!\\\"\\ \\ He\\ has\\ the\\ air\\ of\\ a\\ self\\-made\\ man\\,\\ who\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ satisfied\\ with\\ his\\ life\\ and\\ accomplishments\\.\\ He\\ wears\\ a\\ \\Simpsons\\<\\/a\\>\\ tie\\ and\\ blue\\ jeans\\,\\ with\\ a\\ green\\ sweater\\ vest\\ and\\ worn\\ brown\\ loafers\\.\\ \\'I\\'m\\ serious\\ but\\ accessible\\,\\'\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ saying\\.\\ He\\'s\\ a\\ salesman\\;\\ I\\'m\\ sure\\ he\\'s\\ thought\\ about\\ these\\ things\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Needless\\ to\\ say\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Valenti\\'s\\ achievements\\ \\ \\-\\-\\ both\\ personally\\ and\\ monetarily\\ \\-\\-\\ are\\ impressive\\.\\ Nonetheless\\,\\ the\\ discussion\\ at\\ the\\ tail\\-end\\ of\\ lecture\\ was\\ revelatory\\ of\\ the\\ sad\\,\\ harsh\\ truth\\ of\\ changing\\ media\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ an\\ age\\ of\\ \\rapidly\\ increasing\\ developments\\ in\\ communication\\ and\\ information\\-sharing\\ technology\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ if\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ adapt\\,\\ you\\'re\\ not\\ longer\\ relevant\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ Mr\\.\\ Valenti\\'s\\ trailblazing\\ marketing\\ techniques\\ put\\ the\\ door\\-to\\-door\\ salesman\\ method\\ in\\ the\\ homes\\ of\\ millions\\ of\\ people\\'s\\ homes\\ worldwide\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ where\\ the\\ internet\\ is\\ king\\,\\ his\\ Ginsu\\-selling\\ methods\\ are\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ cutting\\ edge\\ \\(pardon\\ the\\ bad\\ pun\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\As\\ someone\\ who\\ loves\\ \\media\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ I\\ was\\ left\\ with\\ the\\ question\\,\\ \\\"But\\ Wait\\!\\.\\.\\.\\ Is\\ there\\ more\\?\\\"\\ Regardless\\ of\\ his\\ technique\\'s\\ current\\ relevance\\,\\ he\\ still\\ has\\ some\\ pretty\\ good\\,\\ motivational\\ things\\ to\\ say\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ big\\ question\\ today\\:\\ What\\ can\\ we\\ learn\\ from\\ the\\ selling\\ of\\ the\\ Ginsu\\ knife\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\True\\ to\\ form\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Valenti\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ some\\ catchy\\,\\ marketing\\ world\\-esque\\ \\'Ginsu\\-isms\\'\\ to\\ teach\\ us\\ what\\ he\\ likes\\ to\\ call\\ \\'Capitalism\\ 101\\'\\.\\ \\\\*Cough\\*\\ Let\\'s\\ see\\ what\\ this\\ guy\\'s\\ selling\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\\\'Double\\-click\\ the\\ refresh\\ button\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ think\\.\\'\\ \\<\\/em\\>Valenti\\ created\\ a\\ need\\ where\\ none\\ existed\\.\\ Never\\ before\\ in\\ marketing\\ or\\ media\\,\\ in\\ general\\,\\ was\\ their\\ precedence\\ for\\ the\\ journey\\ on\\ which\\ Valenti\\ was\\ about\\ to\\ embark\\.\\ Ginsu\\ knives\\,\\ contrary\\ to\\ what\\ their\\ name\\ might\\ indicate\\,\\ are\\ actually\\ produced\\ in\\ Fremont\\,\\ Ohio\\.\\ Valenti\\ turned\\ it\\ into\\ 50\\ million\\ dollars\\ worth\\ of\\ sales\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\,\\ generally\\ speaking\\,\\ people\\ neither\\ needed\\ nor\\ wanted\\ them\\.\\ With\\ past\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ record\\ industry\\,\\ Valenti\\ was\\ motivated\\ by\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ product\\ that\\ more\\ universal\\ appeal\\ than\\ record\\.\\ His\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ take\\ such\\ an\\ item\\ and\\ create\\ brand\\ recognition\\.\\ The\\ goal\\ of\\ that\\ goal\\ was\\\\,\\ surprise\\ surprise\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ to\\ make\\ money\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\ \\\\'People\\ think\\ with\\ their\\ eyes\\.\\'\\ \\<\\/em\\>Valenti\\ purchased\\ the\\ exclusive\\ worldwide\\ rights\\ to\\ sell\\ painting\\ pads\\.\\ Working\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ back\\ room\\ of\\ an\\ auto\\ repair\\ shop\\,\\ Valenti\\ rented\\ a\\ fake\\ office\\ to\\ impress\\ the\\ painting\\ pad\\ vendors\\ into\\ giving\\ him\\ the\\ exclusive\\ selling\\ rights\\.\\ The\\ take\\-home\\ point\\,\\ says\\ Valenti\\,\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ give\\ people\\ far\\ too\\ many\\ reasons\\ not\\ to\\ believe\\ us\\ because\\ of\\ our\\ negative\\ attitudes\\.\\ As\\ Dale\\ Carnegie\\ once\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Financial\\ success\\ is\\ 15\\ percent\\ professional\\ knowledge\\.\\ 85\\ percent\\ is\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ express\\ ideas\\,\\ assume\\ leadership\\,\\ and\\ to\\ arouse\\ enthusiasm\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ Wait\\,\\ I\\ thought\\ positive\\ psych\\ was\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\\\'No\\ way\\ you\\ can\\ sit\\ on\\ your\\ ass\\ and\\ slide\\ uphill\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\"\\ Agencies\\ had\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ buying\\ into\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ change\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ they\\ painted\\.\\ The\\ challenge\\ for\\ Valenti\\ was\\ this\\:\\ take\\ a\\ home\\-show\\ demonstration\\ and\\ condense\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ two\\-minute\\ commercial\\.\\ This\\ created\\ a\\ style\\ of\\ commercial\\ marketing\\ that\\ others\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ imitate\\.\\ The\\ TV\\-spot\\ worked\\.\\ It\\ worked\\ so\\ well\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ that\\ Valenti\\ chartered\\ a\\ fleet\\ of\\ planes\\ to\\ fly\\ over\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ tools\\.\\ The\\ big\\ lesson\\:\\ Don\\'t\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ experts\\.\\ \\Michael\\ Jordan\\,\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ didn\\'t\\ make\\ his\\ varsity\\ high\\ school\\ basketball\\ team\\.\\ \\Walt\\ Disney\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ fired\\ from\\ a\\ newspaper\\ because\\ h\\ supposedly\\ lacked\\ imagination\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\\\'No\\ problemos\\'\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>There\\ are\\ no\\ problems\\,\\ just\\ opportunities\\.\\ Valenti\\ made\\ huge\\ commercial\\ mistake\\ by\\ trying\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ painting\\ tools\\ in\\ drug\\ stores\\;\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ he\\ almost\\ went\\ bankrupt\\.\\ Then\\,\\ by\\ serendipity\\,\\ he\\ discovered\\ a\\ company\\ in\\ Ohio\\ that\\ made\\ really\\ sharp\\ knives\\.\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ cash\\-flow\\ problem\\ was\\ to\\ get\\ something\\ on\\ TV\\.\\ They\\ needed\\ a\\ way\\ out\\.\\ This\\ problematic\\ situation\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ opportunities\\ in\\ his\\ life\\.\\ The\\ Ginsu\\ knives\\ generated\\ 50\\ million\\ dollars\\ of\\ sales\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\\\'Without\\ problems\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ growth\\.\\'\\ \\<\\/em\\>Marketing\\ research\\ is\\ not\\ always\\ right\\;\\ sometimes\\,\\ it\\'s\\ just\\ about\\ your\\ gut\\.\\ From\\ Valenti\\'s\\ gut\\ came\\ what\\ became\\ the\\ ubiquitous\\ phrase\\:\\ \\\"But\\ wait\\!\\ There\\'s\\ more\\!\\\"\\ You\\'re\\ only\\ human\\,\\ so\\ you\\'re\\ bound\\ to\\ make\\ mistakes\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\\\'Not\\ making\\ a\\ mistake\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ mistake\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\'\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>You\\ need\\ to\\ learn\\;\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ chances\\.\\ Quaker\\ Oats\\,\\ Pepsi\\ and\\ Wrigley\\'s\\ all\\ failed\\ three\\ times\\ prior\\ to\\ their\\ fourth\\ and\\ ultimately\\ successful\\ launch\\.\\ For\\ Valenti\\,\\ his\\ biggest\\ mistake\\ was\\ turning\\ down\\ a\\ deal\\ for\\ exclusive\\ media\\ time\\ for\\ some\\ start\\-up\\ money\\:\\ the\\ start\\-up\\ was\\ CNN\\.\\ It\\ was\\ started\\ by\\ a\\ guy\\ named\\ Ted\\ Turner\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\\\'Is\\ he\\ lucky\\ or\\ smart\\?\\'\\<\\/em\\>\\ Luck\\ and\\ success\\ are\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ effort\\ that\\ you\\ put\\ into\\ something\\ and\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ you\\ believe\\ in\\ yourself\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\So\\ what\\'s\\ the\\ schpiel\\ on\\ direct\\ marketing\\?\\ The\\ consumer\\ wants\\ to\\ know\\ what\\'s\\ in\\ it\\ for\\ them\\.\\ For\\ Valenti\\,\\ the\\ only\\ purpose\\ of\\ advertising\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ sales\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ it\\'s\\ all\\ about\\ going\\ green\\.\\ To\\ illustrate\\ this\\ point\\,\\ Valenti\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ catchy\\ mascots\\ that\\ other\\ marketing\\ firms\\ have\\ created\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ a\\ super\\-boring\\ spot\\ that\\ just\\ promoted\\ a\\ budding\\ website\\'s\\ URL\\:\\ \\salesgenie\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ their\\ \\'boring\\'\\ ad\\,\\ salesgenie\\.com\\ made\\ six\\ dollars\\ for\\ every\\ one\\ dollar\\ that\\ they\\ invested\\ in\\ advertising\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ typical\\ direct\\ sales\\ ad\\,\\ then\\,\\ must\\ ask\\:\\ How\\ will\\ I\\ save\\ effort\\,\\ time\\ and\\ money\\?\\ How\\ will\\ my\\ life\\ improve\\?\\ How\\ do\\ I\\ get\\ to\\ your\\ business\\?\\ What\\ results\\ can\\ I\\ expect\\ from\\ using\\ your\\ service\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\If\\ our\\ society\\ is\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ becoming\\ more\\ outer\\-directed\\ than\\ inner\\-directed\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ implications\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ advertising\\ industry\\ should\\ adapt\\ its\\ form\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Valenti\\,\\ your\\ techniques\\ were\\ relevant\\ in\\ the\\ past\\,\\ but\\ do\\ you\\ have\\ any\\ more\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\The\\ Original\\ Ginsu\\ Ad\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/object\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Direct\\ Marketing\\'s\\ Impact\\ on\\ Pop\\ Culture\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 73, "file_path": "", "desc": "But Wait! ...Is There More? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.868975+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Insect Cognition: Part 1", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 400, "html": "\\Hello\\ again\\!\\ \\ In\\ class\\ today\\,\\ we\\ began\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ possibilities\\ and\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ intelligence\\ and\\ cognition\\ in\\ the\\ insect\\ world\\.\\ \\ It\\ would\\ seem\\ that\\ creatures\\ with\\ as\\ few\\ neural\\ cells\\ as\\ insects\\ would\\ be\\ severely\\ limited\\ in\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ information\\ they\\ could\\ process\\ and\\ recall\\,\\ but\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ several\\ experiments\\ that\\ we\\ studied\\ revealed\\ an\\ unexpected\\ level\\ of\\ cognitive\\ sophistication\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ the\\ physical\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ insect\\ nervous\\ system\\ are\\ indeed\\ simpler\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ most\\ vertebrates\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ serve\\ as\\ very\\ important\\ model\\ organisms\\ that\\ will\\ pave\\ way\\ for\\ the\\ future\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ neural\\ pathways\\ used\\ in\\ animal\\ cognition\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Our\\ first\\ two\\ papers\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ invertebrate\\ intellect\\ dealt\\ with\\ four\\ species\\ of\\ jumping\\ spiders\\ in\\ the\\ genus\\ \\Portia\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ The\\ articles\\ were\\ titled\\ \\Spiderweb\\ smokescreens\\:\\ spider\\ trickster\\ uses\\ background\\ noise\\ to\\ mask\\ stalking\\ movements\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\Spider\\ flexibly\\ chooses\\ aggressive\\ mimicry\\ signals\\ for\\ different\\ prey\\ by\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ both\\ papers\\ were\\ authored\\ by\\ Robert\\ R\\.\\ Jackson\\ and\\ R\\.\\ Simson\\ Wilcox\\.\\ The\\ two\\ papers\\ attempt\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ cognitive\\ processes\\ behind\\ the\\ complex\\ aggressive\\ mimicries\\ that\\ the\\ \\Portia\\<\\/em\\>\\ uses\\ to\\ confuse\\ its\\ prey\\.\\ \\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>will\\ invade\\ the\\ web\\ of\\ a\\ prey\\ spider\\ and\\ \\\"pluck\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"shake\\\"\\ the\\ web\\,\\ carefully\\ responding\\ to\\ the\\ prey\\ spider\\'s\\ reactions\\.\\ \\ The\\ vibrations\\ that\\ \\Portia\\<\\/em\\>\\ sends\\ through\\ the\\ web\\ mimic\\ those\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ emitted\\ by\\ a\\ bug\\ that\\ was\\ entangled\\ in\\ the\\ web\\.\\ \\ These\\ two\\ papers\\ examined\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ intelligence\\ that\\ these\\ actions\\ show\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ paper\\ is\\ examining\\ how\\ external\\ influences\\ affect\\ the\\ movement\\ and\\ motions\\ of\\ the\\ predatory\\ spider\\.\\ \\ With\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ magnet\\ or\\ artificial\\ wind\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>stalked\\ its\\ prey\\ on\\ a\\ moving\\ web\\ versus\\ a\\ stagnate\\ web\\.\\ \\ As\\ we\\ would\\ expect\\,\\ the\\ spider\\ waits\\ for\\ large\\ outside\\ disturbances\\ in\\ the\\ web\\ before\\ it\\ takes\\ quick\\ strides\\ across\\ the\\ web\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ web\\ was\\ still\\,\\ the\\ spider\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ move\\ much\\ more\\ slowly\\ and\\ carefully\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ elude\\ its\\ prey\\.\\ \\ While\\ at\\ first\\ this\\ may\\ seem\\ unimpressive\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\Portia\\<\\/em\\>\\ can\\ recognize\\ and\\ respond\\ to\\ external\\ factors\\ without\\ a\\ brain\\,\\ but\\ only\\ a\\ primitive\\ association\\ of\\ neurons\\,\\ is\\ actually\\ quite\\ an\\ accomplishment\\.\\ \\ The\\ second\\ experiment\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\ placed\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ the\\ web\\ with\\ a\\ prey\\ spider\\ an\\ entrapped\\ locust\\.\\ \\ Surprisingly\\,\\\\ Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>still\\ stalked\\ and\\ killed\\ the\\ prey\\ spider\\,\\ while\\ ignoring\\ the\\ captured\\ locust\\.\\ \\ \\ \\Portia\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ however\\,\\ would\\ use\\ the\\ vibrations\\ from\\ the\\ locust\\ to\\ conceal\\ its\\ own\\ movement\\,\\ \\ just\\ as\\ it\\ had\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ experiment\\ with\\ the\\ wind\\.\\ \\ The\\ final\\ experiments\\ just\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ further\\ confirm\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ background\\ noise\\ in\\ the\\ stalking\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ spider\\.\\ \\ The\\ significance\\ of\\ this\\ paper\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ overall\\ level\\ of\\ sophistication\\ that\\ the\\ spider\\ uses\\ in\\ its\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\Portia\\<\\/em\\>\\ did\\ not\\ just\\ assume\\ that\\ its\\ previous\\ successful\\ maneuvers\\ would\\ work\\ in\\ its\\ next\\ hunt\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ it\\ would\\ observe\\ and\\ investigate\\ each\\ individual\\ situation\\ before\\ assessing\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ approach\\ its\\ prey\\.\\ \\ The\\ second\\ paper\\ also\\ deals\\ with\\ this\\ rather\\ impressive\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\ learning\\ exhibited\\ by\\ such\\ a\\ seemingly\\ simple\\ organism\\.\\ \\ In\\ nature\\,\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>will\\ jump\\ onto\\ a\\ web\\ that\\ houses\\ a\\ prey\\ spider\\ and\\ mimic\\ the\\ vibrations\\ produced\\ by\\ an\\ insect\\ trapped\\ in\\ the\\ web\\.\\ \\ To\\ me\\,\\ this\\ experiment\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ interesting\\ because\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>has\\ nearly\\ one\\ hundred\\ vibrational\\ codes\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ test\\ out\\ on\\ the\\ prey\\ spider\\ until\\ its\\ interest\\ is\\ sparked\\.\\ \\ Of\\ these\\ one\\ hundred\\ variations\\,\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>has\\ identified\\ twenty\\ that\\ work\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ always\\ begins\\ with\\ these\\.\\ \\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>realizes\\ that\\ a\\ certain\\ subset\\ of\\ vibrations\\ work\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ times\\ displays\\ an\\ impressive\\ amount\\ of\\ cognitive\\ ability\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ However\\,\\ you\\ might\\ be\\ asking\\ yourself\\,\\ \\\"if\\ these\\ spiders\\ are\\ so\\ smart\\,\\ why\\ don\\'t\\ they\\ just\\ learn\\ when\\ to\\ use\\ which\\ individual\\ signal\\?\\\"\\ \\ The\\ answer\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ tricky\\ and\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ limited\\ amount\\ of\\ neural\\ space\\ that\\ these\\ spiders\\ actually\\ possess\\.\\ \\ Trial\\ and\\ error\\ has\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ extremely\\ productive\\,\\ and\\ memorizing\\ the\\ twenty\\ most\\ effective\\ vibrations\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ enough\\.\\ \\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ this\\,\\ external\\ factors\\ greatly\\ contribute\\ to\\ which\\ vibrational\\ signal\\ is\\ effective\\ in\\ luring\\ the\\ prey\\ spider\\ out\\ of\\ hiding\\.\\ \\ So\\ in\\ some\\ instances\\ where\\ one\\ vibration\\ would\\ normally\\ work\\,\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ wind\\ or\\ rain\\ might\\ actually\\ require\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ another\\ totally\\ different\\ signal\\.\\ \\ The\\ small\\ bit\\ of\\ memory\\ the\\ spider\\ has\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ solely\\ contributed\\ to\\ this\\ aggressive\\ mimicry\\,\\ as\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ skills\\ a\\ spider\\ must\\ know\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>does\\ not\\ just\\ act\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ patiently\\ investigates\\ before\\ stalking\\ shows\\ and\\ extremely\\ high\\ cognitive\\ level\\ for\\ the\\ invertebrate\\ world\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Our\\ next\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ insect\\ world\\ will\\ bring\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ honeybee\\.\\ \\ Ever\\ since\\ Karl\\ Von\\ Frisch\\ first\\ discovered\\ the\\ complex\\ dances\\ that\\ worker\\ bees\\ do\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ communicate\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ food\\ to\\ other\\ workers\\,\\ honey\\ bees\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ favorite\\ specimen\\ of\\ psychologists\\ and\\ animal\\ behaviorists\\.\\ \\ The\\ article\\ we\\ read\\,\\ \\Honeybee\\ Cognition\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ James\\ Gould\\,\\ an\\ expert\\ in\\ apiculture\\.\\ \\ This\\ experiment\\ tested\\ the\\ abilities\\ and\\ limitations\\ of\\ cognitive\\ mapping\\ found\\ in\\ bees\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\,\\ honeybees\\ leaving\\ the\\ hive\\ were\\ captured\\,\\ blindly\\ taken\\ some\\ distance\\ away\\,\\ and\\ then\\ released\\.\\ \\ After\\ only\\ a\\ moment\\,\\ the\\ bees\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ fly\\ in\\ almost\\ a\\ straight\\ line\\ from\\ their\\ release\\ point\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ hive\\ using\\ nothing\\ but\\ natural\\ landmarks\\ as\\ a\\ guide\\.\\ \\ Once\\ again\\ this\\ may\\ seem\\ simplistic\\ and\\ unimpressive\\,\\ but\\ for\\ an\\ organism\\ that\\ small\\ with\\ such\\ limited\\ intellectual\\ capacity\\,\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ use\\ external\\ markers\\ as\\ reference\\ point\\ and\\ return\\ home\\ using\\ cognitive\\ mapping\\ is\\ quite\\ impressive\\!\\ \\ Up\\ to\\ five\\ hundred\\ meters\\ away\\,\\ the\\ bees\\ could\\ be\\ released\\ and\\ find\\ their\\ way\\ home\\.\\ \\ Relative\\ to\\ their\\ size\\,\\ this\\ is\\ far\\ better\\ than\\ a\\ five\\-year\\-old\\ human\\ could\\ do\\.\\ \\ Lets\\ pretend\\ your\\ little\\ brother\\'s\\ friend\\ missed\\ the\\ bus\\ home\\,\\ so\\ you\\ decide\\ to\\ give\\ him\\ a\\ ride\\.\\ \\ When\\ you\\ ask\\ him\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ home\\,\\ he\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ same\\ route\\ home\\ that\\ the\\ bus\\ takes\\ everyday\\,\\ even\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ shortcut\\ and\\ this\\ path\\ is\\ several\\ miles\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ way\\.\\ \\ Compared\\ to\\ a\\ child\\,\\ the\\ cognitive\\ mapping\\ abilities\\ possessed\\ by\\ a\\ honeybee\\ are\\ quite\\ astonishing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ conclusion\\,\\ we\\ should\\ not\\ assume\\ that\\ just\\ because\\ insects\\ lack\\ true\\ brains\\ and\\ their\\ neural\\ systems\\ \\ are\\ limited\\ in\\ size\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ possess\\ some\\ levels\\ of\\ cognition\\.\\ \\ Nature\\ found\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ \\Portia\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ work\\ a\\ complex\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\ system\\ and\\ provided\\ the\\ honeybee\\ not\\ only\\ with\\ an\\ impressive\\ level\\ of\\ cognitive\\ mapping\\,\\ but\\ also\\ with\\ a\\ dance\\ to\\ communicate\\ location\\ and\\ direction\\ to\\ other\\ bees\\.\\ \\ Here\\ are\\ two\\ clips\\ that\\ will\\ better\\ explain\\ the\\ behaviors\\ being\\ tested\\ on\\ both\\ the\\ \\spiders\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ the\\ \\bees\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Insect Cognition: Part 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.881694+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction to Animal Cognition", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 401, "html": "\\\\ \\ \\ \\ Hello\\ everyone\\ and\\ welcome\\ to\\ my\\ animal\\ cognition\\ blog\\!\\ \\ This\\ is\\ my\\ first\\ entry\\ so\\ I\\ will\\ take\\ just\\ a\\ moment\\ to\\ speak\\ about\\ the\\ class\\,\\ the\\ teacher\\,\\ and\\ a\\ little\\ about\\ myself\\.\\ \\ The\\ class\\,\\ is\\ described\\ by\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Registrar\\'s\\ office\\ as\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"\\.\\.\\.\\ an\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ animal\\ cognition\\ and\\ thought\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ processes\\.\\ Topics\\ include\\ categorization\\,\\ memory\\,\\ number\\ concepts\\,\\ insight\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ language\\-like\\ behavior\\.\\ The\\ course\\ requires\\ reading\\ and\\ critiquing\\ original\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ journal\\ articles\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ mentioned\\,\\ the\\ class\\ focuses\\ primarily\\ on\\ the\\ reading\\ of\\ multiple\\ journal\\ articles\\,\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ thought\\ processes\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ researcher\\ and\\ the\\ animal\\ subject\\.\\ \\ For\\ each\\ class\\ we\\ are\\ assigned\\ four\\ or\\ so\\ journal\\ articles\\ to\\ read\\,\\ so\\ in\\ my\\ future\\ blogs\\ I\\ will\\ post\\ web\\-links\\ to\\ the\\ journal\\ articles\\ and\\ provide\\ a\\ brief\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ experiments\\ conducted\\ and\\ the\\ data\\ that\\ was\\ collected\\.\\ \\ After\\ the\\ articles\\ are\\ summarized\\ in\\ class\\,\\ we\\ take\\ time\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ any\\ discoveries\\ that\\ were\\ made\\,\\ and\\ we\\ also\\ try\\ to\\ find\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ experiments\\ were\\ run\\.\\ \\ The\\ professor\\,\\ Irene\\ Pepperberg\\,\\ then\\ explains\\ how\\ the\\ tests\\ compare\\ to\\ those\\ that\\ she\\ ran\\ on\\ Alex\\,\\ her\\ african\\ grey\\ parrot\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ class\\,\\ so\\ far\\,\\ has\\ been\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ such\\ small\\ discussions\\ with\\ a\\ scientist\\ as\\ famous\\ and\\ successful\\ as\\ Irene\\ Pepperberg\\.\\ \\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ \\link\\<\\/a\\>\\ to\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ information\\ about\\ her\\ and\\ her\\ works\\.\\ \\ Of\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ studies\\,\\ the\\ work\\ she\\ did\\ with\\ \\Alex\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ by\\ far\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\.\\ \\ Alex\\,\\ who\\ unfortunately\\ passed\\ away\\ last\\ year\\,\\ \\ was\\ an\\ african\\ grey\\ parrot\\ whom\\ Professor\\ Pepperberg\\ described\\ as\\ having\\ the\\ intelligence\\ of\\ a\\ five\\-year\\-old\\ child\\ and\\ the\\ emotional\\ level\\ of\\ a\\ two\\-year\\-old\\.\\ \\ The\\ name\\ Alex\\ is\\ actually\\ an\\ acronym\\,\\ standing\\ for\\ \\A\\<\\/strong\\>vian\\ \\L\\<\\/strong\\>earning\\ \\EX\\<\\/strong\\>periment\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Pepperberg\\ had\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ Alex\\ from\\ 1997\\ to\\ 2007\\,\\ and\\ in\\ that\\ time\\ she\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ teach\\ him\\ to\\ recognize\\ more\\ than\\ fifty\\ objects\\ and\\ to\\ count\\ to\\ six\\.\\ \\ Along\\ with\\ this\\,\\ he\\ was\\ also\\ able\\ to\\ comprehend\\ abstract\\ concepts\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ relationships\\ between\\ two\\ objects\\,\\ such\\ as\\ bigger\\/smaller\\,\\ same\\/different\\,\\ and\\ lighter\\/darker\\.\\ \\ While\\ Alex\\'s\\ passing\\ was\\ sad\\ and\\ unexpected\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Pepperberg\\ has\\ continued\\ her\\ research\\ with\\ two\\ additional\\ parrots\\.\\ \\ The\\ experiments\\ done\\ with\\ Alex\\ were\\ truly\\ ground\\ breaking\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ animal\\ cognition\\,\\ and\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ by\\ such\\ an\\ expert\\ is\\ really\\ exciting\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\As\\ for\\ me\\,\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ junior\\ at\\ Harvard\\ concentrating\\ in\\ Organismic\\ and\\ Evolutionary\\ Biology\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ my\\ first\\ psychology\\ class\\,\\ and\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ one\\ of\\ my\\ most\\ interesting\\ and\\ engaging\\ classes\\ so\\ far\\.\\ \\ I\\ have\\ always\\ had\\ a\\ passion\\ for\\ animals\\ and\\ hope\\ to\\ one\\ day\\ become\\ a\\ veterinarian\\.\\ \\ I\\ hope\\ this\\ introduction\\ has\\ done\\ justice\\ to\\ the\\ class\\,\\ and\\ I\\ \\ will\\ be\\ back\\ to\\ post\\ again\\ soon\\!\\ \\ Until\\ then\\,\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ brief\\ video\\ of\\ Alex\\:\\ \\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/object\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction to Animal Cognition"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.893024+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Insect Cognition: Part 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 402, "html": "\\Hello\\ there\\!\\ \\ In\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ entry\\,\\ I\\ will\\ be\\ discussing\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ our\\ readings\\ on\\ the\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ of\\ insects\\.\\ \\ In\\ my\\ last\\ blog\\,\\ I\\ focused\\ primarily\\ on\\ the\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\ learning\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ aggressive\\ mimicry\\ of\\ the\\ Portia\\ spider\\ and\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ an\\ impressive\\ cognitive\\ mapping\\ ability\\ in\\ honeybees\\.\\ \\ While\\ these\\ experiments\\ and\\ discoveries\\ were\\ very\\ intriguing\\,\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ any\\ applicable\\ advancements\\ or\\ benefits\\ for\\ humans\\.\\ \\ Today\\ however\\,\\ we\\ will\\ discuss\\ an\\ experiment\\ that\\ used\\ fruit\\ flies\\ to\\ evaluate\\ the\\ cognitive\\ repercussions\\ of\\ physical\\ damage\\ to\\ portions\\ of\\ the\\ subjects\\&\\#8217\\;\\ nervous\\ systems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\In\\ a\\ paper\\ entitled\\ \\Context\\ and\\ occasion\\ setting\\ in\\ Drosophila\\ visual\\ learning\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Bjorn\\ Brembs\\ and\\ Jan\\ Wiener\\ report\\ their\\ findings\\ on\\ the\\ neural\\ processes\\ of\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ fruit\\ flies\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ set\\ of\\ flies\\ are\\ healthy\\ and\\ natural\\,\\ while\\ the\\ second\\ set\\ have\\ had\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ their\\ \\&\\#8220\\;brains\\&\\#8221\\;\\ genetically\\ destroyed\\.\\ \\ In\\ these\\ transgenic\\ flies\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ choose\\ to\\ compromise\\ their\\ mushroom\\ bodies\\,\\ a\\ dense\\ network\\ of\\ neurons\\ and\\ glia\\ that\\ is\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ heavily\\ involved\\ in\\ learning\\ and\\ memory\\.\\ \\ The\\ flies\\ were\\ then\\ placed\\ individually\\ into\\ a\\ diorama\\ and\\ safely\\ tethered\\ to\\ the\\ center\\.\\ \\ The\\ researchers\\ were\\ then\\ able\\ to\\ project\\ images\\ onto\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ this\\ flight\\ simulator\\,\\ and\\ teach\\ the\\ fly\\ to\\ navigate\\ towards\\ certain\\ symbols\\ and\\ to\\ avoid\\ others\\.\\ \\ For\\ these\\ experiments\\,\\ the\\ flies\\ were\\ taught\\ to\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;T\\&\\#8221\\;\\ shape\\,\\ and\\ were\\ taught\\ to\\ move\\ towards\\ a\\ inverted\\ \\&\\#8220\\;T\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ \\ This\\ was\\ accomplished\\ by\\ exposing\\ the\\ subject\\ to\\ hot\\ air\\ whenever\\ it\\ traveled\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\ direction\\,\\ a\\ punishment\\ that\\ was\\ very\\ bothersome\\ to\\ the\\ flies\\.\\ \\ The\\ figure\\ below\\ shows\\ a\\ detailed\\ drawing\\ of\\ the\\ diorama\\ and\\ also\\ shows\\ the\\ variety\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;T\\ tests\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ were\\ administered\\ to\\ the\\ flies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\While\\ both\\ sets\\ of\\ flies\\ could\\ learn\\ to\\ discriminate\\ between\\ the\\ symbols\\ that\\ controlled\\ their\\ navigation\\,\\ when\\ the\\ background\\ color\\ behind\\ the\\ shape\\ was\\ changed\\,\\ something\\ truly\\ interesting\\ happened\\.\\ The\\ wild\\ type\\ flies\\ seemed\\ to\\ transfer\\ their\\ knowledge\\ fairly\\ quickly\\,\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ the\\ transgenic\\ subjects\\.\\ \\ You\\ might\\ be\\ thinking\\ to\\ yourself\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Of\\ course\\ they\\ cannot\\ transfer\\ their\\ past\\ knowledge\\ to\\ a\\ slightly\\ changed\\ novel\\ test\\,\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ their\\ nervous\\ system\\ has\\ been\\ destroyed\\ by\\ the\\ scientists\\!\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ This\\ is\\ true\\,\\ but\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ these\\ results\\ is\\ in\\ their\\ applicability\\ to\\ the\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\.\\ \\ The\\ inability\\ for\\ the\\ flies\\ to\\ sort\\ out\\ which\\ characteristics\\ of\\ their\\ environments\\ were\\ important\\ to\\ their\\ well\\ being\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ children\\ with\\ attention\\ deficit\\ disorder\\ \\(ADD\\)\\ face\\.\\ \\ The\\ altered\\ flies\\ could\\ be\\ taught\\ to\\ navigate\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ symbols\\,\\ but\\ then\\ could\\ not\\ apply\\ this\\ knowledge\\ to\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ symbols\\,\\ differing\\ only\\ in\\ background\\ color\\.\\ \\ Ideally\\,\\ our\\ great\\ level\\ of\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ internal\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ fruit\\ fly\\ will\\ allow\\ for\\ future\\ researchers\\ to\\ better\\ understand\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ ADD\\ and\\ eventually\\ work\\ out\\ better\\ treatments\\ or\\ even\\ a\\ cure\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Insect Cognition: Part 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.903352+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Number Concepts: Part 1", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 403, "html": "\\My\\ blog\\ today\\ will\\ explore\\ the\\ concepts\\ of\\ numbers\\ and\\ counting\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\.\\ \\ Until\\ recently\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ animals\\ comprehending\\ numbers\\ had\\ been\\ completely\\ dismissed\\.\\ \\ A\\ quotation\\ from\\ Aristotle\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\ Metaphysica\\ even\\ remarks\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Numbers\\ are\\ intellectual\\ witnesses\\ that\\ belong\\ only\\ to\\ mankind\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ Additionally\\,\\ a\\ famous\\ German\\ linguist\\,\\ Eric\\ Lenneberg\\,\\ would\\ state\\ that\\ animals\\ could\\ never\\ succeed\\ on\\ tasks\\ involving\\ language\\ or\\ numerical\\ concepts\\ because\\ they\\ lacked\\ abstraction\\ and\\ relational\\ abilities\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ several\\ species\\ of\\ animals\\ have\\ since\\ shown\\ more\\ than\\ basic\\ understanding\\ of\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ Before\\ we\\ introduce\\ journal\\ articles\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ lecture\\,\\ some\\ new\\ concepts\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ and\\ critique\\ the\\ experiments\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ numerical\\ competence\\ may\\ seem\\ like\\ a\\ straightforward\\ concept\\,\\ its\\ boundaries\\ are\\ hazy\\ and\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ well\\ defined\\.\\ \\ Several\\ papers\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ animals\\ have\\ the\\ abilities\\ to\\ choose\\ a\\ set\\ based\\ on\\ number\\,\\ to\\ determine\\ more\\ or\\ less\\,\\ and\\ to\\ match\\ to\\ sample\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ quantity\\.\\ \\ But\\ these\\ tasks\\ do\\ not\\ necessarily\\ show\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ numbers\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ Animals\\ exhibit\\ four\\ very\\ intelligent\\ alternatives\\ to\\ counting\\.\\ \\ These\\ concepts\\ are\\ very\\ difficult\\ for\\ humans\\ to\\ grasp\\ because\\ living\\ without\\ a\\ firm\\ understanding\\ of\\ numbers\\ seems\\ borderline\\ impossible\\ to\\ us\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ method\\ is\\ \\subitizing\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ a\\ complex\\ form\\ of\\ rapid\\ pattern\\ recognition\\.\\ \\ The\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ understand\\ subitizing\\ is\\ to\\ imagine\\ either\\ dominoes\\ or\\ dice\\.\\ \\ We\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ count\\ the\\ individual\\ black\\ dots\\ on\\ either\\ of\\ these\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ we\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ quickly\\ and\\ accurately\\ recognize\\ the\\ pattern\\ and\\ therefore\\ infer\\ the\\ number\\.\\ \\ Also\\,\\ if\\ an\\ array\\ is\\ flashed\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ your\\ eyes\\ for\\ a\\ fraction\\ of\\ a\\ second\\,\\ you\\ can\\ recall\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ items\\,\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ number\\,\\ using\\ this\\ quick\\ pattern\\ recognition\\.\\ \\ It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ very\\ common\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\,\\ and\\ many\\ nonhuman\\ primates\\ are\\ quite\\ accurate\\ at\\ subitizing\\ up\\ to\\ quantities\\ of\\ four\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Did\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ count\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ dots\\ on\\ each\\ die\\,\\ or\\ did\\ you\\ subitize\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ counting\\ alternative\\ that\\ animals\\ have\\ developed\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ accumulator\\ model\\.\\ \\ To\\ better\\ grasp\\ this\\ concept\\,\\ imagine\\ sheep\\ jumping\\ over\\ a\\ fence\\ without\\ associating\\ a\\ number\\ with\\ each\\ individual\\.\\ \\ Instead\\,\\ as\\ each\\ sheep\\ crosses\\ over\\,\\ allow\\ your\\ brain\\ to\\ tag\\ the\\ event\\ without\\ actually\\ counting\\.\\ \\ Animals\\ can\\ learn\\ to\\ associate\\ these\\ events\\ with\\ Arabic\\ numerals\\,\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ concept\\ of\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ This\\ method\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;counting\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ employed\\ when\\ objects\\ are\\ presented\\ temporally\\,\\ and\\ not\\ all\\ at\\ once\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ third\\ process\\ that\\ animals\\ can\\ use\\ to\\ identify\\ numbers\\ is\\ called\\ object\\ filing\\.\\ \\ Instead\\ of\\ sheep\\ jumping\\ over\\ the\\ fence\\,\\ this\\ time\\ just\\ imagine\\ a\\ field\\ full\\ of\\ sheep\\.\\ \\ You\\ see\\ how\\ many\\ are\\ there\\ and\\ it\\ registers\\ in\\ your\\ brain\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ association\\ with\\ a\\ numeric\\ title\\.\\ \\ Accuracy\\ begins\\ to\\ plummet\\ as\\ the\\ number\\ increases\\ in\\ both\\ humans\\ and\\ animals\\.\\ \\ Imagine\\ filling\\ a\\ jar\\ up\\ with\\ jellybeans\\,\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ many\\ are\\ there\\ but\\ cannot\\ know\\ the\\ number\\.\\ \\ All\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ estimate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ fourth\\ and\\ final\\ way\\ that\\ animals\\ can\\ conceptualize\\ numbers\\ is\\ simply\\ by\\ noticing\\ differences\\.\\ \\ In\\ both\\ animals\\ and\\ infants\\,\\ tests\\ have\\ been\\ done\\ that\\ measure\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ they\\ remain\\ interested\\ in\\ a\\ simple\\ task\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ place\\ two\\ lemons\\ into\\ a\\ bag\\,\\ one\\ after\\ another\\,\\ and\\ then\\ empty\\ the\\ bag\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ animal\\;\\ two\\ lemons\\ will\\ quickly\\ bore\\ the\\ subject\\.\\ \\ Put\\ if\\ you\\ put\\ two\\ in\\ and\\ only\\ one\\ appears\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ animal\\ or\\ infant\\ will\\ stare\\ for\\ much\\ longer\\.\\ \\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ both\\ subjects\\ understood\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ an\\ extra\\ lemon\\ and\\ fully\\ expected\\ two\\ to\\ be\\ there\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\ \\ Therefore\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ some\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ lemons\\,\\ right\\?\\ \\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ \\video\\<\\/a\\>\\ to\\ watch\\ that\\ illustrates\\ what\\ we\\ were\\ just\\ speaking\\ about\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ what\\ if\\ the\\ monkeys\\ in\\ the\\ video\\ were\\ not\\ numerically\\ competent\\.\\ \\ An\\ interesting\\ comparison\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ to\\ present\\ the\\ monkey\\ with\\ two\\ lemons\\ that\\ differed\\ in\\ size\\ or\\ in\\ color\\.\\ \\ In\\ tests\\ such\\ as\\ these\\,\\ the\\ animals\\ and\\ children\\ have\\ both\\ stared\\ at\\ the\\ objects\\ for\\ longer\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ happened\\.\\ \\ But\\ these\\ tests\\ do\\ not\\ show\\ number\\ comprehension\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ they\\ illustrate\\ an\\ awareness\\ of\\ difference\\.\\ \\ When\\ we\\ discuss\\ these\\ upcoming\\ papers\\,\\ keep\\ these\\ counting\\ alternatives\\ in\\ mind\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ you\\ think\\ the\\ research\\ subjects\\ were\\ exhibiting\\ a\\ clear\\ understanding\\ of\\ numbers\\ or\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ using\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ tricks\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Number Concepts: Part 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.914435+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Number Concepts: Part 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 404, "html": "\\Hello\\ there\\!\\ \\ Hopefully\\ as\\ we\\ continue\\ our\\ discussion\\ of\\ numbers\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\ world\\,\\ you\\ will\\ recall\\ from\\ my\\ last\\ blog\\ the\\ difficulties\\ that\\ researchers\\ face\\ in\\ exhibiting\\ numerical\\ competency\\ in\\ animals\\.\\ \\ The\\ research\\ subjects\\ have\\ often\\ times\\ found\\ ways\\ to\\ perform\\ the\\ number\\ based\\ tasks\\ presented\\ by\\ their\\ trainers\\,\\ but\\ a\\ successful\\ completion\\ of\\ a\\ task\\ is\\ not\\ always\\ indicative\\ of\\ comprehension\\.\\ \\ Animals\\ often\\ times\\ use\\ alternatives\\ to\\ counting\\,\\ such\\ as\\ subitizing\\,\\ object\\ filing\\,\\ and\\ recognizing\\ differences\\,\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ required\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ numbers\\ and\\ quantities\\.\\ \\ While\\ completing\\ the\\ test\\ is\\ the\\ animals\\&\\#8217\\;\\ job\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ must\\ first\\ design\\ an\\ experiment\\ that\\ is\\ well\\ thought\\ out\\ and\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ conclusive\\ results\\.\\ \\ The\\ papers\\ that\\ we\\ cover\\ today\\ were\\ both\\ written\\ by\\ professor\\ Irene\\ Pepperberg\\ about\\ her\\ work\\ with\\ the\\ African\\ Grey\\ parrot\\,\\ Alex\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ first\\ paper\\,\\ entitled\\ Numerical\\ Competence\\ in\\ an\\ African\\ Grey\\ Parrot\\,\\ used\\ Alex\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ vocal\\ abilities\\ to\\ test\\ his\\ counting\\ skills\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ eight\\.\\ \\ When\\ presented\\ with\\ a\\ tray\\ of\\ objects\\ that\\ varied\\ in\\ two\\ colors\\ and\\ two\\ object\\ categories\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ blue\\ and\\ red\\ key\\ and\\ trucks\\)\\,\\ Alex\\ was\\ asked\\ to\\ label\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ items\\ uniquely\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ conjunction\\ of\\ one\\ color\\ and\\ one\\ object\\ category\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ \\\"How\\ many\\ blue\\ key\\?\\\"\\)\\.\\ \\ Alex\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ overall\\ results\\ were\\ impressively\\ accurate\\ at\\ 83\\.3\\%\\ correct\\,\\ but\\ even\\ more\\ astounding\\ were\\ his\\ first\\ test\\ trials\\,\\ which\\ were\\ over\\ 76\\%\\ accurate\\.\\ \\ First\\ test\\ trials\\ are\\ so\\ important\\ when\\ trying\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ an\\ animal\\ truly\\ understands\\ a\\ task\\,\\ because\\ a\\ solid\\ comprehension\\ of\\ a\\ topic\\ will\\ allow\\ for\\ an\\ animal\\ to\\ immediately\\ transfer\\ its\\ previous\\ knowledge\\ to\\ a\\ novel\\ set\\ of\\ stimuli\\.\\ \\ Unfortunately\\,\\ first\\ test\\ data\\ is\\ often\\ left\\ out\\ of\\ research\\ reports\\ because\\ it\\ often\\ times\\ indicates\\ that\\ the\\ animals\\ may\\ not\\ truly\\ understand\\ the\\ concept\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Aside\\ from\\ first\\ test\\ accuracy\\,\\ this\\ experiment\\ was\\ also\\ so\\ impressive\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ language\\.\\ \\ Past\\ numerical\\ competence\\ experiments\\ done\\ with\\ apes\\ had\\ used\\ an\\ array\\ of\\ correctly\\ ordered\\ Arabic\\ numerals\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ animal\\ what\\ number\\ is\\ being\\ discussed\\.\\ \\ These\\ visual\\ cues\\ allowed\\ for\\ the\\ apes\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ number\\ line\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ for\\ help\\,\\ where\\ as\\ Alex\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ keep\\ all\\ numerical\\ knowledge\\ in\\ his\\ head\\.\\ \\ To\\ further\\ ensure\\ that\\ no\\ cues\\ were\\ helping\\ Alex\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Pepperberg\\ first\\ taught\\ him\\ the\\ numbers\\ three\\ and\\ four\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ not\\ how\\ humans\\ normally\\ teach\\ toddlers\\ or\\ apes\\ to\\ count\\ because\\ learning\\ the\\ numbers\\ in\\ order\\ reinforces\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ number\\ line\\.\\ \\ By\\ using\\ language\\ and\\ teaching\\ Alex\\ numbers\\ in\\ a\\ non\\-numerical\\ order\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Pepperberg\\ avoided\\ the\\ helpful\\ cues\\ that\\ had\\ brought\\ so\\ many\\ previous\\ experiments\\ into\\ question\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\So\\ you\\ must\\ be\\ asking\\ yourself\\,\\ how\\ did\\ Alex\\ do\\ it\\?\\ \\ There\\ is\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ be\\ 100\\%\\ certain\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ general\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ data\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ possibility\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ subitizing\\ the\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ While\\ previous\\ experiments\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ humans\\ and\\ apes\\ can\\ only\\ subitize\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ four\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ a\\ parrot\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ numerical\\ mental\\ abilities\\ allow\\ for\\ a\\ greater\\ capacity\\ of\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ The\\ second\\ possibility\\ is\\ that\\ Alex\\ was\\ actually\\ counting\\ the\\ items\\.\\ \\ The\\ third\\ and\\ final\\ is\\ that\\ Alex\\ could\\ be\\ using\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ both\\ to\\ derive\\ his\\ answers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ paper\\ we\\ will\\ discuss\\ is\\ entitled\\ Numerical\\ Comprehension\\ by\\ a\\ Grey\\ Parrot\\.\\ \\ But\\ if\\ we\\ have\\ already\\ proven\\ that\\ Alex\\ has\\ numerical\\ competence\\,\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ care\\ if\\ he\\ has\\ numerical\\ comprehension\\?\\ \\ The\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\ question\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ studies\\ done\\ on\\ very\\ young\\ children\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ child\\ was\\ given\\ four\\ marbles\\ and\\ asked\\ how\\ many\\,\\ they\\ could\\ correctly\\ respond\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ if\\ given\\ a\\ bowl\\ of\\ marbles\\ and\\ asked\\ for\\ four\\,\\ the\\ child\\ would\\ grab\\ a\\ handful\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ how\\ did\\ they\\ accomplish\\ this\\ with\\ a\\ parrot\\?\\ \\ Dr\\.\\ Pepperberg\\ used\\ an\\ experimental\\ method\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ previous\\ one\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ of\\ asking\\ how\\ many\\ blue\\ keys\\,\\ she\\ would\\ ask\\ what\\ color\\/object\\ is\\ seven\\.\\ \\ This\\ required\\ Alex\\ to\\ count\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ objects\\ provided\\ and\\ determine\\ which\\ object\\/color\\ pair\\ matched\\ the\\ quantity\\ that\\ Dr\\.\\ Pepperberg\\ asked\\ for\\.\\ \\ Also\\,\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ none\\ was\\ introduced\\ in\\ this\\ experiment\\,\\ requiring\\ Alex\\ to\\ learn\\ yet\\ another\\ complex\\,\\ abstract\\ idea\\.\\ \\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\,\\ not\\ only\\ was\\ Alex\\ able\\ to\\ perform\\ this\\ task\\ which\\ was\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ apes\\,\\ but\\ he\\ only\\ made\\ three\\ errors\\!\\ \\ While\\ these\\ results\\ were\\ both\\ amazing\\ and\\ conclusive\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Pepperberg\\ modestly\\ commented\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ upset\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ missed\\ anymore\\ after\\ ten\\ years\\ of\\ training\\!\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ conclusion\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ pretty\\ apparent\\ that\\ Alex\\ possessed\\ both\\ numerical\\ competence\\ and\\ comprehension\\.\\ \\ While\\ the\\ scientific\\ world\\ still\\ debates\\ his\\ ability\\ to\\ count\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ a\\ parrot\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ out\\ perform\\ both\\ children\\ and\\ apes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Number Concepts: Part 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.925695+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Insightful Behaviors: 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 405, "html": "\\Hello\\ all\\!\\ \\ Today\\ we\\ will\\ continue\\ our\\ examination\\ of\\ insightful\\ behavior\\ in\\ the\\ animal\\ kingdom\\!\\ \\ If\\ you\\ remember\\ my\\ last\\ blog\\,\\ we\\ looked\\ into\\ some\\ pretty\\ crafty\\ ravens\\ and\\ their\\ recognition\\ of\\ a\\ relationship\\ between\\ food\\ and\\ string\\.\\ \\ These\\ string\\ based\\ tests\\ will\\ continue\\ today\\ as\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ tests\\ involving\\ dogs\\ and\\ parrots\\.\\\r\\The\\ first\\ paper\\,\\ Dogs\\ \\(Canis\\ lupus\\ familiaris\\)\\ fail\\ to\\ show\\ understanding\\ of\\ means\\-end\\ connections\\ in\\ a\\ string\\-pulling\\ task\\,\\ was\\ authored\\ by\\ Osthaus\\,\\ Lea\\,\\ and\\ Slater\\.\\ \\ They\\ ran\\ a\\ similar\\ barrage\\ of\\ experiments\\ on\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ dogs\\ of\\ all\\ different\\ breeds\\ and\\ ages\\.\\ \\ A\\ transparent\\ box\\ was\\ made\\ and\\ a\\ treat\\ was\\ placed\\ inside\\.\\ \\ Two\\ strings\\ ran\\ into\\ the\\ box\\,\\ one\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ treat\\,\\ the\\ other\\ connected\\ to\\ nothing\\.\\ \\ Three\\ experiments\\ were\\ run\\,\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ stings\\ straight\\,\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ strings\\ running\\ at\\ an\\ angle\\,\\ and\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ strings\\ crossed\\.\\ \\ The\\ dogs\\ were\\ fairly\\ quick\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ task\\ when\\ the\\ strings\\ were\\ straight\\,\\ but\\ they\\ took\\ a\\ much\\ longer\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ experiments\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ several\\ possible\\ explanations\\ for\\ the\\ overall\\ failure\\ of\\ the\\ dogs\\ in\\ this\\ insightful\\ task\\.\\ \\ First\\ off\\,\\ dogs\\ have\\ long\\ since\\ become\\ dependent\\ on\\ humans\\,\\ and\\ have\\ lost\\ many\\ hunting\\ and\\ foraging\\ instincts\\ they\\ once\\ had\\.\\ \\ Furthermore\\,\\ dogs\\ lack\\ the\\ dexterity\\ of\\ many\\ other\\ animals\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ required\\ to\\ easily\\ manipulate\\ the\\ string\\.\\ \\ The\\ third\\,\\ and\\ most\\ probable\\,\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ failures\\ is\\ that\\ dogs\\ rely\\ on\\ their\\ sense\\ of\\ smell\\ more\\ than\\ their\\ sight\\.\\ \\ The\\ dogs\\ could\\ smell\\ the\\ treats\\,\\ but\\ was\\ their\\ eyesight\\ sufficient\\ to\\ see\\ where\\ the\\ strings\\ led\\?\\ \\ While\\ this\\ experiment\\ proved\\ that\\ the\\ dogs\\ could\\ not\\ accomplish\\ this\\ particular\\ task\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ claim\\ that\\ dogs\\ do\\ not\\ possess\\ insight\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(Another\\ possible\\ reasons\\ the\\ dogs\\ did\\ not\\ test\\ well\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ final\\ paper\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ discuss\\ is\\ Irene\\ Pepperberg\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Insightful\\\"\\ string\\-pulling\\ in\\ Grey\\ parrots\\ \\(Psittacus\\ erithacus\\)\\ is\\ affected\\ by\\ vocal\\ competence\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ experiment\\,\\ four\\ parrots\\ were\\ presented\\ with\\ a\\ setup\\ similar\\ to\\ Heinrich\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ravens\\.\\ \\ Instead\\ of\\ meat\\,\\ a\\ treat\\ and\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ chalk\\ were\\ suspended\\ from\\ the\\ perch\\.\\ \\ Two\\ of\\ the\\ parrots\\ in\\ the\\ experiment\\ had\\ proficient\\ language\\ skills\\,\\ while\\ two\\ did\\ not\\.\\ \\ The\\ non\\-speaking\\ parrots\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ hoist\\ the\\ string\\ with\\ their\\ beaks\\ and\\ talons\\ almost\\ immediately\\.\\ \\ The\\ real\\ surprise\\ came\\ when\\ the\\ talking\\ parrots\\ were\\ tested\\.\\ \\ When\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ perch\\,\\ the\\ parrot\\ would\\ make\\ not\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ treat\\ up\\.\\ \\ It\\ would\\ simply\\ repeat\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Want\\ nut\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ \\ Does\\ this\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ parrot\\ lacks\\ insight\\?\\ \\ I\\ would\\ argue\\ no\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Instead\\ of\\ using\\ physical\\ labor\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ nut\\,\\ the\\ speaking\\ parrots\\ vocalized\\ their\\ commands\\ to\\ the\\ researcher\\.\\ \\ In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ language\\ allowed\\ for\\ the\\ birds\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ human\\ as\\ tools\\.\\ \\ Why\\ would\\ the\\ parrot\\ waste\\ its\\ energy\\ when\\ it\\ could\\ simply\\ ask\\ for\\ help\\?\\ \\ No\\ matter\\ how\\ long\\ the\\ birds\\ remained\\ on\\ the\\ perch\\,\\ they\\ made\\ no\\ attempt\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ string\\ themselves\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Like\\ so\\ many\\ other\\ topics\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ covered\\,\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ whether\\ animals\\ possess\\ insight\\ is\\ still\\ being\\ heavily\\ debated\\.\\ \\ The\\ difficulty\\ of\\ studying\\ animal\\ cognition\\ is\\ that\\ proving\\ something\\ beyond\\ a\\ reasonable\\ doubt\\ is\\ incredibly\\ tough\\.\\ \\ As\\ time\\ goes\\ on\\,\\ and\\ more\\ ingenious\\ experiments\\ are\\ designed\\,\\ hopefully\\ this\\ question\\ will\\ be\\ sufficiently\\ answered\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Go\\ to\\ the\\ this\\ \\website\\<\\/a\\>\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ video\\ of\\ animal\\ insight\\.\\ \\ Watch\\ the\\ video\\ entitled\\ \\\"Figure\\ that\\ one\\ out\\\"\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Insightful Behaviors: 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.936104+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Episodic-Like Memory", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 406, "html": "\\Hello\\ everyone\\!\\&\\#160\\;\\ Today\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ discussed\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ episodic\\ like\\ memory\\ in\\ animals\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Wikipedia\\ defines\\ episodic\\ memory\\ as\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ events\\,\\ times\\,\\ places\\,\\ associated\\ emotions\\,\\ and\\ other\\ conception\\-based\\ knowledge\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ an\\ experience\\.\\ Semantic\\ memory\\ and\\ episodic\\ memory\\ together\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ category\\ of\\ declarative\\ memory\\,\\ which\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ major\\ divisions\\ in\\ memory\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ divisions\\ of\\ declarative\\ memory\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ using\\ September\\ 11th\\ as\\ an\\ example\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ We\\ all\\ know\\ what\\ happened\\ on\\ that\\ day\\,\\ as\\ the\\ facts\\ have\\ been\\ stored\\ in\\ out\\ semantic\\ memory\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ this\\,\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ remember\\ exactly\\ where\\ we\\ were\\ when\\ we\\ heard\\ the\\ new\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ felt\\,\\ as\\ this\\ was\\ stored\\ in\\ our\\ episodic\\ memory\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(Does\\ this\\ image\\ bring\\ back\\ memories\\ of\\ where\\ you\\ were\\ or\\ how\\ you\\ felt\\ on\\ that\\ day\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ episodic\\ memory\\ is\\ undeniable\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ its\\ presence\\ in\\ other\\ animals\\ has\\ been\\ greatly\\ debated\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ While\\ previous\\ experiments\\ tend\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ animals\\ do\\ indeed\\ possess\\ this\\ category\\ of\\ memory\\,\\ the\\ quality\\ and\\ conclusiveness\\ of\\ these\\ studies\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ reviewing\\ today\\)\\ are\\ questionable\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Our\\ only\\ paper\\ today\\,\\ Rhesus\\ monkeys\\ \\(Macaca\\ mulatta\\)\\ demonstrate\\ robust\\ memory\\ for\\ what\\ and\\ where\\,\\ but\\ not\\ when\\,\\ in\\ an\\ open\\-field\\ test\\ of\\ memory\\,\\ was\\ written\\ by\\ Hampton\\,\\ Hamstead\\,\\ and\\ Murray\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ experiment\\ used\\ foraging\\ skills\\ to\\ test\\ episodic\\ memory\\ in\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ monkeys\\ were\\ taught\\ where\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ food\\ \\(some\\ preferred\\,\\ other\\ not\\ preferred\\)\\ were\\ hidden\\ in\\ a\\ room\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ monkeys\\ were\\ then\\ brought\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ room\\ after\\ either\\ one\\ hour\\ or\\ after\\ twenty\\-five\\ hours\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ During\\ the\\ short\\ break\\,\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ food\\ caches\\ remained\\ intact\\,\\ but\\ after\\ the\\ long\\ break\\,\\ the\\ preferred\\ foods\\ were\\ taken\\ away\\ to\\ simulate\\ natural\\ pilfering\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ researchers\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ monkeys\\ would\\ learn\\ to\\ ignore\\ the\\ preferred\\ food\\ locations\\ after\\ finding\\ them\\ raided\\ again\\ and\\ again\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\For\\ the\\ experiments\\,\\ ten\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\ in\\ total\\ were\\ used\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Five\\ of\\ the\\ monkeys\\ were\\ fully\\ intact\\,\\ while\\ the\\ other\\ five\\ had\\ received\\ bilateral\\ excitotoxic\\ lesions\\ in\\ the\\ hippocampus\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ new\\ episodic\\ memories\\ requires\\ the\\ medial\\ temporal\\ lobe\\,\\ a\\ structure\\ that\\ includes\\ the\\ hippocampus\\.\\ Without\\ the\\ medial\\ temporal\\ lobe\\,\\ one\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ form\\ new\\ procedural\\ memories\\ \\(such\\ as\\ playing\\ the\\ piano\\)\\ but\\ cannot\\ remember\\ the\\ events\\ during\\ which\\ they\\ happened\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ would\\ seem\\ to\\ make\\ inhibiting\\ the\\ hippocampus\\ a\\ good\\ decision\\ for\\ the\\ experiment\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ the\\ hippocampus\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ for\\ spatial\\ learning\\ \\(such\\ as\\ where\\ the\\ foods\\ are\\ being\\ hidden\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ results\\ of\\ the\\ experiments\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ both\\ groups\\ of\\ monkeys\\,\\ neither\\ learned\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ preferred\\ food\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ would\\ seem\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ monkeys\\ lack\\ episodic\\ memory\\,\\ but\\ is\\ this\\ a\\ valid\\ test\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ If\\ you\\ were\\ led\\ into\\ a\\ room\\ where\\ you\\ knew\\ a\\ food\\ you\\ loved\\ and\\ a\\ food\\ you\\ were\\ not\\ crazy\\ about\\ hidden\\,\\ would\\ you\\ not\\ check\\ for\\ your\\ preferred\\ just\\ in\\ case\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ I\\ know\\ I\\ would\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Beyond\\ this\\,\\ testing\\ caching\\ and\\ foraging\\ behavior\\ in\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\ is\\ not\\ ecologically\\ sound\\,\\ as\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ their\\ natural\\ behavior\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Once\\ again\\,\\ the\\ complex\\ nature\\ of\\ animal\\ cognition\\ leaves\\ another\\ experiment\\ inconclusive\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Episodic-Like Memory"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.946725+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Social Learning", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 407, "html": "\\Josep\\ Call\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ and\\ Michael\\ Tomasello\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\,\\ Production\\ and\\ Comprehension\\ of\\ Referential\\ Pointing\\ by\\ Orangutans\\ \\(Pongo\\ pygmaseus\\)\\,\\ tests\\ the\\ social\\ learning\\ capabilities\\ of\\ two\\ great\\ apes\\.\\ \\ To\\ determine\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ pointing\\ was\\ understood\\ by\\ the\\ animals\\,\\ versus\\ merely\\ a\\ conditioned\\ response\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ aimed\\ to\\ address\\ three\\ main\\ questions\\:\\ was\\ the\\ pointing\\ used\\ flexibly\\,\\ could\\ the\\ orangutans\\ comprehend\\ pointing\\,\\ and\\ could\\ the\\ apes\\ could\\ understand\\ audience\\ effects\\.\\ \\ While\\ the\\ authors\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ aforementioned\\ questions\\ have\\ been\\ studied\\ before\\,\\ never\\ have\\ they\\ been\\ tested\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ specimens\\ in\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ complex\\ interrelations\\ created\\ by\\ social\\ learning\\.\\\r\\Call\\ and\\ Tomasello\\ were\\ interested\\ in\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ orangutans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ understand\\ referential\\ pointing\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ also\\ curious\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ extent\\ previous\\ human\\ interactions\\ affected\\ social\\ learning\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ paper\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ gestural\\ communication\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ interactions\\ of\\ great\\ apes\\.\\ \\ While\\ proximate\\ pointing\\ amongst\\ primates\\ was\\ rare\\,\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ no\\ reports\\ of\\ distal\\ pointing\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ many\\ apes\\ that\\ have\\ had\\ experienced\\ extensive\\ human\\ interactions\\ have\\ learned\\ to\\ referentially\\ point\\ to\\ distal\\ objects\\.\\\r\\For\\ this\\ reason\\,\\ the\\ two\\ orangutans\\ selected\\ for\\ the\\ study\\ had\\ experienced\\ drastically\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ human\\ interaction\\ in\\ their\\ lives\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ research\\ specimen\\ was\\ Puti\\,\\ a\\ 12\\-year\\-old\\ female\\ orangutan\\ raised\\ in\\ captivity\\ in\\ a\\ nursery\\ setting\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ years\\ prior\\ to\\ this\\ experiment\\,\\ she\\ was\\ exposed\\ to\\ tests\\ using\\ object\\ manipulation\\,\\ tool\\ use\\,\\ and\\ imitation\\.\\ \\ Chantek\\,\\ the\\ second\\ specimen\\ was\\ a\\ 16\\-year\\-old\\ male\\ that\\ was\\ also\\ raised\\ in\\ captivity\\.\\ \\ Following\\ nine\\ months\\ with\\ his\\ mother\\,\\ he\\ was\\ entered\\ into\\ an\\ ape\\ sign\\ language\\ training\\ program\\ that\\ immersed\\ him\\ in\\ social\\ interactions\\ and\\ communication\\ with\\ humans\\.\\ \\ While\\ these\\ two\\ specimens\\ certainly\\ do\\ bring\\ very\\ different\\ histories\\ to\\ the\\ experiment\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ only\\ two\\ are\\ used\\ limits\\ the\\ credibility\\ of\\ the\\ findings\\.\\ \\ More\\ orangutans\\,\\ especially\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ raised\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ humans\\,\\ would\\ seem\\ to\\ make\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ results\\ more\\ credible\\.\\\r\\Three\\ separate\\ experiments\\ were\\ conducted\\ in\\ this\\ article\\,\\ each\\ aiming\\ to\\ answer\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ questions\\ proposed\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ this\\ paper\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ experiment\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ flexibility\\ of\\ referentially\\ pointing\\ amongst\\ the\\ orangutans\\.\\ \\ In\\ previous\\ experiments\\,\\ apes\\ had\\ been\\ taught\\ to\\ point\\ to\\ food\\,\\ but\\ could\\ they\\ be\\ taught\\ to\\ consistently\\ point\\ at\\ a\\ non\\-food\\ object\\?\\ \\ This\\ test\\ required\\ the\\ orangutans\\ to\\ point\\ to\\ a\\ hidden\\ tool\\ that\\ a\\ researcher\\ would\\ then\\ use\\ to\\ retrieve\\ food\\.\\ \\ The\\ second\\ test\\ aimed\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ apes\\ could\\ comprehend\\ referential\\ pointing\\.\\ \\ After\\ the\\ orangutans\\ had\\ been\\ taught\\ to\\ point\\ themselves\\,\\ this\\ test\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ they\\ could\\ interpret\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ pointing\\ of\\ a\\ human\\.\\ \\ The\\ third\\ and\\ final\\ test\\ sought\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ the\\ apes\\ could\\ comprehend\\ that\\ a\\ human\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ looking\\ at\\ them\\ to\\ process\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ ape\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ pointing\\.\\ \\ When\\ the\\ orangutans\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ selection\\ by\\ pointing\\,\\ the\\ human\\ would\\ either\\ walk\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ specimen\\,\\ close\\ their\\ eyes\\,\\ or\\ stare\\ attentively\\ at\\ the\\ ape\\.\\ \\ Could\\ the\\ orangutans\\ determine\\ when\\ pointing\\ was\\ useful\\?\\ \\ Prior\\ to\\ any\\ testing\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ predicted\\ that\\ Chantek\\,\\ the\\ orangutan\\ more\\ experienced\\ with\\ humans\\,\\ would\\ out\\ perform\\ Puti\\ on\\ all\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ experimental\\ tasks\\.\\\r\\The\\ first\\ experiment\\ required\\ the\\ apes\\ to\\ point\\ to\\ a\\ hidden\\ tool\\ hidden\\ behind\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ screens\\ and\\ then\\ point\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ containers\\ that\\ had\\ food\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ The\\ orangutans\\ would\\ watch\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ researcher\\ walked\\ in\\ and\\ hid\\ the\\ tool\\ and\\ the\\ food\\.\\ \\ Once\\ the\\ trainer\\ was\\ gone\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ human\\ would\\ enter\\ the\\ pen\\ and\\ wait\\ for\\ the\\ orangutan\\ to\\ direct\\ them\\ with\\ pointing\\.\\ \\ The\\ experiment\\ was\\ appropriate\\ because\\ it\\ tested\\ the\\ apes\\&\\#8217\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ point\\ at\\ a\\ non\\-food\\ item\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ there\\ were\\ several\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\.\\\r\\First\\,\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ test\\ in\\ the\\ article\\ was\\ poorly\\ written\\ and\\ very\\ confusing\\.\\ \\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ human\\ readers\\ had\\ to\\ reread\\ the\\ experimental\\ design\\ several\\ times\\ suggests\\ that\\ either\\ it\\ was\\ poorly\\ described\\ or\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ too\\ complicated\\.\\ \\ Second\\,\\ the\\ training\\ consisted\\ of\\ countless\\ trials\\,\\ the\\ pretest\\ added\\ forty\\-two\\ more\\ trials\\,\\ and\\ the\\ hidden\\ tool\\ test\\ was\\ another\\ twenty\\-two\\ trials\\.\\ \\ These\\ apes\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ very\\ bored\\ and\\ less\\ effort\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ experiments\\.\\ \\ Puti\\ stopped\\ responding\\ on\\ the\\ hidden\\ tool\\ test\\ because\\ she\\ was\\ always\\ wrong\\,\\ so\\ she\\ had\\ to\\ undergo\\ another\\ twenty\\-two\\ trials\\ for\\ training\\,\\ and\\ then\\ another\\ twenty\\-two\\ tests\\.\\ \\ The\\ excessive\\ repetitions\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ test\\ combined\\ with\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ food\\ deprived\\ would\\ make\\ you\\ wonder\\ if\\ the\\ apes\\ had\\ any\\ motive\\ to\\ try\\ at\\ all\\.\\\r\\Another\\ issue\\ with\\ this\\ experiment\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ apes\\ should\\ have\\ been\\ recorded\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ its\\ pointing\\ could\\ be\\ verified\\.\\ \\ It\\ would\\ seem\\ that\\ having\\ one\\ researcher\\ trying\\ to\\ determine\\ which\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ object\\ was\\ being\\ pointed\\ to\\ would\\ be\\ very\\ objective\\,\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ wrong\\ when\\ the\\ pointing\\ was\\ unclear\\.\\ \\ The\\ final\\ issue\\ with\\ this\\ first\\ experiment\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\.\\ \\ The\\ theory\\ of\\ mind\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ ape\\ can\\ understand\\ that\\ the\\ second\\ researcher\\ does\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ the\\ ape\\ itself\\ knows\\.\\ \\ The\\ orangutans\\ are\\ shown\\ where\\ the\\ food\\ and\\ the\\ tools\\ are\\ hidden\\,\\ but\\ can\\ they\\ understand\\ that\\ the\\ second\\ trainer\\ has\\ not\\ seen\\ it\\?\\ \\ Theory\\ of\\ mind\\ is\\ a\\ characteristic\\ of\\ higher\\ order\\ cognition\\,\\ and\\ may\\ therefore\\ be\\ affecting\\ this\\ experiment\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ results\\.\\\r\\The\\ second\\ experiment\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ orangutans\\ could\\ comprehend\\ the\\ referential\\ pointing\\ of\\ humans\\.\\ \\ One\\ researcher\\ would\\ enter\\ the\\ pen\\,\\ and\\ hide\\ food\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ containers\\ without\\ the\\ orangutan\\ seeing\\.\\ \\ As\\ the\\ human\\ was\\ leaving\\,\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ would\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ container\\ that\\ held\\ the\\ food\\.\\ \\ A\\ second\\ researcher\\ would\\ enter\\ the\\ pen\\ immediately\\ afterwards\\ and\\ wait\\ for\\ the\\ ape\\ to\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ correct\\ container\\.\\ \\ This\\ experiment\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ many\\ design\\ flaws\\.\\ \\ First\\ of\\ all\\,\\ this\\ test\\ only\\ requires\\ that\\ the\\ orangutan\\ imitate\\ the\\ first\\ human\\ that\\ enters\\ the\\ enclosure\\.\\ \\ It\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ better\\ if\\ the\\ test\\ did\\ not\\ include\\ the\\ second\\ human\\,\\ and\\ simply\\ allowed\\ the\\ ape\\ to\\ go\\ choose\\ a\\ container\\ for\\ itself\\ after\\ the\\ first\\ human\\ pointed\\.\\ \\ Secondly\\,\\ the\\ first\\ trial\\ results\\ were\\ not\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ orangutans\\ had\\ really\\ understood\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ pointing\\,\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ correctly\\ responded\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ or\\ second\\ try\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Otherwise\\,\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ apes\\ were\\ learning\\ through\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\ or\\ were\\ simply\\ learning\\ to\\ imitate\\ the\\ first\\ researcher\\.\\ \\ The\\ final\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ experiment\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ frequency\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ trials\\ were\\ held\\.\\ \\ The\\ orangutans\\ were\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ select\\ the\\ correct\\ box\\ from\\ the\\ previous\\ trial\\,\\ as\\ they\\ trusted\\ their\\ own\\ experience\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ pointing\\ of\\ the\\ humans\\.\\ \\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ Chantek\\ was\\ much\\ more\\ accurate\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ test\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ \\(Puti\\ was\\ not\\)\\,\\ when\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ recollection\\ of\\ the\\ previous\\ correct\\ answer\\ and\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ pointing\\ of\\ the\\ human\\.\\ \\ A\\ possible\\ solution\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ to\\ run\\ multiple\\ trials\\ in\\ a\\ day\\ as\\ the\\ pretest\\,\\ and\\ then\\ run\\ one\\ trial\\ a\\ day\\ for\\ the\\ real\\ test\\.\\\r\\The\\ third\\ and\\ final\\ experiment\\ in\\ this\\ paper\\ evaluated\\ the\\ orangutans\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ effect\\.\\ \\ Two\\ cups\\ of\\ juice\\ were\\ poured\\ and\\ presented\\ to\\ the\\ apes\\,\\ one\\ containing\\ more\\ juice\\ that\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ The\\ specimens\\ would\\ then\\ point\\ to\\ whichever\\ cup\\ they\\ would\\ prefer\\ to\\ have\\.\\ \\ Before\\ the\\ apes\\ would\\ make\\ their\\ selection\\,\\ the\\ researcher\\ would\\ act\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ four\\ ways\\,\\ either\\ staring\\ attentively\\ at\\ the\\ ape\\,\\ closing\\ their\\ eyes\\,\\ walking\\ to\\ the\\ corner\\ of\\ the\\ room\\ and\\ looking\\ away\\,\\ or\\ leaving\\ the\\ room\\ completely\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ orangutans\\ did\\ understand\\ the\\ audience\\ effect\\,\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ situations\\ where\\ the\\ researcher\\ was\\ not\\ staring\\ at\\ them\\.\\ \\ This\\ experiment\\ was\\ designed\\ fairly\\ well\\,\\ as\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ problems\\ were\\ apparent\\.\\ \\ First\\ of\\ all\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ would\\ not\\ record\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ the\\ apes\\ until\\ thirty\\ seconds\\ after\\ the\\ human\\ had\\ preformed\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ activities\\.\\ \\ The\\ need\\ for\\ the\\ pause\\ was\\ unclear\\ and\\ confusing\\,\\ why\\ not\\ score\\ the\\ orangutans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ reactions\\ the\\ entire\\ time\\?\\ \\ The\\ other\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ test\\ was\\ what\\ else\\ were\\ the\\ orangutans\\ to\\ do\\ when\\ the\\ human\\ walked\\ away\\.\\ \\ They\\ certainly\\ were\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ get\\ juice\\ if\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ point\\ at\\ anything\\,\\ so\\ why\\ not\\ go\\ ahead\\ and\\ point\\ even\\ if\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ watching\\.\\ \\ They\\ were\\ given\\ nothing\\ else\\ to\\ do\\,\\ so\\ continuing\\ to\\ point\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ logical\\ decision\\.\\\r\\Overall\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ this\\ paper\\ contained\\ many\\ flaws\\ in\\ the\\ experimental\\ design\\.\\ \\ The\\ paper\\ informed\\ the\\ reader\\ of\\ many\\ interesting\\ behaviors\\ of\\ the\\ apes\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ any\\ huge\\ claims\\ about\\ the\\ data\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ collected\\,\\ which\\ was\\ an\\ excellent\\ decision\\.\\ \\ As\\ predicted\\ Chantek\\,\\ the\\ orangutan\\ with\\ more\\ human\\ experience\\,\\ far\\ outperformed\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ The\\ most\\ severe\\ problems\\ with\\ this\\ paper\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ only\\ two\\ orangutans\\ were\\ used\\,\\ the\\ sheer\\ number\\ of\\ trials\\ conducted\\,\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ trial\\ results\\,\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ two\\ researchers\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ experiment\\,\\ and\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ what\\ else\\ was\\ the\\ specimen\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ experiment\\.\\ \\ Beyond\\ these\\ glaring\\ issues\\,\\ the\\ paper\\ was\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ understand\\ and\\ required\\ several\\ reads\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ experiments\\.\\ \\ While\\ addressing\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ interesting\\ questions\\,\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\ and\\ the\\ format\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ presented\\ makes\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ draw\\ any\\ definite\\ conclusions\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Social Learning"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.959624+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "No Class Today", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 408, "html": "\\Professor\\ Pepperberg\\ was\\ giving\\ a\\ guest\\ lecture\\ at\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Wisconsin\\ today\\.\\ \\ Sorry\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\ is\\ a\\ sad\\ \\article\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ her\\ star\\ parrot\\,\\ Alex\\,\\ to\\ keep\\ you\\ busy\\ until\\ next\\ time\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "No Class Today"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.967959+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Number Concept: Part 3", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 409, "html": "\\Hello\\ all\\!\\ \\ Today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ blog\\ will\\ continue\\ on\\ analysis\\ of\\ numbers\\ and\\ animals\\.\\ \\ In\\ class\\ we\\ discussed\\ one\\ paper\\ that\\ delved\\ further\\ into\\ the\\ search\\ for\\ and\\ evaluation\\ of\\ numerical\\ competency\\ in\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\.\\ \\ The\\ paper\\ compares\\ the\\ system\\ for\\ ordering\\ numbers\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ monkeys\\ and\\ humans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Jessica\\ Cantlon\\ and\\ Elizabeth\\ Brannon\\ authored\\ Shared\\ System\\ for\\ Ordering\\ Small\\ and\\ Large\\ Numbers\\ in\\ Monkeys\\ and\\ Humans\\ in\\ 2005\\.\\ \\ This\\ experiment\\ presented\\ the\\ monkeys\\ \\(two\\ adult\\ females\\)\\ with\\ a\\ computer\\ screen\\ that\\ displayed\\ two\\ different\\ groupings\\ of\\ dots\\.\\ \\ The\\ monkeys\\ were\\ initially\\ trained\\ to\\ identify\\ the\\ larger\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ arrays\\,\\ comparing\\ all\\ possible\\ arrangements\\ of\\ the\\ numbers\\ one\\ through\\ nine\\.\\ \\ After\\ the\\ monkeys\\ could\\ successfully\\ accomplish\\ this\\ task\\,\\ they\\ were\\ presented\\ with\\ novel\\ numbers\\ \\(ten\\,\\ fifteen\\,\\ twenty\\,\\ and\\ thirty\\)\\.\\ \\ As\\ expected\\,\\ the\\ monkeys\\ could\\ transfer\\ their\\ knowledge\\ learned\\ from\\ the\\ small\\ numbers\\ to\\ the\\ larger\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ This\\ first\\ experiment\\ brings\\ about\\ two\\ important\\ points\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ point\\ is\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ while\\ this\\ experiment\\ deals\\ with\\ numbers\\,\\ it\\ is\\ far\\ from\\ counting\\.\\ \\ The\\ task\\ requires\\ a\\ recognition\\ of\\ and\\ distinction\\ between\\ more\\ and\\ less\\.\\ \\ While\\ this\\ experiment\\ does\\ identify\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ recognize\\ differences\\ in\\ number\\,\\ it\\ is\\ far\\ less\\ sophisticated\\ than\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ experiments\\ written\\ about\\ in\\ previous\\ blogs\\.\\ \\ The\\ second\\ point\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ deals\\ with\\ Weber\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ law\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ accuracy\\ of\\ the\\ monkeys\\&\\#8217\\;\\ response\\ was\\ not\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ quantities\\ being\\ compared\\.\\ \\ Instead\\,\\ it\\ was\\ directly\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ quantities\\.\\ \\ Weber\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ law\\ states\\ that\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ discriminate\\ two\\ values\\ depends\\ on\\ their\\ ratio\\ rather\\ than\\ their\\ absolute\\ value\\.\\ \\ This\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ monkey\\ could\\ more\\ easily\\ discriminate\\ arrays\\ of\\ fifteen\\ versus\\ thirty\\ than\\ of\\ seven\\ versus\\ ten\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ second\\ experiment\\ used\\ the\\ same\\ exact\\ task\\ as\\ the\\ first\\,\\ but\\ compared\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\ to\\ eleven\\ students\\ from\\ Duke\\ University\\ \\(the\\ students\\ were\\ asked\\ to\\ select\\ the\\ greater\\ array\\ as\\ quickly\\ as\\ possible\\)\\.\\ \\ Once\\ again\\,\\ all\\ specimens\\ were\\ limited\\ in\\ accuracy\\ and\\ latency\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ the\\ quantities\\,\\ not\\ the\\ absolute\\ values\\.\\ \\ While\\ the\\ humans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ accuracy\\ was\\ greater\\ overall\\ \\(87\\%\\ compared\\ to\\ 80\\%\\ in\\ the\\ monkeys\\)\\,\\ the\\ discrepancy\\ could\\ be\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ monkeys\\ answered\\ significantly\\ faster\\ \\(549\\ ms\\ versus\\ 674\\ ms\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ extra\\ time\\ taken\\ by\\ the\\ humans\\ may\\ very\\ well\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ accuracy\\.\\ \\ Another\\ interesting\\ point\\ to\\ make\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ accuracy\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ monkeys\\ and\\ the\\ humans\\ was\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ best\\ and\\ worst\\ humans\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ this\\ paper\\ may\\ not\\ present\\ the\\ most\\ sophisticated\\ of\\ number\\ based\\ experiments\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\,\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ the\\ findings\\ any\\ less\\ important\\ or\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ The\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ learn\\ to\\ identify\\ the\\ greater\\ of\\ two\\ quantities\\,\\ and\\ transfer\\ this\\ knowledge\\ to\\ larger\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ This\\ would\\ suggest\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ upper\\ limit\\ on\\ what\\ quantities\\ a\\ monkey\\ can\\ recognize\\.\\ \\ These\\ absolute\\ values\\ matter\\ little\\ in\\ the\\ comparison\\ of\\ monkey\\,\\ or\\ as\\ the\\ second\\ experiment\\ showed\\,\\ humans\\.\\ \\ The\\ ability\\ to\\ discriminate\\ between\\ quantities\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ the\\ two\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Number Concept: Part 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.977721+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Number Concepts: Part 4", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 410, "html": "\\Welcome\\ back\\!\\ \\ In\\ class\\ today\\,\\ we\\ wrapped\\ up\\ our\\ discussion\\ of\\ number\\ competency\\ and\\ animals\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ remember\\ back\\ to\\ my\\ past\\ several\\ blogs\\,\\ you\\ should\\ recall\\ our\\ examination\\ of\\ several\\ papers\\ that\\ showed\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ chimpanzees\\,\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\,\\ and\\ parrots\\ to\\ manipulate\\ and\\ understand\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ But\\ these\\ experiments\\ are\\ far\\ from\\ natural\\,\\ and\\ require\\ an\\ animal\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ a\\ task\\ before\\ being\\ tested\\ on\\ a\\ similar\\ one\\.\\ \\ All\\ of\\ the\\ previous\\ experiments\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ examined\\ required\\ this\\ learning\\ period\\,\\ comprised\\ of\\ countless\\ trials\\ and\\ rewards\\,\\ to\\ teach\\ the\\ animals\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ numbers\\.\\ \\ But\\ now\\ we\\ wonder\\,\\ our\\ training\\ aside\\,\\ how\\ much\\ does\\ number\\ matter\\ to\\ an\\ animal\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Jessica\\ Cantlon\\ and\\ Elizabeth\\ Brannon\\ set\\ out\\ to\\ answer\\ this\\ question\\ in\\ their\\ aptly\\ named\\ article\\,\\ How\\ Much\\ Does\\ Number\\ Matter\\ to\\ a\\ Monkey\\.\\ \\ Prior\\ to\\ their\\ testing\\,\\ relatively\\ little\\ was\\ known\\ about\\ the\\ subject\\,\\ however\\ two\\ hypotheses\\ prevailed\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ hypothesis\\ suggested\\ that\\ animals\\ only\\ use\\ numbers\\ as\\ a\\ last\\ resort\\,\\ when\\ no\\ other\\ properties\\ differentiate\\ stimuli\\.\\ \\ The\\ second\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ that\\ animals\\ automatically\\,\\ spontaneously\\,\\ and\\ routinely\\ represent\\ the\\ numerical\\ attributes\\ of\\ their\\ environment\\.\\ \\ Using\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\,\\ the\\ researchers\\ set\\ out\\ to\\ determine\\ which\\ hypothesis\\ was\\ correct\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Four\\ rhesus\\ monkeys\\,\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ categories\\,\\ were\\ used\\ in\\ these\\ experiments\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ group\\,\\ called\\ the\\ number\\-experienced\\,\\ consisted\\ of\\ three\\ monkeys\\ that\\ had\\ undergone\\ extensive\\ laboratory\\ training\\ on\\ numerical\\ tasks\\.\\ \\ The\\ second\\ group\\,\\ or\\ number\\-naive\\,\\ consisted\\ of\\ one\\ monkey\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ prior\\ numerical\\ training\\ in\\ the\\ laboratory\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ test\\ itself\\ was\\ nothing\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ matching\\ task\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ numerical\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ stimuli\\ was\\ confounded\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ other\\ dimensions\\ \\(color\\,\\ surface\\ area\\,\\ and\\ shape\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ monkeys\\ were\\ presented\\ with\\ an\\ initial\\ stimuli\\ and\\ would\\ then\\ have\\ to\\ choose\\ an\\ array\\ to\\ match\\ based\\ on\\ number\\ or\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ dimensions\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ monkey\\ would\\ be\\ presented\\ with\\ two\\ red\\ hearts\\ as\\ the\\ stimulus\\,\\ but\\ then\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ match\\ it\\ to\\ either\\ two\\ blue\\ hearts\\ or\\ four\\ red\\ hearts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\After\\ the\\ experiments\\ were\\ conducted\\,\\ it\\ was\\ determined\\ that\\ both\\ sets\\ of\\ monkeys\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ number\\,\\ but\\ the\\ number\\-experienced\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ use\\ it\\ than\\ the\\ number\\-naive\\.\\ \\ Once\\ again\\ Weber\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ law\\ came\\ into\\ effect\\,\\ and\\ both\\ groups\\ of\\ monkeys\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ choose\\ number\\ when\\ the\\ ratio\\ in\\ numerical\\ value\\ between\\ the\\ choice\\ stimuli\\ decreased\\.\\ \\ When\\ this\\ ratio\\ began\\ to\\ increase\\ at\\ all\\,\\ the\\ number\\-naive\\ monkey\\ began\\ to\\ base\\ its\\ decisions\\ primarily\\ on\\ color\\ and\\ shape\\ \\(which\\ is\\ not\\ surprising\\ seeing\\ as\\ its\\ prior\\ laboratory\\ testing\\ dealt\\ with\\ image\\ comparison\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ the\\ researchers\\ concluded\\ that\\ this\\ experiment\\ disproved\\ the\\ last\\ resort\\ hypothesis\\,\\ I\\ am\\ not\\ sure\\ that\\ I\\ agree\\.\\ \\ Only\\ when\\ the\\ number\\ dimension\\ was\\ extremely\\ obvious\\ was\\ it\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ discrimination\\,\\ even\\ amongst\\ monkeys\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ trained\\ to\\ use\\ numbers\\ all\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\.\\ \\ I\\ believe\\,\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ findings\\ of\\ this\\ experiment\\,\\ that\\ a\\ wild\\ animal\\ would\\ most\\ likely\\ notice\\ shape\\ or\\ color\\ before\\ they\\ noticed\\ number\\ \\(surface\\ area\\ was\\ almost\\ totally\\ ignored\\ by\\ the\\ monkeys\\ in\\ the\\ test\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Number Concepts: Part 4"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.994213+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Insightful Behaviors: 1", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 411, "html": "\\Hello\\ again\\!\\ \\ In\\ class\\ today\\,\\ we\\ began\\ our\\ discussion\\ of\\ insightful\\ behavior\\ in\\ animals\\.\\ \\ The\\ term\\ insight\\ is\\ complex\\ and\\ refers\\ to\\ decisions\\ made\\ based\\ on\\ visualizations\\ and\\ thoughts\\,\\ not\\ experiences\\.\\ \\ For\\ a\\ behavior\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ insightful\\,\\ the\\ animals\\ must\\ be\\ making\\ a\\ choice\\ based\\ on\\ theory\\.\\ \\ For\\ researchers\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ insight\\ in\\ animals\\,\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ very\\ careful\\ in\\ the\\ set\\ up\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\.\\ \\ The\\ action\\ cannot\\ be\\ so\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ previous\\ one\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ trigger\\ memories\\ of\\ a\\ related\\ behavior\\,\\ although\\ it\\ may\\ involve\\ integrating\\ widely\\ differing\\ bits\\ of\\ previously\\ learned\\ information\\ in\\ an\\ unconscious\\ manner\\.\\ \\ The\\ action\\ should\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ general\\ knowledge\\ that\\ the\\ animals\\ possess\\,\\ but\\ not\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ ecologically\\ sound\\ or\\ instinctual\\.\\ \\ For\\ an\\ animal\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ true\\ insight\\,\\ it\\ must\\ understand\\ essential\\ relationships\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ specific\\ goal\\ in\\ mind\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Furthermore\\,\\ for\\ an\\ action\\ to\\ be\\ truly\\ considered\\ insightful\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ successfully\\ completed\\ on\\ a\\ very\\ early\\ attempt\\.\\ \\ Otherwise\\,\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ animal\\ accomplished\\ the\\ task\\ using\\ trial\\ and\\ error\\ or\\ learned\\ the\\ task\\ through\\ observation\\.\\ \\ To\\ evaluate\\ if\\ insight\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ animals\\,\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ analyzing\\ three\\ papers\\ this\\ week\\.\\ \\ Each\\ article\\ covers\\ three\\ different\\ species\\,\\ so\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ covering\\ tests\\ run\\ on\\ ravens\\,\\ dogs\\,\\ and\\ parrots\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ first\\ two\\ papers\\,\\ An\\ experimental\\ investigation\\ of\\ insight\\ in\\ Common\\ Ravens\\ \\(Corvus\\ corax\\)\\ and\\ Testing\\ insight\\ in\\ ravens\\,\\ were\\ written\\ by\\ Bernd\\ Heinrich\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ tests\\,\\ Heinrich\\ would\\ use\\ strings\\ to\\ tie\\ meat\\ to\\ a\\ wooden\\ perch\\.\\ \\ He\\ was\\ testing\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ ravens\\ could\\ use\\ insight\\ to\\ solve\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ accessing\\ the\\ meat\\.\\ \\ In\\ order\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ the\\ ravens\\ would\\ not\\ only\\ have\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ string\\ and\\ the\\ food\\,\\ but\\ discern\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\In\\ the\\ first\\ experiment\\,\\ food\\ was\\ simply\\ suspended\\ from\\ the\\ perch\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ravens\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ lift\\ the\\ string\\ in\\ increments\\,\\ and\\ hold\\ it\\ in\\ place\\ with\\ their\\ foot\\ until\\ they\\ could\\ take\\ another\\ bit\\ in\\ their\\ mouth\\.\\ \\ Of\\ the\\ five\\ ravens\\,\\ all\\ but\\ one\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ accomplish\\ the\\ task\\.\\ \\ Bird\\ number\\ four\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ succeed\\ on\\ its\\ initial\\ attempt\\,\\ but\\ this\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ watch\\ early\\ birds\\ try\\.\\ \\ Bird\\ five\\ got\\ its\\ treat\\,\\ but\\ only\\ by\\ ambushing\\ bird\\ four\\ and\\ exerting\\ his\\ dominance\\,\\ stealing\\ the\\ meat\\.\\ \\ The\\ test\\ proved\\ that\\ the\\ ravens\\ could\\ solve\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ obtaining\\ the\\ suspended\\ meat\\,\\ but\\ was\\ not\\ quite\\ sufficient\\ in\\ showing\\ that\\ the\\ birds\\ understood\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ treat\\ with\\ the\\ string\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ further\\ clarify\\ the\\ point\\,\\ experiment\\ two\\ suspended\\ both\\ food\\ and\\ rocks\\ from\\ different\\ strings\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ ravens\\ understood\\ the\\ relationship\\,\\ it\\ would\\ use\\ insight\\ to\\ hoist\\ up\\ only\\ the\\ strings\\ attached\\ to\\ treats\\.\\ \\ It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ ravens\\ would\\ bring\\ the\\ objects\\ up\\ indiscriminately\\,\\ but\\ would\\ immediately\\ move\\ on\\ if\\ it\\ saw\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ rock\\.\\ \\ If\\ a\\ treat\\ was\\ hoisted\\ up\\,\\ the\\ bird\\ would\\ take\\ time\\ to\\ consume\\ the\\ meat\\.\\ \\ This\\ proved\\ that\\ the\\ raven\\ did\\ not\\ just\\ associate\\ the\\ string\\ with\\ food\\,\\ but\\ seemed\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ birds\\&\\#8217\\;\\ insight\\ was\\ limited\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Experiment\\ three\\ again\\ used\\ stones\\ and\\ meat\\,\\ but\\ this\\ time\\ crossed\\ the\\ strings\\.\\ \\ Could\\ the\\ bird\\ understand\\ that\\ the\\ string\\ was\\ not\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ object\\ hanging\\ directly\\ below\\ it\\?\\ \\ Surprisingly\\,\\ the\\ ravens\\ were\\ quite\\ good\\ at\\ this\\,\\ and\\ their\\ accuracy\\ improved\\ when\\ a\\ neon\\ green\\ string\\ was\\ used\\ \\(allowing\\ the\\ birds\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ better\\)\\.\\ \\ Another\\ trend\\ that\\ Heinrich\\ noticed\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ same\\ birds\\ were\\ doing\\ the\\ best\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ experiments\\.\\ \\ Bird\\ four\\,\\ who\\ accomplished\\ the\\ initial\\ task\\ first\\,\\ also\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ accurate\\ in\\ this\\ test\\.\\ \\ On\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ the\\ one\\ bird\\,\\ which\\ did\\ not\\ complete\\ the\\ first\\ trial\\,\\ also\\ struggled\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ tasks\\.\\ \\ It\\ appeared\\ that\\ baseline\\ intelligence\\ altered\\ between\\ the\\ birds\\,\\ just\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ in\\ humans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ fourth\\ and\\ final\\ test\\ that\\ Heinrich\\ ran\\ was\\ a\\ bit\\ unorthodox\\.\\ \\ He\\ would\\ wait\\ for\\ a\\ raven\\ to\\ successful\\ hoist\\ the\\ meat\\ up\\ and\\ grab\\ it\\ with\\ its\\ beak\\,\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ would\\ charge\\ at\\ the\\ bird\\ and\\ shoe\\ him\\ away\\.\\ \\ The\\ birds\\ that\\ understood\\ that\\ the\\ meat\\ was\\ tethered\\ to\\ the\\ perch\\ would\\ let\\ go\\ of\\ it\\ before\\ flying\\ away\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ the\\ less\\ insightful\\ ravens\\ would\\ take\\ off\\ with\\ their\\ treat\\,\\ only\\ to\\ be\\ jerked\\ backwards\\ once\\ the\\ string\\ was\\ pulled\\ tight\\.\\ \\ While\\ some\\ birds\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ the\\ connection\\ immediately\\,\\ it\\ only\\ took\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ trials\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ to\\ learn\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ success\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ ravens\\ experienced\\ could\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ four\\ possible\\ solutions\\.\\ \\ First\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ the\\ birds\\ succeeded\\ due\\ to\\ random\\ chance\\.\\ \\ The\\ next\\ possibility\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ task\\ that\\ was\\ being\\ tested\\ was\\ instinctual\\,\\ or\\ programmed\\ into\\ their\\ minds\\ at\\ birth\\.\\ \\ The\\ third\\ possibility\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ ravens\\ were\\ quick\\ to\\ learn\\ the\\ sequences\\ of\\ events\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ experiment\\.\\ \\ The\\ fourth\\,\\ and\\ final\\,\\ explanation\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ birds\\ did\\ in\\ fact\\ use\\ insight\\ to\\ conceptualize\\ a\\ solution\\ before\\ attempting\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Tune\\ in\\ for\\ my\\ next\\ blog\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ will\\ investigate\\ insight\\ in\\ dogs\\ and\\ parrots\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 75, "file_path": "", "desc": "Insightful Behaviors: 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.008184+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Summary of Psychology 1504: Positive Psychology", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 412, "html": "\\\\\\Psychology\\ 1504\\:\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\&\\#8232\\;\\ \\-\\-\\ taught\\ by\\ \\&\\#8232\\;\\\\Tal\\ D\\.\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Summary\\ compiled\\ by\\ Jonathan\\ Hanover\\\r\\\\\\Basic\\ Principles\\ of\\ Positive\\ Psychology\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/iframe\\>\\\\<\\/iframe\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ concepts\\ were\\ primarily\\ covered\\ in\\ lecture\\ and\\ literature\\ was\\ sparsely\\ cited\\.\\ \\ They\\ are\\ important\\,\\ however\\,\\ for\\ building\\ a\\ framework\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ other\\ concepts\\.\\ \\ So\\,\\ without\\ further\\ adieu\\&\\#8230\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Health\\ Model\\ vs\\.\\ Disease\\ Model\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Positive\\ psychology\\ is\\ a\\ relatively\\ new\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ field\\.\\ \\ It\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ reaction\\ against\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;negative\\&\\#8221\\;\\ nature\\ of\\ most\\ psychology\\ research\\.\\ \\ Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ what\\ I\\ mean\\:\\ \\ psychology\\ has\\ primarily\\ focused\\ on\\ alleviating\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ problems\\ instead\\ of\\ developing\\ their\\ strengths\\.\\ \\ The\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;problemless\\&\\#8221\\;\\ ideal\\ state\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ disease\\ model\\.\\ \\ Positive\\ psychologists\\ suggest\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;problemlessness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ not\\ enough\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ meant\\ for\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\ This\\ is\\ the\\ health\\ model\\ of\\ psychology\\.\\\r\\\\\\The\\ disease\\ model\\ focuses\\ on\\ overcoming\\ weaknesses\\ and\\ deficiencies\\,\\ and\\ avoiding\\ sources\\ of\\ unhappiness\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ health\\ model\\ focuses\\ building\\ strengths\\ and\\ competences\\ and\\ seeking\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>Positive\\ psychology\\ utilizes\\ the\\ health\\ model\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Passive\\ victim\\ vs\\.\\ Active\\ Agent\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Pretty\\ self\\-explanatory\\.\\ \\ Traditional\\ psychology\\ views\\ people\\ as\\ passive\\ victims\\ of\\ neuroses\\,\\ psychoses\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ Positive\\ psychology\\ views\\ people\\ as\\ active\\ agents\\,\\ capable\\ of\\ seizing\\ happiness\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ important\\ distinction\\ in\\ self\\-perception\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ see\\ yourself\\ has\\ a\\ passive\\ victim\\ you\\ will\\ never\\ overcome\\ your\\ problems\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ see\\ yourself\\ as\\ an\\ active\\ agent\\ you\\ will\\ work\\ toward\\ excellence\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Change\\ is\\ possible\\ vs\\.\\ Change\\ is\\ Illusive\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Some\\ people\\ think\\ change\\ is\\ impossible\\.\\ \\ There\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ studies\\ that\\ have\\ concluded\\ that\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ happiness\\ are\\ simply\\ genetically\\ determined\\.\\ \\ One\\ such\\ study\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Minnesota\\ Twin\\ Study\\ \\(\\Lykken\\ and\\ Tellegen\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ 1996\\)\\.\\ \\ A\\ group\\ of\\ researchers\\ studies\\ twins\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ separated\\ from\\ birth\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ despite\\ their\\ divergent\\ environments\\ they\\ had\\ on\\ average\\ the\\ same\\ levels\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ authors\\ concluded\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\ may\\ be\\ that\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ happier\\ is\\ as\\ futile\\ as\\ trying\\ to\\ be\\ taller\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ counterproductive\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ So\\ this\\ class\\ is\\ useless\\.\\ \\ But\\ wait\\&\\#8230\\;\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ WRONG\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Error\\ of\\ the\\ Average\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Tal\\ claims\\ this\\ study\\ and\\ many\\ other\\ studies\\ make\\ the\\ error\\ of\\ the\\ average\\.\\ Sure\\ on\\ average\\,\\ the\\ twins\\ had\\ equal\\ levels\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ but\\ the\\ interesting\\ cases\\ are\\ the\\ outliers\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ ones\\ that\\ did\\ display\\ a\\ discrepancy\\.\\ \\ The\\ others\\ asked\\ the\\ wrong\\ questions\\.\\ \\ Rather\\ than\\ asking\\ if\\ change\\ is\\ possible\\ for\\ most\\ people\\,\\ the\\ right\\ questions\\ are\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\ of\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ the\\ rare\\ cases\\,\\ what\\ made\\ one\\ twin\\ happier\\ than\\ the\\ other\\,\\ and\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ replicate\\ that\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Perfectionism\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Perfectionism\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ This\\ should\\ come\\ as\\ no\\ surprise\\ because\\ the\\ class\\ was\\ taught\\ at\\ Harvard\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ cesspool\\ of\\ perfectionism\\.\\ \\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ overlap\\ between\\ the\\ articles\\ so\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ try\\ to\\ avoid\\ repetitive\\ material\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Perfect\\ Trap\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Basco\\,\\ M\\.\\ R\\.\\,\\ 1999\\.\\ \\ Psychology\\ Today\\.\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/cms\\.psychologytoday\\.com\\/articles\\/pto\\-19990501\\-000032\\.xml\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\According\\ to\\ Basco\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Perfect\\ Trap\\&\\#8221\\;\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ perfectionism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ inwardly\\ focused\\ and\\ outwardly\\ focused\\.\\ \\ Inwardly\\ focused\\ perfectionism\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ unhealthy\\ concern\\ about\\ you\\ own\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ alight\\ if\\ others\\ make\\ mistakes\\ but\\ YOU\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ perfect\\.\\ \\ Outwardly\\ focused\\ perfectionism\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ concern\\ about\\ how\\ things\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ external\\ world\\.\\ \\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ all\\ right\\ if\\ you\\ make\\ mistakes\\ but\\ everything\\ outside\\ of\\ yourself\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ perfect\\.\\ \\ Both\\ kinds\\ of\\ perfectionism\\ can\\ put\\ a\\ huge\\ strain\\ on\\ relationships\\,\\ but\\ outwardly\\ focused\\ perfectionism\\ is\\ even\\ tougher\\ on\\ them\\ because\\ the\\ perfectionist\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ frustrated\\ with\\ his\\ partner\\.\\ \\ Perfectionism\\ makes\\ someone\\ more\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ depression\\ and\\ is\\ closely\\ linked\\ with\\ eating\\ disorders\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ rooted\\ in\\ genetics\\ but\\ primarily\\ due\\ to\\ parental\\ environment\\ \\(parents\\ saying\\ \\&\\#8220\\;that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ nice\\ but\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ better\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ such\\)\\.\\ \\ Perfectionists\\ are\\ generally\\ neat\\ and\\ organized\\ and\\ appear\\ confident\\ though\\ they\\ usually\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\.\\ \\ They\\ appear\\ confident\\ because\\ they\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ want\\ other\\ people\\ to\\ think\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ perfect\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Excerpts\\ from\\ \\\\Permission\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\to\\ be\\ Human\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ by\\ Tal\\ Ben\\-Shahar\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Just\\ Let\\ Go\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\We\\ are\\ surrounded\\ by\\ images\\ of\\ perfection\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ music\\,\\ movies\\,\\ news\\ media\\,\\ playboy\\,\\ etc\\.\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ not\\ perfect\\.\\ \\ Ben\\-Shahar\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ solution\\ is\\ active\\ acceptance\\.\\ \\ Perfection\\ is\\ an\\ allusion\\,\\ but\\ a\\ powerful\\ one\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ as\\ impossible\\ to\\ passively\\ accept\\ your\\ imperfections\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ perfect\\.\\ \\ We\\ must\\ actively\\ accept\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Natural\\ Anxiety\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Trying\\ not\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ anxiety\\ only\\ makes\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ it\\ more\\.\\ \\ The\\ example\\ he\\ gives\\:\\ someone\\ tells\\ you\\ not\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ a\\ pink\\ elephant\\.\\ \\ What\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ first\\ thing\\ that\\ pops\\ into\\ your\\ mind\\?\\ \\ A\\ pink\\ elephant\\.\\ \\ Got\\ you\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ best\\ to\\ let\\ yourself\\ fully\\ experience\\ emotions\\,\\ even\\ negative\\ ones\\.\\ \\ Once\\ you\\ are\\ done\\ experiencing\\ the\\ emotion\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ calm\\ yourself\\ and\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ irrationality\\ of\\ your\\ thoughts\\.\\ \\ Underneath\\ our\\ refusal\\ to\\ experience\\ emotion\\ is\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ pain\\.\\ \\ But\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ fear\\ is\\ fear\\ itself\\.\\ \\ The\\ pain\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ if\\ we\\ just\\ face\\ it\\ \\(like\\ pulling\\ a\\ band\\ aid\\ off\\ quickly\\)\\.\\ \\ When\\ we\\ give\\ ourselves\\ the\\ permission\\ to\\ be\\ human\\ we\\ accept\\ the\\ whole\\ range\\ of\\ human\\ emotion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Platinum\\ Rule\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\The\\ golden\\ rule\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;do\\ not\\ do\\ unto\\ others\\ as\\ we\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ done\\ unto\\ ourselves\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ This\\ rule\\ takes\\ self\\-love\\ for\\ granted\\,\\ but\\ for\\ many\\ people\\ self\\-love\\ is\\ the\\ hardest\\ to\\ come\\ by\\.\\ \\ The\\ platinum\\ rule\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ important\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;do\\ not\\ do\\ unto\\ yourself\\ what\\ you\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ done\\ unto\\ others\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ So\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ call\\ yourself\\ a\\ bottom\\-feeding\\ lowlife\\ if\\ you\\ wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ say\\ it\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Real\\ Expectations\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Perfectionism\\ is\\ closely\\ correlated\\ with\\ low\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;nothing\\-is\\-enough\\&\\#8221\\;\\ syndrome\\:\\ the\\ inability\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ of\\ ever\\ being\\ satisfied\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ posses\\ or\\ who\\ we\\ are\\.\\ \\ Our\\ constant\\ dissatisfaction\\ condemns\\ us\\ to\\ constant\\ displeasure\\ for\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ we\\ are\\ human\\ there\\ is\\ always\\ room\\ for\\ improvement\\.\\ \\ William\\ James\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ founding\\ fathers\\ of\\ psychology\\,\\ thought\\ that\\ self\\ esteem\\ was\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ expectation\\ and\\ performance\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ only\\ partially\\ true\\.\\ \\ We\\ cannot\\ keep\\ lowering\\ expectations\\ and\\ grow\\ infinitely\\ happier\\.\\ \\ Instead\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ set\\ realistic\\ expectations\\.\\ \\ Expectations\\ that\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ met\\,\\ but\\ reflect\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ reality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\The\\ Seven\\ Pillars\\ of\\ Self\\-Esteem\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ Nathanial\\ Branden\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ The\\ Practice\\ of\\ Self\\-Acceptance\\\r\\\\\r\\Self\\-acceptance\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ which\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ we\\ experience\\.\\ \\ Self\\-esteem\\ relies\\ on\\ self\\-acceptance\\.\\ \\ Branden\\ identifies\\ three\\ levels\\ of\\ self\\-acceptance\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ To\\ be\\ on\\ your\\ side\\:\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ egoism\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ birthright\\ of\\ every\\ human\\ being\\.\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ Willingness\\ to\\ experience\\:\\ acceptance\\ that\\ our\\ thoughts\\,\\ feelings\\ and\\ actions\\ our\\ in\\ fact\\ our\\ own\\;\\ a\\ refusal\\ to\\ regard\\ any\\ part\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ foreign\\.\\\r\\3\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ Being\\ a\\ friend\\ to\\ oneself\\:\\ you\\ can\\ condemn\\ a\\ particular\\ action\\ of\\ yours\\ but\\ still\\ have\\ a\\ compassionate\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ circumstances\\ that\\ caused\\ it\\ and\\ be\\ a\\ friend\\ to\\ yourself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ exercise\\ self\\-acceptance\\.\\ \\ Stand\\ naked\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ mirror\\ and\\ say\\ \\&\\#8220\\;whatever\\ my\\ defects\\ or\\ imperfections\\,\\ I\\ accept\\ myself\\ unreservedly\\ and\\ completely\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ You\\ might\\ want\\ to\\ double\\ check\\ that\\ the\\ door\\ is\\ closed\\.\\ \\ Your\\ roommate\\ might\\ freak\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Even\\ when\\ acceptance\\ feels\\ impossible\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ accept\\ your\\ lack\\ of\\ acceptance\\ and\\ then\\ try\\ to\\ overcome\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ common\\ fallacies\\ about\\ self\\-acceptance\\:\\ 1\\)\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ accept\\ who\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ are\\,\\ we\\ must\\ approve\\ everything\\ about\\ us\\ 2\\)\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ accept\\ who\\ we\\ are\\,\\ we\\ are\\ indifferent\\ to\\ change\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Both\\ of\\ these\\ are\\ fallacies\\,\\ but\\ I\\ think\\ Brandon\\ ignores\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ self\\-acceptance\\ can\\ motivate\\ change\\.\\ \\ It\\ might\\ make\\ you\\ more\\ unhappy\\,\\ but\\ it\\ still\\ can\\ motivate\\ change\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Wegner\\,\\ D\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(1997\\)\\.\\ \\ When\\ the\\ Antidote\\ is\\ the\\ Poison\\:\\ Ironic\\ Mental\\ Control\\ Processes\\.\\ \\ Psychological\\ Science\\,\\ 8\\ \\(3\\)\\,\\ 148\\-150\\.\\\r\\\\\\ www\\.wjh\\.harvard\\.edu\\/\\%7Ewegner\\/pdfs\\/Wegner\\%20When\\%20the\\%20Antidote\\%20is\\%20\\\r\\Poison\\%201997\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Ironic\\ processes\\ of\\ mental\\ control\\ explains\\ how\\ attempts\\ at\\ mental\\ control\\ can\\ backfire\\ in\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ way\\,\\ precisely\\ frustrating\\ the\\ desired\\ mental\\ state\\.\\ \\ Don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ remember\\ the\\ pink\\ elephant\\ example\\ I\\ gave\\ above\\.\\ \\ Ha\\!\\ \\ Got\\ you\\ again\\.\\ \\ Mental\\ control\\ uses\\ two\\ processes\\,\\ intentional\\ operating\\ process\\ and\\ ironic\\ monitoring\\ process\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ is\\ conscious\\,\\ effortful\\ and\\ interruptible\\ while\\ the\\ later\\ is\\ unconscious\\,\\ less\\ effortful\\ and\\ uninterruptible\\.\\ \\ The\\ monitoring\\ process\\ often\\ sabotages\\ the\\ minds\\ attempt\\ at\\ self\\-control\\.\\ \\ For\\ instance\\,\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ stressed\\ and\\ thinking\\ of\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ things\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ monitor\\ your\\ stressful\\ state\\ of\\ mind\\ can\\ make\\ you\\ more\\ stressed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Perfection\\ vs\\.\\ Excellence\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ comparison\\ was\\ only\\ covered\\ in\\ lecture\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Perfectionists\\ think\\ only\\ about\\ the\\ destination\\.\\ \\ Unfortunately\\,\\ when\\ we\\ achieve\\ some\\ goal\\,\\ we\\ quickly\\ return\\ to\\ our\\ base\\ level\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ by\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ journey\\ we\\ can\\ constantly\\ increase\\ or\\ base\\ level\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\Mindfulness\\ and\\ Meditation\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Kabat\\-Zinn\\,\\ J\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\.\\ \\ \\\"Mindfulness\\-Based\\ Interventions\\ in\\ Context\\:\\ Past\\,\\ Present\\,\\ and\\ Future\\.\\ \\\"\\ \\Clinical\\ Psychology\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ 10\\ \\(2\\)\\,\\ 144\\-156\\.\\\r\\\\\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.courses\\.fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\/\\~psy1504\\/AssignedReadings\\/Meditation\\-Review2\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Mindfulness\\ is\\ an\\ \\&\\#8220\\;awareness\\ that\\ emerges\\ through\\ paying\\ attention\\ on\\ purpose\\,\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ moment\\,\\ and\\ non\\-judgmentally\\ to\\ the\\ unfolding\\ of\\ experience\\ moment\\ by\\ moment\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ Mindfulness\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ developed\\ and\\ cultivated\\ by\\ meditation\\ and\\ requires\\ perpetual\\ and\\ persistent\\ inquiry\\ toward\\ whatever\\ arises\\ in\\ awareness\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ study\\ of\\ mindfulness\\ is\\ still\\ in\\ its\\ infancy\\.\\ \\ There\\ is\\ enough\\ evidence\\ that\\ mindfulness\\ intervention\\ is\\ effective\\ \\(Baer\\,\\ Bishop\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ like\\ many\\ positive\\ psychological\\ treatments\\,\\ mindfulness\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ rigorously\\ investigated\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Attachment\\ to\\ the\\ outcome\\:\\ seeking\\ a\\ specific\\ outcome\\ makes\\ the\\ achievement\\ of\\ that\\ outcome\\ less\\ likely\\.\\ \\ Like\\ ironic\\ monitoring\\ \\(see\\ above\\)\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ destination\\ can\\ be\\ counter\\-productive\\.\\ \\ If\\,\\ however\\,\\ you\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ intrinsic\\ qualities\\ of\\ an\\ activity\\,\\ you\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ experience\\ anxiety\\ and\\ depression\\.\\ \\ It\\ also\\ increases\\ the\\ pleasure\\ of\\ the\\ experience\\ and\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ achieve\\ what\\ you\\ set\\ out\\ to\\ achieve\\.\\ \\ Take\\ an\\ example\\ football\\.\\ You\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ point\\ differential\\ or\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ championship\\.\\ \\ You\\ have\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ running\\ your\\ pattern\\,\\ completing\\ that\\ pass\\,\\ winning\\ that\\ game\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Mindfulness\\-based\\ stress\\ reduction\\ was\\ developed\\ in\\ 1979\\ by\\ UMass\\ Medical\\ Center\\.\\ \\ The\\ stress\\ reduction\\ clinic\\ was\\ originally\\ developed\\ for\\ patients\\ who\\ were\\ not\\ responding\\ well\\ to\\ traditional\\ treatments\\ and\\ was\\ used\\ in\\ conjunction\\ with\\ medication\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ now\\ beginning\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ the\\ sole\\ treatment\\ for\\ some\\ disorders\\.\\ \\ For\\ instance\\,\\ they\\ conducted\\ a\\ randomized\\ experiment\\ on\\ 37\\ patients\\ with\\ psoriasis\\.\\ \\ Group\\ 1\\ followed\\ guided\\ mindfulness\\ meditation\\ instructions\\ on\\ audiotape\\ during\\ UV\\ treatments\\,\\ visualizing\\ light\\ stopping\\ cells\\ from\\ deteriorating\\.\\ \\ Group\\ 2\\ \\(control\\)\\ received\\ only\\ the\\ UV\\ treatment\\.\\ \\ Patients\\ in\\ group\\ 1\\ had\\ their\\ skin\\ clear\\ up\\ 4\\ times\\ as\\ quickly\\ as\\ the\\ control\\ group\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Davidson\\ J\\.\\ R\\.\\,\\ 2003\\.\\ \\ Alterations\\ in\\ Brain\\ and\\ Immune\\ Function\\ Produced\\ by\\ Mindfulness\\ Meditation\\.\\ \\ \\Psychosomatic\\ Medicine\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ 65\\,\\ 564\\-570\\.\\\r\\\\\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.psychosomaticmedicine\\.org\\.ezp2\\.harvard\\.edu\\/cgi\\/reprint\\/65\\/4\\/564\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ study\\ examines\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ mediation\\ on\\ the\\ brain\\ after\\ the\\ actual\\ mediation\\ session\\.\\ \\ 25\\ subjects\\ participated\\ in\\ an\\ 8\\-week\\ study\\ and\\ were\\ tested\\ for\\ emotion\\-related\\ brain\\ activity\\ and\\ immune\\ response\\ to\\ an\\ influenza\\ vaccination\\ before\\ \\(time\\ 1\\)\\,\\ after\\ \\(time\\ 2\\)\\,\\ and\\ 4\\ months\\ after\\ \\(time\\ 3\\)\\.\\ \\ There\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ control\\ group\\.\\ \\ Significant\\ decrease\\ in\\ anxiety\\ and\\ negative\\ affect\\ was\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ subjects\\.\\ \\ Most\\ strikingly\\,\\ the\\ subjects\\ who\\ did\\ the\\ meditation\\ saw\\ a\\ greater\\ increase\\ in\\ antibody\\ production\\ from\\ the\\ 4\\-week\\ blood\\ sample\\ to\\ the\\ 8\\-week\\ sample\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ control\\ group\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Note\\:\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ limitations\\ to\\ this\\ study\\.\\ \\ First\\ of\\ all\\ there\\ were\\ too\\ few\\ subjects\\.\\ \\ Several\\ of\\ the\\ predicted\\ effects\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ expected\\ direction\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ were\\ statistically\\ significant\\.\\ \\ The\\ study\\ was\\ also\\ conducted\\ over\\ a\\ very\\ short\\ time\\ period\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Monk\\ in\\ the\\ Lab\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Dalai\\ Lama\\,\\ 2003\\.\\ \\ The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ April\\ 26\\.\\\r\\\\\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.lamayeshe\\.com\\/otherteachers\\/hhdl\\/nyt\\_op\\_ed\\.shtml\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ supreme\\ spiritual\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Tibetan\\ people\\ wrote\\ this\\ article\\ in\\ The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\.\\ \\ He\\ discusses\\ how\\ negative\\ emotions\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ poor\\ health\\ and\\ destructive\\ behavior\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ cites\\ research\\ done\\ by\\ scientists\\ at\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Wisconsin\\ that\\ showed\\ positive\\ emotional\\ responses\\ were\\ achieved\\ by\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ meditation\\ done\\ by\\ Tibetan\\ Buddhists\\.\\ \\ He\\ believes\\ this\\ suggests\\ all\\ people\\ should\\ try\\ to\\ practice\\ the\\ calm\\ mindfulness\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ daily\\ practice\\ for\\ Buddhists\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ saffron\\-robed\\ spiritualists\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ Himalayas\\,\\ but\\ for\\ anyone\\ who\\ needs\\ more\\ peace\\ in\\ their\\ life\\.\\ \\ Yes\\,\\ that\\ means\\ YOU\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Goals\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Setting\\ goals\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ It\\ came\\ up\\ in\\ three\\ significant\\ contexts\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ Self\\-Concordant\\ Goals\\:\\ It\\ is\\ essential\\ that\\ we\\ set\\ self\\-concordant\\ goals\\ for\\ ourselves\\.\\ \\ Briefly\\,\\ a\\ self\\-concordant\\ goal\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ harmony\\ with\\ our\\ beliefs\\,\\ desires\\ and\\ abilities\\.\\ \\ The\\ professor\\ encouraged\\ us\\ to\\ make\\ lists\\ of\\ activities\\ that\\ are\\ meaningful\\ to\\ us\\,\\ pleasurable\\ for\\ us\\,\\ and\\ at\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ skilled\\,\\ first\\ on\\ separate\\ lists\\ and\\ then\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ overlap\\.\\ \\ If\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ activity\\ at\\ the\\ intersection\\ of\\ all\\ three\\ lists\\,\\ that\\ activity\\ is\\ self\\-concordant\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ Super\\-Ordinate\\ Goals\\:\\ \\ Super\\-ordinate\\ goals\\ are\\ a\\ key\\ indicator\\ of\\ successful\\ relationships\\ according\\ to\\ Schnarch\\ \\(1997\\)\\.\\ \\ A\\ super\\-ordinate\\ goal\\ is\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ both\\ partners\\ are\\ striving\\ to\\ accomplish\\ something\\ beyond\\ the\\ terminus\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ relationship\\.\\ \\ One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ super\\-ordinate\\ goal\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ raising\\ children\\.\\ \\ Others\\ include\\:\\ education\\,\\ participating\\ in\\ charitable\\ work\\,\\ artistic\\ pursuits\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ Freeing\\ Goals\\:\\ For\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ stressed\\,\\ especially\\ perfectionists\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ freeing\\ to\\ set\\ goals\\.\\ \\ For\\ instance\\,\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ thesis\\ to\\ write\\,\\ you\\ may\\ be\\ crippled\\ by\\ the\\ enormity\\ of\\ the\\ project\\,\\ be\\ too\\ scared\\ to\\ begin\\,\\ and\\ consider\\ switching\\ majors\\ or\\ dropping\\ out\\ of\\ school\\ \\(this\\ is\\ hypothetical\\,\\ of\\ course\\&\\#8230\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ if\\ you\\ set\\ intermediate\\ goals\\ \\(for\\ instance\\,\\ finding\\ an\\ advisor\\,\\ making\\ a\\ bibliography\\,\\ writing\\ an\\ outline\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ the\\ project\\ will\\ become\\ more\\ manageable\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Maslow\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Psychology\\ of\\ Being\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Toward\\ a\\ Psychology\\ of\\ Being\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ Abram\\ Maslow\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ book\\ was\\ a\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ The\\ primary\\ distinction\\ Maslow\\ draws\\ is\\ between\\ being\\-cognition\\ and\\ deficiency\\-cognition\\.\\ \\ Being\\-cognition\\ focuses\\ on\\ understanding\\ or\\ appreciating\\ the\\ being\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ things\\,\\ while\\ deficiency\\-cognition\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ shortcomings\\ or\\ imperfections\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ things\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ perfectionism\\ and\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ excellence\\ discussed\\ above\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ last\\ chapter\\ Maslow\\ lists\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ propositions\\ that\\ he\\ claims\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;are\\ a\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ this\\ book\\ and\\ of\\ my\\ previous\\ one\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ I\\ have\\ summarized\\ the\\ most\\ significant\\ ones\\ below\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ We\\ are\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ nurture\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ we\\ have\\ natural\\ capacities\\,\\ inclinations\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Everyone\\ has\\ some\\ characteristics\\ that\\ are\\ species\\-wide\\ and\\ some\\ that\\ are\\ idiosyncratic\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ study\\ this\\ inner\\-nature\\ scientifically\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ not\\ just\\ to\\ make\\ conjectures\\)\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Many\\ of\\ these\\ aspects\\ are\\ either\\ actively\\ repressed\\ \\(a\\ la\\ Freud\\)\\ or\\ simply\\ neglected\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ This\\ inner\\ nature\\ is\\ not\\ evil\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ either\\ good\\ or\\ neutral\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ No\\ psychological\\ health\\ is\\ possible\\ unless\\ this\\ inner\\ core\\ is\\ loved\\ and\\ respected\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Hierarchy\\ of\\ Needs\\:\\ a\\)\\ protection\\,\\ safety\\;\\ b\\)\\ belongingness\\;\\ c\\)\\ respect\\;\\ d\\)\\ freedom\\ to\\ self\\-actualize\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Complete\\ absence\\ of\\ frustration\\ is\\ dangerous\\ \\(if\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ feel\\ pain\\,\\ you\\ are\\ dead\\ or\\ psychotic\\)\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ To\\ make\\ self\\-actualization\\ possible\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ know\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ capacities\\ and\\ let\\ them\\ flourish\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Maturity\\ is\\ transcending\\ deficiency\\ needs\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ self\\-actualizing\\ rather\\ than\\ coping\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Also\\ expressed\\ as\\ increased\\ B\\-cognition\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Though\\ in\\ principle\\ self\\-actualization\\ is\\ easy\\,\\ by\\ his\\ criteria\\ less\\ than\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ adults\\ experience\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\&\\#8216\\;Growth\\&\\#8217\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Health\\ Model\\&\\#8217\\;\\ of\\ psychology\\ preferable\\ to\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Disease\\ Model\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Neurosis\\ is\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\-core\\ but\\ a\\ defense\\ against\\ or\\ an\\ evasion\\ of\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ At\\ self\\-actualizing\\ dichotomies\\ become\\ resolved\\ and\\ dichotomous\\ thinking\\ seems\\ immature\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Peak\\-experience\\ is\\ necessary\\ and\\ desirable\\.\\ \\ They\\ are\\ life\\-affirming\\ moments\\ of\\ health\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ Adult\\ must\\ become\\ independent\\ and\\ be\\ good\\ because\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ \\(a\\ la\\ self\\-concordance\\)\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\&\\#8220\\;Well\\-adjustedness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ not\\ synonymous\\ with\\ health\\.\\\r\\\\&\\#8226\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ The\\ self\\-actualized\\ person\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ anyone\\ in\\ a\\ peak\\ experience\\)\\ lives\\ outside\\ time\\ and\\ space\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Finally\\,\\ Maslow\\ calls\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ direction\\ for\\ psychology\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;We\\ learn\\ from\\ Freud\\ that\\ the\\ past\\ exists\\ now\\ in\\ the\\ present\\.\\ \\ We\\ must\\ add\\ that\\ the\\ future\\ exists\\ now\\ in\\ the\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ ideals\\,\\ hopes\\,\\ capacities\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ a\\ negative\\ to\\ a\\ positive\\ psychology\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Self\\-Esteem\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Self\\-esteem\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ covered\\ tangentially\\ throughout\\ our\\ discussion\\ above\\,\\ but\\ since\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ so\\ essential\\ to\\ positive\\ psychology\\ let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ get\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ detailed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Six\\ Pillars\\ of\\ Self\\-Esteem\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ Nathaniel\\ Branden\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ book\\ was\\ our\\ bible\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\ Branden\\ equates\\ self\\-esteem\\ with\\ the\\ health\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ \\ He\\ claims\\ that\\ besides\\ biological\\ problems\\,\\ every\\ single\\ psychological\\ problem\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ back\\ to\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\ \\&\\#8220\\;Of\\ all\\ the\\ judgments\\ we\\ pass\\ in\\ life\\,\\ none\\ is\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ we\\ pass\\ on\\ ourselves\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ He\\ has\\ spent\\ his\\ entire\\ life\\ researching\\ and\\ writing\\ about\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ hopes\\ with\\ this\\ book\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ factors\\ on\\ which\\ it\\ depends\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ primary\\ fallacies\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ avoid\\:\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ Oversimplifying\\ what\\ serf\\-esteem\\ requires\\ and\\ pandering\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;quick\\-fixes\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ The\\ belief\\ that\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ fixed\\ from\\ birth\\\r\\\\\r\\Branden\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ two\\-pronged\\:\\\r\\1\\)\\ confidence\\ in\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ basic\\ challenges\\ of\\ life\\ \\(or\\ self\\-efficacy\\)\\\r\\2\\)\\ confidence\\ in\\ our\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\ and\\ happy\\ \\(or\\ self\\-respect\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Branden\\ claims\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ a\\ need\\ like\\ calcium\\ is\\ a\\ need\\;\\ like\\ calcium\\ its\\ effects\\ are\\ sometime\\ indirect\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ nonetheless\\ a\\ need\\ because\\ it\\ 1\\)\\ makes\\ an\\ essential\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ life\\ process\\,\\ 2\\)\\ is\\ indispensable\\ to\\ normal\\ and\\ healthy\\ development\\,\\ and\\ 3\\)\\ has\\ survival\\ value\\.\\ \\ Self\\-esteem\\ is\\ particularly\\ important\\ in\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ economy\\.\\ \\ Low\\ self\\-esteem\\ stunts\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ creativity\\ and\\ an\\ increasing\\ number\\ of\\ workers\\ have\\ to\\ think\\ creatively\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;We\\ have\\ reached\\ a\\ moment\\ in\\ history\\ when\\ self\\-esteem\\,\\ which\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ a\\ supremely\\ important\\ psychological\\ need\\,\\ has\\ also\\ become\\ a\\ supremely\\ important\\ economic\\ need\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\High\\ self\\-esteem\\ manifests\\ itself\\ physically\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\.\\ \\ Someone\\ with\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ comfortable\\ in\\ giving\\ and\\ receiving\\ compliments\\ and\\ affection\\.\\ \\ There\\ is\\ a\\ harmony\\ between\\ what\\ someone\\ with\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\ says\\,\\ does\\,\\ looks\\,\\ sounds\\ and\\ moves\\.\\ \\ People\\ with\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\ have\\ eyes\\ that\\ are\\ alert\\,\\ a\\ face\\ that\\ is\\ relaxed\\,\\ an\\ erect\\ posture\\,\\ relaxed\\ shoulders\\,\\ purposeful\\ but\\ not\\ aggressive\\ gait\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ sometimes\\ we\\ see\\ people\\ who\\ enjoy\\ worldly\\ success\\,\\ are\\ widely\\ esteemed\\,\\ or\\ who\\ have\\ a\\ public\\ veneer\\ of\\ assurance\\ and\\ yet\\ are\\ deeply\\ dissatisfied\\,\\ anxious\\ or\\ depressed\\.\\ \\ Rather\\ than\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ feedback\\ and\\ validation\\ of\\ others\\,\\ we\\ should\\ develop\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ internal\\ support\\.\\ \\ Innovators\\ and\\ creators\\ are\\ persons\\ who\\ can\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ degree\\ than\\ average\\ accept\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ aloneness\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Baumeister\\,\\ R\\.\\ F\\.\\,\\ Smart\\,\\ L\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Boden\\,\\ J\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(1996\\)\\.\\ \\ Relation\\ of\\ threatened\\ egotism\\ to\\ violence\\ and\\ aggression\\:\\ The\\ dark\\ side\\ of\\ high\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\ Psychological\\ Review\\,\\ 103\\ \\(1\\)\\,\\ 5\\-33\\.\\\r\\\\\\ http\\:\\/\\/proxies\\.apa\\.org\\.ezp2\\.harvard\\.edu\\/journals\\/rev\\/103\\/1\\/5\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Basically\\ this\\ paper\\ argues\\ that\\ when\\ favorable\\ views\\ about\\ oneself\\ are\\ questioned\\,\\ contradicted\\,\\ impugned\\,\\ mocked\\,\\ challenged\\,\\ or\\ otherwise\\ put\\ in\\ jeopardy\\,\\ people\\ may\\ aggress\\.\\ \\ In\\ particular\\,\\ they\\ will\\ aggress\\ against\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ threat\\.\\ \\ The\\ biggest\\ flaw\\ in\\ Baumeister\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ paper\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ interchangeably\\ uses\\ self\\-esteem\\ with\\ egotism\\,\\ pride\\,\\ and\\ self\\-appraisal\\,\\ and\\ ignores\\ Brandon\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ as\\ living\\ self\\-consciously\\,\\ with\\ self\\-acceptance\\,\\ with\\ self\\-responsibility\\,\\ with\\ self\\-assertively\\,\\ with\\ purpose\\,\\ and\\ with\\ integrity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Tal\\ offers\\ another\\ way\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;save\\&\\#8221\\;\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\ He\\ thinks\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ separated\\ into\\ dependent\\ and\\ independent\\ self\\-esteem\\.\\ \\ Dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ the\\ lowest\\ level\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ when\\ we\\ rely\\ on\\ other\\ people\\ for\\ our\\ self\\-worth\\.\\ \\ Independent\\ self\\-esteem\\ is\\ when\\ we\\ rely\\ on\\ ourselves\\ for\\ validation\\.\\ \\ Everyone\\ has\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ dependent\\ self\\-esteem\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ best\\ to\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ independent\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ people\\ with\\ low\\ independent\\ sources\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ high\\ dependent\\ sources\\ of\\ self\\-esteem\\ that\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ aggression\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ it\\!\\ \\ There\\ were\\ some\\ small\\ satellite\\ subjects\\ covered\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ and\\ not\\ in\\ this\\ summary\\,\\ but\\ you\\ have\\ now\\ made\\ it\\ through\\ the\\ most\\ essential\\ concepts\\ in\\ positive\\ psychology\\.\\ \\ Enjoy\\!\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 70, "file_path": "", "desc": "Summary of Psychology 1504: Positive Psychology"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.047505+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Summary of Government 1295: Comparative Politics of Latin America", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 413, "html": "\\This\\ course\\ will\\ be\\ especially\\ helpful\\ both\\ for\\ anyone\\ who\\ hasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ had\\ any\\ exposure\\ to\\ Latin\\ American\\ history\\ and\\ politics\\ and\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ some\\ basic\\ knowledge\\ about\\ the\\ historical\\ and\\ current\\ realities\\ in\\ the\\ region\\.\\ While\\ most\\ students\\ recommend\\ \\Prof\\.\\ Levitsky\\<\\/a\\>\\ as\\ an\\ excellent\\ lecturer\\ \\(probably\\ due\\ to\\ his\\ performance\\ in\\ Social\\ Studies\\ junior\\ tutorials\\)\\,\\ students\\ who\\ took\\ the\\ class\\ with\\ me\\ share\\ my\\ opinion\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ done\\ a\\ better\\ teaching\\ job\\.\\ His\\ lectures\\ usually\\ take\\ the\\ whole\\ hour\\ and\\ a\\ half\\,\\ contain\\ an\\ incredible\\ amount\\ of\\ detailed\\,\\ factual\\ information\\,\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ never\\ remember\\,\\ and\\ can\\ take\\ up\\ to\\ 7\\ typed\\,\\ single\\-spaced\\ pages\\.\\ Still\\,\\ there\\ are\\ very\\ well\\ structured\\,\\ always\\ emphasize\\ the\\ important\\ ideas\\ and\\ political\\ theories\\,\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ class\\,\\ do\\ make\\ sense\\.\\ Overall\\,\\ the\\ course\\ will\\ provide\\ you\\ with\\ a\\ broad\\ and\\ sound\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ political\\ processes\\ that\\ shaped\\ the\\ social\\,\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ situation\\ in\\ Latin\\ American\\ states\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Throughout\\ the\\ semester\\,\\ you\\ get\\ to\\ write\\ two\\ 6\\-8\\-page\\ papers\\,\\ which\\ give\\ you\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ overarching\\ questions\\ and\\ draw\\ on\\ class\\-readings\\ to\\ prove\\ your\\ arguments\\.\\ I\\ particularly\\ liked\\ the\\ papers\\ as\\ they\\ allowed\\ me\\ to\\ think\\ outside\\ of\\ specific\\ articles\\ and\\ integrate\\ the\\ accumulated\\ material\\ into\\ a\\ logical\\ argument\\.\\ There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ also\\ short\\ response\\ papers\\ that\\ serve\\ a\\ similar\\ function\\.\\ Sections\\ are\\ generally\\ helpful\\,\\ and\\ all\\ section\\ leaders\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ done\\ a\\ pretty\\ good\\ job\\ of\\ discussing\\ key\\ ideas\\ and\\ providing\\ additional\\ information\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ clear\\ up\\ misunderstanding\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ taught\\ in\\ class\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 1\\:\\ Introduction\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\Gary\\ Wynia\\,\\ \\The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Development\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\(Cambridge\\:\\ Cambridge\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 46\\-101\\.\\\r\\Thomas\\ E\\.\\ Skidmore\\ and\\ Peter\\ H\\.\\ Smith\\,\\ \\\\Modern\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2004\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-10\\;\\ 13\\-66\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Week\\ one\\ readings\\ give\\ a\\ good\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Latin\\ America\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ know\\ absolutely\\ nothing\\ about\\ the\\ region\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Week\\ 2\\:\\ Points\\ of\\ Departure\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Howard\\ Wiarda\\,\\ \\\\Politics\\ and\\ Social\\ Change\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Still\\ a\\ Distinct\\ Tradition\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(Third\\ Edition\\.\\)\\ \\(Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1992\\)\\.\\ Introduction\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-8\\;\\ Conclusion\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 315\\-346\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Seymour\\ Martin\\ Lipset\\,\\ \\\\Political\\ Man\\:\\ The\\ Social\\ Bases\\ of\\ Politics\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Baltimore\\:\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1959\\/1981\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 27\\-63\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Andre\\ Gunder\\ Frank\\,\\ \\\"The\\ Development\\ of\\ Underdevelopment\\.\\\"\\ In\\ Peter\\ K\\.\\ Klar\\&\\#233\\;n\\ and\\ Thomas\\ J\\.\\ Bossert\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\Promise\\ of\\ Development\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Boulder\\:\\ Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ J\\.\\ Samuel\\ Valenzuela\\ and\\ Arturo\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ \\\"Modernization\\ and\\ Dependency\\:\\ Alternative\\ Perspectives\\ in\\ the\\ Study\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Underdevelopment\\.\\\"\\ \\\\Comparative\\ Politics\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 10\\:\\ 4\\ \\(July\\ 1978\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Eliana\\ Cardoso\\ and\\ Ann\\ Helwege\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Import\\ Substitution\\ Industrialization\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ Jeffry\\ Frieden\\,\\ Manuel\\ Pastor\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ and\\ Michael\\ Tomz\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\Modern\\ Political\\ Economy\\ and\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Theory\\ and\\ Policy\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 2000\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ readings\\ for\\ Week\\ 2\\ are\\ all\\ very\\ important\\ as\\ they\\ provide\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ most\\ influential\\ approaches\\ explaining\\ the\\ development\\ and\\ idiosyncrasies\\ of\\ modern\\ Latin\\ American\\ states\\.\\ Those\\ are\\:\\ the\\ \\cultural\\ approach\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(defended\\ by\\ Howard\\ Wiarda\\)\\,\\ \\dependency\\ theory\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(which\\ has\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;core\\&\\#8217\\;\\ variation\\ advocated\\ by\\ Gunder\\ Frank\\ and\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;weak\\&\\#8217\\;\\ explained\\ by\\ Valenzuela\\ and\\ Valenzuela\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\modernization\\ theory\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Wiarda\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ cultural\\ approach\\ \\ stipulates\\ that\\ Western\\ political\\ theories\\ have\\ been\\ unable\\ to\\ analyze\\ Latin\\ American\\ politics\\ successfully\\ because\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ been\\ using\\ inadequate\\,\\ Europe\\-\\ or\\ U\\.S\\.\\-centric\\ measures\\ rather\\ than\\ accepting\\ the\\ uniqueness\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ states\\ in\\ South\\ America\\ developed\\.\\ Reasons\\ about\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ developed\\ countries\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ and\\ Latin\\ American\\ states\\ include\\ the\\ earlier\\ industrial\\ development\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ the\\ simultaneity\\ of\\ modernization\\,\\ social\\,\\ economic\\ and\\ political\\ reform\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ their\\ sequential\\ realization\\ in\\ the\\ West\\,\\ Latin\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dependence\\ on\\ the\\ West\\ \\ and\\ international\\ institutions\\,\\ and\\ traditional\\ institutions\\&\\#8217\\;\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ \\(such\\ as\\ clientelism\\,\\ the\\ Catholic\\ church\\,\\ the\\ army\\,\\ the\\ landowner\\ elites\\)\\.\\ The\\ modernization\\ theory\\ tries\\ to\\ explain\\ Latin\\ American\\ political\\,\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ development\\ through\\ the\\ delayed\\ modernization\\ of\\ local\\ societies\\ which\\ prevented\\ the\\ timely\\ establishment\\ of\\ democratic\\ orders\\.\\ \\ Gunder\\ Frank\\ develops\\ the\\ core\\ dependency\\ theory\\ to\\ refute\\ modernization\\ theory\\ by\\ rebutting\\ the\\ main\\ precepts\\ of\\ modernizationists\\:\\ their\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ endogenous\\ factors\\ as\\ the\\ main\\ cause\\ for\\ the\\ region\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;underdevelopment\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ He\\ claims\\ that\\ Capitalism\\ both\\ incorporated\\ LA\\ into\\ the\\ world\\ economic\\ system\\ and\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ asymmetrical\\,\\ metropolitan\\-satellite\\ relationships\\ which\\ exploited\\ the\\ region\\ by\\ draining\\ resources\\ and\\ surplus\\ capital\\ from\\ the\\ periphery\\ and\\ moving\\ it\\ toward\\ the\\ core\\ areas\\.\\ Valenzuela\\ and\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ claim\\ that\\ rather\\ than\\ draining\\ the\\ peripheral\\ societies\\ and\\ thus\\ contributing\\ to\\ their\\ underdevelopment\\,\\ the\\ core\\ developed\\ states\\ stimulated\\ development\\ in\\ regions\\ like\\ Latin\\ America\\ through\\ the\\ exchange\\ of\\ resources\\ and\\ ideas\\ that\\ they\\ initiated\\.\\ Cardoso\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\ about\\ Import\\ Substitution\\ Industrialization\\ \\ \\(ISI\\)\\ effectively\\ describes\\ the\\ ISI\\ economic\\ model\\ and\\ its\\ weaknesses\\;\\ that\\ relates\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ dependency\\ approach\\ as\\ most\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ chose\\ that\\ economic\\ model\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ future\\ dependence\\ on\\ the\\ volatility\\ of\\ international\\ markets\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 3\\:\\ Industrialization\\ and\\ Working\\ Class\\ Incorporation\\:\\ \\ ISI\\,\\ Populism\\,\\ and\\ Corporatism\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Michael\\ Conniff\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Introduction\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ Conniff\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\\\Populism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(University\\ of\\ Alabama\\ Press\\,\\ 1999\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-22\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Torcuato\\ Di\\ Tella\\,\\ \\\"Populism\\ and\\ Reform\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\\"\\ In\\ Claudio\\ V\\&\\#233\\;liz\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\\\Obstacles\\ to\\ Change\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(London\\:\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1965\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 47\\-55\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ James\\ Malloy\\,\\ \\\"Authoritarianism\\ and\\ Corporatism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ The\\ Modal\\ Pattern\\,\\\"\\ In\\ Malloy\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\\\Authoritarianism\\ and\\ Corporatism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Pittsburgh\\:\\ University\\ of\\ Pittsburgh\\ Press\\,\\ 1977\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\-19\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Ruth\\ Berins\\ Collier\\ and\\ David\\ Collier\\,\\ \\\"Inducements\\ versus\\ Constraints\\:\\ Disaggregating\\ \\'Corporatism\\.\\\"\\ \\\\American\\ Political\\ Science\\ Review\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 73\\:\\ 4\\ \\(December\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 967\\-986\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Week\\ 3\\ introduces\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ Populism\\ \\(a\\ hot\\ topic\\ which\\ is\\ even\\ hotter\\ today\\ when\\ populist\\ leaders\\ are\\ heading\\ a\\ significant\\ number\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\ and\\ affecting\\ their\\ national\\ policies\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ pronounced\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ bigger\\ international\\ arena\\.\\ \\Populism\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ basically\\ a\\ political\\ means\\ of\\ mobilizing\\ political\\ support\\ centered\\ around\\ a\\ charismatic\\ leader\\ who\\ appeals\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\ \\(usually\\ middle\\ and\\ working\\ class\\,\\ in\\ its\\ radical\\ forms\\ to\\ peasants\\ as\\ well\\)\\ by\\ promising\\ favorable\\ economic\\ and\\ public\\ policy\\ reforms\\;\\ populist\\ movements\\ usually\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ \\corporatist\\<\\/em\\>\\ structures\\ of\\ political\\ domination\\ \\(discussed\\ at\\ length\\ in\\ the\\ article\\ by\\ \\Collier\\ and\\ Collier\\<\\/strong\\>\\)\\ which\\ proclaim\\ unique\\ social\\ organizations\\ as\\ legitimate\\ and\\ subject\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ direct\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ populist\\ leader\\ \\(a\\ good\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ legitimization\\ of\\ single\\ labor\\ union\\ under\\ Juan\\ Per\\&\\#243\\;n\\ in\\ Argentina\\ or\\ under\\ Cardenas\\ in\\ Mexico\\)\\,\\ they\\ usually\\ implemented\\ ISI\\,\\ and\\ promoted\\ nationalism\\.\\ \\Conniff\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\Di\\ Tella\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\Malloy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/strong\\>\\ articles\\ discuss\\ in\\ depth\\ the\\ various\\ aspects\\ of\\ populism\\.\\ \\ Malloy\\ also\\ describes\\ the\\ critical\\ effects\\ of\\ populism\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ conditions\\ in\\ Latin\\ American\\ states\\:\\ populism\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ annihilation\\ of\\ the\\ landed\\ elite\\ in\\ some\\ countries\\ \\(like\\ Venezuela\\ and\\ Mexico\\,\\ where\\ its\\ form\\ was\\ \\radical\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ as\\ they\\ completed\\ full\\ land\\ reform\\)\\ and\\ change\\ power\\ relations\\ by\\ strengthening\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ in\\ others\\ \\(Argentina\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ less\\ so\\ in\\ Brazil\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ populism\\ prevalent\\ in\\ each\\ state\\,\\ the\\ populist\\ government\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ legacy\\ was\\ either\\ a\\ very\\ strong\\ middle\\ class\\ that\\ would\\ generate\\ tensions\\ with\\ the\\ traditional\\ elite\\ and\\ create\\ unstable\\ political\\ climate\\ \\(in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ labor\\ populism\\)\\,\\ or\\ a\\ more\\ stable\\ political\\ situation\\ with\\ weaker\\ labor\\ movements\\ \\(resulting\\ from\\ conservative\\ populism\\)\\;\\ radical\\ populism\\ would\\ destroy\\ the\\ traditional\\ landowner\\ elites\\,\\ decrease\\ population\\ inequality\\,\\ and\\ insure\\ the\\ stable\\ rule\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ strong\\ party\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 4\\:\\ \\ The\\ Revolutionary\\ Alternative\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Susan\\ Eva\\ Eckstein\\,\\ \\\\Back\\ From\\ the\\ Future\\:\\ Cuba\\ Under\\ Castro\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Princeton\\:\\ Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1994\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\-59\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Jorge\\ Casta\\&\\#241\\;eda\\,\\ \\\\Back\\ From\\ the\\ Utopia\\ Unarmed\\:\\ The\\ Latin\\ American\\ Left\\ After\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Alfred\\ A\\.\\ Knopf\\,\\ 1993\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 67\\-89\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Timothy\\ Wickham\\-Crowley\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Winners\\,\\ Losers\\,\\ and\\ Also\\-Rans\\:\\ Toward\\ a\\ Comparative\\ Sociology\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Guerrilla\\ Movements\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ Susan\\ Eckstein\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\\\Power\\ and\\ Popular\\ Protest\\:\\ Latin\\ American\\ Social\\ Movements\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(University\\.\\ of\\ California\\ Press\\,\\ 1989\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Week\\ 4\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\Cuban\\ Revolution\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ the\\ political\\ climate\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ and\\ the\\ international\\ response\\.\\ \\Jorge\\ Casta\\&\\#241\\;eda\\<\\/strong\\>\\ discusses\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ \\\\Foco\\ Theory\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(conceived\\ by\\ Che\\ Guevara\\)\\,\\ according\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ revolutionary\\ movement\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ occur\\ at\\ the\\ right\\ time\\ \\(as\\ stated\\ by\\ Marx\\)\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ started\\ by\\ a\\ small\\ enough\\ group\\ of\\ dedicated\\ individuals\\.\\ This\\ small\\ group\\ can\\ create\\ the\\ necessary\\ national\\ conditions\\ for\\ a\\ revolution\\ to\\ occur\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ theory\\.\\ Another\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ \\'mobilization\\ from\\ above\\.\\ According\\ to\\ \\Wickham\\-Crowley\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ the\\ Foco\\ revolution\\ required\\:\\ an\\ already\\ mobilized\\ or\\ dislocated\\ peasantry\\;\\ a\\ broad\\,\\ anti\\-regime\\ coalition\\;\\ and\\ a\\ sultanistic\\ regime\\ whose\\ downfall\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ state\\.\\ \\ Few\\ countries\\ met\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ requirements\\,\\ which\\ explains\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ success\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ movements\\.\\ \\Eva\\ Eckstein\\<\\/strong\\>\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ global\\ political\\ economy\\,\\ the\\ state\\ apparatus\\,\\ and\\ civil\\ society\\ in\\ Cuba\\ allowed\\ Castro\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ he\\ did\\ and\\ also\\ defined\\ the\\ limits\\ to\\ his\\ power\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 5\\:\\ The\\ Breakdown\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Regimes\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 1970s\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Guillermo\\ O\\'Donnell\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Toward\\ an\\ Alternative\\ Conceptualization\\ of\\ South\\ American\\ Politics\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ Peter\\ Klar\\&\\#233\\;n\\ and\\ Thomas\\ J\\.\\ Bossert\\,\\ eds\\.\\,\\ \\\\Promise\\ of\\ Development\\:\\ Theories\\ of\\ Change\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Boulder\\:\\ Westview\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 239\\-275\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ David\\ Collier\\,\\ \\\"Overview\\ of\\ the\\ Bureaucratic\\-Authoritarian\\ Model\\.\\\"\\ \\ In\\ David\\ Collier\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\\\The\\ New\\ Authoritarianism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1979\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 19\\-32\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ \\\"The\\ New\\ Professionalism\\ of\\ Internal\\ Warfare\\ and\\ Military\\ Role\\ Expansion\\.\\\"\\ In\\ Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\\\Authoritarian\\ Brazil\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Yale\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1973\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 47\\-59\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Breakdown\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Regimes\\:\\ Chile\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 81\\-110\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Week\\ 5\\ presents\\ an\\ in\\-depth\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ reasons\\ behind\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ democratic\\ regimes\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 70s\\.\\ An\\ essential\\ article\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ \\Guillermo\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(the\\ Latin\\ American\\ politics\\ guru\\ whose\\ initials\\,\\ as\\ Levitsky\\ pointed\\ out\\ many\\ times\\ in\\ class\\,\\ spell\\ out\\ GOD\\ not\\ by\\ pure\\ coincidence\\;\\ indeed\\,\\ GOD\\ has\\ been\\ quite\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ forefront\\ analysis\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ politics\\ for\\ the\\ past\\ 40\\ years\\)\\ who\\ discusses\\ several\\ factors\\ necessary\\ for\\ democracy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ temporary\\ demise\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ and\\ 70s\\.\\ On\\ the\\ first\\ place\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ situation\\ has\\ been\\ greatly\\ exacerbated\\ due\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;exhaustion\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;easy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ stages\\ of\\ ISI\\ \\(the\\ industrialization\\ phase\\ where\\ heavy\\ machinery\\ is\\ imported\\ from\\ abroad\\)\\ whereas\\ it\\ is\\ much\\ harder\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ the\\ heavier\\ \\(vertical\\)\\ industrialization\\ stage\\;\\ meanwhile\\,\\ people\\ moving\\ to\\ the\\ cities\\ already\\ expected\\ higher\\ standards\\;\\ stabilization\\ policies\\ that\\ would\\ temporarily\\ decrease\\ money\\ supply\\ and\\ thus\\ wages\\,\\ were\\ thwarted\\ by\\ social\\ tension\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ horizontal\\ industrial\\ growth\\ left\\ a\\ \\dissolved\\ populist\\ coalition\\,\\ new\\ policy\\ issues\\,\\ profoundly\\ modified\\ social\\ structure\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ existing\\ tensions\\,\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ technocrats\\ who\\ believed\\ they\\ could\\ solve\\ economic\\ problems\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ stable\\,\\ powerful\\ government\\ was\\ established\\,\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ goals\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ defend\\ home\\ stability\\ against\\ internal\\ enemies\\ rather\\ than\\ fight\\ invasion\\ from\\ outside\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ all\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ \\&\\#8216\\;coup\\ coalitions\\&\\#8217\\;\\ which\\ toppled\\ the\\ democratic\\ regimes\\.\\ GOD\\ called\\ the\\ new\\ military\\ regimes\\ \\bureaucratic\\ authoritarianism\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\David\\ Collier\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\ further\\ clarifies\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ argument\\,\\ while\\ \\Stepan\\<\\/strong\\>\\ discusses\\ the\\ transformation\\ in\\ the\\ military\\.\\ \\Valenzuela\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ provides\\ an\\ extensive\\ overview\\ of\\ the\\ Chilean\\ democratic\\ breakdown\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 6\\:\\ Military\\ Rule\\ and\\ its\\ Legacies\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Karen\\ Remmer\\,\\ \\\\Military\\ Rule\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Boston\\:\\ Unwin\\ Hyman\\,\\ 1989\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\-21\\\r\\\\-\\ Hector\\ Schamis\\,\\ \\\"Reconceptualizing\\ Latin\\ American\\ Authoritarianism\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\:\\ From\\ Bureaucratic\\ Authoritarianism\\ to\\ Neoconservatism\\.\\\"\\ \\\\Comparative\\ Politics\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 23\\:\\ 2\\ \\(1991\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Patricia\\ Weiss\\ Fagen\\,\\ \\\"Repression\\ and\\ State\\ Security\\,\\\"\\ In\\ Juan\\ Corradi\\,\\ Patricia\\ Weiss\\ Fagen\\,\\ and\\ Manuel\\ Antonio\\ Garreton\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\ \\\\Fear\\ at\\ the\\ Edge\\:\\ State\\ Terror\\ and\\ Resistance\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(University\\ of\\ California\\ Press\\,\\ 1992\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 39\\-71\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ \\\\Nunca\\ Mas\\ \\(Never\\ Again\\)\\:\\ A\\ Report\\ by\\ Argentina\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ National\\ Commission\\ on\\ Disappeared\\ People\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(London\\:\\ Faber\\ and\\ Faber\\,\\ 1986\\)\\,\\ Forward\\;\\ Prologue\\;\\ 9\\-55\\;\\ 209\\-234\\;\\ and\\ 284\\-5\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Remmer\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\ discusses\\ the\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ factors\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ military\\ regimes\\ established\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ and\\ 70s\\.\\ She\\ differentiates\\ between\\ exclusionary\\ \\(that\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ negotiate\\ support\\ of\\ both\\ elite\\ and\\ popular\\ sectors\\)\\ and\\ inclusionary\\ \\(insures\\ a\\ broader\\ coalition\\ supporting\\ it\\)\\ military\\ regimes\\.\\ Exclusionary\\ military\\ regimes\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ emerge\\ at\\ relatively\\ low\\ and\\ advanced\\ levels\\ of\\ industrialization\\,\\ urbanization\\,\\ and\\ educational\\ attainment\\,\\ where\\ social\\ groups\\ are\\ fighting\\ against\\ each\\ other\\,\\ so\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ easy\\ to\\ dominate\\ the\\ unstable\\ situation\\.\\ Inclusionary\\ military\\ regimes\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ emerge\\ at\\ middle\\ levels\\ of\\ socioeconomic\\ modernization\\ where\\ severe\\ cleavages\\ between\\ various\\ socioeconomic\\ strata\\ do\\ not\\ exist\\.\\ Remmer\\ also\\ questions\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ socio\\-economic\\ reasons\\ behind\\ democratic\\ breakdowns\\.\\ Another\\ author\\ who\\ criticizes\\ GOD\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ argument\\ is\\ \\Schaims\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ who\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ military\\ regimes\\ of\\ the\\ 70s\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ Bureaucratic\\ Authoritarian\\,\\ but\\ as\\ Neoconservative\\.\\ He\\ sees\\ this\\ neo\\-conservatism\\ as\\ similar\\ in\\ tradition\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ Reagan\\ and\\ Thatcher\\ in\\ its\\ focus\\ on\\ economic\\ liberalization\\ and\\ privatization\\.\\ The\\ latter\\ two\\ articles\\ discuss\\ the\\ repressive\\ measures\\ of\\ military\\ regimes\\.\\ \\Nunca\\ M\\&\\#225\\;s\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ shockingly\\ detailed\\ official\\ report\\ published\\ after\\ President\\ Alfons\\&\\#237\\;n\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ initiative\\ to\\ launch\\ investigations\\ that\\ would\\ expose\\ those\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ murdering\\ and\\ torturing\\ of\\ \\&\\#8216\\;desaparecidos\\&\\#8217\\;\\ between\\ 1976\\ and\\ 1983\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 7\\:\\ Transitions\\ from\\ Authoritarian\\ Rule\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Guillermo\\ O\\'Donnell\\ and\\ Philippe\\ C\\.\\ Schmitter\\,\\ \\\\Transitions\\ from\\ Authoritarian\\ Rule\\:\\ Tentative\\ Conclusions\\ about\\ Uncertain\\ Democracies\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Johns\\ Hopkins\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1986\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 15\\-47\\;\\ 57\\-72\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Terry\\ Lynn\\ Karl\\,\\ \\\"Dilemmas\\ of\\ Democratization\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\\"\\ \\Comparative\\ Politics\\<\\/em\\>\\ 23\\:\\ 1\\ \\(October\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-21\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Scott\\ Mainwaring\\ and\\ An\\&\\#237\\;bal\\ P\\&\\#233\\;rez\\ Linan\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Latin\\ American\\ Democratization\\ since\\ 1978\\:\\ Democratic\\ Transitions\\,\\ Breakdowns\\,\\ and\\ Erosions\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ Frances\\ Hagopian\\ and\\ Scott\\ Mainwaring\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\The\\ Third\\ Wave\\ of\\ Democratization\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Advances\\ and\\ Setbacks\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Cambridge\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2005\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 14\\-47\\ and\\ 56\\-59\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ transitions\\ to\\ democratic\\ regimes\\ is\\ critical\\ in\\ the\\ explanation\\ of\\ why\\ certain\\ recent\\ democracies\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ function\\ better\\ than\\ others\\,\\ this\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ readings\\ provide\\ different\\ facets\\ of\\ the\\ transition\\ process\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ varying\\ opinions\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ structural\\ vs\\ voluntary\\ \\(individual\\-centered\\)\\ conditions\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ was\\ the\\ reason\\ for\\ transition\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ transition\\ worked\\ out\\ due\\ to\\ existing\\ economic\\,\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ international\\ conditions\\,\\ or\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ particular\\ decisions\\ that\\ national\\ leaders\\ took\\ during\\ that\\ critical\\ time\\.\\ \\O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\ and\\ Schmitter\\<\\/strong\\>\\ suggest\\ that\\ one\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ military\\ dictatorships\\ is\\ the\\ emerging\\ divisions\\ within\\ the\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\ itself\\,\\ principally\\ along\\ the\\ fluctuating\\ cleavage\\ between\\ hard\\-liners\\ and\\ soft\\-liners\\.\\ They\\ also\\ explain\\ that\\ where\\ political\\ democracies\\ are\\ established\\ gradually\\ in\\ societies\\ with\\ a\\ dispersed\\ and\\ scarcely\\ organized\\ popular\\ sector\\ and\\ weak\\ political\\ parties\\,\\ the\\ resulting\\ political\\ space\\ is\\ usually\\ highly\\ restrictive\\ and\\ serves\\ to\\ ratify\\ prevailing\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ inequalities\\;\\ where\\ the\\ popular\\ sector\\ emerges\\ rapidly\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ relatively\\ unified\\ actor\\ from\\ liberalization\\ or\\ from\\ the\\ outright\\ collapse\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ rule\\,\\ the\\ issues\\ at\\ stake\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ significant\\,\\ including\\ a\\ more\\ rapid\\ transition\\ to\\ democracy\\.\\ Still\\,\\ the\\ latter\\ option\\ runs\\ a\\ greater\\ risk\\ of\\ being\\ cancelled\\ during\\ the\\ transition\\,\\ when\\ its\\ threatening\\ potentialities\\ become\\ more\\ apparent\\ \\(kicking\\ over\\ the\\ chess\\ board\\)\\.\\ \\Terry\\ Karl\\<\\/strong\\>\\ argues\\ that\\ good\\ economic\\ performance\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ necessarily\\ insure\\ \\democratization\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(successful\\ establishment\\ of\\ sustainable\\ democracy\\)\\;\\ successful\\ \\consolidation\\<\\/em\\>\\ requires\\ commitment\\ from\\ leading\\ actors\\,\\ which\\ are\\ qualitatively\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ exhibited\\ during\\ the\\ transition\\:\\ ability\\ to\\ differentiate\\ political\\ forces\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ draw\\ them\\ into\\ a\\ grand\\ coalition\\;\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ define\\ and\\ channel\\ competing\\ political\\ projects\\ rather\\ than\\ seek\\ to\\ keep\\ potentially\\ divisive\\ reforms\\ off\\ the\\ agenda\\;\\ the\\ willingness\\ to\\ tackle\\ incremental\\ reforms\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ domains\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ and\\ civil\\-military\\ relations\\.\\ Alternatively\\,\\ \\Mainwaring\\ and\\ Linan\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ empirical\\ findings\\ show\\ that\\ structural\\ factors\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ regional\\ environment\\ more\\ favorable\\ to\\ democracy\\,\\ were\\ crucial\\ in\\ both\\ driving\\ democratic\\ transition\\ to\\ completion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 8\\:\\ Issues\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Consolidation\\:\\ Civil\\-Military\\ Relations\\ and\\ Legacies\\ of\\ Authoritarian\\ Rule\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Juan\\ J\\.\\ Linz\\ and\\ Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ \\\\Problems\\ of\\ Democratic\\ Transition\\ and\\ Consolidation\\:\\ Southern\\ Europe\\,\\ South\\ America\\,\\ and\\ Post\\-Communist\\ Europe\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Johns\\ Hopkins\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1996\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-7\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ J\\.\\ Samuel\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ \\\"Democratic\\ Consolidation\\ in\\ Post\\-Transitional\\ Settings\\:\\ Notion\\,\\ Process\\,\\ and\\ Facilitating\\ Conditions\\.\\\"\\ In\\ Scott\\ Mainwaring\\,\\ Guillermo\\ O\\'Donnell\\,\\ and\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\Issues\\ in\\ Democratic\\ Consolidation\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(University\\ of\\ Notre\\ Dame\\ Press\\,\\ 1992\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 57\\-70\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Frances\\ Hagopian\\,\\ \\\"\\'Democracy\\ by\\ Undemocratic\\ Means\\:\\ Elites\\,\\ Political\\ Pacts\\,\\ and\\ Regime\\ Transition\\ in\\ Brazil\\.\\\"\\ \\\\Comparative\\ Political\\ Studies\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 23\\,\\ no\\.\\ 2\\ \\(July\\ 1990\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 147\\-169\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ David\\ Pion\\-Berlin\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Between\\ Confrontation\\ and\\ Accommodation\\:\\ Military\\ and\\ Government\\ Policy\\ in\\ Democratic\\ Argentina\\.\\\"\\ \\ \\\\Journal\\ of\\ Latin\\ American\\ Studies\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 23\\,\\ No\\.\\ 3\\ \\(October\\ 1991\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Alfred\\ Stepan\\,\\ \\\\Rethinking\\ Military\\ Politics\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 68\\-145\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ difference\\ between\\ democratic\\ transition\\ and\\ consolidation\\ is\\ studied\\ more\\ in\\ depth\\.\\ \\Linz\\ and\\ Stepan\\<\\/strong\\>\\ provide\\ useful\\ definitions\\ and\\ measurable\\ conditions\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ present\\ if\\ sustainable\\ democracy\\ is\\ claimed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ established\\.\\ A\\ democracy\\ should\\ be\\ evident\\ in\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ political\\ actors\\,\\ in\\ the\\ attitude\\ of\\ citizens\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ constitution\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ become\\ consolidated\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ even\\ a\\ consolidated\\ democracy\\ could\\ suffer\\ a\\ breakdown\\ if\\ those\\ three\\ conditions\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ maintained\\ constantly\\.\\ \\Valenzuela\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ political\\ \\stability\\<\\/em\\>\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ signify\\ high\\-quality\\ democracy\\;\\ he\\ lists\\ specific\\ conditions\\,\\ which\\ make\\ quite\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ sense\\,\\ that\\ would\\ insure\\ actual\\ democratic\\ consolidation\\.\\ \\Hagopian\\<\\/strong\\>\\ discusses\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ institutions\\ \\(such\\ as\\ constitution\\,\\ parties\\,\\ electoral\\ politics\\,\\ form\\ of\\ government\\)\\ established\\ during\\ democratic\\ transition\\ as\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ likely\\ to\\ endure\\ and\\ stall\\ the\\ progress\\ toward\\ democratization\\ if\\ not\\ designed\\ properly\\.\\ He\\ also\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ \\pacted\\ transition\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(between\\ the\\ former\\ military\\ government\\ and\\ strong\\ oppositionary\\ forces\\)\\,\\ a\\ \\transition\\ by\\ collapse\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ a\\ \\transition\\ from\\ above\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ His\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ pacted\\ transitions\\ and\\ transitions\\ initiated\\ by\\ the\\ former\\ military\\ government\\ \\(from\\ above\\)\\ result\\ in\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ lower\\-quality\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ which\\ will\\ thwart\\ effective\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ \\Pion\\-Berlin\\<\\/strong\\>\\ also\\ claims\\ that\\ transitions\\ by\\ collapse\\ give\\ new\\ rulers\\ a\\ greater\\ freedom\\ to\\ establish\\ new\\,\\ independent\\ institutions\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ however\\,\\ such\\ transitions\\ have\\ historically\\ led\\ to\\ more\\ unstable\\ and\\ less\\ legitimate\\ regimes\\ as\\ not\\ all\\ significant\\ political\\ actors\\&\\#8217\\;\\ demands\\ were\\ satisfied\\ \\(as\\ happened\\ in\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Argentina\\)\\.\\ \\Stepan\\<\\/strong\\>\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ military\\ in\\ the\\ post\\-dictatorship\\ area\\ and\\ how\\ their\\ position\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ should\\ be\\ remodeled\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 10\\:\\ The\\ Debt\\ Crisis\\ and\\ the\\ Politics\\ of\\ Economic\\ Liberalization\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Sebastian\\ Edwards\\,\\ \\\\Crisis\\ and\\ Reform\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ From\\ Despair\\ to\\ Hope\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1995\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 41\\-58\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ John\\ Williamson\\,\\ \\\"What\\ Washington\\ Means\\ by\\ Policy\\ Reform\\.\\\"\\ In\\ Williamson\\,\\ ed\\.\\ \\\\Latin\\ American\\ Adjustment\\:\\ How\\ Much\\ Has\\ Happened\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Institute\\ of\\ International\\ Economics\\,\\ 1990\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Barbara\\ Stallings\\,\\ \\\"International\\ Influence\\ on\\ Economic\\ Policy\\:\\ Debt\\,\\ Stabilization\\,\\ and\\ Structural\\ Reform\\.\\\"\\ In\\ Stephan\\ Haggard\\ and\\ Robert\\ R\\.\\ Kaufman\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\ \\\\The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Economic\\ Adjustment\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Princeton\\:\\ Princeton\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1992\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 41\\-88\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Weyland\\,\\ Kurt\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Swallowing\\ the\\ Bitter\\ Pill\\:\\ Sources\\ of\\ Popular\\ Support\\ for\\ Neoliberal\\ Reform\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\Comparative\\ Political\\ Studies\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 31\\,\\ No\\.\\ 5\\ \\(October\\ 1998\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Denise\\ Dresser\\,\\ \\\"Bringing\\ the\\ Poor\\ Back\\ In\\:\\ National\\ Solidarity\\ as\\ a\\ Strategy\\ of\\ Regime\\ Legitimation\\,\\\"\\ In\\ Wayne\\ A\\.\\ Cornelius\\,\\ Ann\\.\\ L\\.\\ Craig\\,\\ and\\ Jonathan\\ Fox\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\Transforming\\ State\\-Society\\ Relations\\ in\\ Mexico\\:\\ The\\ National\\ Solidarity\\ Strategy\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Center\\ for\\ U\\.S\\.\\-Mexican\\ Relations\\,\\ 1994\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Kurt\\ Weyland\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Neoliberalism\\ and\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ A\\ Mixed\\ Record\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\Latin\\ American\\ Politics\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 46\\,\\ No\\.\\ 1\\ \\(Spring\\ 2004\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ week\\ is\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ early\\ 80s\\ when\\ Latin\\ America\\ faced\\ a\\ huge\\ economic\\ crises\\,\\ inflation\\ in\\ most\\ previously\\ strong\\ economies\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ rose\\ thousand\\-fold\\ in\\ less\\ than\\ 3\\ years\\,\\ they\\ amassed\\ huge\\ debts\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ reform\\ became\\ inevitable\\.\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ years\\ when\\ most\\ states\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ felt\\ forced\\ to\\ undertake\\ radical\\ changes\\ and\\ take\\ steps\\ to\\ integrate\\ their\\ previously\\ nationalized\\,\\ state\\-controlled\\ economies\\ into\\ the\\ world\\ market\\ by\\ raising\\ protectionist\\ measures\\ and\\ implementing\\ liberal\\ policies\\.\\ According\\ to\\ \\Edwards\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ the\\ transformation\\ occurred\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ heterodox\\ programs\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ the\\ impressive\\ performance\\ of\\ the\\ East\\ Asian\\ economies\\,\\ the\\ multilateral\\ institutions\\ that\\ influenced\\ the\\ reform\\ process\\,\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ professional\\ economists\\ and\\ technocratic\\ reform\\ teams\\,\\ and\\ the\\ successful\\ Chilean\\ experience\\.\\ \\Williamson\\<\\/strong\\>\\ lists\\ the\\ 10\\ economic\\ policy\\ instruments\\ defined\\ by\\ both\\ political\\ \\&\\;\\ technocratic\\ Washington\\ \\(global\\ financial\\ institutions\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ agencies\\,\\ think\\ tanks\\)\\ that\\ Latin\\ American\\ states\\ had\\ to\\ implement\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ receive\\ the\\ international\\ loans\\ and\\ funding\\ necessary\\ for\\ their\\ recovery\\ after\\ the\\ debt\\ crisis\\.\\ The\\ article\\ is\\ a\\ helpful\\ guide\\ to\\ the\\ key\\ characteristics\\ of\\ economic\\ liberalization\\ and\\ stabilization\\.\\ \\Barbara\\ Stallings\\<\\/strong\\>\\ further\\ discusses\\ the\\ international\\ influences\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ economic\\ reform\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\.\\ Her\\ argument\\ distinguishes\\ as\\ key\\ the\\ linkages\\ between\\ Latin\\ American\\ interest\\ groups\\ and\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ developed\\ countries\\,\\ leverage\\ with\\ international\\ institutions\\,\\ and\\ Latin\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dependence\\ on\\ the\\ global\\ market\\.\\ Both\\ \\Weyland\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\Dresser\\<\\/strong\\>\\ discuss\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ social\\ programs\\ during\\ the\\ 80s\\ in\\ attempt\\ to\\ alleviate\\ poverty\\ and\\ foster\\ popular\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ economic\\ reforms\\.\\ Dresser\\ focuses\\ on\\ \\PRONASOL\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ Mexico\\ and\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ essential\\ to\\ preserve\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ stability\\ in\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Weyland\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ thinks\\ that\\ such\\ social\\ programs\\,\\ acting\\ as\\ \\&\\#8216\\;rescue\\&\\#8217\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8216\\;compensation\\&\\#8217\\;\\ mechanisms\\ had\\ an\\ insignificant\\ effect\\ on\\ popular\\ support\\ if\\ the\\ economic\\ situation\\ was\\ really\\ grave\\.\\ Weyland\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ neoliberalism\\ and\\ democracy\\ reveals\\ that\\ while\\ neoliberal\\ reforms\\ have\\ strengthened\\ democracy\\ by\\ insuring\\ more\\ international\\ support\\ and\\ weakening\\ internal\\ threats\\,\\ it\\ has\\ also\\ undermined\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ democracy\\ as\\ national\\ governments\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ act\\ more\\ authoritatively\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ more\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ international\\ trends\\ rather\\ than\\ follow\\ their\\ constituency\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ demands\\,\\ which\\ also\\ weakens\\ political\\ parties\\ while\\ strengthening\\ elites\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Week\\ 11\\:\\ Political\\ Institutions\\ and\\ Democratic\\ Governance\\ I\\:\\ Executive\\-Legislative\\ Relations\\ \\-\\-\\ The\\ Perils\\ of\\ Presidentialism\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Guillermo\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Delegative\\ Democracy\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\Journal\\ of\\ Democracy\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 5\\,\\ no\\.\\ 1\\ \\(January\\ 1994\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Arturo\\ Valenzuela\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Latin\\ American\\ Presidencies\\ Interrupted\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\Journal\\ of\\ Democracy\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 15\\,\\ No\\.\\ 4\\ \\(October\\ 2004\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Mathew\\ Soberg\\ Shugart\\ and\\ Scott\\ Mainwaring\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Presidentialism\\ and\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Rethinking\\ the\\ Terms\\ of\\ the\\ Debate\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ Scott\\ Mainwaring\\ and\\ Mathew\\ S\\.\\ Shugart\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\Presidentialism\\ and\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Cambridge\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1997\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Week\\ 11\\ the\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ political\\ institutions\\ in\\ shaping\\ a\\ democratic\\ regime\\ and\\ its\\ success\\.\\ \\O\\&\\#8217\\;\\ Donnell\\<\\/strong\\>\\ identifies\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;new\\ species\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ democracy\\,\\ the\\ Delegative\\ Democracy\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ Representative\\ Democracy\\)\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ characteristic\\ of\\ delegative\\ democracy\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ elects\\ a\\ single\\ leader\\ \\(based\\ on\\ his\\ personal\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ programmatic\\ appeals\\)\\ and\\ let\\ him\\ take\\ the\\ necessary\\ decisions\\ regarding\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rule\\.\\ According\\ to\\ him\\,\\ type\\ of\\ democracy\\ is\\ \\\\not\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ determined\\ by\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ preceding\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\ nor\\ by\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ transition\\ from\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\ \\\\but\\ by\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ historical\\ factors\\,\\ especially\\ by\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ severity\\ of\\ the\\ socioeconomic\\ problems\\ inherited\\ from\\ the\\ BAs\\.\\ For\\ \\Valenzuela\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ democracy\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\ describes\\ is\\ flawed\\ as\\ it\\ depends\\ largely\\ on\\ the\\ president\\ \\(as\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ presidentialist\\ one\\)\\,\\ which\\ he\\ thinks\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ disadvantages\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ parliamentary\\ republic\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ for\\ more\\ political\\ pluralism\\ and\\ responsibility\\.\\ Meanwhile\\,\\ \\Shugart\\ and\\ Mainwaring\\<\\/strong\\>\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ advantages\\ of\\ parliamentarism\\ are\\ overrated\\ and\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ specific\\ contexts\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ implemented\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Week\\ 12\\:\\ Political\\ Institutions\\ and\\ Democratic\\ Governance\\ II\\:\\ Parties\\ and\\ Party\\ Systems\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Scott\\ Mainwaring\\ and\\ Timothy\\ R\\.\\ Scully\\,\\ \\\"Introduction\\:\\ Party\\ Systems\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\\"\\ In\\ Mainwaring\\ and\\ Scully\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\Building\\ Democratic\\ Institutions\\:\\ Party\\ Systems\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Stanford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1995\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Kurt\\ Weyland\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Neopopulism\\ and\\ Neoliberalism\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ Unexpected\\ Affinities\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\Studies\\ in\\ Comparative\\ International\\ Development\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 31\\,\\ No\\.\\ 3\\ \\(Fall\\ 1996\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ John\\ M\\.\\ Carey\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Institutional\\ Design\\ and\\ Party\\ Systems\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ Larry\\ Diamond\\,\\ Marc\\ F\\.\\ Plattner\\,\\ Yun\\-han\\ Chu\\,\\ and\\ Hung\\-mao\\ Tien\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\ \\\\Transitions\\ from\\ Authoritarian\\ Rule\\:\\ Tentative\\ Conclusions\\ about\\ Uncertain\\ Democracies\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Johns\\ Hopkins\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1997\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Steven\\ Levitsky\\ and\\ Maxwell\\ Cameron\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Democracy\\ without\\ Parties\\?\\ \\ Political\\ Parties\\ and\\ Regime\\ Change\\ in\\ Fujimori\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Peru\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\Latin\\ American\\ Politics\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 45\\,\\ No\\.\\ 3\\ \\(Fall\\ 2003\\)\\,\\ 1\\-34\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Mainwaring\\ and\\ Scully\\<\\/strong\\>\\ use\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ criteria\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ institutionalization\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ systems\\ in\\ various\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\,\\ such\\ as\\ electoral\\ volatility\\ \\(net\\ change\\ in\\ party\\ seats\\ from\\ one\\ election\\ to\\ the\\ next\\)\\,\\ ties\\ between\\ parties\\ and\\ social\\ organizations\\,\\ party\\ longevity\\.\\ Based\\ on\\ the\\ results\\,\\ party\\ systems\\ fall\\ into\\ three\\ categories\\:\\ institutionalized\\ \\(Venezuela\\,\\ Costa\\ Rica\\,\\ Chile\\,\\ Uruguay\\,\\ Colombia\\,\\ Argentina\\)\\,\\ inchoate\\ \\(Bolivia\\,\\ Brazil\\,\\ Peru\\,\\ and\\ Ecuador\\)\\,\\ and\\ in\\ transition\\ \\(Mexico\\ and\\ Paraguay\\)\\.\\ Inchoate\\ party\\ systems\\ thwart\\ democratic\\ consolidation\\.\\ \\Weyland\\<\\/strong\\>\\ introduces\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ neopopulism\\ which\\,\\ unlike\\ \\ populism\\ which\\ focused\\ on\\ fostering\\ support\\ among\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\,\\ appeals\\ to\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ \\(unofficial\\ economy\\)\\ and\\ the\\ rural\\ poor\\.\\ His\\ article\\ argues\\ that\\ although\\ the\\ conventional\\ wisdom\\ predicts\\ that\\ neoliberal\\ economic\\ policy\\ should\\ be\\ entirely\\ incompatible\\ with\\ \\populism\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ neopopulism\\ and\\ \\neoliberalism\\<\\/a\\>\\ share\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ affinities\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ a\\ good\\ fit\\.\\ \\John\\ Carey\\<\\/strong\\>\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ electoral\\ rules\\ on\\ democratic\\ consolidation\\:\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ electoral\\ competition\\ will\\ influence\\ the\\ nature\\ and\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ system\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ country\\;\\ he\\ formal\\ rules\\ will\\ affect\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ democratic\\ regime\\,\\ and\\ its\\ governability\\;\\ institutional\\ design\\ matters\\.\\ \\Levitsky\\ and\\ Cameron\\<\\/strong\\>\\ study\\ Peru\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ institutions\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ article\\,\\ party\\ system\\ decomposition\\ weakened\\ the\\ democratic\\ opposition\\ against\\ an\\ increasingly\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ regime\\ collapsed\\ in\\ 2000\\,\\ prospects\\ for\\ party\\ rebuilding\\ have\\ been\\ mixed\\.\\ Structural\\ changes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ informal\\ sector\\ and\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ mass\\ media\\ technologies\\,\\ have\\ weakened\\ politicians\\&\\#8217\\;\\ incentive\\ to\\ build\\ parties\\.\\ Although\\ these\\ changes\\ did\\ not\\ cause\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ system\\,\\ they\\ may\\ inhibit\\ its\\ reconstruction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Week\\ 13\\:\\ The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ State\\-Society\\ Relations\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Phillip\\ D\\.\\ Oxhorn\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Is\\ the\\ Century\\ of\\ Corporatism\\ Over\\?\\ \\ Neoliberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Rise\\ of\\ Neopluralism\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ Oxhorn\\ and\\ Graciela\\ Ducatenzeiler\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\What\\ Kind\\ of\\ Democracy\\?\\ \\ What\\ Kind\\ of\\ Market\\?\\ \\ Latin\\ America\\ in\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Neoliberalism\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Penn\\ State\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1998\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Douglas\\ A\\.\\ Chalmers\\,\\ Scott\\ B\\.\\ Martin\\,\\ and\\ Kerianne\\ Piester\\,\\ \\\"Associative\\ Networks\\:\\ New\\ Structures\\ of\\ Representation\\ for\\ the\\ Popular\\ Sectors\\?\\\"\\ In\\ Douglas\\ A\\.\\ Chalmers\\ et\\ al\\.\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\The\\ New\\ Politics\\ of\\ Inequality\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ \\ Rethinking\\ Participation\\ and\\ Representation\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Oxford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1997\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Margaret\\ E\\.\\ Keck\\ and\\ Kathryn\\ Sikkink\\,\\ \\\\Activists\\ Beyond\\ Borders\\:\\ Advocacy\\ Networks\\ in\\ International\\ Politics\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Cornell\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 1997\\)\\,\\ pp\\.1\\-29\\;\\ 79\\-120\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Alison\\ Brysk\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Turning\\ Weakness\\ into\\ Strength\\:\\ The\\ Internationalization\\ of\\ Indian\\ Rights\\,\\\"\\ \\\\Latin\\ American\\ Perspectives\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ 23\\,\\ No\\.\\ 2\\ \\(Spring\\ 1996\\)\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Alison\\ Brysk\\,\\ \\\\From\\ Tribal\\ Village\\ to\\ Global\\ Village\\:\\ Indian\\ Rights\\ and\\ International\\ Relations\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Stanford\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2000\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 246\\-265\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Lectures\\ and\\ readings\\ this\\ week\\ treat\\ the\\ changes\\ that\\ emerged\\ within\\ the\\ public\\ sector\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 15\\ years\\.\\ \\Phillip\\ Oxhorn\\<\\/strong\\>\\ introduces\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\\\Neopluralism\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\\:\\ neopluralism\\ replaces\\ the\\ state\\-centered\\ pattern\\ of\\ incorporating\\ subordinate\\ classes\\ associated\\ with\\ state\\ corporatism\\ and\\ processes\\ of\\ controlled\\ inclusion\\ with\\ a\\ market\\-centered\\ pattern\\ of\\ lower\\-class\\ incorporation\\.\\ \\ Its\\ pluralist\\ aspect\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ multiplicity\\ of\\ forms\\ of\\ participation\\ that\\ neopluralism\\ entails\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ the\\ state\\-imposed\\ representational\\ monopolies\\ characteristic\\ of\\ corporatism\\.\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Mexico\\ are\\ archetypal\\ examples\\ of\\ neopluralism\\ today\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ highly\\ segmented\\ and\\ socially\\ fragmented\\ societies\\;\\ in\\ Chile\\,\\ neopluralism\\ was\\ mitigated\\ by\\ strong\\ institutions\\.\\ \\Chalmers\\ et\\ al\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\ talk\\ about\\ \\\\associative\\ networks\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ new\\ and\\ substantially\\ different\\ structures\\ of\\ popular\\ representation\\ that\\ link\\ state\\ and\\ societal\\ actors\\ through\\ interpersonal\\,\\ media\\,\\ and\\/or\\ interorganizational\\ ties\\ and\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ multiplicity\\ of\\ participants\\,\\ rapid\\ reconfiguration\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ debate\\ and\\ discussion\\,\\ and\\ de\\-hierarchization\\.\\ These\\ networks\\ provide\\ a\\ better\\ deal\\ for\\ popular\\ sector\\ if\\ associative\\ networks\\ can\\ achieve\\ coordination\\,\\ secure\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ avoid\\ excessive\\ fragmentation\\.\\ \\Keck\\ and\\ Sikkink\\<\\/strong\\>\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ specific\\ type\\ of\\ associative\\ networks\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ international\\ advocacy\\ networks\\ and\\ discuss\\ a\\ few\\ cases\\ exposing\\ the\\ increasing\\ importance\\ of\\ these\\ new\\ structures\\ in\\ defending\\ human\\ rights\\.\\ \\Alison\\ Brysk\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ articles\\ treat\\ the\\ indigenous\\ movements\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\ She\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ their\\ internationalization\\ due\\ to\\ indigenous\\ people\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ flagrant\\ weakness\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ strengthened\\ them\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ their\\ political\\ influence\\ and\\ gives\\ specific\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ significant\\ impact\\ they\\ have\\ on\\ modern\\ politics\\ in\\ Ecuador\\,\\ Bolivia\\,\\ Brazil\\ and\\ Mexico\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Week\\ 14\\:\\ The\\ Transformation\\ of\\ State\\-Society\\ Relations\\ II\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\-\\ Miguel\\ Centeno\\,\\ \\\\From\\ Tribal\\ Village\\ to\\ Global\\ Village\\:\\ Indian\\ Rights\\ and\\ International\\ Blood\\ and\\ Debt\\:\\ War\\ and\\ the\\ Nation\\-State\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(Penn\\ State\\ University\\ Press\\,\\ 2002\\)\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-26\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ Guillermo\\ O\\'Donnell\\,\\ \\\"On\\ the\\ State\\,\\ Democratization\\,\\ and\\ Some\\ Conceptual\\ Problems\\:\\ A\\ Latin\\ American\\ View\\ with\\ Some\\ Postcommunist\\ Countries\\.\\\"\\ In\\ O\\'Donnell\\,\\ \\\\Counterpoints\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(University\\ of\\ Notre\\ Dame\\ Press\\,\\ 1999\\)\\,\\ pp\\.133\\-146\\.\\\r\\\\-\\ James\\ Holston\\ and\\ Teresa\\ P\\.R\\.\\ Caldeira\\,\\ \\\"Democracy\\,\\ Law\\,\\ and\\ Violence\\:\\ Disjunctions\\ of\\ Brazilian\\ Citizenship\\,\\\"\\ In\\ Felipe\\ Aguero\\ and\\ Jeffrey\\ Stark\\,\\ eds\\.\\ \\\\Fault\\ Lines\\ of\\ Democracy\\ in\\ Post\\-Transition\\ Latin\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(North\\-South\\ Center\\ Press\\,\\ 1998\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ week\\ goes\\ over\\ general\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ situation\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\ and\\ its\\ future\\.\\ \\Centeno\\<\\/strong\\>\\ attributes\\ Latin\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ failure\\ to\\ create\\ well\\-functioning\\ nation\\ states\\ to\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ warfare\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ its\\ development\\.\\ The\\ lack\\ of\\ state\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ region\\ is\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ neoliberalism\\ or\\ the\\ debt\\ crisis\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ because\\ Latin\\ America\\ never\\ developed\\ strong\\ institutional\\ capacity\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ efficient\\ and\\ effective\\ state\\.\\ The\\ end\\ of\\ authoritarian\\ regimes\\ had\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ democracies\\ in\\ the\\ region\\,\\ but\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ moving\\ to\\ a\\ representative\\,\\ institutionalized\\ democratic\\ regime\\.\\ \\O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\ claims\\ that\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ crises\\ \\(at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 90s\\)\\,\\ Latin\\ America\\ is\\ suffering\\ from\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ the\\ state\\:\\ most\\ newly\\ democratized\\ countries\\ have\\ a\\ state\\ that\\ is\\ too\\ big\\,\\ but\\ the\\ issue\\ is\\ efficiency\\ and\\ leanness\\ rather\\ than\\ size\\.\\ In\\ Latin\\ American\\ countries\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ brown\\ areas\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ state\\ presence\\ and\\ gangs\\,\\ drug\\ dealers\\,\\ and\\ vigilantes\\ are\\ in\\ control\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ justice\\.\\ Authoritarian\\ aspects\\ are\\ still\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ governments\\ of\\ this\\ region\\,\\ so\\ the\\ key\\ question\\ is\\ whether\\ you\\ can\\ still\\ call\\ them\\ democratic\\.\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\ says\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ can\\ therefore\\ be\\ authoritarian\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ inequality\\ of\\ how\\ justice\\,\\ state\\ services\\,\\ and\\ rights\\ are\\ carried\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ detriment\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\.\\ O\\&\\#8217\\;Donnell\\ proposes\\ that\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ institutions\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ strengthened\\,\\ but\\ that\\ takes\\ time\\ and\\ is\\ especially\\ difficult\\ in\\ economic\\ crises\\.\\ The\\ new\\ democracies\\ may\\ split\\ into\\ two\\ divergent\\ camps\\:\\ 1\\.\\ Representative\\,\\ institutionalized\\ democracies\\ with\\ the\\ elimination\\ of\\ brown\\ areas\\ and\\ social\\ inequality\\ or\\ 2\\.\\ Regression\\ to\\ authoritarianism\\.\\ For\\ the\\ future\\,\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ delegative\\ democracies\\,\\ weak\\ states\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ horizontal\\ accountability\\,\\ brown\\ areas\\,\\ and\\ disengaged\\ citizenship\\ will\\ predominate\\.\\ \\Holston\\ and\\ Caldeira\\<\\/strong\\>\\ reveal\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ disjunctive\\ democracies\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\:\\ there\\ are\\ free\\,\\ competitive\\ elections\\ but\\ the\\ violation\\ of\\ individual\\ rights\\ causes\\ the\\ institutions\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ justice\\ to\\ lose\\ their\\ legitimacy\\.\\ Countries\\ have\\ focused\\ on\\ transforming\\ into\\ \\political\\<\\/em\\>\\ democracies\\,\\ but\\ have\\ neglected\\ the\\ civil\\ component\\ which\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ a\\ government\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\,\\ efficient\\,\\ and\\ maintain\\ support\\ for\\ democracy\\ \\(they\\ use\\ Brazil\\ as\\ a\\ relevant\\ example\\ of\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ this\\ civil\\ component\\ is\\ routinely\\ violated\\ under\\ a\\ political\\ democracy\\ rather\\ than\\ an\\ authoritarian\\ regime\\)\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ democracy\\ requires\\ a\\ democratic\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ a\\ strong\\ civil\\ component\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ is\\ just\\-\\ circular\\ causality\\ because\\ the\\ one\\ reinforces\\ the\\ other\\.\\ This\\ could\\ be\\ achieved\\ through\\:\\ fairness\\ of\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\;\\ access\\ to\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\ including\\ assistance\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\ or\\ disenfranchised\\;\\ universality\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\-\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ above\\ them\\,\\ including\\ the\\ wealthy\\;\\ legality\\ \\-\\ the\\ laws\\ must\\ be\\ just\\ and\\ legal\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 76, "file_path": "", "desc": "Summary of Government 1295: Comparative Politics of Latin America"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.101949+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Summary of English 10b: Major British Writers II", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 414, "html": "\\\\\\\\Major\\ British\\ Writers\\ II\\ \\(English\\ 10b\\)\\:\\ Study\\ Guide\\ and\\ Synopsis\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\English\\ 10b\\ traces\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ British\\ literature\\ from\\ Alexander\\ Pope\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ to\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ authors\\,\\ such\\ as\\ D\\.H\\ Lawrence\\ and\\ Samuel\\ Beckett\\.\\ This\\ guide\\ reviews\\ those\\ works\\ chronologically\\,\\ and\\ by\\ literary\\ period\\,\\ while\\ providing\\ for\\ key\\ works\\ a\\ brief\\ synopsis\\ of\\ plot\\ and\\ their\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ English\\ literature\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ All\\ works\\ appear\\ in\\ bold\\ when\\ first\\ mentioned\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\General\\ Review\\ Questions\\,\\ which\\ consider\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\,\\ exist\\ at\\ the\\ end\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\I\\.\\ \\The\\ Augustan\\ or\\ Neo\\-Classical\\ Age\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\(1690\\-1744\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Main\\ poets\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alexander\\ Pope\\ \\(1688\\-1744\\)\\,\\ Johnathan\\ Swift\\ \\(1667\\-1745\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\1\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ period\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ overview\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\Augustan\\ poets\\ rejected\\ Milton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ and\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ attention\\ to\\ grandiose\\,\\ metaphysical\\ questions\\ and\\ turned\\ instead\\ to\\ earthly\\,\\ quotidian\\ concerns\\ and\\ lamentation\\ of\\ the\\ present\\.\\ As\\ Pope\\ suggests\\ in\\ his\\ prose\\ critique\\ \\An\\ Essay\\ on\\ Man\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ proper\\ study\\ of\\ mankind\\ is\\ man\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ People\\ should\\,\\ he\\ poses\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;presume\\ not\\ God\\ to\\ scan\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>In\\ his\\ \\The\\ Rape\\ of\\ the\\ Lock\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1714\\)\\,\\ a\\ gossipy\\ story\\ about\\ one\\ character\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;lock\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ hair\\,\\ Pope\\ allegedly\\ describes\\ real\\ people\\,\\ and\\ makes\\ little\\ effort\\ to\\ disguise\\ them\\.\\ In\\ \\A\\ Description\\ of\\ the\\ Morning\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1709\\)\\,\\ Swift\\ discusses\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ London\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ streets\\,\\ and\\ in\\ \\A\\ Lady\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Dressing\\ Room\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1730\\)\\,\\ he\\ reveals\\ each\\ unflattering\\,\\ grotesque\\ detail\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ deceptive\\ beautification\\ ritual\\.\\ He\\ illuminates\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ modern\\ society\\ through\\ satire\\;\\ his\\ novel\\ \\Gulliver\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Travels\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1726\\)\\ hints\\ at\\ human\\ absurdity\\ through\\ the\\ outrageous\\ behavior\\ of\\ distorted\\ or\\ non\\-humans\\,\\ such\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Academy\\ of\\ Lagado\\,\\ who\\ speak\\ wordlessly\\ and\\ develop\\ a\\ machine\\ to\\ destroy\\ language\\,\\ or\\ the\\ brutal\\ world\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\-than\\-life\\ Brobingnag\\ peoples\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>Swift\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ biting\\ satire\\ echoes\\ Horace\\,\\ a\\ classical\\ reference\\ that\\ led\\ later\\ poets\\ Hulme\\ and\\ Eliot\\ to\\ call\\ the\\ Augustans\\ Neo\\-Classical\\.\\ As\\ ancient\\,\\ classical\\ poets\\ did\\,\\ these\\ Neo\\-Classicists\\ exercised\\ economy\\,\\ tidiness\\,\\ grace\\,\\ finesse\\,\\ and\\ carefully\\ graduated\\ emphasis\\ in\\ their\\ works\\.\\ The\\ Neo\\-Classical\\ poets\\ subdued\\ the\\ chaos\\ of\\ their\\ age\\ by\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ time\\-bound\\,\\ the\\ current\\ trends\\ and\\ trends\\,\\ and\\ the\\ most\\ recent\\ standards\\ of\\ civility\\.\\ Some\\ writers\\ went\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ adjust\\ the\\ unhappy\\ endings\\ of\\ \\King\\ Lear\\<\\/em\\>\\\\,\\ \\Paradise\\ Lost\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ other\\ dramatic\\ tragedies\\ in\\ their\\ more\\ cordial\\,\\ consonant\\ versions\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\2\\.\\ Example\\ of\\ Major\\ Works\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Alexander\\ Pope\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Rape\\ of\\ The\\ Lock\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1714\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\Synopsis\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\\\ \\(Canto\\ I\\)\\ The\\ sylph\\ Ariel\\ warns\\ Belinda\\ to\\ be\\ wary\\ and\\ offers\\ to\\ be\\ her\\ guardian\\,\\ \\(Canto\\ II\\)\\ Belinda\\ and\\ friends\\ \\(Thaelestris\\,\\ Clarissa\\,\\ the\\ Baron\\,\\ Sir\\ Plume\\)\\ embark\\ on\\ a\\ trip\\ up\\ the\\ Thames\\,\\ \\(III\\)\\ while\\ they\\ play\\ \\&\\#8220\\;matador\\&\\#8221\\;\\ card\\ games\\ and\\ drink\\ coffee\\,\\ the\\ Baron\\ snips\\ Belinda\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lock\\ \\(catching\\ Ariel\\ in\\ the\\ process\\)\\ and\\ \\(IV\\)\\ Umbriel\\,\\ a\\ melancholy\\ sprite\\,\\ brings\\ tears\\ from\\ Spleen\\ to\\ exacerbate\\ Belinda\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ response\\,\\ \\(IV\\)\\ Sir\\ Plume\\ attempts\\ to\\ retrieve\\ lock\\ from\\ baron\\,\\ who\\ denies\\ it\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\\r\\Themes\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\a\\.\\ Pope\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ is\\ a\\ \\mock\\-heroic\\ epic\\<\\/em\\>\\\\.\\ By\\ referencing\\ classical\\ literature\\ \\(the\\ trip\\ up\\ the\\ Thames\\ resembles\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ Virgil\\)\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ contemporary\\,\\ deeply\\ superficial\\ society\\,\\ Pope\\ both\\ mocks\\ the\\ classic\\ epic\\ and\\ the\\ triviality\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ age\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\b\\.\\ \\Critic\\ of\\ frivolity\\<\\/em\\>\\\\:\\ Belinda\\ seems\\ to\\ care\\ equally\\ about\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ virginity\\ and\\ the\\ breaking\\ of\\ a\\ china\\ vase\\;\\ Pope\\ suggests\\ this\\ ethos\\ by\\ equating\\ the\\ two\\ possibilities\\ grammatically\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;whether\\ the\\ numph\\ shall\\ break\\ Diana\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ law\\,\\/Or\\ some\\ frail\\ china\\ jar\\ receive\\ a\\ flaw\\;\\/Or\\ stain\\ her\\ honor\\,\\ or\\ her\\ new\\ brocade\\;\\/\\ \\&\\#8230\\;Ariel\\ himself\\ shall\\ be\\ the\\ guard\\ of\\ Shock\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ When\\ Clarissa\\ attempts\\ to\\ find\\ some\\ value\\ to\\ life\\ beyond\\ her\\ peers\\&\\#8217\\;\\ superficial\\ interests\\,\\ they\\ ignore\\ her\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;How\\ vain\\ are\\ all\\ these\\ glories\\,\\ all\\ our\\ pains\\,\\/Unless\\ good\\-sense\\ preserve\\ what\\ beauty\\ gains\\&\\#8221\\;\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;So\\ spoke\\ the\\ dame\\,\\ but\\ no\\ applause\\ ensu\\&\\#8217\\;d\\;\\/Belinda\\ frown\\&\\#8217\\;d\\,\\ Thalestris\\ call\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ her\\ prude\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Examples\\ of\\ luck\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ dominant\\ card\\ came\\,\\ also\\ emphasize\\ temporality\\ and\\ chance\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\c\\.\\ \\Use\\ of\\ antithetical\\ couples\\<\\/em\\>\\\\:\\ Pope\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;not\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ contradictory\\ terms\\ refuses\\ to\\ pin\\ down\\ meaning\\;\\ instead\\ the\\ events\\ he\\ describe\\ remain\\ trivial\\ and\\ unimportant\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Jonathan\\ Swift\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;A\\ Beautiful\\ Young\\ Nymph\\ Going\\ to\\ Bed\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1731\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Synopsis\\<\\/em\\>\\\\:\\ As\\ Corinna\\ undresses\\ and\\ unmasks\\ to\\ prepare\\ for\\ sleep\\,\\ the\\ narrator\\ reveals\\ her\\ beauty\\ secrets\\ and\\ their\\ deceptive\\ powers\\.\\ Mercilessly\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;glass\\ eye\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;artificial\\ hair\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ full\\ set\\ of\\ teeth\\ she\\ removes\\ for\\ cleaning\\.\\ Syphilis\\,\\ we\\ learn\\,\\ decays\\ Corninna\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ mutilated\\ body\\,\\ which\\ makeup\\ renders\\ attractive\\ and\\ which\\ Swift\\ ironically\\ calls\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;toast\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ town\\,\\ Coven\\ Garden\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Themes\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ he\\ did\\ in\\ satiric\\ works\\ such\\ as\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;A\\ Modest\\ Proposal\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\Gulliver\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Travels\\<\\/em\\>\\\\,\\ Swift\\ engages\\ fiercely\\ critical\\ irony\\ to\\ mock\\ human\\ society\\ and\\ behavior\\.\\ The\\ beautiful\\ young\\ nymph\\ is\\ stricken\\ with\\ disease\\,\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ place\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Description\\ of\\ a\\ City\\-Shower\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1710\\)\\ reeks\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;filth\\ of\\ all\\ hues\\ and\\ odours\\.\\\"\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ Pope\\ focuses\\ on\\ contemporary\\ fashions\\ and\\ earthly\\ concerns\\,\\ Swift\\ writes\\ about\\ the\\ material\\ world\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ demythologize\\ it\\.\\ In\\ \\&\\#8220\\;A\\ Modest\\ Proposal\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ asks\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ man\\ himself\\ but\\ a\\ complete\\ set\\ of\\ clothes\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\\\II\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Neo\\-Miltonic\\ or\\ Pre\\-Romantic\\ Period\\ \\(1750\\-1780s\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>main\\ poets\\:\\\\ Thomas\\ Gray\\ \\(1716\\-1771\\)\\,\\ William\\ Cowper\\ \\(1731\\-1800\\)\\,\\ William\\ Collins\\ \\(1721\\-1759\\)\\,\\ Christopher\\ Smart\\ \\(1722\\-1771\\)\\,\\ and\\ William\\ Blake\\ \\(1757\\-1827\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\.\\ period\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ overview\\\r\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\Unlike\\ the\\ Augustans\\,\\ who\\ rejected\\ Milton\\,\\ these\\ poets\\ consciously\\ shuddered\\ in\\ his\\ shadow\\.\\ Aware\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ never\\ achieve\\ the\\ literary\\ greatness\\ of\\ Baroque\\ and\\ Renaissance\\ masters\\,\\ they\\ produced\\ imitative\\ literature\\ that\\ often\\ reflected\\ their\\ own\\,\\ personal\\ mania\\ and\\ insanity\\.\\ This\\ so\\-called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Milton\\ Envy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ manifests\\ in\\ allusions\\ to\\ Renaissance\\ work\\,\\ ruminations\\ about\\ the\\ past\\,\\ and\\ lamentations\\ over\\ the\\ lost\\ poet\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Thomas\\ Gray\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ eulogy\\ for\\ the\\ exiled\\ minstrel\\,\\ \\The\\ Bard\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1757\\)\\,\\ or\\ his\\ fantasy\\ about\\ being\\&\\#8212\\;one\\ day\\&\\#8212\\;inspired\\,\\ \\The\\ Progress\\ of\\ Poesy\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1754\\)\\.\\ William\\ Collins\\ makes\\ frequent\\ reference\\ to\\ Shakespeare\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Macbeth\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ in\\ \\Ode\\ on\\ the\\ Popular\\ Superstitions\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1750\\)\\,\\ experiences\\ Milton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ inspiration\\ vicariously\\ in\\ the\\ \\Ode\\ on\\ the\\ Poetical\\ Character\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1746\\)\\,\\ or\\ imitates\\ odes\\ by\\ Horace\\,\\ whom\\ Milton\\ translated\\,\\ in\\ \\Ode\\ to\\ Evening\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1748\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\More\\ overt\\ expressions\\ of\\ depression\\ also\\ characterize\\ this\\ period\\.\\ In\\ \\Castaway\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\(1799\\)\\,\\ William\\ Cowper\\ conveys\\ deep\\ anguish\\ by\\ imagining\\ when\\ everyone\\ \\&\\#8220\\;perish\\&\\#8217\\;d\\,\\ each\\ alone\\;\\/But\\ I\\ beneath\\ a\\ rougher\\ sea\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ two\\ lines\\ that\\ Virginia\\ Woolf\\ later\\ cites\\ in\\ her\\ novel\\,\\ \\To\\ The\\ Lighthouse\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ Christopher\\ Smart\\,\\ who\\ died\\ in\\ a\\ madhouse\\,\\ channels\\ his\\ mania\\ into\\ obsessive\\ religious\\ fervor\\.\\ In\\ \\Jubilate\\ Agno\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1763\\)\\,\\ he\\ praises\\ his\\ cat\\ Geoffrey\\,\\ who\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ realization\\ that\\ all\\ things\\,\\ including\\ words\\ themselves\\,\\ declare\\ God\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ greatness\\.\\ The\\ word\\ \\&\\#8220\\;cat\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ Greek\\ word\\ \\&\\#8220\\;prey\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\,\\ Smart\\ argues\\,\\ inspires\\ faithfulness\\ by\\ invoking\\ \\&\\#8220\\;pray\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ often\\ categorize\\ William\\ Blake\\ as\\ a\\ Romantic\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ belongs\\ to\\ the\\ Neo\\-Miltonists\\ for\\ his\\ unique\\ religious\\ intensity\\ and\\ a\\ tendency\\ towards\\ schizophrenia\\.\\ As\\ his\\ drawings\\ of\\ Isaac\\ Newton\\ underwater\\ suggest\\,\\ Blake\\ despised\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\.\\ In\\ his\\ poems\\ \\The\\ Marriage\\ of\\ Heaven\\ and\\ Hell\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\,\\ \\Songs\\ of\\ Innocence\\ and\\ Songs\\ of\\ Experience\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Blake\\ invents\\ a\\ new\\ mythology\\ that\\ rejects\\ reason\\ and\\ rationalism\\,\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ instinct\\,\\ and\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ sinning\\,\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;evil\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ can\\ be\\ \\&\\#8220\\;good\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ believed\\ images\\ should\\ have\\ strict\\ outlines\\ and\\ clear\\ detail\\.\\ He\\ attacked\\ the\\ painter\\ Sir\\ Joshua\\ Reynold\\ for\\ promoting\\ blurry\\ images\\ and\\ obscurity\\;\\ he\\ wrote\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Without\\ Minute\\ Neatness\\ of\\ Execution\\.\\ The\\.\\ Sublime\\ cannot\\ Exist\\!\\ Grandeur\\ of\\ Ideas\\ is\\ founded\\ on\\ Precision\\ of\\ Ideas\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\Major\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ works\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\Thomas\\ Gray\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Bard\\,\\ a\\ Pindaric\\ Ode\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1757\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Synopsis\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\When\\ Edward\\ I\\ conquered\\ Wales\\,\\ he\\ outlawed\\ poets\\ and\\ condemned\\ them\\ to\\ death\\.\\ In\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ Gray\\ imagines\\ the\\ sole\\ remaining\\ bard\\,\\ with\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;hoary\\ hair\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;haggard\\ eyes\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;prophet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fire\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;sable\\ garb\\ of\\ woe\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ laments\\ the\\ sorry\\ state\\ of\\ poet\\-less\\ earth\\ and\\,\\ playing\\ on\\ his\\ lyre\\,\\ curses\\ the\\ king\\ who\\ ban\\ him\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Revenge\\ on\\ thee\\ in\\ hoarser\\ murmurs\\ breathe\\;\\/Vocal\\ no\\ more\\,\\ since\\ Cambria\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fatal\\ day\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ William\\ Blake\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ illustrated\\ version\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Bard\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1798\\)\\,\\ depicts\\ a\\ brown\\ and\\ golden\\ figure\\,\\ who\\ blends\\ into\\ his\\ natural\\ surroundings\\,\\ as\\ if\\ human\\ and\\ nature\\ were\\ one\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Themes\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\a\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Remorseful\\ Nostalgia\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ Gray\\ writes\\ a\\ eulogy\\ for\\ the\\ past\\.\\ His\\ recollection\\ of\\ history\\ is\\ a\\ lament\\ about\\ both\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ great\\ poets\\ and\\ his\\ inability\\ to\\ imitate\\ them\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\b\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Envious\\ Imagination\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Like\\ Collins\\,\\ Gray\\ tries\\ to\\ imagine\\ what\\ real\\,\\ deep\\ poetic\\ inspiration\\ is\\ like\\,\\ by\\ putting\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ shoes\\ of\\ his\\ poet\\-subjects\\.\\ Longingly\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ their\\ intellectual\\ capacities\\.\\ While\\ Cowper\\,\\ Smart\\,\\ and\\ other\\ Neo\\-Miltonic\\ poets\\ expressed\\ mania\\ and\\ severe\\ depression\\,\\ Gray\\ exudes\\ a\\ subtler\\ form\\ of\\ constant\\,\\ nagging\\ depression\\ through\\ his\\ persistent\\,\\ impenetrable\\ sense\\ of\\ inferiority\\.\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>III\\.\\ Edmund\\ Burke\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Edmund\\ Burke\\ \\(1729\\-97\\)\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>warrants\\ his\\ own\\ \\&\\#8220\\;category\\&\\#8221\\;\\ on\\ account\\ his\\ significant\\ essay\\,\\ \\A\\ Philosophical\\ Enquiry\\ into\\ the\\ Sublime\\ and\\ the\\ Beautiful\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1757\\)\\.\\ In\\ it\\,\\ he\\ analyzes\\ what\\ characteristics\\ feature\\ each\\ concept\\ and\\ which\\ distinguish\\ them\\.\\ His\\ definitions\\,\\ which\\ are\\ summarized\\ below\\,\\ had\\ lasting\\ influence\\ on\\ writers\\ of\\ his\\ generation\\ and\\ later\\ ones\\,\\ including\\ Blake\\,\\ Wordsworth\\,\\ and\\ Shelley\\.\\ He\\ also\\ uses\\ Milton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dramatic\\ descriptions\\ of\\ death\\ and\\ of\\ God\\ to\\ explain\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ sublime\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\(1\\)\\ \\The\\ Sublime\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ passion\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ great\\ and\\ sublime\\ in\\ \\nature\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#8230\\;is\\ Astonishment\\;\\ and\\ astonishment\\ is\\ that\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ its\\ motions\\ are\\ suspended\\,\\ with\\ some\\ degree\\ of\\ horror\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ sublime\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;dark\\,\\ uncertain\\,\\ confused\\,\\ terrible\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ is\\ ignorance\\,\\ difficulty\\,\\ obscurity\\,\\ enormous\\ strength\\,\\ vastness\\ \\[geographic\\ or\\ magnitude\\ in\\ building\\]\\,\\ infinity\\ \\[succession\\ or\\ uniformity\\]\\.\\ It\\ is\\ pain\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;self\\-preservation\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ and\\ fear\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;If\\ we\\ rejoice\\,\\ we\\ rejoice\\ with\\ trembling\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ magnificence\\,\\ light\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;opposite\\ extremes\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\,\\ sound\\ and\\ loudness\\,\\ suddenness\\,\\ intermitting\\ \\(sound\\)\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;excessive\\ bitters\\ and\\ intolerable\\ stenches\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>In\\ sum\\,\\ it\\ is\\ everything\\ \\overpowering\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ and\\ \\incomprehensible\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ shape\\,\\ size\\,\\ or\\ imagination\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\(2\\)\\ \\The\\ Beautiful\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Unlike\\ the\\ sublime\\,\\ the\\ beautiful\\ is\\ tame\\,\\ manageable\\,\\ and\\ understandable\\.\\ If\\ a\\ vast\\,\\ frightening\\ thunderstorm\\ is\\ sublime\\,\\ spring\\ flowers\\,\\ trickling\\ streams\\,\\ and\\ light\\ dew\\ are\\ beautiful\\:\\ they\\ are\\ lovely\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ extreme\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\IV\\.\\ The\\ romantic\\ era\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1790\\-1834\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>main\\ poets\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\William\\ Blake\\ \\(1757\\-1827\\)\\,\\ William\\ Wordsworth\\ \\(1770\\-1850\\)\\,\\ Samuel\\ Taylor\\ Coleridge\\ \\(1772\\-1834\\)\\,\\ Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\ \\(1792\\-1822\\)\\,\\ John\\ Keats\\ \\(1795\\-1821\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ \\period\\ overview\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Romantic\\ Poets\\ had\\ great\\ expectations\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ and\\ consequences\\ of\\ poetry\\,\\ ideas\\ they\\ expressed\\ freely\\ in\\ many\\ letters\\ and\\ essays\\.\\ At\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\,\\ the\\ Romantics\\ turned\\ to\\ nature\\ to\\ find\\ truth\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ to\\ supplement\\ science\\.\\ Percy\\ Bysshe\\ Shelley\\ argued\\ that\\ poetry\\ \\&\\#8220\\;awakens\\ and\\ enlarges\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ mind\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\ \\&\\#8220\\;A\\ Defense\\ of\\ Poetry\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1821\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ boldly\\ declared\\ poets\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ unacknowledged\\ legislators\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ him\\,\\ poetry\\ has\\ a\\ critical\\ moral\\ aspect\\,\\ for\\ by\\ feeding\\ human\\ curiosity\\,\\ it\\ increases\\ human\\ benevolence\\,\\ sympathy\\,\\ and\\ wellbeing\\.\\ Like\\ Shelley\\,\\ Coleridge\\ wrote\\ about\\ the\\ improving\\ and\\ instructive\\ capacities\\ of\\ poetry\\ in\\ an\\ essay\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Biographia\\ Literaria\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1817\\)\\.\\ He\\ appreciates\\ Pope\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Rape\\ of\\ the\\ Lock\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;just\\ and\\ acute\\ observations\\ on\\ men\\ and\\ manners\\ in\\ an\\ artificial\\ state\\ of\\ society\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ a\\ wealth\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;grammatical\\ metaphor\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ but\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ great\\ poetry\\ serves\\ a\\ higher\\ purpose\\ than\\ witty\\ banter\\.\\ It\\ has\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;logic\\ of\\ its\\ own\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ exact\\ as\\ science\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Wordsworth\\ also\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ stylized\\ language\\ of\\ Pope\\.\\ He\\ turned\\ to\\ simple\\ language\\ and\\ described\\ his\\ effort\\ to\\ imitate\\ speech\\ in\\ the\\ in\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Preface\\ to\\ Lyrical\\ Ballads\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1800\\)\\.\\ He\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ Romantics\\ embraced\\ life\\ in\\ its\\ natural\\ state\\&\\#8212\\;away\\ from\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ society\\ or\\ technology\\.\\ While\\ Blake\\ created\\ a\\ new\\ mythology\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Marriage\\ of\\ Heaven\\ and\\ Hell\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(see\\ above\\)\\,\\ and\\ Coleridge\\ experimented\\ with\\ eerily\\ sublime\\,\\ supernatural\\ images\\ in\\ \\The\\ Rime\\ of\\ the\\ Ancient\\ Mariner\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1797\\)\\ and\\ \\Kubla\\ Khan\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1798\\)\\,\\ Wordsworth\\ emphasized\\ his\\ formative\\,\\ critical\\ intimacy\\ with\\ nature\\.\\ In\\ \\The\\ Prelude\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1850\\)\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ River\\ Wye\\,\\ where\\ he\\ played\\ as\\ a\\ child\\,\\ literally\\ shaped\\ his\\ mind\\ with\\ its\\ hum\\ and\\ flow\\.\\ Children\\,\\ like\\ nature\\,\\ interested\\ the\\ Romantics\\,\\ who\\ saw\\ the\\ child\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ father\\ of\\ man\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Wordsworth\\,\\ \\The\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\Rainbow\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ Uncorrupted\\ and\\ still\\ inspired\\,\\ children\\ possess\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ intrinsic\\ knowledge\\ that\\ Shelley\\ seeks\\ in\\ his\\ \\Hymn\\ To\\ Intellectual\\ Beauty\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1817\\)\\ and\\ \\Mont\\ Blanc\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1817\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>As\\ they\\ focused\\ on\\ nature\\,\\ children\\,\\ and\\ other\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ present\\,\\ Romantic\\ poets\\ also\\ employed\\ traditional\\ poetic\\ forms\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ ballad\\,\\ Spenserian\\ stanza\\,\\ and\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ Shelley\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ case\\,\\ reference\\ to\\ Classical\\ myth\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ Major\\ works\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>William\\ Wordsworth\\,\\ Tintern\\ Abbey\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1798\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Synopsis\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ speaker\\ returns\\ to\\ Tintern\\ Abbey\\&\\#8212\\;an\\ abandoned\\ place\\ that\\ nature\\ has\\ taken\\ over\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Many\\ years\\&\\#8221\\;\\ have\\ passed\\ since\\ his\\ first\\ visit\\ as\\ a\\ youth\\,\\ and\\,\\ he\\ recalls\\,\\ many\\ \\&\\#8220\\;wanderings\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ hardships\\ have\\ occurred\\.\\ But\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ abbey\\ came\\ to\\ him\\ during\\ dark\\,\\ lonely\\ moments\\ of\\ city\\ living\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;dreary\\ intercourse\\ of\\ daily\\ living\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ \\&\\#8220\\;healing\\ thoughts\\&\\#8221\\;\\ restored\\ him\\;\\ and\\ he\\ urges\\ his\\ companion\\,\\ who\\ notes\\ suggest\\ is\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ sister\\ Dorothy\\,\\ to\\ remember\\ their\\ visit\\ and\\ treasure\\ the\\ memory\\ as\\ he\\ does\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Themes\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(a\\)\\ \\Nature\\ as\\ powerful\\,\\ formative\\,\\ and\\ healing\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ As\\ he\\ does\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Prelude\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Wordsworth\\ praises\\ nature\\ as\\ having\\ powerful\\ characteristics\\.\\ It\\ healed\\ him\\ from\\ depression\\ and\\ illness\\;\\ and\\ he\\ urges\\ his\\ sister\\ to\\ grow\\ from\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ their\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ lush\\,\\ wild\\ area\\ surrounding\\ Tintern\\ Abbey\\.\\ By\\ embracing\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ human\\ imagination\\ becomes\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ imagination\\ that\\ created\\ nature\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\John\\ Keats\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Ode\\ on\\ a\\ Nightingale\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1819\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Synopsis\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ this\\ famous\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ calls\\ out\\ to\\ a\\ singing\\ nightingale\\ and\\ inquires\\ after\\ its\\ happy\\ tune\\.\\ How\\ did\\ it\\ come\\ by\\ such\\ unrelenting\\ joy\\?\\ The\\ speaker\\ professes\\ to\\ have\\ tried\\ forgetfulness\\ by\\ visiting\\ the\\ river\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Lethe\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(which\\,\\ in\\ classical\\ mythology\\,\\ borders\\ Hades\\ and\\ induces\\ memory\\ loss\\)\\.\\ He\\ yearns\\ for\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;draught\\ of\\ vintage\\&\\#8221\\;\\ so\\ that\\ wine\\ might\\ dull\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;weariness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fret\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ the\\ bird\\ \\&\\#8220\\;hast\\ never\\ known\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Eventually\\ he\\ rejects\\ these\\ methods\\,\\ and\\ realizes\\ he\\ will\\ soar\\ towards\\ heaven\\ \\&\\#8220\\;on\\ the\\ viewless\\ wings\\ of\\ Poesy\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ will\\ inspire\\ and\\ save\\ him\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Themes\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>a\\.\\ \\Sensuous\\ Rapture\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ While\\ his\\ predecessors\\ favored\\ speech\\-like\\ writing\\ and\\ simple\\ language\\,\\ Keats\\,\\ the\\ youngest\\ of\\ the\\ Romantic\\ poets\\,\\ embraced\\ a\\ more\\ flowery\\ tone\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ convey\\ his\\ sensual\\ feelings\\.\\ For\\ he\\ was\\ indeed\\ sensual\\:\\ this\\ poem\\,\\ as\\ the\\ other\\ odes\\ do\\,\\ demonstrate\\ his\\ acute\\ sensitivity\\ to\\ feelings\\,\\ sounds\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>b\\.\\ \\Negative\\ Capability\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ In\\ letters\\ to\\ his\\ brother\\ and\\ various\\ close\\ friends\\,\\ Keats\\ explained\\ his\\ philosophy\\ about\\ poetry\\ and\\ writers\\.\\ The\\ poet\\,\\ he\\ argued\\,\\ has\\ no\\ identity\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ the\\ identities\\ of\\ everyone\\ else\\ impress\\ themselves\\ on\\ him\\,\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ cannot\\ help\\ but\\ experience\\ the\\ perspectives\\ of\\ others\\.\\ Through\\ poetry\\,\\ he\\ records\\ and\\ illuminates\\ these\\ foreign\\ perspectives\\.\\ Here\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ may\\ well\\ represent\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ actual\\ voice\\&\\#8212\\;we\\ have\\ no\\ way\\ of\\ knowing\\&\\#8212\\;but\\ his\\ insistence\\ on\\ escaping\\ his\\ mindset\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ bird\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ reflects\\ his\\ notion\\ \\(and\\ pursuit\\)\\ of\\ the\\ term\\ he\\ coined\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;negative\\ capability\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportEmptyParas\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\iv\\.\\ the\\ victorian\\ era\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1837\\-1901\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\main\\ poets\\ and\\ novelists\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alfred\\ Tennyson\\ \\(1809\\-92\\)\\,\\ Arthur\\ Hallam\\ \\(1811\\-33\\)\\,\\ Robert\\ Browning\\ \\(1812\\-89\\)\\,\\ George\\ Eliot\\ \\(1819\\-80\\)\\,\\ Matthew\\ Arnold\\ \\(1822\\-88\\)\\,\\ Dante\\ Gabriel\\ Rossetti\\ \\(1828\\-82\\)\\,\\ Gerard\\ Manley\\ Hopkins\\ \\(1844\\-89\\)\\,\\ George\\ Meredith\\ \\(1828\\-1909\\)\\,\\ Charles\\ Swinburne\\ \\(1837\\-1909\\)\\,\\ Thomas\\ Hardy\\ \\(1840\\-1928\\)\\,\\ Oscar\\ Wilde\\ \\(1854\\-1900\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\ period\\ overview\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>While\\ the\\ Romantics\\ effused\\ optimism\\ and\\ promise\\,\\ Victorian\\ poets\\ displayed\\ less\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ imagination\\,\\ of\\ poets\\,\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ possibility\\ for\\ change\\.\\ While\\ the\\ Romantics\\ valiantly\\ dissolved\\ the\\ walls\\ barring\\ life\\ from\\ art\\ and\\ beauty\\ from\\ goodness\\,\\ the\\ Victorians\\ slowly\\ resurrected\\ them\\.\\ The\\ heroines\\ of\\ Alfred\\ Tennyson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ poems\\ \\Mariana\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1830\\)\\ and\\ \\The\\ Lady\\ of\\ Shallot\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1832\\)\\ are\\ hardly\\ one\\ with\\ nature\\;\\ rather\\,\\ vines\\,\\ spells\\,\\ and\\ waterways\\ suffocate\\,\\ bind\\,\\ and\\ doom\\ them\\.\\ In\\ \\Shelley\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Skylark\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1887\\)\\,\\ Thomas\\ Hardy\\ responds\\ to\\ the\\ older\\ poet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ glee\\ \\(expressed\\ in\\ Shelley\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\To\\ a\\ Skylark\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1820\\)\\ by\\ declaring\\ the\\ once\\ inspirational\\ bird\\ dead\\,\\ a\\ dusty\\ \\&\\#8220\\;little\\ ball\\ of\\ feather\\ and\\ bone\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>While\\ the\\ Romantics\\ escaped\\ society\\,\\ the\\ Victorians\\ upheld\\ its\\ traditions\\ anxiously\\.\\ Hardy\\ and\\ Gerard\\ Manley\\ Hopkins\\ expressed\\ religious\\ insecurities\\ with\\ anguish\\;\\ Oscar\\ Wilde\\ satirized\\ society\\ in\\ poems\\ such\\ as\\ \\The\\ Harlot\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ House\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1885\\)\\.\\ While\\ Wilde\\,\\ like\\ Charles\\ Swinburne\\,\\ experimented\\ with\\ aesthetic\\ revivals\\ of\\ classical\\ myth\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Swinburne\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Hermaphroditus\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1863\\)\\,\\ and\\ Tennyson\\ and\\ Rossetti\\ turned\\ to\\ medieval\\,\\ Arthurian\\ tales\\,\\ other\\ Victorians\\ employed\\ another\\ old\\ tradition\\,\\ words\\ that\\ echo\\ the\\ concrete\\,\\ physical\\ diction\\ of\\ the\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ language\\.\\ They\\ dwelled\\ on\\ details\\ and\\ aesthetic\\ beauty\\,\\ winning\\ the\\ secondary\\ title\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Aesthetes\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ major\\ works\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Robert\\ Browning\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;My\\ Last\\ Duchess\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1842\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Synopsis\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Browning\\ allegedly\\ based\\ this\\ dramatic\\ monologue\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ poem\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ speaker\\ addresses\\ a\\ silent\\ audience\\&\\#8212\\;on\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Alfonso\\ II\\,\\ the\\ Italian\\ Duke\\ of\\ Ferrara\\,\\ whose\\ wife\\ Lucretia\\ died\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\,\\ and\\ who\\ remarried\\ soon\\ after\\.\\ During\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ the\\ speaker\\ negotiates\\ such\\ a\\ remarriage\\ contract\\,\\ with\\ a\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ wealthy\\ potential\\ fianc\\&\\#233\\;e\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ father\\.\\ He\\ shows\\ his\\ guest\\ a\\ portrait\\ of\\ his\\ late\\ wife\\,\\ which\\ he\\ stores\\ for\\ private\\ viewing\\ behind\\ a\\ curtain\\.\\ As\\ the\\ Duke\\ boasts\\ about\\ his\\ \\&\\#8220\\;five\\-hundred\\-year\\-old\\ name\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ his\\ fine\\ sculpture\\,\\ he\\ gives\\ himself\\ away\\,\\ insinuating\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ his\\ wife\\ killed\\,\\ when\\ she\\ made\\ him\\ jealous\\ with\\ her\\ tendency\\ to\\ delight\\ in\\ things\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ people\\&\\#8212\\;besides\\ himself\\.\\ While\\ the\\ speakers\\ of\\ Keats\\&\\#8217\\;\\ work\\ may\\ echo\\ the\\ poet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ experience\\,\\ this\\ voice\\ is\\ plainly\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;detached\\ speaker\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ who\\ does\\ not\\ represent\\ Browning\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\T\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\hemes\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>a\\.\\ \\Greed\\,\\ Jealousy\\,\\ Ownership\\,\\ and\\ Prestige\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ Duke\\ is\\ extremely\\ pompous\\.\\ Proud\\ of\\ his\\ family\\ heritage\\,\\ he\\ lords\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ entitlement\\ over\\ his\\ guest\\,\\ and\\ his\\ obsession\\ with\\ ownership\\ is\\ mockingly\\ obvious\\.\\ The\\ sculpture\\,\\ he\\ points\\ out\\,\\ was\\ specially\\ made\\ for\\ \\&\\#8220\\;me\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ a\\ word\\ that\\ concludes\\ his\\ speech\\ tellingly\\.\\ Browning\\ makes\\ fun\\ of\\ his\\ hero\\,\\ who\\ unknowingly\\,\\ and\\ quite\\ easily\\,\\ makes\\ himself\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ criticism\\.\\ While\\ the\\ Duke\\ is\\ the\\ apparent\\ subject\\ of\\ mockery\\,\\ here\\,\\ so\\ is\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ mindset\\ he\\ represents\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>b\\.\\ \\Theater\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ poem\\ entails\\ multiple\\ levels\\ of\\ performance\\.\\ The\\ Duke\\ puts\\ on\\ an\\ act\\ to\\ impress\\ the\\ representative\\;\\ he\\ unknowingly\\ performs\\ for\\ us\\,\\ just\\ as\\ he\\ unknowingly\\ unveils\\ his\\ secret\\.\\ His\\ wife\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ his\\ crime\\&\\#8212\\;literally\\ lies\\ behind\\ a\\ curtain\\,\\ as\\ if\\ on\\ a\\ stage\\.\\ Art\\ permeates\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ through\\ the\\ Duke\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ collection\\ of\\ works\\,\\ and\\ the\\ extensive\\ mention\\ of\\ the\\ critical\\,\\ jealousy\\-inducing\\ portrait\\ artist\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>c\\.\\ \\Comedy\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ On\\ the\\ simplest\\ level\\,\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ comic\\.\\ The\\ Duke\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ extreme\\,\\ absurd\\ pride\\,\\ his\\ ignorance\\,\\ and\\ his\\ folly\\ amount\\ to\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ humor\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\V\\.\\ the\\ modern\\ era\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1890\\-1930\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\major\\ poets\\ and\\ novelists\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\W\\.\\ B\\ Yeats\\ \\(1865\\-1939\\)\\,\\ Virginia\\ Woolf\\ \\(1882\\-1941\\)\\,\\ T\\.E\\ Hulme\\ \\(1883\\-1917\\)\\,\\ D\\.H\\ Lawrence\\ \\(1885\\-1930\\)\\,\\ T\\.S\\ Eliot\\ \\(1888\\-1965\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\.\\ period\\ overview\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Modernism\\ involved\\ a\\ radical\\ upheaval\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ was\\ traditional\\ and\\ familiar\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ heeding\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ their\\ predecessors\\,\\ these\\ writers\\ sought\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ inexpressible\\ through\\ new\\,\\ innovative\\ methods\\.\\ Virginia\\ Woolf\\ explored\\ the\\ human\\ unconscious\\ with\\ the\\ deepest\\ intimacy\\ through\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;stream\\-of\\-consciousness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ technique\\ in\\ her\\ novel\\ \\To\\ The\\ Lighthouse\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1927\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>T\\.S\\ Eliot\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ poem\\ \\The\\ Wasteland\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1922\\)\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ steam\\-of\\-consciousness\\;\\ it\\ rapidly\\ switches\\ between\\ the\\ voices\\ of\\ several\\ different\\ identities\\,\\ including\\ two\\ working\\-class\\ women\\ and\\ a\\ policeman\\,\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ poem\\ were\\ an\\ eclectic\\ collage\\.\\ \\(Eliot\\ considered\\ giving\\ the\\ work\\ a\\ Dickens\\-inspired\\ title\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;He\\ Do\\ the\\ Policeman\\ in\\ Different\\ Voices\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\ Modernism\\ often\\ involves\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ opposites\\ and\\ extremes\\;\\ Eliot\\ admired\\ Pablo\\ Picasso\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Les\\ Demoiselles\\ D\\&\\#8217\\;Avignon\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1907\\)\\,\\ Igor\\ Stravinsky\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1919\\)\\,\\ and\\ James\\ Joyce\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Ulysses\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(1922\\)\\,\\ works\\ that\\ embody\\ this\\ extreme\\ clashing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>D\\.H\\ Lawrence\\ also\\ abandoned\\ tradition\\ with\\ his\\ novel\\ \\The\\ Virgin\\ and\\ The\\ Gypsy\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1930\\)\\,\\ which\\ unfolds\\ an\\ allegorical\\ tale\\ in\\ jarringly\\ stark\\,\\ fable\\-like\\ language\\.\\ The\\ radical\\ tearing\\ away\\ protests\\ the\\ sterile\\ barrenness\\ these\\ writers\\ saw\\ in\\ their\\ contemporary\\ society\\.\\ As\\ W\\.B\\ Yeats\\ does\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\ \\Leda\\ and\\ the\\ Swan\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1923\\)\\,\\ modernists\\ wrote\\ about\\ mythic\\ prehistory\\ to\\ compare\\ modernity\\,\\ and\\ about\\ extreme\\ situations\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ reinvigoration\\.\\ Yeats\\ also\\ wrote\\ about\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ symbolism\\,\\ and\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ rose\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ symbolic\\ images\\ he\\ used\\ most\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ major\\ works\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>T\\.S\\ Eliot\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Love\\ Song\\ of\\ J\\.\\ Alfred\\ Prufrock\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1911\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Synopsis\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Amid\\ an\\ abundance\\ of\\ references\\ to\\ other\\ works\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ J\\.\\ Alfred\\ Prufrock\\ bids\\ a\\ woman\\ \\&\\#8220\\;let\\ us\\ go\\ and\\ make\\ our\\ visit\\&\\#8221\\;\\ so\\ he\\ can\\ ask\\ her\\ a\\ question\\.\\ Anxious\\,\\ nervous\\,\\ and\\ hopelessly\\ self\\-conscious\\,\\ he\\ wonders\\ desperately\\ if\\ he\\ \\&\\#8220\\;dare\\/Disturb\\ the\\ universe\\&\\#8221\\;\\ with\\ his\\ inquiry\\ and\\ if\\ he\\ might\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;how\\ should\\ I\\ presume\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ this\\ dramatic\\ monologue\\,\\ he\\ cannot\\ urge\\ himself\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;force\\ the\\ moment\\ to\\ its\\ crisis\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ asking\\,\\ presumably\\,\\ for\\ her\\ hand\\ in\\ marriage\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ he\\ wishes\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ born\\ an\\ anonymous\\,\\ hermetic\\ crab\\ \\&\\#8220\\;scuttling\\ across\\ the\\ floors\\ of\\ silent\\ seas\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ man\\,\\ whom\\,\\ he\\ believes\\,\\ society\\ expects\\ to\\ perform\\ certain\\ duties\\,\\ such\\ as\\ getting\\ engaged\\ and\\ socializing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Themes\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\.\\ \\Window\\ into\\ the\\ Interior\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ poem\\ exposes\\ Prufrock\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ mind\\ and\\ provides\\ vivid\\ insight\\ into\\ paranoia\\,\\ insecurity\\,\\ and\\ doubt\\&\\#8212\\;if\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ literal\\ abundance\\ of\\ question\\ marks\\.\\ The\\ questions\\ he\\ asks\\ himself\\&\\#8212\\;\\&\\#8220\\;do\\ I\\ dare\\ eat\\ a\\ peach\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\&\\#8212\\;reveal\\ his\\ innermost\\ thoughts\\ and\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ peer\\ into\\ his\\ mind\\ completely\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>b\\.\\ \\The\\ Un\\-Person\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ As\\ the\\ poem\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ see\\ his\\ psyche\\,\\ it\\ also\\ dissolves\\ that\\ mind\\ into\\ its\\ surroundings\\.\\ Fog\\ is\\ too\\ big\\ to\\ represent\\ him\\;\\ the\\ crab\\ too\\ small\\.\\ The\\ women\\ who\\ \\&\\#8220\\;come\\ and\\ go\\&\\#8221\\;\\ invade\\ his\\ private\\,\\ mental\\ space\\,\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ losing\\ his\\ own\\ identity\\ into\\ the\\ external\\ world\\.\\ As\\ his\\ hectic\\ musing\\ does\\,\\ the\\ ubiquitous\\ images\\ and\\ similes\\ fuse\\ subject\\ and\\ object\\ inextricably\\.\\ In\\ the\\ poem\\,\\ ideas\\ are\\ as\\ sturdy\\ as\\ objects\\,\\ while\\ objects\\ are\\ as\\ flimsy\\ as\\ ideas\\;\\ both\\ are\\ indistinguishable\\,\\ as\\ Prufrock\\ is\\ from\\ his\\ atmosphere\\.\\ By\\ seeking\\ definition\\ from\\ others\\,\\ or\\ from\\ negative\\ identities\\ \\(he\\ is\\ not\\ Hamlet\\,\\ he\\ says\\,\\ nor\\ John\\ the\\ Baptist\\)\\,\\ he\\ loses\\ it\\ altogether\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportEmptyParas\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportEmptyParas\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\vi\\.\\ the\\ postmodern\\ era\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(begins\\ around\\ 1930\\,\\ or\\ in\\ 1941\\ with\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ modernist\\ writer\\ james\\\r\\joyce\\,\\ or\\,\\ some\\ argue\\,\\ with\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ world\\ war\\ ii\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\\r\\major\\ poets\\,\\ novelists\\ and\\ playwrights\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Samuel\\ Beckett\\ \\(1909\\-89\\)\\,\\ W\\.H\\ Auden\\ \\(1907\\-73\\)\\,\\ Philip\\ Larkin\\ \\(1922\\-85\\)\\,\\ Martin\\ Amis\\ \\(b\\.\\ 1949\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\.\\ period\\ overview\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>The\\ postmodern\\ movement\\ is\\ both\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ modernism\\ and\\ a\\ reaction\\ against\\ it\\.\\ Postmodern\\ writers\\ continued\\ the\\ Modernist\\ effort\\ to\\ abandon\\ traditional\\ realism\\ and\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ psychological\\ interior\\.\\ But\\ they\\ also\\ embraced\\ fragmentation\\ with\\ new\\ fearlessness\\.\\ Works\\ became\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bricolage\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ references\\ from\\ all\\ periods\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ that\\ might\\ spark\\ random\\ associations\\.\\ They\\ employed\\ irrelevant\\ myths\\ to\\ undermine\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;metanarrative\\&\\#8221\\;\\;\\ and\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ high\\ and\\ low\\ or\\ old\\ and\\ new\\ writing\\ lost\\ its\\ significance\\.\\ In\\ its\\ attempt\\ to\\ deconstruct\\ modernism\\,\\ postmodern\\ work\\ separated\\ the\\ artist\\ from\\ the\\ art\\,\\ prioritizing\\ randomness\\ over\\ progress\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\I\\<\\/span\\>n\\ Samuel\\ Beckett\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Murphy\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1938\\)\\,\\ the\\ characters\\ barely\\ resemble\\ real\\ people\\ and\\ the\\ plot\\ has\\ little\\ real\\ content\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ the\\ characters\\ are\\ more\\ like\\ randomly\\ assembled\\ puppets\\,\\ and\\ the\\ plot\\ an\\ exposition\\ in\\ nothingness\\.\\ W\\.\\ H\\ Auden\\ uses\\ language\\ that\\ reflected\\ Old\\ \\(Anglo\\-Saxon\\)\\ English\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\ \\The\\ Wanderer\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1930\\)\\,\\ mixing\\ Norse\\ epics\\ with\\ Mother\\ Goose\\ stories\\;\\ and\\ he\\ infuses\\ seemingly\\ meaningless\\ tales\\ with\\ aspects\\ of\\ human\\ despair\\,\\ as\\ he\\ does\\ in\\ \\As\\ I\\ walked\\ Out\\ One\\ Evening\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1930\\)\\.\\ Like\\ the\\ other\\ Postmodernists\\,\\ Auden\\ delights\\ in\\ language\\ itself\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ major\\ works\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Samuel\\ Beckett\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Murphy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1938\\)\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Synopsis\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ this\\ novel\\,\\ Beckett\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;seedy\\ solipsist\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ a\\ protagonist\\ ventures\\ to\\ the\\ Magdalen\\ Mental\\ Mercyseay\\ mental\\ ward\\ in\\ pursuit\\ of\\ a\\ job\\.\\ There\\,\\ as\\ a\\ nurse\\,\\ he\\ spends\\ time\\ with\\ the\\ patients\\,\\ and\\ sees\\ in\\ their\\ insanity\\ an\\ escape\\ from\\ the\\ oppressiveness\\ of\\ consciousness\\.\\ One\\ of\\ them\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Enron\\,\\ becomes\\ a\\ regular\\ companion\\,\\ and\\ the\\ two\\ men\\ play\\ a\\ critical\\ game\\ of\\ chess\\.\\ Throughout\\ the\\ novel\\,\\ and\\ with\\ different\\ prompts\\,\\ Murphy\\ and\\ his\\ romantic\\ partner\\ Celia\\ explore\\ the\\ beauty\\ and\\ salvation\\ of\\ nothingness\\ itself\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Themes\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\.\\ \\Gas\\ and\\ chaos\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Murphy\\ falls\\ asleep\\,\\ in\\ one\\ scene\\,\\ thinking\\ about\\ gas\\.\\ Appropriately\\,\\ the\\ word\\ \\&\\#8220\\;gas\\&\\#8221\\;\\ derives\\ from\\ the\\ Greek\\ word\\ for\\ \\&\\#8220\\;chaos\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ As\\ gas\\ permeates\\ invisibly\\,\\ chaos\\ infects\\ uncontrollably\\.\\ Murphy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ scientific\\ approach\\ to\\ his\\ daily\\ cookie\\-eating\\ regimen\\ represents\\ a\\ deliberate\\ randomness\\,\\ and\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ order\\,\\ which\\ the\\ narrator\\ mimics\\ in\\ his\\ refusal\\ to\\ conform\\ to\\ rigid\\ structural\\ traditions\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\b\\.\\ \\Escape\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Throughout\\ the\\ novel\\,\\ Murphy\\ tries\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ outer\\ world\\.\\ His\\ interest\\ in\\ release\\ of\\ insanity\\ also\\ manifests\\ in\\ his\\ attitude\\ towards\\ the\\ rocking\\ chair\\,\\ whose\\ \\&\\#8220\\;rock\\ got\\ faster\\ and\\ faster\\,\\ shorter\\ and\\ shorter\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ until\\ \\&\\#8220\\;soon\\ his\\ body\\ would\\ be\\ quiet\\,\\ soon\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ free\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportEmptyParas\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ c\\.\\ \\Resisting\\ the\\ \\(Dark\\)\\ Outer\\ World\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\One\\ can\\ read\\ Chapter\\ 6\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ literary\\ critic\\ Carl\\ Jung\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ outline\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\ as\\ concentric\\ circles\\,\\ as\\ he\\ described\\ in\\ a\\ 1935\\ lecture\\.\\ Light\\&\\#8212\\;which\\ represents\\ the\\ conscious\\ mind\\&\\#8212\\;constitutes\\ the\\ periphery\\,\\ while\\ dark\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ unconscious\\ mind\\&\\#8212\\;occupies\\ the\\ center\\.\\ Consider\\ Beckett\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\,\\ outer\\ world\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;a\\ radiant\\ abstract\\ of\\ the\\ dog\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ life\\,\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ physical\\ experience\\ available\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ arrangement\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\ in\\ contrast\\ with\\ his\\ portrayal\\ of\\ the\\ inner\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Here\\ there\\ was\\ nothing\\ but\\ commotion\\ and\\ the\\ pure\\ forms\\ of\\ commotion\\.\\ \\ Here\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ free\\,\\ but\\ a\\ mote\\ in\\ the\\ dark\\ of\\ absolute\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ He\\ did\\ not\\ move\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ ceaseless\\ unconditioned\\ generation\\ and\\ passing\\ away\\ of\\ line\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Murphy\\ is\\ restlessly\\ out\\ of\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ outer\\ world\\;\\ unlike\\ normal\\ people\\,\\ his\\ heartbeat\\ is\\ either\\ too\\ rapid\\ or\\ almost\\-dead\\.\\ The\\ narrative\\ resists\\ the\\ realism\\ of\\ the\\ outer\\ world\\,\\ by\\ such\\ techniques\\ as\\ making\\ its\\ characters\\ puppet\\-like\\;\\ consider\\ how\\ it\\ introduces\\ Celia\\ numerically\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\general\\ review\\ questions\\ pertaining\\ to\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ what\\ is\\ poetry\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Consider\\ and\\ compare\\ the\\ definitions\\ of\\ several\\ poet\\-philosophers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Wordsworth\\,\\ Colerdige\\,\\ Shelley\\,\\ Keats\\,\\ Browning\\,\\ Wilde\\,\\ and\\ Eliot\\.\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ what\\ is\\ sublime\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Discuss\\ Burke\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ notion\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ Blake\\,\\ Shelley\\,\\ Yeats\\,\\ or\\ others\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ how\\ does\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ imagination\\ change\\ over\\ time\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ how\\ have\\ poets\\ of\\ different\\ periods\\ used\\ classical\\ myth\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ what\\ effect\\ does\\ their\\ usage\\ achieve\\?\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ discuss\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\in\\ different\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\.\\ Consider\\ faithfulness\\,\\ doubt\\,\\ pessimism\\,\\ and\\ mythology\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 77, "file_path": "", "desc": "Summary of English 10b: Major British Writers II"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.150437+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "WATCH THEIR FACES CHANGE", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 415, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\John\\ Dewey\\,\\ The\\ Public\\ and\\ its\\ Problems\\,\\ selection\\\r\\\\\t\\\t\\ \\ Liberalism\\ and\\ Social\\ Action\\\r\\\\\t\\\t\\ \\ \\&\\#8220\\;Creative\\ Democracy\\&\\#8212\\;The\\ Task\\ Before\\ Us\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Reinhold\\ Niebuhr\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Pathos\\ of\\ Liberalism\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Henry\\ Wallace\\,\\ The\\ Century\\ of\\ the\\ Common\\ Man\\ \\(selections\\)\\\r\\Franklin\\ D\\.\\ Roosevelt\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;1944\\ State\\ of\\ the\\ Union\\ Address\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\t\\\r\\Perhaps\\ the\\ best\\ illustration\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Quest\\ for\\ Community\\ Two\\ Step\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ Professor\\ Kloppenberg\\ introduced\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ is\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ documentary\\ photographs\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ onwards\\.\\ The\\ series\\ starts\\ with\\ the\\ photographs\\ taken\\ from\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ Farm\\ Security\\ Administration\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ most\\ important\\ publications\\&\\#8212\\;Dorothea\\ Lange\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ American\\ Exodus\\ and\\ Margaret\\ Bourke\\ White\\ and\\ Erskine\\ Caldwell\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ You\\ Have\\ Seen\\ their\\ Faces\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ series\\ sought\\ to\\ bring\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ consciousness\\ the\\ dire\\ straights\\ of\\ over\\ half\\ the\\ population\\,\\ and\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ photographs\\ contained\\ in\\ these\\ volumes\\ included\\ captions\\ meant\\ to\\ deliberately\\ fix\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ photographs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ technique\\ was\\ thrown\\ out\\ with\\ the\\ contentious\\ publication\\ of\\ James\\ Agee\\ and\\ Walker\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ heartbreaking\\ text\\ and\\ photographic\\ essay\\,\\ Let\\ Us\\ Now\\ Praise\\ Famous\\ Men\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Who\\ are\\ you\\ who\\ will\\ read\\ these\\ words\\ and\\ study\\ these\\ photographs\\,\\ and\\ through\\ what\\ cause\\,\\ by\\ what\\ chance\\ and\\ for\\ what\\ purpose\\,\\ and\\ by\\ what\\ right\\ do\\ you\\ qualify\\ to\\,\\ and\\ what\\ will\\ you\\ do\\ about\\ it\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ implored\\ James\\ Agee\\ in\\ his\\ rambling\\,\\ beautifully\\ written\\ introduction\\,\\ questioning\\ not\\ only\\ his\\ readership\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ motivations\\ for\\ reading\\ the\\ book\\ but\\ his\\ and\\ Walker\\ Evans\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ motivations\\ for\\ writing\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ The\\ volume\\ intersperses\\ essay\\ with\\ pictures\\,\\ never\\ giving\\ captions\\ or\\ attempting\\ to\\ map\\ this\\ or\\ that\\ reading\\ on\\ the\\ images\\.\\ In\\ Lionel\\ Trilling\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ words\\,\\ the\\ volume\\ never\\ reduces\\ its\\ photographic\\ subjects\\ to\\ objects\\ and\\ instead\\ allows\\ each\\ individual\\ to\\ exist\\ as\\ a\\ subject\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ after\\ the\\ publication\\ of\\ this\\ book\\,\\ a\\ transformation\\ occurs\\ from\\ 1938\\ onwards\\,\\ when\\ the\\ nation\\ is\\ under\\ intense\\ political\\ pressure\\ as\\ the\\ build\\ up\\ to\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ increases\\.\\ The\\ FSA\\ encourages\\ photographs\\ that\\ no\\ longer\\ \\&\\#8220\\;tell\\ it\\ how\\ it\\ is\\&\\#8221\\;\\ but\\ instead\\ feature\\ \\&\\#8220\\;contented\\ old\\ couples\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Women\\ are\\ seen\\ doing\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ home\\,\\ not\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ fields\\ as\\ the\\ move\\ towards\\ a\\ new\\ rigidified\\ domesticity\\ increases\\.\\ In\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Prof\\.\\ Kloppenberg\\,\\ you\\ can\\ \\&\\#8220\\;watch\\ the\\ people\\ change\\&\\#8221\\;\\ from\\ 1932\\-1940\\ as\\ the\\ question\\ for\\ community\\ morphs\\ into\\ a\\ disillusionment\\ with\\ social\\ realism\\ and\\ back\\ towards\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ American\\ culture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ move\\ is\\ also\\ amazingly\\ noticeable\\ in\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ most\\ important\\ figures\\ in\\ the\\ class\\:\\ John\\ Dewey\\.\\ \\ The\\ entry\\ into\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ stopped\\ a\\ steady\\ evolution\\ towards\\ a\\ Deweyan\\ democracy\\ embodied\\ in\\ Franklin\\ Delano\\ Roosevelt\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Four\\ Freedoms\\&\\#8221\\;\\ speech\\ that\\ focused\\ on\\ economic\\ freedom\\.\\ Dewey\\ had\\ begun\\ to\\ move\\ towards\\ the\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\,\\ to\\ an\\ almost\\ implicit\\ endorsement\\ of\\ socialism\\ and\\ an\\ increased\\ emphasis\\ on\\ economic\\ factors\\ that\\ prevent\\ true\\ equality\\ from\\ being\\ reached\\.\\ Earlier\\,\\ Dewey\\ had\\ been\\ reluctant\\ to\\ argue\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ any\\ equalizing\\ economic\\ program\\,\\ arguing\\ in\\ his\\ early\\ Political\\ Writings\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;never\\-ending\\ struggle\\ for\\ existence\\,\\ the\\ private\\ war\\ which\\ makes\\ one\\ man\\ strive\\ to\\ climb\\ upon\\ the\\ shoulders\\ of\\ another\\&\\#8221\\;\\ were\\ removed\\ and\\ equality\\ were\\ introduced\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ motive\\ to\\ progress\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\With\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ and\\ the\\ host\\ of\\ socioeconomic\\ challenges\\ it\\ produced\\,\\ Dewey\\ and\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ fellow\\ liberals\\ began\\ to\\ stop\\ ignoring\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ dismissing\\,\\ the\\ economic\\ facet\\ of\\ equality\\.\\ Dewey\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ large\\ scale\\ economic\\ change\\ has\\ occurred\\ in\\ his\\ 80\\+\\ years\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Creative\\ Democracy\\:\\ The\\ Task\\ Before\\ Us\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ with\\ the\\ closing\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\ new\\ challenges\\ have\\ been\\ posed\\ to\\ democracy\\.\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ democracy\\ can\\ continue\\ to\\ function\\ and\\ flourish\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Dewey\\,\\ is\\ to\\ take\\ these\\ changes\\ into\\ consideration\\ and\\ to\\ employ\\ the\\ tools\\ of\\ social\\ science\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Free\\ interaction\\ of\\ individual\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ human\\ surroundings\\&\\#8230\\;develops\\ and\\ satisfies\\ need\\ and\\ desire\\ by\\ increasing\\ knowledge\\ of\\ things\\ as\\ they\\ are\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ argued\\ Dewey\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Need\\ and\\ desire\\&\\#8212\\;out\\ of\\ which\\ grows\\ purpose\\ and\\ direction\\ of\\ energy\\&\\#8212\\;go\\ beyond\\ what\\ exists\\&\\#8230\\;They\\ continually\\ open\\ the\\ way\\ into\\ the\\ unexplored\\ and\\ unattained\\ future\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\Dewey\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ move\\ to\\ argue\\ for\\ the\\ supremacy\\ of\\ social\\ science\\ in\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ combat\\ the\\ challenges\\ of\\ the\\ Depression\\ was\\ not\\ particularly\\ singular\\.\\ In\\ the\\ intellectual\\ and\\ political\\ community\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ move\\ towards\\ a\\ self\\-consciously\\ social\\ scientific\\ approach\\ that\\ encouraged\\ the\\ local\\ participation\\ of\\ ordinary\\ citizens\\ in\\ the\\ administering\\ of\\ federal\\ programs\\.\\ This\\ encouragement\\ of\\ local\\ democracy\\ was\\ almost\\ finalized\\ in\\ a\\ report\\ that\\ was\\ presented\\ to\\ FDR\\ days\\ before\\ the\\ bombing\\ of\\ Pearl\\ Harbor\\,\\ which\\,\\ along\\ with\\ FDR\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ death\\ pushed\\ the\\ plan\\ to\\ the\\ back\\ burner\\ for\\ the\\ time\\ being\\.\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ after\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\,\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ issues\\,\\ including\\ racial\\ tensions\\,\\ economic\\ prosperity\\ and\\ Keynsianism\\,\\ a\\ preference\\ for\\ decentralization\\,\\ and\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\ prevented\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ lessons\\ of\\ the\\ 30s\\ and\\ early\\ 40s\\ from\\ being\\ realized\\ in\\ post\\-war\\ America\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "WATCH THEIR FACES CHANGE"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.161716+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "ON AVANT-GARDES AND IDEAS", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 416, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Charles\\ Eliot\\ Norton\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;American\\ Political\\ Ideas\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Walt\\ Whitman\\,\\ Democratic\\ Vistas\\ \\(selections\\)\\\r\\Stephen\\ Crane\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;An\\ Episode\\ of\\ War\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ mistakenly\\ ordered\\ a\\ pamphlet\\ on\\ the\\ avant\\-garde\\ from\\ the\\ literary\\ magazine\\ \\\\n\\+1\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ over\\ the\\ summer\\.\\ Having\\ nothing\\ better\\ to\\ do\\,\\ I\\ finally\\ decided\\ to\\ read\\ it\\,\\ and\\ while\\ I\\ may\\ have\\ other\\ opinions\\ on\\ what\\ exactly\\ constitutes\\ avant\\-garde\\ art\\ or\\ literature\\ today\\,\\ I\\ was\\ surprised\\ at\\ how\\ strangely\\ relevant\\ the\\ pamphlet\\ was\\ to\\ the\\ readings\\ I\\ was\\ doing\\ for\\ Tuesday\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ class\\.\\ \\ Both\\ the\\ hipster\\ pamphlet\\ and\\ the\\ not\\-so\\-hip\\ \\Walt\\ Whitman\\<\\/a\\>\\ were\\ basically\\ asking\\ themselves\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ artist\\ and\\ democratic\\ culture\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\America\\,\\ unlike\\ Europe\\ or\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ has\\ never\\ had\\ an\\ aristocratic\\ culture\\ to\\ support\\ its\\ artistic\\ output\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ exists\\ as\\ both\\ a\\ person\\ alienated\\ from\\ commercial\\ culture\\ and\\ someone\\ who\\ must\\ be\\ sustained\\ by\\ their\\ commercial\\ prospects\\.\\ It\\ also\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ artist\\ must\\ separate\\ him\\ or\\ herself\\ from\\ the\\ general\\ democratic\\ populace\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ produce\\ something\\ original\\ while\\ also\\ understanding\\ that\\ they\\ themselves\\ are\\ a\\ participant\\ in\\ this\\ common\\ culture\\.\\ How\\ to\\ be\\ new\\ without\\ being\\ alienating\\?\\ How\\ to\\ be\\ avant\\-garde\\ and\\ still\\ make\\ a\\ living\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ the\\ \\n\\+1\\<\\/em\\>\\ folk\\ still\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ some\\ issues\\ to\\ sort\\ out\\ between\\ practical\\ avant\\-gardes\\ and\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ they\\ can\\ actually\\ stand\\ for\\ anything\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ the\\ intellectuals\\,\\ artists\\,\\ and\\ authors\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\ had\\ some\\ answers\\.\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ \\(\\Fort\\ Greene\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Brooklyn\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ resident\\ and\\ a\\ strong\\ proponent\\ of\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ largest\\ burial\\ site\\ in\\ the\\ Fort\\ Greene\\ Park\\)\\ argues\\ in\\ his\\ prose\\ work\\,\\\\\\ Democratic\\ Vistas\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ against\\ the\\ anemic\\ sentimentalism\\ of\\ the\\ popular\\ literature\\ of\\ his\\ day\\ and\\ instead\\ asserts\\ that\\ American\\ art\\ must\\ articulate\\ American\\ life\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;For\\ know\\ you\\ know\\,\\ dear\\,\\ earnest\\ reader\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Whitman\\ writes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;that\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ our\\ land\\ may\\ all\\ read\\ and\\ write\\,\\ and\\ may\\ all\\ possess\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ vote\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ yet\\ the\\ main\\ things\\ may\\ be\\ entirely\\ lacking\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ save\\ American\\ culture\\,\\ Whitman\\ wanted\\ to\\ throw\\ off\\ the\\ Victorian\\ sensibility\\ of\\ his\\ compatriots\\ \\(look\\ at\\ last\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ post\\ for\\ an\\ introduction\\ to\\ this\\ sensibility\\)\\ and\\ instead\\ of\\ seeking\\ refinement\\ wanted\\ to\\ speak\\ for\\ the\\ ordinary\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ exceptional\\ artist\\ he\\ believed\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\.\\ Whitman\\ called\\ this\\ singing\\ for\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ divine\\ average\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ wanted\\ to\\ play\\ with\\ accepted\\ pairings\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ explode\\ them\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ to\\ expose\\ the\\ corruption\\ and\\ the\\ gilded\\ empty\\ glitz\\ of\\ the\\ Gilded\\ Age\\ and\\ reassert\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ American\\ society\\ was\\ not\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ economic\\ prowess\\ but\\ its\\ moral\\ consciences\\.\\ Whitman\\ says\\ it\\ best\\ when\\ he\\ writes\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;For\\,\\ I\\ say\\,\\ the\\ true\\ nationality\\ of\\ the\\ States\\,\\ the\\ genuine\\ union\\ when\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ mortal\\ crisis\\ is\\,\\ and\\ is\\ to\\ be\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ neither\\ the\\ written\\ law\\,\\ nor\\,\\ \\(as\\ is\\ generally\\ supposed\\,\\)\\ either\\ self\\-interest\\ or\\ common\\ pecuniary\\ or\\ material\\ objects\\&\\#8212\\;but\\ the\\ fervid\\ and\\ tremendous\\ IDEA\\,\\ melting\\ everything\\ else\\ with\\ resistless\\ heat\\,\\ and\\ solving\\ all\\ lesser\\ and\\ definite\\ distinctions\\ in\\ vast\\,\\ indefinite\\,\\ spiritual\\ power\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Unfortunately\\ for\\ Whitman\\ it\\ would\\ take\\ a\\ whole\\ other\\ generation\\ before\\ writers\\ and\\ artists\\ could\\ begin\\ shaking\\ off\\ the\\ Victorian\\ morality\\ and\\ gilded\\ age\\ excess\\ to\\ finally\\ work\\ on\\ creating\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ defining\\ and\\ then\\ rejection\\,\\ this\\ American\\ IDEA\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "ON AVANT-GARDES AND IDEAS"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.172507+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "WHAT WERE THEY THINKING?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 417, "html": "\\For\\ some\\ reason\\,\\ every\\ class\\ even\\ remotely\\ related\\ to\\ twentieth\\ century\\ American\\ history\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ from\\ art\\ classes\\ to\\ social\\ science\\ classes\\,\\ decides\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ 1893\\ World\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Expo\\.\\ While\\ Professor\\ Kloppenberg\\ claims\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ world\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ expositions\\ show\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ culture\\ at\\ its\\ most\\ self\\-conscious\\&\\#8221\\;\\ when\\ what\\ is\\ celebrated\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ ignored\\ are\\ fully\\ in\\ view\\,\\ I\\ think\\ it\\'s\\ for\\ a\\ different\\ reason\\.\\ Perhaps\\ vain\\,\\ perhaps\\ trivial\\,\\ it\\ is\\ nonetheless\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\ I\\ can\\ conceive\\ of\\ that\\ a\\ week\\ must\\ be\\ devoted\\ to\\ this\\ strange\\,\\ turn\\-of\\-the\\-century\\ event\\.\\ The\\ reason\\,\\ you\\ ask\\?\\ The\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ were\\ they\\ thinking\\&\\#8221\\;\\ factor\\ \\(see\\ \\this\\<\\/a\\>\\ for\\ an\\ example\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ most\\ things\\ went\\ in\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\ America\\,\\ Chicago\\ was\\ chosen\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ home\\ of\\ this\\ exposition\\ simply\\ because\\ it\\ paid\\ the\\ most\\ money\\ for\\ the\\ privilege\\.\\ Oddly\\ enough\\,\\ Chicago\\ actually\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ fitting\\ place\\ for\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;modern\\&\\#8221\\;\\ America\\.\\ The\\ city\\ had\\ turned\\ from\\ a\\ fur\\ trappers\\'\\ outpost\\ to\\ a\\ thriving\\ metropolis\\ almost\\ overnight\\,\\ and\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ beacon\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ new\\ and\\ what\\ was\\ different\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ It\\ was\\ brand\\ new\\,\\ having\\ been\\ reconstructed\\ after\\ the\\ fire\\ of\\ 1871\\ and\\ many\\ agreed\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;essence\\ of\\ Americanism\\&\\#8221\\;\\&\\#8212\\;full\\ of\\ vigor\\,\\ competition\\,\\ and\\ corruption\\,\\ three\\ things\\ necessary\\ for\\ success\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ no\\ coincidence\\ that\\ Theodore\\ Dreiser\\ set\\ his\\ naturalistic\\ tale\\ of\\ American\\ individualism\\,\\ \\\\Sister\\ Carrie\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ in\\ Chicago\\.\\ After\\ all\\,\\ in\\ what\\ other\\ city\\ would\\ it\\ be\\ possible\\ for\\ a\\ quiet\\ country\\ girl\\ to\\ rise\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ Chicago\\ stage\\?\\ Rudyard\\ Kipling\\,\\ after\\ viewing\\ the\\ city\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ scathingly\\ uttered\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ struck\\ a\\ city\\&\\#8230\\;and\\ having\\ seen\\ it\\,\\ I\\ urgently\\ desire\\ never\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ again\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Max\\ Weber\\ compared\\ it\\ to\\ a\\ body\\ that\\ has\\ its\\ skin\\ ripped\\ off\\ and\\ its\\ intestines\\ tied\\.\\ \\ All\\ in\\ all\\,\\ a\\ perfect\\ place\\ to\\ invite\\ the\\ world\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Daniel\\ Burnha\\<\\/a\\>\\m\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ such\\ stunningly\\ minimalist\\ buildings\\ as\\ the\\ \\Heyworth\\ building\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ Chicago\\,\\ was\\ the\\ young\\ upstart\\ chosen\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ prove\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ it\\ had\\ come\\ of\\ age\\.\\ Most\\,\\ if\\ not\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ supporters\\,\\ expected\\ him\\ to\\ continue\\ in\\ this\\ style\\.\\ His\\ mentor\\ had\\ been\\ \\Louis\\ Sullivan\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;father\\ of\\ the\\ skyscraper\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ a\\ long\\-time\\ admirer\\ of\\ \\H\\.H\\.\\ Richardson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ style\\,\\ now\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Richardsonian\\ Romanesque\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(H\\.H\\.\\ Richardson\\,\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\,\\ is\\ the\\ architect\\ of\\ Harvard\\'s\\ \\Sever\\ Hall\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ \\Trinity\\ Church\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ downtown\\ Boston\\,\\ often\\ cited\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ piece\\ of\\ architecture\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\)\\ Sullivan\\ coined\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&\\#8220\\;form\\ follows\\ function\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ argued\\ that\\,\\ confronted\\ with\\ \\sterile\\ piles\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(commercial\\ buildings\\)\\ architects\\ have\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ impute\\ to\\ those\\ forms\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ graciousness\\ and\\ sensibility\\,\\ what\\ he\\ termed\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ cult\\ of\\ a\\ higher\\ life\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Burnham\\,\\ apparently\\,\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ get\\ the\\ memo\\.\\ That\\,\\ or\\ he\\ was\\ hit\\ over\\ the\\ head\\ with\\ a\\ Greek\\ column\\ days\\ before\\ the\\ plans\\ for\\ the\\ fair\\ were\\ due\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ a\\ fair\\ ground\\ comprised\\ of\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ most\\ innovative\\ works\\ of\\ architecture\\ and\\ design\\,\\ Burnham\\ instead\\ decided\\ to\\ design\\ a\\ wanna\\-be\\ European\\ \\court\\ of\\ honor\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ replete\\ with\\ Roman\\ arches\\,\\ Green\\ columns\\,\\ and\\ Spanish\\ piazzas\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ complaining\\ of\\ Burnham\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ seeming\\ treachery\\,\\ everyone\\ praised\\ his\\ creation\\,\\ in\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ own\\ way\\ \\(the\\ French\\,\\ when\\ awarding\\ it\\ their\\ highest\\ honors\\,\\ called\\ it\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;cyclopean\\ and\\ barbarous\\ conception\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ was\\ all\\ about\\ \\grandeur\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ even\\ if\\ those\\ marble\\ looking\\ walls\\ were\\ actually\\ made\\ of\\ wood\\,\\ the\\ impression\\ was\\ what\\ mattered\\.\\ The\\ building\\ meant\\ to\\ house\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Manufactures\\ and\\ Liberal\\ Arts\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ was\\ over\\ 8\\ million\\ square\\ feet\\,\\ the\\ largest\\ building\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ three\\ times\\ over\\.\\ And\\ did\\ the\\ people\\ love\\ it\\.\\ They\\ flocked\\ all\\ summer\\ long\\ by\\ the\\ millions\\,\\ young\\ and\\ old\\,\\ Princetonians\\ and\\ day\\ laborers\\,\\ Henry\\ Adams\\ and\\ \\Frederick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8212\\;they\\ were\\ all\\ there\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ moment\\ in\\ American\\ history\\ when\\ Turner\\ loudly\\ proclaimed\\ the\\ \\\\\"closing\\ of\\ the\\ frontier\\\"\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ explained\\ to\\ Americans\\ what\\ it\\ had\\ meant\\ and\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ mean\\ for\\ their\\ rampant\\ individualism\\.\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ room\\ to\\ go\\ out\\;\\ the\\ only\\ place\\ to\\ go\\ was\\ up\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ newspaper\\ writer\\ accurately\\ described\\ the\\ spectacle\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;sliding\\ scale\\ of\\ humanity\\&\\#8221\\;\\ noting\\ that\\ after\\ the\\ Court\\ of\\ Honor\\,\\ the\\ cultures\\ represented\\ along\\ the\\ \\Midway\\ Plaisance\\<\\/a\\>\\ descended\\ in\\ order\\ from\\ civilized\\ to\\ barbarous\\,\\ with\\ the\\ Penobscot\\ Indians\\ bringing\\ up\\ the\\ rear\\ of\\ humankind\\.\\ It\\ is\\ for\\ this\\ reason\\ that\\ cultural\\ historians\\ love\\ the\\ exposition\\,\\ for\\ its\\ bold\\ display\\ of\\ racism\\ and\\ cultural\\ classification\\,\\ for\\ what\\ it\\ subtly\\ hints\\ at\\ and\\ what\\ it\\ blatantly\\ states\\.\\ America\\,\\ at\\ least\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ white\\,\\ European\\ settler\\ variety\\,\\ had\\ finally\\ come\\ into\\ its\\ own\\.\\ And\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ well\\,\\ they\\ had\\ finally\\ been\\ \\&\\#8220\\;civilized\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(or\\,\\ more\\ accurately\\,\\ eliminated\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ finish\\ off\\ the\\ spectacle\\,\\ the\\ fair\\ ended\\ after\\ the\\ summer\\ of\\ 1893\\,\\ when\\ Burnham\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ grand\\ spectacle\\ burned\\ down\\ in\\ a\\ blaze\\ of\\ glory\\.\\ What\\ was\\ he\\ thinking\\?\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "WHAT WERE THEY THINKING?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.184540+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "CONSPICUOUS (UNDER)CONSUMPTION", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 418, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Thorstein\\ Veblen\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Leisure\\ Class\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Populist\\ Party\\ Platform\\ of\\ 1892\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Conspicuous\\ consumption\\.\\ \\Super\\-sweet\\ sixteens\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ gaz\\-guzzling\\ SUVs\\,\\ McMansions\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ phrase\\ brings\\ to\\ mind\\ more\\ examples\\ that\\ the\\ mind\\ can\\ grasp\\.\\ Daily\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ bombarded\\ with\\ proof\\ of\\ our\\ over\\-consuming\\ ways\\,\\ from\\ obese\\ three\\ year\\-olds\\ to\\ the\\ latest\\ star\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ latest\\ cause\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ almost\\ become\\ too\\ obvious\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ the\\ myriad\\ examples\\ of\\ our\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\&\\#8212\\;it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ yet\\ another\\ aspect\\ of\\ modern\\ culture\\ that\\ at\\ least\\ the\\ twenty\\-something\\ set\\ yawns\\ at\\ before\\ switching\\ the\\ topic\\ back\\ to\\ Britney\\.\\ But\\ for\\ \\Thorstein\\ Veblen\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ that\\ rake\\ and\\ scourge\\ of\\ the\\ academic\\ world\\,\\ that\\ phrase\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ interesting\\,\\ but\\ revolutionary\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Veblen\\ was\\ once\\ quoted\\,\\ after\\ being\\ kicked\\ out\\ of\\ yet\\ another\\ storied\\ institution\\ of\\ higher\\ learning\\ for\\ indiscretions\\ with\\ the\\ ladies\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ are\\ you\\ going\\ to\\ do\\ when\\ a\\ woman\\ moves\\ in\\ with\\ you\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ notorious\\ outsider\\,\\ the\\ perpetual\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bad\\ boy\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ saw\\ things\\ just\\ slightly\\ off\\ from\\ his\\ colleagues\\.\\ He\\ was\\ both\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ and\\ a\\ sharp\\ critic\\ of\\ the\\ newly\\ formed\\ academic\\ culture\\ that\\ spawned\\ him\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ year\\ 1884\\ marks\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ higher\\ education\\.\\ That\\ year\\,\\ Harvard\\ changed\\ its\\ symbol\\ from\\ one\\ that\\ contained\\ the\\ words\\ \\&\\#8220\\;for\\ Christ\\ and\\ Church\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ one\\ that\\ instead\\ featured\\ the\\ current\\ motto\\,\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;Veritas\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;for\\ Christ\\ and\\ Church\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ smaller\\ print\\ around\\ it\\.\\ A\\ simple\\ word\\ change\\,\\ surely\\,\\ but\\ this\\ shift\\ represented\\ a\\ profound\\ split\\ from\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ previous\\ generations\\ had\\ thought\\ of\\ learning\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Before\\,\\ it\\ seemed\\ obvious\\ that\\ truth\\ was\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ religion\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ scholarship\\ was\\ simply\\ to\\ uncover\\ \\&\\#8220\\;truths\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ revealed\\ by\\ the\\ Divine\\ \\(this\\ is\\ also\\ called\\ natural\\ theology\\)\\.\\ This\\ included\\ a\\ final\\ capstone\\ course\\ in\\ Moral\\ Philosophy\\,\\ taught\\ by\\ the\\ President\\ of\\ the\\ University\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ entire\\ senior\\ class\\ enrolled\\.\\ \\ The\\ course\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ unity\\ to\\ the\\ students\\&\\#8217\\;\\ educational\\ journey\\,\\ to\\ tie\\ together\\ everything\\ they\\ had\\ learned\\ under\\ this\\ guiding\\ moral\\ framework\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Charles\\ W\\.\\ Eliot\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\ decided\\ to\\ change\\ all\\ of\\ that\\.\\ He\\ instituted\\ the\\ elective\\ system\\,\\ and\\ ended\\ mandatory\\ chapel\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ seeing\\ liberal\\ education\\ as\\ an\\ education\\ in\\ Christian\\ morals\\ and\\ thought\\,\\ a\\ stepping\\ stone\\ towards\\ \\&\\#8220\\;being\\ a\\ better\\ person\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(if\\ you\\ will\\)\\,\\ he\\ saw\\ liberal\\ education\\ as\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ liberal\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ justification\\ for\\ nothing\\ other\\ than\\ learning\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ thought\\ and\\ purpose\\ that\\ had\\ characterized\\ higher\\ education\\.\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ fair\\ to\\ say\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ current\\ \\General\\ Education\\ reform\\ crisis\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ idea\\ that\\ many\\ in\\ education\\ have\\ yet\\ to\\ get\\ over\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ all\\ this\\ learning\\?\\ Can\\ learning\\ for\\ learning\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ sake\\ ever\\ be\\ enough\\?\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ have\\ specialized\\ knowledge\\ if\\ only\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ other\\ faculty\\ members\\ can\\ understand\\ you\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ the\\ questions\\ persist\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ remains\\ that\\ this\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ opened\\ up\\ the\\ doors\\ for\\ specialization\\ in\\ the\\ disciplines\\ and\\,\\ more\\ specifically\\,\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ distinct\\ fields\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ sciences\\.\\ Social\\ sciences\\ had\\ originally\\ come\\ from\\ moral\\ philosophy\\,\\ with\\ the\\ guiding\\ principle\\ that\\ research\\ in\\ these\\ areas\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ provide\\ solutions\\ to\\ social\\ problems\\ like\\ corruption\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ was\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;objective\\&\\#8221\\;\\ knowledge\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ reform\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Enter\\ Veblen\\.\\ Although\\ Veblen\\ was\\ not\\ appreciated\\ by\\ his\\ colleagues\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ \\(most\\ obviously\\ for\\ his\\ terrible\\ social\\ skills\\ and\\ well\\-known\\ atheism\\)\\,\\ his\\ landmark\\ work\\,\\ \\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Leisure\\ Class\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ stands\\ today\\ as\\ a\\ wonderful\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ social\\ sciences\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ critique\\ of\\ specialization\\ itself\\.\\ Veblen\\ writes\\ in\\ his\\ introduction\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ data\\ employed\\ to\\ illustrate\\ or\\ enforce\\ the\\ argument\\ have\\ by\\ preference\\ been\\ drawn\\ from\\ everyday\\ life\\,\\ by\\ direct\\ observation\\ or\\ through\\ common\\ notoriety\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ from\\ more\\ recondite\\ sources\\ at\\ a\\ farther\\ remove\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ this\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ some\\ high\\-minded\\ text\\ for\\ the\\ specific\\ reading\\ pleasure\\ of\\ only\\ sociologists\\ \\(a\\ newly\\ formed\\ discipline\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ sciences\\)\\ or\\ economists\\,\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ man\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ wanted\\ the\\ common\\ man\\ of\\ the\\ Gilded\\ Age\\,\\ specifically\\ the\\ white\\,\\ middle\\-class\\,\\ consuming\\ common\\ man\\,\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ folly\\ of\\ his\\ ways\\,\\ at\\ least\\ from\\ an\\ anthropological\\/economic\\ standpoint\\.\\ What\\ he\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;pecuniary\\&\\#8221\\;\\ interest\\ was\\ the\\ simple\\ desire\\ to\\ accumulate\\ objects\\ for\\ the\\ sole\\ purpose\\ of\\ proving\\ your\\ wealth\\,\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ your\\ power\\.\\ Wealth\\ accumulation\\ was\\ just\\ a\\ modern\\-day\\ manifestation\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ brag\\ about\\ killing\\ more\\ buffalo\\ or\\ snagging\\ a\\ few\\ extra\\ wives\\ \\(and\\ let\\ me\\ tell\\ you\\,\\ he\\ loves\\ using\\ the\\ woman\\-as\\-object\\ trope\\)\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ Americans\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ this\\ accumulation\\ of\\ objects\\ was\\ wasteful\\ \\(no\\,\\ really\\?\\)\\ and\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ spirit\\ of\\ innovation\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ instinct\\ of\\ workmanship\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Sadly\\,\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ us\\,\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ his\\ phrase\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ gone\\ unheard\\.\\ Although\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ sure\\ Veblen\\ would\\ take\\ some\\ solace\\ in\\ the\\ conspicuous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;under\\-consumption\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ stars\\ like\\ Angelina\\ Jolie\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ if\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\,\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ sure\\ be\\ happy\\ to\\ have\\ her\\ move\\ in\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "CONSPICUOUS (UNDER)CONSUMPTION"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.196865+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "TO BE SHUT FROM THE WORLD BY A VAST VEIL", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 419, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Randolph\\ Bourne\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Trans\\-national\\ America\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ times\\,\\ the\\ list\\ of\\ William\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ students\\ seems\\ remarkable\\,\\ like\\ a\\ who\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ who\\ of\\ early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ America\\.\\ Gertrude\\ Stein\\,\\ Walter\\ Lippmann\\,\\ George\\ Santayana\\&\\#8212\\;even\\ Theodore\\ Roosevelt\\ spent\\ some\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ sweaty\\ classrooms\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ man\\.\\ Perhaps\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ most\\ surprising\\ student\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ W\\.E\\.B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\&\\#8212\\;that\\ champion\\ of\\ the\\ talented\\ tenth\\ and\\ the\\ perpetual\\ thorn\\ in\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ side\\.\\ \\ Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ at\\ Harvard\\ during\\ the\\ 1890s\\,\\ and\\ he\\ himself\\ writes\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ devoted\\ follower\\ of\\ James\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ he\\ was\\ developing\\ his\\ pragmatic\\ philosophy\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Du\\ Bois\\ and\\ James\\ form\\ a\\ logical\\,\\ if\\ unlikely\\ pair\\,\\ for\\ even\\ if\\ James\\ never\\ wrote\\ a\\ sustained\\ treatise\\ on\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ black\\ America\\ \\(his\\ oration\\ at\\ the\\ \\Robert\\ Gould\\ Shaw\\ memorial\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ his\\ editorials\\ against\\ lynching\\ are\\ perhaps\\ is\\ only\\ obvious\\ writings\\ on\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ race\\ in\\ America\\)\\ his\\ pluralism\\ certainly\\ included\\ African\\-Americans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tempting\\ to\\ yoke\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ pluralism\\ with\\ Du\\ Bois\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ intelligent\\,\\ often\\ beautifully\\ written\\ plea\\ for\\ social\\ equality\\ for\\ African\\-Americans\\ in\\ his\\ masterpiece\\,\\ The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\,\\ the\\ most\\ direct\\ parallel\\ between\\ teacher\\ and\\ student\\ is\\ actually\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ psychological\\ writings\\.\\ James\\ wrote\\ in\\ \\Principles\\ of\\ Psychology\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;No\\ more\\ fiendish\\ punishment\\ could\\ be\\ devised\\,\\ were\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ physically\\ possible\\,\\ than\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ be\\ turned\\ loose\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ remain\\ absolutely\\ unnoticed\\ by\\ all\\ the\\ members\\ thereof\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ For\\ James\\,\\ it\\ was\\ precisely\\ through\\ our\\ relations\\ with\\ each\\ other\\ that\\ we\\ as\\ individuals\\ develop\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Du\\ Bois\\ picked\\ up\\ this\\ idea\\ of\\ self\\-consciousness\\ from\\ James\\ and\\ in\\ \\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/em\\>\\ he\\ attempted\\ to\\ apply\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ race\\ relations\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ at\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;How\\ does\\ it\\ feel\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ provokingly\\ questioned\\ Du\\ Bois\\.\\ African\\ Americans\\ are\\ prevented\\ from\\ attaining\\ self\\-consciousness\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ reconcile\\ their\\ black\\ culture\\ with\\ the\\ white\\ culture\\ around\\ them\\,\\ since\\ one\\ \\(black\\ culture\\)\\ is\\ despised\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ made\\ unavailable\\ to\\ them\\ through\\ disenfranchisement\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ education\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\ sought\\ to\\ explain\\ that\\ a\\ yoking\\ together\\ of\\ both\\ African\\ American\\ history\\ and\\ culture\\ and\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ history\\ and\\ culture\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ color\\ line\\ and\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ truly\\ democratic\\ American\\ society\\.\\ Like\\ James\\,\\ he\\ sought\\ to\\ juxtapose\\ seeming\\ opposites\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ poetry\\ of\\ \\Lowell\\ with\\ Negro\\ spirituals\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ for\\ instance\\&\\#8212\\;to\\ show\\ that\\ society\\ grew\\ and\\ progressed\\ only\\ through\\ this\\ exchange\\,\\ not\\ through\\ artificial\\ boundaries\\ that\\ prevented\\ self\\-realization\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ amazingly\\ ahead\\ of\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ his\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ the\\ color\\ line\\,\\ and\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ in\\ his\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ Reconstruction\\ period\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\ saw\\ that\\ since\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ factor\\ in\\ achieving\\ equality\\ was\\ through\\ social\\ means\\&\\#8212\\;through\\ education\\,\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ a\\ general\\ change\\ in\\ white\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ the\\ south\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ Freedman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ bureau\\ failed\\ not\\ only\\ because\\ of\\ mismanagement\\ and\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ support\\ from\\ Washington\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ it\\ neglected\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ long\\-held\\ prejudice\\ of\\ whites\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ Failure\\ was\\ inevitable\\ because\\ at\\ that\\ moment\\ in\\ American\\ history\\,\\ what\\ was\\ most\\ necessary\\ was\\ not\\ reconciliation\\ between\\ white\\ and\\ black\\,\\ but\\ between\\ North\\ and\\ South\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Thus\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Du\\ Bois\\ summarizes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Negro\\ suffrage\\ ended\\ a\\ civil\\ war\\ by\\ beginning\\ a\\ race\\ feud\\.\\ And\\ some\\ felt\\ gratitude\\ toward\\ the\\ race\\ thus\\ sacrificed\\ in\\ its\\ swaddling\\ clothes\\ on\\ the\\ altar\\ of\\ national\\ integrity\\;\\ and\\ some\\ felt\\ and\\ feel\\ only\\ indifference\\ and\\ contempt\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\,\\ in\\ typical\\ fashion\\,\\ Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ not\\ held\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ genius\\ for\\ this\\ incisive\\ analysis\\.\\ The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\ wrote\\ in\\ a\\ review\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ that\\ Du\\ Bois\\ \\&\\#8220\\;probably\\ does\\ not\\ understand\\ his\\ own\\ people\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ historians\\ for\\ years\\ continued\\ to\\ blame\\ blacks\\ for\\ the\\ failures\\ of\\ Reconstruction\\.\\ It\\ would\\ take\\ years\\ to\\ really\\ show\\ how\\ far\\ Du\\ Bois\\ was\\ ahead\\ of\\ his\\ time\\.\\ In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ it\\ seems\\,\\ perhaps\\ both\\ James\\ and\\ Du\\ Bois\\ are\\ not\\ such\\ an\\ unlikely\\ pair\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "TO BE SHUT FROM THE WORLD BY A VAST VEIL"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.207694+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "PLEASE DON'T TOUCH", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 420, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\William\\ James\\,\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Will\\ to\\ Believe\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\William\\ James\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Moral\\ Philosopher\\ and\\ the\\ Moral\\ Life\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\William\\ James\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Robert\\ Gould\\ Shaw\\,\\ an\\ Oration\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\William\\ James\\,\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;On\\ a\\ Certain\\ Blindness\\ in\\ Human\\ Beings\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\William\\ James\\,\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;What\\ Makes\\ a\\ Life\\ Significant\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\William\\ James\\,\\ \\\\Pragmatism\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Chapters\\ 2\\ and\\ 6\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ kinds\\ of\\ people\\:\\ those\\ who\\ love\\ William\\ James\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\.\\ For\\ some\\,\\ including\\ Professor\\ Kloppenberg\\,\\ the\\ man\\ and\\ his\\ writings\\ are\\ the\\ perfect\\ mix\\ of\\ humility\\,\\ understanding\\,\\ and\\ genius\\.\\ Yet\\ for\\ others\\,\\ James\\ is\\ a\\ sphinx\\ of\\ sorts\\,\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ loved\\ to\\ question\\ but\\ refused\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ answer\\,\\ a\\ bundle\\ of\\ walking\\ contradictions\\ \\(the\\ founder\\ of\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ only\\ school\\ of\\ philosophy\\ never\\ attended\\ a\\ philosophy\\ lecture\\ until\\ he\\ taught\\ one\\)\\,\\ and\\ an\\ admittedly\\ circular\\ writer\\.\\ His\\ philosophical\\ writings\\ are\\ meandering\\ and\\ informal\\,\\ and\\ often\\ advocate\\ for\\ a\\ method\\ and\\ not\\ an\\ overarching\\ \\(forgive\\ the\\ pun\\)\\ philosophy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ biggest\\ point\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ James\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ he\\ makes\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;On\\ a\\ Certain\\ Blindness\\ in\\ Human\\ Beings\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ a\\ talk\\ he\\ gave\\ to\\ a\\ filled\\-to\\-capacity\\ room\\ of\\ female\\ teachers\\ at\\ Radcliffe\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Hands\\ off\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ James\\ implores\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;neither\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ truth\\ nor\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ good\\ is\\ revealed\\ to\\ any\\ single\\ observer\\,\\ although\\ each\\ observer\\ gains\\ a\\ partial\\ superiority\\ of\\ insight\\ from\\ the\\ peculiar\\ position\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ stands\\&\\#8230\\;It\\ is\\ enough\\ to\\ ask\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ us\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ faithful\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ opportunities\\ and\\ make\\ the\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ blessings\\,\\ without\\ presuming\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ vast\\ field\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ Truth\\ being\\ an\\ individual\\ and\\ un\\-provable\\ phenomenon\\,\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ to\\ wait\\ on\\ the\\ evidence\\,\\ and\\ if\\ we\\ must\\ act\\,\\ recognize\\ that\\ our\\ actions\\ are\\ our\\ own\\ and\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ others\\.\\ Some\\ have\\ seen\\ this\\ philosophy\\ as\\ excessively\\ individualistic\\,\\ but\\ really\\ what\\ James\\ argues\\ is\\ not\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ suddenly\\ become\\ Michel\\ Poiccard\\ in\\ \\Breathless\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ start\\ shooting\\ random\\ people\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ respect\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ us\\,\\ unless\\ their\\ differences\\ are\\ directly\\ in\\ violent\\ conflict\\ with\\ ourselves\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ pluralistic\\ view\\ is\\ refreshing\\ and\\ surprisingly\\ modern\\,\\ but\\ not\\ so\\ surprising\\ given\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fascination\\ with\\ science\\ and\\ the\\ newly\\ nascent\\ field\\ of\\ psychology\\.\\ For\\ James\\,\\ science\\,\\ questions\\ of\\ religion\\,\\ and\\ thorny\\ philosophical\\ matters\\ were\\ all\\ related\\&\\#8212\\;an\\ interdisciplinary\\ approach\\ before\\ disciplines\\.\\ Unlike\\ Veblen\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ budding\\ specialists\\ of\\ his\\ day\\,\\ James\\ deplored\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Ph\\.D\\.\\ Octopus\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ he\\ saw\\ the\\ increasing\\ drive\\ towards\\ specialization\\ and\\ instead\\ argued\\ for\\ a\\ worldview\\ that\\ was\\ as\\ broad\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ increase\\ his\\ base\\ of\\ evidence\\ for\\ analytical\\ thought\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ broad\\ reach\\ thus\\ extended\\ not\\ only\\ into\\ psychology\\ and\\ philosophy\\,\\ but\\ also\\ into\\ matters\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ policy\\.\\ It\\ is\\ with\\ this\\ snippet\\ of\\ a\\ letter\\ that\\ James\\ wrote\\ to\\ the\\ \\Boston\\ Evening\\ Transcript\\<\\/em\\>\\ on\\ March\\ 1\\,\\ 1899\\ that\\ I\\ will\\ leave\\ you\\.\\ The\\ letter\\ is\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ Filipino\\ campaign\\ for\\ self\\-government\\ after\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Spanish\\-American\\ war\\,\\ and\\ it\\ should\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ taste\\ of\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ broad\\ morality\\ and\\ unequivocal\\ support\\ of\\ democracy\\.\\ Look\\ for\\ annotations\\ of\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\ soon\\ for\\ a\\ better\\,\\ more\\ in\\-depth\\ study\\ of\\ his\\ work\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;We\\ gave\\ the\\ fighting\\ instinct\\ and\\ the\\ passion\\ of\\ mastery\\ their\\ outing\\&\\#8230\\;because\\ we\\ thought\\ that\\&\\#8230\\;we\\ could\\ resume\\ our\\ permanent\\ ideals\\ and\\ character\\ when\\ the\\ fighting\\ fit\\ was\\ done\\.\\ We\\ now\\ see\\ how\\ we\\ reckoned\\ without\\ our\\ host\\.\\ We\\ see\\&\\#8230\\;what\\ an\\ absolute\\ savage\\&\\#8230\\;the\\ passion\\ of\\ military\\ conquest\\ always\\ is\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ only\\ safeguard\\ against\\ the\\ crimes\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ will\\ infallibly\\ drag\\ the\\ nation\\ that\\ gives\\ way\\ to\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ keep\\ it\\ chained\\ forever\\&\\#8230\\;We\\ are\\ now\\ openly\\ engaged\\ in\\ crushing\\ out\\ the\\ sacredest\\ thing\\ in\\ this\\ great\\ human\\ world\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ attempt\\ of\\ a\\ people\\ long\\ enslaved\\ to\\ attain\\ to\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ itself\\,\\ to\\ organize\\ its\\ laws\\ and\\ government\\,\\ to\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ follow\\ its\\ internal\\ destinies\\,\\ according\\ to\\ its\\ own\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ Why\\,\\ then\\,\\ do\\ we\\ go\\ on\\?\\ First\\,\\ the\\ war\\ fever\\;\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ pride\\ which\\ always\\ refuses\\ to\\ back\\ down\\ when\\ under\\ fire\\.\\ But\\ these\\ are\\ passions\\ that\\ interfere\\ with\\ the\\ reasonable\\ settlement\\ of\\ any\\ affair\\;\\ an\\ in\\ this\\ affair\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ a\\ factor\\ altogether\\ peculiar\\ with\\ our\\ belief\\,\\ namely\\,\\ in\\ a\\ national\\ destiny\\ which\\ must\\ be\\ \\&\\#8216\\;big\\&\\#8217\\;\\ at\\ any\\ cost\\&\\#8230\\;We\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ \\ missionaries\\ of\\ civilization\\,\\ and\\ to\\ bear\\ the\\ white\\ man\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ burden\\,\\ painful\\ as\\ it\\ often\\ is\\!\\.\\.\\.The\\ individual\\ lives\\ are\\ nothing\\.\\ Our\\ duty\\ and\\ our\\ destiny\\ call\\,\\ and\\ civilization\\ must\\ go\\ on\\!\\ Could\\ there\\ be\\ a\\ more\\ damning\\ indictment\\ of\\ that\\ whole\\ bloated\\ idol\\ termed\\ \\&\\#8216\\;modern\\ civilization\\&\\#8217\\;\\ than\\ this\\ amounts\\ to\\?\\ Civilization\\ is\\,\\ then\\,\\ the\\ big\\,\\ hollow\\,\\ resounding\\,\\ corrupting\\,\\ sophisticating\\,\\ confusing\\ torrent\\ of\\ mere\\ brutal\\ momentum\\ and\\ irrationality\\ that\\ brings\\ forth\\ fruits\\ such\\ as\\ this\\!\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "PLEASE DON'T TOUCH"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.230191+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "THE SNARE OF PREPARATION", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 422, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Jane\\ Addams\\,\\ \\\\Twenty\\ Years\\ at\\ Hull\\-House\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Walter\\ Rauschenbusch\\,\\ \\Christianity\\ and\\ the\\ Social\\ Crisis\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ selection\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\,\\ many\\ Americans\\ and\\ Europeans\\ were\\ asking\\ a\\ strange\\ question\\.\\ Why\\,\\ they\\ wondered\\,\\ was\\ it\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ \\socialism\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\?\\ Theories\\ abounded\\,\\ with\\ some\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ American\\ dream\\ stood\\ in\\ as\\ a\\ surrogate\\ for\\ socialism\\,\\ others\\ arguing\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ class\\ system\\ against\\ which\\ to\\ revolt\\,\\ and\\ others\\,\\ well\\,\\ really\\ just\\ \\Trotsky\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ socialism\\ would\\ never\\ succeed\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ because\\ the\\ poor\\ had\\ indoor\\ plumbing\\.\\ While\\ all\\ these\\ are\\ particularly\\ strong\\ arguments\\ \\(have\\ you\\ ever\\ gone\\ camping\\ for\\ longer\\ than\\ a\\ week\\?\\?\\)\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ cogent\\ answer\\ is\\ that\\ progressive\\ reforms\\ were\\ already\\ in\\ place\\ that\\ were\\ attempting\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ urban\\ poor\\ who\\ were\\ having\\ trouble\\ moving\\ up\\ in\\ society\\.\\ No\\ one\\ exemplifies\\ this\\ movement\\ better\\ than\\ \\Jane\\ Addams\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Addams\\ belonged\\ to\\ a\\ class\\ of\\ single\\,\\ highly\\-educated\\ women\\ that\\ came\\ from\\ old\\ stock\\ American\\ families\\.\\ Addams\\ could\\ speak\\ Italian\\ and\\ talk\\ endlessly\\ about\\ early\\ Christian\\ civilizations\\;\\ she\\ could\\ lecture\\ on\\ the\\ Catacombs\\ and\\ she\\ traveled\\ widely\\ around\\ Europe\\.\\ But\\ Addams\\&\\#8212\\;like\\ most\\ over\\-educated\\ college\\ kids\\&\\#8212\\;felt\\ like\\ something\\ was\\ wrong\\.\\ Addams\\ talks\\ about\\ seeing\\ the\\ poor\\ in\\ the\\ East\\ Side\\ of\\ London\\ and\\ how\\ all\\ she\\ could\\ do\\ was\\ think\\ of\\ a\\ \\passage\\<\\/a\\>\\ from\\ \\De\\ Quincey\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ riding\\ on\\ top\\ of\\ a\\ mail\\ coach\\ and\\ he\\ sees\\ two\\ entangled\\ lovers\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ coach\\.\\ Clearly\\,\\ the\\ coach\\ driver\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ see\\ them\\ and\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ yell\\ out\\ and\\ tell\\ the\\ driver\\ to\\ stop\\,\\ he\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ too\\ absorbed\\ in\\ trying\\ to\\ recall\\ \\the\\ lines\\<\\/a\\>\\ from\\ the\\\\ Iliad\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ which\\ Achilles\\ alarmed\\ all\\ Asia\\ militant\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;When\\ suddenly\\ called\\ upon\\ for\\ a\\ quick\\ decision\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ death\\,\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ act\\ only\\ through\\ a\\ literary\\ suggestions\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ writes\\ Addams\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;This\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ were\\ all\\ doing\\,\\ lumbering\\ our\\ minds\\ with\\ literature\\ that\\ only\\ served\\ to\\ cloud\\ the\\ really\\ vital\\ situation\\ spread\\ before\\ our\\ eyes\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ learning\\?\\ What\\ good\\ were\\ the\\ books\\ and\\ the\\ lectures\\ and\\ the\\ expertise\\ when\\ confronted\\ with\\ the\\ various\\ ills\\ of\\ the\\ world\\&\\#8212\\;of\\ starvation\\,\\ of\\ bread\\ lines\\,\\ of\\ cramped\\,\\ dirty\\ apartments\\,\\ of\\ unwed\\ mothers\\ and\\ their\\ malnourished\\ children\\?\\ When\\ does\\ passive\\ reception\\ of\\ facts\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;culture\\&\\#8221\\;\\ come\\ to\\ an\\ end\\ and\\ when\\ does\\ real\\ life\\ begin\\?\\ In\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Addams\\&\\#8212\\;what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ snare\\ of\\ preparation\\&\\#8221\\;\\?\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hull\\-House\\ Interior\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>For\\ Addams\\ and\\ her\\ Social\\ Settlement\\ movement\\ brethren\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ was\\ to\\ create\\ homes\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ sort\\ of\\ early\\-twentieth\\ century\\ YMCAs\\,\\ where\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ could\\ come\\ for\\ classes\\,\\ lectures\\,\\ physical\\ exercise\\,\\ food\\,\\ and\\ whatever\\ else\\ the\\ neighborhood\\ demanded\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\\\\r\\Hull\\-House\\<\\/em\\>\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ Addams\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ is\\ overwhelmingly\\ positive\\ in\\ her\\ account\\ of\\ her\\ settlement\\ house\\,\\ \\Twenty\\ Years\\ at\\ Hull\\ House\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ others\\ saw\\ these\\ women\\ as\\ engaging\\ in\\ a\\ lost\\ cause\\.\\ The\\ \\New\\ York\\ Tribune\\<\\/em\\>\\ wrote\\ of\\ one\\ Settlement\\ house\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ that\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;seven\\ lilies\\ have\\ been\\ dropped\\ in\\ the\\ mud\\,\\ and\\ the\\ mud\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ particularly\\ pleased\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Some\\ wondered\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ this\\ was\\ simply\\ an\\ exercise\\ in\\ extending\\ Veblen\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ leisure\\ class\\ into\\ the\\ public\\ service\\ realm\\.\\ Were\\ these\\ just\\ bored\\ society\\ ladies\\ looking\\ for\\ some\\ amusement\\?\\ Or\\ were\\ these\\ houses\\ legitimate\\ attempts\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;put\\ truth\\ to\\ the\\ ultimate\\ test\\ of\\ the\\ conduct\\ it\\ dictates\\ or\\ inspires\\&\\#8221\\;\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\\\\r\\Dewey\\'s\\ Laboratory\\ School\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\John\\ Dewey\\ and\\ William\\ James\\ were\\ strong\\ supporters\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ both\\ of\\ them\\ visited\\ Addams\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Hull\\ House\\.\\ Dewey\\ himself\\,\\ before\\ he\\ founded\\ the\\ laboratory\\ school\\ in\\ Chicago\\ conducted\\ some\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ school\\ experiments\\ at\\ Hull\\ House\\.\\ Addams\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ experiments\\ in\\ classes\\ for\\ the\\ elderly\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;merge\\[d\\]\\ as\\ easily\\ as\\ possible\\ the\\ school\\ life\\ into\\ the\\ working\\ life\\&\\#8221\\;\\ strongly\\ echo\\ Dewey\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ argument\\ in\\ \\The\\ School\\ and\\ Society\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;that\\ we\\ learn\\ from\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ from\\ books\\ or\\ the\\ sayings\\ of\\ other\\ only\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ experience\\,\\ are\\ not\\ mere\\ phrases\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Book\\ learning\\ must\\ be\\ merged\\ with\\ real\\ life\\ or\\ else\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ point\\ in\\ education\\ except\\ useless\\ intellectual\\ exercise\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Of\\ course\\,\\ as\\ with\\ all\\ things\\,\\ this\\ simple\\ idea\\ of\\ progressive\\ reform\\ that\\ places\\ the\\ onus\\ of\\ helping\\ the\\ poor\\ on\\ the\\ shoulders\\ of\\ the\\ privileged\\ has\\ its\\ drawbacks\\.\\ As\\ the\\ years\\ progress\\,\\ Addams\\ has\\ been\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ American\\ Mother\\ Theresa\\ \\(she\\ was\\ awarded\\ the\\ Nobel\\ Peace\\ Prize\\ in\\ 1931\\)\\ and\\ a\\ modern\\-day\\ Christopher\\ Columbus\\ imposing\\ her\\ ideas\\ of\\ culture\\ and\\ morality\\ on\\ the\\ unwashed\\ masses\\.\\ Hull\\-House\\ is\\ either\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ social\\ welfare\\ reforms\\ or\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ white\\,\\ upper\\-middle\\ class\\ paternalism\\ at\\ its\\ most\\ virulent\\.\\ The\\ question\\ that\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ historical\\ debates\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ not\\ one\\ of\\ mere\\ historical\\ interest\\ but\\ one\\ that\\ seems\\ still\\ relevant\\ today\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ ever\\ possible\\ for\\ a\\ wealthier\\ class\\ to\\ help\\ a\\ poorer\\ class\\ without\\ imposing\\ some\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ morals\\ and\\ cultural\\ norms\\ of\\ that\\ upper\\ class\\?\\ If\\ no\\&\\#8230\\;where\\ do\\ we\\ go\\ from\\ here\\?\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ merge\\ learning\\ with\\ doing\\ and\\ helping\\?\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "THE SNARE OF PREPARATION"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.241998+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "FAITH IN THE UNCERTAIN", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 423, "html": "\\In\\ his\\ September\\ article\\ for\\ Harper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Flies\\ in\\ Amber\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Lewis\\ Lapham\\ cynically\\ states\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ quote\\ Holmes\\ at\\ some\\ length\\ it\\'s\\ because\\ he\\ allows\\ me\\ to\\ understand\\ George\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\'s\\ war\\ on\\ terror\\ not\\ as\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ criminal\\ stupidity\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ a\\ man\\ imprisoned\\ in\\ a\\ past\\ tense\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ What\\ Lapham\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ is\\ what\\ many\\ people\\ see\\ in\\ Holmes\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ personal\\ beliefs\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ belief\\ that\\ war\\ is\\ the\\ surest\\ test\\ of\\ mental\\ fortitude\\ and\\ strength\\,\\ and\\,\\ following\\ this\\,\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ should\\ be\\ put\\ through\\ this\\ test\\ at\\ least\\ once\\ in\\ their\\ lifetime\\.\\ Lapham\\ quotes\\ Holmes\\ in\\ a\\ speech\\ he\\ gave\\ to\\ the\\ graduating\\ class\\ of\\ Harvard\\ in\\ 1895\\ \\(a\\ speech\\ that\\,\\ incidentally\\,\\ impressed\\ Teddy\\ Roosevelt\\ enough\\ to\\ give\\ Holmes\\ a\\ position\\ on\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\)\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Who\\ of\\ us\\ could\\ endure\\ a\\ world\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ said\\ Homes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;without\\ the\\ divine\\ folly\\ of\\ honor\\,\\ without\\ the\\ senseless\\ passion\\ for\\ knowledge\\ outreaching\\ the\\ flaming\\ bounds\\ of\\ the\\ possible\\,\\ without\\ ideals\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ achieved\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ answer\\,\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\,\\ is\\ quite\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ us\\.\\ While\\ Lapham\\ is\\ right\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ necessarily\\ obvious\\ explanation\\ of\\ Holmes\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ speech\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\ intended\\ to\\ critique\\ the\\ Bush\\ administration\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ war\\ symbols\\ to\\ justify\\ its\\ political\\ ambitions\\,\\ he\\ misses\\ the\\ point\\ in\\ giving\\ such\\ a\\ superficial\\ overview\\ of\\ Holmes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ be\\ sure\\,\\ Holmes\\ did\\ valorize\\ war\\ mostly\\ due\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ and\\ the\\ necessary\\ lessons\\ that\\ he\\ learned\\ in\\ battle\\.\\ As\\ Louis\\ Menand\\ states\\ in\\ his\\ book\\,\\ The\\ Metaphysical\\ Club\\,\\ the\\ complete\\ carnage\\ that\\ the\\ young\\,\\ idealistic\\,\\ Emerson\\-loving\\ Holmes\\ saw\\ in\\ his\\ tour\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ 20th\\ shook\\ his\\ very\\ beliefs\\ to\\ the\\ core\\.\\ Among\\ the\\ various\\ bloody\\ sights\\ of\\ the\\ war\\,\\ Holmes\\ saw\\ an\\ amputated\\ arm\\ lying\\ in\\ a\\ pool\\ of\\ blood\\ on\\ a\\ blanket\\,\\ and\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ a\\ wounded\\ man\\ that\\ Holmes\\ described\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;ghastly\\ spectacle\\&\\#8221\\;\\ writing\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;two\\ black\\ cavities\\ seemed\\ all\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ left\\ for\\ eyes\\&\\#8212\\;his\\ whiskers\\ \\&\\;\\ beard\\ matted\\ with\\ blood\\ which\\ still\\ poured\\ black\\,\\ from\\ his\\ mouth\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ a\\ most\\ horrible\\ stench\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ completely\\ revamp\\ his\\ early\\ idealistic\\ beliefs\\ on\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ learning\\ and\\ morality\\ to\\ reform\\ society\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ fact\\,\\ it\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ discover\\ that\\,\\ as\\ Menand\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Uncertainty\\ \\[was\\]\\ all\\ the\\ certainty\\ he\\ needed\\.\\ The\\ assurance\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ done\\ his\\ duty\\ was\\ a\\ wholly\\ adequate\\ consolation\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ Holmes\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ led\\ him\\ simply\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ people\\ test\\ their\\ beliefs\\ \\&\\#8220\\;on\\ the\\ road\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ adapting\\ to\\ the\\ environment\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ placed\\ in\\.\\ For\\ Holmes\\,\\ war\\ was\\ the\\ best\\ testing\\ ground\\,\\ since\\ it\\ really\\ forced\\ men\\ to\\ question\\ everything\\ as\\ they\\ lied\\ on\\ the\\ operating\\ table\\ facing\\ death\\.\\ Was\\ death\\ acceptable\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ one\\ had\\ thrown\\ oneself\\ into\\ a\\ cause\\ that\\ one\\ could\\ very\\ well\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ at\\ all\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ one\\ did\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ duty\\?\\ For\\ Holmes\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ was\\ a\\ clear\\ yes\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\ have\\ shared\\ the\\ incommunicable\\ experience\\ of\\ war\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ reminisces\\ Homes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\ have\\ felt\\,\\ we\\ still\\ feel\\,\\ the\\ passion\\ of\\ life\\ to\\ its\\ top\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ experience\\ \\(to\\ echo\\ Dewey\\ and\\ James\\)\\ was\\ all\\ that\\ mattered\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ while\\ Holmes\\ may\\ have\\ thought\\ the\\ arena\\ of\\ war\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ valuable\\ one\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ mettle\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ men\\ in\\ American\\ society\\,\\ it\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ trappings\\ and\\ later\\ glory\\ of\\ war\\ were\\ good\\ or\\ even\\ useful\\.\\ Lapham\\ neglects\\ to\\ mention\\ that\\ Holmes\\ ended\\ his\\ speech\\ with\\ the\\ sobering\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ funeral\\ of\\ the\\ captain\\ of\\ the\\ Twentieth\\ Massachusetts\\ that\\ is\\ attended\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ few\\ living\\ men\\ of\\ his\\ regiment\\.\\ Holmes\\ realizes\\ that\\ this\\ forgetfulness\\,\\ this\\ silence\\,\\ is\\ also\\ \\&\\#8220\\;part\\ of\\ the\\ soldier\\'s\\ faith\\:\\ Having\\ known\\ great\\ things\\,\\ to\\ be\\ content\\ with\\ silence\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ quotes\\ a\\ poem\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ dead\\ soldier\\ is\\ forgotten\\ to\\ end\\ the\\ speech\\.\\ For\\ Holmes\\,\\ war\\ is\\ anything\\ but\\ glory\\ after\\ the\\ fact\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;I\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ what\\ is\\ true\\.\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\.\\ But\\ in\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ doubt\\,\\ in\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ creeds\\,\\ there\\ is\\ one\\ thing\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ doubt\\&\\#8230\\;that\\ the\\ faith\\ is\\ true\\ and\\ adorable\\ which\\ leads\\ a\\ soldier\\ to\\ throw\\ away\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ obedience\\ to\\ a\\ blindly\\ accepted\\ duty\\,\\ in\\ a\\ cause\\ which\\ he\\ little\\ understands\\;\\ in\\ a\\ plan\\ of\\ campaign\\ of\\ which\\ he\\ has\\ little\\ notion\\,\\ under\\ tactics\\ of\\ which\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ see\\ the\\ use\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ Lapham\\ would\\ jump\\ at\\ the\\ easy\\ parallels\\,\\ at\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ cause\\ is\\ almost\\ ancillary\\ to\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ battle\\.\\ But\\ Holmes\\ is\\ harping\\ on\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ men\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ life\\ is\\ uncertain\\ and\\ that\\ their\\ beliefs\\ are\\ mutable\\,\\ and\\ he\\ truly\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ for\\ men\\ to\\ understand\\ this\\ is\\ through\\ battle\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ test\\ themselves\\ under\\ this\\ extreme\\ environment\\.\\ To\\ say\\ that\\ George\\ W\\.\\ Bush\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ abstract\\ reasoning\\ in\\ mind\\ in\\ his\\ foibles\\ in\\ Iraq\\ is\\ to\\ completely\\ miss\\ the\\ point\\,\\ and\\ to\\ reduce\\ Holmes\\ to\\ a\\ quotable\\ soundbite\\.\\ The\\ military\\ impulse\\ in\\ Holmes\\ is\\ distinctly\\ different\\ from\\ that\\ in\\ our\\ current\\ administration\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\&\\#8212\\;it\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\&\\#8212\\;that\\ after\\ Holmes\\ gave\\ this\\ speech\\,\\ William\\ James\\,\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ fight\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ was\\ chosen\\ over\\ Holmes\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ speech\\ on\\ the\\ dedication\\ of\\ the\\ Shaw\\ Memorial\\ in\\ Boston\\.\\ Somehow\\,\\ in\\ 1895\\,\\ the\\ public\\ could\\ hear\\ the\\ call\\ to\\ war\\ and\\ recognize\\ that\\ somehow\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ beautiful\\ the\\ language\\ or\\ the\\ justification\\ for\\ battle\\,\\ in\\ someway\\,\\ it\\ still\\ was\\ never\\ worth\\ it\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "FAITH IN THE UNCERTAIN"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.253693+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "\"A REFINED AESTHETIC SENSIBILITY\"", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 424, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Readings\\:\\ Walter\\ Lippmann\\,\\ Drift\\ and\\ Mastery\\<\\/p\\>\\Randolph\\ Bourne\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Twilight\\ of\\ Idols\\&\\#8221\\;\\&\\#8220\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\"Democracy\\ is\\ a\\ weapon\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ the\\ courage\\ and\\ the\\ skill\\ to\\ wield\\ it\\;\\ in\\ all\\ others\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ rusty\\ piece\\ of\\ junk\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wrote\\ the\\ grandiloquent\\ Walter\\ Lippmann\\ in\\ what\\ some\\ consider\\ his\\ masterpiece\\,\\ \\Drift\\ and\\ Mastery\\<\\/span\\>\\.\\ Lippmann\\ encouraged\\ an\\ active\\ shaping\\ of\\ the\\ democratic\\ ideal\\ through\\ the\\ participation\\ of\\ a\\ population\\ that\\ refused\\ to\\ be\\ crippled\\ by\\ the\\ \\\"drift\\\"\\ that\\ plagued\\ modern\\ industrial\\ society\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"death\\ of\\ God\\\"\\ and\\ the\\ myriad\\ challenges\\ of\\ industrialism\\.\\ Although\\ Lippmann\\ was\\ not\\ technically\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ William\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\(James\\ knocked\\ on\\ Lippmann\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ doors\\ after\\ he\\ published\\ an\\ editorial\\ in\\ the\\ Crimson\\ that\\ he\\ liked\\)\\,\\ he\\ was\\ nonetheless\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ m\\&\\#233\\;lange\\ of\\ James\\,\\ George\\ Santayana\\,\\ and\\ other\\ Harvard\\ intellectuals\\ who\\ subscribed\\ to\\ a\\ pragmatic\\ faith\\.\\ \\ Unlike\\ his\\ mentors\\,\\ however\\,\\ Lippmann\\ left\\ the\\ storied\\ walls\\ of\\ academia\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ new\\ public\\ intellectuals\\ that\\ were\\ increasingly\\ pouring\\ into\\ New\\ York\\ to\\ affect\\ a\\ modicum\\ of\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\.Although\\ \\Drift\\ and\\ Mastery\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ most\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ scientific\\ tome\\ that\\ critiqued\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ new\\ nationalism\\,\\ and\\ Lippmann\\ is\\ most\\ remembered\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ intellectuals\\ that\\ started\\ \\The\\ New\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\,\\ simply\\ categorizing\\ these\\ two\\ accomplishments\\ leaves\\ out\\ one\\ of\\ Lippmann\\'s\\ \\(and\\ his\\ cohorts\\'\\)\\ most\\ lasting\\ change\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ creation\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\,\\ public\\ intellectual\\ voice\\ that\\ could\\ actively\\ influence\\ political\\ leaders\\.\\ According\\ to\\ William\\ Leuchtenburg\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Lippmann\\ sought\\ an\\ order\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ intellectual\\ with\\ aesthetic\\ sensibility\\ could\\ articulate\\ for\\ a\\ society\\ uncertain\\ of\\ its\\ goals\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ a\\ rapidly\\ industrializing\\ society\\ crippled\\ by\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ corruption\\,\\ immigration\\ unrest\\,\\ and\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ entering\\ a\\ World\\ War\\,\\ Lippmann\\ sought\\ to\\ give\\ his\\ readers\\ the\\ tools\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ unrest\\.\\ \\(For\\ a\\ nice\\ article\\ summing\\ Lippmann\\'s\\ journalistic\\ output\\,\\ go\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ change\\ occurred\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Wilson\\,\\ the\\ editorials\\ published\\ in\\ \\The\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ New\\ Republic\\<\\/span\\>\\ helped\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ ideological\\ coherence\\ to\\ his\\ presidential\\ ambitions\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ pragmatic\\ platform\\,\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ said\\,\\ that\\ was\\ actually\\ the\\ stated\\ aim\\ of\\ Teddy\\ Roosevelt\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ failed\\ campaign\\.\\ In\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ Arthur\\ Schlesinger\\,\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ the\\ New\\ Freedom\\ fulfilled\\ the\\ New\\ Nationalism\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ editors\\ of\\ the\\ magazine\\,\\ which\\ included\\ Randolph\\ Bourne\\ and\\ John\\ Dewey\\ from\\ time\\ to\\ time\\,\\ urged\\ Wilson\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ more\\ pragmatic\\,\\ progressive\\ stance\\ in\\ his\\ dealings\\,\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;adapt\\ the\\ business\\ of\\ each\\ day\\ as\\ it\\ differed\\ from\\ the\\ day\\ before\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Lest\\ one\\ doubt\\ that\\ the\\ writings\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ white\\,\\ bourgeois\\ intellectuals\\ from\\ the\\ Lower\\ East\\ Side\\ were\\ actually\\ effective\\,\\ Wilson\\ and\\ his\\ advisers\\ were\\ actually\\ frequent\\ readers\\ of\\ the\\ magazine\\.\\ Perhaps\\ most\\ tellingly\\,\\ Wilson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;Peace\\ without\\ Victory\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ speech\\ was\\ actually\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ New\\ Republic\\ editorial\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ name\\.Unfortunately\\,\\ it\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ pragmatism\\ in\\ national\\ politics\\ that\\ Wilson\\ had\\ his\\ debilitating\\ stroke\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ ultimate\\ rejection\\ of\\ the\\ inherently\\ pragmatic\\ \\&\\#8220\\;14\\ Points\\&\\#8221\\;\\ plan\\ that\\ called\\ for\\ a\\ world\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ \\&\\#8220\\;made\\ safe\\ for\\ democracy\\ through\\ the\\ cooperation\\ of\\ many\\ nations\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ would\\ usher\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ age\\ of\\ social\\ scientific\\ revolution\\.\\ Regardless\\ of\\ this\\ failure\\,\\ Lippmann\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ influence\\ as\\ an\\ intellectual\\ was\\ manifested\\ in\\ other\\ ways\\.\\ His\\ isolation\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ crippling\\ the\\ nation\\ seems\\ particularly\\ salient\\ today\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ then\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\ are\\ unsettled\\ to\\ the\\ very\\ roots\\ of\\ our\\ being\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wrote\\ Lippmann\\,\\ \\\"We\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ behave\\ when\\ personal\\ contact\\ and\\ eternal\\ authority\\ have\\ disappeared\\&\\#8230\\;We\\ have\\ changed\\ our\\ environments\\ more\\ quickly\\ than\\ we\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ change\\ ourselves\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ this\\ chaos\\,\\ Lippmann\\ argued\\ that\\ we\\ had\\ to\\ educate\\ children\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;meet\\ the\\ unexpected\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;to\\ find\\ their\\ own\\ facts\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Lippmann\\ conceived\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ intellectual\\ as\\ a\\ guide\\,\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ could\\ help\\ the\\ adult\\ population\\ by\\ educating\\ it\\ through\\ dissemination\\ of\\ scientific\\ and\\ humanistic\\ thought\\.In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ Lippmann\\ learned\\ from\\ his\\ muckracking\\ newspaper\\ brethren\\ and\\ his\\ friend\\,\\ the\\ famous\\ \\Jack\\ Reed\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(click\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\ to\\ see\\ Warren\\ Beatty\\ doing\\ the\\ man\\ justice\\ in\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;Reds\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\;\\ \\John\\ Dos\\ Passos\\<\\/a\\>\\ famously\\ wrote\\ in\\ \\1919\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\\"Jack\\ Reed\\ was\\ the\\ best\\ American\\ writer\\ of\\ his\\ time\\.\\.\\.Reed\\ was\\ a\\ Westerner\\ and\\ words\\ meant\\ what\\ they\\ said\\\"\\)\\ and\\ saw\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ written\\ public\\ word\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ thought\\,\\ \\ not\\ simply\\ yellow\\ journalism\\.\\ Why\\ bottle\\ up\\ all\\ knowledge\\ and\\ leave\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ specialized\\ class\\ of\\ economists\\ and\\ university\\ professors\\ to\\ discuss\\?\\ What\\ use\\ is\\ it\\ if\\ it\\ cannot\\ escape\\ Harvard\\ Yard\\,\\ however\\ nice\\ it\\ may\\ be\\?\\ In\\ this\\ manner\\,\\ Lippmann\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ association\\ with\\ \\Th\\<\\/span\\>\\e\\ New\\ Republi\\<\\/span\\>c\\ and\\ his\\ influence\\ on\\ Wilson\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ to\\ still\\ be\\ directly\\ relevant\\ to\\ our\\ current\\ era\\.\\ The\\ only\\ question\\ is\\ to\\ which\\ media\\ outlet\\ does\\ \\(or\\ rather\\,\\ should\\)\\ the\\ President\\ now\\ turn\\?\\ \\ Is\\ the\\ New\\ Republic\\ still\\ the\\ organ\\ of\\ progressive\\,\\ pragmatic\\ social\\ reform\\ or\\ has\\ it\\ been\\ replaced\\ by\\ something\\ else\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ our\\ Lippmanns\\,\\ Bournes\\,\\ Edmund\\ Wilsons\\,\\ and\\ Malcom\\ Cowleys\\?\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "\"A REFINED AESTHETIC SENSIBILITY\""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.265451+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "YOU CAN'T GET OUT BACKWARDS", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 425, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Henry\\ Adams\\,\\ The\\ Education\\ of\\ Henry\\ Adams\\\r\\Gertrude\\ Stein\\,\\ Selections\\ from\\ The\\ Making\\ of\\ Americans\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;What\\ could\\ become\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ child\\ of\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ and\\ eighteenth\\ centuries\\,\\ when\\ he\\ should\\ wake\\ up\\ to\\ find\\ himself\\ required\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ game\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ questioned\\ Henry\\ Adams\\ in\\ the\\ opening\\ pages\\ of\\ his\\ autobiography\\,\\ The\\ Education\\ of\\ Henry\\ Adams\\.\\ Adams\\ was\\ perhaps\\ a\\ unique\\ case\\,\\ being\\ the\\ progeny\\ of\\ a\\ family\\ that\\ had\\ spawned\\ two\\ presidents\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ a\\ senator\\.\\ Regardless\\ of\\ breeding\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ issue\\ that\\ Adams\\ raises\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ twentieth\\ century\\ world\\ after\\ having\\ been\\ given\\ the\\ values\\ of\\ an\\ eighteenth\\ century\\ mindset\\&\\#8212\\;was\\ an\\ issue\\ that\\ confronted\\ many\\ Americans\\.\\ Some\\ became\\ radicalized\\ and\\ argued\\ that\\,\\ in\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Virginia\\ Woolf\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;On\\ or\\ about\\ December\\ 1910\\,\\ human\\ character\\ changed\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ These\\ we\\ call\\ the\\ modernists\\,\\ and\\ their\\ story\\ will\\ be\\ told\\ soon\\.\\ Others\\,\\ however\\,\\ refused\\ to\\ break\\ with\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ instead\\ argued\\ that\\ a\\ careful\\ study\\ of\\ old\\ ways\\ of\\ living\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ new\\ environments\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ anti\\-modernists\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ idea\\ that\\ modern\\ culture\\ was\\ somehow\\ hollow\\ and\\ lacking\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ novel\\ idea\\ or\\ even\\ a\\ particularly\\ American\\ concept\\.\\ Nietzsche\\ had\\ already\\ argued\\ \\&\\#8220\\;modern\\ culture\\ is\\ weightless\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ staked\\ his\\ claim\\ for\\ the\\ stoics\\ and\\ Dionysus\\ of\\ ancient\\ Greece\\.\\ What\\ is\\ particularly\\ American\\ are\\ the\\ institutions\\ that\\ sprung\\ up\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;decay\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ civilization\\ and\\ the\\ strange\\ solutions\\ sought\\ to\\ solve\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ whose\\ values\\ no\\ longer\\ even\\ mildly\\ resembled\\ the\\ ones\\ you\\ were\\ given\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ recognizable\\ anti\\-modernist\\ movement\\ was\\ the\\ Arts\\ and\\ Crafts\\ movement\\ led\\ by\\ John\\ Ruskin\\ and\\ William\\ Morris\\.\\ This\\ movement\\ argued\\ for\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;pre\\-Rafaelite\\ sensibility\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Our\\ old\\ friend\\,\\ Charles\\ Eliot\\ Norton\\,\\ called\\ it\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ age\\ of\\ Shoddy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ what\\ him\\ and\\ the\\ Arts\\ and\\ Craftsmen\\ argued\\ for\\ was\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ hands\\ on\\ approach\\ of\\ living\\.\\ They\\ wanted\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ commodification\\ of\\ everything\\ and\\ instead\\ work\\ on\\ creating\\ fitting\\ and\\ adornment\\ for\\ the\\ home\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;was\\ so\\ responsive\\ to\\ the\\ need\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ it\\ \\&\\#8220\\;reduced\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ change\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ furniture\\ was\\ joined\\ by\\ hand\\,\\ without\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ machinery\\.\\ For\\ some\\ examples\\,\\ see\\ below\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ manifestation\\ of\\ the\\ anti\\-modern\\ sentiment\\ was\\ a\\ pre\\-occupation\\ and\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ medieval\\ culture\\.\\ The\\ craftsman\\ ideal\\ springs\\ from\\ an\\ earlier\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ all\\ things\\ knights\\ and\\ Arthur\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ period\\ in\\ American\\ history\\ that\\ fairy\\ tales\\ make\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ children\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ literature\\ cannon\\ in\\ a\\ particularly\\ strange\\ manner\\ \\(for\\ more\\ on\\ their\\ changing\\ stories\\,\\ Maria\\ Tatar\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ resource\\)\\ and\\ that\\ college\\ campuses\\ like\\ Yale\\ and\\ Princeton\\ are\\ re\\-built\\ in\\ a\\ Gothic\\ manner\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ Ralph\\ Adams\\ Cram\\ built\\ the\\ gorgeous\\ chapel\\ of\\ St\\.\\ John\\ the\\ Divine\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\ in\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ perfect\\ expression\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ for\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ buildings\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ like\\ most\\ movements\\ in\\ America\\,\\ the\\ exact\\ opposite\\ happened\\&\\#8212\\;Gothic\\ architecture\\ was\\ used\\ for\\ everything\\ and\\ instead\\ of\\ giving\\ depth\\ to\\ everyday\\ experience\\ and\\ reducing\\ the\\ dependence\\ on\\ industry\\,\\ arts\\ and\\ crafts\\ furniture\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ therapy\\ for\\ industrial\\ workers\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ boredom\\ of\\ modern\\ industrial\\ work\\.\\ The\\ obsession\\ with\\ medieval\\ life\\ becomes\\ less\\ about\\ depth\\ and\\ more\\ about\\ spectacle\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ jousting\\,\\ the\\ passion\\ plays\\,\\ the\\ excess\\ of\\ Anglo\\-Catholicism\\.\\ The\\ movement\\ intended\\ to\\ bring\\ depth\\ to\\ a\\ weightless\\ society\\ instead\\ ended\\ getting\\ wrapped\\ up\\ into\\ the\\ movement\\ for\\ show\\ over\\ substance\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\No\\ where\\ is\\ this\\ more\\ evident\\ than\\ in\\ Adams\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ memoir\\,\\ where\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ no\\ American\\ literature\\ has\\ ever\\ offered\\ a\\ plan\\ for\\ higher\\ education\\ that\\ equips\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ go\\ out\\ and\\ function\\ in\\ modern\\ society\\.\\ Despite\\ Adams\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ nostalgia\\ for\\ Chartes\\ and\\ the\\ modern\\ ideals\\ of\\ Roman\\ Catholicism\\,\\ he\\ is\\ incapable\\ of\\ integrating\\ that\\ past\\ into\\ his\\ present\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ his\\ famous\\ chapter\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Dynamo\\ and\\ the\\ Virgin\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Adams\\ is\\ distraught\\ by\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ the\\ machines\\ in\\ the\\ World\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Columbian\\ Expo\\ \\(for\\ more\\ on\\ that\\,\\ go\\ here\\)\\ and\\ he\\ wonders\\ about\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ modern\\ industrial\\ society\\ and\\ the\\ societies\\ that\\ built\\ such\\ lasting\\ icons\\ as\\ the\\ Venus\\ de\\ Milo\\.\\ Mechanics\\ may\\ act\\ as\\ forces\\ on\\ man\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Virgin\\ has\\ also\\ acted\\ as\\ perhaps\\ the\\ greatest\\ force\\ the\\ Western\\ world\\ has\\ every\\ felt\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ what\\?\\ Catholicism\\ once\\ was\\ a\\ force\\&\\#8212\\;now\\,\\ the\\ machine\\ conquers\\ all\\.\\ Adams\\,\\ in\\ despair\\ over\\ this\\ inevitability\\,\\ can\\ only\\ offer\\ one\\ solution\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ force\\ of\\ the\\ pen\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ such\\ labyrinths\\,\\ the\\ staff\\ is\\ a\\ force\\ almost\\ more\\ necessary\\ than\\ the\\ legs\\;\\ the\\ pen\\ becomes\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ blind\\-man\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dog\\,\\ to\\ keep\\ him\\ from\\ falling\\ into\\ the\\ gutters\\.\\ The\\ pen\\ works\\ for\\ itself\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ work\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ self\\-fashioning\\ that\\ literature\\,\\ and\\ specifically\\ autobiography\\,\\ offers\\.\\ Adams\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ should\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ previous\\ era\\ because\\ science\\ has\\ made\\ that\\ time\\ travel\\ utterly\\ impossible\\.\\ The\\ only\\ solution\\ is\\ to\\ press\\ forward\\&\\#8212\\;but\\ at\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ pace\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Oh\\,\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ get\\ out\\ backwards\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ said\\ Willy\\ Wonka\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;You\\'ve\\ got\\ to\\ go\\ forwards\\ to\\ go\\ back\\,\\ better\\ press\\ on\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sentence\\,\\ is\\ the\\ paradox\\ that\\ ultimately\\ killed\\ the\\ anti\\-modern\\ movement\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "YOU CAN'T GET OUT BACKWARDS"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.276704+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "A CIRCLE, NOT A LINE", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 426, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Reinhold\\ Niebuhr\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Children\\ of\\ Light\\ and\\ the\\ Children\\ of\\ Darkness\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Whittaker\\ Chambers\\,\\ Witness\\,\\ selections\\\r\\John\\ Courtney\\ Murray\\,\\ We\\ Hold\\ These\\ Truths\\,\\ selection\\\r\\Daniel\\ Bell\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ End\\ of\\ Ideology\\ in\\ the\\ West\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Friederich\\ Hayek\\,\\ The\\ Road\\ to\\ Serfdom\\,\\ chapter\\ 1\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ rise\\ of\\ fascism\\ and\\ communism\\ illustrated\\ vividly\\ the\\ fallacies\\ of\\ the\\ linear\\ conception\\ of\\ Right\\ and\\ Left\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wrote\\ Arthur\\ Schlesinger\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ in\\ his\\ influential\\ 1948\\ essay\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Not\\ Right\\,\\ Not\\ Left\\,\\ But\\ a\\ Vital\\ Center\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;If\\ we\\ will\\ understand\\ that\\ the\\ non\\-Communist\\ Left\\ and\\ the\\ non\\-Fascist\\ Right\\ share\\ a\\ common\\ faith\\ in\\ free\\ political\\ society\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ continued\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\ might\\ even\\ stop\\ talking\\ of\\ Left\\ and\\ Right\\ as\\ if\\ nothing\\ lay\\ in\\ between\\.\\ For\\ hope\\ of\\ the\\ future\\ surely\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ revival\\ of\\ the\\ Center\\ \\-\\ in\\ the\\ triumph\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ believe\\ deeply\\ in\\ civil\\ liberties\\,\\ in\\ constitutional\\ processes\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ democratic\\ determination\\ of\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ policies\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Schlesinger\\ and\\ a\\ bevy\\ of\\ post\\-war\\ intellectuals\\ insisted\\ on\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ abandoning\\ the\\ false\\ dichotomy\\ that\\ bipartisan\\ politics\\ promoted\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ combat\\ the\\ Communist\\ menace\\ from\\ abroad\\.\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ togetherness\\ two\\-step\\ reached\\ its\\ end\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ happens\\ afterwards\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ consensus\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ American\\ intellectuals\\ in\\ the\\ postwar\\ era\\ expressed\\ their\\ dissatisfaction\\ with\\ Communism\\ in\\ the\\ guise\\ of\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ all\\ ideology\\ and\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ pluralism\\.\\ Pluralism\\,\\ which\\ encouraged\\ competing\\ systems\\ of\\ belief\\,\\ encouraged\\ a\\ proliferation\\ of\\ opinions\\ and\\ values\\ that\\ helped\\ to\\ prevent\\ America\\ from\\ ever\\ succumbing\\ to\\ a\\ totalitarian\\ menace\\ like\\ most\\ of\\ Europe\\.\\ David\\ Riesman\\ argued\\ in\\ The\\ Lonely\\ Crowd\\ that\\ from\\ the\\ progressive\\ period\\ on\\,\\ America\\ had\\ seen\\ the\\ dispersal\\ of\\ power\\ among\\ different\\ groups\\ which\\ had\\ made\\ the\\ Marxist\\ notion\\ of\\ class\\ warfare\\ seem\\ irrelevant\\.\\ Louis\\ Hartz\\ argued\\ that\\ since\\ America\\ had\\ no\\ feudal\\ past\\,\\ it\\ was\\ \\&\\#8220\\;born\\ free\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ indentured\\ servitude\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ sway\\ \\(clearly\\,\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ into\\ consideration\\ race\\ politics\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ diffuse\\ and\\ somewhat\\ ahistorical\\ nature\\ of\\ American\\ political\\ and\\ culture\\ society\\ did\\ not\\ translate\\ into\\ a\\ complete\\ rejection\\ of\\ universalism\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ advocating\\ for\\ an\\ abandonment\\ of\\ values\\,\\ intellectuals\\ simply\\ rejected\\ the\\ staid\\ terms\\ that\\ ignore\\ the\\ basic\\ threats\\ confronting\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ and\\ 1960s\\ and\\ replaced\\ old\\ ideologies\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ \\&\\#8220\\;truth\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ creed\\.\\ Daniel\\ Bell\\,\\ writing\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ postwar\\ period\\,\\ argued\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ End\\ of\\ Ideology\\ in\\ the\\ West\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ even\\ if\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ problems\\ which\\ confront\\ us\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ resistant\\ to\\ the\\ old\\ terms\\ of\\ ideological\\ debate\\ between\\ \\&\\#8220\\;left\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;right\\&\\#8221\\;\\&\\#8230\\;some\\ old\\ verities\\ are\\ not\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ verities\\ of\\ free\\ speech\\,\\ free\\ press\\,\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ opposition\\ and\\ of\\ free\\ inquiry\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\r\\This\\ emphasis\\ on\\ American\\ values\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ revitalization\\ of\\ certain\\ historical\\ figures\\ and\\ a\\ celebration\\ more\\ generally\\ of\\ American\\ culture\\.\\ It\\ is\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ of\\ time\\ that\\ Federalist\\ No\\.\\ 10\\ and\\ Alexis\\ de\\ Tocqueville\\ re\\-enter\\ the\\ cannon\\ of\\ American\\ thought\\ as\\ predecessors\\ to\\ the\\ pluralist\\ tradition\\.\\ This\\ is\\ also\\ why\\ the\\ American\\ consumerist\\ ethic\\ stops\\ being\\ reviled\\ and\\ instead\\ becomes\\ celebrated\\.\\ The\\ ability\\ to\\ choose\\ this\\ identity\\ or\\ that\\ through\\ consumption\\ was\\ a\\ freedom\\,\\ of\\ sorts\\,\\ that\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ America\\.\\ The\\ notion\\ seems\\ laughable\\ now\\,\\ but\\ consumption\\ was\\ linked\\ to\\ an\\ ethical\\ impetus\\&\\#8212\\;advertising\\ and\\ production\\ were\\ what\\ made\\ America\\,\\ well\\&\\#8230\\;America\\.\\ If\\ only\\ buying\\ a\\ new\\ Nintendo\\ Wii\\ were\\ still\\ considered\\ a\\ contribution\\ to\\ society\\&\\#8230\\;\\\r\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "A CIRCLE, NOT A LINE"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.287470+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "A HANDFUL OF TURTLES", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 427, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\T\\.S\\.\\ Kuhn\\,\\ Structure\\ of\\ Scientific\\ Revolutions\\,\\ selection\\\r\\Clifford\\ Geertz\\,\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Cultures\\,\\ selection\\\r\\Richard\\ Rorty\\,\\ Contingency\\,\\ Irony\\,\\ and\\ Solidarity\\\r\\\\\r\\Towards\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ middle\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\,\\ many\\ professors\\ of\\ philosophy\\ and\\ even\\ those\\ just\\ generally\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ academic\\ community\\ began\\ noticing\\ an\\ odd\\ occurrence\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ early\\ promise\\ of\\ American\\ philosophy\\ in\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ William\\ James\\,\\ John\\ Dewey\\ and\\ others\\,\\ the\\ philosophical\\ enterprise\\ had\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ standstill\\.\\ There\\ was\\ almost\\ no\\ philosophy\\ being\\ written\\ or\\ works\\ created\\ in\\ departments\\ of\\ philosophy\\ that\\ the\\ wider\\ public\\ was\\ reading\\ at\\ all\\.\\ Why\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ attribute\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ turn\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\ towards\\ analytic\\ philosophy\\ which\\ used\\ the\\ methods\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ science\\ with\\ the\\ ostensible\\ goal\\ of\\ attaining\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ certainty\\ on\\ philosophical\\ questions\\.\\ This\\ meant\\ that\\ larger\\,\\ less\\ obviously\\ logical\\ issues\\&\\#8212\\;like\\ ethics\\ and\\ politics\\ and\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ life\\&\\#8212\\;were\\ left\\ out\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ \\&\\#8220\\;accuracy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ isolated\\ from\\ other\\ logic\\ questions\\.\\ Almost\\ no\\ one\\ taught\\ moral\\ philosophy\\ and\\ almost\\ certainly\\ no\\ one\\ wrote\\ about\\ moral\\ philosophy\\ \\(with\\ the\\ exception\\ of\\ John\\ Rawls\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ infallible\\ faith\\ in\\ science\\ that\\ had\\ characterized\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ John\\ Dewey\\ and\\ Walter\\ Lippmann\\ now\\ came\\ to\\ dominate\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ philosophy\\ itself\\,\\ offering\\ in\\ its\\ rational\\ methodology\\ a\\ case\\ for\\ the\\ justification\\ of\\ philosophy\\ to\\ deduce\\ universal\\ insights\\ from\\ particular\\ problems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ faith\\ in\\ science\\ and\\ universalism\\ was\\ first\\ shattered\\ on\\ a\\ psychological\\ level\\ by\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ and\\ then\\ on\\ a\\ philosophical\\ level\\ by\\ the\\ groundbreaking\\ work\\ of\\ Thomas\\ Kuhn\\.\\ In\\ The\\ Structure\\ of\\ Scientific\\ Revolutions\\,\\ Kuhn\\ placed\\ the\\ logical\\ aspect\\ of\\ scientific\\ \\&\\#8220\\;proof\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ a\\ larger\\ social\\ and\\ psychological\\ context\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ what\\ we\\ believe\\ are\\ absolute\\ standards\\ of\\ validity\\ in\\ fields\\ like\\ physics\\ and\\ analytic\\ philosophy\\ are\\ actually\\ just\\ paradigms\\&\\#8212\\;certain\\ modes\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ change\\ over\\ time\\.\\ The\\ competition\\ between\\ paradigms\\,\\ between\\ two\\ different\\ modes\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ conceptualizing\\ physical\\ phenomena\\,\\ is\\ not\\ between\\ one\\ more\\ accurate\\ way\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ world\\ than\\ another\\.\\ In\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Kuhn\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ sort\\ of\\ battle\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ resolved\\ by\\ proofs\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ New\\ paradigms\\ come\\ into\\ play\\ when\\ two\\ modes\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ world\\,\\ each\\ using\\ the\\ same\\ language\\,\\ are\\ presented\\ in\\ an\\ incommensurable\\ way\\.\\ One\\ way\\ must\\ triumph\\,\\ and\\ simply\\ convincing\\ those\\ within\\ the\\ community\\ to\\ prioritize\\ one\\ paradigm\\ over\\ another\\ does\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ bane\\ of\\ most\\ English\\ concentrators\\ existence\\ was\\ born\\:\\ postmodernism\\.\\ While\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ \\(slight\\)\\ exaggeration\\,\\ Kuhn\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ influential\\ writings\\ on\\ the\\ contingency\\ of\\ scientific\\ processes\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ firestorm\\ throughout\\ the\\ academy\\.\\ Assaults\\ on\\ empirical\\ scientific\\ truth\\ followed\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ revolution\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ almost\\ all\\ academic\\ disciplines\\ evaluated\\ themselves\\,\\ from\\ universalism\\ to\\ anti\\-foundationalism\\ and\\ historicism\\.\\ What\\ mattered\\ was\\ not\\ divining\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ universal\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ discovering\\ the\\ particular\\ sets\\ of\\ values\\ and\\ cultural\\ products\\ of\\ certain\\ civilizations\\&\\#8212\\;what\\ is\\ known\\ today\\ as\\ cultural\\ studies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Clifford\\ Geertz\\,\\ the\\ famed\\ anthropologist\\ who\\ was\\ immensely\\ influenced\\ by\\ Kuhn\\,\\ retells\\ an\\ Indian\\ fable\\ in\\ his\\ groundbreaking\\ anthropological\\ tome\\,\\ The\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ Cultures\\.\\ An\\ Englishman\\,\\ after\\ having\\ been\\ told\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ rested\\ on\\ a\\ platform\\ which\\ rested\\ on\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ an\\ elephant\\ which\\ rested\\ in\\ turn\\ on\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ a\\ turtle\\,\\ asked\\ what\\ did\\ the\\ turtle\\ rest\\ on\\?\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Another\\ turtle\\.\\ And\\ that\\ turtle\\?\\ Ah\\,\\ Sahib\\,\\ after\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ turtles\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ down\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Geertz\\ uses\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ ethnography\\&\\#8212\\;meaning\\ that\\ was\\ can\\ only\\ get\\ at\\ the\\ particularities\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ we\\ study\\,\\ and\\ that\\ no\\ larger\\ ground\\ or\\ truth\\ lays\\ beneath\\ them\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Cultural\\ analysis\\ is\\ intrinsically\\ incomplete\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ writes\\ Geertz\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;And\\,\\ worse\\ than\\ that\\,\\ the\\ more\\ deeply\\ it\\ goes\\ the\\ less\\ complete\\ it\\ is\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ We\\ can\\ only\\ hope\\ to\\ improve\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ communication\\ between\\ cultures\\,\\ without\\ claiming\\ to\\ know\\ or\\ speak\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ anyone\\ except\\ for\\ our\\ own\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ insights\\ eventually\\ led\\ Richard\\ Rorty\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ foremost\\ analytic\\ philosophers\\ in\\ his\\ day\\,\\ to\\ abandon\\ the\\ project\\ and\\ instead\\ work\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ philosophy\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ called\\ modern\\ pragmatism\\.\\ Rorty\\ argues\\ in\\ Contingency\\,\\ Solidarity\\,\\ and\\ Irony\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ only\\ affirm\\ or\\ deny\\ values\\ by\\ the\\ groups\\ we\\ choose\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ claim\\ to\\ speak\\ across\\ cultures\\ or\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ any\\ set\\ of\\ universal\\ values\\.\\ The\\ best\\ we\\ can\\ hope\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ expand\\ the\\ circle\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;we\\&\\#8221\\;\\&\\#8212\\;to\\ look\\ for\\ as\\ many\\ shared\\ values\\ as\\ possible\\ and\\ work\\ to\\ end\\ cruelty\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ We\\ must\\ recognize\\ the\\ contingency\\ of\\ both\\ our\\ own\\ values\\ and\\ the\\ language\\ we\\ use\\ to\\ express\\ them\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ of\\ getting\\ locked\\ in\\ the\\ particularities\\ \\(like\\ many\\ postmodernists\\ are\\ guilty\\ of\\)\\ we\\ must\\ instead\\ work\\ to\\ broaden\\ our\\ horizons\\ without\\ any\\ hope\\ of\\ finding\\ an\\ absolute\\ truth\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Richard\\ Rorty\\ passed\\ away\\ in\\ 2007\\.\\ While\\ his\\ death\\ was\\ certainly\\ a\\ blow\\ to\\ the\\ philosophical\\ community\\ and\\ the\\ world\\ at\\ large\\,\\ at\\ least\\ he\\ left\\ a\\ legacy\\ of\\ philosophic\\ output\\,\\ and\\ a\\ reaffirmation\\ of\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ philosophy\\ in\\ the\\ messy\\ arenas\\ of\\ ethics\\,\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ life\\.\\ Philosophy\\ is\\ life\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ messy\\,\\ and\\ to\\ deny\\ it\\ by\\ running\\ into\\ the\\ confines\\ of\\ analytic\\ philosophy\\ is\\ to\\ deny\\ the\\ world\\ what\\ William\\ James\\ first\\ offered\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ manner\\ of\\ navigating\\ the\\ chaotic\\ demands\\ of\\ society\\ without\\ a\\ belief\\ in\\ some\\ absolute\\ truth\\ or\\ God\\.\\ \\\r\\\\ \\\r\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "A HANDFUL OF TURTLES"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.298735+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "DO A LITTLE DANCE", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 428, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Joseph\\ Wood\\ Krutch\\,\\ The\\ Modern\\ Temper\\,\\ Chapter\\ 1\\\r\\T\\.S\\.\\ Eliot\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Love\\ Song\\ of\\ J\\.\\ Alfred\\ Prufrock\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Hollow\\ Men\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Walter\\ Lippmann\\,\\ Public\\ Opinion\\,\\ selections\\\r\\H\\.L\\ Mencken\\,\\ Notes\\ on\\ Democracy\\,\\ selections\\\r\\\\\r\\Warning\\:\\ this\\ post\\ may\\ seem\\ a\\ bit\\ scattered\\.\\ Full\\ disclosure\\:\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ my\\ fault\\.\\ Professor\\ Kloppenberg\\ sought\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ define\\ modernism\\ and\\ discuss\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ leading\\ modernist\\ prose\\ and\\ poetry\\ styles\\ \\(Gertrude\\ Stein\\ and\\ T\\.S\\.\\ Eliot\\ being\\ the\\ two\\ favored\\)\\,\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ sought\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ transformation\\ of\\ American\\ ideas\\ from\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ World\\ War\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ World\\ War\\.\\ An\\ ambitious\\ agenda\\,\\ indeed\\,\\ and\\ this\\ post\\ will\\ seek\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\.\\ So\\ stay\\ with\\ me\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ I\\ think\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ got\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;togetherness\\ two\\-step\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ called\\.\\ And\\,\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ get\\ it\\ this\\ time\\ around\\,\\ it\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ crop\\ up\\ in\\ later\\ posts\\,\\ and\\ hopefully\\,\\ n\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Gertrude\\ Stein\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;more\\ and\\ more\\ listening\\ to\\ repeating\\ gives\\ to\\ me\\ \\[and\\ you\\]\\ complete\\ understanding\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Modernism\\ is\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ primary\\ reaction\\ to\\ Victorian\\ culture\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ hipsters\\ of\\ an\\ earlier\\ century\\,\\ with\\ all\\ the\\ trappings\\ that\\ that\\ word\\ entails\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ being\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ World\\ War\\ I\\,\\ most\\ modernist\\ sensibilities\\ pre\\-date\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ were\\ spurred\\ on\\ by\\ intellectual\\ revolutions\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ psychological\\ writings\\ of\\ William\\ James\\.\\ The\\ modernist\\ saw\\ themselves\\ as\\ cultural\\ mercenaries\\,\\ here\\ to\\ construct\\ a\\ new\\ culture\\ without\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ a\\ past\\ they\\ claimed\\ had\\ been\\ abolished\\.\\ \\ This\\ new\\ culture\\,\\ however\\,\\ was\\ not\\ one\\ that\\ whole\\-heartedly\\ embraced\\ machinery\\ and\\ technology\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ fact\\,\\ modernism\\,\\ despite\\ its\\ name\\,\\ often\\ revolted\\ against\\ the\\ increasingly\\ impersonal\\ nature\\ of\\ industrial\\ society\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Although\\ modernism\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ different\\ permutations\\,\\ in\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ Willa\\ Cather\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ prose\\ of\\ Ezra\\ Pound\\,\\ is\\ extremely\\ difficult\\ to\\ define\\ and\\ categorize\\,\\ there\\ are\\ four\\ main\\ characteristics\\ that\\ are\\ generally\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ modernist\\ sensibility\\:\\ \\(for\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ subject\\,\\ see\\ Peter\\ Gay\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ latest\\ book\\,\\ Modernism\\)\\\r\\1\\.\\\tA\\ subjectivity\\ without\\ community\\,\\ the\\ individual\\ artist\\ freed\\ from\\ tradition\\ and\\ Victorian\\ morality\\ with\\ no\\ chance\\ of\\ transcendence\\\r\\2\\.\\\tDisorientation\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ without\\ transcendence\\,\\ without\\ a\\ universal\\ truth\\,\\ where\\ are\\ we\\ to\\ go\\?\\\r\\3\\.\\\tTechnical\\ experimentation\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ with\\ words\\ and\\ with\\ colors\\,\\ with\\ the\\ forms\\ specific\\ to\\ each\\ medium\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ play\\ out\\ within\\ said\\ medium\\ and\\ not\\ necessarily\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ at\\ large\\\r\\4\\.\\\tSelf\\-conscious\\ sense\\ of\\ discontinuity\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ modernists\\ were\\ extremely\\ aware\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ breaking\\ free\\ from\\ Victorian\\ standards\\ and\\ conventions\\ and\\ saw\\ themselves\\ setting\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;new\\ stage\\ in\\ Western\\ Civilization\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Just\\ to\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ taste\\ of\\ how\\ varied\\ this\\ movement\\ is\\ and\\ how\\ different\\ the\\ forms\\ were\\ that\\ it\\ took\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ going\\ to\\ post\\ below\\ two\\ paintings\\,\\ one\\ from\\ the\\ Ash\\ Can\\ school\\ painter\\ George\\ Bellows\\ and\\ one\\ from\\ Marchel\\ Duchamp\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ 1918\\ Armory\\ Show\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ are\\ considered\\ modern\\,\\ but\\ notice\\ how\\ neither\\ can\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ obviously\\ visually\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ other\\.\\\r\\This\\ dizzying\\ disorientation\\ as\\ it\\ manifested\\ itself\\ in\\ literature\\ and\\ art\\ was\\ generally\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ reaction\\ against\\ America\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ revulsion\\ with\\ its\\ hollowness\\ and\\ superficiality\\,\\ its\\ money\\-grabbing\\ plutocracy\\ and\\ its\\ beleaguered\\ democracy\\.\\ \\ H\\.L\\.\\ Mencken\\,\\ the\\ most\\ cynical\\ and\\ bitter\\ of\\ American\\ critics\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ who\\ stayed\\ within\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ during\\ the\\ teens\\ and\\ twenties\\,\\ sums\\ it\\ up\\ quite\\ nicely\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ am\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\,\\ a\\ somewhat\\ malicious\\ man\\:\\ my\\ sympathies\\,\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ suckers\\,\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ coy\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wrote\\ Mencken\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ I\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ make\\ out\\ is\\ how\\ any\\ man\\ can\\ believe\\ in\\ democracy\\ who\\ feels\\ for\\ and\\ with\\ them\\,\\ and\\ is\\ pained\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ debauched\\ and\\ made\\ a\\ show\\ of\\.\\ How\\ can\\ any\\ man\\ be\\ a\\ democrat\\ who\\ is\\ sincerely\\ a\\ democrat\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Yet\\ somehow\\,\\ this\\ disgust\\ with\\ America\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ trappings\\ is\\ transformed\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ Two\\ into\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ American\\ cultural\\ superiority\\.\\ How\\ does\\ this\\ happen\\?\\ Why\\ does\\ one\\ war\\ provoke\\ disgust\\ and\\ expatriation\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ one\\,\\ patriotism\\ and\\ cultural\\ revisionism\\?\\ The\\ answer\\,\\ is\\ sadly\\,\\ two\\ simple\\ steps\\:\\ the\\ Depression\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ American\\ versions\\ of\\ socialism\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ deconversion\\ that\\ happened\\ once\\ Americans\\ discovered\\ what\\ was\\ really\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ Soviet\\ Russia\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ depression\\ marked\\ a\\ profound\\ shift\\ in\\ American\\ intellectual\\ thought\\ because\\ it\\ made\\ many\\ turn\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ inwardness\\ and\\ uncertainty\\ of\\ modernism\\ and\\ towards\\ the\\ togetherness\\ that\\ the\\ era\\ inspired\\.\\ Critics\\ reacted\\ against\\ the\\ individual\\ expression\\ and\\ private\\ sensibility\\ that\\ modernism\\ praised\\ and\\ argued\\ that\\ these\\ characteristics\\ had\\ actually\\ given\\ America\\ the\\ hollowness\\ that\\ the\\ modernists\\ were\\ claiming\\ they\\ were\\ fighting\\ against\\.\\ They\\ thus\\ lost\\ their\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\ to\\ a\\ larger\\ culture\\ and\\ became\\ irrelevant\\&\\#8212\\;allowing\\ socialism\\ and\\ Marxism\\ to\\ swoop\\ into\\ American\\ intellectual\\ thought\\ with\\ answers\\ and\\ \\ a\\ community\\ that\\ the\\ modernists\\ had\\ destroyed\\.\\ In\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Irving\\ Howe\\,\\ socialism\\ gave\\ Americans\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ coherent\\ perspective\\ on\\ everything\\ that\\ was\\ happening\\ to\\ us\\&\\#8230\\;it\\ felt\\ good\\ to\\ know\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Well\\&\\#8212\\;it\\ felt\\ good\\ to\\ know\\,\\ up\\ until\\ a\\ point\\.\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ widespread\\ influence\\ of\\ communist\\ magazines\\ like\\ The\\ New\\ Masses\\,\\ the\\ widespread\\ conversion\\ came\\ to\\ an\\ abrupt\\ halt\\ after\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\ that\\ forced\\ Americans\\ to\\ lose\\ faith\\ in\\ their\\ Russian\\ brothers\\.\\ The\\ 1936\\ show\\ trials\\ of\\ former\\ Bolsheviks\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ non\\-aggression\\ pact\\ with\\ Hitler\\ led\\ Americans\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ Soviet\\ Russia\\ was\\ just\\ another\\ totalitarian\\ state\\,\\ bent\\ on\\ repression\\ and\\ expansion\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ anti\\-Stalinism\\ that\\ resulted\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ revulsion\\ against\\ the\\ tactics\\ of\\ the\\ Soviets\\,\\ but\\ a\\ distaste\\ for\\ all\\ things\\ left\\ of\\ center\\&\\#8212\\;anything\\ that\\ was\\ radical\\ was\\ immediately\\ suspect\\.\\ This\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ transition\\ into\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ American\\ community\\ as\\ it\\ stood\\,\\ and\\ this\\ in\\ turn\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ lasting\\ distrust\\ of\\ the\\ left\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ most\\ Americans\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ thus\\ it\\ ends\\.\\ The\\ modernist\\ movement\\ fades\\ into\\ irrelevance\\ and\\ oblivion\\ and\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ the\\ avant\\-garde\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ suspicious\\ moles\\ intent\\ on\\ corrupting\\ an\\ incorruptible\\ American\\ society\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ a\\ minute\\ there\\ is\\ time\\/for\\ decisions\\ and\\ revisions\\ which\\ a\\ minute\\ will\\ reverse\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "DO A LITTLE DANCE"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.311196+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "ON AVANT GARDES AND A LACK OF IDEAS", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 429, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Clement\\ Greenberg\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Avant\\-Garde\\ and\\ Kitsch\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Robert\\ Lowell\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;For\\ the\\ Union\\ Dead\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Allen\\ Ginsburg\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;A\\ Supermarket\\ in\\ California\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;In\\ death\\ as\\ in\\ life\\,\\ then\\,\\ the\\ Fifty\\-fourth\\ bore\\ witness\\ to\\ the\\ brotherhood\\ of\\ Man\\.\\ The\\ lover\\ of\\ heroic\\ history\\ could\\ wish\\ for\\ no\\ more\\ fitting\\ sepulcher\\ for\\ Shaw\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ magnanimous\\ young\\ heart\\&\\#8230\\;\\.There\\ let\\ the\\ breezes\\ of\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ sigh\\,\\ and\\ its\\ gales\\ roar\\ their\\ requiem\\,\\ while\\ this\\ bronze\\ effigy\\ and\\ tehse\\ inscriptions\\ keep\\ their\\ \\ fame\\ alive\\ long\\ after\\ you\\ and\\ I\\ and\\ all\\ who\\ meet\\ here\\ are\\ forgotten\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\r\\\\&\\#8211\\;\\ William\\ James\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Robert\\ Gould\\ Shaw\\,\\ An\\ Oration\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Parking\\ spaces\\ luxuriate\\ like\\ civic\\\r\\sandpiles\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ Boston\\.\\\r\\A\\ girdle\\ of\\ orange\\,\\ Puritan\\-pumpkin\\ colored\\ girders\\\r\\braces\\ the\\ tingling\\ Statehouse\\,\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\shaking\\ over\\ the\\ excavations\\,\\ as\\ it\\ faces\\ Colonel\\ Shaw\\\r\\and\\ his\\ bell\\-cheeked\\ Negro\\ infantry\\\r\\on\\ St\\.\\ Gaudens\\'\\ shaking\\ Civil\\ War\\ relief\\,\\\r\\propped\\ by\\ a\\ plank\\ splint\\ against\\ the\\ garage\\'s\\ earthquake\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Two\\ months\\ after\\ marching\\ through\\ Boston\\,\\\r\\half\\ the\\ regiment\\ was\\ dead\\;\\\r\\at\\ the\\ dedication\\,\\\r\\William\\ James\\ could\\ almost\\ hear\\ the\\ bronze\\ Negroes\\ breathe\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Their\\ monument\\ sticks\\ like\\ a\\ fishbone\\\r\\in\\ the\\ city\\'s\\ throat\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\r\\Robert\\ Lowell\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;For\\ the\\ Union\\ Dead\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ excerpt\\\r\\\\\r\\St\\.\\ Gaudens\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tribute\\ to\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ 54th\\ has\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ jumping\\ off\\ point\\ for\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ important\\ works\\ of\\ American\\ social\\ thought\\ that\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ read\\ in\\ History\\ 1661\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ from\\ William\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ uplifting\\ speech\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ ethical\\ valor\\,\\ to\\ Oliver\\ Wendell\\ Holmes\\ Jr\\.\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ heartbreaking\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ ultimate\\ emptiness\\ of\\ combat\\ in\\ a\\ speech\\ that\\ was\\ rejected\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ James\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ oration\\.\\ The\\ monument\\ has\\ stood\\ as\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bronze\\ effigy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ the\\ cannon\\ of\\ American\\ social\\ thoughts\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ its\\ material\\ presence\\ has\\ often\\ been\\ ancillary\\ to\\ its\\ function\\ as\\ an\\ American\\ metaphor\\ for\\ courage\\ and\\ progress\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ speaks\\ volumes\\,\\ then\\,\\ that\\ by\\ 1964\\,\\ the\\ year\\ Robert\\ Lowell\\ published\\ \\&\\#8220\\;For\\ the\\ Union\\ Dead\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ monument\\ no\\ longer\\ had\\ meaning\\ as\\ a\\ tribute\\ to\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ promising\\ future\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ stood\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fishbone\\ in\\ the\\ city\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ throat\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ a\\ stinging\\ reminder\\ of\\ how\\ far\\ the\\ American\\ public\\ had\\ fallen\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ was\\ written\\ for\\ a\\ public\\ performance\\ at\\ the\\ Robert\\ Gould\\ Shaw\\ memorial\\ and\\ it\\ plays\\ with\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ elegy\\ and\\ statements\\ of\\ reverence\\.\\ Lowell\\ contrasts\\ the\\ heroism\\ of\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ 54th\\ with\\ the\\ cowed\\ slavish\\ sensibility\\ of\\ modern\\ American\\ culture\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ commercial\\ photograph\\ of\\ Hiroshima\\ on\\ the\\ Boston\\ common\\,\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;finned\\ cars\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ symbolize\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;savage\\ servility\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ television\\ set\\ that\\ both\\ shows\\ reality\\ and\\ robs\\ it\\ of\\ any\\ meaning\\.\\ Lowell\\ sees\\ in\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ American\\ mass\\ culture\\ and\\ consumption\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ heroic\\ sensibility\\ for\\ which\\ William\\ James\\ once\\ said\\ the\\ monument\\ stood\\.\\ Lowell\\ offers\\ up\\ a\\ new\\ tribute\\ of\\ sorts\\&\\#8212\\;an\\ elegy\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ Massachusetts\\ 54th\\,\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ monument\\ itself\\.\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ post\\-war\\ consumer\\ explosion\\ and\\ the\\ mass\\ culture\\ that\\ went\\ along\\ with\\ it\\ forced\\ many\\ postwar\\ intellectuals\\ to\\ bemoan\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ culture\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;high\\ art\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ provided\\ not\\ only\\ entertainment\\ but\\ also\\ offered\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ principles\\ and\\ morals\\.\\ Lowell\\ and\\ many\\ of\\ his\\ contemporaries\\ wondered\\ if\\,\\ in\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ mass\\ culture\\,\\ all\\ art\\ necessarily\\ devolved\\ to\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ kitsch\\,\\ which\\ the\\ eminent\\ critic\\ Clement\\ Greenberg\\ distastefully\\ defined\\ in\\ his\\ 1939\\ essay\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Avant\\-garde\\ and\\ Kitsch\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Kitsch\\ is\\ mechanical\\ and\\ operates\\ by\\ formulas\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wrote\\ Greenberg\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Kitsch\\ is\\ vicarious\\ experience\\ and\\ faked\\ sensations\\&\\#8230\\;Kitsch\\ is\\ the\\ epitome\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ spurious\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ our\\ times\\.\\ Kitsch\\ pretends\\ to\\ demand\\ nothing\\ of\\ its\\ customers\\,\\ except\\ their\\ money\\&\\#8212\\;not\\ even\\ their\\ time\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ When\\ you\\ could\\ buy\\ satisfaction\\ with\\ your\\ laundry\\ detergent\\,\\ what\\ else\\ did\\ you\\ need\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ conflict\\ between\\ high\\ art\\ and\\ low\\ art\\,\\ avant\\ gardes\\ and\\ kitsch\\,\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ new\\ one\\ in\\ American\\ history\\.\\ \\(Earlier\\ posts\\ have\\ tangentially\\ discussed\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ art\\ in\\ a\\ democratic\\ culture\\&\\#8212\\;see\\ here\\ and\\ here\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ early\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ Alexis\\ de\\ Tocqueville\\ presciently\\ identified\\ the\\ problematic\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ high\\ culture\\ in\\ a\\ democratic\\ society\\ and\\ he\\ warned\\ that\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;tyranny\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\&\\#8221\\;\\ would\\ make\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ deviate\\ from\\ the\\ norm\\ or\\ to\\ preserve\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ individuality\\.\\ Almost\\ a\\ half\\ decade\\ later\\,\\ Walt\\ Whitman\\ took\\ issues\\ with\\ de\\ Tocquevilles\\ analysis\\,\\ and\\ he\\ saw\\ in\\ American\\ democracy\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;democratic\\ culture\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ could\\ give\\ the\\ young\\ nation\\ something\\ different\\ with\\ which\\ it\\ could\\ define\\ itself\\ against\\ Europe\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ culture\\ that\\ was\\ simultaneously\\ intelligent\\ and\\ refined\\,\\ but\\ also\\ capable\\ of\\ being\\ understood\\ by\\ the\\ masses\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Despite\\ these\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ debates\\,\\ the\\ first\\ definitive\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ high\\ art\\ and\\ American\\ democracy\\ was\\ not\\ published\\ until\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ when\\ Van\\ Wyck\\ Brooks\\ published\\ America\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Coming\\ of\\ Age\\ in\\ 1915\\.\\ Brooks\\ argued\\ that\\ American\\ culture\\ grew\\ up\\ caught\\ between\\ the\\ catchpenny\\ opportunism\\ of\\ Benjamin\\ Franklin\\ and\\ the\\ high\\ idealism\\ of\\ its\\ Puritan\\ forefathers\\ like\\ Jonathan\\ Edwards\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Brooks\\,\\ this\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ consistent\\ tension\\ in\\ American\\ history\\,\\ exemplified\\ by\\ such\\ figures\\ as\\ Abraham\\ Lincoln\\ and\\ Woodrow\\ Wilson\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Human\\ nature\\ in\\ America\\ exists\\ on\\ two\\ intellectual\\ planes\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ argued\\ Brooks\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;stark\\ intellectuality\\ and\\ stark\\ business\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ tension\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ planes\\ reaches\\ its\\ apex\\ in\\ American\\ post\\-war\\ culture\\ as\\ the\\ economic\\ expansion\\ of\\ those\\ years\\ fueled\\ a\\ rise\\ in\\ mass\\ consumption\\ and\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ leisure\\ time\\ for\\ many\\ Americans\\.\\ Culture\\ in\\ America\\ was\\ becoming\\ affluent\\&\\#8212\\;almost\\ overnight\\,\\ society\\ had\\ gone\\ from\\ a\\ culture\\ predicated\\ on\\ scarcity\\ to\\ one\\ predicated\\ on\\ affluence\\.\\ Earlier\\,\\ Greenberg\\ warned\\ that\\ the\\ mass\\ culture\\ that\\ sprung\\ up\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ fill\\ the\\ emptiness\\ of\\ American\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ leisure\\ time\\ was\\ dangerous\\ not\\ only\\ because\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ erase\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ values\\ found\\ in\\ art\\ and\\ those\\ found\\ elsewhere\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ it\\ dulls\\ the\\ sensibility\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\.\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ how\\ to\\ resolve\\ the\\ tension\\?\\ Should\\ America\\ encourage\\ an\\ art\\ that\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ deciphered\\ by\\ a\\ bevy\\ of\\ critics\\ who\\ must\\ mediate\\ between\\ the\\ art\\ and\\ the\\ masses\\?\\ Do\\ we\\ choose\\ Harold\\ Bloom\\ or\\ the\\ little\\ man\\ at\\ Chehaw\\ station\\?\\ What\\ would\\ a\\ democratic\\ art\\ even\\ look\\ like\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ let\\ alone\\ today\\?\\\r\\\\ \\\r\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "ON AVANT GARDES AND A LACK OF IDEAS"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.336385+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "THE PROBLEM THAT HAS A NAME: CHOICE", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 431, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Betty\\ Friedan\\,\\ The\\ Feminine\\ Mystique\\,\\ excerpts\\\r\\Joan\\ Williams\\,\\ Unbending\\ Gender\\,\\ excerpts\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ a\\ January\\ 8th\\ editorial\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ feminist\\ Gloria\\ Steinem\\ argued\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ worrying\\ that\\ Barack\\ Obama\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ unifying\\ by\\ his\\ race\\ whereas\\ Hilary\\ Clinton\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ divisive\\ by\\ her\\ sex\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Why\\ is\\ the\\ sex\\ barrier\\ not\\ taken\\ as\\ seriously\\ as\\ the\\ racial\\ one\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wondered\\ Steinem\\.\\ Although\\ Steinem\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ caste\\ systems\\ of\\ sex\\ and\\ race\\ are\\ interdependent\\ and\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ uprooted\\ together\\&\\#8221\\;\\ she\\ nonetheless\\ explicitly\\ stated\\ \\&\\#8220\\;gender\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ restrictive\\ force\\ in\\ American\\ life\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ general\\ theme\\ of\\ Steinem\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ editorial\\ was\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ something\\ different\\ about\\ the\\ struggle\\ for\\ gender\\ equality\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ something\\ that\\ made\\ it\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ overcome\\ than\\ class\\ barriers\\ or\\ racism\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ \\(second\\)\\ problem\\ that\\ has\\ no\\ name\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Often\\ times\\ the\\ fight\\ against\\ racism\\ and\\ the\\ fight\\ against\\ sexism\\ are\\ grouped\\ together\\ in\\ policy\\ prescriptions\\ like\\ affirmative\\ action\\ and\\ in\\ academic\\ debates\\ about\\ social\\ justice\\.\\ The\\ grouping\\ together\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ issues\\ is\\ not\\ unnatural\\ since\\ second\\ wave\\ feminism\\ is\\ often\\ seen\\ as\\ being\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ bus\\ boycotts\\ and\\ riots\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;A\\ critical\\ number\\ of\\ young\\ women\\ learned\\,\\ through\\ their\\ experiences\\ in\\ other\\ political\\ movements\\ how\\ to\\ identify\\ and\\ politicize\\ a\\ personal\\ sense\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ injustice\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ argues\\ feminism\\ historian\\ Ruth\\ Rosen\\ \\(for\\ a\\ longer\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\ and\\ second\\ wave\\ feminism\\,\\ see\\ Rosen\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ book\\,\\ The\\ World\\ Split\\ Open\\)\\.\\ Yet\\ as\\ Steinem\\ is\\ right\\ to\\ point\\ out\\,\\ while\\ race\\/ethnicity\\ and\\ sex\\/gender\\ issues\\ often\\ use\\ the\\ same\\ intellectual\\ framework\\ and\\ policy\\ prescriptions\\,\\ obscuring\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ oppression\\ ignores\\ the\\ contrary\\ identity\\ politics\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ issues\\ of\\ gender\\ and\\ of\\ ethnicity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Ultimately\\,\\ both\\ matters\\ center\\ on\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ choice\\.\\ To\\ what\\ extent\\ is\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ choose\\ to\\ be\\ black\\ or\\ to\\ choose\\ to\\ be\\ female\\?\\ The\\ necessity\\ of\\ choice\\ was\\ first\\ addressed\\ by\\ Betty\\ Friedan\\ in\\ her\\ groundbreaking\\ work\\,\\ The\\ Feminine\\ Mystique\\,\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ reacted\\ against\\ the\\ functionalist\\ argument\\ for\\ adjustment\\ that\\ defined\\ a\\ woman\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ society\\ says\\ she\\ is\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Friedan\\,\\ argued\\ that\\ Freudian\\ analyses\\ of\\ modern\\ culture\\ that\\ took\\ as\\ their\\ central\\ premise\\ that\\ anatomy\\ was\\ destiny\\ prevented\\ women\\ from\\ having\\ full\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\ and\\ personalities\\,\\ particularly\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ career\\ possibilities\\.\\ While\\ Friedan\\ tended\\ to\\ be\\ overly\\ critical\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;feminine\\ traps\\&\\#8221\\;\\ like\\ marriage\\ and\\ childcare\\,\\ she\\ nonetheless\\ pinpointed\\ the\\ issue\\ that\\ has\\ remained\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ debates\\ about\\ both\\ ethnicity\\ and\\ gender\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Since\\ Freidan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ work\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ thought\\ of\\ second\\ wave\\ feminism\\ has\\ been\\ written\\ by\\ activists\\ who\\ spent\\ most\\ of\\ their\\ time\\ acting\\.\\ Many\\ pinpointed\\ flaws\\ in\\ Friedan\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ analysis\\,\\ such\\ as\\ her\\ exclusion\\ of\\ women\\ of\\ color\\ and\\ women\\ of\\ a\\ lower\\ economic\\ status\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ her\\ complete\\ rejection\\ of\\ childcare\\ and\\ motherhood\\.\\ The\\ splintering\\ that\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ as\\ women\\ increasingly\\ sought\\ to\\ both\\ define\\ themselves\\ against\\ their\\ male\\ counterparts\\ and\\ within\\ the\\ movement\\ led\\ to\\ huge\\ division\\ in\\ the\\ feminist\\ cause\\,\\ between\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ more\\ conservative\\,\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ painted\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bra\\ burning\\&\\#8221\\;\\ feminists\\,\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ could\\ not\\ reconcile\\ their\\ own\\ personal\\ beliefs\\ \\(say\\,\\ that\\ abortion\\ was\\ immoral\\)\\ with\\ the\\ general\\ tenets\\ of\\ feminism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Joan\\ Williams\\,\\ who\\ will\\ be\\ coming\\ to\\ Harvard\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ lectures\\ in\\ early\\ May\\,\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ what\\ are\\ sometimes\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;third\\ wave\\ feminists\\&\\#8221\\;\\ who\\ are\\ attempting\\ to\\ move\\ beyond\\ the\\ petty\\ politics\\ that\\ crippled\\ second\\ wave\\ feminism\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ build\\ coalitions\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ active\\ social\\ change\\.\\ Williams\\ takes\\ as\\ her\\ target\\ the\\ domestic\\ value\\ system\\ that\\ began\\ in\\ Victorian\\ America\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ persist\\ up\\ until\\ the\\ present\\ day\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Domesticity\\ did\\ not\\ die\\;\\ it\\ mutated\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ argues\\ Williams\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ most\\ married\\ women\\ were\\ marginalized\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ Although\\ women\\ have\\ re\\-entered\\ market\\ work\\,\\ most\\ remain\\ marginalized\\ today\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ equality\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Williams\\ attempts\\ to\\ get\\ beyond\\ the\\ divisive\\ issues\\ of\\ gender\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ problems\\ that\\ affect\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\&\\#8212\\;men\\,\\ women\\,\\ and\\ children\\.\\ She\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ ideal\\ worker\\ norm\\ that\\ says\\ that\\ anyone\\ in\\ competitive\\ field\\ like\\ law\\ or\\ business\\ must\\ spend\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ time\\ working\\,\\ pushing\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ caregiver\\ on\\ to\\ some\\ one\\ else\\ who\\ must\\ marginalize\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ own\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ worker\\.\\ Until\\ society\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ work\\ so\\ that\\ caregivers\\ and\\ workers\\ are\\ given\\ equal\\ importance\\,\\ so\\ that\\ choosing\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ a\\ child\\ or\\ an\\ elder\\ relative\\ does\\ not\\ result\\ in\\ marginalization\\ at\\ work\\,\\ Williams\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ entrenched\\ value\\ system\\ of\\ domesticity\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ persist\\.\\ Williams\\ argues\\ that\\ doing\\ away\\ with\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ complicated\\ gender\\ norms\\ that\\ put\\ pressure\\ on\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ to\\ conform\\ is\\ never\\ going\\ to\\ happen\\,\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ term\\,\\ so\\ what\\ is\\ necessary\\ is\\ not\\ transcendent\\ bonding\\ but\\ coalition\\ politics\\ that\\ attempt\\ to\\ dismantle\\ the\\ systems\\ that\\ hold\\ women\\ down\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Our\\ goal\\ is\\ not\\ consensus\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ writes\\ Williams\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;but\\ solidarity\\ among\\ women\\ who\\ interpret\\ their\\ traditions\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ empower\\ women\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ manner\\,\\ Williams\\ relates\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ solidarity\\ that\\ Rorty\\ advocated\\ for\\ and\\ the\\ coalition\\ politics\\ that\\ David\\ Hollinger\\ will\\ write\\ about\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ post\\.\\ All\\ three\\ of\\ these\\ thinkers\\&\\#8212\\;Williams\\,\\ Rorty\\,\\ and\\ Hollinger\\&\\#8212\\;are\\ just\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\-day\\ intellectuals\\ who\\ have\\ taken\\ the\\ writings\\ of\\ William\\ James\\ to\\ heart\\ to\\ work\\ towards\\ overcoming\\ the\\ certain\\ blindness\\ that\\ inhibits\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ and\\ prevents\\ us\\ from\\ realizing\\ equality\\.\\ \\\r\\\\\t\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "THE PROBLEM THAT HAS A NAME: CHOICE"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.872584+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Sexy, Sexy Pheromones", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 465, "html": "\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\so\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ lecture\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ four\\ parts\\ in\\ the\\ entire\\ class\\.\\ \\ \\ As\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ has\\ been\\ telling\\ us\\,\\ part\\ 4\\ will\\ apply\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ to\\ human\\ health\\,\\ today\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Clardy\\ \\(who\\'s\\ teaching\\ today\\)\\ has\\ told\\ me\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ little\\ dense\\,\\ but\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ really\\ interesting\\ and\\ applicable\\ to\\ our\\ everyday\\ lives\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ last\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ is\\ about\\ looking\\ ahead\\ to\\ things\\ that\\ will\\ become\\ increasingly\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ look\\ back\\ at\\ things\\ we\\'ve\\ already\\ covered\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ more\\ complicated\\ examples\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ you\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ and\\ think\\ about\\ small\\ molecules\\ as\\ carriers\\ of\\ information\\,\\ an\\ area\\ where\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ attention\\ paid\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ that\\ information\\ is\\ pheromones\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>After\\ pheromones\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ in\\-depth\\ at\\ diabetes\\ and\\ and\\ the\\ systemic\\,\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ approach\\ to\\ finding\\ new\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\After\\ that\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ spend\\ four\\ lectures\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ \\ how\\ cells\\ decide\\ to\\ divide\\ and\\ fix\\ themselves\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Anyway\\,\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ four\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/4\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Sex\\ Pheromones\\ in\\ Moths\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Pheromones\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ discuss\\ in\\ our\\ society\\ and\\ time\\,\\ because\\,\\ as\\ Clardy\\ says\\,\\ we\\ probably\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ odor\\-averse\\ society\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ odor\\-averse\\ time\\ in\\ history\\.\\ \\ Our\\ aversion\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ warranted\\ though\\.\\ \\ See\\ what\\ was\\ written\\ on\\ smells\\ by\\ Lewis\\ Thomas\\ \\(1913\\-1993\\,\\ pictured\\ below\\)\\,\\ physician\\,\\ poet\\,\\ etymologist\\,\\ essayist\\,\\ administrator\\,\\ educator\\,\\ policy\\ adviser\\,\\ and\\ researcher\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"we\\ might\\ fairly\\ gauge\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ biological\\ science\\,\\ centuries\\ ahead\\,\\ by\\ estimating\\ the\\ time\\ it\\ will\\ take\\ to\\ reach\\ a\\ complete\\,\\ comprehensive\\ understanding\\ of\\ odor\\.\\ \\ It\\ may\\ now\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ profound\\ enough\\ problem\\ to\\ dominate\\ all\\ the\\ life\\ sciences\\,\\ but\\ it\\ contains\\,\\ piece\\ by\\ piece\\,\\ all\\ the\\ mysteries\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Thomas\\ always\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ smells\\ and\\ pheromones\\ in\\ his\\ thinking\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Pheromones\\ are\\ like\\ hormones\\:\\ \\ they\\'re\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ send\\ information\\.\\ \\ The\\ only\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ hormones\\ send\\ information\\ within\\ one\\ organism\\,\\ whereas\\ pheromones\\ send\\ information\\ between\\ multiple\\ organisms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 1892\\,\\ the\\ French\\ physicist\\ Jean\\-Henri\\ Fabre\\ \\(1823\\-1915\\)\\ was\\ collecting\\ moth\\ cocoons\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\.\\ \\ He\\ captured\\ a\\ female\\ peacock\\ moth\\ \\(the\\ largest\\ moths\\ in\\ Europe\\)\\ and\\ took\\ it\\ back\\ to\\ his\\ study\\,\\ purely\\ out\\ of\\ interest\\.\\ \\ The\\ next\\ day\\,\\ his\\ house\\ was\\ full\\ of\\ moths\\.\\ \\ Male\\ moths\\.\\ \\ The\\ males\\ knew\\ the\\ female\\ was\\ inside\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Fabre\\ wondered\\ how\\ the\\ moths\\ knew\\ the\\ female\\ moth\\ was\\ inside\\.\\ \\ The\\ room\\ where\\ she\\ was\\ kept\\ was\\ located\\ by\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ house\\,\\ near\\ an\\ open\\ window\\.\\ \\ You\\'d\\ think\\ the\\ male\\ moths\\ were\\ coming\\ in\\ through\\ that\\ window\\.\\ \\ But\\ they\\ weren\\'t\\.\\ \\ They\\ were\\ coming\\ in\\ from\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ house\\,\\ down\\ the\\ stairs\\,\\ through\\ a\\ couple\\ rooms\\,\\ and\\ then\\ finally\\ into\\ the\\ study\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Fabre\\ realized\\ the\\ wind\\ was\\ blowing\\ from\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ to\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ house\\.\\ \\ So\\ if\\ the\\ female\\ moth\\ was\\ emitting\\ a\\ scent\\,\\ it\\ was\\ going\\ out\\ toward\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ house\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ life\\ of\\ a\\ moth\\ is\\ incredibly\\ simple\\.\\ \\ It\\ starts\\ as\\ a\\ fertilized\\ egg\\ that\\ grows\\ into\\ a\\ larvae\\.\\ \\ The\\ larvae\\ then\\ grows\\ wings\\ and\\ becomes\\ an\\ adult\\ moth\\.\\ \\ A\\ male\\ moth\\ might\\ live\\ 2\\-3\\ days\\.\\ \\ A\\ female\\ moth\\ lives\\ one\\ week\\.\\ \\ They\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ mouth\\ parts\\,\\ because\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ eat\\.\\ \\ \\ They\\ just\\ get\\ down\\.\\ \\ No\\ eating\\,\\ no\\ learning\\,\\ no\\ life\\ insurance\\.\\ \\ Just\\ sex\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ small\\ molecule\\ pheromone\\ in\\ female\\ moths\\ is\\ bombykol\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ so\\ potent\\ that\\ if\\ a\\ single\\ female\\ moth\\ released\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ bombykol\\ in\\ her\\ sac\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ spray\\,\\ she\\ could\\ theoretically\\ attract\\ a\\ trillion\\ males\\ in\\ that\\ instant\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Vincent\\ Van\\ Gogh\\'s\\ 1889\\ \\Emperor\\ Moth\\<\\/em\\>\\ depicts\\ the\\ peacock\\ moth\\,\\ which\\ taught\\ Jean\\-Henri\\ Fabre\\,\\ and\\ later\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ about\\ pheromones\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Bombykol\\'s\\ molecular\\ structure\\ is\\ a\\ straight\\ even\\-numbered\\ carbon\\ chain\\,\\ with\\ a\\ functional\\ group\\ \\(an\\ OH\\)\\ at\\ one\\ end\\,\\ and\\ 0\\,\\ 1\\,\\ or\\ 2\\ double\\ bonds\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ 1\\,000\\'s\\ of\\ pheromones\\,\\ which\\ might\\ explain\\ why\\ there\\ are\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ moths\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ receptor\\ for\\ small\\ molecule\\ pheromones\\ exists\\ in\\ neurons\\ in\\ male\\ moths\\'\\ antennae\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Hydrophobicity\\ Problem\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Pheromone\\ molecules\\ are\\ exceptionally\\ hydrophobic\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ just\\ a\\ hydrocarbon\\;\\ they\\'re\\ like\\ pure\\ grease\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ cells\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ pheromone\\ receptors\\ on\\ them\\ in\\ male\\ moths\\'\\ antennae\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ water\\.\\ \\ They\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ in\\ air\\,\\ because\\ then\\ those\\ cells\\ dry\\ out\\ and\\ crack\\.\\ \\ Cells\\ are\\ made\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ water\\.\\ \\ So\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ very\\ thin\\ film\\ of\\ water\\ surrounding\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ the\\ problem\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Everyone\\ marvels\\ that\\ this\\ pheromone\\ molecule\\ can\\ travel\\ hundreds\\ of\\ yards\\ and\\ find\\ a\\ male\\.\\ \\ But\\ from\\ a\\ molecular\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ the\\ hard\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ journey\\ is\\ the\\ microscopic\\ distances\\ it\\ travels\\ once\\ it\\ arrives\\ at\\ the\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ How\\ does\\ it\\ penetrate\\ that\\ thin\\ film\\ of\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ male\\ moth\\ antennae\\ receptor\\ cell\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ special\\ class\\ of\\ protein\\ called\\ \\\"pheromone\\ binding\\ proteins\\,\\\"\\ and\\ the\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ receptor\\ cells\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ this\\ protein\\.\\ \\ When\\ a\\ pheromone\\ ambles\\ by\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ its\\ pheromone\\ binding\\ proteins\\ rush\\ to\\ pheromone\\,\\ surround\\ it\\,\\ and\\ make\\ sure\\ it\\ gets\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ the\\ receptor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ that\\ gives\\ you\\ \\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ simple\\ molecular\\ machinery\\ that\\ enable\\ pheromones\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ job\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ G\\-Protein\\ Coupled\\ Receptor\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ receptor\\ that\\ the\\ pheromone\\ hits\\ in\\ the\\ male\\ moth\\ is\\ a\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptor\\,\\ the\\ same\\ type\\ of\\ receptor\\ we\\ saw\\ with\\ hormones\\ like\\ adrenaline\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ a\\ membrane\\-bound\\ receptor\\,\\ and\\ the\\ pheromone\\ has\\ to\\ travel\\ through\\ that\\ membrane\\ 7\\ times\\.\\ \\ Finally\\ it\\ emerges\\,\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ G\\-protein\\,\\ then\\ interacts\\ with\\ a\\ second\\ set\\ of\\ messengers\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ 2nd\\ set\\ of\\ messengers\\,\\ there\\'s\\ an\\ ion\\ channel\\ that\\ sends\\ the\\ message\\ to\\ the\\ inside\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ seen\\ this\\ machinery\\ but\\ never\\ really\\ talked\\ about\\ it\\ because\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ focus\\ that\\ we\\ like\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ how\\ messages\\ get\\ sent\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ receptor\\ cell\\ to\\ its\\ interior\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ well\\ over\\ 1\\,000\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\ in\\ all\\ animal\\ genomes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ thing\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ lecture\\:\\ \\ odors\\ and\\ pheromones\\ are\\ completely\\ different\\ from\\ hormones\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ way\\ we\\ see\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ their\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\ are\\ in\\ totally\\ different\\ families\\ than\\ the\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\ that\\ hormones\\ bind\\ to\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Family\\ 1\\ of\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\ relates\\ to\\ cannabinoids\\,\\ opioids\\,\\ hormones\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ that\\ one\\ a\\ lot\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ Family\\ 3\\ of\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ what\\ pheromones\\ bind\\ to\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/4\\:\\ \\ Pheromones\\ in\\ Insects\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ that\\'s\\ our\\ first\\ story\\,\\ which\\ had\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ things\\ to\\ like\\ on\\ the\\ molecular\\ level\\,\\ but\\ behaviorally\\ it\\ wasn\\'t\\ too\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ A\\ lady\\ looking\\ to\\ get\\ down\\ posts\\ on\\ the\\ moth\\-internet\\:\\ \\ \\\"fellas\\,\\ I\\'m\\ here\\!\\\"\\ \\ And\\ boy\\ do\\ those\\ fellas\\ come\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ honey\\ bees\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hives\\ are\\ run\\ by\\ the\\ Queen\\ Bee\\.\\ \\ Other\\ inhabitants\\ are\\ her\\ sisters\\,\\ who\\ are\\ worker\\ bees\\,\\ and\\ drones\\,\\ who\\ are\\ males\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>When\\ a\\ Queen\\ Bee\\ hatches\\,\\ she\\ goes\\ on\\ a\\ \\\"nuptial\\ flight\\.\\\"\\ \\ During\\ the\\ flight\\,\\ drones\\ swarm\\ her\\ in\\ the\\ air\\ and\\ mate\\ with\\ her\\ mid\\-air\\.\\ \\ \\ She\\ has\\ to\\ mate\\ with\\ some\\ number\\ of\\ drones\\,\\ say\\,\\ like\\ a\\ dozen\\.\\ \\ If\\ she\\ mates\\ with\\ too\\ few\\,\\ when\\ she\\ comes\\ back\\,\\ she\\ gets\\ killed\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ an\\ interesting\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Drones\\ only\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ hive\\ briefly\\,\\ and\\ their\\ only\\ job\\ is\\ to\\ mate\\ with\\ the\\ Queen\\.\\ \\ After\\ mating\\,\\ the\\ Queen\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ hive\\ and\\ takes\\ over\\.\\ \\ She\\ hatches\\ 2\\,000\\ eggs\\ per\\ day\\,\\ one\\ every\\ 45\\ seconds\\.\\ \\ She\\'s\\ constantly\\ taken\\ care\\ of\\ by\\ her\\ worker\\ bee\\ sisters\\.\\ \\ They\\ lick\\ and\\ coddle\\ her\\ all\\ day\\,\\ and\\ they\\ \\ take\\ each\\ egg\\ away\\ after\\ it\\'s\\ hatched\\ and\\ they\\ place\\ in\\ its\\ proper\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ hive\\,\\ where\\ it\\ will\\ grow\\.\\\r\\The\\ Queen\\ also\\ exudes\\ a\\ pheromone\\ from\\ her\\ mouth\\ during\\ this\\ time\\,\\ called\\ \\\"the\\ Queen\\ Mandibular\\ Pheromone\\,\\\"\\ or\\ QMP\\.\\ \\ The\\ young\\ worker\\ bees\\ take\\ this\\ pheromone\\ and\\ smear\\ it\\ on\\ themselves\\,\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ the\\ entire\\ hive\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ Queen\\'s\\ pheromone\\ fails\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ hive\\ falls\\ apart\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ not\\ the\\ Queen\\ laying\\ eggs\\ that\\ keeps\\ the\\ hive\\ alive\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ Queen\\ releasing\\ pheromone\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ pheromones\\ suppress\\ the\\ Queen\\ bee\\'s\\ sisters\\'\\ sexual\\ parts\\ from\\ developing\\,\\ making\\ sure\\ she\\'s\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ who\\ gets\\ to\\ mate\\ and\\ reproduce\\.\\ \\ They\\ also\\ teach\\ the\\ worker\\ bees\\ how\\ to\\ behave\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Worker\\ Bees\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Foragers\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ worker\\ bees\\ age\\,\\ they\\ move\\ further\\ and\\ further\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Queen\\.\\ \\ Eventually\\,\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ days\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\,\\ they\\'re\\ sent\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ hive\\ as\\ \\\"foragers\\.\\\"\\ \\ The\\ bees\\ that\\ you\\ see\\ buzzing\\ around\\ your\\ head\\ during\\ the\\ summer\\ are\\ the\\ foragers\\,\\ and\\ they\\'re\\ actually\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ their\\ short\\,\\ say\\ 20\\-day\\,\\ lives\\.\\ \\ Days\\ 15\\-20\\ are\\ spent\\ outside\\ the\\ hive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Queen\\ Mandibular\\ Pheromone\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ what\\ does\\ the\\ queen\\'s\\ pheromone\\,\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"Queen\\ Mandibular\\ Pheromone\\\"\\ \\(QMP\\)\\,\\ do\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Its\\ structure\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ a\\ compound\\ called\\ \\\"homovanilyl\\ alcohol\\,\\\"\\ which\\ looks\\ just\\ like\\ dopamine\\.\\ \\ Dopamine\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ neurotransmitters\\ in\\ our\\ brain\\ and\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\'s\\ so\\ surprising\\ about\\ studying\\ nature\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ see\\ so\\ much\\ diversity\\.\\ \\ But\\ from\\ a\\ molecular\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ you\\ keep\\ seeing\\ the\\ same\\ molecules\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ thought\\ was\\:\\ \\ maybe\\ QMP\\ messes\\ up\\ the\\ dopamine\\ in\\ young\\ worker\\ bees\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ been\\ discovered\\ that\\ dopamine\\ levels\\ in\\ young\\ worker\\ bee\\ brains\\ are\\ very\\ low\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ what\\ does\\ dopamine\\ do\\ for\\ a\\ bee\\?\\ \\ It\\ affects\\ the\\ \\\"aversive\\ learning\\ system\\\"\\ in\\ bees\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ \\\"Aversive\\ Learning\\\"\\ System\\ in\\ Bees\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Aversive\\ learning\\ system\\ is\\ something\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ the\\ marijuana\\ lecture\\ with\\ cannabinoids\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Aversive\\ learning\\ is\\ learning\\ not\\ to\\ like\\ something\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ lecture\\ 12\\,\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ playing\\ a\\ tone\\ before\\ subjecting\\ mice\\ to\\ a\\ painful\\ shock\\.\\ \\ \\ We\\ learned\\ that\\ THC\\ halted\\ their\\ aversive\\ learning\\ systems\\,\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ could\\ someday\\ be\\ beneficial\\ in\\ treating\\ patients\\ for\\ post\\-traumatic\\ stress\\ disorder\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Anyway\\,\\ scientists\\ learned\\ that\\ in\\ worker\\ bees\\,\\ if\\ you\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ QMP\\-free\\ environment\\,\\ then\\ puff\\ a\\ certain\\ rose\\ aroma\\ into\\ their\\ surroundings\\,\\ then\\ follow\\ the\\ new\\ smell\\ with\\ a\\ shock\\,\\ they\\ \\aversively\\ \\<\\/em\\>learn\\ after\\ about\\ 6\\ experiences\\ that\\ the\\ rose\\ smell\\ will\\ be\\ followed\\ with\\ a\\ shock\\.\\ \\ They\\ don\\'t\\ like\\ the\\ shock\\.\\ \\ The\\ characteristic\\ response\\ of\\ worker\\ bees\\ to\\ a\\ nasty\\ surprise\\ like\\ that\\ is\\ to\\ put\\ out\\ their\\ stingers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\,\\ if\\ you\\ treat\\ worker\\ bees\\ with\\ Queen\\ Mandibular\\ Pheromone\\,\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ learn\\ to\\ dislike\\ the\\ smell\\.\\ \\ Blow\\ that\\ rose\\ odor\\ past\\ them\\,\\ follow\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ shock\\,\\ repeat\\ this\\ experiment\\ endlessly\\,\\ and\\ these\\ bees\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ QMP\\ will\\ never\\ stick\\ out\\ their\\ stingers\\ once\\ they\\ smell\\ that\\ rose\\ aroma\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Associative\\ Learning\\\"\\ in\\ Worker\\ Bees\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ might\\ wonder\\:\\ \\ wait\\,\\ maybe\\ QMP\\ just\\ messes\\ up\\ bee\\ brains\\ so\\ much\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ learn\\ \\anything\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ not\\ true\\ though\\.\\ \\ Bees\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ QMP\\ learn\\ \\associative\\ learning\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ just\\ not\\ aversive\\ learning\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Associative\\ learning\\ is\\ learning\\ \\to\\<\\/u\\>\\ like\\ things\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ you\\ blow\\ that\\ previously\\-mentioned\\ rose\\ aroma\\ past\\ a\\ bee\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ QMP\\,\\ and\\ then\\ follow\\ it\\ with\\ exposure\\ to\\ sugar\\ water\\ \\(bees\\ like\\ sugar\\)\\,\\ they\\ learn\\ to\\ associate\\ the\\ smell\\ with\\ the\\ sugar\\ water\\.\\ \\ They\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ sugar\\ water\\ by\\ sticking\\ out\\ tongue\\-like\\ probes\\ that\\ lap\\ up\\ the\\ sucrose\\.\\ \\ Bees\\ not\\ under\\ QMP\\ respond\\ in\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ way\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ QMP\\,\\ bees\\ learn\\ associatively\\ but\\ not\\ aversively\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Homovanilyl\\ alcohol\\ is\\ the\\ component\\ of\\ QMP\\ that\\ prevents\\ aversive\\ learning\\.\\ \\ Because\\ its\\ structure\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ dopamine\\,\\ it\\ binds\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ receptor\\ and\\ prevents\\ dopamine\\ from\\ enabling\\ aversive\\ learning\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ worker\\ bees\\ are\\ young\\,\\ it\\'s\\ good\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ aversive\\ learning\\ capabilities\\.\\ \\ That\\ would\\ make\\ them\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ erect\\ their\\ stingers\\,\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ might\\ sting\\ the\\ Queen\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ disastrous\\.\\ \\ But\\ as\\ worker\\ bees\\ age\\ and\\ move\\ further\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Queen\\,\\ eventually\\ leaving\\ the\\ hive\\ to\\ forage\\,\\ you\\ want\\ them\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ stingers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Appropriately\\,\\ as\\ worker\\ bees\\ get\\ older\\,\\ they\\ move\\ further\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Queen\\ bee\\,\\ and\\ further\\ from\\ the\\ reach\\ of\\ her\\ Queen\\ Mandibular\\ Pheromone\\ and\\ its\\ homovanilyl\\ alcohol\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ dopamines\\ levels\\ rise\\ again\\,\\ enabling\\ them\\ to\\ learn\\ aversively\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(I\\ now\\ can\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ bee\\ and\\ know\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ female\\ worker\\ forager\\ bee\\ roughly\\ 15\\-20\\ days\\ old\\ with\\ relatively\\ high\\ dopamine\\ levels\\ that\\ enable\\ aversive\\ learning\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ its\\ stinger\\!\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ hear\\ it\\ for\\ education\\!\\)\\<\\/p\\>It\\'s\\ amazing\\:\\ \\ who\\ knew\\ that\\ bees\\ had\\ both\\ aversive\\ and\\ associative\\ learning\\ capabilities\\ that\\ change\\ over\\ time\\?\\!\\ \\ Who\\ knew\\ they\\ could\\ learn\\ anything\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ Quick\\ Summary\\ of\\ the\\ Bee\\ Facts\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\*\\ \\ Homovanillyl\\ alcohol\\ \\(HVA\\)\\,\\ a\\ component\\ of\\ queen\\ mandibular\\ pheromone\\ \\(QMP\\)\\ blocks\\ aversive\\ conditioning\\ in\\ younger\\ worker\\ bees\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\*\\ \\ Neither\\ HVA\\ nor\\ QMP\\ blocks\\ \\associative\\ \\<\\/em\\>conditioning\\ in\\ young\\ worker\\ bees\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\*\\ Older\\ worker\\ bees\\ have\\ higher\\ dopamine\\ levels\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ further\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Queen\\ bee\\ and\\ her\\ QMP\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ these\\ facts\\ aren\\'t\\ the\\ main\\ point\\.\\ \\ This\\ whole\\ process\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ Queen\\'s\\ small\\ molecule\\ mind\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ bees\\.\\ \\ Her\\ pheromone\\ keeps\\ her\\ sisters\\ from\\ developing\\ reproductive\\ ovaries\\,\\ and\\ it\\ keeps\\ her\\ worker\\ bees\\ knowing\\ how\\ to\\ behave\\.\\ \\ This\\ makes\\ you\\ think\\:\\ \\ can\\ you\\ use\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ manipulate\\ people\\ this\\ effectively\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Aldous\\ Huxley\\ wrote\\ a\\ dystopian\\ novel\\ \\Brave\\ New\\ World\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ 1932\\ that\\ actually\\ touches\\ on\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\ questions\\ in\\ B\\-47\\:\\ \\ reproductive\\ cloning\\,\\ genetic\\ engineering\\,\\ and\\ chemical\\ conditioning\\ of\\ development\\ and\\ behavior\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Chapter\\ 1\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ visit\\ to\\ the\\ London\\ Hatchery\\ in\\ 2540\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Director\\ explains\\ how\\ the\\ five\\ castes\\ of\\ humans\\ existing\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ are\\ created\\ by\\ exposing\\ the\\ reproductively\\ cloned\\ embryos\\ to\\ various\\ conditioning\\ chemicals\\.\\ \\ Among\\ other\\ things\\,\\ lower\\ caste\\ members\\ are\\ programmed\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ aggressive\\ toward\\ higher\\ caste\\ members\\.\\ \\ The\\ way\\ people\\ are\\ controlled\\ in\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ through\\ what\\ they\\'re\\ fed\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ using\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ control\\ other\\ members\\ of\\ your\\ species\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ exactly\\ what\\ the\\ Queen\\ bee\\ is\\ doing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 3\\/4\\:\\ \\ Pheromones\\ in\\ Mice\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\OK\\,\\ so\\ that\\'s\\ story\\ 2\\ on\\ pheromones\\.\\ \\ Now\\,\\ let\\'s\\ get\\ closer\\ to\\ humans\\.\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ talk\\ mammals\\.\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ talk\\ mice\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ problem\\ with\\ mammalian\\ pheromone\\ studies\\ is\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ been\\ 30\\ years\\ of\\ stuff\\ like\\ what\\ we\\'re\\ about\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ interesting\\,\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ that\\ informative\\ yet\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Female\\ house\\ mice\\ were\\ studied\\.\\ \\ Female\\ mice\\ that\\ could\\ get\\ pregnant\\ were\\ compared\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ couldn\\'t\\,\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ had\\ already\\ given\\ birth\\ and\\ were\\ now\\ lactating\\.\\ \\ Scientists\\ recorded\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ time\\ that\\ these\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ females\\ spent\\ with\\ male\\ mice\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ male\\ mice\\ were\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ groups\\ as\\ well\\:\\ \\ those\\ who\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ women\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ DNA\\ sequencing\\,\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ different\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ way\\ you\\ know\\ if\\ a\\ male\\ is\\ similar\\ or\\ different\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ DNA\\ is\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ genes\\ on\\ the\\ 6th\\ chromosome\\.\\ \\ \\ These\\ \\\"MHC\\\"\\ genes\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ when\\ seeing\\ if\\ other\\ people\\'s\\ blood\\ or\\ organs\\ can\\ be\\ donated\\ to\\ us\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ MHC\\ genes\\ are\\ considered\\ \\\"like\\,\\\"\\ by\\ our\\ bodies\\,\\ the\\ blood\\/organ\\ is\\ accepted\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ MHC\\ genes\\ are\\ considered\\ \\\"foreign\\,\\\"\\ our\\ bodies\\ reject\\ the\\ blood\\/organ\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ found\\ that\\ females\\ who\\ could\\ become\\ pregnant\\ spent\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ their\\ time\\ with\\ males\\ who\\ had\\ different\\ MHC\\ genes\\.\\ \\ This\\ makes\\ sense\\,\\ because\\ breeding\\ between\\ organisms\\ with\\ similar\\ DNA\\ increases\\ the\\ chances\\ that\\ both\\ parents\\ will\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ bad\\ gene\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ manifest\\ itself\\ in\\ their\\ children\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ when\\ females\\ are\\ pregnant\\,\\ they\\ spend\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ their\\ time\\ with\\ nestmates\\ who\\ are\\ as\\ genetically\\ close\\ to\\ them\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\ That\\ makes\\ sense\\ because\\ it\\ makes\\ family\\-raising\\ more\\ harmonious\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(This\\ poor\\ male\\ mouse\\ doesn\\'t\\ even\\ realize\\ that\\ this\\ female\\ won\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ spend\\ time\\ with\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ different\\ MHC\\ genetics\\ once\\ she\\'s\\ borne\\ his\\ baby\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Extending\\ this\\ to\\ Humans\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Experiments\\ have\\ been\\ done\\ testing\\ the\\ pleasantness\\ of\\ males\\'\\ odors\\ to\\ women\\.\\ \\ T\\-shirts\\ were\\ given\\ out\\ to\\ experiment\\ participants\\.\\ \\ They\\ wore\\ the\\ T\\-shirts\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ T\\-shirts\\ were\\ returned\\ and\\ put\\ in\\ a\\ jar\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ women\\ sniffed\\ the\\ shirts\\,\\ telling\\ experimenters\\ if\\ the\\ shirts\\ smelled\\ nice\\ or\\ not\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ women\\ who\\ were\\ in\\ their\\ menstrual\\ cycles\\ preferred\\ the\\ odors\\ of\\ men\\ who\\ had\\ a\\ different\\ MHC\\ genetic\\ region\\ on\\ their\\ 6th\\ chromosome\\ than\\ they\\,\\ themselves\\ did\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ also\\ found\\ that\\ women\\ whose\\ bodies\\ were\\ in\\ \\\"pregnant\\ mode\\\"\\ \\(those\\ who\\ were\\ pregnant\\,\\ and\\ those\\ were\\ taking\\ birth\\ control\\ pills\\)\\,\\ preferred\\ men\\ with\\ \\similar\\ \\<\\/em\\>MHC\\ genetics\\,\\ presumably\\ for\\ behavioral\\ compatibility\\ reasons\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Back\\ to\\ Mice\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Pheromones\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ odors\\.\\ \\ \\ Pheromones\\ are\\ noticed\\ at\\ the\\ vomeronasal\\ organ\\ \\(VNO\\)\\,\\ whereas\\ odors\\ are\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ olfactory\\ sensors\\.\\ \\ The\\ VNO\\ sends\\ its\\ signals\\ along\\ a\\ different\\ pathway\\ through\\ mice\\ brains\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ pheromones\\ are\\ processed\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ \\(the\\ hypothalamus\\,\\ where\\ hormones\\ are\\ processed\\)\\ than\\ are\\ odors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ we\\ looked\\ for\\ receptors\\ in\\ mice\\ that\\ only\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ VNO\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ experiment\\ was\\ done\\ where\\ they\\ found\\ a\\ receptor\\ that\\ was\\ only\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ VNO\\.\\ \\ Then\\ experimenters\\ knocked\\ out\\ the\\ gene\\ that\\ coded\\ for\\ pheromone\\ recognition\\ in\\ the\\ VNO\\.\\ \\ Male\\ mice\\ without\\ this\\ gene\\ suddenly\\ couldn\\'t\\ distinguish\\ men\\ from\\ women\\,\\ and\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ instinct\\ to\\ fight\\ other\\ male\\ mice\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ usually\\ prone\\ to\\ doing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\,\\ removing\\ this\\ \\one\\ \\<\\/em\\>gene\\ for\\ pheromone\\ recognition\\ in\\ the\\ VNO\\ dramatically\\ changes\\ behavior\\ in\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ mice\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ the\\ crazy\\ thing\\:\\ \\ the\\ mice\\'s\\ behavior\\ wasn\\'t\\ determined\\ by\\ their\\ brain\\ wiring\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ determined\\ by\\ pheromones\\!\\ This\\ is\\ interesting\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ \\ it\\ contrasts\\ Lecture\\ 7\\,\\ which\\ looked\\ at\\ how\\ hormones\\ wire\\ the\\ human\\ fetus\\ brain\\ to\\ be\\ male\\ or\\ female\\.\\ \\ More\\ research\\ should\\ yield\\ answers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 4\\/4\\:\\ \\ Pheromones\\ in\\.\\.\\.HUMANS\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Two\\ things\\ indicate\\ that\\ human\\ pheromones\\ probably\\ exist\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ bit\\ of\\ evidence\\ is\\ old\\.\\ \\ In\\ 1971\\,\\ a\\ Harvard\\ graduate\\ student\\ concluded\\ after\\ much\\ research\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ time\\ women\\ spent\\ together\\,\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ they\\ were\\ to\\ synchronize\\ their\\ menstrual\\ cycles\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 1998\\,\\ the\\ same\\ woman\\ published\\ a\\ paper\\ \\\"Regulation\\ of\\ ovulation\\ by\\ human\\ pheromones\\.\\\"\\ \\ She\\ realized\\ there\\ were\\ two\\ pheromones\\.\\ \\ One\\ was\\ given\\ off\\ during\\ the\\ ovulatory\\ phase\\,\\ and\\ that\\ lengthened\\ the\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\.\\ \\ The\\ other\\ pheromone\\ was\\ given\\ off\\ during\\ the\\ \\\"follicular\\ phase\\,\\\"\\ and\\ that\\ shortened\\ the\\ cycle\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Where\\ do\\ human\\ pheromones\\ probably\\ come\\ from\\?\\ \\ Armpits\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(I\\ actually\\ found\\ this\\ picture\\ under\\ the\\ heading\\:\\ \\ \\\"Beyonce\\'s\\ armpits\\ are\\ fabulous\\!\\\"\\)\\<\\/p\\>Humans\\ actually\\ have\\ far\\ more\\ apocrine\\ glands\\ in\\ our\\ armpits\\ than\\ do\\ our\\ chimpanzee\\ ancestors\\.\\ \\ Perhaps\\ that\\ suggests\\ we\\ emit\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ pheromones\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Ever\\ wonder\\ why\\ we\\ grow\\ hair\\ under\\ our\\ arms\\?\\ \\ It\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ wick\\.\\ \\ Our\\ glands\\ dump\\ pheromones\\ onto\\ our\\ hair\\ follicles\\,\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ pheromones\\ can\\ brush\\ off\\ onto\\ surfaces\\ or\\ into\\ the\\ air\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\One\\ Last\\ Study\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ 2005\\ study\\ was\\ titled\\ \\\"Brain\\ response\\ to\\ putative\\ pheromones\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ looked\\ at\\ brain\\ imaging\\ while\\ humans\\ sniffed\\ things\\.\\ \\ This\\ let\\ us\\ find\\ out\\ not\\ what\\ people\\ were\\ thinking\\ \\(that\\'s\\ still\\ too\\ hard\\ to\\ do\\)\\,\\ but\\ \\where\\ \\<\\/em\\>they\\ were\\ thinking\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Other\\ Pheromones\\ We\\'ve\\ Found\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Farmers\\ realized\\ long\\ ago\\ that\\ female\\ pigs\\ didn\\'t\\ get\\ ready\\ to\\ mate\\ until\\ their\\ male\\ partners\\ started\\ to\\ spew\\ this\\ frothy\\,\\ foul\\-smelling\\ white\\ secretion\\ from\\ their\\ mouths\\ and\\ elsewhere\\ on\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\ \\ Finally\\,\\ scientists\\ realized\\ this\\ secretion\\ emitted\\ a\\ pheromone\\ that\\ made\\ females\\ receptive\\ to\\ sex\\.\\ \\ The\\ small\\ molecule\\ pheromone\\ is\\ called\\ \\\"AND\\,\\\"\\ and\\ now\\,\\ female\\ pigs\\ can\\ be\\ impregnated\\ simply\\ by\\ spraying\\ a\\ product\\ called\\ \\\"Boar\\ Mate\\,\\\"\\ which\\ contains\\ AND\\,\\ in\\ the\\ vicinity\\ of\\ female\\ pigs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ putative\\ female\\ pheromone\\ in\\ pigs\\ was\\ called\\ \\\"EST\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Back\\ to\\ that\\ Last\\ Study\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Studies\\ were\\ done\\ on\\ human\\ females\\.\\ \\ When\\ a\\ woman\\ smelled\\ the\\ putative\\ male\\ hormone\\ androgen\\ \\(AND\\)\\,\\ her\\ hypothalamus\\ would\\ become\\ activated\\.\\ \\ \\ When\\ she\\ smelled\\ the\\ putative\\ female\\ hormone\\ estrogen\\ \\(EST\\)\\,\\ it\\ lit\\ up\\ a\\ completely\\ different\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\;\\ the\\ same\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ where\\ \\odors\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ processed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ she\\ perceives\\ the\\ putative\\ female\\ pheromone\\ as\\ an\\ odor\\,\\ but\\ the\\ male\\ pheromone\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ lights\\ up\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\,\\ maker\\ of\\ hormones\\ and\\ hub\\ of\\ the\\ endocrine\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ means\\ that\\ things\\ with\\ very\\ similar\\ chemical\\ structures\\ can\\ be\\ perceived\\ very\\ differently\\ by\\ our\\ brains\\:\\ \\ once\\ as\\ an\\ odor\\,\\ once\\ as\\ an\\ endocrine\\ hormone\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\One\\ Last\\ Question\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ we\\ know\\ how\\ heterosexual\\ women\\ respond\\ to\\ an\\ adrogen\\,\\ so\\ how\\ do\\ homosexual\\ men\\ respond\\ to\\ them\\?\\ \\ Like\\ heterosexual\\ women\\?\\ \\ Like\\ heterosexual\\ men\\?\\ \\ Or\\ in\\ some\\ unique\\ way\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ answer\\ is\\ that\\ homosexual\\ men\\ smelling\\ AND\\ process\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\,\\ the\\ same\\ place\\ where\\ women\\ process\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Brainwashing\\,\\ Honeybee\\ Style\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ reading\\ echoes\\ what\\ professor\\ Clardy\\ mentioned\\ about\\ Aldous\\ Huxley\\'s\\ \\Brave\\ New\\ World\\ \\<\\/em\\>novel\\ above\\ and\\ how\\ Queen\\ bees\\'\\ manipulation\\ of\\ worker\\ bees\\ through\\ their\\ pheromones\\ is\\ similar\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Females\\ Can\\ Also\\ Be\\ From\\ Mars\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ article\\ seems\\ to\\ provide\\ more\\ information\\ on\\ what\\ the\\ professor\\ mentioned\\ above\\ about\\ mice\\ and\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ their\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ by\\ pheromones\\,\\ not\\ brain\\ wiring\\.\\ \\ Login\\ problems\\ prevent\\ me\\ from\\ reading\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ first\\ paragraph\\,\\ though\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"For\\ Gay\\ Men\\,\\ an\\ Attraction\\ to\\ a\\ Different\\ Kind\\ of\\ Scent\\,\\\"\\ May\\ 10\\,\\ 2005\\,\\ \\New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2005\\/05\\/10\\/science\\/10smell\\.html\\?\\_r\\=1\\&\\;oref\\=slogin\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ article\\ reiterates\\ the\\ last\\ example\\ regarding\\ pheromones\\ in\\ humans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ sum\\ quickly\\:\\ \\ gay\\ and\\ straight\\ men\\ were\\ sujbected\\ to\\ a\\ testosterone\\ derivative\\ produced\\ in\\ men\\'s\\ sweat\\ and\\ an\\ estrogen\\-like\\ compound\\ from\\ women\\'s\\ urine\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ have\\ long\\ been\\ suspected\\ of\\ being\\ pheromones\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ estrogen\\-like\\ compound\\ \\(EST\\)\\ activated\\ smell\\-related\\ regions\\ in\\ women\\ but\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\,\\ where\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ is\\ governed\\,\\ in\\ men\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ male\\ sweat\\ chemical\\ \\(AND\\)\\ activated\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ in\\ women\\ but\\ the\\ smell\\-related\\ regions\\ in\\ men\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Gay\\ men\\ responded\\ to\\ AND\\ and\\ EST\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ as\\ women\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ finding\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ a\\ 1991\\ report\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ Simon\\ LeVay\\ that\\ a\\ small\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ is\\ twice\\ as\\ large\\ in\\ straight\\ men\\ as\\ in\\ women\\ or\\ gay\\ men\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Interesting\\ Fact\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ \\\"Hopes\\ by\\ the\\ fragrance\\ industry\\,\\ among\\ others\\,\\ of\\ finding\\ human\\ pheromones\\ were\\ dashed\\ several\\ years\\ ago\\ when\\ it\\ emerged\\ that\\ a\\ tiny\\ structure\\ in\\ the\\ nose\\ through\\ which\\ mice\\ detect\\ many\\ pheromones\\,\\ the\\ vomeronasal\\ organ\\,\\ is\\ largely\\ inactive\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ having\\ lost\\ its\\ nervous\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ brain\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ should\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ researchers\\ in\\ this\\ experiment\\ used\\ a\\ far\\ higher\\ dose\\ of\\ armpit\\ chemical\\ than\\ anyone\\ would\\ be\\ exposed\\ to\\ in\\ normal\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Interesting\\ Fact\\ \\#2\\:\\ \\ \\<\\/em\\>The\\ occurence\\ of\\ male\\ homosexuality\\ in\\ both\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ twin\\ pair\\ is\\ 22\\%\\ in\\ nonidentical\\ twins\\,\\ but\\ rises\\ to\\ 52\\%\\ in\\ identical\\ twins\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Interesting\\ article\\ about\\ two\\ twins\\ raised\\ Muslim\\,\\ who\\ came\\ out\\ to\\ their\\ parents\\ on\\ their\\ 18th\\ birthday\\ as\\ both\\ gay\\ and\\ pagan\\:\\ \\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.ssonet\\.com\\.au\\/display\\.asp\\?ArticleID\\=6290\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Sexy, Sexy Pheromones"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.899236+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "New Insights into Diabetes", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 466, "html": "\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\diabetes\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ diseases\\ \\(types\\ 1\\ \\&\\;\\ 2\\)\\ that\\ have\\ little\\ in\\ common\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Sweets\\,\\ like\\ those\\ in\\ this\\ bakery\\,\\ have\\ long\\ played\\ a\\ major\\ role\\ in\\ Indian\\ culture\\.\\ A\\ national\\ sweet\\ tooth\\,\\ an\\ increasingly\\ Westernized\\ diet\\ of\\ fried\\ and\\ processed\\ foods\\,\\ and\\ a\\ genetic\\ susceptibility\\ to\\ diabetes\\,\\ has\\ made\\ India\\ fertile\\ ground\\ for\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2006\\/09\\/13\\/world\\/asia\\/13diabetes\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>In\\ part\\ 3\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\,\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\ \\ Genomic\\ medicine\\ is\\ just\\ beginning\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ diabetes\\ and\\ other\\ related\\ diseases\\ to\\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ refer\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ giving\\ us\\ hints\\ about\\ new\\ approaches\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ effective\\ therapeautics\\ to\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ professors\\ selected\\ diabetes\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ representative\\ example\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"complex\\ disease\\.\\\"\\ \\ Complex\\ diseases\\ have\\,\\ by\\ and\\ large\\,\\ failed\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ medicinal\\ developments\\.\\ \\ They\\ are\\ disorders\\ that\\,\\ at\\ their\\ origins\\,\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ multiple\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ far\\ we\\'ve\\ looked\\ at\\ single\\-gene\\ disorders\\.\\ \\ Sickle\\-cell\\ anemia\\ is\\ an\\ example\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\'re\\ homozygous\\ for\\ a\\ particular\\ SNP\\ or\\ polymorphism\\,\\ you\\ will\\ get\\ cystic\\ fibrosis\\ or\\ sickle\\-cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Complex\\ disorders\\ have\\ been\\ really\\ difficult\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\.\\ \\ Obesity\\ is\\ another\\ example\\.\\ \\ Schizophrenia\\ is\\ a\\ notoriously\\ complex\\ disorder\\.\\ \\ Bipolar\\ disease\\.\\ \\ Lots\\ of\\ mood\\ disorders\\.\\ \\ Like\\ diabetes\\,\\ we\\'re\\ getting\\ our\\ first\\ hints\\ about\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\.\\ \\ Recall\\ the\\ APO\\ gene\\,\\ a\\ SNP\\ which\\ gives\\ you\\ a\\ higher\\ probability\\ of\\ getting\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ what\\ we\\'re\\ looking\\ for\\:\\ \\ the\\ genes\\ that\\ increase\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ getting\\ these\\ diseases\\,\\ which\\ is\\ usually\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ in\\ discovering\\ how\\ to\\ cure\\ these\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ predicts\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ back\\ at\\ 2007\\ as\\ a\\ turning\\ point\\ in\\ studying\\ complex\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ He\\ suspects\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ coming\\ years\\,\\ you\\'ll\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ news\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ stories\\ dealing\\ with\\ insights\\ and\\ medications\\ relating\\ to\\ complex\\ disorders\\.\\ \\ Those\\ revelations\\ will\\ be\\ entirely\\ what\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 5\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ what\\ Type\\-1\\ and\\ Type\\-2\\ diabetes\\ are\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ relate\\ to\\ obesity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ drugs\\ used\\ today\\,\\ which\\ reflect\\ how\\ drugs\\ were\\ discovered\\ up\\ until\\ this\\ point\\.\\ \\ But\\ we\\'ll\\ also\\ see\\ why\\ these\\ drugs\\ aren\\'t\\ particularly\\ effective\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ see\\ how\\ chance\\ discovery\\ of\\ past\\ drugs\\,\\ with\\ our\\ current\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\ and\\ genetics\\,\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ advancements\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ these\\ advancements\\ were\\ \\ad\\ hoc\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ they\\ required\\ previous\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ we\\'re\\ already\\ using\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\ project\\ has\\ enabled\\ completely\\ unbiased\\ searches\\ for\\ unknown\\ drugs\\,\\ where\\ you\\ take\\ complete\\ inventory\\ of\\ genetic\\ information\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ and\\ without\\ diseases\\,\\ and\\ you\\ find\\ which\\ genes\\ correlate\\ to\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ From\\ this\\ process\\,\\ we\\ have\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ insight\\ into\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/5\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ \\ How\\ T1D\\ \\(Type\\-1\\ Diabetes\\)\\ and\\ T2D\\ Work\\,\\ and\\ How\\ They\\ Relate\\ to\\ Obesity\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Two\\ Definitions\\ of\\ Diabetes\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ A\\ disorder\\ of\\ metabolism\\:\\ \\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ use\\ glucose\\ \\(a\\ sugar\\ that\\ is\\ our\\ main\\ source\\ of\\ energy\\)\\ following\\ the\\ digestion\\ of\\ food\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ A\\ disorder\\ of\\ the\\ pancreas\\ \\(a\\ banana\\-shaped\\ organ\\ behind\\ your\\ stomach\\)\\,\\ which\\ produces\\ and\\ releases\\ insulin\\,\\ the\\ hormone\\ that\\ signals\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ your\\ body\\ to\\ absorb\\ glucose\\ from\\ the\\ blood\\ stream\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ two\\ words\\ you\\ should\\ associate\\ with\\ diabetes\\ are\\ glucose\\ and\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ you\\ ingested\\ food\\ this\\ morning\\ at\\ breakfast\\,\\ you\\ initiated\\ a\\ process\\ in\\ your\\ body\\ called\\ \\\"digestion\\.\\\"\\ \\ Most\\ of\\ your\\ food\\ gets\\ converted\\ into\\ a\\ sugar\\ called\\ \\\"glucose\\.\\\"\\ \\ Glucose\\ then\\ enters\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ critical\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ primary\\ fuel\\ used\\ by\\ \\every\\<\\/em\\>\\ organ\\ and\\ cell\\ in\\ your\\ body\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ sustain\\ its\\ activities\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ the\\ glucose\\ in\\ your\\ bloodstream\\ created\\ by\\ digestion\\ isn\\'t\\ able\\ to\\ enter\\ your\\ body\\'s\\ cells\\ and\\ tissues\\ \\without\\<\\/em\\>\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ pancreas\\ is\\ an\\ organ\\ whose\\ primary\\ function\\ is\\ to\\ sense\\ the\\ levels\\ of\\ glucose\\,\\ which\\ got\\ revved\\ up\\ right\\ after\\ you\\ ate\\ breakfast\\ this\\ morning\\,\\ and\\ releases\\ the\\ exact\\ amount\\ of\\ insulin\\ that\\ your\\ body\\'c\\ cells\\ will\\ need\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ take\\ up\\ the\\ glucose\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ diabetes\\,\\ either\\ the\\ pancreas\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ release\\ the\\ proper\\ amount\\ of\\ insulin\\ \\(sometimes\\ it\\ releases\\ \\no\\<\\/em\\>\\ insulin\\)\\,\\ or\\ the\\ cells\\ needed\\ to\\ take\\ up\\ the\\ glucose\\ are\\ unable\\ to\\ interact\\ with\\ the\\ insulin\\ that\\ \\is\\ \\<\\/em\\>present\\ in\\ your\\ bloodstream\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Death\\ \\<\\/em\\>from\\ diabetes\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ inability\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ primary\\ fuel\\ from\\ digestion\\:\\ \\ glucose\\.\\ \\ The\\ body\\ will\\ find\\ alternative\\ sources\\ for\\ fuel\\ that\\ aren\\'t\\ as\\ efficient\\,\\ and\\ that\\ have\\ problems\\ associated\\ with\\ toxic\\ byproducts\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ body\\'s\\ response\\ to\\ find\\ inefficient\\,\\ toxic\\ alternative\\ fuels\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ eventually\\ leads\\ to\\ death\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ 18\\ million\\ people\\,\\ or\\ \\~6\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\,\\ have\\ diabetes\\.\\ In\\ older\\ age\\ groups\\,\\ the\\ percetange\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ diabetes\\ dramatically\\ increases\\.\\ \\ Also\\ increasing\\ dramatically\\ is\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ people\\ of\\ any\\ age\\ are\\ contracting\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Type\\-1\\ Diabetes\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ origins\\ of\\ T1\\ and\\ T2\\ are\\ very\\ different\\,\\ but\\ the\\ underlying\\ defect\\ may\\ actually\\ be\\ the\\ same\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\T1\\ is\\ an\\ autoimmune\\ disease\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ incorrectly\\ decides\\ that\\ its\\ own\\ body\\ cells\\ are\\ \\\"foreign\\.\\\"\\ \\ This\\ causes\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ to\\ attack\\ and\\ destroy\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ likely\\ that\\ T1\\ is\\ initiated\\ by\\ a\\ viral\\ infection\\ having\\ \\nothing\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ do\\ with\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ The\\ immune\\ system\\ recognizes\\ the\\ infection\\,\\ gets\\ revved\\ up\\,\\ and\\ eliminates\\ it\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ by\\ chance\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ or\\ bacterium\\ that\\ caused\\ the\\ infection\\ has\\ a\\ structure\\ that\\'s\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ special\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\ involved\\ in\\ producing\\ the\\ insulin\\ that\\ body\\ cells\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ in\\ glucose\\,\\ their\\ fuel\\.\\ \\ So\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ trigger\\ of\\ the\\ infection\\ that\\ causes\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\,\\ once\\ it\\'s\\ done\\ the\\ right\\ job\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ virus\\/bacterium\\,\\ to\\ then\\ wrongly\\ start\\ killing\\ those\\ insulin\\-producing\\ cells\\ in\\ your\\ pancreas\\.\\ \\ \\(Do\\ you\\ ever\\ get\\ the\\ feeling\\ after\\ reading\\ news\\ articles\\ about\\ modern\\ militaries\\ increasingly\\ relying\\ on\\ robots\\ to\\ do\\ their\\ fighting\\ that\\ those\\ robots\\ might\\ eventually\\ become\\ excessively\\ numerous\\ and\\ powerful\\ such\\ that\\ they\\'ll\\ indiscriminately\\ start\\ killing\\ innocent\\ civilians\\ on\\ a\\ massive\\ scale\\?\\ \\ Me\\ neither\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Without\\ insulin\\,\\ you\\ cannot\\ survive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\T1\\ accounts\\ for\\ 5\\-10\\%\\ of\\ US\\ cases\\.\\ \\ It\\ develops\\ most\\ often\\ in\\ children\\ and\\ young\\ adults\\,\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ appear\\ at\\ any\\ age\\.\\ \\ Symptoms\\ include\\:\\ \\ increased\\ thirst\\ and\\ urination\\,\\ constant\\ hunger\\,\\ weight\\ loss\\,\\ blurred\\ vision\\,\\ and\\ extreme\\ fatigue\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Type\\-2\\ Diabetes\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\90\\-95\\%\\ of\\ diabetes\\ cases\\ are\\ T2\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ associated\\ with\\ older\\ age\\,\\ although\\ it\\'s\\ worrisomely\\ becoming\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ a\\ younger\\ population\\.\\ \\ Why\\ is\\ that\\?\\ \\ The\\ occurrence\\ of\\ T2\\ correlates\\ with\\ obesity\\,\\ and\\ Americans\\ of\\ every\\ age\\ seem\\ to\\ get\\ fatter\\ every\\ day\\.\\ \\ 80\\%\\ of\\ the\\ T2\\ patients\\ are\\ obese\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Although\\ Type\\-2\\ diabetes\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ older\\ age\\,\\ young\\ Americans\\ are\\ increasingly\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ obese\\ and\\ to\\ suffer\\ from\\ it\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>We\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ strong\\ genetic\\ component\\ to\\ T2\\,\\ and\\ our\\ new\\ understanding\\ of\\ genetics\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ \\really\\ \\<\\/em\\>causes\\ T2\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Pancreas\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ pancreas\\ contains\\ beta\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ sense\\ blood\\ glucose\\ and\\ release\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ an\\ amazing\\ organ\\.\\ \\ One\\ of\\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\'s\\ \\\"favorite\\ organs\\,\\\"\\ in\\ fact\\.\\ \\ \\ Personally\\,\\ I\\'m\\ still\\ constructing\\ my\\ list\\ of\\ favorite\\ organs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ pancreas\\ has\\ very\\ diverse\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\.\\ \\ One\\ of\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ structures\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"islet\\.\\\"\\ \\ Islets\\ are\\ keys\\ to\\ both\\ the\\ pancreas\\ and\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ what\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ inappropriately\\,\\ and\\ very\\ selectively\\,\\ attacks\\ in\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Islets\\ are\\ spheres\\.\\ \\ They\\ have\\ 4\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\,\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ secretes\\ a\\ different\\ hormone\\ used\\ in\\ metabolism\\.\\ \\ Only\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ cells\\ secretes\\ insulin\\:\\ \\ the\\ Beta\\ cell\\.\\ \\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ most\\ prevalent\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ islet\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ look\\ directly\\ at\\ islets\\ and\\ determine\\ whether\\ a\\ new\\ drug\\ can\\ improve\\ their\\ functioning\\ and\\ cure\\ T2D\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Insulin\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Alright\\,\\ let\\'s\\ review\\ insulin\\.\\ \\ When\\ glucose\\ levels\\ rise\\ after\\ a\\ meal\\,\\ beta\\ cells\\ release\\ insulin\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ hit\\ three\\ main\\ target\\ \\(also\\ known\\ as\\ \\\"perhipheral\\\"\\)\\ tissues\\:\\ \\ muscles\\,\\ the\\ liver\\,\\ and\\ fat\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Muscles\\ consume\\ lots\\ of\\ energy\\.\\ \\ Lots\\ of\\ glucose\\.\\ \\ \\ So\\ they\\ respond\\ to\\ insulin\\ really\\ quickly\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ liver\\ has\\ a\\ special\\ mechanism\\ of\\ making\\ glucose\\ on\\ its\\ own\\.\\ \\ That\\ way\\,\\ if\\ you\\'re\\ deprived\\ of\\ nutrients\\ and\\ haven\\'t\\ digested\\ food\\,\\ your\\ liver\\ turns\\ on\\ a\\ special\\ pathway\\ and\\ starts\\ producing\\ its\\ own\\ glucose\\ and\\ putting\\ it\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\.\\ \\ Insulin\\ tells\\ the\\ liver\\ not\\ to\\ produce\\ glucose\\ when\\ enough\\ food\\ has\\ been\\ ingested\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Fat\\ tissue\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ create\\ your\\ body\\'s\\ second\\ energy\\ source\\:\\ \\ fatty\\ acids\\.\\ \\ Fatty\\ acids\\ let\\ you\\ exist\\ without\\ glucose\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ efficient\\,\\ and\\ prolonged\\ sustenance\\ on\\ fatty\\ acids\\ will\\ yield\\ toxic\\ byproducts\\ that\\ eventually\\ damage\\ many\\ organs\\.\\ \\ Insulin\\ tells\\ fat\\ tissue\\ to\\ stop\\ generating\\ fatty\\ acids\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ Goes\\ Wrong\\ in\\ T1\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ the\\ beta\\ cells\\ get\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ wake\\ of\\ a\\ virus\\,\\ no\\ more\\ insulin\\ is\\ produced\\.\\ \\ Body\\ cells\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ the\\ insulin\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ enable\\ them\\ to\\ absorb\\ glucose\\,\\ and\\ glucose\\ just\\ gets\\ urinated\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ Then\\ the\\ Liver\\/fatty\\ acid\\ energy\\-producing\\ mechanism\\ kicks\\ into\\ gear\\,\\ and\\ as\\ we\\ know\\,\\ they\\ create\\ harmful\\ toxins\\ that\\ hurt\\ the\\ body\\ over\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ Goes\\ Wrong\\ in\\ T2\\,\\ and\\ a\\ New\\ Way\\ of\\ Thinking\\ About\\ It\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ believes\\ the\\ medical\\ community\\ was\\ led\\ astray\\ for\\ a\\ time\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ T2\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\T2\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ muscle\\,\\ liver\\,\\ and\\ fat\\ tissues\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ insulin\\.\\ \\ It\\ seemed\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ that\\ insulin\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ T2\\ patients\\,\\ but\\ their\\ tissues\\ don\\'t\\ receive\\ the\\ insulin\\ signal\\.\\ \\ Thus\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ take\\ up\\ glucose\\.\\ \\ The\\ thinking\\ is\\ changing\\ here\\,\\ but\\ a\\ lot\\ remains\\ unclear\\,\\ simply\\ because\\ T2\\ is\\ still\\ to\\ complex\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ wrap\\ our\\ heads\\ around\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ scientists\\ concluded\\ there\\ were\\ defects\\ in\\ the\\ sensing\\ of\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ when\\ we\\ talked\\ protein\\ \\\"bucket\\-brigades\\\"\\ and\\ insulin\\ and\\ glucose\\ signaling\\ during\\ section\\ 3\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ We\\ talked\\ about\\ mTOR\\,\\ protein\\ \\#2\\ in\\ a\\ protein\\-signaling\\ \\\"bucket\\ brigade\\,\\\"\\ which\\ binded\\ to\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ rapamycin\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ talked\\ about\\ scientists\\'\\ desire\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ every\\ protein\\ in\\ the\\ bucket\\ brigade\\ binded\\ to\\,\\ which\\ would\\ let\\ us\\ fix\\ this\\ T2\\-inability\\ to\\ recognize\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hold\\ on\\ though\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ it\\,\\ insulin\\ resistance\\ is\\ a\\ \\correlation\\ \\<\\/em\\>with\\ T2\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ \\cause\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ T2\\,\\ as\\ many\\ people\\ have\\ tended\\ to\\ think\\ it\\ was\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ offers\\ an\\ analogy\\:\\ \\ you\\'ve\\ heard\\ about\\ cancer\\,\\ and\\ you\\ know\\ cancer\\'s\\ caused\\ by\\ cancer\\-causing\\ genes\\:\\ \\ oncogenes\\.\\ \\ Nobody\\ argues\\ that\\.\\ \\ When\\ you\\ get\\ cancer\\,\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ metastatic\\ cancer\\,\\ and\\ metastatic\\ tumors\\ enter\\ different\\ organs\\ and\\ cause\\ fatal\\ organ\\ failure\\.\\ \\ But\\ nobody\\ says\\ cancer\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ organ\\ failure\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ caused\\ by\\ oncogenes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Likewise\\,\\ the\\ \\new\\ \\<\\/em\\>way\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ diabetes\\ is\\ that\\ insulin\\ resistance\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ something\\ happening\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ that\\ we\\'ve\\ missed\\ all\\ this\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ Would\\ We\\ Correlate\\ Obesity\\ to\\ Diabetes\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Just\\ as\\ the\\ wheelbarrow\\ helps\\ this\\ guy\\'s\\ back\\ muscles\\ carry\\ the\\ load\\ that\\ prolific\\ consumption\\ processed\\ foods\\ might\\ put\\ on\\ them\\,\\ scientists\\ hope\\ that\\ new\\ T2D\\ drugs\\ will\\ give\\ support\\ to\\ T2D\\ patients\\'\\ over\\-stressed\\ pancreas\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Well\\,\\ obesity\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ glucose\\ and\\ fat\\,\\ the\\ two\\ main\\ sources\\ of\\ energy\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ The\\ thinking\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ actual\\ source\\ of\\ diabetes\\ is\\ excessive\\ eating\\,\\ which\\ puts\\ excessive\\ stress\\ on\\ the\\ pancreas\\,\\ which\\ wears\\ it\\ down\\ until\\ it\\ fails\\ and\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ produce\\ as\\ much\\ insulin\\ as\\ the\\ body\\ requires\\.\\ \\ The\\ consequence\\ is\\ T2\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Obesity\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ rapidly\\ expanding\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 2000\\,\\ every\\ state\\ but\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ had\\ at\\ least\\ 15\\%\\ of\\ its\\ population\\ overweight\\ \\(by\\ overweight\\,\\ I\\ mean\\ a\\ Body\\ Mass\\ Index\\ greater\\ than\\ or\\ equal\\ to\\ 30\\,\\ which\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ a\\ 5\\'4\\'\\'\\ person\\ being\\ 30\\ lbs\\.\\ overweight\\.\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\By\\ 2006\\,\\ every\\ state\\ but\\ three\\ had\\ at\\ least\\ \\20\\%\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ its\\ population\\ overweight\\!\\ \\ That\\'s\\ a\\ 5\\%\\ jump\\ in\\ a\\ state\\'s\\ \\\"overweight\\\"\\ population\\ in\\ only\\ 6\\ years\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Something\\ dramatic\\ is\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ population\\ right\\ now\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\So\\ How\\ do\\ We\\ Study\\ This\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ mutations\\ or\\ polymorphisms\\ in\\ the\\ genomes\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ population\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ we\\'ll\\ use\\ small\\ molecule\\ screening\\ to\\ tackle\\ the\\ problem\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ that\\'s\\ Part\\ 1\\/5\\ of\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\:\\ \\ what\\ diabetes\\ is\\,\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ relates\\ to\\ obesity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/5\\:\\ \\ What\\ Drugs\\ Are\\ Used\\ And\\ How\\ Do\\ They\\ Work\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\T1\\ Therapy\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\T1\\ therapy\\ is\\ difficult\\.\\ \\ It\\ requires\\ constant\\ monitoring\\ of\\ glucose\\ levels\\.\\ \\ When\\ they\\ get\\ to\\ high\\,\\ the\\ body\\ requires\\ an\\ insulin\\ injection\\ to\\ enable\\ the\\ excess\\ glucose\\ to\\ get\\ taken\\ up\\ into\\ the\\ body\\'s\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Companies\\ now\\ produce\\ sell\\ insulin\\-monitoring\\ devices\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ insulin\\ itself\\,\\ to\\ help\\ stabilize\\ T1\\ patients\\'\\ insulin\\ levels\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(NBA\\ forward\\ Adam\\ Morrison\\ has\\ Type\\-1\\ Diabetes\\.\\ \\ During\\ every\\ timeout\\ and\\ substitution\\,\\ he\\ checks\\ his\\ glucose\\ levels\\ and\\ sometimes\\ self\\-administers\\ a\\ shot\\ of\\ insulin\\,\\ which\\ he\\ can\\ execute\\ in\\ under\\ 30\\ seconds\\.\\ \\ Unrelatedly\\,\\ but\\ surprisingly\\ for\\ an\\ NBA\\ player\\,\\ he\\'s\\ reported\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ avid\\ smoker\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>The\\ problem\\ with\\ these\\ methods\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ temporarily\\ alleviate\\ symptoms\\ without\\ treating\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\T2\\ Therapy\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\T2\\ diabetes\\ involves\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ medications\\,\\ \\none\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ which\\ are\\ very\\ effective\\,\\ many\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ pretty\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ All\\ of\\ them\\,\\ with\\ one\\ exception\\ that\\ happened\\ by\\ chance\\,\\ came\\ about\\ by\\ drug\\ hunters\\ trying\\ to\\ discover\\ new\\ drugs\\ with\\ the\\ thinking\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ disease\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ requisite\\ peripheral\\ tissues\\ \\(muscle\\,\\ liver\\,\\ and\\ fat\\ tissues\\)\\ that\\ receive\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ such\\ drug\\ is\\ metformin\\.\\ \\ Metformin\\ acts\\ on\\ the\\ liver\\.\\ \\ It\\ sends\\ a\\ signal\\ that\\ says\\:\\ \\ \\\"stop\\ producing\\ glucose\\.\\\"\\ \\ Thing\\ is\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ liver\\ doesn\\'t\\ make\\ much\\ glucose\\.\\ \\ And\\ yet\\,\\ it\\'s\\ probably\\ the\\ most\\ effective\\ T2\\ therapy\\ we\\ have\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ only\\ family\\ of\\ T2\\ drugs\\ that\\ doesn\\'t\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ peripheral\\ cells\\ are\\ \\\"sulfonylureas\\.\\\"\\ \\ Sulfonylureas\\ work\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ beta\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\,\\ which\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ best\\ place\\ for\\ a\\ diabetes\\ drug\\ to\\ work\\.\\ \\ Sulfonylureas\\'\\ limited\\ effectiveness\\,\\ though\\,\\ mean\\ they\\ are\\ probably\\ the\\ wrong\\ kind\\ of\\ beta\\-cell\\-targeting\\ T2\\ drug\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 3\\/5\\:\\ \\ Candidate\\ Genes\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ happy\\ consequence\\ of\\ these\\ imperfect\\ drugs\\ is\\ that\\ \\ they\\ shined\\ a\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ chance\\ discovery\\ of\\ biologically\\ active\\ small\\ molecule\\ drugs\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ genes\\ involved\\ in\\ causing\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Poor\\ as\\ current\\ T2\\ diabetes\\ drugs\\ are\\,\\ they\\ shined\\ a\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ genes\\ involved\\ in\\ diabetes\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>This\\ process\\ involves\\ fluorescent\\ labeling\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ drug\\,\\ then\\ making\\ it\\ interact\\ with\\ proteins\\ until\\ a\\ match\\ is\\ found\\.\\ \\ Two\\ families\\ of\\ T2\\ diabetes\\ drugs\\ have\\ been\\ especially\\ important\\:\\ \\ Glitazones\\ and\\ sulfonylurea\\,\\ and\\ that\\ process\\ was\\ done\\ with\\ these\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Polymorphisms\\ in\\ Drug\\ Targets\\ and\\ Genetic\\ Risks\\:\\ \\ Testing\\ Glitazones\\ and\\ Sulfonylureas\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Glitazones\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ the\\ real\\ story\\ about\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ polymorphism\\ for\\ the\\ gene\\ that\\ codes\\ for\\ PPAR\\y\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ call\\ the\\ y\\ \\&\\#8220\\;gamma\\&\\#8221\\;\\ because\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ Greek\\ letter\\ \\&\\#8220\\;gamma\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ y\\)\\,\\ a\\ protein\\ mentioned\\ in\\ Lecture\\ 14\\,\\ which\\ was\\ about\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ took\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ glitazone\\ and\\ discovered\\ the\\ receptors\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ bonded\\:\\ \\ the\\ receptor\\ PPAR\\y\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ No\\ one\\ had\\ associated\\ PPAR\\y\\ \\<\\/em\\>with\\ diabetes\\ before\\,\\ but\\ the\\ drug\\ \\did\\ \\<\\/em\\>ameliorate\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ symptoms\\ of\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ geneticists\\ went\\ back\\ and\\ looked\\ at\\ populations\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ and\\ without\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ They\\ sequenced\\ these\\ people\\'s\\ PPAR\\y\\ \\<\\/em\\>gene\\ and\\ asked\\:\\ \\ \\\"are\\ there\\ polymorphisms\\ on\\ the\\ gene\\ associated\\ with\\ PPAR\\y\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\"\\ \\ The\\ answer\\ was\\ \\\"Yes\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ they\\ asked\\,\\ \\\"are\\ there\\ SNPs\\ \\(single\\ nucleotide\\ polymorphisms\\)\\ that\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ enriched\\ in\\ one\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ being\\ tested\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ other\\?\\\"\\ \\ And\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ that\\ was\\ \\\"Yes\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ individuals\\ that\\ have\\ an\\ \\\"A\\,\\\"\\ an\\ alanine\\,\\ at\\ the\\ sight\\ of\\ the\\ PPAR\\y\\ \\<\\/em\\>gene\\,\\ are\\ more\\ protected\\ against\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ may\\ remember\\ that\\,\\ unfortunately\\,\\ 85\\%\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ the\\ \\risk\\ \\<\\/em\\>allele\\,\\ making\\ us\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ get\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ Only\\ 15\\%\\ have\\ the\\ \\\"A\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sulfonylureas\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ \\ So\\ then\\ this\\ second\\ family\\ of\\ drugs\\ were\\ tested\\.\\ \\ Scientists\\ figured\\ out\\ the\\ protein\\ to\\ which\\ \\this\\ \\<\\/em\\>particular\\ drug\\ binds\\,\\ and\\ they\\ found\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ protein\\ encoded\\ by\\ a\\ gene\\ with\\ the\\ funny\\ name\\:\\ SUR1\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ tested\\ the\\ diabetic\\ and\\ healthy\\ populations\\,\\ sequenced\\ the\\ SUR1\\ gene\\,\\ asked\\ \\\"are\\ there\\ polymorphisms\\?\\\"\\ \\ Answer\\:\\ \\ \\\"Yes\\.\\\"\\ \\ Then\\ they\\ asked\\,\\ \\\"are\\ there\\ SNPs\\ that\\ correlate\\ with\\ the\\ disease\\?\\\"\\ \\ Answer\\:\\ \\ \\\"Yes\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Once\\ again\\,\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ the\\ polymorphism\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ risk\\ \\\"E\\\"\\ allele\\,\\ located\\ at\\ one\\ single\\ site\\ on\\ the\\ gene\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Alright\\.\\ \\ These\\ things\\ are\\ good\\ to\\ know\\.\\ \\ But\\ these\\ drugs\\ were\\ discovered\\ randomly\\,\\ and\\ we\\ didn\\'t\\ know\\ much\\ about\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ wish\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ \\generic\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\unbiased\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ discovery\\ process\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ wish\\ we\\ didn\\'t\\ rely\\ so\\ much\\ on\\ luck\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 4\\/5\\:\\ \\ The\\ HGP\\'s\\ Enabling\\ of\\ Unbiased\\,\\ Whole\\-Genome\\ Association\\ Studies\\,\\ and\\ Their\\ Impact\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Modern\\ approaches\\ in\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ are\\ making\\ scientists\\ very\\ optimistic\\ about\\ a\\ whole\\ new\\ way\\ to\\ approach\\ complex\\ disorders\\ like\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ check\\ them\\ out\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Recall\\ the\\ Human\\ Genome\\ Project\\ \\(HGP\\)\\,\\ and\\ The\\ Haplotype\\ Map\\ Project\\ that\\ generated\\ all\\ 10\\ million\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ polymorphisms\\ found\\ within\\ the\\ human\\ population\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(James\\ Watson\\ co\\-discovered\\ the\\ DNA\\ helix\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ father\\ of\\ the\\ Human\\ Genome\\ Project\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Professor\\ Schreiber\\ then\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ if\\ there\\'s\\ one\\ simple\\ image\\ that\\ he\\ hopes\\ the\\ students\\ in\\ this\\ class\\ will\\ remember\\ many\\ years\\ down\\ the\\ line\\,\\ it\\'s\\ this\\ one\\:\\\r\\\\Drugs\\ \\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\ \\ Genes\\<\\/p\\>That\\'s\\ it\\.\\ \\ The\\ arrow\\ going\\ from\\ genes\\ back\\ to\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ symbolic\\ of\\ what\\ we\\'re\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'re\\ now\\ trying\\ to\\ use\\ natural\\ variations\\ in\\ our\\ human\\ genome\\ to\\ discover\\ new\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\Not\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\ years\\ from\\ now\\,\\ when\\ you\\ hear\\ about\\ an\\ advance\\ in\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ hopefully\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ predicts\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ because\\ this\\ information\\ about\\ humans\\'\\ natural\\ genetic\\ variation\\ provided\\ a\\ new\\ insight\\ into\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ which\\ enabled\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ drugs\\ to\\ treat\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ genes\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Proving\\ the\\ Genetic\\ Component\\ to\\ These\\ Diseases\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ so\\ far\\ has\\ only\\ \\said\\ \\<\\/em\\>that\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ genetic\\ component\\ to\\ T1\\ and\\ T2\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ Now\\ he\\'ll\\ prove\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Given\\ a\\ patient\\ with\\ T1\\ or\\ T2\\,\\ the\\ question\\ is\\:\\ \\ \\\"What\\ is\\ the\\ risk\\ to\\ your\\ neighbor\\ of\\ getting\\ it\\.\\\"\\ \\ No\\ relation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ if\\ you\\'re\\ a\\ sibling\\ of\\ a\\ diabetes\\ patient\\,\\ things\\ change\\.\\ \\ Siblings\\ have\\ less\\ genetic\\ variation\\ than\\ two\\ random\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\ They\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ parents\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ your\\ sibling\\ has\\ T1\\ diabetes\\,\\ your\\ chance\\ of\\ getting\\ T1\\ hits\\ 6\\%\\.\\ \\ If\\ he\\/she\\ has\\ T2\\,\\ your\\ chance\\ of\\ having\\ it\\ hits\\ 30\\%\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ your\\ identical\\ twin\\ has\\ T1\\,\\ your\\ odds\\ of\\ having\\ T1\\ hit\\ 30\\-50\\%\\.\\ \\ If\\ he\\/she\\ has\\ T2\\,\\ your\\ odds\\ rise\\ over\\ 80\\%\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ if\\ T1\\ or\\ T2\\ were\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ \\single\\ \\<\\/em\\>gene\\,\\ the\\ odds\\ of\\ getting\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ diseases\\ if\\ your\\ twin\\ got\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ about\\ 100\\%\\.\\ \\ So\\ T1\\ and\\ T2\\ are\\ complex\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Regardless\\,\\ this\\ information\\ tells\\ us\\ genes\\ play\\ a\\ major\\ role\\ in\\ T1\\ and\\ T2\\.\\ \\ The\\ problem\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ which\\ genes\\ are\\ responsible\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ figure\\ that\\ out\\,\\ in\\ an\\ unbiased\\,\\ \\whole\\-genome\\ \\<\\/em\\>association\\ study\\,\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ anywhere\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ correlations\\ to\\ diabetes\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ Would\\ Common\\ DNA\\ Variants\\ \\(Common\\ Alleles\\)\\ Play\\ a\\ Role\\ in\\ Diabetes\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ that\\ 85\\%\\ of\\ the\\ 10\\ million\\ polymorphisms\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\ were\\ already\\ present\\ in\\ humans\\ when\\ our\\ ancestors\\ first\\ migrated\\ out\\ of\\ Africa\\ 60\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ \\ Most\\ genetic\\ variation\\ is\\ inherited\\ from\\ these\\ shared\\ ancestors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Thrifty\\ Gene\\ Hypothesis\\ suggests\\ that\\ historical\\ famines\\ produced\\ humans\\ who\\ had\\ evolved\\ to\\ store\\ energy\\ more\\ efficiently\\.\\ \\ It\\ follows\\ from\\ the\\ theory\\ that\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ with\\ histories\\ of\\ even\\ more\\ famine\\ than\\ other\\ groups\\ over\\ time\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ develop\\ diabetes\\ today\\,\\ because\\ their\\ evolutionary\\ history\\ has\\ selected\\ the\\ \\\"thrifty\\\"\\ genes\\ that\\ store\\ energy\\ in\\ fat\\ tissues\\,\\ the\\ liver\\,\\ and\\ muscles\\ especially\\ efficiently\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Geneticist\\ James\\ Neel\\ proposed\\ the\\ Thrifty\\ Gene\\ Hypothesis\\ in\\ 1962\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ recently\\ been\\ challenged\\,\\ though\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Only\\ very\\ recently\\ in\\ human\\ history\\ have\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ food\\,\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ processed\\,\\ is\\ everywhere\\.\\ \\ Unfortunately\\,\\ our\\ genes\\ and\\ our\\ pancreases\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ programmed\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ famine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Making\\ it\\ Practical\\ and\\ Affordable\\ to\\ Test\\ Common\\ Genetic\\ Variants\\ Genome\\-Wide\\ in\\ Large\\ Patient\\ Samples\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ HapMap\\ Project\\,\\ started\\ in\\ 2002\\,\\ mapped\\ out\\ humans\\'\\ 10\\ million\\ common\\ SNPs\\ and\\ then\\ showed\\ the\\ haplotype\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ 10\\,000\\-100\\,000\\ SNPs\\ that\\ are\\ genetically\\ different\\ between\\ humans\\.\\ \\ It\\ required\\ \\$100\\ million\\,\\ 270\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ 3\\ years\\ to\\ complete\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Already\\,\\ in\\ 2007\\,\\ we\\ have\\ 3\\ new\\ companies\\ \\(23AndMe\\,\\ mentioned\\ in\\ an\\ earlier\\ post\\,\\ is\\ one\\)\\ that\\ offer\\ genotype\\ services\\ to\\ the\\ public\\.\\ \\ Carrying\\ out\\ the\\ service\\,\\ which\\ measures\\ your\\ polymorphisms\\,\\ costs\\ the\\ companies\\ \\$100\\'s\\ \\(even\\ though\\ they\\ mark\\ up\\ the\\ service\\ to\\ about\\ \\$1\\,000\\)\\.\\ \\ This\\ allows\\ scientists\\ to\\ take\\ 10\\,000\\ diabetics\\ and\\ 10\\,000\\ unaffected\\ diabetics\\ and\\ scan\\ in\\ an\\ \\unbiased\\ \\<\\/em\\>way\\ every\\ possible\\ gene\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\ to\\ find\\ regions\\ that\\ correlate\\ with\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Because\\ of\\ this\\ effort\\,\\ we\\ now\\ know\\ the\\ following\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Alleles\\ of\\ MHC\\ Genes\\ and\\ Type\\-1\\ Diabetes\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ Professor\\ Clardy\\ talking\\ about\\ MHC\\ genes\\ in\\ mate\\ choice\\ concerning\\ mice\\,\\ humans\\,\\ and\\ pheromones\\.\\ \\ Mice\\ and\\ humans\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ sense\\ the\\ similarity\\ of\\ another\\ mouse\\/person\\'s\\ MHC\\ genes\\ by\\ smelling\\ their\\ pheromones\\.\\ \\ This\\ sensing\\ ability\\ helps\\ mice\\ and\\ humans\\ find\\ more\\ genetically\\ different\\ mates\\ to\\ breed\\ with\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ actually\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ MHC\\ genes\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ They\\ control\\ the\\ immune\\ response\\,\\ such\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ wrong\\ SNP\\ or\\ flavor\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ MHC\\ genes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"DR3\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"DR4\\\"\\ genes\\,\\ that\\ polymorphism\\ increases\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ the\\ viral\\ infection\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ inappropriate\\ immune\\ attack\\ on\\ your\\ pancreas\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ affected\\ T1\\ diabetics\\,\\ 90\\%\\ had\\ either\\ the\\ DR3\\ or\\ DR4\\ alleles\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ unaffected\\ T1\\ patients\\,\\ only\\ 20\\%\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ genes\\.\\ \\ So\\,\\ having\\ a\\ single\\ DR3\\ or\\ DR4\\ gene\\ is\\ correlated\\ to\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ sole\\ cause\\ of\\,\\ T1\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ of\\ the\\ patients\\ that\\ had\\ T1\\,\\ only\\ 35\\%\\ had\\ \\both\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ DR3\\ and\\ DR4\\ genes\\.\\ \\ Of\\ those\\ unaffected\\ by\\ T1\\,\\ only\\ 2\\%\\ had\\ both\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Finding\\ Polymorphisms\\ Associated\\ with\\ Type\\-2\\ Diabetes\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\T2\\ is\\ probably\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ suspected\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ genes\\,\\ each\\ contributing\\ a\\ small\\ amount\\ to\\ one\\'s\\ likeliness\\ of\\ getting\\ the\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 2000\\,\\ we\\ found\\ 2\\ genes\\ associated\\ with\\ T2\\.\\ \\ We\\ didn\\'t\\ find\\ another\\ gene\\ associated\\ with\\ T2\\ until\\ 2006\\.\\ \\ But\\,\\ in\\ 2007\\,\\ a\\ banner\\ year\\ in\\ genetic\\ discoveries\\,\\ we\\ have\\ already\\ found\\ 7\\ genes\\ this\\ year\\ associated\\ with\\ T2\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 5\\/5\\:\\ \\ The\\ Beta\\ Cell\\ of\\ the\\ Pancreas\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ do\\ a\\ quick\\ recap\\ of\\ T2\\:\\ \\ conventional\\ wisdom\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ peripheral\\ target\\ tissues\\ in\\ fat\\,\\ liver\\,\\ or\\ muscle\\ tissues\\ become\\ resistant\\ to\\ insulin\\.\\ \\ Therefor\\,\\ the\\ defect\\ in\\ T2\\ should\\ be\\ somewhere\\ in\\ the\\ genes\\ related\\ to\\ insulin\\ sensing\\ in\\ peripheral\\ tissues\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\However\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>all\\ of\\ the\\ 7\\ T2\\-related\\ genes\\ found\\ in\\ 2007\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ beta\\ cell\\ function\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\,\\ not\\ insulin\\-sensing\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ peripheral\\ tissues\\.\\ \\ \\ Beta\\ cells\\ don\\'t\\ sense\\ glucose\\.\\ \\ They\\ secrete\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ makes\\ us\\ think\\ that\\ T2\\ is\\ fundamentally\\ a\\ disease\\ of\\ the\\ beta\\ cells\\ not\\ functioning\\ properly\\ in\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ secrete\\ insulin\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ not\\ that\\ the\\ peripheral\\ tissues\\ are\\ glucose\\-resistant\\,\\ as\\ was\\ previously\\ thought\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ beta\\ cells\\ not\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ release\\ insulin\\ led\\ to\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ glucose\\,\\ and\\ the\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ glucose\\ caused\\ the\\ insulin\\ resistance\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ New\\ Type\\-2\\ Diabetes\\ Drug\\ that\\ Enhances\\ Beta\\ Cell\\ Function\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ two\\ new\\ classes\\ of\\ T2\\ drugs\\ that\\ enhance\\ beta\\ cell\\ function\\ are\\ now\\ being\\ developed\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ venomous\\ Gila\\ monster\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>One\\ drug\\ which\\ mimics\\ a\\ hormone\\ that\\ beta\\ cells\\ use\\,\\ and\\ it\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ screen\\.\\ \\ We\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ compound\\ was\\ a\\ natural\\ one\\:\\ \\ the\\ saliva\\ of\\ the\\ venomous\\ lizard\\,\\ the\\ Gila\\ monster\\.The\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ called\\ exenatide\\,\\ increases\\ the\\ capacity\\ of\\ the\\ beta\\ cells\\ to\\ secrete\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Everything\\'s\\ coming\\ together\\ now\\:\\ \\ small\\ molecule\\ screening\\,\\ guided\\ by\\ information\\ coming\\ from\\ natural\\ DNA\\ variation\\,\\ is\\ taking\\ diabetes\\ from\\ a\\ brutal\\ regimen\\ of\\ drugs\\ that\\ don\\'t\\ get\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\,\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ set\\ of\\ drugs\\ like\\ exenatide\\,\\ that\\ get\\ right\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ beta\\ cell\\ function\\ and\\ insulin\\ secretion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Good\\ News\\:\\ \\ Our\\ Genes\\ are\\ Not\\ Our\\ Destiny\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ lecture\\ ends\\ on\\ a\\ cheery\\ note\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ monogenic\\ diseases\\ like\\ sickle\\ cell\\ anemia\\ and\\ cystic\\ fibrosis\\,\\ a\\ single\\ gene\\ causes\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ behavioral\\ traits\\ and\\ probabilies\\ of\\ getting\\ a\\ disease\\ are\\ not\\ situations\\ where\\ our\\ genes\\ become\\ our\\ destiny\\.\\ \\ As\\ medicine\\ gets\\ better\\ at\\ tailoring\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ genes\\,\\ genes\\ simply\\ become\\ clues\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ have\\ increased\\ predisposition\\ to\\ various\\ conditions\\.\\ \\ But\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ something\\ about\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ example\\,\\ a\\ gene\\ called\\ TCF7L2\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 7\\ genes\\ found\\ in\\ 2007\\ that\\ relates\\ to\\ T2\\,\\ has\\ been\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ risk\\ allele\\.\\ \\ Patients\\ with\\ the\\ TCF7L2\\ gene\\ were\\ treated\\ with\\ a\\ placebo\\,\\ a\\ drug\\ called\\ Metformin\\ that\\'s\\ OK\\ to\\ take\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ term\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\,\\ and\\ lifestyle\\ changes\\ \\(diet\\ and\\ exercise\\ regimens\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ people\\ with\\ this\\ gene\\ eventually\\ contracted\\ T2\\ was\\ determined\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ lifestyle\\ changes\\ had\\ the\\ greatest\\ effect\\ at\\ reducing\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ getting\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ A\\ healthy\\ lifestyle\\ gave\\ people\\ with\\ the\\ TCF7L2\\ gene\\ an\\ even\\ lower\\ probability\\ of\\ getting\\ T2\\ than\\ people\\ without\\ this\\ risk\\ allele\\ who\\ didn\\'t\\ exercise\\ and\\ eat\\ right\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ lecture\\:\\ \\ \\\"a\\ new\\ view\\ of\\ cancer\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Broad\\ sweep\\ of\\ genome\\ zeroes\\ in\\ on\\ diabetes\\,\\\"\\ \\-\\ Nature\\ Magazine\\,\\ February\\ 2007\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Highlights\\ of\\ the\\ article\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ two\\ methods\\ traditionally\\ used\\ to\\ hunt\\ down\\ diseases\\ genes\\ are\\.\\.\\.large\\ family\\ trees\\ to\\ work\\ out\\ which\\ genes\\ are\\ shared\\ by\\ affected\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ the\\ candidate\\-gene\\ approach\\,\\ which\\ uses\\ physiological\\ clues\\ to\\ narrow\\ down\\ potential\\ culprits\\.\\ \\ But\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ complex\\ \\ conditions\\ such\\ as\\ heart\\ disease\\ or\\ diabetes\\,\\ in\\ which\\ multiple\\ environmental\\ and\\ genetic\\ factors\\ combine\\,\\ neither\\ method\\ is\\ very\\ powerful\\.\\ \\ Scientists\\ have\\ \\[so\\ far\\]\\ identified\\ just\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ disease\\ genes\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Now\\.\\.\\.hopes\\ are\\ high\\ that\\ a\\ more\\ ambitious\\ breed\\ of\\ genetics\\ study\\ can\\ finally\\ crack\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ Modern\\ gene\\-chip\\ technology\\ combined\\ with\\ recently\\ published\\ maps\\ of\\ human\\ genetic\\ variants\\ \\-\\ particularly\\ the\\ \\\"HapMap\\\"\\ that\\ groups\\ together\\ related\\ variants\\ called\\ single\\ nucleotide\\ polymorphisms\\ \\-\\ now\\ enables\\ the\\ entire\\ genomes\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ scanned\\.\\ \\ Many\\ population\\ geneticists\\ and\\ disease\\ researchers\\ think\\ that\\ such\\ genome\\-wide\\ association\\ \\(GWA\\)\\ studies\\ will\\ identify\\ genes\\ that\\ confer\\ even\\ a\\ small\\ extra\\ risk\\ of\\ disease\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ new\\ study\\ on\\ type\\ 2\\ diabetes\\ looked\\ at\\ 15\\,000\\ people\\ with\\ and\\ without\\ T2\\.\\ \\ Researchers\\ identified\\ 4\\ genomic\\ regions\\ that\\ confer\\ a\\ significant\\ risk\\ of\\ developing\\ T2\\.\\ \\\"Along\\ with\\ the\\ previously\\ identified\\ TCF7L2\\ gene\\,\\ these\\ regions\\ together\\ might\\ account\\ for\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ the\\ genetic\\ risk\\ for\\ the\\ disease\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Of\\ the\\ four\\ new\\ genes\\.\\.\\.the\\ best\\ hit\\ is\\ SLC30A8\\,\\ a\\ zinc\\ transporter\\,\\ which\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ zinc\\ assists\\ with\\ the\\ pacakaging\\ and\\ secretion\\ of\\ insulin\\.\\ \\ The\\ importance\\ of\\ other\\ hits\\,\\ which\\ have\\ roles\\ in\\ pancreas\\ development\\ and\\ insulin\\ degradation\\,\\ are\\ less\\ clear\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ head\\ researcher\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ \\\"believes\\ the\\ most\\ likely\\ result\\ of\\ GWA\\ findings\\ will\\ be\\ diagnostic\\ tests\\ that\\ predict\\ who\\ is\\ at\\ high\\ risk\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ \\ He\\ also\\ envisions\\ using\\ genotypes\\ to\\ determine\\ who\\ would\\ respond\\ to\\ which\\ drugs\\,\\ in\\ the\\ much\\-anticipated\\ era\\ of\\ personalized\\ medicine\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"If\\ a\\ gene\\ is\\ particularly\\ rare\\,\\ or\\ if\\ a\\ disease\\ involves\\ dozens\\ of\\ genes\\ that\\ each\\ have\\ a\\ small\\ effect\\,\\ then\\ even\\ sample\\ sizes\\ of\\ several\\ thousand\\ might\\ not\\ pick\\ up\\ the\\ signal\\.\\\"\\ \\ \\ \\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ solving\\ complex\\ diseases\\ is\\ getting\\ researchers\\ to\\ share\\ massive\\ sets\\ of\\ genotype\\ samples\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ lastly\\,\\ a\\ sponsored\\ link\\ from\\ my\\ employer\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.theonion\\.com\\/content\\/video\\/fat\\_kid\\_successfully\\_avoids\\?\\&\\;utm\\_source\\=digg\\_1\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\See\\ you\\ next\\ time\\,\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "New Insights into Diabetes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.939877+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "A New View of Human Cancers", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 467, "html": "\\Last\\ lecture\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ The\\ next\\ two\\ lectures\\ are\\ a\\ pair\\ that\\ concern\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Today\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ molecular\\ origins\\ of\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(When\\ Magic\\ Johnson\\,\\ 48\\,\\ discovered\\ he\\ had\\ HIV\\ in\\ 1991\\,\\ it\\ was\\ widely\\ believed\\ he\\ wouldn\\'t\\ survive\\ 2\\-3\\ years\\.\\ \\ Largely\\ thanks\\ to\\ modern\\ medicine\\,\\ though\\,\\ he\\ still\\ lives\\,\\ and\\ flourishes\\,\\ having\\ become\\ a\\ massively\\ successful\\ philanthropist\\ and\\ businessman\\.\\ \\ With\\ a\\ net\\ worth\\ of\\ \\$US\\ 800\\ million\\,\\ he\\ has\\ earned\\ more\\ money\\ as\\ an\\ entrepreneur\\ than\\ he\\ did\\ as\\ an\\ NBA\\ player\\.\\ \\ Scientists\\ believe\\ that\\ within\\ our\\ lifetimes\\,\\ cancer\\ may\\ become\\ as\\ manageable\\ a\\ disease\\ as\\ AIDS\\ is\\ today\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Recall\\ that\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ is\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ use\\ variations\\ in\\ our\\ DNA\\ sequence\\ and\\ to\\ link\\ that\\ information\\ comprehensively\\,\\ systematically\\,\\ to\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ including\\ ones\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ medicines\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ that\\ eliminate\\ pain\\ and\\ suffering\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ve\\ learned\\ that\\ the\\ molecular\\ origins\\ of\\ cancer\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ genes\\,\\ and\\ the\\ deranged\\ genes\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ deranged\\ proteins\\ that\\ cause\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\'ll\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ big\\ surprise\\ that\\'s\\ come\\ about\\ regarding\\ the\\ deranged\\ genes\\ and\\ proteins\\,\\ which\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ path\\ forward\\ for\\ cancer\\ that\\'s\\ only\\ beginning\\ to\\ be\\ realized\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ mentions\\ that\\ in\\ his\\ discussions\\ of\\ diabetes\\,\\ we\\ saw\\ the\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ progress\\.\\ \\ In\\ today\\'s\\ discussion\\ of\\ cancer\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ real\\ changes\\.\\ \\ Real\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ Unfortunately\\,\\ though\\,\\ those\\ change\\ will\\ only\\ be\\ in\\ 5\\%\\ of\\ the\\ cancer\\ cases\\.\\ \\ That\\ said\\,\\ this\\ \\is\\ \\<\\/em\\>a\\ clear\\ path\\ forward\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ what\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Just\\ when\\ biochemists\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ getting\\ a\\ handle\\ on\\ cancer\\,\\ yet\\ another\\ thing\\ happened\\ that\\ was\\ utterly\\ transformative\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ had\\ been\\ thinking\\ that\\ cancer\\ was\\ a\\ disease\\ of\\ tumor\\ cells\\ in\\ our\\ body\\,\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ cells\\ were\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ They\\ were\\ \\\"the\\ cancer\\ cells\\.\\\"\\ \\ And\\ then\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ \\\"queen\\ bee\\\"\\ of\\ cancer\\ cells\\,\\ a\\ really\\ rare\\ one\\ that\\'s\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ all\\ cancer\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ has\\ radically\\ changed\\ our\\ view\\ of\\ cancer\\ and\\ how\\ we\\'ll\\ develop\\ drugs\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ to\\ treat\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 2\\ main\\ topics\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Cancers\\ Derived\\ from\\ the\\ Same\\ Tissues\\ Can\\ Be\\ Very\\ Different\\ Diseases\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancer\\ is\\ a\\ really\\ heterogeneous\\ disease\\.\\ \\ We\\ used\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ tissues\\ of\\ origin\\.\\ \\ Now\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ molecular\\ underpinnings\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\,\\ which\\ tells\\ us\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ the\\ disease\\ progression\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ how\\ a\\ particular\\ cancer\\ will\\ respond\\ to\\ different\\ cancer\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ is\\ Cancer\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sadly\\,\\ the\\ disease\\ requires\\ little\\ introduction\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ rare\\ family\\ that\\ hasn\\'t\\ had\\ a\\ loved\\ one\\ or\\ close\\ friend\\ be\\ afflicted\\ with\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancers\\ are\\ diverse\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ common\\ features\\:\\ \\ they\\ have\\ deranged\\,\\ aggressive\\ cells\\ that\\ reproduce\\ much\\ too\\ rapidly\\.\\ \\ They\\ invade\\ throughout\\ the\\ body\\,\\ whereas\\ most\\ cells\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ stay\\ put\\.\\ \\ Ultimately\\,\\ they\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ metastesize\\,\\ which\\ means\\ they\\ do\\ what\\ cells\\ aren\\'t\\ supposed\\ to\\ do\\:\\ \\ to\\ leave\\ their\\ home\\ location\\ in\\ one\\ spot\\ of\\ the\\ body\\,\\ enter\\ the\\ bloodstream\\,\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ new\\ region\\,\\ and\\ then\\ colonize\\ it\\.\\ \\ In\\ time\\,\\ they\\ cause\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ the\\ functioning\\ of\\ the\\ region\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ moved\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ die\\ of\\ cancer\\:\\ \\ its\\ metastatic\\ nature\\ causes\\ organ\\ failure\\.\\ \\ A\\ piece\\ of\\ liver\\ tissue\\ leaves\\ the\\ liver\\,\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\,\\ enters\\ into\\ the\\ \\brain\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ grows\\ a\\ cancerous\\ liver\\ tissue\\ right\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ which\\ eventually\\ causes\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ fail\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Normally\\,\\ tissues\\ are\\ \\absolutely\\ \\<\\/em\\>forbidden\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\ \\ Our\\ liver\\ will\\ \\always\\ \\<\\/em\\>stay\\ put\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ no\\ mechanism\\ of\\ picking\\ up\\ and\\ moving\\ somewhere\\ else\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ really\\ odd\\ that\\ cancer\\ makes\\ cells\\ do\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancer\\ is\\ the\\ 2nd\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ \\(\\#1\\ is\\ cardiovascular\\ death\\)\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ 600\\,000\\ Americans\\ die\\ every\\ year\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ all\\ men\\,\\ and\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ all\\ women\\,\\ will\\ develop\\ cancer\\ during\\ their\\ lifetimes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ reminds\\ us\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ reasons\\ to\\ be\\ cheerful\\ that\\ in\\ our\\ lifetime\\,\\ we\\ can\\ make\\ this\\ disease\\ a\\ manageable\\ one\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Like\\ how\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ AIDS\\ today\\.\\ \\ You\\ can\\ live\\ your\\ entire\\ life\\,\\ today\\,\\ because\\ of\\ advances\\ in\\ medicine\\ \\(See\\ Magic\\ Johnson\\,\\ above\\)\\.\\ \\ Not\\ generally\\ true\\ with\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Leukemias\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Leukemia\\ is\\ a\\ blood\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ will\\ share\\ with\\ us\\ what\\ an\\ oncology\\ friend\\ \\(at\\ the\\ Dana\\ Farber\\ Institute\\)\\ of\\ his\\ has\\ shared\\ with\\ him\\:\\ \\ a\\ real\\ case\\ history\\ of\\ two\\ of\\ his\\ patients\\ here\\ in\\ Boston\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Patient\\ 1\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\She\\ is\\ a\\ 9\\-year\\-old\\ girl\\ with\\ fever\\ and\\ bruising\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Bone\\ marrow\\ tests\\ reveal\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ cancer\\ called\\ \\\"acute\\ leukemia\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\She\\ was\\ treated\\ with\\ chemotherapy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\She\\ entered\\ remission\\ in\\ 3\\ weeks\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\12\\ years\\ later\\ today\\,\\ she\\ is\\ alive\\ and\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Patient\\ 2\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ is\\ a\\ 7\\-year\\-old\\ boy\\ with\\ fever\\ and\\ bruising\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Bone\\ marrow\\ tests\\ revealed\\ \\\"acute\\ leukemia\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ was\\ treated\\ with\\ chemotherapy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ did\\ not\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ treatment\\,\\ and\\ he\\ died\\ 6\\ months\\ later\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\ did\\ the\\ two\\ patients\\,\\ who\\ seemed\\ so\\ similar\\,\\ respond\\ so\\ differently\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ oncologists\\ see\\ this\\ pattern\\ over\\,\\ and\\ over\\,\\ and\\ over\\.\\ \\ And\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ relate\\ to\\ gender\\ or\\ age\\.\\ \\ It\\ strongly\\ suggests\\ that\\ each\\ individual\\ cancer\\ is\\ almost\\ a\\ completely\\ different\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ follow\\ this\\ story\\ throughout\\ class\\ today\\ and\\ see\\ how\\ we\\ now\\ understand\\ almost\\ everything\\ you\\ would\\ hope\\ to\\ understand\\ behind\\ these\\ 2\\ cases\\.\\ \\ We\\ even\\ know\\ today\\ how\\ to\\ create\\ completely\\ new\\ medicines\\ that\\,\\ had\\ they\\ been\\ available\\,\\ would\\ have\\ created\\ a\\ much\\ different\\ outcome\\ for\\ Patient\\ 2\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cancer\\:\\ \\ Derives\\ from\\ the\\ Deregulation\\ of\\ the\\ Survival\\ and\\ Death\\ Pathways\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ survival\\ and\\ death\\ pathways\\ are\\ \\\"signaling\\\"\\ pathways\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Normal\\ tissue\\ in\\ your\\ body\\,\\ like\\ liver\\ tissue\\,\\ exists\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ under\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ various\\ signals\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ class\\ of\\ signals\\ are\\ \\\"survival\\ signals\\.\\\"\\ \\ Survival\\ signals\\ control\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ proliferation\\ of\\ these\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\,\\ perhaps\\ during\\ adolescent\\ growth\\ of\\ organs\\,\\ signals\\ are\\ sent\\ to\\ organs\\ that\\ tell\\ them\\ to\\ divide\\.\\ \\ In\\ these\\ cases\\,\\ space\\ has\\ been\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ body\\,\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ nutrients\\ \\(oxygen\\ is\\ important\\)\\ are\\ present\\ to\\ foster\\ cell\\ division\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cells\\ have\\ a\\ regulatory\\ process\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ is\\ called\\ \\\"programmed\\ cell\\ death\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ was\\ a\\ surprise\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ cells\\ were\\ programmed\\ to\\ die\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ body\\,\\ it\\ \\has\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ sacrifice\\ some\\ cells\\ at\\ certain\\ times\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ space\\ for\\ an\\ adolescent\\'s\\ liver\\ to\\ grow\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ his\\ body\\,\\ it\\ might\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ pre\\-existing\\,\\ less\\ critical\\ tissues\\,\\ and\\ destroy\\ them\\.\\ \\ These\\ cells\\ are\\ programmed\\ to\\ undergo\\ suicidal\\ death\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\More\\ importantly\\,\\ this\\ death\\ signal\\ has\\ been\\ discovered\\ to\\ be\\ present\\ in\\ every\\ cell\\ in\\ our\\ body\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ protective\\ mechanism\\ against\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ cells\\ age\\ but\\ keep\\ dividing\\ throughout\\ their\\ lives\\,\\ the\\ probability\\ increases\\ that\\ a\\ mistake\\ will\\ be\\ made\\ that\\ might\\ cause\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ someday\\ the\\ chance\\ ionizing\\ radiation\\ might\\ penetrate\\ through\\ the\\ atmosphere\\,\\ right\\ through\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ our\\ lecture\\ hall\\.\\ \\ It\\ might\\ strike\\ a\\ student\\ with\\ a\\ gamma\\ ray\\,\\ he\\/she\\ wouldn\\'t\\ know\\ it\\,\\ and\\ it\\'d\\ damage\\ the\\ DNA\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ cell\\.\\ \\ That\\ damage\\ might\\ cause\\ that\\ cell\\ to\\ become\\ cancerous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ what\\ happens\\,\\ then\\?\\ \\ The\\ cell\\ has\\ an\\ amazing\\ ability\\ to\\ sense\\ if\\ its\\ genome\\ has\\ been\\ damaged\\.\\ \\ If\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ damaged\\,\\ the\\ first\\ thing\\ it\\ tells\\ itself\\ is\\:\\ \\ \\\"DON\\'T\\ proliferate\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ then\\ tries\\ to\\ repair\\ its\\ own\\ genome\\.\\ \\ But\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ clock\\.\\ \\ It\\ reads\\ this\\ clock\\ and\\ says\\:\\ \\ \\\"If\\ I\\ can\\'t\\ repair\\ my\\ own\\ genome\\ over\\ a\\ certain\\ period\\ of\\ time\\,\\ I\\ can\\'t\\ subject\\ my\\ body\\ to\\ the\\ risk\\ that\\ this\\ damaged\\ DNA\\ could\\ be\\ cancerously\\ deleterious\\.\\\"\\ \\ The\\ \\\"death\\ pathway\\\"\\ kicks\\ in\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cell\\ kills\\ itself\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ overall\\ organism\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(After\\ initial\\ damage\\ to\\ their\\ genomes\\ \\-\\ perhaps\\ by\\ sun\\ exposure\\ \\-\\ healthy\\ cells\\ have\\ an\\ internal\\ clock\\ that\\ tells\\ them\\ how\\ long\\ they\\'ll\\ allow\\ themselves\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ genetic\\ self\\-repair\\ before\\ triggering\\ their\\ own\\ self\\-destruction\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Cancer\\ cells\\,\\ however\\,\\ destroy\\ the\\ death\\ pathway\\.\\ \\ The\\ signal\\ that\\ gets\\ received\\ by\\ this\\ cell\\ becomes\\ a\\ pure\\ \\\"Go\\\"\\ signal\\;\\ divide\\,\\ as\\ fast\\ as\\ you\\ can\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ is\\ told\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Secondly\\,\\ cancer\\ cells\\ lose\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ kill\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ The\\ genome\\ of\\ cancer\\ cells\\ may\\ be\\ deranged\\,\\ but\\ the\\ cell\\ doesn\\'t\\ care\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ It\\ won\\'t\\ sacrifice\\ itself\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ taken\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ mentality\\ as\\ a\\ tumor\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ consequences\\ are\\ both\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ cancer\\ cells\\,\\ perhaps\\ manifest\\ as\\ a\\ tumor\\ mass\\ that\\ a\\ doctor\\ can\\ feel\\ during\\ a\\ biopsy\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ cells\\'\\ continued\\ attempt\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ genome\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Once\\ the\\ cells\\ have\\ acquired\\ mutations\\ that\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ these\\ survival\\ signals\\ and\\ death\\ signals\\,\\ they\\ \\continue\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ pick\\ up\\ mutations\\,\\ and\\ \\these\\ \\<\\/em\\>are\\ the\\ mutations\\ that\\ cause\\ the\\ cancer\\ cell\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ inhibition\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ and\\ move\\ somewhere\\ else\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ tell\\ a\\ liver\\ cell\\:\\ \\ \\\"you\\'re\\ a\\ liver\\ cell\\.\\ \\ Stay\\ put\\!\\ \\ You\\ can\\'t\\ go\\ anywhere\\ else\\.\\\"\\ \\ But\\ further\\ mutations\\ tell\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ lose\\ that\\ inhibition\\,\\ and\\ just\\ to\\ travel\\ off\\ and\\ colonize\\ a\\ new\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cancer\\ is\\ a\\ Genetic\\ Disease\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ normal\\ human\\ cell\\ has\\ 20\\,000\\ genes\\.\\ \\ \\ However\\,\\ as\\ a\\ cell\\ becomes\\ increasingly\\ cancerous\\,\\ its\\ genome\\ becomes\\ increasingly\\ unstable\\.\\ \\ Its\\ makeup\\ reshuffles\\.\\ \\ A\\ single\\ gene\\ in\\ one\\ place\\ can\\ suddenly\\ replicate\\ and\\ insert\\ itself\\ \\5\\ times\\ \\<\\/em\\>into\\ the\\ genome\\.\\ \\ Or\\,\\ another\\ gene\\ can\\ just\\ entirely\\ disappear\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ cancer\\ genome\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ genome\\ of\\ the\\ healthy\\ cell\\ it\\ started\\ off\\ as\\.\\ \\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ scientists\\ want\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ the\\ cancer\\ genome\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Recall\\ \\\"Somatic\\ Mutations\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ concepts\\ of\\ this\\ class\\ has\\ been\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ \\\"founder\\ mutations\\\"\\ in\\ the\\ germ\\ cells\\ that\\ manifest\\ as\\ polymorphisms\\ throughout\\ the\\ human\\ population\\,\\ and\\ we\\'ve\\ spent\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ talking\\ about\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ learn\\ from\\ variations\\ in\\ our\\ genomes\\,\\ because\\ polymorphisms\\ get\\ passed\\ on\\ from\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancer\\ mutations\\ are\\ different\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ Most\\ often\\,\\ they\\'re\\ found\\ in\\ non\\-germ\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ are\\ \\\"somatic\\ cells\\.\\\"\\ \\ Somatic\\ cells\\ won\\'t\\ be\\ passed\\ on\\ from\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ somatic\\ cell\\ cancer\\ mutations\\:\\ \\ one\\ in\\ the\\ survival\\ pathway\\,\\ and\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ death\\ pathway\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ mutations\\ occur\\ in\\ a\\ somatic\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ they\\ \\activate\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ survival\\ pathway\\.\\ \\ They\\ activate\\ certain\\ genes\\ that\\ tell\\ cells\\ to\\ keep\\ dividing\\.\\ \\ \\ These\\ genes\\,\\ when\\ they\\ pick\\ up\\ a\\ mutation\\,\\ are\\ called\\ \\\"oncogenes\\.\\\"\\ \\ Before\\ the\\ somatic\\ cell\\ mutation\\,\\ the\\ oncogene\\ existed\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\ in\\ an\\ \\unactivated\\ \\<\\/em\\>state\\.\\ \\ The\\ genes\\ in\\ our\\ body\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ potential\\,\\ when\\ mutated\\,\\ to\\ become\\ cancer\\-causing\\,\\ are\\ called\\ \\\"proto\\-oncogenes\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ other\\ half\\ of\\ cancer\\ cell\\ mutations\\ are\\ ones\\ that\\ \\inactivate\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ death\\ pathway\\.\\ \\ They\\ inactivate\\ tumor\\ supressor\\ genes\\.\\ A\\ gene\\ that\\ tells\\ a\\ liver\\ cell\\ to\\ \\stay\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ the\\ liver\\ and\\ not\\ move\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"tumor\\ suppressor\\ gene\\.\\\"\\ \\ Tumor\\ suppressor\\ genes\\ repress\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Another\\ Kind\\ of\\ Mutation\\:\\ \\ Chromosomal\\ Translocation\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ wants\\ to\\ mention\\ one\\ other\\ kind\\ of\\ mutation\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ called\\ \\\"chromosomal\\ translocation\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Janet\\ Rowley\\ is\\ the\\ hero\\ of\\ this\\ story\\.\\ \\ She\\ had\\ a\\ vision\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ long\\ before\\ others\\,\\ that\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ leukemia\\ and\\ other\\ cancers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ scientists\\ in\\ Philadelphia\\ noticed\\ that\\ the\\ chromosomes\\ of\\ cancer\\ patients\\ looked\\ odd\\.\\ \\ Nobody\\ paid\\ much\\ attention\\ to\\ this\\,\\ except\\ Janet\\ Rowley\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Janet\\ Rowley\\ received\\ the\\ Medal\\ of\\ Science\\ from\\ President\\ Clinton\\ in\\ 1999\\ for\\ her\\ work\\ in\\ Chromsomal\\ Translocation\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>She\\ noticed\\ that\\ in\\ chromosomes\\ from\\ a\\ leukemia\\ patient\\ like\\ Patient\\ 2\\,\\ the\\ little\\ boy\\,\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ not\\ only\\ were\\ the\\ chromosomes\\ deranged\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ also\\ very\\ specifically\\ altered\\.\\ \\ Specifically\\,\\ chromosomes\\ 9\\ and\\ 22\\,\\ which\\ are\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ separate\\ and\\ distinct\\,\\ had\\ been\\ recombined\\ and\\ mixed\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ That\\ was\\ \\\"chromosomal\\ translocation\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ now\\ know\\ that\\ chromosomal\\ translocations\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ almost\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ all\\ leukemias\\.\\ \\ For\\ a\\ long\\ time\\,\\ we\\ suspected\\ they\\ were\\ involved\\ in\\ solid\\ tumors\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ 3\\ months\\ ago\\,\\ that\\ was\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ true\\:\\ \\ the\\ first\\ solid\\ tumor\\ derived\\ from\\ chromosmal\\ translocations\\ was\\ discovered\\,\\ and\\ \\\"everybody\\ seems\\ to\\ think\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ tip\\ of\\ the\\ iceberg\\,\\\"\\ Schreiber\\ says\\.\\ Many\\,\\ many\\ cancers\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Patient\\ 1\\:\\ Chromosome\\ Analysis\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ oncologist\\ who\\ dealt\\ with\\ the\\ 2\\ patients\\ went\\ back\\ and\\ studied\\ their\\ chromosomes\\.\\ \\ Remember\\ Patient\\ 1\\,\\ the\\ 9\\-year\\-old\\ girl\\,\\ was\\ given\\ chemotherapy\\.\\ \\ 3\\ months\\ later\\ she\\ went\\ into\\ remission\\,\\ and\\ 12\\ years\\ later\\ she\\ is\\ alive\\ and\\ well\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Indeed\\,\\ she\\ had\\ a\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\:\\ \\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ chromosome\\ 12\\ had\\ translocated\\ with\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ chromosome\\ 21\\.\\ \\ Scientists\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ gene\\ in\\ chromosome\\ 12\\,\\ called\\ TEL\\.\\ \\ They\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ gene\\ in\\ chromosome\\ 21\\,\\ called\\ AML1\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Almost\\ always\\,\\ in\\ cancer\\-causing\\ translocations\\,\\ one\\ gene\\ fuses\\ to\\ another\\ gene\\.\\ \\ The\\ fused\\ gene\\ creates\\ a\\ new\\ protein\\ that\\'s\\ normally\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ Patient\\ 1\\ had\\ a\\ fusion\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ genes\\ TEL\\/AML1\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ new\\ protein\\ that\\'s\\ a\\ mixture\\ of\\ TEL\\ and\\ AML1\\.\\ \\ These\\ fusion\\ proteins\\,\\ made\\ by\\ fused\\,\\ translocating\\ chromosomes\\,\\ endow\\ the\\ cell\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ steps\\ towards\\ becoming\\ cancerous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ acute\\ lymphoblastic\\ leukemia\\,\\ ALL\\,\\ which\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ as\\ being\\ originally\\ distinguished\\ by\\ Sydney\\ Farber\\ under\\ a\\ microscope\\ from\\ AML\\.\\ \\ ALL\\ is\\ often\\ \\(not\\ always\\)\\ caused\\ by\\ \\this\\<\\/em\\>\\ TEL\\/AML1\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Almost\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ all\\ leukemias\\ are\\ now\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ caused\\ by\\ chromosomal\\ translocations\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ other\\ 1\\/2\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ chromosomal\\ translocations\\.\\ \\ \\ We\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ standard\\ mutations\\,\\ point\\ mutations\\ in\\ a\\ base\\ pair\\ that\\ causes\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ activated\\ or\\ inactivated\\.\\ \\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ leukemias\\ \\caused\\ \\<\\/em\\>by\\ chromosomal\\ translocations\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ growing\\.\\ \\ They\\ may\\ \\all\\ \\<\\/em\\>be\\ caused\\ by\\ chromosomal\\ translocations\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ common\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\ is\\ TEL\\/AML1\\,\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ chromosomes\\ 12\\ and\\ 21\\.\\ \\ Patient\\ 1\\ had\\ this\\ gene\\ fusion\\.\\ \\ Using\\ our\\ current\\ therapy\\,\\ TEL\\/AML1\\ patients\\ have\\ a\\ 90\\%\\ chance\\ of\\ survival\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>Recall\\ Patient\\ 2\\,\\ the\\ 7\\-year\\-old\\ boy\\ who\\ died\\.\\ \\ He\\ was\\ found\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ original\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\ that\\ Janet\\ Rowley\\ first\\ discovered\\.\\ \\ The\\ 9\\;22\\ fusion\\ \\(fusion\\ between\\ chromosomes\\ 9\\ and\\ 22\\)\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ another\\ leukemia\\ called\\ CML\\,\\ chronic\\ myloid\\ leukemia\\.\\ \\ \\ Current\\ therapies\\ are\\ only\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ survival\\ rate\\ for\\ this\\ leukemia\\ to\\ 10\\%\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ you\\ see\\ now\\ that\\ leukemia\\ is\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ many\\ diseases\\ with\\ many\\ different\\ underpinnings\\ and\\ many\\ different\\ cures\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/2\\:\\ \\ New\\ Therapies\\ Resulting\\ from\\ Our\\ New\\ Understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Molecular\\ Basis\\ for\\ Cancer\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancers\\ become\\ critically\\ dependent\\ upon\\ specific\\ gene\\ products\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ normal\\ cells\\ are\\ not\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ called\\ oncogene\\ addiction\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ hear\\ about\\ cancers\\ being\\ addicted\\ to\\ their\\ oncogenes\\,\\ which\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ target\\ for\\ cancer\\ that\\ hasn\\'t\\ been\\ pursued\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ cases\\,\\ this\\ has\\ had\\ \\great\\ \\<\\/em\\>success\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Chemotherapy\\ has\\ very\\ unpleasant\\ toxic\\ side\\ effects\\.\\ \\ New\\ thereapies\\,\\ though\\,\\ are\\ pills\\ you\\ take\\ that\\ have\\ virtually\\ no\\ toxicity\\.\\ \\ They\\ go\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\ These\\ are\\ \\\"molecularly\\ targeted\\ drugs\\.\\\"\\ \\ We\\ have\\ far\\ too\\ few\\ of\\ them\\ now\\ \\(6\\)\\,\\ but\\ they\\'re\\ so\\ effective\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ drugs\\ drugs\\ target\\ the\\ molecular\\ underpinning\\ of\\ the\\ cancer\\:\\ \\ the\\ oncogene\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ cancer\\ has\\ become\\ addicted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cancer\\ Treatment\\ in\\ the\\ Past\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ past\\,\\ cancers\\ were\\ defined\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ tissues\\ they\\ targeted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancer\\ was\\ treated\\ by\\ targeting\\ cancer\\ cells\\ with\\ drugs\\ that\\,\\ say\\,\\ damaged\\ their\\ DNA\\ or\\ poked\\ holes\\ in\\ their\\ cell\\ membranes\\.\\ \\ Chemotherapy\\ hoped\\ to\\ selectively\\ poison\\ cancerous\\ tissue\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ healthy\\ tissue\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ approach\\ had\\ several\\ problems\\.\\ \\ One\\ was\\ that\\ individual\\ cell\\ types\\,\\ normal\\ or\\ cancerous\\,\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ than\\ not\\.\\ \\ Chemotherapy\\ couldn\\'t\\ really\\ target\\ the\\ cancer\\ cells\\ that\\ specifically\\,\\ so\\ it\\ attacked\\ your\\ body\\'s\\ normal\\ cells\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ The\\ strategy\\ became\\ about\\ literally\\ titrating\\ the\\ poison\\ right\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ death\\,\\ hoping\\ the\\ tumor\\ would\\ die\\ before\\ you\\ did\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ addition\\,\\ cancer\\ cells\\ are\\ \\really\\ \\<\\/em\\>hard\\ to\\ kill\\,\\ requiring\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ toxins\\ to\\ kill\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cancer\\ Treatment\\ in\\ the\\ Future\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ will\\ work\\ upon\\ the\\ knowledge\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ normal\\ cells\\ and\\ cancer\\ cells\\ are\\ relatively\\ similar\\,\\ they\\ have\\ highly\\ idiosyncratic\\ dependencies\\ on\\ different\\ cellular\\ pathways\\.\\ \\ Therefore\\,\\ drugs\\ will\\ target\\ the\\ \\pathways\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ not\\ the\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ cancers\\ will\\ be\\ categorized\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ pathways\\ upon\\ which\\ they\\ depend\\.\\ \\ This\\ style\\ of\\ cancer\\ treatment\\ will\\ require\\ knowledge\\ of\\ cancer\\ genomes\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ drugs\\ that\\ target\\ the\\ proteins\\ on\\ which\\ cancers\\ are\\ dependent\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ how\\ things\\ have\\ changed\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ past\\,\\ we\\ saw\\ this\\ enormous\\ genetic\\ complexity\\ about\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ As\\ a\\ cell\\ becomes\\ more\\ cancerous\\,\\ the\\ genomic\\ mutations\\ compound\\ and\\ compound\\.\\ \\ We\\ asked\\:\\ \\ how\\ the\\ hell\\ do\\ you\\ fix\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ mutations\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ cancer\\ cell\\ complexity\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ house\\ of\\ cards\\.\\ \\ It\\ can\\ be\\ taken\\ down\\ by\\ figuring\\ out\\ the\\ very\\ source\\ of\\ cancer\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ thinking\\ is\\ that\\ that\\ translocation\\ creates\\ a\\ new\\ protein\\ that\\,\\ for\\ most\\ cells\\,\\ would\\ be\\ deleterious\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ rogue\\ cell\\ that\\ happens\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ its\\ way\\ toward\\ dying\\.\\ \\ The\\ protein\\ saves\\ it\\,\\ though\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ bad\\ for\\ the\\ body\\:\\ \\ the\\ cell\\ is\\ destined\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\ But\\ it\\ suddenly\\ got\\ rescued\\ by\\ the\\ cancer\\-causing\\ gene\\.\\ \\ The\\ oncogene\\ makes\\ the\\ genome\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ become\\ unstable\\.\\ \\ It\\ accelerates\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ genomic\\ mutations\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ endowing\\ the\\ cell\\ with\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ cancerous\\ properties\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ early\\ 2000\\'s\\,\\ scientists\\ began\\ to\\ wonder\\:\\ \\ what\\ happens\\ if\\ you\\ remove\\ the\\ original\\ card\\ upon\\ which\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ cards\\ is\\ built\\?\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(You\\ knew\\ this\\ image\\ was\\ coming\\!\\ \\ \\:\\)\\ \\ In\\ scientists\\'\\ eyes\\,\\ once\\ they\\ realized\\ the\\ very\\ source\\ of\\ many\\ cancers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\,\\ the\\ confounding\\ complexity\\ of\\ cancer\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ simple\\ house\\ of\\ cards\\,\\ perhaps\\ ready\\ to\\ topple\\ within\\ our\\ lifetimes\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>So\\ now\\,\\ the\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ cancer\\ cells\\ are\\ actually\\ teetering\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ death\\.\\ \\ The\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ props\\ them\\ up\\ is\\ this\\ oncogene\\-produced\\ protein\\.\\ \\ Take\\ it\\ away\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cells\\ fall\\ into\\ death\\'s\\ abyss\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ terms\\ of\\ treating\\ these\\ cells\\,\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ poke\\ holes\\ in\\ their\\ membranes\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ They\\ can\\ largely\\ withstand\\ that\\ attack\\,\\ and\\ that\\ attack\\ killed\\ our\\ own\\ troops\\ \\(cells\\)\\ too\\.\\ \\ Instead\\,\\ if\\ we\\ attack\\ the\\ genetic\\ mutation\\ that\\ produces\\ the\\ protein\\ upon\\ which\\ cancer\\ cells\\ are\\ addicted\\,\\ the\\ tumors\\ will\\ die\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Two\\ Main\\ Points\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ The\\ classification\\ of\\ cancers\\ is\\ increasingly\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ mechanism\\ of\\ transformation\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ location\\ or\\ origin\\ of\\ a\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ We\\ used\\ to\\ differentiate\\ between\\ a\\ skin\\ tumor\\ and\\ a\\ liver\\ tumor\\.\\ \\ Not\\ anymore\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ We\\ now\\ view\\ cancer\\ cells\\ as\\ ready\\ to\\ die\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ impossible\\ to\\ kill\\.\\ \\ We\\ just\\ haven\\'t\\ found\\ each\\ caner\\'s\\ kryptonite\\ yet\\:\\ \\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ deranged\\ protein\\ produced\\ by\\ oncogene\\ and\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ cancer\\ is\\ addicted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Recall\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ FLT3\\,\\ a\\ gene\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ ALL\\-\\ form\\ of\\ leukemia\\ is\\ addicted\\.\\ \\ Scientists\\ realized\\ that\\ a\\ natural\\ product\\ first\\ found\\ in\\ Easter\\ Island\\'s\\ soil\\,\\ rapamycin\\,\\ rendered\\ cancerous\\ cells\\ receptive\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\ dexamethasone\\,\\ which\\ reversed\\ the\\ ALL\\-\\ state\\ of\\ afflicted\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\FLT3\\ is\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ oncogene\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ proto\\-oncogene\\.\\ \\ When\\ it\\ gets\\ mutated\\,\\ it\\ can\\ become\\ cancer\\-causing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Tumors\\'\\ addictions\\ to\\ specific\\ oncogenes\\ makes\\ them\\ very\\ specifically\\ targetable\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ membrane\\-hole\\-poking\\ drugs\\ of\\ past\\ years\\ which\\ affect\\ both\\ cancerous\\ and\\ normal\\ body\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ that\\ we\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ FLT3\\ gene\\ encodes\\ for\\ the\\ protein\\ \\\"kinase\\.\\\"\\ \\ This\\ will\\ prove\\ important\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ analogous\\ to\\ the\\ FLT3\\ kinase\\ oncogene\\ that\\ we\\ saw\\ in\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\,\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ following\\ story\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Gleevec\\:\\ \\ A\\ Small\\-Molecule\\ Inhibitor\\ of\\ BCR\\/ABL\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\BCR\\/ABL\\ \\(pronounced\\ \\\"B\\-C\\-R\\ able\\\"\\)\\ is\\ the\\ fusion\\ protein\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ 9\\;22\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\ in\\ CML\\ \\(that\\ stands\\ for\\ another\\,\\ currently\\ untreatable\\,\\ leukemia\\,\\ chronic\\ myloid\\ leukemia\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Just\\ as\\ FLT3\\ is\\ a\\ kinase\\ in\\ an\\ oncogene\\,\\ BCR\\/ABL\\ is\\ a\\ kinase\\ in\\ an\\ oncogene\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\FLT3\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ ALL\\.\\ \\ BCR\\/ABL\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ CML\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Patient\\ 2\\,\\ the\\ 7\\-year\\-old\\,\\ died\\ of\\ CML\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ wondered\\:\\ \\ do\\ small\\ molecules\\ exist\\ that\\ target\\ BCR\\/ABL\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Well\\,\\ BCR\\/ABL\\ isn\\'t\\ a\\ normal\\ protein\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ BCR\\ on\\ its\\ own\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ ABL\\ on\\ its\\ own\\,\\ are\\ normal\\ proteins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ pharmaceutical\\ company\\,\\ using\\ small\\ molecule\\ screening\\,\\ found\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ regulates\\ ABL\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ project\\ and\\ they\\ dropped\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ nearby\\ oncologists\\ picked\\ up\\ on\\ their\\ work\\ and\\ found\\ a\\ compound\\ called\\ \\\"Gleevec\\.\\\"\\ \\ Gleevec\\ was\\ studied\\ by\\ the\\ oncologists\\ because\\ it\\ had\\ previously\\ been\\ showed\\ to\\ inhibit\\ the\\ ABL\\ protein\\.\\ \\ And\\ \\then\\ \\<\\/em\\>it\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ it\\ inhibited\\ the\\ BCR\\/ABL\\ protein\\ as\\ well\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ Gleevec\\ is\\ an\\ inhibitor\\ of\\ certain\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ proteins\\ called\\ \\\"kinases\\\"\\ \\(like\\ FLT3\\)\\.\\ \\ Kinases\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ signaling\\ in\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Oncogene\\ Addiction\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ how\\ it\\ works\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ somatic\\ cell\\ acquires\\ a\\ mutation\\ that\\ turns\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ oncogenic\\,\\ cancer\\-inducing\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ call\\ this\\ mutation\\ \\\"A\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ chromosomal\\ translocation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ A\\ mutation\\ kicks\\ the\\ cell\\ into\\ panic\\ mode\\.\\ \\ It\\ furiously\\ tries\\ to\\ repair\\ itself\\.\\ \\ The\\ clock\\ is\\ ticking\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ If\\ time\\ runs\\ out\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ has\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ apoptosis\\,\\ the\\ name\\ for\\ cell\\ suicide\\,\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ organism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ one\\ such\\ cells\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ rogue\\ cell\\.\\ \\ It\\ might\\ refuse\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\ Staring\\ death\\ in\\ the\\ face\\,\\ it\\ might\\ seek\\ help\\ instead\\ of\\ carrying\\ through\\ with\\ apoptosis\\.\\ \\ It\\ might\\ begin\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ an\\ unusual\\ protein\\,\\ produced\\ by\\ an\\ oncogene\\,\\ that\\ will\\ keep\\ it\\ alive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ becomes\\ addicted\\ to\\ that\\ oncogene\\.\\ \\ As\\ the\\ addiction\\ worsens\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ takes\\ on\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ mutations\\ \\(we\\'ll\\ call\\ them\\ Mutations\\ \\\"B\\,\\\"\\ \\\"C\\,\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"D\\\"\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ these\\ mutations\\,\\ some\\ cells\\ lose\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ apoptosis\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ if\\ we\\ could\\ find\\ find\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ drug\\ that\\ can\\ eliminate\\ mutation\\ \\\"A\\\"\\ by\\ binding\\ to\\ the\\ protein\\ it\\ produces\\ it\\ and\\ removing\\ its\\ effects\\ on\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ the\\ cancer\\ cell\\ \\will\\ \\<\\/em\\>find\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ die\\,\\ \\even\\ \\<\\/em\\>if\\ mutations\\ have\\ occurred\\ that\\ remove\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ kill\\ itself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Thursday\\'s\\ class\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ oncogenes\\ can\\ also\\ cause\\ cancer\\ cells\\ to\\ differentiate\\ into\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ cell\\ that\\ \\isn\\'t\\<\\/em\\>\\ cancerous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Returning\\ to\\ Our\\ 2\\ Patients\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Patient\\ 2\\ had\\ CML\\,\\ chronic\\ myloid\\ leukemia\\.\\ \\ CML\\ is\\ a\\ rare\\ cancer\\,\\ and\\ this\\ story\\ of\\ Patient\\ 2\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ story\\ about\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ science\\ in\\ society\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ Patient\\ 2\\ was\\ dying\\,\\ many\\ pharmaceutical\\ companies\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ working\\ to\\ cure\\ CML\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ only\\ 5\\,000\\ patients\\ per\\ year\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ contract\\ CML\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ retrospect\\,\\ though\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ thinks\\ no\\ pharmaceutical\\ company\\ would\\ make\\ that\\ mistake\\ again\\:\\ \\ neglecting\\ the\\ moral\\ responsibilities\\ that\\ you\\ would\\ hope\\ society\\ would\\ impose\\.\\ \\ 5\\,000\\ patients\\ becomes\\ enough\\ patients\\ when\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ making\\ the\\ drug\\ goes\\ down\\,\\ as\\ technological\\ improvements\\ suggest\\ it\\ will\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ treatment\\ for\\ CML\\ is\\ bone\\ marrow\\ transplantation\\.\\ \\ In\\ bone\\ marrow\\ exists\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\ that\\ can\\ create\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\ cells\\.\\ \\ With\\ CML\\,\\ when\\ a\\ patient\\ reaches\\ desperation\\,\\ one\\ radiates\\ the\\ patient\\ until\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ patient\\'s\\ blood\\ cells\\ are\\ killed\\.\\ \\ Then\\ a\\ bone\\ marrow\\ transplantation\\ from\\ another\\ patient\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ the\\ patient\\,\\ in\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ doctors\\ can\\ re\\-seed\\ the\\ entire\\ population\\ of\\ blood\\ cells\\.\\ \\ This\\ method\\ is\\ still\\ widely\\ used\\,\\ and\\ not\\ very\\ effective\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1964\\:\\ the\\ first\\ Abnormal\\ chromosome\\ was\\ identified\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1973\\:\\ \\ Janet\\ Rowley\\ realized\\ that\\ the\\ 9\\;22\\ translocation\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ CML\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1986\\:\\ \\ the\\ BCR\\/ABL\\ fusion\\ was\\ identified\\ and\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ kinase\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2001\\:\\ \\ Oral\\ BCR\\/ABL\\ inhibitor\\ Gleevec\\ was\\ tested\\ in\\ patients\\.\\ \\ It\\ received\\ a\\ 100\\%\\ response\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ in\\ patients\\ that\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ stage\\ of\\ CML\\,\\ 100\\%\\ have\\ the\\ disease\\ go\\ away\\.\\ \\ There\\ \\is\\ \\<\\/em\\>a\\ very\\ late\\ stage\\ of\\ CML\\.\\ \\ Physicians\\ know\\ it\\ well\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ like\\ a\\ light\\ switch\\.\\ \\ When\\ that\\ comes\\ on\\,\\ something\\ happens\\ that\\ causes\\ Gleevec\\ to\\ lose\\ its\\ efficacy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Gleevec\\ has\\ minimal\\ side\\ effects\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ toxic\\ therapy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ may\\ only\\ be\\ 5\\,000\\ patients\\ of\\ CML\\,\\ and\\ there\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ major\\ profit\\ motive\\ for\\ the\\ pharmaceutical\\ company\\,\\ but\\ \\this\\ \\<\\/em\\>changed\\ everyone\\'s\\ view\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ paradigm\\ was\\ for\\ going\\ after\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Now\\,\\ when\\ you\\ went\\ after\\ the\\ oncogene\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ cancer\\ was\\ addicted\\ with\\ a\\ non\\-toxic\\ drug\\,\\ the\\ tumors\\ melt\\ away\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(This\\ oncogene\\ addiction\\ talk\\ keeps\\ making\\ me\\ think\\ of\\ real\\-life\\ addictions\\.\\ \\ Perhaps\\ for\\ some\\ people\\,\\ drugs\\ are\\ a\\ last\\ resort\\ of\\ sorts\\,\\ the\\ last\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\ before\\ suicide\\ that\\ can\\ remove\\ the\\ unbearable\\ pain\\ that\\ life\\ sometimes\\ brings\\.\\ \\ Nobody\\ has\\ ever\\ captured\\ a\\ drug\\ addict\\ more\\ poignantly\\ to\\ me\\ than\\ Bubbles\\,\\ shown\\ here\\,\\ on\\ HBO\\'s\\ \\The\\ Wire\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ haven\\'t\\ seen\\ The\\ Wire\\,\\ I\\ cannot\\ recommend\\ it\\ enough\\.\\ \\ Important\\,\\ entertaining\\,\\ deep\\,\\ incredibly\\ well\\-acted\\ and\\ written\\,\\ it\\'s\\ my\\ vote\\ for\\ the\\ best\\ TV\\ show\\ ever\\ made\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Gleevec\\ isn\\'t\\ perfectly\\ specific\\ in\\ its\\ attack\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ BCR\\/ABL\\,\\ it\\ targets\\ another\\ kinase\\ gene\\ product\\:\\ \\ KIT\\.\\ \\ For\\ a\\ while\\,\\ people\\ just\\ thought\\:\\ \\ well\\,\\ Gleevec\\ isn\\'t\\ a\\ perfect\\ drug\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ too\\ bad\\ it\\ hits\\ KIT\\,\\ because\\ KIT\\ might\\ be\\ useful\\ for\\ the\\ patient\\ and\\ not\\ something\\ you\\'d\\ want\\ to\\ remove\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ evidence\\ has\\ not\\ shown\\ any\\ major\\ problem\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ KIT\\'s\\ function\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ fact\\,\\ KIT\\ causes\\ another\\ cancer\\,\\ a\\ solid\\ tumor\\ in\\ the\\ \\\"sarcoma\\\"\\ family\\ of\\ cancers\\ of\\ connective\\ tissues\\.\\ \\ A\\ Boston\\ oncologist\\ realized\\ that\\ a\\ gastrointestinal\\ tumor\\ called\\ GIST\\ was\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ a\\ founding\\ oncogene\\ called\\ KIT\\.\\ \\ He\\,\\ too\\,\\ began\\ using\\ Gleevec\\ with\\ success\\ in\\ treating\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Before\\ Gleevec\\,\\ GIST\\'s\\ treatment\\ involved\\ surgery\\,\\ radiation\\,\\ and\\ low\\ odds\\ of\\ success\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lung\\ Cancer\\:\\ \\ A\\ Family\\ of\\ Dead\\ Diseases\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ we\\ globally\\ classify\\ tumors\\,\\ we\\ see\\ patterns\\ of\\ expression\\ that\\ are\\ now\\ diagnostic\\ of\\ distinct\\ kinds\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\20\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ when\\ you\\ were\\ diagnosed\\ with\\ lung\\ cancer\\,\\ you\\ had\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ the\\ hospital\\ will\\ quickly\\ try\\ to\\ determine\\ which\\ of\\ many\\ types\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\ you\\ have\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Oncogenic\\ \\\"Kinases\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Kinases\\ are\\ the\\ key\\ regulatory\\ genes\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ the\\ ones\\ \\ that\\ often\\ get\\ deranged\\ in\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Examples\\ we\\'ve\\ seen\\:\\ KIT\\,\\ BCR\\/ABL\\,\\ and\\ FLT3\\.\\ \\ These\\ were\\ all\\ oncogenes\\ that\\ encoded\\ kinases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ the\\ last\\ one\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ in\\ this\\ class\\:\\ \\ the\\ Epidermal\\ Growth\\ Factor\\ Receptor\\,\\ or\\ EGFR\\.\\ \\ The\\ EGFR\\ sits\\ in\\ the\\ membrane\\ of\\ cells\\ and\\ sticks\\ out\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\.\\ \\ It\\ detects\\ a\\ hormone\\,\\ epidermal\\ growth\\ factor\\ \\(EGF\\)\\,\\ in\\ the\\ blood\\,\\ then\\ tells\\ the\\ cell\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ it\\ should\\ divide\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ under\\ normal\\ conditions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ EGFR\\ is\\ actually\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ insulin\\ receptor\\,\\ and\\ EGF\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ EGF\\ kinase\\ picks\\ up\\ a\\ cancerous\\ activating\\ mutation\\,\\ it\\ causes\\ to\\ EGFR\\ to\\ divide\\ regardless\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ EGF\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ bloodstream\\.\\ \\ \\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ activating\\ mutation\\ removes\\ the\\ cell\\-survival\\ control\\ mechanism\\ that\\ \\stops\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ cell\\ from\\ excessively\\ dividing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ small\\ molecule\\ existed\\ and\\ inhibited\\ the\\ EGFR\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ pharmaceutical\\ companies\\ have\\ intensive\\ focus\\ on\\ \\every\\ \\<\\/em\\>kinase\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ hoping\\ to\\ find\\ especially\\ selective\\ and\\ potent\\ inhibitors\\ of\\ every\\ one\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Iressa\\/gefitinib\\ is\\ a\\ drug\\ that\\ inhibits\\ the\\ mutated\\ EGFR\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Iressa\\/gefitinib\\ Drug\\ Trials\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ looked\\ at\\ 1\\,000\\ patients\\ with\\ lung\\ cancer\\,\\ over\\ a\\ 14\\-month\\ period\\,\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ this\\ drugs\\ should\\ be\\ approved\\ or\\ not\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\/2\\ the\\ patients\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ placebo\\.\\ \\ \\ 1\\/4\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ high\\ dose\\ of\\ gefitinib\\.\\ \\ 1\\/4\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ moderate\\ dose\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ year\\ later\\,\\ 5\\%\\ of\\ the\\ placebo\\ patients\\ had\\ seen\\ progression\\ in\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\ 10\\%\\ of\\ the\\ moderate\\ dose\\ patients\\ are\\ progression\\-free\\.\\ 18\\%\\ of\\ the\\ high\\ dose\\ patients\\ were\\ progression\\-free\\.\\ \\ Those\\ percentages\\ are\\ too\\ low\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ encouraging\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Iressa\\/gefitinib\\ was\\ approved\\ by\\ the\\ FDA\\ with\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ criticism\\.\\ \\ Not\\ only\\ was\\ it\\ approved\\,\\ but\\ it\\ got\\ \\accelerated\\ \\<\\/em\\>approval\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ really\\ rare\\ for\\ a\\ drug\\ to\\ get\\ passed\\ in\\ only\\ a\\ year\\.\\ \\ People\\ thought\\ this\\ was\\ outrageous\\.\\ \\ Studies\\ even\\ associated\\ the\\ drug\\ with\\ incurring\\ death\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ \\<\\/em\\>did\\ the\\ FDA\\ approve\\ this\\ drug\\?\\ \\ The\\ reason\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ rare\\ responders\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ FDA\\ noticed\\ that\\ the\\ rare\\ responders\\ tended\\ to\\ have\\ three\\ common\\ qualities\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ non\\-smokers\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ women\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ of\\ Japanese\\ descent\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Japanese\\,\\ non\\-smoking\\ women\\ are\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ EGF\\ receptors\\ in\\ the\\ membranes\\ of\\ their\\ body\\ cells\\.\\ \\ When\\ the\\ EGFR\\ acquires\\ an\\ activating\\ mutation\\ such\\ that\\ it\\ tells\\ its\\ cell\\ to\\ ceaselessly\\ divide\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ becomes\\ cancerous\\.\\ \\ This\\ process\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ cause\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ The\\ drug\\ Iressa\\/gefitinib\\ inactivates\\ the\\ EGFR\\ and\\ stops\\ it\\ from\\ telling\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ ceaselessly\\ self\\-divide\\.\\ \\ People\\ without\\ the\\ EGFR\\,\\ however\\,\\ do\\ not\\ respond\\ to\\ Iressa\\/gefitinib\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Systematic\\ Search\\ for\\ Mutations\\ in\\ Lung\\ Cancer\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ group\\ of\\ scientists\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\\"these\\ oncogenes\\ keep\\ encoding\\ kinases\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ 50\\ common\\ kinases\\.\\ \\ So\\ let\\'s\\ take\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\ patients\\,\\ take\\ biopses\\ of\\ their\\ tumors\\,\\ and\\ let\\'s\\ sequence\\ every\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 50\\ kinases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ looked\\ at\\ hundreds\\ of\\ patients\\,\\ but\\ found\\ nothing\\ very\\ interesting\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ until\\ they\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ EGF\\ receptor\\ \\(EGFR\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ the\\ caucasian\\ population\\,\\ and\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ the\\ Japanese\\ population\\,\\ have\\ an\\ EGFR\\.\\ \\ Most\\ often\\,\\ it\\'s\\ found\\ in\\ non\\-smokers\\.\\ \\ Especially\\ non\\-smoking\\ women\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ responders\\ to\\ gefitinib\\ not\\ only\\ just\\ have\\ lung\\ cancer\\,\\ but\\ a\\ lung\\ cancer\\ driven\\ by\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ the\\ EGFR\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ they\\ took\\ the\\ cells\\ of\\ these\\ patients\\ and\\ treated\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ drug\\ iressa\\/gefitinib\\.\\ \\ They\\ found\\ a\\ perfect\\ correlation\\:\\ \\ cells\\ taken\\ from\\ patients\\ that\\ didn\\'t\\ have\\ the\\ EGFR\\ had\\ no\\ response\\ to\\ Iressa\\.\\ \\ Cells\\ with\\ the\\ EGFR\\ were\\ highly\\ sensitive\\ to\\ Iressa\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Finally\\,\\ patients\\ were\\ selected\\ for\\ the\\ \\first\\ time\\ \\<\\/em\\>based\\ on\\ their\\ molecular\\ phenotype\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ When\\ patients\\ were\\ selected\\ that\\ harbored\\ the\\ EGF\\ receptor\\ mutation\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ given\\ Iressa\\,\\ they\\ were\\ remarkably\\ responsible\\ to\\ the\\ non\\-toxic\\ drug\\ Iressa\\/gefitinib\\.\\ \\ The\\ drug\\ doesn\\'t\\ make\\ you\\ sick\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ You\\ can\\ take\\ the\\ pill\\,\\ go\\ out\\ dancing\\,\\ and\\ in\\ almost\\ every\\ case\\,\\ the\\ tumor\\ shrinks\\ immediately\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ not\\ to\\ say\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ lung\\ cancer\\ of\\ EGFR\\ can\\ be\\ eliminated\\ with\\ this\\ drug\\.\\ \\ Over\\ time\\,\\ we\\'re\\ discovering\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ some\\ complications\\.\\ \\ Resistance\\ mutations\\ are\\ being\\ discovered\\.\\ \\ But\\ even\\ still\\,\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ powerful\\ bright\\ light\\ that\\'s\\ being\\ shined\\ on\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ also\\ creates\\ a\\ dilemma\\ of\\ the\\ pharmaceutical\\ industry\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ \\ Should\\ clinical\\ trials\\ be\\ performed\\ on\\ large\\ sample\\ populations\\,\\ or\\ should\\ they\\ only\\ be\\ tested\\ on\\ specific\\ types\\ of\\ patients\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ responsive\\ to\\ the\\ drug\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Pharmaceutical\\ companies\\ are\\ driven\\ by\\ shareholders\\ that\\ want\\ to\\ maximize\\ their\\ profit\\.\\ \\ If\\ they\\ run\\ a\\ clinical\\ trial\\ on\\ any\\ patient\\ with\\ lung\\ cancer\\ and\\ it\\ gets\\ approved\\,\\ you\\ can\\ sell\\ your\\ drug\\ to\\ anyone\\ with\\ lung\\ cancer\\,\\ including\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ you\\ know\\ the\\ drug\\ won\\'t\\ effect\\.\\ \\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ if\\ you\\ only\\ have\\ non\\-smoking\\ Japanese\\ women\\ in\\ your\\ clinical\\ study\\,\\ you\\'ll\\ only\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ drug\\ to\\ that\\ tiny\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ dilemma\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ maximizing\\ profits\\ vs\\.\\ enabling\\ people\\ to\\ live\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Summary\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ many\\ kinases\\.\\ \\ Each\\ kinase\\ plays\\ a\\ roll\\.\\ \\ \\ But\\ in\\ a\\ cancer\\ cell\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ kinase\\ genes\\ becomes\\ deranged\\.\\ \\ It\\ becomes\\ overactive\\.\\ \\ Cancer\\ cells\\ become\\ addicted\\ to\\ these\\ genes\\.\\ \\ Drugs\\ can\\ come\\ in\\,\\ though\\,\\ and\\ eliminate\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ a\\ kinase\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Yes\\,\\ other\\ body\\ cells\\ use\\ these\\ kinases\\,\\ too\\.\\ \\ But\\ they\\ aren\\'t\\ \\addicted\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ a\\ single\\ one\\,\\ like\\ a\\ cancer\\ cell\\ is\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Finding\\ the\\ Next\\ Gleevec\\ and\\ Iressa\\:\\ \\ The\\ Cancer\\ Genome\\ Atlas\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ cure\\ cancer\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ genes\\ that\\ harbor\\ mutations\\ in\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ project\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ new\\ one\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"Cancer\\ Genome\\ Atlas\\ Project\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ requires\\ an\\ ego\\-less\\ approach\\ to\\ science\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ scientifist\\ community\\ shares\\ data\\ and\\ helps\\ each\\ other\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ totality\\ of\\ the\\ collaboration\\ far\\ outweighs\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ parts\\ of\\ each\\ scientist\\.\\ \\ This\\ ain\\'t\\ how\\ science\\ normally\\ gets\\ done\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ more\\ typical\\ mode\\ is\\ having\\ individual\\ scientists\\ pursue\\ their\\ own\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ we\\ hope\\ that\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ finds\\ a\\ brilliant\\ breakthrough\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Cancer\\ Genome\\ Atlas\\ Project\\ is\\ data\\-sharing\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ controversial\\ because\\ it\\ confuses\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ science\\ gets\\ funded\\.\\ \\ Who\\ deserves\\ the\\ credit\\?\\ \\ Who\\ deserves\\ the\\ money\\?\\ \\ \\ The\\ answers\\ aren\\'t\\ so\\ easy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ comes\\ down\\ to\\ priorities\\.\\ \\ Do\\ we\\ care\\ more\\ about\\ determining\\ who\\ the\\ smartest\\ scientist\\/scientific\\ institution\\ is\\?\\ \\ Or\\ do\\ we\\ care\\ more\\ finding\\ drugs\\ that\\ save\\ people\\'s\\ lives\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Between\\ 2006\\-2009\\,\\ the\\ Cancer\\ Genome\\ Atlas\\ has\\ focused\\ on\\ brain\\,\\ lung\\,\\ and\\ ovarian\\ cancer\\,\\ the\\ 3\\ cancers\\ that\\ kill\\ the\\ most\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Soon\\,\\ the\\ Atlas\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ 50\\ most\\ common\\ cancers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Nay\\-sayers\\ might\\ say\\:\\ \\ \\\"well\\,\\ this\\ project\\ will\\ find\\ so\\ many\\ mutations\\.\\ \\ Some\\ of\\ them\\ will\\ be\\ \\drivers\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ cancers\\,\\ and\\ others\\ will\\ just\\ be\\ \\\"hitch\\-hiker\\\"\\ mutations\\.\\ \\ How\\ do\\ you\\ ever\\ figure\\ out\\ all\\ of\\ that\\ complexity\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ easy\\ to\\ say\\,\\ though\\,\\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ warns\\ us\\,\\ that\\ the\\ task\\ is\\ too\\ great\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ he\\ says\\,\\ when\\ you\\ tackle\\ things\\ comprehensively\\ in\\ an\\ open\\,\\ data\\-sharing\\ way\\,\\ and\\ let\\ everyone\\ collaborate\\,\\ it\\ transforms\\ the\\ entire\\ science\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ closes\\ with\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ pendulum\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ college\\ student\\ in\\ the\\ \\'70s\\,\\ cancer\\ was\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ the\\ pendulum\\ swung\\ the\\ other\\ way\\.\\ \\ Every\\ single\\ cancer\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ unique\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ the\\ pendulum\\ has\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ middle\\.\\ \\ We\\ realize\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ mutations\\ that\\ cause\\ cancers\\,\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ only\\ 20\\ pathways\\ that\\ small\\ molecule\\ drugs\\ can\\ target\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ hit\\ the\\ proteins\\ produced\\ by\\ oncogenes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Summary\\ \\#2\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ Tumor\\ cells\\ are\\ paradoxically\\ poised\\ to\\ die\\.\\ They\\ hold\\ onto\\ a\\ single\\ thread\\:\\ \\ addiction\\ to\\ an\\ oncogene\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ Myriad\\ abnormalities\\ between\\ cancers\\ converge\\ on\\ a\\ surprisingly\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ understandable\\ pathways\\.\\ \\ We\\ may\\ soon\\ have\\ a\\ complete\\ list\\ of\\ relevant\\ pathways\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ The\\ testing\\ of\\ new\\ drugs\\ will\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ efficient\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ cheaper\\,\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ become\\ economically\\ feasible\\ for\\ companies\\ to\\ match\\ drugs\\ with\\ specific\\ patient\\ populations\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Pharmaceutical\\ companies\\ don\\'t\\ like\\ matching\\ specific\\ drugs\\ to\\ specific\\ patients\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ more\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ So\\ why\\,\\ if\\ it\\'s\\ more\\ expensive\\ for\\ pharmaceutical\\ companies\\,\\ would\\ we\\ expect\\ that\\ clinical\\ trials\\ \\will\\ \\<\\/em\\>test\\ smaller\\ groups\\ of\\ known\\ responders\\ to\\ specific\\ drugs\\ in\\ the\\ future\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Again\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ is\\ in\\ market\\ forces\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ how\\ expensive\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ design\\ drugs\\ \\(one\\ could\\ cost\\ \\$1\\ billion\\)\\,\\ and\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ even\\ work\\ in\\ people\\?\\ \\ Well\\,\\ recall\\ the\\ testing\\ of\\ Iressa\\/gefitinib\\ on\\ lung\\ cancer\\ patients\\.\\ \\ If\\ a\\ company\\,\\ from\\ the\\ outset\\,\\ had\\ found\\ through\\ systematic\\,\\ unbiased\\ research\\ what\\ type\\ of\\ patient\\ population\\ had\\ the\\ EGF\\ receptor\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ \\no\\ \\<\\/em\\>doubt\\ about\\ the\\ approval\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\ Less\\ money\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ spent\\ on\\ testing\\,\\ and\\ the\\ opportunity\\ cost\\ of\\ making\\ the\\ drug\\ would\\ be\\ dramatically\\ lower\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ progress\\ of\\ medicine\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ will\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ scientific\\ communities\\ can\\ leave\\ their\\ egos\\ and\\ differences\\ aside\\,\\ join\\ hands\\,\\ and\\ share\\ data\\.\\ \\ We\\ also\\ have\\ reason\\ to\\ hope\\ that\\ pharmaceutical\\ companies\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ profit\\ as\\ they\\ are\\,\\ will\\ be\\ incentivized\\ by\\ lower\\ research\\ \\&\\;\\ development\\ costs\\ to\\ create\\ specific\\ drugs\\ for\\ specific\\ types\\ of\\ people\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Many\\ people\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ this\\ market\\ driver\\ \\will\\ \\<\\/em\\>take\\ the\\ pharmaceutical\\ industry\\ in\\ a\\ direction\\ most\\ helps\\ society\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ personalized\\ medicine\\,\\ and\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ this\\ in\\ future\\ decades\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ \\(Not\\ So\\ Distant\\)\\ Future\\ of\\ Cancer\\ Treatment\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ A\\ patient\\ gets\\ undergoes\\ a\\ biopsy\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ genomic\\ analysis\\ that\\ gives\\ him\\ a\\ genetic\\ signature\\.\\ \\ Specific\\ therapies\\ from\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ are\\ then\\ measured\\ up\\ against\\ his\\ signature\\,\\ and\\ it\\ wil\\ be\\ determined\\ \\very\\ \\<\\/em\\>quickly\\ if\\ the\\ drug\\ will\\ kill\\ his\\ tumor\\ cell\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "A New View of Human Cancers"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.973714+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cancer Stem Cells", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 468, "html": "\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\ lectures\\ to\\ go\\ before\\ the\\ teaching\\ in\\ B\\-47\\ concludes\\.\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Tom\\ Green\\'s\\ testicular\\ cancer\\ has\\ not\\ relapsed\\ after\\ 5\\ years\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ normal\\ time\\ frame\\ doctors\\ use\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ a\\ cancer\\ has\\ been\\ completely\\ cured\\ or\\ not\\.\\ To\\ use\\ the\\ cancer\\ lingo\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ it\\ suggests\\ that\\ his\\ chemotherapy\\ treatments\\ removed\\ the\\ seed\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ his\\ tumor\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ simply\\ enrichening\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ tumor\\ cells\\ that\\ they\\ made\\ up\\.\\ PS\\:\\ if\\ you\\ trust\\ the\\ 12\\ reviews\\ on\\ Amazon\\.com\\ for\\ this\\ book\\,\\ it\\'s\\ apparently\\ an\\ amazingly\\ heartfelt\\,\\ touching\\,\\ insightful\\,\\ fast\\ read\\!\\ \\ I\\ wasn\\'t\\ expecting\\ quality\\ when\\ I\\ looked\\ at\\ this\\ cover\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Today\\ is\\ the\\ 2nd\\ of\\ the\\ pair\\ of\\ lectures\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ new\\ view\\ of\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ introduce\\ you\\ to\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ an\\ unusually\\ deranged\\ stem\\ cell\\ called\\ a\\ \\\"cancer\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ lecture\\ after\\ this\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ \\all\\ \\<\\/em\\>kinds\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ including\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ class\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ emphasized\\ the\\ \\molecular\\ \\<\\/em\\>basis\\ of\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ We\\ saw\\ that\\ the\\ molecular\\ underpinnings\\ of\\ cancer\\ were\\ cancer\\-causing\\ genes\\ called\\ oncogenes\\.\\ \\ We\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ discovery\\ that\\ tumor\\ cells\\ are\\ addicted\\ to\\ oncogenes\\,\\ which\\ caused\\ scientists\\ to\\ rethink\\ cancer\\ therapy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ saw\\ examples\\ of\\ drugs\\ \\(Gleevec\\,\\ the\\ inhibitor\\ of\\ the\\ BCR\\/ABL\\ kinase\\ that\\ triggers\\ CML\\,\\ and\\ Iressa\\/gefitinib\\,\\ the\\ EGF\\ receptor\\ inhibitor\\)\\ that\\,\\ unlike\\ chemotherapy\\,\\ aren\\'t\\ toxic\\,\\ and\\ they\\ specifically\\ target\\ the\\ oncogene\\ to\\ which\\ cancer\\ cells\\ are\\ addicted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ another\\ discovery\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\ about\\ cancer\\ that\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ \\cellular\\ \\<\\/em\\>origins\\ of\\ cancer\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ molecular\\ origins\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ see\\ how\\ cells\\ maintain\\ tumors\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ see\\ the\\ seeds\\ within\\ a\\ tumor\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ many\\ patients\\ suffer\\ a\\ relapse\\ from\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancer\\ relapse\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ very\\ mysterious\\ process\\.\\ \\ Now\\ we\\ realize\\ its\\ cellular\\ origin\\,\\ and\\ this\\,\\ like\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ molecular\\ origin\\ of\\ cancer\\,\\ is\\ leading\\ to\\ new\\ drug\\ discoveries\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Stem\\ cell\\ type\\ 1\\:\\ \\ Embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ two\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/2\\:\\ \\ Tumor\\ Progenitor\\ Cells\\ \\-\\ \\\"Cancer\\ Stem\\ Cells\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ many\\ tumors\\,\\ only\\ a\\ rare\\ population\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ has\\ the\\ capacity\\ for\\ endless\\ cell\\ division\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ probably\\ the\\ driver\\ of\\ the\\ tumor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ cells\\ have\\ properties\\ that\\ are\\ really\\ similar\\ to\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ They\\ look\\ and\\ behave\\ like\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Because\\ it\\'s\\ still\\ hard\\ to\\ define\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\,\\ we\\ call\\ the\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ \\\"tumor\\ progenitor\\ cells\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ Are\\ Stem\\ Cells\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ have\\ two\\ special\\ properties\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ the\\ only\\ type\\ of\\ cell\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ with\\ the\\ capacity\\ for\\ \\\"infinite\\\"\\ renewal\\,\\ for\\ infinitely\\ dividing\\ and\\ cloning\\ itself\\.\\ \\ By\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ typical\\ cell\\ can\\ only\\ divide\\ about\\ 30\\ times\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ a\\ normal\\ cell\\ divides\\,\\ it\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ \\exactly\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ same\\ as\\ its\\ daughter\\ cells\\,\\ because\\ eventually\\ it\\ \\does\\ \\<\\/em\\>lose\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ divide\\.\\ \\ Something\\ must\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ cells\\ along\\ the\\ way\\ during\\ this\\ process\\.\\ \\ Somehow\\,\\ a\\ normal\\ cell\\ knows\\ its\\ history\\ of\\ dividing\\ if\\ it\\ stops\\ after\\ the\\ 30th\\ division\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ They\\ have\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ undergo\\ asymmetric\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ where\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ division\\ is\\ differentiated\\,\\ such\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\ \\ It\\ will\\ begin\\ to\\ differentiate\\ many\\ times\\ towards\\ a\\ certain\\ kind\\ of\\ cell\\,\\ perhaps\\ a\\ skin\\ cell\\,\\ through\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ steps\\ \\(10\\ or\\ so\\?\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ can\\ undergo\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ division\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ differentiated\\ cell\\ can\\ continue\\ to\\ differentiate\\ into\\ \\every\\ \\<\\/em\\>kind\\ of\\ cell\\ in\\ your\\ body\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ what\\ makes\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ so\\ special\\.\\ \\ They\\ have\\ the\\ total\\ capacity\\ to\\ make\\ every\\ cell\\ in\\ the\\ living\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Other\\ kinds\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\ that\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ undergo\\ infinite\\ renewal\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ undergo\\ asymmetric\\ differentiation\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ the\\ asymmetric\\ differentiation\\ only\\ divides\\ enough\\ times\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ specific\\ kind\\ of\\ organ\\.\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Stem\\ cell\\ type\\ 2\\:\\ \\ Adult\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>The\\ organ\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ today\\ is\\ the\\ blood\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\ that\\ isn\\'t\\ embryonic\\ \\(it\\ can\\'t\\ differentiate\\ into\\ \\every\\<\\/em\\>\\ kind\\ of\\ cell\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ every\\ kind\\ of\\ cell\\ in\\ the\\ blood\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Four\\ Types\\ of\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ \\(the\\ focus\\ of\\ next\\ lecture\\)\\.\\ \\ These\\ cells\\ can\\ acquire\\ mutations\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ cancerous\\ \\(type\\ 3\\ stem\\ cell\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ Adult\\ stem\\ cells\\ \\(embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ make\\ these\\)\\,\\ which\\ can\\ make\\ whole\\ organs\\.\\ \\ These\\ cells\\ can\\ acquire\\ mutations\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ cancerous\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ cancerous\\ adult\\ stem\\ cells\\ that\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ true\\ \\seeds\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ tumors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ Cancers\\ of\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ Cancer\\ of\\ adult\\ stem\\ cells\\ \\(leukemic\\ cancer\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ major\\ focus\\ of\\ next\\ lecture\\ is\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ can\\ undergo\\ both\\ symmetric\\ cell\\ division\\ \\(which\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ clones\\ that\\ can\\ also\\ infinitely\\ self\\-divide\\ and\\ clone\\)\\ and\\ differentiated\\ cell\\ division\\ \\(which\\ produces\\ cells\\ that\\ will\\ become\\ organs\\,\\ blood\\,\\ or\\ even\\ the\\ entire\\ nervous\\ system\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Differentiated\\ cells\\ could\\ even\\ become\\ something\\ specific\\ like\\ the\\ pancreatic\\ islets\\,\\ which\\,\\ as\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ a\\ couple\\ lectures\\ ago\\,\\ has\\ the\\ insulin\\-producing\\ cells\\ that\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ crux\\ of\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ embryonic\\ cells\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ everything\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Adult\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Adult\\ stem\\ cells\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ one\\ full\\ organ\\ type\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Stem\\ cell\\ type\\ 3\\:\\ \\ embryonic\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>We\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\ \\ The\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cell\\ undergoes\\ symmetric\\ cell\\ division\\ to\\ maintain\\ its\\ numbers\\ and\\ replenish\\ the\\ entire\\ blood\\ system\\.\\ \\ Several\\ symmetric\\ divisions\\ produce\\ \\\"early\\ lineage\\ cells\\,\\\"\\ cells\\ that\\ can\\ differentiate\\ into\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ blood\\ cells\\.\\ \\ As\\ they\\ keep\\ differentiating\\,\\ each\\ successive\\ cell\\ in\\ the\\ lineage\\ path\\ has\\ fewer\\ and\\ fewer\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ differentiate\\ into\\,\\ until\\ finally\\ you\\ just\\ have\\ the\\ \\\"terminally\\ differentiated\\ cells\\,\\\"\\ the\\ end\\ products\\.\\ \\ An\\ end\\ product\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ red\\ blood\\ cell\\,\\ which\\ can\\'t\\ differentiate\\ into\\ any\\ other\\ type\\ of\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Early\\ lineage\\ cells\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ capacity\\ for\\ proliferation\\ \\(they\\ can\\ divide\\ forever\\)\\ and\\ differentiation\\ \\(they\\ can\\ become\\ many\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\)\\.\\ \\ Terminally\\ differentiated\\ cells\\ have\\ low\\ capacity\\ for\\ proliferation\\ and\\ no\\ capacity\\ for\\ differentiation\\.\\ \\ Beta\\ cells\\ in\\ pancreas\\ islets\\ are\\ another\\ example\\.\\ \\ Type\\ 1\\ diabetes\\ is\\ so\\ troublesome\\ because\\ it\\ destroys\\ Beta\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ reproduce\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ Neurons\\ are\\ terminally\\ differentiated\\ cells\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ cancer\\ as\\ a\\ proliferative\\ disorder\\.\\ We\\ think\\ of\\ tumors\\ as\\ groups\\ of\\ cells\\ that\\ don\\'t\\ stop\\ dividing\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ more\\ specific\\ than\\ that\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ Only\\ the\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ ceaselessly\\ divide\\,\\ and\\ they\\'re\\ a\\ rare\\ lot\\ within\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ in\\ a\\ tumor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ point\\ to\\ make\\ is\\ that\\ cancer\\ is\\ a\\ disorder\\ of\\ \\differentiation\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ \\ Early\\ lineage\\ cells\\ have\\ really\\ high\\ potential\\ for\\ becoming\\ cancerous\\.\\ \\ Terminally\\ differentiated\\ cells\\,\\ though\\.\\.\\.you\\ guessed\\ it\\.\\ \\ Low\\ potential\\ for\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\No\\ one\\ has\\ ever\\ discovered\\ a\\ cancer\\ of\\ the\\ neuron\\.\\ \\ Neurons\\ don\\'t\\ divide\\ anymore\\!\\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ hyper\\-proliferative\\ cells\\ that\\ become\\ cancerous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ cancer\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\'s\\ a\\ brand\\ new\\ strategy\\ in\\ drug\\ therapy\\ for\\ cancer\\ now\\.\\ \\ It\\ exploits\\ that\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ developmental\\ component\\ to\\ cancer\\,\\ in\\ that\\ a\\ cell\\'s\\ development\\ in\\ the\\ differentiation\\ lineage\\ relates\\ to\\ its\\ likeliness\\ to\\ become\\ cancerous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Drugs\\ that\\ promote\\ differentiation\\ will\\ push\\ cells\\ with\\ high\\ proliferation\\ capacity\\ \\(and\\ therefore\\ high\\ cancer\\ capacity\\)\\ down\\ their\\ cell\\ lineage\\ lines\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ much\\ lower\\ proliferative\\ capacity\\ \\(and\\ therefore\\ much\\ lower\\ capacity\\ to\\ become\\ cancerous\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cancers\\ of\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ \\(Teratomas\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Teratomas\\ always\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ features\\.\\ \\ They\\ grow\\ in\\ a\\ tumor\\ mass\\,\\ but\\ they\\ always\\ grow\\ in\\ entirely\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ \\ They\\ undergo\\ \\random\\<\\/em\\>\\ differentiation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ tumor\\ might\\ have\\ hair\\,\\ because\\ it\\ might\\ randomly\\ differentiate\\ into\\ a\\ hair\\ cell\\ that\\ produces\\ hair\\.\\ \\ It\\ might\\ even\\ produce\\ a\\ tooth\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(A\\ teratoma\\ that\\ has\\ randomly\\ differentiated\\ to\\ produce\\ hair\\ cells\\ that\\ grow\\ hair\\.\\ \\ Some\\ teratomas\\ grow\\ teeth\\!\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Cancer\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ have\\ identified\\ a\\ small\\ population\\ of\\ cells\\ in\\ breast\\ tumors\\ that\\ can\\ seed\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ new\\ cancers\\.\\ \\ These\\ cancer\\-causing\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ make\\ up\\ a\\ tiny\\ fraction\\ \\(1\\/100\\,000\\)\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ within\\ tumors\\,\\ have\\ properties\\ similar\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"This\\ study\\ creates\\ a\\ whole\\ new\\ conceptual\\ paradigm\\ of\\ how\\ tumors\\ form\\,\\\"\\ says\\ Robert\\ A\\.\\ Weinberg\\,\\ a\\ hard\\-to\\-impress\\ intellectual\\ force\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ cancer\\ medicine\\.\\ \\ \\\"It\\ changes\\ our\\ thinking\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ old\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ cancer\\ was\\ that\\ \\all\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ the\\ cells\\ have\\ this\\ horrible\\ capacity\\ to\\ grow\\ in\\ this\\ uncontrolled\\ way\\.\\ \\ They\\ all\\ start\\ dividing\\,\\ and\\ the\\ mass\\ gets\\ bigger\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ new\\ view\\,\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ rare\\ seed\\ cell\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ undergo\\ unlimited\\ symmetric\\ cell\\ division\\ \\(so\\ it\\ can\\ increase\\ its\\ numbers\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ has\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ undergo\\ differentiation\\,\\ to\\ create\\ differentiating\\ cancer\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\An\\ Experiment\\ with\\ Hematopoietic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ \\(HSC\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ experiment\\ that\\ was\\ performed\\ that\\ first\\ illuminated\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ including\\ HSC\\,\\ and\\ then\\,\\ the\\ thunderbolt\\:\\ \\ cancerous\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hematopoietic\\ cells\\ were\\ added\\ to\\ a\\ mouse\\'s\\ bloodstream\\.\\ \\ Hematopoietic\\ cells\\ were\\ chosen\\ because\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ blood\\ system\\,\\ only\\ these\\ rare\\ adult\\ stem\\ cells\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ reconstitute\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ blood\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ mouse\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ immune\\ system\\ of\\ a\\ mouse\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\ would\\ reject\\ the\\ human\\ hematopoietic\\ cell\\.\\ \\ \\ However\\,\\ a\\ lab\\ mouse\\ can\\ be\\ genetically\\ bred\\ to\\ lack\\ this\\ immune\\ response\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\,\\ you\\ eradicate\\ the\\ mouse\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ its\\ own\\ hematopoietic\\ system\\ is\\ damaged\\ and\\ eliminated\\.\\ \\ This\\ sounds\\ like\\ a\\ horrible\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ another\\ animal\\.\\ \\ That\\ said\\,\\ it\\'s\\ how\\ chemotherapy\\ works\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ and\\ the\\ unfortunate\\ truth\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ means\\ through\\ which\\ many\\,\\ many\\ human\\ lives\\ will\\ be\\ saved\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\,\\ bone\\ marrow\\ from\\ a\\ human\\ donor\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ his\\ hematopoietic\\ system\\,\\ a\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cell\\,\\ is\\ put\\ inside\\ a\\ mouse\\,\\ and\\ scientists\\ then\\ hope\\ that\\ these\\ human\\ cells\\ will\\ catch\\ on\\ and\\ reproduce\\ inside\\ the\\ mouse\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\On\\ Tuesday\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ get\\ into\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ controversies\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Just\\ thinking\\ about\\ this\\ experiment\\ alone\\,\\ you\\'ve\\ created\\ a\\ situation\\ that\\ some\\ people\\ would\\ find\\ unethical\\.\\ \\ You\\'ve\\ created\\ a\\ \\\"chimeric\\ animal\\\"\\:\\ \\ a\\ mouse\\ with\\ a\\ human\\'s\\ blood\\ system\\.\\ \\ Chimeric\\ animals\\ have\\ actually\\ existed\\ alongside\\ humans\\ for\\ many\\ decades\\,\\ if\\ not\\ centuries\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Back\\ to\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ system\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ seed\\ of\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ system\\ is\\ found\\ inside\\ the\\ bone\\ marrow\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ where\\ all\\ blood\\ is\\ first\\ generated\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ begin\\ to\\ fractionate\\ this\\ hematopoietic\\ system\\,\\ such\\ that\\ you\\ painstakingly\\ tease\\ out\\ the\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ you\\ put\\ them\\ into\\ the\\ mouse\\,\\ then\\ you\\ find\\ that\\ \\one\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\ \\works\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ the\\ mouse\\.\\ \\ It\\ eventually\\ produces\\ an\\ \\entire\\ \\<\\/em\\>hematopoietic\\ system\\ inside\\ the\\ mouse\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ entire\\ blood\\ organ\\ comes\\ from\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ cell\\!\\ \\ An\\ adult\\ stem\\ cell\\:\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ that\\ experiment\\ is\\ what\\ scientists\\ used\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ a\\ cell\\ is\\ an\\ organ\\-producing\\ adult\\ stem\\ cell\\ or\\ not\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reconstituting\\ Tumors\\ \\(Leukemias\\)\\ in\\ Mice\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\ here\\'s\\ the\\ thunderbolt\\,\\ as\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ has\\ been\\ continually\\ referring\\ to\\:\\ \\ a\\ rare\\ population\\ of\\ \\tumor\\ \\<\\/em\\>cells\\ has\\ been\\ found\\ that\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ reconstitute\\ a\\ tumor\\ in\\ a\\ mouse\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ similar\\ way\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ seed\\ cell\\ created\\ a\\ blood\\ organ\\ in\\ the\\ mouse\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ thunderbolt\\ of\\ recent\\ cancer\\ research\\:\\ \\ that\\ tumors\\ are\\ started\\ by\\ cancerous\\ cells\\ that\\ are\\ especially\\ similar\\ to\\ normal\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>1\\/100\\,000\\ leukemic\\ cells\\ can\\ do\\ this\\,\\ and\\ recent\\ experiments\\ have\\ succeeded\\ with\\ breast\\,\\ bone\\,\\ ovarian\\,\\ brain\\,\\ colon\\,\\ and\\ many\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ tumors\\.\\ \\ These\\ adult\\ cancer\\ cells\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ adult\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ put\\ a\\ leukemia\\ into\\ a\\ mouse\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ leukemia\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ you\\ can\\ divide\\ up\\ the\\ different\\ leukemia\\ cells\\ and\\ realize\\ that\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\,\\ all\\ by\\ themselves\\,\\ to\\ reconstitute\\ an\\ entire\\ leukemia\\ tumor\\ in\\ the\\ mouse\\.\\ \\ Only\\ 1\\/100\\,000\\ leukemia\\ cells\\ can\\ do\\ this\\,\\ though\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Other\\ types\\ of\\ cancer\\ cells\\,\\ imlanted\\ by\\ themselves\\ in\\ an\\ immuno\\-weakened\\ mouse\\,\\ can\\'t\\ start\\ their\\ own\\ tumor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/2\\:\\ \\ The\\ Search\\ for\\ Drugs\\ that\\ Eliminate\\ Tumor\\ Progenitor\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ a\\ shocking\\ insight\\ that\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ seed\\ within\\ a\\ tumor\\.\\ \\ But\\ the\\ evidence\\ is\\ mounting\\.\\ \\ There\\ is\\ nothing\\ to\\ argue\\ against\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ this\\ isn\\'t\\ true\\ of\\ \\every\\ \\<\\/em\\>single\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Are\\ We\\ Targeting\\ the\\ Right\\ Cells\\ in\\ Cancer\\ Therapies\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Currently\\,\\ we\\ target\\ cancer\\ cells\\ and\\ hope\\ the\\ tumor\\ shrinks\\.\\ \\ Shrinking\\ tumors\\ is\\ helpful\\,\\ but\\ possibly\\ more\\ important\\ is\\ removing\\ the\\ stem\\ cells\\ that\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ say\\ cancer\\ remission\\ has\\ a\\ 5\\-year\\ window\\.\\ \\ You\\ aren\\'t\\ cured\\ of\\ cancer\\ until\\ the\\ disease\\ fails\\ to\\ relapse\\ for\\ 5\\ years\\ after\\ it\\ went\\ away\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ past\\,\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ we\\ knew\\,\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ cancer\\ relapsed\\ depended\\ on\\ luck\\.\\ \\ Now\\ we\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ resistance\\ of\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ to\\ current\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ relapse\\ following\\ treatment\\.\\ Many\\ times\\,\\ the\\ relapse\\ is\\ much\\ stronger\\ than\\ the\\ initial\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ of\\ our\\ drugs\\ today\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ targeting\\ cancer\\ cells\\ \\(because\\ that\\'s\\ what\\ we\\'ve\\ always\\ been\\ looking\\ to\\ target\\)\\,\\ but\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ are\\ very\\ poor\\ at\\ targeting\\ the\\ seed\\ cells\\ of\\ the\\ tumors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ that\\ seed\\ stays\\ alive\\ during\\ remission\\,\\ it\\ can\\ start\\ to\\ grow\\ back\\ again\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ relapse\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Resistance\\ of\\ Human\\ Glioblastoma\\ Cancer\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ to\\ Standard\\ Radiation\\ Treatment\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ there\\ evidence\\ that\\ current\\ therapies\\ are\\ missing\\ the\\ seed\\ of\\ the\\ tumor\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ a\\ case\\ involving\\ human\\ glioblastoma\\,\\ a\\ solid\\ tumor\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ horrible\\ disease\\ with\\ very\\ low\\ survival\\ rate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ has\\ been\\ found\\ that\\ surgery\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ tumor\\ \\never\\ \\<\\/em\\>removes\\ the\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ It\\ always\\ grows\\ back\\.\\ \\ After\\ surgical\\ removal\\ of\\ the\\ tumor\\,\\ patients\\ undergo\\ radiation\\ therapy\\,\\ which\\ hopefully\\ removes\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\.\\ \\ This\\ de\\-bulks\\ the\\ tumor\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ that\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ see\\ it\\ anymore\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Anyway\\,\\ human\\ glioblastoma\\ was\\ transplanted\\ into\\ mice\\.\\ \\ \\ 1\\/2\\ the\\ mice\\ were\\ given\\ no\\ treatment\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ other\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ the\\ mice\\ were\\ treated\\ with\\ radiation\\,\\ which\\ largely\\ reduced\\ the\\ tumor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ different\\ mice\\'s\\ glioblastoma\\ tumors\\ were\\ extracted\\ and\\ analyzed\\ to\\ see\\ \\ how\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ glioblastoma\\ cells\\,\\ in\\ treated\\ and\\ untreated\\ mice\\,\\ were\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ mice\\ who\\ were\\ \\treated\\ \\<\\/em\\>with\\ radiation\\ and\\ had\\ their\\ tumors\\ reduced\\ had\\ a\\ much\\ higher\\ percentage\\ of\\ cells\\ left\\ over\\ that\\ were\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ conclusion\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\ is\\ that\\ radiation\\ therapy\\ selectively\\ kills\\ the\\ cancer\\ non\\-stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Paradoxically\\,\\ it\\ \\enriches\\<\\/em\\>\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ seed\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ tumor\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ dangerous\\ kind\\ of\\ cancer\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ how\\ the\\ relapse\\ is\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ aggressive\\ disease\\?\\ \\ How\\ it\\ kills\\ much\\ more\\ quickly\\ than\\ the\\ initial\\ cancer\\?\\ \\ The\\ explanation\\ is\\ here\\:\\ \\ the\\ second\\ bout\\ of\\ cancer\\ is\\ an\\ enriched\\ \\\"All\\-Star\\\"\\ team\\ of\\ sorts\\,\\ consisting\\ only\\ of\\ the\\ tumor\\'s\\ most\\ prolific\\ players\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ our\\ current\\ therapies\\ actually\\ only\\ serve\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ cancer\\ in\\ time\\,\\ poising\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ aggressive\\ the\\ next\\ time\\ around\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Targeting\\ Cancer\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ interesting\\ cancer\\ therapy\\ would\\ not\\ only\\ cure\\ a\\ cancer\\'s\\ oncogene\\ addiction\\ \\(which\\ fosters\\ the\\ tumor\\ cells\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ would\\ also\\ target\\ the\\ tumor\\ seed\\ stem\\ cells\\ \\(which\\ spark\\ furious\\ relapses\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ will\\ it\\ be\\ possible\\ to\\ discover\\ drugs\\ that\\ selectively\\ target\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\?\\ \\ Evidence\\ says\\ yes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Discovering\\ Drugs\\ That\\ Selectively\\ Target\\ Cancer\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ idea\\ here\\ is\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ why\\ that\\ might\\ be\\.\\ \\ The\\ details\\ here\\ aren\\'t\\ too\\ important\\,\\ though\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ hemapoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\ \\(HSCs\\)\\ and\\ Leukemia\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ \\(LSCs\\)\\,\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ target\\ the\\ LCSs\\ without\\ hitting\\ HSCs\\,\\ which\\ are\\ really\\ similar\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ do\\ this\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ HSCs\\ and\\ LCSs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancer\\-causing\\ mutations\\ can\\ only\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ cancers\\ if\\ they\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ stem\\-like\\ cells\\ that\\ can\\ divide\\ and\\ differentiate\\ especially\\ much\\.\\ \\ The\\ ones\\ that\\ are\\ more\\ terminally\\ differentiated\\ can\\ have\\ cancerous\\ mutations\\,\\ but\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ cancers\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Lance\\ Armstrong\\'s\\ personal\\ cancer\\ foundation\\ launched\\ the\\ yellow\\ \\\"Livestrong\\\"\\ bracelets\\,\\ whose\\ sales\\,\\ along\\ with\\ other\\ fundraisers\\,\\ have\\ so\\ far\\ contributed\\ \\$60\\ million\\ to\\ the\\ fight\\ against\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ After\\ taking\\ this\\ class\\,\\ I\\'m\\ hoping\\ that\\ money\\ is\\ being\\ spent\\ on\\ stopping\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>To\\ translate\\ to\\ HSCs\\ and\\ LSCs\\:\\ \\ an\\ oncogenic\\ mutation\\ in\\ an\\ HSC\\ progenitor\\ cell\\ \\(one\\ that\\'s\\ earlier\\ along\\ in\\ the\\ differentiation\\ process\\)\\ \\can\\ \\<\\/em\\>give\\ rise\\ to\\ LSCs\\,\\ but\\ oncogenic\\ mutations\\ in\\ more\\ mature\\ and\\ less\\ differentiable\\ Hematopoietic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\,\\ \\cannot\\ \\<\\/em\\>give\\ rise\\ to\\ Leukemic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\LSCs\\ have\\ similarities\\ \\and\\ \\<\\/em\\>differences\\ with\\ HSCs\\.\\ \\ LSCs\\'\\ different\\ dependencies\\ might\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ target\\ them\\ without\\ harming\\ HSCs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ way\\ we\\ figured\\ out\\ the\\ differences\\ and\\ similarities\\ between\\ LSCs\\ and\\ HSCs\\ was\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ universal\\ language\\ of\\ gene\\ expression\\ profiles\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ each\\ cell\\ was\\ truly\\ made\\ of\\.\\ \\ This\\ involved\\ measuring\\ mRNA\\ levels\\ of\\ leukemic\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ cells\\ of\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ \\(blood\\)\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ LSCs\\ have\\ a\\ signature\\,\\ that\\,\\ in\\ some\\ respects\\,\\ makes\\ them\\ look\\ like\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ But\\ in\\ other\\ respects\\,\\ the\\ LSCs\\ look\\ like\\ other\\ kinds\\ of\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ differentiation\\ progression\\.\\ \\ Strangely\\,\\ they\\ share\\ qualities\\ with\\ a\\ hematopoietic\\ cell\\ called\\ a\\ GMP\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cell\\ that\\ has\\ only\\ been\\ differentiated\\ a\\ few\\ times\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ leukemia\\ stem\\ cell\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ hybrid\\ between\\ a\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cell\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ differentiated\\ several\\ times\\ from\\ an\\ HSC\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ good\\ news\\.\\ \\ Why\\?\\ \\ Because\\ it\\ means\\ the\\ LSC\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ HSC\\,\\ which\\ means\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ a\\ selective\\ therapy\\ that\\ only\\ targets\\ the\\ LSC\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ HSC\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Good\\ Old\\ Rapamycin\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ B\\-47\\ small\\ molecule\\ wonder\\-drug\\ rapamycin\\ \\(actually\\,\\ a\\ derivative\\ of\\ rapamycin\\)\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ target\\ LSCs\\ and\\ \\promote\\ \\<\\/em\\>HSCs\\!\\ \\ \\(Did\\ you\\ know\\:\\ \\ the\\ collaborative\\ efforts\\ of\\ professors\\ Clardy\\ and\\ Schreiber\\ are\\ what\\ found\\ rapamycin\\?\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ a\\ little\\ recap\\:\\ \\ rapamycin\\ targets\\ the\\ protein\\ mTOR\\ \\(protein\\ \\#2\\ in\\ the\\ insulin\\/glucose\\ signaling\\ protein\\ bucket\\ brigade\\ mentioned\\ in\\ prior\\ lectures\\!\\)\\,\\ which\\ disrupts\\ leukemia\\ cell\\ stability\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ that\\ derivative\\ of\\ rapamycin\\ actually\\ promoted\\ the\\ viability\\ of\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\ while\\ inhibiting\\ the\\ viability\\ of\\ LSCs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\'s\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ a\\ tumor\\ supressor\\ gene\\ called\\ P10\\.\\ \\ Most\\ stem\\ cells\\ \\(hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\ included\\,\\ of\\ course\\)\\,\\ when\\ they\\ get\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ P10\\,\\ become\\ less\\ viable\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ the\\ \\\"house\\ of\\ cards\\\"\\ model\\ for\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Most\\ cancer\\-causing\\ mutations\\ are\\ deleterious\\ to\\ cells\\,\\ but\\ you\\'ll\\ have\\ one\\ rogue\\ cell\\ that\\ already\\ had\\ something\\ wrong\\ with\\ it\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ headed\\ for\\ death\\.\\ \\ But\\ a\\ tumor\\-causing\\ mutation\\ on\\ a\\ gene\\ produced\\ a\\ new\\ protein\\ that\\ kept\\ it\\ alive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ a\\ dying\\,\\ rogue\\ cell\\ might\\ get\\ a\\ cancerous\\ mutation\\ on\\ the\\ tumor\\ suppressor\\ gene\\ P10\\.\\ \\ Suddenly\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ can\\ live\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ deranged\\ protein\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ mutated\\ P10\\ gene\\.\\ \\ Genomic\\ instability\\ continues\\.\\ \\ More\\ mutations\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\ occur\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ full\\-fledged\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ this\\ is\\ oncogene\\ addiction\\,\\ so\\ P10\\ will\\ be\\ critical\\ for\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ The\\ Rapamycin\\ Derivative\\ Works\\ Its\\ Magic\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ mentioned\\ protein\\ \\#2\\ in\\ that\\ insulin\\/glucose\\ signaling\\ protein\\ pathway\\:\\ \\ mTOR\\.\\ \\ We\\ didn\\'t\\ mention\\ protein\\ \\#4\\.\\ \\ Protein\\ \\#4\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ because\\ it\\ \\\"puts\\ the\\ brakes\\\"\\ on\\ HSCs\\.\\ \\ It\\ stops\\ them\\ from\\ proliferating\\ out\\ of\\ control\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ mentioned\\ that\\ protein\\ \\#2\\ in\\ the\\ pathway\\ is\\ mTOR\\.\\ \\ mTOR\\ also\\ has\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ protein\\ \\#4\\.\\ \\ mTOR\\ tells\\ protein\\ \\#4\\ to\\ do\\ its\\ job\\,\\ to\\ slow\\ down\\ HSC\\ proliferation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ a\\ protein\\ named\\ PTEN\\ tells\\ protein\\ \\#4\\ to\\ stop\\ doing\\ its\\ job\\,\\ to\\ stop\\ slowing\\ down\\ HSC\\ proliferation\\.\\ \\ In\\ that\\ way\\,\\ PTEN\\ actually\\ helps\\ HSCs\\ proliferate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ HSC\\,\\ mTOR\\ and\\ PTEN\\ affect\\ the\\ leukemic\\ stem\\ cell\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ they\\ affect\\ LSCs\\ differently\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ the\\ opposite\\ response\\ to\\ protein\\ 4\\.\\ So\\ while\\ protein\\ 4\\ puts\\ the\\ brakes\\ on\\ HSCs\\,\\ it\\ speeds\\ up\\ proliferation\\ of\\ LSCs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ if\\ PTEN\\ tells\\ protein\\ 4\\ to\\ stop\\ doing\\ its\\ job\\,\\ and\\ the\\ job\\ that\\ protein\\ 4\\ does\\ on\\ LSCs\\ is\\ to\\ tell\\ them\\ to\\ proliferate\\,\\ then\\ PTEN\\ is\\ a\\ tumor\\ suppressor\\ gene\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ take\\ a\\ drug\\ that\\ inhibits\\ PTEN\\,\\ the\\ tumor\\ suppressor\\ gene\\ that\\ tells\\ protein\\ 4\\ to\\ stop\\ letting\\ LSCs\\ proliferate\\,\\ then\\ you\\ slow\\ HSC\\ proliferation\\ and\\ accelerate\\ LSC\\ proliferation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ how\\ rapamycin\\ binds\\ to\\ mTOR\\?\\ \\ We\\ talked\\ about\\ this\\ relationship\\ in\\ our\\ discussions\\ of\\ both\\ natural\\ products\\ produced\\ by\\ evolution\\ and\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ occupy\\ mTOR\\ by\\ binding\\ it\\ to\\ rapamycin\\,\\ you\\ inhibit\\ mTOR\\ from\\ acting\\ on\\ protein\\ 4\\.\\ \\ Remember\\ that\\ mTOR\\ tells\\ protein\\ 4\\ to\\ do\\ its\\ job\\.\\ \\ Protein\\ 4\\'s\\ job\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ HSCs\\ is\\ to\\ slow\\ their\\ proliferation\\,\\ while\\ its\\ job\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ LSCs\\ is\\ to\\ speed\\ their\\ proliferation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ again\\,\\ if\\ you\\ occupy\\ mTOR\\ by\\ binding\\ it\\ to\\ rapamycin\\,\\ then\\ you\\ proliferate\\ HSCs\\ and\\ reduce\\ LSC\\ proliferation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ all\\ detailed\\.\\ \\ But\\ the\\ details\\ aren\\'t\\ important\\.\\ \\ You\\ don\\'t\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ mTOR\\ and\\ PTEN\\ and\\ each\\ one\\'s\\ specific\\ effect\\ on\\ Protein\\ 4\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ what\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ know\\.\\ \\ Cell\\ circuitry\\ works\\ like\\ a\\ yin\\ and\\ a\\ yang\\.\\ \\ One\\ signal\\ speeds\\ something\\ up\\ while\\ another\\ signal\\ slows\\ it\\ down\\.\\ \\ The\\ other\\ thing\\ to\\ know\\ is\\ that\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ body\\ stem\\ cells\\ respond\\ differently\\ to\\ this\\ yinyang\\ circuitry\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Drugs\\ that\\ Affect\\ Neurotransmission\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ recent\\ experiment\\ was\\ done\\ that\\ showed\\ \\another\\ \\<\\/em\\>avenue\\ for\\ targeting\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ It\\ studied\\ cancer\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ the\\ entire\\ central\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\ \\ Cancer\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ brain\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Clardy\\ discussed\\,\\ in\\ a\\ prior\\ lecture\\,\\ how\\ neurons\\ function\\ through\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ neurotransmitters\\.\\ \\ He\\ talked\\ about\\ adrenaline\\ and\\ its\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ He\\ talked\\ about\\ neurotransmitters\\ affecting\\ learning\\ \\(dopamine\\)\\,\\ cognition\\,\\ and\\ fidelity\\ \\(vasopressin\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ he\\ didn\\'t\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ proliferation\\ of\\ both\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ cancer\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ recent\\ study\\ did\\ a\\ screen\\ of\\ candidate\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ could\\ cause\\ cancer\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ to\\ stop\\ proliferating\\.\\ \\ It\\ found\\ that\\ adrenaline\\ and\\ dopamine\\ antagonists\\ selectively\\ killed\\ cancer\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ while\\ leaving\\ normal\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ untouched\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ to\\ treat\\ brain\\ cancers\\,\\ maybe\\ we\\ shouldn\\'t\\ keep\\ doing\\ chemotherapy\\ that\\ only\\ enriches\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\'\\ prevalence\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ powerful\\ relapses\\.\\ \\ Maybe\\ we\\ should\\ turn\\ to\\ neurotransmitter\\ antagonists\\ \\(adrenaline\\ antagonists\\,\\ dopamine\\ antagonists\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ normally\\ used\\ for\\ their\\ cognitive\\ and\\ behavioral\\ effects\\,\\ as\\ a\\ treatment\\ for\\ brain\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ being\\ studied\\ in\\ clinical\\ trials\\ as\\ we\\ speak\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ the\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ use\\ the\\ same\\ circuitry\\ as\\ brain\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ but\\ they\\ use\\ them\\ differently\\.\\ \\ The\\ same\\ hormones\\ that\\ determine\\ neurotransmitters\\ and\\ thus\\ affect\\ cognition\\ and\\ behavior\\ \\(adrenaline\\ and\\ dopamine\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\ also\\ drive\\ cancer\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ to\\ proliferate\\.\\ \\ That\\ provides\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ find\\ new\\ brain\\ cancers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\To\\ Summarize\\:\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Current\\ cancer\\ therapies\\ have\\ focused\\ on\\ tumor\\ de\\-bulking\\.\\ \\ Chemotherapy\\ does\\ this\\ especially\\ ineffectively\\,\\ killing\\ body\\ cells\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\ Newer\\ therapies\\ target\\ cancers\\'\\ addictions\\ to\\ genes\\ and\\ the\\ deranged\\ proteins\\ they\\ produce\\.\\ \\ This\\ de\\-bulks\\ tumors\\ without\\ giving\\ the\\ body\\ negative\\ toxic\\ side\\ effects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ neither\\ strategy\\ removes\\ the\\ rare\\ \\(1\\/100\\,000\\)\\ tumor\\ \\\"seed\\ cell\\,\\\"\\ very\\ similar\\ in\\ nature\\ to\\ a\\ normal\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ de\\-bulk\\ strategies\\ actually\\ enrich\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ tumor\\ cells\\ that\\ are\\ seed\\ cells\\,\\ that\\ likely\\ causes\\ an\\ especially\\ powerful\\ relapse\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ targeting\\ tumors\\'\\ seed\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ de\\-bulk\\,\\ and\\ de\\-seed\\ strategies\\ is\\ our\\ best\\ hope\\ today\\ for\\ eliminating\\ the\\ pain\\ and\\ suffering\\ induced\\ by\\ cancer\\ from\\ the\\ future\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Stem\\ Cells\\ May\\ Be\\ Key\\ to\\ Cancer\\\"\\ \\-\\ 02\\/21\\/2006\\,\\ \\The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2006\\/02\\/21\\/health\\/21canc\\.html\\?\\_r\\=1\\&\\;oref\\=slogin\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Stem\\ cells\\ are\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ at\\ least\\ some\\,\\ and\\ maybe\\ all\\,\\ cancers\\.\\ \\ \\ Some\\ researchers\\ suspect\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ every\\ tumor\\ are\\ a\\ handful\\ of\\ rogue\\ stem\\ cells\\ that\\ maintain\\ the\\ malignant\\ tumor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ may\\ change\\ how\\ cancer\\ medicine\\ is\\ done\\.\\ \\ Currently\\,\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ are\\ chosen\\ for\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ shrink\\ tumors\\.\\ \\ This\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ important\\,\\ though\\,\\ if\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ kill\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ did\\ scientists\\ discover\\ stem\\ cells\\'\\ role\\ in\\ cancers\\?\\ \\ They\\ realized\\ that\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ cells\\ in\\ tumors\\ resembled\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ their\\ abilities\\ to\\ seed\\ new\\ cancer\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ do\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ come\\ about\\?\\ \\ Biologists\\ aren\\'t\\ sure\\.\\ \\ Maybe\\ the\\ body\\'s\\ stem\\ cells\\ mutate\\,\\ changing\\ their\\ DNA\\ instructions\\,\\ and\\ deranging\\ the\\ strict\\ regulations\\ on\\ how\\ they\\ self\\-renew\\.\\ \\ Or\\ maybe\\ their\\ immediate\\ progeny\\,\\ known\\ as\\ progenitor\\ cells\\,\\ suffer\\ genetic\\ damage\\ after\\ which\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ differentiating\\ into\\ mature\\ cells\\,\\ they\\ regain\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ self\\-proliferation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ stem\\ cell\\ is\\ unique\\ because\\ it\\ can\\ divide\\ unevenly\\.\\ \\ It\\ can\\ create\\ a\\ new\\ progenitor\\ cell\\ that\\'s\\ unlike\\ itself\\.\\ \\ Most\\ cells\\ just\\ create\\ clones\\.\\ \\ A\\ progenitor\\ cell\\ loses\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ self\\-renew\\,\\ but\\ it\\ gains\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ differentiate\\ into\\ the\\ mature\\ cell\\ types\\ of\\ the\\ tissue\\ served\\ by\\ the\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Researchers\\ hope\\ that\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ excessive\\ self\\-renewal\\ activity\\,\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ dependent\\ than\\ normal\\ stem\\ cells\\ on\\ certain\\ cellular\\ processes\\.\\ \\ Hopefully\\ cancer\\ drugs\\ can\\ use\\ those\\ dependencies\\ to\\ pick\\ out\\ the\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\ from\\ the\\ real\\ ones\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Stem\\ Cells\\:\\ \\ The\\ Real\\ Culprits\\ in\\ Cancer\\?\\\"\\ \\-\\ July\\,\\ 2006\\,\\ \\Scientific\\ American\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\8\\ pages\\ long\\ or\\ so\\,\\ this\\ article\\ largely\\ just\\ reiterates\\ the\\ entire\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.sciam\\.com\\/article\\.cfm\\?chanID\\=sa006\\&\\;colID\\=1\\&\\;articleID\\=000B1BED\\-0C0A\\-1498\\-8C0A83414B7F0000\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Cancer Stem Cells"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.000696+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 469, "html": "\\Hey\\ there\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\ more\\ lectures\\ to\\ go\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Consideration\\ of\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ Muhammad\\ Ali\\ and\\ Michael\\ J\\.\\ Fox\\ have\\ been\\ humbled\\ by\\ Parkinson\\'s\\ disease\\ is\\ a\\ profoundly\\ moving\\ exercise\\,\\ one\\ that\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ just\\ how\\ random\\,\\ fast\\,\\ and\\ powerful\\ the\\ striking\\ of\\ disease\\ can\\ be\\ on\\ us\\ as\\ humans\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ connects\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ on\\ cancer\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ take\\ what\\ we\\ learned\\ about\\ stem\\ cells\\ even\\ further\\,\\ and\\ then\\ connect\\ to\\ the\\ final\\ lecture\\,\\ which\\ will\\ deal\\ with\\ aging\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 5\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/5\\:\\ \\ Regenerative\\ Medicine\\ Treats\\ Diseases\\ of\\ Cellular\\ Deficiency\\.\\ \\ Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ Play\\ a\\ Key\\ Roll\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Regenerative\\ medicine\\ is\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ regenerate\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ destroyed\\ by\\ diseases\\ of\\ cellular\\ deficiency\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Alzheimer\\'s\\ and\\ Parkinson\\'s\\ disease\\ are\\ neuro\\-degenerative\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ They\\ involve\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ specific\\ tissues\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ could\\ regenerate\\ these\\ tissues\\,\\ you\\ might\\ overcome\\ these\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Parkinson\\'s\\ disease\\,\\ a\\ specific\\ dopaminep\\-producing\\ cell\\'s\\ neurons\\,\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-brain\\,\\ die\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ body\\ becomes\\ derived\\ of\\ dopamine\\,\\ and\\ the\\ characteristic\\ state\\ of\\ palsy\\ results\\,\\ eventually\\ to\\ Parkinson\\'s\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Cardiovascular\\ diseases\\ and\\ heart\\ attacks\\ are\\ often\\ caused\\ by\\ cellular\\ deficiency\\.\\ \\ We\\ would\\ love\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ regenerate\\ damaged\\ heart\\ tissue\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Osteoporosis\\ is\\ a\\ deficiency\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ that\\ make\\ bone\\,\\ such\\ that\\ bones\\ become\\ brittle\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ lots\\ of\\ blood\\ cancers\\,\\ we\\ might\\ want\\ to\\ remove\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\ in\\ a\\ patient\\ and\\ then\\ regenerate\\ the\\ entire\\ blood\\ system\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\ done\\ today\\ in\\ bone\\ marrow\\ transplantaion\\,\\ where\\ the\\ hematopoietic\\ stem\\ cell\\ resides\\ in\\ the\\ bone\\ marrow\\,\\ and\\ the\\ patient\\ takes\\ up\\ the\\ HSC\\ and\\ regenerates\\ her\\ entire\\ \\\"blood\\ organ\\\"\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ type\\ 1\\ diabetes\\,\\ a\\ degenerative\\ disease\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ inappropriately\\ attacks\\ the\\ insulin\\-producing\\ beta\\ cells\\ of\\ the\\ pancreas\\.\\ \\ Regenerating\\ those\\ cells\\ would\\ cure\\ T1D\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ new\\ department\\ created\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ which\\ is\\ trans\\-Harvard\\ \\(not\\ singularly\\ associated\\ with\\ any\\ graduate\\ department\\)\\,\\ is\\ the\\ Department\\ of\\ Regenerative\\ Medicine\\,\\ which\\ will\\ be\\ housed\\ in\\ Alston\\ once\\ the\\ new\\ campus\\ is\\ built\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ Glimmer\\ of\\ Hope\\ for\\ Parkinson\\'s\\ Disease\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ will\\ run\\ us\\ through\\ a\\ story\\ that\\ isn\\'t\\ very\\ successful\\ by\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ is\\ bringing\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ focus\\ on\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ in\\ Parkinson\\'s\\,\\ specific\\ neurons\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ that\\ produce\\ dopamine\\ die\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Attempts\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ in\\ 350\\ patients\\ to\\ regenerate\\ that\\ tissue\\ with\\ fetal\\ tissue\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ dopamine\\ producing\\ neurons\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ attempts\\ with\\ fetal\\ tissue\\ weren\\'t\\ that\\ successful\\ overall\\,\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ them\\,\\ patients\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ proceed\\ in\\ life\\ without\\ treatment\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Differentiated\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ fetal\\ tissue\\,\\ are\\ widely\\ thought\\ to\\ have\\ greater\\ potential\\.\\ \\ Already\\,\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ healthy\\ mice\\ have\\ been\\ transplanted\\ to\\ mice\\ \\ with\\ Parkinson\\'s\\ disease\\,\\ which\\ has\\ been\\ enough\\ to\\ effect\\ a\\ cure\\ for\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ it\\'s\\ especially\\ difficult\\ to\\ replicate\\ in\\ humans\\ the\\ results\\ that\\ are\\ seen\\ with\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ mice\\,\\ and\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ theme\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ classic\\ case\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ bone\\ marrow\\ transplantation\\ involving\\ putting\\ hematapoietic\\ stem\\ cells\\ from\\ another\\ patient\\'s\\ bone\\ marrow\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ patient\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ that\\ stem\\ cells\\ have\\ two\\ defining\\ properites\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\:\\ \\ they\\ can\\ undergo\\ infinite\\ self\\-renewal\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ infinite\\ cell\\-division\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\:\\ \\ instead\\ of\\ self\\-renewal\\,\\ they\\ can\\ undergo\\ a\\ different\\ kind\\ of\\ cell\\ division\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ produced\\ is\\ differentiated\\.\\ \\ \\Every\\<\\/em\\>\\ cell\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ can\\ result\\ from\\ the\\ differentiation\\ of\\ an\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ light\\ of\\ regenerative\\ medicine\\,\\ one\\ could\\ imagine\\ using\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ to\\ mimic\\ \\any\\<\\/em\\>\\ tissue\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ replenish\\ \\(the\\ blood\\ organ\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ central\\ nervous\\ system\\,\\ and\\ beta\\ cells\\ in\\ pancreatic\\ islets\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ type\\ 1\\ diabetes\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ mentions\\ that\\ only\\ five\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\ was\\ simultaneously\\ filled\\ with\\ enormous\\ hope\\ yet\\ equal\\ skepticism\\.\\ \\ But\\ what\\'s\\ happened\\ in\\ these\\ last\\ 5\\ years\\,\\ up\\ to\\ \\today\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ has\\ been\\ amazing\\.\\ \\ Developments\\ have\\ led\\ people\\ to\\ wonder\\ if\\ life\\ science\\'s\\ focus\\,\\ which\\ during\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ was\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ will\\ become\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ 21st\\ century\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/5\\:\\ \\ How\\ Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ Can\\ Be\\ Derived\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ walk\\ through\\ the\\ short\\,\\ 10\\-15\\ year\\ history\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\ now\\ and\\ see\\ how\\ dramatically\\ things\\ have\\ changed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Stem\\ cells\\ were\\ discovered\\ in\\ a\\ blastocyst\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ early\\ stage\\ of\\ a\\ human\\'s\\ development\\ during\\ pregnancy\\.\\ \\ A\\ blastocyst\\ contains\\ both\\ an\\ inner\\ cell\\ mass\\ and\\ an\\ outer\\ cell\\ mass\\,\\ and\\ represents\\ the\\ 3rd\\ in\\ 4\\ stages\\ of\\ progression\\ from\\ a\\ fertilized\\ zygote\\ to\\ an\\ embryo\\.\\ \\ Embryos\\ eventually\\ differentiate\\ into\\ a\\ human\\ fetus\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ It\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ certain\\ cells\\ could\\ be\\ extracted\\ from\\ the\\ blastocyst\\ and\\ studied\\ in\\ a\\ petri\\ dish\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ these\\ cells\\ are\\ called\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ body\\,\\ blastocysts\\ develop\\ in\\ an\\ \\orderly\\ \\<\\/em\\>way\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ circulatory\\ system\\,\\ nervous\\ system\\,\\ and\\ immune\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ cultured\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ blastocyst\\,\\ however\\,\\ these\\ cells\\ will\\ differentiate\\ \\randomly\\ \\<\\/em\\>into\\ a\\ mass\\ of\\ jumbled\\ circulatory\\,\\ nervous\\,\\ and\\ immune\\ system\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ thing\\ to\\ note\\ about\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ adult\\ human\\ body\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ really\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ the\\ Inner\\ Cell\\ Mass\\ \\(ICM\\)\\ inside\\ the\\ blastocyst\\.\\ \\ Cells\\ from\\ the\\ ICM\\ change\\ in\\ culture\\ to\\ become\\ \\\"embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\\"\\ and\\ ICM\\ cells\\ and\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ actually\\ look\\ different\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ blastocyst\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ third\\ of\\ four\\ stages\\ of\\ development\\ during\\ the\\ progression\\ to\\ form\\ an\\ embryo\\.\\ \\ It\\ contains\\ an\\ Inner\\ Cell\\ Mass\\ whose\\ cells\\ eventually\\ differentiate\\ into\\ the\\ blood\\,\\ nervous\\,\\ and\\ immune\\ systems\\.\\ \\ ICM\\ cells\\,\\ when\\ raised\\ in\\ culture\\,\\ are\\ called\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Those\\ first\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ were\\ found\\ when\\ a\\ scientist\\ took\\ apart\\ a\\ real\\ blastocyst\\ and\\ cultured\\ the\\ ICM\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ blastocyst\\ was\\ taken\\ from\\ consenting\\ individuals\\ who\\ were\\ using\\ \\in\\ vitro\\ \\<\\/em\\>fertilization\\.\\ \\ Typically\\,\\ in\\ \\in\\ vitro\\ \\<\\/em\\>fertilization\\,\\ several\\ eggs\\ are\\ fertilized\\ \\(to\\ produce\\ a\\ zygote\\)\\.\\ \\ A\\ specialist\\ then\\ chooses\\ the\\ \\\"healthiest\\-looking\\\"\\ zygote\\ for\\ implantation\\ into\\ the\\ female\\'s\\ uterus\\,\\ and\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ zygotes\\ are\\ not\\ used\\.\\ \\ Blastocysts\\ used\\ in\\ scientific\\ research\\ are\\ those\\ unused\\ \\ zygotes\\ from\\ \\in\\ vitro\\<\\/em\\>\\ fertilization\\ clinics\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Somatic\\ Cell\\ Nuclear\\ Transfer\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\More\\ recently\\,\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ have\\ come\\ from\\ a\\ new\\,\\ hugely\\ surprising\\ source\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ generating\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ through\\ somatic\\ cell\\ nuclear\\ transfer\\,\\ you\\ start\\ with\\ an\\ unfertilized\\ egg\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ first\\ step\\,\\ the\\ nucleus\\ of\\ the\\ egg\\ is\\ removed\\.\\ \\ Because\\ the\\ egg\\ is\\ unfertilized\\,\\ it\\ has\\ only\\ one\\ genome\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Independently\\,\\ you\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ donor\\ and\\ obtain\\ tissue\\ \\(skin\\,\\ liver\\,\\ or\\ breast\\.\\.\\.we\\'ll\\ choose\\ liver\\)\\.\\ \\ You\\ isolate\\ a\\ cell\\ from\\ this\\ tissue\\,\\ and\\ you\\ pull\\ out\\ its\\ nucleus\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ you\\ inject\\ the\\ liver\\ cell\\'s\\ nucleus\\ into\\ the\\ unfertilized\\ egg\\ that\\ had\\ its\\ nucleus\\ removed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ the\\ unfertilized\\ egg\\ that\\ initially\\ only\\ had\\ one\\ genome\\,\\ now\\ has\\ two\\ genomes\\ because\\ its\\ nucleus\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ liver\\ tissue\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Putting\\ a\\ new\\ nucleus\\ into\\ the\\ unfertilized\\ egg\\ cell\\ makes\\ it\\ think\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ fertilized\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ two\\ genomes\\.\\ \\ All\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ the\\ egg\\ develops\\ into\\ a\\ blastocyst\\ which\\ contains\\ an\\ ICM\\.\\ \\ Embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ taken\\ from\\ the\\ ICM\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\10\\-12\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ people\\ would\\ have\\ said\\ this\\ was\\ nonsense\\!\\ \\ How\\ could\\ the\\ DNA\\ in\\ the\\ liver\\ cell\\ tell\\ the\\ liver\\ cell\\ to\\ stop\\ differentiating\\,\\ to\\ remain\\ as\\ a\\ cell\\ until\\ it\\ died\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ in\\ the\\ unfertilized\\ egg\\,\\ the\\ liver\\ cell\\'s\\ DNA\\ embarks\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ differentiation\\ that\\ an\\ ICM\\ blastocyst\\ cell\\ undergoes\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Well\\,\\ it\\ happened\\.\\ \\ Take\\ the\\ nucleus\\ of\\ a\\ skin\\/liver\\/breast\\ cell\\ and\\ put\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ cell\\ that\\'s\\ had\\ its\\ nucleus\\ taken\\ out\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ form\\ the\\ Inner\\ Cell\\ Mass\\ of\\ a\\ blastocyst\\,\\ from\\ which\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ can\\ be\\ obtained\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ case\\ you\\ had\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ an\\ \\in\\ vitro\\ \\<\\/em\\>fertilization\\ clinic\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ discarded\\ \\fertilized\\<\\/u\\>\\ embryo\\.\\ \\ Now\\ you\\ can\\ use\\ an\\ \\unfertilized\\<\\/u\\>\\ egg\\ and\\ a\\ tissue\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ it\\'s\\ more\\ ethically\\ palatable\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ an\\ unfertilized\\ egg\\ than\\ a\\ fertilized\\ egg\\,\\ the\\ 2nd\\ method\\ still\\ has\\ controversy\\.\\ \\ \\ People\\'s\\ definition\\ of\\ when\\ life\\ begins\\ varies\\ from\\ person\\ to\\ person\\.\\ \\ Some\\ argued\\ that\\ removing\\ the\\ nucleus\\ from\\ an\\ unfertilized\\ egg\\ was\\ not\\ acceptable\\ because\\ it\\ \\could\\<\\/em\\>\\ still\\ be\\ fertilized\\ and\\ become\\ a\\ child\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ equipment\\ required\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ either\\ process\\ is\\ really\\ simple\\.\\ \\ What\\ isn\\'t\\ simple\\ is\\ learning\\ the\\ technique\\ of\\ doing\\ it\\.\\ \\ Only\\ a\\ few\\ labs\\ have\\ mastered\\ it\\,\\ even\\ if\\ anyone\\ can\\ learn\\ it\\ with\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ resources\\:\\ \\ pipettes\\,\\ a\\ good\\ microscope\\,\\ the\\ egg\\ and\\ the\\ tissue\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(A\\ technologically\\ simple\\,\\ practically\\ difficult\\ process\\:\\ \\ the\\ nucleus\\ in\\ the\\ tube\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\ egg\\ cell\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ whose\\ single\\-genome\\ nucleus\\ has\\ been\\ removed\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Dolly\\ the\\ Sheep\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Dolly\\,\\ the\\ cloned\\ sheep\\,\\ came\\ about\\ from\\ somatic\\ cell\\ nuclear\\ transfer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ scientists\\ who\\ cloned\\ Dolly\\ proved\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ make\\ an\\ animal\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ skin\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ donor\\ of\\ the\\ single\\ cell\\ from\\ which\\ Dolly\\ emerged\\ was\\ a\\ single\\ animal\\.\\ \\ The\\ whole\\ process\\ thus\\ became\\ asexual\\ reproduction\\,\\ because\\ one\\ animal\\ provided\\ both\\ genomes\\,\\ thus\\ serving\\ as\\ both\\ mother\\ and\\ father\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ in\\ this\\ process\\,\\ a\\ sheep\\ egg\\'s\\ nucleus\\ was\\ removed\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ a\\ skin\\ cell\\ from\\ another\\ sheep\\ was\\ placed\\ into\\ a\\ petri\\ dish\\.\\ \\ Its\\ DNA\\ was\\ removed\\ and\\ put\\ into\\ the\\ e\\-nucleated\\ egg\\.\\ \\ The\\ egg\\ responded\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ DNA\\ by\\ thinking\\ it\\ had\\ been\\ fertilized\\,\\ and\\ it\\ developed\\ into\\ a\\ blastocyst\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ in\\ this\\ experiment\\,\\ the\\ blastocyst\\ was\\ planted\\ into\\ a\\ surrogate\\ mother\\.\\ \\ The\\ surrogate\\ mother\\ developed\\ Dolly\\ in\\ her\\ womb\\,\\ and\\ out\\ came\\ this\\ cloned\\ animal\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Dolly\\'s\\ DNA\\ was\\ thus\\ identical\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ mother\\ who\\ bore\\ it\\ from\\ her\\ womb\\ or\\ the\\ other\\ mother\\ who\\ produced\\ the\\ egg\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ to\\ the\\ sheep\\ who\\ donated\\ the\\ skin\\ tissue\\ cell\\.\\ \\ Crazy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Mice\\,\\ monkeys\\,\\ dogs\\,\\ and\\ cats\\ were\\ cloned\\.\\ \\ Entrepreneurial\\ scientists\\ have\\ started\\ companies\\ who\\ will\\ you\\ clone\\ your\\ aged\\ pet\\,\\ for\\ 10\\'s\\ of\\ 1\\,000\\'s\\ of\\ dollars\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Check\\ out\\ this\\ article\\ \\\"Man\\ has\\ clone\\ of\\ dead\\ pet\\ cat\\,\\ says\\ \\'Happiest\\ Day\\ of\\ My\\ Life\\'\\\"\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.medicalnewstoday\\.com\\/articles\\/19997\\.php\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Are\\ humans\\ next\\?\\ \\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ says\\:\\ \\ \\\"anyone\\ who\\ knows\\ anything\\ about\\ this\\ field\\ hopes\\ not\\.\\\"\\ \\ The\\ process\\,\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ its\\ medical\\ safety\\ \\alone\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ is\\ unethical\\.\\ \\ Dolly\\ had\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ health\\ issues\\,\\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ asserts\\,\\ although\\ Wikipedia\\ refutes\\ their\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ cloning\\ process\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Dolly\\ died\\ after\\ 7\\ years\\,\\ euthanized\\ because\\ of\\ progressive\\ lung\\ disease\\ and\\ crippling\\ arthritis\\.\\ \\ Wikipedia\\ reports\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ Dolly\\ didn\\'t\\ die\\ because\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ clone\\.\\ \\ It\\ says\\ an\\ autopsy\\ confirmed\\ that\\ the\\ lung\\ ailment\\ that\\ killed\\ her\\ was\\ common\\ among\\ sheep\\,\\ especially\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ kept\\ indoors\\,\\ as\\ Dolly\\ was\\ throughout\\ her\\ life\\ for\\ security\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ Her\\ remains\\ are\\ now\\ exhibited\\ in\\ the\\ Royal\\ Museum\\ of\\ Scotland\\.\\ \\ Creepy\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ Third\\ Method\\ for\\ Obtaining\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ story\\ came\\ out\\ a\\ month\\ ago\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ shocking\\ as\\ Dolly\\ in\\ 1996\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ this\\ third\\ approach\\,\\ founded\\ by\\ the\\ young\\ Japanese\\ assistant\\ pharmacology\\ professor\\ Shinya\\ Yamanaka\\,\\ \\ is\\ that\\ the\\ egg\\ cytoplasm\\ \\(the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ surrounding\\ the\\ nucleus\\)\\ had\\ chemicals\\ in\\ it\\ \\-\\ we\\'ll\\ call\\ them\\ \\\"reprogramming\\ factors\\\"\\ \\-\\ that\\ imposed\\ their\\ will\\ on\\ the\\ DNA\\ of\\ a\\ somatic\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ told\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ somatic\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ wondered\\:\\ \\ could\\ you\\ \\really\\<\\/em\\>\\ take\\ a\\ skin\\ cell\\,\\ reprogram\\ it\\ with\\ these\\ chemicals\\ present\\ in\\ an\\ egg\\'s\\ cytoplasm\\,\\ and\\ have\\ it\\ become\\ an\\ embryonic\\-like\\ stem\\ cell\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Yes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ issues\\ of\\ reproductive\\ cloning\\ go\\ away\\.\\ \\ No\\ more\\ embryos\\!\\ \\ No\\ more\\ questions\\ of\\ where\\ life\\ begins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ nobody\\ thought\\ this\\ would\\ work\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>The\\ diagram\\ above\\ mentions\\ \\\"cells\\ that\\ absorb\\ all\\ four\\ genes\\\"\\ in\\ the\\ \\\"New\\ Technique\\\"\\ line\\.\\ \\ Proteins\\ that\\ regulate\\ that\\ process\\ of\\ cells\\ absorbing\\ genes\\ are\\ \\\"transcription\\ factors\\.\\\"\\ \\ They\\ regulate\\ the\\ transcription\\ of\\ genes\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ possible\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ a\\ special\\ kind\\ of\\ transcription\\ factors\\ that\\ we\\ already\\ knew\\ about\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ called\\ \\\"Master\\ Regulators\\,\\\"\\ and\\ they\\'re\\ really\\ important\\ in\\ development\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ can\\'t\\ put\\ these\\ transcription\\ proteins\\,\\ or\\ \\\"Master\\ Regulators\\,\\\"\\ into\\ a\\ cell\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ not\\ technically\\ feasible\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ take\\ a\\ human\\ gene\\ and\\ put\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ virus\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ virus\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ tinkered\\ with\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ chance\\ of\\ reproducing\\ and\\ sparking\\ an\\ infection\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ put\\ the\\ human\\ gene\\ in\\ the\\ virus\\ cell\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ will\\ infect\\ the\\ cell\\ and\\ deliver\\ the\\ gene\\.\\ \\ Once\\ the\\ gene\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ it\\ can\\ produce\\ the\\ protein\\ factor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Skin\\ cells\\ that\\ carry\\ four\\ human\\ genes\\ are\\ made\\.\\ \\ The\\ virus\\ gets\\ inside\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ delivers\\ the\\ gene\\,\\ and\\ then\\ has\\ no\\ ability\\ to\\ cause\\ sickness\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ engineered\\.\\ \\ This\\ experimental\\ process\\ allowed\\ scientists\\ to\\ filter\\ out\\ cells\\ that\\ \\didn\\'t\\ \\<\\/em\\>get\\ all\\ 4\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ was\\ left\\ over\\ was\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ cells\\ that\\,\\ by\\ every\\ measurement\\,\\ are\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Just\\ like\\ the\\ cells\\ taken\\ from\\ blastocysts\\'\\ inner\\ cell\\ masses\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ here\\'s\\ what\\ this\\ means\\.\\ \\ Any\\ student\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\ can\\ donate\\ her\\ own\\ skin\\ cells\\,\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ \\\"New\\ Technique\\\"\\ process\\ outlined\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ above\\,\\ and\\ create\\ any\\ tissue\\ in\\ her\\ own\\ body\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ \\personalized\\ \\<\\/em\\>method\\ of\\ making\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ what\\'s\\ so\\ exciting\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Skin\\ Cells\\ Yielding\\ All\\ Tissue\\ Types\\ \\(and\\ Personalized\\!\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Three\\ problems\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ Remember\\ that\\ stem\\ cells\\ have\\ high\\ proliferative\\ potential\\.\\ \\ \\ They\\ duplicate\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ many\\ chances\\ to\\ mistakenly\\ produce\\ a\\ cancerous\\ mutation\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ problem\\ \\#1\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Problem\\ \\#2\\ is\\ related\\.\\ \\ One\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ protein\\ transcription\\ factors\\ mentioned\\ above\\ is\\ produced\\ by\\ an\\ oncogene\\.\\ \\ \\ Rumors\\ are\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ that\\ protein\\ transcription\\ factor\\ isn\\'t\\ needed\\.\\ \\ So\\ this\\ may\\ turn\\ out\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ problem\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Problem\\ \\#3\\:\\ \\ \\ we\\ still\\ have\\ much\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ induce\\ controlled\\ differentiation\\ of\\ skin\\ cells\\ into\\ specific\\ cells\\ we\\ need\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ take\\ an\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cell\\,\\ it\\'ll\\ randomly\\ differentiate\\ into\\ a\\ white\\ blood\\ \\\"T\\ cell\\,\\\"\\ a\\ pancreatic\\ beta\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ every\\ other\\ type\\ of\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ they\\'ll\\ all\\ be\\ jumbled\\ in\\ a\\ messy\\ mass\\.\\ \\ We\\'d\\ like\\ the\\ process\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ focused\\,\\ and\\ less\\ messy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Summary\\ of\\ Part\\ 2\\/5\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ \\normal\\ development\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ a\\ sperm\\ and\\ an\\ egg\\ \\(germ\\ cells\\)\\ fertilize\\.\\ \\ The\\ genomes\\ from\\ each\\ germ\\ cell\\ join\\ into\\ one\\ nucleus\\,\\ a\\ blastocyst\\ forms\\,\\ and\\ differentiation\\ produces\\ an\\ adult\\ organism\\ in\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ the\\ inner\\ cell\\ mass\\ in\\ the\\ blastocyst\\,\\ stem\\ cells\\ can\\ be\\ found\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ \\reproductive\\ cloning\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\(Dolly\\)\\,\\ DNA\\ from\\ an\\ adult\\ cell\\ is\\ put\\ into\\ an\\ egg\\ whose\\ nucleus\\ has\\ been\\ removed\\.\\ \\ That\\ develops\\ into\\ a\\ blastocyst\\,\\ which\\ becomes\\ an\\ organism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ \\therapeutic\\ cloning\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ adult\\ tissue\\ cells\\ \\(skin\\)\\ are\\ put\\ into\\ an\\ egg\\ whose\\ nucleus\\ has\\ been\\ removed\\.\\ \\ That\\ develops\\ into\\ a\\ blastocyst\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ somatic\\ cell\\ nuclear\\ transfer\\.\\ \\ From\\ that\\ blastocyst\\,\\ you\\ can\\ isolate\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ recent\\ method\\,\\ though\\,\\ goes\\ directly\\ from\\ the\\ skin\\ cell\\,\\ adds\\ four\\ protein\\ transcription\\ factors\\,\\ and\\ produces\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(\\\"When\\ I\\ saw\\ the\\ embryo\\,\\ I\\ suddenly\\ realized\\ there\\ was\\ such\\ a\\ small\\ difference\\ between\\ it\\ and\\ my\\ daughters\\,\\\"\\ Shinya\\ Yamanaka\\ said\\,\\ explaining\\ his\\ motivation\\ to\\ look\\ into\\ pioneering\\ a\\ new\\ approach\\ to\\ finding\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ \\\"I\\ thought\\,\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ keep\\ destroying\\ embryos\\ for\\ our\\ research\\.\\ There\\ must\\ be\\ another\\ way\\.\\\"\\)\\<\\/p\\>Here\\'s\\ the\\ big\\ challenge\\ though\\:\\ \\ how\\ do\\ we\\ control\\ the\\ highly\\ proliferative\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ cancerous\\,\\ proclivities\\ of\\ these\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ can\\ differentiate\\ into\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ tissues\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\ takes\\ us\\ to\\ Case\\ Study\\ 3\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 3\\/5\\:\\ \\ Coaxing\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ to\\ Differentiate\\ Into\\ a\\ Deficient\\ Cell\\ Type\\ For\\ Transplantation\\ or\\ \\in\\ vitro\\ \\<\\/em\\>Therapy\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Type\\ 1\\ diabetic\\ patients\\ would\\ benefit\\ from\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ turn\\ stem\\ cells\\ into\\ insulin\\-producing\\ beta\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ islets\\ of\\ their\\ pancreases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ challenges\\ to\\ this\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ One\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ enough\\ organs\\ being\\ donated\\.\\ \\ We\\ have\\ enough\\ pancreas\\ donations\\ for\\ only\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ all\\ T1D\\ patients\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ problem\\:\\ \\ putting\\ a\\ foreign\\ tissue\\ into\\ the\\ body\\ like\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\ requires\\ lifelong\\ treatment\\ of\\ immuno\\-suppressant\\ agents\\.\\ \\ You\\ not\\ only\\ get\\ new\\ islets\\,\\ but\\ also\\ drugs\\ that\\ stop\\ your\\ immune\\ system\\ from\\ rejecting\\ this\\ other\\ person\\'s\\ islet\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ you\\ put\\ on\\ a\\ person\\ on\\ immuno\\-suppressants\\ for\\ their\\ whole\\ lives\\,\\ they\\ become\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ infections\\ of\\ all\\ types\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Type\\ 1\\ Diabetes\\ Treatments\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ Insulin\\ injections\\ every\\ day\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\ that\\ monitor\\ blood\\ glucose\\ lectures\\ \\(recall\\ lecture\\ 20\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ Islet\\ transplantation\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ regenerative\\ medicine\\,\\ but\\ it\\ requires\\ life\\-long\\ immuno\\-suppression\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\ we\\'ll\\ walk\\ through\\ 3\\ other\\ approaches\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ start\\ with\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ adult\\ pancreatic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ This\\ was\\ a\\ huge\\ disappointment\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ an\\ excellent\\ window\\ into\\ how\\ scientific\\ experiments\\ are\\ done\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ 3rd\\ Approach\\:\\ \\ Adult\\ Pancreatic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ \\(Analogous\\ to\\ HSCs\\?\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\ described\\ by\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ were\\ confusing\\,\\ but\\ here\\'s\\ the\\ result\\:\\ \\ there\\ was\\ no\\ evidence\\ for\\ new\\ islets\\ or\\ new\\ beta\\ cells\\ coming\\ from\\ adult\\ pancreatic\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ a\\ healthy\\ adult\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ consequence\\ is\\ that\\ scientists\\ realized\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ either\\ \\(1\\)\\ start\\ with\\ an\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cell\\ and\\ learn\\ to\\ differentiate\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ beta\\ cell\\ \\(and\\ then\\ rely\\ on\\ transplantation\\)\\,\\ or\\ \\(2\\)\\ use\\ small\\ molecule\\ therapies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ using\\ small\\-molecule\\ therapies\\,\\ they\\ could\\ either\\ \\(1\\)\\ learn\\ to\\ cause\\ beta\\ cells\\ to\\ increase\\ their\\ rate\\ of\\ replication\\,\\ or\\ \\(2\\)\\ cause\\ other\\ pancreatic\\ cells\\ to\\ differentiate\\ into\\ beta\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ to\\ Make\\ Beta\\ Cells\\ From\\ Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Maybe\\ we\\ can\\ instruct\\ an\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cell\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ beta\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ way\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ ask\\:\\ \\ \\\"in\\ the\\ body\\,\\ how\\ is\\ the\\ beta\\ cell\\ made\\?\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ concerns\\ developmental\\ biology\\.\\ \\ Developmental\\ biologists\\ will\\ study\\ the\\ asynchronist\\ division\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ step\\-by\\-step\\,\\ to\\ go\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ from\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\ to\\ a\\ pancreas\\ to\\ a\\ beta\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ also\\ discovered\\ the\\ Master\\ Regulator\\ genes\\ that\\ produce\\ transcription\\ factor\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ A\\ new\\ regulator\\ gene\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ enables\\ every\\ step\\ of\\ differentiation\\ along\\ that\\ path\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ mouse\\ that\\ carries\\ out\\ this\\ differentiation\\ process\\ perfectly\\ normally\\,\\ except\\ it\\ might\\ lack\\ the\\ single\\ gene\\ whose\\ protein\\ enables\\ differentiation\\ of\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\ derivative\\ into\\ a\\ pancreatic\\ cell\\.\\ \\ Removing\\ this\\ single\\ gene\\ will\\ produce\\ a\\ mouse\\ without\\ a\\ pancreas\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Removing\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ Master\\ Regulator\\ genes\\ will\\ stop\\ the\\ differentiation\\ at\\ exactly\\ the\\ step\\ where\\ that\\ gene\\ produces\\ a\\ protein\\ enabling\\ further\\ differentiation\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Islets\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>The\\ whole\\ process\\ is\\ a\\ step\\-by\\-step\\ progression\\ of\\ single\\ genes\\ producing\\ single\\ proteins\\ that\\ each\\ enable\\ a\\ stem\\ cell\\ to\\ differentiate\\ once\\ more\\ in\\ its\\ eventual\\ process\\ of\\ becoming\\ a\\ beta\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ nature\\ of\\ that\\ differentiation\\ progression\\ suggests\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ proteins\\ to\\ stop\\ differentiation\\ at\\ any\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ process\\.\\ \\ To\\ find\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ for\\ each\\ protein\\,\\ you\\'d\\ use\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ screen\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ approach\\ is\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ would\\ convert\\ alpha\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\ into\\ beta\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Even\\ though\\ adult\\ stem\\ cells\\ don\\'t\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\,\\ this\\ small\\ molecule\\ approach\\ might\\ work\\,\\ because\\ alpha\\ cells\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ beta\\ cells\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ modern\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\ \\ None\\ of\\ these\\ medicines\\ exist\\ yet\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ approach\\ to\\ diabetes\\ that\\ wouldn\\'t\\ even\\ have\\ existed\\ two\\ years\\ ago\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 4\\/5\\:\\ \\ Testing\\ Patients\\'\\ Stem\\ Cells\\ to\\ Treat\\ Their\\ Diseases\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ those\\ are\\ speculative\\ approaches\\ to\\ regenerating\\ cells\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ one\\ \\\"low\\-hanging\\\"\\ fruit\\ that\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ thinks\\ will\\ succeed\\ within\\ the\\ next\\ year\\ or\\ two\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ method\\ says\\:\\ \\ we\\ now\\ have\\ three\\ different\\ methods\\ of\\ making\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ including\\ one\\ that\\ doesn\\'t\\ raise\\ moral\\ hazards\\.\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ take\\ the\\ stem\\ cells\\ of\\ different\\ people\\ with\\ different\\ dispositions\\ toward\\ certain\\ diseases\\,\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ into\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ We\\'re\\ currently\\ able\\ to\\ make\\ human\\ heart\\ and\\ nervous\\ tissue\\ from\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ use\\ those\\ cells\\ and\\ tissues\\ to\\ study\\ disease\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Production\\ of\\ \\\"Diabetic\\\"\\ Human\\ Embryonic\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ how\\ we\\ have\\ roughly\\ 6\\ different\\ drugs\\ for\\ type\\ 2\\ diabetes\\?\\ \\ Each\\ one\\ works\\ differently\\ in\\ different\\ people\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ can\\ use\\ stem\\ cells\\ to\\ test\\ how\\ a\\ drug\\ will\\ work\\ on\\ a\\ person\\ without\\ ever\\ having\\ that\\ person\\ actually\\ take\\ that\\ drug\\.\\ \\ \\ We\\ can\\ take\\ a\\ diabetic\\ patient\\'s\\ skin\\ cell\\,\\ remove\\ its\\ nucleus\\,\\ then\\ add\\ the\\ chemical\\ transcription\\ proteins\\ that\\ induce\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ become\\ an\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cell\\.\\ \\ Then\\ we\\ have\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ from\\ the\\ diabetic\\ patient\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ we\\ can\\ induce\\ these\\ embryonic\\ cells\\ to\\ differentiate\\ into\\ pancreatic\\ cells\\,\\ we\\ can\\ treat\\ these\\ cells\\ with\\ different\\ drugs\\ and\\ see\\ if\\ beta\\ cell\\ performance\\ is\\ improved\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ if\\ you\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ small\\ molecule\\ screening\\,\\ you\\ can\\ look\\ for\\ molecules\\ that\\ improve\\ diseased\\ cells\\'\\ functioning\\.\\ \\ Never\\ before\\ have\\ we\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\ \\ We\\ could\\ never\\ just\\ open\\ a\\ patient\\ up\\ and\\ cut\\ out\\ pancreatic\\ tissue\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ unethical\\ and\\ dangerous\\.\\ \\ Now\\,\\ however\\,\\ you\\ can\\ take\\ a\\ skin\\ cell\\,\\ induce\\ it\\ to\\ become\\ an\\ embryonic\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ have\\ it\\ undergo\\ controlled\\ differentiation\\ into\\ damaged\\ cells\\ that\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ regenerate\\,\\ such\\ as\\ beta\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 5\\/5\\:\\ \\ Societal\\ Challenges\\ Created\\ by\\ Stem\\ Cells\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ class\\ closes\\ with\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ questions\\,\\ and\\ no\\ answers\\,\\ that\\ society\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ address\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ stem\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ When\\ does\\ personhood\\ begin\\?\\ \\ \\ If\\ we\\ take\\ an\\ embryo\\ and\\ do\\ an\\ experiment\\ with\\ it\\,\\ is\\ that\\ acceptable\\?\\ \\ What\\ about\\ using\\ discarded\\,\\ but\\ fertilized\\,\\ embryos\\ from\\ \\in\\ vitro\\ \\<\\/em\\>fertilization\\ clinics\\?\\ \\ They\\ get\\ thrown\\ out\\.\\ \\ So\\ can\\ we\\ use\\ them\\ for\\ clinical\\ research\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ What\\ if\\ reproductive\\ cloning\\ gets\\ in\\ the\\ wrong\\ hands\\?\\ \\ Monkeys\\ have\\ been\\ cloned\\.\\ \\ Humans\\ probably\\ can\\,\\ too\\.\\ \\ And\\ we\\ can\\ only\\ hope\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ doing\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Would\\ you\\ clone\\ Homer\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>3\\.\\ \\ \\ Chimeric\\ Animals\\.\\ \\ Medical\\ uses\\ of\\ developing\\ human\\ tissues\\ and\\ organs\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ in\\ mice\\,\\ or\\ monkeys\\ \\(as\\ is\\ done\\ to\\ study\\ Parkinson\\'s\\ Disease\\)\\,\\ can\\ be\\ envisioned\\.\\ \\ Might\\ they\\ gain\\ human\\-like\\ consciousness\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ ability\\ to\\ speak\\ has\\ been\\ tied\\ to\\ just\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ genes\\.\\ \\ Possibly\\ only\\ one\\ gene\\.\\ \\ What\\ if\\ we\\ made\\ a\\ monkey\\ with\\ a\\ humanized\\ ability\\ to\\ speak\\ and\\ function\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ \\ Reproductive\\ cloning\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ not\\ sustainable\\ over\\ evolution\\,\\ because\\ it\\ halts\\ genetic\\ diversity\\.\\ \\ It\\ almost\\ certainly\\ produces\\ a\\ sick\\ child\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ have\\ recently\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ coax\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\ in\\ mice\\ into\\ becoming\\ egg\\ or\\ sperm\\ germ\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Stem\\ cells\\ could\\ possibly\\ enable\\ homosexual\\ couples\\ to\\ swap\\ genetic\\ information\\ and\\ have\\ children\\.\\ \\ On\\ a\\ fundamental\\ level\\,\\ this\\ is\\ indistinguishable\\ from\\ how\\ heterosexual\\ couples\\ produce\\ children\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Chimeric\\ animals\\,\\ like\\ monkeys\\ who\\ have\\ gained\\ human\\-esque\\ consciousness\\ and\\ speaking\\ skills\\ after\\ having\\ neural\\ stem\\ cells\\ implanted\\ into\\ their\\ brains\\ and\\ gene\\ therapy\\ for\\ the\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ genes\\ shown\\ to\\ control\\ speech\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ may\\ be\\ coming\\ to\\ a\\ poker\\ table\\ near\\ you\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"Stem\\ Cell\\ Primer\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/isites\\.harvard\\.edu\\/fs\\/docs\\/icb\\.topic227800\\.files\\/primer\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ one\\ page\\ review\\ of\\ basic\\ stem\\ cell\\ facts\\.\\ \\ Highlights\\ or\\ good\\ summary\\ info\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ A\\ bill\\ passed\\ by\\ President\\ Bush\\ and\\ passed\\ twice\\ by\\ the\\ House\\ of\\ Representatives\\ would\\ criminalize\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ new\\ stem\\ cell\\ lines\\ with\\ a\\ \\$1\\ million\\ fine\\ and\\ 10\\ years\\ in\\ jail\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ Stem\\ cell\\ controversy\\ erupts\\ because\\ stem\\ cells\\ come\\ from\\ early\\-stage\\ embryos\\ called\\ blastocysts\\.\\ \\ The\\ harvesting\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\ from\\ blastocysts\\'\\ inner\\ cell\\ mas\\,\\ though\\,\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ destruction\\ and\\ discarding\\ of\\ the\\ blastocyst\\,\\ which\\ some\\ people\\ liken\\ to\\ murder\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ What\\'s\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ cloning\\ and\\ stem\\ cell\\ research\\?\\ \\ Creating\\ a\\ new\\ line\\ of\\ stem\\ cells\\ and\\ attempting\\ to\\ clone\\ an\\ animal\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ first\\ step\\:\\ \\ replacing\\ the\\ nucleus\\ of\\ an\\ egg\\ cell\\ with\\ the\\ nucleus\\ of\\ a\\ mature\\ human\\ cell\\ and\\ stimulating\\ that\\ egg\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ blastocyst\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.026485+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aging", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 470, "html": "\\\\\\\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/em\\>The\\ last\\ lecture\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ part\\ 4\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\,\\ which\\ was\\ entitled\\ \\\"Small\\ molecules\\ in\\ our\\ future\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\<\\/p\\>Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 4\\ parts\\ \\(2\\ really\\.\\ \\ you\\'ll\\ see\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ two\\ parts\\ look\\ at\\ an\\ experiment\\ that\\ says\\ aging\\ is\\ regulated\\,\\ and\\ not\\ inevitable\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ two\\ parts\\ work\\ towards\\ a\\ common\\ goal\\:\\ \\ finding\\ the\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ regulate\\ aging\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Part\\ 1\\/4\\:\\ \\ Theoretical\\ Introduction\\ to\\ Aging\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ of\\ the\\ diseases\\ we\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ this\\ class\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ aging\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Your\\ chances\\ of\\ dying\\ of\\ cancer\\ increase\\ at\\ the\\ 4th\\ or\\ 6th\\ power\\ of\\ your\\ age\\.\\ \\ Diabetes\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ simply\\ accelerated\\ aging\\.\\ \\ Pancreatic\\ cells\\ get\\ tired\\ and\\ less\\ responsive\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ compare\\ a\\ young\\ student\\'s\\ glucose\\ levels\\ after\\ a\\ meal\\ against\\ someone\\ around\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ our\\ professors\\,\\ you\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ our\\ professors\\ are\\ basically\\ half\\-way\\ to\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Benjamin\\ Gompertz\\ was\\ a\\ 19th\\ century\\ self\\-taught\\ mathematician\\ created\\ the\\ survival\\ curve\\,\\ plotting\\ percentage\\ of\\ a\\ population\\ that\\ survives\\ on\\ the\\ y\\-axis\\ and\\ age\\ on\\ the\\ x\\-axis\\.\\ \\ He\\ found\\ that\\ every\\ 8\\ years\\ of\\ your\\ life\\,\\ your\\ chances\\ of\\ dying\\ double\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Evolutionary\\ of\\ Aging\\,\\ and\\ its\\ Three\\ Complementary\\ Notions\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ did\\ evolution\\ allow\\ aging\\ and\\ death\\?\\ \\ Isn\\'t\\ it\\ supposed\\ to\\ improve\\ organisms\\,\\ right\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Yes\\ and\\ no\\.\\ \\ It\\ improves\\ a\\ species\\,\\ but\\ not\\ an\\ organism\\.\\ \\ Truthfully\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ you\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ die\\ appears\\ to\\ benefit\\ the\\ human\\ species\\.\\ \\ You\\ and\\ I\\ are\\ not\\ simply\\ individuals\\ in\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ context\\,\\ but\\ parts\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ species\\ that\\ has\\ lived\\ over\\ 200\\,000\\ years\\ and\\ 6\\,000\\ generations\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Animals\\ that\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\ have\\ a\\ much\\ different\\ survival\\ curve\\ than\\ do\\ those\\ that\\ live\\ in\\ captivity\\.\\ \\ Mice\\ offer\\ a\\ clear\\ example\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ wild\\,\\ they\\ die\\ off\\ very\\ quickly\\ at\\ first\\.\\ \\ Most\\ young\\ mice\\ do\\ not\\ live\\ past\\ the\\ first\\ year\\.\\ \\ Those\\ that\\ do\\ live\\ beyond\\ the\\ first\\ year\\,\\ though\\,\\ tend\\ to\\ live\\ many\\ years\\.\\ \\ This\\ produces\\ a\\ concave\\ survival\\ curve\\ on\\ an\\ x\\-y\\-axis\\ \\ with\\ Survival\\ Rate\\ on\\ the\\ y\\-axis\\ and\\ Age\\ on\\ the\\ x\\-axis\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ wild\\,\\ organisms\\ almost\\ always\\ get\\ killed\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ ever\\ die\\ of\\ old\\ age\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Mice\\ living\\ in\\ captivity\\,\\ though\\,\\ are\\ not\\ killed\\ early\\ in\\ life\\.\\ They\\ don\\'t\\ die\\ off\\ until\\ later\\ in\\ life\\,\\ at\\ increasingly\\ faster\\ rates\\ as\\ they\\ age\\.\\ \\ This\\ produces\\ a\\ convex\\ survival\\ curve\\ on\\ an\\ x\\-y\\-axis\\.\\ Humans\\,\\ having\\ pretty\\ much\\ pulled\\ themselves\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ wild\\,\\ have\\ a\\ captivity\\-like\\ survival\\ curve\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Notion\\ 1\\:\\ \\ Selection\\ Shadow\\\r\\\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\The\\ area\\ of\\ a\\ survival\\ curve\\ near\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ humans\\&\\#8217\\;\\ lives\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ suggests\\ that\\ over\\ time\\,\\ evolutionary\\ selection\\ could\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>only\\ operate\\ on\\ individuals\\,\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ not\\ enough\\ long\\-lived\\ individuals\\ to\\ contribute\\ significantly\\ to\\ the\\ selection\\ pool\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Notion\\ 2\\:\\ \\ Pleiotropic\\ Antagonism\\\r\\\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ antagonist\\ pleiotropy\\ theory\\ of\\ evolution\\ elaborates\\ that\\ natural\\ selection\\ has\\ two\\ types\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(1\\)\\ \\ the\\ ecological\\ selection\\ component\\.\\ \\ This\\ form\\ of\\ evolution\\ chooses\\ for\\ genes\\ that\\ enable\\ food\\ gathering\\,\\ thwarting\\ of\\ predators\\,\\ adjusting\\ to\\ climate\\ change\\,\\ combatting\\ diseases\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(2\\)\\ \\ the\\ sexual\\ selection\\ component\\.\\ \\ This\\ form\\ of\\ evolution\\ chooses\\ genes\\ that\\ attract\\ mates\\ in\\ competition\\ with\\ other\\ individuals\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ sex\\.\\ \\ It\\ doesn\\'t\\ matter\\ how\\ well\\ you\\ gather\\ food\\,\\ avoid\\ predators\\,\\ or\\ adjust\\ to\\ climate\\ change\\ if\\ you\\ never\\ find\\ a\\ mate\\ to\\ reproduce\\ with\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ evolution\\ selects\\ organisms\\ who\\ can\\ attract\\ mates\\ really\\ well\\.\\ \\ While\\ these\\ genes\\ are\\ a\\ liability\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ run\\ because\\ they\\ fail\\ to\\ protect\\ from\\ death\\,\\ they\\ are\\ evolutionarily\\ beneficial\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ because\\ they\\ help\\ find\\ mates\\ to\\ reproduce\\ with\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Pleiotropic\\ Antagonism\\:\\ \\ Peacocks\\'\\ feathers\\ don\\'t\\ help\\ them\\ avoid\\ predators\\.\\ \\ They\\ attract\\ predators\\,\\ in\\ fact\\.\\ \\ But\\ they\\ also\\ attract\\ females\\,\\ so\\ having\\ an\\ enormous\\ sets\\ of\\ feathers\\ helps\\ a\\ male\\ find\\ mates\\.\\ \\ Over\\ time\\,\\ peacocks\\'\\ feathers\\ enlarge\\,\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ sexual\\ selection\\,\\ and\\ pleiotropic\\ antagonism\\,\\ because\\ the\\ genes\\ for\\ large\\ feather\\ sets\\ do\\ not\\ help\\ peacocks\\ as\\ a\\ species\\ avoid\\ death\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Notion\\ 3\\:\\ \\ Disposable\\ soma\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ theory\\ of\\ evolution\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ will\\ relate\\ to\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Two\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ body\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(1\\)\\ \\ somatic\\ cells\\.\\ \\ These\\ are\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ cells\\ you\\ see\\ in\\ someone\\'s\\ body\\.\\ \\ Skin\\,\\ eyes\\,\\ nails\\,\\ organs\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(2\\)\\ \\ germ\\ line\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Eggs\\ and\\ sperm\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ of\\ evolution\\,\\ somatic\\ cells\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ protect\\ germ\\ line\\ cells\\.\\ \\ In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ somatic\\ cells\\ are\\ disposable\\.\\ \\ If\\ they\\ do\\ their\\ job\\ and\\ get\\ germ\\ line\\ cells\\ passed\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\,\\ then\\ why\\ fix\\ them\\ up\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Evolution\\ puts\\ its\\ resources\\ in\\ germ\\ line\\ cells\\,\\ not\\ somatic\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ that\\ reason\\,\\ this\\ last\\ theory\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"Disposable\\ Soma\\ Theory\\.\\\"\\ \\ Somatic\\ cells\\ get\\ disposed\\.\\ \\ Germ\\ cells\\ get\\ passed\\ on\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Clardy\\ raises\\ the\\ striking\\ example\\ of\\ salmon\\.\\ \\ Salmon\\ are\\ born\\ in\\ creeks\\,\\ live\\ their\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ ocean\\,\\ and\\ they\\ swim\\ upstream\\ back\\ to\\ where\\ they\\ were\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\ That\\ process\\ of\\ swimming\\ back\\ upriver\\ uses\\ up\\ \\all\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ their\\ metabolic\\ resources\\.\\ \\ They\\ die\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ they\\ are\\ cannibalizing\\ their\\ own\\ internal\\ organs\\ to\\ use\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ energy\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ keep\\ pushing\\ upriver\\ until\\ they\\ finally\\ lay\\ eggs\\,\\ or\\ fertilize\\ laid\\ eggs\\,\\ in\\ the\\ creeks\\.\\ \\ Afterwards\\,\\ they\\ die\\,\\ and\\ the\\ dead\\ salmon\\ float\\ down\\ the\\ river\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ a\\ stark\\ example\\ of\\ disposable\\ soma\\.\\ \\ All\\ of\\ the\\ somatic\\ cells\\ are\\ used\\ up\\ in\\ this\\ last\\,\\ once\\-in\\-a\\-lifetime\\ opportunity\\ to\\ pass\\ on\\ their\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\So\\ a\\ Quick\\ Summary\\ of\\ Part\\ 1\\/5\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Environmental\\ factors\\:\\ \\ in\\ the\\ wild\\,\\ nobody\\ dies\\ of\\ old\\ age\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Selection\\ shadow\\:\\ \\ evolution\\ doesn\\'t\\ choose\\ for\\ genes\\ that\\ benefit\\ an\\ organism\\ beyond\\ the\\ age\\ when\\ they\\ reproduce\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Pleiotropic\\ antagonism\\:\\ \\ genes\\ that\\ are\\ a\\ liability\\ in\\ the\\ long\\-run\\ can\\ be\\ evolutionarily\\ beneficial\\ in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\ if\\ they\\ lead\\ to\\ reproductive\\ success\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Disposable\\ soma\\:\\ \\ an\\ organism\\ has\\ a\\ limited\\ supply\\ of\\ metabolic\\ resources\\,\\ and\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ evolutionarily\\ successful\\ to\\ spend\\ them\\ on\\ reproduction\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ repair\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\C\\.\\ Elegans\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\\ \\-\\ a\\ Model\\ Organism\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(\\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>worms\\ are\\ 1\\ milimeter\\ in\\ length\\,\\ but\\ have\\ very\\ similar\\ genomes\\ to\\ humans\\,\\ making\\ them\\ excellent\\ for\\ testing\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>An\\ experiment\\ was\\ done\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ Disposable\\ Soma\\.\\ \\ It\\ looked\\ at\\ an\\ hermaphroditic\\ organism\\,\\ 1\\ milimeter\\ in\\ length\\,\\ called\\ \\C\\.\\ Elegans\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ a\\ sequenced\\ genome\\ with\\ roughly\\ the\\ same\\ number\\ of\\ genes\\ \\(19\\,500\\)\\ that\\ humans\\ have\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ also\\ has\\ very\\ strict\\ genetic\\ control\\,\\ such\\ that\\ every\\ organism\\ has\\ 959\\ somatic\\ cells\\ and\\ a\\ variable\\ number\\ of\\ germ\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ an\\ excellent\\ organism\\ to\\ study\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ humans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ life\\ of\\ a\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/em\\>\\ starts\\ as\\ an\\ egg\\,\\ enters\\ 4\\ larval\\ stages\\ of\\ development\\,\\ then\\ becomes\\ an\\ adult\\ and\\ starts\\ eating\\ bacteria\\ and\\ laying\\ eggs\\ like\\ crazy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ interesting\\ issue\\ regarding\\ this\\ worm\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/em\\>\\ can\\ take\\ an\\ alternative\\ path\\ after\\ larva\\ stage\\ 2\\/4\\ and\\ become\\ a\\ \\\"Dauer\\ larva\\.\\\"\\ \\ Dauer\\ is\\ a\\ German\\ word\\ for\\ enduring\\.\\ \\ The\\ dauer\\ larva\\ endures\\,\\ develops\\ lots\\ of\\ fat\\ and\\ a\\ tough\\ cuticle\\,\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ live\\ for\\ months\\ before\\ becoming\\ a\\ \\\"feed\\ and\\ breed\\\"\\ adult\\.\\ \\ By\\ contrast\\,\\ non\\-dauer\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/em\\>\\ emerge\\ from\\ the\\ larva\\ stage\\ very\\ quickly\\ and\\ then\\ live\\ for\\ only\\ two\\ weeks\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\ do\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/em\\>\\ become\\ dauer\\ worms\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Because\\ they\\ respond\\ to\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"dauer\\ pheromone\\.\\\"\\ \\ Worms\\ are\\ always\\ making\\ a\\ dauer\\ phermone\\.\\ \\ If\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ dauer\\ pheromone\\ around\\,\\ that\\ means\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ worms\\ around\\.\\ \\ This\\ lets\\ worms\\ do\\ a\\ calculation\\:\\ \\\"with\\ so\\ many\\ worms\\ around\\,\\ and\\ X\\ amount\\ of\\ bacteria\\ food\\,\\ I\\ can\\ calculate\\ how\\ much\\ food\\ will\\ be\\ left\\ for\\ me\\.\\ \\ If\\ there\\ won\\'t\\ be\\ enough\\,\\ I\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ dauer\\ worm\\,\\ take\\ a\\ time\\ out\\,\\ and\\ wait\\ for\\ a\\ better\\ time\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ my\\ feeding\\ and\\ breeding\\ frenzy\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/5\\:\\ \\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/em\\>\\ Worms\\ Show\\ that\\ Aging\\ Can\\ Be\\ Regulated\\ in\\ Accord\\ with\\ the\\ \\Disposable\\ Soma\\<\\/em\\>\\ Aspect\\ of\\ the\\ Evolutionary\\ Theory\\ of\\ Aging\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Small\\ Molecule\\ Control\\ of\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>Behavior\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ serotonin\\ induces\\ a\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ eat\\ and\\ lay\\ eggs\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ also\\ found\\ that\\ another\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ octopamine\\,\\ inhibits\\ the\\ serotonin\\,\\ cutting\\ off\\ the\\ signal\\ it\\ normally\\ sends\\ to\\ eat\\ and\\ lay\\ eggs\\.\\ \\ Without\\ enough\\ feed\\ and\\ breed\\ commands\\,\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>takes\\ a\\ nap\\.\\ \\ So\\ octopamine\\ is\\ the\\ \\hunker\\ down\\ \\<\\/em\\>dauer\\ signal\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ serotonin\\ in\\ lecture\\ 11\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ humans\\.\\ \\ Octopamine\\ actually\\ looks\\ just\\ like\\ noradrenaline\\,\\ which\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ 10\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Aging\\ is\\ Regulated\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ what\\ we\\ took\\ from\\ the\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ Aging\\ isn\\'t\\ inevitable\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ small\\ molecule\\ octopamine\\ induces\\ the\\ organism\\'s\\ cells\\ to\\ put\\ off\\ death\\ and\\ significantly\\ extend\\ its\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ disposable\\ soma\\ theory\\ provides\\ a\\ theoretic\\ explanation\\ for\\ regulated\\ aging\\.\\ \\ It\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ aging\\ can\\ be\\ adjusted\\ to\\ provide\\ the\\ greatest\\ likelihood\\ of\\ passing\\ on\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ dauer\\ pheromone\\ in\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>shows\\ how\\ oranisms\\ can\\ channel\\ metabolic\\ resources\\ into\\ reproduction\\ or\\ survival\\/repair\\ pathways\\ depending\\ on\\ environmental\\ circumstances\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ with\\ that\\ new\\ knowledge\\?\\ \\ \\ Let\\'s\\ find\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ stop\\ aging\\.\\ \\ We\\ shall\\ call\\ them\\.\\.\\.\\\"Aging\\.\\.\\.Inhibitors\\\"\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Human\\ Life\\ Expectancy\\ and\\ Lifespan\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ life\\ expectancy\\ \\(where\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ at\\ a\\ certain\\ age\\ has\\ already\\ died\\)\\ and\\ lifespan\\ \\(until\\ how\\ long\\ the\\ oldest\\ person\\ born\\ in\\ a\\ year\\ lived\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ look\\ what\\'s\\ happened\\ over\\ humans\\'\\ evolutionary\\ history\\,\\ you\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ humans\\'\\ life\\ expectancy\\ increased\\,\\ but\\ their\\ lifespan\\ remained\\ constant\\.\\ \\ As\\ far\\ back\\ as\\ 1840\\,\\ the\\ oldest\\ people\\ have\\ lived\\ to\\ about\\ 100\\ years\\-old\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ medical\\ advances\\ have\\ increased\\ humans\\'\\ life\\ expectancy\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ will\\ they\\ increase\\ humans\\'\\ lifespan\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 3\\/4\\:\\ \\ Caloric\\ Restriction\\ Lengthening\\ Life\\,\\ and\\ Small\\ Molecule\\ Activation\\ of\\ the\\ S1RT1\\ Gene\\ to\\ Inhibit\\ Aging\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ 1935\\ study\\ found\\ that\\ reducing\\ rats\\'\\ diets\\ by\\ 40\\%\\ increased\\ their\\ life\\ expectancy\\ 50\\%\\ from\\ 1\\,000\\ days\\ to\\ 1\\,500\\ days\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ experiment\\'s\\ results\\ have\\ been\\ replicated\\ with\\ almost\\ every\\ organism\\:\\ \\ yeast\\,\\ mice\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ number\\ of\\ calories\\ that\\ rats\\ ingested\\ was\\ like\\ a\\ switch\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ switch\\ that\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>worms\\ had\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ dauer\\ pheromone\\.\\ \\ When\\ the\\ rats\\'\\ caloric\\ intake\\ is\\ higher\\,\\ their\\ cells\\ effectively\\ go\\ into\\ \\\"feed\\ and\\ breed\\\"\\ mode\\.\\ \\ When\\ rats\\'\\ caloric\\ intake\\ was\\ lower\\,\\ their\\ cells\\ seemed\\ to\\ enter\\ a\\ \\\"hunker\\ down\\\"\\ mode\\,\\ and\\ the\\ organism\\ survived\\ longer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Could\\ reducing\\ humans\\'\\ intake\\ by\\ 40\\%\\ increase\\ their\\ lifespan\\ to\\ 150\\ years\\ from\\ 100\\ years\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ people\\ practicing\\ caloric\\ restriction\\,\\ too\\.\\ \\ Thing\\ is\\,\\ it\\'s\\ really\\ hard\\,\\ and\\ it\\ induces\\ people\\ to\\ feel\\ cold\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ have\\ low\\ energy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\From\\ Caloric\\ Restriction\\ \\(CR\\)\\ to\\ a\\ Pill\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Can\\ you\\ use\\ CR\\ to\\ identify\\ genes\\ responsible\\ for\\ inhibiting\\ aging\\,\\ use\\ the\\ protein\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ gene\\ to\\ screen\\ for\\ small\\ molecule\\ regulators\\,\\ and\\ then\\ use\\ those\\ small\\ molecule\\ regulators\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ drug\\ that\\ stops\\ aging\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Genetic\\ studies\\ on\\ yeast\\ identified\\ a\\ gene\\ called\\ \\\"sir2\\\"\\ that\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ CR\\ effect\\.\\ \\ The\\ sir2\\ gene\\ induces\\ cells\\ to\\ think\\ the\\ organism\\ is\\ under\\ CR\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ sir2\\ works\\ in\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>worms\\ and\\ many\\,\\ many\\ other\\ organisms\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ put\\ the\\ worms\\ on\\ CR\\,\\ you\\ lengthen\\ their\\ life\\ expectancy\\ and\\ lifespan\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ if\\ you\\ knock\\ out\\ the\\ sir2\\ gene\\,\\ you\\ can\\ reduce\\ caloric\\ intake\\ and\\ the\\ worms\\ won\\'t\\ live\\ any\\ longer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ sir2\\ \\causes\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ effect\\ of\\ CR\\.\\ \\ Without\\ that\\ gene\\,\\ CR\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ an\\ effect\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sir\\-2\\-Based\\ Screen\\ Led\\ to\\ Reservatrol\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Knowing\\ that\\ sir2\\ enabled\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ CR\\ let\\ scientists\\ do\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ screen\\ to\\ see\\ which\\ molecule\\ would\\ activate\\ the\\ sir2\\ gene\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ Resveratrol\\,\\ which\\ comes\\ from\\ some\\ plants\\ \\(including\\ the\\ skin\\ of\\ red\\ grapes\\)\\,\\ activates\\ the\\ sir2\\ gene\\ in\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ the\\ SIRT1\\ gene\\ in\\ humans\\ \\(which\\ are\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ each\\ other\\)\\.\\ \\ These\\ genes\\ cause\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ CR\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\People\\ were\\ excited\\ by\\ this\\ news\\ because\\ it\\ gave\\ them\\ license\\ to\\ drink\\ more\\ red\\ wine\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Resveratrol\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ red\\ wine\\.\\ \\ It\\ activates\\ the\\ SIRT1\\ gene\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ which\\ induces\\ the\\ healthful\\ effects\\ of\\ Caloric\\ Restriction\\.\\ \\ Thing\\ is\\,\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ \\that\\ \\<\\/em\\>powerful\\.\\ \\ Humans\\ might\\ need\\ to\\ drink\\ this\\ entire\\ pool\\ of\\ wine\\,\\ or\\ 1\\,600\\ bottles\\,\\ every\\ day\\,\\ to\\ feel\\ the\\ same\\ CR\\ effects\\ that\\ rats\\ experienced\\ when\\ ingested\\ enormous\\ amounts\\ of\\ resveratrol\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Resveratrol\\ in\\ Mice\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ give\\ resveratrol\\ \\(huge\\ amounts\\)\\ to\\ mice\\ on\\ a\\ high\\ calorie\\ diet\\,\\ you\\ increase\\ their\\ life\\ expectancy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Scientists\\ proceeded\\ to\\ screen\\ for\\ molecules\\ that\\ did\\ the\\ same\\ function\\ of\\ resveratrol\\ but\\ did\\ it\\ much\\ more\\ powerfully\\.\\ \\ Such\\ a\\ drug\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ 1\\,000x\\ more\\ effective\\ than\\ resveratrol\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ this\\ year\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Summary\\ of\\ Part\\ 3\\/4\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ caloric\\ restriction\\ inhibits\\ aging\\ and\\ disease\\.\\ \\ The\\ SIR\\ genes\\ were\\ found\\ in\\ various\\ species\\ to\\ induce\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ CR\\ without\\ actually\\ having\\ to\\ eat\\ much\\ less\\ food\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Target\\-based\\ screening\\ was\\ done\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ activated\\ the\\ SIR1\\ gene\\ in\\ humans\\.\\ \\ Resveratrol\\ was\\ discovered\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ chemical\\ synthesis\\ and\\ screening\\ was\\ done\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ molecule\\ more\\ powerful\\ than\\ resveratrol\\.\\ \\ Such\\ a\\ drug\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ this\\ year\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 4\\/4\\:\\ \\ Another\\ Path\\ for\\ Life\\-Extending\\ Small\\ Molecules\\:\\ \\ Serotinin\\ Receptor\\ Antagonists\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ systematic\\ study\\ \\(published\\ 4\\ weeks\\ ago\\)\\ using\\ high\\ throughput\\ screening\\ of\\ a\\ library\\ of\\ structurally\\ diverse\\ small\\ molecules\\ has\\ indicated\\ that\\ another\\ path\\,\\ serotonin\\ receptor\\ antagonists\\,\\ exists\\ for\\ life\\-extending\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ idea\\ here\\ was\\:\\ \\ what\\ if\\ we\\ used\\ libraries\\ of\\ structurally\\ diverse\\ small\\ molecules\\ and\\ phenotypic\\ screens\\ to\\ find\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ would\\ shift\\ cells\\ to\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ increased\\ repair\\ and\\ maintenance\\ \\-\\ a\\ shift\\ from\\ \\\"feed\\ and\\ breed\\\"\\ to\\ \\\"hunker\\ down\\\"\\ behavior\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ 88\\,000\\ small\\ molecules\\ were\\ assembled\\.\\ \\ They\\ were\\ tested\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ they\\ could\\ increase\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>worms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\%\\ of\\ the\\ molecules\\ \\(1\\,083\\)\\ of\\ the\\ molecules\\ were\\ spotted\\ as\\ potentially\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ increase\\ worms\\'\\ lives\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ they\\ did\\ secondary\\ screens\\ to\\ see\\ which\\ of\\ the\\ molecules\\ were\\ especially\\ potent\\ at\\ increasing\\ worms\\'\\ life\\ spans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ pool\\ was\\ reduced\\ to\\ 115\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ \\.1\\%\\ of\\ the\\ molecules\\ they\\ started\\ with\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Further\\ testing\\ yielded\\ one\\ good\\ molecule\\:\\ \\ mianserin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Mianserin\\ and\\ Its\\ Targets\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Mianserin\\ is\\ an\\ antidipressant\\ and\\ a\\ serotonin\\ receptor\\ antagonist\\.\\ \\ It\\ upregulates\\ noradrenaline\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ serotonin\\'s\\ effect\\ on\\ \\C\\.\\ elegans\\ \\<\\/em\\>worms\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ the\\ signal\\ that\\ told\\ them\\ to\\ feed\\ and\\ breed\\.\\ \\ So\\ a\\ serotonin\\ antagonist\\ like\\ mianserin\\ will\\ block\\ that\\ message\\ to\\ eat\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Worms\\ surrounded\\ by\\ bacterial\\ food\\ will\\ not\\ eat\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ under\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ serotonin\\ antagonist\\ mianserin\\.\\ \\ Mianserin\\ thus\\ creates\\ a\\ \\\"perceived\\\"\\ state\\ of\\ starvation\\ in\\ worms\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ food\\ they\\ eat\\!\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Mike\\ Linksvayer\\,\\ 36\\,\\ has\\ been\\ on\\ a\\ low\\-calorie\\ diet\\ for\\ six\\ years\\.\\ \\ He\\'s\\ 6\\'\\ tall\\,\\ 135\\ pounds\\,\\ with\\ exceptionally\\ low\\ blood\\ pressure\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ might\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ mianserin\\ successfully\\ antagonize\\ his\\ serotonin\\ receptors\\ such\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ enjoy\\ the\\ potentially\\ life\\-lengthening\\ effects\\ of\\ caloric\\ restriction\\ without\\ having\\ to\\ starve\\ himself\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Perception\\ and\\ Reality\\ \\-\\ Smelling\\ Food\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ article\\ came\\ out\\ when\\ B\\-47\\ started\\.\\ \\ It\\ looked\\ at\\ fruit\\ flies\\ and\\ found\\ that\\ fruit\\ flies\\ under\\ caloric\\ restriction\\,\\ naturally\\,\\ lived\\ longer\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ they\\ found\\ that\\ fruit\\ flies\\ under\\ CR\\ who\\ simply\\ \\smelled\\ \\<\\/em\\>foods\\,\\ but\\ didn\\'t\\ eat\\ them\\,\\ lived\\ shorter\\ lives\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ indicates\\ that\\ simply\\ \\perceiving\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ availability\\ of\\ nutritional\\ resources\\ can\\ shorten\\ life\\!\\ \\ So\\ don\\'t\\ walk\\ outside\\ any\\ McDonalds\\.\\ \\ Not\\ really\\.\\ \\ At\\ least\\ we\\'re\\ not\\ sure\\ yet\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ Closing\\ Joke\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Proessor\\ Clardy\\ ends\\ the\\ class\\ with\\ a\\ \\\"medical\\ school\\\"\\ joke\\,\\ replete\\ with\\ black\\ humor\\ as\\ medical\\ jokes\\ usually\\ are\\,\\ considering\\ the\\ difficult\\ situations\\ doctors\\ often\\ face\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ how\\ it\\ goes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ dean\\ at\\ a\\ medical\\ gives\\ a\\ speech\\ at\\ a\\ medical\\ school\\ graduation\\ and\\ tells\\ the\\ audience\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"50\\%\\ of\\ everything\\ we\\ taught\\ you\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\\"\\ \\ You\\ can\\ hear\\ the\\ murmurs\\ of\\ dismay\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ crowd\\.\\ \\ \\\"But\\ that\\'s\\ not\\ the\\ disturbing\\ news\\.\\ \\ What\\'s\\ disturbing\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ \\which\\ \\<\\/em\\>50\\%\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Clardy\\ proceeds\\ to\\ remind\\ us\\ how\\ little\\ we\\ know\\ right\\ now\\ about\\ diseases\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ The\\ details\\ of\\ how\\ they\\ function\\ may\\ change\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ the\\ key\\ thing\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ is\\ how\\ genes\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\ work\\ together\\ to\\ make\\ us\\ who\\ we\\ are\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"One\\ for\\ the\\ Ages\\:\\ \\ A\\ Prescription\\ That\\ May\\ Extend\\ Life\\\"\\ \\-\\ 10\\/31\\/2006\\,\\ \\The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2006\\/10\\/31\\/health\\/nutrition\\/31agin\\.html\\?\\_r\\=1\\&\\;pagewanted\\=all\\&\\;oref\\=slogin\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ article\\ opens\\ by\\ comparing\\ two\\ monkeys\\ \\(below\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ monkey\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ is\\ 25\\ and\\ has\\ lived\\ on\\ a\\ calorie\\ restriction\\ diet\\.\\ \\ His\\ attitude\\ is\\ chipper\\,\\ his\\ body\\ healthy\\,\\ his\\ face\\ largely\\ unwrinkled\\.\\ \\ The\\ monkey\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ year\\ older\\.\\ \\ He\\'s\\ eaten\\ a\\ normal\\ diet\\.\\ \\ His\\ face\\ is\\ wrinkled\\,\\ his\\ posture\\ bent\\;\\ he\\'s\\ frail\\ and\\ moves\\ slowly\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>Other\\ highlights\\ from\\ the\\ article\\ include\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ \\\"Earlier\\ this\\ year\\,\\ four\\ prominent\\ gerontologists\\,\\ among\\ them\\ Dr\\.\\ Miller\\,\\ published\\ a\\ paper\\ calling\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ spend\\ \\$3\\ billion\\ annually\\ in\\ pursuit\\ of\\ a\\ modest\\ goal\\:\\ delaying\\ the\\ onset\\ of\\ age\\-related\\ diseases\\ by\\ seven\\ years\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Doing\\ so\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ asserted\\,\\ would\\ lay\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ a\\ healthier\\ and\\ wealthier\\ country\\,\\ a\\ so\\-called\\ longevity\\ dividend\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ \\\"Researchers\\ at\\ \\Washington\\ University\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Louis\\ have\\ been\\ tracking\\ the\\ health\\ of\\ small\\ groups\\ of\\ calorie\\-restricted\\ dieters\\.\\ Earlier\\ this\\ year\\,\\ they\\ reported\\ that\\ the\\ dieters\\ had\\ better\\-functioning\\ hearts\\ and\\ fewer\\ signs\\ of\\ inflammation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ precursor\\ to\\ clogged\\ arteries\\,\\ than\\ similar\\ subjects\\ on\\ regular\\ diets\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ previous\\ studies\\,\\ people\\ in\\ calorie\\-restricted\\ groups\\ were\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ lower\\ levels\\ of\\ LDL\\,\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ bad\\ \\cholesterol\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ triglycerides\\.\\ They\\ also\\ showed\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ HDL\\,\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ good\\ cholesterol\\,\\ virtually\\ no\\ arterial\\ blockage\\ and\\,\\ like\\ Mr\\.\\ Linksvayer\\,\\ remarkably\\ low\\ blood\\ pressure\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Researchers\\ at\\ Louisiana\\ State\\ University\\ reported\\ in\\ April\\ in\\ The\\ Journal\\ of\\ the\\ \\American\\ Medical\\ Association\\<\\/a\\>\\ that\\ patients\\ on\\ an\\ experimental\\ low\\-calorie\\ diet\\ had\\ lower\\ insulin\\ levels\\ and\\ body\\ temperatures\\,\\ both\\ possible\\ markers\\ of\\ longevity\\,\\ and\\ fewer\\ signs\\ of\\ the\\ chromosomal\\ damage\\ typically\\ associated\\ with\\ aging\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ \\\"Experts\\ theorize\\ that\\ limited\\ access\\ to\\ energy\\ alarms\\ the\\ body\\,\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\,\\ activating\\ a\\ cascade\\ of\\ biochemical\\ signals\\ that\\ tell\\ each\\ cell\\ to\\ direct\\ energy\\ away\\ from\\ reproductive\\ functions\\,\\ toward\\ repair\\ and\\ maintenance\\.\\ The\\ calorie\\-restricted\\ organism\\ is\\ stronger\\,\\ according\\ to\\ this\\ hypothesis\\,\\ because\\ individual\\ cells\\ are\\ more\\ efficiently\\ repairing\\ mutations\\,\\ using\\ energy\\,\\ defending\\ themselves\\ and\\ mopping\\ up\\ harmful\\ byproducts\\ like\\ free\\ radicals\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ However\\,\\ recent\\ studies\\ that\\ link\\ excessive\\ thinness\\,\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ caloric\\ reduction\\,\\ to\\ earlier\\ death\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ experts\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ issue\\,\\ suspect\\ humans\\ will\\ not\\ benefit\\ much\\ from\\ caloric\\ restriction\\ and\\ that\\ trying\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ hugely\\ troublesome\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Yes\\,\\ Red\\ Wine\\ Holds\\ Answer\\.\\ \\ Check\\ Dosage\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ 11\\/2\\/06\\,\\ \\The\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2006\\/11\\/02\\/science\\/02drug\\.html\\?fta\\=y\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ \\\"Can\\ you\\ have\\ your\\ cake\\ and\\ eat\\ it\\?\\ Is\\ there\\ a\\ free\\ lunch\\ after\\ all\\,\\ red\\ wine\\ included\\?\\ Researchers\\ at\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Medical\\ School\\ and\\ the\\ National\\ Institute\\ on\\ Aging\\ report\\ that\\ a\\ natural\\ substance\\ found\\ in\\ red\\ wine\\,\\ known\\ as\\ resveratrol\\,\\ offsets\\ the\\ bad\\ effects\\ of\\ a\\ high\\-calorie\\ \\diet\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ mice\\ and\\ significantly\\ extends\\ their\\ lifespan\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ \\ \\\"Resveratrol\\ is\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ skin\\ of\\ grapes\\ and\\ in\\ red\\ wine\\ and\\ is\\ conjectured\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ partial\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ French\\ paradox\\,\\ the\\ puzzling\\ fact\\ that\\ people\\ in\\ France\\ enjoy\\ a\\ high\\-fat\\ diet\\ yet\\ suffer\\ less\\ \\heart\\ disease\\<\\/a\\>\\ than\\ Americans\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ Then\\ again\\,\\ resveratrol\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ especially\\ potent\\ molecule\\,\\ so\\ scientists\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ discover\\ how\\ to\\ enact\\ its\\ effects\\ with\\ a\\ smaller\\ amount\\ of\\ the\\ molecule\\,\\ perhaps\\ by\\ finding\\ a\\ different\\ molecule\\ that\\'s\\ more\\ powerful\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aging"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.050787+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Doing the Right Thing", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 471, "html": "\\The\\ feel\\ of\\ 2\\,000\\ eyes\\ on\\ you\\ is\\ an\\ unnerving\\ thing\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ you\\'re\\ trying\\ to\\ justify\\ why\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ push\\ a\\ fat\\ man\\ on\\ some\\ train\\ tracks\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ 5\\ people\\.\\ \\ But\\ that\\'s\\ where\\ Michael\\ Sandel\\ and\\ his\\ course\\ on\\ moral\\ reasoning\\ put\\ you\\;\\ right\\ between\\ the\\ cross\\ hairs\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ convictions\\ and\\ the\\ world\\ at\\ large\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ blog\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ examine\\ the\\ political\\ stylings\\ of\\ Professor\\ Sandel\\ and\\ discuss\\ various\\ approaches\\ to\\ political\\ philosophy\\ through\\ some\\ of\\ history\\'s\\ greatest\\ minds\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ Aristotle\\,\\ and\\ John\\ Locke\\.\\ In\\ return\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ understand\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ fundamental\\ moral\\ problems\\ that\\ persist\\ in\\ society\\ and\\ why\\ they\\ remain\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ unanswerable\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ examine\\ theory\\ and\\ real\\-life\\ cases\\ to\\ fully\\ understand\\ how\\ theories\\ of\\ justice\\ still\\ apply\\ to\\ modern\\-day\\ concerns\\,\\ such\\ as\\ labor\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ gender\\ and\\ race\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ free\\ speech\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ first\\-\\-let\\'s\\ start\\ with\\ some\\ etymology\\.\\ \\ What\\ is\\ political\\ philosophy\\?\\ Invoking\\ Aristotle\\,\\ the\\ word\\ \\\"Politics\\\"\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ Greek\\ word\\ \\\"Polis\\\"\\,\\ meaning\\ \\\"City\\.\\\"\\ So\\,\\ Politics\\ concerns\\ itself\\ with\\ what\\ happens\\ in\\ the\\ city\\.\\ \\\"Philosophy\\\"\\ combines\\ \\\"Philos\\\"\\,\\ friend\\,\\ and\\ \\\"Sophia\\\"\\,\\ wisdom\\.\\ So\\ in\\ political\\ philosophy\\,\\ we\\ have\\ wisdom\\-lovers\\ concerned\\ with\\ what\\ happens\\ in\\ a\\ city\\.\\ Not\\ a\\ bad\\ definition\\ for\\ the\\ student\\ condition\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ turns\\ this\\ definition\\ inward\\ in\\ his\\ first\\ lecture\\ by\\ posing\\ a\\ moral\\ conundrum\\:\\ There\\ are\\ five\\ people\\ on\\ some\\ train\\ tracks\\,\\ and\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ train\\ hurtling\\ towards\\ them\\ with\\ you\\ in\\ it\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ track\\,\\ there\\'s\\ one\\ man\\ standing\\ there\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ pull\\ the\\ lever\\ and\\ switch\\ tracks\\,\\ killing\\ the\\ one\\ man\\ and\\ saving\\ the\\ five\\,\\ or\\ do\\ you\\ do\\ nothing\\ and\\ let\\ the\\ train\\ roll\\ over\\ the\\ 5\\?\\ Some\\ might\\ say\\ it\\'s\\ better\\ to\\ let\\ things\\ be\\ and\\ kill\\ the\\ 5\\,\\ and\\ some\\ say\\ kill\\ the\\ 1\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ many\\.\\ \\ What\\'s\\ your\\ opinion\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ let\\'s\\ say\\ you\\'re\\ no\\ longer\\ in\\ the\\ train\\ but\\ just\\ observing\\ this\\ scene\\.\\ \\ What\\ if\\ there\\ was\\,\\ say\\,\\ a\\ fat\\ man\\ hanging\\ out\\ over\\ a\\ bridge\\,\\ watching\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ next\\ to\\ you\\,\\ and\\ you\\ could\\ push\\ him\\ down\\ to\\ land\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ train\\ to\\ save\\ these\\ 5\\ people\\?\\ Would\\ you\\ push\\ him\\-\\-innocent\\ little\\ obese\\ man\\ that\\ he\\ is\\-\\-or\\ would\\ you\\ let\\ the\\ train\\ roll\\ over\\ the\\ 5\\ people\\?\\ \\ Why\\ does\\ pushing\\ the\\ fat\\ man\\ that\\ seem\\ all\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ more\\ reprehensible\\ than\\ just\\ flipping\\ a\\ lever\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ apply\\ these\\ questions\\ to\\ a\\ concrete\\ example\\.\\ Say\\ there\\ are\\ 6\\ people\\ who\\ come\\ into\\ your\\ emergency\\ room\\ from\\ a\\ very\\ bad\\ train\\ wreck\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ all\\ about\\ to\\ die\\.\\ \\ Next\\ door\\,\\ one\\ of\\ your\\ regular\\ patients\\,\\ Bob\\,\\ has\\ come\\ in\\ for\\ his\\ yearly\\ checkup\\.\\ \\ To\\ save\\ the\\ six\\,\\ would\\ you\\ take\\ out\\ Bob\\'s\\ organs\\ and\\ implant\\ them\\ into\\ your\\ 6\\ train\\ wreckies\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ save\\ their\\ lives\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ official\\ website\\ for\\ the\\ course\\ polled\\ over\\ 600\\ people\\ on\\ this\\ question\\,\\ 91\\.5\\%\\ of\\ whom\\ said\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ wrong\\ to\\ harvest\\ Bob\\'s\\ organs\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ saving\\ the\\ 6\\ others\\.\\ \\ Many\\ argue\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ morally\\ reprehensible\\ to\\ take\\ Bob\\'s\\ organs\\ without\\ his\\ consent\\.\\ Others\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ as\\ a\\ doctor\\,\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ even\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ take\\ Bob\\'s\\ healthy\\ life\\ in\\ your\\ hands\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ answers\\ speak\\ to\\ an\\ underlying\\ moral\\ logic\\.\\ Philosophers\\ call\\ this\\ the\\ \\Categorical\\ Imperative\\<\\/strong\\>\\ or\\ \\Categorical\\ Reasoning\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\-in\\ which\\ your\\ moral\\ decision\\ about\\ a\\ situation\\ comes\\ about\\ through\\ a\\ basic\\ and\\ fundamental\\ respect\\ for\\ certain\\ duties\\ and\\ rights\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\.\\ \\ The\\ 6\\ dying\\ doesn\\'t\\ matter\\-\\-not\\ robbing\\ Bob\\ of\\ his\\ rights\\,\\ or\\ not\\ acting\\ outside\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ ethical\\ boundaries\\-\\-is\\ more\\ important\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Conversely\\,\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ example\\,\\ most\\ people\\ choose\\ to\\ flip\\ the\\ lever\\ and\\ kill\\ the\\ 1\\ man\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ 5\\.\\ \\ This\\ type\\ of\\ moral\\ reasoning\\ is\\ dubbed\\ \\Consequentialist\\ Reasoning\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ or\\ reasoning\\ that\\ bases\\ morality\\ upon\\ the\\ consequence\\ of\\ an\\ action\\.\\ \\Utilitarianism\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ discuss\\ in\\ depth\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ lecture\\,\\ falls\\ under\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ reasoning\\.\\ \\ Simply\\,\\ killing\\ 1\\ person\\ to\\ save\\ six\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ killing\\ 6\\ people\\ to\\ save\\ 1\\.\\ \\ We\\ assume\\ that\\,\\ all\\ people\\ being\\ equal\\,\\ it\\'s\\ better\\ to\\ save\\ more\\ lives\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ benefit\\ society\\,\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ consequence\\ of\\ our\\ action\\-\\-flipping\\ the\\ switch\\-\\-is\\ how\\ we\\ derive\\ a\\ good\\ moral\\ response\\ to\\ that\\ problem\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ critics\\,\\ the\\ pragmatists\\,\\ the\\ real\\-world\\ dwellers\\,\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ all\\ this\\ philosophizing\\ about\\ philosophy\\ is\\ tantamount\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ Greeks\\ call\\ \\\"Omphaloskepsis\\\"\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ literally\\,\\ belly\\-button\\ gazing\\.\\ \\ \\ These\\ critics\\ argue\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ ideas\\,\\ we\\ remain\\ suspended\\ in\\ the\\ clouds\\,\\ stuck\\ to\\ ideals\\,\\ virtues\\,\\ and\\ impractical\\ values\\.\\ \\ This\\ \\External\\ View\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Sandel\\ opines\\,\\ provides\\ a\\ \\\"blueprint\\ for\\ a\\ building\\ that\\ never\\ gets\\ built\\;\\\"\\ \\ philosophy\\ may\\ inspire\\,\\ but\\ never\\ directly\\ impact\\,\\ political\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ rejects\\ this\\ theory\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ an\\ \\Internal\\ View\\ \\<\\/strong\\>of\\ philosophy\\,\\ arguing\\ instead\\ that\\ \\\"political\\ life\\ is\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ philosophy\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\\"\\;\\ that\\ \\\"every\\ action\\ presupposes\\ some\\ value\\,\\ conviction\\,\\ or\\ ideal\\.\\\"\\ \\ Philosophy\\,\\ in\\ dialogue\\ with\\ Politics\\,\\ \\\"resides\\ within\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ the\\ city\\,\\ within\\ its\\ citizens\\,\\ and\\ is\\ implicit\\ in\\ our\\ everyday\\ practices\\.\\\"\\ Philosophy\\ then\\,\\ offers\\ blueprints\\ for\\ the\\ building\\ and\\ hires\\ its\\ subcontractors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ we\\'ve\\ got\\ an\\ implicit\\ tension\\ then\\,\\ if\\ we\\ adopt\\ this\\ internal\\ view\\.\\ Because\\ politics\\ and\\ philosophy\\ are\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ they\\ oppose\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Politics\\,\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ law\\,\\ defense\\,\\ and\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ a\\ city\\,\\ counteracts\\ against\\ philosophy\\,\\ which\\,\\ when\\ properly\\ applied\\,\\ questions\\ the\\ legalities\\,\\ defenses\\,\\ and\\ definitions\\ of\\ that\\ city\\.\\ At\\ its\\ best\\,\\ in\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ Socrates\\,\\ philosophy\\ aims\\ at\\ subverting\\ settled\\ assumptions\\,\\ of\\ making\\ strange\\ what\\ is\\ known\\,\\ of\\ making\\ the\\ familiar\\ foreign\\,\\ so\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ ourselves\\ after\\ our\\ journey\\ of\\ self\\-inquiry\\,\\ nothing\\ is\\ ever\\ quite\\ the\\ same\\ again\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ process\\ of\\ uncovering\\ self\\-knowledge\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\,\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ aspect\\ of\\ living\\ a\\ modern\\ life\\.\\ Skepticism\\,\\ he\\ counters\\,\\ remains\\ the\\ enemy\\ of\\ that\\ self\\-knowledge\\,\\ and\\ consequently\\,\\ the\\ enemy\\ of\\ a\\ healthy\\ political\\ structure\\.\\ Skepticism\\ detaches\\ one\\ from\\ the\\ problems\\ at\\ hand\\ and\\ justifies\\ complacency\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ relativism\\;\\ that\\ we\\ disbelieve\\ everything\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ accept\\ anything\\,\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ miss\\ the\\ significant\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ engaged\\,\\ whether\\ we\\ like\\ it\\ or\\ not\\,\\ within\\ a\\ greater\\ community\\.\\ \\ Sandel\\ capped\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ quoting\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ a\\ 19th\\ century\\ German\\ philosopher\\,\\ who\\ declared\\,\\ \\\"Skepticism\\ is\\ a\\ resting\\ place\\ for\\ human\\ reason\\.\\.\\.but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ dwelling\\ place\\ for\\ permanent\\ settlement\\.\\.\\.simply\\ to\\ acquiesce\\ to\\ skepticism\\ can\\ never\\ suffice\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ restlessness\\ of\\ reason\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Stay\\ tuned\\ for\\ lecture\\ 2\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\EMM\\'s\\ Corner\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ In\\ \\\"The\\ Case\\ of\\ the\\ Fat\\ Man\\\"\\,\\ Sandel\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ we\\ each\\ have\\ an\\ \\\"innate\\,\\ inner\\ philosophy\\.\\\"\\ \\ Professor\\ Marc\\ Hauser\\'s\\ new\\ book\\,\\ \\Moral\\ Minds\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>argues\\ that\\ morality\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ innate\\ than\\ we\\ think\\ it\\ is\\.\\ Contrary\\ to\\ the\\ age\\-old\\ dialectic\\ of\\ nature\\ v\\.\\ nurture\\,\\ Hauser\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\'re\\ biologically\\ wired\\ with\\ certain\\ parameters\\ of\\ morality\\ that\\ were\\ evolutionarily\\ beneficial\\ to\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ our\\ species\\.\\ Check\\ out\\ the\\ NYT\\ Review\\ here\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2006\\/08\\/27\\/books\\/review\\/\\\r\\\\\r\\Rorty\\.t\\.html\\?ex\\=1314331200\\&\\;en\\=d7159bc4d0fa6fc7\\&\\;ei\\=5088\\&\\;partner\\=rssnyt\\&\\;emc\\=rss\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/table\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Doing the Right Thing"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.063879+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Matters of Life and Death", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 472, "html": "\\Week\\'s\\ Reading\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Queen\\ v\\.\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(1884\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/courses\\.dce\\.harvard\\.edu\\/\\~phils4\\/dudley\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Summary\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ famed\\ 19th\\ century\\ law\\ case\\ still\\ debated\\ in\\ classrooms\\ today\\ talks\\ of\\ a\\ shipwrecked\\ crew\\ that\\ decided\\ to\\ to\\ kill\\ and\\ eat\\ one\\ of\\ its\\ crew\\ members\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ survive\\.\\ \\ After\\ 19\\ days\\ at\\ sea\\ with\\ no\\ ship\\ in\\ sight\\,\\ the\\ \\Mignonette\\'s\\<\\/em\\>\\ captain\\,\\ Dudley\\ Thomas\\,\\ convinced\\ his\\ fellow\\ crewmembers\\ to\\ kill\\ Richard\\ Parker\\,\\ a\\ seventeen\\-year\\ old\\ boy\\ who\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ \\ the\\ sickest\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ because\\ he\\ had\\ been\\ drinking\\ seawater\\.\\ \\ For\\ four\\ days\\ the\\ crew\\ ate\\ the\\ boy\\'s\\ body\\,\\ until\\ a\\ German\\ boat\\ spotted\\ and\\ rescued\\ them\\.\\ \\ Dudley\\ adopted\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ mindset\\ to\\ justify\\ the\\ murder\\,\\ stating\\,\\ \\\"better\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ die\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ three\\ should\\ survive\\.\\\"\\ \\ The\\ judge\\ who\\ presided\\ over\\ his\\ case\\ would\\ hear\\ none\\ of\\ it\\,\\ and\\ sentenced\\ Dudley\\ to\\ death\\,\\ expressing\\ doubt\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ absolute\\ necessity\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ boy\\.\\ \\ \\ He\\ first\\ argued\\ that\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ implicit\\ duty\\ to\\ necessity\\,\\ that\\ of\\ sacrificing\\ one\\'s\\ life\\ for\\ others\\ was\\ a\\ greater\\ duty\\ than\\ sacrificing\\ another\\'s\\ life\\ for\\ oneself\\.\\ He\\ further\\ argued\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ qualitative\\ way\\ of\\ judging\\ who\\ should\\ be\\ chosen\\ to\\ die\\ in\\ such\\ circumstances\\.\\ \\\"Who\\ is\\ to\\ judge\\ of\\ this\\ sort\\ of\\ necessity\\?\\\"\\ he\\ asked\\,\\ \\\"By\\ what\\ measure\\ is\\ the\\ comparative\\ value\\ of\\ lives\\ to\\ be\\ measured\\?\\\"\\ \\\"Is\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ strength\\,\\ or\\ intellect\\,\\ or\\ what\\?\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Lecture\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ used\\ this\\ example\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\,\\ a\\ late\\ 18th\\ century\\ English\\ philosopher\\.\\ Bentham\\'s\\ \\Utilitarianism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ argues\\ that\\ happiness\\ stems\\ from\\ doing\\ the\\ greatest\\ amount\\ of\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ amount\\ of\\ people\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Queen\\ v\\.\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\,\\ Dudley\\ applies\\ this\\ idea\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ one\\ man\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ sacrificed\\ for\\ the\\ general\\ welfare\\ \\(goodness\\)\\ of\\ the\\ crew\\.\\ This\\ line\\ of\\ reasoning\\ denies\\ the\\ \\Categorical\\ Imperative\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ certain\\ innate\\ rights\\ and\\ duties\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ respected\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Objections\\ to\\ Parker\\'s\\ murder\\ lead\\ to\\ three\\ philosophical\\ questions\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ If\\ the\\ murder\\ was\\ categorically\\ wrong\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ murder\\ is\\ always\\ wrong\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ because\\ Parker\\ has\\ certain\\ innate\\ rights\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\-\\-where\\ do\\ his\\ innate\\ rights\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Don\\'t\\ they\\ stem\\ from\\ some\\ overarching\\ idea\\,\\ of\\ utility\\,\\ of\\ happiness\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ If\\ there\\ had\\ been\\ a\\ lottery\\ that\\ decided\\ who\\ would\\ be\\ killed\\,\\ and\\ Parker\\ had\\ consented\\ to\\ participating\\ in\\ that\\ lottery\\ with\\ the\\ understanding\\ that\\ his\\ life\\ would\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ line\\ if\\ he\\ lost\\-\\-would\\ his\\ murder\\ not\\ be\\ so\\ objectionable\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ why\\ does\\ agreement\\ to\\ a\\ fair\\ procedure\\ justify\\ the\\ \\\"immoral\\\"\\ result\\ of\\ that\\ procedure\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ if\\ Parker\\ agreed\\ to\\ his\\ death\\,\\ why\\ would\\ that\\ make\\ it\\ ok\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ Which\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ question\\ of\\ consent\\-\\-\\ Why\\ does\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ consent\\-\\-any\\ act\\ of\\ consent\\-\\-make\\ a\\ moral\\ difference\\?\\ How\\ does\\ murder\\,\\ instinctively\\ and\\ legally\\ wrong\\,\\ suddenly\\ become\\ permissible\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Tune\\ in\\ for\\ the\\ answers\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Matters of Life and Death"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.074402+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 473, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Jeremy\\ Bentham\\ and\\ His\\ Embalmed\\ Head\\ on\\ Display\\ at\\ the\\ University\\ College\\ of\\ London\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>Jeremy\\ Bentham\\,\\ \\Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\Ch\\.I\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\;\\ \\IV\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Summary\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Bentham\\'s\\ \\Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\ \\<\\/em\\>begins\\ with\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\ are\\ humankind\\'s\\ sovereign\\ masters\\.\\ Any\\ moral\\ action\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ basic\\ desire\\ to\\ increase\\ pleasure\\ and\\ avoid\\ pain\\.\\ Further\\ following\\,\\ morality\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ community\\ level\\ should\\ thus\\ aim\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ greatest\\ amount\\ of\\ happiness\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ of\\ people\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ what\\ Bentham\\ means\\ by\\\\ \\\"maximize\\ or\\ maximizing\\ utility\\.\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\ It\\ follows\\ then\\ that\\ any\\ moral\\ argument\\ must\\ be\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ utility\\,\\ for\\ any\\ innate\\ rights\\ must\\ be\\ based\\ upon\\ this\\ principle\\.\\ If\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ innate\\ right\\ to\\ life\\,\\ it\\ is\\ morally\\ justifiable\\ to\\ pass\\ a\\ law\\ for\\ wearing\\ seatbelts\\,\\ since\\ seatbelts\\ save\\ lives\\ and\\ thus\\ maximize\\ the\\ general\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ discussed\\ several\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ Bentham\\ wanted\\ to\\ apply\\ his\\ philosophy\\ to\\ real\\-life\\ problems\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\\"Pauper\\ Management\\\"\\:\\ \\-\\ What\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ beggars\\?\\ \\ The\\ presence\\ of\\ beggars\\ decreases\\ the\\ general\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ population\\,\\ either\\ by\\ inciting\\ pity\\,\\ sadness\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ pain\\)\\,\\ or\\ disgust\\ and\\ contempt\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ pain\\)\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ decreasing\\ the\\ happiness\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ population\\.\\ \\ He\\ proposed\\ a\\ \\\"work\\ house\\\"\\ for\\ all\\ beggars\\.\\ \\ A\\ work\\ house\\ would\\ maximize\\ utility\\,\\ because\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ beggars\\ objected\\,\\ the\\ overall\\ happiness\\ of\\ having\\ them\\ off\\ the\\ streets\\ would\\ outweigh\\ the\\ overall\\ happiness\\ of\\ the\\ beggars\\ still\\ living\\ their\\ vagrant\\ lives\\.\\ Today\\,\\ this\\ idea\\ might\\ seem\\ antiquated\\ or\\ slightly\\ immoral\\.\\ \\ We\\ are\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ happiness\\ or\\ welfare\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ population\\ counts\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ happiness\\ and\\ welfare\\ of\\ a\\ minority\\ group\\ it\\ finds\\ offensive\\,\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ beggars\\.\\ \\ This\\ idea\\ might\\ seem\\ unjust\\ or\\ antiquated\\,\\ completely\\ inapplicable\\ to\\ today\\'s\\ world\\.\\ \\ Actually\\,\\ an\\ evolved\\ version\\ of\\ this\\ principle\\ is\\ very\\ well\\-known\\ and\\ still\\ used\\ today\\.\\ It\\ goes\\ by\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ \\cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Devil\\'s\\ Advocate\\:\\ Cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ seems\\ cruel\\ and\\ heartless\\,\\ since\\ it\\ don\\'t\\ consider\\ the\\ human\\ element\\.\\ \\ What\\ about\\ the\\ benefit\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ or\\ to\\ families\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\2\\)\\ To\\ attempt\\ an\\ answer\\ at\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ Sandel\\ discussed\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ Ford\\ Pinto\\:\\ a\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ with\\ heart\\.\\ \\ Ford\\'s\\ 1970s\\ Pinto\\ model\\ had\\ the\\ faulty\\ problem\\ of\\ an\\ exploding\\ fuel\\ tank\\:\\ the\\ carmaker\\ had\\ designed\\ the\\ car\\ with\\ a\\ fuel\\ tank\\ in\\ the\\ back\\ that\\ would\\ explode\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ rear\\-ended\\.\\ \\ Ford\\ knew\\ that\\ this\\ would\\ result\\ in\\ substantial\\ deaths\\,\\ so\\ it\\ conducted\\ a\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ add\\ a\\ protective\\ shield\\ around\\ the\\ tank\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ \\$11\\/part\\,\\ for\\ 12\\.5\\ million\\ cars\\ and\\ trucks\\,\\ Ford\\ would\\ spend\\ \\$137\\ million\\ bettering\\ its\\ model\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Without\\ the\\ part\\,\\ the\\ Pinto\\ would\\ cause\\ 180\\ deaths\\ \\(at\\ \\$200\\,000\\/death\\)\\,\\ 180\\ injuries\\ \\(at\\ \\$67\\,000\\ each\\)\\,\\ and\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ cost\\ of\\ \\$49\\ million\\ for\\ Ford\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ cost\\ of\\ inserting\\ the\\ protective\\ shield\\ outweighed\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ saving\\ lives\\,\\ and\\ Ford\\ therefore\\ did\\ not\\ recall\\ its\\ cars\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Mother\\ Jones\\ Magazine\\ \\<\\/em\\>obtained\\ the\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ in\\ the\\ 1980s\\,\\ which\\ is\\ now\\ famously\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"Ford\\ Pinto\\ Memo\\.\\\"\\ The\\ article\\ appalled\\ consumers\\ and\\ resulted\\ in\\ several\\ law\\ suits\\ which\\ earned\\ Pinto\\ the\\ moniker\\ \\\"the\\ barbecue\\ that\\ seats\\ four\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Devil\\'s\\ Advocate\\:\\ But\\ if\\ companies\\ and\\ governments\\ didn\\'t\\ conduct\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analyses\\,\\ would\\ that\\ be\\ any\\ better\\?\\ Aren\\'t\\ cost\\-beneft\\ analyses\\,\\ considering\\ the\\ bare\\ facts\\,\\ useful\\,\\ even\\ when\\ human\\ life\\ is\\ assigned\\ a\\ value\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\2\\ Problems\\ with\\ Utilitarianism\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ The\\ Minority\\ Problem\\.\\ \\ Utilitarianism\\ somehow\\ fails\\ to\\ respect\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ individuals\\ or\\ minorities\\-\\-those\\ that\\ stand\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ greater\\ good\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Aggregation\\ Problem\\.\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ aggregate\\ preferences\\,\\ values\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ compare\\ them\\ in\\ dollar\\ terms\\?\\ \\ Individual\\ rights\\,\\ life\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ goodness\\-\\-how\\ are\\ these\\ financially\\ translatable\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ measured\\ uniformly\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ human\\ experience\\ then\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ assigned\\ a\\ quantifiable\\ value\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ consequences\\ for\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ type\\ of\\ morality\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Stay\\ tuned\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.085743+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Liberty and Self Ownership", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 474, "html": "\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Friedrich\\ A\\.\\ Hayek\\,\\ \\The\\ Constitution\\ of\\ Liberty\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ ch\\.\\ 6\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ \\minimal\\ state\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ ideal\\ state\\ of\\ Libertarianism\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ \\minimal\\ state\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ a\\ societal\\ structure\\ which\\ allows\\ for\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ play\\ a\\ barely\\ minimum\\ role\\,\\ if\\ any\\,\\ in\\ an\\ individual\\'s\\ life\\.\\ Police\\,\\ defense\\,\\ and\\ \\collective\\ goods\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ those\\ used\\ by\\ everyone\\,\\ are\\ the\\ necessities\\ from\\ which\\ governments\\ arise\\ and\\ are\\ in\\ place\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ \\paternalistic\\ policies\\ \\<\\/strong\\>like\\ Social\\ Security\\,\\ seatbelt\\ laws\\,\\ and\\ drug\\ laws\\,\\ infringe\\ upon\\ an\\ individual\\'s\\ right\\ because\\ they\\ impose\\ a\\ particular\\ agenda\\ and\\ regulate\\ behavior\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ no\\ business\\ regulating\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ someone\\ wants\\ to\\ spend\\ fast\\,\\ drive\\ reckless\\,\\ and\\ sow\\ a\\ plantation\\'s\\ worth\\ of\\ Mary\\ Jane\\,\\ that\\,\\ in\\ a\\ libertarian\\'s\\ view\\,\\ is\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ individual\\ right\\.\\ By\\ regulating\\ such\\ behavior\\ through\\ laws\\ that\\ tell\\ the\\ individual\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ violating\\ the\\ person\\'s\\ right\\ to\\ freedom\\ of\\ choice\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Nobody\\ Likes\\ a\\ Moocher\\,\\ or\\ \\Free\\ riders\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ \\free\\ riders\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\-the\\ ability\\ for\\ individuals\\ to\\ abuse\\ the\\ collective\\ goods\\ offered\\.\\ \\ Welfare\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ is\\ a\\ sticky\\ prickle\\ to\\ navigate\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ vulnerability\\ to\\ abuse\\ or\\ overuse\\.\\ \\ \\ To\\ use\\ a\\ less\\ charged\\ example\\,\\ let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ firefighting\\.\\ \\ Sandel\\ points\\ to\\ an\\ article\\ he\\ read\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ ago\\ about\\ a\\ private\\ firefighting\\ service\\ in\\ Arkansas\\.\\ \\ The\\ company\\,\\ the\\ Salem\\ Fire\\ Corporation\\,\\ protected\\ residents\\'\\ homes\\ at\\ a\\ monthly\\ fee\\.\\ One\\ subscriber\\ who\\ had\\ failed\\ to\\ renew\\ his\\ subscription\\ watched\\ as\\ his\\ house\\ burned\\ down\\.\\ \\ The\\ SFC\\ arrived\\ at\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ only\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ the\\ fire\\ didn\\'t\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ control\\ and\\ damage\\ a\\ neighboring\\ subscribers\\'\\ property\\.\\ \\ A\\ rather\\ extreme\\ example\\,\\ but\\ a\\ good\\ one\\ that\\ illustrates\\ that\\ all\\ goods\\,\\ in\\ theory\\,\\ even\\ collective\\ ones\\,\\ may\\ be\\ privatized\\ to\\ adhere\\ to\\ a\\ total\\ free\\-market\\ ethos\\ that\\ underlies\\ libertarian\\ thought\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ we\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ lecture\\,\\ Nozick\\'s\\ notion\\ of\\ distribution\\ bases\\ itself\\ on\\ two\\ key\\ factors\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Justice\\ in\\ Acquisition\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ that\\ the\\ acquisition\\ of\\ a\\ \\\"holding\\\"\\ \\(money\\,\\ property\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ be\\ gotten\\ through\\ fair\\ means\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Justice\\ in\\ Transfer\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ that\\ the\\ acquisition\\ of\\ a\\ holding\\ be\\ acquired\\ by\\ the\\ next\\ person\\ in\\ a\\ fair\\ manner\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ theft\\)\\,\\ provided\\ that\\ the\\ distribution\\ happens\\ through\\ the\\ free\\ market\\ or\\ free\\ exchange\\ \\(that\\ both\\ parties\\ willingly\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ transfer\\)\\\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Coercion\\:\\<\\/strong\\>The\\ underlying\\,\\ finger\\-nail\\ biting\\ cause\\ of\\ these\\ mandates\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\,\\ is\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ \\coercion\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\ \\ To\\ make\\ someone\\ do\\ something\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ do\\,\\ or\\ take\\ away\\ something\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ give\\,\\ simply\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ welfare\\,\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ It\\ calls\\ into\\ question\\ the\\ \\\"fundamental\\ moral\\ fact\\ of\\ self\\-possession\\ or\\ self\\-ownership\\.\\\"\\ \\ As\\ such\\,\\ if\\ we\\ refer\\ back\\ to\\ our\\ previous\\ examples\\ of\\ taxing\\ the\\ wealth\\ of\\ Bill\\ Gates\\ or\\ Michael\\ Jordon\\,\\ we\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ are\\ asserting\\ a\\ collective\\ \\property\\ right\\<\\/strong\\>\\*\\ on\\ these\\ two\\ individuals\\.\\ \\ And\\ that\\ violates\\ the\\ fundamental\\ principle\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\*Here\\,\\ we\\ are\\ interpreting\\ labor\\ wages\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ property\\ rights\\ \\(vis\\-a\\-vis\\ Locke\\)\\.\\ Some\\ might\\ argue\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ misinterpretation\\ of\\ property\\ rights\\.\\ We\\'ll\\ get\\ to\\ that\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Objections\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ Poor\\ need\\ the\\ Money\\ More\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Assumptions\\ of\\ \\\"Justice\\ in\\ Acquisition\\\"\\ are\\ unrealistic\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ Taxation\\ by\\ consent\\ of\\ governed\\ is\\ not\\ coercion\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\)\\ The\\ successful\\ owe\\ a\\ debt\\ to\\ society\\\r\\\\\r\\5\\)\\ Wealth\\ depends\\ partly\\ on\\ luck\\,\\ not\\ always\\ deserved\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ team\\ of\\ students\\,\\ \\\"Team\\ Libertarianism\\\"\\,\\ was\\ posed\\ these\\ objections\\ and\\ asked\\ to\\ answer\\ them\\,\\ so\\ posted\\ are\\ partly\\ their\\ answers\\ and\\ mine\\ as\\ well\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ The\\ benefits\\ of\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ are\\ ethical\\ in\\ theory\\,\\ but\\ they\\ ultimately\\ violate\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\;\\ if\\ one\\ \\wants\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ donate\\ money\\ to\\ charity\\,\\ or\\ give\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ that\\ is\\ perfectly\\ acceptable\\ and\\ should\\ indeed\\ be\\ encourages\\,\\ but\\ to\\ \\take\\ \\<\\/em\\>that\\ money\\ violates\\ the\\ individual\\ freedom\\ of\\ choice\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Nozick\\ addresses\\ this\\ in\\ a\\ roundabout\\ way\\ in\\ his\\ idea\\ of\\ \\\"principle\\ of\\ rectification\\\"\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ try\\ and\\ tally\\ up\\ a\\ historical\\ list\\ of\\ \\\"injustices\\\"\\,\\ until\\ we\\ reach\\ a\\ theoretical\\ sum\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ injustices\\ transferred\\ and\\ acquired\\ throughout\\ time\\.\\ Then\\,\\ if\\ we\\ actually\\ do\\ figure\\ out\\ that\\ someone\\ was\\ made\\ \\\"poorer\\\"\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ by\\ an\\ injustice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ or\\ transfer\\,\\ we\\ should\\ give\\ them\\ the\\ proper\\ amount\\ of\\ holdings\\ to\\ rectify\\ the\\ situation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ Even\\ though\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ democratic\\ society\\ that\\ is\\ ultimately\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\,\\ in\\ actuality\\,\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ can\\ violate\\ fundamental\\ rights\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ decide\\ upon\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ If\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ wish\\ to\\ have\\ my\\ money\\ taxed\\ or\\ I\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ drugs\\,\\ I\\ am\\ robbed\\ of\\ that\\ ability\\ to\\ use\\ those\\ \\\"property\\ rights\\\"\\ \\(the\\ rights\\ I\\ have\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\)\\,\\ because\\ my\\ recourse\\ against\\ the\\ majority\\ is\\ completely\\ ineffective\\ and\\ ultimately\\ impossible\\ \\(I\\ can\\'t\\ sign\\ a\\ one\\-person\\ petition\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ me\\ using\\ drugs\\ or\\ not\\ paying\\ taxes\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\)\\ The\\ wealthy\\ invest\\ their\\ \\own\\ \\<\\/em\\>labor\\ in\\ the\\ acquisition\\ of\\ their\\ wealth\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ don\\'t\\ necessarily\\ owe\\ a\\ debt\\ to\\ society\\;\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\,\\ society\\ values\\ Jordan\\'s\\ skills\\ and\\ derives\\ pleasure\\ from\\ his\\ labor\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ equal\\ exchange\\ between\\ society\\ and\\ individual\\\r\\\\\r\\5\\)\\ What\\ does\\ anyone\\ deserve\\,\\ really\\?\\ How\\ can\\ we\\ account\\ for\\ who\\ deserves\\ what\\ in\\ society\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ Again\\,\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ a\\ libertarian\\ may\\ encourage\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ or\\ indeed\\ might\\ feel\\ herself\\ indebted\\ to\\ society\\ and\\ does\\ in\\ fact\\ give\\ to\\ charity\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ we\\ should\\ not\\ \\forcibly\\ \\<\\/em\\>tax\\ or\\ take\\ from\\ individuals\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ their\\ wages\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Taking\\ these\\ objections\\ and\\ their\\ responses\\ into\\ account\\,\\ we\\ can\\ surmise\\ that\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ day\\,\\ to\\ challenge\\ Libertarianism\\ is\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ very\\ right\\ of\\ self\\-possession\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Self\\-possession\\ lies\\ at\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ all\\ these\\ arguments\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ day\\,\\ is\\ it\\ itself\\ a\\ straw\\ man\\?\\ One\\ student\\ argues\\ that\\ self\\-possession\\ as\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\ is\\ not\\ wholly\\ inviolable\\ because\\ as\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ society\\ we\\ do\\ not\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ completely\\ own\\ ourselves\\.\\ We\\ are\\ responsible\\ to\\ the\\ collective\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Tune\\ in\\ for\\ Locke\\,\\ the\\ original\\ Enlightened\\ Cat\\ of\\ property\\ rights\\,\\ often\\ imitated\\,\\ never\\ duplicated\\,\\ up\\ next\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Liberty and Self Ownership"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.098901+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Higher and Lower Pleasures", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 475, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\,\\ \\Utilitarianism\\<\\/em\\>m\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.thefinalclub\\.org\\/work\\-overview\\.php\\?work\\_id\\=31\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\J\\.S\\.\\ Mill\\,\\ whose\\ father\\ was\\ a\\ disciple\\ of\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\,\\ offers\\ an\\ alternative\\ conception\\ of\\ Utilitarianism\\ that\\ tackles\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"heartlessness\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ philosophy\\.\\ \\ Models\\ such\\ as\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\,\\ which\\ spring\\ from\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ mindset\\,\\ often\\ overlook\\ the\\ human\\ element\\ in\\ the\\ decision\\-making\\ process\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\For\\ instance\\,\\ in\\ the\\ Ford\\ Pinto\\ case\\,\\ Ford\\ assigned\\ a\\ numerical\\ value\\ to\\ human\\ life\\ in\\ their\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ that\\ appalled\\ the\\ public\\ for\\ its\\ seeming\\ disregard\\ of\\ the\\ priceless\\ quality\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\ \\ To\\ counteract\\ such\\ seemingly\\ heartless\\ reasoning\\,\\ Mill\\ argues\\ that\\ all\\ human\\ experience\\ \\can\\ \\<\\/em\\>be\\ quantifiable\\,\\ but\\ that\\ not\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ are\\ equal\\.\\ Pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\ lie\\ along\\ a\\ spectrum\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ are\\ higher\\ pleasures\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\,\\ higher\\ pain\\ and\\ lesser\\ pain\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ Mill\\ argues\\ in\\ Chapter\\ Two\\,\\ \\\"\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\quite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\compatible\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\principle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ utility\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\recognize\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fact\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\some\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\kinds\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pleasure\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ desirable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\valuable\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\others\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\It\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\would\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\absurd\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\while\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\estimating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\things\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\quality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\considered\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\well\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ quantity\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\estimation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pleasures\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\should\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\supposed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\depend\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\on\\ quantity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\alone\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\Mill\\'s\\ nuanced\\ version\\ of\\ Utilitarianism\\ addresses\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ were\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ Bentham\\'s\\ version\\ of\\ Utilitarianism\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ lecture\\,\\ mainly\\ that\\:\\\r\\\\1\\)\\ Although\\ Utilitarianism\\ promotes\\ general\\ welfare\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ ignore\\ the\\ innate\\ right\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\)\\ Utilitarianism\\ is\\ scientific\\ and\\ unsentimental\\,\\ but\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ measure\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ human\\ experience\\?\\ Do\\ all\\ values\\,\\ emotions\\,\\ and\\ intangibles\\ translate\\ into\\ quantifiable\\ measurements\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ uniformly\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\)\\ Utilitarianism\\ is\\ non\\-judgmental\\,\\ blind\\ to\\ prejudice\\ \\-\\-but\\ is\\ it\\ always\\ morally\\ responsible\\ to\\ not\\ judge\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/p\\>Sandel\\ attempted\\ to\\ apply\\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ utility\\ to\\ the\\ following\\ concrete\\ examples\\:\\ What\\ if\\ Sept\\.\\ 11th\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ prevented\\ by\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ hijackers\\?\\ Would\\ it\\ have\\ been\\ just\\ to\\ kill\\ one\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ many\\?\\ \\ Or\\,\\ would\\ it\\ be\\ morally\\ logical\\ to\\ illegalize\\ cell\\ phones\\ because\\ 2600\\ deaths\\ per\\ year\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ people\\ using\\ cell\\ phones\\ as\\ they\\ drive\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ order\\ to\\ better\\ analyze\\ such\\ situations\\,\\ Sandel\\ brought\\ in\\ Mill\\'s\\ version\\ of\\ Utilitarianism\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ \\'human\\ aspect\\'\\.\\ Using\\ this\\ idea\\ of\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\,\\ Sandel\\ argued\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ case\\ for\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ since\\ some\\ pleasures\\ are\\ more\\ desirable\\ than\\ others\\.\\ \\ Quantitatively\\ speaking\\,\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ higher\\,\\ \\'nobler\\ \\'\\ pleasures\\,\\ and\\ lesser\\ pleasure\\ in\\ the\\ lesser\\,\\ \\'ignoble\\'\\ pleasures\\,\\ then\\ the\\ higher\\ pleasure\\ would\\ \\de\\ facto\\ \\<\\/em\\>contain\\ more\\ value\\ than\\ the\\ lower\\ pleasure\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ put\\ this\\ theory\\ to\\ the\\ test\\,\\ Sandel\\ played\\ 3\\ video\\ clips\\ and\\ asked\\ students\\ to\\ judge\\ which\\ ones\\ were\\ the\\ most\\ enjoyable\\,\\ and\\ which\\ was\\ the\\ \\\"highest\\ pleasure\\\"\\:\\\r\\\\1\\)\\ Shakespeare\\ \\-\\ Not\\ very\\ enjoyable\\ but\\ considered\\ the\\ \\\"highest\\ pleasure\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\)\\ Fear\\ Factor\\ \\-\\ The\\ least\\ enjoyable\\ and\\ the\\ least\\ pleasurable\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\)\\ The\\ Simpsons\\ \\-\\ The\\ most\\ enjoyable\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ highest\\ pleasure\\<\\/p\\>\\Why\\ this\\ gap\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\ Most\\ said\\ that\\ watching\\ Shakespeare\\ is\\ \\\"qualitatively\\\"\\ better\\,\\ because\\ the\\ pleasure\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ longer\\-lasting\\ or\\ more\\ \\\"worthwhile\\\"\\,\\ while\\ watching\\ the\\ Simpsons\\ is\\ a\\ momentary\\,\\ fleeting\\ pleasure\\ that\\ doesn\\'t\\ last\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\)\\ Doesn\\'t\\ making\\ a\\ judgment\\ between\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\ fundamentally\\ contradict\\ the\\ nonjudgmental\\ quality\\ of\\ Utilitarianism\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Mill\\ says\\ no\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ a\\ Utilitarian\\ vision\\ can\\ be\\ \\'broadened\\'\\ to\\ encompass\\ qualitative\\ difference\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\B\\)\\ But\\ are\\ other\\ moral\\ sources\\ needed\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ this\\ hypothesis\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ those\\ standards\\ to\\ be\\ found\\?\\ \\ It\\ seems\\ as\\ though\\ Mill\\ rests\\ his\\ assumptions\\ on\\ some\\ principles\\ outside\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ \\'intrinsic\\ nature\\'\\ of\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ have\\ to\\ examine\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ principles\\ outside\\ of\\ Utilitarianism\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ argue\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ theory\\ holds\\,\\ so\\ stay\\ tuned\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\ Devil\\'s\\ Advocate\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ Video\\ Clip\\ example\\,\\ most\\ students\\ made\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\ through\\ temporality\\:\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ \\\"longer\\-lasting\\\"\\ the\\ pleasure\\,\\ the\\ higher\\ it\\ was\\.\\ \\ But\\ does\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ temporality\\ gloss\\ over\\ the\\ nuances\\ of\\ intention\\ that\\ the\\ different\\ shows\\ had\\?\\ Arguably\\,\\ the\\ \\Simpsons\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ comedy\\ show\\ aimed\\ at\\ primarily\\ entertaining\\ the\\ viewer\\,\\ whil\\,\\ e\\ Shakespeare\\ engages\\ multiple\\ themes\\ that\\ ultimately\\ challenge\\ the\\ viewer\\ and\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ introspective\\ engagement\\ with\\ the\\ self\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ is\\ it\\ intensity\\ of\\ emotion\\ or\\ thought\\ that\\ makes\\ us\\ believe\\ Shakespeare\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"higher\\\"\\ pleasure\\?\\ That\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ day\\,\\ we\\ can\\ walk\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ \\Simpsons\\ \\<\\/em\\>without\\ a\\ second\\ thought\\,\\ but\\ are\\ compelled\\ to\\ mull\\ over\\ the\\ words\\ penned\\ by\\ the\\ Bard\\ himself\\?\\ Or\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ simply\\ been\\ culturally\\ conditioned\\ to\\ have\\ certain\\ expectations\\ about\\ the\\ \\Simpsons\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ Shakespeare\\.\\ Consider\\ that\\ Shakespeare\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ time\\ was\\ regarded\\ as\\ no\\ great\\ genius\\,\\ his\\ bawdy\\ humor\\ reflecting\\ the\\ fleeting\\,\\ \\'ignoble\\'\\ pleasure\\ that\\ the\\ \\Simpsons\\ \\<\\/em\\>incite\\ in\\ us\\ today\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Higher and Lower Pleasures"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.817513+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 21 (4/29/08)- Obedience to Authority", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 398, "html": "\\The\\ lecture\\ opens\\ with\\ a\\ video\\ of\\ a\\ classic\\ set\\ of\\ experiments\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Milgram\\ Experiments\\ that\\ tested\\ obedience\\ to\\ authority\\.\\ These\\ experiments\\ were\\ a\\ direct\\ product\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ atrocities\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ holocaust\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ carried\\ out\\.\\ Here\\'s\\ more\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Milgram\\_experiments\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\Milgram\\ Experiment\\\r\\\\The\\ bloody\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/strong\\>Death\\ statistics\\ from\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ are\\ horrifyingly\\ large\\ with\\ many\\ \\\"industrial\\ scale\\ genocides\\.\\\"\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ offers\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ these\\ statistics\\ that\\ are\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ comprehensive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ World\\ War\\ I\\ \\(1914\\-1918\\)\\ 37\\,000\\,000\\ soldiers\\ were\\ killed\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ Terror\\-famine\\ taking\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Ukraine\\ \\(1930s\\)\\ 4\\,000\\,000\\ were\\ killed\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ Holocaust\\ \\(1938\\-1945\\)\\ 6\\,000\\,000\\ Jews\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ gypsies\\ and\\ homosexuals\\)\\ were\\ killed\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ bombing\\ of\\ Hiroshima\\ \\(1945\\)\\ 100\\,000\\ civilians\\ were\\ killed\\ \\(200\\.000\\ later\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Cambodia\\ \\(1975\\-1978\\)\\ 2\\,000\\,000\\ were\\ killed\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Rwanda\\ \\(1994\\)\\ 500\\,000\\ Tutsis\\ were\\ killed\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Bosnia\\ \\(1992\\-1995\\)\\ 200\\,000\\ Bosnians\\ were\\ killed\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ does\\ not\\ include\\ a\\ couple\\ other\\ horrifying\\ statistics\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ died\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ Stalin\\,\\ or\\ Mao\\'s\\ Great\\ Leap\\ Forward\\ \\(\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Great\\_leap\\_forward\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\,\\ which\\ combined\\,\\ are\\ probably\\ equal\\ to\\ or\\ greater\\ than\\ all\\ the\\ above\\ statistics\\ combined\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ atrocities\\ required\\ an\\ unprecedented\\ amount\\ of\\ groupthink\\,\\ people\\ submitting\\ to\\ authority\\ to\\ do\\ horrible\\ things\\ to\\ other\\ people\\.\\ We\\ all\\ think\\ that\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ imagine\\ people\\ doing\\ this\\ so\\ how\\ did\\ this\\ happen\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ do\\ people\\ commit\\ mass\\ murder\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Freud\\ argued\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ \\thanatos\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ a\\ death\\ instinct\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ inherent\\ instinct\\ or\\ desire\\ for\\ destruction\\ and\\ death\\.\\ This\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ much\\ sense\\ from\\ a\\ modern\\ evolutionary\\ perspective\\,\\ but\\ he\\ may\\ have\\ picked\\ up\\ on\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ pattern\\,\\ in\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ seem\\ to\\ enjoy\\ doing\\ better\\ than\\ others\\,\\ which\\ may\\ include\\ harming\\ others\\.\\ This\\ is\\ probably\\ a\\ stretch\\ though\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ common\\ sense\\ answer\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ good\\ people\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ evil\\ people\\,\\ and\\ the\\ evil\\ ones\\ orchestrated\\ these\\ atrocities\\.\\ This\\ holds\\ that\\ most\\ evil\\ acts\\ are\\ committed\\ by\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ people\\,\\ and\\ while\\ this\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ street\\ crime\\,\\ it\\ cannot\\ possibly\\ explain\\ massive\\ genocide\\.\\ So\\ many\\ people\\ were\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ mass\\ murders\\ of\\ the\\ twentieth\\ century\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ a\\ couple\\ evil\\ people\\,\\ except\\ for\\ as\\ the\\ possible\\ leaders\\ of\\ these\\ tradgedies\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\,\\ however\\,\\ that\\ perhaps\\ these\\ are\\ just\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ many\\ facets\\ or\\ possibilities\\,\\ of\\ what\\ can\\ happen\\,\\ given\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ man\\,\\ and\\ the\\ unusual\\ circumstances\\ that\\ often\\ arise\\ in\\ modern\\ societies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Motivation\\ for\\ Milgram\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Adolf\\ Eichmann\\ was\\ the\\ man\\ who\\ organized\\ Hitler\\'s\\ \\\"final\\ solution\\,\\\"\\ which\\ we\\ know\\ today\\ as\\ the\\ holocaust\\.\\ He\\ escaped\\ to\\ Argentina\\ after\\ World\\ War\\ II\\,\\ and\\ was\\ captured\\ by\\ Israeli\\ agents\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ and\\ brought\\ back\\ to\\ Jerusalem\\ for\\ trial\\.\\ Hannah\\ Arendt\\ studied\\ Eichmann\\,\\ and\\ published\\ ideas\\ about\\ just\\ how\\ \\\"normal\\\"\\ he\\ was\\.\\ He\\ was\\ not\\ especially\\ sadistic\\,\\ and\\ his\\ explanations\\ for\\ what\\ he\\ did\\ sounded\\ like\\ people\\'s\\ common\\ explanations\\ for\\ everyday\\ jobs\\.\\ He\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ following\\ orders\\ and\\ was\\ just\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ good\\ job\\.\\ He\\ was\\ aware\\ of\\ what\\ he\\ was\\ designing\\,\\ but\\ his\\ explanations\\ sound\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ just\\ designing\\ a\\ motor\\,\\ or\\ a\\ new\\ type\\ of\\ corporate\\ organization\\,\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ normal\\ engineering\\/administrative\\ feat\\.\\ Arendt\\'s\\ book\\ \\Eichmann\\ in\\ Jerusalem\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ Milgram\\'s\\ inspiration\\ for\\ the\\ study\\.\\ Stanley\\ Milgram\\ decided\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ these\\ atrocities\\,\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ with\\ the\\ compliance\\ of\\ so\\ many\\ people\\,\\ could\\ have\\ possibly\\ taken\\ place\\,\\ and\\ so\\ would\\ investigate\\ how\\ normal\\ people\\ respond\\ to\\ authority\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ wikipedia\\ summary\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Milgram\\_experiment\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Stanley\\ Milgram\\ designed\\ a\\ study\\ in\\ which\\ two\\ \\\"participants\\\"\\ would\\ come\\ in\\,\\ with\\ one\\ being\\ a\\ confederate\\ who\\ was\\ actually\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ study\\.\\ There\\ would\\ be\\ \\\"random\\ assignment\\\"\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ confederate\\ would\\ be\\ wired\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ machine\\ that\\ gave\\ electric\\ shocks\\ and\\ the\\ actual\\ participant\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ one\\ administering\\ the\\ shocks\\.\\ The\\ participant\\ was\\ told\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ experiment\\ on\\ learning\\,\\ and\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ theories\\ of\\ learning\\ that\\ said\\ punishment\\ was\\ important\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ would\\ administer\\ a\\ punishment\\ of\\ electric\\ shock\\ to\\ the\\ participant\\ to\\ \\\"facilitate\\ learning\\.\\\"\\ The\\ confederate\\ discussed\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\.\\ The\\ voltage\\ of\\ the\\ shocks\\ escalated\\ with\\ each\\ one\\,\\ going\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ up\\ to\\ 450\\ Volts\\ \\(our\\ outlets\\ are\\ 110\\ Volts\\)\\.\\ Electric\\ shocks\\ from\\ voltages\\ as\\ low\\ as\\ 50\\ Volts\\ can\\ potentially\\ be\\ lethal\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ someone\\ with\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ confederate\\ would\\ then\\ scream\\ and\\ say\\ \\\"let\\ me\\ out\\ of\\ here\\,\\ I\\ have\\ heart\\ problems\\\"\\ as\\ the\\ voltage\\ escalated\\.\\ For\\ the\\ last\\ few\\ shocks\\ he\\ would\\ be\\ silent\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ were\\ dead\\.\\ If\\ the\\ participants\\ stopped\\ shocking\\ the\\ confederate\\,\\ the\\ experimenter\\ would\\ say\\ a\\ few\\ pre\\-orchestrated\\ lines\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"the\\ experiment\\ requires\\ that\\ you\\ continue\\.\\\"\\ This\\ was\\ an\\ explicit\\ violation\\ of\\ common\\-sense\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ were\\ encouraged\\ to\\ harm\\ someone\\ else\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ they\\ normally\\ would\\ not\\ by\\ an\\ authority\\ figure\\.\\ It\\ was\\ absolutely\\ shocking\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ would\\ continue\\ all\\ they\\ way\\ up\\ to\\ 450\\ Volts\\ just\\ because\\ the\\ experimenter\\ told\\ them\\ to\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ obvious\\ pain\\,\\ and\\ possible\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ confederate\\ who\\ was\\ constantly\\ saying\\ to\\ stop\\,\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ let\\ out\\,\\ that\\ it\\ hurt\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ heart\\ problem\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ growing\\ silent\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ as\\ though\\ he\\ had\\ actually\\ had\\ a\\ heart\\ attack\\.\\ The\\ findings\\ are\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ graph\\ below\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\The\\ factors\\ that\\ affected\\ obedience\\ were\\ not\\ typical\\ factors\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ violence\\ or\\ would\\ seem\\ obvious\\ as\\ contributing\\ t0\\ aggression\\,\\ such\\ as\\ gender\\,\\ whether\\ the\\ subject\\ was\\ a\\ student\\ or\\ nonstudent\\,\\ or\\ sadism\\.\\ This\\ is\\ shown\\ through\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ manipulations\\,\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ experimenter\\ said\\ \\\"don\\'t\\ do\\ it\\\"\\ and\\ the\\ one\\ getting\\ shocked\\ said\\ \\\"no\\,\\ its\\ fine\\\"\\ reversing\\ roles\\.\\ Minor\\ factors\\ contributing\\ to\\ high\\ obedience\\ to\\ authority\\ were\\ personality\\ of\\ participant\\,\\ prestige\\ of\\ institution\\,\\ and\\ appearance\\ of\\ experimenter\\ \\&\\;\\ victim\\.\\ Major\\ factors\\ contributing\\ to\\ high\\ obedience\\ included\\ the\\ proximity\\ and\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ experimenter\\ \\(the\\ closer\\ and\\ more\\ authoritative\\ the\\ more\\ obedience\\)\\,\\ the\\ proximity\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\ \\(the\\ closer\\,\\ the\\ less\\ obedience\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ solitude\\ of\\ the\\ participant\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Psychological\\ Issues\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ experiment\\ was\\ carried\\ out\\ atheoretically\\,\\ and\\ its\\ findings\\ are\\ puzzling\\.\\ The\\ findings\\ offer\\ a\\ major\\ challenge\\ to\\ our\\ confidence\\ \\(as\\ psychologists\\ and\\ laypeople\\)\\ of\\ how\\ well\\ we\\ understand\\ important\\ human\\ behavior\\ \\(as\\ most\\ psychiatrists\\ predicted\\ obedience\\ levels\\ of\\ \\.1\\%\\,\\ not\\ 50\\-80\\%\\)\\.\\ There\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ tension\\ in\\ the\\ subjects\\ doing\\ the\\ shocking\\ and\\ a\\ corresponding\\ absence\\ of\\ malice\\ or\\ sadism\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ people\\ did\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ shock\\ the\\ other\\ \\\"participant\\,\\\"\\ but\\ did\\ it\\ anyways\\.\\ Many\\ people\\ laughed\\ while\\ they\\ did\\ it\\,\\ showing\\ a\\ dissociation\\ of\\ thought\\ and\\ emotion\\ from\\ behavior\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ fundamental\\ attribution\\ error\\ is\\ a\\ complicated\\ and\\ multi\\-faceted\\ concept\\ that\\ here\\ could\\ say\\ we\\ attribute\\ our\\ behavior\\ to\\ one\\ thing\\ \\(our\\ reasonableness\\ and\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\)\\,\\ while\\ we\\ behave\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ something\\ else\\ \\(unconscious\\ factors\\ listed\\ below\\)\\ \\(this\\ is\\ discussed\\ more\\ next\\ lecture\\)\\.\\ We\\ think\\ we\\ would\\ behave\\ according\\ to\\ certain\\ cues\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\,\\ like\\ the\\ screaming\\,\\ yet\\ people\\ ignored\\ this\\ and\\ followed\\ what\\ the\\ experimental\\ authority\\ said\\,\\ cues\\ we\\ think\\ would\\ not\\ dictate\\ our\\ behavior\\.\\ There\\ are\\ surprising\\ effects\\ of\\ signs\\ of\\ confidence\\ and\\ dominance\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ more\\ confident\\ the\\ experimenter\\ seems\\,\\ the\\ more\\ likely\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ to\\ obey\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ major\\ effects\\ of\\ diffusion\\ of\\ responsibility\\,\\ where\\ when\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ responsible\\ for\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\,\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ follow\\ authority\\ figures\\ \\(indeed\\,\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ Eichmann\\ said\\)\\.\\ There\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ substantial\\ amount\\ of\\ denigrating\\ the\\ victim\\ as\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ Cognitive\\ Dissonance\\-like\\ mechanisms\\.\\ Cognitive\\ Dissonance\\ is\\ the\\ tendency\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ beliefs\\ fall\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ their\\ actions\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\ \\(Again\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ first\\ approximation\\ and\\ is\\ discussed\\ more\\ next\\ lecture\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ then\\ offers\\ one\\ rarely\\ cited\\ explanation\\ for\\ people\\'s\\ behavior\\ here\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ gradualness\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ The\\ Milgram\\ experiment\\ was\\ equivalent\\ to\\ an\\ \\\"escalation\\ game\\\"\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"dollar\\ auction\\\"\\ from\\ game\\ theory\\.\\ The\\ auction\\ works\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ an\\ authority\\ offers\\ to\\ auction\\ a\\ dollar\\,\\ and\\ the\\ winning\\ bidder\\ gets\\ the\\ dollar\\,\\ BUT\\ the\\ loser\\ also\\ must\\ pay\\ their\\ losing\\ bid\\.\\ At\\ each\\ stage\\ then\\ the\\ two\\ bidders\\ have\\ two\\ options\\:\\ fold\\,\\ and\\ lose\\ entire\\ cost\\ of\\ previous\\ bid\\,\\ or\\ raise\\,\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ chance\\ at\\ gain\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ reducing\\ one\\'s\\ loss\\.\\ The\\ paradoxical\\ outcome\\ of\\ an\\ escalation\\ game\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ \\\"rational\\\"\\ to\\ lose\\ much\\ more\\ money\\ than\\ \\ they\\ were\\ even\\ bidding\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ Essentially\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ bids\\ 1\\ cent\\,\\ the\\ second\\ 2\\,\\ the\\ first\\ 3\\,\\ the\\ second\\ 4\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\,\\ each\\ thinking\\ they\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ deal\\.\\ However\\,\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ one\\ bids\\ 99\\ cents\\,\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ other\\'s\\ best\\ interest\\ to\\ bid\\ \\$1\\ to\\ minimize\\ losses\\ \\(even\\ though\\ he\\ will\\ come\\ out\\ even\\ now\\)\\.\\ Now\\,\\ paradoxically\\ the\\ other\\ person\\ bids\\ \\$1\\.01\\,\\ to\\ minimize\\ losses\\ to\\ 1\\ cent\\,\\ and\\ is\\ now\\ actually\\ bidding\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ dollar\\ is\\ worth\\.\\ The\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ once\\ the\\ bidding\\ starts\\ it\\ is\\ always\\ worth\\ it\\ to\\ bid\\ higher\\ to\\ minimize\\ one\\'s\\ losses\\,\\ and\\ while\\ both\\ start\\ thinking\\ they\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ deal\\,\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ they\\ end\\ up\\ actually\\ paying\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ item\\ being\\ bid\\ for\\,\\ just\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ they\\ get\\ something\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ deal\\.\\ It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ rational\\ strategy\\ in\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ situation\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ play\\ at\\ all\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Milgram\\ Experiment\\ was\\ similar\\ to\\ an\\ escalation\\ game\\ \\(or\\ dollar\\ auction\\)\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\.\\ The\\ reward\\ was\\ the\\ approval\\ of\\ the\\ experimenter\\ and\\ the\\ satisfaction\\ of\\ completing\\ the\\ task\\ to\\ help\\ science\\ \\(plus\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ monetary\\ reward\\)\\.\\ At\\ each\\ stage\\ the\\ participant\\ has\\ two\\ options\\:\\ disobey\\,\\ with\\ the\\ potential\\ cost\\ of\\ having\\ hurt\\ the\\ learner\\ without\\ receiving\\ the\\ reward\\,\\ or\\ obey\\ with\\ chance\\ at\\ reward\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ other\\ similar\\ escalation\\ games\\ that\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ horrendous\\ costs\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ human\\ lives\\ and\\ suffering\\ because\\ they\\ go\\ way\\ past\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ any\\ positive\\ returns\\.\\ Wars\\ that\\ continue\\ to\\ the\\ bitter\\ end\\ are\\ like\\ this\\ \\(if\\ we\\ surrender\\ after\\ paying\\ so\\ much\\,\\ we\\ have\\ lost\\ everything\\,\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ push\\ on\\ a\\ little\\ more\\,\\ we\\ could\\ yet\\ win\\ even\\ though\\ we\\ win\\ less\\ than\\ we\\ already\\ lost\\)\\,\\ labor\\ strikes\\ that\\ also\\ go\\ way\\ past\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ reasonable\\ returns\\,\\ and\\ lawsuits\\ that\\ end\\ up\\ costing\\ both\\ parties\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ original\\ disagreements\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Relevance\\ of\\ Milgram\\ Experiments\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ clear\\ that\\ these\\ explain\\ atrocities\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ holocaust\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\ to\\ Milgram\\'s\\ Obedience\\ Theory\\,\\ in\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ kill\\ without\\ being\\ ordered\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\ that\\ people\\ just\\ following\\ authorities\\ that\\ cause\\ these\\ atrocities\\,\\ given\\ the\\ above\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ human\\ coalitional\\ psychology\\ \\(like\\ the\\ kids\\ fighting\\ in\\ the\\ Robber\\'s\\ Cave\\ experiment\\)\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ dehumanization\\ of\\ outgroup\\ members\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ were\\ also\\ ethical\\ problems\\ with\\ Milgram\\'s\\ Experiments\\,\\ which\\ prevent\\ replications\\ he\\ did\\,\\ and\\ his\\ manipulations\\.\\ The\\ experiment\\ created\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ stress\\ in\\ participants\\ and\\ involved\\ deception\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ would\\ not\\ allow\\ these\\ experiments\\ to\\ pass\\ modern\\-day\\ ethical\\ review\\ boards\\.\\ We\\ now\\ have\\ committees\\ for\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ human\\ subjects\\ for\\ all\\ psychology\\ research\\,\\ although\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ some\\ replication\\ of\\ alternatives\\ \\(such\\ as\\ getting\\ people\\ to\\ promote\\ bad\\ things\\ like\\ cigarettes\\,\\ thus\\ indirectly\\ causing\\ harm\\ to\\ others\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ in\\ all\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ conclude\\ from\\ the\\ Milgram\\ experiments\\ seems\\ very\\ important\\ but\\ elusive\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\ what\\ they\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ human\\ nature\\ exactly\\,\\ but\\ whatever\\ it\\ is\\ seems\\ very\\ disturbing\\,\\ which\\ probably\\ lends\\ to\\ their\\ allure\\.\\ This\\ is\\ by\\ far\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ creepiest\\ chapters\\ of\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ psychology\\,\\ and\\ a\\ very\\ difficult\\ experiment\\ to\\ internalize\\ exactly\\ what\\ it\\ tells\\ us\\ about\\ ourselves\\.\\ Another\\ great\\ one\\ is\\ the\\ Stanford\\ Prison\\ Experiments\\,\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ check\\ out\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.prisonexp\\.org\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ I\\ HIGHLY\\ recommend\\ visiting\\ this\\ site\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ psychology\\ experiments\\ ever\\,\\ makes\\ you\\ really\\ think\\ about\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ human\\ being\\,\\ and\\ is\\ very\\ well\\ put\\ together\\!\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 21 (4/29/08)- Obedience to Authority"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.323714+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "AN AMERICAN NIGHTMARE", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 430, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Gunmar\\ Myrdal\\,\\ An\\ American\\ Dilemma\\,\\ selections\\\r\\Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\,\\ Jr\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Letter\\ from\\ a\\ Birmingham\\ Jail\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Malcolm\\ X\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Ballot\\ or\\ the\\ Bullet\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;America\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ every\\ other\\ country\\ in\\ Western\\ civilization\\,\\ large\\ or\\ small\\,\\ has\\ the\\ most\\ explicitly\\ expressed\\ system\\ of\\ general\\ ideals\\ in\\ reference\\ to\\ human\\ interrelations\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wrote\\ the\\ Swedish\\ economist\\ Gunnar\\ Myrdal\\ in\\ the\\ introduction\\ to\\ his\\ 1944\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ race\\ problem\\ in\\ America\\,\\ An\\ American\\ Dilemma\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;One\\ feels\\ that\\ it\\ is\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ the\\ difficult\\ of\\ giving\\ reality\\ to\\ the\\ ethos\\ in\\ this\\ young\\ and\\ still\\ somewhat\\ unorganized\\ nation\\&\\#8212\\;that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;wrongs\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ America\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;wrongs\\&\\#8221\\;\\ judged\\ by\\ the\\ high\\ standards\\ of\\ the\\ national\\ Creed\\&\\#8212\\;which\\ helps\\ make\\ the\\ ideals\\ stand\\ out\\ so\\ clearly\\.\\ America\\ is\\ continually\\ struggling\\ for\\ its\\ soul\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\Myrdal\\ started\\ his\\ initial\\ project\\ with\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ race\\ in\\ America\\ was\\ simply\\ an\\ issue\\ of\\ economics\\.\\ As\\ he\\ gathered\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ socioeconomic\\ data\\,\\ he\\ slowly\\ came\\ to\\ change\\ his\\ initial\\ viewpoint\\ until\\ he\\ instead\\ ended\\ up\\ drafting\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ documents\\ that\\ seriously\\ threw\\ into\\ question\\ American\\ intellectuals\\&\\#8217\\;\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ social\\ science\\ to\\ seriously\\ address\\ social\\ problems\\.\\ Myrdal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lengthy\\ report\\ represents\\ a\\ shift\\ away\\ from\\ an\\ economic\\ to\\ a\\ psychological\\ study\\,\\ to\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ racism\\ could\\ persist\\ in\\ a\\ society\\ that\\ so\\ loudly\\ articulates\\ and\\ re\\-articulates\\ principles\\ of\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\.\\ Myrdal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ report\\ both\\ shows\\ the\\ usefulness\\ of\\ social\\ science\\ in\\ evaluating\\ the\\ pressing\\ issues\\ confronting\\ society\\,\\ and\\ its\\ limitations\\ in\\ proposing\\ solutions\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ remedy\\ said\\ problems\\.\\ The\\ statistics\\ could\\ be\\ gathered\\ time\\ and\\ time\\ again\\,\\ but\\ ultimately\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ conscience\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ people\\,\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;soul\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ rise\\ up\\ and\\ fix\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ the\\ race\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Myrdal\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ study\\ in\\ 1944\\ was\\ just\\ the\\ first\\ crack\\ in\\ the\\ fa\\&\\#231\\;ade\\ of\\ the\\ togetherness\\ that\\ characterized\\ the\\ immediate\\ post\\-war\\ period\\.\\ While\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ II\\ brought\\ with\\ it\\ an\\ increasing\\ amount\\ of\\ national\\ pride\\ and\\ economic\\ expansion\\,\\ it\\ also\\ highlighted\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ America\\ had\\ neglected\\ to\\ recover\\ from\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ Reconstruction\\.\\ African\\ American\\ soldiers\\ who\\ fought\\ for\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ in\\ the\\ war\\ said\\ they\\ were\\ fighting\\ for\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;double\\ V\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ victory\\ abroad\\ and\\ victory\\ at\\ home\\.\\ Unfortunately\\ for\\ them\\,\\ the\\ deep\\-seated\\ racism\\ that\\ plagued\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ South\\ and\\ even\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ North\\ was\\ not\\ simply\\ erased\\ by\\ valor\\ far\\ away\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ dismay\\.\\ As\\ Americans\\ increasingly\\ asserted\\ their\\ ideals\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ Cold\\ War\\ concerns\\ about\\ Communist\\ infiltration\\,\\ it\\ became\\ increasingly\\ apparent\\ that\\ those\\ ideals\\ only\\ applied\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\ Freedom\\ of\\ thought\\ and\\ action\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ central\\ tools\\ used\\ to\\ combat\\ Communist\\ brainwashing\\&\\#8212\\;were\\ only\\ realities\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ segment\\ of\\ American\\ life\\.\\ As\\ foes\\ abroad\\ began\\ taking\\ notice\\ of\\ this\\ discrepancy\\,\\ Americans\\ of\\ all\\ colors\\ began\\ to\\ evaluate\\ seriously\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ color\\ in\\ American\\ society\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ by\\ 1960\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ an\\ American\\ political\\ leader\\,\\ the\\ newly\\ elected\\ John\\ F\\.\\ Kennedy\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ asked\\ white\\ America\\ to\\ imagine\\ that\\ it\\ were\\ black\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ brought\\ about\\ this\\ change\\?\\ While\\ the\\ causes\\ are\\ varied\\ and\\ the\\ events\\&\\#8212\\;bus\\ boycotts\\,\\ freedom\\ riders\\,\\ etc\\&\\#8212\\;are\\ numerous\\,\\ this\\ course\\ focuses\\ mostly\\ on\\ the\\ thought\\ behind\\ those\\ actions\\.\\ In\\ any\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ thought\\ behind\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\,\\ both\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\ Jr\\.\\ and\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ provide\\ the\\ most\\ overarching\\ and\\ widely\\ influential\\ body\\ of\\ thought\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ \\(often\\ divergent\\)\\ intellectual\\ roots\\ of\\ the\\ movement\\.\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\Although\\ he\\ is\\ most\\ well\\-known\\ for\\ his\\ non\\-violent\\ actions\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ MLK\\ stressed\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ 1943\\,\\ imploring\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ thought\\ racism\\ and\\ Jim\\ Crow\\ were\\ unconstitutional\\ should\\ use\\ their\\ lives\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;counter\\ frictions\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ machine\\.\\ MLK\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideas\\ were\\ influenced\\ primarily\\ by\\ evangelical\\ Protestantism\\,\\ Walter\\ Rauschenbusch\\ \\(who\\ encouraged\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ religious\\ faith\\ to\\ activist\\ politics\\)\\,\\ Reinhold\\ Niebur\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ views\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ government\\ and\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ sin\\,\\ and\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ the\\ writings\\ of\\ Ghandi\\ and\\ Thoreau\\ that\\ stressed\\ civil\\ disobedience\\.\\ He\\ believed\\ strongly\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ enact\\ and\\ enforce\\ legislation\\ that\\ could\\ help\\ erase\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ institutional\\ barriers\\ to\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ he\\ continually\\ offered\\ a\\ message\\ of\\ hope\\ that\\ mixed\\ the\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ with\\ the\\ democratic\\ principles\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ In\\ his\\ famous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Letter\\ from\\ a\\ Birmingham\\ Jail\\&\\#8221\\;\\ he\\ optimistically\\ writes\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\ will\\ reach\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ freedom\\ in\\ Birmingham\\ and\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ nation\\ because\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ America\\ is\\ freedom\\&\\#8230\\;We\\ will\\ win\\ or\\ freedom\\ because\\ the\\ sacred\\ heritage\\ of\\ our\\ national\\ and\\ the\\ eternal\\ will\\ of\\ God\\ are\\ embodied\\ in\\ our\\ echoing\\ demands\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\MLK\\ and\\ his\\ followers\\ were\\ extremely\\ successful\\ in\\ getting\\ the\\ courts\\ to\\ reverse\\ segregation\\ laws\\,\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ Brown\\ v\\.\\ Board\\ of\\ Education\\,\\ and\\ working\\ with\\ government\\ officials\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ blacks\\ could\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ polls\\ and\\ exercise\\ their\\ rights\\ as\\ citizens\\.\\ Yet\\ by\\ the\\ mid\\ 1960s\\,\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\ hit\\ a\\ standstill\\.\\ Everything\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ done\\ through\\ judicial\\ systems\\ had\\ been\\ done\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ racism\\ still\\ persisted\\.\\ The\\ riots\\ that\\ characterized\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Long\\ Hot\\ Summer\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ Detroit\\ and\\ Watts\\ showed\\ that\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ racism\\ ran\\ deeper\\ than\\ just\\ institutional\\ barriers\\.\\ In\\ a\\ way\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ problem\\ that\\ Myrdal\\ hinted\\ at\\ in\\ his\\ study\\ all\\ over\\ again\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ ingrained\\ psychology\\ of\\ racism\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ erased\\ by\\ simply\\ solving\\ certain\\ structural\\ inequalities\\.\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ 1966\\ saw\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ Power\\ movement\\ which\\ consistently\\ snubbed\\ MLK\\ in\\ its\\ quest\\ for\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ power\\ for\\ blacks\\.\\ The\\ movement\\ built\\ on\\ earlier\\ ideas\\ expressed\\ by\\ such\\ poets\\ as\\ Claude\\ McKay\\ who\\ advocated\\ violence\\ as\\ a\\ solution\\ \\(McKay\\ wrote\\ in\\ 1919\\ in\\ his\\ poem\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;If\\ We\\ Must\\ Die\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8216\\;And\\ for\\ their\\ thousand\\ blows\\ deal\\ one\\ deathblow\\!\\&\\#8217\\;\\)\\ and\\ argued\\ against\\ integration\\ as\\ a\\ viable\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ race\\ question\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ MLK\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ avowed\\ patriotism\\,\\ Malcolm\\ X\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ well\\ known\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Black\\ Power\\ movement\\,\\ painted\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ victim\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Americanism\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Being\\ born\\ here\\ in\\ America\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ make\\ you\\ America\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ scathingly\\ wrote\\ Malcom\\ X\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Ballot\\ or\\ the\\ Bullet\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ speaking\\ as\\ a\\ victim\\ of\\ this\\ American\\ system\\.\\ And\\ I\\ see\\ America\\ through\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\.\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ see\\ any\\ American\\ dream\\;\\ I\\ see\\ an\\ American\\ nightmare\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ wake\\ up\\ from\\ this\\ nightmare\\ was\\ if\\ blacks\\ organized\\ among\\ themselves\\ and\\ used\\ any\\ means\\ necessary\\,\\ including\\ violence\\,\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ justice\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ it\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ ballot\\ or\\ the\\ bullet\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\\r\\\\\r\\Perhaps\\ the\\ largest\\ tragedies\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ movement\\ were\\ the\\ assignations\\ of\\ both\\ Malcolm\\ X\\ and\\ MLK\\.\\ Many\\ historians\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ leaders\\ were\\ assassinated\\ just\\ as\\ their\\ views\\ were\\ shifting\\,\\ MLK\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ toward\\ a\\ more\\ radical\\ stance\\ and\\ Malcolm\\ X\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ towards\\ a\\ more\\ conservative\\ strain\\.\\ As\\ issues\\ of\\ race\\,\\ racism\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ inequality\\ continue\\ to\\ plague\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ in\\ the\\ twenty\\-first\\ century\\,\\ one\\ can\\ only\\ wonder\\ what\\ would\\ have\\ happened\\ if\\ these\\ two\\ men\\ had\\ lived\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "AN AMERICAN NIGHTMARE"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.218796+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "THE THIRD SELF", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 421, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\Charlotte\\ Perkins\\ Gilman\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Yellow\\ Wallpaper\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Why\\ I\\ Wrote\\ \\&\\#8216\\;The\\ Yellow\\ Wallpaper\\,\\&\\#8217\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ selection\\ from\\ \\Women\\ and\\ Economics\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\Elizabeth\\ Cady\\ Stanton\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Solitude\\ of\\ Self\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ selection\\ from\\ \\The\\ Woman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Bible\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\Thorstein\\ Veblen\\,\\ \\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Leisure\\ Class\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(chapters\\ 13\\ and\\ 14\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Scholars\\ of\\ the\\ 1950s\\ often\\ wonder\\ why\\,\\ in\\ the\\ immediate\\ post\\-war\\ years\\,\\ more\\ women\\ did\\ not\\ enter\\ the\\ workplace\\.\\ Was\\ it\\ really\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ forced\\ out\\ of\\ their\\ jobs\\ by\\ returning\\ veterans\\?\\ Were\\ they\\ influenced\\ by\\ Cold\\ War\\ morality\\?\\ Did\\ they\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ kids\\ that\\ badly\\?\\ Puzzled\\ by\\ the\\ seemingly\\ strong\\ inroads\\ the\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ movement\\ had\\ been\\ making\\ since\\ Elizabeth\\ Cady\\ Stanton\\ and\\ Lucretia\\ Mott\\ wrote\\ their\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Declaration\\ of\\ Sentiments\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ scholars\\ wondered\\ why\\ women\\,\\ who\\ had\\ long\\ fought\\ for\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ vote\\ but\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ independent\\ thought\\,\\ were\\ eager\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ cult\\ of\\ domesticity\\ from\\ which\\ they\\ had\\ once\\ fled\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Research\\ has\\ shown\\ that\\ perhaps\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ strangest\\ influences\\ on\\ women\\ during\\ this\\ time\\ was\\ the\\ education\\ they\\ were\\ receiving\\-\\-a\\ liberal\\-education\\ model\\ influenced\\ by\\ Cold\\ War\\ politics\\ that\\ valued\\ individual\\ thought\\ and\\ experience\\ over\\ group\\ mentality\\.\\ Groups\\ could\\ be\\ controlled\\ from\\ the\\ Kremlin\\;\\ American\\ individuals\\ couldn\\'t\\ be\\ swayed\\.\\ At\\ Harvard\\,\\ this\\ culminated\\ in\\ the\\ 1945\\ report\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;General\\ Education\\ in\\ a\\ Free\\ Society\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ nicknamed\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Redbook\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Although\\ Radcliffe\\ women\\ had\\ been\\ allowed\\ to\\ take\\ courses\\ with\\ Harvard\\ men\\ since\\ 1943\\,\\ the\\ creators\\ of\\ the\\ Redbook\\ did\\ not\\ necessarily\\ take\\ \\ a\\ mixed\\ student\\ body\\ into\\ account\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Nevertheless\\,\\ when\\ the\\ report\\ was\\ drafted\\ in\\ 1945\\,\\ the\\ general\\ education\\ committee\\ did\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ subcommittee\\ on\\ the\\ education\\ of\\ women\\.\\ The\\ subcommittee\\ sent\\ a\\ questionnaire\\ to\\ all\\ Radcliffe\\ students\\ and\\ 1\\,000\\ alumnae\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ their\\ opinions\\ about\\ the\\ educational\\ needs\\ of\\ women\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ report\\ acknowledged\\ the\\ debate\\ amongst\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ college\\ presidents\\ between\\ the\\ merits\\ of\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;vocational\\&\\#8221\\;\\ education\\ for\\ the\\ home\\ versus\\ a\\ liberal\\ arts\\ education\\,\\ the\\ Redbook\\ authors\\ ultimately\\ concluded\\ that\\ both\\ genders\\ needed\\ the\\ same\\ general\\ educational\\ framework\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Radcliffe\\ women\\ thus\\ received\\ an\\ education\\ meant\\ to\\ teach\\ men\\ how\\ to\\ navigate\\ an\\ American\\ society\\ dominated\\ by\\ Cold\\ War\\ anxieties\\,\\ with\\ both\\ negative\\ and\\ positive\\ consequences\\.\\ This\\ instruction\\ prioritized\\ the\\ critical\\ thinking\\ skills\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ democratic\\ citizenship\\.\\ On\\ a\\ practical\\ level\\,\\ this\\ meant\\ Radcliffe\\ students\\ gained\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ individuals\\ and\\ citizens\\;\\ however\\,\\ it\\ prevented\\ them\\ from\\ recognizing\\ their\\ third\\ identity\\ as\\ women\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ 1950\\'s\\ scholarship\\ has\\ placed\\ this\\ tension\\ in\\ a\\ pre\\-war\\ and\\ post\\-war\\ context\\,\\ going\\ back\\ over\\ a\\ half\\-century\\ shows\\ that\\ American\\ individualism\\ had\\ long\\ posed\\ a\\ problem\\ for\\ the\\ feminist\\ movement\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Stanton\\,\\ in\\ her\\ heartbreakingly\\ lonely\\ essay\\ \\\"The\\ Solitude\\ of\\ Self\\,\\\"\\ argues\\ for\\ equal\\ rights\\ for\\ women\\ as\\ individuals\\.\\ For\\ Stanton\\,\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ a\\ cruel\\,\\ lonely\\ place\\ and\\ neither\\ family\\ nor\\ husband\\ can\\ help\\.\\ Women\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ liberated\\ from\\ the\\ prison\\ of\\ their\\ homes\\ and\\ allowed\\ access\\ to\\ education\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ this\\ world\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Like\\ James\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ Makes\\ a\\ Life\\ Significant\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Stanton\\ too\\ despairs\\ about\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ to\\ really\\ understand\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Even\\ our\\ friendship\\ and\\ love\\ we\\ never\\ fully\\ share\\ with\\ another\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ laments\\ Stanton\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;there\\ is\\ something\\ of\\ every\\ passion\\,\\ in\\ every\\ situation\\,\\ that\\ we\\ conceal\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ For\\ both\\ Stanton\\ and\\ James\\,\\ the\\ simple\\ truth\\ of\\ consciousness\\,\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ thought\\ independent\\ of\\ other\\ people\\,\\ is\\ enough\\ to\\ despair\\ for\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ one\\ human\\ being\\ to\\ truly\\ understand\\ another\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\James\\ picks\\ up\\ this\\ premise\\ to\\ argue\\ for\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ another\\'s\\ mind\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Where\\ would\\ any\\ of\\ us\\ be\\,\\ were\\ there\\ no\\ one\\ willing\\ to\\ know\\ us\\ as\\ we\\ really\\ are\\ or\\ ready\\ to\\ repay\\ us\\ for\\ our\\ insight\\ by\\ making\\ recognizant\\ return\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ implores\\ James\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;We\\ ought\\,\\ all\\ of\\ us\\,\\ to\\ realize\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ this\\ intense\\,\\ pathetic\\,\\ and\\ important\\ way\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Yet\\ Stanton\\ sees\\ no\\ such\\ hope\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ argues\\ that\\ since\\ our\\ inner\\ being\\ is\\ more\\ \\&\\#8220\\;inaccessible\\ than\\ the\\ ice\\ cold\\ mountains\\,\\ more\\ profound\\ than\\ the\\ midnight\\ sea\\&\\#8221\\;\\ men\\ must\\ not\\ claim\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ women\\ think\\ nor\\ attempt\\ to\\ speak\\ for\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\No\\ one\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ must\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ speak\\ for\\ anyone\\ else\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Stanton\\,\\ and\\ here\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ difficulty\\ begins\\.\\ If\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ speak\\ for\\ anyone\\ else\\,\\ and\\ if\\ true\\ understanding\\ is\\ really\\ impossible\\,\\ how\\ could\\ a\\ women\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ movement\\ ever\\ come\\ together\\?\\ The\\ ideas\\ of\\ American\\ individualism\\ that\\ invade\\ Stanton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ writing\\ prove\\ problematic\\ for\\ decades\\ to\\ come\\,\\ as\\ women\\ struggle\\ to\\ understand\\ their\\ rights\\ as\\ individuals\\ and\\ their\\ need\\ as\\ women\\ to\\ organize\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 78, "file_path": "", "desc": "THE THIRD SELF"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.360589+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Nazis, Cinema, Aesthetics.. Oh my! ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 432, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Students\\ attending\\ the\\ first\\ lecture\\ of\\ Professor\\ Eric\\ Rentschler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ course\\,\\ \\Nazi\\ Cinema\\:\\ Fantasy\\ Production\\ in\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ were\\ instantly\\ immersed\\ in\\ propaganda\\ films\\ and\\ cultural\\ cinema\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ world\\ being\\ depicted\\ in\\ the\\ initial\\ clips\\ shown\\ by\\ Rentschler\\ seemed\\ almost\\ surreal\\ and\\ terrifying\\,\\ he\\ was\\ quick\\ to\\ ask\\ a\\ poignant\\ question\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;How\\ foreign\\ is\\ the\\ culture\\ that\\ this\\ course\\ will\\ be\\ studying\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\At\\ first\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\ question\\ may\\ seem\\ obvious\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8216\\;Well\\,\\ \\they\\<\\/em\\>\\ were\\ murderous\\ Nazis\\,\\ and\\ \\we\\<\\/em\\>\\ were\\ freedom\\-loving\\ egalitarians\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>However\\,\\ Rentschler\\ is\\ quick\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ the\\ facile\\ nature\\ of\\ that\\ response\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ was\\ strong\\ support\\ for\\ eugenics\\ in\\ early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\ utilized\\ both\\ American\\ research\\ and\\ funds\\ to\\ further\\ their\\ own\\ research\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ of\\ interest\\ is\\ not\\ how\\ eugenic\\ killing\\ became\\ thinkable\\,\\ but\\ how\\ instead\\ how\\ it\\ became\\ an\\ accepted\\,\\ praised\\ aspect\\ of\\ German\\ culture\\ during\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ answer\\,\\ for\\ Rentschler\\,\\ has\\ little\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ some\\ uniquely\\ German\\ impulse\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Instead\\,\\ Rentschler\\ argues\\ that\\ through\\ the\\ constant\\ production\\ of\\ spectacle\\ in\\ German\\ daily\\ life\\,\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ redefine\\ national\\ identity\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ genocide\\ became\\ constitutive\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ central\\ aspect\\ of\\ this\\ \\&\\#8216\\;spectacle\\ of\\ the\\ everyday\\&\\#8217\\;\\ was\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\,\\ which\\ worked\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ new\\ ethos\\ of\\ national\\ identity\\ predicated\\ on\\ the\\ strength\\ and\\ righteousness\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ particular\\ German\\ past\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ films\\ accomplished\\ such\\ a\\ heavy\\ objective\\,\\ one\\ needn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ look\\ further\\ than\\ this\\ short\\ clip\\ about\\ the\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=7PQnL39nL8E\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Although\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ devices\\ at\\ play\\ in\\ this\\ short\\ clip\\,\\ a\\ romanticized\\ conception\\ of\\ Order\\ and\\ control\\ seems\\ fairly\\ evident\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Where\\ did\\ this\\ aesthetic\\ come\\ about\\,\\ and\\ how\\ was\\ it\\ so\\ effectively\\ produced\\ in\\ Nazi\\ films\\?\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Utilizing\\ historical\\ analysis\\ of\\ German\\-America\\ cultural\\ exchange\\ and\\ antagonism\\,\\ along\\ with\\ a\\ steady\\ dose\\ of\\ rare\\ German\\ films\\ from\\ the\\ era\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\,\\ Rentschler\\ hopes\\ to\\ elucidate\\ the\\ answers\\ to\\ these\\ questions\\,\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ producing\\ a\\ greater\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ productions\\ in\\ current\\ American\\ culture\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ my\\ part\\,\\ I\\ hope\\ to\\ guide\\ readers\\ through\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ important\\ theoretical\\ texts\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ films\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ more\\ excitingly\\,\\ I\\ hope\\ to\\ bring\\ readers\\ into\\ the\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ aesthetic\\ by\\ providing\\ links\\ to\\ as\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ visual\\ content\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\As\\ I\\ close\\ this\\ first\\ post\\,\\ I\\ will\\ end\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ note\\ as\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ ended\\ his\\ first\\ lecture\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Why\\ does\\ popular\\ culture\\ remain\\ enamored\\ with\\ the\\ fascist\\ aesthetic\\?\\\\ \\ Furthermore\\,\\ does\\ this\\ fascination\\ with\\ that\\ image\\ present\\ any\\ risks\\ or\\ dangers\\ of\\ violent\\ appropriation\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>When\\ contemplating\\ this\\ question\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ productive\\ to\\ check\\ out\\ this\\ stellar\\ piece\\ of\\ recent\\ music\\ video\\ history\\.\\.\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=c93o05SrWzE\\\r\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Nazis, Cinema, Aesthetics.. Oh my! "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.382604+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Early Bird ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 434, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ This\\ past\\ Thursday\\,\\ I\\ walked\\ into\\ lecture\\ about\\ fifteen\\ minutes\\ early\\ to\\ be\\ greeted\\ by\\ the\\ blood\\-drenched\\ German\\ rockers\\ of\\ my\\ adolescence\\,\\ Rammstein\\,\\ in\\ all\\ their\\ cinematic\\ glory\\.\\ \\ Although\\ I\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ manage\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ clip\\ that\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ played\\,\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ sample\\,\\ in\\ case\\ you\\ have\\ never\\ seen\\ Rammstein\\ in\\ action\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ shame\\ I\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ find\\ the\\ clip\\ from\\ their\\ 2005\\ Showcase\\.\\ \\ During\\ that\\ set\\,\\ the\\ lead\\ singer\\ sang\\ into\\ a\\ machete\\ with\\ a\\ microphone\\ for\\ a\\ handle\\.\\ \\ All\\ band\\ members\\ were\\ soaked\\ in\\ blood\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ flamethrower\\.\\\r\\While\\ the\\ video\\ was\\ strange\\,\\ I\\ found\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ any\\ discussion\\ of\\ its\\ significance\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ lecture\\ material\\ to\\ be\\ even\\ stranger\\.\\ \\ While\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ completely\\ possible\\ that\\ Rammstein\\ is\\ merely\\ a\\ favorite\\ band\\ of\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\,\\ I\\ think\\ attempting\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ Rammstein\\ aesthetic\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\,\\ or\\ even\\ Weimar\\ cinema\\,\\ exposes\\ an\\ important\\ question\\ regarding\\ course\\ material\\,\\ which\\ remains\\ to\\ be\\ given\\ concrete\\ explanation\\:\\\r\\\\\\ What\\ exactly\\ is\\ the\\ fascist\\ aesthetic\\?\\ \\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ difficulty\\ in\\ identifying\\ Rammstein\\ with\\ a\\ historically\\ significant\\ aesthetic\\/politics\\ relates\\ to\\ continued\\ vagueness\\ surrounding\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Socialist\\ aesthetic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Early Bird "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.402405+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hitler, the God.. Germans, the Mass Ornament", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 436, "html": "\\In\\ my\\ last\\ post\\,\\ I\\ briefly\\ reflected\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ technology\\ of\\ cinema\\,\\ mass\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\.\\ Of\\ particular\\ interest\\ was\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ why\\ the\\ German\\ population\\ became\\ so\\ entranced\\ by\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ Furher\\.\\ In\\ this\\ posting\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ reopen\\ this\\ question\\ and\\ engage\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ close\\-viewing\\ of\\ a\\ film\\ referenced\\ last\\ time\\,\\ \\Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ By\\ working\\ through\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ important\\ cinematic\\ moments\\,\\ those\\ highlighted\\ by\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ I\\ hope\\ to\\ further\\ clarify\\ why\\ a\\ Hitler\\-type\\ figure\\ was\\ so\\ appealing\\ to\\ many\\ Germans\\,\\ and\\ investigate\\ how\\ film\\ contributed\\ to\\ a\\ nascent\\ mass\\ culture\\ of\\ optimistic\\ German\\ nationalism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ is\\ somewhat\\ of\\ a\\ debate\\ as\\ to\\ \\Leni\\ Riefensthal\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ purpose\\ in\\ making\\ the\\ film\\.\\ By\\ her\\ account\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ documentary\\ film\\ that\\ objectively\\ portrayed\\ the\\ events\\ of\\ the\\ 1934\\ Nazi\\ Party\\ Congress\\.\\ However\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\,\\ along\\ with\\ many\\ other\\ historians\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\,\\ is\\ quick\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ that\\ seem\\ to\\ suggest\\ an\\ intent\\ to\\ produce\\ propaganda\\.\\ Each\\ example\\ explicated\\ in\\ our\\ close\\ viewing\\ below\\ will\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ cinematographic\\ decisions\\ made\\ by\\ Riefenstahl\\ during\\ the\\ editing\\ process\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ read\\ as\\,\\ among\\ other\\ things\\,\\ a\\ casting\\ of\\ doubt\\ upon\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ claim\\ to\\ neutrality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Miscellaneous\\ related\\ thought\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\In\\ group\\ discussion\\,\\ the\\ following\\ question\\ arose\\:\\ Is\\ a\\ truly\\ objective\\ documentation\\ of\\ an\\ event\\ possible\\ or\\ even\\ a\\ norm\\ in\\ documentary\\ filmmaking\\?\\ This\\ question\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ me\\ because\\ it\\ challenges\\ the\\ documentary\\/propaganda\\ binary\\.\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\,\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ delineate\\ one\\ genre\\ of\\ film\\ from\\ the\\ other\\?\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ if\\ every\\ documentary\\ is\\ inherently\\ biased\\ with\\ the\\ filmmaker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ political\\/social\\ commentary\\ \\(think\\ Michael\\ Moore\\ or\\ Errol\\ Morris\\)\\,\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ understand\\ the\\ particularity\\ of\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\?\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ is\\ there\\ anything\\ uniquely\\ abhorrent\\ the\\ possible\\ intent\\ behind\\ this\\ film\\,\\ or\\ is\\ every\\ documentary\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ part\\ produced\\ with\\ an\\ inherent\\ bias\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Indeed\\,\\ a\\ close\\ analysis\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ supposed\\ objectivity\\ of\\ documentary\\ as\\ medium\\,\\ when\\ used\\ to\\&\\#160\\;illustrate\\ and\\ uphold\\ Nazi\\ party\\ ideology\\,\\ produced\\ a\\ fictive\\&\\#160\\;fascist\\ reality\\&\\#160\\;in\\ which\\&\\#160\\;domination\\ and\\ submission\\ were\\ subsumed\\ into\\ the\\ German\\ identity\\,\\ masking\\ the\\ horrific\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\&\\#160\\;behind\\ a\\ false\\&\\#160\\;image\\ of\\ nationalistic\\ pride\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ my\\ estimation\\,\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ subconscious\\ duplicity\\ that\\ distinguishes\\ propaganda\\ from\\ mere\\ documentary\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ order\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ close\\ viewing\\,\\ it\\ is\\ obviously\\ necessary\\ to\\ have\\ something\\ to\\ view\\.\\ That\\ is\\ why\\ I\\ have\\ attached\\ this\\ \\link\\<\\/a\\>\\ to\\ the\\ opening\\ segments\\ of\\ the\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\.\\ I\\ realize\\ that\\ I\\ put\\ this\\ link\\ up\\ in\\ my\\ last\\ post\\,\\ but\\ this\\ time\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ focus\\ more\\ closely\\ on\\ the\\ last\\ 5\\ minutes\\ or\\ so\\ with\\ the\\ intent\\ of\\ learning\\ something\\ about\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ style\\ and\\ its\\ connection\\ to\\ the\\ Nazi\\ propaganda\\ machine\\.\\\r\\\\\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/p\\>An\\ overwhelming\\ sense\\ of\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ strength\\ emerges\\ from\\ this\\ initial\\ clip\\ of\\ his\\ landing\\ at\\ Nuremburg\\.\\ Importantly\\ this\\ strength\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ physical\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ paradoxically\\ both\\ supernatural\\ and\\ modern\\-technological\\.\\ Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ unpack\\ that\\ thesis\\ by\\ looking\\ closely\\ at\\ the\\ film\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Rentschler\\ argues\\ persuasively\\ that\\ Riefenstahl\\ uses\\ cinematic\\ techniques\\,\\ such\\ as\\ cut\\ scenes\\ and\\ match\\ shots\\,\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ dialogue\\ between\\ Hitler\\ and\\ his\\ surroundings\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ minute\\ five\\ with\\ the\\ shadow\\ image\\ of\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ plane\\ soaring\\ over\\ the\\ pristine\\,\\ traditional\\ German\\ landscape\\.\\ The\\ imposition\\ of\\ the\\ shadow\\ onto\\ the\\ landscape\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ plans\\ to\\ bring\\ technology\\ to\\ the\\ masses\\.\\ A\\ more\\ powerful\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ idea\\ is\\ visible\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ clip\\ as\\ Hitler\\ and\\ his\\ motorcade\\ cruise\\ through\\ Nuremburg\\,\\ producing\\ ecstatic\\ jubilation\\&\\#160\\;from\\ the\\ gigantic\\ mass\\ of\\ adoring\\ supporters\\.\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ match\\-shot\\ used\\ by\\ Riefenstahl\\ to\\ create\\ eye\\ contact\\ between\\ Hitler\\ and\\ the\\ fountain\\ of\\ a\\ traditional\\ German\\ man\\,\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ film\\ conveys\\ Hitler\\ as\\ breathing\\ life\\ into\\ a\\ German\\ cultural\\ heritage\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ thrown\\ into\\ turmoil\\ by\\ the\\&\\#160\\;economic\\ depression\\ and\\ defeat\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ I\\.\\ A\\ further\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ focus\\ on\\ Hitler\\ as\\ the\\ bringer\\ of\\ technological\\ advance\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ moments\\ earlier\\ in\\ a\\ brief\\ cut\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ Mercedes\\ Benz\\ fades\\ into\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ Swastika\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\ promises\\ more\\ than\\ symbolic\\ optimism\\,\\ it\\ promises\\ the\\ reinvigoration\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ and\\ technological\\ modernization\\ of\\ Germany\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ an\\ even\\ more\\ grandiose\\ turn\\,\\ the\\ film\\ presents\\ Hitler\\ as\\ a\\ prophetic\\,\\ supernatural\\ savior\\ figure\\.\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ to\\ several\\ aspects\\ of\\ his\\ parade\\ through\\ Nuremburg\\:\\\r\\\\\\The\\ play\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ dark\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\&\\#8211\\;\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ face\\ is\\ shone\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ beaming\\ sunlight\\,\\ while\\ darkness\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ silhouette\\ emphasizing\\ his\\ strong\\,\\ masculine\\ features\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ interaction\\ with\\ the\\ masses\\,\\ particularly\\ children\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ matching\\ of\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ stern\\ gaze\\ to\\ the\\ jubilant\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ men\\,\\ women\\,\\ and\\ children\\ creates\\ a\\ dialectic\\ in\\ which\\ Hitler\\ promises\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ destitute\\ salvation\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ renewed\\ commitment\\ to\\ German\\-ness\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ exchange\\ between\\ Hitler\\ and\\ the\\ mother\\/child\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ to\\ this\\ moment\\ of\\ touch\\ between\\ the\\ mother\\/child\\ and\\ Hitler\\ and\\ suggests\\ that\\ Riefenstahl\\ is\\ producing\\ Hitler\\ as\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ Dionysian\\ god\\ of\\ fertility\\.\\ While\\ this\\ may\\ seem\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ an\\ overstatement\\,\\ the\\ collection\\ of\\ scenes\\ in\\ this\\ brief\\ introduction\\ certainly\\ suggest\\ that\\ Hitler\\ promises\\ to\\ renew\\ the\\ fertility\\ of\\ German\\ identity\\ through\\ both\\ material\\ modernization\\ policies\\ and\\ a\\ mythical\\ power\\ associated\\,\\ in\\ fact\\ largely\\ constituted\\ by\\,\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ represented\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\,\\ this\\ film\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Nazi\\ propaganda\\ machine\\ writ\\ large\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\By\\ looking\\ at\\ this\\ very\\ brief\\ clip\\ of\\ the\\ film\\,\\ I\\ hope\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ statements\\ about\\ Hitler\\ from\\ my\\ last\\ post\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ notably\\,\\ Hitler\\-as\\-myth\\,\\ cinema\\ as\\ constitutive\\ of\\ the\\ regime\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ mass\\ appeal\\,\\ and\\ Hitler\\-as\\-panacea\\ for\\ the\\ material\\ anxieties\\ of\\ the\\ German\\ population\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ allow\\ a\\ greater\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ apparatus\\ that\\ surrounded\\ and\\ constituted\\ Hitler\\ and\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ hopefully\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ spectacle\\ of\\ the\\&\\#160\\;Hitler\\ party\\,\\ explicitly\\ portrayed\\ as\\ a\\ mass\\ activity\\ and\\ experience\\,\\ provided\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ building\\ solidarity\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ ripped\\ apart\\ psychologically\\ by\\ defeat\\ in\\ World\\ War\\ I\\.\\ While\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ participation\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ spectacle\\ provided\\ Germans\\ with\\ a\\ helpful\\ form\\ of\\ \\\"group\\ therapy\\,\\\"\\ Kracauer\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ danger\\ in\\ these\\ particular\\ configurations\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ mass\\ gathering\\,\\ but\\ the\\ enlisting\\ of\\ individuals\\ into\\ a\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;Mass\\ Ornament\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ can\\ only\\ participate\\ with\\ no\\ voice\\ over\\ the\\ direction\\ or\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ mass\\ configuration\\ itself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ light\\,\\ incentivizing\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ spectacle\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ can\\ better\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ call\\ to\\ sacrifice\\ personal\\ agency\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ being\\ led\\.\\ In\\ my\\ opinion\\,\\ the\\ film\\ provided\\ contemporary\\ Germans\\ with\\ the\\ illusion\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ \\&\\#8220\\;choosing\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\,\\ while\\ obscuring\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ very\\ performance\\ of\\ fidelity\\ to\\ the\\ Hitler\\ regime\\ was\\ being\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ shiny\\ ornament\\ to\\ sanitize\\ the\\ horrific\\ massacre\\ of\\ all\\ deemed\\ too\\ inferior\\ to\\ participate\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hitler, the God.. Germans, the Mass Ornament"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.415655+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Olympia and the Fascism of the Beautiful Body Pt. II", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 437, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Leni\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ a\\ film\\ documenting\\/producing\\ the\\ events\\ of\\ the\\ 1938\\ Olympic\\ Games\\ in\\ \\\\Berlin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\,\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ epic\\ sports\\ documentary\\ ever\\ made\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Seeking\\ to\\ move\\ beyond\\ simply\\ reporting\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ various\\ competitions\\,\\ Riefenstahl\\ presents\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;symphony\\ of\\ movement\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\*\\ which\\ is\\ focused\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ spectacular\\ \\process\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ human\\ athletic\\ competition\\ than\\ the\\ \\results\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ particular\\ events\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ generally\\,\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ film\\ takes\\ a\\ sixteen\\-day\\ smattering\\ of\\ events\\ and\\ transforms\\ them\\ into\\ a\\ seamless\\,\\ cinematic\\,\\ almost\\ fantastical\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ form\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ this\\ post\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ use\\ several\\ clips\\ from\\ the\\ film\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ establish\\ the\\ primary\\ aesthetic\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ film\\:\\ the\\ glory\\ of\\ the\\ strong\\,\\ strained\\,\\ abstract\\ human\\ form\\.\\ Following\\ this\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ like\\ to\\ deepen\\ the\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\&\\#8216\\;what\\ constitutes\\ propaganda\\&\\#8217\\;\\ by\\ digging\\ into\\ three\\ interpretations\\ of\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ overt\\ Nazi\\ propaganda\\,\\ appropriated\\ art\\,\\ and\\ insidious\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Ultimately\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ point\\ made\\ by\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ in\\ lecture\\ that\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ film\\ directly\\ glorifies\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ disturbing\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ presence\\/absence\\ of\\ certain\\ human\\ forms\\ in\\ this\\ film\\ and\\ the\\ Nazi\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ genocidal\\ dreams\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;a\\ symphony\\ of\\ movement\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\One\\ reason\\ Riefenstahl\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ turn\\ a\\ sporting\\ event\\ into\\ a\\ so\\-called\\ symphony\\ was\\ the\\ nearly\\ limitless\\ resources\\ available\\ to\\ her\\ during\\ the\\ shooting\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ backing\\,\\ in\\ combination\\ with\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ creativity\\,\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ new\\ camera\\ techniques\\ were\\ \\invented\\<\\/strong\\>\\ during\\ the\\ shooting\\ of\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ To\\ name\\ a\\ few\\ mentioned\\ by\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ in\\ lecture\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\Catapult\\ camera\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ metal\\ tracks\\ were\\ built\\ alongside\\ the\\ racetracks\\ and\\ cameras\\ were\\ catapulted\\ down\\ the\\ track\\ to\\ follow\\ the\\ runners\\.\\ Example\\ seen\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(sorry\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\ quality\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Underwater\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ camera\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ hopefully\\ this\\ is\\ intuitive\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Cameras\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ observation\\ balloons\\,\\ horses\\,\\ and\\ boats\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Rentschler\\ informed\\ us\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ much\\ of\\ the\\ balloon\\ footage\\ was\\ unused\\,\\ as\\ the\\ unteathered\\ balloons\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generally\\ floated\\ away\\ and\\ crashed\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Creative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ use\\ of\\ angles\\/lighting\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Look\\ for\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ clips\\ shown\\ below\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\Slow\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\!\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ As\\ Rentschler\\ posits\\,\\ this\\ technique\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bodies\\ are\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ film\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ impressive\\ collection\\ of\\ innovative\\ techniques\\ comes\\ together\\ through\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ meticulous\\ editing\\ to\\ produce\\ an\\ homage\\ to\\ the\\ abstract\\ human\\ form\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ a\\ \\clip\\<\\/a\\>\\ will\\ help\\ to\\ elucidate\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ specific\\ ways\\ that\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ techniques\\ produce\\ a\\ certain\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ idyllic\\ human\\ form\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ very\\ short\\ clip\\ from\\ the\\ film\\,\\ documenting\\ the\\ men\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ gymnastics\\ competition\\,\\ is\\ revealing\\ of\\ the\\ larger\\ aesthetic\\ movements\\ in\\ the\\ film\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\Music\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ music\\,\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opposed\\ to\\ bland\\ commentary\\,\\ removes\\ the\\ competitors\\ from\\ their\\ purely\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ historical\\ location\\ at\\ the\\ Olympics\\ and\\ elevates\\ them\\,\\ as\\ Professor\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\,\\ to\\ a\\ transcendental\\ ideal\\ of\\ human\\ movement\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ triumph\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Slow\\ Motion\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Another\\ readily\\ visible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ aspect\\ of\\ this\\ scene\\,\\ the\\ slow\\ motion\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ athlete\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ motions\\,\\ and\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ transcendental\\ image\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ created\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Contrast\\(s\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\Gymnasts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ the\\ rings\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ crowd\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ shooting\\ the\\ male\\ gymnast\\ on\\ the\\ rings\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ the\\ tremendous\\ crowd\\ as\\ his\\ background\\ makes\\ it\\ feel\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ entire\\ audience\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ his\\ quivering\\ muscles\\,\\ producing\\ a\\ cult\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ following\\ for\\ this\\ man\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ endurance\\,\\ grace\\,\\ and\\ struggle\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Gymnasts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ the\\ uneven\\ bars\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ sky\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ contrasting\\ these\\ flying\\ gymnasts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ crowd\\,\\ once\\ again\\ removes\\ them\\ from\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ historical\\ context\\,\\ instead\\ situating\\ the\\ athletes\\ with\\ the\\ cosmos\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ giving\\ the\\ movements\\ an\\ almost\\ immortal\\ feel\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\\Play\\ of\\ Light\\/Dark\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ The\\ lighting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ camera\\ angle\\ at\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ work\\ together\\ to\\ accent\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shadow\\ of\\ the\\ gymnast\\,\\ producing\\ a\\ duet\\ floor\\ routine\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ distinct\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ shadow\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ emphasizes\\ the\\ beautiful\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ abstract\\,\\ unseen\\ human\\ form\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ does\\ one\\ \\view\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\View\\ One\\:\\ Overt\\ Nazi\\ Propaganda\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>Some\\ hold\\ the\\ opinion\\ that\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>was\\ merely\\ another\\ Nazi\\-sponsored\\ piece\\ of\\ propaganda\\,\\ meant\\ to\\ soften\\ the\\ repressive\\ regime\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ image\\ internationally\\,\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ it\\ was\\ beginning\\ to\\ strengthen\\ its\\ xenophobic\\ policies\\ towards\\ Jews\\ and\\ other\\ minorities\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ view\\ contends\\ that\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ depiction\\ of\\ a\\ harmonious\\ community\\ engaged\\ in\\ peaceful\\ sporting\\ events\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ display\\ \\\\Germany\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ willingness\\ to\\ integrate\\ into\\ the\\ international\\ system\\,\\ effectively\\ downplaying\\ German\\ imperial\\ aspirations\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>NOTE\\:\\ We\\ did\\ not\\ read\\ any\\ authors\\ who\\ made\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ but\\ Susan\\ Sontag\\ attacks\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ claim\\ to\\ independence\\ by\\ pointing\\ out\\ that\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ project\\ was\\ funded\\ by\\ the\\ Nazi\\ Party\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\View\\ Two\\:\\ Appropriated\\ Art\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\ \\ \\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Although\\ View\\ One\\ points\\ to\\ an\\ important\\ connection\\ between\\ Nazi\\ money\\ and\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ final\\ product\\,\\ it\\ risks\\ letting\\ this\\ one\\ factor\\ over\\-determine\\ the\\ entire\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ film\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ View\\ One\\ assumes\\ that\\ Riefenstahl\\ was\\ completely\\ controlled\\ by\\ Nazi\\ Party\\ interests\\ and\\ only\\ had\\ those\\ in\\ mind\\ when\\ making\\ the\\ film\\.\\ On\\ the\\ opposite\\ side\\ of\\ this\\ opinion\\ is\\ View\\ Two\\,\\ which\\ argues\\ that\\ this\\ film\\ is\\ a\\ sports\\ documentary\\ not\\ a\\ propaganda\\ film\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ view\\ defends\\ Riefenstahl\\ generally\\ as\\ a\\ lover\\ of\\ beauty\\,\\ whose\\ obsession\\ was\\ appropriated\\ by\\ fascists\\ either\\ without\\ her\\ knowledge\\ or\\ to\\ her\\ staunch\\ disagreement\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ three\\ critical\\ components\\ of\\ this\\ argument\\ as\\ applied\\ to\\ \\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\:\\ \\(i\\)\\ All\\ sports\\ are\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ competition\\ and\\ struggle\\,\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ is\\ no\\ different\\;\\ \\(ii\\)\\ Internationalism\\ is\\ the\\ privileged\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ film\\,\\ not\\ Hitler\\;\\ \\(iii\\)\\ Goebbels\\ and\\ other\\ Nazi\\ leaders\\ were\\ incensed\\ by\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ inclusion\\ of\\ Jessie\\ Owens\\ prevailing\\,\\ as\\ it\\ contradicted\\ the\\ Nazis\\ racist\\ sensibilities\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\View\\ Three\\:\\ Insidious\\ Fascist\\ Aesthetics\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>View\\ Three\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ the\\ claim\\ made\\ by\\ View\\ One\\,\\ while\\ taking\\ a\\ more\\ sophisticated\\ stance\\ on\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ connection\\ to\\ Nazi\\ ideology\\,\\ which\\ turns\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ is\\ merely\\ about\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ into\\ the\\ primary\\ reason\\ why\\ it\\ is\\ proto\\-fascist\\.\\ This\\ argument\\ asks\\ of\\ View\\ Two\\:\\ What\\ exactly\\ is\\ meant\\ by\\ \\&\\#8216\\;beauty\\&\\#8217\\;\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>According\\ to\\ this\\ line\\ of\\ criticism\\,\\ the\\ film\\ naturalizes\\ a\\ particular\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;beautiful\\&\\#8217\\;\\ human\\ form\\,\\ while\\ obscuring\\,\\ or\\ absenting\\ other\\ bodies\\:\\ the\\ Jew\\,\\ the\\ sick\\,\\ the\\ injured\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ should\\ be\\ said\\ about\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ human\\ form\\ being\\ naturalized\\ in\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Briefly\\,\\ let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ opening\\ \\scene\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ presented\\ a\\ fairly\\ persuasive\\ argument\\ regarding\\ the\\ parallel\\ between\\ what\\ Riefenstahl\\ does\\ in\\ this\\ opening\\ scene\\,\\ undoubtedly\\ a\\ little\\ odd\\ for\\ a\\ film\\ about\\ \\an\\<\\/em\\>\\ Olympics\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\the\\ \\<\\/em\\>Olympics\\,\\ and\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ imaginary\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Aryan\\/German\\ race\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Immediately\\,\\ one\\ is\\ struck\\ by\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ Riefenstahl\\ shoots\\ the\\ ancient\\ statues\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ breathtaking\\ how\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ smoke\\,\\ multiple\\ camera\\ angles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ play\\ of\\ light\\ and\\ dark\\ work\\ to\\ animate\\ the\\ statues\\ of\\ ancient\\ Grecian\\ competitors\\,\\ as\\ if\\ waking\\ them\\ from\\ a\\ long\\ dream\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Such\\ an\\ awakening\\ is\\ completed\\ by\\ the\\ match\\-shot\\ near\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ clip\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ disciplined\\,\\ mythic\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ discus\\ player\\ is\\ transmuted\\ into\\ the\\ German\\ athlete\\ of\\ today\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ explained\\,\\ this\\ scene\\ is\\ a\\ phantasmagoria\\,\\ a\\ dream\\ image\\ that\\ mixes\\ myth\\ with\\ a\\ smooth\\ drive\\ through\\ temporality\\ to\\ the\\ current\\ games\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ ultimate\\ effect\\ is\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ ancient\\ athletic\\ warriors\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ the\\ German\\ competitors\\ of\\ today\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ two\\ bodies\\ become\\ linked\\ through\\ what\\ are\\ presented\\ as\\ the\\ universal\\ human\\ form\\ \\(well\\-toned\\,\\ athletic\\ bodies\\)\\ and\\ universal\\ human\\ existence\\ \\(the\\ notion\\ of\\ endemic\\ competition\\ and\\ struggle\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ possible\\ that\\ when\\ viewed\\ in\\ a\\ historical\\ vacuum\\,\\ the\\ film\\ may\\ appear\\ as\\ mere\\ beauty\\ worship\\,\\ but\\ such\\ a\\ view\\ denies\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ film\\,\\ when\\ placed\\ in\\ its\\ proper\\ political\\ context\\,\\ sanitized\\ the\\ Nazis\\&\\#8217\\;\\ horrific\\ campaign\\ against\\ all\\ bodies\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ fit\\ the\\ ideal\\ image\\ displayed\\ in\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ closing\\ this\\ reflection\\ on\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ leave\\ with\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ questions\\ that\\ still\\ puzzle\\ me\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ and\\ a\\ fascist\\ political\\ system\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Do\\ the\\ aesthetics\\ necessarily\\ produce\\ the\\ political\\ system\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Are\\ they\\ merely\\ aides\\?\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Also\\,\\ what\\ responsibility\\,\\ if\\ any\\,\\ do\\ individuals\\ have\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ the\\ fascist\\ elements\\ of\\ an\\ artist\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fascist\\ productions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Olympia and the Fascism of the Beautiful Body Pt. II"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.540748+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 446, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Hey\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ blog\\ about\\ \\\"Molecules\\ of\\ Life\\,\\\"\\ a\\ Science\\ B\\ core\\ whose\\ professors\\ had\\ the\\ highest\\ CUE\\ guide\\ ratings\\ out\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ Science\\ B\\&\\#8217\\;s\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ why\\ I\\ chose\\ the\\ course\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ a\\ senior\\ now\\,\\ and\\ in\\ my\\ experience\\,\\ tremendous\\ professors\\ can\\ enliven\\ \\any\\ \\<\\/em\\>material\\,\\ but\\ exciting\\ material\\ never\\ overcomes\\ a\\ poor\\ professor\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Stuart\\ Schreiber\\,\\ a\\ Harvard\\ professor\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ a\\ joint\\ MIT\\-Harvard\\ lab\\,\\ opened\\ the\\ first\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ He\\ sits\\ here\\ before\\ an\\ important\\ new\\ technology\\ in\\ treating\\ human\\ disease\\:\\ a\\ robotic\\ arm\\ that\\ places\\ small\\ molecules\\ into\\ individual\\ diseased\\ cells\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ molecules\\'\\ ability\\ to\\ reverse\\ the\\ cells\\ states\\ back\\ to\\ health\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ MOL\\ professors\\ seem\\ excellent\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ they\\ talk\\ molecules\\,\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ clear\\ and\\ succinct\\,\\ and\\ they\\ care\\ about\\ making\\ this\\ class\\ interesting\\ to\\ non\\-science\\ students\\ like\\ me\\ \\(art\\ history\\ concentrator\\)\\ by\\ continually\\ placing\\ the\\ science\\ in\\ the\\ broader\\ context\\ of\\ its\\ effect\\ on\\ your\\ own\\ life\\ and\\ on\\ society\\,\\ both\\ now\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 2\\ parts\\:\\ \\ \\(1\\)\\ \\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ terms\\ and\\ key\\ concepts\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ \\(2\\)\\ our\\ first\\ real\\ content\\-rich\\ presentation\\,\\ which\\ hopefully\\ reinforces\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ concepts\\ introduced\\ in\\ the\\ 1st\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Schrieber\\ opened\\ the\\ first\\ lecture\\ and\\ quickly\\ struck\\ me\\ as\\ someone\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ want\\ to\\ learn\\ science\\ from\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ manner\\ has\\ a\\ natural\\ buoyancy\\ that\\ suggests\\ genuine\\ excitement\\ by\\ the\\ material\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ tall\\,\\ thin\\,\\ with\\ a\\ shiny\\ bald\\ head\\ and\\ trendy\\ black\\-glasses\\ which\\,\\ considering\\ his\\ black\\ shirt\\ and\\ black\\ jacket\\ and\\ dark\\ pants\\,\\ somehow\\ made\\ him\\ like\\ he\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ future\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ few\\ things\\ quite\\ embody\\ the\\ future\\ like\\ science\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/2\\:\\ \\ Course\\ Overview\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ started\\ by\\ summarizing\\ the\\ course\\ and\\ its\\ key\\ concepts\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ recap\\ it\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ just\\ quote\\ the\\ course\\ website\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ excellent\\ course\\ description\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\&\\#8220\\;DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\ play\\ central\\ roles\\ in\\ life\\.\\ By\\ considering\\ the\\ relationships\\ of\\ these\\ molecules\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ foundations\\ of\\ life\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ another\\ family\\ of\\ molecules\\,\\ named\\ \\\"small\\ molecules\\,\\\"\\ is\\ key\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ understanding\\ the\\ principles\\ and\\ origins\\ of\\ life\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ ensuring\\ the\\ highest\\ quality\\ of\\ healthcare\\ for\\ humans\\.\\ Small\\ molecules\\ are\\ powerful\\ probes\\ of\\ the\\ circuitry\\ of\\ cells\\ and\\ the\\ wiring\\ of\\ genomes\\.\\ They\\ are\\ also\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ chemistry\\,\\ biology\\,\\ and\\ medicine\\.\\ These\\ links\\,\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ living\\ organisms\\,\\ and\\ modern\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ are\\ explored\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Schreiber\\ then\\ laid\\ out\\ the\\ three\\ main\\ \\&\\#8220\\;macro\\-\\&\\#8221\\;\\ molecules\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ Proteins\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\ are\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;heritable\\ information\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ information\\ in\\ living\\ systems\\ that\\ gets\\ passed\\ down\\ through\\ the\\ generations\\,\\ from\\ mother\\ cells\\ to\\ daughter\\ cells\\ during\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ and\\ during\\ organism\\ replication\\ within\\ species\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\DNA\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ macromolecule\\,\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ our\\ genomes\\.\\ \\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Our\\ genome\\ is\\ our\\ hereditary\\ information\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>DNA\\ can\\ be\\ called\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;replicater\\ molecule\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ transfers\\ information\\ form\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\RNA\\ has\\ been\\ dramatically\\ re\\-thought\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ 15\\ years\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ viewed\\ as\\ just\\ a\\ macromolecule\\ that\\ decodes\\ DNA\\,\\ but\\ that\\ greatly\\ underestimated\\ its\\ value\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ also\\ functions\\ as\\ a\\ catalyst\\,\\ speeding\\ up\\ reactions\\ and\\ transactions\\ between\\ molecules\\ \\(proteins\\ do\\ this\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ how\\ RNA\\ can\\ decode\\ DNA\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Every\\ single\\ gene\\ we\\ have\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ genome\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Yet\\ somehow\\,\\ two\\ genes\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ genome\\ might\\ end\\ up\\ producing\\ different\\ cells\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ gene\\ translates\\ into\\ a\\ skin\\ cell\\,\\ while\\ the\\ next\\ translates\\ into\\ a\\ bone\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ RNA\\ that\\ does\\ the\\ differentiating\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\And\\ now\\ proteins\\&\\#8230\\;they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ everywhere\\,\\ \\\"the\\ bricks\\ and\\ mortar\\\"\\ of\\ living\\ systems\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Skin\\,\\ eyes\\,\\ teeth\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ also\\ mechanical\\,\\ able\\ to\\ form\\ microscopic\\ motors\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Schreieber\\ flaps\\ both\\ arms\\ at\\ his\\ sides\\ and\\ says\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ thanks\\ his\\ proteins\\ that\\ move\\ his\\ arm\\ muscles\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Today\\,\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ proteins\\,\\ like\\ RNA\\,\\ are\\ key\\ for\\ catalyzing\\ chemical\\ transformations\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Later\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ Clardy\\ will\\ take\\ over\\ and\\ show\\ us\\ how\\ proteins\\ catalyze\\ a\\ chemical\\ transformation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ medical\\ implications\\ of\\ that\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ until\\ the\\ 1960s\\ that\\ humans\\ recognized\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ heritable\\ information\\ through\\ DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Every\\ living\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ entire\\ universe\\ is\\ run\\ by\\ the\\ interactions\\ of\\ these\\ three\\ molecules\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ even\\ the\\ digestive\\ system\\ of\\ that\\ alien\\ living\\ on\\ the\\ tiny\\ planet\\ several\\ hundred\\ galaxies\\ away\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\(Every\\ living\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ interactions\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ macromolecules\\ DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Schreiber\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ in\\ this\\ class\\,\\ we\\ won\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ talk\\ about\\ DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\ like\\ we\\ would\\ in\\ molecular\\ biology\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sounds\\ good\\ to\\ me\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ we\\ will\\ talk\\ about\\ genes\\ and\\ genomes\\,\\ and\\ genomic\\ medicine\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ of\\ new\\ medicinal\\ techniques\\ based\\ on\\ everything\\ scientists\\ are\\ now\\ learning\\ about\\ our\\ genomes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Outside\\ of\\ the\\ interactions\\ between\\ DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\,\\ there\\ is\\ another\\ kind\\ of\\ information\\ flow\\ in\\ living\\ systems\\:\\ \\ dynamic\\ information\\ flow\\.\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Dynamic\\ information\\ flow\\ is\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ information\\ movement\\ that\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ heritable\\ during\\ cell\\ division\\ or\\ species\\ replication\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ vital\\ for\\ the\\ functioning\\ of\\ living\\ systems\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Small\\<\\/u\\>\\ molecules\\ mediate\\ dynamic\\ information\\ flow\\,\\ and\\ they\\ interact\\ constantly\\ with\\ the\\ 3\\ macromolecules\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ Proteins\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ been\\ talking\\ about\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ an\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ but\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ one\\ today\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ sexy\\ one\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>testosterone\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Proteins\\ catalyze\\ the\\ chemical\\ transformation\\ and\\ synthesis\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Later\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ also\\ learn\\ that\\ small\\ molecules\\ turn\\ off\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ Proteins\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Small\\ molecules\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ bewildering\\ array\\ of\\ 3\\-dimensional\\ shapes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ learn\\ simple\\ rules\\ to\\ decode\\ simple\\ structures\\,\\ which\\ lets\\ us\\ understand\\ living\\ systems\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Small\\ molecules\\ play\\ critical\\ roles\\ in\\ everything\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ doing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Are\\ you\\ hungry\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ so\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ because\\ your\\ organs\\ emit\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ they\\ travel\\ through\\ your\\ body\\,\\ spreading\\ the\\ word\\ and\\ giving\\ you\\ that\\ general\\ feeling\\ that\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ described\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;hungry\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Small\\ molecules\\ in\\ your\\ brain\\,\\ called\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ are\\ darting\\ through\\ your\\ brain\\,\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ partner\\ named\\ Protein\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ small\\ molecules\\ send\\ a\\ message\\,\\ using\\ DYNAMIC\\ INFORMATION\\ FLOW\\,\\ and\\ we\\ interpret\\ that\\ message\\ as\\ hunger\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Small\\ molecules\\ are\\ important\\ in\\ memory\\,\\ cognition\\,\\ and\\ using\\ the\\ 5\\ senses\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ also\\ fundamental\\ to\\ drugs\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ you\\ take\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ drugs\\ or\\ pills\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ actually\\ just\\ ingesting\\ specific\\ small\\ molecules\\ designed\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ certain\\ job\\ in\\ your\\ body\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Next\\,\\ Schreiber\\ shows\\ a\\ movie\\ of\\ a\\ cell\\ chasing\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ bacteria\\ \\(a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bacterium\\&\\#8221\\;\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ blob\\ of\\ a\\ cell\\ floats\\ around\\,\\ blobbing\\ after\\ a\\ little\\ black\\ speck\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ bacteria\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Schreiber\\ tells\\ us\\ how\\ the\\ cell\\ has\\ no\\ eyes\\,\\ yet\\ it\\ still\\ intelligently\\ follows\\ the\\ bacteria\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ cell\\ engulfs\\ the\\ black\\ speck\\ and\\ digests\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ learned\\ to\\ recognize\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ the\\ bacterium\\ naturally\\ emits\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ cell\\ is\\ programmed\\ to\\ detect\\ the\\ concentration\\ of\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ the\\ bacterium\\ emits\\ in\\ the\\ liquid\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ dwell\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ is\\ always\\ moves\\ in\\ a\\ direction\\ that\\ increases\\ the\\ concentration\\ of\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ bacterium\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ wherever\\ there\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ these\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ goes\\,\\ because\\ it\\ knows\\ that\\ bacterium\\ must\\ be\\ near\\ by\\&\\#8230\\;and\\ then\\ it\\ catches\\,\\ and\\ eats\\,\\ the\\ bacterium\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Schreiber\\ proceeds\\ to\\ emphasize\\ that\\ B\\-47\\ will\\ constantly\\ pull\\ its\\ material\\ into\\ the\\ broader\\ context\\ of\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ discuss\\ social\\,\\ ethical\\,\\ and\\ societal\\ issues\\ that\\ connect\\ life\\ cycles\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Every\\ day\\,\\ the\\ newspaper\\ prints\\ something\\ that\\ challenges\\ our\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ life\\ sciences\\ in\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Clardy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ presentation\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ moments\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ questions\\ of\\ gender\\ identity\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Over\\ the\\ semester\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ talk\\ about\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ embryonic\\ stem\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ really\\ raises\\ issues\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Intellectual\\ property\\ and\\ legal\\ issues\\ come\\ into\\ play\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ rethink\\ how\\ drugs\\ are\\ discovered\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Issues\\ of\\ which\\ drugs\\ we\\ should\\ aim\\ to\\ produce\\ \\(more\\ money\\ was\\ put\\ into\\ producing\\ Propecia\\,\\ the\\ balding\\ drug\\,\\ than\\ into\\ stopping\\ the\\ major\\ curable\\ diseases\\ that\\ are\\ ravaging\\ the\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ world\\)\\,\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ should\\ price\\ them\\ will\\ also\\ arise\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\That\\ ends\\ Schreiber\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ piece\\,\\ and\\ now\\ Clardy\\ steps\\ up\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Clardy\\ is\\ tall\\ with\\ a\\ wide\\ build\\,\\ middle\\-aged\\,\\ with\\ short\\ graying\\ hair\\ and\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ glasses\\ that\\ makes\\ no\\ effort\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ impression\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ comes\\ off\\ as\\ nice\\ but\\ no\\-nonsense\\,\\ and\\ equally\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ material\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ begins\\ by\\ introducing\\ that\\ sexy\\ molecule\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ testosterone\\ \\&\\#8211\\;and\\ its\\ role\\ in\\ a\\ harrowing\\ story\\ from\\ the\\ 1970s\\ that\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\Domincan\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Republic\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\%\\ of\\ the\\ live\\ births\\ in\\ an\\ isolated\\ \\\\Dominican\\ Republic\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ village\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ 1970s\\ took\\ on\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;guevedoces\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ meaning\\ \\&\\#8220\\;balls\\ at\\ 12\\ years\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ genitalia\\ on\\ these\\ people\\ at\\ birth\\ suggested\\ they\\ were\\ girls\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ raised\\ as\\ such\\,\\ but\\ at\\ puberty\\,\\ these\\ \\&\\#8220\\;girls\\&\\#8221\\;\\ sprouted\\ muscles\\,\\ testes\\,\\ and\\ a\\ penis\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ turns\\ out\\ they\\ were\\ men\\ all\\ along\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Check\\ out\\ their\\ pictures\\,\\ pre\\-\\ and\\ post\\-puberty\\ \\(\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.usrf\\.org\\/news\\/010308\\-guevedoces\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ vml\\ 1\\]\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\<\\/v\\:formulas\\>\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/v\\:shapetype\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/v\\:shape\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!vml\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ vml\\ 1\\]\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/v\\:shape\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!vml\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Before\\ puberty\\,\\ the\\ child\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ genitalia\\ resembles\\ a\\ female\\&\\#8217\\;s\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Not\\ until\\ puberty\\ does\\ the\\ person\\ become\\ recognizably\\ male\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ bandaging\\ on\\ the\\ child\\ suggests\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ doctors\\ to\\ examine\\ his\\ insides\\ in\\ the\\ hopes\\ of\\ better\\ understanding\\ his\\ condition\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ guevedoces\\ became\\ referred\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ science\\ community\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;pseudohermaphrodites\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ real\\ hermaphrodites\\ because\\ for\\ their\\ entire\\ lives\\,\\ they\\ only\\ had\\ male\\ sex\\ parts\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ their\\ bodies\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ make\\ them\\ apparent\\ until\\ puberty\\.\\ Why\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ answer\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ small\\ molecules\\ \\(testosterone\\)\\,\\ and\\ dynamic\\ information\\ flow\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Males\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ genes\\ called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;5\\-alpha\\ reductase\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(which\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ call\\ 5AR\\ genes\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>5AR\\ genes\\ produce\\ an\\ enzyme\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ name\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;5\\-alpha\\ reductase\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(which\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ just\\ call\\ 5AR\\)\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ enzyme\\ 5AR\\ uses\\ small\\ molecule\\ DYNAMIC\\ INFORMATION\\ FLOW\\ to\\ convert\\ testosterone\\ into\\ dihydrotestosterone\\ \\(DHT\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ males\\,\\ DHT\\ develops\\ male\\ external\\ sex\\ parts\\ like\\ the\\ penis\\ and\\ testicles\\,\\ while\\ testosterone\\ develops\\ the\\ internal\\ parts\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\,\\ however\\,\\ had\\ a\\ gene\\ mutation\\ that\\ caused\\ their\\ bodies\\ to\\ produced\\ very\\ little\\ 5AR\\,\\ so\\ little\\ conversion\\ of\\ testosterone\\ into\\ DHT\\ took\\ place\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>With\\ enough\\ testosterone\\,\\ but\\ very\\ little\\ DHT\\,\\ sex\\ parts\\ were\\ only\\ developed\\ internally\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Not\\ until\\ puberty\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ hormonal\\ storm\\ was\\ there\\ enough\\ DHT\\ to\\ develop\\ external\\ sex\\ parts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ story\\ has\\ amazing\\ broader\\ implications\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\After\\ puberty\\,\\ the\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\,\\ now\\ fully\\ men\\,\\ had\\ no\\ baldness\\,\\ hairline\\ recession\\,\\ or\\ acne\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Their\\ prostates\\ never\\ enlarged\\ \\(enlarged\\ prostates\\ during\\ aging\\ have\\ been\\ correlated\\ with\\ a\\ higher\\ risk\\ of\\ cancer\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Some\\ scientists\\ have\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ guevedoces\\&\\#8217\\;\\ psychosexual\\ orientation\\ was\\ unequivocally\\ male\\,\\ but\\ that\\ has\\ inspired\\ considerable\\ controversy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Lastly\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ most\\ \\(least\\)\\ importantly\\,\\ the\\ guevedoces\\ were\\ jacked\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Check\\ out\\ the\\ pictures\\ in\\ the\\ link\\ above\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ naturally\\ developed\\ exceptional\\ musculature\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;after\\&\\#8221\\;\\ pictures\\ of\\ them\\,\\ you\\ can\\ almost\\ sense\\ their\\ excitement\\ that\\ they\\ not\\ only\\ became\\ full\\-fledged\\ males\\,\\ but\\ strong\\ ones\\ at\\ that\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Clardy\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ showed\\ us\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ 3\\ grown\\ males\\ from\\ the\\ Dominican\\ standing\\ next\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ shirtless\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ asked\\ us\\ to\\ guess\\ which\\ ones\\ were\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ instantly\\ guessed\\ the\\ 2\\ on\\ the\\ left\\,\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ flexing\\ like\\ little\\ kids\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ a\\ mirror\\ \\(at\\ least\\ I\\ used\\ to\\ do\\ this\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ guy\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ just\\ stood\\ there\\ normally\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Yea\\,\\ he\\ was\\ slightly\\ less\\ muscular\\,\\ but\\ the\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\ had\\ a\\ strange\\ tendency\\ to\\ flex\\ in\\ pictures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\You\\ might\\ wonder\\ why\\ this\\ single\\ Dominican\\ town\\ had\\ such\\ a\\ high\\ frequency\\ of\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>An\\ extensive\\ genealogical\\ tree\\ was\\ drawn\\ up\\,\\ and\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ their\\ trees\\ drew\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ single\\ woman\\ several\\ generations\\ back\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ tiny\\,\\ isolated\\ town\\ had\\ had\\ a\\ considerable\\ amount\\ of\\ inbreeding\\ between\\ cousins\\,\\ making\\ the\\ mutation\\ of\\ the\\ 5ART\\ gene\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ occur\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Clardy\\ expanded\\ upon\\ this\\ by\\ informing\\ us\\ that\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ marriages\\ in\\ \\\\Iraq\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ are\\ between\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ cousins\\,\\ and\\ an\\ even\\ higher\\ percentage\\ are\\ between\\ merely\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ cousins\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Saudi\\ Arabia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ also\\ has\\ really\\ high\\ percentages\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\24\\ years\\ passed\\ between\\ the\\ publication\\ of\\ an\\ academic\\ article\\ about\\ the\\ Dominican\\ \\&\\#8220\\;guevedoces\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ the\\ manufacturing\\ of\\ anti\\-baldness\\ and\\ anti\\-prostate\\ enlargement\\ pills\\ by\\ Merck\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Merck\\ made\\ a\\ compound\\ that\\ inhibited\\ the\\ enzyme\\ 5AR\\,\\ and\\ from\\ this\\ compound\\ made\\ two\\ drugs\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Proscar\\,\\ which\\ stymies\\ male\\ prostate\\ enlargement\\,\\ and\\ Propecia\\,\\ for\\ male\\ pattern\\ baldness\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ drugs\\ are\\ taken\\ \\after\\ \\<\\/em\\>puberty\\,\\ when\\ the\\ body\\ has\\ already\\ developed\\ its\\ external\\ sex\\ parts\\,\\ and\\ no\\ longer\\ needs\\ DHT\\ to\\ do\\ that\\ job\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ funny\\ loophole\\ emerged\\&\\#8230\\;Proscar\\ and\\ Propecia\\ are\\ effectively\\ the\\ same\\ drug\\,\\ but\\ Propecia\\ sold\\ for\\ three\\ times\\ the\\ price\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Insurance\\ companies\\ paid\\ for\\ the\\ cancer\\-preventing\\ Proscar\\,\\ but\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;lifestyle\\&\\#8221\\;\\ anti\\-baldness\\ drug\\ Propecia\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Since\\ Proscar\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ compound\\ as\\ Propecia\\,\\ you\\ could\\ have\\ your\\ insurance\\ company\\ cover\\ your\\ prescription\\ for\\ Proscar\\,\\ chop\\ it\\ up\\ into\\ powder\\,\\ and\\ take\\ it\\ to\\ stop\\ balding\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ conclude\\,\\ Clardy\\ expanded\\ on\\ the\\ relevance\\ of\\ the\\ Dominican\\ \\&\\#8220\\;guevedoces\\&\\#8221\\;\\ by\\ asking\\ us\\ to\\ consider\\ issues\\ of\\ informed\\ consent\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Imagine\\ if\\ you\\ had\\ naked\\ pictures\\ taken\\ of\\ you\\ as\\ a\\ child\\,\\ then\\ you\\ were\\ photographed\\ again\\ after\\ puberty\\,\\ and\\ only\\ a\\ decade\\ or\\ two\\ later\\,\\ your\\ pictures\\ were\\ famous\\ around\\ the\\ world\\,\\ a\\ click\\ away\\ on\\ a\\ Google\\ search\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Is\\ that\\ right\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Imagine\\ if\\ Merck\\ made\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ in\\ revenue\\ off\\ your\\ genetic\\ deformity\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Do\\ you\\ deserve\\ at\\ least\\ the\\ tiniest\\ of\\ percentages\\ of\\ their\\ rewards\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ highly\\ doubt\\ these\\ people\\ will\\ ever\\ earn\\ a\\ cent\\ from\\ the\\ exploitation\\ of\\ their\\ situation\\,\\ but\\ the\\ questions\\ are\\ interesting\\ to\\ consider\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Other\\ topics\\ this\\ case\\ touches\\ on\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>the\\ importance\\ of\\ nature\\ vs\\.\\ nurture\\ in\\ gender\\ identity\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;lifestyle\\&\\#8221\\;\\ drugs\\ like\\ Propecia\\,\\ and\\ the\\ economies\\ of\\ drug\\ development\\ and\\ pricing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Clardy\\ concluded\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ whenever\\ we\\ found\\ ourselves\\ confused\\ in\\ this\\ class\\,\\ we\\ should\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ simple\\ triangle\\ and\\ see\\ who\\ the\\ pieces\\ of\\ the\\ puzzle\\ fit\\ into\\ this\\ framework\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Molecules\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(testosterone\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ mso\\ \\&\\#038\\;\\ \\!supportInlineShapes\\ \\&\\#038\\;\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>SHAPE\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\*\\ MERGEFORMAT\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ vml\\ 1\\]\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\<\\/v\\:shape\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/v\\:group\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!vml\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Genes\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Biology\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(5\\-a\\ reductase\\)\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(sexual\\ development\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ breaks\\ down\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;guevedoces\\&\\#8221\\;\\ story\\ by\\ putting\\ \\&\\#8220\\;testosterone\\&\\#8221\\;\\ under\\ Molecules\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;sexual\\ development\\&\\#8221\\;\\ under\\ Biology\\,\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;5\\-a\\ reductase\\&\\#8221\\;\\ under\\ Genes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ quite\\ catch\\ the\\ triangle\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ helpfulness\\,\\ but\\ perhaps\\ in\\ time\\ I\\ will\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.565071+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Second Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 447, "html": "\\\\\\Language\\ of\\ Chemistry\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hello\\ again\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\time\\ for\\ more\\ Molecules\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Did\\ you\\ know\\:\\ \\ Everything\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ atoms\\.\\.\\.Let\\'s\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ lecture\\'s\\ title\\ derives\\ from\\ 1959\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ in\\ Medicine\\ winner\\ Arthur\\ Kornberg\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ what\\ he\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\\"Much\\ of\\ life\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ in\\ rational\\ terms\\ if\\ expressed\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ chemistry\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ an\\ international\\ language\\,\\ a\\ language\\ for\\ all\\ time\\,\\ and\\ a\\ language\\ that\\ explains\\ where\\ we\\ came\\ from\\,\\ where\\ we\\ are\\,\\ and\\ where\\ hte\\ physical\\ world\\ will\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ go\\.\\\"\\ \\ \\ Clardy\\ tells\\ us\\ this\\ course\\ will\\ introduce\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ chemistry\\.\\ \\ We\\ won\\'t\\ end\\ up\\ native\\ speakers\\,\\ but\\ we\\'ll\\ get\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ important\\ words\\ and\\ a\\ little\\ grammar\\.\\ \\ I\\ like\\ that\\ analogy\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Chemistry\\ vs\\.\\ Biology\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Clardy\\ gets\\ into\\ the\\ fundamental\\ difference\\ between\\ chemistry\\ and\\ biology\\:\\ \\ biology\\ deals\\ only\\ with\\ living\\ things\\.\\ \\ Chemistry\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ a\\ \\physical\\<\\/em\\>\\ science\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ his\\ good\\ example\\ to\\ show\\ this\\:\\ \\ If\\ life\\ existed\\ on\\ Mars\\ \\(which\\,\\ by\\ the\\ way\\,\\ he\\ is\\ SURE\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\.\\ \\ He\\ says\\ it\\ with\\ such\\ certainty\\ that\\ he\\ persuades\\ you\\ immediately\\ to\\ think\\,\\ as\\ he\\ seems\\ to\\,\\ that\\ anyone\\ who\\ does\\ think\\ life\\ exists\\ on\\ Mars\\ needs\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ head\\ checked\\.\\ \\ The\\ class\\ laughs\\,\\ appreciating\\ his\\ unwavering\\ confidence\\ in\\ this\\ opinion\\)\\ it\\'d\\ be\\ pretty\\ different\\ than\\ life\\ on\\ Earth\\.\\ \\ The\\ environments\\ are\\ so\\ different\\ that\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ species\\ on\\ the\\ planets\\ would\\ be\\ like\\ apples\\ and\\ oranges\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ the\\ chemistry\\ on\\ the\\ two\\ planets\\ would\\ be\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ Any\\ rule\\ that\\ applies\\ to\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ molecules\\ on\\ Earth\\ MUST\\ also\\ apply\\ to\\ Mars\\.\\ \\ Pretty\\ fascinating\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\History\\ of\\ Chemistry\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ we\\ get\\ a\\ brief\\ history\\ of\\ chemistry\\ and\\ its\\ fundamental\\ realizations\\ that\\ have\\ made\\ it\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\ As\\ you\\ read\\,\\ you\\'ll\\ see\\ how\\ amazingly\\ young\\ chemistry\\ is\\.\\ \\ 200\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ Jon\\ Jacob\\ Berzalius\\ began\\ doing\\ experiments\\ in\\ Sweden\\.\\ \\ He\\'d\\ go\\ out\\,\\ kill\\ a\\ wild\\ boar\\,\\ dissect\\ its\\ organs\\,\\ and\\ try\\ to\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ makeup\\ of\\,\\ say\\,\\ its\\ liver\\.\\ \\ His\\ most\\ important\\ contribution\\?\\ \\ He\\ started\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ representing\\ elements\\ with\\ letters\\.\\ \\ He\\ also\\ established\\ that\\ elements\\ cannot\\ be\\ broken\\ down\\ by\\ further\\ chemical\\ means\\,\\ and\\ that\\ compounds\\ have\\ fixed\\ ratios\\ that\\ never\\ change\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ the\\ colorblind\\ English\\ school\\ teacher\\,\\ John\\ Dalton\\,\\ revived\\ an\\ old\\ Greek\\ idea\\ that\\'d\\ been\\ twisted\\ through\\ history\\ and\\ declared\\ that\\ that\\ elements\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ atoms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Much\\ later\\,\\ August\\ Kekule\\ established\\ the\\ big\\ idea\\ that\\ what\\ made\\ molecules\\ different\\ was\\ their\\ structure\\,\\ how\\ their\\ atoms\\ were\\ connected\\.\\ \\ It\\ had\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ number\\ or\\ kind\\ of\\ atoms\\,\\ but\\ with\\ how\\ they\\ connected\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Rules\\ for\\ molecular\\ structure\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ we\\ establish\\ basic\\ rules\\ for\\ the\\ semester\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ we\\ only\\ have\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ Carbon\\,\\ Hydrogen\\,\\ Oxygen\\,\\ and\\ Nitrogen\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ Bonds\\ are\\ indicated\\ by\\ straight\\ lines\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ Every\\ element\\ has\\ a\\ fixed\\ number\\ of\\ bonds\\.\\ \\ C\\ has\\ 4\\.\\ \\ N\\ has\\ 3\\.\\ \\ O\\ has\\ 2\\.\\ \\ and\\ H\\ has\\ 1\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Compounds\\ vs\\.\\ Mixtures\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ we\\ dive\\ into\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ compounds\\ and\\ mixtures\\.\\ \\ Compounds\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ proportion\\ of\\ molecules\\,\\ every\\ time\\.\\ \\ Glucose\\ always\\ has\\ CH2O\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\.\\ \\ Mixtures\\,\\ though\\,\\ have\\ different\\ proportions\\.\\ \\ Urine\\ is\\ a\\ mixture\\.\\ \\ Sometimes\\ it\\ has\\ lots\\ of\\ some\\ compounds\\.\\ \\ Othertimes\\ less\\ of\\ those\\ compounds\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Compound\\ make\\-up\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Ever\\ wonder\\ what\\ compounds\\ are\\ made\\ of\\?\\ \\ Molecules\\.\\ \\ Ever\\ wonder\\ what\\ molecules\\ are\\ made\\ of\\?\\ \\ Atoms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\:\\ \\ atoms\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ molecules\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ compounds\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ atom\\ is\\ the\\ smallest\\ unit\\ of\\ an\\ element\\ thats\\ still\\ identifiable\\ as\\ that\\ element\\.\\ \\ So\\ maybe\\ you\\'re\\ thinking\\.\\ \\ Wait\\,\\ what\\ about\\ quarks\\,\\ neutrons\\,\\ and\\ such\\.\\ \\ Aren\\'t\\ they\\ smaller\\ than\\ atoms\\?\\ \\ Yea\\,\\ but\\ a\\ neutron\\ from\\ one\\ element\\ isn\\'t\\ that\\ element\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ just\\ a\\ neutron\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ what\\ makes\\ modern\\ chemistry\\ modern\\ is\\ the\\ recently\\-acquired\\ understanding\\ that\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ atoms\\ in\\ a\\ molecule\\ are\\ attached\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ determines\\ its\\ function\\.\\ \\ Testosterone\\ and\\ epitestosterone\\ have\\ identical\\ molecular\\ formulas\\,\\ but\\ a\\ tiny\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ atoms\\ connect\\ within\\ them\\,\\ leads\\ to\\ completely\\ different\\ biological\\ functions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Also\\ important\\:\\ \\ the\\ same\\ molecular\\ formula\\ can\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ molecular\\ structure\\.\\ \\ So\\ C2H5O\\ can\\ look\\ like\\ several\\ structures\\,\\ not\\ just\\ one\\,\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ 2\\ Carbons\\,\\ 5\\ Hydrogens\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Oxygen\\ decide\\ to\\ bond\\ \\(they\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ every\\ time\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Drawing\\ Molecules\\ \\(apologies\\ for\\ now\\.\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Lastly\\,\\ Clardy\\ went\\ over\\ important\\ information\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ draw\\ molecular\\ structures\\,\\ but\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ yet\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ draw\\ the\\ structures\\ on\\ this\\ blog\\.\\ \\ I\\ will\\ figure\\ it\\ out\\ soon\\.\\ \\ \\ An\\ overarching\\ point\\ about\\ it\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ very\\ explicit\\ ways\\ of\\ drawing\\ molecules\\ which\\ take\\ time\\,\\ but\\ show\\ every\\ bond\\ and\\ atom\\ in\\ a\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ In\\ our\\ class\\,\\ though\\,\\ we\\ will\\ write\\ molecules\\ as\\ chemists\\ do\\:\\ \\ very\\ simply\\.\\ \\ And\\ understanding\\ those\\ simple\\ drawings\\ takes\\ some\\ time\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ like\\ learning\\ a\\ language\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Links\\ and\\ Reading\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\'ll\\ close\\ with\\ a\\ link\\ my\\ employer\\ encouraged\\ me\\ to\\ post\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/ocw\\.mit\\.edu\\/OcwWeb\\/Biology\\/7\\-014Spring\\-2005\\/VideoLectures\\/index\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\'re\\ video\\ lectures\\ from\\ MIT\\ that\\ build\\ on\\ what\\ I\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ so\\ far\\.\\ \\ Looks\\ like\\ a\\ great\\ resource\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ lastly\\,\\ I\\'d\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ readings\\,\\ but\\ my\\ computer\\ says\\ the\\ files\\ are\\ damaged\\.\\ \\ \\ Talk\\ to\\ you\\ soon\\,\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Second Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.578008+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Third Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 448, "html": "\\\\\\Small\\ Molecules\\:\\ \\ Molecular\\ Shape\\ and\\ Complementarity\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\ readers\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Intro\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Time\\ for\\ lecture\\ 3\\.\\ \\ So\\ last\\ lecture\\ focused\\ on\\ how\\ atoms\\ connect\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ bonding\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\ that\\ defines\\ the\\ molecule\\ that\\ they\\ make\\ up\\.\\ \\ Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ looks\\ at\\ a\\ molecule\\'s\\ 3\\-D\\ shape\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ molecules\\ transfer\\ information\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ they\\ fit\\ together\\ like\\ puzzle\\ pieces\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ like\\ sex\\.\\ \\ A\\ molecule\\'s\\ 3D\\ shape\\ defines\\ how\\ it\\ physically\\ fits\\ with\\ other\\ molecules\\ and\\ allows\\ information\\ in\\ cells\\ to\\ transport\\ from\\ one\\ molecule\\ to\\ the\\ other\\.\\ \\ Like\\ sex\\,\\ life\\ literally\\ depends\\ on\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ to\\ show\\ 3D\\ shapes\\ in\\ 2D\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ drawing\\ a\\ molecule\\,\\ bonds\\ and\\ all\\ conveyed\\ by\\ theose\\ straight\\ lines\\ connecting\\ the\\ elements\\,\\ here\\'s\\ how\\ you\\ show\\ 3\\-Dimensionality\\:\\ \\ It\\'s\\ easy\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Thick\\ lines\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ bond\\ is\\ coming\\ TOWARD\\ you\\.\\ \\ Dotted\\ lines\\ suggest\\ a\\ bond\\ is\\ receding\\ into\\ the\\ distance\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Looking\\ for\\ more\\ resources\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ draw\\ molecules\\?\\ \\ Check\\ out\\ this\\ link\\:\\ \\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.chem\\\\<\\/wbr\\>guide\\.co\\.uk\\/bas\\\\<\\/wbr\\>icorg\\/conventio\\\\<\\/wbr\\>ns\\/draw\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ of\\ the\\ skills\\ we\\'ll\\ need\\ to\\ learn\\ in\\ this\\ class\\ is\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ go\\ from\\ a\\ 3D\\ model\\ to\\ a\\ 2D\\ drawing\\,\\ and\\ back\\ again\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Wow\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ where\\ you\\ know\\ these\\ professors\\ are\\ good\\.\\ \\ They\\ made\\ molecules\\ so\\ palatable\\ to\\ non\\-science\\ majors\\,\\ that\\ they\\'ve\\ drawn\\ an\\ art\\ history\\ analogy\\.\\ \\ Follow\\ this\\ diatribe\\.\\ \\ Chemists\\ have\\ to\\ reduce\\ 3D\\ molecules\\ to\\ 2D\\ drawings\\,\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ molecule\\ from\\ multiple\\ perspectives\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ avoid\\ having\\ all\\ the\\ atoms\\ overlap\\.\\ \\ Rearranging\\ multiple\\ perspectives\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ object\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ aristic\\ movement\\ \\\"Cubism\\,\\\"\\ speerheaded\\ by\\ Picasso\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1900s\\,\\ was\\ all\\ about\\.\\ \\ They\\ thought\\ that\\ by\\ showing\\ something\\ from\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ perspective\\,\\ they\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ access\\ that\\ thing\\'s\\ true\\ essence\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ kind\\ of\\ like\\ how\\ when\\ you\\ see\\ a\\ person\\ act\\ in\\ only\\ one\\ context\\,\\ you\\ only\\ get\\ one\\ impression\\.\\ \\ See\\ him\\ interacting\\ in\\ another\\ context\\,\\ though\\,\\ and\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ person\\ he\\ is\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ professors\\ use\\ Picasso\\'s\\ \\\"Desmoiselles\\ d\\'Avignon\\\"\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ cubism\\,\\ but\\ I\\'ve\\ got\\ another\\ example\\ I\\'ll\\ show\\ you\\ here\\ which\\ also\\ shows\\ an\\ artistic\\ attempt\\ to\\ capture\\ an\\ object\\ from\\ multiple\\ perspectives\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ Marcel\\ Duchamp\\'s\\ \\\"Nude\\ Descending\\ a\\ Staircase\\.\\ \\ This\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Futurist\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ not\\ only\\ captured\\ something\\ from\\ multiple\\ perspectives\\,\\ but\\ also\\ threw\\ motion\\ into\\ the\\ mix\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\When\\ you\\ try\\ too\\ hard\\,\\ it\\'s\\ Binding\\,\\ not\\ Bonding\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Ever\\ try\\ to\\ impress\\ someone\\ who\\ seems\\ somehow\\ \\ more\\ important\\ than\\ you\\?\\ \\ You\\'re\\ dying\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ mutual\\ bond\\,\\ but\\ really\\ your\\ kissing\\ up\\ is\\ just\\ binding\\.\\ \\ It\\ feels\\ forced\\.\\ \\ You\\'re\\ binding\\ yourself\\ to\\ them\\,\\ solidifying\\ an\\ image\\ in\\ their\\ mind\\ as\\ slightly\\ annoying\\.\\ \\ But\\ you\\'re\\ not\\ bonding\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Well\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ it\\'s\\ like\\ when\\ small\\ molecules\\ \\(you\\)\\ try\\ to\\ interact\\ with\\ large\\ molecules\\ \\(person\\ you\\'re\\ trying\\ to\\ impress\\)\\ like\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ The\\ process\\ is\\ called\\ BINDING\\,\\ not\\ bonding\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\ to\\ the\\ reading\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\New\\ York\\ Times\\ on\\ H2O\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ the\\ \\article\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\'ll\\ sum\\ it\\ up\\ briefly\\.\\ \\ H2O\\,\\ or\\ water\\,\\ is\\ really\\ small\\,\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ amazingly\\ dynamic\\ properties\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ good\\ summary\\ quote\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Water\\ behaves\\ very\\ differently\\ from\\ other\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ said\\.\\.\\.a\\ professor\\ of\\ chemistry\\.\\.\\.in\\ Virginia\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;If\\ you\\ want\\ something\\ else\\ with\\ similar\\ properties\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ something\\ much\\ bigger\\ and\\ more\\ complex\\,\\ and\\ then\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ lose\\ the\\ advantages\\ that\\ water\\ has\\ in\\ being\\ small\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ here\\'s\\ another\\ bit\\.\\ \\ Beautiful\\ writing\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"With\\ their\\ hydrogen\\ bonds\\,\\ water\\ molecules\\ become\\ sticky\\,\\ cohering\\ as\\ a\\ liquid\\ into\\ droplets\\ and\\ rivulets\\ and\\ following\\ each\\ other\\ around\\ like\\ a\\ jiggling\\ conga\\ line\\.\\ Such\\ stickiness\\ means\\ that\\ water\\ is\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ inner\\ plumbing\\ of\\ plants\\ and\\ will\\ crawl\\ up\\ the\\ fibrous\\ conduits\\ to\\ hydrate\\ even\\ the\\ crowns\\ of\\ redwood\\ trees\\ towering\\ hundreds\\ of\\ feet\\ above\\ ground\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Sorry\\,\\ this\\ stuff\\ is\\ really\\ cool\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ another\\ bit\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Pulled\\ together\\ by\\ hydrogen\\ bonds\\,\\ water\\ molecules\\ become\\ mature\\ and\\ stable\\,\\ able\\ to\\ absorb\\ huge\\ amounts\\ of\\ energy\\ before\\ pulling\\ a\\ radical\\ phase\\ shift\\ and\\ changing\\ from\\ ice\\ to\\ liquid\\ or\\ liquid\\ to\\ gas\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ water\\ has\\ surprisingly\\ high\\ boiling\\ and\\ freezing\\ points\\,\\ and\\ a\\ strikingly\\ generous\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ two\\.\\ For\\ a\\ substance\\ with\\ only\\ three\\ atoms\\,\\ and\\ two\\ of\\ them\\ tiny\\ little\\ hydrogens\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Richmond\\ said\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ expect\\ water\\ to\\ vaporize\\ into\\ a\\ gas\\ at\\ something\\ like\\ minus\\ 90\\ degrees\\ Fahrenheit\\,\\ to\\ freeze\\ a\\ mere\\ 40\\ degrees\\ below\\ its\\ boiling\\ point\\,\\ and\\ to\\ show\\ scant\\ inclination\\ to\\ linger\\ in\\ a\\ liquid\\ phase\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Damn\\ this\\ article\\ is\\ cool\\.\\ \\ Another\\ bit\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"\\&\\#8220\\;Water\\ acts\\ as\\ the\\ contact\\ between\\ biological\\ molecules\\,\\ not\\ just\\ separating\\ them\\,\\ but\\ imparting\\ information\\ among\\ them\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ said\\ Martin\\ Chaplin\\,\\ a\\ professor\\ of\\ applied\\ science\\ who\\ studies\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ water\\ at\\ London\\ South\\ Bank\\ University\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ an\\ aqueous\\ environment\\,\\ all\\ the\\ molecules\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ feel\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ molecules\\ that\\ are\\ present\\,\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ work\\ as\\ whole\\ rather\\ than\\ as\\ individuals\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ know\\ what\\,\\ read\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\.\\ \\ Amazingly\\ beautiful\\ writing\\ for\\ any\\ piece\\,\\ let\\ alone\\ a\\ short\\ science\\ piece\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\See\\ you\\ next\\ time\\,\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Third Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.590499+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Fourth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 449, "html": "\\\\\\Genes\\ and\\ Genomes\\:\\ \\ How\\ it\\ began\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\ there\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\Lecture\\ 4\\ time\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ spent\\ the\\ last\\ 2\\ lectures\\ looking\\ at\\ small\\ molecules\\:\\ \\ their\\ structures\\,\\ and\\ the\\ bonds\\ that\\ hold\\ them\\ together\\.\\ \\ We\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ they\\ relate\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ to\\ macromolecules\\ \\(Binding\\!\\)\\ like\\ proteins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\ step\\ up\\ from\\ the\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ macromolecules\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ lecture\\ 1\\:\\ \\ DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ see\\ what\\ their\\ roles\\ in\\ life\\ are\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ engage\\ with\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Language\\ of\\ Chemistry\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ lecture\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ molecules\\ as\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ Today\\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ introduced\\ chemical\\ reactions\\ as\\ the\\ sentences\\ of\\ life\\,\\ with\\ subjects\\,\\ verbs\\,\\ and\\ objects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ subject\\ is\\ the\\ material\\ you\\ start\\ with\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ verb\\ is\\ the\\ reaction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ object\\ is\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ reaction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ the\\ world\\ was\\ born\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\DNA\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ facet\\ of\\ life\\ because\\ it\\ contains\\ the\\ heritable\\ information\\ of\\ living\\ systems\\.\\ \\ Its\\ information\\ is\\ heritable\\ because\\ DNA\\ can\\ replicate\\ itself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\DNA\\ didn\\'t\\ exist\\ when\\ earth\\ was\\ first\\ formed\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ too\\ weak\\ to\\ survive\\ in\\ the\\ hostile\\ conditions\\ that\\ existed\\ in\\ earth\\'s\\ early\\ years\\.\\ \\ But\\ DNA\\ did\\ have\\ ancestors\\ who\\ could\\ survive\\ this\\ environment\\:\\ \\ small\\ molecules\\ who\\ had\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ spread\\ copies\\ of\\ themselves\\.\\ \\ You\\ and\\ me\\ don\\'t\\ exist\\ without\\ the\\ hard\\ work\\ of\\ those\\ first\\ self\\-replicating\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ Science\\ is\\ so\\ cool\\ sometimes\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ most\\ of\\ this\\ information\\ thanks\\ to\\ the\\ famous\\ 1953\\ \\\"Miller\\-Urey\\\"\\ experiment\\.\\ \\ Considered\\ the\\ classic\\ experiment\\ on\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ life\\,\\ it\\ simulated\\ conditions\\ on\\ early\\ earth\\ and\\ supported\\ this\\ hypothesis\\:\\ \\ that\\ Earth\\'s\\ early\\ conditions\\ favored\\ chemical\\ reactions\\ that\\ synthesized\\ organic\\ compounds\\ from\\ inorganic\\ precursors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Richard\\ Dawkins\\ vs\\.\\ Bill\\ O\\'Reilly\\!\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Miller\\-Urey\\ experiment\\ undoubtedly\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ thinking\\ of\\ Richard\\ Dawkins\\,\\ author\\ of\\ the\\ best\\-selling\\ \\\"The\\ God\\ Delusion\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"The\\ Selfish\\ Game\\.\\\"\\ \\ Schreiber\\ pulls\\ the\\ following\\ quote\\ from\\ Dawkins\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"If\\ we\\ could\\ go\\ back\\ in\\ time\\,\\ we\\ might\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ replicating\\ molecules\\,\\ with\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ spread\\ copies\\ of\\ themselves\\,\\ as\\ ancestors\\ of\\ life\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Dawkins\\ expands\\ on\\ these\\ ideas\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ how\\ human\\ behavior\\,\\ specifically\\ selfishness\\ and\\ altruism\\,\\ can\\ both\\ be\\ explained\\ on\\ the\\ genetic\\ and\\ molecular\\ levels\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Which\\ brings\\ me\\ to\\ this\\ engaging\\ YouTube\\ clip\\ of\\ Dawkins\\ talking\\ to\\ Bill\\ O\\'Reilly\\ about\\ God\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=5w8OhiLU7cU\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(Some\\ thoughts\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ Humorous\\ that\\ Dawkins\\'\\ title\\ on\\ the\\ program\\ was\\ \\\"Atheist\\,\\\"\\ not\\ \\\"Scientist\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"Academic\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ Interesting\\ that\\ O\\'Reilly\\ repeatedly\\ refers\\ to\\ \\\"throwing\\ in\\\"\\ with\\ Jesus\\,\\ as\\ if\\ he\\'s\\ playing\\ poker\\ and\\ feels\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ go\\ all\\-in\\ on\\ this\\ hand\\.\\ \\ Dawkins\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ just\\ seems\\ content\\ to\\ watch\\ the\\ game\\ unfold\\,\\ to\\ study\\ and\\ play\\ it\\ as\\ it\\ goes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-Let\\ me\\ also\\ throw\\ in\\ my\\ own\\ 2\\ cents\\ on\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ because\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ resolves\\ Dawkins\\'\\ and\\ O\\'Reilly\\'s\\ debate\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ think\\ of\\ God\\ as\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ sum\\ total\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ laws\\ governing\\ the\\ universe\\ \\(examples\\ of\\ the\\ infinite\\ supply\\ of\\ such\\ laws\\:\\ \\ supply\\ and\\ demand\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ gene\\ mutations\\ caused\\ 2\\%\\ of\\ live\\ births\\ in\\ that\\ Dominican\\ Republic\\ town\\ to\\ be\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\ during\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ the\\ unfortunately\\ large\\ role\\ that\\ the\\ color\\ of\\ your\\ skin\\ likely\\ plays\\ when\\ other\\ people\\ make\\ their\\ first\\ impression\\ of\\ you\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ then\\ can\\'t\\ you\\ agree\\ with\\ both\\ O\\'Reilly\\ and\\ Dawkins\\?\\ \\ Can\\'t\\ you\\ believe\\ in\\ God\\ and\\ see\\ the\\ logic\\ in\\ Dawkins\\'\\ ideas\\?\\ \\ I\\ at\\ least\\ think\\ so\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Schreiber\\'s\\ PowerPoint\\ springs\\ its\\ own\\,\\ very\\ chemistry\\-based\\,\\ theory\\ behind\\ the\\ universe\\.\\ \\ I\\ can\\'t\\ argue\\ with\\ its\\ logic\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ universe\\ is\\ populated\\ by\\ stable\\ things\\.\\ \\ The\\ earliest\\ form\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ was\\ simply\\ a\\ selection\\ of\\ stable\\ forms\\ of\\ molecules\\ and\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ unstable\\ ones\\:\\ \\ \\'Survival\\ of\\ the\\ \\fittest\\<\\/strike\\>\\ most\\ stable\\'\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\DNA\\,\\ RNA\\,\\ and\\ Proteins\\:\\ \\ Their\\ Roles\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\DNA\\ has\\ the\\ information\\.\\ \\ RNA\\ is\\ its\\ messenger\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ RNA\\ sends\\ information\\,\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ 2nd\\ function\\:\\ \\ speeding\\ up\\ chemical\\ reactions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Proteins\\ also\\ speed\\ up\\ chemical\\ reactions\\.\\ \\ When\\ we\\ say\\ that\\ RNA\\ and\\ proteins\\ speed\\ up\\ reactions\\,\\ we\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ acting\\ like\\ ENZYMES\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ addition\\ to\\ acting\\ like\\ enzymes\\,\\ proteins\\ play\\ other\\ roles\\.\\ \\ They\\ act\\ as\\ cells\\'\\ physical\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ as\\ motors\\ in\\ our\\ muscles\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ they\\ control\\ when\\ DNA\\ replicates\\,\\ and\\ which\\ parts\\ of\\ DNA\\ will\\ get\\ converted\\ to\\ RNA\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Some\\ Final\\ Important\\ Points\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\-\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\ ATP\\ is\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\'s\\ incorporated\\ into\\ RNA\\ and\\ DNA\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ the\\ universal\\ source\\ of\\ energy\\ in\\ \\all\\<\\/em\\>\\ living\\ systems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ DNA\\ is\\ the\\ universal\\ replicator\\ in\\ today\\'s\\ bioitic\\ systems\\.\\ \\ its\\ replication\\ depends\\ on\\ templated\\ reactions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ DNA\\ replication\\ takes\\ place\\ thanks\\ to\\ a\\ protein\\ machine\\.\\ \\ What\\ does\\ the\\ \\(mean\\ green\\?\\)\\ protein\\ machine\\ run\\ on\\?\\ \\ ATP\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reading\\ \\-\\ \\\"The\\ Seven\\ Pillars\\ of\\ Life\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ week\\'s\\ reading\\ tries\\ to\\ define\\ life\\.\\ \\ It\\ raises\\ the\\ interesting\\ conundrum\\ in\\ which\\ everyone\\ probably\\ feels\\ like\\ they\\ know\\ what\\ life\\ is\\,\\ but\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ world\\'s\\ smartest\\ scientists\\ convened\\,\\ they\\ couldn\\'t\\ pinpoint\\ a\\ definition\\ of\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ author\\ proceeds\\ to\\ lay\\ out\\ 7\\ pillars\\ of\\ life\\ which\\ are\\ sort\\ of\\ technical\\ and\\ don\\'t\\ seem\\ too\\ important\\ in\\ all\\ honesty\\.\\ \\ My\\ own\\ ignorance\\ is\\ probably\\ at\\ fault\\ for\\ that\\ opinion\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ a\\ link\\ if\\ you\\'re\\ curious\\.\\ \\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.sciencemag\\.org\\/cgi\\/content\\/full\\/295\\/5563\\/2215\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\See\\ you\\ next\\ time\\,\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Fourth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.604018+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Eighth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 450, "html": "\\\\\\\\Thyroid\\ hormone\\,\\ amino\\ acids\\ and\\ mirror\\ images\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sounds\\ DENSE\\ and\\ boring\\.\\ \\ I\\ know\\.\\ \\ But\\ let\\'s\\ see\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ with\\ it\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Our\\ next\\ 4\\ lectures\\ will\\ deal\\ with\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecule\\ signaling\\ agents\\.\\ \\ Like\\ hormones\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ of\\ these\\ small\\ molecule\\ signaling\\ agents\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ are\\ made\\ from\\ amino\\ acids\\,\\ not\\ steroids\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Introduction\\ to\\ Thyroid\\ Hormones\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Thyroid\\ hormones\\ come\\ from\\ amino\\ acids\\,\\ and\\ they\\ regulate\\ your\\ metabolism\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ your\\ body\\'s\\ oxygen\\ consumption\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ my\\ search\\ for\\ fun\\ links\\,\\ I\\ typed\\ \\\"fast\\ metabolism\\\"\\ into\\ Google\\ and\\ found\\ this\\ highly\\ melodramatic\\ \\(or\\ is\\ it\\?\\)\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ average\\ young\\ woman\\'s\\ month\\,\\ and\\ the\\ phases\\ her\\ body\\ goes\\ through\\.\\ \\ Helpful\\ hints\\ for\\ women\\?\\ \\ A\\ view\\ into\\ what\\ it\\'s\\ like\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ girl\\ for\\ men\\?\\ \\ Whatever\\ it\\ is\\,\\ it\\ sounds\\ moody\\ and\\ passionate\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.bbc\\.co\\.uk\\/slink\\/features\\/feature\\_periods\\.shtml\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Basal\\ Metabolism\\ Rate\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Or\\ \\\"BMR\\,\\\"\\ it\\'s\\ how\\ much\\ energy\\ your\\ body\\ would\\ need\\ if\\ you\\ did\\ absolutely\\ nothing\\ all\\ day\\.\\ \\ So\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ just\\ slept\\ for\\ 24\\ hours\\,\\ your\\ body\\ would\\ still\\ need\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ energy\\ to\\ keep\\ itself\\ going\\.\\ \\ A\\ simple\\ way\\ to\\ estimate\\ your\\ body\\'s\\ BMR\\ is\\ to\\ to\\ multiply\\ your\\ weight\\ in\\ pounds\\ by\\ 10\\ calories\\/pound\\.\\ \\ So\\ I\\ weigh\\ 170\\ pounds\\,\\ which\\ means\\ my\\ BMR\\ is\\ about\\ 1\\,700\\ calories\\.\\ \\ That\\ means\\ that\\ if\\ all\\ I\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\ was\\ sleep\\ all\\ day\\,\\ I\\'d\\ need\\ to\\ eat\\ roughly\\ 3\\ and\\ 2\\/3\\ Big\\ Macs\\,\\ or\\ 6\\ Dove\\ Bars\\,\\ just\\ to\\ keep\\ things\\ running\\.\\ Lounge\\ all\\ day\\,\\ and\\ munch\\ 6\\ Dove\\ Bars\\?\\ \\ That\\'s\\ a\\ delicious\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ thyroid\\ is\\ a\\ really\\ strong\\ gland\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ Some\\ people\\ have\\ hypothyroidism\\,\\ which\\ means\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ enough\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ and\\ their\\ BMR\\ drops\\ to\\ like\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ what\\ it\\'d\\ normally\\ be\\.\\ \\ Other\\ people\\ have\\ hyperthyroidism\\,\\ which\\ means\\ they\\ have\\ too\\ much\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ and\\ their\\ BMR\\ shoots\\ up\\ to\\ maybe\\ 170\\%\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ should\\ be\\.\\ \\ Thyroid\\ gland\\ hormones\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ your\\ body\\ burns\\ fuel\\ by\\ almost\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ 3\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Acids\\ and\\ Bases\\:\\ \\ 2\\ Functional\\ Groups\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Functional\\ Group\\ 1\\ \\-\\ Carboxylic\\ Acids\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\ The\\ following\\ stuff\\ won\\'t\\ be\\ very\\ sexy\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ \\ fundamental\\ to\\ the\\ course\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ Carbon\\-Oxygen\\-Oxygen\\-Hydrogen\\ group\\,\\ or\\ COOH\\,\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ many\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ called\\ a\\ carboxylic\\ acid\\.\\ \\ The\\ important\\ thing\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ at\\ normal\\ biological\\ pH\\ values\\ around\\ 7\\,\\ the\\ carboxylic\\ COOH\\ acid\\ dissociates\\ into\\ \\ a\\ negatively\\ charged\\ carboxylate\\ anion\\ and\\ a\\ positively\\ charged\\ proton\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Functional\\ Group\\ 2\\ \\-\\ Amines\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ \\-NH2\\,\\ or\\ amine\\ functional\\ group\\,\\ is\\ another\\ important\\ functional\\ group\\ for\\ biological\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ The\\ amine\\ group\\ often\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ proton\\,\\ or\\ a\\ Hydrogen\\,\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ positively\\ charged\\ ammonium\\ atom\\.\\ \\ At\\ normal\\ biological\\ pH\\ levels\\,\\ amines\\ exist\\ in\\ their\\ \\\"protonated\\ form\\,\\\"\\ meaning\\ they\\ have\\ that\\ extra\\ proton\\ and\\ thus\\ have\\ an\\ electrical\\ charge\\.\\ \\ Amines\\ that\\ aren\\'t\\ protonated\\ are\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"free\\ base\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ suspect\\ a\\ relationship\\ here\\ with\\ free\\-basing\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ The\\ infamous\\ urban\\ dictionary\\ might\\ shed\\ a\\ little\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ situation\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.urbandictionary\\.com\\/define\\.php\\?term\\=free\\-basing\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ dissociations\\ of\\ a\\ typical\\ carboxylic\\ acid\\ and\\ a\\ typical\\ amine\\ are\\ both\\ rapid\\,\\ and\\ easily\\ reversible\\.\\ \\ Under\\ normal\\ conditions\\,\\ carboxylic\\ acids\\ have\\ a\\ negative\\ charge\\,\\ and\\ amine\\ bases\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ charge\\.\\ \\ Both\\ \\functional\\ groups\\<\\/a\\>\\ are\\ polar\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ molecules\\ that\\ have\\ such\\ polar\\ groups\\ cannot\\ pass\\ through\\ cell\\ membranes\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ charge\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ problem\\ for\\ hormones\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Hydrophobicity\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ we\\'ve\\ got\\ these\\ two\\ functional\\ groups\\:\\ \\ carboxylic\\ acids\\,\\ and\\ amines\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ both\\ charged\\ in\\ normal\\ biological\\ pH\\ levels\\.\\ \\ That\\ means\\ they\\ both\\ have\\ very\\ polar\\,\\ hydrophilic\\ ends\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\ have\\ to\\ get\\ through\\ cell\\ membranes\\ to\\ send\\ their\\ messages\\,\\ and\\ cell\\ membranes\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ lipids\\,\\ or\\ oils\\,\\ which\\ are\\ hydro\\phobic\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ Thyroid\\ hormones\\ carry\\ carboxylic\\ acids\\ and\\ amines\\,\\ and\\ these\\ functional\\ groups\\'\\ hydrophilic\\ selves\\ just\\ aren\\'t\\ passing\\ through\\ the\\ hydrophobic\\ lipid\\ layers\\ of\\ cell\\ membranes\\.\\ \\ That\\ means\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ can\\'t\\ do\\ his\\ job\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ make\\ carboxylic\\ acids\\ and\\ amines\\ permeable\\ through\\ hydrophobic\\ cell\\ membranes\\,\\ these\\ two\\ functional\\ groups\\ often\\ search\\ for\\ and\\ find\\ an\\ extra\\ ring\\ of\\ carbon\\ bonds\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ four\\ iodone\\ atoms\\,\\ which\\ change\\ the\\ functional\\ groups\\'\\ overall\\ composition\\ and\\ make\\ them\\ hydrophobic\\ enough\\ to\\ enter\\ those\\ lipid\\ cell\\ membranes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Another\\ type\\ of\\ small\\ molecule\\:\\ \\ Amino\\ Acids\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sounds\\ exciting\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ what\\'s\\ most\\ important\\ about\\ amino\\ acids\\:\\ \\ they\\ are\\ widely\\ distributed\\,\\ and\\ readily\\ available\\,\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ that\\ way\\,\\ they\\'re\\ like\\ cholesterol\\.\\ \\ These\\ readily\\ available\\ small\\ molecules\\ are\\ helpful\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ molded\\,\\ like\\ clay\\ sort\\ of\\,\\ to\\ change\\ their\\ shape\\ and\\ polarity\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ become\\ a\\ signaling\\ molecule\\ like\\ a\\ hormone\\.\\ \\ \\ Remember\\ how\\ steroid\\ hormones\\ emerge\\ from\\ cholesterol\\.\\ \\ Well\\ Amino\\ acids\\ are\\ like\\ that\\.\\ \\ You\\'ll\\ see\\ why\\ in\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Evolution\\ and\\ Developed\\ Countries\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ a\\ moment\\ ago\\ when\\ I\\ told\\ you\\ about\\ carboxylic\\ acids\\ and\\ amines\\ more\\ hydrophobic\\,\\ such\\ that\\ they\\'d\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ pass\\ through\\ cell\\ membranes\\,\\ they\\ took\\ on\\ 4\\ extra\\ iodine\\ atoms\\?\\ \\ Well\\,\\ humans\\ have\\ evolved\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ need\\ iodine\\ to\\ perform\\ this\\ function\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Thing\\ is\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ iodine\\ is\\ a\\ trace\\ element\\ in\\ Earth\\'s\\ crust\\,\\ so\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ all\\ that\\ available\\ to\\ people\\ like\\ you\\ and\\ me\\,\\ walking\\ on\\ Earth\\'s\\ surface\\ as\\ we\\ do\\.\\ \\ It\\ used\\ to\\ be\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ why\\ humans\\ evolved\\ into\\ forms\\ like\\ you\\ and\\ me\\,\\ but\\ now\\ iodine\\ is\\ harder\\ to\\ find\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ bad\\ for\\ humans\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ inherited\\ an\\ iodine\\-based\\ signaling\\ system\\ for\\ hormones\\ in\\ our\\ body\\.\\ \\ Without\\ the\\ iodine\\,\\ carboxylic\\ acids\\ and\\ amines\\ can\\'t\\ pass\\ through\\ cell\\ membranes\\,\\ and\\ vital\\ messages\\ don\\'t\\ get\\ sent\\ between\\ our\\ bodies\\'\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ like\\ I\\ said\\,\\ not\\ as\\ much\\ iodine\\ is\\ around\\ these\\ days\\,\\ and\\ that\\ causes\\ iodine\\ deficiency\\ diseases\\ \\(see\\ picture\\ below\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(goiter\\ caused\\ by\\ iodine\\ deficiency\\)\\<\\/p\\>In\\ developed\\ countries\\ like\\ the\\ US\\,\\ iodine\\ deficiency\\ is\\ rare\\ because\\ we\\ now\\ add\\ potassium\\ iodide\\ to\\ salt\\,\\ making\\ iodized\\ salt\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Biosynthesis\\ of\\ Thyroid\\ Hormones\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ single\\ enzyme\\ produces\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ called\\ thyroid\\ peroxidase\\,\\ and\\ thyroid\\ peroxidase\\ makes\\ the\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\ a\\ large\\ protein\\ \\(2\\,748\\ amino\\ acids\\)\\ called\\ thyroglobulin\\.\\ \\ A\\ sequence\\ of\\ biosynthetic\\ steps\\ carves\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ huge\\ protein\\ named\\ thyroglobulin\\,\\ and\\ the\\ remnants\\ of\\ the\\ protein\\ are\\ recycled\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Thryoid\\ Hormone\\ Transport\\ \\-\\ And\\ Beckham\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\T3\\ and\\ T4\\ are\\ the\\ names\\ we\\ give\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ thyroid\\ gland\\ hormones\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Less\\ than\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ T4\\ and\\ T3\\ is\\ free\\ in\\ the\\ bloodstream\\.\\ \\ The\\ other\\ 99\\%\\ is\\ bound\\ to\\ proteins\\,\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ named\\ transthyretin\\.\\ \\ Binding\\ to\\ proteins\\ allows\\ T4\\ and\\ T3\\ to\\ travel\\ safely\\ through\\ the\\ bloodstream\\,\\ and\\ it\\ also\\ controls\\ the\\ levels\\ of\\ free\\ hormones\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ If\\ there\\'s\\ more\\ transthyretin\\ in\\ the\\ blood\\,\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ levels\\ in\\ the\\ blood\\ decrease\\,\\ and\\ visa\\-versa\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ level\\ of\\ thryoird\\ hormones\\ is\\ usually\\ adjusted\\ with\\ great\\ precision\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Speaking\\ of\\ precision\\,\\ check\\ out\\ this\\ video\\ of\\ David\\ Beckham\\'s\\ best\\ free\\ kicks\\.\\ \\ They\\ are\\ works\\ of\\ art\\.\\ This\\ will\\ sound\\ silly\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ amazing\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ these\\ free\\ kicks\\ on\\ the\\ molecular\\ level\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=qsx7oKbcuAk\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Were\\ Beckham\\'s\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\ binding\\ to\\ proteins\\ while\\ he\\ took\\ these\\ kicks\\?\\ \\ Wouldn\\'t\\ they\\ get\\ shaken\\ around\\ and\\ maybe\\ fail\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ the\\ proteins\\ while\\ his\\ body\\ sprinted\\ toward\\ the\\ ball\\ and\\ thrusted\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ energy\\ into\\ spinning\\ the\\ ball\\ into\\ the\\ net\\?\\ \\ How\\ does\\ the\\ body\\ perform\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ chemical\\ processes\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ may\\ be\\ doing\\ with\\ your\\ body\\?\\ \\ The\\ human\\ body\\,\\ in\\ all\\ its\\ precision\\ and\\ complexity\\,\\ is\\ absolutely\\ fascinating\\ and\\ amazing\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ been\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ coolest\\ parts\\ of\\ this\\ class\\:\\ \\ realizing\\ how\\ unbelievably\\ detailed\\,\\ and\\ numerous\\,\\ the\\ smallest\\ biological\\ processes\\ taking\\ place\\ in\\ our\\ body\\ are\\,\\ and\\ how\\ even\\ having\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ processes\\ misfire\\ can\\ dramatically\\ change\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ \\ Anyway\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Binding\\ to\\ T3\\ and\\ T4\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ T4\\ gets\\ near\\ a\\ target\\ cell\\,\\ it\\ enters\\ the\\ cell\\ by\\ slipping\\ through\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\ On\\ the\\ inside\\,\\ it\\ usually\\ converts\\ into\\ T3\\ thanks\\ to\\ an\\ enzyme\\ called\\ deiodinase\\.\\ \\ T3\\ binds\\ much\\ more\\ strongly\\ to\\ the\\ thyroid\\ receptor\\ than\\ does\\ T4\\,\\ and\\ it\\ produces\\ a\\ response\\ 5\\ times\\ stronger\\ than\\ T4\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\T3\\,\\ like\\ the\\ steroid\\ hormones\\,\\ binds\\ to\\ a\\ nuclear\\ hormone\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ This\\ receptor\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ thyroid\\ receptor\\ \\(TR\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ TR\\-T3\\ combination\\ initiates\\ transcription\\ of\\ many\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Where\\ Thyroid\\ Hormones\\ Affect\\ Your\\ Body\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ actually\\ don\\'t\\ totally\\ understand\\ where\\ they\\ take\\ effect\\,\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ very\\ good\\ reason\\ to\\ suspect\\ they\\ play\\ major\\ roles\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ areas\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\a\\.\\ \\ fetal\\ development\\\r\\\\\r\\b\\.\\ \\ oxygen\\ consumption\\ and\\ heat\\ production\\\r\\\\\r\\c\\.\\ \\ \\ cardiovascular\\ system\\\r\\\\\r\\d\\.\\ \\ sympathetic\\ nervous\\ system\\\r\\\\\r\\e\\.\\ \\ skeletal\\ remodeling\\ \\(bone\\ turnover\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\f\\.\\ \\ carbohydrate\\ and\\ lipid\\ metabolism\\\r\\\\\r\\g\\.\\ \\ gastrointestinal\\ system\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ quite\\ a\\ resume\\,\\ you\\ have\\ there\\,\\ Thyroid\\ Hormones\\.\\ \\ Now\\ why\\ do\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ investment\\ banking\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Diseases\\ \\-\\ Cretinism\\ and\\ Myxedema\\ \\(Goiters\\)\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Dwarfed\\ stature\\,\\ goiters\\ \\(enlarged\\ thyroid\\ glands\\ \\-\\ see\\ pic\\ below\\)\\ mental\\ retardation\\,\\ dystrophy\\ of\\ bones\\,\\ and\\ low\\ basal\\ metabolism\\:\\ \\ these\\ can\\ be\\ caused\\ \\ by\\ cretinism\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\(John\\ McCain\\ has\\ a\\ goiter\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ side\\ of\\ his\\ neck\\/face\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Cretinism\\ occurs\\ much\\ frequently\\ in\\ some\\ areas\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ others\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ an\\ underperforming\\,\\ or\\ absent\\,\\ thyroid\\ gland\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ gland\\ is\\ deficient\\ in\\ early\\ life\\,\\ cretinism\\ develops\\ with\\ severe\\ mental\\ retardation\\.\\ \\ If\\ it\\'s\\ deficient\\ in\\ adult\\ life\\,\\ myxedema\\,\\ or\\ an\\ enlarged\\ thyroid\\ gland\\ that\\'s\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ goiter\\,\\ develops\\.\\ \\ Myxedema\\ is\\ also\\ accompanied\\ by\\ perpetually\\ feeling\\ cold\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hypothyroidism\\ is\\ a\\ less\\ severe\\ case\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ still\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ enough\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\.\\ \\ It\\ leads\\ to\\ feeling\\ cold\\,\\ developing\\ doughy\\ skin\\,\\ and\\ having\\ a\\ puffy\\ face\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Pillsbury\\ Doughboy\\ is\\ not\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ hypothyroidism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\Treating\\ These\\ Conditions\\,\\ with\\ Small\\ Molecules\\ Of\\ Course\\!\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hypothryoidism\\ can\\ be\\ treated\\,\\ and\\ cretinism\\ prevented\\,\\ by\\ adding\\ iodine\\ to\\ the\\ diet\\,\\ usually\\ as\\ iodized\\ salt\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ 1920s\\,\\ iodized\\ salt\\ was\\ introduced\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ and\\ cretinism\\ and\\ other\\ iodine\\ deficiency\\ diseases\\ became\\ pretty\\ much\\ eliminated\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ hyPOthyroidism\\.\\ \\ Now\\ let\\'s\\ talk\\ hyPERthyroidism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hyperthyroidism\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ feeling\\ hot\\ and\\ sweaty\\,\\ having\\ heavy\\ palpitations\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ nervousness\\,\\ weight\\ loss\\,\\ and\\ difficulty\\ sleeping\\.\\ \\ Sounds\\ a\\ lot\\ like\\ basic\\ manifestations\\ of\\ stress\\,\\ actually\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hyperthyroidism\\ is\\ more\\ common\\ in\\ women\\ than\\ men\\ by\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ 6\\ to\\ 10\\.\\ \\ Hyperthyroidism\\ is\\ treated\\ by\\ blocking\\ the\\ synthesis\\ of\\ T4\\ by\\ various\\ compounds\\ that\\ block\\ the\\ iodination\\ of\\ tyrosine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Isomer\\ Types\\ \\-\\ Stereoisomers\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ we\\ learned\\ about\\ isomers\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ 2\\ molecules\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ formula\\,\\ like\\ C2H6O\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ different\\ ways\\ of\\ bonding\\ those\\ same\\ elements\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Stereoismers\\ are\\ isomers\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ types\\ of\\ bonds\\ between\\ their\\ atoms\\,\\ but\\ that\\ have\\ different\\ arrangements\\ in\\ 3\\-D\\ space\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ one\\ molecule\\ might\\ have\\ a\\ hydrogen\\ bond\\ that\\ sticks\\ outward\\,\\ while\\ another\\ molecule\\ might\\ look\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ except\\ for\\ a\\ hydrogen\\ that\\ sticks\\ inward\\.\\ \\ The\\ bonds\\ are\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ that\\ Hydrogen\\ sticks\\ out\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ direction\\,\\ thus\\ changing\\ how\\ it\\ might\\ interact\\ with\\ other\\ molecules\\ or\\ receptors\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Isomer\\ Types\\ \\-\\ Enantiomers\\ \\(Sorry\\,\\ no\\ Beckham\\ here\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Enantiomers\\ are\\ two\\ molecules\\ that\\,\\ like\\ your\\ left\\ and\\ right\\ hand\\,\\ look\\ the\\ same\\ \\(and\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ connectivity\\.\\ \\ OK\\,\\ that\\ only\\ works\\ on\\ the\\ molecular\\ level\\)\\,\\ but\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ superimposed\\ onto\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ like\\ opposites\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Objects\\ with\\ nonsuperimposable\\ mirror\\ images\\ are\\ called\\ \\\"chiral\\ objects\\.\\\"\\ \\ Your\\ right\\ hand\\ is\\ chiral\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ enantiomer\\ of\\ your\\ left\\ hand\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reading\\:\\ \\ \\\"High\\ Prices\\:\\ \\ How\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ prescription\\ drugs\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ By\\ Malcolm\\ Gladwell\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ being\\ a\\ New\\ Yorker\\ article\\,\\ and\\ one\\ written\\ by\\ Malcolm\\ Gladwell\\,\\ I\\'m\\ sure\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ fascinating\\ read\\.\\ \\ I\\'ll\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ taste\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ paragraphs\\ below\\.\\ \\ And\\ here\\'s\\ a\\ link\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ article\\.\\ \\ Unfortunately\\,\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ time\\ at\\ this\\ moment\\ to\\ read\\ it\\ and\\ summarize\\ it\\,\\ but\\ I\\'m\\ sure\\ it\\'ll\\ be\\ a\\ great\\ read\\.\\ \\ It\\ talks\\ about\\ the\\ chiral\\ and\\ enantiomer\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ their\\ practical\\ effect\\ on\\ drugs\\ you\\ take\\ and\\ the\\ prices\\ you\\ pay\\.\\ \\ Gladwell\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ Yorker\\ don\\'t\\ really\\ ever\\ miss\\.\\ \\ Have\\ a\\ good\\ one\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.newyorker\\.com\\/archive\\/2004\\/10\\/25\\/041025crat\\_atlarge\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\\\"Ten\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ the\\ multinational\\ pharmaceutical\\ company\\ AstraZeneca\\ launched\\ what\\ was\\ known\\ inside\\ the\\ company\\ as\\ the\\ Shark\\ Fin\\ Project\\.\\ The\\ team\\ for\\ the\\ project\\ was\\ composed\\ of\\ lawyers\\,\\ marketers\\,\\ and\\ scientists\\,\\ and\\ its\\ focus\\ was\\ a\\ prescription\\ drug\\ known\\ as\\ Prilosec\\,\\ a\\ heartburn\\ medication\\ that\\,\\ in\\ one\\ five\\-year\\ stretch\\ of\\ its\\ extraordinary\\ history\\,\\ earned\\ AstraZeneca\\ twenty\\-six\\ billion\\ dollars\\.\\ The\\ patent\\ on\\ the\\ drug\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ expire\\ in\\ April\\ of\\ 2001\\.\\ The\\ name\\ Shark\\ Fin\\ was\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ what\\ Prilosec\\ sales\\&\\#8212\\;and\\ AstraZeneca\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ profits\\&\\#8212\\;would\\ look\\ like\\ if\\ nothing\\ was\\ done\\ to\\ fend\\ off\\ the\\ ensuing\\ low\\-priced\\ generic\\ competition\\.\\<\\/p\\>The\\ Shark\\ Fin\\ team\\ drew\\ up\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ fifty\\ options\\.\\ One\\ idea\\ was\\ to\\ devise\\ a\\ Prilosec\\ 2\\.0\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ version\\ that\\ worked\\ faster\\ or\\ longer\\,\\ or\\ was\\ more\\ effective\\.\\ Another\\ idea\\ was\\ to\\ combine\\ it\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ heartburn\\ remedy\\,\\ or\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ formulation\\,\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ came\\ in\\ a\\ liquid\\ gel\\ or\\ in\\ an\\ extended\\-release\\ form\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ AstraZeneca\\ decided\\ on\\ a\\ subtle\\ piece\\ of\\ chemical\\ re\\&\\#235\\;ngineering\\.\\ Prilosec\\,\\ like\\ many\\ drugs\\,\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ two\\ \\&\\#8220\\;isomers\\&\\#8221\\;\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ left\\-hand\\ and\\ a\\ right\\-hand\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ molecule\\.\\ In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ removing\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ isomers\\ can\\ reduce\\ side\\ effects\\ or\\ make\\ a\\ drug\\ work\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ better\\,\\ and\\ in\\ all\\ cases\\ the\\ Patent\\ Office\\ recognizes\\ something\\ with\\ one\\ isomer\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ invention\\ from\\ something\\ with\\ two\\.\\ So\\ AstraZeneca\\ cut\\ Prilosec\\ in\\ half\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\AstraZeneca\\ then\\ had\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ the\\ single\\-isomer\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ was\\ better\\ than\\ regular\\ Prilosec\\.\\ It\\ chose\\ as\\ its\\ target\\ something\\ called\\ erosive\\ esophagitis\\,\\ a\\ condition\\ in\\ which\\ stomach\\ acid\\ begins\\ to\\ bubble\\ up\\ and\\ harm\\ the\\ lining\\ of\\ the\\ esophagus\\.\\ In\\ one\\ study\\,\\ half\\ the\\ patients\\ took\\ Prilosec\\,\\ and\\ half\\ took\\ Son\\ of\\ Prilosec\\.\\ After\\ one\\ month\\,\\ the\\ two\\ drugs\\ were\\ dead\\ even\\.\\ But\\ after\\ two\\ months\\,\\ to\\ the\\ delight\\ of\\ the\\ Shark\\ Fin\\ team\\,\\ the\\ single\\-isomer\\ version\\ edged\\ ahead\\&\\#8212\\;with\\ a\\ ninety\\-per\\-cent\\ healing\\ rate\\ versus\\ Prilosec\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ eighty\\-seven\\ per\\ cent\\.\\ The\\ new\\ drug\\ was\\ called\\ Nexium\\.\\ A\\ patent\\ was\\ filed\\,\\ the\\ F\\.D\\.A\\.\\ gave\\ its\\ blessing\\,\\ and\\,\\ in\\ March\\ of\\ 2001\\,\\ Nexium\\ hit\\ the\\ pharmacy\\ shelves\\ priced\\ at\\ a\\ hundred\\ and\\ twenty\\ dollars\\ for\\ a\\ month\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ worth\\ of\\ pills\\.\\ To\\ keep\\ cheaper\\ generics\\ at\\ bay\\,\\ and\\ persuade\\ patients\\ and\\ doctors\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ Nexium\\ as\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ art\\,\\ AstraZeneca\\ spent\\ half\\ a\\ billion\\ dollars\\ in\\ marketing\\ and\\ advertising\\ in\\ the\\ year\\ following\\ the\\ launch\\.\\ It\\ is\\ now\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ half\\-dozen\\ top\\-selling\\ drugs\\ in\\ America\\.\\\"\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Eighth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.622687+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Fifth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 451, "html": "\\\\\\Genes\\ and\\ Genomes\\:\\ \\ How\\ it\\ works\\ today\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ lecture\\ we\\ learned\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ genes\\ and\\ genomes\\,\\ and\\ today\\ we\\ see\\ how\\ it\\ works\\ in\\ contemporary\\ times\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Last\\ Lecture\\ Transition\\ to\\ This\\ One\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ week\\ we\\ learned\\ that\\ small\\ molecules\\ like\\ testosterone\\ bind\\ to\\ their\\ nuclear\\ hormone\\ receptors\\ \\(nuclear\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ connotations\\ of\\ nuclear\\ power\\ or\\ bombs\\,\\ here\\.\\ \\ think\\ cellular\\.\\ \\ think\\ nucleus\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\\"turn\\ genes\\ on\\,\\\"\\ like\\ a\\ light\\ switch\\.\\ \\ We\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ androgen\\ receptor\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ hormone\\ receptors\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ testosterone\\ and\\ turns\\ genes\\ on\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ of\\ nearly\\ all\\ the\\ genes\\ out\\ there\\.\\ \\ How\\?\\ \\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ complete\\ sequencing\\ of\\ genomes\\,\\ including\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\.\\ \\ This\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ framework\\,\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ use\\ through\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ for\\ understanding\\ the\\ interplay\\ of\\ genes\\,\\ genomes\\,\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Wilt\\ the\\ Stilt\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ study\\ genes\\ and\\ genomes\\.\\ \\ Specifically\\,\\ they\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ variation\\ of\\ sequences\\ of\\ nucleotides\\ in\\ genes\\ and\\ genomes\\.\\ \\ Schreiber\\ uses\\ a\\ famous\\ picture\\ of\\ Wilt\\ Chamberlain\\ and\\ Willie\\ Shoemaker\\ to\\ illsutrate\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ genetic\\ variation\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(http\\:\\/\\/www\\.msu\\.edu\\/\\~ritchieh\\/historical\\/wiltchamberlain\\_schoemaker\\.jpg\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\He\\ actually\\ didn\\'t\\ use\\ this\\ picture\\,\\ but\\ I\\ found\\ another\\ online\\ and\\ here\\ it\\ is\\.\\ \\ Height\\,\\ race\\,\\ bone\\ structure\\,\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ all\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ variations\\ of\\ sequences\\ of\\ nucleotides\\ in\\ genes\\;\\ as\\ is\\ one\\'s\\ susceptibility\\ to\\ diseases\\ like\\ hypertension\\ or\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ No\\ word\\ yet\\,\\ though\\,\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ determining\\ factor\\ behind\\ Wilt\\'s\\ claim\\ to\\ have\\ slept\\ with\\ over\\ 20\\,000\\ women\\.\\ \\ Actually\\,\\ that\\,\\ too\\,\\ was\\ probably\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ variations\\ of\\ sequences\\ of\\ nucleotides\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ about\\ genetics\\ thanks\\ to\\ Gregor\\ Mendel\\,\\ who\\,\\ around\\ 1860\\,\\ conceptualized\\ genes\\ as\\ the\\ determining\\ factor\\ in\\ why\\ the\\ cross\\-mating\\ of\\ yellow\\ and\\ green\\ peas\\ resulted\\ in\\ only\\ 1\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ offspring\\ to\\ be\\ yellow\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ one\\ half\\.\\ \\ Later\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ the\\ genes\\ reside\\ in\\ the\\ DNA\\ of\\ chromosomes\\.\\ \\ And\\ after\\ that\\,\\ the\\ outline\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"Central\\ Dogma\\\"\\ \\-\\ DNA\\ to\\ RNA\\ to\\ proteins\\ \\-\\ was\\ worked\\ out\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ is\\ biology\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ answer\\ to\\ that\\ is\\ changing\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ it\\ is\\ coming\\ to\\ be\\ viewed\\ as\\ an\\ \\\"information\\ science\\,\\\"\\ where\\ two\\ great\\ scientific\\ revolutions\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 50\\ years\\ \\-revolutions\\ in\\ molecular\\ biology\\ and\\ in\\ information\\ and\\ computer\\ science\\ \\-\\ are\\ merging\\ into\\ one\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\All\\ I\\ can\\ say\\ is\\ wow\\.\\ \\ A\\ moment\\ from\\ science\\'s\\ lifetime\\ highlight\\ reel\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ an\\ incredible\\ example\\ of\\ why\\ sequencing\\ of\\ nucleotides\\ in\\ genes\\ is\\ important\\ \\(not\\ because\\ it\\ might\\ let\\ you\\ sleep\\ with\\ 20\\,000\\ women\\)\\:\\ \\ Phenketonuria\\ \\(PKU\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\PKU\\ leads\\ to\\ brain\\ damange\\ and\\ mental\\ retardation\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ a\\ gene\\,\\ a\\ gene\\ that\\ encodes\\ a\\ protein\\,\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ helps\\ metabolize\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ named\\ phenylalanine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\With\\ this\\ knowledge\\,\\ we\\ now\\ give\\ children\\ a\\ blood\\ test\\ for\\ PKU\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ test\\ comes\\ up\\ positive\\,\\ the\\ child\\ is\\ placed\\ on\\ a\\ low\\ phenylaline\\ diet\\ that\\ prevents\\ him\\/her\\ from\\ developing\\ PKU\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ much\\ does\\ the\\ whole\\ prevention\\ program\\ cost\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Pennies\\ per\\ newborn\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Human\\ Genome\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ve\\ mapped\\ it\\,\\ by\\ putting\\ together\\ a\\ \\\"mosaic\\\"\\ of\\ genomes\\ derived\\ from\\ 30\\ individuals\\ \\(one\\ of\\ those\\ people\\,\\ though\\,\\ contributed\\ 65\\%\\ of\\ the\\ sequence\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ big\\ is\\ it\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ It\\ comprises\\ 46\\ DNA\\ molecules\\ \\(23\\ pairs\\)\\,\\ each\\ consisting\\ of\\ a\\ polymer\\ of\\ four\\ small\\ molecules\\ \\-\\ the\\ A\\,\\ G\\,\\ T\\,\\ and\\ C\\ nucleotides\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ big\\ is\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ small\\ molecules\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ Yuuuge\\.\\ \\ each\\ one\\ constitutes\\ 3\\,000\\,000\\,000\\ letters\\ of\\ sequences\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Know\\ what\\'s\\ weird\\?\\ \\ Humans\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ number\\ of\\ genes\\ as\\ a\\ fruit\\ fly\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Perturbing\\ Living\\ Systems\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ perturb\\ living\\ systems\\ by\\ taking\\ small\\ molecules\\ and\\ using\\ them\\ to\\ disrupt\\ the\\ functioning\\ of\\ proteins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ perturbations\\ and\\ the\\ insights\\ they\\ gave\\ us\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ major\\ theme\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ our\\ remaining\\ lectures\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Schreiber\\ then\\ runs\\ us\\ through\\ a\\ comparison\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ genome\\ vs\\.\\ a\\ mouse\\ genome\\.\\ \\ \\ How\\ similar\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ they\\ are\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Turns\\ out\\ very\\ similar\\.\\ \\ He\\ shows\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ child\\ with\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ the\\ HIP\\ gene\\,\\ which\\ disorders\\ skin\\ pigment\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Next\\ to\\ the\\ child\\'s\\ photo\\ is\\ a\\ photo\\ of\\ a\\ mouse\\ that\\ was\\ engineered\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ the\\ corresponding\\ mutation\\ in\\ the\\ mouse\\ HIP\\ gene\\.\\ \\ The\\ skin\\ coloring\\ of\\ both\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ the\\ mouse\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\:\\ \\ triangular\\ white\\ patches\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ spot\\ on\\ both\\ their\\ bellies\\ and\\ their\\ foreheads\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Our\\ first\\ public\\ maps\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\:\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ year\\,\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ complete\\ sequences\\ \\(all\\ 23\\ pairs\\ of\\ chromosomes\\)\\ of\\ two\\ individuals\\ \\-\\ James\\ Watson\\ and\\ Craig\\ Venter\\ \\-\\ were\\ uploaded\\ onto\\ the\\ internet\\.\\ \\ The\\ sequencing\\ cost\\ about\\ \\$1\\ million\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ Venter\\ found\\ out\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ ApoE4\\,\\ which\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ Disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Which\\ raises\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\ would\\ you\\ want\\ your\\ genome\\ mapped\\?\\ \\ Would\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ you\\ would\\ eventually\\ get\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\?\\ \\ Would\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ going\\ to\\ get\\ hit\\ by\\ a\\ bus\\ tomorrow\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ couldn\\'t\\ prevent\\ it\\?\\ \\ I\\'m\\ going\\ to\\ say\\ I\\ would\\,\\ but\\ that\\'s\\ just\\ me\\,\\ and\\ I\\ somehow\\ sense\\ I\\ wouldn\\'t\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ majority\\ on\\ this\\ one\\.\\ \\ Tough\\ questions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Which\\ leads\\ me\\ to\\ a\\ fascinating\\ link\\ from\\ my\\ editor\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ \\\"an\\ article\\ I\\ read\\ from\\ the\\ NY\\ Times\\ magazine\\ a\\ while\\ back\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\ finding\\ out\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ destined\\ to\\ have\\ Huntington\\'s\\ Disease\\,\\ a\\ hereditary\\,\\ acute\\ disturbance\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ nervous\\ system\\ usually\\ beginning\\ in\\ middle\\ age\\ and\\ characterized\\ by\\ involuntary\\ muscular\\ movement\\,\\ progressive\\ intellectual\\ deterioration\\,\\ and\\ eventual\\ death\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ perhaps\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ worst\\ hereditary\\ diseases\\ you\\ could\\ possibly\\ have\\,\\ and\\ she\\ knows\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ start\\ to\\ hit\\ her\\ in\\ 6\\ to\\ 12\\ years\\.\\ \\ Holy\\ \\*\\*\\*\\*\\!\\!\\!\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2007\\/03\\/18\\/health\\/18huntington\\.html\\?\\_r\\=1\\&\\;oref\\=slogin\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ does\\ someone\\ in\\ her\\ situation\\ do\\?\\ \\ It\\ brings\\ me\\ to\\ another\\ article\\ my\\ friend\\ Trey\\ sent\\ me\\ this\\ morning\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ a\\ smoker\\ since\\ 19\\,\\ who\\ found\\ out\\ at\\ age\\ 57\\ that\\ she\\ had\\ inoperable\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ Now\\ 62\\,\\ she\\ took\\ advantage\\ of\\ Oregon\\'s\\ unique\\ 10\\-year\\-old\\ \\\"Death\\ with\\ Dignity\\ Act\\\"\\ to\\ receive\\ an\\ assisted\\ suicide\\.\\ \\ \\ Assisted\\ suicide\\ is\\ a\\ hugely\\ contentious\\ issue\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ and\\ probably\\ more\\ so\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ where\\ many\\ might\\ prefer\\ to\\ not\\ even\\ raise\\ it\\ at\\ all\\.\\ \\ The\\ article\\ isn\\'t\\ your\\ typical\\ sob\\-story\\,\\ but\\ is\\ definitely\\ deeply\\ moving\\ with\\ both\\ its\\ highs\\ and\\ lows\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/seattletimes\\.nwsource\\.com\\/html\\/localnews\\/2003918100\\_suicide02\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ that\\ made\\ me\\ think\\ of\\ another\\ article\\ about\\ how\\ lucky\\ we\\ are\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ where\\ states\\ have\\ enough\\ independence\\ to\\ test\\ \\\"cutting\\-edge\\\"\\ laws\\ like\\ the\\ \\\"Death\\ with\\ Dignity\\ Act\\.\\\"\\ \\ Allowing\\ a\\ single\\ state\\ to\\ put\\ a\\ radical\\ social\\ idea\\ into\\ practice\\ enables\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ to\\ look\\ on\\ and\\ see\\ how\\ it\\ plays\\ out\\.\\ \\ If\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ failure\\,\\ the\\ state\\ can\\ drop\\ the\\ law\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ country\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ to\\ follow\\.\\ \\ But\\ if\\ it\\ works\\,\\ other\\ states\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ the\\ legislative\\ experiment\\ and\\ move\\ it\\ implement\\ it\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ \\ Anyway\\,\\ the\\ article\\ I\\ mention\\ is\\ from\\ The\\ New\\ Yorker\\,\\ and\\ it\\ describes\\ the\\ greatest\\ chess\\ player\\ of\\ all\\ time\\,\\ Gary\\ Kasparov\\,\\ and\\ his\\ effort\\ to\\ undermine\\ the\\ astonishingly\\ powerful\\ stranglehold\\ that\\ Vladimir\\ Putin\\ has\\ over\\ all\\ of\\ Russia\\.\\ \\ Unlike\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ its\\ 50\\ separate\\ states\\,\\ Putin\\ has\\ disbanded\\ the\\ elections\\ of\\ his\\ country\\'s\\ 80\\ state\\ governors\\ and\\ decided\\ to\\ appoint\\ them\\ instead\\.\\ \\ In\\ Oregon\\,\\ a\\ radical\\ social\\ idea\\ can\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ the\\ test\\ for\\ everyone\\'s\\ benefit\\.\\ \\ In\\ Russia\\,\\ diversity\\ of\\ opinions\\ is\\ almost\\ entirely\\ stifled\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.newyorker\\.com\\/reporting\\/2007\\/10\\/01\\/071001fa\\_fact\\_remnick\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\The\\ Future\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Back\\ to\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ Schreiber\\ closes\\ by\\ reminding\\ us\\ that\\ the\\ \\\"personal\\ genomes\\\"\\ on\\ the\\ web\\ allow\\ an\\ examination\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ variation\\ to\\ human\\ traits\\,\\ including\\ the\\ tendency\\ to\\ develop\\ specific\\ diseases\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ we\\'ve\\ never\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ before\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ though\\,\\ they\\ raise\\ ethical\\,\\ legal\\,\\ and\\ social\\ issues\\ for\\ the\\ public\\,\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ choice\\ but\\ to\\ address\\ very\\ soon\\,\\ because\\ the\\ technology\\ needed\\ to\\ CREATE\\ personal\\ genomes\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ is\\ very\\ soon\\ in\\ the\\ making\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\This\\ Week\\'s\\ Reading\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ Future\\ of\\ Personal\\ Genomics\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Brief\\ Summary\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ \\ Scientists\\ predict\\ that\\ within\\ 5\\ years\\ DNA\\ sequencing\\ technologies\\ will\\ be\\ affordable\\ enough\\ that\\ personal\\ genomics\\ will\\ be\\ integrated\\ into\\ routine\\ clinical\\ care\\.\\ \\ Doctors\\ will\\ be\\ inundated\\ with\\ patients\\ demanding\\ genomic\\ predictions\\ of\\ their\\ future\\ illnesses\\,\\ new\\ guidelines\\ will\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ developed\\ about\\ how\\ best\\ to\\ use\\ genetic\\ information\\.\\ \\ Telling\\ a\\ patient\\ of\\ a\\ disease\\ he\\ will\\ one\\ day\\ have\\ when\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ may\\ cause\\ him\\ undue\\ stress\\ and\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ malpractice\\ litigation\\.\\ \\ New\\ issues\\ like\\ this\\,\\ and\\ many\\ others\\,\\ will\\ abound\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ near\\ future\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Also\\ recommended\\ by\\ the\\ proffessors\\ is\\ a\\ book\\ that\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ battle\\ between\\ the\\ public\\ and\\ private\\ sector\\ in\\ the\\ eventual\\ online\\ publication\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ individuals\\ whose\\ genomes\\ were\\ mapped\\.\\ \\ The\\ book\\ is\\ called\\:\\ \\ \\\"The\\ Genome\\ War\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\See\\ you\\ Thursday\\,\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Fifth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.638079+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Sixth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 452, "html": "\\\\\\Small\\ molecule\\ control\\ in\\ biology\\:\\ \\ steroids\\ and\\ sexual\\ development\\ \\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ last\\ 4\\ lectures\\ introduced\\ the\\ main\\ players\\ in\\ this\\ class\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>small\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Gaining\\ our\\ Footing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ two\\ lectures\\ integrate\\ small\\ molecules\\ and\\ genes\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ their\\ roles\\ in\\ the\\ biological\\ process\\ of\\ mammals\\&\\#8217\\;\\ sexual\\ development\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ lecture\\ reiterates\\ the\\ general\\ role\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ carry\\ information\\,\\ and\\ the\\ specific\\ role\\ of\\ steroid\\ sex\\ hormones\\ in\\ mammalian\\ sexual\\ development\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ course\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ online\\ materials\\ cite\\ a\\ brilliant\\ quote\\ by\\ W\\.B\\.\\ Yeats\\,\\ from\\ his\\ poem\\ \\Among\\ School\\ Children\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ Clardy\\ uses\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ the\\ sometimes\\ confusing\\ complexity\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ hormones\\,\\ and\\ sexual\\ development\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ end\\ of\\ Yeats\\&\\#8217\\;\\ poem\\ describes\\ children\\ dancing\\:\\\r\\\\O\\ body\\ swayed\\ to\\ the\\ music\\\r\\O\\ brightening\\ glance\\\r\\How\\ can\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ dancer\\ from\\ the\\ dance\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\Then\\ Clardy\\ concludes\\ brilliantly\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;earlier\\ lectures\\ have\\ introduced\\ the\\ dancers\\ \\(genes\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Now\\ we\\ proceed\\ to\\ the\\ dance\\ \\(sexual\\ development\\)\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Getting\\ Started\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Throughout\\ biology\\,\\ small\\ molecules\\ carry\\ messages\\ that\\ control\\ life\\ processes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\For\\ example\\,\\ some\\ bacteria\\ make\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ lets\\ them\\ \\&\\#8220\\;decide\\&\\#8221\\;\\ when\\ to\\ become\\ virulent\\ to\\ their\\ host\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\'s\\ a\\ creepy\\ thought\\ imagining\\ a\\ bacterium\\ inside\\ you\\,\\ waiting\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ determine\\ when\\ the\\ \\\"right\\ moment\\\"\\ will\\ be\\ to\\ unleash\\ its\\ destructive\\ power\\ on\\ you\\.\\.\\.Such\\ is\\ life\\,\\ I\\ suppose\\.\\.\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Hormones\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ hormone\\ can\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;long\\-range\\ chemical\\ messenger\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Hormones\\ are\\ made\\ at\\ one\\ site\\,\\ and\\ they\\ order\\ cells\\ at\\ a\\ remote\\ site\\ to\\ perform\\ certain\\ functions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ usually\\ travel\\ through\\ your\\ blood\\ and\\ often\\,\\ but\\ not\\ always\\,\\ have\\ to\\ interact\\ with\\ something\\ inside\\ a\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ order\\ to\\ communicate\\ through\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\,\\ they\\ need\\ receptors\\ to\\ move\\ through\\ the\\ membrane\\ and\\ act\\ as\\ their\\ messengers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sex\\ Steroids\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ typically\\ broken\\ down\\ into\\ androgens\\ \\(male\\)\\ and\\ estrogens\\ \\(female\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Interesting\\ \\(gross\\)\\ fact\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ main\\ source\\ of\\ estrogens\\ for\\ hormone\\ replacement\\ therapy\\ in\\ post\\-menopausal\\ women\\ is\\ urine\\ from\\ pregnant\\ horses\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ drug\\ Premarin\\ \\(from\\ \\pre\\<\\/u\\>gnant\\ \\mar\\<\\/u\\>es\\)\\ recently\\ had\\ annual\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ sales\\ over\\ \\$2\\ billion\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Recent\\ concerns\\ about\\ dangerous\\ side\\ effects\\,\\ though\\,\\ have\\ caused\\ sales\\ to\\ drop\\ to\\ \\$900\\ million\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Biosynthesis\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ our\\ body\\ makes\\ hormones\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>5\\ things\\ to\\ note\\ about\\ biosynthesis\\:\\\r\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ process\\ involves\\ altering\\ sex\\ steroids\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sex\\ steroid\\ alterations\\ have\\ 4\\ main\\ varieties\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Oxidations\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>a\\ C\\-H\\ bond\\ becomes\\ a\\ C\\-OH\\ bond\\,\\ or\\ a\\ C\\-OH\\ single\\ bond\\ becomes\\ a\\ C\\=O\\ bond\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Reductions\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>a\\ C\\=O\\ bond\\ becomes\\ a\\ C\\-OH\\ single\\ bond\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Moving\\ a\\ double\\ bond\\ from\\ one\\ position\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Removing\\ a\\ Carbon\\ from\\ the\\ sex\\ steroid\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\(2\\)\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Enzymes\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>they\\ are\\ biological\\ catalysts\\ that\\ speed\\ up\\ the\\ reactions\\ that\\ alter\\ sex\\ steroids\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Enzymes\\ also\\ control\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ those\\ reactions\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Biological\\ processes\\ that\\ transform\\ small\\ molecules\\ depend\\ on\\ enzymes\\,\\ and\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\ is\\ regulated\\ by\\ enzymes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\(3\\)\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Small\\ structural\\ changes\\ in\\ small\\ molecules\\ lead\\ to\\ BIG\\ biological\\ effects\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>was\\ evidenced\\ by\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;guevedoces\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ whose\\ testosterone\\ failed\\ to\\ get\\ converted\\ into\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\ and\\ resulted\\ in\\ male\\ children\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ external\\ genitalia\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ cases\\ of\\ pseudohermaphroditism\\ depended\\ on\\ \\two\\<\\/em\\>\\ hydrogen\\ atoms\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ properly\\ altered\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\(4\\)\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Cholesterol\\ gets\\ a\\ bad\\ name\\ these\\ days\\,\\ but\\ all\\ steroid\\ hormones\\ originate\\ from\\ it\\,\\ so\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ quite\\ important\\,\\ and\\ even\\ healthy\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\(5\\)\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Estradiol\\ is\\ biosynthesized\\ from\\ testosterone\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Remember\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>estradiol\\ is\\ an\\ estrogen\\ or\\ female\\ hormone\\,\\ while\\ testosterone\\ is\\ an\\ androgen\\ or\\ male\\ hormone\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Important\\ Biological\\ Process\\ \\#1\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>cholesterol\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ steroid\\ hormones\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Clardy\\ spends\\ significant\\ time\\ explaining\\ a\\ complex\\ diagram\\ that\\ starts\\ with\\ a\\ cholesterol\\ molecule\\ \\(cholesterol\\ is\\ found\\ in\\ cell\\ membranes\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ cholesterol\\ is\\ converted\\ to\\ progesterone\\,\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ in\\ steroid\\ hormone\\ biosynthesis\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ process\\ is\\ tightly\\ regulated\\,\\ because\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ the\\ conversion\\,\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ progesterone\\,\\ are\\ all\\ biologically\\ active\\ and\\ potent\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ products\\ must\\ not\\ leave\\ the\\ premises\\ of\\ the\\ reaction\\,\\ or\\ they\\ will\\ cause\\ havoc\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ progesterone\\ gets\\ converted\\ into\\ testosterone\\,\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ that\\ testosterone\\ gets\\ converted\\ into\\ estradiol\\,\\ another\\ sex\\ steroid\\ hormone\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Now\\ you\\ have\\ three\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ sex\\ hormones\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>testosterone\\,\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\,\\ and\\ estradiol\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ adrenal\\ glands\\,\\ progesterone\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ get\\ converted\\ into\\ testosterone\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ it\\ gets\\ converted\\ into\\ cortisol\\,\\ a\\ hormone\\ that\\ regulates\\ bodily\\ functions\\ like\\ blood\\ pressure\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ said\\,\\ our\\ next\\ two\\ lectures\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ three\\ molecules\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ Clardy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ diagram\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>testosterone\\,\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\,\\ and\\ estradiol\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ remind\\ ourselves\\ what\\ steroid\\ hormones\\ do\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ effect\\ biological\\ changes\\ by\\ regulating\\ gene\\ transcription\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Important\\ Biological\\ Process\\ \\#2\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Central\\ Dogma\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Central\\ Dogma\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ that\\ has\\ come\\ up\\ before\\,\\ but\\ Clardy\\ explains\\ it\\ once\\ more\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\DNA\\ \\\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ RNA\\ \\\\\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\>\\;\\ proteins\\ \\(\\\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>small\\ molecules\\ \\\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ DNA\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Information\\ in\\ DNA\\ is\\ transcribed\\ to\\ its\\ messenger\\ RNA\\ \\(mRNA\\)\\.\\ mRNA\\ transcribes\\ its\\ information\\ into\\ a\\ protein\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ protein\\,\\ or\\ sometimes\\ several\\ proteins\\,\\ can\\ work\\ together\\ to\\ synthesize\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ do\\ they\\ help\\ synthesize\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Here\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ an\\ example\\ to\\ show\\ you\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ biosynthesis\\ of\\ cholesterol\\ involves\\ over\\ 20\\ steps\\,\\ or\\ chemical\\ transformations\\,\\ and\\ every\\ step\\ requires\\ its\\ own\\ protein\\ catalyst\\ \\(enzyme\\)\\ to\\ accelerate\\ and\\ maintain\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ reaction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Hormone\\ Signaling\\ Network\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Turning\\ it\\ On\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ hormones\\ signal\\ remote\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ body\\,\\ several\\ major\\ areas\\ are\\ at\\ work\\:\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\the\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\target\\ glands\\ like\\ the\\ adrenals\\ and\\ the\\ gonads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\target\\ tissues\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>How\\ do\\ they\\ work\\ together\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Neurohormones\\ from\\ the\\ brain\\ stimulate\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\ to\\ produce\\ pituitary\\ hormones\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Pituitary\\ hormones\\ stimulate\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ gonads\\ to\\ produce\\ gonadal\\ steroid\\ hormones\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Gonadal\\ steroid\\ hormones\\ circulate\\ throughout\\ the\\ body\\,\\ stimulating\\ target\\ tissues\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ also\\ a\\ feedback\\ mechanism\\ in\\ which\\ gonadal\\ steroid\\ hormones\\ tell\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ reduce\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ neurohormones\\ that\\ started\\ the\\ whole\\ process\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Hormone\\ Signaling\\ Network\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Turning\\ it\\ Off\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ do\\ steroid\\ signals\\ get\\ turned\\ off\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ get\\ urinated\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ how\\ do\\ they\\ get\\ into\\ the\\ urine\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ get\\ oxidized\\ in\\ the\\ liver\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ them\\ more\\ soluble\\ in\\ water\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Often\\ sulfates\\ or\\ sugars\\ are\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ oxidized\\ steroid\\,\\ making\\ it\\ even\\ more\\ water\\ soluble\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Remember\\ the\\ male\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Scientists\\ found\\ the\\ missing\\ small\\ molecule\\ to\\ blame\\ for\\ their\\ condition\\ by\\ studying\\ their\\ urine\\ samples\\ and\\ analyzing\\ the\\ relative\\ amounts\\ of\\ steroids\\ present\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Their\\ bodies\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ have\\ any\\ of\\ that\\ particular\\ steroid\\ to\\ get\\ oxidized\\ in\\ the\\ liver\\,\\ so\\ it\\ never\\ showed\\ up\\ in\\ their\\ urine\\,\\ either\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sex\\ Steroids\\&\\#8217\\;\\ Effect\\ on\\ Sexual\\ Development\\ Biological\\ Functions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ seen\\ how\\ sex\\ steroids\\ are\\ made\\,\\ and\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ seen\\ how\\ they\\ regulate\\ biological\\ functions\\ by\\ binding\\ with\\ protein\\ receptors\\ and\\ affecting\\ DNA\\ transcription\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Now\\ let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ biology\\ of\\ sexual\\ development\\ and\\ see\\ how\\ sex\\ steroids\\ can\\ do\\ it\\ right\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ make\\ mistakes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sexual\\ Development\\ Process\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Stage\\ 1\\/4\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Chromosomal\\ Sex\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ person\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ genes\\ \\usually\\<\\/em\\>\\ determines\\ his\\/her\\ sex\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ you\\ have\\ two\\ X\\-chromosomes\\ on\\ your\\ last\\ and\\ 46\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ gene\\,\\ you\\ become\\ a\\ female\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>An\\ X\\ and\\ a\\ Y\\ chromosome\\ on\\ your\\ 46\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ gene\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>You\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ male\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Some\\ people\\ have\\ unusual\\ genes\\,\\ like\\ two\\ X\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ and\\ a\\ Y\\ chromosome\\ on\\ the\\ 46\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ gene\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ called\\ Klinefelter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ syndrome\\,\\ and\\ these\\ people\\ are\\ recognized\\ as\\ male\\.\\ \\ They\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ small\\ testes\\ and\\ reduced\\ fertility\\,\\ and\\ roughly\\ 1\\/500\\-1000\\ males\\ is\\ born\\ this\\ way\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ effects\\ of\\ Klinefelter\\'s\\ Syndrome\\,\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ person\\ has\\ two\\ X\\ chromosomes\\ and\\ a\\ Y\\ chromosome\\ on\\ his\\ 46th\\ gene\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>French\\ experiments\\ on\\ rabbits\\ in\\ the\\ 1940s\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ important\\ generalization\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;nature\\ tends\\ toward\\ the\\ female\\ unless\\ there\\ is\\ active\\ intervention\\ by\\ hormones\\ secreted\\ from\\ the\\ fetal\\ testes\\ to\\ shift\\ development\\ in\\ the\\ male\\ direction\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sexual\\ Development\\ Process\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Stage\\ 2\\/4\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Gonadal\\ Sex\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ humans\\,\\ a\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ Y\\-chromosome\\ determines\\ whether\\ an\\ embryo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ gonads\\ develop\\ into\\ testes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ you\\ have\\ this\\ signal\\ from\\ the\\ Y\\-chromosome\\,\\ you\\ get\\ testes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>No\\ signal\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>No\\ testes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ Y\\-chromosome\\ is\\ called\\ SRY\\,\\ standing\\ for\\ \\\\S\\<\\/u\\>ex\\ determining\\ \\R\\<\\/u\\>egion\\ of\\ the\\ \\Y\\<\\/u\\>\\-chromosome\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ SRY\\ gene\\ encodes\\ the\\ SRY\\-protein\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ SRY\\-protein\\ binds\\ to\\ DNA\\ to\\ regulate\\ gene\\ expression\\ on\\ the\\ group\\ of\\ cells\\ that\\ will\\ become\\ testes\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Without\\ the\\ SRY\\-protein\\,\\ these\\ same\\ cells\\ develop\\ into\\ ovaries\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Testes\\ secrete\\ several\\ hormones\\,\\ which\\ determine\\ hormonal\\ sex\\&\\#8230\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sexual\\ Development\\ Process\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Stage\\ 3\\/4\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Hormonal\\ Sex\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Which\\ hormones\\ do\\ thes\\ testes\\ secrete\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Testosterone\\,\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\,\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ antimullerian\\ hormone\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(AMH\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>AMH\\ causes\\ Mullerian\\ ducts\\,\\ which\\ otherwise\\ develop\\ into\\ female\\ ovarian\\ ducts\\,\\ to\\ fade\\ away\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Testosterone\\ stimulates\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ Wolffian\\ ducts\\ into\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ testes\\ and\\ the\\ prostate\\ gland\\ \\(recall\\ Lecture\\ 1\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\ sparks\\ the\\ building\\ of\\ external\\ male\\ genitalia\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>So\\ AMH\\ and\\ testosterone\\ lay\\ down\\ the\\ male\\ development\\ pathway\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>AMH\\ gets\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ precursors\\ of\\ the\\ female\\ path\\,\\ and\\ testosterone\\ and\\ ta\\-dihydrostestosterone\\ develop\\ the\\ male\\ path\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sexual\\ Development\\ Process\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Stage\\ 4\\/4\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Morphological\\ Sex\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\External\\ genitalia\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>females\\ get\\ a\\ vagina\\ and\\ a\\ clitoris\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Males\\ get\\ a\\ penis\\ and\\ a\\ scrotum\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Thoughts\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ did\\ a\\ research\\ project\\ last\\ Spring\\ on\\ homophobia\\,\\ and\\ the\\ project\\ opened\\ my\\ eyes\\ to\\ how\\ deeply\\ entrenched\\ homophobia\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ our\\ society\\ but\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\.\\ But\\ homophobia\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ tip\\ of\\ the\\ iceberg\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ started\\ learning\\ about\\ issues\\ of\\ gender\\ identity\\ and\\ trans\\-sexuality\\,\\ and\\ began\\ to\\ feel\\ that\\ people\\ grappling\\ with\\ those\\ issues\\ have\\ an\\ even\\ harder\\ road\\ to\\ travel\\,\\ and\\ dramatically\\ so\\,\\ than\\ homosexuals\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ Spring\\,\\ I\\ saw\\ the\\ fundamental\\ problem\\ behind\\ the\\ stigamtization\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ marginalized\\ individuals\\ feel\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ general\\ societal\\ pressure\\ that\\ we\\ all\\ live\\ under\\ to\\ have\\ our\\ sex\\ \\(private\\ parts\\,\\ body\\ makeup\\)\\ match\\ our\\ gender\\ \\(if\\ we\\ feel\\ male\\ or\\ female\\)\\,\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ attracted\\ to\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ opposite\\ sex\\/gender\\ \\(which\\,\\ again\\,\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ same\\)\\.\\ It\\ was\\ fascinating\\ to\\ read\\ accounts\\ of\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ looked\\ like\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ but\\ felt\\ like\\ a\\ man\\,\\ but\\ who\\ was\\ attracted\\ to\\ women\\.\\ \\(if\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ read\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ fascinating\\ plight\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ these\\ situations\\,\\ check\\ out\\ the\\ website\\ for\\ \\\"Gender\\ Crash\\!\\\"\\,\\ a\\ spoken\\ word\\ and\\ performance\\ event\\ for\\ \\\"poets\\/spoken\\ wordsters\\/literary\\ geeks\\/journal\\ writers\\/queers\\/transgender\\/gender\\ queers\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.gendercrash\\.com\\/gendercrash\\.shtml\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ went\\ to\\ the\\ event\\ last\\ Spring\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ truly\\ eye\\-opening\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ uncomfortable\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ I\\ just\\ felt\\ like\\ any\\ discomfort\\ I\\ experienced\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ my\\ natural\\ inheritance\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ societal\\ pressure\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ heterosexual\\ person\\ of\\ unified\\ sex\\ and\\ gender\\.\\ \\ And\\ people\\ who\\ broke\\ that\\ ingrained\\ law\\ irked\\ me\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ an\\ irking\\ I\\'d\\ love\\ to\\ unlock\\ and\\ come\\ to\\ peace\\ with\\.\\ \\ And\\ outside\\ of\\ me\\,\\ the\\ event\\ was\\ great\\.\\ \\ There\\ was\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ love\\ in\\ the\\ room\\,\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ talent\\ in\\ the\\ performances\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ Check\\ it\\ out\\ for\\ an\\ eye\\-opening\\,\\ life\\-changing\\ experience\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ held\\ on\\ the\\ 2nd\\ Thursday\\ of\\ every\\ month\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ all\\ that\\ said\\,\\ when\\ I\\ looked\\ at\\ that\\ pressure\\ to\\ have\\ your\\ sex\\ and\\ gender\\ match\\,\\ I\\ didn\\'t\\ even\\ realize\\ that\\ one\\'s\\ \\\"sex\\\"\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ perfectly\\ unified\\ concept\\.\\ \\ Your\\ sex\\ and\\ be\\ male\\ in\\ some\\ ways\\,\\ female\\ in\\ others\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ what\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ a\\ fascinating\\ section\\ discussion\\ this\\ morning\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Take\\ actress\\ Jamie\\ Lee\\ Curtis\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ who\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ XY\\ chromosome\\ on\\ her\\ last\\ gene\\,\\ like\\ a\\ male\\,\\ but\\ physically\\ appears\\ as\\ a\\ female\\.\\ \\ Chromosomally\\ and\\ Gonadally\\,\\ she\\ is\\ male\\.\\ \\ But\\ hormonally\\ and\\ morphologically\\,\\ she\\'s\\ female\\.\\ \\ For\\ all\\ intents\\ and\\ purposes\\,\\ that\\ makes\\ her\\ female\\,\\ but\\ with\\ male\\ gonads\\,\\ she\\ can\\'t\\ have\\ children\\ \\(her\\ two\\ kids\\ are\\ adopted\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Sex\\ Mutations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Individuals\\ with\\ sex\\ mutations\\ suffer\\ horrible\\ social\\ stigma\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ enormously\\ helpful\\ to\\ learning\\ about\\ sexual\\ development\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ 1974\\ discovery\\ of\\ 5a\\-dihydrotestosterone\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ happened\\ if\\ scientists\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ feel\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ Dominican\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ common\\ form\\ of\\ unusual\\ sexual\\ development\\ involve\\ children\\ with\\ 46\\,XY\\ or\\ male\\ genotpyes\\ who\\ are\\ feminized\\ by\\ a\\ misfiring\\ along\\ the\\ sexual\\ differentiation\\ pathway\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ children\\ follow\\ a\\ mostly\\ female\\ development\\ pathway\\ and\\ are\\ called\\ male\\ pseudohermaphrodites\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Other\\ general\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ sexual\\ development\\ can\\ go\\ wrong\\:\\\r\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\a\\ mutated\\ receptor\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ bind\\ to\\ a\\ sex\\ hormone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\a\\ mutated\\ biosynthetic\\ enzyme\\ results\\ in\\ too\\ little\\/much\\ of\\ a\\ sex\\ steroid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\a\\ mutated\\ receptor\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ bind\\ DNA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>We\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ look\\ at\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ specific\\ types\\ of\\ problems\\:\\\r\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Complete\\ androgen\\ insensitivity\\ syndrome\\,\\ called\\ CAIS\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Here\\,\\ the\\ androgen\\ receptor\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ bind\\ testosterone\\ and\\ dihydrotestosterone\\,\\ but\\ it\\ either\\ fails\\ to\\ bind\\ the\\ hormones\\ or\\ fails\\ to\\ bind\\ DNA\\ while\\ bound\\ to\\ the\\ hormones\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ CAIS\\,\\ a\\ 46\\,XY\\ person\\ is\\ completely\\ unresponsive\\ to\\ androgens\\ and\\ thus\\ follows\\ a\\ female\\ pathway\\,\\ starting\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ Hormonal\\ Sex\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Congenital\\ adrenal\\ hyperplasia\\ \\(CAH\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>CAH\\ involves\\ a\\ malfunction\\ in\\ the\\ biosynthetic\\ pathway\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ excessively\\ high\\ testosterone\\ levels\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ can\\ cause\\ a\\ 46\\,XX\\ individual\\ to\\ be\\ born\\ with\\ external\\ genitalia\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ masculinized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>Thanks\\.\\ \\ See\\ you\\ next\\ time\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Sixth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.659452+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Seventh Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 453, "html": "\\\\\\Small\\ molecule\\ control\\ in\\ biology\\:\\ \\ steroids\\,\\ breast\\ cancer\\,\\ and\\ behavior\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\so\\ last\\ week\\'s\\ 2nd\\ lecture\\ post\\ was\\ dry\\,\\ so\\ I\\'ll\\ try\\ to\\ spruce\\ up\\ this\\ one\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ rest\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Getting\\ Started\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ lecture\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ great\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ lecture\\ looked\\ at\\ how\\ steroids\\ determine\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ sex\\ through\\ chromosomal\\ sex\\,\\ gonadal\\ sex\\,\\ hormonal\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ morphological\\ sex\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ looks\\ at\\ 2\\ related\\ issues\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ how\\ estradiol\\ \\(a\\ hormone\\)\\ signaling\\ can\\ be\\ thwarted\\ \\ to\\ treat\\ and\\ possibly\\ prevent\\ breast\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ sex\\ steroids\\ control\\ \\\"behavioral\\ sex\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ 2\\ seemingly\\ very\\ different\\ issues\\ are\\ related\\ because\\ they\\ both\\ involve\\ the\\ same\\ biological\\ pathway\\,\\ and\\ a\\ common\\ set\\ of\\ small\\ molecule\\ regulators\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ lecture\\ will\\ conclude\\ by\\ studying\\ sexual\\ behavior\\,\\ using\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ tools\\ we\\ used\\ to\\ treat\\ breast\\ cancer\\,\\ and\\ then\\ exploring\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ that\\ became\\ a\\ topic\\ of\\ public\\ debate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\New\\ Terminology\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Fun\\:\\ \\ Ligand\\,\\ agonist\\,\\ and\\ antagonist\\.\\ \\ \\(Next\\ time\\ someone\\ accuses\\ you\\ of\\ being\\ antagonizing\\,\\ make\\ sure\\ to\\ reply\\:\\ \\ \\\"I\\ am\\ NOT\\ an\\ antagonist\\.\\ \\ I\\'m\\ an\\ agonist\\!\\\"\\ \\ You\\ will\\ confuse\\ them\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Ligand\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ larger\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ Example\\:\\ \\ testosterone\\.\\ \\ Testosterone\\ binds\\ to\\ an\\ androgen\\ receptor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Agonist\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ a\\ ligand\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ a\\ receptor\\ and\\ produces\\ a\\ response\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ another\\ ligand\\,\\ such\\ as\\ testosterone\\.\\ \\ \\ Tetrahydrogestrinone\\ is\\ an\\ agonist\\ because\\ it\\ binds\\ to\\ an\\ androgen\\ receptor\\,\\ just\\ as\\ testosterone\\ does\\,\\ and\\ it\\ produces\\ an\\ almost\\ identical\\ biological\\ response\\ as\\ testosterone\\.\\ \\ So\\ we\\ say\\ that\\ Tetrahydrogestrinone\\ is\\ an\\ androgen\\ agonist\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Antagonist\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ An\\ antagonist\\ binds\\ to\\ a\\ receptor\\,\\ but\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ produce\\ a\\ response\\.\\ \\ \\ It\\ blocks\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ agonists\\ and\\ ligands\\.\\ An\\ example\\ of\\ an\\ antagonist\\,\\ also\\ called\\ an\\ \\\"inhibitor\\,\\\"\\ is\\ finasteride\\.\\ \\ Finasteride\\ was\\ the\\ drug\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ lecture\\ 1\\.\\ \\ It\\ stops\\ male\\ pattern\\ baldness\\ and\\ reduces\\ prostate\\ enlargement\\ during\\ aging\\ \\(a\\ cancer\\ risk\\)\\,\\ and\\ it\\ does\\ this\\ by\\ inhibiting\\ the\\ reaction\\ catalyzed\\ by\\ 5a\\-reductase\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ useful\\ drugs\\ are\\ agonists\\ or\\ antagonists\\ of\\ steroid\\ hormones\\,\\ such\\ as\\:\\ \\ birth\\ control\\ pills\\,\\ anabolic\\ steroids\\ \\(ever\\ wonder\\ what\\ this\\ anonymous\\ blogger\\ looks\\ like\\?\\ \\ Check\\ out\\ my\\ pic\\ below\\.\\ \\ I\\ do\\ use\\ \\\"supplements\\\"\\ to\\ aid\\ my\\ workout\\ routine\\)\\,\\ and\\ agents\\ like\\ tamoxifen\\,\\ which\\ treats\\ breast\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Steroids\\!\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\(Imagine\\ if\\ you\\ took\\ steroids\\,\\ and\\ did\\ rigorous\\ face\\ exercises\\.\\ \\ \\ Like\\,\\ squeeze\\ your\\ face\\ muscles\\ as\\ HARD\\ as\\ you\\ can\\!\\ \\ Could\\ you\\ make\\ your\\ cheek\\/jaw\\ muscles\\ get\\ jacked\\?\\ \\ My\\ editor\\ who\\ told\\ me\\ to\\ spice\\ up\\ my\\ blog\\ is\\ now\\ shaking\\ his\\ head\\ in\\ disgust\\ at\\ this\\ commentary\\.\\ \\ Understandably\\.\\.\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ Birth\\ Control\\ Works\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Progesterone\\ is\\ the\\ \\\"pregnancy\\ hormone\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ signals\\ when\\ an\\ egg\\ has\\ been\\ fertilized\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Birth\\ control\\ pills\\ are\\ synthetic\\ molecules\\ that\\ function\\ as\\ agonists\\.\\ \\ They\\ bind\\ to\\ progesterone\\ receptors\\ and\\ activate\\ them\\,\\ telling\\ the\\ body\\ it\\'s\\ pregnant\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Morning\\-After\\ Pill\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ morning\\-after\\ pill\\ blocks\\ the\\ signal\\ from\\ progesterone\\,\\ so\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ progesterone\\ receptor\\ antagonist\\.\\ \\ By\\ blocking\\ the\\ signal\\ from\\ progesterone\\,\\ it\\ prevents\\ normal\\ pregnancy\\ processes\\ from\\ taking\\ place\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ \\\"Bad\\-Boy\\\"\\ of\\ Small\\ Molecules\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ testosterone\\.\\ \\ Damn\\ right\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Funny\\ testosterone\\ stories\\ from\\ class\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Story\\ 1\\:\\ \\ In\\ 1912\\,\\ a\\ sexually\\ dysfunctional\\ patient\\ who\\ had\\ lost\\ both\\ testicles\\ received\\ a\\ testicle\\ transplant\\.\\ \\ Four\\ days\\ later\\,\\ \\\"the\\ patient\\ had\\ a\\ strong\\ erection\\ accompanied\\ by\\ marked\\ sexual\\ desire\\.\\ \\ He\\ insisted\\ on\\ leaving\\ the\\ hospital\\ to\\ satisfy\\ his\\ desire\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Story\\ 2\\:\\ \\ Studies\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ \\\"the\\ overall\\ picture\\ among\\ the\\ high\\-testosterone\\ men\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ delinquency\\,\\ substance\\ abuse\\ and\\ a\\ tendency\\ toward\\ excess\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(Geez\\.\\ \\ That\\ explains\\.\\.\\.EVERYTHING\\.\\.\\.I\\'m\\ forwarding\\ that\\ quote\\ to\\ my\\ girlfriend\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\No\\ not\\ really\\.\\ \\ I\\ wish\\.\\ \\ I\\ mean\\,\\ no\\,\\ not\\ really\\.\\ \\ Maybe\\ sort\\ of\\.\\ \\ \\ No\\.\\ \\ Seriously\\.\\ \\ I\\'m\\ comfortable\\ with\\ who\\ I\\ am\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Story\\ 3\\:\\ \\ Not\\ as\\ funny\\,\\ but\\ interesting\\.\\ \\ Testosterone\\ is\\ credited\\ with\\ injecting\\ \\\"a\\ spring\\ into\\ the\\ step\\,\\ a\\ lift\\ to\\ the\\ libido\\ and\\ a\\ boost\\ to\\ the\\ brain\\.\\.\\.\\[making\\]\\ it\\ sound\\ like\\ a\\ smart\\,\\ super\\-charged\\ version\\ of\\ Viagra\\.\\\"\\ \\ In\\ 2003\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ American\\ men\\ being\\ prescribed\\ testosterone\\ was\\ over\\ 2\\ million\\,\\ more\\ than\\ doubling\\ from\\ 900\\,000\\ only\\ 4\\ years\\ earlier\\ in\\ 1999\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ thought\\ that\\ today\\ even\\ more\\ men\\ \\(and\\ some\\ women\\)\\ are\\ ingesting\\ this\\ small\\ molecule\\ bad\\-boy\\ into\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Breast\\ Cancer\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ form\\ of\\ cancer\\ in\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\ Each\\ year\\,\\ 180\\,000\\+\\ cases\\ are\\ diagnosed\\,\\ and\\ 40\\,000\\ women\\ die\\ from\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Some\\ breast\\ cancers\\ depend\\ on\\ estrogen\\ to\\ keep\\ growing\\.\\ \\ Others\\ don\\'t\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ a\\ tumor\\ is\\ estrogen\\ dependent\\,\\ removing\\ the\\ ovaries\\ can\\ cause\\ the\\ tumor\\ to\\ regress\\ dramatically\\.\\ \\ Without\\ ovaries\\,\\ estrogen\\ levels\\ plummet\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tumor\\ loses\\ its\\ food\\,\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\.\\ \\ Estrogen\\ antagonists\\ like\\ Tamofixen\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ effect\\.\\ \\ They\\ tie\\ up\\ the\\ estrogen\\,\\ and\\ they\\'re\\ constantly\\ used\\ to\\ treat\\ breast\\ cancer\\ today\\.\\ \\ Before\\ Tamofixen\\'s\\ patent\\ expired\\,\\ it\\ sold\\ over\\ \\$1\\ billion\\ annually\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Tamofixen\\ is\\ tricky\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ estrogenic\\ effects\\ on\\ bones\\ and\\ the\\ uterus\\.\\ \\ For\\ bones\\,\\ that\\'s\\ good\\.\\ \\ This\\ cancer\\-stopping\\ estrogen\\ antagonist\\ prevents\\ decreases\\ in\\ bone\\ density\\.\\ \\ For\\ the\\ uterus\\,\\ that\\'s\\ bad\\.\\ \\ It\\ might\\ cause\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Last\\ Important\\ Point\\ from\\ Lecture\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Studies\\ on\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ estradiol\\ and\\ testosterone\\ on\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ found\\ that\\ estradiol\\,\\ a\\ typically\\ \\\"female\\\"\\ hormone\\,\\ has\\ a\\ more\\ powerful\\ effect\\ on\\ inducing\\ male\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ than\\ does\\ testosterone\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ believed\\ the\\ testosterone\\ might\\ transform\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ into\\ estradiol\\ before\\ it\\ produces\\ its\\ behavioral\\ effects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reading\\:\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Of\\ Gay\\ Sheep\\,\\ Modern\\ Science\\ and\\ Bad\\ Publicity\\\"\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2007\\/01\\/25\\/science\\/25sheep\\.html\\?\\_r\\=1\\&\\;oref\\=slogin\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Brief\\ summary\\:\\ \\ 8\\%\\ of\\ rams\\ seek\\ sex\\ with\\ other\\ rams\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ ewes\\,\\ so\\ a\\ doctor\\ at\\ the\\ Oregon\\ Health\\ and\\ Science\\ University\\ decided\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ the\\ physiological\\ factors\\ that\\ might\\ produce\\ this\\ result\\.\\ \\ He\\ thought\\ it\\ might\\ shed\\ light\\ on\\ human\\ homosexuality\\,\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ But\\,\\ as\\ the\\ article\\ reads\\,\\ \\\"The\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ gay\\ sheep\\ became\\ a\\ textbook\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ distortion\\ and\\ vituperation\\ that\\ can\\ result\\ when\\ science\\ meets\\ the\\ global\\ news\\ cycle\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Pretty\\ much\\,\\ PETA\\,\\ gay\\ rights\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ others\\ jumped\\ on\\ the\\ story\\,\\ pounced\\ on\\ misinformation\\,\\ and\\ soon\\ the\\ doctor\\ looking\\ into\\ the\\ situation\\ had\\ become\\ the\\ target\\ of\\ vicious\\ hate\\ from\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ groups\\ who\\ felt\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ vested\\ interest\\ in\\ scientific\\ explanations\\ for\\ homosexuality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Examples\\ of\\ humorous\\ headlines\\ that\\ this\\ situation\\ evoked\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Study\\ Headline\\:\\ \\\"He\\'s\\ Just\\ Not\\ Into\\ Ewe\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Protest\\ Headline\\:\\ \\ \\\"Ewe\\ Turn\\ for\\ Gay\\ Rams\\ on\\ Hormones\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Column\\ Headline\\:\\ \\ \\\"Brokeback\\ Mutton\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ that\\ said\\,\\ I\\ leave\\ you\\ with\\ a\\ song\\ by\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ greatest\\ rock\\ stars\\ of\\ all\\ time\\,\\ Freddie\\ Mercury\\.\\ \\ \\\"Under\\ Pressure\\\"\\ probably\\ applies\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ how\\ Mercury\\ felt\\ as\\ a\\ closeted\\ gay\\ man\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ spotlight\\,\\ but\\ also\\ how\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ feel\\ as\\ science\\'s\\ perpetual\\ quest\\ to\\ cure\\ our\\ current\\ problems\\ only\\ open\\ the\\ door\\ to\\ frightening\\ future\\ ones\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ all\\ quite\\ hard\\ to\\ adjust\\ to\\ sometimes\\.\\ \\ And\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ beautiful\\ song\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=UdaHCLlBkWU\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\See\\ you\\ next\\ time\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Seventh Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.672345+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "V Logo", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 454, "html": "A\\ test\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ this\\ upload\\ thing\\ does", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "V Logo"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.680804+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Ninth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 455, "html": "\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\so\\ so\\ far\\,\\ we\\'ve\\ looked\\ at\\ sex\\ steroids\\ and\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ information\\ is\\ relayed\\ through\\ small\\ molecules\\ from\\ particular\\ gland\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ your\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ how\\ that\\ works\\:\\ \\ a\\ molecular\\ signal\\ gets\\ sent\\ from\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ \\(below\\)\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>to\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\ \\(below\\)\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ a\\ second\\ molecular\\ signal\\ relays\\ the\\ message\\ from\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\ to\\ the\\ hormone\\-producing\\ organ\\ of\\ its\\ choice\\ \\(gonads\\,\\ thyroid\\ glands\\,\\ and\\ many\\ others\\ are\\ possibilities\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>The\\ molecular\\ signals\\ from\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ and\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\ are\\ peptides\\.\\ \\ Peptide\\ structures\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ carry\\ lots\\ of\\ information\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ we\\ first\\ looked\\ at\\ that\\ peptide\\ which\\ initiates\\ the\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ signal\\.\\ \\ That\\ peptide\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ thyroid\\ releasing\\ hormone\\ \\(TRH\\)\\.\\ \\ In\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ TRH\\ peptide\\,\\ we\\ learned\\ some\\ properties\\ of\\ peptides\\ and\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\-pituitary\\ signaling\\ system\\.\\ \\ Later\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ discussed\\ two\\ peptide\\ hormones\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\:\\ \\ oxytocin\\,\\ and\\ vasopressin\\,\\ and\\ I\\'ll\\ get\\ to\\ those\\ in\\ depth\\ in\\ a\\ little\\ while\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ check\\ out\\ the\\ interesting\\ things\\ that\\ these\\ two\\ peptide\\ hormones\\,\\ oxytocin\\ and\\ vasopressin\\,\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\a\\.\\ \\ urination\\\r\\\\b\\.\\ \\ the\\ release\\ of\\ milk\\ from\\ nursing\\ brothers\\'\\ breasts\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\c\\.\\ \\ behaviors\\ like\\ facial\\ recognition\\,\\ trust\\ in\\ other\\ people\\,\\ and\\ even\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ you\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ monogamous\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ Axis\\ Other\\ than\\ the\\ Axis\\ of\\ Evil\\:\\ \\ The\\ Hypothalamus\\-Pituitary\\-Thyroid\\ Axis\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>Both\\ Kim\\ Jong\\-il\\ of\\ North\\ Korea\\ and\\ Mahmoud\\ Ahmadinejad\\ of\\ Iran\\ have\\ a\\ hypothalamus\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ hypothalamus\\ is\\ a\\ hub\\,\\ linking\\ the\\ brain\\'s\\ nerve\\ signals\\ to\\ the\\ body\\'s\\ hormone\\,\\ or\\ chemical\\,\\ signals\\.\\ \\ It\\ makes\\ \\\"releasing\\ hormones\\.\\\"\\ \\ Releasing\\ hormones\\ travel\\ from\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ to\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\,\\ and\\ they\\ signal\\ the\\ pituitary\\ to\\ release\\ pituitary\\ hormones\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\.\\ \\ The\\ pituitary\\ hormones\\ are\\ called\\ \\\"stimulating\\ hormones\\.\\\"\\ \\ Stimulating\\ hormones\\ travel\\ throughout\\ the\\ body\\,\\ telling\\ body\\ parts\\ to\\ get\\ on\\ their\\ horses\\ and\\ make\\ things\\ happen\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Amino\\ Acids\\,\\ Peptides\\,\\ and\\ Proteins\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ TRH\\?\\ \\ It\\'s\\ Thyroid\\ Releasing\\ Hormone\\.\\ Part\\ of\\ its\\ composition\\ is\\ a\\ peptide\\ \\-\\ a\\ chain\\ of\\ amino\\ acids\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Every\\ amino\\ acid\\ has\\ both\\ an\\ amino\\,\\ and\\ a\\ carboxylic\\ acid\\ group\\,\\ which\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ last\\ lecture\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\.\\ \\ Under\\ biological\\ conditions\\,\\ which\\ means\\ under\\ the\\ conditions\\ inside\\ your\\ body\\,\\ amino\\ acid\\ groups\\ and\\ carboxylic\\ acid\\ groups\\ have\\ certain\\ electrical\\ charges\\.\\ \\ This\\ will\\ come\\ up\\ again\\ later\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Oxytocin\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Oxytocin\\ is\\ a\\ peptide\\ hormone\\ formed\\ in\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\.\\ \\ The\\ word\\ \\\"Oxytocin\\\"\\ combines\\ the\\ Greek\\ words\\ for\\ \\\"quick\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"birth\\.\\\"\\ \\ In\\ 1909\\,\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ pituitary\\ gland\\ extract\\ could\\ induce\\ labor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ an\\ oxytocin\\ agonist\\,\\ called\\ pitocin\\,\\ is\\ widely\\ used\\ to\\ induce\\ labor\\,\\ while\\ an\\ oxytocin\\ antagonist\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ prevent\\ premature\\ labor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Vasopressin\\,\\ Another\\ Peptide\\ Hormone\\ from\\ the\\ Pituitary\\ Gland\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Vasopressin\\ is\\ very\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ oxytocin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ used\\ to\\ raise\\ patients\\'\\ blood\\ pressure\\.\\ \\ It\\ also\\ moderates\\ urinary\\ flow\\,\\ and\\ vasopressin\\ agonists\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ prevent\\ bedwetting\\.\\ \\ Did\\ you\\ know\\:\\ \\ famous\\ Brazilian\\ soccer\\ striker\\ admitted\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ Brazilian\\ talk\\ show\\,\\ with\\ his\\ supermodel\\ girlfriend\\ at\\ his\\ side\\,\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ bed\\-wetting\\?\\ \\ Famous\\ athletes\\ can\\ get\\ away\\ with\\ anything\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ also\\ commonly\\ said\\ that\\ 3\\ persistent\\ trends\\ in\\ the\\ childhoods\\ of\\ serial\\ killers\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ a\\ fascination\\ with\\ fire\\ and\\ a\\ predilection\\ for\\ killing\\ small\\ animals\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ bed\\-wetting\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Oxytocin\\,\\ and\\ Vasopressin\\,\\ Considered\\ Together\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ oxytocin\\ and\\ vasopressin\\ are\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ class\\ of\\ molecules\\ known\\ as\\ peptides\\.\\ \\ They\\ are\\ like\\ smaller\\ relatives\\ of\\ macromolecular\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ Both\\ peptides\\ and\\ proteins\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ chains\\ of\\ \\&\\#945\\;\\(for\\ alpha\\)\\-amino\\ acids\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ can\\ refer\\ to\\ oxytocin\\ as\\ OT\\,\\ and\\ \\\"Arg\\ vasopressin\\,\\\"\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ vasopressin\\,\\ as\\ VP\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Both\\ OT\\ and\\ VP\\ are\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ location\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ VP\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ antidiuretic\\ hormone\\.\\ \\ It\\ maintains\\ the\\ body\\'s\\ water\\ balance\\ by\\ stimulating\\ reabsorpotion\\ of\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ kidneys\\.\\ \\ A\\ disease\\ called\\ \\diabetes\\ insipidus\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ caused\\ by\\ damage\\ to\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ that\\ biosynthesizes\\ VP\\.\\ \\ People\\ with\\ this\\ disease\\ can\\ end\\ up\\ peeing\\ 6\\.6\\ gallons\\ per\\ day\\,\\ enough\\ to\\ fill\\ 13\\ 2\\-Liter\\ Coke\\ bottles\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\(Fill\\ this\\ up\\ with\\ pee\\,\\ and\\ that\\'d\\ be\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ pee\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Multiply\\ that\\ output\\ by\\ 13x\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ might\\ have\\ to\\ urinate\\ if\\ your\\ hypothalamus\\ failed\\ to\\ properly\\ synthesize\\ vasopressin\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ else\\ does\\ VP\\ do\\?\\ \\ Maintains\\ the\\ appropriate\\ level\\ of\\ sodium\\ in\\ your\\ blood\\,\\ and\\,\\ along\\ with\\ other\\ hormones\\,\\ controls\\ your\\ blood\\ pressure\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ OT\\.\\ \\ Oxytocin\\ not\\ only\\ induces\\ uterine\\ contractions\\ of\\ labor\\ for\\ pregnant\\ women\\ and\\ causes\\ milk\\ \\\"letdown\\\"\\ during\\ nursing\\.\\ \\ In\\ males\\,\\ well\\,\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ what\\ it\\ does\\ in\\ males\\.\\ \\ But\\ males\\ do\\ produce\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\ They\\ even\\ release\\ it\\ in\\ \\\"pulsatile\\ fashion\\\"\\ during\\ orgasm\\,\\ says\\ our\\ professor\\.\\ Here\\'s\\ what\\ else\\ we\\ suspect\\ it\\'s\\ involved\\ in\\:\\ \\ penile\\ erection\\,\\ yawning\\,\\ memory\\ and\\ learning\\,\\ tolerance\\ and\\ dependence\\ mechanisms\\,\\ feeding\\,\\ grooming\\,\\ and\\ blood\\ regulation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"\\.\\.our\\ privisional\\ ideas\\ in\\ psychology\\ will\\ someday\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ organic\\ substructure\\.\\\"\\ \\ \\-\\ Sigmund\\ Freud\\,\\ 1914\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Studies\\ show\\ that\\ OT\\ induces\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ trusting\\ of\\ others\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ on\\ the\\ vasopressin\\ front\\,\\ studies\\ of\\ voles\\ \\(they\\ look\\ like\\ combinations\\ of\\ moles\\ and\\ hamsters\\.\\ \\ I\\'ve\\ never\\ heard\\ of\\ a\\ vole\\ before\\)\\ found\\ that\\ a\\ single\\ gene\\ controls\\ the\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ monogamous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\ Main\\ Points\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ Peptides\\ are\\ formed\\ by\\ linking\\ amino\\ acids\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ important\\,\\ \\ and\\ information\\-rich\\ molecular\\ messengers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ Oxytocin\\ \\(OT\\)\\ and\\ vasopressin\\ \\(VP\\)\\,\\ peptide\\ hormones\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ pituitary\\ gland\\,\\ control\\ many\\ physiological\\ processes\\ and\\ behaviors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ We\\'re\\ starting\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ OT\\ and\\ VP\\ largely\\ control\\ behavior\\ in\\ mammals\\.\\ \\ Also\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ mammals\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\And\\,\\ the\\ reading\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"A\\ Potent\\ Peptide\\ Prompts\\ an\\ Urge\\ to\\ Cuddle\\\"\\ \\-\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ 01\\/22\\/1991\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Again\\,\\ I\\'ll\\ suck\\ you\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ article\\'s\\ excellent\\ introduction\\.\\ \\ Then\\ read\\ the\\ rest\\ at\\ this\\ link\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/query\\.nytimes\\.com\\/gst\\/fullpage\\.html\\?res\\=9D0CE4DC113EF931A15752C0A967958260\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\IT\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ potion\\ for\\ a\\ bellicose\\ world\\.\\ In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ it\\ works\\ as\\ an\\ aphrodisiac\\,\\ inspiring\\ males\\ to\\ seek\\ females\\ more\\ ardently\\ and\\ females\\ to\\ invite\\ their\\ overtures\\ more\\ passionately\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ hormone\\,\\ which\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ humans\\ and\\ other\\ mammals\\,\\ helps\\ stimulate\\ the\\ sensations\\ of\\ sexual\\ arousal\\ and\\ climax\\.\\ And\\ after\\ copulation\\,\\ it\\ acts\\ as\\ the\\ proverbial\\ cigarette\\,\\ fostering\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ relaxed\\ satisfaction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ makes\\ new\\ mothers\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ nurture\\ their\\ young\\ and\\ new\\ fathers\\ happier\\ to\\ help\\ out\\ around\\ the\\ nest\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Even\\ among\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ neither\\ sex\\ partners\\ nor\\ parents\\,\\ the\\ compound\\ can\\ spur\\ an\\ overwhelming\\ urge\\ to\\ cuddle\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ hormone\\ is\\ oxytocin\\,\\ a\\ small\\,\\ potent\\ peptide\\ secreted\\ by\\ the\\ almond\\-sized\\ pituitary\\ gland\\ at\\ the\\ base\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Goodnight\\ folks\\,\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Ninth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.695377+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tenth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 456, "html": "\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ continued\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ hormone\\ signaling\\.\\ \\ We\\ looked\\ at\\ a\\ new\\ class\\ of\\ signaling\\ agents\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ members\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ class\\ of\\ signaling\\ agents\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ are\\ adrenaline\\ and\\ noradrenaline\\.\\ \\ Because\\ a\\ US\\ pharmaceutical\\ company\\ trademarked\\ the\\ name\\ \\\"adrenaline\\,\\\"\\ we\\ call\\ these\\ epinephrine\\ and\\ norepinephrine\\,\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ scientific\\ circles\\.\\\r\\Epinephrine\\ and\\ norepinephrine\\ are\\ smaller\\ and\\ much\\ less\\ hydrophobic\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ molecules\\ we\\'ve\\ discussed\\ so\\ far\\.\\ \\ They\\ have\\ a\\ completely\\ different\\ receptor\\ located\\ on\\ a\\ cell\\'s\\ surface\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Epinephrine\\ and\\ norepinephrine\\'s\\ receptors\\ are\\ called\\ \\\"G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\,\\\"\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ arguably\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ genes\\ in\\ our\\ genome\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Most\\ people\\ don\\'t\\ believe\\ Ice\\ Cube\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ naming\\ epinephrine\\ and\\ norepinephrine\\ \\\"G\\\"\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ laboratories\\,\\ scientists\\ can\\ easily\\ manipulate\\ the\\ basic\\ structure\\ of\\ adrenaline\\ and\\ noradrenaline\\,\\ and\\ the\\ results\\ produce\\ both\\ medical\\ and\\ recreational\\ drugs\\ galore\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Stress\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Adrenaline\\ plays\\ a\\ big\\ role\\ in\\ short\\-term\\ stress\\.\\ \\ The\\ adrenal\\ gland\\ synthesizes\\ adrenaline\\,\\ then\\ circulates\\ it\\ throughout\\ the\\ body\\ to\\ mediate\\ stress\\ responses\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ stimulate\\ heart\\ action\\ during\\ heart\\ attacks\\ or\\ drug\\ overdoses\\,\\ as\\ this\\ epic\\ scene\\ from\\ \\\"Pulp\\ Fiction\\\"\\ illustrates\\ \\[Warning\\:\\ \\ Explicit\\ Language\\]\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=cfN8OrCPZvg\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Adrenaline\\ prepares\\ the\\ body\\ for\\ \\\"fight\\ or\\ flight\\\"\\ situations\\,\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ time\\ for\\ a\\ careful\\ progression\\ of\\ chemical\\ messengers\\ relaying\\ a\\ signal\\ in\\ a\\ highly\\ controlled\\ fashion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Andrenaline\\,\\ noradrenaline\\,\\ and\\ even\\ dopamine\\,\\ are\\ called\\ Catecholamines\\.\\ \\ Catecholamines\\ are\\ synthesized\\ in\\ two\\ places\\:\\ \\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ adrenal\\ gland\\ \\(adrenal\\ medulla\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\ \\ Unlike\\ the\\ hypothalamus\\ or\\ the\\ thyroid\\ or\\ the\\ gonads\\,\\ which\\ we\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\,\\ the\\ adrenal\\ gland\\ is\\ directly\\ stimulated\\ by\\ a\\ nerve\\ cell\\.\\ \\ This\\ seems\\ like\\ random\\ information\\,\\ but\\ we\\'ll\\ focus\\ on\\ this\\ topic\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ ying\\ to\\ adrenaline\\'s\\ yang\\:\\ \\ Adrenergic\\ receptors\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Adrenaline\\ binds\\ to\\ adrenaline\\ receptors\\,\\ which\\ we\\ call\\ adrenergic\\ receptors\\.\\ \\ They\\ fit\\ together\\,\\ and\\ so\\ does\\ the\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Adrenaline\\ doesn\\'t\\ enter\\ a\\ cell\\.\\ \\ It\\ stimulates\\ the\\ receptor\\ on\\ the\\ cell\\'s\\ surface\\,\\ and\\ the\\ receptor\\ amplifies\\ the\\ message\\ throughout\\ the\\ interior\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ nuclear\\ hormone\\ receptors\\ \\-\\ the\\ receptors\\ for\\ steroid\\ and\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\.\\ \\ We\\ know\\ their\\ structures\\ in\\ atomic\\ detail\\.\\ \\ But\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ much\\ about\\ adrenaline\\ receptors\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ scary\\,\\ because\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ marketed\\ drugs\\ that\\ we\\ take\\ are\\ designed\\ to\\ target\\ adrenaline\\ receptors\\ and\\ receptors\\ like\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Fight\\ or\\ Flight\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(If\\ Mike\\ Tyson\\ comes\\ at\\ you\\,\\ do\\ you\\ \\\"fight\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"flight\\\"\\?\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ perform\\ the\\ entire\\ \\\"fight\\ or\\ flight\\\"\\ response\\,\\ adrenaline\\ has\\ to\\ send\\ different\\ messages\\ to\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ cells\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ to\\ constrict\\ some\\ arteries\\,\\ but\\ open\\ up\\ others\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Adrenaline\\ can\\ send\\ different\\ messages\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ 2\\ types\\ of\\ receptors\\.\\ \\ There\\'s\\ an\\ \\a\\(\\<\\/font\\>alpha\\)\\\\-\\<\\/font\\>type\\ and\\ a\\ \\b\\(\\<\\/font\\>beta\\)\\\\-\\<\\/font\\>type\\.\\ \\ The\\ \\a\\<\\/font\\>\\\\-\\<\\/font\\>type\\ changes\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ ions\\ into\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ \\ The\\ \\b\\<\\/font\\>\\\\-\\<\\/font\\>type\\ causes\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ molecular\\ messenger\\ to\\ be\\ synthesized\\ inside\\ the\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Andrenergic\\ receptors\\ play\\ a\\ big\\ role\\ in\\ medicines\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ research\\ has\\ been\\ done\\ to\\ open\\ airway\\ passages\\ in\\ asthmatic\\ patients\\,\\ using\\ \\b\\<\\/font\\>\\\\-\\<\\/font\\>type\\ adrenaline\\ receptors\\,\\ but\\ care\\ must\\ be\\ taken\\ not\\ to\\ affect\\ \\b\\<\\/font\\>\\\\-\\<\\/font\\>type\\ adrenaline\\ receptors\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ heart\\.\\ \\ Until\\ we\\ better\\ know\\ the\\ atomic\\ layout\\ of\\ these\\ adrenaline\\ receptors\\,\\ we\\ won\\'t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ craft\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ specific\\ drugs\\ other\\ than\\ through\\ trial\\-and\\-error\\ synthesis\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Multiplexing\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ a\\ term\\ that\\ describes\\ how\\ multiple\\ receptor\\ types\\ for\\ a\\ molecular\\ signal\\ allow\\ different\\ cells\\ to\\ have\\ different\\ responses\\.\\ \\ Because\\ of\\ multiplexing\\,\\ adrenaline\\ can\\ cause\\ that\\ one\\ set\\ of\\ arteries\\ to\\ contract\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ set\\ to\\ dialate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Catecholamines\\:\\ \\ Versatile\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Catecholamines\\ \\(which\\ include\\ adrenaline\\,\\ noradrenaline\\,\\ and\\ dopamine\\,\\ to\\ remind\\ you\\)\\ are\\ both\\ hormones\\ and\\ neurotransmitters\\.\\ \\ Adrenaline\\ is\\ the\\ principal\\ hormone\\ that\\ the\\ adrenal\\ gland\\ secretes\\.\\ \\ Noradrenaline\\ is\\ the\\ principal\\ neurotransmitter\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Whether\\ a\\ cathecholamine\\ performs\\ as\\ a\\ hormone\\ or\\ a\\ neurotransmitter\\,\\ it\\'s\\ doing\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ in\\ both\\ cases\\:\\ \\ it\\'s\\ carrying\\ a\\ message\\ from\\ one\\ cell\\ to\\ another\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Interestingly\\,\\ Clardy\\ tells\\ us\\,\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ a\\ hormone\\ and\\ a\\ neurotransmitter\\ says\\ more\\ about\\ how\\ science\\ is\\ divided\\ than\\ about\\ how\\ nature\\ actually\\ uses\\ the\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Neurotransmitters\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ message\\ carried\\ by\\ a\\ hormone\\ and\\ a\\ message\\ carried\\ by\\ a\\ neurotransmitter\\ involves\\ the\\ same\\ steps\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ produced\\ \\(biosynthesized\\)\\,\\ which\\ requires\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ biologically\\ catalyzed\\ steps\\ under\\ regulator\\ control\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ to\\ travel\\ from\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ origin\\ to\\ a\\ site\\ of\\ action\\.\\ \\ For\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ really\\ short\\ trip\\ between\\ adjacent\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ The\\ neurotransmitter\\ has\\ to\\ find\\ its\\ receptor\\,\\ then\\ successfully\\ interact\\ with\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ \\ There\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ message\\ when\\ it\\ no\\ longer\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ sent\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Hormones\\ get\\ degraded\\ when\\ they\\'re\\ no\\ longer\\ needed\\.\\ \\ Neurotransmitters\\ get\\ recycled\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Hormone\\/Neurotransmitter\\ Receptors\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ many\\ types\\ of\\ each\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ we\\ name\\ the\\ different\\ dopamine\\ receptors\\ dopaminergic\\ receptors\\,\\ and\\ abbreviate\\ them\\ as\\ D1\\,\\ D2\\,\\ D3\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Dopamine\\ actually\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\.\\ \\ High\\ amounts\\ of\\ dopamine\\ cause\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ amphetomines\\ exacerbate\\ its\\ symptoms\\ because\\ they\\ increase\\ dopamine\\ production\\,\\ and\\ drugs\\ that\\ give\\ relef\\ to\\ schizophrenic\\ symptoms\\ block\\ dopaminergic\\ receptors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ following\\ link\\ is\\ a\\ 5\\-minute\\ a\\ 1st\\-person\\ account\\ of\\ what\\ it\\'s\\ like\\ to\\ live\\ with\\ schizophrenia\\.\\ \\ Fascinating\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=H\\_jYqSA\\_fJk\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Amphetamines\\ and\\ psychostimulants\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Amphetamines\\ are\\ commonly\\ used\\ among\\ Major\\ League\\ Baseball\\ players\\ looking\\ for\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ stay\\ sharp\\ throughout\\ their\\ 162\\-game\\ seasons\\.\\ \\ They\\'ve\\ been\\ used\\ since\\ at\\ least\\ as\\ far\\ back\\ as\\ Willie\\ Mays\\'\\ era\\ during\\ the\\ \\'50s\\.\\ \\ \\ Chinese\\ texts\\ describe\\ using\\ these\\ stimulants\\ as\\ far\\ back\\ as\\ 5\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ \\ Recently\\,\\ the\\ FDA\\ banned\\ ephedra\\,\\ an\\ amphetamine\\,\\ after\\ it\\ was\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ a\\ Baltimore\\ Orioles\\ pitcher\\ in\\ 2003\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Scariest\\ and\\ Easiest\\ to\\ Forget\\ Science\\ Term\\ in\\ the\\ Class\\ So\\ Far\\?\\ \\ Diasterioismers\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Earlier\\ lectures\\ distinguished\\ between\\ isomers\\ \\-\\ molecules\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ molecular\\ formula\\ but\\ different\\ connectivity\\ \\-\\ and\\ enantiomers\\ \\-\\ molecules\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ connectivity\\,\\ but\\ different\\ 3\\-D\\ shape\\.\\ \\ This\\ often\\ meant\\ a\\ hydrogen\\ molecule\\ would\\ stick\\ out\\ in\\ one\\ molecule\\ while\\ it\\ receded\\ into\\ the\\ molecule\\ in\\ the\\ other\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\ we\\ have\\ diasterioisomers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sterioisomers\\ come\\ in\\ 2\\ types\\:\\ \\ enantiomers\\,\\ and\\ diasterioisomers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Two\\ sterioisomers\\ that\\ are\\ related\\ as\\ mirror\\ images\\ are\\ enantiomers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sterioisomers\\ that\\ \\aren\\'t\\<\\/em\\>\\ enantiomers\\,\\ though\\,\\ are\\ diastereoisomers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Drugs\\.\\ \\ Like\\,\\ drugs\\,\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Synthesizing\\ various\\ molecules\\ can\\ produce\\ mind\\-altering\\ drugs\\ like\\ Crystal\\ Meth\\ and\\ ecstasy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reading\\:\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"A\\ Tale\\ of\\ Two\\ Drugs\\ Hints\\ at\\ Promise\\ for\\ Genetic\\ Testing\\,\\\"\\ \\New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\ 07\\/11\\/06\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/query\\.nytimes\\.com\\/gst\\/fullpage\\.html\\?res\\=9C02E2DE1130F932A25754C0A9609C8B63\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Summary\\:\\ \\ 10\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ genetics\\ was\\ underway\\.\\ \\ Scientists\\ predicted\\ gene\\ tests\\ would\\ become\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ prescribing\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ Patients\\ would\\ know\\ before\\ they\\ took\\ a\\ drug\\,\\ based\\ on\\ genetic\\ tests\\,\\ if\\ a\\ drug\\ would\\ work\\ for\\ them\\ or\\ not\\ and\\ what\\ the\\ side\\ effects\\,\\ if\\ any\\,\\ would\\ be\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ today\\,\\ this\\ still\\ hasn\\'t\\ really\\ occured\\.\\ \\ The\\ story\\ of\\ 2\\ drugs\\ tells\\ you\\ why\\ we\\ haven\\'t\\ reached\\ this\\ level\\ of\\ drug\\ prescribing\\ yet\\,\\ but\\ also\\ why\\ we\\ should\\ still\\ keep\\ trying\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ of\\ the\\ drugs\\ is\\ Bucindolol\\.\\ \\ It\\ reduces\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ heart\\ patients\\'\\ oversized\\ hearts\\,\\ but\\ it\\ only\\ works\\ on\\ some\\ people\\.\\ \\ Doctors\\ found\\ that\\ patients\\'\\ DNA\\ tests\\ revealed\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ bucindolol\\ would\\ work\\ or\\ not\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ other\\ drug\\ is\\ tamoxifen\\.\\ \\ It\\ starves\\ breast\\ cancer\\ tumors\\ of\\ the\\ estrogen\\ those\\ tumors\\ need\\ to\\ grow\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ kill\\.\\ \\ But\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ work\\ on\\ everyone\\.\\ \\ Unfortunately\\,\\ patients\\ for\\ this\\ drug\\ haven\\'t\\ had\\ their\\ DNA\\ tested\\,\\ so\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ know\\ who\\ tamoxifen\\ will\\ work\\ for\\,\\ and\\ who\\ it\\ won\\'t\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ entire\\ situation\\ underscores\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ doing\\ DNA\\ tests\\ on\\ people\\ and\\ eventually\\ using\\ them\\ to\\ see\\ which\\ drugs\\ will\\ work\\ best\\ for\\ certain\\ people\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Ecstasy\\,\\ The\\ New\\ Prescription\\ Drug\\,\\\"\\ Slate\\ Magazine\\,\\ 01\\/23\\/07\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.slate\\.com\\/id\\/2158144\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Summary\\:\\ \\ \\ The\\ article\\ looks\\ at\\ ecstasy\\ and\\ its\\ potential\\ medical\\ use\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Ecstasy\\ enthusiasts\\ say\\ the\\ drug\\ makes\\ them\\ feel\\ relaxed\\,\\ energetic\\,\\ and\\ mentally\\ clear\\.\\ \\ One\\ compared\\ it\\ to\\ a\\ 6\\-hour\\ orgasm\\.\\ \\ Others\\ died\\ from\\ dancing\\ for\\ hours\\ and\\ overheating\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ US\\ government\\ classifies\\ ecstasy\\ as\\ illegal\\ and\\ having\\ no\\ medical\\ use\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ avant\\-garde\\ psychiatrists\\ have\\ long\\ argued\\ that\\ moderate\\ and\\ low\\-dosage\\ use\\ of\\ ecstasy\\ can\\ reduce\\ fear\\ without\\ sedating\\ a\\ person\\,\\ allowing\\ a\\ person\\ to\\ relax\\,\\ open\\ up\\,\\ freely\\ remember\\ and\\ discuss\\ difficult\\ events\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ gain\\ emotional\\ insight\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ quote\\ the\\ article\\:\\ \\ \\\"\\'There\\ is\\ nothing\\ else\\ like\\ this\\ in\\ psychiatry\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ fast\\-acting\\ anti\\-anxiety\\ medication\\ that\\ makes\\ people\\ alert\\ and\\ talkative\\,\\'\\ says\\ \\Julie\\ Holland\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ a\\ psychiatrist\\ at\\ NYU\\ Medical\\ Center\\.\\ If\\ available\\ to\\ treat\\ patients\\,\\ \\'It\\ would\\ be\\ incredibly\\ useful\\.\\'\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ quote\\:\\ \\ \\\"Stories\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\'s\\ power\\ to\\ combat\\ the\\ psychological\\ effects\\ of\\ terminal\\ illness\\ have\\ continued\\ to\\ surface\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ how\\ ecstasy\\ works\\:\\ \\ it\\ prompts\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ release\\ a\\ flood\\ of\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ including\\ serotonin\\,\\ which\\ induces\\ physical\\ pleasure\\ and\\ euphoria\\.\\ \\ Sweet\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Use\\ the\\ drug\\ too\\ much\\,\\ though\\,\\ and\\ the\\ nerve\\ endings\\ that\\ release\\ serotonin\\ degenerate\\.\\ \\ Suddenly\\ your\\ brain\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ anymore\\,\\ and\\ long\\-term\\ ecstasy\\ users\\ report\\ problems\\ with\\ anxiety\\,\\ depression\\,\\ and\\ sleep\\ disturbances\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\ said\\,\\ some\\ psychiatrists\\ are\\ still\\ hoping\\ for\\ something\\ of\\ a\\ minor\\ small\\ psychedelic\\ renaissance\\ in\\ therapy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ it\\ for\\ now\\.\\ \\ Have\\ a\\ great\\ weekend\\,\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tenth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.710948+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Eleventh Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 457, "html": "\\\\\\Serotonin\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(Actually\\.\\ \\ The\\ title\\ is\\ \\\"Serotonin\\ and\\ SSRIs\\,\\\"\\ but\\ SSRIs\\ make\\ the\\ Title\\ of\\ the\\ Lecture\\ sounds\\ worse\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\ there\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\after\\ a\\ tremendous\\ run\\-through\\ with\\ my\\ section\\ TF\\ today\\,\\ I\\'m\\ feeling\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ comfortable\\ with\\ all\\ this\\ material\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ it\\'ll\\ rub\\ off\\ in\\ my\\ run\\-through\\ of\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ about\\ serotonin\\.\\ \\ Serotonin\\:\\ \\ ahhhhhhhhhhhh\\.\\.\\.I\\ can\\ just\\ feel\\ myself\\ relaxing\\ and\\ the\\ pleasureful\\ sensations\\ moving\\ through\\ my\\ body\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(Chocolate\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ contain\\ a\\ chemical\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ uses\\ to\\ make\\ serotonin\\.\\ \\ Not\\ only\\ might\\ it\\ make\\ you\\ feel\\ a\\ little\\ happier\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ gives\\ you\\ beautiful\\ skin\\,\\ a\\ model\\'s\\ looks\\,\\ and\\ intimate\\ moments\\ like\\ this\\ with\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ equally\\ as\\ attractive\\.\\ \\ This\\ image\\ is\\ hilarious\\.\\ \\ Why\\ would\\ two\\ people\\ eating\\ cake\\ ever\\ get\\ this\\ close\\ to\\ each\\ other\\,\\ touch\\ foreheads\\,\\ and\\ stare\\ in\\ each\\ other\\'s\\ eyes\\ like\\ this\\?\\ \\ Silly\\ marketing\\.\\.\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Enough\\ of\\ my\\ time\\ wasting\\.\\ \\ Last\\ lecture\\ introduced\\ neurotransmitters\\:\\ \\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ carry\\ information\\ between\\ nerve\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Concerning\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ it\\'s\\ been\\ written\\ that\\ no\\ advances\\ in\\ brain\\ research\\ during\\ the\\ past\\ 50\\ years\\ have\\ had\\ a\\ greater\\ impact\\ on\\ our\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ brain\\ than\\ the\\ discovery\\ that\\ the\\ nerves\\ secrete\\ neurotransmitters\\ when\\ communicating\\ with\\ other\\ nerves\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ week\\ we\\ focused\\ on\\ dopamine\\,\\ a\\ catecholamine\\.\\ \\ Today\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ serotonin\\:\\ \\ how\\ this\\ small\\ molecule\\ gets\\ used\\,\\ and\\ how\\ genetic\\ studies\\ can\\ discover\\ treatments\\ for\\ serotonin\\-related\\ maladies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Serotinin\\ Biosynthesis\\:\\ \\ Similar\\ to\\ Catecholamine\\ Synthesis\\.\\ \\ Interesting\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ week\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ how\\ adrenaline\\ gets\\ formed\\.\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ review\\ that\\ process\\.\\ \\ Dopamine\\ signaling\\ molecules\\ \\(there\\ are\\ many\\)\\ are\\ synthesized\\ from\\ a\\ specific\\ amino\\ acid\\.\\ \\ Let\\'s\\ step\\ back\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ that\\ amino\\ acid\\ comes\\ about\\.\\ \\ L\\-phenylalanine\\ is\\ oxidized\\ to\\ L\\-tyrosine\\,\\ then\\ oxidized\\ again\\ to\\ L\\-dihydroxyphenylalanine\\.\\ \\ Dopamine\\ is\\ oxidized\\ at\\ the\\ b\\-carbon\\ atom\\ to\\ produce\\ noradrenaline\\,\\ which\\ is\\ methylated\\ on\\ the\\ amine\\ nitrogen\\ to\\ give\\ adrenaline\\.\\ \\ So\\ in\\ sum\\,\\ the\\ overall\\ process\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ common\\ amino\\ acid\\,\\ then\\ converts\\ it\\ into\\ neurotransmitters\\ through\\ oxidation\\,\\ decarboxylation\\,\\ and\\ methylation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ fact\\ that\\ I\\ would\\ ever\\ write\\ or\\ partly\\ understand\\ that\\ paragraph\\ would\\ have\\ shocked\\ my\\ mind\\ before\\ this\\ semester\\ began\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ pathway\\ by\\ which\\ serotonin\\ gets\\ biosynthesized\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ oxidation\\ and\\ decarboxylation\\ of\\ a\\ common\\ amino\\ acid\\:\\ \\ tryptophan\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Tryptophan\\ is\\ the\\ rarest\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\ standard\\ amino\\ acids\\,\\ and\\ your\\ body\\'s\\ rate\\ of\\ serotonin\\ biosynthesis\\ depends\\ on\\ tryptophan\\ levels\\ in\\ your\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Thanksgiving\\ is\\ coming\\ up\\,\\ and\\ turkey\\ is\\ rich\\ in\\ tryptophan\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ thought\\ that\\ eating\\ a\\ huge\\ turkey\\ dinner\\ on\\ this\\ holiday\\ causes\\ your\\ serotonin\\ levels\\ to\\ increase\\,\\ giving\\ you\\ that\\ common\\ sleep\\ feeling\\ afterwards\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ possible\\ other\\ causes\\,\\ though\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(Mmmmmm\\.\\.\\.Turkey\\.\\.\\.\\.rich\\ in\\ tryptophan\\.\\.\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ unfortunate\\ that\\ scientists\\ make\\ life\\ harder\\ by\\ renaming\\ common\\ names\\ into\\ harder\\-to\\-remember\\ ones\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ they\\ refer\\ to\\ serotonin\\ by\\ its\\ chemical\\ name\\,\\ 5\\-hydroxytryptamine\\.\\ \\ I\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ pronounce\\ it\\ either\\.\\ \\ But\\ fortunately\\ they\\ shorten\\ that\\ to\\ \\\"5HT\\\"\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Serotonin\\:\\ \\ Lots\\ of\\ Friends\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Serotonin\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ many\\ different\\ receptors\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\ \\ \\ Each\\ of\\ the\\ receptors\\,\\ when\\ bound\\ to\\ serotonin\\,\\ causes\\ a\\ different\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\'s\\ behavior\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ 5HT\\-1A\\ lowers\\ anxiety\\,\\ while\\ 5HT\\-2A\\ induces\\ hallucinations\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\More\\ Differences\\ Between\\ 2\\ Serotonin\\ Receptors\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\5HT\\-1A\\ receptors\\ bind\\ to\\ serotonin\\ 1\\,000\\ times\\ more\\ strongly\\ than\\ do\\ 5HT\\-2A\\ receptors\\.\\ \\ When\\ you\\ have\\ low\\ levels\\ of\\ serotonin\\,\\ the\\ 5HT\\-1A\\ receptors\\ hog\\ all\\ the\\ serotonin\\.\\ \\ They\\ drive\\ the\\ message\\ that\\ gets\\ sent\\ to\\ cells\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ when\\ serotonin\\ levels\\ rise\\ enough\\,\\ 5HT\\-2A\\ gets\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ act\\ and\\ starts\\ binding\\ to\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ serotonin\\,\\ adding\\ a\\ new\\ flavor\\ to\\ the\\ message\\ that\\ gets\\ sent\\ to\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Serotonin\\ Receptors\\,\\ and\\ Drugs\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\5HT\\-1A\\ agonists\\ are\\ used\\ as\\ anti\\-anxiety\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\5HT\\-2A\\ agonists\\ are\\ hallucinogenic\\ \\(LCD\\)\\.\\ \\ LSD\\ is\\ a\\ derivative\\ of\\ lysergic\\ acid\\,\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ come\\ from\\ both\\ fungal\\ infections\\,\\ and\\ rye\\.\\ \\ One\\ explanation\\ behind\\ the\\ disturbing\\ Salem\\ Witchcraft\\ trial\\ in\\ 1692\\ is\\ that\\ consumption\\ of\\ LSD\\-like\\ substances\\,\\ present\\ in\\ some\\ moldy\\ grain\\,\\ could\\ have\\ provoked\\ the\\ young\\ ladies\\'\\ bizarre\\ behavior\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\(They\\ didn\\'t\\ realize\\ the\\ serotonin\\ receptor\\ 5HT\\-2A\\ might\\ be\\ to\\ blame\\.\\.\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Bathing\\ the\\ Brain\\ in\\ Serotonin\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\5HT\\ neurons\\ exist\\ throughout\\ your\\ brain\\,\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ huge\\ numbers\\ of\\ extensions\\.\\ \\ Because\\ of\\ this\\,\\ while\\ there\\ are\\ only\\ 1\\ million\\ 5HT\\ neurons\\ in\\ your\\ brain\\,\\ their\\ extensions\\ let\\ them\\ access\\ almost\\ every\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 100\\ billion\\ total\\ neurons\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ \\ When\\ you\\'re\\ active\\,\\ these\\ 5HT\\ neurons\\ and\\ their\\ extensions\\ allow\\ your\\ brain\\ to\\ be\\ bathing\\ in\\ serotonin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\What\\ Low\\ Serotonin\\ Levels\\ Are\\ Linked\\ With\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\schizophrenia\\,\\ autism\\,\\ anorexia\\ nervosa\\,\\ bulimia\\,\\ obsessive\\-compulsive\\ disorder\\,\\ and\\ migraines\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ drugs\\ you\\ know\\ of\\ directly\\ affect\\ serotonin\\.\\ \\ Prozac\\,\\ Paxil\\,\\ and\\ Zoloft\\,\\ all\\ used\\ for\\ treating\\ depression\\,\\ are\\ serotonin\\ re\\-uptake\\ inhibitors\\ \\(SSRI\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\SSRI\\'s\\:\\ \\ The\\ Less\\ Sexy\\-Sounding\\ Half\\ of\\ This\\ Lecture\\'s\\ Title\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\SSRI\\'s\\ are\\ serotonin\\ reuptake\\ inhibitors\\.\\ \\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ they\\ inhibit\\ the\\ biological\\ process\\ that\\ removes\\ serotonin\\ \\(and\\ other\\ neurotrasmittesr\\)\\ from\\ the\\ chemical\\ synapse\\.\\ \\ The\\ chemical\\ synapse\\ is\\ the\\ space\\ between\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\ through\\ which\\ cells\\ communicate\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ earliest\\ anti\\-depression\\ drugs\\ were\\ effective\\,\\ but\\ crude\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ they\\ not\\ only\\ prevented\\ the\\ reuptake\\ of\\ serotonin\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ reuptake\\ of\\ other\\ neurotransmitters\\.\\ \\ That\\ meant\\ they\\ had\\ heavy\\ side\\ effects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Selective\\ serotonin\\ reuptake\\ inhibitors\\ \\(SSRI\\'s\\)\\,\\ though\\,\\ focus\\ just\\ on\\ serotonin\\.\\ \\ Side\\ effects\\ are\\ very\\ few\\,\\ but\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ them\\ being\\ widely\\ prescribed\\,\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ people\\ aren\\'t\\ so\\ sure\\ that\\ antidepressents\\ aren\\'t\\ being\\ given\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ aren\\'t\\ actually\\ mentally\\ ill\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Jetlag\\ Cure\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ melatonin\\,\\ or\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ influence\\ melatonin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Melatonin\\ is\\ a\\ human\\ hormone\\ that\\ regulates\\ your\\ circadian\\ rhythm\\ \\-\\ the\\ 24\\-hour\\ sleep\\/wake\\ cycle\\ that\\ governs\\ your\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Melatonin\\ synthesis\\ is\\ inhibited\\ by\\ light\\.\\ \\ During\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ night\\,\\ its\\ levels\\ are\\ at\\ their\\ peak\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ at\\ their\\ lowest\\ point\\,\\ though\\,\\ during\\ the\\ day\\.\\ \\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ many\\ people\\ find\\ success\\ in\\ fighting\\ jet\\ lag\\ by\\ taking\\ a\\ walk\\ in\\ bright\\ sunlight\\ and\\ thus\\ keeping\\ melatonin\\ levels\\ low\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Melatonin\\ also\\ induces\\ and\\ maintains\\ sleep\\.\\ \\ \\ Thing\\ is\\,\\ though\\,\\ its\\ half\\-life\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ only\\ 40\\ minutes\\.\\ \\ So\\,\\ it\\'ll\\ put\\ you\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ but\\ it\\ won\\'t\\ keep\\ you\\ to\\ sleep\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ \\Ramelteon\\<\\/a\\>\\ was\\ introduced\\ in\\ 2005\\.\\ \\ Ramelteon\\ is\\ a\\ melatonin\\ receptor\\ agonist\\,\\ and\\ it\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ melatonin\\ receptor\\ 3\\-6\\ times\\ tighter\\ than\\ melatonin\\ itself\\.\\ \\ Its\\ \\~3\\-hour\\ half\\-life\\ is\\ also\\ longer\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ probable\\ that\\ similar\\ yet\\ even\\ more\\ effective\\ melatonin\\ receptor\\ agonists\\ will\\ be\\ released\\ in\\ the\\ near\\ future\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Ambien\\ is\\ a\\ sleep\\ drug\\ you\\'ve\\ probably\\ heard\\ about\\.\\ \\ Its\\ active\\ ingredient\\ is\\ Zolpiden\\,\\ which\\ acts\\ on\\ an\\ entirely\\ different\\ set\\ of\\ receptors\\ \\-\\ called\\ the\\ GABA\\ receptors\\ \\-\\ than\\ does\\ melatonin\\ or\\ remelteon\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reading\\:\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ week\\ has\\ 2\\ articles\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"On\\ the\\ Horizon\\,\\ Personalized\\ Depression\\ Drugs\\\"\\ \\-\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ 6\\/19\\/07\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2007\\/06\\/19\\/health\\/psychology\\/19beha\\.html\\?\\_r\\=1\\&\\;oref\\=slogin\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Brief\\ Summary\\:\\ \\ \\ Right\\ now\\,\\ if\\ you\\'re\\ suffering\\ from\\ depression\\,\\ your\\ psychiatrist\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ test\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ drugs\\ \\(SSRIs\\)\\ on\\ you\\ before\\ the\\ best\\ one\\ is\\ found\\.\\ \\ You\\ might\\ be\\ suffering\\ from\\ low\\ serotonin\\ levels\\,\\ in\\ which\\ case\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ many\\ SSRI\\ drugs\\ would\\ be\\ for\\ you\\.\\ \\ Or\\,\\ you\\ might\\ have\\ an\\ abnormality\\ in\\ other\\ neurotransmitters\\ that\\ regulate\\ your\\ mood\\,\\ such\\ as\\ noradrenaline\\ or\\ dopamine\\.\\ \\ They\\ don\\'t\\ respond\\ to\\ SSRIs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Problem\\ is\\,\\ it\\ often\\ takes\\ about\\ a\\ month\\ before\\ a\\ drug\\'s\\ overall\\ effect\\ on\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ determined\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Genetic\\ testing\\ would\\ allow\\ doctors\\ to\\ determine\\ before\\ you\\ take\\ a\\ drug\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ best\\ for\\ you\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ important\\,\\ because\\ some\\ SSRIs\\ have\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ higher\\ correlation\\ with\\ suicide\\ attempts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Genetic\\ testing\\ would\\ also\\ take\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\ sales\\-aspect\\ of\\ drugs\\ out\\ of\\ healthcare\\.\\ \\ Excellent\\.\\ \\ Direct\\-to\\-consumer\\ advertising\\ will\\ become\\ irrelevant\\ because\\ drugs\\ won\\'t\\ be\\ interchangeable\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ They\\'ll\\ be\\ prescribed\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ individual\\'s\\ specific\\ biological\\ profile\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ doctors\\ won\\'t\\ have\\ any\\ reason\\ to\\ meet\\ with\\ drug\\ company\\ representatives\\,\\ because\\ the\\ reps\\ can\\'t\\ tell\\ a\\ doctor\\ what\\ his\\/her\\ patients\\'\\ genetic\\ map\\ calls\\ for\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Pas\\ de\\ Deux\\ of\\ Sexuality\\ Is\\ Written\\ in\\ the\\ Genes\\\"\\ \\-\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\,\\ 4\\/10\\/07\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nytimes\\.com\\/2007\\/04\\/10\\/health\\/10gene\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ optional\\,\\ exceptionally\\ well\\-written\\ reading\\ is\\ purported\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ summary\\ of\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ we\\'ve\\ covered\\ so\\ far\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ In\\ arguing\\ that\\ nearly\\ all\\ aspects\\ of\\ love\\,\\ dating\\ and\\ mating\\ are\\ predetermined\\ by\\ our\\ biological\\ makeup\\,\\ it\\ touches\\ very\\ briefly\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ topics\\ covered\\ in\\ this\\ class\\,\\ from\\ the\\ SRY\\ gene\\ that\\ determines\\ a\\ baby\\'s\\ sex\\ to\\ sex\\ hormones\\ to\\ vasopressin\\ causing\\ voles\\ to\\ be\\ especially\\ committed\\ and\\ monogamous\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Eleventh Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.725978+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Twelfth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 458, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\\\Marijuana\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\So\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ talked\\ about\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ and\\ we\\ continue\\ this\\ theme\\ of\\ small\\ molecule\\ messengers\\ \\(neurotransmitters\\)\\ today\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Previous\\ lectures\\ looked\\ at\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ messengers\\ that\\ were\\ biosynthesized\\ in\\ our\\ bodies\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Today\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ where\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ find\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecules\\ \\outside\\ \\<\\/em\\>our\\ body\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ weed\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Remember\\,\\ information\\ in\\ neurotransmitters\\ flows\\ from\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;presynaptic\\ cell\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;postsynaptic\\ cell\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Small\\ molecules\\ carry\\ information\\ across\\ the\\ synapse\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>between\\ these\\ cells\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>We\\ can\\ control\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ those\\ small\\ molecules\\ by\\ influencing\\ how\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ recycled\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ presynaptic\\ cell\\,\\ or\\ influencing\\ how\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ made\\ inactive\\.\\\\ \\ That\\<\\/span\\>\\ information\\ flow\\ is\\ what\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ focus\\ on\\ today\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Weed\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\Today\\,\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ marijuana\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ the\\ most\\ well\\ known\\ molecule\\ it\\ produces\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>tetrahydrocanabinol\\ \\(THC\\!\\)\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\,\\ however\\,\\ several\\ other\\ important\\ \\cannabinoids\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ which\\ you\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reefer\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Cannabis\\ first\\ existed\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Professor\\ Clardy\\ guesses\\ it\\ was\\ first\\ in\\ \\\\China\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ now\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ it\\ spread\\ like\\ that\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ are\\ prehistoric\\ references\\ to\\ marijuana\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Prehistoric\\ Chinese\\ \\(6000\\ BC\\)\\ culture\\ used\\ marijuana\\ to\\ make\\ fiber\\ for\\ ropes\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Clardy\\ proceeds\\ to\\ connect\\ that\\ fibrous\\ utility\\ to\\ the\\ current\\ TV\\ show\\,\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;Weeds\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ suburban\\ California\\ widow\\ who\\ sells\\ \\\"weed\\\"\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ living\\.\\ \\ He\\ claims\\ the\\ show\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ but\\ I\\ tend\\ to\\ disagree\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Check\\ out\\ this\\ clip\\ from\\ the\\ show\\,\\ featuring\\ an\\ in\\-depth\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ \\\\Iraq\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ war\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=ZsSoDSGl8v8\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(I\\ suspected\\ this\\ photo\\ was\\ intended\\ to\\ have\\ marijuana\\ plants\\ throughout\\ the\\ foreground\\,\\ but\\ authorities\\ stepped\\ in\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ good\\,\\ though\\,\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ still\\ get\\ drunk\\,\\ violent\\,\\ agressive\\,\\ and\\ potentially\\ OD\\ thanks\\ to\\ alcohol\\,\\ but\\ marijuana\\,\\ with\\ its\\ peaceful\\ and\\ medically\\ helpful\\ effects\\,\\ remains\\ strongly\\ prohibited\\.\\ \\ I\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>love\\ this\\ show\\.\\\\ \\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Back\\ to\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Marijuana\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ A\\ 3000\\ BC\\ ancient\\ Chinese\\ text\\ claims\\ that\\ marijuana\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ cure\\ the\\ following\\ ailments\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>constipation\\,\\ female\\ weakness\\,\\ gout\\,\\ rheumatism\\,\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;absent\\-mindedness\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Like\\ a\\ popular\\,\\ do\\-it\\-all\\,\\ infomercial\\ product\\,\\ Marijuana\\ quickly\\ spread\\ around\\ the\\ world\\,\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ easy\\ to\\ grow\\,\\ had\\ so\\ many\\ practical\\ uses\\,\\ and\\ it\\ sure\\ was\\ fun\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\From\\ the\\ mid\\-1800s\\ to\\ early\\ 1900s\\,\\ marijuana\\ was\\ an\\ oft\\-used\\ medical\\ drug\\ for\\ migraines\\,\\ ulcers\\,\\ and\\ other\\ illnesses\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\,\\ you\\ could\\ buy\\ it\\ pretty\\ much\\ anywhere\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(not\\ me\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ 1937\\,\\ though\\,\\ it\\ was\\ outlawed\\ after\\ a\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;Reefer\\ Madness\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ PR\\ campaign\\ started\\ by\\ politicians\\,\\ which\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ \\still\\ exists\\ today\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\,\\ the\\ DEA\\ considers\\ marijuana\\ the\\ \\#1\\ drug\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>30\\%\\ of\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ population\\ over\\ 30\\ has\\ tried\\ marijuana\\,\\ and\\ \\~5\\%\\ are\\ regular\\ users\\.\\ \\ Marijuana\\ has\\ gradually\\ grown\\ \\much\\ \\<\\/em\\>stronger\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ 70s\\,\\ the\\ THC\\ level\\ was\\ about\\ 2\\-3\\%\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Today\\,\\ it\\ often\\ reaches\\ 20\\%\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Mary\\ Jane\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\Despite\\ the\\ propaganda\\,\\ many\\ chemists\\ had\\ questions\\ they\\ needed\\ answers\\ to\\:\\ \\ what\\ is\\ it\\ in\\ marijuana\\ that\\ does\\ things\\ to\\ you\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ how\\ does\\ it\\ do\\ it\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>As\\ you\\ might\\ expect\\ from\\ my\\ introduction\\,\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ THC\\,\\ that\\ I\\ mentioned\\ earlier\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>how\\ does\\ it\\ get\\ done\\ what\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ get\\ done\\ in\\ your\\ body\\,\\ without\\ falling\\ prey\\ to\\ laziness\\ and\\ a\\ crazy\\ spell\\ of\\ the\\ munchees\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>THC\\'s\\ formula\\ is\\ C21H39O2\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ very\\ hydrophobic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Scientists\\ \\<\\/span\\>initially\\ wondered\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>does\\ it\\ have\\ its\\ own\\ receptor\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ find\\ out\\,\\ scientists\\ ground\\ up\\ a\\ human\\ brain\\ into\\ a\\ stew\\ containing\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ receptors\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Then\\ they\\ took\\ a\\ labeled\\ ligand\\ that\\ could\\ search\\ out\\ the\\ THC\\ receptor\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ stew\\,\\ and\\ after\\ 24\\ years\\ of\\ searching\\,\\ they\\ found\\ the\\ THC\\ receptor\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>CB1\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>CB1\\ is\\ a\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptor\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Our\\ brain\\ is\\ actually\\ loaded\\ with\\ cannabinoid\\ receptors\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ everywhere\\!\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Like\\ Dopamines\\ and\\ Serotonins\\ and\\ noradrenalines\\,\\ cannabinoids\\ are\\ a\\ major\\ neurotransmitter\\ line\\ traveling\\ through\\ the\\ brain\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\So\\ marijuana\\ has\\ had\\ 50\\ years\\ of\\ research\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>first\\ we\\ found\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ the\\ cannabinoid\\,\\ in\\ 1964\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ cannabinoid\\ led\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ receptor\\,\\ CB1\\,\\ discovered\\ around\\ 1990\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ receptor\\ led\\ us\\ to\\ developing\\ the\\ endogenous\\ ligand\\ named\\ anandamide\\.\\ \\ \\(For\\ more\\ on\\ this\\ discovery\\,\\ see\\ the\\ excerpt\\ from\\ the\\ article\\ on\\ Dr\\.\\ Raphael\\ Mechoulam\\'s\\ research\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ section\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Here\\ are\\ two\\ great\\ websites\\ that\\ discuss\\ what\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Brain\\'s\\ Endocannabinoid\\ system\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ A\\ \\Wikipedia\\ article\\ on\\ the\\ topic\\<\\/a\\>\\ that\\ is\\ concise\\ and\\ understandable\\.\\\r\\2\\)\\ A\\ \\more\\ official\\ website\\<\\/a\\>\\ run\\ by\\ scientists\\ around\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ explains\\ the\\ system\\ in\\ detail\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\\\\r\\Dope\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\The\\ first\\ cannabinoid\\-based\\ pharmaceutical\\ is\\ the\\ synthetic\\ version\\ of\\ THC\\,\\ developed\\ by\\ \\Solvay\\ Pharmaceuticals\\<\\/a\\>\\ called\\ Marinol\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Marinol\\ is\\ a\\ CB1\\ agonist\\ \\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ an\\ agonist\\ of\\ the\\ Cannabinoid\\ receptor\\ \\#1\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cancer\\ patients\\ benefit\\ from\\ Marinol\\ because\\ their\\ sickness\\ and\\ their\\ chemotherapy\\ destroy\\ their\\ appetite\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Marinol\\ gets\\ them\\ to\\ eat\\ \\-\\ just\\ like\\ weed\\ gives\\ a\\ person\\ the\\ munchies\\ \\-\\ without\\ the\\ \\\"pesky\\ high\\\"\\ associated\\ with\\ smoking\\.\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>AIDS\\ patients\\ benefit\\ from\\ this\\,\\ too\\.\\ \\ The\\ drug\\,\\ however\\,\\ does\\ have\\ a\\ few\\ problems\\.\\ \\ First\\,\\ it\\ only\\ isolates\\ THC\\,\\ neglecting\\ the\\ medicinal\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ endocannabiniods\\ found\\ in\\ Marijuana\\.\\ \\ And\\,\\ second\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ pill\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ ingested\\,\\ thus\\ requiring\\ up\\ to\\ an\\ hour\\ before\\ it\\ takes\\ effect\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ near\\ instantaneous\\ effect\\ that\\ results\\ from\\ inhalation\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\ So\\,\\ Marinol\\ encourages\\ you\\ to\\ eat\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ if\\ we\\ could\\ also\\ devise\\ a\\ drug\\ to\\ suppress\\ the\\ appetite\\?\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ what\\ \\Rimonabant\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ a\\ CB1\\ \\antagonist\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ does\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\People\\ are\\ really\\ psyched\\ about\\ Rimonabant\\,\\ because\\ many\\ overweight\\ individuals\\ want\\ to\\ lose\\ weight\\ so\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>badly\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Current\\ diet\\ drugs\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ very\\ good\\,\\ and\\ this\\ one\\ could\\ potentially\\ make\\ a\\ \\ton\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ money\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Scientists\\ think\\ it\\ could\\ also\\ help\\ people\\ stop\\ drinking\\ and\\ smoking\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Endocannabinoids\\ also\\ play\\ a\\ HUGE\\ role\\ in\\ memories\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ tell\\ neurons\\ in\\ your\\ brain\\ to\\ either\\ strengthen\\ or\\ weaken\\ connections\\,\\ which\\ determine\\ the\\ strength\\ and\\ presence\\ of\\ memories\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ they\\ somewhat\\ determine\\ how\\ you\\ learn\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\You\\ may\\ be\\ aware\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ smoke\\ marijuana\\ often\\ report\\ short\\-term\\ memory\\ loss\\ when\\ high\\.\\ \\ Well\\,\\ that\\ external\\ cannabinoid\\ influx\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ as\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ flooded\\ with\\ a\\ higher\\ concentration\\ of\\ cannabinoids\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ to\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Although\\ such\\ memory\\ loss\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ myth\\ that\\ weed\\ makes\\ you\\ stupid\\,\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ times\\ when\\ blocking\\ short\\ term\\ memory\\ formation\\ can\\ be\\ beneficial\\.\\ \\ For\\ instance\\,\\ in\\ the\\ event\\ of\\ physical\\ pain\\,\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ that\\ cannabinoids\\ play\\ an\\ essential\\ role\\ in\\ both\\ dulling\\ pain\\ and\\ causing\\ individuals\\ to\\ forget\\ the\\ trauma\\ which\\ might\\ otherwise\\ leave\\ psychological\\ scars\\ to\\ go\\ along\\ with\\ physical\\ ones\\.\\ \\ See\\ \\this\\ article\\ from\\ the\\ Society\\ of\\ Neuroscience\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ cannabinoids\\ and\\ pain\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ brain\\ even\\ produces\\ its\\ own\\ cannabinoid\\,\\ called\\ \\\"anandamide\\\"\\ \\-\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ Sanskrit\\ word\\ \\\"ananda\\,\\\"\\ which\\ means\\ \\\"eternal\\ bliss\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"supreme\\ joy\\.\\\"\\ \\ Anandamide\\ was\\ discovered\\ by\\ Raphael\\ Mechoulam\\,\\ Ph\\.D\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ University\\ in\\ Jerusalem\\ along\\ with\\ pharmacologist\\ Dr\\.\\ Habib\\ Edery\\ and\\ other\\ colleagues\\.\\ \\ Here\\ is\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ article\\ that\\ describes\\ their\\ discoveries\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ turns\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ actually\\ has\\ a\\ whole\\ family\\ of\\ cannabinoid\\ neurotransmitters\\ and\\ receptors\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ the\\ active\\ compound\\ in\\ opium\\ \\(morphine\\)\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ endorphin\\ \\(endogenous\\ morphine\\)\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ the\\ active\\ compound\\ in\\ cannabis\\ \\(THC\\)\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\'s\\ endocannabinoid\\ system\\.\\ Later\\ Dr\\.\\ Mechoulam\\ and\\ colleagues\\ identified\\ the\\ THC\\ metabolites\\ and\\,\\ more\\ recently\\,\\ along\\ with\\ Dr\\.\\ Lumir\\ Hanus\\ and\\ Dr\\.\\ Shimon\\ Ben\\-Shabat\\,\\ he\\ discovered\\ a\\ second\\ endocannabinoid\\ known\\ as\\ 2\\-arachidonylglycerol\\ \\(2\\-AG\\)\\.\\ These\\ findings\\ have\\ profoundly\\ advanced\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ cannabinoid\\ systems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Endocannabinoids\\ function\\ as\\ neuroprotective\\ agents\\.\\ They\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\'s\\ reward\\ system\\,\\ and\\ they\\ help\\ with\\ the\\ reduction\\ of\\ pain\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Vigorous\\ exercise\\ stimulates\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ anandamide\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ euphoric\\ well\\-being\\ that\\ comes\\ with\\ a\\ healthy\\ workout\\&\\#8212\\;what\\ jogging\\ enthusiasts\\ refer\\ to\\ as\\ a\\ \\\"runner\\'s\\ high\\\"\\&\\#8212\\;is\\ due\\ to\\ elevated\\ levels\\ of\\ endocannabinoids\\.\\ The\\ endocannabinoid\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ also\\ believed\\ to\\ help\\ mediate\\ emotions\\,\\ consolidate\\ memory\\,\\ and\\ coordinate\\ movement\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ cannabinoid\\ receptors\\ are\\ found\\ in\\ higher\\ concentrations\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ receptor\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ and\\ the\\ endocannabinoid\\ system\\ acts\\ essentially\\ in\\ just\\ about\\ every\\ physiological\\ system\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ looked\\ into\\.\\\r\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-Read\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ this\\ article\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\Herb\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\Professor\\ Clardy\\ explained\\ that\\ tests\\ have\\ been\\ done\\ on\\ mice\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ mice\\ with\\ cannabinoid\\ receptors\\ respond\\ to\\ electric\\ shocks\\ that\\ immediately\\ follow\\ certain\\ actions\\ versus\\ how\\ mice\\ without\\ cannabinoid\\ receptors\\ respond\\ to\\ the\\ shocks\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Those\\ with\\ the\\ cannabinoid\\ receptors\\ connect\\ the\\ shock\\ with\\ the\\ action\\ and\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ avoid\\ this\\ behavior\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ mice\\ whose\\ genes\\ for\\ cannabinoid\\ receptors\\ have\\ been\\ wiped\\ out\\ never\\ learn\\ to\\ stop\\ this\\ behavior\\,\\ because\\ they\\ lack\\ receptors\\ that\\ tell\\ your\\ brain\\ \\not\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ do\\ the\\ action\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ shock\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ lack\\ what\\ we\\ call\\ \\&\\#8220\\;inhibitors\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\Grass\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\Cannabinoid\\ signaling\\ is\\ also\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ connection\\ to\\ soldiers\\ with\\ post\\-traumatic\\ stress\\ disorder\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Scientists\\ hope\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ drug\\ that\\ can\\ affect\\ the\\ cannabinoids\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ soldiers\\&\\#8217\\;\\ painful\\ memories\\ will\\ no\\ longer\\ haunt\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Reimonabant\\ came\\ up\\ for\\ approval\\ by\\ the\\ FDA\\ panel\\ in\\ 2003\\,\\ but\\ was\\ rejected\\ unanimously\\ due\\ to\\ fears\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ take\\ the\\ drug\\ continuously\\ over\\ long\\ periods\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ might\\ unhealthily\\ trigger\\ other\\ functions\\ in\\ our\\ bodies\\,\\ and\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ know\\ enough\\ right\\ now\\ about\\ what\\ those\\ could\\ be\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bammer\\ \\(got\\ this\\ one\\ from\\ a\\ website\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ week\\'s\\ reading\\ is\\ from\\ The\\ Scientific\\ American\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ titled\\ \\\\\"The\\ Brain\\'s\\ Own\\ Marijuana\\.\\\"\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ byline\\ has\\ a\\ good\\ summary\\:\\ \\ \\\"Research\\ into\\ natural\\ chemicals\\ that\\ mimic\\ marijuana\\'s\\ effects\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ could\\ help\\ to\\ explain\\ \\-\\ and\\ suggest\\ treatments\\ for\\ \\-\\ pain\\,\\ anxiety\\,\\ eating\\ disorders\\,\\ phobias\\ and\\ other\\ conditions\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ article\\ also\\ discusses\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ brain\\ produces\\ its\\ own\\ form\\ of\\ Marijuana\\,\\ which\\ raises\\ an\\ interesting\\ legal\\ question\\:\\ if\\ cannabinoids\\ are\\ illegal\\ drugs\\,\\ does\\ that\\ mean\\ my\\ body\\ \\(and\\ yours\\)\\ is\\ a\\ container\\ of\\ illicit\\ substances\\?\\ \\ If\\ so\\,\\ I\\'d\\ better\\ not\\ cross\\ any\\ state\\ lines\\ or\\ sell\\ the\\ endocannabinoid\\ portion\\ of\\ my\\ brain\\ to\\ anyone\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Anyway\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ clear\\ that\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ this\\ endocannabinoid\\ system\\ might\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ devise\\ treatments\\ for\\ anxiety\\,\\ pain\\,\\ nausea\\,\\ obesity\\,\\ brain\\ injury\\,\\ and\\ other\\ problems\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ treatments\\ might\\ even\\ be\\ tailored\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ act\\ on\\ the\\ brain\\'s\\ endocannabinoid\\ receptors\\ without\\ inducing\\ any\\ undesired\\ \\(ahem\\,\\ by\\ some\\)\\ side\\-effects\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Chronic\\.\\.\\.\\ That\\ Sticky\\-icky\\-icky\\,\\ ya\\ hear\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Finally\\,\\ I\\'ll\\ close\\ with\\ some\\ interesting\\ words\\ and\\ links\\ from\\ my\\ employer\\,\\ Andrew\\ Magliozzi\\,\\ Harvard\\ \\'05\\ grad\\ and\\ knower\\ of\\ an\\ astonishing\\ number\\ of\\ things\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"Jim\\,\\<\\/p\\>Here\\ are\\ two\\ links\\ to\\ resources\\ from\\ a\\ close\\ friend\\ of\\ mine\\ who\\ is\\ an\\ Emeritus\\ Harvard\\ Medical\\ School\\ professor\\,\\ Lester\\ Grinspoon\\ M\\.D\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ his\\ book\\,\\ titled\\ \\Marihuana\\ Reconsidered\\<\\/a\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ foundational\\ text\\ on\\ the\\ scientific\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ medicinal\\ plant\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ link\\ is\\ his\\ website\\ where\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ some\\ fascinating\\ personal\\ testimonials\\ about\\ Marihuana\\ use\\,\\ including\\ Lester\\'s\\ own\\.\\ \\ \\ \\This\\ one\\ from\\ Carl\\ Sagan\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ particularly\\ good\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\Beat\\ poet\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ Allen\\ Ginsberg\\ also\\ has\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ one\\ about\\ Ginsberg\\ by\\ Lester\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Also\\ on\\ the\\ site\\ is\\ Lester\\'s\\ letter\\ about\\ Marijuana\\:\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.marijuana\\-uses\\.com\\/learn\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Twelfth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.744252+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Thirteenth Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 459, "html": "\\\\\\\\Opioids\\ and\\ Endorphins\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ of\\ Part\\ 2\\/4\\ in\\ the\\ course\\:\\ \\ Hormones\\,\\ neurotransmitters\\,\\ and\\ mind\\-altering\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ section\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ more\\ systematic\\ ways\\ of\\ discovering\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ more\\ systematic\\ ways\\ of\\ discovering\\ genes\\.\\ \\ And\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ why\\ it\\'s\\ so\\ important\\ to\\ do\\ that\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ time\\,\\ we\\ started\\ talking\\ about\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ chemical\\ messengers\\.\\ \\ We\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ ones\\ coming\\ from\\ plants\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 4\\ parts\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Part\\ 1\\/4\\:\\ \\ Morphine\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Morphine\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ active\\ compound\\ in\\ \\opium\\,\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ long\\ history\\ of\\ use\\ and\\ abuse\\,\\ a\\ very\\ complex\\ \\ structure\\,\\ and\\ many\\ derivatives\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Opium\\ means\\ \\\"sleep\\ inducing\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ was\\ probably\\ used\\ even\\ before\\ marijuana\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ references\\ to\\ its\\ being\\ used\\ in\\ 4000\\ BC\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ called\\ \\\"joy\\ plant\\,\\\"\\ and\\ people\\ weren\\'t\\ using\\ it\\ to\\ make\\ rope\\ ala\\ hemp\\.\\ \\ They\\ also\\ used\\ it\\ to\\ get\\ high\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\First\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\,\\ it\\ spread\\ to\\ Egypt\\,\\ then\\ China\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ a\\ seed\\ plant\\,\\ and\\ it\\ gradually\\ swells\\ and\\ swells\\ and\\ swells\\ as\\ it\\ grows\\.\\ \\ Pop\\ open\\ a\\ robust\\ plant\\'s\\ bulbous\\ seed\\ pod\\,\\ and\\ you\\'ll\\ find\\ it\\ bursting\\ with\\ seeds\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ insects\\ munch\\ on\\ the\\ plant\\,\\ white\\ latex\\ oozes\\ out\\.\\ \\ The\\ white\\ latex\\ turns\\ brown\\ when\\ it\\ dries\\,\\ and\\ that\\ latex\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ drug\\ itself\\ comes\\ from\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(\\<\\/em\\>Doesn\\'t\\ this\\ plant\\ \\look\\ \\<\\/em\\>like\\ it\\'ll\\ mess\\ you\\ up\\?\\!\\\\)\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>Historically\\,\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ boil\\ this\\ latex\\ in\\ water\\ and\\ make\\ tea\\ from\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ 1600s\\,\\ it\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ opium\\ was\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ soluble\\ in\\ alcohol\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ water\\,\\ and\\ that\\ combination\\ became\\ really\\ popular\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\ was\\ a\\ quote\\ from\\ the\\ time\\:\\ \\ \\\"Whereas\\ win\\ disorders\\ the\\ mental\\ faculties\\,\\ opium\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ introduces\\ amongst\\ them\\ the\\ most\\ exquisite\\ order\\,\\ legislation\\ and\\ harmony\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ cause\\ \\\"an\\ elaborate\\ intellectual\\ pleasure\\,\\\"\\ which\\ allowed\\ people\\ to\\ heighten\\ their\\ appreciation\\ of\\ music\\,\\ for\\ example\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ a\\ drug\\ like\\ this\\ gives\\ you\\ euphoria\\,\\ it\\ gives\\ you\\ its\\ opposite\\ later\\ on\\:\\ \\ disphoria\\.\\ \\ The\\ same\\ people\\ who\\ spoke\\ positively\\ of\\ the\\ euphoria\\ above\\ described\\ the\\ disphoria\\ \\ as\\ replete\\ with\\ frightening\\ hallucinations\\.\\ \\ They\\ also\\ found\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ take\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ opium\\ every\\ time\\ to\\ equal\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ their\\ first\\ time\\ using\\.\\ \\ And\\ then\\ realized\\ they\\ couldn\\'t\\ stop\\ themselves\\ from\\ taking\\ the\\ drug\\.\\ \\ They\\ were\\ addicted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ hallmarks\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\:\\ \\ euphoria\\,\\ disphoria\\,\\ tolerance\\,\\ and\\ addiction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\,\\ around\\ 1600\\,\\ a\\ German\\ chemist\\ successfully\\ purified\\ the\\ active\\ ingredient\\ in\\ opium\\:\\ \\ morphine\\.\\ \\ He\\ took\\ that\\ dried\\ latex\\ off\\ the\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ plant\\ and\\ ended\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ white\\,\\ crystalline\\,\\ sugar\\-looking\\ material\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ morphine\\ had\\ an\\ active\\ ingredient\\,\\ an\\ \\amine\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ molecule\\ with\\ functional\\ group\\ that\\ contains\\ Nitrogen\\.\\ \\ He\\ found\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ amine\\ in\\ an\\ acidic\\ medium\\,\\ it\\'ll\\ pronate\\ \\(add\\ a\\ Hydrogen\\,\\ or\\ proton\\)\\,\\ for\\ instance\\ go\\ from\\ NH3\\ to\\ NH4\\ and\\ suddenly\\ become\\ water\\ soluble\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ call\\ the\\ NH3\\ a\\ free\\ base\\,\\ and\\ the\\ NH4\\ a\\ salt\\.\\ \\ NH3\\ is\\ nonpolar\\ and\\ water\\ insoluble\\,\\ while\\ NH4\\ is\\ polar\\ and\\ water\\ soluble\\.\\ \\ This\\ process\\,\\ which\\ gives\\ you\\ perfectly\\ pure\\ morphine\\,\\ is\\ actually\\ really\\ easy\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ low\\-tech\\ process\\ of\\ using\\ any\\ base\\ or\\ acid\\ to\\ produce\\ pure\\ morphine\\.\\ \\ Any\\ drug\\ dealer\\ in\\ Afghanistan\\ or\\ South\\ America\\ can\\ do\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Morphine\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ 5\\ rings\\,\\ and\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ any\\ floppy\\ parts\\ sticking\\ out\\.\\ \\ Whereas\\ testosterone\\ is\\ relatively\\ flat\\,\\ morphine\\ is\\ globular\\.\\ \\ It\\ took\\ 120\\ years\\ of\\ chemistry\\ before\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ in\\ 1920\\ what\\ the\\ morphine\\ molecule\\ is\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Anything\\ that\\ ends\\ in\\ an\\ \\\"ine\\\"\\ is\\ an\\ alkaloid\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ 1\\,000s\\:\\ caffeine\\,\\ cocaine\\,\\ conine\\ \\(the\\ drug\\ that\\ killed\\ Socrates\\)\\,\\ morphine\\,\\ quinine\\ \\(used\\ to\\ treat\\ malaria\\)\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ wait\\.\\ \\ How\\ did\\ a\\ plant\\ learn\\ to\\ make\\ such\\ a\\ complex\\ molecule\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Well\\,\\ it\\ started\\ with\\ tyrosine\\,\\ a\\ readily\\ available\\ amino\\ acid\\ we\\'ve\\ already\\ seen\\ several\\ times\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ same\\ amino\\ acid\\ that\\ we\\ start\\ with\\ to\\ make\\ thyroid\\ hormones\\,\\ dopamine\\,\\ and\\ other\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ plant\\ converts\\ tyrosine\\ into\\ dopamine\\,\\ then\\ converts\\ dopamine\\ into\\ a\\ molecule\\ called\\ \\\"MAO\\\"\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ a\\ couple\\ bonds\\ are\\ formed\\ to\\ bond\\ dopamine\\ and\\ MAO\\ into\\ morphine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ morphine\\,\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ some\\ chemistry\\ and\\ produce\\ both\\ codeine\\ and\\ heroin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Around\\ 1900\\,\\ a\\ chemist\\ tried\\ to\\ engineer\\ the\\ downsides\\ of\\ morphine\\ \\(disphoria\\,\\ addiction\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ out\\.\\ \\ He\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ heroin\\,\\ which\\ replaced\\ salicylic\\ acid\\ \\(which\\ destroyed\\ your\\ stomach\\)\\ with\\ acetylsaicylic\\ acid\\ \\(which\\ is\\ aspirin\\,\\ and\\ only\\ partially\\ destroys\\ your\\ stomach\\)\\.\\ \\ Heroin\\'s\\ properties\\ were\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ heroic\\,\\ hence\\ its\\ name\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Heroine\\ travels\\ into\\ your\\ brain\\ 100x\\ faster\\ than\\ morphine\\.\\ \\ But\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ fit\\ with\\ the\\ brain\\'s\\ morphine\\ receptors\\.\\ \\ But\\ once\\ in\\ your\\ brain\\,\\ heroin\\ morphs\\ back\\ into\\ morphine\\,\\ and\\ morphine\\ goes\\ about\\ its\\ business\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Part\\ 2\\/4\\:\\ \\ the\\ u\\-opioid\\ Receptor\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Morphine\\ derivatives\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ receptor\\ \\(the\\ u\\-opioid\\ receptor\\)\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ and\\ a\\ short\\ time\\ later\\,\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ endogenous\\ ligands\\ for\\ opioid\\ receptors\\ were\\ identified\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ \\(an\\ opioid\\)\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ ask\\ if\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ receptor\\ for\\ that\\ small\\ molecule\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>The\\ way\\ scientists\\ found\\ the\\ opioid\\ receptor\\ in\\ 1973\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ specific\\ molecule\\ slightly\\ radioactive\\ while\\ keeping\\ a\\ very\\ similar\\ molecule\\ non\\-radioactive\\.\\ \\ The\\ radioactively\\ \\\"labeled\\\"\\ molecules\\ bound\\ to\\ certain\\ receptors\\,\\ but\\ their\\ very\\ similar\\ non\\-radioactively\\ labeled\\ receptors\\ did\\ not\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ opioid\\ receptor\\ was\\ found\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ opioid\\ small\\ molecule\\ binds\\ with\\ a\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptor\\,\\ and\\ then\\ an\\ endogenous\\ ligand\\ carries\\ the\\ message\\ forward\\ thereafter\\.\\ \\ To\\ illustrate\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Morphine\\ \\(discovered\\ 1803\\)\\.\\ \\ there\\ are\\ 1\\,000s\\.\\ \\ \\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\\r\\\\\r\\opioid\\ receptor\\ \\(1973\\)\\.\\ \\ 3\\ are\\ well\\ known\\.\\ \\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\\r\\\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\\r\\\\\r\\endogenous\\ ligands\\ like\\ met\\-enkephalin\\ \\(1975\\)\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ many\\ endogenous\\ ligands\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Part\\ 3\\/4\\ u\\-\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\(u\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ \\=\\ Greek\\ symbol\\ for\\ \\\"mu\\\"\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\Agonists\\:\\ Stopping\\ the\\ Pain\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ still\\ want\\ chemists\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ molecule\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ pain\\-relieving\\ positive\\ effects\\ of\\ morphine\\ without\\ the\\ addiction\\-inducing\\ negative\\ effects\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ how\\ pain\\ works\\.\\ \\ You\\ have\\ a\\ presynaptic\\ neuron\\ separated\\ from\\ a\\ postsynaptic\\ neuron\\ by\\ a\\ synapse\\.\\ \\ Neurotransmitters\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ synapse\\,\\ waiting\\ to\\ carry\\ the\\ pain\\ message\\ between\\ neurons\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Pain\\ is\\ good\\ because\\ it\\ stops\\ you\\ from\\ doing\\ harmful\\ things\\,\\ like\\ putting\\ your\\ hand\\ on\\ a\\ stove\\.\\ \\ Once\\ you\\ pull\\ your\\ hand\\ from\\ a\\ stove\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ pain\\ isn\\'t\\ so\\ necessary\\ anymore\\,\\ so\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ turn\\ down\\ the\\ pain\\:\\ \\ u\\-agonists\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ u\\-agonist\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ synapse\\,\\ and\\ it\\ combines\\ with\\ the\\ presynaptic\\ end\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ pain\\ signal\\,\\ and\\ also\\ combines\\ with\\ the\\ postsynaptic\\ end\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ pain\\ signal\\ from\\ being\\ carried\\ forward\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ actually\\ give\\ patients\\ heroin\\ to\\ quickly\\ stop\\ huge\\ amounts\\ of\\ pain\\,\\ but\\ doctors\\ call\\ it\\ \\\"Diamorphine\\\"\\ to\\ avoid\\ patients\\ becoming\\ worried\\ about\\ actually\\ taking\\ heroin\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ heroine\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ Oxycontin\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ morphine\\ agonist\\ and\\ comes\\ in\\ pill\\ form\\ that\\ lets\\ it\\ slowly\\ release\\ the\\ drug\\ into\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ Crush\\ it\\ into\\ powder\\,\\ though\\,\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ the\\ whole\\ rush\\ at\\ one\\ time\\.\\ \\ Other\\ morphine\\ u\\-agonists\\ are\\ percocet\\ and\\ codeine\\,\\ common\\ painkillers\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(This\\ isn\\'t\\ as\\ bad\\ as\\ it\\ looks\\.\\ \\ She\\'s\\ only\\ taking\\ diamorphine\\!\\)\\<\\/p\\>Methadone\\ also\\ comes\\ from\\ morphine\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ pain\\ killer\\,\\ but\\ its\\ main\\ function\\ has\\ been\\ to\\ wean\\ heroin\\ addicts\\ off\\ of\\ heroin\\.\\ \\ It\\ doesn\\'t\\ give\\ that\\ exciting\\ rush\\ that\\ heroin\\ does\\,\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ slowly\\ get\\ off\\ heroin\\ without\\ going\\ through\\ terrible\\ withdrawal\\ symptoms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Morphine\\ u\\-antagonists\\ are\\ actually\\ helpful\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ heroine\\ overdoses\\.\\ \\ I\\'m\\ not\\ quite\\ sure\\ why\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ in\\ sum\\:\\ \\ u\\-Agonists\\ are\\ widely\\ used\\ to\\ control\\ pain\\,\\ and\\ morphine\\,\\ despite\\ its\\ drawbacks\\,\\ is\\ still\\ the\\ most\\ widely\\ used\\ analgesic\\ for\\ moderate\\ to\\ strong\\ pain\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Part\\ 4\\/4\\:\\ \\ Opioid\\ Experiments\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ spent\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ our\\ time\\ talking\\ about\\ more\\ recent\\ experiments\\ telling\\ us\\ about\\ our\\ own\\ biology\\ and\\ why\\ we\\ are\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ are\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\First\\ we\\ addressed\\ receptors\\.\\ We\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ u\\-receptor\\,\\ a\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptor\\ \\(called\\ the\\ \\\"MOR\\\"\\ \\-\\ \\\"mu\\\"\\ opioid\\ receptor\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ there\\'s\\ the\\ kappa\\-receptor\\ \\(KOR\\)\\.\\ \\ And\\ lastly\\ the\\ delta\\-receptor\\ \\(DOR\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ u\\-receptor\\ is\\ biggest\\,\\ and\\ the\\ delta\\ receptor\\ is\\ smallest\\.\\ \\ They\\ all\\ perform\\ different\\ functions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ different\\ receptors\\ how\\ much\\ has\\ come\\ about\\ due\\ to\\ gene\\ duplication\\.\\ \\ You\\ probably\\ started\\ with\\ one\\ gene\\ that\\ duplicated\\ two\\ times\\,\\ giving\\ you\\ three\\ receptors\\ that\\ each\\ perform\\ new\\ and\\ different\\ functions\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ evolution\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ study\\ of\\ mice\\ with\\ u\\-opioid\\ receptors\\ versus\\ those\\ who\\'d\\ had\\ the\\ gene\\ for\\ these\\ receptors\\ knocked\\ out\\ revealed\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ morphine\\ you\\ give\\ a\\ mouse\\ with\\ the\\ MOR\\ receptor\\,\\ the\\ longer\\ they\\ wait\\ to\\ jump\\ when\\ exposed\\ to\\ extreme\\ heat\\.\\ \\ Those\\ without\\ the\\ MOR\\ receptor\\,\\ though\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ morphine\\ they\\'ve\\ ingested\\,\\ still\\ respond\\ just\\ as\\ quickly\\ when\\ exposed\\ to\\ extreme\\ heat\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(If\\ you\\ give\\ a\\ mouse\\ some\\ morphine\\.\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Unlike\\ mice\\ with\\ MORs\\,\\ mice\\ without\\ the\\ MORs\\ also\\ don\\'t\\ get\\ addicted\\ to\\ morphine\\.\\ \\ Interestingly\\,\\ though\\,\\ mice\\ without\\ MORs\\ don\\'t\\ really\\ respond\\ to\\ THC\\ or\\ alcohol\\,\\ either\\,\\ so\\ those\\ receptors\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ those\\ drugs\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\They\\ also\\ found\\ that\\ baby\\ mice\\ with\\ the\\ u\\-receptor\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ call\\ out\\ or\\ cry\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ separated\\ from\\ their\\ mothers\\.\\ \\ Crazy\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ That\\ receptor\\ is\\ especially\\ aware\\ of\\ a\\ mother\\'s\\ presence\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ weird\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ motherly\\-child\\ bond\\ as\\ dependent\\ on\\ receptors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ we\\ learned\\ that\\ from\\ genetic\\ experiments\\ on\\ the\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ Now\\ let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ genetic\\ experiment\\ on\\ the\\ ligands\\,\\ which\\ Clardy\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ example\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ve\\ been\\ taught\\ so\\ far\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ an\\ endogenous\\ ligand\\,\\ a\\ pentapeptide\\,\\ it\\'s\\ made\\ byhaving\\ DNA\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ RNA\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ pentapeptide\\.\\ \\ But\\ that\\'s\\ wrong\\.\\ \\ Nature\\ doens\\'t\\ like\\ to\\ make\\ little\\ things\\ that\\ way\\.\\ \\ It\\ likes\\ to\\ make\\ long\\ things\\ that\\ way\\.\\ \\ To\\ make\\ something\\ like\\ this\\,\\ it\\'ll\\ make\\ a\\ really\\ long\\ protein\\,\\ then\\ cut\\ out\\ 5\\ amino\\ acids\\ at\\ some\\ poitn\\ along\\ the\\ peptide\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ make\\ these\\ molecules\\ able\\ to\\ signal\\,\\ they\\ make\\ a\\ much\\ bigger\\ peptide\\,\\ then\\ trim\\ it\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ like\\ starting\\ with\\ a\\ huge\\ piece\\ of\\ cloth\\ before\\ fashioning\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ clothing\\ from\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ weird\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ Once\\ you\\ find\\ one\\ signaling\\ peptide\\,\\ you\\'ll\\ find\\ LOTS\\ of\\ signalling\\ peptides\\ altogether\\.\\ \\ Like\\ a\\ mother\\ lode\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Think\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\\"endorphin\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ means\\ endogenous\\ morphine\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ we\\ discover\\ new\\ neuropeptides\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ But\\ endorphins\\ are\\ really\\ well\\ known\\ already\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Endorphins\\ come\\ from\\ a\\ big\\ protein\\ called\\ prodynorphin\\.\\ \\ Prodynorphin\\ is\\ chopped\\ up\\ to\\ get\\ dinorphin\\ and\\ many\\ other\\ signalling\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ Prodynorphin\\ is\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ \\\"PDYN\\\"\\ gene\\.\\ \\ So\\ the\\ PDYN\\ gene\\ signals\\ DNA\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ RNA\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ a\\ long\\ peptide\\,\\ in\\ which\\ are\\ specific\\ signaling\\ peptides\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ let\\'s\\ talk\\ chimpanzees\\.\\ \\ Men\\ are\\ actually\\ more\\ similar\\ to\\ male\\ chimpanezees\\ than\\ women\\ are\\ to\\ female\\ chimpanzees\\.\\ \\ Ok\\,\\ now\\ think\\ about\\ this\\:\\ \\ humans\\ are\\ the\\ only\\ animals\\ that\\ make\\ and\\ use\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ Think\\ back\\ to\\ ancient\\ times\\.\\ \\ People\\ have\\ been\\ using\\ today\\'s\\ drugs\\,\\ marijuana\\ and\\ morphine\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ we\\ can\\ remember\\ \\(yea\\,\\ mom\\ and\\ dad\\!\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Our\\ genes\\ have\\ slowly\\ evolved\\ to\\ regulate\\ cells\\ much\\ differently\\ than\\ our\\ chimp\\ ancestors\\,\\ such\\ that\\ human\\ genes\\ produce\\ 20\\-30\\%\\ more\\ prodynorphin\\ than\\ chimp\\ genes\\.\\ \\ This\\ means\\ we\\ are\\ genetically\\ programmed\\ to\\ be\\ receptive\\ and\\ to\\ find\\ these\\ opioid\\ drugs\\!\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(This\\ chimp\\ isn\\'t\\ holding\\ anyone\\ up\\ for\\ heroin\\ money\\.\\ \\ His\\ cells\\ don\\'t\\ regulate\\ enough\\ prodynorphin\\ production\\ for\\ that\\ to\\ occur\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Not\\ only\\ are\\ we\\ different\\ from\\ primates\\.\\ \\ We\\'re\\ different\\ from\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ Humans\\ have\\ 4\\ different\\ copies\\ of\\ these\\ genes\\ that\\ regulate\\ prodynorphin\\ differently\\.\\ \\ Depending\\ on\\ where\\ on\\ the\\ globe\\ your\\ ancestors\\ came\\ from\\,\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ number\\ of\\ these\\ copies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ the\\ summarizing\\ point\\:\\ \\ \\ we\\ have\\ this\\ sketchy\\ plant\\ that\\ gives\\ us\\ this\\ sketchy\\ drug\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ we\\'ve\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ drug\\ to\\ learn\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ ourselves\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Thirteenth Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.762022+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Variations in the Human Genome, and their Relationship to Diseases", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 460, "html": "\\\\\\\\Variation\\ in\\ Our\\ Genomes\\ Provides\\ Clues\\ to\\ Human\\ Disease\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\here\\'s\\ lecture\\ 1\\ of\\ the\\ 2nd\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ Lecture\\ 1\\/6\\ of\\ Part\\ 3\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Basic\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ Human\\ Genome\\:\\ \\ Simple\\ and\\ Young\\!\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\(Sorry\\ if\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ fractions\\ are\\ making\\ things\\ harder\\ to\\ understand\\.\\ \\ I\\ thought\\ they\\'d\\ help\\ organize\\ yourself\\ within\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ course\\'s\\,\\ and\\ this\\ lecture\\'s\\,\\ material\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ far\\ in\\ this\\ class\\,\\ we\\'ve\\ seen\\ rare\\ mutations\\ and\\ their\\ effects\\ on\\ human\\ physiology\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ seen\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ hormones\\ and\\ neurotransmitters\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ seen\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecules\\ made\\ by\\ \\other\\ \\<\\/em\\>organisms\\ like\\ the\\ cannabinoids\\ and\\ opioids\\,\\ and\\ we\\'ve\\ seen\\ examples\\ of\\ \\non\\<\\/em\\>\\-natural\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ make\\ the\\ drugs\\ and\\ medicines\\ we\\ have\\ today\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ part\\ 3\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ class\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ spend\\ 6\\ lectures\\ on\\ a\\ more\\ comprehensive\\,\\ systematic\\ approach\\ to\\ these\\ issues\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ focusing\\ on\\ so\\ many\\ specific\\ examples\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ be\\ comprehensively\\ connecting\\ our\\ genomes\\ to\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ focus\\ on\\ \\genomic\\ medicine\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ a\\ new\\ approach\\ to\\ medicine\\ with\\ an\\ increasingly\\ large\\ impact\\ that\\ will\\ only\\ grow\\ bigger\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Part\\ 4\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ will\\ provide\\ specific\\ examples\\,\\ after\\ our\\ comprehensive\\ grounding\\ in\\ part\\ 3\\/4\\,\\ of\\ how\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ is\\ being\\ applied\\ to\\ specific\\ diseases\\ like\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Variations\\ in\\ genomes\\ produces\\ the\\ obvious\\ differences\\ between\\ you\\ and\\ me\\ \\-\\ height\\,\\ skin\\ color\\,\\ my\\ intangible\\ awesomeness\\,\\ etc\\ \\-\\ and\\ less\\ obvious\\,\\ \\\"hidden\\\"\\ differences\\ like\\ one\\'s\\ likeliness\\ of\\ coming\\ down\\ with\\ a\\ genetic\\ disease\\.\\ \\ Understanding\\ our\\ genomes\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ discover\\ these\\ hidden\\ differences\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Humans\\ are\\ a\\ small\\,\\ young\\ species\\ \\(in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ time\\)\\,\\ with\\ comparatively\\ little\\ variation\\ in\\ our\\ genomes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ Life\\ Sciences\\,\\ we\\ both\\ Observe\\ and\\ Perturb\\ living\\ systems\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ them\\.\\ \\ Genomic\\ medicine\\ is\\ about\\ observing\\ how\\ the\\ genome\\ works\\,\\ then\\ perturbing\\ it\\ from\\ a\\ diseased\\ state\\ back\\ into\\ a\\ healthy\\ state\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ two\\ ways\\ of\\ \\\"Observing\\.\\\"\\ \\ DNA\\ variation\\ which\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ today\\,\\ and\\ RNA\\ variation\\ which\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ 2\\ key\\ questions\\:\\ \\ \\(1\\)\\ \\ How\\ frequently\\ are\\ there\\ variations\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\?\\ \\ \\(2\\)\\ \\ How\\ are\\ the\\ variations\\ distributed\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ answer\\ to\\ \\(1\\)\\,\\ which\\ could\\ consider\\ if\\ we\\ were\\ to\\ sequence\\ your\\ genome\\ and\\ mine\\ and\\ then\\ compare\\ them\\,\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ and\\ I\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ base\\ \\(an\\ A\\,\\ T\\,\\ G\\,\\ or\\ C\\)\\ in\\ our\\ genomic\\ sequences\\ in\\ 1\\ out\\ of\\ ever\\ 1300\\ letters\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ \\\"polymorphic\\\"\\ site\\ is\\ a\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\ where\\ different\\ people\\ might\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ letter\\.\\ \\ Make\\ note\\ though\\:\\ \\ polymorphic\\ sites\\ do\\ not\\ occur\\ randomly\\.\\ \\ They\\ commonly\\ occur\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ place\\ in\\ our\\ genetic\\ sequences\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Our\\ genetic\\ sequences\\ sometimes\\ mutate\\,\\ at\\ a\\ rate\\ of\\ about\\ 60\\/3\\,000\\,000\\,000\\ when\\ your\\ father\\'s\\ sperm\\ first\\ took\\ your\\ mother\\'s\\ egg\\ out\\ on\\ a\\ date\\.\\ \\ Genetic\\ sequence\\ mutations\\ \\are\\ \\<\\/em\\>random\\.\\ \\ But\\ when\\ a\\ gene\\ mutation\\ gets\\ propagated\\ over\\ the\\ years\\ and\\ eventually\\ permeates\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ society\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ \\\"polymorphic\\ site\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Sequencing\\ the\\ genomes\\ of\\ chimpanzees\\ in\\ Africa\\ reveals\\ a\\ similar\\ genome\\ to\\ our\\ own\\,\\ except\\ with\\ 2\\-3x\\ more\\ polymorphic\\ sites\\ than\\ humans\\.\\ \\ This\\ makes\\ sense\\ because\\ chimpanzees\\ have\\ existed\\ longer\\ than\\ have\\ humans\\.\\ \\ They\\'ve\\ had\\ more\\ time\\ to\\ propagate\\ these\\ polymorphic\\ sites\\.\\ \\ Orangutans\\ are\\ even\\ older\\ than\\ chimps\\,\\ and\\ have\\ \\~8x\\ as\\ many\\ polymorphic\\ sites\\ as\\ humans\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Orangutans\\ may\\ be\\ an\\ OLD\\ species\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ younger\\ and\\ more\\ beautiful\\ humans\\ and\\ chimps\\,\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ react\\ immaturely\\ when\\ you\\ tell\\ them\\ that\\!\\ \\ \\ More\\ bad\\ jokes\\ to\\ come\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Natural\\ Variation\\ Across\\ the\\ Human\\ Population\\,\\ and\\ Its\\ Revelations\\ about\\ Human\\ History\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ genetic\\ mutations\\ occur\\,\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ measure\\ variation\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\,\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ where\\ the\\ variation\\ occurred\\ geographically\\.\\ \\ Knowing\\ these\\ 3\\ things\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ size\\ and\\ location\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ population\\ at\\ any\\ time\\.\\ \\ From\\ this\\,\\ we\\ have\\ determined\\ that\\ humans\\ emerged\\ from\\ a\\ 10\\,000\\ person\\ tribe\\ in\\ Africa\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\,000\\ generations\\ later\\,\\ there\\ are\\ 6\\ billion\\ people\\ worldwide\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ know\\ that\\ that\\ 10\\,000\\ person\\ population\\ lived\\ for\\ 100\\,000\\ years\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ before\\ beginning\\ a\\ migration\\ throughout\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ 60\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ \\ Amazing\\!\\!\\!\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Any\\ two\\ people\\ on\\ earth\\ are\\ 99\\.9\\%\\ genetically\\ identical\\.\\ \\ Within\\ the\\ 0\\.1\\%\\ of\\ variation\\,\\ 85\\%\\ of\\ the\\ variants\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ genome\\.\\ \\ The\\ other\\ 15\\%\\ of\\ the\\ variants\\ occur\\ at\\ rare\\ spots\\ in\\ the\\ genome\\,\\ and\\ their\\ locations\\ are\\ contingent\\ on\\ where\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ one\\'s\\ ancestors\\ lived\\ after\\ that\\ migration\\ 60\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Noticing\\ how\\ people\\ moved\\ out\\ of\\ Africa\\ Eastward\\ toward\\ Asia\\ and\\ then\\ North\\ America\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ polymorphisms\\ began\\ to\\ occur\\ at\\ different\\ points\\ along\\ this\\ eastward\\ movement\\.\\ \\ That\\ polymorphism\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ exist\\ further\\ eastward\\ as\\ people\\ kept\\ moving\\ that\\ way\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ populations\\ that\\ stayed\\ behind\\ further\\ west\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ \\\"The\\ Genographic\\ Project\\,\\\"\\ which\\ aims\\ to\\ collect\\ 100\\,000\\ DNA\\ samples\\ worldwide\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ peice\\ together\\ a\\ clearer\\ picture\\ of\\ how\\ Earth\\ was\\ colonized\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ second\\ project\\ was\\ called\\ \\\"The\\ DNA\\ Ancestry\\ Project\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ consists\\ of\\ commercial\\ kits\\ yo\\ ucan\\ buy\\ that\\ trace\\ your\\ history\\ and\\ origin\\ and\\ let\\ you\\ fil\\ in\\ gaps\\ in\\ your\\ family\\ tree\\ that\\,\\ say\\,\\ the\\ enslavement\\ of\\ your\\ ancestors\\ would\\ have\\ caused\\.\\ \\ Some\\ people\\ may\\ use\\ these\\ results\\ to\\ claim\\ minority\\ status\\ during\\ the\\ college\\ admission\\ process\\ or\\ Israeli\\ citizenship\\ through\\ proof\\ of\\ Jewish\\ ancestry\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 3\\/3\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Tying\\ Genomic\\ Variation\\ to\\ Human\\ Disease\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ start\\ with\\ a\\ dramatic\\ case\\ and\\ walk\\ through\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ examples\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ have\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ polymorphism\\ called\\ \\\"SNPs\\\"\\:\\ \\ Single\\ nucleotide\\ polymorphisms\\.\\ \\ We\\ saw\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ nucleotide\\ before\\ when\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ cystic\\ fibrosis\\ \\(CF\\)\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ are\\ homozygous\\ for\\ the\\ CF\\ gene\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ chromosome\\ you\\ get\\ from\\ your\\ mother\\ \\and\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ chromosome\\ you\\ get\\ from\\ your\\ father\\ both\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ SNP\\ that\\ codes\\ for\\ CF\\,\\ then\\ you\\ get\\ CF\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ \\\"allele\\\"\\ is\\ the\\ spot\\ on\\ a\\ gene\\ that\\ determines\\ a\\ characteristic\\ about\\ yourself\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ \\\"flavor\\\"\\ of\\ a\\ gene\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ lecture\\ concerning\\ opioids\\ talked\\ about\\ \\\"copy\\ number\\ prodynorphins\\.\\\"\\ \\ The\\ prodynorphin\\ gene\\,\\ some\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ 1\\ copy\\,\\ while\\ others\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ 2\\,\\ or\\ 3\\,\\ or\\ 4\\ copies\\,\\ right\\ after\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ That\\ determines\\ how\\ receptive\\ to\\ opioids\\ we\\ are\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ genetic\\ variation\\ can\\ cause\\ genetic\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\'s\\ a\\ gene\\ on\\ the\\ 19th\\ chromosome\\ called\\ Apo\\-Lipo\\-Protein\\-E\\,\\ which\\ we\\ call\\ APO\\-E\\.\\ \\ The\\ APO\\-E\\ gene\\ codes\\ for\\ an\\ APO\\-E\\ protein\\,\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ chromosome\\ where\\ it\\ resides\\,\\ the\\ 19th\\ chromosome\\,\\ it\\ has\\ 2\\ SNPs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ alleles\\ that\\'s\\ spread\\ throughout\\ the\\ human\\ population\\,\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ SNP\\,\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ T\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ 2nd\\ SNP\\,\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ T\\.\\ \\ So\\ we\\ call\\ that\\ the\\ \\\"E\\-2\\\"\\ allele\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ 3\\ flavors\\ of\\ this\\ allele\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ population\\:\\ a\\ T\\-T\\ \\(E2\\ allele\\)\\ flavor\\,\\ T\\-C\\ flavor\\ \\(E3\\)\\,\\ and\\ C\\-C\\ flavor\\ \\(E4\\)\\.\\ \\ No\\ one\\ has\\ detected\\ a\\ C\\-T\\ flavor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Everyone\\ has\\ 2\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ available\\ alleles\\,\\ from\\ our\\ mother\\ and\\ from\\ our\\ father\\.\\ \\ We\\ can\\ have\\ T\\-T\\,\\ or\\ T\\-C\\,\\ or\\ C\\-C\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ why\\ that\\'s\\ important\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\'re\\ homozygous\\ for\\ the\\ \\\"E\\-4\\\"allele\\ \\,\\ which\\ has\\ a\\ C\\-C\\,\\ then\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ 60\\%\\ probability\\ of\\ getting\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ Disease\\ in\\ your\\ lifetime\\.\\ \\ By\\ comparison\\,\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ has\\ only\\ a\\ 5\\%\\ chance\\ of\\ getting\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\.\\ \\ \\ 3\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ has\\ the\\ E\\-4\\ allele\\,\\ which\\ means\\ in\\ our\\ lecture\\ hall\\,\\ there\\ are\\ probably\\ 4\\ or\\ 5\\ of\\ us\\ that\\ have\\ this\\ E\\-4\\ allele\\ and\\ thus\\ a\\ much\\ higher\\ probability\\ of\\ getting\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ that\\ T\\-C\\ business\\ was\\ quite\\ confusing\\,\\ so\\ I\\'ll\\ bring\\ you\\ to\\ an\\ easier\\-to\\-understand\\ piece\\ relating\\ to\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.chron\\.com\\/disp\\/story\\.mpl\\/ap\\/nation\\/5299420\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ about\\ Sandra\\ Day\\ O\\'Connor\\,\\ the\\ former\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Justice\\,\\ whose\\ husband\\ began\\ experiencing\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ 17\\ years\\ ago\\ and\\ recently\\ moved\\ into\\ an\\ assisted\\ living\\ home\\.\\ \\ At\\ the\\ home\\,\\ he\\ found\\ a\\ girlfriend\\ and\\,\\ largely\\ as\\ a\\ result\\,\\ hope\\ and\\ joy\\ in\\ living\\,\\ and\\ Justice\\ O\\'Connor\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ jealous\\ or\\ upset\\,\\ has\\ taken\\ joy\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ her\\ ailing\\ husband\\ has\\ found\\ a\\ new\\ source\\ of\\ companionship\\ and\\ happiness\\ in\\ his\\ difficult\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Former\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Justice\\ Sandra\\ Day\\ O\\'Connor\\,\\ who\\ has\\ had\\ to\\ adjust\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\'s\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ and\\ the\\ unique\\ social\\ questions\\ that\\ has\\ raised\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Back\\ to\\ class\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Pharmaceutical\\ companies\\ are\\ now\\ trying\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ genetic\\ information\\ as\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ that\\ can\\ cure\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ Disease\\.\\ \\ They\\'re\\ targeting\\ Apo\\-Lipo\\-Protein\\-E\\,\\ but\\ haven\\'t\\ yet\\ figured\\ out\\ exactly\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\ do\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ your\\ allele\\ identity\\?\\ \\ Do\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ know\\ now\\ that\\ you\\'ll\\ have\\ a\\ 60\\%\\ chance\\ of\\ getting\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ when\\ your\\ brain\\ ages\\ enough\\ for\\ the\\ disease\\ to\\ take\\ effect\\,\\ probably\\ sometime\\ after\\ age\\ 60\\?\\ \\ Personally\\,\\ I\\ would\\,\\ but\\ I\\ think\\ I\\'m\\ in\\ the\\ minority\\ on\\ this\\ one\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Balancing\\ Selection\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ strange\\,\\ but\\ having\\ one\\ copy\\ of\\ an\\ allele\\ for\\ a\\ disease\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ beneficial\\ than\\ having\\ zero\\ copies\\ of\\ it\\,\\ yet\\ having\\ two\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ allele\\ will\\ give\\ you\\ the\\ disease\\!\\ \\ For\\ example\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ homozygous\\ for\\ an\\ allele\\ \\(your\\ genes\\ from\\ each\\ parent\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ allele\\)\\ for\\ a\\ disease\\ like\\ Sickle\\ Cell\\ Anemia\\,\\ which\\ means\\ you\\'ll\\ actually\\ have\\ Sickle\\ Cell\\ Anemia\\.\\ \\ But\\ if\\ you\\'re\\ heterozygous\\ \\(your\\ genes\\ from\\ each\\ parent\\ have\\ different\\ alleles\\)\\,\\ you\\'re\\ actually\\ resistant\\ to\\ malaria\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ term\\ given\\ to\\ this\\ process\\,\\ in\\ which\\ it\\'s\\ good\\ to\\ have\\ one\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ have\\ two\\ copies\\ is\\ called\\ \\\"Balancing\\ Selection\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Type\\ 2\\ Diabetes\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ common\\ diabetes\\ drug\\ is\\ Pioglitazone\\.\\ \\ Pioglitazone\\ is\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ from\\ the\\ \\\"glitazone\\\"\\ family\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ of\\ nuclear\\ hormone\\ agonists\\ that\\ increase\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ PPAR\\y\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(we\\'ll\\ call\\ the\\ y\\ \\\"gamma\\\"\\ because\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ Greek\\ letter\\ \\\"gamma\\,\\\"\\ which\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ y\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ protein\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ neuron\\ hormone\\ receptors\\,\\ like\\ androgen\\ receptors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ reason\\ we\\ get\\ Type\\ 2\\ Diabetes\\ is\\ because\\ a\\ genetic\\ variant\\ underperforms\\ in\\ our\\ bodies\\.\\ \\ The\\ drug\\ Pioglitazone\\ is\\ an\\ agonist\\ that\\ \\\"turns\\ on\\\"\\ and\\ increases\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ the\\ neuron\\ hormone\\ receptor\\ that\\ is\\ underperforming\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\HIV\\ Resistance\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\CCR5\\ is\\ a\\ gene\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ polymorphism\\,\\ a\\ \\\"letter\\ change\\,\\\"\\ throughout\\ the\\ population\\.\\ \\ This\\ polymorphism\\ causes\\ the\\ gene\\ to\\ become\\ dysfunctional\\.\\ \\ It\\ causes\\ you\\ to\\ lose\\ the\\ protein\\.\\ \\ You\\ can\\'t\\ make\\ it\\,\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ this\\ polymorphism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\10\\%\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ population\\ is\\ heterozygous\\ for\\ this\\ polymorphism\\.\\ \\ 1\\%\\ is\\ homozygous\\.\\ \\ And\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ get\\ to\\ produce\\ CCR5\\ protein\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sounds\\ bad\\ to\\ have\\ this\\ malfunctioning\\ gene\\,\\ right\\?\\ \\ It\\'s\\ actually\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\ We\\ know\\ of\\ no\\ ill\\-effects\\ of\\ this\\ protein\\ not\\ being\\ made\\,\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ know\\ of\\ this\\ positive\\ effect\\:\\ \\ it\\ makes\\ you\\ immune\\ to\\ HIV\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\CCR5\\ encodes\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ HIV\\ requires\\ as\\ something\\ it\\ latches\\ onto\\ before\\ infecting\\ the\\ other\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ If\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ produce\\ CCR5\\,\\ HIV\\ has\\ no\\ way\\ of\\ getting\\ its\\ foot\\ in\\ the\\ door\\ in\\ your\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Fascinatingly\\,\\ the\\ study\\ that\\ said\\ that\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ population\\ couldn\\'t\\ code\\ for\\ CCR5\\ protein\\ production\\ took\\ place\\ 7\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ Africans\\ who\\ are\\ homozygous\\ for\\ CCR5\\,\\ who\\ can\\'t\\ produce\\ the\\ protein\\,\\ is\\ about\\ 3\\-5\\%\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ natural\\ selection\\ taking\\ place\\ before\\ our\\ very\\ eyes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Genomic\\ Medicine\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ Now\\,\\ pharmaceutical\\ companies\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ antagonist\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ CCR5\\ protein\\,\\ thus\\ blocking\\ HIV\\ from\\ binding\\ to\\ the\\ protein\\ and\\ beginning\\ to\\ infect\\ other\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Human\\ Variation\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ far\\ can\\ we\\ take\\ human\\ variation\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Most\\ of\\ us\\ are\\ lactose\\ intolerant\\.\\ \\ We\\ can\\'t\\ digest\\ lactose\\ because\\ the\\ gene\\ that\\ encodes\\ the\\ enzyme\\ that\\ digests\\ lactose\\,\\ called\\ lactase\\,\\ is\\ programmed\\ in\\ us\\ to\\ become\\ inactive\\ early\\ in\\ our\\ development\\ \\-\\ right\\ after\\ we\\ stop\\ breast\\ feeding\\.\\ \\ Thing\\ is\\,\\ our\\ ancestors\\,\\ about\\ 15\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ developed\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ agriculture\\.\\ \\ With\\ that\\ came\\ domesticated\\ animals\\,\\ and\\ with\\ that\\ came\\ milk\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ drunk\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\ after\\ breast\\ feeding\\.\\ \\ And\\ so\\,\\ a\\ polymorphism\\ occurred\\ that\\ allows\\ the\\ gene\\ for\\ lactase\\ to\\ be\\ turned\\ on\\ throughout\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ adulthood\\.\\ \\ And\\ thus\\,\\ lactase\\ breaks\\ down\\ lactose\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Asian\\ Glow\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ Asians\\ have\\ a\\ polymorphism\\ that\\ turns\\ down\\ the\\ gene\\ that\\ produces\\ the\\ enzyme\\ that\\ breaks\\ down\\ ethanol\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ alcohol\\ hitting\\ them\\ especially\\ hard\\.\\ \\ People\\ with\\ this\\ gene\\ get\\ drunk\\ on\\ fewer\\ drinks\\ and\\ tend\\ to\\ get\\ red\\ in\\ the\\ face\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\An\\ Olympic\\ Gold\\ Medal\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ 1964\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ Finnish\\ cross\\-country\\ skier\\ who\\ won\\ 3\\ gold\\ medals\\.\\ \\ But\\ it\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ his\\ blood\\ contained\\ 15\\%\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ red\\ blood\\ cells\\.\\ \\ He\\ was\\ accused\\ of\\ injecting\\ himself\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ red\\ blood\\ cells\\,\\ increasing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ oxygen\\ carriers\\ in\\ his\\ blood\\.\\ \\ His\\ reputation\\ was\\ tarnished\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Eero\\ Mantyranta\\,\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ cross\\-country\\ skiing\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\ \\ Was\\ his\\ success\\ due\\ to\\ doping\\,\\ his\\ naturally\\ high\\ levels\\ of\\ EPO\\ in\\ his\\ bloodstream\\,\\ or\\ both\\?\\)\\<\\/p\\>In\\ 1993\\,\\ though\\,\\ a\\ polymorphism\\ was\\ discovered\\ in\\ a\\ gene\\ that\\ encodes\\ a\\ receptor\\ for\\ a\\ protein\\ called\\ EPO\\.\\ \\ The\\ polymorphism\\ causes\\ your\\ EPO\\ to\\ be\\ at\\ higher\\ levels\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ The\\ skier\\'s\\ advantage\\ might\\ simply\\ have\\ been\\ natural\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Gene\\ Matrixes\\ \\-\\ Haplotypes\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Genomic\\ medicine\\ is\\ heading\\ toward\\ a\\ matrix\\ between\\ Genotype\\ and\\ Phenotype\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ have\\ 10\\ million\\ polymorphisms\\ in\\ our\\ genes\\,\\ but\\ this\\ matrix\\ only\\ has\\ to\\ measure\\ 10\\,000\\ of\\ these\\:\\ \\ the\\ haplotypes\\.\\ \\ A\\ haplotype\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ chunk\\ of\\ DNA\\,\\ of\\ polymorphisms\\,\\ that\\ travels\\ together\\ during\\ the\\ recombination\\ process\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ migratory\\ history\\.\\ \\ Earlier\\,\\ younger\\ polymorphisms\\ tend\\ to\\ travel\\ in\\ bigger\\ haplotypes\\,\\ whereas\\ older\\ ones\\ travel\\ in\\ smaller\\ haplotypes\\.\\ \\ Looking\\ at\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ a\\ haplotype\\/polymorphism\\ tells\\ you\\ if\\ it\\'s\\ new\\ or\\ old\\.\\ \\ The\\ ones\\ that\\ are\\ heading\\ down\\ toward\\ South\\ America\\ are\\ newer\\ because\\ they\\'re\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ migratory\\ path\\ that\\ originated\\ from\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ these\\ polymorphisms\\ travel\\ down\\ through\\ generations\\ in\\ bigger\\ chunks\\ of\\ DNA\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\'s\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ this\\?\\ \\ It\\ helps\\ us\\ identify\\ correlations\\ between\\ genes\\ and\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Since\\ 2000\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ EXPLOSION\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ successful\\ correlations\\ between\\ genes\\ and\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ In\\ 2000\\,\\ we\\ had\\ one\\ discovery\\.\\ \\ In\\ 2006\\,\\ we\\ had\\ 7\\ discoveries\\.\\ \\ In\\ only\\ the\\ first\\ 9\\ months\\ of\\ 2007\\,\\ which\\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ says\\ we\\ will\\ call\\ \\\"The\\ Year\\ of\\ Genetic\\ \\\"\\,\\ we\\ have\\ already\\ had\\ 38\\ correlations\\ between\\ genes\\ and\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ growth\\ will\\ only\\ continue\\,\\ and\\ it\\ has\\ taken\\ place\\ because\\ of\\ several\\ revcent\\ developments\\.\\ \\ Mapping\\ the\\ entire\\ human\\ genome\\,\\ then\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ genes\\ travel\\ in\\ chunks\\ like\\ haplotypes\\,\\ which\\ reduced\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ polymorphisms\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ from\\ 10\\ million\\ to\\ 10\\ thousand\\,\\ then\\ discovering\\ technology\\ that\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ pinpoint\\ genes\\ in\\ individuals\\ \\(which\\ we\\'ll\\ learn\\ about\\ next\\ lecture\\)\\ made\\ correlating\\ genes\\ to\\ diseases\\ much\\ easier\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Diseases\\ like\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ which\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ understand\\ at\\ all\\ right\\ now\\,\\ will\\ likely\\ be\\ unlocked\\ very\\ soon\\ thanks\\ to\\ these\\ developments\\ in\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ genes\\ and\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ class\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ variation\\ in\\ RNA\\ \\(whereas\\ today\\ looked\\ at\\ DNA\\)\\,\\ and\\ continue\\ our\\ discussions\\ in\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"The\\ Science\\ and\\ Business\\ of\\ Genetic\\ Ancestry\\ Testing\\\"\\ \\-\\ Science\\ Magazine\\,\\ 10\\/19\\/07\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ past\\ 6\\ years\\,\\ 460\\,000\\ people\\ have\\ purchased\\ \\\"genetic\\ ancestry\\ tests\\\"\\ that\\ let\\ people\\ reconstruct\\ their\\ family\\ histories\\ and\\ determine\\ the\\ geographic\\ origins\\ of\\ their\\ ancestors\\ \\(they\\ usually\\ cost\\ \\$100\\-\\$900\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ article\\ raises\\ 3\\ risks\\ concerning\\ these\\ tests\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(1\\)\\ \\ the\\ tests\\'\\ impact\\ on\\ people\\ can\\ be\\ surprisingly\\ profound\\.\\ \\ Some\\ people\\'s\\ identities\\ change\\ dramatically\\ when\\ they\\ perceive\\ themselves\\ as\\ being\\ part\\ of\\ one\\ ethnic\\ group\\ but\\ find\\ their\\ ancestry\\ traces\\ them\\ to\\ another\\.\\ \\ Some\\ people\\ use\\ the\\ tests\\ to\\ prove\\ Native\\ American\\ tribal\\ affiliation\\,\\ which\\ lets\\ them\\ gain\\ benefits\\ like\\ financial\\ support\\,\\ housing\\,\\ education\\,\\ and\\ health\\ care\\.\\ \\ Others\\ have\\ used\\ the\\ tests\\ to\\ challenge\\ tribal\\ membership\\ decisions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(2\\)\\ the\\ tests\\'\\ assumptions\\ and\\ limitations\\ can\\ make\\ them\\ less\\ informative\\ than\\ they\\ seem\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ most\\ tests\\ attribute\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ an\\ allele\\ in\\ one\\'s\\ genetics\\ to\\ the\\ geographic\\ location\\ where\\ it\\ was\\ most\\ prevalent\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ they\\ sometimes\\ fail\\ to\\ mention\\ that\\ some\\ alleles\\ can\\ be\\ inherited\\ from\\ populations\\ and\\ regions\\ where\\ those\\ alleles\\ are\\ less\\ prevalent\\.\\ \\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ consumers\\ don\\'t\\ realize\\ that\\ the\\ tests\\ are\\ probablistic\\ and\\ uncertain\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(3\\)\\ commercialization\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ misleading\\ practices\\ that\\ reinforce\\ misconceptions\\.\\ \\ These\\ tests\\ are\\ made\\ by\\ scientists\\ who\\ profit\\ the\\ more\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ tests\\.\\ \\ Because\\ the\\ companies\\ keep\\ their\\ databases\\ proprietary\\,\\ other\\ scientists\\ have\\ a\\ harder\\ time\\ verifying\\ the\\ companies\\'\\ findings\\,\\ and\\ are\\ often\\ disincentivized\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\23AndMe\\ \\-\\ New\\ DNA\\ Coding\\ Company\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.wired\\.com\\/medtech\\/genetics\\/magazine\\/15\\-12\\/ff\\_genomics\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ finally\\,\\ a\\ link\\ from\\ Andrew\\ my\\ employer\\ to\\ an\\ excellent\\ article\\ in\\\"Wired\\\"\\ magazine\\ about\\ a\\ Silicon\\ Valley\\ company\\ backed\\ by\\ Google\\ \\(the\\ founder\\ is\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ Google\\ founder\\ Sergey\\ Brin\\)\\ that\\ will\\ have\\ you\\ spit\\ in\\ a\\ cup\\,\\ pay\\ an\\ amount\\ that\\'s\\ currently\\ around\\ \\$1\\,000\\ and\\ will\\ hopefully\\ fall\\ ever\\ lower\\.\\ \\ In\\ return\\,\\ you\\'ll\\ hear\\ about\\ both\\ your\\ genetic\\ future\\ \\(will\\ you\\ get\\ heart\\ disease\\?\\)\\ and\\ your\\ ancestral\\ past\\.\\ \\ In\\ addition\\,\\ the\\ more\\ customers\\ 23AndMe\\ has\\,\\ the\\ more\\ replete\\ its\\ database\\ becomes\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ helpful\\ for\\ society\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ for\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ research\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Google\\ founder\\ Sergey\\ Brin\\ has\\ helped\\ push\\ Google\\ into\\ his\\ wife\\'s\\ new\\ busines\\,\\ 23AndMe\\,\\ which\\ provides\\ customers\\ with\\ personal\\ genetic\\ information\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Variations in the Human Genome, and their Relationship to Diseases"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.782769+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Gene Expression Variation and its Relationship to Disease Diagnosis and Treatment", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 461, "html": "\\\\\\\\Variation\\ in\\ gene\\ expression\\ provides\\ clues\\ to\\ diagnosis\\ and\\ treatment\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Hey\\ there\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\so\\ this\\ is\\ lecture\\ 2\\/5\\ of\\ Part\\ 3\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ Whereas\\ last\\ lecture\\ was\\ titled\\ \\\"Variation\\ in\\ our\\ genomes\\ provides\\ clues\\ to\\ human\\ disease\\,\\\"\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ is\\ about\\ variation\\ in\\ gene\\ expression\\ and\\ its\\ relationship\\ to\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Techniques\\ that\\ Measure\\ the\\ Relative\\ Abundance\\ of\\ mRNA\\ \\(messenger\\ RNA\\)\\ Molecules\\ in\\ a\\ Given\\ Cell\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 3\\ parts\\.\\ \\ Part\\ 1\\ will\\ be\\ about\\ the\\ underlying\\ system\\ and\\ technology\\ behind\\ looking\\ at\\ disease\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ RNA\\ messenger\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ leukemia\\,\\ a\\ blood\\-born\\ cancer\\,\\ and\\ take\\ an\\ overarching\\ look\\ at\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ this\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(\\\"\\Existence\\ is\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ precarious\\ attainment\\ of\\ relevance\\ in\\ an\\ intensely\\ mobile\\ flux\\ of\\ past\\,\\ present\\,\\ and\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\"\\ \\-\\ Susan\\ Sontag\\,\\ American\\ writer\\ and\\ intellectual\\,\\ who\\ suffered\\ from\\ cancer\\ for\\ almost\\ 30\\ years\\ before\\ dying\\ of\\ AML\\ leukemia\\ in\\ 2004\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>To\\ step\\ off\\ the\\ track\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ here\\,\\ it\\'s\\ important\\ to\\ reiterate\\ what\\ a\\ genotype\\ and\\ phenotype\\ are\\.\\ \\ A\\ genotype\\ is\\ the\\ specific\\ DNA\\ sequence\\ that\\ you\\ have\\,\\ relative\\ to\\ a\\ \\\"reference\\ sequence\\\"\\ for\\ all\\ humans\\.\\ \\ Remember\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ 10\\ million\\ polymorphisms\\ within\\ each\\ human\\'s\\ DNA\\,\\ there\\ are\\ only\\ 10\\,000\\ polymorphisms\\ \\(SNPs\\)\\ where\\ differences\\ between\\ humans\\ exist\\.\\ \\ Measuring\\ individual\\ genotypes\\ and\\ their\\ differences\\ at\\ those\\ 10\\,000\\ sites\\ is\\ now\\ becoming\\ possible\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ now\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ measure\\ \\phenotypes\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ our\\ physical\\ expressions\\ of\\ our\\ genotypes\\,\\ equally\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Every\\ cell\\ in\\ your\\ body\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ DNA\\ and\\ genome\\,\\ but\\ each\\ cell\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ perform\\ a\\ different\\ function\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ different\\ genes\\ turned\\ on\\ or\\ off\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Those\\ genes\\ are\\ turned\\ on\\ or\\ off\\ by\\ RNA\\ messenger\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ \\ Whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ gene\\ is\\ turned\\ on\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ \\ There\\ can\\ be\\ as\\ few\\ as\\ 0\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\,\\ or\\ as\\ many\\ as\\ 1\\ million\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Reading\\ Leukemia\\ and\\ Microarrays\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Your\\ blood\\ cells\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ become\\ tumors\\,\\ and\\ when\\ they\\ do\\ and\\ begin\\ to\\ float\\ throughout\\ your\\ body\\,\\ you\\ then\\ have\\ leukemia\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sydney\\ Farber\\ \\(1903\\-1973\\)\\,\\ a\\ Boston\\ pathologist\\ who\\ treated\\ leukemia\\ patients\\ for\\ 40\\ years\\,\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ noticing\\ leukemia\\ came\\ in\\ two\\ forms\\:\\ \\ \\\"AML\\\"\\,\\ and\\ \\\"ALL\\\"\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Each\\ form\\ of\\ leukemia\\ requires\\ different\\ treatments\\,\\ so\\ it\\'s\\ important\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ process\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ these\\ different\\ diseases\\ emerging\\.\\ \\ To\\ find\\ that\\ process\\,\\ we\\ can\\ look\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ Central\\ Dogma\\:\\ \\ DNA\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ RNA\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Proteins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ RNA\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ levels\\ at\\ which\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ cells\\ \\(since\\ they\\ turn\\ disease\\-causing\\ genes\\ on\\ or\\ off\\)\\,\\ and\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ which\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\,000\\ genes\\ the\\ RNA\\ is\\ turning\\ on\\ or\\ off\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ leukemia\\,\\ RNA\\ is\\ probably\\ turning\\ on\\ or\\ off\\ different\\ genes\\ in\\ each\\ type\\ of\\ leukemia\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ 1990s\\,\\ breakthroughs\\ were\\ made\\ in\\ identifying\\ and\\ differentiating\\ AML\\ from\\ ALL\\,\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ \\\"microarrays\\.\\\"\\ \\ Microarrays\\ are\\ thin\\,\\ handheld\\ devices\\ \\(below\\)\\.\\ \\ They\\ have\\ tiny\\ sheets\\ of\\ glass\\,\\ on\\ which\\ 1\\ million\\ DNA\\ molecules\\ \\(25\\ base\\-pairs\\ long\\ each\\)\\ have\\ been\\ synthesized\\,\\ through\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ microprocessor\\ chips\\ are\\ built\\ in\\ Silicon\\ Valley\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>Now\\,\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ device\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ a\\ patient\\ has\\ AML\\ or\\ ALL\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ take\\ a\\ tumor\\ cell\\,\\ then\\ grind\\ it\\ up\\.\\ \\ Allow\\ the\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ tumor\\ cell\\,\\ collect\\ them\\,\\ tinker\\ with\\ them\\ \\(attaching\\ fluorescent\\,\\ light\\-emitting\\ beacons\\ to\\ them\\)\\,\\ then\\ take\\ this\\ processed\\ RNA\\ and\\ inject\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ liquid\\ solution\\ into\\ your\\ hand\\ held\\ microarray\\ device\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ happens\\ then\\?\\ \\ You\\ have\\ these\\ little\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ with\\ fluorescent\\ beacons\\ on\\ them\\,\\ and\\ they\\ start\\ to\\ look\\ around\\ for\\ the\\ complementary\\ base\\-pair\\ sequence\\ that\\'s\\ been\\ synthesized\\ onto\\ the\\ microarray\\ glass\\.\\ \\ \\ Now\\,\\ since\\ you\\ know\\ the\\ sequence\\ of\\ your\\ 1\\ million\\ DNA\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ since\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ much\\ fluorescent\\ light\\ is\\ being\\ emitted\\ in\\ which\\ areas\\,\\ you\\ can\\ tell\\ which\\ DNA\\ molecules\\ are\\ combining\\ with\\ the\\ RNA\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(A\\ microarray\\:\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ color\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ fluorescent\\ light\\ markers\\ attached\\ to\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ that\\ come\\ from\\ tumor\\ cells\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>When\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ microarray\\ from\\ leukemia\\ patients\\,\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ microarrays\\ of\\ patients\\ with\\ AML\\ cluster\\ their\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ in\\ one\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ DNA\\ on\\ their\\ microarray\\,\\ while\\ patients\\ with\\ ALL\\ cluster\\ their\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ DNA\\ on\\ their\\ microarray\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Translation\\:\\ \\ AML\\ patients\\ over\\-express\\ a\\ certain\\ set\\ of\\ genes\\ that\\ ALL\\ patients\\ under\\-express\\,\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\.\\ \\ The\\ RNA\\ molecules\\ are\\ turning\\ on\\ different\\ genes\\ in\\ each\\ type\\ of\\ patient\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/3\\:\\ \\ \\\"Expression\\ Profiling\\\"\\ Techniques\\ Provide\\ Hints\\ for\\ Therapeutic\\ Intervention\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ microarrays\\ can\\ diagnose\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ Now\\ let\\'s\\ see\\ how\\ they\\ cure\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\After\\ Sydney\\ Farber\\ divided\\ leukemia\\ into\\ AML\\ and\\ ALL\\,\\ we\\'ve\\ learned\\ ALL\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ sub\\-classifications\\,\\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ call\\ ALL\\-\\ \\(\\\"A\\-L\\-L\\ minus\\\"\\)\\ and\\ ALL\\+\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'re\\ going\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ a\\ gene\\ called\\ FLT3\\ kinase\\,\\ pronounced\\ \\\"Flit\\ Three\\ K\\-eye\\ naze\\.\\\"\\ \\ \\ The\\ FLT3\\ kinase\\ gene\\ cauess\\ ALL\\-\\ to\\ occur\\!\\ \\ We\\ have\\ learned\\ that\\ cancers\\ can\\ be\\ addicted\\ to\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ a\\ certain\\ gene\\,\\ and\\ ALL\\-\\ is\\ addicted\\ to\\ FLT3\\ kinase\\!\\ \\ So\\ if\\ we\\ target\\ this\\ gene\\,\\ we\\ can\\ kill\\ the\\ tumor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\By\\ mapping\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ mRNA\\ molecules\\ on\\ DNA\\ microarrays\\,\\ we\\ learned\\ about\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ ALL\\ and\\ AML\\,\\ and\\ within\\ ALL\\,\\ between\\ ALL\\-\\ and\\ ALL\\+\\.\\ \\ We\\ found\\ the\\ FLT3\\ kinase\\ gene\\ that\\ was\\ causing\\ ALL\\-\\ leukemia\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ international\\ effort\\ that\\ has\\ begun\\ that\\ aims\\ to\\ map\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ cancer\\.\\ \\ \\ This\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ taking\\ samples\\ of\\ normal\\ cell\\ tissues\\ from\\ various\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ \\(breasts\\,\\ lungs\\,\\ liver\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ Healthy\\ cells\\ like\\ these\\ have\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ become\\ cancerous\\ someday\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ the\\ mRNA\\ levels\\ in\\ these\\ cells\\ are\\ measured\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\,\\ cells\\ from\\ cancer\\ patients\\ are\\ studied\\,\\ along\\ with\\ their\\ mRNA\\ levels\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Comparing\\ these\\ cells\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ distinguish\\ these\\ tissues\\,\\ and\\ these\\ cancers\\,\\ from\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ Then\\ we\\ can\\ ask\\ these\\ questions\\:\\ \\ are\\ there\\ sub\\-classifications\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ cancer\\,\\ as\\ there\\ were\\ within\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\?\\ \\ And\\ most\\ importantly\\:\\ \\ can\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ FLT3\\ kinase\\ gene\\ for\\ breast\\ cancer\\?\\ \\ And\\ can\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ will\\ target\\ this\\ gene\\ and\\ inhibit\\ its\\ effects\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Cancer\\ kills\\ because\\ it\\ causes\\ organs\\ to\\ fail\\.\\ \\ It\\ metastasizes\\,\\ or\\ breaks\\ off\\ from\\ its\\ original\\ location\\,\\ and\\ travels\\ through\\ the\\ body\\ before\\ lodging\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ organ\\.\\ \\ There\\,\\ it\\ degrades\\ the\\ organ\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ it\\ can\\'t\\ function\\ anymore\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ often\\ don\\'t\\ find\\ cancers\\ until\\ they\\ have\\ metastasized\\,\\ and\\ when\\ we\\ do\\ find\\ them\\,\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ find\\ where\\ the\\ metastasized\\ cancer\\ originated\\ from\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ we\\'re\\ starting\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\.\\ \\ We\\'re\\ realizing\\ that\\ cancerous\\ tumors\\ can\\ be\\ run\\ through\\ a\\ microarray\\ and\\ based\\ on\\ which\\ genes\\ have\\ been\\ turned\\ on\\ or\\ off\\ in\\ these\\ cells\\,\\ we\\ can\\ realize\\ that\\ a\\ cancer\\ cell\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ liver\\ originally\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ lung\\,\\ and\\ that\\ information\\ is\\ vital\\ to\\ telling\\ us\\ how\\ this\\ specific\\ cancer\\ is\\ wired\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ how\\ doctors\\ should\\ treat\\ this\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Writing\\ of\\ cancer\\ in\\ the\\ lung\\ reminded\\ me\\ of\\ Peter\\ Jennings\\'\\ touching\\ final\\ send\\-off\\ from\\ broadcasting\\ the\\ ABC\\ news\\ after\\ he\\ learned\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=0vRfdgU2Q4E\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 3\\/3\\:\\ \\ Gene\\ Expression\\ Profiling\\ Has\\ Become\\ a\\ Universal\\ Language\\ for\\ Living\\ Systems\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ disease\\,\\ a\\ gene\\,\\ and\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ can\\ each\\ contribute\\ to\\ a\\ genome\\-wide\\ mRNA\\ expression\\ profile\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ leukemia\\ and\\ the\\ ALL\\ version\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ ALL\\ is\\ sub\\-classified\\ into\\ ALL\\-\\ and\\ ALL\\+\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ standard\\ treatement\\ for\\ ALL\\ is\\ a\\ drug\\,\\ a\\ steroid\\,\\ called\\ dexamethasone\\.\\ \\ In\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ ALL\\ patients\\,\\ dexamethasone\\ alone\\ will\\ cause\\ leukemia\\ to\\ go\\ away\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ other\\ 1\\/2\\,\\ though\\,\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ effect\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ can\\ predict\\ the\\ effect\\ in\\ an\\ ALL\\ patient\\ by\\ harvesting\\ a\\ blood\\ sample\\ in\\ a\\ petri\\ dish\\ and\\ then\\ watching\\ its\\ interaction\\ with\\ dexamethasone\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ treating\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\ cancer\\,\\ we\\ would\\ try\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ cells\\ in\\ blood\\ samples\\ of\\ dexamethasone\\-resistant\\ patients\\ to\\ change\\ states\\,\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ become\\ sensitive\\ to\\ dexamethasone\\,\\ then\\ we\\ would\\ treat\\ them\\ with\\ dexamethasone\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ do\\ we\\ do\\ that\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ start\\ by\\ taking\\ bone\\ marrow\\ cells\\ that\\ are\\ resistant\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ some\\ that\\ are\\ sensitive\\,\\ to\\ dexamethasone\\.\\ \\ Then\\ you\\ run\\ them\\ through\\ microarrays\\,\\ and\\ determine\\ which\\ cells\\ overexpress\\ and\\ underexpress\\ the\\ genes\\ that\\ cause\\ sensitivity\\ to\\ dexamethasone\\.\\ \\ Then\\ you\\ submit\\ your\\ results\\ to\\ the\\ global\\ database\\ of\\ this\\ information\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ results\\ reveal\\ that\\ sirolimus\\,\\ a\\ naturally\\ occuring\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ Easter\\ Island\\,\\ has\\ a\\ strongly\\ positive\\ correlation\\ to\\ inducing\\ cells\\ into\\ a\\ dexamethasone\\-sensitive\\ state\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ can\\ we\\ treat\\ dexamethasone\\-resistant\\ patients\\ with\\ sirolimus\\,\\ which\\ will\\ make\\ their\\ leukemia\\ cancer\\ cells\\ sensitive\\ to\\ dexamethasone\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ treat\\ these\\ patients\\ with\\ dexamethasone\\ and\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\?\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ interesting\\ how\\ so\\ many\\ developments\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ reach\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ treat\\ diseases\\ so\\ specifically\\.\\ \\ Regardless\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ further\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ in\\ this\\ realm\\,\\ we\\ have\\ already\\ come\\ so\\ far\\,\\ and\\ that\\ progress\\ has\\ been\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ sharing\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ the\\ collaboration\\ between\\ scientists\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ The\\ internet\\ surely\\ makes\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ sharing\\ easier\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ makes\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ progress\\ will\\ only\\ be\\ impeded\\ if\\ science\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ it\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ done\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ if\\ scientists\\ guard\\ their\\ ideas\\ and\\ discoveries\\ instead\\ of\\ sharing\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ general\\ community\\.\\ \\ He\\ seems\\ to\\ yearn\\ for\\ a\\ day\\ when\\ the\\ scientific\\ community\\ can\\ freely\\ collaborate\\ and\\ share\\ information\\,\\ such\\ that\\ its\\ overall\\ contributions\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ would\\ become\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ its\\ individual\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ developments\\ in\\ looking\\ at\\ mRNA\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ future\\,\\ we\\ will\\ tackle\\ more\\ difficult\\ subjects\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ like\\ small\\ molecules\\ and\\ proteins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Alright\\,\\ that\\'s\\ it\\ for\\ today\\.\\ \\ Next\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ systematic\\ method\\ for\\ discovering\\ new\\ and\\ better\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ lastly\\,\\ I\\'ll\\ close\\ with\\ a\\ link\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ beautiful\\ song\\/video\\ compilations\\ I\\'ve\\ seen\\ in\\ a\\ while\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ Albert\\ Gonzalez\\'s\\ \\\"Heartbeats\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ won\\'t\\ try\\ to\\ draw\\ any\\ connections\\ to\\ Molecules\\ of\\ Life\\,\\ relationships\\ between\\ \\\"heartbeats\\\"\\ and\\ this\\ class\\'s\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ body\\,\\ colorful\\ bouncy\\ balls\\ evoking\\ small\\ molecules\\ traveling\\ through\\ the\\ body\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ San\\ Francisco\\,\\ and\\ the\\ like\\.\\ \\ That\\ would\\ be\\ dumb\\!\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=iB32Qu2OrnU\\&\\;feature\\=related\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>Enjoy\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Connecting\\ the\\ Dots\\ Using\\ Gene\\ Expression\\ Profiles\\\"\\ \\-\\ Stephen\\ R\\.\\ Gullans\\,\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\,\\ \\The\\ New\\ England\\ Journal\\ of\\ Medicine\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ 11\\/09\\/06\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ article\\ looks\\ at\\ a\\ repository\\,\\ dubbed\\ the\\ \\\"connectivity\\ map\\,\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\-expression\\ profiles\\ of\\ human\\ cells\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ cultured\\ in\\ vitro\\ and\\ systemically\\ exposed\\ to\\ small\\ bioactive\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ The\\ connectivity\\ map\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ tool\\ that\\ will\\ enable\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ connections\\ between\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ diseases\\,\\ and\\ the\\ biological\\ pathways\\ that\\ join\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ connectivity\\ map\\ includes\\ \\\"signatures\\\"\\ of\\ 164\\ distinct\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ among\\ them\\ drugs\\ approved\\ by\\ the\\ FDA\\ and\\ diseases\\ such\\ as\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\.\\ \\ It\\ will\\ be\\ accessible\\ through\\ the\\ internet\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ consist\\ of\\ 3\\ main\\ elements\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(1\\)\\ \\ a\\ large\\ reference\\ database\\\\ \\<\\/sup\\>of\\ gene\\-expression\\ signatures\\ for\\ diseases\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\\\ \\<\\/sup\\>obtained\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ DNA\\ microarray\\ technology\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(2\\)\\ \\ software\\\\ \\<\\/sup\\>that\\ classifies\\ the\\ signatures\\ and\\ compares\\ them\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ and\\\\ \\<\\/sup\\>\\\\(3\\)\\ \\ an\\ interface\\ that\\ allows\\ users\\ to\\ \\\"query\\\"\\ the\\ database\\ using\\\\ \\<\\/sup\\>their\\ own\\ signatures\\ of\\ interest\\ to\\ discover\\ connections\\ and\\\\ \\<\\/sup\\>form\\ testable\\ hypotheses\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ connectivity\\ map\\ will\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ recognize\\ unintended\\ effects\\ of\\ small\\ molecule\\ drugs\\ on\\ the\\ body\\ before\\ we\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ enable\\ us\\ to\\ find\\ new\\ treatments\\ for\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ example\\,\\ an\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ signature\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\ can\\ be\\ recognized\\,\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ could\\ be\\ found\\ that\\ would\\ reverse\\ the\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ signature\\ on\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ \\ In\\ vitro\\ tests\\ have\\ recently\\ shown\\ that\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ neurotoxic\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ hallmark\\ pathogenesis\\ of\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ can\\ be\\ reversed\\ in\\ this\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\ Perhaps\\ we\\ will\\ soon\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ reverse\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ effect\\ in\\ human\\ bodies\\ as\\ well\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ cells\\ in\\ petri\\ dishes\\ proves\\ similar\\ to\\ their\\ behavior\\ in\\ the\\ complex\\ environment\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ body\\,\\ then\\ this\\ publicly\\ available\\ internet\\ resource\\ may\\ prove\\ hugely\\ valuable\\ to\\ enabling\\ the\\ entire\\ scientific\\ community\\ to\\ discover\\ cures\\ to\\ currently\\ untreatable\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Gene Expression Variation and its Relationship to Disease Diagnosis and Treatment"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.800421+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Small Molecules Teach Us About Life Processes", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 462, "html": "\\Hey\\ again\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\time\\ for\\ lecture\\ 16\\.\\ \\ More\\ Schreiber\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ natural\\ differences\\ in\\ DNA\\ and\\ RNA\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ 2\\ lectures\\,\\ and\\ now\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ small\\ molecules\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ switch\\ cells\\ from\\ a\\ diseased\\ state\\ to\\ a\\ healthy\\ state\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ we\\ won\\'t\\ talk\\ about\\ small\\ molecules\\ as\\ medicines\\,\\ but\\ as\\ probes\\,\\ or\\ tools\\,\\ that\\ study\\ living\\ systems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ How\\ Small\\ Molecules\\ Teach\\ us\\ About\\ Proteins\\'\\ Functioning\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Small\\ molecules\\ can\\ activate\\ or\\ inactivate\\ a\\ protein\\'s\\ function\\,\\ which\\ lets\\ us\\ learn\\ about\\ the\\ protein\\'s\\ function\\ in\\ a\\ living\\ cell\\ or\\ organism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ our\\ first\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ naturally\\ occuring\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ like\\ testosterone\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ also\\ seen\\ small\\ molecules\\ emerging\\ as\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ Recall\\ pioglitazone\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ diabetes\\ drugs\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ a\\ couple\\ lectures\\ ago\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ small\\ molecules\\ and\\ mutations\\ as\\ tools\\/probes\\ of\\ living\\ systems\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Alright\\,\\ now\\ recall\\ that\\ we\\ observed\\ living\\ systems\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ DNA\\ and\\ RNA\\ variation\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ we\\ Perturb\\ living\\ systems\\ by\\ scnaning\\ and\\ screening\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ will\\ be\\ our\\ first\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ Perturbing\\ side\\ of\\ things\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ small\\ molecules\\ as\\ perturbogens\\.\\ \\ Next\\ week\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ we\\ find\\ perturbogens\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ them\\ we\\ should\\ use\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ when\\ we\\ say\\ \\\"life\\ processes\\,\\\"\\ we\\ mean\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ things\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ how\\ a\\ fertilized\\ egg\\ becomes\\ a\\ live\\ baby\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ looked\\ at\\ how\\ DNA\\,\\ or\\ genes\\,\\ gets\\ activated\\ by\\ mRNA\\,\\ and\\ today\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ the\\ mRNA\\ activates\\ the\\ genes\\ to\\ produce\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ The\\ proteins\\ then\\ drive\\ life\\ processes\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Could\\ it\\ be\\ that\\ specific\\ levels\\ of\\ mRNA\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ cells\\ in\\ this\\ boy\\'s\\ body\\ produced\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ proteins\\ that\\ drove\\ him\\ to\\ seek\\ this\\ thrill\\ of\\ jumping\\ off\\ a\\ bridge\\ into\\ the\\ Euphrates\\ River\\?\\ \\ Beautiful\\ photo\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 2\\/3\\:\\ \\ Mutations\\ or\\ Polymorphisms\\ in\\ Genes\\ Modulate\\ Living\\ Systems\\ and\\ Teach\\ Us\\ a\\ Great\\ Deal\\ About\\ Them\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ perturb\\ a\\ life\\ system\\?\\ \\ Two\\ Ways\\:\\ \\ Genetics\\,\\ and\\ Chemical\\ Genetics\\.\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1st\\ Way\\:\\ \\ Genetics\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ identify\\ mutations\\ in\\ genes\\.\\ \\ We\\ might\\ have\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ a\\ \\\"founder\\,\\\"\\ the\\ first\\ person\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ mutation\\.\\ \\ The\\ founder\\ of\\ a\\ hemoglobin\\ mutation\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ had\\ a\\ partial\\ resistance\\ to\\ malaria\\,\\ so\\ his\\ mutation\\ lived\\ on\\ and\\ was\\ enriched\\ in\\ his\\ population\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ that\\ mutation\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ polymorphism\\.\\ \\ And\\ if\\ you\\ get\\ two\\ genes\\ with\\ the\\ hemoglobin\\ polymorphism\\,\\ you\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ sickle\\ cell\\ anemia\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ gene\\ mutations\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ faulty\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ Faulty\\ proteins\\ do\\ 2\\ things\\:\\ \\ they\\ inactivate\\ genes\\,\\ and\\ they\\ \\over\\<\\/em\\>activate\\ genes\\.\\ \\ Overactivated\\ genes\\ include\\ prodynorphin\\,\\ which\\ professor\\ Clardy\\ talked\\ about\\ recently\\.\\ \\ Some\\ people\\ have\\ multiple\\ copies\\ of\\ prodynorphin\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ them\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ opioids\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\An\\ example\\ of\\ probes\\ of\\ living\\ systems\\:\\ \\ you\\'ll\\ recall\\ from\\ past\\ lectures\\ that\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ a\\ polymorphism\\ from\\ a\\ founder\\ whose\\ mutation\\ in\\ the\\ CCR5\\ gene\\ caused\\ the\\ gene\\ to\\ stop\\ working\\ and\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ CCR5\\ protein\\ to\\ cease\\.\\ \\ 1\\%\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ population\\ has\\ both\\ copies\\ of\\ this\\ defective\\ polymorphism\\ in\\ their\\ genes\\,\\ and\\ that\\ makes\\ them\\ immune\\ to\\ HIV\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Tom\\ Hanks\\ won\\ an\\ Oscar\\ in\\ 1994\\ for\\ playing\\ this\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ gay\\ man\\ dying\\ of\\ AIDS\\ in\\ \\Philadelphia\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ The\\ theme\\ song\\ for\\ the\\ film\\,\\ linked\\ to\\ here\\,\\ won\\ both\\ an\\ Oscar\\ and\\ Grammy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=9L9\\_8vwx2w8\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>By\\ looking\\ at\\ natural\\ variation\\,\\ we\\ learned\\ 2\\ things\\ about\\ CCR5\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(1\\)\\ \\ 1\\-2\\%\\ of\\ us\\ have\\ \\no\\<\\/u\\>\\ CCR5\\ protein\\ thanks\\ to\\ the\\ mutation\\ described\\ above\\,\\ but\\ surprisingly\\,\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ see\\ any\\ harmful\\ effects\\ of\\ lacking\\ this\\ protein\\.\\ \\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ live\\ without\\ this\\ is\\ something\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ never\\ learned\\ without\\ discovering\\ this\\ genetic\\ mutation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(2\\)\\ \\ CCR5\\ is\\ what\\ HIV\\ uses\\ to\\ enter\\ and\\ infect\\ T\\-limpho\\ site\\ cells\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ it\\ to\\ become\\ harbored\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ eventually\\ turn\\ into\\ full\\-blown\\ AIDS\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cancer\\,\\ in\\ Light\\ of\\ Our\\ Discussion\\ of\\ Tools\\ and\\ Probes\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Founder\\ mutations\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ polymorphisms\\ that\\ are\\ inherited\\ genes\\ because\\ they\\ pass\\ through\\ \\\"germ\\ cells\\.\\\"\\ \\ Germ\\ cells\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"germline\\,\\\"\\ a\\ line\\ of\\ \\(germ\\)\\ cells\\ involved\\ in\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\ They\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ confused\\ with\\ actual\\ germs\\,\\ or\\ pathogens\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Germ\\ cells\\ are\\ different\\ than\\ somatic\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Somatic\\ cells\\ are\\ cells\\ in\\ your\\ body\\ uninvolved\\ with\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\ Mutations\\ in\\ somatic\\ cells\\ are\\ not\\ passed\\ down\\ to\\ future\\ generations\\,\\ whereas\\ mutations\\ in\\ germ\\ cells\\ are\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(A\\ male\\ fetal\\ germ\\ cell\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>CCR5\\ mutations\\ are\\ inherited\\ because\\ they\\'re\\ in\\ the\\ germline\\.\\ \\ Cancer\\ involves\\ mutations\\ in\\ somatic\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ various\\ agents\\:\\ \\ too\\ much\\ sun\\ exposure\\,\\ or\\ exposure\\ to\\ dangerous\\ chemicals\\.\\ \\ Sometimes\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ rare\\ case\\ occurs\\ where\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ a\\ germline\\ cell\\ causes\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ a\\ somatic\\ cell\\ in\\ subsequent\\ generations\\.\\ \\ Such\\ a\\ cancer\\-causing\\ gene\\ is\\ called\\ an\\ \\\"oncogene\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Activating\\ an\\ oncogene\\ will\\ drive\\ a\\ cell\\ to\\ ceaselessly\\ self\\-divide\\.\\ \\ The\\ thing\\ is\\,\\ though\\,\\ cells\\ have\\ built\\-in\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ tell\\ them\\ to\\ stop\\ excessively\\ self\\-dividing\\.\\ \\ To\\ have\\ cancer\\,\\ you\\ not\\ only\\ need\\ to\\ activate\\ the\\ oncogene\\ into\\ carrying\\ out\\ the\\ ceaseless\\ division\\ of\\ cells\\,\\ you\\ also\\ need\\ \\another\\<\\/em\\>\\ mutation\\ that\\ inactivates\\ the\\ tumor\\ suppressor\\ genes\\,\\ the\\ \\\"brakes\\\"\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\2nd\\ Way\\ to\\ Perturb\\ a\\ Life\\ System\\:\\ \\ \\\"Chemical\\ Genetics\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ second\\ way\\ to\\ perturb\\ a\\ life\\ system\\ is\\ to\\ bypass\\ the\\ gene\\.\\ \\ You\\ start\\ with\\ a\\ normal\\ protein\\ and\\ then\\ add\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ Because\\ you\\ bypassed\\ the\\ gene\\,\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ effects\\ are\\ not\\ heritable\\.\\ \\ The\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ either\\ inactivate\\ the\\ protein\\ or\\ to\\ activate\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Recall\\ rimonabant\\,\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ antagonist\\ for\\ a\\ canabinoid\\ G\\-protein\\ coupled\\ receptor\\ that\\ we\\ called\\ \\\"CB1\\.\\\"\\ \\ Professor\\ Clardy\\ talked\\ about\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ marijuana\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ He\\ mentioned\\ that\\ normal\\ mice\\ treated\\ with\\ the\\ CB1\\ antagonist\\ rimonabant\\ behaved\\ similarly\\ to\\ mice\\ that\\ had\\ had\\ their\\ gene\\ that\\ coded\\ for\\ CB1\\ mutated\\ such\\ that\\ it\\ couldn\\'t\\ code\\ for\\ the\\ CB1\\ receptor\\.\\ \\ Both\\ groups\\ of\\ mice\\ continued\\ to\\ fear\\ a\\ shock\\ after\\ a\\ tone\\ was\\ played\\,\\ long\\ after\\ the\\ scientists\\ had\\ stopped\\ shocking\\ them\\ after\\ the\\ tone\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Normal\\ mice\\,\\ by\\ contrast\\,\\ eventually\\ realized\\ to\\ stop\\ fearing\\ the\\ shock\\ after\\ the\\ tone\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ CB1\\ receptors\\ were\\ critical\\ in\\ helping\\ the\\ mice\\ lose\\ their\\ aversive\\ learning\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Rimonabant\\ is\\ also\\ sold\\ online\\ as\\ a\\ weight\\-loss\\ drug\\ that\\ limits\\ your\\ appetite\\.\\ \\ This\\ picture\\ accompanied\\ one\\ such\\ ad\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>The\\ small\\ molecule\\ rimonabant\\ mimicked\\,\\ or\\ \\\"phenocopied\\,\\\"\\ the\\ gene\\ mutation\\ that\\ couldn\\'t\\ couldn\\'t\\ produce\\ CB1\\ receptors\\.\\ \\ This\\ makes\\ us\\ think\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ other\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ perform\\ this\\ act\\ of\\ \\\"chemical\\ genetics\\\"\\:\\ \\ enacting\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ genes\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Small\\ Molecules\\:\\ \\ What\\ Are\\ They\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ much\\ as\\ we\\'ve\\ discussed\\ small\\ molecules\\ in\\ this\\ class\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ we\\ still\\ haven\\'t\\ really\\ defined\\ them\\!\\ \\ The\\ reason\\ is\\ because\\,\\ as\\ Schreiber\\ puts\\ it\\,\\ \\\"some\\ things\\ defy\\ definition\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Schreiber\\ humorously\\ alludes\\ to\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Justice\\ Potter\\ Stewart\\ who\\,\\ when\\ discussing\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ hard\\-core\\ pornography\\ in\\ a\\ legal\\ context\\,\\ admitted\\ it\\ was\\ hard\\ to\\ define\\,\\ but\\ concluded\\ regardless\\:\\ \\ \\\"I\\ know\\ it\\ when\\ I\\ see\\ it\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\(Supreme\\ Court\\ Justice\\ Potter\\ Stewart\\ may\\ have\\ known\\ hard\\-core\\ pornography\\ when\\ he\\ saw\\ it\\,\\ but\\ we\\'re\\ not\\ sure\\ if\\ he\\ knew\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ when\\ he\\ saw\\ it\\.\\ \\ Us\\ B\\-47\\ students\\ do\\ know\\ pornog\\-\\,\\ I\\ mean\\,\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ when\\ we\\ see\\ it\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Today\\ we\\'ll\\ learn\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ screen\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ small\\ molecules\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ for\\ the\\ ones\\ that\\ will\\ perform\\ specific\\ functions\\ that\\ we\\ need\\,\\ such\\ as\\ rimonabant\\ which\\ will\\ likely\\ prove\\ useful\\ in\\ recreating\\ the\\ genetic\\ mutation\\ that\\ helps\\ patients\\ deal\\ with\\ post\\-traumatc\\ stress\\ disorder\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ Small\\ Molecules\\ Modulate\\ the\\ Function\\ of\\ the\\ Proteins\\ to\\ Which\\ They\\ Bind\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Binding\\ \\(when\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ joins\\ to\\ a\\ protein\\)\\ can\\ \\inactivate\\ \\<\\/u\\>a\\ protein\\'s\\ function\\.\\ \\ The\\ small\\ molecule\\ ties\\ up\\ the\\ protein\\ and\\ prevents\\ its\\ normal\\ interaction\\ with\\ another\\ protein\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Binding\\ can\\ \\activate\\<\\/u\\>\\ a\\ protein\\'s\\ function\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ T3\\.\\ \\ When\\ T3\\ binds\\ with\\ a\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ receptor\\,\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ it\\ creates\\ a\\ \\new\\ \\<\\/em\\>binding\\ site\\ to\\ which\\ a\\ new\\ protein\\ can\\ now\\ bond\\ to\\ the\\ protein\\.\\ \\ That\\ new\\ protein\\ couldn\\'t\\ bind\\ to\\ T3\\ before\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ thyroid\\ hormone\\ receptor\\ \\(THR\\)\\ arrived\\.\\ \\ Now\\ that\\ the\\ two\\ proteins\\ \\can\\<\\/em\\>\\ bond\\,\\ however\\,\\ they\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ \\\"turn\\ on\\\"\\ various\\ genes\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Rapamycin\\ was\\ first\\ discovered\\ in\\ soil\\ samples\\ from\\ Easter\\ Island\\,\\ a\\ Chilean\\-governed\\ island\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ Pacific\\ famous\\ for\\ its\\ enigmatic\\ ancient\\ statues\\ built\\ almost\\ 4\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Next\\ Schreiber\\ showed\\ us\\ an\\ animation\\ of\\ rapamycin\\,\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\'s\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ Sirolimus\\ \\(last\\ lecture\\ we\\ talked\\ of\\ using\\ sirolimus\\ to\\ induce\\ leukemia\\ cells\\ into\\ becoming\\ sensitive\\ to\\ dexamethasone\\,\\ which\\ inactivates\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\ in\\ patients\\)\\ \\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ one\\ protein\\,\\ enabling\\ that\\ protein\\ to\\ bond\\ to\\ a\\ second\\ protein\\.\\ \\ The\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ proteins\\ and\\ rapamycin\\ turns\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ treating\\ both\\ cancer\\ and\\ diabetes\\,\\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ next\\ week\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Differences\\ Between\\ Mutations\\ and\\ Small\\ Molecules\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ far\\,\\ in\\ looking\\ at\\ how\\ to\\ perturb\\ life\\ systems\\ using\\ \\\"chemical\\ genetics\\,\\\"\\ we\\'ve\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ similarities\\ between\\ gene\\ mutations\\ and\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ Now\\ let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ their\\ differences\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Difference\\ 1\\:\\ \\ Gene\\ mutations\\ remove\\ encoded\\ proteins\\,\\ whereas\\ small\\ molecules\\ can\\ either\\ slightly\\ curb\\ a\\ protein\\'s\\ activity\\ or\\ curb\\ it\\ entirely\\,\\ as\\ the\\ mutation\\ does\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Difference\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\ genes\\ encode\\ proteins\\ that\\ have\\ many\\ functions\\.\\ \\ A\\ mutation\\ that\\ inactivates\\ a\\ gene\\ removes\\ \\all\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ the\\ functions\\.\\ \\ A\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ though\\,\\ might\\ selectively\\ only\\ eliminate\\ a\\ single\\ function\\ of\\ a\\ gene\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Difference\\ 3\\:\\ \\ Modulating\\ body\\ activity\\ through\\ gene\\ mutations\\ is\\ SLOW\\.\\ \\ It\\ takes\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ to\\ intentionally\\ and\\ successfully\\ mutate\\ certain\\ genes\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ certain\\ functions\\.\\ By\\ contrast\\,\\ modulating\\ body\\ processes\\ through\\ small\\ molecules\\ is\\ instantaneous\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Difference\\ 4\\:\\ \\ Gene\\ mutations\\ are\\ irreversible\\ and\\ heritable\\.\\ \\ Small\\ molecule\\ effects\\ are\\ reversible\\ and\\ heritable\\ \\(for\\ the\\ time\\ being\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Wait\\,\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ even\\ bother\\ with\\ mutations\\?\\ \\ Small\\ molecules\\ seem\\ like\\ they\\ can\\ do\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ enacting\\ certain\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ much\\ more\\ effectively\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ why\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Difference\\ 5\\:\\ \\ It\\'s\\ much\\ easier\\ to\\ know\\ exactly\\ what\\ effect\\ a\\ gene\\ mutation\\ is\\ having\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ is\\ affecting\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ That\\ makes\\ mutations\\ much\\ easier\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ and\\ learn\\ from\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 3\\/3\\:\\ \\ The\\ Small\\ Molecule\\ Furrowstatin\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ chose\\ to\\ use\\ this\\ small\\ molecule\\ to\\ illustrate\\ the\\ ideas\\ we\\'ve\\ discussed\\ so\\ far\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ involved\\ in\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ exciting\\ and\\ important\\ process\\ when\\ you\\'re\\ talking\\ about\\ cancer\\ and\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Furrowstatin\\ interferes\\ with\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ motor\\ protein\\ that\\'s\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ final\\ stage\\ of\\ cell\\ division\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Cell\\ Cycle\\ \\&\\;\\ Cell\\ Division\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ begin\\ this\\ case\\ study\\ of\\ furrowstatin\\,\\ we\\ did\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ cell\\ cycle\\ and\\ division\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ cell\\ cycle\\,\\ we\\ might\\ start\\ with\\ a\\ resting\\ cell\\.\\ \\ Then\\ you\\ might\\ scratch\\ your\\ skin\\ and\\ get\\ a\\ tiny\\ wound\\.\\ \\ A\\ signal\\ passes\\ through\\ your\\ body\\ that\\ says\\:\\ \\ \\\"uh\\ oh\\,\\ let\\'s\\ start\\ dividing\\ so\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ have\\ enough\\ cells\\ to\\ fill\\ up\\ this\\ wound\\!\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ signal\\ the\\ cell\\ receives\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ says\\:\\ \\ \\\"Enter\\ the\\ cell\\ cycle\\.\\\"\\ \\ In\\ order\\ to\\ begin\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ cellular\\ components\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ synthesized\\ such\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ enough\\ for\\ 2\\ cells\\!\\ \\ This\\ takes\\ a\\ a\\ couple\\ seconds\\ to\\ do\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ challenge\\ the\\ cell\\ has\\ to\\ overcome\\ is\\,\\ when\\ the\\ cell\\ is\\ large\\ enough\\,\\ to\\ duplicate\\ its\\ genome\\ perfectly\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ called\\ DNA\\ synthesis\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ 3rd\\ task\\ is\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ segregate\\ the\\ 2\\ pairs\\ of\\ chromosomes\\ that\\ now\\ exist\\.\\ \\ The\\ mother\\ cell\\ and\\ the\\ daughter\\ cell\\ must\\ each\\ get\\ a\\ pair\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ the\\ oncogenes\\ and\\ tumor\\ suppressors\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ earlier\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ how\\ mutations\\ cause\\ somatic\\ cells\\ to\\ become\\ cancerous\\?\\ Those\\ oncogenes\\ and\\ tumor\\ suppressors\\ are\\ busy\\ at\\ work\\ throughout\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ accelerating\\ and\\ decelerating\\ the\\ process\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ last\\ phase\\ is\\ \\\"M\\ phase\\,\\\"\\ named\\ after\\ mitosis\\.\\ \\ \\ Today\\ we\\'ll\\ spend\\ our\\ time\\ on\\ this\\ phase\\:\\ \\ mitosis\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ Cell\\ Cycle\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>At\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ mitosis\\,\\ the\\ chromosomes\\ have\\ all\\ replicated\\,\\ and\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ segregate\\ to\\ the\\ opposite\\ ends\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ cell\\ can\\ divide\\ into\\ mother\\ and\\ daughter\\ cells\\ and\\ they\\ each\\ can\\ make\\ their\\ way\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ process\\ that\\ needs\\ to\\ happen\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ pinch\\ itself\\ into\\ two\\!\\ \\ This\\ occurs\\ thanks\\ to\\ a\\ protein\\ named\\ \\\"actin\\,\\\"\\ and\\ the\\ actin\\ wraps\\ around\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ then\\ contracts\\,\\ pinching\\ the\\ cell\\ in\\ two\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ next\\ 2\\ classes\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ how\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\ with\\ all\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ shapes\\ were\\ created\\,\\ and\\ then\\ through\\ a\\ screening\\ process\\,\\ furrowstatin\\ was\\ discovered\\ as\\ \\the\\ \\<\\/em\\>molecule\\ that\\ can\\ block\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ the\\ protein\\ actin\\ which\\ pinches\\ dividing\\ cells\\ into\\ two\\ new\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ though\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ just\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ furrowstatin\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ to\\ stop\\ cell\\ division\\.\\ \\ If\\ we\\ can\\ bring\\ furrowstatin\\ into\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ dividing\\ cell\\ \\right\\ \\<\\/em\\>at\\ the\\ moment\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ to\\ pinch\\ itself\\ into\\ 2\\,\\ we\\ can\\ catch\\ lightening\\ in\\ a\\ bottle\\ and\\ prevent\\ cell\\ division\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ simply\\ by\\ adding\\ water\\,\\ we\\ can\\ wash\\ the\\ furrowstatin\\ away\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cells\\ resume\\ division\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ to\\ understand\\ this\\ furrowstatin\\ probe\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ protein\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ binding\\:\\ non\\-muscle\\ myosin\\ II\\.\\ \\ Putting\\ non\\-muscle\\ myosin\\ II\\ in\\ a\\ protein\\ database\\ reveals\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ myosins\\:\\ myosin\\ I\\,\\ II\\,\\ III\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ The\\ myosins\\ are\\ motor\\ proteins\\ that\\ use\\ ATP\\ energy\\ to\\ provide\\ motor\\ force\\ in\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ motor\\ in\\ non\\-muscle\\ myosin\\ II\\ works\\ by\\ clawing\\ its\\ way\\ along\\ the\\ protein\\ cytoskeleton\\ along\\ the\\ cell\\'s\\ exterior\\,\\ which\\ is\\ actin\\.\\ \\ The\\ \\\"cleavage\\ furrow\\ ring\\,\\\"\\ or\\ the\\ line\\ along\\ which\\ a\\ cell\\ divides\\,\\ is\\ composed\\ of\\ actin\\.\\ \\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ non\\-muscle\\ myosin\\ II\\ is\\ the\\ motor\\ that\\'s\\ working\\ on\\ the\\ protein\\ cytoskeleton\\ actin\\ that\\ gives\\ the\\ cell\\ the\\ force\\ to\\ cut\\ itself\\ in\\ half\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ question\\ arises\\:\\ \\ can\\ we\\ use\\ these\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ inhibit\\ the\\ cell\\ division\\ that\\ makes\\ cancer\\ so\\ dangerous\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\'s\\ another\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ affects\\ the\\ earlier\\ stages\\ of\\ mitosis\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ not\\ crazy\\ to\\ imagine\\ that\\ just\\ as\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ motor\\ \\(non\\-muscle\\ myosin\\ II\\)\\ that\\ causes\\ the\\ actin\\ protein\\ to\\ contract\\ and\\ divide\\ a\\ cell\\ in\\ two\\,\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ motor\\ that\\ causes\\ the\\ chromosomes\\ to\\ be\\ pulled\\ to\\ opposite\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ during\\ those\\ earlier\\ stages\\ of\\ mitosis\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ the\\ Motor\\ that\\ Pulls\\ Chromosomes\\ Apart\\ During\\ Mitosis\\ Was\\ Discovered\\ Using\\ a\\ Small\\-Molecule\\ Probe\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ cell\\ was\\ stained\\ with\\ 3\\ different\\ colors\\ and\\ looked\\ at\\ under\\ a\\ microscope\\.\\ \\ The\\ chromsomes\\ were\\ stained\\ blue\\,\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ stage\\ of\\ mitosis\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ cell\\ we\\ were\\ looking\\ at\\ was\\ in\\,\\ these\\ chromosomes\\ were\\ still\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ \\ They\\ had\\ yet\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ pulled\\ to\\ opposite\\ ends\\.\\ \\ What\\ pulls\\ the\\ chromosomes\\ to\\ opposite\\ ends\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ are\\ \\ \\\"pole\\ bodies\\,\\\"\\ which\\ have\\ been\\ stained\\ red\\ and\\ currently\\ exist\\ as\\ little\\ red\\ dots\\ on\\ opposite\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ when\\ you\\ treat\\ a\\ cell\\ at\\ this\\ stage\\ in\\ mitosis\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ the\\ pole\\ bodies\\ collapse\\ from\\ the\\ cell\\'s\\ edges\\ and\\ fall\\ into\\ the\\ middle\\.\\ \\ Conversely\\,\\ the\\ chromosomes\\ that\\ were\\ at\\ the\\ cell\\'s\\ center\\ then\\ burst\\ outward\\ to\\ the\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ induced\\ the\\ pole\\ bodies\\ to\\ move\\ from\\ the\\ cell\\'s\\ opposite\\ outer\\ edges\\ to\\ its\\ center\\ needed\\ to\\ bind\\ to\\ a\\ motor\\ protein\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ these\\ pole\\ bodies\\ apart\\.\\ \\ This\\ motor\\ is\\ found\\ on\\ tubulin\\ proteins\\,\\ which\\ exist\\ within\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ and\\ the\\ motor\\ works\\ by\\ clawing\\ and\\ walking\\ its\\ way\\ along\\ the\\ tubulin\\ protein\\ inside\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ just\\ as\\ non\\-muscle\\ myosin\\ II\\ claws\\ and\\ walks\\ its\\ way\\ along\\ the\\ actin\\ along\\ the\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ job\\ of\\ \\this\\ \\<\\/em\\>motor\\ protein\\ \\(whose\\ name\\ isn\\'t\\ important\\)\\ is\\ to\\ push\\ the\\ polar\\ bodies\\ apart\\ to\\ opposite\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ \\ So\\ when\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ inhibits\\ the\\ protein\\ that\\ walks\\ on\\ tubulin\\,\\ the\\ pole\\ bodies\\ collapse\\ into\\ the\\ center\\.\\ \\ No\\ motor\\ protein\\ is\\ holding\\ them\\ apart\\ anymore\\.\\ \\ Before\\ studying\\ this\\ process\\ with\\ microscopes\\,\\ fluorescent\\ stains\\,\\ and\\ small\\ molecule\\ probes\\,\\ we\\ didn\\'t\\ know\\ that\\ these\\ motor\\ proteins\\ even\\ existed\\ or\\ performed\\ this\\ function\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ closes\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ telling\\ us\\ that\\ if\\ there\\'s\\ one\\ image\\ we\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ class\\,\\ it\\'s\\ this\\ one\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>The\\ analogy\\ between\\ our\\ class\\ and\\ this\\ image\\ is\\ that\\ small\\ molecules\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ study\\ highly\\ dynamic\\ processes\\.\\ In\\ the\\ picture\\ above\\,\\ high\\-speed\\ photography\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ study\\ how\\ a\\ bullet\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ furrow\\ in\\ a\\ playing\\ card\\.\\ \\ The\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ card\\ and\\ the\\ cell\\ division\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ reverse\\ the\\ furrowing\\ of\\ cells\\,\\ simply\\ by\\ washing\\ away\\ the\\ furrowstatin\\ with\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ water\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Reading\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ week\\'s\\ reading\\ is\\ optional\\,\\ but\\ here\\ are\\ links\\ to\\ them\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"What\\ is\\ Chemical\\ Genetics\\?\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.hhmi\\.org\\/biointeractive\\/genomics\\/poster\\_a2\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ paragraph\\ gives\\ a\\ good\\ overview\\:\\ \\ \\\"Chemical\\ genetics\\ is\\ a\\ research\\ method\\ that\\ uses\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ way\\ proteins\\ work\\&\\#8212\\;directly\\ in\\ real\\ time\\ rather\\ than\\ indirectly\\ by\\ manipulating\\ their\\ genes\\.\\ It\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ identify\\ which\\ proteins\\ regulate\\ different\\ biological\\ processes\\,\\ to\\ understand\\ in\\ molecular\\ detail\\ how\\ proteins\\ perform\\ their\\ biological\\ functions\\,\\ and\\ to\\ identify\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ of\\ medical\\ value\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Stuart\\ Schreiber\\:\\ \\ Biology\\ From\\ a\\ Chemist\\'s\\ Perspective\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.broad\\.mit\\.edu\\/chembio\\/lab\\_schreiber\\/news\\_photos\\/news\\_pdfs\\/2004\\.ddt\\.perspective\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ piece\\ is\\ interesting\\ for\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ reasons\\:\\ \\ it\\'s\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ our\\ course\\'s\\ professors\\,\\ he\\'s\\ done\\ amazingly\\ interesting\\ and\\ prolific\\ work\\,\\ and\\ he\\'s\\ a\\ really\\ interesting\\ interview\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Small Molecules Teach Us About Life Processes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.823064+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "How We Find Small Molecules that Treat Diseases", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 463, "html": "\\Hey\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ we\\ started\\ in\\ B\\-47\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ We\\ saw\\ small\\ molecules\\ functioning\\ as\\ drugs\\,\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ our\\ last\\ lecture\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ using\\ small\\ molecules\\ as\\ probes\\ that\\ tell\\ us\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ diseases\\ work\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ will\\ talk\\ us\\ through\\ how\\ and\\ where\\ we\\ find\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ later\\ use\\ to\\ treat\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ \\ We\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ assembling\\ an\\ optimal\\ collection\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\ for\\ screening\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ lecture\\ after\\ this\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ screening\\ that\\ collection\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ find\\ molecules\\ that\\ can\\ convert\\ cells\\ from\\ a\\ diseased\\ state\\ to\\ a\\ healthy\\ state\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\ lecture\\ will\\ conclude\\ part\\ 3\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ class\\,\\ and\\ the\\ lectures\\ in\\ part\\ 4\\/4\\ will\\ apply\\ this\\ information\\ to\\ human\\ health\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 2\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Naturally\\ Occuring\\ Small\\ Molecules\\ \\(Natural\\ Products\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecules\\ frequently\\ have\\ biological\\ activity\\ in\\ humans\\.\\ \\ Their\\ activities\\ result\\ from\\ natural\\ selection\\ throughout\\ humans\\'\\ evolutionary\\ history\\.\\ \\ Many\\ natural\\ products\\ have\\ served\\ as\\ illuminating\\ probes\\ and\\ some\\ have\\ remarkable\\ therapeutic\\ properties\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ Jon\\ Clardy\\,\\ our\\ class\\'s\\ other\\ professor\\,\\ is\\ arguably\\ the\\ world\\'s\\ leader\\ in\\ understanding\\ the\\ world\\'s\\ naturally\\ occurring\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\,\\ himself\\ \\(Schreiber\\)\\ has\\ made\\ his\\ mark\\ \\\"on\\ the\\ other\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ equation\\:\\ \\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ laboratory\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Taught\\ by\\ the\\ best\\:\\ \\ Professors\\ Jon\\ Clardy\\ and\\ Stuart\\ Schreiber\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Small\\ Molecules\\ from\\ Natural\\ Products\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ focus\\ on\\ one\\ \\ particular\\ natural\\ product\\ that\\ we\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ 3\\ lectures\\ now\\.\\ \\ Can\\ you\\ guess\\ it\\?\\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ taking\\ place\\ over\\ at\\ least\\ 1\\ billion\\ years\\ \\(Earth\\ is\\ roughly\\ 4\\.55\\ billion\\ years\\ old\\)\\.\\.\\.it\\ was\\ originally\\ discovered\\ on\\ Easter\\ Island\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ Pacific\\.\\.\\.it\\'s\\.\\.\\.rapamycin\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ proceeds\\ to\\ make\\ fun\\ of\\ professor\\ Clardy\\ and\\ his\\ colleagues\\ for\\ claiming\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ exotic\\ trips\\ to\\ foreign\\ lands\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ do\\ \\\"research\\,\\\"\\ but\\ Schreiber\\ is\\ sure\\ that\\ rapamycin\\ could\\ be\\ found\\ with\\ a\\ shovel\\ in\\ the\\ dirt\\ outside\\ the\\ Science\\ Center\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ just\\ that\\ somehow\\,\\ \\ rapamycin\\ was\\ historically\\ first\\ found\\ in\\ Easter\\ Island\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Rapamycin\\ was\\ first\\ mentioned\\ in\\ this\\ class\\ under\\ the\\ name\\ \\\"sirolimus\\\"\\ \\(like\\ many\\ compounds\\,\\ once\\ it\\'s\\ approved\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ drug\\ by\\ the\\ FDA\\,\\ the\\ FDA\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ new\\ name\\,\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ have\\ now\\ have\\ two\\ commonly\\ used\\ names\\ for\\ this\\ molecule\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ jog\\ your\\ memory\\ on\\ what\\ we\\'ve\\ said\\ about\\ rapamycin\\ so\\ far\\,\\ remember\\ how\\ a\\ couple\\ lectures\\ ago\\,\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ gene\\ expression\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ levels\\ of\\ mRNA\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\ regulate\\ that\\ gene\\ expression\\.\\ \\ We\\ talked\\ about\\ ALL\\ leukemia\\ and\\ about\\ how\\ rapamycin\\ can\\ render\\ cells\\ sensitive\\ to\\ dexamethasone\\,\\ which\\ treats\\ ALL\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ probe\\,\\ rapamycin\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Throughout\\ their\\ evolutionary\\ histories\\,\\ organisms\\ tinker\\ with\\ their\\ celluar\\ machineries\\ to\\ yield\\,\\ via\\ biosynthesis\\,\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ provide\\ them\\ with\\ some\\ advantage\\.\\ \\ For\\ a\\ bacterium\\,\\ this\\ might\\ be\\ to\\ fend\\ off\\ a\\ competing\\ fungi\\ for\\ a\\ food\\ source\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(In\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Football\\ League\\,\\ the\\ New\\ England\\ Patriots\\,\\ like\\ any\\ living\\ organism\\,\\ have\\ tinkered\\ with\\ their\\ makeup\\ to\\ finally\\ yield\\ Randy\\ Moss\\ at\\ wide\\ receiver\\,\\ whose\\ ridiculous\\ talent\\ and\\ 16\\ touchdowns\\ leave\\ the\\ team\\ poised\\ to\\ become\\ only\\ the\\ second\\ undefeated\\ team\\ in\\ NFL\\ history\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Rapamycin\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ protein\\ \\\"mTOR\\.\\\"\\ \\ We\\ can\\ guess\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\ on\\ Easter\\ Island\\ where\\ we\\ found\\ rapamycin\\,\\ the\\ bacterium\\ that\\ makes\\ rapamycin\\ was\\ competing\\ with\\ another\\ organism\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ fungii\\,\\ for\\ a\\ food\\ source\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ a\\ bacterium\\ finds\\ a\\ food\\ source\\,\\ it\\ usually\\ tries\\ to\\ colonize\\ the\\ food\\ source\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ if\\ a\\ fungii\\ prevents\\ it\\ from\\ spreading\\ over\\ the\\ food\\ source\\,\\ the\\ bacterium\\ benefits\\ if\\ it\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ compound\\ that\\ is\\ anti\\-fungal\\.\\ \\ That\\ compound\\ is\\ rapamycin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ how\\ rapamycin\\ would\\ get\\ formed\\.\\ \\ Somewhere\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ 1\\ billion\\ years\\,\\ the\\ bacterium\\'s\\ genome\\ would\\ change\\ by\\ chance\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ bacterium\\'s\\ enzymes\\ that\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ biosynthesis\\ of\\ molecules\\ like\\ rapamycin\\ would\\ finally\\ produce\\ one\\ that\\ had\\ the\\ exact\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ molecule\\ that\\ we\\ call\\ \\\"rapamycin\\\"\\ today\\.\\ \\ The\\ shape\\ of\\ rapamycin\\'s\\ binding\\ shape\\ lets\\ it\\ bind\\ with\\ mTOR\\,\\ a\\ protein\\ in\\ fungii\\.\\ \\ Because\\ the\\ rapamycin\\ is\\ anti\\-fungal\\,\\ it\\ binds\\ to\\ mTOR\\,\\ thus\\ attaching\\ to\\ the\\ fungus\\,\\ and\\ then\\ destroys\\ the\\ fungus\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Source\\ of\\ Rapamycin\\:\\ \\ Streptomyces\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Next\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ sources\\ of\\ natural\\ products\\.\\ \\ The\\ source\\ of\\ rapamycin\\ is\\ a\\ bacterium\\ called\\ the\\ \\\"Streptomyces\\ strain\\.\\\"\\ \\ Streptomyces\\ strains\\ are\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ sources\\ for\\ natural\\ products\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ talk\\ about\\ a\\ specific\\ streptomyces\\ strain\\ called\\ \\\"coelicolor\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ strains\\ have\\ been\\ widely\\ used\\ and\\ investigated\\,\\ for\\ many\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ They\\ are\\ easily\\ cultured\\ and\\ raised\\ in\\ vitro\\.\\ \\ \\ Increasingly\\,\\ the\\ genomes\\ of\\ many\\ different\\ streptomyces\\ species\\ have\\ been\\ sequenced\\ completely\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tools\\ molecular\\ biologists\\ use\\ to\\ study\\ genomes\\ are\\ very\\ applicable\\ to\\ streptomyces\\ species\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Streptomyces\\ strains\\ have\\ yielded\\ many\\ natural\\ products\\,\\ but\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ hint\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ more\\ to\\ come\\.\\ \\ The\\ hint\\ comes\\ from\\ sequencing\\ the\\ genomes\\.\\ \\ We\\'ve\\ come\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ simply\\ from\\ sequencing\\ and\\ bioinformatic\\ analysis\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ spot\\ genes\\ that\\ encode\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ enzymes\\,\\ including\\ enzymes\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ biosynthesis\\ of\\ natural\\ products\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Bioinformatic\\ analysis\\ will\\ tell\\ you\\:\\ \\ \\\"aha\\!\\ \\ here\\'s\\ an\\ enzyme\\,\\ and\\ there\\'s\\ an\\ enzyme\\,\\ and\\ they\\'re\\ linked\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\'s\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ where\\ bioinformatic\\ analysis\\ can\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ hint\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ product\\ that\\'s\\ produced\\ by\\ an\\ organism\\ is\\,\\ even\\ though\\ in\\ many\\ instances\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ product\\ hasn\\'t\\ yet\\ been\\ identified\\,\\ and\\ in\\ some\\ instances\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ organism\\ hasn\\'t\\ even\\ been\\ cultured\\ yet\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Streptomyces\\ is\\ what\\ gives\\ dirt\\ its\\ smell\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ everywhere\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ very\\ useful\\ producer\\ of\\ these\\ special\\ compounds\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\,\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ just\\ bacteria\\ that\\ makes\\ natural\\ products\\.\\ \\ All\\ kinds\\ of\\ organisms\\ make\\ natural\\ products\\.\\ \\ The\\ blue\\ back\\ frog\\ produces\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\,\\ right\\ now\\,\\ are\\ candidates\\ for\\ pain\\-killing\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ Yew\\ tree\\ \\(below\\)\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ commonly\\ used\\ cancer\\ drug\\ prescribed\\ today\\:\\ \\ taxol\\,\\ which\\ is\\ useful\\ for\\ solid\\ tumors\\.\\ \\ \\ We\\'ll\\ learn\\ later\\ that\\ taxol\\ isn\\'t\\ perfect\\,\\ and\\ we\\'d\\ really\\ like\\ to\\ do\\ better\\ than\\ this\\ drug\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ about\\ as\\ good\\ a\\ drug\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ today\\ that\\ can\\ treat\\ cancer\\ on\\ a\\ widespread\\ basis\\.\\ \\ Without\\ the\\ Yew\\ tree\\,\\ though\\,\\ we\\ wouldn\\'t\\ know\\ about\\ taxol\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ Yew\\ tree\\ produces\\ a\\ natural\\ product\\ that\\ is\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ widely\\-prescribed\\ cancer\\ drug\\ today\\:\\ \\ taxol\\.\\ \\ \\ Yew\\ trees\\ are\\ incredibly\\ long\\-living\\,\\ and\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ UK\\ is\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ 2\\,000\\ years\\ old\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Now\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ give\\ 2\\ vignettes\\ that\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ taste\\ for\\ the\\ ecological\\ pressures\\ that\\,\\ through\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ produce\\ specific\\,\\ useful\\ natural\\ compounds\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Fire\\ Blight\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ story\\ concerns\\ two\\ bacteria\\,\\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ just\\ call\\ B1\\ and\\ B2\\.\\ \\ B1\\ creates\\ a\\ natural\\ product\\,\\ a\\ chemical\\,\\ that\\ causes\\ a\\ fatal\\ disease\\ of\\ apple\\ and\\ pear\\ trees\\,\\ called\\ \\\"fire\\ blight\\.\\\"\\ \\ Fire\\ blight\\ is\\ an\\ agricultural\\ problem\\ we\\'d\\ like\\ to\\ fix\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ cohabitating\\ with\\ B1\\ is\\ another\\ bacterium\\,\\ B2\\.\\ \\ B2\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ making\\ a\\ natural\\ product\\ that\\,\\ suspiciously\\,\\ prevents\\ fire\\ blight\\ by\\ killing\\ B1\\ without\\ harming\\ B2\\,\\ apple\\ trees\\,\\ or\\ pear\\ trees\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ bacteria\\ compete\\ against\\ each\\ other\\,\\ they\\ may\\ end\\ up\\ spending\\ 1\\ billion\\ years\\ refining\\ a\\ product\\ that\\ will\\ eventually\\ kill\\ the\\ other\\ bacterium\\.\\ \\ We\\ can\\ exploit\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ bacteria\\'s\\ compounds\\ to\\ kill\\ other\\ bacteria\\ that\\ harm\\ humans\\.\\ \\ They\\ can\\ become\\ antibiotics\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ that\\'s\\ how\\ penicillin\\ was\\ found\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ naturally\\-occuring\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ was\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ highly\\ effective\\ at\\ treating\\ bacteria\\ that\\ infect\\ humans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ next\\ story\\ has\\ a\\ really\\ complex\\ story\\,\\ so\\ let\\'s\\ be\\ clear\\,\\ Schreiber\\ says\\:\\ \\ the\\ point\\ here\\ is\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ many\\ different\\ evolutionary\\ interactions\\ and\\ organisms\\ that\\ are\\ all\\ producing\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ richness\\ and\\ potency\\ of\\ these\\ natural\\ products\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Trees\\ and\\ Insects\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\'s\\ a\\ story\\ that\\ involves\\ southern\\ loblolly\\ pine\\ trees\\ and\\ a\\ beetle\\,\\ the\\ southern\\ pine\\ beetle\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ loblolly\\ pine\\ tree\\ can\\ die\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ process\\ initiated\\ by\\ the\\ beetle\\.\\ \\ It\\ could\\ be\\ dying\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ \\single\\<\\/em\\>\\ female\\ beetle\\ that\\ landed\\ on\\ it\\ 8\\ weeks\\ ago\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ female\\ beetle\\ lands\\ on\\ the\\ pine\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ if\\ the\\ beetle\\ likes\\ the\\ tree\\,\\ she\\ can\\ start\\ boring\\ into\\ the\\ tree\\.\\ \\ Pine\\ trees\\ have\\ coexisted\\ with\\ beetles\\ for\\ 1\\,000s\\ of\\ years\\,\\ and\\ it\\ has\\ learned\\ to\\ secrete\\ a\\ resin\\ that\\ protects\\ it\\ from\\ the\\ beetle\\.\\ \\ \\ The\\ resin\\ contains\\ natural\\ products\\,\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ cannabinoids\\!\\ \\ Whether\\ the\\ cannabinoids\\ in\\ the\\ resin\\ make\\ the\\ beetle\\ forget\\ to\\ bore\\ a\\ hole\\ in\\ the\\ tree\\ or\\ not\\ is\\ unclear\\!\\ \\ \\:\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ beetle\\ has\\ a\\ pheromone\\.\\ \\ If\\ she\\ likes\\ the\\ tree\\,\\ she\\'ll\\ send\\ out\\ this\\ pheromone\\ that\\ communicates\\ to\\ other\\ female\\ beetles\\ and\\ says\\:\\ \\ \\\"come\\ to\\ me\\!\\ \\ I\\'ve\\ found\\ a\\ good\\ home\\ for\\ us\\!\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ beetles\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ pine\\ tree\\,\\ it\\ oozes\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ resin\\ to\\ thwart\\ the\\ beetles\\'\\ boring\\ efforts\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>When\\ the\\ beetles\\ succeed\\,\\ they\\ bore\\ holds\\ in\\ the\\ tree\\ and\\ then\\ secrete\\ a\\ second\\ pheromone\\ that\\ reaches\\ the\\ males\\.\\ \\ The\\ males\\ come\\,\\ mate\\ inside\\ the\\ holes\\,\\ and\\ little\\ beetles\\ are\\ hatched\\ inside\\ the\\ tree\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(All\\ of\\ the\\ brown\\ loblolly\\ pine\\ trees\\ in\\ this\\ Louisiana\\ forest\\ have\\ been\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ mating\\ activities\\ of\\ beetles\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>The\\ beetle\\ actually\\ carries\\ a\\ fungus\\ that\\ likes\\ to\\ eat\\ the\\ pine\\ tree\\,\\ and\\ beetle\\ hatchlings\\ actually\\ love\\ to\\ eat\\ the\\ fungus\\ as\\ food\\.\\ \\ Inside\\ the\\ trees\\,\\ though\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ competitor\\ fungus\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ food\\ fungus\\ that\\ the\\ beetle\\ carries\\ in\\ its\\ body\\.\\ \\ Wait\\,\\ though\\.\\ \\ How\\ did\\ the\\ competitor\\ fungus\\ know\\ to\\ arrive\\ inside\\ the\\ tree\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Well\\,\\ a\\ mite\\ lives\\ on\\ the\\ beetle\\,\\ and\\ the\\ mite\\ brings\\ its\\ own\\ competitor\\ fungus\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ details\\ of\\ this\\ story\\ aren\\'t\\ important\\ other\\ than\\ to\\ just\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ complex\\ web\\ of\\ ecological\\ interactions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ point\\ is\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ the\\ diverse\\ competition\\ between\\ the\\ loblolly\\ pine\\,\\ the\\ beetle\\,\\ the\\ fungus\\ carried\\ by\\ the\\ beetle\\,\\ the\\ mite\\ that\\ attaches\\ to\\ the\\ beetle\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fungus\\ that\\ the\\ mite\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ beetle\\ carries\\,\\ produces\\ natural\\ products\\ that\\ perform\\ specific\\ functions\\ in\\ our\\ bodies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\'s\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ hope\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ discover\\ new\\ compounds\\ that\\ can\\ treat\\ diseases\\.\\ \\ But\\,\\ there\\'s\\ an\\ alternative\\ approach\\ to\\ finding\\ natural\\ products\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 2\\/2\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Small\\ Molecules\\ Synthesized\\ in\\ the\\ Laboratory\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\ approach\\ is\\ synthesizing\\ small\\ molecules\\ in\\ the\\ laboratory\\.\\ \\ One\\ advantage\\ this\\ method\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ is\\ 1\\ billion\\ years\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ history\\ and\\ natural\\ testing\\ to\\ reveal\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ molecule\\ will\\ work\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\2\\ Types\\ of\\ Laboratory\\ Synthesis\\:\\ \\ Target\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\ \\&\\;\\ Diversity\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Target\\-oriented\\ synthesis\\ lets\\ you\\ synthesize\\ a\\ single\\ target\\ compound\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Diversity\\-oriented\\ synthesis\\ lets\\ you\\ synthesize\\ many\\ different\\ diverse\\ structures\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Target\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\ \\(TOS\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\TOS\\ has\\ been\\ performed\\ with\\ rapamycin\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ take\\ a\\ simple\\ compound\\ and\\ perform\\ up\\ to\\ 100\\ chemical\\ reactions\\ on\\ it\\ \\(that\\'s\\ the\\ average\\ number\\ of\\ reactions\\ that\\ this\\ process\\ requires\\,\\ and\\ it\\ takes\\ years\\ to\\ carry\\ them\\ all\\ out\\)\\,\\ you\\ can\\ produce\\ the\\ same\\ rapamycin\\ that\\ was\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Easter\\ Island\\ soil\\.\\ \\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ process\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ time\\ consuming\\ and\\ laborious\\.\\ \\ It\\ might\\ take\\ years\\ and\\ a\\ large\\ team\\ of\\ chemists\\ to\\ synthesize\\ a\\ single\\ compound\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ \\\"Diels\\-Alder\\\"\\ Reaction\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Schreiber\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ Target\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\ and\\ Diversity\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ really\\ have\\ to\\ know\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Diels\\ and\\ Alder\\,\\ two\\ chemists\\,\\ discovered\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(German\\ chemists\\ Otto\\ Diels\\ and\\ Kurt\\ Alder\\ won\\ the\\ 1950\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ for\\ their\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\.\\ \\ Diels\\ looks\\ pretty\\ similar\\ to\\ Schreiber\\!\\)\\<\\/p\\>They\\ started\\ with\\ a\\ gas\\ called\\ ethylene\\.\\ \\ When\\ ethylene\\ comes\\ together\\ with\\ a\\ compound\\ that\\ is\\ like\\ ethylene\\ itself\\,\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ double\\ bond\\ between\\ two\\ carbons\\,\\ you\\ get\\ two\\ substrates\\ \\(a\\ substrate\\ is\\ a\\ molecule\\ that\\ is\\ acted\\ upon\\ by\\ an\\ enzyme\\)\\ for\\ a\\ chemical\\ reaction\\:\\ \\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ play\\ with\\ the\\ variables\\ in\\ the\\ reaction\\,\\ such\\ as\\ which\\ elements\\ are\\ bonded\\ in\\ various\\ ways\\ to\\ various\\ parts\\ of\\ your\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ the\\ reaction\\ will\\ carry\\ out\\ in\\ a\\ predictable\\ way\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'s\\ like\\ the\\ Diels\\ Alder\\ reaction\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"parent\\\"\\ reaction\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ algebra\\ equation\\ x\\=2\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"parent\\\"\\ equation\\.\\ \\ You\\ can\\ manipulate\\ the\\ parent\\ reaction\\,\\ and\\ the\\ result\\ is\\ predictable\\.\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ you\\ manipulate\\ the\\ parent\\ equation\\ by\\ putting\\ a\\ 2\\ before\\ the\\ x\\-variable\\,\\ and\\ you\\'ll\\ know\\ the\\ will\\ now\\ predictably\\ read\\:\\ \\ 2x\\ \\=\\ 4\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ works\\ out\\ predictably\\ no\\ matter\\ what\\ molecules\\ and\\ atoms\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ play\\ with\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Retrosynthetic\\\"\\ Planning\\:\\ \\ a\\ First\\ Idea\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Imagine\\ you\\ became\\ interested\\ in\\ \\professor\\ Clardy\\'s\\ lecture\\ on\\ marijuana\\ and\\ tetrahydrocannabinol\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\ You\\'d\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ THC\\ molecule\\ and\\ think\\ about\\ synthesizing\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ \\reverse\\<\\/em\\>\\ direction\\.\\ \\ The\\ way\\ you\\ think\\ of\\ these\\ reactions\\ is\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ a\\ reaction\\,\\ and\\ the\\ wonder\\ how\\ you\\ ever\\ produced\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ you\\'d\\ look\\ at\\ THC\\ and\\ say\\:\\ \\ \\\"ah\\ ha\\!\\ \\ there\\'s\\ a\\ 6\\-carbon\\ ring\\ and\\ a\\ double\\ bond\\ in\\ it\\.\\\"\\ \\ So\\ you\\'d\\ work\\ your\\ way\\ backwards\\ and\\ say\\:\\ \\ \\\"in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ that\\,\\ I\\'d\\ need\\ a\\ double\\ bond\\ here\\,\\ and\\ here\\,\\ a\\ single\\ bond\\ attached\\ here\\,\\ and\\ here\\,\\\"\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ suspects\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ retrosynthesizing\\ THC\\ that\\ he\\'s\\ talked\\ about\\ so\\ far\\ actually\\ wouldn\\'t\\ work\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ what\\ often\\ happens\\ in\\ laboratory\\ synthesis\\ of\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ Conceivably\\ a\\ reaction\\ will\\ work\\,\\ but\\ unexpected\\ things\\ often\\ disrupt\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Conrad\\,\\ left\\,\\ from\\ the\\ Showtime\\ show\\ \\Weeds\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ pretty\\ good\\ at\\ engineering\\ marijuana\\,\\ but\\ the\\ show\\ hasn\\'t\\ revealed\\ if\\ he\\'s\\ learned\\ to\\ retrosynthesize\\ THC\\ or\\ not\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"Retrosynthetic\\\"\\ Planning\\:\\ \\ A\\ Second\\ Idea\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ chemist\\ might\\ realize\\ that\\ a\\ particular\\ molecule\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ purchased\\ from\\ a\\ chemical\\ company\\ could\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ the\\ test\\ in\\ a\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ determine\\ if\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ synthesized\\ into\\ THC\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Instead\\ of\\ trying\\ to\\ reverese\\-synthesize\\ a\\ \\\"starting\\ molecule\\\"\\ from\\ THC\\,\\ what\\ if\\ you\\ just\\ projected\\ what\\ such\\ a\\ molecule\\ might\\ look\\ like\\,\\ and\\ practice\\ \\\"forward\\\"\\ synthesizing\\ that\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ Perhaps\\ we\\'ll\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ THC\\.\\ \\ This\\ does\\ work\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Using\\ target\\-oriented\\ synthesis\\ to\\ retrosynthesize\\ THC\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ is\\ actually\\ pretty\\ simple\\ and\\ easy\\ to\\ do\\;\\ however\\,\\ the\\ DEA\\ monitors\\ sales\\ of\\ the\\ chemical\\ that\\ lets\\ you\\ retrosynthesize\\ THC\\.\\ \\ So\\,\\ if\\ you\\ order\\ this\\ chemical\\,\\ Schreiber\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ expect\\ a\\ DEA\\ agent\\ to\\ arrive\\ at\\ your\\ door\\ to\\ ask\\ you\\:\\ \\ \\\"why\\ did\\ you\\ order\\ \\this\\ \\<\\/em\\>chemical\\!\\?\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\One\\ Other\\ Example\\ That\\ Recalls\\ Last\\ Class\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ might\\ remember\\ from\\ last\\ class\\ the\\ molecule\\ named\\ furrowstatin\\,\\ which\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ inhibiting\\ motor\\ proteins\\ that\\ drive\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ separating\\ chromosomes\\ in\\ cells\\.\\ Furrowstatin\\ was\\ synthesized\\ through\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\DOS\\:\\ \\ Diversity\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\DOS\\ evolved\\ because\\ TOS\\ took\\ so\\ much\\ time\\ and\\ work\\.\\ \\ DOS\\ tries\\ to\\ generate\\ a\\ diverse\\ set\\ of\\ molecules\\ with\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ reactions\\.\\ \\ Recall\\ rimonabant\\,\\ which\\ hits\\ the\\ antagonist\\ of\\ the\\ cannabinoid\\ receptor\\,\\ and\\ pioglitazone\\,\\ a\\ diabetes\\ drug\\ we\\'ve\\ discussed\\,\\ and\\ furrowstatin\\,\\ the\\ molecule\\ from\\ last\\ lecture\\ that\\ prevents\\ cell\\ division\\ \\(and\\ thus\\ cancer\\?\\ \\ Maybe\\ some\\ day\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ way\\ around\\ the\\ tediousness\\ of\\ TOS\\ is\\ to\\ perform\\ synthesis\\ that\\ creates\\ many\\ different\\ products\\,\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ can\\ form\\ many\\ more\\ different\\ products\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Each\\ product\\ gets\\ formed\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ flask\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ illsutrate\\ DOS\\,\\ let\\'s\\ consider\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\.\\ \\ Remember\\ how\\ in\\ this\\ reaction\\,\\ you\\ can\\ replace\\ different\\ atoms\\ with\\ other\\ atoms\\.\\ \\ Consider\\ one\\ simple\\ replacement\\.\\ \\ The\\ parent\\ compound\\ was\\ ethylene\\,\\ and\\ it\\ had\\ a\\ hydrogen\\ attached\\ to\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ attach\\ another\\ double\\-bonded\\ constituent\\ to\\ where\\ the\\ hydrogen\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ bonded\\,\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ will\\ give\\ you\\ \\another\\<\\/em\\>\\ substrate\\ for\\ \\another\\<\\/em\\>\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ you\\ keep\\ carrying\\ out\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ on\\ substrates\\ produced\\ by\\ previous\\ Diels\\-Adler\\ reactions\\,\\ DOS\\ provides\\ you\\ with\\ a\\ full\\ matrix\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ be\\ subsequently\\ synthesized\\,\\ thereby\\ increasing\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ a\\ \\\"special\\\"\\ compound\\ that\\ fits\\ our\\ needs\\ will\\ be\\ eventually\\ be\\ synthesized\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ \\\"needle\\ in\\ a\\ haystack\\\"\\ method\\ of\\ finding\\ that\\ molecule\\ that\\ you\\ need\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ important\\ ideas\\ to\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ aren\\'t\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reactions\\ we\\ discussed\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ the\\ ideas\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ play\\ with\\ the\\ different\\ molecules\\ and\\ atoms\\ in\\ the\\ reaction\\ with\\ predictable\\ results\\,\\ and\\ also\\ that\\ DOS\\,\\ Diversity\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\,\\ continually\\ recombines\\ products\\ of\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\ and\\ then\\ runs\\ those\\ products\\ back\\ through\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reaction\\,\\ such\\ that\\ you\\ continually\\ compound\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ molecules\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ available\\ for\\ testing\\ afterwards\\.\\ \\ Hopefully\\,\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ thousands\\ of\\ molecules\\,\\ all\\ of\\ which\\ seem\\ like\\ they\\ might\\ perform\\ the\\ specific\\ function\\ you\\ desire\\,\\ will\\ actually\\ do\\ what\\ you\\ need\\ it\\ to\\ do\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ Favor\\ for\\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ asks\\ for\\ a\\ little\\ extra\\ time\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ even\\ though\\ he\\'s\\ completed\\ both\\ parts\\ of\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ spend\\ a\\ few\\ extra\\ minutes\\ offering\\ us\\ a\\ commemorative\\ T\\-shirt\\ \\(a\\ white\\ T\\ covered\\ in\\ black\\ drawings\\ of\\ molecules\\,\\ on\\ both\\ front\\ and\\ back\\)\\ but\\ one\\ we\\'ll\\ have\\ to\\ work\\ for\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\'ll\\ revolve\\ around\\ finding\\ a\\ needle\\ in\\ a\\ haystack\\.\\ \\ Today\\ we\\'ve\\ been\\ presented\\ with\\ the\\ haystack\\.\\ \\ Next\\ lecture\\ we\\'ll\\ find\\ the\\ needle\\ \\-\\ that\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\,\\ unlike\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ products\\ of\\ the\\ Diels\\-Alder\\ reactions\\,\\ does\\ exactly\\ what\\ we\\ need\\ it\\ to\\ do\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ shows\\ us\\ the\\ shirt\\,\\ and\\ declares\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ worn\\ on\\ the\\ next\\ \\\"America\\'s\\ Top\\ Model\\.\\\"\\ \\ To\\ get\\ a\\ shirt\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ correct\\,\\ concise\\ answe\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ following\\ questions\\.\\ \\ I\\'ll\\ provide\\ the\\ answers\\ for\\ you\\ as\\ well\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Q1\\.\\ \\ What\\'s\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ rapamycin\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\ versus\\ rapamycin\\ synthesized\\ in\\ the\\ laboratory\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\A1\\.\\ \\ No\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\(Perhaps\\ you\\ could\\ say\\ a\\ difference\\ lies\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ molecule\\ itself\\ \\-\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ same\\ in\\ either\\ case\\,\\ otherwise\\ it\\ ain\\'t\\ rapamycin\\ \\-\\ but\\ in\\ how\\ it\\ came\\ about\\.\\ \\ Rapamycin\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\ was\\ produced\\ by\\ perhaps\\ 1\\ billion\\ years\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ tinkering\\,\\ whereas\\ rapamycin\\ synthesized\\ in\\ the\\ laboratory\\ was\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ team\\ of\\ scientists\\ using\\ Target\\-Oriented\\ Synthesis\\ to\\ monitor\\ roughly\\ 100\\ chemical\\ reactions\\ over\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ several\\ years\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Q3\\:\\ \\ Neurotransmitters\\ are\\ too\\ polar\\ to\\ diffuse\\ through\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\ \\ What\\'s\\ an\\ amino\\ acid\\ hormone\\ that\\ DOES\\ diffuse\\ through\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\A3\\:\\ \\ \\ Thyroxin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Q4\\:\\ \\ What\\'s\\ the\\ name\\ for\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ SNPs\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\A4\\:\\ \\ \\ A\\ haplotype\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Q5\\:\\ \\ Name\\ a\\ compound\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ androgen\\ receptor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A5\\:\\ \\ \\ Testosterone\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Q6\\:\\ \\ Which\\ scientist\\ first\\ described\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ inheritance\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Q7\\:\\ \\ Gregor\\ Mendel\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Tyra\\ Banks\\ won\\'t\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ outfit\\ her\\ next\\ Top\\ Model\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\'s\\ t\\-shirts\\ if\\ she\\ doesn\\'t\\ study\\ her\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ Regardless\\,\\ she\\'ll\\ remain\\ stunningly\\ beautiful\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ \\(optional\\)\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"ChemBank\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ lecture\\'s\\ optional\\ reading\\ includes\\ a\\ link\\ to\\ \\\"ChemBank\\,\\\"\\ an\\ online\\ databank\\ of\\ freely\\ available\\ data\\ derived\\ from\\ small\\ molecules\\ and\\ small\\-molecule\\ screens\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ tools\\ for\\ studying\\ the\\ data\\ that\\ will\\ hopefully\\ lead\\ to\\ new\\ biological\\ and\\ medical\\ insights\\.\\ \\ \\\"\\\\ChemBank\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ guide\\ chemists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ synthesizing\\ novel\\ compounds\\ or\\ libraries\\,\\ to\\ assist\\ biologists\\ searching\\ for\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ perturb\\ specific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ biological\\ pathways\\,\\ and\\ to\\ catalyze\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ drug\\ hunters\\ discover\\ new\\ and\\ effective\\ medicines\\.\\\"\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ the\\ link\\ to\\ it\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/chembank\\.broad\\.harvard\\.edu\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"The\\ Chemical\\ Biologists\\\"\\ \\-\\ \\Harvard\\ Magazine\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ April\\ 2005\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.broad\\.mit\\.edu\\/chembio\\/lab\\_schreiber\\/pubs\\/news\\_pdfs\\/2005HarvMag\\.pdf\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ article\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ Harvard\\'s\\ rapidly\\ expanding\\ effort\\ to\\ study\\ of\\ chemical\\ biology\\ \\(the\\ synthesis\\ of\\ chemistry\\ and\\ biology\\ is\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ field\\)\\,\\ largely\\ speerheaded\\ by\\ our\\ professors\\ Stuart\\ Schreiber\\ and\\ Jon\\ Clardy\\.\\ \\ \\ Highlights\\ from\\ the\\ article\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"One\\ of\\ Schreiber\\'s\\ many\\ contributions\\ has\\ been\\ in\\ helping\\ to\\ develop\\ technology\\ now\\ used\\ by\\ nearly\\ all\\ chemical\\ biologists\\:\\ \\ robotic\\ equipment\\ that\\ rapidly\\ screens\\ thousands\\ of\\ \\'small\\ molecules\\'\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ they\\ perturb\\ a\\ specific\\ biological\\ activity\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Last\\ fall\\,\\ \\[Harvard\\]\\ gave\\ this\\ new\\ discipline\\ \\[chemical\\ biology\\]\\ a\\ boost\\ by\\ launching\\ the\\ nation\\'s\\ first\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ program\\ in\\ chemical\\ biology\\,\\ codirected\\ by\\ Jon\\ Clardy\\,\\ professor\\ biological\\ chemistry\\ and\\ molecular\\ pharmacology\\ at\\ Harvard\\ Medical\\ School\\ \\(HMS\\)\\.\\.\\.\\.At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ an\\ introductory\\ course\\ on\\ chemical\\ biology\\ \\-\\ Science\\ B\\-47\\,\\ called\\ \\'Molecules\\ of\\ Life\\'\\ \\-\\ made\\ its\\ debut\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ undergraduate\\ Core\\ curriculum\\.\\ \\ Since\\ then\\,\\ the\\ field\\ has\\ been\\ evolving\\ faster\\ than\\ Darwin\\'s\\ finches\\ as\\ additional\\ faculty\\ members\\ are\\ recruited\\,\\ new\\ small\\ molecules\\ are\\ created\\,\\ and\\ high\\-speed\\ screening\\ facilities\\ proliferate\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"This\\ renaissance\\ follows\\ a\\ 20\\-year\\ period\\ in\\ which\\ small\\ molecules\\ were\\ eclipsed\\ by\\ biotechnology\\,\\ which\\ held\\ promise\\ for\\ developing\\ large\\ molecules\\ \\-\\ either\\ proteins\\ or\\ parts\\ of\\ proteins\\ called\\ peptides\\ \\-\\ as\\ medicines\\.\\ \\ When\\ biotechnology\\ exploded\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1980s\\,\\ it\\ seemed\\ wildly\\ exciting\\ compared\\ with\\ medicinal\\ chemistry\\,\\ the\\ 200\\-year\\-old\\ science\\ of\\ making\\ small\\-molecule\\ drugs\\.\\ \\ Some\\ scientists\\ thought\\ that\\ small\\-molecule\\ chemistry\\ had\\ accomplished\\ all\\ it\\ could\\ in\\ the\\ battle\\ against\\ disease\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ in\\ the\\ post\\-genome\\ era\\,\\ almost\\ no\\ would\\ agree\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Small\\ molecule\\ drugs\\ \\\"are\\ desirable\\ medicines\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ taken\\ as\\ pills\\:\\ \\ their\\ dimunitive\\ size\\ enables\\ them\\ to\\ pass\\ easily\\ from\\ the\\ gut\\ to\\ the\\ bloodstream\\,\\ which\\ swiftly\\ transports\\ them\\ to\\ where\\ they\\'re\\ needed\\ to\\ relieve\\ a\\ headache\\,\\ fight\\ strep\\ throat\\,\\ or\\ relax\\ a\\ knotted\\ muscle\\.\\ \\ Bigger\\ molecules\\ must\\ be\\ injected\\ \\(they\\ can\\'t\\ pass\\ through\\ the\\ digestive\\ system\\ into\\ the\\ bloodstream\\)\\ and\\,\\ when\\ given\\ the\\ choice\\,\\ nearly\\ everyone\\ prefers\\ pills\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"A\\ look\\ \\[at\\ chemical\\ biology\\ at\\ Harvard\\]\\ revelas\\ a\\ glittering\\ array\\ of\\ biologically\\ oriented\\ chemists\\ and\\ chemistry\\-savvy\\ biologists\\ developing\\ new\\ paths\\ in\\ fundamental\\ research\\ and\\ exploring\\ the\\ far\\ reaches\\ of\\ small\\-molecule\\ medicine\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Harvard\\'s\\ best\\-known\\ synthetic\\ chemist\\ is\\ Schreiber\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ first\\ step\\ in\\ a\\ typical\\ Jon\\ Clardy\\ experiment\\ is\\ not\\ \\making\\ \\<\\/em\\>small\\ molecules\\,\\ but\\ foraging\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\ Armed\\ with\\ a\\ trowel\\,\\ Clardy\\ spent\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ his\\ career\\ grubbing\\ for\\ microbial\\ DNA\\ in\\ rain\\-forest\\ soil\\ and\\ wading\\ in\\ the\\ shallows\\ of\\ the\\ Sea\\ of\\ Cortez\\ in\\ Mexico\\,\\ scraping\\ sponges\\,\\ algae\\,\\ and\\ crustaceans\\ off\\ rocks\\.\\ \\ During\\ one\\ especially\\ productive\\ period\\,\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ colleagues\\ determined\\ the\\ chemical\\ structures\\ of\\ about\\ 40\\ previously\\ unknown\\ compounds\\,\\ including\\ at\\ least\\ two\\ famous\\ ones\\.\\.\\.\\.bryostatin\\,\\ isolated\\ by\\ Clardy\\ from\\ a\\ fungus\\ he\\ found\\ on\\ wharf\\ pilings\\,\\ stops\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ certain\\ cancer\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Some\\ of\\ modern\\ medicine\\'s\\ most\\ powerful\\ antibiotics\\ and\\ immune\\ suppressants\\ come\\ from\\ such\\ soil\\ and\\ marine\\ microbes\\,\\ most\\ of\\ them\\ difficult\\ or\\ impossible\\ to\\ grow\\ in\\ the\\ laboratory\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Just\\ thought\\ it\\'d\\ be\\ fun\\ to\\ include\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ our\\ professor\\ from\\ an\\ earlier\\ time\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ \\:\\)\\ \\ \\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\"Because\\ Clardy\\ is\\ an\\ academic\\ researcher\\,\\ he\\ can\\ pursue\\ inquiries\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ get\\ far\\ in\\ a\\ drug\\-company\\ lab\\.\\.\\.\\.\\'Companies\\ are\\ working\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ next\\ Viagra\\ or\\ Prozac\\,\\'\\ says\\ Clardy\\,\\ \\'but\\ they\\'re\\ not\\ working\\ very\\ hard\\ on\\ antibiotics\\.\\'\\ \\ Academic\\ researchers\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\,\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ tackle\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ world\\'s\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\,\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ people\\ affected\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ buy\\ medicines\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Schreiber\\'s\\ new\\ vision\\ is\\ that\\ chemical\\ biologists\\ should\\ compile\\ a\\ library\\ of\\ roughly\\ 500\\,000\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ could\\ block\\ or\\ activate\\ every\\ protein\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ body\\.\\ \\ Sequencing\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\ took\\ about\\ a\\ dozen\\ years\\;\\ Schreiber\\ estimates\\ his\\ plan\\ could\\ be\\ complete\\ in\\ a\\ decade\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Clardy\\ and\\ Schreiber\\ discovered\\ how\\ rapamycin\\,\\ which\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ treat\\ cancer\\,\\ for\\ immunosupression\\ in\\ organ\\ transplantation\\,\\ and\\ to\\ coat\\ the\\ stents\\ used\\ to\\ prop\\ open\\ blood\\ vessels\\,\\ manipulates\\ cellular\\ signaling\\.\\ \\ The\\ structure\\ \\[was\\ discovered\\]\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ joint\\ studies\\.\\\"\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "How We Find Small Molecules that Treat Diseases"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.849222+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Screening for Small Molecules that Can Treat Diseases", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 464, "html": "\\Hey\\ there\\,\\\r\\\\\r\\we\\'ve\\ come\\ to\\ our\\ last\\ lecture\\ in\\ part\\ 3\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\.\\ \\ We\\ said\\ last\\ lecture\\ was\\ about\\ building\\ the\\ haystack\\.\\ \\ It\\ was\\ about\\ finding\\ that\\ huge\\ pool\\ of\\ molecules\\ that\\ \\might\\ \\<\\/em\\>fit\\ whatever\\ particular\\ need\\ we\\ might\\ have\\,\\ like\\ halting\\ cell\\ division\\ in\\ cancer\\ cells\\.\\ \\ Today\\ is\\ about\\ finding\\ the\\ needle\\:\\ \\ that\\ \\one\\ \\<\\/em\\>molecule\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ exact\\ properties\\ that\\ we\\ need\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Part\\ 4\\/4\\ of\\ the\\ overall\\ course\\ will\\ apply\\ what\\ we\\'ve\\ learned\\ about\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ genomes\\,\\ and\\ other\\ topics\\ and\\ apply\\ them\\ to\\ human\\ health\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Clardy\\ has\\ told\\ me\\ that\\ the\\ material\\ in\\ this\\ section\\ will\\ be\\ pretty\\ dense\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(There\\'s\\ a\\ needle\\ in\\ there\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>Today\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ in\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ classes\\ looking\\ at\\ genomic\\ medicine\\.\\ \\ Genomic\\ medicine\\ tries\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ \\generic\\<\\/em\\>\\ solutions\\,\\ almost\\ like\\ a\\ general\\ formula\\,\\ to\\ solving\\ problems\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\ad\\ hoc\\<\\/em\\>\\ solutions\\,\\ which\\ entail\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ specific\\ knowledge\\ about\\ a\\ certain\\ set\\ of\\ molecules\\ and\\ processes\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ diseased\\ state\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ class\\ today\\,\\ the\\ pharmaceutical\\ industry\\ is\\ largely\\ working\\,\\ out\\ of\\ necessity\\,\\ in\\ the\\ \\ad\\ hoc\\ \\<\\/em\\>mode\\ to\\ find\\ specific\\,\\ money\\-making\\ drugs\\ that\\ fix\\ money\\-making\\ problems\\,\\ like\\ erectile\\ dysfunction\\,\\ balding\\,\\ and\\ menopause\\ \\(it\\ always\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ sex\\!\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ a\\ problem\\ when\\ you\\ realize\\ how\\ little\\ progress\\ gets\\ made\\ in\\ our\\ society\\ on\\ diseases\\ that\\ remain\\ deeply\\ mysterious\\ and\\ harmful\\,\\ like\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ whose\\ molecular\\ underpinnings\\ we\\ still\\ don\\'t\\ really\\ understand\\.\\ \\ At\\ all\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Alright\\.\\ \\ Today\\'s\\ lecture\\ has\\ 3\\ parts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ Today\\'s\\ Lecture\\:\\ \\ Screening\\ Small\\ Molecules\\ for\\ Their\\ Ability\\ to\\ Bind\\ to\\ Macromolecules\\,\\ Such\\ as\\ Proteins\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ screening\\ process\\ occurs\\ in\\ 2\\ ways\\:\\ \\ \\(1\\)\\ screening\\ with\\ pure\\ proteins\\,\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ screening\\ with\\ cells\\ or\\ organisms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ shows\\ us\\ an\\ animation\\ depicting\\ a\\ protein\\ and\\ a\\ steady\\ stream\\ of\\ different\\ small\\ molecules\\ flying\\ past\\ the\\ protein\\ and\\ bouncing\\ off\\ of\\ it\\ because\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ bind\\ to\\ it\\.\\ \\ But\\ then\\,\\ we\\ get\\ extremely\\ lucky\\:\\ \\ a\\ molecule\\ with\\ the\\ right\\ binding\\ properties\\,\\ the\\ right\\ hydrogen\\ bonding\\ array\\,\\ binds\\ to\\ the\\ protein\\ of\\ interest\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\,\\ when\\ small\\ molecules\\ bind\\ to\\ proteins\\,\\ it\\ modulates\\ the\\ protein\\'s\\ function\\.\\ \\ Sometimes\\ it\\ activates\\ the\\ protein\\,\\ but\\ more\\ commonly\\,\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ inactivates\\ the\\ protein\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ overall\\ process\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ approaches\\ is\\,\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ reversed\\.\\ \\ What\\ Schreiber\\ means\\ by\\ that\\ is\\ when\\ you\\ screen\\ for\\ pure\\ proteins\\,\\ and\\ you\\ find\\ the\\ rare\\ small\\ molecule\\ whose\\ shape\\ complementarity\\ and\\ hydrogen\\ bonding\\ are\\ a\\ match\\ with\\ the\\ protein\\ in\\ question\\,\\ you\\ then\\ have\\ to\\ test\\ this\\ molecule\\'s\\ interaction\\ with\\ this\\ protein\\ in\\ the\\ real\\-life\\ context\\ inside\\ a\\ living\\ organism\\,\\ or\\ inside\\ a\\ real\\ cell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\By\\ contrast\\,\\ when\\ you\\ screen\\ with\\ cells\\ or\\ organisms\\ by\\ matching\\ small\\ molecules\\ to\\ proteins\\ in\\ living\\ cells\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ does\\ something\\ to\\ the\\ cell\\ you\\ care\\ about\\.\\ \\ You\\ \\first\\ \\<\\/em\\>get\\ the\\ cellular\\ function\\ you\\'re\\ interested\\ in\\,\\ and\\ \\then\\<\\/em\\>\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ partner\\ protein\\ that\\ caused\\ that\\ change\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Figuring\\ out\\ \\which\\ \\<\\/em\\>protein\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\ your\\ small\\ molecule\\ binds\\ to\\ is\\ really\\ difficult\\.\\ \\ Genomic\\ medicine\\ does\\ make\\ this\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ facile\\,\\ though\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\'ll\\ think\\ about\\ this\\ new\\ capability\\ of\\ rapidly\\ determining\\ which\\ protein\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ is\\ binding\\ to\\ when\\ it\\ succeeds\\ at\\ changing\\ a\\ cell\\'s\\ function\\,\\ and\\ its\\ ramifications\\ on\\ finding\\ new\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ helpful\\ development\\ has\\ been\\ our\\ closing\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ create\\ generic\\ process\\ to\\ solving\\ problems\\ with\\ disease\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ illustrate\\ this\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ picked\\ a\\ vignette\\ relating\\ to\\ solving\\ diabetes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\A\\ First\\ Approach\\:\\ Small\\ Molecule\\/Protein\\ Screens\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ introduce\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ type\\-2\\ Diabetes\\,\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\ wanted\\ to\\ illustrate\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ synthesizes\\ glucose\\ in\\ the\\ bloodstream\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Arthur\\ Ashe\\ \\(1943\\-1993\\)\\ had\\ type\\ 2\\ diabetes\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ blood\\ transfusion\\ during\\ heart\\ surgery\\ that\\ gave\\ him\\ AIDS\\ and\\ prematurely\\ ended\\ his\\ life\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>In\\ normal\\,\\ healthy\\ people\\,\\ glucose\\ circulates\\ in\\ the\\ blood\\,\\ and\\ it\\ gets\\ sensed\\ by\\ \\\"sensing\\ proteins\\,\\\"\\ and\\ the\\ body\\ responds\\ in\\ a\\ normal\\ way\\.\\ \\ In\\ diabetes\\,\\ something\\'s\\ gone\\ wrong\\ in\\ that\\ process\\.\\ \\ Our\\ knowledge\\ about\\ this\\ disease\\ is\\ very\\ new\\,\\ but\\ growing\\ quickly\\ even\\ as\\ I\\ write\\ this\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ details\\ in\\ this\\ vignette\\ are\\ not\\ important\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ overall\\ themes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ body\\ has\\ two\\ sensing\\ pathways\\ that\\ it\\ uses\\ to\\ sense\\ what\\'s\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ bloodstream\\,\\ and\\ to\\ send\\ signals\\ inside\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ into\\ the\\ nucleus\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Clardy\\ talked\\ earlier\\ about\\ steroid\\ hormones\\ that\\ get\\ taken\\ up\\ into\\ cells\\,\\ that\\ bind\\ with\\ receptors\\ in\\ cell\\ membranes\\,\\ which\\ enables\\ gene\\ transcription\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ general\\,\\ signal\\ transduction\\ is\\ actually\\ much\\,\\ much\\ more\\ complicated\\.\\ \\ The\\ typical\\ signaling\\ pathway\\ works\\ like\\ this\\:\\ \\ the\\ level\\ of\\ glucose\\ in\\ the\\ bloodstream\\ is\\ sensed\\,\\ which\\ sends\\ a\\ signal\\ to\\ a\\ protein\\ that\\ says\\ \\\"we\\'ve\\ got\\ this\\ level\\ of\\ glucose\\ now\\,\\\"\\ and\\ that\\ protein\\ signals\\ protein\\ \\#2\\,\\ who\\ signals\\ protein\\ \\#3\\,\\ and\\ the\\ signals\\ continue\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ up\\ to\\ protein\\ \\#8\\,\\ before\\ finally\\ the\\ order\\ is\\ sent\\ down\\ that\\ insulin\\ levels\\ should\\ be\\ increased\\ or\\ decreased\\ to\\ accommodate\\ the\\ sudden\\ rise\\ or\\ drop\\ in\\ glucose\\ levels\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Insulin\\ is\\ another\\ hormone\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ key\\ signaling\\ molecule\\.\\ \\ Unlike\\ small\\ molecule\\ hormones\\,\\ insulin\\ is\\ a\\ protein\\.\\ \\ When\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ diabetes\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ there\\'s\\ one\\ very\\ important\\ cell\\ in\\ the\\ pancreas\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ cell\\ that\\ controls\\ the\\ release\\ of\\ insulin\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Insulin\\ is\\ a\\ hormone\\ that\\ distributes\\ throughout\\ body\\,\\ reporting\\ on\\ the\\ senser\\ of\\ glucose\\.\\ \\ \\ It\\ speaks\\ to\\ many\\ other\\ cells\\,\\ passing\\ information\\ along\\ chains\\ of\\ different\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Schreiber\\ calls\\ the\\ different\\ chains\\ of\\ various\\ messaging\\ proteins\\ \\\"bucket\\ brigades\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ this\\ is\\ confusing\\ because\\ the\\ bucket\\ brigades\\ sometimes\\ cross\\ paths\\ at\\ \\\"nodes\\,\\\"\\ particular\\ proteins\\ that\\ pass\\ on\\ information\\ between\\ bucket\\ brigades\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ complex\\ circuitry\\ that\\ exists\\,\\ and\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ this\\ circuitry\\ remains\\ mysterious\\ to\\ us\\.\\ \\ We\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ all\\ the\\ proteins\\ at\\ play\\ in\\ this\\ circuitry\\,\\ nor\\ what\\ each\\ of\\ them\\ does\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ protein\\ we\\ do\\ know\\ is\\ \\\"protein\\ \\#2\\\"\\ mentioned\\ above\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ mTOR\\,\\ which\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ natural\\ selection\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ product\\ rapamycin\\.\\ \\ Rapamycin\\ has\\ an\\ exquisite\\ binding\\ relationship\\ with\\ mTOR\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ formed\\ through\\ a\\ billion\\ years\\ of\\ tinkering\\.\\ After\\ all\\ that\\ time\\,\\ nature\\ got\\ that\\ binding\\ relationship\\ right\\,\\ and\\ that\\ actually\\ has\\ important\\ implications\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ bodies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Knowing\\ that\\ rapamycin\\ binds\\ to\\ mTOR\\,\\ we\\ can\\ now\\ tune\\ up\\ or\\ tune\\ down\\ the\\ current\\ of\\ this\\ signaling\\ network\\.\\ \\ Depending\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ rapamycin\\ we\\ add\\ to\\ cells\\ determines\\ how\\ much\\ we\\ regulate\\ the\\ protein\\ mTOR\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ critical\\ step\\ in\\ the\\ glucose\\ signaling\\ system\\.\\ \\ Hot\\ damn\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ problem\\ is\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ proteins\\ in\\ this\\ glucose\\ signaling\\ pathway\\.\\ \\ We\\ can\\ modulate\\ protein\\ 2\\ \\(mTOR\\)\\,\\ but\\ what\\ about\\ the\\ others\\?\\ \\ If\\ you\\'re\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ the\\ body\\ handles\\ glucose\\ and\\ insulin\\,\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ very\\ relevant\\ to\\ diabetes\\,\\ then\\ you\\ would\\ want\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ bond\\ to\\ \\each\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ the\\ proteins\\ in\\ this\\ signaling\\ network\\,\\ or\\ this\\ \\\"bucket\\ brigade\\,\\\"\\ not\\ just\\ mTOR\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(A\\ real\\-life\\ \\\"bucket\\-brigade\\\"\\)\\<\\/p\\>Now\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ illustrate\\ this\\ process\\ of\\ screening\\ pure\\ proteins\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ try\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ all\\ 8\\ of\\ the\\ proteins\\ in\\ the\\ glucose\\ signaling\\ network\\,\\ purify\\ them\\,\\ then\\ expose\\ them\\ to\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ we\\'ll\\ look\\ for\\ the\\ rare\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ protein\\ 1\\,\\ another\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ protein\\ 3\\ \\(we\\ know\\ rapamycin\\ binds\\ to\\ protein\\ 2\\!\\)\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ for\\ all\\ 8\\ proteins\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Remember\\ the\\ microarrays\\ that\\ identify\\ the\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ attach\\ to\\ any\\ of\\ 1\\ million\\ bits\\ of\\ DNA\\ on\\ a\\ glass\\ plate\\?\\ \\ The\\ process\\ of\\ screening\\ pure\\ proteins\\ is\\ similar\\,\\ just\\ not\\ done\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ scale\\ \\(we\\ can\\'t\\ run\\ 1\\ million\\ small\\ molecules\\ by\\ a\\ protein\\ so\\ easily\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ 10\\'s\\ of\\ 1\\,000\\'s\\.\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Small\\ molecules\\ have\\ been\\ placed\\ on\\ glass\\ plates\\,\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ robot\\ that\\ can\\ reach\\ into\\ these\\ plates\\ and\\ drop\\ proteins\\ onto\\ the\\ plates\\.\\ \\ The\\ robot\\ can\\ notice\\ exactly\\ which\\ protein\\ stops\\ at\\ which\\ spot\\ on\\ a\\ glass\\ plate\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Each\\ plate\\ has\\ 12\\,000\\ different\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ we\\ wash\\ our\\ proteins\\ over\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ slides\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Adding\\ a\\ fluorescent\\ dye\\ to\\ a\\ protein\\ lets\\ us\\ pick\\ up\\ where\\ it\\ stopped\\ among\\ the\\ sea\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\ \\ When\\ we\\ put\\ the\\ glass\\ plate\\ under\\ a\\ microscope\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ that\\ only\\ 1\\/12\\,000\\ spots\\ is\\ emitting\\ fluorescent\\ light\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ process\\ can\\ be\\ repeated\\ with\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ proteins\\ in\\ the\\ glucose\\ signaling\\ process\\,\\ and\\ in\\ professor\\ Schreiber\\'s\\ dreams\\,\\ we\\ will\\ run\\ these\\ tests\\ \\every\\ \\<\\/em\\>protein\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ that\\ process\\ of\\ washing\\ proteins\\ over\\ small\\ molecules\\ had\\ a\\ problem\\:\\ \\ it\\ required\\ advanced\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ proteins\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ bucket\\ brigade\\.\\ \\ What\\ if\\ we\\'re\\ wrong\\,\\ though\\?\\ \\ What\\ if\\ those\\ aren\\'t\\ all\\ the\\ proteins\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ body\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Recall\\ schizophrenia\\.\\ \\ \\ All\\ we\\ know\\ are\\ its\\ symptoms\\ and\\ its\\ frequency\\.\\ \\ We\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ the\\ proteins\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ signaling\\ that\\ causes\\ schizophrenia\\ to\\ take\\ hold\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\.\\ \\ So\\ the\\ process\\ described\\ above\\ wouldn\\'t\\ work\\ for\\ schizophrenia\\.\\ \\ We\\ wouldn\\'t\\ know\\ \\which\\<\\/em\\>\\ proteins\\ to\\ wash\\ over\\ the\\ small\\ molecules\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(1994\\ Economics\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ Winner\\ John\\ Nash\\,\\ born\\ in\\ 1928\\ and\\ whose\\ life\\ inspired\\ the\\ movie\\ \\A\\ Beautiful\\ Mind\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ suffers\\ from\\ schizophrenia\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ Second\\ Approach\\:\\ Cell\\ Screens\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ find\\ an\\ approach\\ to\\ learning\\ about\\ schizophrenia\\ that\\ \\doesn\\'t\\ \\<\\/em\\>involve\\ so\\ much\\ specific\\,\\ advanced\\ knowledge\\ about\\ which\\ proteins\\ it\\ manipulates\\.\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ take\\ metal\\ plates\\ with\\ little\\ wells\\ indented\\ into\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\ Instead\\ of\\ putting\\ small\\ molecules\\ into\\ the\\ wells\\,\\ we\\ put\\ living\\ cells\\ into\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ you\\ take\\ healthy\\ cells\\ and\\ treat\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ small\\ molecule\\ rapamycin\\,\\ rapamycin\\ modulates\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ mTOR\\ in\\ those\\ cells\\.\\ \\ When\\ this\\ happens\\,\\ the\\ cells\\ change\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ see\\,\\ visually\\,\\ in\\ a\\ microscope\\.\\ \\ The\\ change\\ is\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ how\\ cells\\ change\\ when\\ a\\ patient\\ becomes\\ diabetic\\.\\ \\ Rapamycin\\ induces\\ a\\ \\\"diabetic\\ state\\\"\\ in\\ cells\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Realizing\\ that\\ rapamycin\\ does\\ this\\ has\\ shined\\ a\\ bright\\ light\\ on\\ diabetes\\.\\ \\ It\\ has\\ let\\ us\\ do\\ a\\ massive\\ search\\ for\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ \\reverse\\ \\<\\/em\\>the\\ diabetic\\ state\\ that\\ rapamycin\\ induces\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ do\\ this\\ search\\,\\ we\\ have\\ looked\\ at\\ 100\\,000\\'s\\ of\\ cells\\.\\ \\ We\\ found\\ that\\ 1\\/150\\,000\\ small\\ molecules\\ reversed\\ the\\ diabetic\\ state\\ that\\ rapamycin\\ brought\\ on\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ discovery\\ that\\ rapamycin\\ induces\\ cells\\ into\\ a\\ \\\"diabetic\\ state\\\"\\ has\\ shined\\ a\\ bright\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ diabetes\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ 2\\/3\\:\\ \\ Using\\ Screening\\ to\\ Study\\ Development\\ and\\ Physiology\\.\\.\\.Zebrafish\\!\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ about\\ diseases\\ like\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\,\\ though\\,\\ which\\ don\\'t\\ just\\ involve\\ a\\ single\\ cell\\,\\ but\\ a\\ whole\\ complex\\ set\\ of\\ cells\\ and\\ tissues\\?\\ \\ There\\ are\\ lot\\ of\\ diseases\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\ And\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ just\\ look\\ at\\ single\\ cells\\ to\\ figure\\ them\\ out\\.\\ \\ You\\ have\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ entire\\ organisms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ organism\\ should\\ we\\ pick\\?\\ \\ Humans\\?\\ \\ No\\.\\ \\ That\\'s\\ not\\ ethical\\.\\ \\ You\\ can\\ pick\\ animals\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ us\\,\\ like\\ primates\\.\\ \\ But\\ that\\'s\\ challenging\\.\\ \\ You\\ can\\ use\\ mice\\,\\ but\\ mice\\ are\\ really\\ complicated\\ organisms\\ actually\\.\\ \\ One\\ organism\\ that\\'s\\ been\\ used\\ has\\ actually\\ been\\ a\\ fish\\:\\ \\ the\\ zebrafish\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ main\\ reason\\ we\\ use\\ zebrafish\\ is\\ that\\ they\\'re\\ very\\ transparent\\.\\ \\ Stick\\ one\\ inside\\ your\\ aquarium\\,\\ look\\ inside\\,\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ with\\ the\\ naked\\ eye\\ the\\ fish\\'s\\ heart\\,\\ spleen\\,\\ stomach\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Screening\\ Living\\ Cells\\ \\-\\ Aorta\\ Constriction\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ now\\ know\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ congenital\\ disorders\\ that\\ emerge\\ at\\ birth\\ and\\ are\\ lethal\\.\\ \\ A\\ common\\ disorder\\ like\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ heart\\ disorder\\,\\ sparked\\ by\\ a\\ gene\\ that\\ causes\\ the\\ aorta\\ to\\ be\\ constricted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Fish\\,\\ like\\ humans\\,\\ also\\ get\\ this\\ congenital\\ genetic\\ disorder\\,\\ and\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ survive\\ beyond\\ several\\ days\\.\\ \\ We\\ studied\\ fish\\ with\\ this\\ condition\\ during\\ those\\ few\\ days\\ before\\ they\\ died\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ constricted\\ aorta\\ fails\\ to\\ send\\ blood\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ \\ Now\\,\\ imagine\\ if\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ medicine\\ we\\ could\\ give\\ to\\ a\\ pregnant\\ mother\\ immediately\\ after\\ discovering\\ that\\ the\\ baby\\ had\\ this\\ congenital\\ heart\\ disorder\\.\\ \\ The\\ drug\\ would\\ go\\ in\\ just\\ at\\ the\\ right\\ time\\ during\\ development\\ and\\ fix\\ the\\ problem\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ turns\\ out\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ brief\\ period\\ during\\ heart\\ development\\ where\\ the\\ decision\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ aorta\\.\\ \\ If\\ we\\ knew\\ in\\ advance\\ about\\ the\\ congenital\\ defect\\,\\ the\\ mother\\ could\\ take\\ the\\ drug\\ one\\ time\\,\\ in\\ advance\\,\\ and\\ the\\ aorta\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ correct\\ size\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ child\\'s\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ can\\'t\\ do\\ this\\ yet\\,\\ but\\ our\\ success\\ in\\ testing\\ with\\ fish\\ suggests\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ soon\\.\\ \\ Here\\'s\\ the\\ general\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ tested\\ the\\ fish\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ mate\\ them\\,\\ collect\\ their\\ embryos\\,\\ distribute\\ the\\ unhealthy\\ embryos\\ into\\ metal\\ plates\\ with\\ little\\ wells\\ in\\ them\\,\\ then\\ robotically\\ transfer\\ into\\ the\\ little\\ wells\\ our\\ random\\ collection\\ of\\ individual\\ small\\ molecules\\,\\ and\\ then\\ we\\'d\\ screen\\ for\\ the\\ rescued\\ phenotype\\.\\ \\ We\\'d\\ know\\ which\\ small\\ molecule\\ worked\\,\\ because\\ the\\ embryo\\ would\\ develop\\ into\\ a\\ fish\\ that\\ could\\ pump\\ blood\\ throughout\\ its\\ body\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ congenital\\ defect\\ manifests\\ itself\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ organism\\ at\\ one\\ small\\ time\\.\\ But\\ we\\ can\\ fix\\ it\\,\\ with\\ one\\ small\\ dose\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ at\\ one\\ time\\,\\ and\\ produce\\ a\\ healthy\\ fish\\ for\\ life\\.\\ \\ Amazing\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(The\\ discovery\\ of\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ prevent\\ aorta\\ constriction\\ in\\ Zebrafish\\ could\\ very\\ well\\ lead\\ to\\ preventing\\ this\\ congenital\\ birth\\ defect\\ in\\ humans\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>So\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ exciting\\ new\\ method\\ for\\ drug\\ discovery\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ antithetical\\ to\\ the\\ way\\ drugs\\ are\\ currently\\ found\\.\\ \\ Today\\,\\ we\\ start\\ with\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ which\\ protein\\ to\\ target\\ before\\ we\\ start\\ experimenting\\.\\ \\ The\\ approach\\ with\\ the\\ zebrafish\\,\\ though\\,\\ works\\ by\\ manufacturing\\ the\\ result\\ we\\'re\\ looking\\ for\\ \\(non\\-constricted\\ aorta\\ in\\ a\\ fish\\)\\ and\\ then\\ figuring\\ out\\ in\\ retrospect\\ how\\ it\\ worked\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ we\\'re\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ the\\ next\\ couple\\ examples\\ have\\ little\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ medicine\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ with\\ understanding\\ how\\ the\\ heart\\ develops\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ other\\ defects\\ in\\ heart\\ development\\,\\ too\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Screening\\ Living\\ Systems\\:\\ \\ Two\\ Hearts\\ in\\ One\\ Body\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Geneticists\\ have\\ found\\ a\\ mutation\\ in\\ fish\\ that\\ may\\ very\\ well\\ happen\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ and\\ if\\ it\\ does\\,\\ it\\ happens\\ so\\ early\\ in\\ development\\ that\\ the\\ embryo\\ just\\ dies\\.\\ \\ The\\ mutation\\ causes\\ the\\ fish\\ to\\ develop\\ with\\ two\\ hearts\\ instead\\ of\\ one\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ imagine\\ if\\ you\\ could\\ understand\\ the\\ rules\\ that\\ inspire\\ a\\ second\\ heart\\ to\\ grow\\.\\ \\ A\\ small\\ molecule\\ was\\ discovered\\ that\\,\\ without\\ a\\ gene\\ mutation\\,\\ causes\\ fish\\ to\\ do\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ \\ make\\ two\\ hearts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ molecule\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ a\\ fish\\ is\\ spurred\\ to\\ grow\\ two\\ hearts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ Schreiber\\ shows\\ us\\ videos\\ of\\ fish\\ hearts\\ beating\\.\\ \\ He\\ mentions\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ beats\\ between\\ the\\ human\\ heart\\'s\\ atrium\\ and\\ ventricle\\ are\\ off\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ atrium\\ starts\\ to\\ beat\\ 2\\ or\\ 3\\ times\\ for\\ every\\ time\\ the\\ ventricle\\ beats\\,\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ atrial\\ fibrillation\\,\\ a\\ common\\ precursor\\ to\\ heart\\ attacks\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ have\\ found\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\ that\\ throws\\ off\\ the\\ atrium\\/ventricle\\ beat\\ rhythm\\.\\ \\ This\\ molecule\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ probe\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ the\\ heart\\ normally\\ knows\\ to\\ beat\\ with\\ the\\ correct\\ ratio\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Screening\\ Whole\\ Organisms\\ \\-\\ Ear\\ Development\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ can\\ also\\ screen\\ whole\\ organisms\\ at\\ once\\.\\ \\ We\\ screened\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\ curb\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ ears\\ in\\ fish\\.\\ \\ We\\ can\\'t\\ do\\ this\\ in\\ individual\\ cells\\,\\ because\\ ears\\ are\\ complicated\\ organs\\ that\\ we\\ develop\\.\\ \\ We\\ realized\\ that\\ a\\ specific\\ protein\\ was\\ responsible\\,\\ 14\\-26\\ hours\\ fertilization\\ of\\ an\\ embryo\\,\\ for\\ igniting\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ an\\ ear\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ that\\'s\\ our\\ discussion\\ of\\ screening\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ \\(1\\)\\ pure\\ proteins\\,\\ \\(2\\)\\ living\\ systems\\ like\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ \\(3\\)\\ whole\\ organisms\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ complex\\ processes\\ like\\ ear\\ development\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ diseases\\ today\\ we\\ realize\\ are\\ products\\ of\\ cellular\\/tissue\\ deficiency\\.\\ \\ \\ Alzheimer\\'s\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ certain\\ neuron\\ that\\ starts\\ to\\ disappear\\ in\\ our\\ brains\\.\\ \\ If\\ we\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ regenerate\\ this\\ neuron\\,\\ perhaps\\ we\\'d\\ have\\ no\\ Alzheimer\\'s\\.\\ \\ A\\ lot\\ of\\ diseases\\ could\\ be\\ cured\\ by\\ this\\ \\\"regenerative\\ medicine\\,\\\"\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ rely\\ on\\ screening\\ of\\ whole\\ organisms\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Part\\ 3\\/3\\:\\ \\ Rethinking\\ Drug\\ Discovery\\ Techniques\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ finish\\ today\\ by\\ trying\\ to\\ summarize\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ current\\ methods\\ of\\ drug\\ discovery\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ synthesize\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ we\\'ve\\ talked\\ about\\ in\\ class\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ analyze\\ how\\ drugs\\ are\\ discovered\\ in\\ new\\ ways\\,\\ and\\ how\\ that\\ will\\ accelerate\\ in\\ the\\ coming\\ years\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ Drugs\\ Fail\\:\\ \\ The\\ Current\\ Method\\ of\\ Finding\\ Drugs\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ start\\ by\\ analyzing\\ why\\ many\\ drugs\\ fail\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ FDA\\ has\\ 3\\ different\\ phases\\ for\\ drug\\ testing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ first\\ phase\\ determines\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ drug\\ is\\ \\\"toxic\\,\\\"\\ or\\ harmful\\ to\\ the\\ body\\,\\ or\\ not\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ final\\ phase\\ asks\\:\\ \\ does\\ the\\ drug\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ disease\\ of\\ interest\\ and\\ maintain\\ its\\ lack\\ of\\ toxicity\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ candidate\\ drugs\\ fail\\ in\\ this\\ last\\ phase\\.\\ \\ Schreiber\\ points\\ us\\ to\\ a\\ graph\\ concerning\\ the\\ reasons\\ behind\\ the\\ failure\\ of\\ drugs\\ tested\\ by\\ the\\ FDA\\ between\\ 1991\\-2002\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\43\\%\\ of\\ the\\ drugs\\ failed\\ for\\ reasons\\ of\\ efficacy\\:\\ \\ they\\ bound\\ with\\ the\\ protein\\ they\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\,\\ but\\ they\\ didn\\'t\\ change\\ the\\ diseased\\ cell\\ into\\ a\\ healthy\\ one\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\36\\%\\ or\\ so\\ failed\\ for\\ reasons\\ of\\ toxicity\\:\\ \\ they\\ might\\ have\\ targeted\\ the\\ proper\\ proteins\\ and\\ cured\\ one\\ disease\\,\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ harmed\\ cells\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ in\\ other\\ ways\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ both\\ cases\\ of\\ efficacy\\ and\\ toxicity\\,\\ these\\ drugs\\ failed\\ because\\ they\\ hit\\ the\\ wrong\\ target\\ protein\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\.\\ \\ Now\\,\\ how\\ did\\ these\\ incorrect\\ targets\\ get\\ picked\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ takes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ guesswork\\.\\ \\ You\\ start\\ by\\ making\\ a\\ guess\\!\\ \\ You\\ pick\\ a\\ target\\ that\\ seems\\ like\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ right\\,\\ but\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ know\\.\\ \\ Then\\,\\ you\\ screen\\ millions\\ \\(\\~2\\,000\\,000\\)\\ of\\ compounds\\ that\\ might\\ bind\\ with\\ that\\ protein\\.\\ \\ Then\\ you\\ test\\ the\\ binding\\ relationship\\ in\\ animals\\.\\ \\ Then\\ you\\ try\\ it\\ in\\ humans\\.\\ \\ And\\ then\\ you\\ find\\ out\\ you\\ picked\\ the\\ wrong\\ target\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ that\\'s\\ why\\ drug\\ discovery\\ is\\ so\\ expensive\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ so\\ expensive\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ working\\!\\ \\ \\ The\\ process\\ is\\ flawed\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(Our\\ current\\ method\\ for\\ finding\\ drugs\\ can\\ cost\\ \\$1\\ billion\\ per\\ drug\\.\\ \\ And\\ most\\ of\\ these\\ drugs\\ don\\'t\\ pass\\ FDA\\ testing\\.\\ \\ Genomic\\ medicine\\,\\ in\\ its\\ infant\\ stages\\ today\\,\\ may\\ soon\\ enough\\ dramatically\\ change\\ drug\\ discovery\\ such\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ far\\ more\\ effective\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ far\\ less\\ expensive\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>It\\ assumes\\ we\\ know\\ more\\ than\\ we\\ actually\\ know\\.\\ \\ Again\\,\\ in\\ schizophrenia\\,\\ the\\ reason\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ any\\ drugs\\ to\\ treat\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ even\\ guess\\ which\\ proteins\\ should\\ be\\ targeted\\.\\ \\ So\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ work\\ being\\ done\\ by\\ pharmaceutical\\ companies\\ right\\ now\\ to\\ test\\ schizophrenia\\ drugs\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ Drugs\\ Might\\ Succeed\\ in\\ the\\ Future\\:\\ \\ Genomic\\ Medicine\\ as\\ a\\ Better\\ Process\\ for\\ Finding\\ Drugs\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ recognize\\ that\\ this\\ process\\ has\\ to\\ change\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ the\\ genomic\\ medicine\\ approach\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ to\\ start\\ with\\ the\\ living\\ system\\,\\ and\\ not\\ force\\ any\\ guesses\\ about\\ how\\ it\\ works\\.\\ \\ We\\ embrace\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ really\\ know\\ how\\ it\\ works\\,\\ and\\ then\\ we\\ let\\ it\\ reveal\\ itself\\ to\\ us\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ do\\ genomic\\ medicine\\,\\ we\\ assemble\\ an\\ optimal\\ collection\\ of\\ candidate\\ small\\ molecules\\ for\\ screening\\.\\ \\ These\\ are\\ small\\ molecules\\ that\\,\\ based\\ on\\ our\\ current\\ \\(limited\\)\\ knowledge\\,\\ we\\ anticipate\\ will\\ both\\ cure\\ diseases\\ and\\ be\\ producable\\ at\\,\\ say\\,\\ pennies\\ per\\ kilogram\\,\\ such\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ mass\\ produce\\ it\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ available\\ worldwide\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ embrace\\ that\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ all\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ a\\ small\\ molecule\\,\\ and\\ simply\\ look\\ for\\ ones\\ that\\ change\\ cells\\ from\\ diseased\\ states\\ into\\ healthy\\ states\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Then\\ we\\ determine\\ the\\ target\\ and\\ optimize\\ it\\ for\\ its\\ safety\\ and\\ efficacy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Genomic\\ Medicine\\ Timeline\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ started\\ the\\ human\\ genome\\ project\\ around\\ 1990\\.\\ \\ Around\\ 1995\\,\\ we\\ started\\ to\\ create\\ tools\\ of\\ genomic\\ medicine\\,\\ like\\ the\\ haplotype\\ map\\ project\\.\\ \\ We\\ mapped\\ the\\ genetic\\ variation\\ in\\ humans\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Since\\ 2000\\,\\ we\\'ve\\ really\\ seen\\ the\\ biological\\ basis\\ of\\ diseases\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\And\\ since\\ roughly\\ 2005\\,\\ we\\'ve\\ started\\ to\\ really\\ rethink\\ drug\\ discovery\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ lecture\\ has\\ no\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ our\\ next\\ lecture\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ pheromones\\!\\ \\ And\\ all\\ the\\ wonderful\\ things\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ with\\ them\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 80, "file_path": "", "desc": "Screening for Small Molecules that Can Treat Diseases"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.499924+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Emperor of California and the 'Foreign' in Nazi Film ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 444, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ begin\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ posts\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\,\\ cinema\\,\\ and\\ the\\ foreign\\.\\ How\\ are\\ foreign\\ lands\\ represented\\ in\\ Nazi\\ films\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ functions\\ of\\ such\\ representations\\?\\ How\\ do\\ productions\\ of\\ foreign\\ lands\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ propaganda\\ function\\ of\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ posts\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ this\\ entry\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ work\\ towards\\ addressing\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ questions\\ through\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ Luis\\ Trenker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ 1935\\/36\\ film\\,\\ Der\\ Kaiser\\ Von\\ Kalifornien\\ \\(The\\ Emperor\\ of\\ California\\)\\.\\ \\ By\\ analyzing\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ cinematography\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ peculiar\\ relationship\\ of\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ protagonist\\ to\\ both\\ the\\ imperialistic\\ gaze\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\ AND\\ the\\ F\\&\\#252\\;rher\\,\\ I\\ hope\\ to\\ follow\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ in\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ foreign\\,\\ in\\ this\\ film\\,\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ dreamscape\\ for\\ playing\\ out\\ the\\ fantasies\\ and\\ nightmares\\ of\\ technological\\ advance\\,\\ industrial\\ modernity\\,\\ and\\ totalitarianism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\No\\ doubt\\ this\\ analysis\\ would\\ be\\ unintelligible\\ without\\ a\\ brief\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ plot\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ several\\ other\\ logistical\\ details\\ concerning\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ production\\.\\ Der\\ Kaiser\\ Von\\ Kalifornien\\ documents\\ the\\ trials\\ and\\ tribulations\\ of\\ Johann\\ August\\ Sutter\\,\\ as\\ he\\ travels\\ across\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ and\\ eventually\\ the\\ American\\ heartland\\,\\ to\\ California\\,\\ where\\ he\\ then\\ attempts\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ ideal\\ agrarian\\ society\\ based\\ on\\ solidarity\\ and\\ hard\\ work\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ smooth\\ functioning\\ society\\ is\\ destroyed\\ by\\ the\\ discovery\\ of\\ gold\\,\\ which\\ throws\\ the\\ region\\ into\\ almost\\ anarchic\\ chaos\\ as\\ everybody\\ struggles\\ to\\ get\\ rich\\ quick\\.\\ \\ Despite\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ protest\\ that\\ the\\ land\\ belongs\\ to\\ him\\,\\ his\\ settlement\\,\\ New\\ Helvetica\\,\\ is\\ ultimately\\ burned\\ down\\,\\ and\\ Sutter\\ \\(as\\ recently\\ appointed\\ US\\ Senator\\ of\\ California\\)\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ flee\\ to\\ Washington\\ DC\\,\\ where\\ he\\ perishes\\ of\\ the\\ steps\\ of\\ the\\ Capitol\\ building\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\At\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ on\\ this\\ film\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ posed\\ a\\ difficult\\ question\\:\\ \\ Is\\ this\\ film\\ a\\ subversive\\ text\\?\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ this\\ assessment\\,\\ we\\ need\\ more\\ data\\:\\ How\\ was\\ the\\ film\\ talked\\ about\\ amongst\\ the\\ Germans\\ who\\ viewed\\ it\\?\\ How\\/Where\\ was\\ it\\ distributed\\?\\ Answering\\ these\\ questions\\ seems\\ like\\ a\\ prerequisite\\ to\\ determining\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ a\\ given\\ film\\ actually\\ subverts\\ anything\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ there\\ is\\ clear\\ evidence\\ that\\ Goebbels\\ edited\\ in\\ the\\ ending\\ against\\ Trenker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ wishes\\.\\ \\ How\\ this\\ knowledge\\ affects\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ is\\ less\\ clear\\.\\ \\ A\\ dominant\\ trend\\ suggests\\ the\\ film\\ subversive\\ text\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ \\(i\\)\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Sutter\\ flees\\ the\\ tyranny\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ country\\,\\ \\(ii\\)\\ the\\ demise\\ of\\ the\\ F\\&\\#252\\;rher\\ figure\\ in\\ Sutter\\,\\ and\\ \\(iii\\)\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ positive\\ disposition\\ towards\\ America\\.\\ \\ For\\ the\\ remainder\\ of\\ the\\ posting\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ complicate\\ this\\ view\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ two\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ film\\:\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ foreign\\ \\(America\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ Sutter\\-Trenker\\ Imperial\\ Gaze\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Luis\\ Trenker\\ directed\\,\\ shot\\,\\ and\\ played\\ the\\ lead\\ role\\ in\\ this\\ film\\.\\ \\ The\\ omnipresent\\ gaze\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\ becomes\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ imperialist\\ gaze\\.\\ One\\ stark\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ relationship\\ is\\ demonstrated\\ when\\ Sutter\\ gets\\ his\\ first\\ look\\ at\\ California\\.\\ \\ After\\ an\\ almost\\ perilous\\ journey\\ across\\ America\\ \\(which\\ resembles\\ an\\ Egyptian\\ desert\\ in\\ this\\ film\\)\\,\\ Sutter\\ climbs\\ a\\ mountain\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ bountiful\\ rivers\\ and\\ forests\\ of\\ his\\ dream\\ land\\.\\ \\ The\\ combination\\ of\\ his\\ joyous\\ proclamation\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Kalifornien\\&\\#8221\\;\\ with\\ a\\ sweeping\\ panorama\\ shot\\ suggests\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ conquering\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ camera\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ landscape\\ prefigures\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ meticulous\\ imperial\\ ordering\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ the\\ camera\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ gaze\\ implies\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ coming\\ colonization\\,\\ the\\ music\\ played\\ during\\ this\\ scene\\,\\ a\\ flat\\ foreboding\\ mixture\\ of\\ the\\ Star\\ Spangled\\ Banner\\ and\\ German\\ music\\,\\ suggests\\ the\\ inadequacy\\,\\ indeed\\ the\\ inevitable\\ failure\\ of\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ Flash\\ forward\\.\\ \\ Sutter\\ has\\ founded\\ a\\ society\\ on\\ hard\\-work\\ \\(and\\ implicitly\\ fidelity\\ to\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ wishes\\)\\.\\ \\ Although\\ Sutter\\ controls\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ land\\,\\ he\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ a\\ benign\\ and\\ equitable\\ leader\\.\\ \\ As\\ Sutter\\ surveys\\ his\\ society\\,\\ viewers\\ are\\ shown\\ an\\ idyllic\\ image\\ of\\ disciplined\\ order\\:\\ Plants\\ are\\ neatly\\ organized\\ and\\ harvesters\\ simultaneously\\ tend\\ to\\ their\\ crops\\ with\\ identical\\ motions\\.\\ \\ The\\ gentle\\ music\\ suggests\\ the\\ tranquil\\ stability\\ of\\ this\\ humble\\ society\\.\\ \\ Yet\\,\\ disaster\\ lurks\\ on\\ the\\ horizon\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ next\\ scene\\,\\ the\\ viewer\\ learns\\ that\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ second\\ in\\ command\\ has\\ discovered\\ gold\\ in\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ stream\\.\\ \\ Despite\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ warning\\ that\\ gold\\ will\\ destroy\\ the\\ society\\,\\ this\\ man\\ publicizes\\ his\\ finding\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ gaining\\ autonomy\\ and\\ economy\\ wealth\\.\\ \\ Within\\ days\\,\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ workforce\\ has\\ quit\\ to\\ pursue\\ gold\\ panning\\,\\ and\\ a\\ flood\\ of\\ gold\\ diggers\\ has\\ overrun\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ community\\.\\ \\ Suddenly\\,\\ Sutter\\ has\\ lost\\ his\\ authority\\,\\ and\\ his\\ society\\ lay\\ in\\ utter\\ disarray\\.\\ \\ How\\ could\\ this\\ have\\ happened\\?\\ \\ The\\ introduction\\ of\\ gold\\ reveals\\ the\\ perceived\\ order\\ of\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ his\\ gaze\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ rushed\\,\\ disorganized\\ tempo\\ of\\ the\\ gold\\ rush\\ scene\\ disrupts\\ the\\ methodical\\,\\ ordered\\ operation\\ of\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ society\\.\\ \\ This\\ collapse\\ of\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ order\\-narrative\\ is\\ one\\ reason\\ why\\ the\\ film\\ could\\ be\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ subversion\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ local\\ order\\-narrative\\ being\\ put\\ into\\ place\\ by\\ Hitler\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\America\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Multiple\\ interpretations\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\How\\ does\\ America\\ function\\ in\\ this\\ German\\ film\\?\\ \\ The\\ notion\\ that\\ this\\ film\\ is\\ a\\ Nazi\\ Western\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ believe\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ that\\ several\\ aspects\\ of\\ Der\\ Kaiser\\ Von\\ Kalifornien\\ are\\ either\\ inconsistent\\ or\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ motifs\\ of\\ traditional\\ Western\\ films\\.\\ Sutter\\ has\\ an\\ affectionate\\ relationship\\ with\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ rarely\\ portrayed\\ in\\ American\\ Westerns\\.\\ \\ Moreover\\,\\ Sutter\\ fails\\ to\\ fit\\ the\\ strong\\,\\ quiet\\-type\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ cowboy\\.\\ \\ Most\\ cowboys\\ are\\ men\\ of\\ few\\ words\\ who\\ are\\ about\\ doing\\,\\ not\\ talking\\.\\ \\ Sutter\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ articulate\\ and\\ charismatic\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ America\\ is\\ not\\ simply\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ mimic\\ American\\ film\\,\\ what\\ might\\ we\\ say\\ about\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ West\\ in\\ Der\\ Kaiser\\ Von\\ Kalifornien\\?\\ \\ In\\ his\\ creative\\ essay\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Unsettling\\ America\\:\\ German\\ Westerns\\ and\\ Modernity\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Lutz\\ Koepnick\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ important\\ question\\ is\\ not\\ \\&\\#8220\\;is\\ this\\ really\\ a\\ Western\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Koepnick\\,\\ 2\\)\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ is\\ of\\ greater\\ interest\\ is\\ why\\ and\\ how\\ certain\\ audiences\\ construct\\ a\\ certain\\ text\\ as\\ a\\ representative\\ of\\ a\\ specific\\ genre\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\,\\ and\\ how\\ this\\ construction\\ reflects\\ national\\ and\\ cultural\\ differences\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\.\\ \\ How\\,\\ then\\,\\ does\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ West\\ as\\ such\\ function\\ in\\ this\\ film\\?\\ \\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ suggest\\ two\\ possible\\ interpretations\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ 1st\\ Displaced\\ Germany\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ discusses\\ how\\ foreign\\ lands\\ can\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ displaced\\ Germany\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ West\\,\\ pervasive\\ lawlessness\\ suggests\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ protect\\ its\\ people\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ burlesque\\ scene\\ in\\ Der\\ Kaiser\\ Von\\ Kalifornien\\ to\\ suggest\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ perverse\\ multiculturalism\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ larger\\ creation\\ of\\ America\\ as\\ a\\ German\\ dreamscape\\.\\ \\ Perhaps\\ this\\ suggests\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ America\\ to\\ stand\\ in\\ as\\ the\\ setting\\ for\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ conflicts\\ within\\ Germany\\ that\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ expressed\\ on\\ their\\ own\\ terrin\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ 2nd\\ Anti\\-America\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Although\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ suggested\\ that\\ the\\ film\\ has\\ a\\ positive\\ disposition\\ towards\\ America\\,\\ I\\ think\\ one\\ could\\ complicate\\ this\\ view\\.\\ \\ While\\ the\\ film\\ surely\\ depicts\\ the\\ vast\\ territory\\ of\\ America\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ light\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;American\\ way\\&\\#8217\\;\\ gets\\ the\\ same\\ treatment\\.\\ \\ It\\ seems\\ reasonable\\ for\\ one\\ to\\ watch\\ the\\ film\\ and\\ blame\\ the\\ greediness\\ of\\ American\\ capitalism\\ for\\ the\\ disintegration\\ of\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideal\\ society\\.\\ The\\ autonomous\\ entrepreneurial\\ potential\\ of\\ each\\ individual\\ to\\ gather\\ gold\\ tears\\ Sutter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ society\\ to\\ shreds\\ by\\ obfuscating\\ any\\ sense\\ of\\ responsibility\\ beyond\\ immediate\\ wealth\\ accumulation\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ Ultimately\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ film\\ Was\\ subversive\\ without\\ extensive\\ commentary\\ from\\ viewers\\.\\ \\ Instead\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ productive\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ the\\ film\\ functions\\ now\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ more\\ pertinent\\ regimes\\ of\\ power\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\[Note\\:\\ \\Here\\<\\/a\\>\\ are\\ Assorted\\ Clips\\ from\\ the\\ film\\.\\ \\ Beware\\,\\ they\\ are\\ disorganized\\]\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Emperor of California and the 'Foreign' in Nazi Film "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.486570+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Many Forms of Propaganda ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 443, "html": "\\\\\\ Surely\\,\\ we\\ \\(modern\\,\\ Americans\\)\\ could\\ not\\ fall\\ pray\\ to\\ the\\ propagandizing\\ techniques\\ of\\ malicious\\ institutions\\.\\ \\ When\\ advertisements\\ attempt\\ to\\ produce\\ us\\ as\\ loyal\\ consumers\\,\\ we\\ are\\ well\\ aware\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ propagandists\\ aren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ na\\&\\#239\\;ve\\.\\ \\ As\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ out\\,\\ the\\ marketing\\ firms\\ that\\ try\\ and\\ sell\\ various\\ ideas\\ and\\ items\\ to\\ modern\\ populations\\ factor\\ skepticism\\ into\\ their\\ approaches\\,\\ making\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;propaganda\\&\\#8217\\;\\ element\\ of\\ advertising\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ complex\\ and\\ difficult\\ to\\ detect\\.\\ \\ Although\\ we\\ may\\ call\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ overtly\\ manipulative\\ aspects\\ of\\ certain\\ ads\\,\\ these\\ campaigns\\ are\\ themselves\\ paper\\ tigers\\,\\ which\\ conceal\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ only\\ contesting\\ what\\ is\\ disagreeable\\.\\ \\ In\\ his\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ diverse\\ types\\ of\\ propaganda\\,\\ Jacques\\ Ellul\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ far\\ deeper\\ forms\\ of\\ manipulation\\,\\ which\\ are\\ perpetuated\\ through\\ what\\ appear\\ as\\ commonsense\\ understandings\\ and\\ aspects\\ of\\ our\\ culture\\.\\ \\ Indeed\\,\\ Ellul\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ propaganda\\ is\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ conceal\\ itself\\.\\ \\ For\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ propaganda\\,\\ see\\ the\\ following\\ advertisement\\.\\\r\\\\\\What\\ commonsense\\ understandings\\ are\\ implied\\ by\\ the\\ rhetoric\\ of\\ the\\ ad\\?\\ Does\\ the\\ ad\\ merely\\ reflect\\ a\\ neutral\\ understanding\\ of\\ masculinity\\,\\ or\\ does\\ it\\ function\\ to\\ naturalize\\ a\\ particularly\\ heteronormative\\ view\\?\\\r\\\\\\ In\\ this\\ post\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ use\\ a\\ discussion\\ of\\ several\\ of\\ the\\ modalities\\ of\\ propaganda\\ highlighted\\ by\\ Ellul\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ sharpening\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ propagandistic\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\.\\ \\ Did\\ Nazi\\ films\\ present\\ the\\ same\\ type\\ of\\ propagandistic\\ message\\?\\ Or\\ did\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ propaganda\\ change\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ historical\\ circumstances\\?\\ \\ Speaking\\ of\\ purpose\\,\\ did\\ the\\ Nazis\\ have\\ complete\\ control\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ producing\\ propaganda\\?\\ \\ Or\\ was\\ the\\ efficacy\\ of\\ propaganda\\ largely\\ determined\\ by\\ viewer\\ responses\\,\\ which\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ fully\\ colonized\\ or\\ predicted\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Before\\ seeking\\ to\\ address\\ these\\ questions\\,\\ let\\ us\\ turn\\ to\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ Jacques\\ Ellul\\.\\ \\ In\\ his\\ definitive\\ work\\ on\\ propaganda\\ entitled\\ Propaganda\\:\\ The\\ Formation\\ of\\ Men\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Attitudes\\,\\ Ellul\\ proposes\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ distinct\\,\\ dichotomously\\ opposed\\ forms\\ of\\ propaganda\\,\\ many\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\ and\\ the\\ internal\\ conflict\\ regarding\\ its\\ goals\\.\\ \\ The\\ first\\ dichotomy\\ of\\ interest\\ relates\\ to\\ propaganda\\ of\\ agitation\\ versus\\ propaganda\\ of\\ integration\\.\\ \\ Agitation\\ propaganda\\ is\\ widespread\\,\\ subversive\\,\\ and\\ often\\ involves\\ a\\ call\\ to\\ action\\.\\ \\ Propaganda\\ of\\ integration\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ long\\-term\\ propaganda\\ that\\ seeks\\ not\\ temporary\\ excitement\\,\\ but\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ ordering\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ into\\ a\\ given\\ social\\ configuration\\.\\ Often\\ these\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ propaganda\\ are\\ sequenced\\.\\ \\ Propaganda\\ of\\ agitation\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ compel\\ revolution\\,\\ and\\ after\\ the\\ rebellion\\ propaganda\\ of\\ integration\\ is\\ deployed\\ to\\ stabilize\\ a\\ population\\ into\\ a\\ new\\ social\\ order\\.\\ \\ Thus\\ far\\,\\ we\\ have\\ really\\ only\\ seen\\ the\\ former\\ type\\ of\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ could\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ agitating\\ resistance\\ to\\ political\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ Nazi\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ top\\ competitor\\ for\\ power\\,\\ communism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ Another\\ pertinent\\ distinction\\ made\\ by\\ Ellul\\,\\ and\\ eluded\\ to\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ post\\,\\ is\\ that\\ between\\ rational\\ and\\ irrational\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ While\\ rational\\ propaganda\\ uses\\ reason\\,\\ facts\\,\\ and\\ statistics\\ to\\ ground\\ its\\ claim\\ to\\ authority\\/truth\\,\\ irrational\\ propaganda\\ addresses\\ the\\ population\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ feelings\\ and\\ passions\\.\\ \\ As\\ mentioned\\ last\\ time\\,\\ the\\ Nazis\\ primarily\\ relied\\ upon\\ this\\ latter\\ method\\ of\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ Rather\\ than\\ producing\\ hatred\\ \\(of\\ communism\\,\\ Jews\\,\\ etc\\)\\ through\\ recourse\\ to\\ reason\\,\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ Nazi\\ propaganda\\ plays\\ on\\ \\(and\\ indeed\\ produces\\)\\ the\\ affective\\ terrain\\ of\\ the\\ viewers\\.\\\r\\\\[NOTE\\:\\ Although\\ Ellul\\ argues\\ that\\ irrational\\ propaganda\\ is\\ fading\\ due\\ to\\ modern\\ population\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ demand\\ for\\ factual\\ explanation\\,\\ the\\ Bush\\ administration\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ recourse\\ to\\ religious\\ themes\\ as\\ a\\ justification\\ for\\ its\\ actions\\,\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ factual\\ counter\\-evidence\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ certain\\ populations\\ are\\ still\\ quite\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ irrational\\ propaganda\\ that\\ plays\\ on\\ passions\\ \\(notions\\ of\\ patriotism\\,\\ security\\,\\ retribution\\)\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ reason\\.\\]\\\r\\\\\\ A\\ final\\ dichotomy\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ touch\\ on\\ before\\ addressing\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\ specific\\ is\\ that\\ between\\ covert\\ and\\ overt\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ This\\ one\\ is\\ fairly\\ straightforward\\.\\ \\ Over\\ propaganda\\ is\\ open\\ and\\ explicit\\ about\\ its\\ message\\.\\ \\(Think\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\)\\.\\ \\ Covert\\ propaganda\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ conceals\\ its\\ intentions\\ and\\ seeks\\ to\\ push\\ populations\\ towards\\ certain\\ views\\ without\\ their\\ being\\ aware\\ of\\ what\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ going\\ on\\.\\ \\ Again\\,\\ thus\\ far\\ we\\ have\\ primarily\\ seen\\ overt\\ propaganda\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\ and\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ argued\\ that\\ Olympia\\ was\\ less\\ about\\ promoting\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\ than\\ it\\ was\\ about\\ affirming\\ a\\ particular\\ vision\\ of\\ natural\\ beauty\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ unrelated\\ to\\ Nazism\\ upon\\ first\\ glance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Keeping\\ these\\ dichotomies\\ in\\ mind\\,\\ let\\ us\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ propagandistic\\ function\\ of\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\.\\ Importantly\\,\\ Hitler\\ and\\ Goebbels\\ disagreed\\ on\\ how\\ cinema\\ should\\ function\\ within\\ the\\ larger\\ Nazi\\ propaganda\\ apparatus\\.\\ Whereas\\ Hitler\\ believed\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ know\\ they\\ were\\ watching\\ a\\ Nazi\\ film\\,\\ Goebbels\\ thought\\ the\\ opposite\\.\\ \\ Overt\\ propaganda\\ could\\ often\\ ruin\\ the\\ fantastic\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ cinema\\ and\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ subtle\\ colonization\\ of\\ viewer\\ affect\\.\\ In\\ opposition\\ to\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ all\\ overt\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ vision\\ of\\ Nazi\\ propaganda\\,\\ Goebbels\\ promoted\\ the\\ orchestra\\ approach\\.\\ He\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ everybody\\ \\(read\\:\\ medium\\)\\ playing\\ the\\ same\\ instrument\\,\\ and\\ instead\\ suggested\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ blend\\ of\\ overt\\ and\\ covert\\ propaganda\\ that\\ could\\ surround\\ the\\ population\\ on\\ all\\ sides\\.\\ \\ Within\\ this\\ framework\\,\\ Goebbels\\ generally\\ felt\\ that\\ films\\ should\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ of\\ subtle\\,\\ affective\\ integration\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ overt\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ Goebbels\\ challenge\\ was\\ to\\ seamlessly\\ combine\\ seductive\\,\\ pleasurable\\ entertainment\\ with\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\[NOTE\\:\\ While\\ many\\ Nazi\\ films\\ succeeded\\ in\\ this\\ regard\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ interrogate\\ the\\ common\\ presumptions\\ that\\ \\(i\\)\\ all\\ propaganda\\ was\\ conscious\\ design\\ and\\ \\(ii\\)\\ that\\ people\\ like\\ Goebbels\\ had\\ complete\\ control\\ over\\ a\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ interpretation\\]\\ Given\\ Goebbels\\ desire\\ to\\ blend\\ pleasure\\ with\\ concealed\\ political\\ purpose\\,\\ one\\ cannot\\ argue\\ that\\ Nazi\\ feature\\ films\\ were\\ simply\\ tools\\ of\\ distraction\\.\\ Although\\ many\\ Nazi\\ films\\ played\\ passionately\\ on\\ the\\ viewers\\&\\#8217\\;\\ perceived\\ fantasies\\,\\ they\\ also\\ worked\\ to\\ subtly\\ integrate\\ propagandistic\\ elements\\ into\\ these\\ very\\ fantasies\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ one\\ could\\ view\\ much\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\ as\\ integrative\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ as\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ laments\\,\\ if\\ such\\ subtle\\ mechanisms\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ propagandistic\\,\\ are\\ there\\ any\\ elements\\ of\\ modern\\ society\\ that\\ escape\\ propaganda\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ As\\ this\\ post\\ comes\\ to\\ a\\ close\\,\\ let\\ us\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\.\\ \\ What\\ vision\\ of\\ a\\ better\\ world\\ is\\ the\\ film\\ trying\\ to\\ provide\\?\\ \\ Although\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ provides\\ an\\ obvious\\ discussion\\ of\\ a\\ beautiful\\,\\ nationalist\\ Germany\\,\\ what\\ more\\ can\\ we\\ grasp\\?\\ \\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ final\\ scene\\ \\(linked\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ posting\\)\\ reveals\\ more\\ than\\ simply\\ a\\ recourse\\ to\\ nationalism\\.\\ \\ The\\ solemn\\,\\ silent\\ cut\\ of\\ Heini\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ body\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ dissolve\\ of\\ his\\ body\\ into\\ the\\ Nazi\\ banner\\ and\\ the\\ reemergence\\ of\\ the\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ anthem\\ produce\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ the\\ oceanic\\,\\ infinity\\ of\\ Nazi\\ symbols\\,\\ which\\ transcend\\ even\\ the\\ physicality\\ of\\ the\\ party\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ members\\.\\ \\ While\\ this\\ closing\\ scene\\ certainly\\,\\ as\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\,\\ has\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ contrasting\\ the\\ tidy\\ organization\\ of\\ Nazi\\ society\\ with\\ the\\ disorganized\\ brutality\\ of\\ communism\\,\\ it\\ also\\ reveals\\ the\\ unsettling\\ position\\ of\\ death\\ and\\ martyrdom\\,\\ not\\ as\\ aberrations\\,\\ but\\ as\\ constitutive\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Party\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ existence\\.\\ \\ The\\ cult\\ of\\ death\\ rolls\\ on\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Many Forms of Propaganda "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.453972+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "A Lesson on Fascism... and Rambo II ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 440, "html": "\\\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ like\\ to\\ start\\ this\\ post\\ with\\ a\\ clip\\ from\\ a\\ more\\ contemporary\\ film\\ than\\ usual\\.\\ \\ Perhaps\\ some\\ of\\ you\\ have\\ seen\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\\ \\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Although\\ it\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ most\\ memorable\\ film\\,\\ Rambo\\ II\\ provides\\ an\\ interesting\\ launch\\ pad\\ for\\ a\\ larger\\ discussion\\ regarding\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\.\\ \\ Is\\ Rambo\\ II\\ a\\ fascist\\ film\\?\\ Rather\\ than\\ answering\\ this\\ question\\ directly\\,\\ this\\ post\\ will\\ seek\\ to\\ further\\ clarify\\ what\\ is\\ meant\\ by\\ fascism\\ and\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ framework\\ for\\ evaluating\\ the\\ fascist\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ other\\ contemporary\\ media\\.\\ \\ To\\ ask\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ Rambo\\ II\\ is\\ a\\ fascist\\ film\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ purely\\ academic\\ exercise\\.\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ many\\ reviews\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ explored\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ film\\ constituted\\ the\\ reemergence\\ of\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ fascist\\ cinema\\.\\ Several\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ fit\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ traditionally\\ fascist\\ propaganda\\ films\\:1\\.\\ Focus\\ on\\ the\\ abstract\\ human\\ form\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Rambo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ body\\ as\\ an\\ idealization\\ of\\ the\\ male\\ warrior\\ form\\.\\\r\\2\\.\\ Warrior\\ of\\ nature\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Although\\ Rambo\\ is\\ comfortable\\ with\\ the\\ weapons\\ of\\ modernity\\;\\ his\\ preferred\\ weapon\\ is\\ the\\ bow\\ and\\ arrow\\.\\ \\ This\\ fusion\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ masculinity\\,\\ and\\ violence\\ is\\ bound\\ up\\ in\\ fascist\\ narratives\\ of\\ the\\ master\\ race\\.\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ The\\ military\\ fantasy\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ The\\ greatest\\ joy\\ in\\ life\\ is\\ the\\ annihilation\\ of\\ life\\.\\ \\ This\\ military\\ ethic\\ is\\ naturalized\\ into\\ popular\\ culture\\ by\\ the\\ blood\\ lust\\ of\\ Rambo\\.\\\r\\4\\.\\ The\\ anti\\-type\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ The\\ Vietnamese\\ are\\ systematically\\ dehumanized\\,\\ and\\ their\\ murders\\ are\\ aestheticized\\.\\\r\\\\\\ At\\ first\\,\\ one\\ may\\ object\\ to\\ labeling\\ these\\ four\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Fascist\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ After\\ all\\,\\ wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ fascism\\ a\\ historically\\ specific\\ ideology\\,\\ which\\ emerged\\ in\\ Italy\\ in\\ 1919\\?\\ \\ Given\\ the\\ diversity\\ of\\ distinct\\ political\\ movements\\ that\\ have\\ characterized\\ themselves\\ a\\ fascist\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ attach\\ any\\ precise\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ term\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ highlights\\ several\\ generalities\\ existent\\ across\\ the\\ space\\-time\\ of\\ the\\ multiple\\ fascist\\ movements\\.\\ \\ Seeking\\ to\\ do\\ away\\ with\\ the\\ wishy\\-wash\\ nature\\ of\\ liberalism\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ communism\\ and\\ conservativism\\)\\,\\ fascist\\ parties\\ promote\\ the\\ ideal\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ authoritarian\\ state\\,\\ grounded\\ in\\ imperialistic\\ nationalism\\ and\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;new\\ man\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\ Central\\ to\\ the\\ process\\ is\\ the\\ meticulous\\ stratification\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ into\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ with\\ a\\ near\\-divine\\ dictator\\ at\\ the\\ top\\.\\ \\ Youth\\ is\\ privileged\\ over\\ all\\ other\\ phases\\ of\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Aesthetics\\ play\\ a\\ crucial\\ role\\ in\\ mobilizing\\ populations\\ for\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ these\\ ideals\\.\\ \\ Recall\\ the\\ society\\ of\\ ritual\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ several\\ posts\\.\\ \\ By\\ inundating\\ the\\ population\\ with\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ symbols\\ \\(swastika\\,\\ eagle\\)\\ and\\ ceremonies\\ \\(party\\ rallies\\,\\ holidays\\)\\,\\ fascism\\ seeks\\ to\\ get\\ people\\ to\\ stop\\ thinking\\ and\\ start\\ feeling\\.\\ The\\ proliferation\\ of\\ national\\ symbols\\ provides\\ people\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ belonging\\,\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ producing\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ enchantment\\ surrounding\\ daily\\ rituals\\.\\ \\ As\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ points\\ out\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ communists\\,\\ who\\ sought\\ to\\ use\\ reason\\ to\\ convince\\ people\\ of\\ their\\ beliefs\\,\\ the\\ Nazis\\ disavowed\\ reason\\,\\ instead\\ seeking\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ fantasy\\ and\\ desire\\.\\ \\ Both\\ the\\ media\\ and\\ the\\ cinema\\ are\\ necessary\\ tools\\ in\\ fascism\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ colonization\\ of\\ affect\\.\\ \\ Not\\ only\\ do\\ these\\ apparatuses\\ serve\\ as\\ vehicles\\ for\\ party\\ ideology\\,\\ but\\ they\\ also\\ function\\ as\\ mass\\ experiences\\,\\ which\\ privilege\\ collective\\ affective\\ reactions\\ over\\ more\\ individual\\,\\ critical\\ reflection\\.\\ \\ Such\\ aesthetic\\ experiences\\ were\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ overwhelming\\.\\ \\ Drawing\\ on\\ the\\ \\fascist\\ architecture\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ Albert\\ Speer\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ that\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ overwhelm\\ or\\ \\&\\#8216\\;bowl\\ over\\&\\#8217\\;\\ viewers\\,\\ leaving\\ them\\ ready\\ to\\ receive\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ fascist\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ What\\ does\\ this\\ analysis\\ mean\\ for\\ Rambo\\ II\\?\\ As\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ film\\ could\\ be\\ fit\\ into\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ given\\ above\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ one\\ might\\ counter\\ that\\ in\\ a\\ democracy\\ society\\,\\ such\\ as\\ America\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ for\\ multiple\\,\\ critical\\ perspective\\ prevents\\ such\\ films\\ from\\ having\\ their\\ total\\ impact\\.\\ \\ While\\ I\\ am\\ in\\ partial\\ agreement\\ with\\ this\\ opinion\\,\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ imperative\\ that\\ we\\ take\\ contemporary\\ manifestations\\ of\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ seriously\\.\\ \\ Although\\ people\\ in\\ America\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ criticize\\ objectionable\\ films\\,\\ media\\,\\ and\\ policies\\,\\ mainstream\\ media\\ companies\\,\\ video\\ games\\,\\ and\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ other\\ centralizing\\ technologies\\ function\\ to\\ control\\ both\\ what\\ will\\ be\\ heard\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ perceived\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ as\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ that\\ films\\ such\\ as\\ Rambo\\ II\\ may\\ have\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ mobilizing\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ Gulf\\ War\\,\\ I\\ am\\ left\\ to\\ ponder\\ whether\\ films\\ such\\ as\\ Behind\\ Enemy\\ Lines\\,\\ Sin\\ City\\,\\ and\\ a\\ larger\\ culture\\ of\\ violence\\ \\(the\\ evening\\ news\\,\\ children\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ television\\,\\ etc\\)\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ apathy\\ that\\ enabled\\ the\\ second\\ Gulf\\ War\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "A Lesson on Fascism... and Rambo II "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.442925+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Fascist aesthetics.. Why Care? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 439, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ It\\ was\\ suggested\\ last\\ time\\ that\\,\\ while\\ Leni\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Olympia\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ direct\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\,\\ its\\ proto\\-fascist\\ aesthetic\\ was\\ easily\\ incorporated\\ by\\ the\\ Nazis\\ to\\ promote\\ their\\ eugenicist\\ paradise\\.\\ \\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ like\\ to\\ unpack\\ this\\ claim\\ a\\ bit\\ more\\ thoroughly\\.\\ \\ Last\\ time\\,\\ certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ aesthetic\\ were\\ pointed\\ out\\ as\\ fascist\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ worship\\ of\\ the\\ abstract\\ human\\ form\\.\\ \\ But\\ why\\ should\\ this\\ matter\\ for\\ viewers\\ watching\\ the\\ film\\ now\\,\\ long\\ after\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ Party\\?\\ \\ Put\\ another\\ way\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ risk\\ in\\ unproblematically\\ accepting\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ aesthetic\\ today\\?\\ \\ Obviously\\,\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ mean\\ to\\ say\\:\\ \\&\\#8216\\;Psh\\.\\.\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\ is\\ Dead\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ so\\ is\\ fascism\\!\\&\\#8217\\;\\ Instead\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ press\\ against\\ examples\\ of\\ what\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ has\\ deemed\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ that\\ these\\ images\\ that\\ makes\\ them\\ so\\ fraught\\ with\\ danger\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ begin\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ primary\\ examples\\ of\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ fascist\\ aesthetic\\ given\\ by\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ the\\ \\diving\\ scene\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\ You\\ should\\ recognize\\ immediately\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ techniques\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ gymnastics\\ clip\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ post\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ music\\ to\\ lift\\ the\\ events\\ above\\ their\\ purely\\ temporal\\ location\\.\\ \\ Indeed\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ certain\\ progression\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\ from\\ the\\ immediately\\ temporal\\ to\\ the\\ timeless\\/immortal\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ divers\\ depicted\\ at\\ the\\ conclusion\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\.\\ \\ For\\ Rentschler\\,\\ this\\ transformation\\ is\\ achieved\\ through\\ the\\ privileged\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ 1\\.\\ Use\\ of\\ Silhouette\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Not\\ only\\ does\\ this\\ technique\\ obscure\\ the\\ individual\\ faces\\ of\\ the\\ athletes\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ movements\\ of\\ human\\ forms\\ \\(what\\ Rentschler\\ refers\\ to\\ as\\ \\&\\#8216\\;abstract\\ geometries\\&\\#8217\\;\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ works\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ bodies\\ from\\ their\\ fixed\\ location\\.\\ \\ At\\ first\\,\\ the\\ diver\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ are\\ cast\\ against\\ a\\ crowded\\ stadium\\,\\ but\\ by\\ the\\ 2\\:50\\ mark\\,\\ the\\ audience\\ disappears\\,\\ as\\ bodies\\ are\\ shot\\ against\\ the\\ sky\\ from\\ below\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ an\\ almost\\ mystical\\ quality\\.\\\r\\2\\.\\ Slow\\ Motion\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Used\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ gracefulness\\ of\\ the\\ diver\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ movements\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ also\\ transforms\\ the\\ diving\\ from\\ a\\ competition\\ to\\ a\\ performance\\ of\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ human\\ movement\\ that\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;tempo\\ and\\ editing\\&\\#8217\\;\\ of\\ the\\ filmmaker\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ the\\ diving\\ scene\\ objectifies\\ the\\ athletes\\,\\ reducing\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ competition\\ to\\ the\\ affective\\-aesthetic\\ experience\\ of\\ watching\\ their\\ movements\\.\\ \\ The\\ question\\ for\\ me\\ is\\,\\ why\\ worry\\ about\\ such\\ objectifications\\?\\ \\ While\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ this\\ particular\\ film\\ and\\ a\\ fascist\\ regime\\ has\\ been\\ established\\ \\(and\\ is\\ clearly\\ important\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ when\\ watching\\ this\\ film\\)\\,\\ what\\ of\\ the\\ deployment\\ of\\ these\\ aesthetics\\ in\\ modern\\ contexts\\?\\ \\ Take\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ this\\ \\Rammstein\\ video\\<\\/a\\>\\ shown\\ in\\ lecture\\ by\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\.\\ \\ At\\ worst\\,\\ \\ one\\ could\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ music\\ video\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ Michael\\ Jackson\\ video\\ linked\\ in\\ my\\ first\\ post\\,\\ uncritically\\ deploys\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ producing\\ a\\ beautiful\\ audio\\-visual\\ experience\\.\\ \\ Even\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ case\\,\\ why\\ should\\ we\\ care\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ Thus\\ far\\,\\ I\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ little\\ dissatisfied\\ with\\ the\\ depth\\ of\\ a\\ response\\ given\\ to\\ this\\ question\\ in\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ I\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ danger\\ in\\ accepting\\ such\\ redeployments\\ for\\ their\\ beauty\\ is\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ producing\\ new\\ micro\\-fascisms\\.\\ \\ \\ Interestingly\\,\\ Susan\\ Sontag\\ points\\ out\\ in\\ her\\ essay\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Fascinating\\ Fascism\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ rock\\ bands\\ are\\ appropriating\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ produce\\ new\\ cult\\ followings\\.\\ \\ Is\\ it\\ possible\\ that\\ these\\ fan\\-followings\\,\\ whereby\\ listeners\\ and\\ concertgoers\\ submit\\ themselves\\ to\\ the\\ domination\\ of\\ the\\ rocker\\-from\\-above\\,\\ are\\ creating\\ new\\ proto\\-fascist\\ spheres\\?\\ \\ Sure\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ I\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ WHY\\ THIS\\ IS\\ DANGEROUS\\.\\ \\ As\\ of\\ now\\,\\ my\\ explanation\\ can\\ get\\ no\\ further\\ than\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ performance\\ of\\ domination\\-submission\\ carried\\ out\\ in\\ decentralized\\ locations\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ rock\\ concert\\,\\ might\\ \\(and\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ might\\)\\,\\ plant\\ the\\ affective\\ seeds\\ that\\ would\\ make\\ an\\ authoritarian\\ leader\\ seem\\ sexy\\.\\ \\ This\\ answer\\ is\\ unsatisfying\\ to\\ me\\.\\ \\ Perhaps\\ sitting\\ in\\ my\\ room\\ and\\ further\\ lamenting\\ over\\ Walter\\ Benjamin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ essay\\,\\ \\\\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Work\\ of\\ Art\\ in\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Mechanical\\ Reproduction\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\ will\\ help\\ shed\\ some\\ light\\ on\\ the\\ situation\\&\\#8230\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Fascist aesthetics.. Why Care? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.391399+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Hitler Spectacle ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 435, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ preface\\ to\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\\\Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ and\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ public\\ image\\ in\\ general\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ began\\ his\\ lecture\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ question\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\ did\\ people\\ see\\ Hitler\\ when\\ he\\ appeared\\ live\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ a\\ creative\\ play\\ on\\ words\\,\\ Rentschler\\ suggested\\ that\\ Hitler\\ \\&\\#8216\\;wasn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ all\\ there\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Access\\ to\\ his\\ person\\ was\\ constantly\\ mediated\\ by\\ the\\ spectacle\\-producing\\ technologies\\ of\\ cinema\\ and\\ media\\ editing\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\ \\<\\/em\\>provides\\ several\\ excellent\\ examples\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ Shots\\ of\\ Hitler\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Low\\-angle\\ shots\\ produce\\ a\\ powerful\\,\\ domineering\\ image\\ of\\ Hitler\\ despite\\ his\\ rather\\ meek\\ physical\\ stature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ Celebration\\ Splicing\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Parades\\ from\\ different\\ days\\ are\\ sewn\\ together\\ to\\ amplify\\ the\\ fervor\\ surrounding\\ the\\ regime\\.\\ This\\ \\clip\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ demonstrates\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ shots\\ were\\ edited\\ together\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ mass\\ experience\\ of\\ ecstasy\\ surrounding\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ Illusive\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Each\\ shot\\ of\\ Hitler\\ is\\ brief\\ and\\ deliberate\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Hitler\\ is\\ only\\ shown\\ in\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ the\\ strong\\ leader\\.\\ There\\ are\\ no\\ so\\-called\\ \\&\\#8220\\;candid\\&\\#8221\\;\\ shots\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\These\\ constructed\\ presentations\\ effectively\\ mythologized\\ the\\ Nazi\\ leader\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Many\\ observers\\ became\\ obsessed\\ with\\ knowing\\ what\\ the\\ cameras\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ talk\\ about\\,\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ personal\\ life\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ example\\ mentioned\\ by\\ Rentschler\\ was\\ Oliver\\ Hirschbiegel\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\Downfall\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ provides\\ a\\ fictional\\ account\\ of\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ last\\ twelve\\ days\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Here\\ is\\ the\\ \\trailer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ important\\ things\\ to\\ discuss\\ about\\ this\\ obsession\\ with\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ life\\:\\ How\\ do\\ these\\ fictional\\ speculations\\ about\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;human\\&\\#8221\\;\\ side\\ relate\\ to\\ or\\ affect\\ Holocaust\\ narratives\\ of\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ cold\\ systematic\\ extermination\\ of\\ ethno\\-racial\\ difference\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ do\\ these\\ incursions\\ into\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;reality\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ Hitler\\ say\\ about\\ the\\ observer\\'s\\ faith\\ in\\ humanity\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\While\\ these\\ questions\\ are\\ surely\\ important\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ bracket\\ them\\ for\\ now\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ a\\ more\\ pressing\\ question\\:\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Why\\ was\\ the\\ spectacle\\ of\\ a\\ Hitler\\ so\\ appealing\\ to\\ the\\ German\\ population\\?\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ \\From\\ Caligari\\ to\\ Hitler\\:\\ A\\ Psychological\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ German\\ Film\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\Siegfried\\ Kracauer\\<\\/a\\>\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ underlying\\ motifs\\ and\\ cinematic\\ techniques\\ of\\ \\\\Weimar\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ cinema\\ prepared\\ the\\ mass\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ propaganda\\ campaign\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>On\\ a\\ material\\ level\\,\\ the\\ deployment\\ of\\ new\\ technologies\\ created\\ excitement\\ and\\ anxiety\\ with\\ regards\\ to\\ \\\\Germany\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ position\\ in\\ rapidly\\ advancing\\,\\ modern\\ climate\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ On\\ a\\ symbolic\\ level\\,\\ as\\ Kracauer\\ argues\\,\\&\\#160\\;\\ certain\\ motifs\\ readied\\ German\\ spectators\\ for\\ the\\ mythical\\ hero\\ of\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ feeling\\ of\\ a\\ void\\ is\\ one\\ such\\ theme\\ in\\ \\\\Weimar\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ film\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\Nosferatu\\ \\<\\/em\\>provides\\ a\\ poignant\\ example\\:\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>a\\ feeling\\ of\\ helplessness\\ permeates\\ the\\ protagonist\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ Count\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\\\<\\/span\\>According\\ to\\ Kracauer\\,\\ \\\\Wei\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>mar\\ cinema\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ production\\ of\\ a\\ void\\ between\\ historical\\ Germany\\ and\\ the\\ technological\\ modernity\\ produced\\ a\\ certain\\ anxiety\\ for\\ its\\ viewers\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\\\<\\/span\\>This\\ disappearance\\ of\\ a\\ fixed\\ cultural\\/historical\\ subjectivity\\ made\\ the\\ German\\ population\\ more\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ an\\ ideology\\ that\\ could\\ explain\\ away\\ anxiety\\ and\\ provide\\ Germans\\ with\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ historical\\ purpose\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ Kracauer\\ posits\\ that\\ \\\\Weimar\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ cinema\\ was\\ a\\ proto\\-fascist\\ cinema\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\While\\ there\\ were\\ surely\\ many\\ factors\\ that\\ influenced\\ the\\ German\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ Hitler\\ regime\\,\\ Kracauer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ emphasis\\ on\\ cinema\\ provides\\ a\\ point\\ of\\ departure\\ for\\ discussing\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ film\\ in\\ society\\ generally\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Does\\ cinema\\ function\\ as\\ a\\ pedagogical\\ device\\,\\ producing\\ certain\\ subjects\\ and\\ ideas\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ to\\ what\\ extent\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ I\\ am\\ curious\\ if\\ \\\\Weimar\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ cinema\\ had\\ the\\ same\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ German\\ population\\ as\\ ours\\ does\\ on\\ contemporary\\ society\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ do\\ any\\ motifs\\ permeate\\ American\\ cinema\\,\\ and\\ are\\ there\\ any\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ American\\ cinema\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ proto\\-fascist\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Hitler Spectacle "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.473761+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hitler Youth Quex, and an intro to Nazi Features", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 442, "html": "\\As\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ began\\ his\\ lecture\\ on\\ the\\ Nazi\\ feature\\ film\\,\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\,\\ he\\ asked\\ students\\ to\\ imagine\\ the\\ following\\ scene\\:\\\r\\\\\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ September\\ 11th\\,\\ 1933\\,\\ and\\ you\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ premiere\\ of\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\.\\ \\ Outside\\ the\\ theater\\:\\ Columns\\ of\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ and\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ Nazi\\ celebrities\\ anxiously\\ await\\ the\\ screening\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ Inside\\:\\ Search\\ lights\\ cross\\ the\\ screen\\,\\ Party\\ flags\\ wave\\,\\ a\\ \\ gigantic\\ swastika\\ made\\ of\\ flowers\\ hangs\\ near\\ the\\ screen\\,\\ and\\ twenty\\-two\\ hundred\\ seats\\ wait\\ to\\ be\\ filled\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\This\\ setting\\ should\\ emphasize\\ both\\ the\\ centrality\\ of\\ cinema\\ in\\ Nazi\\ social\\ life\\ generally\\ and\\ the\\ overwhelming\\ popularity\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ this\\ post\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ commentary\\,\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\.\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ I\\ have\\ been\\ unable\\ to\\ locate\\ publicly\\ available\\,\\ subtitled\\ footage\\ from\\ the\\ film\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ watch\\ the\\ film\\ in\\ \\its\\ entirety\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(in\\ German\\)\\,\\ click\\ here\\.\\ \\ The\\ following\\ clip\\,\\ while\\ in\\ German\\,\\ should\\ provide\\ a\\ decent\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ film\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/object\\>\\ \\\r\\\\[NOTE\\:\\ Only\\ the\\ first\\ 2\\:50\\ provide\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ film\\,\\ the\\ rest\\ is\\ a\\ weird\\ aesthetic\\ project\\,\\ which\\,\\ while\\ fascinating\\,\\ is\\ not\\ pertinent\\ to\\ this\\ post\\]\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ protagonist\\,\\ Heini\\ V\\&\\#246\\;lker\\,\\ is\\ a\\ young\\ blonde\\ boy\\ first\\ seen\\ next\\ to\\ his\\ father\\ at\\ \\:11\\.\\ \\ The\\ plot\\ follows\\ Heini\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ transition\\ from\\ the\\ noisy\\,\\ deviant\\ crowd\\ of\\ the\\ communist\\ youth\\ camp\\ to\\ the\\ disciplined\\,\\ ordered\\ ranks\\ of\\ the\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ camp\\.\\ \\ The\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ physical\\ representation\\ of\\ this\\ ideological\\ transformation\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ around\\ 2\\:12\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ clip\\.\\ \\ Nearly\\ every\\ German\\ boy\\ saw\\ this\\ film\\.In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ full\\ propagandistic\\ effects\\ of\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\,\\ it\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ situate\\ the\\ film\\ within\\ its\\ proper\\ historical\\ context\\.\\ \\ The\\ year\\ is\\ 1933\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Nazis\\ have\\ just\\ taken\\ hold\\ of\\ Germany\\.\\ \\ After\\ talking\\ a\\ big\\ game\\,\\ many\\ were\\ now\\ wondering\\ what\\ the\\ Nazis\\ would\\ do\\ with\\ their\\ power\\.\\ \\ As\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ interestingly\\ observes\\,\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ a\\ general\\ party\\ platform\\ led\\ the\\ Nazis\\ to\\ prefer\\ drastic\\,\\ makeshift\\ actions\\ over\\ more\\ calculated\\,\\ rationalized\\ decisions\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ Nazis\\ not\\ only\\ sought\\ control\\ of\\ government\\ institutions\\,\\ but\\ also\\ \\(more\\ importantly\\)\\ the\\ national\\ imaginary\\.\\ \\ This\\ colonization\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ occurred\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ representation\\.\\ \\ As\\ such\\,\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ sophisticated\\ media\\ technologies\\ became\\ essential\\ to\\ legitimating\\ a\\ particularly\\ strong\\,\\ masculine\\ image\\ of\\ Nazi\\ culture\\.\\ \\ Cinema\\ played\\ a\\ crucial\\ role\\.\\ \\ As\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ notes\\,\\ the\\ movie\\ theater\\ provided\\ a\\ terrain\\ for\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ collective\\ dreams\\,\\ and\\ less\\ optimistically\\,\\ the\\ harnessing\\ and\\ manipulating\\ of\\ these\\ dreams\\ by\\ various\\ aesthetic\\ productions\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\.Several\\ general\\ aspects\\ defined\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\ \\(feature\\ films\\)\\:\\\r\\1\\.\\ Simplify\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ A\\ desire\\ to\\ simplify\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ complicate\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ Dialectical\\ models\\ of\\ knowledge\\ were\\ thrown\\ out\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ top\\-down\\,\\ simple\\ parameters\\,\\ such\\ as\\ beauty\\ and\\ power\\.\\\r\\2\\.\\ Heightened\\ sensory\\ experience\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ As\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ posting\\ on\\ Rambo\\ II\\,\\ a\\ key\\ goal\\ of\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\ was\\ to\\ replace\\ reflective\\ thinking\\ with\\ immediate\\ affective\\ reaction\\.\\ \\ Indeed\\,\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ affective\\ landscape\\ of\\ the\\ German\\ populous\\ was\\ the\\ primary\\ means\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\ legitimated\\ itself\\.\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\ Rebirth\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ a\\ \\&\\#8216\\;new\\ man\\&\\#8217\\;\\ emerging\\ from\\ an\\ otherwise\\ degenerate\\ society\\ is\\ a\\ repeated\\ theme\\,\\ which\\ served\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ Nazi\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ political\\ message\\ regarding\\ the\\ rebirth\\ of\\ Germany\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ might\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\ fit\\ into\\ this\\ schema\\?\\ \\ For\\ starters\\,\\ the\\ film\\ reduces\\ German\\ politics\\ to\\ a\\ single\\,\\ important\\ divide\\ between\\ the\\ communists\\ and\\ the\\ Nazis\\.\\ \\ Although\\ shortened\\ substantially\\ in\\ the\\ clip\\ above\\,\\ the\\ scene\\ where\\ Heini\\ transitions\\ from\\ the\\ communist\\ camp\\ to\\ the\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ camp\\ contains\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ important\\ aesthetic\\ moves\\,\\ which\\ tie\\ the\\ film\\ to\\ larger\\ goals\\ of\\ Nazi\\ cinema\\.\\ \\ The\\ communist\\ camp\\ is\\ portrayed\\ as\\ the\\ epitome\\ of\\ degeneracy\\.\\ \\ Tight\\ shots\\ make\\ the\\ area\\ appear\\ heavily\\ crowded\\,\\ and\\ communist\\ youth\\ are\\ depicted\\ as\\ lewd\\,\\ flirtatious\\ rabble\\-rousers\\.\\ \\ Disgusted\\ by\\ this\\ dimly\\ lit\\,\\ smoky\\ setting\\,\\ Heini\\ steps\\ outside\\ for\\ a\\ breath\\ of\\ fresh\\ air\\,\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ suddenly\\ hailed\\ by\\ the\\ proud\\,\\ yet\\ solemn\\ trumpeting\\ of\\ a\\ nearby\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ camp\\.\\ \\ \\ Immediately\\ Heini\\ is\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ camp\\,\\ and\\ he\\ soon\\ becomes\\ one\\ of\\ its\\ most\\ devout\\ members\\.\\ \\ Eventually\\,\\ even\\ his\\ communist\\ dad\\ is\\ converted\\.\\ \\(This\\ religious\\ vocabulary\\ is\\ intentional\\)\\.\\ These\\ radical\\ transformations\\ make\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ closing\\ scene\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ shocking\\ and\\ deeply\\ unsettling\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\r\\Notice\\ as\\ Heini\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ body\\ dissolves\\ into\\ a\\ waving\\ Nazi\\ flag\\.\\ \\ He\\ does\\ not\\ simply\\ die\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ becomes\\ a\\ martyr\\ for\\ a\\ large\\ Nazi\\ cause\\.\\ \\ Such\\ a\\ meaning\\ is\\ amplified\\ by\\ the\\ closing\\ credits\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ actor\\ who\\ played\\ Heini\\ is\\ merely\\ cited\\ as\\ \\&\\#8216\\;a\\ Hilter\\ Youth\\,\\&\\#8217\\;\\ suggesting\\ the\\ symbolic\\ importance\\ of\\ youth\\ as\\ the\\ driving\\ fuel\\ of\\ Nazi\\ ideology\\.\\ \\ \\ As\\ I\\ close\\ this\\ lengthy\\ post\\ on\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ Nazis\\ foremost\\ feature\\ films\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ leave\\ you\\ with\\ the\\ fragment\\ of\\ a\\ thought\\.\\ \\ In\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggested\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ getting\\ to\\ know\\ oneself\\ \\(one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ emotions\\,\\ etc\\)\\ through\\ film\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ radical\\ getting\\ to\\ know\\ oneself\\ as\\ film\\.\\ In\\ the\\ latter\\ instance\\,\\ the\\ viewer\\ does\\ not\\ mere\\ come\\ to\\ identify\\ with\\ emotions\\ in\\ the\\ film\\,\\ but\\ is\\ incited\\ to\\ actively\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ drama\\ of\\ the\\ picture\\;\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ morality\\ as\\ a\\ spectacular\\ and\\ cinematic\\ event\\.\\ \\ Let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ assume\\ that\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Quex\\ falls\\ into\\ this\\ second\\ category\\.\\ \\ Considering\\ the\\ target\\ audience\\ of\\ the\\ film\\ \\(young\\ German\\ boys\\)\\,\\ \\ I\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ film\\ promotes\\ a\\ fascist\\ ethics\\ of\\ martyrdom\\.\\ \\ It\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ surprise\\ that\\ this\\ film\\ was\\ played\\ again\\,\\ five\\ years\\ later\\,\\ for\\ Nazi\\ troops\\ on\\ the\\ eve\\ of\\ battle\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ soldiers\\ were\\ being\\ sent\\ to\\ die\\,\\ at\\ least\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ illusion\\ of\\ a\\ cause\\ greater\\ than\\ them\\.Further\\ Viewing\\:\\(1\\)\\\\ Footage\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ the\\ Youth\\ in\\ Action\\(2\\)\\ \\Slideshow\\<\\/a\\>\\ featuring\\ the\\ Hitler\\ Youth\\ Oath\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hitler Youth Quex, and an intro to Nazi Features"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.431863+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Olympia and the Fascism of the Beautiful Body Pt. I", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 438, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\So\\ far\\,\\ we\\ have\\ looked\\ at\\ how\\ films\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ produced\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\ as\\ a\\ spectacle\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ post\\,\\ it\\ was\\ argued\\ that\\ \\Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\<\\/em\\>presentation\\ of\\ a\\ powerful\\,\\ technologically\\ advanced\\ group\\ descending\\ from\\ the\\ heavens\\ to\\ greet\\ the\\ German\\ masses\\ mythologized\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ regime\\,\\ producing\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\ as\\ a\\ panacea\\ for\\ the\\ economic\\ degradation\\ and\\ national\\ embarrassment\\ suffered\\ by\\ \\\\Germany\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ following\\ the\\ First\\ World\\ War\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ change\\ gears\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ and\\ begin\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ posts\\ concerning\\ the\\ anesthetization\\ of\\ Nazi\\ \\ideals\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Whereas\\ some\\ films\\ sought\\ to\\ promote\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\,\\ others\\,\\ perhaps\\ unintentionally\\,\\ supported\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ by\\ promoting\\ a\\ vision\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ beauty\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ Nazis\\ eugenic\\/genocidal\\ dreams\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ more\\ tangible\\ grasp\\ of\\ how\\ seemingly\\ apolitical\\ films\\ actually\\ worked\\ insidiously\\ to\\ popularize\\ Nazi\\ aesthetics\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ focus\\ one\\ film\\ in\\ particular\\:\\ Leni\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Following\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\,\\ I\\ will\\ first\\ establish\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ produced\\ by\\ Riefenstahl\\ in\\ \\\\\\Olympia\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ and\\ then\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ abstract\\ human\\ form\\ acted\\ as\\ a\\ profound\\ diversion\\,\\ which\\ made\\ the\\ Nazi\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;perfect\\ man\\&\\#8221\\;\\ look\\ desirable\\ while\\ obscuring\\ the\\ horrific\\ purging\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;ugly\\&\\#8221\\;\\ bodies\\ carried\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ its\\ actualization\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Before\\ we\\ get\\ too\\ far\\ into\\ a\\ close\\ viewing\\ of\\ a\\ specific\\ film\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ seemingly\\ tangential\\ questions\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ throughout\\ the\\ next\\ several\\ posts\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ \\What\\ is\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\ in\\ society\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ As\\ we\\ get\\ into\\ our\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ Nazism\\ and\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ brought\\ into\\ being\\ by\\ Riefenstahl\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ cinematography\\,\\ it\\ will\\ become\\ increasingly\\ clear\\ that\\ her\\ work\\ was\\,\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ least\\,\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ ideology\\ of\\ Nazism\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>My\\ question\\:\\ Who\\ cares\\?\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ responsibility\\ do\\ artists\\ have\\ in\\ confronting\\ violent\\ political\\ ideologies\\ such\\ as\\ fascism\\?\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ what\\ extent\\ should\\ we\\,\\ as\\ cultural\\ critics\\,\\ object\\ to\\ forms\\ of\\ artistic\\ expression\\ that\\ may\\ unknowingly\\ reify\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ project\\ of\\ fascism\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ \\What\\ are\\ fascist\\ aesthetics\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ term\\ seems\\ to\\ get\\ thrown\\ around\\ a\\ bunch\\,\\ but\\ I\\ feel\\ it\\ could\\ use\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ clarity\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ think\\ over\\-applying\\ this\\ phrase\\ risks\\ emptying\\ it\\ of\\ concrete\\ meaning\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ I\\ worry\\ that\\ tying\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fascist\\ aesthetics\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ historical\\ moment\\ enables\\ crafty\\ apologists\\ for\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ current\\ aesthetic\\ to\\ avoid\\ harsh\\ accusation\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ Nazis\\ simply\\ co\\-opted\\ generally\\ productive\\ aesthetic\\ visions\\ of\\ freedom\\ and\\ innocence\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Throughout\\ the\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ coming\\ films\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ useful\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ continuity\\ in\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ productions\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ gaining\\ a\\ more\\ concrete\\ meaning\\ for\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fascist\\ aesthetics\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Olympia and the Fascism of the Beautiful Body Pt. I"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.115230+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Markets and Morals: Surrogate Motherhood", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 476, "html": "\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Guido\\ Calabresi\\ and\\ Phillip\\ Bobbit\\,\\ \\Tragic\\ Choices\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 158\\-65\\\r\\James\\ Munroe\\ McPherson\\,\\ \\Battle\\ Cry\\ of\\ Freedom\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 600\\-11\\\r\\James\\ Traub\\,\\ \\All\\ Go\\ Down\\ Together\\<\\/a\\>\\ NYT\\,\\ 16\\ March\\ 2003\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ ended\\ our\\ last\\ session\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ moral\\ consent\\.\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ do\\?\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ justify\\?\\ \\ Examining\\ John\\ Locke\\,\\ we\\ reasoned\\ that\\ consent\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ tax\\ society\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ without\\ necessitating\\ individual\\ consent\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ \\tacit\\ consent\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ overrides\\ individual\\ choice\\ is\\ one\\ which\\ we\\ agree\\ to\\ when\\ accept\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ \\\"bonds\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\\"\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ protection\\ and\\ rule\\ from\\ the\\ majority\\,\\ being\\ the\\ legislature\\ or\\ parliament\\,\\ ie\\,\\ government\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ discussed\\ taxation\\ vis\\-a\\-vis\\ Locke\\.\\ We\\ turn\\ now\\ to\\ military\\ conscription\\.\\ Does\\ the\\ government\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ invoke\\ it\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Sandel\\,\\ Locke\\ says\\ yes\\.\\ \\ \\ Referring\\ to\\ \\Sec\\ 139\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ \\Treatise\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ the\\ commonwealth\\ comes\\ at\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ defense\\ force\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ Asking\\ only\\ that\\ the\\ law\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ arbitrary\\,\\ Locke\\ supports\\ his\\ claim\\ by\\ giving\\ an\\ example\\:\\ a\\ sergeant\\ can\\ command\\ his\\ troops\\ to\\ stand\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ a\\ cannon\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ take\\ one\\ penny\\ of\\ his\\ troops\\'\\ money\\ or\\ confiscate\\ his\\ property\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ consenting\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ means\\ being\\ bound\\ by\\ its\\ rule\\,\\ a\\ rule\\ which\\ may\\ lead\\ you\\ to\\ death\\,\\ but\\ will\\ protect\\ your\\ property\\ just\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ It\\ matters\\ so\\ powerfully\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\,\\ because\\ Locke\\'s\\ conception\\ of\\ a\\ limited\\ government\\ is\\ only\\ limited\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ rule\\ by\\ generally\\ applicable\\,\\ non\\-arbitrary\\ law\\.\\ In\\ contradiction\\ to\\ Libertarian\\ principles\\,\\ it\\ has\\,\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\,\\ free\\ reign\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ take\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ in\\ Iraq\\.\\ \\ In\\ 2003\\,\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ having\\ difficulty\\ meeting\\ its\\ recruitment\\ targets\\,\\ so\\ there\\ were\\ three\\ strategies\\ they\\ considered\\ to\\ increase\\ troops\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ Increase\\ wage\\ \\+\\ benefits\\ for\\ soldiers\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Lottery\\ for\\ conscription\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ Outsource\\ \\(hire\\ mercenaries\\,\\ offer\\ citizenship\\ in\\ exchange\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ relates\\ this\\ to\\ a\\ similar\\ three\\-pronged\\ policy\\ used\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ Men\\ were\\ conscripted\\,\\ but\\ could\\ \\ \\\"sell\\\"\\ their\\ spot\\ to\\ another\\ by\\ paying\\ someone\\ to\\ take\\ their\\ place\\.\\ \\ Now\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ one\\ might\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ isn\\'t\\ a\\ truly\\ free\\ exchange\\,\\ because\\ a\\ disproportionate\\ amount\\ of\\ lower\\-class\\ people\\ would\\ have\\ incentive\\ to\\ serve\\.\\ \\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ if\\ we\\ remove\\ this\\ exemption\\,\\ conscription\\ may\\ function\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ means\\ of\\ defense\\ because\\ it\\ makes\\ each\\ individual\\ socially\\ accountable\\ by\\ performing\\ a\\ civic\\ duty\\ for\\ the\\ country\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\ arguments\\ were\\ raised\\ in\\ lecture\\ against\\ allowing\\ someone\\ to\\ \\\"take\\ your\\ place\\\"\\ and\\ also\\ outsourcing\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Coercion\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ If\\ the\\ market\\ allocates\\ military\\ service\\ \\(eg\\,\\ someone\\ can\\ sell\\ their\\ spot\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\)\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ free\\ exchange\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ inequality\\ in\\ society\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ is\\ disproportionately\\ incentivized\\ to\\ serve\\ \\(see\\ \\\"Is\\ Iraq\\ a\\ Poor\\ Man\\'s\\ War\\?\\ below\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Civil\\ Duty\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Military\\ service\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ another\\ job\\,\\ it\\'s\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ civil\\ service\\ and\\ obligation\\/patriotism\\.\\ Should\\ military\\ service\\ be\\ outsourced\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ don\\'t\\ care\\/aren\\'t\\ patriotic\\,\\ or\\ conversely\\,\\ is\\ offering\\ citizenship\\ a\\ morally\\ just\\ incentive\\ for\\ such\\ people\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ examine\\ the\\ broader\\ implications\\ these\\ arguments\\ illustrate\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ What\\ inequalities\\ undermine\\ the\\ freedom\\ of\\ choices\\ people\\ make\\ to\\ buy\\ and\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ obligations\\ of\\ citizenship\\?\\ Is\\ military\\ service\\ one\\ of\\ them\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ discuss\\ these\\ next\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Links\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Washington\\ Post\\,\\ \\\\\"Youths\\ in\\ Rural\\ US\\ Are\\ Drawn\\ to\\ Military\\\"\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\National\\ Priorities\\ Project\\,\\ \\2004\\ Military\\ Statistics\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\The\\ Heritage\\ Foundation\\,\\\\ Is\\ Iraq\\ a\\ Poor\\ Man\\'s\\ War\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Markets and Morals: Surrogate Motherhood"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.126193+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Liberty and the Minimal State", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 477, "html": "\\\\Review\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ we\\ last\\ left\\ off\\,\\ we\\ had\\ examined\\ JS\\ Mill\\'s\\ argument\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ humanitarian\\ theory\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\.\\ People\\ cannot\\ simply\\ be\\ numbers\\,\\ Mill\\ argues\\.\\ Efficiency\\ is\\ not\\ always\\ the\\ highest\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\ when\\ it\\ infringes\\ upon\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ \\ This\\ week\\,\\ we\\ turn\\ to\\ the\\ Libertarian\\ notion\\ of\\ morality\\,\\ an\\ \\\"anti\\-utilitarian\\\"\\ notion\\ of\\ rights\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\This\\ Week\\'s\\ Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Milton\\ Friedman\\,\\ \\Free\\ to\\ Choose\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>ch\\.\\ 5\\\r\\Robert\\ Nozick\\,\\ Anarchy\\,\\ State\\,\\ and\\ Utopia\\,\\ excerpts\\\r\\\\\r\\Summary\\:\\ \\ Libertarianism\\ \\(\\\"right\\ to\\ liberty\\\"\\)\\,\\ viewed\\ through\\ the\\ works\\ of\\ economist\\ Milton\\ Friedman\\ and\\ philosopher\\ Robert\\ Nozick\\,\\ adopts\\ a\\ distinctly\\ anti\\-utilitarianist\\ stand\\.\\ It\\ argues\\ that\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ notion\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ faulty\\ because\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ prioritize\\ individual\\ rights\\ or\\ individual\\ choice\\,\\ preferring\\ to\\ view\\ the\\ \\\"whole\\\"\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ parts\\ that\\ comprise\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Libertarianism\\ is\\ often\\ described\\ as\\ a\\ \\\"socially\\ liberal\\,\\ economically\\ conservative\\\"\\ philosophy\\.\\ \\ In\\ that\\ vein\\,\\ Libertarianism\\ bases\\ its\\ idea\\ of\\ social\\ justice\\ upon\\ a\\ free\\-market\\ economy\\.\\ Milton\\ Friedman\\ in\\ particular\\ advocates\\ this\\ line\\ of\\ thinking\\.\\ He\\ writes\\,\\ \\\"the\\ only\\ way\\ that\\ has\\ ever\\ been\\ discovered\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ cooperate\\ together\\ voluntarily\\ is\\ through\\ the\\ free\\ market\\.\\ And\\ that\\'s\\ why\\ it\\'s\\ so\\ essential\\ to\\ preserving\\ individual\\ freedom\\.\\\"\\ Thus\\,\\ in\\ theory\\,\\ free\\ market\\ interactions\\ support\\ and\\ promote\\ individual\\ freedom\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ made\\ wholly\\ by\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ irrespective\\ of\\ community\\ or\\ \\\"the\\ greater\\ good\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Politically\\,\\ Libertarianism\\ is\\ socially\\,\\ if\\ not\\ aggressively\\,\\ liberal\\.\\ \\ It\\ may\\ be\\ summarized\\ by\\ Robert\\ Nozick\\'s\\ argument\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\\"Individuals\\ have\\ rights\\.\\ So\\ strong\\ and\\ far\\-reaching\\ are\\ these\\ rights\\ that\\ they\\ raise\\ the\\ questions\\ of\\ what\\,\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ the\\ state\\ may\\ do\\.\\ In\\ this\\ vein\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ government\\ or\\ state\\ is\\ minimized\\,\\ relegated\\ to\\ the\\ upkeep\\ of\\ individual\\ rights\\ through\\ certain\\ protective\\ forces\\,\\ like\\ the\\ police\\,\\ or\\ protection\\ against\\ theft\\,\\ fraud\\,\\ and\\ the\\ enforcement\\ of\\ contracts\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\3\\ things\\ governments\\ may\\ do\\ \\(primarily\\ the\\ US\\)\\ do\\ to\\ infringe\\ upon\\ rights\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Paternalistic\\ legislation\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Passing\\ laws\\ that\\ tell\\ people\\ what\\ to\\ do\\,\\ ie\\,\\ seatbelt\\ or\\ helmet\\ laws\\.\\ \\ This\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ libertarian\\ principle\\,\\ is\\ coercive\\.\\ \\ People\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ not\\ wearing\\ a\\ seatbelt\\;\\ if\\ they\\ choose\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ risk\\ and\\ die\\,\\ that\\'s\\ their\\ fault\\.\\ It\\ was\\ their\\ individual\\ choice\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Moral\\ legislation\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ Promotion\\ of\\ \\\"virtuous\\\"\\ citizenry\\ through\\ certain\\ moral\\ principles\\.\\ \\ \\ Regulating\\ sexuality\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ by\\ sanctioning\\ or\\ defaming\\ homosexuality\\ and\\ prostitution\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ state\\'s\\ business\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ infringement\\ upon\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ freedom\\ of\\ expression\\ and\\ freedom\\ of\\ labor\\/vocation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ \\Redistributive\\ taxation\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ With\\ the\\ exception\\ of\\ minimal\\ police\\ and\\ defense\\ forces\\,\\ taxing\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ social\\ services\\ or\\ public\\ provision\\ \\(education\\,\\ welfare\\,\\ social\\ security\\,\\ infrastructure\\)\\ is\\ tantamount\\ to\\ stealing\\.\\ \\ If\\ people\\ work\\ hard\\ and\\ fairly\\ earned\\ their\\ money\\,\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ government\\ to\\ take\\ it\\ away\\ from\\ them\\ to\\ do\\ as\\ it\\ pleases\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ third\\ item\\:\\ redistributive\\ taxation\\.\\ \\ Is\\ it\\ right\\ to\\ tax\\ the\\ wealthy\\ for\\ social\\ services\\?\\ \\ Is\\ it\\ robbing\\ the\\ rich\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ equalize\\ the\\ large\\ income\\ gap\\ that\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ uneven\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ capitalist\\ society\\?\\ \\ \\ Let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ Bill\\ Gates\\ as\\ an\\ example\\.\\ The\\ man\\ is\\ worth\\ around\\$60\\ Billion\\-\\-about\\ \\$150\\ per\\ second\\.\\ \\ Is\\ it\\ morally\\ justifiable\\ to\\ tax\\ him\\,\\ potentially\\ bettering\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ millions\\ of\\ people\\ through\\ the\\ redistribution\\ of\\ his\\ wealth\\-\\-wealth\\ he\\ couldn\\'t\\ even\\ spend\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ in\\ 10\\ lifetimes\\?\\\r\\According\\ to\\ Libertarians\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ wrong\\ to\\ tax\\ Gates\\.\\ If\\ he\\ made\\ the\\ money\\ fairly\\-\\-that\\ is\\,\\ without\\ violating\\ Nozick\\'s\\ 2\\ main\\ \\ principles\\ of\\ \\justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\justice\\ in\\ transfer\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(that\\ he\\ acquired\\ the\\ money\\ fairly\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ transferred\\ to\\ him\\ fairly\\)\\,\\ he\\ should\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ give\\ that\\ money\\ up\\.\\ \\ Taking\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ his\\ labor\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ coercion\\.\\ \\ No\\ matter\\ how\\ well\\ meaning\\,\\ it\\ infringes\\ upon\\ his\\ individual\\ choice\\ in\\ how\\ he\\ decides\\ to\\ spend\\ his\\ wealth\\.\\ For\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ argument\\,\\ let\\'s\\ fix\\ the\\ initial\\ holdings\\ to\\ whatever\\ you\\ think\\ is\\ just\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ another\\ example\\.\\ Michael\\ Jordon\\ earned\\ about\\ \\$78\\ million\\ in\\ 2004\\.\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ satisfy\\ the\\ first\\ condition\\ of\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ by\\ assuming\\ that\\ he\\ earned\\ his\\ money\\ fairly\\.\\ Let\\'s\\ suppose\\ that\\ everyone\\ that\\ paid\\ for\\ the\\ ticket\\ to\\ see\\ him\\ play\\ also\\ paid\\ \\$5\\ directly\\ to\\ Michael\\ Jordon\\ when\\ they\\ bought\\ their\\ ticket\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ season\\,\\ society\\ has\\ departed\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ from\\ equal\\ wealth\\ distribution\\,\\ because\\ Jordan\\ has\\ received\\ an\\ overabundant\\ amount\\ of\\ money\\ because\\ of\\ his\\ popularity\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ government\\ now\\ intervenes\\ to\\ tax\\ his\\ income\\,\\ it\\ upsets\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ free\\-market\\ transaction\\,\\ because\\ it\\ coerces\\ Jordan\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ charitable\\ contribution\\ with\\ money\\ that\\ he\\ fairly\\ earned\\.\\ The\\ people\\ wanted\\ to\\ see\\ him\\ play\\,\\ so\\ they\\ paid\\.\\ \\ If\\ he\\ chooses\\ to\\ then\\ keep\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ his\\ labor\\,\\ that\\ is\\ an\\ individual\\ choice\\ that\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ infringed\\ upon\\ by\\ the\\ government\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Nozick\\'s\\ Argument\\ on\\ \\Redistributive\\ Justice\\<\\/strong\\>\\:Extrapolating\\ the\\ example\\ above\\ to\\ a\\ broader\\ range\\ of\\ problems\\,\\ we\\ may\\ view\\ redistributive\\ taxation\\ as\\ a\\ general\\ form\\ of\\ coercion\\.\\ \\ Nozick\\ defines\\ \\\"taxation\\\"\\ as\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ taking\\ of\\ one\\'s\\ earnings\\.\\ \\ If\\ the\\ government\\ can\\ then\\ lay\\ claim\\ to\\ money\\ a\\ person\\ makes\\ freely\\ and\\ fairly\\,\\ it\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ laying\\ claim\\ to\\ the\\ time\\ spent\\ earning\\ that\\ money\\,\\ namely\\,\\ labor\\.\\ \\ In\\ essence\\,\\ then\\,\\ taxation\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ forced\\ labor\\,\\ since\\ the\\ government\\ becomes\\ a\\ \\\"part\\-owner\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ labor\\.\\ \\ This\\ opposes\\ the\\ fundamental\\ libertarian\\ idea\\ of\\ \\self\\-possession\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ that\\ we\\ individually\\ own\\ ourselves\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Objections\\/Devil\\'s\\ Advocate\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ an\\ obligation\\ or\\ a\\ coercion\\ to\\ repay\\ the\\ benefits\\ one\\ receives\\ from\\ society\\.\\ Jordan\\ worked\\ hard\\ for\\ his\\ money\\,\\ it\\'s\\ true\\,\\ but\\ society\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ favor\\ his\\ talent\\ as\\ something\\ worth\\ a\\ lot\\ a\\ money\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ isn\\'t\\ he\\ obligated\\ to\\ repay\\ society\\'s\\ value\\ of\\ him\\ by\\ giving\\ back\\?\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-\\ \\ Going\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ a\\ free\\-market\\ promotes\\ individual\\ freedom\\ through\\ free\\ interactions\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ always\\ hold\\ that\\ all\\ transactions\\ are\\ fair\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\.\\ If\\ a\\ poor\\ man\\ must\\ buy\\ bread\\ for\\ his\\ family\\,\\ is\\ that\\ an\\ interaction\\ out\\ of\\ fairness\\ or\\ out\\ of\\ necessity\\?\\ \\ It\\ could\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ many\\ interactions\\ we\\ enter\\ into\\ are\\ not\\ made\\ out\\ of\\ individual\\ choice\\,\\ but\\ are\\ driven\\ by\\ factors\\ greater\\ than\\ us\\ and\\ more\\ powerful\\ than\\ individual\\ choice\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Additional\\ Links\\ to\\ our\\ Libertarian\\ superstars\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Milton\\ Friedman\\'s\\ 1980s\\ TV\\-series\\,\\ \\\"Free\\ to\\ Choose\\\"\\,\\ available\\ on\\ Google\\:\\\\\r\\http\\:\\/\\/miltonfriedman\\.blogspot\\.com\\/\\ \\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Free\\ to\\ Choose\\ official\\ website\\:\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.freetochoose\\.net\\/\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Robert\\ Nozick\\ \\'s\\ Biography\\:\\\\\r\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Robert\\_Nozick\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Modern\\ Libertarians\\:\\ Advocates\\ for\\ Self\\-Government\\:\\\\\r\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.theadvocates\\.org\\/celebrities\\/robert\\-nozick\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Liberty and the Minimal State"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.139977+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "John Locke and the Right to Property", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 478, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\John\\ Locke\\,\\ \\\\The\\ Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\ch\\.2\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\ch\\.\\ 3\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\ch\\.\\ 4\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\ch\\.5\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Summary\\ \\(Ch\\ 1\\-\\ 5\\ Only\\)\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\"The\\ State\\ of\\ Nature\\ has\\ a\\ Law\\ of\\ Nature\\ which\\ obliges\\ everyone\\:\\ and\\ Reason\\,\\ which\\ is\\ that\\ Law\\,\\ teaches\\ all\\ mankind\\,\\ who\\ will\\ but\\ consult\\ it\\,\\ that\\ being\\ all\\ equal\\ and\\ independent\\,\\ no\\ one\\ ought\\ to\\ harm\\ another\\ in\\ his\\ Life\\,\\ Health\\,\\ Liberty\\,\\ or\\ Possessions\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\<\\/em\\>\\ Sec\\.\\ 6\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\<\\/p\\>Writing\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 17th\\ century\\ shortly\\ after\\ the\\ Glorious\\ Revolution\\,\\ it\\'s\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ Locke\\'s\\ \\Second\\ Treatise\\ \\<\\/em\\>as\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ its\\ time\\.\\ \\ Locke\\'s\\ life\\ and\\ publication\\ operate\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ an\\ absolute\\ monarchical\\ era\\,\\ in\\ which\\ \\ power\\ was\\ concentrated\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ one\\ individual\\ and\\ institution\\-\\-that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ Crown\\ of\\ England\\.\\ \\ His\\ writing\\ thus\\ concerns\\ itself\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ concentrated\\ power\\ and\\ its\\ arbitrary\\ enforcement\\,\\ and\\ more\\ pointedly\\,\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ government\\ should\\ play\\ in\\ society\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ these\\ beginning\\ chapters\\,\\ Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ every\\ human\\ has\\ certain\\ \\natural\\ rights\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>the\\ right\\ to\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\.\\ These\\ rights\\ precede\\ political\\ society\\ and\\ exist\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ he\\ calls\\ the\\ \\state\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ a\\ non\\-structured\\,\\ primordial\\ place\\ that\\ has\\ existed\\ before\\ structured\\ societies\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ presupposed\\ state\\,\\ all\\ humans\\ exist\\ in\\ a\\ \\\"state\\ of\\ liberty\\\"\\ as\\ \\\"free\\ and\\ equal\\ beings\\\"\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Nevertheless\\,\\ Locke\\'s\\ definition\\ of\\ freedom\\ has\\ its\\ constraints\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ within\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\law\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>secures\\ our\\ natural\\ rights\\ to\\ pursue\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\.\\ \\ Because\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\ secures\\ the\\ pursuance\\ of\\ these\\ things\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ give\\ up\\ these\\ rights\\ nor\\ take\\ them\\ from\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ since\\ we\\ are\\ fundamentally\\ given\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ be\\ \\\"free\\\"\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ sell\\ ourselves\\ into\\ slavery\\,\\ nor\\ can\\ we\\ take\\ our\\ own\\ lives\\.\\ \\ This\\ constraint\\ comes\\ from\\ two\\ distinct\\ sources\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ God\\ \\-\\ Who\\ has\\ a\\ prior\\ property\\ right\\ as\\ the\\ maker\\ of\\ humankind\\ and\\ therefore\\ confers\\ these\\ inalienable\\ rights\\ \\ onto\\ us\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Reason\\ \\-\\ Which\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ logically\\ conclude\\ that\\ \\\"freedom\\\"\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ allowance\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ we\\ please\\,\\ but\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ certain\\ rights\\ that\\ are\\ conferred\\ upon\\ us\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\\r\\\\\r\\Taken\\ together\\,\\ these\\ two\\ forces\\ confer\\ \\inalienable\\ rights\\<\\/strong\\>\\ upon\\ us\\,\\ rights\\ which\\ are\\ non\\-transferable\\ and\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ away\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ respect\\,\\ Locke\\'s\\ conception\\ of\\ government\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ \\consent\\ \\<\\/strong\\>of\\ its\\ people\\ and\\ is\\ \\limited\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\On\\ Property\\:\\ Leaving\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ liberty\\ aside\\,\\ Sandel\\ focuses\\ on\\ Locke\\'s\\ definition\\ of\\ property\\ in\\ this\\ lecture\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ the\\ most\\ controversial\\ postulation\\ of\\ the\\ three\\.\\ \\ Beginning\\ from\\ the\\ premise\\ that\\ we\\ own\\ ourselves\\ and\\ therefore\\ own\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ our\\ hands\\,\\ Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ when\\ we\\ mix\\ our\\ labor\\ with\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ property\\,\\ that\\ property\\ becomes\\ ours\\.\\ Section\\ 27\\ contains\\ his\\ famous\\ formulation\\,\\ reading\\,\\ \\\"whatsoever\\ then\\ he\\ \\[man\\]\\ removes\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ that\\ nature\\ hath\\ provided\\,\\ and\\ left\\ it\\ in\\,\\ he\\ has\\ mixed\\ his\\ \\labor\\ \\<\\/em\\>with\\,\\ and\\ joined\\ it\\ to\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ his\\ own\\,\\ and\\ thereby\\ makes\\ it\\ his\\ property\\.\\\"\\ Therefore\\,\\ whenever\\ someone\\ encloses\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ land\\,\\ farms\\ or\\ cultivates\\ it\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ his\\ \\ or\\ hers\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ has\\ invested\\ in\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Example\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\"Lockian\\ intuition\\\"\\ such\\ as\\ this\\ applies\\ to\\ even\\ the\\ smallest\\ circumstance\\.\\ Sandel\\ provides\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ shoveling\\ a\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ snow\\ to\\ park\\ your\\ car\\ in\\.\\ Because\\ you\\ invest\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ labor\\ in\\ shoveling\\ the\\ snow\\,\\ it\\'s\\ logical\\ to\\ place\\ a\\ chair\\ or\\ a\\ cone\\ in\\ the\\ parking\\ space\\ so\\ someone\\ else\\ won\\'t\\ take\\ it\\.\\ \\ The\\ argument\\ is\\ logically\\ Lockian\\:\\ I\\ invested\\ my\\ time\\ and\\ labor\\,\\ so\\ I\\ deserve\\ the\\ space\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ labor\\ mixes\\ with\\ something\\ \\\"in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\\"\\ and\\ so\\ becomes\\ our\\ property\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Counterexample\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ When\\ the\\ \\AIDS\\ crisis\\ broke\\ out\\ in\\ South\\ Africa\\<\\/a\\>\\ during\\ 1999\\,\\ the\\ US\\ pharmaceutical\\ industry\\ took\\ the\\ South\\ African\\ government\\ to\\ court\\ because\\ it\\ purchased\\ generic\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ medication\\ from\\ other\\ suppliers\\ who\\ were\\ selling\\ the\\ drugs\\ at\\ a\\ fraction\\ of\\ the\\ price\\.\\ Moral\\ outrage\\ and\\ criticism\\ levied\\ upon\\ the\\ industry\\ eventually\\ forced\\ them\\ to\\ drop\\ the\\ case\\,\\ but\\ they\\ still\\ continue\\ to\\ pursue\\ actions\\ that\\ would\\ prohibit\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ specific\\ patents\\ for\\ AIDS\\ medications\\.\\ This\\ example\\ of\\ intellectual\\ property\\ dispute\\ highlights\\ a\\ case\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ right\\ or\\ access\\ to\\ certain\\ property\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ medication\\ patents\\)\\,\\ runs\\ counterintuitive\\ to\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ \\\"private\\ property\\.\\\"\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ though\\ PhRMA\\ had\\ invested\\ its\\ labor\\ and\\ therefore\\ owned\\ the\\ property\\ of\\ medication\\ and\\ its\\ patents\\,\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ necessarily\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ own\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ deprivation\\ of\\ another\\'s\\ right\\ to\\ pursue\\ it\\ \\(ie\\,\\ the\\ South\\ African\\ government\\ and\\ its\\ citizens\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\On\\ Government\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Locke\\'s\\ notion\\ of\\ government\\ arises\\ from\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ consent\\.\\ We\\ leave\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ put\\ on\\ the\\ \\bonds\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\ \\<\\/strong\\>when\\ we\\ agree\\ among\\ each\\ other\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ community\\,\\ in\\ order\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ all\\ pursue\\ our\\ rights\\ to\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\ and\\ property\\ in\\ harmony\\.\\ \\ Once\\ we\\ do\\ this\\,\\ we\\ are\\ united\\ in\\ a\\ \\body\\ politic\\ \\<\\/strong\\>by\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ \\\"understood\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ all\\ the\\ power\\,\\ necessary\\ to\\ the\\ ends\\ for\\ which\\ \\[we\\]\\ unite\\ into\\ society\\,\\ the\\ \\majority\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\\"\\ Thus\\,\\ in\\ essence\\,\\ we\\ agree\\ to\\ a\\ majority\\ rule\\ that\\ is\\ charged\\ with\\ protecting\\ our\\ inalienable\\ rights\\.\\ \\Sec\\.\\ 99\\ \\-\\ Annotation\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ if\\ we\\ bring\\ Libertarianism\\ back\\ into\\ play\\,\\ Locke\\ stands\\ as\\ a\\ both\\ supporter\\ and\\ detractor\\ from\\ the\\ theory\\.\\ On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ his\\ belief\\ in\\ a\\ \\limited\\ government\\ \\<\\/strong\\>charged\\ with\\ protecting\\ the\\ inalienable\\ rights\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\ agrees\\ with\\ the\\ libertarian\\ notion\\ of\\ setting\\ individual\\ rights\\ and\\ freedom\\ above\\ the\\ collective\\.\\ Government\\ should\\ protect\\ one\\'s\\ ability\\ to\\ pursue\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\,\\ acting\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ \\public\\ good\\ \\<\\/strong\\>in\\ cases\\ where\\ those\\ inalienable\\ rights\\ are\\ threatened\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ his\\ preconditions\\ for\\ government\\ arise\\ from\\-\\-dare\\ I\\ say\\ it\\-\\-a\\ utilitarian\\-type\\ of\\ notion\\ that\\ subsumes\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ even\\ though\\ government\\ is\\ charged\\ with\\ looking\\ after\\ one\\'s\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ the\\ majority\\ \\defines\\ \\<\\/em\\>those\\ rights\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Stay\\ tuned\\ as\\ we\\ continue\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ Locke\\ and\\ government\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "John Locke and the Right to Property"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.154193+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "John Locke and Government By Consent", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 479, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\-\\ The\\ Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\,\\ Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\ \\(1791\\,\\ pen\\ and\\ brown\\ ink\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Locke\\,\\ \\Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\ch\\.7\\ \\-\\ Of\\ Political\\ or\\ Civil\\ Society\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\ch\\.\\ 8\\ \\-\\ Of\\ the\\ Beginning\\ of\\ Political\\ Societies\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\ch\\.\\ 9\\ \\-\\ Of\\ the\\ Ends\\ of\\ Political\\ Society\\ and\\ Government\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\ch\\.10\\ \\-\\ Of\\ the\\ Forms\\ of\\ the\\ Commonwealth\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\ch\\.\\ 11\\ \\-\\ Of\\ the\\ Extent\\ of\\ the\\ Legislative\\ Power\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\ch\\.\\ 18\\ \\-\\ Of\\ Tyranny\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\ch\\.\\ 19\\ \\-\\ Of\\ the\\ Dissolution\\ of\\ Government\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Summary\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ this\\ class\\,\\ I\\'ll\\ focus\\ on\\ key\\ passages\\ that\\ support\\ Sandel\\'s\\ discussion\\ topics\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Consent\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"No\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\body\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\doubts\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\express\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\consent\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\entering\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\society\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\makes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\him\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\perfect\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\member\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\society\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subject\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\government\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ Sec\\.\\ 119\\\r\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\"The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\difficulty\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\what\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\looked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\upon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tacit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\consent\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\far\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\binds\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\i\\.e\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\far\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\one\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\looked\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\have\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\consented\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thereby\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\submitted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\government\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\where\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\has\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\made\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\no\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\expressions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\And\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\say\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\every\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\man\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hath\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\possessions\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\enjoyment\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\part\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\dominions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\government\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cloth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thereby\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\give\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tacit\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\consent\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\far\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\forth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\obliged\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\obedience\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\laws\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\government\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\"\\ \\-\\ Sec\\ 119\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Property\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\.E\\<\\/span\\>\\very\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\man\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\when\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\first\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\incorporates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\himself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\commonwealth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\uniting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\himself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thereunto\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\submits\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\community\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\those\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\possessions\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\has\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shall\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\acquire\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\would\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\direct\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\contradiction\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\one\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\enter\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\society\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\others\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\securing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\regulating\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\property\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\yet\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\suppose\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\land\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whose\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\property\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\regulated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\laws\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\society\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\should\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\exempt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\jurisdiction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\government\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\himself\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\proprietor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\land\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subject\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sec\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\120\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\"Whoever\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\therefore\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thenceforth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inheritance\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\purchase\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\permission\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\otherways\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\enjoys\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\part\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\land\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\so\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\annexed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\under\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\common\\-wealth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\take\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\condition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\under\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\submitting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\government\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\common\\-wealth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\under\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whose\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\jurisdiction\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\far\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\forth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\subject\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ Sec\\.120\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Punishment\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\man\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\has\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\state\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nature\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\power\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\punish\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\crimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\committed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\against\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\law\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Both\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\these\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\gives\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\up\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Guido\\ Calabresi\\ and\\ Phillip\\ Bobbit\\,\\ \\Tragic\\ Choices\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 158\\-65\\\r\\James\\ Munroe\\ McPherson\\,\\ \\Battle\\ Cry\\ of\\ Freedom\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 600\\-11\\\r\\James\\ Traub\\,\\ \\All\\ Go\\ Down\\ Together\\<\\/a\\>\\ NYT\\,\\ 16\\ March\\ 2003\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ ended\\ our\\ last\\ session\\ with\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ moral\\ consent\\.\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ do\\?\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ justify\\?\\ \\ Examining\\ John\\ Locke\\,\\ we\\ reasoned\\ that\\ consent\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ tax\\ society\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ good\\ without\\ necessitating\\ individual\\ consent\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ \\tacit\\ consent\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ overrides\\ individual\\ choice\\ is\\ one\\ which\\ we\\ agree\\ to\\ when\\ accept\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ \\\"bonds\\ of\\ civil\\ society\\\"\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ protection\\ and\\ rule\\ from\\ the\\ majority\\,\\ being\\ the\\ legislature\\ or\\ parliament\\,\\ ie\\,\\ government\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ discussed\\ taxation\\ vis\\-a\\-vis\\ Locke\\.\\ We\\ turn\\ now\\ to\\ military\\ conscription\\.\\ Does\\ the\\ government\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ invoke\\ it\\?\\ According\\ to\\ Sandel\\,\\ Locke\\ says\\ yes\\.\\ \\ \\ Referring\\ to\\ \\Sec\\ 139\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ \\Treatise\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ preservation\\ of\\ the\\ commonwealth\\ comes\\ at\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ a\\ defense\\ force\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ Asking\\ only\\ that\\ the\\ law\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ arbitrary\\,\\ Locke\\ supports\\ his\\ claim\\ by\\ giving\\ an\\ example\\:\\ a\\ sergeant\\ can\\ command\\ his\\ troops\\ to\\ stand\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ a\\ cannon\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ take\\ one\\ penny\\ of\\ his\\ troops\\'\\ money\\ or\\ confiscate\\ his\\ property\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ consenting\\ to\\ the\\ government\\ means\\ being\\ bound\\ by\\ its\\ rule\\,\\ a\\ rule\\ which\\ may\\ lead\\ you\\ to\\ death\\,\\ but\\ will\\ protect\\ your\\ property\\ just\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\ It\\ matters\\ so\\ powerfully\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\,\\ because\\ Locke\\'s\\ conception\\ of\\ a\\ limited\\ government\\ is\\ only\\ limited\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ rule\\ by\\ generally\\ applicable\\,\\ non\\-arbitrary\\ law\\.\\ In\\ contradiction\\ to\\ Libertarian\\ principles\\,\\ it\\ has\\,\\ so\\ to\\ speak\\,\\ free\\ reign\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ take\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\ in\\ Iraq\\.\\ \\ In\\ 2003\\,\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ having\\ difficulty\\ meeting\\ its\\ recruitment\\ targets\\,\\ so\\ there\\ were\\ three\\ strategies\\ they\\ considered\\ to\\ increase\\ troops\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ Increase\\ wage\\ \\+\\ benefits\\ for\\ soldiers\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Lottery\\ for\\ conscription\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ Outsource\\ \\(hire\\ mercenaries\\,\\ offer\\ citizenship\\ in\\ exchange\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ relates\\ this\\ to\\ a\\ similar\\ three\\-pronged\\ policy\\ used\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ Men\\ were\\ conscripted\\,\\ but\\ could\\ \\ \\\"sell\\\"\\ their\\ spot\\ to\\ another\\ by\\ paying\\ someone\\ to\\ take\\ their\\ place\\.\\ \\ Now\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ one\\ might\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ isn\\'t\\ a\\ truly\\ free\\ exchange\\,\\ because\\ a\\ disproportionate\\ amount\\ of\\ lower\\-class\\ people\\ would\\ have\\ incentive\\ to\\ serve\\.\\ \\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ if\\ we\\ remove\\ this\\ exemption\\,\\ conscription\\ may\\ function\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ means\\ of\\ defense\\ because\\ it\\ makes\\ each\\ individual\\ socially\\ accountable\\ by\\ performing\\ a\\ civic\\ duty\\ for\\ the\\ country\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\ arguments\\ were\\ raised\\ in\\ lecture\\ against\\ allowing\\ someone\\ to\\ \\\"take\\ your\\ place\\\"\\ and\\ also\\ outsourcing\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Coercion\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ If\\ the\\ market\\ allocates\\ military\\ service\\ \\(eg\\,\\ someone\\ can\\ sell\\ their\\ spot\\ to\\ someone\\ else\\)\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ free\\ exchange\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ inequality\\ in\\ society\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ is\\ disproportionately\\ incentivized\\ to\\ serve\\ \\(see\\ \\\"Is\\ Iraq\\ a\\ Poor\\ Man\\'s\\ War\\?\\ below\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Civil\\ Duty\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Military\\ service\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ another\\ job\\,\\ it\\'s\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ civil\\ service\\ and\\ obligation\\/patriotism\\.\\ Should\\ military\\ service\\ be\\ outsourced\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ don\\'t\\ care\\/aren\\'t\\ patriotic\\,\\ or\\ conversely\\,\\ is\\ offering\\ citizenship\\ a\\ morally\\ just\\ incentive\\ for\\ such\\ people\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ examine\\ the\\ broader\\ implications\\ these\\ arguments\\ illustrate\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ What\\ inequalities\\ undermine\\ the\\ freedom\\ of\\ choices\\ people\\ make\\ to\\ buy\\ and\\ sell\\ their\\ labor\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ obligations\\ of\\ citizenship\\?\\ Is\\ military\\ service\\ one\\ of\\ them\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\'ll\\ discuss\\ these\\ next\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Links\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Washington\\ Post\\,\\ \\\\\"Youths\\ in\\ Rural\\ US\\ Are\\ Drawn\\ to\\ Military\\\"\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\National\\ Priorities\\ Project\\,\\ \\2004\\ Military\\ Statistics\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\The\\ Heritage\\ Foundation\\,\\\\ Is\\ Iraq\\ a\\ Poor\\ Man\\'s\\ War\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Markets and Morals: Military Service"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.213066+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Immaneul Kant: Morality and Freedom (1/3)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 481, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"\\.\\.\\.Perception\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ on\\ your\\ your\\ finger\\,\\ he\\'s\\ a\\ puppet\\,\\ and\\ on\\ your\\ fridge\\,\\ he\\'s\\ a\\ magnet\\,\\ but\\ the\\ magnetic\\ Kant\\ puppet\\ remains\\ unknowable\\ in\\ itself\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ The\\ Unemployed\\ Philosopher\\'s\\ Guide\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Emmanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ \\\\Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\,\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(\\Section\\ 1\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\;\\ \\Section\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Links\\ for\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\ Kingpin\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Biography\\ on\\ Wikipedia\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Kant\\'s\\ Metaphysics\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ Encyclopedia\\ of\\ Philosophy\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Pictures\\ of\\ the\\ Town\\ He\\ Never\\ Left\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\For\\ the\\ SuperFan\\:\\ Kant\\'s\\ Head\\ on\\ t\\-shirts\\,\\ bags\\ and\\ beer\\ mugs\\ \\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Short\\ bio\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Folks\\,\\ you\\ can\\ read\\ it\\ all\\ on\\ Wiki\\-Wiki\\-pedia\\.\\ For\\ our\\ purposes\\,\\ here\\'s\\ Sandel\\'s\\ short\\ introduction\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Born\\ in\\ 1724\\,\\ died\\ 1804\\,\\ Kant\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ Prussian\\ county\\ of\\ K\\&\\#252\\;nigsburg\\.\\ He\\ never\\ left\\ his\\ native\\ city\\.\\ Once\\,\\ he\\ packed\\ his\\ bags\\ and\\ set\\ out\\ for\\ Berlin\\,\\ but\\ turned\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ last\\ moment\\ \\(just\\ in\\ time\\)\\.\\ \\ A\\ man\\ of\\ precise\\ regime\\ and\\ regular\\ habits\\,\\ he\\ was\\ so\\ precise\\ that\\ the\\ housewives\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ set\\ their\\ clocks\\ by\\ his\\ afternoon\\ constitutional\\.\\ \\ Kant\\ excelled\\ at\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ K\\&\\#252\\;nigsburg\\ at\\ 16\\ years\\ of\\ age\\.\\ At\\ 31\\,\\ he\\ got\\ his\\ first\\ job\\ as\\ a\\ lecturer\\.\\ He\\ gave\\ 20\\ lectures\\ a\\ week\\,\\ ranging\\ from\\ metaphysics\\,\\ to\\ logic\\,\\ to\\ anthropology\\.\\ At\\ 57\\,\\ he\\ published\\ his\\ first\\ major\\ work\\,\\ the\\ \\Critique\\ of\\ Pure\\ Reason\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>He\\ then\\ wrote\\ \\\\'Groundwork\\.\\.\\.\\'\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ focus\\ on\\ in\\ class\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Theory\\ Overview\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ Sandelian\\ favorite\\,\\ this\\ Enlightenment\\ Heavyweight\\ is\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ thinkers\\ in\\ philosophy\\,\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ course\\.\\.\\.so\\ take\\ note\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\At\\ base\\,\\ Kant\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ powerful\\ account\\ of\\ what\\ \\\"freedom\\\"\\ is\\.\\ Rejecting\\ Utilitarianism\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\ have\\ a\\ certain\\ dignity\\ that\\ commands\\ our\\ respect\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ an\\ individual\\ is\\ sacred\\ or\\ the\\ \\'bearer\\ of\\ rights\\'\\,\\ stems\\ from\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ \\rational\\ \\<\\/strong\\>beings\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ we\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ reasoning\\.\\ We\\ are\\ also\\ \\autonomous\\ \\<\\/strong\\>beings\\\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>meaning\\ we\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ act\\ and\\ choose\\ freely\\-\\-this\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ say\\ we\\ always\\ do\\ so\\-\\-but\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ key\\:\\ that\\ everyone\\ has\\ a\\ \\capacity\\<\\/em\\>\\ for\\ reasoning\\ and\\ autonomy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Autonomy\\ and\\ Heteronomy\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Kant\\ admits\\ vis\\-a\\-vis\\ Utilitarianism\\ that\\ we\\ also\\ have\\ the\\ capacity\\ for\\ pain\\ and\\ pleasure\\,\\ suffering\\ and\\ satisfaction\\.\\ \\ \\ He\\ doesn\\'t\\ deny\\ this\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ rejects\\ the\\ singular\\ claim\\ \\(a\\ la\\ Bentham\\)\\ that\\ pain\\ and\\ pleasure\\ are\\ our\\ sovereign\\ masters\\.\\ Kant\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ our\\ rational\\ capacity\\ that\\ makes\\ us\\ distinctive\\ and\\ sets\\ us\\ apart\\ from\\ mere\\ animals\\.\\ We\\ are\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ creatures\\ with\\ appetites\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Although\\ we\\ often\\ think\\ of\\ freedom\\ as\\ doing\\ what\\ we\\ want\\,\\ Kant\\'s\\ idea\\ challenges\\ this\\ notion\\.\\ \\ Freedom\\,\\ or\\ \\autonomy\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ to\\ Kant\\,\\ means\\ a\\ freedom\\ from\\ our\\ appetites\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ driven\\ by\\ natural\\ inclination\\,\\ or\\ \\heteronomy\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Obeying\\ nature\\ and\\ acting\\ \\heteronomously\\<\\/strong\\>\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ slavery\\,\\ since\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ choose\\ what\\ we\\ do\\,\\ but\\ are\\ driven\\ by\\ our\\ desires\\/inclinations\\ to\\ certain\\ ends\\ or\\ purposes\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ we\\ eat\\ or\\ drink\\,\\ we\\'re\\ doing\\ those\\ things\\ not\\ because\\ we\\ want\\ to\\,\\ but\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ to\\.\\ Standing\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ an\\ all\\-you\\-can\\-eat\\ buffet\\ is\\ not\\ \\\"freedom\\\"\\ to\\ choose\\,\\ but\\ enslavement\\ to\\ a\\ desire\\ that\\ wants\\ to\\ fulfill\\ an\\ end\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ hunger\\.\\ \\ Since\\ this\\ end\\ is\\ given\\ by\\ nature\\ or\\ social\\ circumstance\\,\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ chosen\\ by\\ us\\,\\ we\\ are\\ technically\\ not\\ acting\\ of\\ our\\ own\\ free\\ will\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ also\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ Sprite\\ slogan\\,\\ \\\"obey\\ your\\ thirst\\\"\\,\\ as\\ an\\ illustration\\.\\ \\ When\\ you\\ \\\"obey\\ your\\ thirst\\\"\\,\\ you\\ might\\ think\\ you\\'re\\ freely\\ choosing\\ Sprite\\,\\ but\\ you\\'re\\ actually\\ obeying\\ a\\ prompting\\ you\\ yourself\\ haven\\'t\\ chosen\\ or\\ created\\-\\-that\\ is\\,\\ thirst\\ for\\ a\\ soda\\ \\(massaged\\ through\\ by\\ some\\ clever\\ marketing\\)\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ freedom\\ becomes\\ the\\ polar\\ opposite\\ of\\ necessity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\ then\\,\\ is\\ autonomy\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ heteronomy\\?\\ Put\\ another\\ way\\-\\-why\\ is\\ acting\\ freely\\ under\\ reason\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ acting\\ out\\ of\\ necessity\\?\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ since\\ nature\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ laws\\ such\\ as\\ cause\\ and\\ effect\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\moral\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\consequence\\ \\<\\/strong\\>attached\\ to\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ heteronomy\\ \\(ie\\,\\ acting\\ out\\ of\\ natural\\ inclination\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Example\\:\\ If\\ I\\ happen\\ to\\ fall\\ from\\ a\\ building\\,\\ I\\'m\\ not\\ acting\\ under\\ my\\ free\\ will\\,\\ but\\ under\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ gravity\\,\\ ie\\,\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ a\\ ball\\ would\\ falling\\ from\\ a\\ table\\.\\ \\ If\\ I\\ were\\ to\\ hit\\ someone\\ when\\ I\\ fell\\,\\ I\\ wouldn\\'t\\ be\\ responsible\\ for\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ death\\ because\\ I\\ was\\ acting\\ under\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ not\\ of\\ my\\ free\\ will\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ falling\\ object\\ \\(either\\ me\\ \\,\\ or\\ a\\ ball\\)\\ isn\\'t\\ free\\ or\\ autonomous\\ when\\ it\\ falls\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ morally\\ responsible\\ for\\ its\\ actions\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ link\\ \\(the\\ key\\ to\\ Kant\\'s\\ theory\\)\\ between\\ Kant\\'s\\ conception\\ of\\ freedom\\ and\\ his\\ conception\\ of\\ morality\\.\\ \\To\\ act\\ freely\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ choose\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ a\\ given\\ end\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ to\\ choose\\ the\\ end\\ itself\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\To\\ act\\ heteronomously\\ then\\,\\ is\\ to\\ really\\ to\\ choose\\ something\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ something\\ else\\.\\ What\\ I\\ like\\ to\\ call\\ the\\ Why\\ Game\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Why\\ are\\ you\\ up\\ studying\\ late\\?\\ \\ To\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ grade\\ on\\ my\\ paper\\,\\ you\\ might\\ answer\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Why\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ grade\\?\\ To\\ get\\ into\\ law\\ school\\,\\ you\\'d\\ reason\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Why\\ get\\ into\\ law\\ school\\?\\ To\\ become\\ a\\ lawyer\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\But\\ why\\ become\\ a\\ lawyer\\?\\ To\\ make\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\But\\ why\\ make\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\?\\ To\\ eat\\ lobster\\ often\\,\\ which\\ I\\ like\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Why\\ eat\\ lobster\\?\\ To\\ satisfy\\ my\\ hunger\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Why\\ satisfy\\ your\\ hunger\\?\\ Because\\ I\\ have\\ to\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\This\\ above\\ example\\ of\\ \\heteronomous\\ determination\\ \\<\\/strong\\>illustrates\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ choices\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ purpose\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ chosen\\ by\\ me\\,\\ but\\ is\\ always\\ given\\ \\outside\\ \\<\\/em\\>of\\ me\\.\\ And\\ so\\,\\ insofar\\ as\\ we\\ act\\ upon\\ our\\ inclinations\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ we\\ are\\ instruments\\,\\ not\\ authors\\,\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ pursue\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ contrary\\ to\\ this\\,\\ when\\ we\\ act\\ \\autonomously\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ we\\ become\\ \\\"ends\\ in\\ ourselves\\\"\\,\\ beings\\ who\\ have\\ an\\ intrinsic\\ value\\ of\\ dignity\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ subjugated\\ to\\ the\\ baser\\ necessities\\ of\\ our\\ natural\\ inclination\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ Here\\'s\\ Kant\\ himself\\,\\ and\\ I\\'ll\\ highlight\\ the\\ key\\ terms\\:\\ \\\"Whatever\\ has\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ \\general\\ inclinations\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\wants\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ mankind\\ has\\ \\market\\ value\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\.\\.but\\ that\\ which\\ constitutes\\ the\\ condition\\ under\\ which\\ alone\\ anything\\ can\\ be\\ an\\ \\end\\ in\\ itself\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ this\\ has\\ not\\ merely\\ a\\ \\relative\\ worth\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\,\\ value\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ but\\ an\\ \\intrinsic\\ \\<\\/em\\>worth\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ \\dignity\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\"\\ \\\\(Chapter\\ 2\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ why\\ Utilitarianism\\ lacks\\ an\\ essential\\ moral\\ quality\\:\\ it\\ upholds\\ rights\\,\\ justice\\,\\ and\\ happiness\\,\\ not\\ for\\ an\\ intrinsic\\ reason\\ that\\ treats\\ humans\\ as\\ ends\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ but\\ for\\ an\\ instrumental\\ reason\\ that\\ treats\\ humans\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\ \\(ie\\,\\ the\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\ or\\ pleasure\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Take\\-home\\ message\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Freedom\\ \\=\\ Autonomy\\ \\(acting\\ out\\ of\\ my\\ own\\ free\\ will\\)\\ v\\.\\ Heteronomy\\ \\(acting\\ out\\ of\\ desire\\/inclination\\)\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\From\\ Dignity\\ to\\ Dodgy\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Makes\\ sense\\ so\\ far\\?\\ Good\\,\\ because\\ the\\ rest\\ gets\\ real\\ sketchy\\.\\ We\\'re\\ entering\\ the\\ warehouse\\ on\\ the\\ shipping\\ dock\\ late\\ at\\ night\\,\\ folks\\,\\ so\\ grab\\ your\\ flashlights\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ key\\ question\\ we\\ still\\ need\\ to\\ answer\\ is\\ this\\:\\ What\\ gives\\ an\\ act\\ its\\ moral\\ worth\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Kant\\ answers\\ that\\ a\\ morally\\ worthy\\ action\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ \\motive\\ \\<\\/strong\\>of\\ the\\ will\\ with\\ which\\ the\\ act\\ is\\ done\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ you\\'ve\\ got\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ right\\ thing\\ for\\ the\\ right\\ reason\\.\\ Kant\\:\\ \\\"\\A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\will\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\because\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\what\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\performs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\effects\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\simply\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\virtue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\volition\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\itself\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\considered\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\itself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\esteemed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\much\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\higher\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\than\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\brought\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\favour\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inclination\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nay\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\even\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\sum\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\total\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inclinations\\.\\.\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\then\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\jewel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\would\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\still\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\own\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\light\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thing\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\has\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whole\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\value\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\itself\\.\\\"\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Chapter\\ 1\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Ie\\,\\:\\\\ the\\ motive\\ confers\\ moral\\ worth\\ on\\ an\\ action\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ that\\ being\\ the\\ motive\\ of\\ \\duty\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>doing\\ something\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ \\right\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\BUT\\,\\ the\\ way\\ Kant\\ defines\\ \\\"moral\\ duty\\\"\\ takes\\ on\\ strange\\ twists\\ and\\ turns\\ when\\ applied\\ to\\ concrete\\ situations\\.\\ Let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ some\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ Kant\\'s\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ shopkeeper\\:\\ If\\ an\\ inexperienced\\ consumer\\ comes\\ in\\,\\ a\\ shopkeeper\\ could\\ shortchange\\ him\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\'t\\,\\ realizing\\ it\\ could\\ sully\\ his\\ reputation\\.\\ He\\ gives\\ him\\ the\\ correct\\ change\\ not\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ duty\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ right\\ thing\\,\\ but\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ selfish\\ reason\\ to\\ keep\\ his\\ business\\ running\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Verdict\\:\\ NOT\\ a\\ moral\\ action\\ because\\ the\\ shopkeeper\\ does\\ it\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ selfish\\ desire\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\2\\)\\ Suicide\\ \\-\\ Someone\\ who\\ is\\ incredibly\\ sad\\ decides\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ die\\,\\ he\\ should\\ not\\ commit\\ suicide\\ because\\ he\\ owes\\ it\\ to\\ himself\\ to\\ preserve\\ his\\ life\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Verdict\\:\\ This\\ IS\\ a\\ moral\\ action\\ because\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ man\\ doesn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ live\\,\\ he\\ still\\ does\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\ to\\ preserve\\ life\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\3\\)\\ An\\ altruist\\ who\\ loves\\ being\\ kind\\ and\\ benevolent\\ and\\ generous\\ gives\\ some\\ money\\ to\\ a\\ poor\\ person\\.\\ \\ A\\ bitter\\,\\ mean\\-spirited\\ misanthrope\\ who\\ hates\\ any\\ form\\ of\\ generosity\\ also\\ gives\\ the\\ beggar\\ some\\ money\\.\\ \\ Who\\ is\\ moral\\ according\\ to\\ Kant\\?\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ altruist\\ is\\ NOT\\ moral\\ because\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ really\\ know\\ what\\ her\\ motive\\ is\\.\\ \\ Maybe\\ she\\ gives\\ money\\ because\\ she\\ feels\\ good\\ about\\ herself\\ after\\.\\ However\\,\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ bitter\\ misanthrope\\ does\\ not\\ feel\\ better\\ after\\ giving\\ money\\,\\ but\\ does\\ it\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ misanthrope\\ IS\\ acting\\ morally\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\These\\ examples\\ point\\ Kant\\'s\\ rigid\\ sense\\ of\\ morality\\,\\ that\\ what\\ confers\\ worth\\ upon\\ a\\ moral\\ action\\ is\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ done\\ out\\ of\\ \\duty\\<\\/strong\\>\\.Take\\-home\\ message\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Morality\\ \\=\\ Duty\\ \\(Freely\\ doing\\ what\\ is\\ right\\)\\ v\\.\\ Desire\\ \\(Doing\\ what\\ I\\ want\\ to\\ do\\)\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ little\\ wacky\\,\\ eh\\?\\ \\ Some\\ kinks\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ worked\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\,\\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ discuss\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ section\\ when\\ we\\ discuss\\ the\\ supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Immaneul Kant: Morality and Freedom (1/3)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.236964+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Immaneul Kant: Morality and Freedom (2/3)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 482, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Emmanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ \\Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(\\Section\\ 3\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\\r\\\\\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\ we\\'re\\ going\\ to\\ answer\\ the\\ biggie\\:\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ supreme\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\?\\ And\\ \\(How\\ is\\ freedom\\ possible\\?\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ break\\ this\\ question\\ down\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ easier\\,\\ let\\'s\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ the\\ binaries\\ that\\ we\\'ve\\ got\\ so\\ far\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\1\\.\\ MORALITY\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ Motives\\ \\ \\=\\ Duty\\ v\\.\\ Inclination\\ \\(\\Lecture\\ 11\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\\r\\\\2\\.\\ REASON\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Determination\\ of\\ Will\\ \\=\\ Autonomy\\ v\\.\\ Heteronomy\\ \\(\\Lecture\\ 11\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\\r\\\\3\\.\\ FREEDOM\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Imperatives\\ \\=\\ Categorical\\ v\\.\\ Hypothetical\\ \\>\\;\\>\\;\\>\\;\\ \\(Today\\'s\\ focus\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\1\\)\\ Morality\\:\\ \\ Motive\\ \\ \\-\\ Duty\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(acting\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\'s\\ right\\)\\ v\\.\\ \\Inclination\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(acting\\ out\\ of\\ desires\\/appetites\\/which\\ are\\ driven\\ by\\ necessity\\)\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Last\\ lecture\\'s\\ example\\:\\ The\\ prudent\\ shopkeeper\\ gives\\ the\\ right\\ change\\ to\\ his\\ customer\\ not\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\ but\\ because\\ he\\ doesn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ sully\\ his\\ reputation\\.\\ Is\\ the\\ shopkeeper\\ acting\\ morally\\?\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\No\\,\\ because\\ the\\ shopkeeper\\ does\\ the\\ right\\ thing\\ out\\ of\\ selfish\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\This\\ lecture\\'s\\ example\\:\\ \\\"Misspeller\\ is\\ Spelling\\ Bee\\ Hero\\\"\\ \\-\\ A\\ boy\\,\\ Andrew\\,\\ who\\ misspells\\ the\\ last\\ word\\ of\\ a\\ spelling\\ bee\\ and\\ is\\ judged\\ as\\ the\\ winner\\ tells\\ the\\ judges\\ they\\ made\\ a\\ mistake\\.\\ His\\ reasoning\\:\\ It\\ was\\ right\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ \\\"I\\ didn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ feel\\ like\\ a\\ slime\\.\\\"\\ \\ Did\\ Andrew\\ act\\ morally\\?\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\According\\ to\\ Kant\\'s\\ formulation\\,\\ yes\\.\\ \\ He\\ acted\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\.\\ His\\ desire\\ to\\ not\\ \\\"feel\\ like\\ a\\ slime\\\"\\ was\\ a\\ by\\-product\\ of\\ this\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\,\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ different\\ than\\ him\\ telling\\ the\\ judges\\ simply\\ because\\ he\\ didn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ feel\\ bad\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ a\\ less\\ clear\\-cut\\ example\\,\\ but\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\ still\\ applies\\:\\ act\\ with\\ the\\ motive\\ of\\ the\\ duty\\ of\\ what\\'s\\ right\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\The\\ idea\\ that\\ \\motive\\<\\/strong\\>\\ must\\ be\\ of\\ the\\ right\\ kind\\ points\\ to\\ Kant\\'s\\ rigid\\ understanding\\ of\\ morality\\,\\ which\\ is\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ his\\ conception\\ of\\ autonomy\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\2\\)\\ Determination\\ of\\ the\\ will\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ Autonomy\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(I\\ act\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ law\\ I\\ give\\ myself\\)\\\\ v\\.\\ Heteronomy\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(I\\ act\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ law\\ that\\ is\\ given\\ outside\\ of\\ me\\,\\ by\\ nature\\ or\\ my\\ desires\\)\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Kant\\ challenges\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ freedom\\ as\\ doing\\ \\\"whatever\\ you\\ want\\ whenever\\ you\\ want\\.\\\"\\ \\ Doing\\ whatever\\ you\\ want\\ whenever\\ you\\ want\\ is\\ never\\ really\\ an\\ option\\,\\ as\\ humans\\ are\\ constantly\\ subject\\ to\\ various\\ drivers\\.\\ \\ Sugar\\ binging\\ at\\ your\\ local\\ CVS\\ until\\ you\\'re\\ foaming\\ at\\ the\\ mouth\\ with\\ a\\ trail\\ of\\ Pop\\ Rocks\\ and\\ Jolt\\ flowing\\ down\\ your\\ shirt\\ \\(come\\ on\\,\\ you\\ did\\ it\\ too\\)\\ isn\\'t\\ what\\ Kant\\ would\\ call\\ a\\ free\\ action\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ an\\ external\\ drive\\,\\ such\\ as\\ hunger\\,\\ sugar\\ craving\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ motivated\\ your\\ will\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Kant\\ provides\\ a\\ general\\ challenge\\ to\\ autonomy\\ as\\ \\\"doing\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ whenever\\ you\\ want\\\"\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ way\\:\\ If\\ you\\ think\\ you\\'re\\ free\\ when\\ you\\'re\\ just\\ doing\\ what\\ you\\ want\\,\\ what\\ about\\ those\\ desires\\ themselves\\?\\ If\\ you\\ didn\\'t\\ choose\\ them\\ freely\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\,\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ think\\ of\\ yourself\\ as\\ free\\ when\\ you\\'re\\ pursuing\\ them\\?\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ freedom\\ becomes\\ one\\ of\\ will\\.\\ What\\ motivates\\ an\\ individual\\ to\\ behave\\ autonomously\\?\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\.\\.\\.\\.REASON\\!\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\If\\ reason\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>determines\\ my\\ will\\,\\ then\\ the\\ will\\ becomes\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ rise\\ above\\ natural\\ inclination\\,\\ desire\\,\\ and\\ circumstance\\.\\ \\ This\\ idea\\ of\\ reason\\ supersedes\\ previous\\ conceptions\\ of\\ reason\\'s\\ role\\ within\\ general\\ philosophical\\ theories\\.\\ For\\ Empiricists\\ and\\ Utilitarians\\,\\ reason\\ is\\ instrumental\\.\\ It\\ is\\ used\\ \\(note\\:\\ it\\ is\\ \\used\\)\\ \\<\\/em\\>for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ pursuing\\ ends\\ that\\ reason\\ itself\\ does\\ not\\ provide\\.\\ \\ Hobbes\\ calls\\ reason\\ the\\ \\\"scout\\ of\\ the\\ desires\\\"\\,\\ while\\ Hume\\ names\\ it\\ the\\ \\\"slave\\ of\\ the\\ desires\\\"\\.\\ For\\ Kant\\,\\ reason\\ stands\\ as\\ our\\ sovereign\\ master\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ then\\ can\\ reason\\ determine\\ the\\ will\\?\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\-\\ \\(from\\ \\\"Kant\\'s\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\,\\\"\\ Andrew\\ Carpenter\\,\\ Antioch\\ College\\)\\<\\/p\\>There\\ are\\ 2\\ ways\\ that\\ reason\\ can\\ command\\ the\\ will\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\ the\\ third\\ dualism\\ in\\ Kant\\'s\\ writing\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\3\\)\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\FREEDOM\\:\\ Imperatives\\ \\=\\ Categorical\\ v\\.\\ Hypothetical\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ \\\"\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ now\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\action\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\only\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\means\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\something\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\else\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\imperative\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\hypothetical\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conceived\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\good\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\itself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\consequently\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\being\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\necessarily\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\principle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\will\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\itself\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\conforms\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\reason\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\categorical\\.\\\"\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>1\\)\\ \\Hypothetical\\ imperative\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ An\\ imperative\\ \\(something\\ you\\ must\\ do\\)\\ that\\ uses\\ reasoning\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\:\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ X\\,\\ then\\ do\\ Y\\.\\ If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ your\\ customers\\,\\ don\\'t\\ shortchange\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Categorical\\ Imperative\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ If\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ represtented\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ or\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\,\\ it\\ is\\ categorical\\.\\ \\ Note\\ \\\"the\\ principle\\ of\\ a\\ will\\ which\\ of\\ itself\\ conforms\\ to\\ reason\\.\\\"\\ The\\ will\\ itself\\ appeals\\ to\\ reason\\,\\ not\\ nature\\,\\ to\\ formulate\\ what\\ it\\ \\ought\\ \\<\\/em\\>to\\ do\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ do\\ you\\ go\\ about\\ applying\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\?\\ Kant\\ has\\ 3\\,\\ but\\ Sandel\\ touches\\ on\\ the\\ following\\ two\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\\\ The\\ formula\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"Universal\\ Law\\\"\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ \\\"\\Act\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\only\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\on\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\maxim\\ \\[ie\\,\\ principle\\]\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whereby\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thou\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\canst\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\same\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\time\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\will\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\should\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\become\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\universal\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\law\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ Chapter\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Example\\:\\ Keeping\\ a\\ promise\\.\\ Suppose\\ I\\ need\\ \\$100\\,\\ and\\ I\\ know\\ I\\ can\\'t\\ pay\\ it\\ back\\ any\\ time\\ soon\\.\\ I\\ go\\ to\\ my\\ friend\\ and\\ I\\ try\\ to\\ decide\\ whether\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ or\\ lie\\ and\\ say\\ that\\ I\\ can\\ pay\\ you\\ next\\ week\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ decide\\ this\\ using\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ try\\ and\\ make\\ this\\ a\\ general\\ or\\ universal\\ rule\\:\\ \\\"If\\ someone\\ needs\\ money\\ and\\ can\\'t\\ pay\\ it\\ immediately\\,\\ then\\ she\\ should\\ lie\\ and\\ say\\ she\\ can\\ pay\\ it\\.\\\"\\ Well\\ if\\ everyone\\ used\\ this\\ law\\,\\ everyone\\ would\\ lie\\,\\ and\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ \\\"keeping\\ a\\ promise\\.\\\"\\ \\ That\\'s\\ the\\ test\\.\\ That\\'s\\ how\\ we\\ know\\ a\\ false\\ promise\\ is\\ the\\ wrong\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\.\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Takers\\?\\ No\\?\\ Objections\\?\\ Sure\\.\\ \\ Here\\ are\\ a\\ few\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\,\\ our\\ first\\ Utilitarian\\,\\ and\\ a\\ student\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ objected\\ to\\ the\\ Universal\\ Law\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ it\\ appeals\\ to\\ consequentialist\\ thought\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ I\\ can\\ interpret\\ Kant\\ as\\ saying\\ \\\"no\\ one\\ should\\ lie\\\"\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ lying\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ wrong\\,\\ but\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ lie\\-free\\ world\\ instead\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ not\\ lying\\ is\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\ rather\\ than\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ Kant\\ is\\ not\\ exactly\\ appealing\\ to\\ consequentialist\\ reasoning\\ here\\.\\ He\\'s\\ saying\\ that\\ \\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\ is\\ to\\ test\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ you\\ are\\ privileging\\ your\\ needs\\ and\\ desires\\ over\\ \\ \\ everybody\\ else\\'s\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ that\\ your\\ actions\\ shouldn\\'t\\ depend\\ on\\ your\\ needs\\/actions\\/circumstances\\ being\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ somebody\\ else\\'s\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Which\\ leads\\ us\\ to\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Formula\\ of\\ Humanity\\ as\\ an\\ End\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(or\\ the\\ \\\"Supreme\\ Practical\\ Principle\\)\\:\\ \\\\\"So\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\act\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\treat\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\humanity\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\whether\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\thine\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\own\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\person\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\other\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\every\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\case\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\end\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\withal\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\never\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\means\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\only\\.\\\"\\ \\(Chapter\\ 2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Explanation\\:\\ Suppose\\ there\\ was\\ something\\ who\\'s\\ existence\\ had\\ in\\ itself\\ an\\ absolute\\ value\\,\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ it\\ alone\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ possible\\ grounds\\ of\\ a\\ categorical\\ imperative\\.\\ \\ Kant\\ says\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ that\\ absolute\\ value\\.\\ Because\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ intrinsic\\ value\\ of\\ dignity\\ we\\ are\\ worthy\\ of\\ reverence\\ and\\ respect\\,\\ and\\ are\\ consequently\\ forced\\ to\\ respect\\ the\\ universal\\ dignity\\ within\\ humanity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ not\\ open\\ to\\ use\\ merely\\ as\\ a\\ means\\.\\ Going\\ back\\ to\\ our\\ money\\ example\\,\\ using\\ the\\ 2nd\\ imperative\\,\\ when\\ I\\ make\\ a\\ false\\ promise\\,\\ I\\'m\\ using\\ you\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ I\\ want\\ the\\ \\$100\\,\\ so\\ I\\'m\\ not\\ respecting\\ your\\ dignity\\ if\\ I\\ lie\\ to\\ you\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Take\\ suicide\\ and\\ murder\\ as\\ another\\ example\\.\\ Murder\\ is\\ wrong\\ because\\ I\\'m\\ using\\ you\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ my\\ end\\ of\\ fulfilling\\ a\\ violence\\,\\ passion\\,\\ rage\\.\\ But\\ suicide\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ violation\\ in\\ just\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ beause\\ if\\ I\\ am\\ suffering\\,\\ I\\ would\\ be\\ using\\ \\myself\\ \\<\\/em\\>for\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ my\\ own\\ suffering\\.\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Takers\\?\\ Objections\\?\\ Sure\\.\\ Here\\'s\\ a\\ good\\ one\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Practically\\ speaking\\,\\ we\\ use\\ other\\ people\\ and\\ ourselves\\ every\\ day\\.\\ To\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ grade\\,\\ we\\ use\\ ourselves\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ study\\ and\\ achieve\\ that\\ grade\\.\\ We\\ might\\ use\\ others\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ study\\ for\\ tests\\,\\ or\\ give\\ us\\ homework\\ we\\'ve\\ missed\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ all\\ for\\ the\\ end\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ grade\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ Sandel\\ maintains\\ that\\ this\\ does\\ not\\ go\\ against\\ Kant\\,\\ for\\ using\\ ourselves\\ and\\ others\\ as\\ means\\ is\\ not\\ objectionable\\ \\provided\\ that\\<\\/em\\>\\ we\\ treat\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ \\respectful\\ of\\ their\\ dignity\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ this\\ convincing\\?\\ Think\\ it\\ over\\ and\\ we\\'ll\\ re\\-Kantvene\\ to\\ discuss\\.\\ Ahahahahaa\\.\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Immaneul Kant: Morality and Freedom (2/3)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.266855+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Immaneul Kant: Is Lying Always Wrong? (1/3)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 483, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(About\\.com\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Reading\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Immanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ \\\"On\\ the\\ Supposed\\ Right\\ to\\ Lie\\ Because\\ of\\ Philanthropic\\ Concerns\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ time\\ we\\ explored\\ the\\ lights\\ and\\ shadows\\ of\\ Kant\\'s\\ theory\\ on\\ morality\\.\\ We\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ three\\ dualisms\\ we\\ found\\ in\\ his\\ work\\ defining\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\MOTIVES\\ \\=\\ Duty\\ v\\.\\ Inclination\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\DETERMINATION\\ of\\ WILL\\ \\=\\ Autonomous\\ v\\.\\ Heteronomous\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ link\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ is\\ this\\:\\ When\\ I\\ act\\ out\\ of\\ \\duty\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(doing\\ the\\ right\\ thing\\ for\\ the\\ right\\ reason\\)\\,\\ I\\ act\\ \\autonomously\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(acting\\ by\\ a\\ moral\\ law\\ I\\ give\\ to\\ myself\\.\\)\\ I\\ am\\ not\\ acting\\ out\\ of\\ an\\ i\\nclination\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(driven\\ by\\ my\\ own\\ desires\\ and\\ needs\\)\\ to\\ be\\ \\heteronomous\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(satisfying\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ needs\\,\\ desires\\ and\\ wants\\ that\\ I\\ am\\ subject\\ to\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ what\\ is\\ this\\ moral\\ law\\ I\\ give\\ to\\ myself\\,\\ you\\ might\\ ask\\.\\ It\\ has\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ \\categorical\\ imperative\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\IMPERATIVES\\ \\=\\ Categorical\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(an\\ action\\ that\\ has\\ no\\ purpose\\ or\\ reference\\ except\\ itself\\)\\\\ v\\.\\ Hypothetical\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(an\\ action\\ done\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ something\\ else\\;\\ if\\ I\\ do\\ X\\,\\ I\\ get\\ Y\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\\NOTE\\:\\ \\Only\\ \\<\\/em\\>when\\ I\\ use\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ am\\ I\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ law\\ I\\ give\\ myself\\,\\ and\\ only\\ then\\ am\\ I\\ acting\\ freely\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>Overall\\ Kant\\'s\\ moral\\ theory\\ requires\\ us\\ answering\\ three\\ questions\\ \\(we\\'ve\\ done\\ the\\ first\\ two\\)\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\ \\)How\\ do\\ duty\\ and\\ autonomy\\ go\\ together\\?\\ It\\ seems\\ counterintuitive\\-\\-\\-it\\ seems\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ some\\ law\\ or\\ requirement\\ when\\ we\\ speak\\ of\\ duty\\,\\ but\\ autonomy\\ means\\ freedom\\,\\ and\\ doesn\\'t\\ freedom\\ mean\\ do\\ whatever\\ you\\ want\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Kant\\'s\\ answer\\:\\ No\\.\\ Kant\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ never\\ really\\ free\\ to\\ do\\ whatever\\ we\\ want\\,\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ false\\ idea\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\ We\\ are\\ always\\ driven\\ by\\ our\\ needs\\,\\ wants\\,\\ and\\ appetites\\,\\ which\\ in\\ effect\\ enslave\\ us\\.\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ be\\ truly\\ free\\ from\\ these\\ dictates\\ is\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ a\\ law\\,\\ a\\ moral\\ law\\,\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ within\\ us\\-\\-that\\ is\\,\\ something\\ I\\ decide\\ to\\ obey\\ myself\\,\\ not\\ something\\ that\\ I\\ am\\ driven\\ to\\ obey\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ But\\ then\\-\\-how\\ many\\ moral\\ laws\\ are\\ there\\?\\ \\ What\\'s\\ to\\ guarantee\\ my\\ law\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ yours\\,\\ that\\ my\\ moral\\ system\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ you\\ choose\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Answer\\:\\ Kant\\ maintains\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ gifted\\ with\\ an\\ \\\"undifferentiated\\ capacity\\ for\\ reason\\.\\\"\\ This\\ reason\\ transcends\\ individual\\ circumstance\\ and\\ opinions\\,\\ past\\ histories\\,\\ and\\ choice\\,\\ operating\\ rather\\ as\\ a\\ universal\\ commonality\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ reason\\ \\ transcends\\ the\\ particular\\ for\\ the\\ universal\\,\\ arriving\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ moral\\ law\\ each\\ time\\,\\ and\\ our\\ wills\\ are\\ thus\\ determined\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ We\\ don\\'t\\ will\\ individually\\,\\ we\\ will\\ as\\ participants\\ in\\ pure\\,\\ practical\\ reason\\,\\ which\\ legislates\\ \\a\\ priori\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(before\\ or\\ apart\\ from\\ experience\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Ok\\,\\ let\\'s\\ hop\\ the\\ train\\ to\\ Funky\\ Town\\ and\\ ride\\ the\\ last\\ stop\\ to\\ Presidential\\ Scandal\\ Lane\\.\\ We\\'ll\\ trying\\ to\\ vindicate\\ Kant\\'s\\ super\\-meticulous\\,\\ nay\\,\\ anal\\-retentive\\,\\ definition\\ of\\ morality\\ by\\ examining\\ his\\ delineation\\ between\\ \\\"lying\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"misleading\\ truth\\\"\\.\\\r\\\\3\\)\\ How\\ is\\ a\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ \\(morality\\)\\ possible\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ Kant\\ admits\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ rational\\ but\\ sentient\\ creatures\\,\\ meaning\\ we\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ both\\ reason\\ and\\ necessity\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ exercise\\ our\\ pure\\,\\ practical\\ reason\\,\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ somehow\\ escape\\ the\\ \\\"reign\\ of\\ nature\\\"\\.\\ Otherwise\\,\\ there\\'s\\ no\\ way\\ of\\ transcending\\ our\\ desires\\,\\ appetites\\,\\ and\\ inclinations\\.\\ So\\,\\ how\\ is\\ a\\ categorical\\ imperative\\ possible\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ distinction\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ fourth\\ contrast\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\)\\ \\STANDPOINTS\\:\\ Subject\\ \\(of\\ experience\\)\\ \\-\\ intelligible\\ realm\\ v\\.\\ Object\\ \\(of\\ experience\\)\\-\\ sensible\\ realm\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ an\\ Object\\ of\\ experience\\,\\ I\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\-\\-necessity\\,\\ inclination\\,\\ desire\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ my\\ actions\\ are\\ determined\\ by\\ this\\ realm\\.\\ As\\ a\\ Subject\\ of\\ experience\\,\\ I\\ inhabit\\ an\\ intelligible\\ realm\\,\\ in\\ which\\ I\\ am\\ capable\\ of\\ acting\\ autonomously\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Kant\\ says\\ only\\ from\\ the\\ Subject\\'s\\ standpoint\\ can\\ I\\ call\\ myself\\ free\\.\\ If\\ I\\ were\\ wholly\\ an\\ empirical\\ being\\,\\ as\\ Utilitarians\\ assume\\,\\ only\\ subject\\ to\\ my\\ senses\\-\\-pain\\/pleasure\\,\\ hunger\\/thirst\\,\\ appetite\\,\\ we\\ wouldn\\'t\\ be\\ capable\\ of\\ freedom\\,\\ because\\ in\\ that\\ case\\,\\ every\\ case\\ of\\ will\\ would\\ be\\ conditioned\\ for\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ some\\ object\\.\\ \\ In\\ that\\ case\\,\\ all\\ choice\\ would\\ be\\ governed\\ by\\ heteronomous\\ choice\\.\\ \\ My\\ will\\ would\\ only\\ be\\ an\\ intrsument\\ of\\ impulse\\,\\ always\\ bending\\ to\\ an\\ external\\ law\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Therefore\\,\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ think\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ wholly\\ empirical\\.\\ Kant\\ writes\\,\\ \\\"When\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ free\\,\\ we\\ transfer\\ ourselves\\ into\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\ as\\ members\\,\\ and\\ recognize\\ the\\ autonomy\\ of\\ the\\ will\\.\\\"\\ \\(Chapter\\ 3\\)\\ Therefore\\,\\ categorical\\ imperatives\\ are\\ possible\\ because\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ freedom\\ makes\\ me\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ intelligible\\ world\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ Kant\\ admits\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ just\\ inhabit\\ this\\ world\\;\\ if\\ we\\ did\\,\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ actions\\ would\\ invariably\\ accord\\ with\\ the\\ autonomy\\ of\\ the\\ will\\.\\ But\\ because\\ we\\ simultaneously\\ inhabit\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ freedom\\ and\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ necessity\\,\\ there\\ is\\ always\\ a\\ gap\\ of\\ potentiality\\ between\\ \\what\\ we\\ do\\ and\\ what\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ do\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Morality\\ is\\ not\\ empirical\\-\\-it\\ can\\'t\\ decide\\ moral\\ questions\\,\\ Sandel\\ affirms\\.\\ Morality\\ \\\"stands\\ at\\ a\\ certain\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ empirical\\ world\\\"\\.\\ Leave\\ it\\ to\\ science\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ facts\\-\\-investigate\\ nature\\,\\ discover\\ laws\\,\\ but\\ don\\'t\\ expect\\ science\\,\\ operating\\ in\\ the\\ sensible\\ realm\\,\\ to\\ deliver\\ moral\\ answers\\.\\ Morality\\,\\ standing\\ at\\ a\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ world\\,\\ ultimately\\ passes\\ judgment\\ upon\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\'s\\ why\\ we\\ must\\ think\\ of\\ ourselves\\ as\\ occupants\\ of\\ both\\ realms\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ test\\ Kant\\'s\\ theory\\ with\\ the\\ hardest\\ possible\\ case\\.\\ Enter\\:\\\r\\\\Benjamin\\ Constant\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>A\\ Froggy\\ French\\,\\ who\\ wrote\\ an\\ article\\ critiquing\\ Kant\\'s\\ theory\\.\\ He\\ posed\\ this\\ question\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ if\\ a\\ murder\\ came\\ to\\ your\\ house\\,\\ looking\\ to\\ murder\\ your\\ friend\\,\\ who\\ is\\ hiding\\ in\\ your\\ home\\.\\ If\\ the\\ murderer\\ asks\\ you\\ point\\ blank\\,\\ is\\ your\\ friend\\ in\\ your\\ house\\,\\ do\\ you\\ tell\\ the\\ truth\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Kant\\ wrote\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ critique\\,\\ defending\\ his\\ position\\.\\ \\ He\\ said\\ that\\ to\\ tell\\ a\\ lie\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ violate\\ one\\ own\\'s\\ dignity\\,\\ affronting\\ the\\ very\\ source\\ of\\ right\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ murderer\\ deserves\\ the\\ truth\\.\\ The\\ general\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ once\\ you\\ start\\ taking\\ consequences\\ into\\ account\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ exceptions\\,\\ you\\'re\\ done\\.\\ You\\'ve\\ given\\ up\\ on\\ Kant\\'s\\ theory\\ of\\ morality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\You\\ think\\ that\\'s\\ an\\ umlat\\ shy\\ of\\ a\\ full\\ alphabet\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\'s\\ defense\\ of\\ Kant\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Examine\\ the\\ particularity\\ of\\ the\\ lie\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ a\\ lie\\-\\-\\-or\\ a\\ misleading\\ truth\\?\\ \\ What\\ if\\ someone\\ gives\\ you\\ a\\ tie\\ as\\ a\\ present\\ that\\ is\\ just\\ hideous\\?\\ You\\ could\\ lie\\ and\\ say\\,\\ \\\"that\\'s\\ beautiful\\.\\\"\\ Or\\,\\ you\\ could\\ tell\\ a\\ misleading\\ truth\\,\\ ie\\,\\ \\\"I\\'ve\\ never\\ seen\\ a\\ tie\\ like\\ this\\ before\\,\\\"\\ or\\,\\ \\\"You\\ shouldn\\'t\\ have\\!\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Kant\\ himself\\ got\\ in\\ trouble\\ with\\ the\\ Prussian\\ king\\ and\\ the\\ censors\\,\\ on\\ the\\ grounds\\ that\\ his\\ writing\\ about\\ reason\\ and\\ metaphysics\\ were\\ anti\\-religious\\,\\ anti\\-Christian\\.\\ He\\ responded\\ with\\ the\\ following\\ reply\\:\\ \\\"As\\ your\\ majesty\\'s\\ faithful\\ subject\\,\\ I\\ shall\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ completely\\ desist\\ from\\ all\\ public\\ lectures\\ or\\ papers\\ concerning\\ religion\\.\\\"\\ A\\ few\\ years\\ later\\ the\\ king\\ died\\,\\ \\ and\\ Kant\\ cosidered\\ himself\\ absolved\\ of\\ the\\ promise\\,\\ reasoning\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ King\\'s\\ faithful\\ subject\\.\\ By\\ this\\ celver\\ evasion\\,\\ he\\ deceived\\ the\\ kind\\ without\\ foregoing\\ his\\ future\\ writing\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ morally\\ significant\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ lie\\ and\\ a\\ misleading\\ truth\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ think\\ there\\ is\\ moral\\ force\\ to\\ that\\ distinction\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\/Bill\\ Clinton\\ Scandal\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Click\\ the\\ following\\ excerpts\\ to\\ hear\\ Bill\\'s\\ carefully\\ worded\\ response\\ to\\ his\\ original\\ statements\\ about\\ the\\ accusations\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(YouTube\\ Video\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(\\.WAV\\ file\\)\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\\"I\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ sexual\\ relations\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\"\\\\.\\.\\.But\\ that\\ relationship\\ was\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\\\<\\/ahref\\=\\\"http\\:\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Now\\ check\\ out\\ the\\ verbal\\ sparring\\ that\\ went\\ down\\ at\\ the\\ House\\ Judiciary\\ Committee\\ Hearing\\ on\\ Dec\\.\\ 8\\,\\ 1998\\,\\ Day\\ 1\\ of\\ the\\ impeachment\\ hearings\\.\\ The\\ following\\ tussle\\ is\\ between\\ Rep\\.\\ Bob\\ Inglis\\ \\(R\\-South\\ Carolina\\)\\,\\ and\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\\\\*\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\(Transcript\\ Available\\ at\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.cnn\\.com\\/ALLPOLITICS\\/stories\\/1998\\/12\\/08\\/as\\.it\\.happened\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\\"It\\ seems\\ to\\ me\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ relying\\ on\\ these\\ technicalities\\.\\ Now\\,\\ Mr\\.\\ Craig\\,\\ did\\ he\\ lie\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ people\\ when\\ he\\ said\\,\\ \\'I\\ never\\ had\\ sex\\ with\\ that\\ woman\\.\\'\\ Did\\ he\\ lie\\?\\\"\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ He\\ certainly\\ misled\\ and\\ deceived\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ Well\\,\\ wait\\ a\\ minute\\ now\\.\\ \\ Did\\ he\\ lie\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ To\\ the\\ American\\ people\\,\\ he\\ misled\\ them\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ tell\\ the\\ truth\\ at\\ that\\ moment\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ OK\\,\\ so\\ you\\'re\\ not\\ \\-\\-\\ you\\'re\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ rely\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ president\\ has\\ personally\\ assisted\\ you\\,\\ I\\ understand\\,\\ instructed\\ you\\ \\-\\-\\ has\\ assisted\\ and\\ personally\\ instructed\\ you\\,\\ I\\ suppose\\,\\ that\\ no\\ legalities\\ or\\ technicalities\\ should\\ be\\ to\\ allowed\\ to\\ obscure\\ this\\ simple\\,\\ moral\\ truth\\.\\ Did\\ he\\ lie\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ people\\ when\\ he\\ said\\,\\ I\\ never\\ had\\ sex\\ with\\ that\\ woman\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ You\\ know\\,\\ he\\ doesn\\'t\\ believe\\ he\\ did\\,\\ and\\ because\\ of\\ the\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ What\\?\\ \\ He\\ doesn\\'t\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ \\.\\.\\.\\ let\\ me\\ explain\\.\\ \\ May\\ I\\ explain\\,\\ congressman\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ He\\ doesn\\'t\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ lied\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ No\\.\\ He\\ does\\ not\\ believe\\ that\\ he\\ lied\\ because\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ what\\ sex\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ dictionary\\ definition\\ is\\.\\ It\\ is\\,\\ in\\ fact\\,\\ something\\ you\\ may\\ not\\ agree\\ with\\,\\ but\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ mind\\,\\ his\\ definition\\ was\\ not\\ \\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ OK\\,\\ I\\ understand\\ that\\ argument\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ OK\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ This\\ is\\ an\\ amazing\\ thing\\ that\\ you\\ now\\ sit\\ before\\ us\\,\\ and\\ you\\'re\\ taking\\ back\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ apologies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ No\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ You\\'re\\ taking\\ them\\ all\\ back\\,\\ aren\\'t\\ you\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ No\\,\\ I\\'m\\ not\\,\\ congressman\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\INGLIS\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Because\\ now\\ you\\'re\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ argument\\ \\-\\-\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ arguments\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ here\\.\\ One\\ of\\ them\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ didn\\'t\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ her\\;\\ it\\ was\\ oral\\ sex\\,\\ it\\ wasn\\'t\\ real\\ sex\\.\\ Now\\,\\ is\\ that\\ what\\ you\\'re\\ here\\ to\\ say\\ to\\ us\\ today\\,\\ that\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\CRAIG\\:\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ What\\ he\\ said\\ was\\ \\-\\-\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ people\\ \\-\\-\\ that\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ sexual\\ relations\\,\\ and\\ I\\ understand\\ you\\'re\\ not\\ going\\ to\\ like\\ this\\,\\ congressman\\,\\ because\\ it\\ \\-\\-\\ you\\ will\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ technical\\ defense\\ or\\ a\\ hair\\-splitting\\,\\ evasive\\ answer\\,\\ but\\ sexual\\ relations\\ is\\ defined\\ in\\ every\\ dictionary\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\,\\ and\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ that\\ kind\\ of\\ sexual\\ contact\\ with\\ Monica\\ Lewinsky\\,\\ so\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ can\\ apply\\ Kant\\'s\\ hair\\-thin\\ distinction\\ between\\ a\\ lie\\ and\\ a\\ misleading\\ truth\\ here\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ qualitative\\ distinction\\ between\\ these\\ two\\.\\ Kant\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ lying\\ disrespects\\ the\\ dignity\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ disrupts\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\,\\ because\\ the\\ motive\\ behind\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ to\\ ultimately\\ deceive\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ a\\ misleading\\ truth\\,\\ an\\ evasion\\-\\-differs\\ because\\ the\\ motive\\ of\\ a\\ misleading\\ truth\\ in\\ part\\ hopes\\ that\\ the\\ person\\ will\\ be\\ misled\\ and\\ in\\ part\\ attempts\\ to\\ stay\\ truthful\\,\\ therefore\\ paying\\ a\\ certain\\ type\\ of\\ homage\\ to\\ duty\\-\\-\\(doing\\ what\\'s\\ right\\ for\\ the\\ right\\ reason\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ being\\ honest\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ in\\ the\\ murderer\\ example\\,\\ telling\\ the\\ murderer\\ you\\ saw\\ your\\ friend\\ at\\ the\\ mall\\ an\\ hour\\ ago\\ is\\ a\\ misleading\\ statement\\ and\\ supported\\ by\\ Kant\\,\\ because\\ it\\ aims\\ to\\ mislead\\ while\\ also\\ paying\\ homage\\ to\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ of\\ not\\ lying\\.\\ Clinton\\'s\\ defense\\ thus\\ rests\\ on\\ the\\ distinction\\ that\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ intentionally\\ lie\\ to\\ the\\ public\\,\\ but\\ that\\ he\\ misled\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Though\\ the\\ consequence\\ was\\ ultimately\\ the\\ same\\,\\ the\\ motive\\ was\\ not\\,\\ and\\ that\\,\\ in\\ a\\ Kantian\\ Kracked\\ Nutshell\\,\\ is\\ everything\\ that\\ matters\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\*\\ \\-\\ images\\ courtesy\\ of\\ Pritchett\\ Cartoons\\,\\ and\\ Allpolitics\\.com\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Immaneul Kant: Is Lying Always Wrong? (1/3)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.283653+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Rawls: Morality as Consent", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 484, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"See\\ No\\ Evil\\,\\ Hear\\ No\\ Evil\\,\\ and\\ Speak\\ no\\ Evil\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\John\\ Rawls\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/em\\>\\\\\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>ch\\.\\ I\\ \\(sec\\.\\ 1\\-6\\)\\,\\ II\\ \\(sec\\.\\ 11\\-14\\,\\ 17\\)\\,\\ III\\ \\(sec\\.\\ 20\\-24\\)\\,\\ IV\\ \\(sec\\.\\ 40\\)\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\\Leaving\\ Kant\\ \\(with\\ a\\ brief\\ recap\\)\\.\\.\\.\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>Let\\'s\\ look\\ quickly\\ at\\ Kant\\'s\\ political\\ thought\\ as\\ a\\ background\\ to\\ John\\ Rawls\\.\\ \\ An\\ excerpt\\ from\\ his\\ essay\\,\\ \\\"Theory\\ and\\ Practice\\\"\\ imparts\\ 2\\ main\\ points\\ of\\ his\\ political\\ ideals\\:\\\r\\\\Kant\\'s\\ Political\\ Theory\\:\\<\\/p\\>1\\)\\ \\Anti\\-Utilitarian\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ A\\ just\\ society\\ is\\ not\\ one\\ which\\ subsumes\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ her\\ rights\\ to\\ the\\ greater\\ good\\ \\(a\\ la\\ Mill\\ or\\ Bentham\\)\\,\\ but\\ provides\\ a\\ framewok\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ duties\\ that\\ leave\\ an\\ individual\\ free\\ to\\ decide\\ for\\ herself\\,\\ provided\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ others\\ are\\ respected\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Contractarian\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Just\\ laws\\ arise\\ from\\ a\\ specific\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\ that\\ happens\\ when\\ people\\ come\\ together\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ one\\ which\\ is\\ created\\ through\\ \\\"pure\\\"\\ Reason\\.\\ Kant\\ writes\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"A\\ contract\\ that\\ generates\\ \\principles\\ of\\ right\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ merely\\ an\\ idea\\ of\\ reason\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>but\\ it\\ \\has\\ undoubted\\ practical\\ reality\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ because\\ it\\ can\\ oblige\\ \\every\\ legislator\\ to\\ frame\\ his\\ \\[or\\ her\\]\\ laws\\ \\<\\/strong\\>in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ \\united\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ whole\\ nation\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ key\\ to\\ Kant\\'s\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\ lies\\ within\\ its\\ \\universal\\ applicability\\<\\/strong\\>\\;\\ whatever\\ you\\ or\\ I\\ decide\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ by\\ everyone\\ because\\ our\\ reasoning\\ is\\ common\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ Kant\\ doesn\\'t\\ trace\\ the\\ morality\\ of\\ a\\ law\\ to\\ an\\ actualy\\ social\\ contract\\.\\ This\\ raises\\ the\\ question\\:\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ force\\ of\\ such\\ an\\ \\\"implicit\\\"\\ contract\\?\\ \\ Implicit\\ consent\\ seems\\ somehow\\ less\\ powerful\\ than\\ explicit\\ consent\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ does\\ not\\ maintain\\ the\\ same\\ moral\\ force\\ that\\ an\\ explicit\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ Locke\\'s\\,\\ would\\ render\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ if\\ \\implicit\\ consent\\ \\<\\/strong\\>doesn\\'t\\ hold\\ as\\ much\\ force\\ as\\ \\explicit\\ consent\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>what\\ about\\ \\hypothetical\\ consent\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ answer\\ this\\ question\\,\\ we\\ leave\\ Kant\\ for\\:\\\r\\\\\\Rawls\\'\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\John\\ Rawls\\:\\ \\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wiki\\-Wiki\\-Pedia\\ Bio\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Internet\\ Encyclopedia\\ of\\ Philosophy\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(1971\\)\\ attempts\\ to\\ work\\ out\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ \\hypothetical\\ agreement\\<\\/strong\\>\\ that\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ Kant\\'s\\ spirit\\ of\\ morality\\.\\ \\ Rawls\\ is\\ parallel\\ to\\ Kant\\ in\\ 2\\ ways\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\)\\ Critic\\ of\\ Utilitarianism\\,\\ writing\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"Each\\ person\\ possesses\\ an\\ \\inviolability\\<\\/strong\\>\\ founded\\ on\\ \\justice\\ \\<\\/strong\\>that\\ even\\ the\\ welfare\\ of\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ cannot\\ override\\.\\.\\.The\\ rights\\ secured\\ by\\ justice\\ are\\ \\not\\ subject\\ to\\ political\\ bargaining\\<\\/strong\\>\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ \\calculus\\ of\\ social\\ interests\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\[ie\\,\\ Utilitarian\\-type\\ thinking\\]\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ Rawls\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\)\\ Principles\\ of\\ justice\\ can\\ be\\ derived\\ from\\ a\\ \\hypothetical\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ concrete\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ nor\\ an\\ implicit\\ contract\\ vis\\-a\\-vis\\ Locket\\,\\ which\\ we\\ \\\"consent\\ to\\\"\\ by\\ obeying\\ and\\ living\\ under\\ society\\'s\\ rules\\.\\ A\\ hypothetical\\ contract\\ assumes\\ total\\ \\equality\\<\\/strong\\>\\ between\\ parties\\.\\ You\\ and\\ me\\,\\ the\\ fat\\ kid\\ from\\ \\'What\\'s\\ Happening\\,\\'\\ Nat\\ King\\ Cole\\,\\ Carrot\\ Top\\,\\ everyone\\ and\\ their\\ grandmother\\,\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ position\\ of\\ power\\,\\ in\\ possession\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ knowledge\\,\\ faculties\\,\\ abilities\\,\\ and\\ skills\\.\\ \\ Together\\,\\ we\\ all\\ decide\\ upon\\ the\\ principles\\ that\\ will\\ govern\\ our\\ society\\.\\ From\\ this\\ position\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ derive\\ principles\\ of\\ governance\\ which\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ just\\ and\\ fair\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ position\\ of\\ equality\\ exists\\ in\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ space\\ called\\ the\\ \\veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ ignorant\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ factors\\ which\\ differentiate\\ us\\,\\ we\\ make\\ this\\ decision\\ of\\ governance\\.\\ \\ Only\\ then\\,\\ as\\ equals\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ would\\ the\\ principles\\ we\\ agree\\ to\\ be\\ ones\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\But\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ force\\ of\\ this\\ \\hypothetical\\ contract\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Because\\ it\\'s\\ hypothetical\\,\\ isn\\'t\\ it\\ kind\\ of\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"Bull\\!\\\"\\ Says\\ some\\ pipsqueak\\ from\\ the\\ back\\ row\\.\\ \\ Sure\\,\\ kid\\,\\ all\\ theory\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ day\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ hypothetical\\ nature\\ of\\ Rawls\\'\\ contract\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ strong\\ an\\ actual\\,\\ tangible\\ contract\\.\\ \\ In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ his\\ argument\\,\\ let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ forces\\ that\\ govern\\ actual\\ contracts\\ to\\ see\\ why\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\<\\/strong\\>\\ctual\\ contracts\\<\\/strong\\>\\ bind\\ me\\ or\\ obligate\\ me\\ in\\ 2\\ ways\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\)\\ Consent\\-based\\ \\-\\ \\\\(autonomy\\)\\ \\<\\/strong\\>A\\ contract\\ is\\ self\\-imposed\\ because\\ I\\ agree\\ to\\ it\\.\\ This\\ carries\\ a\\ moral\\ weight\\ independent\\ of\\ other\\ considerations\\.\\ By\\ agreeing\\ to\\ a\\ contract\\,\\ I\\ am\\ exercising\\ my\\ autonomy\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ a\\ transaction\\.\\ Why\\ do\\ I\\ enter\\ into\\ this\\ transaction\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\)\\ Benefit\\-based\\ \\-\\ \\\\(reciprocity\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Most\\ often\\,\\ a\\ contract\\ is\\ created\\ for\\ the\\ mutual\\ benefit\\ of\\ both\\ parties\\ \\(reciprocal\\)\\.\\ I\\ get\\ something\\ and\\ you\\ get\\ something\\.\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Obligation\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ both\\ parties\\ arises\\ insofar\\ as\\ both\\ parties\\ obligate\\ themselves\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ service\\ or\\ benefit\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ understand\\ these\\ forces\\,\\ let\\'s\\ take\\ an\\ example\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Let\\'s\\ make\\ a\\ commercial\\ agreement\\.\\ I\\ promise\\ to\\ pay\\ you\\ \\$100\\ dollars\\ if\\ you\\ harvest\\ \\$100\\ lobsters\\.\\ \\ I\\ don\\'t\\ pay\\ you\\.\\ That\\'s\\ unfair\\-\\-why\\?\\ Because\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ deal\\.\\ The\\ \\'justice\\'\\ of\\ this\\ agreement\\ depended\\ on\\ mutual\\ benefit\\.\\ Because\\ you\\ didn\\;t\\ benefit\\,\\ the\\ contract\\ is\\ unfair\\.\\ Say\\ then\\ that\\ you\\ harvest\\ the\\ lobster\\ but\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ want\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ end\\.\\ I\\ should\\ still\\ pay\\ you\\ because\\ there\\ an\\ obligation\\ of\\ intent\\.\\ I\\ benefited\\ and\\ you\\ didn\\'t\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Now\\,\\ let\\'s\\ isolate\\ the\\ element\\ of\\ \\consent\\<\\/strong\\>\\ in\\ this\\ third\\ case\\:\\ We\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ deal\\,\\ but\\ 2\\ minutes\\ later\\,\\ before\\ you\\ begin\\ to\\ work\\,\\ I\\ change\\ my\\ mind\\.\\ No\\ mutual\\ benefit\\,\\ no\\ work\\,\\ no\\ element\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ exchange\\.\\ Nuttin\\.\\ Do\\ I\\ still\\ owe\\ you\\,\\ just\\ because\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ agreement\\?\\ No\\.\\ But\\-\\-maybe\\ I\\ do\\,\\ because\\ you\\ performed\\ that\\ activity\\,\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ obligated\\ to\\ repay\\ you\\,\\ even\\ though\\ I\\ never\\ entered\\ any\\ agreement\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ example\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ \\moral\\ limits\\<\\/strong\\>\\ of\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\)\\ An\\ act\\ of\\ consent\\ is\\ NOT\\ a\\ sufficient\\ condition\\ of\\ the\\ terms\\ of\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\ being\\ just\\ or\\ fair\\;\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ 2\\ people\\ agree\\ to\\ an\\ exchange\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ their\\ terms\\ are\\ fair\\.\\ \\ If\\ I\\ end\\ up\\ paying\\ you\\ \\$50\\ for\\ the\\ lobsters\\,\\ and\\ you\\ agree\\ to\\ it\\,\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ market\\ price\\ is\\ \\$100\\,\\ we\\ have\\ mutually\\ benefited\\ and\\ consented\\,\\ but\\ the\\ terms\\ are\\ not\\ \\fair\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\)\\ An\\ act\\ of\\ consent\\ may\\ not\\ even\\ be\\ \\necessary\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\.\\ If\\ there\\ is\\ reciprocity\\,\\ then\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ an\\ obligation\\ without\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ consent\\.\\ \\ If\\ you\\ harvest\\ 100\\ lobsters\\ and\\ knock\\ on\\ my\\ door\\,\\ then\\ ask\\ me\\ to\\ pay\\ you\\ \\$100\\,\\ do\\ I\\ have\\ to\\?\\ No\\,\\ in\\ actuality\\,\\ because\\ I\\ never\\ consented\\ to\\ a\\ contract\\.\\ But\\ yes\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ because\\ you\\ have\\ performed\\ a\\ service\\,\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ obligated\\ to\\ pay\\ you\\ for\\ that\\ service\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\So\\:\\ \\how\\ do\\ actual\\ contracts\\ justify\\ the\\ terms\\ they\\ produce\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\ANSWER\\:\\ They\\ don\\'t\\.\\ At\\ least\\,\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ self\\-sufficient\\,\\ moral\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ real\\ life\\,\\ every\\ \\actual\\ contract\\ may\\ fail\\ to\\ realize\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ its\\<\\/strong\\>\\ ideals\\.\\ There\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ bargaining\\ power\\ of\\ parties\\,\\ or\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ reciprocity\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ realized\\ on\\ account\\ of\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Now\\,\\ suppose\\ a\\ contract\\ where\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ autonomy\\ and\\ reciprocity\\ are\\ GUARANTEED\\ to\\ be\\ realized\\.\\ It\\ would\\ be\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ terms\\ and\\ the\\ playing\\ field\\ were\\ equal\\:\\ everyone\\ deciding\\ is\\ identically\\ situated\\.\\ Imagine\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ this\\ contract\\ is\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ basic\\ principles\\ of\\ society\\.\\ A\\ contract\\ like\\ this\\ leaves\\ no\\ room\\ for\\ unfair\\ bargaining\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ contract\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Rawls\\'\\ \\hypothetical\\ agreement\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ a\\ hypothetical\\ agreement\\ \\ is\\ not\\ \\\"weaker\\\"\\ than\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\,\\ but\\ a\\ \\pure\\ form\\<\\/strong\\>\\ of\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ more\\ \\morally\\ powerful\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ those\\ principles\\ are\\ we\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\-\\ Picture\\ of\\ \\\"See\\ No\\ Evil\\,\\ Hear\\ No\\ Evil\\,\\ and\\ Speak\\ no\\ Evil\\\"\\ by\\ Michael\\ Reukauf\\,\\ www\\.michaelreukauf\\.com\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Rawls: Morality as Consent"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.297567+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Distributive Justice: Equality and Inequality", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 485, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ V\\ \\(sec\\.\\ 41\\)\\,\\ VII\\ \\(sec\\.\\ 48\\,\\ 68\\)\\,\\ IX\\ \\(sec\\.\\ 79\\,\\ 84\\,\\ 87\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ time\\,\\ we\\ saw\\ how\\ Rawls\\'\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ derive\\ from\\ a\\ \\hypothetical\\ contract\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Actual\\ contracts\\,\\ we\\ discovered\\,\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ morally\\ powerful\\,\\ because\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ justify\\ the\\ terms\\ they\\ produce\\.\\ \\ Whether\\ a\\ private\\ or\\ commercial\\ contract\\,\\ large\\ or\\ small\\,\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\ begs\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\Are\\ the\\ terms\\ fair\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ As\\ such\\,\\ actual\\ contracts\\ are\\ \\not\\ intrinsically\\ \\<\\/strong\\>moral\\ instruments\\.\\ To\\ use\\ some\\ Kantian\\ terminology\\,\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ \\categorically\\<\\/strong\\>\\ moral\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ a\\ contract\\ has\\ to\\ look\\ outside\\ of\\ itself\\ for\\ its\\ moral\\ worth\\ \\(compare\\ this\\ with\\ the\\ categorical\\ imperative\\,\\ which\\ is\\ morally\\ worthy\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ itself\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ because\\ in\\ all\\ actual\\ contracts\\,\\ inequality\\ exists\\.\\ \\ Parties\\ making\\ contracts\\ are\\ in\\ different\\ positions\\ of\\ power\\ or\\ knowledge\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ because\\ inequality\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\,\\ a\\ contract\\ is\\ always\\ subject\\ to\\ imperfection\\.\\ As\\ such\\,\\ an\\ actual\\ contract\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ replicate\\ its\\ \\moral\\ ideals\\ of\\ autonomy\\ and\\ reciprocity\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\'\\ \\hypothetical\\ contract\\ \\<\\/strong\\>stands\\ as\\ the\\ moral\\ contract\\ \\par\\ excellence\\ \\<\\/em\\>because\\ it\\ embodies\\ these\\ ideals\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ ways\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ Begins\\ from\\ a\\ place\\ of\\ \\original\\ equality\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ since\\ the\\ contract\\ is\\ agreed\\ upon\\ before\\ entering\\ an\\ unequal\\ society\\,\\ it\\ is\\ created\\ from\\ an\\ intrinsically\\ just\\ position\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ Is\\ decided\\ behind\\ the\\ \\veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ this\\ barrier\\,\\ or\\ space\\,\\ allows\\ for\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ complete\\ equality\\,\\ providing\\ a\\ platform\\ for\\ justice\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ turn\\ to\\ the\\ \\principles\\ \\<\\/strong\\>that\\ govern\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Equal\\,\\ Basic\\ Liberties\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\,\\ individuals\\ would\\ adopt\\ principles\\ that\\ would\\ ultimately\\ protect\\ their\\ individual\\ rights\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ \\assuming\\ that\\ subjects\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ are\\ risk\\ averse\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Rawls\\ postulates\\ we\\ choose\\ a\\ moral\\ order\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ individuals\\ are\\ allowed\\ the\\ freedom\\ to\\ pursue\\ \\equal\\,\\ basic\\ liberties\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ freedom\\ to\\ life\\,\\ freedom\\ of\\ expression\\,\\ religious\\ belief\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\ Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ people\\ would\\ not\\ choose\\ Utilitarian\\-like\\ principles\\ because\\ utilitarianism\\ does\\ not\\ respect\\ the\\ \\\"distinction\\ between\\ persons\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\\\ Difference\\ Principle\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Vis\\-a\\-Vis\\ Social\\ and\\ Economic\\ Inequality\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ being\\ equal\\,\\ and\\ again\\ assuming\\ that\\ individuals\\ are\\ \\risk\\ averse\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Rawls\\ insists\\ subjects\\ would\\ also\\ adopt\\ an\\ equal\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ resources\\.\\ However\\,\\ because\\ of\\ our\\ selfish\\ natures\\ and\\ the\\ constant\\ desire\\ for\\ \\\"more\\\"\\,\\ Rawls\\ envisions\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ unequal\\ distributive\\ justice\\ he\\ calls\\ the\\ \\difference\\ principle\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>in\\ which\\\\ \\\"only\\ those\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ inequalities\\ will\\ be\\ permitted\\ that\\ work\\ to\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ least\\ well\\-off\\.\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Thus\\,\\ if\\ you\\ or\\ I\\ were\\ to\\ end\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ pack\\,\\ we\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ cushion\\ the\\ fall\\ by\\ choosing\\ a\\ system\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ least\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ best\\ possible\\ position\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ could\\ be\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ the\\ \\difference\\ principle\\<\\/strong\\>\\ egalitarian\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Debatable\\.\\ This\\ principle\\ can\\ ultimately\\ justify\\ any\\ inequality\\,\\ which\\ leaves\\ it\\ open\\ to\\ severe\\ criticism\\.\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ to\\ institute\\ such\\ a\\ principle\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ careers\\,\\ society\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ provide\\ incentives\\ to\\ attract\\ the\\ right\\ people\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ jobs\\,\\ and\\ those\\ people\\ would\\ ultimately\\,\\ ideally\\,\\ help\\ those\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ Only\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ could\\ a\\ surgeon\\ be\\ paid\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ custodian\\.\\ That\\ surgeon\\ would\\ be\\ obligated\\ to\\ help\\ that\\ custodian\\.\\ \\ Or\\ take\\ AP\\ courses\\ in\\ high\\ school\\.\\ Their\\ exclusive\\ nature\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ justified\\ if\\ the\\ education\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ took\\ those\\ courses\\ would\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ benefit\\ the\\ least\\ well\\-off\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\ himself\\ has\\ 2\\ arguments\\ for\\ the\\ difference\\ principle\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Official\\ Argument\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Because\\ the\\ difference\\ principle\\ is\\ chosen\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\,\\ it\\ is\\ \\de\\ jure\\ \\<\\/em\\>just\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\CRITICISM\\:\\ Rawls\\ wrongly\\ assumes\\ that\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ would\\ be\\ risk\\ averse\\.\\ Perhaps\\ some\\ individuals\\ would\\ be\\ \\risk\\ takers\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ would\\ take\\ the\\ gamble\\ of\\ being\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ pack\\ if\\ that\\ meant\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ chance\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ at\\ the\\ top\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Moral\\ Argument\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ The\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ income\\,\\ and\\ opportunities\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ factors\\ that\\ are\\ \\arbitrary\\ from\\ a\\ moral\\ point\\ of\\ view\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(intelligence\\,\\ economic\\ status\\,\\ natural\\ gifts\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\ considers\\ 3\\ rival\\ theories\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ to\\ prove\\ his\\ point\\:\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Feudal\\ Aristocracy\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Inherently\\ wrong\\ because\\ it\\ predetermines\\ wealth\\,\\ opportunity\\,\\ and\\ general\\ well\\-being\\ on\\ birth\\.\\ No\\ social\\ mobility\\ exists\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ ability\\ to\\ exercise\\ personal\\ talents\\,\\ intelligence\\,\\ or\\ effort\\.\\ This\\ system\\ of\\ exclusivity\\ is\\ morally\\ unjust\\ because\\ birth\\ is\\ a\\ pre\\-determined\\,\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ trait\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Libertarian\\ \\\"System\\ of\\ Natural\\ Liberty\\\"\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Every\\ person\\ should\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ strive\\ or\\ work\\ to\\ apply\\ for\\ her\\ place\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\ Success\\ is\\ ultimately\\ measured\\ by\\ an\\ individual\\'s\\ efforts\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ a\\ \\\"free\\ market\\ of\\ opportunity\\\"\\ to\\ advance\\.\\ \\ This\\ ultimately\\ falls\\ short\\ of\\ true\\ justice\\ because\\ if\\ everyone\\ is\\ allowed\\ to\\ run\\ the\\ race\\,\\ some\\ will\\ simply\\ start\\ further\\ ahead\\ than\\ others\\ based\\ upon\\ circumstantial\\ advantages\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ \\Meritocracy\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ A\\ system\\ that\\ rewards\\ merit\\.\\ This\\ allows\\ not\\ only\\ formal\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\,\\ but\\ fair\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\.\\ The\\ difference\\?\\ In\\ a\\ fair\\ meritocracy\\,\\ society\\ sets\\ up\\ institutions\\ to\\ bring\\ everyone\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ race\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ place\\.\\ Head\\-start\\ schools\\,\\ free\\ public\\ education\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ would\\ give\\ everyone\\ a\\ genuinely\\ fair\\ opportunity\\ to\\ advance\\ their\\ education\\ and\\ increase\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ to\\ enter\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ even\\ meritocracy\\ doesn\\'t\\ go\\ far\\ enough\\ in\\ remedying\\ the\\ moral\\ arbitrariness\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ lottery\\.\\ If\\ you\\ bring\\ everyone\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ level\\,\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ naturally\\ gifted\\ with\\ intelligence\\,\\ good\\ social\\ skills\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ will\\ still\\ win\\.\\ He\\ writes\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Even\\ if\\ \\[the\\ meritocratic\\ system\\]\\ works\\ to\\ the\\ perfection\\ in\\ eliminating\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ social\\ contingencies\\,\\ it\\ still\\ permits\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ income\\ to\\ be\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ natural\\ distribution\\ of\\ abilities\\ and\\ talents\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\ \\-Rawls\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ go\\ beyond\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Some\\ egalitarian\\ critics\\ say\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ is\\ handicap\\ the\\ fast\\ runners\\.\\ This\\ defeats\\ the\\ whole\\ purpose\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Rawls\\ argues\\ you\\ can\\ have\\ egalitarianism\\ by\\ changing\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ reward\\ those\\ at\\ the\\ top\\.\\ He\\ argues\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"Those\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ favored\\ by\\ nature\\,\\ whoever\\ they\\ are\\,\\ may\\ gain\\ their\\ good\\ fortune\\ but\\ only\\ on\\ terms\\ that\\ improve\\ the\\ situation\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ lost\\ out\\.\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Rawls\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"The\\ naturally\\ advantaged\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ gain\\ merely\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ gifted\\,\\ but\\ only\\ to\\ cover\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ training\\ and\\ education\\ and\\ for\\ using\\ their\\ endowments\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ help\\ the\\ less\\ fortunate\\ as\\ well\\.\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\-Rawls\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ even\\ a\\ self\\-determined\\ trait\\ such\\ as\\ \\effort\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ a\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ trait\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ For\\ instance\\,\\ psychologists\\ say\\ that\\ birth\\ order\\ makes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ difference\\ in\\ work\\ ethic\\,\\ striving\\,\\ and\\ effort\\.\\ Particularly\\,\\ first\\-borns\\ tend\\ to\\ possess\\ the\\ most\\ drive\\ and\\ ambition\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ the\\ Justice\\ class\\ of\\ over\\ 800\\ students\\,\\ over\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ identified\\ themselves\\ as\\ first\\ born\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ \\effort\\ \\<\\/strong\\>may\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ effect\\ of\\ birth\\ order\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ trait\\.\\ In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ why\\ should\\ income\\ and\\ wealth\\ and\\ opportunities\\ also\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ factors\\ which\\ are\\ arbitrary\\ from\\ a\\ moral\\ point\\ of\\ view\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\More\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Distributive Justice: Equality and Inequality"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.313410+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Equality, Effort, and Merit", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 486, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\Diego\\ Rivera\\,\\ \\\"Detroit\\ Industry\\,\\ North\\ Wall\\,\\\"\\ Detroit\\ Institute\\ of\\ Arts\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1932\\-33\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Nozick\\,\\ \\Anarchy\\,\\ State\\,\\ and\\ Utopia\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(excerpt\\)\\\r\\\\\\Theories\\ of\\ Distributive\\ Justice\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>1\\)\\ \\Libertarian\\ View\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ Free\\ Market\\,\\ \\\"Formal\\ Equality\\\"\\ \\-\\ Every\\ person\\ should\\ be\\ free\\ to\\ strive\\ or\\ work\\ to\\ apply\\ for\\ her\\ place\\ in\\ society\\.\\ Success\\ is\\ ultimately\\ measured\\ by\\ an\\ individual\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ efforts\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;free\\ market\\ of\\ opportunity\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ advance\\.\\ This\\ ultimately\\ falls\\ short\\ of\\ true\\ justice\\ because\\ if\\ everyone\\ is\\ allowed\\ to\\ run\\ the\\ race\\,\\ some\\ will\\ simply\\ start\\ further\\ ahead\\ than\\ others\\ based\\ upon\\ circumstantial\\ advantages\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Meritocratic\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\View\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ \\\"Fair\\ Equality\\\"\\ \\-\\ A\\ system\\ that\\ rewards\\ merit\\.\\ This\\ allows\\ not\\ only\\ formal\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\,\\ but\\ fair\\ equality\\ of\\ opportunity\\.\\ The\\ difference\\?\\ In\\ a\\ fair\\ meritocracy\\,\\ society\\ sets\\ up\\ institutions\\ to\\ bring\\ everyone\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ level\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ start\\ the\\ race\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ place\\.\\ Head\\-start\\ schools\\,\\ free\\ public\\ education\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ would\\ give\\ everyone\\ a\\ genuinely\\ fair\\ opportunity\\ to\\ advance\\ their\\ education\\ and\\ increase\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\ to\\ enter\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ even\\ meritocracy\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ go\\ far\\ enough\\ in\\ remedying\\ the\\ moral\\ arbitrariness\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ lottery\\.\\ If\\ you\\ bring\\ everyone\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ level\\,\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ naturally\\ gifted\\ with\\ intelligence\\,\\ good\\ social\\ skills\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ will\\ still\\ win\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ \\Egalitarian\\ View\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ \\(Rawls\\'\\ \\Difference\\ Principle\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ \\-\\ The\\ morally\\ just\\ way\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ inequality\\ is\\ to\\ share\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ top\\ achievers\\ with\\ those\\ people\\ who\\ end\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ \\ In\\ such\\ a\\ system\\,\\ the\\ only\\ inequality\\ that\\ exists\\ should\\ be\\ that\\ which\\ benefits\\ the\\ lowest\\ members\\ of\\ society\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ can\\ test\\ how\\ this\\ theory\\ works\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ pay\\ differentials\\.\\ What\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ is\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ executive\\ pay\\ to\\ those\\ on\\ the\\ factory\\ floor\\?\\ Answer\\:\\ 431\\:\\ 1\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ \\ Fair\\ or\\ unfair\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ fairness\\ of\\ the\\ system\\ depends\\ upon\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ the\\ particular\\ society\\.\\ If\\ the\\ society\\ implements\\ the\\ \\difference\\ principle\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ earnings\\ of\\ its\\ CEOs\\ would\\ be\\ plowed\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ lower\\ echelons\\ of\\ society\\ through\\ taxation\\,\\ welfare\\ policy\\/education\\ policy\\,\\ then\\ Rawls\\ would\\ consider\\ this\\ distributive\\ system\\ fair\\.\\ If\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ tax\\ system\\,\\ he\\ would\\ consider\\ it\\ unfair\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ breakdown\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\$42\\,000\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ School\\ teacher\\\r\\\\\r\\\\$31\\,000\\,000\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ David\\ Letterman\\\r\\\\\r\\\\$199\\,\\ 200\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ US\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ Justice\\\r\\\\\r\\\\$25\\,000\\,000\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ Judge\\ Judy\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ this\\ distribution\\ of\\ income\\ fair\\?\\ Rawls\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ talents\\ of\\ celebrities\\ such\\ as\\ Letterman\\ and\\ Judge\\ Judy\\ are\\ deemed\\ worthy\\ by\\ society\\,\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ society\\ has\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ in\\ place\\ that\\ allow\\ for\\ a\\ circulation\\ of\\ this\\ wealth\\ to\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\,\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ fair\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\3\\ Objections\\ to\\ Rawls\\'\\ Egalitarian\\ Theory\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Incentives\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ If\\ the\\ tax\\ rate\\ is\\ too\\ high\\ for\\ the\\ wealthy\\,\\ then\\ wouldn\\'t\\ those\\ wealthy\\ be\\ ostensibly\\ discouraged\\ to\\ take\\ on\\ jobs\\ that\\ benefit\\ others\\?\\ If\\ taxes\\ reach\\ 80\\%\\ for\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\,\\ would\\ he\\ still\\ play\\ basketball\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\RAWLS\\'\\ ANSWER\\:\\ The\\ question\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\ from\\ the\\ standpoint\\ of\\ the\\ poorer\\ class\\.\\ If\\ the\\ overall\\ effect\\ of\\ those\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ is\\ hindered\\,\\ then\\ an\\ 80\\%\\ tax\\ on\\ the\\ wealthy\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ morally\\ justifiable\\.\\ He\\ writes\\ in\\ sec\\.\\ 17\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ difference\\ principle\\ represents\\,\\ in\\ effect\\,\\ an\\ agreement\\ to\\ the\\ regard\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ natural\\ talents\\ as\\ a\\ common\\ asset\\ and\\ to\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ this\\ distribution\\ whatever\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ to\\ be\\.\\ \\\"\\ \\-\\ Rawls\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ naturally\\ advantaged\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ gain\\ merely\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ gifted\\,\\ but\\ only\\ to\\ cover\\ the\\ cost\\ for\\ training\\ and\\ education\\ and\\ for\\ using\\ their\\ endowments\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ help\\ the\\ less\\ fortunate\\ as\\ well\\.\\\"\\ \\-\\ Rawls\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ respect\\,\\ we\\ can\\ argue\\ against\\ this\\ first\\ criticism\\.\\ Rawls\\ does\\ allow\\ for\\ incentives\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ wealthy\\ in\\ effect\\ owe\\ a\\ debt\\ to\\ the\\ society\\ which\\ has\\ placed\\ a\\ premium\\ on\\ their\\ talents\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Effort\\/Moral\\ Desert\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ What\\ about\\ our\\ own\\ efforts\\ and\\ labor\\?\\ What\\ about\\ deserving\\ the\\ money\\ and\\ efforts\\ of\\ our\\ hands\\?\\ Who\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ take\\ it\\ from\\ us\\?\\ Effort\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ desert\\ argument\\.\\ People\\ work\\ hard\\ to\\ develop\\ their\\ talents\\ and\\ earn\\ money\\ to\\ provide\\ for\\ their\\ families\\,\\ so\\ why\\ should\\ they\\ be\\ rewarded\\ by\\ having\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ effort\\ taken\\ away\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\RAWLS\\'\\ ANSWER\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ To\\ a\\ degree\\,\\ even\\ work\\ ethic\\ and\\ conscientious\\ drive\\ are\\ compelled\\ by\\ circumstance\\,\\ such\\ as\\ birth\\ order\\,\\ or\\ supportive\\ parents\\,\\ challenging\\ teachers\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ effort\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ wholly\\ self\\-derived\\ trait\\,\\ but\\ one\\ derived\\ from\\ circumstance\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ factor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ effort\\,\\ but\\ \\contribution\\<\\/strong\\>\\ that\\ is\\ really\\ the\\ matter\\ at\\ hand\\.\\ If\\ there\\ are\\ 2\\ construction\\ workers\\,\\ one\\ brawny\\,\\ one\\ scrawny\\,\\ who\\ spend\\ different\\ amounts\\ of\\ time\\ doing\\ same\\ work\\,\\ no\\ defender\\ of\\ meritocracy\\ would\\ say\\ one\\ deserves\\ more\\ pay\\ than\\ the\\ other\\.\\ It\\'s\\ not\\ the\\ effort\\ they\\ put\\ in\\,\\ but\\ their\\ contribution\\.\\ However\\,\\ contribution\\ takes\\ us\\ right\\ back\\ to\\ our\\ natural\\ talents\\ and\\ abilities\\,\\ which\\ are\\ arbitrary\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ are\\ not\\ morally\\ justifiable\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\,\\ Rawls\\ makes\\ the\\ tricky\\ distinction\\ between\\\\ Moral\\ Desert\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\Entitlement\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\'s\\ the\\ Difference\\?\\\r\\\\Entitlement\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ something\\ you\\ should\\ get\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Say\\ I\\ play\\ the\\ lottery\\ and\\ my\\ number\\ comes\\ up\\.\\ I\\ am\\ entitled\\ to\\ my\\ winnings\\,\\ but\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ game\\ of\\ luck\\,\\ there\\'s\\ no\\ sense\\ in\\ which\\ I\\ morally\\ deserve\\ to\\ win\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Moral\\ Desert\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ something\\ you\\ deserve\\ to\\ get\\,\\ period\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Say\\ the\\ Sox\\ win\\ the\\ World\\ Series\\.\\ \\ It\\ can\\ always\\ be\\ asked\\:\\ Did\\ they\\ deserve\\ to\\ win\\?\\ Did\\ they\\ display\\ the\\ excellence\\ that\\ comes\\ with\\ the\\ game\\,\\ being\\ a\\ good\\ team\\-member\\,\\ playing\\ by\\ the\\ rules\\?\\ Or\\ did\\ they\\ win\\ out\\ of\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ fluke\\?\\ Perhaps\\ they\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ win\\,\\ but\\ do\\ they\\ deserve\\ it\\ morally\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ distributive\\ justice\\ is\\ \\NOT\\<\\/strong\\>\\ about\\ \\moral\\ desert\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ but\\ \\about\\ the\\ entitlement\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectation\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ He\\ writes\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"A\\ just\\ scheme\\ answers\\ to\\ what\\ men\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\;\\ it\\ satisfies\\ their\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\ as\\ founded\\ upon\\ social\\ institutions\\.\\.\\.\\ But\\ \\what\\ they\\ are\\ entitled\\ is\\ not\\ proportional\\ to\\ nor\\ dependent\\ upon\\ their\\ intrinsic\\ worth\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ that\\ regulate\\ the\\ basic\\ structure\\.\\.\\.do\\ not\\ mention\\ moral\\ desert\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ tendency\\ for\\ distributive\\ shares\\ to\\ correspond\\ to\\ it\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ is\\ morally\\ at\\ stake\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ make\\ such\\ a\\ claim\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Effort\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ previously\\ discussed\\ as\\ being\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ The\\ \\Moral\\ Worth\\ of\\ an\\ Individual\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/strong\\>The\\ moral\\ worth\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ does\\ \\NOT\\ \\<\\/strong\\>depend\\ on\\ the\\ premium\\ society\\ place\\ upon\\ her\\ talents\\,\\ but\\ her\\ intrinsic\\ dignity\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\.\\ \\ In\\ a\\ capitalist\\ society\\,\\ it\\ pays\\ to\\ have\\ entrepreneurial\\ drive\\.\\ In\\ a\\ bureaucratic\\ society\\,\\ it\\ helps\\ to\\ have\\ good\\ diplomacy\\ and\\ social\\ skills\\.\\ In\\ a\\ litigious\\ society\\,\\ it\\ benefits\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ law\\ school\\ and\\ have\\ good\\ LSAT\\ scores\\.\\ \\ But\\ in\\ a\\ warrior\\ society\\ or\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ society\\,\\ these\\ skills\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ prized\\.\\ Would\\ we\\ be\\ less\\ worthy\\ possessing\\ these\\ skills\\ in\\ these\\ societies\\?\\ No\\.\\ The\\ key\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ \\while\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ entitled\\ to\\ less\\,\\ we\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ less\\ worthy\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ \\such\\ is\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ those\\ in\\ our\\ society\\ who\\ lack\\ the\\ talents\\ our\\ society\\ happens\\ to\\ reward\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>they\\ are\\ perhaps\\ entitled\\ to\\ less\\,\\ but\\ are\\ \\no\\ less\\ worthy\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ \\Self\\-ownership\\/Theft\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ What\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ of\\ my\\ hands\\?\\ Shouldn\\'t\\ I\\ reap\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ my\\ own\\ labor\\ rather\\ than\\ having\\ it\\ taxed\\ away\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Free\\-market\\ thinkers\\ such\\ as\\ Milton\\ Friedman\\ agree\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ certain\\ level\\ of\\ inequality\\ due\\ to\\ birth\\ circumstance\\,\\ where\\ people\\ inherit\\ different\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\.\\ He\\ writes\\,\\ \\\"life\\ is\\ not\\ fair\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ tempting\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ government\\ can\\ rectify\\ what\\ nature\\ has\\ spawned\\.\\\"\\ Rawls\\ offers\\ a\\ sharp\\ criticism\\ of\\ this\\ mentality\\,\\ writing\\ in\\ sec\\.\\ 17\\,\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\"We\\ should\\ reject\\ the\\ contention\\ that\\ the\\ ordering\\ of\\ institutions\\ is\\ always\\ defective\\ because\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ natural\\ talents\\ and\\ the\\ contingencies\\ of\\ social\\ circumstance\\ are\\ unjust\\,\\ and\\ this\\ unjustice\\ must\\ carry\\ over\\ into\\ human\\ arrangements\\,\\\"\\ \\<\\/strong\\>adding\\ that\\\\ \\\"Sometimes\\,\\ this\\ reflection\\ is\\ offered\\ as\\ \\ an\\ excuse\\ for\\ ignoring\\ injustice\\,\\ as\\ if\\ the\\ refusal\\ to\\ acquiesce\\ in\\ injustice\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ par\\ with\\ being\\ unable\\ to\\ accept\\ death\\.\\\"\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ also\\ writes\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"The\\ \\natural\\ distribution\\ of\\ endowments\\ is\\ neither\\ just\\ nor\\ unjust\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ it\\ unjust\\ that\\ persons\\ are\\ born\\ into\\ society\\ at\\ some\\ particular\\ position\\,\\ there\\ are\\ simply\\ natural\\ facts\\,\\ \\what\\ is\\ just\\ and\\ unjust\\ is\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ institutions\\ deal\\ with\\ these\\ facts\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ 1st\\ edition\\ of\\ \\Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\ \\\"In\\ justice\\ as\\ fairness\\,\\ men\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ share\\ one\\ another\\'s\\ fate\\.\\ designing\\ institutions\\ they\\ undertake\\ to\\ avail\\ themselves\\ of\\ the\\ accident\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ social\\ circumstance\\ only\\ when\\ do\\ so\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ benefit\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ are\\ Rawls\\'\\ arguments\\ against\\ complete\\ free\\-market\\ thinking\\,\\ which\\ Sandel\\ argues\\ are\\ tantamount\\ to\\ saying\\:\\ \\\"Life\\ is\\ unfair\\,\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\On\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ \\self\\-ownership\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Rawls\\'\\ difference\\ principle\\ suggests\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ own\\ ourselves\\ in\\ the\\ absolute\\ way\\ that\\ libertarians\\ argue\\ we\\ do\\.\\ This\\ doesn\\'t\\ necessarily\\ mean\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ owns\\ me\\ and\\ my\\ labor\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ questions\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ I\\ have\\ a\\ privileged\\ claim\\ on\\ the\\ rewards\\ of\\ my\\ talent\\ that\\ I\\ accrue\\ through\\ my\\ labor\\ in\\ a\\ free\\-market\\ economy\\.\\ In\\ actuality\\,\\ Rawls\\ argues\\,\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ a\\ complete\\ claim\\ to\\ that\\ labor\\.\\ We\\ can\\ defend\\ and\\ uphold\\ our\\ individual\\ rights\\ and\\ dignity\\,\\ without\\ reverting\\ to\\ self\\-possession\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ sum\\,\\ \\distributive\\ justice\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ not\\ about\\ \\moral\\ desert\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ It\\ means\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ benefits\\ that\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ society\\,\\ permit\\.\\ That\\ also\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ are\\ no\\ less\\ worthy\\ because\\ they\\ lack\\ the\\ talents\\ or\\ gifts\\ that\\ society\\ rewards\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ we\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ benefits\\ that\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ promise\\;\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ mistake\\ or\\ conceit\\ to\\ suppose\\ that\\ we\\ \\deserve\\ \\<\\/em\\>a\\ society\\ that\\ values\\ the\\ qualities\\ we\\ have\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ about\\ opportunities\\ and\\ honors\\?\\ What\\ about\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ access\\ to\\ elite\\ colleges\\ and\\ universities\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ true\\ that\\ students\\ work\\ hard\\ to\\ develop\\ talents\\ and\\ ability\\ to\\ enter\\ elite\\ educational\\ institutions\\,\\ but\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ claim\\ to\\ the\\ benefits\\ these\\ students\\ receive\\?\\ Are\\ those\\ seats\\ we\\ occupy\\ a\\ reward\\ or\\ honor\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ deserve\\ them\\,\\ or\\ are\\ they\\ entitlements\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\ whose\\ justification\\ rests\\ upon\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ is\\ rather\\ arbitrary\\?\\ And\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ does\\ this\\ arbitrary\\ system\\ compel\\ us\\ to\\ share\\ our\\ benefits\\ and\\ rewards\\ with\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ society\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ the\\ debate\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ delve\\ into\\ deeper\\ when\\ we\\ turn\\ to\\ affirmative\\ action\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Equality, Effort, and Merit"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.330227+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Arguing Affirmative Action", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 487, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 17\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\"Arguing\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\<\\/strong\\>\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Bernstein\\,\\ \\\"Racial\\ Discrimination\\ or\\ Righting\\ Past\\ Wrongs\\?\\\"\\\r\\Hopwood\\ v\\.\\ State\\ of\\ Texas\\ \\(1996\\)\\\r\\Grutter\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\ \\(2003\\)\\\r\\Dworkin\\,\\ \\\"Bakke\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Case\\:\\ Are\\ Quotas\\ Unfair\\?\\\"\\\r\\Morley\\,\\ \\\"Double\\ Reverse\\ Discrimination\\\"\\\r\\Brus\\,\\ \\\"Proxy\\ War\\:\\ Liberals\\ Denounce\\ Racial\\ Profiling\\.\\ Conservatives\\\r\\Denounce\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\.\\ What\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ Difference\\?\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\This\\ week\\,\\ we\\ examine\\ affirmative\\ action\\ through\\ Rawls\\'\\ distinction\\ between\\ moral\\ dessert\\ and\\ the\\ entitlement\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\ \\(see\\ lecture\\ 16\\)\\.\\ Rawls\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ mistake\\ to\\ think\\ moral\\ justice\\ manifests\\ itself\\ through\\ the\\ former\\;\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ receive\\ our\\ rewards\\ based\\ upon\\ inherent\\ morality\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ our\\ entitlements\\ stem\\ forth\\ from\\ the\\ institutions\\ and\\ system\\ which\\ are\\ set\\ in\\ place\\ to\\ provide\\ such\\ entitlements\\.\\ Let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ case\\ of\\ affirmative\\ action\\ in\\ university\\ admissions\\ to\\ illustrate\\ this\\ point\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ take\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Hopwood\\ v\\.\\ Texas\\ \\(1996\\)\\,\\ in\\ which\\ Cheryl\\ Hopwood\\,\\ a\\ University\\ of\\ Texas\\ Law\\ School\\ applicant\\,\\ argued\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ denied\\ admission\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ school\\'s\\ affirmative\\ action\\ policy\\.\\ Hopwood\\,\\ with\\ a\\ 3\\.8\\ GPA\\ from\\ Cal\\ State\\-Sacramento\\,\\ had\\ put\\ herself\\ through\\ community\\ college\\ and\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ moderate\\ background\\.\\ In\\ comparing\\ her\\ results\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ African\\-Americans\\ and\\ Mexicans\\ with\\ equal\\ test\\ scores\\,\\ it\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ admitted\\ while\\ she\\ was\\ not\\.\\ \\ Defending\\ its\\ policy\\,\\ the\\ university\\ argued\\ that\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ Texas\\'s\\ population\\ was\\ African\\-American\\ and\\ Mexican\\-American\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ decided\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnical\\ makeup\\ of\\ its\\ incoming\\ class\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ a\\ \\moral\\ justice\\ \\<\\/strong\\>standpoint\\,\\ does\\ Hopwood\\ have\\ a\\ case\\?\\ Were\\ her\\ rights\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ violated\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ considered\\ a\\ candidate\\ through\\ the\\ lens\\ of\\ her\\ race\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ race\\ itself\\ is\\ a\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ factor\\,\\ so\\ it\\ shouldn\\'t\\ be\\ a\\ factor\\ that\\ universities\\ take\\ into\\ account\\,\\ some\\ students\\ argued\\.\\ Conversely\\,\\ students\\ also\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ minorities\\ across\\ the\\ board\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ lower\\ educational\\ resources\\ and\\ opportunities\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ affirmative\\ action\\ corrects\\ this\\ oversight\\ by\\ accounting\\ for\\ this\\ educational\\ disadvantage\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ paint\\ another\\ scenario\\:\\ Imagine\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ candidates\\ who\\ did\\ equally\\ well\\ on\\ the\\ tests\\,\\ both\\ of\\ whom\\ went\\ to\\ exceptional\\ schools\\.\\ \\ Would\\ it\\ be\\ unfair\\ for\\ a\\ university\\ to\\ base\\ admittance\\ based\\ on\\ racial\\/ethnic\\ status\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\After\\ some\\ debate\\ in\\ class\\,\\ Sandel\\ distilled\\ three\\ specific\\ arguments\\ for\\ affirmative\\ action\\ and\\ their\\ criticisms\\:\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\corrective\\ argument\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-believes\\ that\\ minority\\ students\\ are\\ at\\ an\\ inherent\\ educational\\ disadvantage\\ because\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ access\\ to\\ resources\\ that\\ advantaged\\,\\ \\(read\\:\\ white\\)\\,\\ students\\ do\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ affirmative\\ action\\ attempts\\ to\\ correct\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ educational\\ background\\ and\\ opportunity\\ by\\ taking\\ race\\/ethnic\\ status\\ into\\ consideration\\.\\ Sandel\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ this\\ argument\\ is\\ consistent\\ in\\ principle\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ only\\ academic\\ promise\\ and\\ scholarly\\ potential\\ should\\ count\\ in\\ admissions\\.\\ \\\"We\\ just\\ need\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ test\\ scores\\ and\\ grades\\ alone\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ true\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ candidate\\'s\\ abilities\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\compensatory\\ argument\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ believes\\ that\\ affirmative\\ action\\ is\\ justified\\ even\\ where\\ there\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ correct\\ for\\ educational\\ disadvtange\\,\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ compensatory\\ mechanism\\ for\\ historical\\ injustices\\,\\ such\\ as\\ slavery\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Criticism\\:\\ This\\ argument\\ was\\ used\\ back\\ in\\ the\\ 1990s\\ when\\ Harvard\\ was\\ attempting\\ to\\ attract\\ more\\ women\\ and\\ minorities\\ to\\ its\\ faculty\\.\\ \\ There\\ was\\ a\\ discussion\\ in\\ Sandel\\'s\\ department\\ about\\ this\\.\\ A\\ professor\\,\\ known\\ only\\ as\\ \\\"Professor\\ X\\\"\\,\\ made\\ an\\ impassioned\\ speech\\ against\\ compensatory\\ affirmative\\ action\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ it\\ departed\\ from\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ \\\"equal\\ opportunity\\ for\\ individuals\\ of\\ equal\\ merit\\.\\\"\\ It\\ went\\ as\\ follows\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Imagine\\ a\\ woman\\ born\\ with\\ a\\ silver\\ spoon\\ in\\ her\\ mouth\\,\\ who\\ was\\ of\\ unrivaled\\ beauty\\ and\\ married\\ a\\ man\\ as\\ rich\\ and\\ as\\ handsome\\ as\\ \\Martin\\ Feldstein\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ She\\ attended\\ Radcliffe\\,\\ received\\ her\\ PhD\\ from\\ Harvard\\ and\\ when\\ she\\ went\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ job\\ market\\,\\ she\\ was\\ not\\ considered\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ with\\ her\\ merit\\,\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ role\\ model\\,\\ a\\ representative\\ of\\ women\\,\\ and\\&\\#160\\;\\ thus\\ collected\\ compensation\\ as\\ a\\ representative\\ who\\'s\\ class\\ had\\ been\\ the\\ victim\\ of\\ injustices\\ throughout\\ history\\.\\ Now\\ imagine\\ a\\ parallel\\ case\\ of\\ man\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ high\\ school\\ in\\ Ohio\\,\\ attended\\ Dartmouth\\,\\ and\\ received\\ a\\ Phd\\ at\\ Yale\\.\\ He\\ went\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ job\\ market\\ and\\ then\\ paid\\ the\\ compensation\\ to\\ the\\ woman\\,\\ because\\ he\\ wasn\\'t\\ considered\\ an\\ individual\\ with\\ his\\ merits\\ either\\,\\ but\\ as\\ a\\ representative\\ of\\ a\\ class\\ or\\ group\\ who\\ had\\ committed\\ previous\\ injustices\\.\\ An\\ thus\\,\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ didn\\'t\\ commit\\ the\\ injustice\\ paid\\ the\\ compensation\\ to\\ a\\ woman\\ who\\ didn\\'t\\ receive\\ the\\ injustice\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ is\\ the\\ justice\\ in\\ that\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Professor\\ X\\'s\\ argument\\ defines\\ the\\ crux\\ of\\ the\\ matter\\:\\ is\\ it\\ fair\\ to\\ ask\\ someone\\ today\\ to\\ pay\\ the\\ compensation\\ for\\ an\\ injustice\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ part\\ of\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ order\\ to\\ meet\\ this\\ objection\\,\\ Sandel\\ points\\ out\\,\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ group\\ rights\\ or\\ collective\\ responsibility\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ extends\\ through\\ time\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ we\\ leave\\ that\\ argument\\ for\\ now\\ and\\ turn\\ to\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\)\\ \\diversity\\ argument\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ which\\ appeals\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ purpose\\ or\\ mission\\ \\(ie\\,\\ common\\ good\\)\\ of\\ a\\ college\\ or\\ university\\.\\ There\\ are\\ 2\\ aspects\\ to\\ argument\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ It\\'s\\ important\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ diverse\\ student\\ body\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ all\\ students\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ train\\ professionals\\ who\\ will\\ contribute\\ to\\ and\\ serve\\ all\\ echelons\\,\\ classes\\,\\ and\\ cultures\\ of\\ our\\ society\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Third\\ argument\\ was\\ used\\ in\\ in\\ 1978\\ case\\ \\The\\ Board\\ of\\ Regents\\ v\\.\\ Bakke\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ which\\ a\\ white\\ graduate\\ student\\ argued\\ he\\ was\\ denied\\ his\\ rights\\ of\\ admission\\ to\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ California\\ at\\ Davis\\.\\ Justice\\ Lewis\\ Powell\\ used\\ a\\ Harvard\\ \\\"friend\\ of\\ the\\ court\\ brief\\\"\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ filed\\ for\\ the\\ case\\,\\ which\\ said\\ this\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"We\\ care\\ about\\ diversity\\.\\ Scholarly\\ excellence\\ alone\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ the\\ sole\\ criterion\\ of\\ admission\\ at\\ Harvard\\ College\\.\\ 15\\ years\\ ago\\ diversity\\ meant\\ students\\ from\\ California\\,\\ New\\ York\\,\\ and\\ Massachusetts\\.\\ City\\-dwellers\\ and\\ farm\\ boys\\,\\ violininsts\\,\\ painters\\,\\ and\\ football\\ players\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ bioligists\\,\\ historians\\ and\\ classicists\\.\\.\\.The\\ only\\ difference\\ now\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ adding\\ racial\\ and\\ ethnic\\ status\\ to\\ this\\ long\\ list\\ of\\ diversity\\ considerations\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"\\.\\.Race\\ may\\ count\\ as\\ a\\ plus\\ just\\ as\\ being\\ from\\ Iowa\\ may\\ count\\ or\\ being\\ a\\ good\\ middle\\ linebacker\\ or\\ pianist\\.\\ A\\ farm\\ boy\\ from\\ Idaho\\ can\\ bring\\ something\\ to\\ Harvard\\ College\\ that\\ a\\ bostonian\\ cannot\\ offer\\.\\ Similarly\\,\\ a\\ black\\ student\\ can\\ usually\\ bring\\ something\\ a\\ white\\ student\\ cannot\\ offer\\.\\ The\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ educational\\ experience\\ of\\ all\\ students\\ depends\\ in\\ part\\ on\\ these\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ and\\ outlook\\ all\\ students\\ bring\\ with\\ them\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ argument\\ has\\ to\\ stand\\ up\\ to\\ one\\ very\\ important\\ objection\\:\\ Is\\ there\\ an\\ individual\\ right\\ that\\ is\\ violated\\ when\\ an\\ individual\\ is\\ denied\\ admission\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ good\\?\\ Is\\ Hopwood\\'s\\ individual\\ right\\ violated\\ when\\ she\\'s\\ denied\\ admission\\ base\\ on\\ the\\ criteria\\ that\\ UT\\ Law\\ has\\ defined\\ for\\ itself\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Some\\ students\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ nobody\\ deserves\\ to\\ be\\ admitted\\ according\\ to\\ any\\ particular\\ set\\ of\\ criteria\\ that\\ an\\ individual\\ thinks\\ are\\ important\\.\\ It\\ is\\ after\\ all\\ the\\ university\\'s\\ criteria\\ that\\ it\\ decides\\ for\\ itself\\.\\ Implicit\\ in\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ Sandel\\ points\\ out\\,\\ is\\ something\\ like\\ the\\ rejection\\ of\\ moral\\ dessert\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\,\\ and\\ rather\\ the\\ acceptance\\ that\\ justice\\ comes\\ about\\ from\\ entitlements\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\;\\ once\\ Harvard\\ or\\ UT\\ Law\\ designs\\ its\\ mission\\ and\\ admissions\\ policy\\,\\ its\\ applicants\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ be\\ admitted\\,\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ deserves\\ that\\ Harvard\\ College\\ define\\ and\\ design\\ its\\ criteria\\ around\\ its\\ applicants\\,\\ including\\ factors\\ such\\ as\\ race\\ and\\ test\\ scores\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ question\\ takes\\ us\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ moral\\ dessert\\ is\\ or\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ moral\\ justice\\,\\ which\\ we\\'ll\\ tackl\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Picture\\ taken\\ from\\ homepage\\ of\\ Office\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ Nations\\ High\\ Commissioner\\ for\\ Human\\ Rights\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Arguing Affirmative Action"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.344208+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Morality and Law: Debating Same-Sex Marriage", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 488, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Rawls\\,\\ Political\\ Liberalism\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\-15\\,\\ 29\\-35\\,\\ 144\\-58\\\r\\Sandel\\,\\ \\\"Political\\ Liberalism\\\"\\\r\\\\Goodridge\\ v\\.\\ Dept\\.\\ of\\ Public\\ Health\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(2003\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ lecture\\,\\ Sandel\\ takes\\ the\\ stage\\ and\\ advances\\ his\\ own\\ arguments\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\ conception\\ of\\ self\\.\\\r\\Lecture\\ breakdown\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\1\\.\\ Defense\\ of\\ Narrative\\ Conception\\ of\\ Self\\ against\\ Voluntarist\\ Conception\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ Defense\\ of\\ ideas\\ of\\ solidarity\\ or\\ membership\\,\\ and\\ there\\ being\\ such\\ obligations\\ that\\ \\arguments\\ about\\ justice\\ cannot\\ be\\ detached\\ from\\ the\\ good\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\Distinction\\ between\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ justice\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ good\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\ Two\\ remaining\\ questions\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\.\\ \\Necessary\\ to\\ reason\\ about\\ the\\ good\\<\\/strong\\>\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\B\\.\\ If\\ it\\'s\\ necessary\\,\\ is\\ it\\ possible\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Defense\\ of\\ Narrative\\ Conception\\ of\\ Self\\ and\\ Obligations\\ of\\ Membership\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Defense\\ against\\ \\\"emotional\\ obligation\\\"\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ As\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ criticisms\\ brought\\ against\\ communitarianist\\ conceptions\\ of\\ self\\,\\ the\\ \\\"emotional\\ obligation\\\"\\ to\\ family\\,\\ community\\,\\ or\\ immediate\\ identity\\ groups\\ stands\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ argument\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ If\\ a\\ mother\\ has\\ the\\ choice\\ of\\ saving\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ children\\ drowning\\,\\ one\\ of\\ whom\\ is\\ her\\ own\\,\\ her\\ decision\\ to\\ save\\ her\\ child\\ would\\ seem\\ a\\ more\\ emotional\\ than\\ moral\\ obligation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ take\\ another\\ example\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Robert\\ E\\ Lee\\,\\ who\\ opposed\\ secession\\,\\ decided\\ to\\ nevertheless\\ fight\\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ Virginia\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ because\\ he\\ could\\ morally\\ justify\\ fighting\\ against\\ his\\ own\\ family\\,\\ state\\,\\ or\\ region\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Was\\ this\\ merely\\ an\\ emotional\\ decision\\,\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ prejudice\\ against\\ his\\ own\\ country\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ his\\ family\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ No\\,\\ says\\ Sandels\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ complex\\ decisions\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ both\\ emotional\\ and\\ moral\\ obligation\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ We\\ in\\ turn\\ cannot\\ begin\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ Lee\\'s\\ decision\\ unless\\ we\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ his\\ history\\ and\\ ties\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ If\\ we\\ were\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ his\\ predicament\\ through\\ the\\ lens\\ of\\ a\\ non\\-narrative\\ self\\,\\ one\\ without\\ bonds\\ and\\ a\\ past\\,\\ the\\ decision\\ would\\ then\\ indeed\\ seem\\ prejudicial\\ or\\ sentimental\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ But\\ taking\\ into\\ account\\ Lee\\'s\\ obligations\\ to\\ his\\ family\\,\\ his\\ past\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ Virginia\\,\\ we\\ admire\\ his\\ decision\\ for\\ the\\ \\\"quality\\ of\\ character\\\"\\ that\\ his\\ choice\\ demonstrates\\.\\ In\\ this\\ decision\\,\\ \\\"We\\ recognize\\ a\\ disposition\\ to\\ see\\ and\\ bear\\ one\\'s\\ life\\ circumstance\\ as\\ a\\ reflective\\ and\\ situated\\ being\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ fatal\\ flaw\\ of\\ liberal\\,\\ voluntarist\\ conceptions\\ of\\ self\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ character\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ He\\ argues\\:\\ \\\"To\\ imagine\\ a\\ person\\ incapable\\ of\\ attachment\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ conceive\\ of\\ a\\ free\\ and\\ rational\\ agent\\,\\ but\\ to\\ imagine\\ a\\ personal\\ without\\ character\\ or\\ moral\\ depth\\.\\ Character\\ means\\ to\\ move\\ in\\ a\\ history\\ which\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ command\\,\\ but\\ move\\ in\\ it\\ nevertheless\\,\\ making\\ some\\ aims\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ appropriate\\.\\ As\\ a\\ self\\-interpreting\\ being\\,\\ I\\ can\\ reflect\\ on\\ my\\ history\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ precarious\\ to\\ distance\\ myself\\ from\\ it\\,\\ because\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ reflection\\ is\\ not\\ secured\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ itself\\.\\ A\\ person\\ with\\ character\\ knows\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ is\\ implicated\\ even\\ as\\ she\\ or\\ he\\ reflects\\,\\ and\\ knows\\ they\\ are\\ morally\\ weighted\\ as\\ they\\ reflect\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Defense\\ against\\ universality\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Last\\ time\\ we\\ argued\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ only\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ narrative\\ agent\\ and\\ fulfill\\ the\\ obligation\\ of\\ solidarity\\/membership\\ \\only\\ \\<\\/em\\>when\\ not\\ disrupting\\ the\\ universal\\ duties\\ to\\ mankind\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ treating\\ all\\ as\\ equal\\,\\ respecting\\ every\\ individual\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ law\\ of\\ universality\\ leads\\ to\\ an\\ inhuman\\ universe\\.\\ He\\ provides\\ the\\ reasoning\\ of\\ Montesquieu\\,\\ who\\ wrote\\ the\\ following\\ on\\ such\\ tendencies\\:\\ \\\"If\\ I\\ knew\\ something\\ useful\\ to\\ me\\ but\\ prejudicial\\ to\\ my\\ family\\,\\ I\\ would\\ reject\\ it\\ from\\ my\\ soul\\.\\ If\\ I\\ knew\\ something\\ useful\\ to\\ my\\ family\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ my\\ country\\,\\ I\\ would\\ try\\ to\\ forget\\ it\\.\\ If\\ I\\ knew\\ something\\ useful\\ to\\ my\\ country\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ Europe\\,\\ or\\ to\\ Europe\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ world\\,\\ I\\ would\\ regard\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ crime\\.\\ For\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ man\\ before\\ \\ am\\ a\\ Frenchmen\\,\\ or\\ rather\\,\\ I\\ am\\ necessarily\\ a\\ man\\ while\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ Frenchman\\ by\\ chance\\.\\.\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ write\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\\"A\\ truly\\ virtuous\\ man\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ the\\ aid\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ distant\\ stranger\\ as\\ quickly\\ as\\ his\\ own\\ friend\\,\\ \\\"adding\\,\\ \\ \\\"if\\ men\\ were\\ perfectly\\ virtuous\\,\\ they\\ wouldn\\'t\\ have\\ friends\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Such\\ is\\ the\\ logic\\ of\\ thoroughly\\ universal\\ ethics\\ that\\ pays\\ no\\ heed\\ to\\ the\\ particular\\.\\ In\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ all\\ worlds\\,\\ universality\\ would\\ triumph\\ over\\ the\\ particular\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ harbor\\ no\\ prejudice\\ towards\\ any\\ side\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ However\\,\\ such\\ a\\ world\\ would\\ be\\ difficult\\ to\\ recognize\\ as\\ a\\ human\\ world\\,\\ because\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\ through\\ \\\"smaller\\ solidarities\\\"\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ Montesquieu\\'s\\ writing\\ reflects\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ learn\\ to\\ love\\ humanity\\ through\\ its\\ particular\\ expressions\\,\\ not\\ in\\ general\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Therefore\\,\\ when\\ attempting\\ to\\ craft\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ a\\ morally\\ engaged\\ individual\\,\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ particularity\\ must\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Though\\ Kantian\\ aspirations\\ to\\ the\\ universal\\ law\\ might\\ express\\ the\\ highest\\ form\\ of\\ what\\ our\\ moral\\ character\\ could\\ be\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ our\\ particular\\ circumstances\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ this\\ regard\\,\\ a\\ narrative\\ conception\\ of\\ self\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ an\\ individual\\'s\\ lived\\ experience\\,\\ and\\ posits\\ that\\ as\\ a\\ primary\\ factor\\ in\\ understanding\\ how\\ morality\\ and\\ justice\\ operate\\ within\\ society\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Therefore\\,\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ consequences\\ for\\ justice\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Are\\ we\\ committed\\ to\\ saying\\ that\\ justice\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ justice\\ is\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ in\\ whatever\\ way\\ a\\ community\\ defines\\ good\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ Was\\ segregation\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\ morally\\ justified\\ in\\ certain\\ Southern\\ communities\\ because\\ the\\ community\\ defined\\ the\\ \\\"good\\ life\\\"\\ as\\ segregationist\\?\\ Likewise\\,\\ is\\ same\\-sex\\ marriage\\ morally\\ justifiable\\-\\-or\\ not\\-\\-based\\ just\\ on\\ the\\ prevailing\\ mores\\ of\\ our\\ time\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Here\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\ it\\'s\\ important\\ to\\ distinguish\\ between\\ \\2\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ justice\\ is\\ bound\\ to\\ the\\ good\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ \\Relativist\\<\\/strong\\>\\ way\\ \\-\\ \\\"To\\ think\\ about\\ rights\\ and\\ justice\\,\\ look\\ to\\ values\\ that\\ prevail\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ community\\ at\\ any\\ given\\ time\\.\\ Don\\'t\\ judge\\ them\\ by\\ an\\ outside\\ standard\\,\\ but\\ conceive\\ of\\ justice\\ as\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ shared\\ understanding\\.\\'\\\r\\\\\r\\Problem\\ with\\ this\\ logic\\:\\ it\\ makes\\ justice\\ wholly\\ conventional\\,\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ circumstance\\,\\ depriving\\ justice\\ of\\ its\\ critical\\ character\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ \\Non\\-Relativist\\<\\/strong\\>\\ way\\ \\-\\ \\\"In\\ order\\ to\\ argue\\ about\\ justice\\,\\ we\\ first\\ have\\ to\\ argue\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ good\\,\\ the\\ purposes\\ and\\ ends\\ of\\ social\\ practices\\,\\ and\\ decide\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ better\\ and\\ worst\\ ways\\ about\\ conceiving\\ those\\ practices\\ and\\ the\\ good\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Favoring\\ the\\ second\\ mode\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ don\\'t\\ depend\\ upon\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ any\\ shared\\ understanding\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ on\\ the\\ moral\\ worth\\ or\\ \\intrinsic\\ worth\\ of\\ the\\ ends\\ that\\ rights\\ serve\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ A\\ right\\ depends\\ on\\ whether\\ it\\ advances\\ human\\ good\\.\\ However\\,\\ if\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ through\\ the\\ shared\\ understanding\\ of\\ a\\ community\\,\\ this\\ leaves\\ justice\\ as\\ a\\ \\\"creature\\ of\\ convention\\\"\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ then\\,\\ justice\\ is\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ good\\ in\\ a\\ non\\-relativist\\ way\\,\\ it\\ presents\\ a\\ big\\ challenge\\:\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ reason\\ about\\ the\\ good\\?\\ How\\ about\\ people\\ holding\\ different\\ ideas\\ and\\ conceptions\\ of\\ institutions\\ and\\ their\\ aims\\?\\ Pluralist\\ societies\\ disagree\\ about\\ the\\ good\\.\\ \\ Is\\ there\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ reason\\ about\\ the\\ good\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Before\\ we\\ open\\ that\\ can\\,\\ let\\'s\\ begin\\ with\\ this\\ question\\:\\ \\Is\\ it\\ necessary\\,\\ unavoidable\\ to\\ argue\\ about\\ good\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ says\\ yes\\,\\ it\\'s\\ completely\\ unavoidable\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ use\\ the\\ concrete\\ example\\ of\\ same\\-sex\\ marriage\\,\\ which\\ draws\\ upon\\ hotly\\ contested\\ moral\\ and\\ religious\\ ideas\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ desire\\ to\\ embrace\\ a\\ solution\\ that\\ doesn\\'t\\ need\\ society\\ to\\ pass\\ judgment\\ upon\\ these\\ religious\\ and\\ moral\\ disputes\\.\\ \\ Is\\ this\\ possible\\?\\ Is\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ detach\\ moral\\ permissibility\\ of\\ sexuality\\ from\\ the\\ end\\ or\\ purpose\\ of\\ marriage\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Students\\ provided\\ arguments\\ in\\ class\\ for\\ and\\ against\\ same\\-sex\\ marriage\\.\\ Below\\ are\\ some\\ excerpts\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Against\\:\\ The\\ teleological\\ understanding\\ within\\ Christianity\\ of\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ sex\\ and\\ marriage\\ is\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ union\\ and\\ procreation\\.\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ marriage\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ institution\\ is\\ to\\ honor\\ the\\ pro\\-creative\\ view\\.\\ The\\ government\\ shouldn\\'t\\ encourage\\ homosexual\\ behavior\\,\\ although\\ it\\'s\\ wrong\\ to\\ outlaw\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\:\\ The\\ government\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ impose\\ teleological\\ ends\\ of\\ religious\\/moral\\ principles\\,\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ recognize\\ civil\\ unions\\ because\\ it\\'s\\ in\\ its\\ right\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ debate\\ about\\ same\\ sex\\ marriage\\ without\\ deliberating\\ about\\ the\\ purpose\\ or\\ end\\ of\\ marriage\\?\\ These\\ discussions\\ seems\\ to\\ say\\ no\\.\\ We\\'ll\\ pick\\ up\\ next\\ and\\ final\\ lecture\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Picture\\ courtesy\\ of\\ CBS\\ news\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Morality and Law: Debating Same-Sex Marriage"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.358604+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aristotle: Giving People Their Due", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 489, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Aristotle\\,\\ \\The\\ Politics\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Bks\\.\\ I\\,\\ III\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 1\\-13\\)\\\r\\Aristotle\\,\\ \\Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ Bks\\ II\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 1\\-3\\)\\,\\ X\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 1\\-3\\)\\\\\r\\\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\ Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ our\\ previous\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ tried\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ moral\\ right\\ was\\ being\\ violated\\ through\\ \\Hopwood\\ v\\.\\ Texas\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/em\\>Was\\ it\\ Hopwood\\'s\\ individual\\ right\\ which\\ was\\ violated\\?\\ Many\\ students\\ argued\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ moral\\ dessert\\ which\\ allows\\ students\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ Harvard\\,\\ but\\ for\\ reasons\\ which\\ Harvard\\ chooses\\.\\ Because\\ it\\ is\\ Harvard\\-based\\ criteria\\,\\ criteria\\ which\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ many\\ factors\\ besides\\ race\\,\\ test\\ scores\\,\\ and\\ talent\\,\\ the\\ university\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ define\\ its\\ mission\\ any\\ way\\ it\\ wants\\ to\\,\\ irrespective\\ of\\ the\\ candidates\\ applying\\.\\ \\ Therefore\\,\\ no\\ individual\\ rights\\ are\\ being\\ violated\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ questions\\ this\\ argument\\:\\ is\\ it\\ only\\ when\\ an\\ institution\\,\\ an\\ organization\\,\\ defines\\ its\\ goal\\ and\\ mission\\ can\\ we\\ begin\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ rights\\ due\\ to\\ us\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ what\\ if\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ an\\ institution\\ is\\ exclusionary\\,\\ or\\ not\\ fitting\\ with\\ general\\ moral\\ principles\\ upon\\ which\\ we\\'re\\ assuming\\ \\'fairness\\'\\ or\\ \\'justice\\'\\ is\\ meted\\ out\\?\\ \\ Take\\ for\\ example\\,\\ Dartmouth\\ College\\,\\ which\\ had\\ anti\\-Jewish\\ quotas\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\ The\\ Director\\ of\\ Admissions\\ was\\ quoted\\ as\\ writing\\,\\ \\\"if\\ we\\ go\\ beyond\\ the\\ 5\\-6\\%\\ \\[Jewish\\ quota\\]\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ of\\ 1938\\,\\ I\\ shall\\ be\\ grieved\\ beyond\\ words\\.\\\"\\ \\ This\\ was\\ in\\ effect\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ mission\\ of\\ Dartmouth\\,\\ like\\ other\\ colleges\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Therefore\\,\\ is\\ there\\ a\\\\ principle\\ distinction\\ \\<\\/strong\\>between\\ the\\ invocation\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ purpose\\ of\\ an\\ institution\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ diversity\\ today\\,\\ and\\ the\\ invocation\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ purpose\\ or\\ mission\\ of\\ such\\ institutions\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ Is\\ it\\ \\inclusion\\ \\<\\/strong\\>or\\ \\exclusion\\<\\/strong\\>\\?\\ A\\ college\\ should\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ define\\ admissions\\ criteria\\ for\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ yet\\-\\-does\\ that\\ justify\\ the\\ exclusionary\\ or\\ segregationist\\ policies\\ of\\ the\\ 1930s\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Perhaps\\ we\\ should\\ consider\\ the\\ implicit\\ intent\\ of\\ malice\\.\\ \\ That\\ is\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ a\\ policy\\ \\(vis\\-a\\-vis\\ Dworkin\\)\\ \\\"uses\\\"\\ people\\ to\\ add\\ value\\ to\\ an\\ institution\\,\\ that\\'s\\ ok\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ judge\\ them\\ as\\ being\\ intrinsically\\ less\\ worthy\\.\\ \\ That\\ would\\ allow\\ today\\'s\\ affirmative\\ action\\ to\\ be\\ morally\\ just\\,\\ whereas\\ past\\ segregationist\\ quotas\\ were\\ not\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Does\\ this\\ concede\\ then\\ that\\ individuals\\ are\\ being\\ used\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ has\\ nothing\\ to\\ with\\ moral\\ dessert\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ it\\ possible\\ then\\ to\\ detach\\ questions\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ from\\ moral\\ dessert\\ and\\ virtue\\?\\ \\ In\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ question\\ that\\ separates\\ modern\\ political\\ philosophy\\ from\\ ancient\\ political\\ philosophy\\.\\ What\\'s\\ at\\ stake\\ if\\ we\\ put\\ moral\\ dessert\\ aside\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ reading\\ Rawls\\,\\ Sandel\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ his\\ detachment\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ and\\ moral\\ dessert\\ has\\ an\\ egalitarian\\ aim\\.\\ If\\ we\\ set\\ the\\ former\\ aside\\,\\ we\\ can\\ make\\ more\\ room\\ for\\ a\\ broader\\ egalitarian\\ policy\\.\\ If\\ we\\ actually\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ thinkers\\ we\\'ve\\ been\\ discussing\\,\\ they\\'ve\\ all\\ been\\ eager\\ to\\ detach\\ justice\\ from\\ dessert\\ that\\ goes\\ beyond\\ any\\ concern\\ for\\ equality\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Libertarian\\ and\\ egalitarian\\-rights\\ oriented\\ theorists\\,\\ including\\ Rawls\\,\\ Hayek\\,\\ and\\ Kant\\,\\ all\\ agree\\ that\\ justice\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ rewarding\\ or\\ honoring\\ virtue\\ or\\ moral\\ dessert\\.\\ Why\\ do\\ they\\ think\\ that\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ their\\ position\\,\\ let\\'s\\ turn\\ to\\ a\\ philosopher\\ who\\ disagrees\\ with\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ idea\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ intuitively\\ powerful\\ and\\ strange\\.\\ \\ For\\ Aristotle\\,\\ justice\\ is\\ \\\"giving\\ people\\ their\\ due\\.\\\"\\ Aristotle\\ writes\\ that\\ persons\\ who\\ are\\ equal\\ should\\ have\\ equal\\ things\\ assigned\\ to\\ them\\.\\ \\ The\\ equality\\ of\\ the\\ individuals\\ depends\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ distributed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Suppose\\ we\\'re\\ distributing\\ flutes\\.\\ Who\\ should\\ get\\ the\\ best\\ one\\?\\ Those\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-players\\.\\ All\\ justice\\ creates\\ discrimination\\,\\ Aristotle\\ asserts\\;\\ what\\ matters\\ is\\ that\\ discrimination\\ be\\ meted\\ accordingly\\.\\ \\ Giving\\ flutes\\ to\\ aristocrats\\ or\\ the\\ most\\ beautiful\\ is\\ merely\\ arbitrary\\;\\ though\\ those\\ traits\\ might\\ be\\ \\\"worthier\\\"\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ remains\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-player\\ ought\\ to\\ receive\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\ should\\ the\\ best\\ flutes\\ go\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-players\\?\\ Because\\ that\\'s\\ what\\ flutes\\ are\\ for\\.\\ They\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ played\\ well\\.\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ flute\\-playing\\ is\\ to\\ produce\\ excellent\\ music\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ can\\ produce\\ excellent\\ music\\ are\\ welcome\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ flutes\\.\\ A\\ \\side\\-effect\\ \\<\\/em\\>may\\ be\\ that\\ everyone\\ enjoys\\ that\\ music\\,\\ but\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\,\\ Aristotle\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ utilitarian\\-\\-he\\ doesn\\'t\\ advocate\\ just\\ allocation\\ for\\ the\\ common\\ good\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Rather\\,\\ Aristotle\\ argues\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ consider\\ the\\ end\\,\\ goal\\,\\ or\\ purpose\\,\\ of\\ the\\ allocation\\,\\ the\\ \\telos\\ \\<\\/strong\\>of\\ the\\ distribution\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ how\\ justice\\ should\\ be\\ defined\\.\\ Reasoning\\ from\\ the\\ goal\\ or\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ something\\ is\\ called\\ \\teleological\\ reasoning\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Sandel\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ Hellenic\\ world\\,\\ social\\ practices\\ were\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ governed\\ by\\ teleological\\ reasoning\\.\\ All\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ the\\ cosmos\\ was\\ understood\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ meaningful\\ order\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ What\\ it\\ meant\\ to\\ grasp\\ nature\\ was\\ to\\ inquire\\ into\\ and\\ read\\ out\\ the\\ \\\"purpose\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"telos\\\"\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ \\ Cue\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\ and\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\,\\ which\\ has\\ disrupted\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ view\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ holistic\\ continuity\\.\\ Intuitively\\,\\ however\\,\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ thought\\ still\\ persists\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Winnie\\-the\\-Pooh\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ character\\ who\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ a\\ teleological\\ way\\.\\\r\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ Telos\\ of\\ Pooh\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Pooh\\-Bear\\ sits\\ under\\ a\\ tree\\ and\\ hears\\ a\\ loud\\ buzzing\\ noise\\.\\ He\\ thinks\\,\\ \\\"that\\ buzzing\\ noise\\ means\\ something\\.\\ If\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ buzzing\\ noise\\,\\ somebody\\'s\\ making\\ a\\ buzzing\\ noise\\,\\ and\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\ to\\ make\\ that\\ noise\\ that\\ I\\ know\\ of\\ is\\ because\\ you\\'re\\ a\\ bee\\.\\ The\\ only\\ reason\\ for\\ being\\ a\\ bee\\ that\\ I\\ know\\ of\\ is\\ for\\ making\\ honey\\,\\ and\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\ for\\ making\\ honey\\ is\\ so\\ I\\ can\\ eat\\ it\\.\\\"\\ \\ So\\ he\\ began\\ to\\ climb\\ the\\ tree\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Isn\\'t\\ there\\ something\\ intuitively\\ powerful\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ justice\\ is\\ to\\ reason\\ from\\ the\\ goal\\ or\\ purpose\\ of\\ an\\ action\\?\\ What\\ if\\ we\\ approach\\ affirmative\\ action\\ from\\ this\\ new\\ perspective\\?\\ \\ We\\'ll\\ mull\\ this\\ over\\ after\\ reading\\ more\\ about\\ Aristotle\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aristotle: Giving People Their Due"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.371488+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Ability, Disability, and Justice", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 490, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Presley\\,\\ \\\"A\\ Safety\\ Blitz\\;\\ Texas\\ Cheerleader\\ Loses\\ Status\\\"\\\r\\Sandel\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Honor\\ and\\ Resentment\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\Ryan\\,\\ \\\"Sorry\\,\\ Free\\ Rides\\ Not\\ Right\\\"\\\r\\Kite\\,\\ \\\"Keep\\ the\\ PGA\\ on\\ Foot\\\"\\\r\\PGA\\ Tour\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ v\\.\\ Martin\\ \\(2000\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Lecture\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ time\\,\\ we\\ discussed\\ the\\ distributive\\ justice\\ issue\\ of\\ \\\"giving\\ people\\ their\\ due\\\"\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ rewards\\ and\\ merit\\ within\\ society\\.\\ \\ We\\ discussed\\ affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\,\\ specifically\\ within\\ the\\ college\\ admissions\\ process\\.\\ More\\ than\\ any\\ previous\\ discussion\\,\\ this\\ issue\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ problem\\ between\\ distinguishing\\ moral\\ dessert\\:\\ that\\ which\\ someone\\ deserves\\ to\\ receive\\ based\\ upon\\ their\\ moral\\ value\\,\\ and\\ entitlements\\ to\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\:\\ rewards\\ people\\ expect\\ to\\ receive\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ criteria\\ that\\ social\\ institutions\\ and\\ society\\ set\\ up\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ invoked\\ Aristotle\\,\\ the\\ philosopher\\ par\\ excellence\\ of\\ virtuous\\ morality\\,\\ who\\ blends\\ these\\ two\\ concepts\\ together\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ justice\\ unlike\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ ones\\ we\\ have\\ previously\\ studied\\.\\ \\ Aristotle\\'s\\ \\central\\ idea\\<\\/strong\\>\\ of\\ justice\\ is\\ that\\ \\\"in\\ reasoning\\ about\\ justice\\ and\\ rights\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ unavoidably\\ reason\\ about\\ the\\ purpose\\,\\ end\\,\\ or\\ \\telos\\ \\<\\/strong\\>of\\ social\\ practices\\ and\\ insitutions\\.\\\"\\ \\ From\\ Aristotle\\,\\ we\\ thus\\ receive\\ a\\ \\teleological\\ reasoning\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ faces\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ by\\ asking\\ what\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ that\\ particular\\ distribution\\ is\\ for\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Since\\ equality\\ undoubtedly\\ stands\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ much\\ moral\\ philosophy\\ today\\ we\\ should\\ ask\\ \\\"equal\\\"\\ in\\ what\\ way\\?\\ \\ We\\ thus\\ look\\ to\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ we\\'re\\ distributing\\ or\\ giving\\.\\ \\ We\\ looked\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ lecture\\ at\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ flute\\-players\\.\\ \\ If\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ a\\ flute\\,\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ played\\ well\\ \\(Aristotle\\'s\\ reasoning\\)\\.\\ Because\\ flutes\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ played\\ well\\,\\ those\\ who\\ play\\ them\\ the\\ best\\ deserve\\ them\\ the\\ most\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ by\\ giving\\ flute\\-players\\ their\\ due\\,\\ we\\ honor\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ a\\ flute\\-player\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ we\\ may\\ all\\ agree\\ that\\ equality\\ stands\\ as\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ moral\\ reasoning\\,\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ an\\ action\\ may\\ stand\\ as\\ the\\ starting\\ point\\ of\\ our\\ inquiry\\,\\ we\\ encounter\\ a\\ big\\ problem\\ when\\ we\\ try\\ and\\ define\\ what\\ a\\ specific\\ purpose\\ \\(\\telos\\<\\/strong\\>\\)\\ is\\.\\ \\ Why\\ should\\ it\\ be\\ that\\ the\\ end\\ goal\\ of\\ flute\\-playing\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ played\\ well\\?\\ Embedded\\ within\\ this\\ question\\ is\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ honor\\:\\ What\\ quality\\ of\\ people\\ will\\ be\\ honored\\ by\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ flute\\?\\ \\ More\\ abstractly\\,\\ what\\ quality\\ will\\ be\\ honored\\ through\\ teleological\\ reasoning\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ consider\\ 2\\ examples\\:\\ \\politics\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(an\\ age\\-old\\ debate\\)\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ \\golf\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(a\\ contemporary\\ debate\\)\\ to\\ illustrate\\ how\\ debates\\ about\\ honor\\ and\\ distribution\\ are\\ as\\ relevant\\ today\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ in\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\First\\ off\\,\\ politics\\.\\ When\\ we\\ discuss\\ distributive\\ justice\\ these\\ days\\,\\ we\\'re\\ mainly\\ concerned\\ with\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ opportunity\\.\\ In\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ day\\,\\ the\\ questions\\ that\\ concerned\\ him\\ were\\ those\\ of\\ political\\ office\\ and\\ honor\\:\\ Who\\ got\\ an\\ office\\?\\ How\\ were\\ these\\ honors\\ distributed\\?\\ \\ To\\ answer\\ these\\ questions\\,\\ let\\'s\\ digress\\ into\\ the\\ sticky\\ and\\ dirty\\ question\\ of\\:\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ politics\\?\\ Put\\ another\\ way\\,\\ what\\ is\\ political\\ community\\ for\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Our\\ postmodern\\,\\ post\\-Enlightenment\\,\\ po\\-po\\-po\\ era\\ has\\ us\\ within\\ a\\ political\\ framework\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\ \\\"determinable\\\"\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ politics\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ achieving\\ the\\ ends\\ that\\ we\\ want\\.\\ \\ We\\ have\\ rights\\ and\\ laws\\ with\\ which\\ groups\\ and\\ citizens\\ can\\ pursue\\ their\\ own\\ purposes\\.\\ In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ political\\ community\\ serves\\ our\\ purposes\\ and\\ ends\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ for\\ Aristotle\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ case\\.\\ Aristotle\\ maintains\\ that\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ politics\\ consists\\ in\\ creating\\ a\\ virtuous\\ citizen\\,\\ in\\ realizing\\ \\\"the\\ good\\ life\\.\\\"\\ \\ He\\ first\\ considers\\ the\\ two\\ main\\ claimants\\ to\\ political\\ authority\\,\\ the\\ \\oligarchs\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>the\\ affluent\\,\\ propertied\\ class\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\democrats\\ \\(majoritarians\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>not\\ necessarily\\ wealthy\\ people\\,\\ but\\ free\\ men\\)\\\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>who\\ maintain\\ that\\ free\\ birth\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ political\\ authority\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ both\\ classes\\ are\\ wrong\\ in\\ total\\ rule\\,\\ because\\ politics\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ about\\ protecting\\ property\\,\\ and\\ it\\ isn\\'t\\ only\\ about\\ giving\\ the\\ majority\\ its\\ way\\.\\ \\ Politics\\,\\ Aristotle\\ argues\\,\\ is\\ about\\ forming\\ good\\ character\\ and\\ cultivating\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ citizens\\.\\ The\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ political\\ community\\ is\\ not\\ economic\\ exchange\\ only\\,\\ or\\ security\\ only\\,\\ but\\ realizing\\,\\ the\\ \\\"good\\ life\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\He\\ writes\\ in\\ Book\\ 3\\,\\ \\\"It\\ is\\ the\\ cardinal\\ use\\ of\\ goodness\\ or\\ badness\\ of\\ the\\ \\polis\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ always\\ engages\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ any\\ state\\ that\\ concerns\\ itself\\ to\\ secure\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ good\\ laws\\ well\\ obeyed\\.\\\"\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ link\\ to\\ virtue\\ disturbs\\ libertarian\\ and\\ egalitarian\\ rights\\-oriented\\ thinkers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Rawls\\ and\\ Kant\\.\\ Their\\ political\\ philosophies\\ shy\\ away\\ from\\ such\\ a\\ moral\\ distinction\\,\\ because\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ politics\\ for\\ them\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ make\\ us\\ \\good\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ but\\ to\\ respect\\ our\\ freedom\\ to\\ choose\\ our\\ goods\\,\\ values\\,\\ and\\ ends\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\GREEK\\ SPEAK\\:\\ POLI\\-WHAT\\?\\:\\ The\\ \\\\polis\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\<\\/strong\\>which\\ Aristotle\\ uses\\ again\\ and\\ again\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ that\\ simply\\ means\\ \\\"city\\\"\\ in\\ Greek\\,\\ alternatively\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ citizens\\ of\\ a\\ \\city\\-state\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ The\\ polis\\ had\\ considerable\\ significance\\ in\\ the\\ Hellenistic\\ world\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ often\\ an\\ enclosed\\ and\\ fortified\\ structure\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ daily\\ activities\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ took\\ place\\.\\ Citizens\\ of\\ the\\ polis\\ were\\ identified\\ strongly\\ by\\ it\\ and\\ held\\ strong\\ identity\\ to\\ it\\,\\ while\\ those\\ from\\ without\\ were\\ considered\\ \\xenos\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ or\\ unknown\\ \\(foreigners\\)\\.\\ \\ \\ Significant\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ enclosed\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ polis\\,\\ because\\ its\\ self\\-contained\\ and\\ self\\-determined\\ structure\\ placed\\ greater\\ emphasis\\ upon\\ the\\ personal\\ actions\\ of\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Any\\ polis\\ which\\ is\\ truly\\ so\\ called\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ merely\\ one\\ in\\ name\\,\\ must\\ devote\\ itself\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ encouraging\\ goodness\\.\\ Otherwise\\ political\\ association\\ sinks\\ into\\ a\\ mere\\ alliance\\.\\.\\.\\\"law\\ becomes\\ a\\ \\\"mere\\ covenant\\,\\ a\\ guarantor\\ of\\ men\\'s\\ rights\\ against\\ one\\ another\\\"\\-\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\,\\ as\\ it\\ should\\ be\\,\\ as\\ rule\\ of\\ life\\,\\ such\\ as\\ will\\ make\\ the\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ \\polis\\<\\/em\\>\\ good\\ and\\ just\\.\\\"\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Book\\ 1\\\r\\\\\r\\Thus\\,\\ political\\,\\ economic\\,\\ and\\ defense\\ alliances\\ were\\ all\\ good\\ for\\ Aristotle\\,\\ but\\ didn\\'t\\ count\\ as\\ political\\ community\\ in\\ his\\ estimation\\,\\ primarily\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ a\\ community\\'s\\ members\\.\\ He\\ writes\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"A\\ polis\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ association\\ for\\ residents\\ on\\ a\\ common\\ site\\,\\ or\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ preventing\\ mutual\\ injustice\\ and\\ easing\\ \\ exchange\\.\\ The\\ end\\ and\\ purpose\\ of\\ a\\ \\polis\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ good\\ life\\,\\ and\\ the\\ institutions\\ of\\ social\\ life\\ are\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ that\\ end\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Though\\ never\\ explicitly\\ defined\\,\\ we\\ can\\ derive\\ a\\ principle\\ of\\ distributive\\ justice\\ based\\ upon\\ this\\ view\\.\\ \\ Those\\ contributing\\ the\\ most\\ to\\ an\\ association\\ \\(that\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ good\\)\\,\\ should\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ rewards\\ and\\ honors\\ within\\ that\\ association\\.\\ The\\ reasoning\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ position\\ to\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ virtuous\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ polis\\,\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ should\\ be\\ rewarded\\ the\\ most\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\ does\\ Aristotle\\ think\\,\\ contrary\\ to\\ so\\ many\\ modern\\ thinkers\\,\\ that\\ participation\\ in\\ political\\ life\\ is\\ somehow\\ essential\\ to\\ living\\ a\\ good\\ life\\?\\ Why\\ isn\\'t\\ it\\ possible\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ lead\\ good\\,\\ decent\\ lives\\ without\\ participating\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ Sandel\\ asks\\?\\ Aristotle\\ gives\\ 2\\ answers\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ In\\ Book\\ 1\\,\\ he\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ only\\ by\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ polis\\ and\\ participating\\ in\\ politics\\ do\\ we\\ realize\\ our\\ nature\\ as\\ human\\ beings\\.\\ Unlike\\ animals\\,\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ faculty\\ of\\ language\\.\\ Language\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"distinctly\\ human\\ capacity\\\"\\,\\ does\\ not\\ merely\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ express\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\,\\ but\\ allows\\ to\\ deliberate\\ about\\ what\\'s\\ just\\ and\\ unjust\\.\\ It\\'s\\ only\\ in\\ political\\ life\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ engage\\ our\\ distinctly\\ human\\ capacity\\ for\\ language\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ realize\\ our\\ full\\ nature\\ as\\ an\\ interconnected\\,\\ interactive\\,\\ \\engaged\\ \\<\\/em\\>human\\ being\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Aristotle\\ writes\\ that\\ the\\ polis\\ exists\\ by\\ nature\\ and\\ is\\ \\prior\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ not\\ made\\ to\\ live\\ by\\ themselves\\:\\ \\ \\\"A\\ man\\ \\[or\\ woman\\]\\ who\\ is\\ isolated\\,\\ who\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ share\\ in\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ political\\ association\\,\\ or\\ who\\ has\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ share\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ already\\ self\\ sufficient\\,\\ such\\ a\\ person\\ must\\ be\\ either\\ a\\ beast\\ or\\ a\\ god\\.\\\"\\ Book\\ 1\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\ can\\ we\\ only\\ exercise\\ our\\ capacity\\ for\\ language\\ in\\ community\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ In\\ \\\"Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\,\\\"\\ Aristotle\\ explains\\ that\\ political\\ deliberation\\ and\\ living\\ as\\ a\\ citizen\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ virtue\\.\\ \\ Aristotle\\ defines\\ happiness\\ not\\ as\\ maximizing\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\,\\ but\\ as\\ \\\"an\\ activity\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ virtue\\\"\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ every\\ student\\ of\\ politics\\ must\\ study\\ the\\ soul\\ because\\ shaping\\ the\\ soul\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ objects\\ of\\ legislation\\.\\ \\ But\\ can\\'t\\ we\\ simply\\ learn\\ good\\ moral\\ principles\\ from\\ our\\ parents\\ or\\ from\\ a\\ book\\,\\ and\\ live\\ by\\ those\\ alone\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\No\\.\\ True\\ virtue\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ acquired\\ through\\ practice\\.\\ \\ Take\\ flute\\-playing\\,\\ or\\ singing\\,\\ or\\ cooking\\.\\ You\\ can\\'t\\ learn\\ how\\ to\\ play\\ an\\ instrument\\ by\\ reading\\ about\\ it\\ or\\ listening\\ to\\ music\\.\\ Practice\\,\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ doing\\,\\ what\\ Aristotle\\ calls\\ \\\\praxis\\,\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/strong\\>is\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ cultivate\\ virtue\\,\\ thus\\ embodying\\ the\\ end\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ polis\\,\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ virtuous\\ citizens\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Note\\ that\\ while\\ Kant\\ and\\ Aristotle\\ sound\\ a\\ lot\\ alike\\ on\\ this\\ front\\-\\-practice\\ a\\ good\\ moral\\ rule\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ acting\\ morally\\,\\ they\\ differ\\ in\\ their\\ conception\\ of\\ such\\ morality\\.\\ Aristotle\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ particularity\\ of\\ virtue\\,\\ while\\ Kant\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ universality\\ of\\ morally\\ applicable\\ laws\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\How\\ does\\ this\\ relate\\ to\\ politics\\?\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ acquire\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ life\\ is\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ deliberating\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ good\\.\\ Sandel\\ thus\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ acquisition\\ of\\ civic\\ virtue\\ occurs\\ through\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ deliberate\\ among\\ equals\\,\\ which\\ is\\ something\\ a\\ human\\ can\\'t\\ get\\ outside\\ of\\ politics\\.\\ \\ In\\ order\\ to\\ realize\\ our\\ nature\\,\\ we\\ must\\ engage\\ in\\ politics\\,\\ in\\ the\\ issues\\ of\\ the\\ \\polis\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ political\\ philosophy\\ contains\\ and\\ honorific\\ dimension\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Those\\ who\\ are\\ greatest\\ in\\ civic\\ virtue\\,\\ should\\ be\\ accorded\\ the\\ greatest\\ measure\\ of\\ offices\\ and\\ honors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Let\\'s\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ case\\ that\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ justice\\ and\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ the\\ telos\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ practice\\.\\ The\\ case\\ of\\ Casey\\ Martin\\ and\\ his\\ Golf\\ Cart\\ exemplifies\\ the\\ disconnect\\ between\\ the\\ telos\\ of\\ a\\ social\\ practice\\ \\(golf\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ specific\\ honors\\ or\\ qualities\\ \\(ie\\,\\ skill\\,\\ athleticism\\)\\ that\\ this\\ social\\ practice\\ \\(golf\\)\\ chooses\\ to\\ value\\.\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ \\\"Time\\\"\\ Article\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>Casey\\ Martin\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ golf\\ player\\,\\ a\\ top\\ competitor\\ in\\ the\\ game\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ a\\ leg\\ syndrome\\ which\\ prevents\\ him\\ from\\ walking\\ long\\ distances\\,\\ Martin\\ asked\\ the\\ PGA\\ in\\ 2001\\ to\\ allow\\ him\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ golf\\ cart\\ on\\ the\\ PGA\\ tour\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ PGA\\ declined\\ the\\ request\\ and\\ he\\ sued\\ the\\ PGA\\ for\\ the\\ inability\\ to\\ exercise\\ his\\ rights\\.\\ The\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ had\\ to\\ answer\\ the\\ question\\:\\ Does\\ Casey\\ Martin\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ use\\ a\\ golf\\ cart\\ on\\ the\\ course\\ or\\ not\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Students\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ against\\ giving\\ him\\ a\\ golf\\ cart\\ argued\\ thus\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\+\\ Walking\\ the\\ golf\\ course\\ is\\ an\\ intrinsic\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ game\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ cannot\\ perform\\ this\\ intrinsic\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ game\\,\\ then\\ you\\ aren\\'t\\ fit\\ to\\ compete\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ level\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\+Walking\\ the\\ course\\ adds\\ an\\ increased\\ dimension\\ of\\ fatigue\\ to\\ the\\ game\\,\\ thus\\ Martin\\ would\\ gain\\ a\\ competitive\\ edge\\ if\\ he\\ were\\ allowed\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ cart\\\r\\\\\r\\Students\\ for\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ cart\\ argues\\ thus\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\+Martin\\'s\\ disability\\ alone\\ causes\\ him\\ enough\\ pain\\ and\\ fatigue\\ as\\ it\\ is\\,\\ so\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ allowing\\ him\\ an\\ advantage\\,\\ but\\ leveling\\ the\\ playing\\ field\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Martin\\ also\\ walks\\ a\\ good\\ distance\\ because\\ the\\ cart\\ can\\'t\\ go\\ everywhere\\,\\ so\\ he\\ does\\ in\\ part\\ walk\\ the\\ course\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Sandel\\ threw\\ this\\ wrench\\ in\\ the\\ gears\\:\\ What\\ if\\ all\\ PGA\\ golfers\\ could\\ use\\ a\\ cart\\ on\\ the\\ tour\\?\\ Would\\ it\\ resolve\\ the\\ fairness\\ issue\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Rather\\ than\\ arguing\\ about\\ the\\ fairness\\ of\\ the\\ case\\,\\ if\\ we\\ were\\ to\\ approach\\ it\\ from\\ an\\ Aristotelian\\ perspective\\,\\ we\\ would\\ ask\\,\\ 1\\)\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ golf\\,\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ honors\\ accorded\\ to\\ players\\ through\\ the\\ game\\?\\ Justice\\ Scalia\\,\\ in\\ his\\ dissent\\,\\ took\\ a\\ distinctly\\ anti\\-Aristotelian\\ stance\\,\\ maintaining\\ that\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ golf\\,\\ like\\ any\\ game\\,\\ is\\ for\\ amusement\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ market\\ can\\ decide\\ what\\ rules\\ will\\ apply\\ to\\ the\\ game\\.\\ Next\\ time\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ touch\\ on\\ the\\ second\\ question\\ raised\\ in\\ this\\ debate\\:\\ Could\\ it\\ be\\ that\\ golfers\\ have\\ a\\ stake\\ in\\ the\\ honor\\ or\\ having\\ golf\\ being\\ recognized\\ as\\ an\\ athletic\\ sport\\?\\ What\\ virtue\\ does\\ golf\\ honor\\ or\\ recognize\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Title\\ picture\\ of\\ the\\ Acropolis\\ in\\ Athens\\,\\ Greece\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Ability, Disability, and Justice"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.387965+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Politics, Justice, and Virtue", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 491, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ \\\\<\\/p\\>\\Deciding\\ between\\ the\\ Right\\ and\\ the\\ Good\\ is\\ like\\ deciding\\ between\\ the\\ Chicken\\ or\\ the\\ Egg\\:\\ Which\\ comes\\ first\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\:\\ Aristotle\\,\\ \\The\\ Politics\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Bks\\.\\ I\\,\\ III\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 1\\-13\\)\\\r\\Aristotle\\,\\ \\Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Bks\\ II\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 1\\-3\\)\\,\\ X\\ \\(ch\\.\\ 1\\-3\\)\\\r\\\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>Last\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ reviewed\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ \\teleological\\ reasoning\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ his\\ political\\ theory\\,\\ which\\ concerns\\ itself\\ with\\ cultivating\\ virtuous\\ citizens\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ all\\ about\\ \\the\\ fit\\ \\<\\/strong\\>for\\ this\\ toga\\-clad\\ pundit\\:\\ that\\ is\\,\\ fitting\\ people\\ to\\ their\\ proper\\ station\\ or\\ role\\ in\\ life\\.\\ \\ Only\\ with\\ the\\ best\\ \\\"fit\\\"\\ does\\ an\\ individual\\ receive\\ the\\ proper\\ rewards\\ and\\ honors\\ attached\\ to\\ that\\ position\\:\\ she\\ who\\ contributes\\ the\\ most\\ to\\ civic\\ discourse\\ should\\ have\\ political\\ office\\;\\ he\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\-player\\ should\\ be\\ given\\ the\\ best\\ flute\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ political\\ community\\ for\\ Aristotle\\ expresses\\ not\\ a\\ plurality\\ of\\ individual\\ freedoms\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ it\\ a\\ framework\\ for\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\ to\\ achieve\\ their\\ own\\ ends\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ forum\\ to\\ appreciate\\ and\\ reward\\ honor\\ and\\ virtue\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ Casey\\ Martin\\ and\\ the\\ PGA\\,\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ deciding\\ the\\ virtue\\ or\\ honor\\ of\\ golf\\ demonstrates\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ argument\\ in\\ a\\ contemporary\\ way\\.\\ \\ Although\\ many\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ PGA\\ is\\ a\\ private\\ organization\\ and\\ thus\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ determine\\ its\\ own\\ rules\\,\\ we\\ inevitably\\ bump\\ up\\ against\\ Aristotelian\\ thinking\\ because\\ of\\ 2\\ factors\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ Though\\ the\\ PGA\\ is\\ private\\,\\ from\\ a\\ legal\\ standpoint\\,\\ Congress\\ enacted\\ the\\ Americans\\ with\\ Disabilities\\ Act\\,\\ which\\ mandates\\ that\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ organizations\\ make\\ \\\"reasonable\\ accommodations\\\"\\ for\\ the\\ disabled\\;\\ so\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ resolution\\ to\\ this\\ case\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ What\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"reasonable\\ accommodation\\?\\\"\\ This\\ drives\\ us\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ of\\ golf\\?\\ \\ This\\ inevitably\\ invokes\\ Aristotelian\\ ethics\\ thus\\:\\ If\\,\\ as\\ Scalia\\ argued\\,\\ golf\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ game\\,\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ game\\ is\\ just\\ entertainment\\,\\ then\\ the\\ case\\ is\\ ridiculous\\ and\\ holds\\ not\\ merit\\.\\ But\\ if\\,\\ as\\ many\\ golfers\\ believe\\,\\ golf\\ is\\ a\\ sport\\ and\\ a\\ sport\\ is\\ a\\ game\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ both\\ entertainment\\ and\\ honor\\,\\ then\\ you\\ run\\ into\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ question\\ of\\ virtue\\ once\\ again\\.\\ Is\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ honor\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ this\\ case\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ walking\\ the\\ course\\ particularly\\ highlights\\ this\\ contention\\.\\ Many\\ \\\"traditionalists\\\"\\ of\\ the\\ game\\,\\ including\\ the\\ pro\\-golfers\\ who\\ testified\\ against\\ Martin\\'s\\ allowance\\ of\\ a\\ golf\\-cart\\,\\ argued\\ that\\ walking\\ is\\ an\\ essential\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ game\\.\\ If\\ one\\ can\\'t\\ walk\\ the\\ course\\,\\ then\\ one\\ shouldn\\'t\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ play\\ in\\ the\\ PGA\\(the\\ highest\\ tournament\\ in\\ the\\ league\\)\\.\\ \\ Others\\ argue\\ that\\ walking\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ essential\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ and\\ Martin\\ should\\ thus\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ play\\.\\ But\\ we\\'re\\ essentially\\ arguing\\ the\\ Aristotelian\\ essence\\ of\\ \\\"the\\ good\\ life\\\"\\ here\\.\\ What\\ determines\\ a\\ \\\"virtuous\\\"\\ game\\?\\ If\\ the\\ players\\ are\\ accorded\\ the\\ honor\\ of\\ excellence\\ upon\\ winning\\,\\ then\\ isn\\'t\\ the\\ virtue\\ of\\ honor\\ at\\ stake\\?\\ Isn\\'t\\ this\\ more\\ than\\ \\\"just\\ a\\ game\\\"\\?Scalia\\ adopted\\ the\\ alternative\\,\\ \\utilitarian\\<\\/strong\\>\\ position\\ on\\ the\\ matter\\.\\ Arguing\\ that\\ golf\\ is\\ a\\ game\\,\\ and\\ that\\ \\\"it\\ is\\ the\\ very\\ nature\\ of\\ a\\ game\\ to\\ have\\ no\\ object\\ or\\ point\\,\\\"\\ \\ Scalia\\ reduces\\ the\\ case\\ to\\ a\\ ridiculous\\ matter\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ courts\\ have\\ no\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\.\\ Sandel\\ argues\\ that\\ Scalia\\ misses\\ an\\ important\\ dimension\\ of\\ the\\ game\\ in\\ not\\ considering\\ its\\ virtue\\.\\ In\\ Aristotelian\\ terms\\,\\ games\\ are\\ not\\ just\\ about\\ amusement\\,\\ but\\ ultimately\\ about\\ appreciation\\ and\\ honor\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Objection\\ to\\ the\\ Fit\\:\\ Le\\ Freak\\,\\ C\\'est\\ Chic\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ previous\\ thinkers\\,\\ I\\ want\\ you\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ dynamite\\ 1970s\\ hit\\,\\ \\\"Le\\ Freak\\,\\ C\\'est\\ Chic\\.\\\"\\ \\ It\\ goes\\ like\\ this\\:\\ \\\"Aaaaaaw\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.Freak\\ Out\\!\\\"\\ followed\\ by\\ four\\ minutes\\ of\\ funktastic\\ beats\\.\\ \\ When\\ you\\ attach\\ justice\\ to\\ virtue\\ as\\ Aristotle\\ does\\,\\ it\\'s\\ Freak\\ Out\\ time\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Why\\?\\ If\\ justice\\ is\\ about\\ \\\"fit\\\"\\,\\ it\\ leaves\\ no\\ room\\ for\\ freedom\\.\\ If\\ debates\\ about\\ justice\\ are\\ about\\ who\\ fits\\ where\\,\\ and\\ what\\ the\\ \\\"proper\\\"\\ purposes\\ of\\ institutions\\ and\\ political\\ community\\ are\\,\\ individual\\ choice\\ seems\\ not\\ to\\ matter\\.\\ Egalitarian\\-rights\\ thinkers\\ such\\ as\\ Rawls\\ and\\ Kant\\ thus\\ draw\\ a\\ crucial\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ two\\.\\ If\\ roles\\ and\\ the\\ honors\\/rewards\\ accorded\\ to\\ those\\ roles\\ are\\ pre\\-determined\\ by\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ \\(or\\ good\\ life\\)\\,\\ where\\ does\\ justice\\ justify\\ individual\\ choice\\ and\\ freedom\\?\\ \\ In\\ other\\ words\\:\\ Do\\ I\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ slave\\ because\\ that\\ is\\ my\\ \\\"proper\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"virtuous\\\"\\ role\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\'m\\ glad\\ you\\ brought\\ that\\ up\\,\\ because\\ we\\'re\\ going\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ defense\\ of\\ the\\ matter\\.\\ According\\ to\\ \\The\\ Politics\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ Two\\ conditions\\ must\\ be\\ met\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ slavery\\ to\\ be\\ justified\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ It\\ must\\ be\\ necessary\\.\\ If\\ there\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ citizens\\ freed\\ from\\ the\\ daily\\ drudge\\ of\\ manual\\ labor\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ assembly\\ and\\ deliberate\\ about\\ politics\\,\\ there\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ who\\ look\\ after\\ menial\\ tasks\\.\\ Unless\\ you\\ could\\ invent\\ in\\ some\\ science\\ fiction\\,\\ a\\ technological\\ fix\\,\\ there\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ the\\ hard\\ and\\ difficult\\ and\\ menial\\ work\\.\\ Slavery\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ polis\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ active\\ community\\ of\\ deliberating\\ individuals\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Contemporary\\ note\\:\\ Does\\ this\\ sound\\ as\\ far\\-fetched\\ when\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ migrant\\/immigrant\\ labor\\?\\ Why\\ don\\'t\\ we\\ pick\\ out\\ own\\ bananas\\ or\\ clean\\ our\\ own\\ toilets\\ \\(especially\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ where\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ custodial\\ staff\\ clean\\ our\\ bathrooms\\)\\?\\ \\ The\\ underlying\\ logic\\ isn\\'t\\ that\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\ \\\"Someone\\\"\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ that\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\\"Someone\\\"\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ to\\ let\\ the\\ top\\ function\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ It\\ must\\ be\\ \\\"fitting\\\"\\ to\\ some\\ people\\-\\-that\\ is\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ their\\ calling\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\.\\ \\ These\\ are\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ by\\ nature\\ best\\ as\\ slaves\\.\\ Who\\ are\\ these\\ people\\?\\ Well\\,\\ they\\ can\\ recognize\\ reason\\ in\\ others\\,\\ but\\ can\\'t\\ partake\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\ If\\ this\\ seems\\ dodgy\\,\\ you\\'re\\ right\\.\\ Aristotle\\ thought\\ so\\ too\\.\\ That\\'s\\ why\\ he\\ added\\ a\\ \\\"don\\'t\\-sue\\-me\\-clause\\\"\\,\\ \\ claiming\\ that\\ Athenian\\ slavery\\ was\\ unjust\\ because\\ many\\ Athenian\\ slaves\\ had\\ their\\ position\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ war\\,\\ and\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ disposition\\.\\ \\ So\\ in\\ his\\ immediate\\ experience\\,\\ slavery\\ did\\ not\\ actually\\ line\\ up\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\'fit\\'\\,\\ therefore\\ making\\ it\\ \\\"unjust\\\"\\ for\\ those\\ caught\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ In\\ principle\\ then\\,\\ his\\ slavery\\ example\\ doesn\\'t\\ show\\ that\\ slavery\\ is\\ wrong\\ per\\ say\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ that\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ time\\ was\\ wrong\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Now\\,\\ though\\ my\\ fellow\\ Greek\\ might\\ be\\ down\\ \\'cause\\ he\\ supports\\ coercion\\,\\ he\\'s\\ not\\ out\\,\\ because\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ slavery\\ defense\\ and\\ the\\ golf\\ cart\\ case\\ illustrate\\ our\\ profound\\ difficulty\\ in\\ deciding\\ whether\\ the\\ chicken\\ or\\ the\\ egg\\ comes\\ first\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ does\\ right\\ determine\\ the\\ good\\,\\ or\\ must\\ good\\ be\\ pre\\-determined\\ to\\ form\\ the\\ right\\?\\ Who\\ and\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ determines\\ whether\\ walking\\ is\\ the\\ necessary\\ measure\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ ruling\\ should\\ be\\ decided\\ for\\ Casey\\ Martin\\?\\ \\ Who\\ determines\\ and\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ determine\\ if\\ slavery\\ is\\ justifiable\\ under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Because\\ people\\ in\\ pluralist\\ societies\\ by\\ nature\\ disagree\\,\\ some\\ argue\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ life\\:\\ ie\\,\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ creating\\ a\\ virtuous\\ and\\ honorable\\ society\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\ On\\ the\\ egalitarian\\-rights\\ side\\,\\ right\\ must\\ be\\ conceived\\ as\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ because\\ freedom\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\:\\ \\ The\\ self\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ choose\\ its\\ roles\\ and\\ ends\\.\\ If\\ you\\ tie\\ justice\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\,\\ then\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ leave\\ room\\ for\\ freedom\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ On\\ the\\ \\ other\\,\\ Aristotelian\\ hand\\,\\ determining\\ the\\ good\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ boundaries\\ by\\ which\\ we\\ cultivate\\ virtue\\ and\\ properly\\ structure\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ institutions\\ and\\ laws\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ cultivate\\ virtuous\\ citizens\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ order\\ to\\ determine\\ who\\ is\\ \\\"right\\\"\\ \\(Kant\\/Rawls\\ v\\.\\ Aristotle\\)\\,\\ we\\ must\\ investigate\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\1\\)\\ Whether\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ good\\ or\\ the\\ good\\ before\\ the\\ right\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\)\\ What\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ free\\ person\\.\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ \\\"agent\\ of\\ choice\\?\\\"\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Politics, Justice, and Virtue"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.400972+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Claims of Community", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 492, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spencer\\ Tunick\\ in\\ Neuchatel\\,\\ Switzerland\\\r\\\\\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alasdair\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\After\\ Virtue\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ ch\\.\\ 15\\\r\\Michael\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\Democracy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Discontent\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 7\\-17\\\r\\\\\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\\\\Lecture\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Today\\,\\ we\\ turn\\ to\\ Kant\\'s\\ response\\ to\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ examine\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ neo\\-Aristotelian\\ thinking\\ vis\\-a\\-vis\\ Alasdair\\ MacIntyre\\ and\\ communitarianist\\ philosophy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\C\\<\\/strong\\>\\ontemporary\\ Debate\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Kantian\\ Liberals\\ \\(including\\ Rawls\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Neo\\-Aristotelians\\ \\(Communitarians\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\'s\\ Rejoinder\\ to\\ Aristotle\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ rejection\\ of\\ teleological\\ thinking\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ \\right\\<\\/em\\>\\ over\\ \\good\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ what\\ grounds\\ did\\ Kant\\ reject\\ teleology\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Teleology\\ proves\\ problematic\\ when\\ trying\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ morally\\ autonomous\\ definition\\ of\\ the\\ self\\.\\ \\ It\\'s\\ impossible\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ moral\\ law\\ by\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ end\\,\\ because\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ end\\ \\(virtue\\,\\ the\\ good\\ life\\)\\,\\ is\\ contingent\\ upon\\ individual\\ belief\\,\\ status\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Teleological\\ thinking\\ thus\\ invokes\\ an\\ empirical\\ thought\\ process\\,\\ which\\ bases\\ itself\\ upon\\ individual\\ experience\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ Kant\\ argues\\,\\ morality\\ must\\ exist\\ as\\ a\\ universal\\;\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ moral\\ law\\ cannot\\ be\\ contingent\\ upon\\ the\\ individual\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Kant\\ distinguishes\\ between\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ \\right\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ the\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ \\good\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ It\\'s\\ one\\ thing\\ to\\ support\\ a\\ framework\\ of\\ right\\ where\\ people\\ can\\ aim\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ good\\ life\\,\\ and\\ it\\'s\\ another\\ to\\ define\\ a\\ pre\\-conceived\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\\"good\\ life\\\"\\ by\\ which\\ everyone\\ should\\ live\\.\\ This\\ is\\ tantamount\\ to\\ coercion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Kramer\\ Versus\\ Kramer\\,\\ The\\ Philosophical\\ Version\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Regarding\\ \\JUSTICE\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Aristotle\\:\\ Teleological\\ right\\ \\TIED\\<\\/strong\\>\\ to\\ the\\ good\\<\\/p\\>\\Kant\\:\\ Non\\-teleological\\ right\\ \\PRIOR\\<\\/strong\\>\\ to\\ the\\ good\\<\\/p\\>\\Example\\:\\ Aristotle\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ a\\ constitution\\ should\\ be\\ constructed\\ after\\ understanding\\ what\\ the\\ \\\"good\\ life\\\"\\ is\\,\\ but\\ Kant\\ would\\ argue\\ that\\ a\\ constitution\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ framework\\ asserting\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ which\\ would\\ in\\ turn\\ allow\\ each\\ individual\\ to\\ choose\\ the\\ \\\"good\\ life\\\"\\ for\\ him\\ or\\ her\\ self\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Regarding\\ \\LAW\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Aristotle\\:\\ Meant\\ to\\ \\shape\\ character\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\cultivate\\ virtue\\ \\(ie\\,\\ the\\ good\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Kant\\:\\ Meant\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ \\framework\\ of\\ rights\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ neutral\\ among\\ ends\\,\\ where\\ people\\ can\\ pursue\\ their\\ own\\ conception\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ for\\ themselves\\<\\/p\\>\\Regarding\\ \\FREEDOM\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Aristotle\\:\\ Capacity\\ to\\ realize\\ our\\ potential\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ telos\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\<\\/p\\>\\Kant\\:\\ Capacity\\ to\\ act\\ autonomously\\,\\ freedom\\ means\\ acting\\ according\\ to\\ a\\ law\\ I\\ give\\ myself\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Under\\ Kant\\ and\\ Rawls\\,\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ is\\ free\\ and\\ independent\\.\\ We\\ are\\ not\\ bound\\ by\\ any\\ ties\\ of\\ history\\,\\ tradition\\,\\ or\\ inherited\\ status\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ not\\ chosen\\ for\\ ourselves\\.\\ \\ Because\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ bound\\ to\\ any\\ ties\\ we\\ haven\\'t\\ chosen\\ for\\ ourselves\\,\\ we\\ are\\ therefore\\ sovereign\\ selves\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ to\\ the\\ conditions\\ that\\ constrain\\ us\\.\\\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\How\\ do\\ these\\ rival\\ accounts\\ of\\ justice\\/law\\/freedom\\ point\\ to\\ different\\ conceptions\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ moral\\ person\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rival\\ conceptions\\ of\\ self\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ \\Voltuntarist\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\(Kant\\/Rawls\\)\\ Changing\\ self\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\Narrative\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ \\(Sandel\\/MacIntyre\\)\\ Encumbered\\ self\\\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\1\\.\\ Voluntarist\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Rawls\\:\\ \\\"The\\ liberties\\ of\\ equal\\ of\\ equal\\ citizenship\\ are\\ insecure\\ when\\ founded\\ upon\\ teoleogical\\ principles\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ say\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"The\\ structure\\ of\\ teleological\\ doctrines\\ is\\ radically\\ misconceived\\.\\ We\\ should\\ not\\ attempt\\ to\\ give\\ form\\ to\\ our\\ life\\ by\\ first\\ looking\\ to\\ the\\ good\\,\\ independently\\ defined\\.\\\"\\ Why\\?\\ The\\ reason\\ is\\ in\\ section\\ 87\\ of\\ his\\ book\\:\\ \\\"It\\ is\\ not\\ our\\ aims\\ that\\ primairily\\ reveal\\ our\\ nature\\ but\\ that\\ rather\\ the\\ principles\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ acknowledge\\ to\\ govern\\ to\\ the\\ background\\ under\\ which\\ these\\ aims\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ formed\\.\\\"\\ That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ we\\ would\\ choose\\ behnd\\ the\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ factors\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ our\\ morality\\,\\ for\\ as\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\\"the\\ self\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ ends\\ which\\ are\\ affirmed\\ by\\ it\\.\\\"\\ In\\ Rawls\\'\\ definition\\,\\ we\\ are\\ bearers\\ of\\ a\\ self\\ before\\ we\\ have\\ any\\ ends\\ or\\ aims\\ or\\ life\\ purposes\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ why\\ in\\ thinking\\ about\\ justice\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ abstractly\\,\\ because\\ only\\ then\\ are\\ we\\ in\\ the\\ proper\\ position\\ to\\ choose\\ as\\ equal\\ individuals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Narrative\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Communitarians\\ criticize\\ this\\ view\\,\\ acknowledging\\ the\\ \\voluntarist\\ \\<\\/strong\\>argument\\ misses\\ a\\ dimension\\ of\\ moral\\ and\\ political\\ life\\.\\ The\\ free\\ and\\ unencumbered\\ notion\\ of\\ self\\ does\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ certain\\ obligations\\,\\ such\\ as\\ membership\\,\\ loyalty\\,\\ solidarity\\,\\ and\\ other\\ moral\\ ties\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ trace\\ to\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ consent\\ within\\ Rawlsian\\/Kantian\\ frameworks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Alasdair\\ MacIntyre\\ gives\\ a\\ \\'narrative\\ conception\\'\\ of\\ self\\,\\ and\\ he\\ sees\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ rival\\ to\\ Rawls\\'\\ conception\\,\\ writing\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\"Human\\ beings\\ are\\ essentially\\ story\\ telling\\ creatures\\.\\ That\\ means\\ I\\ can\\ only\\ answer\\ the\\ question\\,\\ \\\"What\\ am\\ I\\ to\\ do\\?\\ if\\ I\\ can\\ answer\\ the\\ prior\\ question\\,\\ \\\"of\\ what\\ story\\ or\\ stories\\ do\\ I\\ find\\ myself\\ a\\ part\\?\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\Thus\\,\\ argues\\ Sandel\\,\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ life\\ consists\\ in\\ the\\ unity\\ of\\ many\\ quests\\ embodied\\ within\\ a\\ single\\ individual\\.\\ \\ MacIntyre\\ then\\ argues\\:\\ \\\"we\\ can\\ never\\ seek\\ for\\ the\\ good\\ or\\ exercise\\ virtues\\ only\\ as\\ individuals\\.\\ We\\ all\\ approach\\ our\\ circumstance\\ as\\ bearers\\ of\\ particular\\ social\\ identities\\.\\ I\\ am\\ someone\\'s\\ son\\ or\\ daugher\\;\\ a\\ citizen\\ of\\ this\\ or\\ that\\ city\\.\\ I\\ belong\\ to\\ this\\ clan\\,\\ that\\ tribe\\,\\ this\\ nation\\.\\.\\.Hence\\,\\ what\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ me\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ good\\ for\\ someone\\ who\\ inhabits\\ these\\ roles\\.\\ \\ \\ I\\ inherit\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ my\\ family\\,\\ my\\ city\\,\\ my\\ tribe\\,\\ my\\ nation\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ debts\\,\\ inheritances\\,\\ expectations\\ and\\ obligations\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\Thus\\:\\ \\ \\\"These\\ constitute\\ the\\ given\\ of\\ my\\ life\\,\\ my\\ moral\\ starting\\ point\\.\\ This\\ is\\ in\\ part\\,\\ what\\ gives\\ my\\ life\\ its\\ moral\\ particularity\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ theory\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\ without\\ attending\\ to\\ our\\ particularities\\.\\ MacIntyre\\ recognizes\\ that\\ this\\ account\\ puts\\ his\\ account\\ in\\ contention\\ with\\ individualism\\,\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ the\\ \\\"encumbered\\ self\\\"\\ is\\ not\\ wholly\\ autonomous\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ MacIntyre\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ very\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ individual\\,\\ unencumbered\\ self\\,\\ is\\ a\\ \\\"blindness\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ full\\ measure\\ of\\ responsibility\\,\\ or\\ collective\\ responsibility\\.\\\"\\ The\\ denial\\ of\\ the\\ contemporary\\ impact\\ of\\ American\\ slavery\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ never\\ owned\\ slaves\\,\\ or\\ the\\ abnegation\\ of\\ responsibility\\ of\\ an\\ Englishman\\ to\\ Ireland\\,\\ or\\ the\\ dissociation\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ German\\ from\\ the\\ Holocaust\\,\\ are\\ all\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ \\\"historical\\ amnesia\\\"\\,\\ is\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ moral\\ abdication\\.\\ MacIntyre\\ argues\\ that\\ these\\ moral\\ obligations\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ life\\ histories\\ that\\ define\\ us\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ writes\\:\\ \\\"The\\ contrast\\ with\\ the\\ narrative\\ account\\ is\\ clear\\,\\ for\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ my\\ life\\ is\\ always\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ those\\ communities\\ from\\ which\\ I\\ derive\\ my\\ identity\\;\\ I\\ am\\ born\\ with\\ a\\ past\\,\\ and\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ cut\\ myself\\ off\\ from\\ that\\ past\\ is\\ to\\ deform\\ my\\ current\\ relationships\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ thus\\ separate\\ our\\ moral\\ obligations\\ into\\ two\\ sets\\:\\\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\Moral\\ and\\ Political\\ Obligations\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Natural\\ Duties\\ \\-\\ Universal\\ duties\\ which\\ are\\ moral\\ obligations\\ \\(ie\\,\\ respecting\\ people\\ as\\ humans\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Voluntary\\ Obligations\\ \\-\\ Particular\\ obligations\\ to\\ certain\\ people\\ or\\ groups\\,\\ formed\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ consent\\ \\ \\ \\(only\\ owing\\ what\\ I\\ agree\\ to\\ owe\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ issue\\ between\\ liberal\\ and\\ communitarian\\ accounts\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ is\\:\\ Is\\ there\\ another\\ category\\ of\\ obligation\\ or\\ not\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\Commutarians\\ argue\\ a\\ \\3rd\\ Category\\ of\\ obligation\\:\\ Obligations\\ of\\ solidarity\\/loyalty\\/membership\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ particular\\ obligations\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ necessarily\\ require\\ consent\\,\\ but\\ may\\ flow\\ from\\ the\\ narrative\\ character\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\ \\(family\\,\\ kinship\\,\\ community\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ Construing\\ such\\ obligations\\ as\\ either\\ natural\\ or\\ voluntary\\ fails\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ obligation\\ of\\ solidarity\\,\\ which\\,\\ when\\ ignored\\.\\,\\ don\\'t\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ fully\\ embrace\\ or\\ understand\\ ourselves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Common\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ type\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Social\\ Example\\:\\ Family\\,\\ kinship\\.\\ Relationships\\ between\\ parents\\ and\\ children\\;\\ would\\ a\\ parent\\ save\\ her\\ child\\ from\\ drowning\\ or\\ a\\ stranger\\'s\\?\\ \\ Would\\ this\\ choice\\ signify\\ a\\ moral\\ parental\\ obligation\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\Political\\ example\\:\\ During\\ WWII\\,\\ a\\ French\\ bomber\\ refused\\ orders\\ to\\ bomb\\ his\\ own\\ village\\.\\ His\\ reason\\ doesn\\'t\\ fit\\ neatly\\ into\\ either\\ the\\ natural\\ or\\ voluntary\\ obligation\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ under\\ the\\ obligation\\ of\\ solidarity\\<\\/p\\>\\Socio\\-Cultural\\ Obligation\\:\\ During\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ famine\\,\\ the\\ Israeli\\ government\\ rescued\\ Ethiopian\\ Jews\\ from\\ the\\ region\\.\\ Is\\ that\\ a\\ morally\\ troubling\\ partiality\\,\\ or\\ a\\ nod\\ to\\ the\\ obligation\\ of\\ solidarity\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ class\\ critics\\ of\\ communitarianism\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\-\\ Overlapping\\ obligations\\ might\\ not\\ allow\\ us\\ freedom\\ to\\ choose\\ between\\ them\\.\\ What\\ to\\ do\\ about\\ competing\\ obligations\\?\\ Do\\ we\\ prioritize\\ particularities\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ universal\\ obligation\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\-\\ Some\\ memberships\\ are\\ natural\\ narratives\\,\\ but\\ others\\,\\ like\\ citizenship\\,\\ or\\ nation\\-state\\ identity\\,\\ are\\ constructed\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ morally\\ obligatory\\ to\\ honor\\ that\\ narrative\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ arbitrarily\\ constructed\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Claims of Community"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.441605+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 1: How Free is the Internet? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 494, "html": "\\The\\ Internet\\ is\\ an\\ infinite\\ source\\ of\\ distraction\\ from\\ my\\ classes\\.\\ And\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ probably\\ true\\ for\\ most\\ other\\ college\\ students\\.\\ But\\ what\\ about\\ a\\ class\\ \\on\\<\\/em\\>\\ the\\ Internet\\?\\ Could\\ I\\ then\\ justify\\ my\\ Internet\\ surfing\\ habits\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ my\\ delight\\,\\ it\\ did\\&\\#8212\\;for\\ one\\ class\\.\\ The\\ very\\ first\\ thing\\ we\\ did\\ was\\ something\\ I\\ often\\ did\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ my\\ own\\ laptop\\:\\ watch\\ a\\ \\YouTube\\ video\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Then\\ came\\ the\\ readings\\.\\ The\\ course\\,\\ formally\\ titled\\ Freshman\\ Seminar\\ 43z\\:\\ Cyberspace\\ in\\ Court\\:\\ Law\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ is\\ set\\ in\\ a\\ solid\\ legal\\ foundation\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ both\\ legal\\ and\\ news\\ articles\\ about\\ court\\ cases\\,\\ we\\ read\\ the\\ actual\\ primary\\ documents\\&\\#8212\\;plaintiff\\ complaints\\,\\ judicial\\ opinions\\,\\ and\\ court\\ decisions\\.\\ I\\ am\\ quite\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;cyberspace\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Internet\\&\\#8221\\;\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ but\\ I\\ have\\ little\\ background\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;court\\&\\#8221\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;law\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Here\\ was\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ further\\ explore\\ what\\ I\\ already\\ knew\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ I\\ think\\ I\\ know\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ learn\\ something\\ completely\\ new\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\To\\ back\\ up\\ a\\ little\\,\\ the\\ freshman\\ seminar\\ program\\ at\\ Harvard\\ may\\ bear\\ some\\ explaining\\.\\ Like\\ nearly\\ all\\ things\\ at\\ Harvard\\,\\ they\\ require\\ a\\ short\\ application\\ and\\ sometimes\\ an\\ interview\\.\\ The\\ process\\ can\\ be\\ quite\\ competitive\\,\\ and\\ according\\ to\\ some\\,\\ quite\\ random\\.\\ The\\ end\\ result\\ though\\,\\ is\\ well\\ worth\\ it\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ large\\ lectures\\ that\\ often\\ dominate\\ freshman\\ schedules\\,\\ these\\ seminars\\ are\\ intimate\\ settings\\ of\\ about\\ a\\ dozen\\ students\\.\\ Because\\ this\\ seminar\\ is\\ a\\ fairly\\ new\\ course\\,\\ and\\ a\\ course\\ whose\\ contents\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ changed\\ by\\ news\\,\\ our\\ professor\\ has\\ elected\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ syllabus\\ flexible\\.\\ Our\\ discussions\\ will\\ be\\ dictated\\ by\\ our\\ whims\\ and\\ our\\ interests\\,\\ something\\ that\\ was\\ certainly\\ apparent\\ as\\ we\\ jumped\\ into\\ our\\ first\\ seminar\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ preparation\\ for\\ the\\ discussion\\,\\ we\\ read\\ excerpts\\ from\\ Lawrence\\ Lessig\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Code\\ v2\\,\\ which\\ an\\ update\\ of\\ Lessig\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ 2000\\ book\\ Code\\ and\\ other\\ Laws\\ of\\ Cyberspace\\ revised\\ in\\ part\\ through\\ a\\ collaborative\\ wiki\\.\\ As\\ Lessig\\ himself\\ is\\ an\\ advocate\\ of\\ less\\ restrictve\\ copyright\\ laws\\ \\(much\\ more\\ on\\ this\\ later\\)\\,\\ the\\ entire\\ book\\ is\\ available\\ for\\ download\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Lessig\\ argues\\ there\\ four\\ modes\\ of\\ regulation\\ that\\ govern\\ both\\ the\\ Internet\\ and\\ brick\\-and\\-mortar\\ institutions\\.\\ Three\\ of\\ these\\&\\#8212\\;laws\\,\\ norms\\,\\ and\\ the\\ market\\&\\#8212\\;are\\ fairly\\ intuitive\\.\\ The\\ fourth\\,\\ architecture\\,\\ is\\ more\\ interesting\\ to\\ think\\ about\\.\\ Lessig\\ argues\\ that\\ inherent\\ design\\,\\ or\\ code\\ in\\ the\\ Internet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ case\\,\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ sufficient\\ mode\\ of\\ regulation\\.\\ As\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ Code\\ has\\ the\\ dual\\ meaning\\ of\\ both\\ computer\\ and\\ legal\\ code\\,\\ and\\ Lessig\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ conflict\\,\\ perhaps\\ a\\ bit\\ forced\\ but\\ valid\\,\\ between\\ the\\ West\\ Coast\\ Code\\ of\\ Silicon\\ Valley\\ programmers\\ and\\ East\\ Coast\\ Code\\ of\\ government\\ law\\-makers\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Continuing\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ Internet\\ regulation\\ was\\ a\\ \\Slate\\.com\\ Book\\ Club\\<\\/a\\>\\ piece\\ that\\ documents\\ an\\ exchange\\ between\\ Glenn\\ Reynolds\\,\\ author\\ of\\ \\An\\ Army\\ of\\ Davids\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ Tim\\ Wu\\ and\\ Jack\\ Goldsmith\\,\\ authors\\ of\\ \\Who\\ Controls\\ the\\ Internet\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\ Our\\ in\\-class\\ debate\\ paralleled\\ the\\ two\\ sides\\ articulated\\ in\\ the\\ exchange\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ simplistically\\ reduced\\ to\\ big\\ guy\\ versus\\ little\\ guy\\.\\ Reynolds\\,\\ as\\ his\\ book\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ title\\ implies\\,\\ supports\\ the\\ little\\ guy\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ Internet\\ has\\ created\\ the\\ means\\ for\\ an\\ army\\ of\\ Davids\\ to\\ rise\\ up\\ against\\ Goliath\\ of\\ Government\\ and\\ Big\\ Media\\.\\ Wu\\ and\\ Goldsmith\\ hold\\ a\\ more\\ pessimistic\\ view\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ Internet\\ empowers\\ large\\ organizations\\ even\\ more\\ than\\ individuals\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\My\\ personal\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ a\\ bit\\ idealistic\\.\\ I\\ wanted\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ Internet\\ was\\ a\\ level\\ playing\\ field\\ where\\ anyone\\ with\\ a\\ brilliant\\ idea\\ could\\ make\\ \\dancing\\ hamsters\\<\\/a\\>\\ a\\ cultural\\ phenomenon\\ or\\ earn\\ a\\ \\quick\\ million\\ bucks\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Through\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ my\\ first\\ discussion\\,\\ I\\ found\\ my\\ opinions\\ challenged\\ and\\ my\\ once\\-firm\\ beliefs\\ slipping\\.\\ Reality\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ is\\ harsher\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ the\\ Internet\\ is\\ still\\ restrained\\ by\\ the\\ physical\\ limits\\ of\\ reality\\.\\ As\\ fluid\\ as\\ information\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ may\\ be\\,\\ it\\ still\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ stored\\ on\\ a\\ physical\\ server\\ somewhere\\ and\\ travel\\ through\\ a\\ physical\\ wire\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ your\\ computer\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ limited\\ bandwidth\\ and\\ the\\ physical\\ grounding\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\ mean\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ subject\\ to\\ both\\ private\\ and\\ government\\ intervention\\,\\ for\\ better\\ or\\ for\\ worse\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ professor\\ of\\ mine\\ once\\ joked\\ that\\ a\\ topic\\ must\\ be\\ \\&\\#8220\\;dead\\&\\#8221\\;\\ before\\ academia\\ allows\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ classroom\\.\\ In\\ his\\ case\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ medium\\ of\\ film\\,\\ which\\ is\\ now\\ being\\ replaced\\ by\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ digital\\ cinema\\.\\ The\\ opposite\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ true\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ which\\ is\\ really\\ why\\ I\\ was\\ so\\ eager\\ to\\ take\\ this\\ seminar\\.\\ The\\ Internet\\ has\\ only\\ just\\ begun\\ its\\ life\\;\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ living\\,\\ breathing\\,\\ and\\ most\\ of\\ all\\,\\ evolving\\ organism\\ that\\ both\\ law\\ and\\ society\\ have\\ yet\\ to\\ fully\\ comprehend\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 1: How Free is the Internet? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.454454+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 2: The Unbearable Grayness of Fair Use ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 495, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\\\Kelly\\ v\\.\\ Arriba\\ Soft\\ Corporation\\<\\/a\\>\\ US\\ 9th\\ Circuit\\ Court\\,\\ July\\ 7\\.\\ 2003\\\r\\\\\\ Mcgraw\\-Hill\\ v\\.\\ Google\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ No\\.\\ 05\\ CV\\ 8881\\ \\(SDNY\\ 10\\/19\\/05\\)\\:\\\r\\\\Perfect\\ 10\\,\\ Inc\\.\\,\\ v\\.\\ Amazon\\.com\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ and\\ Google\\,\\ Inc\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ 487\\ F\\.3d\\ 701\\ \\(9th\\ Cir\\.\\ 2007\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\From\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ of\\ a\\ publisher\\,\\ recording\\ company\\ or\\ movie\\ producer\\,\\ fair\\ use\\ seems\\ like\\,\\ out\\ of\\ things\\,\\ most\\ unfair\\.\\ It\\ lets\\ you\\ to\\ get\\ away\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\stealing\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ their\\ books\\,\\ music\\,\\ and\\ movies\\ all\\ the\\ while\\ under\\ the\\ protection\\ of\\ fair\\ use\\.\\ Then\\ it\\ is\\ no\\ surprise\\ that\\ producers\\,\\ consumers\\,\\ and\\ the\\ law\\ have\\ differing\\ perspectives\\ on\\ what\\ use\\ is\\ fair\\.\\ As\\ legal\\ battles\\ are\\ played\\ out\\ in\\ court\\,\\ the\\ big\\ question\\ remains\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ \\fair\\ \\<\\/em\\>use\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Before\\ answering\\ that\\ question\\,\\ an\\ even\\ more\\ basic\\ question\\ is\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ copyright\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Copyright\\ gives\\ the\\ owner\\ of\\ a\\ copyright\\ the\\ exclusive\\ rights\\ to\\ reproduce\\,\\ distribute\\,\\ display\\,\\ and\\ make\\ derivative\\ works\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ intellectual\\ property\\,\\ defined\\ as\\ any\\ work\\ of\\ creative\\ merit\\.\\ This\\ blog\\ post\\ is\\ copyrighted\\,\\ so\\ is\\ the\\ software\\ on\\ my\\ computer\\ and\\ the\\ Regina\\ Spektor\\ song\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ listening\\ to\\ and\\ the\\ notes\\ I\\ took\\ for\\ class\\.\\ What\\ is\\ not\\ copyrighted\\ though\\,\\ is\\ the\\ thesis\\ for\\ my\\ next\\ paper\\ because\\ I\\ have\\ yet\\ to\\ write\\ it\\ down\\.\\ A\\ work\\ must\\ be\\ set\\ down\\ in\\ a\\ tangible\\ medium\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ protected\\ under\\ copyright\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Under\\ the\\ basic\\ definition\\ of\\ copyright\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ we\\ routinely\\ see\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ ripping\\ CDs\\ into\\ iTunes\\ \\(reproduction\\)\\ or\\ \\parodying\\ the\\ Colbert\\ Show\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(derivative\\ work\\)\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ would\\ be\\ illegal\\.\\ That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ where\\ a\\ persnickety\\ or\\ wonderful\\ \\(depending\\ how\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ it\\)\\ little\\ thing\\ called\\ fair\\ use\\ comes\\ in\\.\\ Fair\\ use\\,\\ as\\ defined\\ under\\ \\Title\\ 17\\,\\ Chapter\\ 1\\,\\ Section\\ 107\\ of\\ the\\ Copyright\\ Act\\ of\\ 1976\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ allows\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ work\\ \\&\\#8220\\;for\\ purposes\\ such\\ as\\ criticism\\,\\ comment\\,\\ news\\ reporting\\,\\ teaching\\,\\ scholarship\\,\\ or\\ research\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ law\\ cites\\ four\\ factors\\ for\\ determining\\ fair\\ use\\:\\\r\\\\(1\\)\\ the\\ purpose\\ and\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ use\\,\\ including\\ whether\\ such\\ use\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ commercial\\ nature\\ or\\ is\\ for\\ nonprofit\\ educational\\ purposes\\;\\\r\\\\(2\\)\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\;\\\r\\\\(3\\)\\ the\\ amount\\ and\\ substantiality\\ of\\ the\\ portion\\ used\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\;\\\r\\\\(4\\)\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ use\\ upon\\ the\\ potential\\ market\\ for\\ or\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\ the\\ central\\ question\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ for\\ all\\ the\\ cases\\ presented\\ here\\ is\\ not\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Is\\ this\\ copyright\\ infringement\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ but\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Is\\ this\\ fair\\ use\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ the\\ Internet\\ and\\ copyright\\,\\ digital\\ piracy\\ is\\ probably\\ the\\ looming\\ issue\\ in\\ everyone\\'s\\ mind\\.\\ Before\\ getting\\ to\\ that\\ hot\\ button\\ issue\\ however\\,\\ we\\ should\\ first\\ establish\\ a\\ understanding\\ of\\ copyright\\ law\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ applied\\ to\\ Internet\\ issues\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ illegal\\ download\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ movies\\ certainly\\ made\\ its\\ way\\ into\\ our\\ discussion\\,\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ was\\ focused\\ on\\ something\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ usually\\ think\\ of\\ when\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ copyright\\ \\-\\-\\ search\\ engines\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ case\\ of\\ \\Kelly\\ v\\.\\ Arriba\\ Soft\\ Corp\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ upheld\\ the\\ right\\ of\\ image\\ search\\ engines\\ to\\ index\\ images\\ published\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ \\(The\\ linked\\ 2003\\ opinion\\ is\\ actually\\ revised\\ from\\ 2002\\,\\ the\\ new\\ opinion\\ being\\ favorable\\ toward\\ Arriba\\ Soft\\.\\)\\ Arriba\\ Soft\\ operated\\ an\\ image\\ search\\ engine\\,\\ now\\ Ditto\\.com\\,\\ that\\ indexed\\ photographer\\ Leslie\\ Kelly\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ photos\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ facilitating\\ image\\ search\\.\\ Kelly\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ sued\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ that\\ this\\ directly\\ infringed\\ on\\ his\\ exclusive\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ display\\ his\\ photos\\,\\ as\\ Arriba\\ Soft\\ was\\ displaying\\ thumbnails\\ of\\ his\\ photos\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ odd\\ to\\ me\\ that\\ a\\ photographer\\ would\\ be\\ opposed\\ to\\ making\\ his\\ work\\ known\\ to\\ more\\ people\\ via\\ a\\ search\\ engine\\.\\ The\\ court\\ ruled\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ Arriba\\ Soft\\ because\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ thumbnail\\ images\\ was\\ transformative\\.\\ The\\ thumbnails\\ were\\ fair\\ use\\ since\\ they\\ serve\\ an\\ entirely\\ different\\ purpose\\ from\\ full\\-sized\\ images\\,\\ as\\ they\\ existed\\ for\\ image\\ searching\\ rather\\ aesthetic\\ pleasure\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ related\\ case\\ of\\ \\Perfect\\ 10\\ v\\.\\ Google\\,\\ et\\ al\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ slightly\\ more\\ complicated\\.\\ While\\ Arriba\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ thumbnails\\ were\\ clearly\\ transformative\\ from\\ the\\ full\\-sized\\ images\\,\\ Perfect\\ 10\\,\\ an\\ adult\\ men\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ magazine\\,\\ sold\\ thumbnail\\ images\\ to\\ be\\ downloaded\\ on\\ cell\\ phones\\.\\ Thus\\ Perfect\\ 10\\ had\\ a\\ copyright\\ claim\\ to\\ these\\ thumbnails\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ end\\ result\\ was\\ another\\ victory\\ for\\ search\\ engines\\.\\ \\ The\\ court\\ recognized\\ the\\ public\\ benefit\\ of\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ image\\ search\\ indexing\\ over\\ the\\ speculative\\ loss\\ of\\ profit\\ for\\ Perfect\\ 10\\ in\\ its\\ thumbnail\\ market\\.\\ Perfect\\ 10\\ also\\ sued\\ Google\\ for\\ secondary\\ infringement\\,\\ which\\ will\\ be\\ discussed\\ in\\ greater\\ detail\\ next\\ week\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ most\\ controversial\\ case\\,\\ and\\ one\\ that\\ has\\ yet\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ trial\\,\\ concerns\\ the\\ Google\\ Library\\ Project\\ \\(now\\ slightly\\ amended\\ and\\ changed\\ to\\ Google\\ Book\\ Search\\)\\.\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ambitious\\ project\\ to\\ scan\\ and\\ digitalize\\ books\\ began\\ in\\ 2004\\ in\\ partnership\\ with\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ university\\ libraries\\&\\#160\\;\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ York\\ Public\\ Library\\.\\ The\\ project\\ has\\ since\\ expanded\\ to\\ more\\ university\\ libraries\\ and\\ now\\ includes\\ books\\ still\\ under\\ copyright\\ protection\\.\\ In\\ 2007\\,\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ textbook\\ publishers\\ filed\\ a\\ complaint\\ against\\ Google\\ in\\ court\\ citing\\ direct\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ publishers\\ claim\\ that\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ scanning\\ of\\ their\\ copyrighted\\ books\\&\\#8212\\;essentially\\ duplication\\&\\#8212\\;violates\\ copyright\\ protection\\.\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ defense\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ digital\\ copy\\ made\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ project\\ to\\ be\\ viable\\.\\ Although\\ Google\\ makes\\ a\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ book\\,\\ it\\ only\\ displays\\ 3\\ lines\\ of\\ text\\ around\\ a\\ search\\ term\\ if\\ the\\ book\\ is\\ under\\ copyright\\,\\ which\\ Google\\ claims\\ is\\ fair\\ use\\.\\ The\\ publishers\\&\\#8217\\;\\ complaint\\ also\\ emphasizes\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ financial\\ benefits\\ from\\ the\\ project\\ from\\ increased\\ advertising\\ possibilities\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ college\\ student\\,\\ I\\ have\\ my\\ own\\ gripes\\ against\\ textbook\\ publishers\\,\\ but\\ I\\ also\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ democratization\\ of\\ information\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ in\\ age\\ when\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ technology\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ possible\\.\\ I\\ sit\\ in\\ a\\ Harvard\\ library\\ right\\ now\\,\\ and\\ I\\ dream\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ when\\ I\\ can\\ sit\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ a\\ computer\\ anywhere\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ not\\ only\\ search\\ every\\ page\\ in\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ libraries\\ but\\ also\\ every\\ page\\ of\\ every\\ book\\ ever\\ published\\.\\ Lofty\\?\\ Yes\\,\\ but\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ ambition\\ behind\\ Google\\ Book\\ Search\\.\\ If\\ I\\ can\\ search\\ any\\ public\\ webpage\\,\\ why\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ I\\ search\\ every\\ book\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ easy\\ to\\ take\\ Google\\ for\\ granted\\.\\ The\\ ability\\ to\\ have\\ all\\ the\\ digital\\ information\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ at\\ our\\ fingertips\\ as\\ been\\ available\\ to\\ us\\ since\\,\\ well\\,\\ the\\ inception\\ of\\ Google\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Malone\\ cited\\ Google\\ Book\\ Search\\ as\\ a\\ case\\ to\\ watch\\ as\\ it\\ plays\\ out\\ in\\ court\\ over\\ the\\ next\\ few\\ years\\.\\ \\ The\\ outcome\\ of\\ this\\ case\\ may\\ very\\ well\\ determine\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ digital\\ information\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 2: The Unbearable Grayness of Fair Use "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.467354+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 3: Art v. Technology", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 496, "html": "\\Readings\\:\\\r\\MGM\\ v\\.\\ Groskter\\:\\\\\r\\\\<\\/a\\>\\-\\ \\Supreme\\ Court\\ decision\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(pdf\\)\\\r\\\\-\\ Pam\\ Samuelson\\,\\ \\\"\\Legally\\ Speaking\\:\\ Did\\ MGM\\ Really\\ Win\\ the\\ Groskter\\ Case\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ \\(pdf\\)\\\r\\\\Digital\\ Millennium\\ Copyright\\ Act\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\Viacom\\ International\\,\\ Inc\\.\\,\\ v\\.\\ YouTube\\,\\ Inc\\.\\ and\\ Google\\,\\ Inc\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ No\\.\\ 1\\:07\\-cv\\-02103\\ \\(LLS\\)\\ \\(FM\\)\\ \\(SDNY\\)\\\r\\\\-\\ \\WSJ\\ Online\\ discussion\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ John\\ Palfrey\\ and\\ Stan\\ Liebowitz\\\r\\\\-\\\\ Viacom\\ Complaint\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\DMCA\\ Takedown\\ Disputes\\\r\\\\-\\ \\\"\\Spoon\\-Bending\\ \\'Paranormalist\\'\\ Ramps\\ Up\\ Illegal\\ Attacks\\ on\\ Online\\ Critic\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\\r\\\\-\\\\\\ Moveon\\.org\\ v\\.\\ Viacom\\ International\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Copyright\\ infringement\\ cases\\ involving\\ the\\ Internet\\ are\\ so\\ difficult\\ because\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ rarely\\ black\\ versus\\ white\\ or\\ criminal\\ versus\\ victim\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ they\\ are\\ often\\ fought\\ by\\ two\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ coin\\ of\\ innovation\\ coin\\:\\ art\\ and\\ technology\\.\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ desire\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ creativity\\ of\\ our\\ artists\\,\\ musicians\\,\\ and\\ intellectuals\\ by\\ protecting\\ their\\ financial\\ rewards\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ nurture\\ new\\ technologies\\,\\ such\\ as\\ peer\\ to\\ peer\\ networks\\,\\ which\\ can\\ positively\\ benefit\\ society\\ but\\ also\\ negatively\\ impact\\ the\\ viability\\ of\\ copyright\\ protection\\.\\ Copyright\\ law\\ and\\ fair\\ use\\ must\\ negotiate\\ this\\ tenuous\\ balance\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ cases\\ presented\\ this\\ week\\ all\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ problem\\ of\\ art\\ versus\\ technology\\.\\ As\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ cases\\ of\\ last\\ week\\,\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ about\\ secondary\\ infringement\\ rather\\ than\\ direct\\ infringement\\.\\*\\ Secondary\\ infringement\\ is\\ when\\ a\\ party\\ offers\\ a\\ service\\ or\\ a\\ technology\\ allowing\\ others\\ to\\ infringe\\ on\\ copyrights\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ \\MGM\\ v\\.\\ Groskter\\<\\/em\\>\\ case\\ of\\ 2005\\ was\\ originally\\ spun\\ as\\ a\\ victory\\ for\\ copyright\\ owners\\ \\(such\\ as\\ MGM\\)\\,\\ but\\ when\\ reexamined\\ by\\ Pam\\ Samuelson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ article\\,\\ neither\\ party\\ can\\ claim\\ a\\ victory\\.\\ Grokster\\,\\ now\\ defunct\\ due\\ the\\ court\\ case\\,\\ distributed\\ a\\ p2p\\ \\(peer\\ to\\ peer\\)\\ file\\-sharing\\ client\\ that\\ facilitated\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ digital\\ information\\,\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ copyrighted\\ music\\.\\ MGM\\ sued\\ over\\ copyright\\ infringement\\ and\\ won\\ based\\ on\\ active\\ inducement\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ court\\ found\\ Grokster\\ guilty\\ of\\ actively\\ enticing\\ individuals\\ to\\ use\\ its\\ program\\ to\\ share\\ copyrighted\\ information\\.\\ This\\ was\\ apparent\\ in\\ Grokster\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ very\\ name\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ derivative\\ of\\ Napster\\&\\#8212\\;as\\ well\\ as\\ its\\ advertising\\,\\ which\\ aimed\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ market\\ vacated\\ by\\ Napster\\ following\\ the\\ demise\\ of\\ that\\ site\\.\\ While\\ MGM\\ won\\ the\\ case\\,\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ win\\ a\\ legal\\ precedent\\.\\ The\\ \\Betamax\\ case\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ 1984\\ \\ established\\ a\\ safe\\ harbor\\ for\\ technologies\\ that\\ have\\ substantial\\ infringing\\ uses\\.\\ In\\ that\\ case\\,\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ VCR\\;\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ peer\\-to\\-peer\\ client\\ networks\\.\\ The\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ refused\\ to\\ weigh\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ legality\\ of\\ peer\\-to\\-peer\\ networks\\,\\ instead\\ defaulting\\ to\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ active\\ inducement\\.\\ Such\\ is\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ courts\\;\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ do\\ as\\ little\\ and\\ establish\\ as\\ few\\ precedents\\ as\\ possible\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maintain\\ that\\ balance\\ between\\ supporting\\ art\\ and\\ technology\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\YouTube\\ is\\ yet\\ another\\ classic\\ example\\ in\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\ As\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ Web\\ 2\\.0\\,\\ YouTube\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ original\\ and\\ stated\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ showcase\\ the\\ original\\ videos\\ of\\ amateurs\\ and\\ everymen\\.\\ Despite\\ their\\ efforts\\ \\(the\\ featured\\ videos\\ are\\ always\\ completely\\ original\\ works\\)\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ no\\ surprise\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ popular\\ videos\\ on\\ YouTube\\ are\\ copyrighted\\ clips\\ from\\ TV\\ shows\\,\\ movies\\,\\ and\\ music\\ videos\\.\\ Taking\\ heed\\ of\\ this\\,\\ Viacom\\ International\\ brought\\ a\\ massive\\ lawsuit\\ against\\ YouTube\\ and\\ its\\ current\\ company\\ Google\\.\\ For\\ a\\ goofy\\ and\\ DMCA\\ compliant\\ explanation\\,\\ check\\ out\\ \\this\\ video\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Though\\ for\\ anyone\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ on\\ YouTube\\ lately\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ realize\\ that\\ YouTube\\ is\\ quite\\ the\\ model\\ non\\-fringing\\ company\\.\\ Whereas\\ it\\ was\\ once\\ the\\ haven\\ of\\ foreign\\ anime\\ and\\ current\\ TV\\ shows\\,\\ these\\ videos\\ have\\ already\\ been\\ taken\\ down\\ or\\ are\\ taken\\ down\\ within\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ of\\ their\\ upload\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ YouTube\\ has\\ created\\ an\\ incredibly\\ easy\\ system\\ \\(some\\ argue\\ too\\ easy\\,\\ see\\ DMCA\\ takedown\\ notices\\ above\\ in\\ the\\ readings\\)\\ for\\ copyright\\ owners\\ to\\ request\\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ their\\ copyrighted\\ material\\.\\ So\\ why\\ is\\ Viacom\\ still\\ suing\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ current\\ system\\ places\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ finding\\ copyrighted\\ material\\ on\\ the\\ copyright\\ owner\\.\\ Viacom\\ wants\\ YouTube\\,\\ the\\ host\\ of\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ content\\,\\ to\\ be\\ responsible\\.\\ Given\\ the\\ millions\\ of\\ videos\\ on\\ YouTube\\,\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ enormous\\ commitment\\ of\\ manpower\\,\\ though\\ YouTube\\ has\\ announced\\ plans\\ of\\ implementing\\ a\\ program\\ that\\ automatically\\ detects\\ some\\ copyrighted\\ content\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Viacom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ complaint\\,\\ it\\ criticizes\\ YouTube\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ friends\\ only\\ feature\\,\\ which\\ make\\ it\\ impossible\\ for\\ Viacom\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ private\\ videos\\ that\\ may\\ include\\ copyright\\ infringing\\ content\\.\\ A\\ fellow\\ student\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ common\\ practice\\ for\\ an\\ account\\ to\\ have\\ thousands\\ of\\ friends\\ among\\ which\\ entire\\ episodes\\ of\\ TV\\ shows\\ are\\ shared\\.\\ But\\ getting\\ rid\\ of\\ the\\ friends\\ only\\ feature\\ would\\ also\\ destroy\\ the\\ original\\ purpose\\ of\\ YouTube\\:\\ sharing\\ home\\ videos\\ between\\ family\\ and\\ friends\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ perfect\\ example\\ of\\ why\\ legal\\ safe\\ harbors\\ must\\ exist\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ new\\ technologies\\.\\ If\\ they\\ did\\ not\\,\\ programmers\\ would\\ discouraged\\ from\\ developing\\ new\\ technology\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ any\\ copyright\\ infringement\\ uses\\ \\(some\\ that\\ cannot\\ even\\ be\\ predicted\\)\\,\\ and\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ YouTube\\ would\\ not\\ even\\ exist\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ week\\ we\\ discussed\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fuzziness\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ fair\\ use\\.\\ Unlike\\ nearly\\ everything\\ else\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ precise\\ legal\\ definition\\ of\\ fair\\ use\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ simply\\ decided\\ on\\ a\\ case\\ by\\ case\\ basis\\.\\ As\\ frustrating\\ as\\ this\\ can\\ be\\,\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ for\\ good\\ reason\\.\\ Fair\\ use\\ exists\\ to\\ allow\\ wiggle\\ room\\ for\\ new\\ technologies\\ development\\ while\\ still\\ protecting\\ the\\ copyright\\ owners\\ for\\ their\\ creative\\ output\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ art\\ v\\.\\ technology\\,\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ clear\\ winner\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\*Since\\ I\\ promised\\ last\\ week\\ to\\ talks\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ secondary\\ infringement\\ claims\\ in\\ Perfect\\ 10\\ v\\.\\ Google\\,\\ here\\ goes\\:\\ Perfect\\ 10\\ offers\\ a\\ subscription\\ only\\ site\\ where\\ one\\ had\\ to\\ pay\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ access\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ images\\.\\ However\\,\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ individuals\\,\\ unrelated\\ to\\ either\\ party\\,\\ had\\ copied\\ these\\ protected\\ images\\ and\\ uploaded\\ them\\ onto\\ public\\ sites\\.\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ automated\\ bots\\ had\\ crawled\\ upon\\ these\\ images\\ and\\ indexed\\ them\\ into\\ its\\ image\\ search\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ Perfect\\ 10\\ claimed\\ secondary\\ infringement\\ as\\ Google\\ Image\\ Search\\ facilitated\\ the\\ finding\\ of\\ these\\ images\\ that\\ were\\ once\\ pay\\-only\\.\\ The\\ court\\ found\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ impossible\\ for\\ Google\\ to\\ monitor\\ all\\ images\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ and\\ filter\\ based\\ on\\ subscription\\-only\\ or\\ not\\.\\ Google\\ was\\ therefore\\ not\\ liable\\ for\\ secondary\\ infringement\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 3: Art v. Technology"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.480127+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 5: A New Business Model? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 497, "html": "\\Last\\ time\\ we\\ left\\ off\\,\\ we\\ had\\ concluded\\ that\\ the\\ music\\ industry\\ needed\\ a\\ new\\ model\\.\\ Suing\\ your\\ current\\ and\\ potential\\ customers\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ conduct\\ business\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ or\\ is\\ it\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\With\\ the\\ facts\\ in\\ place\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ suing\\ individuals\\ is\\ the\\ music\\ industry\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ new\\ business\\ model\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ RIAA\\ first\\ began\\ taking\\ legal\\,\\ only\\ one\\ case\\,\\ that\\ of\\ Jammie\\ Thomas\\,\\ has\\ actually\\ been\\ settled\\ in\\ court\\.\\ A\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ those\\ cases\\ were\\ dropped\\,\\ some\\ are\\ still\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ legal\\ system\\,\\ but\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ them\\ have\\ been\\ settled\\ outside\\ of\\ court\\.\\ Going\\ to\\ trial\\ is\\ a\\ nasty\\ and\\ expensive\\ business\\,\\ and\\ the\\ RIAA\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ really\\ keen\\ on\\ bringing\\ all\\ 22\\,000\\ cases\\ they\\ have\\ filed\\ to\\ court\\.\\ What\\ the\\ RIAA\\ prefers\\ is\\ settling\\ out\\ of\\ court\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ tactic\\ that\\ some\\ critics\\ have\\ characterized\\ as\\ extortion\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Taking\\ a\\ step\\ back\\ for\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ RIAA\\ files\\ a\\ lawsuit\\,\\ which\\ in\\ itself\\ is\\ controversial\\.\\ The\\ RIAA\\ begins\\ by\\ identifying\\ IP\\ addresses\\ that\\ belong\\ to\\ individuals\\ in\\ a\\ file\\-sharing\\ network\\.\\ \\ After\\ matching\\ up\\ these\\ IP\\ addresses\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ an\\ Internet\\ Service\\ Provider\\ \\(ISP\\)\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Verizon\\,\\ the\\ RIAA\\ files\\ suit\\ against\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;John\\ Does\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ With\\ this\\ lawsuit\\ in\\ place\\,\\ it\\ uses\\ the\\ ex\\ parte\\ discovery\\ procedure\\ to\\ subpoena\\ the\\ records\\ to\\ identity\\ the\\ individuals\\ to\\ whom\\ the\\ IP\\ address\\ was\\ assigned\\.\\ \\ The\\ entire\\ process\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ not\\ foolproof\\.\\ IP\\ addresses\\ identify\\ only\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ your\\ Internet\\ access\\;\\ it\\ cannot\\ identify\\ you\\ or\\ your\\ computer\\.\\ A\\ RIAA\\ spokesperson\\ defended\\ the\\ practice\\,\\ saying\\ \\&\\#8220\\;When\\ you\\ go\\ fishing\\ with\\ a\\ driftnet\\,\\ you\\ sometimes\\ catch\\ a\\ dolphin\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ dolphin\\ may\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ be\\ a\\ \\71\\-year\\-old\\ grandfather\\ \\<\\/a\\>who\\ rarely\\ even\\ uses\\ a\\ computer\\.\\ While\\ cases\\ like\\ these\\ were\\ eventually\\ dropped\\,\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ valid\\ cases\\ never\\ saw\\ the\\ courtroom\\ either\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ settled\\ out\\ of\\ court\\ for\\ somewhere\\ between\\ \\$3000\\ and\\ \\$11\\,000\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ late\\ newest\\ tactic\\,\\ pre\\-litigation\\ letters\\ to\\ universities\\ and\\ their\\ students\\,\\ is\\ most\\ pertinent\\ to\\ me\\ as\\ a\\ college\\ student\\.\\ A\\ website\\ set\\ up\\ by\\ the\\ RIAA\\,\\ \\http\\:www\\.p2plawsuits\\.com\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\(warning\\:\\ my\\ browser\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ verify\\ the\\ website\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ certificate\\ and\\ refused\\ to\\ access\\ the\\ site\\&\\#8212\\;ironic\\ \\,\\ much\\?\\)\\,\\ makes\\ it\\ incredibly\\ easy\\ for\\ students\\ to\\ settle\\.\\ By\\ sending\\ these\\ pre\\-litigation\\ letters\\,\\ the\\ RIAA\\ offers\\ to\\ settle\\ at\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;discount\\&\\#8221\\;\\ rate\\ that\\ reflects\\ its\\ own\\ savings\\ on\\ legal\\ fees\\.\\ The\\ controversy\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ RIAA\\ must\\ ask\\ the\\ university\\ to\\ forward\\ their\\ pre\\-litigation\\ letters\\ to\\ their\\ students\\.\\ Some\\ universities\\ have\\ refused\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;legal\\ agent\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ while\\ others\\ have\\ chosen\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ different\\ stance\\ and\\ yielded\\ to\\ the\\ RIAA\\.\\ Stanford\\ even\\ charges\\ its\\ students\\ for\\ every\\ pre\\-litigation\\ letter\\ it\\ forwards\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\College\\ students\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ the\\ biggest\\ target\\ of\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lawsuits\\,\\ so\\ perhaps\\ the\\ RIAA\\ is\\ attempting\\ to\\ spread\\ word\\ of\\ mouth\\ fear\\ of\\ downloading\\ with\\ their\\ pre\\-litigation\\ letters\\.\\ A\\ pre\\-litigation\\ letter\\ is\\ much\\ cheaper\\ and\\ easier\\ than\\ a\\ lawsuit\\,\\ and\\ while\\ it\\ lacks\\ the\\ mass\\ media\\ coverage\\,\\ anecdotal\\ evidence\\ of\\ these\\ letters\\ will\\ strike\\ students\\ more\\ powerfully\\ than\\ distant\\ newspaper\\ headlines\\.\\ Yet\\ is\\ it\\ the\\ university\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ responsibility\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ intermediary\\ between\\ the\\ RIAA\\ and\\ students\\?\\ Commercial\\ ISPs\\ have\\ not\\ blocked\\ the\\ torrenting\\ like\\ the\\ some\\ colleges\\ have\\ done\\ on\\ their\\ networks\\.\\ Commercial\\ ISPs\\ have\\ refused\\ to\\ forward\\ pre\\-litigation\\ letters\\.\\ But\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ a\\ university\\ is\\ tricky\\ in\\ effect\\ that\\ we\\ expect\\ the\\ university\\ to\\ have\\ some\\ responsibility\\ in\\ the\\ welfare\\ of\\ a\\ student\\.\\ Wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ a\\ student\\ prefer\\ to\\ settle\\ out\\ of\\ court\\ rather\\ than\\ get\\ embroiled\\ in\\ an\\ expensive\\ lawsuit\\?\\ The\\ question\\ has\\ been\\ answered\\ differently\\ by\\ different\\ universities\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ RIAA\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ playing\\ soft\\.\\ When\\ Cassi\\ Hunt\\,\\ an\\ MIT\\ student\\ was\\ unable\\ to\\ pay\\ \\$3750\\ settlement\\,\\ an\\ \\RIAA\\ representative\\ suggested\\ she\\ drop\\ out\\ of\\ school\\ to\\ pay\\ the\\ bill\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Popular\\ backlash\\ against\\ incidents\\ such\\ as\\ these\\ have\\ led\\ to\\ sites\\ in\\ the\\ vein\\ of\\ http\\:\\/\\/p2pextortion\\.com\\/\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ we\\ have\\ half\\-seriously\\ referred\\ to\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ settlements\\ as\\ their\\ new\\ business\\ model\\,\\ this\\ \\screenshot\\ \\<\\/a\\>might\\ prove\\ some\\ more\\ conclusive\\ evidence\\.\\ \\ \\ Another\\ student\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ found\\ this\\ screenshot\\ of\\ the\\ confirmation\\ page\\ for\\ p2plawsuits\\,\\ which\\ actually\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Looking\\ forward\\ to\\ future\\ business\\ together\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ \\&\\#8220\\;business\\ plan\\&\\#8221\\;\\ certainly\\ is\\ not\\ viable\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\-\\-alienating\\ the\\ very\\ customers\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ woo\\ tends\\ not\\ to\\ be\\.\\ Is\\ it\\ fair\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ to\\ bear\\ the\\ punishment\\ for\\ the\\ crimes\\ of\\ many\\?\\ Even\\ as\\ someone\\ who\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ sued\\,\\ I\\ would\\ say\\ no\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 5: A New Business Model? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.491244+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 4: DMCA in the New Millennium", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 498, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\For\\ an\\ act\\ that\\ claims\\ to\\ govern\\ the\\ \\\"digital\\ millennium\\,\\\"\\ the\\ \\Digital\\ Millennium\\ Copyright\\ Act\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\(DMCA\\)\\ behaves\\ awfully\\ like\\ a\\ relic\\ from\\ the\\ analog\\ age\\.\\ Our\\ discussion\\ this\\ week\\,\\ which\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ 1998\\ DMCA\\ and\\ attempts\\ at\\ digital\\ rights\\ management\\,\\ essentially\\ came\\ to\\ this\\ conclusion\\.\\ But\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ the\\ biased\\ sample\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ my\\ seminar\\;\\ we\\'re\\ all\\ current\\ college\\ students\\,\\ \\digital\\ natives\\<\\/a\\>\\ with\\ a\\ relatively\\ high\\ degree\\ of\\ Internet\\ fluency\\.\\ Ask\\ the\\ Recording\\ Industry\\ Association\\ of\\ America\\ \\(RIAA\\)\\ or\\ Motion\\ Picture\\ Association\\ of\\ America\\ \\(MPAA\\)\\,\\ and\\ they\\'ll\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ very\\ different\\ opinion\\ about\\ the\\ DMCA\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ controversy\\ over\\ the\\ DMCA\\ boils\\ down\\ to\\ this\\:\\ Title\\ 17\\,\\ chapter\\ 12\\,\\ section\\ 1201\\,\\ circumvention\\ of\\ copyright\\ protection\\ systems\\.\\ The\\ DMCA\\ explicitly\\ prohibits\\ any\\ attempts\\ to\\ unlock\\ digital\\ rights\\ management\\ \\(DRM\\)\\ technologies\\&\\#8212\\;be\\ it\\ to\\ decrypt\\ a\\ DVD\\ or\\ reverse\\ engineer\\ any\\ piece\\ of\\ software\\.\\ At\\ first\\ glance\\,\\ this\\ may\\ seem\\ reasonable\\ because\\ DRM\\ exists\\ to\\ protect\\ against\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\ However\\,\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ where\\ fair\\ use\\ comes\\ in\\.\\ An\\ individual\\ can\\ conceivably\\ circumvent\\ a\\ copyright\\ protection\\ system\\ for\\ purposes\\ that\\ are\\ entirely\\ legal\\ and\\ fair\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Mr\\.\\ Malone\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ classic\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ film\\ studies\\ professor\\ who\\ wishes\\ to\\ show\\ clips\\ from\\ several\\ films\\.\\ The\\ easiest\\ thing\\ for\\ the\\ professor\\ to\\ do\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ rip\\ DVDs\\ and\\ cut\\ out\\ the\\ relevant\\ clips\\.\\ The\\ easiest\\ thing\\,\\ unfortunately\\,\\ is\\ also\\ illegal\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ DMCA\\.\\ No\\,\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ using\\ movie\\ clips\\ for\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ instruction\\ is\\ still\\ fair\\ use\\.\\ But\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ rip\\ a\\ DVD\\,\\ our\\ hypothetical\\ professor\\ must\\ \\&\\#8220\\;circumvent\\ copyright\\ protection\\ systems\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ download\\ illegal\\ DVD\\ ripping\\ software\\.\\ By\\ making\\ the\\ technology\\ of\\ decrypting\\ DVDs\\ illegal\\,\\ the\\ DMCA\\ essentially\\ prohibits\\ it\\ even\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ fair\\ use\\.\\*\\ As\\ a\\ student\\ in\\ a\\ film\\ studies\\ class\\,\\ I\\ can\\ personally\\ attest\\ to\\ the\\ cumbersome\\ practice\\ of\\ my\\ film\\ professor\\,\\ who\\ has\\ to\\ physically\\ switch\\ between\\ DVDs\\ when\\ showing\\ clips\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\But\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ care\\?\\ The\\ law\\ \\is\\<\\/em\\>\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ record\\ companies\\,\\ so\\ why\\ don\\'t\\ we\\ just\\ give\\ them\\ their\\ copyright\\ protection\\ and\\ let\\ it\\ be\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Jack\\ Valenti\\,\\ the\\ former\\ president\\ of\\ the\\ Motion\\ Picture\\ Association\\ of\\ America\\,\\ once\\ claimed\\ at\\ a\\ \\Congressional\\ hearing\\<\\/a\\>\\ that\\ \\\"The\\ VCR\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ film\\ producer\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ public\\ as\\ the\\ Boston\\ Strangler\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ woman\\ home\\ alone\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\'s\\<\\/em\\>\\ why\\ we\\ care\\.\\ The\\ future\\ of\\ technology\\ is\\ unpredictable\\.\\ The\\ VCR\\,\\ far\\ from\\ strangling\\ the\\ American\\ film\\ industry\\,\\ opened\\ up\\ a\\ billion\\ dollar\\ industry\\ in\\ the\\ home\\ video\\ market\\ now\\ occupied\\ by\\ DVDs\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ once\\ upon\\ a\\ time\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ see\\ a\\ movie\\ was\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ theater\\,\\ but\\ without\\ the\\ VHS\\,\\ that\\ may\\ still\\ be\\ the\\ case\\ today\\.\\ And\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ VCR\\ only\\ exists\\ \\(maybe\\ \\existed\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ a\\ better\\ verb\\ tense\\ to\\ use\\)\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ 5\\-4\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ decision\\ in\\ \\Sony\\ v\\.\\ Universal\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Critics\\ of\\ the\\ DMCA\\ argue\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ tipped\\ the\\ balance\\ too\\ far\\ toward\\ copyright\\ owners\\,\\ effectively\\ chilling\\ technology\\ and\\ innovation\\.\\ In\\ April\\ 2006\\,\\ the\\ Electronic\\ Frontier\\ Foundation\\ compiled\\ a\\ document\\ on\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Unintended\\ Consequences\\:\\ Seven\\ Years\\ under\\ the\\ DMCA\\<\\/a\\>\\&\\#8221\\;\\ detailing\\ cases\\ where\\ the\\ DMCA\\ was\\ fairly\\ unapplied\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ printer\\ cartridges\\ and\\ garage\\ door\\ openers\\)\\,\\ violated\\ fair\\ use\\,\\ or\\ chilled\\ innovation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ ridiculous\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ dozens\\ listed\\ involves\\ Sony\\ and\\ their\\ now\\ discontinued\\ Aibo\\ robotic\\ dog\\.\\\\ Sony\\ invoked\\ the\\ DMCA\\ to\\ threaten\\ AiboPet\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ an\\ Aibo\\ hobbyist\\ who\\ reverse\\ engineered\\ digital\\ encryption\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ new\\ programs\\ teaching\\ the\\ robot\\ dog\\ dance\\ moves\\.\\ Here\\ was\\ an\\ amateur\\,\\ who\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ selling\\ these\\ programs\\ for\\ money\\,\\ making\\ the\\ product\\ \\more\\ \\<\\/em\\>desirably\\ yet\\ Sony\\ is\\ suing\\?\\ Luckily\\,\\ public\\ outcry\\ made\\ Sony\\ change\\ its\\ official\\ line\\,\\ and\\ Sony\\ now\\ tolerates\\ amateur\\ programming\\ of\\ its\\ Aibo\\ dogs\\.\\ Although\\ Sony\\ dropped\\ the\\ case\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ remains\\ that\\ the\\ DMCA\\ has\\ not\\ changed\\.\\ Tinkering\\ with\\ the\\ Aibo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ digital\\ encryption\\ is\\ still\\ illegal\\;\\ Sony\\ is\\ merely\\ choosing\\ to\\ ignore\\ it\\.\\ If\\ even\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;victims\\&\\#8221\\;\\ refuse\\ to\\ recognize\\ a\\ law\\,\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ that\\ mean\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ something\\ wrong\\ with\\ it\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\*For\\ anyone\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ technicalities\\,\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ now\\ legal\\ for\\ film\\ and\\ media\\ studies\\ professors\\ to\\ decrypt\\ DVDs\\.\\ The\\ DMCA\\ allows\\ the\\ Library\\ of\\ Congress\\ to\\ grant\\ exemptions\\ to\\ the\\ DMCA\\ every\\ three\\ years\\,\\ and\\ an\\ exemption\\ for\\ film\\ professors\\ was\\ passed\\ in\\ 2006\\.\\ This\\ is\\ however\\,\\ still\\ problematic\\ as\\ some\\ students\\ pointed\\ out\\.\\ First\\ of\\ all\\,\\ the\\ exemptions\\ are\\ extremely\\ narrow\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ it\\ legal\\ for\\ a\\ film\\ professor\\ to\\ show\\ movie\\ clips\\ but\\ illegal\\ for\\ a\\ literature\\ professor\\?\\ Secondly\\,\\ time\\ for\\ the\\ Internet\\ should\\ be\\ measured\\ in\\ dog\\ years\\.\\ Three\\ years\\ is\\ too\\ long\\ of\\ a\\ lag\\ time\\ when\\ developing\\ digital\\ technologies\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 4: DMCA in the New Millennium"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.503009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 4: DRM - Not Music to Our Ears ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 499, "html": "\\\\ In\\ 2005\\,\\ Sony\\ BMG\\ thought\\ they\\ had\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ an\\ effective\\ way\\ to\\ limit\\ \\ of\\ file\\-sharing\\.\\ By\\ adding\\ XCP\\ \\(extended\\ copyright\\ protection\\)\\,\\ Sony\\ could\\ limit\\ their\\ music\\ files\\ to\\ sterile\\ burning\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ files\\ could\\ be\\ copied\\ once\\,\\ but\\ copies\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ made\\ of\\ the\\ copies\\.\\ This\\ method\\ allows\\ CDs\\ to\\ be\\ copied\\ for\\ fair\\ uses\\ and\\ prohibits\\ it\\ from\\ illegal\\ uses\\.\\ Pretty\\ ingenious\\ right\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ problem\\ was\\ how\\ this\\ was\\ done\\.\\ \\Sony\\ BMG\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ place\\ copy\\ prevention\\ on\\ its\\ music\\ CDs\\<\\/a\\>\\ blew\\ up\\ into\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ public\\ relations\\ disasters\\ related\\ to\\ digital\\ rights\\ management\\ \\(DRM\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Unlike\\ most\\ music\\ sold\\ on\\ online\\ stores\\ such\\ as\\ iTunes\\,\\ the\\ music\\ files\\ themselves\\ on\\ CDs\\ are\\ not\\ encrypted\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ file\\-sharing\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ problem\\ when\\ CDs\\ first\\ came\\ into\\ use\\,\\ and\\ encrypting\\ the\\ music\\ on\\ CDs\\ now\\ would\\ create\\ issues\\ of\\ back\\ compatibility\\ on\\ old\\ CD\\ players\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ \\ XCP\\ works\\ by\\ installing\\ a\\ sterile\\ burning\\ program\\ on\\ your\\ computer\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ you\\ insert\\ the\\ CD\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ a\\ \\rootkit\\ \\<\\/a\\>makes\\ these\\ programs\\ invisible\\ to\\ you\\,\\ and\\ attempts\\ to\\ uninstall\\ it\\ will\\ render\\ your\\ CD\\-ROM\\ drive\\ unusable\\.\\ The\\ biggest\\ uproar\\ over\\ XCP\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ this\\ rootkit\\ not\\ only\\ hides\\ the\\ DRM\\ but\\ also\\ any\\ malicious\\ virus\\ that\\ may\\ infect\\ your\\ computer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ was\\ finally\\ revealed\\ in\\ 2005\\ by\\ \\blogger\\ Mark\\ Russinovich\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ a\\ massive\\ public\\ outcry\\ forced\\ Sony\\ BMG\\ to\\ back\\ off\\ from\\ XCP\\.\\ Multiple\\ states\\ filed\\ class\\ action\\ lawsuits\\ against\\ Sony\\ BMG\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ Sony\\ BMG\\ offering\\ a\\ program\\ to\\ uninstall\\ the\\ rootkit\\,\\ a\\ free\\ unencrypted\\ copy\\ of\\ the\\ CD\\,\\ and\\ \\(ironically\\)\\ free\\ mp3s\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ though\\.\\ The\\ patch\\ Sony\\ BMG\\ offered\\ to\\ uninstall\\ the\\ rootkit\\ installed\\ ActiveX\\ controls\\ to\\ allow\\ communication\\ between\\ an\\ individual\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ computer\\ and\\ Sony\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ server\\,\\ further\\ exacerbating\\ the\\ security\\ risk\\.\\ This\\ too\\ was\\ eventually\\ resolved\\,\\ but\\ it\\ only\\ left\\ even\\ more\\ bad\\ feelings\\ in\\ the\\ air\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\On\\ one\\ level\\,\\ this\\ was\\ simply\\ a\\ public\\ relations\\ nightmare\\ for\\ Sony\\ BMG\\.\\ It\\ revealed\\ their\\ deep\\ distrust\\ of\\ its\\ very\\ customers\\ who\\ had\\ legally\\ purchased\\ Sony\\ BMG\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ CDs\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ here\\,\\ most\\ of\\ my\\ classmates\\ agreed\\,\\ is\\ that\\ record\\ labels\\ are\\ clinging\\ to\\ an\\ outdated\\ business\\ model\\.\\ The\\ fluidity\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\ has\\ greatly\\ eased\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ attempts\\ to\\ lock\\ down\\ this\\ information\\ are\\ simply\\ folly\\.\\ As\\ one\\ student\\ put\\ it\\,\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ DRM\\ will\\ simply\\ ignite\\ a\\ digital\\ \\&\\#8220\\;arms\\ race\\&\\#8221\\;\\ between\\ record\\ companies\\ and\\ amateur\\ hackers\\.\\ Shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ our\\ energies\\ be\\ channeled\\ into\\ much\\ more\\ productive\\ uses\\?\\ Record\\ companies\\ should\\ be\\ taking\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ not\\ trying\\ to\\ shut\\ it\\ down\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Apple\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ iTunes\\ store\\ is\\ the\\ classic\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ successful\\ business\\ model\\ in\\ the\\ digital\\ world\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ is\\ still\\ true\\ though\\ that\\ mp3s\\ purchases\\ through\\ iTunes\\ are\\ wrapped\\ in\\ DRM\\.\\ iTunes\\ has\\ recently\\ begun\\ to\\ offer\\ higher\\ quality\\ DRM\\-free\\ mp3s\\ at\\ 30\\ cents\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ usual\\ price\\ of\\ 99\\ cents\\ per\\ song\\.\\ The\\ question\\ remains\\ whether\\ DRM\\ is\\ even\\ viable\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Steve\\ Jobs\\ \\<\\/a\\>himself\\ has\\ come\\ out\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ supports\\ DRM\\-free\\ music\\,\\ but\\ then\\ he\\ conveniently\\ blames\\ record\\ companies\\ for\\ forcing\\ Apple\\ to\\ institute\\ DRM\\.\\ So\\ perhaps\\ an\\ even\\ more\\ fundamental\\ question\\ is\\ the\\ viability\\ of\\ big\\ record\\ companies\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ The\\ big\\ 4\\ record\\ companies\\ currently\\ control\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ output\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\;\\ this\\ number\\ is\\ sure\\ to\\ change\\ as\\ we\\ move\\ further\\ into\\ the\\ digital\\ age\\.\\ The\\ band\\ Radiohead\\ is\\ offering\\ their\\ new\\ album\\,\\ \\In\\ Rainbows\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ independently\\ without\\ a\\ record\\ company\\.\\ Even\\ more\\ interestingly\\,\\ the\\ customer\\ gets\\ to\\ choose\\ how\\ much\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ wants\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ the\\ album\\.\\ Is\\ this\\ something\\ we\\ will\\ see\\ more\\ of\\ in\\ the\\ future\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\*UPDATE\\ January\\ 2008\\*\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Since\\ I\\ first\\ wrote\\ this\\ entry\\ in\\ October\\,\\ Radiohead\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\In\\ Rainbows\\<\\/em\\>\\ has\\ been\\ released\\ to\\ a\\ torrent\\ of\\ publicity\\ and\\ massive\\ critical\\ and\\ yes\\,\\ even\\ commercial\\ success\\.\\ In\\ January\\,\\ In\\ Rainbows\\ was\\ also\\ released\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ CD\\ format\\ and\\ reached\\ number\\ 1\\ on\\ the\\ Billboard\\ 200\\ charts\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ had\\ been\\ legally\\ available\\ for\\ free\\ for\\ months\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\In\\ Rainbow\\<\\/em\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ release\\ strategy\\ has\\ prompted\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ responses\\,\\ some\\ skeptically\\ pointing\\ to\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ In\\ Rainbows\\ on\\ file\\-sharing\\ networks\\ despite\\ legal\\ downloads\\ and\\ others\\ more\\ progressively\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ \\ online\\ music\\ distribution\\.\\ The\\ big\\ question\\ is\\ whether\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ success\\ is\\ repeatable\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ did\\ Radiohead\\ pull\\ this\\ off\\ because\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ Radiohead\\?\\ The\\ picture\\ might\\ be\\ completely\\ different\\ for\\ an\\ up\\-and\\-coming\\ band\\ rather\\ than\\ an\\ established\\ one\\.\\ Sure\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ plenty\\ of\\ artists\\ who\\ have\\ gained\\ fame\\ through\\ MySpace\\,\\ but\\ how\\ many\\ plucked\\ from\\ obscurity\\ musicians\\ have\\ entered\\ the\\ mainstream\\ only\\ without\\ being\\ signed\\ by\\ a\\ major\\ label\\?\\ A\\ contract\\ with\\ a\\ record\\ label\\ is\\ still\\ our\\ benchmark\\ for\\ success\\,\\ and\\ this\\ idea\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ erased\\ before\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ ready\\ to\\ move\\ to\\ exclusive\\ digital\\ downloads\\.\\ I\\'m\\ far\\ from\\ a\\ music\\ industry\\ insider\\,\\ but\\ I\\'m\\ convinced\\ it\\ will\\ happen\\ eventually\\.\\ How\\ long\\ will\\ it\\ take\\?\\ That\\'s\\ the\\ question\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 4: DRM - Not Music to Our Ears "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.514508+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 5: Let\u2019s Sue! The RIAA\u2019s Current Tactic against File-Sharing", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 500, "html": "\\Since\\ 2003\\,\\ the\\ Recording\\ Industry\\ Association\\ of\\ America\\ \\(RIAA\\)\\ has\\ sued\\ over\\ 22\\,000\\ individuals\\ for\\ violating\\ copyright\\ infringement\\ through\\ P2P\\ file\\-sharing\\.\\ The\\ very\\ first\\ of\\ these\\ cases\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ court\\,\\ \\Capitol\\ Records\\ v\\.\\ Jammie\\ Thomas\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ was\\ decided\\ on\\ October\\ 4\\,\\ 2007\\.\\ The\\ jury\\ found\\ Thomas\\ liable\\ for\\ copyright\\ infringement\\ and\\ ordered\\ her\\ to\\ pay\\ \\$9\\,250\\ for\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ 24\\ songs\\ at\\ issue\\,\\ for\\ a\\ total\\ of\\ \\$222\\,000\\ in\\ statutory\\ damages\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ publicity\\ surrounding\\ \\Capitol\\ Records\\ v\\.\\ Jammie\\ Thomas\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ since\\ it\\ first\\ went\\ to\\ trial\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ October\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ very\\ kind\\ to\\ the\\ RIAA\\.\\ \\(Of\\ course\\,\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ publicity\\ was\\ also\\ generated\\ over\\ the\\ blogosphere\\ which\\ would\\ naturally\\ be\\ sympathetic\\ to\\ Thomas\\.\\)\\ First\\,\\ Sony\\ BMG\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ head\\ of\\ litigation\\,\\ Jennifer\\ Pariser\\ essentially\\ \\equated\\ fair\\ use\\ with\\ stealing\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ testimony\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\Jammie\\ Thomas\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ is\\ a\\ 30\\-year\\-old\\ single\\ mother\\ who\\ can\\ ill\\-afford\\ to\\ pay\\ \\$222\\,000\\ in\\ statutory\\ damages\\.\\ And\\ sitting\\ on\\ the\\ jury\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;peers\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ decided\\ her\\ case\\,\\ there\\ is\\ \\Michael\\ Hegg\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ admits\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ court\\ of\\ law\\,\\ the\\ RIAA\\ won\\ a\\ case\\ in\\ its\\ campaign\\ to\\ deter\\ P2P\\ file\\-sharing\\.\\ In\\ the\\ court\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\ though\\,\\ where\\ the\\ case\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ influence\\,\\ the\\ victor\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ clear\\.\\ Our\\ discussion\\ surrounding\\ \\Capitol\\ Records\\ v\\.\\ Thomas\\ \\<\\/em\\>never\\ touched\\ on\\ whether\\ she\\ was\\ guilty\\ of\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\ Legally\\,\\ circumstantial\\ evidence\\ pointed\\ quite\\ clearly\\ to\\ her\\ guilt\\.\\ But\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ progress\\,\\ morals\\,\\ and\\ fairness\\,\\ did\\ the\\ RIAA\\ do\\ the\\ right\\ thing\\ in\\ suing\\ Jammie\\ Thomas\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\When\\ file\\-sharing\\ first\\ began\\ impacting\\ the\\ music\\ industry\\,\\ the\\ RIAA\\ went\\ after\\ the\\ technology\\,\\ successfully\\ shutting\\ down\\ Napster\\,\\ Grokster\\,\\ and\\ services\\ of\\ similar\\ nature\\.\\ There\\ cases\\ were\\ discussed\\ in\\ our\\ course\\ in\\ previous\\ weeks\\.\\ But\\ courts\\ have\\ proved\\ reluctant\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ safe\\-harbor\\ for\\ file\\-sharing\\ technology\\,\\ so\\ the\\ RIAA\\ tried\\ a\\ new\\ tactic\\&\\#8212\\;going\\ after\\ the\\ downloader\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ RIAA\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ going\\ after\\ money\\ when\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ suing\\ individuals\\&\\#8212\\;after\\ all\\,\\ \\$222\\,000\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ drop\\ in\\ the\\ bucket\\ for\\ the\\ RIAA\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ many\\ times\\ the\\ salary\\ of\\ Jammie\\ Thomas\\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ send\\ a\\ message\\.\\ In\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ \\Capitol\\ v\\.\\ Thomas\\ \\<\\/em\\>case\\,\\ RIAA\\ president\\ Cary\\ Sherman\\ wrote\\ an\\ editorial\\ defending\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ sue\\ file\\-sharers\\.\\ Sherman\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ strategy\\ of\\ suing\\ individuals\\ has\\ been\\ effective\\ in\\ curbing\\ illegal\\ file\\-sharing\\.\\ From\\ 2003\\ to\\ today\\,\\ the\\ average\\ number\\ of\\ households\\ downloading\\ music\\ illegally\\ has\\ only\\ grown\\ from\\ 7\\ to\\ 7\\.8\\ million\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ unimpressive\\ until\\ you\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ that\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ households\\ with\\ broadband\\ Internet\\ access\\ has\\ grown\\ from\\ 38\\ to\\ 80\\ million\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ frame\\.\\ Sherman\\ also\\ cites\\ an\\ instructional\\ purpose\\ for\\ the\\ law\\ suits\\:\\ the\\ percentage\\ of\\ people\\ surveyed\\ who\\ are\\ aware\\ that\\ file\\-sharing\\ is\\ illegal\\ went\\ up\\ from\\ 37\\ to\\ 73\\ percent\\ since\\ 2003\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ as\\ a\\ clever\\ policy\\ debater\\ friend\\ of\\ mine\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Statistics\\ are\\ like\\ a\\ bikini\\.\\ What\\ they\\ reveal\\ is\\ enticing\\ but\\ what\\ they\\ hide\\ is\\ crucial\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ While\\ the\\ lawsuits\\ have\\ certainly\\ been\\ effective\\ in\\ scaring\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ away\\ from\\ file\\-sharing\\,\\ P2P\\ file\\-sharing\\ is\\ still\\ \\growing\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ greatest\\ fear\\ is\\ that\\ an\\ entire\\ generation\\ of\\ music\\ consumers\\ will\\ learn\\ to\\ download\\ songs\\ for\\ free\\ instead\\ of\\ buying\\ CDs\\.\\ By\\ failing\\ to\\ capitalize\\ on\\ the\\ digital\\ market\\ when\\ it\\ first\\ emerged\\,\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ greatest\\ fear\\ may\\ have\\ come\\ true\\.\\ An\\ April\\ 2004\\ \\study\\ \\<\\/a\\>at\\ Berkeley\\ found\\ that\\ 89\\%\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ students\\ were\\ aware\\ file\\-sharing\\ was\\ illegal\\ yet\\ continued\\ to\\ download\\ music\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ college\\ student\\,\\ teenager\\,\\ and\\ digital\\ native\\,\\ I\\ can\\ cite\\ plenty\\ of\\ anecdotal\\ evidence\\ that\\ P2P\\ file\\-sharing\\ has\\ become\\ normalized\\ into\\ our\\ culture\\.\\ I\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ no\\ other\\ \\&\\#8220\\;crime\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ my\\ peers\\ will\\ more\\ readily\\ admit\\ to\\ in\\ conversation\\.\\ By\\ suing\\ individuals\\,\\ the\\ RIAA\\ is\\ simply\\ playing\\ a\\ game\\ of\\ whack\\-a\\-mole\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ one\\ big\\ whacker\\ but\\ 9\\ million\\ very\\ persistent\\ moles\\.\\ The\\ chances\\ that\\ any\\ file\\-sharer\\ will\\ be\\ sued\\ are\\ infinitesimally\\ small\\,\\ far\\ less\\ than\\ 1\\%\\.\\ Further\\ complicating\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ strategy\\ is\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ P2P\\ networks\\,\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ \\&\\#8220\\;leechers\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ who\\ only\\ download\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ upload\\,\\ need\\ not\\ be\\ in\\ fear\\ of\\ being\\ sued\\.\\ Individuals\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ can\\ continue\\ to\\ download\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ plenty\\ of\\ uploaders\\ in\\ the\\ global\\ P2P\\ network\\ for\\ whom\\ US\\ copyright\\ has\\ little\\ effect\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Thomas\\ is\\ planning\\ to\\ appeal\\ the\\ case\\ in\\ court\\ though\\ the\\ central\\ discussion\\ regarding\\ the\\ case\\ is\\ not\\ her\\ crime\\,\\ but\\ the\\ RIAA\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ decision\\ to\\ sue\\ her\\ and\\ thousands\\ of\\ others\\.\\ Should\\ the\\ RIAA\\ do\\ better\\ to\\ focus\\ its\\ energies\\ on\\ developing\\ a\\ new\\ business\\ model\\ rather\\ suing\\ its\\ current\\ and\\ potential\\ customers\\?\\ Most\\ would\\ say\\,\\ yes\\.\\ Then\\ why\\ has\\ the\\ RIAA\\ been\\ so\\ reluctant\\ to\\ stop\\ suing\\ individuals\\?\\ Maybe\\ it\\'s\\ because\\ the\\ RIAA\\ thinks\\ it\\ has\\ found\\ an\\ entirely\\ new\\ business\\ model\\.\\.\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\ See\\ Part\\ 2\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 5: Let\u2019s Sue! The RIAA\u2019s Current Tactic against File-Sharing"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.526009+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 6: The Freedom of Anonymous Speech", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 501, "html": "\\\\ While\\ good\\ deal\\ of\\ this\\ blog\\ has\\ dealt\\ with\\ how\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ anonymous\\ as\\ you\\ think\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ you\\ are\\ anonymous\\ to\\ the\\ average\\ person\\.\\ As\\ long\\ as\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ break\\ any\\ laws\\ or\\ threaten\\ anyone\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ life\\,\\ nobody\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ going\\ to\\ subpoena\\ an\\ IP\\ address\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ who\\ you\\ are\\.\\ After\\ all\\,\\ I\\ am\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ anonymous\\ to\\ you\\.\\ You\\ can\\ assume\\ that\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ a\\ Harvard\\ student\\ and\\ that\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ taking\\ a\\ course\\ called\\ Cyberspace\\ in\\ Court\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ but\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ what\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ told\\ you\\.\\ I\\ could\\ be\\ a\\ \\dog\\ \\<\\/a\\>blogging\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ for\\ all\\ you\\ really\\ know\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\[TheFinalClub\\.org\\ editorial\\ note\\:\\ \\Only\\ enrolled\\ Harvard\\ students\\ are\\ permitted\\ to\\ blog\\ about\\ their\\ classes\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\]\\\r\\\\\r\\Anonymity\\,\\ then\\,\\ controls\\ the\\ dynamics\\ of\\ online\\ interaction\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ much\\ ink\\ spilled\\ and\\ bytes\\ devoted\\ to\\ lamenting\\ the\\ generally\\ low\\ level\\ of\\ discourse\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ The\\ forums\\ and\\ boards\\ of\\ almost\\ every\\ popular\\ website\\ are\\ beset\\ by\\ spammers\\,\\ flamers\\,\\ and\\ trolls\\.\\ \\Godwin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Law\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ coined\\ nearly\\ two\\ decades\\ ago\\,\\ unfortunately\\ still\\ proves\\ true\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;As\\ an\\ online\\ discussion\\ grows\\ longer\\,\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ a\\ comparison\\ involving\\ Nazis\\ or\\ Hitler\\ approaches\\ one\\.\\ \\(Not\\ to\\ say\\ there\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ intelligent\\ discourse\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ plenty\\,\\ and\\ hopefully\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ place\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ find\\ it\\.\\ There\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ just\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ crap\\ out\\ there\\ too\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ anonymity\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ correct\\ word\\ in\\ discussing\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ After\\ all\\,\\ we\\ do\\ have\\ identities\\ \\(\\Avatars\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ but\\ we\\ choose\\ them\\ ourselves\\.\\ From\\ usernames\\ \\(starprincess777\\ conveys\\ something\\ entirely\\ different\\ from\\ haxblood\\)\\ to\\ profiles\\,\\ an\\ online\\ identity\\ is\\ forged\\ entirely\\ out\\ of\\ choices\\.\\ Most\\ importantly\\,\\ it\\ is\\ untraceable\\ to\\ your\\ real\\ life\\ identity\\.\\ A\\ teenager\\ can\\ be\\ on\\ Wikipedia\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Arbitrition\\ Committee\\ \\(like\\ a\\ fellow\\ classmate\\)\\,\\ a\\ soccer\\ mom\\ can\\ play\\ Counter\\ Strike\\,\\ and\\ a\\ perfectly\\ civil\\ human\\ being\\ can\\ be\\ really\\ really\\ nasty\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ last\\ example\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ accurately\\ termed\\ libel\\,\\ is\\ the\\ legal\\ problem\\ with\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ Libel\\,\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ legally\\ workable\\ definition\\,\\ is\\ written\\ defamation\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\false\\ and\\ unprivileged\\ statement\\ of\\ fact\\ that\\ is\\ harmful\\ to\\ someone\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ reputation\\ and\\ published\\ \\&\\#8216\\;with\\ fault\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\'\\\"\\ The\\ Communications\\ Decency\\ Act\\ \\(CDA\\)\\ of\\ 1996\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ piece\\ of\\ legislation\\ at\\ play\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Malone\\ criticized\\ the\\ act\\ for\\ attempting\\ two\\ very\\ different\\ goals\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ protecting\\ new\\ technology\\ and\\ protecting\\ the\\ privacy\\ of\\ individuals\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ doing\\ a\\ poor\\ job\\ of\\ both\\.\\ Section\\ 230\\(c\\)\\(1\\)\\ of\\ the\\ CDA\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;No\\ provider\\ or\\ user\\ of\\ an\\ interactive\\ computer\\ service\\ shall\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ the\\ publisher\\ or\\ speaker\\ of\\ any\\ information\\ provided\\ by\\ another\\ information\\ content\\ provider\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ While\\ the\\ law\\ was\\ initially\\ meant\\ to\\ protect\\ ISPs\\ from\\ being\\ responsible\\ for\\ content\\ transmitted\\ across\\ their\\ networks\\,\\ the\\ phrase\\ \\&\\#8220\\;interactive\\ computer\\ service\\&\\#8221\\;\\ has\\ been\\ interpreted\\ more\\ broadly\\&\\#8212\\;some\\ say\\ too\\ broadly\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ 230\\(c\\)\\ in\\ use\\,\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ \\Carafano\\ v\\.\\ Metrosplash\\.com\\,\\ Inc\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Metrosplash\\.com\\ operates\\ the\\ online\\ dating\\ website\\ Matchmaker\\.com\\.\\ On\\ October\\ 23\\,\\ 1999\\,\\ an\\ anonymous\\ person\\ created\\ a\\ trial\\ profile\\ impersonating\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ actress\\ Christianne\\ Carafano\\.\\ The\\ profile\\ made\\ claims\\ about\\ her\\ sexual\\ preferences\\ and\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ \\&\\#8220\\;looking\\ for\\ a\\ one\\ night\\ stand\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ It\\ also\\ made\\ available\\ Carafano\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ personal\\ telephone\\ number\\ and\\ home\\ address\\,\\ so\\ she\\ was\\ soon\\ receiving\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ calls\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ callers\\ believed\\ to\\ be\\ her\\ real\\ profile\\.\\ The\\ court\\ sided\\ with\\ Metrosplash\\.\\ Citing\\ 230\\(c\\)\\(1\\)\\ of\\ the\\ CDA\\,\\ the\\ court\\ absolved\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;interactive\\ computer\\ service\\&\\#8221\\;\\ provider\\ of\\ responsibility\\,\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Matchmaker\\ did\\ not\\ play\\ a\\ significant\\ role\\ in\\ creating\\,\\ developing\\ or\\ \\&\\#8216\\;transforming\\&\\#8217\\;\\ the\\ relevant\\ information\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ a\\ ruling\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ case\\,\\ the\\ Fourth\\ District\\ Court\\ had\\ justified\\ the\\ immunity\\ of\\ interactive\\ computer\\ services\\ because\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ specter\\ of\\ tort\\ liability\\ in\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ such\\ prolific\\ speech\\ would\\ have\\ an\\ obvious\\ chilling\\ effect\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\\\&\\#8220\\;Chilling\\ effect\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ sound\\ similar\\?\\ The\\ debate\\ over\\ free\\ speech\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ is\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\ The\\ balance\\ over\\ both\\ controversies\\ hinge\\ on\\ the\\ immunity\\ of\\ third\\-party\\ service\\ providers\\.\\ While\\ many\\ argue\\ the\\ DMCA\\ to\\ be\\ too\\ restrictive\\,\\ the\\ criticism\\ of\\ the\\ CDA\\ is\\ that\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ too\\ expansive\\.\\ By\\ absolving\\ the\\ publishers\\ of\\ content\\ of\\ responsibility\\,\\ it\\ is\\ exceedingly\\ hard\\ for\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ take\\ actions\\ against\\ libel\\.\\ The\\ burden\\ lies\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ subpoena\\ records\\ and\\ ISPs\\ even\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ libelous\\ content\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ exact\\ issue\\ is\\ crucial\\ to\\ the\\ AutoAdmit\\ case\\ of\\ \\Doe\\ v\\.\\ Ciolli\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ AutoAdmit\\.com\\ is\\ self\\-proclaimed\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;most\\ prestigious\\ college\\ admissions\\ discussion\\ board\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ court\\ case\\ seems\\ to\\ indicate\\ otherwise\\.\\ In\\ June\\ 2007\\,\\ two\\ Yale\\ Law\\ School\\ students\\ sued\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ anonymous\\ posters\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ former\\ employee\\ of\\ the\\ website\\,\\ Anthony\\ Ciolli\\,\\ for\\ defamation\\.\\*\\ The\\ anonymous\\ posters\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ sued\\,\\ currently\\ only\\ known\\ by\\ their\\ usernames\\,\\ had\\ made\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ posts\\ threatening\\ and\\ harassing\\ the\\ two\\ Yale\\ Law\\ School\\ students\\.\\ The\\ \\vitriol\\ of\\ the\\ posts\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ disgusting\\ even\\ by\\ Internet\\ standards\\.\\ From\\ a\\ legal\\ standpoint\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ interesting\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ settlement\\ of\\ this\\ case\\.\\ From\\ a\\ social\\ standpoint\\ though\\,\\ we\\ should\\ ask\\ how\\ the\\ Internet\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ unleash\\ this\\ level\\ of\\ spite\\ from\\ anonymous\\ users\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\*\\CORRECTION\\ \\&\\;\\ UPDATE\\*\\ \\<\\/strong\\>The\\ post\\ had\\ incorrectly\\ referred\\ to\\ Ciolli\\ as\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ AutoAdmit\\.com\\.\\ Ciolli\\ was\\ a\\ former\\ employee\\ of\\ the\\ site\\,\\ though\\ he\\ has\\ gone\\ on\\ record\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ his\\ job\\ was\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ involved\\ with\\ the\\ message\\ boards\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ controversy\\.\\ As\\ of\\ November\\ 9\\,\\ the\\ two\\ plantiffs\\ of\\ the\\ case\\ have\\ amended\\ their\\ case\\ and\\ dropped\\ Ciolli\\ as\\ a\\ defendant\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 6: The Freedom of Anonymous Speech"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.537975+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 6: Wikipedia and the Law", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 502, "html": "\\With\\ Wikipedia\\ becoming\\ the\\ most\\ convenient\\ source\\ of\\ information\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ its\\ reliability\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ major\\ source\\ of\\ contention\\.\\ This\\ becomes\\ a\\ legal\\ problem\\ when\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ Wikipedia\\ articles\\ is\\ a\\ living\\ person\\ complaining\\ of\\ libel\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ the\\ November\\ of\\ 2005\\,\\ John\\ Seigenthaler\\ Sr\\,\\ a\\ founding\\ editor\\ of\\ USA\\ Today\\,\\ published\\ an\\ \\editorial\\ \\<\\/a\\>criticizing\\ Wikipedia\\.\\ His\\ gripe\\ was\\ personal\\.\\ His\\ Wikipedia\\ entry\\,\\ which\\ had\\ remained\\ unchanged\\ for\\ falsely\\ asserted\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;John\\ Seigenthaler\\ Sr\\.\\ was\\ the\\ assistant\\ to\\ Attorney\\ General\\ Robert\\ Kennedy\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1960s\\.\\ For\\ a\\ brief\\ time\\,\\ he\\ was\\ thought\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ directly\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ Kennedy\\ assassinations\\ of\\ both\\ John\\,\\ and\\ his\\ brother\\,\\ Bobby\\.\\ Nothing\\ was\\ ever\\ proven\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Of\\ course\\,\\ nothing\\ was\\ ever\\ proven\\ because\\ the\\ assertion\\ was\\ entirely\\ false\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Seigenthaler\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ his\\ clout\\ to\\ generate\\ a\\ media\\ frenzy\\ over\\ the\\ reliability\\ of\\ Wikipedia\\,\\ and\\ although\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ intention\\ to\\ sue\\,\\ he\\ managed\\ to\\ kick\\ up\\ a\\ legal\\ debate\\.\\ He\\ specifically\\ cited\\ section\\ 230\\ of\\ the\\ CDA\\ in\\ his\\ editorial\\,\\ which\\ absolved\\ Wikipedia\\ of\\ responsibility\\ for\\ the\\ error\\ because\\ \\&\\#8220\\;no\\ provider\\ or\\ user\\ of\\ an\\ interactive\\ computer\\ service\\ shall\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ the\\ publisher\\ or\\ speaker\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Since\\ the\\ Seigenthaler\\ controversy\\,\\ Wikipedia\\ has\\ implemented\\ a\\ standard\\ policy\\ specifically\\ treating\\ the\\ \\biographies\\ of\\ living\\ persons\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Seigenthaler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ editorial\\ used\\ exceedingly\\ harsh\\ language\\ against\\ Wikipedia\\,\\ so\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ no\\ surprise\\,\\ especially\\ given\\ the\\ general\\ opinions\\ of\\ the\\ students\\ in\\ my\\ class\\,\\ that\\ we\\ mostly\\ came\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ Wikipedia\\.\\ Even\\ preceding\\ the\\ BLP\\ policy\\,\\ it\\ was\\ very\\ easy\\ for\\ a\\ disgruntled\\ person\\ to\\ contact\\ Wikipedia\\ regarding\\ the\\ article\\ about\\ him\\ or\\ her\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ that\\ debate\\ go\\ beyond\\ Wikipedia\\.\\ Who\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ accuracy\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ a\\ person\\?\\ The\\ CDA\\ gives\\ immunity\\ to\\ publishers\\ of\\ online\\ material\\,\\ so\\ they\\ play\\ no\\ role\\ in\\ policing\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ If\\ each\\ individual\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ accuracy\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ own\\ reputation\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ that\\ places\\ a\\ tremendous\\ burden\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Wikipedia\\,\\ the\\ entry\\ is\\ easily\\ edited\\.\\ But\\ that\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ the\\ case\\ with\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ websites\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ As\\ Seigenthaler\\ mentioned\\ in\\ his\\ article\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ file\\ a\\ court\\ case\\ and\\ obtain\\ a\\ subpoena\\ just\\ to\\ identify\\ the\\ person\\ who\\ put\\ up\\ the\\ content\\.\\ And\\ filing\\ a\\ lawsuit\\ will\\ bring\\ in\\ the\\ press\\,\\ which\\ only\\ draws\\ more\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ libelous\\ content\\ in\\ question\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 6: Wikipedia and the Law"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.547869+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Are We Legal? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 503, "html": "\\When\\ I\\ first\\ walked\\ into\\ my\\ interview\\ for\\ this\\ blog\\,\\ I\\ was\\ fresh\\ out\\ of\\ my\\ first\\ Cyberspace\\ in\\ Court\\ class\\,\\ my\\ mind\\ swimming\\ with\\ ideas\\ about\\ the\\ Internet\\ and\\ its\\ relevant\\ controversies\\.\\ As\\ I\\ learned\\ the\\ specifics\\ of\\ this\\ blogging\\ job\\,\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ my\\ brain\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ part\\ that\\ knew\\ \\of\\ \\<\\/em\\>copyright\\ law\\ but\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ yet\\ know\\ \\about\\ \\<\\/em\\>it\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ asked\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ a\\ minute\\,\\ is\\ this\\ quite\\&\\#8230\\;legal\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ not\\ the\\ first\\ one\\ to\\ have\\ asked\\ this\\ question\\.\\ Andrew\\ Magliozzi\\,\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\,\\ had\\ encountered\\ copyright\\ law\\ before\\ when\\ working\\ on\\ the\\ project\\ that\\ eventually\\ sparked\\ this\\ site\\.\\ \\ The\\ entire\\ story\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ but\\ the\\ gist\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ this\\:\\ while\\ auditing\\ a\\ class\\ called\\ \\Art\\ and\\ Thought\\ of\\ the\\ Cold\\ War\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Andrew\\ kept\\ a\\ personal\\ blog\\ on\\ the\\ course\\.\\ Upon\\ discovering\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ this\\ blog\\,\\ both\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ legal\\ counsel\\ and\\ Professor\\ Menand\\,\\ who\\ taught\\ the\\ class\\,\\ asked\\ Andrew\\ to\\ remove\\ the\\ blog\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ copyright\\ argument\\ goes\\ like\\ this\\:\\ college\\ courses\\ \\(lectures\\,\\ syllabi\\,\\ and\\ even\\ reading\\ lists\\)\\ are\\ the\\ intellectual\\ property\\ of\\ professors\\,\\ and\\ lecture\\ notes\\ are\\ considered\\ derivative\\ works\\ of\\ that\\ copyrighted\\ material\\.\\ \\ Under\\ US\\ copyright\\ law\\,\\ the\\ owner\\ of\\ the\\ copyright\\&\\#8212\\;in\\ this\\ case\\ the\\ professor\\&\\#8212\\;has\\ exclusive\\ rights\\ to\\ duplicate\\,\\ distribute\\,\\ display\\,\\ and\\ make\\ derivative\\ works\\ of\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ material\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Simply\\ posting\\ lecture\\ notes\\ online\\ would\\ indeed\\ constitute\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\ Fair\\ use\\,\\ however\\,\\ places\\ certain\\ restrictions\\ on\\ these\\ exclusive\\ rights\\ for\\ purposes\\ \\&\\#8220\\;such\\ as\\&\\#8221\\;\\ criticism\\,\\ comment\\,\\ news\\ reporting\\,\\ teaching\\,\\ scholarship\\,\\ or\\ research\\.\\ \\Section\\ 107\\ of\\ US\\ copyright\\ law\\ \\<\\/a\\>suggests\\ four\\ factors\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ consideration\\ when\\ determining\\ fair\\ use\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(1\\)\\ the\\ purpose\\ and\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ use\\,\\ including\\ whether\\ such\\ use\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ commercial\\ nature\\ or\\ is\\ for\\ nonprofit\\ educational\\ purposes\\;\\\r\\\\(2\\)\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\;\\\r\\\\(3\\)\\ the\\ amount\\ and\\ substantiality\\ of\\ the\\ portion\\ used\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\;\\\r\\\\(4\\)\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ use\\ upon\\ the\\ potential\\ market\\ for\\ or\\ value\\ of\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ wording\\ of\\ the\\ fair\\ use\\ clause\\ is\\ deliberately\\ vague\\,\\ so\\ that\\ fair\\ use\\ must\\ always\\ be\\ determined\\ on\\ a\\ case\\ by\\ case\\ basis\\.\\ So\\ does\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\ fall\\ under\\ fair\\ use\\?\\ Andrew\\ has\\ his\\ opinion\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ know\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\ We\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ not\\ copying\\ lectures\\.\\ We\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ not\\ reproducing\\ class\\ notes\\.\\ We\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ doing\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ as\\ an\\ in\\-depth\\ book\\ review\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ He\\ likens\\ these\\ course\\ blogs\\ to\\ a\\ New\\ Yorker\\ book\\ review\\,\\ which\\ will\\ often\\ quote\\ the\\ book\\ extensively\\ and\\ reveal\\ many\\ plot\\ points\\ in\\ the\\ review\\.\\ \\ A\\ book\\ review\\ is\\ clearly\\ legal\\ \\(otherwise\\ many\\ publications\\ would\\ be\\ out\\ of\\ business\\)\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ created\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ criticism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ evaluating\\ whether\\ a\\ case\\ constitutes\\ fair\\ use\\,\\ the\\ court\\ takes\\ into\\ consideration\\ the\\ above\\ four\\ factors\\.\\ For\\ the\\ first\\ factor\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ purpose\\ and\\ character\\ of\\ use\\,\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\ purpose\\ is\\ educational\\,\\ but\\ because\\ the\\ final\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ project\\ is\\ commercial\\,\\ the\\ issue\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ less\\ clean\\-cut\\.\\ Then\\ again\\,\\ a\\ book\\ review\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ for\\-profit\\ magazine\\.\\ As\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ blogs\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ simply\\ regurgitate\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ they\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ they\\ ought\\ to\\ fall\\ under\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ categories\\ of\\ fair\\ use\\,\\ either\\ criticism\\,\\ comment\\ or\\ scholarship\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\ is\\ also\\ variable\\.\\ A\\ copyrighted\\ work\\ must\\ be\\ set\\ in\\ a\\ tangible\\ medium\\,\\ so\\ the\\ simple\\ oral\\ lecture\\ will\\ not\\ do\\.\\ In\\ most\\ cases\\,\\ the\\ copyrighted\\ work\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ professor\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ written\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ but\\ Harvard\\ tapes\\ some\\ lectures\\ to\\ stream\\ online\\,\\ which\\ is\\ as\\ a\\ tangible\\ medium\\ as\\ well\\.\\ That\\ brings\\ up\\ multiple\\ questions\\:\\ If\\ a\\ professor\\ gives\\ an\\ off\\ the\\ cuff\\ lecture\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ videotaped\\,\\ does\\ that\\ mean\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ not\\ copyrighted\\?\\ How\\ might\\ that\\ be\\ different\\?\\ And\\ if\\ a\\ lecture\\ is\\ copyrighted\\,\\ who\\ owns\\ it\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Harvard\\ or\\ the\\ professor\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ third\\ factor\\ probably\\ varies\\ blog\\ to\\ blog\\,\\ but\\ let\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ assume\\ that\\ a\\ blog\\ post\\ covers\\ most\\,\\ if\\ not\\ all\\,\\ of\\ the\\ content\\ in\\ a\\ lecture\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ factor\\,\\ and\\ probably\\ what\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ on\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ most\\ professors\\,\\ is\\ the\\ fourth\\:\\ the\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ potential\\ market\\.\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ professors\\ are\\ preeminent\\ scholars\\ in\\ their\\ fields\\,\\ and\\ they\\ can\\ command\\ significant\\ financial\\ benefits\\.\\ Andrew\\ mentioned\\ that\\ in\\ his\\ case\\,\\ Prof\\ Menand\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lectures\\ would\\ often\\ form\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ previous\\ or\\ upcoming\\ New\\ Yorker\\ articles\\ or\\ even\\ his\\ next\\ book\\.\\ When\\ MIT\\ began\\ its\\ \\OpenCourseWare\\<\\/a\\>\\ initiative\\ several\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ the\\ largest\\ protests\\ came\\ from\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Faculty\\ authors\\ \\[who\\]\\ were\\ concerned\\ that\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ giving\\ away\\ intellectual\\ property\\ and\\ thus\\ hurt\\ sales\\ of\\ their\\ textbooks\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ How\\ these\\ blogs\\ may\\ affect\\ the\\ future\\ profits\\ of\\ professors\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ predict\\,\\ but\\ the\\ purpose\\ and\\ the\\ ideas\\ within\\ these\\ blogs\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ a\\ textbook\\.\\ An\\ important\\ distinction\\ to\\ make\\ is\\ that\\ copyright\\ does\\ not\\ protect\\ the\\ content\\ but\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ expression\\.\\ Ideas\\ are\\ not\\ copyrighted\\,\\ but\\ the\\ execution\\ is\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\MIT\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ OpenCourseWare\\ is\\ only\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ worldwide\\ open\\ course\\ ware\\ movement\\.\\ The\\ vision\\ of\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ fits\\ into\\ this\\.\\ But\\ Andrew\\ hopes\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\ will\\ serve\\ a\\ different\\ purpose\\ then\\ MIT\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ OCW\\,\\ which\\ he\\ says\\ simply\\ \\&\\#8220\\;provides\\ information\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ want\\ it\\.\\ What\\ I\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ provide\\ the\\ inspiration\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ seek\\ out\\ knowledge\\&\\#8212\\;to\\ inspire\\ genuine\\ academic\\ interest\\.\\ \\ And\\,\\ most\\ of\\ all\\ to\\ provide\\ a\\ forum\\ for\\ students\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ enrollment\\,\\ to\\ engage\\ with\\ the\\ best\\ ideas\\ from\\ the\\ brightest\\ minds\\ at\\ Harvard\\ and\\ eventually\\ every\\ school\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ my\\ blog\\,\\ I\\ have\\ written\\ frequently\\ about\\ the\\ Internet\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ deliver\\ information\\ as\\ revolutionary\\,\\ enabling\\ and\\ inspiring\\ individuals\\ to\\ seek\\ out\\ more\\ knowledge\\.\\ So\\ why\\ not\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ this\\ in\\ education\\?\\ For\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ education\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ open\\ course\\ ware\\,\\ and\\ the\\ goals\\ of\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\,\\ are\\ for\\ the\\ greater\\ social\\ good\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Legally\\ speaking\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\ infringing\\ on\\ copyright\\?\\ Given\\ the\\ evidence\\,\\ my\\ opinion\\ is\\ no\\.\\ I\\ am\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ not\\ entirely\\ impartial\\,\\ as\\ I\\ certainly\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ fancy\\ myself\\ a\\ criminal\\.\\ However\\,\\ should\\ Harvard\\ or\\ any\\ of\\ its\\ affiliates\\ choose\\ to\\ sue\\,\\ legally\\ speaking\\,\\ a\\ court\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ opinion\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ actually\\ matters\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Are We Legal? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.560321+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 7: Free Porn or Free Speech? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 504, "html": "\\As\\ we\\ continued\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ regulation\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;objectionable\\ speech\\&\\#8221\\;\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ this\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ overarching\\ topic\\ was\\ the\\ regulation\\ of\\ free\\ speech\\ through\\ government\\ regulation\\.\\ Seeing\\ Internet\\ pornography\\ and\\ citizen\\ journalism\\ lumped\\ together\\ on\\ the\\ syllabus\\ had\\ initially\\ taken\\ me\\ by\\ surprise\\,\\ but\\ through\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ our\\ discussion\\,\\ I\\ found\\ them\\ to\\ both\\ be\\ deeply\\ tied\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ free\\ speech\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ issue\\ of\\ pornography\\ is\\ almost\\ entirely\\ impossible\\ to\\ debate\\ without\\ getting\\ entangled\\ in\\ morals\\ and\\ personal\\ standards\\.\\ This\\ certainly\\ was\\ an\\ issue\\ we\\ grappled\\ with\\ in\\ our\\ discussions\\.\\ But\\ morality\\ aside\\ from\\ a\\ moment\\,\\ strictly\\ from\\ a\\ legal\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ legal\\ status\\ of\\ pornography\\?\\ It\\ turns\\ out\\ even\\ this\\ question\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ answer\\.\\ At\\ a\\ federal\\ level\\,\\ obscene\\ speech\\,\\ which\\ pornography\\ may\\ fall\\ under\\,\\ is\\ illegal\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\Miller\\ test\\ for\\ obscenity\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\(a\\)\\ whether\\ \\\"the\\ average\\ person\\,\\ applying\\ contemporary\\ community\\ standards\\\"\\ would\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ work\\,\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ appeals\\ to\\ the\\ prurient\\ interest\\\r\\\\(b\\)\\ whether\\ the\\ work\\ depicts\\ or\\ describes\\,\\ in\\ a\\ patently\\ offensive\\ way\\,\\ sexual\\ conduct\\ specifically\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ applicable\\ state\\ law\\,\\ and\\\r\\\\(c\\)\\ whether\\ the\\ work\\,\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ lacks\\ serious\\ literary\\,\\ artistic\\,\\ political\\,\\ or\\ scientific\\ value\\.\\ If\\ a\\ state\\ obscenity\\ law\\ is\\ thus\\ limited\\,\\ First\\ Amendment\\ values\\ are\\ adequately\\ protected\\ by\\ ultimate\\ independent\\ appellate\\ review\\ of\\ constitutional\\ claims\\ when\\ necessary\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Miller\\ test\\ is\\ a\\ not\\ statute\\ in\\ federal\\ legislation\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ court\\ ruling\\ in\\ Miller\\ v\\.\\ California\\,\\ and\\ it\\ has\\ since\\ become\\ our\\ standard\\ for\\ obscenity\\.\\ The\\ problem\\,\\ though\\,\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ definition\\ intrinsically\\ ties\\ the\\ legal\\ standard\\ with\\ a\\ concept\\ as\\ vague\\ and\\ variable\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;contemporary\\ community\\ standards\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ What\\ is\\ a\\ community\\?\\ Who\\ determines\\ the\\ standards\\?\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ define\\ those\\ standards\\?\\ These\\ are\\ all\\ questions\\ that\\ the\\ Miller\\ test\\ leaves\\ unanswered\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\These\\ questions\\ become\\ even\\ complicated\\ when\\ considered\\ in\\ a\\ digital\\ context\\.\\ When\\ Miller\\ was\\ decided\\ in\\ 1973\\,\\ a\\ community\\ could\\ at\\ least\\ be\\ restricted\\ to\\ a\\ geographical\\ location\\.\\ In\\ 2007\\,\\ the\\ Internet\\ has\\ allowed\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;community\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ transcend\\ its\\ physical\\ boundaries\\ and\\ limitations\\.\\ Is\\ a\\ community\\ everyone\\ who\\ frequents\\ one\\ website\\,\\ every\\ Internet\\ user\\ in\\ Massachusetts\\,\\ every\\ user\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ or\\ maybe\\ even\\ every\\ user\\ in\\ the\\ world\\?\\ Of\\ course\\,\\ what\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;obscene\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ thus\\ illegal\\ in\\ one\\ community\\ may\\ be\\ acceptable\\ in\\ another\\.\\ And\\ while\\ an\\ inhabitant\\ of\\ Alabama\\ could\\ easily\\ avoid\\ San\\ Francisco\\,\\ a\\ virtual\\ community\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ click\\ away\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ This\\ problem\\ of\\ different\\ community\\ standards\\ was\\ the\\ central\\ issue\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ \\Nikte\\ v\\.\\ Gonzalez\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ 2005\\.\\ \\ Barbara\\ Nitke\\ is\\ a\\ photographer\\ who\\ focuses\\ on\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ subject\\ matter\\ as\\ an\\ exploration\\ of\\ sexuality\\.\\ She\\ challenged\\ the\\ Communications\\ Decency\\ Act\\ \\(link\\)\\ for\\ violating\\ free\\ speech\\ as\\ her\\ work\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ obscene\\ in\\ one\\ context\\ but\\ non\\-obscene\\ in\\ another\\.\\ Because\\ she\\ then\\ has\\ no\\ control\\ over\\ where\\ her\\ photographs\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\,\\ the\\ argument\\ goes\\ that\\ community\\ standards\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ restricted\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ conservative\\ view\\,\\ essentially\\ chilling\\ free\\ speech\\.\\ Although\\ the\\ court\\ ruled\\ against\\ Nitke\\ on\\ technical\\ grounds\\,\\ it\\ left\\ the\\ door\\ wide\\ open\\ for\\ someone\\ else\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ CDA\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ issue\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ debate\\ over\\ pornography\\ is\\ even\\ more\\ convoluted\\ when\\ minors\\ are\\ brought\\ into\\ the\\ equation\\.\\ Child\\ pornography\\,\\ pornography\\ that\\ depicts\\ minors\\ \\(under\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 18\\)\\ in\\ sexual\\ acts\\,\\ is\\ expressly\\ prohibited\\.\\ The\\ legal\\ reasoning\\ behind\\ this\\,\\ though\\,\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ little\\ surprising\\.\\ According\\ to\\ various\\ court\\ rulings\\,\\ child\\ pornography\\ is\\ illegal\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ record\\ of\\ the\\ crime\\ of\\ child\\ abuse\\,\\ not\\ because\\ viewing\\ child\\ pornography\\ is\\,\\ using\\ very\\ non\\-legal\\ terms\\,\\ an\\ immoral\\ or\\ sick\\ act\\.\\ This\\ line\\ of\\ reasoning\\,\\ which\\ seeks\\ to\\ protect\\ free\\ speech\\,\\ forms\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ court\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ruling\\ in\\ \\\\Ashcroft\\ v\\.\\ The\\ Free\\ Speech\\ Coalition\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\ that\\ struck\\ down\\ the\\ Child\\ Pornography\\ Prevention\\ Act\\ of\\ 1996\\ \\(CPPA\\)\\.\\ COPA\\ had\\ prohibited\\ \\&\\#8220\\;virtual\\ child\\ pornography\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ defined\\ as\\ any\\ visual\\ depiction\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;is\\,\\ or\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\,\\ of\\ a\\ minor\\ engaging\\ in\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ conduct\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Although\\ the\\ statute\\ was\\ originally\\ intended\\ to\\ prohibit\\ computer\\ generated\\ child\\ pornography\\ or\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ actors\\ are\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ minors\\,\\ the\\ court\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ apply\\ that\\ the\\ vague\\ definition\\ to\\ \\Romeo\\ \\ and\\ Juliet\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\American\\ Beauty\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ which\\ are\\ works\\ with\\ significant\\ artistic\\ merit\\.\\ \\ By\\ looking\\ into\\ precedents\\,\\ the\\ court\\ even\\ went\\ to\\ say\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ mere\\ tendency\\ of\\ speech\\ to\\ encourage\\ unlawful\\ acts\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ sufficient\\ reason\\ for\\ banning\\ it\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ facet\\ of\\ the\\ pornography\\ and\\ minors\\ debate\\ is\\ restricting\\ the\\ access\\ of\\ minors\\ to\\ pornography\\.\\ The\\ relevant\\ federal\\ is\\ the\\ \\Child\\ Online\\ Project\\ Act\\ \\(COPA\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ which\\ Prof\\ Malone\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;vampire\\ of\\ child\\ pornography\\ laws\\&\\#8221\\;\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ struck\\ down\\ by\\ courts\\ and\\ resurrected\\ by\\ Congress\\ multiple\\ times\\.\\ The\\ latest\\ development\\ came\\ in\\ March\\ 2007\\,\\ when\\ the\\ 3rd\\ District\\ Court\\ ruled\\ COPA\\ facially\\ violated\\ the\\ First\\ and\\ Fifth\\ Amendments\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ government\\ has\\ filed\\ an\\ appeal\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ COPA\\ has\\ not\\ yet\\ died\\ for\\ good\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ order\\ to\\ protect\\ minors\\ from\\ sexually\\ explicit\\ material\\,\\ COPA\\ stipulated\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Whoever\\ knowingly\\ and\\ with\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ the\\ material\\,\\ in\\ interstate\\ or\\ foreign\\ commerce\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ Wide\\ Web\\,\\ makes\\ any\\ communication\\ for\\ commercial\\ purposes\\ that\\ is\\ available\\ to\\ any\\ minor\\ and\\ that\\ includes\\ any\\ material\\ that\\ is\\ harmful\\ to\\ minors\\ shall\\ be\\ fined\\ not\\ more\\ than\\ \\$50\\,000\\,\\ imprisoned\\ not\\ more\\ than\\ 6\\ months\\,\\ or\\ both\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ practical\\ problem\\ is\\ then\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ whether\\ the\\ person\\ sitting\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ computer\\ is\\ a\\ minor\\ or\\ not\\?\\ Truth\\ is\\,\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ fool\\-proof\\ way\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ The\\ technology\\ simply\\ does\\ not\\ yet\\ exist\\.\\ The\\ court\\ had\\ suggested\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ filters\\ that\\ are\\ customizable\\ for\\ different\\ ages\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ turned\\ off\\ for\\ adults\\.\\ But\\ even\\ filters\\ are\\ not\\ imperfect\\.\\ My\\ parents\\ once\\ used\\ an\\ AOL\\ filter\\ that\\ would\\ block\\ Google\\ \\(is\\ that\\ obscenity\\ or\\ just\\ competition\\&\\#8230\\;\\?\\)\\ and\\ another\\ student\\ mentioned\\ the\\ filter\\ at\\ his\\ school\\ wouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ allowing\\ searching\\ for\\ Dick\\ Cheney\\ because\\ of\\ well\\,\\ his\\ first\\ name\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ judge\\ also\\ ruled\\ in\\ the\\ ACLU\\ v\\.\\ Gonzalez\\ that\\ COPA\\ was\\ underinclusive\\ because\\ it\\ had\\ no\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ non\\-American\\ websites\\.\\ This\\ part\\ was\\ most\\ fascinating\\ to\\ me\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ only\\ me\\ since\\ it\\ never\\ came\\ up\\ in\\ discussion\\.\\ Short\\ of\\ blocking\\ all\\ international\\ websites\\,\\ a\\ federal\\ law\\ can\\ do\\ little\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ Cyberspace\\ has\\ erased\\ those\\ physical\\ boundaries\\ upon\\ which\\ we\\ once\\ based\\ our\\ laws\\,\\ and\\ Congress\\ has\\ been\\ erecting\\ walls\\ in\\ response\\.\\ For\\ better\\ or\\ for\\ worse\\,\\ no\\ wall\\ can\\ withstand\\ the\\ flood\\ of\\ information\\ released\\ by\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ adopt\\ new\\ strategies\\ to\\ regulate\\ obscene\\ speech\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ more\\ about\\ citizen\\ journalism\\:\\ \\click\\ here\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 7: Free Porn or Free Speech? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.667803+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 11: Net Neutrality and Monopolies ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 514, "html": "\\It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ unfortunate\\ that\\ these\\ two\\ complex\\ issues\\ or\\ network\\ neutrality\\ and\\ antitrust\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ jammed\\ into\\ one\\ class\\,\\ though\\ that\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ probably\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ Privacy\\ and\\ copyright\\ were\\ issues\\ especially\\ close\\ to\\ our\\ own\\ experiences\\ as\\ college\\ students\\.\\ In\\ those\\ discussions\\,\\ we\\ could\\ tease\\ out\\ personal\\ anecdotes\\ and\\ challenge\\ preformed\\ opinions\\ about\\ Facebook\\ or\\ file\\-sharing\\.\\ Network\\ neutrality\\ and\\ antitrust\\ are\\ obviously\\ significant\\ but\\ further\\ removed\\ from\\ our\\ day\\ to\\ day\\ lives\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ the\\ discussion\\ of\\ these\\ topics\\ was\\,\\ as\\ always\\,\\ interesting\\ and\\ informed\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Among\\ our\\ readings\\ on\\ network\\ neutrality\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ \\FAQ\\ \\<\\/a\\>put\\ together\\ by\\ Tim\\ Wu\\,\\ Columbia\\ law\\ professor\\ and\\ Slate\\ writer\\ whose\\ work\\ has\\ popped\\ up\\ in\\ \\earlier\\ classes\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Since\\ Wu\\ frames\\ the\\ issue\\ so\\ succinctly\\,\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ copy\\ it\\ here\\ and\\ avoid\\ muddling\\ it\\ up\\ with\\ my\\ words\\:\\\r\\\\Network\\ neutrality\\ is\\ best\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ network\\ design\\ principle\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ maximally\\ useful\\ public\\ information\\ network\\ aspires\\ to\\ treat\\ all\\ content\\,\\ sites\\,\\ and\\ platforms\\ equally\\.\\ This\\ allows\\ the\\ network\\ to\\ carry\\ every\\ form\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ support\\ every\\ kind\\ of\\ application\\.\\ \\ The\\ principle\\ suggests\\ that\\ information\\ networks\\ are\\ often\\ more\\ valuable\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ less\\ specialized\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ platform\\ for\\ multiple\\ uses\\,\\ present\\ and\\ future\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ network\\ neutrality\\ has\\ its\\ roots\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ foundational\\ designs\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ To\\ go\\ even\\ further\\ back\\,\\ network\\ neutrality\\ in\\ telecommunications\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ to\\ telegraphs\\,\\ as\\ all\\ messages\\ were\\ routed\\ impartially\\.\\ If\\ this\\ all\\ sounds\\ very\\ abstract\\,\\ perhaps\\ an\\ analogy\\ is\\ in\\ order\\.\\ Wu\\ compares\\ the\\ network\\ to\\ an\\ electrical\\ grid\\.\\ Regardless\\ of\\ whether\\ I\\ plug\\ in\\ a\\ laptop\\ or\\ smoke\\ detector\\ or\\ microwave\\,\\ the\\ electric\\ grid\\ treats\\ all\\ the\\ appliances\\ the\\ same\\.\\ No\\ one\\ thing\\ is\\ given\\ precedence\\.\\ How\\ does\\ this\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ Internet\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Suppose\\ that\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ IT\\ workers\\ take\\ a\\ walk\\ through\\ the\\ library\\ Sunday\\ night\\ and\\ realize\\ that\\ half\\ the\\ students\\ are\\ on\\ Facebook\\ rather\\ than\\ doing\\ homework\\.\\ \\(The\\ latter\\ part\\ about\\ Facebook\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ sight\\.\\)\\ \\ In\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ discouraging\\ Facebook\\ and\\ increasing\\ productivity\\ of\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ students\\,\\ they\\ put\\ in\\ controls\\ to\\ slow\\ down\\ the\\ network\\ when\\ connecting\\ to\\ Facebook\\.\\ This\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ network\\ neutrality\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ an\\ actual\\ example\\ currently\\ playing\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ we\\ looked\\ at\\ Comcast\\,\\ an\\ Internet\\ service\\ provider\\ who\\ has\\ been\\ accused\\ of\\ \\throttling\\ peer\\-to\\-peer\\ traffic\\<\\/a\\>\\ on\\ its\\ networks\\.\\ \\(Anyone\\ interested\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ technical\\,\\ if\\ somewhat\\ biased\\,\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ events\\,\\ here\\ are\\ the\\ \\EFF\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ findings\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ There\\ are\\ legitimate\\ business\\ and\\ economic\\ arguments\\ for\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ network\\ neutrality\\ debate\\.\\ Comcast\\ here\\ argues\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ practicing\\ legitimate\\ network\\ management\\.\\ After\\ all\\,\\ if\\ a\\ network\\ is\\ being\\ chocked\\ by\\ peer\\-to\\-peer\\ file\\-sharing\\,\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ it\\ be\\ slowed\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ letting\\ through\\ more\\ \\&\\#8220\\;important\\&\\#8221\\;\\ traffic\\?\\ The\\ problem\\,\\ though\\,\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ inability\\ of\\ our\\ technology\\ to\\ discriminate\\ between\\ important\\ and\\ nonimportant\\ peer\\-to\\-peer\\ traffic\\.\\ Given\\ the\\ anecdotal\\ evidence\\,\\ I\\ would\\ concede\\ that\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ p2p\\ traffic\\ is\\ illegal\\ file\\-sharing\\,\\ yet\\ that\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mean\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ legitimately\\ used\\ uncopyrighted\\ material\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\However\\,\\ Comcast\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ private\\ corporation\\,\\ so\\ it\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ it\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ decide\\ how\\ it\\ runs\\ its\\ own\\ private\\ networks\\?\\ That\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ where\\ our\\ discussion\\ took\\ a\\ more\\ theoretical\\ economic\\ turn\\.\\ Has\\ our\\ society\\ evolved\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ where\\ right\\ to\\ Internet\\ access\\ something\\ as\\ basic\\ as\\ electricity\\ or\\ running\\ water\\?\\ \\(An\\ interesting\\ detour\\ from\\ the\\ previous\\ point\\ led\\ us\\ to\\ this\\ study\\:\\ \\the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ 24th\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ broadband\\ penetration\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ behind\\ countries\\ such\\ as\\ Estonia\\ and\\ Qatar\\.\\)\\ \\ If\\ Internet\\ access\\ truly\\ is\\ this\\ basic\\,\\ then\\ perhaps\\ private\\ companies\\ need\\ to\\ honor\\ a\\ higher\\ ideal\\ than\\ the\\ bottom\\ line\\.\\ \\(The\\ cynic\\ in\\ me\\ says\\ good\\ luck\\ with\\ that\\.\\)\\ \\ \\ If\\ network\\ neutrality\\ were\\ truly\\ to\\ work\\,\\ it\\ will\\ most\\ likely\\ involve\\ government\\ intervention\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ infrastructure\\ needed\\ to\\ provide\\ Internet\\ access\\ is\\ so\\ expensive\\,\\ ISPs\\ essentially\\ have\\ a\\ natural\\ monopoly\\.\\ The\\ free\\ market\\ would\\ fail\\ here\\ because\\ some\\ areas\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ limited\\ choice\\ between\\ broadband\\ service\\ providers\\,\\ so\\ users\\ may\\ have\\ no\\ choice\\ but\\ a\\ non\\-neutral\\ network\\.\\ Rep\\.\\ Edward\\ Markley\\ \\(D\\-Mass\\.\\)\\ is\\ apparently\\ preparing\\ to\\ propose\\ a\\ Network\\ Neutrality\\ Act\\,\\ though\\ that\\ would\\ only\\ be\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ legislative\\ process\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ area\\ of\\ important\\ government\\ intervention\\ is\\ antitrust\\.\\ The\\ most\\ \\(in\\)famous\\ antitrust\\ of\\ our\\ time\\ involves\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ \\Microsoft\\ \\(pdf\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Malone\\ was\\ a\\ litigator\\ in\\ the\\ case\\,\\ and\\ he\\ showed\\ us\\ a\\ few\\ clips\\ from\\ the\\ trial\\ of\\ Bill\\ Gates\\ on\\ the\\ stand\\.\\ Without\\ being\\ too\\ blithe\\,\\ I\\ have\\ to\\ say\\ it\\ was\\ very\\ obvious\\ that\\ Gates\\ was\\ lying\\.\\ The\\ case\\,\\ which\\ was\\ began\\ almost\\ a\\ decade\\ ago\\ in\\ 1998\\,\\ accused\\ Microsoft\\ of\\ monopolistic\\ practices\\ regarding\\ its\\ browser\\,\\ Internet\\ Explorer\\ \\(IE\\)\\.\\ At\\ the\\ time\\&\\#8212\\;it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ almost\\ shocking\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ it\\ now\\&\\#8212\\;Netscape\\ was\\ the\\ leading\\ Internet\\ browser\\,\\ and\\ Microsoft\\ had\\ strategically\\ tied\\ in\\ IE\\ with\\ its\\ operating\\ system\\ in\\ attempt\\ to\\ promote\\ its\\ own\\ browser\\.\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ too\\ technical\\,\\ so\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ end\\ this\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ Microsoft\\ lost\\ the\\ case\\.\\ Of\\ course\\ today\\,\\ Netscape\\ is\\ long\\ dead\\ and\\ Mozilla\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Firefox\\ is\\ IE\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ major\\ rival\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ Microsoft\\ antitrust\\ case\\ is\\ most\\ relevant\\ in\\ its\\ application\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ current\\ issue\\&\\#8212\\;Apple\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ iTunes\\.\\ The\\ doctrine\\ behind\\ both\\ cases\\ is\\ tie\\-in\\.\\ Microsoft\\ and\\ Apple\\ both\\ acquired\\ legitimate\\ natural\\ monopolies\\ through\\ the\\ superiority\\ of\\ their\\ operating\\ system\\ and\\ mp3\\ players\\,\\ respectively\\.\\ \\(I\\ realize\\ this\\ is\\ debatable\\ but\\ bear\\ with\\ me\\ here\\.\\)\\ The\\ illegal\\ actions\\ is\\ when\\ the\\ company\\ takes\\ that\\ monopoly\\ in\\ one\\ market\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ cross\\ it\\ over\\ to\\ another\\ market\\.\\ Microsoft\\ did\\ this\\ with\\ Internet\\ Explorer\\,\\ and\\ many\\ argue\\ that\\ Apple\\ is\\ doing\\ this\\ with\\ iTunes\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Music\\ bought\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ iTunes\\ store\\ is\\ wrapped\\ in\\ FairPlay\\,\\ DRM\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ encrypted\\ song\\ playable\\ only\\ on\\ iPods\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ users\\ who\\ use\\ the\\ iTunes\\ store\\ are\\ locked\\ into\\ Apple\\ products\\.\\ Determining\\ whether\\ Apple\\ actually\\ is\\ being\\ monopolistic\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ defining\\ the\\ market\\ it\\ operates\\ in\\.\\ If\\ the\\ market\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;paid\\ online\\ music\\ downloads\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ then\\ yes\\,\\ iTunes\\ does\\ indeed\\ look\\ like\\ a\\ monopoly\\.\\ However\\,\\ nonencrypted\\ songs\\ ripped\\ off\\ of\\ CDs\\ or\\ \\ downloaded\\ illegally\\ can\\ be\\ played\\ on\\ any\\ mp3\\ player\\.\\ Steve\\ Jobs\\,\\ though\\ not\\ an\\ impartial\\ source\\ claims\\ that\\ \\only\\ 3\\%\\ of\\ music\\ on\\ iPods\\ is\\ bought\\ from\\ iTunes\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ If\\ the\\ market\\ is\\ music\\ mp3s\\,\\ then\\ iTunes\\ is\\ far\\ from\\ a\\ monopoly\\.\\ \\So\\ far\\ US\\ litigators\\ seem\\ reluctant\\ to\\ go\\ after\\ Apple\\,\\ so\\ the\\ company\\ has\\ been\\ getting\\ some\\ heat\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\ The\\ future\\ of\\ digital\\ music\\ is\\ very\\ much\\ in\\ the\\ air\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ a\\ reward\\ for\\ getting\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ very\\ long\\ entry\\,\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ funny\\ video\\ about\\ the\\ US\\'s\\ past\\ trustbusting\\ efforts\\.\\ \\ You\\ be\\ the\\ judge\\ of\\ its\\ effectiveness\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/object\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 11: Net Neutrality and Monopolies "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.285006+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Burden of Disease in Developing World: HIV Prevention", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 553, "html": "\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\,\\ \\Burden\\ of\\ Disease\\ in\\ the\\ Developing\\ World\\:\\ HIV\\ Prevention\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ was\\ given\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ Kenneth\\ Mayer\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ main\\ question\\ that\\ the\\ lecture\\ aimed\\ to\\ answer\\ was\\:\\ \\w\\<\\/strong\\>\\here\\ are\\ we\\ with\\ HIV\\ treatment\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ good\\ news\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Mayer\\,\\ is\\ that\\ \\>\\;3\\ million\\ people\\ living\\ with\\ HIV\\ are\\ now\\ on\\ treatment\\,\\ with\\ \\>\\;1\\ million\\ initiating\\ therapy\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ year\\.\\ The\\ bad\\ news\\ is\\ that\\ those\\ 3\\ million\\ people\\ represent\\ only\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ need\\ treatment\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ worse\\ news\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ year\\,\\ 6\\ times\\ as\\ many\\ people\\ became\\ infected\\ as\\ initiated\\ therapy\\.\\ There\\ were\\ 2\\.7\\ million\\ new\\ infections\\ from\\ HIV\\ and\\ 2\\ million\\ deaths\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\What\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ transmission\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\nHIV\\ transmission\\ is\\ a\\ significant\\,\\ low\\ probability\\ event\\ \\(\\<\\;1\\ in\\ a\\ 100\\)\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ usually\\ take\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ point\\ of\\ contact\\ to\\ become\\ infected\\.\\ Why\\ do\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ global\\ epidemic\\ if\\ it\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ so\\ hard\\ to\\ transmit\\?\\ Because\\ the\\ methods\\ of\\ transmission\\ are\\ global\\ \\(sexual\\ contact\\,\\ sharing\\ syringes\\,\\ blood\\ transfusion\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ As\\ Dr\\.\\ Lurie\\ noted\\,\\ people\\ with\\ a\\ higher\\ plasma\\ load\\ are\\ infectious\\ giving\\ rise\\ to\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\Can\\ wider\\ access\\ to\\ HAART\\ decrease\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ new\\ infections\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>This\\ would\\ decrease\\ viral\\ load\\,\\ which\\ is\\ essential\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ weeks\\ of\\ the\\ infection\\.\\ Other\\ sexually\\ transmitted\\ infections\\ increase\\ HIV\\ transmission\\ and\\ acquisition\\,\\ which\\ begs\\ the\\ question\\:\\\\ Could\\ STI\\ control\\ decrease\\ HIV\\ spread\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ the\\ HIV\\ infection\\ in\\ blood\\ level\\ may\\ not\\ necessarily\\ be\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ genital\\ tract\\.\\ Biological\\ interventions\\ are\\ intrinsically\\ connected\\ to\\ behavioral\\ issues\\,\\ which\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ consider\\ when\\ thinking\\ about\\ HIV\\ interventions\\ and\\ preventions\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nApproaches\\ to\\ prevent\\ HIV\\ transmission\\ can\\ happen\\ in\\ three\\ ways\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\Decrease\\ source\\ of\\ infection\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>barrier\\ protection\\,\\ blood\\ screening\\,\\ treat\\ STI\\,\\ antiretroviral\\ therapy\\ \\(PMTCT\\,\\ Rx\\ of\\ chronic\\ HIV\\,\\ Rx\\ of\\ acute\\ infection\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\Decrease\\ host\\ susceptibility\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ barrier\\ protection\\,\\ infection\\ control\\,\\ treat\\ STI\\,\\ PEP\\/PrEP\\,\\ microbicides\\,\\ vaccines\\,\\ circumcision\\\\\r\\\n\\Alter\\ risk\\-taking\\ behavior\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ condom\\ promotion\\,\\ individual\\ interventions\\,\\ couple\\ intervention\\,\\ community\\-based\\ intervention\\,\\ structural\\ interventions\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ economic\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Treating\\ with\\ ART\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ transmission\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nAs\\ we\\ discussed\\ earlier\\,\\ plasma\\ HIV\\ RNA\\ predicts\\ likelihood\\ of\\ transmission\\,\\ which\\ can\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ when\\ to\\ give\\ someone\\ with\\ HIV\\ treatment\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ other\\ infections\\ from\\ happening\\.\\ In\\ a\\ study\\ done\\ in\\ 2000\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ noted\\ linear\\ relationship\\ between\\ viral\\ load\\ and\\ HIV\\ transmission\\.\\ If\\ people\\ with\\ higher\\ viral\\ load\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ transmit\\,\\ shouldn\\'t\\ we\\ give\\ people\\ treatment\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ infectious\\?\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ factors\\ to\\ consider\\:\\ \\[1\\]\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ treatment\\ will\\ lower\\ viral\\ load\\ is\\ shaky\\ \\[2\\]\\ people\\ being\\ studied\\ had\\ never\\ been\\ on\\ treatment\\ \\[3\\]\\ people\\ being\\ studied\\ were\\ non\\-progressors\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHIV\\ is\\ spreading\\ quickly\\,\\ and\\ behavioral\\ interventions\\ have\\ not\\ resulted\\ in\\ long\\-term\\ changes\\ in\\ most\\ settings\\.\\ Also\\,\\ vaccines\\ and\\ microbicides\\ are\\ years\\ away\\,\\ whereas\\ ART\\ is\\ here\\ now\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nHowever\\,\\ ART\\ is\\ expensive\\,\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ repetitively\\,\\ may\\ result\\ in\\ toxicities\\,\\ and\\ can\\ select\\ for\\ resistance\\.\\ It\\ also\\ may\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ phenomenon\\ called\\ behavioral\\ disinhibition\\.\\ Behavioral\\ disinhibition\\ is\\ when\\ people\\,\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ protected\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ by\\ ART\\)\\ feel\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ can\\ engage\\ in\\ risky\\ behaviors\\ without\\ taking\\ other\\ precautions\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ an\\ HIV\\-positive\\ man\\ is\\ treated\\ with\\ ART\\ so\\ he\\ engages\\ in\\ sexual\\ activity\\ without\\ using\\ a\\ condom\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Public\\ health\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ ART\\ as\\ a\\ prevention\\ because\\ if\\ people\\ can\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ access\\ or\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ adhere\\ to\\ treatment\\ then\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ and\\ off\\ medicine\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ resistance\\ can\\ develop\\.\\ Also\\,\\ using\\ ART\\ as\\ prevention\\ is\\ not\\ helpful\\ in\\ protecting\\ people\\ with\\ STIs\\ because\\ STIs\\ breakdown\\ muscosal\\ integrity\\,\\ they\\ recruit\\ activated\\ target\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ enhance\\ cytokine\\ environment\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\nTreating\\ STIs\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevent\\ HIV\\ transmission\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ have\\ been\\ 5\\ trials\\ of\\ symdromic\\ and\\ mass\\ bacterial\\/protozoal\\ STI\\ management\\,\\ which\\ have\\ demonstrated\\ mixed\\ results\\ in\\ HIV\\ prevention\\.\\ Only\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ trials\\ has\\ been\\ successful\\.\\ STI\\ control\\ may\\ be\\ most\\ effective\\ in\\ populations\\ relatively\\ early\\ in\\ HIV\\ epidemics\\ with\\ high\\ prevalence\\ of\\ STIs\\ and\\ sexual\\ risk\\ behavior\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nPEP\\/\\ PrEP\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nPEP\\ \\(post\\-exposure\\ prophylaxis\\)\\ and\\ PrEP\\ \\(pre\\-exposure\\ prophylaxis\\)\\ are\\ the\\ new\\ frontier\\ in\\ HIV\\ prevention\\ work\\.\\ In\\ animal\\ studies\\,\\ the\\ antiretrovirals\\ were\\ highly\\ protective\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;70\\-100\\%\\ effective\\.\\ Most\\ studied\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ Emtricitabine\\ and\\ Tenofavori\\,\\ which\\ was\\ highly\\ effective\\ even\\ after\\ repeated\\ exposures\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWe\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ if\\ PEP\\ will\\ work\\ in\\ humans\\,\\ but\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ works\\ in\\ animals\\.\\ There\\ are\\ now\\ many\\ studies\\ underway\\ that\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ issue\\;\\ the\\ main\\ questions\\ in\\ these\\ studies\\ will\\ be\\ about\\ resistance\\ and\\ cost\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nWomen\\ and\\ HIV\\ risk\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nNext\\,\\ Mayer\\ discussed\\ women\\ and\\ HIV\\ risk\\.\\ Condom\\ use\\ often\\ depends\\ on\\ male\\ acceptance\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ reliable\\ prevention\\ for\\ most\\ women\\.\\ Also\\,\\ women\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ HIV\\ risk\\ because\\ their\\ partner\\ doesn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ know\\ themselves\\ or\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ choose\\ to\\ tell\\ them\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ often\\ powerless\\ in\\ sexual\\ relationships\\,\\ and\\ domestic\\ violence\\ is\\ another\\ huge\\ concern\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nMicrobicides\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ solution\\ for\\ women\\.\\ They\\ are\\ hidden\\ or\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153stealth\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ male\\ partners\\ wouldn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ have\\ to\\ know\\ if\\ women\\ wanted\\ to\\ use\\ them\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ microbicide\\ gels\\ could\\ even\\ enhance\\ sexual\\ pleasure\\.\\ Microbicides\\ are\\ applied\\ topically\\ to\\ genital\\ mucosal\\ surfaces\\.\\ They\\ inhibit\\ HIV\\ infection\\ via\\ cell\\-free\\ and\\ cell\\-associated\\ virus\\.\\ They\\ also\\ inhibit\\ viral\\,\\ bacterial\\,\\ and\\ protozoan\\ STD\\ pathogens\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\nMayer\\ explained\\ why\\ microbicides\\ haven\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ worked\\ yet\\.\\ Certain\\ microbicides\\ increase\\ irritation\\ with\\ frequent\\ use\\,\\&\\#160\\;\\ others\\ upregulate\\ inflammatory\\ factors\\,\\ others\\ downregulate\\ host\\ defenses\\,\\ and\\ some\\ fail\\ to\\ inhibit\\ some\\ viral\\ subtypes\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ deal\\ of\\ research\\ attempting\\ to\\ curb\\ these\\ limitations\\ and\\ get\\ a\\ good\\ microbicide\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Male\\ Circumcision\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nIs\\ male\\ circumcision\\ an\\ efficacious\\ prevention\\ method\\?\\ Three\\ trials\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ beneficial\\ to\\ decrease\\ risk\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ barriers\\ to\\ using\\ circumcision\\ as\\ prevention\\.\\ These\\ barriers\\ include\\:\\ cultural\\ acceptability\\,\\ disinhibition\\,\\ circumcision\\ does\\ not\\ alter\\ gender\\ inequalities\\ and\\ violence\\,\\ doesn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ prevent\\ male\\-female\\ transmission\\,\\ scale\\ up\\,\\ and\\ questionable\\ utility\\ for\\ men\\ who\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ men\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Cervical\\ Interventions\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ female\\ cervix\\ is\\ also\\ particularly\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ HIV\\ and\\ STI\\ transmission\\.\\ The\\ only\\ trial\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ attempted\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ cervix\\ as\\ HIV\\ prevention\\ failed\\,\\ but\\ there\\ were\\ questions\\ about\\ adherence\\ in\\ the\\ trial\\.\\ There\\ are\\ other\\ trials\\ underway\\ to\\ study\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ cervical\\ barriers\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nHIV\\ testing\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nAnother\\ prevention\\ could\\ be\\ more\\ routine\\ HIV\\ testing\\.\\ With\\ new\\ technologies\\ such\\ as\\ Oraquick\\ \\(pictured\\ below\\)\\,\\ it\\ is\\ getting\\ easier\\ to\\ get\\ tested\\ \\(more\\ accessible\\,\\ less\\ time\\ consuming\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ many\\ barriers\\ to\\ routine\\ HIV\\ testing\\:\\ insufficient\\ understanding\\ of\\ HIV\\ risk\\ factors\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ accessibility\\,\\ stigma\\/fear\\ of\\ discrimination\\,\\ drug\\ and\\ alcohol\\ abuse\\,\\ mental\\ illness\\,\\ low\\ education\\ levels\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ health\\ insurance\\,\\ confidentiality\\ issues\\/distrust\\ of\\ system\\,\\ cultural\\ challenges\\,\\ technical\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ turnaround\\ time\\ and\\ venipuncture\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.cdc\\.gov\\/hiv\\/topics\\/testing\\/rapid\\/images\\/OraQuick\\_Test\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Working\\ with\\ HIV\\-positive\\ people\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nFinally\\,\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ HIV\\ positive\\ to\\ help\\ prevent\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ HIV\\.\\ Providers\\ of\\ HIV\\ positive\\ need\\ to\\ reinforce\\ how\\ HIV\\ is\\ spread\\,\\ and\\ ask\\ if\\ patient\\ is\\ taking\\ action\\ to\\ prevent\\ spread\\ in\\ a\\ non\\-judgmental\\ and\\ specific\\ way\\.\\ Providers\\ can\\ also\\ provide\\ information\\,\\ materials\\,\\ and\\ support\\ for\\ HIV\\-positive\\ patients\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Burden of Disease in Developing World: HIV Prevention"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.315128+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tobacco", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 555, "html": "\\\\\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ on\\ \\Tobacco\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\was\\ given\\ by\\ Professor\\ Raymond\\ Niaura\\.\\ Professor\\ Niaura\\ began\\ by\\ telling\\ us\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ tobacco\\ work\\ being\\ done\\ by\\ the\\ WHO\\.\\ They\\ have\\ created\\ a\\ framework\\ for\\ basic\\ tobacco\\ control\\ and\\ strategies\\ and\\ virtually\\ every\\ country\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ signed\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ framework\\,\\ except\\ for\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Niaura\\ began\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\ explanation\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ tobacco\\ and\\ tobacco\\ use\\.\\ The\\ tobacco\\ plant\\ began\\ growing\\ and\\ being\\ used\\ in\\ 6000\\ BC\\.\\ Columbus\\,\\ Jerrez\\,\\ and\\ Torres\\ saw\\ the\\ natives\\ smoking\\ in\\ Cuba\\.\\ Jerez\\ brought\\ the\\ habit\\ back\\ to\\ Europe\\ in\\ 1492\\.\\ In\\ 1560\\ Jean\\ Nicot\\ de\\ Villemain\\,\\ France\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ ambassador\\ to\\ Portugal\\,\\ wrote\\ about\\ tobacco\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ medicinal\\ properties\\.\\ People\\ started\\ to\\ first\\ express\\ concern\\ about\\ tobacco\\ in\\ 1602\\,\\ when\\ James\\ the\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ of\\ England\\ published\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Counterblaste\\ to\\ Tobacco\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ In\\ 1665\\ Samual\\ Pepys\\ conducted\\ an\\ experiment\\ on\\ a\\ cat\\,\\ causing\\ its\\ death\\ after\\ feeding\\ in\\ one\\ drop\\ of\\ distilled\\ oil\\ of\\ tobacco\\.\\ In\\ 1761\\,\\ John\\ Hill\\ carried\\ out\\ the\\ first\\ clinical\\ experiment\\ on\\ tobacco\\;\\ the\\ results\\ uncovered\\ that\\ snuff\\ users\\ were\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ cancers\\ of\\ the\\ nose\\.\\ A\\ series\\ of\\ experiments\\ thereafter\\ link\\ smoking\\ to\\ cancer\\ and\\ other\\ health\\ dangers\\.\\ In\\ 1912\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Adler\\ did\\ an\\ experiment\\ that\\ the\\ link\\ between\\ lung\\ cancer\\ and\\ smoking\\ was\\ very\\ strong\\.\\ In\\ 1914\\ the\\ lung\\ cancer\\ death\\ rate\\ was\\ only\\ \\.6\\ per\\ 100\\,000\\.\\ By\\ 1925\\ that\\ rate\\ climbs\\ to\\ 1\\.7\\ per\\ 100\\,000\\.\\ By\\ 1930\\,\\ the\\ rate\\ climbs\\ to\\ 3\\.8\\ per\\ 100\\,000\\.\\ By\\ 1948\\,\\ lung\\ cancer\\ was\\ observed\\ to\\ have\\ grown\\ 5\\ times\\ faster\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ cancer\\.\\ In\\ 1950\\,\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ important\\ epidemiological\\ studies\\ proving\\ the\\ first\\ powerful\\ links\\ between\\ smoking\\ and\\ lung\\ cancer\\.\\ In\\ 1994\\,\\ two\\ researchers\\ publish\\ a\\ retrospective\\ study\\ and\\ conclude\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153about\\ half\\ of\\ all\\ regular\\ cigarette\\ smokers\\ will\\ eventually\\ be\\ killed\\ by\\ their\\ tobacco\\ habit\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\What\\ was\\ the\\ tobacco\\ industry\\ doing\\ throughout\\ these\\ years\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ It\\ was\\ publishing\\ many\\ ads\\ that\\ encouraged\\ people\\ to\\ smoke\\ by\\ showing\\ different\\ sects\\ of\\ society\\ \\(including\\ doctors\\)\\ smoking\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1194\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Professor\\ Niaura\\ then\\ told\\ us\\ about\\ the\\ Master\\ Settlement\\ Agreement\\,\\ where\\ the\\ tobacco\\ companies\\ agreed\\ to\\ give\\ each\\ participating\\ state\\ money\\ to\\ provide\\ smoking\\ treatment\\ and\\ prevention\\.\\ Unfortunately\\,\\ most\\ of\\ that\\ money\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ used\\ to\\ help\\ smokers\\ or\\ prevent\\ more\\ smoking\\ in\\ several\\ states\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1444\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1444\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ an\\ agent\\ \\(such\\ as\\ tobacco\\)\\ can\\ cause\\ disease\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1471\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Temporal\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1476\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Reversibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1480\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Strength\\ of\\ association\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1489\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Consistency\\ of\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1493\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Biological\\ plausibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1498\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Biological\\ gradient\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1718\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Specificity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1724\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Coherence\\ of\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1730\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Experimental\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1734\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Reasoning\\ by\\ analogy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1515\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1747\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u00a6all\\ of\\ this\\ criteria\\ has\\ been\\ met\\ for\\ smoking\\:lung\\ cancer\\ relationship\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1523\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1523\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ tobacco\\ epidemic\\ can\\ be\\ grouped\\ into\\ four\\ stages\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1536\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Stage\\ 1\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ smoking\\ grows\\ rapidly\\ but\\ few\\ women\\ smoke\\.\\ There\\ is\\ little\\ tobacco\\ caused\\ disease\\ because\\ men\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ smoking\\ long\\ enough\\ for\\ this\\ to\\ occur\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1565\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Stage\\ 2\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ More\\ women\\ begin\\ to\\ smoke\\,\\ and\\ men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ smoking\\ remains\\ high\\.\\ Male\\ tobacco\\ related\\ deaths\\ are\\ high\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ very\\ little\\ female\\ mortality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1606\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Stage\\ 3\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Male\\ smoking\\ starts\\ to\\ fall\\,\\ but\\ male\\ tobacco\\ related\\ morality\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ rise\\,\\ reflecting\\ years\\ of\\ smoking\\.\\ Female\\ smoking\\ plateaus\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ spike\\ in\\ female\\ mortality\\ from\\ tobacco\\ related\\ disease\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1668\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Stage\\ 4\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Male\\ smoking\\ continues\\ to\\ fall\\,\\ and\\ male\\ mortality\\ also\\ starts\\ to\\ fall\\.\\ Female\\ and\\ male\\ smoking\\ rates\\ are\\ about\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ female\\ mortality\\ continues\\ to\\ rise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1770\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 1885\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Today\\,\\ men\\ only\\ really\\ smoke\\ about\\ 1\\ percentage\\ point\\ higher\\ than\\ women\\.\\ Men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ smoking\\ rates\\ have\\ decreased\\ more\\ severely\\ than\\ women\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ rates\\.\\ The\\ incidence\\ of\\ lung\\ cancer\\ is\\ highest\\ amongst\\ cancers\\ that\\ can\\ affect\\ women\\.\\ Tobacco\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ actual\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ leading\\ with\\ 400\\,000\\ deaths\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 2168\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 2169\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ is\\ an\\ average\\ loss\\ of\\ about\\ 20\\-25\\ years\\ old\\ life\\ expectancy\\ for\\ each\\ death\\ from\\ tobacco\\ in\\ MIDDLE\\ age\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ increase\\ in\\ smoking\\ by\\ young\\ adults\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ misleading\\ delay\\ of\\ effects\\ for\\ several\\ decades\\.\\ And\\ then\\ eventually\\,\\ about\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ all\\ deaths\\ in\\ middle\\ age\\ can\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ tobacco\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 2353\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 2354\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>China\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ country\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ tobacco\\.\\ The\\ number\\ of\\ smokers\\ is\\ growing\\ rapidly\\:\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ men\\ are\\ smokers\\ by\\ age\\ 25\\.\\ Very\\ few\\ quit\\ and\\ about\\ half\\ of\\ these\\ smokers\\ can\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ die\\ from\\ tobacco\\ related\\ disease\\.\\ The\\ number\\ of\\ male\\ deaths\\ alone\\ from\\ tobacco\\ is\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ 3\\ million\\ by\\ the\\ mid\\ 2000s\\.\\ About\\ 100\\ million\\ of\\ the\\ 300\\ million\\ Chinese\\ male\\ smokers\\ who\\ are\\ currently\\ younger\\ than\\ 29\\ will\\ be\\ killed\\ by\\ tobacco\\,\\ half\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ middle\\ age\\.\\ This\\ means\\ a\\ substantial\\ loss\\ of\\ productive\\ life\\ years\\,\\ which\\ may\\ have\\ an\\ interesting\\ effect\\ on\\ China\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ economic\\ growth\\.\\ China\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ producer\\ of\\ tobacco\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ largest\\ consumer\\.\\ They\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ export\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ crop\\;\\ most\\ is\\ consumed\\ within\\ the\\ country\\.\\ Tobacco\\ provides\\ somewhere\\ between\\ 5\\-10\\%\\ of\\ revenue\\ in\\ China\\,\\ which\\ presents\\ an\\ interesting\\ dilemma\\.\\ While\\ making\\ a\\ major\\ contribution\\ to\\ the\\ economy\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ killing\\ many\\ of\\ China\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ people\\ whose\\ health\\ care\\ will\\ eventually\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ covered\\ by\\ the\\ government\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 2666\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 2030\\,\\ tobacco\\ is\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ single\\ biggest\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ worldwide\\,\\ accounting\\ for\\ about\\ 10\\ million\\ deaths\\/year\\.\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 2648\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&\\#160\\;About\\ 1\\.1\\ billion\\ people\\ smoke\\ worldwide\\,\\ by\\ 2025\\ the\\ number\\ is\\ projected\\ to\\ be\\ 1\\.6\\ million\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 2760\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ biggest\\ predictor\\ of\\ whether\\ people\\ smoke\\ is\\ if\\ they\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ sustain\\ the\\ habit\\.\\ When\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ begins\\ to\\ move\\ through\\ the\\ economic\\ transition\\,\\ there\\ will\\ surely\\ be\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ smoking\\ worldwide\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 3171\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 3172\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>A\\ recent\\ survey\\,\\ surveying\\ about\\ 1000\\ Americans\\,\\ found\\ that\\ most\\ American\\ smokers\\ would\\ not\\ quit\\ smoking\\ despite\\ the\\ current\\ economic\\ depression\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ many\\ non\\-smokers\\ said\\ they\\ felt\\ they\\ may\\ start\\ smoking\\ because\\ of\\ stress\\ felt\\ from\\ economic\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 3478\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 3480\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nicotine\\ addiction\\ is\\ highest\\ between\\ ages\\ 13\\-17\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ children\\ are\\ not\\ technically\\ allowed\\ to\\ buy\\ cigarettes\\,\\ they\\ find\\ the\\ means\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Smoking\\ rates\\ amongst\\ high\\ schoolers\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ are\\ highest\\ amongst\\ white\\ Americans\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ Hispanics\\ and\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 3734\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 3734\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ conclusion\\,\\ can\\ interventions\\ make\\ a\\ difference\\?\\ If\\ you\\ can\\ quit\\ smoking\\ at\\ any\\ time\\,\\ you\\ can\\ drastically\\ change\\ your\\ life\\ expectancy\\ and\\ disease\\ outcomes\\ that\\ arise\\ from\\ smoking\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ smokers\\ quit\\ between\\ ages\\ 45\\-53\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ quitting\\ is\\ quite\\ significant\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ cessation\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ where\\ interventions\\ should\\ take\\ place\\.\\ Some\\ measures\\ to\\ reduce\\ demand\\ include\\ higher\\ cigarette\\ taxes\\,\\ non\\-price\\ measures\\ \\(consumer\\ information\\,\\ research\\,\\ cigarette\\ advertising\\ and\\ promotion\\ bans\\,\\ warning\\ labels\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ and\\ increased\\ access\\ to\\ nicotine\\ replacement\\ and\\ other\\ cessation\\ therapies\\.\\ The\\ non\\-price\\ measures\\ are\\ missing\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ and\\ will\\ be\\ needed\\ to\\ curb\\ smoking\\ epidemics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tobacco"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.360216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Burden of Antibiotic Resistance for Developing Countries", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 558, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ \\The\\ Burden\\ of\\ Antibiotic\\ Resistance\\ for\\ Developing\\ Countries\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ was\\ given\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ Opal\\ from\\ the\\ Warren\\ Alpert\\ Medical\\ School\\ of\\ Brown\\ University\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Opal\\ is\\ an\\ infectious\\ disease\\ doctor\\ in\\ Pawtucket\\,\\ RI\\,\\ and\\ an\\ expert\\ on\\ microbial\\ resistance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dr\\.\\ Opal\\ began\\ by\\ stressing\\ the\\ importance\\ and\\ dominance\\ of\\ bacteria\\.\\ Bacteria\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ thing\\ on\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ nothing\\ but\\ bacteria\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ 1\\.8\\ million\\ years\\ of\\ life\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ Antibiotics\\,\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ topic\\,\\ have\\ only\\ been\\ around\\ for\\ 60\\-70\\ years\\.\\ Today\\,\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ the\\ world\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ current\\ biomass\\ is\\ bacteria\\.\\ 99\\.9\\%\\ of\\ that\\ bacteria\\ are\\ non\\-pathogen\\,\\ and\\ provide\\ good\\ things\\ to\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ to\\ humans\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Opal\\ emphasized\\ the\\ sophistication\\ and\\ highly\\ evolved\\ nature\\ of\\ bacteria\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bacteria\\ far\\ outnumber\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ human\\ cells\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ The\\ average\\ person\\ has\\ 10\\ \\^\\ 13\\ human\\ cells\\ and\\ 10\\ \\^14\\ bacteria\\ living\\ on\\ them\\ \\.\\ Fortunately\\,\\ most\\ of\\ this\\ bacteria\\ is\\ not\\ hurting\\ us\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/img\\.skitch\\.com\\/20080204\\-giec64wkh1hy6w89en42cw62qi\\.jpg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ was\\ it\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ pre\\-antibiotic\\ era\\?\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ different\\ world\\;\\ the\\ pediatric\\ floors\\ in\\ hospitals\\ were\\ filled\\ with\\ kids\\ with\\ infections\\ that\\ were\\ mostly\\ taken\\ of\\ with\\ surgical\\ procedures\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ treat\\ ear\\ infections\\ when\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ antibiotics\\,\\ doctors\\ would\\ operate\\ on\\ a\\ child\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ ear\\ drum\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ cure\\ chronic\\ ear\\ infections\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Paul\\ Ehrlich\\ discovered\\ the\\ first\\ successful\\ chemotherapy\\ for\\ Syphilis\\ in\\ 1912\\.\\ His\\ student\\,\\ G\\.\\ Domagk\\,\\ developed\\ the\\ first\\ real\\ oral\\ antibiotic\\ in\\ 1928\\.\\ That\\ same\\ year\\,\\ Fleming\\ discovered\\ the\\ first\\ antibacterial\\ properties\\ of\\ Penicillium\\ molds\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Antibiotics\\ have\\ decreased\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ infections\\ and\\ infectious\\ disease\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\,\\ where\\ the\\ reigning\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\ are\\ now\\ heart\\ disease\\,\\ cancer\\,\\ and\\ stroke\\ \\(all\\ non\\-bacterial\\ diseases\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\18\\.5\\ million\\ metric\\ tons\\ of\\ antibiotics\\ are\\ produced\\ yearly\\ worldwide\\.\\ That\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ 750\\ fully\\ load\\ 747\\ jumbo\\ jets\\.\\ The\\ global\\ antibiotic\\ revenue\\ was\\ \\$44\\ billion\\ in\\ 2005\\.\\ Over\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ antibiotic\\ use\\ is\\ for\\ non\\-medical\\ use\\;\\ they\\ are\\ used\\ as\\ pesticides\\,\\ for\\ food\\ storage\\,\\ as\\ growth\\ stimulants\\ for\\ cattle\\ and\\ hogs\\,\\ and\\ for\\ treatment\\ of\\ animals\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ polluting\\ the\\ environment\\ with\\ antibiotics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ residual\\ environmental\\ impact\\ of\\ antibiotic\\ use\\ far\\ exceeds\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ its\\ intended\\ use\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ example\\,\\ oxytetracycline\\ is\\ often\\ used\\ to\\ keep\\ crops\\ fresh\\.\\ Oftentimes\\,\\ a\\ plane\\ is\\ flown\\ over\\ the\\ crops\\ and\\ sprays\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ antibiotic\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ a\\ large\\ amount\\ of\\ the\\ antibiotic\\ ends\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\ and\\ water\\ where\\ bacteria\\ live\\.\\ The\\ bacteria\\ become\\ resistant\\ to\\ oxytetracycline\\ and\\ continue\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\ and\\ water\\ for\\ years\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ takeaway\\ point\\ is\\ that\\ antibiotics\\ seem\\ doomed\\ to\\ fail\\ because\\ bacteria\\ have\\ a\\ seemingly\\ unlimited\\ ability\\ to\\ develop\\ resistance\\.\\ Bacteria\\ have\\ a\\ complex\\ system\\ of\\ genetic\\ exchange\\ that\\ creates\\ a\\ common\\ gene\\ pool\\ for\\ desirable\\ genes\\.\\ In\\ the\\ pre\\-antibiotic\\ era\\,\\ resistance\\ genes\\ existed\\ but\\ were\\ rare\\ in\\ human\\ pathogens\\.\\ Bacteria\\ have\\ now\\ found\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ ways\\ to\\ resist\\ antibiotics\\.\\ Bacteria\\ will\\ increase\\ their\\ mutation\\ rate\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ strategy\\ to\\ fight\\ an\\ antibiotic\\,\\ this\\ is\\ especially\\ possible\\ when\\ the\\ antibiotic\\ being\\ encountered\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ low\\ dose\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Humans\\ beings\\ spread\\ bacteria\\ very\\ quickly\\,\\ which\\ is\\ dangerous\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ spreading\\ antibiotic\\ resistant\\ bacteria\\.\\ A\\ single\\ antibiotic\\ resistance\\ gene\\ that\\ evolves\\ anywhere\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ can\\ disseminate\\ worldwide\\ within\\ weeks\\ if\\ the\\ resistance\\ genes\\ provides\\ a\\ selective\\ advantage\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ is\\ resistance\\ worse\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\[1\\]\\ Density\\ and\\ sheer\\ number\\ of\\ infections\\ and\\ amount\\ of\\ infectious\\ disease\\;\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ infections\\,\\ more\\ antibiotic\\ use\\,\\ more\\ selection\\ pressure\\ for\\ antibiotic\\ resistance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\[2\\]\\ Crowding\\,\\ poor\\ sanitation\\,\\ drinking\\ water\\,\\ nutritional\\ deficiencies\\,\\ HIV\\,\\ inadequate\\ vaccination\\ of\\ people\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\[3\\]\\ Little\\ to\\ no\\ antibiotic\\ control\\;\\ most\\ antibiotics\\ sold\\ OTC\\ and\\ antibiotic\\ purchase\\ and\\ use\\ is\\ not\\ regulated\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\[4\\]\\ Antibiotics\\ used\\ frequently\\ for\\ agriculture\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ consequence\\ of\\ this\\ high\\ resistance\\ is\\ that\\ typical\\ antibiotic\\ regimens\\ become\\ ineffective\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ there\\ is\\ greater\\ risk\\ for\\ death\\ from\\ untreated\\ infections\\.\\ Another\\ consequence\\ is\\ the\\ huge\\ potential\\ for\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ resistance\\ throughout\\ populations\\.\\ Also\\,\\ when\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ resistant\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ antibiotics\\,\\ doctors\\ often\\ have\\ to\\ use\\ more\\ expensive\\ and\\ more\\ toxic\\ antibiotics\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ resistance\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.health\\.state\\.ny\\.us\\/nysdoh\\/antibiotic\\/images\\/antibiotic\\_bookmark\\_265x410\\.png\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ stop\\ the\\ non\\-medical\\ use\\ of\\ antibiotics\\ in\\ agriculture\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ establish\\ strict\\ control\\ of\\ antibiotics\\ manufacturing\\ and\\ OTC\\ use\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ non\\-antibiotic\\ therapies\\ \\(vaccines\\,\\ surgeries\\,\\ probiotics\\)\\ would\\ help\\ curb\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ antibiotic\\ resistance\\.\\ The\\ development\\ of\\ vaccines\\ is\\ underway\\ but\\ there\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ financial\\ and\\ scientific\\ commitment\\ throughout\\ the\\ global\\ community\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Burden of Antibiotic Resistance for Developing Countries"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Operations Planning- Overview", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 556, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\Critical\\ Path\\ Scheduling\\<\\/b\\>\\-\\<\\/a\\>\\ shows\\ how\\ each\\ operation\\ depends\\ on\\ others\\.\\&\\#160\\;It\\ is\\ useful\\ in\\ realizing\\ the\\ affect\\ of\\ a\\ delay\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ setting\\ priorities\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Critical\\ Path\\ Method\\ \\(CPM\\)\\ or\\ Program\\ Evaluation\\ Review\\ Technique\\ \\(PERT\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Slack\\ time\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/b\\>\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ earliest\\ end\\ date\\ and\\ the\\ latest\\ possible\\ end\\ date\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ format\\ of\\ a\\ diagram\\ using\\ the\\ Critical\\ Path\\ Method\\ is\\ shown\\ below\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\In\\ a\\ true\\ design\\,\\ the\\ numbers\\ and\\ letters\\ would\\ be\\ replaced\\ with\\ task\\ assignments\\ and\\ expected\\ completion\\ times\\ for\\ the\\ various\\ tasks\\.\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ \\\\Gantt\\ Chart\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ often\\ used\\ in\\ coordination\\ with\\ Critical\\ Path\\ Scheduling\\ and\\ is\\ useful\\ in\\ seeing\\ start\\ and\\ finish\\ dates\\ of\\ each\\ sub\\-project\\ in\\ the\\ schedule\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;A\\ simple\\ sample\\ Gantt\\ Chart\\ is\\ shown\\ below\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Aravind\\ Eye\\ Hospital\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/u\\>The\\ Aravind\\ Eye\\ Hospital\\ is\\ located\\ in\\ Madurai\\,\\ India\\ and\\ specializes\\ in\\ cataract\\ surgery\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Aravind\\ Eye\\ Hospital\\-\\ Problems\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Lack\\ of\\ space\\ for\\ patients\\ and\\ surgeries\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\ million\\ people\\ to\\ service\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\3\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Offering\\ a\\ regional\\ service\\ in\\ areas\\ with\\ bad\\ transportation\\ making\\ it\\ difficult\\ for\\ patients\\ to\\ access\\ the\\ hospital\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ Business\\ Model\\ \\(Strategy\\)\\ for\\ Aravind\\?\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Use\\ paying\\ customers\\ to\\ subsidize\\ free\\ customers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\A\\ \\Flow\\ Chart\\<\\/b\\>\\ helps\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ business\\ model\\/process\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\A\\ flow\\ chart\\ for\\ free\\ patients\\ from\\ Eye\\ Camp\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Eye\\ Camp\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Registration\\ and\\ Preliminary\\ Test\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Operation\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Post\\ Op\\.\\ Recovery\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\What\\ are\\ major\\ constraints\\ for\\ Aravind\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ costs\\?\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ most\\ major\\ costs\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ salaries\\ of\\ surgeons\\ and\\ nurses\\ and\\ within\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ operations\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ primary\\ constraint\\ for\\ Aravind\\ is\\ the\\ limitation\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ going\\ through\\ the\\ system\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ paying\\ customers\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Increasing\\ Capacity\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Scheduling\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Needs\\ another\\ scheduling\\ model\\ to\\ have\\ hospital\\ working\\ at\\ capacity\\ all\\ week\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Overtime\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\3\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Additional\\ shift\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\4\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Subcontracting\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\5\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Add\\ machine\\-\\ need\\ to\\ balance\\ line\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\6\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Plant\\ expansion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\7\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ plant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Higher\\ initial\\ cost\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Example\\:\\ New\\ Balance\\ must\\ increase\\ their\\ capacity\\.\\&\\#160\\;They\\ can\\ make\\ shoes\\ cheapest\\ by\\ investing\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ plant\\ which\\ is\\ most\\ efficient\\.\\&\\#160\\;However\\,\\ investment\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ plant\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ continued\\ growth\\ of\\ demand\\.\\&\\#160\\;If\\ demand\\ will\\ not\\ keep\\ growing\\,\\ investment\\ is\\ not\\ worthwhile\\,\\ and\\ for\\ New\\ Balance\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ issue\\ because\\ they\\ just\\ went\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ Runners\\ World\\ Survey\\.\\&\\#160\\;Solution\\:\\ take\\ a\\ short\\ term\\ measure\\ \\(such\\ as\\ making\\ an\\ additional\\ shift\\)\\ and\\ measure\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ demand\\ before\\ making\\ a\\ long\\ term\\ investment\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Capacity\\ Calculations\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Assume\\ a\\ new\\ hospital\\.\\&\\#160\\;Assume\\ one\\ team\\ of\\ 5\\ surgeons\\ and\\ 15\\ nurses\\.\\ How\\ many\\ bed\\ and\\ how\\ many\\ eye\\ camps\\?\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\A\\ team\\ of\\ 5\\ surgeons\\ and\\ 15\\ nurses\\ will\\ mean\\ 30\\ operations\\ an\\ hour\\.\\&\\#160\\;Because\\ two\\ operations\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ at\\ once\\,\\ this\\ means\\ four\\ minutes\\ will\\ be\\ allotted\\ to\\ each\\ patient\\ and\\ one\\ team\\ can\\ do\\ 15\\ operations\\ per\\ hour\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Concern\\:\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ surgeons\\ and\\ nurses\\ are\\ completing\\ so\\ many\\ operations\\ per\\ hour\\,\\ the\\ main\\ concern\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ fatigue\\.\\&\\#160\\;Thus\\,\\ these\\ operations\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ performed\\ for\\ five\\ hours\\ a\\ day\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ will\\ be\\ spent\\ on\\ other\\ operations\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\This\\ results\\ in\\ 150\\ patients\\ per\\ day\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ hospital\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ post\\ operation\\ recovery\\ time\\ allotted\\ to\\ each\\ patient\\ which\\ is\\ currently\\ estimated\\ at\\ four\\ days\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ hospital\\ needs\\ 600\\ beds\\ and\\ more\\ eye\\ camps\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ hospital\\ conducts\\ 23110\\ free\\ surgeries\\ from\\ 300\\ eye\\ camps\\,\\ thus\\ meaning\\ that\\ each\\ eye\\ camp\\ produces\\ 70\\ patients\\ \\(23110\\/300\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;To\\ get\\ 150\\ patients\\ per\\ day\\,\\ the\\ hospital\\ thus\\ needs\\ at\\ least\\ two\\ eye\\ camps\\ at\\ once\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNew\\ Hospital\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ hospital\\ for\\ Aravind\\ was\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ operating\\ room\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ and\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ was\\ the\\ free\\ customer\\ ward\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ was\\ the\\ ward\\ for\\ the\\ paying\\ customers\\&\\#160\\;\\(diagram\\ below\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ created\\ problems\\ in\\ attracting\\ customers\\ because\\ the\\ paying\\ customers\\ and\\ free\\ customers\\ were\\ very\\ close\\ together\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ hospital\\ did\\ not\\ attract\\ that\\ many\\ paying\\ customers\\ because\\ there\\ did\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ worthwhile\\ difference\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ shows\\ that\\ facilities\\ should\\ reflect\\ the\\ business\\ model\\.\\ \\\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Paying\\ Customers\\ Ward\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Operating\\ Room\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Free\\ Customers\\ Ward\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Operations Planning- Overview"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Sears Holdings Corporation", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 554, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Today\\'s\\ speaker\\,\\ Susan\\ Ehrlirch\\ is\\ a\\ Brown\\ graduate\\,\\ class\\ of\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u212288\\.\\&\\#160\\;After\\ her\\ graduation\\ from\\ Brown\\ and\\ dabbling\\ in\\ a\\ few\\ other\\ jobs\\,\\ Susan\\ entered\\ into\\ the\\ real\\ market\\ with\\ her\\ job\\ with\\ the\\ Sears\\ Holdings\\ Corporation\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Who\\ is\\ Sears\\ Holdings\\?\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Sears\\ Holdings\\ is\\ the\\ 4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ largest\\ retail\\ company\\ in\\ America\\ behind\\ WalMart\\,\\ Target\\ and\\ Home\\ Depot\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Combined\\,\\ Sears\\,\\ K\\-Mart\\ and\\ Lands\\ End\\ generate\\ over\\ \\$50\\ billion\\ in\\ annual\\ revenues\\ through\\ approximately\\ 3\\,800\\ stores\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Canada\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;These\\ stores\\ are\\ mostly\\ anchored\\ in\\ malls\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Sears\\ Holdings\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ nation\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ largest\\ server\\ of\\ home\\ services\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\K\\-Mart\\ has\\ over\\ 1\\,400\\ stores\\ across\\ 49\\ states\\ and\\ sells\\ general\\ merchandise\\.\\&\\#160\\;They\\ carry\\ approximately\\ 60\\ thousand\\ \\-80\\ thousand\\ stock\\ keeping\\ units\\ of\\ merchandise\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\To\\ find\\ out\\ more\\ about\\ Sears\\ Holdings\\,\\ visit\\ \\www\\.searsholdings\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Importance\\ of\\ Cash\\ Flow\\ in\\ Retail\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Susan\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ profit\\ and\\ cash\\ flow\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Profit\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ measurement\\ of\\ how\\ you\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122re\\ doing\\ at\\ a\\ point\\ in\\ time\\.\\&\\#160\\;For\\ example\\,\\ operating\\ profit\\ measures\\ a\\ completed\\ experience\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Alternately\\,\\ \\cash\\ flow\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ the\\ inflows\\ and\\ outflows\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ business\\ is\\ doing\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\What\\ do\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ start\\ a\\ retail\\ business\\?\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Merchandise\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Space\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Advertising\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Employees\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Shipping\\,\\ delivery\\ and\\ warehousing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Information\\ technology\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Measurement\\ of\\ Cash\\ Flow\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ inflows\\ and\\ outflows\\)\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ a\\ \\Cash\\ flow\\ statement\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ An\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ cash\\ flow\\ statement\\ is\\ seen\\ below\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\http\\:\\/\\/i\\.investopedia\\.com\\/inv\\/articles\\/site\\/Cash\\_Flow\\_Example\\.gif\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Holiday\\ Market\\ 2008\\:\\ Retail\\ Market\\ and\\ Competitive\\ Outlook\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Retail\\ this\\ season\\ is\\ struggling\\,\\ signaling\\ that\\ this\\ will\\ probably\\ be\\ the\\ weakest\\ Christmas\\ shopping\\ season\\ is\\ decades\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\What\\ should\\ Sears\\ be\\ doing\\ for\\ the\\ Holiday\\ 2008\\?\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\a\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Sell\\ low\\ cost\\ goods\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ affordability\\ for\\ their\\ customers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\b\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Buy\\ less\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\c\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Alter\\ financing\\ terms\\ for\\ customers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\d\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cut\\ expenses\\-\\ i\\.e\\.\\ people\\,\\ stores\\,\\ and\\ store\\ hours\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\e\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ advertising\\ and\\ marketing\\ dilemma\\-\\ should\\ Sears\\ cut\\ expenses\\ or\\ increase\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ chasing\\ fewer\\ customers\\ who\\ will\\ be\\ harder\\ to\\ get\\?\\ Additionally\\,\\ competition\\ is\\ fierce\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Answer\\:\\ Sears\\ should\\ deliver\\ a\\ quality\\ message\\ that\\ emphasizes\\ their\\ competitive\\ advantage\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ year\\,\\ they\\ have\\ started\\ early\\ with\\ advertising\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ their\\ message\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Problem\\ with\\ Retail\\:\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ right\\ and\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ right\\ every\\-day\\.\\&\\#160\\;You\\ cannot\\ be\\ right\\ today\\ and\\ not\\ tomorrow\\.\\&\\#160\\;Additionally\\,\\ retail\\ buys\\ their\\ products\\ 6\\ months\\ ahead\\,\\ so\\ success\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ predict\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Sears Holdings Corporation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.414963+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Is Loyalty a Virtue?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 493, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Michael\\ Walzer\\,\\ \\Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 6\\-10\\,\\ 86\\-91\\,\\ 312\\-314\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Lecture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ lecture\\,\\ we\\ compared\\ two\\ moral\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ using\\ MacIntyre\\ and\\ Rawls\\.\\ \\ The\\ voluntarist\\ perception\\,\\ based\\ upon\\ liberal\\ egalitarian\\-rights\\ theorists\\,\\ conceives\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ as\\ an\\ autonomous\\ being\\ whose\\ moral\\ obligation\\ extends\\ to\\ natural\\ and\\ voluntary\\ duties\\ determined\\ by\\ consent\\.\\ \\ The\\ narrative\\ perception\\ of\\ self\\,\\ a\\ neo\\-Aristotelian\\ conception\\ that\\ sees\\ the\\ self\\ as\\ encumbered\\ by\\ ties\\ and\\ bonds\\ and\\ a\\ past\\,\\ argues\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ self\\ has\\ a\\ third\\ level\\ of\\ obligation\\,\\ that\\ of\\ solidarity\\ and\\ membership\\.\\ In\\ this\\ category\\.\\ obligation\\ is\\ created\\ not\\ through\\ consent\\,\\ but\\ through\\ the\\ recognition\\ that\\ the\\ self\\ is\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ its\\ ties\\ and\\ past\\ \\(family\\,\\ tribe\\,\\ clan\\,\\ nation\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\Today\\,\\ we\\'ll\\ investigate\\ the\\ argument\\ for\\ and\\ against\\ obligations\\ of\\ solidarity\\,\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ implications\\ of\\ both\\ conceptions\\.\\ Ultimately\\,\\ is\\ justice\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ convention\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Objections\\ to\\ Communitarianism\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\\r\\1\\.\\ \\Obligations\\ may\\ compete\\ and\\ conflict\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ if\\ we\\ inhabit\\ multiple\\ communities\\,\\ don\\'t\\ our\\ obligations\\ conflict\\?\\ Family\\ over\\ friends\\?\\ Race\\ over\\ gender\\?\\ Country\\ over\\ local\\ community\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\2\\.\\ \\ \\Collective\\ selfishness\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ this\\ so\\-called\\ \\\"moral\\ obligation\\\"\\ is\\ a\\ cloaked\\ prejudice\\.\\ Take\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ Israeli\\ government\\ rescuing\\ Ethiopian\\ Jews\\ from\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ famine\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ Is\\ this\\ not\\ just\\ prejudicial\\ treatment\\ masking\\ as\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ community\\ obligation\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\3\\.\\ \\Emotional\\ obligation\\,\\ not\\ moral\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ If\\ a\\ mother\\ has\\ the\\ choice\\ to\\ rescue\\ a\\ child\\ from\\ drowning\\,\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ being\\ hers\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ a\\ stranger\\'s\\,\\ she\\'ll\\ rescue\\ hers\\ not\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ moral\\ obligation\\,\\ but\\ out\\ of\\ an\\ emotional\\ attachment\\.\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ aren\\'t\\ all\\ our\\ choices\\ about\\ loyalty\\ and\\ membership\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ guided\\ by\\ an\\ emotional\\ obligation\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\4\\.\\\\ Based\\ on\\ consent\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ Obligations\\ to\\ community\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ patriotism\\,\\ can\\ be\\ based\\ upon\\ liberal\\ ideas\\,\\ such\\ as\\ consent\\ and\\ reciprocity\\.\\ \\ Liberalism\\ can\\ endorse\\ patriotism\\ as\\ a\\ voluntary\\ social\\ obligation\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ morally\\ obligatory\\ one\\.\\ The\\ Kantian\\ framework\\ of\\ autonomy\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ express\\ their\\ preference\\ for\\ virtues\\ such\\ as\\ patriotism\\.\\ Likewise\\,\\ Rawls\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ for\\ ordinary\\ citizens\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ moral\\ political\\ obligation\\ unless\\ some\\ citizens\\ under\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ consent\\ choose\\ such\\ an\\ obligation\\.\\ In\\ short\\,\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ need\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ be\\ morally\\ obligated\\ to\\ your\\ community\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\5\\.\\ \\Subordinate\\ to\\ universal\\ \\(Kantian\\)\\ duty\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ You\\ can\\ only\\ recognize\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ community\\,\\ patriotism\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ provided\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ do\\ any\\ injustice\\ to\\ universal\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\ \\(ie\\,\\ respecting\\ others\\,\\ not\\ lying\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\\\On\\ Patriotism\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Defense\\ of\\ patriotism\\ as\\ moral\\ obligation\\ non\\-consent\\ based\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"I\\ owe\\ more\\ to\\ my\\ parents\\ than\\ to\\ strangers\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ I\\ owe\\ more\\ to\\ my\\ country\\ than\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ race\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Critics\\ of\\ communal\\ patriotism\\:This\\ type\\ of\\ obligation\\ is\\ like\\ writing\\ a\\ \\'blank\\ moral\\ check\\'\\;\\ an\\ unrelenting\\ loyalty\\ that\\ doesn\\'t\\ allow\\ us\\ a\\ choice\\ in\\ what\\ to\\ believe\\.\\ \\ Furthermore\\,\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ society\\ is\\ based\\ upon\\ reciprocity\\-we\\ pay\\ taxes\\,\\ the\\ government\\ gives\\ us\\ roads\\;\\ beyond\\ that\\,\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ necessarily\\ owe\\ society\\ anything\\ more\\ than\\ we\\ give\\ it\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Rebuttal\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\A\\ blank\\ moral\\ check\\ can\\ only\\ given\\ when\\ we\\ abdicate\\ civic\\ virtue\\,\\ since\\ civic\\ virtue\\ allows\\ one\\ to\\ be\\ engaged\\ in\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ the\\ community\\,\\ ie\\,\\ if\\ you\\ love\\ your\\ country\\,\\ you\\ can\\ still\\ be\\ patriotic\\ by\\ objecting\\ to\\ its\\ actions\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Examples\\ in\\ which\\ particular\\ loyalty\\ outweighs\\ duty\\ to\\ universal\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ Roommate\\ loyalty\\:\\ If\\ my\\ roommate\\ were\\ cheating\\ on\\ homework\\,\\ I\\ would\\ recognize\\ its\\ wrong\\,\\ but\\ I\\ wouldn\\'t\\ turn\\ him\\ in\\ because\\ of\\ my\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ roommate\\,\\ a\\ friend\\,\\ someone\\ who\\ makes\\ up\\ part\\ of\\ my\\ identity\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ Family\\ loyalty\\:\\ \\ When\\ US\\ attorney\\ called\\ Billy\\ Bulger\\,\\ then\\ UMASS\\ President\\,\\ to\\ testify\\ as\\ to\\ his\\ brother\\ Whitey\\ Bulger\\'s\\ whereabouts\\,\\ he\\ refused\\ to\\ give\\ information\\,\\ arguing\\,\\ \\\"I\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ help\\ anyone\\ catch\\ my\\ brother\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\-\\ Community\\/regional\\/familial\\ loyalty\\:\\ On\\ the\\ eve\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ Robert\\ E\\.\\ Lee\\,\\ who\\ opposed\\ secession\\,\\ was\\ offered\\ command\\ of\\ the\\ Union\\ Army\\ by\\ Lincoln\\,\\ but\\ refused\\,\\ writing\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ reconcile\\ fighting\\ against\\ his\\ own\\ family\\ and\\ his\\ Southern\\ community\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ each\\ example\\,\\ each\\ person\\ chooses\\ the\\ most\\ immediate\\,\\ local\\,\\ particular\\ choice\\.\\ \\ A\\ roommate\\ over\\ the\\ greater\\ academic\\ world\\,\\ family\\ over\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\,\\ regional\\ identity\\ over\\ national\\ identity\\.\\ \\ Is\\ particularity\\ the\\ standard\\ by\\ which\\ we\\ should\\ measure\\ individual\\ choice\\ of\\ obligations\\ to\\ solidarity\\ and\\ loyalty\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ problem\\ arises\\ when\\ we\\ acknowledge\\ that\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ particularity\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ many\\ standards\\ people\\ use\\ in\\ their\\ decision\\-making\\ process\\.\\ \\ What\\ about\\ those\\ soldiers\\ who\\ chose\\ their\\ country\\ over\\ their\\ community\\ or\\ family\\?\\ Or\\ the\\ individual\\ who\\ would\\ turn\\ a\\ family\\ member\\ into\\ the\\ law\\ because\\ he\\ chooses\\ that\\ \\\"justice\\\"\\,\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ day\\,\\ must\\ prevail\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Implications\\ for\\ Justice\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\One\\ of\\ the\\ worries\\ underlying\\ multiple\\ objections\\ to\\ moral\\ obligation\\ to\\ loyalty\\ or\\ membership\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ argues\\ that\\ finding\\ principles\\ of\\ moral\\ justice\\ cannot\\ be\\ detached\\ from\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ life\\ as\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ lived\\ in\\ any\\ particular\\ community\\.\\ In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ is\\ justice\\ simply\\,\\ as\\ Sandel\\ puts\\ it\\,\\ a\\ \\\"creature\\ of\\ convention\\\"\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Turning\\ to\\ Walzer\\,\\ a\\ communitarian\\ critic\\,\\ we\\ see\\ just\\ that\\.\\ He\\ writes\\,\\ \\\"Justice\\ is\\ relative\\ to\\ social\\ meanings\\.\\ A\\ given\\ society\\ is\\ just\\ if\\ its\\ substantive\\ life\\ is\\ lived\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ way\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ faithful\\ to\\ the\\ shared\\ understandings\\ of\\ the\\ members\\.\\ If\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ find\\ independent\\ conceptions\\ of\\ the\\ good\\,\\ then\\ we\\'re\\ left\\ with\\ justice\\ being\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ prevailing\\ beliefs\\ of\\ a\\ society\\ at\\ a\\ given\\ time\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ this\\ an\\ adequate\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ justice\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Students\\ in\\ class\\ were\\ then\\ shown\\ a\\ 1950s\\ documentary\\,\\ \\Eyes\\ on\\ the\\ Prize\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>in\\ which\\ pro\\-segregationist\\ Southerners\\ defended\\ their\\ views\\ by\\ invoking\\ ideas\\ such\\ as\\ loyalty\\ and\\ tradition\\.\\ The\\ overarching\\ theme\\ of\\ loyalty\\ and\\ solidarity\\ to\\ community\\ was\\ a\\ troubling\\ echo\\ of\\ similar\\ arguments\\ expressed\\ above\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Is\\ there\\ a\\ fundamental\\ flaw\\ to\\ communitarianism\\,\\ then\\?\\ Or\\,\\ as\\ Sandel\\ ponders\\,\\ is\\ there\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ rescuing\\ that\\ claim\\ from\\ this\\ example\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Picture\\ taken\\ from\\ americansouvenirs\\.com\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "", "desc": "Is Loyalty a Virtue?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.572829+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 7: Will Blog for Scoop", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 505, "html": "\\Another\\ line\\ made\\ increasingly\\ fuzzy\\ by\\ the\\ Internet\\ is\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ citizen\\ and\\ journalism\\.\\ These\\ days\\,\\ everyone\\ with\\ Internet\\ access\\ can\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ blog\\,\\ everyone\\ with\\ a\\ blog\\ can\\ call\\ themselves\\ a\\ journalist\\,\\ so\\ everyone\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ journalist\\,\\ right\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ class\\,\\ \\David\\ Ardia\\<\\/a\\>\\ came\\ to\\ speak\\ to\\ us\\ about\\ citizen\\ media\\.\\ Ardia\\ is\\ the\\ co\\-founder\\ of\\ the\\ Citizen\\ Media\\ Law\\ Project\\ at\\ the\\ Berkman\\ Center\\,\\ and\\ his\\ project\\ provides\\ legal\\ counsel\\ for\\ citizen\\ journalists\\ against\\ deep\\-pocketed\\ corporations\\ and\\ individuals\\.\\ Citizen\\ journalism\\,\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ definition\\,\\ is\\ journalism\\ produced\\ by\\ individuals\\ who\\ are\\ non\\-professionals\\.\\ Ardia\\ mentioned\\ several\\ sites\\,\\\\ H2ONews\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\BaristaNet\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\Black\\ Velvet\\ Bruce\\ Li\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\OhMyNews\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ as\\ notable\\ portals\\ for\\ citizen\\ journalism\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ big\\ issue\\ currently\\ at\\ stake\\ is\\ a\\ federal\\ shield\\ bill\\ that\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ works\\.\\ The\\ bill\\ allows\\ journalists\\ to\\ maintain\\ confidentiality\\ of\\ their\\ sources\\ against\\ court\\ subpoenas\\,\\ but\\ it\\ limits\\ the\\ protection\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ practice\\ journalism\\ \\&\\#8220\\;for\\ a\\ substantial\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ person\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ livelihood\\ or\\ for\\ substantial\\ financial\\ gain\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ wording\\ purposefully\\ excludes\\ bloggers\\ and\\ citizen\\ journalists\\.\\ While\\ there\\ are\\ certain\\ bloggers\\ that\\ I\\ would\\ hesitate\\ to\\ apply\\ the\\ label\\ of\\ journalist\\ to\\ \\(Perez\\ Hilton\\ springs\\ to\\ mind\\)\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ this\\ wording\\ would\\ unnecessarily\\ exclude\\ many\\ qualified\\ citizen\\ journalists\\.\\ In\\ 2006\\,\\ blogger\\ Josh\\ Wolf\\ was\\ sentenced\\ to\\ 8\\ months\\ of\\ prison\\ in\\ contempt\\ of\\ court\\ for\\ refusing\\ to\\ hand\\ over\\ a\\ video\\ he\\ shot\\ at\\ a\\ protest\\.\\ Ardia\\ argued\\ that\\ Josh\\ Wolf\\ should\\ deserve\\ protection\\ in\\ a\\ federal\\ shield\\ bill\\ as\\ a\\ journalist\\.\\ When\\ journalists\\ keep\\ their\\ sources\\ confidential\\,\\ it\\ builds\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ trust\\ between\\ the\\ journalist\\ and\\ the\\ insider\\ source\\.\\ If\\ Wolf\\,\\ and\\ other\\ citizen\\ bloggers\\,\\ were\\ forced\\ to\\ reveal\\ their\\ sources\\ by\\ a\\ court\\,\\ the\\ protesters\\ may\\ have\\ never\\ allowed\\ him\\ to\\ shoot\\ the\\ video\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ in\\ fact\\ decreasing\\ the\\ information\\ available\\ to\\ us\\ as\\ a\\ society\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ I\\ see\\ it\\,\\ the\\ question\\ is\\ where\\ do\\ we\\ draw\\ the\\ line\\?\\ Certainly\\,\\ not\\ every\\ single\\ blogger\\ is\\ a\\ journalist\\.\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ writing\\ a\\ blog\\,\\ but\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ consider\\ myself\\ a\\ journalist\\ in\\ any\\ way\\.\\ Any\\ law\\ that\\ attempts\\ to\\ define\\ journalist\\ outside\\ of\\ a\\ professional\\ context\\ will\\ no\\ doubt\\ be\\ subject\\ to\\ interpretation\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 7: Will Blog for Scoop"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.582384+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 8: Digital Privacy - Paradox or Possibility? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 506, "html": "\\Google\\ knows\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ me\\.\\ It\\ knows\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ every\\ email\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ sent\\ and\\ received\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 3\\ years\\.\\ It\\ knows\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ been\\ looking\\ up\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ Wow\\ chips\\.\\ \\(And\\ exactly\\ which\\ \\links\\ \\<\\/a\\>I\\ clicked\\ on\\.\\)\\ It\\ knows\\ I\\ have\\ math\\ class\\ every\\ Monday\\,\\ Wednesday\\,\\ and\\ Friday\\ morning\\ at\\ 10\\.\\ All\\ this\\ information\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ voluntarily\\ surrendered\\ to\\ Google\\&\\#8230\\;for\\ what\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ you\\ asked\\ me\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ is\\ convenience\\.\\ Gmail\\,\\ Google\\ Search\\,\\ Calendar\\,\\ Docs\\&\\#8212\\;the\\ list\\ goes\\ on\\&\\#8212\\;are\\ indispensable\\ to\\ how\\ I\\ live\\ and\\ plan\\ my\\ life\\.\\ For\\ Google\\,\\ this\\ information\\ I\\ provide\\ is\\ a\\ goldmine\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ literally\\,\\ Google\\ is\\ making\\ over\\ \\$10\\ billion\\ a\\ year\\ converting\\ the\\ raw\\ data\\ churned\\ out\\ by\\ users\\ like\\ me\\ into\\ targeted\\ advertising\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ mutually\\ symbiotic\\ relationship\\,\\ what\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ big\\ deal\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ my\\ personal\\ attitudes\\ about\\ digital\\ privacy\\ were\\ rather\\ blas\\&\\#233\\;\\,\\ my\\ classmates\\ held\\ views\\ on\\ the\\ opposite\\ spectrum\\.\\ Privacy\\,\\ some\\ argued\\,\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ right\\ guaranteed\\ by\\ the\\ Constitution\\.\\ Regardless\\ of\\ how\\ your\\ information\\ is\\ used\\,\\ corporations\\ reserve\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ collect\\ information\\ on\\ individuals\\ without\\ their\\ expressed\\ consent\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ Google\\ keeps\\ volumes\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ its\\ users\\ \\&\\#8211\\;searches\\ and\\ emails\\ are\\ kept\\ indefinitely\\ in\\ its\\ servers\\ and\\ its\\ cookies\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ expire\\ until\\ 2038\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ makes\\ some\\ people\\ uneasy\\.\\ In\\ August\\,\\ \\the\\ Economist\\<\\/a\\>\\ ran\\ a\\ rather\\ damning\\ indictment\\ of\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ internal\\ dynamics\\ and\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ privacy\\.\\ It\\ quotes\\ an\\ ex\\-Google\\ engineer\\ in\\ saying\\ that\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;attitude\\ towards\\ customers\\,\\ rivals\\ and\\ partners\\ is\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\&\\#8216\\;you\\ can\\'t\\ stop\\ us\\&\\#8217\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\&\\#8216\\;we\\ will\\ crush\\ you\\,\\&\\#8217\\;\\&\\#8221\\;\\ quite\\ a\\ different\\ tune\\ from\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ official\\ motto\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Do\\ no\\ evil\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ article\\ argues\\ that\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ current\\ financial\\ success\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ their\\ promise\\ of\\ saving\\ information\\ but\\ not\\ selling\\ it\\.\\ \\ But\\ what\\ if\\ Google\\ has\\ a\\ few\\ bad\\ financial\\ quarters\\?\\ What\\ if\\ Google\\ hires\\ a\\ rogue\\ employee\\?\\ With\\ this\\ valuable\\ information\\ available\\,\\ who\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ to\\ say\\ it\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ evil\\?\\ \\(The\\ leading\\ article\\ of\\ the\\ August\\ \\ Economist\\ was\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Who\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ afraid\\ of\\ Google\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ not\\ a\\ reading\\ we\\ did\\ for\\ a\\ class\\,\\ but\\ one\\ that\\ sums\\ up\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ criticism\\ of\\ Google\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ a\\ \\BusinessWeek\\ editorial\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ David\\ Holtzman\\ suggests\\ that\\ Google\\ should\\ take\\ the\\ initiative\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;voluntarily\\ protect\\ our\\ information\\ better\\ than\\ the\\ toughest\\ international\\ law\\,\\ not\\ try\\ to\\ keep\\ pace\\ with\\ the\\ weakest\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ While\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ not\\ as\\ wary\\ of\\ Google\\ as\\ The\\ Economist\\ and\\ I\\ trust\\ Google\\ more\\ than\\ I\\ would\\ trust\\ Enron\\,\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ consider\\ our\\ corporations\\ to\\ be\\ paragons\\ of\\ moral\\ character\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ Google\\ does\\ do\\ no\\ evil\\,\\ there\\ are\\ plenty\\ of\\ Internet\\ services\\ that\\ will\\ exploit\\ is\\ users\\.\\ I\\ disagree\\ with\\ Holtzman\\,\\ but\\ I\\ certainly\\ understand\\ his\\ intent\\.\\ Looking\\ at\\ domestic\\ legislation\\ that\\ regulates\\ the\\ Internet\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ DMCA\\ or\\ CDA\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ doing\\ a\\ poor\\ job\\ of\\ striking\\ the\\ necessary\\ balance\\ needed\\ in\\ Internet\\ policy\\.\\ The\\ situation\\ becomes\\ further\\ complicated\\ when\\ it\\ becomes\\ international\\.\\ Indeed\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ the\\ laws\\ that\\ are\\ important\\,\\ as\\ how\\ a\\ court\\ interprets\\ these\\ laws\\ and\\ how\\ individuals\\ and\\ corporations\\ act\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ law\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Holtman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ goodwill\\ may\\ partially\\ be\\ derived\\ from\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ actions\\ that\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Gonzalez\\ v\\.\\ Google\\.\\ \\ In\\ 2005\\,\\ then\\ Attorney\\ General\\ Alberto\\ Gonzalez\\ had\\ subpoenaed\\ Google\\ to\\ turn\\ over\\ all\\ search\\ queries\\ sent\\ to\\ Google\\ in\\ a\\ one\\-week\\ period\\ and\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;multi\\-stage\\ random\\ sample\\ of\\ one\\ million\\ URLs\\&\\#8221\\;\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ a\\ study\\ on\\ the\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ Internet\\ filters\\.\\ Unlike\\ AOL\\,\\ Yahoo\\,\\ and\\ Microsoft\\ who\\ were\\ also\\ subpoenaed\\,\\ Google\\ objected\\.\\ In\\ the\\ ensuing\\ lawsuit\\,\\ the\\ court\\ ruled\\ that\\ Google\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ privacy\\ concerns\\ for\\ its\\ users\\ were\\ appropriate\\.\\ While\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ Internet\\ search\\ queries\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ privacy\\,\\ the\\ court\\ brought\\ up\\ searches\\ such\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\[\\ name\\]\\ third\\ trimester\\ abortion\\ san\\ jose\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ personally\\ identifiable\\ and\\ private\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ with\\ so\\ many\\ other\\ debates\\ of\\ with\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ privacy\\ is\\ about\\ striking\\ a\\ balance\\.\\ The\\ information\\ I\\ provide\\ Google\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ generate\\ ads\\ that\\ are\\ better\\ targeted\\ to\\ me\\.\\ In\\ exchange\\,\\ a\\ vast\\ repository\\ of\\ information\\ exists\\ that\\ can\\ potentially\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ malevolent\\ means\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ fear\\ is\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;if\\ you\\ build\\ it\\ they\\ will\\ come\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ Mr\\.\\ Malone\\ put\\ it\\.\\ Currently\\,\\ this\\ information\\ can\\ be\\ legally\\ accessed\\ through\\ subpoenas\\,\\ which\\ is\\ much\\ easier\\ than\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\.\\ Given\\ the\\ expectation\\ of\\ generally\\ anonymity\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;m\\ fine\\ with\\ Google\\ saving\\ my\\ searches\\,\\ but\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ expect\\ another\\ pair\\ of\\ human\\ eyes\\ seeing\\ them\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ plenty\\ of\\ incriminating\\ information\\ saved\\.\\ If\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ not\\ doing\\ wrong\\,\\ is\\ there\\ any\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ upset\\?\\ But\\ maybe\\ this\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ even\\ really\\ the\\ question\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ real\\ issue\\ is\\ the\\ fundamental\\ right\\ of\\ privacy\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 8: Digital Privacy - Paradox or Possibility? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.594005+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 9: Facebook Privacy ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 507, "html": "\\\\ If\\ my\\ last\\ post\\ described\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ my\\ life\\ is\\ run\\ by\\ Google\\,\\ this\\ post\\ shows\\ how\\ pathetically\\ chained\\ I\\ am\\ to\\ Facebook\\.\\ Over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ this\\ Sunday\\ afternoon\\,\\ I\\ sat\\ down\\ with\\ the\\ intention\\ of\\ doing\\ homework\\,\\ only\\ to\\ end\\ up\\ on\\ Facebook\\ instead\\,\\ discussing\\ Thanksgiving\\ weekend\\ plans\\,\\ browsing\\ Harvard\\-Yale\\ game\\ photos\\,\\ and\\ playing\\ a\\ few\\ turns\\ of\\ Scrabulous\\.\\ Given\\ all\\ the\\ information\\ that\\ I\\,\\ like\\ so\\ many\\ Facebook\\ users\\ put\\ on\\ the\\ site\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ no\\ surprise\\ that\\ Facebook\\ has\\ come\\ under\\ close\\ scrutiny\\ by\\ privacy\\ advocates\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ past\\ week\\,\\ I\\ had\\ the\\ special\\ opportunity\\ to\\ attend\\ a\\ Harvard\\ Law\\ School\\ seminar\\ where\\ Chris\\ Kelly\\,\\ the\\ Chief\\ Privacy\\ Officer\\ of\\ Facebook\\ was\\ the\\ guest\\ lecturer\\.\\ While\\ Kelly\\ had\\ much\\ to\\ say\\ about\\ several\\ privacy\\ issues\\ Facebook\\ has\\ faced\\,\\ the\\ discussion\\ had\\ particularly\\ focused\\ on\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ most\\ recent\\ development\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Social\\ Advertising\\.\\ For\\ a\\ website\\ that\\ gets\\ a\\ daily\\ 2\\ billion\\ page\\ views\\,\\ Facebook\\ does\\ a\\ poor\\ job\\ of\\ turning\\ those\\ page\\ views\\ into\\ cash\\.\\ A\\ \\ValleyWag\\ report\\<\\/a\\>\\ goes\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ call\\ it\\ \\&\\#8220\\;consistently\\ the\\ worst\\ performing\\ site\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ reliability\\ of\\ Valleywag\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ numbers\\ is\\ debatable\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ essentially\\ the\\ Gawker\\ www\\.gawker\\.com\\ equivalent\\ for\\ Silicon\\ Valley\\,\\ but\\ it\\ sums\\ up\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ quandary\\.\\ On\\ the\\ heels\\ of\\ a\\ \\Microsoft\\ deal\\ \\<\\/a\\>that\\ values\\ Facebook\\ at\\ \\$15\\ billion\\,\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ those\\ expectations\\?\\ Social\\ Advertising\\ is\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ answer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ users\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ key\\ components\\ to\\ Social\\ Advertising\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ harness\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ social\\ network\\ to\\ target\\ users\\ more\\ effectively\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ is\\ this\\:\\ you\\ are\\ better\\ at\\ influencing\\ the\\ purchasing\\ decisions\\ of\\ your\\ friends\\ than\\ any\\ flashy\\ banner\\ ad\\.\\ \\ Users\\ can\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fan\\&\\#8221\\;\\ products\\ or\\ companies\\ on\\ Facebook\\ Pages\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ essentially\\ a\\ souped\\ up\\ profile\\ page\\ for\\ businesses\\.\\ The\\ second\\ component\\ is\\ Facebook\\ Beacon\\:\\ when\\ you\\ make\\ a\\ purchase\\ on\\ a\\ partner\\ site\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Overstock\\.com\\,\\ with\\ a\\ Facebook\\ cookie\\ on\\ your\\ computer\\,\\ a\\ pop\\-up\\ will\\ alert\\ you\\ that\\ the\\ record\\ of\\ your\\ purchase\\ is\\ being\\ sent\\ to\\ Facebook\\.\\ As\\ both\\ Pages\\ and\\ Beacon\\ are\\ then\\ beamed\\ to\\ the\\ NewsFeeds\\ of\\ your\\ friends\\,\\ the\\ advertising\\ can\\ spread\\ virally\\ through\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ social\\ networks\\.\\\\My\\ initial\\ impressions\\ to\\ Social\\ Ads\\ were\\ mixed\\.\\ While\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ always\\ harbored\\ a\\ deep\\ suspicion\\ of\\ all\\ advertising\\,\\ I\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ necessary\\ trade\\-off\\ of\\ using\\ Facebook\\ for\\ free\\.\\ Pages\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ bother\\ me\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ better\\ implementation\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ idea\\ behind\\ current\\ Sponsored\\ Groups\\.\\ By\\ \\&\\#8220\\;fanning\\&\\#8221\\;\\ a\\ product\\,\\ I\\ am\\ actively\\ expressing\\ my\\ opinion\\ and\\ explicitly\\ giving\\ consent\\.\\ This\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ so\\ much\\ the\\ case\\ with\\ Beacon\\,\\ which\\ became\\ the\\ focal\\ point\\ for\\ our\\ discussions\\ about\\ Facebook\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ makes\\ Beacon\\ most\\ unsettling\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ tend\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ the\\ Internet\\ divided\\ up\\ into\\ distinct\\ sites\\.\\ While\\ hypertext\\ links\\ from\\ site\\ to\\ site\\,\\ we\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ expect\\ websites\\,\\ especially\\ one\\ as\\ closed\\ as\\ Facebook\\,\\ to\\ be\\ communicating\\ with\\ Overstock\\.com\\ about\\ a\\ purchase\\.\\ This\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mean\\ that\\ Facebook\\ is\\ doing\\ anything\\ wrong\\;\\ I\\ may\\ simply\\ have\\ an\\ outdated\\ mode\\ of\\ thinking\\.\\ However\\,\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ strategic\\ handling\\ of\\ privacy\\ controls\\ for\\ Beacon\\ is\\ deliberately\\ manipulative\\.\\ \\ The\\ issue\\ most\\ of\\ us\\ had\\ with\\ Beacon\\ was\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ an\\ opt\\-out\\ rather\\ than\\ opt\\-in\\ feature\\.\\ Take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ screenshot\\ for\\ a\\ Beacon\\;\\ unless\\ you\\ click\\ \\&\\#8220\\;No\\ thanks\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ the\\ 15\\ seconds\\ before\\ it\\ goes\\ away\\,\\ your\\ purchase\\ is\\ sent\\ into\\ News\\ Feed\\ with\\ your\\ name\\ and\\ photo\\.\\ \\ That\\ means\\ clicking\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Close\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ I\\ would\\ intuitively\\ associate\\ with\\ \\&\\#8220\\;no\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ actually\\ means\\ \\&\\#8220\\;yes\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Facebook\\ must\\ have\\ designed\\ this\\ to\\ compel\\,\\ if\\ not\\ manipulate\\,\\ people\\ into\\ using\\ Beacon\\.\\ \\(If\\\\ News\\ Feed\\ hadn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ been\\ set\\ \\&\\#8220\\;on\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ default\\,\\ how\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ would\\ have\\ started\\ using\\ what\\ is\\ now\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ critical\\ tools\\ of\\ Facebook\\?\\)\\ Facebook\\ Beacon\\ is\\ obviously\\ new\\,\\ so\\ one\\ hopes\\ that\\ these\\ issues\\,\\ like\\ those\\ that\\ arose\\ with\\ News\\ Feed\\,\\ will\\ be\\ sorted\\ out\\ as\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ more\\ established\\ feature\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\While\\ the\\ above\\ privacy\\ issues\\ are\\ a\\ matter\\ principle\\ rather\\ than\\ law\\,\\ the\\ \\New\\ York\\ Times\\ technology\\ blog\\ Bits\\ has\\ questioned\\ the\\ legality\\ of\\ Social\\ Ads\\<\\/a\\>\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ law\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ a\\ century\\ old\\ \\(yes\\,\\ that\\ means\\ it\\ was\\ passed\\ before\\ the\\ first\\ computer\\ even\\ existed\\)\\ \\New\\ York\\ law\\<\\/a\\>\\ that\\ prohibits\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ name\\ and\\ likeness\\,\\ usually\\ a\\ celebrity\\&\\#8217\\;s\\,\\ to\\ used\\ in\\ advertising\\ without\\ compensation\\.\\ Obviously\\,\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Social\\ Ads\\ were\\ not\\ the\\ original\\ target\\ of\\ the\\ law\\.\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ Times\\ blog\\ post\\,\\ Chris\\ Kelly\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ law\\ has\\ no\\ application\\ because\\ users\\ give\\ consent\\ when\\ using\\ Facebook\\ and\\ choosing\\ their\\ options\\ on\\ the\\ pop\\-up\\.\\ But\\ whether\\ users\\ are\\ actually\\ giving\\ informed\\ consent\\ is\\ a\\ different\\ question\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ both\\ legality\\ and\\ long\\-term\\ viability\\,\\ Facebook\\ has\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ balance\\ between\\ privacy\\ and\\ function\\.\\ Facebook\\ is\\ a\\ social\\-networking\\ site\\,\\ and\\ a\\ blizzard\\ of\\ privacy\\ controls\\ will\\ only\\ hinder\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ its\\ website\\.\\ If\\ Facebook\\ had\\ stayed\\ confined\\ within\\ the\\ Harvard\\ network\\,\\ or\\ even\\ college\\ networks\\,\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ popularity\\ and\\ media\\ attention\\ it\\ enjoys\\ today\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ it\\ cannot\\ alienate\\ its\\ user\\ base\\ by\\ opening\\ up\\ too\\ much\\ or\\ too\\ quickly\\.\\ Facebook\\ has\\ staked\\ its\\ reputation\\ on\\ privacy\\,\\ so\\ moves\\ to\\ attract\\ more\\ users\\ and\\ connections\\ with\\ outside\\ websites\\ have\\ and\\ will\\ undoubtedly\\ alienate\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ users\\.\\ And\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ Facebook\\ is\\ sustainable\\ on\\ a\\ closed\\-platform\\.\\ The\\ short\\ history\\ of\\ Internet\\ trends\\ has\\ shown\\ us\\ that\\ open\\-platforms\\ will\\ always\\ win\\ over\\ closed\\ ones\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ why\\ no\\ one\\ uses\\ AOL\\ anymore\\)\\,\\ but\\ Facebook\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ advantage\\ over\\ sites\\ like\\ MySpace\\ is\\ because\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ closed\\&\\#8212\\;a\\ walled\\ fortress\\ in\\ the\\ wild\\ wild\\ west\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ wide\\ web\\.\\ \\ As\\ young\\ people\\ become\\ less\\ concerned\\ with\\ digital\\ privacy\\,\\ is\\ this\\ an\\ advantage\\ or\\ disadvantage\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\*UPDATE\\*\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Facebook\\ has\\ made\\ some\\ changes\\ in\\ Beacon\\.\\ \\See\\ here\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 9: Facebook Privacy "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.606597+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 9: Anonymity Redux", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 508, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Is\\ anonymous\\ speech\\ \\&\\#8220\\;too\\ free\\&\\#8221\\;\\?\\ As\\ we\\ have\\\\ discussed\\ before\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ the\\ digital\\ world\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ unique\\ cloak\\ of\\ anonymity\\ allows\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ freedom\\ in\\ speech\\ that\\ had\\ never\\ existed\\ in\\ the\\ analog\\ universe\\.\\ The\\ Internet\\ is\\ truly\\ a\\ level\\ playing\\ ground\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ is\\ absolute\\ freedom\\ in\\ speech\\ really\\ what\\ is\\ best\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\According\\ to\\ Peter\\ Scheer\\,\\ that\\ answer\\ is\\ no\\.\\ Mr\\.\\ Scheer\\ is\\ the\\ Executive\\ Director\\ of\\ the\\ California\\ First\\ Amendment\\ Coalition\\ \\(CFAC\\)\\ \\,\\ and\\ seemingly\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ his\\ organization\\,\\ he\\ is\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ free\\ speech\\ that\\ exists\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ As\\ he\\ puts\\ it\\,\\ speech\\ without\\ consequence\\ cheapens\\ the\\ expressions\\ of\\ its\\ ideas\\ because\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#8220\\;\\Most\\ anonymous\\ speech\\ is\\ just\\ digital\\ graffiti\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\ While\\ I\\ am\\ inclined\\ to\\ agree\\ with\\ Scheer\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ just\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ spam\\,\\ rants\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ attacks\\ at\\ plague\\ any\\ popular\\ forum\\&\\#8212\\;it\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ mean\\ he\\ can\\ discount\\ the\\ anonymous\\ speech\\ that\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ fall\\ under\\ his\\ categorization\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;most\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ The\\ thrust\\ of\\ Scheer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ speech\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ already\\ free\\;\\ anonymity\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ it\\ any\\ freer\\.\\ Contrast\\ this\\ to\\ dictatorial\\ regimes\\ such\\ as\\ China\\ or\\ Iran\\ where\\ speech\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ anonymous\\ is\\ far\\ from\\ free\\.\\ Scheer\\ says\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;When\\ a\\ blogger\\ in\\ California\\ mentions\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ reprisals\\,\\ he\\ is\\ really\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ discomfort\\ of\\ having\\ to\\ stand\\ in\\ a\\ supermarket\\ checkout\\ line\\ next\\ to\\ a\\ city\\ council\\ member\\ whom\\ he\\ has\\ criticized\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Wendy\\ Seltzer\\,\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ fellow\\ at\\ the\\ Berkman\\ Center\\,\\ argues\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Importance\\ of\\ Anonymity\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ a\\ \\blog\\ post\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ my\\ classmates\\ agreed\\ that\\ Scheer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ example\\ of\\ awkwardness\\ at\\ the\\ supermarket\\ only\\ skims\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ consequences\\ that\\ can\\ arise\\ when\\ speech\\ is\\ not\\ anonymous\\.\\ Seltzer\\ cites\\ examples\\ such\\ as\\ whistleblowers\\ exposing\\ wrongdoings\\,\\ people\\ report\\ human\\ rights\\ abuse\\,\\ and\\ young\\ adults\\ exploring\\ sexuality\\ online\\.\\ In\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ cases\\,\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ no\\ anonymity\\ are\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ \\&\\#8220\\;discomfort\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Many\\ supporters\\ of\\ digital\\ anonymity\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Seltzer\\,\\ cite\\ the\\ Federalist\\ Papers\\ as\\ precedent\\ for\\ anonymous\\ speech\\.\\ Thus\\ political\\ dissent\\ in\\ particular\\ is\\ protected\\ under\\ free\\ speech\\ and\\ free\\ anonymous\\ speech\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\What\\ Mr\\.\\ Scheer\\ also\\ ignores\\ in\\ his\\ condemnation\\ of\\ anonymous\\ speech\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ pseudonymity\\.\\ A\\ Michael\\ Froomkin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ paper\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Anonymity\\ in\\ Balance\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(pdf\\)\\ describes\\ the\\ nuances\\ between\\ traceable\\ and\\ untraceable\\ forms\\ of\\ anonymity\\ and\\ pseudonymity\\.\\ We\\ decided\\ that\\ pseudonymity\\ in\\ general\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ new\\ concept\\ and\\ focused\\ our\\ decision\\ on\\ that\\.\\ Internet\\ forums\\ almost\\ always\\ require\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ a\\ username\\ unique\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ participate\\.\\ Truly\\ anonymous\\ postings\\,\\ though\\ possible\\,\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ most\\ desirable\\.\\ Many\\ bloggers\\ and\\ posters\\,\\ even\\ those\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ write\\ under\\ their\\ real\\ name\\,\\ carefully\\ craft\\ a\\ reputation\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ pseudonym\\.\\ In\\ any\\ well\\-developed\\ Internet\\ community\\,\\ established\\ users\\ with\\ an\\ established\\ reputation\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ voice\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ any\\ user\\ who\\ wishes\\ to\\ preserve\\ complete\\ anonymity\\ is\\ free\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Of\\ course\\ people\\ can\\ and\\ choose\\ to\\ use\\ their\\ real\\ names\\.\\ This\\ perhaps\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ balance\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ struck\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ anonymity\\ scale\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 9: Anonymity Redux"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.617073+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Doe v. Cahill", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 509, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\The\\ September\\ 2005\\ case\\ of\\ \\\\Doe\\ v\\.\\ Cahill\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ brings\\ together\\ many\\ salient\\ issues\\ that\\ we\\ had\\ discussed\\ from\\ previous\\ weeks\\.\\ At\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ case\\ is\\ a\\ defamation\\ case\\.\\ The\\ prior\\ November\\,\\ Patrick\\ Cahill\\,\\ a\\ councilman\\ in\\ Smyrna\\,\\ Delaware\\,\\ filed\\ case\\ against\\ 4\\ John\\ Does\\ for\\ defamation\\.\\ The\\ allegedly\\ defamatory\\ material\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Anyone\\ who\\ has\\ spent\\ any\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ with\\ Cahill\\ would\\ be\\ keenly\\ aware\\ of\\ such\\ character\\ flaws\\,\\ not\\ to\\ mention\\ an\\ obvious\\ mental\\ deterioration\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Gahill\\ \\[sic\\]\\ is\\ as\\ paranoid\\ as\\ everyone\\ thinks\\ he\\ is\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ are\\ very\\ fame\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ Internet\\ language\\ is\\ concerned\\.\\ For\\ a\\ defamation\\ case\\,\\ the\\ Cahill\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ evidence\\ was\\ thin\\,\\ as\\ the\\ above\\ sentences\\ were\\ posted\\ on\\ a\\ forum\\ specifically\\ designated\\ for\\ opinion\\ \\(which\\ cannot\\ be\\ defamatory\\)\\.\\ What\\ the\\ Cahill\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ were\\ suing\\ for\\,\\ then\\,\\ was\\ not\\ to\\ win\\ the\\ case\\ so\\ much\\ as\\ obtain\\ a\\ subpoena\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ discover\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ poster\\ who\\ posted\\ the\\ material\\.\\ If\\ this\\ process\\ is\\ too\\ easy\\,\\ the\\ worry\\ is\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ abuse\\ the\\ system\\ for\\ retaliation\\ against\\ political\\ dissent\\ or\\ whistle\\-blowing\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ this\\ case\\,\\ \\Doe\\ v\\.\\ Cahill\\,\\ \\<\\/em\\>filed\\ against\\ Cahill\\ by\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ defendants\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>in\\ the\\ original\\ case\\.\\ \\(Got\\ that\\?\\ Talk\\ about\\ reversal\\ of\\ roles\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ ruling\\ on\\ this\\ case\\ concluded\\ that\\ the\\ court\\ needs\\ to\\ apply\\ a\\ summary\\ judgment\\ standard\\ rather\\ than\\ good\\ faith\\ standard\\ when\\ evaluating\\ a\\ defamation\\ lawsuit\\.\\ What\\ this\\ means\\ in\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ legal\\ jargon\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ getting\\ a\\ subpoena\\ is\\ more\\ stringent\\.\\ The\\ court\\ must\\ determine\\ that\\ what\\ issue\\ at\\ hand\\ is\\ indeed\\ defamation\\ before\\ allowing\\ the\\ subpoena\\ to\\ be\\ issued\\.\\ This\\ in\\ effect\\ protects\\ anonymous\\ speech\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ by\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ unmask\\ an\\ anonymous\\ poster\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Doe v. Cahill"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.626048+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 10: BONG HiTS 4 JESUS", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 510, "html": "\\\\ I\\ admit\\ it\\:\\ I\\ just\\ really\\ wanted\\ to\\ title\\ a\\ blog\\ post\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Bong\\ Hits\\ 4\\ Jesus\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ But\\ your\\ humble\\ blogger\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ make\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ still\\ very\\ much\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ issue\\ at\\ hand\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ student\\ speech\\.\\ The\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ case\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Bong\\ Hits\\ 4\\ Jesus\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ more\\ formally\\ known\\ as\\ \\\\Morse\\ v\\.\\ Frederick\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ High\\ school\\ student\\ Joseph\\ Frederick\\ held\\ up\\ a\\ banner\\ across\\ the\\ street\\ from\\ school\\ saying\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Bong\\ Hits\\ 4\\ Jesus\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Although\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ on\\ school\\ property\\,\\ he\\ had\\ purposely\\ timed\\ it\\ as\\ the\\ entire\\ school\\ was\\ dismissed\\ to\\ watch\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ the\\ Olympic\\ torch\\,\\ so\\ all\\ students\\ would\\ see\\ his\\ sign\\.\\ Frederick\\ was\\ disciplined\\ for\\ promoting\\ illegal\\ drug\\ use\\.\\ The\\ ensuing\\ case\\ then\\ made\\ its\\ way\\ to\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\.\\ \\\\The\\ majority\\ opinion\\ supported\\ school\\ officials\\ citing\\ Bethel\\ as\\ precedent\\,\\ but\\ Justice\\ Alito\\,\\ in\\ a\\ concurring\\ opinion\\,\\ added\\ a\\ clause\\ to\\ restrict\\ application\\ of\\ this\\ case\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ agreed\\ insomuch\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\\\(a\\)\\ it\\ goes\\ no\\ further\\ than\\ to\\ hold\\ that\\ a\\ public\\ school\\ may\\ restrict\\ speech\\ that\\ a\\ reasonable\\ observer\\ would\\ interpret\\ as\\ advocating\\ illegal\\ drug\\ use\\ and\\ \\(b\\)\\ it\\ provides\\ no\\ support\\ for\\ any\\ restriction\\ of\\ speech\\ that\\ can\\ plausibly\\ be\\ interpreted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ commenting\\ on\\ any\\ political\\ or\\ social\\ issue\\,\\ including\\ speech\\ on\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"the\\ wisdom\\ of\\ the\\ war\\ on\\ drugs\\ or\\ of\\ legalizing\\ marijuana\\ for\\ medicinal\\ use\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Thus\\ Justice\\ Alito\\,\\ who\\ is\\ ironically\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ m\\<\\/span\\>\\ost\\ conservative\\ judges\\ on\\ the\\ bench\\,\\ made\\ sure\\ the\\ court\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ opinion\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ interpreted\\ to\\ restrict\\ free\\ speech\\.\\ Otherwise\\,\\ \\Morse\\ \\<\\/em\\>could\\ easily\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ a\\ case\\ of\\ Internet\\ speech\\,\\ as\\ Freder\\<\\/span\\>\\ick\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ connection\\ to\\ was\\ neither\\ on\\ school\\ property\\ or\\ in\\ school\\ on\\ the\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ incident\\,\\ so\\ his\\ speech\\,\\ like\\ that\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\,\\ was\\ not\\ physically\\ connected\\ with\\ school\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 10: BONG HiTS 4 JESUS"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.635499+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 10: Back in High School...We Didn\u2019t Have Free Speech ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 511, "html": "\\As\\ the\\ semester\\ winds\\ down\\ \\(yikes\\,\\ already\\?\\)\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ beginning\\ work\\ on\\ a\\ final\\ research\\ project\\ for\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ half\\ of\\ this\\ week\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ class\\ was\\ devoted\\ to\\ acquainting\\ us\\ freshman\\ with\\ the\\ resources\\ of\\ the\\ Harvard\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ 90\\ or\\ so\\ libraries\\ for\\ research\\.\\ \\(Apparently\\,\\ no\\ one\\ knows\\ for\\ certain\\ the\\ exact\\ number\\.\\)\\ Rather\\ than\\ a\\ long\\ trek\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ law\\ school\\,\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ short\\ journey\\ down\\ into\\ the\\ basement\\ of\\ Widener\\.\\ It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ class\\,\\ where\\ we\\ discussed\\ Internet\\ laws\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ public\\ schools\\,\\ that\\ was\\ most\\ interesting\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ overarching\\ topic\\ was\\ school\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ Internet\\ speech\\.\\ Can\\ schools\\ discipline\\ students\\ for\\ things\\ they\\ say\\ on\\ the\\ Internet\\ about\\ the\\ school\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ to\\ what\\ degree\\?\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ below\\ cases\\ apply\\ only\\ to\\ public\\ schools\\.\\ The\\ reason\\&\\#8212\\;so\\ simple\\ that\\ we\\ didn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ even\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ at\\ first\\&\\#8212\\;is\\ because\\ the\\ First\\ Amendment\\ protects\\ free\\ speech\\ only\\ from\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Congress\\ shall\\ make\\ no\\ law\\&\\#8221\\;\\ yet\\ there\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ no\\ stopping\\ any\\ private\\ organization\\ one\\ voluntarily\\ joins\\ to\\ restrict\\ speech\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ private\\ schools\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ pull\\ off\\ rules\\ as\\ radical\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Retentive\\ Catholic\\ School\\ Bans\\ MySpace\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Even\\ at\\ Home\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ a\\ public\\ school\\,\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ cases\\ that\\ govern\\ a\\ school\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ speech\\ of\\ its\\ students\\.\\ Generally\\,\\ students\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ free\\ speech\\ rights\\ as\\ adults\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ setting\\.\\ First\\,\\ there\\ is\\ \\Tinker\\ v\\.\\ Des\\ Moines\\ Indep\\.\\ Comm\\.\\ Sch\\.\\ Dist\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ Tinker\\ standard\\,\\ that\\ allows\\ school\\ officials\\ to\\ censor\\ student\\ speech\\ only\\ if\\ they\\ can\\ reasonably\\ predict\\ \\&\\#8220\\;the\\ speech\\ will\\ material\\ interference\\ or\\ substantial\\ disruption\\ of\\ the\\ educational\\ environment\\ or\\ invade\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ others\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ This\\ court\\ opinion\\ supported\\ the\\ students\\ who\\ were\\ punished\\ for\\ wearing\\ black\\ armbands\\ protesting\\ American\\ involvement\\ in\\ Vietnam\\.\\ The\\ second\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ case\\ is\\ \\Fraser\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ school\\ officials\\ to\\ prohibit\\ speech\\ that\\ is\\ vulgar\\,\\ lewd\\,\\ or\\ plainly\\ offensive\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ there\\ is\\ \\Hazelwood\\ School\\ District\\ v\\.\\ Kuhlmeier\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ a\\ case\\ that\\ I\\,\\ as\\ a\\ student\\ journalist\\ in\\ high\\ school\\,\\ was\\ all\\ too\\ familiar\\ with\\.\\ The\\ case\\ arose\\ after\\ a\\ high\\ school\\ principal\\ ordered\\ editorials\\ about\\ teen\\ pregnancy\\ and\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ divorce\\ on\\ teens\\ removed\\ from\\ the\\ school\\ newspaper\\.\\ The\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ sided\\ with\\ the\\ high\\ school\\ principal\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Educators\\ do\\ not\\ offend\\ the\\ First\\ Amendment\\ by\\ exercising\\ editorial\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ style\\ and\\ content\\ of\\ student\\ speech\\ in\\ school\\-sponsored\\ expressive\\ activities\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ their\\ actions\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ legitimate\\ pedagogical\\ concern\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(The\\ above\\ quotes\\ are\\ all\\ found\\ in\\ this\\ \\document\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(pdf\\)\\ \\,\\ where\\ you\\ may\\ also\\ read\\ more\\ detailed\\ summaries\\ of\\ the\\ cases\\.\\)\\\r\\\\\r\\With\\ vague\\ concepts\\ such\\ as\\ \\&\\#8220\\;material\\ interference\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8220\\;legitimate\\ pedagogical\\ concern\\&\\#8221\\;\\ floating\\ around\\,\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ Internet\\ speech\\ has\\ made\\ the\\ issues\\ even\\ more\\ complicated\\.\\ These\\ three\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ cases\\,\\ all\\ decided\\ between\\ the\\ 1960s\\ and\\ 80s\\,\\ may\\ be\\ ill\\-equipped\\ to\\ handle\\ the\\ new\\ problems\\ of\\ Internet\\ speech\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\\\ Layshock\\ v\\.\\ Hermitage\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ high\\ school\\ senior\\ Justin\\ Layshock\\ created\\ a\\ fake\\ MySpace\\ profile\\ of\\ his\\ principal\\ that\\ advertised\\ alcohol\\ and\\ illegal\\ drug\\ use\\.\\ When\\ school\\ administrators\\ found\\ out\\ about\\ the\\ profile\\,\\ the\\ school\\ completely\\ blocked\\ access\\ to\\ computers\\ in\\ school\\ for\\ five\\ days\\ and\\ suspended\\ Layshock\\.\\ In\\ my\\ opinion\\,\\ the\\ school\\ reacted\\ with\\ a\\ disproportional\\ and\\ misguided\\ response\\;\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ such\\ a\\ complete\\ overreaction\\ made\\ students\\ even\\ more\\ eager\\ to\\ access\\ the\\ fake\\ profile\\,\\ which\\ they\\ could\\ still\\ do\\ at\\ home\\ anyways\\.\\ The\\ Tinker\\ standard\\ is\\ problematic\\ because\\ it\\ defers\\ to\\ school\\ administrators\\ in\\ deciding\\ whether\\ student\\ speech\\ in\\ disruptive\\ and\\ punishable\\.\\ When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ preemptive\\ actions\\,\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ determine\\ whether\\ the\\ speech\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ disruptive\\ or\\ not\\.\\ In\\ Layshock\\,\\ I\\ would\\ argue\\ the\\ school\\ administrators\\ actions\\ made\\ it\\ even\\ more\\ disruptive\\ than\\ it\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\.\\ The\\ court\\ ruled\\ that\\ Layshock\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ punished\\ because\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ mere\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ internet\\ may\\ be\\ accessed\\ at\\ school\\ does\\ not\\ authorize\\ school\\ officials\\ to\\ become\\ censors\\ of\\ the\\ world\\-wide\\ wide\\.\\ Public\\ schools\\ are\\ vital\\ institutions\\,\\ but\\ their\\ reach\\ is\\ not\\ unlimited\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(12\\)\\.\\ Fair\\ assessment\\,\\ except\\ if\\ their\\ reach\\ is\\ not\\ unlimited\\,\\ where\\ is\\ the\\ limit\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Therein\\ lies\\ the\\ rub\\.\\ How\\ strong\\ must\\ be\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ student\\ speech\\ and\\ the\\ public\\ school\\ to\\ justify\\ the\\ intervention\\ of\\ school\\ officials\\?\\ If\\ Layshock\\ had\\ made\\ the\\ profile\\ on\\ a\\ school\\ computer\\,\\ would\\ that\\ had\\ changed\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ case\\?\\ What\\ if\\ he\\ showed\\ the\\ profile\\ to\\ kids\\ at\\ home\\ rather\\ than\\ at\\ school\\?\\ These\\ subtleties\\ may\\ seem\\ minor\\,\\ but\\ they\\ could\\ swing\\ the\\ case\\ either\\ way\\.\\ Our\\ readings\\ this\\ week\\ had\\ several\\ real\\-life\\ cases\\ exploring\\ these\\ nuances\\:\\ \\Blogging\\ student\\ leader\\ sues\\ Connecticut\\ school\\ district\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\Ind\\.\\ high\\ school\\ student\\ punished\\ for\\ calling\\ administrator\\ an\\ \\'ass\\'\\ on\\ Facebook\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\Students\\ Face\\ School\\ Discipline\\ For\\ \\'Inappropriate\\'\\ MySpace\\ Posts\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ our\\ discussion\\ moved\\ forward\\,\\ my\\ classmates\\ shared\\ stories\\ from\\ their\\ own\\ high\\ school\\ experiences\\:\\ a\\ valedictorian\\ punished\\ for\\ giving\\ an\\ unapproved\\ speech\\ critical\\ of\\ the\\ school\\,\\ students\\ getting\\ punished\\ for\\ photos\\ of\\ drinking\\ on\\ a\\ school\\-sponsored\\ trip\\ to\\ Italy\\.\\ As\\ freshman\\,\\ these\\ high\\ school\\ experiences\\ are\\ still\\,\\ well\\ fresh\\,\\ on\\ our\\ minds\\,\\ and\\ not\\ surprisingly\\,\\ we\\ all\\ came\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ free\\ speech\\ for\\ students\\.\\ When\\ I\\ sat\\ there\\ though\\,\\ I\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ help\\ but\\ think\\ that\\ our\\ views\\ were\\ skewed\\,\\ not\\ only\\ because\\ we\\ were\\ fresh\\ out\\ of\\ high\\ school\\ ourselves\\,\\ but\\ also\\ because\\ we\\ were\\ now\\ Harvard\\ freshman\\.\\ Not\\ to\\ overly\\ generalize\\,\\ but\\ I\\&\\#8217\\;d\\ wager\\ that\\ most\\ of\\ my\\ class\\,\\ including\\ me\\,\\ came\\ from\\ private\\ schools\\,\\ wealthy\\ suburbs\\,\\ or\\ magnet\\ high\\ schools\\.\\ If\\ we\\ had\\ gone\\ to\\ school\\ in\\ a\\ district\\ where\\ discipline\\ was\\ truly\\ an\\ issue\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ where\\ students\\ brought\\ knives\\ to\\ school\\ and\\ hurled\\ swears\\ to\\ teacher\\ on\\ a\\ regular\\ basis\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ would\\ our\\ views\\ on\\ school\\ discipline\\ for\\ speech\\ be\\ slightly\\ different\\?\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 10: Back in High School...We Didn\u2019t Have Free Speech "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.647198+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Facebook Beacon Not Looking so Bright ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 512, "html": "\\In\\ my\\ \\post\\<\\/a\\>\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ weeks\\ ago\\,\\ I\\ discussed\\ Facebook\\'s\\ Beacon\\ program\\ and\\ optimistically\\ hoped\\ for\\ better\\ user\\ privacy\\ controls\\.\\ After\\ MoveOn\\.org\\ raised\\ some\\ uproar\\ and\\ created\\ \\Facebook\\ protest\\ group\\<\\/a\\>\\ popped\\ up\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ Facebook\\ has\\ backed\\ down\\ a\\ little\\,\\ \\changing\\ the\\ service\\ to\\ opt\\-in\\ rather\\ than\\ opt\\-out\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\Despite\\ this\\ move\\,\\ a\\ quick\\ scan\\ of\\ the\\ news\\ wires\\ and\\ blogosophere\\ reveals\\ that\\ many\\ people\\ are\\ still\\ feeling\\ \\quite\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\sour\\<\\/a\\>\\ about\\ the\\ whole\\ program\\.\\ Can\\ Facebook\\ recover\\ from\\ this\\ PR\\ fiasco\\?\\ They\\ did\\ a\\ brilliant\\ job\\ with\\ aftermath\\ of\\ News\\ Feed\\.\\\r\\\\Comments\\ CNET\\ News\\.com\\ readers\\ voicing\\ their\\ opinions\\ of\\ MoveOn\\'s\\ persistent\\ campaign\\ have\\ ranged\\ from\\ support\\ for\\ what\\ they\\ see\\ as\\ a\\ rally\\ against\\ \\\"\\outrageous\\ breaches\\ of\\ privacy\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ to\\ suggestions\\ that\\ if\\ Facebook\\ users\\ have\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ Beacon\\ that\\ they\\ should\\,\\ well\\,\\ \\move\\ on\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\Certainly\\ a\\ suggestion\\ to\\ move\\ on\\ is\\ valid\\,\\ but\\ I\\ think\\ that\\ Facebook\\ has\\ penetrated\\ collegiate\\ life\\,\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ least\\,\\ to\\ a\\ point\\ where\\ many\\ of\\ us\\ cannot\\ imagine\\ not\\ having\\ Facebook\\.\\ It\\ is\\ so\\ deeply\\ ingrained\\ into\\ our\\ social\\ habits\\.\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ expect\\ private\\ companies\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ banner\\ for\\ privacy\\,\\ but\\ Facebook\\ explicitly\\ bases\\ its\\ principals\\ in\\ user\\-controlled\\ privacy\\ and\\ perhaps\\ it\\ owes\\ its\\ users\\ at\\ least\\ that\\ much\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Facebook Beacon Not Looking so Bright "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.656163+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 12: Second Life, Which Law? ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 513, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\We\\ barely\\ have\\ enough\\ for\\ our\\ first\\ life\\,\\ who\\ has\\ time\\ for\\ Second\\ Life\\?\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\The\\ answer\\,\\ to\\ that\\ question\\ posed\\ by\\ a\\ classmate\\,\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ people\\,\\ up\\ to\\ 20\\ million\\ of\\ them\\.\\ For\\ anyone\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ Second\\ Life\\,\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ interactive\\ virtual\\ world\\ in\\ which\\ players\\ create\\ avatars\\ \\(their\\ \\&\\#8220\\;in\\ world\\&\\#8221\\;\\ digital\\ selves\\)\\ and\\ essentially\\ live\\ a\\ life\\ online\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ lot\\ like\\ Sims\\ with\\ real\\ people\\.\\ Residents\\ on\\ Second\\ Life\\ are\\ there\\ it\\ for\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ different\\ reasons\\,\\ ranging\\ from\\ fantasy\\ and\\ role\\-play\\ to\\ crossing\\-over\\ of\\ real\\-world\\ presences\\.\\ Disclaimer\\ though\\,\\ I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ pretend\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ authority\\ on\\ the\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ I\\ had\\ only\\ limited\\ prior\\ exposure\\ to\\ Second\\ Life\\ and\\ whatever\\ was\\ covered\\ in\\ the\\ readings\\ for\\ class\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ research\\ I\\ did\\ on\\ my\\ own\\ only\\ begins\\ to\\ skim\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ culture\\ and\\ many\\ diverse\\ subcultures\\.\\ Anyone\\ who\\ is\\ curious\\ about\\ this\\ whole\\ other\\ digital\\ universe\\ will\\ find\\ a\\ wealth\\ of\\ information\\ online\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ \\Wikipedia\\ \\<\\/a\\>is\\ a\\ good\\ place\\ to\\ start\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Although\\ our\\ readings\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ legal\\ aspects\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\ and\\ its\\ parent\\ company\\,\\ Linden\\ Labs\\,\\ none\\ of\\ us\\ could\\ quite\\ get\\ over\\ our\\ awe\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ \\Seriously\\?\\ People\\ spend\\ that\\ much\\ life\\ in\\ a\\ second\\ life\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\ Yet\\ I\\ couldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ help\\ but\\ think\\ that\\ we\\ were\\ acting\\ like\\ the\\ RIAA\\ and\\ government\\,\\ the\\ very\\ people\\ whom\\ we\\ bagged\\ for\\ misunderstanding\\ the\\ Internet\\.\\ Were\\ we\\ similarly\\ ill\\-equipped\\ to\\ understand\\ this\\ phenomenon\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ think\\ that\\ this\\ incredulity\\ colored\\ our\\ opinions\\ of\\ the\\ legal\\ problems\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ To\\ understand\\ why\\ there\\ exist\\ such\\ legal\\ issues\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ economic\\ scale\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ According\\ to\\ \\an\\ Economist\\ article\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ virtual\\ goods\\ amounts\\ to\\ over\\ \\$1\\ billion\\ dollars\\ a\\ year\\.\\ These\\ goods\\ range\\ from\\ gold\\ or\\ weapons\\ for\\ games\\ such\\ as\\ World\\ of\\ Warcraft\\ to\\ designer\\ clothing\\,\\ furniture\\,\\ and\\ in\\ one\\ case\\,\\ adult\\ sex\\ toys\\,\\ in\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Eros\\ Inc\\,\\ a\\ company\\ that\\ sells\\ the\\ SexGen\\ Bed\\ on\\ Second\\ Life\\,\\ recently\\ \\sued\\ \\(pdf\\)\\ \\<\\/a\\>Leatherwood\\,\\ an\\ user\\ who\\ was\\ copying\\ the\\ software\\ code\\ of\\ the\\ SexGen\\ Bed\\ and\\ selling\\ it\\ as\\ his\\ own\\.\\ \\(Check\\ \\this\\ \\<\\/a\\>out\\:\\ it\\ links\\ is\\ to\\ an\\ article\\ through\\ Reuter\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ news\\ bureau\\ in\\ Second\\ life\\.\\)\\ The\\ issue\\ here\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ novel\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ a\\ case\\ of\\ copyright\\ infringement\\.\\ What\\ is\\ new\\ is\\ the\\ setting\\.\\ The\\ relevant\\ transactions\\ all\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ virtual\\ world\\ for\\ virtual\\ goods\\ with\\ virtual\\ dollars\\.\\ \\(Second\\ Life\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ currency\\,\\ Linden\\ Dollars\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ converted\\ to\\ real\\ dollars\\ or\\ used\\ buy\\ goods\\ in\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\)\\ The\\ amended\\ complaint\\ was\\ just\\ filed\\ a\\ month\\ ago\\,\\ so\\ this\\ case\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ resolved\\ for\\ quite\\ some\\ time\\.\\ \\ But\\ does\\ this\\ issue\\ even\\ belong\\ in\\ our\\ civil\\ courts\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\Some\\ of\\ my\\ classmates\\ argued\\ no\\.\\ If\\ Second\\ Life\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ news\\ bureau\\,\\ its\\ own\\ businesses\\,\\ even\\ its\\ own\\ national\\ embassies\\,\\ why\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ they\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ judicial\\ system\\?\\ Philip\\ Rosedale\\,\\ founder\\ and\\ CEO\\ of\\ Linden\\ Labs\\,\\ epitomizes\\ this\\ view\\ in\\ an\\ interview\\ with\\ \\the\\ Washington\\ Post\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;In\\ the\\ ideal\\ case\\,\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ in\\ Second\\ Life\\ should\\ think\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ citizens\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ place\\ and\\ not\\ citizens\\ of\\ their\\ countries\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Rosedale\\ seems\\ optimistic\\ that\\ the\\ residents\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\ can\\ create\\ its\\ own\\ legal\\ code\\ and\\ judicial\\ system\\ independent\\ of\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ Second\\ Life\\ is\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ real\\ dollars\\ and\\ real\\ money\\,\\ so\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ summarily\\ removed\\ from\\ our\\ real\\ judicial\\ system\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\As\\ we\\ wrap\\ up\\ the\\ semester\\,\\ I\\ would\\ also\\ like\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ overarching\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ course\\.\\ The\\ \\&\\#8220\\;point\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ course\\,\\ if\\ I\\ have\\ to\\ distill\\ to\\ only\\ one\\,\\ would\\ be\\ examining\\ the\\ problems\\ and\\ finding\\ the\\ solutions\\ of\\ applying\\ laws\\ designed\\ in\\ the\\ analog\\ world\\ to\\ the\\ digital\\ world\\ of\\ today\\.\\ In\\ Second\\ Life\\ for\\ example\\,\\ two\\ Residents\\,\\ both\\ of\\ whom\\ are\\ adults\\ in\\ real\\ life\\,\\ were\\ playing\\ an\\ adult\\ male\\ and\\ a\\ female\\ child\\ engaging\\ in\\ sex\\.\\ Even\\ if\\ we\\ ignore\\ the\\ debate\\ over\\ virtual\\ child\\ pornography\\,\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ problems\\ to\\ solve\\.\\ \\Virtual\\ child\\ pornography\\ is\\ legal\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ according\\ to\\ \\Ashcroft\\ v\\.\\ The\\ Free\\ Speech\\ Coalition\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ illegal\\ in\\ many\\ other\\ countries\\ such\\ as\\ Germany\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ this\\,\\ Linden\\ Labs\\ took\\ action\\ and\\ banned\\ the\\ two\\ users\\.\\ As\\ the\\ Internet\\ makes\\ physical\\ and\\ geographical\\ boundaries\\ obsolete\\,\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ deal\\ with\\ disputes\\ that\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ fall\\ under\\ the\\ jurisdiction\\ of\\ any\\ one\\ country\\?\\ Whose\\ laws\\ do\\ we\\ follow\\?\\ Do\\ we\\ make\\ new\\ laws\\ that\\ govern\\ only\\ the\\ Internet\\?\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ digital\\ world\\ is\\ still\\ intrinsically\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ real\\ one\\.\\ As\\ the\\ world\\ becomes\\ increasingly\\ global\\ and\\ digitalized\\,\\ these\\ are\\ the\\ questions\\ that\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ answer\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Last\\ thing\\:\\ The\\ Berkman\\ Center\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ Berkman\\ Island\\ on\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ Ivygate\\ \\(the\\ Ivy\\ League\\ equivalent\\ of\\ Gawker\\)\\ has\\ put\\ up\\ a\\ \\video\\ \\<\\/a\\>in\\ which\\ Harvard\\ Law\\ professor\\ Charles\\ Nesson\\ explains\\ the\\ Internet\\ law\\ class\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ teaching\\ through\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ \\ Our\\ class\\ isn\\'t\\ this\\ kooky\\,\\ I\\ promise\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 12: Second Life, Which Law? "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.679986+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Week 12: When Second Life Comes First", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 515, "html": "\\As\\ my\\ last\\ post\\ discussed\\ the\\ legal\\ aspects\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\,\\ I\\'d\\ like\\ to\\ also\\ spill\\ some\\ thoughts\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ implications\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ something\\ easy\\ to\\ get\\ hung\\ up\\ on\\.\\ When\\ we\\ hear\\ about\\ people\\ spending\\ 10\\ hours\\ a\\ day\\ hunched\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ computer\\ manipulating\\ their\\ digital\\ lives\\,\\ neglecting\\ their\\ real\\ lives\\,\\ most\\ of\\ us\\ will\\ be\\ judgment\\ and\\ patronizing\\.\\ Certainly\\,\\ as\\ I\\ said\\ before\\,\\ I\\ felt\\ like\\ this\\ colored\\ our\\ class\\ discussions\\ on\\ the\\ legal\\ aspects\\ of\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ This\\ escape\\ into\\ the\\ digital\\ world\\ \\-\\-\\ it\\ can\\ seem\\ pathetic\\ or\\ escapist\\.\\ Maybe\\ even\\ an\\ addiction\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ Wall\\ Street\\ Journal\\<\\/a\\>\\ had\\ an\\ excellent\\ piece\\ a\\ few\\ months\\ ago\\ about\\ one\\ man\\ who\\ is\\,\\ if\\ we\\'re\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ word\\,\\ addicted\\ to\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ Ric\\ Hoogestraat\\ is\\ married\\ to\\ two\\ different\\ woman\\ at\\ once\\ \\-\\-\\ one\\ in\\ real\\ life\\,\\ Sue\\,\\ and\\ one\\ in\\ Second\\ Life\\.\\ Needless\\ to\\ say\\,\\ his\\ real\\ wife\\ is\\ not\\ too\\ happy\\ with\\ her\\ husband\\'s\\ virtual\\ infidelity\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\"It\\'s\\ sad\\;\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ waste\\ of\\ human\\ life\\,\\\"\\ says\\ Mrs\\.\\ Hoogestraat\\,\\ who\\ is\\ dark\\-haired\\ and\\ heavy\\-set\\ with\\ smooth\\,\\ pale\\ skin\\.\\ \\\"Everybody\\ has\\ their\\ hobbies\\,\\ but\\ when\\ it\\'s\\ from\\ six\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\ until\\ two\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\,\\ that\\'s\\ not\\ a\\ hobby\\,\\ that\\'s\\ your\\ life\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\It\\'s\\ easy\\ to\\ categorize\\ Mr\\.\\ Hoogestraat\\'s\\ habits\\ as\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ addiction\\,\\ but\\ he\\ isn\\'t\\ spending\\ his\\ time\\ online\\ passively\\;\\ he\\'s\\ forging\\ real\\ and\\ personal\\ relationships\\.\\ The\\ articles\\ cites\\ how\\ over\\ 50\\ of\\ his\\ virtual\\ friends\\ greeted\\ him\\ with\\ messages\\ asking\\ of\\ his\\ health\\ after\\ he\\ underwent\\ gall\\ removal\\ surgery\\.\\ If\\ humans\\ naturally\\ crave\\ social\\ interaction\\,\\ then\\ is\\ Second\\ Life\\ an\\ appropriate\\ outlet\\ for\\ social\\ interactions\\?\\ I\\ don\\'t\\ think\\ that\\ digital\\ interactions\\ can\\ ever\\ replace\\ a\\ hug\\ or\\ a\\ caress\\,\\ but\\ there\\'s\\ certainly\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ said\\ for\\ online\\ friends\\ who\\ care\\ for\\ your\\ well\\-being\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ I\\ am\\ ambivalent\\ on\\ how\\ I\\ feel\\ about\\ Second\\ Life\\ and\\ increasingly\\ digitalized\\ social\\ interactions\\.\\ As\\ the\\ quantity\\ goes\\ up\\,\\ do\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ friendships\\ suffer\\?\\ Again\\,\\ it\\'s\\ about\\ balance\\ \\-\\-\\ balancing\\ our\\ analog\\ and\\ our\\ digital\\ worlds\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 81, "file_path": "", "desc": "Week 12: When Second Life Comes First"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.703364+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Opening Moves", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 516, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Ours\\ is\\ a\\ confusing\\ era\\ for\\ live\\ theater\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ have\\ grown\\ up\\ with\\ living\\-room\\ cartoons\\,\\ films\\ on\\ VHS\\,\\ and\\ a\\ hundred\\ other\\ devices\\ that\\ remove\\ the\\ public\\ aspect\\ from\\ entertainment\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ have\\ also\\ seen\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;reality\\&\\#8221\\;\\ television\\,\\ the\\ web\\-cam\\,\\ YouTube\\,\\ all\\ venues\\ for\\ watching\\ real\\ people\\ you\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ really\\ know\\ without\\ having\\ to\\ be\\ near\\ them\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ with\\ others\\ at\\ a\\ specific\\ time\\ and\\ place\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ witness\\ something\\ happen\\ has\\ fallen\\ somewhat\\ out\\ of\\ fashion\\ in\\ the\\ popular\\ culture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ scheduled\\ TV\\ shows\\ no\\ longer\\ run\\ out\\ their\\ minutes\\ and\\ disappear\\ from\\ the\\ program\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>You\\&\\#8217\\;ll\\ always\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ bend\\ time\\ to\\ your\\ will\\ with\\ Tivo\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Experimental\\ theater\\ has\\ also\\ helped\\ to\\ thicken\\ this\\ conceptual\\ stew\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ example\\,\\ John\\ Cage\\ broke\\ conventional\\ demarcations\\ of\\ theatrical\\ time\\ and\\ space\\ with\\ his\\ \\Happenings\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ which\\ are\\ still\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ dramatic\\ compositions\\ although\\ they\\ often\\ lack\\ any\\ notion\\ of\\ plot\\ or\\ even\\ finite\\ duration\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Something\\ is\\ happen\\.\\.\\.ing\\,\\ a\\ paradox\\ of\\ event\\ and\\ continuity\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ certain\\ points\\ a\\ performance\\ of\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ theater\\ might\\ be\\ indistinguishable\\ from\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ normal\\ life\\ around\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ TV\\ show\\ \\Seinfeld\\<\\/em\\>\\ put\\ a\\ cheeky\\ spin\\ on\\ this\\ avant\\-garde\\ notion\\ when\\ its\\ characters\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ brilliant\\ idea\\ for\\ a\\ hit\\ sit\\-com\\,\\ the\\ show\\ where\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\Nothing\\<\\/em\\>\\ happens\\!\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Every\\ time\\ the\\ gimmick\\ was\\ pitched\\,\\ tickled\\ listeners\\ agreed\\ that\\ it\\ really\\ did\\ capture\\ the\\ hilarious\\ banality\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ lives\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ both\\ Cage\\ and\\ Seinfeld\\ touch\\ on\\ our\\ anxiety\\ over\\ \\event\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ few\\ of\\ us\\ live\\ with\\ the\\ feeling\\ that\\ something\\ momentous\\ is\\ about\\ to\\ happen\\,\\ yet\\,\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ riveted\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ sign\\ that\\ something\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ afoot\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ attempt\\ to\\ grab\\ fleeting\\ time\\ and\\ bend\\ it\\ like\\ a\\ rubber\\ hose\\ \\(we\\ just\\ go\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ stream\\)\\,\\ but\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ still\\ got\\ some\\ sense\\ of\\ just\\ how\\ incredible\\ that\\ would\\ be\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ great\\ play\\ thrusts\\ such\\ a\\ moment\\ upon\\ us\\,\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>presents\\ \\&\\#8220\\;our\\ dilemma\\ in\\ time\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ as\\ Professor\\ Scanlan\\ put\\ it\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ play\\ is\\ always\\ \\now\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ in\\ this\\ represents\\ the\\ culmination\\ of\\ human\\ history\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Dramatic\\ texts\\ are\\ not\\ relics\\ but\\ rather\\ immediacy\\ distilled\\;\\ actors\\ and\\ audience\\ perform\\ the\\ alchemy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Clytemnestra\\ will\\ kill\\ her\\ husband\\ tonight\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Be\\ there\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 82, "file_path": "", "desc": "Opening Moves"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.713544+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Where to turn - Calamity and community", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 517, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Professor\\ Robert\\ Scanlan\\ is\\,\\ among\\ other\\,\\ more\\ prestigious\\ qualifications\\,\\ an\\ artist\\ of\\ the\\ extended\\ metaphor\\,\\ and\\ this\\ enthralls\\ the\\ lucky\\ forty\\ who\\ attend\\ his\\ bi\\-weekly\\ show\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ his\\ own\\ words\\,\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;histrionic\\&\\#8221\\;\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;theatrical\\&\\#8221\\;\\ instinct\\,\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ hour\\ of\\ his\\ speaking\\,\\ \\this\\<\\/em\\>\\ moment\\,\\ at\\ once\\ the\\ instant\\ of\\ the\\ \\Persian\\ invasions\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ that\\ slaughter\\,\\ and\\ the\\ preparation\\ of\\ more\\ intimate\\ ones\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Agamemnon\\ tears\\ into\\ the\\ room\\ as\\ an\\ Andalusian\\ bull\\ charges\\ its\\ arena\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Scanlan\\ places\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ spectator\\,\\ awed\\ and\\ terrified\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ knows\\ that\\ the\\ bull\\ has\\ arrived\\ only\\ to\\ die\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ moment\\ he\\ cannot\\ believe\\ it\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ powerful\\ beast\\,\\ this\\ enraged\\ force\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ will\\ be\\ put\\ to\\ death\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ thirty\\ minutes\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Impossible\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\ can\\ it\\ happen\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ what\\ maneuvers\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ questions\\ rivet\\ the\\ audience\\ to\\ a\\ doomed\\ spectacle\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ bull\\ knows\\ nothing\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ bull\\ can\\ not\\ know\\ his\\ executioner\\ \\(indeed\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Scanlan\\,\\ bulls\\ are\\ considered\\ unfit\\ to\\ fight\\ if\\ they\\ have\\ had\\ previous\\ human\\ contact\\)\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ remains\\ indomitable\\,\\ homicidal\\,\\ right\\ up\\ to\\ its\\ last\\ hour\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Likewise\\,\\ Agamemnon\\ makes\\ his\\ entrance\\ straight\\ out\\ of\\ an\\ orgy\\ of\\ violence\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ still\\ reeks\\ from\\ the\\ massacre\\ of\\ Troy\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ has\\ pillaged\\,\\ raped\\,\\ defamed\\,\\ enslaved\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>A\\ woman\\ will\\ kill\\ this\\ man\\ before\\ the\\ scene\\ has\\ played\\ out\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ order\\ to\\ believe\\ this\\ we\\ must\\ see\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ must\\ see\\ \\how\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\On\\ this\\ Thursday\\ afternoon\\,\\ Scanlan\\ gesticulates\\ ancient\\ history\\ into\\ its\\ brutal\\ reality\\,\\ just\\ as\\ Aeschylus\\ put\\ characters\\ from\\ centuries\\ past\\ back\\ into\\ living\\ flesh\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ professor\\ slices\\ through\\ the\\ temperate\\ room\\,\\ provoking\\ jaded\\ students\\ \\-\\ who\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ name\\ the\\ twelve\\ \\Olympian\\ gods\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ really\\ see\\ the\\ point\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ after\\ all\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ to\\ shudder\\ at\\ the\\ ruthless\\ solemnity\\ of\\ the\\ Holden\\ Chapel\\ sundial\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;on\\ this\\ moment\\ hinges\\ all\\ eternity\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ they\\ are\\ listening\\,\\ and\\ now\\ they\\ certainly\\ are\\,\\ then\\ they\\ are\\ starting\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ sense\\ that\\ they\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;time\\ machine\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ Scanlan\\ references\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ theatrical\\ mechanism\\,\\ every\\ sprocket\\ is\\ wound\\ tight\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ dramatist\\ culls\\ the\\ mind\\,\\ body\\,\\ and\\ destiny\\ of\\ a\\ drawn\\-out\\ life\\ to\\ prepare\\ his\\ intense\\ second\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Tragedy\\ pulls\\ in\\ all\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ Clytemnestra\\ declares\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;we\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ moment\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ prehistoric\\ ritual\\ hour\\,\\ an\\ urgent\\ cry\\ to\\ the\\ gods\\ of\\ vegetation\\ rites\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>More\\ primitive\\ than\\ the\\ Olympian\\ panoply\\,\\ they\\ govern\\ the\\ cycle\\ of\\ the\\ year\\ and\\ its\\ attendant\\ calamities\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ poor\\ humans\\ must\\ rally\\ our\\ magic\\ to\\ contend\\ with\\ them\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Theater\\ itself\\ was\\ born\\ from\\ the\\ choral\\ dances\\ performed\\ on\\ the\\ threshing\\ floors\\ to\\ celebrate\\ the\\ rebirth\\ that\\ allows\\ for\\ our\\ survival\\ \\(this\\ drama\\ of\\ the\\ seasons\\ is\\ personified\\ the\\ Greek\\ story\\ of\\ \\Persephone\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ \\orchesteres\\<\\/em\\>\\ happened\\ at\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ community\\,\\ within\\ a\\ demarcated\\ circle\\ of\\ protection\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Each\\ ceremonial\\ performance\\ represented\\ the\\ public\\ decision\\ to\\ take\\ action\\,\\ to\\ defy\\ our\\ vulnerability\\ with\\ worship\\ and\\ sacrifice\\,\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ plagues\\,\\ floods\\,\\ and\\ other\\ disasters\\ that\\ terrorized\\ our\\ ancestors\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ healthy\\ and\\ comfortable\\ college\\ students\\,\\ we\\ have\\ difficulty\\ imagining\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ this\\ desperation\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Scanlan\\ points\\ to\\ the\\ auditorium\\ that\\ stares\\ back\\ at\\ him\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ sitting\\ in\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;seeing\\ place\\&\\#8221\\;\\ that\\ has\\ descended\\ from\\ the\\ sacred\\ circle\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\He\\ throttles\\ forward\\ to\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ \\Aeschylus\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ for\\ whom\\ the\\ \\Trojan\\ War\\<\\/a\\>\\ material\\ of\\ the\\ \\Oresteia\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ centuries\\ old\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Although\\ 5\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ Athens\\ saw\\ its\\ share\\ of\\ atrocities\\,\\ including\\ several\\ bloody\\ conflicts\\ in\\ which\\ Aeschylus\\ himself\\ fought\\ \\(see\\ the\\ \\\\History\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\ of\\ Herodotus\\)\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ in\\ the\\ plays\\ would\\ have\\ seemed\\ primitive\\ and\\ barbaric\\ to\\ the\\ contemporary\\ audience\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Ineluctable\\ vengeance\\,\\ blood\\ feuds\\ to\\ be\\ settled\\ stroke\\ for\\ stroke\\,\\ and\\ human\\ sacrifice\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ past\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Aeschylus\\ dragged\\ Agamemnon\\ and\\ his\\ family\\ up\\ from\\ the\\ deep\\ historical\\ imagination\\ of\\ his\\ culture\\ to\\ both\\ praise\\ and\\ warn\\ his\\ own\\ society\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ creates\\,\\ in\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ Scanlan\\,\\ a\\ foundational\\ myth\\;\\ the\\ gruesome\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ of\\ Atreus\\ begins\\ in\\ cruel\\ slaughter\\ but\\ ends\\ with\\ divinely\\ ordained\\ civic\\ justice\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Athenian\\ audiences\\ attended\\ the\\ re\\-presentation\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ coming\\ into\\ being\\,\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ flare\\ in\\ the\\ darkness\\ to\\ the\\ full\\ light\\ of\\ Athena\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ blessed\\ reason\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Indeed\\,\\ the\\ onrush\\ of\\ a\\ first\\ calamity\\ begins\\ with\\ the\\ striking\\ of\\ a\\ torch\\ at\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Troy\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Clytemnestra\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ first\\ speech\\ describes\\ the\\ race\\ of\\ signal\\ fires\\ over\\ hillsides\\ and\\ back\\ to\\ Greece\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ a\\ tempest\\ of\\ language\\ she\\ wheels\\ over\\ landscapes\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ world\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Her\\ words\\ fly\\ out\\ at\\ increasing\\ speed\\ up\\ to\\ her\\ triumphant\\ conclusion\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;And\\ I\\ ordained\\ it\\ all\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ takes\\ explicit\\ possession\\ of\\ the\\ message\\ but\\ also\\ implies\\ her\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ action\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ is\\ both\\ terrifying\\ and\\ splendid\\,\\ at\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ her\\ power\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ jubilant\\,\\ she\\ retains\\ a\\ darkness\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Beneath\\ her\\ relish\\ of\\ her\\ husband\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ homecoming\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;what\\ dawn\\ can\\ feast\\ a\\ woman\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ eyes\\ like\\ this\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ we\\ hear\\ the\\ cruel\\ strains\\ of\\ the\\ curse\\ of\\ Atreus\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Her\\ unction\\ sounds\\ more\\ predatory\\ than\\ pious\\ when\\ she\\ describes\\ the\\ sacrificial\\ fires\\ that\\ \\&\\#8220\\;consumed\\ our\\ victims\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\If\\ there\\ is\\ any\\ doubt\\ that\\ something\\ deeply\\ sinister\\ moves\\ within\\ this\\ house\\,\\ the\\ Chorus\\ stirs\\ up\\ emotional\\ torrents\\ of\\ violent\\ metaphor\\,\\ explicitly\\ bloody\\ imagery\\,\\ and\\ the\\ portentous\\ refrain\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;we\\ suffer\\/\\ and\\ we\\ suffer\\ and\\ we\\ learn\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ recount\\ the\\ departure\\ for\\ the\\ Trojan\\ War\\,\\ the\\ deeds\\ of\\ Agamemnon\\,\\ including\\ his\\ choice\\ to\\ kill\\ his\\ daughter\\ Iphegenia\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ winds\\ would\\ come\\ and\\ bear\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ to\\ Troy\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Some\\ of\\ their\\ speeches\\ are\\ almost\\ ecstatically\\ gruesome\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Aeschylus\\ depicts\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ a\\ chaos\\ of\\ massive\\ figures\\;\\ rapacious\\ birds\\,\\ slashing\\ spears\\,\\ and\\ tidal\\ waves\\ careen\\ through\\ a\\ terrible\\ history\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Yet\\,\\ these\\ wild\\ excesses\\ share\\ space\\ with\\ the\\ smallest\\ and\\ most\\ delicate\\,\\ the\\ shriveled\\ leaf\\,\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ Iphegenia\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ saffron\\ robe\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Incredible\\ metaphor\\ only\\ enhances\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ that\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ must\\ love\\,\\ pray\\,\\ sing\\,\\ and\\ scream\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\At\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ play\\ cycle\\,\\ the\\ hope\\ of\\ the\\ \\Eumenides\\<\\/em\\>\\ has\\ yet\\ to\\ come\\ into\\ view\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ trapped\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ with\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;bull\\ and\\ his\\ mate\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ both\\ them\\ murderous\\ and\\ blind\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ feel\\ the\\ shock\\,\\ the\\ pain\\,\\ of\\ the\\ era\\ before\\ the\\ transformation\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ ancient\\ murders\\ are\\ still\\ fresh\\,\\ as\\ Scanlan\\ made\\ them\\ for\\ us\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ showed\\ an\\ excerpt\\ of\\ \\\\Iphegenia\\ in\\ Aulis\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ a\\ film\\ version\\ of\\ a\\ Euripides\\ play\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ name\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Its\\ action\\ antedates\\ the\\ \\Oresteia\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ but\\ its\\ forebodings\\ are\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ Agamemnon\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Director\\ Michael\\ Cacoyannis\\,\\ filming\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ \\military\\ junta\\<\\/a\\>\\ in\\ Greece\\,\\ pushes\\ us\\ to\\ reflect\\ on\\ our\\ responsibility\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Watch\\ the\\ winds\\ kick\\ up\\ \\before\\ \\<\\/em\\>Iphegenia\\ meets\\ her\\ executioner\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ audience\\,\\ silenced\\ by\\ horror\\,\\ begins\\ to\\ change\\ its\\ question\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ sick\\ to\\ have\\ asked\\ \\&\\#8220\\;how\\ will\\ this\\ murder\\ happen\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Instead\\ we\\ struggle\\,\\ do\\ we\\ \\have\\<\\/em\\>\\ to\\ do\\ this\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ \\Oresteia\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ purged\\ of\\ our\\ guilt\\ and\\ acquitted\\ from\\ destruction\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ was\\ the\\ hope\\ for\\ a\\ florescent\\ Athenian\\ century\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ justice\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ our\\ era\\ also\\,\\ we\\ hope\\ for\\ no\\ less\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 82, "file_path": "", "desc": "Where to turn - Calamity and community"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.726625+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Dreams of the Greeks in Big Brass Bands", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 518, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\I\\ apologize\\ for\\ hurtling\\ through\\ the\\ \\Oresteia\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ post\\.\\ Look\\ for\\ annotations\\ on\\ the\\ text\\ to\\ complement\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ reverberations\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ in\\ Western\\ cultural\\ history\\ are\\ too\\ numerous\\ to\\ catalogue\\ \\(although\\ I\\ will\\ mention\\ Eugene\\ O\\'Neill\\'s\\ \\Mourning\\ Becomes\\ Electra\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ read\\ it\\,\\ revive\\ it\\!\\)\\,\\ here\\ is\\ instead\\ an\\ anecdote\\:\\ When\\ I\\ attended\\ Harvard\\ Square\\'s\\ Oktoberfest\\,\\ a\\ community\\ celebration\\ at\\ a\\ traditional\\ harvest\\ time\\,\\ I\\ couldn\\'t\\ help\\ but\\ think\\ of\\ ancient\\ origins\\ and\\ public\\ performance\\.\\ At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ a\\ seemingly\\ endless\\ string\\ of\\ what\\ I\\'ll\\ call\\ activist\\ Oompa\\ bands\\ paraded\\ through\\,\\ with\\ makeup\\,\\ midriffs\\,\\ and\\ gonfalons\\ on\\ full\\ display\\.\\ I\\ was\\ ready\\ to\\ dismiss\\ the\\ exhibition\\,\\ to\\ write\\ off\\ the\\ mishmash\\ of\\ cause\\-trumpeters\\ with\\ a\\ scoff\\ \\(and\\,\\ frankly\\,\\ isn\\'t\\ there\\ something\\ funny\\ about\\ in\\ the\\ anti\\-gender\\&\\#8211\\;renewable\\ energy\\&\\#8211\\;impeach\\ Bush\\&\\#8211\\;intellectual\\ freedom\\-brigade\\'s\\ getting\\ dolled\\ up\\ like\\ Gogol\\ Bordello\\ to\\ play\\ \\\"When\\ the\\ Saints\\ Go\\ Marching\\ In\\\"\\)\\,\\ when\\ I\\ noticed\\ what\\ a\\ civic\\ dream\\ I\\ was\\ witnessing\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\Cambridge\\ citizens\\ danced\\ and\\ sang\\ their\\ freedom\\,\\ worshiped\\ justice\\ openly\\ in\\ the\\ streets\\,\\ and\\ proclaimed\\ themselves\\ its\\ watchdogs\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ parade\\ was\\ our\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ torchlit\\ procession\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ \\Oresteia\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ when\\ the\\ Athenians\\ in\\ the\\ audience\\ joined\\ the\\ ritual\\ representation\\ of\\ their\\ society\\'s\\ progress\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ a\\ thrill\\ to\\ be\\ together\\ at\\ this\\ moment\\ of\\ evolution\\,\\ the\\ passage\\ from\\ isolated\\ struggle\\ to\\ sanctified\\ community\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ still\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ torsion\\ by\\ events\\ that\\ surpass\\ us\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ act\\ and\\ protect\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>With\\ its\\ incantations\\,\\ the\\ public\\ spectacle\\ invokes\\ our\\ strength\\ in\\ almost\\ religious\\ affirmation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 82, "file_path": "", "desc": "Dreams of the Greeks in Big Brass Bands"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.735989+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Phase 3: Controlling the Factory (Production of Viral Proteins)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 519, "html": "\\\\At\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ infection\\ cycle\\,\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ has\\ been\\ completely\\ copied\\ and\\ inserted\\ into\\ the\\ host\\ genome\\,\\ blending\\ in\\ with\\ existing\\ host\\ genes\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ virus\\'s\\ main\\ strategy\\:\\ by\\ masquerading\\ its\\ own\\ genes\\ as\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ is\\ fooled\\ into\\ transcribing\\ viral\\ genes\\ and\\ producing\\ viral\\ proteins\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ some\\ issues\\ that\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ care\\ of\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ eukaryotic\\ transcription\\,\\ which\\ involves\\ a\\ complex\\ system\\ of\\ regulatory\\ elements\\,\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ likely\\ resides\\ in\\ a\\ location\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ especially\\ conducive\\ to\\ transcription\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ transcription\\ is\\ slow\\ and\\ inefficient\\,\\ producing\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ \\(usually\\ incomplete\\)\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ genes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\To\\ combat\\ this\\ problem\\,\\ HIV\\ employs\\ a\\ positive\\ feedback\\ system\\ whereby\\ those\\ few\\ transcripts\\ stimulate\\ more\\ efficient\\ transcription\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ viral\\ genes\\.\\ At\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ this\\ system\\ is\\ the\\ protein\\ Tat\\ \\(transactivating\\ regulatory\\ protein\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ encoded\\ by\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ and\\ is\\ among\\ the\\ first\\ genes\\ to\\ be\\ transcribed\\ and\\ translated\\ in\\ phase\\ three\\.\\ Tat\\ increases\\ transcription\\ efficiency\\ by\\ recruiting\\ a\\ protein\\ kinase\\ to\\ phosphorylate\\ the\\ RNA\\ polymerase\\,\\ thus\\ activating\\ the\\ polymerase\\ and\\ causing\\ it\\ to\\ become\\ processive\\.\\ To\\ do\\ so\\,\\ it\\ recognizes\\ an\\ RNA\\ sequence\\ called\\ TAR\\,\\ which\\ is\\ coded\\ for\\ near\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\.\\ As\\ an\\ unactivated\\ polymerase\\ travels\\ along\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ and\\ transcribes\\ the\\ sequence\\,\\ TAR\\ is\\ transcribed\\ and\\ folds\\ into\\ a\\ hairpin\\ structure\\,\\ recruiting\\ Tat\\ and\\ eventually\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ phosphorylation\\ of\\ the\\ nearby\\ polymerase\\.\\ As\\ more\\ Tat\\ is\\ created\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ increased\\ number\\ of\\ complete\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ produced\\,\\ transcription\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ genes\\ becomes\\ ever\\ more\\ effective\\.\\ This\\ high\\ level\\ of\\ viral\\ transcript\\ output\\ directly\\ translates\\ into\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ viral\\ protein\\ expression\\,\\ creating\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ self\\-replication\\ of\\ new\\ viral\\ components\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ addition\\,\\ HIV\\ also\\ takes\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\'s\\ mRNA\\ processing\\ machinery\\ to\\ generate\\ different\\ protein\\ products\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\.\\ The\\ overlapping\\ genes\\ in\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\ allow\\ the\\ virus\\ to\\ encode\\ many\\ different\\ proteins\\ within\\ a\\ relatively\\ small\\ genome\\,\\ but\\ require\\ splicing\\ and\\ different\\ reading\\ frames\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ entire\\ set\\ of\\ possibilities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ sytem\\ is\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ HIV\\ protein\\ Rev\\,\\ which\\ is\\ translated\\ from\\ fully\\ spliced\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ \\(like\\ Tat\\)\\.\\ At\\ the\\ start\\ of\\ phase\\ three\\,\\ low\\ levels\\ of\\ transcription\\ produce\\ a\\ few\\ complete\\ copies\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\,\\ which\\ are\\ then\\ spliced\\ by\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\ mRNA\\ processing\\ machinery\\,\\ yielding\\ transcripts\\ for\\ the\\ Rev\\ protein\\.\\ As\\ Rev\\ protein\\ is\\ produced\\ during\\ translation\\,\\ the\\ protein\\ translocates\\ from\\ the\\ cytoplasm\\ into\\ the\\ nucleus\\,\\ where\\ it\\ binds\\ an\\ RNA\\ sequence\\ present\\ in\\ viral\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ called\\ RRE\\ \\(Rev\\ response\\ element\\)\\.\\ In\\ addition\\,\\ Rev\\ also\\ manipulates\\ the\\ normal\\ transcript\\ export\\ system\\,\\ allowing\\ partially\\ spliced\\ or\\ unspliced\\ transcripts\\ to\\ pass\\ through\\ the\\ nuclear\\ membrane\\.\\ Once\\ those\\ transcripts\\ have\\ been\\ exported\\,\\ translation\\ of\\ those\\ unprocessed\\ transcripts\\ occurs\\,\\ producing\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ additional\\ viral\\ proteins\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ potential\\ copyright\\ issues\\,\\ my\\ supply\\ of\\ images\\ and\\ diagrams\\ is\\ somewhat\\ limited\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ images\\ or\\ diagrams\\ that\\ are\\ available\\ for\\ free\\ non\\-commercial\\ use\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Creative\\ Commons\\)\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ contribute\\,\\ please\\ contact\\ me\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "Phase 3: Controlling the Factory (Production of Viral Proteins)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.746100+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Phase 4: Releasing the Bomb (Assembly and Release of New Viruses)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 520, "html": "\\\\At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ the\\ infection\\ cycle\\ is\\ nearly\\ complete\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ has\\ the\\ virus\\ been\\ able\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ cell\\ and\\ infect\\ the\\ genome\\ with\\ its\\ own\\ genes\\,\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ also\\ created\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ genes\\ that\\ it\\ needs\\ for\\ producing\\ new\\ viruses\\.\\ Those\\ transcripts\\ are\\ then\\ translated\\ by\\ the\\ cytosolic\\ ribosomes\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\,\\ producing\\ viral\\ proteins\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ assemble\\ new\\ viruses\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\However\\,\\ the\\ virus\\'\\ job\\ is\\ not\\ done\\ just\\ yet\\.\\ While\\ the\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ have\\ been\\ processed\\ and\\ fully\\ translated\\,\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ those\\ translations\\ are\\ not\\ functional\\ viral\\ proteins\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ polyproteins\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ multiple\\ proteins\\ linked\\ together\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ consecutive\\ nature\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\ in\\ the\\ viral\\ genome\\.\\ As\\ such\\,\\ the\\ viral\\ proteins\\ are\\ inactive\\ and\\ consequently\\ non\\-functional\\.\\ One\\ additional\\ step\\ is\\ needed\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ proteins\\ before\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ packaged\\ into\\ new\\ viruses\\ for\\ release\\ into\\ the\\ surrounding\\ environment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ task\\ is\\ performed\\ by\\ the\\ enzyme\\ HIV\\ protease\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ the\\ extremely\\ slow\\ process\\ of\\ spontaneous\\ peptide\\ hydrolysis\\ \\(with\\ a\\ half\\-life\\ of\\ about\\ 450\\ years\\)\\ to\\ occur\\ in\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ seconds\\ \\(a\\ half\\-life\\ of\\ about\\ 3\\ seconds\\)\\.\\ The\\ products\\ of\\ these\\ cleavage\\ reactions\\ are\\ mature\\ viral\\ proteins\\ that\\ are\\ then\\ packaged\\ together\\ with\\ unspliced\\ genomic\\ mRNA\\ transcripts\\ and\\ bud\\ as\\ new\\ viruses\\ from\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ those\\ proteins\\ are\\ first\\ modified\\ and\\ localized\\ to\\ the\\ cell\\ membrane\\,\\ where\\ they\\ are\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ membrane\\ itself\\.\\ These\\ proteins\\ are\\ the\\ viral\\ coat\\ proteins\\,\\ which\\ form\\ the\\ outer\\ membrane\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ budding\\ viruses\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ budding\\ occurs\\,\\ the\\ infection\\ cycle\\ is\\ complete\\,\\ as\\ the\\ new\\ viruses\\ leave\\ the\\ original\\ cell\\ to\\ find\\ their\\ own\\ targets\\ to\\ infect\\,\\ beginning\\ the\\ cycle\\ once\\ again\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Thankfully\\,\\ this\\ phase\\ allows\\ one\\ final\\ opportunity\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ extent\\ of\\ the\\ damage\\ done\\ by\\ the\\ infection\\ cycle\\.\\ By\\ preventing\\ the\\ activation\\ of\\ the\\ viral\\ proteins\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ prevent\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ functional\\ new\\ viruses\\ and\\ thus\\ stem\\ the\\ infection\\ cycle\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ strategy\\ employed\\ by\\ a\\ class\\ of\\ drugs\\ known\\ as\\ protease\\ inhibitors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Protease\\ inhibitors\\ work\\ by\\ competitive\\ inhibition\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ they\\ compete\\ with\\ the\\ actual\\ substrate\\ for\\ entrance\\ into\\ the\\ enzyme\\'s\\ active\\ site\\,\\ thus\\ preventing\\ the\\ actual\\ substrate\\ from\\ being\\ cleaved\\.\\ As\\ you\\ may\\ have\\ already\\ inferred\\,\\ protease\\ inhibitors\\ are\\ drugs\\ that\\ are\\ specifically\\ designed\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ \\cannot\\<\\/strong\\>\\ be\\ cleaved\\,\\ thus\\ slowing\\ down\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ actual\\ substrate\\ is\\ being\\ cleaved\\ \\(it\\'s\\ \\\"competing\\\"\\ with\\ it\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ effective\\ protease\\ inhibitors\\ exhibit\\ higher\\ binding\\ affinity\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ enzyme\\ preferentially\\ chooses\\ the\\ drug\\ over\\ the\\ viral\\ polyprotein\\,\\ decreasing\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ cleavage\\ even\\ more\\.\\ The\\ design\\ of\\ protease\\ inhibitors\\ is\\ dictated\\ by\\ the\\ amino\\ acid\\ residues\\ lining\\ the\\ active\\ site\\ of\\ the\\ enzyme\\.\\ By\\ increasing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ favorable\\ interactions\\ between\\ the\\ drug\\ and\\ the\\ active\\ site\\ residues\\ \\(hydrogen\\ bonds\\,\\ ionic\\ interactions\\,\\ hydrophobic\\ interactions\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ the\\ disocciation\\ constant\\ of\\ the\\ drug\\ can\\ be\\ greatly\\ reduced\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ greater\\ affinity\\ of\\ the\\ enzyme\\ for\\ the\\ drug\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ potential\\ copyright\\ issues\\,\\ my\\ supply\\ of\\ images\\ and\\ diagrams\\ is\\ somewhat\\ limited\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ images\\ or\\ diagrams\\ that\\ are\\ available\\ for\\ free\\ non\\-commercial\\ use\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Creative\\ Commons\\)\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ contribute\\,\\ please\\ contact\\ me\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "Phase 4: Releasing the Bomb (Assembly and Release of New Viruses)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.756382+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Closing Remarks", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 521, "html": "\\Now\\ that\\ you\\'ve\\ learned\\ all\\ about\\ how\\ HIV\\ turns\\ the\\ host\\ cell\\'s\\ own\\ machinery\\ against\\ itself\\,\\ you\\ might\\ be\\ wondering\\,\\ why\\ is\\ HIV\\ still\\ a\\ problem\\?\\ If\\ we\\ know\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ about\\ HIV\\ and\\ have\\ developed\\ drugs\\ to\\ combat\\ the\\ virus\\ at\\ almost\\ every\\ step\\,\\ why\\ can\\'t\\ we\\ eradicate\\ HIV\\ once\\ and\\ for\\ all\\?\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ cornerstone\\ of\\ phase\\ two\\:\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\.\\ As\\ you\\ learned\\ before\\,\\ reverse\\ transcriptase\\ does\\ not\\ possess\\ the\\ proofreading\\ ability\\ that\\ normal\\ host\\ cell\\ polymerase\\ do\\.\\ While\\ this\\ works\\ to\\ our\\ advantage\\ when\\ administering\\ treatments\\ such\\ as\\ AZT\\,\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ replicatory\\ integrity\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ drug\\ resistance\\ in\\ HIV\\ strains\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Like\\ organisms\\ and\\ other\\ viruses\\,\\ HIV\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ evolutionary\\ selection\\ pressure\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ viruses\\ with\\ neutral\\ or\\ beneficial\\ mutations\\ under\\ a\\ given\\ set\\ of\\ circumstances\\ will\\ survive\\ better\\ than\\ those\\ with\\ detrimental\\ \\(usually\\ lethal\\)\\ mutations\\.\\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ HIV\\,\\ the\\ incidence\\ of\\ mutation\\ is\\ extraordinary\\,\\ so\\ much\\ so\\ that\\ different\\ individual\\ viruses\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ patient\\ will\\ most\\ likely\\ have\\ different\\ genomes\\.\\ This\\ may\\ be\\ good\\ and\\ well\\ for\\ the\\ survival\\ and\\ propagation\\ of\\ the\\ virus\\,\\ but\\ creates\\ an\\ as\\-of\\-yet\\ unsurmountable\\ barrier\\ to\\ developing\\ a\\ cure\\ for\\ HIV\\.\\ Over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ HIV\\ treatment\\,\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ alleles\\ within\\ the\\ HIV\\ population\\ changes\\ as\\ viruses\\ that\\ lack\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ drugs\\ die\\ off\\ and\\ viruses\\ with\\ resistance\\ grow\\ in\\ number\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ the\\ ever\\-increasing\\ population\\ of\\ drug\\-resistant\\ viruses\\ as\\ its\\ own\\ cells\\ fall\\ victim\\ to\\ the\\ viral\\ infection\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ where\\ it\\ ends\\.\\ With\\ the\\ immune\\ system\\ severely\\ compromised\\,\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ defend\\ itself\\ against\\ foreign\\ invaders\\.\\ The\\ battle\\ of\\ attrition\\ ends\\ not\\ with\\ a\\ bang\\,\\ but\\ with\\ a\\ whimper\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Unfortunately\\,\\ the\\ very\\ nature\\ of\\ HIV\\ makes\\ it\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ treat\\ effectively\\.\\ Using\\ drug\\ cocktails\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ effective\\ in\\ prolonging\\ life\\ by\\ reducing\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ success\\,\\ but\\ the\\ toxicity\\ of\\ the\\ drugs\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ treatment\\ combined\\ with\\ the\\ ever\\-decreasing\\ number\\ of\\ immune\\ cells\\ eventually\\ forces\\ the\\ body\\ to\\ give\\ up\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\But\\ even\\ so\\,\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ hope\\.\\ The\\ development\\ of\\ nanotechnology\\ promises\\ to\\ provide\\ revolutionary\\ treatments\\ for\\ diseases\\ currently\\ deemed\\ incurable\\,\\ and\\ traditional\\ biochemical\\ research\\ continues\\ in\\ a\\ bid\\ to\\ find\\ \\\"the\\ perfect\\ drug\\\"\\ \\-\\ one\\ that\\ will\\ target\\ a\\ biochemical\\ pathway\\ so\\ essential\\ to\\ the\\ virus\\ that\\ any\\ mutations\\ within\\ the\\ pathway\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ certain\\ death\\ \\(unfortunately\\,\\ no\\ such\\ pathway\\ has\\ been\\ found\\ yet\\)\\.\\ With\\ any\\ luck\\,\\ perhaps\\ a\\ cure\\ for\\ HIV\\ will\\ be\\ found\\,\\ and\\ millions\\ of\\ people\\'s\\ lives\\ will\\ be\\ saved\\ from\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ attrition\\ initiated\\ by\\ the\\ virus\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\Due\\ to\\ potential\\ copyright\\ issues\\,\\ my\\ supply\\ of\\ images\\ and\\ diagrams\\ is\\ somewhat\\ limited\\.\\ If\\ you\\ have\\ images\\ or\\ diagrams\\ that\\ are\\ available\\ for\\ free\\ non\\-commercial\\ use\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Creative\\ Commons\\)\\ and\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ contribute\\,\\ please\\ contact\\ me\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 68, "file_path": "", "desc": "Closing Remarks"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.778307+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction: Cell Biology Today", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 522, "html": "\\As\\ you\\ can\\ probably\\ tell\\ from\\ the\\ course\\ title\\,\\ \\MCB54\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ a\\ class\\ that\\ focuses\\ on\\ cell\\ biology\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ physical\\ organization\\ of\\ cells\\,\\ their\\ interactions\\ with\\ other\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ the\\ processes\\ that\\ occur\\ within\\ them\\,\\ to\\ name\\ a\\ few\\ major\\ topics\\.\\ To\\ study\\ cell\\ biology\\,\\ scientists\\ rely\\ on\\ microscopy\\ and\\ several\\ techniques\\ rooted\\ in\\ molecular\\ biology\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ observe\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ driving\\ forces\\ behind\\ the\\ biochemical\\ pathways\\ that\\ ever\\ so\\ carefully\\ regulate\\ cellular\\ processes\\ ranging\\ from\\ cell\\ division\\ to\\ cholesterol\\ import\\ to\\ apoptosis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ this\\ particular\\ class\\,\\ the\\ major\\ topics\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ covered\\ fall\\ under\\ two\\ categories\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOrganization\\ and\\ basic\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\From\\ molecules\\ to\\ cells\\ to\\ tissues\\ \\-\\ evolution\\ and\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ life\\\\\r\\\n\\Lipid\\ bilayer\\ membranes\\ \\-\\ structure\\,\\ function\\,\\ properties\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\Transport\\ across\\ membranes\\ \\-\\ channels\\ and\\ pumps\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\\r\\\n\\The\\ secretory\\ pathway\\ \\-\\ protein\\ sorting\\,\\ targeting\\,\\ and\\ transport\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ cytoskeleton\\ \\-\\ structure\\,\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ its\\ role\\ in\\ cell\\ motility\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ cell\\ cycle\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMulticellularity\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Signal\\ transduction\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cellular\\ interactions\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cell\\ patterning\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\\r\\\n\\Cell\\ migration\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\Organogenesis\\,\\ morphogenesis\\,\\ and\\ embryogenesis\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cell\\ regeneration\\ and\\ repair\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cell\\ death\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\To\\ start\\ out\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ evolution\\ and\\ its\\ effect\\ on\\ biological\\ systems\\.\\ At\\ its\\ simplest\\ level\\,\\ evolution\\ arises\\ from\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ random\\ genetic\\ mutations\\,\\ which\\ are\\ passed\\ from\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\.\\ Environmental\\ conditions\\ dictate\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ certain\\ physical\\ traits\\,\\ allowing\\ organisms\\ with\\ better\\ traits\\ to\\ survive\\ more\\ effectively\\ than\\ those\\ with\\ worse\\ traits\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ natural\\ selection\\)\\.\\ But\\ as\\ you\\ may\\ know\\ already\\,\\ genetic\\ variations\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ correpond\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ physical\\ traits\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ synonymous\\ mutations\\ \\[mutations\\ in\\ the\\ genetic\\ sequence\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ alter\\ the\\ amino\\ acid\\ that\\ is\\ coded\\ for\\]\\)\\,\\ and\\ so\\ evolution\\ does\\ not\\ act\\ directly\\ on\\ genes\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ we\\ say\\ that\\ genetic\\ variation\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ evolution\\,\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ sufficient\\ for\\ evolution\\ to\\ occur\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 83, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction: Cell Biology Today"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.799465+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Course Introduction", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 523, "html": "\\Welcome\\ to\\ EN\\ 0090\\,\\ Management\\ of\\ Industrial\\ and\\ Nonprofit\\ Organizations\\.\\ \\ I\\ am\\ an\\ undergraduate\\ \\(a\\ junior\\,\\ now\\ on\\ the\\ higher\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ hierarchical\\ spectrum\\)\\ enrolled\\ in\\ this\\ course\\,\\ and\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ posting\\ a\\ new\\ blog\\ for\\ each\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ I\\ am\\ majoring\\ in\\ Literatures\\ and\\ Cultures\\ in\\ English\\,\\ but\\ have\\ previously\\ taken\\ another\\ of\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ class\\ and\\ have\\ worked\\ individually\\ with\\ him\\ on\\ an\\ Independent\\ Study\\ Project\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Enough\\ about\\ me\\,\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ is\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ most\\ students\\ take\\ EN\\ 0090\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ is\\ absolutely\\ legendary\\ at\\ Brown\\ and\\ has\\ even\\ taught\\ many\\ parents\\ of\\ current\\ undergraduate\\ students\\.\\ As\\ far\\ as\\ I\\ am\\ aware\\,\\ he\\ has\\ always\\ taught\\ the\\ same\\ two\\ courses\\,\\ EN\\ 0090\\ and\\ EN\\ 0900\\,\\ and\\ over\\ the\\ years\\ they\\ have\\ gained\\ enormous\\ popularity\\ and\\ a\\ giant\\ reputation\\ at\\ Brown\\.\\ \\ The\\ personal\\ concern\\ and\\ investment\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ has\\ in\\ his\\ students\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ notable\\,\\ he\\ can\\ literally\\ give\\ names\\ of\\ \\¾\\;\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ 300\\ person\\ room\\!\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ is\\ also\\ infamous\\ for\\ shaking\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ every\\ student\\ who\\ answers\\ a\\ question\\ correctly\\ or\\ makes\\ an\\ insightful\\ comment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Both\\ courses\\,\\ but\\ specifically\\ EN\\ 0090\\ \\(the\\ course\\ in\\ question\\,\\ of\\ course\\)\\,\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ courses\\ that\\ you\\ must\\ take\\ before\\ you\\ graduate\\.\\ \\ Of\\ course\\,\\ this\\ is\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ professor\\ than\\ the\\ actual\\ course\\ content\\.\\ \\ To\\ learn\\ more\\ about\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\,\\ check\\ out\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.barretthazeltine\\.com\\/\\.\\ \\ No\\,\\ the\\ quotes\\ on\\ the\\ page\\ are\\ not\\ jokes\\,\\ but\\ his\\ very\\ renowned\\ repeated\\ statements\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\,\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ gave\\ us\\ a\\ basic\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ course\\,\\ explaining\\ the\\ course\\ outline\\.\\ The\\ course\\ outline\\ \\(which\\ is\\ historically\\ recognizable\\)\\,\\ is\\ taught\\ through\\ cases\\ and\\ is\\ graded\\ through\\ a\\ final\\ paper\\,\\ a\\ final\\ exam\\,\\ two\\ verbal\\ presentations\\ and\\ short\\ reports\\ of\\ the\\ cases\\ discussed\\ in\\ sections\\.\\ \\ Really\\ not\\ such\\ a\\ bad\\ work\\ load\\;\\ definitely\\ supporting\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ the\\ hardest\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ Ivy\\ League\\ school\\ is\\ getting\\ in\\!\\ \\ He\\ also\\ explained\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ smaller\\,\\ noon\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ which\\ is\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ to\\ a\\ greater\\ extent\\ in\\ a\\ smaller\\ class\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Course Introduction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.371317+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 559, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.808135+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Course Introduction", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 524, "html": "\\Welcome\\ to\\ EN\\ 0090\\,\\ Management\\ of\\ Industrial\\ and\\ Nonprofit\\ Organizations\\.\\ \\ I\\ am\\ an\\ undergraduate\\ \\(a\\ junior\\,\\ now\\ on\\ the\\ higher\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ hierarchical\\ spectrum\\)\\ enrolled\\ in\\ this\\ course\\,\\ and\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ be\\ posting\\ a\\ new\\ blog\\ for\\ each\\ lecture\\.\\ \\ I\\ am\\ majoring\\ in\\ Literatures\\ and\\ Cultures\\ in\\ English\\,\\ but\\ have\\ previously\\ taken\\ another\\ of\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ class\\ and\\ have\\ worked\\ individually\\ with\\ him\\ on\\ an\\ Independent\\ Study\\ Project\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Enough\\ about\\ me\\,\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ is\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ most\\ students\\ take\\ EN\\ 0090\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ is\\ absolutely\\ legendary\\ at\\ Brown\\ and\\ has\\ even\\ taught\\ many\\ parents\\ of\\ current\\ undergraduate\\ students\\.\\ As\\ far\\ as\\ I\\ am\\ aware\\,\\ he\\ has\\ always\\ taught\\ the\\ same\\ two\\ courses\\,\\ EN\\ 0090\\ and\\ EN\\ 0900\\,\\ and\\ over\\ the\\ years\\ they\\ have\\ gained\\ enormous\\ popularity\\ and\\ a\\ giant\\ reputation\\ at\\ Brown\\.\\ \\ The\\ personal\\ concern\\ and\\ investment\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ has\\ in\\ his\\ students\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ notable\\,\\ he\\ can\\ literally\\ give\\ names\\ of\\ \\¾\\;\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ in\\ a\\ 300\\ person\\ room\\!\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ is\\ also\\ infamous\\ for\\ shaking\\ the\\ hand\\ of\\ every\\ student\\ who\\ answers\\ a\\ question\\ correctly\\ or\\ makes\\ an\\ insightful\\ comment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Both\\ courses\\,\\ but\\ specifically\\ EN\\ 0090\\ \\(the\\ course\\ in\\ question\\,\\ of\\ course\\)\\,\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ courses\\ that\\ you\\ must\\ take\\ before\\ you\\ graduate\\.\\ \\ Of\\ course\\,\\ this\\ is\\ more\\ about\\ the\\ professor\\ than\\ the\\ actual\\ course\\ content\\.\\ \\ To\\ learn\\ more\\ about\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\,\\ check\\ out\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.barretthazeltine\\.com\\/\\.\\ \\ No\\,\\ the\\ quotes\\ on\\ the\\ page\\ are\\ not\\ jokes\\,\\ but\\ his\\ very\\ renowned\\ repeated\\ statements\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\,\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ gave\\ us\\ a\\ basic\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ course\\,\\ explaining\\ the\\ course\\ outline\\.\\ The\\ course\\ outline\\ \\(which\\ is\\ historically\\ recognizable\\)\\,\\ is\\ taught\\ through\\ cases\\ and\\ is\\ graded\\ through\\ a\\ final\\ paper\\,\\ a\\ final\\ exam\\,\\ two\\ verbal\\ presentations\\ and\\ short\\ reports\\ of\\ the\\ cases\\ discussed\\ in\\ sections\\.\\ \\ Really\\ not\\ such\\ a\\ bad\\ work\\ load\\;\\ definitely\\ supporting\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ the\\ hardest\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ Ivy\\ League\\ school\\ is\\ getting\\ in\\!\\ \\ He\\ also\\ explained\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ smaller\\,\\ noon\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ which\\ is\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ to\\ a\\ greater\\ extent\\ in\\ a\\ smaller\\ class\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Course Introduction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.832312+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 525, "html": "\\Welcome\\ to\\ PHP1070\\,\\ The\\ Burden\\ of\\ Disease\\ in\\ Developing\\ Countries\\!\\ I\\ am\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ undergraduate\\ TAs\\,\\ and\\ I\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122ll\\ be\\ posting\\ a\\ new\\ blog\\ for\\ each\\ lecture\\.\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ double\\ concentrator\\ in\\ Public\\ Health\\ and\\ Anthropology\\,\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ global\\ health\\ work\\ from\\ a\\ humanities\\ perspective\\.\\ Burden\\ \\(as\\ the\\ class\\ is\\ so\\ fondly\\ called\\)\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ sized\\ \\&\\#160\\;lecture\\,\\ popular\\ for\\ the\\ relevance\\ of\\ its\\ topic\\ in\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ globalizing\\ world\\.\\ With\\ that\\ being\\ said\\,\\ many\\ students\\ take\\ the\\ class\\ to\\ experience\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\ in\\ action\\.\\ He\\ is\\ an\\ explosive\\ and\\ powerful\\ lecturer\\,\\ well\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ indelible\\ passion\\ for\\ global\\ health\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nProfessor\\ McGarvey\\ is\\ the\\ Director\\ of\\ the\\ International\\ Health\\ Institute\\ and\\ Professor\\ of\\ Community\\ Health\\ and\\ Anthropology\\ at\\ Brown\\.\\ He\\ earned\\ a\\ B\\.A\\.\\ in\\ Sociology\\ from\\ Villanova\\ University\\,\\ a\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ in\\ Anthropology\\ from\\ Pennsylvania\\ State\\ University\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ and\\ an\\ M\\.P\\.H\\.\\ in\\ Epidemiology\\ from\\ Yale\\ University\\.\\ He\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ Fellow\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Association\\ for\\ the\\ Advancement\\ of\\ Science\\.\\ His\\ current\\ research\\ includes\\ a\\ long\\-term\\ study\\ of\\ obesity\\ in\\ Samoa\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ Samoa\\,\\ Schistosomiasis\\ research\\ in\\ The\\ Phillipines\\,\\ population\\ studies\\ in\\ Ghana\\,\\ and\\ nutrition\\ transition\\ research\\ in\\ South\\ Africa\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ course\\ is\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ diseases\\ plaguing\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ with\\ topics\\ ranging\\ from\\ DALYs\\ \\&\\;\\ QALYS\\ to\\ child\\ mortality\\ to\\ health\\ transitions\\.\\ The\\ course\\ is\\ interdisciplinary\\ and\\ holistic\\ in\\ its\\ attempt\\ to\\ present\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\ from\\ biomedical\\,\\ epidemiological\\,\\ anthropological\\,\\ demographic\\,\\ and\\ environmental\\ perspectives\\.\\ The\\ underlying\\ assumption\\ to\\ this\\ approach\\ is\\ that\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ perspectives\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ others\\,\\ and\\ that\\ one\\ alone\\ could\\ not\\ explain\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ The\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ is\\ covered\\ by\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\,\\ and\\ focuses\\ on\\ foundational\\ topics\\ such\\ as\\ epidemiology\\,\\ medical\\ anthropology\\,\\ child\\ survival\\,\\ and\\ malnutrition\\.\\ The\\ second\\ half\\ focuses\\ on\\ more\\ specific\\ topics\\ in\\ global\\ health\\ such\\ as\\ Tuberculosis\\,\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\,\\ and\\ Schistosomiasis\\,\\ and\\ is\\ covered\\ primarily\\ \\(but\\ not\\ exclusively\\)\\ by\\ guest\\ lecturers\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBecause\\ this\\ blog\\ is\\ starting\\ almost\\ at\\ mid\\-semester\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ lectures\\ blogged\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ by\\ guest\\ lecturers\\.\\ I\\ will\\ do\\ my\\ best\\ to\\ explain\\ any\\ concepts\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ these\\ guest\\ lectures\\ that\\ were\\ introduced\\ and\\ explained\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nToday\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ was\\ titled\\ \\Acute\\ Respiratory\\ Infection\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ was\\ given\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ Randy\\ Rockney\\,\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ pediatrician\\ from\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ Hospital\\.\\ Burden\\ tradition\\ requires\\ that\\ each\\ guest\\ lecturer\\ explain\\ how\\ they\\ broke\\ into\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ public\\ health\\ and\\ their\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ field\\.\\ After\\ getting\\ his\\ medical\\ training\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Rockney\\ headed\\ to\\ a\\ little\\ hospital\\ in\\ Kenya\\,\\ right\\ outside\\ Nairobi\\ \\(coincidentally\\ the\\ same\\ hospital\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ film\\ \\Out\\ of\\ Africa\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\.\\ Although\\ he\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ settled\\ here\\,\\ he\\ has\\ also\\ worked\\ in\\ Guatemala\\,\\ Armenia\\,\\ Cuba\\,\\ and\\ most\\ recently\\ Cambodia\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nToday\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ began\\ with\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ the\\ 5\\ most\\ common\\ infections\\ worldwide\\ \\(as\\ of\\ 1995\\)\\.\\ Acute\\ lower\\ respiratory\\ infection\\ \\(ALRI\\)\\ was\\ ranked\\ \\#5\\ \\(with\\ 395\\,000\\,000\\ episodes\\ per\\ year\\)\\ under\\ \\(in\\ order\\)\\ diarrhea\\,\\ intestinal\\ worms\\,\\ malaria\\,\\ and\\ hepatitis\\.\\ ALRI\\ is\\ often\\ overlooked\\ when\\ considering\\ global\\ health\\,\\ despite\\ its\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ child\\ killer\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ children\\ \\<\\;\\ 15\\ \\(45\\%\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ population\\ vs\\.\\ only\\ 22\\%\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNext\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Rockney\\ launched\\ into\\ the\\ more\\ pathophysiological\\ aspects\\ of\\ ALRI\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ acute\\ upper\\ respiratory\\ infections\\ \\(AURI\\)\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ any\\ acute\\ respiratory\\ infection\\ \\(ARI\\)\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ happens\\ on\\ a\\ physiological\\ level\\ when\\ you\\ breathe\\ \\(this\\ process\\ can\\ be\\ mostly\\ followed\\ in\\ the\\ diagram\\ below\\.\\)\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;First\\,\\ your\\ diagram\\ contracts\\ and\\ flattens\\,\\ expanding\\ the\\ lungs\\ and\\ making\\ a\\ negative\\ pressure\\ which\\ draws\\ air\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ then\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;the\\ air\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ mouth\\ and\\ nose\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ warmed\\ from\\ ambient\\ temperature\\ to\\ body\\ temperature\\,\\ and\\ moisture\\ and\\ humidity\\ are\\ added\\ then\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;the\\ air\\ then\\ passes\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ trachea\\ and\\ bronchi\\,\\ which\\ divide\\ into\\ a\\ tree\\-like\\ structures\\ where\\ the\\ airways\\ get\\ smaller\\ and\\ smaller\\ until\\ you\\ come\\ to\\ alveoli\\ \\(tiny\\ air\\ sacs\\)\\,\\ which\\ are\\ surrounded\\ by\\ capillaries\\.\\ In\\ the\\ alveoli\\,\\ the\\ air\\ is\\ rich\\ in\\ oxygen\\.\\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Meanwhile\\,\\ blood\\ is\\ being\\ pumped\\ from\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ to\\ the\\ lungs\\.\\ This\\ blood\\ has\\ a\\ low\\ oxygen\\ content\\ and\\ high\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ content\\.\\\\\r\\\n5\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Therefore\\,\\ while\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ passes\\ out\\ through\\ the\\ alveoli\\,\\ oxygen\\ passes\\ in\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n6\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;This\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ is\\ expelled\\ when\\ you\\ exhale\\ and\\ the\\ oxygen\\ is\\ transported\\ via\\ left\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ and\\ dispelled\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ any\\ organ\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ maintains\\ its\\ oxygenation\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nhttp\\:\\/\\/fau\\.pearlashes\\.com\\/anatomy\\/Chapter\\%2036\\/Chapter\\%2036\\_files\\/image001\\.jpg\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNext\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ this\\ process\\ when\\ a\\ person\\ comes\\ into\\ contact\\ with\\ a\\ pathogen\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\That\\ pathogen\\ will\\ first\\ infect\\ the\\ mucosal\\ lining\\,\\ and\\ will\\ attach\\ to\\ cells\\ and\\ create\\ an\\ inflammatory\\ response\\.\\ If\\ the\\ pathogen\\ infects\\ the\\ upper\\ respiratory\\ tract\\ \\(URT\\)\\ \\(more\\ common\\ in\\ developed\\ countries\\)\\,\\ then\\ the\\ infection\\ will\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ cold\\ or\\ sore\\ throat\\.\\ This\\ will\\ limit\\ basic\\ activities\\,\\ but\\ it\\ isn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ too\\ dangerous\\.\\ If\\ the\\ pathogen\\ infects\\ the\\ lower\\ respiratory\\ tract\\ \\(LRT\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ more\\ common\\ is\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ then\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ serious\\.\\ On\\ the\\ most\\ basic\\ level\\,\\ when\\ a\\ pathogen\\ infects\\ any\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ LRT\\ it\\ compromises\\ the\\ gas\\ exchange\\ process\\ \\(ability\\ to\\ dispel\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ and\\ bring\\ oxygen\\ into\\ the\\ body\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ happens\\ with\\ the\\ two\\ most\\ common\\ ALRIs\\,\\ Bronchiolitis\\ and\\ Pneumonia\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ body\\ then\\ tries\\ to\\ overcome\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Fever\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Make\\ lungs\\ work\\ harder\\:\\ breath\\ faster\\ or\\ breath\\ more\\ often\\ \\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Recruits\\ muscles\\ surrounding\\ chest\\ to\\ work\\ harder\\;\\ this\\ process\\ is\\ called\\ retraction\\ \\(diagram\\ below\\)\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Nasal\\ flaring\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\nhttp\\:\\/\\/wildiris3\\.securesites\\.net\\/cms\\_prod\\/files\\/course\\/182\\/EMTB4\\_fig3\\.jpg\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nAfter\\ explaining\\ these\\ physiological\\ processes\\,\\ Rockney\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ discussing\\ morbidity\\ from\\ ARI\\.\\ As\\ he\\ explains\\,\\ babies\\ have\\ to\\ breathe\\ through\\ their\\ noses\\ when\\ they\\ eat\\,\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ congested\\ its\\ harder\\ to\\ eat\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\ they\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ eat\\ or\\ drink\\ as\\ much\\.\\ They\\ are\\ also\\ using\\ more\\ energy\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ working\\ harder\\ to\\ breathe\\ more\\ times\\ per\\ minute\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThen\\ Dr\\.\\ Rockney\\ explained\\ why\\ ARI\\ is\\ so\\ much\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ pneumonia\\ has\\ only\\ a\\ 3\\-4\\%\\ annual\\ incidence\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ whereas\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ 10\\-20\\%\\ incidence\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Why\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Crowding\\:\\ prevalent\\ in\\ places\\ with\\ higher\\ population\\ density\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Smoke\\:\\ most\\ prevalent\\ in\\ small\\ houses\\ with\\ poor\\ ventilation\\.\\ Rockney\\ also\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ in\\ many\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ revolves\\ around\\ the\\ cooking\\,\\ therefore\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ exposure\\ to\\ smoke\\.\\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Lower\\ individual\\ resistance\\ to\\ infection\\:\\ usually\\ occurs\\ when\\ the\\ individual\\ is\\ malnourished\\ and\\/or\\ has\\ limited\\ access\\ to\\ vaccines\\ \\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Reduced\\ access\\ to\\ health\\ care\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRockney\\ then\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ what\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ to\\ reduce\\ these\\ risk\\ factors\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\ reduce\\ ARI\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ solutions\\ he\\ proposed\\ were\\ better\\ vaccination\\ amongst\\ the\\ general\\ population\\,\\ better\\ nutrition\\,\\ smaller\\ family\\ size\\,\\ better\\ disease\\ management\\,\\ increased\\ access\\ to\\ health\\ care\\,\\ and\\ wooden\\ stoves\\ for\\ better\\ ventilation\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ points\\ raised\\ in\\ these\\ solutions\\ was\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ breastfeeding\\ to\\ provide\\ essential\\ nutrients\\ that\\ could\\ increase\\ defenses\\ against\\ infections\\.\\ In\\ one\\ study\\,\\ breastfed\\ infants\\ had\\ a\\ 3\\.6\\%\\ risk\\ of\\ dying\\ from\\ diarrhea\\ and\\ ARI\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ bottle\\-fed\\ infants\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ 12\\.6\\%\\ chance\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWhen\\ the\\ child\\ already\\ has\\ ARI\\,\\ several\\ modes\\ of\\ supportive\\ care\\ were\\ recommended\\:\\ fluid\\ replacement\\ \\(either\\ from\\ IV\\ or\\ oral\\ rehydration\\ therapy\\)\\,\\ oxygen\\,\\ antipyretics\\ \\(used\\ to\\ reduce\\ fever\\)\\,\\ and\\ rest\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRockney\\ then\\ quickly\\ touched\\ upon\\ SARS\\ and\\ Avian\\ Flu\\ as\\ recent\\ scares\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ ARI\\,\\ although\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ elaborate\\ on\\ either\\ one\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMost\\ poignantly\\ Rockey\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ where\\ global\\ health\\ work\\ is\\ focused\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ ARI\\ is\\ the\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ under\\ 5\\ mortality\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ killing\\ approximately\\ 2\\ million\\ children\\ annually\\ and\\ making\\ it\\ accountable\\ for\\ 19\\%\\ of\\ deaths\\,\\ above\\ diarrhea\\ \\(17\\%\\)\\ and\\ AIDS\\ \\(3\\%\\)\\.\\ So\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ never\\ hear\\ about\\ it\\?\\ If\\ prevention\\ of\\ ARI\\ is\\ as\\ simple\\ as\\ distributing\\ vaccines\\ \\(that\\ are\\ already\\ developed\\ and\\ tested\\)\\ on\\ a\\ scheduled\\ basis\\,\\ then\\ why\\ isn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ funding\\ being\\ made\\ available\\ for\\ these\\ vaccination\\ programs\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.846585+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 526, "html": "\\Welcome\\ to\\ PHP1070\\,\\ The\\ Burden\\ of\\ Disease\\ in\\ Developing\\ Countries\\!\\ I\\ am\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ undergraduate\\ TAs\\,\\ and\\ I\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122ll\\ be\\ posting\\ a\\ new\\ blog\\ for\\ each\\ lecture\\.\\ I\\ am\\ a\\ double\\ concentrator\\ in\\ Public\\ Health\\ and\\ Anthropology\\,\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ global\\ health\\ work\\ from\\ a\\ humanities\\ perspective\\.\\ Burden\\ \\(as\\ the\\ class\\ is\\ so\\ fondly\\ called\\)\\ is\\ a\\ small\\ lecture\\,\\ popular\\ for\\ the\\ relevance\\ of\\ its\\ topic\\ in\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ globalizing\\ world\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;With\\ that\\ being\\ said\\,\\ many\\ students\\ take\\ the\\ class\\ to\\ experience\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\ in\\ action\\.\\ He\\ is\\ an\\ explosive\\ and\\ powerful\\ lecturer\\,\\ well\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ indelible\\ passion\\ for\\ global\\ health\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nProfessor\\ McGarvey\\ is\\ the\\ Director\\ of\\ the\\ International\\ Health\\ Institute\\ and\\ Professor\\ of\\ Community\\ Health\\ and\\ Anthropology\\ at\\ Brown\\.\\ He\\ earned\\ a\\ B\\.A\\.\\ in\\ Sociology\\ from\\ Villanova\\ University\\,\\ a\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ in\\ Anthropology\\ from\\ Pennsylvania\\ State\\ University\\ in\\ 1980\\,\\ and\\ an\\ M\\.P\\.H\\.\\ in\\ Epidemiology\\ from\\ Yale\\ University\\.\\ He\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ Fellow\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ Association\\ for\\ the\\ Advancement\\ of\\ Science\\.\\ His\\ current\\ research\\ includes\\ a\\ long\\-term\\ study\\ of\\ obesity\\ in\\ Samoa\\ and\\ the\\ American\\ Samoa\\,\\ Schistosomiasis\\ research\\ in\\ The\\ Phillipines\\,\\ population\\ studies\\ in\\ Ghana\\,\\ and\\ the\\ nutrition\\ transition\\ research\\ in\\ South\\ Africa\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ course\\ is\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ diseases\\ plaguing\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ with\\ topics\\ ranging\\ from\\ DALYs\\ \\&\\;\\ QALYS\\ to\\ child\\ mortality\\ to\\ health\\ transitions\\.\\ The\\ course\\ is\\ interdisciplinary\\ and\\ holistic\\ in\\ its\\ attempt\\ to\\ present\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\ from\\ biomedical\\,\\ epidemiological\\,\\ anthropological\\,\\ demographic\\,\\ and\\ environmental\\ perspectives\\.\\ The\\ underlying\\ assumption\\ to\\ this\\ approach\\ is\\ that\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ perspectives\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ strengthen\\ the\\ others\\,\\ and\\ that\\ one\\ alone\\ could\\ not\\ explain\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ The\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ is\\ mostly\\ covered\\ by\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\,\\ and\\ focuses\\ on\\ foundational\\ topics\\ such\\ as\\ epidemiology\\,\\ medical\\ anthropology\\,\\ child\\ survival\\,\\ and\\ malnutrition\\.\\ The\\ second\\ half\\ focuses\\ on\\ more\\ specific\\ topics\\ in\\ global\\ health\\ such\\ as\\ Tuberculosis\\,\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\,\\ and\\ Schistosomiasis\\,\\ and\\ is\\ covered\\ primarily\\ \\(but\\ not\\ exclusively\\)\\ by\\ guest\\ lecturers\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBecause\\ this\\ blog\\ is\\ starting\\ almost\\ at\\ mid\\-semester\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ lectures\\ blogged\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ by\\ guest\\ lectures\\.\\ I\\ will\\ do\\ my\\ best\\ to\\ explain\\ any\\ concepts\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ these\\ guest\\ lectures\\ that\\ were\\ introduced\\ and\\ explained\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nToday\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ was\\ titled\\ Acute\\ Respiratory\\ Infection\\ and\\ was\\ given\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ Randy\\ Rockney\\,\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ pediatrician\\ from\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ Hospital\\.\\ Burden\\ tradition\\ requires\\ that\\ each\\ guest\\ lecturer\\ explain\\ how\\ they\\ broke\\ into\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ public\\ health\\ and\\ their\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ field\\.\\ After\\ getting\\ his\\ medical\\ training\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Rockney\\ headed\\ to\\ a\\ little\\ hospital\\ in\\ Kenya\\,\\ right\\ outside\\ Nairobi\\ \\(coincidentally\\ the\\ same\\ hospital\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ film\\ Out\\ of\\ Africa\\)\\.\\ Although\\ he\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ settled\\ here\\,\\ he\\ has\\ also\\ worked\\ in\\ Guatemala\\,\\ Armenia\\,\\ Cuba\\,\\ and\\ most\\ recently\\ Cambodia\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nToday\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ began\\ with\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ the\\ 5\\ most\\ common\\ infections\\ worldwide\\ \\(as\\ of\\ 1995\\)\\.\\ Acute\\ lower\\ respiratory\\ infection\\ \\(ALRI\\)\\ was\\ ranked\\ \\#5\\ \\(with\\ 395\\,000\\,000\\ episodes\\ per\\ year\\)\\ under\\ \\(in\\ order\\)\\ diarrhea\\,\\ intestinal\\ worms\\,\\ malaria\\,\\ and\\ hepatitis\\.\\ ALRI\\ is\\ often\\ overlooked\\ when\\ considering\\ global\\ health\\,\\ despite\\ its\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ child\\ killer\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ children\\ \\<\\;\\ 15\\ \\(45\\%\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ population\\ vs\\.\\ only\\ 22\\%\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNext\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Rockney\\ launched\\ into\\ the\\ more\\ pathophysiological\\ aspects\\ of\\ ALRI\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ acute\\ upper\\ respiratory\\ infections\\ \\(AURI\\)\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ any\\ acute\\ respiratory\\ infection\\ \\(ARI\\)\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ happens\\ on\\ a\\ physiological\\ level\\ when\\ you\\ breathe\\ \\(this\\ process\\ can\\ be\\ mostly\\ followed\\ in\\ the\\ diagram\\ below\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Your\\ diagram\\ contracts\\ and\\ flattens\\,\\ expanding\\ the\\ lungs\\ and\\ making\\ a\\ negative\\ pressure\\ which\\ draws\\ air\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;The\\ air\\ goes\\ into\\ the\\ mouth\\ and\\ nose\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ warmed\\ from\\ ambient\\ temperature\\ to\\ body\\ temperature\\,\\ and\\ moisture\\ and\\ humidity\\ are\\ added\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;The\\ air\\ then\\ passes\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ trachea\\ and\\ bronchi\\,\\ which\\ divide\\ into\\ a\\ tree\\-like\\ structures\\ where\\ the\\ airways\\ get\\ smaller\\ and\\ smaller\\ until\\ you\\ come\\ to\\ alveoli\\ \\(tiny\\ air\\ sacs\\)\\,\\ which\\ are\\ surrounded\\ by\\ capillaries\\.\\ In\\ the\\ alveoli\\,\\ the\\ air\\ is\\ rich\\ in\\ oxygen\\.\\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Meanwhile\\,\\ blood\\ is\\ being\\ pumped\\ from\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ to\\ the\\ lungs\\.\\ This\\ blood\\ has\\ a\\ low\\ oxygen\\ content\\ and\\ high\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ content\\.\\\\\r\\\n5\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Therefore\\,\\ while\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ passes\\ out\\ through\\ the\\ alveoli\\,\\ oxygen\\ passes\\ in\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n6\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;This\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ is\\ expelled\\ when\\ you\\ exhale\\ and\\ oxygen\\ is\\ transported\\ via\\ left\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ and\\ dispelled\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ any\\ organ\\ maintains\\ its\\ oxygenation\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nhttp\\:\\/\\/fau\\.pearlashes\\.com\\/anatomy\\/Chapter\\%2036\\/Chapter\\%2036\\_files\\/image001\\.jpg\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNext\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ explain\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ this\\ process\\ when\\ a\\ person\\ comes\\ into\\ contact\\ with\\ a\\ pathogen\\.\\ That\\ pathogen\\ will\\ first\\ infect\\ the\\ mucosal\\ lining\\,\\ and\\ will\\ attach\\ to\\ cells\\ and\\ create\\ an\\ inflammatory\\ response\\.\\ If\\ the\\ pathogen\\ infects\\ upper\\ respiratory\\ tract\\ \\(URT\\)\\ \\(more\\ common\\ in\\ developed\\ countries\\)\\,\\ then\\ the\\ infection\\ will\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ cold\\ or\\ sore\\ throat\\.\\ This\\ will\\ limit\\ basic\\ activities\\,\\ but\\ it\\ isn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ too\\ dangerous\\.\\ If\\ the\\ pathogen\\ infects\\ the\\ lower\\ respiratory\\ tract\\ \\(LRT\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ more\\ common\\ is\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ then\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ serious\\.\\ On\\ the\\ most\\ basic\\ level\\,\\ when\\ a\\ pathogen\\ infects\\ any\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ LRT\\ it\\ compromises\\ the\\ gas\\ exchange\\ process\\ \\(ability\\ to\\ dispel\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ and\\ bring\\ oxygen\\ into\\ the\\ body\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ happens\\ with\\ the\\ two\\ most\\ common\\ ALRIs\\,\\ Bronchiolitis\\ and\\ Pneumonia\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ body\\ then\\ tries\\ to\\ overcome\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Fever\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Make\\ lungs\\ work\\ harder\\:\\ breath\\ faster\\ or\\ breath\\ more\\ often\\ \\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Recruits\\ muscles\\ surrounding\\ chest\\ to\\ work\\ harder\\;\\ this\\ process\\ is\\ called\\ retraction\\ \\(diagram\\ below\\)\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Nasal\\ flaring\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\nhttp\\:\\/\\/wildiris3\\.securesites\\.net\\/cms\\_prod\\/files\\/course\\/182\\/EMTB4\\_fig3\\.jpg\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nAfter\\ explaining\\ these\\ physiological\\ processes\\,\\ Rockney\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ explaining\\ morbidity\\ from\\ ARI\\.\\ As\\ he\\ explains\\,\\ babies\\ have\\ to\\ breathe\\ through\\ their\\ noses\\ when\\ they\\ eat\\,\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ congested\\ its\\ harder\\ to\\ eat\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\ they\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ eat\\ or\\ drink\\ as\\ much\\.\\ They\\ are\\ also\\ using\\ more\\ energy\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ working\\ harder\\ to\\ breathe\\ more\\ times\\ per\\ minute\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRockney\\ explained\\ why\\ ARI\\ is\\ so\\ much\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ pneumonia\\ has\\ only\\ a\\ 3\\-4\\%\\ annual\\ incidence\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ while\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ 10\\-20\\%\\ incidence\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Why\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Crowding\\:\\ prevalent\\ in\\ places\\ with\\ higher\\ population\\ density\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Smoke\\:\\ most\\ prevalent\\ in\\ small\\ houses\\ with\\ poor\\ ventilation\\.\\ Rockney\\ also\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ in\\ many\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ the\\ house\\ revolves\\ around\\ the\\ cooking\\ therefore\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ exposure\\ to\\ smoke\\.\\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Lower\\ individual\\ resistance\\ to\\ infection\\:\\ usually\\ occurs\\ wh\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\en\\ the\\ individual\\ is\\ malnourished\\ and\\/or\\ has\\ limited\\ access\\ to\\ vaccines\\ \\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Reduced\\ access\\ to\\ health\\ care\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRockney\\ then\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ what\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ to\\ reduce\\ these\\ risk\\ factors\\ and\\ in\\ turn\\ reduce\\ ARI\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ solutions\\ he\\ proposed\\ were\\ better\\ vaccination\\ amongst\\ the\\ general\\ population\\,\\ better\\ nutrition\\,\\ smaller\\ family\\ size\\,\\ better\\ disease\\ management\\,\\ increased\\ access\\ to\\ health\\ care\\,\\ and\\ wooden\\ stoves\\ for\\ better\\ ventilation\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ interesting\\ points\\ raised\\ in\\ these\\ solutions\\ was\\ use\\ of\\ breastfeeding\\ to\\ provide\\ essential\\ nutrients\\ that\\ could\\ increase\\ defenses\\ against\\ infections\\.\\ In\\ one\\ study\\,\\ breastfed\\ infants\\ had\\ a\\ 3\\.6\\%\\ risk\\ of\\ dying\\ from\\ diarrhea\\ and\\ ARI\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ bottle\\-fed\\ infants\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ 12\\.6\\%\\ chance\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWhen\\ the\\ child\\ already\\ has\\ ARI\\,\\ several\\ modes\\ of\\ supportive\\ care\\ were\\ recommended\\:\\ fluid\\ replacement\\ \\(either\\ from\\ IV\\ or\\ oral\\ rehydration\\ therapy\\)\\,\\ oxygen\\,\\ antipyretics\\ \\(which\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ reduce\\ fever\\)\\,\\ and\\ rest\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRockney\\ then\\ quickly\\ touched\\ upon\\ SARS\\ and\\ Avian\\ Flu\\ as\\ recent\\ scares\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ ARI\\,\\ although\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ elaborate\\ on\\ either\\ one\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMost\\ poignantly\\ Rockey\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ brought\\ up\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ where\\ global\\ health\\ work\\ is\\ focused\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ ARI\\ is\\ the\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ under\\ 5\\ mortality\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ killing\\ approximately\\ 2\\ million\\ children\\ annually\\ and\\ making\\ it\\ accountable\\ for\\ 19\\%\\ of\\ deaths\\,\\ above\\ diarrhea\\ \\(17\\%\\)\\ and\\ AIDS\\ \\(3\\%\\)\\.\\ So\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ never\\ hear\\ about\\ it\\?\\ If\\ prevention\\ of\\ ARI\\ is\\ as\\ simple\\ as\\ distributing\\ vaccines\\ \\(that\\ are\\ already\\ developed\\ and\\ tested\\)\\ on\\ a\\ scheduled\\ basis\\,\\ then\\ why\\ isn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ funding\\ being\\ made\\ available\\ for\\ these\\ vaccination\\ programs\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.859662+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Overview of Management", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 527, "html": "\\Today\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ day\\ that\\ represents\\ what\\ lectures\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ semester\\ will\\ be\\ like\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ greets\\ everyone\\ in\\ his\\ usual\\ friendly\\ manner\\ and\\ starts\\ the\\ discussion\\ on\\ Dansk\\,\\ a\\ company\\ that\\ produces\\ stainless\\ steel\\ products\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Background\\ of\\ Dansk\\ Designs\\ Ltd\\.\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ Dansk\\ Designs\\ Ltd\\.\\ is\\ a\\ stainless\\ steel\\ flatware\\ company\\ that\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ 1955\\.\\ \\ Dansk\\ began\\ with\\ three\\ individuals\\:\\ Ted\\ Nierenberg\\ \\(marketing\\)\\,\\ Jens\\ Quistgaard\\ \\(designer\\)\\ ad\\ Ed\\ Lubell\\ \\(management\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ You\\ can\\ view\\ Dansk\\'s\\ current\\ webpage\\ at\\ \\www\\.dansk\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ focus\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ is\\ on\\ Dansk\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ success\\ and\\ the\\ reasons\\ behind\\ it\\.\\ \\ Five\\ main\\ areas\\ are\\ concentrated\\ upon\\:\\ Marketing\\,\\ Manufacturing\\,\\ Finance\\,\\ Human\\ Relations\\/\\ Organizational\\ Structure\\ and\\ Strategy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\\t\\Marketing\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ The\\ four\\ main\\ areas\\ of\\ marketing\\ are\\ product\\,\\ promotion\\,\\ price\\ and\\ place\\/distribution\\.\\ \\ Dansk\\ markets\\ upscale\\ kitchenware\\ at\\ a\\ high\\ price\\.\\ The\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153top\\ of\\ the\\ table\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ Scandinavian\\ designed\\ products\\ are\\ sold\\ through\\ select\\ retailers\\ who\\ have\\ personal\\ relationships\\ with\\ Dansk\\,\\ and\\ are\\ expected\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ full\\ line\\ of\\ products\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ the\\ exclusivity\\ that\\ Dansk\\ offers\\ their\\ retailers\\.\\ \\ Dansk\\ has\\ a\\ strong\\ consumer\\ base\\ and\\ uses\\ advertising\\ \\(5\\%\\ of\\ sales\\)\\ to\\ create\\ brand\\ image\\ and\\ create\\ sales\\.\\ \\ Dansk\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ marketing\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ successful\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ business\\.\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\\t\\Manufacturing\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Dansk\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ manufacturing\\ consists\\ of\\ informal\\ relationships\\ with\\ small\\ individual\\ companies\\ and\\ skilled\\ people\\.\\ \\ Dansk\\ enrolls\\ one\\ designer\\,\\ Jen\\ Quistgaard\\ \\(who\\ in\\ 1970\\ accounted\\ for\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ Dansk\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ sales\\)\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ dependency\\ as\\ the\\ producers\\ are\\ dependent\\ on\\ Ted\\ Nierenberg\\,\\ giving\\ him\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ leverage\\ in\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ Ted\\ is\\ equally\\ dependent\\ on\\ his\\ manufacturers\\ because\\ he\\ needs\\ the\\ few\\ manufacturers\\ he\\ has\\ contracted\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ capacity\\ demanded\\.\\ \\ Ted\\ has\\ such\\ a\\ smaller\\ number\\ of\\ producers\\ he\\ really\\ can\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ afford\\ to\\ lose\\ any\\.\\ \\ Hazeltine\\ preludes\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ Dansk\\ may\\ have\\ worries\\ about\\ the\\ future\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ producers\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ age\\ with\\ his\\ notorious\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153I\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ mean\\ to\\ be\\ rude\\,\\ but\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u00a6\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\(when\\ of\\ course\\,\\ the\\ following\\ is\\ never\\ rude\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\\t\\Finance\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Financing\\ for\\ Dansk\\ Designs\\ Ltd\\.\\ came\\ from\\ Ted\\ Nierenberg\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ own\\ pocket\\.\\ \\ Though\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ personal\\ capital\\ being\\ used\\ to\\ finance\\ a\\ start\\-up\\ is\\ generally\\ accepted\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ questioned\\ where\\ this\\ initial\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153pocket\\-money\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ came\\ from\\.\\ \\ The\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ business\\ grew\\ from\\ the\\ cash\\ flow\\ that\\ resulted\\ from\\ product\\ sales\\ in\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ re\\-investment\\ and\\ expansion\\.\\ \\ This\\ system\\ is\\ advantageous\\ for\\ Ted\\ because\\ he\\ has\\ complete\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ business\\,\\ however\\,\\ he\\ may\\ find\\ problems\\ in\\ cash\\ limitations\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\\t\\Human\\ Relations\\/\\ Organizational\\ Structure\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ As\\ previously\\ mentioned\\,\\ the\\ relationships\\ within\\ the\\ business\\ are\\ extremely\\ dependent\\ and\\ informal\\.\\ Though\\ the\\ company\\ initially\\ started\\ with\\ three\\ individuals\\,\\ it\\ has\\ expanded\\ over\\ time\\ and\\ responsibilities\\ have\\ been\\ delegated\\ to\\ various\\ managers\\.\\ \\ Over\\ time\\ the\\ management\\ style\\ transformed\\ from\\ one\\ consisting\\ of\\ individual\\ control\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ delegation\\.\\ Ted\\ Nierenberg\\ employed\\ a\\ very\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ sales\\ staff\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ retail\\ outlets\\ used\\.\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n5\\)\\\t\\Strategy\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Company\\ strategy\\ relies\\ upon\\ loyal\\ customers\\ and\\ repeat\\ sales\\.\\ \\ Dansk\\ Designs\\ Ltd\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ assets\\ are\\ such\\ that\\ Ted\\ Nierenberg\\ understands\\ the\\ target\\ market\\ and\\ can\\ identify\\ the\\ desire\\ for\\ a\\ product\\.\\ \\ Moreover\\,\\ Ted\\ Nierenberg\\ is\\ a\\ personal\\ asset\\ to\\ the\\ company\\ as\\ he\\ is\\ very\\ good\\ at\\ working\\ with\\ others\\,\\ particularly\\ Jens\\ Quistgaard\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hazeltine\\ then\\ briefly\\ outlined\\ the\\ functions\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\\tVision\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\\tPlanning\\-\\ competition\\/\\ niche\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\\tEstablish\\ a\\ culture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ lecture\\ ended\\ quite\\ abruptly\\ as\\ class\\ time\\ ended\\,\\ with\\ still\\ some\\ questions\\ left\\ unanswered\\ about\\ Dansk\\ Designs\\ Ltd\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ promised\\ to\\ post\\ some\\ enthralling\\ further\\ questions\\ and\\ answers\\ about\\ Dansk\\ Designs\\ Ltd\\.\\ online\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ hungry\\ for\\ more\\ information\\ \\(ironically\\ class\\ ends\\ at\\ lunch\\ time\\,\\ I\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122m\\ pretty\\ sure\\ everyone\\ was\\ hungry\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Overview of Management"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.882082+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Marketing- Promotion, Distribution", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 529, "html": "\\\\Background\\ on\\ Reebok\\:\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>Reebok\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ forerunner\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ England\\ in\\ 1895\\,\\ though\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ company\\ officially\\ changed\\ to\\ Reebok\\ in\\ 1958\\.\\ Reebok\\ International\\ Ltd\\.\\ is\\ a\\ footwear\\ \\(primarily\\ sneaker\\)\\ company\\.\\ \\ In\\ 1988\\,\\ Reebok\\ International\\ Ltd\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Reebok\\ Footwear\\ Division\\ \\(RFD\\)\\ met\\ to\\ devise\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ marketing\\ and\\ communications\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ To\\ see\\ some\\ of\\ Reebok\\'s\\ products\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ visit\\ \\www\\.reebok\\.com\\/US\\/\\#\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ class\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ different\\,\\ larger\\ room\\ due\\ to\\ occupation\\ of\\ the\\ room\\ that\\ class\\ usually\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\.\\ \\ I\\ find\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ difficult\\ for\\ students\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ and\\ engage\\ with\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ in\\ a\\ room\\ of\\ this\\ size\\.\\ However\\,\\ Reebok\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ and\\ engaging\\ case\\ and\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ manages\\ to\\ capture\\ students\\ attention\\ by\\ his\\ musings\\ on\\ Reebok\\,\\ Nike\\ and\\ Revlon\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ began\\ the\\ course\\ today\\ by\\ defining\\ Reebok\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ target\\ market\\ into\\ various\\ groups\\:\\ serious\\ athletes\\,\\ weekend\\ warriors\\ and\\ non\\ athletes\\ \\(80\\%\\)\\.\\ The\\ \\pyramid\\ of\\ Influence\\ \\<\\/em\\>is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ term\\ to\\ reference\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ large\\ majority\\ of\\ consumers\\ are\\ non\\ athletes\\,\\ but\\ are\\ influenced\\ by\\ their\\ desire\\ to\\ be\\ athletes\\ and\\ thus\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ brand\\ choice\\ of\\ the\\ smaller\\ portion\\ of\\ consumers\\ who\\ are\\ serious\\ athletes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ discussion\\ then\\ moved\\ towards\\ thoughts\\ about\\ the\\ product\\ itself\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ asked\\ the\\ class\\ to\\ brainstorm\\ words\\ that\\ may\\ describe\\ Reebok\\ and\\ reasons\\ that\\ consumers\\ may\\ purchase\\ Reebok\\.\\ \\ Some\\ examples\\ are\\ status\\,\\ style\\,\\ self\\-image\\,\\ durability\\ and\\ comfort\\.\\ Hazeltine\\ grounds\\ the\\ discussion\\ by\\ walking\\ around\\ the\\ classroom\\ and\\ checking\\ out\\ student\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ sneaker\\ choices\\.\\ Between\\ 1986\\ and\\ 1987\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ product\\ perception\\ from\\ exciting\\ and\\ innovative\\ to\\ average\\ and\\ comfortable\\.\\ At\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ talked\\ on\\ a\\ tangent\\ about\\ Revlon\\ cosmetics\\ and\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ purchase\\ and\\ use\\ of\\ Revlon\\ cosmetics\\,\\ a\\ funny\\ choice\\ considering\\ his\\ gender\\-\\ but\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ be\\ fooled\\,\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ broad\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ topic\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Next\\,\\ Hazeltine\\ explains\\ that\\ his\\ wife\\ uses\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ Nike\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ daily\\ to\\ walk\\ downtown\\,\\ and\\ then\\ changes\\ into\\ an\\ alternate\\ pair\\ of\\ shoes\\ upon\\ arriving\\ at\\ her\\ destination\\.\\ \\ He\\ uses\\ this\\ example\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ comfort\\ in\\ shoes\\,\\ suggestibly\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ shoe\\ design\\ because\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ much\\ a\\ shoe\\ will\\ portray\\ your\\ desired\\ self\\ image\\,\\ or\\ make\\ you\\ look\\ like\\ you\\ have\\ style\\,\\ there\\ are\\ only\\ so\\ many\\ times\\ you\\ can\\ wear\\ an\\ exceedingly\\ uncomfortable\\ pair\\ of\\ shoes\\.\\ \\ Hazeltine\\ reflects\\ that\\ his\\ wife\\ does\\ not\\ consider\\ herself\\ a\\ serious\\ athlete\\ and\\ certainly\\ doesn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ think\\ she\\ is\\ Michael\\ Jordan\\ \\(what\\ a\\ relief\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ today\\ is\\ on\\ Promotion\\ and\\ Distribution\\.\\ \\ A\\ hand\\ out\\ is\\ given\\ about\\ promotion\\ and\\ distribution\\,\\ and\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ draws\\ a\\ simple\\ diagram\\ of\\ the\\ Product\\ Life\\ Cycle\\ on\\ the\\ blackboard\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ explains\\ that\\ companies\\ such\\ as\\ Dansk\\ and\\ Reebok\\ do\\ not\\ use\\ wholesalers\\ to\\ distribute\\ their\\ product\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ enough\\ sales\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ pay\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ sales\\ team\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ beneficial\\ for\\ these\\ companies\\ as\\ they\\ eliminate\\ the\\ middle\\ man\\ and\\ thus\\ have\\ more\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ brand\\ identity\\ and\\ image\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ topic\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ moves\\ from\\ distribution\\ to\\ promotion\\ and\\ Hazeltine\\ questions\\ \\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Does\\ it\\ make\\ sense\\ for\\ Reebok\\ to\\ sponsor\\ the\\ human\\ rights\\ concert\\?\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ Both\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ argument\\ are\\ looked\\ at\\.\\ \\ It\\ is\\ determined\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ good\\ for\\ Reebok\\ to\\ sponsor\\ the\\ human\\ rights\\ tour\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ add\\ excitement\\,\\ recruit\\ new\\ stars\\ \\(some\\ people\\ would\\ rather\\ emulate\\ celebrities\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ sports\\ stars\\)\\,\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ attach\\ a\\ positive\\ association\\ with\\ the\\ brand\\ and\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ perform\\ their\\ social\\ responsibility\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ class\\ members\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ human\\ rights\\ concert\\ is\\ targeting\\ the\\ wrong\\ market\\,\\ and\\ by\\ sponsoring\\ the\\ human\\ rights\\ concert\\,\\ retailers\\ advertising\\ budget\\ will\\ be\\ cut\\ in\\ half\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ jests\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ that\\ owners\\ of\\ shoe\\ stores\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ person\\ to\\ become\\ sympathetic\\ to\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ rights\\ concert\\ \\(I\\ am\\ not\\ sure\\ where\\ this\\ speculation\\ is\\ grounded\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\Personal\\ thoughts\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ Although\\ it\\ may\\ initially\\ seem\\ unclear\\ as\\ to\\ why\\ Reebok\\ would\\ sponsor\\ the\\ human\\ rights\\ concert\\,\\ I\\ personally\\ believe\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ beneficial\\.\\ \\ Establishing\\ a\\ brand\\ name\\ that\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ social\\ responsibility\\ may\\ appeal\\ to\\ the\\ customers\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ subconscious\\ and\\ may\\ even\\ help\\ Reebok\\ to\\ justify\\ higher\\ prices\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\That\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ all\\ for\\ lecture\\ this\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Marketing- Promotion, Distribution"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.892999+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Marketing- New Product, Pricing", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 530, "html": "\\Some\\ preliminary\\ announcements\\ are\\ given\\ regarding\\ Teach\\ for\\ America\\ and\\ the\\ Social\\ Innovation\\ Initiative\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Background\\ on\\ BMW\\ Films\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ BMW\\ films\\ were\\ a\\ marketing\\ strategy\\ that\\ were\\ used\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ outdated\\ image\\ that\\ BMW\\ acquired\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1980\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;To\\ find\\ out\\ more\\ about\\ BMW\\,\\ and\\ see\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ products\\,\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ official\\ BMW\\&\\#160\\;website\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\www\\.bmw\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lecture\\ time\\!\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\,\\ nervous\\ about\\ the\\ lifeline\\ of\\ the\\ projector\\ \\(it\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ okay\\,\\ not\\ everyone\\ is\\ technically\\ savy\\)\\,\\ starts\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ BMW\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ short\\ movie\\ clips\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Ambush\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\.\\ \\ Featuring\\ a\\ very\\ macho\\ car\\ owning\\ Clive\\ Owen\\,\\ the\\ movie\\ clip\\ demonstrated\\ the\\ innovative\\ advertising\\ BMW\\ adopted\\.\\ This\\ innovate\\ marketing\\ technique\\ required\\ active\\ viewers\\ \\(viewers\\ had\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ the\\ clip\\ by\\ looking\\ online\\ and\\ logging\\ in\\)\\.\\ \\ Now\\,\\ this\\ video\\ can\\ be\\ viewed\\ on\\ youtube\\ at\\ \\www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ you\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ learning\\ more\\ about\\ how\\ these\\ movies\\ were\\ made\\,\\ view\\ \\\"Making\\ the\\ BMW\\ advertising\\ movies\\\"\\ at\\ \\www\\.youtube\\.com\\/watch\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\Personal\\ thoughts\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ When\\ considering\\ future\\ marketing\\ techniques\\,\\ I\\ would\\ suggest\\ that\\ BMW\\ lean\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ cautiousness\\ as\\,\\ to\\ me\\,\\ it\\ appears\\ unlikely\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ radical\\ approach\\ will\\ be\\ successful\\ multiple\\ times\\.\\ \\ When\\ considering\\ an\\ approach\\ like\\ this\\,\\ I\\ question\\ to\\ what\\ extent\\ the\\ viewer\\ is\\ selling\\ themselves\\,\\ and\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ strong\\ consumer\\ desire\\ to\\ sell\\ themselves\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ marketing\\ at\\ all\\?\\ \\ Additionally\\,\\ I\\ would\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ clips\\ or\\ similar\\ techniques\\ would\\ turn\\ into\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ entertainment\\,\\ versus\\ a\\ marketing\\ strategy\\ \\(I\\ wonder\\ how\\ BMW\\ differentiated\\ between\\ viewers\\ that\\ saw\\ the\\ clip\\ for\\ entertainment\\,\\ versus\\ those\\ who\\ the\\ clip\\ may\\ have\\ actually\\ impacted\\ their\\ decision\\ to\\ buy\\?\\ Or\\ did\\ they\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Attention\\ is\\ then\\ turned\\ towards\\ Pricing\\ and\\ Pricing\\ Strategies\\.\\ BMW\\ uses\\ the\\ \\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153lag\\/follow\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ approach\\-\\<\\/u\\>\\ waiting\\ for\\ a\\ competitor\\ to\\ set\\ prices\\ and\\ then\\ meeting\\ them\\ or\\ pricing\\ slightly\\ over\\ them\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ reputation\\.\\ \\ Some\\ other\\ pricing\\ strategies\\ are\\ also\\ noted\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tuse\\ low\\ prices\\ to\\ buy\\ business\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tuse\\ high\\ prices\\ to\\ get\\ out\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tBoston\\ Consulting\\ Group\\ \\(B\\.C\\.G\\.\\)\\ strategy\\,\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ learning\\ curve\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153This\\ is\\ true\\,\\ cross\\ my\\ heart\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u00a6\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ views\\ on\\ The\\ Learning\\ Curve\\<\\/em\\>\\\\\r\\\nProfessor\\ Hazeltine\\ defines\\ \\the\\ learning\\ curve\\-\\<\\/u\\>\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ cost\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ product\\ goes\\ down\\ as\\ you\\ make\\ more\\ of\\ it\\ and\\ swears\\ over\\ his\\ heart\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ fraud\\ \\(fortunately\\,\\ I\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ think\\ any\\ class\\ members\\ were\\ doubting\\ the\\ legitimacy\\ of\\ this\\ renowned\\ economic\\ theory\\,\\ but\\ hey\\,\\ you\\ never\\ know\\)\\ \\.\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ relates\\ to\\ class\\ members\\ \\(athletes\\ and\\ workaholics\\,\\ a\\ pretty\\ good\\ estimate\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ composition\\)\\ by\\ giving\\ examples\\ of\\ daily\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ learning\\ curve\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\For\\ the\\ sports\\ fans\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ A\\ coach\\ must\\ improve\\ in\\ his\\ coaching\\ skills\\ over\\ time\\,\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ a\\ football\\ player\\ should\\ improve\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\For\\ the\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ nerd\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201cotherwise\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\ education\\ enthusiast\\,\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ us\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153If\\ it\\ takes\\ you\\ as\\ long\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ paper\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ seven\\ semesters\\ as\\ it\\ did\\ in\\ your\\ first\\ semester\\,\\ you\\ have\\ wasted\\ \\$200\\,000\\,\\ four\\ years\\ of\\ your\\ life\\ and\\ all\\ that\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ no\\ pressure\\ freshman\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\ what\\ does\\ this\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ pricing\\?\\ \\ \\ The\\ cost\\ of\\ producing\\ must\\ lower\\ \\(essentially\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153get\\ better\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ over\\ time\\)\\.\\ \\ As\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ producing\\ lowers\\,\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ can\\ also\\ lower\\ without\\ a\\ loss\\ in\\ profit\\.\\ \\ The\\ lowest\\ cost\\ producers\\ set\\ the\\ market\\ price\\.\\ \\ By\\ setting\\ the\\ price\\ low\\,\\ these\\ producers\\ move\\ down\\ the\\ learning\\ curve\\ and\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ compete\\ by\\ gaining\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ sales\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\Another\\ thought\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>Though\\ lower\\ pricing\\ means\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ competition\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ target\\ a\\ larger\\ market\\,\\ the\\ producer\\ must\\ ensure\\ not\\ to\\ price\\ the\\ product\\ too\\ low\\ because\\ when\\ you\\ hit\\ too\\ low\\ of\\ a\\ price\\,\\ consumers\\ will\\ view\\ the\\ price\\ as\\ a\\ reflection\\ of\\ quality\\ \\(low\\ price\\ \\=\\ low\\ quality\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ an\\ introduction\\ to\\ new\\ product\\ policy\\,\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ describes\\ the\\ Product\\ Mix\\.\\ \\ He\\ draws\\ a\\ diagram\\ to\\ explain\\ \\ the\\ positioning\\ of\\ various\\ products\\ in\\ the\\ market\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\Overview\\ of\\ product\\ types\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nShooting\\ Stars\\-\\ high\\ market\\ share\\,\\ high\\ growth\\ e\\.g\\.\\ IPod\\.\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Wild\\ Cat\\-\\ low\\ market\\ share\\,\\ high\\ growth\\ e\\.g\\.\\ IPhone\\.\\ \\ The\\ aim\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ Wild\\ Cat\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ Shooting\\ Star\\ \\(apparently\\ economics\\ doesn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ that\\ cats\\ generally\\ can\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ turn\\ into\\ stars\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Cash\\ Cow\\-\\ low\\ growth\\,\\ high\\ market\\ share\\ e\\.g\\.\\ laptops\\.\\ \\ There\\ are\\ little\\ technical\\ developments\\ that\\ are\\ helpful\\ in\\ this\\ area\\ as\\ the\\ product\\ has\\ already\\ exhausted\\ growth\\ and\\ market\\ share\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Dog\\-\\ low\\ market\\ share\\ and\\ low\\ growth\\ e\\.g\\.\\ desktops\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Important\\ note\\:\\ \\<\\/em\\>Cash\\ is\\ put\\ into\\ emerging\\ products\\ \\(Wild\\ Cat\\,\\ Dogs\\)\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ you\\ gain\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ market\\ share\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Some\\ thoughts\\ for\\ Tuesday\\:\\ Why\\ is\\ Stoneyfield\\ successful\\?\\ What\\ is\\ success\\?\\ What\\ worries\\ you\\?\\ What\\ should\\ they\\ do\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\That\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ all\\ folks\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Marketing- New Product, Pricing"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.904099+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Strategy-Overview", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 531, "html": "\\\\Background\\ on\\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ Inc\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ Inc\\.\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ 1983\\ by\\ Samuel\\ Kayman\\.\\ \\ Gary\\ Hirshberg\\ joined\\ as\\ partner\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ current\\ CEO\\.\\ \\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ Inc\\.\\ produces\\ all\\ natural\\,\\ premium\\ yogurt\\ products\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ all\\ natural\\ sweeteners\\ such\\ as\\ natural\\ fruit\\ juices\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;To\\ view\\ Stoneyfield\\ products\\ and\\ branding\\,\\ visit\\ their\\ website\\ at\\ \\www\\.stonyfield\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ lecture\\ today\\ jumped\\ right\\ into\\ the\\ \\purposes\\ of\\ strategic\\ planning\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ of\\ which\\ two\\ were\\ noted\\:\\ \\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\\tProvide\\ Direction\\.\\ \\ Essentially\\,\\ this\\ means\\ deciding\\ a\\ game\\ plan\\ for\\ the\\ business\\-\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ do\\ it\\.\\ \\ For\\ the\\ case\\ in\\ question\\,\\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\,\\ this\\ means\\ realizing\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ solely\\ a\\ yogurt\\ company\\ \\(not\\ dairy\\)\\.\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\nSome\\ other\\ examples\\ are\\:\\\\\r\\\nHewlett\\ Packard\\:\\ Started\\ as\\ an\\ electronics\\ instruments\\ company\\.\\ \\ The\\ company\\ started\\ to\\ make\\ both\\ computer\\ and\\ electronic\\ instruments\\ \\(namely\\ printers\\)\\,\\ but\\ realized\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ not\\ do\\ both\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ they\\ broke\\ off\\ and\\ now\\ exist\\ primarily\\ as\\ a\\ computer\\ company\\.\\\\\r\\\nBMW\\:\\ In\\ a\\ previous\\ lecture\\,\\ the\\ case\\ on\\ BMW\\ looked\\ at\\ how\\ they\\ used\\ films\\ as\\ an\\ innovate\\ marketing\\ technique\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ BMW\\,\\ providing\\ direction\\ came\\ from\\ realizing\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ a\\ film\\ company\\,\\ and\\ maintaining\\ their\\ focus\\ on\\ cars\\\\\r\\\nAT\\&\\;T\\:\\ Looked\\ into\\ long\\-distance\\ land\\ lines\\,\\ but\\ provided\\ direction\\ by\\ focusing\\ on\\ long\\ distance\\ cell\\ phone\\ calling\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\\tProvide\\ Cohesion\\.\\ \\ This\\ means\\ setting\\ a\\ strategy\\ and\\ objectives\\ for\\ the\\ business\\.\\ A\\ key\\ note\\ in\\ setting\\ this\\ strategy\\ is\\ realizing\\ that\\ the\\ business\\ is\\ a\\ sum\\ of\\ individual\\ components\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ whole\\ is\\ a\\ sum\\ of\\ its\\ parts\\)\\.\\ \\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ uses\\ a\\ football\\ analogy\\ to\\ explain\\ this\\ by\\ noting\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ line\\ works\\ separately\\ from\\ the\\ backs\\,\\ you\\ still\\ want\\ everyone\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ plane\\ and\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ team\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Making\\ strategic\\ plans\\ consists\\ of\\ analyzing\\ different\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ business\\.\\ \\ Many\\ business\\ use\\ a\\\\ SWOT\\ analysis\\ \\<\\/strong\\>to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ \\ A\\ SWOT\\ analysis\\ as\\ an\\ analysis\\ that\\ examines\\ the\\ Strengths\\,\\ Weaknesses\\,\\ Opportunities\\ and\\ Threats\\ of\\ a\\ business\\ \\(hence\\,\\ SWOT\\)\\.\\ The\\ SWOT\\ analysis\\ looks\\ at\\ both\\ the\\ internal\\ \\(Strengths\\ and\\ Weaknesses\\)\\ and\\ external\\ \\(Opportunities\\ and\\ Threats\\)\\ aspects\\ of\\ a\\ business\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ class\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ basic\\ SWOT\\ analysis\\ for\\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ Inc\\,\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Strengths\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Weaknesses\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Opportunities\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Threats\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ uses\\ natural\\ fruit\\ juices\\-\\ \\ this\\ provides\\ them\\ with\\ a\\ competitive\\ advantage\\ over\\ other\\ producers\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Factory\\ Constraints\\-\\ it\\ would\\ cost\\ Stoneyfield\\ \\$1\\.5\\ to\\ construct\\ a\\ new\\ factory\\.\\ \\ Looking\\ at\\ their\\ balance\\ statement\\,\\ Stoneyfield\\ only\\ has\\ \\$80\\,000\\ in\\ cash\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ feasible\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Demographics\\-\\ people\\ are\\ concerned\\ about\\ what\\ they\\ eat\\ and\\ about\\ social\\ change\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ key\\ strengths\\ of\\ Stoneyfield\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Stoneyfield\\ is\\ threatened\\ by\\ lower\\ cost\\ competition\\ \\(\\*see\\ below\\)\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Stoneyfield\\ has\\ already\\ taken\\ out\\ loans\\ and\\ are\\ in\\ debt\\.\\ \\ Therefore\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ borrow\\ any\\ more\\ money\\.\\ \\ They\\ have\\ enough\\ money\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ business\\,\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ expand\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ case\\,\\ the\\ yogurt\\ marketing\\ was\\ growing\\ and\\ consumption\\ was\\ increasing\\,\\ providing\\ Stoneyfield\\ with\\ a\\ good\\ market\\ to\\ enter\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ their\\ brand\\ image\\.\\ \\ With\\ so\\ many\\ competitors\\,\\ the\\ Stoneyfield\\ brand\\ may\\ get\\ lost\\ amongst\\ the\\ others\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Entry\\ into\\ the\\ European\\ market\\ looks\\ promising\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ higher\\ demand\\ \\(approximately\\ 2\\ times\\ higher\\)\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ a\\ limited\\ amount\\ of\\ shelf\\ space\\ for\\ yogurt\\ products\\ and\\ many\\ retailers\\ charge\\ high\\ slotting\\ fees\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Stoneyfield\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ all\\ natural\\ yogurt\\ producer\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\*\\ Threats\\:\\ Stoneyfield\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ position\\ on\\ the\\ Learning\\ Curve\\ \\(as\\ described\\ in\\ last\\ week\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\)\\ is\\ unfavorable\\.\\ Whilst\\ Stoneyfield\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ competitors\\ are\\ charging\\ a\\ low\\ price\\ and\\ outputting\\ large\\ volume\\,\\ Stoneyfield\\ is\\ charging\\ high\\ prices\\ and\\ producing\\ a\\ low\\ amount\\ of\\ volume\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\nAdditionally\\,\\ a\\ business\\ must\\ define\\ its\\ \\objectives\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(both\\ short\\ and\\ long\\ term\\)\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ emphasizes\\ that\\ objectives\\ must\\ meet\\ the\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153SMART\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ criteria\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ Specific\\,\\ Measurable\\,\\ Achievable\\,\\ Realistic\\ and\\ Timed\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ case\\ on\\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ Inc\\.\\ stresses\\ certain\\ objectives\\,\\ such\\ as\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\\tTo\\ make\\ a\\ profit\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ multiple\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ Firstly\\,\\ for\\ the\\ founder\\ and\\ partner\\ of\\ the\\ business\\ to\\ make\\ money\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ gain\\ leverage\\ in\\ publicizing\\ the\\ company\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ issues\\ and\\ to\\ support\\ family\\ farms\\.\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\\tStoneyfield\\ Farms\\ wishes\\ to\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153save\\ the\\ world\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ through\\ using\\ the\\ business\\ to\\ make\\ social\\ change\\.\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\\tSustainability\\ is\\ another\\ key\\ objective\\ as\\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ wishes\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ a\\ business\\ can\\ both\\ be\\ profitable\\ and\\ work\\ for\\ social\\ good\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ contrasting\\ to\\ many\\ non\\-profit\\ organizations\\ who\\ rely\\ largely\\ on\\ individual\\ or\\ company\\ donations\\ and\\ thus\\ their\\ sustainability\\ is\\ constantly\\ threatened\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\\tTo\\ provide\\ consumers\\ with\\ a\\ high\\ quality\\ \\(and\\ healthy\\)\\ product\\.\\\\\r\\\n5\\.\\\tTo\\ achieve\\ a\\ healthy\\ and\\ productive\\ workplace\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Most\\ times\\,\\ businesses\\ objectives\\ will\\ be\\ put\\ forward\\ in\\ their\\ mission\\ statement\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\After\\ looking\\ at\\ all\\ these\\ factors\\,\\\\ what\\ should\\ Stoneyfield\\ do\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\ Some\\ suggested\\ ideas\\ are\\ that\\ Stoneyfield\\ should\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\\tGo\\ to\\ Russia\\ \\(it\\ is\\ a\\ back\\ door\\ into\\ the\\ European\\ market\\)\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\\tIncrease\\ Capacity\\ \\(but\\ this\\ is\\ difficult\\ due\\ to\\ high\\ competition\\,\\ limited\\ shelf\\ space\\ and\\ limited\\ finances\\)\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\\tChange\\ Advertising\\\\\r\\\nStoneyfield\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Answer\\:\\ For\\ better\\ of\\ for\\ worse\\,\\ Stoneyfield\\ Farms\\ Inc\\.\\ bought\\ another\\ company\\ in\\ California\\ and\\ expanded\\ to\\ the\\ West\\ Coast\\.\\ \\ They\\ also\\ merged\\ with\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ main\\ competitors\\,\\ Dannon\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ Although\\ this\\ may\\ seem\\ surprising\\,\\ this\\ gave\\ Dannon\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ fill\\ the\\ market\\ niche\\ of\\ healthy\\ yogurt\\ whilst\\ Dannon\\ let\\ Stoneyfield\\ keep\\ the\\ same\\ management\\ and\\ gave\\ them\\ the\\ money\\ they\\ needed\\ for\\ costs\\ such\\ as\\ slotting\\ fees\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Strategy-Overview"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.916446+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction: Cell Biology Today", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 532, "html": "\\As\\ you\\ can\\ probably\\ tell\\ from\\ the\\ course\\ title\\,\\ \\MCB54\\<\\/a\\>\\ is\\ a\\ class\\ that\\ focuses\\ on\\ cell\\ biology\\ \\-\\ that\\ is\\,\\ the\\ physical\\ organization\\ of\\ cells\\,\\ their\\ interactions\\ with\\ other\\ cells\\,\\ and\\ the\\ processes\\ that\\ occur\\ within\\ them\\,\\ to\\ name\\ a\\ few\\ major\\ topics\\.\\ To\\ study\\ cell\\ biology\\,\\ scientists\\ rely\\ on\\ microscopy\\ and\\ several\\ techniques\\ rooted\\ in\\ molecular\\ biology\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ observe\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ driving\\ forces\\ behind\\ the\\ biochemical\\ pathways\\ that\\ ever\\ so\\ carefully\\ regulate\\ cellular\\ processes\\ ranging\\ from\\ cell\\ division\\ to\\ cholesterol\\ import\\ to\\ apoptosis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\In\\ this\\ particular\\ class\\,\\ the\\ major\\ topics\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ covered\\ fall\\ under\\ two\\ categories\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Organization\\ and\\ basic\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\\\From\\ molecules\\ to\\ cells\\ to\\ tissues\\ \\-\\ evolution\\ and\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ life\\<\\/li\\>\\Lipid\\ bilayer\\ membranes\\ \\-\\ structure\\,\\ function\\,\\ properties\\<\\/li\\>\\Transport\\ across\\ membranes\\ \\-\\ channels\\ and\\ pumps\\<\\/li\\>\\The\\ secretory\\ pathway\\ \\-\\ protein\\ sorting\\,\\ targeting\\,\\ and\\ transport\\<\\/li\\>\\The\\ cytoskeleton\\ \\-\\ structure\\,\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ its\\ role\\ in\\ cell\\ motility\\<\\/li\\>\\The\\ cell\\ cycle\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\Multicellularity\\\\Signal\\ transduction\\<\\/li\\>\\Cellular\\ interactions\\<\\/li\\>\\Cell\\ patterning\\<\\/li\\>\\Cell\\ migration\\<\\/li\\>\\Organogenesis\\,\\ morphogenesis\\,\\ and\\ embryogenesis\\<\\/li\\>\\Cell\\ regeneration\\ and\\ repair\\<\\/li\\>\\Cell\\ death\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ul\\>\\To\\ start\\ out\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ examine\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ evolution\\ and\\ its\\ effect\\ on\\ biological\\ systems\\.\\ At\\ its\\ simplest\\ level\\,\\ evolution\\ arises\\ from\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ random\\ genetic\\ mutations\\,\\ which\\ are\\ passed\\ from\\ generation\\ to\\ generation\\.\\ Environmental\\ conditions\\ dictate\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ certain\\ physical\\ traits\\,\\ allowing\\ organisms\\ with\\ better\\ traits\\ to\\ survive\\ more\\ effectively\\ than\\ those\\ with\\ worse\\ traits\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ natural\\ selection\\)\\.\\ But\\ as\\ you\\ may\\ know\\ already\\,\\ genetic\\ variations\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ correspond\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ physical\\ traits\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ synonymous\\ mutations\\ \\[mutations\\ in\\ the\\ genetic\\ sequence\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ alter\\ the\\ amino\\ acid\\ that\\ is\\ coded\\ for\\]\\)\\,\\ and\\ so\\ evolution\\ does\\ not\\ act\\ directly\\ on\\ genes\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ we\\ say\\ that\\ genetic\\ variation\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ evolution\\,\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ sufficient\\ for\\ evolution\\ to\\ occur\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 83, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction: Cell Biology Today"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.926069+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Strategic Planning- Internal Strengths and Weaknesses", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 533, "html": "\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ delves\\ into\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ organizations\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ internal\\ strengths\\ and\\ weaknesses\\ \\(the\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ SWOT\\ analysis\\)\\.\\ The\\ lecture\\ will\\ be\\ specifically\\ focusing\\ on\\ Nintendo\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Background\\ on\\ Nintendo\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Nintendo\\ is\\ a\\ Japanese\\ company\\ that\\ creates\\ home\\ video\\ games\\.\\ Nintendo\\ was\\ introduced\\ in\\ 1889\\ but\\ began\\ making\\ home\\ video\\ games\\ in\\ Japan\\ in\\ 1977\\ and\\ was\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ market\\ in\\ 1986\\.\\&\\#160\\;Some\\ of\\ Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ most\\ popular\\ systems\\ and\\ games\\ are\\ Famicom\\ \\(\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Family\\&\\#160\\;Computer\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\)\\ and\\ Super\\ Mario\\ Brothers\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ To\\ see\\ these\\ systems\\,\\ and\\ more\\,\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ Nintendo\\'s\\ website\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\www\\.nintendo\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Internal\\ strengths\\ and\\ weaknesses\\ are\\ categorized\\ into\\ two\\ parts\\:\\ tangible\\ resources\\ and\\ intangible\\ resources\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Tangible\\ Resources\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Finances\\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ Nintendo\\,\\ finances\\ are\\ an\\ internal\\ strength\\.\\&\\#160\\;Although\\ toy\\ manufacturers\\ typically\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ cash\\ flow\\ problems\\ because\\ money\\ is\\ usually\\ tied\\ up\\ in\\ inventory\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Nintendo\\ insists\\ that\\ money\\ is\\ paid\\ up\\ front\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ although\\ Nintendo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ did\\ not\\ start\\ with\\ much\\ cash\\,\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ get\\ good\\ payment\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ consequently\\ have\\ cash\\ on\\ hand\\ is\\ now\\ an\\ internal\\ strength\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ contrast\\,\\ as\\ we\\ saw\\ last\\ week\\,\\ Stoneyfield\\ had\\ bad\\ finances\\.\\&\\#160\\;They\\ could\\ not\\ open\\ up\\ the\\ new\\ factory\\ at\\ a\\ cost\\ of\\ \\$1\\.5\\ million\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ already\\ in\\ debt\\ and\\ could\\ not\\ raise\\ the\\ money\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ is\\ because\\ Stoneyfield\\ paid\\ early\\ and\\ collected\\ late\\ for\\ inventory\\,\\ so\\ that\\ their\\ money\\ was\\ usually\\ tied\\ up\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\People\\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Nintendo\\ has\\ very\\ good\\ designers\\.\\&\\#160\\;Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ strategy\\ is\\ quality\\ over\\ quantity\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ a\\ few\\ extremely\\ good\\ people\\ than\\ many\\ average\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ produce\\ a\\ few\\ really\\ good\\ games\\ than\\ many\\ normal\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sports\\ analogy\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ One\\ excellent\\ sports\\ player\\ is\\ worth\\ more\\ than\\ three\\ or\\ four\\ average\\ players\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ Thus\\,\\ for\\ Nintendo\\,\\ people\\ are\\ also\\ an\\ internal\\ strength\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Facilities\\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ protecting\\ the\\ quality\\ and\\ the\\ intellectual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ property\\ of\\ their\\ business\\.\\ The\\ quality\\ and\\ intellectual\\ property\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ massive\\ internal\\ strength\\.\\&\\#160\\;Additionally\\,\\ Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ production\\ process\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ outsource\\ chips\\ to\\ another\\ company\\,\\ Reiko\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ was\\ advantageous\\ to\\ Reiko\\ because\\ Nintendo\\ makes\\ massive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ orders\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Reiko\\ had\\ old\\ equipment\\ left\\ over\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ either\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ use\\ for\\ Nintendo\\ or\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ update\\ their\\ line\\.\\&\\#160\\;However\\,\\ the\\ relationship\\ is\\ also\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beneficial\\ for\\ Nintendo\\ as\\ they\\ maintain\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ control\\ because\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Reiko\\ can\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ go\\ anywhere\\ else\\ as\\ they\\ only\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ product\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Nintendo\\ requires\\ and\\ 60\\-70\\%\\ of\\ their\\ line\\ goes\\ to\\ Nintendo\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Nintendo\\ has\\ complete\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ final\\ assembly\\ \\(production\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ case\\)\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ and\\ thus\\ they\\ can\\ control\\ the\\ final\\ product\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Intangible\\ Resources\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Corporate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ culture\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Expertise\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ experience\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nintendo\\ used\\ the\\ Japanese\\ market\\ to\\ gain\\ experience\\ in\\ making\\ their\\ product\\ and\\ developing\\ a\\ business\\ model\\.\\&\\#160\\;Thus\\,\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ entered\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ their\\ production\\ and\\ strategy\\ was\\ well\\ organized\\ and\\ fully\\ developed\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ can\\ be\\ demonstrated\\ as\\ a\\ move\\ down\\ the\\ learning\\ curve\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Core\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Competencies\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ something\\ that\\ the\\ company\\ does\\ well\\ and\\ the\\ skills\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ have\\ allowed\\ it\\ to\\ succeed\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Value\\ Added\\ Chain\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ value\\ added\\ chain\\ is\\ a\\ chain\\ of\\ key\\ cost\\ elements\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ strategy\\ formulation\\.\\&\\#160\\;When\\ analyzing\\ a\\ business\\,\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ steps\\ on\\ the\\ value\\ added\\ chain\\ and\\ see\\ where\\ the\\ company\\ can\\ gain\\ a\\ competitive\\ advantage\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\R\\ \\&\\;\\ D\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Raw\\ Materials\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Manufacturing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Marketing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Distribution\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Service\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ competitive\\ advantage\\ was\\ gained\\ from\\ the\\ raw\\ materials\\ stage\\.\\&\\#160\\;Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ raw\\ materials\\ are\\ ideas\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ quick\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ other\\ half\\:\\ external\\ threats\\ and\\ opportunities\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Threats\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Regulation\\:\\ anti\\-\\ competition\\ law\\ suits\\.\\ This\\ was\\ not\\ an\\ issue\\ open\\ entering\\ the\\ United\\ \\ \\ States\\ market\\ but\\ has\\ now\\ become\\ an\\ issue\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Market\\:\\ threat\\ from\\ competition\\ such\\ as\\ arcade\\ games\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Opportunities\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Technology\\ advances\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ speed\\ and\\ storage\\ of\\ chips\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Large\\ market\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ regulation\\ was\\ initially\\ small\\,\\ which\\ was\\ an\\ advantage\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Little\\ competition\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ product\\ area\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Value\\ Creation\\ and\\ Value\\ Capture\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Value\\ creation\\ is\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ a\\ market\\,\\ whilst\\ value\\ capture\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ profiting\\ from\\ that\\ market\\ by\\ capturing\\ the\\ value\\ created\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Value\\ capture\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ and\\ may\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ large\\ threat\\ to\\ Nintendo\\.\\&\\#160\\;For\\ example\\,\\ IBM\\,\\ Netscape\\ and\\ Population\\ Services\\ were\\ all\\ unable\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ value\\ in\\ their\\ market\\.\\&\\#160\\;Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ competition\\,\\ Atari\\,\\ was\\ also\\ unable\\ to\\ capture\\ the\\ market\\ they\\ created\\,\\ partly\\ because\\ people\\ stopped\\ playing\\ games\\ and\\ partly\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ knock\\ offs\\ \\(80\\-90\\%\\ of\\ games\\ were\\ games\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ played\\ on\\ their\\ console\\ but\\ were\\ not\\ Atari\\ games\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Strategic Planning- Internal Strengths and Weaknesses"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.940132+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Strategic Planning- Entrepreneurial Management", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 534, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Upon\\ entering\\ into\\ class\\ today\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ projector\\-image\\ of\\ the\\ website\\ for\\\\ Connect\\ Edu\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;We\\ started\\ class\\ today\\ by\\ briefly\\ looking\\ at\\ their\\ website\\ on\\ the\\ projector\\,\\ and\\ then\\ talking\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ start\\ your\\ own\\ business\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ConnectEDU\\ started\\ with\\ a\\ tutoring\\ service\\ in\\ Providence\\ and\\ made\\ an\\ arrangement\\ with\\ both\\ Moses\\ Brown\\ and\\ Hope\\ \\ High\\ School\\.\\&\\#160\\;As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ their\\ collaboration\\ with\\ these\\ high\\ schools\\,\\ they\\ realized\\ that\\ these\\ high\\ schools\\,\\ and\\ many\\ others\\,\\ needed\\ help\\ with\\ the\\ college\\ admissions\\ process\\.\\&\\#160\\;A\\ notable\\ problem\\ with\\ high\\ schools\\ across\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ bad\\ computer\\ systems\\ and\\ therefore\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ applications\\ of\\ many\\ students\\ was\\ unorganized\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ addition\\ to\\ this\\,\\ colleges\\ wanted\\ a\\ cheaper\\ way\\ to\\ recruit\\ students\\.\\&\\#160\\;Craig\\ noticed\\ both\\ of\\ these\\ needs\\ and\\ saw\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ opportunity\\ for\\ ConnectEdu\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\He\\ moved\\ to\\ Boston\\ and\\ hired\\ a\\ senior\\ person\\ to\\ be\\ president\\,\\ but\\ the\\ entire\\ company\\ started\\ with\\ help\\ from\\ his\\ college\\ friends\\ \\(Craig\\ received\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ help\\ from\\ his\\ sports\\ team\\ and\\ fraternity\\ brothers\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ original\\ model\\ for\\ ConnectEdu\\ was\\ to\\ offer\\ a\\ college\\ admissions\\ advisory\\ service\\ to\\ companies\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ One\\ such\\ company\\ that\\ ConnectEdu\\ did\\ this\\ for\\ was\\ Citizen\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Bank\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ reason\\ that\\ companies\\ wished\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ this\\ agreement\\ with\\ ConnectEdu\\ was\\ largely\\ so\\ that\\ employers\\ could\\ recruit\\ the\\ best\\ college\\ students\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ then\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\Economies\\ of\\ Scale\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ ConnectEdu\\,\\ as\\ they\\ signed\\ up\\ more\\ high\\ schools\\ their\\ prices\\ went\\ down\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ differs\\ between\\ their\\ original\\ business\\-\\ tutoring\\,\\ and\\ their\\ new\\ model\\ of\\ business\\-data\\ processing\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Within\\ their\\ data\\ processing\\ business\\,\\ their\\ economies\\ of\\ scale\\ will\\ be\\ very\\ profitable\\.\\&\\#160\\;Since\\ they\\ have\\ already\\ written\\ the\\ computer\\ software\\,\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ cost\\ anything\\ to\\ bring\\ in\\ more\\ schools\\ and\\ the\\ business\\ will\\ scale\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Within\\ the\\ tutoring\\ industry\\,\\ economies\\ of\\ scale\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ relevant\\.\\&\\#160\\;For\\ example\\,\\ even\\ if\\ you\\ sign\\ up\\ another\\ 100\\ students\\,\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ need\\ another\\ 10\\ or\\ so\\ students\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ business\\ will\\ not\\ scale\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ elements\\ to\\ success\\ in\\ a\\ business\\ is\\ flexibility\\.\\&\\#160\\;Like\\ we\\ saw\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ with\\ Tom\\ First\\ from\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\,\\ businesses\\ encounter\\ many\\ unexpected\\ obstacles\\ and\\ flexibility\\ is\\ really\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ overcome\\ them\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Entrepreneurial\\ Management\\-\\ the\\ starting\\ and\\ operating\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ business\\.\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ five\\ steps\\ to\\ entrepreneurial\\ management\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Opportunity\\ \\(How\\ you\\ get\\ the\\ idea\\ for\\ the\\ business\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>New\\ Technology\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ we\\ saw\\ with\\ Nintendo\\,\\ new\\ technologies\\ enabled\\ them\\ to\\ make\\ new\\ games\\ and\\ a\\ better\\ game\\ console\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ ConnectEDU\\,\\ they\\ made\\ new\\ software\\ for\\ data\\ processing\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Economic\\ Conditions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ example\\,\\ with\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ they\\ entered\\ the\\ market\\ at\\ the\\ right\\ time\\-\\ when\\ people\\ wanted\\ better\\,\\ more\\ natural\\ products\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Social\\ Values\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ConnectEDU\\ benefitted\\ from\\ one\\ specific\\ social\\ value\\:\\ the\\ recognition\\ that\\ getting\\ into\\ a\\ good\\ private\\ college\\ will\\ help\\ you\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ your\\ life\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Regulations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ not\\ applicable\\ for\\ ConnectEDU\\,\\ but\\ a\\ business\\ starting\\ new\\ may\\ be\\ worried\\ about\\ new\\ environmental\\ regulations\\ which\\ must\\ be\\ parlayed\\ into\\ a\\ current\\ business\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Resources\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Needed\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>People\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Skills\\ and\\ maturity\\ are\\ necessary\\ in\\ employees\\.\\&\\#160\\;Craig\\ hired\\ two\\ people\\ from\\ the\\ Brown\\ admissions\\ office\\.\\&\\#160\\;He\\ also\\ hired\\ a\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153designated\\ adult\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\-\\ Riley\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ helped\\ him\\ with\\ his\\ credibility\\.\\&\\#160\\;Tom\\ from\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ evaded\\ this\\ issue\\ by\\ meeting\\ Egan\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ working\\ in\\ his\\ boating\\ business\\.\\&\\#160\\;Egan\\ then\\ gave\\ Tom\\ the\\ advice\\ and\\ finances\\ needed\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ start\\ up\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Facilities\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ usually\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ machinery\\ needed\\ for\\ manufacturing\\.\\&\\#160\\;For\\ ConnectEDU\\,\\ software\\ is\\ people\\ intensive\\ versus\\ machinery\\ so\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ as\\ much\\ of\\ an\\ issue\\.\\&\\#160\\;Looking\\ back\\ at\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\,\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ bottles\\ and\\ juices\\ became\\ machine\\ intensive\\.\\&\\#160\\;Also\\,\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ throw\\ back\\,\\ if\\ we\\ remember\\ the\\ IKEA\\ case\\,\\ IKEA\\ had\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ having\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ factory\\ in\\ Poland\\ because\\ their\\ competitors\\ wouldn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ let\\ them\\ set\\ up\\ another\\ factory\\ in\\ Sweden\\.\\&\\#160\\;All\\ of\\ this\\ comes\\ under\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ facilities\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Money\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Idea\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Raising\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Funds\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;Cash\\ vs\\.\\ Control\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stages\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Development\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Start\\-\\ Up\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Developing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Mezzanine\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\People\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1\\-2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\3\\-4\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\40\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\3\\-5\\ years\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\2\\-4\\ years\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1\\-2\\ years\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$\\ Required\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\250\\ K\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\5M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ Start\\-\\ up\\ stage\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ required\\ back\\ by\\ the\\ investor\\ is\\ usually\\ around\\ 20\\%\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ at\\ a\\ valuation\\ of\\ \\$1\\,250\\,000\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;Keeping\\ the\\ amount\\ required\\ back\\ by\\ investors\\ at\\ 20\\%\\ \\(though\\ it\\ usually\\ decreases\\ a\\ little\\ over\\ time\\)\\,\\ the\\ valuation\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ stage\\ would\\ be\\ \\$5\\,000\\,000\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ noted\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ required\\ back\\ by\\ investors\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ decreases\\ through\\ the\\ stages\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Mezzanine\\ stage\\ is\\ usually\\ around\\ 10\\%\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ making\\ a\\ valuation\\ of\\ \\$50\\,000\\,000\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ reason\\ that\\ the\\ amount\\ required\\ back\\ decreases\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ risk\\ also\\ decreases\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ Mezzanine\\ stage\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ final\\ stage\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ still\\ an\\ emerging\\ company\\)\\,\\ the\\ company\\ has\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ viable\\ business\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ Tom\\ First\\ from\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ is\\ currently\\ in\\ this\\ stage\\ with\\ his\\ business\\ O\\-Water\\.\\&\\#160\\;At\\ this\\ stage\\,\\ the\\ company\\ should\\ be\\ making\\ revenue\\ and\\ the\\ company\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ its\\ entrepreneurial\\ sequence\\.\\&\\#160\\;It\\ is\\ at\\ this\\ stage\\ that\\ investors\\ will\\ often\\ want\\ their\\ money\\ back\\ and\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ through\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153cashing\\ out\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ see\\ below\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Business\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Plan\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Executive\\ Summary\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Market\\:\\ Benefit\\ to\\ User\\,\\ Size\\ of\\ Market\\,\\ Evidence\\ of\\ acceptance\\ of\\ your\\ product\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Cash\\ Flow\\ Projections\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\ investors\\ will\\ Cash\\ Out\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\&\\#160\\;Selling\\ the\\ Company\\ or\\ an\\ IPO\\ \\(Initial\\ Public\\ Offering\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;Within\\ an\\ IPO\\ the\\ company\\ gets\\ an\\ investment\\ bank\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ stock\\ and\\ handle\\ the\\ process\\,\\ usually\\ for\\ a\\ commission\\ of\\ about\\ 5\\%\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ Most\\ investors\\ always\\ want\\ to\\ cash\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ Egan\\ did\\ in\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ and\\ receive\\ their\\ investment\\ back\\.\\&\\#160\\;Tom\\ First\\ then\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153cashed\\ out\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ by\\ selling\\ the\\ company\\ to\\ Cadbury\\ Schweppes\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>People\\ Involved\\:\\ commitment\\,\\ experience\\,\\ compatibility\\,\\ personal\\ characteristics\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\ To\\ find\\ more\\ about\\ ConnectEDU\\,\\ visit\\ the\\ company\\ website\\ at\\ \\www\\.connectedu\\.net\\/corp\\/index\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Strategic Planning- Entrepreneurial Management"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.955868+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Strategic Planning- Competition", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 535, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Andera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\ is\\ a\\ provider\\ of\\ online\\ account\\ services\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Andera\\ is\\ based\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\\\\\ and\\ currently\\ serves\\ more\\ financial\\ institution\\ clients\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ vendor\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Today\\,\\ Andera\\ is\\ designed\\ to\\ automate\\ the\\ consumer\\ acquisition\\ process\\,\\ through\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ a\\ financial\\ institutions\\ branches\\,\\ call\\ centers\\ and\\ Web\\ sites\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\To\\ find\\ out\\ more\\ about\\ Andera\\,\\ visit\\ \\www\\.andera\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ today\\ started\\ with\\ the\\ consideration\\ of\\ Andera\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ competition\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Andera\\ is\\ currently\\ competing\\ with\\ existing\\ firms\\,\\ new\\ entrants\\ and\\ substitute\\ products\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nQualities\\ of\\ \\Andera\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ competition\\<\\/strong\\>\\ are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Existing\\ firms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\u00e2\\\u2013\\\u00a0\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>small\\,\\ one\\ product\\ firms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\u00e2\\\u2013\\\u00a0\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>big\\ banking\\ software\\ companies\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Microsoft\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\u00e2\\\u2013\\\u00a0\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Lower\\ exit\\ barriers\\ make\\ it\\ easy\\ for\\ competitors\\ to\\ exit\\ the\\ business\\.\\ \\-\\ \\(less\\ risk\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\New\\ entrants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\u00e2\\\u2013\\\u00a0\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Andera\\ has\\ only\\ been\\ able\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 3\\ years\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ positive\\ cash\\ flow\\.\\ May\\ be\\ hard\\ for\\ new\\ entrants\\ to\\ succeed\\ quickly\\ past\\ Andera\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\u00e2\\\u2013\\\u00a0\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Big\\ guys\\ offer\\ banks\\ more\\.\\ \\-\\ Low\\ risk\\ entrances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\u00e2\\\u2013\\\u00a0\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Entry\\ barriers\\:\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Microsoft\\-\\ proprietary\\ software\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ must\\ be\\ compatible\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Substitute\\ Products\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Andera\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ conscious\\ to\\ consider\\ their\\ suppliers\\ and\\ customers\\.\\ Andera\\ is\\ faced\\ with\\ multiple\\ issues\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ their\\ customers\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Their\\ Credit\\ System\\.\\ New\\ entrants\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ may\\ worry\\ about\\ this\\ factor\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ middleman\\ that\\ keeps\\ them\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ having\\ a\\ direct\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ bank\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Regulations\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Banks\\ and\\ credit\\ unions\\ have\\ specific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ rigid\\ requirements\\ as\\ to\\ who\\ can\\ open\\ accounts\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ identity\\ theft\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ demand\\ for\\ privacy\\ and\\ security\\ of\\ personal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ information\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Key\\ Features\\ of\\ Andera\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Core\\ Integration\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Instant\\ Approvals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Same\\-\\ Session\\ Funding\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Funding\\ Account\\ Verification\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Cross\\ Selling\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Multi\\-\\&\\#160\\;Channel\\ Platform\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Design\\ Focus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Information\\ Security\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Andera\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Competitive\\ Advantage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Andera\\ uses\\ their\\ key\\ features\\&\\#160\\;\\(as\\ listed\\ above\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ attract\\ consumers\\ to\\ them\\ over\\ their\\ competitors\\ and\\ thus\\ establish\\&\\#160\\;\\ a\\ competitive\\ advantage\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ other\\ elements\\ that\\ may\\ influence\\ Andera\\'s\\ competitive\\ advantage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>first\\ in\\ the\\ market\\,\\ and\\ so\\ has\\ established\\ their\\ reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>policy\\ of\\ customization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>software\\ compatibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Strategic Planning- Competition"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.970514+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Nantucket Nectars", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 536, "html": "\\View\\ the\\ Nantucket\\ Nectar\\'s\\ Website\\:\\ \\www\\.nantucketnectars\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nClass\\ today\\ featured\\ Tom\\ First\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ and\\ O\\-Water\\.\\ \\ Upon\\ first\\ seeing\\ Tom\\,\\ he\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ you\\ would\\ expect\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ successful\\ business\\ man\\.\\ \\ His\\ attire\\ \\(khaki\\ pants\\ and\\ a\\ t\\-shirt\\)\\ and\\ manner\\ were\\ very\\ informal\\ and\\ casual\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ on\\ no\\ mission\\ apart\\ from\\ to\\ tell\\ his\\ story\\ as\\ himself\\.\\ \\ Tom\\ began\\ class\\ today\\ by\\ giving\\ us\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ his\\ background\\.\\ \\ Tom\\ is\\ a\\ Brown\\ graduate\\ \\(class\\ of\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u212289\\)\\ who\\ majored\\ in\\ American\\ History\\.\\ \\ Originally\\,\\ Tom\\ had\\ no\\ idea\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ business\\ and\\ the\\ only\\ Brown\\ class\\ he\\ took\\ in\\ the\\ business\\ area\\ was\\ the\\ class\\ in\\ question\\,\\ ENGN\\ 9\\.\\ \\ After\\ graduating\\ from\\ Brown\\,\\ Tom\\ moved\\ to\\ Nantucket\\ with\\ his\\ friend\\,\\ and\\ partner\\,\\ Tom\\ Scott\\,\\ and\\ started\\ a\\ boat\\ business\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Starting\\-Up\\/\\ The\\ First\\ Stages\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nTom\\ continued\\ by\\ telling\\ us\\ how\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ started\\.\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ started\\ very\\ casually\\.\\ \\ The\\ juices\\ were\\ literally\\ hand\\ made\\ and\\ they\\ first\\ sold\\ out\\ of\\ only\\ three\\ local\\ stores\\.\\ \\ Tom\\ and\\ Tom\\ began\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ mass\\ production\\,\\ but\\ their\\ first\\ step\\ failed\\.\\ \\ The\\ product\\ wasn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ very\\ good\\-\\ the\\ labels\\ unreadable\\,\\ mediocre\\ flavors\\ and\\ the\\ lemonade\\ used\\ in\\ production\\ quickly\\ turned\\ brown\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Funding\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nTom\\ Scott\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ dad\\ inserted\\ a\\ loan\\ of\\ \\$100\\,000\\ into\\ the\\ business\\.\\ \\ With\\ this\\ loan\\ and\\ other\\ personal\\ savings\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ saved\\ up\\ over\\ the\\ year\\ \\(amounting\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ thousand\\ dollars\\)\\,\\ the\\ business\\ began\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ partners\\ moved\\ off\\ the\\ island\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ sell\\ to\\ other\\ places\\ \\(namely\\ D\\.C\\)\\ and\\ sold\\ the\\ product\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ car\\.\\ \\ Entering\\ the\\ market\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ low\\ competition\\ \\(Snapple\\ was\\ present\\,\\ but\\ not\\ doing\\ very\\ well\\)\\.\\ Soon\\,\\ a\\ friend\\ that\\ they\\ made\\ in\\ Nantucket\\ inserted\\ half\\ a\\ million\\ into\\ the\\ company\\,\\ and\\ later\\ loaned\\ another\\ 2\\ million\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Arizona\\ Tea\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nArizona\\ Tea\\ came\\ out\\ around\\ this\\ stage\\ in\\ the\\ business\\.\\ \\ Tom\\ and\\ Tom\\ made\\ an\\ agreement\\ with\\ Arizona\\ Tea\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ product\\ alongside\\ of\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ in\\ the\\ D\\.C\\.\\ and\\ Boston\\ areas\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ first\\ year\\,\\ they\\ sold\\ over\\ a\\ million\\ cases\\ of\\ Arizona\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ fourteen\\ months\\ Tom\\ and\\ Tom\\ had\\ lost\\ the\\ two\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ million\\ loaned\\ to\\ them\\ by\\ Egan\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Business\\ Troubles\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ business\\ faced\\ many\\ obstacles\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ businesses\\ own\\ employees\\ were\\ stealing\\ large\\ amounts\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ and\\ selling\\ it\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ personal\\ benefit\\.\\ \\ They\\ had\\ trucks\\ crashing\\ on\\ the\\ high\\ way\\ and\\ people\\ quitting\\.\\ \\ The\\ business\\ was\\ an\\ absolute\\ disaster\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Ultimatum\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nMr\\.\\ Egan\\ gave\\ them\\ six\\ months\\ to\\ turn\\ the\\ business\\ around\\.\\ \\ Tom\\ and\\ Tom\\ decided\\ to\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ selling\\ Arizona\\ Tea\\ and\\ to\\ completely\\ re\\-invent\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\.\\ \\ To\\ do\\ this\\,\\ they\\ changed\\ the\\ packaging\\,\\ changed\\ the\\ ingredients\\ \\(changed\\ from\\ high\\ fructose\\ corn\\ syrup\\ to\\ natural\\ sweetener\\)\\ and\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ marketing\\ device\\ of\\ each\\ bottle\\ having\\ the\\ purple\\ caps\\ with\\ messages\\ underneath\\ the\\ caps\\.\\ \\ At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ they\\ also\\ created\\ a\\ radio\\ ad\\ which\\ won\\ a\\ prize\\ for\\ best\\ radio\\ ad\\ in\\ America\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marketing\\ Techniques\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nNantucket\\ Nectars\\ utilizes\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ marketing\\ techniques\\,\\ including\\ creative\\ packaging\\,\\ rapid\\ and\\ original\\ product\\ introduction\\,\\ word\\ of\\ mouth\\ and\\ similar\\ guerilla\\ techniques\\ and\\ marketing\\ a\\ memorable\\ story\\ line\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ general\\,\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ sell\\ their\\ high\\ quality\\ product\\ through\\ their\\ memorable\\ story\\ line\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ some\\ original\\ tactics\\ such\\ as\\ their\\ original\\ radio\\ ads\\ and\\ the\\ messages\\ under\\ the\\ bottle\\ caps\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Selling\\ Decision\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nBefore\\ the\\ sale\\ was\\ made\\,\\ Tom\\ faced\\ a\\ difficult\\ decision\\-\\ to\\ sell\\ to\\&\\#160\\;Pepsi\\/\\ Cadbury\\ or\\ to\\ sell\\ to\\ another\\ smaller\\ buyer\\,\\ Ocean\\ Spray\\?\\ Tom\\ was\\ concerned\\ with\\ maintaining\\ the\\ corporate\\ culture\\ and\\ work\\ environment\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ developed\\ \\(very\\ personal\\,\\ casual\\)\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;He\\ also\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ outcome\\ for\\ his\\ employees\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Lastly\\,\\ Tom\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ growth\\ of\\ the\\ company\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ meeting\\ increased\\ demand\\ and\\ also\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ entering\\ the\\ supermarket\\ channel\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ distribution\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pepsi\\-\\&\\#160\\;Upon\\ entering\\ into\\ a\\ deal\\ with\\ Pepsi\\ it\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ would\\ be\\ marketed\\ as\\ a\\ Pepsi\\ product\\ and\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ marketing\\ techniques\\ would\\ be\\ erased\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Pepsi\\ desires\\ to\\ enter\\ the\\ \\\"New\\ Age\\\"\\ market\\ and\\ hopes\\ to\\ use\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ A\\ deal\\ with\\ Pepsi\\ would\\ be\\ extremely\\ financially\\ profitable\\ for\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ and\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ huge\\ opportunity\\ for\\ expansion\\ and\\ growth\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ However\\,\\ it\\ is\\ unlikely\\ that\\ employees\\ will\\ remain\\ in\\ the\\ business\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ culture\\ will\\ be\\ maintained\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ocean\\ Spray\\-\\ In\\ an\\ agreement\\ with\\ Ocean\\ Spray\\,\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ that\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ maintain\\ similar\\ marketing\\ techniques\\ and\\ strategies\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Ocean\\ Spray\\'s\\ desire\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ deal\\ with\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ very\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ \\\"New\\ Age\\\"\\ market\\ and\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ would\\ strengthen\\ this\\ tie\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Additionally\\,\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ would\\ bring\\ in\\ extra\\ profit\\ for\\ Ocean\\ Spray\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ A\\ deal\\ with\\ Ocean\\ Spray\\ would\\ be\\ less\\ financially\\ profitable\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ smaller\\ and\\ thus\\ riskier\\ investment\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Nevertheless\\,\\&\\#160\\;Ocean\\ Spray\\ has\\ a\\ good\\ link\\ with\\ suppliers\\ and\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ maintain\\ their\\ unique\\ marketing\\,\\ corporate\\ culture\\ and\\ values\\.\\ It\\ is\\ more\\ likely\\ that\\ employees\\ jobs\\ would\\ be\\ transferred\\ and\\ preserved\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\A\\ Happy\\ Ending\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ three\\ or\\ four\\ years\\ Tom\\ and\\ Tom\\ had\\ completely\\ turned\\ the\\ company\\ around\\.\\ By\\ 1998\\,\\ they\\ had\\ raised\\ \\$100\\ million\\ in\\ sales\\ alone\\.\\ In\\ 2002\\,\\ the\\ business\\ was\\ sold\\ to\\ Cadbury\\ Schweppes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Starting\\ All\\ Over\\ Again\\:\\ O\\-Water\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\nTom\\ First\\ is\\ now\\ working\\ on\\ a\\ new\\ product\\,\\ O\\-\\ water\\.\\ \\ O\\-\\ Water\\ is\\ a\\ healthy\\ fitness\\ drink\\ \\(promoted\\ as\\ a\\ less\\-sweet\\ alternative\\ to\\ Gatorade\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ O\\-Water\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ without\\ its\\ own\\ obstacles\\.\\ \\ At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ a\\ current\\ Brown\\ student\\ contacted\\ him\\ and\\ completely\\ tore\\ apart\\ the\\ labeling\\ and\\ marketing\\ of\\ the\\ product\\,\\ at\\ which\\ point\\ Tom\\ completely\\ repackaged\\ and\\ reproduced\\ O\\-water\\.\\ \\ The\\ mission\\ of\\ O\\-water\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ everyday\\,\\ honestly\\ healthy\\ fitness\\ drink\\.\\ \\ The\\ main\\ marketing\\ technique\\ for\\ O\\-Water\\ is\\ to\\ feature\\ everyday\\ athletes\\.\\ \\ To\\ emphasize\\ this\\,\\ Tom\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ feature\\ athletes\\ on\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ the\\ bottle\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ To\\ get\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ O\\-water\\ and\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ their\\ marketing\\ and\\ branding\\,\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ their\\ website\\ at\\&\\#160\\;\\www\\.owater\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\View\\ the\\ Nantucket\\ Nectar\\'s\\ Website\\:\\ \\www\\.nantucketnectars\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\!\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Nantucket Nectars"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.982992+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Strategic Planning- External Threats and Opportunities", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 537, "html": "\\\\Background\\ on\\ IKEA\\:\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>IKEA\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ 1943\\ by\\ Ingvar\\ Kamprad\\ who\\ was\\ 17\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ IKEA\\ began\\ by\\ selling\\ random\\ small\\ products\\ at\\ a\\ reduced\\ price\\.\\ \\ IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ first\\ stores\\ were\\ in\\ Sweden\\,\\ Norway\\ and\\ Denmark\\ and\\ IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ entry\\ into\\ Europe\\ started\\ in\\ Switzerland\\.\\ The\\ basis\\ of\\ IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ business\\ at\\ the\\ present\\ time\\,\\ furniture\\,\\ was\\ introduced\\ in\\ 1948\\.\\ \\ IKEA\\ is\\ now\\ widely\\ recognized\\ as\\ a\\ furniture\\ company\\ who\\ sells\\ self\\-assembled\\ furniture\\ at\\ affordable\\ prices\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ View\\ IKEA\\'s\\ worldwide\\ selection\\ of\\ furniture\\ at\\ \\www\\.ikea\\.com\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ company\\ motto\\ is\\:\\ \\\"To\\ create\\ a\\ better\\ everyday\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ many\\ people\\.\\\"\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\\\\r\\\nWe\\ began\\ the\\ class\\ today\\ with\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ the\\ elements\\ involved\\ in\\ strategic\\ planning\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ then\\ looked\\ at\\ the\\ elements\\ involved\\ in\\\\ IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ business\\ model\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ and\\ produced\\ the\\ following\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\\tInexpensive\\ furniture\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\\tAimed\\ at\\ a\\ lifestyle\\ and\\ a\\ younger\\ demographic\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ college\\ students\\ or\\ recent\\ graduates\\)\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\\tGood\\ design\\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\\tKnock\\ down\\/\\ Self\\ assembly\\ \\\\\r\\\nThis\\ enables\\ the\\ company\\ to\\ need\\ less\\ storage\\ space\\ and\\ facilities\\ transportation\\.\\ \\ Additionally\\,\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\ cheaper\\ production\\ but\\ still\\ provides\\ customers\\ with\\ the\\ upscale\\ experience\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n5\\.\\\tCompetition\\\\\r\\\nIKEA\\ is\\ unique\\ in\\ their\\ business\\ model\\,\\ giving\\ them\\ a\\ competitive\\ advantage\\ over\\ competitors\\.\\\\\r\\\n6\\.\\\tInvestment\\ into\\ product\\\\\r\\\n7\\.\\\tManage\\ network\\ of\\ suppliers\\\\\r\\\nIKEA\\ is\\ not\\ liked\\ by\\ the\\ manufacturers\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ are\\ excluded\\ from\\ local\\ manufacturing\\,\\ so\\ they\\ have\\ acquired\\ suppliers\\ overseas\\.\\ \\ This\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ problem\\ of\\ network\\ control\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ position\\ on\\ the\\ learning\\ curve\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ their\\ successful\\ business\\ model\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ then\\ explored\\ IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ objectives\\ and\\ once\\ again\\ conducted\\ a\\ SWOT\\ analysis\\ for\\ IKEA\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ objectives\\<\\/strong\\>\\ were\\ defined\\ as\\ the\\ following\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\\tTo\\ be\\ profitable\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\\tTo\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ customer\\ value\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\\tTo\\ simplify\\ and\\ be\\ efficient\\/\\ not\\ wasteful\\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\\tSocial\\ Mission\\-\\ concern\\ for\\ environmental\\ and\\ social\\ issues\\ \\\\\r\\\nIf\\ interested\\,\\ these\\ can\\ be\\ viewed\\ at\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/IKEA\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\SWOT\\ analysis\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Strengths\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Weaknesses\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Opportunities\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Threats\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Skilled\\ at\\ outsourcing\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\If\\ you\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ child\\ labor\\,\\ outsourcing\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ control\\ sources\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\No\\ one\\ else\\ is\\ going\\ after\\ the\\ same\\ market\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ so\\ consumers\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ have\\ many\\ alternatives\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Other\\ Swedish\\ stores\\ and\\ manufacturers\\ dislike\\ IKEA\\.\\ \\ They\\ could\\ collude\\ to\\ shut\\ IKEA\\ out\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ office\\ atmosphere\\ is\\ open\\ and\\ informal\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ positive\\ because\\ it\\ makes\\ workers\\ more\\ competitive\\ and\\ productive\\ and\\ instills\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\-responsibility\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Well\\-liked\\/\\ Reputable\\ company\\ \\(by\\ consumers\\)\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Problem\\ of\\ bad\\ publicity\\ and\\ potential\\ for\\ negative\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\<\\/td\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\IKEA\\ has\\ a\\ few\\ potential\\ \\strategies\\ \\<\\/strong\\>that\\ they\\ could\\ pursue\\.\\ \\ The\\ advantages\\ and\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ these\\ options\\ are\\ explored\\ below\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\\tQuit\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tChild\\ labor\\ is\\ a\\ larger\\ problem\\ than\\ is\\ found\\ solely\\ in\\ the\\ rug\\ market\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tQuitting\\ would\\ send\\ a\\ firm\\ message\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tRugs\\ are\\ a\\ small\\ percentage\\ of\\ final\\ sales\\ anyway\\\\\r\\\nHowever\\,\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tQuitting\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ bad\\ publicity\\ and\\ damaging\\ the\\ brand\\ name\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tPeople\\ may\\ view\\ quitting\\ as\\ IKEA\\ not\\ wanting\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ problem\\.\\ \\ This\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ an\\ image\\ problem\\ for\\ the\\ company\\ because\\ it\\ looks\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ socially\\ irresponsible\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tQuitting\\ means\\ IKEA\\ will\\ be\\ abandoning\\ suppliers\\ which\\ could\\ have\\ negative\\ effects\\ for\\ the\\ remaining\\ areas\\ of\\ business\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tIf\\ IKEA\\ does\\ not\\ employ\\ children\\ in\\ the\\ rug\\ market\\,\\ they\\ will\\ most\\ likely\\ be\\ employed\\ by\\ someone\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ rigorous\\ form\\ of\\ employment\\.\\ \\ Is\\ it\\ better\\ for\\ the\\ children\\ to\\ remain\\ employed\\ by\\ IKEA\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\\tUse\\ a\\ Rugmark\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tRugmark\\ will\\ police\\ the\\ market\\ all\\ over\\ South\\ East\\ Asia\\ and\\ put\\ a\\ seal\\ of\\ approval\\ on\\ it\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tUsing\\ a\\ Rugmark\\ will\\ prove\\ that\\ IKEA\\ is\\ using\\ responsible\\ manufacturing\\ practices\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\t\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Green\\-washing\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\-\\ using\\ a\\ Rugmark\\ will\\ remove\\ responsibility\\ from\\ IKEA\\,\\ so\\ that\\ even\\ if\\ child\\ labor\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ sources\\ is\\ revealed\\,\\ they\\ can\\ pass\\ off\\ responsibility\\ to\\ the\\ Rugmark\\ company\\.\\\\\r\\\nHowever\\,\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tGiving\\ up\\ complete\\ control\\ to\\ Rugmark\\ is\\ risky\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tRugmark\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ control\\ all\\ 17\\,000\\ producers\\\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\\tLook\\ harder\\ for\\ responsible\\ producers\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tThis\\ will\\ incentivize\\ producers\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ responsible\\ in\\ their\\ manufacturing\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\4\\.\\\tDevelop\\ Factories\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tCostly\\ and\\ off\\ focus\\:\\ rugs\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ huge\\ part\\ of\\ IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ business\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tThis\\ would\\ move\\ manufacturing\\ away\\ from\\ households\\ and\\ thus\\ IKEA\\ could\\ provide\\ a\\ controlled\\ environment\\.\\\\\r\\\nHowever\\,\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tRugs\\ need\\ special\\ attention\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ individually\\ crafted\\ and\\ therefore\\ you\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ really\\ need\\ a\\ factory\\ as\\ machines\\ are\\ not\\ necessary\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\5\\.\\\tSet\\ up\\ an\\ independent\\ schools\\ for\\ children\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\So\\ what\\ did\\ IKEA\\ do\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nIKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ business\\ response\\ was\\ to\\ combine\\ factors\\ 3\\-5\\.\\ \\ The\\ school\\ that\\ IKEA\\ set\\ up\\ combined\\ providing\\ children\\ with\\ an\\ education\\ and\\ also\\ allowing\\ them\\ to\\ help\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ rugs\\.\\ \\ For\\ example\\,\\ children\\ would\\ produce\\ rugs\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\ and\\ attend\\ classes\\ in\\ the\\ afternoon\\.\\ IKEA\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ response\\ was\\ extremely\\ successful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ process\\ of\\ \\forecasting\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ often\\ used\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ company\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ present\\ and\\ future\\ situation\\.\\ \\ Possibilities\\ include\\ no\\ change\\,\\ continuation\\ of\\ trend\\ and\\ a\\ sudden\\ disruption\\ in\\ the\\ market\\.\\ \\ In\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ forecasting\\ you\\ must\\ distinguish\\ between\\ cyclical\\ and\\ structural\\ changes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Business\\ Cycle\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ business\\ cycle\\ shows\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ predict\\,\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\,\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ you\\ do\\ have\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ a\\ structural\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ market\\ in\\ which\\ this\\ model\\ will\\ prove\\ entirely\\ untrue\\.\\ \\ Examples\\ of\\ products\\ that\\ have\\ experienced\\ structural\\ changes\\ are\\ steel\\ production\\ and\\ men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ hats\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Possible\\ \\areas\\ for\\ forecasting\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\\tNew\\ technologies\\,\\ new\\ materials\\,\\ new\\ products\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tLast\\ week\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Nintendo\\ case\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ new\\ technologies\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tNew\\ materials\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ furniture\\ business\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tA\\ new\\ trend\\ in\\ the\\ market\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ new\\ technologies\\ sis\\ for\\ the\\ technologies\\ to\\ now\\ become\\ at\\ least\\ environmentally\\ benign\\,\\ if\\ not\\ environmentally\\ friendly\\/active\\.\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\\tMarkets\\;\\ unfilled\\ niche\\ and\\ ease\\ of\\ entry\\ \\(both\\ for\\ the\\ company\\ and\\ competitors\\)\\,\\ distribution\\ requirement\\,\\ new\\ customer\\ needs\\,\\ requirements\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ size\\,\\ expertise\\)\\ for\\ success\\ in\\ a\\ market\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tCustomer\\ needs\\ are\\ determined\\ by\\ demographics\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\\tThe\\ issue\\ of\\ finding\\ and\\ entering\\ a\\ market\\ was\\ portrayed\\ in\\ last\\ weeks\\ Nintendo\\ Also\\ case\\ as\\ Nintendo\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ competitor\\,\\ Atari\\,\\ found\\ a\\ market\\ niche\\ but\\ could\\ not\\ keep\\ competitors\\ out\\ and\\ had\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ copycats\\.\\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\\tLabor\\ and\\ supplies\\;\\ availability\\ of\\ skills\\ and\\ training\\,\\ outsourcing\\,\\ exploitation\\,\\ unions\\.\\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\\tRegulatory\\ agencies\\;\\ OSHA\\ \\(Occupational\\ Safety\\ and\\ Health\\ Administration\\)\\,\\ EPA\\ \\(Environmental\\ Protection\\ Agency\\)\\,\\ Anti\\-trust\\,\\ EEO\\ \\(Equal\\ Employment\\ Opportunity\\)\\,\\ labor\\ laws\\,\\ energy\\.\\\\\r\\\n5\\)\\\tDemographic\\ and\\ sociological\\ changes\\:\\ future\\ size\\ and\\ composition\\ of\\ your\\ traditional\\ market\\,\\ worker\\ and\\ managerial\\ attitudes\\.\\\\\r\\\n6\\)\\\tEconomic\\ conditions\\:\\ timing\\,\\ international\\ aspects\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Strategic Planning- External Threats and Opportunities"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.995947+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Alternatives, Choice, Implementation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 538, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Two\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ SWOT\\ analysis\\ \\(Strengths\\ and\\ Threats\\)\\ are\\ looked\\ at\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ Google\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ determine\\ an\\ appropriate\\ strategy\\ for\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ began\\ class\\ today\\ by\\ taking\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ Google\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ biggest\\ problem\\ \\(\\external\\ threat\\<\\/b\\>\\)\\:\\ competition\\.\\&\\#160\\;There\\ are\\ two\\ main\\ issues\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ Google\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ competition\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ competitors\\ whom\\ are\\ all\\ well\\ researched\\ \\(Yahoo\\,\\ Microsoft\\,\\ MSN\\ search\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ regards\\ to\\ search\\ engines\\,\\ there\\ are\\ low\\ switching\\ costs\\ for\\ customers\\ making\\ demand\\ very\\ elastic\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ response\\ to\\ these\\ low\\ switching\\ costs\\,\\ Google\\ has\\ applications\\/\\ products\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ difficult\\ for\\ consumers\\ to\\ switch\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Calendar\\,\\ e\\-mail\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;To\\ view\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ Google\\ products\\,\\ visit\\&\\#160\\;\\www\\.google\\.com\\/intl\\/en\\/options\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Internal\\ Strengths\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Even\\ though\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ case\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ the\\ case\\ was\\ written\\,\\ Google\\ now\\ has\\ an\\ integrated\\ suite\\.\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u02dc\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Money\\-\\ the\\ IPO\\ went\\ for\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ than\\ was\\ expected\\ and\\ was\\ very\\ successful\\,\\ giving\\ Google\\ a\\ large\\ source\\ of\\ finances\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\-\\ Google\\ offers\\ a\\ pleasant\\ workplace\\ environment\\ which\\ consequently\\ retains\\ good\\ people\\.\\&\\#160\\;Their\\ very\\ attractive\\ environment\\ paired\\ with\\ their\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153bottom\\ up\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ structure\\ \\(designed\\ for\\ people\\ that\\ really\\ want\\ to\\ accomplish\\ something\\)\\ has\\ resulted\\ in\\ Google\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ extra\\-ordinary\\ staff\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Facilities\\/\\ Equipment\\-\\ Google\\ has\\ an\\ excellent\\ IT\\ structure\\ and\\ the\\ sky\\ is\\ the\\ limit\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ Google\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ resources\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\With\\ all\\ that\\ in\\ mind\\,\\ we\\ can\\ now\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ \\possible\\ strategies\\<\\/b\\>\\ for\\ Google\\:\\ Diversification\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Integration\\-\\ Backward\\ or\\ Forward\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ example\\ of\\ forward\\ integration\\:\\ Google\\ provides\\ information\\ to\\ advertising\\ agencies\\ doing\\ research\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ how\\ many\\ times\\ their\\ ads\\ were\\ clicked\\ on\\ in\\ a\\ day\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;A\\ possibility\\ for\\ Google\\ \\(and\\ worry\\ for\\ advertising\\ agencies\\!\\)\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ they\\ can\\ take\\ over\\ the\\ customer\\ and\\ take\\ out\\ the\\ middle\\ man\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Specialization\\-\\ Excel\\ in\\ single\\ product\\ or\\ service\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Divestment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.quickmba\\.com\\/images\\/strategy\\/matrix\\/bcg\\/growthshare\\.gif\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Google\\,\\ all\\ of\\ their\\ products\\/\\ applications\\ are\\ currently\\ question\\ marks\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ turn\\ one\\ or\\ multiple\\ of\\ their\\ applications\\ into\\ stars\\ by\\ generating\\ higher\\ market\\ share\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Do\\-nothing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Selecting\\ the\\ Optimum\\ Strategy\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mathematical\\ tools\\ are\\ often\\ not\\ helpful\\ as\\ problems\\ have\\ many\\ variables\\,\\ not\\ all\\ quantifiable\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ Selection\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ judgment\\ and\\ often\\ depends\\ on\\ values\\ and\\ ambitions\\ of\\ management\\.\\&\\#160\\;For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ sale\\ to\\ either\\ Pepsi\\ or\\ Ocean\\ Spray\\,\\ Nantucket\\ Nectars\\ decided\\ that\\ selling\\ to\\ Pepsi\\ was\\ not\\ worth\\ the\\ extra\\ \\$15\\ million\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ clash\\ in\\ company\\ culture\\ and\\ ambiguity\\ about\\ the\\ company\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ future\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Strategy\\ should\\ be\\ generally\\ consistent\\ with\\ organization\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ sense\\ of\\ its\\ basic\\ business\\,\\ managerial\\ attitudes\\ and\\ strengths\\,\\ external\\ conditions\\,\\ other\\ strategies\\ of\\ organization\\,\\ organization\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ resources\\,\\ and\\ social\\ responsibility\\.\\&\\#160\\;Strategy\\ should\\ be\\ internally\\ consistent\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ not\\ try\\ to\\ concentrate\\ limited\\ resources\\ towards\\ many\\ objectives\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ other\\ words\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153stick\\ to\\ your\\ knitting\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ or\\ stick\\ to\\ what\\ you\\ know\\.\\ A\\ bad\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ Google\\ is\\ currently\\ investing\\ in\\ windmills\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ worried\\ about\\ green\\ energy\\.\\&\\#160\\;Although\\ socially\\ conscious\\,\\ this\\ is\\ diverging\\ from\\ what\\ they\\ know\\ and\\ are\\ successful\\ in\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tradeoff\\ between\\ risk\\ and\\ opportunity\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ commitment\\ to\\ a\\ single\\ major\\ customer\\ or\\ technology\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Response\\ of\\ competitors\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ will\\ the\\ market\\ niche\\ fill\\ up\\ fast\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ response\\ to\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ Google\\ can\\ erect\\ entry\\ barriers\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Google\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Strategy\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ three\\ elements\\ to\\ Google\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ strategy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>to\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ search\\ engine\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>to\\ continue\\ to\\ involve\\ new\\ applications\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>to\\ dominate\\ the\\ knowledge\\ business\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Implementation\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ Google\\ needs\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ implement\\ strategy\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>excellent\\ IT\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>the\\ best\\ people\\ \\(one\\ exceptional\\ person\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ many\\ average\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Open\\ software\\ to\\ encourage\\ outsiders\\.\\&\\#160\\;Google\\ buys\\ small\\ start\\ ups\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Orkut\\,\\ Picassa\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Measure\\ effectiveness\\-\\ Google\\ gets\\ smaller\\ people\\ on\\ the\\ map\\ and\\ can\\ also\\ measure\\ the\\ success\\ of\\ these\\ smaller\\ areas\\,\\ only\\ keeping\\ the\\ applications\\ that\\ are\\ successful\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Alternatives, Choice, Implementation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.009780+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Maternal-Child Health in Developing Countries", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 539, "html": "\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ was\\ titled\\ \\Maternal\\-Child\\ Health\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ in\\ the\\ Developing\\ World\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ guest\\ lecturer\\ was\\ Dr\\.\\ Jennifer\\ Friedman\\,\\ a\\ pediatrician\\ from\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ Hospital\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Friedman\\ was\\ engaged\\ in\\ research\\ while\\ she\\ was\\ an\\ undergraduate\\ at\\ Brown\\,\\ but\\ always\\ knew\\ that\\ she\\ ultimately\\ wanted\\ to\\ study\\ medicine\\.\\ After\\ medical\\ school\\,\\ she\\ spent\\ one\\ year\\ in\\ Kenya\\ working\\ on\\ a\\ malaria\\ intervention\\,\\ which\\ she\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\ Her\\ time\\ in\\ Kenya\\ peaked\\ her\\ interest\\ in\\ research\\ and\\ global\\ health\\.\\ After\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ States\\ to\\ do\\ her\\ pediatric\\ residency\\,\\ she\\ worked\\ on\\ a\\ research\\ fellowship\\.\\ She\\ is\\ currently\\ both\\ a\\ practicing\\ pediatrician\\ and\\ a\\ researcher\\ at\\ Rhode\\ Island\\ Hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;Friedman\\ started\\ by\\ explaining\\ the\\ interconnectedness\\ of\\ maternal\\ health\\ and\\ child\\ health\\,\\ known\\ as\\ maternal\\ child\\ health\\ \\(MCH\\)\\.\\ MCH\\ focuses\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ areas\\ such\\ as\\ reproductive\\ health\\,\\ pregnancy\\,\\ and\\ health\\ outcomes\\ for\\ children\\.\\ Recently\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ MCH\\ that\\ moves\\ away\\ from\\ fertility\\ and\\ contraception\\ to\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ female\\ empowerment\\ \\(through\\ the\\ recognition\\ of\\ women\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ autonomy\\)\\ especially\\ through\\ education\\.\\ Maternal\\ and\\ child\\ health\\ are\\ particularly\\ intertwined\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ because\\ fertility\\ is\\ higher\\ and\\ therefore\\ women\\ are\\ constantly\\ going\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ between\\ pregnancy\\ and\\ lactation\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ women\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ health\\ status\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ her\\ iron\\ status\\)\\ always\\ impacts\\ her\\ child\\'s\\ health\\ status\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Next\\,\\ Friedman\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ maternal\\ mortality\\ indicators\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\Maternal\\ Mortality\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Death\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\ while\\ pregnant\\ or\\ up\\ to\\ 42\\ days\\ post\\-delivery\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ a\\.\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ these\\ deaths\\ happen\\ within\\ 48\\ hours\\ after\\ birth\\ \\\u00e2\\\u2020\\\u2019\\ risk\\ of\\ giving\\ birth\\ in\\ developing\\ world\\ is\\ very\\ high\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\Maternal\\ Mortality\\ Ratio\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Ratio\\ of\\ number\\ of\\ maternal\\ deaths\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ pregnancies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ a\\.\\ Measures\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153what\\ is\\ your\\ risk\\ of\\ dying\\ every\\ time\\ you\\ get\\ pregnant\\?\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\Maternal\\ Mortality\\ Rate\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Number\\ of\\ maternal\\ deaths\\ divided\\ by\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ of\\ reproductive\\ age\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ a\\.\\ Can\\ change\\ with\\ number\\ of\\ pregnancies\\ that\\ you\\ have\\,\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ fertility\\ rate\\ it\\ can\\ go\\ up\\ without\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ death\\ per\\ pregnancy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\ Lifetime\\ risk\\ maternal\\ mortality\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ risk\\ over\\ lifetime\\ that\\ a\\ female\\ will\\ die\\ during\\ pregnancy\\ or\\ within\\ 42\\ days\\ of\\ delivery\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ maternal\\ mortality\\ disparities\\ between\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ and\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ are\\ huge\\.\\ According\\ to\\ a\\ 2005\\ UNICEF\\ report\\,\\ the\\ lifetime\\ risk\\ of\\ maternal\\ mortality\\ for\\ women\\ in\\ industrialized\\ countries\\ is\\\\ 1\\ in\\ 8000\\ \\<\\/strong\\>as\\ opposed\\ to\\ women\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\ where\\ the\\ risk\\ is\\ \\1\\ in\\ 24\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Friedman\\ also\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ disparities\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ measure\\ because\\ reporting\\ systems\\ are\\ not\\ very\\ strong\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ \\(we\\ will\\ touch\\ on\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ more\\ detail\\ later\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ is\\ there\\ such\\ a\\ big\\ disparity\\?\\ Most\\ broadly\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ urgent\\ need\\ for\\ peri\\-natal\\ care\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Friedman\\ highlighted\\ a\\ few\\ examples\\ for\\ direct\\ causes\\ of\\ maternal\\ mortality\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\Breached\\ position\\ babies\\ \\(feet\\ pointing\\ down\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\ In\\ developed\\ countries\\,\\ OBs\\ will\\ attempt\\ to\\ turn\\ baby\\ or\\ recommend\\ a\\ c\\-section\\.\\ In\\ developing\\ countries\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ access\\ to\\ c\\-sections\\,\\ or\\ women\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ even\\ know\\ that\\ their\\ babies\\ are\\ in\\ breached\\ position\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\Hemorrhage\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>excessive\\ bleeding\\ after\\ birth\\;\\ women\\ will\\ die\\ either\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\ or\\ hospitals\\ or\\ in\\ transport\\ to\\ the\\ hospital\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\Sepsis\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ infection\\ in\\ the\\ womb\\ after\\ delivery\\;\\ in\\ developed\\ countries\\,\\ women\\ with\\ infection\\ can\\ be\\ treated\\ with\\ antibiotics\\;\\ without\\ access\\ to\\ these\\ antibiotics\\,\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ will\\ often\\ die\\ of\\ sepsis\\ in\\ the\\ 42\\ day\\ window\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\Eclampsia\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ seizures\\ during\\ pregnancy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ examples\\ above\\ can\\ be\\ grouped\\ together\\ as\\ general\\ infrastructure\\ issues\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ think\\ about\\ roads\\.\\ If\\ roads\\ aren\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ fixed\\ or\\ easy\\ to\\ travel\\,\\ women\\ in\\ rural\\ areas\\ will\\ have\\ more\\ trouble\\ getting\\ to\\ a\\ health\\ clinic\\ or\\ hospital\\ that\\ is\\ miles\\ away\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ indirect\\ causes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ malaria\\,\\ that\\ are\\ aggravated\\ by\\ pregnancy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ discussing\\ the\\ risk\\ factors\\ or\\ maternal\\ morbidity\\ and\\ mortality\\,\\ Friedman\\ highlighted\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\Number\\ of\\ overall\\ pregnancies\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ higher\\ pregnancies\\ are\\ at\\ risk\\ for\\ uterine\\ rupture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\Young\\ age\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>teen\\ mothers\\ are\\ still\\ growing\\ and\\ need\\ nutrients\\ and\\ excess\\ calories\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ growth\\,\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ physically\\ less\\ able\\ to\\ give\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ high\\ weight\\ baby\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\ Shorter\\ inter\\-birth\\ interval\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ enter\\ pregnancy\\ in\\ a\\ nutritionally\\ depleted\\ state\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Next\\,\\ Friedman\\ discussed\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ reproductive\\ health\\ as\\ defined\\ by\\ WHO\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153State\\ of\\ complete\\ physical\\,\\ mental\\,\\ and\\ social\\ well\\ being\\ in\\ all\\ matters\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ reproductive\\ system\\ and\\ to\\ its\\ functions\\ and\\ processes\\,\\ at\\ all\\ stages\\ of\\ life\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ definition\\ is\\ groundbreaking\\ because\\ it\\ includes\\ men\\ in\\ the\\ conversation\\ and\\ equation\\ of\\ reproductive\\ health\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ evokes\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ reproductive\\ choice\\,\\ which\\ connects\\ to\\ our\\ definition\\ of\\ MCH\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friedman\\ then\\ asked\\ the\\ all\\-important\\ question\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153How\\ do\\ you\\ really\\ measure\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\?\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ The\\ answer\\ is\\ highly\\ debated\\ in\\ reproductive\\ health\\ and\\ MCH\\,\\ because\\ it\\ depends\\ which\\ group\\ you\\ are\\ discussing\\ \\(mothers\\,\\ adults\\,\\ children\\)\\ and\\ what\\ definition\\ of\\ that\\ group\\ is\\ being\\ used\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friedman\\ then\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ measures\\ of\\ childhood\\ mortality\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\ \\Neonatal\\ mortality\\ rate\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(most\\ vulnerable\\ time\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ developing\\ world\\)\\:\\ Deaths\\ during\\ a\\ calendar\\ year\\ of\\ those\\ \\<\\;\\ 28\\ days\\ divided\\ by\\ number\\ of\\ births\\ that\\ year\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ a\\.\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ infant\\ mortality\\ rate\\ \\(see\\ below\\)\\ happens\\ in\\ these\\ first\\ 28\\ days\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ b\\.\\&\\#160\\;Due\\ mostly\\ to\\ extreme\\ Prematurity\\ and\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ infections\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\ I\\nfant\\ mortality\\ rate\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Deaths\\ during\\ a\\ calendar\\ year\\ of\\ those\\ in\\ first\\ year\\ of\\ life\\ divided\\ by\\ number\\ of\\ births\\ that\\ year\\ \\(usually\\ expressed\\ per\\ 1000\\ live\\ births\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\ \\Under\\ 5\\ mortality\\ rate\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Deaths\\ of\\ those\\ under\\ age\\ five\\ per\\ 1000\\ per\\ year\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\)\\ \\Pediatric\\ risk\\ index\\ \\(Scale\\ of\\ 0\\-100\\)\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ a\\.\\&\\#160\\;used\\ to\\ identify\\ where\\ children\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ highest\\ risk\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ factors\\ such\\ as\\ \\\u00e2\\\u2020\\\u2019\\ under\\ five\\ mortality\\,\\ malnutrition\\,\\ access\\ to\\ primary\\ schooling\\,\\ risks\\ from\\ armed\\ conflict\\,\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friedman\\ then\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ discuss\\ three\\ main\\ newborn\\ outcomes\\:\\ \\low\\ birthweight\\ \\(LBW\\)\\,\\ gestation\\,\\ and\\ intrauterine\\ growth\\ \\(IUGR\\)\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\L\\BW\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ being\\ less\\ then\\ 2500\\ g\\ \\(5\\.5\\ lbs\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ What\\ factors\\ would\\ determine\\ birth\\ weight\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ Quality\\ of\\ inutero\\ experience\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ Length\\ of\\ time\\ inutero\\ \\(gestation\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ Combination\\ of\\ 1\\ and\\ 2\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\IUGR\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ categories\\:\\ large\\ \\(LGA\\)\\,\\ appropriate\\ \\(AGA\\)\\,\\ or\\ small\\ \\(SGA\\)\\ for\\ gestational\\ age\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\At\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ someone\\ asked\\ a\\ great\\ question\\ about\\ transfer\\ of\\ nutrients\\ between\\ the\\ mother\\ and\\ fetus\\.\\ This\\ prompted\\ Friedman\\ to\\ explain\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ for\\ a\\ pregnant\\ woman\\ to\\ get\\ all\\ the\\ nutrients\\ she\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ get\\ and\\ still\\ give\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ LBW\\ baby\\.\\ This\\ happens\\ when\\ other\\ risk\\ factors\\,\\ such\\ as\\ malaria\\ or\\ smoking\\,\\ are\\ present\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friedman\\ then\\ talked\\ about\\ determinants\\ for\\ early\\ birth\\ and\\ IRGR\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\ I\\ have\\ attached\\ her\\ graph\\ below\\ and\\ highlighted\\ the\\ shared\\ determinants\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\Preterm\\ birth\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/u\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\Intrauterine\\ growth\\ restriction\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Genital\\ tract\\ infection\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ Low\\ energy\\ intake\\,\\ low\\ gestational\\ weight\\ gain\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Multiple\\ birth\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ Low\\ pre\\-pregnancy\\ BMI\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pregnancy\\-induced\\ hypertension\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Short\\ stature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Low\\ pre\\-pregnancy\\ BMI\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>Malaria\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Incompetent\\ cervix\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\Cigarette\\ smoking\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Prior\\ preterm\\ birth\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;Primiparity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Abruptio\\ placentae\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\Pregnancy\\-induced\\ hypertension\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Heavy\\ work\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;Congenital\\ anomalies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Cigarette\\ smoking\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;Other\\ genetic\\ factors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(Kramer\\,\\ M\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\ The\\ epidemiology\\ of\\ Adverse\\ Pregnancy\\ Outcomes\\:\\ An\\ Overview\\,\\ Journal\\ of\\ Nutrition\\,\\ Vol\\ 133\\,\\ pages\\ 1592S\\-1596S\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ under\\ 5\\ morbidity\\ and\\ mortality\\ are\\ infectious\\ diseases\\,\\ under\\ nutrition\\,\\ and\\ the\\ perinatal\\ issues\\ highlighted\\ throughout\\ this\\ lecture\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ a\\ that\\ a\\ child\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ who\\ is\\ mildly\\ malnourished\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ at\\ risk\\ of\\ death\\ from\\ a\\ disease\\ then\\ a\\ child\\ who\\ is\\ not\\ malnourished\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ disease\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Many\\ of\\ infectious\\ disease\\ that\\ effect\\ children\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\ have\\ immense\\ vaccine\\ protection\\ possibilities\\ \\(such\\ as\\ polio\\ and\\ measles\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ many\\ non\\-vaccine\\ technologies\\,\\ such\\ as\\ bed\\ nets\\ for\\ malaria\\ or\\ ORT\\ for\\ diarrhea\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ these\\ technologies\\ are\\ available\\ and\\ often\\ cheap\\,\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ huge\\ numbers\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ mothers\\ \\&\\#160\\;dying\\ from\\ these\\ diseases\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ issues\\ with\\ assessing\\ MCH\\.\\ Death\\ registries\\ in\\ most\\ developing\\ countries\\ are\\ incomplete\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ the\\ deliveries\\ that\\ happen\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ happen\\ at\\ home\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ these\\ births\\ and\\ neonatal\\ deaths\\ and\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\ are\\ never\\ recorded\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friedman\\ then\\ put\\ up\\ a\\ slide\\ of\\ the\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ global\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\ in\\ low\\ and\\ middle\\ income\\ countries\\.\\ Perinatal\\ conditions\\ ranked\\ \\#1\\,\\ and\\ ARI\\ \\(last\\ weeks\\ topic\\)\\ ranked\\ \\#2\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ final\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ malaria\\ study\\ in\\ Kenya\\ that\\ Friedman\\ participated\\ in\\ about\\ 10\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ This\\ study\\ is\\ a\\ meaningful\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ interconnectedness\\ of\\ maternal\\ and\\ child\\ health\\ because\\ malaria\\ in\\ pregnancy\\ affects\\ mother\\ and\\ child\\ both\\ very\\ intensely\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Malaria\\ transmission\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ is\\ high\\,\\ especially\\ near\\ the\\ equator\\.\\ The\\ most\\ intense\\ transmission\\ occurs\\ in\\ pregnant\\ women\\ and\\ children\\ \\<\\;2\\ years\\ old\\.\\ As\\ time\\ goes\\ on\\ you\\ develop\\ a\\ resistance\\ to\\ malaria\\,\\ which\\ explains\\ why\\ children\\ \\(who\\ haven\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ built\\ this\\ resistance\\)\\ get\\ infected\\ more\\ often\\.\\ The\\ malaria\\ parasite\\ binds\\ to\\ chondroitin\\ sulfate\\ in\\ the\\ placenta\\,\\ putting\\ pregnant\\ women\\ at\\ great\\ risk\\.\\ Studies\\ are\\ starting\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ later\\ the\\ birth\\ in\\ the\\ birth\\ order\\ the\\ more\\ resistance\\ there\\ is\\ to\\ malaria\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\ pregnancies\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ most\\ risk\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Most\\ people\\ \\(\\>90\\%\\)\\ with\\ chronic\\ malaria\\ infections\\ are\\ asymptomatic\\,\\ meaning\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ they\\ are\\ infected\\ and\\ thereby\\ mostly\\ go\\ untreated\\.\\ This\\ is\\ especially\\ dangerous\\ for\\ pregnant\\ women\\ with\\ malaria\\,\\ because\\ the\\ malaria\\ is\\ affecting\\ the\\ fetus\\ but\\ the\\ mother\\ is\\ not\\ treating\\ it\\.\\ The\\ mother\\ may\\ experience\\ maternal\\ anemia\\,\\ but\\ otherwise\\ feel\\ OK\\.\\ The\\ placenta\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ largely\\ affected\\ leading\\ to\\ LBW\\,\\ Prematurity\\,\\ and\\ SGA\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ birth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Children\\ with\\ malaria\\ often\\ suffer\\ from\\ severe\\ malarial\\ anemia\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ iron\\ anemia\\)\\,\\ neurological\\ problems\\ \\(from\\ cerebral\\ malaria\\)\\,\\ malnutrition\\,\\ and\\ frequent\\ fevers\\ \\(which\\ deplete\\ energy\\ level\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ indirect\\ causes\\,\\ such\\ as\\ need\\ for\\ blood\\ transfusions\\ that\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ other\\ infections\\ like\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ interventions\\ for\\ malaria\\,\\ such\\ drugs\\ like\\ chloroquine\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ these\\ drugs\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ built\\ quite\\ the\\ resistance\\ to\\ the\\ infection\\ and\\ are\\ therefore\\ mostly\\ ineffective\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ main\\ focus\\ on\\ interventions\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\ is\\ on\\ \\insecticide\\ treated\\ bed\\ nets\\ \\(ITB\\<\\/strong\\>\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ study\\ that\\ Friedman\\ presented\\ begs\\ the\\ question\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Do\\ bednets\\ reduce\\ malaria\\ associated\\ morbidity\\ in\\ pregnancy\\ \\&\\;\\ childhood\\ in\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ intense\\ perennial\\ transmission\\?\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ study\\,\\ people\\ were\\ wondering\\ if\\ bednets\\ \\(as\\ seen\\ below\\)\\ could\\ actually\\ help\\ in\\ environments\\ where\\ malaria\\ transmission\\ is\\ so\\ intense\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\nhttp\\:\\/\\/www\\.jci\\.cc\\/webeditor\\/newsimages\\/10234\\.jpg\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mosquito\\ nets\\ work\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\ As\\ a\\ barrier\\:\\ malaria\\ carrying\\ mosquito\\ bites\\ at\\ night\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ sleep\\ under\\ a\\ bednet\\ you\\ should\\ be\\ protected\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\ Impregnated\\ with\\ permithrin\\ \\(insecticide\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ research\\ team\\ in\\ this\\ study\\ was\\ interdisciplinary\\,\\ including\\ academics\\ from\\ sociology\\,\\ biomedicine\\,\\ demography\\ etc\\.\\ Children\\ were\\ often\\ used\\ to\\ inform\\ and\\ educate\\ their\\ parents\\ through\\ drawing\\ contests\\ that\\ raised\\ awareness\\.\\ The\\ research\\ team\\ had\\ to\\ fight\\ hard\\ against\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ mythology\\ facing\\ bednets\\,\\ such\\ as\\ sleeping\\ under\\ a\\ bednet\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ decreased\\ fertility\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Overall\\,\\ bednets\\ have\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ reduce\\ malaria\\ exposure\\ by\\ 70\\-90\\%\\.\\ For\\ pregnancy\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ bednets\\ are\\ a\\ good\\ intervention\\ because\\ they\\ cover\\ you\\ from\\ conception\\ to\\ birth\\,\\ reduce\\ anemia\\,\\ increase\\ birthweight\\ and\\ reduce\\ Prematurity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ study\\ was\\ case\\-control\\ design\\.\\ The\\ villages\\ were\\ randomized\\:\\ \\\u00c2\\\u00bd\\ of\\ the\\ villages\\ received\\ bednets\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ study\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ \\\u00c2\\\u00bd\\ received\\ bednets\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ study\\ \\(meaning\\ no\\ bednet\\ during\\ the\\ study\\.\\)\\ The\\ aim\\ of\\ the\\ study\\ was\\ to\\ compare\\ the\\ bednet\\ villages\\ vs\\.\\ no\\ bednet\\ villages\\ on\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ outcomes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ Pregnant\\ women\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\ anemia\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\ gestational\\ age\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\ birthweight\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ Children\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\ anemia\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\ clinical\\ malaria\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\ nutrition\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Before\\ the\\ study\\ was\\ started\\,\\ the\\ case\\ and\\ control\\ villages\\ were\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ basically\\ equal\\ on\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ outcomes\\.\\ After\\ the\\ intervention\\ the\\ villages\\ with\\ bednets\\ HAD\\ fewer\\ parasites\\ amongst\\ pregnant\\ woman\\,\\ and\\ less\\ severe\\ malarial\\ anemia\\.\\ Cord\\ blood\\ malaria\\ was\\ not\\ very\\ different\\ between\\ the\\ case\\ and\\ control\\ groups\\,\\ but\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ not\\ believed\\ to\\ get\\ malaria\\ through\\ cord\\ blood\\ so\\ this\\ result\\ makes\\ sense\\.\\ There\\ was\\ less\\ placental\\ malaria\\ and\\ maternal\\ malaria\\ amongst\\ the\\ pregnant\\ women\\ in\\ villages\\ with\\ bed\\ nets\\.\\ Cord\\ blood\\ malaria\\,\\ placental\\ malaria\\,\\ and\\ maternal\\ malaria\\ were\\ lower\\ in\\ all\\ women\\ \\(bednet\\ and\\ no\\ bednet\\)\\ that\\ have\\ had\\ \\>5\\ pregnancies\\ \\(gravida\\>\\=5\\)\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ women\\ who\\ were\\ giving\\ birth\\ to\\ their\\ first\\ or\\ second\\ baby\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ women\\ pregnant\\ in\\ villages\\ with\\ bednets\\ had\\ babies\\ with\\ overall\\ higher\\ birthweight\\ than\\ women\\ pregnant\\ in\\ villages\\ without\\ bednets\\.\\ There\\ was\\ also\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ size\\ for\\ gestational\\ age\\:\\ women\\ without\\ bednets\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ SGA\\ babies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ is\\ more\\,\\ villages\\ that\\ didn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ have\\ bednets\\ but\\ were\\ near\\ villages\\ with\\ bednets\\ did\\ much\\ better\\ than\\ villages\\ without\\ bednets\\ far\\ from\\ villages\\ with\\ bednets\\,\\ speaking\\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ insecticide\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ study\\ that\\ Friedman\\ talked\\ about\\ proves\\ that\\ bednets\\ are\\ effective\\ in\\ improving\\ and\\ eliminating\\ perinatal\\ issues\\ but\\ as\\ Nothingbutnets\\.com\\ notes\\:\\ at\\ about\\ \\$10\\ per\\ bednet\\ this\\ intervention\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\ for\\ most\\ people\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\ This\\ will\\ be\\ further\\ discussed\\ in\\ our\\ malaria\\ lecture\\ \\(coming\\ up\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ semester\\!\\)\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ certainly\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ bednet\\ interventions\\ are\\ feasible\\ and\\ cheap\\ and\\ could\\ save\\ many\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Maternal-Child Health in Developing Countries"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.046958+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Adolescent Health in Developing Countries", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 541, "html": "\\\\\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ was\\ titled\\ \\Adolescent\\ Health\\ in\\ Developing\\ Countries\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\ The\\ guest\\ lecturer\\ was\\ Dr\\.\\ Abagail\\ Harrison\\ from\\ the\\ Population\\ Studies\\ and\\ Training\\ Center\\ at\\ Brown\\ and\\ the\\ Warren\\ Alpert\\ School\\ of\\ Medicine\\.\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 8583\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Dr\\.\\ Harrison\\ studied\\ history\\ and\\ anthropology\\ as\\ an\\ undergraduate\\.\\ She\\ was\\ strongly\\ influenced\\ by\\ biological\\ anthropology\\,\\ and\\ took\\ to\\ an\\ interest\\ in\\ women\\ and\\ reproductive\\ health\\.\\ After\\ college\\,\\ she\\ pursued\\ several\\ opportunities\\ to\\ work\\ overseas\\ where\\ her\\ interest\\ in\\ global\\ health\\ began\\ to\\ take\\ form\\.\\ She\\ worked\\ in\\ South\\ Asia\\ and\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ for\\ several\\ years\\ and\\ then\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ to\\ get\\ her\\ masters\\ in\\ public\\ health\\.\\ She\\ worked\\ in\\ South\\ Africa\\ directly\\ after\\ that\\,\\ and\\ has\\ continued\\ to\\ work\\ there\\ throughout\\ the\\ years\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Dr\\.\\ Harrison\\ began\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ talking\\ about\\ why\\ adolescent\\ health\\ is\\ important\\ within\\ the\\ broader\\ realm\\ of\\ global\\ health\\.\\ Primarily\\,\\ adolescents\\ are\\ a\\ highly\\ overlooked\\ and\\ \\(socially\\)\\ vulnerable\\ population\\ in\\ the\\ broader\\ scheme\\ and\\ thus\\ need\\ special\\ attention\\.\\ As\\ Mensch\\ et\\ al\\.\\ note\\,\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153adolescence\\ is\\ a\\ powerfully\\ formative\\ time\\ of\\ transition\\ to\\ adulthood\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ Rather\\ than\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ specific\\ disease\\ Harrison\\ noted\\ that\\ her\\ interest\\ was\\ in\\ addressing\\ adolescents\\ as\\ a\\ population\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Next\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Harrison\\ talked\\ about\\ who\\ qualifies\\ as\\ an\\ adolescent\\.\\ She\\ defined\\ adolescence\\ as\\ the\\ period\\ between\\ puberty\\ and\\ adulthood\\,\\ usually\\ defined\\ by\\ economic\\ independence\\ and\\ social\\ maturity\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ WHO\\ adolescence\\ is\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\Specific\\ developmental\\ stage\\ that\\ spans\\ the\\ period\\ from\\ puberty\\ into\\ young\\ adulthood\\ and\\ which\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ transition\\,\\ physical\\ and\\ emotional\\ development\\,\\ and\\ change\\.\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Who\\ qualifies\\ as\\ an\\ adolescent\\?\\ Harrison\\ explained\\ that\\ the\\ terminology\\ is\\ often\\ confusing\\ but\\ that\\ the\\ following\\ terms\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ universal\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 9098\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Adolescents\\:\\ 12\\-19\\ years\\ \\(according\\ to\\ WHO\\)\\ or\\ 12\\-24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 9113\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Teens\\:\\ 13\\-19\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Youth\\ or\\ young\\ people\\:\\ 10\\-24\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ transition\\ from\\ adolescence\\ to\\ adulthood\\ is\\ crucial\\,\\ and\\ replete\\ with\\ rapid\\ change\\ and\\ development\\ \\(through\\ biological\\ and\\ psychological\\ processes\\)\\.\\ This\\ developmental\\ stage\\ varies\\ by\\ culture\\,\\ region\\,\\ and\\ socioeconomic\\ status\\.\\ Although\\,\\ as\\ Harrison\\ explained\\,\\ some\\ experiences\\ are\\ universal\\ for\\ all\\ adolescents\\.\\ The\\ experiences\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ universal\\ can\\ often\\ be\\ detected\\ by\\ contrasting\\ the\\ developed\\ and\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 9336\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ developed\\ countries\\ adolescence\\ is\\ a\\ protected\\ time\\ in\\ which\\ adolescents\\ are\\ encouraged\\ to\\ explore\\ and\\ experiment\\.\\ Whereas\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\ adolescence\\ is\\ often\\ shortened\\ by\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ work\\,\\ early\\ school\\ leaving\\,\\ early\\ marriage\\ and\\ childbearing\\.\\ Although\\ these\\ trends\\ are\\ decreasing\\,\\ they\\ are\\ still\\ very\\ prevalent\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 9267\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Harrison\\ then\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ adolescents\\ are\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ make\\ up\\ a\\ large\\ part\\ \\(20\\-25\\%\\)\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ population\\,\\ with\\ most\\ adolescents\\ living\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\ They\\ are\\ so\\ important\\ because\\ they\\ symbolize\\ future\\ productive\\ population\\,\\ and\\ an\\ investment\\ in\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ adolescents\\ is\\ an\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ future\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ social\\ capital\\.\\ In\\ a\\ globalizing\\ world\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ realize\\ that\\ adolescence\\ is\\ changing\\ as\\ the\\ world\\ changes\\.\\ Most\\ importantly\\,\\ adolescence\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 9587\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>is\\ getting\\ longer\\ because\\ puberty\\ occurs\\ earlier\\ in\\ life\\ and\\ is\\ lengthened\\ by\\ longer\\ time\\ in\\ school\\.\\ The\\ main\\ demographic\\ indictors\\ for\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ adolescence\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>schooling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>labor\\ force\\ participation\\/\\ employment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>early\\ marriage\\ and\\ childbearing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>preparation\\ for\\ future\\/\\ life\\ aspiration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 9696\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\As\\ was\\ stated\\ earlier\\,\\ trends\\ are\\ certainly\\ changing\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ there\\ are\\ now\\ more\\ students\\ enrolled\\ in\\ secondary\\ school\\ \\(more\\ boys\\ than\\ girls\\)\\.\\ Also\\,\\ fewer\\ adolescents\\ are\\ employed\\ in\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ labor\\ force\\ activities\\,\\ which\\ frees\\ up\\ time\\ for\\ more\\ schooling\\.\\ Although\\ early\\ marriage\\ continues\\ to\\ be\\ widespread\\,\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ declining\\ in\\ prevalence\\.\\ As\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\ pointed\\ out\\ to\\ me\\ in\\ class\\,\\ the\\ greatest\\ change\\ in\\ age\\ of\\ marriage\\ has\\ happened\\ in\\ Asia\\,\\ which\\ he\\ attributes\\ to\\ the\\ regions\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ current\\ transition\\ between\\ developing\\ and\\ developed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Harrison\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 10309\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>young\\ people\\ are\\ at\\ risk\\,\\ therefore\\ making\\ adolescence\\ a\\ key\\ time\\ for\\ prevention\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ paradox\\.\\ While\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ youth\\ is\\ the\\ healthiest\\ and\\ best\\-educated\\ population\\ of\\ youth\\ ever\\,\\ not\\ all\\ young\\ people\\ are\\ equal\\ and\\ ipso\\ facto\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ equally\\ at\\ risk\\.\\ Harrison\\ emphasized\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ preventative\\ work\\,\\ because\\ if\\ good\\ health\\ is\\ established\\ early\\ in\\ life\\ then\\ there\\ will\\ most\\ likely\\ be\\ a\\ solid\\ health\\ foundation\\ through\\ adulthood\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ following\\ were\\ provided\\ as\\ main\\ areas\\ of\\ risk\\ for\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ adolescents\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 10489\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Smoking\\,\\ Alcohol\\ and\\ Substance\\ Abuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ global\\ trend\\ that\\ began\\ in\\ the\\ industrialized\\ world\\;\\ this\\ trend\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ increases\\ in\\ tobacco\\ and\\ alcohol\\ use\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Mental\\ Health\\ and\\ Illness\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\ affects\\ 20\\%\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Chronic\\ Disease\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\ global\\ epidemic\\ of\\ obesity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Violence\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\ widespread\\ exposure\\,\\ personal\\ and\\ societal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\There\\ are\\ high\\ numbers\\ of\\ youth\\ who\\ are\\ killed\\ and\\ injured\\ in\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 10599\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>war\\,\\ civil\\ conflict\\,\\ gender\\ based\\ violence\\ and\\ rape\\.\\ But\\ violence\\ has\\ also\\ started\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ homicide\\ and\\ traffic\\ accidents\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Also\\ consider\\ structural\\ violence\\ and\\ school\\ violence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Sexual\\ and\\ Reproductive\\ Health\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Unintended\\ pregnancy\\ \\&\\;\\ consequences\\ \\(unsafe\\ abortion\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>HIV\\/AIDS\\ and\\ other\\ sexually\\ transmitted\\ infections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 10714\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>45\\%\\ of\\ all\\ new\\ infections\\ are\\ among\\ youth\\ ages\\ 15\\-24\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 10737\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Youth\\ is\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ 40\\ million\\ living\\ with\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 10767\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>AIDS\\ is\\ also\\ now\\ the\\ biggest\\ killer\\ among\\ adolescents\\ aged\\ 15\\-29\\ in\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ AIDS\\ epidemic\\ has\\ continued\\ to\\ grow\\ and\\ largely\\ effects\\ the\\ adolescent\\ population\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ low\\ level\\ of\\ correct\\ knowledge\\ \\(despite\\ how\\ long\\ the\\ epidemic\\ has\\ been\\ around\\)\\ of\\ simple\\ facts\\ that\\ can\\ prevent\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ higher\\ prevalence\\ of\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ in\\ women\\ at\\ younger\\ ages\\ in\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\ \\(if\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ populations\\ of\\ young\\ men\\,\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ necessarily\\ find\\ such\\ a\\ high\\ prevalence\\.\\)\\ This\\ happens\\ for\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ reasons\\,\\ for\\ example\\ women\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ marry\\ at\\ a\\ younger\\ age\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ likely\\ to\\ marry\\ older\\ men\\.\\ These\\ men\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ had\\ more\\ points\\ of\\ sexual\\ contact\\,\\ and\\ thereby\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ risk\\ for\\ contracting\\ HIV\\/\\ AIDS\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 11075\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ are\\ many\\ AIDS\\ campaigns\\ that\\ focus\\ on\\ educating\\ young\\ people\\ on\\ condom\\ use\\:\\ application\\.\\ negotiation\\ with\\ partners\\,\\ where\\ to\\ access\\ condoms\\ etc\\.\\ When\\ comparing\\ the\\ percentages\\ of\\ young\\ people\\ \\(15\\-24\\)\\ who\\ report\\ using\\ a\\ condom\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ they\\ had\\ sex\\ with\\ a\\ non\\-marital\\,\\ non\\-cohabiting\\ partner\\ from\\ the\\ 1990s\\ to\\ 2000\\,\\ condom\\ use\\ is\\ certainly\\ increasing\\ for\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ As\\ Harrison\\ points\\ out\\,\\ condom\\ use\\ is\\ beginning\\ to\\ equalize\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ encouraging\\ trend\\.\\ Another\\ trend\\ that\\ Harrison\\ illuminated\\ is\\ that\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ education\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ person\\ is\\ correlated\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ level\\ of\\ knowledge\\ about\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\.\\ Male\\ knowledge\\ in\\ general\\ is\\ still\\ higher\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ beginning\\ to\\ equalize\\ \\(another\\ encouraging\\ trend\\.\\)\\ Finally\\,\\ Harrison\\ showed\\ that\\ adolescents\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ than\\ young\\ adults\\ to\\ use\\ modern\\ contraceptives\\ \\(probably\\ because\\ access\\ is\\ limited\\)\\,\\ which\\ further\\ highlights\\ their\\ vulnerability\\ as\\ a\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Because\\ she\\ was\\ running\\ out\\ of\\ time\\,\\ Harrison\\ decided\\ to\\ skip\\ part\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ \\(her\\ own\\ research\\ on\\ adolescents\\ and\\ AIDS\\ in\\ South\\ Africa\\)\\ and\\ move\\ straight\\ to\\ part\\ three\\ \\(a\\ discussion\\ of\\ youth\\ programs\\ and\\ interventions\\.\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 11996\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Research\\ throughout\\ the\\ 1990s\\ has\\ left\\ us\\ with\\ a\\ dearth\\ of\\ in\\-depth\\ studies\\ of\\ adolescence\\,\\ which\\ has\\ helped\\ us\\ develop\\ an\\ evidence\\ base\\.\\ We\\ can\\ now\\ talk\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ adolescence\\ \\&\\;\\ adolescent\\ health\\ is\\ on\\ a\\ global\\ scale\\.\\ The\\ next\\ step\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ consensus\\ as\\ to\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153what\\ works\\?\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ prevention\\ for\\ adolescents\\.\\ As\\ Harrison\\ noted\\,\\ evaluation\\ always\\ lags\\ behind\\ implementation\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ do\\ that\\ evaluation\\ and\\ figure\\ out\\ which\\ programs\\ are\\ working\\ and\\ which\\ are\\ not\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12225\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>UN\\ committed\\ to\\ reduce\\ HIV\\ prevalence\\ by\\ 25\\%\\ in\\ young\\ people\\ by\\ 2010\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Millennium\\ Development\\ Goals\\ \\(MDGs\\)\\.\\ A\\ goal\\ that\\ Harrison\\ argued\\ \\(and\\ I\\ agree\\)\\ is\\ huge\\ and\\ quite\\ unrealistic\\.\\ This\\ goal\\ is\\ clearly\\ not\\ achievable\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ \\(only\\ two\\ years\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ target\\ end\\ date\\)\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ analyze\\ what\\ interventions\\ are\\ in\\ place\\ to\\ reach\\ this\\ goal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12352\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&\\#160\\;The\\ approaches\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ proven\\ to\\ work\\ are\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Comprehensive\\ sexuality\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Integrated\\ and\\ adolescent\\ friendly\\ \\(easy\\ to\\ access\\,\\ stigma\\ unattached\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Structural\\ level\\ interventions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12364\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ are\\ now\\ established\\ components\\ of\\ effective\\ sex\\ education\\.\\ These\\ components\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Focus\\ on\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ biological\\ outcome\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12500\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Target\\ behaviors\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ these\\ outcomes\\ with\\ clear\\ message\\ \\(also\\ known\\ as\\ proximate\\ determinants\\)\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12506\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Impact\\ psychosocial\\ risk\\ and\\ protective\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Knowledge\\,\\ attitudes\\,\\ perceived\\ norms\\,\\ self\\ efficacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12506\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\School\\-based\\ program\\ remain\\ popular\\ but\\ often\\ fail\\,\\ even\\ though\\ essential\\ and\\ established\\ components\\ have\\ been\\ delineated\\ throughout\\ the\\ literature\\.\\ The\\ main\\ reason\\ for\\ poor\\ performance\\ may\\ be\\ that\\ teachers\\ are\\ overwhelmed\\ with\\ having\\ to\\ teach\\ regular\\ classes\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ sexual\\ education\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ if\\ a\\ teacher\\ decides\\ to\\ forego\\ or\\ limit\\ the\\ sexual\\ education\\ taught\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ teach\\ their\\ regular\\ subject\\ then\\ the\\ sexual\\ education\\ program\\ goes\\ under\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Some\\ sex\\ education\\ programs\\ have\\ been\\ broadened\\ to\\ include\\ life\\ skills\\ in\\ school\\ based\\ sexual\\ education\\.\\ These\\ life\\ skills\\ include\\ achieving\\ life\\ goals\\,\\ vocational\\ skills\\,\\ literacy\\/numeracy\\.\\ However\\,\\ these\\ programs\\ \\(which\\ are\\ usually\\ school\\ based\\)\\ also\\ run\\ into\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ being\\ overly\\ reliant\\ on\\ teacher\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ relieve\\ burden\\ on\\ schools\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ multi\\-sectoral\\ approaches\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12676\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>With\\ so\\ much\\ sex\\ education\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ schools\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ constant\\ concern\\ for\\ those\\ youth\\ that\\ have\\ dropped\\ out\\ of\\/\\ never\\ attended\\ school\\.\\ This\\ subpopulation\\ is\\ especially\\ vulnerable\\ because\\ studies\\ show\\ that\\ being\\ out\\ of\\ school\\ is\\ a\\ risk\\ factor\\ for\\ several\\ different\\ health\\ outcomes\\,\\ including\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\.\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12721\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;Research\\ on\\ educating\\ this\\ population\\ is\\ emerging\\ and\\ urgently\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ addressed\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ reach\\ this\\ population\\?\\ Which\\ interventions\\ work\\ best\\ for\\ them\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12771\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Harrison\\ then\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ qualities\\ of\\ a\\ successful\\ intervention\\.\\ One\\ important\\ quality\\ is\\ to\\ involve\\ youth\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ peer\\ counseling\\ and\\/or\\ peer\\ education\\ piece\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ questions\\ about\\ how\\ efficacious\\ peers\\ education\\ actually\\ is\\.\\ Another\\ important\\ quality\\ is\\ to\\ address\\ socio\\-cultural\\ contexts\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ practicing\\ education\\ that\\ is\\ both\\ culturally\\ appropriate\\ and\\ relevant\\.\\ Another\\ important\\ quality\\ is\\ to\\ address\\ developmental\\ needs\\,\\ by\\ acknowledging\\ that\\ all\\ ages\\ learn\\ differently\\ and\\ \\(as\\ Harrison\\ noted\\)\\ knowing\\ that\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153one\\ size\\ does\\ \\not\\<\\/u\\>\\ fit\\ all\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ important\\ to\\ use\\ multiple\\ forms\\ of\\ media\\ \\(radio\\,\\ print\\,\\ television\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ as\\ much\\ visibility\\ as\\ possible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lastly\\,\\ Harrison\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ structural\\ interventions\\,\\ which\\ have\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\.\\ These\\ interventions\\ often\\ take\\ a\\ narrow\\ structural\\ focus\\,\\ such\\ as\\ keeping\\ kids\\ in\\ school\\ longer\\.\\ Then\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ inherent\\ structural\\ issues\\,\\ the\\ intervention\\ will\\ purchase\\ uniforms\\ or\\ pay\\ school\\ fees\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12993\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\In\\ conclusion\\,\\ Harrison\\ commented\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ stage\\ where\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ develop\\ best\\ practices\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ more\\ broadly\\ disseminated\\.\\ The\\ most\\ important\\ piece\\ is\\ implementation\\ and\\ evaluation\\,\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ learn\\ from\\ our\\ mistakes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Below\\ are\\ links\\ to\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ organizations\\ that\\ Harrison\\ talked\\ about\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.evancarmichael\\.com\\/African\\-Accounts\\/1674\\/IMAGE\\-Project\\-in\\-South\\-Africa\\-Proposes\\-Use\\-of\\-Microfinance\\-in\\-Struggle\\-Against\\-HIVAIDS\\-Infection\\.html\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.povertyactionlab\\.org\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.kff\\.org\\/about\\/lovelife\\.cfm\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 12302\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Adolescent Health in Developing Countries"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.074566+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Schistosomiasis", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 542, "html": "\\Today\\ we\\ were\\ lucky\\ to\\ have\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\ lecture\\ on\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ areas\\ of\\ research\\:\\\\ Schistosomiasis\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(schisto\\)\\.\\ McGarvey\\ started\\ out\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ explaining\\ that\\ schisto\\ is\\ a\\ blood\\ born\\ fluke\\ of\\ the\\ genus\\ schistosoma\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ call\\ Bilhazaria\\,\\ after\\ Dr\\.\\ Theordore\\ Maximilian\\ Bilharz\\ who\\ discovered\\ it\\ in\\ 1851\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ snail\\ link\\ was\\ not\\ discovered\\ until\\ after\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSchisto\\ is\\ an\\ often\\ neglected\\ disease\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ ranks\\ 2nd\\ behind\\ Malaria\\ in\\ number\\ of\\ infections\\ at\\ any\\ particular\\ time\\.\\ The\\ infection\\ is\\ endemic\\ in\\ 74\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ and\\ about\\ 200\\ million\\ people\\ are\\ infected\\.\\ Of\\ that\\ 200\\ million\\,\\ 20\\ million\\ suffer\\ severe\\ consequences\\ while\\ 120\\ are\\ symptomatic\\ \\(liver\\ and\\ spleen\\ dysfunction\\,\\ malnutrition\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ The\\ largest\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ infected\\ are\\ children\\ \\<\\;14\\ years\\ old\\,\\ which\\ shifts\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\ in\\ children\\ from\\ under\\ 5s\\ to\\ worm\\ driven\\ infections\\ in\\ older\\ children\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ recent\\ resurgence\\ of\\ schisto\\ in\\ China\\ because\\ of\\ urbanization\\ and\\ the\\ Three\\ Gorges\\ Dam\\ project\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ are\\ three\\ major\\ infectious\\ agents\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\S\\.\\ mansoni\\ \\<\\/em\\>which\\ causes\\ intestinal\\ Schistosomiasis\\.\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\\\&\\#160\\;S\\.\\ haemotobium\\<\\/em\\>\\ which\\ causes\\ urinary\\ Schistosomiasis\\.\\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\S\\.\\ japonicum\\<\\/em\\>\\ which\\ causes\\ intestinal\\ and\\ central\\ nervous\\ system\\ centered\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMansoni\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ number\\ of\\ infections\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ concentrated\\ in\\ Africa\\,\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ greatest\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ Japonicum\\ is\\ mostly\\ concentrated\\ in\\ the\\ Phillipines\\ and\\ China\\.\\ It\\ is\\ more\\ pathogenic\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ it\\ causes\\ more\\ schistosomaisis\\ morbitity\\.\\ The\\ distribution\\ of\\ Schistosomiasis\\ infections\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ below\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nathnac\\.org\\/pro\\/factsheets\\/images\\/Picture5\\.jpg\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBelow\\ is\\ another\\ map\\ that\\ shows\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ Schistosomiasis\\ control\\ programs\\.\\ Control\\ has\\ been\\ much\\ more\\ possible\\ in\\ dry\\ areas\\ such\\ as\\ Northern\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ much\\ more\\ difficult\\ in\\ ares\\ that\\ are\\ tropical\\ and\\ humid\\ such\\ as\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Afica\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.schisto\\.org\\/Schistosomiasis\\/images\\/schistomap\\.gif\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Humans\\ are\\ the\\ only\\ reservoir\\ for\\ \\haemotobium\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\\\ mansoni\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ the\\ definitive\\ host\\.\\ \\S\\.japonicum\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ complicated\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ several\\ mammal\\ hosts\\ such\\ as\\ humans\\,\\ dogs\\,\\ cats\\,\\ pigs\\,\\ cattle\\,\\ water\\ buffalo\\,\\ and\\ wild\\ rodents\\ \\(several\\ hosts\\=\\ zoonotic\\)\\.\\ It\\ is\\ this\\ zoonosis\\ makes\\\\ japonicum\\<\\/em\\>\\ harder\\ to\\ control\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNext\\ McGarvey\\ covered\\ the\\ Schistosomiasis\\ lifecycle\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;eggs\\ are\\ excreted\\ via\\ urine\\ in\\ \\haemotobium\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ via\\ feces\\ in\\ \\mansoni\\ \\<\\/em\\>and\\ \\japonicum\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ they\\ hatch\\ into\\ miracidia\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;The\\ miracidia\\ find\\ an\\ intermediate\\ host\\ \\(snail\\ for\\ \\japonicum\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\ where\\ they\\ develop\\ into\\ cercaria\\\\\r\\\n3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;The\\ cercaria\\ then\\ leave\\ the\\ snail\\ and\\ penetrate\\ the\\ intact\\ skin\\ of\\ the\\ definitive\\ host\\ \\(actually\\ do\\ worse\\ when\\ they\\ enter\\ through\\ an\\ orifice\\)\\ \\\\\r\\\n4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;They\\ travel\\ through\\ the\\ lymph\\ sytem\\,\\ lungs\\,\\ heart\\,\\ arteries\\,\\ near\\ liver\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ the\\ hepatic\\ vein\\ portal\\,\\ where\\ they\\ mature\\ into\\ adults\\ worms\\ \\\\\r\\\n5\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;The\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ worms\\ mate\\ in\\ the\\ hepatic\\ portal\\ and\\ the\\ female\\ lays\\ eggs\\\\\r\\\n6\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;And\\ the\\ eggs\\ pass\\ through\\ veins\\ into\\ bowel\\ and\\ are\\ excreted\\ in\\ feces\\\\\r\\\n7\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;And\\ the\\ whole\\ cycle\\ happens\\ again\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Below\\ is\\ a\\ link\\ for\\ an\\ animated\\ video\\ of\\ the\\ Schistosomiasis\\ lifecycle\\.\\ I\\ highly\\ recommend\\ it\\ to\\ anyone\\ struggling\\ to\\ memorize\\ the\\ lifecycle\\.\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ lifesaver\\ for\\ me\\ when\\ I\\ took\\ the\\ course\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.wellcome\\.ac\\.uk\\/en\\/labnotes5\\/animation\\_popups\\/schisto\\.html\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ contexualize\\ the\\ disease\\:\\ think\\ of\\ living\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Humans\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ do\\ laundry\\ and\\ wash\\ dishes\\ and\\ defecate\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ stream\\.\\ With\\ japonicum\\,\\ several\\ animals\\ that\\ can\\ carry\\ japonicum\\ will\\ also\\ defecate\\ in\\ those\\ same\\ streams\\.\\ The\\ potential\\ for\\ infection\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ is\\ very\\ high\\ and\\ very\\ likely\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Moreover\\,\\ praziquantel\\ \\(the\\ only\\ antibiotic\\ for\\ schisto\\)\\ is\\ a\\ cure\\ not\\ a\\ prevention\\.\\ Praziquantel\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ cure\\ for\\ adult\\ flukes\\.\\ So\\,\\ if\\ people\\ are\\ given\\ praziquantel\\ it\\ will\\ kill\\ the\\ adult\\ flukes\\ in\\ their\\ bodies\\ but\\ it\\ will\\ not\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ any\\ new\\ infections\\ from\\ schisto\\ in\\ cercaria\\ form\\.\\ As\\ McGarvey\\ mentioned\\ in\\ class\\,\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ will\\ go\\ to\\ health\\ centers\\ get\\ praziquantel\\ and\\ then\\ walk\\ home\\ through\\ streams\\ and\\ dams\\ where\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ penetrated\\ by\\ cercaria\\,\\ which\\ praziquantel\\ does\\ not\\ take\\ care\\ of\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ of\\ the\\ unfortunate\\ outcomes\\ of\\ Schistosomiasis\\ is\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Hepatic\\ Fibrosis\\.\\ Eggs\\ get\\ trapped\\ in\\ the\\ liver\\ and\\ people\\ eventually\\ develop\\ Hepatic\\ Fibrosis\\.\\ However\\,\\ treatment\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ help\\ decrease\\ the\\ severity\\ of\\ Fibrosis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ McGarvey\\ explained\\ earlier\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\,\\ schisto\\ is\\ most\\ prevalent\\ amongst\\ children\\ \\<\\;14\\.\\ Peripheral\\ adipose\\ tissue\\ measurements\\ \\(triceps\\ and\\ subscapular\\ skinfolds\\)\\ are\\ lower\\ mass\\ for\\ boys\\ that\\ are\\ infected\\ with\\ schisto\\.\\ Girls\\ with\\ schisto\\ weigh\\ less\\ than\\ girls\\ without\\ schisto\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ these\\ kids\\ probably\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ other\\ infections\\ \\(besides\\ schisto\\)\\,\\ thereby\\ exacerbating\\ their\\ development\\ \\(adipose\\ tissue\\ development\\ and\\ weight\\)\\ even\\ further\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ a\\ general\\ concern\\ amongst\\ schisto\\ specialists\\ that\\ schisto\\ burden\\ is\\ dramatically\\ underestimated\\.\\ The\\ disability\\ from\\ schisto\\ is\\ weighted\\ very\\ low\\,\\ and\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153the\\ calculated\\ figure\\ for\\ DALYs\\ lost\\ to\\ Schistosomiasis\\ represents\\ a\\ serious\\ underestimate\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ revised\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\(Finkelsein\\ et\\ al\\.\\)\\ A\\ team\\ \\(including\\ Professor\\ McGavrey\\)\\ created\\ a\\ survey\\ that\\ went\\ out\\ to\\ schisto\\ experts\\,\\ asking\\ them\\ to\\ rate\\ \\S\\.\\ Japonicum\\<\\/em\\>\\ morbidity\\ and\\ disability\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ survey\\ revealed\\ that\\ schisto\\ experts\\ rated\\ several\\ disability\\ weights\\ for\\ different\\ morbidities\\ from\\ schisto\\ \\(such\\ as\\ cirrhosis\\,\\ anemia\\,\\ epilepsy\\,\\ spenomelaly\\ etc\\)\\ very\\ high\\.\\ From\\ the\\ survey\\\\,\\ S\\.\\ Japonicum\\ \\<\\/em\\>was\\ associated\\ with\\ an\\ overall\\ disability\\ weight\\ of\\ \\.13\\,\\ which\\ is\\ much\\ higher\\ than\\ the\\ \\.005\\ as\\ is\\ measured\\ by\\ the\\ Global\\ Burden\\ of\\ Disease\\ study\\ on\\ which\\ disability\\ weights\\ for\\ DALYs\\ are\\ based\\.\\ They\\ survey\\ also\\ showed\\ that\\ hepatomegaly\\,\\ hepatic\\ fibrosis\\,\\ splenomegal\\,\\ abdominal\\ pair\\,\\ cirrhosus\\,\\ dirrhea\\,\\ and\\ amenia\\ were\\ the\\ more\\ significant\\ contributors\\ to\\ the\\ disability\\ weight\\ of\\ \\S\\.\\ Japonicum\\<\\/em\\>\\ as\\ measured\\ by\\ experts\\ surveyed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ treatment\\ programs\\ underway\\ to\\ reduce\\ prevalence\\ of\\ schisto\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ use\\ of\\ current\\ funds\\.\\ However\\,\\ treatment\\ programs\\ may\\ not\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ reduce\\ schisto\\ burden\\ especially\\ because\\ participation\\ in\\ treatment\\ is\\ often\\ low\\.\\ Schistosomiasis\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ candidate\\ for\\ ecological\\ studies\\ because\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;It\\ is\\ ecologically\\ robust\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;It\\ is\\ zoonotic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;When\\ conducting\\ an\\ ecological\\ study\\ the\\ following\\ factors\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Size\\ and\\ distribution\\ of\\ snail\\ colonies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Water\\ course\\ location\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Human\\ numbers\\ and\\ behavior\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\&\\#160\\;Animal\\ numbers\\ and\\ behavior\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\McGarvey\\ participated\\ in\\ an\\ ecological\\ Schistosomiasis\\ study\\ in\\ Samar\\ Province\\ in\\ the\\ Philippines\\.\\ The\\ study\\ involved\\ studying\\ local\\ irrigation\\,\\ animal\\ hosts\\,\\ snail\\ colonies\\,\\ water\\ courses\\,\\ and\\ prevalence\\ of\\ \\S\\.\\ Japonicum\\ \\<\\/em\\>infection\\ in\\ humans\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Results\\ suggest\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ reduce\\ human\\ water\\ contact\\,\\ and\\ reduce\\ levels\\ of\\ miracidia\\ in\\ water\\ where\\ humans\\ are\\ exposed\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ follow\\ up\\ to\\ this\\ study\\ with\\ specific\\ interventions\\ in\\ mind\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Schistosomiasis"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.175410+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": " Malaria Pathobiology, Population Based Intervention and Vaccine Development", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 547, "html": "\\\\\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Dr\\.\\ Jake\\ Kurtis\\ gave\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\,\\ Malaria\\ Pathobiology\\,\\ Population\\ Based\\ Intervention\\ and\\ Vaccine\\ Development\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Kurtis\\,\\ who\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\ declared\\ a\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 15647\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Brown\\ and\\ burden\\ lifer\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ was\\ a\\ Brown\\ undergraduate\\.\\ During\\ his\\ undergrad\\ career\\,\\ Dr\\.\\ Kurtis\\ had\\ a\\ friend\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ Kenya\\ and\\ convinced\\ him\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\.\\ In\\ Kenya\\ he\\ had\\ two\\ formative\\ experiences\\:\\ he\\ conducted\\ research\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ and\\ he\\ contracted\\ cerebral\\ malaria\\.\\ He\\ began\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ malaria\\ burden\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ after\\ graduating\\ from\\ Brown\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ medical\\ school\\.\\ He\\ did\\ his\\ PhD\\ in\\ Schistosomiasis\\,\\ where\\ he\\ met\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\.\\ After\\ he\\ finished\\ his\\ MD\\/PhD\\,\\ he\\ did\\ his\\ post\\-doc\\ in\\ Kenya\\ and\\ then\\ came\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ for\\ his\\ residency\\.\\ He\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ practicing\\ MD\\ and\\ an\\ associate\\ professor\\ at\\ the\\ Brown\\ Medical\\ School\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Kurtis\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ emphasize\\ the\\ multidisciplinary\\ nature\\ of\\ global\\ health\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ learning\\ concrete\\ skills\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ become\\ involved\\ in\\ global\\ health\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Dr\\.\\ Kurtis\\ began\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ describing\\ malaria\\ as\\ a\\ disease\\ that\\ is\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153beautiful\\ in\\ its\\ efficiency\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ Malaria\\ is\\ a\\ single\\ agent\\ killer\\ \\(unlike\\ ARI\\ for\\ example\\)\\,\\ killing\\ 2\\-3\\ million\\ children\\ each\\ year\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 16291\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\What\\ is\\ the\\ global\\ impact\\ of\\ malaria\\?\\ In\\ 1996\\ there\\ were\\ over\\ 52\\ million\\ deaths\\,\\ and\\ 40\\ million\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ 43\\%\\ of\\ these\\ deaths\\ were\\ from\\ infectious\\ diseases\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 1996\\,\\ 29\\.4\\ million\\ people\\ had\\ been\\ infected\\ with\\ HIV\\ and\\ during\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ period\\ over\\ 30\\ million\\ people\\ had\\ died\\ of\\ malaria\\.\\ If\\ you\\ were\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ map\\ of\\ malaria\\ distribution\\ you\\ would\\ notice\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ mostly\\ concentrated\\ in\\ the\\ tropics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 16632\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Malaria\\ is\\ a\\ unicellular\\ protozoan\\ infection\\ transmitted\\ by\\ the\\ bite\\ of\\ the\\ female\\ anopheline\\ mosquito\\ \\(image\\ below\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ 4\\ species\\ of\\ this\\ parasite\\ that\\ infect\\ humans\\,\\ but\\ only\\ falciprum\\ causes\\ death\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ problems\\ with\\ anopheline\\ mosquitos\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ amazingly\\ adaptive\\;\\ small\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\ can\\ be\\/are\\ used\\ by\\ this\\ parasite\\<\\/span\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.biochem\\.arizona\\.edu\\/classes\\/bioc461\\/Biochem499\\/hillarysaxon\\/mosquito2\\.jpg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\This\\ parasite\\ has\\ a\\ very\\ complex\\ life\\ cycle\\,\\ but\\ understanding\\ the\\ pathways\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ understanding\\ how\\ to\\ and\\ when\\ to\\ intervene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Malaria\\ life\\ cycle\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Female\\ anopheline\\ mosquito\\ lands\\ and\\ bites\\ \\(taking\\ a\\ blood\\ meal\\)\\,\\ while\\ simultaneously\\ spitting\\ into\\ the\\ blood\\ stream\\ and\\ injecting\\ sporozoites\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Within\\ 5\\ minutes\\,\\ the\\ sporozoites\\ are\\ gone\\ from\\ the\\ blood\\ stream\\ and\\ into\\ the\\ liver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ liver\\,\\ there\\ is\\ asexual\\ division\\ \\\u00c3\\\u00a0\\ producing\\ thousands\\ of\\ merozoites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\4\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Merozoites\\ enter\\ blood\\ stream\\ and\\ invade\\ red\\ blood\\ cells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\5\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Each\\ merozoite\\ infects\\ one\\ red\\ blood\\ cell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\6\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ one\\ merozoite\\ then\\ divides\\ asexually\\,\\ producing\\ thousands\\ of\\ other\\ merozoites\\ and\\ exploding\\ the\\ red\\ blood\\ cell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\7\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Some\\ merozoites\\ develop\\ into\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ gametocytes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\8\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Female\\ anopheline\\ mosquito\\ feeds\\ on\\ infected\\ blood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\9\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Male\\ and\\ female\\ gametocytes\\ enter\\ mosquito\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\http\\:\\/\\/upload\\.wikimedia\\.org\\/wikipedia\\/commons\\/7\\/7c\\/MalariacycleBig\\.jpg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;Below\\ is\\ the\\ link\\ for\\ an\\ animated\\ video\\ that\\ explains\\ the\\ life\\ cycle\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.liquidjigsaw\\.com\\/animation\\/anim4\\.htm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Kurtis\\ explained\\ that\\ mild\\ malaria\\ feels\\ like\\ a\\ bad\\ flu\\,\\ with\\ symptoms\\ including\\ headache\\,\\ myalgia\\,\\ bone\\ pain\\,\\ and\\ recurrent\\ fever\\ followed\\ by\\ defervescence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Malaria\\ has\\ several\\ morbidities\\ and\\ mortalities\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Cerebral\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Severe\\ anemia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Placental\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Algid\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Pulmonary\\/GI\\ malaria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Blackwater\\ fever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Hypoglycemia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Splenic\\ rupture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Nephritic\\ syndrome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\Next\\ Kurtis\\ answered\\ the\\ question\\:\\ why\\ does\\ falciprum\\ kill\\?\\ The\\ infected\\ red\\ cells\\ have\\ knob\\-like\\ protrusions\\ on\\ their\\ surface\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ knobs\\ contain\\ parasite\\ proteins\\,\\ which\\ stick\\ to\\ walls\\ of\\ blood\\ vessels\\.\\ These\\ infected\\ red\\ cells\\ stick\\ and\\ clog\\ small\\ blood\\ vessels\\ and\\ capillaries\\;\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ the\\ clog\\ dictates\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ symptoms\\ felt\\.\\ The\\ parasite\\ is\\ essentially\\ co\\-opting\\ the\\ host\\ immune\\ response\\ to\\ itself\\.\\ The\\ parasites\\ stick\\ to\\ the\\ periphery\\ and\\ avoid\\ the\\ spleen\\ \\(where\\ parasites\\ get\\ killed\\.\\)\\ Falciprum\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ species\\ that\\ makes\\ these\\ knobs\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ falciprum\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ deadly\\ species\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;Interestingly\\,\\ after\\ years\\ of\\ exposure\\,\\ older\\ children\\ and\\ adolescents\\ develop\\ protective\\ immune\\ responses\\ \\(antibody\\ and\\ cellular\\ responses\\)\\.\\ These\\ immune\\ responses\\ decrease\\ intensity\\ of\\ infection\\ and\\ disease\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ given\\ infection\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ falciprum\\ is\\ not\\ uniformly\\ fatal\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\This\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ question\\:\\ can\\ these\\ protective\\ immuno\\-responses\\ be\\ mimicked\\ with\\ a\\ vaccine\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Next\\,\\ Kurtis\\ discussed\\ placental\\ malaria\\.\\ As\\ Dr\\.\\ Friedman\\ discussed\\,\\ in\\ areas\\ of\\ high\\ transmission\\ a\\ woman\\ in\\ her\\ their\\ first\\ pregnancy\\ \\(primi\\ gravid\\)\\ is\\ at\\ high\\ risk\\ for\\ placental\\ malaria\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ second\\ or\\ third\\ pregnancy\\ \\(secundi\\/multi\\ gravid\\)\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ morbidities\\ and\\ morality\\ associated\\ with\\ placental\\ malaria\\ \\(see\\ Friedman\\ lecture\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\What\\ would\\ cause\\ parasites\\ to\\ stick\\ to\\ the\\ primi\\ gravid\\ placenta\\?\\ In\\ an\\ experiment\\ done\\ with\\ plastic\\ dishes\\,\\ CSA\\ \\(Chondrotin\\ Sulfate\\ A\\)\\ was\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ protein\\ that\\ most\\ red\\ blood\\ cells\\ stuck\\ to\\.\\ However\\,\\ multi\\-gravid\\ women\\ make\\ effective\\ immune\\ response\\ to\\ CSA\\ binding\\ parasites\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ if\\ you\\ could\\ identify\\ the\\ parasite\\ protein\\ that\\ binds\\ to\\ CSA\\,\\ you\\ could\\ create\\ a\\ vaccine\\ and\\ vaccinate\\ primi\\ and\\ secuni\\-gravid\\ women\\ with\\ this\\ protein\\ to\\ mimic\\ multi\\-gravid\\ immune\\ response\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Finally\\,\\ Kurtis\\ discussed\\ vaccine\\ and\\ vaccine\\ development\\ for\\ malaria\\.\\ A\\ vaccine\\ would\\ be\\ effective\\ for\\ malaria\\ because\\ vaccines\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ cost\\ effective\\ intervention\\ available\\ for\\ reducing\\ child\\ mortality\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ existing\\ vaccine\\ for\\ parasitic\\ infections\\ including\\ malaria\\.\\ Vaccine\\ research\\ and\\ development\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\ mostly\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ by\\ big\\ pharmaceuticals\\,\\ which\\ have\\ little\\ to\\ no\\ interest\\ in\\ developing\\ these\\ vaccines\\.\\ In\\ a\\ study\\ that\\ Kurtis\\ worked\\ on\\ in\\ Kenya\\,\\ all\\ participants\\ had\\ malaria\\ and\\ were\\ treated\\ with\\ Quinine\\ at\\ baseline\\.\\ The\\ participants\\ were\\ then\\ observed\\ for\\ re\\-infection\\,\\ the\\ research\\ wanted\\ to\\ find\\ why\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ re\\-infected\\ differed\\ in\\ frequency\\ of\\ parasitemia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": " Malaria Pathobiology, Population Based Intervention and Vaccine Development"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.218710+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "HIV & Pregnancy", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 549, "html": "\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\,\\ \\HIV\\ \\&\\;\\ Pregnancy\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ with\\ guest\\ lecturer\\ Dr\\.\\ Susan\\ Cu\\-Uvin\\ was\\ the\\ last\\ of\\ our\\ HIV\\ lectures\\ in\\ Burden\\.\\ Cu\\-Uvin\\ is\\ originally\\ from\\ the\\ Phillipines\\.\\ She\\ came\\ to\\ US\\ on\\ a\\ scholarship\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ HIV\\ and\\ women\\.\\ Cu\\-Uvin\\ applied\\ for\\ a\\ scholarship\\ to\\ work\\ with\\ Dr\\.\\ Carpenter\\ \\(a\\ famous\\ STI\\ OB\\/GYN\\)\\,\\ and\\ got\\ a\\ clinical\\ fellowship\\ with\\ him\\ working\\ with\\ women\\ and\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\.\\ She\\ has\\ been\\ passionate\\ about\\ this\\ field\\ ever\\ since\\,\\ and\\ stressed\\ its\\ importance\\ today\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ US\\ we\\ have\\ treatment\\ and\\ billions\\ of\\ dollars\\ going\\ towards\\ research\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ HIV\\ continues\\ to\\ spread\\.\\ Cu\\-Uvin\\ asked\\ us\\ to\\ imagine\\:\\ what\\ happens\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ that\\ has\\ much\\ fewer\\ resources\\ than\\ the\\ US\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ about\\ 17\\ million\\ women\\ living\\ with\\ HIV\\ worldwide\\.\\ In\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\,\\ the\\ virus\\ is\\ pretty\\ evenly\\ spread\\ \\(50\\%\\ female\\,\\ and\\ 50\\%\\ male\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Below\\ is\\ a\\ population\\ pyramid\\ for\\ Botswana\\ with\\ and\\ without\\ AIDS\\.\\ It\\ is\\ clear\\ how\\ the\\ epidemic\\ has\\ ravaged\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/pathmicro\\.med\\.sc\\.edu\\/lecture\\/Sub\\-SaharanAfrica29\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ we\\ have\\ heard\\ from\\ our\\ other\\ AIDS\\ lecturers\\,\\ ART\\ works\\ and\\ has\\ been\\ very\\ effective\\ in\\ countries\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ available\\.\\ However\\,\\ ART\\ is\\ not\\ cheap\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ annual\\ cost\\ per\\ person\\ for\\ triple\\ ART\\ in\\ Africa\\ is\\ \\$400\\/yr\\ \\(not\\ counting\\ the\\ money\\ paid\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ hospital\\,\\ get\\ check\\ ups\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ With\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ generics\\,\\ the\\ price\\ has\\ miraculously\\ dropped\\.\\ But\\ when\\ your\\ health\\ expenditure\\ per\\ person\\ is\\ so\\ low\\ \\(\\$4\\ in\\ Tanznia\\,\\ \\$12\\ in\\ Zambia\\,\\ \\$16\\ in\\ Kenya\\)\\ ART\\ is\\ still\\ out\\ of\\ reach\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\700\\,000\\ children\\ become\\ infected\\ with\\ HIV\\ annually\\;\\ most\\ acquire\\ the\\ virus\\ from\\ their\\ mother\\.\\ Without\\ any\\ therapy\\,\\ mother\\-to\\-child\\ transmission\\ \\(MTCT\\)\\ of\\ HIV\\ ranges\\ from\\ 25\\-35\\%\\.\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ how\\ babies\\ protect\\ themselves\\ against\\ HIV\\ but\\ the\\ transmission\\ rate\\ is\\ significantly\\ lower\\ than\\ 100\\%\\.\\ In\\ developed\\ countries\\ where\\ HAART\\ is\\ available\\ for\\ pregnant\\ women\\,\\ MTCT\\ has\\ been\\ reduced\\ to\\ 1\\-2\\%\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Will\\ it\\ ever\\ be\\ 0\\%\\?\\ No\\,\\ because\\ some\\ women\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ viral\\ loads\\ are\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153below\\ detectable\\ level\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ and\\ might\\ still\\ transmit\\ to\\ their\\ baby\\ \\(this\\ is\\ very\\ very\\ rare\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\When\\ does\\ a\\ mother\\ give\\ her\\ baby\\ HIV\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Antepartum\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ utero\\:\\ 30\\%\\ \\(non\\-breastfed\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intrapartum\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ labor\\ and\\ delivery\\ 70\\%\\ \\(non\\-breastfed\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Postpa\\<\\/em\\>\\rtum\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ breastfeeding\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Factors\\ associated\\ with\\ HIV\\ MTCT\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Advanced\\ disease\\ stage\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Viral\\ load\\:\\ plasma\\,\\ genital\\ tract\\,\\ breast\\ milk\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Nutrient\\ Deficiency\\:\\ Vitamin\\ A\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Prematurity\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Duration\\ of\\ Rupture\\ of\\ Membranes\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Mode\\ of\\ delivery\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Invasive\\ Procedures\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chorioamnionitis\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Breast\\ Milk\\ Factors\\:\\ colostrum\\ vs\\.\\ mature\\ milk\\,\\ duration\\,\\ inflammation\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Primary\\ Approaches\\ to\\ Prevent\\ HIV\\ Transmission\\ from\\ an\\ HIV\\-Infected\\ Mother\\ to\\ her\\ Child\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decrease\\ prenatal\\ fetal\\ HIV\\ exposure\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ decrease\\ maternal\\ viral\\ load\\,\\ decrease\\ placental\\ inflammation\\ or\\ breaks\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Decrease\\ intrapartum\\ infant\\ HIV\\ exposure\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ decrease\\ maternal\\ genital\\ viral\\ load\\,\\ scheduled\\ cesarean\\ delivery\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ pre\\-\\ and\\ post\\-exposure\\ infant\\ prophylaxis\\,\\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decrease\\ postnatal\\ infant\\ HIV\\ exposure\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ avoid\\ breastfeeding\\,\\ exclusive\\ breastfeeding\\,\\ reduce\\ viral\\ load\\ in\\ breast\\ milk\\,\\ infant\\ prophlyaxis\\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ proof\\ that\\ mothers\\ with\\ higher\\ viral\\ loads\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ transmit\\ HIV\\ to\\ their\\ baby\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ proof\\ that\\ potent\\ antiretroviral\\ regimens\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\ lower\\ perinatal\\ transmission\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nFor\\ those\\ with\\ uncontrolled\\ virus\\ \\(high\\ viral\\ load\\)\\,\\ an\\ elective\\ cesarean\\ delivery\\ and\\ a\\ rigorous\\ regimen\\ of\\ ART\\ is\\ recommended\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHow\\ safe\\ is\\ ART\\ for\\ the\\ mother\\ and\\ the\\ baby\\?\\ There\\ have\\ been\\ problems\\ with\\ ART\\ regimens\\,\\ they\\ are\\ lifesaving\\ but\\ many\\ people\\ have\\ died\\ from\\ side\\ effects\\.\\ Nevarapine\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ ART\\ treatments\\,\\ has\\ caused\\ liver\\ failure\\ and\\ toxicity\\.\\ Also\\,\\ ART\\ resistance\\ can\\ occur\\.\\ If\\ you\\ expose\\ the\\ mother\\ to\\ ART\\ for\\ a\\ short\\ period\\ of\\ time\\,\\ it\\ may\\ make\\ her\\ resistant\\ when\\ she\\ needs\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ therapy\\ herself\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ isn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ much\\ of\\ an\\ observed\\ increase\\ in\\ birth\\ defects\\ with\\ ART\\ medications\\.\\ However\\,\\ some\\ ART\\ has\\ been\\ proven\\ to\\ lead\\ to\\ early\\ labor\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ summary\\:\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ combination\\ ART\\ in\\ pregnancy\\ improves\\ maternal\\ health\\ and\\ reduces\\ transmission\\.\\ Short\\-term\\ toxicity\\ seems\\ minimally\\ risky\\ for\\ women\\ and\\ infants\\.\\ The\\ biggest\\ problem\\ with\\ short\\-term\\ ART\\ is\\ a\\ potential\\ for\\ resistance\\.\\ At\\ the\\ present\\ time\\,\\ the\\ known\\ risks\\ do\\ not\\ outweigh\\ the\\ known\\ benefits\\ of\\ treatment\\.\\ However\\,\\ long\\-term\\ surveillance\\ is\\ required\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ US\\ has\\ certainly\\ lowered\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ MTCT\\,\\ but\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\?\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ developing\\ countries\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ put\\ into\\ effect\\ the\\ same\\ standard\\ of\\ care\\ that\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ because\\ of\\ cost\\ and\\ access\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ pressing\\ need\\ to\\ develop\\ shorter\\,\\ less\\ expensive\\ regimens\\ for\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Several\\ trials\\ are\\ now\\ undertaking\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ finding\\ an\\ alternative\\ regimen\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHow\\ much\\ shorter\\ can\\ the\\ alternative\\ regimen\\ be\\?\\ The\\ shortest\\ would\\ be\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ drugs\\ intrapartum\\ and\\ postpartum\\.\\ Intrapartum\\ alone\\ has\\ been\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ too\\ little\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMany\\ women\\ give\\ birth\\ at\\ home\\,\\ what\\ can\\ we\\ do\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ these\\ women\\ get\\ treatment\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\ A\\ simple\\ regimen\\ of\\ one\\ tablet\\ of\\ Nevirapine\\ to\\ the\\ mother\\ and\\ one\\ teaspoon\\ of\\ Nevirapine\\ to\\ the\\ baby\\ has\\ brought\\ transmission\\ rates\\ down\\ especially\\ in\\ areas\\ where\\ women\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ ready\\ access\\ to\\ health\\ care\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ problem\\ with\\ giving\\ the\\ mother\\ just\\ ONE\\ tablet\\ of\\ Nevirapine\\ is\\ that\\ about\\ 67\\%\\ of\\ these\\ mothers\\ have\\ developed\\ resistance\\ to\\ Nevirapine\\.\\ This\\ is\\ especially\\ a\\ problem\\ in\\ countries\\ where\\ Nevirapine\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ readily\\ available\\ ART\\.\\ The\\ babies\\ that\\ received\\ one\\ teaspoon\\ of\\ Nevirapine\\ and\\ become\\ infected\\ later\\ in\\ life\\ are\\ also\\ at\\ risk\\ for\\ resistance\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOne\\ solution\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ found\\ to\\ this\\ problem\\ of\\ resistance\\ is\\ adding\\ AZT\\ 3TC\\ for\\ seven\\ days\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Nevirapine\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCan\\ you\\ still\\ use\\ Nevirapine\\ for\\ women\\ exposed\\ to\\ single\\ dose\\ Nevirapine\\ \\(for\\ her\\ own\\ health\\)\\ if\\ all\\ a\\ country\\ can\\ offer\\ is\\ Nevirapine\\?\\ Yes\\.\\ Some\\ women\\ develop\\ resistance\\,\\ and\\ some\\ women\\ do\\ not\\.\\ If\\ you\\ wait\\ more\\ than\\ 6\\ months\\ to\\ start\\ Nevirapine\\ again\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ relatively\\ effective\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCu\\-Uvin\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ biggest\\ takeaway\\ point\\ on\\ the\\ Nevirapine\\ issue\\ is\\ that\\ although\\ single\\ dose\\ nevirapine\\ is\\ not\\ ideal\\,\\ it\\ is\\ much\\ better\\ than\\ nothing\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHIV\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ transmitted\\ through\\ breastmilk\\.\\ In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ women\\ with\\ HIV\\ are\\ encouraged\\ not\\ to\\ breastfeed\\.\\ But\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\,\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ harder\\ to\\ get\\ access\\ to\\ formula\\,\\ how\\ can\\ women\\ breastfeed\\ safely\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIt\\ has\\ been\\ shown\\ that\\ exclusive\\ breastfeeding\\ is\\ more\\ effective\\ in\\ lowering\\ transmission\\ rates\\ than\\ mixed\\ feeding\\ \\(breast\\ and\\ formula\\ feeding\\.\\)\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNo\\ one\\ knows\\ exactly\\ why\\ this\\ is\\ true\\,\\ there\\ is\\ speculation\\ that\\ mixed\\ feeding\\ causes\\ inflammation\\ in\\ the\\ gastroenterological\\ tract\\ and\\ makes\\ baby\\ more\\ susceptible\\ to\\ infection\\.\\ So\\ if\\ women\\ have\\ no\\ other\\ choice\\ than\\ to\\ breastfeed\\,\\ they\\ should\\ ONLY\\ breastfeed\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ chance\\ of\\ transmission\\.\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ WHO\\ has\\ revised\\ their\\ infant\\ feeding\\ recommendations\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153The\\ most\\ appropriate\\ infant\\ feeding\\ option\\ for\\ an\\ HIV\\(\\+\\)\\ mother\\ should\\ continue\\ to\\ depend\\ on\\ her\\ individual\\ circumstances\\,\\ including\\ her\\ health\\ status\\ and\\ the\\ local\\ situation\\,\\ but\\ should\\ take\\ greater\\ consideration\\ of\\ the\\ health\\ services\\ available\\ and\\ the\\ counseling\\ and\\ support\\ she\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ receive\\.\\ Exclusive\\ breastfeeding\\ is\\ recommended\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ 6\\ months\\ of\\ life\\ unless\\ replacement\\ feeding\\ is\\ acceptable\\,\\ feasible\\,\\ affordable\\,\\ sustainable\\ and\\ safe\\ for\\ them\\ and\\ for\\ their\\ infants\\.\\ When\\ replacement\\ feeding\\ is\\ acceptable\\,\\ feasible\\,\\ affordable\\,\\ sustainable\\ and\\ safe\\,\\ avoidance\\ of\\ all\\ breastfeeding\\ is\\ recommended\\.\\ At\\ 6\\ months\\,\\ if\\ replacement\\ feeding\\ is\\ still\\ not\\ acceptable\\,\\ feasible\\,\\ affordable\\,\\ sustainable\\ and\\ safe\\,\\ continuation\\ of\\ breastfeeding\\ with\\ complementary\\ foods\\ is\\ recommended\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/em\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIf\\ possible\\,\\ babies\\ should\\ also\\ be\\ given\\ ART\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ breastfed\\.\\ Also\\,\\ if\\ possible\\,\\ women\\ should\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153heat\\ treat\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ breast\\ milk\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ conclusion\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Shorter\\ and\\ less\\ expensive\\ regimens\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\ in\\ reducing\\ transmission\\.\\ Everything\\ possible\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ to\\ avoid\\ resistance\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ mother\\ and\\ the\\ child\\.\\ In\\ countries\\ where\\ breastfeeding\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ option\\,\\ mothers\\ should\\ exclusively\\ breastfeed\\,\\ provide\\ ART\\ to\\ baby\\ if\\ possible\\,\\ and\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153heat\\ treat\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ milk\\ when\\ possible\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "HIV & Pregnancy"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.232734+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tuberculosis: A Global Emergency, From Consumption to Vaccine", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 550, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dr\\.\\ Annie\\ De\\ Groot\\ gave\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\,\\ \\Tuberculosis\\:\\ A\\ Global\\ Emergency\\,\\ From\\ Consumption\\ to\\ Vaccine\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Dr\\.\\ De\\ Groot\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\decided\\ it\\ was\\ important\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ people\\ were\\ doing\\ with\\ health\\ overseas\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ medical\\ student\\.\\ She\\ traveled\\ and\\ observed\\ health\\ care\\ systems\\ in\\ Peru\\ and\\ Zaire\\.\\ These\\ trips\\,\\ she\\ said\\,\\ changed\\ her\\ life\\.\\ She\\ participated\\ in\\ the\\ measles\\ eradication\\ in\\ Zaire\\,\\ which\\ led\\ her\\ to\\ study\\ infectious\\ disease\\ and\\ public\\ health\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 19966\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ first\\ question\\ Dr\\ Groot\\ posed\\ was\\,\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 19966\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Why\\ is\\ Tuberculosis\\ \\(TB\\)\\ an\\ emergency\\<\\/b\\>\\\\?\\ TB\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ HIV\\ \\(co\\-infection\\)\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ it\\ a\\ disease\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\.\\ Unlike\\ AIDS\\,\\ direct\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ infected\\ person\\ is\\ not\\ required\\ to\\ contract\\ TB\\;\\ TB\\ is\\ transmitted\\ simply\\ by\\ being\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ room\\ as\\ someone\\ with\\ TB\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ TB\\ is\\ PREVENTABLE\\ and\\ CURABLE\\,\\ what\\ is\\ needed\\ is\\ effort\\ and\\ resources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20107\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>India\\,\\ Asia\\,\\ and\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ million\\ new\\ cases\\ of\\ TB\\ each\\ year\\.\\ The\\ image\\ below\\ shows\\ the\\ current\\ global\\ distribution\\ of\\ TB\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.uwec\\.edu\\/jolhm\\/EH4\\/TB\\/Whatistuberculosis\\_files\\/image004\\.jpg\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ image\\ below\\ shows\\ the\\ 22\\ countries\\ that\\ shoulder\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ TB\\ burden\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.stoptb\\.org\\/countries\\/\\_derived\\/countries\\_default\\_test\\.htm\\_txt\\_Map\\-22countries\\.gif\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\If\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ cure\\,\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20139\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\why\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ we\\ haven\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ eradicated\\ TB\\?\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\The\\ answer\\,\\ according\\ to\\ De\\ Groot\\,\\ is\\ largely\\ that\\ TB\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ disease\\,\\ and\\ its\\ prevalence\\ comes\\ from\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ get\\ care\\ and\\ limited\\ resources\\ within\\ countries\\ with\\ high\\ TB\\ rates\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\TB\\ is\\ a\\ mycobacterium\\.\\ It\\ is\\ non\\-motile\\ and\\ non\\-spore\\ forming\\.\\ It\\ has\\ a\\ cell\\ wall\\ with\\ high\\ lipid\\ content\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ acid\\ fast\\ staining\\.\\ It\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ slow\\ generation\\ time\\,\\ about\\ 15\\-20\\ hours\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20338\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\TB\\ is\\ a\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20343\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>chronic\\ granulomatous\\ infection\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ Mycobacterium\\ tuberculosis\\ complex\\.\\ It\\ is\\ spread\\ through\\ the\\ air\\ \\(see\\ image\\ below\\)\\,\\ and\\ lung\\ disease\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ manifestation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.phac\\-aspc\\.gc\\.ca\\/tbpc\\-latb\\/fa\\-fi\\/gfx\\/fig5\\.jpg\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20424\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Because\\ the\\ transmission\\ is\\ aerosolized\\ \\(coughing\\,\\ sneezing\\,\\ talking\\,\\ singing\\)\\,\\ an\\ individual\\ with\\ active\\ TV\\ infects\\ about\\ 10\\-15\\ new\\ people\\ each\\ year\\ that\\ they\\ remain\\ infected\\ and\\ untreated\\.\\ Transmission\\ is\\ increased\\ in\\ a\\ closed\\ environment\\.\\ As\\ Dr\\.\\ De\\ Groot\\ pointed\\ out\\:\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ a\\ TB\\ patient\\ or\\ a\\ TB\\ doctor\\ it\\ is\\ safer\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ them\\ outside\\ in\\ the\\ open\\ air\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Usually\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ infected\\ with\\ TB\\,\\ the\\ infection\\ remains\\ dormant\\.\\ It\\ can\\ be\\ reactivated\\ by\\ aging\\,\\ cancer\\ chemotherapy\\,\\ HIV\\,\\ stress\\,\\ and\\ malnutrition\\.\\ Symptoms\\ are\\ simple\\:\\ a\\ cough\\ that\\ lasts\\ more\\ than\\ two\\ weeks\\,\\ severe\\ weight\\ loss\\,\\ fever\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153night\\ sweats\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\,\\ and\\ fatigue\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ 80\\%\\ chance\\ of\\ death\\ from\\ TB\\ if\\ the\\ infection\\ is\\ left\\ untreated\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20705\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ initial\\ infection\\ is\\ subclinical\\ bronchopneumonia\\.\\ This\\ then\\ spreads\\ to\\ the\\ lungs\\,\\ kidneys\\,\\ and\\ bones\\,which\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ immunity\\ containment\\ of\\ infection\\.\\ At\\ this\\ time\\ the\\ TB\\ infection\\ exists\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ symptoms\\ \\(latent\\ or\\ dormant\\)\\.\\ When\\ the\\ dormant\\ foci\\ are\\ reactivated\\ then\\ the\\ infected\\ person\\ develops\\ clinical\\ tuberculosis\\ disease\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ infected\\ droplet\\ nuclei\\.\\ It\\ is\\ these\\ nuclei\\ that\\ are\\ transmitted\\ in\\ the\\ air\\ and\\ infect\\ other\\ people\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20828\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ have\\ several\\ tools\\ to\\ tackle\\ TB\\:\\ the\\ sputum\\ smear\\,\\ skin\\ tests\\,\\ x\\-rays\\,\\ BCG\\ vaccine\\,\\ INH\\ prohylaxis\\,\\ combination\\ therapy\\,\\ or\\ directly\\ observed\\ therapy\\ \\(DOTS\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ TB\\ test\\,\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ PPD\\ test\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ very\\ precise\\ test\\.\\ If\\ someone\\ has\\ the\\ BCG\\ vaccination\\,\\ the\\ PPD\\ does\\ not\\ show\\ TB\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ PPD\\ is\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ informative\\ if\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ positive\\ at\\ all\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21102\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21108\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21109\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Changing\\ clinical\\ spaces\\ has\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ intervention\\.\\ As\\ discussed\\ above\\,\\ TB\\ transmission\\ can\\ be\\ reduced\\ if\\ TB\\ waiting\\ rooms\\ are\\ moved\\ to\\ outdoor\\ porches\\ and\\ if\\ fans\\ are\\ added\\ to\\ clinical\\ space\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21189\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21391\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21440\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>TB\\ could\\ actually\\ be\\ eradicated\\;\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ resources\\ to\\ eradicate\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\So\\,\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21468\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\what\\ have\\ we\\ done\\/what\\ is\\ being\\ done\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ DOTS\\ has\\ been\\ adopted\\ as\\ the\\ international\\ strategy\\ for\\ tackling\\ TB\\.\\ DOTS\\ cures\\ most\\ people\\ with\\ TB\\ and\\ the\\ drug\\ costs\\ are\\ as\\ little\\ as\\ US\\ \\$10\\-15\\ per\\ patient\\.\\ However\\,\\ access\\ to\\ DOTS\\ is\\ incomplete\\,\\ only\\ 33\\%\\ of\\ countries\\ use\\ DOTS\\ and\\ countries\\ that\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153have\\ DOTS\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ covering\\ every\\ TB\\ patient\\.\\ Without\\ DOTS\\ coverage\\ or\\ with\\ incomplete\\ coverage\\,\\ TB\\ continues\\ to\\ spread\\ and\\ the\\ spread\\ is\\ increasing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Historically\\,\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21600\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>the\\ infrastructure\\ for\\ TB\\ control\\ deteriorated\\ though\\ the\\ 1980s\\.\\ People\\ with\\ multi\\-drug\\ resistant\\ TB\\ \\(MDRTB\\)\\ were\\ completely\\ left\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ equation\\ and\\ were\\ never\\ treated\\,\\ which\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ detrimental\\ to\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ TB\\.\\ The\\ HIV\\ epidemic\\ started\\ late\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ and\\ HIV\\/TB\\ co\\-infection\\ produced\\ \\(and\\ continues\\ to\\ produce\\)\\ explosive\\ epidemics\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21755\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>DOTS\\ treatment\\ is\\ effective\\ but\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ carefully\\ monitored\\.\\ The\\ cure\\ takes\\ 6\\-12\\ months\\ of\\ DAILY\\ treatment\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ issues\\ of\\ adherence\\.\\ Few\\ patients\\ complete\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ their\\ treatment\\ with\\ careful\\ observation\\.\\ Also\\,\\ as\\ was\\ stated\\ above\\,\\ DOTS\\ is\\ not\\ readily\\ available\\ in\\ most\\ countries\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21852\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>HIV\\ obviously\\ accelerates\\ TB\\.\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ new\\ TB\\ cases\\ are\\ in\\ HIV\\ infected\\ patients\\.\\ Up\\ to\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ people\\ living\\ with\\ HIV\\ can\\ develop\\ TB\\.\\ The\\ graph\\ below\\ shows\\ the\\ detrimental\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ co\\-infection\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.prb\\.org\\/images3\\/HIV\\-TB\\_CoInfections\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\13\\ million\\ people\\ have\\ both\\ HIV\\ and\\ latent\\ TB\\ infection\\.\\ TB\\ is\\ the\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ from\\ AIDS\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ 11\\%\\ of\\ AIDS\\ deaths\\ worldwide\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21943\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ 2004\\,\\ WHO\\/UNAIDS\\ implemented\\ a\\ new\\ policy\\ on\\ HIV\\ testing\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Diagnostic\\ HIV\\ testing\\ is\\ indicated\\ whenever\\ a\\ person\\ shows\\ signs\\ or\\ symptoms\\ that\\ are\\ consistent\\ with\\ an\\ HIV\\-related\\ disease\\ or\\ AIDS\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u00a6This\\ includes\\ HIV\\ testing\\ for\\ all\\ tuberculosis\\ patients\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ their\\ routine\\ management\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21971\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\MDRTB\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ problem\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ reasons\\ in\\ happens\\ is\\ because\\ people\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ adhere\\ to\\ therapy\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ eliminate\\ TB\\ without\\ also\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ drug\\ resistant\\ TB\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Below\\ is\\ a\\ map\\ of\\ current\\ MDRTB\\ spread\\ and\\ XDRTB\\ \\(extra\\ drug\\ resistant\\ TB\\)\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/files\\.dcp2\\.org\\/images\\/dcp2\\/ch55f2\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 22841\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ is\\ a\\ TB\\ vaccine\\ called\\ BCG\\,\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ highly\\ variable\\ efficacy\\.\\ It\\ is\\ believed\\ that\\ exposure\\ to\\ mycobacteria\\ in\\ the\\ environment\\ can\\ create\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ protection\\ so\\ BCG\\ does\\ not\\ add\\ any\\ effect\\.\\ However\\,\\ BCG\\ has\\ proven\\ to\\ reduce\\ rates\\ of\\ leprosy\\ and\\ sepsis\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ questions\\ to\\ consider\\ when\\ discussing\\ a\\ TB\\ vaccine\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Is\\ there\\ an\\ immune\\ state\\ for\\ TB\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Yes\\,\\ about\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Are\\ there\\ relevant\\ proteins\\ or\\ antigens\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ or\\ replicated\\ in\\ the\\ vaccine\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Yes\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ 25\\+\\ years\\ of\\ TB\\ research\\ aiming\\ to\\ answer\\ this\\ question\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 23219\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ basic\\ reproductive\\ rate\\ of\\ TB\\ is\\ smaller\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ smallpox\\ and\\ polio\\ \\(diseases\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ eradicated\\)\\.\\ So\\ if\\ we\\ could\\ reduce\\ the\\ transmission\\,\\ we\\ could\\ eradicate\\ TB\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 23275\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ are\\ quite\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ TB\\ vaccine\\ candidates\\ under\\ development\\,\\ which\\ is\\ hopeful\\ for\\ TB\\ eradication\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ phases\\ each\\ drug\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ undergo\\.\\ And\\ an\\ effective\\ vaccine\\ probably\\ won\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ be\\ available\\ for\\ at\\ least\\ 10\\ more\\ years\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\De\\ Groot\\ concluded\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ discussing\\ blame\\.\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\\r\\\nAudioMarker\\ 23610\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ often\\ blame\\ the\\ patient\\ saying\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ non\\-compliant\\ with\\ therapy\\,\\ that\\ they\\ lack\\ knowledge\\,\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ understand\\ health\\ and\\ TB\\.\\ Dr\\ Groot\\ says\\ we\\ should\\ actually\\ blame\\ the\\ world\\ community\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ leadership\\ and\\ commitment\\ and\\ resources\\ are\\ not\\ distributed\\.\\ As\\ with\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ problems\\ discussed\\ in\\ Burden\\ thus\\ far\\,\\ a\\ commitment\\ to\\ humanity\\ is\\ required\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ change\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 22064\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 21973\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20889\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 20452\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tuberculosis: A Global Emergency, From Consumption to Vaccine"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.251669+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic: Where are we and where are we going?", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 551, "html": "\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\,\\ \\The\\ Global\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ Epidemic\\:\\ Where\\ are\\ we\\ and\\ where\\ are\\ we\\ going\\?\\,\\ \\<\\/b\\>was\\ presented\\ by\\ Professor\\ Mark\\ Lurie\\.\\ This\\ is\\ our\\ first\\ of\\ three\\ lectures\\ on\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\.\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Professor\\ Lurie\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ political\\ filmmaking\\ as\\ an\\ undergrad\\.\\ He\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ study\\ history\\ as\\ a\\ graduate\\ student\\.\\ His\\ interest\\ in\\ history\\ as\\ an\\ academic\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ more\\ applied\\,\\ which\\ took\\ him\\ to\\ Johns\\ Hopkins\\ to\\ do\\ his\\ PhD\\ in\\ Global\\ Health\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lurie\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ can\\ sort\\ of\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ 101\\.\\ Before\\ launching\\ into\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ facts\\ and\\ numbers\\,\\ he\\ reinforced\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ an\\ interdisciplinary\\ approach\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ global\\ health\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ understand\\ HIV\\ and\\ what\\ drives\\ it\\ as\\ an\\ epidemic\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ biology\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ anthropology\\ and\\ the\\ sociology\\ and\\ the\\ demography\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lurie\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ was\\ mostly\\ fact\\ based\\,\\ so\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ will\\ be\\ presented\\ in\\ list\\ form\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Current\\ Global\\ Epidemiology\\ of\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 35165\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ are\\ almost\\ 7000\\ new\\ infections\\ every\\ day\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ almost\\ all\\ in\\ low\\ and\\ middle\\-income\\ countries\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 35233\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ global\\ epidemic\\ has\\ seemingly\\ leveled\\ off\\ at\\ low\\ levels\\ in\\ most\\ regions\\,\\ but\\ has\\ remained\\ high\\ in\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\ \\(SSA\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 35275\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\About\\ 33\\ million\\ people\\ are\\ living\\ with\\ HIV\\ worldwide\\,\\ with\\ 22\\.5\\ million\\ in\\ SSA\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 35321\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\About\\ 2\\.5\\ million\\ people\\ were\\ infected\\ in\\ 2007\\,\\ with\\ 1\\.7\\ million\\ in\\ SSA\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 35358\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ were\\ about\\ 2\\.1\\ million\\ deaths\\ from\\ AIDS\\ in\\ 2007\\,\\ with\\ 1\\.6\\ million\\ in\\ SSA\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 35390\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\In\\ SSA\\ most\\ countries\\ have\\ a\\ 15\\-\\ 34\\%\\ prevalence\\,\\ as\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ US\\ where\\ the\\ prevalence\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ 1\\%\\ \\(see\\ image\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.who\\.int\\/hiv\\/facts\\/hiv\\_global2005\\.jpg\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\In\\ Asia\\,\\ the\\ prevalence\\ is\\ smaller\\ \\(1\\.5\\-3\\%\\ at\\ most\\)\\.\\ Experts\\ once\\ expected\\ that\\ Asia\\ would\\ climb\\ in\\ prevalence\\,\\ but\\ it\\ hasn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ happened\\ and\\ experts\\ are\\ now\\ beginning\\ to\\ wonder\\ if\\ it\\ ever\\ will\\.\\ However\\,\\ low\\ national\\ prevalence\\ rates\\ conceal\\ serious\\ localized\\ epidemics\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ India\\ the\\ national\\ prevalence\\ is\\ \\<\\;1\\%\\,\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ country\\ with\\ such\\ a\\ big\\ population\\ \\<\\;1\\%\\ \\=\\ 4\\ million\\ people\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\Life\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ expectancy\\ in\\ Africa\\ has\\ dropped\\ severely\\ since\\ 1990\\,\\ causing\\ major\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ changes\\ in\\ population\\ and\\ family\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\HIV\\/AIDS\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ the\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ in\\ Africa\\ \\(22\\.6\\%\\)\\ \\(see\\ image\\ below\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/pathmicro\\.med\\.sc\\.edu\\/lecture\\/Sub\\-SaharanAfrica38\\.gif\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ drive\\ the\\ epidemic\\ in\\ Africa\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Overall\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ disease\\ \\(STI\\/TB\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\High\\ levels\\ of\\ poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Stigma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ access\\ to\\ basic\\ services\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ healthcare\\,\\ water\\,\\ electricity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Gender\\ relations\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ complication\\ negotiation\\,\\ gender\\ violence\\,\\ sexual\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ governmental\\/international\\ commitment\\;\\ political\\ instability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\High\\ levels\\ of\\ population\\ movement\\ and\\ migration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Social\\ \\&\\;\\ Cultural\\ Factors\\,\\ including\\ sexual\\ risk\\ behavior\\,\\ circumcision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\There\\ are\\ various\\ levels\\ of\\ disease\\ causation\\:\\ individual\\,\\ environmental\\,\\ and\\ structural\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ curb\\ the\\ epidemic\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ understand\\ it\\ on\\ these\\ three\\ levels\\ of\\ causation\\.\\ Many\\ interventions\\ target\\ individual\\ behavior\\,\\ but\\ without\\ addressing\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ environmental\\ and\\ structural\\ factors\\ through\\ interventions\\ the\\ epidemic\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ grow\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ nature\\ of\\ HIV\\ \\(as\\ an\\ infectious\\ disease\\)\\ makes\\ it\\ extremely\\ hard\\ to\\ curb\\.\\ Infectious\\ diseases\\ go\\ from\\ individual\\ to\\ individual\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ exponential\\ growth\\.\\ And\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ determinants\\ of\\ the\\ size\\ and\\ growth\\ of\\ an\\ epidemic\\ is\\ how\\ many\\ people\\ are\\ already\\ infected\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ think\\ about\\ cancer\\.\\ If\\ 1000\\ people\\ are\\ infected\\ with\\ cancer\\,\\ your\\ individual\\ risk\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ higher\\.\\ Whereas\\ if\\ 1000\\ people\\ are\\ infected\\ with\\ HIV\\,\\ your\\ individual\\ risk\\ is\\ necessarily\\ higher\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Professor\\ Lurie\\ then\\ explained\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ a\\ basic\\ reproductive\\ number\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ reproductive\\ number\\ can\\ help\\ determine\\ how\\ fast\\ an\\ epidemic\\ will\\ grow\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ reproductive\\ number\\ is\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ secondary\\ infections\\ produced\\ by\\ an\\ infected\\ individual\\ in\\ a\\ totally\\ susceptible\\ population\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ the\\ basic\\ reproductive\\ number\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ 1\\ than\\ an\\ epidemic\\ cannot\\ be\\ sustained\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\If\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ the\\ epidemic\\ will\\ grow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Basic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 37103\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;Reproductive\\ Number\\ \\=\\ Mean\\ length\\ of\\ time\\ infectious\\ x\\ Rate\\ at\\ which\\ infected\\ people\\ have\\ contact\\ with\\ uninfected\\ people\\ x\\ likelihood\\ of\\ transmission\\ of\\ any\\ contact\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Because\\ we\\ have\\ this\\ basic\\ reproductive\\ number\\,\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ slow\\ down\\ an\\ HIV\\ epidemic\\?\\ There\\ are\\ ways\\ to\\ minimize\\ each\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ equation\\;\\ these\\ ways\\ are\\ in\\ \\\\bold\\ and\\ underlined\\.\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Basic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 37103\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;Reproductive\\ Number\\ \\=\\ Mean\\ length\\ of\\ time\\ infectious\\\\ \\treatment\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ x\\ Rate\\ at\\ which\\ infected\\ people\\ have\\ contact\\ with\\ uninfected\\ people\\\\ \\education\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ x\\ likelihood\\ of\\ transmission\\ of\\ any\\ contact\\ \\c\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ondoms\\,\\ virucide\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 37491\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Experts\\ used\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ different\\ probabilities\\ of\\ HIV\\ transmission\\ for\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ transmissions\\ \\(sexual\\ transmission\\,\\ mother\\-to\\-child\\ \\(MTC\\)\\,\\ injection\\ drug\\ use\\,\\ etc\\)\\,\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ known\\ that\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ transmission\\ is\\ not\\ constant\\ over\\ time\\.\\ A\\ person\\ infected\\ with\\ HIV\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ infectious\\ \\(highest\\ probability\\ for\\ transmission\\)\\ between\\ 3\\-12\\ weeks\\ after\\ infection\\ \\(see\\ image\\ below\\)\\.\\ We\\ will\\ return\\ to\\ this\\ point\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.journaids\\.org\\/img\\/factsheets\\/overview\\/ja\\_overview\\_graph\\_cd4vsRNA\\.gif\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\A\\ comprehensive\\ program\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ pieces\\:\\ prevention\\ and\\ support\\/care\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Prevention\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\School\\ based\\ AIDS\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;Peer\\ ed\\ for\\ out\\ of\\ school\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Outreach\\ to\\ CSW\\ and\\ clients\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Condom\\ Promotion\\ and\\ distribution\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;Treatment\\ of\\ STIs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;Voluntary\\ counseling\\ and\\ testing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;Workplace\\ prevention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Prevention\\ of\\ MTC\\ transmission\\-\\ ensure\\ that\\ pregnant\\ women\\ receive\\ an\\ HIV\\ test\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Mass\\ media\\ campaigns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Harm\\ reduction\\ programs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Outreach\\ for\\ men\\ that\\ who\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Care\\ \\&\\;\\ Support\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Palliative\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Treatment\\ of\\ opportunistic\\ infections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Diagnostic\\ HIV\\ testing\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ prophylaxis\\ for\\ OI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\HAART\\ \\(Highly\\ Antiretroviral\\ Therapy\\)\\ or\\ ART\\ \\(Antiretroviral\\ Therapy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Lab\\ testing\\ to\\ monitor\\ effect\\ of\\ HAART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Orphanage\\ care\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Community\\ support\\ for\\ orphans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\School\\ fees\\ for\\ orphans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lurie\\ emphasized\\ that\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ efforts\\ are\\ focused\\ care\\ \\&\\;\\ support\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ prevention\\ strategies\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\What\\ is\\ actually\\ being\\ done\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Only\\ 18\\%\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ SSA\\ receive\\ HIV\\ tests\\ during\\ pregnancy\\ and\\ i\\<\\/span\\>\\n\\ SSA\\,\\ of\\ the\\ women\\ who\\ know\\ they\\ are\\ HIV\\ positive\\,\\ only\\ 34\\%\\ are\\ receiving\\ antiretroviral\\ treatment\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\There\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ \\%\\ of\\ people\\ receiving\\ ART\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u00a6\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 38225\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\but\\ it\\ still\\ isn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ enough\\.\\ For\\ every\\ person\\ who\\ gets\\ on\\ treatment\\,\\ there\\ are\\ 7\\ new\\ infected\\ people\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ unless\\ we\\ address\\ prevention\\ side\\ we\\ are\\ never\\ going\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ epidemic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\As\\ Lurie\\ explained\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ unspoken\\ \\\"poor\\ country\\\"\\ and\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153rich\\ country\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ standard\\ for\\ when\\ to\\ give\\ people\\ drugs\\.\\ In\\ poor\\ countries\\,\\ people\\ get\\ treatment\\ late\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ And\\ in\\ rich\\ countries\\,\\ people\\ get\\ treatment\\ early\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ disease\\.\\ As\\ we\\ said\\ earlier\\,\\ people\\ are\\ most\\ infectious\\ early\\ on\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ get\\ people\\ on\\ treatment\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ their\\ status\\ is\\ known\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ do\\ because\\ most\\ people\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ even\\ know\\ they\\ are\\ infected\\ early\\ on\\ \\(no\\ clear\\ symptoms\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lurie\\ then\\ turned\\ to\\ the\\ questions\\:\\ Where\\ is\\ the\\ political\\ commitment\\?\\ Where\\ is\\ the\\ money\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\In\\ 2007\\ about\\ \\$17\\ billion\\ global\\ dollars\\ were\\ needed\\ for\\ HIV\\ treatment\\ and\\ prevention\\,\\ but\\ only\\ about\\ \\$9\\ billion\\ was\\ obtained\\.\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ juxtapose\\ this\\ number\\ with\\ what\\ was\\ spent\\ on\\ US\\ military\\ expenditures\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201d\\ about\\ \\$480\\ billion\\ in\\ 2004\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\As\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ below\\,\\ the\\ US\\ makes\\ the\\ greatest\\ contribution\\ to\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ treatment\\ and\\ prevention\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u00a6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.unaids\\.org\\/bangkok2004\\/GAR2004\\_html\\/GAR2004\\_39\\_en\\.gif\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u00a6however\\ when\\ one\\ considers\\ each\\ individual\\ countries\\ GNI\\ \\(see\\ image\\ below\\)\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ clear\\ that\\ the\\ US\\ should\\ be\\ giving\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>http\\:\\/\\/www\\.unaids\\.org\\/bangkok2004\\/GAR2004\\_html\\/GAR2004\\_40\\_en\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ UN\\ has\\ made\\ the\\ request\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\nADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 38958\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;every\\ country\\ give\\ 7\\/10\\ of\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ their\\ GNI\\ to\\ global\\ development\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ As\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ above\\,\\ the\\ US\\ is\\ giving\\ only\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\/10\\ of\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ our\\ GNI\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\In\\ summary\\,\\ Professor\\ Lurie\\ discussed\\ the\\ interdisciplinary\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ HIV\\ epidemic\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ each\\ epidemic\\ is\\ different\\ and\\ requires\\ different\\ priorities\\ and\\ solutions\\.\\ We\\ know\\ that\\ prevention\\ is\\ possible\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ we\\ dedicate\\ more\\ money\\ to\\ support\\ \\&\\;\\ care\\ than\\ prevention\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ we\\ may\\ need\\ to\\ review\\ our\\ priorities\\ when\\ determining\\ where\\ money\\ will\\ go\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ where\\ is\\ the\\ political\\ will\\?\\ Why\\ do\\ countries\\ like\\ the\\ US\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ and\\ yet\\ give\\ so\\ little\\?\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic: Where are we and where are we going?"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Capital Needs", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 548, "html": "\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Debt\\ and\\ Equity\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Corporations\\ can\\ raise\\ funds\\ through\\ various\\ channels\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Debt\\:\\&\\#160\\;selling\\ bonds\\ or\\ borrowing\\ from\\ banks\\ or\\ other\\ entities\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\e\\.g\\.\\ issuing\\ bonds\\ at\\ 8\\%\\ for\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ 15\\ years\\ from\\ \\$1000\\-\\ stockholders\\ would\\ receive\\ \\$40\\ twice\\ a\\ year\\ and\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 15\\ years\\ would\\ get\\ their\\ money\\ back\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Equity\\:\\ selling\\ stock\\ in\\ their\\ corporation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\This\\ is\\ essentially\\ selling\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ company\\ and\\ stockholders\\ will\\ collect\\ dividends\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\3\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Retained\\ earnings\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Cost\\ of\\ Funds\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Bonds\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ \\&\\#160\\;Company\\ makes\\ interest\\ payments\\ to\\ bond\\ holder\\ for\\ the\\ term\\ of\\ the\\ bond\\.\\ Usually\\ a\\ constant\\ amount\\.\\&\\#160\\;Failure\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ payment\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ default\\ and\\ bond\\ then\\ becomes\\ due\\ and\\ payable\\ in\\ its\\ entirety\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ amount\\ of\\ the\\ bond\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ Principal\\ and\\ sometimes\\ may\\ be\\ rolled\\ over\\ and\\ renewed\\ when\\ due\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Equity\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\&\\#160\\;No\\ interest\\ is\\ paid\\ on\\ equity\\.\\&\\#160\\;Sometimes\\,\\ dividends\\ are\\ paid\\.\\ Usually\\ these\\ are\\ a\\ per\\ cent\\ of\\ earnings\\ are\\ paid\\ quarterly\\.\\&\\#160\\;Management\\ may\\ elect\\ not\\ to\\ pay\\ dividends\\ in\\ any\\ year\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Example\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nTwo\\ companies\\ with\\ equal\\ assets\\ of\\ \\$100\\ Million\\.\\&\\#160\\;Company\\ A\\ raised\\ all\\ its\\ money\\ \\(assets\\)\\ by\\ selling\\ equity\\.\\&\\#160\\;Company\\ B\\ raised\\ \\$50\\ million\\ through\\ selling\\ equity\\,\\ and\\ \\$50\\ million\\ through\\ selling\\ a\\ bond\\ at\\ 8\\%\\ interest\\ per\\ annum\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Company\\ A\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Company\\ B\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\SALES\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$40\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$40\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\EXPENSES\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(\\$30M\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(\\$30M\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\EBITDA\\ \\*\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$10\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$10\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\INTEREST\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\0\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\(\\$4M\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\TAXABLE\\ EARNINGS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$10\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$6\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\TAXES\\ AT\\ 40\\%\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(\\$4M\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(\\$2\\.4\\ M\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\AFTER\\ TAX\\ EARNINGS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$6\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\$3\\.6\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\TOTAL\\ ASSETS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\100\\ M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\100M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\RETURN\\ ON\\ ASSETS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\6\\%\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\3\\.6\\%\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\SHAREHOLDER\\ EQUITY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\100M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\50M\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\RETURN\\ ON\\ EQUITY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\6\\%\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\7\\.2\\%\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Notes\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\*\\ What\\ is\\ EBITDA\\ and\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ calculate\\ it\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Revenue\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\(\\Expenses\\<\\/u\\>\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Gross\\ Margin\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\(S\\ \\&\\;\\ A\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\EBITDA\\-\\ Earnings\\ before\\ Interest\\ Taxes\\ Depreciation\\ Amortization\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\From\\ the\\ second\\ section\\ of\\ this\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ stockholders\\ receive\\ more\\ in\\ company\\ B\\ than\\ in\\ company\\ A\\:\\ 3\\.6\\%\\/100\\ rather\\ than\\ 6\\%\\/100\\ return\\ on\\ assets\\.\\&\\#160\\;Company\\ B\\ has\\ taken\\ the\\ stockholder\\ investment\\ and\\ made\\ it\\ bigger\\ through\\ borrowed\\ money\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Interest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ a\\ taxable\\ deduction\\;\\ dividends\\ are\\ an\\ after\\-tax\\ disbursement\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Debt\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creates\\ leverage\\-\\ using\\ other\\ people\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ money\\.\\&\\#160\\;Determine\\ if\\ positive\\ or\\ negative\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Debt\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ risky\\-need\\ to\\ always\\ pay\\ interest\\.\\&\\#160\\;A\\ measure\\ of\\ risk\\ is\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153interest\\ coverage\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Equity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ makes\\ manager\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ shareholder\\ pressures\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Non\\-profits\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ borrow\\,\\ not\\ sell\\ equity\\.\\&\\#160\\;Managers\\ are\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ pressure\\ from\\ donors\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\If\\ you\\ had\\ \\$100\\ Million\\ to\\ invest\\ would\\ you\\ chose\\ Company\\ A\\ or\\ two\\ Company\\ B\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\?\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\If\\ you\\ begin\\ with\\ \\$100\\ M\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;Through\\ bonds\\ you\\ would\\ pay\\ out\\ \\$8\\,000\\,000\\ interest\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;Through\\ stock\\ you\\ would\\ pay\\ out\\ 40\\%\\.\\&\\#160\\;If\\ earnings\\ were\\ \\$10\\,000\\,000\\ you\\ would\\ pay\\ out\\ \\$4\\,000\\,000\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\nTherefore\\,\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ selling\\ stocks\\ is\\ better\\ because\\ you\\ lose\\ \\$4\\ M\\ rather\\ than\\ \\$8\\ M\\.\\&\\#160\\;However\\,\\ people\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ always\\ choose\\ stocks\\ because\\ if\\ earnings\\ go\\ up\\ the\\ payout\\ will\\ also\\ increase\\.\\&\\#160\\;Hence\\,\\ if\\ earnings\\ are\\ \\$300\\,000\\,000\\ then\\ the\\ payout\\ will\\ be\\ \\$120\\,000\\,000\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ advantage\\ of\\ bonds\\ is\\ such\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ constant\\ payout\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\The\\ two\\ main\\ problems\\ in\\ equity\\ financing\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>constant\\ \\%\\ payout\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ownership\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Leveraged\\ Buyout\\ \\(LBO\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Investor\\ \\(the\\ nasty\\ term\\ is\\ raider\\)\\ borrows\\ \\$500\\,000\\,000\\ from\\ an\\ LBO\\ firm\\.\\&\\#160\\;With\\ this\\ sum\\ buys\\ more\\ than\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ outstanding\\ stock\\ of\\ a\\ company\\.\\&\\#160\\;Then\\ takes\\ the\\ company\\ private\\-\\ other\\ stockholders\\ have\\ no\\ choice\\ but\\ to\\ sell\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ investor\\ then\\ uses\\ cash\\ owned\\ by\\ the\\ company\\ plus\\ cash\\ flow\\ to\\ repay\\ the\\ loan\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ the\\ usual\\ case\\,\\ investor\\ reduces\\ company\\ expenditures\\ significantly\\ to\\ generate\\ the\\ required\\ cash\\ to\\ repay\\ loan\\.\\&\\#160\\;Investor\\ ends\\ up\\ owning\\ company\\ without\\ having\\ to\\ contribute\\ any\\ money\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\LBO\\ requires\\ that\\ original\\ stockholders\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ sell\\ shares\\ at\\ a\\ price\\ low\\ enough\\ so\\ debt\\ is\\ manageable\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Leverage\\ companies\\ are\\ also\\ very\\ volatile\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Capital Needs"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Cash Budgeting- Inflows and Outflows", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 545, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Today\\ we\\ worked\\ through\\ the\\ income\\ statement\\ of\\ Old\\ Barrel\\ Company\\.\\&\\#160\\;Old\\ Barrel\\ Company\\ is\\ a\\ wine\\ company\\.\\ In\\ the\\ income\\ statement\\,\\ it\\ is\\ Oct\\ 2008\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ forecast\\ for\\ 2009\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;Income\\ statement\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ a\\ financial\\ statement\\ showing\\ a\\ companies\\ income\\ and\\ expenses\\ over\\ a\\ given\\ period\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\To\\ do\\ this\\,\\ we\\ first\\ looked\\ at\\ their\\ \\expected\\ transactions\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\As\\ of\\ January\\ 1\\,\\ 2009\\ the\\ estimated\\ \\Cash\\ on\\ Hand\\ is\\ \\$250\\,000\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Expected\\ \\ \\ Transactions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\January\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Receipts\\ \\ \\ from\\ Foreign\\ Customers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$1\\,300\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ of\\ Dividend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$100\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\February\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ to\\ Suppliers\\:\\ White\\ Wine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$500\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reimbursement\\ \\ \\ of\\ Loan\\ Granted\\ by\\ Citizens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$50\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Advertising\\ Expenses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\March\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\April\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Receipts\\ \\ \\ from\\ Retailers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$5\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ to\\ suppliers\\:\\ Red\\ Wine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$1\\,300\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ of\\ Income\\ Tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$100\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\May\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ to\\ Suppliers\\:\\ Champagne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$600\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ to\\ suppliers\\:\\ alcohol\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$800\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ administrative\\ expenses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$575\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\June\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\payment\\ \\ \\ for\\ New\\ Refrigerated\\ Truck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ overtime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\July\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interest\\ \\ \\ paid\\ to\\ sovreign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$20\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\August\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Receipts\\ \\ \\ from\\ Supermarkets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$700\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\September\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ for\\ a\\ New\\ Shop\\ in\\ Boston\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$250\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\October\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Promotion\\ Expenditures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$250\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\November\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Receipts\\ \\ \\ from\\ Individual\\ Customers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$1\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ for\\ a\\ New\\ Shop\\ in\\ Providence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$300\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Overtime\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$150\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\December\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payments\\ \\ \\ for\\ New\\ Trucks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$100\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interest\\ \\ \\ paid\\ to\\ Fleet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$5\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reimbursement\\ \\ \\ of\\ a\\ Loan\\ from\\ Bank\\ RI\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$50\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Salaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$125\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Bonuses\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$100\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\We\\ can\\ then\\ complete\\ a\\ \\cash\\ flow\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Money\\ \\ \\ Inflows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Receipts\\ \\ \\ from\\ Customers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\8\\ Million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Total\\ Inflows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\8\\ Million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Money\\ \\ \\ Outflows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ to\\ Suppliers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\.2\\ \\ \\ Million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ to\\ Employees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ Million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ S\\&\\;A\\ Expenses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\975\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\25\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payment\\ \\ \\ of\\ Taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1\\ Million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Total\\ Outflows\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7\\.2\\ \\ \\ Million\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Net\\ \\ \\ Monetary\\ Flow\\ from\\ Operations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\800\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Definition\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ Operations\\ Management\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ management\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\ reserves\\ \\(including\\ labor\\)\\ required\\ for\\ production\\,\\ whether\\ the\\ product\\ is\\ a\\ manufactured\\ item\\ or\\ service\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\As\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ throughout\\ the\\ semester\\,\\ both\\ Dan\\ Leppo\\ \\(Macys\\)\\ and\\ Steve\\ Glenn\\ \\(Living\\ Homes\\)\\ were\\ concerned\\ with\\ operations\\ management\\ in\\ their\\ respective\\ firms\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Principle\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ Operations\\ should\\ be\\ consistent\\ with\\ strategy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Issues\\ of\\ concern\\ to\\ Operations\\ Manager\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Production\\ technology\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ including\\ automation\\,\\ factory\\ layout\\,\\ job\\ design\\ and\\ product\\ design\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ process\\ of\\ production\\ technology\\ is\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Single\\ project\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ batch\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ assembly\\ line\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ continuous\\ process\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Production\\ technology\\ is\\ also\\ concerned\\ with\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Efficiency\\ vs\\.\\ flexibility\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ balancing\\ the\\ desire\\ and\\ need\\ for\\ efficiency\\ in\\ production\\ with\\ the\\ flexibility\\ needed\\ by\\ workers\\ and\\ for\\ any\\ unseen\\ glitches\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ process\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bottlenecks\\,\\ balanced\\ line\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Make\\ or\\ buy\\-\\ the\\ decision\\ whether\\ to\\ make\\ or\\ buy\\ different\\ elements\\/parts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ Relationships\\ with\\ supplier\\(s\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Inventory\\ levels\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Trade\\ offs\\-\\ high\\ inventory\\ levels\\ also\\ result\\ in\\ high\\ storage\\ costs\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Managers\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ concerned\\ whether\\ the\\ product\\ will\\ lose\\ value\\ in\\ storage\\ over\\ time\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ However\\,\\ they\\ must\\ also\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ satisfy\\ customer\\ demands\\ without\\ much\\ delay\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ordering\\ costs\\ vs\\.\\ carrying\\ costs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Stockouts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Obsolescence\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Monitoring\\-\\ monitoring\\ inventory\\ levels\\ is\\ extremely\\ important\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ necessity\\ to\\ satisfy\\ consumer\\ demands\\ and\\ ensure\\ that\\ demand\\ can\\ be\\ met\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Just\\-in\\-time\\ production\\-\\ making\\ products\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ ready\\ to\\ be\\ sold\\&\\#160\\;\\\"just\\ in\\ time\\\"\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ can\\ have\\ bad\\ reprocutions\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ problems\\ in\\ the\\ process\\,\\ but\\ is\\ beneficial\\ because\\ it\\ decreases\\ storage\\ costs\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Low\\ inventory\\ levels\\ now\\ respected\\,\\ risky\\ for\\ managers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Schedules\\/\\ Scheduling\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sequencing\\-\\ deciding\\ which\\ order\\ things\\ should\\ be\\ produced\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Priorities\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Deliveries\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Managers\\ must\\ ensure\\ that\\ delivery\\ is\\ trustworthy\\,\\ reliable\\ and\\ on\\ time\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Coordination\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Manufacturing\\ Processes\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Labor\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Job\\ design\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Training\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Responsibility\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Transportation\\ of\\ goods\\ and\\ the\\ finished\\ product\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Quality\\ Control\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Monitoring\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Inspection\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Operations\\-\\ Quality\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Quality\\ is\\ important\\-\\ if\\ the\\ product\\ is\\ not\\ of\\ high\\ quality\\ customers\\ will\\ not\\ buy\\ it\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ low\\ the\\ price\\ is\\ set\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ service\\ jobs\\,\\ quality\\ depends\\ highly\\ on\\ the\\ attitudes\\ of\\ employees\\ who\\ interact\\ with\\ customers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Generic\\ Approach\\ to\\ Improving\\ Quality\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Be\\ alert\\ to\\ deficiencies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Find\\ specific\\ problems\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\3\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Diagnose\\ cause\\ or\\ causes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\4\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Determine\\ remedies\\-\\ both\\ systems\\ and\\ attitudes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\5\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Implement\\ remedies\\,\\ including\\ controls\\ to\\ hold\\ gains\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Operations Management, Quality"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "HBO Sports", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 543, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ was\\ conducted\\ by\\ Ross\\ Greenburg\\,\\ president\\ of\\ HBO\\ Sports\\ which\\ started\\ November\\ 8\\,\\ 1972\\.\\&\\#160\\;Ross\\ Greenburg\\ joined\\ HBO\\ when\\ it\\ had\\ a\\ staff\\ of\\ four\\ people\\ and\\ has\\ witnessed\\ its\\ evolution\\ into\\ the\\ premium\\ television\\ programming\\ subsidiary\\ of\\ Time\\ Warner\\,\\ offering\\ services\\ to\\ over\\ 38\\ million\\ US\\ citizens\\.\\&\\#160\\;To\\ view\\ more\\ about\\ HBO\\,\\ visit\\ the\\ HBO\\ website\\ at\\&\\#160\\;\\www\\.hbo\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThere\\ are\\ various\\ areas\\ of\\ business\\ within\\ HBO\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\1\\)\\ Channels\\ on\\ Movie\\ on\\ Demand\\ service\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\2\\)\\&\\#160\\;Original\\ Programming\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\3\\)\\ Movies\\-\\ HBO\\&\\#160\\;operates\\ through\\ an\\ exclusive\\ agreement\\ with\\&\\#160\\;DreamWorks\\,\\ Twentieth\\ Century\\ Fox\\,\\ Universal\\ Studios\\,\\ New\\ Line\\ Cinema\\ and\\ Warner\\ Bros\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\4\\)\\&\\#160\\;Sports\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\5\\)\\&\\#160\\;Documentaries\\-\\ Many\\ appear\\ under\\ the\\ America\\ Undercover\\ brand\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Among\\ the\\ regular\\ features\\ are\\ Real\\ Sex\\ and\\ Autopsy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\6\\)\\&\\#160\\;Branding\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\7\\)\\&\\#160\\;HBO\\&\\#160\\;on\\ Broadband\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\8\\)\\&\\#160\\;Merchandising\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\9\\)\\&\\#160\\;HBO\\&\\#160\\;Canada\\-\\ Starting\\ September\\ 2008\\ The\\ Movie\\ Network\\ and\\ The\\ Movie\\ Central\\ agreed\\ to\\ offer\\ HBO\\&\\#160\\;services\\ in\\ Canada\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\More\\ information\\ available\\ on\\ these\\ areas\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\ \\en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/HBO\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Ross\\ Greenburg\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ emphasized\\ three\\ points\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ found\\ important\\ to\\ his\\ experience\\ in\\ entrepreneurship\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Follow\\ what\\ you\\ love\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Ross\\ Greenburg\\ has\\ embodied\\ this\\ idea\\ through\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ really\\ wanted\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ the\\ television\\ and\\ sports\\ business\\.\\&\\#160\\;He\\ joined\\ HBO\\ because\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ follow\\ any\\ venue\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ become\\ involved\\ with\\ this\\ business\\.\\ Not\\ knowing\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ going\\,\\ Ross\\ Greenburg\\ got\\ involved\\ in\\ what\\ he\\ loved\\ and\\ what\\ he\\ knew\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ do\\.\\&\\#160\\;Though\\ this\\ may\\ not\\ always\\ be\\ the\\ case\\,\\ he\\ has\\ proven\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ successful\\ and\\ obtain\\ a\\ very\\ prominent\\ position\\ within\\ his\\ firm\\.\\&\\#160\\;Regardless\\ of\\ success\\ however\\,\\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ follow\\ what\\ you\\ love\\,\\ you\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ satisfied\\ and\\ happy\\ with\\ the\\ line\\ of\\ work\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ in\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Don\\'t\\ be\\ afraid\\ to\\ be\\ creative\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153To\\ live\\ a\\ creative\\ life\\,\\ we\\ must\\ lose\\ our\\ fear\\ of\\ being\\ wrong\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\"\\ \\-\\\\\\Joseph\\ Chilton\\ Pearce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\www\\.quoteland\\.com\\/topic\\.asp\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\This\\ quote\\ is\\ representative\\ of\\ Ross\\ Greenburg\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ views\\ on\\ entrepreneurship\\ and\\ creativity\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ Mr\\.\\ Greenburg\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ situation\\,\\ he\\ mentioned\\ that\\ whatever\\ ideas\\ he\\ thought\\ up\\,\\ he\\ would\\ present\\ and\\ see\\ what\\ everyone\\ else\\ thought\\.\\ As\\ expressed\\ by\\ Joseph\\ Chilton\\ Pearce\\,\\ creativity\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ lead\\ to\\ greatness\\ or\\ to\\ success\\,\\ but\\ fear\\ of\\ being\\ wrong\\ will\\ most\\ certainly\\ inhibit\\ the\\ chance\\ of\\ success\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSome\\ more\\ notable\\ results\\ of\\ Creativity\\ at\\ HBO\\:\\&\\#160\\;Original\\ programming\\ such\\ as\\ Angels\\ in\\ America\\,\\ Six\\ Feet\\ Under\\,\\ The\\ Sopranos\\,\\ Da\\ Ali\\ G\\ Show\\,\\ Flight\\ of\\ the\\ Conchords\\,\\ and\\&\\#160\\;Sex\\ and\\ the\\ City\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Work\\ as\\ a\\ team\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Mr\\.\\ Greenburg\\ stresses\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ every\\ role\\ in\\ a\\ business\\ is\\ important\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ minor\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ fact\\ to\\ remember\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\These\\ are\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ Ross\\ Greenburg\\ accentuates\\ as\\ most\\ important\\ in\\ both\\ entrepreneurship\\ and\\ success\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "HBO Sports"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:48.872123+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Marketing- Overview", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 528, "html": "\\\\Background\\ on\\ Population\\ Services\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ Population\\ Services\\ is\\ a\\ non\\ profit\\ organization\\ that\\ was\\ developed\\ to\\ help\\ control\\ population\\ expansion\\ in\\ less\\ developed\\ countries\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Bangladesh\\.\\ \\ The\\ specific\\ program\\ in\\ Bangladesh\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Social\\ Marketing\\ Program\\ which\\ focuses\\ on\\ two\\ products\\:\\ Raja\\ brand\\ condoms\\ and\\ Maya\\ brand\\ oral\\ contraceptives\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;Take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ PSI\\&\\#160\\;webpage\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\www\\.psi\\.org\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Definition\\ of\\ Marketing\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(Class\\ Notes\\)\\:\\ Marketing\\ is\\ the\\ performance\\ of\\ business\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ activities\\ that\\ direct\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ from\\ producer\\ to\\ consumer\\ or\\ user\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ satisfy\\ customers\\ and\\ accomplish\\ the\\ company\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ objectives\\.\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ uses\\ the\\ term\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153marketing\\ myopia\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ short\\-term\\ outlook\\ business\\ have\\ towards\\ marketing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ will\\ be\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ marketing\\ orientation\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ production\\ orientation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Key\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ Marketing\\ Strategy\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\ Selection\\ of\\ Target\\ Markets\\\\\r\\\nA\\ fellow\\ classmate\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ for\\ the\\ Population\\ Services\\ Industry\\ in\\ Bangladesh\\,\\ males\\ are\\ usually\\ the\\ purchasers\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ forms\\ of\\ birth\\ control\\.\\ \\ Additionally\\,\\ pharmacies\\ are\\ the\\ general\\ outlet\\ for\\ the\\ product\\ because\\ doctors\\ prescribe\\ the\\ drugs\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\ Development\\ of\\ the\\ Marketing\\ Mix\\\\\r\\\na\\)\\ Product\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ product\\ must\\ be\\ satisfactory\\ for\\ consumers\\.\\ \\ Each\\ product\\ goes\\ through\\ the\\ various\\ stages\\ of\\ the\\ Product\\ Life\\ Cycle\\ \\(start\\-up\\,\\ growth\\,\\ maturity\\,\\ decline\\)\\ over\\ time\\ and\\ the\\ relative\\ stage\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ must\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ consideration\\ by\\ marketing\\ officers\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nb\\)\\ Place\\\\\r\\\nc\\)\\ Promotion\\\\\r\\\nd\\)\\ Price\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Professor\\ Hazeltine\\ poses\\ the\\ question\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153\\Why\\ are\\ pills\\ not\\ being\\ bought\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ condoms\\ \\(in\\ Bangladesh\\)\\?\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>Firstly\\,\\ it\\ is\\ noted\\ that\\ the\\ major\\ consumer\\ is\\ males\\,\\ and\\ while\\ condoms\\ are\\ targeted\\ towards\\ males\\,\\ pills\\ are\\ solely\\ used\\ by\\ females\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ because\\ women\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ purchasers\\ of\\ birth\\ control\\,\\ it\\ follows\\ that\\ pills\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ purchased\\ than\\ condoms\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\Interesting\\ note\\:\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\ The\\ sales\\ of\\ both\\ condoms\\ and\\ pills\\ are\\ not\\ affected\\ by\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ the\\ product\\,\\ as\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ Unisted\\ States\\.\\ \\ \\ Additionally\\,\\ when\\ I\\ think\\ of\\ advertising\\ for\\ birth\\ control\\ products\\,\\ a\\ large\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ advertising\\ that\\ I\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ is\\ for\\ pills\\,\\ not\\ condoms\\.\\ I\\ personally\\ rarely\\ see\\ condom\\ advertisements\\.\\ \\ Could\\ this\\ be\\ because\\ the\\ US\\ faces\\ the\\ same\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153condoms\\ over\\ pills\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ dilemma\\ that\\ appears\\ in\\ Bangladesh\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Promotion\\ is\\ also\\ an\\ issue\\ for\\ Raja\\ brand\\ condoms\\ and\\ Maya\\ brand\\ oral\\ contraceptives\\ \\(pills\\)\\.\\ \\ The\\ low\\ price\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ leads\\ to\\ consumer\\ worries\\ about\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ \\(and\\ really\\,\\ birth\\ control\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ you\\ can\\ skimp\\ out\\ on\\)\\.\\ The\\ product\\ is\\ also\\ generic\\ and\\ distributed\\ by\\ rural\\ medical\\ practitioners\\-\\ not\\ huge\\ selling\\ points\\ for\\ any\\ product\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\So\\ what\\ can\\ PSI\\ do\\?\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Recommendations\\ are\\ minimal\\,\\ but\\ seminars\\ are\\ suggested\\ \\(once\\ again\\,\\ the\\ contributing\\ student\\ gets\\ a\\ good\\ old\\ hand\\ pound\\)\\.\\ Lecture\\ time\\ is\\ up\\,\\ but\\ we\\ are\\ left\\ with\\ some\\ food\\ for\\ thought\\ on\\ the\\ case\\:\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Does\\ the\\ sales\\ difficulty\\ for\\ pills\\ really\\ matter\\?\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Marketing- Overview"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Bloomingdales", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 540, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Bloomingdales\\ is\\ a\\ high\\ quality\\ and\\ high\\ scale\\ department\\ store\\ founded\\ in\\ 1885\\ and\\ owned\\ by\\ Macys\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ To\\ view\\ more\\ information\\ on\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ Bloomingdales\\ view\\ \\en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Bloomingdales\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Target\\ Audience\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Bloomingdales\\ targets\\ a\\ very\\ similar\\ audience\\ to\\ Nordstrom\\.\\ Generally\\,\\ this\\ audience\\ consists\\ of\\ people\\ whose\\ family\\ income\\ ranges\\ from\\ \\$100\\-150\\ thousand\\ yearly\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\However\\,\\ Bloomingdales\\ differs\\ from\\ Nordstrom\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ contemporary\\ whereas\\ Nordstrom\\ is\\ more\\ traditional\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ To\\ view\\ products\\ offered\\ by\\ Bloomingdales\\ visit\\ their\\ website\\ at\\ \\www\\.bloomingdales\\.com\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Dan\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ experience\\ is\\ in\\ sales\\,\\ and\\ he\\ covers\\ four\\ key\\ \\strategies\\ to\\ drive\\ sales\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Product\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Product\\ development\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Brand\\ INC\\ owned\\ by\\ Macys\\ and\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ distributed\\ by\\ Macys\\ stores\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Assortment\\ planning\\:\\ plan\\ based\\ on\\ what\\ they\\ need\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ to\\ stand\\ for\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Analysis\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ result\\ of\\ analysis\\ is\\ that\\ Bloomingdales\\ puts\\ cosmetics\\ at\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ store\\,\\ because\\ they\\ make\\ the\\ most\\ money\\ on\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Highest\\ sales\\ and\\ impulse\\ items\\ are\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ isles\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Alternate\\ things\\ to\\ analyze\\:\\ trends\\ of\\ sales\\,\\ turnover\\ of\\ stock\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Operations\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ get\\ product\\ to\\ the\\ store\\ first\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ display\\ it\\ better\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Store\\ design\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Educate\\ people\\ selling\\ the\\ product\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ knowledgeable\\ and\\ informed\\ when\\ interacting\\ with\\ consumers\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Communications\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Marketing\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Response\\ rates\\ for\\ last\\ years\\ e\\-mail\\ blasts\\ dropped\\ by\\ 50\\%\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ main\\ aim\\ when\\ establishing\\ marketing\\ techniques\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ who\\ has\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Another\\ aim\\ in\\ marketing\\ is\\ to\\ distort\\ ideas\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ create\\ trends\\ e\\.g\\.\\ style\\ of\\ wearing\\ a\\ blazer\\ with\\ jeans\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Bloomingdales\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ question\\:\\ \\How\\ do\\ we\\ transform\\ ourselves\\<\\/b\\>\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Bloomingdales\\ was\\ founded\\ in\\ 1885\\ and\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ two\\ stages\\ to\\ its\\ development\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1885\\-1995\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\In\\ this\\ time\\,\\ the\\ focus\\ on\\ young\\ men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ business\\ was\\ largely\\ on\\ Tommy\\ Hilfiger\\,\\ Nautica\\ and\\ Polo\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ most\\ expensive\\ pair\\ of\\ jeans\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ was\\ \\$54\\.00\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\After\\ 1995\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ Bloomingdales\\ fundamentally\\ changed\\ young\\ men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ business\\.\\&\\#160\\;They\\ took\\ 300\\ sq\\ ft\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ space\\ for\\ new\\ young\\ men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ ideas\\ in\\ 5\\ stores\\.\\ This\\ space\\ for\\ new\\ ideas\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ Diesel\\ and\\ Sean\\ Jean\\.\\&\\#160\\;Neither\\ were\\ huge\\ collections\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ but\\ Diesel\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ opening\\ price\\ for\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ jeans\\ was\\ \\$98\\.00\\ \\(almost\\ double\\ what\\ Bloomingdales\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ selling\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\To\\ work\\ with\\ these\\ new\\ brands\\,\\ Bloomingdales\\ ran\\ marketing\\ ads\\ in\\ regionalized\\ media\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Vibe\\ Magazine\\ and\\ used\\ gorilla\\ marketing\\ \\(posters\\,\\ phones\\,\\ and\\ taxi\\ ads\\)\\ and\\ celebrities\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Results\\ soared\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ year\\ and\\ Bloomingdales\\ had\\ their\\ highest\\ turnover\\ rates\\ in\\ their\\ young\\ men\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ department\\.\\&\\#160\\;However\\,\\ profitability\\ was\\ hurt\\ and\\ they\\ experienced\\ high\\ shortage\\ due\\ to\\ paperwork\\ mistakes\\,\\ theft\\ and\\ shipping\\ issues\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ high\\ shortage\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ poor\\ handling\\ of\\ a\\ product\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ product\\ being\\ highly\\ desirable\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Bloomingdales\\ also\\ spent\\ this\\ time\\ focusing\\ on\\ transforming\\ their\\ working\\ environment\\.\\&\\#160\\;They\\ needed\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ the\\ comfort\\ levels\\ of\\ both\\ sales\\ associates\\ and\\ comfort\\ levels\\ were\\ high\\,\\ and\\ that\\ appropriate\\ music\\ was\\ playing\\ in\\ correct\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ department\\ store\\.\\&\\#160\\;For\\ example\\,\\ Dan\\ told\\ the\\ class\\ one\\ story\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ found\\ an\\ 80\\ year\\ old\\ woman\\ selling\\ Sean\\ Jean\\ products\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ Bloomingdales\\ stores\\.\\&\\#160\\;Not\\ only\\ was\\ she\\ not\\ in\\ an\\ environment\\ that\\ was\\ comfortable\\ to\\ her\\,\\ but\\ this\\ greatly\\ impacted\\ on\\ her\\ ability\\ as\\ a\\ sales\\ associate\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Bloomingdales\\ also\\ extended\\ their\\ marketing\\ tactics\\ by\\ putting\\ ads\\ in\\ national\\ magazines\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Rolling\\ Stone\\,\\ Maxim\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ their\\ relationship\\ with\\ these\\ magazines\\,\\ the\\ magazines\\ sponsored\\ in\\ store\\ events\\,\\ model\\ searches\\,\\ provided\\ concert\\ tickets\\,\\ and\\ celebrity\\ appearances\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Unexpectedly\\,\\ Bloomingdales\\ change\\ towards\\ these\\ products\\ did\\ hurt\\ their\\ traditional\\ business\\ \\(Polo\\ and\\ Hilfiger\\)\\ that\\ no\\ longer\\ appeared\\ cool\\ or\\ cutting\\ edge\\.\\ Additionally\\,\\ Sean\\ Jean\\ sold\\ Macy\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ and\\ Diesel\\ tried\\ to\\ sell\\ Macy\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ \\(but\\ Bloomingdales\\ responded\\ to\\ this\\ by\\ ordering\\ more\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ brand\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Mixed\\ Results\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Bloomingdales\\ was\\ happy\\ with\\ their\\ financial\\ situation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Other\\ people\\ started\\ going\\ after\\ them\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ increase\\ in\\ competition\\ however\\,\\ made\\ them\\ work\\ harder\\.\\&\\#160\\;At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ they\\ dropped\\ Tommy\\ Hilfiger\\ and\\ cut\\ space\\ in\\ other\\ traditional\\ brands\\ and\\ bought\\ accessories\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Maxim\\ inserts\\ were\\ used\\ as\\ an\\ alternate\\ marketing\\ strategy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Bloomingdales\\ experienced\\ amazing\\ press\\ coverage\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Increased\\ profitability\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Added\\ capital\\ investments\\.\\&\\#160\\;For\\ example\\,\\ Bloomingdales\\ had\\ to\\ buy\\ bigger\\ hangers\\ to\\ adjust\\ to\\ their\\ new\\ products\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\In\\ year\\ four\\ \\(2002\\)\\,\\ Bloomingdales\\ hit\\ revenue\\ of\\ \\$22\\ million\\.\\&\\#160\\;They\\ also\\ raised\\ their\\ average\\ price\\ point\\.\\&\\#160\\;Currently\\,\\ diesel\\ jeans\\ open\\ at\\ a\\ price\\ of\\ \\$138\\.\\&\\#160\\;Bloomingdales\\ also\\ remains\\ cutting\\ edge\\,\\ and\\ was\\ even\\ the\\ first\\ department\\ store\\ to\\ carry\\ palm\\ pilots\\ and\\ iPods\\,\\ helping\\ them\\ to\\ further\\ differentiate\\ their\\ store\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Today\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ opportunity\\ for\\ Bloomingdales\\ to\\ grab\\ market\\ share\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ current\\ economic\\ situation\\.\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ businesses\\ such\\ as\\ Circuit\\ \\ City\\ and\\ Best\\ Buy\\.\\&\\#160\\;Even\\ though\\ the\\ economy\\ is\\ bad\\,\\ people\\ are\\ still\\ buying\\ the\\ technology\\ offered\\ by\\ these\\ stores\\,\\ however\\,\\ Best\\ Buy\\ is\\ experiencing\\ large\\ market\\ share\\ whilst\\ Circuit\\ City\\ is\\ not\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ order\\ to\\ grab\\ market\\ share\\,\\ a\\ store\\ such\\ as\\ Bloomingdales\\ must\\ have\\ excitement\\ and\\ new\\ store\\ concepts\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Bloomingdales"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.378657+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 560, "html": "\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.387259+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 561, "html": "\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ guest\\ lecturer\\ was\\ our\\ graduate\\ TA\\,\\ Monica\\ Bertoia\\.\\ She\\ lectured\\ about\\ \\Chronic\\ Non\\-Communicable\\ Diseases\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;Chronic\\ non\\-communicable\\ diseases\\ \\(CNCDs\\)\\ \\(will\\ be\\ referred\\ to\\ chronic\\ disease\\ from\\ here\\ on\\ out\\)\\ \\&\\#160\\;are\\ the\\ biggest\\ killers\\ in\\ almost\\ all\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ except\\ in\\ South\\ Asia\\ and\\ sub\\-Saharan\\ Africa\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.state\\.gov\\/cms\\_images\\/aging\\_figure\\_6\\.jpg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chronic\\&\\#160\\;\\ diseases\\ happen\\ later\\ in\\ life\\,\\ which\\ accounts\\ for\\ their\\ lower\\ DALY\\ value\\.\\ In\\ lower\\ income\\ countries\\,\\ only\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ top\\ ten\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\ are\\ chronic\\.\\ In\\ higher\\ income\\ countries\\,\\ nine\\ of\\ the\\ top\\ ten\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ are\\ chronic\\.\\ In\\ lower\\ income\\ countries\\,\\ four\\ out\\ of\\ ten\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\ \\(DALYs\\)\\ are\\ chronic\\ diseases\\ whereas\\ nine\\ out\\ of\\ ten\\ are\\ chronic\\ diseases\\ in\\ higher\\ income\\ countries\\.\\ Deaths\\ from\\ CNCDs\\ tend\\ to\\ occur\\ at\\ younger\\ ages\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Death\\ rates\\ for\\ CNCDs\\ are\\ higher\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Why\\ are\\ CNCDs\\ becoming\\ a\\ greater\\ burden\\ for\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Better\\ living\\ conditions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Better\\ education\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Improved\\ nutrition\\ \\(\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153overnutrition\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Improved\\ sanitation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Improved\\ health\\ practices\\ and\\ medical\\ care\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Growing\\ elderly\\ population\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-People\\ are\\ adopting\\ the\\ unhealthy\\ habits\\ of\\ those\\ living\\ in\\ developed\\ countries\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Industrialization\\,\\ urbanization\\,\\ economic\\ development\\,\\ and\\ increasing\\ food\\ market\\ globalization\\ cause\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>change\\ in\\ diet\\ habits\\ \\(nutrition\\ transition\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>change\\ in\\ physical\\ activity\\ levels\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\u00c2\\\u00b7\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>change\\ in\\ tobacco\\ use\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-These\\ changes\\ are\\ occurring\\ faster\\ than\\ they\\ did\\ in\\ developed\\ countries\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ developing\\ countries\\ are\\ then\\ dealing\\ with\\ a\\ DOUBLE\\ BURDEN\\ of\\ CNCDs\\ and\\ infectious\\ disease\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Terms\\ to\\ know\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Health\\ transition\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ involves\\ epidemiologic\\ transition\\ and\\ demographic\\ transition\\ combined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Epidemiologic\\ transition\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ happens\\ in\\ four\\ stages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Stage\\ 1\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ malnutrition\\ and\\ infectious\\ disease\\ are\\ the\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ morbidity\\ \\(Sub\\-saharan\\ Africa\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ region\\ in\\ Satge\\ 1\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Stage\\ 2\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Improved\\ nutrition\\ and\\ public\\ health\\ leads\\ to\\ increase\\ in\\ CNCDs\\ \\(Southeast\\ Asia\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ region\\ in\\ stage\\ 2\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Stage\\ 3\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Increased\\ fat\\ and\\ caloric\\ intake\\,\\ widespread\\ tobacco\\ use\\,\\ CNCD\\ deaths\\ surpass\\ deaths\\ from\\ infections\\ and\\ malnutrition\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\(Eastern\\ Europe\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ region\\ in\\ stage\\ 3\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Stage\\ 4\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ CVD\\ and\\ cancer\\ are\\ the\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ morbidity\\ and\\ mortality\\ l\\ primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ prevention\\ efforts\\ lead\\ to\\ declines\\ in\\ age\\-adjusted\\ CVD\\ \\(The\\ US\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ in\\ stage\\ 4\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Nutrition\\ transition\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\\\&\\#160\\;shift\\ from\\ high\\ mortality\\ and\\ high\\ fertility\\ to\\ low\\ mortality\\ and\\ low\\ fertility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.cpc\\.unc\\.edu\\/projects\\/nutrans\\/images\\/stages\\_1\\.jpg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\CNCDs\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ few\\ preventable\\ risk\\ factors\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Diet\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Physical\\ activity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Alcohol\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Smoking\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Obesity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Hypertension\\ \\&\\;\\ high\\ cholesterol\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ first\\ CNCD\\ covered\\ was\\ cardiovascular\\ disease\\ \\(CVD\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\CVD\\ includes\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ different\\ diseases\\:\\ coronary\\ heart\\ disease\\ \\(coronary\\ artery\\ disease\\,\\ ischemic\\ heart\\ disease\\ \\(IHD\\)\\)\\,\\ hypertension\\,\\ cerebrovascular\\ disease\\ \\(stroke\\)\\,\\ peripheral\\ artery\\ disease\\,\\ rheumatic\\ artery\\ disease\\,\\ congenital\\ heart\\ disease\\ \\(CHD\\)\\,\\ and\\ heart\\ failure\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ over\\ 300\\ risk\\ factors\\ for\\ CVD\\;\\ some\\ are\\ modifiable\\ and\\ some\\ are\\ non\\-modifiable\\.\\ Some\\ example\\ of\\ modifiable\\ risk\\ factors\\ are\\ hypertension\\,\\ smoking\\,\\ high\\ cholesterol\\,\\ poor\\ LDL\\:\\ HDL\\ ration\\,\\ obesity\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ exercise\\,\\ unhealthy\\ diet\\,\\ type\\ 2\\ diabetes\\.\\ Some\\ examples\\ of\\ non\\-modifiable\\ risk\\ factors\\ are\\ age\\,\\ gender\\,\\ race\\/ethnicity\\,\\ and\\ heredity\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\CVD\\ burden\\ is\\ concentrated\\ in\\ developing\\ countries\\ \\(80\\%\\)\\.\\ More\\ than\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ the\\ global\\ burden\\ of\\ CHD\\ occurs\\ in\\ developmental\\ countries\\.\\ IHD\\,\\ stroke\\,\\ and\\ congestive\\ heart\\ failures\\ are\\ the\\ biggest\\ contributors\\ to\\ the\\ global\\ burden\\ of\\ CVD\\.\\ About\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ CVD\\ is\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ common\\,\\ and\\ modifiable\\ risk\\ factors\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Risk\\ factors\\ for\\ CVD\\ are\\ becoming\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ the\\ high\\-mortality\\ and\\ low\\-mortality\\ developing\\ countries\\.\\ Risk\\ factors\\ for\\ CVD\\ are\\ dominant\\ in\\ developed\\ countries\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BMI\\ and\\ cholesterol\\ increase\\ rapidly\\ with\\ increasing\\ GDP\\,\\ but\\ begin\\ to\\ taper\\ off\\ and\\ lower\\ once\\ a\\ certain\\ GDP\\ is\\ reached\\.\\ Blood\\ pressure\\ does\\ not\\ follow\\ the\\ same\\ trend\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ tends\\ to\\ rise\\ and\\ then\\ level\\ off\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ inverse\\ relationship\\ between\\ BMI\\/cholesterol\\ and\\ the\\ food\\ share\\ of\\ expenditure\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ positive\\ relationship\\ with\\ proportion\\ of\\ population\\ that\\ is\\ urban\\.\\ CVD\\ is\\ predicted\\ to\\ shift\\ to\\ low\\ and\\ middle\\-income\\ countries\\,\\ and\\ together\\ with\\ current\\ burden\\ of\\ infectious\\ diseases\\,\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ lower\\ and\\ middle\\-income\\ countries\\ will\\ be\\ doubly\\ burdened\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\How\\ can\\ CVD\\ be\\ prevented\\ and\\ controlled\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ There\\ are\\ primary\\ prevention\\ strategies\\ that\\ can\\ reduce\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ risk\\ factors\\ such\\ as\\ anti\\-smoking\\ campaigns\\ and\\ education\\.\\ There\\ are\\ systems\\ approach\\ prevention\\ strategies\\,\\ which\\ are\\ policy\\ and\\ environmental\\ changes\\ that\\ reduce\\ the\\ gap\\ between\\ knowledge\\ and\\ practice\\ such\\ as\\ increasing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ medical\\ professionals\\ and\\ working\\ in\\ CNCD\\ control\\.\\ Finally\\ there\\ are\\ secondary\\ prevention\\ strategies\\,\\ which\\ are\\ utilized\\ once\\ heart\\ disease\\ is\\ diagnosed\\ to\\ prevent\\ MI\\,\\ stroke\\,\\ and\\ heart\\ failure\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ next\\ CNCD\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ was\\ cancer\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\40\\%\\ of\\ cancer\\ is\\ preventable\\ though\\ modification\\ of\\ risk\\ factors\\ such\\ as\\ smoking\\,\\ alcohol\\ use\\,\\ low\\ frit\\ and\\ vegetable\\ intake\\,\\ physical\\ inactivity\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cancer\\ causes\\ 7\\.9\\ million\\ deaths\\ in\\ 2007\\,\\ which\\ is\\ around\\ 13\\%\\ of\\ all\\ death\\.\\ 30\\-40\\%\\ of\\ cancer\\ deaths\\ can\\ be\\ prevented\\.\\ About\\ 72\\%\\ of\\ all\\ cancer\\ deaths\\ in\\ 2007\\ occurred\\ in\\ low\\ and\\ middle\\ income\\ countries\\.\\ Tobacco\\ use\\ is\\ the\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ risk\\ factor\\ for\\ cancer\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ top\\ five\\ cancers\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ \\(in\\ order\\)\\ are\\ lung\\,\\ stomach\\,\\ liver\\,\\ colon\\,\\ and\\ breast\\ cancer\\.\\ There\\ are\\ more\\ total\\ deaths\\ from\\ cancer\\ in\\ low\\ and\\ middle\\ income\\ countries\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/info\\.cancerresearchuk\\.org\\/images\\/gpimages\\/cs\\_wor\\_f4\\.3\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Amongst\\ males\\ lung\\ cancer\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ prevalent\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ developed\\ and\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Prostate\\ cancer\\ is\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ whereas\\ stomach\\ cancer\\ and\\ liver\\ cancer\\ are\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nAmongst\\ females\\ breast\\ cancer\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ prevalent\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ developed\\ and\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Colorectal\\ cancer\\ is\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\.\\ Whereas\\ cervix\\ cancer\\ is\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\30\\-40\\%\\ of\\ cancer\\ could\\ be\\ prevented\\ by\\ modifying\\ or\\ avoiding\\ key\\ risk\\ factors\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-tobacco\\ use\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-being\\ overweight\\ or\\ obese\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-low\\ fruit\\ and\\ vegetable\\ intake\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-physical\\ inactivity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-alcohol\\ use\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-sexually\\ transmitted\\ infections\\,\\ such\\ as\\ HIV\\ and\\ HPV\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-urban\\ air\\ pollution\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-indoor\\ smoke\\ from\\ household\\ use\\ of\\ solid\\ fuels\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Some\\ prevention\\ strategies\\ for\\ cancer\\ are\\ reducing\\ prevalence\\ of\\ the\\ risk\\ factors\\ listed\\ above\\ are\\ screening\\ and\\ early\\ detection\\,\\ vaccinating\\ against\\ HPC\\ and\\ hepatitis\\ B\\ virus\\ infection\\,\\ controlling\\ occupation\\ hazards\\,\\ and\\ reducing\\ exposure\\ to\\ sunlight\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Moving\\ on\\ to\\ chronic\\ respiratory\\ diseases\\ which\\ includes\\ chronic\\ obstructive\\ pulmonary\\ disease\\ \\(COPD\\)\\ \\(such\\ as\\ bronchitis\\ and\\ emphysema\\)\\,\\ asthma\\,\\ respiratory\\ allergies\\,\\ occupational\\ lung\\ disease\\,\\ and\\ pulmonary\\ hypertension\\.\\ COPD\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ 7\\%\\ of\\ deaths\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\COPD\\ risk\\ factors\\ are\\ smoking\\,\\ indoor\\ air\\ pollution\\,\\ occupational\\ exposure\\ to\\ chemical\\,\\ frequent\\ respiratory\\ infections\\,\\ and\\ Prematurity\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ 2002\\,\\ COPD\\ was\\ the\\ fifth\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ worldwide\\.\\ Total\\ deaths\\ from\\ COPD\\ are\\ projected\\ to\\ increase\\ by\\ more\\ than\\ 30\\%\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ 10\\ years\\ unless\\ urgent\\ action\\ is\\ taken\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ underlying\\ risk\\ factors\\,\\ most\\ importantly\\ tobacco\\ use\\.\\ Estimates\\ show\\ that\\ COPD\\ will\\ become\\ the\\ third\\ leading\\ cause\\ of\\ death\\ worldwide\\ by\\ 2030\\.\\ Also\\,\\ almost\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ COPD\\ deaths\\ occur\\ in\\ low\\ and\\ middle\\ income\\ countries\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\CNCDs\\ kill\\ younger\\ people\\ in\\ developing\\ nations\\ and\\ are\\ a\\ drain\\ on\\ individual\\ and\\ national\\ income\\.\\ The\\ money\\ spent\\ on\\ medicine\\ to\\ treat\\ CNCDs\\ cannot\\ be\\ spent\\ on\\ food\\ or\\ education\\.\\ In\\ general\\,\\ health\\ system\\ are\\ feared\\ towards\\ acute\\ not\\ long\\-term\\ care\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Fetal\\ programming\\ holds\\ that\\ early\\ life\\ events\\ will\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ development\\ of\\ CNCDs\\ in\\ adulthood\\ \\(called\\ developmental\\ plasticity\\)\\.\\ The\\ development\\ origins\\ hypothesis\\ holds\\ that\\ the\\ fetus\\ gets\\ cues\\ from\\ its\\ mother\\ about\\ her\\ health\\ or\\ physical\\ state\\.\\ The\\ fetus\\ adapts\\ according\\ to\\ these\\ cues\\ by\\ changing\\ its\\ metabolism\\,\\ hormone\\ production\\,\\ or\\ hormone\\ sensitivity\\.\\ These\\ changes\\ persist\\ and\\ alter\\ adult\\ physiology\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.nature\\.com\\/ncpendmet\\/journal\\/v3\\/n7\\/images\\/ncpendmet0531\\-f1\\.jpg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Evidence\\ for\\ fetal\\ programming\\ are\\ abundant\\.\\ Smaller\\ size\\ at\\ birth\\ or\\ relative\\ thinness\\ during\\ infancy\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ increased\\ rates\\ or\\ metabolic\\ disorders\\ such\\ as\\ stroke\\,\\ type\\ 2\\ diabetes\\,\\ adiposity\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Prematurity\\ is\\ often\\ associated\\ with\\ insulin\\ resistance\\ and\\ glucose\\ intolerance\\.\\ Higher\\ maternal\\ calcium\\ intake\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ lower\\ infant\\ blood\\ pressure\\.\\ Maternal\\ smoking\\ is\\ connected\\ to\\ a\\ greater\\ risk\\ of\\ obesity\\ in\\ the\\ child\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ if\\ we\\ have\\ two\\ adults\\ who\\ carry\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ lifestyle\\ they\\ may\\ have\\ different\\ disease\\ development\\.\\ Fetal\\ programming\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ explain\\ that\\ difference\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.403435+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Health & Nutrition Transitions", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 562, "html": "\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\,\\ \\Health\\ \\&\\;\\ Nutrition\\ Transitions\\<\\/strong\\>\\ given\\ by\\ Professor\\ McGarvey\\,\\ was\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ Monica\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ on\\ Monday\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nProfessor\\ McGarvey\\ started\\ with\\ life\\ expectancy\\ estimates\\.\\ The\\ general\\ pattern\\ of\\ longevity\\ \\(life\\ expectancy\\)\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ is\\ positive\\ with\\ projected\\ life\\ expectancy\\ in\\ 2030\\ projected\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ higher\\ than\\ estimated\\ life\\ expectancy\\ in\\ 2002\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/static\\.howstuffworks\\.com\\/gif\\/map\\-life\\-expectancy\\.jpg\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWhen\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ ten\\ leading\\ causes\\ for\\ the\\ world\\,\\ ischemic\\ heart\\ disease\\ rates\\ first\\ followed\\ by\\ cerebrovascular\\ disease\\ and\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\.\\ In\\ high\\ income\\ countries\\ ischemic\\ heart\\ disease\\ is\\ also\\ ranked\\ first\\ followed\\ by\\ ceberovascular\\ disease\\ and\\ trachea\\,\\ brochus\\ and\\ lung\\ cancers\\.\\ In\\ low\\ income\\ countries\\ ischemic\\ heart\\ disease\\ also\\ leads\\ followed\\ by\\ HIV\\/AIDS\\ and\\ cerebrovascular\\ disease\\.\\ The\\ 15\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ DALYs\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ the\\ past\\ years\\ and\\ are\\ expected\\ to\\ continue\\ changing\\.\\ For\\ example\\ periantal\\ conditions\\ were\\ ranked\\ 1st\\ in\\ 2002\\ but\\ are\\ predicted\\ to\\ be\\ ranked\\ 5th\\ by\\ 2030\\.\\ Lower\\ respiratory\\ infections\\,\\ ranked\\ 2nd\\ in\\ 2002\\,\\ are\\ predicted\\ to\\ be\\ ranked\\ 8th\\ in\\ 2030\\.\\ Diarrhoeal\\ diseases\\,\\ ranked\\ 5th\\ in\\ 2002\\,\\ are\\ predicted\\ to\\ be\\ ranked\\ 12th\\ in\\ 2030\\.\\ These\\ changes\\ are\\ very\\ indicative\\ of\\ progess\\ through\\ the\\ health\\ transition\\ and\\ its\\ effects\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nUnipolar\\ depression\\ has\\ emerged\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ source\\ of\\ disability\\ for\\ all\\ income\\ groups\\.\\ There\\ is\\ currently\\ an\\ surge\\ of\\ research\\ being\\ untaken\\ about\\ underlying\\ conditions\\ that\\ promote\\ common\\ mental\\ disorders\\ in\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\.\\ The\\ understanding\\ is\\ the\\ mental\\ health\\ is\\ affecting\\ the\\ major\\ tasks\\ people\\ do\\ or\\ are\\ inspired\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ Stressful\\ life\\ events\\ \\(death\\ of\\ family\\ or\\ friends\\,\\ job\\ loss\\,\\ population\\ dislocation\\,\\ conflict\\,\\ refugee\\ status\\,\\ etc\\)\\ and\\ food\\ insecurity\\ were\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ two\\ prevalent\\ aspects\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ much\\ research\\ on\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ these\\ modifiable\\ conditions\\ in\\ shaping\\ mental\\ health\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOne\\ finding\\ suggests\\ that\\ secure\\ access\\ to\\ food\\ impacts\\ health\\ and\\ nutrition\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ improves\\ mental\\ health\\.\\ This\\ finding\\ has\\ major\\ policy\\ implications\\.\\ Interventions\\ that\\ attend\\ to\\ food\\ security\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\ as\\ dually\\ serving\\:\\ extending\\ beyond\\ boosting\\ nutrition\\ into\\ decreasing\\ mental\\ health\\ burden\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ is\\ a\\ dynamic\\ relationships\\ between\\ stunting\\ and\\ obesity\\.\\ These\\ nutritional\\ states\\ which\\ would\\ apparently\\ be\\ self\\-regulated\\ are\\ \\(baded\\ on\\ trends\\ and\\ current\\ statistics\\)\\ clearly\\ not\\ regulated\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMcGarvey\\ asserted\\ the\\ preventing\\ obesity\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ priority\\ from\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ the\\ CVD\\ risks\\ we\\ discussed\\ the\\ other\\ day\\.\\ Population\\-level\\ and\\ personal\\ interventions\\ for\\ blood\\ pressure\\ and\\ cholesterol\\ should\\ be\\ made\\&\\#160\\;\\ priority\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ nutrition\\ transition\\ is\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ starchy\\,\\ low\\ variety\\,\\ low\\ fat\\,\\ high\\ fiber\\ foods\\ to\\ increased\\ fat\\,\\ sugar\\,\\ processed\\ food\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ another\\ shift\\ to\\ reduced\\ fat\\,\\ increased\\ fruit\\ and\\ vegetables\\,\\ CHO\\ and\\ high\\ fiber\\ foods\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ shift\\ from\\ labor\\ intensive\\ work\\/leisure\\ to\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ technology\\ of\\ work\\ and\\ leisure\\ and\\ then\\ another\\ shift\\ to\\ purposeful\\ changes\\ in\\ recreation\\,\\ and\\ increase\\ in\\ other\\ activity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.cpc\\.unc\\.edu\\/nutrans\\/images\\/stages\\_2\\.jpg\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nAs\\ countries\\ transition\\ from\\ agriculture\\ to\\ manufacturing\\ to\\ service\\ jobs\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ serious\\ observed\\ decrease\\ in\\ physical\\ activity\\.\\ There\\ has\\ also\\ be\\ an\\ observable\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ consumption\\ simple\\ carbohydrates\\ and\\ a\\ decrease\\ portion\\ control\\ and\\ an\\ increase\\ of\\ portion\\ size\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ factors\\ contribute\\ to\\ a\\ countries\\ transition\\ into\\ prevalence\\ of\\ CNCDs\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThw\\ WHO\\ standards\\ for\\ overweight\\ and\\ obesity\\ are\\ measured\\ through\\ Body\\ Mass\\ Index\\ \\(BMI\\)\\ which\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153a\\ reliable\\ indicator\\ of\\ total\\ body\\ fat\\ in\\ males\\ and\\ females\\,\\ which\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ disease\\ and\\ death\\.\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ BMI\\ is\\ measured\\ as\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWt\\ \\(kg\\)\\/\\ Ht\\^2\\(m\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nUnderweight\\ is\\ a\\ score\\ that\\ is\\ \\<\\;18\\.5\\.\\ Normal\\ weight\\ is\\ a\\ score\\ between\\ 18\\.5\\-24\\.9\\.\\ Overweight\\ is\\ a\\ score\\ that\\ is\\ \\>\\ or\\ \\=\\ 25\\.\\ Pre\\-obese\\ is\\ a\\ score\\ of\\ 25\\-29\\.9\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.hollyhouse\\-hospital\\.co\\.uk\\/content\\/Image\\/BMI\\.jpg\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBMI\\ has\\ been\\ found\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ few\\ limitations\\ such\\ as\\ it\\ may\\ overestimate\\ body\\ fat\\ in\\ athletes\\ and\\ people\\ with\\ muscular\\ build\\.\\ It\\ also\\ may\\ underestimate\\ body\\ fat\\ in\\ older\\ people\\ and\\ other\\ people\\ that\\ have\\ lost\\ muscle\\ mass\\.\\ Also\\,\\ different\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ may\\ have\\ different\\ compositions\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Health & Nutrition Transitions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.427906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Health and Nutrition Transitions Pt. 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 564, "html": "\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ lecture\\ was\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ last\\ Wednesday\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ conversation\\ about\\ \\Health\\ \\&\\;\\ Nutrition\\ Transitions\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Many\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\,\\ most\\ prominently\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\,\\ Latin\\ America\\,\\ and\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Africa\\,\\ have\\ what\\ would\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ BMI\\,\\ putting\\ them\\ at\\ risk\\ for\\ many\\ conditions\\ \\(CNCDs\\)\\ that\\ would\\ become\\ a\\ huge\\ burden\\ on\\ unstable\\ health\\ care\\ systems\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/newsimg\\.bbc\\.co\\.uk\\/media\\/images\\/44342000\\/gif\\/\\_44342178\\_global\\_obesity\\_map416\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/socialmarketing\\.blogs\\.com\\/photos\\/uncategorized\\/2007\\/10\\/23\\/global\\_obesity\\_women\\_circulation\\_\\_2\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Obesity\\ levels\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ \\&\\#160\\;positively\\ related\\ to\\ GNP\\ but\\ only\\ until\\ approximately\\ \\$1\\,500\\ per\\ capita\\.\\ Countries\\ with\\ over\\ \\$1\\,500\\ GNP\\ had\\ no\\ association\\.\\ Connections\\ between\\ obesity\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>and\\ urban\\ residence\\/\\ education\\ were\\ stronger\\ in\\ poorer\\ nations\\ than\\ in\\ richer\\ nations\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Women\\ in\\ West\\ African\\ countries\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ obese\\ than\\ men\\,\\ approximately\\ 3\\.16\\%\\ in\\ urban\\ areas\\ and\\ 4\\.47\\%\\ in\\ rural\\ areas\\ \\(although\\ bear\\ in\\ mind\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ living\\ in\\ urban\\ vs\\.\\ rural\\ areas\\)\\.\\ The\\ trends\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ obesity\\ in\\ urban\\ West\\ Africa\\ more\\ than\\ doubled\\ over\\ 15\\ years\\.\\ This\\ change\\ accounted\\ almost\\ entirely\\ for\\ increasing\\ obesity\\ in\\ women\\.\\ Urban\\ residence\\ almost\\ always\\ decreases\\ physical\\ activity\\ and\\ increases\\ access\\ to\\ unhealthy\\ foods\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Within\\ men\\ in\\ South\\ Africa\\,\\ about\\ 60\\%\\ are\\ normal\\ weight\\ whereas\\ only\\ about\\ 38\\%\\ of\\ women\\ are\\ normal\\ weight\\.\\ Less\\ than\\ 10\\%\\ of\\ men\\ are\\ obese\\ whereas\\ a\\ little\\ over\\ 30\\%\\ of\\ women\\ are\\ obsese\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>About\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ men\\ are\\ underweight\\ and\\ about\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ women\\ are\\ underweight\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ an\\ obvious\\ coexistence\\ between\\ overweight\\ and\\ underweight\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.fao\\.org\\/docrep\\/007\\/y5069e\\/y5069e0f\\.gif\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rapid\\ urbanization\\ and\\ the\\ nutrition\\ transition\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ reliance\\ on\\ energy\\ dense\\ diets\\ and\\ physical\\ inactivity\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>ADDIN\\ AudioMarker\\ 10478\\ \\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ supportFields\\]\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Co\\-distributions\\ of\\ underweight\\ and\\ overweight\\ individuals\\ is\\ conditional\\ on\\ stage\\ of\\ economic\\ development\\ and\\ age\\ distribution\\ of\\ households\\.\\ Intrahousehold\\ food\\ allocation\\ influences\\ the\\ under\\/under\\ weight\\ phenomenon\\ \\(with\\ children\\ tending\\ to\\ be\\ underweight\\,\\ and\\ adults\\ tending\\ to\\ be\\ overweight\\)\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ would\\ call\\ households\\ with\\ both\\ underweight\\ and\\ overweight\\ members\\\\ the\\ nutrition\\ paradox\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Obesity\\ trends\\ in\\ America\\ have\\ increased\\ substantially\\ throughout\\ the\\ years\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 20\\ years\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ strong\\ negative\\ or\\ inverse\\ association\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ other\\ developed\\ nations\\ between\\ BMI\\,\\ percent\\ overweight\\ and\\ SES\\ or\\ other\\ social\\ position\\ measures\\.\\ This\\ inverse\\ relationship\\ occurs\\ because\\ of\\ health\\ literacy\\ and\\ food\\ costs\\/\\ food\\ insecurity\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ complex\\ association\\ of\\ hunger\\ to\\ food\\ insecurity\\,\\ 65\\%\\ of\\ food\\ secure\\ households\\ show\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ hunger\\,\\ 25\\%\\ report\\ moderate\\ hunger\\,\\ and\\ only\\ 7\\%\\ report\\ severe\\ hunger\\.\\ In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ women\\ and\\ food\\ security\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ tendency\\ to\\ be\\ overweight\\:\\ 58\\%\\ of\\ women\\ from\\ food\\ insecure\\ households\\ are\\ overweight\\ vs\\.\\ 47\\%\\ in\\ non\\-insecure\\ households\\.\\ The\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ low\\ income\\ households\\ first\\ consume\\ less\\ expensive\\ foods\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ maximize\\ caloric\\ intake\\ relative\\ to\\ cost\\ of\\ food\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Due\\ to\\ food\\ production\\ and\\ the\\ food\\ industry\\,\\ energy\\ dense\\ foods\\ are\\ more\\ abundant\\ and\\ cheaper\\/more\\ accessible\\ than\\ ever\\ before\\.\\ Energy\\ dense\\ foods\\ \\(high\\ fat\\ and\\ high\\ sugar\\)\\ are\\ less\\ expensive\\ but\\ have\\ high\\ hedonic\\ properties\\ and\\ produce\\ less\\ satiety\\,\\ they\\ also\\ have\\ a\\ longer\\ shelf\\ life\\.\\ This\\ combination\\ of\\ low\\ cost\\,\\ high\\ pleasure\\ and\\ low\\ satiety\\ leads\\ to\\ over\\ consumption\\ and\\ chronic\\ positive\\ energy\\ balance\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Energy\\ density\\ and\\ energy\\ cost\\ are\\ inversely\\ related\\ through\\ deliberate\\ choices\\ of\\ food\\ insecure\\ or\\ low\\ income\\ households\\ to\\ save\\ money\\.\\ Energy\\ dense\\ foods\\ are\\ much\\ cheaper\\ than\\ nutrient\\-rich\\,\\ lower\\ calorie\\ foods\\ such\\ as\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\.\\ Similar\\ changes\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ be\\ observed\\ in\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ Latin\\ America\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>The\\ biggest\\ takeaway\\ point\\ from\\ this\\ last\\ lecture\\ is\\ to\\ observe\\ health\\ trends\\ through\\ a\\ global\\ lens\\.\\ As\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ begins\\ to\\ go\\ though\\ all\\ the\\ transitions\\ and\\ move\\ to\\ high\\ prevalence\\ of\\ CNCDs\\,\\ there\\ continues\\ to\\ be\\ high\\ prevalence\\ of\\ infectious\\ diseases\\.\\ This\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153double\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ burden\\ facing\\ the\\ developing\\ world\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ challenge\\ for\\ the\\ individual\\ health\\ systems\\ in\\ each\\ country\\ and\\ region\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": "Health and Nutrition Transitions Pt. 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.440252+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 565, "html": "\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 85, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.464158+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 567, "html": "\\February\\ 9\\,\\ 2005\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Metaphysical\\ Poetry\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Donne\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Relic\\&rdquo\\;\\-\\ merging\\ a\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ bed\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ judgment\\ \\(love\\ poem\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-An\\ even\\ musical\\ tone\\ but\\ an\\ untraditional\\ image\\ mixing\\ the\\ holy\\ and\\ unholy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-A\\ transition\\ poem\\ between\\ his\\ bawdy\\ phase\\ to\\ his\\ holy\\ one\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Christian\\ focus\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ soul\\ but\\ the\\ body\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ last\\ judgment\\ is\\ a\\ real\\ bodily\\ act\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ soul\\ act\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-People\\ are\\ raised\\ up\\ in\\ their\\ actual\\ bodies\\ miraculously\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-What\\ is\\ the\\ consequence\\ of\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ soul\\ matters\\ not\\ the\\ body\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-If\\ this\\ were\\ the\\ case\\,\\ then\\ Christianity\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ concerned\\ with\\ helping\\ the\\ poor\\ or\\ practicing\\ chastity\\.\\ \\;\\ But\\ Christianity\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ soul\\ are\\ inextricably\\ joined\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Summary\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ wants\\ a\\ bracelet\\ of\\ bright\\ hair\\ from\\ his\\ lover\\ so\\ he\\ can\\ wear\\ it\\ around\\ his\\ arm\\ for\\ his\\ burial\\ so\\ that\\ her\\ soul\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ his\\ body\\ to\\ pick\\ up\\ that\\ piece\\ of\\ its\\ old\\ body\\ during\\ the\\ last\\ judgment\\.\\ \\;\\ Therefore\\ they\\ will\\ go\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ judgment\\ together\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Perhaps\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ actual\\ person\\,\\ Magdalene\\ Herbert\\,\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ George\\ Herbert\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ He\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ joke\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-the\\ digging\\ up\\ of\\ graves\\ and\\ the\\ burying\\ of\\ multiple\\ people\\ per\\ grave\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ assumes\\ that\\ the\\ decomposing\\ bodies\\ are\\ intermingling\\ and\\ having\\ sex\\ beneath\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;be\\ to\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ a\\ bed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-This\\ is\\ solace\\ for\\ the\\ loneliness\\ of\\ death\\ \\(lacking\\ human\\ touch\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;a\\ bracelet\\ of\\ bright\\ hair\\ about\\ the\\ bone\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-four\\ beats\\ in\\ the\\ line\\ and\\ four\\ alliterations\\&mdash\\;lovely\\ sounding\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ He\\ condemns\\ his\\ previous\\ holy\\ Catholicism\\ when\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ will\\ make\\ their\\ remnants\\ into\\ relics\\.\\ \\;\\ Relic\\ worship\\ was\\ the\\ mocked\\ Catholic\\ practice\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Calling\\ her\\ Mary\\ Magdalene\\,\\ and\\ him\\ \\&ldquo\\;something\\ else\\&rdquo\\;\\ implies\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ her\\ customers\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(but\\ a\\ saint\\ requires\\ three\\ miracles\\&mdash\\;miracles\\ of\\ Love\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-They\\ met\\ often\\ but\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ sex\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Their\\ hands\\ \\&ldquo\\;ne\\&rsquo\\;er\\ touched\\ the\\ seals\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ sexual\\ organs\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\[the\\ poet\\ distinguishes\\ the\\ sacred\\ and\\ the\\ profane\\ and\\ runs\\ them\\ back\\ together\\ again\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ sort\\ of\\ energy\\ is\\ produced\\.\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\[the\\ preacher\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ is\\ the\\ person\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ two\\ and\\ keep\\ them\\ separated\\.\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-This\\ shows\\ the\\ energetic\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\ as\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ creating\\ new\\ relationships\\ and\\ putting\\ new\\ ideas\\ into\\ commerce\\ that\\ are\\ otherwise\\ separate\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Sun\\ Rising\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hinting\\ at\\ an\\ illicit\\ affair\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ are\\ two\\ lovers\\ in\\ a\\ bed\\,\\ and\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\(clich\\é\\;\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-But\\ he\\ goes\\ beyond\\ this\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ when\\ he\\ says\\ \\&ldquo\\;nothing\\ else\\ is\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ Using\\ the\\ present\\ tense\\ is\\ quite\\ strong\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ is\\ not\\ apart\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ with\\ her\\,\\ but\\ that\\ room\\ is\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ else\\&hellip\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;these\\ walls\\ thy\\ sphere\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\&ldquo\\;The\\ centre\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sphere\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;last\\ line\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-he\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ a\\ geocentric\\ solar\\ system\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sphere\\ orbiting\\ the\\ earth\\&mdash\\;in\\ fact\\ his\\ very\\ bed\\ is\\ that\\ center\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(toying\\ with\\ that\\ orbital\\ relativism\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-also\\ by\\ mentioning\\ the\\ four\\ square\\ walls\\ he\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ squaring\\ the\\ circle\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ irrationality\\ of\\ that\\ geometry\\ that\\ holds\\ the\\ secret\\ proportions\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ \\(think\\ the\\ DaVinci\\ man\\ as\\ the\\ renaissance\\ idea\\ of\\ perfect\\ proportion\\.\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Donne\\ weighs\\ in\\ on\\ this\\ debate\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ room\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ holds\\ the\\ secrets\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\.\\ \\;\\ And\\ he\\ also\\ says\\ that\\ man\\ and\\ woman\\ together\\ are\\ the\\ perfect\\ proportion\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\[The\\ poem\\ is\\ mystical\\,\\ spiritual\\,\\ religious\\ \\;\\ BUT\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ funny\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ opening\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-he\\ goes\\ through\\ the\\ classes\\ of\\ society\\ saying\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ must\\ awake\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\ each\\ day\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ has\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ contempt\\ for\\ others\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-first\\ stanza\\ is\\ selfishness\\&hellip\\;\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ lover\\ refuse\\ to\\ get\\ up\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Second\\ Stanza\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Radical\\ subjectivity\\ of\\ the\\ renaissance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-All\\ knowledge\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-His\\ ability\\ to\\ obliterate\\ the\\ sun\\ by\\ merely\\ closing\\ his\\ eyes\\ and\\ not\\ seeing\\ it\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ simply\\ chooses\\ not\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ because\\ he\\ will\\ lose\\ sight\\ of\\ his\\ lover\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ talks\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ Indias\\ \\(spice\\ \\=\\ \\;\\ subcontinent\\,\\ mine\\ \\=\\ America\\)\\,\\ which\\ are\\ now\\ in\\ darkness\\.\\ \\;\\ Instead\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ those\\ people\\ are\\ in\\ his\\ bed\\ and\\ he\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ climactic\\ assertion\\ that\\ \\Nothing\\ Else\\ Is\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Twickenham\\ Garden\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ about\\ another\\ of\\ his\\ Rhetorical\\ Lovers\\ \\(Lucy\\ countess\\ of\\ Bedford\\)\\&mdash\\;she\\ was\\ an\\ outgoing\\ woman\\ fond\\ of\\ notoriety\\ \\(Donne\\ helped\\ further\\ this\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Courting\\ the\\ friendship\\ of\\ powerful\\ ladies\\ of\\ court\\ to\\ further\\ his\\ career\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-To\\ do\\ so\\ he\\ pretends\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ them\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ serpent\\ in\\ the\\ Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\&hellip\\;\\ his\\ member\\ trespassing\\ on\\ a\\ Married\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\ the\\ mandrake\\ as\\ a\\ sexual\\ reference\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Mixture\\ of\\ serious\\ and\\ the\\ lighthearted\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\End\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Bantering\\ aggressiveness\\ against\\ women\\ \\(not\\ really\\ misogyny\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ calls\\ women\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;perverse\\ sex\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-But\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ Lucy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ truth\\ to\\ her\\ husband\\ is\\ killing\\ him\\ as\\ she\\ refuses\\ his\\ sexual\\ advances\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Blossom\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ heart\\ is\\ the\\ blossom\\ \\(harvey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ as\\ a\\ pump\\ is\\ in\\ play\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Basically\\ she\\ just\\ does\\ not\\ give\\ it\\ up\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ mad\\ about\\ it\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-First\\ he\\ addresses\\ the\\ flower\\ \\(blossom\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Then\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ stanza\\,\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-New\\ Science\\ advances\\ during\\ the\\ age\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Geography\\:\\ discovery\\ of\\ new\\ lands\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Astronomy\\:\\ Galileo\\ proves\\ Copernicus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Anatomy\\:\\ 1543\\,\\ the\\ first\\ great\\ anatomy\\ text\\ book\\ is\\ published\\ in\\ Italy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Vezallia\\ \\(sp\\)\\&mdash\\;he\\ equates\\ the\\ physical\\ body\\ to\\ a\\ machine\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Harvey\\&mdash\\;he\\ discovers\\ the\\ circulation\\ of\\ the\\ blood\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ecstasy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-One\\ of\\ the\\ very\\ few\\ poems\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ is\\ \\not\\ joking\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ about\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Me\\:\\ the\\ physical\\ substance\\ of\\ vision\\ with\\ eyebeams\\ mixing\\ and\\ twining\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ poem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pleasures\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ meeting\\ of\\ two\\ souls\\ without\\ any\\ yet\\ physical\\ contact\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ spiritual\\ connection\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ imaging\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\ contact\\,\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ with\\ a\\ joyful\\ nobility\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\-The\\ use\\ of\\ many\\ polysyllabic\\ words\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ yields\\ a\\ powerful\\ effect\\ in\\ the\\ lines\\ with\\ very\\ few\\ syllables\\ at\\ hand\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 72, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.495240+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Crystallization of official written codex", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 568, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1120150928\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-619046802\\ 1347445760\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ table\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ text\\ was\\ written\\ after\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ Mohammed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Because\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ had\\ memorized\\ the\\ text\\ were\\ dying\\,\\ and\\ others\\ were\\ scattered\\ around\\,\\ there\\ was\\ the\\ necessity\\ of\\ putting\\ the\\ teachings\\ down\\ in\\ writing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ conflict\\ and\\ contestation\\ of\\ authority\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ali\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ said\\ had\\ written\\ codex\\ \\(says\\ Shia\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ verses\\ not\\ included\\ that\\ supported\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ leadership\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Caliph\\ Uthman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ text\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ parable\\ for\\ his\\ codex\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>A\\ house\\ may\\ have\\ many\\ roads\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ house\\,\\ using\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ creates\\ disorder\\,\\ the\\ caliph\\ forbids\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ but\\ one\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ abolish\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Seven\\ variant\\ readings\\,\\ mainly\\ with\\ differences\\ in\\ vowelling\\ and\\ punctuation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Most\\ commonly\\ accepted\\ one\\ today\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ Asim\\ \\(d\\.\\ 744\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ formed\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ the\\ royal\\ \\\\\r\\\nEgyptian\\ version\\,\\ first\\ printed\\ in\\ 1925\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sometimes\\ there\\ are\\ issues\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ be\\ differences\\ in\\ verbs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ active\\ or\\ passive\\ based\\ on\\ vowels\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ were\\ the\\ qualifications\\ for\\ interpreting\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Knowledge\\ of\\ classical\\ Arabic\\ language\\ and\\ literature\\,\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ Muhammad\\,\\ his\\ companions\\,\\ the\\ early\\ scholars\\ etc\\;\\ insight\\ into\\ the\\ hidden\\ meaning\\;\\ symbols\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ text\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ allegoric\\ stories\\,\\ symbols\\ etc\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ interpret\\ them\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Some\\ experts\\ today\\ have\\ pet\\ peeves\\ today\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ very\\ critical\\ of\\ people\\ these\\ days\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ anything\\ about\\ the\\ history\\,\\ language\\ and\\ culture\\ of\\ Islam\\,\\ interpret\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ out\\ of\\ context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ Osama\\ bin\\ Laden\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ilm\\ al\\-Tafsir\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ science\\ of\\ exegesis\\ \\(commentary\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Tafsir\\ of\\ Tabari\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 30\\ vols\\,\\ 5\\,200\\ pages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Different\\ types\\ of\\ tafsir\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Exegesis\\ by\\ transmission\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ prophet\\ Muh\\.\\ And\\ his\\ companions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Exegesis\\ by\\ arbitrary\\ opinion\\/reason\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Elijah\\ Muhammad\\ of\\ the\\ Nation\\ of\\ Islam\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Exegesis\\ by\\ indication\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ attaches\\ meanings\\ to\\ text\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ apparent\\ \\(prevalent\\ among\\ those\\ who\\ claimed\\ gnosis\\,\\ experiential\\ knowledge\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Asbab\\ an\\-nuzul\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reasons\\ or\\ occasions\\ of\\ revelation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Idea\\ of\\ progressive\\ revelation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Abrogated\\ verses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tawil\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ esoteric\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Inner\\ meaning\\ of\\ Quranic\\ wisdom\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ open\\ to\\ all\\.\\ Discovering\\ the\\ inner\\ or\\ true\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sufi\\ and\\ Shia\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ categorical\\ verses\\ vs\\.\\ allegorical\\ verses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ does\\ one\\ interpret\\ the\\ anthropomorphic\\ expressions\\ in\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\?\\ Does\\ god\\ really\\ have\\ a\\ face\\,\\ hands\\,\\ etc\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mutazilah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rationalist\\ theologians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Became\\ an\\ official\\ creed\\ during\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ abbasid\\ caliph\\ al\\ \\&ndash\\;Ma\\&rsquo\\;mun\\ \\(9\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Century\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Debates\\ on\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ is\\ it\\ eternal\\ and\\ uncreated\\ or\\ created\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Mutazilah\\ argued\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ is\\ uncreated\\ and\\ eternal\\,\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ another\\ God\\.\\ Therefore\\ it\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ created\\ in\\ time\\.\\ Implications\\ for\\ the\\ sacredness\\ of\\ text\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ establishment\\ of\\ mihnah\\,\\ inquisition\\ and\\ the\\ imprisonment\\ of\\ prominent\\ conservative\\ scholar\\ Ibn\\ al\\-Hanbal\\ \\(d\\.\\ 855\\)\\ for\\ refusing\\ to\\ subscribe\\ to\\ Mutazilah\\ viewpoint\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Eventually\\ the\\ Mutazilah\\ creed\\ lost\\ influence\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ conservative\\ Ashari\\ creed\\.\\ Many\\ modern\\ commentators\\ of\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ are\\ adopting\\ Mutazili\\ approaches\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mahmud\\ Muhammad\\ Taha\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sudanese\\ scholar\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Distinguished\\ between\\ verses\\ revealed\\ in\\ Mecca\\ from\\ verses\\ revealed\\ in\\ Medina\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Amina\\ Wadud\\ Muhsin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ African\\ American\\ woman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Quranic\\ interpretations\\ tend\\ to\\ introduce\\ patriarchic\\ meanings\\ into\\ the\\ text\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ calls\\ for\\ gender\\-neutral\\ interpretations\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ importance\\ of\\ calligraphy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ idea\\ that\\ writing\\ itself\\ is\\ sacred\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Writing\\ viewed\\ as\\ sacred\\ knowledge\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ pen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ celestial\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Writing\\ becomes\\ very\\ important\\ because\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ write\\ clearly\\,\\ legibly\\,\\ with\\ vowels\\,\\ but\\ also\\ BEAUTIFULLY\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Calligraphy\\ is\\ a\\ religious\\ art\\ form\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Muhammad\\ Was\\ against\\ images\\ and\\ idols\\,\\ so\\ there\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ image\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ writing\\,\\ more\\ abstract\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Examples\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tombstones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Shahadah\\,\\ written\\ very\\ artistically\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Carpet\\ with\\ first\\ chapter\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Calligraphy\\ on\\ different\\ surfaces\\ in\\ mosques\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ different\\ styles\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Arabesque\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ abstract\\ vegetal\\ style\\ of\\ painting\\,\\ interwoven\\ with\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ verses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Plates\\ with\\ text\\ such\\ as\\ prayers\\ to\\ god\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Top\\ of\\ water\\ jar\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ made\\ as\\ a\\ filter\\,\\ but\\ also\\ with\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ verses\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\ will\\ give\\ people\\ a\\ sacred\\ drink\\ to\\ drink\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ spiritual\\ purification\\ as\\ well\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Jacket\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ entire\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ text\\ on\\ it\\,\\ very\\ expensive\\,\\ worn\\ under\\ an\\ armor\\,\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ will\\ give\\ you\\ extra\\ protection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Large\\ amulet\\ from\\ Sierra\\ Leone\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Large\\ fan\\ from\\ Mali\\ with\\ verses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Project\\:\\ to\\ create\\ an\\ Allah\\ pattern\\ that\\ takes\\ a\\ concept\\ from\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ that\\ tries\\ to\\ translate\\ it\\ into\\ graphical\\ design\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Also\\ explanation\\,\\ 2\\ paragraphs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 86, "file_path": "", "desc": "Crystallization of official written codex"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.526796+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The pillars of Islam", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 569, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:44452778\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1683574634\\ 1722811718\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1983345404\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1939817928\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ table\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sirat\\-al\\-mustaqim\\ \\=\\ the\\ straight\\ path\\ that\\ God\\ has\\ laid\\ down\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ follow\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Qur\\&rsquo\\;anic\\ verse\\:\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ righteousness\\ that\\ you\\ turn\\ your\\ faces\\ towards\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ the\\ West\\,\\ \\(interpreted\\ as\\ prayer\\)\\,\\ but\\ righteous\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ believes\\ in\\ Allah\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Last\\ Day\\ \\(accountability\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ angels\\ and\\ the\\ Book\\ and\\ the\\ prophets\\ and\\ gives\\ away\\ wealth\\ out\\ of\\ love\\ for\\ Him\\ to\\ the\\ near\\ of\\ kin\\ and\\ the\\ orphans\\ and\\ the\\ needy\\ and\\ the\\ traveler\\ and\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ ask\\ and\\ sets\\ slaves\\ free\\ and\\ performs\\ the\\ prayer\\ and\\ pays\\ the\\ zakat\\ \\(action\\)\\;\\ and\\ the\\ performers\\ of\\ their\\ promise\\ when\\ they\\ make\\ a\\ promise\\,\\ and\\ the\\ patient\\ in\\ distress\\ and\\ affliction\\ and\\ in\\ time\\ of\\ conflict\\.\\ These\\ are\\ they\\ who\\ are\\ truthful\\,\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ they\\ who\\ keep\\ their\\ duty\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>it\\ is\\ about\\ belief\\,\\ action\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ qualities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ path\\ is\\ multidimensional\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Vertical\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ obligations\\ to\\ God\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ ibadat\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Horizontal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ obligations\\ to\\ society\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ mu\\&rsquo\\;amalat\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hypocrites\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ who\\ pray\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\,\\ but\\ are\\ blind\\ to\\ the\\ suffering\\ around\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ this\\ notion\\ of\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ also\\ explains\\ why\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ monk\\,\\ ascetic\\,\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ often\\ seen\\ in\\ Islamic\\ society\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ religion\\ requires\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ engaged\\ with\\ those\\ around\\ you\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Iman\\ \\=\\ faith\\,\\ belief\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Amal\\ \\=\\ action\\;\\ useless\\ to\\ have\\ faith\\ if\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ impact\\ your\\ behavior\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ibadat\\ \\=\\ acts\\ of\\ worship\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ pillars\\,\\ markers\\ of\\ muslim\\ identity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shahadah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ testimony\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Salat\\ \\(arabic\\)\\/namaz\\ \\(persian\\)\\;\\ \\-\\ ritual\\ prayer\\,\\ with\\ cycles\\ of\\ certain\\ positions\\ of\\ the\\ body\\,\\ also\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ when\\ they\\ pray\\;\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ formulaic\\,\\ although\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ minor\\ differences\\ between\\ different\\ schools\\;\\ should\\ be\\ done\\ ideally\\ 5\\ times\\ a\\ day\\,\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ Mecca\\;\\ there\\ are\\ also\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ prayer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ meditation\\,\\ calligraphy\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Zakat\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ almsgiving\\;\\ before\\ you\\ use\\ your\\ wealth\\ for\\ yourself\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ share\\ a\\ certain\\ percentage\\ of\\ it\\ with\\ your\\ community\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ with\\ wealth\\ comes\\ social\\ responsibility\\ \\(in\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\,\\ when\\ God\\ mentions\\ Salat\\,\\ it\\ is\\ always\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ Zakat\\,\\ the\\ bidimensionality\\ of\\ the\\ straight\\ path\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\4\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sawm\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fast\\ during\\ Ramadan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fasting\\ not\\ just\\ of\\ the\\ mouth\\,\\ but\\ keeping\\ away\\ from\\ evil\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ with\\ the\\ eyes\\,\\ the\\ ear\\,\\ the\\ tongue\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ holistic\\ notion\\ of\\ fasting\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\5\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hajj\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pilgrimage\\ to\\ Mecca\\,\\ if\\ one\\ can\\ afford\\ it\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\6\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\[\\ Jihad\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sometimes\\ listed\\ as\\ a\\ sixth\\ pillar\\]\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mu\\&rsquo\\;amalat\\ \\=\\ obligations\\ to\\ society\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\God\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ prophets\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ humanity\\ \\&\\;\\ creation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ did\\ the\\ five\\ pillars\\ become\\ the\\ dominant\\ definition\\,\\ since\\ the\\ term\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ per\\ se\\.\\ It\\ is\\ believed\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ prophet\\ Muhammad\\.\\ But\\ there\\ are\\ various\\ versions\\,\\ with\\ 4\\ pillars\\,\\ or\\ 6\\,\\ so\\ why\\ did\\ this\\ particular\\ definition\\ get\\ adopted\\?\\ Who\\ promoted\\,\\ it\\,\\ why\\,\\ in\\ what\\ context\\,\\ and\\ why\\ did\\ it\\ replace\\ the\\ more\\ general\\ definition\\,\\ of\\ submission\\ to\\ god\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ much\\ does\\ it\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ community\\ identity\\ development\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ arose\\ in\\ the\\ historical\\ context\\ of\\ disputes\\ over\\ leadership\\ and\\ debates\\ over\\ doctrinal\\ beliefs\\,\\ throughout\\ the\\ centuries\\.\\ It\\ is\\ likely\\ that\\ the\\ definition\\ arose\\ as\\ a\\ strategy\\ to\\ keep\\ muslims\\ united\\,\\ to\\ set\\ common\\ grounds\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nobody\\ knows\\ exactly\\ how\\,\\ this\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\These\\ things\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ communal\\ dimension\\ to\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sunnis\\ in\\ Baghdad\\,\\ the\\ Abbasids\\ promote\\ the\\ five\\ pillars\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Shia\\ dynasty\\,\\ the\\ Fatimids\\ in\\ Cairo\\ promote\\ 7\\ pillars\\,\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ early\\ Imam\\ Muhammad\\ ibn\\ Baqir\\ \\(d\\.\\ 743\\ CE\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shahadah\\ includes\\ belief\\ in\\ Ali\\,\\ the\\ first\\ Shii\\ imam\\,\\ as\\ master\\ of\\ the\\ believers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Walaya\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ devotion\\ to\\ Shii\\ Imams\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Taqira\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ purity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Twelver\\ Shii\\ obligations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\ one\\ the\\ one\\ side\\ there\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ keen\\ on\\ rituals\\,\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ those\\ who\\ say\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ about\\ the\\ rituals\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rabia\\ al\\ \\&ndash\\;Adawiyya\\ \\(d\\.\\ 801\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\O\\ Lord\\,\\ if\\ I\\ worship\\ you\\ out\\ of\\ fear\\ of\\ hell\\,\\ burn\\ me\\ in\\ hell\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ I\\ worshit\\ you\\ out\\ of\\ hope\\ of\\ paradise\\,\\ forbid\\ it\\ to\\ me\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\And\\ if\\ I\\ worship\\ you\\ for\\ your\\ own\\ sake\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Do\\ not\\ deprive\\ me\\ of\\ Your\\ eternal\\ beauty\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Criticizing\\ ritualistic\\ conceptions\\,\\ also\\ selfish\\ conceptions\\ of\\ belief\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ Muslim\\ majority\\ countries\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pressures\\ of\\ change\\ brought\\ about\\ by\\ forces\\ or\\ modernization\\,\\ colonialism\\,\\ etc\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ reformist\\ movements\\ attribute\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ decline\\ in\\ Muslim\\ societies\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;deviation\\ from\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\&rdquo\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>as\\ well\\ as\\ impurity\\ of\\ practice\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ five\\ pillars\\ thus\\ become\\ an\\ ideological\\ force\\ for\\ uniting\\ muslims\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Devensive\\&rdquo\\;\\ Jihad\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\ means\\ struggle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Leave\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ fight\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ wronged\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ surely\\ God\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ who\\ were\\ expelled\\ from\\ their\\ habitations\\ without\\ God\\,\\ except\\ that\\ they\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;God\\ is\\ great\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Also\\ verse\\ about\\ non\\-aggression\\ \\-\\ encouraged\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ word\\ is\\ used\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ also\\ a\\ struggle\\ with\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ego\\,\\ looking\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parents\\,\\ sometimes\\ military\\ struggle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\But\\ jihad\\ became\\ imperial\\ ideology\\,\\ those\\ who\\ pushed\\ it\\ started\\ reading\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ in\\ an\\ exclusive\\ way\\,\\ created\\ words\\ and\\ expressions\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ early\\ islam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ expand\\ empire\\,\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ convert\\ people\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 86, "file_path": "", "desc": "The pillars of Islam"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.557404+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The meanings of Jihad", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 570, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2056538708\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1159046072\\ \\-1443978402\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\,\\\"serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ table\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Jihad\\:\\ defensive\\ struggle\\,\\ internal\\ struggle\\,\\ taking\\ care\\ of\\ your\\ parents\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Imperial\\ Jihad\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dar\\ al\\-islam\\ \\=\\ territories\\ under\\ Muslim\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dar\\ al\\-harb\\ \\=\\ territories\\ under\\ non\\-muslim\\ rule\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Jihade\\ vs\\ Crusade\\ \\=\\ terms\\ used\\ by\\ certain\\ muslims\\ and\\ certain\\ Christians\\ to\\ legitimize\\ imperial\\ ambitions\\ and\\ control\\ of\\ territories\\ and\\ economic\\ resources\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ terms\\ are\\ responding\\ to\\ one\\ another\\,\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\It\\ is\\ amazing\\ that\\ so\\ many\\ centuries\\ afterwards\\,\\ politicians\\ like\\ George\\ Bush\\ and\\ Osama\\ bin\\ Laden\\ still\\ use\\ the\\ terms\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Jihad\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ used\\ against\\ fellow\\ muslims\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Example\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Arabia\\ in\\ 18\\-19\\ century\\,\\ Muhammad\\ ibn\\ Abd\\ al\\-Wahhab\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Family\\ of\\ learned\\ religious\\ scholars\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\First\\ studied\\ under\\ his\\ father\\,\\ a\\ renowned\\ qadi\\(judge\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Questioned\\ authority\\ opf\\ ulama\\ \\(religious\\ scholars\\)\\;\\ declared\\ heretic\\ for\\ his\\ unconventional\\ methods\\ of\\ interpreting\\ the\\ sacred\\ texts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Started\\ jihad\\ against\\ other\\ groups\\ of\\ muslims\\ that\\ he\\ saw\\ as\\ not\\ practicing\\ correct\\ Islam\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Now\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jihad\\ as\\ resistance\\ to\\ European\\ imperialism\\ in\\ India\\,\\ Sudan\\,\\ Algeria\\,\\ Libya\\,\\ Pakestine\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Jihad\\ against\\ corrupt\\ post\\-colonial\\ muslimg\\ regimes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&ldquo\\;American\\&rdquo\\;\\ jihad\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Purpose\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ unite\\ a\\ billion\\ Muslims\\ worldwide\\ in\\ a\\ holy\\ war\\,\\ a\\ crusade\\,\\ against\\ the\\ Soviet\\ Union\\,\\ on\\ the\\ soil\\ of\\ Afghanistan\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Ronal\\ Reagan\\ on\\ the\\ mujahidin\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;These\\ gentlemen\\ are\\ the\\ moral\\ equivalents\\ of\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ founding\\ fathers\\&rdquo\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ these\\ were\\ the\\ predecessors\\ of\\ the\\ Taliban\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\A\\ statement\\ by\\ Abd\\ al\\-halim\\ Mahmud\\,\\ the\\ Rector\\ of\\ Al\\-azhar\\ Universit\\ in\\ Cairo\\ after\\ the\\ October\\ 1973\\ war\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;obligation\\ for\\ all\\,\\ without\\ regard\\ to\\ religion\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\General\\ Pervez\\ Musharraf\\ of\\ Pakistan\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Talked\\ about\\ Jihad\\ against\\ illiteracy\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ backwardness\\,\\ and\\ hunger\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ larger\\ jihad\\ \\(Jehad\\-e\\-Akbar\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Thus\\,\\ meanings\\ of\\ word\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ centuries\\,\\ as\\ the\\ economic\\,\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ contexts\\ of\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ word\\ have\\ changed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ goals\\ and\\ objectives\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ invoke\\ religious\\ concepts\\ for\\ political\\ purposes\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ put\\ in\\ context\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ prophet\\ Muhammad\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Indeed\\ in\\ their\\ histories\\ is\\ an\\ instructive\\ lesson\\ for\\ those\\ endowed\\ with\\ understanding\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ forged\\ tale\\ but\\ a\\ confirmation\\ of\\ previous\\ scriptures\\,\\ and\\ inclusive\\ explanation\\,\\ and\\ guidance\\ and\\ mercy\\ to\\ believing\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ 12\\-11\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Muhammad\\ of\\ History\\ \\&\\;\\ Muhammad\\ through\\ History\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\He\\ was\\ an\\ orphan\\ brought\\ up\\ by\\ his\\ grandfather\\,\\ then\\ by\\ his\\ uncle\\,\\ had\\ an\\ impressive\\ character\\,\\ he\\ was\\ given\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ Amin\\ \\=\\ the\\ trustworthy\\ one\\;\\ he\\ was\\ employed\\ by\\ the\\ widow\\ Khadija\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ her\\ caravan\\,\\ she\\ was\\ so\\ impressed\\ with\\ him\\,\\ she\\ proposed\\ marriage\\ to\\ him\\,\\ even\\ though\\ he\\ was\\ 25\\ and\\ she\\ was\\ 40\\;\\ she\\ became\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ biggest\\ supporters\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ given\\ the\\ revelation\\;\\ she\\ used\\ her\\ wealth\\ to\\ support\\ him\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\How\\ the\\ figure\\ of\\ 7\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ Arabia\\ has\\ been\\ interpreted\\ and\\ understood\\ in\\ different\\ contexts\\ by\\ people\\;\\ In\\ China\\ for\\ example\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ follow\\ in\\ the\\ lines\\ of\\ Confucius\\;\\ This\\ Muhammad\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ better\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ this\\ figure\\ in\\ History\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\ You\\ have\\ indeed\\ in\\ the\\ Messenger\\ of\\ God\\ a\\ beautiful\\ model\\ for\\ any\\ who\\ hopes\\ in\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ hereafter\\ and\\ remembers\\ Allah\\ much\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ 33\\:21\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Muhammad\\ exemplified\\ and\\ lived\\ out\\ the\\ teachings\\ of\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ life\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Salman\\ Rushdie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Satanic\\ Verses\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Refers\\ to\\ this\\ moment\\ when\\ Muhammad\\ got\\ a\\ revelation\\ with\\ an\\ unusual\\ significance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ promoting\\ polytheism\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Next\\,\\ he\\ gets\\ another\\ revelation\\ telling\\ him\\ that\\ the\\ Satan\\ had\\ tried\\ to\\ trick\\ him\\,\\ and\\ god\\ sent\\ another\\ revelation\\ to\\ correct\\ that\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Talks\\ about\\ Mahound\\ \\=\\ Muhammad\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ used\\ in\\ medieval\\ Europe\\ as\\ the\\ devil\\,\\ and\\ also\\ for\\ the\\ actual\\ Muhammad\\ as\\ the\\ devil\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ in\\ Dante\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Rushdie\\ has\\ the\\ character\\ as\\ clearly\\ the\\ prophet\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Comment\\ from\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ a\\ mosque\\ interviewed\\ by\\ BBC\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ Rushdie\\ has\\ written\\ is\\ far\\ worse\\ to\\ muslims\\ than\\ if\\ he\\ has\\ raped\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ daughter\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ assault\\ on\\ every\\ muslim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inner\\ being\\&hellip\\;\\ muslims\\ seek\\ Muhammad\\ sas\\ the\\ ideal\\ on\\ which\\ to\\ fashion\\ our\\ lives\\ and\\ conduct\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Another\\ one\\:\\ \\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ has\\ killed\\ our\\ prophet\\.\\ He\\ has\\ killed\\ us\\ all\\.\\ We\\ just\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ explain\\ how\\ much\\ he\\ has\\ hurt\\ Muslims\\.\\ I\\ would\\ die\\ rather\\ than\\ hear\\ these\\ things\\ and\\ so\\ would\\ our\\ children\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Four\\ major\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ roles\\ of\\ Prophet\\ Muhammad\\ in\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ Muslims\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Imitation\\ of\\ the\\ prophet\\,\\ specifically\\ his\\ custom\\ which\\ establishes\\ legal\\,\\ personal\\ and\\ pietistic\\ norms\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Theological\\ development\\ regarding\\ his\\ person\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ intercessor\\ and\\ sinlessness\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Hagiography\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ miracles\\,\\ unusual\\ gifts\\,\\ etc\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Mystical\\ paradigm\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ role\\ model\\ for\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ spiritual\\ development\\;\\ important\\ for\\ spiritual\\ or\\ esoteric\\ traditions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Sunnah\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ custom\\,\\ path\\,\\ habit\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Sunnat\\ an\\-nabi\\ \\&ldquo\\;custom\\ of\\ the\\ prophet\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Sunnat\\ an\\-nabi\\ becomes\\ a\\ complementary\\ lens\\ through\\ which\\ to\\ discern\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Obligatory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prescriptions\\ and\\ patterns\\ for\\ religious\\ life\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Voluntary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ imitation\\ of\\ the\\ actual\\ life\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ prophet\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ Qur\\&rsquo\\;an\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ grow\\ a\\ beard\\,\\ but\\ since\\ the\\ prophet\\ had\\ one\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ men\\ do\\ it\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Hadith\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ special\\ genre\\ of\\ literature\\ through\\ which\\ one\\ finds\\ out\\ the\\ custom\\ of\\ the\\ prophet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stories\\ that\\ record\\ what\\ he\\ did\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Role\\ of\\ qussas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ story\\ tellers\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Association\\ by\\ hadith\\ with\\ Muuhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\ and\\ example\\ gradually\\ become\\ ground\\ of\\ authority\\ to\\ validate\\ interpretations\\ of\\ Quran\\ and\\ eventually\\ Islamic\\ law\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Ash\\-Shafii\\ \\(d\\.\\ 820\\ CE\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ developed\\ the\\ theological\\ basis\\ for\\ this\\ perspective\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Typical\\ Hadith\\ in\\ handout\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ first\\ part\\ is\\ an\\ isnad\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recording\\ the\\ chain\\ of\\ transmission\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Second\\ part\\ is\\ matn\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ text\\ that\\ actually\\ contains\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ hadith\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\This\\ one\\ has\\ actually\\ two\\ isnads\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\To\\ judge\\ the\\ authenticity\\ of\\ the\\ hadith\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ know\\ all\\ the\\ transmitters\\,\\ where\\ did\\ they\\ live\\,\\ in\\ what\\ years\\ etc\\,\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ verify\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\This\\ led\\ to\\ signs\\ of\\ biography\\ being\\ compiled\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Sahih\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ strong\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Hassan\\ \\=\\ good\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Daif\\ \\=\\ weak\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\All\\ the\\ hadith\\ that\\ were\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ sahih\\ were\\ put\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ collection\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Short\\ video\\ clip\\ celebrating\\ the\\ birthday\\ of\\ the\\ prophet\\ in\\ Egypt\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ singing\\ on\\ the\\ streets\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\A\\ bit\\ like\\ Christmas\\ in\\ the\\ muslim\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\For\\ Muslims\\ Muhammad\\ is\\ the\\ perfect\\ person\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Looks\\ almost\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ political\\ demonstration\\ as\\ religious\\ manifestation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Little\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ in\\ the\\ muslim\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:381364070\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-322563766\\ \\-1442122748\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ table\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Social\\ entrepreneur\\ \\=\\ a\\ person\\ who\\ recognizes\\ a\\ social\\ problem\\ and\\ uses\\ entrepreneurial\\ principles\\ to\\ organize\\,\\ create\\,\\ and\\ manage\\ a\\ venture\\ to\\ make\\ social\\ change\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Technology\\ \\=\\ methods\\ and\\ tools\\ that\\ a\\ society\\ has\\ developed\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ facilitate\\ the\\ solution\\ of\\ its\\ practical\\ problems\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\For\\ the\\ Tanzania\\ project\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\A\\ few\\ people\\ there\\ have\\ already\\ developed\\ some\\ tools\\ for\\ tracking\\ patients\\ with\\ HIV\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\We\\ need\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ other\\ off\\-the\\-shelf\\ software\\ or\\ newly\\ designed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ are\\ some\\ innovative\\ systems\\ of\\ drug\\ formularies\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ great\\ to\\ understand\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Half\\ of\\ the\\ uninsured\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ are\\ children\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Even\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ insured\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ are\\ not\\ vaccinated\\ etc\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ are\\ lessons\\ to\\ learn\\ from\\ all\\ over\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Global\\ health\\ needs\\ to\\ combine\\ challenges\\,\\ problems\\ and\\ solutions\\ both\\ between\\ developed\\ and\\ less\\ developed\\ countries\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Gunfire\\ at\\ sea\\ tactics\\ from\\ the\\ British\\ army\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\-\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ make\\ gunfire\\ more\\ efficient\\ as\\ boats\\ were\\ wobbling\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Time\\-motion\\ study\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Some\\ people\\ by\\ the\\ guns\\ were\\ putting\\ their\\ hands\\ up\\ just\\ before\\ the\\ fire\\ shooting\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\People\\ were\\ actually\\ acting\\ like\\ they\\ were\\ holding\\ the\\ horses\\ in\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\\\ \\-\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Even\\ if\\ on\\ the\\ boat\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ horses\\,\\ the\\ people\\ tended\\ to\\ do\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Lesson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ change\\ is\\ really\\ hard\\,\\ people\\ are\\ usually\\ reluctant\\ to\\ health\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Factors\\ that\\ trickle\\ down\\ R\\&\\;D\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Liability\\/risk\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\IP\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ intellectual\\ property\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ROI\\/\\$\\$\\$\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\We\\ have\\ models\\ that\\ work\\,\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ who\\ you\\ are\\ working\\ with\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;People\\ can\\ change\\ their\\ own\\ lives\\,\\ provided\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ kinds\\ of\\ institutional\\ support\\.\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ asking\\ for\\ charity\\,\\ charity\\ is\\ no\\ solution\\ to\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Muhammad\\ Yunus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Founder\\ of\\ Grameen\\ Bank\\ and\\ Winner\\ of\\ 2006\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Machiavelli\\ famous\\ quote\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\"\\;There\\ is\\ nothing\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ take\\ in\\ hand\\,\\ more\\ perilous\\ to\\ conduct\\,\\ or\\ more\\ uncertain\\ in\\ its\\ outcome\\,\\ than\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ lead\\ in\\ introducing\\ a\\ new\\ order\\ of\\ things\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Innovation\\ in\\ global\\ health\\ practice\\ requires\\ leaders\\ who\\ are\\ trained\\ to\\ think\\ and\\ act\\ like\\ entrepreneurs\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Whether\\ in\\ a\\ hospital\\ or\\ remote\\ village\\,\\ global\\ health\\ leaders\\ must\\ understand\\ the\\ business\\ of\\ running\\ a\\ social\\ venture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ Jerry\\ Maguire\\ Syndrome\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Less\\ means\\ more\\,\\ more\\ typically\\ means\\ waste\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Simply\\ throwing\\ money\\ at\\ an\\ issue\\ does\\ not\\ solve\\ the\\ issue\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Listen\\,\\ learn\\,\\ and\\ act\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Many\\ examples\\ of\\ large\\ organizations\\ that\\ have\\ thrown\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ at\\ problems\\ with\\ questionable\\ results\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\We\\ need\\ to\\ bring\\ in\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ clinical\\,\\ but\\ the\\ business\\,\\ the\\ marketing\\,\\ the\\ product\\ design\\ etc\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\He\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ country\\ directors\\ for\\ the\\ Clinton\\ Foundation\\ in\\ Jamaica\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Clinton\\ foundation\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ in\\ the\\ initial\\ years\\,\\ after\\ all\\ the\\ pompous\\ kick\\-off\\,\\ very\\ few\\ actual\\ employees\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Now\\ they\\ have\\ gone\\ from\\ about\\ 12\\ to\\ about\\ 500\\ employees\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Children\\ with\\ congestive\\ heart\\ failure\\ in\\ Tanzania\\ hospital\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ untreated\\ strep\\ A\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rheumatic\\ heart\\ disease\\,\\ they\\ need\\ valve\\ replacement\\,\\ because\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ get\\ screened\\ and\\ treated\\ with\\ penicillin\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\He\\ sent\\ out\\ email\\ to\\ companies\\,\\ got\\ 10\\ responses\\ that\\ said\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ shit\\ strep\\ response\\ kits\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Question\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ why\\ is\\ innovation\\ already\\ happening\\ in\\ Global\\ health\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Answer\\:\\ there\\ are\\ disconnects\\ at\\ so\\ many\\ levels\\ in\\ accountability\\,\\ financing\\,\\ creative\\ thinking\\,\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ complicated\\ systems\\ involved\\ in\\ global\\ health\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Diabetes\\ is\\ huge\\ burden\\,\\ about\\ 5\\-7\\%\\ of\\ people\\ in\\ urban\\ areas\\,\\ only\\ one\\ organization\\ dealing\\ with\\ it\\,\\ they\\ are\\ on\\ a\\ very\\ tight\\ budget\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Similarity\\ between\\ the\\ housing\\ crisis\\ and\\ dot\\ com\\ bubble\\,\\ the\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ in\\ place\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Graph\\ with\\ disease\\ burden\\ in\\ developed\\ vs\\.\\ less\\ developed\\ countries\\,\\ communicable\\ more\\ prevalent\\ in\\ less\\ developed\\ countries\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\People\\ first\\,\\ technology\\ second\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lesson\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ applied\\ where\\ he\\ worked\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Then\\ the\\ connection\\ between\\ people\\ and\\ technology\\ happens\\ by\\ itself\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ are\\ caveats\\ depending\\ on\\ scalability\\ and\\ sustainability\\ that\\ is\\ desired\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\No\\ magic\\ parachutes\\ to\\ problems\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Strategic\\ framework\\ for\\ problem\\ solving\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Looking\\ at\\ all\\ the\\ system\\ levels\\ that\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ influence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ human\\ resources\\,\\ information\\ and\\ research\\ systems\\,\\ procurement\\ and\\ distribution\\ of\\ medical\\ supplies\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Program\\ vision\\ and\\ impact\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Launch\\ sandbox\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Expand\\ analysis\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Initiate\\ pilot\\ studies\\ and\\ interventions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Over\\ 50\\ \\%\\ of\\ care\\ in\\ Tanzania\\ is\\ provided\\ by\\ private\\ facilities\\,\\ they\\ only\\ get\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ money\\ from\\ government\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Project\\ with\\ the\\ IFC\\ was\\ just\\ kicked\\ off\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Things\\ that\\ they\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ field\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Leadership\\ training\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Client\\ advisory\\ services\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Innovations\\ testing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Others\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Goals\\ and\\ project\\ objective\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Build\\ a\\ teaching\\,\\ research\\ and\\ training\\ network\\ capable\\ of\\ supporting\\ a\\ complete\\ range\\ of\\ pilot\\ testing\\ and\\ research\\ studies\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Expand\\ research\\ activities\\ by\\ staggering\\ investment\\ in\\ and\\ implementation\\ of\\ capability\\-building\\ projects\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\APHFTA\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ National\\ Organizational\\ structure\\ and\\ training\\ programs\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 87, "file_path": "", "desc": "Global Health Innovation Partnerships"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.676618+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lectures 1-4", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 572, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\ZH\\-CN\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\AR\\-SA\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\,\\\"serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:EN\\-US\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:210968857\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1755480056\\ 67698705\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-text\\:\\\"\\%1\\\\\\)\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:765224755\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:402806626\\ 67698705\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-text\\:\\\"\\%1\\\\\\)\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1100563022\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-254109600\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1316304668\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1003483718\\ 67698705\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-text\\:\\\"\\%1\\\\\\)\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1343628125\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-899506604\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1365786827\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1128826616\\ 67698705\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-text\\:\\\"\\%1\\\\\\)\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1576665828\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:301127544\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1679767345\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-75340170\\ 67698705\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-text\\:\\\"\\%1\\\\\\)\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1898589108\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:759349332\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:alpha\\-lower\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:roman\\-lower\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:right\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-9\\.0pt\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:alpha\\-lower\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level6\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:roman\\-lower\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:3\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:right\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-9\\.0pt\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level7\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:3\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level8\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:alpha\\-lower\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:4\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level9\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:roman\\-lower\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:4\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:right\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-9\\.0pt\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l9\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2135707714\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1986815984\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l9\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\,\\\"serif\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2006\\ Fall\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 1\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Basically\\ the\\ intro\\ to\\ the\\ course\\.\\ He\\ spoke\\ a\\ bit\\ about\\ the\\ pasuk\\ in\\ Ovadiah\\ that\\ refers\\ to\\ Spain\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Spanish\\ origin\\ legend\\ connected\\ to\\ that\\ pasuk\\.\\ It\\'s\\ dealt\\ with\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ pages\\ of\\ Jews\\ of\\ Spain\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\No\\ one\\ really\\ knows\\ when\\ the\\ Jews\\ first\\ came\\.\\ Spain\\ was\\ a\\ Roman\\ province\\,\\ so\\ Jews\\ probably\\ came\\ through\\ exile\\ with\\ the\\ Romans\\.\\ We\\ have\\ inscriptions\\ on\\ tombstones\\ from\\ what\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ Roman\\ period\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ inscribed\\ in\\ 3\\ languages\\-\\-Latin\\,\\ Hebrew\\,\\ and\\ Greek\\.\\ The\\ Jews\\ brought\\ Greek\\ with\\ them\\ from\\ Eastern\\ Rome\\,\\ where\\ they\\ had\\ lived\\.\\ Some\\ say\\ that\\ through\\ linguistic\\ archaeology\\ we\\ can\\ show\\ that\\ this\\ Greek\\ survived\\ and\\ contributed\\ to\\ medieval\\ Spanish\\.\\ This\\ is\\ highly\\ speculative\\,\\ however\\.\\ More\\ solid\\ evidence\\ comes\\ from\\ SB\\ p\\.1\\.\\ We\\ see\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ an\\ agrarian\\ society\\ where\\ Jews\\ are\\ living\\ peacefully\\ with\\ their\\ Christian\\ neighbors\\.\\ Jews\\ are\\ even\\ blessing\\ their\\ crops\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ year\\ 306\\,\\ some\\ time\\ before\\ Constantine\\ converts\\ to\\ Christianity\\,\\ so\\ Rome\\ was\\ still\\ pagan\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Visigoths\\ are\\ the\\ Germanic\\ tribe\\ that\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ taking\\ out\\ Western\\ Rome\\.\\ They\\ sacked\\ Rome\\ in\\ 410\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 5th\\ century\\ they\\ conquered\\ Spain\\ and\\ converted\\ to\\ Christianity\\.\\ There\\ are\\ no\\ works\\ from\\ the\\ Jews\\ during\\ the\\ Visigoth\\ period\\.\\ We\\ do\\ have\\ Christian\\ sources\\,\\ though\\.\\ These\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ Visigoths\\ oppressed\\ Jews\\ more\\ than\\ what\\ was\\ considered\\ the\\ norm\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ They\\ really\\,\\ really\\,\\ gave\\ the\\ Jews\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\.\\ They\\ forced\\ conversion\\,\\ among\\ other\\ things\\ \\(Pope\\ Gregory\\ wasn\\'t\\ a\\ fan\\ of\\ forced\\ conversions\\)\\.\\ We\\ have\\ records\\ of\\ the\\ documents\\ from\\ the\\ royal\\ mandates\\ \\(SB\\ pp\\.3\\-4\\)\\.\\ This\\ kind\\ of\\ hints\\ towards\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ happen\\ in\\ the\\ 12th\\ century\\.\\ There\\ are\\ forced\\ conversions\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ converts\\ are\\ suspected\\ of\\ being\\ disloyal\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Visigoth\\ rule\\ was\\ ended\\ by\\ Muslim\\ conquest\\ from\\ North\\ Africa\\.\\ The\\ Visigoth\\ state\\ which\\ was\\ \\(disloyalties\\?\\)\\ was\\ easy\\ to\\ take\\ over\\.\\ Jews\\ were\\ probably\\ happy\\ with\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Visigoth\\ rule\\ \\(see\\ SB\\ p\\.5\\)\\.\\ Later\\ we\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ Christians\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ orchestrated\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-\\-\\-\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Islam\\ was\\ founded\\ by\\ Mohammed\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 7th\\ century\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ he\\ didn\\'t\\ accept\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ or\\ Judaism\\,\\ his\\ religion\\ has\\ much\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ Judaism\\.\\ There\\ are\\,\\ still\\,\\ many\\ sources\\ of\\ conflict\\,\\ especially\\ his\\ claim\\ of\\ prophecy\\ and\\ his\\ position\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ final\\ prophet\\.\\ This\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ destruction\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ communities\\ in\\ the\\ Arab\\ peninsula\\ and\\ the\\ degrading\\ of\\ Jews\\ in\\ Quran\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ policy\\ in\\ Arabia\\,\\ but\\ outside\\ of\\ Arabia\\,\\ even\\ if\\ mistreating\\ the\\ Jews\\ was\\ the\\ official\\ policy\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ always\\ obeyed\\.\\ As\\ they\\ expanded\\ their\\ empire\\,\\ total\\ intolerance\\ of\\ other\\ religions\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ impractical\\.\\ Religious\\ uniformity\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ impossible\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ first\\ Islamic\\ century\\ featured\\ great\\ conquests\\.\\ They\\ held\\ Persia\\,\\ North\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ from\\ there\\ they\\ launched\\ into\\ Spain\\ in\\ 711\\.\\ This\\ brought\\ the\\ vast\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ population\\ \\(roughly\\ 90\\ percent\\)\\ under\\ Islamic\\ rule\\.\\ The\\ Arab\\ areas\\ were\\ linked\\ by\\ a\\ transportation\\ system\\,\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ Arabic\\,\\ and\\ their\\ culture\\ even\\ survived\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ Islamic\\ rule\\.\\ So\\ even\\ though\\ by\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\ Islamic\\ rule\\ is\\ fading\\,\\ the\\ uniformity\\ of\\ the\\ regions\\ persisted\\.\\ This\\ brings\\ Jewish\\ communities\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Visigothic\\ Spain\\ was\\ very\\ closed\\,\\ so\\ things\\ were\\ very\\ different\\ under\\ Islam\\.\\ So\\ Spanish\\ Jews\\ are\\ now\\ allowed\\ to\\ take\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;mainstream\\"\\;\\ Jewish\\ history\\.\\ Early\\ Islamic\\ rule\\ sees\\ widespread\\ migration\\ from\\ the\\ East\\ to\\ the\\ West\\,\\ and\\ from\\ the\\ west\\ to\\ the\\ east\\.\\ And\\ this\\ is\\ true\\ of\\ both\\ Muslims\\ and\\ Jews\\.\\ \\(\\?\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Spain\\ was\\ the\\ western\\ extreme\\ of\\ the\\ Islamic\\ world\\.\\ Maghreb\\ \\(ma\\'ariv\\)\\ refers\\ today\\ to\\ North\\ Africa\\.\\ The\\ Arabic\\ name\\ for\\ Spain\\ is\\ al\\-Andalus\\,\\ and\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ where\\ it\\ came\\ from\\.\\ It\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ a\\ Germanic\\ tribe\\ that\\ was\\ before\\ the\\ Visigoths\\,\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ knows\\.\\ Spain\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ area\\ to\\ gain\\ independence\\ from\\ central\\ Islamic\\ rule\\.\\ This\\ happened\\ under\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ the\\ Uhmayyeds\\ who\\ were\\ rulers\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ empire\\ in\\ Damascus\\ until\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 8th\\ century\\,\\ when\\ they\\ were\\ overthrown\\ and\\ slaughtered\\ by\\ Abbasids\\,\\ and\\ their\\ ruler\\ al\\-Sapach\\ \\(the\\ slaughterer\\)\\.\\ They\\ killed\\ all\\ the\\ Uhmayyeds\\ except\\ for\\ al\\-Rahman\\ \\(Abd\\ to\\ be\\)\\.\\ He\\ escapes\\ to\\ Spain\\ and\\ takes\\ it\\ over\\.\\ The\\ Abbasids\\ weren\\'t\\ happy\\ about\\ this\\-\\-they\\ tried\\ to\\ throw\\ a\\ rebellion\\ against\\ him\\.\\ This\\ failed\\ and\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ point\\,\\ al\\-Rahman\\ beheaded\\ some\\ of\\ their\\ men\\ and\\ sent\\ the\\ heads\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Abassids\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ debate\\ surrounding\\ how\\ much\\ Spain\\ was\\ influenced\\ by\\ Islam\\ and\\ Arabic\\ culture\\;\\ how\\ much\\ was\\ it\\ unaffected\\ and\\ left\\ unchanged\\,\\ like\\ an\\ external\\ image\\ of\\ Islamic\\ culture\\ that\\ was\\ lifted\\ when\\ the\\ Christians\\ took\\ over\\?\\ Spain\\ did\\ have\\ unique\\ aspects\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ very\\ much\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ Arab\\ world\\.\\ Its\\ population\\ was\\ largely\\ bi\\-lingual\\ \\(Arabic\\ and\\ proto\\ Spanish\\)\\.\\ But\\ other\\ places\\ had\\ this\\ too\\-\\-Iran\\ for\\ example\\.\\ There\\'s\\ also\\ a\\ debate\\ as\\ to\\ how\\ influential\\ the\\ Jewish\\ impact\\ was\\.\\ Islam\\ was\\ the\\ reigning\\ rule\\ over\\ the\\ area\\ for\\ several\\ centuries\\ though\\,\\ while\\ the\\ Jews\\ were\\ just\\ an\\ important\\ minority\\,\\ so\\ we\\ would\\ expect\\ some\\ discrepancy\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Al\\-Andalus\\ had\\ two\\ weird\\ things\\-\\-1\\)\\ huge\\ economic\\ prosperity\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ political\\ importance\\ for\\ the\\ Jewish\\ population\\,\\ which\\ was\\ unparalleled\\ by\\ anything\\ else\\ in\\ the\\ Islamic\\ world\\.\\ Its\\ population\\ was\\ composed\\ of\\ many\\ factions\\-\\-1\\)\\ Arab\\ invaders\\ \\(the\\ small\\ powerful\\ elite\\,\\ though\\ not\\ entirely\\ uniform\\)\\,\\ 2\\)\\ Berbers\\ \\(who\\ were\\ from\\ North\\ Africa\\ and\\ the\\ army\\,\\ which\\ launched\\ from\\ North\\ Africa\\,\\ was\\ largely\\ composed\\ of\\ Berbers\\.\\ They\\ had\\ various\\ rival\\ tribes\\.\\)\\,\\ 3\\)\\ the\\ native\\ Spanish\\ converts\\ to\\ Islam\\,\\ the\\ muwalladum\\ \\(plural\\)\\,\\ 4\\)\\ Slavs\\ \\(where\\ the\\ word\\ slave\\ comes\\ from\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ that\\.\\ They\\ were\\ specifically\\ slaves\\ for\\ the\\ army\\,\\ which\\ insures\\ military\\ loyalty\\)\\,\\ 5\\)\\ Mosaribs\\ \\(Arabic\\ speakers\\,\\ takes\\ on\\ Arabic\\ ways\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ Christian\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ convert\\)\\,\\ and\\ 6\\)\\ Jews\\.\\ These\\ groups\\ maintain\\ their\\ identities\\ and\\ don\\'t\\ live\\ in\\ harmony\\.\\ Ethnic\\ competition\\ and\\ conflict\\ among\\ the\\ Islamic\\ groups\\ existed\\.\\ This\\ eventually\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ inner\\ destruction\\ of\\ Islamic\\ Spain\\.\\ The\\ Christians\\ were\\ politically\\ important\\ in\\ eastern\\ Islam\\ \\(Syria\\,\\ Egypt\\)\\ because\\ they\\ knew\\ how\\ beaurocracy\\ works\\.\\ Christians\\ are\\ less\\ prominent\\ in\\ Islamic\\ Spain\\.\\ Why\\?\\ Because\\ despite\\ Islamic\\ rule\\,\\ there\\ are\\ enclaves\\ of\\ Christian\\ resistance\\ in\\ Northern\\ Spain\\.\\ There\\ are\\ still\\ significant\\ parts\\ of\\ Spain\\ that\\ remained\\ under\\ Christian\\ rule\\.\\ Before\\ the\\ 11th\\ century\\ they\\ were\\ never\\ a\\ threat\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ annoying\\,\\ and\\ a\\ culture\\ of\\ suspect\\ against\\ the\\ Christians\\ developed\\.\\ The\\ Jews\\ suffer\\ less\\ social\\ isolation\\ because\\ these\\ other\\ groups\\ were\\ here\\.\\ Jews\\ tend\\ to\\ do\\ best\\ in\\ diverse\\ populations\\;\\ in\\ homogenous\\ populations\\ the\\ Jews\\ stand\\ out\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Jews\\ were\\ also\\ the\\ only\\ group\\ in\\ Muslim\\ Spain\\ with\\ no\\ political\\ ambitions\\,\\ so\\ Muslim\\ rulers\\ looking\\ for\\ lay\\ people\\ often\\ found\\ what\\ they\\ were\\ looking\\ for\\ in\\ the\\ Jew\\.\\ He\\ has\\ no\\ desire\\ to\\ seize\\ power\\ \\(as\\ a\\ people\\)\\.\\ So\\ the\\ Jews\\ had\\ very\\ significant\\ participation\\ in\\ the\\ government\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sura\\,\\ Pumbedita\\,\\ gaon\\,\\ geonim\\,\\ Babylonian\\ Talmud\\,\\ Karaites\\,\\ Natronai\\,\\ Ziryab\\,\\ fatwa\\,\\ responsum\\,\\ ifranjah\\,\\ geniza\\,\\ gatein\\,\\ amram\\ gaon\\,\\ ibn\\ khuradedhbih\\,\\ radhanites\\,\\ hasdai\\ ibn\\ shaprut\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\In\\ the\\ 8th\\ and\\ 9th\\ century\\ Jewish\\ history\\ is\\ obscure\\.\\ We\\ have\\ some\\ documents\\ concerning\\ them\\,\\ but\\ nothing\\ from\\ them\\.\\ But\\ this\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ incubation\\ period\\ where\\ the\\ foundations\\ were\\ laid\\ for\\ later\\ developments\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Jewish\\ history\\,\\ worldwide\\,\\ was\\ highly\\ centralized\\ early\\ on\\.\\ They\\ were\\ centralized\\ in\\ two\\ places\\-\\-Palestine\\ and\\ Babylonia\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ Hebrew\\ revival\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ tell\\ this\\ from\\ inscriptions\\.\\ Early\\ inscriptions\\ are\\ usually\\ in\\ Greek\\ or\\ Latin\\ with\\ a\\ sprinkling\\ of\\ Hebrew\\,\\ but\\ as\\ you\\ move\\ into\\ the\\ early\\ middle\\ ages\\ the\\ greek\\ and\\ latin\\ disapperars\\ and\\ hebrew\\ completely\\ takes\\ over\\.\\ These\\ two\\ centers\\ of\\ Judaism\\ competed\\ for\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ middle\\ ages\\.\\ The\\ earliest\\ hebrew\\ document\\ sent\\ to\\ spain\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>is\\ a\\ circular\\ letter\\ sent\\ in\\ 800\\ addressed\\ to\\ the\\ jews\\ of\\ spain\\ and\\ north\\ africa\\ urging\\ them\\ to\\ follow\\ babylonian\\ practice\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ the\\ babylonian\\ center\\ did\\ eventually\\ dominate\\,\\ and\\ it\\ didn\\'t\\ hurt\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 8th\\ century\\ the\\ capital\\ of\\ the\\ islamic\\ center\\ moved\\ to\\ damascus\\,\\ making\\ babylonia\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ islamic\\ world\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ centuries\\.\\ The\\ most\\ important\\ institutions\\ of\\ the\\ babylonian\\ center\\ were\\ two\\ yeshivot\\,\\ called\\ Sura\\ and\\ Pumbedita\\,\\ which\\ were\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ towns\\ in\\ Iraq\\.\\ These\\ schools\\ eventually\\ both\\ moved\\ to\\ Baghdad\\,\\ but\\ they\\ retained\\ their\\ ancient\\ names\\.\\ The\\ head\\ of\\ these\\ yeshivot\\ were\\ called\\ geonim\\,\\ meaning\\ excellency\\.\\ In\\ the\\ early\\ middle\\ ages\\ the\\ geonim\\ became\\ very\\ important\\,\\ the\\ teachers\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ diaspora\\.\\ They\\ accomplished\\ 2\\ important\\ things\\-\\-first\\ they\\ established\\ the\\ babylonian\\ talmud\\ as\\ the\\ major\\ text\\ of\\ study\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ authoritative\\ source\\ of\\ Jewish\\ law\\.\\ These\\ developments\\ were\\ rejected\\ by\\ the\\ Kararites\\,\\ a\\ Jewish\\ sect\\.\\ Kararites\\-\\-meaning\\ scriptuaralists\\ in\\ english\\.\\ They\\ rejected\\ post\\-biblical\\ literature\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ small\\ but\\ significant\\ kararite\\ community\\ in\\ Spain\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ middle\\ ages\\.\\ About\\ 60\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ Arab\\ conquest\\ of\\ Spain\\ \\(711\\+60\\)\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ babylonian\\ Jewish\\ community\\,\\ named\\ Natronai\\,\\ fell\\ from\\ grace\\.\\ He\\ went\\ west\\ from\\ Babylon\\ to\\ North\\ Africa\\ and\\ Spain\\.\\ Legend\\ has\\ it\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ one\\ to\\ bring\\ the\\ Talmud\\ to\\ Spain\\.\\ The\\ legend\\ has\\ it\\ that\\ he\\ memorized\\ it\\ and\\ gave\\ it\\ over\\ to\\ them\\.\\ Most\\ would\\ consider\\ this\\ to\\ be\\ folklore\\,\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ encapsulate\\ a\\ cultural\\ truth\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ shift\\ in\\ Jewish\\ culture\\ at\\ this\\ time\\.\\ People\\ are\\ using\\ their\\ memory\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ texts\\ before\\ the\\ early\\ middle\\ ages\\.\\ Peole\\ start\\ using\\ texts\\ later\\.\\ This\\ also\\ reflects\\ the\\ dependance\\ of\\ the\\ hispano\\-jewish\\ community\\ on\\ babylon\\.\\ This\\ is\\ true\\ of\\ the\\ Islamic\\ community\\ also\\.\\ You\\ can\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ Ziryab\\,\\ a\\ musician\\ who\\ escaped\\ inquiry\\ in\\ the\\ courts\\ of\\ Baghdad\\ to\\ Spain\\.\\ There\\ he\\ establishd\\ a\\ school\\ of\\ music\\ there\\.\\ But\\ he\\ also\\ popularized\\ toothpaste\\ in\\ Al\\-Andalus\\.\\ And\\ they\\ also\\ say\\ that\\ he\\ created\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ style\\ \\(especially\\ in\\ hair\\ style\\,\\ from\\ bangs\\ to\\ pulling\\ hair\\ back\\)\\.\\ The\\ baghdadi\\ look\\ was\\ cool\\.\\ Spain\\ was\\ like\\ a\\ cultural\\ colony\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Jews\\ were\\ gaining\\ legal\\ and\\ spiritual\\ guidance\\ from\\ the\\ academies\\ of\\ the\\ geonim\\.\\ The\\ geonim\\ gave\\ guidance\\ primarily\\ through\\ responsum\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ institution\\ not\\ unlike\\ the\\ Islamic\\ fatwah\\.\\ A\\ community\\ has\\ a\\ problem\\,\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ solve\\ it\\ so\\ they\\ send\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ geonim\\ and\\ ask\\ for\\ his\\ ruling\\.\\ Up\\ until\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\,\\ Spain\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ recipient\\ of\\ geonic\\ responsa\\.\\ We\\ have\\ a\\ letter\\ from\\ a\\ latter\\ geon\\,\\ saying\\ \\"\\;A\\ whole\\ pack\\ of\\ donkeys\\ could\\ not\\ hold\\ the\\ whole\\ bunch\\ of\\ intelligent\\ questions\\ recieved\\ from\\ Spain\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\"\\;\\ Whether\\ they\\ were\\ intelligent\\ or\\ not\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ determine\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ fundraising\\ letter\\.\\ We\\ have\\ a\\ small\\ fragment\\ of\\ the\\ responsa\\ written\\ by\\ the\\ geonim\\,\\ though\\ still\\ a\\ sizeable\\ amount\\.\\ But\\ historical\\ reconstruction\\ is\\ difficult\\ also\\ because\\ the\\ transmitters\\ tended\\ to\\ excise\\ irrelevant\\ things\\ like\\ names\\ and\\ dates\\ and\\ locations\\.\\ They\\ copied\\ them\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ legal\\ precedents\\,\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ sensitive\\ to\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ historians\\ many\\ years\\ later\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ responsa\\ from\\ Babylonia\\ to\\ Spain\\ it\\ took\\ a\\ complicated\\ process\\.\\ The\\ question\\ first\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ sent\\ to\\ babylonia\\-\\-taking\\ the\\ path\\ from\\ the\\ straits\\ of\\ gebralta\\,\\ to\\ north\\ africa\\,\\ going\\ to\\ an\\ important\\ city\\ in\\ tunesia\\,\\ travel\\ the\\ med\\.\\ to\\ Alexandria\\,\\ to\\ syria\\,\\ to\\ babylon\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ geon\\ has\\ to\\ diliberate\\,\\ write\\ the\\ answer\\,\\ and\\ then\\ send\\ the\\ letter\\ back\\ to\\ Spain\\.\\ We\\ have\\ one\\ geonic\\ responsa\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\ describing\\ the\\ behavior\\ desired\\ by\\ the\\ Jews\\ of\\ Spain\\ and\\ Infranjah\\ \\(france\\)\\ if\\ they\\ hear\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ geon\\ after\\ the\\ 12\\ month\\ mourning\\ period\\ for\\ the\\ geon\\.\\ So\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ spiritual\\ connection\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ troubles\\ of\\ transportations\\ \\(indicated\\ by\\ the\\ 12\\ month\\ delay\\)\\.\\ One\\ important\\ source\\ for\\ this\\ period\\,\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ Muslim\\ period\\ really\\,\\ are\\ documents\\ from\\ the\\ Cairo\\ Geniza\\.\\ Geniza\\ is\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ old\\ sacred\\ writings\\ that\\ are\\ beginning\\ to\\ fall\\ apart\\,\\ thrown\\ out\\ in\\ a\\ dignified\\ way\\.\\ The\\ Cairo\\ geniza\\ is\\ distinguished\\ by\\ its\\ size\\,\\ its\\ scope\\ of\\ content\\ \\(for\\ some\\ reason\\ people\\ didn\\'t\\ just\\ deposit\\ sacred\\ writings\\,\\ but\\ anything\\ written\\ in\\ hebrew\\ language\\ or\\ script\\,\\ and\\ Arabic\\ Jews\\ wrote\\ arabic\\ in\\ hebrew\\ script\\.\\ So\\ we\\ have\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ every\\ day\\ documents\\.\\ The\\ Mediteranean\\ Societies\\,\\ 5\\ volumes\\,\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ documents\\ of\\ the\\ Cairo\\ geniza\\,\\ which\\ he\\ used\\ to\\ reconstruct\\ the\\ whole\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ times\\.\\ The\\ geniza\\ contains\\ many\\ non\\-egyptian\\ documents\\,\\ from\\ merchants\\ and\\ travellers\\ also\\.\\ The\\ number\\ of\\ documents\\ from\\ Spain\\ are\\ small\\,\\ but\\ extremely\\ important\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Page\\ 6\\ of\\ SB\\:\\ geonic\\ response\\,\\ could\\'ve\\ been\\ to\\ Spain\\,\\ though\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ know\\.\\ Indicates\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ guidance\\ that\\ they\\ gave\\.\\ Reuven\\ and\\ Shimon\\ are\\ featured\\,\\ they\\ are\\ A\\ and\\ B\\-\\-made\\ up\\ anonymous\\ names\\.\\ The\\ amount\\ in\\ question\\ is\\ 15\\ dinars\\-\\-in\\ the\\ 11th\\ century\\ 2\\ dinars\\ was\\ a\\ monthly\\ income\\ for\\ a\\ lower\\ middle\\ class\\ family\\.\\ So\\ 24\\ dinars\\ is\\ approximately\\ at\\ least\\ 40\\,000\\ dollars\\,\\ so\\ 15\\ dinars\\ is\\ about\\ 25\\,000\\ dollars\\.\\ He\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\-\\-as\\ long\\ as\\ he\\ has\\ witnesses\\ or\\ takes\\ an\\ oath\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Page\\ 7\\ of\\ SB\\:\\ Amram\\ Gaon\\ was\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ Sura\\,\\ certainly\\ sent\\ to\\ Spain\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\,\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ correct\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ liturgy\\.\\ He\\ puts\\ together\\ the\\ first\\ siddur\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ of\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ step\\ in\\ the\\ crystallization\\ of\\ the\\ classical\\ liturgy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ condensation\\ of\\ culture\\ that\\ occured\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ geonim\\.\\ The\\ letter\\ expresses\\ Amram\\'s\\ close\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ recipient\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ know\\ him\\ personally\\,\\ so\\ its\\ possible\\ he\\ studied\\ at\\ Sura\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Page\\ 9\\ of\\ SB\\:\\ Written\\ by\\ an\\ arabic\\ geogropher\\-\\-Ibn\\ Khurradedhbuh\\.\\ They\\ acted\\ as\\ sort\\ of\\ information\\ gatherers\\ over\\ the\\ various\\ provinces\\ that\\ were\\ being\\ ruled\\.\\ He\\'s\\ reporting\\ on\\ the\\ Radhinites\\,\\ a\\ Jewish\\ family\\ or\\ group\\ of\\ merchants\\ who\\ travelled\\ the\\ world\\ who\\ seemed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ based\\ in\\ Babylonia\\.\\ They\\ move\\ allover\\ the\\ world\\,\\ reachig\\ the\\ Slovanic\\ and\\ Chinese\\ regions\\,\\ and\\ their\\ travels\\ take\\ them\\ to\\ Spain\\ as\\ well\\.\\ They\\ speak\\ many\\ languages\\.\\ Andalusian\\ is\\ an\\ early\\,\\ Ibero\\-Romantic\\ language\\,\\ which\\ they\\ used\\ in\\ Spain\\.\\ We\\ see\\ that\\ Spain\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ isolated\\ place\\,\\ like\\ visigothic\\ Spain\\ was\\.\\ It\\'s\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ by\\ trade\\ routes\\,\\ and\\ even\\ to\\ the\\ far\\ east\\,\\ and\\ its\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ islamic\\ world\\.\\ We\\ see\\ that\\ Spain\\ is\\ most\\ closely\\ linked\\ to\\ North\\ Africa\\-economically\\,\\ culturully\\ and\\ geographicly\\.\\ These\\ routes\\ of\\ merchant\\ exchange\\ were\\ also\\ cultural\\ exchange\\.\\ One\\ can\\ imagine\\ that\\ the\\ Radhinites\\ would\\ be\\ given\\ the\\ job\\ to\\ bring\\ a\\ message\\ to\\ a\\ geon\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ 10th\\ century\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ change\\,\\ where\\ the\\ subjects\\ begin\\ to\\ write\\ things\\ that\\ later\\ generations\\ think\\ worth\\ preserving\\.\\ It\\'s\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ that\\ Hispanic\\-Jewish\\ history\\ becomes\\ interesting\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ broader\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ babylonian\\ primacy\\ and\\ a\\ decentralization\\ of\\ Jewish\\ life\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\What\\ caused\\ this\\?\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\First\\,\\ the\\ babylonian\\ Jewish\\ community\\ is\\ in\\ decline\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ local\\ chaos\\ and\\ economic\\ decline\\,\\ beginning\\ in\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ clear\\ in\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\ that\\ Iraq\\ is\\ definetly\\ in\\ decline\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ yeshivos\\ in\\ Babylonian\\ are\\ going\\ broke\\,\\ and\\ we\\ have\\ letters\\ of\\ them\\ begging\\ for\\ money\\ and\\ desperation\\.\\ A\\ prestigious\\ institution\\ going\\ broke\\ starts\\ giving\\ out\\ honorary\\ degrees\\ to\\ promenant\\ contributers\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ get\\ money\\.\\ One\\ was\\ given\\ to\\ Hasdai\\ ibn\\ Shaprut\\,\\ who\\ turns\\ out\\ will\\ be\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ heros\\ of\\ 10th\\ century\\ Jewish\\ history\\.\\ He\\ has\\ lots\\ of\\ money\\ and\\ power\\ and\\ sends\\ his\\ contributions\\ to\\ Babylonia\\ and\\ recieves\\ an\\ honorary\\ degree\\.\\ This\\ period\\ saw\\ wide\\-spread\\ western\\ migration\\ from\\ Persia\\ and\\ Iraq\\ to\\ Egypt\\,\\ North\\ Africa\\ and\\ Spain\\.\\ Among\\ Jews\\,\\ some\\ people\\ are\\ een\\ moving\\ further\\ west\\ and\\ crossing\\ over\\ the\\ Islamic\\-Christian\\ divide\\ and\\ moving\\ into\\ Chritian\\ Europe\\.\\ At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ it\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ frontier\\ with\\ many\\ economic\\ opportunities\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Another\\ factor\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ yeshivos\\ did\\ such\\ a\\ good\\ job\\ that\\ they\\ put\\ themselves\\ out\\ of\\ business\\.\\ By\\ establishing\\ the\\ Talmud\\ as\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ Jewish\\ law\\,\\ training\\ students\\ in\\ the\\ Talmud\\,\\ and\\ then\\ returned\\ home\\ as\\ \\"\\;shilichim\\"\\;\\ to\\ their\\ hometowns\\ and\\ set\\ up\\ their\\ own\\ sateilite\\ scholarly\\ institutions\\.\\ So\\ local\\ institutions\\ institute\\ their\\ legal\\ autonomy\\.\\ This\\ is\\ way\\ quicker\\ then\\ the\\ long\\ path\\ to\\ Babylonia\\.\\ And\\ they\\ also\\ know\\ the\\ local\\ scene\\,\\ they\\ can\\ make\\ more\\ subtle\\ rulings\\.\\ So\\ it\\'s\\ really\\ to\\ the\\ advantage\\ to\\ the\\ community\\.\\ So\\ they\\ stop\\ sending\\ their\\ messages\\ to\\ Babylonia\\ and\\ their\\ contributions\\ also\\ stop\\.\\ So\\ scholarship\\ is\\ also\\ emerging\\ in\\ Italy\\,\\ France\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Spain\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\One\\ interesting\\ question\\ one\\ can\\ raise\\ as\\ a\\ historian\\,\\ to\\ what\\ extent\\ were\\ medevils\\ conscious\\ that\\ something\\ changed\\.\\ Did\\ they\\ know\\?\\ We\\ can\\ answer\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ aware\\ of\\ this\\-\\-see\\ SB\\ p\\.15\\,a\\ story\\ by\\ Abraham\\ ibn\\ Daud\\ that\\ describes\\ that\\ progress\\ of\\ rabbinic\\ line\\.\\ It\\'s\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ four\\ captives\\-\\-most\\ historians\\ consider\\ the\\ story\\ folklore\\.\\ But\\ it\\ does\\ reflect\\ consciousness\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ ibn\\ Daud\\ that\\ something\\ happened\\ that\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ explained\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ story\\ that\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ process\\.\\ \\[The\\ Palestinian\\ academies\\ were\\ in\\ decline\\ even\\ before\\ the\\ Babylonian\\ ones\\,\\ about\\ a\\ century\\ before\\.\\]\\ There\\'s\\ a\\ resemblence\\ between\\ ibn\\ Daud\\'s\\ story\\ and\\ other\\ foundation\\ stories\\ in\\ other\\ communities\\.\\ It\\'s\\ always\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ scholar\\ in\\ a\\ community\\ that\\ gives\\ a\\ place\\ prominence\\.\\ They\\'re\\ able\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ judges\\ and\\ provide\\ the\\ legal\\ framework\\ in\\ these\\ communities\\.\\ But\\ there\\'s\\ another\\ aspect\\ in\\ the\\ story\\ that\\'s\\ significant\\.\\ The\\ Spanish\\ guy\\ who\\ realizes\\ that\\ the\\ prisoner\\ is\\ a\\ prominent\\ scholar\\ that\\ he\\ sold\\,\\ he\\ gets\\ upset\\ that\\ he\\ think\\ he\\ got\\ too\\ cheap\\ of\\ a\\ price\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ retract\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Kaliph\\ who\\ bought\\ him\\ says\\ no\\.\\ He\\ would\\ rather\\ have\\ Spanish\\ Jews\\ independent\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ relationship\\ between\\ Jewish\\ communities\\ and\\ central\\ authority\\-\\-this\\ is\\ a\\ motif\\ that\\ we\\'ll\\ see\\ again\\ in\\ Christian\\ Spain\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 4\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hasdai\\ ibn\\ Shaprut\\,\\ Ibd\\ an\\ Rahman\\ III\\,\\ Al\\ Hakam\\ III\\,\\ Ishm\\ of\\ Gorze\\,\\ Otto\\ I\\,\\ Eamcha\\ the\\ Fat\\,\\ Joda\\ of\\ Navene\\,\\ Razars\\,\\ Eldad\\ the\\ Danite\\,\\ Manahem\\ ben\\ Saruq\\,\\ Dunash\\ ibn\\ Labnet\\,\\ Ratib\\,\\ al\\ Mansun\\,\\ Satiago\\,\\ Matamoras\\,\\ Jairfa\\ Kindgdoms\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Spain\\ moved\\ to\\ independence\\ form\\ Babylonia\\ and\\ Iraq\\ in\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\.\\ And\\ also\\ Jewish\\ cultural\\ life\\ is\\ becoming\\ decentralized\\ from\\ the\\ near\\ east\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ dominant\\ figure\\ in\\ this\\ period\\ is\\ Hasdai\\ ibn\\ Shaprut\\.\\ He\\'s\\ the\\ first\\ in\\ a\\ long\\ line\\ of\\ Jewish\\ politicians\\ who\\ achieved\\ prominence\\ in\\ Spain\\ and\\ other\\ Moslim\\ countries\\.\\ This\\ line\\ of\\ prominent\\ Jewish\\ politicians\\ runs\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ down\\ till\\ 1492\\.\\ Why\\ did\\ the\\ involvement\\ of\\ Jews\\ only\\ begin\\ in\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\?\\ A\\ speculative\\ answer\\:\\ al\\ Andalus\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ composed\\ of\\ various\\ tribes\\.\\ By\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\ these\\ tribal\\ ties\\ had\\ weakened\\ and\\ there\\'s\\ an\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ Moslim\\ majority\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ large\\-scale\\ conversions\\ that\\ really\\ pick\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\,\\ so\\ that\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ moslim\\ majority\\.\\ This\\ creates\\ the\\ first\\ possibility\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\ central\\ government\\.\\ You\\ want\\ unconnected\\ people\\,\\ without\\ ties\\ to\\ their\\ tribes\\,\\ to\\ rule\\ in\\ your\\ government\\.\\ Jews\\ were\\ extremely\\ disconnected\\ from\\ tribal\\ life\\.\\ Also\\ the\\ Jews\\ had\\ connections\\ with\\ economic\\ and\\ medical\\ people\\,\\ so\\ this\\ all\\ culminated\\ in\\ Hasdai\\'s\\ rise\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hasdai\\ rose\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ abd\\ an\\ Rahman\\ III\\'s\\ court\\.\\ He\\ serves\\ under\\ he\\ son\\,\\ al\\ Hakam\\ II\\.\\ an\\-Rahman\\ III\\ did\\ a\\ big\\ thing\\,\\ declaring\\ himself\\ kaliph\\.\\ The\\ kaliph\\ was\\ the\\ leader\\ of\\ all\\ Moslim\\ countries\\.\\ Previously\\ the\\ kaliph\\ had\\ served\\ in\\ Baghdad\\.\\ But\\ he\\ declares\\ himself\\ kaliph\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ peak\\ of\\ Spain\\'s\\ wealth\\ and\\ power\\.\\ Hasdai\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ personal\\ physician\\,\\ translator\\,\\ diplomat\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ in\\ charge\\ of\\ making\\ collections\\.\\ He\\ wasn\\'t\\ a\\ real\\ administrator\\,\\ probably\\ to\\ not\\ flaunt\\ the\\ illegal\\ thing\\ that\\ the\\ kaliph\\ had\\ done\\,\\ namely\\,\\ appointed\\ a\\ Jew\\ in\\ his\\ court\\.\\ So\\ he\\ never\\ had\\ a\\ real\\ position\\.\\ Hasdai\\'s\\ name\\ pops\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ weird\\ place\\,\\ in\\ the\\ memoirs\\ of\\ John\\ of\\ Gorz\\,\\ a\\ german\\ monk\\.\\ \\(SB\\ 25\\-26\\)\\ He\\ had\\ been\\ sent\\ by\\ Otto\\ I\\ on\\ a\\ diplomatic\\ mission\\,\\ carrying\\ a\\ letter\\ from\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ Germany\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ abd\\ an\\ Rahman\\'s\\ help\\ in\\ surpressing\\ a\\ moslim\\ group\\ of\\ pirates\\ in\\ his\\ country\\.\\ This\\ letter\\ countained\\ certain\\ insults\\ to\\ Islam\\.\\ If\\ had\\ presented\\ this\\ letter\\ to\\ the\\ kaliph\\ he\\ would\\'ve\\ had\\ to\\ kill\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ messengers\\,\\ which\\ is\\ bad\\ for\\ diplomacy\\.\\ Hasdai\\ wanted\\ him\\ to\\ reveal\\ the\\ letter\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ preview\\ the\\ letter\\ and\\ make\\ sure\\ there\\ wasn\\'t\\ a\\ masacre\\.\\ Hasdai\\ withdraws\\ and\\ they\\ send\\ a\\ Christian\\ diplomat\\ in\\ Spain\\'s\\ court\\ to\\ talk\\ with\\ him\\.\\ John\\ writes\\ of\\ Hasdai\\ \\"\\;he\\ was\\ really\\ really\\ wise\\"\\;\\.\\ They\\ ended\\ up\\ sending\\ John\\ back\\ to\\ Germany\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ new\\ letter\\ to\\ send\\ to\\ the\\ kaliph\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\See\\ Map\\ 1\\ in\\ SB\\.\\ The\\ christian\\ regions\\ spanned\\ the\\ northern\\ border\\ of\\ Spain\\,\\ from\\ the\\ West\\ to\\ the\\ east\\.\\ Astruias\\-Leon\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ West\\,\\ while\\ Navarre\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ east\\.\\ Sancha\\ the\\ Fat\\ was\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ Astruias\\-Leon\\,\\ and\\ was\\ deposed\\ because\\ they\\ thought\\ he\\ was\\ too\\ fat\\ to\\ lead\\ the\\ troops\\ out\\ in\\ battle\\.\\ Hasdai\\ convinced\\ Sancha\\,\\ and\\ his\\ grandmother\\,\\ the\\ queen\\ of\\ Nabarre\\,\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ court\\ with\\ the\\ kaliph\\ in\\ his\\ palace\\.\\ Hasdai\\ then\\ uses\\ his\\ medical\\ skills\\ to\\ lose\\ some\\ weight\\,\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ moslim\\ army\\ helps\\ him\\ regain\\ power\\,\\ and\\ then\\ he\\ rulled\\,\\ paying\\ tribute\\ to\\ the\\ moslims\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hasdai\\ wrote\\ poetry\\ in\\ eloquent\\ hebrew\\.\\ Beginning\\ in\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\ poetry\\ becomes\\ a\\ major\\ source\\ for\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ hte\\ historical\\ picture\\.\\ A\\ completely\\ different\\ side\\ of\\ Hasdai\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ letter\\ to\\ Joseph\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ the\\ Khazars\\.\\ The\\ Khazars\\ were\\ a\\ turkish\\ people\\ in\\ southern\\ Russia\\,\\ and\\ at\\ some\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ 8th\\ century\\ the\\ ruling\\ elite\\ converted\\ to\\ Judaism\\.\\ Hasdai\\ was\\ fascinated\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ soveirgn\\ Jewish\\ kingdom\\,\\ anywhere\\!\\ It\\ was\\ hard\\ for\\ him\\ to\\ get\\ in\\ contact\\ with\\ them\\,\\ but\\ eventually\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ letter\\ delivered\\ to\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ the\\ Khazars\\.\\ The\\ letter\\ contains\\ \\(SB\\ 18\\)\\ regular\\ Jewish\\-Spanish\\ themes\\.\\ He\\ calls\\ himself\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ exiles\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\ \\(like\\ the\\ pasuk\\ in\\ Ovadia\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ Arabs\\ as\\ the\\ in\\-dwellers\\ \\(even\\ though\\ the\\ Jews\\ had\\ been\\ there\\ longer\\,\\ but\\ the\\ sense\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ Moslem\\ town\\)\\.\\ Hasdai\\ describes\\ how\\ rich\\ of\\ a\\ country\\ it\\ is\\.\\ He\\ declares\\ the\\ pleasure\\ gardens\\ of\\ Spain\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ you\\ even\\ find\\ descriptions\\ of\\ Spain\\ itself\\ as\\ a\\ pleasure\\ garden\\.\\ Hasdai\\ describes\\ his\\ role\\ in\\ Spain\\-\\-he\\ sees\\ himself\\ as\\ providentially\\ appointed\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ improve\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ the\\ Jews\\ in\\ Spain\\,\\ who\\ he\\ describes\\ as\\ down\\-trodden\\ before\\ he\\ took\\ rise\\ to\\ power\\.\\ The\\ language\\ that\\ Hasdai\\ uses\\ is\\ borrowed\\ from\\ Exodus\\,\\ and\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Moses\\,\\ who\\ was\\ also\\ divinely\\ appointed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ protector\\ of\\ his\\ people\\.\\ Hasdai\\ is\\ fascinated\\ by\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ somewhere\\ a\\ soveirgn\\ Jewish\\ nation\\.\\ This\\ stems\\ from\\ a\\ strong\\ yearning\\ for\\ independance\\ and\\ power\\,\\ found\\ especially\\ in\\ Spanish\\ Jews\\.\\ This\\ could\\ also\\ serve\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Christians\\ and\\ Moslims\\ who\\ claim\\ that\\ the\\ Jews\\ have\\ lost\\ all\\ power\\.\\ See\\ SB\\ 22\\,\\ where\\ Hasdai\\ describes\\ a\\ mysterious\\ visitor\\ from\\ the\\ tribe\\ of\\ Dan\\ who\\ visited\\ Spain\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\.\\ Dan\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ lost\\ tribes\\,\\ so\\ it\\'s\\ weird\\ to\\ see\\ him\\ again\\.\\ But\\ his\\ name\\ was\\ Eldad\\ the\\ Dannite\\ who\\ shows\\ up\\ in\\ Jewish\\ communities\\ across\\ the\\ Jewish\\ world\\.\\ He\\ speaks\\ only\\ in\\ hebrew\\,\\ and\\ claims\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 10\\ lost\\ tribes\\ in\\ some\\ remote\\ region\\.\\ He\\ claims\\ that\\ they\\'re\\ independant\\ and\\ alive\\ and\\ well\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ hard\\-headed\\ politician\\ as\\ Hasdai\\ takes\\ this\\ seriously\\ shows\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ attraction\\ that\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ Jewish\\ soveirgnty\\ presented\\ to\\ him\\.\\ Hasdai\\ describes\\ how\\ he\\ protected\\ the\\ Jews\\ of\\ Spain\\.\\ He\\ did\\ more\\-\\-he\\ wrote\\ to\\ the\\ emporeress\\ of\\ Byzantine\\ asking\\ her\\ to\\ treat\\ the\\ Jews\\ better\\ because\\ he\\ treated\\ the\\ Christians\\ well\\ in\\ Spain\\.\\ Probably\\ didn\\'t\\ do\\ anything\\.\\ But\\ we\\ have\\ another\\ letter\\ of\\ Hasdai\\ \\(this\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ one\\ are\\ incomplete\\,\\ actually\\)\\ to\\ another\\ important\\ king\\,\\ asking\\ a\\ similar\\ request\\.\\ These\\ letters\\ are\\ in\\ hebrew\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hasdai\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ a\\ great\\ revival\\ of\\ hebrew\\.\\ His\\ cultural\\ impact\\ was\\ perhaps\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ his\\ political\\ ones\\.\\ Hasdai\\ was\\ wealthy\\,\\ being\\ a\\ politician\\ of\\ those\\ days\\.\\ So\\ he\\ tried\\ to\\ attract\\ talented\\ scholars\\ from\\ abroad\\ where\\ he\\ promises\\ that\\ he\\'ll\\ support\\ them\\.\\ In\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ ibn\\-Daud\\,\\ with\\ the\\ four\\ captives\\.\\ Moses\\,\\ who\\ landed\\ in\\ Spain\\ in\\ the\\ story\\,\\ was\\ probably\\ a\\ real\\ scholar\\ attracted\\ by\\ Hasdai\\.\\ Hasdai\\ brought\\ more\\ fields\\ of\\ Jewish\\ study\\ back\\-\\-biblical\\ exegesis\\ and\\ hebrew\\ linguistics\\.\\ He\\ was\\ involved\\ with\\ Menachem\\ ibn\\ Saruk\\ and\\ Dunash\\ ibn\\ Labrat\\.\\ They\\ probably\\ put\\ the\\ literary\\ flair\\ in\\ Hasdai\\'s\\ letters\\ from\\ before\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Every\\ ruler\\ needed\\ a\\ secretary\\ who\\ could\\ write\\ beautifully\\ and\\ eloquently\\ in\\ his\\ name\\.\\ The\\ new\\ breed\\ of\\ Jewish\\ politicians\\ employ\\ Hebrew\\ secretaries\\,\\ and\\ Menchem\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ served\\ Hasdai\\ in\\ this\\ capacity\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ poems\\ for\\ him\\ in\\ various\\ social\\ occasions\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ Hasdai\\'s\\ father\\ died\\ Menachem\\ wrote\\ a\\ poem\\ for\\ him\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dunash\\ was\\ orginially\\ from\\ Bahdaad\\?\\ but\\ was\\ probably\\ brought\\ to\\ Spain\\ by\\ Hasdai\\'s\\ program\\.\\ He\\ began\\ to\\ write\\ secular\\ poems\\ in\\ hebrew\\.\\ Dunash\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ celebrated\\ Hasdai\\'s\\ rule\\ in\\ a\\ long\\ poem\\ dedicated\\ to\\ him\\.\\ At\\ some\\ point\\ Hasdai\\ had\\ a\\ falling\\ point\\ with\\ Menachem\\.\\ He\\ sent\\ him\\ to\\ prison\\ at\\ some\\ point\\,\\ and\\ that\\'s\\ where\\ we\\ find\\ his\\ first\\ poems\\ written\\.\\ We\\ don\\'t\\ know\\ what\\ the\\ controversy\\ was\\ about\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ some\\ dispute\\ and\\ poor\\ Menachem\\ did\\ end\\ up\\ in\\ prison\\.\\ SB\\ 27\\-28\\ are\\ his\\ poems\\ written\\ from\\ prison\\.\\ While\\ Hasdai\\ had\\ the\\ police\\ power\\ on\\ his\\ side\\,\\ but\\ it\\'s\\ Menachem\\'s\\ version\\ that\\ went\\ down\\ in\\ history\\ and\\ may\\ have\\ shaped\\ the\\ public\\ opinion\\ as\\ well\\.\\ We\\ only\\ have\\ Menachem\\'s\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ In\\ his\\ defense\\ he\\ calls\\ on\\ biblical\\ themes\\ to\\ protest\\ his\\ patron\\.\\ Hasdai\\ may\\ have\\ fallen\\ into\\ the\\ bad\\ ways\\ of\\ the\\ contemporary\\ despots\\.\\ Menachem\\ hopes\\ to\\ shape\\ public\\ opinion\\,\\ and\\ he\\ has\\ a\\ market\\ in\\ this\\ time\\ period\\ because\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ people\\ wanted\\ to\\ read\\ hebrew\\ poetry\\.\\ The\\ poet\\ had\\ a\\ real\\ power\\ to\\ communicate\\ that\\ the\\ politician\\ didn\\'t\\ really\\ have\\.\\ His\\ power\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ like\\ the\\ media\\ today\\.\\ He\\ can\\ get\\ ideas\\ spread\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ else\\ can\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\What\\ Hasdai\\ was\\ doing\\ for\\ Jewish\\ culture\\ in\\ Spain\\ parallels\\ what\\ abd\\ an\\-Rahman\\ III\\ was\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Arab\\ culture\\ in\\ Spain\\.\\ He\\ was\\ doing\\ exactly\\ what\\ Hasdai\\ was\\ doing\\-\\-trying\\ to\\ attract\\ intellectuals\\ from\\ the\\ east\\ and\\ put\\ arab\\ culture\\ in\\ Spain\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ arab\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ east\\.\\ He\\ suceeded\\-\\-it\\ was\\ put\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ the\\ eastern\\ culture\\.\\ Still\\,\\ Hasdai\\,\\ in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ was\\ even\\ more\\ sucessful\\,\\ because\\ in\\ one\\ generation\\ Spanish\\-Jewish\\ culture\\ blew\\ past\\ every\\ other\\ Jewish\\ cultural\\ center\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\As\\ we\\ approach\\ the\\ 11th\\ century\\ these\\ are\\ exciting\\ times\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ cultural\\ times\\,\\ but\\ politically\\ the\\ Muslim\\ rule\\ was\\ fracturing\\.\\ Around\\ 1000\\ the\\ ruler\\ of\\ Spain\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ kaliph\\ but\\ rather\\ al\\-Mansur\\ \\(the\\ victorious\\"\\;\\)\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ victorious\\ over\\ the\\ Christians\\ in\\ the\\ north\\.\\ He\\ could\\'ve\\ wiped\\ them\\ out\\,\\ but\\ didn\\'t\\,\\ probably\\ so\\ he\\ could\\ continue\\ fighting\\ them\\ each\\ summer\\.\\ These\\ campaigns\\ were\\ always\\ sucessful\\ and\\ made\\ him\\ very\\ popular\\,\\ so\\ he\\ had\\ an\\ incentive\\ not\\ to\\ wipe\\ them\\ out\\.\\ This\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Santiago\\ de\\ Compostela\\ in\\ NW\\ Spain\\.\\ It\\ was\\ believed\\ that\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ apostles\\ was\\ buried\\ there\\.\\ So\\ it\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ becoming\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ religious\\ pilgramage\\ sites\\ in\\ christian\\ europe\\.\\ al\\-mansur\\ took\\ the\\ golden\\ bells\\ from\\ the\\ church\\ there\\ and\\ marched\\ them\\ back\\.\\ Matamorus\\,\\ was\\ on\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ becoming\\ a\\ chirstian\\ saint\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ spiritual\\ influence\\ behind\\ the\\ reconquest\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ soon\\ to\\ get\\ revenge\\ over\\ christian\\ Spain\\.\\ At\\ 1008\\,\\ when\\ al\\_Mansur\\'s\\ son\\ and\\ successor\\ died\\,\\ it\\ seemed\\ like\\ Spain\\ was\\ invincible\\,\\ but\\ it\\ soon\\ started\\ to\\ crumble\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ was\\ a\\ centralized\\ state\\ that\\ fails\\ to\\ cohere\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ factions\\ and\\ rival\\ groups\\.\\ What\\ emerged\\ in\\ Spain\\ after\\ about\\ 20\\ years\\ of\\ chaos\\ that\\ started\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ 11th\\ century\\ was\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ states\\.\\ Their\\ emergence\\ yielded\\ a\\ temporary\\ equilibrium\\ where\\ political\\ realities\\ were\\ brought\\ more\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ ethinic\\ realites\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ when\\ you\\ have\\ many\\ states\\ they\\ can\\ all\\ be\\ lead\\ by\\ a\\ different\\ ethnic\\ group\\.\\ This\\ fragmentation\\ was\\ really\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ end\\ for\\ Muslim\\ Spain\\,\\ because\\,\\ divided\\,\\ it\\ begins\\ its\\ fall\\ to\\ the\\ once\\ inconsequential\\ Christians\\ of\\ the\\ north\\.\\ The\\ 11th\\ century\\ is\\ the\\ century\\ when\\ the\\ christians\\ begin\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ initiative\\ and\\ press\\ southward\\ in\\ their\\ attempt\\ to\\ retake\\ Spain\\.\\ All\\ this\\ started\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ century\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ situation\\ of\\ al\\-Andalus\\ in\\ the\\ 11th\\ century\\ is\\ often\\ compared\\ to\\ reneissance\\ Italy\\.\\ On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ you\\ have\\ political\\ fragmentatoin\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ extreme\\ susceiptibility\\ to\\ outside\\ conquest\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ it\\ has\\ cultural\\ brilliance\\.\\ And\\ they\\'re\\ connected\\.\\ Culture\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ ages\\ is\\ often\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ courts\\ and\\ their\\ support\\.\\ With\\ many\\ states\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ courts\\ and\\ they\\ often\\ competed\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ support\\.\\ This\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ made\\ Italy\\ so\\ interesting\\-\\-many\\ courts\\ that\\ could\\ support\\ many\\ writers\\.\\ The\\ various\\ taipha\\?\\ states\\ fought\\ to\\ attract\\ major\\ poets\\ and\\ scholars\\.\\ The\\ atmosphere\\ is\\ also\\ one\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ renneisance\\ Italy\\.\\ The\\ cultural\\ brilliance\\ is\\ partnered\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ feeling\\ of\\ decodence\\.\\ You\\ have\\ a\\ story\\ with\\ some\\ guy\\ who\\ had\\ a\\ garden\\ decorated\\ with\\ his\\ enemies\\ skulls\\,\\ some\\ other\\ guy\\ traps\\ another\\ one\\ in\\ a\\ steam\\ house\\.\\ This\\ decodence\\ can\\ be\\ destructive\\ politically\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Jews\\,\\ with\\ more\\ courts\\,\\ ended\\ up\\ in\\ more\\ courts\\ and\\ in\\ more\\ power\\.\\ So\\ now\\ more\\ Jews\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ positiion\\ to\\ be\\ patrons\\ of\\ the\\ hebrew\\ works\\.\\ So\\ the\\ 11th\\ century\\ was\\ really\\ the\\ century\\ when\\ a\\ Jewish\\ culture\\ in\\ Spain\\ sees\\ its\\ most\\ brilliant\\ achievements\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 88, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lectures 1-4"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.719579+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "First meeting with Jonathan", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 573, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\na\\:link\\,\\ span\\.MsoHyperlink\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tcolor\\:blue\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-themecolor\\:hyperlink\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-decoration\\:underline\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-underline\\:single\\;\\}\\\r\\\na\\:visited\\,\\ span\\.MsoHyperlinkFollowed\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tcolor\\:purple\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-themecolor\\:followedhyperlink\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-decoration\\:underline\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-underline\\:single\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:655651749\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:931317318\\ 2037540336\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\,\\\"serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Since\\ APHFTA\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ huge\\ organization\\ comprising\\ more\\ than\\ 400\\ providers\\ ranging\\ from\\ small\\ clinics\\ to\\ large\\ hospitals\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ impossible\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ comprehensive\\ plan\\ for\\ IT\\ solutions\\ in\\ a\\ semester\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Better\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ one\\ specific\\ aspect\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ or\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ impact\\ on\\ APHFTA\\ and\\ focus\\ on\\ solutions\\ for\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ example\\,\\ EMR\\,\\ solutions\\ for\\ community\\ health\\ workers\\,\\ health\\ service\\ management\\ for\\ small\\ clinics\\ etc\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\We\\ have\\ the\\ flexibility\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ since\\ they\\ could\\ use\\ any\\ well\\-grounded\\ advice\\ on\\ what\\ they\\ should\\ do\\ about\\ IT\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\For\\ this\\ we\\ need\\ more\\ information\\ about\\ APHFTA\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Jonathan\\ will\\ send\\ us\\ more\\ stuff\\ ASAP\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\We\\ should\\ also\\ start\\ thinking\\ ahead\\ about\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ information\\ we\\ might\\ need\\ from\\ the\\ field\\,\\ since\\ there\\ are\\ resources\\ in\\ Tanzania\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ this\\ partnership\\ for\\ IT\\ training\\ going\\ on\\ right\\ now\\ in\\ Tanzania\\ that\\ Jeff\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ \\(if\\ I\\ remember\\ correctly\\)\\ or\\ has\\ connections\\ to\\,\\ and\\ they\\ could\\ collect\\ specific\\ data\\ for\\ us\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ types\\ of\\ solutions\\ would\\ be\\ most\\ useful\\ for\\ APHFTA\\,\\ what\\ they\\ would\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ health\\ workers\\ in\\ health\\ clinics\\ that\\ might\\ give\\ us\\ inside\\ information\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Another\\ key\\ thing\\ will\\ be\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ medical\\ services\\ are\\ being\\ paid\\ for\\,\\ within\\ APHFTA\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ in\\ general\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ insurance\\,\\ what\\ penetration\\ rate\\,\\ upfront\\ payment\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Jonathan\\ said\\ that\\ most\\ likely\\ solutions\\ dealing\\ with\\ reimbursement\\ management\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ an\\ issue\\ because\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ common\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ we\\ talked\\ in\\ lecture\\ about\\ how\\ managing\\ procurements\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ issue\\ in\\ Tanzania\\,\\ so\\ we\\ might\\ have\\ to\\ revisit\\ this\\ hypothesis\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ actual\\ information\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\We\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ solutions\\ that\\ are\\ ready\\ to\\ go\\ in\\ a\\ year\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mainly\\ free\\ software\\ that\\ is\\ already\\ out\\ there\\ and\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ implemented\\ quickly\\ with\\ the\\ resources\\ available\\ on\\-site\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\However\\,\\ always\\ be\\ skeptical\\ when\\ looking\\ at\\ reported\\ data\\ about\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ other\\ software\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ number\\ s\\ are\\ usually\\ inflated\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ while\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ very\\ few\\ providers\\ who\\ actually\\ use\\ the\\ systems\\;\\ in\\ general\\,\\ always\\ validate\\ assumptions\\ because\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ false\\/misleading\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Solutions\\ that\\ rely\\ heavily\\ on\\ Internet\\ are\\ not\\ an\\ option\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ is\\ basically\\ no\\ broadband\\ provider\\ in\\ Tanzania\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Systems\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ scaled\\-up\\ are\\ definitely\\ preferred\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\We\\ need\\ to\\ start\\ expanding\\ the\\ framework\\ by\\ filling\\ in\\ text\\ for\\ the\\ final\\ report\\ as\\ we\\ go\\,\\ it\\ is\\ bad\\ to\\ assign\\ specific\\ tasks\\,\\ work\\ separately\\,\\ and\\ then\\ try\\ to\\ put\\ the\\ pieces\\ together\\;\\ the\\ resulting\\ report\\ reads\\ awfully\\ and\\ plus\\,\\ we\\ all\\ should\\ contribute\\ to\\ various\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ project\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ better\\ end\\ product\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\A\\ collaboration\\ tool\\ will\\ be\\ essential\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ where\\ we\\ can\\ post\\ summaries\\ of\\ articles\\ for\\ others\\,\\ exchange\\ ideas\\,\\ etc\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ please\\ try\\ www\\.FinalsClub\\.org\\ and\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ see\\ how\\ useful\\ it\\ will\\ be\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Number\\ of\\ community\\ health\\ workers\\ are\\ growing\\ in\\ Tanzania\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ could\\ focus\\ on\\ this\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\However\\,\\ Dimagi\\ is\\ already\\ working\\ on\\ a\\ decision\\ support\\ system\\ for\\ health\\ workers\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Think\\ about\\ other\\ deliverables\\ that\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ produce\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ create\\ this\\ semester\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ information\\ however\\ we\\ want\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ are\\ about\\ 50\\ databases\\,\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ incomplete\\,\\ with\\ software\\ solutions\\ for\\ health\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ will\\ have\\ to\\ analyze\\ them\\ and\\ find\\ the\\ best\\ ones\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ is\\ also\\ this\\ project\\ at\\ the\\ World\\ Health\\ Organization\\ called\\ the\\ Health\\ Metrics\\ Network\\ \\(HMN\\)\\ \\(\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.who\\.int\\/healthmetrics\\/about\\/en\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ basically\\ this\\ framework\\ that\\ allows\\ countries\\ to\\ assess\\ their\\ health\\ information\\ systems\\ with\\ objective\\ standards\\ and\\ with\\ systems\\ in\\ other\\ countries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ useful\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ international\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>health\\ IT\\ landscape\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Also\\ the\\ UN\\ project\\ mHealth\\ for\\ Development\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ paper\\ sent\\ by\\ Jonathan\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 87, "file_path": "", "desc": "First meeting with Jonathan"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.763299+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hobbes' Leviathan", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 574, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\AR\\-SA\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-fareast\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\ wrote\\ during\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ degradation\\ of\\ Italy\\,\\ and\\ adopts\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ gravity\\ befitting\\ his\\ grief\\ for\\ the\\ historical\\ circumstances\\ of\\ his\\ country\\.\\ Hobbes\\ justifies\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ we\\ consent\\ to\\ authority\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ yield\\ some\\ advantage\\ to\\ ourselves\\.\\ His\\ doctrine\\ constitutes\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ all\\ the\\ traditional\\ basis\\ of\\ political\\ authority\\ as\\ he\\ believed\\ we\\ should\\ consent\\ only\\ to\\ limited\\ government\\ and\\ not\\ absolute\\ rule\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ when\\ Hobbes\\ sent\\ this\\ work\\ to\\ Charles\\ II\\,\\ he\\ was\\ banned\\ from\\ court\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ \\Leviathan\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\ The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ history\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Christianity\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ religious\\ and\\ stands\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ grace\\ before\\ the\\ expulsion\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ from\\ the\\ Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\.\\ For\\ the\\ Ancients\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ paradise\\ or\\ idyllic\\ golden\\ age\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ secular\\ not\\ religious\\ and\\ bleak\\ not\\ golden\\.\\ According\\ to\\ him\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ time\\,\\ a\\ prehistory\\ before\\ society\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ condition\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ absence\\ of\\ laws\\ and\\ effective\\ government\\.\\ The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ insecurity\\ where\\ authority\\ is\\ evacuated\\.\\ Hobbes\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ as\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ was\\ of\\ all\\ against\\ all\\,\\ for\\ war\\ is\\ always\\ lurking\\ when\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ effective\\ political\\ authority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ essentially\\ equal\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ natural\\ superiority\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ not\\ naturally\\ subordinate\\ to\\ men\\ or\\ children\\ to\\ their\\ father\\ for\\ Hobbes\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ politically\\ relevant\\ inequality\\ and\\ anyone\\ can\\ best\\ anyone\\ else\\ by\\ force\\ or\\ fraud\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ satisfied\\ with\\ our\\ own\\ share\\ implies\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ equality\\ of\\ mind\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ inherently\\ any\\ better\\ off\\ than\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ Machaivelli\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2\\ human\\ types\\ \\(the\\ ambitious\\ and\\ the\\ cautious\\,\\ the\\ princes\\ and\\ the\\ people\\)\\ make\\ no\\ appearance\\ here\\;\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ anybody\\ can\\ be\\ the\\ sovereign\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ for\\ Hobbes\\ is\\ a\\ condition\\ of\\ fearfulness\\,\\ and\\ fear\\ itself\\ exacerbates\\ conflict\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ end\\ to\\ our\\ efforts\\ to\\ secure\\ ourselves\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ every\\ man\\ is\\ enemy\\ to\\ every\\ other\\ man\\.\\ In\\ short\\,\\ \\Leviathan\\ \\<\\/i\\>describes\\ a\\ radical\\ existential\\ fearfulness\\ of\\ violent\\ death\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\,\\ we\\ are\\ ceaselessly\\ experiencing\\ appetites\\ \\(for\\ pleasures\\)\\ and\\ aversions\\ \\(to\\ pain\\)\\.\\ These\\ appetites\\ and\\ aversions\\ never\\ end\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ never\\ satisfied\\,\\ because\\ the\\ same\\ object\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ inspire\\ the\\ same\\ reaction\\ in\\ us\\,\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ objects\\ of\\ our\\ pleasure\\ or\\ pain\\ are\\ multiple\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ there\\ are\\ always\\ new\\ objects\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ our\\ desires\\ are\\ always\\ in\\ flux\\,\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ arrive\\ at\\ a\\ judgment\\?\\ The\\ standard\\ answer\\ would\\ be\\ reason\\,\\ but\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ reason\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ temper\\ or\\ subdue\\ our\\ desires\\.\\ Reason\\ serves\\ the\\ passions\\ rather\\ than\\ rules\\ them\\ for\\ Hobbes\\.\\ Will\\,\\ not\\ reason\\,\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ psychological\\ force\\ for\\ Hobbes\\ and\\ Hobbes\\ defines\\ will\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ last\\ appetite\\ in\\ deliberation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ experience\\ a\\ succession\\ of\\ appetites\\ or\\ aversions\\ until\\ one\\ wins\\ out\\,\\ and\\ that\\ last\\ appetite\\ or\\ aversion\\ is\\ what\\ he\\ calls\\ will\\.\\ Will\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ voluntary\\ or\\ intentional\\ then\\,\\ but\\ simply\\ the\\ last\\ appetite\\.\\ To\\ be\\ alive\\,\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ is\\ to\\ desirous\\ and\\ willful\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ final\\ end\\ or\\ aim\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ aspire\\;\\ rather\\,\\ life\\ is\\ marked\\ by\\ a\\ constant\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nothing\\ is\\ intrinsically\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ as\\ men\\ measure\\ all\\ things\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ themselves\\.\\ All\\ of\\ our\\ opinions\\ about\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\,\\ then\\,\\ are\\ private\\ opinions\\.\\ Insofar\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ any\\ agreement\\ about\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\,\\ it\\ arises\\ out\\ of\\ private\\ agreement\\ or\\ convention\\.\\ Without\\ agreement\\ on\\ one\\ thing\\ which\\ we\\ all\\ agree\\ is\\ bad\\ \\(an\\ untimely\\ death\\)\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ political\\ order\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ living\\ is\\ desiring\\,\\ self\\-preservation\\ is\\ always\\ good\\,\\ and\\ everyone\\ regards\\ their\\ own\\ death\\ as\\ something\\ evil\\.\\ The\\ passion\\ to\\ be\\ reckoned\\ with\\,\\ then\\,\\ should\\ be\\ fear\\ of\\ our\\ own\\ death\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\ was\\ a\\ strong\\ promoter\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ belief\\ that\\ fear\\ and\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ avoid\\ an\\ untimely\\ death\\ should\\ be\\ our\\ principal\\ concerns\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ the\\ \\Leviathan\\ \\<\\/i\\>taught\\ in\\ schools\\ and\\ read\\ from\\ the\\ pulpit\\.\\ He\\ not\\ only\\ uses\\ the\\ logic\\ of\\ argument\\ to\\ convince\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ urgency\\ of\\ fear\\,\\ but\\ also\\ invites\\ us\\ to\\ introspect\\ to\\ avoid\\ false\\ belief\\ in\\ religious\\ doctrine\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ engage\\ our\\ imagination\\ by\\ asking\\ us\\ to\\ read\\ histories\\ to\\ resurrect\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Civil\\ Wars\\ so\\ that\\ will\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ short\\,\\ Hobbes\\ believes\\ that\\ everyone\\ should\\ understand\\ that\\ insecurity\\ and\\ fear\\ of\\ violent\\ death\\ are\\ the\\ worst\\ possible\\ things\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ agree\\ to\\ a\\ strict\\ order\\.\\ He\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ we\\ create\\ people\\ content\\ to\\ be\\ subjects\\,\\ not\\ in\\ how\\ to\\ create\\ good\\ citizens\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ law\\ and\\ order\\,\\ safety\\ and\\ security\\,\\ are\\ real\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ tremendous\\ pleasure\\ we\\ can\\ derive\\ from\\ subjection\\.\\ Sure\\,\\ we\\ give\\ up\\ some\\ benefits\\ and\\ renounce\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ government\\,\\ but\\ the\\ advantages\\ of\\ this\\ political\\ order\\ which\\ he\\ calls\\ \\Leviathan\\ \\<\\/i\\>is\\ the\\ peace\\ of\\ being\\ subjects\\.\\ For\\ a\\ brief\\ moment\\,\\ Hobbes\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ be\\ god\\-like\\,\\ emulating\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creation\\ in\\ the\\ momentary\\ act\\ of\\ political\\ creation\\ when\\ we\\ create\\ a\\ political\\ sovereign\\.\\ But\\ we\\ then\\ retire\\ to\\ subjection\\,\\ content\\ with\\ peace\\ and\\ not\\ playing\\ any\\ role\\ in\\ governing\\ ourselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 89, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hobbes' Leviathan"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.800253+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Political Parties", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 575, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1900700899\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-2064769876\\ 67698689\\ 220489476\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Political\\ Parties\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Parties\\ and\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Federalist\\ 10\\:\\ Majority\\ and\\ minority\\ factions\\ \\&ldquo\\;united\\ by\\ a\\ common\\ impulse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Madison\\ was\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ majority\\ factions\\ than\\ minority\\ factions\\.\\ Majorities\\ are\\ worrisome\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ large\\ \\(they\\ infringe\\ on\\ minority\\ rights\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ large\\ majority\\ parties\\ are\\ actually\\ better\\ about\\ setting\\ rules\\ and\\ procedures\\ favorable\\ to\\ the\\ minority\\,\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ win\\ anyway\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Founders\\ never\\ anticipated\\ a\\ 2\\-party\\ system\\,\\ but\\ it\\ did\\ exist\\ during\\ Madison\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ Why\\ was\\ this\\ inevitable\\ \\(or\\ was\\ it\\)\\?\\ Single\\-member\\ districts\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ only\\ need\\ a\\ plurality\\ to\\ win\\.\\ Contrast\\ this\\ with\\ proportional\\ representation\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ parties\\.\\ In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ parties\\ appeal\\ to\\ interest\\ groups\\ and\\ represent\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ various\\ groups\\.\\ Since\\ only\\ one\\ person\\ is\\ elected\\,\\ the\\ smaller\\ members\\ in\\ proportional\\ representation\\ unite\\ their\\ interest\\ groups\\.\\ This\\,\\ over\\ time\\,\\ leads\\ to\\ two\\ very\\ stable\\ parties\\.\\ The\\ case\\ is\\ that\\ third\\ parties\\ are\\ usually\\ gone\\ within\\ two\\ election\\ cycles\\.\\ The\\ only\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ viable\\ political\\ party\\ is\\ the\\ Republican\\ party\\,\\ which\\ destroyed\\ the\\ Whigs\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-1800s\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ we\\ support\\ things\\ actions\\ that\\ maintain\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ In\\ 1824\\,\\ Adams\\ wins\\ presidency\\ in\\ House\\,\\ and\\ in\\ 1828\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ strong\\ 2\\-party\\ system\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Parties\\ as\\ Stable\\ Affiliations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Party\\ ID\\ first\\ coined\\ in\\ 1961\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ branding\\,\\ much\\ like\\ what\\ corporations\\ do\\.\\ Surveys\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ track\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ public\\&rsquo\\;s\\ party\\ ID\\.\\ Big\\ debate\\ over\\ if\\ we\\ should\\ count\\ independent\\ dems\\ and\\ repubs\\ as\\ dems\\ or\\ repubs\\,\\ or\\ as\\ independents\\.\\ But\\ independents\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ partisan\\ in\\ their\\ behavior\\ than\\ weak\\ dems\\ or\\ repubs\\.\\ Not\\ clear\\ in\\ surveys\\ what\\ pure\\ independents\\ really\\ mean\\,\\ as\\ apathetic\\ people\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ taking\\ the\\ middle\\ answer\\.\\ Strong\\ partisans\\ are\\ those\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ run\\ for\\ office\\,\\ and\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Party\\ loyalties\\ as\\ Changeable\\ and\\ Reactive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Families\\,\\ schools\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ churches\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ primarily\\ responsible\\ for\\ intergenerational\\ transfer\\ of\\ party\\ ID\\.\\ Families\\ are\\ now\\ much\\ less\\ indicative\\,\\ and\\ schools\\ have\\ decreased\\ due\\ to\\ changing\\ curriculum\\-\\ Social\\ Studies\\ replaces\\ Civics\\,\\ and\\ new\\ focus\\ in\\ 80s\\ on\\ reading\\,\\ writing\\,\\ math\\.\\ Churches\\ have\\ continued\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ successful\\ in\\ this\\ regard\\.\\ Partisan\\ identification\\ can\\ change\\ with\\ policy\\ \\(Dems\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ move\\ to\\ Repubs\\ because\\ of\\ civil\\ rights\\ issues\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Political\\ Ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Problem\\ in\\ that\\ measurement\\ has\\ come\\ before\\ conceptualization\\.\\ We\\ measure\\ liberal\\ or\\ conservative\\ before\\ we\\ decide\\ what\\ that\\ means\\.\\ Political\\ philosophers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ define\\ liberal\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ we\\ do\\.\\ Also\\,\\ some\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ difference\\,\\ and\\ come\\ out\\ as\\ moderates\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ conservative\\ and\\ liberal\\ issues\\ change\\ over\\ time\\,\\ so\\ the\\ liberals\\ of\\ tomorrow\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ liberals\\ of\\ today\\.\\ L\\-M\\-C\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ fashion\\ statement\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Ideologues\\ have\\ a\\ consistent\\ and\\ predictable\\ belief\\ structure\\,\\ this\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ process\\ information\\ much\\ more\\ quickly\\.\\ Estimates\\ are\\ about\\ 15\\-20\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ has\\ highly\\ structured\\ belief\\ systems\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Some\\ beliefs\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ seem\\ unrelated\\,\\ are\\ highly\\ correlated\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ coalition\\ coefficients\\.\\ If\\ you\\ put\\ in\\ enough\\ idea\\ elements\\,\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ politics\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ we\\ get\\ highly\\ predictable\\ patterns\\ of\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ these\\ we\\ label\\ liberal\\ or\\ conservative\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ is\\ another\\ dimension\\ often\\.\\ For\\ students\\,\\ this\\ dimensions\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ religious\\ element\\ \\(the\\ amount\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ allow\\ religious\\ values\\ to\\ influence\\ it\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Mass\\ and\\ Elite\\ Differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\So\\ far\\,\\ we\\ have\\ talked\\ about\\ politics\\ as\\ if\\ everyone\\ is\\ the\\ same\\-\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\.\\ Where\\ do\\ we\\ draw\\ a\\ dividing\\ line\\ \\(how\\ do\\ we\\ separate\\ people\\ into\\ different\\ types\\)\\?\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ interaction\\ between\\ preferences\\ and\\ intensities\\,\\ and\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ polarization\\ is\\ important\\ not\\ just\\ at\\ the\\ national\\ \\(mass\\)\\ level\\,\\ but\\ also\\ at\\ the\\ elite\\ level\\,\\ or\\ the\\ people\\ running\\ for\\ office\\.\\ Elite\\ preferences\\ have\\ changed\\ dramatically\\ recently\\,\\ but\\ mass\\ preferences\\ have\\ stayed\\ pretty\\ much\\ the\\ same\\.\\ Polarization\\ of\\ the\\ elites\\.\\ Statistically\\ related\\ to\\ trust\\ and\\ government\\.\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ moderate\\ represented\\ by\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ far\\ right\\ or\\ left\\,\\ then\\ you\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ not\\ trust\\ government\\.\\ With\\ candidate\\-centered\\ campaigns\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ primary\\ participation\\,\\ you\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ nominate\\ an\\ extreme\\ candidate\\,\\ and\\ this\\ drives\\ further\\ polarization\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Three\\ Manifestations\\ of\\ Parties\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\As\\ Institutions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ How\\ strong\\ is\\ the\\ party\\?\\ In\\ the\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\,\\ republican\\ party\\ was\\ super\\ weak\\,\\ and\\ you\\ had\\ to\\ run\\ as\\ a\\ democrat\\ to\\ win\\.\\ In\\ MA\\,\\ the\\ liberal\\ party\\ was\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ relatively\\ strong\\.\\ Starting\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;64\\,\\ the\\ base\\ began\\ to\\ move\\.\\ R\\ moves\\ south\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\ Coalition\\ broke\\ down\\ after\\ Johnson\\ signs\\ Voting\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ and\\ R\\ started\\ to\\ gain\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ To\\ determine\\ strength\\,\\ look\\ at\\ amount\\ of\\ paid\\ staff\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Electorate\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Usually\\ measured\\ by\\ split\\-ticket\\ voting\\,\\ which\\ really\\ increased\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1960s\\-1992\\.\\ People\\ hypothesized\\ that\\ party\\ loyalty\\ was\\ breaking\\ down\\.\\ But\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ increases\\ in\\ split\\-ticket\\ voting\\ followed\\ changes\\ in\\ how\\ a\\ state\\ voted\\ \\(got\\ rid\\ of\\ party\\ levers\\)\\.\\ So\\ now\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ really\\ clear\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ at\\ that\\ time\\.\\ Some\\ measures\\ show\\ party\\ loyalty\\ increasing\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\In\\ Government\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Partisanship\\ has\\ steadily\\ increased\\ since\\ 1970\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ 1970\\ Legislative\\ Reform\\ Act\\.\\ Increase\\ in\\ cohesion\\ in\\ House\\ and\\ Senate\\ once\\ you\\ required\\ voting\\ counts\\ for\\ Amendments\\.\\ Movement\\ to\\ the\\ center\\ in\\ 30s\\-60s\\,\\ then\\ to\\ right\\ and\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 60s\\-present\\.\\ Question\\ is\\:\\ why\\?\\ One\\ possibility\\ is\\ that\\ parties\\ have\\ become\\ stronger\\ in\\ government\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ fund\\ campaigns\\ through\\ PACs\\.\\ Another\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ punish\\ members\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ follow\\ party\\ lines\\.\\ Since\\ reps\\ end\\ up\\ being\\ funded\\ by\\ fringe\\ groups\\,\\ when\\ they\\ get\\ to\\ Congress\\ they\\ end\\ up\\ being\\ just\\ like\\ other\\ reps\\ at\\ the\\ fringes\\.\\ Young\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ Dems\\ are\\ very\\ diverse\\,\\ but\\ ideologically\\ coherent\\.\\ In\\ Republican\\ party\\,\\ dress\\ code\\ makes\\ everything\\ very\\ uniform\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ similar\\ with\\ new\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\ or\\ other\\ legislatures\\.\\ Reason\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ self\\-select\\ through\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ self\\-funding\\ and\\ self\\-nomination\\.\\ Self\\-selection\\ is\\ driving\\ partisanship\\.\\ Moderates\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ in\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ elected\\,\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ anyone\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ when\\ they\\ do\\.\\ The\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ partisanship\\ is\\ increased\\ participation\\ at\\ the\\ primary\\ level\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Political Parties"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.831663+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading: Jacobson: The Politics of Congress chapters 3-4", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 576, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:384641134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-2023212526\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-style\\-id\\:549926631\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level6\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level7\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level8\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level9\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:549926631\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-2023212526\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-style\\-name\\:Style1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level6\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level7\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level8\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level9\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2046906830\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1244537002\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Reading\\ Summary\\:\\ The\\ Politics\\ of\\ Congressional\\ Elections\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\By\\ Gary\\ C\\.\\ Jacobson\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\\\\\ The\\ Context\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-Although\\ national\\ issues\\ and\\ parties\\ have\\ grown\\ in\\ importance\\ in\\ recent\\ elections\\,\\ voters\\ are\\ still\\ largely\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ individual\\ candidates\\ running\\ in\\ a\\ campaign\\.\\ National\\ issues\\ are\\ only\\ influential\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ presented\\ at\\ a\\ local\\ level\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Constitutional\\ Framework\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Having\\ an\\ elected\\ legislature\\ was\\ never\\ a\\ question\\,\\ based\\ on\\ British\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ who\\ was\\ represented\\ was\\ a\\ question\\ \\(states\\ or\\ population\\?\\)\\.\\ Solution\\:\\ bicameral\\ legislature\\.\\ Other\\ compromises\\:\\ how\\ Senate\\ v\\.\\ House\\ is\\ elected\\,\\ length\\ of\\ terms\\,\\ how\\ many\\ seats\\ turn\\ over\\ each\\ year\\.\\ The\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Amendment\\ finally\\ made\\ Senators\\ popularly\\ elected\\.\\ House\\ was\\ more\\ fluid\\,\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ touch\\ with\\ the\\ people\\.\\ The\\ Senate\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ less\\ radical\\ body\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Congressional\\ Districts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Originally\\,\\ after\\ each\\ census\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ seats\\ in\\ the\\ House\\ would\\ change\\.\\ 1911\\-\\ law\\ passed\\ to\\ set\\ membership\\ at\\ 435\\.\\ Redistricting\\ was\\ highly\\ stressful\\ \\(still\\ is\\)\\ but\\ became\\ less\\ so\\ in\\ 1964\\,\\ when\\ SCOTUS\\&rsquo\\;\\ ruling\\ in\\ \\Wesberry\\ v\\.\\ Sanders\\<\\/i\\>\\ applied\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ one\\ person\\-one\\ vote\\.\\ Malapportioned\\ districts\\ now\\ extinct\\.\\ Local\\ politics\\ are\\ now\\ basically\\ irrelevant\\ in\\ the\\ House\\ because\\ district\\ and\\ city\\/county\\ lines\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ line\\ up\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Partisan\\ Gerrymandering\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Practice\\ in\\ which\\ ruling\\ State\\ Legislative\\ party\\ creates\\ districts\\ to\\ support\\ their\\ party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chances\\ in\\ House\\ races\\.\\ Had\\ a\\ huge\\ effect\\ after\\ the\\ 2000\\ census\\,\\ with\\ Republicans\\ doing\\ very\\ well\\.\\ SCOTUS\\ has\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ some\\ gerrymandering\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\,\\ but\\ has\\ never\\ shot\\ down\\ a\\ gerrymander\\.\\ \\(Nice\\ tables\\ pp\\.\\ 9\\-11\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Redistricting\\ Between\\ Censuses\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Illegal\\ in\\ some\\ state\\ constitutions\\.\\ Has\\ been\\ hugely\\ successful\\ in\\ creating\\ Republican\\ majority\\ in\\ Texas\\.\\ Widely\\ used\\ tactic\\ to\\ influence\\ House\\ representation\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Racial\\ Gerrymandering\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Largely\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ Voting\\ Rights\\ Act\\.\\ Usually\\ helps\\ Republicans\\ \\(who\\ create\\ minority\\-majority\\ districts\\)\\.\\ Legality\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ question\\,\\ although\\ Court\\ has\\ said\\ that\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ reason\\ is\\ partisan\\ gerrymandering\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ok\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Republican\\ Advantage\\ in\\ House\\ Districts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Through2006\\,\\ Republicans\\ have\\ the\\ advantage\\ in\\ House\\ districts\\ because\\ their\\ voters\\ are\\ more\\ efficiently\\ spaced\\.\\ Minority\\ voters\\ are\\ usually\\ clumped\\ together\\ in\\ Democratic\\ blocks\\.\\ Republicans\\ only\\ rarely\\ win\\ democrat\\-leaning\\ districts\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\States\\ as\\ Electoral\\ Units\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ The\\ Senate\\ \\&ldquo\\;district\\&rdquo\\;\\ boundaries\\ mean\\ that\\ 26\\ states\\ with\\ 18\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ control\\ 52\\%\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\ 9\\ most\\ populous\\ have\\ 52\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\ This\\ typically\\ favors\\ the\\ minority\\ party\\ in\\ the\\ country\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ 80s\\ with\\ the\\ Republicans\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Election\\ Laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Have\\ a\\ great\\ effect\\ on\\ voting\\ behavior\\.\\ Always\\ under\\ the\\ jurisdiction\\ of\\ the\\ Feds\\,\\ but\\ only\\ at\\ about\\ 1880\\ really\\ taken\\ advantage\\ of\\.\\ Ballot\\ types\\,\\ voting\\ days\\,\\ and\\ suffrage\\ rights\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ huge\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ makeup\\ of\\ districts\\ and\\ states\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Political\\ Parties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Main\\ thing\\ that\\ influences\\ the\\ continuity\\ of\\ candidates\\.\\ However\\,\\ they\\ have\\ very\\ little\\ effect\\ \\(usually\\)\\ in\\ elections\\.\\ Party\\ leaders\\ used\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ say\\,\\ but\\ have\\ declined\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\ Lack\\ of\\ total\\ control\\ over\\ members\\ results\\ in\\ many\\ unloyal\\ members\\,\\ and\\ increased\\ diversity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ remember\\ that\\ the\\ rules\\ framework\\ reflects\\ the\\ desires\\ and\\ goals\\ of\\ individual\\ political\\ actors\\-\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ forced\\ to\\ adapt\\ to\\ the\\ rules\\.\\ When\\ party\\ unity\\ will\\ help\\,\\ the\\ rules\\ are\\ adopted\\ to\\ encourage\\ it\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Social\\ and\\ Political\\ Contexts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Idiosyncrasy\\ in\\ elections\\ is\\ largely\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ heterogeneity\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ its\\ districts\\.\\ Below\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ brief\\ examples\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Geography\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Districts\\ are\\ as\\ small\\ as\\ 12\\ miles\\ \\(NY\\)\\ or\\ as\\ big\\ as\\ 586\\,000\\ miles\\ \\(AK\\)\\.\\ States\\ also\\ vary\\.\\ Difficulties\\ in\\ campaigning\\ result\\ in\\ differences\\ in\\ elections\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Population\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ More\\ difficult\\ to\\ represent\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ densely\\ populated\\ voters\\.\\ Population\\ and\\ population\\ density\\ are\\ both\\ factors\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Economic\\ Base\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Many\\ states\\/districts\\ have\\ one\\ single\\ major\\ employer\\ or\\ industry\\.\\ Others\\ are\\ more\\ heterogeneous\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Income\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Household\\ economic\\ disparity\\ greatly\\ affects\\ what\\ party\\ you\\ vote\\ for\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Communications\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Where\\ the\\ communications\\ network\\ in\\ your\\ community\\ is\\ from\\ is\\ important\\.\\ Also\\,\\ some\\ districts\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ their\\ Congressional\\ representatives\\,\\ while\\ others\\ do\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Ethnicity\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Various\\ ethnic\\ groups\\ have\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ political\\ importance\\ based\\ on\\ their\\ concentrations\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Age\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Political\\ concerns\\ vary\\ greatly\\ with\\ age\\,\\ and\\ some\\ districts\\ have\\ retirement\\ communities\\ \\(FL\\)\\ while\\ others\\ have\\ universities\\ \\(Ann\\ Arbor\\,\\ MI\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Political\\ Habits\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Voter\\ turnout\\ and\\ loyalty\\ to\\ a\\ single\\ party\\ vary\\ greatly\\ from\\ district\\ to\\ district\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Note\\ that\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ why\\ political\\ fragmentation\\ and\\ independence\\ has\\ played\\ such\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ is\\ still\\ an\\ important\\ one\\,\\ not\\ explained\\ by\\ the\\ above\\ heterogeneity\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ \\Congressional\\ Candidates\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-Now\\ we\\ examine\\ what\\ happens\\ within\\ a\\ district\\,\\ where\\ the\\ conditions\\ are\\ \\(in\\ the\\ short\\ run\\)\\ constant\\.\\ Differences\\ arise\\ in\\ the\\ personality\\ traits\\ and\\ abilities\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ politician\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Incumbency\\ Factor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ In\\ the\\ House\\,\\ incumbency\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ weapon\\,\\ although\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ guarantee\\ an\\ election\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ the\\ benefit\\ fluctuates\\ greatly\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ generally\\ less\\ successful\\.\\ Good\\ chart\\ on\\ p\\.\\ 30\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Measuring\\ the\\ Value\\ of\\ Incumbency\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Increased\\ in\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sophomore\\ surge\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;retirement\\ slump\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ effectiveness\\ of\\ incumbency\\.\\ Gelman\\ King\\ index\\ is\\ also\\ used\\.\\ Both\\ show\\ sharp\\ increase\\ in\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;60s\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ steady\\ increase\\ and\\ finally\\ a\\ slight\\ decline\\ in\\ importance\\ since\\ 1990\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Vanishing\\ Marginals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\(Mayhew\\)\\ Incumbency\\ has\\ a\\ definite\\ effect\\ in\\ the\\ decline\\ of\\ marginal\\ seats\\.\\ What\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;marginal\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ Depends\\ on\\ the\\ time\\ period\\.\\ No\\ one\\ knows\\.\\ Each\\ decade\\ has\\ been\\ very\\ different\\-\\ from\\ the\\ one\\ before\\ and\\ from\\ its\\ expected\\ path\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Sources\\ of\\ the\\ Incumbency\\ Advantage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Institutional\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ Congress\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Free\\ mailing\\ \\(Franking\\)\\ privileges\\,\\ travel\\ allowances\\,\\ personal\\ staff\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ voting\\ the\\ district\\,\\ and\\ others\\ encourage\\ reelection\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ Voting\\ Behavior\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Some\\ data\\ shows\\ that\\ increased\\ communication\\ did\\ not\\ lead\\ to\\ increased\\ voter\\ recognition\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ an\\ emphasis\\ of\\ voters\\ moving\\ to\\ voting\\ based\\ on\\ party\\ rather\\ than\\ person\\ is\\ also\\ credited\\ with\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ incumbent\\ advantage\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Constituency\\ Service\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Members\\ use\\ nonpartisan\\ services\\ rendered\\ to\\ the\\ district\\ or\\ constituents\\ to\\ gain\\ support\\ for\\ incumbency\\.\\ Data\\ is\\ inconclusive\\ on\\ this\\ point\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Variability\\ of\\ the\\ Incumbency\\ Advantage\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Enthusiasm\\ for\\ reelection\\,\\ strength\\ of\\ challenger\\,\\ and\\ other\\ factors\\ make\\ the\\ advantage\\ vary\\ from\\ term\\ to\\ term\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Discouraging\\ the\\ Opposition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Incumbents\\ must\\ convince\\ potential\\ challengers\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ unbeatable\\,\\ as\\ the\\ best\\ challengers\\ will\\ bide\\ their\\ time\\.\\ The\\ incumbency\\ effect\\ is\\ largely\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ opposition\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ candidate\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Money\\ in\\ Congressional\\ Elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Incumbents\\ spend\\ less\\ when\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ expected\\ vote\\ margin\\,\\ but\\ have\\ sources\\ of\\ funds\\ unavailable\\ to\\ challengers\\,\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ tap\\ interest\\ groups\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ access\\ and\\ think\\ holding\\ on\\ is\\ easier\\ than\\ taking\\ a\\ seat\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Connection\\ Between\\ Money\\ and\\ Success\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Challengers\\ have\\ much\\ better\\ marginal\\ returns\\ on\\ their\\ dollars\\.\\ Incumbents\\&rsquo\\;\\ spending\\ is\\ reactionary\\.\\ House\\ elections\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ bought\\,\\ but\\ cost\\ on\\ average\\ at\\ least\\ \\$800\\,000\\.\\ Senate\\ elections\\ are\\ far\\ more\\ expensive\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Why\\ Campaign\\ Money\\ is\\ More\\ Important\\ to\\ Challengers\\ than\\ to\\ Incumbents\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Challengers\\ need\\ money\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ their\\ message\\,\\ incumbents\\ already\\ have\\ done\\ that\\.\\ If\\ a\\ challenger\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ money\\,\\ forget\\ it\\.\\ But\\ incumbents\\ have\\ such\\ small\\ returns\\,\\ they\\ may\\ not\\ need\\ it\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Career\\ in\\ the\\ District\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Politicians\\ are\\ increasingly\\ staying\\ aligned\\ with\\ their\\ districts\\,\\ although\\ incumbents\\ can\\ grow\\ too\\ comfy\\ and\\ be\\ surprised\\ by\\ a\\ challenger\\.\\ Two\\ phases\\ of\\ the\\ congressional\\ career\\,\\ not\\ as\\ apparent\\ right\\ now\\ \\(Fenno\\)\\:\\ expansionist\\ and\\ protectionist\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Motivating\\ Challengers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Why\\ do\\ unlikely\\ challengers\\ even\\ run\\?\\ Personal\\ publicity\\,\\ sometimes\\ irrationally\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ the\\ time\\ when\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ win\\ is\\ the\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ odds\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ \\(there\\ are\\ no\\ stronger\\ opponents\\ in\\ their\\ party\\)\\.\\ Sometimes\\,\\ they\\ win\\ surprisingly\\ due\\ to\\ incumbent\\ mistakes\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading: Jacobson: The Politics of Congress chapters 3-4"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.885497+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Intro", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 577, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Course\\ Overview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Course\\ covers\\ a\\ 2000\\-year\\ span\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Historical\\ Study\\ A\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Long\\ and\\ skinny\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Intellectual\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\History\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Focus\\ on\\ ideas\\ and\\ thoughts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ideas\\ have\\ changed\\ across\\ generations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ideas\\ about\\ God\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ church\\,\\ authority\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ideas\\ about\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Applying\\ reason\\ to\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Philosophical\\ commitments\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reason\\ and\\ faith\\ intertwined\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ reason\\ can\\ and\\ cannot\\ understand\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Limitations\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\History\\ course\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Change\\ over\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Both\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\ have\\ a\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Transformed\\ from\\ the\\ past\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scientists\\ change\\ over\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\History\\ of\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Words\\ change\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ were\\ they\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ past\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ does\\ our\\ current\\ perspective\\ enhance\\ our\\ understanding\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Historical\\ significance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ did\\ it\\ mean\\ at\\ the\\ time\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Not\\ a\\ course\\ about\\ philosophical\\ significance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ did\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ answer\\ these\\ questions\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Conflict\\ is\\ necessary\\ and\\ valuable\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Creative\\ and\\ concurrent\\ interactions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Christian\\ tradition\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Paper\\ topics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Extend\\ beyond\\ the\\ syllabus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reason\\ not\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Philosophy\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Judaism\\ and\\ Islam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Research\\ paper\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Creative\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Independent\\ work\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Course\\ Outline\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Timeline\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Handout\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Antiquity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Augustine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Can\\ one\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ Christian\\ while\\ also\\ embracing\\ pagan\\ ideas\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Universities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Thomas\\ Aquinas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ can\\ we\\ use\\ Greek\\ philosophy\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ Christianity\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Contested\\ in\\ his\\ day\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Divine\\ intervention\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Early\\ Modern\\ Period\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Two\\ pillars\\ are\\ destabilized\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aristotle\\ becomes\\ less\\ favorable\\ among\\ scientists\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Renaissance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Protestant\\ and\\ Catholic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Counter\\-Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scientific\\ Revolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rational\\ \\(natural\\)\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Contradictions\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Eternity\\ versus\\ creation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Existence\\ and\\ mortality\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Intervention\\ of\\ God\\ versus\\ natural\\ necessity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Issue\\ covered\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ course\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Literal\\ versus\\ non\\-literal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Providence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Evolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Descartes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pascal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Non\\-rational\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Focus\\ on\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Faith\\ alone\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Natural\\ \\(rational\\)\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Modern\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Charles\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Perception\\ and\\ reception\\ of\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Albert\\ Einstein\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Not\\ orthodox\\ from\\ a\\ religious\\ perspective\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Panel\\ of\\ guest\\ speakers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Speakers\\ from\\ the\\ Boston\\ area\\ who\\ are\\ engaged\\ philosophically\\ about\\ reconciling\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\New\\ forms\\ of\\ reconciliation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Two\\ Pillars\\ \\(student\\ question\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ancient\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Institution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Authority\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ objective\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ is\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ reason\\ in\\ rational\\ philosophy\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Course\\ Requirements\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Textbook\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\God\\ in\\ Nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Primary\\ source\\ readings\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lectures\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ Wednesday\\,\\ and\\ some\\ Fridays\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Fridays\\ are\\ booked\\ with\\ activities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\-class\\ quizzes\\ and\\ midterm\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Source\\ reviews\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Presentations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Short\\ paper\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lead\\ discussion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sections\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Online\\ Readings\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Coursepack\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Other\\ Course\\ Objectives\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ to\\ learn\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Producing\\ tertiary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Research\\ papers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\History\\ of\\ the\\ book\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Translation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Canned\\ Food\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Additional\\ Information\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scrolls\\ were\\ once\\ stored\\ in\\ buckets\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Scholastic\\ ordinatio\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Handwritten\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Double\\-spaced\\ \\(Aristotle\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Single\\-spaced\\ \\(commentary\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Margins\\ \\(additional\\ commentary\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Powerful\\ use\\ of\\ space\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Durable\\ parchment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Written\\ in\\ Latin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ course\\ requires\\ you\\ to\\ set\\ aside\\ what\\ you\\ think\\ makes\\ sense\\ and\\ think\\ about\\ what\\ would\\ have\\ made\\ sense\\ to\\ the\\ authors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Different\\ mental\\ landscape\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reception\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Someone\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ well\\-known\\ to\\ be\\ significant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Most\\ of\\ \\?\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manuscripts\\ were\\ unknown\\ to\\ his\\ contemporaries\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Take\\ into\\ account\\ how\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stock\\ can\\ change\\ over\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nicole\\ Oresme\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Interpreted\\ out\\ of\\ context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\16th\\ century\\ philosopher\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Would\\ you\\ notice\\ if\\ God\\ turned\\ the\\ Earth\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Earth\\ was\\ considered\\ stationary\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hypothetical\\ reasoning\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Purpose\\ was\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ so\\ great\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ make\\ the\\ world\\ radically\\ different\\ without\\ being\\ noticed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Different\\ from\\ the\\ scientific\\ arguments\\ of\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Historical\\ context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reception\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Actors\\&rsquo\\;\\ categories\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Anachronism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Primary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Secondary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Tertiary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Antiquity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Renaissance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scientific\\ Revolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Early\\ modern\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Modern\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pasted\\ from\\ \\<\\;\\file\\:\\/\\/\\/C\\:\\\\Users\\\\Michael\\\\Documents\\\\Downloads\\\\Reason\\%20\\(1\\)\\<\\/a\\>\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Intro"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.904620+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Building blocks of the Western tradition I: Aristotle (384-322 BCE) and his historical impact", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 578, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trying\\ to\\ understand\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dynamics\\ between\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ and\\ religious\\ thought\\ were\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ actors\\ over\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ theme\\ can\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ traced\\ throughout\\ history\\,\\ probably\\ as\\,\\ if\\ not\\ more\\ important\\,\\ than\\ other\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ aspects\\ of\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Historiography\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ longue\\ duree\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Long\\ timespan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theme\\ introduced\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ social\\ historians\\ and\\ even\\ climate\\,\\ geographical\\,\\ historians\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ France\\ in\\ early\\ 20th\\ C\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\School\\ called\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Annales\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Long\\ lasting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ elements\\ of\\ human\\ history\\ have\\ tended\\ to\\ be\\ where\\ the\\ mountains\\,\\ rivers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ lakes\\ are\\,\\ long\\ lasting\\ economic\\ and\\ food\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Typically\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectual\\ history\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ the\\ fluff\\ on\\ top\\,\\ something\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ changes\\ very\\ fast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ fact\\,\\ there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ aspects\\ of\\ intellectual\\ culture\\ that\\ are\\ very\\ long\\ lasting\\,\\ that\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ structures\\ of\\ thought\\ that\\ shape\\ the\\ broad\\ outlines\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ thinkable\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ time\\ and\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pillars\\ of\\ Western\\ intellectual\\ tradition\\ that\\ don\\'t\\ change\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ is\\ obvious\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ true\\,\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pillars\\ are\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lasted\\ a\\ bit\\ longer\\;\\ Aristotle\\ got\\ a\\ head\\ start\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ defined\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ norm\\ of\\ thought\\ until\\ 17th\\ C\\,\\ roughly\\ 2000\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ we\\ think\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ structures\\ of\\ thought\\,\\ helps\\ us\\ understand\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nico\\ Oresme\\ had\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thought\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ said\\ that\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ so\\ powerful\\ that\\ if\\ he\\ decided\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ ridiculous\\,\\ like\\ make\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Earth\\ move\\,\\ he\\ could\\ do\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Shows\\ us\\ that\\ our\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ region\\ is\\ very\\ poultry\\ and\\ limited\\ compared\\ to\\ what\\ has\\ and\\ is\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Point\\ is\\:\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ course\\ historians\\ have\\ gone\\ and\\ said\\ we\\ have\\ movement\\ of\\ earth\\ before\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\,\\ but\\ in\\ this\\ line\\ of\\ thought\\ when\\ thinking\\ about\\ structures\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ unthinkable\\ to\\ imagine\\ that\\ the\\ earth\\ was\\ moving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\About\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpreting\\,\\ and\\ structures\\ of\\ thought\\ can\\ help\\ us\\ place\\ ourselves\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Problem\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ structures\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ change\\,\\ Copernicus\\ did\\ come\\ along\\,\\ need\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Revolution\\,\\ takes\\ about\\ 150\\ years\\ from\\ Galileo\\ to\\ Newton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Let\\'s\\ think\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelianism\\ as\\ a\\ fairly\\ deep\\ seeded\\ structure\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotelianism\\:\\ a\\ vast\\ coherent\\ system\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ in\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proper\\ context\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ we\\ read\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\,\\ need\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ he\\ meant\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ and\\ what\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ meant\\ for\\ 1500\\ years\\ after\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Form\\ and\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Telos\\,\\ the\\ goal\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ did\\ his\\ ideas\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ last\\ so\\ long\\,\\ what\\ was\\ the\\ appeal\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ a\\ 4th\\ C\\ BCE\\ \\(before\\ common\\ era\\)\\ philosopher\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Father\\ was\\ court\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ physician\\ in\\ northern\\ Greece\\,\\ Macedonia\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ called\\ by\\ Philip\\ II\\ of\\ Macedonia\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ tutor\\ of\\ future\\ Alexander\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Great\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Had\\ that\\ job\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 7\\ years\\,\\ then\\ settled\\ in\\ Athens\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\opened\\ a\\ school\\ called\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Lyceum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Called\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Stagyrite\\ sometimes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(from\\ where\\ he\\'s\\ from\\)\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ his\\ pupils\\ were\\ called\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Peripatetics\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(means\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ wandering\\ around\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ he\\ probably\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ talked\\ to\\ his\\ pupils\\ while\\ walking\\ sometimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wrote\\ a\\ lot\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ have\\,\\ and\\ a\\ lot\\ that\\ we\\ don\\'t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\4th\\ C\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ BCE\\,\\ people\\ are\\ writing\\ on\\ papyrus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\scrolls\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(clay\\ was\\ before\\ this\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Mesopotamia\\ around\\ 9th\\ to\\ 5th\\ C\\ BCE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Papyrus\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lighter\\,\\ rollable\\,\\ much\\ better\\ than\\ clay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Degenerates\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ within\\ 2\\-300\\ years\\,\\ so\\ needed\\ moments\\ of\\ transition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ happened\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ this\\ was\\ moment\\ of\\ transition\\,\\ in\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ culture\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ copying\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whenever\\ you\\'re\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ pupil\\,\\ will\\ copy\\ a\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Making\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scrolls\\ and\\ new\\ scrolls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ text\\ came\\ down\\ to\\ us\\ b\\/c\\ early\\ Christian\\ monks\\ copied\\ some\\ ancient\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ writings\\ to\\ parchment\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Parchment\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ tough\\,\\ basically\\ leather\\ or\\ sheepskin\\,\\ survives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ only\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ texts\\ that\\ early\\ Christians\\ decided\\ to\\ copy\\ from\\ that\\ early\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ papyrus\\ onto\\ parchment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Once\\ they\\ did\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\,\\ copied\\ it\\ and\\ read\\ it\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ or\\ just\\ stuck\\ it\\ somewhere\\;\\ either\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ way\\,\\ could\\ find\\ it\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Out\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ 150\\ treatises\\ we\\ think\\ Aristotle\\ wrote\\,\\ we\\ have\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lucky\\ that\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ this\\ many\\,\\ b\\/c\\ Aristotle\\ was\\ the\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ was\\ he\\ so\\ copied\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ have\\ a\\ whole\\ fifth\\ of\\ his\\ writings\\,\\ basically\\ a\\ record\\ for\\ ancient\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authors\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ was\\ taught\\,\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ textbook\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Generation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ generation\\ had\\ learned\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ treatises\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ probably\\ lecture\\ notes\\,\\ possible\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ write\\ it\\ down\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\ supported\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Afterthought\\ though\\,\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ happened\\ in\\ 3rd\\ C\\ when\\ adapted\\ by\\ Aquinas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ wrote\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ politics\\,\\ economics\\,\\ ethics\\,\\ and\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ \\(heavens\\,\\ soul\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Once\\ he\\ was\\ such\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ big\\ deal\\,\\ idea\\ that\\ his\\ name\\ was\\ put\\ on\\ texts\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ stuff\\ read\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ even\\ if\\ weren\\'t\\ his\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moment\\ when\\ Aristotle\\ texts\\ started\\ arriving\\ in\\ Europe\\ at\\ same\\ time\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ some\\ people\\ just\\ slipped\\ in\\ their\\ own\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ wrote\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ Greek\\,\\ language\\ of\\ Greek\\ empire\\ that\\ extended\\ all\\ over\\,\\ up\\ to\\ Rome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\complex\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmission\\ which\\ spread\\ Aristotelianism\\ to\\ Byzantine\\,\\ Islamic\\,\\ Jewish\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Christian\\ cultures\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ any\\ case\\,\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ conserved\\ in\\ Greek\\ in\\ Byzantium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ how\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\medieval\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ West\\ got\\ Aristotle\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ got\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ very\\ extensive\\ transmission\\ that\\ involved\\ many\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ quite\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ simple\\ as\\ Greek\\ into\\ Arabic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ often\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ would\\ speak\\ intermediate\\ language\\ \\(Greek\\ \\-\\>\\ intermediate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ language\\ \\-\\>\\ Greek\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ in\\ 8th\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 9th\\ C\\ of\\ common\\ era\\ \\(CE\\)\\,\\ getting\\ translation\\ into\\ Arabic\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Zone\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ contact\\ between\\ Christians\\ and\\ Muslims\\ in\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ where\\ Muslims\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ pushing\\ into\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christians\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ knew\\ Aristotle\\ had\\ existed\\,\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\ there\\ are\\ Arabs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ who\\ have\\ his\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Again\\,\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translated\\ through\\ intermediate\\ \\(Arabic\\ \\-\\>\\ Hebrew\\ \\-\\>\\ Spanish\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Renaissance\\ in\\ 15th\\ C\\,\\ Italian\\ humanists\\ want\\ to\\ learn\\ Greek\\ and\\ go\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Greece\\,\\ learn\\,\\ and\\ then\\ read\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ works\\ in\\ original\\ form\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ make\\ corrections\\ that\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ have\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ depictions\\ of\\ Aristotle\\,\\ never\\ put\\ on\\ a\\ pot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Vatican\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ famous\\ depiction\\ of\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ Plato\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Plato\\ is\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ideas\\ man\\ saying\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ what\\'s\\ important\\,\\ we\\'re\\ all\\ in\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cave\\ dealing\\ with\\ mere\\ shadows\\ of\\ an\\ ideal\\ world\\ where\\ things\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ imperfect\\ and\\ we\\ should\\ try\\ to\\ uncover\\ those\\ ideas\\ in\\ their\\ perfection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ says\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\'re\\ in\\ this\\ world\\,\\ and\\ we\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ this\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lot\\ of\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ treatises\\ are\\ about\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ and\\ explaining\\ the\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ most\\ like\\ him\\ were\\ the\\ pre\\-Socratics\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Had\\ operated\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ saying\\ all\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ fire\\,\\ or\\ water\\,\\ very\\ mono\\-causal\\ in\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ solutions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\'s\\ big\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contribution\\ is\\ that\\ he\\'s\\ multi\\-causal\\,\\ allows\\ for\\ 4\\ elements\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fire\\,\\ water\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ air\\ and\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ share\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ qualities\\,\\ each\\ of\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ like\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galen\\ added\\ in\\ human\\ aspect\\,\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ holistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ see\\ how\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medical\\ treatment\\ would\\ involve\\ the\\ 4\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hugely\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ networked\\ system\\ who\\ started\\ with\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ gets\\ accreted\\ onto\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ generation\\ and\\ generation\\ of\\ thinkers\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ he\\ becomes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ fundamental\\,\\ hard\\ to\\ add\\ to\\ the\\ foundation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fifth\\ element\\,\\ and\\ that\\ was\\ ether\\ \\(represented\\ the\\ heavens\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sharp\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ distinction\\ in\\ Aristotle\\ between\\ sub\\-lunar\\ world\\ \\(our\\ world\\ with\\ laws\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ physics\\)\\ and\\ supra\\-lunar\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ is\\ completely\\ different\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ consisting\\ of\\ ether\\ which\\ somehow\\ makes\\ planets\\,\\ puts\\ them\\ in\\ motion\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ he\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ talking\\ about\\ is\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ daily\\ life\\,\\ world\\ of\\ elements\\ and\\ causes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ has\\ problem\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explaining\\ change\\,\\ from\\ tree\\ to\\ bed\\,\\ or\\ seed\\ to\\ tree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Change\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ imperfect\\ and\\ bad\\,\\ but\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basically\\,\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ introduces\\ ideas\\ of\\ potential\\ and\\ actual\\ causes\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ can\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 2\\ things\\ at\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ oak\\ tree\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seed\\ can\\ be\\ an\\ actual\\ oak\\ tree\\,\\ but\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ seed\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ actually\\ is\\,\\ and\\ what\\ it\\ has\\ the\\ potential\\ to\\ come\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ kind\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ change\\ can\\ be\\ explained\\ through\\ 4\\ causes\\,\\ like\\ with\\ bed\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Material\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ form\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cause\\,\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ it\\ shaped\\ like\\ bed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ efficient\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cause\\,\\ person\\ who\\ makes\\ the\\ bed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ final\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cause\\,\\ the\\ telos\\,\\ the\\ goal\\,\\ the\\ why\\ a\\ bed\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\To\\ sleep\\ in\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christians\\ love\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everything\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ final\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doesn\\'t\\ talk\\ about\\ this\\ too\\ much\\,\\ he\\'s\\ a\\ pagan\\ with\\ many\\ gods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ atheist\\,\\ but\\ an\\ average\\ pagan\\ who\\ doesn\\'t\\ feature\\ god\\ in\\ any\\ of\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ philosophies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ he\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ little\\ cracks\\ that\\ Christians\\ will\\ be\\ delighted\\ to\\ fill\\ in\\,\\ including\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ final\\ cause\\,\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ why\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reading\\ handout\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ didn\\'t\\ use\\ math\\ in\\ his\\ writings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ reflective\\ of\\ real\\ messy\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Math\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Plato\\'s\\ abstract\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ much\\ into\\ precise\\ logical\\ reasoning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ from\\ definitions\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ distinctions\\,\\ and\\ he\\'s\\ often\\ not\\ describing\\ stuff\\ that\\ is\\ of\\ daily\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ tensions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ law\\-abiding\\ nature\\,\\ with\\ no\\ divine\\ intervention\\;\\ world\\ of\\ necessity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ things\\ happen\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ their\\ 4\\ causes\\,\\ no\\ divine\\ aspect\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sticking\\ point\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ Christian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ room\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracles\\ or\\ divine\\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ tension\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\ big\\ tensions\\ in\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ tension\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ eternity\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tension\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternity\\ of\\ world\\ versus\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ tension\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ about\\ the\\ soul\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ soul\\ is\\ mortal\\ or\\ immortal\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Want\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ personally\\ immortal\\ soul\\ if\\ Christian\\ to\\ have\\ life\\ after\\ death\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ controversy\\ over\\ what\\ Aristotle\\ actually\\ says\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ also\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ talks\\ about\\ movement\\,\\ including\\ projectile\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Definitely\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ idea\\ that\\ things\\ fall\\ b\\/c\\ earth\\ is\\ heavy\\,\\ nature\\ of\\ earth\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heaviest\\ of\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ main\\ idea\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movement\\ is\\ the\\ ox\\-cart\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Something\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pushing\\ or\\ pulling\\,\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Projectile\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\ though\\ different\\,\\ start\\ to\\ be\\ chinks\\ in\\ his\\ ideals\\ in\\ 15th\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 16th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\dominant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ for\\ ca\\ 2000\\ years\\&mdash\\;why\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theories\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ true\\,\\ convinced\\ many\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Leaves\\ room\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dialogue\\ and\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Words\\ that\\ can\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ commented\\ upon\\ and\\ twisted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ultimately\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ Aquinas\\ will\\ be\\ doing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ constraining\\,\\ offers\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ powerful\\ tools\\ and\\ definitions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ultimately\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\'s\\ explaining\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ things\\ pretty\\ well\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ problems\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ you\\ want\\ it\\ to\\ match\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ does\\ fairly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ well\\ in\\ common\\-sensical\\ everyday\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Written\\ on\\ lot\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ different\\ topics\\,\\ and\\ provides\\ system\\ onto\\ which\\ everybody\\ can\\ add\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Once\\ he\\'s\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bedrock\\ onto\\ which\\ all\\ other\\ disciplines\\ have\\ founded\\ themselves\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ need\\ him\\ to\\ continue\\ or\\ else\\ you\\'ll\\ have\\ to\\ redo\\ whole\\ foundation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientific\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reasons\\ that\\ stakes\\ are\\ so\\ high\\ people\\ don\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ away\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ them\\,\\ just\\ choose\\ to\\ adapt\\ him\\ instead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lot\\ of\\ our\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ current\\ physics\\ is\\ counter\\-intuitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Commonsensical\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ room\\ for\\ interpretation\\&mdash\\;e\\.g\\.\\ becomes\\ Christianized\\ \\(Aquinas\\ among\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ others\\)\\;\\ best\\ developed\\ system\\ available\\;\\ principle\\ of\\ authority\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prevalent\\ in\\ phil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ relation\\ to\\ competing\\ ancient\\ philosophies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\physics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ explain\\ change\\ \\(4\\ causes\\,\\ 4\\ elements\\,\\ 4\\ qualities\\,\\ natural\\ vs\\ violent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\,\\ super\\-\\ vs\\ sublunary\\,\\ Unmoved\\ Mover\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\naturalistic\\ explanation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\empiricist\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ without\\ experimentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ordered\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ teleological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\II\\.\\ Points\\ of\\ conflict\\ with\\ \\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\eternity\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ vs\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\necessity\\ of\\ nat\\.\\ law\\ vs\\.\\ divine\\ miracles\\ and\\ providence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\uncertain\\ fate\\ of\\ soul\\ vs\\ personal\\ immortality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\III\\.\\ Historical\\ impact\\ of\\ Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ \\ retain\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Aristotle\\,\\ \\ also\\ called\\ the\\ Stagyrite\\;\\ Aristotelians\\ also\\ called\\ Peripatetics\\;\\ Plato\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\4\\ causes\\:\\ \\ material\\,\\ formal\\,\\ efficient\\,\\ final\\;\\ 4\\ elements\\&mdash\\;earth\\,\\ water\\,\\ air\\,\\ \\ fire\\&mdash\\;combining\\ hot\\ and\\ cold\\,\\ wet\\ and\\ dry\\ qualities\\;\\ potential\\ vs\\ actual\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\teleology\\;\\ \\ vs\\ atomism\\ \\(random\\ convergence\\ of\\ atoms\\)\\;\\ motion\\:\\ natural\\ vs\\.\\ violent\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\super\\-\\ \\ and\\ sublunary\\;\\ Unmoved\\ Mover\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Building blocks of the Western tradition I: Aristotle (384-322 BCE) and his historical impact"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.941727+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Building blocks of the Western tradition II: Christianity - the Bible and the Church", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 579, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Recap\\ from\\ Monday\\:\\ First\\ pillar\\ of\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ transmitted\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ telephone\\ game\\ of\\ sorts\\,\\ translated\\ through\\ Greek\\ to\\ intermediate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ language\\ to\\ Latin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ in\\ 15th\\ C\\ people\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ getting\\ back\\ into\\ Greek\\,\\ discover\\ that\\ transmission\\ is\\ robust\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gist\\ is\\ nonetheless\\ unchanged\\ dramatically\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Second\\ pillar\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ course\\:\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Story\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmission\\ of\\ text\\ \\(Bible\\)\\ and\\ an\\ institution\\ \\(the\\ Church\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ and\\ Protestant\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ two\\ strands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ big\\ group\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christians\\ nowdays\\ are\\ Orthodox\\ Christians\\ \\(East\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\East\\ West\\ split\\ will\\ start\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ occur\\ in\\ this\\ period\\,\\ and\\ will\\ be\\ solidified\\ in\\ 11\\ C\\ Great\\ Schism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ unites\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ these\\ Christians\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ divinity\\ of\\ Jesus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jew\\ of\\ Jerusalem\\ who\\ had\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ following\\ and\\ had\\ recorded\\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bit\\ of\\ a\\ rebel\\ rouser\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ultimately\\ turned\\ in\\ and\\ crucified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Big\\ founding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moment\\ is\\ resurrection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ on\\ 3rd\\ day\\ he\\ rose\\ from\\ the\\ dead\\ \\(Easter\\ Sunday\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ time\\ that\\ you\\ get\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ who\\ start\\ really\\ thinking\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ Christian\\,\\ but\\ will\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ take\\ centuries\\ after\\ that\\ till\\ we\\ get\\ some\\ gospels\\ and\\ canonization\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ is\\ how\\ you\\ interpret\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ rising\\ from\\ the\\ dead\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Crucifixion\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resurrection\\ were\\ done\\ by\\ Jesus\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ our\\ sins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ were\\ mysterious\\,\\ what\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\ leaders\\ said\\ required\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;I\\ believe\\ because\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ absurd\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Important\\ element\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\ religion\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ mystery\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ founded\\ on\\ 2\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ \\(Old\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Testament\\)\\ \\+\\ New\\ Testament\\ formed\\ from\\ a\\ complex\\ transmission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ institution\\,\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestantism\\ was\\ founded\\ on\\ shunning\\ church\\ and\\ focusing\\ on\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ Protestant\\ churches\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ indebted\\ to\\ founding\\ church\\ for\\ their\\ decision\\ up\\ to\\ 4th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Formation\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hebrew\\ Bible\\ \\(1200\\-300BCE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1200BCE\\ early\\ poetry\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sagas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1000\\ BCE\\ early\\ prophets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(9th\\-7th\\ C\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\586\\ BCE\\ Babylonian\\ exile\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(6th\\ C\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Final\\ editing\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Pentateuch\\ \\(1st\\ 5\\ bks\\)\\ \\(6th\\ C\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Final\\ editing\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ historical\\ writings\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\500\\ BCE\\ later\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prophets\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Various\\ Hebrew\\ versions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ Palestine\\ \\(3rd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Greek\\ translation\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Hebrew\\ \\(3rd\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ important\\ moment\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ Christian\\ tradition\\,\\ story\\ of\\ Septuagint\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Written\\ in\\ Egypt\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ commissioned\\ by\\ pharaoh\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Said\\ to\\ be\\ translated\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ identically\\ by\\ 70\\ scholars\\,\\ gave\\ it\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Made\\ for\\ Hellenistic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Dead\\ Sea\\ Scrolls\\ \\(2nd\\-1st\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ C\\ BCE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\CE\\ Masoretic\\ text\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ becomes\\ fixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hebrew\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1200\\-300\\ BCE\\)\\ to\\ Septuagint\\ \\(Greek\\,\\ 3rd\\ BCE\\)\\ to\\ Vulgate\\ \\(Latin\\,\\ 4th\\ CE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ in\\ 16th\\ ct\\ new\\ attention\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ these\\ and\\ other\\ source\\ texts\\ to\\ make\\ new\\ translations\\ into\\ Latin\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ vernacular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Until\\ 17th\\ C\\,\\ everyone\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ basically\\ bi\\-lingual\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Have\\ a\\ sacred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ language\\,\\ and\\ a\\ daily\\ \\(vernacular\\)\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ Jesus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ living\\ in\\ Palestine\\,\\ people\\ speaking\\ Aramaic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hebrew\\ was\\ language\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scripture\\ and\\ Aramaic\\ was\\ daily\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ Christians\\ it\\ depends\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ where\\ they\\ live\\ what\\ their\\ daily\\ language\\ will\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ early\\ Christians\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ spoke\\ Aramaic\\,\\ some\\ spoke\\ Greek\\ \\(new\\ testament\\)\\,\\ and\\ eventually\\ Latin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(bulk\\ of\\ our\\ study\\ later\\ on\\ in\\ course\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ Bibles\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ today\\,\\ Catholic\\ and\\ Protestant\\ versions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ has\\ a\\ few\\ extra\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\,\\ among\\ them\\ Tobit\\,\\ Judith\\,\\ Esther\\,\\ 1\\ \\&\\;\\ 2\\ Maccabees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Just\\ a\\ feature\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmission\\ that\\ illustrates\\ vividly\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ choices\\ that\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ make\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ considered\\ the\\ Catholic\\ term\\ deutero\\-canonical\\(second\\ canon\\)\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apocrypha\\(shouldn\\'t\\ be\\ in\\ Bible\\,\\ means\\ something\\ less\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ King\\ James\\ version\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1611\\,\\ version\\ made\\ that\\ Protestant\\ king\\ wanted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jerome\\'s\\ Vulgate\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tremendous\\ scholar\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knows\\ all\\ the\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Origen\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Makes\\ translation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ old\\/new\\ testament\\ into\\ Latin\\,\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Vulgate\\ \\(common\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ wasn\\'t\\ the\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translation\\,\\ but\\ by\\ 2\\ C\\ later\\ was\\ the\\ main\\ one\\ and\\ became\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ version\\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ basically\\ lined\\ up\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ his\\ different\\ versions\\ and\\ engaged\\ in\\ comparisons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hexapla\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ big\\ moments\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reckoning\\ happened\\ centuries\\ later\\ with\\ humanists\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ go\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ it\\ all\\ again\\,\\ Christian\\ humanists\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ Biblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philological\\ principles\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(example\\ of\\ Polyglot\\ Bibles\\ of\\ 16th\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mainly\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ undertakings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Old\\ Testament\\ passage\\ shown\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ class\\,\\ with\\ Hebrew\\ text\\ next\\ to\\ Jerome\\'s\\ Latin\\ Vulgate\\,\\ next\\ to\\ Greek\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ w\\/\\ Latin\\ underneath\\ translation\\ of\\ Septuagint\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gives\\ all\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ more\\ columns\\ at\\ bottom\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ w\\/\\ Caldaic\\ \\(Aramaic\\)\\ translation\\ of\\ Hebrew\\ bible\\ and\\ Latin\\ translation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ reality\\,\\ 6\\ translations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ all\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Imagine\\ the\\ scholarship\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ time\\,\\ money\\ and\\ effort\\ to\\ put\\ this\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ an\\ intellectual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ standpoint\\,\\ each\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ manuscript\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jews\\ were\\ very\\ careful\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ Tora\\ copying\\ and\\ screening\\ it\\,\\ but\\ nevertheless\\ will\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ multiple\\ copies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ formation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Biblical\\ canon\\ from\\ among\\ the\\ many\\ texts\\ transmitted\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\OT\\ canon\\ formed\\ in\\ two\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ different\\ ways\\,\\ with\\ or\\ without\\ deutero\\-canonical\\ texts\\/apocrypha\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ yielding\\ Catholic\\ vs\\ Protestant\\ versions\\ of\\ OT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Formation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ NT\\ canon\\ in\\ 2nd\\ ct\\ CE\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Polyglot\\ Bible\\ for\\ New\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Testament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ will\\ be\\ Greek\\,\\ Latin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translation\\ by\\ Jerome\\,\\ and\\ also\\ vetus\\ latina\\ \\(old\\ Latin\\ translation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pre\\-Jerome\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mainly\\ just\\ Greek\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\,\\ less\\ transmission\\ w\\/\\ new\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\,\\ transmission\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ precarious\\ and\\ robust\\ at\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ as\\ sacred\\ text\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ laden\\ by\\ Jews\\ and\\ Christians\\ after\\ as\\ laden\\ with\\ sacrality\\ in\\ every\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ word\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ if\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ know\\ how\\ to\\ understand\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Transmission\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ robust\\,\\ but\\ also\\ precarious\\ when\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\word\\,\\ syllable\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accent\\ and\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ is\\ packed\\ with\\ meaning\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Jerome\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Could\\ all\\ lead\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ people\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ are\\ best\\ readings\\ of\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ are\\ setting\\ out\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ make\\ best\\ Bible\\ possible\\,\\ what\\ criteria\\ should\\ we\\ use\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Oldest\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Something\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ copied\\ less\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ autographs\\ before\\ 13th\\ C\\ \\(something\\ written\\ by\\ person\\'s\\ own\\ hand\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ thing\\ we\\ have\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Thomas\\ Aquinas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ know\\ what\\'s\\ old\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ what\\'s\\ not\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Language\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hebrew\\ should\\ be\\ better\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ than\\ Greek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fewer\\ translations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Papyrus\\ scrolls\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ Dead\\ Sea\\ Scrolls\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exciting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Family\\ trees\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ manuscripts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Track\\ errors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ notice\\ an\\ error\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ go\\ back\\ and\\ see\\ in\\ what\\ books\\ the\\ same\\ errors\\ occur\\ to\\ hypothesize\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ books\\ came\\ before\\ which\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hyper\\-errors\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\You\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ watch\\ a\\ later\\ guy\\ encountering\\ this\\ surprise\\ error\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fix\\ it\\,\\ changing\\ something\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nowadays\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\carbon\\ dating\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Needs\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ paper\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tells\\ you\\ where\\ paper\\ is\\ from\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ where\\ the\\ writing\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ about\\ corroborating\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ want\\ to\\ get\\ supporting\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ longer\\ version\\ of\\ text\\ and\\ shorter\\ version\\ of\\ text\\,\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shorter\\ version\\ is\\ generally\\ prior\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scribes\\ who\\ encounter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ want\\ to\\ further\\ explain\\ things\\ and\\ write\\ it\\ at\\ margin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Next\\ scribe\\ thinks\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ should\\ be\\ added\\,\\ so\\ do\\ such\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ interpolation\\ refers\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pieces\\ of\\ text\\ that\\ are\\ added\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ curious\\ one\\ is\\ what\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ difficult\\ passage\\ versus\\ a\\ clear\\ passage\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Difficult\\ passage\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ probably\\ older\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ class\\ analysis\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ passage\\ from\\ John\\,\\ showing\\ extreme\\ differences\\ between\\ a\\ passage\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1545\\ translation\\ of\\ Martin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Luther\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Authorized\\ \\(King\\ James\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Version\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1899\\ Douay\\-Rheims\\ American\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Edition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1989\\ New\\ Revised\\ Standard\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Version\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Point\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decisions\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ made\\,\\ made\\ in\\ early\\ Christian\\ period\\ by\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>The\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Apostolic\\ tradition\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notion\\ of\\ orthodoxy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Key\\ moment\\ is\\ conversion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Constantine\\ who\\ really\\ paves\\ way\\ for\\ Christianity\\ to\\ become\\ religion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Western\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ groups\\ who\\ think\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ themselves\\ as\\ Christians\\ in\\ early\\ Church\\ period\\,\\ decisions\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ made\\ about\\ belief\\ and\\ scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ these\\ competing\\ options\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ one\\ of\\ them\\ won\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Winners\\ before\\ named\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proto\\-Christians\\,\\ after\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Losers\\ were\\ heretics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ did\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proto\\-Christians\\ win\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Obviously\\ something\\ to\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ power\\ and\\ who\\'s\\ where\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Who\\ was\\ dominating\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Rome\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Constantinople\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ majority\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ texts\\ that\\ are\\ circulating\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ of\\ some\\ texts\\ than\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Alternative\\ gospels\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ distance\\ positions\\ to\\ mainline\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ intellectual\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religious\\ factors\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ process\\ of\\ Canon\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ formation\\ very\\ interesting\\ and\\ exciting\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Canon\\ is\\ Greek\\ for\\ rod\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(measuring\\ stick\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Politics\\ and\\ power\\-plays\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ happen\\ at\\ the\\ Councils\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Where\\ people\\ decide\\ what\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agree\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Councils\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Nicea\\ 325\\)\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ establish\\ the\\ canonical\\ texts\\ and\\ doctrines\\ \\(example\\ of\\ Athanasian\\ creed\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nicene\\ Creed\\ hits\\ on\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Took\\ negotiating\\ in\\ every\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ line\\ and\\ made\\ every\\ dot\\,\\ comma\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Greek\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;We\\ believe\\ in\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\,\\ the\\ Father\\,\\ the\\ Almighty\\,\\ maker\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seen\\ and\\ unseen\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;We\\ believe\\ in\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Lord\\,\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\ the\\ only\\ son\\ of\\ God\\,\\ eternally\\ begottten\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Father\\&hellip\\;We\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\,\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\ the\\ giver\\ of\\ life\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proceeds\\ from\\ the\\ Father\\ \\[and\\ the\\ son\\]\\&hellip\\;\\.We\\ believe\\ in\\ one\\ holy\\ catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ apostolic\\ church\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ has\\ apostolic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ succession\\ originating\\ from\\ Jesus\\'s\\ handoff\\ of\\ power\\ to\\ Peter\\ which\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ultimately\\ key\\ point\\ in\\ establishing\\ rule\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Jerome\\ \\(324\\-420\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Vulgate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Notions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ revelation\\ and\\ inspiration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ argue\\ that\\ God\\ inspired\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ guided\\ process\\ of\\ translation\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ through\\ early\\ Modern\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Period\\ nobody\\ questions\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ Word\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\-one\\ had\\ any\\ problem\\,\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ question\\;\\ were\\ aware\\ that\\ errors\\ came\\ in\\,\\ but\\ Bible\\ always\\ considered\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sacred\\ text\\;\\ divinely\\ inspired\\ and\\ this\\ transmission\\ text\\ was\\ divinely\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inspired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ Bible\\ kept\\ its\\ sacred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ status\\ with\\ no\\ question\\ for\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Vernacular\\;\\ \\ philology\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ interpolation\\;\\ Septuagint\\,\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\,\\ Masoretic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Text\\,\\ Old\\ \\ Testament\\,\\ New\\ Testament\\;\\ deutero\\-canonical\\;\\ apocrypha\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Canon\\,\\ canon\\ \\ formation\\;\\ orthodoxy\\;\\ Church\\ Councils\\;\\ Nicea\\ \\(325\\)\\;\\ Athanasius\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Old\\ Latin\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ translation\\;\\ Vulgate\\;\\ Jerome\\;\\ polyglot\\ Bibles\\ of\\ 16th\\ ct\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\revelation\\;\\ \\ inspiration\\;\\ apostolic\\ succession\\/tradition\\;\\ bishop\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Building blocks of the Western tradition II: Christianity - the Bible and the Church"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49.975321+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Augustine (354-430)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 580, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Response\\ to\\ questions\\ from\\ last\\ \\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Proto\\-Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ who\\ became\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ esoteric\\:\\ open\\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ no\\ mysteries\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ open\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ initiated\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(different\\ from\\ gnosticism\\ common\\ among\\ pagan\\ mystery\\ religions\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pagans\\,\\ Jews\\,\\ anyone\\ could\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ convert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ emanationism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ creative\\ beings\\ \\(neo\\-Platonist\\ view\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Only\\ God\\ is\\ Creator\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ triune\\ God\\ \\(doctrine\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Trinity\\ of\\ Athanasius\\)\\,\\ comprising\\ the\\ Father\\,\\ the\\ Son\\ and\\ the\\ Holy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ghost\\ \\(against\\ Arians\\ who\\ deny\\ divinity\\ of\\ Jesus\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Plato\\'s\\ emationist\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ God\\ creates\\ one\\ or\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ few\\ lesser\\ beings\\,\\ who\\ also\\ have\\ lesser\\ creative\\ powers\\,\\ and\\ can\\ go\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ create\\ lesser\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ so\\ in\\ Christianity\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ there\\ is\\ one\\ God\\ who\\ creates\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ rival\\ to\\ God\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ equally\\ powerful\\ force\\ of\\ evil\\ \\-\\-\\ as\\ held\\ by\\ Manicheans\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Manicheans\\ see\\ struggle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ good\\ and\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ is\\ an\\ opposite\\ force\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ good\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ has\\ a\\ popular\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notion\\ of\\ Satan\\,\\ but\\ he\\ only\\ exists\\ b\\/c\\ God\\ lets\\ him\\ exist\\,\\ he\\ is\\ under\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ 5\\ books\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\ were\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ written\\,\\ described\\,\\ by\\ Moses\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ though\\ Moses\\'s\\ death\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ described\\,\\ it\\'s\\ okay\\,\\ b\\/c\\ was\\ sent\\ through\\ revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ did\\ people\\ start\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ viewing\\ the\\ Bible\\ differently\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ late\\ 17th\\ C\\,\\ beginnings\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ among\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ Bible\\ is\\ record\\ of\\ particular\\ people\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ time\\,\\ like\\ a\\ history\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ divine\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Biblical\\ criticism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scholarship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Became\\ more\\ widely\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ available\\ in\\ English\\ in\\ 19th\\ C\\,\\ coincides\\ with\\ Darwin\\ and\\ adds\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tension\\ between\\ religion\\ and\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vast\\ majority\\ of\\ faithful\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ don\\'t\\ worry\\ about\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mis\\-attribution\\ of\\ something\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Tertullian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\I\\.\\ \\ \\Augustine\\<\\/span\\>\\ in\\ historical\\ context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ father\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ previously\\ talked\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jerome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ sets\\ up\\ many\\ doctrinal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ points\\,\\ especially\\ concerning\\ Biblical\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Roman\\ Empire\\ in\\ North\\ Africa\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ Thagaste\\ in\\ Algeria\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ later\\ Bishop\\ of\\ Hippo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wealthy\\ area\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mother\\ was\\ a\\ Christian\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wrote\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Confessions\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ that\\ is\\ basically\\ history\\ of\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Father\\ was\\ a\\ free\\-member\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ town\\,\\ but\\ not\\ wealthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ mother\\ was\\ Christian\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ father\\ wasn\\'t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\'s\\ father\\ put\\ him\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ at\\ extreme\\ cost\\,\\ through\\ best\\ school\\ system\\ of\\ the\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Roman\\ education\\:\\ mastery\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\,\\ classic\\ rhetoric\\,\\ logic\\,\\ argumentation\\ and\\ persuasion\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rhetoric\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\classical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ education\\ \\(liberal\\ arts\\)\\;\\ Manicheanism\\;\\ neo\\-Platonism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Read\\ famous\\ works\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpreted\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Greek\\ was\\ always\\ a\\ foreign\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ language\\,\\ but\\ you\\ strove\\ towards\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Allegorical\\ interpretations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ an\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ reading\\ Homer\\ and\\ others\\ during\\ this\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interpretations\\ that\\ see\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Gods\\ and\\ their\\ disputes\\ as\\ standing\\ in\\ for\\ natural\\ and\\ moral\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ambitious\\ young\\ man\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ peripherary\\,\\ heads\\ to\\ center\\,\\ Carthage\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ a\\ Christian\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ falls\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ Manicheans\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Good\\ and\\ evil\\ combating\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ esoteric\\ religion\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ practices\\ acseticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ was\\ a\\ hearer\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medium\\-ranked\\ Manichean\\ for\\ 9\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ moved\\ to\\ Rome\\,\\ leaving\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ mother\\,\\ concubine\\ and\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\At\\ first\\,\\ had\\ hart\\ time\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ making\\ ends\\ meat\\ as\\ teacher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ultimately\\ teaches\\ rhetoric\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ falls\\ into\\ court\\ at\\ Milan\\,\\ comes\\ to\\ admire\\ Ambrose\\,\\ ruler\\ of\\ Milan\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Exposed\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ neo\\-Platonism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ Christian\\,\\ but\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ elements\\ that\\ resemble\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Under\\ influence\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Ambrose\\,\\ converted\\ to\\ Christianity\\ in\\ 386\\;\\ priest\\ 5\\ years\\ later\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bishop\\ in\\ 396\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ convert\\ to\\ bishop\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 10\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bishop\\ of\\ Hippo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Against\\ heretics\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Manicheans\\,\\ Pelagians\\)\\ \\=apologetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Defines\\ key\\ tenants\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianity\\ about\\ the\\ fall\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ humans\\ suffer\\ the\\ sin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Although\\ Jesus\\ died\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ erase\\ those\\ sins\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ still\\ tainted\\ and\\ must\\ rely\\ on\\ faith\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ extend\\ grace\\ to\\ them\\ enabling\\ them\\ to\\ find\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pelagians\\ are\\ people\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ think\\ you\\ can\\ save\\ yourself\\ by\\ doing\\ good\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Orthodox\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrines\\ say\\ you\\ also\\ need\\ gift\\ of\\ grace\\ that\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ given\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Apologetics\\ describes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Augustine\\'s\\ teachings\\ about\\ faith\\ and\\ trying\\ to\\ convince\\ people\\ to\\ join\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\II\\.\\\\ Augustine\\ and\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ worried\\ so\\ much\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmission\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\not\\ a\\ Bible\\ scholar\\ like\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jerome\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Had\\ a\\ dispute\\ with\\ Jerome\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ whether\\ apocrypha\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ Vulgate\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hebrew\\ bible\\ that\\ sparked\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Septuaginthad\\ apocrypha\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jerome\\ draws\\ on\\ hexa\\-pla\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ version\\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\6\\ different\\ translations\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ line\\ available\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ wanted\\ Apocrypha\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ Vulgate\\,\\ Jerome\\ wanted\\ them\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ is\\ a\\ preacher\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thinks\\ deeply\\ on\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Feels\\ you\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ few\\ texts\\ very\\ deeply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ an\\ inexhaustible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ treasury\\ of\\ wisdom\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;for\\ such\\ is\\ the\\ depth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ scriptures\\ that\\ if\\ I\\ was\\ attempting\\ to\\ only\\ study\\ them\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ boyhood\\ to\\ decrepit\\ old\\ age\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.with\\ lot\\ of\\ zeal\\&hellip\\;would\\ still\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ learn\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inerrant\\;\\ belief\\ ordered\\ by\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ think\\ you\\ come\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ across\\ false\\ statement\\,\\ either\\ because\\ Bible\\ is\\ incorrect\\ or\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpreter\\ made\\ a\\ mistake\\ or\\ you\\ do\\ not\\ understand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ really\\ worries\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\ right\\;\\ hard\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ is\\ true\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Exegesis\\:\\ comes\\ from\\ Greek\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ \\"\\;to\\ explain\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Process\\ of\\ determining\\ what\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hermeneutics\\:\\ from\\ Greek\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;to\\ determine\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\vs\\ Tertullian\\:\\ \\"\\;What\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ Athens\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Jerusalem\\?\\"\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Christians\\ have\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ classical\\ learning\\;\\ instead\\ Augustine\\ advises\\ using\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(uti\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ secular\\ learning\\ to\\ better\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understand\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ but\\ without\\ enjoying\\ it\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\frui\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\DDC\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ bk\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tertullian\\ is\\ model\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\ father\\ who\\ wants\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jerusalem\\ is\\ Christianity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ Athens\\ is\\ separate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ is\\ saying\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\ is\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ secular\\ learning\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\You\\ need\\ background\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rhetoric\\,\\ logic\\,\\ maybe\\ even\\ math\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Study\\ of\\ secular\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disciplines\\ will\\ help\\ us\\ to\\ explicate\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ understand\\ things\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deeply\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ only\\ rely\\ on\\ divine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revelation\\,\\ need\\ discipline\\ and\\ guidance\\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Makes\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\uti\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\frui\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Learning\\ for\\ enjoyment\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ frui\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\only\\ learning\\ it\\ to\\ use\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\uti\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\III\\.\\ \\ Principles\\ of\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ if\\ you\\ know\\ your\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ languages\\ and\\ secular\\ disciplines\\,\\ still\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ enough\\ to\\ read\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\You\\ need\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\proper\\ interpretation\\ begins\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ faith\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Unless\\ you\\ believe\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ understand\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Isaiah\\ 7\\:9\\&mdash\\;one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ 2\\ traditions\\ for\\ this\\ verse\\;\\ as\\ found\\ in\\ Septuagint\\,\\ not\\ in\\ Vulgate\\)\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\DDC\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\p\\.45\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ believes\\ that\\ once\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ you\\ believe\\,\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ hope\\ of\\ understandings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Authority\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\ comes\\ from\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ doctrines\\ of\\ faith\\ you\\ go\\ into\\ Bible\\ with\\ come\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Long\\-lasting\\ throughout\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ modern\\ period\\,\\ Bible\\ has\\ many\\ meanings\\ all\\ at\\ once\\,\\ all\\ true\\,\\ all\\ willed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\'s\\ the\\ richness\\;\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ spend\\ your\\ whole\\ life\\ studying\\ it\\,\\ and\\ still\\ find\\ new\\ truths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ senses\\ of\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Literal\\,\\ historical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ the\\ words\\ literally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ say\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Customs\\ change\\ \\(OT\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Figurative\\ interpretations\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\allegorical\\,\\ spiritual\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\typological\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Allegorical\\ and\\ spiritual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ about\\ soul\\,\\ spirituality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Typological\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ idea\\ that\\ Old\\ Testament\\ foreshadows\\,\\ announces\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\(\\=\\&ldquo\\;the\\ Old\\ is\\ revealed\\ in\\ the\\ New\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ New\\ is\\ concealed\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ But\\ figurative\\ interpretations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ follow\\ rules\\:\\ use\\ clear\\ passages\\ to\\ explicate\\ obscure\\ ones\\;\\ apply\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rule\\ of\\ faith\\ set\\ by\\ the\\ Church\\ \\(Christian\\ doctrines\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ charity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Once\\ we\\'re\\ reading\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ non\\-literally\\,\\ are\\ their\\ limits\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Of\\ course\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\there\\ are\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Should\\ use\\ clear\\ passages\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ obviate\\ confusing\\ ones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reading\\ Bible\\ with\\ notion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\ and\\ faith\\ when\\ you\\ go\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Really\\ emphasizes\\ doctrine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\love\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ charity\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ should\\ guide\\ your\\ reading\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ non\\-literal\\ readings\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ become\\ traditional\\ to\\ reconcile\\ Bible\\ with\\ nat\\ phil\\.\\ Counter\\-example\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Cosmas\\ Indicopleustes\\ \\(c\\.\\ 550CE\\)\\:\\ an\\ unusual\\ literal\\ reading\\ of\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ passages\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ on\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ heavens\\ \\(like\\ a\\ vault\\,\\ or\\ a\\ tent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luke\\ 10\\ story\\ of\\ man\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jerusalem\\ laying\\ on\\ side\\ of\\ road\\,\\ only\\ Samaritan\\ helped\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Instead\\ of\\ just\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ guy\\ who\\ was\\ neglected\\ by\\ some\\ people\\ and\\ helped\\ by\\ others\\,\\ is\\ a\\ whole\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmic\\ story\\ of\\ how\\ mankind\\ has\\ fallen\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ helped\\ until\\ Christ\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ comes\\,\\ good\\ Samaritan\\,\\ takes\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ inn\\ \\(church\\)\\ and\\ heals\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Message\\ not\\ different\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ added\\ onto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Foreshadowing\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\'s\\ views\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Biblical\\ interpretation\\ when\\ it\\ gets\\ to\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ says\\ Augustine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ would\\ let\\ him\\ re\\-interpret\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ Catholic\\ church\\ wasn\\'t\\ no\\ sure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ emphasizes\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Augustine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ is\\ inherent\\,\\ and\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ know\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ infallibly\\ true\\,\\ then\\ we\\ aren\\'t\\ contradicting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ principle\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ holds\\ onto\\ is\\ that\\ whatever\\ the\\ sages\\ of\\ this\\ world\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ demonstrated\\ concerning\\ physical\\ matters\\ is\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ contrary\\ to\\ our\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bibles\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Leaves\\ out\\ part\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ whatever\\ sages\\ teach\\ in\\ their\\ books\\ that\\ is\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ Holy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scriptures\\ may\\ be\\ concluded\\ without\\ any\\ hesitation\\ to\\ be\\ quite\\ false\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Something\\ that\\ seems\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contradictory\\ can\\ be\\ disproved\\,\\ and\\ when\\ it\\ is\\,\\ not\\ Holy\\ Scripture\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ said\\ that\\ thing\\ is\\ now\\ false\\,\\ but\\ you\\ who\\ misinterpreted\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\'s\\ happening\\ when\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\ says\\ something\\ scientists\\ don\\'t\\ agree\\ with\\;\\ maybe\\ own\\ ignorance\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ when\\ reading\\ Bible\\ that\\ makes\\ you\\ think\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ conflict\\ when\\ there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ not\\ in\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ one\\ non\\-literal\\ reading\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Bible\\ became\\ standard\\ during\\ Augustine\\'s\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ is\\ setting\\ out\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ traditional\\ reading\\ of\\ Bible\\,\\ his\\ views\\ would\\ last\\ to\\ 16th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\After\\ these\\ first\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretations\\,\\ lid\\ gets\\ closed\\ until\\ Counter\\-Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cosmas\\ Indicopleustes\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\ Topography\\ \\(550\\ CE\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ passages\\ that\\ talk\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ the\\ heavens\\ are\\ arranged\\ from\\ Gen\\,\\ Isaiah\\,\\ and\\ Psalms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ Greek\\ philosophy\\,\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ know\\ norm\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ is\\ concentric\\ spheres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everything\\ is\\ round\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\ is\\ a\\ sphere\\,\\ proven\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ before\\,\\ known\\ by\\ sailors\\ by\\ receding\\ horizon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Planet\\ earth\\ was\\ always\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sphere\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ you\\ would\\ drive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ end\\ and\\ fall\\ off\\ was\\ never\\ maintained\\ by\\ Greek\\ nor\\ Roman\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ need\\ a\\ non\\-literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ talked\\ about\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Augustine\\,\\ \\ Tertullian\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 160\\-230\\)\\;\\ apologetics\\;\\ pagans\\,\\ including\\ Neo\\-Platonists\\;\\ \\ heretics\\:\\ Pelagians\\,\\ Manichees\\ \\(or\\ \\&ndash\\;eans\\)\\;\\ exegesis\\,\\ hermeneutics\\;\\ literal\\,\\ \\ historical\\;\\ figurative\\,\\ allegorical\\,\\ typological\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Pasted\\ \\ from\\ \\<\\;\\file\\:\\/\\/\\/C\\:\\\\Users\\\\Michael\\\\Documents\\\\Downloads\\\\CO09OUT4\\.doc\\<\\/a\\>\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Augustine (354-430)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.008720+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aristotle in the Medieval University", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 581, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ are\\ kind\\ of\\ skipping\\ the\\ Dark\\ Ages\\ b\\/c\\ not\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectual\\ stuff\\ going\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Period\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectual\\ entrenchment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moment\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ intellectual\\ flowering\\ under\\ Charlemagne\\ in\\ 9th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ key\\ points\\ in\\ this\\ moment\\ is\\ loss\\ of\\ contact\\ with\\ Greek\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Junior\\ year\\ abroad\\ in\\ Greece\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Romans\\ had\\ done\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ done\\,\\ and\\ people\\ lose\\ both\\ knowledge\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ Greek\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Don\\'t\\ lose\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contact\\ completely\\,\\ and\\ mode\\ of\\ tranmission\\ of\\ knowledge\\ into\\ middle\\ ages\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ textbooks\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Boethian\\ textbooks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Isidore\\ of\\ Seville\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\I\\\\.\\ Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legacy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Non\\-transmission\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ texts\\;\\ instead\\ Boethius\\ \\(480\\-525\\)\\ reported\\ the\\ basics\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelian\\ philosophy\\ in\\ his\\ Latin\\ textbooks\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kind\\ of\\ a\\ boiled\\ down\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Isidore\\ of\\ Seville\\ \\(560\\-636\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Etymologies\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ offered\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ seven\\ liberal\\ arts\\:\\ trivium\\ and\\ quadrivium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Needed\\ to\\ know\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ certain\\ things\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ understand\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ gives\\ people\\ basic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arithmetic\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ properly\\ understand\\ Bible\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ best\\ possible\\ Christian\\ and\\ read\\ the\\ Bible\\ with\\ a\\ full\\ set\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ informational\\ tools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ liberal\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ elite\\ schools\\ of\\ middle\\ Ages\\ \\(all\\ in\\ Latin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pagan\\ and\\ Christians\\ use\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ term\\,\\ Christians\\ borrowing\\ it\\ from\\ Pagans\\,\\ still\\ live\\ it\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ Romans\\,\\ liberal\\ arts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ constituted\\ by\\ 2\\ tracks\\ \\(7\\ disciplines\\ into\\ 2\\ clusters\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trivium\\ \\(written\\)\\ this\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ easy\\ stuff\\,\\ then\\ move\\ on\\ to\\ quadrivium\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Grammar\\ \\(Latin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rhetoric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\dialectic\\/logic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quadrivium\\ \\(math\\ arts\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>arithmetic\\,\\ geometry\\,\\ astronomy\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ music\\ \\(music\\ all\\ about\\ ratios\\,\\ chords\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ practice\\,\\ quadrivium\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ neglected\\ in\\ intellectual\\ institutions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ Carolingian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Renaissance\\ in\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ is\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ education\\ you\\ would\\ get\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ elite\\ family\\ in\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notion\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ learn\\ things\\ to\\ greater\\ understand\\ Bible\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ allegoresis\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Allegoresis\\ of\\ nature\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medieval\\ bestiaries\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ message\\:\\ nature\\ is\\ good\\ and\\ can\\ teach\\ us\\ about\\ God\\;\\ in\\ contrast\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ neo\\-Platonic\\ notion\\ that\\ the\\ material\\ world\\ limits\\ our\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ neo\\-Platonists\\,\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ live\\ in\\ is\\ a\\ trap\\,\\ skews\\ our\\ view\\ b\\/c\\ just\\ crass\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christian\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ learn\\ about\\ God\\ through\\ our\\ perfectly\\ created\\ world\\;\\ more\\ upbeat\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ view\\ on\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ apply\\ allegorical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ readings\\ to\\ nature\\,\\ check\\ handout\\ for\\ this\\ lecture\\ for\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Excerpt\\ about\\ allegorical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ on\\ unicorns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unicorn\\ horns\\ were\\ thought\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ be\\ aphrodisiacs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\II\\.\\ \\ \\Rise\\ of\\ universities\\ \\(ca\\ 1200\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Begun\\ in\\ Northern\\ Europe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ 1180\\ and\\ 1220\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\University\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ institution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\May\\ have\\ some\\ model\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Islamic\\ madrasa\\,\\ place\\ of\\ specialized\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ peculiarly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\ institution\\,\\ under\\ clerical\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ Different\\ kinds\\ of\\ clerics\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ secular\\,\\ regular\\ and\\ mendicant\\ orders\\/friars\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ long\\ lived\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\,\\ terms\\,\\ rituals\\ that\\ are\\ still\\ present\\,\\ even\\ more\\ so\\ in\\ American\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Universities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cathedral\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cathedral\\ is\\ a\\ higher\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ranked\\ church\\,\\ diocesan\\ church\\,\\ in\\ major\\ centers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Arose\\ cathedral\\ schools\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teaching\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ cathedral\\ by\\ mainly\\ priests\\ and\\ clerics\\,\\ some\\ elites\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ of\\ these\\ people\\ came\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ have\\ quite\\ a\\ reputations\\ \\(Albert\\ the\\ Great\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Circulation\\ of\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\International\\ movement\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ students\\ who\\ would\\ hop\\ around\\ from\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ cathedral\\ schools\\ for\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ few\\ years\\,\\ then\\ head\\ to\\ a\\ different\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nothing\\ formal\\ about\\ it\\,\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tests\\ and\\ such\\,\\ just\\ pay\\ some\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ become\\ rivalries\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ become\\ famous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\During\\ this\\ time\\,\\ feudalism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ consolidating\\ where\\ king\\ rules\\ over\\ barons\\ and\\ dukes\\ and\\ whole\\ feudal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hierarchy\\ beneath\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basically\\ more\\ wealth\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ making\\ it\\ possible\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ mill\\ around\\ and\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Southern\\ model\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ corporation\\ of\\ students\\ \\(Italy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Northern\\ model\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ corporation\\ of\\ masters\\ as\\ teachers\\ \\(Northern\\ France\\,\\ Germany\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Set\\ up\\ certain\\ requirements\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\BA\\ in\\ 4\\ to\\ 5\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ 2\\ years\\ for\\ MA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ can\\ move\\ onto\\ higher\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ faculties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ get\\ a\\ first\\ degree\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arts\\,\\ then\\ can\\ go\\ onto\\ theology\\,\\ medicine\\,\\ and\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Arts\\ faculty\\ propedeutic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ higher\\ faculties\\:\\ law\\,\\ medicine\\,\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ personal\\ relationship\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ teachers\\,\\ where\\ you\\ give\\ them\\ money\\ and\\ goodies\\ at\\ end\\ for\\ degree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ Hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ one\\ church\\,\\ Western\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\ church\\ with\\ Pope\\ on\\ top\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ very\\ keen\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ universities\\,\\ seeing\\ it\\ as\\ place\\ where\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ clear\\ doctrines\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ protect\\ against\\ heresy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ expects\\ to\\ control\\ what\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ being\\ taught\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kings\\ often\\ like\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universities\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ strengthens\\ a\\ city\\,\\ and\\ a\\ city\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ feudal\\ power\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ base\\ with\\ barons\\ and\\ soldiers\\ who\\ can\\ revolt\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cities\\ are\\ more\\ amenable\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ royal\\ mandates\\ b\\/c\\ need\\ protection\\ of\\ kings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kings\\ try\\ to\\ bolster\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ power\\ through\\ cities\\ as\\ they\\ try\\ to\\ clamp\\ down\\ on\\ feudalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Educational\\ authorities\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ such\\ as\\ bishops\\,\\ prefer\\ that\\ teaching\\ be\\ licensed\\ and\\ somewhat\\ controlled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Complex\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ church\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ many\\ different\\ competing\\ groups\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Always\\ engaged\\ in\\ certain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ number\\ of\\ power\\ plays\\ against\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ kinds\\ of\\ clergy\\ in\\ Middle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Secular\\ clergy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Priests\\,\\ bishops\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cardinals\\,\\ Pope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Administrative\\ arm\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Supposed\\ to\\ preach\\,\\ take\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ confessions\\,\\ administer\\ sacraments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Regular\\ Clergy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ engaged\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ administration\\ as\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Adopt\\ a\\ rule\\,\\ typically\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rule\\ of\\ St\\.\\ Benedict\\ calling\\ for\\ celibacy\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Additional\\ rules\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Monastic\\ Orders\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Could\\ be\\ very\\ strict\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ such\\ as\\ vows\\ of\\ silence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Extra\\ abstinence\\ vows\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ some\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ element\\ of\\ clergy\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ appears\\ around\\ time\\ of\\ universities\\ are\\ the\\ Mendicant\\ friars\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Begging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ group\\ forms\\ to\\ get\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ back\\ to\\ original\\ mission\\ of\\ order\\,\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ movement\\ of\\ renewal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Will\\ not\\ own\\ property\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ become\\ fat\\ cats\\,\\ will\\ live\\ only\\ through\\ alms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Over\\ time\\,\\ become\\ major\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ plays\\ in\\ University\\ of\\ Paris\\,\\ major\\ landowners\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Franciscans\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Dominicans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Both\\ start\\ in\\ 13th\\ C\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ doctrinal\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scholasticism\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lectures\\ and\\ disputations\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sic\\ et\\ non\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;thus\\ and\\ not\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ objections\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ responses\\)\\;\\ distinctions\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Teaching\\ of\\ either\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ or\\ arts\\ and\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scholastic\\ theology\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medicine\\ and\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\THD\\,\\ doctrine\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\,\\ kind\\ of\\ grad\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scholastic\\ philosophy\\,\\ prep\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ BA\\ of\\ sorts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Key\\ to\\ scholastic\\ theology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ teaching\\ is\\ that\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\oral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Exercise\\ of\\ disputation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Either\\ 2\\ masters\\ taking\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ questions\\ from\\ floor\\ or\\ going\\ in\\ with\\ pre\\-prepared\\ stances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Began\\ in\\ universities\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 15th\\ C\\,\\ disputations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ authority\\ of\\ church\\ equivalent\\ to\\ debates\\ about\\ freedom\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ speech\\,\\ politics\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ performed\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Those\\ who\\ argued\\ well\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ emerged\\ as\\ leaders\\ of\\ their\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Disputation\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ distinction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Distinctions\\ were\\ key\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ point\\ is\\ objections\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ responses\\ to\\ objections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Arts\\ curriculum\\ \\=\\ Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Paris\\ statutes\\ of\\ 1255\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theology\\ \\=\\<\\/span\\>\\Sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ of\\ Peter\\ Lombard\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1100\\-1160\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ yes\\ and\\ not\\,\\ all\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arguing\\ this\\ way\\ and\\ that\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ medieval\\ texts\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ confusing\\ on\\ trying\\ to\\ decide\\ what\\ certain\\ authors\\ were\\ meaning\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conclude\\ b\\/c\\ pages\\ spent\\ arguing\\ both\\ sides\\,\\ conclusion\\ not\\ obvious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Erring\\ of\\ conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Students\\'\\ notes\\ had\\ big\\ role\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ deciding\\ what\\ oral\\ notes\\ said\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\III\\.\\\\ Reception\\ of\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ 13th\\ century\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Universities\\ have\\ statutes\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ regulations\\,\\ saying\\ read\\ these\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Do\\ not\\ rush\\ through\\ them\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ finish\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Do\\ not\\ dictate\\ your\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lectures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ regulations\\ show\\ us\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ the\\ problems\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Clearly\\,\\ lot\\ of\\ teachers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ dictating\\ their\\ lectures\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Students\\ want\\ it\\,\\ as\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ regulation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ saying\\ don\\'t\\ do\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ rushing\\ and\\ finish\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ standard\\ problem\\ of\\ pace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 13th\\ C\\,\\ get\\ these\\ do\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teach\\ certain\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnations\\ in\\ 1210\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1270\\,\\ 1272\\,\\ 1277\\ \\(Etienne\\ Tempier\\,\\ bp\\ of\\ Paris\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reading\\ for\\ Week\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\'s\\ being\\ condemned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tells\\ us\\ presumably\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ taught\\,\\ although\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ corroborating\\ evidence\\ from\\ student\\ notes\\ or\\ treatises\\ about\\ what\\ all\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ being\\ condemned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 12th\\ C\\,\\ 2\\ different\\ modes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ transmission\\ of\\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Circuitous\\ translation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Greek\\ texts\\ into\\ Arabic\\,\\ where\\ later\\ translated\\ to\\ Spanish\\ and\\ some\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ in\\ Sicily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ texts\\ are\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translated\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ of\\ rise\\ of\\ universities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Translation\\ movement\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmits\\ Aristotle\\,\\ along\\ with\\ commentary\\ by\\ the\\ Muslim\\ philosopher\\ Ibn\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Rushd\\ or\\ Averroes\\ \\(1126\\-98\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Physician\\ who\\ basically\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worked\\ in\\ court\\ of\\ Cordoba\\,\\ Spain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stuff\\ poorly\\ circulated\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Islamic\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Work\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ marks\\ height\\ of\\ rationalist\\ reception\\ in\\ Islam\\,\\ really\\ had\\ no\\ following\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ was\\ banned\\ for\\ part\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ life\\ from\\ circulating\\ his\\ material\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ know\\ about\\ him\\ b\\/c\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ commentaries\\ translated\\ into\\ Latin\\ along\\ with\\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ is\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosopher\\,\\ Averroes\\ is\\ the\\ commentator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\'s\\ being\\ condemned\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1277\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bishop\\ of\\ Paris\\ complaining\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ what\\ others\\ are\\ doing\\ in\\ his\\ city\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ of\\ these\\ errors\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemned\\ in\\ 1277\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ first\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ man\\,\\ nor\\ will\\ there\\ be\\ a\\ last\\;\\ on\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ there\\ always\\ was\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ always\\ will\\ be\\ generation\\ of\\ man\\ from\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemning\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ idea\\ of\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ the\\ first\\ cause\\ could\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ make\\ several\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ saying\\ that\\ God\\ did\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ make\\ several\\ worlds\\,\\ simply\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ have\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ wanted\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ nothing\\ should\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ believed\\ unless\\ it\\ is\\ self\\-evident\\ or\\ could\\ be\\ asserted\\ from\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ are\\ self\\-evident\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ only\\ believe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ self\\-evident\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Have\\ to\\ have\\ faith\\,\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\ and\\ many\\ mysteries\\ of\\ Christianity\\ are\\ not\\ self\\-evident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ on\\ any\\ question\\,\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ man\\ ought\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ satisfied\\ with\\ certitude\\ based\\ upon\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ not\\ be\\ happy\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ Church\\ says\\ there\\'s\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ trinity\\,\\ creation\\ and\\ immortality\\,\\ that\\'s\\ good\\ enough\\,\\ and\\ enough\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ basis\\ for\\ your\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Certitude\\ comes\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authority\\,\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ has\\ license\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ extended\\ by\\ apostolic\\ secession\\ from\\ Jesus\\ to\\ Paul\\ to\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ our\\ will\\ is\\ subject\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ celestial\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ under\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ influence\\ of\\ Zodiac\\ or\\ planetary\\ conjunctions\\ is\\ false\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astrology\\ can\\ predispose\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ you\\,\\ but\\ you\\ always\\ have\\ control\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Resolution\\ of\\ some\\ tensions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ the\\ scholastic\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ absolute\\ power\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ordained\\ power\\ of\\ God\\.\\ In\\ 1325\\ Aquinas\\ was\\ explicitly\\ exempted\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Tempier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ condemnations\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ we\\ have\\ laws\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ didn\\'t\\ make\\ separate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worlds\\,\\ but\\ he\\ could\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Distinction\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ordained\\ power\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ absolute\\ power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ limits\\ himself\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ voluntarily\\,\\ to\\ follow\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ he\\ chose\\ to\\,\\ could\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ follow\\ different\\ laws\\,\\ make\\ different\\ laws\\,\\ if\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ at\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ point\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Realm\\ of\\ logical\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ limited\\ by\\ rules\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ logic\\,\\ cannot\\ create\\ logical\\ contradictions\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ square\\ circle\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 2\\+2\\ \\=\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Could\\ change\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ made\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ he\\ doesn\\'t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ we\\ had\\ problems\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Normal\\ action\\ of\\ God\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ suspend\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ for\\ miraculous\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gradually\\ become\\ something\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ God\\ did\\ in\\ past\\ to\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ faith\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\'t\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ 13th\\ to\\ 17th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\IV\\.\\ \\ \\Pierre\\ Duhem\\ \\(1861\\-1916\\)\\ and\\ the\\ Duhem\\ thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\French\\ historian\\,\\ physicist\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apologist\\ for\\ Catholic\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Duhem\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemnation\\ of\\ 1277\\ helped\\ create\\ \\&ldquo\\;modern\\ science\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ freeing\\ Western\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thought\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;shackles\\ of\\ Aristotle\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\True\\,\\ every\\ time\\ someone\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ talks\\ about\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ have\\ idea\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ differently\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pierre\\ argues\\ that\\ its\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ important\\ for\\ new\\ thinkers\\ to\\ break\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ plausibly\\ 1277\\ was\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ last\\,\\ failed\\ attempt\\ to\\ keep\\ Aristotle\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ scholastic\\ curriculum\\&mdash\\;once\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ allowed\\ in\\ Aristotle\\ affected\\ Christian\\ theology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moment\\ when\\ rationalism\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ Aristotle\\,\\ enters\\ Christian\\ theology\\ and\\ changes\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Bestiary\\,\\ \\ seven\\ liberal\\ arts\\ \\(trivium\\=grammar\\,\\ rhetoric\\,\\ dialectic\\/logic\\;\\ quadrivium\\=\\ \\ arithmetic\\,\\ geometry\\,\\ astronomy\\,\\ music\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\University\\;\\ \\ faculties\\:\\ arts\\,\\ theology\\;\\ disputation\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sic\\ et\\ non\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ distinction\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Peter\\ \\ Lombard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sentences\\.\\ Regular\\ clergy\\;\\ mendicant\\ orders\\;\\ secular\\ clergy\\;\\ Etienne\\ \\ Tempier\\,\\ condemnations\\;\\ Pierre\\ Duhem\\ and\\ the\\ Duhem\\ thesis\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Pasted\\ \\ from\\ \\<\\;\\file\\:\\/\\/\\/C\\:\\\\Users\\\\Michael\\\\Documents\\\\Downloads\\\\CO09OUT5\\.DOC\\<\\/a\\>\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aristotle in the Medieval University"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.046292+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aquinas and contemporaries on eternity of the world", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 582, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spectrum\\ of\\ opinion\\ in\\ mid\\-13th\\ C\\ et\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bishop\\ of\\ Paris\\ issues\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Condemnations\\ of\\ 1277\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Disagreements\\ within\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\,\\ over\\ independence\\ of\\ arts\\ facility\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophy\\ teaching\\ and\\ use\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tensions\\ between\\ Franciscans\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Dominicans\\,\\ between\\ secular\\ clergy\\ and\\ the\\ friars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ big\\ message\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medieval\\ Christianity\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ one\\ orthodoxy\\ that\\ will\\ exist\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ Reformation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ other\\ type\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianity\\,\\ just\\ heretics\\ and\\ Muslims\\,\\ Jews\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Great\\ diversity\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scholastic\\ medieval\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aquinas\\ was\\ named\\ doctor\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Canonized\\ after\\ his\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doctor\\ of\\ church\\ is\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rarified\\ honor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1879\\,\\ Leo\\ 13th\\ calls\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aquinas\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ Catholic\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Important\\ to\\ note\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Aquinas\\ was\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ options\\ during\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Absent\\ from\\ this\\ spectrum\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Tertullian\\,\\ mystics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scholastic\\ just\\ means\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ schools\\,\\ of\\ the\\ universities\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ necessarily\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ represent\\ a\\ certain\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ early\\ Christian\\ faith\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Augustine\\ lets\\ science\\ in\\,\\ says\\ it\\'s\\ okay\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tertullian\\ is\\ against\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustinian\\ line\\ is\\ to\\ let\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ ancient\\ learning\\,\\ but\\ always\\ let\\ it\\ guide\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\,\\ Aristotle\\ comes\\ in\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Against\\ will\\ of\\ church\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ many\\ ways\\,\\ Aristotle\\ begins\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ raises\\ 3\\ main\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sticking\\ points\\ w\\/\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ is\\ immortality\\ of\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ not\\ concerned\\ w\\/\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ personal\\ immortality\\,\\ maintained\\ by\\ Averroes\\ as\\ there\\ being\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ collective\\ soul\\ to\\ which\\ all\\ feed\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Distinction\\ between\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ordained\\ power\\ and\\ the\\ absolute\\ power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scholastic\\ distinction\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ helps\\ people\\ live\\ with\\ what\\ is\\ a\\ regular\\ nature\\ and\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ constraining\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Necessity\\ of\\ natural\\ law\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ according\\ to\\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christians\\ want\\ to\\ reserve\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ power\\ of\\ God\\ to\\ create\\ miracles\\,\\ suspend\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ not\\ happy\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ limiting\\ God\\'s\\ power\\,\\ so\\ throw\\ in\\ a\\ loophole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\'s\\ chain\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ causation\\ seems\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ indefinitely\\,\\ he\\ sees\\ no\\ reason\\ or\\ logical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ place\\ where\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ stopped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Does\\ have\\ from\\ planetary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perspective\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ an\\ unmoved\\ mover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christians\\ need\\ creation\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fundamental\\ part\\ of\\ Bible\\ and\\ Christian\\ worldview\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\'s\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ this\\ context\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Today\\'s\\ problem\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ 3\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ being\\ considered\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Radical\\ Aristotelianism\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Siger\\ of\\ Brabant\\ \\(1281\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Comes\\ to\\ France\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ highpoint\\ of\\ Christian\\ theology\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ universities\\,\\ most\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ undergrad\\ in\\ philosophy\\,\\ and\\ then\\ move\\ on\\ to\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Is\\ philosophy\\ only\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ handmaiden\\ to\\ theology\\,\\ or\\ can\\ there\\ be\\ professional\\ philosophers\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ on\\ its\\ own\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ independent\\ should\\ it\\ be\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Proclaims\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ independence\\ of\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ in\\ the\\ universities\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ talk\\ about\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ Arts\\ Faculty\\ without\\ anyone\\ telling\\ you\\ what\\ to\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;We\\ seek\\ the\\ meaning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ philosophers\\ in\\ this\\ matter\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ since\\ we\\ proceed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophically\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saying\\ that\\ truth\\ is\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ attributed\\ to\\ theology\\,\\ and\\ that\\ philosophy\\ and\\ truth\\ might\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ necessarily\\ be\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saying\\ we\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\,\\ not\\ worried\\ about\\ an\\ ultimate\\ truth\\ per\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ say\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ human\\ species\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ always\\ existed\\,\\ supports\\ Aristotelian\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rationalism\\,\\ Averroism\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\ Averroism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Averroes\\ not\\ publishing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ stuff\\,\\ just\\ distributing\\ it\\ to\\ small\\ elite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nor\\ representative\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Islamic\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Caliph\\ tolerates\\ radical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thinkers\\ like\\ Averroes\\ so\\ that\\ when\\ they\\ need\\ a\\ scapegoat\\ to\\ teach\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ example\\,\\ can\\ be\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ never\\ got\\ in\\ deep\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ trouble\\ though\\,\\ just\\ asked\\ to\\ stop\\ writing\\ at\\ one\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Combined\\ with\\ fideism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(belief\\ by\\ faith\\ alone\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Combines\\ reason\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ with\\ ultimate\\ leap\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ combination\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perfectly\\ orthodox\\,\\ perfectly\\ reasonable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ parts\\ to\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectual\\ position\\,\\ theology\\ and\\ philosophy\\,\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ intersect\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ not\\ very\\ clear\\,\\ weakness\\ of\\ the\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Leads\\ to\\ double\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ had\\ said\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\ is\\ only\\ truth\\,\\ God\\ gave\\ us\\ reason\\,\\ nature\\,\\ Church\\,\\ Bible\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revelation\\,\\ and\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ agreement\\ among\\ all\\ these\\ sources\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Might\\ misuse\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ misinterpret\\ one\\ of\\ these\\,\\ but\\ they\\ should\\ all\\ agree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interpreted\\ in\\ 19th\\ C\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ free\\-thinking\\ \\(\\=early\\ atheism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ clear\\ that\\ reason\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ intersects\\ with\\ ultimate\\ truth\\ \\(from\\ theology\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accused\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ leading\\ to\\ a\\ double\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fideism\\ and\\ rationalism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ when\\ considered\\ as\\ separate\\ areas\\ that\\ are\\ both\\ adhered\\ to\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ double\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Major\\ source\\ is\\ Averroes\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Commentator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Siger\\ killed\\ by\\ his\\ crazy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ secretary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Siger\\ did\\ not\\ think\\ he\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ bad\\ Catholic\\ or\\ Christian\\,\\ considered\\ himself\\ part\\ of\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conservative\\ theology\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bonaventure\\ \\(1274\\)\\,\\ Franciscan\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ extreme\\,\\ Augustinian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ position\\ that\\ came\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ more\\ extreme\\ with\\ arrival\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\ in\\ 13th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ is\\ a\\ divine\\ gift\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ flawed\\ by\\ the\\ Fall\\:\\ reason\\ cannot\\ find\\ truth\\ alone\\,\\ always\\ needs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ guidance\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fall\\ in\\ Latin\\ is\\ lapsus\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ after\\ fall\\ is\\ post\\-lapsarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ left\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alone\\,\\ it\\ needs\\ guidance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ a\\ foot\\ makes\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ footprint\\,\\ both\\ start\\ at\\ same\\ moment\\,\\ but\\ footprint\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ foot\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ can\\ have\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ co\\-existent\\ with\\ God\\ and\\ created\\ by\\ God\\,\\ but\\ cannot\\ have\\ an\\ eternal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wants\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ truths\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ faith\\ are\\ maintained\\,\\ and\\ that\\ reason\\ doesn\\'t\\ screw\\ stuff\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Main\\ source\\ is\\ Augustine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ properly\\ exercised\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proves\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ middle\\ way\\:\\ Thomas\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aquinas\\ \\(1227\\-74\\)\\,\\ Dominican\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Will\\ offer\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ long\\-lasting\\ solutions\\ against\\ problem\\ of\\ reason\\ and\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ alone\\ does\\ not\\ lead\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ you\\ astray\\,\\ leads\\ you\\ to\\ points\\ of\\ indecision\\,\\ where\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ bring\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ other\\ truths\\,\\ truths\\ of\\ the\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ truth\\ \\(against\\ Siger\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\After\\ reading\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ using\\ his\\ reason\\,\\ says\\ that\\ eternality\\ of\\ world\\ could\\ go\\ either\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ doesn\\'t\\ want\\ world\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ eternal\\,\\ needs\\ there\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ he\\ says\\ that\\ reason\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cannot\\ decide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Maimonides\\ says\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\ does\\ not\\ prove\\ eternity\\ of\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ Aristotle\\ had\\ proven\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternity\\ of\\ world\\,\\ then\\ we\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ interpret\\ Bible\\ creation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accordingly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ and\\ faith\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harmony\\;\\ reason\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\cannot\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ contradict\\ faith\\,\\ but\\ reason\\ has\\ its\\ limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Preambles\\ of\\ faith\\ vs\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mysteries\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aquinas\\ saying\\ there\\ is\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ truth\\,\\ reason\\ and\\ faith\\ cannot\\ contradict\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Classic\\ Augustinian\\ line\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harmony\\ necessary\\ between\\ faith\\ and\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ proves\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\,\\ these\\ are\\ called\\ the\\ preambles\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Faith\\ tells\\ us\\,\\ but\\ reason\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ also\\ reach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Existence\\ of\\ God\\,\\ that\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ good\\,\\ all\\ powerful\\,\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ in\\ Christianity\\,\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ also\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\'t\\ get\\ this\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ mystery\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ gets\\ you\\ to\\ state\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ you\\ know\\ God\\ could\\ have\\ created\\ world\\ as\\ eternal\\ if\\ he\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wanted\\,\\ then\\ get\\ revelation\\ where\\ God\\ says\\ he\\ created\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Risk\\ of\\ scandal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ the\\ Church\\ by\\ abusing\\ reason\\ \\(against\\ Bonaventure\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Felt\\ that\\ Bonaventure\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reasons\\ were\\ finalistic\\,\\ he\\ had\\ already\\ decided\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ and\\ made\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\ to\\ support\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bad\\ for\\ the\\ church\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ support\\ it\\ poorly\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\B\\/c\\ if\\ attacked\\,\\ in\\ order\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ argue\\ against\\ them\\,\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ fortress\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ there\\ is\\ obscurity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ let\\ us\\ not\\ commit\\ ourselves\\ to\\ any\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ completely\\,\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ later\\ fall\\ if\\ our\\ position\\ is\\ undermined\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Recognizes\\ that\\ using\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\ to\\ support\\ religious\\ position\\ can\\ be\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aquinas\\ one\\ of\\ many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scholastic\\ theologians\\,\\ the\\ favorite\\ of\\ the\\ Dominicans\\;\\ canonized\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1323\\;\\ declared\\ doctor\\ of\\ Church\\ in\\ 1567\\;\\ in\\ 1879\\ upheld\\ as\\ model\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholic\\ theology\\ by\\ pope\\ Leo\\ XIII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aquinas and contemporaries on eternity of the world"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.072416+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "David Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science, pp. 47-62", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 583, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ born\\ in\\ 384\\ B\\.C\\.\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ northern\\ Greek\\ town\\ of\\ Stagira\\,\\ privileged\\ family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\At\\ age\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 17\\,\\ sent\\ to\\ study\\ with\\ Plato\\,\\ member\\ of\\ his\\ academy\\ for\\ 20\\ years\\ until\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Plato\\'s\\ death\\ in\\ 347\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\After\\ years\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ travel\\,\\ named\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tutor\\ of\\ Alexander\\ the\\ Great\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Founded\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Lyceum\\ around\\ 335\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Credited\\ with\\ 150\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ treatises\\,\\ of\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ 30\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Metaphysics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Epistemiology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thoroughly\\ versed\\ in\\ Plato\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theory\\ of\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Plato\\ argued\\ that\\ reality\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ its\\ perfect\\ fullness\\ is\\ only\\ possessed\\ by\\ external\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ refused\\ to\\ accept\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ dependent\\ status\\ that\\ Plato\\ assigned\\ to\\ sensible\\ objects\\,\\ insisting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ they\\ must\\ have\\ autonomous\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Drew\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ properties\\ and\\ their\\ subjects\\ \\(warmth\\ and\\ the\\ warm\\ object\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\To\\ be\\ a\\ property\\ is\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ belong\\ to\\ a\\ subject\\;\\ properties\\ cannot\\ exist\\ independently\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Corporeal\\ objects\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;composites\\"\\;\\ of\\ form\\ and\\ matter\\ \\-form\\ consisting\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ properties\\ that\\ make\\ the\\ things\\ what\\ it\\ is\\,\\ matter\\ serving\\ as\\ the\\ subject\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ substratum\\ for\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ can\\ never\\,\\ in\\ actuality\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ separate\\ form\\ and\\ matter\\;\\ they\\ are\\ presented\\ to\\ us\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ unified\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Knowledge\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gained\\ by\\ a\\ process\\ that\\ begins\\ with\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ knowledge\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ empirical\\;\\ nothing\\ can\\ be\\ known\\ apart\\ from\\ such\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nature\\ and\\ Change\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Plato\\ had\\ dealt\\ with\\ change\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ restricting\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ imperfect\\ material\\ replica\\ of\\ the\\ changeless\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ of\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\'s\\ starting\\ point\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ the\\ commonsense\\ assumption\\ that\\ change\\ is\\ genuine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ every\\ object\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ constituted\\ of\\ form\\ and\\ matter\\,\\ then\\ Aristotle\\ could\\ make\\ room\\ for\\ both\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ change\\ and\\ stability\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ when\\ an\\ object\\ undergoes\\ change\\,\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ form\\ changes\\,\\ while\\ its\\ matter\\ remains\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Change\\ then\\,\\ is\\ never\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ open\\-ended\\,\\ but\\ confined\\ to\\ the\\ narrow\\ corridor\\ connecting\\ pairs\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contrary\\ qualities\\;\\ order\\ is\\ thus\\ discernible\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ categories\\ associated\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nonbeing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Potential\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Actual\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ world\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inhabit\\ is\\ an\\ orderly\\ one\\,\\ in\\ which\\ things\\ generally\\ behave\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ predictable\\ ways\\,\\ because\\ every\\ natural\\ object\\ has\\ a\\ \\"\\;nature\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(an\\ attributes\\ associated\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ primarily\\ with\\ form\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ object\\ behave\\ in\\ its\\ customary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fashion\\,\\ provided\\ no\\ insurmountable\\ obstacle\\ intervenes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ultimately\\,\\ all\\ change\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ natures\\ of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nature\\ of\\ complex\\ organism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ not\\ mixture\\ or\\ summation\\ of\\ constituent\\ materials\\,\\ but\\ is\\ a\\ unique\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nature\\ characteristic\\ of\\ that\\ organism\\ as\\ a\\ unified\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\'s\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ practice\\ often\\ lacked\\ controlled\\ experiments\\ b\\/c\\ didn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ limit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ was\\ perceived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\4\\ Aristotelian\\ causes\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Formal\\ cause\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Form\\ received\\ by\\ a\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Material\\ cause\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Matter\\ underlying\\ that\\ form\\,\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ persists\\ through\\ the\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Efficient\\ cause\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Agency\\ that\\ brings\\ about\\ the\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Final\\ cause\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Purpose\\ served\\ by\\ the\\ changed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\'s\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ of\\ chance\\ and\\ coincidence\\,\\ but\\ an\\ orderly\\,\\ organized\\ world\\,\\ a\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ purpose\\,\\ in\\ which\\ things\\ develop\\ toward\\ ends\\ determined\\ by\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cosmology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adamantly\\ denied\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ a\\ beginning\\,\\ insisting\\ that\\ universe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ must\\ be\\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eternal\\ universe\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sphere\\,\\ divided\\ into\\ an\\ upper\\ and\\ a\\ lower\\ region\\ by\\ the\\ spherical\\ shell\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ which\\ the\\ moon\\ is\\ situated\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moon\\ is\\ of\\ intermediate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Above\\ moon\\ is\\ celestial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Region\\ of\\ eternally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unchanging\\ cycles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Consists\\ of\\ fifth\\ element\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ether\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Below\\ is\\ terrestrial\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Birth\\,\\ death\\,\\ transient\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\4\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Air\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chose\\ sensible\\ qualities\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ ultimate\\ building\\ blocks\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ pairs\\ are\\ crucial\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hot\\-cold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wet\\-dry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ combine\\ in\\ 4\\ pairs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ elements\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cold\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ dry\\ \\=\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cold\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ wet\\ \\=\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hot\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ wet\\ \\=\\ air\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hot\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ dry\\ \\=\\ fire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\ and\\ water\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heavy\\,\\ earth\\ is\\ heavier\\ of\\ the\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Air\\ and\\ fire\\ are\\ light\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fire\\ being\\ lighter\\ of\\ the\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ ideal\\ case\\,\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ mixed\\ bodies\\,\\ elements\\ would\\ form\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concentric\\ spheres\\:\\ fire\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ air\\ and\\ water\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ finally\\ earth\\ at\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Various\\ substances\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ make\\ up\\ the\\ cosmos\\ totally\\ fill\\ it\\,\\ leaving\\ absolutely\\ no\\ empty\\ space\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Universe\\ is\\ full\\,\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\plenum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ for\\ a\\ spherical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\,\\ which\\ would\\ never\\ be\\ forgotten\\ or\\ seriously\\ questioned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Space\\ has\\ properties\\,\\ so\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ really\\ ours\\ is\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ space\\,\\ whereas\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ was\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Motion\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Terrestrial\\ and\\ Celestial\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Motion\\ is\\ never\\ spontaneous\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ no\\ motion\\ without\\ a\\ mover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Distinction\\ between\\ two\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ types\\ of\\ motion\\:\\ motion\\ toward\\ natural\\ place\\ of\\ moving\\ body\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;natural\\ motion\\"\\;\\;\\ motion\\ in\\ any\\ other\\ direction\\ is\\ \\"\\;forced\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ violent\\"\\;\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ projectile\\ motion\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\ argued\\ that\\ object\\ keeps\\ moving\\ after\\ it\\ has\\ lost\\ contact\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medium\\ through\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ moving\\ takes\\ over\\ as\\ mover\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Force\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ determinant\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ a\\ resistance\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opposing\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\General\\ law\\:\\ velocity\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proportional\\ to\\ motive\\ force\\ and\\ inversely\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\V\\ proportional\\ F\\/R\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ falling\\ object\\,\\ motive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ force\\ is\\ weight\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\V\\ proportional\\ W\\/R\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ assigned\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heavens\\ the\\ most\\ perfect\\ of\\ motions\\ \\-\\ continuous\\ uniform\\ circular\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ identified\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unmoved\\ mover\\ for\\ the\\ planetary\\ sphers\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;Prime\\ Mover\\,\\"\\;\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ living\\ deity\\ representing\\ the\\ highest\\ good\\,\\ wholly\\ actualized\\,\\ totally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ absorbed\\ in\\ self\\-contemplation\\,\\ non\\ spatial\\,\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ spheres\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ moves\\,\\ and\\ not\\ at\\ all\\ like\\ the\\ traditional\\ anthropomorphic\\ Greek\\ gods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\,\\ he\\ states\\ that\\,\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fact\\,\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ celestial\\ spheres\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ Unmoved\\ Mover\\,\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ objects\\ of\\ its\\ affection\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ cause\\ of\\ its\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "David Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science, pp. 47-62"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.092897+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Genesis", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 584, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 1\\,\\ Creation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\ 1\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Made\\ earth\\,\\ light\\ and\\ dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\ 2\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>God\\ made\\ sky\\,\\ separated\\ water\\ above\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\'dome\\'\\ from\\ that\\ below\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\ 3\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Made\\ land\\ appear\\ along\\ with\\ vegetation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\ 4\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Made\\ 2\\ lights\\ \\(sun\\ \\&\\;\\ moon\\)\\ in\\ sky\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ mark\\ fixed\\ times\\ \\&\\;\\ illuminate\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\ 5\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Made\\ sea\\ creatures\\ and\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\ 6\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Made\\ animals\\ \\&\\;\\ MAN\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Genesis\\ 1\\,\\ 27\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\"\\;God\\ created\\ man\\ in\\ his\\ image\\,\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ divine\\ image\\ he\\ created\\ him\\;\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ he\\ created\\ them\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gave\\ man\\ dominion\\ over\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ plants\\ for\\ food\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\ 7\\:\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Took\\ a\\ break\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 2\\,\\ Garden\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Eden\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Made\\ man\\ out\\ of\\ clay\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ground\\,\\ blew\\ into\\ his\\ nostrils\\ the\\ breath\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\ made\\ for\\ man\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ live\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Didn\\'t\\ want\\ man\\ to\\ be\\ alone\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ made\\ animals\\ and\\ had\\ man\\ name\\ them\\,\\ but\\ none\\ suitable\\ partner\\ for\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ man\\ asleep\\,\\ god\\ took\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rib\\ from\\ him\\ and\\ made\\ woman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 3\\,\\ The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fall\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Serpent\\ convinces\\ woman\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eat\\ fruit\\,\\ who\\ convinces\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ eat\\,\\ realize\\ they\\'re\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ naked\\,\\ throw\\ on\\ some\\ fig\\ leaves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ comes\\ and\\ is\\ upset\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\b\\/c\\ serpent\\ did\\ it\\,\\ made\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ crawl\\ on\\ its\\ belly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ woman\\ responsible\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ childbearing\\ pains\\ intensified\\,\\ husband\\ made\\ master\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ man\\ listened\\ to\\ woman\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ ate\\,\\ has\\ to\\ toil\\ in\\ dirt\\ for\\ food\\,\\ and\\ will\\ eventually\\ become\\ dirt\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 6\\,\\ Floods\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\'coming\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\ got\\ pretty\\ wicked\\,\\ so\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\ decided\\ to\\ flood\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Noah\\ found\\ favor\\ with\\ Lord\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Told\\ to\\ build\\ an\\ ark\\,\\ with\\ 2\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ each\\ kind\\ of\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 7\\,\\ Flood\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Finally\\,\\ when\\ Noah\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ around\\ 600\\,\\ floods\\ came\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rained\\ for\\ 40\\ days\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Water\\ covered\\ even\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ highest\\ mountains\\,\\ everything\\ dead\\ except\\ Noah\\ and\\ the\\ peeps\\ and\\ animals\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ ark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 8\\,\\ Land\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Water\\ started\\ to\\ go\\ away\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ 150\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Noah\\ sent\\ out\\ a\\ raven\\,\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ just\\ flew\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eventually\\,\\ sent\\ out\\ dove\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ came\\ back\\ with\\ plucked\\ olive\\ leaf\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ Noah\\ was\\ 601\\,\\ stepped\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ foot\\ on\\ land\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 9\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Covenant\\ with\\ Noah\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ blessed\\ Noah\\ and\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sons\\,\\ they\\ went\\ out\\ and\\ spread\\ their\\ fertility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ man\\ should\\ not\\ shed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ blood\\ of\\ man\\,\\ or\\ his\\ blood\\ shall\\ be\\ shed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Never\\ again\\ will\\ he\\ destroy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\ with\\ a\\ flood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Noah\\ and\\ his\\ kids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Listing\\ of\\ good\\ number\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ kids\\ and\\ grandkids\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\ Noah\\ lived\\ for\\ 950\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 11\\,\\ Tower\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Babel\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whole\\ world\\ spoke\\ same\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ language\\,\\ decided\\ to\\ build\\ very\\ tall\\ tower\\ into\\ the\\ skies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lord\\ decided\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ could\\ do\\ this\\ now\\ w\\/\\ a\\ unified\\ language\\,\\ would\\ be\\ no\\ stopping\\ them\\ later\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ he\\ confused\\ their\\ language\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Genesis"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.109678+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "God and Nature, Chapters 1- ...", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 585, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Always\\ this\\ conflict\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ and\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Draper\\ published\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Conflict\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ attacking\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ influence\\ that\\ held\\ back\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\White\\,\\ who\\ would\\ outdate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Draper\\ with\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Warfare\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ described\\ an\\ all\\ out\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ held\\ that\\ Protestant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\ supported\\ science\\,\\ while\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ Catholics\\ who\\ did\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Merton\\ had\\ idea\\ that\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ a\\ social\\ phenomenon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\,\\ from\\ fact\\ that\\ modern\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ developed\\ in\\ Christian\\ Europe\\,\\ possibly\\ a\\ causal\\ connection\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ the\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\19th\\ C\\ conflict\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ and\\ religion\\,\\ especially\\ with\\ advent\\ of\\ Darwin\\'s\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ saw\\ good\\ in\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ in\\ supporting\\ religion\\,\\ helped\\ preserve\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ Greek\\ texts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ upheavals\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Preferred\\ Plato\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ beginning\\ of\\ 13th\\ C\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ onward\\,\\ progression\\ of\\ Aristotelian\\ thought\\ promoted\\ by\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ institutions\\,\\ efforts\\ to\\ integrate\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ with\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1543\\,\\ Copernicus\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proposed\\ a\\ heliocentric\\ cosmology\\ that\\ removed\\ earth\\ from\\ center\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Responding\\ to\\ Protestant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ challenge\\ in\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ 16th\\ C\\,\\ Catholicism\\ grew\\ more\\ conservative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ authoritarian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ in\\ 1610\\,\\ had\\ liberal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arguments\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ interpret\\ biblical\\ passages\\ \\(this\\ is\\ really\\ what\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ got\\ him\\ in\\ trouble\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\18th\\ C\\ saw\\ gradual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unraveling\\ of\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\19th\\ C\\ site\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bloodiest\\ battles\\ in\\ conflict\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwinism\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wilberforce\\ and\\ Huxley\\ came\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ symbolize\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Genesis\\ and\\ Geology\\ debates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conflicts\\ surrounding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwin\\ far\\ more\\ than\\ science\\-versus\\-religion\\,\\ arose\\ between\\ persons\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wished\\ to\\ retain\\ an\\ older\\,\\ theologically\\ grounded\\ view\\ of\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\20th\\ C\\ controversy\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creationists\\ and\\ evolutionists\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ fundamentalists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ insisted\\ on\\ judging\\ science\\ by\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Science\\ and\\ the\\ Early\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\John\\ William\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Draper\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ wrote\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ C\\,\\ about\\ the\\ excesses\\ of\\ organized\\ Christianity\\,\\ especially\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholicism\\ and\\ gave\\ shape\\ to\\ what\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ very\\ widespread\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ interpretation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ the\\ early\\ church\\ \\(in\\ that\\ it\\ stampeded\\ science\\'s\\ progress\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Draper\\ and\\ White\\ believed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ waged\\ war\\ on\\ science\\ in\\ 2\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Early\\ charge\\ fathers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ denigrated\\ the\\ investigation\\ of\\ nature\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Any\\ truth\\ observed\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forced\\ to\\ be\\ examined\\ by\\ dogmatic\\ clergyman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Others\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ was\\ good\\ for\\ science\\,\\ some\\ have\\ the\\ middle\\ ground\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophy\\ was\\ becoming\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ progressively\\ more\\ like\\ a\\ religion\\,\\ based\\ on\\ inspired\\ authorities\\;\\ still\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ Greek\\ rationalism\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pagan\\ philosophers\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Plato\\,\\ also\\ demanded\\ belief\\ in\\ religion\\ as\\ did\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Athens\\ and\\ Jerusalem\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ spread\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ outwards\\ from\\ Jerusalem\\ like\\ wildfire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Persecuted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ 3rd\\ C\\;\\ conversion\\ of\\ emperor\\ Constantine\\ early\\ in\\ 4th\\ C\\ marked\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ turning\\ point\\,\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ C\\ was\\ state\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ believed\\ Greed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ as\\ absolutely\\ essential\\ for\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Clement\\ \\(d\\.\\ between\\ 211\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ 215\\)\\ in\\ Alexandria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ church\\ father\\ who\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generally\\ taken\\ to\\ epitomize\\ the\\ anti\\-intellectualism\\ of\\ the\\ early\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\ is\\ Tertullian\\ \\(155\\-230\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Was\\ against\\ philosophy\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sense\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ heresy\\;\\ recognized\\ gift\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Far\\ from\\ seeking\\ abolition\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ reason\\,\\ Tertullian\\ must\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ appropriating\\ Aristotelian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rational\\ techniques\\ and\\ putting\\ them\\ to\\ apologetic\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ influential\\ statement\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Christian\\ attitude\\ toward\\ philosophy\\ and\\ reason\\ was\\ that\\ of\\ Augustine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(354\\-430\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rich\\ classical\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophy\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophical\\ life\\ were\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ replaced\\ or\\ repudiated\\,\\ but\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ is\\ a\\ divine\\ gift\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ faith\\ must\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ precede\\ reason\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>to\\ purify\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heart\\ and\\ make\\ it\\ fit\\ to\\ receive\\ and\\ endure\\ the\\ great\\ light\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unless\\ you\\ believe\\,\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ will\\ not\\ understand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Movement\\ from\\ faith\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\ to\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ was\\ a\\ spectrum\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ attitudes\\ toward\\ pagan\\ culture\\,\\ from\\ deep\\ mistrust\\ to\\ high\\ enthusiasm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Question\\ was\\ how\\ and\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ to\\ philosophize\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ required\\ education\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ Christians\\ were\\ committed\\ to\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\clear\\ that\\ Christian\\ intelligentsia\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ were\\ at\\ least\\ as\\ well\\ educated\\ as\\,\\ and\\ the\\ intellectual\\ equals\\ of\\,\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pagan\\ counterparts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Church\\ and\\ Natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creative\\ Greek\\ science\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ the\\ wane\\,\\ perhaps\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ 200\\ B\\.C\\.\\,\\ definitely\\ by\\ 200\\ A\\.D\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creative\\ natural\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ particularly\\ scarce\\,\\ more\\ people\\ interested\\ in\\ ethics\\ and\\ metaphysics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Platonic\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Distinguished\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transcendent\\ world\\ of\\ eternal\\ forms\\ and\\ their\\ imperfect\\ replication\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ material\\ cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Orthodox\\ Christianity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rejected\\ the\\ extremes\\;\\ nature\\ was\\ neither\\ to\\ be\\ worshipped\\ nor\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ repudiated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ insisted\\ that\\ sin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ situated\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ will\\;\\ very\\ important\\ b\\/\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ help\\ to\\ liberate\\ western\\ Christendom\\ from\\ notion\\ that\\ soul\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contaminated\\ by\\ contact\\ with\\ body\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ that\\ matter\\ and\\ flesh\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ inherently\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ expressed\\ serous\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doubt\\ about\\ value\\ of\\ natural\\ science\\,\\ need\\ to\\ just\\ know\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ goodness\\ of\\ Creator\\ that\\ made\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\,\\ Christians\\ should\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ educated\\ and\\ knowledgeable\\ about\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ material\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ be\\ loved\\ but\\ to\\ be\\ used\\;\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ itself\\ but\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ contemplation\\ of\\ higher\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Early\\ church\\ was\\ expressing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ values\\ obtained\\ from\\ the\\ pagan\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chose\\ a\\ middle\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seems\\ unlikely\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ Christianity\\ did\\ anything\\ to\\ diminish\\ the\\ support\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ given\\ to\\ scientific\\ activity\\ or\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ involved\\ in\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Study\\ of\\ nature\\ held\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ precarious\\ position\\ in\\ ancient\\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\With\\ declining\\ economic\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ political\\ fortunes\\ vanishing\\ with\\ Roman\\ Empire\\ in\\ late\\ antiquity\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sciences\\ suffered\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christians\\ regarded\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ important\\ only\\ insofar\\ as\\ it\\ served\\ the\\ faith\\;\\ but\\ at\\ least\\ it\\ did\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ occasion\\,\\ serve\\ the\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Practitioners\\ of\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ Christians\\ representing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ different\\ degrees\\ of\\ involvement\\ in\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ \\-\\ Basil\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Caesarea\\,\\ Augustine\\,\\ and\\ John\\ Philoponus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basil\\ \\(330\\-379\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ Cappadocia\\ in\\ eastern\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Asia\\ Minor\\,\\ became\\ Bishop\\ of\\ Caesarea\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Attacked\\ materialists\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accepted\\ Platonic\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ celestial\\ intelligence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Defends\\ a\\ temporal\\ cosmos\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-\\ one\\ that\\ had\\ a\\ beginning\\ and\\ will\\ have\\ an\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ should\\ direct\\ our\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ admiration\\ toward\\ the\\ source\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ details\\,\\ of\\ cosmic\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Refuses\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accept\\ allegorical\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Genesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Made\\ distinction\\ between\\ 3\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ separate\\ heavenly\\ entities\\ which\\ would\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ medieval\\ scheme\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ three\\ heavens\\:\\ Outermost\\ or\\ empyrean\\,\\ which\\ served\\ as\\ abode\\ of\\ angels\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ then\\ the\\ aqueous\\ or\\ crystalline\\ heaven\\,\\ composed\\ of\\ crystallized\\ water\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ finally\\ the\\ firmament\\,\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ stars\\ are\\ affixed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\,\\ fifty\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ years\\ after\\ Basil\\,\\ fuller\\ command\\ of\\ pagan\\ natural\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Despite\\ extensive\\ studies\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ came\\ eventually\\ to\\ regard\\ natural\\ knowledge\\ \\(for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\)\\ with\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ greater\\ enthusiasm\\ than\\ had\\ Basil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Temporal\\ could\\ serve\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternal\\ though\\,\\ and\\ knowledge\\ useful\\ if\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ understand\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\ and\\ come\\ closer\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Uses\\ phenomenon\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ illumination\\ to\\ epistemological\\ use\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ just\\ as\\ sun\\ must\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ illuminate\\ corporeal\\ things\\ in\\ order\\ that\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\ by\\ corporeal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eye\\,\\ so\\ intelligible\\ things\\ must\\ be\\ illuminated\\ with\\ a\\ divine\\ light\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ grasped\\ by\\ the\\ intellect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Oftentimes\\ uses\\ Platonic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doctrine\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rationes\\ seminales\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;seedlike\\ principles\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Calls\\ on\\ Stoic\\ notion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ according\\ to\\ which\\ nature\\ contains\\ germs\\ or\\ seed\\-like\\ principles\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ direct\\ and\\ determine\\ its\\ subsequent\\ development\\,\\ all\\ created\\ by\\ God\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beginning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Follows\\ a\\ conception\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Each\\ thing\\ behaves\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ according\\ to\\ its\\ God\\-given\\ inclination\\ \\-\\ law\\ of\\ its\\ own\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Question\\ of\\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ perfectly\\ consistent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ decision\\ to\\ violate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ usual\\ order\\ is\\ no\\ less\\ natural\\ \\(and\\ no\\ more\\ miraculous\\)\\ than\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decision\\ to\\ abide\\ by\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ultimately\\ everything\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ divine\\ origin\\,\\ and\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ miracle\\,\\ if\\ it\\ has\\ any\\ meaning\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ all\\,\\ represents\\ merely\\ the\\ violation\\ of\\ our\\ expectations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opinion\\ of\\ astrology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\City\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ mounts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ vigorous\\ attack\\ on\\ science\\ of\\ astrology\\,\\ particularly\\ is\\ fatalistic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ twins\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ different\\,\\ yet\\ born\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ and\\ conceived\\ at\\ same\\ time\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astrology\\ cannot\\ account\\ for\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ can\\ admit\\ stellar\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ influence\\ on\\ physical\\ things\\,\\ but\\ human\\ will\\ must\\ be\\ left\\ untouched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\John\\ Philoponus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Alexandrian\\ Christian\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ first\\ half\\ of\\ 6th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophy\\ teacher\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ school\\ of\\ Alexandria\\,\\ commentator\\ on\\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Major\\ attacker\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelian\\ natural\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Main\\ point\\ of\\ attack\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ denial\\ of\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ celestial\\ and\\ terrestrial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ that\\ different\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stars\\ are\\ different\\ colors\\,\\ meaning\\ different\\ composition\\,\\ meaning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ can\\ decay\\ and\\ decompose\\ just\\ like\\ terrestrial\\ region\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ that\\ sun\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ composed\\ of\\ fire\\ \\(terrestrial\\ component\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Said\\ heavens\\ are\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\,\\ radical\\ distinction\\ between\\ Creator\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ creation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(heaven\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ earth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Central\\ Aristotelian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrine\\ thus\\ fell\\ before\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Attacked\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrine\\ of\\ eternity\\ of\\ world\\,\\ attempted\\ reassessment\\ of\\ theory\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ light\\,\\ major\\ assault\\ on\\ dynamics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ efforts\\ clearly\\ refute\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ claim\\ that\\ Christianity\\ and\\ serious\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fundamentally\\ and\\ necessarily\\ antagonistic\\ \\(39\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ was\\ not\\ monolithic\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ no\\ universal\\ Christian\\ view\\ of\\ pagan\\ philosophy\\ or\\ natural\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ favored\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sciences\\,\\ others\\ degraded\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ late\\ antiquity\\,\\ social\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ intellectual\\ forces\\ tending\\ to\\ discourage\\ and\\ alter\\ character\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophical\\ discourse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ fathers\\ used\\ Greek\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ science\\,\\ and\\ in\\ using\\ it\\,\\ transmitted\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Major\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ church\\ transmitted\\,\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ also\\ altered\\ \\-\\ and\\ had\\ its\\ own\\ doctrines\\ altered\\ in\\ return\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Greek\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\ were\\ interacting\\ and\\ mutually\\ transforming\\ views\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Science\\ and\\ Theology\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\ never\\ more\\ closely\\ interrelated\\ than\\ during\\ Latin\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Western\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theology\\ clearly\\ dominant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ power\\ sometimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7\\ liberal\\ arts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trivium\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Language\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Grammar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rhetoric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Dialectic\\ \\(logic\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quadrivium\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Arithmetic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geometry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 12th\\ and\\ 13th\\ C\\,\\ Greek\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ finally\\ translated\\ into\\ Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ as\\ handmaiden\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ not\\ pursued\\ for\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ own\\ sake\\,\\ only\\ for\\ aid\\ it\\ could\\ provide\\ in\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Holy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saint\\ Bonaventure\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;all\\ divisions\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\ are\\ handmaidens\\ of\\ theology\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Peter\\ Damian\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Should\\ study\\ external\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ to\\ contemplate\\ spiritual\\ nature\\ and\\ to\\ gain\\ dominion\\ over\\ it\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ described\\ in\\ Psalms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Revolt\\ of\\ the\\ handmaidens\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ philosophy\\ challenges\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Subservience\\ of\\ science\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\ more\\ complete\\ during\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ than\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bulk\\ of\\ Greek\\ science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ absent\\ till\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Greek\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revived\\ in\\ 12th\\ C\\,\\ first\\ through\\ Platonic\\ and\\ Neoplatonic\\ forms\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ then\\ in\\ its\\ powerful\\ and\\ truly\\ menacing\\ Aristotelian\\ form\\ in\\ 13th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newfound\\ confidence\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ human\\ reason\\ and\\ sensory\\ experience\\ emerged\\,\\ to\\ teach\\ about\\ nature\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ its\\ regular\\ causes\\ and\\ events\\ as\\ obligation\\ to\\ philosophy\\,\\ not\\ just\\ Holy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ began\\ to\\ encroach\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ upon\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ replaced\\ Plato\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Timaeus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ in\\ 13th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Middle\\ Ages\\ saw\\ conception\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ structure\\ and\\ operation\\ of\\ physical\\ world\\ based\\ on\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ treatises\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\,\\ Plato\\'s\\ creation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ account\\ featured\\ a\\ creator\\ God\\;\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ system\\ assumed\\ a\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ without\\ beginning\\ or\\ end\\ and\\ a\\ deity\\ who\\ had\\ no\\ knowledge\\ of\\ that\\ world\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ different\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ban\\ on\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\ in\\ 1210\\ and\\ 1215\\ and\\ abortive\\ attempt\\ to\\ expurgate\\ them\\ in\\ 1231\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ 1255\\ though\\,\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ works\\ were\\ not\\ only\\ officially\\ sanctioned\\ but\\ constituted\\ the\\ core\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ arts\\ curriculum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1260s\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 70s\\,\\ split\\ developed\\ between\\ theology\\ and\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ radical\\ arts\\ master\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perceived\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ as\\ key\\ to\\ interpretation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmos\\,\\ and\\ concluded\\ that\\ philosophy\\ was\\ not\\ only\\ independent\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\ but\\ at\\ least\\ its\\ equal\\ and\\ perhaps\\ its\\ superior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thomas\\ Aquinas\\ \\(1225\\-1274\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ considered\\ theology\\ the\\ highest\\ science\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ its\\ reliance\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Yet\\ embraced\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ regarded\\ Aristotle\\ as\\ the\\ greatest\\ of\\ philosophers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rightly\\ understood\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\,\\ which\\ included\\ secular\\ science\\,\\ could\\ not\\ contradict\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\ or\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Traditional\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conservative\\ theologians\\,\\ inspired\\ by\\ Saint\\ Bonaventure\\,\\ condemned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ideas\\ they\\ considered\\ subversive\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1277\\ massive\\ condemnation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ 219\\ propositions\\,\\ any\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ held\\ as\\ the\\ price\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ excommunication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ impact\\ of\\ theology\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ 1277\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ important\\,\\ major\\ event\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ medieval\\ natural\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Except\\ for\\ articles\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Thomas\\ Aquinas\\,\\ which\\ were\\ nullified\\ in\\ 1325\\,\\ condemnation\\ remained\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ effect\\ during\\ 14th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ works\\ condemned\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ preserve\\ God\\'s\\ absolute\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemned\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ that\\ was\\ prepared\\ to\\ deny\\ divine\\ creation\\ of\\ World\\ or\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ denied\\ God\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ perform\\ certain\\ actions\\ in\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ could\\ do\\ such\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ were\\ contrary\\ to\\ natural\\ order\\,\\ that\\ were\\ impossible\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelian\\ worldview\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ God\\'s\\ absolute\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ power\\ critical\\ and\\ potent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hypothetical\\ possibilities\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ based\\ upon\\ supernatural\\ actions\\ became\\ a\\ characteristic\\ feature\\ of\\ late\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medieval\\ Scholastic\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Both\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agree\\ that\\ only\\ one\\ world\\ existed\\,\\ Aristotle\\ had\\ demonstrated\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impossibility\\ of\\ other\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ threatened\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ excommunicate\\ anyone\\ who\\ thought\\ that\\ God\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ create\\ other\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Caused\\ people\\ to\\ consider\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ many\\ new\\ possibilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ discussion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ possibility\\ of\\ void\\ space\\,\\ movement\\ of\\ earth\\ in\\ a\\ rectilinear\\ motion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ even\\ if\\ vacuum\\ left\\ behind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Divinization\\ of\\ space\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scholastic\\ thought\\ produced\\ virtually\\ all\\ properties\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ attributed\\ to\\ space\\ during\\ Scientific\\ Revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Assumption\\ that\\ infinite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ space\\ is\\ God\\'s\\ immensity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Space\\ necessarily\\ assigned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\ properties\\,\\ such\\ as\\ homogeneity\\,\\ immutabilility\\,\\ infinity\\,\\ lack\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ extension\\,\\ capacity\\ to\\ coexist\\ with\\ bodies\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ offered\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resistance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intelligible\\ and\\ plausible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alternatives\\ to\\ Aristotelian\\ physics\\ and\\ morphology\\ emerged\\ from\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ these\\ analyses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ may\\ also\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adversely\\ affected\\ Scientific\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conservative\\ theologians\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decreased\\ confidence\\ in\\ ability\\ of\\ science\\ to\\ acquire\\ certain\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\John\\ Buridan\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1295\\-1358\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conceded\\ that\\ God\\ could\\ interfere\\ in\\ natural\\ events\\ and\\ alter\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ course\\ at\\ any\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Urged\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophers\\ to\\ proceed\\ as\\ if\\ nature\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\always\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ acted\\ with\\ regularity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ followed\\ its\\ \\"\\;common\\ course\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Found\\ place\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ principle\\ of\\ Ockham\\'s\\ razor\\:\\ if\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ explanation\\,\\ choose\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ simpler\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nicole\\ Oresme\\ \\(1320\\-1382\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Found\\ experience\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ human\\ reason\\ inadequate\\ for\\ proper\\ determination\\ of\\ physical\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ faith\\ could\\ furnish\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ us\\ with\\ genuine\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Led\\ by\\ William\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Ockham\\ \\(1285\\-1349\\)\\,\\ many\\ theologians\\ concluded\\ that\\ neither\\ reason\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nor\\ experience\\ could\\ provide\\ certain\\ knowledge\\ of\\ any\\ necessary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ connection\\ between\\ causes\\ and\\ their\\ alleged\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intellectual\\ environment\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ created\\ in\\ which\\ physical\\ problems\\ were\\ couched\\ in\\ hypothetical\\ form\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ without\\ existential\\ implication\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;according\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ imagination\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Impact\\ of\\ Science\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Peter\\ Lombard\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1160\\)\\ with\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sentences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ opinions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\4\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Applied\\ science\\ and\\ math\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Problems\\ concerning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ infinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Angels\\,\\ could\\ they\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ place\\,\\ how\\ fast\\ could\\ they\\ move\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Incarnation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sacraments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Served\\ for\\ some\\ 4\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ centuries\\ as\\ standard\\ text\\ for\\ theology\\ students\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 14th\\ C\\,\\ theology\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ been\\ quantified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ placing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ problems\\ in\\ hypothetical\\ and\\ quantitative\\ format\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Massive\\ influx\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quantitative\\ apparatus\\ appears\\ to\\ have\\ had\\ little\\ if\\ any\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ content\\ of\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Transformation\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ relationship\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ theology\\ in\\ Western\\ world\\ in\\ 14th\\ C\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ traditional\\ methodology\\ of\\ theology\\ placing\\ emphasis\\ on\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ and\\ mathematics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\'s\\ 2\\ hermeneutical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ points\\ in\\ explication\\ of\\ scriptural\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truth\\ of\\ Scripture\\ must\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ held\\ inviolable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Where\\ different\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ways\\ of\\ explaining\\ Scriptural\\ text\\,\\ no\\ particular\\ explanation\\ should\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ held\\ so\\ rigidly\\ that\\ convincing\\ arguments\\ cannot\\ overturn\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ 2\\ points\\ constituted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ basic\\ medieval\\ guidelines\\ for\\ application\\ of\\ continually\\ changing\\ body\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ scientific\\ theory\\ and\\ data\\ to\\ interpretation\\ of\\ physical\\ phenomena\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ described\\ in\\ Bible\\,\\ especially\\ creation\\ account\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ and\\ Aquinas\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ warned\\ against\\ rigid\\ interpretation\\ lest\\ it\\ be\\ proven\\ wrong\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ detrimental\\ to\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Occasionally\\ the\\ literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ meaning\\ of\\ scriptural\\ statements\\ conflicted\\ directly\\ with\\ universally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accepted\\ scientific\\ theories\\ and\\ observations\\;\\ in\\ such\\ instances\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scriptural\\ text\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ reinterpreted\\,\\ as\\ in\\ case\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ Psalms\\ 103\\:2\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ God\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ stretched\\ out\\ the\\ firmament\\ like\\ a\\ tent\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everyone\\ thought\\ earth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ round\\,\\ so\\ had\\ to\\ \\'re\\-interpret\\'\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\During\\ late\\ Middle\\ Ages\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ broad\\ and\\ liberal\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ narrow\\ and\\ literal\\,\\ interpretations\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rule\\ in\\ biblical\\ exegesis\\ involving\\ physical\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Assumption\\ that\\ God\\ always\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ acted\\ in\\ simplest\\ and\\ least\\ disruptive\\ manner\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Oresme\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Application\\ of\\ science\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ medieval\\ scriptural\\ exegesis\\ was\\ effected\\ without\\ noticeable\\ constraints\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prologue\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Undertaking\\ job\\ of\\ explain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rules\\ of\\ treating\\ the\\ Scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ will\\ condemn\\ this\\ work\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ others\\ will\\ praise\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\I\\ am\\ not\\ to\\ blame\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ do\\ not\\ understand\\;\\ should\\ stop\\ blaming\\ me\\ and\\ ask\\ God\\ to\\ give\\ them\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Those\\ who\\ exult\\ in\\ divine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ assistance\\ and\\ who\\ glory\\ in\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ understand\\ are\\ the\\ kind\\ which\\ I\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ undertaken\\ to\\ supply\\ herewith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ anyone\\ thinks\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stories\\ to\\ be\\ false\\,\\ I\\ shall\\ not\\ take\\ up\\ arms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Should\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proud\\ and\\ dangerous\\ temptations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whatever\\ mind\\ true\\ counsel\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ might\\ proceed\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ that\\ mind\\ but\\ to\\ Him\\,\\ who\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ truth\\,\\ immutable\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whoever\\ enjoys\\ glories\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\ should\\ recognize\\ the\\ ability\\ is\\ not\\ his\\,\\ but\\ comes\\ from\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ who\\ reads\\ to\\ others\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pronounces\\ the\\ words\\ he\\ recognizes\\;\\ he\\ who\\ teaches\\ reading\\ does\\ so\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ others\\ may\\ also\\ read\\;\\ but\\ both\\ make\\ known\\ what\\ they\\ receive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\i\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ things\\ necessary\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ treatment\\ of\\ scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Way\\ of\\ discovering\\ those\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\ which\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Way\\ of\\ teaching\\ what\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ learned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ii\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ doctrine\\ concerns\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ either\\ things\\ or\\ signs\\,\\ but\\ things\\ are\\ learned\\ by\\ signs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;thing\\"\\;\\ signifies\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;sign\\"\\;\\ are\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ used\\ to\\ signify\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ sign\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ thing\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ nothing\\ at\\ all\\;\\ but\\ not\\ every\\ thing\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ also\\ a\\ sign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\iii\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ things\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ enjoyed\\,\\ others\\ to\\ be\\ used\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ others\\ which\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ enjoyed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ enjoyed\\ make\\ us\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ blessed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Used\\ help\\ us\\,\\ and\\ sustain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\iv\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\To\\ enjoy\\ something\\ is\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cling\\ to\\ it\\ with\\ love\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ sake\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>To\\ use\\ something\\ is\\ to\\ employ\\ it\\ in\\ obtaining\\ that\\ which\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ love\\,\\ provided\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ worthy\\ of\\ love\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\v\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ which\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ be\\ enjoyed\\ are\\ the\\ Father\\,\\ the\\ Son\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ single\\ Trinity\\,\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ certain\\ supreme\\ thing\\ common\\ to\\ all\\ who\\ enjoy\\ it\\,\\ if\\,\\ indeed\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thing\\ and\\ not\\ rather\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ all\\ things\\,\\ or\\ both\\ a\\ thing\\ and\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cause\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ three\\ are\\ equal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\xxxv\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ plentitude\\ and\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Law\\ and\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ sacred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scriptures\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>is\\ the\\ love\\ of\\ a\\ Being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ enjoyed\\ and\\ of\\ a\\ being\\ that\\ can\\ share\\ that\\ enjoyment\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ us\\,\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ precept\\ that\\ anyone\\ should\\ love\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\xxxvi\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\To\\ understand\\ Scriptures\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ love\\ God\\ and\\ neighbor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ man\\ lies\\ knowingly\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ suffers\\ deception\\ unwittingly\\,\\ obvious\\ that\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ instance\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ man\\ who\\ is\\ deceived\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ lies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ someone\\ thinks\\ a\\ lie\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sometimes\\ useful\\,\\ admits\\ that\\ iniquity\\ is\\ sometimes\\ useful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Anyone\\ who\\ misunderstands\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scriptures\\ is\\ deceived\\,\\ although\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ lie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\xxxvii\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ anyone\\ should\\ fall\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ faith\\,\\ they\\ fall\\ from\\ charity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ things\\ for\\ which\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\ and\\ prophecy\\ struggle\\:\\ faith\\,\\ hope\\,\\ and\\ charity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\xxxviii\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vision\\ we\\ shall\\ see\\ will\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ replace\\ faith\\,\\ and\\ that\\ blessedness\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ will\\ replace\\ hope\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ when\\ these\\ things\\ are\\ falling\\ away\\,\\ charity\\ will\\ be\\ increased\\ even\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Temporal\\ thing\\ is\\ loved\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ before\\ we\\ have\\ it\\,\\ and\\ it\\ begins\\ to\\ grow\\ worthless\\ when\\ we\\ gain\\ it\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ satisfy\\ the\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\eternal\\ is\\ more\\ ardently\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ loved\\ when\\ acquired\\ than\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ merely\\ desired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\xxxix\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Man\\ supported\\ by\\ faith\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hope\\ and\\ charity\\,\\ with\\ an\\ unshaken\\ hold\\ upon\\ them\\,\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scriptures\\ except\\ for\\ the\\ instruction\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;Greatest\\ of\\ these\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ charity\\"\\;\\ 1\\ Cor\\.\\ 13\\.\\ 13\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XL\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ our\\ faith\\ involves\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lie\\,\\ then\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ love\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ loved\\,\\ and\\ living\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ justly\\,\\ we\\ hope\\ for\\ that\\ which\\ will\\ in\\ no\\ way\\ deceive\\ our\\ hope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\I\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ one\\ should\\ consider\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ signs\\ for\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ but\\ rather\\ for\\ their\\ value\\ as\\ signs\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ signify\\ something\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Among\\ signs\\,\\ some\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ and\\ others\\ are\\ conventional\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ are\\ ones\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ any\\ desire\\ or\\ intention\\ of\\ signifying\\ \\(smoke\\ signifies\\ fire\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\II\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conventional\\ signs\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ those\\ which\\ living\\ creatures\\ show\\ to\\ one\\ another\\ for\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conveying\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ their\\ spirits\\ or\\ something\\ which\\ have\\ sensed\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Signs\\ given\\ by\\ God\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contained\\ in\\ Holy\\ Scriptures\\ are\\ of\\ this\\ type\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\III\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Among\\ signs\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ men\\ express\\ their\\ meanings\\ to\\ one\\ another\\,\\ some\\ pertain\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sense\\ of\\ sight\\,\\ more\\ to\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ hearing\\,\\ and\\ few\\ to\\ other\\ senses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Motions\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>banners\\,\\ nod\\ \\=\\ sight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Speech\\ \\=\\ words\\,\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lord\\ gave\\ sign\\ with\\ odor\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ointment\\ with\\ which\\ His\\ feet\\ were\\ anointed\\;\\ taste\\ of\\ sacrament\\ of\\ His\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ body\\ and\\ blood\\ signified\\ what\\ He\\ wished\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\IV\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Signs\\ of\\ words\\ have\\ been\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ constructed\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ letters\\ since\\ voice\\ fades\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\V\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sacred\\ Scripture\\ set\\ forth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ one\\ language\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ spread\\ conveniently\\ throughout\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\VI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ and\\ varied\\ obscurities\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deceive\\ those\\ who\\ read\\ casually\\,\\ understanding\\ one\\ thing\\ instead\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\VII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ all\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ we\\ be\\ turned\\ by\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ God\\ toward\\ a\\ recognition\\ of\\ His\\ will\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ that\\ we\\ may\\ know\\ what\\ He\\ commands\\ that\\ we\\ desire\\ and\\ what\\ He\\ commands\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ we\\ avoid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ step\\ of\\ fear\\,\\ second\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ step\\ of\\ piety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Third\\ step\\ is\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ loved\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Himself\\,\\ and\\ his\\ neighbor\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ God\\;\\ is\\ to\\ love\\ God\\ with\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ heart\\,\\ soul\\ and\\ mind\\;\\ he\\ should\\ love\\ his\\ neighbor\\ as\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ a\\ good\\ hope\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thrusts\\ a\\ man\\ not\\ into\\ boasting\\ but\\ into\\ lamentation\\,\\ constantly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ praying\\ for\\ the\\ consolation\\ of\\ divine\\ assistance\\ lest\\ he\\ fall\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ despair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ he\\ enters\\ into\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fourth\\ step\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fortitude\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ he\\ hungers\\ and\\ thirsts\\ for\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Turns\\ toward\\ love\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternal\\ things\\,\\ specifically\\ the\\ immutable\\ unity\\ of\\ the\\ Trinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ he\\ has\\ seen\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Trinity\\ and\\ discovered\\ that\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ his\\ weakness\\ he\\ cannot\\ sustain\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sight\\ of\\ that\\ light\\,\\ he\\ purges\\ his\\ mind\\ which\\ wants\\ inferior\\ things\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ comes\\ to\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ fifth\\ step\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>counsel\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ mercy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eagerly\\ exercises\\ love\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ neighbor\\ and\\ perfects\\ himself\\ in\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Once\\ filled\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hope\\,\\ arrives\\ at\\ love\\ of\\ enemy\\ and\\ ascends\\ to\\ sixth\\ step\\,\\ where\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cleanses\\ that\\ eye\\ through\\ which\\ God\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ in\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ He\\ can\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seen\\ by\\ those\\ who\\ die\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ able\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Such\\ a\\ son\\ ascends\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wisdom\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ seventh\\ and\\ last\\ step\\,\\ where\\ he\\ enjoys\\ peace\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tranquility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Went\\ from\\ fear\\ to\\ wisdom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\VIII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Third\\ step\\ of\\ knowledge\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ discussed\\ further\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Should\\ be\\ expert\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ investigator\\ of\\ Holy\\ Scriptures\\,\\ read\\ those\\ that\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ canonical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Should\\ follow\\ authority\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ greater\\ number\\ of\\ Catholic\\ churches\\ or\\ more\\ important\\ churches\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ the\\ two\\ disagree\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ should\\ hold\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ equal\\ value\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lists\\ books\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ considered\\ canonical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\IX\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ all\\ books\\ those\\ fearing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\ and\\ made\\ meek\\ in\\ piety\\ seek\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\X\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ reasons\\ why\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ written\\ are\\ not\\ understood\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Obscured\\ either\\ by\\ unknown\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ by\\ ambiguous\\ signs\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Signs\\ are\\ either\\ literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ figurative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Against\\ unknown\\ literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ signs\\ the\\ sovereign\\ remedy\\ is\\ a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ languages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ words\\ which\\ cannot\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ should\\ be\\ aware\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ these\\ inadequacies\\ of\\ expression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Situation\\ would\\ help\\ rather\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ than\\ impede\\ understanding\\ if\\ readers\\ would\\ only\\ avoid\\ negligence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Further\\ inspection\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ frequently\\ makes\\ obscure\\ passages\\ clear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Although\\ understanding\\ lies\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ sight\\ of\\ the\\ Eternal\\,\\ faith\\ nourishes\\ as\\ children\\ are\\ nourished\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ milk\\ in\\ the\\ cradles\\ of\\ temporal\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ translators\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deceived\\ by\\ ambiguity\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ language\\ which\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\,\\ so\\ they\\ unintentionally\\ change\\ the\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XIII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ must\\ either\\ seek\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\ of\\ those\\ languages\\ form\\ which\\ Scripture\\ is\\ translated\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\ or\\ we\\ must\\ consult\\ the\\ translations\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ translate\\ word\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ word\\ to\\ get\\ most\\ accurate\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ more\\ men\\ are\\ offended\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ these\\ things\\,\\ the\\ weaker\\ they\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XIV\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unknown\\ signs\\,\\ for\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\ are\\ two\\ forms\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unknown\\ word\\ or\\ expression\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ may\\ impede\\ the\\ reader\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Comparison\\ and\\ weighing\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ various\\ translations\\ is\\ useful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XV\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Itala\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ translation\\ is\\ preferred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ emending\\ Latin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translations\\,\\ Greek\\ translations\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ consulted\\,\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Septuagint\\ carries\\ most\\ authority\\ in\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XVI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Among\\ figurative\\ signs\\,\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ any\\ impede\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ he\\ should\\ study\\ them\\ partly\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\ of\\ languages\\ and\\ partly\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ ignorance\\ of\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ makes\\ figurative\\ expressions\\ obscure\\ when\\ we\\ are\\ ignorant\\ of\\ the\\ natures\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ animals\\,\\ or\\ stones\\,\\ or\\ plants\\,\\ or\\ other\\ things\\ which\\ are\\ often\\ used\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ for\\ purposes\\ of\\ constructing\\ similitudes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ ignorance\\ of\\ numbers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ also\\ causes\\ many\\ things\\ expressed\\ figuratively\\ and\\ mystically\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scriptures\\ to\\ be\\ misunderstood\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moses\\,\\ Elias\\,\\ and\\ Lord\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Himself\\ all\\ fasted\\ for\\ forty\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ ignorance\\ of\\ some\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerning\\ music\\ also\\ halts\\ and\\ impedes\\ the\\ reader\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Both\\ number\\ and\\ music\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ given\\ an\\ honorable\\ position\\ in\\ many\\ places\\ in\\ the\\ Sacred\\ Scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XVII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Must\\ not\\ listen\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ superstition\\ of\\ pagans\\ who\\ professed\\ that\\ the\\ nine\\ Muses\\ are\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ daughters\\ of\\ Jove\\ and\\ Memory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XVIII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ should\\ not\\ avoid\\ music\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ b\\/c\\ of\\ superstition\\ of\\ the\\ profane\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ anything\\ in\\ it\\ useful\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ understanding\\ the\\ Holy\\ Scriptures\\,\\ although\\ we\\ should\\ not\\ turn\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ theatrical\\ frivolity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XIX\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ kinds\\ of\\ doctrine\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ of\\ force\\ in\\ the\\ mores\\ of\\ the\\ pagans\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Concerns\\ things\\ which\\ men\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ themselves\\ instituted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Concerns\\ those\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ they\\ have\\ seen\\ to\\ be\\ firmly\\ established\\ or\\ divinely\\ ordained\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Institutions\\ of\\ men\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ partly\\ superstitious\\ and\\ partly\\ not\\ superstitious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XX\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Among\\ superstitious\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ whatever\\ has\\ been\\ instituted\\ by\\ men\\ concerning\\ the\\ making\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worshiping\\ of\\ idols\\,\\ or\\ concerning\\ the\\ worshiping\\ of\\ any\\ creature\\ or\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ part\\ of\\ any\\ creature\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ were\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nor\\ are\\ those\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ excluded\\ from\\ this\\ sort\\ of\\ pernicious\\ superstition\\ who\\ are\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\genethliaci\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ are\\ concerned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ birthdays\\,\\ or\\ commonly\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\mathematici\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\[judicial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astrologers\\]\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Although\\ these\\ men\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seek\\ out\\ and\\ even\\ find\\ exact\\ position\\ of\\ starts\\ at\\ time\\ someone\\ is\\ born\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ try\\ to\\ predict\\ on\\ that\\ basis\\ the\\ future\\ actions\\ of\\ that\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stars\\ once\\ moved\\ in\\ sky\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ without\\ the\\ names\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ given\\ them\\,\\ have\\ been\\ named\\ by\\ power\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ kings\\ and\\ pleasure\\ of\\ human\\ vanity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\To\\ desire\\ to\\ predict\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ birth\\,\\ on\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ such\\ observations\\,\\ the\\ habits\\,\\ actions\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fortunes\\ of\\ men\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ error\\ and\\ a\\ great\\ madness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Among\\ those\\ who\\ know\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ about\\ this\\ vain\\ knowledge\\,\\ superstition\\ may\\ be\\ altogether\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ refuted\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Twins\\ are\\ living\\ examples\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ are\\ born\\ at\\ same\\ time\\ under\\ same\\ stars\\,\\ yet\\ have\\ different\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ outcomes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thus\\,\\ those\\ beliefs\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ certain\\ signs\\ of\\ things\\ instituted\\ by\\ human\\ presumption\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ classed\\ with\\ those\\ which\\ result\\ from\\ certain\\ pacts\\ and\\ contracts\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ demons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXIII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Certain\\ secret\\ judgment\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\ says\\ that\\ men\\ who\\ desire\\ evil\\ things\\ are\\ subjected\\ to\\ illusion\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deception\\ as\\ a\\ reward\\ for\\ their\\ desires\\,\\ being\\ mocked\\ and\\ deceived\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ those\\ lying\\ angels\\ to\\ whom\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ beautiful\\ ordering\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\,\\ the\\ lowest\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ subject\\ by\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ Divine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Providence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXIV\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ such\\ omens\\ are\\ valid\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ only\\ in\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ through\\ previously\\ established\\ imaginings\\,\\ as\\ if\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ were\\ a\\ common\\ language\\,\\ they\\ are\\ agreed\\ upon\\ with\\ demons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXV\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ practices\\ which\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ value\\ among\\ men\\ b\\/c\\ men\\ agree\\ among\\ themselves\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ valuable\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ human\\ institutions\\;\\ and\\ of\\ these\\ some\\ are\\ superfluous\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ extravagant\\,\\ others\\ useful\\ and\\ necessary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ one\\ thing\\ may\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resemble\\ another\\ in\\ a\\ great\\ variety\\ of\\ ways\\,\\ signs\\ are\\ not\\ valid\\ among\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ men\\ except\\ by\\ common\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXVI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Human\\ institutions\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ imperfect\\ reflections\\ of\\ natural\\ institutions\\ or\\ are\\ similar\\ to\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXVII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Must\\ not\\ consider\\ as\\ human\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ institutions\\ those\\ things\\ which\\ men\\ did\\ not\\ establish\\ but\\ which\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ been\\ fruitful\\ subjects\\ of\\ investigation\\ as\\ they\\ appear\\ either\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ course\\ of\\ time\\ or\\ by\\ divine\\ institution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ pertain\\ to\\ corporal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ senses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXVIII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whatever\\ evidence\\ we\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ past\\ times\\ helps\\ us\\ great\\ deal\\ in\\ understanding\\ of\\ sacred\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Although\\ human\\ institutions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ past\\ are\\ described\\ in\\ historical\\ narration\\,\\ history\\ itself\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ classed\\ as\\ a\\ human\\ institution\\;\\ for\\ those\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ past\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cannot\\ be\\ changed\\ belong\\ to\\ order\\ of\\ time\\,\\ whose\\ creator\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ administrator\\ is\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXIX\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ narrative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resembling\\ description\\ which\\ points\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ ignorant\\ facts\\ about\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ present\\ rather\\ than\\ about\\ the\\ past\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Where\\ the\\ cause\\ for\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ efficacy\\ of\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ hidden\\,\\ the\\ intention\\ for\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ is\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ it\\ concerns\\ the\\ healing\\ or\\ tempering\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bodies\\ either\\ in\\ medicine\\ or\\ in\\ agriculture\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ this\\ kind\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ very\\ little\\ use\\,\\ b\\/c\\ associated\\ with\\ most\\ pernicious\\ error\\ of\\ vain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prediction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXX\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Among\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\arts\\ some\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ manufacture\\ of\\ a\\ product\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ labor\\ of\\ the\\ artificer\\,\\ like\\ a\\ house\\,\\ a\\ bench\\,\\ a\\ dish\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Others\\ exhibit\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\assistance\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ work\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ like\\ medicine\\,\\ agriculture\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Others\\ have\\ all\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ effect\\ in\\ their\\ proper\\ actions\\,\\ like\\ dancing\\,\\ running\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ these\\ arts\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ be\\ acquired\\ casually\\ and\\ superficially\\ in\\ ordinary\\ life\\,\\ unless\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ profound\\ knowledge\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Remain\\ institutions\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ do\\ not\\ pertain\\ to\\ corporal\\ senses\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ reason\\,\\ where\\ sciences\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disputation\\ and\\ number\\ hold\\ sway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sophists\\ are\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Valid\\ processes\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reasoning\\ having\\ false\\ conclusions\\ which\\ follow\\ from\\ error\\ of\\ disputant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truth\\ of\\ valid\\ inference\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ not\\ instituted\\ by\\ men\\;\\ rather\\ it\\ was\\ observed\\ by\\ men\\ and\\ set\\ down\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ they\\ might\\ learn\\ or\\ teach\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Apostle\\ Paul\\ is\\ simply\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pointing\\ out\\ existing\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXIII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ argument\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resurrection\\ is\\ presented\\,\\ both\\ rules\\ of\\ inference\\ and\\ meaning\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conclusion\\ are\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Talks\\ about\\ truth\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ antecedents\\ and\\ how\\ false\\ conclusions\\ can\\ be\\ drawn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXIV\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ thing\\ to\\ know\\ rules\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ valid\\ inference\\,\\ another\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ propositions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXV\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ of\\ definition\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ division\\,\\ and\\ partition\\,\\ although\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ falsehoods\\,\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ neither\\ false\\ in\\ itself\\ nor\\ instituted\\ by\\ men\\;\\ rather\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXVI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Certain\\ precepts\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ copious\\ discourse\\ which\\ make\\ up\\ what\\ are\\ called\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ eloquence\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ these\\ are\\ very\\ true\\,\\ even\\ thought\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ make\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ falsehoods\\ persuasive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXVII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ precepts\\ are\\ often\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ applied\\ more\\ in\\ expressing\\ those\\ things\\ which\\ are\\ understood\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pursuit\\ of\\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\May\\ make\\ men\\'s\\ discernment\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ alert\\,\\ but\\ may\\ also\\ make\\ men\\ malign\\ and\\ proud\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ love\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deceive\\ with\\ specious\\ arguments\\ and\\ questions\\ or\\ to\\ think\\ themselves\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ great\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ have\\ learned\\ these\\ things\\ and\\ therefore\\ place\\ themselves\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ above\\ good\\ and\\ innocent\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXVII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Perfectly\\ clear\\ to\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stupid\\ person\\ that\\ science\\ of\\ numbers\\ was\\ not\\ instituted\\ by\\ men\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rather\\ investigated\\ and\\ discovered\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Numbers\\ have\\ immutable\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XXXIX\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Studious\\ and\\ intelligent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ youths\\ who\\ fear\\ God\\ and\\ seek\\ the\\ blessed\\ life\\ might\\ be\\ helpfully\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ admonished\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ pursue\\ those\\ studies\\ which\\ are\\ taught\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ of\\ Christ\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ might\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ blessed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ should\\ soberly\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ diligently\\ weigh\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XL\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ those\\ who\\ are\\ called\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophers\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ Platonists\\,\\ have\\ said\\ things\\ which\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indeed\\ true\\ and\\ are\\ well\\ accommodated\\ to\\ our\\ faith\\,\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ feared\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XLI\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;Knowledge\\ puffs\\ up\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ charity\\ edifies\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ many\\ lessons\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ learned\\ from\\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ sign\\ of\\ cross\\,\\ whole\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ action\\ of\\ Christian\\ is\\ described\\:\\ to\\ perform\\ good\\ deeds\\,\\ to\\ cling\\ to\\ Him\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ perseverance\\,\\ to\\ hope\\ for\\ celestial\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\XLII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Knowledge\\ derived\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pagans\\ is\\ little\\ compared\\ to\\ that\\ conveyed\\ by\\ Holy\\ Scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ Three\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ Books\\ on\\ Natural\\ Philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1210\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ at\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Neither\\ the\\ books\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Aristotle\\ on\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ nor\\ their\\ commentaries\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ at\\ Paris\\,\\ forbid\\ under\\ penalty\\ of\\ excommunication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ who\\ possesses\\ writings\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ David\\ of\\ Dinant\\ are\\ found\\ after\\ the\\ Nativity\\ shall\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heretic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Command\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Expurgate\\ Aristotle\\'s\\ Books\\ on\\ natural\\ Philosophy\\ \\(1231\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ have\\ learned\\ the\\ books\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nature\\ which\\ were\\ prohibited\\ in\\ Paris\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ contain\\ both\\ useful\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ useless\\ matter\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\up\\ to\\ discretion\\ of\\ Bishops\\ to\\ entirely\\ exclude\\ what\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ feel\\ erroneous\\ or\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\ of\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\ curriculum\\ at\\ the\\ university\\ of\\ Paris\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1255\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sets\\ up\\ time\\ limits\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ and\\ finishing\\ up\\ texts\\ to\\ avoid\\ masters\\ hurrying\\ to\\ finish\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lectures\\ sooner\\ than\\ length\\ and\\ difficulty\\ of\\ texts\\ permits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Statute\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Faculty\\ of\\ Arts\\ Drastically\\ Curtailing\\ the\\ Discussion\\ of\\ Theological\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\States\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ anyone\\ with\\ bachelors\\ or\\ masters\\ or\\ anyone\\ in\\ Paris\\ in\\ general\\ cannot\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ undermine\\ faith\\ or\\ challenge\\ the\\ principles\\,\\ or\\ else\\ will\\ be\\ labeled\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heretic\\ and\\ punished\\ accordingly\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ have\\ 3\\ days\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ renounce\\ and\\ repent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ 1277\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ A\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ selection\\ of\\ articles\\ relevant\\ to\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ medieval\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ against\\ apprehension\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\,\\ Aristotelian\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ and\\ metaphysics\\ provided\\ students\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ teachers\\ of\\ 13\\ C\\,\\ by\\ 1255\\,\\ with\\ philosophical\\ tools\\ of\\ analysis\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ logic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ and\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Arabian\\ commentators\\,\\ especially\\ \\"\\;the\\ Commentator\\"\\;\\ Averroes\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reigned\\ supreme\\ in\\ 13th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bishop\\ of\\ Paris\\,\\ under\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mandate\\ of\\ Pope\\ John\\ XXI\\,\\ issued\\ condemnations\\ of\\ 219\\ propositions\\ drawn\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ many\\ sources\\,\\ from\\ Thomas\\ Aquinas\\ to\\ Aristotle\\ that\\ invoked\\ penalty\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ excommunication\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\'s\\ deterministic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ modified\\ and\\ qualified\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\b\\/c\\ of\\ condemnation\\,\\ became\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ characteristic\\ for\\ 14th\\ C\\ discussion\\ to\\ declare\\ that\\ although\\ something\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ naturally\\ impossible\\,\\ it\\ was\\ supernaturally\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\'s\\ only\\ 1\\ world\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ God\\ had\\ wanted\\,\\ could\\ be\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pierre\\ Duhem\\,\\ eminent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ historian\\ of\\ medieval\\ science\\,\\ saw\\ condemnations\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ liberating\\ medieval\\ science\\ from\\ bondage\\ to\\ Aristotelian\\ cosmological\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ metaphysical\\ assumptions\\ and\\ conclusions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ Feb\\.\\ 14\\,\\ 1325\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemnation\\ annulled\\ due\\ to\\ support\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ Aquinas\\'\\ teachings\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ removed\\ penalty\\ of\\ excommunication\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Condemnations of 1210 and 1277 in Edward Grant, A Sourcebook in Medieval Science, pp. 42-50."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.217028+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The part we weren't supposed to read for Aquinas...", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 588, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\24\\-59\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ best\\ philosophers\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nature\\ failed\\ to\\ discern\\ contradiction\\ of\\ Augustine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Have\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ foundation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ furnished\\ by\\ some\\ authorities\\ is\\ fragile\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ thing\\ to\\ be\\ carried\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ an\\ endless\\ life\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ Plato\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quite\\ another\\ to\\ embrace\\ the\\ whole\\ presence\\ of\\ endless\\ life\\ all\\ at\\ once\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ is\\ manifestly\\ proper\\ to\\ the\\ divine\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Difficulty\\ feared\\ by\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ does\\ not\\ follow\\ that\\ creature\\ would\\ be\\ on\\ a\\ par\\ with\\ God\\ in\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nothing\\ can\\ be\\ co\\-eternal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ God\\,\\ b\\/c\\ nothing\\ can\\ be\\ immutable\\ save\\ God\\ alone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nature\\ of\\ Trinity\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ changeless\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Discusses\\ argument\\ that\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ has\\ existed\\ forever\\,\\ number\\ of\\ souls\\ must\\ now\\ be\\ infinite\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ could\\ have\\ made\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ without\\ men\\ and\\ souls\\,\\ thus\\ souls\\ surviving\\ their\\ bodies\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ infinite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Book\\ II\\,\\ Chapters\\ \\ 31\\-38\\,\\ Aquinas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\That\\ Creatures\\ Need\\ \\ not\\ have\\ Existed\\ Always\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ entire\\ created\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\ exists\\,\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ from\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ necessity\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ question\\ derived\\ from\\ some\\ other\\ being\\,\\ must\\ come\\ from\\ some\\ cause\\ that\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ extrinsic\\,\\ b\\/c\\ everything\\ that\\ is\\ received\\ within\\ a\\ creature\\ owes\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existence\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ creature\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ exist\\ with\\ absolute\\ necessity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ that\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\ do\\ not\\ acquire\\ necessity\\ from\\ the\\ end\\ unless\\ the\\ end\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cannot\\ be\\ attained\\ without\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ creature\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existence\\ is\\ absolutely\\ necessary\\;\\ consequently\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ hold\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ some\\ creature\\ has\\ always\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nothing\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proceeds\\ from\\ the\\ will\\ is\\ absolute\\ necessary\\,\\ unless\\ the\\ will\\ happens\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ impelled\\ by\\ necessity\\ to\\ will\\ something\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thing\\ does\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proceed\\ necessarily\\ from\\ a\\ voluntary\\ agent\\ except\\ by\\ reason\\ of\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ obligation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 32\\:\\ \\ Arguments\\ of\\ Those\\ Who\\ Seek\\ to\\ Prove\\ the\\ Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ from\\ God\\'s\\ \\ Standpoint\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Alleged\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ agent\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ always\\ n\\ action\\,\\ is\\ moved\\ either\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ not\\ moved\\ either\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\,\\ always\\ acts\\ in\\ same\\ way\\,\\ his\\ action\\ that\\ created\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\ are\\ brought\\ into\\ being\\,\\ and\\ accordingly\\,\\ that\\ creatures\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ always\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ action\\ is\\ eternal\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\ created\\ by\\ him\\ have\\ existed\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Given\\ a\\ sufficient\\ cause\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ its\\ effect\\ must\\ necessarily\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Voluntary\\ agent\\ doe\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ delay\\ in\\ carrying\\ out\\ his\\ purpose\\ of\\ making\\ something\\ unless\\ he\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ awaiting\\ some\\ future\\ event\\ that\\ has\\ not\\ yet\\ taken\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ which\\ God\\ now\\ wills\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exist\\,\\ He\\ has\\ eternally\\ willed\\ to\\ exist\\,\\ for\\ no\\ new\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ will\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ occur\\ in\\ Him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intellectual\\ agent\\ does\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ choose\\ one\\ thing\\ in\\ preference\\ to\\ another\\ unless\\ the\\ one\\ is\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ excellent\\ than\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Periods\\ of\\ time\\ cannot\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ designated\\ from\\ nothingness\\,\\ therefore\\ can\\'t\\ say\\ something\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ made\\ at\\ one\\ moment\\ rather\\ than\\ at\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ that\\ are\\ directed\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ end\\ derive\\ their\\ necessity\\ from\\ that\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ divine\\ goodness\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ supremely\\ perfect\\,\\ all\\ things\\ are\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ come\\ forth\\ from\\ God\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\ of\\ His\\ goodness\\,\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ any\\ advantage\\ might\\ accrue\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Him\\ from\\ creatures\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ goodness\\ has\\ the\\ tendency\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ communicate\\ itself\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 33\\:\\ \\ Arguments\\ of\\ Those\\ Who\\ Seek\\ to\\ Prove\\ the\\ Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ from\\ a\\ \\ Consideration\\ of\\ Creatures\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ that\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ no\\ potentiality\\ to\\ non\\-existence\\ cannot\\ be\\ without\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matter\\ cannot\\ exist\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ any\\ form\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ thing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ endures\\ in\\ being\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ its\\ power\\ of\\ being\\,\\ except\\ by\\ accident\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ in\\ those\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ destroyed\\ by\\ violence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ creatures\\ endowed\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>power\\ to\\ exist\\,\\ not\\ for\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ limited\\ time\\,\\ but\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whenever\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ moved\\ for\\ first\\ time\\,\\ either\\ mover\\ or\\ thing\\ moved\\ or\\ both\\ must\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ behave\\ in\\ new\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ movement\\ must\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternal\\ or\\ have\\ something\\ preceding\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Always\\ movement\\,\\ always\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movable\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ agent\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generates\\ its\\ like\\ intends\\ to\\ preserve\\ perpetual\\ existence\\ in\\ the\\ species\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ since\\ existence\\ cannot\\ be\\ perpetually\\ preserved\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ time\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ everlasting\\,\\ motion\\ must\\ be\\ everlasting\\,\\ since\\ time\\ is\\ measure\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ must\\ either\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ affirm\\ or\\ deny\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ affirmation\\ of\\ thing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ implied\\ in\\ its\\ negation\\,\\ thing\\ must\\ always\\ exist\\;\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ propositions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ kind\\ that\\ he\\ who\\ denies\\ them\\ must\\ affirm\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Something\\ besides\\ God\\ must\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 34\\:\\ \\ Arguments\\ to\\ Prove\\ the\\ Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ World\\ from\\ the\\ Viewpoint\\ of\\ the\\ \\ Creative\\ Action\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ is\\ commonly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ asserted\\ by\\ all\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ wholly\\ false\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ a\\ false\\ opinion\\ betrays\\ a\\ certain\\ weakness\\ of\\ intellect\\,\\ just\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ a\\ false\\ judgment\\ about\\ a\\ proper\\ object\\ of\\ sense\\ results\\ from\\ a\\ weakness\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ a\\ thing\\ not\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ same\\ state\\ now\\ as\\ before\\,\\ it\\ must\\ have\\ undergone\\ some\\ change\\,\\ mutation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Must\\ eventually\\ come\\ to\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ first\\ subject\\ that\\ never\\ began\\ but\\ always\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everything\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ begins\\ to\\ exist\\ anew\\,\\ had\\ a\\ possible\\ existence\\ before\\ it\\ actually\\ existed\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ otherwise\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ impossible\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ permanent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ substance\\ exists\\ while\\ it\\ is\\ being\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Made\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ exist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ this\\,\\ further\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conclusion\\ follows\\ that\\ something\\ besides\\ God\\ is\\ eternal\\,\\ for\\ He\\ Himself\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cannot\\ be\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ making\\ or\\ of\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ arguments\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contradict\\ Catholic\\ faith\\,\\ which\\ insists\\ that\\ nothing\\ outside\\ God\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existed\\ forever\\,\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ things\\,\\ except\\ the\\ one\\ eternal\\ God\\,\\ have\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ beginning\\ of\\ their\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 35\\:\\ \\ Solution\\ of\\ the\\ Arguments\\ Alleged\\ Above\\,\\ and\\ First\\ of\\ Those\\ Derived\\ from\\ the\\ \\ Standpoint\\ of\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ need\\ not\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moved\\ either\\ directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Does\\ not\\ follow\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\,\\ if\\ action\\ of\\ First\\ Agent\\ is\\ eternal\\,\\ His\\ effect\\ must\\ be\\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ action\\ existed\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conclude\\ that\\ His\\ effect\\ is\\ eternal\\ just\\ b\\/c\\ He\\ Himself\\ exists\\ eternally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Divine\\ will\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ unduly\\ retarded\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ always\\ exist\\,\\ notwithstanding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ willed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ admit\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ diversity\\ of\\ parts\\ in\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ duration\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\,\\ refute\\ of\\ fifth\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Outside\\ totality\\ of\\ creation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\ is\\ no\\ time\\,\\ since\\ time\\ was\\ produced\\ simultaneously\\ with\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\End\\ of\\ the\\ divine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ will\\ cannot\\ be\\ anything\\ else\\ than\\ God\\'s\\ goodness\\;\\ God\\ does\\ not\\ act\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bring\\ this\\ end\\ into\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ necessary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ the\\ divine\\ effect\\ should\\ have\\ existed\\ always\\,\\ for\\ reason\\ that\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ would\\ thus\\ be\\ more\\ suitably\\ directed\\ to\\ the\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nothing\\ on\\ part\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ agent\\ that\\ compels\\ us\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ eternity\\ of\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 36\\:\\ \\ Solution\\ of\\ the\\ Arguments\\ Alleged\\ on\\ the\\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ Things\\ Produced\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Likewise\\,\\ nothing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ part\\ of\\ creatures\\ that\\ necessarily\\ induces\\ us\\ to\\ assert\\ their\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Necessity\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ order\\ does\\ not\\ force\\ the\\ thing\\ that\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ such\\ necessity\\ to\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existed\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Power\\ of\\ existing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ always\\ presupposed\\ production\\ of\\ substance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tendency\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ agents\\ to\\ perpetuate\\ their\\ species\\ presupposes\\ that\\ natural\\ agents\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ already\\ been\\ produced\\ \\(refute\\ to\\ fourth\\ argument\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fifth\\ argument\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ based\\ on\\ time\\,\\ presupposes\\ rather\\ than\\ proves\\ the\\ eternity\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ hypothesis\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ time\\ began\\,\\ assertion\\ that\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\ before\\ it\\ existed\\ does\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ compel\\ us\\ to\\ admit\\ that\\ the\\ very\\ supposition\\ of\\ its\\ non\\-existence\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ implies\\ its\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Arguments\\ derived\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ creatures\\ do\\ not\\ compel\\ us\\ to\\ assert\\ the\\ eternity\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 37\\:\\ \\ Solution\\ of\\ the\\ Arguments\\ Drawn\\ from\\ the\\ Creative\\ Action\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Common\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophical\\ position\\ contend\\ that\\ nothing\\ is\\ made\\ from\\ nothing\\,\\ true\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ most\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Making\\ of\\ a\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ some\\ other\\ being\\,\\ in\\ procession\\ of\\ all\\ being\\ from\\ God\\,\\ impossible\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ anything\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ from\\ something\\ else\\ previously\\ existing\\,\\ otherwise\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ would\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ making\\ of\\ created\\ being\\ in\\ its\\ entirety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ say\\ that\\ those\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\ are\\ made\\ whose\\ essence\\ or\\ nature\\ takes\\ its\\ origin\\ from\\ other\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ cannot\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ called\\ change\\ except\\ metaphorically\\,\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ a\\ created\\ thing\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ regarded\\ as\\ having\\ existence\\ after\\ non\\-existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ passive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ potentiality\\ has\\ to\\ precede\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ all\\ created\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ a\\ created\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existed\\,\\ its\\ existence\\ was\\ possible\\,\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ agent\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ initially\\ endowed\\ it\\ with\\ existence\\,\\ or\\ by\\ reason\\ of\\ the\\ compatibility\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ things\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ made\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ motion\\,\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ are\\ not\\ simultaneous\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ since\\ their\\ production\\ involves\\ succession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quite\\ evident\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ nothing\\ prevents\\ us\\ form\\ maintaining\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ not\\ always\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existed\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\ teaches\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 38\\:\\ \\ Arguments\\ by\\ Which\\ Some\\ Endeavor\\ to\\ Prove\\ that\\ the\\ World\\ is\\ not\\ Eternal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Group\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arguments\\ by\\ certain\\ thinkers\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ world\\ has\\ not\\ always\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ God\\ is\\ cause\\ of\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\,\\ a\\ cause\\ must\\ proceed\\ in\\ duration\\ things\\ produced\\ by\\ its\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ all\\ being\\ has\\ been\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ created\\ by\\ God\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ made\\ from\\ some\\ being\\,\\ and\\ so\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ concluded\\ it\\ was\\ made\\ from\\ nothing\\;\\ existence\\ must\\ be\\ subsequent\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ non\\-existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Infinite\\ series\\ cannot\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ crossed\\,\\ and\\ if\\ world\\ had\\ existed\\ forever\\,\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ crossed\\ by\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Addition\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ infinite\\,\\ for\\ new\\ additions\\ are\\ daily\\ being\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Proceeding\\ to\\ infinity\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ efficient\\ causes\\,\\ generation\\ has\\ always\\ taken\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Infinite\\ multitude\\ exists\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ immortal\\ souls\\ of\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ men\\ dead\\ and\\ gone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ contention\\,\\ that\\ agent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ necessarily\\ precedes\\ effect\\ wrought\\ by\\ its\\ actions\\,\\ true\\ of\\ causes\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ produce\\ something\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ motion\\,\\ b\\/c\\ effect\\ not\\ achieved\\ until\\ motion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ stop\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ in\\ cases\\ that\\ act\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ instantaneously\\,\\ same\\ conclusion\\ need\\ not\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Second\\ argument\\ invalid\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cannot\\ concluded\\ that\\ thing\\ comes\\ into\\ existence\\ subsequent\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ non\\-existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Third\\ argument\\ lacks\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cogency\\,\\ any\\ infinite\\ is\\ finite\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ be\\ no\\ transition\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ present\\,\\ for\\ transition\\ always\\ requires\\ two\\ extremes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fourth\\ argument\\ weak\\,\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nothing\\ to\\ prevent\\ an\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ infinite\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ on\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ finite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Finite\\ procession\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impossible\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ question\\ of\\ efficient\\ causes\\ that\\ act\\ together\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argument\\ about\\ souls\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difficult\\,\\ yet\\ argument\\ supposes\\ many\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ hold\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impossible\\ for\\ certain\\ things\\ to\\ be\\ actually\\ infinite\\ in\\ number\\,\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\ is\\ no\\ order\\ among\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\End\\ of\\ divine\\ will\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ production\\ of\\ things\\ is\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ God\\ as\\ manifested\\ by\\ His\\ effects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Various\\ errors\\ of\\ pagan\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophers\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eternity\\ of\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Began\\ to\\ be\\ fashioned\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ at\\ a\\ certain\\ moment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ of\\ them\\ take\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ granted\\ that\\ something\\ besides\\ God\\ is\\ eternal\\;\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ incompatible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ the\\ Catholic\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\St\\.\\ Thomas\\ Aquinas\\,\\ \\ \\On\\ the\\ Power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\,\\ Question\\ 3\\,\\ \\ Article\\ 17\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whether\\ the\\ World\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Has\\ Existed\\ Forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Yes\\,\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ following\\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ thing\\ always\\ achieves\\ what\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ proper\\ to\\ it\\,\\ God\\ has\\ always\\ brought\\ creatures\\ into\\ being\\;\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ many\\ conclude\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ has\\ existed\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ does\\ not\\ withhold\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ any\\ creature\\ what\\ is\\ within\\ its\\ capacity\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ its\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heaven\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ received\\ gift\\ of\\ eternal\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heaven\\ is\\ incorruptible\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ capable\\ by\\ nature\\ of\\ existing\\ always\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thing\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ judged\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ possible\\ or\\ contingent\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ that\\ its\\ destruction\\ results\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ removal\\ of\\ some\\ consequent\\ fact\\;\\ man\\ an\\ animal\\,\\ his\\ destruction\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ensues\\ upon\\ removal\\ of\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ substance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ effect\\ is\\ necessary\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ relationship\\ to\\ its\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sufficient\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cause\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ must\\ necessarily\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ a\\ sufficient\\ cause\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ therefore\\ since\\ God\\ has\\ always\\ existed\\,\\ the\\ world\\,\\ too\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ always\\ existed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whatever\\ precedes\\ time\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\World\\ did\\ precede\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\As\\ long\\ as\\ anything\\ remains\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ one\\ and\\ the\\ same\\,\\ it\\ always\\ produces\\ the\\ same\\ effect\\,\\ unless\\ it\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hindered\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ always\\ remains\\ one\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ same\\,\\ He\\ produced\\ the\\ world\\ at\\ some\\ time\\,\\ apparently\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ necessarily\\ wills\\ His\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ own\\ goodness\\ and\\ all\\ that\\ pertains\\ to\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ has\\ seemingly\\ endowed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creatures\\ with\\ existence\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ says\\ that\\ a\\ person\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wills\\ what\\ he\\ does\\,\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ able\\;\\ but\\ from\\ eternity\\ God\\ willed\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ produce\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ since\\ no\\ powerlessness\\ can\\ be\\ attributed\\ to\\ him\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apparently\\ produced\\ the\\ world\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ world\\ has\\ not\\ always\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existed\\,\\ then\\,\\ before\\ it\\ existed\\,\\ its\\ existence\\ was\\ either\\ possible\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ not\\,\\ then\\ impossible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ possible\\,\\ potentiality\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ requires\\ a\\ subject\\,\\ therefore\\ some\\ body\\ composed\\ of\\ matter\\ of\\ form\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ consequently\\ the\\ entire\\ universe\\,\\ was\\ in\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ becomes\\ actual\\ after\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ been\\ possible\\,\\ is\\ educed\\ from\\ potentiality\\ to\\ actuality\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matter\\ preceded\\ world\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ agent\\ that\\ begins\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ act\\ anew\\ passes\\ from\\ potentiality\\ to\\ actuality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ willed\\ to\\ make\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ eternity\\,\\ apparently\\ did\\ such\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nothing\\ moves\\ God\\'s\\ will\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ except\\ the\\ divine\\ goodness\\,\\ ever\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ disposition\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Therefore\\ his\\ will\\ disposed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ produce\\ creatures\\,\\ so\\ He\\ produced\\ them\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ which\\ is\\ always\\ in\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beginning\\ and\\ its\\ end\\,\\ never\\ begins\\ and\\ never\\ ceases\\,\\ b\\/c\\ thing\\ exists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ it\\ has\\ begun\\ and\\ before\\ it\\ has\\ ceased\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Motion\\ follows\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movable\\,\\ and\\ time\\ follows\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Although\\ a\\ circular\\ body\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ no\\ beginning\\ of\\ its\\ magnitude\\,\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ beginning\\ of\\ its\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\However\\,\\ duration\\ of\\ motion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ follows\\ measure\\ of\\ magnitude\\,\\ b\\/c\\ motion\\ and\\ time\\ proportionate\\ to\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ cause\\ of\\ things\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ His\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Knowledge\\ predicated\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ relation\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ knowable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ relatives\\ are\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nature\\ simultaneous\\,\\ and\\ God\\'s\\ knowledge\\ is\\ eternal\\,\\ seems\\ that\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ been\\ produced\\ by\\ Him\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ precedes\\ the\\ world\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ or\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\World\\ preceded\\ by\\ time\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ consequently\\ by\\ motion\\ and\\ movable\\ bodies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Should\\ not\\ assert\\ that\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creature\\ existed\\ from\\ eternity\\ b\\/c\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ He\\ was\\ Lord\\,\\ He\\ had\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creature\\ for\\ His\\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ could\\ have\\ produced\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ before\\ He\\ did\\ produce\\ it\\,\\ as\\ otherwise\\ He\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ deficient\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ power\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Any\\ finite\\ perfection\\ can\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ communicated\\ to\\ a\\ creature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creature\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternal\\ existence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everything\\ that\\ begins\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exist\\ has\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ its\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Time\\ has\\ no\\ beginning\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ same\\ is\\ true\\ of\\ movable\\ things\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ time\\ had\\ a\\ beginning\\,\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ began\\ either\\ in\\ time\\ or\\ in\\ an\\ instant\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Did\\ not\\ begin\\ in\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ instant\\,\\ b\\/c\\ in\\ an\\ instant\\ there\\ is\\ as\\ yet\\ no\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Time\\ had\\ no\\ beginning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ was\\ cause\\ of\\ things\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ cause\\ without\\ an\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truth\\ and\\ being\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ convertible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ truths\\ are\\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seems\\ that\\ not\\ God\\ alone\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ many\\ beings\\ exist\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Statement\\ is\\ true\\ or\\ false\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ fact\\ that\\ thing\\ referred\\ to\\ is\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ asserted\\ to\\ be\\ or\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ utterance\\ is\\ eternal\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ is\\ his\\ act\\ of\\ making\\,\\ so\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ made\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ON\\ THE\\ CONTRARY\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Divine\\ Wisdom\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ represented\\ as\\ speaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ younger\\ in\\ age\\ people\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\,\\ the\\ keener\\ is\\ their\\ intellectual\\ perception\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\ is\\ not\\ infinite\\,\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ therefore\\ time\\ had\\ been\\ infinite\\,\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>earth\\ would\\ by\\ now\\ have\\ been\\ entirely\\ washed\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ nature\\,\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ a\\ cause\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ its\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ must\\ hold\\ firmly\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ has\\ not\\ always\\ existed\\,\\ as\\ Catholic\\ faith\\ teaches\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ a\\ form\\ is\\ presupposed\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\ must\\ necessarily\\ exist\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ be\\ fit\\ for\\ that\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ for\\ things\\ must\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ found\\ in\\ divine\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ Creator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Time\\,\\ like\\ place\\,\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ extraneous\\ to\\ a\\ thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ heaven\\,\\ which\\ has\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ capacity\\ for\\ a\\ different\\ quantity\\ or\\ a\\ different\\ accident\\ intrinsically\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inhering\\,\\ has\\ such\\ capacity\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ place\\ and\\ position\\,\\ since\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ local\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Neither\\ time\\ nor\\ locality\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ result\\ form\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prefixing\\ of\\ a\\ definite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quantity\\ of\\ duration\\ for\\ universe\\ depends\\ on\\ mere\\ will\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ thinkers\\ fell\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ error\\ concerning\\ beginning\\ of\\ world\\ b\\/c\\ failed\\ to\\ consider\\ the\\ creation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\ was\\ judged\\ impossible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ all\\ complexities\\ in\\ nature\\ arose\\ by\\ chance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ taught\\ that\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ always\\ existed\\,\\ for\\ if\\ efficient\\ cause\\ of\\ world\\ were\\ held\\ to\\ act\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\,\\ and\\ indefinite\\ recession\\ would\\ ensue\\,\\ since\\ every\\ movement\\ must\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ preceded\\ by\\ another\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Did\\ not\\ proceed\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ consideration\\ of\\ God\\ as\\ Creator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Those\\ who\\ came\\ after\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\,\\ judging\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ universe\\ was\\ produced\\ by\\ God\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ act\\ of\\ His\\ will\\ and\\ not\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ motion\\,\\ endeavored\\ to\\ prove\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternity\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ will\\ does\\ not\\ puff\\ off\\ doing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ it\\ intends\\ to\\ do\\ unless\\ some\\ intervention\\ or\\ change\\ has\\ intervened\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Supposed\\ that\\ time\\ preceded\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ making\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ conditional\\ on\\ the\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\ is\\ proper\\ to\\ goodness\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bring\\ things\\ into\\ existence\\ through\\ an\\ act\\ of\\ the\\ will\\,\\ whose\\ object\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ produced\\ in\\ way\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\ will\\ disposed\\ for\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ a\\ heavenly\\ body\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ incorruptible\\,\\ it\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ existing\\ forever\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Power\\ to\\ exist\\ forever\\ does\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ regard\\ the\\ past\\,\\ but\\ the\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ say\\ that\\ heaven\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ corruptible\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ lapse\\ into\\ non\\-existence\\ if\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ were\\ not\\ sustained\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\May\\ grant\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ corruptible\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ the\\ supposition\\ that\\ God\\ would\\ not\\ sustain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ effect\\ has\\ a\\ necessary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ relationship\\ to\\ its\\ efficient\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Existence\\ of\\ a\\ thing\\ prior\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ time\\ may\\ be\\ understood\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prior\\ to\\ whole\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ everything\\ that\\ pertains\\ to\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ agent\\ produces\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ necessarily\\ wills\\ His\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ own\\ goodness\\ and\\ everything\\ that\\ is\\ necessarily\\ connected\\ with\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Production\\ of\\ creatures\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\,\\ hence\\ argument\\ not\\ conclusive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ God\\ made\\ creatures\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ order\\ to\\ manifest\\ Himself\\,\\ more\\ impressively\\ manifested\\ by\\ creatures\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ have\\ not\\ existed\\ forever\\,\\ God\\ has\\ no\\ need\\ of\\ creatures\\,\\ completely\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ divine\\ will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ world\\ existed\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ possible\\ for\\ world\\ to\\ be\\ made\\,\\ but\\ solely\\ by\\ active\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ agent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reply\\ to\\ Obj\\.\\ 12\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>for\\ an\\ effect\\ results\\ from\\ an\\ action\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accord\\ with\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ any\\ form\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ action\\;\\ thus\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ heated\\ by\\ the\\ heating\\ action\\ of\\ the\\ fire\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accord\\ with\\ degree\\ of\\ heat\\ in\\ fire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ movement\\ taken\\ literally\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\ will\\ is\\ not\\ moved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ succession\\ of\\ time\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ caused\\ by\\ succession\\ of\\ movement\\,\\ it\\'s\\ true\\ that\\ every\\ instant\\ is\\ both\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beginning\\ and\\ an\\ end\\ of\\ time\\,\\ and\\ that\\ every\\ motion\\ is\\ beginning\\ and\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ end\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Instant\\ regarded\\ as\\ flowing\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ sometimes\\ flowing\\ only\\ from\\ a\\ point\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ toward\\ a\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reply\\ to\\ obj\\.\\ 19\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>knowable\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ our\\ knowledge\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\'s\\ knowledge\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ creatures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ precedes\\ world\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ duration\\,\\ not\\ indeed\\ of\\ time\\,\\ but\\ of\\ eternity\\,\\ b\\/c\\ God\\'s\\ existence\\ is\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ measured\\ by\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ relation\\ of\\ lordship\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ regarded\\ as\\ consequent\\ on\\ action\\ whereby\\ God\\ actually\\ governs\\ creatures\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ then\\ God\\ was\\ not\\ Lord\\ from\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creature\\'s\\ nature\\ does\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ require\\ perfections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ reign\\ beyond\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ thing\\ which\\ begins\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exist\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ its\\ duration\\ to\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ it\\ begins\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ time\\ does\\ not\\ begin\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ way\\ by\\ creation\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ argument\\ proves\\ nothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Every\\ measure\\ may\\ be\\ said\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ measured\\ by\\ itself\\ within\\ its\\ own\\ genus\\,\\ as\\ a\\ line\\ is\\ measured\\ by\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ line\\,\\ and\\ likewise\\ time\\ is\\ measured\\ by\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Time\\ is\\ not\\ like\\ permanent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\ which\\ possess\\ their\\ substance\\ all\\ at\\ once\\,\\ whole\\ of\\ time\\ does\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ to\\ exist\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ it\\ begins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ action\\ is\\ eternal\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ effect\\ caused\\ by\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\According\\ to\\ Philosopher\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ truth\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ not\\ in\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ true\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternity\\ has\\ been\\ true\\ by\\ the\\ truth\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ divine\\ intellect\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ is\\ eternal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ things\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ true\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ eternity\\ are\\ true\\,\\ not\\ by\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ by\\ one\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ same\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truth\\ in\\ divine\\ intellect\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cause\\ of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ part\\ of\\ God\\ Himself\\,\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ make\\ and\\ to\\ speak\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ different\\,\\ for\\ God\\'s\\ action\\ is\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ accident\\,\\ but\\ is\\ His\\ substance\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fact\\ that\\ He\\ is\\ prior\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ world\\ by\\ nature\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ lead\\ to\\ conclusion\\ that\\ He\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prior\\ to\\ it\\ in\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\69\\-72\\:\\ St\\.\\ Thomas\\ \\ Aquinas\\,\\ \\Compendium\\ of\\ Theology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Question\\ on\\ the\\ \\ eternity\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ observe\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ will\\ does\\ not\\ delay\\ doing\\ what\\ it\\ wishes\\ to\\ do\\,\\ unless\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ some\\ motive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ has\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seems\\ that\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ subsequent\\ effect\\ cannot\\ be\\ produced\\ by\\ a\\ preceding\\ will\\ unless\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\ previously\\ occurs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ latter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ produced\\ by\\ God\\,\\ but\\ not\\ from\\ eternity\\,\\ yet\\ other\\ motions\\ and\\ mobile\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ objects\\ must\\ have\\ preceded\\,\\ and\\ so\\ on\\,\\ in\\ infinite\\ recession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Solution\\ to\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ objections\\ comes\\ to\\ mind\\ if\\ we\\ attend\\ to\\ difference\\ between\\ universal\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ particular\\ agent\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Particular\\ agent\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ activity\\ that\\ conforms\\ to\\ a\\ norm\\ and\\ measure\\ prescribed\\ by\\ the\\ universal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\time\\ and\\ the\\ things\\ existing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ time\\ began\\ when\\ God\\ wished\\ them\\ to\\ begin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ speaking\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;before\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;outside\\,\\"\\;\\ we\\ have\\ in\\ mind\\ nothing\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ time\\ and\\ place\\ as\\ they\\ exist\\ in\\ our\\ imagination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 99\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Controversy\\ on\\ the\\ Eternity\\ of\\ Mater\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ revolutionibus\\ orbium\\ coelestium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ published\\ in\\ May\\ 1543\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ died\\ the\\ 24th\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ December\\ 1545\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Called\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ Martin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Luther\\'s\\ break\\ w\\/\\ Rome\\ in\\ 1519\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Serious\\ reforms\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Initially\\ unrelated\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\'s\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Council\\ in\\ session\\ for\\ 18\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ years\\,\\ till\\ 63\\,\\ w\\/\\ 2\\ lengthy\\ adjustments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ sciences\\ were\\ in\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ way\\ of\\ concern\\ to\\ the\\ council\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Focused\\ on\\ doctrinal\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disciplinary\\ issues\\ in\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Would\\ later\\ become\\ related\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\4th\\ session\\,\\ held\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ 8\\ April\\ 1546\\,\\ dealt\\ with\\ notion\\ of\\ tradition\\ and\\ determining\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authentic\\ books\\ contained\\ in\\ the\\ Scriptures\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ with\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ edition\\ and\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ 2\\ documents\\ would\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ important\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ church\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Galileo\\ affair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decision\\ on\\ which\\ books\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ put\\ in\\ Bible\\ has\\ defined\\ Catholic\\ edition\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ ever\\ since\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ asserted\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ unwritten\\ Apostolic\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stated\\ that\\ both\\ Scripture\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ tradition\\ express\\ God\\'s\\ revelation\\ without\\ specifying\\ what\\ content\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ share\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\"\\;unanimous\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agreement\\ of\\ the\\ Fathers\\ on\\ matters\\ pertaining\\ to\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\"\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ touchstone\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ Apostolic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tradition\\ of\\ revelation\\ from\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Second\\ passage\\ establishes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\'s\\ authority\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ judge\\ of\\ Scripture\\'s\\ \\"\\;true\\ sense\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\,\\"\\;\\ rejection\\ of\\ Luther\\'s\\ individual\\ dogma\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ specific\\ criteria\\ as\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ determined\\ what\\ is\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ faith\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ morals\\,\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ major\\ factor\\ in\\ Galileo\\ affair\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Major\\ religious\\ framework\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ Galileo\\'s\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3rd\\ paragraph\\ of\\ second\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decree\\ of\\ Fourth\\ Session\\ states\\ that\\ \\"\\;any\\ books\\ whatever\\ on\\ sacred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ matters\\"\\;\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ published\\ without\\ ecclesiastical\\ approval\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ could\\ censure\\ books\\ deemed\\ dangerous\\ to\\ the\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicanism\\ in\\ 1616\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ decision\\ that\\ the\\ heliocentric\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ model\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ was\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ when\\ read\\ in\\ literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Theological\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Repercussions\\ of\\ the\\ 4th\\ Session\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\50\\ years\\ between\\ end\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ and\\ beginning\\ of\\ Galileo\\'s\\ confrontation\\ with\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decisions\\ gradually\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ firmly\\ put\\ into\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Less\\ visible\\ at\\ first\\ but\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ still\\ greater\\,\\ albeit\\ more\\ subtle\\,\\ impact\\ on\\ side\\ of\\ dogma\\ in\\ changing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ views\\ of\\ Catholic\\ theologians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earliest\\ reaction\\ came\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Dominican\\ Melchior\\ Cano\\ \\(1509\\-60\\)\\,\\ second\\ in\\ importance\\ only\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bellarmine\\ in\\ formation\\ of\\ post\\-Tridentine\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Work\\ widely\\ known\\ and\\ used\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ standard\\ text\\ in\\ theology\\ in\\ Galileo\\'s\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ that\\ tradition\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ precedes\\ Scripture\\,\\ even\\ speculation\\ that\\ the\\ greater\\ part\\ of\\ divine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revelation\\ is\\ in\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ Scripture\\ clear\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\,\\ then\\ it\\ should\\ serve\\ as\\ standard\\;\\ but\\ if\\ not\\,\\ set\\ of\\ 8\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ disputes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ Galileo\\ affair\\ was\\ whether\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stability\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ are\\ matters\\ of\\ Catholic\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Given\\ Cano\\'s\\ criteria\\,\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ see\\ why\\ this\\ issue\\ could\\ be\\,\\ and\\ was\\,\\ debated\\ at\\ the\\ levels\\ of\\ both\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\ and\\ tradition\\,\\ and\\ the\\ latter\\ primarily\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;unanimous\\ agreement\\ of\\ the\\ Fathers\\"\\;\\ criterion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ rejected\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ principle\\ of\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Biblical\\ interpretation\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ commentary\\ also\\ affected\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spanish\\ Jesuit\\ Benito\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Pereyra\\ \\(1535\\-1610\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moses\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Do\\ not\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\ w\\/\\ own\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ natural\\ science\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shown\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ true\\,\\ interpret\\ Bible\\ according\\ to\\ previously\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ established\\ Augustinian\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ was\\ directly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ influenced\\ by\\ these\\ 4\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicanism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sixteenth\\-Century\\ Theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicanism\\ only\\ slowly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ gradually\\ became\\ accepted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ 1600\\,\\ still\\ rather\\ few\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ advocates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ theologian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Andreas\\ Asiander\\ \\(1498\\-1552\\)\\ added\\ anonymous\\ preface\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolutionibus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ claiming\\ that\\ work\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ convenience\\ for\\ math\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ computations\\ and\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wanted\\ to\\ avoid\\ potential\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ clashes\\ of\\ Copernicanism\\ w\\/\\ Aristotelianism\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ accepted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literal\\ readings\\ of\\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ slow\\ Protestant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ towards\\ end\\ of\\ century\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Catholic\\ response\\ began\\ to\\ emerge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ prominent\\ Jesuit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astronomer\\ of\\ day\\,\\ Christopher\\ Clavius\\ \\(1537\\-1612\\)\\,\\ who\\ is\\ responsible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ current\\ calendar\\)\\ used\\ Prutenic\\ Tables\\ which\\ were\\ based\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\'s\\ work\\,\\ although\\ ironically\\ remained\\ Ptolemaic\\ up\\ to\\ his\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ work\\,\\ refers\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernican\\ worldview\\ infrequently\\,\\ and\\ when\\ he\\ does\\,\\ disagrees\\ with\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ primarily\\ on\\ astronomical\\ and\\ physical\\ grounds\\ but\\ also\\ for\\ Scriptural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Extraordinary\\ exception\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prevailing\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ was\\ the\\ Spanish\\ Augustinian\\ theologian\\ Diego\\ de\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Zuniga\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicanism\\ is\\ clearly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ better\\ than\\ Ptolemaic\\ geocentrism\\ on\\ scientific\\ grounds\\,\\ and\\ much\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ boldly\\,\\ passages\\ in\\ Scripture\\ which\\ seem\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ earth\\ is\\ motionless\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ easily\\ reconciled\\ with\\ Copernicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Immediately\\ came\\ under\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fire\\,\\ Church\\ condemned\\ this\\ work\\ until\\ passage\\ was\\ corrected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Few\\ had\\ doubts\\,\\ so\\ not\\ huge\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ showing\\ by\\ Church\\ against\\ Copernicanism\\,\\ b\\/c\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ communication\\ than\\ on\\ mutual\\ understanding\\ and\\ territorial\\ respect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appendix\\ I\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Decress\\ of\\ the\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ Session\\ IV\\ \\(8\\ April\\ 1546\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sets\\ forth\\ list\\ of\\ Sacred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\ so\\ no\\ room\\ for\\ doubt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decree\\ on\\ the\\ Edition\\ and\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Sacred\\ Scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Latin\\ Vulgate\\ set\\ forth\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authoritative\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ cannot\\ disagree\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ Fathers\\ or\\ will\\ be\\ punished\\ accordingly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ sets\\ limits\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ publishers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appendix\\ II\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\ of\\ Salamanca\\,\\ Commentary\\ on\\ Job\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\States\\ Copernicanism\\ allows\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ proper\\ explanation\\ of\\ planetary\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;Demonstrated\\ cause\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ all\\ these\\ things\\ most\\ clearly\\ from\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Job\\ says\\:\\ \\"\\;Generations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ will\\ come\\,\\ and\\ generations\\ will\\ pass\\ away\\,\\ but\\ the\\ earth\\ remains\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forever\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Does\\ not\\ mean\\ earth\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ imobile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Richard Blackwell, Galileo, Bellarmine and the church, ch. 1 (pp. 5-27) + appendixes I and II (pp. 181-86)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.282910+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Copernicus, On the motions of the heavenly spheres, prefaces (foreword, letter , \u201cto his holiness\u201d), Book I, chs. 1 and 10.", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 590, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Foreword\\,\\ letter\\ \\"\\;to\\ his\\ holiness\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ his\\ ideas\\ might\\ seem\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ crazy\\,\\ but\\ really\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Almost\\ abandoned\\ his\\ work\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ those\\ before\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ friends\\ drew\\ him\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Universe\\ in\\ spherical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 10\\:\\ The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ order\\ of\\ the\\ heavenly\\ Spheres\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Highest\\ is\\ heaven\\ of\\ fixed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Refutes\\ Ptolemy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ planets\\ related\\ to\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ single\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;Hence\\ I\\ feel\\ no\\ shame\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ asserting\\ that\\ this\\ whole\\ region\\ engirdled\\ by\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ and\\ the\\ center\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ traverse\\ this\\ grand\\ circle\\ amid\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ planets\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ annual\\ revolution\\ around\\ the\\ sun\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Near\\ the\\ sun\\ is\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ sphere\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ fixed\\ stars\\)\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ planets\\,\\ Saturn\\,\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ completes\\ its\\ circuit\\ in\\ 30\\ years\\.\\ After\\ Saturn\\,\\ Jupiter\\ accomplishes\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolution\\ in\\ 12\\ years\\.\\ Then\\ Mars\\ revolves\\ in\\ 2\\ years\\.\\ The\\ annual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolution\\ takes\\ the\\ series\\&rsquo\\;\\ fourth\\ place\\,\\ which\\ contains\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ as\\ I\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ said\\ \\(earlier\\ in\\ I\\,\\ 10\\)\\,\\ together\\ with\\ the\\ lunar\\ sphere\\ as\\ an\\ epicycle\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ place\\ Venus\\ returns\\ in\\ 9\\ months\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ the\\ sixth\\ place\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ held\\ by\\ Mercury\\,\\ which\\ revolves\\ in\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ 80\\ days\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;So\\ vast\\,\\ without\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ question\\,\\ is\\ the\\ divine\\ handiwork\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ excellent\\ Almighty\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Copernicus, On the motions of the heavenly spheres, prefaces (foreword, letter , \u201cto his holiness\u201d), Book I, chs. 1 and 10."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.306197+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 591, "html": "\\Testing\\,\\ testing\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\", "course_id": 92, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.326252+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 592, "html": "\\The\\ first\\ Life\\ Sciences\\ 1b\\ midterm\\ took\\ place\\ last\\ week\\.\\ Blogging\\ for\\ this\\ class\\ will\\ begin\\ this\\ week\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 93, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Organizational Design", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 563, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Organizational\\ Design\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Habitat\\ for\\ Humanity\\<\\/a\\>\\ has\\ one\\ main\\ office\\ in\\ Georgia\\ and\\ many\\ smaller\\ office\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ organization\\ has\\ 800\\ affiliates\\ and\\ each\\ individual\\ branch\\ has\\ computer\\ space\\,\\ an\\ accountant\\ and\\ a\\ civil\\ engineer\\.\\&\\#160\\;Thus\\,\\ affiliates\\ are\\ highly\\ independent\\,\\ which\\ could\\ become\\ a\\ problem\\ if\\ they\\ attempt\\ to\\ assert\\ individual\\ control\\.\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Organizational\\ Design\\ consists\\ of\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ 1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Task\\ Assignment\\-\\ the\\ delegation\\ and\\ distribution\\ of\\ tasks\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nTask\\ Assignment\\ for\\ Habitat\\ for\\ Humanity\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\LOCAL\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ selecting\\ owners\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ building\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ fundraising\\ \\:\\&\\#160\\;community\\ groups\\ and\\ churches\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNATIONAL\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Setting\\ construction\\ standards\\-\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ level\\ because\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ houses\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ uniform\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Also\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ temptation\\ for\\ local\\ people\\ to\\ build\\ as\\ many\\ hosues\\ as\\ possible\\ and\\ sacrifice\\ standards\\/quality\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Training\\ local\\ presidents\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Setting\\ legal\\ standards\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Fundraising\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\ big\\ national\\ donors\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\ Accounting\\-\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ on\\ a\\ national\\ level\\ because\\ people\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ money\\ dispersed\\ across\\ affiliates\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ decrease\\ money\\ theft\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\)Coordination\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Organizational\\ Design\\ is\\ done\\ by\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ Setting\\ objectives\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ 2\\)\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dividing\\ by\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Purpose\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Process\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\,\\ or\\ things\\,\\ dealt\\ with\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>place\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\3\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ 3\\)\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Integrating\\ by\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Formal\\ systems\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Informational\\ systems\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Self\\ contained\\ units\\,\\ slack\\,\\ environmental\\ changes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vision\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Types\\ of\\ Organization\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ Larry\\ Greiner\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ article\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Evolution\\ and\\ Revolution\\ as\\ Organizations\\ Grow\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\,\\ printed\\ in\\ the\\ Harvard\\ Business\\ Review\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ growth\\ of\\ an\\ organization\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ outline\\ argues\\ that\\ understanding\\ of\\ development\\ helps\\ in\\ choosing\\ an\\ appropriate\\ structure\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ organization\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ five\\ stages\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Stage\\ 1\\:\\ \\No\\ formal\\<\\/u\\>\\ management\\;\\ company\\ consists\\ of\\ several\\ inventors\\ or\\ entrepreneurs\\ who\\ work\\ together\\.\\&\\#160\\;Customers\\,\\ in\\ effect\\,\\ set\\ policies\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProblem\\:\\ As\\ company\\ grows\\ you\\ may\\ lose\\ control\\,\\ particularly\\ financial\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\For\\ example\\,\\ Brown\\ students\\ sitting\\ around\\ and\\ discussing\\ a\\ future\\ organization\\ would\\ be\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ this\\ stage\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Stage\\ 2\\:\\ \\Functional\\<\\/u\\>\\ management\\;\\ separate\\ operations\\,\\ marketing\\ etc\\.\\&\\#160\\;Introduce\\ accounting\\ control\\ systems\\.\\&\\#160\\;Encourages\\ financial\\ expertise\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProblem\\:\\ Red\\-\\ tape\\ stifles\\ creativity\\ and\\ decisions\\ are\\ made\\ only\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ and\\ thus\\ slowly\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Stage\\ 3\\:\\ \\Divisions\\ or\\ decentralization\\<\\/u\\>\\;\\ responsibility\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ regional\\ or\\ plant\\ managers\\.\\&\\#160\\;Top\\ managers\\ only\\ look\\ for\\ problems\\,\\ acquisitions\\,\\ etc\\.\\&\\#160\\;Encourages\\ client\\ orientation\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProblem\\:\\ Sub\\-managers\\ don\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ act\\ in\\ the\\ company\\ interest\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Decentralization\\ may\\ also\\ result\\ in\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ sameness\\ amongst\\ the\\ affiliates\\.\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Stage\\ 4\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\Formation\\<\\/u\\>\\ of\\ product\\ groups\\ and\\ strengthening\\ of\\ central\\ staff\\.\\ Formal\\ planning\\ procedures\\,\\ allocations\\ of\\ capital\\ to\\ investment\\ centers\\.\\&\\#160\\;Includes\\ central\\ research\\ labs\\ and\\ data\\ processing\\.\\&\\#160\\;Also\\ encourages\\ bureaucracy\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProblem\\:\\ communication\\ between\\ groups\\ and\\ experts\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Stage\\ 5\\:\\ \\Matrix\\<\\/u\\>\\ or\\ teams\\;\\ emphasis\\ on\\ bringing\\ managers\\ together\\ personally\\ and\\ less\\ emphasis\\ on\\ written\\ reports\\ and\\ directives\\.\\&\\#160\\;Dual\\ allegiance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ choice\\ of\\ organization\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ following\\ factors\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\)\\ Mission\\-\\ need\\ for\\ innovation\\ or\\ efficiency\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\)\\ Type\\ of\\ persons\\ involved\\-\\ desire\\ for\\ or\\ tolerance\\ of\\ independence\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\3\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\)\\ Technology\\-\\ inherent\\ interdependence\\ of\\ workers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Decentralization\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Definition\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDecentralization\\ is\\ bringing\\ decision\\-making\\ close\\ to\\ implementation\\-\\ like\\ Len\\ Schlesinger\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ store\\ managers\\ \\(in\\ Habitat\\ for\\ Humanity\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;Encourages\\ managers\\ to\\ perform\\ successfully\\,\\ reduces\\ load\\ on\\ central\\ office\\ and\\ allows\\ measurement\\ of\\ managerial\\ performance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Advantages\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ more\\ appropriate\\ decisions\\,\\ fast\\ response\\ of\\ small\\ company\\ with\\ supporting\\ resources\\ of\\ a\\ large\\ company\\,\\ encourages\\ teamwork\\,\\ facilitates\\ managerial\\ development\\,\\ facilitates\\ profit\\ measurement\\ and\\ allows\\ for\\ recognition\\ of\\ managerial\\ responsibility\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Disadvantages\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\&\\#160\\;Encourages\\ focus\\ on\\ local\\ and\\ short\\ term\\ objectives\\,\\ more\\ managers\\ and\\ duplication\\ of\\ facilities\\,\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\fewer\\ checks\\ on\\ managers\\,\\ needs\\ more\\ managers\\&\\#160\\;with\\ ability\\ and\\ less\\ effective\\ supporting\\ groups\\ \\(such\\ as\\ research\\ and\\ development\\,\\ national\\ advertising\\ or\\ salary\\ guidelines\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Organizational Design"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Issue and Claim Proclusion", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 595, "html": "\\Claim\\ \\&\\;\\ Issue\\ Preclusion\\:\\ only\\ after\\ people\\ have\\ had\\ their\\ day\\ in\\ court\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBalance\\ efficiency\\ \\&\\;\\ giving\\ people\\ their\\ day\\ in\\ court\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nWhy\\ preclude\\?\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Need\\ for\\ extinguishment\\ of\\ claim\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Limited\\ judicial\\ resources\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Need\\ for\\ repose\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Value\\ of\\ consistency\\\\\r\n\\\r\n5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Need\\ to\\ instill\\ respect\\ for\\ judges\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nClaim\\ Preclusion\\ \\(part\\ of\\ entrenchment\\ against\\ expansive\\ rules\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRes\\ Judicata\\:\\ Hammer\\ \\(\\(1\\)\\ final\\ judgment\\ \\(2\\)\\ on\\ the\\ merits\\ \\(3\\)\\ same\\ claim\\ \\(4\\)\\ same\\ parties\\)\\ \\(NB\\:\\ sometimes\\ issue\\ preclusion\\ may\\ prevent\\ a\\ suit\\ even\\ if\\ RJ\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nMust\\ be\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Same\\ claim\\ that\\ was\\ already\\ litigated\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ courts\\ define\\ \\&ldquo\\;same\\ claim\\&rdquo\\;\\ expansively\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ get\\ into\\ court\\ again\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Same\\ transaction\\ or\\ series\\ of\\ connected\\ transactions\\,\\ out\\ of\\ which\\ actions\\ arose\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ transaction\\ is\\ defined\\ pragmatically\\,\\ giving\\ weight\\ to\\ such\\ considerations\\ as\\ whether\\ the\\ facts\\ are\\ related\\ in\\ time\\,\\ space\\,\\ origin\\,\\ or\\ motivation\\,\\ whether\\ they\\ form\\ a\\ convenient\\ trial\\ unit\\,\\ and\\ whether\\ their\\ treatment\\ as\\ a\\ unit\\ conforms\\ to\\ the\\ parties\\&rsquo\\;\\ expectations\\ or\\ business\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ usage\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Davis\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Any\\ claim\\ litigated\\ PLUS\\ any\\ claim\\ available\\ \\(no\\ \\&ldquo\\;actually\\ litigated\\ requirement\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\&rarr\\;if\\ P\\ had\\ full\\ and\\ fair\\ opportunity\\ to\\ litigate\\,\\ may\\ be\\ barred\\ \\(even\\ if\\ she\\ failed\\ to\\ pursue\\ a\\ claim\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ P\\ has\\ 2\\ claims\\ arising\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\,\\ she\\ must\\ assert\\ them\\ or\\ she\\ is\\ barred\\ \\(18\\(a\\)\\ appears\\ permissive\\ but\\ RJ\\ will\\ get\\ you\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\ claims\\,\\ 2\\ different\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrences\\,\\ 18\\(a\\)\\,\\ can\\ join\\ these\\ claims\\ but\\ permissive\\,\\ no\\ RJ\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ has\\ a\\ contract\\ claim\\ for\\ 2005\\.\\ He\\ makes\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 2005\\ \\&\\;\\ wins\\.\\ He\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ complaint\\ for\\ same\\ contract\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 2006\\.\\ He\\ can\\ make\\ it\\,\\ no\\ RJ\\ because\\ 2\\ different\\ transactions\\ or\\ occurrences\\.\\ But\\ if\\ he\\ makes\\ claim\\ 1\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ 2006\\ for\\ 2005\\,\\ he\\ must\\ make\\ 2006\\ claim\\ too\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nf\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\ Ps\\,\\ 1\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ assert\\ \\(20\\(a\\)\\ is\\ permissive\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\ng\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Under\\ traditional\\ RJ\\,\\ each\\ separate\\ party\\ has\\ a\\ claim\\ for\\ RJ\\,\\ even\\ if\\ claims\\ arise\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ incident\\.\\ So\\ P\\ sues\\ D\\ for\\ breach\\ of\\ contract\\.\\ D\\ wins\\.\\ Later\\ D\\ can\\ sue\\ P\\ for\\ breach\\ of\\ contract\\ \\&\\;\\ not\\ be\\ barred\\ by\\ RJ\\.\\ BUT\\ 13\\(a\\)\\ compulsory\\ counterclaim\\ might\\ bar\\ him\\ \\(this\\ is\\ called\\ rules\\-based\\ RJ\\)\\ or\\ CE\\ may\\ bar\\ issues\\ that\\ were\\ decided\\\\\r\n\\\r\nh\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ must\\ recover\\ for\\ all\\ her\\ damages\\ in\\ original\\ action\\,\\ including\\ those\\ suffered\\ prior\\ to\\ trial\\ and\\ all\\ future\\ damages\\ likely\\ to\\ ensue\\ \\(you\\ get\\ cancer\\ twenty\\ years\\ later\\,\\ sorry\\ buddy\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Between\\ the\\ same\\ parties\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Two\\ parties\\ bound\\ by\\ privity\\ may\\ be\\ considered\\ the\\ same\\ party\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Substantial\\ legal\\ relationship\\ that\\ ties\\ people\\ together\\ \\(successive\\ interests\\ in\\ a\\ property\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Express\\ agreement\\ to\\ be\\ bound\\ \\(agent\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Kinds\\ of\\ procedural\\ identity\\ that\\ get\\ written\\ by\\ rules\\ of\\ procedure\\ \\(class\\ action\\,\\ etc\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Party\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ controlling\\ the\\ action\\ from\\ behind\\ the\\ scenes\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\:\\ must\\ consider\\ stuff\\ under\\ FRCP\\ which\\ sometimes\\ screws\\ this\\ up\\.\\ Example\\:\\ if\\ a\\ patient\\ sues\\ a\\ doctor\\ for\\ malpractice\\,\\ doctor\\ has\\ related\\ counterclaim\\ for\\ contributory\\ negligence\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rise\\ it\\.\\ Under\\ traditional\\ res\\ judicata\\,\\ doctor\\ could\\ raise\\ it\\ later\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ configuration\\ \\(doctor\\ is\\ P\\)\\.\\ But\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ compulsory\\ counterclaim\\ under\\ Rule\\ 13\\,\\ doctor\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bring\\ it\\ later\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;And\\ the\\ claim\\ was\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Valid\\ \\(narrow\\ scope\\,\\ happens\\ rarely\\:\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ final\\ judgment\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ jurisdictional\\ authority\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ case\\,\\ either\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ or\\ subject\\ matter\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ Courts\\ are\\ not\\ so\\ happy\\ to\\ entertain\\ motions\\ that\\ earlier\\ cases\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ SMJ\\ because\\ while\\ the\\ suit\\ was\\ live\\ that\\ can\\ come\\ up\\ over\\ \\&\\;\\ over\\ again\\ \\(maybe\\ if\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ time\\ for\\ a\\ SMJ\\ motion\\)\\.\\ More\\ likely\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ PJ\\ challenge\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Final\\ \\(if\\ you\\ can\\ appeal\\,\\ the\\ case\\ is\\ probably\\ final\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\,\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ appeal\\ a\\ final\\ judgment\\ to\\ preserve\\ your\\ right\\ to\\ challenge\\ the\\ judgment\\,\\ or\\ else\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ given\\ effect\\ in\\ another\\ suit\\ \\(Moite\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Moite\\:\\ fairness\\/relief\\ to\\ Moite\\ et\\ al\\ is\\ less\\ important\\ than\\ preserving\\ finality\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;On\\ the\\ merits\\ \\(if\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ your\\ complaint\\ right\\ after\\ all\\ the\\ chances\\ the\\ FRCP\\ gives\\ you\\,\\ then\\ you\\ deserve\\ to\\ have\\ your\\ suit\\ thrown\\ out\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Dismissal\\ for\\ lack\\ of\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ not\\ on\\ the\\ merits\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ P\\ fails\\ to\\ state\\ a\\ claim\\,\\ yes\\ on\\ the\\ merits\\ \\(because\\ can\\ amend\\ liberally\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;D\\ who\\ defaults\\ is\\ also\\ barred\\\\\r\n\\\r\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Summary\\ Judgment\\ \\(56\\)\\ and\\ JMOL\\ \\(50\\)\\ both\\ get\\ RJ\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOther\\ things\\ to\\ note\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ State\\ v\\.\\ Federal\\ Courts\\:\\ court\\ hearing\\ the\\ second\\ suit\\ will\\ ask\\ whether\\ a\\ second\\ suit\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ barred\\ in\\ the\\ court\\ system\\ that\\ rendered\\ the\\ original\\ judgment\\.\\ So\\ federal\\ court\\ will\\ look\\ to\\ preclusion\\ law\\ of\\ rendering\\ state\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ barred\\.\\ IF\\ claim\\ asserted\\ in\\ second\\ action\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ asserted\\ in\\ first\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ barred\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\,\\ state\\ tort\\ claim\\ \\+\\ federal\\ copyright\\ claim\\,\\ P\\ brings\\ tort\\ claim\\ in\\ state\\ court\\ \\&\\;\\ loses\\,\\ can\\ still\\ later\\ bring\\ copyright\\ claim\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ P\\ starts\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\,\\ she\\ better\\ assert\\ all\\ state\\ supplemental\\ claims\\ \\(1367\\)\\ or\\ she\\ might\\ lose\\ them\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ Intervention\\ \\(24\\)\\ is\\ permissive\\ \\(need\\ a\\ common\\ question\\ of\\ fact\\)\\ but\\ if\\ intervening\\ party\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ prejudiced\\ by\\ not\\ joining\\ \\&\\;\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ barred\\ by\\ RJ\\ if\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ join\\,\\ court\\ may\\ decline\\ to\\ let\\ him\\ join\\.\\ Plus\\,\\ note\\ that\\ 1367\\ bars\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ claims\\ by\\ intervening\\ Ps\\ in\\ diversity\\ suits\\ if\\ intervention\\ destroys\\ diversity\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ Cross\\ claims\\ are\\ permissive\\ \\(13\\(g\\)\\)\\,\\ so\\ X\\ sues\\ Y\\.\\ Y\\ sues\\ Z\\ \\(same\\ t\\ or\\ o\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ X\\ wins\\ on\\ both\\.\\ Then\\ Y\\ sues\\ Z\\ for\\ same\\ t\\ or\\ o\\.\\ No\\ RJ\\ because\\ 13\\(g\\)\\ is\\ permissive\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ Impleader\\:\\ X\\ sues\\ Y\\.\\ Y\\ impleads\\ Z\\ \\(14\\(a\\)\\)\\.\\ Y\\ must\\ assert\\ all\\ claims\\ arising\\ out\\ of\\ this\\ t\\ or\\ o\\.\\ 18\\(a\\)\\ makes\\ this\\ permissive\\ but\\ RJ\\ makes\\ it\\ compulsory\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n5\\.\\ 1367\\(b\\)\\:\\ impleaded\\ parties\\ can\\ assert\\ claims\\ against\\ P\\ but\\ P\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ assert\\ claims\\ against\\ impleaded\\ parties\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ impleaded\\ under\\ Rule\\ 14\\.\\ What\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ 13\\(a\\)\\ compulsory\\ counterclaim\\?\\ Unclear\\ \\(Glannon\\,\\ p\\ 282\\)\\.\\ Claim\\ by\\ 3rd\\ party\\ D\\ against\\ P\\ is\\ fine\\&mdash\\;permissive\\ claims\\ against\\ P\\.\\ \\[13\\(a\\)\\ requires\\ assertion\\ of\\ claims\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;opposing\\ parties\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\ \\&\\;\\ impleaded\\ 3rd\\ party\\ are\\ not\\ opposing\\ parties\\]\\\\\r\n\\\r\n6\\.\\ Intervening\\ under\\ Rule\\ 24\\ also\\ exposes\\ the\\ party\\ to\\ claim\\ preclusion\\ effect\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\ any\\ compulsory\\ claim\\ \\(under\\ 18\\ or\\ 13\\)\\ no\\ made\\ by\\ a\\ party\\ under\\ Rule\\ 24\\ is\\ barred\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIssue\\ Preclusion\\\\\r\n\\\r\nEstoppel\\:\\ scalpel\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNarrower\\:\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ preclude\\ all\\ possible\\ issues\\ that\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ raised\\ in\\ a\\ prior\\ action\\ but\\ onlyl\\ those\\ actually\\ decided\\ in\\ that\\ action\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBroader\\:\\ can\\ foreclose\\ litigation\\ of\\ a\\ particular\\ issue\\ in\\ an\\ entirely\\ new\\ context\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Same\\ issue\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Civil\\ acquittal\\ is\\ not\\ estoppel\\ for\\ criminal\\,\\ but\\ criminal\\ acquittal\\ is\\ estoppel\\ for\\ civil\\ \\(because\\ higher\\ standard\\ of\\ proof\\)\\.\\ Levy\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Issue\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ actually\\ litigated\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ cover\\ stipulated\\ or\\ conceded\\ stuff\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Parties\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ adverse\\ on\\ the\\ issue\\ \\&\\;\\ evidence\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ presented\\ to\\ the\\ court\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;does\\ not\\ affect\\ claims\\ or\\ defenses\\ that\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ raised\\ but\\ were\\ not\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Must\\ be\\ a\\ real\\ hearing\\ with\\ adverse\\ parties\\,\\ so\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ judicial\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ approximate\\ the\\ safe\\ guards\\ and\\ truth\\-seeking\\ mechanisms\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Issue\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ actually\\ decided\\/determined\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Must\\ be\\ a\\ real\\ hearing\\ with\\ adverse\\ parties\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Appealability\\ essential\\ to\\ preclusive\\ effect\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;State\\ judgments\\ can\\ generally\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ collateral\\ estoppel\\ in\\ federal\\ courts\\,\\ unless\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ compelling\\ federal\\ reason\\ to\\ disregard\\ state\\ judgment\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Decision\\ on\\ the\\ issue\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ necessary\\ to\\ the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Gratuitous\\ finding\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ given\\ issue\\ preclusive\\ effect\\ later\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Overwhelming\\ defeat\\:\\ P\\ lost\\ on\\ many\\ elements\\ of\\ her\\ claim\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Inconsequential\\ defeat\\:\\ P\\ won\\ on\\ one\\ ground\\ \\&\\;\\ lost\\ on\\ others\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ about\\ those\\ she\\ lost\\ on\\ \\(ex\\:\\ P\\ wins\\ on\\ express\\ warranty\\ \\&\\;\\ lose\\ on\\ implied\\ warranty\\.\\ Implied\\ warranty\\ is\\ not\\ actually\\ determined\\ because\\ P\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Some\\ findings\\ may\\ not\\ affect\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ suit\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\ a\\ court\\ finds\\ for\\ a\\ litigant\\ on\\ two\\ independent\\ sufficient\\ grounds\\:\\ impossible\\ to\\ tell\\ which\\ decision\\ was\\ necessary\\ to\\ the\\ judgment\\ \\(sometimes\\ courts\\ give\\ collateral\\ estoppel\\ to\\ both\\ judgments\\ in\\ cases\\ like\\ this\\)\\:\\ P\\ has\\ no\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\ because\\ of\\ A\\ and\\ B\\:\\ no\\ collateral\\ estoppel\\ for\\ A\\ or\\ B\\ in\\ later\\ proceeding\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ D\\ raises\\ 2\\ defenses\\ and\\ P\\ wins\\,\\ then\\ both\\ defenses\\ were\\ considered\\ \\&\\;\\ decided\\ \\(\\&\\;\\ rejected\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ necessary\\ therefore\\ each\\ can\\ be\\ estopped\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Motion\\ to\\ apply\\ collateral\\ estoppel\\ is\\ a\\ 56\\(c\\)\\ motion\\,\\ for\\ partial\\ summary\\ judgment\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ D\\ defaults\\,\\ no\\ CE\\,\\ but\\ RJ\\ will\\ apply\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\ claims\\ \\&\\;\\ P\\ wins\\,\\ no\\ CE\\ for\\ one\\ or\\ the\\ other\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ But\\ if\\ P\\ has\\ 2\\ claims\\ \\&\\;\\ wins\\ injunction\\,\\ maybe\\ the\\ injunction\\ P\\ sought\\ can\\ be\\ applied\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ theory\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ rests\\,\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unclear\\ which\\ was\\ decided\\ \\&\\;\\ necessary\\ to\\ the\\ judgment\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ both\\ theories\\ in\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ are\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ true\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ not\\ clear\\ which\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ the\\ judgment\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nTraditional\\ mutuality\\ rule\\:\\ people\\ not\\ original\\ parties\\ are\\ not\\ bound\\.\\ This\\ is\\ breaking\\ down\\ along\\ two\\ dimensions\\\\\r\n\\\r\nErosion\\ of\\ Mutuality\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThe\\ party\\ being\\ estopped\\ must\\ have\\ litigated\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ suit\\&rarr\\;a\\ new\\ party\\ uses\\ NMCE\\ against\\ a\\ party\\ that\\ already\\ litigated\\ the\\ issue\\ \\&\\;\\ that\\ old\\ party\\ must\\ have\\ had\\ a\\ full\\ \\&\\;\\ fair\\ opportunity\\ to\\ litigate\\.\\ Example\\:\\ A\\ sues\\ B\\ for\\ trespass\\.\\ Court\\ says\\ A\\ owns\\ the\\ land\\.\\ A\\ sues\\ C\\ for\\ trespass\\ \\&\\;\\ A\\ tries\\ to\\ say\\,\\ NMCE\\,\\ I\\ own\\ the\\ land\\.\\ No\\!\\ C\\ never\\ had\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ litigate\\ the\\ issue\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Obnoxious\\ \\(repeating\\)\\ P\\ \\(defensive\\ nonmutual\\ collateral\\ estoppel\\)\\.\\ New\\ D\\ invokes\\ against\\ repeat\\ P\\.\\ Barnhard\\,\\ feds\\ endorsed\\ in\\ Blonder\\-Tongue\\ Laboratories\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ sues\\ D1\\,\\ P\\ loses\\ on\\ Issue\\ A\\.\\ P\\ sues\\ D2\\,\\ D2\\ can\\ use\\ NMCE\\ on\\ Issue\\ A\\.\\ P\\ is\\ bound\\ by\\ first\\ resolution\\ of\\ the\\ issue\\.\\ P\\ is\\ unsuccessful\\ despite\\ full\\ opportunity\\ to\\ litigate\\ the\\ issue\\&mdash\\;P\\ gave\\ it\\ his\\ best\\ shot\\,\\ though\\ D\\ may\\ not\\ have\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ who\\ has\\ litigated\\ \\&\\;\\ lost\\ on\\ an\\ issue\\ may\\ find\\ that\\ issue\\ precluded\\ in\\ a\\ subsequent\\ suit\\ against\\ a\\ new\\ D\\.\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ re\\ litigate\\ just\\ by\\ switching\\ adversaries\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Only\\ applies\\ if\\ precluded\\ party\\ had\\ had\\ a\\ full\\ \\&\\;\\ fair\\ opportunity\\ to\\ litigate\\ the\\ issue\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ action\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ Ps\\ unlimited\\ strikes\\ to\\ try\\ the\\ case\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\,\\ waiting\\ for\\ a\\ favorable\\ jury\\.\\ Plus\\ P\\ could\\ have\\ included\\ the\\ new\\ D\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ suit\\ \\(expansive\\ permissive\\ FRCP\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Want\\ predictability\\,\\ efficiency\\,\\ consistency\\,\\ neutrality\\ \\(court\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ waste\\ resources\\ on\\ repeated\\ litigation\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ supply\\ of\\ unrelated\\ Ds\\ holds\\ out\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Chronic\\ D\\ \\(offensive\\ nonmutual\\ collateral\\ estoppel\\)\\&mdash\\;allowed\\ with\\ exceptions\\.\\ New\\ P\\ trying\\ to\\ borrow\\ a\\ finding\\ to\\ impose\\ liability\\ on\\ an\\ old\\ D\\.\\ Parklane\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;New\\ Ps\\,\\ repeat\\ D\\:\\ D\\ who\\ has\\ litigated\\ \\&\\;\\ lost\\ an\\ issue\\ may\\ find\\ that\\ issue\\ precluded\\ in\\ a\\ subsequent\\ suit\\ against\\ a\\ new\\ P\\ under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\ \\(added\\ qualifier\\ in\\ offensive\\ but\\ not\\ defensive\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P1\\ sues\\ D\\,\\ D\\ loses\\ on\\ Issue\\ A\\.\\ P2\\ sues\\ D\\,\\ P2\\ wants\\ to\\ use\\ NMCE\\ to\\ establish\\ Issue\\ A\\.\\ New\\ P\\ takes\\ advantage\\ of\\ finding\\ against\\ D\\ to\\ establish\\ a\\ claim\\ against\\ D\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ suit\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\:\\ if\\ one\\ party\\ had\\ a\\ permissive\\ claim\\ \\(like\\ if\\ X\\ has\\ a\\ permissive\\ cross\\ claim\\ against\\ Y\\ \\&\\;\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ assert\\ it\\ because\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ Y\\ will\\ lose\\ \\&\\;\\ then\\ he\\ can\\ invoke\\ ONMCE\\ later\\)\\ in\\ an\\ earlier\\ suit\\,\\ he\\ probably\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ ONMCE\\ because\\ he\\ should\\ have\\ done\\ it\\ before\\ \\(court\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reward\\ this\\ less\\ efficient\\ course\\ of\\ litigation\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Problematic\\ because\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Party\\ was\\ usually\\ D\\ in\\ first\\ suit\\ \\&\\;\\ therefore\\ did\\ not\\ choose\\ the\\ forum\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;May\\ lead\\ to\\ Ps\\ \\&ldquo\\;wait\\ \\&\\;\\ see\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;D\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ litigated\\ the\\ issue\\ aggressively\\ in\\ first\\ action\\ if\\ stakes\\ were\\ small\\ or\\ forum\\ inconvenient\\\\\r\n\\\r\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Maybe\\ the\\ loser\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ litigated\\ effectively\\ if\\ procedural\\ rules\\ of\\ first\\ court\\ were\\ more\\ restrictive\\ than\\ those\\ of\\ second\\ court\\\\\r\n\\\r\nv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;One\\ or\\ more\\ prior\\ inconsistent\\ judgments\\ on\\ the\\ issue\\ may\\ suggest\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ unfair\\ to\\ give\\ conclusive\\ effect\\ to\\ any\\ one\\ of\\ them\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nvi\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;All\\ this\\ to\\ say\\,\\ lower\\ courts\\ should\\ exercise\\ discretion\\ in\\ deciding\\ whether\\ to\\ allow\\ ONMCE\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Parklane\\ variables\\ for\\ fairness\\ in\\ using\\ offensive\\ nonmutual\\ collateral\\ estoppel\\ against\\ new\\ Ds\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Could\\ the\\ party\\ trying\\ to\\ assert\\ ONMCE\\ have\\ intervened\\ in\\ the\\ earlier\\ suit\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Did\\ the\\ D\\ have\\ incentive\\ to\\ litigate\\ the\\ first\\ action\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Are\\ there\\ multiple\\ prior\\ inconsistent\\ judgments\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Did\\ the\\ party\\ trying\\ to\\ assert\\ ONMCE\\ sit\\ out\\ \\&\\;\\ wait\\ during\\ earlier\\ suits\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\nv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Are\\ there\\ any\\ procedural\\ opportunities\\ available\\ to\\ D\\ in\\ second\\ suit\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ available\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ suit\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\nvi\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ these\\ five\\ factors\\ are\\ not\\ met\\:\\ no\\ preclusion\\.\\ If\\ they\\ are\\ met\\,\\ yes\\ preclusion\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nONMCE\\ good\\ because\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPlaintiff\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ treated\\ asymmetrically\\\\\r\n\\\r\nWait\\ and\\ see\\ approach\\ is\\ empirically\\ uncommon\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDue\\ process\\ protects\\ the\\ defendant\\\\\r\n\\\r\nEven\\ if\\ plaintiff\\ is\\ master\\ of\\ claim\\,\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ choose\\ when\\ to\\ get\\ hurt\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nONMCE\\ bad\\ because\\\\\r\n\\\r\nWait\\ and\\ see\\ plaintiffs\\\\\r\n\\\r\nExposes\\ D\\ to\\ unfair\\ and\\ inconsistent\\ decisions\\:\\ if\\ P\\ gets\\ a\\ favorable\\ decision\\ it\\ may\\ cause\\ snowballing\\ decisions\\ against\\ D\\\\\r\n\\\r\nInefficient\\ by\\ creating\\ incentive\\ not\\ to\\ join\\ initial\\ suit\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProcedural\\ advantages\\ enjoyed\\ by\\ plaintiff\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Issue and Claim Proclusion"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Personal Jurisdiction", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 594, "html": "\\PERSONAL\\ JURISDICTION\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ Kind\\ of\\ legal\\ action\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ Basis\\ for\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ Methods\\ for\\ establishing\\ this\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ personam\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(jurisdiction\\ over\\ persons\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ Action\\ that\\ adjudicates\\ the\\ liability\\ of\\ one\\ person\\ to\\ another\\ \\(almost\\ every\\ lawsuit\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ Presence\\ of\\ the\\ D\\ is\\ basis\\ for\\ in\\ personam\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ service\\,\\ appearance\\,\\ consent\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ rem\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ Action\\ that\\ adjudicates\\ ownership\\ or\\ control\\ over\\ some\\ thing\\.\\ The\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ thing\\ itself\\,\\ not\\ on\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ others\\ \\(esp\\ not\\ on\\ another\\ individual\\)\\.\\ Adjudicates\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ everyone\\ to\\ this\\ thing\\.\\ \\(name\\ the\\ thing\\ as\\ your\\ D\\)\\.\\ Does\\ not\\ seek\\ to\\ impose\\ personal\\ liability\\ on\\ anyone\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ seek\\ to\\ affect\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ persons\\ in\\ a\\ specific\\ thing\\ \\(a\\ res\\)\\.\\ The\\ status\\ of\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ adjudicated\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ Presence\\ of\\ the\\ property\\ in\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ state\\/government\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ states\\ insist\\ on\\ having\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ operational\\ step\\&mdash\\;ex\\:\\ posting\\ a\\ notice\\ on\\ the\\ property\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nQuasi\\ in\\ rem\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ Would\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ personam\\ if\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ D\\ had\\ been\\ attainable\\.\\ Instead\\ property\\ or\\ intangibles\\ are\\ seized\\ not\\ as\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ litigation\\,\\ but\\ merely\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ satisfying\\ a\\ possible\\ judgment\\ against\\ D\\.\\ Establishes\\ the\\ liability\\ of\\ one\\ person\\ to\\ another\\.\\ But\\ that\\ liability\\ is\\ limited\\ by\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ property\\ that\\ is\\ under\\ the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ control\\.\\ \\(if\\ car\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ court\\,\\ the\\ liability\\ is\\ limited\\ to\\ the\\ value\\/amt\\ of\\ property\\ under\\ the\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ court\\.\\)\\ \\(if\\ value\\ of\\ property\\ is\\ not\\ sufficient\\ to\\ cover\\ the\\ liability\\&mdash\\;the\\ ct\\ sells\\ the\\ property\\ as\\ is\\.\\ And\\ then\\ later\\,\\ if\\ more\\ property\\ is\\ discovered\\,\\ the\\ P\\ has\\ to\\ bring\\ a\\ whole\\ nother\\ suit\\ for\\ the\\ remainder\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ presence\\ of\\ property\\ of\\ D\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ states\\ have\\ different\\ procedures\\ for\\ attachment\\,\\ courts\\ have\\ a\\ procedure\\ for\\ doing\\ so\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ usually\\ no\\ res\\ judicata\\ value\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nShaffer\\ essentially\\ abolishes\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ quasi\\ in\\ rem\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ because\\ the\\ same\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ needed\\ for\\ quasi\\ in\\ rem\\ will\\ suffice\\ for\\ PJ\\,\\ and\\ quasi\\ in\\ rem\\ was\\ only\\ used\\ when\\ P\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ PJ\\.\\ Big\\ effect\\:\\ attachment\\ of\\ a\\ 3rd\\ party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ debt\\ to\\ the\\ D\\,\\ or\\ attachment\\ of\\ an\\ insurance\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obligation\\ to\\ defend\\ and\\ pay\\ a\\ claim\\,\\ are\\ largely\\ wiped\\ out\\ as\\ bases\\ for\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPennoyer\\ v\\.\\ Neff\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;focuses\\ on\\ mutually\\ exclusive\\ sovereignty\\ of\\ the\\ states\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ a\\ D\\ unless\\ D\\ is\\ served\\ while\\ physically\\ in\\ the\\ state\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Ways\\ to\\ get\\ Personal\\ Jurisdiction\\ \\(How\\ could\\ Mitchell\\ have\\ gotten\\ Neff\\?\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Over\\ Person\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ personal\\ service\\ \\(within\\ the\\ state\\&mdash\\;this\\ draws\\ a\\ line\\ around\\ state\\ power\\)\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ serve\\ his\\ agent\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ \\(consent\\ to\\ service\\)\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ consent\\ by\\ appearance\\ in\\ court\\ \\(but\\ you\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ special\\ appearance\\ to\\ challenge\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Over\\ Property\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ attachment\\ of\\ property\\ \\(quasi\\ in\\ rem\\)\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ status\\ \\(divorce\\,\\ maybe\\ paternity\\)\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ presence\\ of\\ disputed\\ property\\ in\\ state\\ \\(in\\ rem\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHess\\ v\\.\\ Pawloski\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Out\\-of\\-state\\ motorist\\,\\ who\\ could\\ be\\ excluded\\ altogether\\ from\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ highways\\,\\ had\\ by\\ using\\ those\\ highways\\ appointed\\ a\\ designated\\ state\\ official\\ as\\ his\\ agent\\ to\\ accept\\ process\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ agent\\ could\\ be\\ personally\\ served\\ within\\ the\\ state\\,\\ the\\ state\\ courts\\ could\\ obtain\\ in\\ personam\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ the\\ nonresident\\ driver\\&rarr\\;implied\\ consent\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHarris\\ v\\.\\ Balk\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Harris\\ \\(NC\\)\\ owes\\ Balk\\ \\(NC\\)\\ \\$180\\.\\ Balk\\ owes\\ Epstein\\ \\(MD\\)\\ \\$300\\.\\ Harris\\ visits\\ MD\\ \\&\\;\\ Epstein\\ serves\\ Harris\\ for\\ debt\\ attachment\\ \\(if\\ Epstein\\ sues\\ Balk\\ \\&\\;\\ wins\\,\\ he\\ can\\ require\\ Harris\\ to\\ pay\\ him\\ directly\\)\\.\\ This\\ established\\ quasi\\ in\\ rem\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ the\\ \\$180\\ debt\\,\\ because\\ the\\ debt\\ goes\\ wherever\\ the\\ debtor\\ goes\\.\\ But\\ after\\ Shaffer\\,\\ Harris\\ visiting\\ MD\\ \\&\\;\\ getting\\ served\\,\\ not\\ important\\.\\ Balk\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ with\\ MD\\,\\ so\\ a\\ quasi\\ in\\ rem\\ suit\\ about\\ Harris\\&rsquo\\;s\\ debt\\ to\\ Balk\\ cannot\\ be\\ heard\\ in\\ MD\\&rarr\\;no\\ PJ\\ over\\ Balk\\ in\\ MD\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Situs\\ of\\ intangible\\ property\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ owner\\ is\\ \\(\\?\\?\\?\\?\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ obligation\\ of\\ the\\ debtor\\ to\\ pay\\ his\\ debt\\ clings\\ to\\ and\\ accompanies\\ him\\ wherever\\ he\\ goes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nInternational\\ Shoe\\ Co\\ v\\.\\ Washington\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;DP\\ rationale\\ replaces\\ FF\\ \\&\\;\\ C\\ thought\\ \\(\\?\\?\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Minimum\\ Contacts\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Fair\\ Play\\ \\&\\;\\ Substantial\\ Justice\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSHOE\\ BOX\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Few\\ Contacts\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Many\\ Contacts\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRelated\\ \\(to\\ contacts\\)\\ Suit\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Sometimes\\*\\ D\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Yes\\ A\\\\\r\n\\\r\nUnrelated\\ Suit\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\ B\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Yes\\ C\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\*if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ too\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ burden\\.\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ hard\\ cases\\ are\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ disputed\\ territory\\,\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ Shoe\\ is\\.\\ Almost\\ all\\ cases\\ are\\ here\\ in\\ D\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nThis\\ std\\ is\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ fairness\\ than\\ presence\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nD\\&\\;B\\:\\ specific\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\nA\\&\\;C\\:\\ general\\ jurisidiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nMcGee\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Specific\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;D\\ is\\ a\\ Texas\\ company\\.\\ It\\ does\\ not\\ solicit\\ business\\ in\\ California\\.\\ It\\ takes\\ over\\,\\ from\\ a\\ previous\\ insurance\\ company\\,\\ a\\ policy\\ on\\ life\\ of\\ X\\,\\ a\\ California\\ resident\\.\\ D\\ sends\\ X\\ a\\ new\\ insurance\\ policy\\;\\ X\\ sends\\ premiums\\ from\\ his\\ California\\ home\\ to\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ out\\-of\\-state\\ office\\.\\ X\\ dies\\;\\ P\\ \\(beneficiary\\ under\\ the\\ policy\\)\\ is\\ a\\ California\\ resident\\.\\ P\\ sues\\ D\\ in\\ California\\ for\\ payment\\.\\ Yes\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ D\\ in\\ California\\.\\ SCotUS\\ will\\ enforce\\ a\\ Cali\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ judgment\\ b\\/c\\ there\\ is\\ purposeful\\ availment\\,\\ foreseeability\\,\\ and\\ most\\ importantly\\:\\ STATE\\ INTEREST\\ in\\ providing\\ effective\\ redress\\ for\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Expansion\\ of\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHanson\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Distinguished\\ McGee\\,\\ refused\\ to\\ extend\\ jurisdiction\\ without\\ limits\\.\\ The\\ restrictions\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ than\\ a\\ guarantee\\ of\\ immunity\\ from\\ inconvenient\\ or\\ distant\\ litigation\\;\\ they\\ are\\ consequence\\ of\\ territorial\\ limits\\ on\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ respective\\ States\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ McGee\\,\\ the\\ company\\ offered\\ a\\ policy\\ to\\ somebody\\ it\\ knew\\ was\\ a\\ resident\\ of\\ forum\\ state\\.\\ In\\ Hanson\\,\\ the\\ trustee\\ never\\ voluntarily\\ initiated\\ business\\ transactions\\ with\\ resident\\ of\\ forum\\&rsquo\\;s\\ state\\:\\ it\\ was\\ S\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unilateral\\ decision\\ to\\ move\\ to\\ Fla\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Rule\\ 19\\ moment\\ \\(a\\)\\(1\\)\\&rarr\\;incomplete\\ relief\\.\\ D\\ is\\ a\\ Del\\ bank\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ trustee\\ of\\ a\\ trust\\.\\ S\\ \\(Pa\\ resident\\)\\ is\\ the\\ settlor\\ of\\ the\\ trust\\.\\ P\\ moves\\ to\\ Florida\\.\\ S\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughters\\ sue\\ bank\\ in\\ Fla\\.\\ No\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ bank\\ in\\ Fla\\.\\ \\(Maybe\\ the\\ SCotUS\\ just\\ hated\\ to\\ greedy\\ sisters\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Rule\\:\\ Need\\ purposeful\\ availment\\ by\\ D\\.\\ Unilateral\\ activity\\ by\\ the\\ P\\ to\\ bring\\ an\\ action\\ into\\ a\\ state\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ purposeful\\ availment\\ by\\ D\\.\\ So\\ D\\ \\&\\;\\ P\\ make\\ an\\ agreement\\ in\\ DL\\,\\ then\\ P\\ moves\\ to\\ FLA\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ D\\ purposefully\\ availing\\ himself\\ of\\ FLA\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nShaffer\\ v\\.\\ Heitner\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Extends\\ Shoe\\ to\\ in\\ rem\\.\\ Why\\ extend\\ Shoe\\?\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ rem\\ is\\ really\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\:\\ in\\ personam\\ is\\ direct\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ in\\ rem\\ is\\ indirect\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ So\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ really\\ going\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ Shoe\\ std\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Under\\ Pennoyer\\,\\ state\\ would\\ attach\\ the\\ property\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ and\\ then\\ adjudicate\\.\\ This\\ is\\ using\\ jurisdiction\\ to\\ secure\\ judgment\\.\\ Purpose\\ of\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ to\\ limit\\/understand\\ state\\ authority\\,\\ not\\ to\\ secure\\ judgment\\.\\ Should\\ adjudicate\\ the\\ case\\ because\\ the\\ state\\ has\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\,\\ then\\ the\\ state\\ can\\ attach\\ the\\ property\\ later\\.\\ To\\ attach\\ the\\ property\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ backwards\\.\\ To\\ avoid\\ in\\ rem\\ under\\ Pennoyer\\,\\ D\\ can\\ just\\ remove\\ his\\ property\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Before\\ Shaffer\\ applied\\ Shoe\\:\\ quasi\\ in\\ rem\\:\\ attach\\ property\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ meet\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ standard\\,\\ but\\ limited\\ in\\ what\\ P\\ can\\ recover\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;After\\ Shaffer\\ applied\\ Shoe\\:\\ quasi\\ in\\ rem\\ has\\ to\\ meet\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ standard\\,\\ so\\ nobody\\ uses\\ it\\ anymore\\,\\ because\\ it\\ just\\ limits\\ judgment\\ \\(if\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ default\\?\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nWorld\\-Wide\\ Volkswagon\\ v\\.\\ Woodson\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;D\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ serve\\ \\&ldquo\\;directly\\ or\\ indirectly\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ Oklahoma\\ market\\.\\ Unilateral\\ activity\\ of\\ Ps\\ brought\\ them\\ to\\ Oklahoma\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Organizes\\ min\\ contacts\\ variables\\ into\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ convenience\\ question\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ question\\:\\ functions\\ of\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ here\\ is\\ to\\ protect\\ D\\ \\&\\;\\ limit\\ state\\ power\\ \\(this\\ closes\\ down\\ jurisdiction\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ vanquished\\ by\\ BK\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Court\\ uses\\ \\(1\\)\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\,\\ \\(2\\)\\ purposeful\\ availment\\,\\ \\(3\\)\\ foreseeability\\,\\ \\(4\\)\\ consent\\,\\ etc\\.\\ as\\ determinants\\ for\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ convenience\\ for\\ making\\ it\\ happen\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Adds\\ a\\ new\\ factor\\ in\\ determining\\ jurisdiction\\:\\ interstate\\ interest\\ in\\ efficient\\ resolution\\ of\\ controversies\\;\\ shared\\ states\\&rsquo\\;\\ interest\\ in\\ effectuating\\ social\\ policy\\ \\+\\ the\\ court\\ changes\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ foreseeability\\ from\\ foreseeability\\ to\\ foreseeability\\ of\\ a\\ suit\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBurger\\ King\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nYes\\ PJ\\ over\\ D\\ in\\ Fla\\.\\ There\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ choice\\ of\\ law\\ provision\\ in\\ the\\ contract\\ \\(it\\ said\\ Florida\\ law\\ would\\ govern\\ the\\ contract\\)\\ helped\\ court\\ decide\\ yes\\ jurisdiction\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Minimum\\ Contacts\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ \\&\\;\\ activities\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Purposeful\\ availment\\ \\(or\\ direction\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Foreseeability\\ \\(of\\ a\\ suit\\?\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Consent\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Fair\\ Play\\ \\&\\;\\ Substantial\\ Justice\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Burden\\ on\\ D\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;State\\&rsquo\\;s\\ regulatory\\ interest\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interest\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Interstate\\ interest\\ in\\ efficient\\ dispute\\ resolution\\\\\r\n\\\r\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Shared\\ state\\ interest\\ in\\ furthering\\ substantive\\ social\\ policies\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nf\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Choice\\ of\\ law\\\\\r\n\\\r\ng\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\(Asahi\\ adds\\ international\\ relations\\ as\\ a\\ variable\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Brennan\\ articulates\\ the\\ standard\\ as\\ a\\ two\\-step\\ endeavor\\:\\ first\\ look\\ for\\ minimum\\ contacts\\.\\ Minimum\\ contacts\\ creates\\ a\\ presumption\\ of\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ then\\ look\\ at\\ FP\\&\\;SJ\\ factors\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fair\\ to\\ pursue\\ the\\ suit\\.\\ Gives\\ more\\ weight\\ to\\ below\\ the\\ line\\,\\ giving\\ a\\ different\\ focus\\ on\\ them\\.\\ In\\ most\\ cases\\,\\ this\\ cuts\\ for\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ \\(8\\ justices\\ in\\ Asahi\\ confirm\\ this\\ two\\-prong\\ standard\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ min\\ contacts\\ confirmed\\ by\\ fair\\ play\\ \\&\\;\\ subst\\ justice\\ \\(yes\\ mc\\,\\ yes\\ fp\\ \\=\\ yes\\ jurisd\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ min\\ contacts\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ less\\ because\\ fair\\ play\\ \\&\\;\\ subst\\ justice\\ overwhelm\\ the\\ small\\ finding\\ of\\ min\\ contacts\\ \\(not\\ really\\ mc\\,\\ but\\ yes\\ fp\\ \\=\\ jurisd\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.\\ rare\\ case\\ where\\ min\\ contacts\\ are\\ small\\ and\\ then\\ fair\\ play\\ \\&\\;\\ subst\\ justice\\ cuts\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ and\\ finds\\ no\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(yes\\ mc\\ but\\ no\\ fp\\ \\=\\ no\\ subst\\ justice\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAsahi\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBrennan\\:\\ yes\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ but\\ despite\\ min\\ contacts\\,\\ fair\\ play\\ outweighs\\ this\\ \\(rare\\!\\)\\&rarr\\;no\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBrennan\\ wants\\ expansive\\ jurisdiction\\ for\\ California\\.\\ Why\\?\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Expanding\\ state\\ regulatory\\ power\\ \\(v\\.\\ individ\\ rts\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Very\\ pro\\-plaintiff\\ \\(bc\\ torts\\ are\\ often\\ small\\ P\\ v\\.\\ big\\ D\\)\\:\\ adjudicative\\ relief\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Ps\\ as\\ carriers\\ of\\ regulation\\ \\(reg\\ power\\ through\\ the\\ courts\\ instead\\ of\\ through\\ agencies\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Litigation\\ is\\ good\\:\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ parties\\ into\\ court\\ \\(FRCP\\,\\ New\\ Deal\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Shoe\\ opened\\ up\\ courts\\ for\\ P\\ \\(retrenchment\\ in\\ Hanson\\ \\&\\;\\ VW\\,\\ now\\ back\\ to\\ pro\\-P\\ with\\ Asahi\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Modern\\ economy\\,\\ modern\\ world\\&mdash\\;easier\\ to\\ get\\ around\\,\\ different\\ market\\.\\ What\\ is\\ dispositive\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ get\\ is\\ what\\ you\\ deserve\\ based\\ on\\ individual\\ rights\\,\\ not\\ based\\ on\\ how\\ far\\ the\\ court\\ can\\ reach\\.\\ But\\ maybe\\ your\\ individual\\ rights\\ stop\\ the\\ court\\ from\\ hauling\\ you\\ into\\ court\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;We\\ are\\ remaking\\ how\\ we\\ regard\\ states\\,\\ state\\ power\\,\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ market\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nAsahi\\ has\\ thrown\\ some\\ doubt\\ on\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ whether\\ component\\ makers\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ direct\\ their\\ goods\\ into\\ state\\ or\\ cultivate\\ the\\ market\\ there\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ PJ\\ if\\ their\\ product\\ reaches\\ the\\ forum\\ state\\ through\\ resale\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBensusan\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ 2\\ steps\\ to\\ every\\ jurisdiction\\ question\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Does\\ the\\ statute\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ do\\ this\\?\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ so\\,\\ is\\ this\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ constitution\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Usually\\ courts\\ ask\\ \\#1\\ then\\ \\#2\\.\\ Courts\\ would\\ love\\ to\\ avoid\\ the\\ constitutional\\ question\\ and\\ just\\ ask\\ the\\ statutory\\ question\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Bensusan\\ shows\\ this\\:\\ the\\ statute\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ confer\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ so\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ constitutional\\ question\\ of\\ fair\\ play\\ \\&\\;\\ substantial\\ justice\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNarrow\\ long\\ arm\\ renders\\ the\\ constitutional\\ inquiry\\ irrelevant\\.\\ By\\ contrast\\,\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ extremely\\ expansive\\ long\\ arm\\,\\ then\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ constitutional\\ question\\.\\ Constitutional\\ inquiry\\ goes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ the\\ statute\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ the\\ constitution\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ Usually\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ asked\\ about\\ the\\ application\\ is\\,\\ is\\ this\\ applied\\ constitutionally\\?\\ Not\\,\\ is\\ the\\ statute\\ itself\\ constitutional\\?\\ The\\ court\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ strike\\ down\\ statutes\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCourts\\ generally\\ interpret\\ the\\ long\\ arm\\ statute\\ broadly\\.\\ So\\ if\\ it\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;act\\ or\\ omission\\ within\\ this\\ state\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ courts\\ generally\\ consider\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ injury\\ occurs\\ in\\ the\\ state\\,\\ even\\ if\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ action\\ took\\ place\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ state\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNote\\,\\ bulge\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ long\\-arm\\ authorized\\ jurisdiction\\ that\\ is\\ impermissible\\ under\\ DP\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPersonal\\ Jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nConstitutional\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Shoe\\:\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ and\\ FP\\&\\;SJ\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Schaffer\\:\\ extends\\ Shoe\\ to\\ property\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;WWVW\\:\\ minimum\\ contacts\\ \\(constricts\\ jurisdiction\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Burger\\ King\\:\\ expands\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Asahi\\:\\ FP\\&\\;SJ\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nStatutory\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Bensusan\\:\\ look\\ at\\ statute\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\(k\\)\\(1\\)\\:\\ state\\ long\\ arm\\ statutes\\ are\\ interpreted\\ by\\ state\\ courts\\;\\ federal\\ courts\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ state\\ courts\\ interpret\\ long\\ arm\\ statutes\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Personal Jurisdiction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.976475+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "How Divided is the United States", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 629, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 2\\-25\\-09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\U\\.S\\.\\ is\\ a\\ nation\\ that\\ is\\ divided\\.\\ Epic\\ battle\\ between\\ conflicting\\ world\\ views\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ division\\?\\ A\\ culture\\ war\\:\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ abortion\\,\\ gay\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Schama\\ 2004\\ quote\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ set\\ aside\\ economic\\ issues\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ politics\\.\\ Rich\\ states\\ are\\ blue\\ states\\ and\\ poor\\ states\\ are\\ red\\ states\\.\\ Red\\ states\\ \\&ldquo\\;Jesus\\ Land\\&rdquo\\;\\ Blue\\ states\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;United\\ States\\ of\\ Canada\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Real\\ story\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ complete\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Polarization\\ Claim\\ \\#1\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Opinion\\ Radicalization\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Americans\\ hold\\ extreme\\ views\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Very\\ little\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ American\\ ideological\\ identification\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 30\\ years\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Should\\ we\\ trust\\ ideological\\ data\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ place\\ themselves\\ on\\ this\\ spectrum\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ is\\ still\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ consistent\\ in\\ how\\ they\\ express\\ views\\ on\\ certain\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scholars\\ have\\ aggregated\\ as\\ many\\ questions\\ as\\ possible\\ to\\ create\\ scales\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Overall\\ size\\ of\\ government\\<\\/b\\>\\,\\ government\\ spending\\,\\ social\\ security\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ unemployement\\ insurance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Moral\\ \\<\\/b\\>gay\\ rights\\,\\ abortion\\,\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ preferences\\ are\\ unimodal\\ or\\ bimodal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ example\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ polarized\\ on\\ economic\\ issues\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>On\\ moral\\ issues\\ there\\ is\\ significantly\\ more\\ heterogeneity\\.\\ Americans\\ are\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ value\\ camps\\.\\ There\\ are\\ few\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ and\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ extremes\\.\\ When\\ abortion\\ is\\ removed\\ it\\ looks\\ much\\ more\\ unimodal\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ for\\ economic\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ orthodox\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Progressive\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ general\\ Americans\\ are\\ centristst\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ideological\\ moderists\\ and\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ specific\\ issues\\,\\ they\\ ground\\ themselves\\ esp\\.\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Another\\ way\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ sort\\ by\\ region\\.\\ When\\ you\\ compare\\ red\\ and\\ blue\\ states\\ it\\ reveals\\ statistically\\ significant\\ but\\ very\\ moderate\\ differences\\.\\ Blue\\ regions\\ are\\ slightly\\ more\\ liberal\\ on\\ economic\\.\\ On\\ moral\\ issues\\ distribution\\ for\\ blue\\ states\\ is\\ slightly\\ to\\ the\\ left\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Obama\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2004\\ Speech\\ to\\ Democratic\\ National\\ Convetion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ is\\ not\\ strong\\ evidence\\ of\\ polarization\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ even\\ when\\ comparing\\ states\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>But\\ what\\ about\\ comparing\\ subgroups\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Economic\\ and\\ Moral\\ Issues\\ across\\ social\\ divides\\:\\ urban\\ and\\ rural\\,\\ protestant\\ and\\ non\\,\\ income\\ groups\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rural\\ votes\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ in\\ both\\ areas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wealthy\\ more\\ ec\\ conservative\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ weak\\.\\ Differences\\ are\\ quite\\ small\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Weak\\ between\\ income\\ and\\ moral\\ issues\\ which\\ low\\=\\ more\\ conservative\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protestants\\ and\\ regular\\ church\\ goers\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\.\\ The\\ Religious\\ divide\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ substantial\\ one\\.\\ Esp\\.\\ looking\\ at\\ evangelical\\ protestants\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>FACT\\:\\ moderates\\ make\\ up\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ population\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>FACT\\:\\ Americans\\ are\\ centrist\\ except\\ of\\ abortion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>FACT\\:\\ modest\\ policy\\ differences\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Claim\\ \\#2\\:\\ Moral\\ Value\\ Voters\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ claim\\ here\\.\\ Americans\\ are\\ deeply\\ divided\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ big\\ influence\\ on\\ political\\ thinking\\ according\\ to\\ culture\\ wars\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Economic\\ issues\\ have\\ much\\ more\\ weight\\ than\\ moral\\ issues\\.\\ Economic\\ policy\\ preferences\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ important\\ in\\ accounting\\ for\\ voting\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\FACT\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ Compared\\ with\\ moral\\ issues\\,\\ economic\\ issues\\ are\\ twice\\ as\\ important\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ some\\ subgroups\\:\\ low\\ income\\ americans\\ think\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ moral\\.\\ Moral\\ issues\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ dom\\ in\\ red\\ states\\ and\\ with\\ frequent\\ church\\ goers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>But\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ moral\\ issues\\ does\\ not\\ vary\\ across\\ social\\ groups\\.\\ All\\ of\\ them\\ place\\ much\\ more\\ emphasis\\ on\\ economic\\ than\\ moral\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\FACT\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>Those\\ who\\ sense\\ a\\ culture\\ war\\ have\\ found\\ the\\ trend\\ that\\ moral\\ issues\\ have\\ become\\ increasingly\\ important\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ thirty\\ decades\\.\\ But\\ they\\ have\\ not\\ supplanted\\ economic\\ issues\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Claim\\ \\#3\\:\\ Red\\-Blue\\ Divide\\ is\\ a\\ Moral\\ Divide\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mattingly\\ 2000\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\FACT\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>there\\ is\\ a\\ noticeable\\ divide\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ divide\\ on\\ economic\\ issues\\.\\ Red\\ state\\ are\\ red\\ because\\ of\\ moral\\ issues\\ and\\ these\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ on\\ economic\\ issues\\ and\\ this\\ has\\ twice\\ the\\ weight\\ on\\ voter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\FACT\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>greater\\ ec\\ conservatism\\ that\\ separates\\ blue\\ and\\ red\\ states\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Claim\\ \\#4\\ Poor\\ State\\:\\ Red\\ State\\,\\ Poor\\ Voter\\ Red\\ Voter\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Democrats\\ win\\ rich\\ people\\.\\ Support\\ for\\ democrats\\ in\\ richer\\ states\\ has\\ led\\ people\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ typical\\ democrat\\ is\\ upper\\ city\\ and\\ republican\\ is\\ rural\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>NO\\,\\ NO\\,\\ NO\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Carlson\\ and\\ others\\ are\\ half\\ right\\.\\ Democrats\\ do\\ tend\\ to\\ win\\ rich\\ states\\.\\ Since\\ 1976\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ steady\\ trend\\ for\\ rich\\ states\\ to\\ vote\\ blue\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ rest\\ of\\ Carlson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ story\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\ Traditional\\ rich\\-poor\\ divide\\ remains\\.\\ Rich\\ voters\\ have\\ remained\\ statistically\\ more\\ republican\\ at\\ least\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ in\\ poor\\ states\\.\\ Rich\\ people\\ in\\ rich\\ states\\ are\\ more\\ liberal\\ in\\ rich\\ people\\ in\\ poor\\ states\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ democratic\\ voting\\ of\\ rich\\ people\\ in\\ rich\\ states\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Income\\ has\\ no\\ correlation\\ in\\ vote\\ preference\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ difference\\ between\\ poor\\ and\\ rich\\ in\\ voting\\ in\\ these\\ rich\\ states\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>FACT\\:\\ rich\\ conservatives\\ as\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ poor\\ states\\ are\\ red\\ states\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>FACT\\:\\ Rich\\ voters\\ in\\ rich\\ states\\ increasingly\\ vote\\ democratic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Culture\\ war\\ is\\ actually\\ limited\\ to\\ high\\ end\\ of\\ income\\ spectrum\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ low\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Purple\\ America\\ Map\\ created\\ by\\ Robert\\ Vanderbay\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ scientist\\ at\\ Princeton\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\That\\ said\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ kinds\\ of\\ polarization\\ do\\ exist\\.\\ The\\ general\\ public\\ itself\\ is\\ not\\ polarized\\.\\ The\\ two\\ major\\ political\\ parties\\ are\\ growing\\ polarized\\.\\ The\\ two\\ parties\\ are\\ far\\ apart\\ on\\ issues\\ are\\ never\\ before\\.\\ Never\\ has\\ politics\\ been\\ more\\ European\\ \\(George\\ Will\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Getting\\ more\\ cohesive\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Now\\ more\\ than\\ ever\\ they\\ disagree\\ on\\ everything\\ more\\ than\\ ever\\.\\ That\\ is\\ how\\ deep\\ partisan\\ polarization\\ has\\ extended\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Growing\\ religious\\ divide\\ between\\ the\\ parties\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Party\\ ID\\ now\\ is\\ an\\ even\\ stronger\\ predictor\\ of\\ vote\\ choice\\.\\ Partisans\\ are\\ sorting\\ themselves\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ really\\ heighten\\ their\\ difference\\.\\ Partisan\\ polarization\\ and\\ culture\\ war\\ on\\ the\\ public\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ although\\ they\\ are\\ often\\ conflated\\.\\ Democrats\\ and\\ Republicans\\ share\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ common\\ ground\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ does\\ any\\ of\\ this\\ matter\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ stakes\\ involved\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Damaging\\ to\\ American\\ democracy\\.\\ Negative\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sharp\\ increase\\ in\\ uncivil\\ speech\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\ of\\ the\\ House\\.\\ Americans\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ political\\ confrontation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Moderate\\ voters\\ become\\ disgusted\\ by\\ this\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Diana\\ Mutts\\:\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ the\\ style\\ in\\ which\\ disagreement\\ is\\ expressed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Still\\ more\\ consequences\\ in\\ the\\ ways\\ the\\ media\\ characterizes\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ this\\ might\\ reduce\\ participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Could\\ also\\ influence\\ what\\ actually\\ happens\\ in\\ politics\\.\\ Persuading\\ swing\\ voters\\ and\\ moderates\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ is\\ POSITIVE\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Could\\ indirectly\\ enhance\\ policy\\ representation\\ in\\ political\\ process\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ordinary\\ citizens\\ are\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ distinguish\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "How Divided is the United States"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.997169+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading Notes: Congressional Management Foundation, \"A Process for Managing Your Staff\"", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 630, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Reading\\ Notes\\:\\ A\\ Congressional\\ Management\\ Guide\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ A\\ Process\\ for\\ Managing\\ Staff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Rationale\\ for\\ a\\ Performance\\ Management\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ A\\ system\\ of\\ annual\\ review\\ must\\ be\\ in\\ place\\ so\\ that\\ great\\ staff\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ leave\\,\\ and\\ others\\ can\\ become\\ motivated\\.\\ Constant\\ monitoring\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ keeping\\ a\\ good\\ staff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Implementing\\ a\\ Performance\\ Management\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ A\\ 5\\-step\\ ongoing\\ process\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ completed\\ annually\\ for\\ each\\ staffer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Step\\ 1\\:\\ Establish\\ performance\\ goals\\ for\\ each\\ staff\\ person\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Most\\ staffers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ their\\ goals\\ are\\-\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ motivated\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ evaluated\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ set\\ realistic\\ goals\\,\\ as\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ staff\\ with\\ too\\ much\\ anxiety\\,\\ nor\\ do\\ you\\ want\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ overachieving\\ workaholics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Step\\ 2\\:\\ Monitor\\ progress\\ and\\ provide\\ feedback\\ and\\ coaching\\ as\\ necessary\\ to\\ assist\\ staff\\ in\\ meeting\\ their\\ goals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ The\\ best\\ managers\\ will\\ foster\\ trusting\\ relationships\\ with\\ their\\ staff\\,\\ and\\ support\\ staff\\ through\\ coaching\\,\\ critiquing\\,\\ and\\ sending\\ staff\\ to\\ training\\ programs\\ when\\ necessary\\.\\ A\\ comfortable\\ relationship\\ is\\ a\\ MUST\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Step\\ 3\\:\\ Conduct\\ formal\\ staff\\ evaluations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Mostly\\ Dec\\.\\ or\\ Jan\\.\\ when\\ the\\ office\\ is\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ new\\ year\\.\\ The\\ meetings\\ should\\ help\\ staff\\ improve\\,\\ and\\ tell\\ them\\ where\\ they\\ stand\\ in\\ job\\ performance\\.\\ 6\\ preparation\\ steps\\ should\\ help\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Require\\ each\\ staffer\\ to\\ review\\ his\\ own\\ performance\\ goals\\ and\\ fill\\ out\\ a\\ job\\ appraisal\\ form\\,\\ so\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ prepared\\ for\\ the\\ review\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Decide\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ person\\(s\\)\\ for\\ the\\ evaluation\\.\\ Usually\\ a\\ supervisor\\,\\ maybe\\ others\\.\\ NOT\\ the\\ Member\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Review\\ the\\ written\\ self\\-evaluations\\.\\ Allows\\ communication\\ to\\ happen\\ with\\ staff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Review\\ past\\ notes\\ filed\\ in\\ the\\ staffer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ file\\.\\ Review\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ recent\\ memory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Choose\\ your\\ core\\ message\\.\\ Ask\\ \\&ldquo\\;how\\ can\\ I\\ help\\ you\\ be\\ fulfilled\\ \\/\\ do\\ better\\ this\\ year\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Generate\\ examples\\ that\\ support\\ your\\ core\\ message\\.\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ tools\\ of\\ comprehension\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Step\\ 4\\:\\ Follow\\ through\\ on\\ the\\ evaluation\\ and\\ prepare\\ for\\ the\\ upcoming\\ year\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\Things\\ not\\ put\\ in\\ writing\\ are\\ far\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ accomplished\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Step\\ 5\\:\\ Reward\\ high\\ performing\\ staff\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ While\\ money\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ discussed\\ during\\ the\\ job\\ review\\,\\ non\\-monetary\\ compensation\\ like\\ increased\\ workload\\ or\\ days\\ off\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ effective\\ rewarding\\ tool\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Handling\\ Staff\\ With\\ Different\\ Needs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Managers\\ must\\ decide\\ with\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ staffers\\ their\\ time\\ is\\ best\\ spent\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ Member\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Motivating\\ star\\ performers\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ The\\ best\\ people\\ get\\ bored\\ easily\\,\\ so\\ you\\ must\\ give\\ significant\\ rewards\\,\\ be\\ it\\ member\\ time\\,\\ money\\ or\\ a\\ career\\ path\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Working\\ with\\ solid\\ performers\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Help\\ good\\ performers\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ best\\ they\\ can\\ be\\,\\ through\\ development\\ and\\ positive\\ feedback\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Addressing\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ sub\\-par\\ performers\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Through\\ clear\\ instructions\\ and\\ expectations\\,\\ poor\\ performers\\ can\\ become\\ solid\\ performers\\.\\ They\\ will\\ require\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ guidance\\,\\ however\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Challenges\\ in\\ Managing\\ Washington\\-District\\/State\\ Relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ resentment\\ between\\ Washington\\ offices\\ and\\ District\\ offices\\,\\ as\\ each\\ sees\\ themselves\\ as\\ the\\ more\\ important\\.\\ Good\\ management\\ of\\ this\\ relationship\\ includes\\ communication\\,\\ clarification\\ of\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ office\\ relationships\\,\\ and\\ regular\\ programs\\ of\\ staff\\ exchanges\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ that\\ people\\ within\\ the\\ office\\ realize\\ that\\ a\\ good\\ working\\ relationship\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ winning\\ any\\ argument\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Evaluating\\ Your\\ System\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Over\\ time\\,\\ you\\ can\\ adapt\\ your\\ system\\ to\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ your\\ particular\\ office\\,\\ and\\ create\\ new\\ ways\\ of\\ evaluating\\ everything\\.\\ Management\\ should\\ be\\ constantly\\ improving\\,\\ if\\ your\\ system\\ is\\ working\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading Notes: Congressional Management Foundation, \"A Process for Managing Your Staff\""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.025079+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hobbes' Leviathan", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 631, "html": "\\Hobbes\\ wrote\\ during\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ degradation\\ of\\ Italy\\,\\ and\\ adopts\\ a\\ tone\\ of\\ gravity\\ befitting\\ his\\ grief\\ for\\ the\\ historical\\ circumstances\\ of\\ his\\ country\\.\\ Hobbes\\ justifies\\ self\\-interest\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ we\\ consent\\ to\\ authority\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ yield\\ some\\ advantage\\ to\\ ourselves\\.\\ His\\ doctrine\\ constitutes\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ an\\ attack\\ on\\ all\\ the\\ traditional\\ basis\\ of\\ political\\ authority\\ as\\ he\\ believed\\ we\\ should\\ consent\\ only\\ to\\ limited\\ government\\ and\\ not\\ absolute\\ rule\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ when\\ Hobbes\\ sent\\ this\\ work\\ to\\ Charles\\ II\\,\\ he\\ was\\ banned\\ from\\ court\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ \\Leviathan\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\ The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ history\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Christianity\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ religious\\ and\\ stands\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ grace\\ before\\ the\\ expulsion\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ from\\ the\\ Garden\\ of\\ Eden\\.\\ For\\ the\\ Ancients\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ paradise\\ or\\ idyllic\\ golden\\ age\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ secular\\ not\\ religious\\ and\\ bleak\\ not\\ golden\\.\\ According\\ to\\ him\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ time\\,\\ a\\ prehistory\\ before\\ society\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ condition\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ absence\\ of\\ laws\\ and\\ effective\\ government\\.\\ The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ insecurity\\ where\\ authority\\ is\\ evacuated\\.\\ Hobbes\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ as\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ was\\ of\\ all\\ against\\ all\\,\\ for\\ war\\ is\\ always\\ lurking\\ when\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ effective\\ political\\ authority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\,\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ war\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ essentially\\ equal\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ natural\\ superiority\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ not\\ naturally\\ subordinate\\ to\\ men\\ or\\ children\\ to\\ their\\ father\\ for\\ Hobbes\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ politically\\ relevant\\ inequality\\ and\\ anyone\\ can\\ best\\ anyone\\ else\\ by\\ force\\ or\\ fraud\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ satisfied\\ with\\ our\\ own\\ share\\ implies\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ equality\\ of\\ mind\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ inherently\\ any\\ better\\ off\\ than\\ anyone\\ else\\.\\ Machaivelli\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2\\ human\\ types\\ \\(the\\ ambitious\\ and\\ the\\ cautious\\,\\ the\\ princes\\ and\\ the\\ people\\)\\ make\\ no\\ appearance\\ here\\;\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ anybody\\ can\\ be\\ the\\ sovereign\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ for\\ Hobbes\\ is\\ a\\ condition\\ of\\ fearfulness\\,\\ and\\ fear\\ itself\\ exacerbates\\ conflict\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ end\\ to\\ our\\ efforts\\ to\\ secure\\ ourselves\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ every\\ man\\ is\\ enemy\\ to\\ every\\ other\\ man\\.\\ In\\ short\\,\\ \\Leviathan\\ \\<\\/i\\>describes\\ a\\ radical\\ existential\\ fearfulness\\ of\\ violent\\ death\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\,\\ we\\ are\\ ceaselessly\\ experiencing\\ appetites\\ \\(for\\ pleasures\\)\\ and\\ aversions\\ \\(to\\ pain\\)\\.\\ These\\ appetites\\ and\\ aversions\\ never\\ end\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ never\\ satisfied\\,\\ because\\ the\\ same\\ object\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ inspire\\ the\\ same\\ reaction\\ in\\ us\\,\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ objects\\ of\\ our\\ pleasure\\ or\\ pain\\ are\\ multiple\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ there\\ are\\ always\\ new\\ objects\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ our\\ desires\\ are\\ always\\ in\\ flux\\,\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ arrive\\ at\\ a\\ judgment\\?\\ The\\ standard\\ answer\\ would\\ be\\ reason\\,\\ but\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ reason\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ temper\\ or\\ subdue\\ our\\ desires\\.\\ Reason\\ serves\\ the\\ passions\\ rather\\ than\\ rules\\ them\\ for\\ Hobbes\\.\\ Will\\,\\ not\\ reason\\,\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ psychological\\ force\\ for\\ Hobbes\\ and\\ Hobbes\\ defines\\ will\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ last\\ appetite\\ in\\ deliberation\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ we\\ experience\\ a\\ succession\\ of\\ appetites\\ or\\ aversions\\ until\\ one\\ wins\\ out\\,\\ and\\ that\\ last\\ appetite\\ or\\ aversion\\ is\\ what\\ he\\ calls\\ will\\.\\ Will\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ voluntary\\ or\\ intentional\\ then\\,\\ but\\ simply\\ the\\ last\\ appetite\\.\\ To\\ be\\ alive\\,\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ is\\ to\\ desirous\\ and\\ willful\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ final\\ end\\ or\\ aim\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ aspire\\;\\ rather\\,\\ life\\ is\\ marked\\ by\\ a\\ constant\\ pursuit\\ of\\ happiness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nothing\\ is\\ intrinsically\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ as\\ men\\ measure\\ all\\ things\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ themselves\\.\\ All\\ of\\ our\\ opinions\\ about\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\,\\ then\\,\\ are\\ private\\ opinions\\.\\ Insofar\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ any\\ agreement\\ about\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ bad\\,\\ it\\ arises\\ out\\ of\\ private\\ agreement\\ or\\ convention\\.\\ Without\\ agreement\\ on\\ one\\ thing\\ which\\ we\\ all\\ agree\\ is\\ bad\\ \\(an\\ untimely\\ death\\)\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ political\\ order\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ living\\ is\\ desiring\\,\\ self\\-preservation\\ is\\ always\\ good\\,\\ and\\ everyone\\ regards\\ their\\ own\\ death\\ as\\ something\\ evil\\.\\ The\\ passion\\ to\\ be\\ reckoned\\ with\\,\\ then\\,\\ should\\ be\\ fear\\ of\\ our\\ own\\ death\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\ was\\ a\\ strong\\ promoter\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ belief\\ that\\ fear\\ and\\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ avoid\\ an\\ untimely\\ death\\ should\\ be\\ our\\ principal\\ concerns\\.\\ He\\ wanted\\ the\\ \\Leviathan\\ \\<\\/i\\>taught\\ in\\ schools\\ and\\ read\\ from\\ the\\ pulpit\\.\\ He\\ not\\ only\\ uses\\ the\\ logic\\ of\\ argument\\ to\\ convince\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ urgency\\ of\\ fear\\,\\ but\\ also\\ invites\\ us\\ to\\ introspect\\ to\\ avoid\\ false\\ belief\\ in\\ religious\\ doctrine\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ engage\\ our\\ imagination\\ by\\ asking\\ us\\ to\\ read\\ histories\\ to\\ resurrect\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Civil\\ Wars\\ so\\ that\\ will\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ short\\,\\ Hobbes\\ believes\\ that\\ everyone\\ should\\ understand\\ that\\ insecurity\\ and\\ fear\\ of\\ violent\\ death\\ are\\ the\\ worst\\ possible\\ things\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ agree\\ to\\ a\\ strict\\ order\\.\\ He\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\ how\\ we\\ create\\ people\\ content\\ to\\ be\\ subjects\\,\\ not\\ in\\ how\\ to\\ create\\ good\\ citizens\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ law\\ and\\ order\\,\\ safety\\ and\\ security\\,\\ are\\ real\\ goods\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ tremendous\\ pleasure\\ we\\ can\\ derive\\ from\\ subjection\\.\\ Sure\\,\\ we\\ give\\ up\\ some\\ benefits\\ and\\ renounce\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ government\\,\\ but\\ the\\ advantages\\ of\\ this\\ political\\ order\\ which\\ he\\ calls\\ \\Leviathan\\ \\<\\/i\\>is\\ the\\ peace\\ of\\ being\\ subjects\\.\\ For\\ a\\ brief\\ moment\\,\\ Hobbes\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ be\\ god\\-like\\,\\ emulating\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creation\\ in\\ the\\ momentary\\ act\\ of\\ political\\ creation\\ when\\ we\\ create\\ a\\ political\\ sovereign\\.\\ But\\ we\\ then\\ retire\\ to\\ subjection\\,\\ content\\ with\\ peace\\ and\\ not\\ playing\\ any\\ role\\ in\\ governing\\ ourselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>", "course_id": 100, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hobbes' Leviathan"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 13", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 600, "html": "\\Rule\\ 13\\:\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rule\\:\\ \\½\\;\\ compulsory\\ \\&\\;\\ \\½\\;\\ permissive\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOnce\\ a\\ claim\\ is\\ made\\ against\\ any\\ D\\,\\ D\\ can\\ make\\ claims\\ back\\ \\(a\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ \\(b\\)\\ or\\ against\\ other\\ Ds\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nForces\\ parties\\ who\\ are\\ already\\ adversaries\\ to\\ litigate\\ all\\ claims\\ arising\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ set\\ of\\ facts\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ action\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n13\\(a\\)\\:\\ compulsory\\ counterclaims\\ \\(if\\ D\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ it\\,\\ he\\ waives\\ it\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCompulsory\\:\\ same\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\ \\(and\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ adding\\ another\\ party\\ the\\ court\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ add\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\[13\\(a\\)\\ requires\\ assertion\\ of\\ claims\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;opposing\\ parties\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ P\\ \\&\\;\\ impleaded\\ 3rd\\ party\\ are\\ not\\ opposing\\ parties\\]\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n13\\(b\\)\\:\\ permissive\\ counterclaims\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPermissive\\:\\ claims\\ that\\ arise\\ out\\ of\\ random\\ unrelated\\ stuff\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRelated\\=compulsory\\ \\(13\\(a\\)\\)\\;\\ unrelated\\=permissive\\ \\(13\\(b\\)\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n13\\(g\\)\\:\\ cross\\ claims\\ \\(D1\\ against\\ other\\ Ds\\,\\ any\\ D\\ against\\ any\\ other\\ D\\)\\ must\\ originate\\ out\\ of\\ same\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\ but\\ are\\ permissive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;rationale\\:\\ efficiency\\,\\ convenience\\,\\ minimizing\\ inconsistency\\ in\\ verdicts\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Permissive\\&rdquo\\;\\ nature\\ avoids\\ instigating\\ excess\\ litigation\\,\\ may\\ keep\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ P\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n13\\(h\\)\\:\\ joinder\\ of\\ additional\\ parties\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ 19\\ \\&\\;\\ 20\\&mdash\\;basically\\,\\ the\\ first\\ claim\\ against\\ new\\ parties\\ must\\ be\\ related\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOnce\\ a\\ new\\ party\\ is\\ in\\ under\\ Rule\\ 14\\,\\ claim\\ related\\ stuff\\ under\\ 13\\(h\\)\\ and\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ tack\\ on\\ unrelated\\ stuff\\ under\\ 18\\(a\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRelated\\,\\ permissive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 13"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 11", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 598, "html": "\\Rule\\ 11\\:\\ Signing\\ of\\ Pleadings\\,\\ Motions\\,\\ Other\\ Papers\\;\\ Representations\\ to\\ Court\\;\\ Sanctions\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n11\\(a\\)\\:\\ attorney\\ has\\ to\\ sign\\ everything\\ \\(pleading\\,\\ written\\ motions\\,\\ other\\ papers\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n11\\(b\\)\\:\\ Attorney\\ is\\ certifying\\ that\\ everything\\ he\\ submits\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ purpose\\:\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ being\\ presented\\ for\\ an\\ improper\\ purpose\\ \\(like\\ harassing\\ or\\ delaying\\ or\\ increasing\\ cost\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(2\\)\\ law\\:\\ is\\ warranted\\ by\\ existing\\ law\\ or\\ by\\ a\\ nonfrivolous\\ argument\\ for\\ changing\\ existing\\ law\\ or\\ establishing\\ a\\ new\\ law\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(3\\)\\ facts\\:\\ has\\ evidentiary\\ support\\ or\\ probably\\ will\\ after\\ discovery\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(4\\)\\ facts\\:\\ and\\ any\\ denials\\ are\\ reasonably\\ based\\ on\\ lack\\ of\\ info\\ or\\ belief\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n11\\(c\\)\\:\\ Sanctions\\!\\ \\(oops\\)\\*\\\\\r\n\\\r\n11\\(c\\)\\(1\\)\\ Enforcement\\ procedures\\:\\ \\(A\\)\\ Opposing\\ party\\ can\\ motion\\ for\\ them\\ or\\ \\(B\\)\\ the\\ court\\ can\\ award\\ them\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ volition\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n11\\(c\\)\\(2\\)\\:\\ Sanctions\\ can\\ be\\ whatever\\ the\\ court\\ thinks\\ will\\ deter\\&mdash\\;can\\ include\\ money\\,\\ attorney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fees\\,\\ stupid\\ classes\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n11\\(c\\)\\(3\\)\\:\\ the\\ Court\\ has\\ to\\ identify\\ \\&\\;\\ explain\\ the\\ behavior\\ that\\ got\\ the\\ attorney\\ sanctioned\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\*This\\ rule\\ contains\\ safe\\ harbor\\&mdash\\;the\\ delinquent\\ attorney\\ has\\ 21\\ days\\ to\\ fix\\ his\\ mistake\\ before\\ the\\ court\\ addresses\\ it\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n11\\(d\\)\\:\\ Sanctions\\ described\\ here\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ apply\\ to\\ disclosures\\ and\\ discovery\\ stuff\\&mdash\\;only\\ to\\ pleadings\\ \\&\\;\\ answers\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nZuk\\ v\\.\\ EPPI\\&mdash\\;Stupid\\ lawyer\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ his\\ homework\\.\\ Statute\\ of\\ limitations\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ factual\\ matter\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lawyer\\ has\\ to\\ know\\ about\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 11"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 4", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 596, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Rule\\ 4\\(k\\)\\(1\\)\\ establishes\\ basic\\ framework\\ for\\ exercising\\ territorial\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ Ds\\ found\\ within\\ the\\ US\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(k\\)\\(1\\)\\(A\\)\\:\\ reach\\ of\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ territorial\\ jurisdiction\\ governs\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ contrary\\ federal\\ statute\\ or\\ rule\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ sues\\ D\\ in\\ a\\ federal\\ action\\ in\\ the\\ Northern\\ District\\ of\\ Ohio\\.\\ Service\\ is\\ territorially\\ valid\\ if\\ D\\ is\\ served\\ with\\ process\\ anywhere\\ within\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ Ohio\\,\\ because\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ state\\ where\\ the\\ district\\ court\\ sits\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(k\\)\\(1\\)\\(B\\)\\:\\ provides\\ that\\ 3rd\\ party\\ Ds\\ impleaded\\ under\\ Rule\\ 14\\ \\&\\;\\ additional\\ parties\\ needed\\ for\\ just\\ adjudication\\ under\\ Rule\\ 19\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ in\\ personam\\ jurisdiction\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\,\\ provided\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ served\\ with\\ process\\ within\\ 100\\ miles\\ of\\ the\\ federal\\ courthouse\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ summons\\ is\\ issued\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;bulge\\ jurisdiction\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ available\\ in\\ federal\\ question\\ cases\\,\\ diversity\\ cases\\,\\ and\\ any\\ other\\ cases\\ over\\ which\\ the\\ federal\\ court\\ has\\ subject\\ matter\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;100\\ mile\\ bulge\\ allows\\ for\\ out\\-of\\-state\\ service\\ even\\ if\\ local\\ law\\ does\\ not\\ permit\\ it\\.\\ 2\\ types\\ of\\ parties\\ can\\ be\\ served\\ within\\ this\\ bulge\\:\\ Rule\\ 14\\ 3rd\\ party\\ Ds\\ \\&\\;\\ Rule\\ 19\\ indispensable\\ parties\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\ \\(4\\)\\(k\\)\\(1\\)\\(C\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ \\(D\\)\\:\\ the\\ federal\\ interpleader\\ statute\\,\\ and\\ other\\ unspecified\\ federal\\ statutes\\,\\ authorize\\ in\\ personam\\ jurisdiction\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\ 4\\(k\\)\\(2\\)\\:\\ provides\\ for\\ territorial\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ Ds\\ found\\ outside\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\(NB\\:\\ this\\ is\\ very\\ restricted\\&mdash\\;allows\\ nationwide\\ aggregation\\ of\\ contacts\\ for\\ purposes\\ of\\ assertion\\ of\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ a\\ foreign\\ D\\,\\ but\\ only\\ in\\ cases\\ where\\ the\\ claim\\ arises\\ under\\ federal\\ law\\,\\ and\\ only\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ state\\ that\\ can\\ exercise\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ that\\ D\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOmni\\ Capital\\ Int\\&rsquo\\;l\\ v\\.\\ Rudolf\\ Wolff\\ \\&\\;\\ Co\\&mdash\\;case\\ said\\,\\ Sup\\ Ct\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ going\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ rule\\ about\\ foreign\\ Ds\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ let\\ the\\ rulemakers\\ or\\ Congress\\ do\\ it\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\ 4\\ Summons\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(c\\)\\(1\\)\\ summons\\ served\\ with\\ copy\\ of\\ complaint\\ by\\ plaintiff\\ \\(2\\)\\ service\\ done\\ by\\ person\\ at\\ least\\ 18\\ years\\ old\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(d\\)\\(1\\)\\ Defendant\\ waiving\\ service\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ waive\\ objections\\ to\\ venue\\/jurisdiction\\ \\(2\\)\\ Plaintiff\\ can\\ mail\\ waiver\\ request\\ to\\ defendant\\ and\\ ask\\ for\\ response\\ within\\ 30\\ days\\ \\(60\\ if\\ outside\\ US\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Court\\ can\\ impose\\ cost\\ of\\ effecting\\ service\\ if\\ defendant\\ refuses\\ to\\ waive\\ service\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(e\\)\\ if\\ no\\ waiver\\ can\\ serve\\ process\\ \\(1\\)\\ pursuant\\ to\\ laws\\ of\\ state\\ the\\ court\\ is\\ in\\ or\\ \\(2\\)\\ process\\ left\\ at\\ home\\ or\\ usual\\ place\\ of\\ abode\\ with\\ person\\ of\\ suitable\\ age\\ and\\ discretion\\ also\\ residing\\ there\\ or\\ an\\ appointed\\ against\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;personal\\ service\\,\\ substitute\\ service\\,\\ service\\ to\\ an\\ agent\\,\\ or\\ by\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ state\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(f\\)\\ process\\ for\\ foreign\\ parties\\ by\\ means\\ agreed\\ upon\\ in\\ foreign\\ agreement\\ or\\ that\\ are\\ reasonably\\ calculated\\ to\\ reach\\ defendant\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(g\\)\\ for\\ process\\ to\\ incompetents\\/infants\\ follow\\ state\\ the\\ court\\ is\\ in\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(h\\)\\ Notice\\ to\\ corporations\\ \\(1\\)\\ by\\ state\\ law\\ or\\ delivery\\ process\\ to\\ statute\\-appointed\\ agent\\ \\(2\\)\\ follow\\ \\(f\\)\\ if\\ foreign\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(i\\)\\ and\\ 4\\(j\\)\\ govern\\ service\\ on\\ US\\ and\\ state\\/local\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\(m\\)\\ If\\ no\\ service\\ within\\ 120\\ days\\ of\\ filing\\ court\\ can\\ dismiss\\ action\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 4"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 8", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 597, "html": "\\Rule\\ 8\\:\\ General\\ Rules\\ of\\ Pleading\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n8\\(a\\)\\:\\ Claims\\ for\\ Relief\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ Short\\ \\&\\;\\ plain\\ statement\\ about\\ jurisdiction\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ short\\ \\&\\;\\ plain\\ statement\\ showing\\ the\\ pleader\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ relief\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ demand\\ for\\ judgment\\ for\\ the\\ relief\\ the\\ pleader\\ seeks\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n8\\(b\\)\\:\\ Denials\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDefense\\ can\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ Deny\\ entire\\ claim\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ Deny\\ parts\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ Say\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ enough\\ to\\ confirm\\ or\\ deny\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n8\\(c\\)\\:\\ Affirmative\\ Defenses\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDefense\\ has\\ to\\ put\\ forward\\ his\\ affirmative\\ defenses\\ in\\ his\\ reply\\ \\(duress\\,\\ estoppel\\,\\ res\\ judicata\\,\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ If\\ the\\ defense\\ confuses\\ counterclaims\\ \\&\\;\\ affirmative\\ defenses\\,\\ the\\ court\\ will\\ forgive\\ it\\ \\&\\;\\ properly\\ classify\\ them\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n8\\(d\\)\\:\\ Failure\\ to\\ Deny\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAnything\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ denied\\ is\\ admitted\\ to\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n8\\(e\\)\\:\\ Please\\ be\\ Concise\\,\\ Direct\\,\\ and\\ Consistent\\.\\ Thanks\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBut\\ 8\\(e\\)\\(2\\)\\:\\ Defense\\ can\\ make\\ potentially\\ contradictory\\ statements\\,\\ like\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ dog\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bite\\ him\\,\\ but\\ if\\ my\\ dog\\ did\\ bite\\ him\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ because\\ he\\ tormented\\ my\\ dog\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDioguardi\\ v\\.\\ Durning\\&mdash\\;if\\ claims\\ can\\ be\\ deciphered\\ to\\ put\\ together\\ a\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\,\\ then\\ they\\ meet\\ 8\\(a\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBell\\ Atlantic\\ Corp\\.\\ v\\ Twombly\\&mdash\\;focus\\ is\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;showing\\ that\\ the\\ pleader\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ relief\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Claims\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ than\\ speculative\\;\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ plausible\\.\\ \\[Former\\ standard\\ was\\ Conley\\,\\ when\\ the\\ P\\ just\\ had\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ complaint\\ that\\ was\\ possible\\/could\\ be\\ true\\]\\\\\r\n\\\r\nLeatherman\\ v\\.\\ Tarrant\\ County\\&mdash\\;rejects\\ a\\ heightened\\ pleading\\ standard\\ for\\ anything\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ specified\\ in\\ Rule\\ 9\\&mdash\\;just\\ need\\ \\&ldquo\\;short\\ \\&\\;\\ plain\\ statement\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(inconsistent\\ with\\ Twombly\\?\\)\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 8"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.037024+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hobbes' Leviathan 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 632, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\AR\\-SA\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-fareast\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Throughout\\ the\\ Leviathan\\,\\ Hobbes\\ discusses\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ or\\ natural\\ rights\\ demand\\ an\\ acknowledgement\\ on\\ our\\ part\\ that\\ other\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ liberty\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ and\\ therefore\\ impel\\ us\\ to\\ construct\\ Leviathan\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ his\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ are\\ neither\\ natural\\ nor\\ laws\\,\\ really\\.\\ They\\ are\\ not\\ natural\\ in\\ that\\ these\\ laws\\ are\\ just\\ there\\ and\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ know\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ them\\ naturally\\;\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ moral\\ intuitions\\,\\ innate\\ in\\ our\\ hearts\\ and\\ minds\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ laws\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ discover\\.\\ And\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ laws\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ compulsory\\,\\ but\\ conditional\\ on\\ our\\ desire\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ conception\\ of\\ Leviathan\\,\\ we\\ promise\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ sovereign\\ and\\ to\\ obey\\ for\\ our\\ own\\ individual\\ benefit\\,\\ or\\ what\\ we\\ judge\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ our\\ advantage\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ absolute\\ benefit\\ or\\ good\\.\\ We\\ consent\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ our\\ right\\ to\\ all\\ things\\,\\ but\\ without\\ our\\ consent\\ to\\ this\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ bound\\.\\ The\\ social\\ contract\\ is\\ our\\ acquiescence\\,\\ and\\ is\\ valid\\ only\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ we\\ choose\\ to\\ obey\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\While\\ Machiavelli\\ addresses\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ and\\ keep\\ power\\,\\ Leviathan\\ is\\ concerned\\ more\\ with\\ why\\ to\\ obey\\,\\ addressing\\ itself\\ to\\ us\\,\\ as\\ subjects\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ a\\ ruler\\.\\ The\\ onus\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ subjects\\ to\\ obey\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ while\\ for\\ Machiavelli\\ the\\ onus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ princes\\ to\\ inspire\\ fear\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\,\\ to\\ obey\\ is\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ our\\ natural\\ right\\ to\\ anything\\ and\\ everything\\.\\ We\\ cede\\ the\\ political\\ relevance\\ of\\ our\\ judgment\\ and\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ dissent\\ or\\ conscientious\\ objection\\,\\ and\\ agree\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ our\\ own\\ and\\ to\\ actively\\ assist\\ him\\ in\\ defending\\ the\\ commonwealth\\.\\ In\\ short\\,\\ we\\ consent\\ to\\ absolutism\\.\\ Nothing\\ the\\ sovereign\\ does\\ is\\ unjust\\ because\\ the\\ sovereign\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ party\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\.\\ The\\ only\\ one\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ up\\ his\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ the\\ sovereign\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ left\\ to\\ will\\.\\ Nothing\\ but\\ political\\ absolutism\\ will\\ satisfy\\ the\\ condition\\ for\\ peace\\,\\ as\\ limited\\ authority\\ is\\ always\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ collapse\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Absolutism\\,\\ however\\,\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ mean\\ the\\ Leviathan\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ monarch\\.\\ Hobbes\\ says\\ in\\ theory\\ you\\ could\\ have\\ a\\ parliamentary\\ sovereign\\,\\ even\\ a\\ popular\\ sovereign\\,\\ but\\ he\\ prescribes\\ monarchical\\ absolutism\\ because\\ one\\ decider\\ will\\ make\\ more\\ swift\\ and\\ more\\ consistent\\ decisions\\.\\ The\\ sovereign\\,\\ however\\,\\ could\\ be\\ anyone\\,\\ a\\ notion\\ which\\ contrasts\\ vividly\\ with\\ Machiavelli\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proscription\\ that\\ the\\ Prince\\ be\\ an\\ extraordinary\\ type\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\ rejects\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ emotional\\ and\\ psychological\\ basis\\ for\\ authority\\ which\\ was\\ traditionally\\ used\\ to\\ justify\\ rule\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ the\\ king\\ has\\ secular\\ authority\\ for\\ secular\\ purposes\\,\\ and\\ the\\ divine\\ right\\ theory\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ into\\ play\\.\\ Hobbes\\ argues\\ away\\,\\ then\\,\\ all\\ natural\\ obligations\\,\\ leaving\\ us\\ only\\ with\\ equality\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ right\\,\\ and\\ consent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\ of\\ consenting\\ to\\ absolutism\\,\\ however\\,\\ raises\\ a\\ question\\ much\\ like\\ the\\ prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dilemma\\:\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ explain\\ as\\ a\\ rational\\ choice\\ your\\ decision\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ all\\ authority\\ and\\ subject\\ yourself\\ to\\ a\\ sovereign\\?\\ The\\ answer\\ Hobbes\\ seems\\ to\\ provide\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ that\\ all\\ agree\\,\\ even\\ that\\ a\\ majority\\ agrees\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ enough\\ people\\ lay\\ down\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ all\\ things\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ take\\ action\\ against\\ those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ That\\ critical\\ mass\\ comes\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ cooperation\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ through\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ all\\ against\\ all\\,\\ but\\ through\\ his\\ writing\\,\\ preaching\\ at\\ the\\ pulpit\\,\\ and\\ introspection\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ philosophers\\ to\\ draw\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ evaluative\\ statements\\ \\(which\\ express\\ approval\\ or\\ disapproval\\)\\ and\\ obligations\\.\\ He\\ attempts\\ to\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ coherent\\ theory\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ obligation\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ punishment\\ by\\ the\\ sovereign\\ and\\ the\\ fear\\ that\\ our\\ reputations\\ would\\ decline\\ ought\\ to\\ prevent\\ us\\ from\\ flouting\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ issue\\ arises\\,\\ then\\,\\ of\\ whether\\ there\\ are\\ any\\ limits\\ on\\ our\\ obligation\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ sovereign\\.\\ Hobbes\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ promise\\ to\\ kill\\ ourselves\\ or\\ to\\ let\\ ourselves\\ be\\ killed\\.\\ If\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sword\\ is\\ pointed\\ at\\ us\\ in\\ punishment\\,\\ then\\,\\ presumably\\ we\\ can\\ resist\\ and\\ run\\,\\ and\\ if\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ fighting\\ for\\ a\\ sovereign\\,\\ we\\ can\\ seek\\ to\\ defend\\ ourselves\\.\\ And\\ so\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ inherent\\,\\ irresolvable\\ contradiction\\ on\\ Hobbes\\:\\ we\\ are\\ obliged\\ to\\ risk\\ our\\ lives\\ fighting\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ actually\\ die\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 100, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hobbes' Leviathan 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.057719+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hobbes' Leviathan 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 633, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\AR\\-SA\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-fareast\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Throughout\\ the\\ Leviathan\\,\\ Hobbes\\ discusses\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ or\\ natural\\ rights\\ demand\\ an\\ acknowledgement\\ on\\ our\\ part\\ that\\ other\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ liberty\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ and\\ therefore\\ impel\\ us\\ to\\ construct\\ Leviathan\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ his\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ are\\ neither\\ natural\\ nor\\ laws\\,\\ really\\.\\ They\\ are\\ not\\ natural\\ in\\ that\\ these\\ laws\\ are\\ just\\ there\\ and\\ we\\ come\\ to\\ know\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ them\\ naturally\\;\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ moral\\ intuitions\\,\\ innate\\ in\\ our\\ hearts\\ and\\ minds\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ laws\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ discover\\.\\ And\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ laws\\ in\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ compulsory\\,\\ but\\ conditional\\ on\\ our\\ desire\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ conception\\ of\\ Leviathan\\,\\ we\\ promise\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ sovereign\\ and\\ to\\ obey\\ for\\ our\\ own\\ individual\\ benefit\\,\\ or\\ what\\ we\\ judge\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ our\\ advantage\\ since\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ absolute\\ benefit\\ or\\ good\\.\\ We\\ consent\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ our\\ right\\ to\\ all\\ things\\,\\ but\\ without\\ our\\ consent\\ to\\ this\\ social\\ contract\\,\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ bound\\.\\ The\\ social\\ contract\\ is\\ our\\ acquiescence\\,\\ and\\ is\\ valid\\ only\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ we\\ choose\\ to\\ obey\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\While\\ Machiavelli\\ addresses\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ and\\ keep\\ power\\,\\ Leviathan\\ is\\ concerned\\ more\\ with\\ why\\ to\\ obey\\,\\ addressing\\ itself\\ to\\ us\\,\\ as\\ subjects\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ a\\ ruler\\.\\ The\\ onus\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ subjects\\ to\\ obey\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ while\\ for\\ Machiavelli\\ the\\ onus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ princes\\ to\\ inspire\\ fear\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\,\\ to\\ obey\\ is\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ our\\ natural\\ right\\ to\\ anything\\ and\\ everything\\.\\ We\\ cede\\ the\\ political\\ relevance\\ of\\ our\\ judgment\\ and\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ dissent\\ or\\ conscientious\\ objection\\,\\ and\\ agree\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ our\\ own\\ and\\ to\\ actively\\ assist\\ him\\ in\\ defending\\ the\\ commonwealth\\.\\ In\\ short\\,\\ we\\ consent\\ to\\ absolutism\\.\\ Nothing\\ the\\ sovereign\\ does\\ is\\ unjust\\ because\\ the\\ sovereign\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ party\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ contract\\.\\ The\\ only\\ one\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ up\\ his\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ the\\ sovereign\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ left\\ to\\ will\\.\\ Nothing\\ but\\ political\\ absolutism\\ will\\ satisfy\\ the\\ condition\\ for\\ peace\\,\\ as\\ limited\\ authority\\ is\\ always\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ collapse\\ back\\ into\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Absolutism\\,\\ however\\,\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ mean\\ the\\ Leviathan\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ monarch\\.\\ Hobbes\\ says\\ in\\ theory\\ you\\ could\\ have\\ a\\ parliamentary\\ sovereign\\,\\ even\\ a\\ popular\\ sovereign\\,\\ but\\ he\\ prescribes\\ monarchical\\ absolutism\\ because\\ one\\ decider\\ will\\ make\\ more\\ swift\\ and\\ more\\ consistent\\ decisions\\.\\ The\\ sovereign\\,\\ however\\,\\ could\\ be\\ anyone\\,\\ a\\ notion\\ which\\ contrasts\\ vividly\\ with\\ Machiavelli\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proscription\\ that\\ the\\ Prince\\ be\\ an\\ extraordinary\\ type\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\ rejects\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ emotional\\ and\\ psychological\\ basis\\ for\\ authority\\ which\\ was\\ traditionally\\ used\\ to\\ justify\\ rule\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ the\\ king\\ has\\ secular\\ authority\\ for\\ secular\\ purposes\\,\\ and\\ the\\ divine\\ right\\ theory\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ into\\ play\\.\\ Hobbes\\ argues\\ away\\,\\ then\\,\\ all\\ natural\\ obligations\\,\\ leaving\\ us\\ only\\ with\\ equality\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ right\\,\\ and\\ consent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\ of\\ consenting\\ to\\ absolutism\\,\\ however\\,\\ raises\\ a\\ question\\ much\\ like\\ the\\ prisoner\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dilemma\\:\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ explain\\ as\\ a\\ rational\\ choice\\ your\\ decision\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ all\\ authority\\ and\\ subject\\ yourself\\ to\\ a\\ sovereign\\?\\ The\\ answer\\ Hobbes\\ seems\\ to\\ provide\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ that\\ all\\ agree\\,\\ even\\ that\\ a\\ majority\\ agrees\\,\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ enough\\ people\\ lay\\ down\\ their\\ right\\ to\\ all\\ things\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ take\\ action\\ against\\ those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ That\\ critical\\ mass\\ comes\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ cooperation\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ through\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ all\\ against\\ all\\,\\ but\\ through\\ his\\ writing\\,\\ preaching\\ at\\ the\\ pulpit\\,\\ and\\ introspection\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ philosophers\\ to\\ draw\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ evaluative\\ statements\\ \\(which\\ express\\ approval\\ or\\ disapproval\\)\\ and\\ obligations\\.\\ He\\ attempts\\ to\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ coherent\\ theory\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ obligation\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ punishment\\ by\\ the\\ sovereign\\ and\\ the\\ fear\\ that\\ our\\ reputations\\ would\\ decline\\ ought\\ to\\ prevent\\ us\\ from\\ flouting\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ issue\\ arises\\,\\ then\\,\\ of\\ whether\\ there\\ are\\ any\\ limits\\ on\\ our\\ obligation\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ sovereign\\.\\ Hobbes\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ promise\\ to\\ kill\\ ourselves\\ or\\ to\\ let\\ ourselves\\ be\\ killed\\.\\ If\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sword\\ is\\ pointed\\ at\\ us\\ in\\ punishment\\,\\ then\\,\\ presumably\\ we\\ can\\ resist\\ and\\ run\\,\\ and\\ if\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ fighting\\ for\\ a\\ sovereign\\,\\ we\\ can\\ seek\\ to\\ defend\\ ourselves\\.\\ And\\ so\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ inherent\\,\\ irresolvable\\ contradiction\\ on\\ Hobbes\\:\\ we\\ are\\ obliged\\ to\\ risk\\ our\\ lives\\ fighting\\ but\\ not\\ to\\ actually\\ die\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 100, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hobbes' Leviathan 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.078978+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Hobbes' Leviathan 3", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 634, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\AR\\-SA\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-fareast\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\According\\ to\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ conception\\ of\\ Leviathan\\,\\ the\\ sovereign\\ is\\ everyman\\&mdash\\;desirous\\,\\ willful\\,\\ insecure\\.\\ Remaining\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ though\\,\\ he\\ possesses\\ both\\ the\\ disposition\\ and\\ liberty\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ preserve\\ himself\\.\\ He\\ acts\\ as\\ we\\ would\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ preserve\\ himself\\ and\\ his\\ interests\\.\\ The\\ sovereign\\ is\\ authorized\\ to\\ work\\ on\\ our\\ behalf\\ when\\ enough\\ individual\\ people\\ authorize\\ him\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ citizenry\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ authorize\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rdquo\\;\\ personally\\ authorize\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ famous\\ frontispiece\\ to\\ The\\ Leviathan\\ which\\ Hobbes\\ designed\\,\\ the\\ gigantic\\ figure\\ of\\ the\\ crowned\\ Leviathan\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ small\\ figures\\ with\\ their\\ backs\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\ gazing\\ upwards\\ at\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ The\\ image\\ illustrates\\ that\\ the\\ state\\ is\\ a\\ collective\\ body\\,\\ as\\ the\\ sovereign\\ bares\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ But\\ while\\ the\\ subjects\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ body\\ of\\ the\\ sovereign\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ face\\.\\ They\\ are\\ members\\ in\\ the\\ literal\\ sense\\,\\ with\\ no\\ capacity\\ for\\ acting\\ on\\ their\\ own\\.\\ When\\ we\\ authorize\\ the\\ sovereign\\ and\\ take\\ his\\ will\\ as\\ our\\ own\\,\\ we\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ political\\ relevance\\ of\\ our\\ judgment\\.\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ govern\\.\\ Rather\\,\\ our\\ representation\\ governs\\ us\\.\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ sovereign\\ is\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ views\\ of\\ his\\ constituents\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ obliged\\ to\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ notions\\ of\\ private\\ or\\ public\\ good\\.\\ His\\ authorization\\ is\\ unconditional\\ and\\ irrevocable\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ has\\ been\\ said\\ that\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ account\\ of\\ authorization\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ the\\ people\\.\\ But\\ Hobbes\\ \\is\\ \\<\\/i\\>favorable\\ to\\ one\\ key\\ element\\ of\\ representation\\:\\ the\\ sovereign\\ must\\ take\\ the\\ reasons\\ that\\ subjects\\ authorize\\ him\\ into\\ account\\.\\ If\\ the\\ sovereign\\ acts\\ against\\ the\\ motivations\\ for\\ our\\ authorization\\ of\\ him\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ against\\ what\\ promotes\\ peace\\ and\\ security\\,\\ he\\ may\\ be\\ acting\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ effectively\\ relieve\\ subjects\\ of\\ their\\ obligation\\ to\\ obey\\.\\ As\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ practice\\,\\ subjects\\ can\\ and\\ do\\ cease\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ as\\ their\\ own\\ and\\ revert\\ to\\ self\\-defense\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Moreover\\,\\ unlike\\ in\\ Machiavelli\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ personality\\ of\\ the\\ sovereign\\ himself\\ which\\ inspires\\ our\\ obligation\\ to\\ him\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ Hobbes\\ eradicates\\ the\\ personality\\ of\\ the\\ sovereign\\.\\ The\\ office\\ of\\ the\\ sovereign\\,\\ not\\ the\\ man\\ himself\\,\\ is\\ endowed\\ with\\ power\\.\\ Hobbes\\ wants\\ the\\ safety\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ order\\,\\ regularity\\,\\ and\\ law\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\ is\\ a\\ command\\ theory\\:\\ the\\ law\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ sovereign\\ wills\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ higher\\ law\\,\\ divine\\ or\\ natural\\,\\ inscribed\\ in\\ our\\ hearts\\,\\ that\\ takes\\ precedence\\.\\ No\\ standard\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ good\\ or\\ common\\ interest\\ can\\ take\\ away\\ what\\ the\\ sovereign\\ commands\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ justice\\ or\\ injustice\\ because\\ justice\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ will\\ of\\ the\\ sovereign\\.\\ \\Leviathan\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ then\\,\\ offers\\ up\\ a\\ version\\ of\\ legal\\ positivism\\,\\ asserting\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ a\\ law\\ is\\ a\\ law\\ not\\ by\\ its\\ content\\ or\\ reasonableness\\ but\\ by\\ its\\ source\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ that\\ source\\ is\\ the\\ sovereign\\,\\ who\\ is\\ politically\\ absolute\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ sovereign\\,\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ is\\ absolute\\ in\\ three\\ areas\\&mdash\\;religion\\,\\ property\\,\\ and\\ family\\.\\ Religion\\,\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ is\\ brought\\ into\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ make\\ men\\ see\\ double\\ and\\ mistake\\ their\\ rightful\\ sovereign\\.\\ Hobbes\\ argues\\ that\\ sovereigns\\ \\,not\\ bishops\\,\\ head\\ both\\ church\\ and\\ state\\,\\ possessing\\ both\\ ecclesiastic\\ and\\ political\\ power\\.\\ Religious\\ decisions\\ rest\\ not\\ on\\ scripture\\ but\\ on\\ the\\ sovereign\\,\\ who\\ interprets\\ scripture\\,\\ imposes\\ religious\\ orthodoxy\\,\\ and\\ chooses\\ whether\\ to\\ outlaw\\ religious\\ dissent\\ or\\ permit\\ religious\\ freedom\\.\\ Hobbes\\ does\\ not\\ say\\ that\\ church\\ and\\ state\\ should\\ occupy\\ separate\\ spheres\\.\\ For\\ Hobbes\\,\\ there\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ domain\\,\\ and\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ competing\\ authorities\\ in\\ the\\ state\\.\\ The\\ frontispiece\\ Hobbes\\ designed\\ shows\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ secular\\ and\\ religious\\ powers\\ as\\ analogous\\ \\(ex\\:\\ fortress\\ and\\ cathedral\\ \\,\\ crown\\ of\\ king\\ and\\ of\\ God\\,\\ canon\\ and\\ divine\\ lightning\\,\\ arms\\ and\\ forks\\ of\\ medieval\\ scholastic\\ argument\\,\\ soldiers\\ in\\ battle\\ and\\ theological\\ disputants\\ arguing\\ before\\ an\\ authority\\)\\.\\ In\\ short\\,\\ religious\\ life\\ and\\ political\\ life\\ are\\ essentially\\ no\\ different\\ for\\ Hobbes\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ readings\\ of\\ the\\ peaceful\\ prosperous\\ town\\ below\\ the\\ Leviathan\\ in\\ the\\ frontispiece\\.\\ One\\ reading\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ peace\\ of\\ this\\ town\\ and\\ the\\ Leviathan\\ rests\\ on\\ these\\ foundations\\,\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ power\\ at\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disposal\\.\\ The\\ other\\ reading\\ goes\\ the\\ other\\ way\\,\\ that\\ the\\ sovereign\\ needs\\ to\\ suppress\\ both\\ of\\ these\\ sources\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ unrest\\ to\\ achieve\\ this\\ peaceful\\ town\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ sovereign\\ is\\ also\\ absolute\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ property\\.\\ Civil\\ laws\\ of\\ property\\,\\ including\\ inheritance\\ and\\ taxation\\,\\ are\\ commanded\\ by\\ the\\ sovereign\\.\\ Property\\ is\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ license\\ of\\ the\\ crown\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ revoked\\ at\\ any\\ time\\.\\ Similarly\\,\\ the\\ sovereign\\ is\\ absolute\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ family\\.\\ Hobbes\\ denies\\ that\\ the\\ family\\ is\\ natural\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ natural\\ dominion\\ of\\ father\\ over\\ child\\ or\\ husband\\ over\\ wife\\.\\ The\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ sovereign\\,\\ not\\ nature\\,\\ create\\ patriarchy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Overall\\,\\ Hobbes\\ thought\\ absolutism\\ should\\ be\\ limited\\ in\\ its\\ form\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ its\\ extent\\.\\ Nothing\\ the\\ sovereign\\ does\\ is\\ unjust\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ becomes\\ command\\ through\\ the\\ law\\.\\ Laws\\ must\\ be\\ known\\,\\ promulgated\\ and\\ written\\ down\\,\\ and\\ enforced\\ by\\ courts\\ of\\ law\\.\\ Leviathan\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ site\\ of\\ terror\\ but\\ of\\ legal\\ regularity\\,\\ as\\ sovereignty\\ is\\ exercised\\ through\\ an\\ office\\ with\\ a\\ particular\\ purpose\\.\\ In\\ a\\ sense\\,\\ then\\,\\ this\\ is\\ parallel\\ to\\ Machiavelli\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economy\\ of\\ violence\\.\\ Hobbes\\ and\\ Machiavelli\\ economize\\,\\ however\\,\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ Machiavelli\\ argues\\ for\\ short\\,\\ sharp\\ blows\\ of\\ arbitrary\\ violence\\ that\\ stupefy\\ subjects\\.\\ Hobbes\\ wants\\ violence\\ to\\ be\\ always\\ present\\ but\\ always\\ controlled\\ by\\ law\\ and\\ never\\ left\\ to\\ disintegrate\\ into\\ chaos\\ and\\ disorder\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\,\\ while\\ the\\ sovereign\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decisions\\ are\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ our\\ judgment\\,\\ there\\ are\\ still\\ better\\ and\\ worse\\ sovereigns\\.\\ Better\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ fill\\ the\\ obligations\\ of\\ the\\ office\\ and\\ create\\ conditions\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ security\\.\\ His\\ goal\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ perfect\\ subjects\\ or\\ make\\ them\\ moral\\,\\ not\\ to\\ create\\ citizens\\,\\ community\\,\\ or\\ fraternity\\,\\ for\\ this\\ subjects\\ can\\ do\\ this\\ in\\ their\\ private\\ lives\\ through\\ private\\ associations\\.\\ In\\ short\\,\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ Leviathan\\ are\\ defined\\ and\\ limited\\,\\ focused\\ on\\ preservation\\ and\\ security\\.\\ This\\,\\ coupled\\ with\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ emphasis\\ on\\ egalitarianism\\ and\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ ruler\\ derives\\ power\\ from\\ the\\ covenant\\ of\\ his\\ subjects\\,\\ is\\ why\\ some\\ see\\ Hobbes\\&rsquo\\;\\ theory\\ as\\ proto\\-liberal\\ or\\ proto\\-democratic\\.\\ True\\,\\ Hobbes\\ clearly\\ specifies\\ that\\ he\\ prefers\\ monarchy\\ to\\ democracy\\ on\\ pragmatic\\ grounds\\,\\ so\\ he\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ democratic\\.\\ Yet\\,\\ for\\ Hobbes\\,\\ liberty\\ exists\\ in\\ the\\ silence\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sovereign\\ has\\ no\\ reason\\ to\\ be\\ errant\\ or\\ intrusive\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>While\\ Leviathan\\ gives\\ no\\ guaranty\\ of\\ civil\\ or\\ political\\ rights\\,\\ it\\ also\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ outlaw\\ private\\ groups\\ or\\ associations\\ at\\ all\\.\\ Hobbes\\ can\\ therefore\\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ some\\ senses\\ proto\\-liberal\\,\\ as\\ liberalism\\ allows\\ for\\ personal\\ freedom\\ and\\ limits\\ the\\ state\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 100, "file_path": "", "desc": "Hobbes' Leviathan 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.112911+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Energetic Universe", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 635, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Matter\\ makes\\ up\\ 4\\%\\ of\\ composition\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Other\\ 96\\%\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ other\\ stuff\\,\\ like\\ dark\\ energy\\,\\ dark\\ matter\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ know\\ what\\ they\\ are\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Title\\ page\\:\\ galaxy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ assembly\\ of\\ a\\ hundreds\\ of\\ billions\\ stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ universe\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ galaxies\\,\\ about\\ a\\ hundred\\ billion\\ of\\ them\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ stars\\ come\\ to\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ a\\ violent\\ way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sun\\ has\\ been\\ shining\\ for\\ about\\ 5\\ billion\\ years\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ operate\\ for\\ another\\ 5\\ billion\\ years\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Other\\ stars\\ may\\ come\\ to\\ end\\ more\\ quickly\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Supernovi\\ \\(plural\\ of\\ supernova\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ create\\ chemical\\ elements\\ out\\ of\\ which\\ earth\\ is\\ made\\;\\ very\\ interesting\\ objects\\;\\ very\\ bright\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ them\\ from\\ great\\ distances\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Big\\ Bang\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ about\\ 14\\ million\\ years\\ ago\\;\\ universe\\ was\\ very\\ simple\\,\\ very\\ hot\\,\\ and\\ material\\ was\\ very\\ smooth\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Then\\,\\ universe\\ has\\ been\\ expanding\\ since\\ then\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inflation\\ and\\ expansion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fairly\\ recently\\,\\ last\\ 5\\ billion\\ years\\ or\\ so\\,\\ Expansion\\ has\\ speeded\\ up\\.\\ \\;Universe\\ has\\ gone\\ from\\ being\\ simple\\ to\\ more\\ complicated\\.\\ \\;Things\\ that\\ have\\ changed\\:\\ matter\\ has\\ become\\ clumpier\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ thin\\ gas\\)\\,\\ very\\ inhomogenous\\ \\(stars\\,\\ lumps\\ of\\ rocks\\ around\\ stars\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ planets\\,\\ groups\\ of\\ stars\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ galaxies\\,\\ galaxies\\ clumped\\ up\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contrast\\ has\\ grown\\.\\ \\;Has\\ also\\ grown\\ more\\ complex\\ on\\ microscopic\\ scale\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Out\\ of\\ big\\ bang\\ we\\ only\\ get\\ Hydrogen\\ and\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ of\\ Helium\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Energy\\ for\\ stars\\ comes\\ from\\ nuclear\\ reactions\\,\\ fusions\\,\\ that\\ build\\ heavier\\ elements\\ out\\ of\\ light\\ ones\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Universe\\ Composition\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>73\\%\\ Dark\\ Energy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ making\\ the\\ universe\\ speed\\ up\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>23\\%\\ Cold\\ Dark\\ Matter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>4\\%\\ Atoms\\ \\(Matter\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Big\\ News\\ in\\ 1998\\:\\ Dark\\ Energy\\ makes\\ the\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\ speed\\ up\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dark\\ matter\\ at\\ work\\&mdash\\;Curving\\ space\\ through\\ gravity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bound\\ together\\ by\\ their\\ own\\ gravity\\ in\\ this\\ cluster\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mass\\ that\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ cluster\\ is\\ much\\ bigger\\ than\\ the\\ mass\\ associated\\ with\\ visible\\ stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ has\\ gravity\\,\\ but\\ not\\ light\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gravity\\ bending\\ light\\,\\ thin\\ blue\\ arcs\\ \\=\\ images\\ of\\ objects\\ behind\\ cluster\\ of\\ gravity\\ and\\ light\\ from\\ them\\,\\ as\\ it\\ comes\\ near\\ clump\\ of\\ matter\\,\\ is\\ warped\\.\\ \\;The\\ path\\ of\\ the\\ light\\ is\\ changed\\ to\\ form\\ ringlike\\ arcs\\,\\ from\\ measurement\\ of\\ arcs\\ can\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ much\\ mass\\ is\\ in\\ there\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Use\\ Physics\\ learned\\ on\\ Earth\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ Universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Starlight\\ is\\ only\\ form\\ of\\ light\\ in\\ picture\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Milky\\ Way\\ galaxy\\ is\\ where\\ we\\ live\\;\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ clump\\ of\\ galaxies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Large\\ Magellanic\\ Cloud\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nearby\\ large\\ galaxy\\ in\\ our\\ cluster\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Energy\\ for\\ the\\ Sun\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Understood\\ through\\ nuclear\\ physics\\ learned\\ on\\ earth\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nuclear\\ fusion\\ taking\\ place\\ at\\ center\\ of\\ sun\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ energy\\ we\\ use\\ on\\ earth\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fates\\ of\\ Stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knowing\\ how\\ energy\\ is\\ produced\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ think\\ ahead\\ and\\ predict\\ fates\\ of\\ stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Can\\ test\\ this\\ idea\\ and\\ see\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ stars\\ as\\ they\\ age\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Picture\\:\\ supernove\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ explosion\\;\\ star\\ comes\\ to\\ an\\ end\\.\\ \\;Red\\ star\\ swelling\\ up\\ and\\ some\\ matter\\ swelling\\ and\\ falling\\ down\\,\\ titanic\\ explosion\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ energy\\ released\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Supernova\\ explosions\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ galaxy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Picture\\:\\ a\\ supernova\\ in\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ galaxy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tycho\\&rsquo\\;s\\ SN\\ \\(Supernova\\)\\ of\\ 1572\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rare\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ happen\\ once\\ in\\ a\\ hundred\\ years\\ in\\ a\\ galaxy\\ like\\ ours\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Supernovae\\ \\&\\;\\ Cosmology\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hubble\\ \\(1929\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;a\\ mysterios\\ class\\ of\\ exceptional\\ novae\\ which\\ attain\\ luminosities\\ that\\ are\\ respectable\\ fractions\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ luminosities\\ of\\ the\\ systems\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ appear\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Milky\\ Way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1917\\ \\=\\ The\\ Universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Today\\ \\=\\ 1\\ in\\ 10\\^11\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hubble\\ used\\ the\\ apparent\\ brightness\\ of\\ stars\\ in\\ galaxies\\ to\\ judge\\ their\\ distances\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conclusion\\:\\ The\\ Milky\\ Way\\ is\\ not\\ unique\\:\\ A\\ Universe\\ of\\ 10\\^11\\ Galaxies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Units\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ use\\ the\\ metric\\ system\\ plus\\ some\\ units\\ loved\\ by\\ only\\ astronomers\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\http\\:\\/\\/physics\\.nist\\.gov\\/cuu\\/Units\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Meter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Kilogram\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Second\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Joule\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ metric\\ unit\\ of\\ Energy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Watt\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ metric\\ unit\\ of\\ Power\\ \\(Energy\\ per\\ second\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Astronomical\\ Unit\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Parsec\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>These\\ units\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ political\\ content\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ meter\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ not\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ foot\\!\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\ million\\ meters\\ from\\ the\\ equator\\ to\\ the\\ pole\\!\\ \\(10\\^7\\ m\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Kilogram\\ is\\ the\\ unit\\ of\\ mass\\;\\ it\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ international\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Exponential\\ Notation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ see\\ slide\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ does\\ the\\ Earth\\ look\\ flat\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ cases\\ where\\ our\\ size\\ and\\ location\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ misleading\\ idea\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Universe\\ is\\ constructed\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ small\\ not\\ just\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ Universe\\,\\ even\\ compared\\ to\\ something\\ really\\ small\\ in\\ the\\ Universe\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ you\\/Earth\\ 10\\^\\-7\\ in\\ size\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ far\\ away\\ is\\ the\\ horizon\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ horizon\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ distant\\ point\\ you\\ can\\ see\\-it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ your\\ \\&ldquo\\;line\\ of\\ sight\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(black\\ line\\)\\ just\\ skims\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\.\\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ your\\ line\\ of\\ sight\\ is\\ tangent\\ to\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\&mdash\\;that\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ radius\\ is\\ perpendicular\\ to\\ my\\ view\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Theorem\\ of\\ Pythagoras\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ a\\ right\\ triangle\\,\\ the\\ square\\ of\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ the\\ hypotenuse\\ is\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ squares\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ two\\ sides\\.\\ A\\^2\\ \\+\\ B\\^2\\ \\=\\ C\\^2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\(H\\ \\+\\ R\\)\\^2\\ \\=\\ d\\^2\\ \\+\\ R\\^2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Energetic Universe"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.149308+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Vision I", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 636, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\ \\ \\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\VISION\\ I\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ GEORGE\\ ALVAREZ\\<\\/font\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\In\\ this\\ first\\ lesson\\ about\\ vision\\,\\ we\\ discussed\\ the\\ foundations\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ study\\ of\\ vision\\ through\\ Marr\\'s\\ first\\ chapter\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ read\\ some\\ papers\\ by\\ Olshausen\\ and\\ Field\\ about\\ the\\ regularity\\ of\\ natural\\ images\\ and\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ visual\\ system\\ as\\ an\\ optimal\\ device\\ to\\ process\\ such\\ images\\.\\ Successively\\,\\ we\\ studied\\ the\\ role\\ played\\ by\\ lightness\\ and\\ contrast\\ in\\ vision\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ we\\ read\\ a\\ paper\\ by\\ Howe\\ and\\ colleagues\\ that\\ contrasts\\ the\\ Bayesian\\ approach\\ to\\ vision\\ to\\ the\\ Empirical\\ Ranking\\ Theory\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marr\\ 1982\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Vision\\:\\ A\\ computational\\ investigation\\ into\\ the\\ human\\ representation\\ and\\ processing\\ of\\ visual\\ information\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\HISTORY\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Early\\ beginnings\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Newton\\,\\ Helmholtz\\,\\ Wertheimer\\ and\\ the\\ Gestalt\\ school\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Since\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Gestalt\\ school\\,\\ psychologists\\ of\\ perception\\ did\\ not\\ attempt\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ perception\\ is\\,\\ but\\ studied\\ its\\ properties\\ and\\ performance\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Psychophysics\\ 1950\\-1980\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Important\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ digital\\ electronic\\ computers\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Campbell\\ and\\ Robson\\ 1968\\:\\ independent\\ spatial\\ frequency\\ tuned\\ channels\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Shepard\\ and\\ Metzler\\ 1971\\:\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ rotate\\ an\\ object\\ in\\ imagery\\ is\\ linearly\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ angle\\ of\\ rotation\\.\\ Important\\ paper\\ because\\ it\\ led\\ psychologists\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ representation\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Electrophysiology\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\First\\ single\\ cell\\ recordings\\:\\ Hartline\\ 1938\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Notion\\ of\\ receptive\\ field\\:\\ Hartline\\ 1940\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Adrian\\ 1947\\:\\ nerve\\ fibers\\ map\\ the\\ physical\\ events\\ at\\ the\\ body\\ surface\\ on\\ the\\ \\`sensorium\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Barlow\\ 1972\\:\\ the\\ electrophysiological\\ findings\\ made\\ us\\ realise\\ that\\ single\\ neurons\\ can\\ perform\\ tasks\\ much\\ more\\ complex\\ than\\ what\\ it\\ was\\ thought\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Barlow\\ 1972\\:\\ studying\\ the\\ activity\\ of\\ neurons\\ is\\ sufficient\\ to\\ gain\\ a\\ complete\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ nervous\\ system\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\In\\ the\\ 70s\\ fewer\\ discoveries\\,\\ scholars\\ turned\\ to\\ other\\ techniques\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\AI\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marr\\:\\ studying\\ neurons\\ is\\ not\\ sufficient\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ He\\ felt\\ that\\ something\\ was\\ missing\\ and\\ joined\\ Minsky\\ at\\ the\\ MIT\\ AI\\ laboratory\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\First\\ revelation\\:\\ the\\ AI\\ problems\\ are\\ difficult\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Three\\ approaches\\:\\ 1\\ empirical\\ \\(Rosenfeld\\)\\,\\ 2\\ simplifying\\ the\\ task\\ \\(Horn\\)\\.\\ For\\ the\\ third\\,\\ crucial\\ work\\ by\\ Land\\ and\\ McCann\\ 1971\\ and\\ Horn\\ 1974\\ on\\ color\\ vision\\ and\\ by\\ Horn\\ 1975\\ on\\ the\\ analysis\\ of\\ shape\\ from\\ shading\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Message\\:\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ an\\ additional\\ level\\ of\\ understanding\\ which\\ is\\ independent\\ from\\ the\\ hardware\\.\\ Marr\\ and\\ Poggio\\ 1977\\,\\ 1977b\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\UNDERSTANDING\\ COMPLEX\\ INFORMATION\\ PROCESSING\\ SYSTEMS\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Thermodynamics\\ studies\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ macroscopic\\ properties\\,\\ considering\\ the\\ single\\ particles\\ is\\ complex\\ \\[and\\ makes\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ realize\\ the\\ global\\ more\\ regular\\ properties\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Representation\\-\\-\\<\\/font\\>\\A\\ formal\\ system\\ to\\ make\\ information\\ explicit\\ together\\ with\\ a\\ specification\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Different\\ representations\\ make\\ different\\ information\\ explicit\\,\\ and\\ can\\ alter\\ how\\ easily\\ different\\ processes\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ transform\\ the\\ representations\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\For\\ example\\ Arabic\\ numerals\\ and\\ Roman\\ numerals\\ demonstrate\\ how\\ the\\ representation\\ can\\ affect\\ the\\ ease\\ of\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ processing\\.\\ Arabic\\ numbers\\ are\\ easy\\ to\\ add\\ and\\ multiply\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ algorithms\\ they\\ enable\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ These\\ same\\ operations\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Roman\\ numbers\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ \\`How\\ information\\ is\\ represented\\ can\\ greatly\\ affect\\ how\\ easy\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ do\\ different\\ things\\ with\\ it\\'\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Process\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marr\\ gives\\ some\\ examples\\.\\ Addition\\,\\ taking\\ a\\ Fourier\\ transform\\,\\ making\\ a\\ cup\\ of\\ tea\\,\\ going\\ shopping\\.\\ Processes\\ must\\ be\\ understood\\ at\\ multiple\\ levels\\ of\\ analysis\\ \\(the\\ three\\ levels\\ below\\)\\.\\ Marr\\ specifies\\ that\\ a\\ computational\\ theory\\ must\\ have\\ two\\ important\\ features\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ contains\\ separate\\ arguments\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ computed\\ and\\ why\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ resulting\\ operation\\ is\\ defined\\ uniquely\\ by\\ the\\ constraints\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ satisfy\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Three\\ important\\ points\\ about\\ a\\ computational\\ theory\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ \\`There\\ is\\ usually\\ a\\ wide\\ choice\\ of\\ representation\\'\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ \\`The\\ choice\\ of\\ algorithm\\ often\\ depends\\ rather\\ critically\\ on\\ the\\ particular\\ representation\\ that\\ is\\ employed\\'\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ \\`Even\\ for\\ a\\ given\\ fixed\\ representation\\,\\ there\\ are\\ often\\ several\\ possible\\ algorithms\\ for\\ carrying\\ out\\ the\\ same\\ process\\'\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Information\\-processing\\ theories\\ have\\ three\\ levels\\ of\\ explanation\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ Computational\\-\\-What\\ is\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ computation\\,\\ why\\ is\\ it\\ appropriate\\,\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ logic\\ of\\ the\\ strategy\\ by\\ which\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ carried\\ out\\?\\ \\(this\\ corresponds\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ computation\\ is\\ doing\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ Algorithm\\ and\\ representation\\-\\-How\\ can\\ this\\ computational\\ theory\\ be\\ implemented\\?\\ In\\ particular\\,\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ representation\\ for\\ the\\ input\\ and\\ output\\,\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ algorithm\\ for\\ the\\ transformation\\?\\ \\(this\\ corresponds\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ process\\ does\\ the\\ computation\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ Hardware\\ implementation\\-\\-How\\ can\\ the\\ representation\\ and\\ algorithm\\ be\\ realized\\ physically\\?\\ \\;\\(this\\ corresponds\\ to\\ how\\ the\\ process\\ does\\ the\\ computation\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\`Since\\ the\\ three\\ levels\\ are\\ only\\ losely\\ related\\,\\ some\\ phenomena\\ may\\ be\\ explained\\ at\\ only\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ of\\ them\\'\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\`Trying\\ to\\ understand\\ perception\\ by\\ studying\\ only\\ neurons\\ is\\ like\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ bird\\ flight\\ by\\ studying\\ only\\ feathers\\'\\ \\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Good\\ examples\\ of\\ computational\\ theories\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ sciences\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Chomsky\\'s\\ theory\\ of\\ language\\ \\(1965\\)\\:\\ at\\ the\\ computational\\ level\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Gibson\\ 1966\\ close\\ to\\ a\\ computational\\ theory\\ of\\ vision\\.\\ He\\ asked\\ \\`How\\ does\\ one\\ obtain\\ constant\\ perceptions\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ continually\\ changing\\ sensations\\?\\'\\.\\ Invariants\\.\\ The\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ to\\ detect\\ them\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Shortcomings\\ of\\ Gibson\\:\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ realize\\ that\\ detecting\\ invariants\\ is\\ an\\ information\\ processing\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ sense\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ he\\ underestimated\\ the\\ difficulty\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marr\\ then\\ presents\\ A\\ REPRESENTATIONAL\\ FRAMEWORK\\ FOR\\ VISION\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Study\\ of\\ a\\ simple\\ visual\\ system\\:\\ Reichardt\\ and\\ Poggio\\ 1976\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Study\\ of\\ more\\ complex\\ visual\\ systems\\:\\ Marr\\'s\\ approach\\ influenced\\ by\\ Warrington\\ \\(October\\ 1973\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Warrington\\'s\\ talk\\ suggested\\ that\\:\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ shape\\ is\\ stored\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ brain\\ area\\ from\\ the\\ information\\ about\\ its\\ purpose\\ and\\ use\\,\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ vision\\ alone\\ can\\ deliver\\ an\\ internal\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ a\\ viewed\\ object\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ object\\ was\\ not\\ recognized\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marr\\ says\\,\\ \\'we\\ can\\ only\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ possible\\ and\\ proceed\\ from\\ there\\ toward\\ what\\ is\\ desirable\\,\\'\\ meaning\\ object\\ recognition\\ cannot\\ be\\ happening\\ in\\ just\\ one\\ step\\.\\ It\\ must\\ have\\ hierarchical\\ levels\\ of\\ problem\\ solving\\,\\ so\\ that\\ easy\\ problems\\ are\\ solved\\ first\\,\\ and\\ then\\ one\\ can\\ use\\ those\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ level\\ of\\ computation\\ etc\\.\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ photons\\ to\\ edges\\ to\\ surfaces\\ to\\ objects\\.\\.\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marr\\'s\\ layout\\ for\\ how\\ to\\ go\\ from\\ the\\ possible\\ to\\ the\\ desirable\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\ in\\ order\\ of\\ units\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Image\\-\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ retina\\ gets\\ and\\ consists\\ of\\ intensities\\ and\\ locations\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Primal\\ Sketch\\ \\(summary\\ of\\ 2D\\ info\\)\\-\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ next\\ general\\ step\\ in\\ which\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ is\\ integrated\\ into\\ larger\\ pieces\\ such\\ as\\ lines\\,\\ groups\\,\\ boundaries\\,\\ terminations\\ and\\ discontinuities\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\-1\\/2D\\ sketch\\ \\(representation\\ in\\ the\\ viewer\\'s\\ reference\\ system\\)\\-the\\ stage\\ further\\ integrates\\ the\\ information\\ to\\ compute\\ rough\\ depth\\ through\\ properties\\ of\\ surfaces\\ like\\ occlusion\\,\\ distance\\,\\ discontinuities\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ uses\\ a\\ viewer\\-centered\\ reference\\ frame\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3D\\ sketch\\ \\(object\\ centered\\ representation\\)\\-\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ shapes\\ and\\ spatial\\ orientation\\ are\\ put\\ together\\ using\\ an\\ object\\-centered\\ coordinate\\ frame\\,\\ and\\ volumetric\\ primitives\\ \\(geons\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Olshausen\\ and\\ Field\\ 1996\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Emergence\\ of\\ simple\\-cell\\ receptie\\ field\\ properties\\ by\\ learning\\ a\\ sparse\\ code\\ for\\ natural\\ images\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Previous\\ studies\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ train\\ unsupervised\\ learning\\ programs\\ on\\ natural\\ images\\ to\\ derive\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ receptive\\ fields\\ in\\ human\\ visual\\ system\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ generally\\ these\\ attempts\\ have\\ not\\ succeeded\\ at\\ producing\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ receptive\\ fields\\ that\\ both\\ span\\ the\\ image\\ space\\ and\\ capture\\ three\\ major\\ features\\ that\\ human\\ receptive\\ fields\\ are\\ known\\ to\\ have\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Spatial\\ localization\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Bandpass\\ \\;\\(sensitive\\ to\\ structure\\ at\\ different\\ spatial\\ scales\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\and\\ Oriented\\ \\(sensitive\\ to\\ different\\ stimuli\\ orientations\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ this\\ study\\ they\\ train\\ a\\ neural\\ network\\ on\\ natural\\ images\\ with\\ two\\ constraints\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\to\\ preserve\\ information\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\to\\ have\\ sparse\\ representations\\ \\(by\\ minimizing\\ redundancy\\ in\\ input\\ characteristics\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ make\\ the\\ different\\ receptive\\ fields\\ represent\\ statistically\\ independent\\ information\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ capitalize\\ on\\ regularities\\ in\\ natural\\ scenes\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\When\\ they\\ do\\ this\\ they\\ train\\ it\\ on\\ natural\\ images\\ and\\ they\\ obtain\\ a\\ complete\\ family\\ of\\ localized\\,\\ oriented\\,\\ bandpass\\ receptive\\ fields\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ simple\\ cells\\ on\\ V1\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Furthermore\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ these\\ representations\\ are\\ efficient\\ for\\ later\\ stages\\ of\\ processing\\ because\\ the\\ outputs\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ degree\\ of\\ statistical\\ independence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\An\\ image\\ can\\ be\\ written\\ as\\ linear\\ superposition\\ of\\ basis\\ functions\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\They\\ define\\ the\\ cost\\ function\\ as\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\E\\=\\ \\-\\[preserve\\ information\\]\\-\\\\lambda\\[sparseness\\ of\\ a\\_i\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\[preserve\\ information\\]\\=\\-\\\\sum\\_\\{x\\,y\\}\\[I\\(x\\,y\\)\\-\\\\sum\\_ia\\_i\\\\phi\\_i\\(x\\,y\\)\\]\\^2\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\[sparseness\\ of\\ a\\_i\\]\\=\\-\\\\sum\\_iS\\(\\\\frac\\{a\\_i\\}\\{\\\\sigma\\}\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ a\\_i\\ are\\ determined\\ from\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ solution\\ of\\ the\\ differential\\ equation\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\D\\(a\\_i\\)\\=b\\_i\\-\\\\sum\\_jC\\_\\{ij\\}a\\_j\\-\\\\frac\\{\\\\lambda\\}\\{\\\\sigma\\}S\\'\\(\\\\frac\\{a\\_i\\}\\{\\\\sigma\\}\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ learning\\ rule\\ for\\ updating\\ the\\ \\\\phi\\ is\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Delta\\\\phi\\_i\\(x\\_m\\,y\\_n\\)\\=\\\\eta\\<\\;a\\_i\\[I\\(x\\_m\\,y\\_n\\)\\-\\\\hat\\{I\\}\\(x\\_m\\,y\\_n\\)\\]\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Can\\ higher\\ order\\ properties\\ of\\ visual\\ processing\\ be\\ understood\\ by\\ considering\\ the\\ remaining\\ forms\\ of\\ statistical\\ dependence\\ in\\ natural\\ images\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\General\\ point\\:\\ study\\ of\\ statistical\\ dependence\\ in\\ the\\ data\\ \\[an\\ image\\,\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ sound\\,\\ \\.\\.\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Olshausen\\ and\\ Field\\ 2000\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Vision\\ and\\ the\\ coding\\ of\\ natural\\ images\\:\\ The\\ human\\ brain\\ may\\ hold\\ the\\ secrets\\ to\\ the\\ best\\ image\\-compression\\ algorithms\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Brief\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ neural\\ circuitry\\ involved\\ in\\ visual\\ processing\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Natural\\ images\\ as\\ subset\\ of\\ all\\ possible\\ images\\.\\ What\\ properties\\ characterize\\ this\\ subset\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Local\\ properties\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Big\\ range\\ of\\ intensities\\ \\(large\\ dynamic\\ range\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Shape\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ amount\\ of\\ pixels\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ intensity\\ of\\ light\\ in\\ that\\ pixel\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Peak\\ asymmetrical\\ towards\\ the\\ left\\ because\\ brighter\\ pixels\\ have\\ greater\\ variance\\ \\(it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ bigger\\ change\\ by\\ shading\\ a\\ bright\\ light\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\Global\\ properties\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\High\\ correlation\\ between\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ neighbouring\\ pixels\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Amplitude\\ of\\ the\\ Fourier\\ coefficients\\ falls\\ with\\ frequency\\ by\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ about\\ 1\\/f\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ scale\\ invariance\\ in\\ intensity\\ variation\\:\\ as\\ one\\ zooms\\ in\\ or\\ out\\ there\\ is\\ always\\ an\\ equivalent\\ amount\\ of\\ \\"\\;structure\\"\\;\\ \\(intensity\\ variation\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ retina\\ is\\ sensitive\\ to\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ author\\ hypothesize\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ because\\ this\\ maximizes\\ efficiency\\.\\ Otherwise\\,\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ some\\ receptors\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ used\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Histogram\\ equalization\\:\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ transforming\\ a\\ distribution\\ of\\ contrasts\\ into\\ a\\ flat\\ distribution\\.\\ The\\ retina\\ does\\ something\\ similar\\ \\(see\\ Laughlin\\ 1980\\ in\\ flies\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Redundancy\\:\\ neurons\\ to\\ be\\ efficient\\ could\\ organize\\ their\\ connections\\ to\\ maximize\\ statistical\\ independence\\ of\\ their\\ outputs\\ \\(Barlow\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Atick\\'s\\ theory\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ what\\ transformations\\ are\\ necessary\\ to\\ decorrelate\\ the\\ outputs\\ from\\ images\\ to\\ send\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ eyes\\:\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Predicts\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ receptive\\ fields\\ that\\ matches\\ the\\ spatial\\ frequancy\\ properties\\ of\\ retinal\\ ganglion\\ cells\\ \\(the\\ concentric\\ zones\\ of\\ excitation\\ and\\ inhibition\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accounts\\ for\\ the\\ temporal\\ frequency\\ response\\ of\\ neurons\\ in\\ the\\ LGN\\ \\(Yang\\ Dan\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\The\\ authors\\'\\ algorithm\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ if\\ ICA\\ \\(independent\\ component\\ analysis\\)\\ \\(see\\ previous\\ article\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\Hans\\ von\\ Hateren\\:\\ similar\\ approach\\ with\\ moving\\ images\\.\\ Results\\ produce\\ receptive\\ fields\\ similar\\ to\\ motion\\ sensitive\\ neurons\\ in\\ V1\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Basically\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ visual\\ field\\ \\(\\%\\ pixels\\)\\ is\\ highly\\ homogenous\\,\\ like\\ on\\ undifferentiated\\ surfaces\\.\\ It\\ is\\ only\\ at\\ the\\ discontinuities\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ case\\,\\ like\\ at\\ edges\\.\\ So\\ by\\ not\\ making\\ the\\ receptive\\ fields\\ all\\ process\\ the\\ homogenous\\ features\\,\\ and\\ only\\ process\\ the\\ anomalous\\ discontinuities\\,\\ fewer\\ neurons\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ firing\\ at\\ once\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ Hubel\\ and\\ Wiesel\\-type\\ feature\\ detectors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gabor\\ functions\\ are\\ the\\ optimal\\ way\\ to\\ represent\\ features\\ in\\ time\\-varying\\ signals\\ that\\ simultaneously\\ vary\\ in\\ both\\ time\\ and\\ frequency\\.\\ It\\ is\\ argued\\ then\\ that\\ the\\ optimal\\ way\\ to\\ represent\\ features\\ in\\ space\\-varying\\ signals\\ \\(pixels\\)\\ that\\ simultaneously\\ vary\\ in\\ both\\ location\\ and\\ spatial\\ frequency\\ would\\ be\\ with\\ Gabor\\ functions\\.\\ It\\ was\\ thought\\ that\\ natural\\ images\\ had\\ little\\ statistical\\ regularities\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ Field\\ picture\\ stuff\\ showing\\ this\\.\\ What\\ he\\ showed\\ was\\ that\\ Gabor\\ functions\\ are\\ optimal\\ for\\ picking\\ out\\ features\\ that\\ are\\ typical\\ of\\ images\\,\\ but\\ that\\ nevertheless\\ show\\ up\\ relatively\\ rarely\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ image\\.\\ V1\\ has\\ gabor\\-like\\ receptive\\ fields\\,\\ suggesting\\ it\\ is\\ optimally\\ tuned\\ to\\ pulling\\ out\\ those\\ features\\ in\\ natural\\ images\\ that\\ are\\ rare\\ but\\ play\\ a\\ large\\ role\\ in\\ determining\\ structure\\.\\ \\(labs\\ used\\ straight\\ lines\\ and\\ circles\\ and\\ found\\ feature\\ detectors\\ for\\ lines\\ and\\ circles\\,\\ whereas\\ Field\\ and\\ Olshausen\\ used\\ natural\\ images\\ and\\ found\\ the\\ equivalent\\ Gabor\\ functions\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Gabor\\ functions\\ are\\ efficient\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ pull\\ out\\ the\\ statistically\\ rare\\,\\ but\\ important\\ features\\,\\ thus\\ minimizing\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ cells\\ needed\\ to\\ encode\\ an\\ image\\.\\ They\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ tuned\\ to\\ the\\ features\\ needed\\ for\\ accurately\\ encoding\\ an\\ image\\ using\\ the\\ fewest\\ number\\ of\\ features\\ \\(this\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ paper\\,\\ and\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ meant\\ by\\ statistical\\ independence\\ and\\ sparseness\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\The\\ authors\\ suppose\\ that\\ also\\ higher\\ level\\ vision\\ will\\ be\\ shaped\\ by\\ efficiency\\ criteria\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Olshausen\\ and\\ Field\\ 2004\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Sparse\\ coding\\ of\\ sensory\\ inputs\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\Review\\ of\\ sparse\\ coding\\ theory\\:\\ \\"\\;Several\\ theoretical\\,\\ computational\\,\\ and\\ experimental\\ studies\\ suggest\\ that\\ neurons\\ encode\\ sensory\\ information\\ using\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ active\\ neurons\\ at\\ any\\ given\\ point\\ in\\ time\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ strategy\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ sparse\\ coding\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sparse\\ coding\\ representations\\ have\\ at\\ least\\ 4\\ advantages\\:\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ allow\\ for\\ increased\\ storage\\ capacity\\ in\\ associative\\ memory\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ make\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ natural\\ images\\ explicit\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ represent\\ complex\\ data\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ read\\ out\\ at\\ subsequent\\ levels\\ of\\ processing\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ save\\ metabolic\\ energy\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sparse\\ coding\\ representations\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ maximize\\ memory\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ can\\ be\\ formed\\ with\\ local\\ \\(Hebbian\\)\\ learning\\ rules\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ Barlow\\:\\ neurons\\ at\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ processing\\ are\\ less\\ active\\ than\\ those\\ at\\ earlier\\ levels\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ representing\\ chunks\\ of\\ information\\ at\\ higher\\ degrees\\ of\\ specificity\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\In\\ support\\ of\\ sparse\\ coding\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ images\\ that\\ fall\\ upon\\ the\\ retina\\ have\\ similar\\ statistical\\ structure\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ receptive\\ fields\\ of\\ simple\\ cells\\ in\\ V1\\ are\\ well\\ suited\\ for\\ sparse\\ coding\\ \\(Field\\ 1987\\)\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ if\\ a\\ population\\ is\\ optimized\\ to\\ code\\ the\\ maximum\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ use\\ sparse\\ coding\\ single\\ nodes\\ have\\ receptive\\ fields\\ similar\\ to\\ those\\ of\\ simple\\ cells\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Natural\\ images\\ as\\ submanifold\\ in\\ the\\ image\\ space\\,\\ see\\ Lee\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2003\\.\\ How\\ might\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ represent\\ this\\ manifold\\?\\ With\\ an\\ overcomplete\\ representation\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ manifold\\ becomes\\ flattened\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Over\\ representation\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ repeated\\ representations\\ in\\ V1\\,\\ V2\\)\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ sparsity\\ of\\ representations\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ \\"\\;each\\ neuron\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ preferred\\ pattern\\ in\\ the\\ input\\ space\\,\\ and\\ would\\ only\\ fire\\ when\\ the\\ input\\ pattern\\ is\\ sufficiently\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ preferred\\ pattern\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\This\\ may\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ energy\\ efficient\\,\\ but\\ the\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ neurons\\ are\\ representing\\ more\\ specific\\ dimensions\\ as\\ one\\ moves\\ up\\ through\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ edges\\ at\\ specific\\ degrees\\ of\\ slant\\,\\ to\\ only\\ cubes\\ with\\ a\\ slant\\,\\ to\\ only\\ a\\ specific\\ type\\ of\\ cube\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ Thus\\ any\\ given\\ set\\ of\\ images\\ could\\ be\\ represented\\ by\\ statistically\\ independent\\ neurons\\ that\\ fire\\ only\\ to\\ specific\\ stimuli\\ \\(an\\ extreme\\ example\\ would\\ be\\ \\"\\;Jennifer\\ Aniston\\ cells\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ Thus\\ as\\ one\\ moves\\ up\\ through\\ the\\ visual\\ system\\ fewer\\ neurons\\ will\\ be\\ firing\\ due\\ to\\ their\\ specificity\\.\\ So\\,\\ there\\ is\\ thus\\ an\\ trade\\-off\\ here\\ between\\ making\\ lots\\ of\\ highly\\ specific\\ neurons\\ \\(overrepresentation\\,\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ making\\ highly\\ localist\\ nodes\\)\\ and\\ only\\ having\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ fire\\ for\\ any\\ given\\ image\\,\\ vs\\.\\ having\\ broader\\ neuron\\ specificity\\,\\ but\\ then\\ needing\\ many\\ to\\ fire\\ \\(representation\\ is\\ more\\ distributed\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\So\\,\\ as\\ noted\\ the\\ t\\<\\/font\\>\\radeoff\\ beteween\\ gains\\ and\\ losses\\ of\\ sparse\\ representations\\:\\ to\\ the\\ extreme\\ they\\ would\\ require\\ an\\ enormous\\ number\\ of\\ neurons\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Sparse\\ codes\\:\\ energy\\ efficient\\.\\ At\\ any\\ given\\ moment\\ only\\ 1\\/50\\<\\/span\\>\\\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/sup\\>\\\\ of\\ the\\ neurons\\ can\\ afford\\ \\(metabolically\\)\\ to\\ be\\ active\\ \\(Lennie\\ 2003\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\To\\ measure\\ sparseness\\ the\\ kurtosis\\ could\\ be\\ used\\.\\ But\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ sensitive\\ to\\ outliers\\.\\ Rolls\\ and\\ Tovee\\:\\ measure\\ of\\ sparseness\\ for\\ one\\ sided\\ distributions\\ \\[It\\ only\\ looks\\ at\\ whether\\ that\\ a\\ specific\\ single\\ neuron\\ is\\ finely\\ tuned\\ to\\ a\\ stimulus\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;Two\\ kinds\\ of\\ sparseness\\,\\ one\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ the\\ other\\,\\ but\\ arguably\\ both\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ maximized\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lifetime\\ sparseness\\:\\ sparseness\\ in\\ time\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ how\\ active\\ a\\ is\\ neuron\\ over\\ time\\)\\.\\ Most\\ research\\ measures\\ just\\ this\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Population\\ sparseness\\:\\ sparseness\\ in\\ space\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ how\\ much\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ neurons\\ is\\ active\\ over\\ a\\ set\\ period\\ of\\ time\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sparse\\ coding\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ common\\ theme\\ for\\ sensory\\ coding\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lewicki\\ 2002\\:\\ sparse\\ coding\\ of\\ sound\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\DeWeese\\ 2003\\:\\ sparseness\\ in\\ auditory\\ coding\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sparse\\ coding\\ in\\ the\\ olfactory\\ system\\ of\\ insects\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Neurons\\ in\\ the\\ hippocampus\\ can\\ exhibit\\ very\\ sparse\\ responses\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Also\\ sparse\\ coding\\ seen\\ in\\ motor\\ cortex\\ of\\ rabbits\\,\\ rats\\,\\ and\\ zebra\\ finches\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\There\\ is\\ also\\ one\\ methodological\\ implication\\ of\\ this\\.\\ Sparseness\\ could\\ lead\\ to\\ sampling\\ bias\\ in\\ single\\ cell\\ recordings\\:\\ only\\ neurons\\ that\\ are\\ very\\ active\\ are\\ detected\\ and\\ studied\\,\\ neurons\\ with\\ sparse\\ activation\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ detected\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ single\\ cell\\ recording\\ data\\ could\\ be\\ quite\\ skewed\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Gilchrist\\ 1977\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Perceived\\ Lightness\\ Depends\\ on\\ Perceived\\ Spatial\\ Arrangement\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\After\\ Hans\\ Wallach\\ 1948\\ the\\ standard\\ view\\ about\\ perceived\\ lightness\\ held\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ luminance\\ ratios\\ between\\ adjacent\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ retinal\\ image\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Several\\ investigators\\ tried\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ retinal\\ ratios\\ are\\ not\\ sufficient\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\If\\ perceived\\ luminance\\ were\\ due\\ to\\ retinal\\ ratios\\,\\ we\\ should\\ expect\\ illusions\\ in\\ presence\\ of\\ surfaces\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ albedo\\ \\(reflectance\\)\\ but\\ different\\ shading\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ at\\ a\\ corner\\ between\\ walls\\ with\\ equal\\ color\\ but\\ different\\ illumination\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Coplanar\\ ratio\\ hypothesis\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ perceived\\ lightness\\ might\\ be\\ determined\\ by\\ ratios\\ within\\ perceived\\ planes\\ rather\\ than\\ by\\ all\\ retinal\\ ratios\\ regardless\\ of\\ perceived\\ depth\\.\\ \\[Link\\ to\\ Nakayama\\'s\\ view\\ about\\ surfaces\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Experiment\\:\\ piece\\ of\\ paper\\ cut\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ seemed\\ to\\ belong\\ to\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ surfaces\\ placed\\ at\\ different\\ depth\\.\\ Depending\\ on\\ the\\ apparent\\ depth\\ perceived\\ luminance\\ changed\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Koffka\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Gogel\\ and\\ Mershon\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ resut\\ in\\ this\\ paper\\ shows\\ that\\ perceived\\ luminance\\ has\\ little\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ lateral\\ inhibition\\ in\\ the\\ retina\\.\\ Furthermore\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ depth\\ perception\\ must\\ be\\ occurring\\ before\\ determination\\ of\\ surface\\ illumination\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Adelson\\ and\\ Pentland\\ 1996\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ perception\\ of\\ shading\\ and\\ reflectance\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\`The\\ luminance\\ of\\ a\\ surface\\ results\\ from\\ the\\ combined\\ effect\\ of\\ its\\ reflectance\\ \\(albedo\\)\\ and\\ its\\ conditions\\ of\\ illumination\\.\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ was\\ previously\\ thought\\ that\\ perception\\ of\\ illumination\\ vs\\.\\ reflectance\\ was\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ slow\\ variations\\ in\\ luminance\\ gradients\\ \\=\\ illumination\\ gradients\\,\\ whereas\\ sharp\\ variations\\ in\\ luminance\\ gradients\\ \\=\\ reflectance\\ edges\\.\\ This\\ doesn\\'t\\ hold\\ in\\ a\\ 3\\-d\\ world\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ a\\ shadow\\ on\\ another\\ surface\\)\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ more\\ must\\ be\\ being\\ computed\\,\\ and\\ their\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ independent\\ systems\\ and\\ the\\ inference\\ is\\ the\\ \\"\\;least\\ costly\\"\\;\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ systems\\ is\\ the\\ inference\\ made\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Perceptual\\ task\\ as\\ a\\ problem\\ of\\ computing\\ intrinsic\\ images\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Basic\\ formulas\\ \\(or\\ formulae\\?\\)\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\I\\(x\\,y\\)\\=r\\(x\\,y\\)s\\(x\\,y\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\s\\(x\\,y\\)\\=\\\\lambda\\*N\\(x\\,y\\)\\*L\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Workshop\\ metaphor\\ for\\ perception\\ of\\ shading\\ and\\ reflectance\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ spray\\ painter\\ \\(analogous\\ to\\ reflectance\\ perception\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ sheet\\ metal\\ worker\\ \\(analogous\\ to\\ depth\\ perception\\ of\\ surfaces\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ lighting\\ designer\\ \\(analogous\\ to\\ illumination\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\ supervisor\\ \\(the\\ one\\ that\\ calculates\\ the\\ overall\\ \\"\\;cost\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Finding\\ a\\ solution\\ that\\ involves\\ interaction\\ of\\ multiple\\ processes\\ is\\ more\\ complex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\For\\ any\\ given\\ luminance\\ image\\ there\\ are\\ several\\ possibilities\\ to\\ obtain\\ the\\ same\\ result\\,\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ different\\ costs\\.\\ For\\ example\\ a\\ sharp\\ change\\ in\\ luminance\\ could\\ reflect\\ an\\ edge\\ \\(sheet\\ metal\\ worker\\)\\,\\ a\\ sudden\\ change\\ in\\ illumination\\ like\\ a\\ shadow\\ \\;\\(the\\ lighting\\ designer\\)\\,\\ a\\ sudden\\ change\\ in\\ reflectance\\ \\(spray\\ painter\\)\\,\\ or\\ any\\ combination\\ of\\ the\\ three\\.\\ The\\ visual\\ system\\ must\\ infer\\ what\\ the\\ best\\ combination\\ is\\.\\ It\\ does\\ this\\ by\\ \\"\\;minimizing\\ the\\ cost\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\How\\ to\\ assign\\ the\\ costs\\ of\\ the\\ different\\ transformations\\?\\ This\\ point\\ is\\ intentionally\\ left\\ unclear\\ in\\ the\\ paper\\ where\\ they\\ discuss\\ it\\ as\\ just\\ a\\ metaphor\\,\\ but\\ mention\\ some\\ possibilities\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ to\\ imply\\ the\\ the\\ more\\ unlikely\\ an\\ inference\\ given\\ facts\\ about\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ the\\ local\\ context\\,\\ the\\ more\\ costly\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ algorithm\\ proposed\\ by\\ the\\ authors\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ shape\\ specialist\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ lighting\\ specialist\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\I\\_1\\=r1\\*\\\\lambda\\*N1\\*L\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\I\\_2\\=r2\\*\\\\lambda\\*N2\\*L\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ reflectance\\ specialist\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\An\\ example\\:\\ see\\ the\\ paper\\ for\\ details\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Interesting\\ aspect\\ of\\ perception\\:\\ bistability\\.\\ 3D\\ figures\\ drawn\\ in\\ the\\ plane\\ reverse\\ in\\ depth\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Necker\\ cube\\)\\.\\ Solutions\\ of\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ perception\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ cost\\ might\\ lead\\ to\\ bistable\\ images\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Howe\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Comparison\\ of\\ Bayesian\\ and\\ empirical\\ ranking\\ approaches\\ to\\ visual\\ perception\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\History\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ information\\ on\\ the\\ retina\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ mapped\\ unambiguously\\ onto\\ real\\ world\\ sources\\ \\(\\`inverse\\ optics\\ problem\\'\\,\\ Berkeley\\ 1709\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Helmholtz\\ \\(1866\\)\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ using\\ past\\ experience\\ to\\ resolve\\ among\\ ambiguous\\ possibilities\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ dominated\\ by\\ neurophysiology\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Recently\\:\\ renewal\\ of\\ the\\ interest\\ towards\\ information\\ processing\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Bayes\\ theorem\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\P\\(H\\|E\\)\\=\\[P\\(H\\)P\\(E\\|H\\)\\]\\/P\\(E\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Bayesian\\ approaches\\ to\\ vision\\:\\ close\\ to\\ what\\ Helmholtz\\ suggested\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\`Bayesian\\ decision\\ theory\\ determines\\ the\\ physical\\ sources\\ capable\\ of\\ generating\\ a\\ given\\ retinal\\ image\\ and\\ the\\ relative\\ probabilitiesof\\ their\\ actually\\ having\\ done\\ so\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ observer\\'s\\ experience\\.\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Empirical\\ ranking\\ theory\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Abandons\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ vision\\ makes\\ inferences\\ about\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\,\\ and\\ compares\\ a\\ certain\\ percept\\ only\\ to\\ previous\\ experience\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ equivalent\\ of\\ a\\ likelihood\\ function\\ or\\ posterior\\ distribution\\.\\ Empirical\\ ranking\\ is\\ conceptually\\ and\\ computationally\\ different\\ from\\ bayesian\\ vision\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Importance\\ of\\ context\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Both\\ theories\\ explain\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ different\\ perceived\\ luminance\\ of\\ two\\ equiluminant\\ circles\\,\\ one\\ with\\ a\\ lighter\\ surround\\ and\\ one\\ with\\ a\\ darker\\ surround\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\But\\ bayesian\\ vision\\ \\(at\\ least\\ in\\ its\\ most\\ common\\ versions\\)\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ more\\ complex\\ effects\\,\\ while\\ empirical\\ ranking\\ theory\\ does\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Vision I"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.193832+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Deep and Recent Diet", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 637, "html": "\\Wrangham\\ \\&\\;\\ Conklin\\ Brittain\\ 2003\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 103, "file_path": "", "desc": "Deep and Recent Diet"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.202502+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Kosslyn- Session 1. REPRESENTATION (Mental imagery as an example)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 638, "html": "\\Week\\ 4\\:\\ February\\ 24\\ \\(T\\ 10\\-12\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ 26\\ \\(Th\\ 4\\-6\\)\\\\\r\\\nStephen\\ Kosslyn\\ \\(Assigned\\:\\ Arin\\ Tuerk\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTopics\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ Representation\\ \\(Mental\\ imagery\\ as\\ an\\ example\\)\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ Processing\\ systems\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ Computational\\ architecture\\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ Additive\\ factors\\ vs\\.\\ non\\-additive\\ factors\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\I\\.\\ Background\\\\\r\\\nKosslyn\\,\\ S\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(1994\\)\\.\\ Image\\ and\\ brain\\.\\ Cambridge\\,\\ MA\\:\\ MIT\\ Press\\.\\ Chapter\\ 1\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ chapter\\ discusses\\ the\\ progress\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ made\\ to\\ date\\ on\\ the\\ visual\\ imagery\\ debate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\I\\.\\ Historical\\ background\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ information\\ represeneted\\ as\\ images\\ is\\ common\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ philosophy\\-\\ plato\\'s\\ wax\\ metaphor\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ scientific\\ psychology\\-\\ Wundt\\ and\\ Willy\\ James\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\B\\.\\ psychologists\\ then\\ wanted\\ a\\ \\"\\;purer\\"\\;\\ science\\ with\\ new\\ methods\\,\\ enter\\ behaviorism\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1\\.\\"\\;the\\ scientic\\ method\\ rests\\ on\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ distinguish\\ among\\ alt\\.\\ hypotheses\\ to\\ everyone\\'s\\ satisfaction\\ whch\\ requires\\ that\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ be\\ publicly\\ observable\\"\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\can\\'t\\ be\\ measured\\,\\ conceptual\\ problem\\ of\\ how\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ characterized\\ \\(homunculus\\ problem\\-\\ who\\ is\\ \\"\\;looking\\ at\\"\\;\\ these\\ images\\?\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Watson\\ attacked\\ imagery\\-\\ from\\ 1913\\-1960s\\ not\\ considered\\ a\\ proper\\ subject\\ matter\\ for\\ scientific\\ study\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\radical\\ behaviorism\\ fell\\ short\\ in\\ explaining\\ crucila\\ human\\ faculties\\ like\\ language\\ and\\ thought\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\C\\.\\ enter\\ cognitive\\ scientists\\-\\ shift\\ from\\ studying\\ factors\\ of\\ acquisition\\ to\\ factors\\ affecting\\ retention\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\chomsky\\'s\\ linguistics\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Artificial\\ intelligence\\-\\ computers\\'\\ processing\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\ at\\ a\\ more\\ abstract\\ level\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\level\\ of\\ information\\ processing\\-\\ language\\ of\\ I\\.P\\.\\ could\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ brains\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Pavio\\-1960\\,\\ showed\\ that\\ factors\\ affecting\\ mental\\ imagery\\ accounted\\ for\\ empirical\\ results\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Shepard\\ and\\ cooper\\-\\ imagery\\ could\\ be\\ studied\\ scientifically\\-\\ mental\\ image\\ rotation\\,\\ rotated\\ incrementally\\,\\ more\\ time\\ required\\ for\\ more\\ rotation\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\images\\ as\\ internal\\ representations\\ that\\ stand\\ in\\ for\\ corresponding\\ objects\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\2\\ Imagery\\ debate\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Image\\-\\ internal\\ representation\\ usedin\\ information\\ processing\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Representation\\-\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ code\\,\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ specifying\\ info\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Phase\\ 1\\ of\\ debate\\-\\ constrained\\ by\\ concept\\ of\\ what\\ types\\ of\\ representations\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\what\\ brain\\ does\\-\\ not\\ at\\ neuron\\ level\\,\\ what\\ ensembles\\ of\\ neurons\\ accomplish\\ \\(computational\\ level\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\properties\\ of\\ representations\\ defined\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ processing\\ system\\ that\\ can\\ interpret\\ and\\ manipulate\\ them\\ diff\\ representations\\ make\\ diff\\ info\\ more\\ accessible\\ \\(Marr\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Propositional\\ representation\\-\\ \\"\\;mental\\ sentence\\"\\;\\ specifies\\ unambiguously\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ an\\ assertion\\-\\ predicate\\ ties\\ together\\ arguments\\ ON\\ \\(BALL\\,\\ BOX\\)\\ basic\\ elements\\ are\\ symbols\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Depictive\\ rep\\-\\ type\\ of\\ picture\\ which\\ spcifies\\ the\\ locations\\ and\\ values\\ of\\ configurations\\ of\\ points\\ in\\ space\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\each\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ oject\\ is\\ represented\\ by\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ points\\ the\\ spatial\\ relations\\ among\\ points\\ in\\ functional\\ space\\ corresponds\\ to\\ spatial\\ relations\\ of\\ object\\ itself\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\shpae\\ of\\ represented\\ parts\\ and\\ shape\\ of\\ empty\\ space\\ are\\ immediately\\ available\\ to\\ processes\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Pylyshyn\\ attacked\\ depictive\\-\\ argued\\ theres\\ no\\ little\\ man\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ them\\-\\ rested\\ on\\ logical\\ problems\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\all\\ internal\\ representations\\ are\\ propositional\\-\\ same\\ rep\\ for\\ imagery\\ as\\ for\\ language\\ and\\ all\\ cog\\ processing\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\pictorial\\ processes\\ are\\ epiphenomenal\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nI\\.\\ Phase\\ 2\\-\\ nature\\ of\\ empirical\\ results\\-\\ methodological\\ concerns\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ Results\\ of\\ experiments\\ conducted\\ to\\ address\\ issue\\ led\\ to\\ debates\\ about\\ methodology\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ b\\.\\ Away\\ from\\ introspection\\-\\ experiments\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ privileged\\ properties\\ of\\ depictive\\ representations\\-\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ functional\\ space\\-\\ more\\ time\\ to\\ shift\\ attention\\ farther\\ distances\\ across\\ imagined\\ objects\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ Propositionalists\\ said\\ increase\\ in\\ time\\ reflected\\ scanning\\ of\\ lists\\ of\\ propositions\\-\\ LISP\\ programming\\ language\\ \\ \\;\\ to\\ facilitate\\ recursive\\ search\\ in\\ computers\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\ Liked\\ the\\ apparent\\ simplicity\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ representation\\ system\\-\\ but\\ using\\ proposition\\ to\\ explain\\ rotation\\ results\\ seemed\\ ad\\ hoc\\ or\\ post\\ hoc\\-\\ actually\\ only\\ show\\ that\\ imagery\\ also\\ involves\\ propositional\\ reps\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ c\\.\\ Task\\ demands\\-\\ Pylyshn\\ said\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ asking\\ subjects\\ to\\ use\\ imagery\\ led\\ them\\ to\\ mimic\\ what\\ theyd\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ corresponding\\ perceptual\\ situation\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ Fiske\\ and\\ Pinker\\ used\\ task\\ without\\ asking\\ subjects\\ to\\ image\\ found\\ same\\ results\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ d\\.\\ Experimenter\\ expectancy\\-\\ subjects\\ were\\ trying\\ to\\ cooperate\\ by\\ producing\\ answers\\ they\\ thought\\ researchers\\ wanted\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ Experiments\\ ran\\ to\\ rule\\ this\\ out\\-\\ experimenters\\ told\\ to\\ expect\\ different\\ things\\-\\ no\\ effect\\ of\\ expectancy\\ on\\ scanning\\ time\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ II\\.\\ Phase\\ 3\\-\\ turn\\ to\\ facts\\ about\\ brain\\ function\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ There\\ IS\\ fact\\ to\\ the\\ matter\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ b\\.\\ Anderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ structure\\-process\\ tradeoff\\-\\ two\\ mechanisms\\ can\\ produce\\ the\\ same\\ result\\ if\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ structure\\ is\\ compensated\\ by\\ difference\\ in\\ process\\-\\ they\\ mimic\\ each\\ other\\ though\\ they\\ posit\\ different\\ representations\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ c\\.\\ Must\\ appeal\\ to\\ something\\ other\\ than\\ behavioral\\ data\\-\\ once\\ structure\\ or\\ process\\ is\\ specified\\,\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ constrained\\-\\ brain\\ studies\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\ Monkey\\ cortex\\ visual\\ areas\\ are\\ retinotopically\\ mapped\\-\\ neurons\\ organized\\ to\\ preserve\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ retina\\-info\\ depictively\\ \\;\\ represented\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\ Soldiers\\&rsquo\\;\\ blind\\ spots\\ also\\ suggests\\ retinotopic\\ maps\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\ Enormous\\ amount\\ of\\ feedback\\ runs\\ backward\\ down\\ system\\-\\ monkeys\\&rsquo\\;\\ neural\\ activity\\ is\\ modulated\\ by\\ goals\\ and\\ intentions\\-\\ feeback\\ connections\\ from\\ some\\ prestriate\\ areas\\ to\\ V1\\ are\\ topographically\\ organized\\ suggests\\ stored\\ visual\\ info\\ might\\ be\\ capable\\ of\\ evoking\\ pattern\\ of\\ activity\\ in\\ retinotopically\\ mapped\\ areas\\-\\ which\\ would\\ produce\\ a\\ mental\\ IMAGE\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\ Human\\ studies\\ where\\ subjects\\ imaged\\ either\\ small\\ or\\ large\\ letters\\ while\\ PET\\ applied\\-\\ subjects\\ required\\ more\\ time\\ for\\ smaller\\ images\\ \\(replication\\)\\ but\\ also\\ neurons\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ region\\ within\\ a\\ topographically\\ mapped\\ area\\ \\(posterior\\ part\\ which\\ represents\\ foveal\\ input\\)\\ worked\\ harder\\ to\\ preserve\\ fine\\ grained\\ info\\ \\-\\ anterior\\ part\\ of\\ V1\\ \\(represents\\ parafoveal\\ info\\)\\ activated\\ during\\ large\\ letter\\ image\\ task\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ imagery\\ relies\\ on\\ topographically\\ organized\\ regions\\ of\\ cortex\\ which\\ support\\ depictive\\ representations\\*\\*\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ fMRI\\ studies\\ replicate\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIII\\.\\ Resolving\\ the\\ Imagery\\ Debates\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ a\\.\\ Narrow\\ issue\\-\\ delimiting\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ representation\\ itself\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ b\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;broader\\&rdquo\\;\\ issue\\-\\ pylyshyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concern\\ about\\ infinite\\ regress\\/\\ homunculus\\ points\\ at\\-\\ depictive\\ images\\ can\\ only\\ represent\\ info\\ if\\ the\\ appropriate\\ processes\\ are\\ available\\-if\\ the\\ mental\\ machinery\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ to\\ use\\ depictive\\ mental\\ images\\,\\ they\\ are\\ epiphenomenal\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ c\\.\\ TO\\ RESOLVE\\ issue\\-\\ need\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ such\\ representations\\ arise\\ and\\ are\\ used\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ processing\\ system\\-\\ how\\ are\\ they\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ and\\ used\\ by\\ neural\\ mechanisms\\ underlying\\ memory\\ and\\ cog\\ process\\ \\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Kosslyn- Session 1. REPRESENTATION (Mental imagery as an example)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.219075+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Pinker Language Overview and Evolutionary Status/Innateness of Language", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 639, "html": "\\The\\ stated\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ classes\\ taught\\ by\\ Steven\\ Pinker\\ is\\ two\\-fold\\.\\ The\\ first\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ overview\\ of\\ how\\ language\\ works\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ three\\ biggest\\ controversies\\ in\\ psycholinguistics\\.\\ The\\ three\\ controversies\\ are\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ evolutionary\\ status\\ of\\ language\\ \\(adaptation\\ or\\ spandrel\\)\\ and\\ the\\ related\\ question\\ of\\ innateness\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Linguistic\\ determinism\\-\\-The\\ Sapir\\-Whorf\\ Hypothesis\\ in\\ its\\ many\\ forms\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Connectionism\\ vs\\.\\ rules\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ lecture\\ tracks\\ the\\ reading\\ very\\ closely\\ so\\ I\\ will\\ break\\ the\\ summaries\\ into\\ the\\ four\\ sections\\ mentioned\\ above\\ \\(the\\ nature\\ of\\ language\\ and\\ the\\ three\\ controversies\\)\\,\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ articles\\ in\\ context\\ with\\ the\\ lectures\\.\\ This\\ lecture\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ language\\ and\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ status\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ innateness\\ question\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Part\\ I\\.\\ The\\ Nature\\ of\\ Language\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ lecture\\ and\\ is\\ coupled\\ very\\ closely\\ to\\ chapter\\ 4\\ in\\ \\;\\The\\ Language\\ Instinct\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ I\\ will\\ thus\\ just\\ go\\ over\\ the\\ different\\ elements\\ and\\ how\\ they\\ work\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ function\\ of\\ language\\ \\(in\\ an\\ ultimate\\ evolutionary\\ sense\\)\\ is\\ to\\ get\\ ideas\\ from\\ one\\ individual\\'s\\ head\\ into\\ another\\'s\\.\\ As\\ will\\ be\\ argued\\ under\\ controversy\\ one\\,\\ language\\ shows\\ the\\ hallmarks\\ of\\ an\\ adaptation\\ to\\ serve\\ exactly\\ this\\ function\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ two\\ fundamental\\ elements\\ to\\ how\\ language\\ works\\:\\ \\words\\<\\/u\\>\\ and\\ \\rules\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\(not\\ coincidentally\\ the\\ title\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ Pinker\\'s\\ books\\ on\\ language\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Words\\ are\\ arbitrary\\ memorized\\ signs\\,\\ as\\ first\\ noted\\ by\\ Ferdinand\\ de\\ Saussure\\.\\ Words\\ are\\ signs\\,\\ meaning\\ they\\ represent\\ information\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ arbitrary\\,\\ meaning\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ \\"\\;cat\\-like\\"\\;\\ about\\ the\\ sounds\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ word\\ \\"\\;C\\-A\\-T\\.\\"\\;\\ Because\\ words\\ are\\ arbitrarily\\ connected\\ to\\ their\\ meanings\\,\\ this\\ means\\ they\\ must\\ all\\ be\\ learned\\ \\;\\(which\\ we\\ will\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ connectionism\\)\\.\\ Humans\\ are\\ incredible\\ word\\ learners\\,\\ most\\ likely\\ because\\ word\\ learning\\ is\\ a\\ special\\ type\\ of\\ learning\\ with\\ its\\ own\\ dedicated\\ cognitive\\ machinery\\ \\(a\\ module\\)\\.\\ 60\\,000\\ words\\ is\\ a\\ reasonable\\ estimate\\ of\\ the\\ vocabulary\\ size\\ of\\ an\\ American\\ high\\ school\\ graduate\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ individuals\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ learning\\ an\\ average\\ of\\ 1\\ word\\ every\\ 2\\ hours\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ rules\\ of\\ language\\ are\\ collectively\\ called\\ a\\ \\gramma\\<\\/u\\>r\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ defined\\ in\\ \\The\\ Language\\ Instinct\\ \\<\\/em\\>as\\ follows\\,\\ \\"\\;a\\ \\generative\\ grammar\\<\\/u\\>\\ is\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ rules\\ that\\ determines\\ the\\ form\\ and\\ meaning\\ of\\ words\\ and\\ sentences\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ language\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ spoken\\ in\\ some\\ community\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ p\\.\\ 476\\)\\.\\ The\\ quote\\ calls\\ it\\ a\\ generative\\ grammar\\ because\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ distinguished\\ from\\ both\\ a\\ \\mental\\ grammar\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ supposed\\ mental\\ instantiation\\ of\\ the\\ generative\\ grammar\\,\\ and\\ a\\ \\prescriptive\\<\\/u\\>\\ or\\ \\s\\<\\/u\\>\\tylistic\\ grammar\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ which\\ is\\ basically\\ what\\ is\\ taught\\ in\\ high\\ school\\ English\\ classes\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ you\\ cannot\\ end\\ a\\ sentence\\ in\\ a\\ preposition\\,\\ don\\'t\\ split\\ infinitives\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Grammar\\ has\\ three\\ major\\ components\\:\\ \\syntax\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ \\morphology\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\phonology\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\ Grammar\\ is\\ what\\ makes\\ language\\ a\\ \\"\\;discrete\\ combinatorial\\ system\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ makes\\ it\\ so\\ special\\ by\\ giving\\ it\\ such\\ massive\\ expressive\\ power\\,\\ and\\ making\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ generate\\ new\\ sentences\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ discrete\\ combinatorial\\ system\\ because\\ the\\ grammar\\ defines\\ rules\\ for\\ combining\\ discrete\\ units\\ \\(morphemes\\)\\ into\\ larger\\ units\\ \\(sentences\\)\\ that\\ are\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ their\\ parts\\.\\ This\\ is\\ what\\ makes\\ language\\ an\\ open\\-ended\\ system\\,\\ in\\ which\\,\\ an\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ sentences\\ can\\ be\\ produced\\ from\\ a\\ finite\\ number\\ of\\ smaller\\ units\\.\\ To\\ sum\\ up\\ grammar\\ gives\\ language\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Expressiveness\\:\\ different\\ and\\ new\\ thoughts\\ can\\ be\\ easily\\ expressed\\ \\(man\\ bites\\ dog\\ vs\\.\\ dog\\ bites\\ man\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Vastness\\:\\ the\\ potential\\ number\\ of\\ even\\ short\\ well\\-formed\\ sentences\\ is\\ enormous\\ \\;\\(basically\\ infinite\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Recursion\\<\\/u\\>\\-\\-\\ \\"\\;a\\ procedure\\ that\\ invokes\\ an\\ instance\\ of\\ itself\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ can\\ be\\ applied\\ repeatedly\\ to\\ create\\ or\\ analyze\\ entities\\ of\\ any\\ size\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ P\\.\\ 481\\)\\.\\ In\\ language\\ recursion\\ works\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ one\\ rule\\ of\\ grammar\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ sentence\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ noun\\ phrase\\ and\\ a\\ verb\\ phrase\\.\\ In\\ turn\\ a\\ verb\\ phrase\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ verb\\ and\\ other\\ optional\\ elements\\ including\\ a\\ noun\\ phrase\\ and\\ a\\ sentence\\.\\ This\\ generates\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ russian\\ doll\\ effect\\ where\\ elements\\ can\\ continually\\ be\\ packed\\ inside\\ of\\ larger\\ similar\\ elements\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Syntax\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ \\The\\ Language\\ Instinct\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Pinker\\ defines\\ \\syntax\\<\\/u\\>\\ as\\,\\ \\"\\;the\\ component\\ of\\ grammar\\ that\\ arranges\\ words\\ into\\ phrases\\ and\\ sentences\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\ p\\.482\\)\\.\\ Syntax\\ is\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ the\\ sentence\\,\\ \\"\\;man\\ bites\\ dog\\"\\;\\ is\\ different\\ than\\ the\\ sentence\\ \\"\\;dog\\ bites\\ man\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Syntax\\ works\\ using\\ phrase\\ structure\\,\\ and\\ transformations\\.\\ \\;\\Phrase\\ structure\\<\\/u\\>\\ is\\ \\"\\;the\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ syntactic\\ categories\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ in\\ a\\ sentence\\,\\ how\\ the\\ words\\ are\\ grouped\\ into\\ phrases\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ phrases\\ are\\ grouped\\ into\\ larger\\ phrases\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ p\\.\\ 480\\)\\.\\ \\;Phrase\\ structure\\ works\\ on\\ multiple\\ levels\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Words\\ belong\\ to\\ syntactic\\ categories\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ noun\\,\\ verb\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ that\\ define\\ rules\\ for\\ the\\ roles\\ specific\\ words\\ can\\ play\\ in\\ a\\ sentence\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ are\\ rules\\ for\\ how\\ to\\ put\\ phrases\\ together\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;a\\ noun\\ phrase\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ noun\\ \\(the\\ head\\)\\,\\ and\\ may\\ also\\ contain\\ a\\ determiner\\ \\(words\\ like\\ \\"\\;the\\"\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ any\\ number\\ of\\ modifiers\\ such\\ as\\ prepositional\\ phrases\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ allows\\ phrases\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ sets\\ of\\ features\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ man\\ with\\ the\\ yellow\\ hat\\ under\\ the\\ stairs\\)\\,\\ with\\ the\\ head\\ being\\ the\\ defining\\ feature\\ of\\ any\\ phrase\\ \\;\\(e\\.g\\.\\ how\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ phrase\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ yellow\\ hat\\ or\\ about\\ stairs\\)\\.\\ Phrases\\ themselves\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ four\\ components\\:\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\ phrase\\ has\\ a\\ head\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ characterizes\\ the\\ phrase\\ as\\ a\\ specific\\ type\\ and\\ determines\\ what\\ the\\ phrase\\ is\\ about\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ a\\ noun\\ phrase\\ has\\ a\\ noun\\ as\\ a\\ head\\,\\ and\\ the\\ phrase\\ is\\ about\\ this\\ noun\\ specifically\\,\\ so\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ example\\ man\\ is\\ the\\ head\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ it\\ a\\ noun\\ phrase\\ about\\ a\\ man\\,\\ not\\ a\\ verb\\ phrase\\;\\ and\\ in\\ addition\\ makes\\ the\\ noun\\ phrase\\ about\\ a\\ man\\ and\\ not\\ about\\ a\\ hat\\ or\\ about\\ stairs\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ can\\ have\\ role\\ players\\ that\\ get\\ grouped\\ with\\ the\\ head\\.\\ This\\ grouping\\ creates\\ a\\ subphrase\\,\\ called\\ an\\ N\\-bar\\,\\ or\\ V\\-bar\\ \\(symbolized\\ by\\ an\\ N\\ or\\ V\\ with\\ a\\ line\\ above\\ it\\)\\.\\ This\\ helps\\ us\\ distinguish\\ how\\ the\\ parts\\ are\\ interacting\\.\\ This\\ explains\\ why\\ \\"\\;the\\ governor\\ of\\ California\\ from\\ Illinois\\"\\;\\ is\\ well\\-formed\\ because\\ \\"\\;governor\\ of\\ California\\"\\;\\ acts\\ as\\ one\\ piece\\,\\ but\\ \\"\\;the\\ governor\\ from\\ Illinois\\ of\\ California\\"\\;\\ is\\ not\\ well\\ formed\\ because\\ \\"\\;governor\\ of\\ California\\"\\;\\ is\\ the\\ ontological\\ object\\,\\ and\\ \\"\\;from\\ Illinois\\"\\;\\ is\\ just\\ modifying\\ the\\ object\\.\\ In\\ this\\ case\\ \\"\\;of\\ California\\"\\;\\ is\\ the\\ role\\ player\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ can\\ have\\ modifiers\\.\\ These\\ are\\ pieces\\ that\\ add\\ parenthetical\\ or\\ additional\\ information\\ to\\ the\\ head\\.\\ In\\ the\\ example\\ above\\ \\"\\;from\\ Illinois\\"\\;\\ is\\ a\\ modifier\\ because\\ it\\ gives\\ us\\ additional\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ \\"\\;governor\\ of\\ California\\,\\"\\;\\ but\\ \\"\\;of\\ California\\"\\;\\ is\\ a\\ role\\ player\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ helping\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ head\\,\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ additional\\ information\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\ phrase\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ subject\\,\\ which\\ is\\ basically\\ the\\ causal\\ agent\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ phrases\\ are\\ modular\\,\\ and\\ the\\ grammar\\ defines\\ the\\ rules\\ for\\ putting\\ them\\ together\\ correctly\\.\\ One\\ can\\ think\\ of\\ phrases\\ as\\ pieces\\ with\\ specific\\ connectors\\ that\\ snap\\ together\\ in\\ ways\\ defined\\ by\\ the\\ grammar\\'s\\ rules\\.\\ So\\,\\ for\\ example\\ one\\ could\\ switch\\ a\\ piece\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ sentence\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ replaced\\ with\\ a\\ similar\\ piece\\.\\ A\\ phrase\\ must\\ come\\ out\\ as\\ a\\ complete\\ piece\\ \\(so\\ I\\ couldn\\'t\\ pull\\ out\\ just\\ \\"\\;the\\ man\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ example\\ without\\ also\\ pulling\\ out\\ \\"\\;with\\ the\\ yellow\\ hat\\ under\\ the\\ stairs\\"\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ must\\ be\\ replaced\\ by\\ a\\ complete\\ phrase\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ type\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\Phrase\\ structure\\ is\\ usually\\ represented\\ in\\ tree\\ diagrams\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Phrase\\ structures\\ consist\\ of\\ basically\\ the\\ same\\ rules\\ regardless\\ of\\ type\\,\\ and\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ proposed\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ phrase\\ structure\\,\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ super\\-rule\\ that\\ defines\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ all\\ phrases\\ in\\ a\\ language\\.\\ These\\ are\\ X\\-phrase\\ rules\\ where\\ X\\ is\\ a\\ variable\\ whose\\ value\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ syntactic\\ category\\ of\\ the\\ phrase\\ head\\.\\ Then\\ two\\ super\\-rules\\ can\\ be\\ given\\ to\\ define\\ all\\ phrases\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ get\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\XP\\ \\;\\&rarr\\;\\ \\(SPEC\\)\\ X\\-bar\\ YP\\*\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\"\\;A\\ phrase\\ consists\\ of\\ an\\ optional\\ subject\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ an\\ X\\-bar\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ any\\ number\\ of\\ modifiers\\"\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-bar\\ \\;\\&rarr\\;\\ X\\ ZP\\*\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\"\\;An\\ X\\-bar\\ consists\\ of\\ a\\ head\\ word\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ any\\ number\\ of\\ role\\ players\\"\\;\\ \\ \\;\\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ p\\.\\ 110\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Thus\\ if\\ X\\ is\\ a\\ noun\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ noun\\ phrase\\,\\ if\\ its\\ a\\ verb\\ a\\ verb\\ phrase\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\An\\ interesting\\ implication\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ rule\\ structure\\ seems\\ to\\ exist\\ in\\ all\\ languages\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ differences\\ in\\ specific\\ aspects\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ rules\\ are\\ instantiated\\.\\ The\\ rules\\ are\\ the\\ same\\,\\ but\\ order\\ is\\ reversed\\.\\ The\\ really\\ interesting\\ part\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ will\\ hold\\ for\\ all\\ phrase\\ types\\.\\ So\\,\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ the\\ general\\ super\\-rule\\ principle\\ holds\\ for\\ all\\ languages\\,\\ but\\ the\\ specific\\ parameters\\ such\\ as\\ what\\ comes\\ first\\ need\\ be\\ specified\\.\\ This\\ is\\ Chomsky\\'s\\ \\"\\;principles\\ and\\ parameters\\"\\;\\ theory\\,\\ the\\ rules\\ are\\ universal\\,\\ but\\ their\\ specific\\ manifestation\\ varies\\,\\ and\\ so\\ children\\ only\\ need\\ to\\ learn\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ parameters\\ to\\ know\\ how\\ all\\ phrases\\ are\\ put\\ together\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ super\\-rules\\ specify\\ how\\ phrases\\ \\can\\<\\/em\\>\\ be\\ built\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ sufficient\\ for\\ constructing\\ grammatical\\ sentences\\,\\ because\\ some\\ heads\\ require\\ modifiers\\ like\\ the\\ verb\\ punch\\ for\\ instance\\.\\ If\\ one\\ says\\ \\"\\;John\\ punched\\"\\;\\ the\\ sentence\\ is\\ not\\ grammatical\\ because\\ punch\\ is\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ verb\\ that\\ requires\\ an\\ object\\.\\ So\\,\\ words\\'\\ lexical\\ entries\\ carry\\ information\\ about\\ what\\ specific\\ pieces\\ need\\ to\\ accompany\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ phrases\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ punch\\'s\\ entry\\ notes\\ it\\ requires\\ an\\ object\\,\\ while\\ sleep\\'s\\ entry\\ notes\\ that\\ it\\ cannot\\ have\\ one\\)\\.\\ The\\ super\\-rules\\ give\\ the\\ possibilities\\,\\ and\\ words\\ then\\ fit\\ in\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ actual\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ phrase\\ or\\ sentence\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Furthermore\\ one\\ needs\\ go\\ get\\ information\\ about\\ what\\ roles\\ words\\ are\\ playing\\ in\\ phrases\\ and\\ sentences\\ \\(this\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ dog\\ bites\\ man\\ and\\ man\\ bites\\ dog\\,\\ where\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ dog\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\ and\\ man\\ is\\ the\\ object\\,\\ while\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ man\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\ and\\ dog\\ is\\ the\\ object\\)\\.\\ These\\ roles\\ are\\ called\\ \\cases\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\;and\\ there\\ are\\ at\\ least\\ two\\ solutions\\ to\\ how\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ case\\ a\\ word\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;Word\\ order\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ \\(like\\ in\\ English\\)\\,\\ where\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\ because\\ it\\ comes\\ before\\ the\\ object\\,\\ or\\ inflections\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ \\(like\\ in\\ Latin\\)\\,\\ where\\ one\\ would\\ know\\ what\\ the\\ subject\\ is\\ because\\ a\\ tag\\ is\\ added\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ word\\ that\\ says\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ object\\ or\\ subject\\.\\ In\\ extreme\\ case\\-marking\\ languages\\,\\ word\\ order\\ may\\ be\\ completely\\ switched\\ around\\ because\\ the\\ listener\\ can\\ reconstruct\\ the\\ phrase\\ structure\\ using\\ the\\ case\\ information\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Combining\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ paragraphs\\,\\ sometimes\\ words\\ can\\ affect\\ how\\ the\\ cases\\ are\\ to\\ be\\ interpreted\\.\\ For\\ example\\ the\\ following\\ sentences\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ order\\ and\\ a\\ very\\ similar\\ verb\\,\\ but\\ opposite\\ meanings\\:\\ \\"\\;Man\\ fears\\ dog\\"\\;\\,\\ vs\\.\\ \\"\\;Man\\ frightens\\ dog\\.\\"\\;\\ In\\ both\\ sentences\\ the\\ man\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\,\\ and\\ the\\ dog\\ is\\ the\\ object\\,\\ but\\ the\\ meanings\\ of\\ fear\\ and\\ frighten\\ flip\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ for\\ fear\\,\\ the\\ subject\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ afraid\\,\\ and\\ for\\ frighten\\,\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ afraid\\.\\ \\(In\\ lecture\\ this\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\predicate\\-argument\\ structure\\<\\/u\\>\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ last\\ important\\ piece\\ here\\ is\\ \\transformations\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\ Transformations\\ are\\ how\\ many\\ sentences\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ different\\ structure\\ than\\ just\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\ would\\ predict\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ sentence\\ is\\ first\\ constructed\\ mentally\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\,\\ but\\ then\\ transformations\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ convey\\ a\\ specific\\ meaning\\.\\ The\\ mental\\ construction\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\deep\\ structure\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\(or\\ d\\-structure\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ actual\\ sentence\\ after\\ the\\ transformation\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\surface\\ structure\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\(or\\ s\\-structure\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ structures\\ like\\ questions\\ can\\ apparently\\ violate\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\,\\ because\\ we\\ mentally\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ the\\ correct\\ phrase\\ structure\\ and\\ the\\ transformation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ example\\ in\\ the\\ question\\,\\ \\"\\;What\\ did\\ you\\ devour\\?\\"\\;\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ object\\,\\ and\\ devour\\ requires\\ an\\ object\\.\\ The\\ transformational\\ grammar\\ model\\ would\\ posit\\ that\\ the\\ d\\-structure\\ is\\ \\"\\;did\\ you\\ devour\\ what\\"\\;\\ where\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ object\\,\\ but\\ then\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ question\\ in\\ surface\\ structure\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;what\\"\\;\\ is\\ moved\\ to\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ sentence\\,\\ leaving\\ a\\ mental\\ trace\\.\\ The\\ resulting\\ surface\\ structure\\ is\\,\\ \\"\\;what\\ did\\ you\\ devour\\ \\[trace\\]\\?\\"\\;\\ We\\ then\\ understand\\ that\\ what\\ is\\ playing\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ moved\\ from\\ its\\ proper\\ place\\ when\\ performing\\ the\\ transformation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\ in\\ class\\,\\ and\\ here\\ I\\ will\\ map\\ the\\ pieces\\ onto\\ one\\ another\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pinker\\ gave\\ 4\\ components\\ of\\ syntax\\ as\\ follows\\ in\\ class\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Word\\ order\\.\\ This\\ is\\ addressed\\ above\\ as\\ how\\ we\\ understand\\ cases\\ in\\ English\\,\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\,\\ \\ \\;vs\\.\\ the\\ object\\.\\ The\\ same\\ function\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ carried\\ out\\ by\\ inflection\\,\\ as\\ noted\\ above\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Constituency\\ \\(tree\\ structure\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ we\\ actually\\ parse\\ a\\ sentence\\,\\ how\\ we\\ know\\ which\\ words\\ belong\\ to\\ which\\ phrase\\.\\ The\\ sentence\\ \\"\\;On\\ tonight\\'s\\ program\\,\\ David\\ Letterman\\ will\\ discuss\\ sex\\ with\\ Dr\\.\\ Ruth\\"\\;\\ is\\ funny\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ ambiguity\\ that\\ we\\ get\\ hinging\\ on\\ how\\ we\\ parse\\ the\\ sentence\\.\\ We\\ can\\ either\\ interpret\\ the\\ phrases\\ as\\ \\[discuss\\]\\ \\[sex\\]\\ \\[with\\ Dr\\.\\ Ruth\\]\\,\\ or\\ we\\ can\\ interpret\\ them\\ as\\ \\[discuss\\]\\ \\[sex\\ with\\ Dr\\.\\ Ruth\\]\\.\\ The\\ ambiguity\\ results\\ from\\ whether\\ we\\ interpret\\ the\\ prepositional\\ phrase\\ as\\ modifying\\ the\\ verb\\ phrase\\ \\(in\\ the\\ first\\ case\\)\\ or\\ the\\ noun\\ phrase\\ \\(in\\ the\\ second\\ case\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Predicate\\-argument\\ structure\\.\\ This\\ is\\ discussed\\ above\\,\\ and\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ how\\ words\\ interact\\ with\\ syntax\\,\\ what\\ they\\ require\\/don\\'t\\ allow\\,\\ whether\\ the\\ object\\ or\\ the\\ subject\\ is\\ the\\ recipient\\ of\\ the\\ action\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Transformations\\.\\ These\\ are\\ the\\ movements\\ in\\ d\\-structure\\ that\\ give\\ us\\ long\\-distance\\ dependencies\\ \\;\\(either\\,\\ or\\;\\ if\\,\\ then\\;\\ etc\\.\\)\\ and\\ traces\\ \\(What\\ did\\ you\\ devour\\ \\[trace\\]\\?\\)\\.\\ These\\ transformations\\ help\\ impart\\ meaning\\ \\(surface\\ structure\\ \\+\\ trace\\ \\=\\ semantic\\ role\\ of\\ what\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Morphology\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Morphology\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ grammar\\ that\\ take\\ place\\ at\\ the\\ sub\\-phrase\\ level\\,\\ but\\ above\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ phonemes\\.\\ Pinker\\ defines\\ it\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ component\\ of\\ grammar\\ that\\ builds\\ words\\ out\\ of\\ pieces\\ \\(morphemes\\)\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ p\\.\\ 478\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ morphology\\:\\ inflectional\\ morphology\\ and\\ derivational\\ morphology\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Inflectional\\ morphology\\<\\/u\\>\\ is\\ \\"\\;the\\ modification\\ of\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ word\\ to\\ fit\\ its\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ sentence\\,\\ usually\\ by\\ adding\\ an\\ inflection\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ p\\.\\ 477\\)\\.\\ \\;English\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ inflectional\\ morphology\\,\\ but\\ two\\ examples\\ are\\ adding\\ \\-s\\ to\\ words\\ to\\ denote\\ the\\ plural\\,\\ and\\ adding\\ \\-ed\\,\\ \\-s\\,\\ or\\ \\-ing\\ to\\ verbs\\ to\\ denote\\ tense\\ and\\ plural\\/singular\\.\\ In\\ many\\ languages\\ inflectional\\ morphology\\ carries\\ much\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ grammatical\\ burden\\ \\(like\\ in\\ Latin\\ and\\ Russian\\)\\ because\\ they\\ use\\ inflections\\,\\ not\\ word\\ order\\ to\\ mark\\ cases\\ \\(subject\\,\\ object\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Derivational\\ morphology\\<\\/u\\>\\ is\\ \\"\\;the\\ component\\ of\\ grammar\\ containing\\ rules\\ that\\ create\\ old\\ words\\ out\\ of\\ new\\ ones\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ p\\.\\ 475\\)\\.\\ Examples\\ in\\ English\\ include\\ \\"\\;add\\ \\-ness\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ adjective\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;add\\ \\-ly\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ adverb\\.\\"\\;\\ Other\\ examples\\ include\\ adding\\ \\-able\\,\\ \\-er\\,\\ etc\\.\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ making\\ compound\\ words\\ like\\ bottle\\-washer\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Phonology\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Phonology\\ is\\ basically\\ the\\ sound\\ rules\\ of\\ a\\ language\\.\\ Pinker\\ defines\\ it\\ as\\,\\ \\"\\;the\\ component\\ of\\ grammar\\ that\\ determines\\ the\\ sound\\ pattern\\ of\\ a\\ language\\,\\ including\\ its\\ inventory\\ of\\ phonemes\\,\\ how\\ they\\ may\\ be\\ combined\\ to\\ form\\ natural\\-sounding\\ words\\,\\ how\\ the\\ phonemes\\ must\\ be\\ adjusted\\ depending\\ on\\ their\\ neighbors\\,\\ and\\ patterns\\ of\\ intonation\\,\\ timing\\,\\ and\\ stress\\"\\;\\ \\(Pinker\\ 1994\\,\\ p\\.\\ 480\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ also\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ phonology\\:\\ formation\\ rules\\ and\\ adjustment\\ rules\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Formation\\ rules\\<\\/u\\>\\ are\\ the\\ rules\\ that\\ define\\ a\\ language\\'s\\ sound\\ pattern\\ and\\ defines\\ what\\ words\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ language\\.\\ It\\ is\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ phonology\\ that\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ while\\ both\\ \\bluck\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\krechtz\\<\\/em\\>\\ are\\ not\\ English\\ words\\,\\ only\\ \\bluck\\<\\/em\\>\\ could\\ potentially\\ be\\ an\\ English\\ word\\ because\\ the\\ \\"\\;chtz\\"\\;\\ sound\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ English\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Adjustment\\ rules\\<\\/u\\>\\ tell\\ speakers\\ how\\ to\\ combine\\ syllables\\.\\ These\\ are\\ largely\\ dictated\\ by\\ physiological\\ constraints\\ imposed\\ by\\ either\\ the\\ speech\\ production\\ mechanisms\\,\\ or\\ the\\ speech\\ interpretation\\ mechanisms\\.\\ These\\ guarantee\\ that\\ even\\ when\\ morphology\\ creates\\ a\\ phonological\\ beast\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ producible\\ and\\ comprehensible\\,\\ like\\ when\\ we\\ pluralize\\ words\\ that\\ already\\ have\\ s\\ sounds\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Rogers\\'s\\)\\,\\ we\\ change\\ the\\ last\\ s\\ to\\ an\\ \\-ez\\ sound\\,\\ or\\ in\\ words\\ like\\ statitician\\,\\ where\\ our\\ tongues\\ have\\ trouble\\,\\ often\\ we\\ will\\ drop\\ a\\ syllable\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ statician\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Language\\ Interfaces\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ alluded\\ to\\ by\\ the\\ last\\ bit\\ on\\ adjustment\\ rules\\,\\ we\\ must\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ the\\ interfaces\\ that\\ language\\ works\\ with\\,\\ and\\ that\\ often\\ constrain\\ it\\ in\\ specific\\ ways\\.\\ Language\\ itself\\ is\\ an\\ abstract\\ computational\\ system\\ that\\ is\\ modality\\ independent\\ \\(sign\\ language\\ is\\ just\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ the\\ abstract\\ computational\\ system\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ physical\\ modality\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ implemented\\ using\\ some\\ physiological\\ structures\\ because\\ we\\ can\\'t\\ mind\\ read\\,\\ and\\ these\\ will\\ often\\ put\\ constraints\\ on\\ actual\\ language\\-behaviors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ 4\\ major\\ interfaces\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ and\\ working\\ memory\\.\\ Listeners\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ store\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ sentence\\ in\\ working\\ memory\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ end\\,\\ or\\ else\\ they\\ can\\'t\\ put\\ the\\ pieces\\ together\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ even\\ though\\ grammar\\ can\\ generate\\ infinitely\\ long\\ sentences\\,\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ a\\ sentence\\ is\\ limited\\ in\\ practice\\.\\ Working\\ memory\\ must\\ perform\\ the\\ computations\\ of\\ parsing\\ as\\ well\\ \\(called\\ constituency\\ above\\)\\ to\\ understand\\ a\\ sentence\\.\\ This\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ global\\ ambiguities\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ prostitutes\\ appeal\\ to\\ pope\\)\\,\\ or\\ local\\ ambiguities\\,\\ also\\ called\\ garden\\ path\\ sentences\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ speaker\\ is\\ led\\ to\\ one\\ interpretation\\ early\\,\\ and\\ then\\ forced\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ and\\ change\\ it\\ later\\,\\ which\\ is\\ quite\\ difficult\\.\\ For\\ example\\ in\\ the\\ sentence\\,\\ \\;the\\ horse\\ raced\\ past\\ the\\ barn\\ fell\\,\\ up\\ until\\ fell\\ we\\ think\\ raced\\ is\\ a\\ verb\\,\\ but\\ once\\ fell\\ comes\\ out\\ the\\ sentence\\ must\\ be\\ re\\-parsed\\ so\\ that\\ raced\\ is\\ playing\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ an\\ adjective\\.\\ This\\ plays\\ a\\ large\\ role\\ in\\ constraining\\ good\\ writing\\ and\\ speech\\ from\\ bad\\,\\ even\\ if\\ both\\ are\\ grammatical\\;\\ good\\ writers\\ don\\'t\\ make\\ their\\ readers\\ work\\ too\\ hard\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ strain\\ working\\ memory\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ and\\ the\\ vocal\\ tract\\.\\ As\\ noted\\ before\\ the\\ limitations\\ of\\ the\\ speech\\ production\\ system\\ are\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ driving\\ factors\\ for\\ phonological\\ adjustment\\ rules\\.\\ Often\\ we\\ pronounce\\ the\\ same\\ letter\\ differently\\ depending\\ on\\ its\\ local\\ sound\\ environment\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ compare\\ the\\ \\-ed\\ pronunciation\\ on\\ walked\\ \\(\\-t\\)\\,\\ jogged\\ \\(\\-d\\)\\,\\ and\\ patted\\ \\(\\-id\\)\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ to\\ facilitate\\ both\\ articulation\\ and\\ comprehension\\.\\ Human\\ speech\\ production\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ \\source\\-filter\\ model\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\ The\\ larynx\\ \\(called\\ the\\ vocal\\ chords\\,\\ or\\ more\\ correctly\\ the\\ vocal\\ folds\\)\\ emits\\ a\\ formant\\-rich\\ buzzy\\ sound\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ well\\ articulated\\.\\ We\\ then\\ filter\\ this\\ sound\\ with\\ the\\ pharynx\\ \\(throat\\)\\,\\ mouth\\,\\ nose\\,\\ teeth\\,\\ and\\ lips\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ and\\ the\\ auditory\\ system\\.\\ Our\\ ears\\ are\\ naturally\\ well\\-tuned\\ for\\ language\\.\\ We\\ automatically\\ parse\\ phonemes\\ into\\ discrete\\ units\\,\\ find\\ word\\ boundaries\\ where\\ none\\ exist\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ constraints\\ imposed\\ from\\ this\\ end\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ similar\\ and\\ complementary\\ to\\ the\\ limitations\\ from\\ the\\ vocal\\ tract\\.\\ If\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ say\\ a\\ word\\ correctly\\,\\ presumably\\ it\\ would\\ also\\ be\\ hard\\ to\\ understand\\ it\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ and\\ inference\\.\\ When\\ we\\ speak\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ rich\\ social\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ make\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ inferences\\.\\ The\\ study\\ of\\ how\\ speech\\ is\\ actually\\ used\\ and\\ understood\\ is\\ called\\ pragmatics\\.\\ Although\\ it\\ seems\\ like\\ people\\ express\\ themselves\\ quite\\ well\\,\\ this\\ is\\ in\\ large\\ part\\ an\\ illusion\\ that\\ is\\ created\\ because\\ we\\ unconsciously\\ fill\\ in\\ the\\ blanks\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ people\\ are\\ saying\\.\\ A\\ great\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ following\\:\\ Marsha\\:\\ \\"\\;I\\'m\\ leaving\\ you\\"\\;\\,\\ John\\:\\ \\"\\;Who\\ is\\ he\\?\\"\\;\\ Obviously\\ John\\'s\\ question\\ would\\ seem\\ like\\ a\\ non\\ sequitor\\ if\\ we\\ could\\ not\\ follow\\ in\\ depth\\ social\\ reasoning\\ to\\ realize\\ he\\ believes\\ Marsha\\ is\\ cheating\\ on\\ him\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Part\\ II\\.\\ Evolutionary\\ Status\\ and\\ Innateness\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ two\\ related\\ issues\\ here\\ that\\ \\;Pinker\\ dealt\\ with\\,\\ one\\ primarily\\ in\\ the\\ reading\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ primarily\\ in\\ class\\.\\ On\\ question\\ is\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ status\\ of\\ language\\,\\ namely\\ is\\ it\\ an\\ adaptation\\?\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ major\\ categories\\ of\\ explanations\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ origins\\:\\ adaptations\\ are\\ well\\ organized\\ components\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ \\"\\;built\\"\\;\\ by\\ evolution\\ to\\ serve\\ a\\ function\\ that\\ helps\\ an\\ organism\\ survive\\ and\\/or\\ reproduce\\,\\ spandrels\\ are\\ side\\ effects\\ of\\ adaptations\\,\\ and\\ evolutionary\\ noise\\ is\\ variation\\ that\\ evolution\\ has\\ not\\ yet\\ purged\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\ pool\\,\\ either\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ no\\ survival\\ or\\ reproductive\\ ramifications\\ \\(neutral\\)\\ or\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ recently\\ emerged\\ and\\ will\\ either\\ go\\ to\\ fixation\\ or\\ be\\ eliminated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ reason\\ the\\ debates\\ are\\ related\\ is\\ because\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ adaptation\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ innate\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\.\\ Now\\,\\ this\\ claim\\ is\\ largely\\ misunderstood\\ outside\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ biology\\,\\ where\\ saying\\ something\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ and\\ thus\\ innate\\ is\\ synonymous\\ to\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ genetically\\ determined\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ blatant\\ misunderstanding\\.\\ What\\ it\\ means\\ for\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ innate\\ \\(in\\ the\\ sense\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ adaptation\\)\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ organism\\ has\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ organization\\ that\\ is\\ innate\\ that\\ causes\\ the\\ trait\\ to\\ reliably\\ develop\\ in\\ environments\\ that\\ are\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ evolved\\.\\ So\\,\\ a\\ learning\\ mechanism\\ \\(perhaps\\ like\\ that\\ for\\ words\\)\\ could\\ be\\ innate\\ causing\\ a\\ specific\\ type\\ of\\ learning\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ \\(all\\ learning\\ mechanisms\\ must\\ be\\ innate\\ and\\ tuned\\ to\\ some\\ type\\ of\\ input\\)\\.\\ One\\ could\\ then\\ argue\\ that\\ words\\ are\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ an\\ adaptation\\ \\;\\(or\\ a\\ subcomponent\\ of\\ one\\)\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ no\\ specific\\ words\\ are\\ innate\\.\\ That\\ one\\ can\\ and\\ will\\ learn\\ words\\ is\\ innate\\,\\ what\\ those\\ words\\ are\\ is\\ not\\ innate\\ at\\ all\\ \\(with\\ a\\ few\\ exceptions\\ like\\ maternal\\ vocalizations\\)\\.\\ This\\ developmental\\ reliability\\ is\\ exactly\\ how\\ the\\ chapter\\ opens\\ with\\ Jackendoff\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Evolutionary\\ Status\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ chapter\\ with\\ Ray\\ Jackendoff\\ \\(The\\ components\\ of\\ language\\:\\ What\\'s\\ specific\\ to\\ language\\,\\ and\\ what\\'s\\ specific\\ to\\ humans\\)\\,\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Jackendoff\\ take\\ the\\ adaptation\\ issue\\ on\\ directly\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ for\\ communication\\.\\ This\\ chapter\\ summarizes\\ a\\ long\\ standing\\ debate\\ that\\ Pinker\\ has\\ written\\ much\\ about\\.\\ In\\ 1990\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Paul\\ Bloom\\ argued\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ for\\ communication\\.\\ The\\ Language\\ Instinct\\ is\\ in\\ part\\ an\\ explication\\ of\\ the\\ idea\\,\\ and\\ it\\ seemed\\ to\\ stand\\ unopposed\\ \\(at\\ least\\ in\\ print\\)\\ for\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ years\\ until\\ 2002\\.\\ In\\ 2002\\,\\ Marc\\ Hauser\\,\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\ and\\ Tecumseh\\ Fitch\\ published\\ an\\ article\\ that\\ argued\\ that\\ language\\ was\\ actually\\ a\\ spandrel\\.\\ Then\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Jackendoff\\ responded\\,\\ Hauser\\,\\ Chomsky\\,\\ and\\ Fitch\\ responded\\ to\\ the\\ response\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Jackendoff\\ responded\\ to\\ the\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ response\\.\\ So\\,\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ more\\ info\\,\\ this\\ chapter\\ has\\ a\\ long\\ history\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ chapter\\ opens\\ by\\ framing\\ the\\ debate\\.\\ Important\\ issues\\ are\\ listed\\ below\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Innateness\\ of\\ language\\ components\\ need\\ not\\ imply\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ all\\ languages\\,\\ as\\ some\\ components\\ of\\ the\\ universal\\ adapted\\ cognitive\\ architecture\\ may\\ be\\ deployed\\ or\\ not\\ depending\\ on\\ other\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ and\\ environment\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\One\\ important\\ question\\ is\\ which\\ aspects\\ of\\ language\\ are\\ learned\\ and\\ which\\ arise\\ from\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ including\\ the\\ structures\\ that\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ learning\\ as\\ noted\\ above\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ second\\ major\\ question\\ is\\ what\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ faculty\\ are\\ specific\\ to\\ language\\ \\(called\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\)\\,\\ and\\ which\\ overlap\\ with\\ other\\ \\(perhaps\\ more\\ general\\)\\ abilities\\ \\;\\(called\\ the\\ broad\\ language\\ faculty\\)\\?\\ For\\ example\\,\\ babies\\ need\\ social\\ cognition\\ to\\ learn\\ language\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ specific\\ to\\ language\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\ third\\ question\\ is\\ which\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ faculty\\ are\\ uniquely\\ human\\?\\ This\\ question\\ overlaps\\ with\\ the\\ last\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ as\\ those\\ shared\\ with\\ other\\ species\\ cannot\\ be\\ specific\\ to\\ language\\,\\ but\\ these\\ questions\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ orthogonal\\,\\ for\\ example\\ if\\ humans\\ have\\ some\\ new\\ social\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ that\\ language\\ taps\\ into\\.\\ One\\ important\\ distinction\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ here\\ is\\ between\\ traits\\ that\\ are\\ common\\ because\\ of\\ shared\\ ancestry\\,\\ and\\ traits\\ that\\ are\\ common\\ because\\ of\\ convergent\\ evolution\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ same\\ basic\\ mechanism\\ evolved\\ separately\\ and\\ independently\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hauser\\,\\ Chomsky\\,\\ and\\ Fitch\\ based\\ their\\ argument\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ a\\ spandrel\\ on\\ a\\ specific\\ conceptualization\\ of\\ what\\ constitutes\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\.\\ They\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ mechanism\\ that\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\ is\\ recursion\\ in\\ syntax\\,\\ and\\ some\\ interface\\ mappings\\.\\ They\\ suggest\\ that\\ all\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ faculty\\ fall\\ under\\ the\\ broad\\ language\\ faculty\\,\\ and\\ are\\ mostly\\ \\(if\\ not\\ entirely\\)\\ shared\\ with\\ other\\ animals\\.\\ This\\ vision\\ of\\ language\\ comes\\ from\\ Chomsky\\'s\\ minimalist\\ program\\ in\\ linguistics\\,\\ which\\ argues\\ something\\ very\\ similar\\,\\ that\\ syntax\\ is\\ even\\ simpler\\ than\\ earlier\\ thought\\,\\ and\\ is\\ fundamentally\\ recursion\\.\\ This\\ viewpoint\\ is\\ highly\\ controversial\\,\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ splitting\\ point\\ between\\ many\\ followers\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Hauser\\,\\ Chomsky\\,\\ Fitch\\ argument\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ a\\ spandrel\\ thus\\ proposes\\ that\\ recursion\\ is\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ both\\ questions\\ 3\\,\\ and\\ 4\\ above\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ recursion\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ thing\\ that\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ basically\\ the\\ only\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ faculty\\ that\\ is\\ unique\\ to\\ humans\\.\\ These\\ are\\ both\\ independent\\ questions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ contrast\\ to\\ this\\ position\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Jackendoff\\ argue\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ for\\ the\\ communication\\ of\\ complex\\ propositions\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ to\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\ than\\ just\\ recursion\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ more\\ aspects\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ share\\ with\\ other\\ animals\\ \\(because\\ no\\ other\\ animals\\ have\\ language\\ anything\\ that\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ faculty\\ would\\ be\\ uniquely\\ human\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pinker\\ and\\ Jackendoff\\ concede\\ that\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ broad\\ faculty\\ of\\ language\\ is\\ shared\\ with\\ other\\ primates\\ such\\ as\\ some\\ forms\\ of\\ spatial\\,\\ causal\\,\\ and\\ social\\ reasoning\\.\\ However\\ they\\ also\\ argue\\ that\\ major\\ components\\ of\\ humans\\'\\ broad\\ language\\ faculty\\ are\\ not\\ unique\\ to\\ language\\ but\\ are\\ also\\ not\\ shared\\ with\\ other\\ primates\\.\\ They\\ note\\ that\\ much\\ of\\ our\\ conceptual\\ system\\,\\ especially\\ our\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\,\\ does\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ shared\\ with\\ other\\ primates\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ this\\ helps\\ us\\ learn\\ and\\ use\\ language\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ domains\\ of\\ human\\ knowledge\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ learnable\\ without\\ language\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\"\\;The\\ overall\\ picture\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ substrate\\ of\\ combinatorial\\ conceptual\\ structure\\ in\\ chimps\\,\\ overlain\\ by\\ some\\ uniquely\\ human\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ language\\-based\\ subsystems\\,\\ in\\ turn\\ overlain\\ by\\ subsystems\\ that\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ preexistence\\ of\\ linguistic\\ expression\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(p\\.129\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ argue\\ that\\ although\\ language\\ itself\\ is\\ amodal\\ \\(it\\ can\\ be\\ spoken\\,\\ written\\,\\ or\\ signed\\)\\,\\ there\\ is\\ substantial\\ evidence\\ that\\ humans\\ show\\ many\\ accompanying\\ adaptations\\ for\\ speech\\ perception\\.\\ They\\ refer\\ to\\ this\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;Speech\\ is\\ Special\\"\\;\\ \\;\\(SiS\\)\\ Hypothesis\\,\\ and\\ conclude\\ that\\ specialized\\ speech\\ perception\\,\\ speech\\ production\\,\\ and\\ phonological\\ \\;mechanisms\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\.\\ Perhaps\\ more\\ important\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ not\\ only\\ should\\ specialized\\ mechanisms\\ for\\ speech\\ production\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\,\\ but\\ also\\ that\\ many\\ of\\ these\\ mechanisms\\ do\\ not\\ use\\ recursion\\.\\ They\\ note\\ the\\ following\\ evidence\\ for\\ \\speech\\ perception\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Categorical\\ phoneme\\ perception\\-\\-phonemes\\ are\\ perceived\\ as\\ discrete\\ units\\.\\ The\\ research\\ on\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\,\\ but\\ it\\ seems\\ as\\ though\\ humans\\ do\\ have\\ specialized\\ auditory\\ systems\\ for\\ phonemes\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Speech\\ and\\ non\\-speech\\-sound\\ are\\ perceived\\ differently\\.\\ \\;Speech\\ and\\ other\\ sound\\ perception\\ dissociate\\,\\ and\\ neuroimaging\\ and\\ patient\\ data\\ indicate\\ that\\ we\\ process\\ speech\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ area\\ than\\ other\\ sounds\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Many\\ of\\ the\\ features\\ of\\ complex\\ speech\\ perception\\ appear\\ very\\ early\\ in\\ human\\ infants\\,\\ including\\ abilities\\ that\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ learned\\ from\\ training\\ in\\ utero\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Monkey\\ speech\\ perception\\ and\\ human\\ speech\\ perception\\ experiments\\ show\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ differences\\ in\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ perceived\\ in\\ monkeys\\ vs\\.\\ humans\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\And\\ the\\ following\\ evidence\\ for\\ \\speech\\ production\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\One\\ argument\\ against\\ SiS\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ larynx\\ may\\ have\\ dropped\\ for\\ size\\ exaggeration\\,\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Jackendoff\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ claim\\ is\\ weak\\.\\ The\\ pick\\ apart\\ the\\ evidence\\ merely\\ showing\\ that\\ this\\ argument\\ would\\ make\\ specific\\ predictions\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ borne\\ out\\,\\ like\\ sexual\\ dimorphism\\ in\\ the\\ trait\\ \\;\\(like\\ low\\ voices\\ in\\ mature\\ men\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\ the\\ descended\\ larynx\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ specialized\\ mechanisms\\ for\\ speech\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Modern\\ humans\\ have\\ an\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ spinal\\ cord\\ that\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ breathing\\ necessary\\ for\\ speech\\ production\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Nonhuman\\ primates\\ do\\ not\\ learn\\ vocalizations\\ like\\ humans\\ \\(they\\ are\\ very\\ hard\\ to\\ train\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Humans\\ are\\ excellent\\ at\\ imitating\\ speech\\ patterns\\ in\\ exquisite\\ detail\\,\\ but\\ terrible\\ at\\ other\\ vocal\\ imitations\\ \\;\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ variability\\ in\\ ability\\ to\\ imitate\\ speech\\,\\ a\\ hallmark\\ of\\ adaptation\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ imitate\\ other\\ sounds\\ shows\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ inter\\-individual\\ difference\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\And\\ for\\ \\phonology\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\"\\;the\\ kinds\\ of\\ constituents\\,\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ combination\\,\\ and\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ adjustment\\ processes\\ in\\ phonology\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ specific\\ to\\ language\\.\\ And\\ unlike\\ motor\\ programs\\,\\ phonological\\ structure\\ is\\ a\\ level\\ of\\ representation\\ that\\ is\\ crucially\\ used\\ in\\ both\\ production\\ and\\ perception\\"\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 134\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Phonology\\ is\\ not\\ recursive\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Rhythmic\\ patterns\\ of\\ phonology\\ and\\ music\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ uniquely\\ human\\ \\(although\\ some\\ birds\\ show\\ similar\\ abilities\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ convergent\\ evolution\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ only\\ bolster\\ the\\ claim\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ an\\ adaptation\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Then\\ they\\ tackle\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ \\words\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ many\\ word\\-learning\\ and\\ word\\-retention\\ mechanisms\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ uniquely\\ human\\.\\ They\\ note\\ the\\ following\\ properties\\ of\\ words\\ that\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ uniquely\\ human\\ with\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Humans\\ know\\ 50\\,000\\+\\ words\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ range\\ and\\ precision\\ of\\ words\\ is\\ huge\\ from\\ concrete\\ to\\ abstract\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\All\\ words\\ must\\ be\\ learned\\,\\ which\\ requires\\ both\\ vocal\\ imitation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ new\\ words\\ from\\ context\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Kids\\ learn\\ words\\ at\\ an\\ astonishing\\ rate\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Words\\ need\\ not\\ apply\\ to\\ the\\ present\\ circumstances\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Words\\ and\\ facts\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ learned\\ in\\ very\\ different\\ ways\\ \\(showing\\ word\\-learning\\ specialization\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Word\\ information\\ is\\ much\\ richer\\ than\\ just\\ meaning\\,\\ there\\ are\\ also\\ semantic\\,\\ and\\ syntactic\\ properties\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ stored\\ in\\ the\\ lexicon\\,\\ and\\ these\\ must\\ interface\\ with\\ syntax\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Functional\\ morphemes\\ \\(structural\\ words\\ like\\ the\\,\\ and\\,\\ an\\,\\ but\\,\\ nor\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ lexicon\\,\\ but\\ these\\ words\\ serve\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ syntactic\\ role\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Words\\ are\\ defined\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ a\\ concept\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ other\\ words\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ conclude\\,\\ \\"\\;our\\ assessment\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\ is\\ therefore\\ that\\ words\\,\\ as\\ shared\\,\\ organized\\ linkages\\ of\\ phonological\\,\\ conceptual\\,\\ and\\ \\(morpho\\-\\)syntactic\\ structures\\,\\ are\\ a\\ distinctive\\ language\\-specific\\ part\\ of\\ human\\ knowledge\\"\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 138\\)\\.\\ They\\ further\\ note\\ that\\ humans\\,\\ especially\\ children\\,\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ mechanisms\\ specialized\\ specifically\\ for\\ word\\ learning\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Last\\ they\\ address\\ \\syntax\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ arguing\\ again\\ that\\ syntax\\ consists\\ of\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ recursion\\,\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ considered\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\.\\ They\\ note\\ that\\ syntax\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ hierarchical\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\,\\ which\\ are\\ indeed\\ recursive\\,\\ but\\ consists\\ of\\ four\\ combinatorial\\ components\\ as\\ explained\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ above\\.\\ These\\ four\\ parts\\ are\\:\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Constituency\\ or\\ hierarchical\\ phrase\\ structure\\ rules\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Ordering\\ words\\ within\\ phrases\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ head\\ must\\ go\\ first\\)\\ and\\ phrases\\ within\\ bigger\\ phrases\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ modifiers\\ follow\\ the\\ head\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Agreement\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ I\\ run\\ vs\\.\\ he\\ runs\\,\\ syntax\\ must\\ make\\ sure\\ verb\\ agrees\\ with\\ singular\\ or\\ plural\\ noun\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Case\\-marking\\,\\ noting\\ what\\ part\\ of\\ speech\\ words\\ are\\ playing\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ object\\ vs\\.\\ subject\\)\\ \\(English\\ does\\ this\\ by\\ word\\ order\\,\\ not\\ actual\\ case\\ marking\\ inflections\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\Syntax\\ also\\ employs\\ transformations\\ and\\ long\\-distance\\ dependency\\ rules\\.\\ All\\ 5\\ of\\ these\\ components\\ \\(including\\ transformation\\ rules\\)\\ seem\\ to\\ fall\\ under\\ narrow\\ language\\ faculty\\,\\ but\\ only\\ constituency\\ and\\ perhaps\\ long\\-distance\\ dependency\\ are\\ recursive\\.\\ While\\ these\\ all\\ depend\\ on\\ phrase\\ structure\\,\\ which\\ is\\ recursive\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ seem\\ reducible\\ to\\ it\\,\\ thus\\ weakening\\ the\\ recursion\\-only\\ view\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\After\\ reviewing\\ this\\ alternative\\ view\\ of\\ language\\,\\ they\\ move\\ to\\ \\recursion\\<\\/u\\>\\ and\\ point\\ out\\ that\\ recursion\\ is\\ not\\ unique\\ to\\ language\\,\\ and\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\ language\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ recursive\\ is\\ because\\ thoughts\\ can\\ be\\ recursive\\.\\ This\\ thus\\ shows\\ that\\ recursion\\ per\\ se\\ is\\ not\\ itself\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ faculty\\ of\\ language\\,\\ although\\ language\\ may\\ have\\ specific\\ recursive\\ mechanisms\\ \\(like\\ syntax\\)\\ that\\ are\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ narrow\\ faculty\\ of\\ language\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lastly\\ they\\ review\\ genetic\\ evidence\\ which\\ is\\ also\\ covered\\ in\\ lecture\\,\\ so\\ I\\ will\\ address\\ this\\ below\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ summarize\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ narrow\\ faculty\\ of\\ language\\ seems\\ to\\ contain\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ just\\ recursion\\,\\ and\\ in\\ fact\\ recursion\\ itself\\ does\\ not\\ even\\ seem\\ to\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ narrow\\ faculty\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ other\\ cognitive\\ faculties\\.\\ This\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ debate\\ because\\ the\\ probability\\ that\\ something\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ increases\\ dramatically\\ with\\ functionally\\ organized\\ complexity\\.\\ Because\\ language\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ quite\\ complex\\,\\ and\\ the\\ features\\ seem\\ in\\ a\\ sense\\ optimally\\ designed\\ for\\ communication\\,\\ the\\ reasonable\\ conclusion\\ is\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ that\\ Hauser\\,\\ Chomsky\\,\\ Fitch\\ argued\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ spandrel\\ was\\ its\\ apparent\\ simplicity\\,\\ but\\ the\\ above\\ analysis\\ shows\\ that\\ this\\ view\\ of\\ language\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ be\\ accurate\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ unlikely\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ spandrel\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Innateness\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ should\\ first\\ be\\ noted\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ buy\\ into\\ the\\ adaptation\\ argument\\,\\ you\\ must\\ buy\\ into\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ at\\ least\\ some\\ components\\ of\\ language\\ must\\ be\\ innate\\.\\ \\;The\\ question\\ then\\ becomes\\ what\\ is\\ innate\\?\\ How\\ is\\ the\\ learning\\ structured\\?\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Evidence\\ for\\ innateness\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Human\\ universal\\,\\ all\\ known\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ have\\ or\\ had\\ language\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Complexity\\ not\\ correlated\\ with\\ technological\\ advancement\\.\\ Even\\ \\"\\;primitive\\"\\;\\ cultures\\ have\\ complex\\ language\\,\\ often\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ industrialized\\ cultures\\'\\ languages\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\,\\ non\\-innate\\ inventions\\ like\\ mathematics\\ and\\ writing\\ show\\ vastly\\ different\\ levels\\ of\\ complexity\\ \\(or\\ even\\ existence\\)\\ across\\ cultures\\,\\ furthermore\\ the\\ complexity\\ of\\ these\\ inventions\\ is\\ closely\\ correlated\\ the\\ technological\\ advancement\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Creolization\\.\\ When\\ different\\ linguistic\\ groups\\ are\\ forced\\ together\\,\\ they\\ create\\ a\\ pidgin\\.\\ A\\ pidgin\\ is\\ basically\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ communication\\ without\\ clear\\ rules\\ of\\ syntax\\ \\(think\\ of\\ Tarzan\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ \\first\\<\\/em\\>\\ generation\\ of\\ children\\ is\\ raised\\ in\\ a\\ culture\\ with\\ a\\ pidgin\\,\\ they\\ turn\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ creole\\.\\ A\\ creole\\ has\\ syntax\\.\\ What\\ this\\ shows\\ is\\ that\\ children\\ don\\'t\\ so\\ much\\ passively\\ learn\\ language\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ re\\-invent\\ it\\ when\\ they\\ learn\\ it\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ language\\ universals\\,\\ like\\ phrase\\ structure\\ \\(this\\ is\\ not\\ empirically\\ conclusive\\ however\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ would\\ be\\ unlearnable\\ if\\ children\\ were\\ not\\ equipped\\ with\\ specialized\\ mechanisms\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Children\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ divine\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ their\\ language\\,\\ yet\\ their\\ linguistic\\ input\\ doesn\\'t\\ seem\\ rich\\ enough\\ to\\ accomplish\\ the\\ task\\ unless\\ they\\ already\\ had\\ a\\ good\\ working\\ model\\ of\\ how\\ language\\ might\\ be\\ structured\\ \\;\\(they\\ must\\ have\\ innate\\ conceptions\\ that\\ limit\\ the\\ possibilities\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ innate\\ learning\\ structures\\ that\\ scaffold\\ their\\ language\\ learning\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;poverty\\ of\\ the\\ stimulus\\"\\;\\ argument\\.\\ This\\ argument\\ has\\ some\\ problems\\ \\(like\\ insufficient\\ empirical\\ investigation\\)\\ but\\ is\\ probably\\ true\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Children\\'s\\ errors\\ seem\\ to\\ exhibit\\ phenomena\\ indicative\\ of\\ innate\\ structuring\\.\\ One\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ children\\ can\\ use\\ rules\\ to\\ generate\\ novel\\ regular\\ inflections\\ on\\ the\\ fly\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ wug\\ test\\)\\.\\ Another\\ is\\ that\\ children\\ make\\ over\\-regularization\\ errors\\ \\(he\\ runned\\)\\ which\\ they\\ never\\ could\\ have\\ heard\\ as\\ input\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Double\\ dissociation\\ of\\ language\\ and\\ cognition\\ \\(Specific\\ Language\\ Impairment\\ \\(SLI\\)\\ vs\\.\\ Williams\\ Syndrome\\)\\ seems\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ language\\ is\\ modular\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ learned\\ using\\ general\\ cognitive\\ mechanisms\\.\\ People\\ can\\ have\\ language\\ impairment\\ with\\ normal\\ IQ\\ \\(SLI\\)\\,\\ or\\ be\\ retarded\\ but\\ have\\ great\\ language\\ ability\\ \\(Williams\\ Syndrome\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ problems\\ seem\\ heritable\\,\\ while\\ language\\ itself\\ shows\\ no\\ heritability\\ \\(which\\ is\\ what\\ happens\\ after\\ adaptation\\,\\ just\\ like\\ we\\ show\\ no\\ heritability\\ for\\ having\\ 2\\ legs\\ because\\ everyone\\ has\\ them\\,\\ barring\\ extreme\\ environmental\\ conditions\\)\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ family\\ in\\ England\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ SNiP\\ mutation\\ on\\ a\\ dominant\\ gene\\,\\ FOX2P\\,\\ that\\ creates\\ a\\ heritable\\ language\\ impairment\\.\\ Affected\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ problems\\ with\\ grammar\\,\\ what\\ Gopnik\\ \\&\\;\\ Crago\\ called\\ \\"\\;grammatical\\ feature\\ blindness\\.\\"\\;\\ This\\ SLI\\ seems\\ somewhat\\ independent\\ of\\ general\\ cognitive\\ ability\\ \\;\\(although\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ correlation\\ between\\ IQ\\ and\\ SLI\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ FOX2P\\ gene\\ shows\\ evidence\\ that\\ seems\\ to\\ indicate\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ under\\ positive\\ selection\\ \\(which\\ also\\ fits\\ nicely\\ with\\ the\\ language\\ as\\ adaptation\\ claim\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Arguments\\ 3\\,\\ 5\\,\\ and\\ 6\\,\\ and\\ 7\\ are\\ also\\ demonstrated\\ by\\ how\\ easily\\ children\\ learn\\ language\\ compared\\ to\\ adults\\.\\ The\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ that\\ children\\ have\\ a\\ specialized\\ language\\ acquisition\\ device\\,\\ that\\ is\\ then\\ deconstructed\\,\\ so\\ adults\\ must\\ learn\\ using\\ general\\ cognition\\ and\\ analogy\\ with\\ their\\ first\\ language\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Pinker Language Overview and Evolutionary Status/Innateness of Language"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 20", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 605, "html": "\\Rule\\ 20\\:\\ Permissive\\ Joinder\\ of\\ Parties\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIt\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ plaintiff\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rule\\ \\&\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ permissive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n20\\(a\\)\\:\\ All\\ sorts\\ of\\ people\\ may\\ join\\ as\\ plaintiffs\\ or\\ a\\ plaintiff\\ may\\ sue\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ people\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPlaintiffs\\ may\\ sue\\ together\\;\\ may\\ sue\\ a\\ common\\ set\\ of\\ Ds\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nMay\\ sue\\ together\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;same\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\ or\\ series\\ of\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;common\\ question\\ of\\ law\\ or\\ fact\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;same\\ t\\ or\\ o\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ does\\ all\\ the\\ work\\,\\ it\\ rarely\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;common\\ question\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Same\\ t\\ or\\ o\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ very\\ broad\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nParties\\ can\\ be\\ joined\\ under\\ joint\\/several\\ liability\\ or\\ if\\ claim\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;same\\ t\\ or\\ o\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\nJudgment\\ can\\ be\\ parsed\\ according\\ to\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ liabilities\\ \\&\\;\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rights\\ to\\ releif\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n20\\(b\\)\\:\\ court\\ can\\ order\\ separate\\ trials\\ to\\ prevent\\ delay\\ or\\ prejudice\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Rationale\\\\\r\n\\\r\nP\\ is\\ master\\ of\\ his\\ claim\\;\\ more\\ efficient\\;\\ bring\\ everybody\\ into\\ the\\ courtroom\\ because\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lots\\ of\\ uncertainty\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ \\&\\;\\ you\\ may\\ not\\ know\\ who\\ caused\\ the\\ problem\\;\\ consistent\\ outcomes\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 20"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 19", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 604, "html": "\\Rule\\ 19\\ Joinder\\ of\\ Persons\\ Necessary\\ for\\ Just\\ adjudication\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nGoverns\\ the\\ court\\ when\\ a\\ party\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;missing\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ suit\\.\\ \\ \\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\ 19\\ occurs\\ at\\ initiative\\ of\\ parties\\ in\\ the\\ lawsuit\\ but\\ concerns\\ sb\\ absent\\ from\\ the\\ litigation\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n19\\(a\\)\\:\\ FEASIBLE\\:\\ Is\\ the\\ party\\ feasible\\?\\ Uses\\ a\\ 2\\ part\\ test\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ will\\ there\\ be\\ incomplete\\ relief\\ without\\ the\\ party\\ \\(2\\)\\ \\(i\\)\\ does\\ the\\ suit\\ affect\\ the\\ missing\\ party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(parties\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\ protection\\ of\\ rights\\/entitlements\\ or\\ \\(ii\\)\\ leave\\ the\\ missing\\ party\\ exposed\\ to\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ inconsistent\\ results\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNote\\:\\ party\\ is\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\&rdquo\\;\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feasible\\ to\\ join\\ him\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ pre\\-1966\\ language\\ of\\ Rule\\ 19\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThis\\ determination\\ is\\ totally\\ contextual\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ Incomplete\\ Relief\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(2\\)\\ Impair\\ or\\ Impede\\ an\\ interest\\ as\\ a\\ practical\\ matter\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(3\\)\\ Double\\,\\ multiple\\,\\ or\\ otherwise\\ inconsistent\\ obligations\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n19\\(b\\)\\:\\ INDISPENSABLE\\:\\ If\\ not\\ feasible\\ to\\ join\\ a\\ party\\,\\ the\\ court\\ will\\ decide\\ if\\ the\\ party\\ is\\ indispensable\\ considering\\ 4\\ things\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ extent\\ of\\ prejudice\\ to\\ the\\ potential\\ joinder\\ party\\ or\\ to\\ parties\\ already\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ suit\\ \\(2\\)\\ ability\\ to\\ reduce\\ impact\\ \\(prejudice\\)\\ of\\ absence\\ through\\ court\\ measures\\ \\(3\\)\\ adequacy\\ of\\ judgment\\ without\\ party\\ \\(4\\)\\ plaintiff\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ get\\ adequate\\ relief\\ if\\ party\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ joined\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n19\\(c\\)\\:\\ in\\ the\\ pleading\\,\\ the\\ P\\ should\\ describe\\ any\\ Ds\\ who\\ are\\ feasible\\ but\\ not\\ joined\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n19\\(d\\)\\:\\ subject\\ to\\ Rule\\ 23\\ \\(class\\ action\\ stuff\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nStep\\ 1\\/Rule\\ 19\\(a\\)\\:\\ is\\ missing\\ party\\ desirable\\ if\\ feasible\\ to\\ join\\?\\ \\(feasible\\=necessary\\ in\\ this\\ formulation\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ term\\ of\\ art\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\[Feasibility\\ check\\]\\\\\r\n\\\r\nStep\\ 2\\/Rule\\ 19\\(b\\)\\:\\ if\\ party\\ should\\,\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ be\\ joined\\,\\ should\\ action\\ proceed\\ or\\ is\\ party\\ \\&ldquo\\;indispensable\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nShould\\ a\\ party\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ missing\\ be\\ considered\\ compulsory\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Feasibility\\:\\ 19\\(a\\)\\&mdash\\;is\\ the\\ missing\\ party\\ desirable\\?\\ \\(traditional\\ label\\:\\ necessary\\.\\ Necessary\\ \\=\\ feasible\\)\\.\\ Judge\\ following\\ directives\\ in\\ rule\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Relief\\ would\\ be\\ incomplete\\ absent\\ the\\ missing\\ party\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Absent\\ interest\\ endangered\\ \\(of\\ absent\\ party\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Inconsistent\\ obligations\\ imposed\\ by\\ litigation\\ that\\ is\\ divided\\ up\\ \\(bank\\ who\\ is\\ sued\\ serially\\ for\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ funds\\ in\\ its\\ possession\\ that\\ different\\ people\\ who\\ claim\\ to\\ be\\ owners\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Consider\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ \\&\\;\\ subject\\ matter\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ Often\\ a\\ party\\ is\\ feasible\\ but\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ or\\ would\\ ruin\\ diversity\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ the\\ party\\ is\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ \\(a\\)\\ party\\ is\\ not\\ indispensable\\,\\ so\\ forget\\ him\\ \\&\\;\\ proceed\\ or\\ \\(b\\)\\ party\\ is\\ indispensable\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ you\\ can\\ join\\ him\\,\\ so\\ join\\ \\&\\;\\ proceed\\ or\\ \\(d\\)\\ party\\ is\\ indispensable\\,\\ but\\ the\\ court\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ join\\ him\\,\\ so\\ throw\\ out\\ the\\ suit\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ the\\ party\\ would\\ ruin\\ diversity\\ \\(\\&\\;\\ no\\ federal\\ claim\\ under\\ \\§\\;1331\\)\\,\\ \\(a\\)\\ the\\ party\\ is\\ not\\ indispensable\\ so\\ forget\\ him\\ \\&\\;\\ proceed\\ or\\ \\(b\\)\\ the\\ party\\ is\\ indispensable\\,\\ so\\ throw\\ out\\ the\\ suit\\,\\ because\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ join\\ him\\ or\\ \\(c\\)\\ litigate\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ suit\\ in\\ state\\ court\\ \\(\\§\\;1367\\(b\\)\\ excludes\\ claims\\ by\\ Ps\\ against\\ persons\\ made\\ parties\\ under\\ Rule\\ 19\\ \\&\\;\\ claims\\ by\\ person\\ proposed\\ to\\ be\\ joined\\ as\\ Ps\\ under\\ Rule\\ 19\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Indispensable\\:\\ if\\ the\\ party\\ should\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ joined\\,\\ should\\ the\\ suit\\ continue\\?\\ This\\ party\\ is\\ so\\ important\\ that\\ these\\ problems\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ mitigated\\ by\\ an\\ action\\.\\ We\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ proceed\\ without\\ this\\ party\\.\\ 19\\(b\\)\\ looks\\ first\\ at\\ 19\\(a\\)\\ considerations\\ again\\ but\\ with\\ a\\ harder\\ eye\\.\\ They\\ are\\ important\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ desirable\\,\\ but\\ are\\ they\\ so\\ so\\ important\\ that\\ they\\ make\\ the\\ party\\ indispensable\\.\\ If\\ absent\\ party\\ is\\ really\\ really\\ desirable\\,\\ maybe\\ they\\ are\\ indispensable\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nGreyhound\\ racing\\ \\(absent\\ Indian\\ tribes\\ are\\ indispensable\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ extension\\ of\\ the\\ compacts\\ at\\ issue\\&mdash\\;19\\(a\\)\\(2\\)\\(i\\)\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHaas\\ v\\.\\ Jefferson\\ Bank\\ \\(absent\\ Glueck\\ is\\ indispensable\\ because\\ he\\ claimed\\ ownership\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ stock\\ \\&\\;\\ may\\ later\\ sue\\ for\\ delivery\\ of\\ the\\ saem\\ shares\\.\\ If\\ he\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bound\\ by\\ the\\ first\\ suit\\,\\ bank\\ might\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ out\\ twice\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ shares\\ \\(19\\(a\\)\\(2\\)\\(ii\\)\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDisabled\\ Rights\\ Action\\ Committee\\ v\\.\\ Las\\ Vegas\\ Events\\ \\(owner\\ of\\ the\\ venue\\ was\\ not\\ feasible\\ because\\ complete\\ relief\\ could\\ be\\ achieved\\ even\\ without\\ them\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nTemple\\ v\\.\\ Synthes\\ Corp\\:\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ for\\ all\\ joint\\ tortfeasors\\ to\\ be\\ named\\ as\\ defendants\\ in\\ a\\ single\\ lawsuit\\ \\(joint\\ tortfeasors\\ are\\ permissive\\)\\.\\ \\(Temple\\ sues\\ Sythes\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ join\\ doc\\ who\\ implanted\\ thing\\,\\ Synthes\\ moves\\ to\\ dismiss\\ under\\ Rule\\ 19\\,\\ court\\ orders\\ Temple\\ to\\ join\\ doc\\,\\ Temple\\ refuses\\,\\ court\\ dismisses\\,\\ on\\ appeal\\ SCOTUS\\ says\\ this\\ dismissal\\ was\\ bad\\)\\.\\ Ct\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ 19\\(b\\)\\ because\\ 19\\(a\\)\\ reqs\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ met\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ doctor\\ \\&\\;\\ hospital\\ were\\ permissive\\,\\ so\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ joined\\ under\\ Rule\\ 20\\(a\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHelzberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Diamond\\ Shops\\ v\\.\\ Valley\\ West\\:\\ Party\\ is\\ not\\ indispensable\\ because\\ the\\ judgment\\ will\\ affect\\ rights\\ that\\ exists\\ under\\ a\\ separate\\ contract\\&mdash\\;inconsistent\\ obligations\\ are\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ two\\ separate\\ contracts\\,\\ not\\ a\\ single\\ contract\\.\\ \\(application\\ and\\ working\\ through\\ of\\ the\\ Rule\\ 19\\ Logic\\:\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ factual\\,\\ case\\ by\\ case\\ determination\\.\\ Demonstrations\\ that\\ a\\ necessary\\ party\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ be\\ joined\\ if\\ feasible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ If\\ the\\ party\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;feasible\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;indispensable\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ suit\\ proceeds\\.\\ If\\ party\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;indispensable\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ P\\ refuses\\ to\\ join\\ him\\,\\ that\\ de\\-rails\\ a\\ suit\\.\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nLords\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ indispensable\\ because\\ \\(1\\)\\ Valley\\ West\\ created\\ inconsistent\\ obligations\\ \\[Could\\ have\\ gotten\\ complete\\ relief\\ in\\ two\\ separate\\ suits\\]\\ \\&\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ Lords\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ join\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 19"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 18", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 603, "html": "\\Rule\\ 18\\:\\ Joinder\\ of\\ Claims\\ \\&\\;\\ Remedies\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&ldquo\\;Capacious\\&rdquo\\;\\ says\\ Desan\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\ 18\\ allows\\ parties\\ to\\ make\\ unrelated\\ claims\\ once\\ party\\ has\\ an\\ anchor\\ claim\\ but\\ note\\ if\\ court\\ has\\ jurisdiction\\&mdash\\;if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ unrelated\\ state\\ claim\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\,\\ maybe\\ no\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOnce\\ a\\ party\\ has\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;anchor\\ claim\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ can\\ join\\ as\\ many\\ other\\ claims\\ as\\ he\\ wants\\,\\ be\\ they\\ random\\ or\\ related\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n18\\(a\\)\\:\\ A\\ party\\ asserting\\ a\\ claim\\ to\\ relief\\ as\\ an\\ original\\ claim\\,\\ counterclaim\\,\\ cross\\-claim\\,\\ or\\ 3rd\\ party\\ claim\\,\\ may\\ join\\,\\ either\\ as\\ independent\\ or\\ alternate\\ claims\\,\\ as\\ many\\ claims\\,\\ legal\\,\\ equitable\\,\\ or\\ maritime\\,\\ as\\ the\\ party\\ has\\ against\\ an\\ opposing\\ party\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nfirst\\ part\\ of\\ 18\\(a\\)\\:\\ limit\\ who\\ is\\ involved\\ in\\ suit\\;\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ 18\\(a\\)\\ but\\ let\\ them\\ talk\\ about\\ whatever\\ they\\ want\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nCourt\\ wants\\ to\\ limit\\ number\\ of\\ parties\\ \\(\\&\\;\\ type\\ of\\ parties\\)\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ suit\\ \\(initial\\ screening\\)\\,\\ but\\ once\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\,\\ you\\ can\\ assert\\ lots\\ of\\ different\\ claims\\&mdash\\;no\\ limit\\ on\\ what\\ you\\ can\\ talk\\ about\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNote\\ that\\ a\\ party\\ needs\\ the\\ first\\ related\\ cross\\ claim\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;anchor\\ claim\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ bring\\ other\\ unrelated\\ cross\\ claims\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNote\\ on\\ preclusion\\:\\ related\\ claims\\ are\\ compulsory\\;\\ unrelated\\ claims\\ are\\ permissive\\ \\(preclusion\\:\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bring\\ a\\ compulsory\\ claim\\ now\\,\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bring\\ it\\ later\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ rule\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ other\\ litigation\\ stuff\\,\\ like\\ judge\\-made\\ rules\\ \\(preclusion\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 18"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 15", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 602, "html": "\\Rule\\ 15\\:\\ Amended\\ \\&\\;\\ Supplemental\\ Pleadings\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&ldquo\\;The\\ thrust\\ of\\ Rule\\ 15\\ is\\&hellip\\;that\\ cases\\ should\\ be\\ tried\\ on\\ their\\ merits\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ technicalities\\ of\\ pleadings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n15\\(a\\)\\:\\ can\\ amend\\ pleading\\ at\\ any\\ point\\ either\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ course\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(w\\/o\\ judge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\)\\ or\\ as\\ allowed\\ by\\ leave\\ of\\ the\\ court\\.\\ One\\ free\\ amendment\\,\\ then\\ the\\ court\\ has\\ to\\ say\\ ok\\.\\ D\\ can\\ amend\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ course\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ too\\.\\ Liberal\\ standard\\ for\\ allowing\\ amendments\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;shall\\ be\\ given\\ freely\\ given\\ when\\ justice\\ so\\ requires\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n15\\(b\\)\\:\\ \\;\\ when\\ issues\\ not\\ raised\\ by\\ the\\ pleadings\\ are\\ tried\\ by\\ express\\ or\\ implied\\ consent\\ of\\ the\\ parties\\,\\ they\\ shall\\ be\\ treated\\ in\\ all\\ respects\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ been\\ raised\\ in\\ the\\ pleadings\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ court\\ will\\ treat\\ issues\\ that\\ come\\ up\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ pleadings\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\&mdash\\;so\\ if\\ both\\ parties\\ acknowledge\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ issue\\,\\ then\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ as\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ pleadings\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n15\\(c\\)\\(1\\)\\:\\ relates\\ back\\ if\\ permitted\\ by\\ law\\&mdash\\;if\\ it\\ would\\ relate\\ back\\ under\\ applicable\\ state\\ law\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ under\\ 15\\(c\\)\\(3\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n15\\(c\\)\\(2\\)\\:\\ relation\\ back\\ to\\ date\\ of\\ original\\ pleading\\ of\\ new\\ claims\\ against\\ the\\ same\\ D\\ if\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;claim\\&hellip\\;asserted\\ in\\ the\\ amended\\ pleading\\ arose\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ conduct\\,\\ transaction\\,\\ or\\ occurrence\\ set\\ forth\\ or\\ attempted\\ to\\ be\\ set\\ forth\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ pleading\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ D\\ already\\ has\\ notice\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ transaction\\,\\ occurrence\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n15\\(c\\)\\(3\\)\\:\\ amendment\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ D\\ party\\ \\(not\\ add\\ a\\ new\\ party\\)\\ if\\ the\\ P\\ failed\\ to\\ name\\ the\\ proper\\ D\\ \\(if\\ new\\ D\\ \\(A\\)\\ has\\ notice\\ \\(knew\\ about\\ original\\ D\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ therefore\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ prejudiced\\ and\\ \\(B\\)\\ should\\ have\\ known\\ about\\ the\\ action\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ mistake\\ to\\ name\\ original\\ D\\)\\.\\ Must\\ be\\ same\\ transaction\\,\\ occurrence\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\(15\\(c\\)\\(2\\)\\)\\.\\ Original\\ suit\\ must\\ be\\ within\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ and\\ amendment\\ must\\ be\\ received\\ within\\ 120\\ days\\ of\\ original\\ filing\\.\\ This\\ relates\\ back\\.\\ Can\\ amend\\ a\\ mistake\\,\\ not\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 15"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.591847+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction: Environmental Values", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 613, "html": "\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Page\\ 16\\-23\\:\\ Perspective\\ on\\ Environmental\\ Justice\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Environmental\\ racism\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ did\\ not\\ become\\ prominent\\ until\\ 1980s\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Example\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ correlation\\ between\\ minority\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ racial\\ status\\ and\\ proximity\\ to\\ commercial\\ hazardous\\ waste\\ facilities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Failings\\ of\\ the\\ Environmental\\ Regulatory\\ System\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Standard\\ Setting\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\-\\ EPA\\ uses\\ scientific\\ risk\\ assessments\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ support\\ environmental\\ standards\\ but\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ EQUITY\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Example\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ agencies\\ estimating\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ average\\ fish\\ consumption\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ higher\\ rates\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ consumption\\ in\\ Native\\ Americans\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ set\\ standards\\ that\\ fail\\ to\\ protect\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ these\\ ethnic\\ and\\ racial\\ groups\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Current\\ regulatory\\ approach\\ may\\ UNDERESTIMATE\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ overall\\ pollution\\ problems\\ in\\ minority\\ populations\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Program\\ Design\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\-\\ Pollution\\ trading\\ often\\ overlooks\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ potential\\ to\\ exacerbate\\ \\&ldquo\\;hot\\ spots\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ older\\/larger\\/dirtier\\ facilities\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ located\\ in\\ minority\\ and\\ poorer\\ areas\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Enforcement\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ States\\ with\\ poor\\ enforcement\\ records\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ larger\\ populations\\ of\\ minorities\\ and\\ higher\\ poverty\\ \\(large\\ variations\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ability\\ and\\ willingness\\ to\\ enforce\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Difficult\\ for\\ minorities\\/poor\\ to\\ protest\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ litigation\\ is\\ resource\\-intensive\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Cleanup\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Contaminated\\ sites\\ in\\ poorer\\ communities\\ have\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ other\\ sites\\ for\\ cleanup\\ and\\ are\\ often\\ neglected\\ or\\ receive\\ less\\ effective\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cleanups\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\EPA\\-sponsored\\ \\&ldquo\\;brownfield\\&rdquo\\;\\ initiatives\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ promote\\ community\\ involvement\\ in\\ cleanup\\ decisions\\ \\(federal\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ are\\ STATE\\ brownfield\\ programs\\ b\\/c\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contaminated\\ enough\\ to\\ quality\\ for\\ federal\\ brownfield\\ programs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ variation\\ in\\ degree\\ of\\ community\\ involvement\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Lack\\ of\\ public\\ participation\\ in\\ decision\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ making\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Advocates\\ often\\ have\\ less\\ time\\/resources\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ participate\\ in\\ discussions\\ even\\ when\\ available\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reasons\\ for\\ location\\ of\\ \\LULUs\\ \\(locally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ undesirable\\ land\\ uses\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ areas\\ with\\ significant\\ minority\\ populations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ argue\\ that\\ economic\\ factors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ discrimination\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ are\\ behind\\ environmental\\ racism\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ found\\ better\\ predictor\\ of\\ LULU\\ location\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ degree\\ to\\ which\\ community\\ is\\ organized\\ \\(inversely\\ proportional\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Administrative\\ Action\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ from\\ executive\\ branch\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\President\\ Clinton\\ \\(1994\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\Executive\\ Order\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 12\\,898\\ 59\\ Fed\\.\\ Reg\\.\\ 7\\,629\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Make\\ environmental\\ justice\\ part\\ of\\ mission\\ by\\ addressing\\ how\\ its\\ programs\\ affects\\ minorities\\/low\\ income\\ populations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\EPA\\ criticized\\ for\\ not\\ following\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Executive\\ Order\\ well\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Office\\ of\\ Environmental\\ Justice\\ \\(OEJ\\)\\:\\ budget\\ depends\\ on\\ agency\\ priorities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Vague\\ language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ OEJ\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ low\\-income\\,\\ minority\\,\\ or\\ low\\-income\\ community\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ carry\\ out\\ mandate\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Failed\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ environmental\\ justice\\ in\\ \\Clean\\ Air\\ Act\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Reduce\\ sulfur\\ in\\ gas\\ would\\ increase\\ emissions\\ near\\ oil\\ refineries\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ extra\\ processing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ near\\ minority\\ and\\ low\\ income\\ communities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\EPA\\ received\\ increasing\\ \\#\\ of\\ \\Title\\ VI\\ \\(Civil\\ Rights\\ Act\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ complaints\\ that\\ allege\\ discrimination\\ in\\ environmental\\ permitting\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\NRC\\ \\(Nuclear\\ Regulatory\\ Commission\\)\\ was\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agency\\ that\\ changed\\ its\\ internal\\ procedures\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ account\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ environmental\\ justice\\ issues\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Louisiana\\ Energy\\ Services\\ \\(LES\\)\\ case\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Litigation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ few\\ cases\\ mentioned\\ here\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Environmental\\ justice\\ stress\\ procedural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inequities\\ \\(right\\ to\\ participate\\ in\\ every\\ level\\ of\\ decision\\-making\\)\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ addition\\ to\\ outcomes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Page\\ 30\\-38\\:\\ Economics\\ and\\ the\\ Environment\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Economic\\ approach\\ treats\\ environment\\ as\\ under\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ priced\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ priced\\ properly\\,\\ would\\ be\\ used\\ by\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ values\\ it\\ most\\ according\\ to\\ WTP\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ is\\ economic\\ approach\\ to\\ environmental\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ issues\\ a\\ sound\\ one\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cost\\-Benefit\\ Analysis\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ markets\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ welfare\\ economics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ say\\ government\\ can\\ intervene\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Use\\ CBA\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ welfare\\ actually\\ improves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ compare\\ social\\ benefit\\ to\\ opportunity\\ cost\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Valuing\\ Ecosystem\\ Services\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ to\\ quantify\\ how\\ ecosystems\\ benefit\\ social\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ welfare\\ via\\ purifying\\ water\\/air\\,\\ regulating\\ climate\\,\\ controlling\\ pests\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ etc\\?\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rarely\\ considered\\ in\\ CBAs\\ or\\ environmental\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impact\\ assessments\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\EPA\\ created\\ Science\\ Advisory\\ Board\\ on\\ Valuing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Protection\\ of\\ Ecological\\ Systems\\ and\\ Services\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ York\\ City\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ decision\\ to\\ use\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ watershed\\ management\\ rather\\ than\\ built\\ capital\\ \\(filtration\\)\\ to\\ maintain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ water\\ supply\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ are\\ not\\ ecosystem\\ services\\ not\\ a\\ market\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Ignorance\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Focus\\ on\\ ecosystem\\ processes\\ NOT\\ on\\ what\\ services\\ they\\ provide\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Institutional\\ inadequacy\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Legal\\ protection\\ of\\ ecosystems\\ not\\ priority\\ when\\ law\\ drafted\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ protect\\ HUMAN\\ HEALTH\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Conservation\\ laws\\ are\\ species\\-specific\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Law\\ not\\ primarily\\ intended\\ for\\ conservation\\ of\\ natural\\ capital\\ and\\ services\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Public\\ Goods\\ flaws\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Ecosystem\\ services\\ are\\ FREE\\ \\(water\\ purification\\,\\ pollination\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ difficult\\ to\\ trade\\ or\\ have\\ market\\ value\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Page\\ 49\\-59\\:\\ Common\\ Pool\\ Resources\\/Tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ Commons\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ Commons\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Benefit\\ only\\ one\\ but\\ cost\\ is\\ shared\\ by\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\>\\;\\ decision\\ to\\ use\\ more\\ resources\\ or\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;commons\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Avoid\\ by\\ privatizing\\ the\\ resources\\ or\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ government\\ regulation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Government\\ regulation\\ has\\ flaws\\ \\(Krier\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Arctic\\ National\\ Wildlife\\ Refuge\\ \\(ANWR\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Potential\\ Questions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Is\\ economic\\ approach\\ to\\ environmental\\ issues\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sound\\?\\ E\\.g\\.\\,\\ CBA\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction: Environmental Values"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.613381+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Political Parties", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 614, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1900700899\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-2064769876\\ 67698689\\ 220489476\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Parties\\ and\\ the\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Federalist\\ 10\\:\\ Majority\\ and\\ minority\\ factions\\ \\&ldquo\\;united\\ by\\ a\\ common\\ impulse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Madison\\ was\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ majority\\ factions\\ than\\ minority\\ factions\\.\\ Majorities\\ are\\ worrisome\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ large\\ \\(they\\ infringe\\ on\\ minority\\ rights\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ large\\ majority\\ parties\\ are\\ actually\\ better\\ about\\ setting\\ rules\\ and\\ procedures\\ favorable\\ to\\ the\\ minority\\,\\ because\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ win\\ anyway\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Founders\\ never\\ anticipated\\ a\\ 2\\-party\\ system\\,\\ but\\ it\\ did\\ exist\\ during\\ Madison\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ Why\\ was\\ this\\ inevitable\\ \\(or\\ was\\ it\\)\\?\\ Single\\-member\\ districts\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ only\\ need\\ a\\ plurality\\ to\\ win\\.\\ Contrast\\ this\\ with\\ proportional\\ representation\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ parties\\.\\ In\\ the\\ US\\,\\ parties\\ appeal\\ to\\ interest\\ groups\\ and\\ represent\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ various\\ groups\\.\\ Since\\ only\\ one\\ person\\ is\\ elected\\,\\ the\\ smaller\\ members\\ in\\ proportional\\ representation\\ unite\\ their\\ interest\\ groups\\.\\ This\\,\\ over\\ time\\,\\ leads\\ to\\ two\\ very\\ stable\\ parties\\.\\ The\\ case\\ is\\ that\\ third\\ parties\\ are\\ usually\\ gone\\ within\\ two\\ election\\ cycles\\.\\ The\\ only\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ viable\\ political\\ party\\ is\\ the\\ Republican\\ party\\,\\ which\\ destroyed\\ the\\ Whigs\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\-1800s\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ we\\ support\\ things\\ actions\\ that\\ maintain\\ the\\ status\\ quo\\.\\ In\\ 1824\\,\\ Adams\\ wins\\ presidency\\ in\\ House\\,\\ and\\ in\\ 1828\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ strong\\ 2\\-party\\ system\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Parties\\ as\\ Stable\\ Affiliations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Party\\ ID\\ first\\ coined\\ in\\ 1961\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ branding\\,\\ much\\ like\\ what\\ corporations\\ do\\.\\ Surveys\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ track\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ public\\&rsquo\\;s\\ party\\ ID\\.\\ Big\\ debate\\ over\\ if\\ we\\ should\\ count\\ independent\\ dems\\ and\\ repubs\\ as\\ dems\\ or\\ repubs\\,\\ or\\ as\\ independents\\.\\ But\\ independents\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ partisan\\ in\\ their\\ behavior\\ than\\ weak\\ dems\\ or\\ repubs\\.\\ Not\\ clear\\ in\\ surveys\\ what\\ pure\\ independents\\ really\\ mean\\,\\ as\\ apathetic\\ people\\ are\\ prone\\ to\\ taking\\ the\\ middle\\ answer\\.\\ Strong\\ partisans\\ are\\ those\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ run\\ for\\ office\\,\\ and\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Party\\ loyalties\\ as\\ Changeable\\ and\\ Reactive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Families\\,\\ schools\\ etc\\.\\,\\ and\\ churches\\ etc\\.\\ are\\ primarily\\ responsible\\ for\\ intergenerational\\ transfer\\ of\\ party\\ ID\\.\\ Families\\ are\\ now\\ much\\ less\\ indicative\\,\\ and\\ schools\\ have\\ decreased\\ due\\ to\\ changing\\ curriculum\\-\\ Social\\ Studies\\ replaces\\ Civics\\,\\ and\\ new\\ focus\\ in\\ 80s\\ on\\ reading\\,\\ writing\\,\\ math\\.\\ Churches\\ have\\ continued\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ successful\\ in\\ this\\ regard\\.\\ Partisan\\ identification\\ can\\ change\\ with\\ policy\\ \\(Dems\\ in\\ the\\ South\\ move\\ to\\ Repubs\\ because\\ of\\ civil\\ rights\\ issues\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Political\\ Ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Problem\\ in\\ that\\ measurement\\ has\\ come\\ before\\ conceptualization\\.\\ We\\ measure\\ liberal\\ or\\ conservative\\ before\\ we\\ decide\\ what\\ that\\ means\\.\\ Political\\ philosophers\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ define\\ liberal\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ we\\ do\\.\\ Also\\,\\ some\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\ the\\ difference\\,\\ and\\ come\\ out\\ as\\ moderates\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ conservative\\ and\\ liberal\\ issues\\ change\\ over\\ time\\,\\ so\\ the\\ liberals\\ of\\ tomorrow\\ are\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ liberals\\ of\\ today\\.\\ L\\-M\\-C\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ fashion\\ statement\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Ideologues\\ have\\ a\\ consistent\\ and\\ predictable\\ belief\\ structure\\,\\ this\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ process\\ information\\ much\\ more\\ quickly\\.\\ Estimates\\ are\\ about\\ 15\\-20\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ has\\ highly\\ structured\\ belief\\ systems\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Some\\ beliefs\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ seem\\ unrelated\\,\\ are\\ highly\\ correlated\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ coalition\\ coefficients\\.\\ If\\ you\\ put\\ in\\ enough\\ idea\\ elements\\,\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ politics\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ we\\ get\\ highly\\ predictable\\ patterns\\ of\\ behavior\\,\\ and\\ these\\ we\\ label\\ liberal\\ or\\ conservative\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ is\\ another\\ dimension\\ often\\.\\ For\\ students\\,\\ this\\ dimensions\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ religious\\ element\\ \\(the\\ amount\\ that\\ the\\ government\\ should\\ allow\\ religious\\ values\\ to\\ influence\\ it\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Mass\\ and\\ Elite\\ Differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\So\\ far\\,\\ we\\ have\\ talked\\ about\\ politics\\ as\\ if\\ everyone\\ is\\ the\\ same\\-\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\.\\ Where\\ do\\ we\\ draw\\ a\\ dividing\\ line\\ \\(how\\ do\\ we\\ separate\\ people\\ into\\ different\\ types\\)\\?\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ interaction\\ between\\ preferences\\ and\\ intensities\\,\\ and\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ polarization\\ is\\ important\\ not\\ just\\ at\\ the\\ national\\ \\(mass\\)\\ level\\,\\ but\\ also\\ at\\ the\\ elite\\ level\\,\\ or\\ the\\ people\\ running\\ for\\ office\\.\\ Elite\\ preferences\\ have\\ changed\\ dramatically\\ recently\\,\\ but\\ mass\\ preferences\\ have\\ stayed\\ pretty\\ much\\ the\\ same\\.\\ Polarization\\ of\\ the\\ elites\\.\\ Statistically\\ related\\ to\\ trust\\ and\\ government\\.\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ moderate\\ represented\\ by\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ far\\ right\\ or\\ left\\,\\ then\\ you\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ not\\ trust\\ government\\.\\ With\\ candidate\\-centered\\ campaigns\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ primary\\ participation\\,\\ you\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ nominate\\ an\\ extreme\\ candidate\\,\\ and\\ this\\ drives\\ further\\ polarization\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Three\\ Manifestations\\ of\\ Parties\\ in\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\As\\ Institutions\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ How\\ strong\\ is\\ the\\ party\\?\\ In\\ the\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\,\\ republican\\ party\\ was\\ super\\ weak\\,\\ and\\ you\\ had\\ to\\ run\\ as\\ a\\ democrat\\ to\\ win\\.\\ In\\ MA\\,\\ the\\ liberal\\ party\\ was\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ relatively\\ strong\\.\\ Starting\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;64\\,\\ the\\ base\\ began\\ to\\ move\\.\\ R\\ moves\\ south\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\ Coalition\\ broke\\ down\\ after\\ Johnson\\ signs\\ Voting\\ Rights\\ Act\\,\\ and\\ R\\ started\\ to\\ gain\\ power\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ To\\ determine\\ strength\\,\\ look\\ at\\ amount\\ of\\ paid\\ staff\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ Electorate\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Usually\\ measured\\ by\\ split\\-ticket\\ voting\\,\\ which\\ really\\ increased\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1960s\\-1992\\.\\ People\\ hypothesized\\ that\\ party\\ loyalty\\ was\\ breaking\\ down\\.\\ But\\ in\\ reality\\,\\ increases\\ in\\ split\\-ticket\\ voting\\ followed\\ changes\\ in\\ how\\ a\\ state\\ voted\\ \\(got\\ rid\\ of\\ party\\ levers\\)\\.\\ So\\ now\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ really\\ clear\\ what\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ at\\ that\\ time\\.\\ Some\\ measures\\ show\\ party\\ loyalty\\ increasing\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\In\\ Government\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ Partisanship\\ has\\ steadily\\ increased\\ since\\ 1970\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ 1970\\ Legislative\\ Reform\\ Act\\.\\ Increase\\ in\\ cohesion\\ in\\ House\\ and\\ Senate\\ once\\ you\\ required\\ voting\\ counts\\ for\\ Amendments\\.\\ Movement\\ to\\ the\\ center\\ in\\ 30s\\-60s\\,\\ then\\ to\\ right\\ and\\ left\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 60s\\-present\\.\\ Question\\ is\\:\\ why\\?\\ One\\ possibility\\ is\\ that\\ parties\\ have\\ become\\ stronger\\ in\\ government\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ fund\\ campaigns\\ through\\ PACs\\.\\ Another\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ punish\\ members\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ follow\\ party\\ lines\\.\\ Since\\ reps\\ end\\ up\\ being\\ funded\\ by\\ fringe\\ groups\\,\\ when\\ they\\ get\\ to\\ Congress\\ they\\ end\\ up\\ being\\ just\\ like\\ other\\ reps\\ at\\ the\\ fringes\\.\\ Young\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ Dems\\ are\\ very\\ diverse\\,\\ but\\ ideologically\\ coherent\\.\\ In\\ Republican\\ party\\,\\ dress\\ code\\ makes\\ everything\\ very\\ uniform\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ similar\\ with\\ new\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\ or\\ other\\ legislatures\\.\\ Reason\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ self\\-select\\ through\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ self\\-funding\\ and\\ self\\-nomination\\.\\ Self\\-selection\\ is\\ driving\\ partisanship\\.\\ Moderates\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ in\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ elected\\,\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ anyone\\ to\\ talk\\ to\\ when\\ they\\ do\\.\\ The\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ partisanship\\ is\\ increased\\ participation\\ at\\ the\\ primary\\ level\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Political Parties"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.645986+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Campaign Management", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 615, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2093382454\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1824316786\\ 450380958\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-font\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\I\\<\\/span\\>\\t\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ campaigns\\ or\\ the\\ candidates\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ voter\\ turnout\\-\\ problem\\ is\\ a\\ scarcity\\ of\\ resources\\.\\ You\\ only\\ spend\\ money\\ on\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ probability\\ of\\ turning\\ out\\ and\\ voting\\ for\\ you\\.\\ Their\\ only\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ get\\ elected\\ within\\ a\\ budget\\.\\ So\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ to\\ get\\ people\\ out\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ \\(Professor\\ King\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Introduction\\:\\ Upon\\ graduation\\,\\ went\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ Kerry\\ campaign\\ in\\ South\\ Florida\\,\\ became\\ regional\\ manager\\ for\\ South\\ Florida\\ \\(Right\\ place\\ at\\ the\\ right\\ time\\)\\,\\ 05\\-07\\ worked\\ for\\ Sen\\.\\ Bill\\ Nelson\\.\\ Summer\\ 08\\ worked\\ for\\ Joe\\ Garcia\\ for\\ Congress\\ \\(Miami\\ politics\\-\\ Florida\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 25\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Campaign\\ Management\\:\\ Big\\ Picture\\:\\ 3\\ top\\ players\\ are\\ consultant\\(s\\)\\,\\ campaign\\ manager\\ and\\ candidate\\.\\ Other\\ positions\\ include\\ various\\ secretaries\\,\\ treasurer\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Campaign\\ manager\\ must\\ craft\\ campaign\\ plan\\,\\ act\\ as\\ a\\ gatekeeper\\ to\\ the\\ candidate\\,\\ control\\ the\\ budget\\,\\ and\\ manage\\ egos\\ \\(self\\ and\\ others\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Lessons\\ to\\ Live\\ By\\:\\ Some\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ number\\,\\ soon\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ time\\.\\ If\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ written\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ real\\.\\ Training\\ \\=\\ garbage\\ in\\,\\ garbage\\ out\\.\\ Beware\\ of\\ burnout\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Media\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ Political\\ Brain\\:\\ Dispassionate\\ mind\\:\\ decisions\\ made\\ by\\ weighing\\ evidence\\ and\\ reasoning\\.\\ Passionate\\ mind\\:\\ we\\ think\\ with\\ our\\ guts\\,\\ primarily\\ at\\ sub\\-conscious\\ level\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Westen\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ political\\ brain\\ is\\ an\\ emotional\\ brain\\.\\ For\\ past\\ 40\\ years\\,\\ Democrats\\ have\\ operated\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ outdated\\,\\ dispassionate\\ mind\\ theory\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\William\\ James\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ great\\ many\\ people\\ think\\ they\\ are\\ thinking\\ when\\ really\\ they\\ are\\ merely\\ rearranging\\ their\\ prejudices\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\What\\ matters\\ are\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ visceral\\ feelings\\.\\ Most\\ people\\ vote\\ against\\ their\\ interests\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ values\\.\\ Study\\:\\ what\\ do\\ partisans\\ do\\ when\\ confronted\\ with\\ information\\ from\\ the\\ other\\ party\\.\\ Minimal\\ activation\\ in\\ the\\ frontal\\ lobe\\,\\ thinking\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\.\\ We\\ care\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Framing\\ Wars\\:\\ Choosing\\ specific\\ language\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ debate\\.\\ Repeat\\ ad\\ infinitum\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\George\\ Lakoff\\ \\&ldquo\\;Father\\ of\\ Framing\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Republicans\\ have\\ traditionally\\ been\\ very\\ good\\ at\\ framing\\ controversial\\ issues\\.\\ Voters\\ make\\ decisions\\ based\\ on\\ larger\\ frames\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ candidate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ positions\\.\\ If\\ your\\ opponent\\ is\\ using\\ a\\ certain\\ frame\\,\\ your\\ job\\ is\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ frame\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;reframe\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ is\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ as\\ awkward\\/silly\\ frames\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Problem\\:\\ It\\ might\\ take\\ years\\ to\\ establish\\ new\\ political\\ frames\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Press\\ Secretary\\,\\ Assistant\\,\\ and\\ new\\ media\\ \\(web\\)\\ consultant\\/director\\ \\(For\\ big\\ races\\)\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Dealing\\ with\\ Reporters\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Friendly\\,\\ but\\ not\\ friends\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ medium\\ determines\\ the\\ message\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ a\\ phone\\ call\\ from\\ a\\ reporter\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\.\\ Never\\ give\\ remarks\\ unprepared\\ \\/\\ no\\ winging\\ it\\.\\ Have\\ an\\ agenda\\ of\\ three\\ major\\ points\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dismiss\\ questions\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ comment\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Do\\ not\\ be\\ hostile\\ or\\ condescending\\.\\ Stay\\ composed\\ at\\ all\\ times\\.\\ Avoid\\ jargon\\.\\ Have\\ fun\\,\\ be\\ positive\\,\\ exude\\ good\\ energy\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Fundraising\\:\\ Senate\\ Races\\:\\ Fundraising\\ fluctuates\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ but\\ in\\ general\\ costs\\ are\\ increasing\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Fundraising\\ rules\\:\\ Individuals\\ \\=\\ 2\\.4k\\ primary\\,\\ 2\\.4k\\ general\\.\\ PACs\\ \\=\\ 5k\\ per\\ candidate\\ per\\ election\\.\\ 527s\\ \\=\\ no\\ limit\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Hard\\ Money\\ v\\.\\ Soft\\ Money\\:\\ Hard\\ is\\ given\\ directly\\ to\\ a\\ candidate\\ or\\ party\\.\\ No\\ contributions\\ from\\ corps\\ or\\ labor\\ unions\\.\\ Soft\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ a\\ cause\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ a\\ specific\\ candidate\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Staff\\:\\ Finance\\ director\\ and\\ assistant\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Everybody\\ hates\\ calling\\ for\\ money\\.\\ Very\\ difficult\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ call\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Events\\:\\ House\\ Parties\\,\\ Restaurant\\/Hotel\\ Events\\.\\ Answer\\ the\\ question\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ maxed\\ out\\,\\ but\\ I\\ want\\ to\\ help\\.\\ What\\ can\\ I\\ do\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Field\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Does\\ the\\ field\\ matter\\?\\ Answer\\ is\\ unclear\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ then\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ win\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Field\\ Plan\\:\\ Voter\\ file\\ \\(database\\ of\\ information\\)\\.\\ Allows\\ you\\ to\\ better\\ target\\ people\\,\\ create\\ walk\\ lists\\ and\\ call\\ sheets\\.\\ Key\\ Question\\:\\ Persuasion\\ or\\ Turn\\-out\\ campaign\\?\\?\\?\\ \\(swing\\ or\\ base\\ voters\\?\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Staff\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Methods\\ to\\ contact\\ voters\\ range\\ in\\ effectiveness\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ cost\\ per\\ vote\\ and\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ that\\ it\\ takes\\ \\(door\\-to\\-door\\,\\ robo\\ call\\,\\ volunteer\\ call\\,\\ leafleting\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Advice\\ for\\ those\\ that\\ might\\ run\\:\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hire\\ a\\ consultant\\ or\\ do\\ polling\\,\\ especially\\ your\\ first\\ time\\.\\ You\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ survive\\ the\\ primary\\.\\ Money\\ follows\\ later\\ on\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Campaign Management"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.677893+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Congressional Procedures", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 616, "html": "\\Today\\ we\\ take\\ a\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ the\\ Congress\\ passes\\ legislation\\,\\ and\\ the\\ procedures\\ that\\ occur\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ bill\\ a\\ law\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ four\\ types\\ of\\ bills\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\ Bill\\:\\ House\\ or\\ Senate\\ resolution\\.\\ The\\ leadership\\ can\\ hold\\ out\\ numbers\\ for\\ any\\ piece\\ of\\ legislation\\.\\ These\\ bills\\ begin\\ with\\ the\\ \\"\\;enactment\\ clause\\.\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;Be\\ it\\ enacted\\ by\\ the\\ Senate\\ and\\ House\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ of\\ America\\,\\ in\\ Congress\\ assembled\\,\\ that\\.\\.\\.\\"\\;\\ There\\ are\\ 2\\ forms\\:\\ HR\\-public\\ and\\ HR\\-private\\.\\ Private\\ bills\\ are\\ for\\ individuals\\,\\ usually\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ a\\ grievance\\ against\\ the\\ government\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Joint\\ resolutions\\:\\ HJRES\\ \\;or\\ SJRES\\.\\ The\\ only\\ real\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ resolving\\ clause\\,\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ \\"\\;whereas\\'s\\"\\;\\ as\\ a\\ preamble\\,\\ then\\ the\\ enactment\\ clause\\.\\ Note\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ actually\\ not\\ joint\\-\\ tey\\ can\\ be\\ different\\ House\\ to\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Concurrent\\ Resolutions\\:\\ Don\\'t\\ have\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ law\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Simple\\ Resolution\\:\\ H\\-Res\\.\\ Pertains\\ only\\ to\\ attitudes\\ or\\ rules\\ governing\\ the\\ assembly\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Each\\ bill\\ has\\ sponsors\\ and\\ cosponsors\\.\\ The\\ sponsor\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ has\\ to\\ initially\\ sign\\ the\\ bill\\.\\ After\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ approved\\,\\ you\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ add\\ cosponsors\\.\\ Sometimes\\,\\ the\\ billl\\ is\\ so\\ radically\\ changed\\ when\\ it\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ floor\\ that\\ it\\'s\\ sponsor\\ will\\ not\\ vote\\ for\\ it\\.\\ In\\ the\\ House\\,\\ bills\\ are\\ introduced\\ and\\ referred\\ to\\ committee\\ within\\ 24\\ hours\\.\\ On\\ the\\ Senate\\ side\\,\\ the\\ bills\\ are\\ referred\\ within\\ 24\\ hours\\ unless\\ a\\ single\\ member\\ objects\\,\\ in\\ which\\ case\\ it\\ is\\ 48\\ hours\\ \\(only\\ important\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ session\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sometimes\\ members\\ are\\ \\"\\;jurisdictionally\\ creative\\"\\;\\ to\\ get\\ their\\ bills\\ to\\ the\\ correct\\ committee\\.\\ It\\ is\\ almost\\ impossible\\ \\(unanimous\\ consent\\)\\ to\\ re\\-refer\\ a\\ bill\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\ Types\\ of\\ committees\\:\\ authorizing\\ and\\ appropriating\\.\\ Authorizing\\ committees\\ do\\ not\\ give\\ out\\ any\\ funds\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ really\\ only\\ one\\ Appropriations\\ Committee\\ in\\ the\\ House\\ and\\ the\\ Senate\\.\\ Authorizing\\ committees\\ simply\\ authorize\\ legislation\\.\\ Appropriating\\ committees\\ can\\ give\\ out\\ money\\ for\\ the\\ laws\\ to\\ be\\ carried\\ out\\.\\ Some\\ laws\\ are\\ killed\\ by\\ the\\ Appropriations\\ Committees\\,\\ which\\ don\\'t\\ necessarily\\ have\\ to\\ approve\\ any\\ funding\\.\\ Memebership\\ on\\ committees\\ is\\ roughly\\ the\\ same\\ proportion\\ as\\ the\\ split\\ of\\ membership\\ within\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Funding\\ for\\ the\\ committees\\ is\\ not\\ proportional\\ \\(minority\\ gets\\ about\\ half\\ of\\ what\\ they\\ \\"\\;should\\"\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Until\\ 1975\\,\\ you\\ could\\ only\\ send\\ a\\ bill\\ to\\ one\\ committee\\.\\ Now\\,\\ you\\ have\\ joint\\ referrals\\ \\(go\\ to\\ multiple\\ committees\\)\\,\\ concurrent\\ referrals\\ \\(go\\ to\\ multiple\\ committees\\,\\ and\\ specify\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ things\\ each\\ committee\\ can\\ do\\)\\,\\ and\\ sequential\\ referrals\\ \\(go\\ to\\ one\\ after\\ another\\ committee\\)\\.\\ Sequential\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ commonly\\ used\\.\\ There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ within\\ the\\ committees\\,\\ based\\ on\\ seniority\\ in\\ a\\ committee\\ \\(you\\ don\\'t\\ carry\\ over\\ seniority\\)\\-\\ this\\ is\\ for\\ the\\ House\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ your\\ chamber\\ seniority\\ is\\ what\\ matters\\.\\ Robert\\ Byrd\\ could\\ be\\ the\\ chair\\ of\\ any\\ Senate\\ committee\\.\\ Now\\,\\ so\\ could\\ Ted\\ Kennedy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\On\\ the\\ House\\ side\\,\\ there\\ are\\ exclusive\\ \\(Appropriations\\,\\ ways\\ and\\ means\\,\\ rules\\,\\ commerce\\)\\-\\ for\\ these\\,\\ you\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ on\\ one\\ committee\\ without\\ approval\\ from\\ the\\ caucus\\-\\ and\\ nonexclusive\\ committees\\ \\(everything\\ else\\)\\-\\ for\\ these\\,\\ you\\ can\\ serve\\ on\\ as\\ many\\ committees\\ as\\ you\\ want\\.\\ Most\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ House\\ are\\ on\\ 3\\ committees\\.\\ One\\ each\\ that\\ is\\:\\ good\\ for\\ constituents\\,\\ public\\ policy\\,\\ something\\ that\\ interests\\ them\\.\\ Committee\\ membership\\ emphasizes\\ expertise\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Some\\ committees\\ have\\ certain\\ spots\\ reserved\\ for\\ state\\ delegations\\ \\(R\\-NY\\ and\\ D\\-NY\\ \\;are\\ both\\ on\\ Ways\\ \\&\\;\\ \\;Means\\)\\.\\ Intercommittee\\ transfer\\ ratios\\ reveal\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ the\\ committees\\ in\\ the\\ House\\:\\ Rules\\ \\-\\ appropriations\\ \\-\\ ways\\ and\\ means\\ \\-\\ commerce\\.\\ A\\ lot\\ of\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ chair\\ of\\ the\\ committee\\,\\ and\\ how\\ active\\ they\\ are\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ no\\ exclusive\\ committees\\,\\ and\\ most\\ members\\ are\\ on\\ 6\\-7\\ committees\\,\\ but\\ only\\ really\\ focus\\ on\\ about\\ 2\\.\\ As\\ a\\ result\\,\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ experience\\ on\\ the\\ House\\ side\\,\\ and\\ more\\ deference\\ to\\ the\\ committees\\ and\\ committee\\ chairs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chairs\\ decide\\ if\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ hearings\\ regarding\\ a\\ bill\\,\\ and\\ choose\\ sub\\-committee\\ chairs\\.\\ Sub\\-committee\\ chairs\\ are\\ selected\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ party\\ caucus\\ within\\ the\\ committee\\.\\ Sub\\-committee\\ responsibilities\\ change\\ greatly\\ year\\ to\\ year\\.\\ The\\ decisions\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ are\\ set\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ committee\\ chair\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\85\\%\\ of\\ bills\\ don\\'t\\ get\\ a\\ public\\ hearing\\-\\ most\\ bills\\ die\\ in\\ committee\\.\\ Hearings\\ are\\ public\\ and\\ announced\\ in\\ advance\\.\\ Sub\\-committee\\ meetings\\ have\\ a\\ regular\\ schedule\\,\\ as\\ do\\ full\\-committee\\ hearings\\.\\ Often\\ 2x\\ per\\ week\\,\\ usually\\ at\\ least\\ 1x\\.\\ Witnesses\\ are\\ designed\\ by\\ the\\ majority\\ party\\,\\ although\\ the\\ minority\\ has\\ equal\\ time\\.\\ Usually\\ you\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ witnesses\\ just\\ say\\ \\"\\;yes\\.\\"\\;\\ There\\ is\\ seemingly\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ educational\\ value\\ here\\.\\ Closed\\ hearings\\ are\\ only\\ when\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ committee\\ agrees\\.\\ During\\ hearings\\,\\ in\\ rank\\ of\\ seniority\\,\\ each\\ member\\ has\\ 5\\ minutes\\ of\\ questioning\\ and\\ speaking\\.\\ If\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ low\\-ranking\\ member\\,\\ you\\ should\\ still\\ be\\ at\\ the\\ committee\\ meetings\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ time\\,\\ since\\ you\\ do\\ NOT\\ \\;want\\ to\\ ask\\ a\\ question\\ that\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ asked\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Subcommittees\\ produce\\ markups\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ votes\\ on\\ amendments\\.\\ Sometimes\\,\\ you\\ can\\ replace\\ the\\ bill\\ with\\ an\\ entirely\\ new\\ piece\\ of\\ legislation\\.\\ Votes\\ are\\ by\\ proxy\\.\\ 2\\ types\\:\\ open\\ or\\ proxy\\ with\\ instructions\\.\\ Any\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ can\\ be\\ your\\ proxy\\.\\ If\\ with\\ instructions\\,\\ they\\ vote\\ how\\ you\\ want\\ them\\ to\\.\\ Without\\ instructions\\,\\ you\\ authorize\\ the\\ chair\\ to\\ vote\\ as\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ sees\\ fit\\.\\ Proxy\\ voting\\ has\\ been\\ banned\\ in\\ the\\ House\\ and\\ Senate\\,\\ but\\ is\\ prevalent\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ legislatures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\After\\ subcommittee\\,\\ a\\ report\\ is\\ created\\,\\ giving\\ oversight\\ findings\\,\\ a\\ statement\\ relatied\\ to\\ the\\ Congressional\\ Budget\\ ACt\\ of\\ 1974\\,\\ and\\ a\\ cost\\ estimate\\ from\\ the\\ director\\ of\\ the\\ office\\ of\\ management\\ and\\ budget\\ any\\ other\\ agency\\ of\\ government\\ involved\\.\\ The\\ bill\\ is\\ sent\\ back\\ to\\ committee\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ Rules\\ Committee\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ supermajority\\ for\\ the\\ majority\\ party\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ small\\,\\ tremendously\\ powerful\\ committee\\,\\ as\\ they\\ determine\\ when\\ and\\ how\\ a\\ bill\\ will\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ and\\ which\\ amendments\\ will\\ be\\ in\\ order\\.\\ There\\ are\\ closed\\ rules\\ \\(no\\ amendments\\ allowed\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\-\\ since\\ 1995\\,\\ all\\ important\\ legislation\\)\\,\\ modified\\ open\\ rules\\ \\(specify\\ which\\ members\\ may\\ propose\\ amendments\\,\\ and\\ hwat\\ the\\ amendments\\ will\\ be\\)\\ and\\ open\\ rules\\ \\(any\\ member\\ can\\ make\\ an\\ amendment\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ a\\ bill\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ it\\ is\\ placed\\ on\\ a\\ calendar\\.\\ The\\ first\\ vote\\ is\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ to\\ adopt\\ the\\ rule\\.\\ It\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ defeat\\ the\\ rule\\,\\ and\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ you\\ block\\ the\\ bill\\ from\\ getting\\ to\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ This\\ is\\ very\\ uncommon\\.\\ As\\ long\\ as\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ majority\\,\\ you\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ rule\\ at\\ any\\ time\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ old\\ rules\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ cannot\\ authorize\\ an\\ appropriations\\ bill\\,\\ and\\ you\\ cannot\\ appropriate\\ an\\ authorization\\ bill\\.\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ an\\ A\\ not\\ A\\ rule\\.\\ Any\\ time\\ you\\ see\\ a\\ bill\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ appropriations\\ committee\\ is\\ authorizing\\ on\\ legislation\\,\\ you\\ can\\ object\\ and\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ sent\\ back\\ to\\ committee\\.\\ However\\ the\\ bill\\ could\\ be\\ written\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ points\\ of\\ order\\ on\\ A\\ not\\ A\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ entertained\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Senate\\ side\\ is\\ tremendously\\ more\\ complicated\\,\\ because\\ you\\ need\\ unanimous\\ consent\\ to\\ structure\\ legislation\\.\\ The\\ worst\\ case\\ scenario\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ bill\\ ends\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ and\\ someone\\ filibusters\\.\\ In\\ 1978\\,\\ they\\ allowed\\ a\\ tagteam\\ filibuster\\.\\ You\\ can\\ have\\ the\\ recognize\\ people\\ to\\ ask\\ a\\ question\\,\\ leave\\ and\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ bathroom\\,\\ etc\\.\\ So\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ negotiations\\ that\\ take\\ place\\ beforehand\\ to\\ stop\\ filibustering\\.\\ Holds\\ are\\ put\\ up\\ by\\ members\\ saying\\ they\\ will\\ filibuster\\ unless\\ something\\ is\\ added\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Also\\ in\\ the\\ Senate\\,\\ amendments\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ germane\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cloture\\ votes\\ \\(Senate\\)\\ are\\ test\\ votes\\,\\ which\\ tells\\ you\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ votes\\ in\\ place\\ in\\ case\\ a\\ filibuster\\ begins\\.\\ If\\ you\\ get\\ 60\\ votes\\,\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ move\\ forward\\.\\ This\\ means\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ all\\ members\\,\\ but\\ only\\ 60\\ of\\ them\\.\\ You\\ don\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ holds\\ on\\ everything\\,\\ because\\ people\\ will\\ not\\ include\\ you\\ on\\ legislation\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ types\\ of\\ cloture\\ votes\\.\\ If\\ the\\ motion\\ is\\ made\\ by\\ a\\ party\\ leader\\,\\ it\\ is\\ imperative\\ that\\ you\\ vote\\ with\\ your\\ party\\.\\ If\\ it\\ is\\ made\\ by\\ someone\\ else\\,\\ you\\ can\\ vote\\ as\\ you\\ wish\\.\\ In\\ the\\ current\\ climate\\,\\ a\\ cloture\\ vote\\ by\\ the\\ minority\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\ would\\ always\\ block\\ legislation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Conference\\ Committee\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ members\\ from\\ both\\ chambers\\.\\ You\\ simply\\ need\\ majorities\\ from\\ the\\ House\\ and\\ Senate\\ there\\.\\ A\\ new\\ report\\ is\\ written\\,\\ the\\ Conference\\ Report\\,\\ and\\ these\\ are\\ sent\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Rules\\ Committee\\,\\ which\\ forwards\\ them\\ sans\\ amendments\\ to\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ possibly\\ immediately\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Everything\\-\\ handwritten\\ notes\\,\\ scribbles\\,\\ lines\\,\\ etc\\.\\ ends\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ bill\\.\\ All\\ laws\\ must\\ be\\ published\\ on\\ parchment\\ and\\ then\\ must\\ be\\ signed\\ or\\ vetoed\\ by\\ the\\ President\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ TONS\\ \\;of\\ opportunities\\ to\\ screw\\ up\\ the\\ system\\.\\ Do\\ not\\ accept\\ the\\ way\\ things\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ done\\.\\ Think\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Congress\\ can\\ be\\ run\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ benefits\\ YOU\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Congressional Procedures"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.705302+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Measuring Public Opinion ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 617, "html": "\\\\\\ \\;Measuring\\ Public\\ Opinion\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Popular\\ president\\ can\\ persuade\\ public\\ opinion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Be\\ intelligent\\ consumers\\ of\\ polling\\ data\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\In\\ the\\ Beginning\\ 1890s\\-1930s\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;straw\\ polls\\&rdquo\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ any\\ assessment\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ Unofficial\\ canvas\\ of\\ an\\ electorate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Cut\\-out\\ ballot\\ in\\ a\\ newspaper\\ or\\ magazine\\.\\ Reader\\ would\\ mail\\ it\\ back\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Personal\\ canvas\\ take\\ ballots\\ to\\ crowded\\ locations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\.\\ Send\\ ballots\\ by\\ mail\\ to\\ a\\ specified\\ list\\ of\\ people\\.\\ Ask\\ they\\ send\\ them\\ back\\ by\\ return\\ mail\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Therefore\\ the\\ results\\ were\\ highly\\ susceptible\\ to\\ mobilization\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\.\\ 1920\\ Prohibition\\ Delaware\\ poll\\ by\\ Pier\\ Duvault\\ 98\\%\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ repeal\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ accurate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Notoriously\\ unreliable\\ but\\ they\\ remained\\ enormously\\ popular\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ until\\ 1936\\ presidential\\ election\\ did\\ the\\ straw\\ poll\\ ends\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1930s\\ Literary\\ Digest\\ much\\ of\\ success\\ to\\ magazine\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ straw\\ polls\\.\\ 1936\\ did\\ not\\ predict\\ president\\ right\\ by\\ almost\\ 20\\%\\ so\\ credibility\\ was\\ shattered\\ and\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ year\\ went\\ bankrupt\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Problem\\ was\\ the\\ makeup\\ of\\ the\\ sample\\.\\ Problem\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ upper\\ middle\\ class\\ group\\ that\\ was\\ primarily\\ republican\\ 1936\\=\\ depression\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1936\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gallup\\,\\ Roper\\,\\ Crosseley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gallup\\ used\\ in\\ person\\ interviews\\ and\\ employed\\ quotas\\ so\\ it\\ looked\\ demographically\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ population\\.\\ He\\ predicted\\ 1936\\ winner\\ right\\ to\\ become\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ preeminent\\ pollster\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ true\\ believer\\ in\\ polls\\.\\ Accurate\\ gage\\ of\\ public\\ sentiment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Early\\ critics\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ scientist\\ Lindsay\\ Rogers\\.\\ Foolish\\ to\\ dismiss\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ hand\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Major\\ Factors\\ Affecting\\ Poll\\ Results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Selecting\\ Sample\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>public\\ opinion\\ polls\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ samples\\.\\ Possible\\ to\\ study\\ public\\ opinion\\ by\\ interviewing\\ few\\ people\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1948\\ probability\\ sampling\\ attempts\\ to\\ select\\ respondents\\ so\\ that\\ every\\ adult\\ American\\ has\\ an\\ equal\\ chance\\ of\\ being\\ selected\\ to\\ an\\ interview\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ place\\ where\\ all\\ adult\\ Americans\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ is\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ generate\\ a\\ random\\ sample\\.\\ Excludes\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ homeless\\,\\ live\\ in\\ dorm\\,\\ military\\ but\\ it\\ gets\\ us\\ close\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Non\\-response\\ rate\\ matters\\ if\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ unwilling\\ to\\ participate\\ if\\ they\\ differ\\ in\\ their\\ opinions\\ from\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ participate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Success\\ is\\ uneven\\ and\\ failures\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ high\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ the\\ population\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ was\\ the\\ sample\\ selected\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ was\\ the\\ response\\ rate\\?\\ Did\\ we\\ get\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ we\\ wanted\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Constructing\\ Questionaire\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Question\\ wording\\ is\\ the\\ greatest\\ source\\ of\\ bias\\ following\\ question\\ order\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Questions\\ of\\ about\\ policy\\ have\\ even\\ a\\ greater\\ range\\ of\\ word\\ options\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;welfare\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;programs\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;send\\ troops\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;contribute\\ troops\\&rdquo\\;\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ choices\\ could\\ have\\ impact\\ on\\ results\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\:\\ Budget\\ Surplus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Should\\ money\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ tax\\ cut\\ or\\ new\\ gov\\.\\ program\\?\\ 68\\ tax\\ cut\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Should\\ money\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ tax\\ cut\\ or\\ education\\,\\ environment\\,\\ healthcare\\?\\ 22\\ tax\\ cut\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Writing\\ a\\ clear\\,\\ unbiased\\ question\\ is\\ important\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Multiple\\ stimuli\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Presentation\\ of\\ balanced\\ vs\\.\\ unbalanced\\ argument\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ favor\\ death\\ penalty\\?\\ Only\\ one\\ side\\ is\\ represented\\.\\ If\\ question\\ is\\ balanced\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ more\\ even\\ distribution\\ of\\ opinion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Absence\\ of\\ Filter\\ Questions\\ this\\ signals\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ okay\\ to\\ not\\ have\\ an\\ opinion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Question\\-Order\\ Effects\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\:\\ abortion\\ issue\\.\\ Asking\\ a\\ specific\\ question\\ before\\ general\\ support\\&hellip\\;the\\ general\\ support\\ drops\\ 10\\-15\\ points\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Draw\\ on\\ a\\ trend\\ line\\.\\ That\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ question\\ being\\ asked\\ from\\ year\\ to\\ year\\.\\ How\\ do\\ those\\ results\\ look\\ at\\ an\\ earlier\\ set\\ of\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Method\\ of\\ conducting\\ interview\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dynamics\\ that\\ occur\\ in\\ interview\\ can\\ have\\ effects\\ on\\ polls\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conducted\\ through\\ mail\\,\\ over\\ the\\ phone\\,\\ in\\ person\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mail\\ surveys\\ are\\ self\\ select\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ biased\\.\\ There\\ is\\ almost\\ no\\ point\\ in\\ doing\\ mail\\ surveys\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Social\\ pressure\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ bias\\ in\\ survey\\ responses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Politicians\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ trust\\ mailed\\ opinion\\.\\ Letters\\ to\\ politicians\\ are\\ meaningless\\ because\\ people\\ self\\-select\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Push\\-pulls\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Consider\\ multiple\\ questions\\,\\ not\\ just\\ one\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Public\\ opinion\\ on\\ a\\ given\\ topic\\ cannot\\ be\\ understood\\ by\\ just\\ one\\ question\\ on\\ a\\ topic\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Measuring Public Opinion "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.723039+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Genetic Mapping", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 618, "html": "\\\\\\The\\ key\\ takeaways\\ from\\ today\\'s\\ lecture\\ were\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\To\\ understand\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ perform\\ and\\ analyze\\ a\\ three\\ point\\ cross\\-\\-a\\ cross\\ between\\ a\\ triply\\ heterozygous\\ individual\\ and\\ a\\ triply\\ homozygous\\ recessive\\ individual\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ a\\ three\\ point\\ cross\\ and\\ build\\ a\\ genetic\\ map\\,\\ one\\ must\\ do\\ the\\ following\\ things\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Determine\\ the\\ linkage\\ phase\\ of\\ the\\ alleles\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Determine\\ the\\ correct\\ gene\\ order\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Determine\\ the\\ map\\ distance\\ between\\ each\\ outside\\ marker\\ and\\ the\\ marker\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\The\\ frequency\\ of\\ recombination\\ between\\ the\\ outside\\ markers\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Interference\\ is\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ a\\ crossover\\ in\\ one\\ interval\\ affecting\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ another\\ crossover\\ affecting\\ the\\ probability\\ in\\ another\\ region\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Understand\\ how\\ to\\ analyze\\ a\\ three\\ point\\ cross\\ when\\ given\\ molecular\\ markers\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Genetic\\ mapping\\ of\\ Neurospora\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Map\\ distance\\ \\=\\ \\(1\\/2\\)\\ x\\ \\(Number\\ of\\ crossovers\\ in\\ region\\ x\\ 100\\)\\/\\(Total\\ number\\ of\\ meioses\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Map\\ distance\\ \\=\\ \\(1\\/2\\)\\ x\\ \\(Number\\ of\\ second\\-division\\ segregation\\ tetrads\\ x\\ 100\\)\\/\\(Total\\ number\\ of\\ meioses\\)\\ \\(Note\\:\\ With\\ ordered\\ tetrads\\,\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ multiple\\ crossovers\\ between\\ a\\ gene\\ and\\ the\\ centromere\\.\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Chromosomes\\ come\\ in\\ pairs\\&hellip\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Except\\ when\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\First\\ division\\ nondisjunction\\ occurs\\ during\\ Metaphase\\ II\\.\\ Results\\ in\\ two\\ of\\ four\\ meiotic\\ products\\ lacking\\ a\\ chromosome\\ while\\ the\\ other\\ two\\ have\\ an\\ extra\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Second\\ division\\ nondisjunction\\ occurs\\ during\\ Anaphase\\ II\\.\\ Results\\ in\\ two\\ normal\\ meiotic\\ products\\,\\ one\\ with\\ an\\ extra\\ chromosome\\,\\ and\\ one\\ missing\\ a\\ chromosome\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Things\\ to\\ know\\&hellip\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\XXX\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ normal\\ female\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\X\\ results\\ in\\ Turner\\ syndrome\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\XYY\\ results\\ in\\ a\\ normal\\ male\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\XXY\\ results\\ in\\ Klinefelter\\ syndrome\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sex\\ chromosome\\ related\\ cases\\ of\\ nondisjunction\\ are\\ the\\ least\\ lethal\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 93, "file_path": "", "desc": "Genetic Mapping"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.738563+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Shia Islam", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 619, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:660042062\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:213262538\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Week\\ 6\\ Shia\\ Islam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Fusion\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ politics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ din\\ and\\ dawlah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ leads\\ to\\ conception\\ of\\ Islam\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ state\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Consequences\\:\\ interpretations\\ of\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;jihad\\&rdquo\\;\\ change\\ to\\ reflect\\ notions\\ of\\ Islam\\ as\\ religion\\ of\\ empire\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sunni\\ concept\\-\\ Al\\-Qaida\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ political\\ authority\\/religious\\ authority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shiatul\\ \\=\\ party\\.\\ Shia\\ or\\ Shii\\ Islam\\.\\ Official\\ name\\:\\ Shiatul\\ Ail\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ party\\ or\\ group\\ of\\ Ali\\ \\(supporting\\ Ali\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ leadership\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shii\\ theology\\.\\ Shii\\ \\=\\ adj\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Belief\\:\\ Party\\ after\\ death\\ of\\ Muhammad\\ led\\ by\\ Ali\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ legitimate\\ successor\\.\\ No\\ male\\ progeny\\.\\ Ali\\ and\\ Fatimah\\ \\(daughter\\)\\.\\ Ali\\ represented\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ Imamate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ Iman\\ he\\ was\\ \\Wasi\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(legatee\\)\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Iman\\ \\=\\ leader\\,\\ in\\ Shia\\ descendent\\ of\\ Prophet\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Incident\\ at\\ Ghadir\\ al\\-Khumm\\,\\ mid\\ March\\ 632\\:\\ \\center\\<\\/b\\>\\ of\\ Shia\\ thought\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Man\\ kuntu\\ mawla\\ fa\\ aliyyun\\ mawla\\&rdquo\\;\\ very\\ close\\ to\\ his\\ death\\.\\ Muhammad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ last\\ pilgrimage\\ to\\ \\\\Mecca\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ He\\ stopped\\ in\\ oasis\\ in\\ desert\\ \\(Ghadir\\ al\\-Khumm\\)\\.\\ There\\ made\\ announcement\\,\\ made\\ platform\\,\\ had\\ Ali\\ join\\,\\ then\\ said\\ \\(He\\ whose\\ master\\ I\\ am\\,\\ Ali\\ is\\ his\\ master\\)\\.\\ \\Hotly\\ contested\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sunni\\ sources\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mention\\ event\\ at\\ all\\,\\ some\\ mention\\ but\\ interpret\\ differently\\.\\ Debate\\ over\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\mawla\\<\\/i\\>\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Shia\\ interpret\\ as\\ master\\,\\ Sunni\\ not\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ali\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ regarded\\ by\\ other\\ groups\\ than\\ Shia\\ as\\ possessing\\ special\\ spiritual\\ knowledge\\.\\ Muhammad\\ not\\ giving\\ him\\ authority\\ but\\ recognizing\\ him\\ as\\ having\\ insight\\.\\ \\(mysticism\\)\\.\\ Sufi\\ groups\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Play\\ clip\\:\\ \\Qawwali\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Gospel\\ music\\ from\\ \\South\\ Asia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Commonly\\ cited\\ verses\\ by\\ Shia\\ as\\ proof\\ of\\ Imamate\\ from\\ Quran\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ located\\ on\\ handout\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Light\\&rdquo\\;\\ referring\\ to\\ Iman\\.\\ Hadith\\:\\ I\\ leave\\ two\\ great\\ things\\:\\ Book\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ his\\ household\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ali\\ is\\ its\\ gate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Immerging\\ in\\ Shia\\ thought\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Each\\ Imam\\ designated\\ by\\ his\\ predecessor\\ through\\ process\\ of\\ \\nass\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ divine\\ designation\\,\\ responsible\\ for\\ community\\ after\\ his\\ death\\.\\ Iman\\ as\\ intermediary\\,\\ intercessor\\,\\ seeking\\ forgiveness\\ and\\ welfare\\ for\\ people\\.\\ Some\\ Shia\\ groups\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Imam\\ also\\ becomes\\ spiritual\\ guide\\ on\\ path\\ of\\ spiritual\\ development\\ preparing\\ oneself\\ for\\ face\\ to\\ face\\ meeting\\ with\\ god\\ \\(role\\ of\\ Sufi\\ spiritual\\ master\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shia\\ reject\\ Sunni\\ notion\\ that\\ people\\ themselves\\ have\\ authority\\ to\\ interpret\\ religious\\ texts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ human\\ interpretation\\ and\\ human\\ consensus\\ always\\ inferior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ consistent\\ historically\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ God\\ never\\ left\\ man\\ to\\ interpret\\ by\\ himself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Quran\\ has\\ esoteric\\ \\(external\\)\\ meaning\\,\\ and\\ Esoteric\\ meaning\\.\\ Imam\\ can\\ guide\\ you\\ to\\ inner\\ meaning\\ of\\ Quranic\\ text\\.\\ Authority\\ is\\ hereditary\\.\\ Hereditary\\ transmission\\ of\\ authority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shia\\ splinter\\ groups\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dispute\\ over\\ accession\\.\\ Dispute\\ as\\ to\\ which\\ son\\ takes\\ over\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ depends\\ on\\ which\\ son\\ people\\ followed\\,\\ splinter\\ groups\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Allama\\ Tabatabai\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Shiite\\ Islam\\:\\ says\\ prophets\\ sent\\ down\\ to\\ bring\\ revelation\\.\\ Imam\\ are\\ always\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ \\(prophets\\ come\\ and\\ go\\)\\.\\ They\\ implement\\ message\\ of\\ prophet\\.\\ Shia\\ texts\\:\\ every\\ prophet\\ going\\ back\\ to\\ Adam\\ is\\ associated\\ to\\ an\\ Imam\\,\\ usually\\ identity\\ not\\ known\\.\\ Imamah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ possible\\ to\\ find\\ names\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ Imam\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lines\\ of\\ Imams\\.\\ Identity\\ not\\ known\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ linked\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ spiritual\\ light\\.\\ Muhammad\\ made\\ public\\ \\(on\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ command\\)\\ real\\ identity\\ of\\ Imam\\ of\\ his\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ali\\,\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ \\last\\ \\<\\/b\\>prophet\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Prophets\\ linked\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ by\\ the\\ light\\,\\ so\\ do\\ Imams\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Two\\ central\\ themes\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ shia\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\.\\ Persecution\\.\\ By\\ Shia\\ Caliphate\\,\\ declared\\ heretics\\ by\\ Sunni\\ ulama\\ because\\ contesting\\ ulama\\ authority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\ would\\ Sunni\\ Caliphs\\ persecute\\ Shia\\?\\ \\(2\\)\\ Disputes\\ over\\ succession\\ to\\ office\\ of\\ Imam\\,\\ particularly\\ when\\ he\\ has\\ two\\ sons\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Conflict\\ between\\ two\\ clans\\ over\\ inheriting\\ authority\\ of\\ Prophet\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tremendous\\ strife\\:\\ period\\ of\\ Umar\\/Uthman\\ \\(Bau\\ Ummayah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Ummayids\\)\\ d\\.\\ 644\\-d\\.656\\.\\ Rebellion\\,\\ ultimately\\ rebel\\ assassinated\\ Uthman\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Mu\\&rsquo\\;awaiyah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ d\\.\\ 680\\ wanted\\ to\\ negotiate\\ with\\ Shia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kharijis\\ group\\ formed\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ negotiate\\ with\\ Ali\\.\\ Assassinated\\ Ali\\ \\(d\\.\\ 661\\)\\.\\ Ali\\ had\\ two\\ sons\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hasan\\ and\\ Husayn\\.\\ Hasan\\ took\\ over\\ from\\ Ali\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ ongoing\\ conflicts\\ with\\ Mu\\&rsquo\\;awiyah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ finally\\ said\\ he\\ would\\ give\\ up\\ his\\ authority\\ if\\ Mu\\&rsquo\\;awiyah\\ has\\ Husayn\\ be\\ next\\ caliph\\.\\ Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nominated\\ Yazid\\ d\\.683\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Second\\ civil\\ War\\ \\-Husayn\\ surrounded\\ in\\ \\\\Iraq\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ his\\ family\\ denied\\ access\\ to\\ water\\,\\ eventually\\ Husayn\\ is\\ killed\\,\\ beheaded\\ by\\ forces\\ of\\ Yazid\\.\\ Head\\ taken\\ on\\ spear\\ to\\ \\\\Damascus\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ \\(capital\\ of\\ Ummayids\\)\\.\\ \\Defining\\ moment\\ of\\ Shia\\ ideology\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Shia\\ Imam\\ face\\ tragedy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Impact\\ of\\ \\\\Karbala\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ \\(massacre\\ of\\ Imam\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ martyrdom\\ of\\ Imam\\ Husayn\\ \\(Hussain\\)\\ and\\ other\\ Imams\\ becomes\\ prototypical\\ tragedy\\ of\\ history\\,\\ conflict\\ between\\ good\\ and\\ evil\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pious\\ and\\ righteous\\ suffer\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\Explains\\ why\\ they\\ are\\ always\\ historically\\ defeated\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ultimate\\ suffering\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ family\\ of\\ the\\ Prophet\\,\\ particularly\\ Imam\\ Husayn\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Suffering\\ ultimately\\ redemptive\\,\\ leads\\ to\\ salvation\\ in\\ the\\ after\\-life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sunni\\ theology\\ develops\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ historical\\ triumph\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Shii\\ theology\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ worldly\\ defeat\\.\\ Reward\\ in\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ life\\ for\\ Shii\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Each\\ theology\\ tries\\ to\\ come\\ to\\ terms\\ with\\ own\\ historical\\ experience\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Theological\\ consequences\\ of\\ history\\ of\\ persecution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ redemptive\\ suffering\\.\\ Universal\\ terms\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Husayn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suffering\\ is\\ story\\ of\\ human\\ suffering\\ in\\ history\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ becomes\\ one\\ of\\ martyr\\.\\ Today\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ when\\ a\\ Yazid\\ raises\\ his\\ hand\\,\\ a\\ Husayn\\ rises\\ forward\\ to\\ crush\\ him\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Now\\ there\\ are\\ hundreds\\ of\\ Yazid\\,\\ yesterday\\ only\\ one\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Urdu\\ poet\\.\\ Poet\\ takes\\ figure\\ like\\ Martin\\ Luther\\ King\\-\\ similar\\ to\\ Husayn\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ same\\ path\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 92, "file_path": "", "desc": "Shia Islam"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.773655+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Mona Lisa", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 620, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:976107668\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1804057342\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1653751972\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-652824198\\ 173697184\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\HAA\\ 1\\ Thur\\.\\ Feb\\.\\ 26\\ Prof\\.\\ Fehrenbach\\,\\ Mona\\ Lisa\\:\\ The\\ Renaissance\\ Artist\\ as\\ Creator\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Landscape\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Da\\ Vinci\\ explains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ produced\\ many\\ notebooks\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ painter\\ is\\ lord\\ of\\ all\\ types\\ of\\ things\\,\\ people\\,\\ if\\ he\\ sees\\ beauty\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lies\\ in\\ his\\ power\\ to\\ create\\ them\\.\\ If\\ he\\ sees\\ monstrosity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ can\\ be\\ lord\\ thereof\\.\\ If\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ produce\\ dark\\/warm\\ places\\,\\ he\\ can\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Valleys\\,\\ mountains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ no\\ plains\\,\\ see\\ high\\ mountains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ whatever\\ exists\\ in\\ universe\\,\\ in\\ appearance\\ in\\ imagination\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ painter\\ first\\ has\\ in\\ mind\\,\\ then\\ in\\ hand\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Background\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\-referential\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tells\\ something\\ about\\ painter\\ himself\\.\\ Production\\ of\\ uninhabited\\ landscape\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ desert\\,\\ Mona\\ Lisa\\.\\ Portraits\\ show\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ simple\\ features\\/emotions\\.\\ Self\\-consciousness\\,\\ produced\\ something\\ irritating\\,\\ continued\\ to\\ work\\ until\\ 1515\\,\\ traveled\\ with\\ Leonardo\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Claims\\ to\\ be\\ lord\\ and\\ God\\ of\\ artistic\\ productions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ products\\ in\\ end\\ produces\\ image\\ of\\ artist\\ as\\ Godlike\\.\\ Traditionally\\,\\ power\\ of\\ images\\ to\\ overwhelm\\ viewer\\ as\\ something\\ going\\ beyond\\ representation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ metaphysical\\ realm\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Two\\ areas\\:\\ religion\\ and\\ erotic\\ representations\\.\\ Religion\\:\\ virgin\\ statues\\ and\\ icons\\.\\ Statues\\ of\\ religious\\ images\\.\\ With\\ fear\\ of\\ idolatry\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Salus\\ Populi\\ Romani\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ \\\\Santa\\ Maria\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ Maggiore\\,\\ 13\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Madonna\\ with\\ child\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Health\\ of\\ Roman\\ people\\&rdquo\\;\\ icon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ produced\\ by\\ evangelist\\ inspired\\ by\\ Madonna\\ himself\\.\\ Found\\ in\\ notebook\\ L\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ compete\\ with\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ production\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Madonna\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ that\\ claims\\ authority\\ by\\ itself\\.\\ What\\ other\\ kind\\ of\\ artwork\\ causes\\ such\\ idolatry\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pygmalion\\ and\\ his\\ statue\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ early\\ 15\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ Shift\\ of\\ older\\ models\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ religion\\/erotic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ praise\\ of\\ individual\\ artistic\\ skills\\.\\ \\Shift\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>3\\ categories\\ related\\ to\\ career\\ of\\ visual\\ arts\\ in\\ Renaissance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Artists\\ skills\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Efforts\\ to\\ differentiate\\ the\\ visual\\ arts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ power\\ between\\ sculpture\\,\\ Language\\-oriented\\ disciplines\\ and\\ visual\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Grammatical\\ evaluation\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rise\\ of\\ notion\\ of\\ individual\\ style\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pulpit\\,\\ \\\\Pisa\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ Cathedral\\,\\ Giovanni\\ Pisano\\,\\ 1302\\-10\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Praise\\ of\\ individual\\ skill\\:\\ inscription\\ \\(2\\)\\ on\\ pulpit\\ o\\ sculpture\\ \\(marble\\,\\ white\\)\\.\\ Beginning\\ of\\ 14\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ Renaissance\\,\\ late\\ middle\\ ages\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inscription\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ see\\ his\\ work\\,\\ bent\\ from\\ labours\\,\\ date\\,\\ name\\ that\\ he\\ built\\ pulpit\\.\\ Laws\\ that\\ govern\\ the\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ another\\ inscriptions\\.\\ What\\ are\\ they\\ saying\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Giovanni\\ traveled\\ the\\ world\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ criticized\\,\\ receives\\ no\\ reward\\,\\ blueprint\\ of\\ modern\\ artist\\ angry\\,\\ rejected\\ by\\ audience\\,\\ unrewarded\\,\\ immensely\\ talented\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pisanello\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Allegory\\ of\\ Lust\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1430\\,\\ \\\\Vienna\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Prometheus\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Transfiguration\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ Raphael\\,\\ 1519\\-20\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Claimed\\ everyone\\ believed\\ Raphael\\ was\\ heavenly\\ being\\ sent\\ to\\ earth\\ \\(humanist\\)\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>At\\ death\\ of\\ Raphael\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1520\\,\\ palace\\ of\\ pope\\ shaken\\,\\ close\\ to\\ collapse\\.\\ Direct\\ connection\\ to\\ death\\ of\\ Christ\\.\\ Georgio\\ Arsani\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lamented\\ that\\ whoever\\ saw\\ last\\ image\\ of\\ Raphael\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ transfiguration\\ of\\ Christ\\ on\\ deathbed\\ of\\ Raphael\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ heart\\ broken\\.\\ Anecdotal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Pope\\ wanted\\ to\\ claim\\ Raphael\\ cardinal\\ before\\ died\\,\\ but\\ now\\ all\\ left\\ are\\ writings\\.\\ Christ\\ god\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ Raphael\\ god\\ of\\ art\\.\\ Artist\\ should\\ transform\\ himself\\ into\\ likeness\\ of\\ nature\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ into\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ God\\.\\ God\\ of\\ infinite\\ forms\\,\\ entire\\ worlds\\,\\ not\\ just\\ represent\\ them\\,\\ but\\ \\(Leonardo\\)\\ generates\\ them\\,\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ not\\ really\\ created\\ by\\ nature\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Michelangelo\\ \\&lsquo\\;s\\ sculpture\\ of\\ Moses\\,\\ pleased\\ God\\,\\ he\\ gave\\ moses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ statue\\ is\\ resurrected\\ body\\ of\\ Moses\\ \\(Pissari\\)\\.\\ Roman\\ jewels\\ are\\ right\\ to\\ worship\\ Moses\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ divine\\ being\\.\\ Social\\ background\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pragmatic\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Failed\\ to\\ pay\\ dues\\ to\\ guild\\,\\ thrown\\ to\\ jail\\.\\ 1435\\.\\ Architect\\ succeeded\\ to\\ promote\\ image\\ as\\ something\\ more\\ than\\ craftsman\\.\\ Problem\\:\\ how\\ insert\\ art\\ into\\ intellectual\\ disciplines\\.\\ How\\ to\\ insert\\ visual\\ arts\\ into\\ inflexible\\ seven\\ liberal\\ arts\\?\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ Seven\\ Liberal\\ Arts\\:\\ Trivium\\ \\(grammar\\,\\ dialectic\\,\\ rhetoric\\)\\;\\ Quadrivium\\ \\(arithmetic\\,\\ geometry\\,\\ music\\,\\ astronomy\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Basic\\ curriculum\\ of\\ any\\ university\\.\\ Music\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ discipline\\ of\\ composition\\.\\ In\\ preparation\\ for\\ philosophy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Reliefs\\ depict\\ visual\\ arts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Pisano\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ painter\\ in\\ his\\ workshop\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ between\\ craftsmanship\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ liberal\\ arts\\.\\ The\\ liberal\\ arts\\ middle\\ 4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ sitting\\ between\\ higher\\ arts\\ and\\ practical\\ mechanical\\ arts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1440\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ workshop\\ of\\ Francesco\\ Squarcione\\.\\ Centaurs\\,\\ \\\\Munich\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mathematical\\ basis\\ of\\ painting\\.\\ 1445\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Painting\\ part\\ of\\ literary\\ arts\\ \\(written\\)\\,\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ natural\\ philosophy\\.\\ Middle\\ 15\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ trajectory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ painting\\ ranked\\ high\\ because\\ linked\\ with\\ math\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Paragone\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Interpretation\\ of\\ arts\\.\\ Many\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ painters\\ are\\ not\\ inferiority\\ to\\ those\\ masters\\ of\\ liberal\\ arts\\.\\ Most\\ true\\.\\ Painters\\ obtain\\ skills\\ from\\ depths\\ of\\ intellect\\ and\\ power\\ of\\ memory\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Beginning\\ 15\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ Baldassare\\ Castiglione\\:\\ ideal\\ gentleman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ educated\\ in\\ liberal\\ arts\\,\\ also\\ should\\ have\\ knowledge\\ of\\ painting\\ as\\ much\\ of\\ letters\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>15\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ mid\\-\\ renovate\\ education\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\\\Italy\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ run\\ by\\ Vittorio\\ da\\ Feltre\\,\\ he\\ found\\ lazy\\/indifference\\ of\\ rich\\ clients\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ adopted\\ difficult\\ disciplines\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ combined\\ sports\\ and\\ artistic\\ intensities\\.\\ Dancing\\ drawing\\,\\ and\\ music\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ entertained\\.\\ Make\\ sure\\ future\\ rulers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ were\\ experts\\ of\\ visual\\ arts\\,\\ emphasized\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nobility\\ also\\ stressed\\ in\\ painting\\.\\ Make\\ sure\\ visual\\ art\\,\\ rhetoric\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ arguments\\ for\\ painting\\:\\ simultaneous\\,\\ natural\\ signs\\ \\(university\\ language\\)\\,\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ the\\ sensory\\ organs\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;movements\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Simultaneous\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ from\\ media\\ qualities\\.\\ Natural\\ phenomen\\,\\ reception\\,\\ the\\ original\\ \\&ldquo\\;invention\\&rdquo\\;\\ nessarity\\ of\\ visual\\ symbols\\ \\(painting\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\,\\ \\<\\/i\\>Leon\\ Battista\\ Alberti\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1435\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Quintillian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Cicero\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Simonides\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Self\\-Portrait\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ Titian\\,\\ C\\.\\ 1555\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ Tempest\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ Giorgione\\,\\ C\\.\\ 1506\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Last\\ Supper\\,\\ \\<\\/i\\>Leonardo\\ da\\ Vinci\\,\\ ca\\ 1495\\-97\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Style\\:\\ \\<\\/i\\>rival\\ technical\\ read\\,\\ normative\\ view\\ on\\ correctness\\ \\(human\\ proportions\\)\\,\\ rival\\:\\ individual\\ styles\\.\\ Both\\ cannot\\ be\\ reconciled\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Cristoforo\\ Landino\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/i\\>\\ Alighieri\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ find\\ language\\ for\\ art\\.\\ Author\\ of\\ first\\ commentary\\ on\\ Dante\\&rsquo\\;s\\ divine\\ Comedy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tried\\ to\\ do\\ justice\\ to\\ them\\,\\ described\\ individual\\ qualities\\.\\ Tassacio\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ardent\\ imitation\\ of\\ nature\\ good\\ perpective\\.\\ Filppo\\ Lippi\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ praised\\ for\\ variety\\,\\ use\\ of\\ coloring\\,\\ Castagno\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ marvelous\\ craftsmen\\,\\ 3\\ dimensionality\\,\\ loved\\ complicated\\ things\\ in\\ art\\.\\ Produces\\ lively\\ figures\\ with\\ movement\\.\\ Paola\\ Uccello\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ talented\\ in\\ diverse\\ landscapes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ humans\\ and\\ animals\\,\\ knows\\ much\\ about\\ perspective\\.\\ Fra\\ Angelico\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ likes\\ to\\ produce\\ lovely\\ paintings\\,\\ devout\\ paintings\\,\\ ornate\\,\\ with\\ many\\ themes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Donatello\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/i\\>\\ variety\\,\\ dynamic\\,\\ with\\ great\\ liveliness\\.\\ Figures\\ seem\\ to\\ all\\ be\\ in\\ movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ antique\\ artist\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Humanist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ man\\ of\\ letters\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tries\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ what\\ distinguishes\\ masters\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ simply\\ apply\\ categories\\ \\(good\\ and\\ better\\,\\ or\\ best\\ of\\,\\ \\#1\\ scholar\\ of\\)\\ tried\\ to\\ distinguish\\.\\ Beginning\\ of\\ discourse\\ of\\ art\\ as\\ stylistic\\ categories\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Leading\\ to\\:\\ own\\ discourses\\ on\\ art\\ in\\ exhibitions\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Within\\ visual\\ arts\\ \\&ndash\\;Leonardo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harsher\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ within\\ artistic\\ production\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ competition\\ between\\ individual\\ arts\\.\\ Fake\\ scultures\\-\\ pretend\\,\\ but\\ produce\\ imposeeible\\ sculedule\\.\\ sSurpaases\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Leonardo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ paint\\ more\\ fake\\ then\\ realistically\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ being\\ more\\ distance\\ from\\ norm\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ biographers\\ of\\ Bernini\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ claimed\\ Bernini\\ united\\ in\\ himself\\ the\\ 3\\ visual\\ arts\\,\\ creating\\ vusual\\ arts\\.\\ Early\\ stage\\ of\\ iconic\\ term\\.\\ Leonardo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ claim\\:\\ images\\ much\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ other\\ kind\\ of\\ human\\ system\\ of\\ representation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 97, "file_path": "", "desc": "Mona Lisa"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.801230+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Shah nama", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 621, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:549415720\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:41191282\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\HAA1\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\March\\ 3\\ Of\\ Heroes\\ and\\ Kings\\,\\ Firdawsi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Shahnama\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Prof\\.\\ David\\ J\\.\\ Roxburgh\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Shahnama\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;book\\ of\\ Kings\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Firdawsi\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 1010\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>First\\ painting\\ on\\ left\\:\\ depict\\ garden\\ scene\\ of\\ poets\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ preferace\\:\\ sets\\ scene\\ of\\ book\\.\\ Deals\\ with\\ patronage\\,\\ composition\\,\\ ideals\\ of\\ royal\\ court\\ where\\ intellectuals\\,\\ calligraphers\\ gathered\\ under\\ patronage\\ of\\ sultan\\.\\ Portrayed\\ in\\ same\\ time\\ as\\ court\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ clothing\\,\\ head\\ gear\\ \\&ldquo\\;contemporary\\ time\\ frame\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>28\\ years\\ old\\,\\ some\\ 20\\ years\\ after\\ made\\,\\ presented\\ to\\ Sultan\\ Selim\\ in\\ \\\\Istanbul\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ given\\ 1568\\ as\\ present\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ image\\ from\\ history\\ book\\ of\\ Selim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reign\\.\\ Each\\ figure\\ carrying\\ codex\\ \\(book\\)\\,\\ sent\\ by\\ Safavid\\ to\\ Sultan\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ambassador\\ to\\ Selim\\ in\\ image\\.\\ Copy\\ of\\ the\\ Shahnama\\ sat\\ in\\ Ottoman\\ treasury\\ in\\ palace\\ until\\ 1903\\.\\ Shortly\\ before\\ 1903\\,\\ manuscript\\ went\\ to\\ \\\\Paris\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ purchased\\ by\\ a\\ Baron\\ Rothchild\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ after\\ surviving\\,\\ then\\ bought\\ by\\ Hutton\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ broken\\ up\\.\\ Gave\\ some\\ to\\ the\\ Metropolitan\\ \\\\museum\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ of\\ \\New\\ York\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ others\\ sold\\ off\\.\\ Harvard\\ art\\ museum\\ owns\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ folios\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1996\\:\\ 118\\ paintings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ book\\ bindings\\ gave\\ back\\ to\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ in\\ exchange\\ for\\ another\\.\\ History\\ of\\ book\\&rsquo\\;s\\ provenance\\:\\ not\\ the\\ most\\ important\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>258\\ paintings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ study\\,\\ must\\ travel\\ to\\ \\~30\\ countries\\.\\ Valued\\ more\\ for\\ autonomous\\ status\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ be\\ hung\\ on\\ wall\\,\\ than\\ sequence\\ of\\ folios\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ book\\&rsquo\\;s\\ disbandment\\ prevents\\ us\\ from\\ experiencing\\ in\\ entirety\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\:\\ Content\\ of\\ book\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Thursday\\:\\ program\\ and\\ interaction\\ between\\ patron\\ and\\ artist\\,\\ why\\ commission\\ text\\ as\\ imperial\\ project\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Tabriz\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Finished\\ 1010\\.\\ drawn\\ by\\ Firdawsi\\.\\ 7\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ Arab\\ armies\\ came\\ into\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ imposed\\ Islam\\ over\\ population\\.\\ Fearful\\ of\\ traditions\\ lost\\,\\ Firdawsi\\ put\\ effort\\ in\\ book\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ worked\\ from\\ many\\ sources\\,\\ aural\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Spanned\\ history\\ of\\ creation\\ to\\ 7\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>People\\ would\\ memorize\\ verses\\ of\\ Shahnama\\ or\\ adapted\\ poetry\\ into\\ prose\\.\\ Every\\ copy\\ of\\ Shahnama\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ from\\ 1271\\ onwards\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ standard\\ text\\ that\\ repeats\\ verbatim\\ certain\\ sequence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Firdawsi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ of\\ kings\\ spanned\\ many\\ generations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 50\\ kings\\,\\ standard\\ period\\ of\\ myths\\ and\\ history\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ history\\ \\=\\ 247BCE\\ to\\ 651\\ CE\\.\\ Attention\\ given\\ to\\ kings\\ not\\ consistent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shahnama\\ began\\ first\\ king\\,\\ instilled\\ by\\ God\\ Yazdan\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>First\\ kings\\ of\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ give\\ people\\ what\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ survive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ match\\,\\ fire\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Siama\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ son\\ of\\ King\\,\\ killed\\ by\\ black\\ demo\\.\\ Seumat\\ is\\ succeeded\\ by\\ brother\\:\\ Krushan\\.\\ Hushan\\ succeeded\\ by\\ Tamaras\\.\\ Fighting\\ against\\ demons\\,\\ greatest\\ battes\\:\\ by\\ men\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Zaha\\:\\ less\\ noble\\ by\\ nature\\.\\ Short\\-lived\\ phenomen\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Images\\:\\ demons\\,\\ monsters\\.\\ Story\\ extends\\ through\\ Rustam\\.\\ Role\\:\\ to\\ maintain\\ equity\\ in\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Safavid\\ dynasty\\ of\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\(1501\\-1732\\)\\;\\ founded\\ by\\ Shah\\ Isma\\&rsquo\\;il\\ \\(r\\.\\ 1501\\-1524\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Image\\ on\\ right\\:\\ shows\\ two\\ figures\\ embracing\\.\\ Major\\ themes\\ of\\ book\\:\\ totality\\ of\\ noble\\ deeds\\,\\ persistent\\ envy\\ of\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neighbors\\,\\ inevitability\\ of\\ fate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shah\\ Tahmasp\\ \\(r\\.1524\\-1576\\)\\:\\ copy\\ of\\ \\Shahnama\\ \\<\\/i\\>made\\ 1520s\\ \\-1540s\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Some\\ stories\\:\\ explores\\ consequences\\ of\\ unjust\\ ruler\\ becoming\\ king\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ottoman\\ Sultan\\ Selim\\ II\\,\\ received\\ \\Shahnama\\ \\<\\/i\\>from\\ Tahmasp\\ in\\ 1568\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Good\\ man\\ face\\ incompetent\\ government\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Person\\ who\\ reads\\ book\\ will\\ be\\ washed\\ in\\ good\\ values\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Burnishing\\ tool\\ on\\ sheet\\ of\\ paper\\ to\\ prepare\\ caligrpha\\=er\\ to\\ r\\=write\\ n\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>After\\ 1522\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ directed\\ by\\ someone\\ sles\\.e\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Commmunication\\ between\\ artist\\ and\\ patron\\ about\\ status\\ of\\ project\\?\\ What\\ was\\ going\\ on\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ interactive\\ exchanges\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1544\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Dus\\ Mahammad\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lists\\ all\\ artists\\ staff\\ \\&lsquo\\;sah\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Establishment\\ of\\ \\#\\ of\\ folios\\:\\ deciding\\ where\\ illuminations\\ would\\ appear\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Calculations\\ about\\ how\\ much\\ book\\ coast\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Made\\ from\\ smaller\\ pieces\\ of\\ agage\\,\\ used\\ to\\ polish\\ surafad\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Calligraphy\\:\\ 4\\ column\\ writing\\,\\ borders\\,\\ at\\ opening\\ of\\ manuscripts\\,\\ head\\ where\\ textbegins\\.\\ To\\ guide\\:\\ each\\ sheet\\ of\\ paper\\ pressed\\ against\\ cardboard\\ wth\\ silk\\ cords\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>As\\ progression\\:\\ interplay\\ before\\ text\\ and\\ illustrations\\.\\ Fulll\\ page\\ from\\ 44\\ couplets\\ \\(8x8\\)\\ Rate\\ of\\ copying\\ must\\ low\\ down\\ to\\ manuscript\\ can\\ be\\ drawn\\ on\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;keying\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ text\\.\\ Simple\\ process\\:\\ ILlumations\\ of\\ triangle\\.\\ Resistnat\\,\\ less\\ damaging\\ to\\ paper\\ in\\ long\\ run\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ calligraphy\\ prepare\\ pens\\-\\ from\\ riverbeds\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Director\\ read\\ folios\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ calligraphy\\ had\\ no\\ mistakes\\.\\ That\\ point\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ foilio\\ passed\\ over\\ to\\ Director\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Scattered\\ documents\\:\\ court\\ had\\ control\\ over\\ discovery\\ of\\ minerals\\,\\ ordered\\ dsfed\\.\\ Wash\\ minerals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ground\\ out\\ with\\ power\\,\\ combie\\ d\\ wt\\ point\\,\\ calligrapher\\ took\\ it\\,\\ washed\\,\\ pu\\ t\\ iht\\ uo\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>15\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ artists\\ finding\\ subject\\ matters\\,\\ take\\ design\\ elements\\,\\ insert\\ at\\ correct\\ scale\\ into\\ correct\\ dimensional\\ orgazi\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Calligraphy\\/painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ folios\\ gave\\ illuminators\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ abract\\ designs\\ in\\ gold\\/silver\\/watercolors\\.\\ Added\\ illumination\\,\\ caption\\ boxes\\,\\ illuminations\\ between\\ txt\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Gold\\ silver\\ applied\\ in\\ either\\ silver\\ form\\,\\ or\\ applied\\ as\\ sheet\\.\\ Burnishing\\ technique\\:\\ all\\ burnished\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ creating\\ seamless\\ surfacd\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Craftsme\\ \\/artists\\,\\ little\\ room\\ for\\ mistakes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Looking\\ at\\ visual\\ appearance\\ of\\ paintings\\,\\ needed\\ technical\\ expertise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ continuous\\ space\\,\\ temperorla\\ movement\\.\\ Text\\ preceding\\ painting\\ brings\\ reader\\ into\\ visual\\ world\\ of\\ the\\ vivage\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rejection\\ of\\ single\\-person\\ title\\ scheme\\.\\ Picture\\ on\\ left\\:\\ tyrannical\\ ruler\\,\\ wakened\\ from\\ nightmare\\,\\ afraid\\ Satan\\ might\\ com\\ in\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Two\\ tall\\ towers\\.\\ Sense\\ of\\ volume\\ from\\ asynometry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ view\\ from\\ changing\\ viewpoints\\ seen\\ in\\ imagination\\.\\ Accept\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ inside\\ pviate\\ chamber\\ s\\ of\\ hhouse\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Two\\ figures\\:\\ one\\ sits\\ at\\ door\\,\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ perspectives\\,\\ put\\ together\\ into\\ overall\\ image\\ of\\ painting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Interiors\\ and\\ exterirs\\,\\ conventionalized\\ mode\\ of\\ presenting\\ space\\,\\ multiplicity\\ elements\\.\\ Dense\\ matrix\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ paitned\\ regions\\.\\ oNot\\ static\\,\\ allows\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sitting\\ with\\ son\\,\\ in\\ amphitheatre\\ of\\ rock\\,\\ original\\ community\\ of\\ mankind\\ gathered\\ to\\ see\\ their\\ king\\.\\ King\\ presented\\ in\\ broad\\ circle\\ almost\\ of\\ architectural\\ space\\.\\ Distance\\ conveyed\\ by\\ vertical\\ dimernsion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ along\\ vertail\\ axis\\.\\ Things\\ higher\\ basically\\ highter\\ up\\.\\ Systom\\ allyed\\ maximum\\ \\#\\@\\ ot\\ art\\.\\ Landscape\\ in\\ one\\,\\ none\\ in\\ other\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ space\\ can\\ be\\ construed\\ as\\ time\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Time\\ is\\ instant\\,\\ painting\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ confine\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relation\\ to\\ surface\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>No\\ fixed\\ perspective\\ compared\\ to\\ what\\ you\\ see\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Temperoral\\ duration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ facial\\ expressions\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Interpreting\\ the\\ actions\\/interactions\\ of\\ all\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fundamental\\ response\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ try\\ to\\ understand\\ why\\ aeveryone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saing\\ tot\\ one\\ another\\.\\ If\\ paintings\\ do\\ express\\ different\\ scenes\\,\\ emotional\\ impact\\ of\\ paintings\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Other\\ art\\ of\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ elsewhere\\,\\ worth\\ emphasizing\\ that\\ aspct\\ of\\ narrative\\ is\\ magnified\\ by\\ miniature\\ size\\ of\\ paintings\\.\\ Book\\,\\ illustrations\\ inside\\ book\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ intimate\\ experience\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ in\\ the\\ pages\\ of\\ the\\ book\\,\\ you\\ felel\\ the\\ image\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Technical\\/acuition\\ er\\ important\\.\\ Brushes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ miracle\\ weapon\\ of\\ aritists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Response\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ design\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Generally\\ about\\ Sultan\\ Muhammad\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ taken\\ painting\\ to\\ wsomehwere\\ else\\:\\ wonderfully\\ rich\\ text\\ written\\ by\\ Muhammid\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ uses\\ metaphore\\ for\\ sky\\ for\\ on\\ for\\ stayynighap\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Details\\ can\\ defy\\ you\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ can\\ forget\\ it\\.\\ Moreover\\,\\ starry\\ sky\\ been\\ there\\ for\\ millennia\\.\\ Larger\\ thanother\\ paintings\\ of\\ their\\ time\\.\\ So\\ packed\\ 51\\ figures\\ completely\\ within\\ text\\.\\ Anthropomorphic\\ face\\/rocks\\.\\ No\\ matter\\ have\\ you\\ move\\,\\ these\\ are\\ notes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ human\\ eyes\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ view\\ of\\ images\\ that\\ they\\ suggest\\.\\ Paintings\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Painting\\ itself\\ perfectly\\ executed\\ medium\\.\\ Although\\ images\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ clear\\ and\\ legilble\\,\\ intense\\ level\\ of\\ information\\ \\=\\ noble\\ entity\\.\\ 1000\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ starry\\ skar\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Zahat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nightmore\\,\\ court\\ on\\ right\\,\\ fushion\\ on\\ compositional\\ eenith\\ \\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Parthian\\ and\\ Sasanian\\ dynasties\\ \\(247\\ BCE\\-651\\ CE\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Selected\\ kings\\ \\(\\shash\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\ in\\ Shahnama\\:\\ Gayumars\\,\\ Siyamak\\,\\ Hushang\\,\\ Tahmuras\\,\\ Zahhak\\,\\ Faridun\\,\\ Kavus\\,\\ Gsuhtasp\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>God\\ Yazdan\\;\\ Ahriman\\,\\ devil\\ \\(other\\ devils\\ called\\ \\divs\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hero\\ Rustam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Paintings\\ from\\ Shah\\ Tahmasp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Shnama\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(each\\ folio\\ measures\\ 30x45cm\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ court\\ of\\ Gayumars\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Feast\\ of\\ Sadeh\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Tahmuras\\ defeats\\ the\\ \\divs\\<\\/i\\>\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Faridun\\ tests\\ his\\ sons\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Sam\\ comes\\ to\\ \\\\Mount\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ \\ \\Alburz\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Afrasiyab\\ and\\ Siyavush\\ embrace\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Zahhak\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Nightmare\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Kitabkhana\\:\\ lit\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;book\\ house\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/i\\>workshop\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Directors\\ of\\ imperial\\ library\\:\\ Kamal\\ al\\-Din\\ Bihzad\\ \\(d\\.\\ 1535\\)\\,\\ Sultan\\ Muhammad\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dust\\ Muhammad\\,\\ text\\ on\\ history\\ of\\ art\\ written\\ at\\ Safavid\\ court\\ in\\ 1544\\-45\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 97, "file_path": "", "desc": "Shah nama"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.832321+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Regulation of Waste Management (CERCLA)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 622, "html": "\\P\\.\\ 319\\-329\\ in\\ the\\ casebook\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ History\\ of\\ RCRA\\ program\\ \\(Resource\\ Conservation\\ and\\ Recovery\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Congress\\ used\\ to\\ think\\ solid\\ waste\\ management\\ was\\ local\\ responsibility\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1976\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ RCRA\\ enacted\\ after\\ discovered\\ solid\\ waste\\ generated\\ was\\ larger\\ than\\ expected\\ in\\ US\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ RCRA\\ became\\ entwined\\ with\\ CERCLA\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Superfund\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ RCRA\\ \\=\\ prevention\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Government\\ can\\ sue\\ to\\ stop\\ activities\\ causing\\ \\&ldquo\\;imminent\\ and\\ substantial\\ engenderment\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Make\\ land\\ disposal\\ of\\ wastes\\ safer\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Provided\\ a\\ regulatory\\ framework\\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Tracking\\,\\ permitting\\,\\ standards\\ systems\\ created\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CERCLA\\ \\=\\ clean\\ up\\ past\\ mistakes\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ RCRA\\ was\\ departure\\ from\\ other\\ statutes\\ that\\ regulated\\ end\\ of\\ pipeline\\ pollution\\ \\(CWA\\,\\ CAA\\)\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Regulating\\ whole\\ life\\ cycle\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Congress\\ recognized\\ this\\ was\\ necessary\\ b\\/c\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ transfer\\ pollution\\ from\\ one\\ medium\\ to\\ another\\\\\r\\\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ RCRA\\ aims\\ at\\ technology\\ forcing\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Requires\\ treatment\\,\\ storage\\,\\ and\\ disposal\\ \\(TSD\\)\\ facilities\\ to\\ use\\ technologies\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;protect\\ human\\ health\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ necessary\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ TSD\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ bury\\ \\(land\\ disposal\\)\\ than\\ treat\\ b\\/c\\ less\\ expensive\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rely\\ on\\ market\\ forces\\\\\r\\\nf\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ RCRA\\ aims\\ at\\ waste\\ reduction\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Any\\ techniques\\ that\\ adjust\\ basic\\ manufacturing\\ processes\\ to\\ waste\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ generated\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Incentive\\:\\ increase\\ cost\\ of\\ waste\\ disposal\\ \\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ only\\ very\\ basic\\ and\\ limited\\ program\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Congress\\ wanted\\ to\\ avoid\\ direct\\ regulation\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ production\\ processes\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Place\\ restriction\\ on\\ generators\\ rather\\ than\\ generation\\ of\\ waste\\\\\r\\\ng\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ RCRA\\ aims\\ to\\ encourage\\ recycling\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Problems\\ with\\ how\\ it\\ fit\\ under\\ RCRA\\ regulation\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ How\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;production\\ process\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;discarded\\ waste\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ If\\ stuff\\ to\\ be\\ recycled\\ is\\ waiting\\ processing\\,\\ what\\ it\\ is\\?\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Problems\\ with\\ some\\ recycling\\ processes\\ being\\ similar\\ to\\ production\\ processes\\\\\r\\\nh\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ RCRA\\ wanted\\ to\\ maintain\\ substantial\\ state\\ responsibility\\ for\\ solid\\ waste\\ problem\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reflected\\ 1970s\\ attitude\\ of\\ leaving\\ implementation\\ to\\ state\\ agencies\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Major\\ amendments\\ to\\ RCRA\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1984\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hazardous\\ and\\ Solid\\ Waste\\ Amendments\\ \\(HSWA\\)\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ strengthen\\ EPA\\ to\\ accomplish\\ RCRA\\ objectives\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ made\\ more\\ apparent\\ land\\ disposal\\ is\\ LAST\\ RESORT\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ forcing\\ development\\ and\\ use\\ of\\ improved\\ technology\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ previous\\ RCRA\\ focused\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ prevent\\ leaks\\ from\\ land\\ disposal\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Congress\\ directed\\ that\\ this\\ practiced\\ be\\ banned\\ in\\ stages\\ unless\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ migration\\&rdquo\\;\\ would\\ occur\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ dissatisfaction\\ with\\ RCRA\\ implementation\\ pace\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ imposed\\ many\\ new\\ deadlines\\ for\\ promulgation\\ of\\ EPA\\ regulations\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ required\\ all\\ TSD\\ to\\ apply\\ for\\ permits\\ by\\ 1986\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Structure\\ of\\ RCRA\\ program\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Two\\ parts\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Subtitle\\ C\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ comprehensive\\ federal\\ regulation\\ with\\ little\\ regard\\ to\\ cost\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Hazard\\ solid\\ wastes\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Health\\-based\\ regulation\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Subtitle\\ D\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ federal\\ regulation\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Non\\-regulatory\\ program\\ for\\ mgmt\\ of\\ non\\-hazardous\\ waste\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Subtitle\\ C\\ \\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Generators\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ knowing\\ if\\ waste\\ is\\ hazardous\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ If\\ more\\ than\\ 100kg\\ hazardous\\ waste\\/month\\ generated\\,\\ regulated\\ by\\ this\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Generators\\ have\\ to\\ complete\\ multiple\\-copy\\ manifest\\ to\\ track\\ waste\\ during\\ shipment\\\\\r\\\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ TSD\\ that\\ want\\ to\\ continue\\ operation\\ have\\ to\\ clean\\ up\\ prior\\ contamination\\ at\\ facility\\\\\r\\\nv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ TSD\\ must\\ conduct\\ regular\\ groundwater\\ monitoring\\ and\\ take\\ corrective\\ action\\\\\r\\\nvi\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Required\\ training\\ for\\ workers\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Section\\ 7003\\ allows\\ EPA\\ to\\ sue\\ anyone\\ that\\ has\\ contributed\\ to\\ waste\\ mgmt\\ practices\\ that\\ might\\ harm\\ health\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Used\\ to\\ clean\\ up\\ abandoned\\ dump\\ sites\\ before\\ CERCLA\\ in\\ 1980\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ After\\ 1984\\ amendment\\,\\ RCRCA\\ more\\ a\\ technology\\-based\\ regulation\\ after\\ banning\\ land\\ waste\\ disposal\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Seems\\ health\\ based\\ because\\ it\\ prohibits\\ disposing\\ of\\ untreated\\ hazardous\\ wastes\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ shown\\ with\\ a\\ reasonable\\ decree\\ of\\ certainty\\ that\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ no\\ migration\\ of\\ the\\ waste\\ as\\ long\\ it\\ remains\\ hazardous\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Implement\\ this\\ by\\ requiring\\ using\\ best\\ demonstrated\\ treatment\\ technology\\ \\(BDAT\\)\\ before\\ disposing\\ on\\ land\\\\\r\\\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Subtitle\\ D\\ later\\ amended\\ to\\ require\\ EPA\\ to\\ establish\\ minimum\\ regulatory\\ standards\\ for\\ non\\-hazardous\\ waste\\\\\r\\\nP\\.\\ 366\\-370\\ in\\ the\\ casebook\\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CERCLA\\ \\(Comprehensive\\ Environmental\\ Response\\,\\ Compensation\\,\\ and\\ Liability\\ Act\\)\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Prompted\\ by\\ Love\\ Canal\\ disaster\\ 1953\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Hooker\\ Chemical\\ and\\ Plastics\\ sold\\ deed\\ to\\ land\\ to\\ Niagra\\ Falls\\ School\\ Board\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Company\\ acknowledged\\ it\\ buried\\ chemical\\ on\\ land\\ and\\ covered\\ with\\ clay\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Homes\\ and\\ school\\ built\\ on\\ land\\\\\r\\\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Chemicals\\ began\\ seeping\\ out\\ and\\ homes\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ relocated\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Provides\\ liability\\ provision\\ and\\ authorized\\ EPA\\ to\\ spend\\ funds\\ from\\ Superfund\\ for\\ REMOVAL\\ \\(short\\ term\\ actions\\ for\\ immediate\\ hazards\\)\\ and\\ REMEDIATION\\ \\(longer\\ term\\ solutions\\)\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ can\\ only\\ spend\\ money\\ on\\ sites\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ National\\ Priority\\ List\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Superfund\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ funded\\ initially\\ through\\ tax\\ on\\ chemicals\\;\\ now\\ includes\\ small\\ tax\\ on\\ petroleum\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Tax\\ expired\\ in\\ 1995\\\\\r\\\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Imposing\\ liability\\ has\\ a\\ deterrent\\ effect\\ to\\ make\\ spills\\ less\\ likely\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CERCLA\\ not\\ just\\ used\\ to\\ remediate\\ site\\ but\\ to\\ PREVENT\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nP\\.\\ 374\\-381\\ in\\ the\\ casebook\\\\\r\\\n5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Definition\\ of\\ potentially\\ liable\\ parties\\ in\\ CERCLA\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Section\\ 107\\ defines\\ responsible\\ parties\\ for\\ response\\ costs\\\\\r\\\n6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ New\\ York\\ vs\\.\\ Shore\\ Realty\\ Corp\\.\\ \\-\\ 1985\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ New\\ York\\ wanted\\ Shore\\ Realty\\ to\\ clean\\ up\\ a\\ hazardous\\ waste\\ disposal\\ site\\ which\\ it\\ had\\ acquired\\ for\\ land\\ development\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 3\\.2\\ acres\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 700\\,000\\ gallons\\ of\\ hazardous\\ waste\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ several\\ spills\\ on\\ site\\\\\r\\\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ leaching\\ into\\ groundwater\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shore\\ Realty\\ knew\\ hazardous\\ waste\\ was\\ stored\\ there\\ and\\ cleanup\\ would\\ be\\ expensive\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ responsible\\ for\\ dumping\\ the\\ waste\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Estimated\\ costs\\ of\\ \\$650\\,000\\ to\\ over\\ \\$1\\ million\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Sought\\ for\\ waiver\\ of\\ liability\\ as\\ owners\\ but\\ denied\\ by\\ State\\ Dept\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Old\\ tenants\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ clean\\ up\\ and\\ Shore\\ essentially\\ ignored\\ problem\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Court\\ held\\ Shore\\ liable\\ for\\ State\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ costs\\ under\\ CERCLA\\\\\r\\\n7\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CERCLA\\ Authorizes\\ feds\\ to\\ respond\\ in\\ several\\ ways\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ can\\ use\\ Superfund\\ to\\ clean\\ up\\ sites\\/spills\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ National\\ Contingency\\ Plan\\ \\(NCP\\)\\ governs\\ cleanup\\ efforts\\ by\\ est\\.\\ procedures\\ and\\ standards\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ can\\ sue\\ for\\ reimbursement\\ of\\ cleanup\\ costs\\ from\\ any\\ responsible\\ parties\\ it\\ can\\ locate\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Allows\\ feds\\ to\\ respond\\ immediately\\ and\\ shift\\ financial\\ responsibility\\ later\\\\\r\\\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Therefore\\,\\ Superfund\\ can\\ cover\\ abandoned\\ sites\\ and\\ if\\ responsible\\ parties\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ found\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ can\\ seek\\ injunction\\ to\\ force\\ responsible\\ party\\ to\\ clean\\ up\\ any\\ site\\/spill\\ that\\ represents\\ \\&ldquo\\;imminent\\ and\\ substantial\\ danger\\ to\\ public\\ health\\/welfare\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n8\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Four\\ classes\\ of\\ responsible\\ persons\\:\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Owner\\/operator\\ of\\ vessel\\ or\\ facility\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Person\\ who\\ at\\ time\\ of\\ disposal\\ of\\ material\\ owned\\ or\\ operated\\ the\\ facility\\ during\\ disposal\\ time\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Anyone\\ who\\ arranged\\ for\\ disposal\\ or\\ treatment\\ \\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Anyone\\ who\\ accepts\\/accepted\\ materials\\ for\\ transport\\ to\\ facilities\\ selected\\ by\\ person\\\\\r\\\n9\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shore\\ Realty\\ argued\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ covered\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ own\\ site\\ at\\ time\\ of\\ disposal\\ nor\\ caused\\ presence\\/release\\ of\\ chemicals\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Argues\\ causation\\ should\\ be\\ required\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Court\\ agrees\\ with\\ State\\ that\\ CERLCA\\ imposed\\ strict\\ liability\\ on\\ current\\ owner\\ of\\ facility\\ w\\/o\\ regard\\ to\\ causation\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Court\\ agrees\\ that\\ accepting\\ Shore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claims\\ would\\ open\\ huge\\ loophole\\ in\\ CERCLA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ coverage\\ if\\ causation\\ is\\ required\\\\\r\\\n10\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Release\\ or\\ Threat\\ of\\ release\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shore\\ argues\\ threat\\ uncertain\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ NY\\ State\\ already\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ responding\\ to\\ release\\ ot\\ threatened\\ release\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Evidence\\ of\\ leaching\\/seeping\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shore\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lack\\ of\\ expertise\\ and\\ failure\\ to\\ license\\ the\\ facility\\ amounts\\ to\\ the\\ threat\\ of\\ a\\ future\\ release\\\\\r\\\n11\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Affirmative\\ defense\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shore\\ claims\\ it\\ can\\ assert\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;affirmative\\ defense\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ CERCLA\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CERCLA\\ allows\\ for\\ a\\ limited\\ exception\\ to\\ liability\\ for\\ release\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Exception\\ if\\ defendant\\ \\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Exercised\\ due\\ care\\ \\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Took\\ precautions\\ against\\ all\\ foreseeable\\ acts\\ or\\ omissions\\ of\\ third\\ party\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shore\\ argues\\ it\\ had\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ transportation\\ of\\ the\\ materials\\ to\\ the\\ site\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Court\\ disasgrees\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ activities\\ before\\ the\\ closing\\ on\\ the\\ deal\\ and\\ have\\ could\\ foreseen\\ the\\ potential\\ harm\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ no\\ precautions\\ taken\\\\\r\\\n12\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Innocent\\ bystander\\ defense\\ \\(SARA\\)\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ No\\ liability\\ if\\ new\\ owners\\ could\\ prove\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ evidence\\,\\ inherited\\ land\\,\\ are\\ govt\\ entity\\ that\\ received\\ land\\ from\\ involuntary\\ transfer\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Difficult\\ to\\ satisfy\\ requirements\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Landowner\\ must\\ inquire\\ from\\ disposal\\ practices\\ of\\ previous\\ owners\\\\\r\\\nP\\.\\ 391\\-392\\ in\\ the\\ casebook\\\\\r\\\n13\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Generators\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Imposition\\ of\\ liability\\ on\\ non\\-negligent\\ generators\\ of\\ hazardous\\ substances\\ \\(section\\ 107\\(a\\)\\(3\\)\\)\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CERCLA\\ created\\ incentives\\ to\\ ensure\\ wastes\\ are\\ management\\ carefully\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Now\\ must\\ select\\ treatment\\ and\\ disposal\\ options\\ and\\ monitor\\ implementation\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ If\\ site\\ chosen\\ has\\ a\\ release\\,\\ generator\\ could\\ be\\ held\\ liable\\\\\r\\\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Not\\ limited\\ to\\ PRODUCERS\\ but\\ also\\ persons\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;arrange\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ disposal\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Seeks\\ to\\ put\\ responsibility\\ on\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ in\\ position\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ regarding\\ the\\ disposal\\\\\r\\\nf\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ PROBLEM\\:\\ initially\\ unclear\\ if\\ generator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ waste\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ proven\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ released\\ if\\ the\\ waste\\ site\\ has\\ waste\\ from\\ multiple\\ generators\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Courts\\ have\\ interpreted\\ this\\ broadly\\ and\\ is\\ sufficient\\ if\\ the\\ following\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Generator\\ shipped\\ waste\\ to\\ this\\ site\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Hazardous\\ substances\\ like\\ those\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ generator\\&rsquo\\;s\\ waste\\ were\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ site\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ release\\ at\\ the\\ site\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\§\\;1004\\(27\\)\\ of\\ RCRA\\ on\\ pp\\.\\ 298\\-99\\ of\\ the\\ Statutory\\ and\\ Case\\ Supplement\\\\\r\\\n14\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;solid\\ waste\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;any\\ garbage\\,\\ refuse\\,\\ sludge\\ from\\ a\\ waste\\ treatment\\ plant\\,\\ water\\ supply\\ treatment\\ plant\\,\\ or\\ air\\ pollution\\ control\\ facility\\ and\\ other\\ discard\\ material\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ include\\ solid\\/dissolved\\ material\\ in\\ domestic\\ sewage\\,\\ irrigation\\ \\;\\ flows\\,\\ or\\ industrial\\ discharges\\ which\\ are\\ point\\ sources\\ to\\ permits\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\§\\;\\§\\;\\ 107\\(a\\)\\ and\\ 107\\(b\\)\\ of\\ CERCLA\\ on\\ pp\\.\\ 419\\-20\\ of\\ the\\ Statutory\\ and\\ Case\\ Supplement\\.\\\\\r\\\n15\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Liability\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 4\\ types\\ of\\ person\\ liable\\\\\r\\\n16\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Defenses\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Not\\ liabable\\ if\\ damages\\ are\\ solely\\ act\\ of\\ God\\,\\ war\\,\\ or\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Third\\ party\\ but\\ current\\ defendant\\ took\\ necessary\\ precautions\\ and\\ exercised\\ due\\ care\\\\\r\\\nExcerpt\\ from\\ Burlington\\ Northern\\ \\&\\;\\ Santa\\ Fe\\ Railway\\,\\ 520\\ F\\.3d\\ 918\\ \\(9th\\ Cir\\.\\)\\,\\ cert\\.\\ granted\\ 129\\ S\\.Ct\\.\\ 30\\ \\(2008\\)\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ posted\\ on\\ the\\ course\\ website\\\\\r\\\n17\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ B\\&\\;B\\ owned\\ and\\ operated\\ a\\ facility\\ where\\ toxics\\ where\\ stored\\/distributed\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Now\\ defunct\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Portion\\ of\\ land\\ was\\ owned\\ by\\ 2\\ railroad\\ companies\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shell\\ Oil\\ Company\\ supplied\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ chemicals\\ B\\&\\;B\\ used\\ \\(agricultural\\ chemicals\\)\\\\\r\\\n18\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ and\\ CA\\ Dept\\ of\\ Toxic\\ Substances\\ spent\\ tons\\ of\\ money\\ cleaning\\ up\\ the\\ site\\ \\(threat\\ to\\ groundwater\\)\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Tried\\ to\\ recoup\\ costs\\ using\\ CERCLA\\\\\r\\\n19\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ But\\ district\\ court\\ only\\ held\\ Railroad\\ companies\\ and\\ shell\\ liable\\ for\\ a\\ small\\ portion\\;\\ B\\&\\;B\\ was\\ defunct\\ so\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pay\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ District\\ court\\ found\\ Railroads\\ liable\\ as\\ owners\\ of\\ the\\ facility\\ and\\ as\\ person\\ who\\ \\&ldquo\\;at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ disposal\\ of\\ any\\ hazardous\\ substance\\ owned\\ or\\ operated\\ any\\ facility\\ at\\ which\\ such\\ hazardous\\ substances\\ were\\ disposed\\ of\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shell\\ was\\ held\\ liable\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;person\\ who\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ arranged\\ for\\ disposal\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ of\\ hazardous\\ substances\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ District\\ court\\ found\\ that\\ harm\\ done\\ to\\ the\\ facility\\ could\\ be\\ apportioned\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Railroads\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\%\\ of\\ facility\\ land\\ owned\\ by\\ railroads\\ \\(19\\.1\\%\\)\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\%\\ of\\ time\\ railroads\\ leases\\ land\\ to\\ B\\&\\;B\\ during\\ its\\ operations\\ \\(45\\%\\)\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ fraction\\ of\\ toxics\\ attributable\\ to\\ Railroad\\ land\\ \\(66\\%\\)\\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Determined\\ total\\ liability\\ to\\ be\\ 9\\ percent\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shell\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Court\\ approximated\\ \\%\\ of\\ leakages\\ attributable\\ to\\ Shell\\ from\\ various\\ activities\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Assigned\\ 6\\ percent\\ of\\ total\\ liability\\\\\r\\\n20\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Agencies\\ appealed\\;\\ Shell\\ cross\\-appeals\\ arguing\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;arranger\\&rdquo\\;\\ under\\ CERCLA\\\\\r\\\n21\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Judge\\ Berzon\\ \\(circuit\\)\\ reverses\\ judgment\\ and\\ impose\\ full\\ joint\\ liability\\ on\\ Railroads\\ and\\ Shell\\ and\\ reaffirm\\ Shell\\ as\\ an\\ arranger\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Comment\\ son\\ Railroads\\&rsquo\\;\\ liability\\ calculations\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Using\\ land\\ area\\ to\\ calculate\\ liability\\ was\\ incorrect\\ b\\/c\\ CERCLA\\ premises\\ liability\\ based\\ on\\ ownership\\ of\\ FACILITY\\ \\(not\\ land\\)\\ and\\ b\\/c\\ operations\\ are\\ dynamic\\ and\\ land\\ use\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ capture\\ this\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Leakage\\ of\\ contaminants\\ most\\ likely\\ not\\ proportional\\ to\\ size\\ of\\ land\\ \\(adding\\ Railroad\\ land\\ increased\\ toxicity\\ exponentially\\)\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Had\\ good\\ records\\ been\\ kept\\,\\ would\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ calculate\\ liability\\ from\\ proportion\\ of\\ amount\\ of\\ chemicals\\ stored\\,\\ poured\\ from\\ one\\ container\\ to\\ another\\,\\ or\\ spilled\\ on\\ each\\ parcel\\ of\\ land\\\\\r\\\niv\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Failed\\ to\\ prove\\ any\\ reasonable\\ basis\\ for\\ apportioning\\ liability\\ for\\ remediation\\ costs\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shell\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Districut\\ court\\ assumed\\ equal\\ contamination\\ and\\ cleanup\\ costs\\ from\\ all\\ chemicals\\ but\\ not\\ all\\ chemicals\\ equal\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Calculation\\ were\\ too\\ speculative\\ to\\ support\\ apportionment\\\\\r\\\n22\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ History\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ B\\&\\;B\\ operated\\ an\\ agricultural\\ chemical\\ storage\\ and\\ distribution\\ facility\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Leased\\ more\\ land\\ once\\ business\\ grew\\ from\\ Railroad\\ companies\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Sold\\ local\\ growers\\ agriculture\\ chemical\\ products\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Two\\ Shell\\ chemicals\\ \\(D\\-D\\ and\\ nemagon\\)\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Work\\ by\\ penetrating\\ soil\\ and\\ dispersing\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shell\\ encourage\\ customer\\ purchasing\\ chemicals\\ in\\ bulk\\\\\r\\\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Transferring\\ chemicals\\ from\\ trucks\\ to\\ B\\&\\;B\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tanks\\ was\\ messy\\ and\\ spills\\ were\\ frequent\\\\\r\\\nf\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Shell\\ was\\ very\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ delivery\\ process\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Determined\\ and\\ arranged\\ for\\ means\\ of\\ delivery\\ of\\ D\\_D\\ to\\ the\\ plan\\ and\\ detailed\\ loading\\/unloading\\ procedures\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": "Regulation of Waste Management (CERCLA)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.851446+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Reformations", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 623, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Responses\\ to\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ did\\ Church\\ let\\ there\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ many\\ differnet\\ opinions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\'s\\ the\\ harm\\,\\ it\\'s\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ harm\\ in\\ reading\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ Aquinas\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ say\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ use\\ Aristotle\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ warnings\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Warning\\ that\\ God\\ can\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ whatever\\ he\\ wants\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ are\\ laws\\,\\ but\\ can\\ study\\ the\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ going\\ to\\ be\\ splintered\\ permanently\\ with\\ Protestant\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ will\\ be\\ attacked\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ and\\ more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Skipping\\ over\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ late\\ middle\\ ages\\:\\ later\\ scholasticism\\ generates\\ sophisticated\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ theology\\ based\\ on\\ Aristotelian\\ logic\\ and\\ physics\\ \\(intension\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ remission\\ of\\ qualities\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ heat\\ or\\ charity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Causes\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Reformation\\ \\(starts\\ with\\ Luther\\,\\ 1517\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ religious\\ reform\\ movement\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ spread\\ like\\ none\\ before\\ \\(printing\\;\\ protection\\ by\\ German\\ princes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ thought\\ of\\ at\\ time\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ permanent\\ schism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ of\\ course\\ hoped\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ convince\\ people\\ to\\ come\\ over\\ to\\ his\\ views\\,\\ but\\ didn\\'t\\ think\\ it\\ went\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ did\\ this\\ movement\\ spread\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unlike\\ any\\ before\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Printing\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ ideas\\ got\\ to\\ broader\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ base\\,\\ not\\ just\\ theologians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ German\\ princes\\ hide\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ him\\ when\\ Pope\\ calls\\ him\\,\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ are\\ happy\\ to\\ rebel\\ against\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ overload\\ who\\ fears\\ religious\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heightened\\ concern\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ abuses\\ due\\ to\\ religious\\ anxiety\\ among\\ the\\ laity\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ indulgences\\ sold\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ without\\ contrition\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Selling\\ of\\ indulgences\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Johann\\ Tetzel\\ in\\ Germany\\ especially\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Indulgence\\ is\\ now\\ back\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ news\\,\\ but\\ no\\ longer\\ being\\ sold\\ by\\ Catholic\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Abuse\\ in\\ late\\ medieval\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ period\\ when\\ these\\ things\\ were\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ abuse\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ no\\ confession\\ or\\ contrition\\ cycle\\ preparing\\ people\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indulgences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Supposed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ spiritual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ preparation\\ with\\ the\\ Priest\\ that\\ leads\\ you\\ to\\ give\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ is\\ happy\\ to\\ reward\\ you\\ with\\ an\\ indulgence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tetzel\\ running\\ a\\ business\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ out\\ of\\ Germany\\ getting\\ money\\ for\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ big\\ building\\ projects\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Rome\\,\\ and\\ Luther\\ gets\\ pissed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Humanism\\ and\\ \\"\\;ad\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fontes\\"\\;\\ movement\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ Reformation\\ occurs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ driving\\ causes\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ heightened\\ anxiety\\ is\\ the\\ re\\-emergence\\ of\\ a\\ sudden\\ form\\ of\\ sudden\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ die\\ in\\ state\\ of\\ sin\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ aren\\'t\\ prepared\\,\\ lot\\ worse\\ off\\ than\\ if\\ you\\ had\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ get\\ last\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rites\\,\\ undergo\\ contrition\\,\\ confessed\\ just\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Norm\\ in\\ catholic\\ church\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ confess\\ once\\ a\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ factor\\ here\\ is\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ PLAGUE\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\General\\ word\\ for\\ disease\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ this\\ case\\ bubonic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Came\\ back\\ to\\ Europe\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 14th\\ C\\,\\ then\\ became\\ endemic\\ until\\ late\\ 17th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Complex\\ doctrines\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ salvation\\ and\\ Eucharist\\ open\\ to\\ multiple\\ interpretations\\ and\\ emphases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Humanism\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ really\\ option\\ besides\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\ until\\ humanists\\ learn\\ Greek\\ and\\ start\\ translating\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ there\\ is\\ Plato\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ others\\,\\ multiple\\ philosophies\\ floating\\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Multiple\\ champions\\ that\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lucretius\\ one\\ of\\ them\\,\\ Plato\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Within\\ the\\ Church\\,\\ what\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ sources\\ move\\ going\\ to\\ yield\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bypass\\ the\\ Vulgate\\,\\ look\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ sources\\ really\\ were\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Polyglot\\ Bibles\\ during\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Erasmus\\ makes\\ translation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ NT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ makes\\ German\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translation\\ of\\ NT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ always\\ been\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ but\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ important\\ people\\,\\ Church\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ very\\ big\\ on\\ Augustine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ reading\\ the\\ Church\\ fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lot\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ambiguities\\ in\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ spelled\\ out\\ by\\ Bible\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ let\\ to\\ different\\ interpretations\\ of\\ basic\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ way\\ to\\ decide\\,\\ not\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authority\\ everyone\\ would\\ agree\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Built\\ in\\ room\\ for\\ multiple\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretations\\,\\ ultimately\\ cause\\ of\\ how\\ both\\ Luther\\ and\\ Catholics\\ think\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ are\\ going\\ with\\ true\\ Christianity\\ and\\ yet\\ disagree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ calls\\ it\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;sweet\\ doctrine\\"\\;\\ which\\ relieves\\ anxiety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Key\\ doctrines\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sola\\ fide\\ \\(justification\\ by\\ faith\\ alone\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\b\\/c\\ of\\ the\\ Fall\\ \\(\\ \\=\\ original\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sin\\)\\,\\ salvation\\ possibly\\ only\\ by\\ divine\\ grace\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ can\\ humans\\ elicit\\ grace\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ good\\ works\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Yes\\ \\=\\ pelagianism\\ \\(heresy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Augustine\\ and\\ Church\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ \\=\\ Augustianism\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;sola\\ fide\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ go\\ this\\ root\\ too\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ far\\,\\ then\\ no\\ reason\\ to\\ act\\ good\\,\\ lawlessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ where\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pre\\-destination\\ comes\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sola\\ scriptura\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(doctrine\\ by\\ scripture\\ alone\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ w\\/o\\ tradition\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ didn\\'t\\ go\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ university\\,\\ doesn\\'t\\ care\\ about\\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Big\\ fan\\ of\\ Paul\\,\\ Augustine\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ spent\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ reading\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Presumably\\,\\ reading\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Vulagate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\'s\\ faith\\ in\\ clarity\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\;\\ translates\\ NT\\ into\\ German\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rejects\\ allegorical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ speaks\\ for\\ itself\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doesn\\'t\\ see\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ line\\ of\\ interpreters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ sees\\ truth\\ in\\ Bible\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ feels\\ everyone\\ else\\ should\\ agree\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Erasmus\\ is\\ a\\ humanist\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ sources\\,\\ and\\ feels\\ among\\ others\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ Bible\\ speaks\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ itself\\,\\ how\\ are\\ there\\ so\\ many\\ interpretations\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ doesn\\'t\\ really\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ an\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\,\\ just\\ feels\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ gives\\ himself\\ a\\ loophole\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ saying\\ to\\ take\\ it\\ literally\\ wherever\\ possible\\,\\ unless\\ context\\ plainly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forbids\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\ not\\ a\\ tent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ obviously\\,\\ so\\ can\\'t\\ read\\ that\\ literally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Different\\ from\\ Augustine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ okay\\ with\\ reading\\ literally\\,\\ but\\ additionally\\ believes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ you\\ can\\ read\\ it\\ all\\ allegorically\\ to\\ deepen\\ understanding\\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Envisions\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;priesthood\\ of\\ all\\ believers\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ irreconcilable\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ differences\\ with\\ Zwingli\\ and\\ Calvin\\ over\\ Eucharist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ line\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ you\\ kind\\ of\\ need\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ line\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ more\\ Augustinian\\,\\ in\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ you\\ really\\ can\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\As\\ a\\ Christian\\,\\ you\\ will\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ works\\,\\ but\\ not\\ absolutely\\ required\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ calls\\ this\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;sweet\\ doctrine\\,\\"\\;\\ b\\/c\\ salvation\\ by\\ faith\\ alone\\ means\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ it\\,\\ all\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ is\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Something\\ from\\ inside\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gives\\ me\\ confidence\\ God\\ has\\ chosen\\ me\\,\\ not\\ about\\ how\\ many\\ times\\ gotta\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pray\\ the\\ rosary\\,\\ repent\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ among\\ Protestants\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ didn\\'t\\ come\\ into\\ agreement\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Where\\ Luther\\ learned\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\ takes\\ guidance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Calvin\\ and\\ Zwingli\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disagreed\\ with\\ Luther\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ never\\ managed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ come\\ together\\ and\\ agree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ were\\ attempts\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reconcile\\ Christianity\\,\\ but\\ could\\ never\\ be\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Key\\ points\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difference\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Eucharist\\,\\ most\\ irreconcilable\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ church\\ believes\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\(transubstantiation\\ that\\ uses\\ Aristotelian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notion\\ of\\ matter\\ and\\ form\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\ so\\ that\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ substance\\ is\\ transformed\\ into\\ actual\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appears\\ like\\ bread\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wine\\,\\ but\\ actually\\ Jesus\\'\\ blood\\ and\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Majority\\ of\\ faithful\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ took\\ it\\ once\\ a\\ year\\ back\\ then\\,\\ at\\ Easter\\ after\\ confession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ \\(consubstantiation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ have\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesus\\'\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Calvin\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Virtual\\ presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bread\\ and\\ wine\\,\\ spiritual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Zwingli\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Symbolic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magisterial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Reformations\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Melankthan\\ for\\ Luther\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basa\\ for\\ Calvin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ to\\ provide\\ guidance\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ own\\ tradition\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ people\\ follow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ group\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ that\\ don\\'t\\ do\\ that\\,\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ Radical\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Don\\'t\\ want\\ any\\ tradition\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ persecuted\\ all\\ over\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Confessionalization\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magisterial\\ Reformations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impose\\ a\\ catechism\\ to\\ direct\\ the\\ faithful\\ in\\ interpreting\\ Bible\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrine\\;\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ teaching\\ philosophy\\ in\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vs\\ radical\\ Reformers\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reject\\ authority\\ of\\ Church\\ fathers\\,\\ have\\ little\\ interest\\ in\\ theology\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ persecuted\\ along\\ everywhere\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Anabaptists\\ example\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ go\\ to\\ America\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Plenty\\ of\\ Calvanists\\ come\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ America\\;\\ Catholics\\ come\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Counter\\-Reformation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ Catholic\\ Reformation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ response\\ to\\ Prot\\ schism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholic\\ Church\\ reasserts\\ faith\\ \\+\\ good\\ works\\ and\\ Scripture\\ \\+\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Talked\\ about\\ Scripture\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ itself\\,\\ have\\ the\\ Vulgate\\ from\\ 4th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Now\\ we\\ have\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translations\\,\\ like\\ Erasmus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Polyglot\\ Bibles\\ 1514\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fear\\ though\\ in\\ that\\ if\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ start\\ messing\\ with\\ text\\,\\ where\\ will\\ it\\ stop\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ Catholic\\ church\\ decides\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ only\\ Vulgate\\ should\\ be\\ used\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Therefore\\,\\ Erasmus\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ translation\\,\\ although\\ Catholic\\,\\ is\\ condemned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Counter\\-Reformation\\ marked\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\,\\ 1545\\ to\\ 1563\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Polyglot\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Missions\\ to\\ reconvert\\ Prots\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ by\\ Jesuits\\)\\ and\\ to\\ enforce\\ orthodoxy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pre\\-publication\\ censorship\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ best\\,\\ but\\ difficult\\ to\\ enforce\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Index\\ of\\ forbidden\\ books\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1559\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ refined\\ list\\ of\\ parts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ you\\ may\\ read\\,\\ then\\ lines\\ you\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ read\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Inquisition\\ revitalized\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Rome\\,\\ 1542\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Organ\\ of\\ Catholic\\ church\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ beat\\ down\\ heresy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nice\\ Creed\\ has\\ one\\ holy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ catholic\\ apostolic\\ church\\,\\ small\\ c\\ b\\/c\\ universal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Now\\,\\ capital\\ C\\,\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Device\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Society\\ of\\ Jesus\\ \\(Jesuits\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ignatius\\ Loyla\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesuit\\ order\\ \\(1540\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Committed\\ to\\ obedience\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ has\\ continuous\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;I\\ will\\ believe\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ white\\ I\\ see\\ is\\ black\\ if\\ the\\ hierarchical\\ church\\ so\\ defines\\ it\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\ \\ Sola\\ fide\\,\\ sola\\ scriptura\\,\\ Luther\\,\\ Zwingli\\,\\ Eucharist\\,\\ transubstantiation\\,\\ \\ real\\ presence\\,\\ symbolic\\ presence\\,\\ abuses\\,\\ indulgences\\,\\ catechism\\,\\ magisterial\\ \\ vs\\.\\ Radical\\ Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Reformations"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.893321+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Justice and Trial", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 624, "html": "\\I\\.\\ JUSTICE\\ \\&\\;\\ TRIAL\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ Rules\\ of\\ Evidence\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Principles\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ Federal\\ Rules\\ is\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ a\\ body\\ of\\ evidentiary\\ rules\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Rule\\ 102\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;rules\\ shall\\ be\\ construed\\ to\\ secure\\.\\.\\.promotion\\ of\\ growth\\ and\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ evidence\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ that\\ the\\ truth\\ may\\ be\\ ascertained\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Divisions\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;100\\ Rules\\:\\ General\\ Provisions\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;201\\ Rule\\:\\ Judicial\\ Notice\\ of\\ Facts\\ in\\ Doubt\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;300\\ Rules\\:\\ Structure\\ of\\ Presumptions\\;\\ burden\\ of\\ persuasion\\ on\\ moving\\ party\\,\\ which\\ shifts\\ burden\\ of\\ going\\ forward\\ onto\\ non\\-moving\\ party\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;400\\ Rules\\:\\ Relevance\\;\\ Prejudice\\;\\ Character\\ Evidence\\;\\ etc\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;500\\ Rules\\:\\ Privilege\\ \\(left\\ as\\ is\\;\\ cf\\.\\ Proposed\\ Rule\\ 503\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;600\\ Rules\\:\\ Witnesses\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;700\\ Rules\\:\\ Experts\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;800\\ Rules\\:\\ Hearsay\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Evidence\\ or\\ Event\\ \\(Nesson\\)\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Proof\\/Legal\\ Rules\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Courts\\ hew\\ to\\ the\\ proof\\ rule\\,\\ demanding\\ a\\ specific\\ quantum\\ of\\ evidence\\ to\\ warrant\\ liability\\,\\ but\\ the\\ legal\\ system\\ encourages\\ the\\ public\\ to\\ obey\\ the\\ legal\\ rule\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Although\\ judges\\ follow\\ the\\ proof\\ rule\\,\\ the\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ post\\-verdict\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ defendant\\ demonstrates\\ its\\ acceptance\\ of\\ the\\ verdict\\ as\\ a\\ statement\\ about\\ an\\ event\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Is\\ the\\ verdict\\ a\\ statement\\ about\\ a\\ past\\ event\\ \\(legal\\ rule\\)\\ or\\ a\\ statement\\ about\\ the\\ evidence\\ presented\\ at\\ trial\\ \\(proof\\ rule\\)\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ they\\ express\\ probabilities\\ instead\\ of\\ conduct\\ rules\\,\\ then\\ they\\ will\\ fail\\ to\\ carry\\ any\\ moral\\ force\\;\\ people\\ should\\ behave\\ ethically\\ because\\ they\\ believe\\ this\\ to\\ be\\ proper\\,\\ not\\ because\\ their\\ risk\\ calculations\\ advise\\ it\\.\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Purpose\\ of\\ Trials\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;One\\ purpose\\ of\\ the\\ trial\\ is\\ to\\ project\\ the\\ legal\\ rules\\ that\\ underlie\\ the\\ judicial\\ verdicts\\;\\ these\\ are\\ rules\\ of\\ ethical\\ \\;\\ conduct\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ space\\ between\\ what\\ I\\ know\\ to\\ be\\ true\\ and\\ what\\ can\\ be\\ proven\\ against\\ me\\ is\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ ethical\\ conduct\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Acceptability\\ of\\ Verdicts\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ aim\\ of\\ the\\ factfinding\\ process\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ generate\\ mathematically\\ probable\\ verdicts\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Blue\\ Bus\\)\\,\\ but\\ to\\ generate\\ acceptable\\ ones\\;\\ only\\ an\\ acceptable\\ verdict\\ will\\ project\\ the\\ underlying\\ legal\\ rule\\ to\\ society\\ and\\ affirm\\ the\\ rule\\&rsquo\\;s\\ behavioral\\ norm\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ confluence\\ of\\ the\\ legal\\ rule\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;ought\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ rule\\ requires\\ that\\ jury\\ verdicts\\ be\\ acceptable\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ verdict\\ of\\ not\\ guilty\\/liable\\ will\\ undermine\\ the\\ legal\\ system\\&rsquo\\;s\\ credibility\\ when\\ the\\ public\\ has\\ an\\ independent\\ basis\\ for\\ believing\\ the\\ defendant\\ to\\ have\\ committed\\ the\\ wrongful\\ act\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;E\\.g\\.\\ OJ\\ Simpson\\,\\ Rodney\\ King\\,\\ HealthSouth\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Judicial\\ Mechanisms\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ Directed\\ Verdicts\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Ensures\\ that\\ the\\ case\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ jury\\ only\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ evidence\\ sufficient\\ to\\ support\\ a\\ finding\\ either\\ way\\;\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ evidence\\:\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Deference\\ typically\\ accorded\\ to\\ verdicts\\ relying\\ on\\ credibility\\ of\\ witnesses\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Deference\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ highly\\ circumstantial\\ cases\\,\\ which\\ are\\ viewed\\ as\\ highly\\ probabilistic\\ \\(Blue\\ Bus\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\)\\ Hearsay\\/Confrontation\\ Rules\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Typically\\ justified\\ on\\ basis\\ of\\ reliability\\;\\ rules\\ also\\ ensure\\ that\\ jury\\ is\\ better\\ situated\\ to\\ assess\\ the\\ evidence\\,\\ thereby\\ assuring\\ the\\ acceptability\\ of\\ the\\ verdict\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Cross\\-examination\\ minimizes\\ risk\\ that\\ the\\ verdict\\ will\\ be\\ undercut\\ by\\ the\\ declarant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subsequent\\ recantation\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hearsay\\ exceptions\\ explicable\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ their\\ threat\\ to\\ the\\ acceptability\\ of\\ the\\ verdict\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Dying\\ declarations\\:\\ acceptable\\ because\\ recantation\\ is\\ impossible\\,\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ reliable\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Party\\ opponent\\:\\ acceptable\\ because\\ opponent\\ can\\ always\\ rebut\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\)\\ Attorney\\-Client\\ Privilege\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Renders\\ verdicts\\ acceptable\\ by\\ placing\\ the\\ conduct\\ of\\ the\\ case\\ in\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ attorney\\,\\ ensuring\\ that\\ the\\ prosecution\\&rsquo\\;s\\ case\\ will\\ be\\ fully\\ tested\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Less\\ justification\\ for\\ maintaining\\ privilege\\ in\\ civil\\ cases\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Cf\\.\\ Bentham\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ guilty\\ person\\ will\\ not\\ in\\ general\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ derive\\ quite\\ so\\ much\\ assistance\\ from\\ his\\ law\\ adviser\\,\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ concerting\\ a\\ false\\ defense\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Probability\\/Acceptability\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Unacceptable\\ Probable\\ Verdicts\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ system\\ resists\\ proportionate\\ damage\\ awards\\ in\\ cases\\ involving\\ statistical\\ evidence\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Blue\\ Bus\\:\\ awarding\\ proportionate\\ damages\\ projects\\ a\\ different\\ legal\\ rule\\ than\\ the\\ award\\ of\\ full\\ damages\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Cf\\.\\ Summers\\ v\\.\\ Tice\\:\\ hunters\\ were\\ jointly\\ liable\\,\\ but\\ both\\ hunters\\ acted\\ negligently\\;\\ what\\ result\\ if\\ only\\ one\\ had\\ fired\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Acceptable\\ Improbably\\ Verdicts\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Proof\\ does\\ not\\ proceed\\ by\\ conjoined\\ probabilities\\ of\\ individual\\ events\\ \\(50\\%\\ x\\ 50\\%\\ x\\ 50\\%\\ \\=\\ 12\\.5\\%\\)\\,\\ but\\ by\\ disjunction\\ \\(50\\%\\;\\ 50\\%\\;\\ 50\\%\\ \\=\\ 50\\%\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ simplifications\\ about\\ the\\ event\\;\\ juries\\ conjoin\\ the\\ evidence\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ offense\\.\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Narratives\\ \\/\\ Acceptability\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Jury\\ verdicts\\ are\\ acceptable\\ when\\ they\\ incorporate\\ the\\ most\\ believable\\ account\\ of\\ each\\ element\\ of\\ proof\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ the\\ most\\ believable\\ account\\ of\\ each\\ element\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ liability\\,\\ this\\ will\\ produce\\ the\\ most\\ acceptable\\ of\\ possible\\ accounts\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Narratives\\ are\\ not\\ acceptable\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ probable\\ than\\ not\\,\\ but\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ ultimately\\ more\\ coherent\\ than\\ their\\ negations\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Application\\ of\\ the\\ more\\-probable\\-than\\-not\\ test\\ to\\ each\\ element\\ produces\\ the\\ most\\ acceptable\\ conclusion\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ the\\ element\\;\\ stringing\\ these\\ elements\\ together\\ in\\ a\\ coherent\\ fashion\\ creates\\ a\\ narrative\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ probable\\ story\\ we\\ can\\ tell\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ evidence\\ presented\\?\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ the\\ specific\\ proof\\ rule\\ applied\\ by\\ the\\ courts\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 98, "file_path": "", "desc": "Justice and Trial"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.919145+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "British Imperialism ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 625, "html": "\\\\ \\;British\\ Imperialism\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Victorians\\ created\\ the\\ largest\\ empire\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\¼\\;\\ human\\ beings\\ lived\\ within\\ lands\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ empire\\.\\ Basically\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ oceans\\ because\\ the\\ British\\ had\\ the\\ largest\\ navy\\.\\ World\\ power\\ like\\ no\\ one\\ had\\ ever\\ seen\\ before\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\First\\ photograph\\ taken\\ in\\ 1887\\.\\ Participants\\ in\\ first\\ colonial\\ policy\\ makers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Second\\ photo\\ of\\ a\\ souvenir\\ 1887\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Third\\ annexed\\ a\\ remote\\ coastal\\ region\\ of\\ pap\\ new\\ guinea\\.\\ You\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ inhabitants\\ if\\ the\\ remote\\ coastal\\ region\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Fourth\\ formal\\ ceremony\\ of\\ the\\ land\\ being\\ handed\\ over\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Fifth\\ 1900\\ Ugandan\\ pushing\\ smug\\ kid\\ into\\ Britain\\ with\\ cane\\ in\\ his\\ hand\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\You\\ needed\\ to\\ recruit\\ locals\\ in\\ imperialism\\.\\ British\\ imperialism\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ two\\ premises\\.\\ 1\\.\\ British\\ invincibility\\.\\ 2\\.\\ Foreigners\\ are\\ funny\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1887\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ mutiny\\.\\ Led\\ to\\ two\\ wars\\ and\\ eight\\ months\\ of\\ fighting\\.\\ It\\ damaged\\ the\\ British\\ self\\ esteem\\.\\ Rumors\\ that\\ British\\ used\\ fat\\ from\\ cows\\ and\\ pigs\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ grease\\ the\\ guns\\ this\\ was\\ sac\\ religious\\ to\\ the\\ groups\\.\\ Indian\\ mutiny\\.\\ Leaders\\ of\\ mutiny\\ were\\ strapped\\ to\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ cannons\\ and\\ exploded\\ into\\ a\\ million\\ pieces\\.\\ Their\\ heads\\ shot\\ up\\ about\\ 200\\ feet\\ into\\ the\\ air\\.\\ They\\ did\\ this\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ leaders\\.\\ The\\ soldiers\\ were\\ hung\\ but\\ not\\ before\\ forcing\\ them\\ to\\ eat\\ beef\\ or\\ pork\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Managed\\ to\\ induce\\ monstrous\\ famines\\ in\\ India\\.\\ The\\ notion\\ of\\ mass\\ famine\\ is\\ a\\ recent\\ phenomenon\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Photo\\:\\ scene\\ of\\ domesticity\\ in\\ the\\ empire\\.\\ Victoria\\ had\\ a\\ favorite\\ Indian\\ servant\\.\\ His\\ name\\ was\\ Abdul\\ Kareem\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ moonji\\ which\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ secretary\\ or\\ scribe\\.\\ Weak\\ Victoria\\ leaning\\ on\\ strong\\ moonji\\ for\\ support\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Photo\\:\\ Victorian\\ wife\\ and\\ mother\\ dressed\\ as\\ naval\\ officer\\ holding\\ up\\ Coleman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mustard\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Photo\\:\\ 1860s\\ of\\ a\\ Bengal\\ woman\\.\\ Erotic\\ subtext\\ of\\ imperialism\\.\\ Psycho\\-narrative\\-\\ notion\\ that\\ white\\ imperialist\\ was\\ there\\ to\\ rescue\\ native\\ woman\\ from\\ native\\ man\\.\\ You\\ will\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ confessions\\ of\\ a\\ thug\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Photo\\:\\ Sati\\ was\\ a\\ Hindu\\ ritual\\ which\\ was\\ widow\\ imitation\\.\\ Live\\ widows\\ were\\ burned\\ to\\ death\\ with\\ his\\ body\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ after\\ life\\.\\ British\\ turned\\ this\\ into\\ propaganda\\ exercise\\.\\ Became\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ India\\-\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ rescue\\ these\\ women\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Photo\\:\\ British\\ ship\\-\\ what\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ empire\\.\\ Primary\\ tools\\ which\\ empire\\ was\\ created\\.\\ Port\\ Sayid\\ in\\ Egypt\\.\\ Same\\ boat\\ later\\ the\\ boat\\ is\\ ice\\ bound\\.\\ Imperialism\\ involves\\ ice\\ bergs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Photo\\:\\ British\\ sailors\\.\\ Another\\ with\\ British\\ soldiers\\ who\\ are\\ apart\\ of\\ the\\ rugby\\ team\\ showing\\ off\\ their\\ guns\\,\\ flexing\\.\\ Logic\\ of\\ athleticism\\ inseparable\\ from\\ empire\\.\\ Ruggedness\\ and\\ durability\\ strength\\ of\\ male\\ soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\.\\ All\\ very\\ gendered\\-\\ this\\ imperial\\ ideology\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Illustration\\ depicts\\ massacre\\ of\\ mutiny\\ in\\ 1887\\.\\ Massacred\\ British\\ women\\ and\\ children\\ at\\ the\\ barracks\\.\\ Chopped\\ body\\ parts\\ up\\ into\\ small\\ pieces\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\British\\ imperialism\\ is\\ pink\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ is\\ because\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ maps\\ printed\\ depicted\\ the\\ empire\\ as\\ pink\\ not\\ red\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scene\\ in\\ confessions\\ of\\ a\\ thug\\-\\ Moguls\\ were\\ Muslim\\ invaders\\ from\\ the\\ west\\.\\ The\\ British\\ displaced\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Confessions\\ of\\ a\\ Thug\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Stopped\\ publishing\\ it\\.\\ Most\\ popular\\ book\\ written\\ about\\ India\\.\\ This\\ novel\\ is\\ simply\\ the\\ most\\ widely\\ read\\ and\\ important\\ work\\ of\\ Victorian\\ literature\\.\\ This\\ novel\\ was\\ forgotten\\ in\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\TAYLOR\\:\\ thugging\\.\\ He\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ creating\\ the\\ word\\ thug\\.\\ Went\\ from\\ being\\ an\\ eastern\\ word\\ to\\ an\\ east\\ end\\ word\\.\\ Member\\ of\\ a\\ gang\\ worshipping\\ a\\ god\\.\\ Strangle\\ and\\ robbing\\ way\\ farers\\.\\ Original\\ Al\\ Qaeda\\.\\ Secretive\\ mass\\ murder\\.\\ There\\ were\\ 10\\,000\\ thugs\\ who\\ operated\\ in\\ India\\.\\ Each\\ year\\ they\\ murdered\\ 20\\-40\\,000\\ people\\.\\ Lot\\ of\\ strangled\\ people\\.\\ Hid\\ bodies\\ in\\ caves\\ that\\ they\\ dug\\.\\ It\\ brought\\ political\\ stability\\ to\\ an\\ unstable\\ nation\\.\\ Complicated\\ symbol\\ of\\ Indian\\ backwardness\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ British\\ incompetence\\.\\ Indian\\ version\\,\\ travel\\ narrative\\,\\ oriental\\ novel\\ and\\ finally\\ a\\ novel\\ of\\ education\\ like\\ David\\ Copperfield\\,\\ Emma\\.\\ Story\\ about\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\.\\ This\\ is\\ about\\ someone\\ who\\ had\\ murdered\\ 719\\ people\\.\\ Silent\\ British\\ police\\ official\\ as\\ this\\ confession\\ is\\ being\\ offered\\.\\ Then\\ you\\ have\\ this\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\thug\\ who\\ just\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ shut\\ up\\.\\ He\\ goes\\ through\\ his\\ whole\\ life\\ story\\.\\ The\\ police\\ official\\ is\\ largely\\ silent\\.\\ The\\ novel\\ really\\ is\\ a\\ confrontation\\ between\\ two\\ imperial\\ logics\\.\\ He\\ is\\ attacking\\ British\\ imperialism\\ as\\ it\\ exists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Liberal\\ Reformists\\-\\ viewed\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ British\\ duty\\ to\\ bring\\ light\\ and\\ justice\\ to\\ India\\.\\ Am\\ I\\ rescuing\\ them\\ from\\ their\\ backwardness\\?\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\.\\ An\\ advancement\\.\\ I\\ am\\ going\\ to\\ rescue\\ you\\ from\\ you\\.\\ Led\\ by\\ William\\ Bitnet\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ Taylor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hero\\.\\ He\\ tried\\ to\\ put\\ a\\ stop\\ to\\ a\\ practice\\ of\\ burying\\ people\\ with\\ leprosy\\ alive\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Conservative\\ Pragmatists\\-\\ we\\ are\\ just\\ going\\ to\\ make\\ some\\ money\\ off\\ of\\ them\\.\\ It\\ led\\ to\\ some\\ scary\\ things\\ happening\\.\\ \\¼\\;\\ Bengal\\ died\\ in\\ 1787\\?\\ Died\\ because\\ of\\ this\\ pragmatic\\ approach\\.\\ Both\\ of\\ these\\ forms\\ are\\ very\\ violent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "British Imperialism "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.932632+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "New Chapter ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 626, "html": "\\\\ \\;Today\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ chapter\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ embarking\\ on\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ experiment\\.\\ His\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ ideas\\ have\\ origins\\ in\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Therefore\\ body\\ material\\ underlies\\ all\\ ideas\\.\\ These\\ ideas\\ are\\ very\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ ideas\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ important\\ when\\ studying\\ the\\ Victorians\\.\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Frederick\\ Nietzche\\ he\\ controversially\\ claimed\\ that\\ prejudice\\ comes\\ from\\ distressed\\ digestives\\.\\ He\\ also\\ argued\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ direct\\ correlation\\ between\\ genius\\ and\\ rapid\\ metabolism\\.\\ The\\ greek\\ aphorism\\ should\\ be\\ replaced\\ with\\ one\\ should\\ know\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ stomach\\.\\ He\\ famously\\ argues\\ that\\ philosophy\\ is\\ really\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ We\\ are\\ analyzing\\ the\\ bodily\\ conditions\\ that\\ underlie\\ and\\ produce\\ these\\ ideas\\.\\ He\\ was\\ guilty\\ of\\ tracing\\ everything\\ to\\ the\\ body\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ perceived\\ as\\ a\\ reductive\\ act\\.\\ So\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ careful\\ not\\ do\\ that\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>It\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ not\\ turn\\ the\\ body\\.\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ celebrate\\ it\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ worshipping\\ way\\.\\ We\\ should\\ not\\ turn\\ the\\ body\\ into\\ another\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ He\\ \\(prof\\.\\)\\ personally\\ feels\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ take\\ the\\ body\\ much\\ more\\ seriously\\ than\\ we\\ do\\ at\\ present\\.\\ He\\ \\(prof\\.\\)\\ really\\ loves\\ bodily\\ intrusions\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ things\\ he\\ asks\\ himself\\ is\\ with\\ what\\ part\\ with\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ body\\ did\\ the\\ author\\ write\\ this\\ text\\?\\ What\\ sensation\\ or\\ emotion\\ motivated\\ the\\ ideas\\ behind\\ these\\ texts\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>There\\ are\\ many\\ literary\\ scholars\\ who\\ are\\ terrified\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Someone\\ once\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;English\\ professors\\ are\\ not\\ supposed\\ to\\ have\\ bodies\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ statement\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ investigated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ his\\ opinion\\,\\ the\\ refusal\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ Jackly\\ and\\ Hyde\\ type\\ fornication\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ You\\ end\\ up\\ doing\\ weird\\ things\\ with\\ your\\ body\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ not\\ owning\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Sometimes\\ the\\ body\\ intrudes\\ an\\ intellectual\\ space\\ that\\ creates\\ a\\ tension\\.\\ Today\\ the\\ sensation\\ we\\ are\\ focusing\\ on\\ is\\ the\\ shudder\\ of\\ masculation\\.\\ Two\\ poems\\ deal\\ with\\ this\\ to\\ some\\ degree\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Victorian\\ poetry\\ is\\ obsessed\\ with\\ masculinity\\ and\\ paranoid\\ about\\ it\\.\\ Tennyson\\ is\\ a\\ poet\\ of\\ male\\ masculinity\\.\\ Poetry\\ was\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ feminine\\ as\\ early\\ to\\ mid\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ Poetry\\ became\\ about\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interiority\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ feminine\\ quality\\ about\\ poetry\\ by\\ turning\\ it\\ inward\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ poetry\\ was\\ masculine\\ and\\ then\\ in\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ it\\ was\\ feminine\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ profession\\ was\\ a\\ masculine\\ profession\\.\\ That\\ was\\ the\\ awkward\\ tension\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>We\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ romantic\\ to\\ Victorian\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ Wordsworth\\ poem\\.\\ He\\ epiphany\\ happens\\ outside\\.\\ Now\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ male\\ poet\\ inside\\ the\\ feminine\\ space\\.\\ He\\ is\\ struggling\\ against\\ domesticated\\ state\\ we\\ find\\ him\\ in\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Eos\\ is\\ the\\ goddess\\ of\\ the\\ dawn\\.\\ She\\ is\\ born\\ again\\ every\\ morning\\ at\\ dawn\\.\\ She\\ pursued\\ a\\ mortal\\ prince\\ even\\ though\\ she\\ is\\ immortal\\.\\ Dramatic\\ monologue\\ where\\ he\\ is\\ stuck\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ economic\\ masculation\\.\\ He\\ is\\ becoming\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ viral\\ and\\ he\\ becomes\\ a\\ little\\ pet\\ to\\ her\\.\\ Another\\ aspect\\ of\\ this\\ poem\\ is\\ the\\ meta\\-literary\\ component\\.\\ Whenever\\ a\\ poet\\ says\\ feet\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ reference\\ to\\ metrics\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ poem\\ that\\ is\\ anxiety\\ about\\ Tennyson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ lasting\\ power\\ as\\ a\\ poet\\.\\ It\\ is\\ immortal\\ now\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ published\\.\\ He\\ is\\ sort\\ of\\ nostalgic\\ for\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ masculine\\ about\\ dying\\-\\ being\\ forgotten\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\ remembering\\ meaning\\ memory\\ and\\ adding\\ new\\ members\\ to\\ society\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Rosseti\\ had\\ some\\ troublesome\\ relationships\\ with\\ women\\.\\ He\\ often\\ depicted\\ women\\ playing\\ music\\.\\ The\\ same\\ women\\ are\\ dancing\\ in\\ a\\ homo\\-erotic\\ way\\.\\ The\\ scene\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ dramatic\\ monologue\\ which\\ is\\ thought\\ spoken\\ to\\ a\\ prostitute\\.\\ He\\ is\\ a\\ scholar\\ and\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;john\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ man\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ self\\ control\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ triggering\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ prostitute\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ blueprint\\ of\\ the\\ fallen\\ women\\ ideology\\.\\ The\\ main\\ point\\ about\\ the\\ poem\\ is\\ that\\ in\\ Jenny\\ what\\ is\\ happening\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ woman\\ is\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ poetic\\ text\\ and\\ the\\ man\\ is\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ She\\ is\\ poetry\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ He\\ is\\ critiquing\\ misogyny\\ too\\.\\ Poetry\\ is\\ shameless\\ because\\ it\\ opens\\ itself\\ up\\.\\ It\\ provides\\ pleasure\\ to\\ lots\\ and\\ lots\\ of\\ people\\.\\ The\\ prostitute\\ enables\\ him\\ to\\ have\\ his\\ cake\\ and\\ eat\\ it\\ too\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "New Chapter "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.944054+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "How We Put Our Ideas Together", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 627, "html": "\\\\ \\;Lecture\\ 2\\/11\\/09\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\How\\ We\\ Put\\ Our\\ Ideas\\ Together\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ the\\ Wisdom\\ of\\ Crowds\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ so\\ many\\ Americans\\ choose\\ to\\ spend\\ minimal\\ effort\\ engaging\\ in\\ political\\ affairs\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Rational\\ Ignorance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;An\\ Economic\\ Theory\\ of\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\ Downs\\ argues\\ that\\ each\\ citizen\\ has\\ no\\ chance\\ in\\ swinging\\ an\\ election\\ outcome\\.\\ Voters\\ have\\ to\\ consider\\ costs\\ of\\ gathering\\ enough\\ information\\.\\ Each\\ voter\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ be\\ wrong\\ on\\ candidate\\ choice\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cost\\-Benefit\\=\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ value\\ in\\ being\\ well\\-informed\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Do\\ citizens\\ really\\ need\\ quiz\\ show\\ knowledge\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ politics\\?\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\.\\ Even\\ an\\ uninformed\\ citizen\\ can\\ receive\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ coherence\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ People\\ use\\ heuristics\\ to\\ make\\ political\\ judgments\\ from\\ hues\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ \\Collective\\ opinion\\ can\\ actually\\ convey\\ real\\ and\\ true\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ public\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Massive\\ instability\\ overtime\\=\\ most\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ true\\ attitudes\\ about\\ issues\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Individual\\ level\\ random\\ implies\\ that\\ errors\\ cancel\\ out\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Page\\ and\\ Shapiro\\-\\ cancel\\ out\\ over\\ a\\ large\\ sample\\ so\\ that\\ a\\ poll\\ shows\\ true\\ and\\ long\\ term\\ preferences\\ of\\ many\\ citizens\\.\\ Errors\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ random\\ will\\ cancel\\ out\\.\\ Simply\\ the\\ mathematics\\ of\\ aggregation\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\.\\ Collective\\ opinion\\ is\\ generally\\ stable\\ but\\ not\\ perfectly\\ stable\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ The\\ moves\\ seems\\ to\\ happen\\ for\\ identifiable\\ and\\ sensible\\ reasons\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>Support\\ for\\ defense\\ spending\\ has\\ increased\\ in\\ international\\ tensions\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ transmitted\\ by\\ the\\ mass\\ media\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>largest\\ opinion\\ change\\ bears\\ on\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ women\\.\\ During\\ the\\ great\\ depression\\ there\\ was\\ movement\\ in\\ many\\ states\\ that\\ would\\ ban\\ married\\ women\\ from\\ working\\.\\ 1936\\-1938\\=\\ decreasing\\ birth\\ rates\\&hellip\\;these\\ things\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ sensible\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Crime\\ and\\ criminal\\ punishment\\.\\ Decline\\ in\\ support\\ in\\ collective\\ opinion\\ support\\ for\\ capital\\ punishment\\ in\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\ coincides\\ with\\ people\\ not\\ getting\\ fair\\ trials\\ and\\ that\\ ppl\\ felt\\ safe\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Defense\\ spending\\ tracks\\ closely\\ with\\ international\\ threats\\ and\\ conflicts\\.\\ Clearly\\ that\\ public\\ opinion\\ is\\ moving\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ follow\\ events\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Argue\\ that\\ these\\ kinds\\ of\\ trends\\ show\\ a\\ rational\\ public\\ whose\\ policy\\ preferences\\ are\\ intelligible\\ and\\ consistent\\ with\\ their\\ values\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Assuming\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ lying\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Assuming\\ that\\ the\\ errors\\ are\\ systematic\\.\\ They\\ are\\ assuming\\ that\\ the\\ mistakes\\ are\\ scattered\\ among\\ all\\ different\\ people\\.\\ You\\ can\\ never\\ really\\ figure\\ out\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ correct\\.\\ Assuming\\ that\\ everyone\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ information\\ environment\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Simple\\ Guides\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Good\\ Decisions\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ many\\ common\\ political\\ tasks\\,\\ competence\\ really\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ a\\ whole\\ lot\\ of\\ information\\.\\ Little\\ competence\\ can\\ be\\ learned\\ from\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Samuel\\ Popkin\\:\\ making\\ do\\ without\\ systematic\\ research\\.\\ You\\ just\\ need\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ simple\\ facts\\.\\ You\\ can\\ even\\ use\\ your\\ neighbor\\ or\\ family\\ member\\ same\\ choices\\ as\\ they\\ would\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ whole\\ set\\ of\\ facts\\.\\ Follow\\ lead\\ of\\ group\\ or\\ individual\\ that\\ they\\ believe\\ have\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\ at\\ heart\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Advocates\\ of\\ this\\ position\\ have\\ identified\\ many\\ kinds\\ of\\ political\\ heuristics\\.\\ Party\\ ID\\ is\\ the\\ classic\\ predictor\\ of\\ vote\\ choice\\.\\ Leads\\ voters\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ right\\ candidate\\ choice\\.\\ Also\\ might\\ use\\:\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Demographics\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Performance\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Personal\\ character\\:\\ such\\ as\\ cheating\\ on\\ terminally\\ ill\\ wife\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Endorsements\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Also\\ use\\ interest\\ group\\ leaders\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Most\\ citizens\\ cannot\\ be\\ well\\-informed\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Proponents\\ of\\ this\\ argument\\ think\\ that\\ people\\ make\\ good\\ decisions\\ with\\ low\\ information\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\To\\ what\\ extent\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ that\\ a\\ compelling\\ case\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ for\\ a\\ politically\\ competent\\ national\\ republic\\?\\ Do\\ individual\\ errors\\ rash\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ aggregate\\?\\ Are\\ these\\ errors\\ actually\\ random\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ possible\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ getting\\ something\\ wrong\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ most\\ people\\ getting\\ their\\ information\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "How We Put Our Ideas Together"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50.959158+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Democratic Values and Stability ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 628, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 2\\-18\\-98\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Democratic\\ Values\\ and\\ Stability\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Values\\=\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Trust\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ a\\ democratic\\ government\\ to\\ maintain\\ minimal\\ trust\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Levels\\ of\\ trust\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ affect\\ the\\ leadership\\ strategies\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ trust\\ is\\ low\\ leaders\\ may\\ find\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ meet\\ existing\\ commitments\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>To\\ measure\\ trust\\ researchers\\ have\\ used\\ the\\ following\\ three\\ questions\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\.\\ How\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ you\\ can\\ trust\\ the\\ government\\ in\\ Washington\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ think\\ the\\ government\\ waste\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\3\\.\\ Would\\ you\\ say\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ pretty\\ much\\ run\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ big\\ interests\\ looking\\ out\\ for\\ themselves\\ or\\ that\\ is\\ run\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ people\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Public\\ trust\\ has\\ declined\\ significantly\\.\\ Since\\ 1992\\,\\ slightly\\ increasing\\ but\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ point\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ explain\\ trust\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Reality\\ \\<\\/b\\>with\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ Watergate\\,\\ Iran\\-Contra\\ and\\ Bush\\ Tax\\ Pledge\\.\\ Between\\ 1972\\-197\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ dramatic\\ decline\\ because\\ of\\ Watergate\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Personal\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ President\\ \\<\\/b\\>some\\ declines\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ Clinton\\ administration\\ from\\ White\\ Water\\ to\\ firing\\ entire\\ staff\\,\\ marital\\ infidelities\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\State\\ of\\ the\\ Economy\\ \\<\\/b\\>assessments\\ of\\ government\\ economic\\ performance\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ Carter\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Partisan\\ Bias\\ \\<\\/b\\>pattern\\ that\\ is\\ common\\ is\\ that\\ survey\\ respondents\\ express\\ greater\\ trust\\ when\\ their\\ party\\ is\\ in\\ power\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\People\\&rsquo\\;s\\ demographics\\ \\<\\/b\\>only\\ small\\ affect\\.\\ There\\ are\\ some\\ modest\\ differences\\ across\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\.\\ Most\\ notable\\ trust\\ gap\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ racial\\ differences\\.\\ Blacks\\ have\\ lower\\ levels\\ in\\ trust\\ most\\ years\\ the\\ only\\ exception\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Era\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Messages\\ received\\ by\\ media\\ political\\ environment\\ \\<\\/b\\>change\\ in\\ role\\ of\\ media\\ from\\ just\\ presenting\\ the\\ news\\ to\\ more\\ interpretative\\ news\\.\\ Highly\\ negative\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ Television\\ journalism\\ is\\ particularly\\ prone\\ to\\ this\\ cynicism\\.\\ People\\ who\\ rely\\ on\\ television\\ are\\ more\\ distrustful\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ rely\\ on\\ newspapers\\.\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Confidence\\ in\\ Institutions\\&hellip\\;people\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ in\\ individuals\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ fewer\\ than\\ 10\\%\\ has\\ trust\\ in\\ congress\\.\\ Of\\ the\\ three\\ branches\\ of\\ government\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ that\\ enjoys\\ the\\ most\\ confidence\\ until\\ 2000\\ in\\ the\\ intervention\\ in\\ Bush\\ v\\.\\ Gore\\.\\ The\\ levels\\ are\\ much\\ lower\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hibbing\\ and\\ Thiess\\ Morse\\ \\<\\/b\\>congress\\ is\\ the\\ enemy\\ of\\ public\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ public\\.\\ It\\ is\\ all\\ there\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ open\\ for\\ citizens\\ to\\ evaluate\\.\\ Hierachial\\ structure\\ allows\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\ to\\ put\\ out\\ unified\\ stand\\.\\ When\\ people\\ see\\ democratic\\ processes\\ in\\ action\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ it\\ very\\ much\\.\\ Americans\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ large\\ desire\\ to\\ play\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ themselves\\.\\ Americans\\ would\\ like\\ a\\ government\\ run\\ by\\ experts\\ who\\ are\\ selflessly\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ good\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Low\\ trust\\ implications\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>lead\\ to\\ poor\\ evaluation\\ of\\ presidential\\ performance\\ thus\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ challenging\\ for\\ political\\ leaders\\ to\\ govern\\.\\ The\\ decline\\ in\\ political\\ trust\\ is\\ one\\ factor\\ contributing\\ to\\ low\\ voter\\ turnouts\\.\\ Another\\ consequence\\ is\\ the\\ people\\ engage\\ in\\ quick\\ fixes\\ to\\ problems\\.\\ People\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ vote\\ for\\ a\\ challenger\\ than\\ the\\ incumbent\\.\\ Decline\\ in\\ public\\ trust\\ has\\ contributed\\ to\\ increase\\ is\\ conservative\\ policies\\ adopted\\ by\\ the\\ government\\.\\ These\\ are\\ serious\\ consequences\\ but\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ affect\\ government\\ stability\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Confidence\\ in\\ Efficacy\\\\-\\ people\\ engaging\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ process\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ belief\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ actually\\ influence\\ the\\ political\\ process\\ and\\ that\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ input\\ actually\\ counts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Measured\\ through\\ agree\\/disagree\\ questions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Contacting\\ elected\\ officials\\,\\ participating\\ in\\ campaigns\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ organize\\.\\ It\\ should\\ come\\ as\\ no\\ surprise\\ that\\ efficacy\\ and\\ trust\\ are\\ related\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ perfecto\\ correlation\\ and\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ obvious\\ through\\ the\\ aggregate\\ overtime\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Low\\-trust\\,\\ high\\ efficacy\\ voted\\ for\\ the\\ third\\ party\\ candidate\\ Ross\\ Perro\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Richard\\ Shingles\\ found\\ that\\ this\\ combination\\ overcomes\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ low\\-income\\ and\\ low\\ education\\ which\\ is\\ important\\ antecedent\\ among\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\ He\\ only\\ examined\\ conventional\\ political\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Relationship\\ between\\ unconventional\\ behavior\\ support\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ non\\ traditional\\ forms\\ of\\ political\\ influence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Tolerance\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ challenge\\ was\\ to\\ build\\ protection\\ from\\ those\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\ who\\ have\\ political\\ power\\.\\ Democratic\\ values\\ thinking\\ of\\ procedural\\ norms\\.\\ These\\ norms\\ are\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\ \\<\\/b\\>freedom\\ of\\ expression\\&hellip\\;\\.etc\\.\\ If\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ express\\ dissenting\\ opinions\\ then\\ they\\ cant\\ hold\\ government\\ accountable\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Majority\\ Rule\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Minority\\ Rules\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Public\\ support\\ for\\ democratic\\ rights\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ ideal\\.\\ There\\ is\\ less\\ enthusiasm\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ protest\\ and\\ demonstrations\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ free\\ speech\\.\\ In\\ most\\ cases\\ these\\ reflect\\ improvements\\ from\\ earlier\\ periods\\.\\ Numerous\\ studies\\ document\\ this\\ shift\\ in\\ attitudes\\ during\\ 50s\\ and\\ 70s\\.\\ Find\\ relationship\\ between\\ increased\\ tolerance\\ and\\ increased\\ level\\ of\\ education\\.\\ The\\ increases\\ in\\ tolerance\\ is\\ greatest\\ among\\ gays\\ and\\ lesbians\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ not\\ to\\ over\\ interpret\\ the\\ results\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ mass\\ attitudes\\ and\\ attitudes\\ of\\ political\\ elite\\ differ\\ markedly\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Theory\\ of\\ democratic\\ elitism\\-\\ strong\\ version\\ of\\ this\\ position\\ is\\ that\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ take\\ a\\ strong\\ involvement\\ with\\ democratic\\ behavior\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Great\\ deal\\ of\\ diversity\\ among\\ groups\\ that\\ Americans\\ like\\ the\\ least\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ demand\\ for\\ political\\ oppression\\ for\\ any\\ group\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pluralistic\\ intolerance\\&rdquo\\;\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ real\\ barrier\\ against\\ political\\ repression\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Democratic Values and Stability "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 50", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 610, "html": "\\Rule\\ 50\\:\\ Judgment\\ as\\ a\\ Matter\\ of\\ Law\\ in\\ Jury\\ Trials\\;\\ Alternative\\ Motion\\ for\\ New\\ Trial\\;\\ Conditional\\ Rulings\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n50\\(a\\)\\:\\ Motion\\ made\\ any\\ time\\ \\(50\\(a\\)\\(2\\)not\\ just\\ at\\ close\\ of\\ evidence\\)\\ before\\ the\\ case\\ has\\ gone\\ to\\ the\\ jury\\ \\(old\\ \\&ldquo\\;directed\\ verdict\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ if\\ the\\ court\\ finds\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ reasonable\\ jury\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ legally\\ sufficient\\ evidentiary\\ basis\\ to\\ find\\ for\\ the\\ party\\ on\\ that\\ issue\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n50\\(b\\)\\:\\ Motion\\ can\\ be\\ renewed\\ after\\ the\\ jury\\ has\\ decided\\ \\(but\\ must\\ be\\ first\\ made\\ before\\ the\\ trial\\ is\\ over\\,\\ because\\ that\\ gives\\ notice\\ \\&\\;\\ enough\\ time\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ problems\\)\\.\\ \\(Old\\ \\&ldquo\\;j\\.n\\.o\\.v\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Party\\ can\\ renew\\ motion\\ up\\ to\\ 10\\ days\\ after\\ judgment\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n50\\(b\\)\\(1\\)\\ Court\\ can\\ \\(A\\)\\ allow\\ judgment\\ to\\ stand\\;\\ \\(B\\)\\ order\\ a\\ new\\ trial\\,\\ or\\ \\(C\\)\\ direct\\ entry\\ of\\ judgment\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ law\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSimblest\\ v\\.\\ Maynard\\&mdash\\;federal\\ standard\\ for\\ considering\\ evidence\\:\\ All\\ the\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ evidence\\ \\+\\ unimpeached\\ \\&\\;\\ uncontradicted\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ evidence\\ \\(if\\ evidence\\ is\\ in\\ conflict\\,\\ cross\\ out\\ the\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ evidence\\)\\.\\ Make\\ all\\ reasonable\\ inferences\\ for\\ nonmoving\\ party\\ \\(usu\\.\\ P\\)\\.\\ Make\\ no\\ credibility\\ determinations\\ \\(though\\ the\\ judge\\ sort\\ of\\ does\\ in\\ this\\ case\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSioux\\ City\\ \\&\\;\\ Pacific\\ RR\\ v\\.\\ Stout\\&mdash\\;Facts\\ are\\ undisputed\\.\\ Where\\ does\\ fact\\ end\\ and\\ law\\ begin\\?\\ Negligence\\ is\\ a\\ mixed\\ question\\ of\\ law\\ \\&\\;\\ fact\\ \\(current\\ approach\\)\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ reasonableness\\&mdash\\;jury\\ should\\ judge\\ community\\ standards\\ of\\ reasonableness\\ because\\ they\\ \\(esp\\ as\\ a\\ group\\)\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ situated\\ to\\ answer\\.\\ Juries\\ can\\ decide\\ case\\ if\\ their\\ expertise\\ as\\ decision\\ makers\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ decision\\ even\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ disputed\\ fact\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 50"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 39", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 609, "html": "\\Rule\\ 39\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n39\\(a\\)\\:\\ if\\ a\\ motion\\ for\\ a\\ trial\\ by\\ jury\\ is\\ made\\,\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ one\\,\\ unless\\ \\(1\\)\\ both\\ parties\\ say\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ one\\ or\\ \\(2\\)\\ if\\ the\\ court\\ by\\ motion\\ or\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ \\(sua\\ sponte\\)\\ finds\\ that\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ trial\\ by\\ jury\\ exists\\ under\\ the\\ Constitution\\ or\\ a\\ statute\\,\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ trial\\ by\\ jury\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n39\\(b\\)\\:\\ if\\ nobody\\ demands\\ a\\ jury\\ trial\\,\\ the\\ court\\ can\\ decide\\ no\\ jury\\ trial\\ or\\ can\\ decide\\ yes\\ jury\\ trial\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n39\\(c\\)\\:\\ If\\ no\\ right\\ to\\ jury\\ exists\\,\\ the\\ court\\ can\\ still\\ order\\ a\\ trial\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;advisory\\&rdquo\\;\\ jury\\ except\\ in\\ actions\\ against\\ the\\ US\\ when\\ a\\ US\\ statute\\ says\\ no\\ jury\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 39"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.295216+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Vision part two - session 1 - Yaoda Xu - Object-based attention and selection", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 641, "html": "\\A\\ quick\\ summary\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ take\\ home\\ messages\\ from\\ this\\ session\\:\\\\\r\\\n1\\)\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ units\\ of\\ attentional\\ selection\\:\\ Location\\,\\ Features\\,\\ and\\ Objects\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ papers\\ here\\ focus\\ mostly\\ on\\ objects\\,\\ but\\ the\\ three\\ units\\ interact\\,\\ as\\ objects\\ have\\ both\\ features\\ and\\ locations\\.\\ But\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fully\\ explain\\ object\\-based\\ effects\\ on\\ just\\ its\\ location\\/the\\ space\\ around\\ its\\ location\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n2\\)\\ The\\ definition\\ of\\ an\\ object\\:\\ Do\\ we\\ define\\ our\\ object\\ of\\ study\\ through\\ language\\,\\ categories\\,\\ the\\ depth\\ of\\ focus\\ of\\ our\\ visual\\ attention\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ tree\\ vs\\ forest\\)\\?\\ Along\\ with\\ defining\\ what\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ comes\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ object\\-based\\ encoding\\,\\ and\\ here\\ we\\ make\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ selection\\ and\\ encoding\\.\\ Selection\\ is\\ a\\ prioritization\\ of\\ what\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ encode\\ and\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ object\\ biased\\,\\ as\\ Egly\\ shows\\,\\ in\\ that\\ if\\ one\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ already\\ being\\ attended\\ to\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ switch\\ attention\\ to\\ another\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ than\\ to\\ a\\ different\\ object\\ altogether\\.\\ Encoding\\ refers\\ more\\ to\\ the\\ Duncan\\ results\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ if\\ attention\\ is\\ already\\ focused\\ on\\ a\\ specific\\ display\\,\\ then\\ encoding\\ features\\ from\\ one\\ object\\ is\\ easier\\ than\\ encoding\\ features\\ across\\ objects\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNow\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ summaries\\ of\\ each\\ study\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(1\\)\\ Duncan\\,\\ J\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(1984\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Selective\\ attention\\ and\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ visual\\ information\\.\\ \\;\\ Journal\\ of\\ Experimental\\ Psychology\\:\\ General\\,\\ 113\\,\\ 501\\-517\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ paper\\ opened\\ by\\ describing\\ the\\ competing\\ theories\\ about\\ selective\\ attention\\:\\\\\r\\\nObject\\-based\\ theories\\ state\\ that\\ selection\\ operates\\ on\\ perceptually\\ delineated\\ and\\ integrated\\ object\\ representations\\.\\ The\\ limits\\ of\\ our\\ attention\\ to\\ multiple\\ sources\\ of\\ visual\\ information\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ objects\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ represented\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nDiscrimination\\-based\\ theories\\,\\ originally\\ proposed\\ by\\ Allport\\,\\ states\\ that\\ attributes\\,\\ or\\ features\\ are\\ the\\ primary\\ level\\ of\\ attention\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ competing\\ prediction\\ sthat\\ I\\ am\\ associating\\ with\\ this\\ theory\\,\\ which\\ clearly\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ sense\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Attending\\ to\\ 2\\ types\\ of\\ features\\,\\ within\\ or\\ across\\ objects\\,\\ will\\ be\\ more\\ difficult\\ than\\ attending\\ to\\ 1\\ type\\ of\\ feature\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ feature\\ benefit\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ primacy\\ of\\ one\\ feature\\ 2\\)\\ A\\ feature\\ cost\\ would\\ state\\ that\\ making\\ two\\ feature\\ judgments\\ would\\ be\\ easier\\ if\\ the\\ features\\ were\\ of\\ two\\ different\\ types\\.\\ Some\\ clarification\\ about\\ the\\ actual\\ claims\\ of\\ this\\ theory\\ would\\ be\\ helpful\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nSpace\\ \\(location\\)\\-based\\ theories\\,\\ state\\ that\\ attention\\ focuses\\ on\\ particular\\ regions\\ of\\ visual\\ space\\,\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;spotlight\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;zoom\\ lens\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Posner\\ cuing\\ experiment\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ space\\-based\\ attention\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ studies\\ showing\\ that\\ increases\\ in\\ distance\\ between\\ a\\ target\\ and\\ distractors\\ diminishes\\ the\\ distracting\\ effect\\ of\\ distractors\\.\\ Duncan\\ suggests\\ that\\ a\\ perceptual\\ grouping\\ effect\\ can\\ explain\\ this\\ evidence\\.\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ paper\\ described\\ 4\\ studies\\ \\:\\ \\\\\r\\\n1\\-\\ The\\ display\\ is\\ two\\ overlapping\\ objects\\,\\ each\\ with\\ two\\ features\\:\\ a\\ box\\ \\(large\\ or\\ small\\;\\ with\\ a\\ gap\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ or\\ left\\)\\ and\\ a\\ line\\ \\(dotted\\ or\\ dashed\\;\\ tilted\\ clockwise\\ or\\ counterclockwise\\)\\.\\ The\\ task\\ was\\ to\\ identify\\ two\\ features\\,\\ either\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ object\\,\\ or\\ one\\ from\\ each\\ object\\.\\ Results\\ showed\\ a\\ decrement\\ in\\ performance\\ when\\ judgments\\ were\\ made\\ across\\ objects\\,\\ confirming\\ the\\ object\\-based\\ theory\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n2\\-\\ Part\\ 1\\:\\ This\\ experiment\\ was\\ run\\ to\\ address\\ concerns\\ about\\ the\\ line\\-tilt\\ feature\\,\\ as\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ single\\-reported\\ dimension\\ advantage\\ when\\ the\\ second\\-reported\\ dimension\\ of\\ was\\ line\\.\\ The\\ design\\ was\\ the\\ similar\\,\\ this\\ time\\ judgments\\ were\\ made\\ only\\ across\\ two\\ objects\\ and\\ concerned\\ either\\ tilt\\ and\\ texture\\ or\\ tilt\\ and\\ brightness\\.\\ Results\\ showed\\ a\\ great\\ single\\ judgment\\ advantage\\ over\\ double\\ judgments\\.\\ These\\ results\\ speak\\ against\\ the\\ Allport\\ interpretation\\ of\\ experiment\\ one\\,\\ which\\ would\\ have\\ said\\ that\\ double\\ judgments\\ concerning\\ different\\ objects\\ interfere\\ only\\ when\\ one\\ feature\\ is\\ considered\\,\\ here\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\ lines\\ are\\&rdquo\\;\\ feature\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Part\\ 2\\:\\ Similar\\ to\\ part\\ one\\,\\ except\\ all\\ judgments\\ are\\ made\\ within\\ one\\ object\\.\\ Results\\ showed\\ no\\ difference\\ in\\ single\\ or\\ double\\ judgments\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;3\\-\\ This\\ experiment\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ address\\ concerns\\ from\\ study\\ 1\\ about\\ whether\\ judgments\\ about\\ features\\ at\\ different\\ locations\\,\\ here\\ box\\ size\\ and\\ box\\ gap\\,\\ interfere\\.\\ The\\ design\\ was\\ similar\\ to\\ experiment\\ 1\\ except\\ only\\ the\\ box\\ was\\ displayed\\ and\\ size\\ and\\ gap\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ dimensions\\ judged\\.\\ Results\\ showed\\ single\\ over\\ double\\ judgment\\ advantage\\ when\\ gap\\ was\\ reported\\ first\\,\\ but\\ not\\ when\\ size\\ was\\ reported\\ first\\.\\ Experiment\\ 4was\\ run\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ former\\ result\\,\\ which\\ runs\\ counter\\ to\\ object\\-based\\ theories\\.\\\\\r\\\n4\\ \\-\\ Same\\ as\\ 3\\ except\\ gap\\ was\\ now\\ on\\ top\\ or\\ bottom\\,\\ not\\ left\\ or\\ right\\,\\ which\\ might\\ correspond\\ to\\ response\\ mapping\\.\\ Results\\ showed\\ no\\ single\\ judgment\\ advantage\\,\\ confirming\\ object\\-based\\ predictions\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\(2\\)\\ Egly\\,\\ R\\.\\,\\ Driver\\,\\ J\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Rafal\\,\\ R\\.\\ \\(1994\\)\\.\\ Shifting\\ visual\\ attention\\ between\\ objects\\ and\\ locations\\:\\ evidence\\ for\\ normal\\ and\\ parietal\\ lesion\\ subjects\\.\\ Journal\\ of\\ Experimental\\ Psychology\\:\\ General\\,\\ 123\\,\\ 161\\-177\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWheras\\ the\\ Duncan\\ study\\ involved\\ no\\ attentional\\ selection\\ by\\ location\\,\\ and\\ the\\ effects\\ were\\ all\\ due\\ to\\ encoding\\ features\\ from\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ objects\\ \\(with\\ a\\ within\\-object\\ advantage\\)\\ this\\ Egly\\ study\\ looks\\ at\\ a\\ different\\ type\\ of\\ object\\ benefit\\,\\ namely\\,\\ prioritization\\ of\\ spaptial\\ attention\\ within\\ an\\ object\\ over\\ between\\ objects\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ task\\:\\ The\\ display\\ consists\\ of\\ two\\ rectangles\\,\\ with\\ ends\\ all\\ equidistant\\ from\\ each\\ other\\.\\ One\\ end\\ is\\ cued\\,\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ target\\ shows\\ up\\ either\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ place\\ as\\ the\\ cue\\ \\(a\\ valid\\ cue\\)\\ or\\ at\\ an\\ uncued\\ end\\ \\(invalid\\ cue\\)\\.\\ The\\ invalid\\ cue\\ was\\ equally\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ cued\\ rectangle\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ uncued\\ rectangle\\.\\\\\r\\\nResults\\ showed\\ a\\ significant\\ main\\ effect\\ of\\ rectangle\\,\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ an\\ invalid\\ cue\\ was\\ much\\ greater\\ if\\ the\\ target\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ uncued\\ rectangle\\ than\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ opposite\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ cued\\ rectangle\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ is\\ a\\ second\\ part\\ to\\ this\\ experiment\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ patients\\ with\\ parietal\\ damage\\,\\ but\\ Yaoda\\ specifically\\ stated\\ that\\ this\\ part\\ is\\ not\\ important\\ to\\ attend\\ to\\,\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ really\\ pays\\ attention\\ to\\ it\\,\\ so\\ I\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ either\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(3\\)\\ O\\'Craven\\,\\ K\\.\\,\\ Downing\\,\\ P\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Kanwisher\\,\\ N\\.\\ \\(1999\\)\\.\\ fMRI\\ evidence\\ for\\ objects\\ as\\ the\\ units\\ of\\ attentional\\ selection\\.\\ Nature\\,\\ 401\\,\\ 584\\-587\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMoving\\ to\\ the\\ brain\\&hellip\\;\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ experiment\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ stimulus\\ specific\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ would\\ be\\ active\\ both\\ when\\ that\\ stimulus\\ was\\ attended\\ to\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ when\\ a\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ stimulus\\ \\(motion\\)\\ was\\ attended\\ to\\.\\ \\;\\ Since\\ both\\ objects\\ \\(faces\\ and\\ scenes\\)\\ occupied\\ the\\ same\\ space\\,\\ any\\ differential\\ activations\\ based\\ on\\ features\\ would\\ be\\ counter\\ to\\ a\\ space\\-based\\ theory\\.\\ As\\ expected\\,\\ results\\ showed\\ increased\\ \\;\\ activity\\ in\\ object\\ selective\\ regions\\ when\\ that\\ object\\ was\\ attended\\ to\\.\\ More\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ object\\-based\\ theory\\ however\\,\\ results\\ also\\ showed\\ that\\ attending\\ to\\ one\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ \\(its\\ form\\ or\\ its\\ motion\\)\\ increased\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ neurally\\ relevant\\ region\\ to\\ the\\ unattended\\,\\ task\\-irrelevant\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ object\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ motion\\ was\\ attended\\ to\\,\\ if\\ the\\ object\\ in\\ motion\\ was\\ a\\ face\\,\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ ffa\\ was\\ greater\\ than\\ if\\ the\\ moving\\ object\\ was\\ a\\ house\\.\\ Also\\,\\ attending\\ to\\ a\\ face\\ increased\\ activity\\ in\\ MT\\/MST\\ more\\ if\\ the\\ face\\ was\\ moving\\ than\\ if\\ the\\ house\\ was\\ moving\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\(4\\)\\ Scholl\\,\\ B\\.J\\.\\ \\(2001\\)\\ Objects\\ and\\ attention\\:\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ art\\.\\ Cognition\\ 80\\,\\ 1\\-46\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ is\\ a\\ behemoth\\ of\\ a\\ review\\.\\ All\\ of\\ it\\ could\\ not\\ possibly\\ be\\ captured\\ here\\.\\ But\\ I\\ will\\ try\\ to\\ address\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ points\\&hellip\\;\\ uh\\.\\.\\ later\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(5\\)\\ Xu\\,\\ Y\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Chun\\,\\ M\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(in\\ press\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Selecting\\ and\\ perceiving\\ multiple\\ visual\\ objects\\.\\ \\;\\ Trends\\ in\\ Cognitive\\ Sciences\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ paper\\ outlines\\ the\\ Neural\\ Object\\ File\\ Theory\\ as\\ a\\ menas\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ visual\\ field\\ are\\ attended\\ to\\ and\\ encoded\\.\\ This\\ process\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ two\\ stages\\,\\ the\\ object\\ individuation\\ stage\\ and\\ the\\ object\\ identification\\ stage\\.\\ Interaction\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ stages\\ is\\ likely\\.\\ The\\ indiv\\-identify\\ distinction\\ is\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ theories\\ by\\ Pylyshyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ based\\ on\\ object\\ tracking\\ studies\\ \\(requiring\\ individuation\\ but\\ not\\ identification\\)\\,\\ the\\ results\\ of\\ developmental\\ studies\\ \\(5mo\\ old\\ babies\\ can\\ individuate\\ based\\ on\\ space\\,\\ but\\ not\\ until\\ 12\\ mos\\ can\\ they\\ individuate\\ based\\ on\\ features\\)\\,\\ and\\ enumeration\\ and\\ subitizing\\ studies\\ showing\\ numerical\\ judgments\\ for\\ up\\ to\\ 4\\ items\\ is\\ completed\\ rapidly\\ but\\ that\\ at\\ above\\ 4\\ objects\\ accuracy\\ decreases\\ and\\ rt\\ increases\\ sharply\\ and\\ linearly\\,\\ suggesting\\ a\\ shift\\ from\\ subitizing\\ \\(individuation\\)\\ to\\ counting\\ \\(identification\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Individuation\\ stage\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ Inferior\\ intraparietal\\ cortex\\/sulcus\\ \\(iIPS\\)\\.\\ It\\ has\\ a\\ capacity\\ limitation\\ of\\ about\\ 4\\,\\ and\\ the\\ objects\\ at\\ this\\ stage\\ are\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;proto\\-objects\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Individuation\\ can\\ likely\\ distinguish\\ objects\\ between\\ categories\\,\\ but\\ not\\ within\\ categories\\.\\ Bilateral\\ iIPS\\ lesions\\ results\\ in\\ Balint\\&rsquo\\;s\\ syndrome\\ where\\ patients\\ show\\ severe\\ impairment\\ in\\ object\\ identification\\ \\(focusing\\ only\\ on\\ 1\\ object\\ at\\ a\\ time\\)\\ but\\ intact\\ identification\\ and\\ processing\\ of\\ complex\\ features\\ of\\ that\\ one\\ item\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Identification\\ stage\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ Superior\\ IPS\\.\\ At\\ this\\ point\\ featural\\ information\\ is\\ added\\/bound\\ to\\ selected\\ objects\\,\\ thus\\ further\\ defining\\ distinctive\\,\\ identifiable\\ objects\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ a\\ clean\\ dorsal\\-ventral\\ stream\\ dichotomy\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;where\\&rdquo\\;\\ functions\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ so\\ clean\\ after\\ all\\.\\ Neural\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ sIPS\\ tracks\\ with\\ the\\ total\\ amount\\ of\\ feature\\ information\\ encoded\\,\\ with\\ greater\\ complexity\\ resulting\\ in\\ increased\\ activity\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ resource\\/resolution\\ limit\\ to\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ features\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ encoded\\ here\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMore\\ Experimental\\ evidence\\ for\\ a\\ dissociation\\:\\\\\r\\\nA\\ study\\ on\\ Visual\\ Short\\ term\\ memory\\ showed\\ a\\ neural\\ distinctions\\ between\\ iIPS\\,\\ which\\ represented\\ number\\ \\(maxing\\ out\\ at\\ 4\\)\\ and\\ sIPS\\ \\(representing\\ complexity\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ tracking\\ less\\ than\\ 4\\ objects\\ as\\ complexity\\ incrased\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nObject\\-based\\ encoding\\:\\ Grouping\\ items\\ in\\ a\\ display\\ decreased\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ iIPS\\,\\ supporting\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ object\\-based\\ theories\\ of\\ visual\\ attention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ this\\ area\\ codes\\ of\\ object\\ individuation\\.\\ Grouping\\ also\\ allowed\\ for\\ more\\ featural\\ info\\ to\\ be\\ encoded\\ in\\ the\\ identification\\ stage\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ greater\\ sIPS\\ activity\\.\\\\\r\\\nLast\\ experiment\\:\\ task\\ is\\ to\\ encode\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ objects\\ which\\ are\\ either\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ or\\ all\\ different\\.\\ iIPS\\ tracks\\ here\\ with\\ number\\ of\\ objects\\,\\ since\\ it\\ works\\ on\\ individuating\\ them\\,\\ whereas\\ sIPS\\,\\ which\\ monitors\\ features\\,\\ shows\\ the\\ same\\ amount\\ of\\ activity\\ for\\ one\\ object\\ and\\ 4\\ identical\\ objects\\,\\ and\\ greater\\ activity\\ for\\ \\;\\ 4\\ different\\ objects\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Vision part two - session 1 - Yaoda Xu - Object-based attention and selection"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.311672+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Concepts", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 642, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/title\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\t\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\\t\\\t\\@page\\ \\{\\ margin\\:\\ 0\\.79in\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\\t\\\tP\\ \\{\\ margin\\-bottom\\:\\ 0\\.08in\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\\t\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\t\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\CONCEPTS\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ALFONSO\\ CARAMAZZA\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ this\\ class\\ we\\ read\\ two\\ broad\\ reviews\\ about\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ object\\ concepts\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ focused\\ essentially\\ on\\ neuropsychological\\ and\\ neuroimaging\\ research\\.\\ During\\ the\\ lesson\\,\\ we\\ discussed\\ what\\ is\\ a\\ concept\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ possible\\ to\\ expand\\ our\\ knowledge\\ about\\ concepts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Martin\\ 2007\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ representation\\ of\\ object\\ concepts\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Semantic\\ knowledge\\:\\ knowing\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ objects\\ and\\ words\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Category\\ specific\\ semantic\\ deficits\\.\\ For\\ a\\ review\\ see\\ Capitani\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2003\\.\\ Sensory\\-motor\\ models\\:\\ Lissauer\\ 1890\\,\\ Freud\\ 1891\\,\\ \\.\\.\\.\\ for\\ a\\ review\\ see\\ Humphreys\\ and\\ Forde\\ 2001\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Category\\-specific\\ deficits\\ arise\\ when\\ properties\\ critical\\ to\\ represent\\ particular\\ kinds\\ of\\ objects\\ are\\ damaged\\.\\ Damage\\ to\\ areas\\ representing\\ visual\\ form\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ deficits\\ for\\ animals\\ because\\ visual\\ form\\ is\\ particularly\\ important\\ to\\ discriminate\\ between\\ them\\,\\ damage\\ to\\ areas\\ representing\\ object\\ use\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ deficit\\ for\\ tools\\ for\\ analogous\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Alternative\\:\\ domain\\-specific\\ models\\.\\ Evolutionary\\ history\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ modules\\ tailored\\ for\\ processing\\ quickly\\ and\\ efficiently\\ particular\\ types\\ of\\ discriminations\\ among\\ objects\\.\\ Possible\\ modules\\:\\ animals\\,\\ conspecifics\\,\\ plants\\,\\ possibly\\ tools\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\FMRI\\ studies\\ on\\ conceptual\\ and\\ semantic\\/lexical\\ processing\\:\\ left\\ ventrolateral\\ prefrontal\\ cortex\\,\\ ventral\\ and\\ lateral\\ regions\\ of\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ cortex\\,\\ typically\\ stronger\\ in\\ the\\ left\\.\\ Left\\ VLPFC\\:\\ retrieval\\ and\\ postretrieval\\ selection\\ of\\ conceptual\\ information\\.\\ See\\ Thompson\\ Schill\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1998\\ and\\ Gough\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Focal\\ damage\\ to\\ left\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ cortex\\ associated\\ with\\ impairment\\ of\\ object\\ knowledge\\ \\(Hart\\ and\\ Gordon\\ 1990\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Activity\\ in\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ lobes\\ for\\ sentence\\ comprehension\\ \\(Davis\\ and\\ Johnsrude\\ 2003\\,\\ Giraud\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2004\\,\\ Rodd\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\See\\ Grill\\ Spector\\ 2006\\ for\\ a\\ review\\ of\\ recent\\ neural\\ models\\ of\\ repetition\\ suppression\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\van\\ Turennout\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2000\\,\\ Vuilleumier\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2002\\ have\\ shown\\ that\\ the\\ fusiform\\ gyri\\ show\\ repetition\\ suppression\\ only\\ for\\ real\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Koutstaal\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2001\\,\\ Simons\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2003\\:\\ repetition\\ suppression\\ in\\ the\\ left\\ fusiform\\ for\\ repetitions\\ of\\ different\\ exemplars\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ object\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Priming\\ studies\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ repetition\\ suppression\\ observed\\ is\\ functional\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ activation\\ in\\ the\\ fusiform\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ cascading\\ activation\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ fusiform\\ regions\\ are\\ also\\ active\\ when\\ we\\ generate\\ visual\\ images\\ of\\ those\\ objects\\ \\(Ishai\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2000\\,\\ O\\'Craven\\ and\\ Kanwisher\\ 2000\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\A\\ possible\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ activity\\ simply\\ reflects\\ the\\ explicit\\ retrieval\\ of\\ visual\\ object\\ imagery\\ that\\ accompanies\\ task\\ performance\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Activity\\ in\\ the\\ fusiform\\ gyrus\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ word\\ imageability\\ and\\ concreteness\\ \\(Sabsevitz\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\,\\ Wise\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2000\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Wheatley\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\:\\ pairs\\ of\\ words\\ unrelated\\,\\ reated\\,\\ same\\.\\ Very\\ short\\ interval\\ between\\ 2\\ words\\.\\ RS\\ in\\ the\\ fusiform\\.\\ Interpreted\\ as\\ evidence\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ fusiform\\ in\\ conceptual\\ processing\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Martin\\:\\ it\\ could\\ just\\ mean\\ that\\ the\\ retrieval\\ of\\ visual\\ information\\ is\\ not\\ explicit\\ but\\ implicit\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\BOX\\ Semantic\\ dementia\\ \\-\\>\\;\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ temporal\\ poles\\ in\\ semantic\\ and\\ conceptual\\ processing\\.\\ Hard\\ to\\ study\\ with\\ fMRI\\ because\\ of\\ artifacts\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Mummery\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1999\\:\\ voxel\\ based\\ structural\\ morphometry\\ revealed\\ atrophy\\ in\\ left\\ polar\\ and\\ anterolateral\\,\\ but\\ not\\ posterior\\,\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ temporal\\ lobe\\.\\ But\\ functional\\ imaging\\ during\\ performance\\ on\\ picture\\ and\\ word\\ based\\ semantic\\ association\\ tasks\\ showed\\ that\\ the\\ patients\\ failed\\ to\\ activate\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ regions\\ active\\ in\\ normal\\ subjects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\`\\\\Taken\\ together\\,\\ these\\ findings\\ provide\\ compelling\\ evidence\\ that\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ cortex\\,\\ and\\ especially\\ the\\ left\\ fusiform\\ gyrus\\,\\ is\\ a\\ critical\\ node\\ in\\ a\\ network\\ of\\ regions\\ involved\\ in\\ conceptual\\ and\\ semantic\\ processing\\.\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;\\Data\\ from\\ SD\\ patients\\ show\\ that\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ regions\\ can\\ be\\ activated\\ top\\ down\\ by\\ polar\\ and\\ anterior\\ temporal\\ regions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Wig\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\:\\ TMS\\ applied\\ to\\ VLPFC\\ and\\ to\\ a\\ nearby\\ control\\ site\\.\\ RS\\ eliminated\\ in\\ VLPFC\\ and\\ posterior\\ temporal\\ cortex\\ for\\ pictures\\ initially\\ encoded\\ during\\ VLPFC\\ TMS\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Martin\\ 1995\\:\\ generate\\ associated\\ color\\ or\\ action\\.\\ Activation\\ of\\ ventral\\ temporal\\ cortex\\ for\\ retrieval\\ of\\ color\\ \\(Wiggs\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1999\\,\\ Chao\\ and\\ Martin\\ 1999\\)\\ and\\ for\\ property\\ verification\\ tasks\\ \\(Goldberg\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\,\\ Oliver\\ and\\ Thompson\\ Schill\\ 2003\\,\\ Simmons\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Tranel\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005B\\:\\ association\\ between\\ left\\ pMTG\\ and\\ action\\ concepts\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Double\\ dissociation\\ between\\ color\\ perception\\ and\\ color\\ imagery\\ \\(De\\ Vreese\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1991\\,\\ Shuren\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1996\\)\\ Howard\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1998\\:\\ color\\ imagery\\ and\\ color\\ word\\ generation\\ recruit\\ similar\\ areas\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Simmons\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\:\\ attention\\ demanding\\ task\\ requiring\\ discrimination\\ of\\ subtle\\ hue\\ differences\\ activates\\ fusiform\\ areas\\ involved\\ in\\ color\\ perception\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Goldberg\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\:\\ answering\\ questions\\ about\\ properties\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ several\\ sensory\\ modalities\\ \\(sound\\,\\ color\\,\\ touch\\)\\ activated\\ brain\\ areas\\ also\\ active\\ when\\ perceiving\\ stimuli\\ in\\ those\\ modalities\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hauk\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2004\\:\\ reading\\ words\\ denoting\\ specific\\ tongue\\,\\ finger\\ and\\ leg\\ actions\\ activated\\ regions\\ in\\ premotor\\ cortex\\ also\\ active\\ when\\ subjects\\ performed\\ movements\\ with\\ those\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Grill\\ Spector\\ and\\ Malach\\ 2004\\:\\ review\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ ventral\\ stream\\ for\\ object\\ recognition\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Grill\\ Spector\\ 2003\\:\\ faces\\ and\\ animals\\ selectively\\ activate\\ the\\ lateral\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ fusiform\\ gyrus\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Grill\\ Spector\\ 2004\\:\\ this\\ activity\\ is\\ significantly\\ correlated\\ with\\ identifying\\ faces\\ and\\ birds\\ but\\ not\\ other\\ object\\ types\\.\\ \\[Response\\ to\\ Gauthier\\.\\.\\.\\]\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Peelen\\ and\\ Downing\\ 2005\\,\\ Schwarzlose\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\:\\ bodies\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ fusiform\\ gyrus\\ adjacent\\ to\\ faces\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Consistency\\ of\\ category\\-related\\ activity\\ for\\ several\\ different\\ manipulations\\,\\ including\\ task\\ \\(Mechelli\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\;\\ Noppeney\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\,\\ 2006\\;\\ Price\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2003\\;\\ Rogers\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hypothesis\\:\\ form\\ and\\ color\\ in\\ the\\ fusiform\\,\\ motion\\ in\\ lateral\\ temporal\\ areas\\ \\(right\\ STS\\,\\ left\\ MTG\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Support\\ from\\ Beauchamp\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2002\\,\\ 2003\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Oram\\ and\\ Perrett\\ 1994\\:\\ monkey\\ neurophysiology\\ of\\ STS\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Little\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ fusiform\\ between\\ conditions\\ with\\ or\\ without\\ motion\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1944\\:\\ Heider\\ and\\ Simmel\\ showed\\ that\\ simple\\ geometric\\ shapes\\ are\\ interpreted\\ as\\ depicting\\ causal\\ interactions\\,\\ goals\\,\\ \\.\\.\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Castelli\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2000\\,\\ Martin\\ and\\ Weisberg\\ 2003\\:\\ used\\ similar\\ displays\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ category\\-related\\ neural\\ activity\\ can\\ be\\ elicited\\ depending\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ stimuli\\ are\\ interpreted\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Review\\:\\ Phelps\\ 2006\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Representation\\ of\\ tools\\ and\\ the\\ motor\\ system\\.\\ For\\ a\\ review\\ see\\ Culham\\ and\\ Valyear\\ 2006\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\`\\\\\\see\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\Tranel\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1997\\,\\ 2003\\ for\\ evidence\\ that\\ damage\\ to\\ either\\ left\\ pMTG\\,\\ IPS\\,\\ or\\ VPMC\\ results\\ in\\ impaired\\ knowledge\\ about\\ tools\\ and\\ their\\ action\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Creem\\-Regehr\\ and\\ Lee\\ 2005\\:\\ greater\\ activity\\ in\\ left\\ IPS\\ and\\ VPMC\\ for\\ common\\ tools\\ vs\\ novel\\ graspable\\ objects\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Weisberg\\ 2006\\:\\ tools\\ activated\\ all\\ fusiform\\,\\ after\\ training\\ only\\ the\\ medial\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Mahon\\ and\\ Caramazza\\ 2008\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Concepts\\ and\\ categories\\:\\ a\\ cognitive\\ neuropsychological\\ perspective\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;\\research\\ within\\ the\\ embodied\\ cognition\\ framework\\ has\\ highlighted\\ the\\ need\\ to\\ articulate\\ how\\ information\\ is\\ communicated\\ between\\ the\\ sensory\\ and\\ motor\\ systems\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;\\The\\ majority\\ of\\ patients\\ have\\ disproportionate\\ impairments\\ for\\ living\\ things\\ compared\\ to\\ nonliving\\ things\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Capitani\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2003\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Patient\\ EW\\:\\ no\\ recognition\\ of\\ animals\\,\\ patient\\ KC\\:\\ no\\ naming\\ of\\ living\\ things\\.\\ Patient\\ APA\\:\\ Miceli\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2000\\.\\ impairment\\ in\\ naming\\ famous\\ people\\,\\ but\\ no\\ prosopagnosia\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Beauvois\\:\\ multiple\\ semantics\\ assumption\\.\\ The\\ semantic\\ system\\ is\\ organized\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ inputs\\ and\\ outputs\\.\\ Motivated\\ by\\ optic\\ aphasia\\:\\ impaired\\ naming\\ of\\ visually\\ presented\\ objects\\ but\\ spared\\ naming\\ of\\ those\\ same\\ objects\\ with\\ tactile\\ presentation\\.\\ Those\\ patients\\ recognize\\ the\\ stimuli\\ they\\ can\\ not\\ name\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Warrington\\ and\\ collaborators\\:\\ sensory\\/functional\\ theory\\:\\ recognition\\ of\\ living\\ things\\ depends\\ more\\ on\\ visual\\ properties\\,\\ recognition\\ of\\ nonliving\\ things\\ depends\\ more\\ on\\ their\\ function\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Predictions\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\ impairments\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ more\\ fine\\ grained\\ than\\ living\\/nonliving\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\But\\ patients\\ are\\ reported\\ with\\ specific\\ deficits\\ for\\ fruit\\ and\\ vegetables\\ \\(Hart\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1985\\)\\ and\\ animals\\ \\(Caramazza\\ and\\ Shelton\\ 1998\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\ in\\ a\\ patient\\ with\\ selective\\ deficit\\ for\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ things\\,\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ knowledge\\ for\\ those\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ of\\ the\\ type\\ least\\ important\\ for\\ that\\ category\\ should\\ be\\ spared\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\This\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ case\\:\\ Caramazza\\ and\\ Shelton\\ 1998\\,\\ Blundo\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\ impairments\\ for\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ knowledge\\ will\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ differential\\ impairments\\ for\\ the\\ category\\ that\\ depends\\ on\\ that\\ knowledge\\ type\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nData\\ falsify\\ the\\ third\\ prediction\\:\\ Lambon\\ Ralph\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1998\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Warrington\\ and\\ McCarthy\\ proposed\\ that\\ object\\ color\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ discriminating\\ fruit\\ and\\ vegetables\\.\\ Since\\ then\\ other\\ dimensions\\ have\\ been\\ proposed\\.\\ Cree\\ and\\ McRae\\ 2003\\:\\ semantic\\ features\\ classified\\ into\\ 9\\ knowledge\\ types\\.\\ Color\\,\\ visual\\ parts\\ and\\ surface\\ properties\\,\\ visual\\ motion\\,\\ smell\\,\\ sound\\,\\ tactile\\,\\ taste\\,\\ function\\,\\ encyclopedic\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Hierarchical\\ cluster\\ analysis\\ on\\ semantic\\ categories\\.\\ Visual\\ motion\\ and\\ function\\ information\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ properties\\ to\\ discriminate\\ between\\ living\\ animate\\ things\\ and\\ nonliving\\ inanimate\\ things\\.\\ Color\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ for\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\,\\ less\\ for\\ animals\\,\\ less\\ for\\ inanimate\\ nonliving\\ things\\.\\ Taste\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ for\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\ as\\ opposde\\ to\\ animals\\ and\\ nonliving\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Patients\\ have\\ been\\ reported\\ with\\ deficits\\ for\\ knowledge\\ of\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\ but\\ with\\ spared\\ knowledge\\ of\\ color\\ \\(Samson\\ and\\ Pillon\\ 2003\\)\\.\\ Patients\\ have\\ been\\ reported\\ with\\ deficits\\ for\\ color\\ but\\ spared\\ knowledge\\ of\\ fruits\\ and\\ vegetables\\ \\(Luzzatti\\ and\\ Davidoff\\ 1994\\,\\ Miceli\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2001\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Borgo\\ and\\ Shallice\\ 2001\\,\\ 2003\\:\\ sensory\\-quality\\ categories\\ like\\ materials\\,\\ food\\,\\ drinks\\,\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ to\\ animals\\ because\\ they\\ depend\\ on\\ sensory\\ information\\ for\\ their\\ identification\\.\\ Laiacona\\ and\\ colleagues\\ \\(2003\\)\\ reported\\ a\\ patient\\ who\\ was\\ impaired\\ for\\ living\\ things\\ but\\ spared\\ for\\ sensory\\ quality\\ categories\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Research\\ in\\ developmental\\ psychology\\ converges\\ with\\ the\\ assumption\\ that\\ conceptual\\ knowledge\\ is\\ organized\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ by\\ innately\\ specified\\ constraints\\ on\\ object\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Other\\ domains\\ not\\ highlighted\\ by\\ neuropsychological\\ research\\:\\ number\\ and\\ geometric\\/spatial\\ reasoning\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Distributed\\ domain\\-specific\\ hypothesis\\:\\ both\\ domain\\ and\\ a\\ distributed\\ network\\ of\\ modality\\-specific\\ representations\\ constrain\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ conceptual\\ knowledge\\ of\\ objects\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\`\\.\\.\\.\\ domain\\ specificity\\ is\\ determined\\ not\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ specific\\ characteristics\\ of\\ processing\\ within\\ a\\ given\\ region\\,\\ but\\ also\\ by\\ how\\ information\\ in\\ that\\ region\\ relates\\ to\\ information\\ that\\ is\\ computed\\ elsewhere\\ and\\ which\\ is\\ salient\\ for\\ the\\ domain\\'\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\`Prosopagnosia\\ can\\ arise\\ developmentally\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ the\\ constraints\\ that\\ drive\\ neural\\ specificity\\ for\\ face\\ perception\\ are\\,\\ in\\ part\\,\\ innately\\ specified\\.\\'\\ \\(Duchaine\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Correlated\\ structure\\ principle\\,\\ OUCH\\.\\ Best\\ to\\ explain\\ deficits\\ from\\ neurodegenerative\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Proposals\\ based\\ on\\ OUCH\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\One\\ important\\ proposal\\:\\ conceptual\\ structure\\ account\\ \\(Tyler\\ and\\ Moss\\ 2001\\)\\.\\ Mild\\ impairment\\:\\ deficit\\ for\\ living\\ things\\,\\ worse\\ impairment\\ \\\\&rarr\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\ deficit\\ for\\ also\\ nonliving\\ things\\.\\ Devlin\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1998\\:\\ model\\ that\\ predicts\\ the\\ opposite\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Both\\ do\\ not\\ find\\ support\\ in\\ the\\ data\\ \\(Garrard\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1998\\,\\ Zannino\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2002\\,\\ Laiacona\\ and\\ Capitani\\ 2001\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sartori\\ and\\ colleagues\\ 2001\\,\\ 2005\\:\\ construct\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;semantic\\ relevance\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dorsal\\ and\\ ventral\\ streams\\.\\ See\\ Pisella\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\ for\\ discussion\\ about\\ how\\ to\\ best\\ characterize\\ the\\ two\\ streams\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Study\\ of\\ locations\\ of\\ deficits\\.\\ First\\:\\ Hanna\\ Damasio\\ and\\ colleagues\\,\\ 1996\\.\\ See\\ then\\ Gainotti\\ 2000\\ and\\ Brambati\\ 2006\\.\\ Role\\ of\\ anterior\\ mesial\\ aspects\\ for\\ processing\\ living\\ things\\ interpreted\\ by\\ many\\ investigators\\ as\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ more\\ shared\\ features\\ and\\ thus\\ for\\ greater\\ need\\ of\\ fine\\ grained\\ discriminations\\(Bright\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\,\\ Damasio\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2004\\,\\ Simmons\\ and\\ Barsalou\\ 2003\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\FMRI\\ evidence\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Activity\\ in\\ dorsal\\ regions\\.\\ Dorsal\\ region\\ not\\ involved\\ in\\ category\\ specific\\ deficits\\.\\ Evidence\\ for\\ the\\ sensory\\ functional\\ theory\\?\\ There\\ are\\ apraxic\\ patients\\ who\\ can\\ name\\ the\\ objects\\ they\\ can\\ not\\ use\\.\\ Often\\ apraxic\\ patients\\ have\\ damage\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ IPL\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Integrity\\ of\\ action\\ knowledge\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ patients\\ to\\ have\\ accurate\\ knowledge\\ of\\ object\\ function\\ \\(Buxbaum\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2000\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Temporal\\ and\\ not\\ parietal\\ cortex\\ may\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ representation\\ of\\ function\\ knowledge\\ of\\ objects\\ \\(Sirigu\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1991\\ neuropsychology\\,\\ Canessa\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2008\\ fMRI\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Needed\\ a\\ model\\ that\\ combines\\ the\\ assumption\\ of\\ multiple\\ semantics\\ with\\ some\\ claim\\ about\\ how\\ information\\ becomes\\ segregated\\ by\\ category\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Ishai\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1999\\,\\ Gauthier\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2000\\,\\ Haxby\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2001\\:\\ proposals\\ based\\ on\\ visual\\ dimensions\\ of\\ information\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Mahon\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2007\\:\\ proposal\\ based\\ on\\ connections\\ with\\ other\\ brain\\ areas\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Riesenhuber\\ 2007\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Proposal\\ neutral\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ category\\ specificity\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\A\\ region\\ for\\ written\\ words\\:\\ determined\\ by\\ connections\\ between\\ visual\\ and\\ auditory\\ information\\?\\ Buchel\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 1998\\,\\ Dehaene\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\ for\\ discussion\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Polk\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2007\\:\\ monozygotic\\ twins\\ have\\ more\\ similar\\ face\\ and\\ place\\ regions\\ than\\ dizigotic\\ twins\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ difference\\ in\\ the\\ differences\\ for\\ written\\ words\\ regions\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\First\\ detailed\\ articulation\\ of\\ the\\ embodied\\ cognition\\ framework\\:\\ Allport\\ 1985\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Citation\\ from\\ Allport\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\\\`The\\ essential\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\\\\\same\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\\\neural\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\elements\\ that\\ are\\ involved\\ in\\ coding\\ the\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\\\\\ sensory\\ attributes\\ of\\ a\\ \\(possibly\\ unknown\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\\\object\\ presented\\ to\\ eye\\ or\\ hand\\ or\\ ear\\ also\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ autoassociated\\ activity\\-patterns\\ that\\ represent\\ familiar\\ object\\-concepts\\ in\\ \\`semantic\\ memory\\'\\.\\ This\\ model\\ is\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ in\\ radical\\ opposition\\ to\\ the\\ view\\,\\ apparently\\ held\\ by\\ many\\ psychologists\\,\\ that\\ \\`semantic\\ memory\\'\\ is\\ represented\\ in\\ some\\ abstract\\,\\ modalityindependent\\,\\ \\`conceptual\\'\\ domain\\ remote\\ from\\ the\\ mechanisms\\ of\\ perception\\ and\\ motor\\ organization\\.\\'\\ \\(Allport\\ 1985\\,\\ p\\.\\ 53\\;\\ emphasis\\ in\\ original\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Sensory\\ and\\ motor\\ systems\\ engaged\\ automatically\\ by\\ linguistic\\ stimuli\\ that\\ imply\\ action\\ \\(Glenberg\\ and\\ Kaschak\\ 2002\\,\\ Boulenger\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2006\\)\\.\\ Activation\\ of\\ the\\ motor\\ system\\ automatically\\ spreads\\ to\\ conceptual\\ and\\ percetual\\ levels\\ of\\ processing\\ \\(Pulvermuller\\ et\\ al\\.\\ 2005\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\`\\.\\.\\.\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ particular\\ attribute\\ information\\ in\\ semantic\\ memory\\ should\\ be\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ corresponding\\ \\perceptual\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\(agnostic\\)\\ deficit\\.\\'\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\(1985\\,\\ p\\.\\ 55\\;\\ emphasis\\ in\\ original\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Only\\ recently\\ the\\ deficits\\ have\\ been\\ of\\ clear\\ theoretical\\ relevance\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Conceptual\\ processing\\ not\\ exhausted\\ by\\ sensory\\ and\\ motor\\ information\\,\\ but\\ shaped\\ in\\ important\\ ways\\ by\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ sensory\\ and\\ motor\\ systems\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\ constraints\\ for\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ object\\ knowledge\\:\\ domain\\ and\\ sensory\\/motor\\ modality\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\`progress\\ in\\ understanding\\ the\\ causes\\ of\\ category\\ specificity\\ in\\ one\\ region\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ or\\ one\\ functional\\ component\\ of\\ a\\ cognitive\\ model\\,\\ will\\ require\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ category\\ specificity\\ is\\ realized\\ throughout\\ the\\ whole\\ brain\\ and\\ throughout\\ thr\\ whole\\ cognitive\\ model\\.\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\`A\\ central\\ theoretical\\ issue\\ to\\ be\\ addressed\\ by\\ the\\ field\\ is\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ unify\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ knowledge\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ entity\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ that\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ a\\ functionally\\ unitary\\ concept\\ of\\ that\\ entity\\.\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\`First\\,\\ humans\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ systems\\ that\\ support\\ rich\\ conceptual\\ knowledge\\ of\\ objects\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ carry\\ out\\ only\\ explicit\\ knowledge\\ tasks\\,\\ such\\ as\\ object\\ naming\\ or\\ similarity\\ judgments\\.\\ We\\ have\\ those\\ systems\\ because\\ they\\ serve\\ action\\ and\\ ultimately\\ have\\ been\\ in\\ the\\ service\\ of\\ survival\\.\\ An\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ architecture\\ of\\ the\\ conceptual\\ system\\ must\\ therefore\\ be\\ situated\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ real\\-world\\ computational\\ problems\\ that\\ the\\ conceptual\\ system\\ is\\ structured\\ to\\ support\\.\\ Second\\,\\ human\\ behavior\\ arises\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ integration\\ of\\ multiple\\ cognitive\\ processes\\ that\\ individually\\ operate\\ over\\ distinct\\ types\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ view\\ that\\ domain\\ specificity\\ implies\\ modularity\\,\\ we\\ have\\ emphasized\\ the\\ distributed\\ nature\\ of\\ domain\\-specific\\ neural\\ circuits\\.\\'\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Concepts"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.337763+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 643, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Introduction\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ January\\ 28\\,\\ 2009\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Course\\ Overview\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Course\\ covers\\ a\\ 2000\\-year\\ span\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Historical\\ Study\\ A\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&lsquo\\;Long\\ and\\ skinny\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intellectual\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>History\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Focus\\ on\\ ideas\\ and\\ thoughts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ideas\\ have\\ changed\\ across\\ generations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ideas\\ about\\ God\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ church\\,\\ authority\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ideas\\ about\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Applying\\ reason\\ to\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philosophical\\ commitments\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ and\\ faith\\ intertwined\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ reason\\ can\\ and\\ cannot\\ understand\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Limitations\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>History\\ course\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Change\\ over\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Both\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\ have\\ a\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transformed\\ from\\ the\\ past\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scientists\\ also\\ change\\ over\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>History\\ of\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Words\\ change\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ were\\ they\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ past\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ does\\ our\\ current\\ perspective\\ enhance\\ our\\ understanding\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Historical\\ significance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ did\\ it\\ mean\\ at\\ the\\ time\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ a\\ course\\ about\\ philosophical\\ significance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ did\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ answer\\ these\\ questions\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conflict\\ is\\ necessary\\ and\\ valuable\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Creative\\ and\\ concurrent\\ interactions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christian\\ tradition\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Paper\\ topics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Extend\\ beyond\\ the\\ syllabus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ not\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philosophy\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Judaism\\ and\\ Islam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Research\\ paper\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Independent\\ work\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Creativity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Course\\ Outline\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Timeline\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>See\\ handout\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Antiquity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Can\\ one\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ Christian\\ while\\ also\\ embracing\\ pagan\\ ideas\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Universities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Thomas\\ Aquinas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ can\\ we\\ use\\ Greek\\ philosophy\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ Christianity\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contested\\ in\\ his\\ day\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Divine\\ intervention\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Early\\ Modern\\ Period\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ pillars\\ are\\ destabilized\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ becomes\\ less\\ favorable\\ among\\ scientists\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Renaissance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protestant\\ and\\ Catholic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Counter\\-Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scientific\\ Revolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rational\\ \\(natural\\)\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contradictions\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eternity\\ versus\\ creation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Existence\\ and\\ mortality\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intervention\\ of\\ God\\ versus\\ natural\\ necessity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Issue\\ covered\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ course\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Literal\\ versus\\ non\\-literal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Providence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Evolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Descartes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Newton\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pascal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Non\\-rational\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Focus\\ on\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Faith\\ alone\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Modern\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Charles\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Perception\\ and\\ reception\\ of\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Albert\\ Einstein\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ orthodox\\ from\\ a\\ religious\\ perspective\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Panel\\ of\\ guest\\ speakers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Speakers\\ from\\ the\\ Boston\\ area\\ who\\ are\\ engaged\\ philosophically\\ about\\ reconciling\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ forms\\ of\\ reconciliation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Two\\ Pillars\\ \\(student\\ question\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ancient\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Institution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Authority\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ objective\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ is\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ reason\\ in\\ rational\\ philosophy\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Course\\ Requirements\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Textbook\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ in\\ Nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Primary\\ source\\ readings\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lectures\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Monday\\,\\ Wednesday\\,\\ and\\ some\\ Fridays\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fridays\\ are\\ booked\\ with\\ activities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\-class\\ quizzes\\ and\\ midterm\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Source\\ reviews\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Presentations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Short\\ paper\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lead\\ discussion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sections\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Online\\ Readings\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Coursepack\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Other\\ Course\\ Objectives\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ learn\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Producing\\ tertiary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Research\\ papers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>History\\ of\\ the\\ book\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Translation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Canned\\ Food\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Additional\\ Information\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scrolls\\ were\\ once\\ stored\\ in\\ buckets\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Scholastic\\ ordinatio\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Handwritten\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Double\\-spaced\\ \\(Aristotle\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Single\\-spaced\\ \\(commentary\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Margins\\ \\(additional\\ commentary\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Powerful\\ use\\ of\\ space\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Durable\\ parchment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Written\\ in\\ Latin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ course\\ requires\\ you\\ to\\ set\\ aside\\ what\\ you\\ think\\ makes\\ sense\\ and\\ think\\ about\\ what\\ would\\ have\\ made\\ sense\\ to\\ the\\ authors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ mental\\ landscape\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reception\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Someone\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ well\\-known\\ to\\ be\\ significant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Most\\ manuscripts\\ were\\ unknown\\ to\\ his\\ contemporaries\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Take\\ into\\ account\\ how\\ a\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stock\\ can\\ change\\ over\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nicole\\ Oresme\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpreted\\ out\\ of\\ context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ philosopher\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Would\\ you\\ notice\\ if\\ God\\ turned\\ the\\ Earth\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Earth\\ was\\ considered\\ stationary\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hypothetical\\ reasoning\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Purpose\\ was\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ so\\ great\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ make\\ the\\ world\\ radically\\ different\\ without\\ being\\ noticed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ from\\ the\\ scientific\\ arguments\\ of\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Historical\\ context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reception\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Actors\\&rsquo\\;\\ categories\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Anachronism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Primary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Secondary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tertiary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Antiquity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Renaissance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scientific\\ Revolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Early\\ modern\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Modern\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.362520+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Building Blocks of the Western Tradition: Aristotle\u2019s Physics", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 644, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Building\\ Blocks\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ Tradition\\:\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Physics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ February\\ 2\\,\\ 2009\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Section\\ Information\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wednesdays\\ and\\ Thursdays\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sectioning\\ process\\ begins\\ on\\ Thursday\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Course\\ Overview\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intellectual\\ history\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ideas\\ about\\ religion\\ and\\ nature\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interactions\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Continuity\\ despite\\ changes\\ in\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Understand\\ the\\ dynamics\\ of\\ philosophy\\ and\\ Christianity\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Crucial\\ themes\\ of\\ western\\ intellectual\\ history\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Political\\ thought\\ is\\ the\\ other\\ critical\\ theme\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Broad\\ historical\\ perspective\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Longue\\ dur\\é\\;e\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Long\\ time\\ span\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Term\\ introduced\\ in\\ France\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Annales\\ school\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Traditional\\ history\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Geography\\,\\ economic\\ structure\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intellectual\\ history\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fluff\\ on\\ top\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Frequent\\ changes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ intellectual\\ history\\ are\\ long\\-lasting\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Broad\\ outlines\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;thinkable\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ pillars\\ of\\ intellectual\\ thought\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Natural\\ philosophy\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2000\\-year\\ span\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christianity\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Last\\ longer\\ than\\ Aristotle\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Structures\\ of\\ thought\\ help\\ us\\ interpret\\ text\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nicole\\ Oresme\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Received\\ as\\ a\\ Copernicus\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>For\\ Oresme\\,\\ it\\ was\\ unthinkable\\ that\\ the\\ Earth\\ was\\ actually\\ moving\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Problem\\ with\\ structures\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Change\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aristotle\\ in\\ a\\ Historical\\ Context\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Associations\\ with\\ Aristotle\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Form\\ and\\ matter\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Biography\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>384\\-322\\ BCE\\ \\(before\\ the\\ common\\ era\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ philosopher\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Father\\ was\\ a\\ court\\ physician\\ in\\ Macedonia\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ called\\ by\\ Phillip\\ II\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ tutor\\ of\\ young\\ Alexander\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Settled\\ in\\ Athens\\ and\\ opened\\ a\\ school\\ called\\ the\\ lyceum\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Stagyrite\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(after\\ hometown\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pupils\\ were\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Peripatetics\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(wandering\\ around\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Written\\ media\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Papyrus\\ scroll\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lighter\\ than\\ clay\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Held\\ with\\ both\\ hands\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fragments\\ are\\ discovered\\ today\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Degenerate\\ within\\ 300\\ years\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Culture\\ of\\ copying\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ transmission\\ to\\ parchment\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Leather\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Calf\\ or\\ sheep\\ skin\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Durable\\ material\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ texts\\ that\\ early\\ Christians\\ decided\\ to\\ copy\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Small\\ percentage\\ of\\ ancient\\ writings\\ were\\ transmitted\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Limited\\ pool\\ of\\ texts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ was\\ Aristotle\\ so\\ appealing\\ in\\ antiquity\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ was\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;textbook\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Treatises\\ were\\ lecture\\ notes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wrote\\ on\\ politics\\,\\ economics\\,\\ and\\ natural\\ philosophy\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spurious\\ works\\ to\\ gain\\ readership\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transmission\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ wrote\\ in\\ Greek\\ on\\ papyrus\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Impact\\ on\\ four\\ different\\ cultures\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Byzantine\\ culture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Medieval\\ West\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Extensive\\ transmission\\ involving\\ multiple\\ languages\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Islamic\\ culture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intermediate\\ language\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Syriac\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Greek\\ to\\ Arabic\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jewish\\ culture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christian\\ culture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Subject\\ to\\ flaws\\ and\\ small\\ changes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Robust\\ in\\ the\\ main\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Basic\\ ideas\\ were\\ not\\ changed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ideas\\ in\\ Context\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Image\\ of\\ Aristotle\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Plato\\ \\(pointing\\ up\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Considered\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;ideas\\&rdquo\\;\\ man\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ real\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ important\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Believed\\ in\\ an\\ ideal\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ \\(pointing\\ down\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cared\\ about\\ this\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>World\\ is\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ change\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ \\&ldquo\\;messy\\&rdquo\\;\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Natural\\ philosophy\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Explaining\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pre\\-Socratics\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ him\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mono\\-causal\\ in\\ their\\ explanations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ was\\ multi\\-causal\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Four\\ elements\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fire\\,\\ water\\,\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ air\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Shared\\ qualities\\ \\(diagram\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Seasons\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Body\\ fluids\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Body\\ parts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ flexibility\\ in\\ his\\ system\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fifth\\ element\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aether\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Perfect\\ element\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Creates\\ the\\ planets\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Distinction\\ between\\ the\\ subluminar\\ world\\ and\\ superluminar\\ world\\ \\(the\\ heavens\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ cannot\\ understand\\ the\\ superluminar\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Explaining\\ change\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Seed\\ to\\ a\\ tree\\,\\ tree\\ to\\ a\\ bed\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Empirical\\ world\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Potential\\ and\\ actual\\ causes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oak\\ tree\\ seed\\ is\\ potentially\\ a\\ tree\\ but\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ seed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Four\\ causes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Material\\ cause\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Formal\\ cause\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Right\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ bed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Efficient\\ cause\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Person\\ who\\ makes\\ the\\ bed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Final\\ cause\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Goal\\,\\ purpose\\,\\ why\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ does\\ not\\ feature\\ in\\ his\\ natural\\ philosophy\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ideas\\ exploited\\ by\\ Christians\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eternity\\ of\\ Movement\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Chapter\\ 8\\ of\\ \\Physics\\<\\/u\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unmoved\\ mover\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christians\\ can\\ add\\ a\\ divine\\ angle\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Abstract\\ ideas\\ not\\ for\\ daily\\ use\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>World\\ of\\ law\\-abiding\\ nature\\ and\\ necessity\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Things\\ happen\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ causes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ supernatural\\ element\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Three\\ tensions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ is\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ room\\ for\\ miracles\\ or\\ divine\\ intervention\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ main\\ tension\\ of\\ the\\ course\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ versus\\ creation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Second\\ main\\ tension\\ of\\ the\\ course\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\ versus\\ mortality\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Third\\ main\\ tension\\ of\\ the\\ course\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Problems\\ with\\ Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Projectile\\ motion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ motion\\ after\\ the\\ rock\\ leaves\\ the\\ hand\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ did\\ Aristotle\\ last\\ so\\ long\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Theories\\ were\\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ true\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Leaves\\ room\\ for\\ dialogue\\ and\\ interpretation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Offers\\ definitions\\ and\\ distinctions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Theories\\ are\\ not\\ constraining\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Manipulated\\ by\\ ancients\\ and\\ Christians\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Commonsensical\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Explains\\ everyday\\ phenomena\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Science\\ today\\ is\\ often\\ counter\\-intuitive\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Written\\ on\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ different\\ topics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Bedrock\\ upon\\ which\\ others\\ have\\ found\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Building Blocks of the Western Tradition: Aristotle\u2019s Physics"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.388526+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Building Blocks of the Western Tradition: Christianity", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 645, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Building\\ Blocks\\ of\\ the\\ Western\\ Tradition\\:\\ Christianity\\ \\(Bible\\,\\ Church\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 4\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\First\\ Pillar\\:\\ Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ texts\\ are\\ copied\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Languages\\ of\\ transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Arabic\\,\\ Syriac\\,\\ Hebrew\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Correcting\\ and\\ over\\-correcting\\ errors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Precariousness\\ of\\ transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transmission\\ is\\ robust\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>General\\ gist\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ changed\\ dramatically\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fewer\\ intermediaries\\ in\\ the\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Textual\\ pillar\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Second\\ Pillar\\:\\ Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Story\\ of\\ transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Bible\\ and\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Catholic\\ and\\ Protestant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Orthodox\\ Christians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Defining\\ characteristics\\ of\\ Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Divinity\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jew\\ who\\ had\\ a\\ following\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Performed\\ miracles\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Romans\\ were\\ not\\ happy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Crucification\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Resurrection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Redemption\\ for\\ the\\ sins\\ of\\ man\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jesus\\ was\\ fully\\ human\\ and\\ fully\\ divine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;I\\ believe\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ absurd\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Faith\\ and\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ mystery\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christianity\\ founded\\ on\\ two\\ things\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Text\\:\\ The\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ New\\ Testament\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Institution\\:\\ The\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Foundational\\ to\\ both\\ Catholics\\ and\\ Protestants\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Formation\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1200\\ BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ early\\ poetry\\ and\\ sagas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1000\\ BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ early\\ prophets\\ \\(9\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\-7\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>586\\ BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Babylonian\\ exile\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Final\\ editing\\ of\\ Pentateuch\\ \\(6\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Final\\ editing\\ of\\ historical\\ writings\\ \\(6\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>500\\ BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ later\\ prophets\\ \\(5\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\-4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Various\\ Hebrew\\ versions\\ in\\ Palestine\\ \\(3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Greek\\ translation\\ from\\ Hebrew\\ \\(3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dead\\ Sea\\ Scrolls\\ \\(2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\-1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>CE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Masoretic\\ text\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\ becomes\\ fixed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Inspired\\ translation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bilingual\\ society\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sacred\\ language\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hebrew\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vernacular\\ \\(daily\\)\\ language\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aramaic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Greek\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Latin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Catholic\\ versus\\ Protestant\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Several\\ books\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protestants\\ omitted\\ certain\\ books\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Feature\\ of\\ transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Catholic\\:\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protestant\\:\\ committee\\ of\\ scholars\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Jerome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vulgate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tremendous\\ scholar\\ who\\ knew\\ all\\ the\\ languages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ Father\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Origen\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tables\\ that\\ lined\\ up\\ all\\ the\\ translations\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Vulgate\\:\\ the\\ common\\ translation\\ \\(Latin\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Long\\-lived\\ text\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Polyglot\\ \\(multilingual\\)\\ Bibles\\ of\\ the\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hexapla\\:\\ a\\ sixfold\\ text\\ in\\ parallel\\ columns\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Especially\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hebrew\\,\\ Latin\\ \\(Vulgate\\)\\,\\ Greek\\ \\(Septuagint\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jerome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\ not\\ identical\\ to\\ Latin\\ version\\ of\\ Septuagint\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Worked\\ from\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ different\\ texts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Writing\\ on\\ parchment\\ or\\ scrolls\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Early\\ Christian\\ Period\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Polyglot\\ Bible\\ for\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Greek\\ \\(original\\ language\\,\\ no\\ Hebrew\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Latin\\ translation\\ by\\ Jerome\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Old\\ Latin\\ translation\\ before\\ Jerome\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Less\\ transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Precarious\\ and\\ robust\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unlike\\ Aristotle\\,\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ as\\ a\\ sacred\\ text\\,\\ was\\ laden\\ by\\ the\\ Jews\\ and\\ later\\ by\\ the\\ Christians\\ with\\ sacredness\\ in\\ every\\ aspect\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jerome\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Every\\ word\\,\\ syllable\\,\\ accent\\,\\ and\\ point\\ is\\ packed\\ with\\ meaning\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Philology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Definition\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Branch\\ of\\ knowledge\\ that\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ structure\\,\\ historical\\ development\\,\\ and\\ relationships\\ of\\ a\\ language\\ or\\ languages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Criteria\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ Bible\\ possible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oldest\\ sources\\ are\\ preferred\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Language\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hebrew\\ should\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ Greek\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fewest\\ translations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Medium\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Papyrus\\ scrolls\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Error\\ tracking\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tree\\ of\\ manuscripts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Carbon\\ dating\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Isotopic\\ labeling\\ \\(C\\14\\<\\/sup\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Text\\ length\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Shorter\\ texts\\ are\\ considered\\ older\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpolation\\:\\ insertion\\ of\\ words\\ in\\ a\\ text\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Difficulty\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ more\\ difficult\\ text\\ is\\ likely\\ older\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ try\\ to\\ correct\\ things\\ that\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Improvements\\ are\\ not\\ arbitrary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ Works\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Masoretic\\ Text\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Septuagint\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Greek\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jerome\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Vulgate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1545\\ translation\\ of\\ Martin\\ Luther\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Authorized\\ \\(King\\ James\\)\\ Version\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1899\\ Douay\\-Rheims\\ American\\ Edition\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1989\\ New\\ Revised\\ Standard\\ Version\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Decisions\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ about\\ the\\ Biblical\\ text\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Decision\\ made\\ by\\ the\\ church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nicene\\ Creed\\ \\(325\\ CE\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ believe\\ in\\ one\\ God\\,\\ the\\ Father\\,\\ the\\ Almighty\\,\\ maker\\ of\\ heaven\\ and\\ earth\\,\\ of\\ all\\ that\\ is\\ seen\\ and\\ unseen\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ believe\\ in\\ one\\ Lord\\,\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\ the\\ only\\ Son\\ of\\ God\\,\\ eternally\\ begotten\\ of\\ the\\ Father\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\,\\ the\\ Lord\\,\\ the\\ giver\\ of\\ life\\ who\\ proceeds\\ from\\ the\\ Father\\ \\[and\\ the\\ son\\]\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ believe\\ in\\ one\\ holy\\ catholic\\ and\\ apostolic\\ church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ did\\ the\\ proto\\-Christians\\ win\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intellectual\\ and\\ religious\\ factors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Social\\ and\\ political\\ factors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nCanon\\ Formation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Authorization\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Notions\\ of\\ Revelation\\ and\\ Inspiration\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transmission\\ does\\ not\\ take\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\ as\\ a\\ sacred\\ text\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Argument\\ that\\ God\\ inspired\\ translators\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vernacular\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Corruption\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpolation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Septuagint\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hebrew\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Masoretic\\ Text\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Old\\ Testament\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ Testament\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Deutero\\-canonical\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Apocrypha\\ canon\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Canon\\ formation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Orthodoxy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ councils\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nicea\\ \\(325\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Athanasius\\ \\&ldquo\\;Old\\ Latin\\&rdquo\\;\\ translation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vulgate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jerome\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Polyglot\\ Bibles\\ of\\ the\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Revelation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Inspiration\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Apostolic\\ succession\\/tradition\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Bishop\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Building Blocks of the Western Tradition: Christianity"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.412985+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Augustine", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 646, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Augustine\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ February\\ 9\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Readings\\ this\\ Week\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;On\\ Christian\\ Doctrine\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friday\\ Lecture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>HOLLIS\\ information\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Primary\\ and\\ secondary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reference\\ Books\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cambridge\\ History\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ Oxford\\ Annotated\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oxford\\ Dictionary\\ of\\ the\\ Christian\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wikipedia\\ and\\ the\\ web\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nag\\ Hammadi\\ gospels\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dead\\ Sea\\ Scrolls\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Early\\ Christianity\\ \\(Feedback\\ from\\ Questions\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christianity\\ not\\ esoteric\\:\\ open\\ to\\ all\\,\\ no\\ mysteries\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ open\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ initiated\\ \\(different\\ from\\ Gnosticism\\ common\\ among\\ pagan\\ mystery\\ religions\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ emanationism\\ or\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ creative\\ beings\\ \\(neo\\-Platonist\\ view\\)\\;\\ only\\ God\\ is\\ Creator\\,\\ but\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ triune\\ God\\ \\(doctrine\\ of\\ the\\ Trinity\\ of\\ Athanasius\\)\\,\\ comprising\\ the\\ Father\\,\\ the\\ Son\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Holy\\ Ghost\\ \\(against\\ Arians\\ who\\ deny\\ divinity\\ of\\ Jesus\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>All\\ creation\\ from\\ one\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Athanasius\\ was\\ the\\ bishop\\ that\\ held\\ the\\ most\\ sway\\ in\\ establishing\\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ the\\ Trinity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Arians\\ contend\\ that\\ the\\ Father\\ is\\ the\\ true\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ rival\\ to\\ God\\ such\\ as\\ an\\ equally\\ powerful\\ force\\ of\\ evil\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Idea\\ was\\ held\\ by\\ Manicheans\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Struggle\\ between\\ good\\ and\\ evil\\ \\(Satan\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Evil\\ is\\ part\\ of\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plan\\ and\\ not\\ out\\ of\\ control\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ five\\ books\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ were\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ written\\ by\\ Moses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ revelation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Message\\ sent\\ to\\ humans\\ by\\ prophets\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ do\\ people\\ begin\\ to\\ view\\ the\\ Bible\\ differently\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Notion\\ that\\ the\\ early\\ Bible\\ might\\ be\\ a\\ history\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ sacred\\ message\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Most\\ faithful\\ did\\ not\\ care\\ about\\ this\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Later\\ lectures\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Augustine\\ in\\ Historical\\ Context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Set\\ many\\ doctrinal\\ points\\ of\\ Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Both\\ Catholics\\ and\\ Protestants\\ look\\ back\\ for\\ support\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>From\\ the\\ Roman\\ Empire\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Operating\\ in\\ Latin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Thagaste\\,\\ Hippo\\ \\(Augustine\\ of\\ Hippo\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mother\\ was\\ Christian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Father\\ was\\ not\\ Christian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wrote\\ many\\ treatises\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Preaches\\ 8\\,000\\ sermons\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lived\\ in\\ a\\ wealthy\\ area\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Father\\ was\\ not\\ wealthy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Father\\ put\\ Augustine\\ through\\ the\\ best\\ education\\ of\\ the\\ day\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Roman\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Argumentation\\ and\\ persuasion\\ through\\ rhetoric\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reading\\ of\\ ancient\\ texts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpretations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Allegorical\\ interpretations\\ are\\ an\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ reading\\ Homer\\ and\\ others\\ during\\ the\\ era\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Natural\\ and\\ moral\\ events\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Stories\\ have\\ a\\ message\\ that\\ carry\\ to\\ other\\ contexts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Normal\\ for\\ classical\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ moves\\ to\\ the\\ center\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Moves\\ to\\ Carthage\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Moves\\ to\\ Rome\\ to\\ teach\\ rhetoric\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Falls\\ into\\ the\\ imperial\\ court\\ in\\ Milan\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Admires\\ Ambrose\\,\\ bishop\\ of\\ Milan\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Exposed\\ to\\ neo\\-Platonism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Converts\\ to\\ Christianity\\ in\\ 386\\ and\\ becomes\\ the\\ bishop\\ in\\ 396\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bishop\\ of\\ Hippo\\,\\ the\\ second\\ port\\ of\\ Africa\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Preaches\\ against\\ the\\ Manichean\\ and\\ the\\ Pelagians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Defines\\ the\\ key\\ tenants\\ of\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>All\\ humans\\ suffer\\ the\\ sin\\ of\\ the\\ fall\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Humans\\ are\\ tainted\\ and\\ have\\ difficulty\\ in\\ overcoming\\ their\\ fall\\ in\\ fate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Requires\\ faith\\ in\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pelagians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Save\\ yourself\\ by\\ doing\\ good\\ work\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ must\\ give\\ you\\ a\\ gift\\ of\\ grace\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ cannot\\ deserve\\ to\\ be\\ saved\\ by\\ good\\ merits\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Apologetics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Defining\\ the\\ Christian\\ faith\\ and\\ conversion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Augustine\\ and\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ is\\ not\\ worried\\ about\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ had\\ a\\ dispute\\ with\\ Jerome\\ about\\ whether\\ the\\ apocrypha\\ should\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ Vulgate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jerome\\ draws\\ from\\ the\\ hexapla\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Preacher\\ and\\ thinks\\ deeply\\ on\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Focus\\ on\\ a\\ few\\ tests\\ very\\ deeply\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ is\\ an\\ inexhaustible\\ treasury\\ of\\ wisdom\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ can\\ keep\\ you\\ finding\\ new\\ things\\ for\\ a\\ lifetime\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ is\\ inerrant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Error\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ impossible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Misunderstanding\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ words\\ are\\ right\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Exegesis\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ explain\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Applied\\ to\\ Biblical\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Process\\ of\\ deciding\\ what\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hermeneutics\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ interpret\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Similar\\ to\\ exegesis\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tertullian\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ has\\ Athens\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ Jerusalem\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nothing\\:\\ Athens\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ \\(Tertullian\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ claims\\ that\\ Classical\\ learning\\ is\\ necessary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ are\\ his\\ views\\ on\\ Astronomy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ advises\\ using\\ secular\\ learning\\ to\\ better\\ understand\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ but\\ without\\ enjoying\\ it\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Distinction\\ between\\ uti\\ and\\ frui\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Distinction\\ between\\ using\\ secular\\ learning\\ and\\ enjoying\\ it\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Using\\ is\\ acceptable\\,\\ but\\ enjoyment\\ is\\ not\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Principles\\ of\\ Interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Even\\ if\\ you\\ know\\ your\\ languages\\ and\\ secular\\ disciplines\\,\\ you\\ still\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ enough\\ to\\ read\\ the\\ Bible\\ correctly\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Faith\\ will\\ guide\\ you\\ to\\ reading\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Unless\\ you\\ believe\\,\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ understand\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Unless\\ you\\ believe\\,\\ you\\ will\\ not\\ stand\\ firm\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ is\\ never\\ a\\ text\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ by\\ itself\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Doctrines\\ of\\ faith\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ has\\ many\\ meanings\\ all\\ at\\ once\\,\\ all\\ true\\,\\ and\\ all\\ willed\\ by\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Three\\ senses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Literal\\ or\\ historical\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ customs\\ that\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sense\\ of\\ cultural\\ distance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Take\\ into\\ account\\ that\\ the\\ text\\ was\\ written\\ for\\ another\\ people\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Figurative\\ \\(non\\-literal\\)\\ interpretations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Allegorical\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spiritual\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Typological\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Idea\\ that\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\ foreshadows\\ or\\ announces\\ the\\ New\\ Testament\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Old\\ is\\ revealed\\ in\\ the\\ New\\,\\ the\\ New\\ is\\ concealed\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Figurative\\ interpretations\\ follow\\ rules\\ and\\ limits\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Use\\ clear\\ passages\\ to\\ explicate\\ obscure\\ ones\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Comparisons\\ help\\ explain\\ unclear\\ passages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Apply\\ the\\ rule\\ of\\ faith\\ set\\ by\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christian\\ doctrines\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Love\\ and\\ charity\\ are\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ Christian\\ Doctrine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ examples\\ of\\ Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ figurative\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parable\\ of\\ the\\ good\\ Samaritan\\ \\(Luke\\ 10\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Secondary\\ source\\ that\\ is\\ paraphrasing\\ Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ message\\ \\(Early\\ Christian\\ Doctrines\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cosmic\\ story\\ of\\ how\\ mankind\\ has\\ fallen\\,\\ tempted\\ by\\ the\\ devil\\,\\ but\\ Christ\\ takes\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ heals\\ him\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Song\\ of\\ Songs\\ \\(New\\ Jerusalem\\ Bible\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Poem\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;your\\ hair\\&hellip\\;\\ your\\ teeth\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ \\(De\\ Doctrina\\ Christiana\\,\\ II\\,\\ vi\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spun\\ another\\ reading\\ of\\ the\\ lines\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ emphasizes\\ in\\ Augustine\\ that\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ inerrant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ something\\ seems\\ contradictory\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ disproved\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ that\\ Scripture\\ said\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ now\\ false\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ you\\ that\\ misinterpreted\\ it\\ and\\ your\\ ignorance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ says\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ conflict\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\ of\\ how\\ one\\ non\\-literal\\ reading\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ became\\ standard\\ during\\ Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cosmas\\ Indicopleustes\\,\\ Christian\\ Topography\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ are\\ the\\ heavens\\ arranged\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vaults\\,\\ cloth\\,\\ tent\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ was\\ considered\\ by\\ science\\ about\\ the\\ heavens\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Earth\\ was\\ a\\ sphere\\ with\\ everything\\ around\\ it\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ contested\\ that\\ the\\ Earth\\ was\\ round\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Idea\\ that\\ the\\ earth\\ was\\ flat\\ was\\ never\\ maintained\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Like\\ a\\ tent\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Like\\ a\\ cloth\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ a\\ vivid\\ metaphor\\ for\\ the\\ people\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cosmas\\ Indicopleustes\\ offers\\ a\\ treasure\\ chest\\ as\\ the\\ model\\ for\\ the\\ heavens\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tertullian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Apologetics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pagans\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Neo\\-Platonists\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heretics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pelagians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Manicheans\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Exegesis\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hermeneutics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Literal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Historical\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Figurative\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Allegorical\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Typological\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Augustine"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.440794+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aristotle in the Medieval University", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 647, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aristotle\\ in\\ the\\ Medieval\\ University\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 11\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Augustine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Legacy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lays\\ out\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ biblical\\ interpretations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Writing\\ during\\ the\\ early\\ Christian\\ period\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Period\\ of\\ retrenchment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fall\\ of\\ Rome\\ and\\ barbarian\\ invasions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ languages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spanish\\,\\ French\\,\\ Italian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Split\\ between\\ sacred\\ language\\ \\(Latin\\)\\ and\\ vernacular\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Loss\\ of\\ contact\\ with\\ Greek\\ and\\ ancient\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knowledge\\ and\\ awareness\\ of\\ Greek\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mode\\ of\\ transmission\\ during\\ this\\ period\\ is\\ textbooks\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Boethius\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reported\\ the\\ basics\\ of\\ Aristotelian\\ philosophy\\ in\\ his\\ Latin\\ textbooks\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Isidore\\ of\\ Seville\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustinian\\ line\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ ancient\\ learning\\ to\\ help\\ interpret\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Basic\\ arithmetic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Seven\\ liberal\\ arts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pagans\\ and\\ Christians\\ use\\ this\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Seven\\ disciplines\\ under\\ two\\ clusters\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Trivium\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Grammar\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Understand\\ Latin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rhetoric\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Persuasion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dialectic\\/logic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Quadrivium\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Arithmetic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Geometry\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Astronomy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Music\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intervals\\,\\ ratios\\,\\ and\\ chords\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mostly\\ neglected\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Allegorical\\ reading\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ to\\ when\\ things\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Want\\ to\\ enrich\\ the\\ full\\ complexity\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Every\\ detail\\ has\\ a\\ reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Applying\\ allegorical\\ reading\\ to\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\:\\ Unicornis\\ \\(no\\ author\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christian\\ reading\\ that\\ unicorn\\ is\\ Jesus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christians\\ believe\\ that\\ God\\ created\\ a\\ world\\ that\\ is\\ good\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Optimistic\\ view\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nature\\ is\\ good\\ and\\ can\\ teach\\ us\\ about\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ contrast\\ with\\ neo\\-Platonic\\ notion\\ that\\ the\\ material\\ world\\ limits\\ our\\ understanding\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rise\\ of\\ Universities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Founding\\ of\\ universities\\ in\\ Northern\\ Europe\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ institution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Model\\ in\\ the\\ Islamic\\ madrasa\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Peculiarly\\ Christian\\ institution\\,\\ under\\ clerical\\ control\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ kinds\\ of\\ clerics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Secular\\,\\ regular\\ and\\ mendicant\\ orders\\/friars\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cathedral\\ schools\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Teaching\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ cathedral\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Training\\ priests\\ and\\ future\\ clerics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Begin\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ circulation\\ of\\ students\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>International\\ movement\\ of\\ students\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Europe\\ is\\ picking\\ up\\ economically\\ \\(1000\\ \\-1300\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Feudalism\\ is\\ consolidating\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>France\\ and\\ England\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ wealth\\ makes\\ it\\ possible\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ good\\ teachers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ models\\ of\\ institutions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Southern\\ model\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Northern\\ model\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Higher\\ faculty\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ hierarchy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Means\\ of\\ deciding\\ what\\ is\\ orthodox\\ and\\ spreading\\ it\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pope\\ sees\\ the\\ university\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ vehicle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Kings\\ like\\ universities\\ because\\ they\\ strengthen\\ a\\ city\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>City\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ feudal\\ powerbase\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ favorable\\ for\\ kings\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Local\\ ecclesiastic\\ authorities\\ want\\ to\\ keep\\ teachers\\ in\\ line\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Many\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ different\\ interests\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ taught\\ in\\ the\\ university\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Three\\ kinds\\ of\\ clergy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Secular\\ clergy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Priests\\,\\ bishops\\,\\ cardinals\\,\\ and\\ Pope\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Administrative\\ arm\\ of\\ the\\ church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Regular\\ clergy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ engaged\\ in\\ administration\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Take\\ orders\\ and\\ adopt\\ a\\ rule\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rule\\ of\\ Saint\\ Benedict\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Stay\\ in\\ the\\ house\\ you\\ are\\ assigned\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vows\\ of\\ silence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Abstinence\\ vows\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mendicant\\ friars\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Begging\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ group\\ that\\ wants\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ new\\ order\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Movement\\ of\\ renewal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ in\\ want\\ of\\ property\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Beg\\ for\\ their\\ living\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Major\\ players\\ in\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Paris\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Franciscans\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dominicans\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Doctrinal\\ differences\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scholasticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Teaching\\ of\\ philosophy\\ or\\ arts\\ and\\ sciences\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scholastic\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Medicine\\ and\\ law\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philosophy\\ is\\ the\\ prep\\ to\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lectures\\ and\\ disputations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oral\\ presentation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Disputation\\ in\\ which\\ two\\ masters\\ argue\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Distinction\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Key\\ to\\ reconciling\\ religion\\ and\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sic\\ et\\ non\\ \\(thus\\ and\\ not\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Objections\\ and\\ responses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Airing\\ of\\ conflicting\\ views\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Difficulty\\ in\\ figuring\\ out\\ what\\ was\\ said\\ in\\ classrooms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reception\\ of\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ the\\ 13\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Universities\\ had\\ statutes\\ and\\ regulations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Read\\ and\\ finish\\ texts\\ by\\ certain\\ dates\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ do\\ they\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ the\\ university\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Regulations\\ tell\\ us\\ what\\ the\\ problems\\ are\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ 13\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ we\\ get\\ \\&ldquo\\;do\\ not\\ teach\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Condemnations\\ \\(1210\\,\\ 1270\\,\\ 1272\\,\\ 1277\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tells\\ us\\ what\\ was\\ being\\ taught\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ corroborating\\ evidence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transmission\\ routes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Direct\\ Greek\\-Latin\\ transmission\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>12\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ translated\\ from\\ Greek\\ into\\ Latin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Happens\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ universities\\ are\\ forming\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Commentary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Muslim\\ philosopher\\ Ibn\\ Rushd\\ or\\ Averroes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Irrational\\ reception\\ of\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ Islam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Averroes\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ commentator\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ being\\ condemned\\ in\\ 1277\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>277\\ errors\\ listed\\ by\\ the\\ bishop\\ of\\ Paris\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Busy\\ complaining\\ about\\ what\\ other\\ clerics\\ are\\ teaching\\ the\\ city\\ \\(not\\ effective\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>That\\ there\\ was\\ not\\ first\\ man\\,\\ nor\\ will\\ there\\ be\\ a\\ last\\;\\ on\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ there\\ always\\ was\\ and\\ always\\ will\\ be\\ generation\\ of\\ man\\ from\\ man\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ eternal\\ cycle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ eternity\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>That\\ the\\ first\\ cause\\ could\\ not\\ make\\ several\\ worlds\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Plurality\\ of\\ worlds\\ was\\ never\\ a\\ Christian\\ idea\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philosopher\\ can\\ not\\ tell\\ God\\ that\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>That\\ nothing\\ should\\ be\\ believed\\ unless\\ it\\ is\\ self\\-evident\\ or\\ could\\ be\\ asserted\\ from\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ self\\-evident\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ is\\ not\\ self\\-evident\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>That\\ on\\ any\\ question\\,\\ a\\ man\\ ought\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ satisfied\\ with\\ certitude\\ based\\ upon\\ authority\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Certitude\\ comes\\ from\\ authority\\ in\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ has\\ the\\ license\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Descendent\\ from\\ Peter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>That\\ our\\ will\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ celestial\\ bodies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Condemning\\ astrology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Idea\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ Zodiac\\ and\\ planetary\\ conjunctions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christians\\ think\\ that\\ astrology\\ can\\ predispose\\ you\\ but\\ you\\ are\\ always\\ in\\ control\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Actions\\ are\\ never\\ necessitated\\ by\\ heavenly\\ influences\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Or\\ else\\ sin\\ and\\ punishment\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ possible\\ in\\ the\\ afterlife\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scholastic\\ distinction\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Resolution\\ of\\ some\\ tensions\\ with\\ the\\ scholastic\\ distinction\\ between\\ the\\ absolute\\ power\\ and\\ the\\ ordained\\ power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ limits\\ himself\\ voluntarily\\ to\\ follow\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ he\\ chose\\ to\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>He\\ could\\ choose\\ to\\ not\\ limit\\ himself\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ freely\\ limits\\ his\\ absolute\\ power\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ the\\ ordained\\ power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Absolute\\ possibility\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ could\\ change\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Miracles\\ included\\ in\\ this\\ realm\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Absolute\\ impossibility\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ is\\ limited\\ by\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ logic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>He\\ cannot\\ create\\ logical\\ contradictions\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ square\\ circle\\ or\\ 2\\+2\\ \\=\\ 5\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Miracles\\ bumped\\ into\\ this\\ realm\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Laws\\ of\\ nature\\ mostly\\ hold\\ and\\ have\\ an\\ all\\-powerful\\ God\\ that\\ could\\ change\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pierre\\ Duhem\\ \\(1861\\-1916\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1277\\ liberated\\ Christians\\ from\\ the\\ shackles\\ of\\ Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Duhem\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ condemnation\\ of\\ 1277\\ helped\\ create\\ \\&ldquo\\;modern\\ science\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ freeing\\ Western\\ thought\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;shackles\\ of\\ Aristotle\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ plausibly\\ 1277\\ was\\ a\\ last\\,\\ failed\\ attempt\\ to\\ keep\\ Aristotle\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ scholastic\\ curriculum\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ curriculum\\ was\\ not\\ harmed\\ by\\ the\\ condemnations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rationalism\\ enters\\ Christian\\ philosophy\\ and\\ stayed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Many\\ eager\\ university\\ master\\ that\\ wanted\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ hold\\ of\\ this\\ store\\ of\\ well\\-thought\\ out\\ rational\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Synthesis\\ of\\ reconciliation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bestiary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Seven\\ liberal\\ arts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>University\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Faculties\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Disputation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>sic\\ et\\ non\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Distinction\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Peter\\ Lombard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sentences\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Regular\\ clergy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mendicant\\ orders\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Secular\\ clergy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Etienne\\ Tempier\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Condemnations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pierre\\ Duhem\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Duhem\\ thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aristotle in the Medieval University"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.468818+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Historian's Toolkit", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 648, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Full\\ Course\\ Session\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Historian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Toolkit\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friday\\,\\ February\\ 13\\,\\ 2009\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Finding\\ a\\ Topic\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Primary\\ source\\ and\\ secondary\\ sources\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ time\\ and\\ place\\ you\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ are\\ interested\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Is\\ there\\ a\\ foreign\\ language\\ you\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ are\\ interested\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reading\\ secondary\\ sources\\ for\\ ideas\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reading\\ for\\ the\\ course\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\God\\ and\\ Nature\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ place\\ to\\ start\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Science\\ and\\ Religion\\:\\ Some\\ Historical\\ Perspectives\\<\\/i\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Science\\ and\\ Religion\\:\\ an\\ historical\\ introduction\\<\\/i\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Religion\\ in\\ the\\ Western\\ tradition\\:\\ an\\ encyclopedia\\<\\/i\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Primary\\ Sources\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\,\\ Aquinas\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Textual\\ analysis\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Treatises\\ by\\ individuals\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Poets\\ and\\ poetry\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Literary\\ creation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Book\\ reviews\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interviews\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Web\\ sources\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Court\\ cases\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transcripts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Secondary\\ Sources\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sources\\ that\\ reflect\\ on\\ the\\ past\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Historiographical\\ paper\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contextualize\\ historians\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\HOLLIS\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Books\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Journal\\ titles\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Modify\\ search\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Library\\ distinctions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lamont\\:\\ teaching\\ books\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Widener\\:\\ all\\ books\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Houghton\\:\\ rare\\ books\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Accessible\\ online\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Subject\\ headings\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Catalogs\\ beyond\\ Harvard\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>WorldCat\\ Search\\ \\(OCLC\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>RefWorks\\ \\(bibliography\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Historical\\ Abstracts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>European\\ history\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\JSTOR\\ \\(limited\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Historian's Toolkit"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.482518+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aquinas and Problem of the Eternity of the World", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 649, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aquinas\\ and\\ Problem\\ of\\ the\\ Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ World\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ February\\ 18\\,\\ 2009\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bishop\\ of\\ Paris\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Attempt\\ to\\ keep\\ Aristotle\\ out\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Condemnations\\ of\\ 1277\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tensions\\ between\\ secular\\ clergies\\ and\\ friars\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ church\\ with\\ different\\ groups\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Medieval\\ Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ a\\ single\\ defining\\ orthodoxy\\ as\\ in\\ after\\ the\\ Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Impact\\ that\\ Protestant\\ Reformation\\ has\\ on\\ Catholicism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aquinas\\ promoted\\ to\\ the\\ doctor\\ of\\ the\\ church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Special\\ honor\\ only\\ given\\ to\\ saints\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Foundational\\ figures\\ of\\ orthodox\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1879\\,\\ Aquinas\\ was\\ called\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ Catholic\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aquinas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fortunes\\ went\\ up\\ after\\ his\\ immediate\\ time\\ period\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ three\\ intellectual\\ options\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Aquinas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Works\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Handwriting\\ was\\ terrible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Most\\ of\\ his\\ writing\\ was\\ dictated\\ to\\ scribes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Medieval\\ manuscripts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Context\\ of\\ Texts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ goal\\ as\\ a\\ historian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>To\\ determine\\ context\\,\\ must\\ consider\\ other\\ options\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ lets\\ ancient\\ philosophy\\ in\\ \\(relatively\\ liberal\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ look\\ different\\ when\\ new\\ options\\ come\\ on\\ the\\ scene\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ becomes\\ available\\ directly\\ \\(translated\\ to\\ Latin\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Complete\\ Aristotelian\\ texts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philosophers\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Condemnations\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ impact\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Three\\ Main\\ Points\\ of\\ Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Immortality\\ of\\ the\\ Soul\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ not\\ concerned\\ with\\ personal\\ immortality\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ believes\\ in\\ collective\\ immortality\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lose\\ possibility\\ of\\ reward\\ and\\ punishment\\ in\\ the\\ afterlife\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ordained\\ Power\\ and\\ Absolute\\ Power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scholastic\\ distinction\\ that\\ helps\\ people\\ live\\ with\\ what\\ is\\ a\\ regular\\ nature\\ and\\ without\\ constraining\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Necessity\\ of\\ natural\\ law\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christians\\ want\\ to\\ reserve\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ God\\ to\\ create\\ miracles\\,\\ suspend\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ World\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Eternity\\ of\\ World\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ sees\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ eternal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Chain\\ of\\ causation\\ seems\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ indefinitely\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Does\\ have\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ an\\ unmoved\\ mover\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christians\\ need\\ creation\\,\\ fundamental\\ part\\ of\\ Bible\\ and\\ Christian\\ worldview\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Spectrum\\ of\\ Positions\\ in\\ 13\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\-century\\ Paris\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Siger\\ of\\ Brabant\\ \\(1281\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Comes\\ to\\ Paris\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ high\\ points\\ of\\ Christian\\ theology\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Structure\\ of\\ the\\ university\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Undergraduate\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Move\\ on\\ the\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Professional\\ philosophers\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Over\\ time\\,\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ moving\\ on\\ from\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Enjoy\\ teaching\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ independent\\ is\\ the\\ philosophy\\ program\\ from\\ the\\ theology\\ program\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Siger\\ proclaims\\ the\\ independence\\ of\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;We\\ seek\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ philosophers\\ in\\ this\\ matter\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ since\\ we\\ proceed\\ philosophically\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Now\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ in\\ which\\ way\\ the\\ human\\ species\\ is\\ considered\\ by\\ philosophers\\ eternal\\ and\\ caused\\&hellip\\;\\ previous\\ non\\-existence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(reading\\,\\ p\\.\\ 85\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotelian\\ view\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rationalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Averroism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Latin\\ Averroism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Averroes\\ was\\ an\\ esoteric\\ philosopher\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Never\\ broadly\\ distributed\\ in\\ Islam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Siger\\ was\\ assassinated\\ by\\ a\\ crazy\\ secretary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Siger\\ never\\ thought\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ bad\\ Christian\\,\\ Catholic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Independence\\ of\\ philosophy\\ in\\ the\\ universities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Combined\\ with\\ fideism\\ \\(belief\\ by\\ faith\\ alone\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Combines\\ reason\\ and\\ philosophy\\ with\\ ultimate\\ leap\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ perfectly\\ orthodox\\ and\\ reasonable\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ parts\\ to\\ that\\ intellectual\\ position\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philosophy\\ and\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpreted\\ in\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ as\\ free\\-thinking\\ \\(early\\ atheism\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpretation\\ is\\ untenable\\ to\\ contextual\\ historian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Goes\\ to\\ the\\ Pope\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ trouble\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Philosophy\\ is\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ its\\ own\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Accused\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ leading\\ to\\ a\\ double\\ truth\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fideism\\ and\\ rationalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Double\\ truths\\ are\\ considered\\ untenable\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustine\\ said\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ only\\ one\\ truth\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Challenging\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ is\\ unreasonable\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Major\\ source\\ is\\ Averroes\\,\\ the\\ Commentator\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bonaventure\\ \\(d\\.\\ 1274\\)\\,\\ Franciscan\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conservative\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ is\\ a\\ divine\\ gift\\ flawed\\ by\\ the\\ Fall\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ cannot\\ find\\ truth\\ alone\\,\\ always\\ needs\\ guidance\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Arguments\\ from\\ reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bonaventure\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ on\\ reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ is\\ divine\\ gift\\,\\ but\\ humans\\ suffered\\ the\\ Fall\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Our\\ reason\\ has\\ been\\ damaged\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cannot\\ trust\\ it\\ to\\ reach\\ conclusions\\ unguided\\ by\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ needs\\ guidance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cannot\\ think\\ straight\\ without\\ the\\ guidance\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\-truth\\ position\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Uses\\ Aquinas\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ about\\ footprints\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Footprint\\ and\\ foot\\ strike\\ happens\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ but\\ footprint\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ foot\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intricate\\ arguments\\ that\\ make\\ sure\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ faith\\ is\\ maintained\\ and\\ that\\ reason\\ cannot\\ be\\ used\\ by\\ itself\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Main\\ source\\ is\\ Augustine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ properly\\ exercised\\ proves\\ creation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ is\\ guided\\ by\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Thomas\\ Aquinas\\ \\(1227\\-1274\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ Truth\\ \\(against\\ Siger\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ decide\\ whether\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ eternal\\ or\\ not\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ and\\ faith\\ in\\ harmony\\;\\ reason\\ cannot\\ contradict\\ faith\\,\\ but\\ reason\\ has\\ its\\ limits\\ \\(source\\:\\ Maimonides\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ does\\ not\\ lead\\ you\\ astray\\,\\ but\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ points\\ of\\ indecision\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Preambles\\ of\\ faith\\ vs\\.\\ mysteries\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ proves\\ all\\ kinds\\ of\\ things\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Existence\\ of\\ God\\,\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ good\\,\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ one\\,\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ all\\-powerful\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ will\\ find\\ no\\ error\\,\\ but\\ need\\ to\\ add\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Preamble\\ of\\ faith\\ is\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ one\\,\\ but\\ the\\ mystery\\ of\\ faith\\ is\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ three\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ can\\ only\\ go\\ so\\ far\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Revelation\\ is\\ needed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Creation\\ is\\ a\\ mystery\\ of\\ faith\\ for\\ Aquinas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ the\\ risk\\ in\\ proving\\ creation\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Maybe\\ reasoned\\ arguments\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ very\\ strong\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Risk\\ of\\ scandal\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\ by\\ abusing\\ reason\\ \\(against\\ Bonaventure\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bad\\ for\\ the\\ Church\\ to\\ support\\ it\\ poorly\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ a\\ strongly\\ supported\\ set\\ of\\ doctrines\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;In\\ points\\ which\\ are\\ obscure\\&hellip\\;\\ let\\ us\\ not\\ commit\\ ourselves\\ to\\ any\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ with\\ such\\ precipitous\\ obstinacy\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\ may\\ fall\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ and\\ we\\ with\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Using\\ reason\\ to\\ support\\ religious\\ positions\\ can\\ be\\ dangerous\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aquinas\\ one\\ of\\ many\\ scholastic\\ theologians\\,\\ the\\ favorite\\ of\\ the\\ Dominicans\\;\\ canonized\\ in\\ 1323\\;\\ declared\\ doctor\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ in\\ 1567\\;\\ in\\ 1879\\ upheld\\ as\\ the\\ model\\ for\\ Catholic\\ theoogy\\ by\\ Pope\\ Leo\\ XIII\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;God\\ could\\ make\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ always\\ existed\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ his\\ power\\ is\\ infinite\\ \\(p\\.\\ 18\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;All\\ we\\ can\\ say\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ eternal\\ if\\ God\\ wills\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ so\\,\\ since\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ depends\\ on\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ will\\ as\\ on\\ its\\ cause\\.\\ Consequently\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ exist\\ always\\.\\ Hence\\ no\\ demonstrative\\ proof\\ is\\ possible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 61\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reason\\ and\\ faith\\ must\\ be\\ in\\ harmony\\ \\(Augustinian\\ line\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Radical\\ Aristotelianism\\ \\=\\ Latin\\ Averroism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Siger\\ of\\ Brabant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bonaventure\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aquinas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Double\\ truth\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fideism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rationalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Averroes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Maimonides\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Preambles\\ of\\ faith\\ vs\\.\\ mysteries\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ truth\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scandal\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Post\\-lapsarian\\ \\(after\\ the\\ Fall\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aquinas and Problem of the Eternity of the World"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.507925+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reformation and Counter-Reformation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 650, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reformation\\ and\\ Counter\\-Reformation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ February\\ 23\\,\\ 2009\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Question\\ Response\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ did\\ Aristotle\\ get\\ let\\ into\\ the\\ medieval\\ universities\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Group\\ of\\ philosophers\\ that\\ stay\\ as\\ philosophers\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Level\\ of\\ investigation\\ of\\ philosophical\\ questions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Medieval\\ church\\ was\\ not\\ on\\ the\\ defensive\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Early\\ Modern\\ Period\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christianity\\ will\\ be\\ splintered\\ permanently\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotle\\ will\\ undergo\\ scientific\\ attacks\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reformation\\ and\\ counter\\-reformation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aquinas\\ and\\ Galileo\\ \\(main\\ points\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Causes\\ of\\ the\\ Reformation\\ \\(starts\\ with\\ Luther\\,\\ 1517\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ religious\\ reform\\ movement\\ which\\ spread\\ like\\ none\\ before\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Printing\\;\\ protection\\ by\\ German\\ princes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ one\\ thought\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ permanent\\ schism\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Printing\\ made\\ it\\ possible\\ for\\ Luther\\&rsquo\\;s\\ views\\ to\\ be\\ spread\\ rapidly\\ and\\ to\\ a\\ broader\\ base\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protection\\ by\\ princes\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ happy\\ to\\ rebel\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Religious\\ decisions\\ were\\ laced\\ with\\ politics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heightened\\ concern\\ about\\ abuses\\ due\\ to\\ religious\\ anxiety\\ among\\ the\\ laity\\ \\(indulgences\\ sold\\ without\\ contrition\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Selling\\ of\\ indulgences\\ in\\ Germany\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Indulgence\\ is\\ an\\ award\\ for\\ the\\ faithful\\ who\\ atoned\\ for\\ sins\\ and\\ expressing\\ contrition\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Faithful\\ can\\ acquire\\ time\\ off\\ of\\ purgatory\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reward\\ for\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ do\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Indulgences\\ were\\ sold\\ like\\ a\\ commercial\\ transaction\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ confession\\ and\\ contrition\\ cycle\\ to\\ prepare\\ for\\ indulgences\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ many\\ abuses\\ that\\ even\\ people\\ within\\ the\\ Catholic\\ church\\ were\\ aware\\ about\\ and\\ complained\\ about\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Humanism\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;ad\\ fonts\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ original\\ Church\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reemergence\\ of\\ sudden\\ death\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sudden\\ death\\ is\\ the\\ worst\\ thing\\ that\\ could\\ happen\\ to\\ you\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Plague\\ enters\\ Europe\\ in\\ 1386\\ and\\ then\\ becomes\\ endemic\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Constant\\ cycles\\ of\\ Plague\\ until\\ late\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>While\\ Plague\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ sudden\\ death\\ disease\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ factor\\ for\\ heightened\\ religious\\ anxiety\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Humanism\\ is\\ a\\ secular\\ movement\\ about\\ looking\\ back\\ to\\ ancient\\ texts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Humanists\\ are\\ big\\ about\\ learning\\ Greek\\ themselves\\ and\\ realized\\ that\\ Aristotle\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ only\\ ancient\\ philosopher\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Multiple\\ ancient\\ philosophies\\ \\(attempts\\ to\\ Christianize\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Plato\\ was\\ a\\ solace\\ to\\ some\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Back\\ to\\ the\\ sources\\ move\\ yields\\ attempts\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Greek\\ and\\ Hebrew\\ Bibles\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Desire\\ to\\ reconnect\\ with\\ the\\ sources\\ themselves\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Back\\ to\\ the\\ sources\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;ad\\ fonts\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ fathers\\ \\(Augustine\\,\\ Ambrose\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Disregard\\ Lombard\\ sentences\\ and\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ real\\ thing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Complex\\ doctrines\\ of\\ salvation\\ and\\ Eucharist\\ open\\ to\\ multiple\\ interpretations\\ and\\ emphases\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Basic\\ ambiguity\\ of\\ Christine\\ doctrine\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Key\\ reason\\ for\\ different\\ interpretations\\ of\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ doctrines\\:\\ Sola\\ fide\\ \\(justification\\ by\\ faith\\ alone\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Because\\ of\\ the\\ Fall\\ \\(original\\ sin\\)\\,\\ salvation\\ is\\ possible\\ only\\ by\\ divine\\ grace\\ \\(but\\ can\\ humans\\ elicit\\ grace\\ through\\ good\\ works\\?\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Can\\ only\\ be\\ saved\\ by\\ a\\ gift\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ pulls\\ you\\ up\\ to\\ salvation\\ \\(why\\?\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ good\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Can\\ you\\ manifest\\ your\\ desire\\ for\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grace\\ by\\ doing\\ good\\ work\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pelagianism\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Yes\\,\\ if\\ you\\ behave\\ well\\,\\ you\\ can\\ actually\\ erase\\ original\\ sin\\ and\\ be\\ saved\\ on\\ your\\ own\\ merit\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Augustinianism\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;sola\\ fide\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\,\\ nothing\\ a\\ human\\ can\\ do\\ can\\ save\\ you\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Antinomianism\\ \\(lawlessness\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Predestination\\:\\ God\\ knows\\ ahead\\ of\\ time\\ who\\ is\\ damned\\ and\\ who\\ is\\ saved\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Difference\\ between\\ Catholics\\ who\\ believe\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ faith\\ and\\ do\\ good\\ works\\,\\ while\\ Protestants\\ believe\\ that\\ there\\ really\\ is\\ nothing\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ \\(but\\ you\\ will\\ do\\ good\\ works\\ without\\ the\\ intent\\ of\\ being\\ saved\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Luther\\ calls\\ it\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;sweet\\ doctrine\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ relieves\\ anxiety\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Consolation\\ to\\ him\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ assume\\ you\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ good\\ side\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Liberates\\ you\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;monkery\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>With\\ confidence\\ of\\ being\\ chosen\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ relief\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sola\\ scriptura\\ \\(doctrine\\ by\\ scripture\\ alone\\,\\ without\\ tradition\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Luther\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faith\\ in\\ clarity\\ of\\ Scripture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ must\\ recognize\\ that\\ Scripture\\ is\\ of\\ itself\\ most\\ certain\\,\\ simple\\ and\\ open\\.\\ Scripture\\ is\\ its\\ own\\ interpreter\\,\\ proving\\,\\ judging\\,\\ and\\ illuminating\\ everything\\ \\(Luther\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spends\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ reading\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\(Vulgate\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Bible\\ speaks\\ for\\ itself\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Does\\ not\\ see\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ line\\ of\\ interpreters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Finds\\ meaning\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ himself\\,\\ clear\\ to\\ him\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Expects\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ agree\\ with\\ him\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Literalism\\,\\ against\\ allegory\\ in\\ any\\ case\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ interpret\\ everything\\ literally\\ whenever\\ you\\ can\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Differs\\ from\\ Augustine\\ because\\ Augustine\\ believes\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ allegorical\\ or\\ deeper\\ meaning\\ that\\ enriches\\ your\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ text\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Translates\\ New\\ Testament\\ into\\ German\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rejects\\ allegorical\\ interpretation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpretation\\ takes\\ guidance\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Envisions\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;priesthood\\ of\\ all\\ believers\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Irreconcilable\\ differences\\ with\\ Zwingli\\ and\\ Calvin\\ over\\ Eucharist\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Majority\\ of\\ the\\ faithful\\ would\\ only\\ take\\ communion\\ at\\ Easter\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ symbolized\\ in\\ the\\ eating\\ of\\ a\\ wafer\\ and\\ a\\ wine\\ that\\ is\\ blessed\\ by\\ a\\ priest\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Catholic\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\ is\\ a\\ notion\\ of\\ matter\\ and\\ form\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Substance\\ is\\ transformed\\ into\\ flesh\\ and\\ blood\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transubstantiation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Luther\\ goes\\ for\\ real\\ presence\\ of\\ Jesus\\ in\\ the\\ bread\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ wine\\ but\\ you\\ also\\ have\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\ \\(consubstantiation\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Calvin\\ believes\\ in\\ a\\ virtual\\ presence\\ \\(spiritual\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Zwingli\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ symbol\\,\\ just\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Confessionalization\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Magisterial\\ Reformations\\ impose\\ a\\ catechism\\ to\\ direct\\ the\\ faithful\\ in\\ interpreting\\ Bible\\ and\\ doctrine\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ teaching\\ philosophy\\ in\\ their\\ universities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Luther\\ and\\ Calvin\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Melanchthon\\ and\\ Beza\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Most\\ people\\ will\\ read\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ memorize\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ tradition\\ and\\ catechism\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Radical\\ Reformers\\ who\\ reject\\ authority\\ of\\ Church\\ fathers\\,\\ have\\ little\\ interest\\ in\\ theology\\,\\ and\\ persecuted\\ almost\\ everywhere\\ in\\ Europe\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ any\\ tradition\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ruler\\ could\\ impose\\ its\\ religion\\ on\\ his\\ people\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Radical\\ reformers\\ come\\ to\\ America\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ hated\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Religious\\ refugees\\ can\\ come\\ to\\ America\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Counter\\-Reformation\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ Catholic\\ Reformation\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ response\\ to\\ Protestant\\ schism\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ reasserts\\ faith\\ and\\ good\\ works\\ and\\ scripture\\ and\\ tradition\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ Protestantism\\ does\\ to\\ Catholicism\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Response\\ to\\ the\\ Protestant\\ challenge\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ comes\\ down\\ much\\ harder\\ on\\ questions\\ it\\ had\\ ignored\\ or\\ not\\ legislated\\ on\\ before\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Faith\\ and\\ good\\ works\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scripture\\ and\\ tradition\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Vulgate\\ \\(Jerome\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ translations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Erasmus\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Polyglot\\ Bibles\\ by\\ Catholics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pre\\-Counter\\-Reformation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ you\\ start\\ messing\\ with\\ the\\ text\\,\\ will\\ it\\ stop\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vulgate\\ only\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protestantism\\ starts\\ in\\ 1517\\,\\ and\\ Catholics\\ hoped\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ fade\\ away\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Missions\\ to\\ reconvert\\ Protestants\\ \\(by\\ Jesuits\\)\\ and\\ to\\ enforce\\ orthodoxy\\ \\(Index\\ of\\ forbidden\\ books\\,\\ 1559\\;\\ inquisition\\ revitalized\\ in\\ Rome\\,\\ 1542\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jesuits\\ called\\ themselves\\ the\\ Soldiers\\ of\\ the\\ Pope\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;If\\ we\\ wish\\ to\\ be\\ sure\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ right\\ in\\ all\\ things\\,\\ we\\ should\\ always\\ be\\ ready\\ to\\ accept\\ this\\ principle\\:\\ I\\ will\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ white\\ that\\ I\\ see\\ is\\ black\\,\\ if\\ the\\ hierarchical\\ church\\ so\\ defines\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Ignatius\\ Loyola\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ Jesuit\\ order\\ \\(1540\\)\\,\\ committed\\ to\\ obedience\\ to\\ the\\ Pope\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Censorship\\ \\(pre\\-publication\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>List\\ of\\ forbidden\\ books\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>List\\ of\\ books\\ that\\ you\\ may\\ read\\ in\\ parts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Specific\\ pages\\ should\\ be\\ excised\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Any\\ praise\\ of\\ Protestants\\ and\\ doctrines\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Inquisition\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Organ\\ of\\ the\\ Catholic\\ church\\ to\\ beat\\ out\\ heresey\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Local\\ \\(Spanish\\ inquisition\\,\\ Roman\\ inquisition\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Revitalized\\ in\\ 1542\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sola\\ fide\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sola\\ scriptura\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Luther\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Zwingli\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eucharist\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transubstantiation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Real\\ presence\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Symbolic\\ presence\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Abuses\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Indulgences\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Catechism\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Magisterial\\ vs\\.\\ Radical\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reformation and Counter-Reformation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.533303+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Reception of Copernicus to 1616", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 651, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Reception\\ of\\ Copernicus\\ to\\ 1616\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ March\\ 2\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Copernicus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Tension\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Foreword\\ of\\ \\De\\ revolutionibus\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Manuscript\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Written\\ in\\ 1514\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Delay\\ in\\ publication\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sign\\ of\\ bombshell\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ did\\ the\\ bomb\\ did\\ not\\ go\\ off\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Technical\\ book\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Book\\ for\\ mathematicians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Book\\ is\\ in\\ Latin\\,\\ expensive\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Few\\ people\\ read\\ it\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Few\\ people\\ cared\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Elements\\ of\\ front\\-matter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Letter\\ of\\ endorsement\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unsigned\\ preface\\ by\\ Osiander\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Misrepresentation\\ of\\ the\\ significance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intentions\\ were\\ to\\ smooth\\ the\\ reception\\ of\\ the\\ work\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Copernicus\\ was\\ a\\ Catholic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Osiander\\ was\\ a\\ Protestant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Did\\ not\\ like\\ Copernicus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ as\\ a\\ realistic\\ model\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scientific\\ Reception\\ of\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Friends\\ he\\ could\\ do\\ without\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ direct\\ contact\\ with\\ Bruno\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bruno\\ was\\ convicted\\ on\\ standard\\ charges\\ of\\ religious\\ heresy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Few\\ people\\ embrace\\ him\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Religious\\ Reception\\ of\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Counter\\-Reformation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ \\(1545\\-63\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reform\\ the\\ Church\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ Protestant\\ challenge\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ individuals\\ interpreting\\ the\\ Bible\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ job\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Range\\ of\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Closed\\ set\\ of\\ allowable\\ interpretations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ has\\ the\\ authority\\ to\\ interpret\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ individual\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Scripture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ contradicting\\ agreement\\ of\\ Church\\ Fathers\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tolosani\\ \\(1544\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Opposes\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\,\\ 1536\\-97\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ referred\\ to\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ in\\ Job\\ 9\\:6\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;he\\ who\\ moves\\ the\\ earth\\ from\\ its\\ place\\ and\\ its\\ pillar\\ are\\ shaken\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Later\\ rejected\\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ incompatible\\ with\\ Aristotelian\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Christopher\\ Clavius\\ \\(Jesuit\\)\\ supports\\ astronomy\\ but\\ Tycho\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interested\\ in\\ teaching\\ mathematics\\ and\\ astronomy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Embraces\\ the\\ tychonic\\ \\(geocentric\\)\\ system\\ \\(1588\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tycho\\ notices\\ that\\ comets\\ and\\ novas\\ are\\ beyond\\ the\\ moon\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Galileo\\ Galilei\\ \\(1564\\-1642\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>University\\ teacher\\ of\\ mathematics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Three\\ illegitimate\\ children\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Constantly\\ in\\ debt\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Desired\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ university\\ environment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotelian\\ physics\\ and\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Correspondence\\ with\\ Kepler\\ to\\ announce\\ support\\ of\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Differences\\ in\\ personality\\ and\\ expertise\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Telescopic\\ evidence\\ \\(1610\\)\\ of\\ moons\\ of\\ Jupiter\\ \\(Medicean\\ stars\\,\\ supports\\ Copernicus\\,\\ response\\ to\\ an\\ objection\\)\\,\\ sunspots\\ \\(imperfections\\ in\\ the\\ sun\\)\\,\\ mountains\\ on\\ moon\\ \\(not\\ a\\ perfect\\ sphere\\)\\,\\ phases\\ of\\ Venus\\ \\(heliocentrism\\ predicts\\ a\\ full\\ set\\ of\\ phases\\ of\\ Venus\\,\\ as\\ for\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ which\\ became\\ visible\\ with\\ the\\ telescope\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galilean\\ telescope\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contradict\\ Aristotle\\ and\\ remove\\ objections\\ to\\ Copernicus\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ prove\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ gibbous\\ phase\\ of\\ Venus\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ Ptolemaic\\ system\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ explained\\ by\\ Tycho\\&rsquo\\;s\\ system\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ brings\\ Copernicus\\ and\\ astronomy\\ into\\ public\\ view\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Writes\\ in\\ Italian\\ \\(arguing\\ for\\ a\\ broader\\ public\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Kepler\\ in\\ 1609\\ describes\\ three\\ laws\\ of\\ planetary\\ motion\\ including\\ elliptical\\ orbits\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Kepler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ data\\ did\\ not\\ support\\ any\\ system\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;You\\ ordered\\ all\\ things\\ by\\ measure\\,\\ number\\ and\\ weight\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Wisdom\\ 11\\:21\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Argument\\ that\\ God\\ must\\ have\\ had\\ mathematical\\ laws\\ guiding\\ his\\ system\\ \\(line\\ taken\\ out\\ of\\ context\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>License\\ by\\ mathematical\\ astronomers\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ laws\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Kepler\\ had\\ excellent\\ data\\ and\\ was\\ empirically\\ rigorous\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Written\\ in\\ Latin\\ and\\ for\\ astronomers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Kepler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\ of\\ planetary\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Orbit\\ of\\ every\\ planet\\ is\\ an\\ ellipse\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\ at\\ one\\ focus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ line\\ joining\\ a\\ planet\\ and\\ the\\ sun\\ sweeps\\ out\\ equal\\ areas\\ during\\ equal\\ intervals\\ of\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ orbital\\ period\\ of\\ a\\ planet\\ squared\\ is\\ directly\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ cube\\ of\\ the\\ semi\\-major\\ axis\\ of\\ its\\ orbit\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Opposition\\ to\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scientific\\ enemies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotelian\\ university\\ professors\\ \\(pigeonists\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>From\\ the\\ pigeonists\\ \\(delle\\ Colombe\\)\\ and\\ Aris\\&rsquo\\;ns\\ at\\ university\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>From\\ Dominican\\ preachers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mass\\ media\\ at\\ the\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cacchini\\ raises\\ in\\ public\\ the\\ scriptural\\ objection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ time\\ the\\ argument\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ in\\ print\\ or\\ preaching\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protestants\\ are\\ worried\\ about\\ Copernicus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ Catholic\\ response\\ until\\ the\\ dispute\\ within\\ the\\ university\\ spills\\ over\\ to\\ a\\ broader\\ public\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Allies\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\:\\ Foscarini\\ triggers\\ Church\\ inquiry\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Foscarini\\ preaches\\ that\\ the\\ Bible\\ supports\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ his\\ actions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Condemnation\\ of\\ 1616\\:\\ heliocentrism\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ foolish\\ and\\ absurd\\ in\\ philosophy\\ and\\ formally\\ heretical\\ since\\ it\\ explicitly\\ contradicts\\ in\\ many\\ places\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ Holy\\ Scripture\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ literal\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ interpretation\\ and\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Fathers\\ and\\ doctors\\ of\\ theology\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Key\\ Terms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Prutenic\\ tables\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tolosani\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Telescope\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Phases\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mountains\\ on\\ the\\ Moon\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sunspots\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Council\\ of\\ Trent\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Index\\ of\\ forbidden\\ books\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pigeonists\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Ludovico\\ delle\\ Colombe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Reception of Copernicus to 1616"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.552534+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Trial and Condemnation of Galileo", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 652, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 11\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Trial\\ and\\ Condemnation\\ of\\ Galileo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1633\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ March\\ 4\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Conversations\\ with\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conversation\\ 1\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ \\(Copernicus\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ptolemaic\\/Aristotelians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tychonic\\ system\\ \\(Jesuits\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conversation\\ 2\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ on\\ biblical\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bellarmine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Inquisition\\/Pope\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Galileo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Letter\\ to\\ the\\ Grand\\-Duchess\\ \\(1615\\,\\ Italian\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1543\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Copernicus\\ publishes\\ \\De\\ revolutionibus\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hesitation\\ and\\ delay\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Misgiving\\ and\\ fear\\ about\\ the\\ reaction\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ reaction\\ by\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1615\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ response\\ to\\ Copernicus\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dominican\\ preachers\\ try\\ to\\ tarnish\\ Galileo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reputation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ general\\ principles\\ of\\ interpretation\\ \\(except\\ in\\ final\\ paragraphs\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Individuals\\ cannot\\ interpret\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ does\\ have\\ some\\ principles\\ that\\ he\\ declares\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ smooth\\ the\\ way\\ and\\ undo\\ the\\ arguments\\ against\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Principle\\ of\\ accommodation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ can\\ never\\ speak\\ untruth\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ abstruse\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bible\\ can\\ be\\ interpreted\\ non\\-literally\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Accommodating\\ the\\ message\\ of\\ God\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\ \\(common\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ rude\\ and\\ unlearned\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ a\\ new\\ principle\\ \\(Augustine\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heavens\\ stretched\\ out\\ like\\ a\\ tent\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpreted\\ non\\-literally\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ books\\:\\ The\\ Bible\\ and\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ truth\\:\\ Bible\\ cannot\\ contradict\\ proven\\ truths\\ of\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ wants\\ to\\ read\\ nature\\ literally\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Priority\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;book\\ of\\ nature\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nature\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ clearer\\ to\\ read\\ than\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>On\\ the\\ matter\\ of\\ physics\\,\\ we\\ should\\ start\\ with\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;I\\ think\\ that\\ in\\ discussions\\ of\\ physical\\ problems\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ begin\\ not\\ from\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ scriptural\\ passages\\,\\ but\\ from\\ sense\\-experiences\\ and\\ necessary\\ demonstrations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>God\\ gave\\ humans\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Priority\\ of\\ scientifically\\ demonstrated\\ truths\\,\\ and\\ Galileo\\ assumes\\ he\\ can\\ prove\\ heliocentricism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Risk\\ of\\ scandal\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\:\\ avoid\\ deciding\\ on\\ a\\ scientific\\ issue\\ which\\ might\\ be\\ proven\\ later\\ \\(cites\\ Augustine\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;avoid\\ saying\\ positively\\ and\\ confidently\\ anything\\ which\\ contradicts\\ manifest\\ experiences\\ and\\ the\\ reasoning\\ of\\ philosophy\\ or\\ the\\ other\\ sciences\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Authority\\ of\\ Church\\ fathers\\ only\\ applies\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ fathers\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ authority\\ on\\ matters\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ salvation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bellarmine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Response\\ \\(conversation\\ 1616\\,\\ letter\\ to\\ Foscarini\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Agrees\\ with\\ Galileo\\ on\\ all\\ points\\ except\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Everything\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ pertains\\ to\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ if\\ not\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ topic\\;\\ therefore\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ fathers\\ must\\ be\\ respect\\ on\\ all\\ points\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Nor\\ can\\ one\\ reply\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ because\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ faith\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\,\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ faith\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ letter\\ to\\ Foscarini\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heliocentrism\\ is\\ neither\\ proven\\ nor\\ provable\\:\\ therefore\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ depart\\ from\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ prove\\ that\\ heliocentricism\\ is\\ better\\ than\\ the\\ tychonic\\ system\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ reinterpret\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Condemnation\\ of\\ 1616\\ \\(vague\\,\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ Galileo\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Astronomy\\ is\\ about\\ fiction\\,\\ just\\ models\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ enough\\ truth\\ to\\ reinterpret\\ the\\ Bible\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heliocentrism\\ \\&ldquo\\;is\\ foolish\\ and\\ absurd\\ in\\ philosophy\\ and\\ formally\\ heretical\\ since\\ it\\ explicitly\\ contradicts\\ in\\ many\\ places\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ Holy\\ Scripture\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ literal\\ meanings\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ interpretation\\ and\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Fathers\\ and\\ doctors\\ of\\ theology\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ objects\\ on\\ the\\ literal\\ and\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Certificate\\ to\\ Galileo\\ that\\ he\\ may\\ discuss\\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ hypothesis\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ file\\ an\\ unsigned\\ injunction\\ that\\ Galileo\\ may\\ not\\ discuss\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bellarmine\\ warned\\ Galileo\\ that\\ the\\ above\\-mentioned\\ opinion\\ was\\ erroneous\\ and\\ he\\ should\\ abandon\\ it\\;\\ and\\ he\\ ordered\\ and\\ enjoined\\ the\\ said\\ Galileo\\ who\\ was\\ himself\\ present\\,\\ to\\ abandon\\ completely\\ the\\ above\\-mentioned\\ opinion\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ henceforth\\ not\\ to\\ hold\\,\\ teach\\,\\ or\\ defend\\ it\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ whatever\\,\\ either\\ orally\\ or\\ in\\ writing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Trial\\:\\ Did\\ Galileo\\ Disobey\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Accession\\ of\\ Urban\\ VIII\\ in\\ 1623\\:\\ okay\\ to\\ discuss\\ Copernicus\\ as\\ hypothesis\\,\\ though\\ human\\ reason\\ too\\ weak\\ to\\ know\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Dialogue\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Concerning\\ the\\ Two\\ Chief\\ Worlds\\ Systems\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\(1632\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Refutes\\ objections\\ \\(vertical\\ fall\\ and\\ projectile\\ motion\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Claims\\ to\\ prove\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ from\\ tides\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Granted\\ permission\\ to\\ publish\\ \\(friend\\ Ciampoli\\ helps\\)\\,\\ publication\\ immediately\\ causes\\ a\\ scandal\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pope\\ feels\\ ridiculed\\ that\\ his\\ argument\\ was\\ taken\\ lightly\\ and\\ felt\\ personally\\ attacked\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Trial\\ turns\\ around\\ whether\\ Galileo\\ disobeyed\\ Church\\ decrees\\ of\\ 1616\\,\\ by\\ presenting\\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Guilty\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;2nd\\ degree\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;vehement\\ suspicion\\ of\\ heresy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lesser\\ order\\ of\\ heresy\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ Bruno\\,\\ for\\ example\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Abjuration\\ and\\ house\\ arrest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Two\\ New\\ Sciences\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scientific\\ book\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Does\\ not\\ mention\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Support\\ Copernicus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Moons\\ of\\ Jupiter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mountains\\ on\\ the\\ Moon\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sunspots\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Evidence\\ against\\ sublunary\\ and\\ superlunary\\ worlds\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Perception\\ of\\ motion\\ is\\ relative\\ to\\ frame\\ of\\ reference\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Is\\ the\\ boat\\ moving\\ or\\ the\\ land\\ moving\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ perceive\\ uniform\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dropping\\ a\\ rock\\ from\\ a\\ boat\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Combination\\ of\\ two\\ motions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Response\\ to\\ an\\ objection\\,\\ does\\ not\\ prove\\ Copernicanism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Argument\\ from\\ the\\ tides\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ best\\ argument\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Trial and Condemnation of Galileo"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.575197+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Simulation of the Trial of Galileo", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 653, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Full\\ Course\\ Session\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Simulation\\ of\\ the\\ Trial\\ of\\ Galileo\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Friday\\,\\ March\\ 6\\,\\ 2009\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Galileo\\ defends\\ Copernicanism\\ against\\ Aristotelians\\ and\\ Tychonists\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Copernican\\ viewpoint\\ \\(heliocentric\\ system\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Earth\\ is\\ not\\ fixed\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Four\\ reasons\\ why\\ this\\ model\\ is\\ the\\ best\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Simple\\ model\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Geocentric\\ model\\ requires\\ epicycles\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Phases\\ of\\ Venus\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Full\\ phase\\ of\\ Venus\\ is\\ only\\ possible\\ if\\ Venus\\ orbits\\ around\\ the\\ Sun\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Jupiter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moons\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mountains\\ on\\ the\\ moon\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ a\\ perfect\\ sphere\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tidal\\ motion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rotation\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Water\\ in\\ a\\ spinning\\ bowl\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rebuttal\\ arguments\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sunspots\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Relative\\ motion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Model\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pigeonists\\ and\\ Aristotelians\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Five\\ contentions\\ \\(geocentric\\ system\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nature\\ of\\ elements\\ \\(water\\,\\ air\\,\\ earth\\,\\ fire\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sun\\ must\\ rise\\ above\\ our\\ earth\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Copernican\\ system\\ still\\ rests\\ its\\ theory\\ on\\ epicycles\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Accurate\\ predictions\\ of\\ planetary\\ movement\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Holy\\ Scripture\\ supports\\ a\\ stationary\\ earth\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cannot\\ fully\\ understand\\ the\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ system\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rebuttal\\ arguments\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spinning\\ earth\\ \\(no\\ strings\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tidal\\ motion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tychonic\\ System\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Earth\\ is\\ fixed\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ universe\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Phases\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aristotelian\\ physics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rebuttal\\ arguments\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Comprehension\\ of\\ God\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Empirical\\ evidence\\ is\\ strongest\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Galileo\\ vs\\.\\ Bellarmine\\ and\\ the\\ Papal\\ Investigation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ View\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Four\\ reasons\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Principle\\ of\\ accommodation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parts\\ of\\ scripture\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ necessarily\\ written\\ to\\ explain\\ physical\\ phenomena\\,\\ but\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ understand\\ the\\ Scripture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Passages\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ interpreted\\ literally\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Scripture\\ and\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ Nature\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ world\\ is\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creation\\ so\\ we\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ interpret\\ nature\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ the\\ more\\ complicated\\ passages\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Start\\ from\\ Nature\\ on\\ the\\ matters\\ of\\ physics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Risk\\ of\\ scandal\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ Fathers\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ authority\\ on\\ matters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rebuttal\\ arguments\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heliocentrism\\ is\\ a\\ hypothesis\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Word\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ Nature\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Signed\\ document\\ from\\ Bellarmine\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bellarmine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ View\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Church\\ Fathers\\ have\\ authority\\ on\\ all\\ matters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Individual\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ not\\ allowed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Council\\ of\\ Trent\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heliocentrism\\ is\\ not\\ proven\\ nor\\ provable\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Predictions\\ are\\ just\\ predictions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pope\\ and\\ the\\ Inquisition\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Galileo\\ is\\ insulting\\ the\\ Pope\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interpreting\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ heretical\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Violating\\ the\\ injunction\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Text\\ is\\ supporting\\ the\\ Copernican\\ system\\ as\\ a\\ true\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Simulation of the Trial of Galileo"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.592299+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Pinker 2: Linguistic Determinism and Connectionism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 654, "html": "\\\\ \\;This\\ lecture\\ picks\\ up\\ right\\ where\\ the\\ last\\ one\\ left\\ off\\.\\ The\\ reading\\ on\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\ was\\ the\\ chapter\\ from\\ The\\ Stuff\\ of\\ Thought\\,\\ the\\ readings\\ for\\ Connectionism\\ were\\ the\\ 4\\ article\\ series\\ between\\ Pinker\\ \\&\\;\\ Ullman\\ and\\ McClelland\\ \\&\\;\\ Patterson\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Linguistic\\ Determinism\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ starting\\ point\\ is\\ the\\ Whorf\\-Sapir\\ hypotheses\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Linguistic\\ determinism\\-\\-\\ One\\'s\\ language\\ determines\\ what\\ one\\ can\\ perceive\\,\\ think\\,\\ or\\ remember\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Linguistic\\ relativity\\-\\-One\\'s\\ language\\ affects\\ what\\ once\\ can\\ perceive\\,\\ think\\,\\ or\\ remember\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ viewpoint\\ is\\ widespread\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ humanities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ reasons\\ psycholinguists\\ think\\ of\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ non\\-starter\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\How\\ is\\ language\\ acquired\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\ Children\\ bootstrap\\ language\\ learning\\ with\\ other\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\,\\ especially\\ social\\ cognition\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Where\\ did\\ language\\ come\\ from\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\?\\ Language\\ is\\ itself\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ human\\ psychology\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ constantly\\ evolving\\ with\\ neologisms\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ much\\ thought\\ without\\ language\\:\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Animals\\ and\\ babies\\ show\\ many\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\ and\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ language\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Mental\\ imagery\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Adults\\ remember\\ gists\\ of\\ sentences\\,\\ not\\ the\\ words\\ themselves\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ is\\ unsuitable\\ as\\ a\\ medium\\ of\\ thought\\ for\\ many\\ reasons\\:\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Lack\\ of\\ logical\\ explicitness\\,\\ language\\ is\\ notoriously\\ crude\\ and\\ coarse\\,\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ what\\ is\\ actually\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ linguistic\\ input\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Pragmatics\\ shows\\ we\\ make\\ huge\\ non\\-linguistic\\ inferences\\ when\\ interpreting\\ others\\'\\ speech\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ is\\ too\\ ambiguous\\.\\ One\\ string\\ of\\ words\\ can\\ have\\ multiple\\ meanings\\,\\ therefore\\ words\\ and\\ meaning\\ cannot\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Synonymy\\:\\ One\\ meaning\\ can\\ be\\ expressed\\ with\\ multiple\\ strings\\ of\\ words\\ \\(the\\ inverse\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ one\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\,\\ this\\ was\\ big\\ immediately\\ following\\ behaviorism\\,\\ but\\ as\\ soon\\ after\\ the\\ cognitive\\ revolution\\ was\\ rejected\\ due\\ to\\ both\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ claim\\ itself\\ \\;\\(it\\ is\\ circular\\ to\\ use\\ language\\ as\\ both\\ explanandum\\ and\\ explanans\\,\\ and\\ the\\ claims\\ confuses\\ correlation\\ and\\ causation\\)\\,\\ and\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ on\\ color\\ universals\\ in\\ cultures\\ with\\ different\\ color\\ words\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Color\\ universal\\ studies\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Berlin\\ \\&\\;\\ Kay\\ showed\\ that\\ although\\ languages\\ vary\\ widely\\ in\\ how\\ many\\ color\\ words\\ they\\ have\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ consistent\\ pattern\\ of\\ which\\ ones\\ they\\ will\\ have\\,\\ and\\ these\\ seem\\ to\\ follow\\ directly\\ from\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ visual\\ system\\ \\(the\\ order\\ is\\ black\\/white\\ \\;\\>\\ red\\ \\>\\ green\\/yellow\\ \\>\\ blue\\ \\>\\ brown\\ \\>\\ purple\\/pink\\/orange\\/gray\\)\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ people\\ all\\ classify\\ prototypical\\ colors\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ language\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Rosch\\ showed\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ an\\ easier\\ time\\ remembering\\ new\\ color\\ names\\ when\\ these\\ were\\ centered\\ on\\ prototypical\\ colors\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\However\\,\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ recent\\ revival\\ of\\ the\\ Whorfian\\ hypothesis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pinker\\ distinguishes\\ between\\ 10\\ different\\ claims\\ that\\ are\\ all\\ grouped\\ under\\ the\\ Whorfian\\ umbrella\\.\\ These\\ fall\\ into\\ three\\ classes\\:\\ very\\ weak\\ \\(1\\-2\\)\\,\\ somewhat\\ interesting\\ \\(3\\-7\\)\\,\\ and\\ strong\\ \\(8\\-10\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\We\\ get\\ much\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\ from\\ language\\.\\ This\\ is\\ uninteresting\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ basically\\ a\\ restatement\\ of\\ what\\ language\\ is\\,\\ a\\ communication\\ tool\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ way\\ a\\ message\\ is\\ framed\\ influences\\ how\\ people\\ interpret\\ it\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Kahneman\\ \\&\\;\\ Tversky\\,\\ Gerd\\ Gigerenzer\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ Slightly\\ more\\ interesting\\ but\\ a\\ far\\ cry\\ from\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Learning\\ words\\ requires\\ learning\\ concepts\\,\\ or\\ conversely\\,\\ a\\ language\\'s\\ vocabulary\\ reflects\\ the\\ issues\\ that\\ the\\ population\\ are\\ surrounded\\ by\\.\\ This\\ rights\\ the\\ correlation\\ \\=\\ causation\\ confusion\\,\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\,\\ it\\ just\\ says\\ we\\ learn\\ about\\ concepts\\ through\\ words\\,\\ and\\ have\\ words\\ for\\ relevant\\ concepts\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ works\\ by\\ evoking\\ meanings\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ people\\ will\\ refer\\ to\\ meanings\\ then\\ as\\ language\\.\\ This\\ is\\ just\\ an\\ ill\\-defined\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\language\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ linguists\\ classify\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ specific\\ type\\ of\\ combinatorial\\ system\\,\\ as\\ noted\\ in\\ last\\ lecture\\.\\ \\(This\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ chapter\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ lecture\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Entities\\ can\\ be\\ mentally\\ classified\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ verbal\\ names\\ being\\ one\\ of\\ them\\.\\ These\\ names\\ seem\\ to\\ affect\\ forced\\-choices\\ in\\ ambiguous\\ sorting\\ and\\ grouping\\ situations\\.\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ one\\ because\\ this\\ is\\ basically\\ what\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ recent\\ research\\ is\\ testing\\.\\ Participants\\ will\\ be\\ given\\ some\\ ambiguous\\ situation\\ \\;\\(like\\ color\\ chips\\ or\\ spatial\\ arrangements\\)\\ and\\ then\\ asked\\ to\\ \\"\\;make\\ it\\ the\\ same\\,\\"\\;\\ or\\ given\\ some\\ other\\ vague\\ instruction\\ that\\ can\\ have\\ multiple\\ interpretations\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ especially\\ surprising\\ that\\ people\\ may\\ show\\ behavior\\ in\\ these\\ situations\\ that\\ reflects\\ categories\\ or\\ salient\\ concepts\\ from\\ their\\ language\\.\\ This\\ also\\ mistakes\\ correlation\\ and\\ causation\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\People\\ use\\ language\\ as\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ computational\\ tool\\ \\(like\\ an\\ abacus\\)\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ think\\ about\\ non\\-linguistic\\ entities\\.\\ \\;This\\ has\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ components\\,\\ first\\ a\\ major\\ component\\ of\\ our\\ working\\ memory\\ is\\ the\\ phonological\\ loop\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ often\\ employed\\ to\\ help\\ with\\ non\\-linguistic\\ tasks\\ like\\ remembering\\ phone\\ numbers\\,\\ or\\ doing\\ mental\\ arithmetic\\.\\ Second\\,\\ many\\ computations\\ \\(like\\ the\\ counting\\ algorithm\\,\\ or\\ mnemonics\\)\\ are\\ remembered\\ as\\ verbal\\ routines\\,\\ and\\ so\\ we\\ use\\ these\\ routines\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ think\\ about\\ non\\-linguistic\\ concepts\\.\\ \\(This\\ is\\ one\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ book\\,\\ but\\ in\\ lecture\\ he\\ split\\ this\\ into\\ two\\ separate\\ points\\ that\\ corresponded\\ to\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ distinctions\\ of\\ the\\ phonological\\ loop\\,\\ and\\ mnemonics\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ interesting\\ version\\ of\\ language\\ affecting\\ thought\\,\\ but\\ is\\ probably\\ more\\ adequately\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ language\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ of\\ thought\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Different\\ languages\\ focus\\ on\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ for\\ example\\ in\\ Korean\\ verbs\\ focus\\ on\\ whether\\ a\\ fit\\ is\\ tight\\ or\\ loose\\.\\ Spanish\\ uses\\ \\conocer\\<\\/em\\>\\-to\\ be\\ familiar\\ with\\,\\ and\\ \\saber\\<\\/em\\>\\-to\\ know\\ intellectually\\,\\ where\\ english\\ just\\ uses\\ \\know\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Through\\ constantly\\ having\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ these\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ use\\ one\\'s\\ native\\ language\\,\\ these\\ aspects\\ may\\ become\\ more\\ salient\\.\\ The\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ on\\ this\\ is\\ equivocal\\,\\ and\\ the\\ effect\\ is\\ weak\\ if\\ it\\ exists\\.\\ This\\ is\\ interesting\\,\\ but\\ would\\ not\\ really\\ be\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ really\\ about\\ habits\\ of\\ thinking\\,\\ and\\ could\\ apply\\ to\\ many\\ non\\-linguistic\\ habits\\ of\\ thought\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ words\\ and\\ grammar\\ of\\ one\\'s\\ language\\ have\\ a\\ profound\\ effect\\ on\\ how\\ one\\ thinks\\ and\\ reasons\\.\\ This\\ is\\ strong\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Language\\ is\\ the\\ medium\\ of\\ thought\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ one\\ cannot\\ have\\ thoughts\\ that\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ expressed\\ using\\ one\\'s\\ language\\.\\ This\\ is\\ strong\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\,\\ but\\ is\\ blatantly\\ false\\.\\ We\\ have\\ non\\-linguistic\\ thoughts\\,\\ and\\ we\\ can\\ conceive\\ of\\ things\\ we\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ a\\ word\\ for\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\If\\ two\\ languages\\ are\\ sufficiently\\ different\\,\\ the\\ speakers\\'\\ beliefs\\ are\\ incommensurable\\,\\ and\\ communication\\ would\\ be\\ impossible\\.\\ This\\ is\\ strong\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\,\\ but\\ the\\ whole\\ field\\ of\\ anthropology\\ provides\\ robust\\ evidence\\ against\\ this\\ claim\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ major\\ problem\\ with\\ most\\ research\\ on\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\ is\\ a\\ failure\\ to\\ keep\\ these\\ claims\\ separate\\ \\(in\\ fact\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\ in\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ research\\)\\.\\ Researchers\\ will\\ open\\ their\\ paper\\ with\\ claims\\ like\\ 3\\-7\\,\\ the\\ moderate\\ forms\\ of\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\ \\(if\\ they\\ can\\ even\\ be\\ called\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\)\\,\\ they\\ will\\ provide\\ evidence\\ for\\ these\\ weaker\\ claims\\,\\ but\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ discussion\\ and\\ conclusion\\ they\\ will\\ slip\\ into\\ claims\\ 8\\-10\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ strong\\ claims\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ proper\\ test\\ of\\ linguistic\\ determinism\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ show\\ three\\ things\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Speakers\\ of\\ one\\ language\\ find\\ it\\ impossible\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ very\\ hard\\ to\\ think\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ are\\ natural\\ to\\ speakers\\ of\\ another\\ language\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\This\\ difference\\ is\\ in\\ actual\\ reasoning\\,\\ not\\ just\\ how\\ people\\ act\\ in\\ ambiguous\\ situations\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\And\\,\\ the\\ linguistic\\ differences\\ are\\ actually\\ driving\\ the\\ cognitive\\ differences\\,\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Connectionism\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ section\\ of\\ class\\ deals\\ with\\ a\\ topic\\ that\\ Pinker\\ covered\\ in\\ much\\ more\\ depth\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Words\\ and\\ Rules\\.\\ I\\ will\\ start\\ by\\ outlining\\ the\\ general\\ theory\\ and\\ then\\ cover\\ the\\ controversy\\ and\\ the\\ articles\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ theory\\ is\\ very\\ simple\\,\\ language\\ has\\ two\\ major\\ systems\\ that\\ work\\ in\\ tandem\\.\\ One\\ system\\ is\\ essentially\\ an\\ associationist\\ learning\\ mechanism\\,\\ most\\ likely\\ structured\\ very\\ much\\ like\\ a\\ connectionist\\ architecture\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ system\\ that\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ words\\.\\ The\\ second\\ system\\ is\\ a\\ rule\\-based\\ system\\,\\ that\\ works\\ by\\ applying\\ rules\\ in\\ specified\\ ways\\.\\ This\\ system\\ was\\ outlined\\ largely\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ lecture\\ under\\ syntax\\ and\\ morphology\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Now\\ sometimes\\ the\\ two\\ systems\\ compete\\ to\\ generate\\ an\\ output\\,\\ like\\ with\\ irregular\\ verbs\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ in\\ generating\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\ of\\ \\run\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ word\\ system\\ will\\ generate\\ \\ran\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ while\\ the\\ rule\\ system\\ will\\ generate\\ \\runned\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Obviously\\,\\ a\\ person\\ can\\'t\\ say\\ both\\,\\ so\\ these\\ systems\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ integrating\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ only\\ generate\\ one\\ output\\.\\ The\\ proposed\\ architecture\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ \\parallel\\-race\\ model\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\ The\\ way\\ this\\ works\\ is\\ that\\ both\\ systems\\ compute\\ their\\ relative\\ outputs\\ independently\\ and\\ in\\ parallel\\.\\ However\\,\\ as\\ the\\ word\\ system\\ begins\\ finding\\ a\\ hit\\ with\\ an\\ irregular\\ \\(or\\ stored\\ version\\ of\\ a\\ commonly\\ used\\ regular\\)\\,\\ then\\ it\\ begins\\ inhibiting\\ the\\ output\\ of\\ the\\ rule\\ system\\,\\ until\\ eventually\\ it\\ will\\ win\\ out\\ and\\ the\\ speaker\\ will\\ say\\ \\ran\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ That\\ is\\ the\\ theory\\ in\\ a\\ nutshell\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ important\\ advance\\ in\\ the\\ nature\\ vs\\.\\ nurture\\,\\ algebraic\\ vs\\.\\ statistical\\ minds\\ debate\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ both\\ going\\ on\\ at\\ once\\ subserving\\ different\\ functions\\.\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ major\\ views\\ in\\ this\\ debate\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\McClelland\\ and\\ Patterson\\ argue\\ in\\ both\\ of\\ their\\ papers\\ that\\ the\\ language\\ faculty\\ is\\ only\\ statistical\\,\\ parallel\\ distributed\\ models\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Pinker\\ and\\ Ullman\\ \\(and\\ Jackendoff\\)\\ argue\\ for\\ the\\ two\\ system\\ view\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ third\\ view\\,\\ proposed\\ by\\ Chomsky\\ and\\ Halle\\,\\ argues\\ for\\ only\\ one\\ system\\,\\ but\\ the\\ one\\ system\\ is\\ a\\ rule\\-based\\ phonological\\ system\\ \\(called\\ Formal\\ \\;Phonology\\)\\,\\ that\\ is\\ claimed\\ to\\ generate\\ irregulars\\ through\\ phonological\\ pronunciation\\ rules\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\Inflectional\\ morphology\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ test\\ case\\ for\\ the\\ three\\ theories\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ domain\\ in\\ which\\ both\\ systems\\ would\\ be\\ working\\,\\ often\\ at\\ cross\\-purposes\\,\\ as\\ with\\ irregular\\ past\\ tense\\ verbs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ three\\ theories\\ all\\ have\\ different\\ explanations\\ for\\ irregular\\ past\\ tense\\ forms\\,\\ and\\ the\\ debate\\ centers\\ on\\ clusters\\ of\\ similar\\ irregulars\\ \\(like\\ brought\\,\\ thought\\,\\ sang\\,\\ rang\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ Each\\ of\\ the\\ theories\\ explains\\ this\\ phenomenon\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Connectionist\\ theories\\ claim\\ that\\ all\\ verbs\\ are\\ just\\ learned\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ rule\\,\\ so\\ irregulars\\ really\\ pose\\ no\\ problem\\,\\ and\\ the\\ clusters\\ are\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ similar\\ features\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Formal\\ phonology\\ theories\\ claim\\ these\\ are\\ all\\ generated\\ by\\ a\\ phonological\\ rule\\,\\ like\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ pattern\\ such\\ as\\ consonant\\-consonant\\-ing\\,\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\ is\\ computed\\ by\\ changing\\ the\\ last\\ syllable\\ to\\ \\-ang\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Words\\ and\\ rules\\ theories\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ interpretation\\ of\\ these\\ clusters\\.\\ Their\\ explanation\\ is\\ two\\-fold\\.\\ \\;The\\ first\\ part\\ hinges\\ on\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ most\\ irregulars\\ are\\ very\\ common\\,\\ and\\ generally\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ verbs\\ are\\ irregular\\.\\ This\\ approach\\ posits\\ that\\ when\\ an\\ inflected\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ word\\ is\\ used\\ enough\\,\\ it\\ can\\ actually\\ be\\ stored\\ in\\ the\\ word\\ system\\,\\ just\\ like\\ a\\ single\\ morpheme\\,\\ or\\ an\\ irregular\\.\\ The\\ clusters\\ of\\ irregulars\\ then\\ are\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ vestigial\\ language\\ forms\\ left\\ over\\ from\\ earlier\\ past\\-tense\\ rules\\.\\ In\\ some\\ phase\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ English\\ and\\ its\\ antecedents\\,\\ there\\ were\\ rules\\ like\\ in\\ other\\ present\\-day\\ languages\\ that\\ changed\\ internal\\ syllables\\ to\\ conjugate\\ verbs\\ into\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ ring\\ to\\ rang\\ and\\ sing\\ to\\ sang\\)\\.\\ For\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ verbs\\,\\ speakers\\ had\\ these\\ past\\-tense\\ forms\\ stored\\ in\\ the\\ word\\ system\\,\\ so\\ that\\ when\\ the\\ language\\ evolved\\ and\\ the\\ rule\\ changed\\,\\ these\\ particular\\ forms\\ showed\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ inertia\\ and\\ were\\ resistant\\ to\\ change\\.\\ The\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ explanation\\ is\\ an\\ accounting\\ of\\ where\\ new\\ irregulars\\ come\\ from\\,\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ result\\ from\\ analogy\\.\\ For\\ example\\ the\\ verb\\ \\sneak\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ evolving\\ right\\ now\\ so\\ that\\ older\\ speakers\\ think\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\ is\\ \\sneaked\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ while\\ younger\\ speakers\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ \\snuck\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ This\\ is\\ by\\ analogy\\ to\\ verbs\\ like\\ \\sting\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\stink\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ become\\ \\stung\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\stunk\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\While\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ argued\\ that\\ the\\ third\\ explanation\\ is\\ less\\ parsimonious\\,\\ it\\ provides\\ the\\ best\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ data\\,\\ because\\ both\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ theories\\ make\\ incorrect\\ predictions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Connectionist\\ models\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Connectionist\\ models\\ are\\ widely\\ distributed\\ models\\ of\\ nodes\\ that\\ are\\ connected\\ all\\ connected\\ with\\ excitatory\\ and\\ inhibitory\\ connections\\ \\(like\\ cells\\ and\\ synapses\\)\\.\\ In\\ parallel\\ distributed\\ connectionist\\ models\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ localized\\ representation\\ or\\ rule\\,\\ rather\\ these\\ are\\ emergent\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ system\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ The\\ original\\ McClelland\\ and\\ Rumelhart\\ model\\ \\(1981\\)\\ was\\ a\\ parallel\\ localized\\ connectionist\\ model\\ because\\ the\\ nodes\\ actually\\ represented\\ whole\\ units\\,\\ like\\ the\\ word\\ \\take\\<\\/em\\>\\ for\\ example\\,\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ grandmother\\ cells\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ connectionist\\ model\\ pushed\\ by\\ McClelland\\ and\\ Patterson\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ past\\ tense\\ verbs\\ used\\ wickle\\-units\\,\\ which\\ are\\ units\\ that\\ represent\\ strings\\ of\\ three\\ phonological\\ features\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ B\\-U\\-N\\,\\ U\\-N\\-Y\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ The\\ word\\ was\\ computed\\ by\\ lining\\ up\\ overlapping\\ units\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ if\\ the\\ previous\\ nodes\\ were\\ activated\\ the\\ word\\ would\\ be\\ \\bunny\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\.\\ This\\ system\\ did\\ account\\ for\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ data\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ could\\ learn\\ many\\ new\\ words\\ relatively\\ quickly\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ could\\ generalize\\ to\\ new\\ words\\,\\ generating\\ both\\ correct\\ regular\\ and\\ irregular\\ past\\ tense\\ outputs\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ even\\ went\\ through\\ an\\ over\\-generalization\\ phase\\ like\\ children\\ do\\,\\ where\\ it\\ would\\ generate\\ regular\\ past\\ tense\\ forms\\ for\\ irregular\\ verbs\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\bringed\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\Problems\\ with\\ the\\ connectionist\\ only\\ theory\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Many\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ features\\ had\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ specific\\ parameters\\ and\\ inputs\\,\\ which\\ are\\ not\\ empirically\\ backed\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ over\\-generalization\\ phase\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ training\\ input\\.\\ They\\ first\\ trained\\ the\\ model\\ with\\ 10\\ verbs\\,\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ irregular\\,\\ and\\ then\\ train\\ it\\ with\\ 400\\ more\\ verbs\\,\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ regular\\.\\ The\\ overgeneralization\\ started\\ after\\ the\\ second\\ training\\ phase\\.\\ The\\ evidence\\ seems\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ children\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ an\\ input\\ that\\ varies\\ like\\ this\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ an\\ input\\ with\\ a\\ constant\\ ratio\\ of\\ about\\ 30\\-40\\%\\ regular\\ verbs\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ model\\ was\\ not\\ good\\ at\\ generalizing\\ to\\ new\\ words\\ with\\ unique\\ phonologies\\,\\ and\\ it\\ would\\ generate\\ non\\-sense\\.\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Prince\\ analyzed\\ the\\ model\\ and\\ concluded\\ that\\ the\\ problem\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ system\\ lacked\\ a\\ variable\\ for\\ verbs\\,\\ or\\ a\\ symbolic\\ representation\\ like\\ a\\ rule\\ system\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ model\\ could\\ not\\ distinguish\\ different\\ words\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ phonology\\ \\(rose\\ vs\\.\\ rows\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ model\\ cannot\\ account\\ for\\ variations\\ in\\ head\\-less\\ forms\\,\\ where\\ we\\ get\\ things\\ like\\ \\low\\-lifes\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\flied\\<\\/em\\>\\ out\\ to\\ center\\,\\ etc\\.\\ even\\ though\\ \\life\\<\\/em\\>\\ generally\\ has\\ an\\ irregular\\ plural\\,\\ and\\ \\fly\\<\\/em\\>\\ has\\ an\\ irregular\\ past\\ tense\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ words\\ work\\ with\\ grammar\\,\\ which\\ determines\\ how\\ words\\ are\\ built\\ from\\ stored\\ memories\\.\\ Head\\-less\\ words\\ prevent\\ look\\ up\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ regular\\ inflection\\ applies\\ as\\ the\\ default\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Words\\ and\\ Rules\\ Models\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ supporting\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ parallel\\-race\\ dual\\ system\\ model\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ easily\\ explains\\ over\\-regularization\\ errors\\ in\\ children\\,\\ while\\ accounting\\ for\\ known\\ inputs\\.\\ The\\ explanation\\ is\\ just\\ that\\ children\\'s\\ retrieval\\ from\\ memory\\ is\\ less\\ reliable\\,\\ and\\ so\\ sometimes\\ they\\ fail\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ irregular\\ and\\ use\\ the\\ rule\\ by\\ default\\.\\ The\\ evidence\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ a\\ parent\\ uses\\ an\\ irregular\\,\\ the\\ less\\ a\\ child\\ errs\\ on\\ it\\,\\ and\\ they\\ only\\ over\\-regularize\\ once\\ they\\ demonstrate\\ rule\\ acquisition\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Neuropsychological\\ evidence\\ shows\\ double\\ dissociations\\.\\ Patients\\ with\\ anomia\\ have\\ impaired\\ word\\-finding\\,\\ but\\ relatively\\ unimpaired\\ grammar\\.\\ Patients\\ with\\ agrammatism\\ have\\ impaired\\ grammar\\,\\ but\\ less\\ impaired\\ word\\ retrieval\\.\\ However\\,\\ while\\ the\\ patient\\ data\\ seems\\ clear\\,\\ the\\ neuroimaging\\ data\\ is\\ a\\ mess\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ other\\ converging\\ evidence\\,\\ some\\ noted\\ below\\ under\\ article\\ summaries\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Pinker\\,\\ S\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Ullman\\,\\ M\\.\\ \\(2002\\)\\.\\ The\\ past\\ and\\ future\\ of\\ the\\ past\\ tense\\.\\ Trends\\ in\\ cognitive\\ sciences\\ 6\\(11\\)\\:\\ p\\.456\\-463\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ article\\ brings\\ up\\ an\\ additional\\ hypothesis\\ for\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ rules\\ theory\\,\\ the\\ Declarative\\/Procedural\\ hypothesis\\.\\ This\\ hypothesis\\ holds\\ that\\ lexical\\ memory\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ declarative\\ memory\\,\\ and\\ that\\ grammatical\\ processing\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ procedural\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ then\\ list\\ the\\ evidence\\ that\\ distinguishes\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ rules\\ theory\\ from\\ the\\ connectionist\\ only\\ theory\\,\\ much\\ of\\ which\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ noted\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Words\\ and\\ rules\\ easily\\ explains\\ generalizations\\ to\\ weird\\ novel\\ words\\,\\ while\\ the\\ connectionist\\ models\\ generate\\ gibberish\\.\\ There\\ are\\ connectionist\\ models\\ that\\ can\\ accomplish\\ this\\,\\ but\\ that\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ building\\ in\\ a\\ rule\\,\\ or\\ by\\ building\\ in\\ innate\\ units\\ for\\ English\\ past\\ tense\\ forms\\.\\ It\\ is\\ argued\\ that\\ connectionist\\ models\\ inherently\\ can\\'t\\ do\\ this\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ are\\ designed\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Systemic\\ regularization\\ cannot\\ be\\ handled\\ by\\ connectionist\\ models\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ point\\ about\\ head\\-less\\ forms\\,\\ and\\ other\\ related\\ forms\\ that\\ get\\ regularized\\,\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ word\\ would\\ generally\\ be\\ irregular\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Neuropsychological\\ dissociations\\ are\\ neatly\\ accounted\\ by\\ words\\ and\\ rules\\ theories\\,\\ but\\ not\\ connectionist\\ models\\ because\\ connectionist\\ models\\ lose\\ function\\ in\\ a\\ gradual\\ way\\ with\\ more\\ damage\\,\\ whereas\\ modular\\ systems\\ can\\ be\\ knocked\\ out\\ independently\\ of\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ conclude\\ connectionist\\ models\\ are\\ great\\,\\ but\\ are\\ just\\ not\\ the\\ whole\\ story\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\McClelland\\,\\ J\\.\\ L\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Patterson\\,\\ K\\.\\ \\(2002\\)\\.\\ Rules\\ or\\ connections\\ in\\ past\\-tense\\ inflections\\:\\ What\\ does\\ the\\ evidence\\ rule\\ out\\?\\ Trends\\ in\\ cognitive\\ sciences\\ 6\\(11\\)\\:\\ p\\.\\ 465\\-472\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ central\\ argument\\ of\\ this\\ article\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ how\\ certain\\ linguistic\\ competencies\\ are\\ acquired\\,\\ namely\\ are\\ they\\ acquired\\ suddenly\\ or\\ gradually\\.\\ They\\ argue\\ that\\ sudden\\ acquisition\\ of\\ rules\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ prediction\\ of\\ rules\\ and\\ words\\ theory\\,\\ but\\ that\\ gradual\\ acquisition\\ is\\ the\\ central\\ prediction\\ of\\ connectionist\\ models\\.\\ They\\ survey\\ the\\ evidence\\ showing\\ lots\\ of\\ gradual\\ acquisition\\ of\\ rule\\-based\\ competencies\\.\\ They\\ claim\\ this\\ is\\ evidence\\ against\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ rules\\ theory\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ connectionist\\ only\\ theory\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ then\\ rebut\\ some\\ arguments\\ as\\ well\\.\\ They\\ argue\\ that\\ rule\\ systems\\ should\\ apply\\ the\\ rule\\ uniformly\\,\\ but\\ people\\ do\\ not\\,\\ as\\ nonce\\ words\\ can\\ become\\ irregular\\ by\\ analogy\\,\\ rule\\-application\\ can\\ be\\ affected\\ by\\ semantics\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ discussion\\ as\\ well\\ about\\ the\\ statistical\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ in\\ a\\ corpus\\ that\\ Pinker\\ used\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ rebuttal\\ to\\ a\\ claim\\ regarding\\ a\\ rule\\ in\\ German\\ that\\ applies\\ to\\ a\\ minority\\ of\\ cases\\.\\ They\\ discuss\\ the\\ genetic\\ evidence\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ the\\ family\\ with\\ the\\ heritable\\ SLI\\ from\\ the\\ FOX2P\\ gene\\ shows\\ other\\ deficits\\,\\ like\\ in\\ general\\ IQ\\.\\ They\\ refute\\ Ullman\\'s\\ patient\\ data\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ phonological\\ confound\\ in\\ the\\ corpus\\ of\\ words\\ used\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ conclude\\ that\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ rules\\ theory\\ is\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ the\\ gradual\\ acquisition\\ of\\ the\\ regular\\-inflection\\ competency\\,\\ non\\-uniform\\ rule\\ application\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ evidence\\ is\\ tainted\\ by\\ phonological\\ confounds\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ speaking\\ past\\ each\\ other\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ rebuttal\\,\\ Pinker\\ and\\ Ullman\\ point\\ this\\ out\\,\\ and\\ say\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ in\\ agreement\\ with\\ the\\ predictions\\ that\\ McClelland\\ and\\ Patterson\\ impart\\ to\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ rules\\ theory\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ McClelland\\ and\\ Patterson\\'s\\ rebuttal\\ they\\ argue\\ that\\ only\\ connectionist\\ architectures\\ can\\ exploit\\ the\\ patterns\\ in\\ irregulars\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ like\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ a\\ non\\ sequitor\\,\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ actually\\ true\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Pinker 2: Linguistic Determinism and Connectionism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.615816+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Kosslyn- Session 1. REPRESENTATION (Mental imagery as an example)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 655, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Week\\ 4\\:\\ February\\ 24\\ \\(T\\ 10\\-12\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ 26\\ \\(Th\\ 4\\-6\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Stephen\\ Kosslyn\\ \\(Assigned\\:\\ Arin\\ Tuerk\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Topics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Representation\\ \\(Mental\\ imagery\\ as\\ an\\ example\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Processing\\ systems\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Computational\\ architecture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Additive\\ factors\\ vs\\.\\ non\\-additive\\ factors\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\I\\.\\ Background\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Kosslyn\\,\\ S\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(1994\\)\\.\\ Image\\ and\\ brain\\.\\ Cambridge\\,\\ MA\\:\\ MIT\\ Press\\.\\ Chapter\\ 1\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\This\\ chapter\\ discusses\\ the\\ progress\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ made\\ to\\ date\\ on\\ the\\ visual\\ imagery\\ debate\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\I\\.\\ Historical\\ background\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ A\\.\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ information\\ represeneted\\ as\\ images\\ is\\ common\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ philosophy\\-\\ plato\\'s\\ wax\\ metaphor\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ stages\\ of\\ scientific\\ psychology\\-\\ Wundt\\ and\\ Willy\\ James\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ B\\.\\ psychologists\\ then\\ wanted\\ a\\ \\"\\;purer\\"\\;\\ science\\ with\\ new\\ methods\\,\\ enter\\ behaviorism\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ 1\\.\\"\\;the\\ scientic\\ method\\ rests\\ on\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ distinguish\\ among\\ alt\\.\\ hypotheses\\ to\\ everyone\\'s\\ satisfaction\\ whch\\ requires\\ that\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ be\\ publicly\\ observable\\"\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ measured\\,\\ conceptual\\ problem\\ of\\ how\\ they\\ could\\ be\\ characterized\\ \\(homunculus\\ problem\\-\\ who\\ is\\ \\"\\;looking\\ at\\"\\;\\ these\\ images\\?\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ Watson\\ attacked\\ imagery\\-\\ from\\ 1913\\-1960s\\ not\\ considered\\ a\\ proper\\ subject\\ matter\\ for\\ scientific\\ study\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ radical\\ behaviorism\\ fell\\ short\\ in\\ explaining\\ crucila\\ human\\ faculties\\ like\\ language\\ and\\ thought\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ C\\.\\ enter\\ cognitive\\ scientists\\-\\ shift\\ from\\ studying\\ factors\\ of\\ acquisition\\ to\\ factors\\ affecting\\ retention\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ chomsky\\'s\\ linguistics\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ Artificial\\ intelligence\\-\\ computers\\'\\ processing\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ understood\\ at\\ a\\ more\\ abstract\\ level\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ level\\ of\\ information\\ processing\\-\\ language\\ of\\ I\\.P\\.\\ could\\ be\\ applied\\ to\\ brains\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\#\\ Pavio\\-1960\\,\\ showed\\ that\\ factors\\ affecting\\ mental\\ imagery\\ accounted\\ for\\ empirical\\ results\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\#\\ Shepard\\ and\\ cooper\\-\\ imagery\\ could\\ be\\ studied\\ scientifically\\-\\ mental\\ image\\ rotation\\,\\ rotated\\ incrementally\\,\\ more\\ time\\ required\\ for\\ more\\ rotation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\*\\ images\\ as\\ internal\\ representations\\ that\\ stand\\ in\\ for\\ corresponding\\ objects\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\*\\ 2\\ Imagery\\ debate\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ Image\\-\\ internal\\ representation\\ usedin\\ information\\ processing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ Representation\\-\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ code\\,\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ specifying\\ info\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\*\\ Phase\\ 1\\ of\\ debate\\-\\ constrained\\ by\\ concept\\ of\\ what\\ types\\ of\\ representations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>o\\ what\\ brain\\ does\\-\\ not\\ at\\ neuron\\ level\\,\\ what\\ ensembles\\ of\\ neurons\\ accomplish\\ \\(computational\\ level\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ properties\\ of\\ representations\\ defined\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ processing\\ system\\ that\\ can\\ interpret\\ and\\ manipulate\\ them\\ diff\\ representations\\ make\\ diff\\ info\\ more\\ accessible\\ \\(Marr\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ Propositional\\ representation\\-\\ \\"\\;mental\\ sentence\\"\\;\\ specifies\\ unambiguously\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ an\\ assertion\\-\\ predicate\\ ties\\ together\\ arguments\\ ON\\ \\(BALL\\,\\ BOX\\)\\ basic\\ elements\\ are\\ symbols\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ Depictive\\ rep\\-\\ type\\ of\\ picture\\ which\\ spcifies\\ the\\ locations\\ and\\ values\\ of\\ configurations\\ of\\ points\\ in\\ space\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ each\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ oject\\ is\\ represented\\ by\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ points\\ the\\ spatial\\ relations\\ among\\ points\\ in\\ functional\\ space\\ corresponds\\ to\\ spatial\\ relations\\ of\\ object\\ itself\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ shpae\\ of\\ represented\\ parts\\ and\\ shape\\ of\\ empty\\ space\\ are\\ immediately\\ available\\ to\\ processes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>o\\ Pylyshyn\\ attacked\\ depictive\\-\\ argued\\ theres\\ no\\ little\\ man\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ them\\-\\ rested\\ on\\ logical\\ problems\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ all\\ internal\\ representations\\ are\\ propositional\\-\\ same\\ rep\\ for\\ imagery\\ as\\ for\\ language\\ and\\ all\\ cog\\ processing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ pictorial\\ processes\\ are\\ epiphenomenal\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Kosslyn\\ and\\ Pomerantz\\ fired\\ back\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Phase\\ 2\\-\\ nature\\ of\\ empirical\\ results\\-\\ methodological\\ concerns\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Results\\ of\\ experiments\\ conducted\\ to\\ address\\ issue\\ led\\ to\\ debates\\ about\\ methodology\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Away\\ from\\ introspection\\-\\ experiments\\ to\\ test\\ the\\ privileged\\ properties\\ of\\ depictive\\ representations\\-\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ functional\\ space\\-\\ more\\ time\\ to\\ shift\\ attention\\ farther\\ distances\\ across\\ imagined\\ objects\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Propositionalists\\ said\\ increase\\ in\\ time\\ reflected\\ scanning\\ of\\ lists\\ of\\ propositions\\-\\ LISP\\ programming\\ language\\ to\\ facilitate\\ recursive\\ search\\ in\\ computers\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Liked\\ the\\ apparent\\ simplicity\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ representation\\ system\\-\\ but\\ using\\ proposition\\ to\\ explain\\ rotation\\ results\\ seemed\\ ad\\ hoc\\ or\\ post\\ hoc\\-\\ actually\\ only\\ show\\ that\\ imagery\\ also\\ involves\\ propositional\\ reps\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Task\\ demands\\-\\ Pylyshn\\ said\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ asking\\ subjects\\ to\\ use\\ imagery\\ led\\ them\\ to\\ mimic\\ what\\ theyd\\ do\\ in\\ the\\ corresponding\\ perceptual\\ situation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Fiske\\ and\\ Pinker\\ used\\ task\\ without\\ asking\\ subjects\\ to\\ image\\ found\\ same\\ results\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Experimenter\\ expectancy\\-\\ subjects\\ were\\ trying\\ to\\ cooperate\\ by\\ producing\\ answers\\ they\\ thought\\ researchers\\ wanted\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Experiments\\ ran\\ to\\ rule\\ this\\ out\\-\\ experimenters\\ told\\ to\\ expect\\ different\\ things\\-\\ no\\ effect\\ of\\ expectancy\\ on\\ scanning\\ time\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Phase\\ 3\\-\\ turn\\ to\\ facts\\ about\\ brain\\ function\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\There\\ IS\\ fact\\ to\\ the\\ matter\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Anderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ structure\\-process\\ tradeoff\\-\\ two\\ mechanisms\\ can\\ produce\\ the\\ same\\ result\\ if\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ structure\\ is\\ compensated\\ by\\ difference\\ in\\ process\\-\\ they\\ mimic\\ each\\ other\\ though\\ they\\ posit\\ different\\ representations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Must\\ appeal\\ to\\ something\\ other\\ than\\ behavioral\\ data\\-\\ once\\ structure\\ or\\ process\\ is\\ specified\\,\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ constrained\\-\\ brain\\ studies\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Monkey\\ cortex\\ visual\\ areas\\ are\\ retinotopically\\ mapped\\-\\ neurons\\ organized\\ to\\ preserve\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ retina\\-info\\ depictively\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>represented\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Soldiers\\&rsquo\\;\\ blind\\ spots\\ also\\ suggests\\ retinotopic\\ maps\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Enormous\\ amount\\ of\\ feedback\\ runs\\ backward\\ down\\ system\\-\\ monkeys\\&rsquo\\;\\ neural\\ activity\\ is\\ modulated\\ by\\ goals\\ and\\ intentions\\-\\ feeback\\ connections\\ from\\ some\\ prestriate\\ areas\\ to\\ V1\\ are\\ topographically\\ organized\\ suggests\\ stored\\ visual\\ info\\ might\\ be\\ capable\\ of\\ evoking\\ pattern\\ of\\ activity\\ in\\ retinotopically\\ mapped\\ areas\\-\\ which\\ would\\ produce\\ a\\ mental\\ IMAGE\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Human\\ studies\\ where\\ subjects\\ imaged\\ either\\ small\\ or\\ large\\ letters\\ while\\ PET\\ applied\\-\\ subjects\\ required\\ more\\ time\\ for\\ smaller\\ images\\ \\(replication\\)\\ but\\ also\\ neurons\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ region\\ within\\ a\\ topographically\\ mapped\\ area\\ \\(posterior\\ part\\ which\\ represents\\ foveal\\ input\\)\\ worked\\ harder\\ to\\ preserve\\ fine\\ grained\\ info\\ \\-\\ anterior\\ part\\ of\\ V1\\ \\(represents\\ parafoveal\\ info\\)\\ activated\\ during\\ large\\ letter\\ image\\ task\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\imagery\\ relies\\ on\\ topographically\\ organized\\ regions\\ of\\ cortex\\ which\\ support\\ depictive\\ representations\\*\\*\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\fMRI\\ studies\\ replicate\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Resolving\\ the\\ Imagery\\ Debates\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Narrow\\ issue\\-\\ delimiting\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ representation\\ itself\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;broader\\&rdquo\\;\\ issue\\-\\ pylyshyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concern\\ about\\ infinite\\ regress\\/\\ homunculus\\ points\\ at\\-\\ depictive\\ images\\ can\\ only\\ represent\\ info\\ if\\ the\\ appropriate\\ processes\\ are\\ available\\-if\\ the\\ mental\\ machinery\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ to\\ use\\ depictive\\ mental\\ images\\,\\ they\\ are\\ epiphenomenal\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\TO\\ RESOLVE\\ issue\\-\\ need\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ such\\ representations\\ arise\\ and\\ are\\ used\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ processing\\ system\\-\\ how\\ are\\ they\\ produced\\ in\\ the\\ brain\\ and\\ used\\ by\\ neural\\ mechanisms\\ underlying\\ memory\\ and\\ cog\\ process\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Kosslyn\\,\\ S\\.\\ M\\.\\,\\ Pascual\\-Leone\\,\\ A\\.\\,\\ Felician\\,\\ O\\.\\,\\ Camposano\\,\\ S\\.\\,\\ Keenan\\,\\ J\\.\\ P\\.\\,\\ Thompson\\,\\ W\\.\\ L\\.\\,\\ Ganis\\,\\ G\\.\\,\\ Sukel\\,\\ K\\.\\ E\\.\\,\\ and\\ Alpert\\,\\ N\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(1999\\)\\.\\ The\\ role\\ of\\ area\\ 17\\ in\\ visual\\ imagery\\:\\ Convergent\\ evidence\\ from\\ PET\\ and\\ rTMS\\.\\ Science\\,\\ 284\\,\\ 167\\-170\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Using\\ PET\\ and\\ rTMS\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ early\\ visual\\ cortex\\ \\(specifically\\ area\\ 17\\)\\ in\\ mental\\ imagery\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Activation\\ of\\ topographically\\ organized\\ areas\\ of\\ visual\\ cortex\\ during\\ imaging\\ tasks\\ has\\ been\\ taken\\ as\\ evidence\\ for\\ depictive\\ representation\\-\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ possible\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epiphenomenal\\ \\(non\\ functional\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Task\\ clearly\\ requires\\ visualization\\ of\\ patterns\\ that\\ depict\\ info\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-same\\ task\\ done\\ with\\ PET\\ and\\ rTMS\\ to\\ show\\ not\\ only\\ area\\ 17\\ activated\\ when\\ people\\ perform\\ task\\,\\ but\\ performance\\ is\\ impaired\\ when\\ rTMS\\ applied\\ to\\ this\\ region\\ of\\ cortex\\ \\(functional\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-PET\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Neuroimaging\\ only\\ establishes\\ correlation\\ between\\ performance\\ and\\ cortical\\ activation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-rTMS\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-disrupts\\ function\\ of\\ an\\ area\\ to\\ test\\ causal\\ link\\ \\(functional\\ lesion\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-rTMS\\ applied\\ to\\ medial\\ occipital\\ cortex\\ disrupts\\ both\\ perception\\ and\\ imagery\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\*\\*Medial\\ occipital\\ cortex\\ \\(area\\ 17\\)\\ is\\ activated\\ when\\ people\\ visualize\\ and\\ compare\\ stripes\\ and\\ this\\ activation\\ is\\ CAUSALLY\\ linked\\ to\\ task\\ performance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Kosslyn\\,\\ S\\.\\ M\\.\\,\\ and\\ Thompson\\,\\ W\\.L\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\.\\ When\\ is\\ early\\ visual\\ cortex\\ activated\\ during\\ visual\\ mental\\ imagery\\?\\ Psychological\\ Bulletin\\,\\ 129\\,\\ 723\\-746\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-a\\ review\\ of\\ the\\ literature\\ on\\ activation\\ in\\ early\\ visual\\ cortex\\ \\(areas\\ 17\\,\\ 18\\)\\ in\\ imagery\\ neuroimaging\\ studies\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Method\\-\\ each\\ study\\ reviewed\\ coded\\ as\\ 0\\ or\\ 1\\ whether\\ activation\\ in\\ early\\ visual\\ cortex\\ was\\ observed\\.\\ 3\\ factors\\ used\\ to\\ test\\ fit\\ of\\ model\\ \\(2\\ perceptual\\ anticipation\\,\\ 1\\ methodological\\ factors\\ theory\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Who\\ cares\\ if\\ areas\\ 17\\ and\\ 18\\ activated\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Implications\\ for\\ mechanism\\ underlying\\ visual\\ perception\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Debate\\ on\\ nature\\ of\\ vis\\.\\ Imag\\.\\ Hinges\\ on\\ distinction\\ between\\ format\\ \\(type\\ of\\ code\\)\\ and\\ content\\ \\(info\\)\\ of\\ images\\-\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Representations\\ have\\ intrinsic\\ geometric\\ organization\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Areas\\ are\\ functional\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ physical\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\neuroimaging\\ studies\\ erases\\ problems\\ of\\ task\\ demands\\ which\\ activate\\ tacit\\ knowledge\\ about\\ perception\\ and\\ skews\\ subjects\\&rsquo\\;\\ responses\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\pylyshyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ about\\ Shepard\\ and\\ cooper\\&rsquo\\;s\\ findings\\ that\\ color\\ blind\\ and\\ sighted\\ people\\ performed\\ similarly\\ on\\ task\\ of\\ rating\\ similarity\\ of\\ named\\ colors\\-\\ color\\ blind\\ used\\ tacit\\ knowledge\\ \\(propositional\\ based\\ on\\ color\\ wheel\\)\\ and\\ so\\ do\\ sighted\\ people\\ in\\ imagery\\ tasks\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\if\\ this\\ is\\ true\\-\\ imagery\\ should\\ NOT\\ activate\\ areas\\ 17\\ and\\ 18\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Theory\\ driven\\ approach\\-\\ compare\\ predictions\\ of\\ specific\\ theories\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Perceptual\\ Anticipation\\ Theory\\-\\ mental\\ images\\ arise\\ when\\ one\\ anticipates\\ perceiving\\ an\\ object\\ or\\ scene\\ so\\ strongly\\ that\\ a\\ depictive\\ rep\\ is\\ created\\ \\(generated\\)\\ in\\ early\\ visual\\ cortex\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Geometry\\ of\\ shapes\\ implicit\\ only\\ in\\ LTM\\ and\\ made\\ explicit\\ by\\ generating\\ patterns\\ in\\ early\\ vis\\ cortex\\-\\ constructive\\ activity\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ in\\ percep\\ antic\\ if\\ 1\\)\\ one\\ \\&ldquo\\;sees\\&rdquo\\;\\ detail\\ of\\ image\\ in\\ high\\ resolution\\ 2\\)specific\\ example\\ of\\ object\\ visualized\\ 3\\)task\\ requires\\ inspecting\\ properties\\ of\\ shape\\ not\\ spatial\\ relations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Propositional\\ Theory\\-\\ pylyshyn\\-\\ mental\\ images\\ are\\ descriptions\\ that\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ abstract\\ code\\ used\\ in\\ language\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Early\\ visual\\ cortex\\ does\\ not\\ play\\ role\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Activation\\ in\\ v1\\ should\\ appear\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>1\\)in\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ subjects\\ 2\\)\\ only\\ when\\ less\\ sensitive\\ methods\\ are\\ used\\ \\(more\\ noise\\)\\ 3\\)when\\ uncontrolled\\ resting\\ baseline\\ used\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Methodological\\ Factors\\-possible\\ that\\ methodological\\ factors\\ mask\\ activation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Activation\\ should\\ appear\\ when\\ 1\\)\\ large\\ N\\ 2\\)more\\ sensitive\\ neuroimaging\\ techniques\\ used\\ 3\\)resting\\ baseline\\ not\\ used\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Studies\\ reporting\\ activation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\PET\\ studies\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\rTMS\\ studies\\-\\ show\\ causal\\ link\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\fMRI\\ studies\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\SPECT\\ sudies\\ \\-lower\\ spatial\\ and\\ temporal\\ resolution\\ than\\ PET\\ and\\ fMRI\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\V\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Studies\\ not\\ reporting\\ activation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\PET\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\fMRI\\-\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\SPECT\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\VI\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Accounting\\ for\\ the\\ difference\\?\\ Models\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Perceptual\\ Anticipation\\ Theory\\-\\ coded\\ 1\\ or\\ 0\\ based\\ on\\ visual\\ angle\\ of\\ 1\\ dgree\\ or\\ less\\;\\ specific\\ exemplar\\;\\ task\\ required\\ examination\\ of\\ shape\\ not\\ space\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Propositional\\ Theory\\-\\ n\\=8\\ or\\ fewer\\ coded\\ as\\ 0\\ 9\\+\\ coded\\ as\\ 1\\;\\ coded\\ for\\ whether\\ fMRI\\,\\ PET\\ or\\ SPECT\\;\\ resting\\ baseline\\ coded\\ 1\\ or\\ none\\ coded\\ 0\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Methodological\\ Theory\\-\\ reverse\\ of\\ propositional\\ theory\\ coding\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\VII\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Conclusion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\NOT\\ random\\ or\\ unexplicable\\ results\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Variable\\-driven\\ analysis\\ \\-\\ what\\ variables\\ that\\ distinguish\\ the\\ various\\ studies\\ predict\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ activation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Perceptual\\ Anticipation\\ theory\\ \\-Identified\\ 3\\ variables\\ that\\ predicted\\ all\\ differences\\ in\\ activation\\ 1\\)\\ requirement\\ for\\ visualizing\\ in\\ high\\ resolution\\ and\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>2\\)\\ requirement\\ to\\ visualize\\ shapes\\ not\\ spatial\\ relations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Methodological\\ theory\\-sensitivity\\ of\\ technique\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\III\\.\\ Once\\ again\\,\\ with\\ feeling\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Pylyshyn\\,\\ Z\\.\\ P\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\.\\ Return\\ of\\ the\\ mental\\ image\\:\\ Are\\ there\\ pictures\\ in\\ the\\ head\\?\\ Trends\\ in\\ Cognitive\\ Science\\,\\ 7\\,\\ 113\\-118\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\This\\ article\\ supports\\ the\\ propositional\\ account\\ for\\ representations\\ underlying\\ mental\\ imagery\\-\\ counter\\ to\\ Kosslyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Problems\\ with\\ the\\ picture\\ theory\\ claim\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Null\\ Hypothesis\\-\\ nearly\\ all\\ experimental\\ findings\\ supporting\\ picture\\ theory\\ \\(depictive\\)\\ can\\ be\\ naturally\\ explained\\ by\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ when\\ people\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ imagine\\ something\\,\\ they\\ ask\\ themselves\\ what\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ like\\ to\\ see\\ it\\ and\\ then\\ simulate\\ aspects\\ of\\ it\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Appeals\\ to\\ TACIT\\ knowledge\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Functionality\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Is\\ the\\ picture\\ REQUIRED\\?\\ Time\\ to\\ scan\\ \\=distance\\/speed\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Theorist\\ tacitly\\ assumes\\ functional\\ space\\ to\\ be\\ simulation\\ of\\ real\\ space\\ because\\ otherwise\\ no\\ particular\\ order\\ to\\ the\\ cells\\ we\\ visit\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\More\\ plausible\\ that\\ scanning\\ and\\ mental\\ imagery\\ phenomena\\ have\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ format\\ but\\ how\\ people\\ understand\\ the\\ task\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Mental\\ scanning\\ effect\\ disappears\\ when\\ subjects\\ asked\\ to\\ imagine\\ task\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ longer\\ time\\ for\\ longer\\ distances\\ scanned\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Neuroscience\\ findings\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\To\\ have\\ mental\\ image\\ is\\ to\\ project\\ 2D\\ moving\\ pictures\\ on\\ surface\\ of\\ visual\\ cortex\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Disformed\\ mapping\\ of\\ retinal\\ activity\\ in\\ visual\\ cortex\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Kosslyn- Session 1. REPRESENTATION (Mental imagery as an example)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.665074+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "kosslyn- Session 1. continued", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 656, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Neuroscience\\ findings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\To\\ have\\ mental\\ image\\ is\\ to\\ project\\ 2D\\ moving\\ pictures\\ on\\ surface\\ of\\ visual\\ cortex\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Disformed\\ mapping\\ of\\ retinal\\ activity\\ in\\ visual\\ cortex\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Increase\\ activity\\ in\\ retinotopically\\ mapped\\ areas\\ during\\ imagery\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ suggests\\ cortical\\ images\\ occur\\ in\\ both\\ vision\\ and\\ imagery\\ by\\ either\\ light\\ or\\ top\\-down\\ process\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\finding\\ that\\ areas\\ in\\ v1\\ activated\\ is\\ interesting\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ tell\\ us\\ the\\ FORM\\ of\\ representation\\-\\ maybe\\ vision\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ in\\ pictorial\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\mental\\ images\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ real\\ pictures\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ argue\\ that\\ pattern\\ of\\ cortical\\ activity\\ corresponds\\ to\\ mental\\ images\\ because\\ mental\\ images\\ are\\ allocentric\\,\\ and\\ only\\ 2D\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\correspondence\\ between\\ image\\ size\\ and\\ brain\\ locus\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ explain\\ why\\ longer\\ to\\ scan\\ greater\\ distance\\ or\\ less\\ time\\ for\\ details\\ from\\ large\\ imaged\\ perceived\\ object\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ read\\ off\\ of\\ mental\\ image\\ in\\ arbitrary\\ order\\ like\\ a\\ real\\ picture\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\no\\ after\\ image\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>v\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\visuo\\-motor\\ phenomena\\-\\ reaching\\ for\\ imaged\\ object\\ not\\ same\\ as\\ reaching\\ for\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>vi\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\*Images\\ on\\ retina\\/cortex\\ haveyet\\ to\\ be\\ interpreted\\ while\\ mental\\ images\\ ARE\\ the\\ interpretation\\-\\ so\\ they\\ cannot\\ be\\ reinterpreted\\ visually\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Clinical\\ support\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ reported\\ in\\ blind\\ people\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Tunnel\\ vision\\ findgins\\ can\\ be\\ explained\\ away\\ by\\ tacit\\ knowledge\\-\\ patient\\ had\\ learned\\ to\\ respond\\ about\\ what\\ things\\ looked\\ like\\ to\\ her\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Independence\\ of\\ visual\\ and\\ imaginal\\ neglect\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Spatial\\ images\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\To\\ represent\\ locations\\,\\ the\\ format\\ need\\ not\\ have\\ locations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Visually\\ perceived\\ object\\ can\\ be\\ exploited\\ to\\ provide\\ spatial\\ info\\ for\\ a\\ superimposed\\ visual\\ image\\-\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>demonstrative\\ terms\\ pick\\ out\\ elements\\ in\\ actual\\ visual\\ scene\\ and\\ use\\ binding\\ mechanism\\ like\\ FINST\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Same\\ process\\ as\\ when\\ your\\ eyes\\ are\\ open\\ but\\ there\\ you\\ rely\\ on\\ proprioperception\\ audition\\ etc\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\We\\ are\\ good\\ at\\ orienting\\ to\\ landmarks\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\*None\\ of\\ this\\ requires\\ a\\ spatial\\ display\\ in\\ the\\ head\\-\\ the\\ one\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ will\\ do\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\this\\ explains\\ why\\ blind\\ people\\ exhibit\\ phenomena\\ of\\ imagery\\ and\\ why\\ imposing\\ images\\ on\\ a\\ scene\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ motor\\ adaptation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ experiments\\ tell\\ us\\ nothing\\ of\\ format\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\It\\ FEELS\\ like\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ something\\ concerns\\ relation\\ between\\ brain\\ process\\ and\\ conscious\\ experience\\-mind\\ body\\ problem\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Kosslyn\\,\\ S\\.\\ M\\.\\,\\ Thompson\\,\\ W\\.\\ L\\.\\,\\ and\\ Ganis\\,\\ G\\.\\ \\(2002\\)\\.\\ Mental\\ imagery\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ work\\ like\\ that\\.\\ Behavioral\\ and\\ Brain\\ Sciences\\,\\ 25\\,\\ 198\\-200\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Back\\ and\\ forth\\ we\\ go\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Central\\ issue\\:\\ \\*\\*does\\ visual\\ mental\\ imagery\\ rely\\ partly\\ on\\ a\\ distinct\\ type\\ of\\ representation\\ \\(depictive\\)\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ used\\ in\\ language\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Yes\\ images\\ distort\\ perception\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ shares\\ processing\\ mechaisms\\ with\\ perception\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Tacit\\ knowledge\\ can\\ affect\\ imagery\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Tacit\\ knowledge\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Just\\ because\\ it\\ might\\ explain\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ it\\ does\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Subjects\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ actually\\ perceiving\\ an\\ objec\\ would\\ be\\ like\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ mechanism\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Tacit\\ theory\\ is\\ content\\ not\\ format\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Depictive\\ theory\\ gives\\ consistent\\ view\\ of\\ how\\ mental\\ images\\ would\\ be\\ processed\\-\\ parsimonious\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\all\\ properties\\ of\\ images\\ are\\ not\\ from\\ knowledge\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\people\\ imagine\\ things\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ never\\ seen\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dismiss\\ activation\\ of\\ topographically\\ org\\.\\ areas\\ which\\ truly\\ depict\\ info\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ and\\ Perception\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ and\\ perception\\ share\\ mechanisms\\.\\ Here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ they\\ might\\ be\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\People\\ can\\ reinterpret\\ images\\ if\\ given\\ ways\\ to\\ cope\\ with\\ limited\\ memory\\ capcity\\ \\(ie\\ chunking\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Images\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ preserve\\ earliest\\ input\\-\\ they\\ incorporate\\ organized\\ units\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Low\\ level\\ phenomena\\ not\\ present\\ in\\ imagery\\-\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ vision\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ eyes\\ and\\ mental\\ images\\ not\\ driven\\ by\\ this\\ input\\ so\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mimic\\ bottom\\ up\\ processing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Color\\ mixing\\ and\\ motor\\ tracking\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Not\\ attention\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Maybe\\ imagery\\ allows\\ corresponding\\ attentional\\ phenomena\\ to\\ occur\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Most\\ tasks\\ do\\ not\\ involve\\ experimenter\\/\\ subject\\ expectations\\ from\\ tacit\\ knowledge\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Spatial\\ indexing\\ proposal\\ not\\ good\\-\\ comparable\\ performance\\ when\\ eyes\\ open\\ or\\ closed\\ during\\ tasks\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Brain\\ Data\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Anderson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ structure\\ process\\ account\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Mental\\ scanning\\ results\\ do\\ not\\ necessarily\\ implicate\\ a\\ depictive\\ representation\\ but\\ constraining\\ neurophysiological\\ data\\ constrains\\ possibilities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Interpretive\\ function\\ is\\ not\\ arbitrary\\-\\ tailor\\-made\\ for\\ depictive\\ representations\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\*function\\ can\\ follow\\ form\\!\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\No\\ homunculus\\ problem\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ medium\\ that\\ supports\\ depictive\\ representations\\ \\(early\\ vis\\ cortex\\)\\ sends\\ signals\\ to\\ areas\\ that\\ store\\ visual\\ memory\\ and\\ input\\ is\\ interpreted\\ by\\ matching\\ to\\ stored\\ memories\\ and\\ spatial\\ relations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ processing\\ system\\ 1cm\\ cortex\\ in\\ rostral\\ area\\ 17\\ represents\\ larger\\ area\\ than\\ area\\ 17\\ caudal\\-\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;point\\ of\\ view\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ higher\\ visual\\ systems\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;read\\&rdquo\\;\\ this\\ info\\-\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ that\\ matters\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\15\\/21\\ fMRI\\ studies\\ report\\ activation\\ in\\ areas\\ 17\\ or\\ 18\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\when\\ subjects\\ visualize\\ shape\\ vertically\\/horizontally\\ oriented\\-\\ pattern\\ of\\ activation\\ neatly\\ fell\\ on\\ vertical\\/horizontal\\ meridian\\ of\\ area\\ 17\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\degree\\ of\\ activation\\ predicts\\ response\\ time\\ in\\ imagery\\ task\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\f\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\not\\ just\\ topographically\\ organzed\\-\\ functional\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Blind\\ spots\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\rTMS\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\they\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ functionally\\ depicting\\ info\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\g\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\hybrid\\ system\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\things\\ like\\ color\\ may\\ be\\ represented\\ elsewhere\\ with\\ pointers\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\brain\\ damage\\ data\\ shows\\ these\\ dissociations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\V\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Form\\ a\\ theory\\ pylyshyn\\!\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Genuine\\ depictive\\ rep\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ properties\\ that\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ computed\\ in\\ other\\ systems\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Near\\ infinite\\ number\\ of\\ spatial\\ relations\\ evident\\ in\\ depictive\\ rep\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Relations\\ immediately\\ accessible\\ in\\ the\\ depictuve\\ but\\ every\\ one\\ would\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ explicitly\\ mentioned\\ or\\ computed\\ in\\ propositional\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Depictive\\ reps\\ not\\ formed\\ by\\ discrete\\ symbols\\-\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ up\\ any\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Kosslyn\\,\\ S\\.\\ M\\.\\,\\ Ganis\\,\\ G\\.\\,\\ and\\ Thompson\\,\\ W\\.\\ L\\.\\ \\(2003\\)\\.\\ Mental\\ imagery\\:\\ Against\\ the\\ nihilistic\\ hypothesis\\.\\ Trends\\ in\\ Cognitive\\ Science\\,\\ 7\\,\\ 109\\-111\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Depictive\\ theory\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Occipital\\ lobe\\ contains\\ many\\ topographically\\ mapped\\ areas\\ that\\ support\\ depictive\\ representations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Most\\ cortical\\ areas\\ used\\ in\\ vision\\ are\\ used\\ in\\ imagery\\ including\\ early\\ visual\\ cortex\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Mental\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ shape\\ is\\ created\\ when\\ visual\\ memory\\ is\\ activated\\ top\\-down\\ inducing\\ pattern\\ of\\ activation\\ in\\ the\\ topographically\\ mapped\\ areas\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Well\\ documented\\ feedback\\ from\\ higher\\ to\\ lower\\ visual\\ levels\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Pattern\\ of\\ activation\\ in\\ posterior\\ parietal\\-\\ once\\ creted\\ images\\ can\\ be\\ processed\\ like\\ perception\\ during\\ vision\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Format\\ of\\ thought\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ topographical\\ areas\\ are\\ damaged\\,\\ visual\\ imagery\\ is\\ impaired\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Pattern\\ of\\ activation\\ depends\\ on\\ spatial\\ properties\\ of\\ imagined\\ objects\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Literally\\ space\\ to\\ represent\\ space\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ and\\ perception\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Pylyshyn\\ says\\ imagery\\ and\\ perception\\ could\\ both\\ involve\\ same\\ format\\ with\\ neither\\ being\\ depictive\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Areas\\ in\\ occipital\\ lobe\\ represent\\ depictively\\ during\\ perception\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Geo\\ properties\\ of\\ stim\\ are\\ systematically\\ mapped\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Stimulation\\ of\\ nearby\\ sites\\ produces\\ scotomas\\ localized\\ nearby\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Images\\ of\\ spatial\\ relations\\ are\\ linked\\ to\\ images\\ of\\ shapes\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ get\\ 3d\\ from\\ 2d\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagery\\ activates\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ same\\ areas\\ as\\ perception\\ only\\ when\\ non\\ shared\\ areas\\ damaged\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ dissociated\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Imagined\\ patterns\\ can\\ be\\ reinterpreted\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Tacit\\ Knowledge\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Pylyshyn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ NIHILISTIC\\ hypothesis\\-\\ leads\\ to\\ no\\ testable\\ predictions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\If\\ there\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ high\\ level\\ knowledge\\ of\\ space\\ then\\ there\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ activation\\ patterns\\ in\\ topographically\\ organized\\ areas\\ that\\ reflect\\ properties\\ of\\ object\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Blind\\ have\\ images\\ of\\ spatial\\ relations\\,\\ just\\ not\\ object\\ based\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "kosslyn- Session 1. continued"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.711780+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "kosslyn 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 657, "html": "\\\\ \\;Session\\ 2\\.\\ PROCESSING\\ SYSTEMS\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\I\\.\\ Computational\\ architecture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Smith\\,\\ E\\.\\ E\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Kosslyn\\,\\ S\\.\\ M\\.\\ \\(2006\\)\\.\\ Cognitive\\ psychology\\:\\ Mind\\ and\\ brain\\.\\ New\\ York\\:\\ Prentice\\-Hall\\.\\ Chapter\\ 1\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Mental\\ activity\\ aka\\ cognition\\-\\ internal\\ interpreation\\ of\\ transformation\\ of\\ stored\\ info\\-\\ derive\\ implications\\ and\\ associations\\ from\\ an\\ observation\\ fact\\ or\\ event\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>I\\.\\ History\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\.\\ Descartes\\-\\ mind\\ body\\ distinction\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\b\\.\\ Wundt\\-\\ contents\\ of\\ consciousness\\-\\ mental\\ activity\\ can\\ be\\ decomposed\\ into\\ more\\ basic\\ operations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>William\\ James\\-\\ functionalist\\ psych\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\II\\.\\ Behaviorism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\specify\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ stimuli\\ lead\\ to\\ repsonses\\ that\\ are\\ observable\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ explain\\ most\\ interesting\\ aspects\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\ ie\\ language\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cognitive\\ Revolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1950s\\ and\\ 60s\\ directly\\ tied\\ to\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ computer\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\no\\ longer\\ just\\ stim\\-response\\-consequence\\,\\ now\\ have\\ model\\ for\\ way\\ human\\ mental\\ activity\\ takes\\ place\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\specify\\ internal\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ produce\\ behavior\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\computational\\ models\\ more\\ objective\\ than\\ introspection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Computer\\ analogy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\SEPARATE\\ from\\ computers\\ than\\ run\\ them\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\*Key\\ distinction\\ between\\ hardware\\ and\\ software\\-\\ LEVELS\\ OF\\ ANALYSIS\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>rely\\ on\\ different\\ vocabularies\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Levels\\ of\\ Analysis\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eliminative\\ reductionism\\-\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\ we\\ have\\ levels\\ is\\ convenience\\ of\\ grouping\\ and\\ aggregating\\.\\ ALL\\ action\\ occurs\\ at\\ lowest\\ levels\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Non\\ reductionist\\ materialism\\-\\ you\\ CAN\\&rsquo\\;T\\ REPLACE\\ the\\ laws\\ and\\ vocab\\ of\\ higher\\ levels\\ with\\ those\\ of\\ lower\\ levels\\-\\ the\\ questions\\ you\\ are\\ looking\\ to\\ answer\\ need\\ qualitatively\\ different\\ answers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Most\\ psychologists\\ think\\ here\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Difference\\ between\\ discussing\\ the\\ brick\\ and\\ mortar\\ molecules\\ of\\ a\\ room\\ and\\ asking\\ about\\ a\\ doorway\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ questions\\ require\\ different\\ answers\\ that\\ make\\ different\\ info\\ explicit\\ and\\ accessible\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Constraints\\ on\\ lower\\ levels\\ do\\ not\\ determine\\ but\\ bound\\ possible\\ answer\\ space\\ of\\ higher\\ levels\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ studying\\ the\\ brain\\ to\\ constrain\\ possible\\ structure\\-\\ process\\ tradeoffs\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ can\\ describe\\ computer\\ function\\ as\\ what\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Relies\\ on\\ level\\ of\\ info\\ processing\\-\\ the\\ storage\\,\\ manipulation\\ and\\ transformation\\ of\\ info\\ \\(mental\\ activity\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Physical\\ level\\ characterizes\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ parts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mental\\ Representation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Representation\\-\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ physical\\ state\\ \\(pattern\\ of\\ neural\\ activation\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>CREATED\\ TO\\ represent\\ \\(intentional\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>IMBEDDED\\ in\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ PROCESSES\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Physical\\ state\\ can\\ be\\ interpreted\\ differently\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ its\\ processes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Format\\-\\ type\\ of\\ code\\-\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ system\\ tells\\ you\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ process\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>ON\\ \\(ball\\,box\\)\\ tells\\ you\\ explicit\\ relation\\ argument\\ and\\ syntax\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>PROCESSES\\ define\\ the\\ format\\ and\\ make\\ the\\ physical\\ state\\ into\\ a\\ representation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Content\\-\\ the\\ info\\ that\\ is\\ conveyed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Complex\\ activity\\ must\\ be\\ carried\\ out\\ by\\ series\\ of\\ processes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Algorithm\\-\\ step\\ by\\ step\\ procedure\\ that\\ guarantees\\ a\\ certain\\ output\\ for\\ a\\ certain\\ input\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Serial\\ algorithms\\-each\\ step\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ sequence\\ of\\ steps\\ before\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parallel\\ algorithms\\-specify\\ operations\\ performed\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Brain\\ studies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Constrain\\ possibilities\\ for\\ higher\\ levels\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Identifiability\\-\\ ability\\ to\\ specify\\ the\\ correct\\ combination\\ of\\ representations\\ and\\ processes\\ used\\ to\\ accomplish\\ a\\ task\\-\\ FACTS\\ of\\ the\\ matter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Figure\\ out\\ structure\\ process\\ tradeoff\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ a\\ theory\\ can\\ explain\\ any\\ result\\ AND\\ its\\ opposite\\-\\ it\\ explains\\ nothing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\V\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Neurons\\ as\\ building\\ blocks\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Do\\ not\\ dictate\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ are\\ used\\ but\\ constrain\\ types\\ of\\ architecture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sensory\\ neurons\\-\\ activated\\ by\\ input\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Motor\\-stimulate\\ muscles\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interneurons\\-stand\\ between\\ sensory\\ and\\ motor\\ or\\ between\\ each\\ other\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dendrites\\-cell\\ body\\-axon\\-synapse\\-synaptic\\ cleft\\-\\ release\\ neurotransmitters\\ via\\ terminal\\ buttons\\-receptors\\ of\\ next\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\f\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Obey\\ law\\-\\ either\\ fire\\ or\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\VI\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>He\\ then\\ discusses\\ neuroanatomy\\-\\ check\\ text\\ if\\ needed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\VII\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cognitive\\ neuroscience\\-\\ stands\\ at\\ intersection\\ of\\ neuroscience\\ and\\ cognitive\\ psych\\-0\\ the\\ mind\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ brain\\ does\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cognition\\ is\\ info\\ processing\\ contrained\\ by\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Look\\ for\\ converging\\ evidence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dissociations\\ \\(esp\\ double\\)\\ very\\ strong\\ evidence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Associations\\-shared\\ effects\\ indicate\\ that\\ common\\ representations\\ or\\ processes\\ are\\ being\\ affected\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\VIII\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Weaknesses\\ of\\ behavioral\\ studies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ceiling\\/floor\\ effects\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Speed\\-accuracy\\ tradeoff\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experimental\\/subject\\ expectancy\\ effects\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Task\\ demands\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Correlational\\-\\ reveal\\ patterns\\ that\\ accompany\\ info\\ processing\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ that\\ activation\\ in\\ specific\\ areas\\ results\\ in\\ performance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Correlation\\ does\\ not\\ imply\\ causation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\ REALLY\\ GOOD\\ CHART\\ OF\\ EEG\\,\\ ERP\\,\\ PET\\,\\ FMRI\\ strengths\\ and\\ weaknesses\\ pg\\ 30\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IX\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Causal\\ neural\\ networks\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Activity\\ in\\ particular\\ brain\\ region\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ specific\\ representation\\ of\\ carries\\ out\\ specific\\ task\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Brain\\ damage\\ and\\ rTMS\\ studies\\ allow\\ for\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ studies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\X\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\X\\.\\ Theories\\-\\ sets\\ of\\ abstractions\\ set\\ to\\ explain\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ Describing\\ is\\ boiling\\ down\\ phenomenon\\ into\\ summary\\ statements\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ Explaining\\-\\ using\\ the\\ theory\\ you\\ can\\ explain\\ and\\ recreate\\ phenomenon\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ 3\\ classes\\ of\\ theories\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;i\\.\\ Instrumentalism\\-black\\ box\\ of\\ theorizing\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ behaviorism\\-\\ no\\ claims\\ of\\ ontology\\-\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ equation\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ correspond\\ to\\ anything\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ put\\ in\\ question\\ \\(input\\)\\&Dagger\\;\\ get\\ answer\\ \\(output\\)\\ no\\ claims\\ about\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ inside\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;ii\\.\\ Constructivism\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ reality\\ out\\ there\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unknowable\\-\\ we\\ construct\\ the\\ world\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ it\\ \\(humanities\\&rsquo\\;\\ workspace\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;iii\\.\\ Realism\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ Na\\ï\\;ve\\-\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ reality\\ is\\ obvious\\-\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perception\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ Sophisticated\\ \\(where\\ most\\ scientists\\ theorize\\)\\-\\ structure\\ is\\ not\\ obvious\\ to\\ perception\\-\\ assume\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ structure\\ out\\ there\\ \\(as\\ opposed\\ to\\ constructivism\\)\\-\\ we\\ can\\ theorize\\ and\\ test\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ nature\\ is\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\*\\*There\\ IS\\ a\\ FACT\\ of\\ the\\ MATTER\\*\\*\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Modeling\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Models\\ have\\ 3\\ types\\ of\\ characteristics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Relevant\\ to\\ the\\ theory\\-\\ ie\\ shape\\ of\\ model\\ airplanes\\ wings\\ or\\ order\\ or\\ processes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Clearly\\ not\\ relevant\\-\\ color\\ of\\ model\\ airplane\\ or\\ time\\ a\\ computer\\ requires\\ to\\ run\\ a\\ process\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ clearly\\ in\\ either\\ category\\-\\ shape\\ of\\ belly\\ of\\ plane\\ or\\ role\\ of\\ CP\\ in\\ info\\ processing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Computer\\ simulation\\ models\\-\\ we\\ use\\ models\\ because\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ complete\\ theory\\-test\\ models\\ to\\ test\\ theories\\ but\\ bi\\ directional\\ between\\ models\\ and\\ theories\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Depending\\ on\\ question\\,\\ diff\\ models\\ are\\ appropriate\\ and\\ diff\\ theorizing\\ appropriate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Analytic\\-\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ actually\\ do\\ anything\\-\\ good\\ for\\ decision\\ making\\,\\ psychophysics\\ and\\ heuristics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Simulation\\-\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\ the\\ process\\ mimics\\ the\\ process\\ youre\\ interested\\ in\\ \\(neural\\ net\\ models\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>rule\\ described\\-\\ instrumental\\ case\\-\\ emulating\\-\\ want\\ it\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ the\\ same\\ process\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>weather\\ patterns\\,\\ point\\ to\\ point\\ correspondence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>simulate\\-\\ not\\ necessarily\\ same\\ process\\-\\ black\\ box\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>within\\ each\\ reaction\\ there\\ are\\ embedded\\ analytic\\ models\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>v\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Specify\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ processes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>vi\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Process\\ models\\-\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Typically\\ assume\\ serial\\ processing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Feedback\\ occurs\\ only\\ after\\ process\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ it\\ are\\ complete\\ \\(not\\ like\\ brain\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Do\\ not\\ LEARN\\ \\&ndash\\;enter\\ neural\\ networks\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\XI\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Neural\\ Networks\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Model\\ relies\\ on\\ sets\\ of\\ interconnected\\ units\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Input\\ layer\\-\\ set\\ of\\ units\\ that\\ receive\\ stimulation\\ from\\ external\\ environment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hidden\\ layer\\-no\\ direct\\ contact\\ with\\ environment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Output\\ layer\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Each\\ unit\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\&rdquo\\;off\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Each\\ connection\\ has\\ a\\ weight\\-\\ measure\\ strength\\ of\\ its\\ influence\\ on\\ receiving\\ unit\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Distributed\\ parallel\\ processing\\-\\ representation\\ is\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ weights\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ can\\ learn\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\f\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Degrade\\ gradually\\ when\\ damaged\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\g\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Neural\\ code\\-\\ specigic\\ level\\ of\\ activity\\ for\\ each\\ neuron\\/node\\ and\\ a\\ specigic\\ strength\\ for\\ each\\ connection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knowing\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ each\\ individual\\ node\\ wont\\ tell\\ you\\ how\\ and\\ why\\ you\\ get\\ outputs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\h\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ it\\ represents\\ and\\ processes\\ info\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mental\\ representations\\ are\\ like\\ the\\ architecture\\ that\\ come\\ from\\ arranging\\ the\\ bricks\\ which\\ are\\ like\\ neural\\ code\\ in\\ certain\\ ways\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "kosslyn 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.751685+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Vision part two - session 2 - Yaoda Xu - Object Representation in the Brain", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 658, "html": "\\The\\ main\\ question\\ for\\ this\\ session\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ brain\\ represents\\ objects\\.\\ The\\ papers\\ most\\ relevant\\ to\\ this\\ debate\\ are\\ discussed\\,\\ and\\ theories\\ include\\:\\ category\\ specificity\\,\\ distributed\\ representations\\,\\ and\\ experience\\.\\ The\\ questions\\ raised\\ here\\ address\\ why\\ the\\ FFA\\ develops\\ as\\ it\\ does\\,\\ either\\ naturally\\ as\\ a\\ face\\ specialized\\ region\\,\\ or\\ develops\\ based\\ on\\ experience\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ originally\\ developed\\ for\\ faces\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ expert\\ processing\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(1\\)\\ Kanwisher\\,\\ N\\.\\,\\ McDermott\\,\\ J\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Chun\\,\\ M\\.\\ \\(1997\\)\\ The\\ Fusiform\\ Face\\ Area\\:\\ A\\ Module\\ in\\ Human\\ Extrastriate\\ Cortex\\ Specialized\\ for\\ the\\ Perception\\ of\\ Faces\\.\\ Journal\\ of\\ Neuroscience\\,\\ 17\\,\\ 4302\\-4311\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ papers\\ to\\ pipe\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ debate\\,\\ and\\ it\\ asks\\ whether\\ the\\ area\\ on\\ the\\ fusiform\\ gyrus\\ coined\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fusiform\\ face\\ area\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ \\specific\\<\\/em\\>\\ for\\ face\\ processing\\.\\ Alternatives\\ that\\ this\\ paper\\ tried\\ to\\ rule\\ out\\ was\\ that\\ this\\ area\\ responded\\ to\\ 1\\)\\ low\\ level\\ visual\\ feature\\ extraction\\ \\(thus\\ the\\ scrambled\\ condition\\)\\ 2\\)\\ categories\\ with\\ subordinate\\ levels\\ \\(thus\\ the\\ house\\ and\\ 1\\-back\\ task\\,\\ where\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ recognize\\ similar\\ images\\ and\\ compare\\ between\\ them\\)\\,\\ 3\\)\\ animacy\\ \\(thus\\ the\\ hand\\ condition\\)\\ and\\ 4\\)\\ visual\\ attention\\ \\(1\\-back\\ task\\)\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ main\\ contrast\\ was\\ faces\\ minus\\ objects\\.\\ ROI\\ analyses\\ were\\ used\\,\\ and\\ results\\,\\ across\\ the\\ board\\ lent\\ support\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;specialization\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ in\\ the\\ FFA\\ \\(and\\ OFA\\)\\ for\\ face\\ processing\\,\\ with\\ the\\ Right\\ hemisphere\\ more\\ dominant\\ than\\ the\\ left\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSome\\ things\\ to\\ note\\:\\ there\\ was\\ absolutely\\ no\\ motion\\ correction\\ \\(boo\\)\\ but\\ somehow\\ they\\ found\\ ffa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ 12\\ of\\ the\\ 15\\ subjects\\ studied\\.\\ The\\ location\\ of\\ the\\ ffa\\ was\\ stable\\ across\\ many\\ sessions\\ for\\ one\\ subject\\ \\(test\\-retest\\ reliability\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(2\\)\\ Epstein\\,\\ R\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Kanwisher\\,\\ N\\.\\ \\(1998\\)\\ A\\ Cortical\\ Representation\\ of\\ the\\ Local\\ Visual\\ Environment\\.\\ Nature\\,\\ 392\\,\\ 598\\-601\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ paper\\ is\\ basically\\ the\\ PPA\\ \\(paraphippocampal\\ place\\ area\\)\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ ffa\\ paper\\ above\\.\\ The\\ question\\ here\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;does\\ the\\ PPA\\ respond\\ specifically\\ to\\ scenes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Of\\ course\\ a\\ relevant\\ corollary\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ is\\ a\\ scene\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ paper\\ tries\\ to\\ break\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;scene\\&rdquo\\;\\ down\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ possible\\,\\ testing\\ stimuli\\ of\\ faces\\,\\ objects\\,\\ multiple\\-object\\ arrays\\,\\ \\landmarks\\,\\ landscapes\\,\\ outdoor\\ scenes\\,\\ furnished\\ rooms\\,\\ empty\\ rooms\\,\\ fractured\\ rooms\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ and\\ fractured\\ and\\ rearranged\\ rooms\\.\\ These\\ stimuli\\ were\\ tested\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ see\\ whether\\ factors\\ like\\ size\\,\\ spatial\\ features\\,\\ coherency\\ of\\ space\\,\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\,\\ etc\\ drove\\ ppa\\ responding\\\\\r\\\nUsing\\ independent\\ ROI\\ analyses\\,\\ results\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ ppa\\ responds\\ strongly\\ to\\ the\\ above\\ bolded\\ stimuli\\,\\ leading\\ them\\ to\\ conclude\\:\\ the\\ ppa\\ responds\\ selectively\\ to\\ viewing\\ \\&ldquo\\;visual\\ scenes\\ depicting\\ places\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ even\\ when\\ not\\ performing\\ an\\ explicit\\ cognitive\\ task\\,\\ and\\ even\\ if\\ no\\ objects\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\.\\ The\\ most\\ critical\\ feature\\ of\\ a\\ stimulus\\ in\\ activating\\ the\\ ppa\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ presents\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;layout\\ of\\ local\\ space\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(3\\)\\ Grill\\-Spector\\,\\ K\\.\\,\\ Kushnir\\,\\ T\\.\\,\\ Edelman\\,\\ S\\.\\,\\ Itzchak\\,\\ Y\\.\\ \\&\\;\\ Malach\\ R\\.\\ \\(1998\\)\\.\\ Cue\\-invariant\\ activation\\ in\\ object\\-related\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ occipital\\ lobe\\.\\ Neuron\\,\\ 21\\,\\ 191\\-202\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ paper\\ is\\ the\\ LOC\\ \\(lateral\\ occipital\\ lobe\\ complex\\)\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ ffa\\ and\\ ppa\\ papers\\ above\\,\\ aimed\\ at\\ specifying\\ what\\ drives\\ a\\ response\\ in\\ the\\ LOC\\,\\ with\\ the\\ hypothesis\\ that\\ all\\ visual\\ stimuli\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ visual\\ cue\\ \\(motion\\,\\ texture\\,\\ luminance\\ contrast\\)\\,\\ would\\ activate\\ the\\ LOC\\ if\\ those\\ cues\\ defined\\ an\\ object\\ silhouette\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ relatively\\ simple\\ study\\ with\\ involved\\ analyses\\,\\ but\\ simply\\ put\\,\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ block\\ design\\ stimuli\\ which\\ were\\ either\\ pure\\ motion\\,\\ motion\\ display\\ which\\ defined\\ an\\ object\\,\\ pure\\ texture\\,\\ texture\\ display\\ that\\ defined\\ an\\ object\\,\\ and\\ an\\ object\\ defined\\ by\\ luminance\\ differences\\ \\(a\\ normal\\ looking\\ silhouette\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nResults\\ were\\ exactly\\ as\\ expected\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ in\\ contrasting\\ the\\ different\\ visual\\ displays\\ which\\ did\\ or\\ did\\ not\\ define\\ objects\\,\\ all\\ visual\\ cues\\ defining\\ objects\\ converged\\ on\\ the\\ LOC\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ this\\ area\\ processes\\ objects\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(4\\)\\ Kourtzi\\,\\ Z\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Kanwisher\\,\\ N\\.\\ \\(2001\\)\\ Representation\\ of\\ Perceived\\ Object\\ Shape\\ by\\ the\\ Human\\ Lateral\\ Occipital\\ Complex\\.\\ Science\\,\\ 293\\,\\ 1506\\-1509\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nAnother\\ LOC\\ study\\,\\ this\\ time\\ using\\ repetition\\ suppression\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ objects\\ are\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ LOC\\ and\\ not\\ their\\ specific\\ visual\\ cues\\ \\(contour\\,\\ low\\ level\\ visual\\ features\\ etc\\)\\.\\ This\\ was\\ tested\\ using\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ stimuli\\.\\ In\\ both\\ sets\\ there\\ were\\ two\\ object\\ or\\ contour\\ displays\\.\\ The\\ two\\ displays\\ either\\ were\\ 1\\)\\ completely\\ different\\ 2\\)\\ different\\ in\\ shape\\/contour\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ depth\\ 3\\)\\ Same\\ in\\ shape\\,\\ but\\ differing\\ in\\ depth\\ and\\ 4\\)\\ Completely\\ identical\\ in\\ shape\\ and\\ depth\\.\\ Stimuli\\ of\\ type\\ 4\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ show\\ repetition\\ suppression\\ in\\ both\\ cases\\ since\\ the\\ same\\ object\\ was\\ represented\\.\\ As\\ for\\ 3\\,\\ the\\ same\\ object\\ was\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ object\\ display\\,\\ but\\ different\\ \\&ldquo\\;objects\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ contour\\ display\\ \\(since\\ the\\ differing\\ depth\\ placed\\ either\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;object\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ or\\ right\\ of\\ the\\ contour\\ in\\ the\\ foreground\\)\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ former\\ should\\ we\\ see\\ repetition\\ suppression\\ if\\ objects\\ and\\ not\\ contours\\ were\\ being\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ LOC\\.\\ This\\ is\\ exactly\\ what\\ was\\ found\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ objects\\ and\\ not\\ other\\ visual\\ cues\\ are\\ processed\\ by\\ the\\ LOC\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(5\\)\\ Gauthier\\ I\\,\\ Skudlarski\\ P\\,\\ Gore\\ J\\.C\\.\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Anderson\\ A\\.W\\.\\ \\(2000\\)\\ Expertise\\ for\\ cars\\ and\\ birds\\ recruits\\ brain\\ areas\\ involved\\ in\\ face\\ recognition\\.\\ Nature\\ Neuroscience\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 191\\-197\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ way\\ that\\ Yaoda\\ framed\\ this\\ article\\ was\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ mind\\,\\ and\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ brain\\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ even\\ if\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ faces\\ are\\ processed\\ somewhere\\ within\\ our\\ neural\\ architecture\\,\\ whether\\ in\\ a\\ distributed\\ \\(see\\ Haxby\\ below\\)\\ or\\ localized\\ manner\\ \\(Kanwisher\\,\\ above\\)\\,\\ this\\ still\\ just\\ tells\\ us\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ organized\\.\\ This\\ paper\\ aimed\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ mind\\ by\\ pulling\\ together\\ features\\ of\\ two\\ cognitive\\ processes\\ into\\ the\\ same\\ brain\\ region\\.\\ \\(it\\ is\\ not\\ fully\\ clear\\ to\\ me\\ how\\ this\\ addresses\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ what\\ Yaoda\\ stated\\.\\ Any\\ clarification\\ here\\ would\\ be\\ welcome\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ main\\ empirical\\ question\\ to\\ be\\ answered\\ with\\ this\\ paper\\ is\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ ffa\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ expertise\\ in\\ the\\ stimuli\\ presented\\,\\ or\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ specific\\ to\\ a\\ stimulus\\ category\\.\\ This\\ was\\ tested\\ by\\ scanning\\ experts\\ in\\ cars\\ and\\ birds\\ while\\ viewing\\ objects\\,\\ faces\\,\\ cars\\,\\ and\\ birds\\ during\\ a\\ task\\ where\\ subjects\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ either\\ repetitions\\ of\\ stimulus\\ location\\ or\\ stimulus\\ identity\\.\\\\\r\\\nThere\\ were\\ a\\ few\\ analyses\\ done\\:\\ \\\\\r\\\nFirst\\,\\ using\\ a\\ localizer\\ scan\\,\\ a\\ right\\ FFA\\ was\\ found\\ in\\ all\\ subjects\\,\\ a\\ left\\ FFA\\ in\\ 13\\/19\\,\\ and\\ a\\ right\\ OFA\\ in\\ 15\\.\\ These\\ were\\ used\\ as\\ ROI\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ Results\\ showed\\ an\\ effect\\ of\\ expertise\\ in\\ the\\ Right\\ FFA\\ and\\ right\\ OFA\\ \\(not\\ left\\ FFA\\)\\,\\ meaning\\ experts\\ showed\\ greater\\ activity\\ there\\ when\\ viewing\\ their\\ items\\ of\\ expertise\\ than\\ the\\ items\\ they\\ were\\ novices\\ at\\.\\ This\\ effect\\ held\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ smaller\\ defined\\ ffa\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;center\\ of\\ FFA\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\\r\\\nSecond\\,\\ they\\ performed\\ analyses\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ activation\\ for\\ both\\ faces\\ and\\ experts\\ is\\ focused\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ region\\.\\ In\\ an\\ ROI\\ of\\ 25x25\\ voxels\\,\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\ r\\ and\\ left\\ FFA\\,\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;center\\ of\\ mass\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ experts\\ during\\ activation\\ for\\ their\\ expert\\ items\\ and\\ faces\\.\\ Analyses\\ of\\ a\\ 5x5\\ voxel\\ window\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\ most\\ face\\-selective\\ voxel\\ showed\\,\\ similarly\\,\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ greater\\ expert\\ activity\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ center\\ than\\ the\\ outer\\ regions\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nThird\\,\\ they\\ looked\\ at\\ correlations\\ between\\ behavioral\\ performance\\ and\\ ROI\\ activity\\.\\ These\\ analyses\\ showed\\ that\\ level\\ of\\ relative\\ expertise\\ \\(within\\ each\\ group\\ of\\ expert\\ between\\ expert\\ categories\\)\\ correlated\\ strongly\\ with\\ percent\\ signal\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ rFFA\\,\\ but\\ only\\ for\\ behavioral\\ performance\\ on\\ the\\ location\\,\\ not\\ the\\ identity\\ task\\.\\ This\\ behavioral\\ difference\\ was\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ experts\\ will\\ automatically\\ process\\ stimuli\\ at\\ the\\ subordinate\\ level\\ during\\ both\\ tasks\\,\\ but\\ novices\\ will\\ do\\ so\\ in\\ the\\ identity\\ task\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\nTaken\\ together\\,\\ these\\ results\\ support\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\ the\\ ffa\\ processes\\ stimuli\\ categories\\ that\\ a\\ person\\ has\\ expertise\\ in\\,\\ as\\ it\\ supports\\ automatic\\ subordinate\\-level\\ processing\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\(6\\)\\ Haxby\\,\\ J\\.V\\.\\,\\ et\\ al\\.\\ \\(2001\\)\\.\\ Distributed\\ and\\ overlapping\\ representations\\ of\\ faces\\ and\\ objects\\ in\\ ventral\\ temporal\\ cortex\\.\\ Science\\,\\ 293\\,\\ 2425\\-2430\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThis\\ paper\\,\\ objectively\\,\\ is\\ super\\ cool\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSubjects\\ in\\ this\\ study\\ saw\\ stimuli\\ from\\ many\\ different\\ categories\\.\\ The\\ region\\ of\\ analysis\\ was\\ defined\\ as\\ all\\ those\\ voxels\\ that\\ differed\\ significantly\\ by\\ category\\.\\ Each\\ subject\\ had\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ data\\,\\ even\\ and\\ odd\\ runs\\ so\\ that\\ patterns\\ of\\ activity\\ could\\ be\\ compared\\ both\\ within\\ stimuli\\ and\\ between\\ stimuli\\,\\ across\\ runs\\.\\ Correlations\\ show\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ patterns\\ distributed\\ across\\ the\\ entire\\ ventral\\ temporal\\ object\\-selective\\ cortex\\ across\\ time\\ are\\ similar\\ or\\ dissimilar\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nAnalyses\\ showed\\ that\\,\\ based\\ only\\ on\\ these\\ patterns\\ of\\ activity\\,\\ the\\ stimulus\\ category\\ could\\ be\\ correctly\\ identified\\ with\\ almost\\ compete\\ accuracy\\.\\ This\\ result\\ held\\ up\\ even\\ when\\ those\\ voxels\\ exhibiting\\ maximal\\ stimulus\\ specific\\ activity\\ were\\ excluded\\,\\ respectively\\.\\ This\\ result\\ held\\ even\\ when\\ voxels\\ were\\ restricted\\ to\\ those\\ which\\ responded\\ maximally\\ to\\ only\\ one\\ stimulus\\ category\\,\\ for\\ all\\ categories\\ except\\ bottles\\.\\ These\\ results\\ hold\\ for\\ both\\ pictures\\ and\\ line\\ drawings\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ nonmaximally\\ responsive\\ voxels\\ are\\ not\\ responding\\ merely\\ to\\ low\\-level\\ features\\,\\ but\\ rather\\,\\ carry\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ stimulus\\ category\\ as\\ well\\\\\r\\\nTaken\\ together\\,\\ These\\ results\\ suggest\\ that\\ a\\ great\\ amount\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ all\\ stimuli\\ categories\\ is\\ carried\\ in\\ regions\\ of\\ VT\\ cortex\\ which\\ are\\ and\\ are\\ not\\ those\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ generally\\ characterized\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;stimulus\\ specific\\&rdquo\\;\\ based\\ solely\\ on\\ analyses\\ of\\ maximal\\ activity\\.\\ It\\ is\\ thus\\ suggested\\ that\\ distributed\\ processing\\ isi\\ the\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ VT\\ cortex\\ processes\\ categorical\\ stimuli\\.\\\\\r\\\nOne\\ issue\\ to\\ note\\ is\\ that\\ this\\ analysis\\ eliminated\\ amplitude\\ and\\ looked\\ rather\\ at\\ relative\\ fluctuations\\ around\\ a\\ mean\\,\\ for\\ each\\ specific\\ stimulus\\.\\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\ perhaps\\ both\\ distributed\\ processing\\,\\ reflected\\ in\\ patterns\\ of\\ activity\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ stimulus\\ specific\\ activity\\,\\ reflected\\ in\\ amplitude\\,\\ may\\ together\\ contribute\\ to\\ categorical\\ processing\\ in\\ VT\\ cortex\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "Vision part two - session 2 - Yaoda Xu - Object Representation in the Brain"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.768146+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "kosslyn 2 continued", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 659, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Neural\\ Networks\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Model\\ relies\\ on\\ sets\\ of\\ interconnected\\ units\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Input\\ layer\\-\\ set\\ of\\ units\\ that\\ receive\\ stimulation\\ from\\ external\\ environment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hidden\\ layer\\-no\\ direct\\ contact\\ with\\ environment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Output\\ layer\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Each\\ unit\\ can\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\&rdquo\\;off\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Each\\ connection\\ has\\ a\\ weight\\-\\ measure\\ strength\\ of\\ its\\ influence\\ on\\ receiving\\ unit\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Distributed\\ parallel\\ processing\\-\\ representation\\ is\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ weights\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ can\\ learn\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\f\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Degrade\\ gradually\\ when\\ damaged\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\g\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Functional\\ architecture\\-\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Computationally\\-\\ ypu\\ need\\ to\\ interpret\\ diff\\ input\\ for\\ diff\\ output\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Constraint\\ satisfaction\\-\\ each\\ part\\ has\\ weak\\ constraints\\ but\\ to\\ satisfy\\ all\\ constraints\\ theres\\ often\\ only\\ ONE\\ unique\\ solution\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Consistency\\ implicates\\ constraint\\ satisfaction\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Adding\\ constraints\\ to\\ narrow\\ possibilities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\h\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Neural\\ code\\-\\ specigic\\ level\\ of\\ activity\\ for\\ each\\ neuron\\/node\\ and\\ a\\ specigic\\ strength\\ for\\ each\\ connection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knowing\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ each\\ individual\\ node\\ wont\\ tell\\ you\\ how\\ and\\ why\\ you\\ get\\ outputs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ it\\ represents\\ and\\ processes\\ info\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\j\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mental\\ representations\\ are\\ like\\ the\\ architecture\\ that\\ come\\ from\\ arranging\\ the\\ bricks\\ which\\ are\\ like\\ neural\\ code\\ in\\ certain\\ ways\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Marr\\,\\ D\\.\\ \\(1982\\)\\.\\ Vision\\:\\ A\\ computational\\ investigation\\ into\\ the\\ human\\ representation\\ and\\ processing\\ of\\ visual\\ information\\.\\ New\\ York\\:\\ W\\.\\ H\\.\\ Freeman\\.\\ Introduction\\ and\\ Chapter\\ 1\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Levels\\ of\\ analysis\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Size\\ scale\\-\\ further\\ up\\ more\\ aggreagated\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Types\\ of\\ laws\\ that\\ describe\\ causal\\ relations\\ change\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Lower\\ level\\ brain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ higher\\ level\\ info\\ processing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Higher\\ level\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ reached\\ without\\ lower\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Lower\\ bounds\\ the\\ possibilities\\ of\\ higher\\ without\\ determining\\ the\\ actual\\ processes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Computational\\-\\ What\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ is\\ being\\ performed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Info\\ processing\\-\\ you\\ need\\ modules\\-\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ undifferentiated\\-\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\ all\\ at\\ once\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Modules\\ or\\ subsystems\\ that\\ perform\\ individual\\ functions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Defined\\ by\\ inputs\\,\\ outputs\\ and\\ the\\ boundaries\\ of\\ assumptions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Algorithm\\-\\ HOW\\-\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>has\\ a\\ temporal\\ component\\ where\\ computational\\ does\\ not\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\implementation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\hardware\\ level\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\f\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\computation\\ and\\ algorithm\\ level\\ not\\ so\\ clearly\\ separated\\-\\ often\\ an\\ algorithm\\ will\\ have\\ separate\\ computations\\ within\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\g\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\*\\*really\\ breaks\\ down\\ into\\ 2\\ levels\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\INFO\\ PROCESSING\\-\\ representations\\ and\\ processes\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\HARDWARE\\-\\ physical\\ states\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\h\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Marr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ big\\ advance\\ was\\ at\\ level\\ of\\ WHAT\\ is\\ computed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Sternberg\\,\\ S\\.\\ \\(1969\\)\\.\\ The\\ discovery\\ of\\ processing\\ stages\\:\\ Extensions\\ of\\ Donders\\'\\ method\\.\\ In\\ W\\.\\ G\\.\\ Koster\\ \\(Ed\\.\\)\\,\\ Attention\\ and\\ Performance\\ II\\ \\(pp\\.\\ 276\\-315\\)\\.\\ Amsterdam\\:\\ North\\-Holland\\ Publishing\\ Company\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Based\\ on\\ Donders\\&rsquo\\;\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ time\\ between\\ stim\\ and\\ response\\ is\\ occupied\\ by\\ a\\ train\\ of\\ successive\\ processes\\ or\\ stages\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\ assumed\\ mean\\ reaction\\ time\\ for\\ each\\ subsequent\\ process\\ must\\ contain\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ preceding\\ plus\\ the\\ stage\\ in\\ question\\ \\(subtraction\\ model\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\RT\\ experiments\\ to\\ study\\ stages\\ of\\ info\\ processing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Additive\\ factor\\ method\\ leads\\ to\\ 4\\ stage\\ model\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Encoding\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Comparison\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Decision\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Response\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ANOVA\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ ways\\ to\\ affect\\ each\\ stage\\ independently\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\RT\\ components\\ independent\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\RT\\ is\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ the\\ components\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Additivity\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ variance\\ examined\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Additive\\ factor\\ method\\ does\\ not\\ distinguish\\ processes\\-\\ just\\ stages\\ \\(as\\ defined\\ in\\ text\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Varied\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ presented\\ stimuli\\ that\\ would\\ differentially\\ affect\\ each\\ \\&ldquo\\;stage\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ processing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Stimulus\\ quality\\-\\ for\\ encoding\\ stage\\ which\\ prepares\\ a\\ stimulus\\ representation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Serial\\ comparison\\-\\ for\\ response\\ selection\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Stages\\ influenced\\ by\\ decision\\ and\\ response\\ must\\ follow\\ comparison\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Since\\ encoding\\ factor\\ \\(stimulus\\ quality\\)\\ and\\ response\\ factor\\ are\\ on\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ serial\\ comparison\\-\\ they\\ must\\ influence\\ different\\ stages\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\V\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Figure\\ 11\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Average\\ RT\\ for\\ the\\ 8\\ diff\\ conditions\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\8\\ choices\\-\\ results\\ ae\\ additive\\,\\ 2\\ choices\\,\\ results\\ not\\ additive\\-\\ shows\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ stochastically\\ independent\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\methods\\ that\\ assume\\ independence\\ are\\ limited\\ in\\ use\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\VI\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\interactions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\allow\\ one\\ to\\ reject\\ idea\\ of\\ separate\\ stages\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\processes\\ could\\ be\\ performed\\ in\\ parallel\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\McClelland\\ and\\ Rumelhart\\,\\ \\An\\ interactive\\ activation\\ model\\ of\\ context\\ effects\\ in\\ letter\\ perception\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\McClelland\\ \\&\\;\\ Rumelhart\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Model\\ of\\ context\\ effects\\ in\\ perception\\ of\\ letters\\-\\ perception\\ resulting\\ from\\ inhibitory\\ and\\ excitatory\\ interactions\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Excitatory\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Visual\\ input\\ excites\\ detectors\\ for\\ visual\\ features\\ in\\ display\\ which\\ excite\\ detectors\\ for\\ letters\\ with\\ those\\ features\\ which\\ excite\\ detectors\\ for\\ consistent\\ words\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Inhibitory\\-\\ Active\\ word\\ detectors\\ mutually\\ inhibit\\ each\\ other\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Active\\ word\\ detectors\\ send\\ feedback\\ to\\ letter\\ level\\ strengthening\\ activation\\ and\\ perceptibility\\ of\\ letters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Role\\ of\\ context\\ in\\ perception\\ of\\ letters\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Knowledge\\ and\\ familiarity\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Identify\\ letters\\ in\\ words\\ more\\ accurately\\ than\\ random\\ letters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Could\\ be\\ chunking\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Could\\ affect\\ perception\\ itself\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Presentation\\ of\\ string\\ of\\ letters\\ begins\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ activating\\ detectors\\ for\\ letters\\ consistent\\ with\\ input\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Advantage\\ extends\\ to\\ pronounceable\\ non\\ words\\ \\(pseudowords\\)\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Highly\\ constraining\\ contexts\\ give\\ very\\ little\\ advantage\\ over\\ weakly\\ constraining\\ in\\ the\\ patterned\\-mask\\ tasks\\ that\\ give\\ biggest\\ boost\\ to\\ word\\ over\\ random\\ context\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Interactive\\ Activation\\ Model\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Several\\ levels\\ of\\ processing\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Visual\\ feature\\ level\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Letter\\ level\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Word\\ level\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Higher\\ level\\ \\&ldquo\\;top\\-down\\&rdquo\\;\\ input\\ to\\ word\\ level\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Parallel\\ processing\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Spatially\\ parallel\\-space\\ large\\ enough\\ for\\ 4\\ letter\\ word\\ processed\\ at\\ once\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Visual\\ processing\\ occurs\\ at\\ several\\ levels\\ at\\ once\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>processing\\ at\\ letter\\ elvels\\ occurs\\ simultaneously\\ with\\ processing\\ at\\ word\\ level\\ and\\ feature\\ level\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interactive\\ process\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;top\\ down\\&rdquo\\;\\ conceptually\\ driven\\ simultaneously\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;bottom\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ data\\ driven\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>knowledge\\ about\\ the\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ incoming\\ featural\\ info\\ in\\ codetermining\\ nature\\ and\\ time\\ course\\ of\\ perception\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>intralevel\\ inhibitory\\ loop\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>lateral\\ inhibition\\ incompatible\\ units\\ at\\ same\\ level\\ compete\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Assumptions\\ of\\ model\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Representation\\ assumption\\-every\\ relevant\\ unit\\ in\\ system\\ has\\ a\\ node\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>word\\ level\\ nodes\\ and\\ letter\\ level\\ nodes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>connecting\\ nodes\\ are\\ neighbors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>excitatory\\ connections\\-\\ the\\ two\\ nodes\\ suggest\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ existence\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\4\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>inhibitory\\-\\ the\\ nodes\\ are\\ inconsisten\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Activation\\ assumptions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>momentary\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ node\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>if\\ positive\\-\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ active\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>resting\\ levels\\ differ\\ on\\ a\\ priori\\ basis\\-\\ high\\ frequency\\ have\\ higher\\ resting\\ levels\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>only\\ nodes\\ in\\ active\\ state\\ have\\ any\\ effect\\ \\(\\+\\/\\-\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>net\\ input\\ to\\ node\\ drives\\ activation\\ up\\ or\\ down\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/sp", "course_id": 102, "file_path": "", "desc": "kosslyn 2 continued"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.824966+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 660, "html": "\\\\This\\ week\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ provided\\ an\\ introduction\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ class\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ different\\ roles\\ of\\ food\\ within\\ society\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Food\\ is\\ inherently\\ a\\ \\social\\ object\\ \\<\\/strong\\>and\\ is\\ produced\\,\\ distributed\\,\\ and\\ consumed\\ according\\ to\\ social\\ principles\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nFood\\ is\\ inherently\\ a\\ \\cultural\\ object\\<\\/strong\\>\\ that\\ determines\\ what\\ to\\ eat\\ and\\ what\\ not\\ to\\ eat\\ based\\ on\\ culturally\\ determined\\ preferences\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nFood\\ is\\ inherently\\ a\\ \\universal\\ element\\<\\/strong\\>\\ of\\ all\\ human\\ societies\\ and\\ all\\ species\\,\\ but\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ sociality\\ of\\ human\\ species\\,\\ food\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ natural\\ given\\.\\ Foodstuffs\\ exist\\ as\\ they\\ do\\ because\\ social\\ groups\\ harvest\\,\\ process\\,\\ distribute\\,\\ and\\ consume\\ food\\ or\\ foodstuffs\\ in\\ particular\\ ways\\.\\ Culture\\ determines\\ and\\ reflects\\ those\\ particular\\ ways\\ by\\ encoding\\ preferences\\,\\ prohibitions\\,\\ ritual\\ meanings\\,\\ and\\ principles\\ of\\ intimacy\\ and\\ distance\\.\\ \\Essentially\\,\\ social\\ structure\\ and\\ cultural\\ principles\\ interact\\ to\\ create\\ foodways\\ or\\ food\\ cultures\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Other\\ key\\ themes\\ include\\:\\ food\\ and\\ foodways\\ as\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\Cultural\\ systems\\ of\\ meaning\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Related\\ to\\ social\\ complexity\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Conditioned\\ by\\ modes\\ of\\ production\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Markers\\ of\\ identities\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Essential\\ to\\ ritual\\ and\\ religion\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Engines\\ of\\ globalizations\\,\\ past\\ \\&\\;\\ present\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ this\\ class\\,\\ we\\ discuss\\ food\\ as\\ broadly\\ conceived\\,\\ including\\ ingredients\\,\\ dishes\\,\\ meals\\,\\ cuisines\\,\\ and\\ food\\ systems\\,\\ all\\ structured\\ by\\ growing\\,\\ harvesting\\,\\ preparing\\,\\ distributing\\,\\ cooking\\,\\ serving\\,\\ eating\\,\\ fasting\\,\\ feasting\\,\\ offering\\,\\ sharing\\,\\ cleaning\\ up\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\'s\\ food\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ is\\ \\the\\ snow\\ cone\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ American\\ version\\ was\\ reportedly\\ invented\\ at\\ Texas\\ State\\ Fair\\ in\\ the\\ 1920s\\ and\\ is\\ made\\ with\\ granulated\\ ice\\ rather\\ than\\ shaved\\ ice\\.\\ The\\ Japanese\\ treat\\,\\ kakigori\\,\\ is\\ shaved\\ ice\\ topped\\ with\\ green\\ tea\\,\\ while\\ Puerto\\ Rican\\ piragua\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ sweeter\\ with\\ more\\ tropical\\ flavors\\.\\ Versions\\ of\\ these\\ icy\\ treats\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\.\\ The\\ American\\ snow\\ cone\\ also\\ finds\\ its\\ roots\\ in\\ New\\ England\\,\\ where\\ Frederic\\ Tudor\\,\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;Ice\\ King\\"\\;\\,\\ ran\\ the\\ Tudor\\ Ice\\ Company\\ from\\ 1752\\ to\\ 1863\\.\\ Boston\\ was\\ a\\ center\\ for\\ an\\ international\\ trade\\.\\ Ice\\ was\\ harvested\\ from\\ New\\ England\\ ponds\\ and\\ then\\ shipped\\ internationally\\.\\ Tudor\\ pioneered\\ shipments\\ of\\ ice\\ all\\ over\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ first\\ distributed\\ it\\ by\\ ship\\.\\ With\\ long\\-distance\\ railroad\\ development\\,\\ ice\\ from\\ New\\ England\\ and\\ New\\ York\\ was\\ used\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ refrigerator\\ freight\\ cars\\,\\ traveling\\ to\\ meat\\ packing\\ centers\\ in\\ Chicago\\ and\\ the\\ Midwest\\.\\ Tudor\\'s\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ ice\\ trade\\ helped\\ to\\ transform\\ the\\ national\\ diet\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ bringing\\ more\\ perishable\\ goods\\ to\\ rural\\ areas\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.973239+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Social Experiments", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 672, "html": "\\\\The\\ Within\\-Subject\\ Experiment\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Group\\ of\\ Subjects\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Observation\\ 1\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>Manipulation\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>Observation\\ 2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observation\\ 1\\ \\=\\ control\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observation\\ 2\\ \\=\\ experimental\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ would\\ you\\ use\\ a\\ scale\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Allows\\ us\\ to\\ more\\ accurately\\ compare\\ results\\,\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ sensitivity\\ in\\ the\\ data\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Subjects\\ come\\ in\\,\\ ask\\ them\\ to\\ fill\\ out\\ question\\,\\ then\\ show\\ them\\ a\\ video\\ that\\ may\\ heavily\\ influence\\ their\\ choice\\,\\ then\\ ask\\ them\\ the\\ same\\ question\\ again\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Threats\\ to\\ Validity\\ \\(problems\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observation\\ may\\ sensitize\\ subjects\\ to\\ manipulation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observation\\ 1\\ may\\ sensitize\\ subjects\\ to\\ observation\\ 2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ even\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ manipulation\\ may\\ occur\\ between\\ observations\\ \\(an\\ \\&ldquo\\;artifact\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ realization\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ events\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Want\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ the\\ event\\ is\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ causing\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Between\\ Subject\\ Experiment\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Group\\ of\\ subjects\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\(RANDOMIZATION\\)\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Experimental\\ Group\\ \\/\\ Control\\ Group\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experimental\\ Group\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ manipulation\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ observation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Control\\ Group\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ nothing\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ observation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Threats\\ to\\ Validity\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Randomization\\ may\\ fail\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ much\\ does\\ watching\\ the\\ video\\ vs\\.\\ doing\\ nothing\\ has\\ an\\ effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unless\\ do\\ it\\ random\\,\\ wont\\ know\\ for\\ sure\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ difference\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ manipulation\\ may\\ occur\\ between\\ groups\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;an\\ artifact\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ solve\\ this\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Increase\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ statistical\\ power\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Make\\ sure\\ we\\ have\\ large\\ enough\\ numbers\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ given\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ variability\\ we\\ may\\/may\\ not\\ have\\ gotten\\ the\\ results\\ we\\ have\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ to\\ outweigh\\ natural\\ variability\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ people\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ whats\\ going\\ on\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Theory\\ Oriented\\ Experiments\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>To\\ be\\ replicated\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Context\\ unimportant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ doing\\ at\\ a\\ fair\\,\\ and\\ people\\ have\\ corn\\ stuck\\ in\\ their\\ teeth\\,\\ but\\ if\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ learn\\ something\\ more\\ general\\ \\(persuasion\\:\\ celebrity\\ endorsement\\ vs\\.\\ scary\\ video\\)\\ try\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ which\\ is\\ more\\ important\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ interest\\ in\\ other\\ determinants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Which\\ of\\ these\\ four\\ things\\ has\\ an\\ effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intended\\ to\\ be\\ generalized\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>To\\ other\\ people\\,\\ other\\ contexts\\,\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ other\\ determinants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Speeding\\ in\\ Selma\\,\\ Texas\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Would\\ someone\\ speed\\ faster\\ before\\ or\\ after\\ the\\ cop\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ speed\\ into\\ and\\ out\\ of\\ Selma\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Measured\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ \\(direction\\ may\\ have\\ an\\ effect\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ sped\\ up\\ overall\\ when\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ cop\\ versus\\ when\\ there\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Goal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ general\\ reactance\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Operaltionalizing\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Take\\ issue\\ of\\ persuasion\\ and\\ put\\ it\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ teeth\\ flossing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Application\\-Oriented\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ to\\ be\\ replicated\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Context\\ important\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interest\\ in\\ all\\ determinants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ do\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ this\\ happens\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>All\\ determinants\\ matter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intended\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ generalized\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Was\\ the\\ Synanon\\ Church\\ libeled\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Compared\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ Synanon\\ in\\ people\\ who\\ read\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ articles\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Studies\\ in\\ San\\ Antonio\\,\\ TX\\ and\\ Fresno\\,\\ CA\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Explicitly\\ compares\\ the\\ church\\ to\\ the\\ Synanon\\ church\\ to\\ this\\ other\\ group\\,\\ so\\ the\\ church\\ wants\\ to\\ prove\\ than\\ the\\ article\\ affected\\ the\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tried\\ in\\ TX\\ and\\ Fresno\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shows\\ that\\ people\\ were\\ effected\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Just\\ about\\ this\\ specific\\ libel\\ incident\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Artifact\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ any\\ variable\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ manipulation\\ that\\ influences\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ observations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Experimenter\\ Artifacts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\.\\ having\\ a\\ hot\\ vs\\.\\ ugly\\ experimenter\\ running\\ the\\ experiments\\,\\ the\\ hot\\ one\\ may\\ influence\\ people\\ to\\ floss\\ more\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intentional\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Fraud\\ \\(Hwang\\ Woo\\ \\&ndash\\;Suk\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Checks\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>peer\\ review\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>replication\\ of\\ results\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>need\\ to\\ keep\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ also\\ in\\ on\\ it\\ quiet\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unintentional\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Expectancy\\ Effects\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Maze\\ running\\ rats\\ vs\\.\\ stupid\\ rats\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ telling\\ the\\ subjects\\ this\\ before\\ the\\ experiment\\ will\\ effect\\ how\\ they\\ judge\\ their\\ rats\\ ability\\ to\\ run\\ the\\ maze\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ expect\\ your\\ rats\\ to\\ do\\ better\\,\\ therefore\\ you\\ help\\ it\\ get\\ there\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Participant\\ Artifacts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\.\\ not\\ randomizing\\ the\\ participants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Faults\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Response\\ bias\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ its\\ important\\ to\\ will\\ respond\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Evaluation\\ Apprehension\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lab\\ vs\\.\\ Home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ diff\\ circumstances\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sensitivity\\ to\\ Experimental\\ Demand\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ far\\ will\\ subjects\\ go\\ to\\ please\\ you\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Design\\ Confounds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\.\\ compare\\ two\\ films\\ to\\ get\\ people\\ to\\ floss\\:\\ one\\ with\\ celebrities\\ and\\ one\\ with\\ scary\\ images\\,\\ we\\ claim\\ its\\ about\\ context\\,\\ but\\ in\\ fact\\ it\\ may\\ just\\ be\\ length\\ of\\ the\\ film\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Subject\\ Motives\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Good\\ Subject\\ \\(\\+\\ hypothesis\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Faithful\\ Subject\\ \\(\\+truth\\ as\\ he\\/she\\ sees\\ it\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Apprehensive\\ Subject\\ \\(\\+looking\\ god\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Negative\\ Subject\\ \\(\\ \\-\\ hypothesis\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experimental\\ Demand\\ is\\ more\\ influential\\ when\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Hypothesis\\ is\\ revealed\\ explicitly\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Manipulation\\ is\\ obvious\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\.\\ \\;\\ Observations\\/Methods\\ are\\ obvious\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ solve\\&hellip\\;\\.\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ask\\ many\\ different\\ questions\\ about\\ unrelated\\ things\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Camouflage\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Implicit\\ Measures\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Candid\\ Observations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reaction\\ Time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ answer\\ comes\\ implicitly\\ in\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ it\\ takes\\ a\\ person\\ to\\ answer\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Physiological\\ Measures\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\ know\\ facial\\ expressions\\ are\\ measured\\,\\ so\\ cant\\ fake\\ it\\ even\\ if\\ want\\ too\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>fMRI\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cant\\ control\\ blood\\ flow\\ in\\ brain\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ exotic\\ measures\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ovulatory\\ cycle\\ effects\\ on\\ tip\\ earnings\\ by\\ lap\\ dancers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ estrus\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experimental\\ Design\\ Confounds\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Hawthorne\\ Effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Western\\ Electric\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Studies\\ of\\ Environmental\\ Conditions\\ at\\ Work\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ any\\ sort\\ of\\ chance\\ that\\ makes\\ people\\ more\\ aware\\ of\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\ will\\ make\\ them\\ more\\ productive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ethics\\ of\\ Social\\ Psychology\\ Research\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nuremberg\\ Trials\\ 1945\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Nuremberg\\ Code\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Physical\\ Risks\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Risks\\ to\\ privacy\\ and\\ confidentiality\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Deception\\ and\\ Psychological\\ Risks\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bramel\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ military\\ syringe\\ study\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Remedies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>International\\ Review\\ Board\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ any\\ study\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ revirwed\\ and\\ apprived\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Informed\\ Consent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ agreeing\\ to\\ participate\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cost\\/Benefit\\ Ratio\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ any\\ risks\\ can\\ happen\\,\\ is\\ it\\ worthwhile\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Debriefing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Failure\\ to\\ properly\\ debrief\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ you\\ give\\ people\\ false\\ feedback\\,\\ it\\ may\\ be\\ very\\ hard\\ to\\ erase\\ the\\ information\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Will\\ show\\ in\\ peoples\\ residual\\ beliefs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Push\\ Polling\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ SC\\ Republican\\ Primary\\ 2000\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Would\\ you\\ be\\ more\\ likely\\ or\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ vote\\ for\\ John\\ McCain\\ for\\ president\\ if\\ you\\ knew\\ he\\ had\\ fathered\\ an\\ illegitimate\\ black\\ child\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mesh\\ with\\ picture\\ of\\ Bridger\\ McCain\\ \\(his\\ adopted\\ daughter\\ from\\ Bangladesh\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Just\\ a\\ question\\,\\ but\\ yet\\ it\\ planted\\ a\\ seed\\ in\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ minds\\ about\\ McCain\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Briefing\\ in\\ a\\ debriefing\\ paradigm\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ told\\ that\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ being\\ told\\ is\\ false\\ feedback\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ it\\ still\\ influences\\ their\\ choices\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": "Social Experiments"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.992803+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Attitudes", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 673, "html": "\\Yale\\ attitude\\ change\\ group\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rosie\\ the\\ Riveter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hovland\\,\\ Lumsdaine\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Scheffield\\ \\(1949\\)\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experiments\\ on\\ mass\\ communication\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ so\\ bright\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\ sided\\ communication\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Smarter\\ \\(more\\ critical\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ sided\\ communication\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\ sided\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hovlenad\\&rsquo\\;s\\ definition\\ of\\ \\\\attitude\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ an\\ implicit\\ approach\\ or\\ avoidance\\ response\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Implicit\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\=\\ indicates\\ your\\ response\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ out\\ and\\ say\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unconsciousness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Outside\\ of\\ awareness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ stated\\ explicitly\\,\\ comes\\ out\\ in\\ behavior\\ versus\\ coming\\ out\\ in\\ their\\ words\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hovlenad\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Attitude\\ is\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ opinion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Where\\ do\\ attitudes\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Genetics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ are\\ inherited\\,\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ with\\ them\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heritability\\ coefficients\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ number\\ tells\\ you\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ variability\\ in\\ peoples\\ attitudes\\ can\\ be\\ explained\\/understood\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ genetic\\ differences\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\.\\ 0\\.62\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ 62\\%\\ of\\ variability\\ is\\ accounted\\ for\\ by\\ genes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Allows\\ us\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ specific\\ genes\\,\\ look\\ at\\ varying\\ relatedness\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ genes\\ and\\ environments\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Comparing\\ sets\\ of\\ identical\\ twins\\ to\\ sets\\ of\\ fraternal\\ twins\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ close\\ is\\ twin\\ A\\&rsquo\\;s\\ answer\\ to\\ twin\\ B\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ between\\ amount\\ of\\ correlation\\ get\\ between\\ fraternal\\/identical\\ twins\\ then\\ account\\ for\\ that\\ with\\ an\\ extra\\ \\½\\;\\ a\\ genome\\,\\ double\\ it\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ whole\\ genome\\ \\(controversial\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hard\\ to\\ exclude\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ environment\\ on\\ genes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ are\\ develops\\ through\\ experience\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Mere\\ Exposure\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Robert\\ Zajonc\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ people\\ come\\ to\\ have\\ positive\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ those\\ stimuli\\ to\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ frequency\\ exposed\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Black\\ Bag\\ \\(charles\\ Goetzinger\\,\\ Oregon\\ State\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ course\\ start\\ to\\ love\\ the\\ bag\\,\\ part\\ of\\ collective\\ identity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Propinquity\\ and\\ attraction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tend\\ to\\ like\\ people\\ they\\ are\\ around\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Mirror\\ image\\ preferences\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reversed\\ facial\\ images\\ and\\ the\\ mere\\ exposure\\ hypothesis\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Used\\ to\\ seeing\\ face\\ in\\ reverse\\,\\ looks\\ a\\ little\\ diff\\ because\\ not\\ symmetrical\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ should\\ prefer\\ seeing\\ our\\ face\\ they\\ way\\ we\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ seeing\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ like\\ seeing\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ used\\ too\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Turkish\\ word\\ study\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ show\\ words\\ over\\ and\\ over\\,\\ varing\\ number\\ of\\ times\\ saw\\ word\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ people\\ exposed\\ to\\ the\\ word\\,\\ like\\ them\\ more\\ \\(not\\ linear\\ relationship\\,\\ logarithmic\\ scale\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Stang\\ Critique\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ communicated\\ to\\ the\\ participants\\ by\\ within\\ subjects\\ design\\ of\\ the\\ experiment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observer\\ participants\\ replicated\\ the\\ mere\\ exposure\\ effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participants\\ in\\ the\\ experiment\\ who\\ guess\\ the\\ correct\\ hypothesis\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ mere\\ exposure\\ effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Shut\\ downs\\ the\\ effect\\,\\ replicates\\ results\\ without\\ experiment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Zajonc\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Response\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Replicate\\ the\\ effect\\ without\\ repeated\\ measures\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Zajonc\\ Newspaper\\ study\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Based\\ on\\ words\\ showed\\ in\\ newspapers\\,\\ they\\ like\\ it\\ more\\,\\ ask\\ them\\ if\\ say\\ it\\ before\\,\\ they\\ say\\ no\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wilson\\ Replicates\\ the\\ effect\\ with\\ tunes\\ played\\ to\\ the\\ unattended\\ ear\\ in\\ a\\ dichotic\\ listening\\ task\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ thinks\\ playing\\ in\\ each\\ ear\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Goal\\ is\\ to\\ mimic\\ speech\\ in\\ one\\ ear\\,\\ takes\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ cognitive\\ resources\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ other\\ ear\\ is\\ music\\,\\ some\\ songs\\ repeated\\,\\ others\\ not\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ like\\ the\\ songs\\ heard\\ more\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Classical\\ Conditioning\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ludovico\\ Technique\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ violent\\ guy\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ violent\\ anymore\\,\\ make\\ them\\ watch\\ violent\\ movies\\,\\ give\\ them\\ drugs\\ to\\ make\\ him\\ sick\\,\\ so\\ will\\ associate\\ nausea\\ with\\ violence\\ and\\ wont\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ violent\\ anymore\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Pavlov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dog\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>CS\\(bell\\)\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ CR\\(salivation\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>UCS\\(meat\\ powder\\)\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ UCR\\(salivation\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Neurobiology\\ of\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ conditioning\\&hellip\\;\\ dopamine\\ neurons\\,\\ error\\ signals\\ and\\ rewards\\ \\(primates\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Showed\\ that\\ dopamine\\ levels\\ tracks\\ the\\ \\error\\ signal\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(difference\\ between\\ how\\ much\\ reward\\ you\\ expect\\ versus\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ actually\\ get\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ happens\\ with\\ you\\ give\\ them\\ the\\ signal\\ and\\ then\\ when\\ the\\ time\\ comes\\,\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ give\\ them\\ the\\ juice\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Relative\\ to\\ expectation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Staats\\ \\&\\;\\ Staats\\ \\(1958\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ associate\\ shocks\\ with\\ certain\\ words\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>CS\\(wuh\\)\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ CR\\(negative\\ attitude\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>UCS\\(shock\\)\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ UCR\\(negative\\ attitudes\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ order\\ conditioning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wuh\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shock\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Zof\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ shock\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ pairing\\ of\\ stimulus\\ with\\ UCS\\ that\\ naturally\\ produces\\ attitude\\ \\(likes\\ zof\\ more\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Higher\\-Order\\ Conditioning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wuh\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ peace\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ sunshine\\,\\ etc\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Zof\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ death\\,\\ ugly\\,\\ hate\\ etc\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ pairing\\ of\\ stimulus\\ with\\ UCS\\ what\\ has\\ acquired\\ an\\ attitudinal\\ response\\ by\\ prior\\ conditioning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Opens\\ up\\ possibility\\ for\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ learning\\ to\\ explain\\ almost\\ everything\\ in\\ principle\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Page\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Critique\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hypothesis\\ and\\ perimental\\ demand\\ are\\ obvious\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Asked\\ participants\\ if\\ they\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knew\\ hypothesis\\ of\\ the\\ study\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Were\\ trying\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ experimenter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ those\\ who\\ said\\ yes\\ to\\ both\\ showed\\ classical\\ higher\\ conditioning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Zanna\\,\\ Kiesler\\,\\ Pilkonis\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Shock\\ Consitions\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Light\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ on\\,\\ dark\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ off\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Dark\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ on\\,\\ light\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ off\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>During\\ the\\ rest\\ period\\ participants\\ can\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ a\\ separate\\ study\\ or\\ read\\ magazines\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Shock\\ during\\ light\\/dark\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Aesthetic\\ Preference\\ Test\\:\\ rate\\ decisions\\ of\\ museums\\ curator\\ who\\ wants\\ to\\ displau\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;light\\,\\ colorful\\,\\ but\\ somewhat\\ shallow\\ works\\ of\\ artist\\ A\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Dark\\,\\ strong\\,\\ but\\ someone\\ desate\\ works\\ of\\ artist\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Post\\ experimental\\ check\\ on\\ knowledge\\ of\\ connection\\ between\\ studies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ chocked\\ with\\ light\\ on\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ liked\\ dark\\ \\(and\\ vice\\ versa\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ one\\ knew\\ studies\\ were\\ related\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Krosnick\\,\\ Betaz\\,\\ Jussim\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Lynn\\:\\ submilinal\\ conditioning\\ of\\ attitudes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participants\\ see\\ photos\\ of\\ 9\\ photos\\ of\\ a\\ target\\ person\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Each\\ photo\\ preceded\\ by\\ 13milliseconds\\ exposure\\ of\\ negative\\ or\\ positive\\ UCS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Personality\\ ratings\\ of\\ target\\ person\\ \\(friendly\\,\\ honest\\ humorous\\,\\ polite\\ etc\\)\\ were\\ more\\ positive\\ in\\ positive\\ conditioning\\ group\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ weak\\ and\\ transience\\ lasting\\ effects\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ \\Prepared\\ learning\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&lsquo\\;prepared\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ snakes\\ and\\ spiders\\ \\(evolutionary\\ fear\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&lsquo\\;unprepared\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ birds\\ and\\ butterflies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>had\\ pictures\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ and\\ paired\\ them\\ with\\ electric\\ shocks\\,\\ can\\ learn\\ to\\ associate\\ things\\ with\\ a\\ shock\\ very\\ easily\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>learn\\ to\\ associate\\ snake\\ with\\ shock\\ just\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ association\\ between\\ butterfly\\ and\\ shock\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Extinction\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ unlearning\\)\\ easier\\ for\\ unprepared\\ condition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ prepared\\ to\\ learn\\,\\ more\\ to\\ unlearn\\ certain\\ kids\\ of\\ associations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Embodied\\ Condition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Embodiment\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ states\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ postures\\,\\ arm\\ movements\\,\\ and\\ facial\\ expressions\\)\\ play\\ central\\ roles\\ in\\ cognition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ see\\ words\\,\\ either\\ push\\ or\\ pull\\ the\\ table\\&hellip\\;\\ bringing\\ towards\\ muscle\\ movement\\,\\ you\\ will\\ like\\ it\\ more\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Coke\\ vs\\.\\ Pepsi\\ \\(McClure\\ et\\.\\ Al\\.\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Blind\\ taste\\ test\\&hellip\\;\\ cant\\ tell\\ the\\ difference\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ ways\\ to\\ dispense\\ the\\ soda\\&hellip\\;\\ brain\\ areas\\ where\\ you\\ know\\ what\\ your\\ drinking\\,\\ brain\\ areas\\ where\\ you\\ have\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ your\\ eating\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ systems\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ are\\ responsible\\ for\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ liking\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Ipod\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Associate\\ the\\ pictures\\ with\\ getting\\ an\\ ipod\\,\\ create\\ positive\\ association\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Summary\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Attitude\\ formation\\ occurs\\ through\\ genetics\\ inheritance\\ mere\\ exposure\\ prepared\\ learning\\ and\\ through\\ classical\\ conditioning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Establishing\\ that\\ this\\ happens\\ required\\ the\\ design\\ of\\ experiments\\ to\\ overcome\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ experimental\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Attitude\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Unconsciousness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ why\\ this\\ is\\ so\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": "Attitudes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.036851+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Self Perception", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 675, "html": "\\\\Self\\ Perception\\ means\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ability\\ to\\ perceive\\ yourself\\ as\\ yourself\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;know\\ thyself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ am\\ this\\ body\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>mirror\\ self\\-recognition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gallup\\ 1970\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ test\\ if\\ other\\ animals\\ about\\ to\\ recognize\\ themselves\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Red\\ dot\\ on\\ chip\\ and\\ put\\ chimp\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ mirror\\,\\ if\\ about\\ to\\ recognize\\ itself\\ it\\ will\\ try\\ to\\ rub\\ dot\\ off\\ themselves\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ chimps\\ can\\ do\\ this\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reiss\\ and\\ Marino\\ 2001\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mark\\ test\\ with\\ the\\ dolphin\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Plotnick\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mark\\ test\\ with\\ Elephants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knowing\\ the\\ contents\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ mind\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rate\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ think\\ that\\ knowing\\ what\\ we\\ like\\ and\\ dislike\\ is\\ easy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Its\\ harder\\ to\\ know\\ ourselves\\ in\\ this\\ regard\\ than\\ we\\ think\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Philosophical\\ Background\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Russel\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ know\\ youerself\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ you\\ know\\ other\\ people\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gilbert\\ Ryle\\ \\(1949\\)\\ \\The\\ Concept\\ of\\ the\\ Mind\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;the\\ ghost\\ in\\ the\\ machine\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>argues\\ that\\ the\\ self\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ something\\ we\\ can\\ know\\ in\\ any\\ special\\ way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Official\\ Doctrine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ person\\ has\\ direct\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ best\\ imaginable\\ kind\\ of\\ the\\ workings\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ mind\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ mind\\ appears\\ self\\-luminous\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ reality\\&hellip\\;\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ true\\,\\ the\\ mind\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ transparent\\,\\ yet\\ it\\ is\\ true\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ know\\ ourselves\\ best\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Self\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Action\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Official\\ Doctrine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ self\\ is\\ intrinsically\\ informed\\ of\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ action\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ryle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Conjecture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ self\\ is\\ believes\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ action\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ perceived\\ one\\ the\\ action\\ is\\ complete\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Daryl\\ Bem\\ \\Self\\ perception\\ Theory\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>To\\ the\\ extent\\ that\\ external\\ cues\\ are\\ weak\\ \\(Official\\ doctrine\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ right\\,\\ depends\\.\\.\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knowledge\\ of\\ internal\\ states\\ in\\ inferred\\ from\\ behavior\\ and\\ circumstances\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Person\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ privileges\\ position\\ as\\ any\\ observer\\ would\\ make\\ the\\ same\\ inference\\ about\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ state\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ hungry\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\ is\\ hungry\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(I\\ \\=\\ she\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>especially\\ when\\ internal\\ cues\\ are\\ weak\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Interpersonal\\ Simulation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Original\\ Dissonance\\ Study\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cohen\\ found\\ that\\ for\\ \\.50\\$\\ for\\ conterattitudinal\\ essay\\ writing\\ led\\ to\\ more\\ agreement\\ with\\ essay\\ than\\ did\\ \\$5\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ ones\\ who\\ were\\ paid\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ said\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\ with\\ essay\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ came\\ in\\ not\\ being\\ very\\ excited\\,\\ but\\ they\\ behaved\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ consistent\\,\\ so\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ changed\\ attitiude\\ to\\ be\\ consistent\\ with\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ paid\\ \\$5\\ can\\ said\\,\\ oh\\ it\\ was\\ because\\ I\\ was\\ paid\\ \\$5\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Self\\-Perception\\ Reinterpreation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\$5\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ demand\\ of\\ circumstances\\ essay\\ writing\\ so\\ attitude\\ is\\ favor\\ in\\ fact\\ weak\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ Simulation\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observer\\-participants\\ listenf\\ to\\ the\\ experiement\\ \\(either\\ \\.50\\$\\ of\\ \\$5\\ condition\\)\\ and\\ then\\ estimate\\ the\\ real\\ participants\\ attitude\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observers\\ duplicate\\ original\\ findings\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\$5\\ observers\\ say\\ participant\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ essay\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\.50\\$\\ observers\\ say\\ participants\\ believes\\ essay\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>the\\ third\\ party\\ observer\\ makes\\ same\\ claim\\ as\\ those\\ who\\ wrote\\ the\\ essay\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dissonance\\ vs\\.\\ Self\\ Perception\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Dissonance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\ attitude\\ change\\ occurs\\ to\\ reduce\\ tension\\ from\\ the\\ conflict\\ between\\ prior\\ attitude\\ and\\ chosen\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Self\\-Perception\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ attitude\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ change\\ they\\ are\\ formed\\ when\\ behavior\\ is\\ chosen\\ and\\ person\\ reflects\\ on\\ what\\ prior\\ attitude\\ hen\\ consistent\\ with\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Question\\&hellip\\;\\ Which\\ attitude\\?\\ Explicit\\ or\\ implicit\\ or\\ both\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Bem\\ \\&\\;\\ McConnell\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ testing\\ the\\ self\\-perception\\ explanation\\ of\\ dissonance\\ phenomenon\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Asked\\ participants\\ in\\ a\\ replication\\ of\\ Cohen\\ to\\ restate\\ their\\ initial\\ opinions\\ after\\ the\\ counterattitudinal\\ essays\\ was\\ written\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Responses\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ their\\ final\\ attitude\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>So\\ people\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ conscious\\ of\\ attitude\\ formation\\ of\\ change\\ during\\ self\\-perception\\ they\\ though\\ their\\ had\\ always\\ had\\ the\\ attitude\\ they\\ only\\ recently\\ perceived\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Evidence\\ for\\ self\\-perception\\ theory\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dissonant\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ changing\\ attitude\\ based\\ on\\ money\\,\\ same\\ results\\ they\\ would\\ expect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Arousal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ indication\\ of\\ tension\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Attitude\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exists\\&hellip\\;\\ not\\ very\\ strong\\,\\ gets\\ formed\\ when\\ you\\ form\\ the\\ opinion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Might\\ expect\\ variability\\ and\\ variation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ have\\ opinion\\ later\\,\\ its\\ when\\ it\\ solidifies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Intrinsice\\ vs\\.\\ Extrinsic\\ Motivation\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lepper\\ et\\.\\ Al\\ \\:\\ undermining\\ childrens\\ intrinsic\\ interest\\ with\\ extrinsic\\ reward\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Brought\\ kids\\ into\\ the\\ lab\\,\\ can\\ play\\ with\\ markers\\ or\\ can\\ do\\ some\\ other\\ actitivity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ groupd\\ no\\ told\\ about\\ reward\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ other\\ group\\ given\\ a\\ reward\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ expect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Other\\ group\\ given\\ expected\\ reward\\ for\\ playing\\ with\\ the\\ markers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ do\\ this\\,\\ experiement\\ is\\ over\\,\\ mom\\ not\\ here\\ for\\ a\\ while\\,\\ you\\ can\\ do\\ whatever\\ you\\ want\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ motivated\\ are\\ they\\ to\\ play\\ with\\ markers\\,\\ given\\ reward\\ structure\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ ones\\ no\\ reward\\/unexpected\\ reward\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ played\\ with\\ amrkers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ ones\\ who\\ got\\ expected\\ reward\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ play\\ with\\ markers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Given\\ reward\\ for\\ playing\\ makrers\\ leads\\ them\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ only\\ play\\ with\\ them\\ for\\ reward\\ not\\ because\\ they\\ enjoy\\ playing\\ with\\ markers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Education\\ implications\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>May\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ them\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ with\\ a\\ reward\\&hellip\\;\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ you\\ take\\ the\\ extrinsic\\ motivation\\ away\\?\\ Changes\\ intrinsic\\ value\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Amabile\\ et\\.\\ Al\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ put\\ adults\\ under\\ deadlines\\,\\ get\\ the\\ same\\ results\\ as\\ the\\ kid\\ experiments\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Leper\\ \\&\\;\\ Greene\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ idea\\ but\\ instead\\ of\\ reward\\ have\\ someone\\ watching\\ you\\,\\ get\\ similar\\ results\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Deci\\ \\(1976\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Controlling\\<\\/i\\>\\ aspect\\ of\\ reward\\ \\(reward\\ for\\ participation\\,\\ physical\\ reward\\)\\ decreases\\ intrinsic\\ motivation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Competence\\-signaling\\<\\/i\\>\\ of\\ reward\\ \\(reward\\ for\\ how\\ well\\ did\\ it\\)\\ increases\\ intrinsic\\ motivation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ just\\ incentive\\ structure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ they\\ are\\ presented\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Roland\\ Fryer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pay\\ for\\ performance\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ paying\\ kids\\ in\\ intercity\\ kids\\ to\\ get\\ good\\ grades\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Will\\ it\\ cause\\ them\\ to\\ perform\\ better\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Short\\ term\\ vs\\.\\ long\\ term\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Where\\ does\\ intrinsic\\ motivation\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Flow\\ \\=\\ right\\ balance\\ between\\ challenge\\ and\\ skills\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Too\\ much\\?\\ Anxiety\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Too\\ little\\?\\ Bored\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Apparent\\ Mental\\ Causation\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wegner\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Why\\ do\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ things\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ us\\ doing\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sorting\\ event\\ sin\\ the\\ word\\ into\\ what\\ you\\ did\\ and\\ what\\ other\\ people\\ do\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ do\\ we\\ know\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ experience\\ conscious\\ will\\ to\\ the\\ degree\\ that\\ theu\\ infer\\ that\\ their\\ thought\\ caused\\ their\\ action\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ experiences\\ of\\ conscious\\ will\\ signal\\ that\\ the\\ action\\ wad\\ authoted\\ by\\ the\\ self\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Self\\ \\&ndash\\;perception\\ can\\ happen\\ during\\ the\\ action\\ not\\ afterward\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Priority\\ principle\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ one\\ event\\ must\\ come\\ before\\ the\\ other\\,\\ right\\ timing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Different\\ impression\\ by\\ changing\\ timing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ person\\ will\\ experience\\ consciously\\ willing\\ an\\ action\\ id\\ a\\ thought\\ of\\ the\\ action\\ will\\ precede\\ the\\ action\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>I\\ Spy\\ Experiment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unforced\\ trials\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participants\\ hears\\ object\\ name\\ of\\ other\\ words\\ 5\\-10\\ seconds\\ before\\ the\\ music\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Confederate\\ hears\\ nothing\\ is\\ instructed\\ to\\ stop\\ during\\ music\\ with\\ participant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Object\\ name\\ has\\ no\\ influence\\ on\\ participant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Forced\\ Trials\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participants\\ hears\\ object\\ names\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Confederate\\ hears\\ countdown\\ and\\ name\\ object\\ is\\ instructed\\ to\\ force\\ stop\\ on\\ names\\ object\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cohen\\ 1998\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Owning\\ a\\ Rubber\\ Hand\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ feel\\ like\\ the\\ rubber\\ hand\\ is\\ theirs\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Both\\ rubber\\ hand\\ an\\ d\\ their\\ hand\\ stroked\\ by\\ feather\\ at\\ same\\ time\\,\\ feel\\ like\\ rubber\\ hand\\ is\\ theirs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Feel\\ like\\ parts\\ of\\ body\\ are\\ theirs\\&hellip\\;\\ based\\ on\\ observation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mirror\\ Effect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ based\\ on\\ what\\ you\\ can\\ see\\,\\ not\\ internal\\ information\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gazzaniga\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ know\\ why\\ I\\ said\\ that\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(split\\-\\ brain\\ studies\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hemispheric\\ Disconnect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Asking\\ L\\ hemisphere\\ why\\ the\\ R\\ hemisphere\\ picked\\ the\\ shovel\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ saw\\ a\\ claw\\,\\ and\\ I\\ picked\\ the\\ chicken\\,\\ and\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ clean\\ out\\ the\\ chicken\\ shed\\ with\\ a\\ shovel\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Left\\ side\\ is\\ language\\ dominant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Make\\ up\\ stories\\ for\\ what\\ they\\ cant\\ explain\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mitchell\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ In\\ the\\ brain\\,\\ thinking\\ about\\ oneself\\ looks\\ like\\ thinking\\ about\\ others\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ think\\ of\\ others\\ as\\ being\\ similar\\/\\ dissimilar\\ to\\ ourselves\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ more\\ that\\ the\\ person\\ I\\ am\\ looking\\ at\\ is\\ like\\ me\\,\\ higher\\ activity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Perceiving\\ other\\ is\\ basic\\.\\.\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ selves\\?\\ Use\\ same\\ tools\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Simulation\\ Idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ we\\ think\\ about\\ other\\ people\\ is\\ how\\ much\\ is\\ this\\ person\\ like\\ me\\ and\\ therefore\\ what\\ do\\ I\\ feel\\,\\ then\\ they\\ must\\ feel\\ the\\ same\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": "Self Perception"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.056267+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Emotion", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 676, "html": "\\February\\ 25\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Evolution\\ of\\ Expression\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Darwin\\ 1872\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dogs\\ as\\ giving\\ facial\\ expressions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>All\\ mammals\\ have\\ common\\ ancestors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ similar\\ minds\\ as\\ a\\ result\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Plutchik\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Theory\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ over\\ time\\ our\\ ancestors\\ have\\ encountered\\ similar\\ situations\\ with\\ similar\\ solutions\\,\\ so\\ we\\ have\\ created\\ similar\\ facial\\ expressions\\ as\\ a\\ result\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Anger\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ destruction\\,\\ aggression\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Happiness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reproduction\\,\\ ingestion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Surprise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ orientation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fear\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ escape\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sadness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recognition\\ of\\ deprivation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Disgust\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Rejection\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ anger\\,\\ fear\\,\\ and\\ disgust\\ are\\ all\\ negative\\ emotion\\ yet\\ they\\ have\\ very\\ different\\ reactions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>anger\\ would\\ cause\\ you\\ to\\ approach\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>fear\\ would\\ cause\\ you\\ to\\ run\\ away\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>disgust\\ is\\ a\\ similar\\ response\\ emotion\\ to\\ fear\\ in\\ that\\ you\\ go\\ away\\,\\ but\\ are\\ different\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ different\\ degrees\\ of\\ response\\,\\ no\\ action\\ required\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Taking\\ it\\ in\\ vs\\.\\ Getting\\ it\\ out\\ \\(Susskind\\ et\\ al\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fear\\ expressions\\ allow\\ one\\ to\\ take\\ in\\ more\\ visual\\ information\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Disgust\\ expressions\\ do\\ the\\ opposite\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ testing\\ range\\ of\\ vision\\ how\\ fast\\ can\\ your\\ eyes\\ move\\ around\\ during\\ an\\ expression\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>why\\ would\\ you\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ something\\ disgusting\\?\\ Maybe\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ air\\,\\ protect\\ the\\ eyes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>during\\ fear\\ expression\\,\\ participants\\ can\\ hold\\ more\\ air\\ \\(look\\ at\\ nasal\\ cavities\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>opposite\\ true\\ with\\ disgust\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Does\\ rejection\\ hurt\\?\\ \\(Eisenberger\\ \\;\\ et\\ al\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ physical\\/social\\ pain\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cyberball\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Social\\ emotions\\ have\\ their\\ basis\\ in\\ physical\\ pain\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>ACC\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exclusion\\ is\\ painful\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Affective\\ component\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ much\\ it\\ actually\\ bothers\\ you\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Correlation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ activity\\ here\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ people\\ saying\\ it\\ bothered\\ them\\ that\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ the\\ ball\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cross\\ species\\ structure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ originally\\ associated\\ with\\ physical\\ pain\\,\\ plays\\ a\\ social\\ function\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Is\\ Lonliness\\ Cold\\?\\ \\(Zhong\\ et\\ al\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ who\\ recalled\\ being\\ socially\\ rejected\\ estimated\\ the\\ room\\ temp\\ as\\ being\\ 3\\ degrees\\ \\(Celsius\\)\\ colder\\ and\\ showed\\ a\\ greater\\ preference\\ for\\ warm\\ beverages\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Is\\ this\\ an\\ accident\\?\\ Would\\ life\\ someplace\\ cold\\ be\\ less\\ happy\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Facial\\ Communication\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ face\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ express\\ emotion\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ sending\\ messages\\ to\\ each\\ other\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Kraut\\ \\&\\;\\ Johnston\\ \\(social\\ and\\ emotional\\ messages\\ of\\ smiling\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fliming\\ people\\ bowling\\ from\\ both\\ sides\\,\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ pins\\ and\\ at\\ friends\\,\\ not\\ bowling\\ alone\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ they\\ bowl\\ see\\ got\\ strike\\,\\ no\\ notable\\ facial\\ expression\\ until\\ turning\\ around\\ and\\ showing\\ other\\ people\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Communication\\ not\\ automatic\\ response\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spontaneous\\ response\\ to\\ social\\ context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ issue\\ of\\ good\\/bad\\ news\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Face\\ as\\ an\\ interface\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ way\\ to\\ communicate\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ older\\ than\\ language\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ the\\ face\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Communicative\\ functions\\ of\\ expression\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contagion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fear\\ leads\\ to\\ fear\\,\\ happiness\\ leads\\ to\\ happiness\\,\\ disgust\\ leads\\ to\\ disgust\\ etc\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interaction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ anger\\ leads\\ to\\ fear\\,\\ happiness\\ leads\\ to\\ anger\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Genuine\\ communication\\ in\\ cooperation\\ and\\ signaling\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Deceptive\\ communication\\ in\\ competition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Emotional\\ Contagion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Had\\ people\\ in\\ brain\\ scanner\\ watch\\ other\\ people\\ smell\\ something\\ good\\/neutral\\/disgust\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Increased\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ Insula\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Representations\\ of\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ the\\ gut\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Physical\\ \\+\\ social\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Same\\ region\\ activated\\ when\\ you\\ see\\ someone\\ else\\ smelling\\ something\\ bad\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cross\\ Cultural\\ Studies\\ of\\ facial\\ expression\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Observers\\ from\\ 5\\ different\\ cultures\\ agree\\ strongly\\ on\\ facial\\ expressions\\ in\\ photos\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cultures\\ not\\ exposed\\ to\\ outsiders\\ show\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\&rdquo\\;\\ facial\\ expressions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cultures\\ do\\ vary\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;display\\ rules\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Automatic\\ and\\ Controlled\\ Expressions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Duchenne\\ de\\ Boulogne\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ about\\ to\\ use\\ shocks\\ to\\ recreate\\ facial\\ expressions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Duchenne\\ Smile\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ just\\ contraction\\ of\\ the\\ muscle\\,\\ it\\ also\\ involves\\ the\\ contract\\ of\\ muscles\\ around\\ the\\ eyes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ekman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cues\\ to\\ facial\\ expressiond\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Morphology\\ \\(ex\\.\\ non\\-\\ Duchenne\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Asymmetry\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Duration\\ \\(under\\ \\.5s\\ or\\ over\\ 5sec\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Abrupt\\ onset\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Stepped\\ or\\ jagged\\ offset\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Microexpressions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ekman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Facial\\ action\\ coding\\ system\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Units\\ that\\ co\\-occur\\ \\(action\\ unit\\)\\ and\\ each\\ has\\ a\\ number\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Limited\\ number\\ of\\ action\\ united\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Harker\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ FACS\\ and\\ the\\ future\\:\\ predicting\\ personality\\ and\\ life\\ outcomes\\ from\\ yearbook\\ photos\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>To\\ see\\ how\\ much\\ FACS\\ effects\\ who\\ they\\ become\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": "Emotion"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.071594+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Review for Midterm 1", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 677, "html": "\\March\\ 2\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ Worm\\ Eating\\ experiment\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Strategies\\ measured\\ \\(before\\/after\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Higher\\ self\\ esteem\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lower\\ self\\ esteem\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Positive\\ attitude\\ toward\\ act\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Many\\ people\\ chose\\ to\\ eat\\ worm\\,\\ many\\ more\\ than\\ without\\ prior\\ expectation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ ate\\ worm\\ had\\ change\\ in\\ self\\ esteem\\&hellip\\;\\ you\\ pump\\ yourself\\ up\\ to\\ eat\\ the\\ worm\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Appealing\\ to\\ your\\ personal\\ worth\\ will\\ cause\\ you\\ to\\ have\\ higher\\ self\\ esteem\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Or\\ people\\ say\\ I\\ have\\ to\\ eat\\ worm\\ because\\ I\\ am\\ worm\\ eating\\ scum\\,\\ so\\ will\\ have\\ lower\\ self\\ esteem\\ after\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ rationalize\\ it\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ so\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\ it\\ may\\ go\\ up\\ or\\ down\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Using\\ self\\ affirmation\\ to\\ feel\\ better\\ about\\ yourself\\ when\\ you\\ do\\ something\\ that\\ goes\\ against\\ self\\ image\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>This\\ seems\\ contradictory\\ to\\ the\\ worm\\ experiment\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ people\\ that\\ had\\ high\\ self\\ esteem\\ ate\\ the\\ worm\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Seem\\ to\\ be\\ unrelated\\&hellip\\;\\ changing\\ relationship\\ between\\ behavior\\ and\\ self\\ concept\\ versus\\ justifying\\ why\\ you\\ did\\ something\\ bad\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ What\\ is\\ a\\ concrete\\ difference\\ between\\ Festinger\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cognitive\\ dissonance\\ theory\\ and\\ Bem\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ perception\\ theory\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bem\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ individuals\\ come\\ to\\ know\\ their\\ own\\ attitudes\\ emotions\\ and\\ other\\ internal\\ states\\ partly\\ by\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Knowledge\\ of\\ internal\\ states\\ in\\ \\inferred\\<\\/i\\>\\ from\\ behavior\\ and\\ circumstance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Person\\ is\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ privileges\\ position\\ as\\ any\\ observer\\ would\\ make\\ the\\ same\\ inference\\ about\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ state\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;I\\ am\\ hungry\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\ in\\ hungry\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(I\\ \\=\\ she\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Original\\ Dissonance\\ Study\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cohen\\ found\\ that\\ \\$\\.50\\ for\\ counterattitudinal\\ essay\\ writing\\ led\\ to\\ more\\ agreement\\ with\\ essay\\ than\\ did\\ \\$5\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Self\\ Perception\\ Reinterpretation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\$5\\ is\\ strong\\ demand\\ of\\ circumstances\\ of\\ essay\\ writing\\,\\ so\\ attitude\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ essay\\ must\\ be\\ weak\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\$\\.50\\ is\\ weak\\ demand\\ so\\ attitude\\ towards\\ essay\\ writing\\ must\\ be\\ strong\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ make\\ inferences\\ about\\ attitudes\\ based\\ on\\ observed\\ behaviors\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ time\\ your\\ are\\ the\\ observer\\ on\\ yourself\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ other\\ is\\ someone\\ else\\ you\\ make\\ observations\\ about\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Other\\ Experiment\\ \\-\\ \\;\\ testing\\ the\\ self\\-perception\\ explanation\\ of\\ dissonance\\ phenomenon\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Asked\\ participants\\ in\\ a\\ replication\\ of\\ Cohen\\ to\\ restate\\ their\\ initial\\ opinions\\ after\\ the\\ counterattiduinal\\ essay\\ was\\ written\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Responses\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ their\\ final\\ attitude\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>So\\ people\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ conscious\\ of\\ attitude\\ formation\\ change\\ during\\ self\\-perception\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ You\\ cant\\ use\\ cognitive\\ dissonance\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ we\\ explain\\ other\\ people\\,\\ if\\ we\\ can\\ find\\ a\\ theory\\ that\\ explains\\ both\\,\\ should\\ it\\ be\\ a\\ better\\ theory\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ internal\\ cues\\ are\\ weak\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intrinsic\\ and\\ Extrinsic\\ motivation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ did\\ kids\\ lose\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ markers\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Make\\ an\\ inference\\ about\\ what\\ they\\ like\\.\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ an\\ award\\,\\ say\\ like\\ markers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Get\\ unexpected\\ awards\\,\\ say\\ like\\ markers\\ and\\ get\\ award\\,\\ yay\\ got\\ award\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Get\\ expected\\ a\\ reward\\ associate\\ playing\\ with\\ markers\\ with\\ wanting\\ the\\ reward\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ attitude\\ change\\,\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ attitude\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ how\\ to\\ reconcile\\ with\\ Bem\\ self\\ perception\\ idea\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Is\\ there\\ an\\ attitude\\ change\\?\\ Students\\ like\\ to\\ play\\ with\\ markers\\,\\ will\\ do\\ it\\ for\\ fun\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Do\\ we\\ know\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ like\\ markers\\ beforehand\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Told\\ to\\ play\\ with\\ markers\\,\\ so\\ all\\ play\\ with\\ markers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ made\\ an\\ inference\\ based\\ on\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>make\\ the\\ inference\\,\\ but\\ them\\ it\\ affects\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>once\\ you\\ have\\ changed\\ your\\ perception\\ of\\ your\\ attitude\\,\\ can\\ go\\ on\\ to\\ influence\\ attitude\\ or\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dissonance\\ vs\\.\\ Self\\ Perception\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dissonance\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ attitude\\ change\\ occurs\\ to\\ reduce\\ tension\\ from\\ the\\ conflict\\ between\\ prior\\ attitude\\ and\\ chosen\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Self\\-Perception\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ attitudes\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ change\\ \\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ about\\ changing\\ attitudes\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ would\\ Bem\\ say\\>\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ you\\ are\\ asked\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ situation\\,\\ so\\ how\\ do\\ ifeel\\ about\\ this\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>I\\ am\\ a\\ Yale\\ student\\,\\ I\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ higher\\ tuition\\,\\ so\\ therefore\\ so\\ I\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ support\\ tuition\\ hikes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Look\\ at\\ yourself\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ you\\ would\\ look\\ at\\ a\\ Cornell\\ student\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ available\\ cues\\ point\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\ pre\\/post\\ experiment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Implicit\\ Association\\ Test\\ \\(IAT\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ uses\\ reaction\\ times\\ to\\ measure\\ how\\ favorably\\/\\ or\\ not\\ you\\ feel\\ towards\\ something\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unconscious\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Difference\\ between\\ results\\ with\\ IAT\\ and\\ self\\ report\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>This\\ could\\ be\\ good\\ evidence\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\.\\ Reactive\\ Theory\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>in\\ the\\ Brem\\ experiment\\,\\ is\\ people\\ were\\ not\\ given\\ the\\ choice\\,\\ then\\ you\\ ask\\ them\\ how\\ much\\ you\\ like\\ b\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ one\\ you\\ get\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>if\\ you\\ chose\\ b\\ over\\ a\\ you\\ like\\ it\\ even\\ more\\ than\\ you\\ did\\ before\\ you\\ chose\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>cognitive\\ dissonance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ choose\\ it\\ so\\ you\\ like\\ it\\ even\\ that\\ much\\ more\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reactive\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ it\\ so\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ it\\ much\\ at\\ the\\ beg\\,\\ not\\ that\\ you\\ got\\ it\\,\\ like\\ it\\ even\\ less\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\5\\.\\ Balance\\ Theory\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>general\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ have\\ certain\\ attitudes\\ that\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ consistent\\,\\ so\\ have\\ to\\ adjust\\ things\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>cognitive\\ dissonance\\ can\\ fit\\ within\\ Balance\\ theory\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>you\\ can\\ change\\ attitudes\\ because\\ you\\ are\\ consciously\\ doing\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>cognitive\\ dissonance\\ is\\ more\\ unconscious\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>want\\ everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ likes\\ to\\ match\\.\\.\\ your\\ likes\\ for\\ objects\\ people\\ etc\\ to\\ be\\ consistent\\ between\\ you\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ you\\ like\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>harmonious\\ internally\\ and\\ socially\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\6\\.\\ names\\ of\\ experiment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>know\\ ideas\\ but\\ names\\ might\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ help\\ you\\ distinguish\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\7\\.\\ questions\\ 50\\/50\\ lecture\\ and\\ textbook\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\8\\.\\ Emotion\\ gives\\ us\\ information\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ behave\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>feeling\\ as\\ information\\ theory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ judgments\\ are\\ too\\ complex\\ for\\ people\\ so\\ we\\ rely\\ on\\ our\\ emotions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\processing\\ style\\ perspectives\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ mood\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ gives\\ us\\ info\\ about\\ judgment\\ perspectives\\/behaviors\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": "Review for Midterm 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.088911+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Attraction", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 678, "html": "\\March\\ 9\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Evolutionary\\ Perspective\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Actually\\ traits\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ cues\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ p\\[perceived\\ traits\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ proximal\\ assessment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Can\\ make\\ specific\\ predictions\\ about\\ what\\ people\\ should\\ like\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ obvious\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Helps\\ distinguish\\ between\\ what\\ men\\ want\\ versus\\ what\\ women\\ want\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>May\\ enforce\\ gender\\ stereotypes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ and\\ women\\ do\\ have\\ these\\ differences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ biological\\?\\ Or\\ cultural\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ we\\ are\\ able\\ to\\ carry\\ genes\\ into\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ are\\ the\\ traits\\ in\\ a\\ male\\ that\\ are\\ most\\ attractive\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Good\\ sense\\ of\\ humor\\,\\ sympathetic\\ to\\ troubles\\,\\ good\\ manners\\,\\ well\\ groomed\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ are\\ the\\ traits\\ in\\ a\\ women\\ that\\ are\\ most\\ attractive\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Humor\\,\\ well\\ groomed\\,\\ manners\\,\\ shower\\ daily\\ etc\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ is\\ humor\\ so\\ high\\ on\\ the\\ list\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sign\\ of\\ good\\ brain\\ function\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ good\\ sign\\ that\\ someone\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;come\\ back\\ in\\ full\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Physical\\ Attractiveness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cross\\ cultural\\ agreement\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Berscheid\\ \\&\\;\\ Walster\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>High\\ level\\ of\\ interrater\\ agreement\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Significant\\ cross\\-cultural\\ and\\ historical\\ agreement\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Variability\\ in\\ physical\\ adornments\\ and\\ ideal\\ body\\ weight\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>present\\ pictures\\ of\\ people\\ from\\ all\\ over\\ from\\ people\\ from\\ all\\ over\\,\\ everyone\\ agrees\\ whose\\ hot\\ and\\ whose\\ not\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>what\\ varies\\ the\\ most\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>ideal\\ weight\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>adornments\\/\\ clothing\\ \\(what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ attractive\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eliot\\ et\\ al\\ 2008\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ find\\ women\\ in\\ red\\ more\\ attractive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ wearing\\ red\\,\\ but\\ presented\\ re\\ red\\ backgound\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ worked\\ for\\ men\\ looking\\ at\\ women\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Red\\ and\\ love\\ \\(valnetines\\ day\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ many\\ non\\-human\\ primates\\ females\\ use\\ red\\ swelling\\ as\\ a\\ sexual\\ display\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ find\\ women\\ more\\ attractive\\ when\\ viewed\\ against\\ red\\ background\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Boom\\ and\\ Bust\\ \\(Symons\\ 1979\\ and\\ Anderson\\ et\\ al\\ 1992\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ in\\ cultures\\ with\\ scarce\\ resources\\ prefer\\ heavier\\ women\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ our\\ culture\\ today\\,\\ norm\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ skinny\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Food\\ is\\ abundant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ so\\ we\\ value\\ thinness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Varying\\ preferences\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hungry\\ for\\ More\\ \\(Nelson\\ and\\ Morrison\\ 2005\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Give\\ them\\ questionnaire\\ going\\ into\\ cafeteria\\ or\\ leaving\\ cafeteria\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gave\\ them\\ picture\\ of\\ women\\ of\\ varying\\ weights\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ going\\ into\\ dinning\\ hall\\ prefer\\ larger\\ women\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ hunger\\ is\\ a\\ cue\\ to\\ scarcity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Effect\\ works\\ for\\ men\\ not\\ women\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Grand\\ Ambitions\\ \\(Nelson\\ and\\ Morrison\\ 2005\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>About\\ scarcity\\ of\\ resources\\ not\\ food\\ per\\ se\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reminded\\ people\\ of\\ how\\ much\\ money\\ they\\ had\\ in\\ their\\ pockets\\,\\ if\\ have\\ no\\ money\\ on\\ you\\ it\\ should\\ have\\ same\\ effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ money\\ and\\ asked\\ about\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ preference\\ for\\ larger\\ women\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ for\\ women\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Babyfacedness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ prefer\\ men\\ with\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ baby\\ faces\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Trigger\\ feelings\\ toward\\ affection\\ and\\ caring\\ for\\ children\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Facial\\ Symmetry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Has\\ a\\ strong\\ effect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stronger\\ preference\\ for\\ more\\ symmetrical\\ faces\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ part\\ of\\ our\\ common\\ sense\\ vocabulary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ why\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ face\\ that\\ is\\ symmetrical\\ is\\ a\\ well\\ formed\\ body\\,\\ things\\ went\\ well\\ during\\ development\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Good\\ biological\\ indicator\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Averageness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ can\\ describe\\ people\\ who\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attractive\\ are\\ plain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ \\;\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ what\\ makes\\ a\\ face\\ unattractive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Take\\ two\\ faces\\ and\\ average\\ them\\ together\\ the\\ result\\ will\\ be\\ considered\\ more\\ attractive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hot\\ or\\ Not\\ website\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Average\\ of\\ women\\ who\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hot\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Average\\ of\\ women\\ who\\ are\\ hot\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ varies\\ among\\ these\\ is\\ weight\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ no\\ difference\\ from\\ middle\\ range\\ and\\ upper\\ range\\,\\ when\\ put\\ them\\ all\\ together\\ it\\ all\\ looks\\ good\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ do\\ people\\ look\\ better\\ far\\ away\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ have\\ a\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ ideal\\ face\\ in\\ our\\ head\\,\\ so\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ info\\ rot\\ go\\ on\\,\\ just\\ have\\ template\\ of\\ ideal\\ face\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ information\\ you\\ deviate\\ from\\ that\\ idea\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ info\\,\\ less\\ attractive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Anti\\-faces\\ \\(jiang\\,\\ Blanz\\,\\ Otoole\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ would\\ a\\ face\\ that\\ is\\ exactly\\ opposite\\ a\\ given\\ face\\ look\\ like\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Preference\\ for\\ Masculinity\\ and\\ the\\ Menstrual\\ Cycle\\ \\(Penton\\-Voak\\ et\\ al\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Women\\ tend\\ to\\ prefer\\ more\\ masculine\\ faces\\ when\\ in\\ ovulatory\\ phase\\ in\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ more\\ masculine\\ face\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ signals\\ good\\ genes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Immunocompetence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\ fight\\ off\\ infections\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Women\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ prefer\\ the\\ most\\ masculine\\ faces\\,\\ prefer\\ slightly\\ feminized\\ faces\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ who\\ are\\ more\\ feminine\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ ones\\ who\\ are\\ more\\ willing\\ to\\ invest\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>During\\ the\\ ovulatory\\ phase\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ when\\ conception\\ is\\ highest\\,\\ when\\ deliverance\\ of\\ genes\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ about\\ passing\\ on\\ genes\\ at\\ this\\ point\\ in\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>All\\ about\\ physical\\ genetic\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ mate\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Also\\ works\\ with\\ smell\\,\\ smell\\ dirty\\ shirts\\ of\\ more\\ masculine\\/\\ symmetrical\\ men\\ \\(prefer\\ this\\ while\\ ovulating\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ will\\ you\\ wear\\?\\ \\(Duarte\\ et\\ all\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Women\\ draw\\ skimpier\\ outfits\\ when\\ ovulating\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Draw\\ what\\ would\\ wear\\ that\\ night\\ out\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Romantic\\ Chmeistry\\ \\(graver\\ Apgar\\ et\\ al\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>MHC\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ set\\ of\\ genes\\ coding\\ for\\ cell\\ surface\\ markers\\ that\\ allow\\ immune\\ system\\ to\\ distinguish\\ self\\ from\\ pathogens\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ want\\ to\\ find\\ mates\\ with\\ diff\\ MHC\\&rsquo\\;s\\ from\\ ourselves\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Women\\ who\\ are\\ in\\ relationships\\ with\\ men\\ who\\ are\\ more\\ similar\\ MHCs\\ are\\ on\\ average\\ less\\ satisfied\\ with\\ their\\ relationships\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Less\\ sexually\\ responsive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ likely\\ to\\ cheat\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ attracted\\ to\\ other\\ men\\,\\ especially\\ during\\ fertile\\ phase\\ of\\ menstrual\\ cycle\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ such\\ effects\\ in\\ men\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\$\\$\\$\\ \\(pollet\\ and\\ Nettle\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>sample\\ of\\ 1500\\ Chinese\\ women\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>relationship\\ between\\ partner\\ income\\ and\\ frequency\\ of\\ orgasm\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>women\\ married\\ to\\ rich\\ guys\\ always\\ getting\\ orgasms\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>study\\ controls\\ for\\ age\\,\\ health\\,\\ happiness\\,\\ educational\\,\\ attainment\\,\\ relationship\\ duration\\ and\\ wealth\\ difference\\ between\\ partners\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>correlation\\ study\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Physical\\ Attractiveness\\ Stereotypes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ beautiful\\ is\\ good\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ physicall\\ attractive\\ are\\ seen\\ as\\ having\\ other\\ good\\ qualities\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ sentivie\\,\\ kind\\,\\ storng\\,\\ poised\\,\\ modest\\,\\ sexually\\ responsive\\,\\ outgoing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Less\\ attractive\\ males\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ parents\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sheldon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Divided\\ people\\ into\\ fat\\,\\ ideal\\,\\ thin\\ says\\ who\\ they\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ weight\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wilson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Estimates\\ a\\ mans\\ heigh\\ has\\ student\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ full\\ professor\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Full\\ 5\\ inch\\ difference\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Height\\ bias\\ study\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ true\\ for\\ men\\ as\\ targets\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Height\\ predicts\\ outcome\\ of\\ presidential\\ elections\\ \\(3\\ exceptions\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Trend\\ since\\ 1900\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Nixon\\,\\ Ford\\,\\ Bush\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Halford\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ contagious\\ stigmas\\ of\\ obesity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Evaluate\\ people\\ next\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ attractive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ standing\\ next\\ to\\ fat\\ women\\ they\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ say\\ he\\ is\\ miserable\\,\\ shapeless\\,\\ depressed\\,\\ weak\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ will\\ think\\ less\\ of\\ you\\ if\\ hang\\ out\\ with\\ unattractive\\ people\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hand\\ out\\ punishments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ lenient\\ for\\ children\\ who\\ are\\ cuter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Synder\\,\\ Kleck\\,\\ Strenta\\ Mentzer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ come\\ in\\ to\\ watch\\ movie\\,\\ had\\ movie\\ on\\ two\\ screens\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ pick\\ where\\ to\\ sit\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sometimes\\ people\\ where\\ healthy\\,\\ other\\ time\\ had\\ someone\\ with\\ leg\\ brace\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Other\\ time\\ had\\ two\\ difference\\ movies\\ playing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>With\\ same\\ movie\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ preference\\ sitting\\ next\\ to\\ whoever\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>With\\ different\\ movie\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ likey\\ to\\ sit\\ next\\ to\\ someone\\ who\\ was\\ not\\ handicapped\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ sit\\ next\\ to\\ handicapped\\ person\\,\\ so\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ good\\ cover\\ for\\ behavior\\ will\\ try\\ to\\ sit\\ next\\ to\\ them\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Is\\ stereotype\\ true\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Goldman\\ and\\ Lewis\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Beautiful\\ is\\ Good\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>5\\ min\\ blind\\ phone\\ convos\\ with\\ opposite\\ sex\\ partners\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>partner\\ pa\\ rated\\ by\\ observers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>callers\\ rate\\ partner\\ on\\ social\\ skill\\,\\ liking\\,\\ anxiety\\,\\ desires\\ future\\ interaction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>results\\:\\ social\\ skill\\ liking\\ both\\ correlated\\ with\\ partner\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>two\\ different\\ ratings\\ \\(observer\\ and\\ caller\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ more\\ attractive\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ attractive\\ even\\ through\\ the\\ phone\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ do\\ we\\ interpret\\ this\\ result\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Genes\\?\\ Or\\ better\\ social\\ situations\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ physically\\ attractive\\ can\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ social\\ experience\\ so\\ more\\ confident\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Saved\\ by\\ the\\ Blush\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Semin\\ and\\ Manstead\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participants\\ wanted\\ video\\ of\\ person\\ who\\ knocks\\ over\\ grocery\\ store\\ display\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>He\\ was\\ liked\\ better\\ when\\ he\\ reacted\\ with\\ obvious\\ embarrassment\\ when\\ he\\ calmly\\ rebuilt\\ the\\ display\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Social\\ exclusion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ singles\\ you\\ out\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Negative\\ feeling\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ your\\ singled\\ out\\ for\\ a\\ good\\ thing\\ you\\ are\\ on\\ thin\\ ice\\,\\ the\\ spotlight\\ is\\ on\\ you\\,\\ people\\ will\\ think\\ you\\ are\\ arrogant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ the\\ information\\,\\ its\\ just\\ the\\ spotlight\\ where\\ you\\ have\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ act\\ like\\ a\\ jerk\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ disliked\\ for\\ being\\ successful\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bonding\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Love\\ Juice\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oxytocin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mammalian\\ hormone\\ and\\ neurotransmitter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Maternal\\ pair\\ bonding\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Released\\ during\\ breastfeeding\\,\\ orgasm\\,\\ and\\ cuddling\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oxytocin\\:\\ A\\ tale\\ of\\ two\\ voles\\ \\(Williams\\ et\\ al\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Prairie\\ vole\\ \\(monogamous\\)\\ vs\\.\\ montane\\ vole\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Female\\ praire\\ voles\\ with\\ ovaries\\ removed\\ behaved\\ more\\ like\\ montane\\ voles\\ showing\\ no\\ preference\\ for\\ a\\ familiar\\ male\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Prairie\\ voles\\ without\\ ovaries\\ with\\ oxytocin\\ infusion\\ prefer\\ male\\ who\\ is\\ present\\ during\\ infusion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oxytocin\\ and\\ Trust\\ in\\ Humans\\ \\(kosfeld\\ et\\ al\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Subjects\\ played\\ trust\\ game\\ in\\ which\\ fist\\ subject\\ invest\\ trusting\\ that\\ the\\ second\\ subject\\ will\\ return\\ money\\ after\\ is\\ been\\ multiplied\\ by\\ the\\ experimenter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ subjects\\ given\\ oxytocin\\ which\\ increases\\ trust\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Placebo\\ vs\\.\\ oxytocin\\ sprayed\\ into\\ the\\ nose\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ works\\ in\\ second\\ person\\ not\\ a\\ probabilistic\\ formula\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ who\\ got\\ oxytocin\\ spray\\ were\\ twice\\ as\\ likely\\ to\\ invest\\ the\\ full\\ amount\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ more\\ trusting\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>About\\ social\\ trust\\ NOT\\ risk\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ works\\ between\\ people\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vasopressin\\ Gene\\ and\\ Pair\\ Binding\\ in\\ Humans\\ \\(Wallum\\ et\\ al\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Similar\\ to\\ oxytocin\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Varies\\ in\\ this\\ gene\\ has\\ a\\ statistically\\ significant\\ effect\\ on\\ relationship\\ outcome\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Men\\ with\\ some\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ gene\\ exhibit\\ more\\ bonding\\ with\\ partner\\,\\ fewer\\ marital\\ partners\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ married\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Relationship\\ Success\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Common\\ Sense\\ model\\ \\(Berscheid\\ model\\)\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Emotional\\ changes\\ across\\ relationship\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unexpected\\ facilitation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ positive\\ emotion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unexpected\\ disruption\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ negative\\ emotion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Expected\\ facilitation\\ or\\ disruption\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ emotion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Similar\\ to\\ monkey\\/dopamine\\ experiment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;Relationships\\ are\\ largely\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ same\\ mechanisms\\ that\\ a\\ monkey\\ uses\\ to\\ judge\\ satisfaction\\ get\\ from\\ juice\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>what\\ get\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bigger\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ about\\ the\\ error\\ system\\,\\ what\\ you\\ get\\ based\\ on\\ what\\ you\\ expect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unless\\ you\\ actively\\ work\\ to\\ make\\ relationship\\ better\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ you\\ get\\ in\\ neutral\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Maintaining\\ Positive\\ Emotion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Roller\\-coaster\\ relationships\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;relationship\\ work\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ expectations\\ model\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>no\\ matter\\ what\\ happens\\ will\\ keep\\ creating\\ expectations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Creative\\ unexpected\\ facilities\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gottman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Four\\ Horsemen\\ of\\ the\\ Apocalypse\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Criticism\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>General\\,\\ such\\ as\\ you\\ always\\ do\\ this\\,\\ your\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ person\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Defensiveness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ you\\ are\\ criticized\\ first\\ thing\\ you\\ do\\ is\\ deny\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Stonewalling\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ is\\ tension\\ in\\ relationship\\ and\\ you\\ shut\\ down\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contempt\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Partners\\ that\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ where\\ one\\ thinks\\ they\\ are\\ above\\ the\\ other\\ in\\ some\\ way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ says\\ he\\ can\\ predict\\ with\\ 95\\%\\ accuracy\\ whther\\ a\\ couple\\ will\\ be\\ together\\ 15\\ years\\ later\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conitive\\ Interdependence\\ \\(Wegner\\ Giuliano\\ Hertel\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Close\\ partners\\ form\\ a\\ group\\ mind\\ where\\ we\\ rely\\ on\\ each\\ others\\ cognitive\\ abilities\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ time\\,\\ deeper\\ shared\\ experience\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Had\\ people\\ come\\ into\\ the\\ lab\\,\\ and\\ have\\ impromptu\\ labs\\ or\\ real\\ couples\\,\\ the\\ give\\ them\\ memory\\ test\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>For\\ natural\\ couples\\,\\ if\\ have\\ topics\\ not\\ assigned\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ well\\,\\ if\\ have\\ no\\ assignment\\,\\ did\\ well\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Vice\\ versa\\ for\\ impromptu\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": "Attraction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.117177+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading Notes: Mickey Edwards: Decision-Making in Washington: A Rule of Thumb", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 679, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1053194046\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1467961522\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\There\\ are\\ several\\ ways\\ that\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\ can\\ tell\\ how\\ to\\ vote\\,\\ often\\ without\\ being\\ truly\\ informed\\ \\(having\\ read\\ the\\ bill\\)\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ the\\ \\rule\\ of\\ thumb\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\ Outside\\ the\\ chamber\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ people\\,\\ including\\ lobbyists\\,\\ party\\ leaders\\,\\ bill\\ sponsors\\,\\ and\\ others\\,\\ who\\ hold\\ up\\ their\\ thumbs\\ up\\ or\\ down\\.\\ If\\ congressmen\\ can\\ identify\\ who\\ the\\ thumbs\\ belong\\ to\\,\\ this\\ will\\ often\\ help\\ them\\ out\\.\\ Sometimes\\,\\ however\\,\\ the\\ count\\ is\\ very\\ close\\,\\ and\\ congressmen\\ have\\ to\\ use\\ other\\ means\\ to\\ decide\\ on\\ their\\ vote\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Reading\\ Test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ Members\\ only\\ have\\ about\\ 15\\ minutes\\ to\\ vote\\,\\ and\\ it\\ often\\ takes\\ 14\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ they\\ must\\ read\\ the\\ large\\ board\\ at\\ te\\ front\\ detailing\\ how\\ others\\ have\\ voted\\.\\ Often\\,\\ checking\\ with\\ philosophical\\ bed\\-partners\\ and\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ delegation\\ will\\ give\\ a\\ member\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ idea\\ how\\ to\\ vote\\ in\\ one\\ minute\\ or\\ less\\.\\ The\\ member\\ then\\ sits\\ down\\ and\\ asks\\ \\&ldquo\\;what\\ was\\ that\\ last\\ vote\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Sometimes\\ the\\ best\\ method\\ when\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ anything\\ about\\ the\\ bill\\ is\\ to\\ find\\ some\\ like\\-minded\\ person\\ on\\ the\\ committee\\ and\\ ask\\ first\\ how\\ you\\ should\\ vote\\.\\ Then\\,\\ later\\ on\\,\\ ask\\ why\\ you\\ voted\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ did\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ final\\ method\\ is\\ to\\ carry\\ a\\ briefing\\ paper\\,\\ prepared\\ by\\ a\\ legislative\\ assistant\\,\\ which\\ details\\ how\\ you\\ should\\ vote\\ on\\ each\\ bill\\.\\ You\\ only\\ have\\ to\\ line\\ up\\ the\\ bill\\ number\\,\\ and\\ cast\\ your\\ vote\\.\\ The\\ disadvantage\\ to\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ leaves\\ very\\ little\\ time\\ for\\ your\\ legislative\\ assistants\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ else\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Last\\ sentence\\ \\(I\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ interesting\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ while\\ hearing\\ ability\\ and\\ mental\\ capacity\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ needed\\ in\\ Congress\\,\\ a\\ good\\ pair\\ of\\ eyes\\ is\\ an\\ absolute\\ must\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading Notes: Mickey Edwards: Decision-Making in Washington: A Rule of Thumb"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.153108+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Decipherment of Linear B", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 680, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ \\#9\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\March\\ 9\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Decipherment\\ of\\ Linear\\ B\\ \\(Mycenaean\\ Greek\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-We\\ are\\ moving\\ into\\ Mediterranean\\ and\\ European\\ regions\\,\\ away\\ from\\ Middle\\ East\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Crete\\ \\(Knossos\\)\\ and\\ Mainland\\ Greece\\ \\(Pylos\\,\\ Mycenae\\,\\ and\\ Tiryns\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Knossos\\ and\\ Pylos\\ \\[key\\ sites\\ for\\ decipherement\\ of\\ script\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sir\\ Arthur\\ Evans\\ \\(1851\\-1941\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Began\\ excavations\\ at\\ Knossos\\ in\\ 1900\\ and\\ continued\\ excavating\\ up\\ until\\ the\\ outbreak\\ of\\ WWI\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Knossos\\ excavations\\ revealed\\ cross\\ ties\\ to\\ Egypt\\ and\\ Levant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ discovered\\ numerous\\ caches\\ of\\ clay\\ tablets\\ dating\\ to\\ 1400\\-1200\\ BC\\ in\\ a\\ formerly\\ unknown\\ linear\\ script\\,\\ that\\ he\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Linear\\ Class\\ B\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Distinguished\\ Linear\\ B\\ from\\ an\\ earlier\\ written\\ script\\ that\\ he\\ termed\\ Linear\\ A\\ from\\ southern\\ Crete\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Important\\ Discoveries\\ by\\ Evans\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Recognized\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ numerals\\ and\\ semantic\\ signs\\ as\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ artifacts\\ were\\ clay\\ tablets\\ used\\ for\\ recording\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-He\\ thought\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ word\\ or\\ sentence\\ dividers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Recognized\\ a\\ pattern\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ often\\ a\\ repeated\\ sign\\ that\\ appeared\\ just\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ dividers\\;\\ he\\ called\\ them\\ pictographs\\/ideographs\\;\\ he\\ found\\ this\\ distinct\\ type\\ of\\ sign\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-He\\ worked\\ out\\ the\\ numerals\\ as\\ well\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ totals\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ tablets\\;\\ the\\ signs\\ for\\ total\\ always\\ preceded\\ a\\ numerical\\ content\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\Numbers\\ in\\ Linear\\ B\\:\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Vertical\\ dash\\=\\ 1\\ unit\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Horizontal\\ dash\\=\\ 1\\ ten\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-circle\\=1\\ hundred\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Evans\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ script\\ was\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ pictographs\\ \\(pictures\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ text\\ referred\\ to\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ really\\ are\\ semantic\\ signs\\ that\\ convey\\ meaning\\ and\\ disambiguate\\ meanings\\ of\\ signs\\ they\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\)\\ and\\ fully\\ phonetic\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-These\\ pictographs\\ regularly\\ reappear\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ units\\ and\\ before\\ numbers\\,\\ so\\ they\\ appear\\ at\\ regular\\ and\\ predictable\\ intervals\\ and\\ contexts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*However\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ pictographs\\ are\\ not\\ pieced\\ together\\ from\\ Evans\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\,\\ but\\ now\\ can\\ be\\ determined\\ because\\ the\\ decipherment\\ is\\ complete\\.\\ We\\ can\\ go\\ back\\ and\\ learn\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ semantic\\ by\\ decoding\\ the\\ phonetic\\ content\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ different\\ way\\ of\\ decipherment\\ than\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ before\\.\\ Now\\,\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ semantic\\ is\\ pieced\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ phonetic\\ content\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ reverse\\,\\ where\\ the\\ semantic\\ or\\ pictorial\\ biscript\\ somehow\\ constrains\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ phonetic\\ compliment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Ex\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\Abstract\\ pictograph\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(object\\ that\\ is\\ being\\ represented\\ is\\ slightly\\ ambiguous\\ and\\ not\\ completely\\ transparent\\)\\ Consider\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ \\wine\\<\\/i\\>\\ is\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ a\\ trellis\\ on\\ which\\ grape\\ grows\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Patterned\\ Pictographs\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-These\\ show\\ a\\ sign\\ for\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ animal\\ and\\ further\\ distinguish\\ between\\ a\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ variant\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ animal\\ \\(there\\ is\\ a\\ sign\\ for\\ sheep\\,\\ add\\ two\\ lines\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ ram\\,\\ add\\ a\\ second\\ leg\\ and\\ it\\ becomes\\ an\\ ewe\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\Cypriotic\\ \\(4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ BC\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ Recording\\ of\\ Greek\\ language\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ regular\\ patterns\\,\\ or\\ rules\\,\\ lots\\ of\\ texts\\ found\\ nearly\\ 1000\\ years\\ later\\ than\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ inscriptions\\ we\\ were\\ just\\ speaking\\ of\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-lots\\ of\\ bilingual\\ texts\\ between\\ Cypriot\\ and\\ Phonecian\\;\\ since\\ Phonecian\\ could\\ be\\ read\\ and\\ is\\ fully\\ consonantal\\ \\(dates\\ to\\ the\\ 5\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ BC\\)\\,\\ Cypriot\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ be\\ deciphered\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-This\\ script\\ was\\ deciphered\\ much\\ earlier\\ than\\ Evans\\&rsquo\\;\\ work\\ due\\ to\\ prevalence\\ of\\ bilingual\\ texts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Ex\\.\\ biscript\\ dedication\\ to\\ \\Ellowoidos\\<\\/i\\>\\ to\\ the\\ Gods\\ Demeter\\ and\\ Kore\\;\\ scholars\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ read\\ the\\ Cypriotic\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Some\\ signs\\ that\\ look\\ identical\\ in\\ Linear\\ A\\ and\\ Linear\\ B\\,\\ similarly\\ appearing\\ signs\\ actually\\ have\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ values\\,\\ there\\ were\\ some\\ similar\\ signs\\ of\\ Linear\\ B\\ and\\ Cypriot\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ mean\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ a\\ visual\\ relationship\\ and\\ similarity\\ between\\ the\\ signs\\ of\\ Cypriot\\ and\\ Linear\\ B\\;\\ furthermore\\,\\ plugging\\ in\\ the\\ known\\ phonetic\\ values\\ of\\ Cypriot\\ into\\ comparable\\ Linear\\ B\\ texts\\ made\\ sense\\ in\\ some\\ contexts\\ in\\ Linear\\ B\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Examples\\ of\\ Linear\\ B\\ signs\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Po\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(looks\\ like\\ a\\ hook\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lo\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(looks\\ like\\ a\\ cross\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\To\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(look\\ like\\ a\\ telephone\\ pole\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ was\\ a\\ tablet\\ with\\ a\\ sign\\ for\\ horse\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\Po\\-lo\\<\\/i\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\polos\\<\\/i\\>\\ means\\ foal\\ in\\ Greek\\ \\[when\\ we\\ plug\\ in\\ the\\ Cypriotic\\ values\\]\\,\\ the\\ two\\ ideagraphs\\ associated\\ with\\ \\polos\\<\\/i\\>\\ look\\ like\\ a\\ representation\\ for\\ a\\ horse\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ manes\\ yet\\ so\\ maybe\\ they\\ are\\ young\\ foals\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ the\\ Greek\\ translation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Looks\\ exactly\\ like\\ Cypriotic\\ descendents\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\To\\<\\/i\\>\\-\\?\\ \\;\\(\\tossos\\<\\/i\\>\\ which\\ means\\ total\\ in\\ Greek\\)\\;\\ one\\ reason\\ why\\ Linear\\ B\\ cannot\\ just\\ be\\ an\\ earlier\\ form\\ of\\ Cypriotic\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Evans\\ rejected\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ Linear\\ B\\ was\\ recording\\ Greek\\ because\\ the\\ artifacts\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ with\\ Linear\\ B\\ writing\\ on\\ them\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ Crete\\.\\ He\\ thought\\ that\\ Greek\\ was\\ only\\ spoken\\ on\\ the\\ mainland\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Evans\\ also\\ discovered\\ \\declension\\<\\/b\\>\\ in\\ Linear\\ B\\ \\(where\\ words\\ take\\ different\\ but\\ patterned\\ endings\\)\\.\\ This\\ should\\ have\\ moved\\ him\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ Linear\\ B\\ was\\ actually\\ recording\\ Greek\\ or\\ Latin\\ \\(or\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ language\\ with\\ cases\\)\\,\\ but\\ all\\ his\\ archaeological\\ thought\\ lead\\ him\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ Linear\\ B\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ a\\ recording\\ of\\ Greek\\.\\ Again\\,\\ he\\ believed\\ that\\ Greek\\ was\\ only\\ written\\ on\\ the\\ mainland\\ and\\ Linear\\ B\\ artifacts\\ had\\ up\\ to\\ this\\ point\\ only\\ been\\ found\\ on\\ Crete\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Alice\\ Kober\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Contributed\\ greatly\\ to\\ understandings\\ of\\ the\\ declensions\\ of\\ Linear\\ B\\,\\ her\\ work\\ was\\ frustrated\\ because\\ Evans\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ widely\\ share\\ his\\ findings\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ her\\ work\\ would\\ eventually\\ allow\\ Ventris\\ to\\ construct\\ a\\ grid\\ of\\ syllables\\ sharing\\ the\\ same\\ consonants\\ and\\ vowels\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Kober\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Evidence\\ for\\ Declension\\ in\\ Linear\\ B\\ \\(1946\\)\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Assumed\\ that\\ she\\ was\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ syllabary\\,\\ she\\ saw\\ groups\\ of\\ signs\\ and\\ picked\\ out\\ the\\ core\\ spelling\\ of\\ root\\ words\\,\\ spelled\\ out\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\(nominative\\,\\ dative\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ Clearly\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ language\\ that\\ had\\ cases\\,\\ perhaps\\ Latin\\ or\\ Greek\\,\\ not\\ Semitic\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-She\\ created\\ ordered\\ grids\\ with\\ patterned\\ phonetic\\ signs\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Three\\ separate\\ words\\ that\\ in\\ different\\ contexts\\ had\\ different\\ endings\\ and\\ spellings\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Should\\ share\\ a\\ vowel\\ found\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ only\\ 5\\ separate\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Lots\\ of\\ inferences\\ drawn\\ from\\ structure\\ and\\ patterns\\,\\ constructing\\ grids\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ signs\\ in\\ the\\ column\\ share\\ a\\ consonants\\,\\ if\\ you\\ can\\ identify\\ one\\ sign\\ you\\ can\\ cascade\\ vowels\\ and\\ consonants\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ matrix\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Michael\\ Ventris\\ \\(1922\\-1956\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Deciphered\\ Linear\\ B\\ script\\ as\\ Greek\\ in\\ 1952\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Became\\ fascinated\\ with\\ Linear\\ B\\ script\\ as\\ a\\ schoolboy\\,\\ studied\\ Greek\\ in\\ school\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ prepare\\ him\\ for\\ ancient\\,\\ Mycenaean\\ Greek\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-He\\ was\\ an\\ architect\\,\\ he\\ worked\\ on\\ it\\ in\\ his\\ spare\\ time\\,\\ he\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ scholar\\ he\\ was\\ outside\\ the\\ existing\\ knowledge\\ and\\ academia\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ although\\ it\\ was\\ accepted\\ that\\ it\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ been\\ Greek\\ it\\ was\\ Ventris\\ who\\ was\\ willing\\ to\\ follow\\ his\\ ideas\\ and\\ ultimately\\ challenged\\ historical\\ dogma\\ that\\ had\\ curbed\\ previous\\ steps\\ in\\ deciphering\\ Linear\\ B\\,\\ refused\\ to\\ accept\\ canonical\\ beliefs\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ hindered\\ his\\ decipherment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Built\\ on\\ the\\ insights\\ of\\ Evans\\ and\\ Kober\\ to\\ decipher\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Enlisted\\ the\\ help\\ of\\ Greek\\ philologist\\ John\\ Chadwick\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ publications\\ of\\ the\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-he\\ was\\ an\\ outsider\\ and\\ some\\ people\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ trust\\ his\\ ideas\\,\\ but\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ he\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ get\\ more\\ correspondences\\ and\\ information\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Looking\\ at\\ all\\ of\\ Kober\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paradigms\\,\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\ blossomed\\ from\\ this\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gathered\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ tablets\\ that\\ were\\ place\\ names\\,\\ they\\ were\\ repeated\\ in\\ inscriptions\\ from\\ Knossos\\ at\\ Tulissos\\ and\\ Amnisos\\,\\ Luktos\\,\\ and\\ Phaistos\\,\\ he\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ place\\ names\\,\\ he\\ thought\\ the\\ groupings\\ were\\ cross\\-fertilized\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ Cypriotic\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-some\\ of\\ the\\ place\\ names\\ end\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ sign\\,\\ some\\ similarity\\ and\\ patterns\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-green\\ marked\\ the\\ shared\\ vowels\\ \\[Kober\\&rsquo\\;s\\ declensions\\ tell\\ us\\ which\\ ones\\ share\\ vowels\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Pure\\ vowel\\ that\\ started\\ the\\ word\\ and\\ it\\ shared\\ a\\ column\\ with\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Historical\\ connection\\ between\\ Cypriotic\\ and\\ Linear\\ B\\,\\ plugged\\ in\\ the\\ values\\ and\\ produced\\ an\\ early\\ form\\ of\\ Greek\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Kober\\&rsquo\\;s\\ triplets\\ deciphered\\,\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ different\\ cases\\ of\\ the\\ word\\,\\ just\\ reflected\\ a\\ masculine\\ and\\ feminine\\ word\\ of\\ the\\ word\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-They\\ were\\ explicable\\ in\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ words\\ they\\ formed\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\John\\ Chadwick\\ was\\ the\\ philologist\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Words\\ being\\ clarified\\ by\\ the\\ semantic\\ representations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Evidence\\ within\\ the\\ language\\ that\\ it\\ should\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ ancestral\\ form\\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ abbreviation\\ in\\ the\\ script\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;r\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ not\\ written\\ and\\ the\\ diphthong\\ is\\ not\\ written\\ either\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pa\\-ka\\-na\\ \\[pha\\(s\\)gana\\;\\ which\\ is\\ indicated\\ by\\ the\\ ideograph\\ for\\ sword\\]\\ \\(pa\\ stood\\ for\\ sound\\ pa\\ or\\ ba\\ and\\ the\\ aspirated\\ versions\\ of\\ both\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ka\\ and\\ ga\\ are\\ both\\ written\\ by\\ ka\\ sign\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Both\\ abbreviations\\ and\\ underspecification\\ of\\ phonetics\\ distinctions\\ the\\ script\\ was\\ not\\ perfect\\ to\\ report\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ language\\ so\\ that\\ shows\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ ideographs\\ for\\ the\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Po\\-lo\\<\\/i\\>\\ and\\\\ i\\-qo\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(horse\\)\\;\\ these\\ forms\\ all\\ fit\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ historical\\ trajectory\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Discovery\\ of\\ tablets\\ on\\ the\\ mainland\\ was\\ the\\ final\\ proof\\ that\\ Linear\\ B\\ was\\ actually\\ recording\\ Greek\\;\\ Legan\\ excavated\\ a\\ Pylos\\ tablet\\ which\\ clearly\\ had\\ lots\\ of\\ symbols\\ and\\ had\\ pictographs\\ and\\ semantic\\ signs\\ that\\ looked\\ like\\ different\\ vessels\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ the\\ text\\ was\\ describing\\ them\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ and\\ the\\ semantic\\ signs\\ were\\ there\\ to\\ disambiguate\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ words\\,\\ by\\ plugging\\ in\\ values\\ he\\ found\\ TRIPOD\\ and\\ then\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ ideograph\\ which\\ definitely\\ disambiguated\\ the\\ meaning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-lots\\ of\\ logical\\ forms\\ \\(Legan\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "Decipherment of Linear B"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.834775+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction Continued and Seasonal Foods ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 661, "html": "\\\\Since\\ this\\ second\\ lecture\\ also\\ fell\\ during\\ shopping\\ week\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ spent\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ period\\ reviewing\\ themes\\ he\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ class\\.\\ Be\\ sure\\ to\\ check\\ out\\ the\\ Lecture\\ 1\\ Notes\\!\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\'s\\ Food\\ of\\ the\\ Day\\ was\\ \\Setsubun\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ A\\ setsubun\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 24\\ \\"\\;mini\\-seasons\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ Japanese\\ calendar\\.\\ While\\ Japan\\ currently\\ follows\\ the\\ Western\\ calendar\\,\\ miini\\-seasons\\ remain\\ important\\ in\\ food\\ culture\\,\\ arts\\,\\ kimono\\,\\ and\\ seasonal\\ etiquette\\.\\ The\\ divisions\\ between\\ the\\ seasons\\ are\\ marked\\ by\\ the\\ celebration\\ of\\ Setsubun\\,\\ usually\\ accompanied\\ by\\ the\\ specific\\ mini\\-season\\'s\\ food\\ products\\ and\\ dishes\\.\\ These\\ foods\\ are\\ not\\ necessarily\\ seasonal\\,\\ but\\ they\\ do\\ serve\\ as\\ poetic\\ references\\ to\\ indicate\\ the\\ seasons\\.\\ The\\ February\\ 3\\-4\\ Setsubun\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ celebrated\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ Setsubun\\,\\ because\\ it\\ marks\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ deepest\\ cold\\ of\\ winter\\.\\ It\\ is\\ celebrated\\ both\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ at\\ local\\ shrines\\.\\ Foods\\ for\\ the\\ February\\ Setsubun\\ include\\ sushi\\ rolls\\ which\\ represent\\ big\\ clubs\\ used\\ to\\ chase\\ off\\ goblins\\ and\\ beans\\,\\ a\\ food\\ particularly\\ disliked\\ by\\ Japanese\\ ogres\\,\\ known\\ as\\ \\"\\;oni\\"\\;\\.\\ Today\\,\\ supermarkets\\ sell\\ all\\ the\\ foods\\ and\\ paraphenalia\\ for\\ each\\ Setsubun\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Professor\\ Bestor\\ also\\ offered\\ a\\ lesson\\ in\\ cultural\\ relativism\\ by\\ showing\\ the\\ \\"\\;Nacirema\\"\\;\\ \\(Americans\\ backwards\\)\\ as\\ ritually\\ mutilating\\ vegetables\\ \\(jack\\-o\\'\\-lanterns\\)\\ and\\ dressing\\ children\\ up\\ as\\ foodstuffs\\ \\(Halloween\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction Continued and Seasonal Foods "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.844314+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Culture and Society", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 662, "html": "\\\\In\\ the\\ course\\'s\\ third\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ provided\\ an\\ introduction\\ to\\ definitions\\ of\\ culture\\ and\\ society\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ major\\ anthropologists\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Major\\ figures\\ and\\ movements\\ of\\ social\\ anthropology\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Marvin\\ Harris\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ cultural\\ materialist\\,\\ meaning\\ techno\\-environments\\ determine\\ behavior\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ turn\\ encoded\\ into\\ cultural\\ norms\\.\\ His\\ view\\ can\\ be\\ summed\\ up\\ as\\ \\"\\;good\\ to\\ eat\\"\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Mary\\ Douglas\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ cultural\\ structuralist\\,\\ and\\ sees\\ the\\ cultural\\ structuring\\ of\\ thought\\ as\\ guiding\\ choice\\ of\\ techno\\-environmental\\ utilization\\.\\ Her\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\ is\\ \\"\\;good\\ to\\ eat\\"\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\These\\ competing\\ perspectives\\ form\\ basis\\ for\\ much\\ analysis\\,\\ particularly\\ of\\ pre\\-modern\\ or\\ traditional\\ foodways\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Structuralism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ intellectual\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ mid\\-20th\\ century\\,\\ led\\ by\\ Claude\\ Levi\\-Strauss\\.\\ Structualism\\ views\\ culture\\ as\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ the\\ structures\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ mind\\,\\ which\\ creates\\ order\\ by\\ classifying\\,\\ categorizing\\,\\ and\\ creating\\ binary\\ and\\ tripartite\\ oppositions\\.\\ It\\ breeds\\ order\\ by\\ making\\ us\\ think\\ in\\ categorical\\ terms\\.\\ The\\ mental\\ categories\\ of\\ culture\\ then\\ become\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ social\\ structure\\ and\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Important\\ terms\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Culture\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ the\\ key\\ concept\\ of\\ anthropology\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ a\\ complex\\ system\\,\\ has\\ had\\ many\\ definitions\\ throughout\\ the\\ years\\.\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\'s\\ definition\\:\\ \\"\\;culture\\ is\\ the\\ collective\\ lens\\ through\\ which\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ see\\ their\\ lives\\ and\\ their\\ relationships\\ with\\ others\\,\\ and\\ organize\\ themselves\\ into\\ social\\ units\\;\\ patterned\\ systems\\ of\\ meaning\\ and\\ significance\\ that\\ define\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ worldview\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Edward\\ B\\.\\ Tylor\\'s\\ definition\\:\\ \\"\\;that\\ complex\\ whole\\ which\\ includes\\ knowledge\\,\\ belief\\,\\ arts\\,\\ morals\\,\\ law\\,\\ customs\\,\\ and\\ any\\ other\\ capabilities\\ and\\ habits\\ acquired\\ by\\ a\\ human\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ society\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Both\\ definitions\\ imply\\ learning\\,\\ sharing\\,\\ existing\\ within\\ a\\ group\\,\\ integrating\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ mental\\ capabilities\\ and\\ actions\\.\\ Culture\\ is\\ a\\ universal\\ human\\ phenomenon\\.\\ As\\ humans\\,\\ we\\ share\\ capacities\\ for\\ culture\\ making\\ or\\ particular\\ configurations\\ that\\ characterize\\ specific\\ human\\ groups\\.\\ Culture\\ ultimately\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ change\\ and\\ alteration\\,\\ thus\\ it\\ has\\ both\\ historical\\ and\\ contemporary\\ approaches\\.\\ The\\ \\historical\\ approach\\ to\\ culture\\<\\/strong\\>\\ offers\\ perspectives\\ on\\ the\\ developments\\ of\\ societies\\ and\\ cultures\\ over\\ time\\,\\ and\\ the\\ interrelationships\\ of\\ those\\ societies\\ and\\ cultures\\ with\\ one\\ another\\.\\ The\\ \\contemporary\\ approach\\ \\<\\/strong\\>appears\\ in\\ ethnographies\\,\\ perspectives\\ on\\ present\\ day\\ inner\\ workings\\ of\\ specific\\ societies\\ and\\ cultures\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ on\\ comparisons\\ between\\ or\\ among\\ contemporary\\ societies\\ and\\ cultures\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Society\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ roles\\,\\ norms\\,\\ and\\ institutions\\ that\\ structure\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interactions\\,\\ participation\\ in\\ events\\,\\ and\\ statuses\\.\\ It\\ structures\\ their\\ consciousness\\ of\\ meanings\\ inherent\\ in\\ roles\\,\\ norms\\,\\ institutions\\,\\ statuses\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\Clifford\\ Geertz\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ a\\ prominent\\ social\\ anthropologist\\,\\ wrote\\ that\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ suspended\\ in\\ webs\\ of\\ significance\\,\\ only\\ some\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ woven\\ themselves\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Culture and Society"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.855351+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Anthropological Philosophy and Structuralism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 663, "html": "\\\\In\\ the\\ fourth\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ continued\\ to\\ introduce\\ the\\ vocabulary\\ of\\ social\\ anthropology\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Anthropology\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ philosophical\\ discourse\\.\\ It\\ examines\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ human\\ in\\ comparison\\ with\\ other\\ species\\.\\ It\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ millenia\\ of\\ different\\ adaptations\\ and\\ environments\\,\\ and\\ challenges\\ cultures\\ with\\ confronting\\ other\\ beings\\ that\\ do\\ things\\ that\\ you\\ don\\'t\\ understand\\ and\\ cannot\\ stomach\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Key\\ Terms\\ of\\ Anthropology\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\An\\ \\emic\\<\\/strong\\>\\ interpretation\\ is\\ subjective\\ and\\ presented\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ insider\\,\\ while\\ an\\ etic\\ interpretation\\ is\\ objective\\ and\\ presented\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ detached\\,\\ external\\ observer\\.\\ An\\ \\etic\\<\\/strong\\>\\ view\\ does\\ not\\ depend\\ upon\\ a\\ insider\\'s\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ phenomenon\\.\\ The\\ two\\ words\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ linguistic\\ \\"\\;phonemic\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;phonetic\\"\\;\\.\\ They\\ have\\ a\\ complementary\\,\\ not\\ oppositional\\ relationship\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ ethnography\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Inductive\\ reasoning\\<\\/strong\\>\\ seeks\\ to\\ make\\ generalizations\\ from\\ observations\\ of\\ particular\\ cases\\.\\ Most\\ ethnographic\\ and\\ historical\\ research\\ falls\\ into\\ this\\ category\\.\\ \\Deductive\\ reasoning\\<\\/strong\\>\\ uses\\ theoretical\\ generalizations\\ to\\ generate\\ hypotheses\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ tested\\ using\\ data\\ collected\\ for\\ that\\ purpose\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Ethnography\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ both\\ a\\ research\\ method\\ characteristic\\ of\\ social\\/cultural\\ anthropology\\ and\\ a\\ report\\ of\\ research\\ findings\\,\\ often\\ in\\ a\\ book\\.\\ It\\ involves\\ participant\\-observation\\ and\\ multiple\\ research\\ methods\\,\\ relying\\ on\\ naturalistic\\ observation\\ rather\\ than\\ experimental\\.\\ It\\ is\\ conducted\\ in\\ the\\ field\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ lab\\,\\ through\\ long\\-term\\ research\\.\\ Ethnographic\\ research\\ is\\ usually\\ conducted\\ in\\ languages\\ of\\ groups\\ among\\ whom\\ research\\ is\\ carried\\ out\\.\\ The\\ researcher\\ themselves\\ is\\ often\\ a\\ major\\ source\\ of\\ data\\ as\\ well\\.\\ Some\\ ethnographic\\ research\\ is\\ inductive\\,\\ some\\ is\\ deductive\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\\\ myth\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Levi\\-Strauss\\,\\ is\\ a\\ \\"\\;matrix\\ of\\ intelligibility\\"\\;\\.\\ It\\ establishes\\ basic\\ oppositions\\ that\\ are\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ symbolic\\ structure\\ of\\ a\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ are\\ reflected\\ or\\ mirrored\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ structural\\ relationships\\ of\\ the\\ society\\.\\ \\Rituals\\<\\/strong\\>\\ are\\ the\\ social\\ enactment\\ of\\ myths\\,\\ acting\\ out\\ the\\ symbolic\\ oppositions\\ set\\ forth\\ in\\ myth\\.\\ Myth\\ functions\\ to\\ separate\\ human\\ beings\\ from\\ nature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Principles\\ of\\ exchange\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ \\generalized\\ reciprocity\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\balanced\\ reciprocity\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Generalized\\ reciporcity\\ is\\ an\\ exchange\\ for\\ a\\ non\\-specific\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ with\\ no\\ expectation\\ of\\ immediate\\ and\\ direct\\ return\\ from\\ the\\ person\\ you\\ have\\ given\\ something\\ to\\.\\ One\\ would\\ see\\ this\\ practice\\ in\\ a\\ hunting\\ gathering\\ society\\.\\ Balanced\\ reciprocity\\ is\\ an\\ exchange\\ with\\ the\\ expectation\\ of\\ direct\\,\\ proportional\\ return\\ form\\ the\\ specific\\ person\\ to\\ whome\\ you\\ have\\ given\\ something\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\'s\\ \\"\\;food\\ event\\"\\;\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ is\\ \\Halloween\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ exchanges\\ of\\ Halloween\\ inherent\\ in\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ \\"\\;trick\\ or\\ treating\\"\\;\\ validate\\,\\ replicate\\,\\ and\\ act\\ out\\ the\\ symbolic\\ and\\ mythic\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ holiday\\.\\ \\Liminality\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ a\\ concept\\ presented\\ by\\ Mary\\ Douglas\\,\\ holds\\ that\\ liminal\\ things\\ are\\ powerful\\ sites\\ for\\ cultural\\ symbolism\\.\\ In\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ structual\\ binary\\ opposition\\,\\ liminal\\ objects\\ don\\'t\\ fit\\ our\\ mental\\ or\\ cultural\\ schema\\.\\ Halloween\\ is\\ a\\ liminal\\ stage\\ between\\ day\\ and\\ night\\.\\ People\\ are\\ not\\ dressed\\ as\\ themselves\\,\\ thus\\ they\\ transgress\\ the\\ line\\ between\\ the\\ dead\\ and\\ the\\ undead\\.\\ The\\ ritual\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ holiday\\ sends\\ children\\ into\\ a\\ dangerous\\ place\\ and\\ initiates\\ them\\ into\\ a\\ certain\\ life\\ stage\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Anthropological Philosophy and Structuralism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.866169+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Food Systems ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 664, "html": "\\\\Using\\ peanut\\ butter\\,\\ Japanese\\ Valentine\\'s\\ Day\\ practices\\,\\ and\\ potlachs\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ lectured\\ on\\ food\\ systems\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ cultures\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\'s\\ food\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ is\\ \\peanut\\ butter\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ product\\ itself\\ is\\ one\\ small\\ portion\\ of\\ a\\ food\\ system\\ within\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ agro\\-business\\.\\ Peanut\\ products\\ are\\ processed\\ as\\ a\\ commodity\\ and\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;homogenous\\&rdquo\\;\\ spot\\-market\\ raw\\ materials\\.\\ Primary\\ processors\\ sell\\ to\\ myriad\\ secondary\\ producers\\ who\\ make\\ products\\ for\\ the\\ retail\\ and\\ institutional\\ market\\.\\ A\\ \\food\\ system\\<\\/strong\\>\\ can\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ an\\ enormous\\ national\\ distribution\\ system\\ of\\ manufactures\\,\\ wholesalers\\,\\ distributions\\,\\ supermarkets\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ today\\'s\\ world\\,\\ it\\ includes\\ massive\\ advertising\\/marketing\\.\\ Products\\ arrive\\ in\\ consumers\\&rsquo\\;\\ hands\\ with\\ no\\ info\\ about\\ origins\\ of\\ peanuts\\,\\ while\\ cultural\\ and\\ social\\ food\\ preferences\\ sustain\\ enormous\\ demand\\ for\\ peanuts\\ and\\ peanut\\ butter\\.\\ The\\ United\\ States\\ has\\ a\\ system\\ called\\ HACCP\\ \\(Hazard\\ Analysis\\ and\\ Critical\\ Control\\ Point\\)\\ which\\ analyzes\\ key\\ points\\ for\\ potential\\ contamination\\ in\\ a\\ food\\ supply\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ identify\\ where\\ inspections\\ should\\ occur\\ and\\/or\\ where\\ handling\\ procedures\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ changed\\ or\\ strengthened\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\nValentine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Day\\ in\\ Japan\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ distinctly\\ postwar\\ phenomenon\\,\\ and\\ was\\ introduced\\ largely\\ by\\ major\\ department\\ stores\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ candy\\ makers\\.\\ Candy\\ makers\\ were\\ largely\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Jewish\\ community\\ in\\ Kobe\\ who\\ became\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ food\\ business\\ after\\ fleeing\\ from\\ Europe\\.\\ Valentine\\'s\\ Day\\ in\\ Japan\\ took\\ off\\ between\\ 1958\\ and\\ 1960\\ and\\ places\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;cosmopolitan\\&rdquo\\;\\ consumer\\ lifestyles\\.\\ For\\ the\\ holiday\\,\\ chocolate\\ is\\ marketed\\ to\\ women\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ feminine\\ sort\\ of\\ merchandise\\.\\ It\\ was\\ initially\\ marketed\\ through\\ high\\ end\\ department\\ stores\\ in\\ basement\\ food\\ halls\\ and\\ encouraged\\ as\\ a\\ gift\\.\\ On\\ Valentine\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Day\\,\\ women\\ give\\ chocolate\\ to\\ men\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Giri\\-choco\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ the\\ term\\ for\\ obligatory\\ chocolate\\ gifts\\ to\\ bosses\\ and\\ coworkers\\,\\ while\\ \\honmei\\-choco\\<\\/strong\\>\\ means\\ true\\ love\\ chocolate\\ and\\ is\\ only\\ given\\ to\\ loved\\ ones\\.\\ Japanese\\ Valentine\\'s\\ Day\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ adaptation\\ of\\ novel\\ cultural\\ practices\\ to\\ local\\ cultural\\ standards\\.\\ Styles\\ of\\ reciprocity\\ and\\ redistribution\\ are\\ extremely\\ important\\ social\\ values\\ in\\ Japan\\'s\\ group\\-oriented\\ society\\.\\ In\\ most\\ social\\ relationships\\,\\ forms\\ of\\ balanced\\ reciprocity\\ are\\ crucial\\.\\ One\\ individual\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ single\\ out\\ one\\-to\\-one\\ relationships\\ at\\ the\\ expense\\ of\\ group\\ dynamics\\.\\ Valentine\\'s\\ Day\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ White\\ Day\\,\\ when\\ men\\ reciprocate\\ with\\ gifts\\ to\\ women\\,\\ including\\ white\\ chocolate\\ and\\ other\\ white\\-colored\\ objects\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Totemism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ the\\ system\\ of\\ symbolic\\ structures\\ for\\ defining\\ social\\ groups\\,\\ based\\ in\\ mythology\\.\\ Totems\\ can\\ be\\ icons\\ of\\ particular\\ religions\\ or\\ cultures\\,\\ and\\ exist\\ as\\ a\\ crucial\\ link\\ between\\ Levi\\-Strauss\\'s\\ view\\ of\\ mythology\\ and\\ the\\ classification\\ of\\ natural\\ world\\ and\\ of\\ human\\ groups\\.\\ Totemism\\ is\\ commonly\\ used\\ to\\ classify\\ social\\ world\\ into\\ kinds\\ of\\ lineage\\ groups\\,\\ and\\ is\\ \\;\\ common\\ in\\ many\\ Australian\\ and\\ North\\ American\\ native\\ groups\\ who\\ believe\\ themselves\\ to\\ be\\ descended\\ from\\ these\\ totemic\\ objects\\.\\ Totemism\\ is\\ often\\ accompanied\\ by\\ taboos\\ about\\ the\\ use\\,\\ killing\\,\\ or\\ consumption\\ of\\ these\\ foods\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Potlatch\\ \\<\\/strong\\>is\\ the\\ practice\\ of\\ redistributive\\ exchange\\ among\\ tribes\\ of\\ the\\ Pacific\\ Northwest\\ Coast\\.\\ These\\ totemic\\ exchange\\ relationships\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ acquiring\\ social\\ prestige\\ through\\ these\\ relationships\\ and\\ giftings\\.\\ The\\ events\\ were\\ banned\\ in\\ 19th\\ century\\ by\\ local\\ governments\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ considered\\ wasteful\\,\\ but\\ still\\ exist\\ as\\ an\\ ultimate\\ example\\ of\\ balanced\\ reciprocity\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Food Systems "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.876778+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Food and Religion, Part I", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 665, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ class\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ explored\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ food\\ and\\ religious\\ practices\\,\\ particularly\\ focusing\\ on\\ Judaism\\,\\ Islam\\,\\ Buddhism\\,\\ and\\ Christianity\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Food\\ restrictions\\ in\\ religion\\<\\/strong\\>\\ are\\ common\\ in\\ many\\ religious\\ traditions\\,\\ including\\ Judaism\\ where\\ we\\ see\\ kosher\\ foods\\,\\ Islam\\ with\\ halal\\ and\\ haram\\ foods\\,\\ Hinduism\\ with\\ food\\ pollution\\ and\\ caste\\ eating\\ patterns\\,\\ Buddhism\\ and\\ vegetarianism\\,\\ and\\ Christianity\\'s\\ Lent\\ and\\ communion\\.\\ \\These\\ practices\\ mark\\ boundaries\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ show\\ who\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ group\\ and\\ who\\ is\\ not\\,\\ and\\ \\dictate\\ commensality\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(who\\ can\\ eat\\ with\\ whom\\ and\\ who\\ cannot\\)\\.\\ They\\ serve\\ to\\ \\remind\\ the\\ faithful\\ of\\ the\\ divin\\<\\/strong\\>\\e\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Deuteronomy\\ food\\ restrictions\\ and\\ the\\ sacred\\ cow\\ in\\ India\\.\\ Food\\ reminds\\ religious\\ practicers\\ of\\ \\their\\ ethical\\,\\ moral\\,\\ and\\ spiritual\\ responsibilities\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\serve\\ as\\ teaching\\ tools\\<\\/strong\\>\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Eucharist\\ or\\ saying\\ grace\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ food\\ practices\\ \\create\\ or\\ reinforce\\ social\\ structures\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ sustaining\\ social\\ roles\\ and\\ positions\\ within\\ the\\ community\\.\\ Religious\\ figures\\ who\\ supervise\\ food\\ preparations\\ are\\ distinct\\ from\\ lay\\ religious\\ practicers\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Kosher\\ practices\\<\\/strong\\>\\ in\\ the\\ Jewish\\ religion\\ have\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ explanations\\.\\ Some\\ scholars\\ see\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ test\\ of\\ faith\\ and\\ cultivation\\ of\\ self\\-discipline\\,\\ while\\ others\\ see\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ kashrut\\ as\\ a\\ proto\\-science\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ kosher\\ laws\\ ban\\ pork\\ consumption\\,\\ because\\ of\\ pig\\-borne\\ illnesses\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ In\\ her\\ \\Purity\\ and\\ Pollution\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ Mary\\ Douglas\\ sees\\ the\\ laws\\ presented\\ in\\ Deuteronomy\\ as\\ structuralist\\.\\ In\\ the\\ structuralist\\ logic\\ of\\ culture\\,\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ impure\\ or\\ polluted\\ are\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ push\\ the\\ limits\\ of\\ categories\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ forbidden\\ animals\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ chew\\ cud\\ or\\ the\\ birds\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ fly\\.\\ Marvin\\ Harris\\ takes\\ an\\ ecological\\ view\\,\\ and\\ demonstrates\\ that\\ the\\ conditions\\ for\\ animal\\ husbandry\\ in\\ Middle\\ East\\ make\\ raising\\ pigs\\ more\\ costly\\ than\\ other\\ animals\\,\\ thus\\ they\\ ultimately\\ were\\ not\\ useful\\ beyond\\ food\\.\\ \\;\\ Both\\ Harris\\ and\\ Douglas\\ are\\ debating\\ origins\\,\\ not\\ contemporary\\ practices\\ which\\ can\\ range\\ from\\ the\\ mystical\\ to\\ the\\ nostalgic\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Food and Religion, Part I"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.886360+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Food and Religion, Part II", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 666, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ continued\\ exploring\\ the\\ links\\ between\\ food\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\but\\ with\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ contemporary\\ practices\\ rather\\ than\\ origins\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\He\\ also\\ began\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ trope\\ of\\ food\\ as\\ medicine\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ contemporary\\ practices\\,\\ \\kosher\\ practices\\ \\<\\/strong\\>obviously\\ vary\\ enormously\\ across\\ spectrum\\ from\\ ultra\\-orthodox\\ to\\ entirely\\ secular\\ Jews\\.\\ Some\\ see\\ them\\ as\\ ethical\\ practices\\,\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ mandate\\ that\\ the\\ slaughtering\\ must\\ be\\ done\\ in\\ as\\ humane\\ a\\ fashion\\ as\\ possible\\ by\\ specially\\ trained\\ slaughterers\\.\\ The\\ recent\\ major\\ case\\ involving\\ an\\ Iowa\\ meat\\ processing\\ plant\\ has\\ raised\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ ethical\\ treatment\\ of\\ workers\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ animals\\ should\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ Kosher\\ certification\\.\\ The\\ \\Agriprocessors\\ Plant\\ in\\ Iowa\\<\\/strong\\>\\ created\\ immense\\ discussion\\ among\\ Jewish\\ leaders\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ ethical\\ applications\\ of\\ kosher\\ principles\\ should\\ be\\.\\ The\\ closure\\ of\\ the\\ plant\\ also\\ created\\ an\\ enormous\\ supply\\ problem\\ nationwide\\ for\\ kosher\\ meat\\ products\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Food\\ of\\ the\\ Day\\ is\\ \\King\\ Cake\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ The\\ colorful\\ cake\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ Epiphany\\ and\\ contains\\ a\\ small\\ figure\\ of\\ a\\ baby\\.\\ Whoever\\ gets\\ the\\ figure\\ is\\ honored\\ and\\ obligated\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ next\\ cake\\.\\ From\\ January\\ 6\\ to\\ Mardi\\ Gras\\ is\\ a\\ period\\ known\\ as\\ \\Carnival\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ includes\\ many\\ food\\ rituals\\ particular\\ to\\ this\\ period\\.\\ Olney\\ Pancakes\\ are\\ made\\ on\\ Shrove\\ Tuesday\\,\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ pre\\-Lent\\ period\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ \\Mardi\\ Gras\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ In\\ Protestant\\ practices\\,\\ pancakes\\ are\\ the\\ dish\\ of\\ the\\ absolutional\\ day\\.\\ Lent\\ is\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ ritual\\ fasting\\ for\\ 40\\ days\\ prior\\ to\\ Easter\\ and\\ begins\\ on\\ Ash\\ Wednesday\\,\\ after\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ Carnival\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Humoral\\ systems\\ of\\ thought\\<\\/strong\\>\\ make\\ fundamental\\ distinctions\\ about\\ human\\ health\\ and\\ physiology\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ balance\\ of\\ elements\\.\\ Elements\\ are\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ kept\\ in\\ balance\\,\\ in\\ the\\ human\\ body\\ among\\ other\\ places\\,\\ and\\ are\\ embodied\\ in\\ foods\\,\\ activities\\,\\ weather\\,\\ emotional\\ states\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ certain\\ societies\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ conceptual\\ distinction\\ between\\ food\\ and\\ medicine\\.\\ The\\\\ Mediterranean\\ system\\ \\<\\/strong\\>divides\\ foods\\ into\\ their\\ choleric\\,\\ melancholic\\,\\ phlegmatic\\,\\ and\\ sanguine\\ properties\\.\\ These\\ differences\\ are\\ ascribed\\ to\\ seasons\\,\\ foods\\,\\ and\\ temperatures\\/humidity\\ and\\ exist\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ human\\ fundamental\\ character\\.\\ In\\ humoral\\ systems\\,\\ what\\ you\\ eat\\ will\\ affect\\ your\\ health\\.\\ Illness\\ is\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ imbalances\\,\\ and\\ one\\ can\\ treat\\ the\\ body\\ through\\ diet\\.\\ Today\\,\\ followers\\ of\\ these\\ systems\\ have\\ difficulties\\ in\\ determining\\ the\\ humors\\ in\\ new\\ foodstuffs\\.\\ In\\ the\\\\\r\\\n\\East\\ Asian\\ cosmology\\ system\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ ying\\ and\\ yang\\.\\ All\\ elements\\ have\\ a\\ duality\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ ebb\\ and\\ flow\\ of\\ energy\\.\\ This\\ integrated\\ cosmological\\ system\\ still\\ survives\\ today\\.\\ In\\ South\\ Asia\\,\\ \\Ayurvedic\\ medicine\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>operates\\ on\\ six\\ primary\\ tastes\\ \\-\\-\\ sweet\\,\\ sour\\,\\ salty\\,\\ bitter\\,\\ pungent\\,\\ and\\ astringent\\ \\-\\-\\ which\\ lead\\ to\\ certain\\ doshas\\,\\ classifications\\ of\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ mind\\ and\\ body\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Food and Religion, Part II"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.895935+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Food Production and Trade", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 667, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ class\\<\\/em\\>\\\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ discussed\\ the\\ different\\ methods\\ of\\ food\\ production\\ and\\ cultural\\ diffusion\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Origins\\ of\\ agriculture\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ earliest\\ evidence\\ of\\ agriculture\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ ancient\\ Middle\\ East\\,\\ \\;\\ in\\ roughly\\ 10\\,000\\ BCE\\.\\ Agriculture\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ \\domestication\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ bringing\\ a\\ wild\\ species\\ into\\ a\\ bio\\-genetic\\ management\\ regime\\ in\\ which\\ humans\\ determine\\ breeding\\ patterns\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ cost\\/benefit\\ ratios\\ for\\ humans\\ of\\ raising\\/sustaining\\/preserving\\ a\\ species\\ that\\ humans\\ can\\ eat\\.\\ Agriculture\\ essentially\\ offers\\ a\\ method\\ for\\ exploiting\\ the\\ environment\\ by\\ modifying\\ other\\ species\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ maximum\\ benefit\\ to\\ humans\\.\\ \\Types\\ of\\ food\\ production\\<\\/strong\\>\\ include\\ \\hunting\\ and\\ gathering\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ \\slash\\ and\\ burn\\ agriculture\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\sedentary\\ agriculture\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Sedentary\\ agriculture\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ permanent\\ settlements\\,\\ and\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ system\\.\\ This\\ form\\ of\\ agriculture\\ is\\ acommpanied\\ by\\ the\\ accumulation\\ of\\ surplus\\ value\\,\\ and\\ has\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ early\\ cities\\ and\\ civilizations\\.\\ These\\ civilizations\\ were\\ \\hydraulic\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ they\\ had\\ access\\ to\\ a\\ dependable\\ water\\ source\\ and\\ were\\ located\\ in\\ major\\ river\\ systems\\.\\ These\\ protoscientific\\ water\\ structures\\ require\\ a\\ state\\ apparatus\\.\\ Other\\ forms\\ of\\ food\\ production\\ include\\ \\nomadic\\ pastoralism\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ \\peasant\\ production\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ of\\ the\\ mechanisms\\ by\\ which\\ methods\\ of\\ food\\ production\\ are\\ spread\\ is\\ \\cultural\\ diffusion\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Cultural\\ diffusion\\ answers\\ the\\ question\\:\\ once\\ human\\ populations\\ were\\ established\\ throughout\\ the\\ globe\\,\\ how\\ did\\ they\\ influence\\ each\\ other\\?\\ It\\ involves\\ theories\\ not\\ only\\ about\\ migration\\,\\ but\\ also\\ trade\\ and\\ influence\\.\\ Cultural\\ diffusion\\ postulates\\ that\\ societies\\ both\\ independently\\ innovate\\ and\\ share\\ their\\ inventions\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ two\\ different\\ possible\\ mechanisms\\ \\-\\-\\ a\\ massive\\ diffusion\\ from\\ a\\ single\\ source\\ or\\ stimulus\\ diffusion\\ \\(an\\ idea\\ sparks\\ a\\ new\\ innovation\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ location\\)\\.\\ These\\ mechanisms\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ local\\ adaptations\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ rice\\ agriculture\\ in\\ North\\ America\\ is\\ a\\ direct\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ \\Silk\\ Road\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ networks\\ of\\ trade\\ routes\\ that\\ cross\\ Asia\\,\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ avenue\\ for\\ diffusion\\ throughout\\ the\\ Euro\\-Asian\\ land\\ mass\\ from\\ approximately\\ 300\\ BC\\ to\\ 1492\\.\\ The\\ Silk\\ Road\\ trafficked\\ in\\ silk\\ and\\ other\\ lightweight\\,\\ high\\ value\\ products\\,\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ domesticated\\ animals\\,\\ seeds\\,\\ and\\ technologies\\.\\ It\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ diffusion\\ of\\ knowledge\\ and\\ religion\\ among\\ the\\ many\\ cultures\\ the\\ trade\\ routes\\ crossed\\ through\\.\\ Trade\\ between\\ cities\\ along\\ the\\ route\\ was\\ more\\ typical\\ than\\ trade\\ along\\ the\\ entire\\ route\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\'s\\ most\\ famous\\ travelers\\,\\ Marco\\ Polo\\,\\ a\\ trader\\ from\\ Venice\\,\\ visited\\ China\\ and\\ described\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\ and\\ its\\ system\\ of\\ transshipment\\ to\\ European\\ cities\\.\\ The\\ spice\\ trade\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ Venetian\\ economy\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ The\\ Silk\\ Road\\ lasted\\ for\\ 1500\\ years\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ trade\\ route\\,\\ and\\ is\\ now\\ recognized\\ for\\ its\\ link\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ European\\ sea\\ power\\ and\\ ability\\ to\\ explore\\ sea\\ routes\\ to\\ Asia\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Food Production and Trade"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.906008+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Eurasian Food Trade", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 668, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ continued\\ his\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\ and\\ its\\ effects\\ on\\ the\\ spice\\ trade\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ \\Silk\\ Road\\<\\/strong\\>\\ lasted\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ trade\\ route\\ for\\ at\\ least\\ 1500\\ years\\,\\ until\\ the\\ 16th\\ century\\.\\ Its\\ decline\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ sea\\ routes\\,\\ political\\ turmoil\\ among\\ Mongols\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Islam\\.\\ Concurrently\\,\\ the\\ spice\\ trade\\ also\\ expanded\\ to\\ Austronesian\\ trade\\ routes\\ to\\ Madagascar\\ and\\ on\\ to\\ Africa\\.\\ Scholars\\ assume\\ that\\ Madagascar\\ was\\ probably\\ established\\ by\\ groups\\ that\\ sailed\\ from\\ the\\ East\\ to\\ the\\ West\\.\\ African\\ caravan\\ trails\\ and\\ Chinese\\ trade\\ routes\\ throughout\\ southeast\\ Asia\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ spices\\ as\\ expensive\\,\\ mysterious\\,\\ and\\ remote\\.\\ Such\\ trade\\ was\\ dependent\\ on\\ relationships\\ with\\ Muslims\\ and\\ others\\ who\\ seemed\\ foreign\\ to\\ 16th\\ century\\ Europeans\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Spices\\,\\ such\\ as\\ black\\ pepper\\,\\ were\\ imported\\ from\\ the\\ Malabar\\ Coast\\ of\\ India\\ and\\ the\\ Maluku\\ Islands\\,\\ and\\ were\\ often\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ worth\\ their\\ weight\\ in\\ gold\\.\\ Europeans\\ could\\ often\\ pay\\ their\\ rent\\ or\\ land\\ contracts\\ in\\ peppercorns\\.\\ England\\ saw\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ Guild\\ of\\ Pepperers\\,\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ pepper\\ merchants\\ who\\ established\\ trade\\ systems\\ and\\ pricing\\ for\\ the\\ spice\\.\\ Some\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ Pepperers\\ Guild\\ splintered\\ off\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ company\\ of\\ grocers\\ \\(wholesale\\ traders\\)\\.\\ The\\ Grocers\\ were\\ responsible\\ for\\ establishing\\ food\\ purity\\ and\\ maintaining\\ the\\ official\\ weights\\ and\\ measures\\ for\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ London\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Other\\ imported\\ spices\\ included\\ cinnamon\\,\\ produced\\ from\\ the\\ bark\\ of\\ Ceylon\\'s\\ evergreen\\ trees\\,\\ and\\ nutmeg\\ and\\ mace\\,\\ both\\ native\\ to\\ Banda\\.\\ European\\ spices\\ were\\ mostly\\ mildly\\ flavored\\,\\ like\\ oregano\\ and\\ basil\\,\\ and\\ were\\ used\\ both\\ as\\ flavorings\\ and\\ medicine\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Maluku\\ Islands\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Spice\\ Islands\\,\\ were\\ subject\\ to\\ many\\ different\\ variations\\ of\\ European\\ rule\\.\\ Various\\ European\\ powers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ including\\ Portuguese\\,\\ Dutch\\,\\ Spanish\\,\\ and\\ British\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\;\\ were\\ involved\\ in\\ efforts\\ to\\ find\\ and\\ control\\ the\\ islands\\ in\\ the\\ 15th\\ and\\ 16th\\ centuries\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ \\rise\\ of\\ Western\\ trade\\<\\/strong\\>\\ saw\\ competition\\ with\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ and\\ North\\ African\\ spice\\ traders\\,\\ particularly\\ after\\ the\\ fall\\ of\\ Constantinople\\ to\\ the\\ Ottomans\\ in\\ 1453\\ and\\ the\\ Christian\\ reconquest\\ of\\ Iberia\\,\\ 1492\\.\\ The\\ main\\ impetus\\ for\\ Western\\ exploration\\ into\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ was\\ to\\ find\\ routes\\ not\\ dependent\\ on\\ Islamic\\ societies\\.\\ \\Henry\\ the\\ Navigator\\<\\/strong\\>\\ lived\\ from\\ 1394\\-1460\\ in\\ Portugal\\ and\\ launched\\ series\\ of\\ voyages\\ down\\ the\\ Western\\ coast\\ of\\ Africa\\.\\ He\\ returned\\ with\\ gold\\,\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ spices\\.\\ His\\ voyages\\ would\\ later\\ be\\ expanded\\ by\\ Bartolomeu\\ Dias\\'s\\ expedition\\ around\\ the\\ Cape\\ of\\ Good\\ Hope\\.\\ European\\ trade\\ also\\ ventured\\ into\\ the\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\.\\ Coincidentally\\,\\ Portuguese\\ got\\ to\\ the\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\ only\\ shortly\\ after\\ the\\ Chinese\\ had\\ ceased\\ their\\ own\\ fleets\\ of\\ exploration\\ on\\ the\\ Eastern\\ coast\\ of\\ Africa\\.\\ The\\ Portuguese\\ established\\ Goa\\,\\ India\\ as\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ their\\ Asian\\ trade\\,\\ and\\ saw\\ massive\\ profits\\ from\\ spice\\ trade\\.\\ While\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ focused\\ on\\ Africa\\ and\\ Asia\\,\\ the\\ Spanish\\ went\\ West\\ to\\ the\\ New\\ World\\,\\ a\\ subject\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ lecture\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Eurasian Food Trade"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.915642+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Food Interactions and Diffusions", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 669, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ class\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\lectured\\ on\\ the\\ food\\ interactions\\ between\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ and\\ Japanese\\ and\\ how\\ these\\ interactions\\ helped\\ shape\\ the\\ food\\ cultures\\ of\\ each\\ country\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ main\\ difference\\ between\\ \\herbs\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ spices\\ in\\ a\\ cultural\\ sense\\ is\\ that\\ herbs\\ have\\ botanical\\ definitions\\,\\ while\\ spices\\ have\\ social\\ definitions\\.\\ \\Food\\ classification\\<\\/strong\\>\\ has\\ a\\ cultural\\ nature\\;\\ the\\ divisions\\ between\\ groups\\ of\\ food\\ are\\ set\\ by\\ the\\ society\\ itself\\ more\\ than\\ nature\\.\\ Spices\\ indigenous\\ to\\ the\\ European\\ continent\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ less\\ flavorful\\ or\\ strong\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ fennel\\,\\ thyme\\,\\ saffron\\,\\ oregano\\,\\ and\\ lavender\\ all\\ have\\ more\\ mellow\\ flavors\\ than\\ black\\ pepper\\,\\ cinnamon\\,\\ or\\ capsicum\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Portuguese\\-Japanese\\ food\\ interactions\\<\\/strong\\>\\ can\\ be\\ exemplified\\ by\\ the\\ cultural\\ diffusion\\ of\\ Piri\\-piri\\.\\ Piri\\-piri\\,\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ term\\ for\\ a\\ capsicum\\,\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ Swahili\\ term\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ variety\\ of\\ capsicum\\ in\\ East\\ Africa\\,\\ and\\ is\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ a\\ word\\ in\\ Japanese\\ meaning\\ \\"\\;spicy\\ flavor\\"\\;\\.\\ Here\\,\\ thanks\\ to\\ linguistic\\ diffusion\\,\\ we\\ can\\ trace\\ how\\ the\\ crop\\ traveled\\ from\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ to\\ East\\ Africa\\ and\\ Japan\\.\\ In\\ the\\ late\\ 15th\\ century\\,\\ Colombus\\ brought\\ capsicum\\ from\\ South\\ America\\ to\\ Spain\\,\\ and\\ it\\ proliferated\\ throughout\\ Iberia\\,\\ attracting\\ the\\ Portuguese\\ through\\ its\\ spiciness\\.\\ The\\ Portuguese\\ took\\ their\\ new\\ favorite\\ flavor\\ to\\ East\\ Africa\\,\\ where\\ it\\ gained\\ the\\ name\\ piri\\-piri\\.\\ The\\ Portuguese\\ were\\ also\\ the\\ first\\ Westerners\\ to\\ travel\\ to\\ and\\ trade\\ with\\ Japan\\,\\ and\\ brought\\ their\\ beloved\\ pepper\\ with\\ them\\.\\ Other\\ Japanese\\ words\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;tempura\\"\\;\\,\\ can\\ find\\ their\\ roots\\ in\\ Portuguese\\ and\\ Dutch\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ \\the\\ Columbian\\ Exchange\\<\\/strong\\>\\ symbolized\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ massive\\ trans\\-Atlantic\\ transfers\\ of\\ plants\\,\\ animals\\,\\ diseases\\ and\\ peoples\\.\\ It\\ marks\\ the\\ most\\ significant\\ ecological\\ transformation\\ in\\ recorded\\ history\\ as\\ an\\ introduction\\ of\\ one\\ hemisphere\\ to\\ another\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Fun\\ fact\\:\\ \\"\\;Butter\\ stinker\\"\\;\\ is\\ a\\ derogatory\\ term\\ for\\ Westerners\\ in\\ Japan\\,\\ dating\\ back\\ to\\ when\\ foreigners\\ consumed\\ dairy\\ products\\ and\\ Japanese\\ people\\ did\\ not\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Food Interactions and Diffusions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.925577+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Guest Lecture on Thai Spices", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 670, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ guest\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Michael\\ Herzfeld\\ explored\\ the\\ mutual\\ contradictions\\ and\\ elaborate\\ gastronomic\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ Thai\\ cuisine\\,\\ with\\ a\\ particular\\ emphasis\\ on\\ spices\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Thai\\ culture\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ dictated\\ by\\ its\\ monarchy\\ and\\ aristocracy\\.\\ Both\\ its\\ language\\ and\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ complex\\ pronouns\\ and\\ registers\\.\\ \\Pad\\ Thai\\\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>is\\ widely\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ national\\ dish\\ and\\ is\\ certainly\\ the\\ dish\\ most\\ familiar\\ to\\ non\\-Thais\\.\\ However\\,\\ it\\ actually\\ draws\\ its\\ culinary\\ influence\\ from\\ China\\,\\ where\\ many\\ Thais\\ also\\ trace\\ their\\ ancestry\\,\\ explaining\\ its\\ relatively\\ mild\\ flavor\\ in\\ comparison\\ to\\ much\\ of\\ Thai\\ cuisine\\.\\ Professor\\ Herzfeld\\ argues\\ that\\ \\Pad\\ Khee\\ Mao\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(drunken\\ noodles\\)\\,\\ a\\ very\\ spicy\\ dish\\,\\ is\\ more\\ \\"\\;Thai\\"\\;\\.\\ It\\ epitomizes\\ Thai\\ cuisine\\ in\\ its\\ use\\ of\\ basil\\,\\ fish\\ sauce\\,\\ and\\ coriander\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ Thai\\ equivalent\\,\\ in\\ both\\ speed\\ and\\ expense\\,\\ to\\ pasta\\ puttanesca\\.\\ The\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ dish\\ literally\\ translates\\ to\\ \\"\\;noodles\\ of\\ the\\ shit\\-drunk\\ man\\"\\;\\.\\ Contrary\\ to\\ Western\\ stereotypes\\,\\ Thais\\ only\\ use\\ chopsticks\\ for\\ noodle\\ dishes\\,\\ and\\ eat\\ other\\ dishes\\ with\\ forks\\ and\\ knives\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ glory\\ of\\ Thai\\ food\\ is\\ a\\ green\\ torpedo\\ pepper\\ called\\ the\\ \\"\\;rat\\ shit\\ pepper\\"\\;\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ hottest\\ pepper\\ in\\ creation\\ and\\ is\\ used\\ frequently\\ to\\ season\\ dishes\\ or\\ served\\ on\\ the\\ side\\.\\ The\\ spiciness\\ of\\ Thai\\ cuisine\\ is\\ considered\\ \\"\\;bad\\"\\;\\ Buddhism\\,\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ \\"\\;calm\\ the\\ passions\\"\\;\\ as\\ the\\ religion\\ dictates\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ instead\\ fueled\\ by\\ a\\ more\\ practical\\ reason\\.\\ Spiciness\\ disguises\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ ingredients\\,\\ and\\ is\\ particularly\\ prevalent\\ among\\ the\\ working\\ classes\\ in\\ Thailand\\.\\ Food\\ eaten\\ by\\ monks\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ revered\\ classes\\,\\ is\\ much\\ milder\\.\\ Professor\\ Herzfeld\\ also\\ noted\\ that\\ food\\ is\\ of\\ a\\ lower\\ economic\\ register\\ in\\ Thailand\\;\\ one\\ can\\ eat\\ very\\ well\\ for\\ very\\ little\\ money\\.\\ Food\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ democratic\\ practice\\;\\ commensality\\ is\\ very\\ evenly\\ distributed\\.\\ Dishes\\ are\\ not\\ served\\ in\\ separate\\ courses\\,\\ everything\\ arrives\\ together\\ and\\ all\\ guests\\ at\\ the\\ table\\ are\\ treated\\ equally\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Guest Lecture on Thai Spices"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:51.951461+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 671, "html": "\\February\\ 2\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Definition\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ understand\\ and\\ explain\\ how\\ the\\ though\\,\\ feeling\\,\\ and\\ behavior\\ of\\ individuals\\ are\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ actually\\,\\ imagined\\ or\\ implied\\ presence\\ of\\ others\\ \\(Gordon\\ W\\.\\ Allport\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ we\\ are\\ alone\\,\\ does\\ that\\ not\\ me\\ we\\ are\\ social\\ creatures\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ evolved\\ to\\ be\\ social\\ creatures\\,\\ how\\ biological\\ heritage\\ greatly\\ influences\\ us\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>This\\ definition\\ may\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ be\\ too\\ narrow\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Too\\ broad\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ this\\ definition\\ may\\ encompass\\ all\\ of\\ human\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ can\\ learn\\ things\\&hellip\\;\\ while\\ we\\ may\\ not\\ know\\ for\\ certain\\ we\\ can\\ do\\ better\\ than\\ just\\ guessing\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Definitions\\ tend\\ to\\ over\\ simplify\\&hellip\\;\\ clarity\\ results\\ from\\ end\\ knowledge\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Social\\ Behavior\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>School\\ of\\ fish\\ or\\ flock\\ of\\ birds\\ that\\ moves\\ in\\ a\\ coordinated\\ way\\,\\ moving\\ very\\ fast\\ but\\ never\\ seem\\ to\\ run\\ into\\ each\\ other\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ How\\ is\\ this\\ possible\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Would\\ it\\ be\\ possible\\ for\\ a\\ bunch\\ of\\ airplane\\ pilots\\ to\\ do\\ this\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Boids\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ simple\\ rules\\ can\\ generate\\ very\\ complex\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Separation\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ steer\\ to\\ avoid\\ crowding\\ local\\ others\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Alignment\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ steer\\ towards\\ the\\ average\\ heading\\ of\\ local\\ others\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Cohesion\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ steer\\ to\\ move\\ toward\\ the\\ average\\ position\\ of\\ local\\ other\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ organization\\ comes\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ individuals\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Can\\ get\\ them\\ to\\ behave\\ intelligently\\ as\\ a\\ group\\ without\\ knowing\\ very\\ much\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ intelligence\\ emerges\\ from\\ the\\ dynamics\\ of\\ the\\ individuals\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Baby\\ Names\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ too\\ boring\\,\\ not\\ too\\ \\&ldquo\\;out\\ there\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ leads\\ to\\ cycles\\ across\\ generations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Max\\,\\ Rose\\,\\ Jake\\,\\ Sophie\\,\\ Same\\,\\ Sadie\\:\\ Nursing\\ Home\\?\\ Or\\ Day\\ Care\\ Center\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ not\\ aware\\ that\\ names\\ come\\ back\\ in\\ cycles\\,\\ it\\ just\\ feels\\ right\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Similar\\ ideas\\ of\\ Alignment\\ and\\ Cohesion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Applies\\ also\\ to\\ product\\ names\\,\\ company\\ names\\,\\ fashion\\ and\\ taste\\ in\\ general\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Power\\ of\\ Situations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Someone\\ is\\ rude\\ to\\ you\\&hellip\\;\\ why\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Person\\ Explanations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ favor\\ these\\ explanation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ person\\ is\\ a\\ mean\\ person\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ person\\ is\\ racist\\/sexist\\/elitist\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ person\\ is\\ competitive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Situation\\ Explanations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ person\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ hurry\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ person\\ misheard\\ something\\ you\\ said\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ remind\\ this\\ person\\ of\\ someone\\ who\\ once\\ hurt\\ him\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Solomon\\ Asch\\ experiment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pick\\ which\\ line\\ is\\ the\\ shortest\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ in\\ a\\ room\\ sitting\\ around\\ the\\ table\\,\\ one\\ guy\\ is\\ non\\-confederate\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ confederates\\ all\\ say\\ number\\ 2\\ \\(not\\ the\\ shortest\\ line\\)\\,\\ so\\ the\\ subject\\ in\\ the\\ experiment\\ is\\ therefore\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ say\\ what\\ the\\ confederates\\ say\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Results\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 40\\%\\ on\\ average\\ conformed\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ put\\ one\\ person\\ in\\ who\\ dissented\\,\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ conformity\\ drops\\ dramatically\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ tend\\ to\\ conform\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>What\\ the\\ person\\ sees\\ or\\ reports\\ seeing\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ context\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Kassin\\ \\&\\;\\ Kiechel\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participant\\ falsely\\ accused\\ of\\ damaging\\ lab\\ computer\\ by\\ pressing\\ ALT\\ key\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>But\\ the\\ program\\ was\\ rigged\\,\\ and\\ convinces\\ the\\ participant\\ that\\ they\\ pressed\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sometimes\\ another\\ confederate\\ would\\ witness\\ it\\ and\\ say\\ they\\ did\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Compliance\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;type\\ fast\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\+\\ \\&ldquo\\;witness\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ false\\ confession\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>100\\%\\ signed\\ the\\ confession\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ I\\ hit\\ the\\ ALT\\ key\\ and\\ caused\\ the\\ program\\ to\\ crash\\.\\ Data\\ were\\ lost\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>35\\%\\ of\\ people\\ signed\\ a\\ false\\ confession\\ when\\ were\\ typing\\ slow\\ and\\ no\\ witness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Internalization\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ someone\\ outside\\ asks\\ what\\ happened\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ how\\ they\\ answered\\,\\ they\\ may\\ indicate\\ to\\ what\\ level\\ they\\ believed\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Varies\\ by\\ situation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Over\\ half\\ said\\ they\\ believed\\ they\\ did\\ this\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ witness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ situational\\ pressure\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Confabulation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ will\\ people\\ make\\ up\\ bogus\\ details\\ about\\ the\\ crime\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Slow\\ condition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ quickly\\ and\\ someone\\ watching\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ made\\ things\\ up\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ ordianly\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ ask\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ another\\ person\\ there\\ when\\ judging\\ people\\ behavior\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ peoples\\ behavior\\ is\\ judged\\ by\\ situational\\ factors\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Automaticity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ do\\ things\\ innate\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ why\\ we\\ do\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ unconscious\\ priming\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experiment\\&hellip\\;\\ The\\ automaticity\\ of\\ social\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participants\\ unscramble\\ sets\\ of\\ 5\\ words\\ into\\ 4\\ sword\\ sentences\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>E\\.g\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;hides\\ he\\ finds\\ instantly\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Some\\ het\\ sentences\\ priming\\ old\\-age\\ stereotype\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>E\\.g\\.\\ Florida\\,\\ old\\,\\ gray\\,\\ forgetful\\,\\ retired\\,\\ wrinkled\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Participants\\ are\\ then\\ timed\\ when\\ they\\ walk\\ from\\ the\\ computer\\ to\\ the\\ door\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Those\\ with\\ elderly\\ primes\\ took\\ a\\ second\\ longer\\ to\\ walk\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experiment\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ primed\\ with\\ rudeness\\ words\\ are\\ quicker\\ to\\ interrupt\\ conversation\\ that\\ those\\ who\\ has\\ neutral\\ condition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experiment\\&hellip\\;\\ Football\\ hooligans\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Depending\\ how\\ long\\ they\\ thought\\ about\\ hooligans\\ before\\ answering\\ effected\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ trivial\\ pursuit\\ questions\\ they\\ got\\ right\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ does\\ this\\ work\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Care\\ for\\ some\\ fudge\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ poo\\ fudge\\&hellip\\;why\\ reluctant\\ to\\ eat\\ it\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Spit\\&hellip\\;why\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ eat\\ it\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ trained\\ to\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ eat\\ certain\\ things\\ \\;\\ \\=\\ automatic\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cognitively\\ impenetrable\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ have\\ something\\ that\\ undermines\\ the\\ automatic\\ message\\,\\ still\\ cant\\ make\\ that\\ message\\ g\\ away\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cant\\ make\\ drinking\\ spit\\ ungross\\,\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ is\\ logical\\ arguments\\ to\\ say\\ its\\ not\\ gross\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tension\\:\\ automatic\\ \\+\\ controlled\\ processes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ experimental\\ control\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experiment\\&hellip\\;\\ Care\\ for\\ a\\ game\\ of\\ darts\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Osama\\ bin\\ Ladin\\ vs\\.\\ Jessica\\ Alba\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Absence\\ of\\ Insight\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ can\\ do\\ things\\ and\\ not\\ know\\ why\\ or\\ how\\ we\\ did\\ it\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ also\\ make\\ up\\ stories\\ that\\ we\\ believe\\ explaining\\ why\\ we\\ did\\ something\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experiment\\&hellip\\;\\ NRF\\ Maier\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ ropes\\ hanging\\ from\\ a\\ ceiling\\,\\ have\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ tie\\ the\\ ropes\\ together\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Weight\\ the\\ ropes\\ so\\ that\\ one\\ swings\\ close\\ to\\ you\\ can\\ catch\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ kind\\ of\\ thinking\\ allows\\ people\\ to\\ solve\\ this\\ problem\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>While\\ explaining\\ problem\\,\\ if\\ he\\ gave\\ people\\ subtle\\ clues\\ like\\ swinging\\ rope\\ or\\ twirling\\ rock\\ on\\ string\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rock\\ on\\ string\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ better\\ helping\\ to\\ solve\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Swinging\\ rope\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ much\\ better\\ at\\ helping\\ people\\ solve\\,\\ but\\ they\\ never\\ said\\ that\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ helped\\ them\\ complete\\ the\\ task\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experiment\\&hellip\\;\\ people\\ like\\ alliteration\\ \\(Susie\\ sells\\ seashells\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Birth\\ and\\ death\\ records\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ live\\ in\\ places\\ that\\ start\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ letter\\ as\\ their\\ name\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ Jacks\\ in\\ Jacksonville\\ than\\ what\\ statistics\\ would\\ suggest\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Also\\ works\\ with\\ birthdays\\,\\ occupations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>February\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ in\\ Two\\ Harbors\\ Michigan\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dennis\\ as\\ a\\ dentist\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ Elephant\\ and\\ the\\ Rider\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ human\\ mind\\ is\\ like\\ an\\ elephant\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ bulk\\ of\\ our\\ minds\\ just\\ does\\ what\\ it\\ does\\ on\\ its\\ own\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ conscious\\ mind\\ is\\ the\\ rider\\,\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ small\\ part\\ of\\ who\\ you\\ are\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Most\\ of\\ what\\ goes\\ on\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ unconscious\\ basement\\ of\\ your\\ mind\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ only\\ sometimes\\ wake\\ up\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ conscious\\ effort\\ to\\ control\\ our\\ mind\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scientific\\ Analysis\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Unconscious\\ process\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ important\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ lot\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ do\\ is\\ unconscious\\ to\\ we\\ can\\ just\\ introsoect\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ aware\\ of\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Causal\\ inferences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ do\\ make\\ these\\ we\\ need\\ a\\ controlled\\ experiment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ we\\ determine\\ that\\ the\\ manipulation\\ has\\ an\\ effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Because\\ they\\ were\\ primed\\ with\\ elderly\\ words\\,\\ they\\ walked\\ slower\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Situation\\ manipulation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ do\\ if\\ effected\\ by\\ the\\ situation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Experimentation\\ vs\\.\\ Correlation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ experiments\\ give\\ us\\ control\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ we\\ look\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ we\\ can\\ make\\ inferences\\ about\\ what\\ happens\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ the\\ lab\\ causal\\ inferences\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ correlation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ pursuit\\ of\\ the\\ Counterintuitive\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Science\\ vs\\.\\ Intuition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Science\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;common\\ sense\\/intuition\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ way\\ to\\ learn\\ is\\ through\\ experiments\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ carry\\ around\\ preprogrammed\\ theories\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ head\\ \\(common\\ sense\\)\\ so\\ social\\ psychology\\ needs\\ to\\ tell\\ us\\ what\\ is\\ counter\\-intuitive\\,\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ jump\\ over\\ the\\ hurdle\\ of\\ what\\ our\\ common\\ sense\\ would\\ have\\ us\\ believe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ are\\ things\\ surprising\\ or\\ weird\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Setting\\ up\\ your\\ friend\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Should\\ you\\ look\\ for\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\.\\ like\\ your\\ friend\\ in\\ everyway\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>B\\.\\ very\\ similar\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>C\\.\\ very\\ different\\ but\\ something\\ in\\ common\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>D\\.\\ different\\ in\\ every\\ way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;birds\\ of\\ a\\ feather\\ flock\\ together\\&rdquo\\;\\ vs\\.\\ opposites\\ attract\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ have\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ seeing\\ things\\ that\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ certain\\ bias\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Dan\\ Gilbert\\&rsquo\\;s\\ quoter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Oscar\\ Wilde\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;yet\\ each\\ man\\ kills\\ the\\ thing\\ he\\ loves\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sounds\\ legit\\,\\ but\\ really\\ have\\ killed\\ anything\\ you\\ love\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.172197+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading Notes: David King. \"Turf Wars\"", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 681, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Parliamentarians\\ as\\ Institutional\\ Guardians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1767384177\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1994005070\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Parliamentarian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legitimacy\\ comes\\ from\\ placing\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ Congress\\ above\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ party\\.\\ The\\ parliamentarian\\ is\\ assigned\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ solving\\ institutional\\ and\\ jurisdictional\\ disputes\\,\\ and\\ is\\ effectively\\ a\\ safeguard\\.\\ The\\ Congress\\ cannot\\ handle\\ these\\ types\\ of\\ issues\\,\\ so\\ they\\ hire\\ a\\ nonpartisan\\ person\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ for\\ them\\.\\ Parliamentarian\\ is\\ surprisingly\\ stable\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Parliamentarians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ They\\ must\\ be\\ attorneys\\ licensed\\ in\\ the\\ US\\,\\ although\\ apart\\ from\\ that\\ experience\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ prerequisite\\.\\ Currently\\,\\ there\\ is\\ one\\ head\\ parliamentarian\\ \\(Charles\\ Johnson\\)\\,\\ two\\ deputy\\ parliamentarians\\ and\\ two\\ assistant\\ parliamentarians\\.\\ The\\ structure\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ family\\ business\\.\\ They\\ think\\ of\\ themselves\\ as\\ guardians\\,\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ constituency\\ of\\ one\\.\\.\\.\\ the\\ House\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(81\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Some\\ political\\ scientists\\ see\\ parliamentarians\\ as\\ tools\\ of\\ the\\ Speaker\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ an\\ accurate\\ viewpoint\\.\\ But\\ legislators\\ and\\ staffers\\ all\\ seem\\ to\\ agree\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ really\\ \\&ldquo\\;above\\ politics\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Parliamentarians\\ do\\ not\\ often\\ see\\ the\\ spotlight\\,\\ nor\\ do\\ they\\ seek\\ it\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ well\\-known\\ personalities\\ within\\ the\\ House\\,\\ and\\ often\\ fixtures\\ for\\ decades\\.\\ The\\ decision\\ rule\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;weight\\ of\\ the\\ bill\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ rewards\\ jurisdictionally\\ proximate\\ committees\\ because\\ that\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ expertise\\ is\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\A\\ History\\ of\\ Bill\\ Referrals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\\\:\\ \\(See\\ overview\\ table\\,\\ page\\ 87\\.\\)\\ Bills\\ are\\ officially\\ referred\\ by\\ the\\ Speaker\\,\\ but\\ in\\ practice\\ the\\ Speaker\\ relies\\ on\\ the\\ Parliamentarian\\ to\\ keep\\ everything\\ in\\ order\\.\\ Only\\ Members\\ can\\ introduce\\ a\\ bill\\,\\ and\\ once\\ the\\ bill\\ is\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;hopper\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ box\\ at\\ the\\ front\\)\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ assigned\\ to\\ a\\ committee\\ within\\ the\\ day\\.\\ The\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ bill\\ sent\\ to\\ a\\ different\\ committee\\ is\\ by\\ unanimous\\ consent\\ of\\ the\\ House\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\1789\\-1815\\:\\ Institutionalization\\ of\\ Committees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ first\\ Congresses\\ did\\ not\\ use\\ committees\\,\\ as\\ they\\ mistrusted\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ small\\ groups\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ policy\\ was\\ backlogged\\ and\\ long\\-winded\\ debates\\ occurred\\ in\\ the\\ Committee\\ of\\ the\\ Whole\\ \\(the\\ entire\\ House\\)\\.\\ Ad\\ hoc\\ committees\\ began\\ to\\ form\\ in\\ 1793\\,\\ and\\ committees\\ with\\ real\\ \\(if\\ fleeting\\)\\ power\\ over\\ bills\\ came\\ along\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1800s\\.\\ Speaker\\ Henry\\ Clay\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ office\\ in\\ 1811\\,\\ encouraged\\ standing\\ committees\\ after\\ the\\ factioning\\ over\\ the\\ national\\ bank\\ charter\\.\\ By\\ 1816\\,\\ the\\ House\\ was\\ accustomed\\ to\\ standing\\ committees\\ with\\ some\\ autonomy\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\1816\\-1889\\:\\ Floor\\ Majority\\ Control\\ of\\ Jurisdictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\:\\ In\\ this\\ era\\,\\ there\\ were\\ both\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ bills\\.\\ Public\\ bills\\ dealt\\ with\\ public\\ policy\\ and\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ inspire\\ debate\\ about\\ jurisdiction\\ in\\ the\\ House\\.\\ Private\\ bills\\ were\\ about\\ things\\ like\\ pensions\\ and\\ land\\ grants\\ \\(which\\ would\\ normally\\ be\\ taken\\ up\\ today\\ by\\ a\\ bureaucracy\\)\\ and\\ accounted\\ for\\ 85\\%\\ of\\ the\\ legislation\\ after\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ Private\\ bills\\ were\\ handled\\ by\\ the\\ Clerk\\ \\(in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ Speaker\\)\\,\\ paving\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ his\\ power\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Public\\ bills\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;inchoate\\ laws\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ the\\ debate\\ about\\ jurisdiction\\ was\\ fierce\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Two\\ decades\\ before\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\,\\ slavery\\ so\\ divided\\ the\\ House\\ that\\ legislation\\ was\\ just\\ about\\ at\\ a\\ standstill\\.\\ It\\ was\\ difficult\\ for\\ the\\ majority\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ quorum\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\1890\\-1910\\:\\ Speaker\\ Control\\ of\\ Jurisdictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\:\\ In\\ 1890\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reed\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rules\\&rdquo\\;\\ finally\\ passed\\ \\(under\\ speaker\\ Thomas\\ Reed\\ R\\-ME\\)\\ which\\ gave\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ Speaker\\ in\\ deciding\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ This\\ made\\ the\\ Congress\\ much\\ more\\ efficient\\,\\ but\\ also\\ greatly\\ increased\\ the\\ Speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ Speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ word\\ was\\ final\\-\\ referrals\\ could\\ only\\ be\\ overturned\\ by\\ unanimous\\ consent\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Reed\\ essentially\\ wiped\\ the\\ slate\\ clean\\ of\\ precedents\\ and\\ began\\ setting\\ his\\ own\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ rebellion\\ against\\ Speaker\\ Cannon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rules\\ in\\ 1910\\ resulted\\ in\\ more\\ power\\ shifting\\ to\\ the\\ Committee\\ Chairs\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ greater\\ prominence\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;clerk\\ at\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ table\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(renamed\\ \\&ldquo\\;parliamentarian\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 1927\\)\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\1911\\-1974\\:\\ Parliamentarians\\ and\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Weight\\ of\\ the\\ Bill\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\:\\ From\\ 1911\\-1927\\,\\ the\\ clerk\\ at\\ the\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desk\\ became\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ partisan\\,\\ although\\ it\\ was\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ an\\ easy\\ or\\ quick\\ process\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ name\\ change\\ occurred\\ in\\ 1927\\ and\\ Deschler\\,\\ the\\ first\\ parliamentarian\\,\\ took\\ over\\ in\\ 1928\\.\\ The\\ parliamentarian\\ often\\ gives\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ advice\\ to\\ the\\ presiding\\ officer\\ \\(Speaker\\)\\ and\\ to\\ other\\ members\\ of\\ Congress\\-\\ sometimes\\ even\\ feeding\\ words\\ to\\ the\\ Speaker\\!\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Weight\\ of\\ the\\ Bill\\:\\ Basically\\,\\ a\\ bill\\ that\\ is\\ ambiguous\\ is\\ given\\ to\\ a\\ committee\\ with\\ the\\ closest\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ congressmen\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ write\\ bills\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ eventually\\ end\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ committee\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ exceptions\\:\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ any\\ provision\\ that\\ changes\\ a\\ rule\\ of\\ the\\ House\\,\\ it\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ Rules\\ Committee\\,\\ and\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ any\\ provision\\ for\\ a\\ tax\\,\\ it\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ Ways\\ and\\ Means\\ Committee\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Parliamentarians\\ meet\\ before\\ deciding\\ where\\ to\\ send\\ any\\ bill\\,\\ although\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ there\\ when\\ the\\ bill\\ is\\ placed\\ in\\ the\\ hopper\\.\\ Joint\\ referrals\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ little\\ more\\ confusing\\,\\ and\\ also\\ tend\\ to\\ limit\\ what\\ the\\ Ways\\ and\\ Means\\ Committee\\ receives\\ \\(only\\ parts\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ bill\\ rule\\ resulted\\ in\\ huge\\ amounts\\ of\\ seemingly\\ ridiculous\\ jurisdictional\\ overlap\\.\\ This\\ became\\ a\\ huge\\ problem\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ congressmen\\,\\ and\\ reforms\\ were\\ drafted\\,\\ although\\ it\\ took\\ a\\ while\\ \\(1975\\)\\ for\\ anything\\ to\\ get\\ done\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\1975\\-Present\\:\\ Referral\\ Strategies\\ and\\ Fragmentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ current\\ climate\\ makes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ bills\\ sent\\ to\\ multiple\\ committees\\.\\ While\\ it\\ would\\ at\\ first\\ seem\\ as\\ if\\ this\\ would\\ cause\\ confusion\\ and\\ increase\\ tension\\,\\ the\\ reality\\ is\\ that\\ each\\ committee\\ can\\ only\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ bill\\ within\\ its\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ they\\ all\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ autonomy\\.\\ If\\ they\\ went\\ into\\ another\\ committee\\&rsquo\\;s\\ territory\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ trouble\\ either\\ in\\ committee\\ or\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ something\\ legislators\\ are\\ eager\\ to\\ avoid\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Sequential\\ referrals\\ go\\ to\\ one\\ committee\\,\\ then\\ another\\ and\\ provide\\ the\\ greatest\\ opportunity\\ for\\ the\\ jurisdiction\\ game\\.\\ While\\ they\\ rarely\\ happen\\,\\ they\\ are\\ often\\ very\\ important\\ bills\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\If\\ and\\ when\\ the\\ parliamentarian\\ makes\\ a\\ mistake\\,\\ he\\ can\\ usually\\ correct\\ it\\,\\ or\\ the\\ congressmen\\ and\\ committees\\ will\\ correct\\ it\\ themselves\\ through\\ consultation\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Newt\\ Gingrich\\ and\\ the\\ Republicans\\ further\\ increased\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Speaker\\ by\\ adding\\ rules\\ that\\ give\\ the\\ Speaker\\ the\\ authority\\ to\\ set\\ time\\ limits\\ for\\ committees\\ and\\ bills\\,\\ allowing\\ the\\ Speaker\\ to\\ discharge\\ the\\ committee\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading Notes: David King. \"Turf Wars\""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.227882+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Study Questions", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 682, "html": "\\\\Study\\ Questions\\:\\ Midterm\\ Examination\\ LAA17\\\\\r\\\nSpring\\ 2009\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Choose\\ 3\\ variants\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ explain\\ how\\ each\\ version\\ reflects\\ a\\ different\\ historical\\ or\\ cultural\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ fairy\\ tales\\.\\ \\(MOLLY\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Source\\:\\ \\The\\ Classic\\ Fairy\\ Tales\\<\\/i\\>\\ edited\\ by\\ Maria\\ Tatar\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Oral\\ tale\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\\tStory\\ of\\ Grandmother\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(told\\ in\\ 1885\\)\\ \\(Tatar\\ 10\\-11\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Fairy\\ tales\\ used\\ \\\tto\\ have\\ their\\ roots\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;peasant\\ culture\\ relatively\\ \\\tuninhibited\\ in\\ its\\ expressive\\ energy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 3\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ were\\ told\\ \\\torally\\ by\\ peasant\\ laborers\\ and\\ workers\\ to\\ pass\\ the\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ were\\ \\\ttypically\\ \\&ldquo\\;fast\\-paced\\ narratives\\ with\\ heavy\\ doses\\ of\\ \\\tburlesque\\ comedy\\,\\ melodramatic\\ action\\,\\ scatological\\ humor\\,\\ and\\ \\\tfree\\-wheeling\\ violence\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 3\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ oral\\ tale\\ of\\ \\\t\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Story\\ of\\ Grandmother\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ collected\\ by\\ French\\ \\\tfolklorist\\ Paul\\ Delarue\\ in\\ 1885\\,\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ \\\tfairy\\ tale\\ in\\ this\\ oral\\ tradition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\This\\ version\\ of\\ \\\tthe\\ tale\\ reflects\\ the\\ ribaldry\\ and\\ coarseness\\ of\\ such\\ peasant\\ \\\tculture\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ girl\\ \\(who\\ is\\ \\\tnot\\ called\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ such\\ red\\ \\\triding\\ wear\\)\\ ends\\ up\\ drinking\\ the\\ blood\\ and\\ eating\\ the\\ flesh\\ of\\ \\\ther\\ grandmother\\ at\\ the\\ urging\\ of\\ the\\ wolf\\ \\(disguised\\ as\\ the\\ \\\tgrandmother\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ calls\\ her\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;slut\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\tfor\\ doing\\ so\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ girl\\ \\\tperforms\\ a\\ striptease\\ for\\ the\\ wolf\\ at\\ his\\ command\\,\\ throwing\\ her\\ \\\tclothes\\ into\\ the\\ fire\\ one\\ by\\ one\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\But\\ the\\ girl\\ is\\ \\\tdevious\\:\\ she\\ tricks\\ the\\ wolf\\ into\\ letting\\ her\\ go\\ by\\ saying\\ she\\ \\\tneeds\\ to\\ relieve\\ herself\\,\\ and\\ she\\ runs\\ away\\,\\ fooling\\ the\\ wolf\\ and\\ \\\tescaping\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Little\\ Red\\ \\\tRiding\\ Hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Charles\\ Perrault\\ \\(1697\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Perrault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tLRRH\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ this\\ peasant\\ tradition\\.\\ Perrault\\ more\\ \\\tor\\ less\\ cleaned\\ up\\ LRRH\\ for\\ French\\ society\\ in\\ his\\ time\\,\\ eliminating\\ \\\tvulgarities\\ and\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ mainstream\\ \\\tcitizens\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Gone\\ are\\ \\\tthe\\ references\\ to\\ bodily\\ functions\\,\\ the\\ racy\\ double\\ entendres\\,\\ and\\ \\\tthe\\ gaps\\ in\\ narrative\\ logic\\.\\ As\\ Delarue\\ points\\ out\\,\\ Perrault\\ \\\tremoved\\ those\\ elements\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ shocked\\ the\\ society\\ of\\ his\\ \\\tepoch\\ with\\ their\\ cruelty\\ \\(the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ devouring\\ of\\ the\\ \\\tgrandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flesh\\ and\\ blood\\)\\,\\ their\\ inanity\\ \\(the\\ choice\\ \\\tbetween\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ needles\\ and\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ pins\\)\\,\\ or\\ their\\ \\\t\\&lsquo\\;impropriety\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ about\\ her\\ \\\tgrandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hairy\\ body\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 4\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\LRRH\\ is\\ also\\ \\\tchanged\\ from\\ a\\ trickster\\ to\\ a\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ girl\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\And\\ Perrault\\ \\\timplicitly\\ and\\ explicitly\\ teaches\\ lessons\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ readers\\ \\\tthrough\\ his\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Analysis\\ of\\ the\\ \\\ttext\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\ \\(Tatar\\ 11\\-13\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Perrault\\ makes\\ \\\tLRRH\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prettiest\\ you\\ can\\ imagine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ adored\\ by\\ all\\,\\ \\\tplaying\\ up\\ her\\ idyllic\\ beauty\\ and\\ innocence\\ \\(11\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Gives\\ LRRH\\ her\\ \\\tname\\ and\\ trademark\\ red\\ riding\\ hood\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Inserts\\ implicit\\ \\\tlesson\\ as\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poor\\ child\\,\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ \\\tit\\ was\\ dangerous\\ to\\ stop\\ and\\ listen\\ to\\ wolves\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\LRRH\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\texclamations\\ are\\ lacking\\ the\\ improper\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ \\\tgrandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hairy\\ body\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Normative\\ words\\ \\\tare\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ wolf\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wicked\\ wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(13\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ explicit\\ \\\tmoral\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;From\\ this\\ story\\ one\\ learns\\ that\\ children\\&hellip\\;\\ \\\tare\\ wrong\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ just\\ anyone\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(13\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Little\\ \\\tGirl\\ and\\ the\\ Wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ James\\ Thurber\\ \\(1940\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Thurber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tstory\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ a\\ relatively\\ recent\\ version\\ of\\ LRRH\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Reflecting\\,\\ \\\tperhaps\\,\\ a\\ reaction\\ against\\ the\\ moralizing\\,\\ heavy\\-handed\\ \\\tnarratives\\ of\\ past\\ fairy\\ tales\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ riffs\\ on\\ the\\ \\\tridiculousness\\ of\\ the\\ premise\\ of\\ LRRH\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Even\\ in\\ a\\ \\\tnightcap\\ a\\ wolf\\ does\\ not\\ look\\ any\\ more\\ like\\ your\\ grandmother\\ than\\ \\\tthe\\ Metro\\-Goldwyn\\ lion\\ looks\\ like\\ Calvin\\ Coolidge\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ parodies\\ \\\tPerrault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moralistic\\ tone\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\With\\ the\\ \\\texplicit\\ moral\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ fool\\ little\\ \\\tgirls\\ nowadays\\ as\\ it\\ used\\ to\\ be\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\And\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ \\\tit\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ ribaldry\\ of\\ the\\ peasant\\ tale\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ turns\\ the\\ \\\tlittle\\ girl\\ \\(who\\,\\ interestingly\\,\\ like\\ the\\ oral\\ tale\\ is\\ not\\ called\\ \\\tLRRH\\)\\ back\\ into\\ a\\ trickster\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\\tviolent\\ one\\ at\\ that\\&mdash\\;she\\ \\&ldquo\\;took\\ an\\ automatic\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ \\\tbasket\\ and\\ shot\\ the\\ wolf\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\With\\ its\\ \\\tirreverent\\ violence\\,\\ Thurber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tale\\ is\\ almost\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ \\\tthe\\ vulgar\\ and\\ entertaining\\ peasant\\ tale\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ \\\tmoralizing\\ and\\ patronizing\\ Perraultian\\ version\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Analyze\\ the\\ passage\\ below\\ from\\ Andersen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ The\\ Red\\ Shoes\\ and\\ connect\\ one\\ aspect\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ one\\ other\\ work\\ read\\ this\\ term\\ \\(primary\\ or\\ secondary\\ literature\\)\\.\\ \\(PENELOPE\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ dance\\,\\ dance\\ in\\ your\\ red\\ shoes\\ until\\ you\\ become\\ red\\ and\\ thin\\.\\ \\;\\ Dance\\ till\\ the\\ skin\\ on\\ your\\ face\\ turns\\ yellow\\ and\\ clings\\ to\\ your\\ bones\\ as\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ a\\ skeleton\\.\\ \\;\\ Dance\\ you\\ shall\\ from\\ door\\ to\\ door\\,\\ and\\ when\\ you\\ pass\\ a\\ house\\ where\\ proud\\ and\\ vain\\ people\\ live\\,\\ there\\ you\\ shall\\ knock\\ on\\ the\\ door\\ so\\ they\\ will\\ see\\ you\\ and\\ fear\\ your\\ fate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Discuss\\ how\\ Elaine\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ on\\ vivacity\\ might\\ help\\ explain\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ us\\ mentally\\ when\\ we\\ read\\ the\\ passage\\ below\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ description\\,\\ on\\ a\\ second\\ reading\\,\\ once\\ we\\ are\\ aware\\ that\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ affiliated\\ with\\ evil\\?\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&ldquo\\;A\\ few\\ snowflakes\\ were\\ still\\ falling\\ outside\\,\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ them\\&mdash\\;the\\ largest\\ of\\ all\\&mdash\\;landed\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ flowerboxes\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ snowflake\\ grew\\ and\\ grew\\ until\\ suddenly\\ it\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ woman\\ wearing\\ a\\ dress\\ made\\ of\\ white\\ gossamer\\ so\\ fine\\ and\\ sheer\\ that\\ it\\ looked\\ like\\ millions\\ of\\ sparkling\\ snowflakes\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\ was\\ both\\ beautiful\\ and\\ elegant\\ but\\ made\\ of\\ ice\\,\\ dazzling\\,\\ sparkling\\ ice\\.\\ \\;\\ And\\ yet\\ she\\ was\\ alive\\.\\ \\;\\ Her\\ eyes\\ glittered\\ like\\ two\\ bright\\ stars\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ nothing\\ peaceful\\ or\\ calm\\ about\\ them\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\ nodded\\ toward\\ the\\ window\\ and\\ beckoned\\ with\\ her\\ hand\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\(MOLLY\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ passage\\ from\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ ties\\ into\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notions\\ of\\ the\\ instructional\\ character\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ and\\ specifically\\ narratives\\.\\ \\ Scarry\\ asserts\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ verbal\\ arts\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ vivacity\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ world\\,\\ they\\ must\\ somehow\\ imitate\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ real\\ life\\ perceptions\\(this\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;givenness\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\ While\\ daydreaming\\ takes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ volition\\ on\\ our\\ part\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ details\\ clearly\\ and\\ create\\ realistic\\ imagined\\ perceptions\\,\\ good\\ narratives\\ take\\ the\\ reigns\\ and\\ provide\\ instructions\\ for\\ us\\ that\\ imitate\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ real\\ perceptions\\.\\ Page\\ 21\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ gives\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ this\\.\\ The\\ author\\ writes\\ the\\ narrative\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ almost\\ insert\\ little\\ directions\\ into\\ it\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ writing\\ naturally\\ directs\\ your\\ attention\\ to\\ different\\ things\\.\\ \\ This\\ all\\ makes\\ us\\ feel\\ as\\ if\\ we\\ \\receive\\ \\<\\/i\\>objects\\,\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ there\\ for\\ the\\ taking\\.\\ To\\ create\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ kinetic\\ occlusion\\ is\\ also\\ used\\ by\\ authors\\ as\\ this\\ can\\ create\\ sense\\ of\\ solidity\\(which\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ real\\ by\\ reading\\ audiences\\)\\.\\ Kinetic\\ occlusion\\ is\\ achieved\\ when\\ one\\ object\\ moves\\ past\\ another\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ momentary\\ obstruction\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ solidity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ reading\\ this\\ passage\\ from\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ instructional\\ nature\\ of\\ narratives\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ quite\\ clearly\\.\\ \\ Readers\\ are\\ brought\\ from\\ one\\ image\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ quite\\ easily\\,\\ eventually\\ focusing\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\ Instructions\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ sprinkled\\ throughout\\ this\\ short\\ passage\\,\\ directing\\ the\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ picture\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ of\\ snow\\ falling\\,\\ to\\ focusing\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ snow\\ flake\\ falling\\ on\\ a\\ flower\\ box\\,\\ to\\ watching\\ it\\ grow\\ larger\\ and\\ larger\\,\\ to\\ observing\\ the\\ woman\\ and\\ her\\ fine\\ dress\\,\\ to\\ seeing\\ her\\ bright\\ eyes\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ to\\ her\\ whole\\ body\\,\\ beckoning\\ Kay\\.\\ The\\ reader\\ gets\\ a\\ pretty\\ clear\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ through\\ the\\ directions\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ narrative\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ scene\\ that\\ is\\ very\\ vivid\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ much\\ like\\ real\\ perception\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ kinetic\\ occlusion\\ and\\ solidity\\ also\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\ here\\,\\ though\\ in\\ a\\ somewhat\\ different\\ way\\ than\\ is\\ shown\\ in\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ examples\\.\\ \\ When\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;largest\\ of\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ snowflakes\\ falls\\ and\\ lands\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ the\\ flower\\ box\\,\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ solidity\\ is\\ created\\ as\\ one\\ object\\ lands\\ and\\ rests\\ on\\ another\\.\\ This\\ only\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ vivacity\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ easiest\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ imagine\\ things\\ are\\ a\\ bit\\ hazy\\ or\\ transparent\\,\\ which\\ is\\ played\\ upon\\ by\\ Andersen\\ in\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ dress\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ gossamer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Knowing\\ that\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ affiliated\\ with\\ evil\\ changes\\ this\\ all\\ slightly\\.\\ The\\ directing\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\ could\\ become\\ a\\ bit\\ more\\ apparent\\ with\\ this\\ knowledge\\,\\ making\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ feel\\ entranced\\ by\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ powerful\\ grip\\ on\\ Kay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ instructive\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ mimics\\ this\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ something\\ beautiful\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ sinister\\ in\\ this\\ transfixion\\ when\\ you\\ know\\ the\\ figure\\ is\\ evil\\.\\ This\\ is\\ especially\\ apparent\\ when\\ the\\ author\\ focuses\\ the\\ reader\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ Queen\\ which\\ was\\ neither\\ peaceful\\ nor\\ calm\\.\\ The\\ whole\\ sense\\ of\\ beauty\\ itself\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ described\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ second\\ nature\\ once\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ evil\\.\\ \\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ last\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ beckoning\\ Kay\\ with\\ her\\ hand\\ becomes\\ sinister\\ as\\ well\\,\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ she\\ has\\ evil\\ intentions\\ in\\ transfixing\\ Kay\\ and\\ beckoning\\ him\\ to\\ come\\ with\\ her\\.\\ Overall\\,\\ the\\ first\\ reading\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ elicits\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ beauty\\,\\ with\\ distinct\\,\\ vivid\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ as\\ fostered\\ through\\ a\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ methods\\ described\\ by\\ Scarry\\,\\ while\\ the\\ second\\ adds\\ another\\ layer\\ of\\ understanding\\ to\\ this\\ direction\\,\\ making\\ the\\ reader\\ feel\\ more\\ controlled\\ and\\ also\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ evil\\ lying\\ behind\\ the\\ beauty\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\ 4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Contrast\\ Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ briefly\\ with\\ Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\ and\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ know\\ of\\ the\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ books\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ kinds\\ of\\ strategies\\ does\\ Seuss\\ use\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curiosity\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ read\\ words\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Puritan\\ primers\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\-5\\ syllable\\ words\\\\\r\\\n\\-Biblical\\ quotations\\\\\r\\\n\\-Not\\ intended\\ to\\ delight\\ the\\ child\\,\\ but\\ intended\\ to\\ instruct\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nDick\\ and\\ Jane\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Depicts\\ ordinary\\,\\ \\"\\;middle\\-class\\,\\ middle\\-income\\,\\ middle\\-IQ\\"\\;\\ activities\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Used\\ only\\ 236\\ words\\ so\\ that\\ 5\\-year\\ olds\\ could\\ understand\\\\\r\\\n\\-Most\\ words\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ syllable\\\\\r\\\n\\-Embraces\\ mayhem\\ and\\ uses\\ humor\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ reader\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\"\\;Something\\ went\\ BUMP\\!\\ \\;\\ How\\ that\\ bump\\ made\\ us\\ jump\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\ Contrast\\ Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ briefly\\ with\\ Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\ and\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ know\\ of\\ the\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ books\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ kinds\\ of\\ strategies\\ does\\ Seuss\\ use\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curiosity\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ read\\ words\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ do\\ we\\ get\\ children\\ started\\ on\\ reading\\?\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ Books\\,\\ Sally\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Popular\\ basal\\ readers\\ written\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ William\\ S\\.\\ Gray\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Used\\ to\\ teach\\ children\\ to\\ read\\ from\\ the\\ 1930\\ through\\ the\\ 1970s\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ books\\ relied\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\ language\\ approach\\ to\\ reading\\ and\\ repetition\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Ex\\ phrase\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oh\\,\\ see\\.\\ Oh\\,\\ see\\ Jane\\.\\ Funny\\,\\ funny\\ Jane\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Dr\\.\\ Suess\\-produced\\ counter\\ narrative\\-Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Inane\\ repetition\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Potent\\ cocktail\\ of\\ desires\\ and\\ fears\\ of\\ every\\ child\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Disciplined\\ vocabulary\\-editor\\ told\\ him\\ he\\ had\\ 348\\ words\\-cant\\ go\\ beyond\\&hellip\\;\\ stay\\ within\\ limits\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\236\\ words\\ within\\ vocabulary\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\ syllable\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\.5\\ yrs\\ to\\ write\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;being\\ lost\\ with\\ a\\ witch\\ in\\ a\\ tunnel\\ of\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\versus\\ Goodnight\\ Moon\\-\\ 1\\ morning\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Anarchy\\ and\\ discipline\\ \\&ndash\\;bound\\ to\\ eachother\\-linked\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Bump\\ throws\\ switch\\-child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\?\\ Or\\ choreographed\\ by\\ adults\\?\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Introduce\\ child\\ to\\ reading\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Included\\ alphabet\\,\\ vowels\\,\\ consonants\\,\\ double\\ letters\\ and\\ syllabariums\\ of\\ two\\ letters\\ to\\ six\\ letter\\ syllables\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Contained\\ religious\\ maxims\\,\\ woodcuts\\,\\ alphabetical\\ assistants\\,\\ acronyms\\,\\ catechisms\\ and\\ moral\\ lessons\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Themes\\ of\\ discipline\\ and\\ punishment\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\;5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Foucault\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ modern\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;born\\ of\\ regulations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ Trace\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ this\\ concept\\ to\\ John\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(TESSA\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\John\\ Locke\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ English\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;Century\\ Philosopher\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ defining\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ maintained\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ born\\ without\\ innate\\ ideas\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;tabula\\ rasa\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ were\\ therefore\\ able\\ to\\ author\\ their\\ own\\ souls\\ and\\ identities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Michel\\ Foucault\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ French\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\ philosopher\\,\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ critic\\ of\\ social\\ institutions\\ \\(in\\ \\;\\Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\ \\;\\<\\/i\\>\\the\\ social\\ institutions\\ are\\ really\\ the\\ legal\\ and\\ penal\\ systems\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ extension\\ we\\ could\\ consider\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ institution\\ which\\ ties\\ in\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ \\;\\Some\\ Thoughts\\ Concerning\\ Education\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ John\\ Locke\\ outlines\\ detailed\\ instructions\\ for\\ parents\\ which\\ he\\ judges\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ for\\ the\\ breeding\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ gentleman\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ While\\ his\\ guidelines\\ touch\\ on\\ everything\\ from\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ fruit\\,\\ to\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ stools\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ learning\\ to\\ swim\\,\\ they\\ focus\\ most\\ decidedly\\ on\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Locke\\ believes\\ that\\ man\\ is\\ born\\ without\\ innate\\ ideas\\.\\ His\\ notion\\ of\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\tabula\\ rasa\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ only\\ implies\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ but\\ also\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ author\\ their\\ own\\ identity\\ and\\ ultimately\\ craft\\ their\\ own\\ soul\\.\\ Michel\\ Foucault\\ believed\\ that\\ modern\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;born\\ of\\ regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ work\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\;Foucault\\ examines\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ discipline\\ from\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;gloomy\\ festival\\ of\\ punishment\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ age\\ of\\ sobriety\\&rdquo\\;\\ defined\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ morality\\ concerning\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ punishing\\.\\ He\\ illuminates\\ this\\ transition\\ with\\ the\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ a\\ brutal\\ public\\ execution\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\ with\\ a\\ stale\\ and\\ tempered\\ prison\\ schedule\\ from\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\;\\Foucault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ was\\ no\\ doubt\\ inspired\\ by\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ earlier\\ writings\\.\\ The\\ former\\ bases\\ his\\ analysis\\ of\\ punishment\\ on\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ self\\-determined\\ soul\\ and\\ argues\\ that\\ as\\ punishment\\ evolved\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\/early\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;centuries\\ punishment\\ was\\ redirected\\ from\\ addressing\\ the\\ body\\ to\\ confronting\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ This\\ process\\ coincided\\ with\\ changes\\ in\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\,\\ which\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ menacing\\ works\\ of\\ earlier\\ times\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\;\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\A\\ Token\\ for\\ Children\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\\\,\\ and\\ focused\\ instead\\ on\\ moral\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ establishes\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ discipline\\ on\\ which\\ Foucault\\ builds\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;As\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ lies\\ chiefly\\ in\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ endure\\ hardships\\,\\ so\\ also\\ does\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Link\\ to\\ Bettelheim\\ who\\ thinks\\ that\\ exposing\\ children\\ to\\ violence\\ through\\ literature\\ is\\ cathartic\\ and\\ character\\-building\\,\\ that\\ it\\ teaches\\ them\\ to\\ cope\\ later\\ in\\ life\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Great\\ mistake\\ parent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ make\\ with\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mind\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ made\\ obedient\\ to\\ discipline\\,\\ and\\ pliant\\ to\\ reason\\,\\ when\\ at\\ first\\ it\\ was\\ most\\ tender\\,\\ most\\ easy\\ to\\ be\\ bowed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\:\\ Should\\ the\\ Darling\\&rsquo\\;s\\ have\\ coddled\\ their\\ children\\ less\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ used\\ to\\ submit\\ his\\ will\\ to\\ the\\ reason\\ of\\ others\\,\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ young\\,\\ will\\ scarce\\ hearken\\ or\\ submit\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ reason\\,\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ of\\ an\\ age\\ to\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Worth\\ noting\\ that\\ in\\ discussing\\ discipline\\ in\\ education\\ Locke\\ was\\ not\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ physical\\ punishment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;The\\ usual\\ lazy\\ and\\ short\\ way\\ \\(of\\ disciplining\\ the\\ child\\)\\ by\\ chastisement\\ and\\ the\\ rod\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ instrument\\ of\\ government\\ that\\ tutors\\ generally\\ know\\ or\\ ever\\ think\\ of\\,\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ unfit\\ of\\ any\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ education\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Foucault\\ views\\ punishment\\ as\\ a\\ complex\\ social\\ function\\ that\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ cultural\\ values\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ of\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ social\\ institutions\\ on\\ our\\ development\\ of\\ self\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;for\\ example\\ how\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ punishment\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ early\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\:\\ \\;\\ criminals\\ guilty\\ of\\ egregious\\ crimes\\ endured\\ public\\ humiliation\\ and\\ \\;\\ bodily\\ torture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>use\\ of\\ public\\ torture\\ as\\ spectacle\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ criminals\\ effected\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ including\\ children\\ \\(recall\\ that\\ Andersen\\ watched\\ an\\ execution\\ as\\ a\\ school\\ boy\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Children\\ grew\\ up\\ acutely\\ aware\\ moral\\ decay\\ and\\ crime\\ corresponded\\ to\\ an\\ equally\\ savage\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ body\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ target\\ of\\ torture\\ and\\ the\\ entire\\ community\\ witnessed\\ the\\ punishment\\ exacted\\ in\\ real\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Spectacles\\ of\\ persecution\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ instruction\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ living\\ lesson\\ in\\ the\\ museum\\ of\\ order\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ public\\ execution\\ started\\ to\\ lose\\ its\\ effectiveness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ punishment\\ emerged\\-\\ a\\ regime\\ of\\ \\;\\atonement\\<\\/i\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;the\\ gloomy\\ festival\\ of\\ punishment\\ was\\ dying\\ out\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Punishment\\ became\\ more\\ hidden\\ and\\,\\ hence\\,\\ more\\ abstract\\ from\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Moral\\ and\\ religious\\ rectification\\ played\\ a\\ bigger\\ role\\ in\\ reforming\\ criminals\\ \\(think\\ of\\ the\\ connection\\ to\\ Locke\\ here\\,\\ the\\ primacy\\ of\\ discipline\\ and\\ morality\\ and\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Notion\\ of\\ soul\\ and\\ cure\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>The\\ publicity\\ associated\\ with\\ crime\\ became\\ the\\ trial\\ and\\ sentence\\ not\\ the\\ punishment\\ itself\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ age\\ of\\ sobriety\\ in\\ punishment\\ instead\\ focused\\ on\\ positively\\ reforming\\ the\\ criminal\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ soul\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ both\\ enlightenment\\ \\(Locke\\)\\ and\\ post\\-modern\\ \\(Foucault\\)\\ philosophy\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ pivotal\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(FOR\\ FULL\\ DISCLOSURE\\:\\ this\\ section\\ is\\ an\\ edited\\ version\\ of\\ an\\ essay\\ that\\ I\\ read\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ Logan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ guides\\ but\\ I\\ thought\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ clear\\ and\\ comprehensive\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ disciplinary\\ edge\\ to\\ children\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ literature\\ illuminates\\ society\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ outlook\\ on\\ deviance\\ and\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Hans\\ Christian\\ Andersen\\,\\ who\\ witnessed\\ public\\ executions\\ as\\ a\\ child\\,\\ utilized\\ both\\ models\\ of\\ punishment\\ that\\ Foucault\\ examines\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>In\\ his\\ fairy\\ tale\\,\\ \\;\\The\\ Little\\ Red\\ Shoes\\<\\/i\\>\\\\.\\ Andersen\\ uses\\ Karen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ vain\\ love\\ of\\ her\\ red\\ shows\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ sinful\\ pride\\.\\ Her\\ public\\ punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ of\\ mortification\\ and\\ humiliation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ belongs\\ in\\ the\\ old\\ realm\\ of\\ physical\\ castigation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>While\\ Karen\\ pays\\ dearly\\ for\\ her\\ little\\ red\\ shoes\\,\\ her\\ example\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ strike\\ a\\ cord\\ with\\ the\\ docile\\,\\ obedient\\ child\\ reading\\ the\\ story\\.\\ Seeing\\ Karen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ downfall\\,\\ the\\ child\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ later\\ model\\ of\\ punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\ regulation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Andersen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ dual\\ perspective\\ on\\ punishment\\ and\\ his\\ deliberate\\ use\\ on\\ punishment\\ to\\ teach\\ a\\ moral\\ lesson\\ show\\ an\\ evolution\\ in\\ disciplinary\\ messages\\ within\\ children\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ literature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ similar\\ lesson\\ is\\ taught\\ in\\ the\\ Brothers\\ Grimm\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\ and\\ Hans\\ Christian\\ Andersen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ The\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\.\\ In\\ both\\ fairy\\ tales\\,\\ children\\ suffer\\ public\\ humiliation\\ but\\ triumph\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ their\\ journey\\.\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\ face\\ abandonment\\ by\\ the\\ parents\\.\\ The\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ enters\\ the\\ human\\ world\\ an\\ enchanting\\ girl\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ mute\\.\\ Their\\ struggles\\ to\\ overcome\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;punishments\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ their\\ ultimate\\ triumphs\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ disciplinary\\ edge\\ of\\ Children\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ literature\\.\\ Notably\\,\\ the\\ Brothers\\ Grimm\\ were\\ written\\ well\\ before\\ Andersen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ work\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Conclusion\\:\\ Consider\\ concluding\\ on\\ the\\ note\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;curiosity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Curiosity\\ in\\ children\\ is\\ but\\ an\\ appetite\\ after\\ knowledge\\ and\\ therefore\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ encouraged\\ in\\ them\\,\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ sign\\,\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ great\\ instrument\\ nature\\ has\\ provided\\ to\\ remove\\ that\\ ignorance\\ they\\ were\\ born\\ with\\ and\\ which\\,\\ without\\ this\\ busy\\ inquisitiveness\\,\\ will\\ make\\ them\\ dull\\ and\\ useless\\ creatures\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Foucault\\:\\ consider\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ Foucault\\ believes\\ mold\\ the\\ self\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\:\\ think\\ of\\ everything\\ from\\ Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ to\\ Peter\\ and\\ Wendy\\ and\\ Pan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Labyrinth\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;all\\ the\\ journey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ children\\ take\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ curiosity\\.\\ How\\ does\\ this\\ relate\\ to\\ discipline\\?\\ Are\\ they\\ authoring\\ their\\ own\\ souls\\,\\ as\\ Locke\\ might\\ suggest\\,\\ by\\ indulging\\ their\\ curiosity\\ or\\ are\\ they\\ breaking\\ free\\ from\\ Foucault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;anamorphic\\ stain\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Holbein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ The\\ Ambassadors\\ manifest\\ itself\\ in\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ or\\ in\\ Goodnight\\ Moon\\?\\ \\;\\ Identify\\ specific\\ textual\\ moments\\ and\\ explain\\ why\\ they\\ might\\ escape\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Ambassadors\\\\\r\\\n\\-Features\\ two\\ men\\ who\\ radiate\\ confidence\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ \\"\\;anamorphic\\ stain\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ a\\ skull\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ skull\\ is\\ a\\ memento\\ mori\\ \\-\\ a\\ reminder\\ of\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ death\\\\\r\\\n\\-Death\\ is\\ omnipresent\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ life\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCharlotte\\'s\\ Web\\\\\r\\\n\\-Though\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ children\\'s\\ story\\,\\ theme\\ of\\ death\\ plays\\ a\\ prominent\\ role\\,\\ even\\ from\\ the\\ very\\ first\\ line\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\"\\;Where\\'s\\ Papa\\ going\\ with\\ that\\ ax\\?\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Death\\ is\\ omnipresent\\,\\ though\\ sometimes\\ unnoticed\\ by\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-Spiderwebs\\ are\\ death\\ traps\\,\\ though\\ Charlotte\\'s\\ web\\ saves\\ Wilbur\\.\\ Webs\\ also\\ produce\\ life\\ \\(egg\\ sacs\\)\\ \\(womb\\/tomb\\ theme\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nGoodnight\\ moon\\\\\r\\\n\\-Though\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ children\\'s\\ story\\,\\ theme\\ of\\ death\\ lies\\ just\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\\\\r\\\n\\-Goodnight\\ \\=\\ death\\\\\r\\\n\\-Intricate\\ details\\ hidden\\ from\\ a\\ child\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-No\\ parent\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ only\\ an\\ \\"\\;old\\ lady\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Time\\ ticks\\ on\\ relentlessly\\ \\(7\\:00\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ 8\\:10\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ room\\ grows\\ darker\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ moon\\ is\\ rising\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\n7\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Choose\\ two\\ scenes\\ of\\ reading\\,\\ storytelling\\,\\ or\\ writing\\ in\\ books\\ we\\ have\\ read\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ significance\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n8\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Choose\\ two\\ works\\ covered\\ in\\ class\\ so\\ far\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ relation\\ in\\ each\\ between\\ motherhood\\ and\\ storytelling\\.\\ \\;\\ How\\ are\\ questions\\ of\\ generation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ biological\\ and\\ literary\\-creative\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ explored\\ in\\ the\\ stories\\ literature\\ we\\ have\\ encountered\\?\\ \\(BEAU\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Peter\\ \\&\\;\\ Wendy\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ Chapter\\ XI\\ \\&\\;\\ XVII\\ \\-\\ This\\ story\\ is\\ perfect\\ for\\ this\\ question\\ since\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ theme\\.\\ The\\ dichotomy\\ of\\ the\\ biological\\ and\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ is\\ also\\ explored\\ through\\ Wendy\\,\\ who\\ serves\\ as\\ both\\ roles\\.\\ She\\ is\\ the\\ metaphorical\\,\\ appointed\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\ in\\ Neverland\\ and\\ later\\ on\\ she\\ is\\ the\\ biological\\ mother\\ to\\ Jane\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Wendy\\ as\\ the\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\;\\ Wendy\\ rarely\\ goes\\ above\\ ground\\ b\\/c\\ she\\ is\\ busy\\ cooking\\/darning\\ socks\\/sewing\\;\\ much\\ of\\ this\\ time\\ is\\ spent\\ doing\\ pretend\\ household\\ duties\\,\\ but\\ it\\ takes\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ her\\ time\\ nonetheless\\;\\ Wendy\\ tells\\ the\\ boys\\ a\\ good\\ night\\ story\\ most\\ nights\\ before\\ they\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\;\\ the\\ night\\ of\\ their\\ kidnapping\\ she\\ tells\\ them\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ her\\,\\ John\\ and\\ Michael\\;\\ Peter\\ hates\\ this\\ story\\ but\\ all\\ the\\ boys\\ love\\ it\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Darling\\ children\\ came\\ to\\ Neverland\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ and\\ then\\ returned\\ home\\ to\\ their\\ welcoming\\ parents\\;\\ this\\ story\\ leads\\ to\\ John\\,\\ Michael\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ Lost\\ Boys\\ wanting\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Darling\\ home\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Wendy\\ grows\\ up\\ and\\ becomes\\ a\\ real\\ mother\\;\\ she\\ tells\\ her\\ daughter\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ in\\ Neverland\\ as\\ a\\ child\\;\\ Jane\\,\\ the\\ daughter\\,\\ has\\ to\\ reassure\\ Wendy\\ that\\ her\\ childhood\\ stories\\ were\\ true\\,\\ that\\ she\\ actually\\ could\\ fly\\,\\ etc\\.\\;\\ Wendy\\ has\\ these\\ storytelling\\ sessions\\ before\\ Jane\\ goes\\ to\\ sleep\\;\\ by\\ teaching\\ Jane\\ about\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ and\\ Neverland\\,\\ Wendy\\ indirectly\\ creates\\ the\\ possibility\\ for\\ Jane\\ to\\ fly\\ away\\ with\\ Peter\\;\\ this\\ cyclical\\ relationship\\ continues\\ for\\ generations\\,\\ as\\ Jane\\ tells\\ her\\ daughter\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ Jane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ leaves\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\-\\ Chapter\\ 8\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ literary\\/metaphorical\\ mother\\ to\\ Wilbur\\ in\\ this\\ novel\\.\\ Fern\\ also\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ to\\ Wilbur\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ storytelling\\ theme\\ linked\\ with\\ Fern\\ so\\ this\\ answer\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ Charlotte\\.\\ Wilbur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biological\\ mother\\ is\\ never\\ mentioned\\.\\ After\\ Templeton\\ brings\\ Charlotte\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;radiant\\&rdquo\\;\\ cut\\-out\\ from\\ the\\ soap\\ flake\\ box\\,\\ Wilbur\\ asks\\ Charlotte\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ a\\ bed\\-time\\ story\\.\\ Charlotte\\ tells\\ Wilbur\\ 2\\ stories\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cousin\\ catches\\ a\\ fish\\ in\\ her\\ web\\;\\ struggles\\ for\\ hours\\ to\\ wrangle\\ it\\ in\\;\\ eventually\\ succeeds\\ 2\\)\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ other\\ cousin\\ is\\ an\\ aeronaut\\,\\ who\\ can\\ lay\\ on\\ her\\ back\\,\\ shoot\\ a\\ web\\-balloon\\ into\\ the\\ air\\,\\ and\\ then\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ fly\\/float\\ away\\.\\\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n9\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ cited\\ by\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ nonsense\\.\\ \\;\\ Cite\\ two\\ instances\\ of\\ nonsense\\ in\\ Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ function\\.\\ \\(TESSA\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Noam\\ Chomsky\\,\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Syntactic\\ Structures\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ writes\\ perhaps\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ nonsense\\ sentences\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ From\\ a\\ linguistic\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ this\\ sentence\\ is\\ syntactically\\ correct\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ two\\ adjectives\\ that\\ describe\\ the\\ subject\\ \\&ldquo\\;ideas\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ verb\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;sleep\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ adverb\\ modifying\\ the\\ verb\\.\\ While\\ the\\ syntax\\ is\\ correct\\,\\ the\\ sentence\\ is\\ utterly\\ ungrammatical\\ because\\ the\\ semantics\\ are\\ completely\\ not\\ interpretable\\.\\ The\\ sentence\\ is\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Nonsense\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\ \\(or\\ arguably\\ perhaps\\ has\\ meaning\\ through\\ its\\ lack\\ of\\ meaning\\)\\.\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\ defines\\ nonsense\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ the\\ richness\\ of\\ imagination\\ in\\ its\\ lawless\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Indeed\\,\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ understand\\ \\&ldquo\\;nonsense\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\In\\ Lewis\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ there\\ are\\ countless\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ nonsense\\.\\ Perhaps\\ Carroll\\,\\ in\\ writing\\ this\\ novel\\,\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ child\\ good\\-sense\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ was\\ compelled\\ to\\ present\\ nonsense\\ to\\ these\\ child\\ readers\\.\\ Nonsense\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ quite\\ contradictory\\ and\\ arbitrary\\.\\ Carroll\\ did\\ not\\ create\\ nonsense\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ purely\\ to\\ entertain\\;\\ instead\\,\\ perhaps\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ nonsense\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ readers\\ find\\ deeper\\ levels\\ of\\ sense\\ within\\ the\\ text\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ meaning\\ \\(with\\ various\\ allegories\\ imposing\\ a\\ heavy\\-handed\\ meaning\\ on\\ the\\ reader\\)\\,\\ while\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ seems\\ to\\ resist\\ meaning\\ in\\ its\\ disconnect\\ and\\ pure\\ absurdity\\.\\ Alice\\,\\ at\\ one\\ point\\,\\ even\\ comments\\ on\\ nonsensical\\ nature\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ I\\ had\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ my\\ own\\,\\ everything\\ would\\ be\\ nonsense\\.\\ Nothing\\ would\\ be\\ what\\ it\\ is\\,\\ because\\ everything\\ would\\ be\\ what\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ And\\ contrary\\ wise\\,\\ what\\ is\\,\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\.\\ And\\ what\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\,\\ it\\ would\\.\\ You\\ see\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Looking\\ specifically\\ at\\ the\\ text\\,\\ in\\ chapter\\ two\\ of\\ \\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ The\\ Pool\\ of\\ Tears\\,\\ Alice\\ at\\ a\\ loss\\ for\\ who\\ she\\ is\\ any\\ longer\\,\\ confused\\ by\\ what\\ she\\ knows\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\.\\ She\\ says\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\[\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ I\\ cant\\ be\\ Mabel\\,\\ for\\ I\\ know\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ things\\,\\ and\\ she\\ oh\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ such\\ a\\ very\\ little\\!\\ Besides\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ she\\,\\ and\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ I\\,\\ and\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\,\\ how\\ puzzling\\ it\\ all\\ is\\!\\]\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ try\\ if\\ I\\ know\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ I\\ used\\ to\\ know\\.\\ Let\\ me\\ see\\:\\ four\\ times\\ five\\ is\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ for\\ times\\ six\\ is\\ thirteen\\,\\ and\\ four\\ times\\ seven\\ is\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\!\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ get\\ to\\ twenty\\ at\\ that\\ rate\\.\\ \\(p\\.16\\)\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Martin\\ Gardner\\,\\ in\\ \\The\\ Annotated\\ Alice\\,\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ suggests\\ that\\ Alice\\ will\\ never\\ reach\\ 20\\ because\\ the\\ traditional\\ multiplication\\ table\\ stops\\ with\\ multiples\\ of\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ system\\ Alice\\ is\\ using\\,\\ 4\\ times\\ 12\\ will\\ be\\ 19\\.\\ While\\ this\\ point\\ is\\ valid\\,\\ the\\ entirety\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ is\\ still\\ completely\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Clearly\\ her\\ math\\ skills\\ are\\ incorrect\\,\\ and\\ she\\ continues\\ to\\ mess\\ up\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ geography\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ paragraph\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Paris\\ is\\ the\\ capital\\ of\\ Rome\\&mdash\\;No\\!\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ wrong\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Alice\\ is\\ clearly\\ speaking\\ nonsense\\ in\\ this\\ paragraph\\,\\ yet\\ she\\ expresses\\ her\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ For\\ Alice\\,\\ this\\ functions\\ to\\ make\\ things\\ more\\ curious\\,\\ confusing\\,\\ and\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Math\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ what\\ she\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\,\\ as\\ she\\ botches\\ her\\ multiplication\\.\\ In\\ Wonderland\\,\\ Alice\\ cannot\\ fit\\ her\\ experiences\\ into\\ a\\ logical\\ framework\\ that\\ she\\ can\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\;\\ instead\\,\\ countless\\ desires\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ are\\ frustrated\\ by\\ Wonderland\\.\\ Carroll\\ shares\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ understanding\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ expressing\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ exist\\ not\\ only\\ for\\ Alice\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Life\\ can\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ be\\ utterly\\ senseless\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Another\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ nonsense\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ chapter\\ ten\\ of\\ \\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ The\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\.\\ The\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ Gryphon\\,\\ after\\ demonstrating\\ to\\ Alice\\ the\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\,\\ ask\\ her\\ enthusiastically\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ adventures\\ from\\ that\\ day\\.\\ Alice\\,\\ when\\ asked\\ by\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ to\\ sing\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ sluggard\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ begins\\ to\\ sing\\ a\\ completely\\ nonsensical\\ verse\\ \\(as\\ the\\ Lobster\\-Quadrille\\ was\\ stuck\\ in\\ her\\ head\\)\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Lobster\\:\\ I\\ heard\\ him\\ declare\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&lsquo\\;You\\ have\\ baked\\ me\\ too\\ brown\\,\\ I\\ must\\ sugar\\ my\\ hair\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ duck\\ with\\ his\\ eyelids\\,\\ so\\ he\\ with\\ his\\ nose\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Trims\\ his\\ belt\\ and\\ his\\ buttons\\,\\ and\\ turns\\ out\\ his\\ toes\\&hellip\\;\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\(p\\.82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\When\\ both\\ the\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ nonsense\\ in\\ her\\ words\\,\\ Alice\\,\\ in\\ despair\\,\\ wonders\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;anything\\ would\\ \\ever\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ happen\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ way\\ again\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ nonsense\\ functions\\ for\\ both\\ the\\ reader\\ and\\ for\\ Alice\\.\\ For\\ Alice\\,\\ her\\ words\\ and\\ actions\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\ only\\ add\\ to\\ her\\ own\\ confusion\\.\\ It\\ is\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ curious\\(er\\!\\)\\ for\\ Alice\\,\\ and\\ she\\ has\\ become\\ frustrated\\ by\\ these\\ puzzles\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ encountering\\.\\ She\\ cries\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ things\\ will\\ ever\\ make\\ sense\\ again\\.\\ On\\ a\\ quite\\ different\\ note\\,\\ again\\,\\ this\\ nonsense\\ perhaps\\ functions\\ to\\ speak\\ about\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ Carroll\\ may\\ be\\ pointing\\ out\\ that\\ life\\ has\\ no\\ clear\\ path\\ or\\ solution\\,\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ oftentimes\\ serve\\ to\\ frustrate\\/disturb\\ our\\ expectations\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Alice\\ thought\\ this\\ song\\ she\\ sang\\ to\\ be\\ familiar\\,\\ she\\ sang\\ a\\ new\\,\\ nonsensical\\,\\ and\\ absurd\\ verse\\.\\ Even\\ when\\ people\\ encounter\\ familiar\\ and\\ explainable\\ troubles\\ and\\ tribulations\\,\\ life\\ can\\ alter\\ these\\ seemingly\\ understood\\ factors\\;\\ life\\ can\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ be\\ completely\\ illogical\\ and\\ confusing\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\*EXTRA\\ THOUGHT\\*Looking\\ specifically\\ at\\ lines\\ of\\ particular\\ language\\ in\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\,\\ it\\ is\\ interesting\\ how\\ he\\ plays\\ on\\ multiple\\ meanings\\ of\\ words\\,\\ or\\ uses\\ puns\\,\\ to\\ bring\\ deeper\\ meaning\\ to\\ those\\ words\\ throughout\\ the\\ text\\.\\ Alice\\ often\\ exclaims\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Curious\\ and\\ curiouser\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ Her\\ language\\ echoes\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ her\\ experiences\\,\\ as\\ both\\ expand\\ beyond\\ the\\ ordinary\\ convention\\.\\ Nonsense\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ endless\\ possibilities\\ associated\\ with\\ nonsense\\,\\ are\\ expressed\\ through\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manipulation\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ thus\\.\\*\\*\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ how\\ Lewis\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ nonsense\\ to\\ communicate\\ very\\ important\\ concepts\\ about\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ Alice\\ is\\ oftentimes\\ frustrated\\ by\\ this\\ nonsense\\ and\\ cannot\\ seem\\ to\\ grasp\\ it\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ often\\ frustrated\\ and\\ unable\\ to\\ grasp\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ seemingly\\ senseless\\ happenings\\ in\\ life\\.\\ Perhaps\\,\\ Alice\\ concluded\\ everything\\ she\\ had\\ encountered\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ properly\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ when\\ she\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ atom\\ of\\ meaning\\ in\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wonderland\\ may\\ resist\\ meaning\\,\\ or\\ it\\ may\\ function\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ even\\ greater\\ and\\ more\\ impressionable\\ messages\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\OUTLINE\\:\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intro\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Noam\\ Chomsky\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Correct\\ syntax\\;\\ ungrammatical\\ semantics\\:\\ this\\ sentence\\ cannot\\ be\\ interpreted\\/understood\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Immanuel\\ Kant\\ defines\\ nonsense\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ the\\ richness\\ of\\ imagination\\ in\\ its\\ lawless\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Multiplication\\ Table\\,\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ The\\ Pool\\ of\\ Tears\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Let\\ me\\ see\\:\\ four\\ times\\ five\\ is\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ for\\ times\\ six\\ is\\ thirteen\\,\\ and\\ four\\ times\\ seven\\ is\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\!\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ get\\ to\\ twenty\\ at\\ that\\ rate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.16\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Alice\\ is\\ clearly\\ speaking\\ nonsense\\ in\\ this\\ paragraph\\,\\ yet\\ she\\ expresses\\ her\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Alice\\:\\ This\\ makes\\ things\\ more\\ curious\\,\\ confusing\\,\\ and\\ nonsensical\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Reader\\:\\ Carroll\\ shares\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ understanding\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ expressing\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ exist\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Life\\ can\\ be\\ utterly\\ senseless\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Song\\ for\\ the\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ Gryphon\\,\\ Chapter\\ 10\\ The\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Lobster\\:\\ I\\ heard\\ him\\ declare\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&lsquo\\;You\\ have\\ baked\\ me\\ too\\ brown\\,\\ I\\ must\\ sugar\\ my\\ hair\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ duck\\ with\\ his\\ eyelids\\,\\ so\\ he\\ with\\ his\\ nose\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Trims\\ his\\ belt\\ and\\ his\\ buttons\\,\\ and\\ turns\\ out\\ his\\ toes\\&hellip\\;\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\(p\\.82\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ nonsense\\ in\\ her\\ words\\,\\ and\\ Alice\\,\\ in\\ despair\\,\\ wonders\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;anything\\ would\\ \\ever\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ happen\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ way\\ again\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Alice\\:\\ understanding\\ now\\ nonsensical\\ everything\\ is\\,\\ esp\\.\\ in\\ Wonderland\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Reader\\:\\ The\\ nonsense\\ perhaps\\ functions\\ to\\ speak\\ about\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ as\\ some\\ things\\ in\\ life\\ we\\ cannot\\ interpret\\ or\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\.\\ Some\\ things\\ we\\ might\\ have\\ thought\\ we\\ understood\\ can\\ change\\ in\\ an\\ instant\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conclusion\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Lewis\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ nonsense\\ to\\ communicate\\ very\\ important\\ concepts\\ about\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Wonderland\\ may\\ either\\ \\(or\\ both\\?\\)\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Resist\\ meaning\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Bring\\ about\\ even\\ greater\\ and\\ more\\ impressionable\\ messages\\ about\\ life\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\V\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Extra\\ Thoughts\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Steven\\ Pinker\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Time\\ flies\\ like\\ an\\ arrow\\ \\/\\ Fruit\\ lies\\ like\\ a\\ banana\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ park\\ in\\ driveways\\ and\\ drive\\ on\\ parkways\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\KING\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;IMPORTANT\\,\\ UNIMPORTANT\\,\\ UNIMPORTANT\\,\\ IMPORTANT\\&rdquo\\;\\ meaning\\ has\\ no\\ significance\\;\\ he\\ only\\ cared\\ about\\ what\\ word\\ sounded\\ best\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\*SONG\\ IN\\ CHAPTER\\ 12\\:\\ \\(King\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ piece\\ of\\ evidence\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ heard\\ yet\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ BUT\\ IT\\ IS\\ COMPLETELY\\ RESISTANT\\ TO\\ INTERPRETATION\\:\\ nothing\\ behind\\ the\\ pronouns\\&hellip\\;no\\ context\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Alice\\ interjects\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ atom\\ of\\ meaning\\ in\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\They\\ told\\ me\\ you\\ had\\ been\\ to\\ her\\,\\/And\\ mentioned\\ me\\ to\\ him\\:\\/She\\ gave\\ me\\ a\\ good\\ character\\,\\/\\ But\\ said\\ I\\ could\\ not\\ swim\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Function\\:\\ to\\ show\\ us\\ that\\ Wonderland\\ simply\\ resists\\ meaning\\,\\ and\\ is\\ completely\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ interpreted\\.\\ We\\ could\\ apply\\ this\\ understanding\\ to\\ life\\&hellip\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\;10\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Georges\\ de\\ la\\ Tour\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Education\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ painted\\ around\\ 1650\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(Figure\\ 1\\)\\ \\;\\ What\\ concepts\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ might\\ help\\ you\\ analyze\\ this\\ work\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n11\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Discuss\\ the\\ poster\\ printed\\ below\\ \\(Figure\\ 2\\)\\ for\\ a\\ film\\ called\\ Innocence\\.\\ \\;\\ How\\ would\\ you\\ \\&ldquo\\;read\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ lettering\\,\\ the\\ setting\\,\\ and\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ children\\?\\ \\(JULIA\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n12\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Provide\\ a\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fantasy\\ Land\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Walt\\ Disney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Magic\\ Kingdom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\"\\;Here\\ is\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ imagination\\,\\ hopes\\ and\\ dreams\\.\\ In\\ this\\ timeless\\ land\\ of\\ enchantment\\,\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ chivalry\\,\\ magic\\,\\ and\\ make\\-believe\\ are\\ reborn\\,\\ and\\ fairy\\ tales\\ come\\ true\\.\\ Fantasyland\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ the\\ young\\ at\\ heart\\,\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ believe\\ that\\ when\\ you\\ wish\\ upon\\ a\\ star\\,\\ your\\ dreams\\ come\\ true\\.\\"\\;\\ \\(Walt\\ Disney\\)\\ \\(JULIA\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n13\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bump\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;ETERNITY\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Castle\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Terrific\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ single\\ words\\ used\\ to\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;magic\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ literature\\,\\ each\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\.\\ \\;\\ Describe\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ two\\ of\\ those\\ words\\ are\\ invoked\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ importance\\ in\\ each\\ text\\.\\ \\(BEAU\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Personally\\,\\ given\\ this\\ question\\ I\\ would\\ answer\\ by\\ using\\ Terrific\\ and\\ Eternity\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\Terrific\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(EB\\ White\\)\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\ writes\\ Terrific\\ in\\ her\\ web\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ self\\-fulfil", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm Study Questions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.273293+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Shah nama 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 683, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:911547139\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:117738854\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\March\\ 5\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\HAA1\\ Prof\\.\\ David\\ J\\.\\ Roxburgh\\ \\&ldquo\\;Between\\ Myth\\ and\\ History\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Last\\ time\\,\\ talked\\ about\\ craftsmanship\\,\\ medium\\.\\ Looking\\ at\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ formal\\ characteristics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ paintings\\ collaborative\\ production\\,\\ paintings\\ as\\ individuals\\ showed\\ no\\ trace\\ of\\ individual\\ hand\\.\\ Unified\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ access\\ to\\ understanding\\ of\\ individual\\ artist\\ participation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Gaomar\\ figure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ few\\ centimeters\\ high\\,\\ no\\ awareness\\ of\\ brushworks\\ that\\ went\\ into\\ the\\ painting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Everything\\ in\\ painting\\ controlled\\,\\ nothing\\ left\\ to\\ chance\\.\\ Execution\\ of\\ painting\\ perfect\\,\\ miniaturized\\ into\\ composition\\.\\ Multiple\\ scenes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ combined\\ together\\ as\\ whole\\ \\(type\\ of\\ drawing\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Note\\:\\ undone\\ by\\ reality\\ that\\ paintings\\ contain\\ so\\ many\\ details\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ return\\ again\\ and\\ again\\ and\\ you\\ notice\\ things\\ you\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ notice\\.\\ Can\\ make\\ new\\ connections\\ between\\ things\\.\\ This\\ aspect\\:\\ mirage\\ of\\ transparency\\,\\ confounded\\ by\\ sheer\\ density\\ of\\ information\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Detail\\:\\ Hatbad\\ finds\\ the\\ worm\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ subject\\ matter\\:\\ lower\\ left\\,\\ artist\\ expanded\\ narrative\\ into\\ ambitious\\ composition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ focus\\ on\\ village\\ life\\,\\ going\\ about\\ village\\,\\ sitting\\ on\\ rooftop\\ reading\\ books\\,\\ weighing\\ food\\ for\\ customer\\.\\ Offers\\ dense\\ matrices\\ to\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ manuscript\\.\\ Always\\ something\\ new\\ and\\ remember\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Program\\ of\\ Shah\\-nama\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ issues\\ of\\ patronage\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Text\\,\\ stories\\,\\ illustrations\\.\\ Notion\\ that\\ \\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ was\\ chosen\\ country\\ by\\ God\\,\\ favored\\ by\\ God\\,\\ parallel\\ to\\ neighbors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ envied\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ Whole\\ baggage\\ of\\ iconography\\ reoccurring\\ through\\ text\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ artists\\ assigned\\ job\\ of\\ narrating\\ provided\\ the\\ iconology\\,\\ visual\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ story\\.\\ Artists\\ did\\ in\\ collaboration\\ with\\ director\\ of\\ project\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ conversation\\ with\\ patron\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Shah\\ Ishma\\&rsquo\\;il\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ people\\ involved\\ with\\ making\\ Shah\\ nama\\.\\ Little\\ known\\ about\\ any\\ negotiations\\ about\\ manuscript\\.\\ Scholars\\ presume\\ conservations\\ took\\ place\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ weight\\ of\\ agency\\ on\\ patron\\ as\\ though\\ patron\\ micro\\-managed\\ project\\ \\(deciding\\ materials\\,\\ see\\ how\\ stories\\ realized\\)\\,\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ this\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>To\\ determine\\ how\\ manuscripts\\ functioned\\:\\ patterns\\ of\\ illustration\\?\\ To\\ see\\ which\\ of\\ 50\\ cycles\\ associated\\ with\\ kings\\ get\\ larger\\ or\\ smaller\\ emphasis\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Objection\\ of\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ overall\\ intention\\,\\ see\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ meaning\\ to\\ patron\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Though\\ other\\ copies\\ of\\ Shahnama\\ been\\ made\\,\\ how\\ particular\\ shahnama\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reflection\\ of\\ conventional\\ models\\ of\\ shahnama\\ to\\ reach\\ goals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Program\\ of\\ illustration\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\:\\ expand\\ view\\:\\ consider\\ historical\\ context\\ of\\ Safavid\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ political\\ context\\ that\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ shaped\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Understand\\ iconography\\,\\ interpret\\ elements\\ of\\ narrative\\.\\ \\Iconography\\ vs\\ narrative\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Rustam\\ shoots\\ Isfandiyar\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Great\\ Mongol\\ Shahnama\\,\\ 1330s\\,\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Produced\\ in\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ Counter\\ between\\ Rustam\\ in\\ reading\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ epic\\ battle\\ between\\ two\\ heros\\,\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ taken\\ place\\.\\ Story\\ of\\ Asfandiar\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ must\\ bring\\ Rustam\\ to\\ royal\\ court\\ in\\ shackles\\.\\ Rustam\\ had\\ spent\\ all\\ his\\ life\\ serving\\ monarch\\ of\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ uphold\\ honor\\,\\ justice\\,\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ submitted\\ to\\ humiliation\\.\\ Though\\ present\\ kind\\ very\\ much\\ loser\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ can\\ not\\ submit\\,\\ asked\\ Asfandiar\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ court\\ with\\ him\\.\\ Father\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ trust\\ Asfandiar\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ give\\ him\\ a\\ Herculean\\ challenge\\ \\&ndash\\;will\\ he\\ follow\\ his\\ father\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>After\\ size\\ each\\ other\\ up\\,\\ meet\\ in\\ battle\\,\\ Asfandiar\\ wounds\\ Rustam\\.\\ Rustam\\ calls\\ upon\\ \\(part\\ of\\ albino\\ child\\ zao\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Razdan\\ comes\\ to\\ Rustam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ help\\ with\\ wounds\\.\\ This\\ time\\,\\ Rustam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ as\\ strong\\ as\\ brass\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ instructing\\ him\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ double\\ pointed\\ arrow\\ from\\ tamarus\\ wood\\.\\ Says\\ before\\ fire\\ arrow\\,\\ must\\ dip\\ in\\ wine\\,\\ hit\\ in\\ eye\\.\\ Ferdozi\\ write\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rustam\\ struck\\ Asfandiar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eye\\ with\\ him\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Text\\ supplies\\ principal\\ characters\\ and\\ act\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ supply\\ details\\ of\\ visuals\\.\\ Complicated\\ symbols\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ here\\ Artist\\ shows\\ some\\ of\\ elements\\.\\ Enveloping\\ dark\\ clouds\\ spreads\\ over\\ scene\\,\\ metaphor\\ of\\ physique\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Asfandiar\\ slumping\\ to\\ earth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shown\\ by\\ broken\\ tree\\ between\\ them\\ and\\ Asfandiar\\ physically\\ slumping\\ \\(even\\ nature\\ slumping\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Two\\ figures\\ facing\\ each\\ other\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ boring\\ were\\ it\\ not\\ for\\ other\\ elements\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Similar\\ other\\ techniques\\ by\\ artists\\:\\ worked\\ within\\ pre\\-existing\\ narrative\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ find\\ metaphors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Artistic\\ production\\:\\ artists\\ also\\ working\\ with\\ knowledge\\ of\\ existing\\ models\\.\\ Knew\\ what\\ illustrations\\ had\\ done\\ in\\ earlier\\ copies\\ of\\ Shah\\ nama\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>At\\ the\\ time\\,\\ increased\\ focus\\ on\\ history\\ of\\ art\\ \\(artists\\,\\ artistic\\ practice\\)\\,\\ aesthetics\\.\\ More\\ conscious\\ of\\ self\\-\\ modeling\\ nature\\ of\\ art\\ than\\ before\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Historical\\ coordinates\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sha\\ temosque\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ impaled\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nailed\\ to\\ cave\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ mountain\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ chains\\ on\\ him\\,\\ Elements\\ of\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ endless\\ cave\\,\\ nailed\\ to\\ suffer\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ remains\\ constant\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Wider\\ content\\,\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ feature\\ content\\,\\ common\\.\\ Other\\ figures\\ joining\\ them\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ picking\\ things\\ from\\ trees\\,\\ another\\ man\\ playing\\ musical\\ instruments\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pattern\\ of\\ illustration\\:\\ what\\ vehible\\ to\\ drive\\ direction\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Every\\ 20\\ pages\\,\\ illustration\\.\\ Early\\ cycle\\:\\ each\\ text\\ \\=\\ equal\\ illustatio\\.\\ 12\\ paintings\\ illustae\\ zhahak\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rakhsh\\ \\(Rustam\\&rsquo\\;s\\ horse\\)\\ \\;\\ the\\ Simurgh\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Death\\ of\\ Zahhak\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ a\\ Shahnama\\ made\\ from\\ Timurid\\ prince\\ Baysunghur\\,\\ 1430\\,\\ Heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ was\\ a\\ tyrant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Zahhak\\.\\ Tyranny\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ dream\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ right\\ before\\ wake\\ up\\,\\ sees\\ Fahriduk\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ think\\ he\\ will\\ overthrow\\ him\\.\\ Dream\\ analyzes\\ dream\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ specialist\\,\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\ by\\ finding\\ Biermaye\\ \\(who\\ can\\ go\\ to\\ tad\\)\\.\\ One\\ method\\ of\\ developing\\ tequnituqe\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ death\\ of\\ Zahhak\\,\\ attonemet\\ of\\ Ereduke\\.\\ Through\\ painting\\,\\ Faradu\\ had\\ tested\\ three\\ sons\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ chose\\ youngest\\.\\ Murder\\ their\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>brohter\\,\\ conflict\\ between\\ neighbors\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Massive\\ redaction\\ of\\ rate\\ of\\ illustration\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Kind\\ Lushervon\\ of\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Nada\\.\\ Rate\\ of\\ illustration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ imbalance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ concluded\\ early\\ cycles\\ of\\ Furdose\\,\\ long\\ raging\\ war\\ from\\ Iran\\/neighbors\\ occuspied\\ largest\\ sharge\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Religion\\ from\\ \\Caspian\\ sea\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ son\\ of\\ Contemporary\\ killed\\ father\\ and\\ brother\\.\\ Shah\\ Islaimil\\ turned\\ out\\ king\\,\\ expanded\\ to\\ tan\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ Kizze\\-red\\:\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ blond\\ hair\\ but\\ had\\ blond\\ kitans\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Paintings\\ from\\ the\\ Shahnama\\ of\\ Shah\\ Tahmasp\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Zahhak\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Nightmare\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Zahhak\\ kills\\ Birmayeh\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Death\\ of\\ Zahhak\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Nushirvan\\ receives\\ embassy\\ from\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ Hind\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Siyavush\\ and\\ Afrasiyab\\ embrace\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shah\\ Isma\\&rsquo\\;il\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ Safavid\\ dynasty\\ \\(r\\.\\ 1501\\-1524\\)\\:\\ sons\\ Tahmasp\\,\\ Bahram\\,\\ Alqas\\,\\ and\\ Sam\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>After\\ 1514\\,\\ Shah\\ Isma\\&rsquo\\;il\\ partied\\,\\ engaged\\ in\\ commission\\ of\\ projects\\ such\\ as\\ Shah\\ nama\\.\\ Died\\ 1524\\,\\ succeeded\\ by\\ Son\\ Tahmah\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 10\\ years\\ old\\.\\ Agency\\ and\\ political\\ change\\?\\ Think\\ of\\ age\\ of\\ patron\\.\\ He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 10\\,\\ teenager\\ throughout\\ most\\ of\\ paintings\\ computed\\ in\\ manuscript\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>During\\ period\\ of\\ reduced\\ political\\ activitiy\\,\\ 1530\\ main\\ actives\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Much\\ of\\ time\\:\\ older\\ military\\ commanders\\ are\\ ruling\\ on\\ his\\ behalf\\.\\ Results\\ problems\\:\\ commentary\\ of\\ own\\ time\\ and\\ embodied\\ hope\\ of\\ over\\ the\\ horizon\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Escapism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ look\\ at\\ casting\\ of\\ the\\ Safavid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rule\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Safaviyya\\,\\ religious\\ order\\,\\ based\\ in\\ Ardabil\\ on\\ the\\ \\Caspian\\ Sea\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Qizilbash\\,\\ lit\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;red\\-heads\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Turkmen\\ supporters\\ of\\ Shah\\ Isma\\&rsquo\\;il\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ottomans\\ and\\ Uzbeks\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Battle\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ of\\ Caldiran\\,\\ 1514\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Big\\-Head\\ Shahnama\\,\\ made\\ for\\ Sultan\\ Mirza\\ Ali\\ Karkiya\\,\\ 1493\\-94\\,\\ Gillan\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Guy\\ u\\ Chawgan\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(\\&ldquo\\;Ball\\ and\\ Mallet\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ by\\ Arifi\\,\\ copied\\ by\\ Shah\\ Tahmasp\\,\\ \\\\Tabriz\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 1524\\-25\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Paintings\\ by\\ Shah\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>No\\ manuscript\\ of\\ this\\ scope\\ had\\ every\\ been\\ attempted\\ before\\.\\ Shahn\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ in\\ center\\ of\\ production\\ since\\ 1300s\\.\\ Closest\\ Shahnama\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ had\\ 21\\ paintings\\.\\ This\\ 258\\.\\ Other\\ heavily\\ illustrated\\ manuscript\\ other\\ than\\ Shahnama\\-\\ 350\\ paintings\\,\\ made\\ in\\ north\\-western\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ Lacks\\ pictorial\\ talent\\ as\\ inShah\\&rsquo\\;nama\\.\\ Emerged\\ from\\ populaism\\ exploited\\ by\\ Shah\\ Ima\\&rsquo\\;il\\ in\\ later\\ years\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Write\\ poetry\\ to\\ inspire\\ following\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>One\\ verse\\:\\ Isma\\&rsquo\\;il\\ proclaims\\:\\ I\\ am\\ Faradan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ zell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cell\\,\\ Rustam\\,\\ and\\ Alexander\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Isma\\&rsquo\\;il\\ challenges\\ cofrontationlly\\ \\:\\ Curious\\ names\\ gave\\ his\\ sons\\.\\ Tahmasb\\,\\ Aslcas\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unusual\\ Iranian\\ male\\ nam\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ismai\\&rsquo\\;il\\ commissioned\\ history\\ of\\ his\\ made\\.\\ His\\ poetry\\,\\ conviction\\,\\ motivated\\ by\\ strong\\ force\\ that\\ text\\ had\\ more\\ than\\ status\\ been\\ expertise\\ reality\\.\\ No\\ good\\ illustrated\\ manuscript\\ after\\ 1440\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Last\\ humanity\\:\\ \\(article\\:\\ overt\\ political\\ reading\\ of\\ manuscript\\)\\.\\ Earlier\\:\\ problem\\ of\\ transmitting\\ program\\ between\\ patron\\ and\\ director\\ and\\ artisit\\,\\ micromanaging\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Easier\\ to\\ admitsee\\ director\\/artist\\ interaction\\.\\ Tradition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ was\\ their\\ carrier\\ and\\ steepted\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Shan\\ \\&ndash\\;hamosque\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ also\\ trained\\ in\\ calligraphy\\ for\\ mnusccipt\\.\\ Game\\ \\=\\ from\\ polo\\ game\\ in\\ 1500s\\ \\,\\ mystical\\ poem\\ in\\ several\\ sections\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ burning\\ love\\,\\ cruelty\\ of\\ beloved\\.\\ Developed\\:\\ comes\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ as\\ youth\\ had\\ fallen\\ in\\ lover\\ in\\ king\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ paintings\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ book\\ as\\ a\\ while\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ yearning\\ for\\ something\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\.\\ Bull\\ and\\ Stick\\.\\ Shah\\=tama\\ was\\ 10\\ when\\ he\\ copied\\ manuscript\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Gentleman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\.\\ Shah\\ tama\\ was\\ painting\\,\\ sultan\\ Muhammad\\ executed\\ painting\\ in\\ Gayamar\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ acquainted\\ with\\ painting\\,\\ also\\ with\\ writing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>This\\ is\\ painting\\ which\\ Shat\\ nama\\ named\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ top\\ left\\,\\ ddidn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ agenda\\ of\\ gover\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Flute\\ player\\,\\ dancing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>All\\ have\\ bot\\ pellies\\,\\ water\\ mellon\\ eater\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ promoted\\ himself\\ to\\ address\\,\\ make\\ fun\\ of\\ these\\ guys\\,\\ characters\\ in\\ court\\.\\ Names\\ represented\\ by\\ identifying\\ Indian\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ too\\ vicious\\.\\ In\\ his\\ youth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Shahtama\\ inclined\\ to\\ draw\\ and\\ hear\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>People\\ from\\ Caspian\\ and\\ \\\\Iran\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ AT\\ the\\ time\\,\\ Capsian\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ sudent\\ in\\ Calcun\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Painting\\ on\\ right\\:\\ beginning\\ of\\ manuscript\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ at\\ first\\ looks\\ like\\ elite\\ figure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prince\\ sitting\\,\\ wearing\\ fancy\\ turban\\,\\ ostrich\\ feather\\,\\ but\\ also\\ interwoven\\ with\\ gold\\.\\.\\ Unknown\\ by\\ kneelenght\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ subservient\\ social\\ position\\,\\ drawn\\ to\\ letter\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ holding\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ petition\\ to\\ read\\.\\ Text\\ reads\\:\\ your\\ humble\\ one\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presenting\\ him\\ in\\ humble\\ manner\\ but\\ drawn\\ like\\ prince\\.\\ Doing\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ request\\ in\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ joke\\.\\ Humorous\\ statement\\,\\ safe\\ free\\,\\ lff\\ free\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Legibility\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ totality\\,\\ how\\ legible\\ emphasis\\ across\\ book\\ looking\\ at\\ whole\\ thing\\?\\ Has\\ it\\ ever\\ been\\ looked\\ as\\ whole\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Question\\ this\\ political\\ interpretation\\ because\\ of\\ over\\-detail\\ of\\ each\\ imagery\\.\\ Paitnigns\\ exceeded\\ sensory\\ capacity\\ and\\ capacity\\ of\\ memory\\,\\ unpresecent\\ level\\ of\\ visual\\ elements\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ things\\ not\\ mentioned\\ in\\ text\\ \\(who\\ said\\ political\\ interpretation\\)\\.\\ Artist\\ use\\ opportunity\\ to\\ use\\ painting\\ ot\\ joust\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ In\\ this\\ closed\\ world\\ of\\ Safavid\\ of\\ world\\,\\ paintings\\ at\\ level\\ that\\ princes\\ petition\\ are\\ not\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Final\\ conclusion\\ \\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ paintings\\ are\\ verry\\ funny\\ \\,\\ paintings\\ are\\ replete\\ with\\ in\\-jokes\\ and\\ puns\\ \\=\\ commentary\\ on\\ social\\ conventions\\.\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ hug\\:\\ men\\ who\\ come\\ to\\ meet\\,\\ but\\ despise\\ each\\ other\\.\\ What\\ kind\\ of\\ hug\\ it\\ is\\?\\ Not\\ a\\ full\\ body\\ hug\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ distant\\ hug\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Also\\ appears\\ elsewhere\\ in\\ manuscript\\.\\ One\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ \\=\\ other\\ examples\\ in\\ shanama\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 97, "file_path": "", "desc": "Shah nama 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.307701+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Nazca", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 684, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:916473662\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1650658956\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Prof\\ Tom\\ Cummins\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nasca\\ Lines\\ in\\ Precolombian\\ \\\\Peru\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Being\\ person\\ moving\\ through\\ space\\ in\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ was\\ world\\ known\\ when\\ Spanish\\ arrived\\ as\\ Place\\ of\\ 4\\ Parts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Cechuan\\ name\\:\\ Tahuantinsuyu\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lived\\ through\\ one\\ of\\ roughest\\ environments\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ dry\\.\\ Desert\\,\\ ever\\ rains\\,\\ right\\ on\\ the\\ coast\\.\\ World\\ of\\ extremes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ peaks\\ and\\ valleys\\,\\ made\\ into\\ ordered\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ land\\.\\ Vision\\ of\\ order\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ real\\ and\\ conceptual\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Reality\\ of\\ Inca\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ spread\\ across\\ coast\\ and\\ jungle\\.\\ Conceptually\\,\\ ordered\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 4\\ equaled\\ part\\ related\\ geometrically\\ into\\ center\\.\\ Mental\\ order\\ of\\ geographic\\ space\\.\\ Two\\ maps\\:\\ we\\ are\\ accustomed\\ to\\ faithful\\ outline\\ of\\ coast\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ area\\ considered\\ four\\ parts\\ running\\ up\\ to\\ \\\\Peru\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\.\\ Page\\ from\\ manuscript\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ conceptual\\ map\\ of\\ same\\ place\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ center\\:\\ City\\ of\\ \\\\Cuzco\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Inca\\ empire\\,\\ distributed\\ out\\ are\\ the\\ four\\ suyus\\ \\(place\\)\\.\\ Ordered\\,\\ geometric\\ place\\ conceptually\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hold\\ in\\ mind\\ regardless\\ of\\ reality\\ of\\ geography\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Think\\ of\\ reality\\ and\\ concept\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Objects\\ that\\ can\\ contain\\ and\\ distribute\\ and\\ demonstrate\\ knowledge\\ through\\ a\\ conceptual\\ system\\ that\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ way\\ you\\ order\\ and\\ organize\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Two\\ Inca\\ sculptures\\:\\ Machu\\ Pichu\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ cave\\,\\ cut\\ into\\ natural\\ rock\\,\\ another\\ object\\ intended\\ as\\ object\\ to\\ measure\\ time\\/space\\.\\ Organization\\ of\\ land\\ itself\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ will\\ see\\ reordering\\ of\\ landscape\\ into\\ ordered\\ to\\ produce\\ food\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Lines\\:\\ biomorphic\\ and\\ geometric\\ landscape\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Current\\:\\ keeps\\ water\\ very\\ cold\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ clouds\\ go\\ west\\ to\\ east\\ as\\ come\\ to\\ coast\\,\\ heats\\ up\\,\\ absorbs\\ water\\,\\ so\\ never\\ rain\\.\\ Only\\ in\\ the\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ do\\ clouds\\ rise\\ up\\,\\ colder\\,\\ rains\\.\\ Dependent\\ on\\ rivers\\ as\\ go\\ through\\ Nasca\\.\\ Sites\\ located\\ around\\ rivers\\.\\ Culture\\ of\\ nasca\\:\\ date\\ \\100bc\\-700ad\\ \\<\\/b\\>within\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Lines\\ themselves\\ occur\\ along\\ \\\\Ingenio\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\River\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Reading\\;\\ Cahuachi\\ site\\ on\\ \\\\Nasca\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\River\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ recently\\ excavated\\,\\ demonstrates\\ ceremonial\\ emphasis\\ of\\ area\\.\\ Mud\\ brick\\ platforms\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ populations\\ would\\ periodically\\ visit\\ to\\ go\\ through\\ religious\\ rituals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Melt\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mudbrick\\,\\ with\\ any\\ rain\\ will\\ melt\\.\\ Artificial\\ mounds\\ built\\ into\\ ceremonial\\ center\\ so\\ participants\\ can\\ come\\,\\ organize\\,\\ form\\ religious\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Painting\\:\\ trophy\\ heads\\ carried\\ by\\ men\\ in\\ feline\\ costumes\\ with\\ mask\\,\\ dancing\\ in\\ procession\\.\\ Nasca\\ lines\\ located\\ in\\ pampa\\,\\ flat\\ area\\ in\\ between\\ two\\ rivers\\.\\ Phenomenon\\ of\\ lines\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thousands\\ of\\ lines\\.\\ By\\ and\\ large\\,\\ they\\ were\\ unknown\\ until\\ 1930s\\ in\\ term\\ of\\ scale\\,\\ number\\,\\ and\\ form\\.\\ Reason\\:\\ stretch\\ across\\ \\\\Pampa\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ in\\ many\\ forms\\,\\ sometimes\\ many\\ kilometers\\ long\\.\\ Sighting\\ from\\ one\\ position\\ no\\ access\\ to\\ entire\\ message\\.\\ People\\ who\\ laid\\ out\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ them\\ in\\ entirety\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ images\\ laid\\ out\\ on\\ ground\\ in\\ scale\\ so\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ bird\\ or\\ spaceman\\,\\ or\\ 1930s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ aerial\\ survey\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Although\\ lines\\ have\\ endured\\ since\\ 700AD\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ desert\\ is\\ fragile\\ place\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ everyone\\ goes\\ out\\ with\\ vehicles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ degradation\\ in\\ 1930s\\ have\\ been\\ extreme\\.\\ Ria\\ Rieke\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mathematician\\ who\\ preserved\\,\\ studied\\ lines\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ria\\ studied\\:\\ some\\ astronomers\\ think\\ lines\\ calibrated\\ to\\ celestial\\ cues\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ large\\ calendars\\.\\ Some\\ do\\ point\\ to\\ solstices\\,\\ equinox\\,\\ so\\ many\\ of\\ them\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ statistically\\,\\ should\\ be\\ pointing\\ to\\ something\\.\\ One\\ of\\ premier\\ astronomers\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ disproved\\ lines\\ as\\ being\\ primarily\\ involved\\ with\\ mapping\\ of\\ calendrical\\ system\\.\\ Not\\ all\\ point\\.\\ Some\\ are\\ huge\\,\\ some\\ spiral\\,\\ small\\.\\ One\\ concept\\:\\ \\geometric\\ abstraction\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Shapes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ forms\\ used\\ in\\ variety\\ of\\ ways\\ to\\ mark\\ information\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>Marked\\ territory\\ and\\ ceremonial\\ movement\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Most\\ straight\\,\\ trapezoidal\\,\\ some\\ continual\\ parallel\\.\\ Most\\ interesting\\:\\ bioforms\\ laid\\ out\\ on\\ land\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hummingbird\\.\\ Some\\ 20\\ different\\ birds\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ identified\\ in\\ geoglyphs\\.\\ Monkeys\\,\\ amorphic\\ bioforms\\ \\&ndash\\;hands\\ coming\\ off\\ it\\,\\ spider\\,\\ candor\\.\\ Hummingbirds\\ are\\ all\\ over\\ area\\ like\\ candor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ different\\ flight\\ paths\\.\\ Point\\:\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ lines\\ unless\\ like\\ candor\\.\\ So\\,\\ issue\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ conceptual\\ mapping\\,\\ idea\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ take\\ the\\ ideal\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ figure\\ of\\ humningbird\\,\\ can\\ blow\\ up\\ to\\ scale\\ beyond\\ human\\ comprehension\\.\\ Beyond\\ that\\ self\\,\\ beyond\\ capacity\\ to\\ take\\ in\\ entirely\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ can\\ hold\\ conceptually\\.\\ Viscerally\\ move\\ across\\ the\\ land\\,\\ you\\ can\\ become\\ the\\ image\\ by\\ walking\\ the\\ lines\\.\\ Killer\\ whale\\ shape\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Also\\ interesting\\:\\ extraordinarily\\ produced\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ them\\?\\ Flood\\ that\\ flattened\\ everything\\.\\ Many\\ small\\ stones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ over\\ period\\ of\\ time\\,\\ surface\\ stones\\ made\\ dark\\ by\\ airborne\\ microorganisms\\.\\ By\\ removing\\ the\\ right\\ stones\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ contract\\ with\\ color\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>One\\ has\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ ground\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ figure\\ relationships\\.\\ Figure\\ not\\ laying\\ on\\ ground\\,\\ latent\\ in\\ ground\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Just\\ needs\\ to\\ remove\\ stones\\ in\\ ordered\\ way\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1300\\ years\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ changed\\,\\ so\\ dry\\,\\ no\\ oxidation\\.\\ Relationship\\ has\\ endured\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Interpretive\\ aspects\\ of\\ lines\\.\\ If\\ not\\ calendars\\,\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ runway\\ for\\ spaceships\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ use\\?\\ Movement\\ in\\ the\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pilgrimages\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Existed\\ by\\ Spanish\\ arrival\\,\\ continued\\ to\\ exist\\ in\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ today\\.\\ Movement\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ calibrated\\ to\\ dates\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Feast\\ days\\ also\\ calibrated\\ to\\ agricultural\\ days\\.\\ Not\\ so\\ important\\ in\\ Catholic\\/Christian\\ feast\\ days\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ feast\\ days\\ place\\ with\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>You\\ perform\\ as\\ a\\ community\\ to\\ insure\\ good\\ Harvard\\,\\ planting\\,\\ benefit\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ On\\ the\\ left\\ \\:\\ photograph\\ of\\ community\\.\\ Playing\\ music\\,\\ walking\\ according\\ to\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ village\\.\\ Dancing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ walk\\ up\\ mountains\\ in\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Mountains\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ place\\ where\\ deities\\ dwell\\.\\ Now\\ believed\\ many\\ lines\\ may\\ have\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ how\\ activate\\ pulbic\\.\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ collective\\ society\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Create\\ space\\ takes\\ you\\ outside\\ the\\ normal\\ \\-\\ outside\\ of\\ fishing\\,\\ planting\\,\\ etc\\.\\ places\\ you\\ in\\ relationship\\ with\\ ideas\\ you\\ have\\ about\\ that\\ world\\,\\ makes\\ you\\ move\\ through\\ it\\.\\ You\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ passive\\ practicum\\,\\ becoming\\ involved\\ physically\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ and\\ walking\\ through\\ it\\.\\ New\\ this\\ existed\\ in\\ capital\\ system\\ of\\ age\\.\\ In\\ between\\ built\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sacred\\ city\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ enclosed\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ lines\\ enclose\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Most\\ sacred\\ building\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sun\\ temple\\ in\\ Cruzco\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ out\\ of\\ building\\ emulated\\ 320\\ lines\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ as\\ lines\\,\\ only\\ exist\\ in\\ imagination\\ of\\ person\\ who\\ walks\\ on\\ the\\ temple\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>If\\ you\\ belong\\ in\\ family\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ must\\ walk\\ straight\\ out\\,\\ \\(conceptually\\)\\ from\\ one\\ sacred\\ place\\ Waka\\ to\\ another\\.\\ Perform\\ certain\\ obligations\\,\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ every\\ day\\ of\\ the\\ year\\.\\ Parts\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ walk\\ out\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Empire\\:\\ every\\ year\\ once\\ a\\ year\\,\\ leaders\\ of\\ communities\\ that\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ Tahuantinsuyu\\ walked\\ the\\ city\\.\\ Walked\\ around\\ the\\ plaza\\ four\\ times\\,\\ then\\ walked\\ back\\ to\\ their\\ community\\ in\\ straight\\ line\\.\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ walk\\ anywhere\\ in\\ \\Andes\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ in\\ straight\\ line\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\,\\ geometric\\ post\\,\\ you\\ are\\ performing\\ order\\ of\\ straight\\ line\\.\\ Physical\\ way\\ in\\ relationship\\ to\\ landscape\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>With\\ this\\ information\\:\\ look\\ at\\ lines\\ in\\ Nasca\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Take\\ landscape\\,\\ can\\ make\\ into\\ large\\ surface\\ of\\ lines\\.\\ Mother\\ Earth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ divine\\,\\ force\\ into\\ it\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Radiated\\ lines\\ out\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nodal\\ points\\ sets\\ the\\ relationship\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ altogether\\ unlike\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ Spiral\\ Jetty\\.\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ live\\ in\\ an\\ Indian\\ country\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Smithson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ outside\\,\\ where\\ integrates\\ the\\ natural\\ with\\ the\\ conceptual\\ to\\ bring\\ to\\ visual\\ space\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ perform\\ it\\,\\ that\\ you\\ walk\\ it\\,\\ that\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ jetty\\,\\ unless\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ look\\ above\\ it\\.\\ Then\\ see\\ Smithson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ drawings\\.\\ True\\ in\\ Nazco\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ exactly\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ it\\.\\ Not\\ seeing\\ modern\\ strain\\ of\\ artistic\\ production\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ how\\ use\\ environment\\ to\\ integrate\\ your\\ thoughts\\/\\ beliefs\\,\\ aspirations\\ about\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ human\\,\\ is\\ not\\ that\\ dissimilar\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>You\\ can\\ understand\\ why\\ someone\\ likes\\ Smithson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ He\\ can\\ impassioned\\ about\\ things\\ they\\ saw\\ in\\ \\\\Peru\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ affinity\\ to\\ what\\ is\\ a\\ miracle\\ among\\ other\\ things\\.\\ One\\ who\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ you\\ have\\ seen\\:\\ Sera\\ is\\ all\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ Richard\\ Serra\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ visceral\\,\\ like\\ walking\\ line\\.\\ Large\\,\\ encompassing\\,\\ when\\ walk\\ around\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ amazing\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Want\\ to\\ touch\\ sides\\ of\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>wall\\ as\\ joining\\ him\\ as\\ made\\ it\\.\\ Absorbed\\ in\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ line\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ heavy\\ material\\.\\ Feeling\\ of\\ being\\ physically\\ being\\ taken\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ taking\\ part\\ in\\ it\\.\\ Conceptualization\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ become\\ part\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>When\\ see\\ modern\\ contemporary\\ artists\\ looking\\ back\\ at\\ material\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ understand\\ in\\ archaeological\\ point\\ of\\ view\\.\\ Deep\\ understanding\\ in\\ artistic\\ level\\ about\\ seeing\\,\\ comprehending\\.\\ Smithson\\ not\\ wrong\\ seeing\\ inspiration\\.\\ Doing\\ same\\ thing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ environmental\\ ways\\ of\\ building\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ make\\ the\\ individual\\ part\\ of\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 97, "file_path": "", "desc": "Nazca"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.330687+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Dickens ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 685, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 3\\.10\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>The\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ week\\ is\\ the\\ halfway\\ point\\ of\\ the\\ semester\\.\\ Next\\ Thursday\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lecture\\ is\\ the\\ centerpiece\\ lecture\\.\\ Last\\ week\\ we\\ went\\ on\\ a\\ walk\\ through\\ Victorian\\ streets\\.\\ Today\\ we\\ are\\ walking\\ with\\ a\\ walking\\ companion\\-\\ Mr\\.\\ Charles\\ Dickens\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Dickens\\ was\\ an\\ obsessive\\ compulsive\\ walker\\.\\ Walking\\ is\\ such\\ an\\ important\\ trope\\ to\\ Dickens\\.\\ He\\ was\\ working\\ through\\ issues\\ through\\ walking\\.\\ By\\ his\\ mid\\ 20s\\ he\\ was\\ walking\\ 15\\-20\\ miles\\ a\\ day\\.\\ He\\ could\\ do\\ 4\\ miles\\ an\\ hour\\.\\ He\\ would\\ walk\\ for\\ as\\ many\\ hours\\ a\\ day\\ as\\ he\\ wrote\\ and\\ the\\ reason\\ was\\ he\\ was\\ hyperactive\\.\\ He\\ needed\\ to\\ expel\\ this\\ energy\\ through\\ walking\\.\\ His\\ writing\\ and\\ walking\\ were\\ completely\\ inter\\-operable\\.\\ He\\ needed\\ to\\ exhaust\\ himself\\ physically\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>After\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ father\\ he\\ developed\\ the\\ habit\\ of\\ walking\\ the\\ streets\\ of\\ London\\ from\\ midnight\\ to\\ dawn\\.\\ The\\ human\\ activity\\ he\\ observed\\ was\\ at\\ night\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>When\\ his\\ marriage\\ started\\ to\\ deteriorate\\ he\\ took\\ daily\\ 20\\ mile\\ walks\\ just\\ to\\ avoid\\ her\\.\\ He\\ was\\ superficial\\ about\\ appearance\\ and\\ looks\\.\\ He\\ was\\ proud\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ physique\\ and\\ his\\ own\\ look\\.\\ She\\ gained\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ weight\\ and\\ they\\ fought\\ over\\ her\\ weight\\ gain\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>So\\ what\\ did\\ Dickens\\ see\\ on\\ his\\ daily\\ walks\\?\\ He\\ definitely\\ encountered\\ London\\ cab\\ men\\ who\\ were\\ extremely\\ aggressive\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ also\\ charismatic\\ and\\ eccentric\\ features\\.\\ He\\ would\\ have\\ also\\ encountered\\ some\\ shop\\ keepers\\ and\\ the\\ homeless\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Now\\ some\\ people\\ see\\ his\\ walking\\ as\\ symptoms\\ of\\ flaneuar\\.\\ Fleaneuar\\ means\\ a\\ gentlman\\ stroller\\ someone\\ who\\ is\\ an\\ attached\\ observer\\ of\\ urban\\ life\\.\\ The\\ French\\ loved\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ They\\ wandered\\ the\\ streets\\ of\\ Paris\\,\\ London\\,\\ Milan\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ constant\\ consumers\\.\\ They\\ would\\ watch\\ the\\ women\\-\\ he\\ checked\\ everybody\\ out\\ and\\ made\\ everyone\\ his\\ object\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>There\\ was\\ a\\ fashion\\ for\\ the\\ flaneuar\\ to\\ walk\\ down\\ the\\ street\\ with\\ a\\ pet\\ tortoise\\.\\ Flaneuar\\ is\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ onlooker\\.\\ The\\ onlooker\\ is\\ possessed\\ by\\ the\\ scene\\ that\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ sees\\.\\ The\\ flaneuar\\ would\\ never\\ do\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ situated\\ between\\ the\\ public\\ and\\ the\\ private\\.\\ He\\ walks\\ down\\ the\\ street\\ like\\ he\\ is\\ walking\\ down\\ the\\ hall\\ of\\ his\\ apartment\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ blurring\\ inside\\ the\\ street\\.\\ The\\ architecture\\ was\\ the\\ arcade\\.\\ The\\ arcade\\ was\\ essentially\\ glass\\ roofed\\ marble\\ corridors\\ of\\ shops\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ forerunners\\ of\\ the\\ department\\ store\\ or\\ mall\\.\\ You\\ are\\ outside\\ on\\ a\\ street\\ but\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ space\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>The\\ first\\ difference\\ between\\ Dickens\\ and\\ the\\ flaneaur\\ is\\ what\\ he\\ called\\ himself\\ when\\ he\\ published\\.\\ He\\ called\\ himself\\ the\\ uncommerical\\ traveler\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ constant\\ consumer\\.\\ He\\ is\\ a\\ traveler\\ who\\ is\\ definitely\\ uncommercial\\.\\ He\\ is\\ presenting\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ moral\\ corrective\\.\\ Dickens\\ is\\ touched\\ by\\ everything\\ he\\ encounters\\.\\ He\\ is\\ touched\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ moved\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Passage\\ of\\ him\\ being\\ touched\\ in\\ Nightwalks\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Once\\ after\\ leaving\\ the\\ abbey\\&hellip\\;\\ Dickens\\ critiques\\ this\\ world\\ of\\ Flaneurs\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ this\\ leads\\ to\\ alienation\\.\\ He\\ refuses\\ to\\ look\\ away\\ and\\ recreates\\ it\\ for\\ his\\ readers\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ it\\ too\\.\\ Another\\ indication\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ goes\\ out\\ at\\ night\\.\\ Dickens\\ is\\ nocturnal\\ when\\ the\\ outside\\ is\\ truly\\ outside\\.\\ This\\ truly\\ alienates\\ space\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>He\\ sees\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ it\\ is\\.\\ The\\ flaneaur\\ is\\ at\\ ease\\.\\ Now\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ \\&ldquo\\;Inspector\\ Field\\&rdquo\\;\\ some\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ literary\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ detective\\.\\ He\\ is\\ sort\\ of\\ embedded\\ with\\ this\\ police\\ force\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ nights\\.\\ This\\ police\\ force\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ patrolling\\ the\\ filthiest\\ dens\\ where\\ homeless\\ people\\ slept\\.\\ Inspector\\ Field\\ cynically\\ dismisses\\ all\\ the\\ thieves\\.\\ Dickens\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ by\\ see\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ the\\ Flaneur\\ in\\ Fields\\.\\ There\\ is\\ something\\ provisional\\ about\\ the\\ law\\ and\\ order\\ that\\ he\\ embodies\\.\\ Inspector\\ Field\\ is\\ at\\ home\\ everywhere\\.\\ He\\ reads\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ page\\ 314\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Dickens "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.342137+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Roots of Public Opinion: Self Interest and Values ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 686, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 3\\.9\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Minimalist\\&rdquo\\;\\ American\\ Public\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-high\\ response\\ instability\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-we\\ need\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ logic\\ that\\ citizens\\ are\\ using\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ROOTS\\ OF\\ PUBLIC\\ OPINION\\:\\ SELF\\ INTEREST\\ AND\\ VALUES\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Are\\ they\\ capable\\ of\\ holding\\ reasoned\\,\\ complex\\ reasons\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Do\\ people\\ support\\ those\\ policies\\ that\\ promote\\ their\\ own\\ private\\ gain\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Is\\ it\\ possible\\ that\\ policy\\ preferences\\ rise\\ with\\ little\\ connection\\ to\\ self\\ interest\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Self\\-\\ Interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Rational\\&rdquo\\;\\ decisions\\ making\\.\\ People\\ try\\ to\\ maximize\\ utility\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Goals\\ are\\ on\\ material\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ their\\ private\\ lives\\.\\ People\\ are\\ always\\ looking\\ out\\ for\\ number\\ one\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Measuring\\ Self\\ Interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Want\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ relate\\ direct\\ personal\\ impact\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ indirect\\ measures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Demographic\\ variables\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ urban\\ poor\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ job\\ programs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Uninsured\\ adults\\ who\\ are\\ under\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 65\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ universal\\ health\\ insurance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Homeowners\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ home\\ owner\\ mortgage\\ cuts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Class\\ lines\\ are\\ pretty\\ modest\\ but\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ pronounced\\ as\\ you\\ expect\\,\\ they\\ do\\ in\\ fact\\ exists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ STUDY\\ FOUND\\ THAT\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ on\\ welfare\\ wanted\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ spending\\ on\\ welfare\\ than\\ 32\\%\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ not\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Self\\-Interest\\ Beyond\\ Economic\\ Policy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Policies\\ also\\ distribute\\ non\\ economic\\ cost\\ and\\ benefit\\.\\ For\\ example\\ smokers\\ and\\ gun\\ owners\\ have\\ views\\ on\\ policy\\.\\ Citizens\\ hold\\ opinions\\ on\\ issues\\ where\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ personal\\ stake\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Even\\ on\\ issues\\ with\\ probable\\ impact\\,\\ self\\-\\ interest\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ considerations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Studies\\ of\\ opinion\\ about\\ busing\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ greatest\\ opposition\\ come\\ from\\ racial\\ attitudes\\ than\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ you\\ have\\ school\\ aged\\ children\\.\\ Young\\ adults\\ of\\ draft\\ age\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ ones\\ opposing\\ a\\ military\\ draft\\.\\ The\\ poll\\ of\\ self\\ interest\\ is\\ not\\ universal\\.\\ Individuals\\ have\\ trends\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ purely\\ self\\ interest\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ good\\ example\\ is\\ how\\ citizens\\ rate\\ presidential\\ performance\\.\\ It\\ is\\ common\\ knowledge\\ that\\ the\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\ ratings\\ that\\ the\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\ ratings\\ affect\\ those\\ tendencies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ thought\\ that\\ Presidential\\ approval\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pocket\\ book\\ but\\ actually\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ gains\\ or\\ losses\\ do\\ not\\ play\\ this\\ role\\.\\ People\\ reward\\ or\\ punish\\ the\\ president\\ on\\ their\\ perceptions\\ of\\ the\\ overall\\ state\\.\\ Those\\ type\\ of\\ responses\\ are\\ called\\ sociotropic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Social\\ Security\\ Experiment\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;No\\ Prime\\&rdquo\\;\\ read\\ the\\ introduction\\ and\\ consider\\ how\\ the\\ policy\\ changes\\ would\\ affect\\ them\\ personally\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Researchers\\ compared\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ under\\ 60\\ and\\ 60\\ and\\ over\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ if\\ self\\ interest\\ is\\ at\\ work\\ than\\ the\\ older\\ people\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ raise\\ taxes\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ currently\\ working\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ pattern\\ you\\ see\\.\\ But\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ sociotropic\\ prime\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ opinion\\ varies\\ little\\ by\\ age\\.\\ You\\ now\\ have\\ a\\ clear\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ raising\\ taxes\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ solution\\.\\ The\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ issue\\ is\\ framed\\.\\ Self\\-interest\\ does\\ not\\ always\\ rule\\ the\\ day\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Beyond\\ Self\\ Interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Values\\ are\\ general\\ and\\ enduring\\ beliefs\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ should\\ work\\.\\ They\\ are\\ arrived\\ at\\ before\\ future\\ calculation\\ of\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ potential\\ range\\ of\\ values\\ is\\ vast\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Egalitarianism\\ \\(all\\ citizens\\ should\\ have\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ achieve\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Our\\ society\\ should\\ do\\ whatever\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ everyone\\ has\\ equal\\ opportunity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ more\\ equally\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ do\\ not\\ give\\ people\\ an\\ equal\\ chance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ strength\\ of\\ support\\ is\\ overwhelming\\.\\ 89\\%\\ of\\ people\\ agree\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ statement\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ likely\\ to\\ support\\ poverty\\ programs\\,\\ health\\ and\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ likely\\ to\\ support\\ health\\ and\\ well\\ being\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Strong\\ effect\\ on\\ support\\ for\\ gay\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Part\\ of\\ the\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ racial\\ divide\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ are\\ enormous\\ differences\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\.\\ These\\ racial\\ differences\\ have\\ been\\ linked\\ to\\ social\\ welfare\\ differences\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>and\\ Individualism\\ \\(pull\\ yourself\\ up\\ by\\ your\\ boot\\ straps\\)\\ are\\ two\\ important\\ values\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>An\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ work\\ hard\\ has\\ a\\ a\\ chance\\ of\\ succeeding\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ have\\ yourself\\ to\\ blame\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Clearly\\ emphasize\\ personal\\ effort\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Has\\ effects\\ only\\ in\\ few\\ policy\\ areas\\.\\ Individuals\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ oppose\\ welfare\\ spending\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Political\\ decisions\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ congruence\\ with\\ long\\ standing\\ values\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ their\\ current\\ economic\\ needs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Values\\ are\\ abstract\\ concepts\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ measure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Value\\ orientations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ have\\ strong\\ value\\ commitments\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>There\\ is\\ no\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ value\\ but\\ liberty\\/equality\\ is\\ near\\ the\\ top\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ can\\ translate\\ values\\ to\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ else\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ values\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Moral\\ traditionalism\\ based\\ on\\ tradition\\,\\ family\\ and\\ social\\ organization\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\ parent\\ families\\ and\\ are\\ opposed\\ to\\ changing\\ family\\ norms\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Religious\\ Values\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>importance\\ of\\ values\\ derived\\ by\\ religious\\ commitments\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\/3\\ of\\ Americans\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ churches\\ and\\ are\\ frequent\\ church\\ goers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\CONCLUSION\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Public\\ opinion\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ several\\ factors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Self\\ interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sociotropic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Personal\\ feelings\\ about\\ core\\ values\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\All\\ of\\ this\\ revives\\ an\\ image\\ as\\ citizens\\ as\\ more\\ sophisticated\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Roots of Public Opinion: Self Interest and Values "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.362432+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Summaries from Midterm Study Guide 2008!", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 687, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Summaries\\ of\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Hoffmann\\ \\-\\ Struwwelpeter\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Foucault\\ \\-\\ Discpiline\\ and\\ Punish\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Ari\\é\\;s\\ \\-\\ Centuries\\ of\\ Childhood\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Locke\\ \\-\\ Thoughts\\ Concerning\\ Education\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Menand\\ \\-\\ Cat\\ People\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Tatar\\ \\-\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\ section\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Darnton\\ \\-\\ Meaning\\ of\\ Mother\\ Goose\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\(NEED\\)\\:\\ Atwood\\,\\ Scarry\\,\\ Postman\\,\\ Certeau\\,\\ Parker\\ \\(Does\\ anyone\\ have\\ good\\ notes\\ from\\ these\\ readings\\ or\\ would\\ anyone\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ volunteer\\ to\\ summarize\\ one\\ or\\ two\\?\\?\\?\\ Let\\ me\\ know\\!\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Heinrich\\ Hoffman\\,\\ Struwwelpeter\\ \\(1844\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Book\\ is\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ 10\\ poetic\\ tales\\ in\\ which\\ violent\\ punishments\\ befall\\ children\\ for\\ minor\\ disobediences\\ or\\ unlikely\\ offenses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dreadful\\ story\\ about\\ Harriet\\ and\\ the\\ Matches\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Harriet\\ plays\\ with\\ matches\\ even\\ after\\ mother\\ \\&\\;\\ nurse\\ tell\\ her\\ not\\ to\\,\\ so\\ her\\ apron\\ strings\\ catch\\ on\\ fire\\ so\\ she\\ essentially\\ burns\\ to\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\&ldquo\\;So\\ she\\ was\\ burnt\\,\\ with\\ all\\ her\\ clothes\\,\\ and\\ arms\\,\\ and\\ hands\\,\\ and\\ eyes\\,\\ and\\ nose\\;\\ till\\ she\\ had\\ nothing\\ more\\ to\\ lose\\ than\\ her\\ scarlet\\ shoes\\;\\ and\\ nothing\\ else\\ but\\ these\\ was\\ found\\ among\\ her\\ ashes\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Illustration\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ shows\\ Harriet\\ on\\ fire\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Includes\\ very\\ visible\\ examples\\ of\\ physical\\ torture\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ disobedience\\ \\(cautionary\\ tales\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Ex\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Story\\ of\\ Little\\ Suck\\-A\\-Thumb\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ child\\'s\\ thumb\\ gets\\ cut\\ off\\ by\\ a\\ \\"\\;red\\-legged\\ scissor\\ man\\"\\;\\ after\\ the\\ child\\ disobeys\\ his\\ mother\\ and\\ sucks\\ his\\ thumb\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Author\\ was\\ a\\ German\\ physician\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Criticized\\ for\\ severity\\ in\\ making\\ punishments\\ harsher\\ than\\ the\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crimes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Yet\\ initial\\ reception\\ was\\ enthusiastic\\ because\\ with\\ its\\ exaggeration\\ and\\ nonsense\\,\\ it\\ represented\\ a\\ stark\\ contrast\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;pallid\\ moral\\ tales\\ that\\ were\\ standard\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fare\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 19th\\ century\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(from\\ Lit\\ A17\\ website\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Hoffman\\ description\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Neil\\ Postman\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Disappearance\\ of\\ Childhood\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ch\\.\\ 5\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ End\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Period\\ of\\ 1850\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1950\\ \\=\\ when\\ childhood\\ as\\ a\\ biological\\ category\\ really\\ took\\ hold\\ in\\ education\\,\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ clothing\\,\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lit\\,\\ and\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ social\\ world\\ with\\ a\\ preferred\\/protected\\ status\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ But\\ during\\ the\\ same\\ period\\,\\ the\\ symbolic\\ environment\\ that\\ gave\\ life\\ to\\ childhood\\ began\\ to\\ disappear\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ New\\ technology\\ \\(beginning\\ with\\ the\\ invention\\ of\\ the\\ telegraph\\)\\ altered\\ the\\ information\\ kids\\ had\\ access\\ to\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Electronic\\ media\\/communication\\ combined\\ with\\ graphic\\ revolution\\ \\(cartoons\\,\\ pictures\\,\\ poster\\,\\ etc\\)\\ recast\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ ideas\\ into\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\ icons\\ and\\ images\\ \\(73\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Postman\\ argues\\ that\\ TV\\ erodes\\ the\\ diving\\ line\\ between\\ childhood\\ and\\ adulthood\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ undifferentiated\\ accessibility\\:\\ \\(80\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Requires\\ no\\ instruction\\ to\\ grasp\\ its\\ form\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ complex\\ demands\\ on\\ mind\\ or\\ behavior\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ segregate\\ audience\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ \\*\\*Postman\\ argues\\ that\\ electronic\\ media\\ makes\\ it\\ impossible\\ to\\ withhold\\ secrets\\ from\\ children\\,\\ and\\ without\\ secrets\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ childhood\\.\\ \\(80\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ch\\.\\ 6\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Total\\ Disclosure\\ Medium\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ TV\\ makes\\ use\\ of\\ every\\ existing\\ taboo\\ because\\ it\\ constantly\\ needs\\ new\\ engaging\\ material\\ to\\ hold\\ audiences\\ \\(82\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ TV\\ opens\\ secrets\\ and\\ makes\\ public\\ what\\ has\\ previously\\ been\\ private\\ \\(83\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Postman\\ defines\\ a\\ group\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Children\\)\\ by\\ the\\ exclusivity\\ of\\ info\\ its\\ members\\ share\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Thus\\,\\ TV\\ media\\ eliminates\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ kids\\ and\\ adults\\ by\\ exposing\\ secrets\\ \\(84\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ Full\\ disclosure\\ media\\ eliminates\\ private\\ knowledge\\ \\(92\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\ But\\ not\\ all\\ info\\ on\\ TV\\ is\\ bad\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ it\\ shows\\ the\\ existential\\ pleasure\\ of\\ buying\\ things\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\o\\ Yet\\,\\ even\\ the\\ good\\ is\\ an\\ adult\\ good\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ consumerism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ bad\\,\\ but\\ kids\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ it\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\,\\ by\\ Michael\\ Foucault\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ \\\t\\&ldquo\\;new\\ theory\\ of\\ law\\ and\\ crime\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(codes\\ and\\ rules\\ of\\ \\\tprocedure\\,\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ jury\\ system\\,\\ making\\ punishment\\ fit\\ the\\ \\\tcrime\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\)\\ with\\ the\\ disappearance\\ of\\ torture\\ as\\ a\\ public\\ \\\tspectacle\\ \\(the\\ body\\ no\\ longer\\ bore\\ the\\ brunt\\ of\\ punishment\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Disappearance\\ of\\ \\\tpublic\\ torture\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Functions\\/goals\\ \\\tof\\ the\\ spectacle\\ of\\ punishment\\ were\\ no\\ longer\\ understood\\ and\\ \\\tinstead\\ were\\ being\\ reversed\\:\\ the\\ torture\\ administered\\ to\\ the\\ \\\tcriminals\\ equaled\\ the\\ crime\\ itself\\,\\ executioners\\ and\\ judges\\ \\\tresembled\\ criminals\\,\\ and\\ the\\ criminal\\ was\\ pitied\\.\\ Shame\\ and\\ blame\\ \\\tenveloped\\ both\\ the\\ executioner\\ and\\ the\\ criminal\\ in\\ this\\ violent\\ \\\tspectacle\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Punishment\\ of\\ the\\ \\\tcriminal\\ now\\ hidden\\;\\ it\\ leaves\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ perception\\ and\\ enters\\ \\\tthe\\ realm\\ of\\ consciousness\\ \\(punishment\\ is\\ effective\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ \\\tcertainty\\ that\\ one\\ will\\ be\\ punished\\ if\\ one\\ commits\\ a\\ crime\\,\\ and\\ not\\ \\\tbecause\\ of\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;shame\\&rsquo\\;\\ produced\\ by\\ public\\ punishment\\)\\.\\ \\\tShame\\ and\\ blame\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ on\\ the\\ justice\\ system\\,\\ but\\ solely\\ on\\ \\\tthe\\ criminal\\,\\ as\\ punishment\\ is\\ made\\ hidden\\ and\\ private\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;justice\\ \\\tis\\ relieved\\ of\\ responsibility\\ for\\ \\[punishment\\]\\ by\\ a\\ bureaucratic\\ \\\tconcealment\\ of\\ the\\ penalty\\ itself\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(10\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ a\\ \\\tgrowing\\ shame\\ in\\ punishing\\,\\ and\\ sentences\\ passed\\ by\\ judges\\ are\\ \\\tintended\\ to\\ correct\\ and\\ cure\\,\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ revel\\ in\\ violence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ disappearance\\ \\\tof\\ public\\ punishment\\ marks\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;slackening\\ of\\ the\\ hold\\ on\\ the\\ \\\tbody\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(10\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Body\\ seen\\ as\\ an\\ \\\tintermediary\\ to\\ deprive\\ an\\ individual\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ liberties\\\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\ \\\tpunishment\\ is\\ now\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ economy\\ of\\ suspended\\ rights\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ \\\tmust\\ be\\ free\\ of\\ all\\ pain\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ anesthetics\\ during\\ an\\ execution\\:\\ \\\tpunishment\\ focused\\ on\\ affecting\\ \\life\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ but\\ not\\ the\\ physical\\ \\\tbody\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\But\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ \\\tdifficult\\ to\\ separate\\ punishment\\ from\\ physical\\ pain\\:\\ prisoners\\ \\\texperience\\ food\\ rationing\\,\\ solitary\\ confinement\\,\\ sexual\\ \\\tdeprivation\\,\\ work\\ long\\ hours\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Punishment\\ \\\tincreasingly\\ moving\\ towards\\ punishing\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ This\\ is\\ reflected\\ \\\tin\\ the\\ change\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ punished\\:\\ the\\ law\\ now\\ judges\\ \\\tand\\ condemns\\ the\\ instincts\\,\\ passions\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ \\\tcriminal\\ acts\\ themselves\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ lust\\,\\ and\\ not\\ rape\\,\\ is\\ \\\tpunished\\,\\ and\\ aggressivity\\,\\ and\\ not\\ aggressive\\ crimes\\)\\\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\ \\\tindividuals\\ not\\ punished\\ on\\ what\\ they\\ do\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;but\\ also\\ on\\ what\\ \\\tthey\\ are\\,\\ will\\ be\\,\\ may\\ be\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(18\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Medicojudicial\\ \\\ttreatments\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ Role\\ of\\ madness\\ in\\ guilt\\ can\\ make\\ a\\ person\\ less\\ \\\tguilty\\,\\ but\\ guilty\\ nonetheless\\.\\ This\\ gives\\ rise\\ to\\ new\\ questions\\ on\\ \\\thow\\ to\\ rehabilitate\\ the\\ prisoner\\,\\ whether\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ danger\\ to\\ \\\tsociety\\,\\ where\\ did\\ his\\ motives\\ come\\ from\\,\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ concern\\ \\\tresponsibility\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ effectiveness\\ and\\ necessity\\ of\\ the\\ \\\tpunishment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\In\\ conclusion\\,\\ the\\ \\\tjudge\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ has\\ evolved\\ into\\ more\\ than\\ an\\ administrator\\ of\\ \\\tpunishment\\ as\\ the\\ penal\\ process\\ has\\ incorporated\\ extra\\-juridical\\ \\\telements\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ transform\\ the\\ judicial\\ process\\ into\\ something\\ \\\tmore\\ than\\ just\\ legal\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Reading\\ Outline\\ for\\ Philippe\\ Ari\\è\\;s\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Conclusion\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Centuries\\ of\\ Childhood\\ \\(Sourcebook\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\In\\ the\\ Middle\\ \\\tAges\\,\\ children\\ were\\ mixed\\ with\\ adults\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ \\\tconsidered\\ capable\\ of\\ doing\\ without\\ their\\ mothers\\ or\\ nannies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ these\\ \\\tcrowded\\,\\ collective\\ existences\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ room\\ for\\ a\\ private\\ \\\tsector\\.\\ The\\ family\\ fulfilled\\ a\\ function\\;\\ it\\ ensured\\ the\\ transmission\\ \\\tof\\ life\\,\\ property\\ and\\ names\\;\\ but\\ it\\ did\\ not\\ penetrate\\ very\\ far\\ into\\ \\\thuman\\ sensibility\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(411\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Medieval\\ \\\tcivilization\\ had\\ no\\ idea\\ of\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ lacked\\ the\\ \\\tconcept\\ of\\ transition\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ today\\ in\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Today\\,\\ our\\ world\\ \\\tis\\ obsessed\\ by\\ the\\ physical\\,\\ moral\\ and\\ sexual\\ problems\\ of\\ childhood\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Battle\\ between\\ \\\tmoralists\\ and\\ humanists\\ \\(humanists\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ care\\ much\\ for\\ \\\teducation\\ confined\\ to\\ children\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ positive\\ \\\tmoralization\\ of\\ society\\ was\\ taking\\ place\\:\\ the\\ moral\\ aspect\\ of\\ \\\treligion\\ was\\ gradually\\ triumphing\\ in\\ practice\\ over\\ the\\ sacred\\ or\\ \\\teschatological\\ aspect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Henceforth\\,\\ \\\tit\\ was\\ recognized\\ that\\ the\\ child\\ was\\ not\\ ready\\ for\\ life\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ \\\thad\\ to\\ be\\ subjected\\ to\\ a\\ special\\ treatment\\,\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ quarantine\\,\\ \\\tbefore\\ he\\ was\\ allowed\\ to\\ join\\ the\\ adults\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ family\\ \\\tceased\\ to\\ be\\ simply\\ an\\ institution\\ for\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ a\\ name\\ \\\tand\\ an\\ estate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ assumed\\ a\\ moral\\ and\\ spiritual\\ function\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Modern\\ concept\\ of\\ \\\tthe\\ family\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ training\\ for\\ life\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ development\\ of\\ \\\tthe\\ school\\ in\\ the\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ newfound\\ \\\tinterest\\ taken\\ by\\ parents\\ in\\ their\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ education\\ \\\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\ \\\tgiving\\ their\\ children\\ a\\ good\\ \\and\\<\\/i\\>\\ holy\\ life\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\\tsolicitude\\ of\\ family\\,\\ Church\\,\\ moralists\\ and\\ administrators\\ deprived\\ \\\tthe\\ child\\ of\\ the\\ freedom\\ he\\ had\\ hitherto\\ enjoyed\\ among\\ adults\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\However\\,\\ this\\ \\\tseverity\\ was\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ old\\ indifference\\ \\(of\\ medieval\\ \\\ttimes\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ stemmed\\ from\\ an\\ \\obsessive\\ love\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ a\\ \\\tconnection\\ between\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ family\\ and\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ class\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Games\\ and\\ \\\tschools\\,\\ originally\\ common\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ society\\,\\ henceforth\\ \\\tformed\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ class\\ system\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;there\\ \\\tcame\\ a\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ bear\\ the\\ pressure\\ \\\tof\\ the\\ multitude\\ or\\ the\\ contact\\ of\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\ \\\tit\\ \\&ldquo\\;seceded\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Juxtaposition\\ of\\ \\\tinequalities\\ and\\ quest\\ for\\ privacy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Old\\ society\\ \\\tconcentrated\\ different\\ class\\ into\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;minimum\\ space\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\tand\\ tolerated\\ the\\ bizarre\\ m\\é\\;lange\\ of\\ different\\ classes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\New\\ society\\,\\ \\\thowever\\,\\ provides\\ each\\ way\\ of\\ a\\ life\\ with\\ a\\ confined\\ space\\ whereby\\ \\\tthey\\ should\\ resemble\\ a\\ conventional\\ model\\ they\\ should\\ never\\ depart\\ \\\tfrom\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\\tconcept\\ of\\ family\\,\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ class\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ elsewhere\\ the\\ \\\tconcept\\ of\\ race\\,\\ appear\\ as\\ manifestations\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ intolerance\\ \\\ttowards\\ variety\\,\\ the\\ same\\ insistence\\ on\\ uniformity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\John\\ Locke\\<\\/b\\>\\,\\ \\Some\\ Thoughts\\ Concerning\\ Education\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Locke\\ describes\\ a\\ \\\thappy\\ state\\ as\\ being\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;sound\\ mind\\ in\\ a\\ sound\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Since\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;minds\\ \\\tof\\ children\\ are\\ easily\\ turned\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Locke\\ stresses\\ the\\ importance\\ \\\tof\\ taking\\ care\\ of\\ children\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\He\\ first\\ focuses\\ \\\ton\\ health\\ issues\\:\\ proper\\ attire\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ temperature\\,\\ the\\ \\\tability\\ to\\ swim\\,\\ simple\\ diets\\,\\ alcoholic\\ beverages\\,\\ fruit\\,\\ sleep\\,\\ \\\tbedding\\,\\ and\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ bathroom\\ regularly\\ \\[5\\-27\\]\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ body\\ needs\\ to\\ \\\tbe\\ strong\\ and\\ vigorous\\ so\\ it\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;obey\\ and\\ execute\\ the\\ orders\\ \\\tof\\ the\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(31\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ strength\\ of\\ \\\tthe\\ body\\ and\\ mind\\ lie\\ in\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ endure\\ hardships\\ \\(33\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Parents\\,\\ by\\ \\\thumoring\\ and\\ cockering\\ them\\ \\[children\\]\\ when\\ little\\,\\ corrupt\\ the\\ \\\tprinciples\\ of\\ nature\\ in\\ their\\ children\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(35\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Difference\\ between\\ \\\tadults\\ and\\ children\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&hellip\\;Lies\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ having\\ or\\ not\\ \\\thaving\\ appetites\\,\\ in\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ govern\\,\\ and\\ deny\\ ourselves\\ in\\ \\\tthem\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\\tprincipal\\ of\\ all\\ virtue\\ and\\ excellency\\ lies\\ in\\ a\\ power\\ of\\ denying\\ \\\tourselves\\ the\\ satisfaction\\ of\\ our\\ desires\\ where\\ reason\\ does\\ not\\ \\\tauthorize\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ is\\ important\\ \\\tfor\\ a\\ child\\ to\\ understand\\ in\\ whose\\ power\\ he\\ is\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Obedient\\ \\\tsubject\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ child\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Affectionate\\ friend\\&rdquo\\;\\ when\\ \\\the\\ is\\ man\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Views\\ parents\\ as\\ \\\t\\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ governors\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ keep\\ strict\\ hand\\ over\\ \\\tchildren\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\ \\(41\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;His\\ former\\ \\\trestraints\\ will\\ increase\\ their\\ love\\,\\ when\\ they\\ find\\ it\\ was\\ only\\ a\\ \\\tkindness\\ for\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ true\\ secret\\ \\\tof\\ education\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ keeping\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ spirit\\ easy\\,\\ active\\,\\ and\\ \\\tfree\\,\\ while\\ also\\ restraining\\ him\\ from\\ things\\ that\\ draw\\ him\\ to\\ uneasy\\ \\\tthings\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Punishment\\ is\\ the\\ \\\tmost\\ unfit\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Esteem\\ and\\ \\\tdisgrace\\<\\/b\\>\\ are\\,\\ of\\ all\\ others\\,\\ the\\ most\\ powerful\\ incentives\\ to\\ the\\ \\\tmind\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Children\\ should\\ be\\ \\\tleft\\ free\\ to\\ folly\\,\\ and\\ play\\ unrestrained\\ to\\ a\\ level\\ that\\ still\\ \\\trespects\\ those\\ around\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Children\\ \\\tare\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ by\\ rules\\,\\ which\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ slipping\\ out\\ of\\ \\\ttheir\\ memories\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Curiosity\\ should\\ be\\ carefully\\ cherished\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ is\\ \\\tthe\\ \\&ldquo\\;great\\ instrument\\ nature\\ has\\ provided\\ to\\ remove\\ that\\ \\\tignorance\\ they\\ were\\ born\\ with\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\Cat\\ People\\;\\ What\\ Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\ really\\ taught\\ us\\<\\/i\\>\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\by\\ Louis\\ Menand\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\Seuss\\ \\\twas\\ both\\ \\made\\ by\\ \\<\\/i\\>and\\ \\an\\ unraveler\\ of\\<\\/i\\>\\ defense\\ policy\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(Suggestion\\ \\\tabout\\ the\\ significance\\ and\\ irresponsibility\\ of\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tleaving\\ for\\ the\\ entire\\ day\\ \\-\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;her\\ \\[likely\\]\\ murderous\\ or\\ \\\terotic\\ errand\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(Biographical\\ \\\tstuff\\,\\ Seuss\\&rsquo\\;s\\ name\\,\\ mother\\,\\ father\\,\\ education\\,\\ early\\ \\\tadvertising\\ career\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(Early\\ \\\tworks\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;37\\-\\&lsquo\\;54\\)\\:\\ political\\,\\ then\\ \\&ldquo\\;studies\\ in\\ \\\tidentity\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&lsquo\\;\\54\\ \\\tattacks\\ on\\ primers\\ \\(bland\\,\\ elementary\\ textbooks\\ used\\ to\\ teach\\ \\\treading\\ to\\ children\\)\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Hersey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\t\\(\\Life\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\ article\\ criticizes\\ lack\\ of\\ imagination\\.\\ Recommends\\ \\\tSeuss\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Flesch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\t\\&ldquo\\;Why\\ Johnny\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Read\\&rdquo\\;\\ argues\\ for\\ phonics\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spaulding\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\t\\(publisher\\ at\\ Houghton\\ Mifflin\\,\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ read\\ both\\ attacks\\)\\ \\\t300\\-word\\ challenge\\:\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Gave\\ \\\tSeuss\\ 3\\ lists\\ of\\ words\\ derived\\ by\\ experts\\,\\ describing\\ different\\ \\\tlevels\\ of\\ familiarity\\ a\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ grader\\ would\\ have\\ with\\ them\\.\\ \\\tList\\ 1\\:\\ recognize\\ on\\ sight\\.\\ List\\ 2\\:\\ limited\\ exposure\\ through\\ \\\treading\\ exercises\\.\\ List\\ 3\\:\\ no\\ exposure\\,\\ but\\ could\\ sound\\ out\\ \\\tthrough\\ phonics\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seuss\\ \\\ttook\\&hellip\\;\\ 123\\,\\ 45\\,\\ and\\ 31\\ respectively\\,\\ then\\ added\\ 21\\ words\\ of\\ \\\this\\ own\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Cat\\ \\\tin\\ the\\ hat\\ \\=\\ 1702\\ words\\,\\ but\\ using\\ only\\ these\\ 220\\ unique\\ ones\\.\\ \\ \\\tWhole\\ book\\ written\\ in\\ \\anapesetic\\ dimeter\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ \\\t50s\\,\\ fear\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;young\\ people\\ were\\ being\\ exposed\\ to\\ a\\ \\\tcommercial\\ culture\\ that\\ was\\ making\\ them\\ vicious\\ and\\ stupid\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Flesch\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tbook\\.\\ Wetham\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Seduction\\ of\\ the\\ Innocent\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;54\\)\\ \\\tattacking\\ comic\\ books\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Senate\\ \\\thearing\\ on\\ comic\\ books\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;52\\)\\,\\ massive\\ proliferation\\ of\\ \\\ttelevision\\ \\(9\\%\\<\\/font\\>\\\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\72\\%\\ \\\tof\\ households\\ from\\ \\&lsquo\\;50\\<\\/font\\>\\\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;56\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\Sputnik\\ \\\t\\<\\/i\\>\\(\\&lsquo\\;57\\)\\ \\-\\-\\\\ \\&lsquo\\;Russians\\ smarter\\;\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ \\\twinning\\ the\\ space\\/arms\\ race\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/i\\>\\ Particularly\\ important\\;\\ \\\tslew\\ of\\ media\\ coverage\\ saying\\ gonna\\ be\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ western\\ world\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Response\\:\\ \\\tthrow\\ money\\ at\\ education\\.\\ \\National\\ Defense\\ Education\\ Act\\ of\\ 1958\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\Above\\ \\\tsentiment\\ \\+\\ new\\ school\\ monies\\ \\+\\ peek\\ of\\ baby\\ boom\\ \\=\\ \\Cat\\ in\\ the\\ \\\tHat\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;57\\)\\ a\\ massive\\ success\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(by\\ 2000\\,\\ has\\ sold\\ 7\\.2\\ \\\tmillion\\ copies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 9\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ best\\ selling\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tbook\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\&lsquo\\;\\\\The\\ \\\tCat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\&rsquo\\;\\ transformed\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ primary\\ education\\ \\\tand\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ children\\'s\\ books\\.\\ It\\ not\\ only\\ stood\\ for\\ the\\ idea\\ \\\tthat\\ reading\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ by\\ phonics\\;\\ it\\ also\\ stood\\ for\\ the\\ \\\tidea\\ that\\ language\\ skills\\-and\\ many\\ other\\ subjects\\-ought\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ \\\tthrough\\ illustrated\\ storybooks\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ primers\\ and\\ textbooks\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\(Menand\\ \\\tdescribes\\ his\\ own\\ experience\\ with\\ the\\ book\\,\\ the\\ joy\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tfirst\\ phonic\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\\\?\\<\\/font\\>\\\\ \\\tword\\ experience\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ moment\\ the\\ switch\\ was\\ flipped\\,\\ \\\tand\\ \\&lsquo\\;a\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;n\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;d\\&rsquo\\;\\ turned\\ into\\ \\\t\\&lsquo\\;and\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&hellip\\;It\\ is\\ the\\ moment\\ you\\ awake\\ to\\ the\\ \\\trealization\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ world\\ available\\ through\\ print\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\The\\ \\\tCat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\bricolage\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(bringing\\ together\\ of\\ random\\ crap\\)\\ is\\ a\\ \\\tmetaphor\\ for\\ Seuss\\&rsquo\\;\\ own\\,\\ in\\ his\\ creating\\ the\\ book\\ out\\ of\\ \\\tSpaulding\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 300\\ words\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Related\\ \\\tto\\ the\\ book\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sequel\\,\\ \\The\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ Comes\\ Back\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\ \\ \\\tThe\\ story\\ of\\ an\\ ever\\-spreading\\ pink\\ stain\\,\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ allegory\\ for\\ \\\tDerrida\\&rsquo\\;s\\ process\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;differance\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ whereby\\ \\\tthe\\ meaning\\ of\\ words\\ \\(signifiers\\)\\ is\\ constantly\\ deferred\\,\\ as\\ they\\ \\\tcan\\ be\\ defined\\ only\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ other\\ words\\ which\\ of\\ course\\ face\\ \\\tthe\\ same\\ problem\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ endless\\ cycle\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\The\\ \\\tcat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bricolage\\ is\\ attractive\\ \\<\\/b\\>perhaps\\\\ because\\ it\\ \\\tprovides\\ \\<\\/b\\>this\\\\ Deconstructionist\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\(Derrida\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tphilosophical\\ school\\)\\\\ destruction\\<\\/b\\>\\ of\\ the\\ order\\ and\\ \\\tcleanliness\\ desired\\ by\\ the\\ fish\\,\\ which\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ book\\ itself\\,\\ \\\tconceived\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ project\\ to\\ systematically\\ educate\\ American\\ \\\tchildren\\ using\\ phonic\\ formulas\\ and\\ lists\\ of\\ words\\ derived\\ by\\ \\\texperts\\,\\ so\\ that\\ these\\ children\\ could\\ eventually\\ grow\\ up\\ and\\ defeat\\ \\\tthe\\ Russians\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\This\\ \\\tis\\ how\\ \\the\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\<\\/u\\>\\ was\\ both\\ \\made\\ by\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(its\\ \\\tsuccess\\ and\\ funding\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ \\National\\ Defense\\ Education\\ \\\tAct\\ \\<\\/i\\>and\\ the\\ antiseptic\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ time\\)\\ and\\ \\an\\ unraveler\\ \\\tof\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(the\\ Cat\\&rsquo\\;s\\ freewheeling\\ sensibility\\)\\ defense\\ policy\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\*Bold\\ \\=\\ takeaway\\ message\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Tatar\\ Reading\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Introduction\\:\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ folkloric\\ origins\\ of\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\ are\\ markedly\\ different\\ than\\ later\\ versions\\ by\\ Perrault\\ and\\ the\\ Grimms\\.\\ Portions\\ of\\ this\\ introduction\\ are\\ summarized\\ below\\ under\\ their\\ respective\\ story\\.\\ Both\\ Perrault\\ and\\ the\\ Grimms\\ make\\ the\\ girl\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ violence\\.\\ This\\ happens\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ fairy\\ tales\\ \\(like\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\)\\.\\ Over\\ the\\ past\\ few\\ decades\\,\\ some\\ writers\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ contest\\ the\\ disciplinary\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ stories\\,\\ making\\ LLRH\\ resourceful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Many\\ critics\\ have\\ analyzed\\ the\\ tale\\ and\\ reached\\ a\\ range\\ of\\ conclusions\\-\\-Eric\\ Fromm\\ \\&\\;\\ Susan\\ Brownmiller\\ are\\ mentioned\\ as\\ they\\ both\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ representing\\ an\\ eternal\\ battle\\ of\\ the\\ sexes\\,\\ but\\ reached\\ different\\ conclusions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\The\\ \\\tStory\\ of\\ Grandmother\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(10\\-11\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\While\\ \\\twritten\\ after\\ that\\ by\\ Perrault\\,\\ this\\ version\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ \\\ttrue\\ to\\ the\\ oral\\ history\\.\\ When\\ she\\ arrives\\ at\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\thouse\\ she\\ eats\\ meat\\ and\\ wine\\,\\ which\\ end\\ up\\ being\\ the\\ flesh\\ and\\ \\\tblood\\ of\\ her\\ grandmother\\ \\,\\ performs\\ a\\ striptease\\ for\\ the\\ wolf\\,\\ gets\\ \\\tin\\ bed\\ with\\ him\\ and\\ escapes\\ later\\ then\\ she\\ tricks\\ the\\ wolf\\ into\\ \\\tthinking\\ she\\ is\\ going\\ out\\ to\\ relieve\\ herself\\ \\(from\\ intro\\)\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ \\\tcouple\\ of\\ quotes\\ \\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;Which\\ path\\ are\\ you\\ going\\ to\\ \\\ttake\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ asked\\ the\\ wolf\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ path\\ of\\ needles\\ or\\ \\\tthe\\ path\\ of\\ pins\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ just\\ because\\ I\\ thought\\ \\\tit\\ was\\ amusing\\:\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;\\Oh\\,\\ granny\\,\\ what\\ big\\ nostrils\\ you\\ have\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;The\\ better\\ to\\ sniff\\ my\\ tobacco\\ with\\,\\ my\\ child\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\Little\\ \\\tRed\\ Riding\\ Hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Charles\\ Perrault\\ \\(11\\-13\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Perrault\\ \\\ttook\\ out\\ things\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ viewed\\ as\\ cruel\\,\\ inane\\,\\ or\\ improper\\,\\ \\\tinstead\\ making\\ something\\ that\\ would\\ send\\ a\\ message\\ about\\ vanity\\,\\ \\\tidleness\\,\\ and\\ ignorance\\,\\ as\\ in\\ this\\ tale\\ \\&ldquo\\;na\\ï\\;ve\\,\\ \\\tattractive\\ young\\ girl\\&rdquo\\;\\ comes\\ off\\ as\\ dimwitted\\ or\\ complicit\\ \\\tand\\ the\\ wolf\\ becomes\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ male\\ seducers\\ \\(from\\ intro\\)\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ \\\tversion\\ actually\\ has\\ a\\ moral\\ written\\ out\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ the\\ last\\ two\\ \\\tlines\\ of\\ which\\ are\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;But\\ watch\\ out\\ if\\ you\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\\tlearned\\ that\\ tame\\ wolves\\/Are\\ the\\ most\\ dangerous\\ of\\ all\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\Little\\ \\\tRed\\ Cap\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Brothers\\ Grimm\\ \\(13\\-16\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\\tGrimms\\ replaced\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;erotic\\ playfulness\\&rdquo\\;\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ \\\toral\\ version\\ with\\ lessons\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ on\\ good\\ behavior\\ and\\ \\\tmanners\\,\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ follow\\ through\\ on\\ these\\ lacks\\ logic\\ \\\t\\(intro\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Berne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\trendition\\ of\\ a\\ martian\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reaction\\ to\\ this\\ asks\\ primarily\\ \\\t\\&ldquo\\;What\\ kind\\ of\\ mother\\ sends\\ a\\ girl\\ into\\ a\\ forest\\ where\\ there\\ \\\tare\\ wolves\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ girl\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ warned\\ \\\tof\\ the\\ danger\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\After\\ \\\tthis\\ story\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ few\\ paragraphs\\ about\\ another\\ wolf\\ who\\ \\\tmet\\ Little\\ Red\\ Cap\\ while\\ on\\ her\\ way\\ to\\ grandmothers\\.\\ This\\ time\\,\\ LRC\\ \\\tdoes\\ what\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ old\\ and\\ no\\ harm\\ comes\\ to\\ her\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\The\\ \\\tLittle\\ Girl\\ and\\ the\\ Wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ James\\ Thurber\\ \\(16\\-17\\)\\ \\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\This\\ \\\tone\\ is\\ much\\ shorter\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;She\\ had\\ \\\tapproached\\ no\\ nearer\\ than\\ twenty\\-five\\ feet\\ from\\ the\\ bed\\ when\\ she\\ \\\tsaw\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ her\\ grandmother\\ but\\ the\\ wolf\\,\\ for\\ even\\ in\\ a\\ \\\tnightcap\\ a\\ wolf\\ does\\ not\\ look\\ any\\ more\\ like\\ your\\ grandmother\\ than\\ \\\tthe\\ Metro\\-Goldwyn\\ lion\\ looks\\ like\\ Calvin\\ Coolidge\\.\\ So\\ the\\ little\\ \\\tgirl\\ took\\ an\\ automatic\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ basket\\ and\\ shot\\ the\\ wolf\\ dead\\.\\ \\\t\\Moral\\:\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ fool\\ little\\ girls\\ nowadays\\ as\\ it\\ \\\tused\\ to\\ be\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\The\\ \\\tFalse\\ Grandmother\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Italo\\ Calvino\\ \\(17\\-19\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ \\\trendition\\ has\\ the\\ girl\\ going\\ to\\ grandmothers\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ way\\,\\ giving\\ \\\tthe\\ river\\ and\\ gate\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ of\\ her\\ belongings\\.\\ When\\ at\\ \\\tgrandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ house\\ she\\ says\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hungry\\ and\\ the\\ wolf\\ \\\ttells\\ her\\ to\\ eat\\ the\\ beans\\ and\\ fritters\\,\\ which\\ were\\ really\\ teeth\\ \\\tand\\ ears\\.\\ When\\ the\\ child\\ figures\\ out\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ wolf\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\ttalking\\ to\\,\\ she\\ escapes\\,\\ and\\ because\\ she\\ had\\ been\\ good\\ to\\ the\\ gate\\ \\\tand\\ river\\,\\ she\\ is\\ let\\ back\\ through\\ both\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\Goldflower\\ \\\tand\\ the\\ Bear\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Chiang\\ Mi\\ \\(19\\-21\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ \\\tthis\\ story\\,\\ a\\ bear\\ disguised\\ as\\ the\\ grandmother\\ came\\ to\\ the\\ house\\ \\\tof\\ Goldflower\\ and\\ her\\ brother\\ \\(the\\ mother\\ had\\ gone\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ \\\tthe\\ aunt\\)\\.\\ Goldflower\\ realized\\ that\\ the\\ bear\\ was\\ not\\ her\\ \\\tgrandmother\\,\\ tricked\\ him\\ into\\ letting\\ her\\ go\\ outside\\,\\ and\\ when\\ he\\ \\\tcame\\ out\\ she\\ was\\ unreachable\\ in\\ a\\ tree\\.\\ Using\\ a\\ spear\\,\\ she\\ fed\\ the\\ \\\tbear\\ pears\\,\\ and\\ then\\ threw\\ the\\ spear\\ into\\ his\\ mouth\\,\\ killing\\ him\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\Little\\ \\\tRed\\ Riding\\ Hood\\ and\\ the\\ Wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Roald\\ Dahl\\ \\(21\\-22\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ \\\tone\\ is\\ a\\ pretty\\ traditional\\ story\\,\\ with\\ a\\ humorous\\ twist\\.\\ A\\ couple\\ \\\tof\\ quotes\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrong\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ cried\\ Wolf\\.\\ \\\t\\&lsquo\\;Have\\ you\\ forgot\\/To\\ tell\\ me\\ what\\ BIG\\ TEETH\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ \\\tgot\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\.\\.and\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ small\\ girl\\ smiles\\.\\ One\\ eyelid\\ \\\tflickers\\.\\ She\\ whips\\ a\\ pistol\\ from\\ her\\ knickers\\&rdquo\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.and\\ \\\tat\\ the\\ end\\,\\ when\\ we\\ come\\ upon\\ her\\ again\\ \\&ldquo\\;She\\ said\\,\\ \\&lsquo\\;Hellow\\ \\\tand\\ do\\ please\\ note\\/My\\ lovely\\ furry\\ WOLFSKIN\\ COAT\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;\\The\\ \\\tThree\\ Little\\ Pigs\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Roald\\ Dahl\\ \\(22\\-24\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ \\\tthis\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ little\\ pigs\\,\\ when\\ the\\ wolf\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ \\\thouse\\ of\\ bricks\\,\\ he\\ threatens\\ to\\ blow\\ it\\ up\\ rather\\ than\\ in\\ \\(with\\ \\\tdynamite\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ pig\\ calls\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\ for\\ help\\.\\ She\\ \\\tshoots\\ the\\ wolf\\,\\ but\\ then\\ also\\ kills\\ the\\ pig\\ \\(so\\ she\\ has\\ two\\ \\\twolfskin\\ coats\\,\\ and\\ a\\ pigskin\\ traveling\\ case\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Darnton\\ Reading\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Peasants\\ Tell\\ Tales\\:\\ The\\ Meaning\\ of\\ Mother\\ Goose\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\tFor\\ historians\\,\\ tales\\ like\\ little\\ red\\ riding\\ hood\\ seem\\ to\\ say\\ something\\ about\\ the\\ mental\\ world\\ of\\ early\\ modern\\ peasantry\\.\\ Erich\\ Fromm\\ interpreted\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ collective\\ unconscious\\,\\ and\\ about\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;adolescent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confrontation\\ with\\ adult\\ sexuality\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ although\\ Darnton\\ points\\ out\\ that\\ the\\ parts\\ interpreted\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ actually\\ always\\ in\\ the\\ story\\.\\ Darnton\\ then\\ tracks\\ the\\ lineage\\ of\\ the\\ version\\ interpreted\\ by\\ Fromm\\.\\ Darnton\\ argues\\ that\\ Bettelheim\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ also\\ arises\\ from\\ things\\ that\\ went\\ unquestioned\\.\\ Darnton\\ criticizes\\ that\\ Bettelheim\\ treats\\ texts\\ as\\ though\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ the\\ rich\\ history\\ behind\\ them\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\tDarnton\\ follow\\ with\\ bits\\ of\\ history\\ of\\ other\\ texts\\.\\ In\\ the\\ versions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sleeping\\ Beauty\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ prince\\ comes\\ across\\ sleeping\\ beauty\\,\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ she\\ wakes\\ up\\,\\ she\\ has\\ already\\ born\\ several\\ children\\.\\ The\\ original\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bluebeard\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ also\\ different\\.\\ An\\ early\\ tale\\ from\\ the\\ Cinderella\\ cycle\\ has\\ a\\ heroine\\ who\\ becomes\\ a\\ servant\\ to\\ keep\\ her\\ father\\ from\\ forcing\\ her\\ to\\ marry\\ him\\.\\ Darnton\\ goes\\ through\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ tales\\ pointing\\ out\\ rape\\,\\ sodomy\\,\\ incest\\,\\ cannibalism\\,\\ and\\ other\\ things\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\tFolklorists\\ can\\ compile\\ and\\ compare\\ various\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ tales\\.\\ While\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ different\\ telling\\,\\ comparative\\ studies\\ have\\ shown\\ similarities\\ that\\ exist\\ in\\ remote\\ places\\ removed\\ from\\ one\\ another\\.\\ Folktales\\ are\\ one\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ contact\\ with\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;illiterate\\ masses\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ one\\ things\\ that\\ historian\\ cannot\\ know\\ is\\ how\\ a\\ story\\ was\\ told\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\tIt\\ is\\ not\\ advised\\ to\\ base\\ interpretations\\ off\\ one\\ version\\,\\ especially\\ not\\ the\\ little\\ details\\ within\\ it\\.\\ However\\,\\ one\\ can\\ study\\ many\\ iterations\\ of\\ a\\ text\\,\\ and\\ can\\ also\\ seek\\ help\\ from\\ persons\\ who\\ specialize\\ in\\ oral\\ literature\\.\\ Darnton\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ transmission\\ process\\ affects\\ the\\ stories\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ culture\\.\\ Darnton\\ discusses\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ distinguish\\ French\\ tales\\ from\\ others\\.\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Summaries from Midterm Study Guide 2008!"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.393595+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Copernicus' De Revolutionibus (1543)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 688, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomy\\ before\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astrology\\ is\\ oldest\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ptolemy\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Almagest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(2nd\\ C\\ CE\\)\\ relying\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observations\\ dating\\ back\\ to\\ Babylonians\\ \\(8th\\-4th\\ et\\ BCE\\)\\ and\\ his\\ own\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presents\\ a\\ geocentric\\ system\\ featuring\\ circular\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ planets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adjusted\\ with\\ epicycles\\ and\\ equants\\;\\ great\\ predictive\\ accuracy\\,\\ but\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ features\\ that\\ don\\'t\\ aren\\'t\\ easy\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ physically\\ \\[also\\ wants\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ treatise\\ on\\ astrology\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ predictive\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ are\\ stuck\\ with\\ circles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Deviate\\ form\\ things\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ make\\ lot\\ of\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Epicycles\\:\\ idea\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planet\\ is\\ going\\ around\\ a\\ circle\\,\\ but\\ actually\\ around\\ an\\ outer\\ circle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ is\\ traveling\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ make\\ much\\ sense\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ does\\ make\\ an\\ elliptical\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matches\\ phenomenon\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ cost\\ of\\ being\\ physically\\ plausible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ sort\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ this\\ tunnel\\ that\\ guides\\ the\\ planet\\ in\\ its\\ rotation\\ around\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ptolemy\\ devises\\ the\\ equant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ point\\,\\ idea\\ that\\ something\\ going\\ around\\ circle\\ whose\\ motion\\ is\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ constant\\ with\\ respect\\ to\\ its\\ center\\ but\\ to\\ an\\ off\\ center\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ fictionalist\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\ of\\ astronomy\\ as\\ a\\ mathematical\\ predictive\\ device\\,\\ not\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ physical\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\in\\ medieval\\ hierarchy\\ math\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\;\\<\\;\\ physics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\astro\\ taught\\ from\\ textbook\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sacrobosco\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ sphaera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Equinox\\ important\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Easter\\ is\\ first\\ Sunday\\ after\\ first\\ full\\ moon\\ of\\ equinox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ptolemy\\ had\\ 1000\\ years\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ data\\ and\\ did\\ good\\ job\\ of\\ adjusting\\ to\\ fact\\ that\\ calendar\\ wasn\\'t\\ full\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ number\\ of\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Didn\\'t\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ data\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ Copernicus\\,\\ with\\ another\\ 1000\\ years\\,\\ so\\ by\\ time\\ we\\ get\\ to\\ 16th\\ C\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ calendar\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ off\\,\\ few\\ minutes\\ too\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theoretical\\ date\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ equinox\\ is\\ not\\ correct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ need\\ calendar\\ reform\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ just\\ tweaking\\ Ptolemy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1473\\-1543\\)\\ \\-\\ a\\ catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Humanism\\,\\ Copernicus\\ studied\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ first\\ full\\ reworked\\ of\\ Ptolemy\\:\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Epitome\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\by\\ Regiomontanus\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Peurback\\,\\ from\\ Ptolemy\\ \\(1463\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomy\\ not\\ a\\ major\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ subject\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Let\\ us\\ read\\ Ptolemy\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Greek\\,\\ edit\\ him\\,\\ understand\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ is\\ in\\ first\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generation\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ read\\ 1st\\ full\\ Ptolemaic\\ text\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Greek\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heliocentrism\\ in\\ Cop\\'s\\ ms\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1514\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ calls\\ for\\ calendrical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1582\\,\\ Gregorian\\ calendar\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ chopped\\ off\\ Oct\\.\\ 5\\ through\\ 14\\ in\\ countries\\ that\\ adopted\\ Gregorian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ calendar\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spain\\,\\ Italy\\,\\ Portugal\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Poland\\,\\ Netherlands\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Took\\ British\\ 200\\ years\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ till\\ 1752\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\'s\\ why\\ letters\\ during\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ period\\ have\\ 2\\ dates\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mar\\ 4\\/Mar\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ is\\ a\\ Catholic\\,\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cathedral\\ canon\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Administrator\\,\\ Catholic\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ way\\,\\ a\\ good\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Small\\ band\\ of\\ astronomers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ developing\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ translation\\ into\\ Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\ band\\ goes\\ across\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religious\\ sides\\,\\ but\\ he\\ doesn\\'t\\ really\\ boast\\ about\\ his\\ friends\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Poland\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ great\\ place\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ sky\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wet\\,\\ cold\\ and\\ dark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Alexandria\\,\\ where\\ Ptolemy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lived\\,\\ much\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observational\\ whiz\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Updates\\ precession\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ equinoxes\\,\\ but\\ not\\ difficult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lousy\\ instruments\\,\\ wooden\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ swells\\ and\\ contracts\\ with\\ weather\\,\\ he\\ knows\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ was\\ no\\ telescope\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ took\\ sight\\ lines\\ of\\ things\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Measured\\ the\\ angle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ late\\ 16th\\ C\\,\\ would\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ metal\\ instruments\\,\\ much\\ more\\ precise\\;\\ but\\ Copernicus\\ never\\ had\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tiedeman\\ Giese\\,\\ bishop\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ friends\\ who\\ considered\\ him\\ to\\ write\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ wrote\\ manuscript\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 1514\\,\\ distributed\\ among\\ band\\ of\\ experts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ model\\ looks\\ very\\ much\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ like\\ Ptolemy\\ save\\ one\\ thing\\&hellip\\;he\\ has\\ switched\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ the\\ sun\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Published\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ Rev\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ only\\ after\\ long\\ delay\\,\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fictionalist\\ preface\\ by\\ Osiander\\;\\ Copernicus\\ a\\ fictionalist\\ or\\ a\\ realist\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\ is\\ going\\ around\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sun\\,\\ and\\ other\\ planets\\ moving\\ around\\,\\ so\\ our\\ point\\ of\\ vision\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ beauty\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernican\\ system\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conceptual\\ economy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ be\\ convinced\\ or\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gets\\ rid\\ of\\ one\\ layer\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ epicycles\\ that\\ were\\ needed\\ to\\ explain\\ radiations\\ but\\ are\\ now\\ explained\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ earth\\ and\\ other\\ planets\\ going\\ around\\ the\\ sun\\ at\\ different\\ rates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ copernicus\\ maintains\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ many\\ epicyles\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ plus\\:\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planets\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ feels\\ planets\\ moving\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\De\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolutionibus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1543\\)\\:\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\ many\\ epicycles\\,\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Elegance\\ of\\ explanation\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stations\\ and\\ retrogradiations\\,\\ order\\ of\\ planets\\,\\ no\\ motion\\ of\\ fixed\\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Follows\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ptolemy\\'s\\ Almagest\\;\\ updated\\ data\\,\\ not\\ better\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Problems\\ posed\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomical\\:\\ moon\\;\\ no\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\parallax\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ universe\\ VERY\\ large\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Parallax\\:\\ visual\\ shift\\ when\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ you\\ look\\ at\\ something\\ with\\ one\\ eye\\ closed\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ saw\\ no\\ parallax\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ observer\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(and\\ observation\\)\\ of\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ conclusion\\&hellip\\;\\.earth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doesn\\'t\\ move\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ possible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explanation\\ \\-\\ stars\\ very\\ far\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Now\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ semi\\-infinite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\,\\ very\\ new\\ idea\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ was\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ fixed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ball\\ that\\ god\\ had\\ made\\,\\ now\\ pretty\\ damn\\ big\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Physical\\:\\ motion\\ of\\ earth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impossible\\ in\\ Aristotelian\\ physics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ community\\ haves\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ move\\ toward\\ theory\\ without\\ demonstrative\\ proof\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scriptural\\:\\ Joshua\\ 10\\:12\\-13\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(\\"\\;sun\\:\\ stop\\ in\\ your\\ course\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Said\\ that\\ this\\ allegorical\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accommodated\\ to\\ the\\ listeners\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ their\\ assumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Institutional\\:\\ astronomy\\,\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mathematical\\ science\\,\\ to\\ dictate\\ changes\\ in\\ physics\\ and\\ biblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\?\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ should\\ astronomy\\ boss\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ around\\ physics\\ and\\ theology\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ should\\ they\\ listen\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ some\\ crackpot\\ astronomers\\ fussing\\ with\\ a\\ model\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ astronomy\\ is\\ just\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Compromise\\:\\ Tycho\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Brahe\\'s\\ geoheliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ best\\ of\\ both\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\'\\ explanation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stations\\ and\\ retrogradations\\ \\+\\ Aristotelian\\ physics\\ based\\ on\\ stationary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stationary\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ he\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planets\\ going\\ around\\ the\\ sun\\ as\\ the\\ sun\\ goes\\ around\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ buying\\ into\\ the\\ old\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ physics\\,\\ but\\ liked\\ Copernicus\\'\\ explanation\\ of\\ stations\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ retrogredations\\ as\\ an\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Terms\\ to\\ Retain\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Heliocentrism\\,\\ geocentrism\\;\\ Ptolemy\\;\\ Almagest\\;\\ epicycle\\;\\ stations\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ retrogradations\\;\\ calendar\\ reform\\;\\ Osiander\\;\\ fictionalism\\ \\(also\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ instrumentalism\\)\\;\\ realism\\;\\ stellar\\ parallax\\;\\ fixed\\ stars\\;\\ Tycho\\ Brahe\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ geoheliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Copernicus' De Revolutionibus (1543)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.415090+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Reception of Copernicus to 1616", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 689, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ delayed\\ his\\ publication\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Shows\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wait\\,\\ was\\ hesitant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Waited\\ till\\ he\\ was\\ old\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ his\\ Preface\\,\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ nervous\\ about\\ it\\,\\ saying\\ this\\ is\\ for\\ mathematicians\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ technical\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Latin\\,\\ full\\ of\\ numbers\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ charts\\,\\ technical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ few\\ people\\ read\\ it\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ one\\ reason\\ bomb\\ he\\ thought\\ he\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ holding\\ didn\\'t\\ go\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\,\\ variety\\ of\\ elements\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ front\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cardinal\\ writing\\ a\\ letter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ endorsement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Preface\\ not\\ signed\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ everyone\\,\\ which\\ we\\ now\\ know\\ to\\ be\\ by\\ Osiander\\,\\ calling\\ it\\ a\\ model\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ didn\\'t\\ know\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ Preface\\ was\\ added\\,\\ Reticus\\ actually\\ sued\\ him\\ to\\ take\\ it\\ out\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ didn\\'t\\ go\\ anywhere\\ in\\ court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Osiander\\'s\\ intentions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ were\\ to\\ smooth\\ the\\ reception\\ of\\ the\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reticus\\ and\\ Ossiander\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestants\\,\\ Copernicus\\ was\\ Catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reception\\ of\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ 1600\\,\\ can\\ count\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ one\\ hand\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ Copernicans\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ support\\ but\\ haven\\'t\\ come\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kepler\\,\\ Galileo\\,\\ Giordano\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bruno\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Instrumentalist\\ use\\ of\\ Cop\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ objections\\ by\\ Prots\\ and\\ Caths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tycho\\ Brahe\\ \\(a\\ Protestant\\)\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ compromise\\ system\\ \\(1588\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ a\\ few\\ convinced\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicans\\ by\\ 1600\\:\\ Kepler\\,\\ Galileo\\,\\ Giordano\\ Bruno\\ \\(also\\ a\\ heretic\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ becomes\\ champion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\,\\ allies\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ do\\ without\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ friends\\ are\\ heretics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ grounds\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Bruno\\ who\\ was\\ burned\\ at\\ stake\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ contact\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ and\\ Bruno\\,\\ very\\ different\\ paths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1545\\-63\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ individual\\ interpretation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Scripture\\;\\ no\\ contradicting\\ agreement\\ of\\ Church\\ Fathers\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Want\\ to\\ follow\\ tradition\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ Fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Range\\ of\\ interpretations\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ closed\\ set\\ of\\ allowable\\ interpretations\\ if\\ you\\ follow\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Don\\'t\\ want\\ individuals\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ the\\ Bible\\ or\\ interpreting\\ it\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ that\\ is\\ job\\ of\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Censorship\\:\\ pre\\-publication\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ post\\-publication\\ \\(index\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reactions\\:\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ churchmen\\ prior\\ to\\ 1616\\ \\-\\ few\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tolosani\\ \\(mss\\,\\ 1544\\)\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opposed\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ Catholic\\,\\ even\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Trent\\,\\ who\\ has\\ serious\\ misgivings\\ about\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ Zuniga\\ \\(pub\\'d\\ in\\ 1584\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ uses\\ Bible\\ to\\ support\\ Cop\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wants\\ to\\ re\\-interpret\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ support\\ Copernicans\\,\\ a\\ Catholic\\ official\\ who\\ supported\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christopher\\ Clavius\\ \\(Jesuit\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ supports\\ astro\\,\\ but\\ Tycho\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuits\\ are\\ very\\ keen\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ math\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Math\\ not\\ given\\ much\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teaching\\ in\\ curriculum\\,\\ but\\ Jesuits\\ very\\ interesting\\ in\\ astro\\ and\\ math\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuits\\ might\\ have\\ ally\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ had\\ he\\ not\\ screwed\\ it\\ up\\ with\\ them\\ with\\ certain\\ polemics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ Galilei\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1564\\-1643\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Starts\\ off\\ as\\ university\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teacher\\ of\\ math\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Had\\ 3\\ children\\,\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ illegitimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Good\\ Catholic\\,\\ always\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ debt\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ Aristotelian\\ dominated\\ university\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ no\\ doubt\\ a\\ Copernican\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ early\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ big\\ success\\ is\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ building\\ the\\ telescope\\,\\ gets\\ him\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ Medici\\ in\\ Florence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ultimately\\,\\ they\\ sponsor\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ him\\ as\\ a\\ court\\ mathematician\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Did\\ not\\ invent\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ telescope\\,\\ had\\ heard\\ about\\ it\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gets\\ 15\\-20x\\ magnification\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ much\\ more\\ than\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Combination\\ of\\ a\\ concave\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ a\\ convex\\ lens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Telescopic\\ evidence\\ \\(1610\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ moons\\ of\\ Jupiter\\,\\ sunspots\\,\\ mountains\\ on\\ moon\\,\\ phases\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ contradict\\ Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ remove\\ objections\\ to\\ Copernicus\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ prove\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moons\\ around\\ Jupiter\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interesting\\,\\ calls\\ them\\ the\\ Medicean\\ stars\\ after\\ his\\ patrons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicanism\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gives\\ you\\ aesthetic\\ beauty\\ but\\ also\\ creates\\ ugliness\\,\\ detrimental\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beauty\\ is\\ idea\\ that\\ just\\ Earth\\ has\\ a\\ moon\\ going\\ about\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\,\\ Jupiter\\ has\\ moons\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\'s\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ previous\\ objection\\ against\\ Copernican\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gets\\ into\\ 2\\ kinds\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disputes\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everyone\\ wants\\ to\\ get\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bandwagon\\ with\\ telescopes\\ and\\ finding\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ gets\\ into\\ nasty\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arguments\\ using\\ pseudonyms\\ in\\ print\\,\\ which\\ then\\ makes\\ enemies\\ among\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ individual\\ Jesuits\\,\\ and\\ basic\\ rivalry\\ mixed\\ with\\ lack\\ of\\ cooperative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mentality\\ lead\\ to\\ pre\\-disposition\\ of\\ hostility\\ towards\\ Galileo\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesuits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ gibbous\\ phase\\ \\(half\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ full\\)\\ of\\ Venus\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ Ptolemaic\\ system\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explained\\ by\\ Tycho\\'s\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tycho\\ had\\ noticed\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ comets\\ and\\ new\\ stars\\ were\\ above\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ so\\ he\\ jettisoned\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tychonic\\ system\\ is\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\ doesn\\'t\\ move\\ and\\ that\\ Sun\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ geo\\-heliocentric\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ moon\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ sun\\)\\ revolve\\ around\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ The\\ objects\\ on\\ orange\\ orbits\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(Mercury\\,\\ Venus\\,\\ Mars\\,\\ Jupiter\\,\\ and\\ Saturn\\)\\ revolve\\ around\\ the\\ sun\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ brings\\ Copernicus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ astronomy\\ into\\ more\\ public\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ never\\ wants\\ to\\ talk\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ Tycho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Writes\\ in\\ Italian\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Meanwhile\\ Kepler\\ in\\ 1609\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ describes\\ three\\ laws\\ of\\ planetary\\ motion\\ including\\ elliptical\\ orbits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ just\\ knows\\ there\\ have\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ mathematical\\ laws\\,\\ looked\\ very\\ hard\\ for\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ had\\ great\\ data\\,\\ lot\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\,\\ and\\ used\\ it\\ carefully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ that\\ all\\ these\\ motions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ to\\ be\\ mathematically\\ law\\ abiding\\,\\ b\\/c\\ God\\ follows\\ math\\,\\ he\\ made\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Orbit\\ of\\ every\\ planet\\ is\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ellipse\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\ at\\ one\\ focus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ equal\\ times\\,\\ the\\ planet\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sweeps\\ equal\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Orbital\\ period\\ of\\ a\\ planet\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ squared\\ is\\ directly\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ cube\\ of\\ the\\ semi\\-major\\ axis\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ its\\ orbit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ is\\ writing\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wealthy\\ people\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ freedom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opposition\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ the\\ pigeonists\\ \\(delle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Colombe\\)\\ and\\ Aris\\'ns\\ at\\ univ\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ enmies\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotleian\\ university\\ professors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Colombe\\ had\\ allies\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Florence\\,\\ in\\ particular\\ the\\ main\\ mass\\ media\\ of\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Colombe\\ fires\\ up\\ his\\ priest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ friends\\ and\\ they\\ attack\\ Copernican\\ theory\\ in\\ their\\ sermons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ catholic\\ response\\ until\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ dispute\\ within\\ Catholic\\ universities\\ spills\\ over\\ to\\ public\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ preaching\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ Dominican\\ preachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mentions\\ Bruno\\,\\ saying\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ galileo\\ might\\ be\\ similar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Allies\\ he\\ didn\\'t\\ need\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Foscarini\\ triggers\\ Church\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ public\\,\\ re\\-interprets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Bible\\ to\\ show\\ it\\ supports\\ his\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ doesn\\'t\\ need\\ this\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ kind\\ of\\ needs\\ to\\ answer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Letter\\ to\\ Grand\\ Duchess\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christina\\ is\\ an\\ answer\\ to\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ 1616\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heliocentrism\\ \\"\\;is\\ foolish\\ and\\ absurd\\ in\\ philosophy\\ and\\ formally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heretical\\ since\\ it\\ explicitly\\ contradicts\\ in\\ many\\ places\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Holy\\ Scripture\\,\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ literal\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ according\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ interpretation\\ and\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fathers\\ and\\ doctors\\ of\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ lays\\ out\\ his\\ best\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arguments\\ about\\ interpreting\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ Catholic\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knows\\ that\\ good\\ Catholics\\ don\\'t\\ try\\ and\\ re\\-interpret\\ everything\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ of\\ his\\ argument\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ principles\\ and\\ how\\ one\\ should\\ interpret\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ at\\ very\\ end\\,\\ can\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resist\\,\\ and\\ takes\\ out\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ Joshua\\ and\\ re\\-interprets\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ like\\ Zunega\\ had\\ done\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Prutenic\\ tables\\;\\ Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\;\\ Tolosani\\;\\ telescope\\;\\ phases\\ of\\ venus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mountains\\ on\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ sunspots\\;\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\;\\ index\\ of\\ forbiddent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\;\\ pigeonists\\ \\(Ludovico\\ delle\\ Colombe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Reception of Copernicus to 1616"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.437833+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "From 1616 to the trial of Galileo (1633)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 690, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ publishes\\ his\\ book\\ in\\ 1543\\,\\ very\\ careful\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worried\\ about\\ Church\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ is\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ response\\ at\\ all\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1615\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemnation\\ of\\ Copernicus\\'\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probably\\ caused\\ by\\ Galileo\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opponents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Dominican\\ preachers\\ rile\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ up\\ against\\ Galileo\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ heretic\\,\\ aligned\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bruno\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ tarnish\\ his\\ reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probably\\ a\\ plot\\ to\\ get\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ and\\ speak\\ concerning\\ this\\ possible\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ does\\ speak\\ out\\,\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ form\\ of\\ an\\ unpublished\\ letter\\ to\\ a\\ lady\\ of\\ the\\ court\\ of\\ Medici\\,\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prudent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gal\\'s\\ Letter\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Grand\\-Duchess\\ \\(1615\\,\\ Italian\\ mss\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ general\\ principles\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\ \\(excerpt\\ in\\ final\\ paragraphs\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ venture\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ specifics\\ except\\ at\\ very\\ end\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ truth\\:\\ Bible\\ cannot\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contradict\\ proven\\ truths\\ of\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ you\\ encounter\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difficult\\ passage\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ you\\ did\\ what\\ Augustine\\ did\\,\\ and\\ take\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ non\\-literally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ say\\ that\\ message\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ written\\ by\\ the\\ Scribes\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ suit\\ the\\ audience\\,\\ a\\ nomadic\\ people\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ who\\ had\\ no\\ knowledge\\ of\\ astrology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Principle\\ of\\ Accommodation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accommodating\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ audience\\,\\ targeted\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ dumbed\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Message\\ is\\ accessible\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ unlearned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ 2\\ books\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ which\\ God\\ speaks\\ to\\ us\\:\\ The\\ Bible\\ and\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ a\\ new\\ idea\\ necessarily\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ Galileo\\ wants\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ nature\\ is\\ a\\ whole\\ lot\\ clearer\\ to\\ believe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ than\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ physics\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ believes\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ start\\ with\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Priority\\ of\\ scientifically\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ demonstrated\\ truths\\,\\ and\\ Galileo\\ assumes\\ he\\ can\\ prove\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Risk\\ of\\ scandal\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\:\\ avoid\\ deciding\\ on\\ a\\ scientific\\ issue\\ which\\ might\\ be\\ proven\\ later\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(cites\\ Augustine\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Don\\'t\\ pronounce\\ yourself\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prematurely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ something\\ could\\ one\\ day\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ proven\\ true\\,\\ shouldn\\'t\\ interpret\\ Bible\\ as\\ ruling\\ it\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ doesn\\'t\\ come\\ out\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quite\\ as\\ explicitly\\ as\\ Galileo\\ would\\ have\\ liked\\,\\ so\\ he\\ kind\\ of\\ fleshes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ warning\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ here\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ prove\\ it\\ is\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bellarmine\\ responds\\ to\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ Galileo\\ cannot\\ prove\\ heliocentrism\\,\\ not\\ even\\ the\\ prospect\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ scientifically\\ demonstrated\\ truth\\ in\\ his\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ bother\\ re\\-interpreting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ it\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ proven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Authority\\ of\\ Church\\ fathers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ only\\ applies\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ fathers\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authority\\ on\\ matters\\ irrelevant\\ to\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ have\\ a\\ heresy\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ that\\ Christianity\\ is\\ not\\ really\\ about\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astrology\\ not\\ significant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Bible\\,\\ realm\\ of\\ science\\,\\ should\\ be\\ left\\ alone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ is\\ accommodated\\ to\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ original\\ audience\\;\\ cites\\ Augustine\\'s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ passages\\ re\\ flat\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ non\\-spherical\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bellarmine\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ response\\ \\(conversation\\ 1616\\,\\ see\\ letter\\ to\\ Foscarini\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Agrees\\ with\\ Galileo\\ on\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ points\\ except\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everything\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pertains\\ to\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ authrotiy\\ of\\ the\\ speaker\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ not\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ topic\\;\\ therefore\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fathers\\ must\\ be\\ respected\\ on\\ all\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heliocentrism\\ is\\ neither\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ poven\\ nor\\ provable\\:\\ therefore\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ depart\\ from\\ traditional\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ still\\ need\\ to\\ abide\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\ of\\ Church\\ fathers\\ even\\ on\\ matters\\ not\\ pertaining\\ strictly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ 1616\\ \\(vague\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ Galileo\\)\\,\\ certificate\\ to\\ Galileo\\ that\\ he\\ may\\ discuss\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ hypothesis\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ file\\ an\\ unsigned\\ injunction\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Gal\\ may\\ not\\ discuss\\ heliocentrism\\ in\\ any\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bellarmine\\'s\\ argument\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ we\\ assume\\ he\\ spoke\\ to\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ is\\ coming\\ down\\ in\\ something\\ reasoned\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ what\\ has\\ till\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ then\\ been\\ only\\ oral\\ and\\ rumor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bellarmine\\'s\\ letter\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ handout\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomy\\ is\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fiction\\,\\ just\\ models\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\,\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Galileo\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ good\\ at\\ only\\ being\\ fictionalist\\,\\ speaking\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ assumptions\\,\\ as\\ Copernicus\\ had\\ done\\,\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ should\\ do\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ reminds\\ that\\ Council\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Trent\\ has\\ prohibited\\ discussion\\ of\\ things\\ contrary\\ to\\ decision\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nor\\ can\\ one\\ reply\\ it\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ b\\/c\\ although\\ Church\\ Fathers\\ might\\ not\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explicitly\\ said\\ it\\,\\ they\\ were\\ against\\ it\\ \\(\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\I\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ such\\ a\\ demonstration\\&hellip\\;for\\ it\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ me\\&hellip\\;and\\ I\\ have\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ greatest\\ doubts\\ that\\ it\\ should\\ ever\\ be\\ shown\\&hellip\\;and\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ doubts\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\ is\\ no\\ reason\\ to\\ re\\-interpret\\ the\\ Holy\\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\,\\ was\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Galileo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inevitable\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intellectual\\ issue\\ here\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Was\\ there\\ enough\\ prove\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ re\\-interpret\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ do\\ you\\ know\\ when\\ there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ enough\\ proof\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decree\\ of\\ 1616\\,\\ February\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heliocentrism\\ is\\ foolish\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ absurd\\ in\\ philosophy\\ and\\ formally\\ heretical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ care\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Biblical\\ meaning\\,\\ object\\ on\\ the\\ literal\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tycho\\ Brahe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholics\\ object\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ traditional\\ basis\\ \\(Protestants\\ don\\'t\\ care\\ so\\ much\\ about\\ this\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ very\\ thin\\,\\ doesn\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ say\\ whether\\ you\\ can\\ discuss\\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ a\\ hypothesis\\,\\ just\\ says\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ heretical\\ to\\ hold\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Point\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ messages\\ produced\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1616\\ that\\ neither\\ side\\ knows\\ is\\ there\\ until\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1st\\ document\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ goes\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bellarmine\\ and\\ gets\\ certificate\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ Cardinal\\ Bellarmine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ heard\\ about\\ slander\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ done\\ anything\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemned\\,\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ abjure\\,\\ just\\ cannot\\ hold\\ or\\ defend\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2nd\\ document\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ to\\ Galileo\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ surprise\\,\\ find\\ another\\ document\\,\\ wasn\\'t\\ signed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ harsher\\ injunction\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ saying\\ that\\ in\\ presence\\ of\\ clerics\\,\\ Bellarmine\\ warned\\ Galileo\\ to\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teach\\,\\ defend\\,\\ hold\\,\\ or\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ talk\\ about\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ even\\ as\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ degree\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heretic\\,\\ got\\ off\\ on\\ the\\ vehement\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ trial\\:\\ did\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ disobey\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ delayed\\ 20\\-30\\ years\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presenting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accession\\ of\\ Urban\\ VIII\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1623\\:\\ OK\\ to\\ discuss\\ Cop\\ as\\ hypothesis\\ though\\ human\\ reason\\ too\\ weak\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ know\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ felt\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ personal\\ repertoire\\ with\\ the\\ Pope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Concerning\\ the\\ Two\\ Chief\\ Worlds\\ Systems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1632\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\refutes\\ objections\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ vertical\\ fall\\ and\\ projectile\\ motion\\ are\\ relative\\ to\\ frame\\ of\\ reference\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Claims\\ to\\ prove\\ motion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ earth\\ from\\ tides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Granted\\ permission\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ publish\\ \\(friend\\ Ciampoli\\ helps\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Publication\\ immediately\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ causes\\ a\\ scandal\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\See\\ preface\\ and\\ ending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ feels\\ ridiculed\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ thoughts\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ through\\ mouthpiece\\ of\\ Simplico\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Feels\\ personally\\ attacked\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ starts\\ a\\ proceeding\\ in\\ inquiry\\ of\\ Galileo\\'s\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Medici\\ tried\\ to\\ plead\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\,\\ saying\\ he\\ was\\ too\\ old\\,\\ couldn\\'t\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ make\\ him\\ come\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Simplicio\\ holds\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelian\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\At\\ end\\,\\ says\\ that\\ after\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ all\\ this\\,\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ know\\,\\ reason\\ cannot\\ decide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\'s\\ Bellarmine\\'s\\ line\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ pope\\'s\\ line\\,\\ the\\ Church\\'s\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\After\\ this\\ long\\ book\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mocks\\ Aristotelianism\\ and\\ argues\\ for\\ Copernicanism\\,\\ tides\\ presented\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proof\\,\\ basically\\ no\\ one\\ was\\ convinced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seems\\ to\\ undermine\\ validity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Degree\\ of\\ 1616\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ is\\ saying\\ there\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nothing\\ wrong\\ with\\ these\\ hypotheses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trial\\ turns\\ around\\ whether\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ disobeyed\\ Church\\ decrees\\ of\\ 1616\\,\\ by\\ presenting\\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ than\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Guilty\\ of\\ \\"\\;2nd\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ degree\\,\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;vehement\\ suspicion\\ of\\ heresy\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ really\\ suspicion\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rather\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ lesser\\ order\\ of\\ heresy\\ than\\ say\\ Bruno\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Abjuration\\ and\\ house\\ arrest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Had\\ he\\ not\\ abjured\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ been\\ in\\ much\\ more\\ difficult\\ circumstances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ was\\ certainly\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tortured\\,\\ but\\ didn\\'t\\ have\\ much\\ choice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Later\\ publishes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Two\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ New\\ Sciences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Holland\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1638\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basically\\ a\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ book\\,\\ doesn\\'t\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ Bible\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ Science\\,\\ he\\ feels\\ he\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ good\\ grounds\\,\\ so\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ support\\ Copernicanism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ this\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ has\\ a\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moons\\ of\\ Jupiter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stuff\\ on\\ sunspots\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mountains\\ on\\ moon\\,\\ evidence\\ of\\ how\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ difference\\ between\\ sub\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ supra\\ lunar\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ the\\ planets\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alike\\,\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Main\\ arguments\\ left\\ to\\ try\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ undermine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ don\\'t\\ feel\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movement\\ of\\ earth\\,\\ so\\ doesn\\'t\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perception\\ of\\ motion\\ is\\ relevant\\ to\\ frame\\ of\\ reference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Example\\ he\\ cites\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ boat\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ drop\\ a\\ rock\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ mast\\,\\ falls\\ at\\ bottom\\ of\\ mast\\,\\ not\\ at\\ top\\,\\ b\\/c\\ rock\\ has\\ inertial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ doesn\\'t\\ prove\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicanism\\,\\ just\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ an\\ objection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argument\\ from\\ the\\ tides\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ didn\\'t\\ like\\ it\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ time\\,\\ but\\ Galileo\\ felt\\ it\\ was\\ his\\ best\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\'s\\ grasping\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\,\\ b\\/c\\ Tychonic\\ system\\ functionally\\ equivalent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ point\\ of\\ whether\\ Tycho\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Copernicus\\ could\\ be\\ judged\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Position\\ of\\ Mars\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tycho\\ probably\\ fudged\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ data\\ to\\ fit\\ his\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ didn\\'t\\ care\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ numbers\\,\\ that\\'s\\ the\\ Kepler\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\ \\ Principle\\ of\\ accommodation\\;\\ scandal\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\;\\ condemnation\\ of\\ 1616\\;\\ \\ unsigned\\ injunction\\;\\ Bellarmine\\;\\ Galileo\\'s\\ certificate\\;\\ Maffeo\\ Barberini\\;\\ Pope\\ \\ Urban\\ VIII\\;\\ censorpship\\;\\ abjuration\\;\\ \\"\\;vehement\\ suspicion\\ of\\ \\ heresey\\"\\;\\;\\ \\Dialogue\\,\\ Two\\ New\\ Sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "From 1616 to the trial of Galileo (1633)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.466130+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aftermaths of the Galileo Affair", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 691, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ famously\\ became\\ blind\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Published\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dialogue\\ in\\ Italian\\,\\ has\\ tremendous\\ power\\,\\ but\\ can\\'t\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Translated\\ to\\ Latin\\ in\\ 1635\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ city\\ in\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Published\\ in\\ Latin\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ international\\ confusion\\,\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ make\\ converts\\ and\\ be\\ effective\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ responding\\ to\\ the\\ standard\\ objections\\ of\\ Copernicanims\\ despite\\ Vatican\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Two\\ New\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ straight\\ physics\\,\\ but\\ still\\ he\\ wasn\\'t\\ supposed\\ to\\ publish\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ admitted\\ guilt\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ one\\ count\\,\\ but\\ never\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ heretic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Responses\\ to\\ 1616\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ 1633\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gal\\'s\\ Dialogue\\ pub\\'d\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\ in\\ Strasbourg\\,\\ 1635\\;\\ his\\ Two\\ New\\ Sciences\\ pub\\'d\\ in\\ Leiden\\ in\\ 1638\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gal\\ under\\ house\\ arrest\\ until\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ death\\ in\\ 1642\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ work\\ by\\ Catholics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ continues\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuit\\ astronomers\\ still\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ active\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ address\\ cosmology\\ and\\ conform\\ to\\ Tychonic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cosmology\\ is\\ a\\ separate\\ part\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ astronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomy\\ is\\ much\\ bigger\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ encompasses\\ all\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnations\\ generate\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opposition\\ and\\ some\\ fear\\ among\\ Catholics\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ French\\ Pascal\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\ respectively\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ was\\ a\\ Copernican\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Success\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ helped\\ spread\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ much\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ faith\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ too\\ complains\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemnation\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\'s\\ Catholic\\,\\ but\\ hates\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesuits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ ludicrous\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemned\\ by\\ Church\\ b\\/c\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ forbid\\ people\\ from\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\,\\ much\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ spread\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Calvin\\'s\\ Geneva\\,\\ nothing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gets\\ published\\ without\\ Calvin\\ or\\ his\\ right\\ hand\\ man\\'s\\ approval\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ more\\ local\\ level\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ censorship\\,\\ kind\\ of\\ by\\ local\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ Protestants\\ take\\ up\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\'s\\ argts\\ \\(John\\ Wilkins\\,\\ 1640\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Core\\ values\\ in\\ Bible\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ should\\ interpret\\ according\\ to\\ tradition\\,\\ and\\ then\\ throwaway\\ lines\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ aren\\'t\\ important\\ to\\ message\\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Already\\ a\\ Biblical\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movement\\ among\\ Protestants\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ don\\'t\\ care\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ tradition\\ as\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ care\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ literalism\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ Protestants\\ already\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ non\\-literally\\ the\\ passage\\ about\\ the\\ Heavens\\ stretching\\ out\\ like\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ tent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ reading\\ our\\ science\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ will\\ become\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ few\\ propose\\ a\\ biblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ John\\ Hutchinson\\,\\ Pricipia\\ mosaica\\ 1722\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\ to\\ get\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Minority\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vast\\ majority\\ of\\ Protestants\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ go\\ with\\ non\\-literal\\ reading\\,\\ like\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ though\\ norm\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestantism\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ you\\ like\\ literalism\\,\\ neither\\ Luther\\ nor\\ Calvin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ were\\ straight\\ literalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ way\\ of\\ reading\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creationism\\ is\\ as\\ the\\ liberal\\ wing\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conservative\\ \\=\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>flat\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moderate\\ \\=\\ geohelio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Liberal\\ \\=\\ creationism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gradual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ withdrawal\\ of\\ the\\ condemnation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1734\\ monument\\ in\\ Florence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ named\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ body\\ is\\ moved\\ in\\ 1737\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ put\\ a\\ finger\\ of\\ his\\ on\\ display\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1757\\ some\\ Cop\\'n\\ books\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dropped\\ from\\ index\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1822\\ new\\ Cop\\'n\\ books\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1835\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ Rev\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ dropped\\ from\\ the\\ Index\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Difficult\\ process\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ committing\\ error\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1870\\ publication\\ of\\ archival\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ documents\\ re\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\John\\ Paul\\ II\\:\\ the\\ greatness\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Galileo\\ known\\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\"\\;second\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ Affair\\"\\;\\:\\ historiography\\ in\\ 19th\\ et\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Let\\'s\\ put\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Trial\\ for\\ the\\ Trial\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ moment\\ where\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notion\\ of\\ warfare\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\ got\\ going\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\19th\\ C\\ is\\ when\\ Europe\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Italy\\ unify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\19th\\ C\\ depictions\\ of\\ trial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ context\\ of\\ anti\\-clericalism\\ and\\ anti\\-catholicism\\:\\ Robert\\ Fleury\\ \\(1847\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Painting\\ of\\ Galileo\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Feeds\\ into\\ black\\ legend\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ him\\ being\\ maltreated\\,\\ of\\ course\\ not\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ was\\ kept\\ in\\ nice\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apartment\\ of\\ Pope\\,\\ never\\ put\\ in\\ dungeon\\ with\\ rats\\ or\\ tortured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;and\\ yet\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moves\\"\\;\\ coined\\ 1816\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Attributed\\ to\\ him\\ in\\ 1816\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ student\\ of\\ Galileo\\,\\ La\\ plas\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Same\\ student\\ who\\ said\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;God\\ is\\ a\\ hypothesis\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ need\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ envisions\\ Galileo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fighting\\ against\\ himself\\ and\\ very\\ reluctantly\\ recanting\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ and\\ under\\ his\\ breath\\ saying\\ \\"\\;and\\ yet\\ it\\ moves\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1869\\-70\\ Vatican\\ I\\ under\\ Pius\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ IX\\:\\ papal\\ infallibility\\ as\\ dogma\\;\\ refusal\\ of\\ liberal\\ positions\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ splintering\\ off\\ of\\ \\"\\;old\\ Catholics\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conservative\\ move\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doctrine\\ of\\ papal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ infallibility\\ becomes\\ dogma\\ of\\ papal\\ infallibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Splintering\\ off\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;old\\ Catholics\\"\\;\\ who\\ refuse\\ to\\ accept\\ new\\ doctrines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ hostile\\ to\\ Italian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unification\\;\\ Kulturkampf\\ in\\ Germany\\ with\\ anti\\-Catholic\\ laws\\ in\\ place\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1873\\-87\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conflict\\ seen\\ as\\ inevitable\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ sci\\ and\\ rel\\ \\(Draper\\)\\,\\ between\\ sci\\ and\\ \\"\\;dogmatic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\"\\;\\ but\\ not\\ religion\\ \\(A\\.D\\.\\ White\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ Cornell\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ away\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ religion\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ save\\ it\\ by\\ eliminating\\ dogmatic\\ theology\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\'s\\ how\\ we\\ will\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harmonious\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ demo\\ is\\ Galileo\\ being\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ victim\\ of\\ dogmatic\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Apologetic\\ historiography\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(Duhem\\)\\;\\ secular\\ but\\ hostile\\ \\(Arthur\\ Koestler\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Latest\\:\\ Redondi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Galileo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Heretic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ convincing\\ \\(atomism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\John\\ Paul\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Has\\ tried\\ to\\ be\\ vigilant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ fideism\\ and\\ radical\\ traditionalism\\ \\(Bonaventure\\)\\,\\ and\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalism\\ and\\ ontologism\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ attributed\\ to\\ natural\\ reason\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\ which\\ only\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ faith\\ could\\ confer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ middle\\ way\\,\\ where\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalism\\ is\\ useful\\ but\\ we\\ still\\ need\\ light\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ is\\ one\\ truth\\ if\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpret\\ properly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ need\\ reason\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ wrote\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Nature\\,\\ and\\ he\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ denying\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Historiography\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;Protestantism\\ and\\ science\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Starts\\ ca\\ 1835\\ \\(de\\ Candolle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ how\\ many\\ scientists\\ are\\ Prot\\)\\;\\ Robt\\ Merton\\ \\(1937\\)\\ after\\ Max\\ Weber\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1890s\\)\\:\\ \\"\\;Prot\\ ethic\\"\\;\\ and\\ science\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Special\\ relationship\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ Protestantism\\ and\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Weber\\:\\ Protestantism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ commercialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Merton\\:\\ Protestantism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prot\\ conservatism\\ in\\ 19th\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Flat\\-earth\\ \\(Rowbotham\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geohelio\\ \\(Missouri\\ synod\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Luth\\'ns\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creationism\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;liberal\\ wing\\"\\;\\ of\\ Bible\\ sci\\ mvt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\ \\ Jesuit\\ astronomy\\;\\ reliquary\\ \\(finger\\!\\)\\;\\ Pope\\ Pius\\ IX\\,\\ Vatican\\ Council\\ I\\ \\ \\(1869\\-70\\)\\;\\ dogma\\ of\\ papal\\ infallibility\\:\\ John\\ Paul\\ II\\;\\ Andrew\\ Dickson\\ White\\;\\ \\ John\\ William\\ Draper\\;\\ Robert\\ Fleury\\;\\ Vatican\\ I\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aftermaths of the Galileo Affair"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.488209+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Review for Midterm I", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 692, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ intereaction\\ of\\ two\\ traditions\\ in\\ changing\\ contexts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Early\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tertullian\\ the\\ conservative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(no\\ need\\ for\\ pagan\\ learning\\)\\,\\ Augustine\\ the\\ liberal\\ \\(some\\ pagan\\ learning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ makes\\ you\\ abetter\\ reader\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ is\\ more\\ liberal\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ we\\ can\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\'s\\ down\\ though\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astrology\\,\\ and\\ by\\ connection\\,\\ astronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\'s\\ a\\ threat\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ free\\-will\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7\\ liberal\\ arts\\ are\\ okay\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ so\\ we\\ can\\ show\\ off\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ that\\ learning\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Use\\ not\\ enjoy\\,\\ uti\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ frui\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\13th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ influx\\ of\\ Aristotlelian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ changes\\ the\\ way\\ everyone\\ argues\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ and\\ the\\ commentrator\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Avveroes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Comes\\ in\\ full\\ force\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ everyone\\ starts\\ talking\\ in\\ Aristotelian\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Symbolism\\ and\\ logic\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ changes\\ everything\\,\\ even\\ way\\ you\\ do\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bonaventure\\ the\\ conservative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(reason\\ guided\\ by\\ faith\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Siger\\ the\\ radical\\ \\(verging\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ two\\ truths\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Someone\\ can\\ do\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Someone\\ else\\ can\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ going\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ they\\ come\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ truth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ philosophy\\ and\\ a\\ truth\\ in\\ theology\\ and\\ you\\ subscribe\\ to\\ both\\;\\ don\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worry\\ about\\ how\\ they\\ interconnect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aquinas\\ follows\\ a\\ middle\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ and\\ faith\\ from\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Use\\ reason\\ freely\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ recognize\\ its\\ limits\\ and\\ need\\ for\\ revelation\\/faith\\ to\\ answer\\ questions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ reason\\ cannot\\ answer\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ created\\,\\ the\\ soul\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ immortal\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pretty\\ much\\ the\\ same\\ line\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Galileo\\ took\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Preambles\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ that\\ people\\ can\\ get\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ all\\ by\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ great\\,\\ god\\ is\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mysteries\\ of\\ faith\\ brought\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ us\\ by\\ Bible\\ as\\ interpreted\\ by\\ Church\\,\\ primarily\\ the\\ Church\\ fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trinity\\:\\ Father\\,\\ Son\\,\\ Holy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ghost\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ a\\ whole\\ lot\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Biblical\\ support\\,\\ coming\\ out\\ of\\ Church\\ Councils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ and\\ not\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Immortality\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnations\\ of\\ 1277\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ long\\-lasting\\ reminder\\ of\\ the\\ weakness\\ of\\ reason\\ \\(Bellarmine\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ failure\\ to\\ keep\\ out\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ condemnations\\ stimulate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ long\\-lasting\\ resolution\\ of\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ necessity\\ of\\ natural\\ law\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ long\\-lasting\\ resolution\\ of\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ necessity\\ of\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ law\\ and\\ divine\\ omnipotence\\:\\ ordained\\ by\\ absolute\\ powers\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1616\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ on\\ God\\'s\\ use\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mathematics\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ world\\;\\ on\\ God\\'s\\ gift\\ of\\ reason\\ that\\ enables\\ us\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understand\\ the\\ world\\ \\(book\\ of\\ nature\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ about\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\,\\ and\\ the\\ passages\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ concern\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ realm\\ of\\ reason\\ and\\ science\\ can\\ decide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Did\\ Galileo\\ actually\\ believe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\ supported\\ Copernicanism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\'t\\ talk\\ about\\ sincerity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ belief\\,\\ beyond\\ what\\ we\\ can\\ get\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Letter\\ to\\ Gran\\ Duchess\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rhetorical\\ exercise\\;\\ pulling\\ out\\ all\\ this\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Really\\ believed\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicanism\\ and\\ felt\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ reconciled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Offering\\ many\\ arguments\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ to\\ be\\ convinced\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tychonic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geoheliocentric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everything\\ is\\ going\\ around\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ explain\\ phases\\ of\\ Venus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ just\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Copernicus\\,\\ again\\ b\\/c\\ sometimes\\ Venus\\ will\\ be\\ on\\ far\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ side\\ of\\ sun\\ and\\ will\\ be\\ fully\\ illuminated\\ in\\ our\\ view\\ whereas\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ptolemaic\\ system\\ b\\/c\\ Venus\\ is\\ going\\ around\\ sun\\ it\\ is\\ always\\ making\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ little\\ curls\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ always\\ see\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stationary\\ earth\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ matches\\ Bible\\ and\\ conventional\\ physics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ have\\ aesthetics\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ either\\ Ptolemy\\ or\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1633\\,\\ nothing\\ that\\ rules\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ out\\ Tycho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ smaller\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ self\\-published\\ his\\ own\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\,\\ a\\ lot\\ on\\ his\\ instruments\\ \\(some\\ copies\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hand\\-colored\\)\\,\\ which\\ won\\ him\\ an\\ invitation\\ by\\ Rudolph\\ II\\ of\\ Prague\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ he\\ moved\\ shortly\\ before\\ his\\ death\\ \\(with\\ Kepler\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tycho\\ didn\\'t\\ like\\ Prague\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wanted\\ to\\ move\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kepler\\ was\\ the\\ big\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ calculator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kepler\\ publishes\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Rudolphine\\ tables\\ in\\ 1627\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Previous\\ tables\\ were\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\ in\\ 1550s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eventually\\,\\ he\\ gets\\ taken\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ out\\ by\\ parallax\\ and\\ closed\\ pendulum\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\19th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ come\\ around\\ by\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ world\\ comes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ around\\ by\\ 1700\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuits\\ keep\\ quiet\\ for\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ while\\,\\ difficult\\ spot\\ to\\ be\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ the\\ Bible\\'s\\ use\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ language\\ accommodated\\ to\\ past\\ audiences\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\/traditional\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ to\\ passages\\ about\\ faith\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vs\\.\\ Bellarmine\\:\\ weakness\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\ which\\ cannot\\ resolve\\ contest\\ between\\ world\\ systems\\,\\ now\\ or\\ ever\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authority\\ of\\ Church\\ and\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\ on\\ all\\ passages\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\,\\ barring\\ conflict\\ with\\ demonstrated\\ scientific\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Early\\ Modern\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ developments\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ splintered\\ Christianity\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ even\\ magisterial\\ Reformations\\ \\(Lutheranism\\,\\ Calvinism\\,\\ Anglicanism\\)\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prone\\ to\\ internal\\ disagreements\\ and\\ splintering\\;\\ radical\\ Reformers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ advocate\\ personal\\ relationship\\ with\\ God\\ and\\ personal\\ interpretation\\ \\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ grounds\\ for\\ much\\ more\\ splintering\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ new\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotelianism\\ undermined\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ at\\ the\\ margins\\ \\(imperfection\\ of\\ heavenly\\ bodies\\ \\-\\-sunspots\\,\\ mountains\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moon\\,\\ comets\\ and\\ new\\ stars\\ above\\ the\\ moon\\)\\ for\\ everyone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ the\\ bolder\\ thinkers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelianism\\ is\\ replaced\\ with\\ a\\ new\\ astronomy\\ and\\ the\\ new\\ physics\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ requires\\ \\(still\\ information\\ down\\ to\\ Newton\\,\\ 1687\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heliocentrism\\,\\ motion\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ combination\\ of\\ forces\\ \\(inertial\\ and\\ imparted\\ forces\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ESSAY\\:\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ vs\\.\\ Bellarmine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ vs\\.\\ Tycho\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quotes\\:\\ will\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ identify\\ and\\ explain\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ by\\ AD\\ White\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Keyword\\:\\ dogma\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conflagration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tridentine\\ decree\\ \\(decree\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Importance\\ of\\ criterion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ one\\ by\\ his\\ own\\ judgment\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ should\\ be\\ left\\ to\\ interpret\\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ has\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ history\\ that\\ generates\\ Jerome\\'s\\ Vulgate\\ as\\ only\\ version\\ in\\ Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ with\\ Protestant\\ Split\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ becomes\\ only\\ Catholic\\ version\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ have\\ versions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ are\\ indebted\\ to\\ Vulgate\\ but\\ that\\ also\\ draw\\ from\\ renewed\\ interest\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ going\\ back\\ to\\ Greek\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Where\\ the\\ apocrypha\\ starts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ fade\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\King\\ James\\ Version\\ in\\ 1611\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ separation\\ between\\ Old\\ and\\ New\\,\\ apocrypha\\ in\\ middle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Later\\ on\\,\\ just\\ dropped\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Review for Midterm I"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.509634+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Richard Blackwell, Galileo, Bellarmine and the church, ch. 1 (pp. 5-27) + appendixes I and II (pp. 181-86)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 693, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ revolutionibus\\ orbium\\ coelestium\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ published\\ in\\ May\\ 1543\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ died\\ the\\ 24th\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ December\\ 1545\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Called\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ Martin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Luther\\'s\\ break\\ w\\/\\ Rome\\ in\\ 1519\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Serious\\ reforms\\ needed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Initially\\ unrelated\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\'s\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Council\\ in\\ session\\ for\\ 18\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ years\\,\\ till\\ 63\\,\\ w\\/\\ 2\\ lengthy\\ adjustments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ sciences\\ were\\ in\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ way\\ of\\ concern\\ to\\ the\\ council\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Focused\\ on\\ doctrinal\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disciplinary\\ issues\\ in\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Would\\ later\\ become\\ related\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\4th\\ session\\,\\ held\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ 8\\ April\\ 1546\\,\\ dealt\\ with\\ notion\\ of\\ tradition\\ and\\ determining\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authentic\\ books\\ contained\\ in\\ the\\ Scriptures\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ with\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ edition\\ and\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ 2\\ documents\\ would\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ important\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ church\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ Galileo\\ affair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decision\\ on\\ which\\ books\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ put\\ in\\ Bible\\ has\\ defined\\ Catholic\\ edition\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ ever\\ since\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ asserted\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ unwritten\\ Apostolic\\ traditions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stated\\ that\\ both\\ Scripture\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ tradition\\ express\\ God\\'s\\ revelation\\ without\\ specifying\\ what\\ content\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ may\\ or\\ may\\ not\\ share\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\"\\;unanimous\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agreement\\ of\\ the\\ Fathers\\ on\\ matters\\ pertaining\\ to\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\"\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ touchstone\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ the\\ Apostolic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tradition\\ of\\ revelation\\ from\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Second\\ passage\\ establishes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\'s\\ authority\\ to\\ serve\\ as\\ judge\\ of\\ Scripture\\'s\\ \\"\\;true\\ sense\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\,\\"\\;\\ rejection\\ of\\ Luther\\'s\\ individual\\ dogma\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ specific\\ criteria\\ as\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ determined\\ what\\ is\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ faith\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ morals\\,\\ would\\ come\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ major\\ factor\\ in\\ Galileo\\ affair\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Major\\ religious\\ framework\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ Galileo\\'s\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3rd\\ paragraph\\ of\\ second\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decree\\ of\\ Fourth\\ Session\\ states\\ that\\ \\"\\;any\\ books\\ whatever\\ on\\ sacred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ matters\\"\\;\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ published\\ without\\ ecclesiastical\\ approval\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ could\\ censure\\ books\\ deemed\\ dangerous\\ to\\ the\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicanism\\ in\\ 1616\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ decision\\ that\\ the\\ heliocentric\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ model\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ was\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ Scriptures\\ when\\ read\\ in\\ literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Theological\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Repercussions\\ of\\ the\\ 4th\\ Session\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\50\\ years\\ between\\ end\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ and\\ beginning\\ of\\ Galileo\\'s\\ confrontation\\ with\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decisions\\ gradually\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ firmly\\ put\\ into\\ place\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Less\\ visible\\ at\\ first\\ but\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ still\\ greater\\,\\ albeit\\ more\\ subtle\\,\\ impact\\ on\\ side\\ of\\ dogma\\ in\\ changing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ views\\ of\\ Catholic\\ theologians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earliest\\ reaction\\ came\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Dominican\\ Melchior\\ Cano\\ \\(1509\\-60\\)\\,\\ second\\ in\\ importance\\ only\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bellarmine\\ in\\ formation\\ of\\ post\\-Tridentine\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Work\\ widely\\ known\\ and\\ used\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ standard\\ text\\ in\\ theology\\ in\\ Galileo\\'s\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ that\\ tradition\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ precedes\\ Scripture\\,\\ even\\ speculation\\ that\\ the\\ greater\\ part\\ of\\ divine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revelation\\ is\\ in\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ Scripture\\ clear\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\,\\ then\\ it\\ should\\ serve\\ as\\ standard\\;\\ but\\ if\\ not\\,\\ set\\ of\\ 8\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ disputes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ Galileo\\ affair\\ was\\ whether\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stability\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ are\\ matters\\ of\\ Catholic\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Given\\ Cano\\'s\\ criteria\\,\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ see\\ why\\ this\\ issue\\ could\\ be\\,\\ and\\ was\\,\\ debated\\ at\\ the\\ levels\\ of\\ both\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\ and\\ tradition\\,\\ and\\ the\\ latter\\ primarily\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;unanimous\\ agreement\\ of\\ the\\ Fathers\\"\\;\\ criterion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ rejected\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ principle\\ of\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Biblical\\ interpretation\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ commentary\\ also\\ affected\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spanish\\ Jesuit\\ Benito\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Pereyra\\ \\(1535\\-1610\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moses\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Do\\ not\\ fall\\ in\\ love\\ w\\/\\ own\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ natural\\ science\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shown\\ something\\ to\\ be\\ true\\,\\ interpret\\ Bible\\ according\\ to\\ previously\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ established\\ Augustinian\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ was\\ directly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ influenced\\ by\\ these\\ 4\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicanism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sixteenth\\-Century\\ Theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicanism\\ only\\ slowly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ gradually\\ became\\ accepted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ 1600\\,\\ still\\ rather\\ few\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ advocates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ theologian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Andreas\\ Asiander\\ \\(1498\\-1552\\)\\ added\\ anonymous\\ preface\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolutionibus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ claiming\\ that\\ work\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ convenience\\ for\\ math\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ computations\\ and\\ not\\ as\\ a\\ description\\ of\\ the\\ physical\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wanted\\ to\\ avoid\\ potential\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ clashes\\ of\\ Copernicanism\\ w\\/\\ Aristotelianism\\ and\\ with\\ the\\ accepted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literal\\ readings\\ of\\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ slow\\ Protestant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ towards\\ end\\ of\\ century\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Catholic\\ response\\ began\\ to\\ emerge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ prominent\\ Jesuit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astronomer\\ of\\ day\\,\\ Christopher\\ Clavius\\ \\(1537\\-1612\\)\\,\\ who\\ is\\ responsible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ current\\ calendar\\)\\ used\\ Prutenic\\ Tables\\ which\\ were\\ based\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\'s\\ work\\,\\ although\\ ironically\\ remained\\ Ptolemaic\\ up\\ to\\ his\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ work\\,\\ refers\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernican\\ worldview\\ infrequently\\,\\ and\\ when\\ he\\ does\\,\\ disagrees\\ with\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ primarily\\ on\\ astronomical\\ and\\ physical\\ grounds\\ but\\ also\\ for\\ Scriptural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reasons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Extraordinary\\ exception\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prevailing\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ was\\ the\\ Spanish\\ Augustinian\\ theologian\\ Diego\\ de\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Zuniga\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicanism\\ is\\ clearly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ better\\ than\\ Ptolemaic\\ geocentrism\\ on\\ scientific\\ grounds\\,\\ and\\ much\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ boldly\\,\\ passages\\ in\\ Scripture\\ which\\ seem\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ earth\\ is\\ motionless\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ easily\\ reconciled\\ with\\ Copernicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Immediately\\ came\\ under\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fire\\,\\ Church\\ condemned\\ this\\ work\\ until\\ passage\\ was\\ corrected\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Few\\ had\\ doubts\\,\\ so\\ not\\ huge\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ showing\\ by\\ Church\\ against\\ Copernicanism\\,\\ b\\/c\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ communication\\ than\\ on\\ mutual\\ understanding\\ and\\ territorial\\ respect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appendix\\ I\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Decress\\ of\\ the\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ Session\\ IV\\ \\(8\\ April\\ 1546\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sets\\ forth\\ list\\ of\\ Sacred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\ so\\ no\\ room\\ for\\ doubt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decree\\ on\\ the\\ Edition\\ and\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Sacred\\ Scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Latin\\ Vulgate\\ set\\ forth\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ authoritative\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ cannot\\ disagree\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ Fathers\\ or\\ will\\ be\\ punished\\ accordingly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ sets\\ limits\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ publishers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appendix\\ II\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\ of\\ Salamanca\\,\\ Commentary\\ on\\ Job\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\States\\ Copernicanism\\ allows\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ proper\\ explanation\\ of\\ planetary\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;Demonstrated\\ cause\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ all\\ these\\ things\\ most\\ clearly\\ from\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Job\\ says\\:\\ \\"\\;Generations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ will\\ come\\,\\ and\\ generations\\ will\\ pass\\ away\\,\\ but\\ the\\ earth\\ remains\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forever\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Does\\ not\\ mean\\ earth\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ imobile\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Richard Blackwell, Galileo, Bellarmine and the church, ch. 1 (pp. 5-27) + appendixes I and II (pp. 181-86)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.527713+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Copernicus, On the motions of the heavenly spheres, prefaces (foreword, letter , \u201cto his holiness\u201d), Book I, chs. 1 and 10.", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 694, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Foreword\\,\\ letter\\ \\"\\;to\\ his\\ holiness\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ his\\ ideas\\ might\\ seem\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ crazy\\,\\ but\\ really\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Almost\\ abandoned\\ his\\ work\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ those\\ before\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ friends\\ drew\\ him\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Universe\\ in\\ spherical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 10\\:\\ The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ order\\ of\\ the\\ heavenly\\ Spheres\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Highest\\ is\\ heaven\\ of\\ fixed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Refutes\\ Ptolemy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ planets\\ related\\ to\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ single\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;Hence\\ I\\ feel\\ no\\ shame\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ asserting\\ that\\ this\\ whole\\ region\\ engirdled\\ by\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ and\\ the\\ center\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ traverse\\ this\\ grand\\ circle\\ amid\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ planets\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ annual\\ revolution\\ around\\ the\\ sun\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Near\\ the\\ sun\\ is\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ sphere\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ fixed\\ stars\\)\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ the\\ planets\\,\\ Saturn\\,\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ completes\\ its\\ circuit\\ in\\ 30\\ years\\.\\ After\\ Saturn\\,\\ Jupiter\\ accomplishes\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolution\\ in\\ 12\\ years\\.\\ Then\\ Mars\\ revolves\\ in\\ 2\\ years\\.\\ The\\ annual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolution\\ takes\\ the\\ series\\&rsquo\\;\\ fourth\\ place\\,\\ which\\ contains\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ as\\ I\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ said\\ \\(earlier\\ in\\ I\\,\\ 10\\)\\,\\ together\\ with\\ the\\ lunar\\ sphere\\ as\\ an\\ epicycle\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ In\\ the\\ fifth\\ place\\ Venus\\ returns\\ in\\ 9\\ months\\.\\ Lastly\\,\\ the\\ sixth\\ place\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ held\\ by\\ Mercury\\,\\ which\\ revolves\\ in\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ 80\\ days\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;So\\ vast\\,\\ without\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ question\\,\\ is\\ the\\ divine\\ handiwork\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ excellent\\ Almighty\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Copernicus, On the motions of the heavenly spheres, prefaces (foreword, letter , \u201cto his holiness\u201d), Book I, chs. 1 and 10."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.537708+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Blackwell, Galileo, Bellarmine and the Bible, ch. 2 pp. 28-40, and chs. 3 and 5.", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 695, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\After\\ Trent\\,\\ Robert\\ Cardinal\\ Bellarmine\\ \\(1542\\-1621\\)\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ active\\ in\\ integrating\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ direct\\ link\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ the\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\ and\\ the\\ Galileo\\ affair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theological\\ views\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ strengthened\\ through\\ Counter\\-Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Truth\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Meaning\\ of\\ the\\ Scriptures\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scripture\\ is\\ the\\ immediately\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revealed\\ word\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ be\\ no\\ error\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Each\\ and\\ every\\ word\\ pertains\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ the\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truth\\ definition\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ clearly\\ set\\ to\\ clash\\ with\\ Galileo\\'s\\ scientific\\ definition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bellarmine\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerned\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\who\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ is\\ to\\ determine\\ any\\ unclear\\ meanings\\ in\\ Scirpture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scriptures\\ often\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ speak\\ of\\ earth\\ being\\ at\\ rest\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ of\\ sun\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ being\\ in\\ motion\\ and\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ center\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerned\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\who\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ interprets\\ though\\,\\ cares\\ more\\ about\\ protecting\\ right\\ of\\ Church\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ do\\ such\\ than\\ whether\\ sun\\ actually\\ moves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ later\\ argue\\ that\\ Fathers\\ of\\ Church\\ never\\ considered\\ geocentrism\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heliocentricism\\,\\ therefore\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ \\"\\;common\\ agreement\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\'s\\ Final\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Response\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Letter\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Grand\\ Duchess\\ Christina\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Glaileo\\ says\\ concerning\\ relations\\ of\\ science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ have\\ extensive\\ treatise\\ yet\\,\\ in\\ spring\\ of\\ 1615\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Already\\ too\\ late\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ author\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\,\\ thus\\ both\\ are\\ true\\ and\\ no\\ contradiction\\ is\\ possible\\ \\(Principle\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Unity\\ of\\ Truth\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ science\\ certain\\,\\ take\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ precedence\\ and\\ scripture\\ should\\ be\\ re\\-interpreted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ be\\ no\\ doubt\\ that\\ Galileo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ recognized\\ the\\ decisive\\ interpretive\\ authority\\ of\\ his\\ Church\\ on\\ matters\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ biblical\\ meaning\\ and\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argues\\ that\\ Church\\,\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ defined\\ by\\ Trent\\,\\ only\\ concerned\\ with\\ moral\\ and\\ faith\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fathers\\ were\\ not\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universal\\ agreement\\ over\\ astronomical\\ principles\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ discuss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pragmatic\\ Rule\\:\\ when\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evidence\\ lacks\\ in\\ science\\,\\ Scripture\\ prevails\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basic\\ issue\\ was\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\ of\\ Scripture\\,\\ but\\ its\\ re\\-interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Church\\'s\\ failure\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1615\\-16\\ to\\ use\\ its\\ own\\ exegetical\\ inheritance\\ from\\ Augustine\\,\\ even\\ after\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ having\\ this\\ pointed\\ out\\ by\\ Galileo\\,\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ defensive\\ mindset\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Counter\\-Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ironically\\,\\ Galileo\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ advocating\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ read\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ The\\ \\ Bible\\ at\\ Galileo\\'s\\ Trial\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Really\\ 2\\ trials\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ over\\ 17\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ in\\ 1616\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indictment\\ and\\ judgment\\ of\\ Copernicanism\\ as\\ false\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ involved\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ slightly\\ indirectly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Second\\ in\\ 1633\\,\\ focused\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ and\\ whether\\ he\\ had\\ disobeyed\\ an\\ injunction\\ set\\ forth\\ in\\ 1616\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Origin\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Charges\\ Against\\ Copernicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ Church\\ branded\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicanism\\ erroneous\\ in\\ February\\ 1616\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fathers\\ of\\ Church\\ have\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpreted\\ Joshua\\ 10\\:12\\ and\\ similar\\ passages\\ in\\ literal\\ sense\\,\\ sun\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ first\\ adopted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicanism\\ publicly\\ in\\ his\\ work\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Letters\\ on\\ Sunspots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decision\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ council\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ that\\ Galileo\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ violated\\ the\\ 1616\\ condemnation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Second\\ asserts\\ that\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cannot\\ even\\ claim\\ that\\ heliocentricism\\ is\\ probable\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ Galileo\\ cannot\\ take\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ refuge\\ in\\ saying\\ that\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ treated\\ Copernicanism\\ merely\\ as\\ an\\ open\\ possibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ has\\ been\\ declared\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ contrary\\ to\\ the\\ Scripture\\ is\\ false\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ Galileo\\ found\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ guilty\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ dispute\\ over\\ loyalty\\ and\\ disobedience\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ said\\ he\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disobeyed\\ 1616\\ decree\\,\\ including\\ personal\\ orders\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Blackwell, Galileo, Bellarmine and the Bible, ch. 2 pp. 28-40, and chs. 3 and 5."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.552566+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Andrew Dickson White, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896), introduction and Ch. 3 (astronomy), sections iv-end ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 696, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ intro\\ talks\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ White\\'s\\ views\\ on\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\ and\\ the\\ clash\\ that\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ happened\\ between\\ the\\ two\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Helped\\ found\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Cornell\\,\\ hired\\ professors\\ based\\ not\\ on\\ religious\\ affiliation\\ but\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ academic\\ merits\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Created\\ a\\ fuss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thesis\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ speech\\ he\\ gave\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ all\\ mdoern\\ history\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interference\\ with\\ science\\ in\\ the\\ supposed\\ interest\\ of\\ religion\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ conscientious\\ such\\ interference\\ may\\ have\\ been\\,\\ has\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ direst\\ evils\\ both\\ to\\ religion\\ and\\ to\\ science\\,\\ and\\ invariably\\;\\ and\\,\\ on\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ other\\ hand\\,\\ all\\ untrammeled\\ scientific\\ investigation\\,\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dangerous\\ to\\ religion\\ some\\ of\\ its\\ stages\\ may\\ have\\ seemed\\ for\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\,\\ has\\ invariably\\ resulted\\ in\\ the\\ highest\\ good\\ both\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ lecture\\ grew\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Warfare\\ of\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Convinced\\ it\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ struggle\\ between\\ Science\\ and\\ Dogmatic\\ Theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\During\\ past\\ 1\\/4\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ century\\,\\ seeing\\ passage\\ of\\ control\\ of\\ public\\ instruction\\ from\\ the\\ clergy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ the\\ laity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 3\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Victory\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ Over\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ new\\ word\\ appeared\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1632\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ met\\ with\\ prodigious\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ laughed\\ at\\ pious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ preface\\ the\\ Church\\ forced\\ him\\ to\\ include\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ published\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ Urban\\ god\\ very\\ upset\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Both\\ Galileo\\ and\\ his\\ works\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ placed\\ in\\ hands\\ of\\ Inquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ was\\ put\\ on\\ trial\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ subjected\\ to\\ indignity\\,\\ house\\ arrest\\,\\ according\\ to\\ this\\ threats\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ equivalent\\ to\\ torture\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Forced\\ to\\ renounce\\ publicly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ on\\ his\\ knees\\ his\\ recantation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kept\\ in\\ exile\\ and\\ told\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ speak\\ of\\ his\\ theory\\ for\\ rest\\ of\\ his\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Professors\\ of\\ math\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astronomy\\ in\\ European\\ universities\\ told\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\'s\\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theologians\\ were\\ urged\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ permit\\ publication\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ edition\\ of\\ Galileo\\'s\\ works\\,\\ or\\ of\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ other\\ similar\\ writings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Papal\\ bull\\ against\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teachings\\ which\\ affirm\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Treatment\\ of\\ Galileo\\ after\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ buried\\ in\\ family\\ tomb\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ despite\\ his\\ requests\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ wish\\ of\\ Pope\\ Urban\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ buried\\ ignobly\\ apart\\ from\\ his\\ family\\,\\ without\\ fitting\\ ceremony\\,\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ monument\\,\\ without\\ epitaph\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ for\\ 100\\ years\\ was\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ removed\\ and\\ placed\\ in\\ a\\ suitable\\ monument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ Church\\ hardly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ less\\ energetic\\ against\\ this\\ new\\ astronomy\\ than\\ the\\ mother\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Calovius\\,\\ leader\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Lutherans\\,\\ denied\\ movement\\ of\\ earth\\ and\\ denounced\\ whole\\ view\\ as\\ clearly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opposed\\ to\\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\To\\ this\\ day\\ his\\ arguments\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ repeated\\ by\\ American\\ Lutherans\\ \\(when\\ this\\ was\\ written\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Calvinists\\,\\ Anglicans\\,\\ and\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indeed\\,\\ Protestant\\ sectarians\\ generally\\ opposed\\ the\\ new\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1724\\,\\ John\\ Hutchinson\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ built\\ up\\ English\\ orthodoxy\\ with\\ Moses\\'\\ Principia\\,\\ system\\ of\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seeking\\ to\\ complete\\ physical\\ system\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1721\\,\\ Cotton\\ Mather\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accepted\\ the\\ modern\\ astronomy\\ fully\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fortunately\\,\\ Protestantism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ did\\ not\\ have\\ as\\ much\\ power\\ to\\ oppose\\ Copernican\\ ideas\\ as\\ the\\ older\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ ha\\ denjoyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ Church\\ no\\ longer\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ requires\\ adoption\\ of\\ Ptolemaic\\ theory\\,\\ wise\\ in\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\American\\ Lutherans\\ are\\ crazy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ though\\,\\ bitterly\\ attacking\\ modern\\ system\\ of\\ astronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Results\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Victory\\ over\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Losses\\ to\\ world\\ during\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ complete\\ triumph\\ of\\ theology\\ were\\ very\\ serious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rene\\ Descartes\\ with\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thoery\\ of\\ vortices\\,\\ assuming\\ a\\ uniform\\ material\\ regulated\\ by\\ physical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ laws\\ \\-\\ as\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ visible\\ universe\\,\\ had\\ ended\\ whole\\ old\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thoery\\ of\\ heavens\\ with\\ the\\ vaulted\\ firmament\\ and\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planetary\\ movements\\ by\\ angels\\,\\ which\\ even\\ Kepler\\ had\\ allowed\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Battle\\ of\\ Galileo\\ robbed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ him\\ of\\ hope\\,\\ stopped\\ his\\ plans\\ for\\ a\\ great\\ treatise\\ on\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\,\\ from\\ all\\ sides\\ came\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proof\\ that\\ Galileo\\ and\\ Copernicus\\ were\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kepler\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Leads\\ science\\ on\\ to\\ greater\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ victories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Give\\ rise\\ to\\ three\\ laws\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ bear\\ his\\ name\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\ during\\ 17th\\ C\\ France\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ no\\ one\\ dared\\ teach\\ Copernican\\ theory\\ even\\ after\\ Kepler\\'s\\ proofs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Germany\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestant\\ part\\,\\ war\\ even\\ more\\ bitter\\,\\ lasting\\ through\\ first\\ 1\\/2\\ of\\ 18th\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ had\\ lived\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pious\\,\\ Christian\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ had\\ been\\ loved\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unostentatious\\ Christian\\ charity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ until\\ 1835\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\'\\ works\\ taken\\ off\\ Index\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Approved\\ mostly\\ in\\ 1822\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ just\\ took\\ a\\ while\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Retreat\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Church\\ After\\ Its\\ Victory\\ Over\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Retreat\\ of\\ Protestant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theologians\\ was\\ not\\ difficult\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Little\\ skillful\\ warping\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ older\\ Church\\,\\ far\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difficult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ shadow\\ of\\ doubt\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ papal\\ infallibility\\ was\\ committed\\ fully\\ and\\ irrevocably\\ against\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ double\\ revolution\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ move\\ by\\ apologetics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ to\\ say\\ Galileo\\ was\\ condemned\\ not\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ affirmed\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ supported\\ it\\ from\\ Scripture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ absurd\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ bulls\\ were\\ not\\ directed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ Galileo\\;\\ rather\\,\\ they\\ were\\ against\\ anything\\ teaching\\ the\\ movement\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ stability\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ tried\\ to\\ say\\ he\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemned\\ for\\ not\\ respecting\\ Pope\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Urban\\ VIII\\ was\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agitated\\ with\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eventually\\ retreated\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ position\\ though\\,\\ b\\/c\\ evidence\\ contrary\\ and\\ doesn\\'t\\ speak\\ much\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ papal\\ infallibility\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Monsignor\\ Marini\\'s\\ book\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seemed\\ useful\\ in\\ covering\\ retreat\\ of\\ Church\\ apologists\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gave\\ plausible\\ grounding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ nearly\\ every\\ important\\ sophistry\\ ever\\ broached\\ to\\ save\\ infallibility\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ destroy\\ the\\ reputation\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Later\\ showed\\ false\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ publishing\\ of\\ Vatican\\ archived\\ documents\\ concerning\\ Galileo\\ case\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ desperate\\ effort\\ of\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Apologists\\ said\\ that\\ popes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ not\\ condemned\\ the\\ ideas\\ as\\ popes\\,\\ but\\ as\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1870\\,\\ a\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ clergyman\\ wrote\\ a\\ book\\ proving\\ Church\\ and\\ papal\\ authority\\ had\\ committed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ itself\\ against\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ spite\\ of\\ all\\ casuistry\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ special\\ pleading\\,\\ eventual\\ sturdy\\ honesty\\ ended\\ controversy\\ among\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholics\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ well\\-meaning\\ defenders\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ faith\\ but\\ wrought\\ into\\ the\\ hearts\\ of\\ great\\ numbers\\ of\\ thinking\\ men\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ necessary\\ antagonism\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\w\\/\\ respect\\ to\\ newer\\ errors\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestant\\ church\\ has\\ been\\ more\\ blameworthy\\ than\\ Catholic\\,\\ though\\ rarely\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ able\\ to\\ be\\ so\\ severe\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prosecuted\\ people\\ well\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 19th\\ C\\,\\ Catholics\\ did\\ it\\ in\\ 17th\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ still\\ deny\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ truths\\ to\\ their\\ students\\:\\ no\\ Spencer\\,\\ Huxley\\,\\ DARWIN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ church\\ now\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ open\\;\\ Vatican\\ library\\ open\\ to\\ Catholic\\ and\\ Protestant\\ scholars\\ alike\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\As\\ for\\ older\\ errors\\,\\ entire\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ civilized\\ world\\ was\\ at\\ fault\\,\\ Protestant\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ Catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fault\\ of\\ that\\ short\\-sighted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ linking\\ of\\ theological\\ dogmas\\ to\\ scriptural\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Andrew Dickson White, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896), introduction and Ch. 3 (astronomy), sections iv-end "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.572532+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Pope John Paul II, \"The Greatness of Galileo is Known to All,\" (1979)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 697, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Harmony\\ between\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ faith\\ and\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fundamental\\ Task\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ is\\ noble\\,\\ excellent\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mission\\ of\\ serving\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Search\\ for\\ truth\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fundamental\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pure\\ science\\ is\\ a\\ good\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ itself\\ which\\ deserves\\ to\\ be\\ loved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Freedom\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fundamental\\ Research\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ truth\\ has\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ render\\ an\\ account\\ only\\ to\\ itself\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ supreme\\ truth\\ that\\ is\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ turns\\ toward\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ practical\\ applications\\,\\ which\\ find\\ their\\ full\\ development\\ in\\ various\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ technologies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Applied\\ science\\ should\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ allied\\ with\\ conscience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ recognizes\\ that\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ benefited\\ from\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Advantage\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Collaboration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Collaboration\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ and\\ modern\\ science\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ advantage\\ of\\ both\\,\\ and\\ in\\ now\\ way\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ violates\\ the\\ autonomy\\ of\\ either\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Affirms\\ autonomy\\ of\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ its\\ function\\ of\\ research\\ into\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;The\\ Greatness\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ is\\ known\\ to\\ all\\,\\ as\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ Einstein\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ cannot\\ conceal\\ the\\ first\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ much\\ to\\ suffer\\,\\ and\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ departments\\ within\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ position\\ adopted\\ by\\ the\\ Council\\,\\ I\\ desire\\ that\\ theologians\\,\\ scientists\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ historians\\,\\ animated\\ by\\ a\\ spirit\\ of\\ sincere\\ collaboration\\,\\ deepen\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ examination\\ of\\ the\\ Galileo\\ case\\,\\ and\\,\\ in\\ a\\ loyal\\ recognition\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ errors\\,\\ from\\ whatever\\ side\\ they\\ come\\.\\ I\\ also\\ desire\\ that\\ they\\ bring\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ disappearance\\ of\\ the\\ mistrust\\ that\\,\\ in\\ many\\ souls\\,\\ this\\ affair\\ still\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arouses\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ a\\ fruitful\\ concord\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ faith\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Case\\ of\\ the\\ Scientist\\ Galileo\\ Galilei\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truths\\ of\\ faith\\ and\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ never\\ contradict\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vatican\\ II\\ agrees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ scientific\\ research\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ perceived\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ Creator\\ who\\ stimulates\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galilean\\ recognition\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\ illumination\\ in\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ the\\ scientist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ introduced\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ principle\\ of\\ an\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ sacred\\ Books\\ that\\ goes\\ beyond\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literal\\ meaning\\ but\\ is\\ in\\ conformity\\ with\\ the\\ intention\\ and\\ type\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exposition\\ proper\\ to\\ each\\ one\\ of\\ them\\.\\ As\\ he\\ affirms\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ \\"\\;the\\ wise\\ who\\ expound\\ it\\ show\\ its\\ true\\ meaning\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Pope John Paul II, \"The Greatness of Galileo is Known to All,\" (1979)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.584270+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Pope John Paul II, \"Fides et ratio\" encyclical (1998); paragraphs 28-63", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 698, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ different\\ faces\\ of\\ human\\ \\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Search\\ for\\ truth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ always\\ transparent\\,\\ not\\ does\\ it\\ always\\ produce\\ such\\ results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sum\\ of\\ results\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ achieved\\ from\\ search\\ for\\ truth\\ confirms\\ that\\ in\\ principle\\ the\\ human\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ arrive\\ at\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Different\\ modes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everyday\\ life\\ and\\ scientific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Link\\ between\\ philosophy\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Human\\ beings\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ made\\ to\\ live\\ alone\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Family\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ believing\\,\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ entrust\\ ourselves\\ to\\ the\\ knowledge\\ acquired\\ both\\ other\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\ is\\ the\\ nature\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ human\\ being\\ to\\ seek\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truth\\,\\ which\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reveals\\ to\\ us\\ in\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\ is\\ not\\ opposed\\ to\\ the\\ truths\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ perceives\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Must\\ explore\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ directly\\ relationship\\ between\\ truth\\ and\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ IV\\:\\ The\\ \\ Relationship\\ Between\\ Faith\\ and\\ Reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Important\\ Moments\\ \\ in\\ the\\ encounter\\ of\\ faith\\ and\\ reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Acts\\ of\\ Apostles\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ provides\\ evidence\\ that\\ Christian\\ proclamation\\ was\\ engaged\\ from\\ the\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ first\\ with\\ the\\ philosophical\\ currents\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Easy\\ to\\ confuse\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ with\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>higher\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ esoteric\\ kind\\ of\\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ are\\ many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ paths\\ which\\ lead\\ to\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ since\\ Christian\\ truth\\ has\\ a\\ salvific\\ value\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ any\\ one\\ of\\ these\\ paths\\ may\\ be\\ taken\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ it\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ final\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ goal\\,\\ that\\ is\\ to\\ the\\ Revelation\\ of\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thinkers\\ were\\ critical\\ in\\ adopting\\ philosophical\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saint\\ Augustine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fathers\\ fully\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ welcomed\\ reason\\ which\\ was\\ open\\ to\\ the\\ absolute\\,\\ and\\ they\\ infused\\ it\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ richness\\ drawn\\ from\\ Revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Scholastic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\,\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ philosophically\\ trained\\ reason\\ becomes\\ even\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conspicuous\\ under\\ the\\ impulse\\ of\\ Saint\\ Anselm\\'s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectus\\ fidei\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ enduring\\ \\ originality\\ of\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ Saint\\ Thomas\\ Aquinas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Merit\\ of\\ giving\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pride\\ of\\ place\\ to\\ the\\ harmony\\ which\\ exists\\ between\\ faith\\ and\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Recognized\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nature\\,\\ philosophy\\'s\\ proper\\ concern\\,\\ could\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ understanding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ divine\\ Revelation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Faith\\ has\\ no\\ fear\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ seeks\\ it\\ out\\ and\\ has\\ trust\\ in\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Builds\\ upon\\ and\\ perfects\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Was\\ keen\\ to\\ show\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ primacy\\ of\\ the\\ wisdom\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;whatever\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ its\\ source\\,\\ truth\\ is\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ drama\\ of\\ the\\ \\ separation\\ of\\ faith\\ and\\ reason\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\With\\ rise\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universities\\,\\ theology\\ came\\ more\\ directly\\ into\\ contact\\ with\\ other\\ forms\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ learning\\ and\\ scientific\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ a\\ spirit\\ both\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ skeptical\\ and\\ agnostic\\,\\ some\\ began\\ to\\ voice\\ a\\ general\\ mistrust\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Took\\ extreme\\ forms\\ in\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalism\\,\\ what\\ has\\ appeared\\ finally\\ is\\ nihilism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophy\\ itself\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ changed\\ in\\ modern\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\t\\<\\/span\\>\\hat\\ faith\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ recover\\ the\\ profound\\ unity\\ which\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ stand\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harmony\\ with\\ their\\ nature\\ without\\ compromising\\ their\\ mutual\\ autonomy\\.\\ The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ parrhesia\\ of\\ faith\\ must\\ be\\ matched\\ by\\ the\\ boldness\\ of\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\CHAPTER\\ V\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\THE\\ MAGISTERIUM\\'S\\ \\ INTERVENTIONS\\ IN\\ PHILOSOPHICAL\\ MATTERS\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ Magisterium\\'s\\ \\ discernment\\ as\\ diakonia\\ of\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Church\\ has\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ nor\\ does\\ she\\ canonize\\ any\\ one\\ particular\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ preference\\ to\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Yet\\ history\\ shows\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\&mdash\\;especially\\ modern\\ philosophy\\&mdash\\;has\\ taken\\ wrong\\ turns\\ and\\ fallen\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ into\\ error\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ the\\ Church\\'s\\ Magisterium\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\ and\\ must\\ authoritatively\\ exercise\\ a\\ critical\\ discernment\\ of\\ opinions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ philosophies\\ which\\ contradict\\ Christian\\ doctrine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\'s\\ duty\\ to\\ point\\ out\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ elements\\ that\\ are\\ incompatible\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interventions\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intended\\ above\\ all\\ to\\ prompt\\,\\ promote\\ and\\ encourage\\ philosophical\\ enquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ now\\ and\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ past\\ has\\ intervened\\ to\\ make\\ its\\ mind\\ known\\ with\\ regard\\ to\\ particular\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophical\\ teachings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pronouncements\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerned\\ less\\ with\\ individual\\ philosophical\\ theses\\ than\\ with\\ need\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rational\\ and\\ hence\\ ultimately\\ philosophical\\ knowledge\\ for\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Warns\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lure\\ of\\ rationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\ temptations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ our\\ time\\ that\\ we\\ must\\ be\\ wary\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ brief\\,\\ signs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ a\\ widespread\\ distrust\\ of\\ universal\\ and\\ absolute\\ statements\\,\\ especially\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ among\\ those\\ who\\ think\\ that\\ truth\\ is\\ born\\ of\\ consensus\\ and\\ not\\ of\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ consonance\\ between\\ intellect\\ and\\ objective\\ reality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ Church\\'s\\ \\ Interest\\ in\\ Philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magisterium\\ does\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ than\\ point\\ out\\ the\\ misperceptions\\ and\\ mistakes\\ of\\ philosophical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seeks\\ to\\ stress\\ basic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ principles\\ of\\ a\\ genuine\\ renewal\\ of\\ philosophical\\ enquiry\\,\\ indicating\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ well\\ particular\\ paths\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vatican\\ II\\ offers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ rich\\ and\\ fruitful\\ teaching\\ concerning\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\I\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wish\\ to\\ repeat\\ clearly\\ that\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ philosophy\\ is\\ fundamental\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indispensable\\ to\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ theological\\ studies\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ formation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ candidates\\ for\\ the\\ priesthood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seemed\\ to\\ me\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ urgent\\ to\\ re\\-emphasize\\ with\\ this\\ Encyclical\\ Letter\\ the\\ Church\\'s\\ intense\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interest\\ in\\ philosophy\\&mdash\\;indeed\\ the\\ intimate\\ bond\\ which\\ ties\\ theological\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ work\\ to\\ the\\ philosophical\\ search\\ for\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Pope John Paul II, \"Fides et ratio\" encyclical (1998); paragraphs 28-63"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.600113+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Terms that are need to know", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 699, "html": "\\Historical\\ Study\\ A\\-27\\,\\ Ann\\ Blair\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ Spring\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Midterm\\:\\ terms\\ to\\ retain\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 1\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\historical\\ context\\;\\ reception\\;\\ actors\\&rsquo\\;\\ categories\\;\\ anachronism\\;\\ primary\\ sources\\,\\ secondary\\ sources\\;\\ Antiquity\\,\\ Middle\\ Ages\\,\\ Renaissance\\,\\ Reformation\\,\\ Scientific\\ Revolution\\,\\ Early\\ modern\\,\\ Modern\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Aristotle\\,\\ also\\ called\\ the\\ Stagyrite\\;\\ Aristotelians\\ also\\ called\\ Peripatetics\\;\\ Plato\\;\\ 4\\ causes\\:\\ material\\,\\ formal\\,\\ efficient\\,\\ final\\;\\ 4\\ elements\\&mdash\\;earth\\,\\ water\\,\\ air\\,\\ fire\\&mdash\\;combining\\ hot\\ and\\ cold\\,\\ wet\\ and\\ dry\\ qualities\\;\\ potential\\ vs\\ actual\\;\\ teleology\\;\\ vs\\ atomism\\ \\(random\\ convergence\\ of\\ atoms\\)\\;\\ motion\\:\\ natural\\ vs\\.\\ violent\\,\\ super\\-\\ and\\ sublunary\\;\\ Unmoved\\ Mover\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\philology\\,\\ corruption\\,\\ interpolation\\;\\ Septuagint\\,\\ Hebrew\\ Bible\\,\\ Masoretic\\ Text\\,\\ Old\\ Testament\\,\\ New\\ Testament\\,\\ deutero\\-canonical\\,\\ apocrypha\\;\\ canon\\;\\ canon\\ formation\\;\\ orthodoxy\\;\\ Church\\ Councils\\;\\ Nicea\\ \\(325\\)\\;\\ Athanasius\\;\\ Old\\ Latin\\ Translation\\;\\ Vulgate\\;\\ Jerome\\;\\ polyglot\\ Bibles\\ of\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ cent\\.\\;\\ revelation\\;\\ inspiration\\;\\ apostolic\\ succession\\/tradition\\;\\ bishop\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 4\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Augustine\\;\\ Tertullian\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 160\\-230\\)\\;\\ Origen\\ \\(185\\-254\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Apologetics\\;\\ pagans\\,\\ Neo\\-platonists\\;\\ heretics\\;\\ Pelagians\\;\\ Manichees\\ \\(or\\ \\&ndash\\;eans\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Exegesis\\;\\ hermeneutics\\;\\ literal\\,\\ historical\\,\\ figurative\\,\\ allegorical\\,\\ typological\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 5\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Bestiary\\,\\ seven\\ liberal\\ arts\\ \\(trivium\\=grammar\\,\\ rhetoric\\,\\ dialectic\\/logic\\;\\ quadrivium\\=\\ arithmetic\\,\\ geometry\\,\\ astronomy\\,\\ music\\)\\;\\ University\\;\\ faculties\\:\\ arts\\,\\ theology\\;\\ disputation\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;sic\\ et\\ non\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ distinction\\;\\ Peter\\ Lombard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sentences\\;\\ Regular\\ clergy\\;\\ mendicant\\ orders\\=\\ Dominican\\,\\ Franciscan\\;\\ secular\\ clergy\\:\\ Etienne\\ Tempier\\,\\ condemnations\\;\\ Pierre\\ Duhem\\ and\\ the\\ Duhem\\ thesis\\;\\ potentia\\ absoluta\\;\\ potentia\\ Dei\\ ordinata\\ \\(absolute\\ vs\\ ordained\\ power\\ of\\ God\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 6\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Radical\\ Aristotelianism\\=Latin\\ Averroism\\;\\ Siger\\ of\\ Brabant\\,\\ Bonaventure\\,\\ Aquinas\\;\\ double\\ truth\\;\\ fideism\\;\\ rationalism\\;\\ Averroes\\,\\ Maimonides\\;\\ preambles\\ of\\ faith\\ vs\\ mysteries\\ of\\ faith\\;\\ one\\ truth\\;\\ scandal\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\;\\ post\\-lapsarian\\ \\(\\=after\\ the\\ Fall\\)\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 8\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sola\\ fide\\,\\ sola\\ scriptura\\,\\ Luther\\,\\ Zwingli\\,\\ Eucharist\\,\\ transubstantiation\\,\\ real\\ presence\\,\\ symbolic\\ presence\\;\\ abuses\\,\\ indulgences\\;\\ catechism\\;\\ magisterial\\ vs\\ radical\\ Reformation\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Heliocentrism\\;\\ geocentrism\\;\\ Ptolemy\\;\\ Almagest\\;\\ epicycle\\;\\ stations\\ and\\ retrogradations\\;\\ calendar\\ reform\\;\\ Osiander\\;\\ fictionalism\\ \\(also\\ instrumentalism\\)\\;\\ realism\\;\\ stellar\\ parallax\\;\\ fixed\\ stars\\;\\ Tycho\\ Brahe\\;\\ geoheliocentrism\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 10\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Prutenic\\ tables\\;\\ Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\;\\ Tolosani\\;\\ telescope\\;\\ phases\\ of\\ Venus\\,\\ mountains\\ on\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ sunspots\\;\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\;\\ index\\ of\\ forbidden\\ books\\;\\ pigeonists\\ \\(Ludovico\\ delle\\ Colombe\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\principle\\ of\\ accommodation\\;\\ principle\\ of\\ priority\\ of\\ scientifically\\ demonstrated\\ truth\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\scandal\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\;\\ condemnation\\ of\\ 1616\\;\\ unsigned\\ injunction\\;\\ Bellarmine\\;\\ Galileo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ certificate\\;\\ Maffeo\\ Barberini\\,\\ Pope\\ Urban\\ VIII\\;\\ censorship\\;\\ abjuration\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;vehement\\ suspicion\\ of\\ heresy\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\Dialogu\\ concerning\\ the\\ two\\ chief\\ world\\ systems\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Lecture\\ 12\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Jesuit\\ astronomy\\;\\ reliquary\\ \\(finger\\!\\)\\;\\ John\\ Paul\\ II\\;\\ Andrew\\ Dickson\\ White\\;\\ John\\ William\\ Draper\\;\\ Robert\\ Fleury\\;\\ Vatican\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Terms that are need to know"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.611934+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading from Robinson 80-91", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 700, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:478156670\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1012888608\\ 67698693\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:584537659\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:671385390\\ 67698693\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1288514139\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:408827272\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1393120804\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-68642584\\ 67698693\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1933002543\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1259402774\\ 67698693\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2096200766\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-977659992\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\Robinson\\ 80\\-91\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cuneiform\\ as\\ an\\ Art\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Cuneiform\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ signs\\ were\\ impressed\\ in\\ clay\\,\\ carved\\ in\\ stone\\,\\ and\\ inscribed\\ on\\ metal\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ivory\\,\\ glass\\,\\ and\\ wax\\ \\(rarely\\ written\\ in\\ ink\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\From\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ c\\.\\ 2250\\ BC\\,\\ kings\\ had\\ their\\ names\\ stamped\\ into\\ bricks\\;\\ the\\ stamp\\ was\\ made\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ either\\ from\\ clay\\ or\\ from\\ wood\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\In\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sumerian\\ times\\,\\ purchaser\\ of\\ a\\ house\\ would\\ nail\\ a\\ clay\\ cone\\ or\\ nail\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ wall\\ as\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ ownership\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ c\\.\\ 2400\\ and\\ 1700\\ BC\\ rulers\\ would\\ inscribe\\ nails\\ in\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ temples\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ chapels\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cuneiform\\ as\\ a\\ Craft\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Majority\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ inscriptions\\ on\\ clay\\ tablets\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Tablets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ flat\\ on\\ one\\ side\\,\\ convex\\ on\\ the\\ other\\.\\ Scribes\\ first\\ write\\ on\\ flat\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ side\\ which\\ was\\ therefore\\ undamaged\\ when\\ they\\ wrote\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Firing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Holes\\&rdquo\\;\\ were\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ tablet\\ by\\ pressing\\ a\\ stylus\\ right\\ through\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ clay\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Writing\\ Methods\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\When\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inscribing\\,\\ scribe\\ would\\ start\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ left\\ edge\\ of\\ a\\ tablet\\,\\ work\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ downwards\\ to\\ the\\ bottom\\ edge\\,\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ next\\ column\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ repeat\\ the\\ process\\,\\ thus\\ moving\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ in\\ columns\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\On\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reaching\\ the\\ bottom\\ right\\ hand\\ corner\\,\\ scribe\\ would\\ turn\\ the\\ tablet\\ over\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ its\\ bottom\\ edge\\,\\ begin\\ writing\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ right\\ hand\\ corner\\,\\ and\\ work\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ leftwards\\ in\\ columns\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Stylus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ usually\\ made\\ of\\ reed\\.\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Tablet\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ held\\ in\\ left\\ hand\\,\\ stylus\\ held\\ between\\ thumb\\ and\\ fingers\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Scribal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Training\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Scribal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ schools\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Boys\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(and\\ a\\ few\\ girls\\)\\ practice\\ by\\ copying\\ a\\ few\\ lines\\ written\\ by\\ teacher\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(names\\ of\\ gods\\,\\ technical\\ terms\\,\\ proverb\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ roles\\ for\\ scribes\\:\\ personal\\ secretaries\\ for\\ royalty\\,\\ work\\ in\\ temples\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ textiles\\,\\ pottery\\,\\ transport\\ services\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Most\\ work\\ in\\ agriculture\\,\\ assisting\\ in\\ maintenance\\ of\\ irrigation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ canals\\,\\ registering\\ the\\ rations\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\ an\\ the\\ storage\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harvest\\,\\ and\\ recording\\ the\\ supply\\ and\\ guarding\\ of\\ agricultural\\ tools\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ also\\ dealt\\ w\\/\\ the\\ receipt\\ and\\ conveyance\\ of\\ animals\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Also\\ filled\\ positions\\ in\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ law\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Less\\ revered\\ than\\ in\\ \\\\Egypt\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Evolution\\ of\\ the\\ Signs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Signs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evolved\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ early\\ numerical\\ tablets\\ from\\ Uruk\\ w\\/\\ pictographic\\ symbols\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gave\\ way\\ to\\ wedges\\ that\\ still\\ resembled\\ the\\ pictographic\\ symbols\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eventually\\ the\\ cuneiform\\ bore\\ no\\ more\\ resemblance\\ to\\ the\\ pictographic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ symbols\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ early\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ millennium\\ BC\\,\\ signs\\ underwent\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ orientation\\&mdash\\;pictograms\\ on\\ clay\\ tablets\\ became\\ turned\\ through\\ 90\\ degrees\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ that\\ they\\ lay\\ on\\ their\\ backs\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Also\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ being\\ written\\ vertically\\,\\ script\\ became\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ horizontally\\ written\\ \\(though\\ often\\ partitioned\\ into\\ columns\\ like\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ newspaper\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Also\\ now\\ written\\ left\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ right\\ instead\\ of\\ right\\ to\\ left\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Although\\ Hammurabi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ code\\ from\\ the\\ mid\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ millennium\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ actually\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ archaic\\ style\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Changes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ probably\\ occurred\\ based\\ on\\ ease\\ of\\ holding\\ the\\ stylus\\ and\\ tablet\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Numerals\\ and\\ Arithmetic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\From\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Uruk\\ tablets\\ we\\ know\\ early\\ Mesopotamians\\ counted\\ and\\ calculated\\ in\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sexagesimal\\ system\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ cuneiform\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ developed\\,\\ these\\ symbols\\ developed\\ into\\ wedge\\-shaped\\ signs\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\By\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Babylonian\\ period\\ \\(1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ millennium\\ BC\\)\\,\\ this\\ system\\ was\\ developed\\ fully\\ and\\ numbers\\ were\\ now\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ expressed\\ using\\ a\\ place\\ value\\ system\\,\\ where\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ numeral\\ depends\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ its\\ position\\ within\\ a\\ number\\ \\(each\\ 5\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ 555\\ has\\ a\\ different\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ value\\,\\ 500\\,\\ 50\\,\\ 5\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ do\\ lack\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ symbol\\ for\\ 0\\-\\-\\-they\\ trained\\ themselves\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ an\\ empty\\ space\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ 0\\ would\\ be\\ calculated\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Ambiguity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ occurs\\ bc\\ there\\ is\\ same\\ symbol\\ for\\ 60\\ and\\ 3600\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ though\\ numeral\\ w\\/\\ highest\\ place\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ value\\ is\\ always\\ on\\ the\\ left\\,\\ this\\ leaves\\ room\\ for\\ ambiguity\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Computers\\ and\\ Cuneiform\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Process\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ creating\\ a\\ computerized\\ cuneiform\\ text\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Photograph\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ digitized\\ w\\/\\ a\\ scanner\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Digitized\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ photo\\ becomes\\ a\\ drawing\\ template\\ under\\ an\\ empty\\ electronic\\ canvas\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Preliminary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ copy\\ is\\ printed\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Copy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ compared\\ to\\ original\\-\\-\\-corrected\\ and\\ completed\\ by\\ hand\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Re\\-scanned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ become\\ a\\ drawing\\ template\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ correct\\ the\\ preliminary\\ copy\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Final\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ copy\\ now\\ fit\\ to\\ be\\ placed\\ into\\ a\\ manuscript\\ for\\ publication\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cuneiform\\ \\&lsquo\\;Literature\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Epic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Gilgamesh\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Hammurabi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Code\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&lsquo\\;Schooldays\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ written\\ by\\ an\\ anonymous\\ school\\ teacher\\ recounting\\ nostalgically\\ his\\ time\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ school\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hittite\\ Cuneiform\\ and\\ Hittite\\ Hieroglyphs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Cuneiform\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ script\\ originated\\ by\\ the\\ Sumerians\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ write\\ some\\ 15\\ languages\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ during\\ the\\ 3\\ millennia\\ of\\ its\\ history\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\2\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ clear\\ groups\\:\\ languages\\ that\\ borrowed\\ the\\ Sumero\\-Babylonian\\ signs\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ syllabary\\ \\(the\\ majority\\)\\,\\ and\\ languages\\ that\\ borrowed\\ only\\ the\\ principle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ clay\\ wedge\\,\\ while\\ inventing\\ a\\ new\\ cuneiform\\ script\\ unrelated\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sumero\\-Babylonian\\ signs\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Hittites\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ Indo\\-European\\ speaking\\ people\\ appearing\\ in\\ \\Anatolia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ around\\ start\\ of\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ millennium\\ BC\\,\\ belong\\ to\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ category\\.\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1906\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ excavation\\ revealed\\ a\\ royal\\ archive\\ of\\ 10\\,000\\ cuneiform\\ tablets\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ could\\ be\\ read\\ in\\ Babylonian\\,\\ but\\ many\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ unknown\\ Hittite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ language\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Luckily\\,\\ Hittite\\ scribes\\ had\\ alternated\\ freely\\ b\\/w\\ the\\ given\\ Hittite\\ term\\ and\\ its\\ Sumerian\\ or\\ Babylonian\\ equivalent\\,\\ when\\ writing\\ historical\\,\\ legal\\,\\ or\\ ritual\\ texts\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Good\\ starting\\ point\\ for\\ decipherment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hittite\\ Hieroglyphs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Hittite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hieroglyphs\\ used\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ for\\ display\\ rather\\ than\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ communication\\,\\ appearing\\ on\\ seals\\ and\\ rock\\ inscriptions\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Tarkondemos\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seal\\ has\\ 2\\ inscriptions\\&mdash\\;one\\ in\\ cuneiform\\ and\\ one\\ in\\ hieroglyphs\\.\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1st\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transcription\\ could\\ be\\ transliterated\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transcription\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ transliterated\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ clear\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doubled\\ w\\/\\ the\\ same\\ signs\\ appearing\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\ of\\ the\\ central\\ figure\\.\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ probably\\ it\\ contained\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ phonograms\\ and\\ logograms\\&mdash\\;productive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ approach\\ bc\\ scholars\\ could\\ take\\ from\\ the\\ Hittite\\ cuneiform\\ records\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ names\\ of\\ kings\\,\\ countries\\,\\ gods\\ and\\ towns\\,\\ and\\ search\\ for\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ equivalents\\ among\\ the\\ hieroglyphs\\ adjacent\\ to\\ the\\ appropriate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ logograms\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading from Robinson 80-91"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.630831+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading from Robinson 68-79", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 701, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:487090057\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-380472902\\ 67698689\\ 67698703\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1145123874\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1423992716\\ 67698693\\ 67698691\\ 67698703\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1216234146\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:243696514\\ 67698703\\ 67698693\\ 67698703\\ 67698693\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:153\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:153\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2000227265\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-237458542\\ 67698693\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\ \\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Robinson\\:\\ 68\\-79\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Extinct\\ Writing\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Certain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scripts\\ and\\ languages\\ become\\ extinct\\ over\\ time\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Sumerian\\,\\ Babylonian\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Old\\ Akkadian\\,\\ Assyrian\\&mdash\\;\\and\\ \\<\\/i\\>the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cuneiform\\ script\\ used\\ to\\ write\\ them\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ always\\ been\\ more\\ languages\\ than\\ scripts\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Sign\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ simplicity\\ or\\ efficiency\\ cannot\\ be\\ the\\ sole\\ reason\\ why\\ certain\\ scripts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disappear\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Ancient\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Mesopotamia\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\First\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ clay\\ tablets\\ were\\ pictographic\\ and\\ date\\ to\\ 3300\\ BC\\ in\\ Uruk\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ 2500\\ BC\\ these\\ signs\\ had\\ become\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ abstract\\ cuneiform\\ signs\\ in\\ widespread\\ use\\ for\\ writing\\ Sumerian\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Later\\ developed\\ into\\ script\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Babylonian\\ and\\ Sumerian\\ Empires\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Later\\ a\\ new\\ cuneiform\\ script\\ was\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ \\Persian\\ Empire\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ 500\\ BC\\)\\ and\\ lasted\\ a\\ long\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ while\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Cuneiform\\ employed\\ as\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ system\\ of\\ writing\\ for\\ some\\ 3000\\ years\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Cuneiform\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Gave\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ancient\\ Mesopotamia\\ a\\ history\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Used\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ rulers\\ such\\ as\\ Hammurabi\\ or\\ \\\\Babylon\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Gaps\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ writing\\ record\\ could\\ point\\ to\\ either\\ times\\ of\\ low\\ economic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ activity\\,\\ or\\ of\\ economic\\ prosperity\\ \\(in\\ which\\ case\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ strife\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ turmoil\\ to\\ record\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ Decipherment\\ of\\ Cuneiform\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Cuneiform\\ discovered\\ in\\ \\\\Persepolis\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ by\\ Spanish\\ ambassador\\ Garcia\\ Silva\\ Figueroa\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Unlike\\ Egyptian\\ Hieroglyyphs\\,\\ most\\ scholars\\ thought\\ cuneiform\\ was\\ merely\\ ornamental\\.\\ \\(Thomas\\ Hyde\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ just\\ an\\ experiment\\ by\\ the\\ architect\\ in\\ pattern\\ making\\-\\ coins\\ name\\ \\&lsquo\\;cuneiform\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>E\\.\\ Kaempfer\\ \\(a\\ physician\\)\\ realized\\ different\\ scripts\\ might\\ be\\ represented\\ by\\ the\\ inscriptions\\,\\ bc\\ some\\ signs\\ were\\ unique\\ to\\ certain\\ inscriptions\\.\\ \\(1686\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\4\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1770s\\-\\ Carsten\\ Niebhur\\ noticed\\ many\\ inscriptions\\ were\\ duplicated\\,\\ enabling\\ him\\ to\\ check\\ one\\ set\\ of\\ readings\\ against\\ another\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>From\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ line\\ endings\\ in\\ duplicate\\ positions\\ did\\ not\\ always\\ fall\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ place\\,\\ he\\ confirmed\\ the\\ left\\ to\\ right\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ writing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Clearly\\ distinguished\\ 3\\ scripts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Isolated\\ simplest\\ signs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Later\\ decipherment\\ all\\ builds\\ off\\ of\\ Niebhur\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\5\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>George\\ Grotefend\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Deciding\\ that\\ the\\ single\\ slanting\\ wedges\\ which\\ occurred\\ at\\ frequent\\ intervals\\ in\\ the\\ inscriptions\\ must\\ be\\ word\\ dividers\\,\\ Grotefend\\ concluded\\ that\\ the\\ system\\ must\\ be\\ alphabetic\\:\\ there\\ were\\ too\\ many\\ signs\\ between\\ word\\ dividers\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ syllabic\\ system\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ assumption\\ was\\ not\\ wholly\\ correct\\,\\ but\\ it\\ served\\ well\\ in\\ identifying\\ names\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Another\\ assumption\\:\\ there\\ was\\ likely\\ a\\ royal\\ formula\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ inscriptions\\ bc\\ it\\ was\\ discovered\\ in\\ later\\ Persian\\ inscriptions\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;X\\,\\ great\\ king\\,\\ king\\ of\\ kings\\&hellip\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ formula\\ might\\ also\\ be\\ extended\\ to\\ include\\ royal\\ lineage\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ tested\\ his\\ theory\\ on\\ two\\ inscriptions\\ carved\\ above\\ figures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Guesses\\ sign\\ values\\ for\\ Darius\\,\\ Xerxes\\,\\ and\\ Hystaspes\\ and\\ compiles\\ an\\ alphabet\\ out\\ of\\ his\\ findings\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Many\\ of\\ his\\ sign\\ values\\ proved\\ to\\ be\\ wrong\\ bc\\ Old\\ Persian\\ script\\ is\\ partially\\ syllabic\\,\\ not\\ purely\\ alphabetic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\6\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rawlinson\\ and\\ the\\ Behistun\\ Inscription\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rawlinson\\=\\ English\\ army\\ officer\\ who\\ had\\ served\\ in\\ \\\\India\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ and\\ had\\ knowledge\\ of\\ Hindustani\\,\\ Arabic\\,\\ and\\ Modern\\ Persian\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rosetta\\ Stone\\ for\\ cuneiform\\ is\\ a\\ mssive\\ inscription\\ of\\ Darius\\ cut\\ into\\ a\\ cliff\\ in\\ the\\ \\Zagros\\ \\ Mountains\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ near\\ behistun\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>As\\ at\\ \\\\Persepolis\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 3\\ scripts\\ used\\:\\ Old\\ Persian\\,\\ Elamite\\,\\ Babylonian\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Before\\ deciphered\\,\\ Rawlison\\ had\\ to\\ fist\\ copy\\ the\\ inscription\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Deciphered\\ by\\ Rawlison\\,\\ who\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reveal\\ his\\ methods\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Likely\\ borrowed\\ a\\ lot\\ from\\ Edward\\ Hincks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\7\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Cuneiform\\ Deciphered\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rawlinson\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ ID\\ names\\ of\\ people\\ ruled\\ by\\ Darius\\,\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ Greek\\ histories\\ of\\ the\\ \\Persian\\ \\ Empire\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Alloted\\ values\\ to\\ many\\ more\\ signs\\ in\\ Old\\ Persian\\ \\(building\\ upon\\ Grotefend\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rawlinson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ knowledge\\ of\\ Avestan\\ and\\ Sanskrit\\ \\(derived\\ from\\ a\\ common\\ Indo\\-European\\ ancestor\\ w\\/\\ Old\\ Persian\\)\\ allowed\\ him\\ to\\ to\\ expect\\ consistent\\ relationships\\ b\\/w\\ words\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ meaning\\ among\\ Avestan\\,\\ Sanskrit\\,\\ and\\ Old\\ Persian\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Completes\\ translation\\ of\\ Old\\ Persian\\ portion\\ of\\ Behistun\\ inscription\\ in\\ 1846\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Built\\ on\\ the\\ insight\\ of\\ Christian\\ Lassen\\,\\ who\\ noticed\\ that\\ certain\\ cuneiform\\ signs\\ occurred\\ only\\ before\\ particular\\ vowels\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Lassen\\ correctly\\ proposed\\ a\\ mix\\ of\\ alphabet\\/syllabary\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Rawlinson\\ and\\ Hicks\\ realized\\ that\\ the\\ proportion\\ of\\ syllabic\\ spelling\\ varied\\ from\\ word\\ to\\ word\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\&lsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ same\\ way\\ if\\ followed\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;a\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ I\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ but\\ differently\\ if\\ followed\\ by\\ \\&lsquo\\;u\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Elamite\\/Babylonian\\ script\\ of\\ Behistun\\ inscription\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Both\\ clearly\\ contain\\ non\\-alphabetic\\ elements\\ given\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ signs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Not\\ easy\\ to\\ identify\\ proper\\ names\\ in\\ this\\ case\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Elamite\\ is\\ unrelated\\ to\\ any\\ known\\ language\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Babylonian\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ Hebrew\\,\\ Aramaic\\,\\ and\\ other\\ Semitic\\ languages\\-\\-\\-but\\ this\\ falsely\\ led\\ to\\ assumptions\\ that\\ Babylonian\\ cuneiform\\ would\\ resemble\\ these\\ scripts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rawlinson\\ thinks\\ certain\\ sounds\\ were\\ polyphonic\\ \\(could\\ stand\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ sound\\)\\ which\\ made\\ the\\ script\\ seem\\ extremely\\ complex\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ later\\ finds\\ that\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ sign\\ narrowed\\ the\\ choice\\ of\\ sign\\/sound\\ combinations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading from Robinson 68-79"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.652114+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Review Questions", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 702, "html": "\\Government\\ 1362\\:\\ Democratic\\ Citizenship\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Midterm\\ Review\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ How\\ can\\ we\\ reconcile\\ Fiorina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Abramowitz\\/Saunders\\&rsquo\\;\\ views\\ on\\ a\\ \\&rdquo\\;polarized\\ Amer\\-\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ica\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ How\\ does\\ each\\ author\\ de\\?ne\\ polarization\\,\\ and\\ do\\ they\\ think\\ America\\ is\\ polar\\-\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ized\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ which\\ one\\ should\\ we\\ believe\\?\\ and\\ do\\ our\\ beliefs\\ depend\\ on\\ which\\ argument\\ provides\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\better\\ data\\?\\ sample\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ Theories\\ of\\ governance\\ or\\ public\\ opinion\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ What\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ the\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ electorate\\?\\ What\\ are\\ they\\ most\\ knowl\\-\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\edgeable\\ about\\?\\ Least\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ Explain\\ the\\ divergence\\ between\\ the\\ public\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attitude\\ toward\\ individual\\ elected\\ o\\?cials\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(i\\.e\\.\\ representatives\\)\\ and\\ American\\ institutions\\ of\\ democracy\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ Explain\\ how\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ self\\-interest\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ determinant\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\preference\\ toward\\ a\\ policy\\.\\ What\\ are\\ other\\ factors\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ What\\ in\\?uences\\/forces\\ impact\\ political\\ socialization\\ of\\ children\\ and\\ adolescents\\?\\ Is\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\political\\ socialization\\ characterized\\ by\\ continuous\\ socialization\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ more\\ episodic\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Explain\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ How\\ do\\ low\\ levels\\ of\\ political\\ knowledge\\ a\\?ect\\ democracy\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ What\\ are\\ heuristics\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ Are\\ there\\ gaps\\ in\\ group\\ opinion\\ trends\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ male\\/female\\,\\ education\\,\\ religion\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ What\\ role\\ does\\ self\\-interest\\ play\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&bull\\;\\ What\\ study\\/\\ research\\/\\ population\\/\\ sample\\/\\ survey\\ provides\\ the\\ best\\ results\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm Review Questions"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.662453+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "March 12: Maltzman, Smith: Principals, Goals, Dimensionality, and Cong. Committees", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 703, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gov\\ 1300\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Forrest\\ Maltzman\\ and\\ Steven\\ Smith\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Principles\\,\\ Goals\\,\\ Dimensionality\\,\\ and\\ Congressional\\ Committees\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(Ch\\.\\ 18\\ of\\ \\The\\ American\\ Congress\\ Reader\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Main\\ Points\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Committees\\ are\\ best\\ viewed\\ as\\ agents\\ of\\ multiple\\ principles\\;\\ they\\ must\\ take\\ direction\\ from\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>constitutents\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>the\\ parent\\ chamber\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>their\\ party\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ relative\\ importance\\ of\\ these\\ principles\\ varies\\ across\\ committees\\ and\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\ Factors\\ are\\ Influential\\ on\\ the\\ relationship\\ of\\ committees\\ to\\ the\\ principals\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ issue\\ salience\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ partisanship\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ dimensionality\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Summary\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Recent\\ Positive\\ theories\\ of\\ congressional\\ institutions\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\identity\\ of\\ principles\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>for\\ whom\\ standing\\ committee\\ members\\ serve\\ as\\ agents\\;\\ including\\:\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\district\\ constituents\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\the\\ parent\\ chamber\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\parent\\ parties\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ the\\ median\\ voter\\ within\\ each\\ party\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\motivation\\ or\\ goals\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>what\\ constituents\\ seek\\:\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\constituents\\ seek\\ federal\\ benefits\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\member\\ seeks\\ to\\ reduce\\ uncertainty\\ about\\ policy\\ outcomes\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\party\\ leaders\\ seek\\ to\\ protect\\/enhance\\ party\\ reputation\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\committee\\ members\\ seek\\ reelection\\,\\ policy\\ choices\\,\\ or\\ policy\\ outcomes\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\political\\ dimensionality\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>the\\ issues\\ are\\ complex\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ cross\\-cutting\\ majorities\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ problems\\ of\\ majority\\-rule\\ cycling\\ when\\ the\\ political\\ space\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ dimensions\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ We\\ will\\ look\\ at\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ sources\\ of\\ variation\\ in\\ relations\\ between\\ committees\\,\\ parties\\,\\ and\\ parent\\ chambers\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Theoretical\\ difficulties\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Propositions\\ and\\ evidence\\ about\\ sources\\ of\\ variation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Problems\\ as\\ the\\ evolving\\ theory\\ of\\ congressional\\ institutions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Most\\ scholars\\ two\\ decades\\ ago\\ would\\ have\\ agreed\\:\\ \\(and\\ this\\ holds\\ mostly\\ true\\ today\\)\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\ Propositions\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\members\\ have\\ multiple\\ goals\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\committees\\ operate\\ in\\ complex\\ environments\\,\\ in\\ which\\ their\\ members\\ have\\ multiple\\ principles\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Congress\\ and\\ committees\\ operate\\ in\\ a\\ multidimensional\\ policy\\ space\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Recent\\ theories\\<\\/u\\>think\\ that\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ these\\ propositions\\ is\\ wrong\\/irrelevant\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Party\\ theory\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>members\\ are\\ concerned\\ w\\/\\ party\\ reputation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Information\\ theory\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>members\\ care\\ about\\ policy\\ outcomes\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reelection\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>leads\\ legislators\\ to\\ keep\\ politically\\ dangerous\\ issues\\ off\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ \\net\\ effect\\<\\/u\\>\\ of\\ outcome\\-oriented\\ and\\ reelection\\-oriented\\ strategies\\ on\\ committee\\ composition\\ is\\ indeterminate\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Multidimensionality\\ complicates\\ principle\\-agent\\ relationships\\ and\\ other\\ things\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\I\\.\\ \\;Sources\\ of\\ Variation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ causes\\ potential\\ principles\\ to\\ vary\\ in\\ importance\\ for\\ committee\\ members\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>character\\ of\\ the\\ issue\\ agenda\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>the\\ alignment\\ of\\ policy\\ preferences\\ among\\ members\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>the\\ inherited\\ institutional\\ arrangements\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ dimensionality\\ and\\ partisanship\\ of\\ policy\\ alignments\\ have\\ varied\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ House\\ and\\ Senate\\ have\\ both\\ had\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ agenda\\ and\\ policy\\ alignments\\,\\ but\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Senate\\ has\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\more\\ tolerance\\ of\\ individual\\ initiative\\ and\\ obstructionism\\,\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ More\\ resistance\\ to\\ committee\\-imposed\\ or\\ party\\-imposed\\ policy\\ choices\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ change\\ in\\ institutional\\ arrangements\\ are\\ more\\ difficult\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ House\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\House\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\issue\\ salience\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>affects\\ the\\ identity\\ of\\ the\\ members\\ who\\ care\\ to\\ influence\\ policy\\ choices\\ or\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\Partisanship\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>affects\\ the\\ willingness\\ of\\ members\\ to\\ draw\\ upon\\ party\\ organs\\ to\\ control\\ committees\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\Dimensionality\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>affects\\ the\\ ability\\ of\\ the\\ parent\\ parties\\ and\\ chamber\\ to\\ exercise\\ control\\ over\\ committees\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\ Hypotheses\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ The\\ chamber\\-committee\\ relationship\\ dominates\\ when\\ issues\\ are\\ unidimensional\\,\\ salient\\ to\\ most\\ members\\ but\\ partisanship\\ is\\ low\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Committees\\ are\\ autonomous\\,\\ low\\ congruence\\ when\\ issues\\ are\\ multidimensional\\ and\\ not\\ salient\\ to\\ most\\ members\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ study\\ looks\\ at\\ 3\\ committees\\ in\\ the\\ House\\:\\ Agriculture\\,\\ Appropriations\\,\\ and\\ Energy\\ and\\ Commerce\\ in\\ the\\ 94\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\,\\ 96\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\,\\ 98\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\,\\ and\\ 100\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Congresses\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\ measures\\ of\\ congruence\\ \\=\\ \\disagreement\\ measure\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ tapping\\ differences\\ in\\ median\\ position\\,\\ and\\ \\divergence\\ measure\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ tapping\\ differences\\ in\\ mean\\ positions\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\*\\*\\ see\\ charts\\ and\\ graphs\\ on\\ p\\.\\ 224\\,\\ 226\\*\\*\\*\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Findings\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ reasonable\\ to\\ surmise\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ constituency\\-oriented\\ or\\ parochial\\ dimensions\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\ less\\ committee\\-chamber\\ congruence\\ and\\ that\\ dimensions\\ more\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ liberal\\-conservative\\ dimension\\ are\\ associated\\ with\\ more\\ committee\\-chamber\\ congruence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ evidence\\ demonstrates\\ predictable\\ variation\\ across\\ committees\\ in\\ their\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ parent\\ parties\\ and\\ chamber\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ hypotheses\\ are\\ supported\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ The\\ chamber\\-committee\\ relationship\\ dominates\\ when\\ issues\\ are\\ unidimensional\\,\\ salient\\ to\\ most\\ members\\ but\\ partisanship\\ is\\ low\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Committees\\ are\\ autonomous\\,\\ low\\ congruence\\ when\\ issues\\ are\\ multidimensional\\ and\\ not\\ salient\\ to\\ most\\ members\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ Evolution\\ of\\ Principal\\-Agent\\ Relations\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reciprocity\\ arrangements\\,\\ uncertainty\\-reducing\\ mechanisms\\,\\ and\\ collective\\-action\\ solutions\\ are\\ assumed\\ to\\ be\\ enduring\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ well\\-understood\\ reasons\\,\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ conditions\\ and\\ institutions\\ is\\ complex\\ and\\ not\\ easily\\ understood\\.\\ \\;We\\ should\\ be\\ suspicious\\ of\\ analyses\\ drawing\\ from\\ different\\ historical\\ periods\\ without\\ taking\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ the\\ context\\ might\\ have\\ changed\\ in\\ crucial\\ ways\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Alternative\\ Institutional\\ Arrangements\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Information\\ theorists\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>explain\\ the\\ delegation\\ of\\ power\\ to\\ committees\\ as\\ a\\ strategy\\ for\\ motivating\\ some\\ members\\ to\\ gather\\ and\\ digest\\ information\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ chamber\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Weaknesses\\:\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mention\\ other\\ sources\\ of\\ information\\:\\ support\\ agencies\\,\\ holding\\ tanks\\ for\\ specialized\\ staffs\\,\\ party\\ staffs\\,\\ faction\\ \\/\\ issue\\ caucus\\ staffs\\,\\ personal\\ staffs\\,\\ consultants\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Partisan\\ theorists\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>say\\ that\\ bipartisan\\ committees\\ may\\ better\\ predict\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\;They\\ put\\ aside\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ the\\ majority\\ party\\ wants\\ to\\ limit\\ criticism\\ that\\ is\\ unfair\\ to\\ the\\ minority\\ party\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Too\\ little\\ attention\\ has\\ been\\ given\\ to\\ committee\\ members\\&rsquo\\;\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ equation\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ party\\?\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ shared\\ party\\ label\\ creates\\ a\\ bond\\ among\\ fellow\\ partisans\\.\\ \\;\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Party\\ organization\\,\\ leadership\\,\\ and\\ control\\ over\\ committee\\ contingents\\ represent\\ a\\ solution\\ to\\ a\\ collective\\-action\\ problem\\ for\\ party\\ members\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Parties\\ are\\ coalitions\\ based\\ upon\\ the\\ similarity\\ of\\ their\\ members\\&rsquo\\;\\ policy\\ preferences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ partisanship\\ is\\ nothing\\ but\\ preferenceship\\.\\ \\;\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Parties\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ role\\ or\\ character\\ of\\ committees\\ independent\\ of\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ chamber\\ majority\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ merely\\ happen\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ frequently\\ appearing\\ coalitions\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Neither\\ view\\ has\\ supported\\ the\\ more\\ conventional\\ view\\ that\\ \\party\\ strength\\ shapes\\ party\\-committee\\ relations\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\The\\ Senate\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-has\\ been\\ largely\\ ignored\\ by\\ positive\\ theorists\\ of\\ congressional\\ institutions\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ Something\\ about\\ the\\ \\context\\ of\\ the\\ Senate\\:\\ \\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ size\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ jurisdiction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ terms\\ of\\ office\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ constituencies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ inherited\\ rules\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Shapes\\ its\\ institutional\\ arrangements\\ in\\ critical\\ ways\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Conclusion\\:\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\No\\ single\\ principal\\-agent\\ relation\\,\\ goal\\,\\ or\\ dimension\\ of\\ conflict\\ dominates\\ congressional\\ politics\\,\\ at\\ least\\ not\\ for\\ long\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ has\\ led\\ us\\ to\\ doubt\\ the\\ theories\\ failing\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ variation\\ in\\ principle\\-agent\\ relation\\,\\ goals\\,\\ and\\ dimensionality\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Unless\\ we\\ are\\ aiming\\ for\\ a\\ theory\\ of\\ \\;a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ House\\ committees\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ we\\ must\\ move\\ to\\ a\\ larger\\ developmental\\ thoery\\ that\\ accounts\\ for\\ the\\ diversity\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ central\\ tendency\\ of\\ congressional\\ institutions\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 90, "file_path": "", "desc": "March 12: Maltzman, Smith: Principals, Goals, Dimensionality, and Cong. Committees"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.679122+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Other Cuneiform Scripts", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 704, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ \\#8\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\March\\ 4\\,\\ 2009\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\The\\ Other\\ Cuneiform\\ Scripts\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Old\\ Persian\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>mixed\\ logosyllabic\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Old\\ Akkadian\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>derived\\ from\\ Sumerian\\ cuneiform\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Semitic\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>Akkadian\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>Ugaritic\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Cuneiform\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ writing\\ systems\\ that\\ appeared\\ in\\ Sumer\\ around\\ 30\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ BC\\,\\ characterized\\ by\\ wedge\\-shaped\\ symbols\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Early\\ cuneiform\\ is\\ more\\ pictorial\\ \\(Pictographic\\ stage\\:\\ 3000\\ BC\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Over\\ time\\ the\\ symbols\\ have\\ become\\ less\\ pictorial\\ with\\ simplified\\ strokes\\ in\\ cuneiform\\ representation\\ \\(2400\\ BC\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Over\\ time\\ all\\ the\\ symbols\\ have\\ been\\ rotated\\ 90\\º\\;\\ counterclockwise\\ due\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ convention\\ of\\ recording\\ on\\ clay\\ tablets\\ \\(2100\\ BC\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-650\\ BC\\:\\ cuneiform\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ being\\ extremely\\ stylized\\ and\\ abstract\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Decipherment\\ of\\ Cuneiform\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-It\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ written\\ scripts\\ ever\\ to\\ be\\ successfully\\ deciphered\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\\\Georg\\ Grotefend\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\:\\ German\\ high\\ school\\ teacher\\ who\\ initiated\\ the\\ decipherment\\ of\\ Old\\ Persian\\ Cuneiform\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\\\Niebuhr\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\:\\ made\\ early\\ drawings\\ of\\ cuneiform\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\\\Duperron\\<\\/u\\>\\:\\ \\<\\/i\\>he\\ was\\ trained\\ as\\ a\\ theologian\\ and\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ writings\\ of\\ the\\ descendents\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Persian\\,\\ he\\ spent\\ seven\\ years\\ learning\\ modern\\ Persian\\ and\\ transcribing\\ and\\ studying\\ the\\ Old\\ Persian\\ documents\\.\\ This\\ allowed\\ him\\ to\\ translate\\ the\\ \\Zend\\ Avesta\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(a\\ group\\ of\\ certain\\ ancient\\,\\ sacred\\ books\\ collectively\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ the\\ \\Zend\\ Avesta\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\\\Herodotus\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\:\\ contributed\\ knowledge\\ about\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ script\\&rsquo\\;s\\ users\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Caylus\\ Vase\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ a\\ vase\\ of\\ Xerxes\\ discovered\\ in\\ Egypt\\ that\\ was\\ a\\ trilingual\\ text\\/artifact\\ that\\ included\\ an\\ Egyptian\\ hieroglyphs\\ translation\\ of\\ the\\ legend\\ of\\ Xerxes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Henry\\ Rawlinson\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\-Furthered\\ Grotefend\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decipherment\\ of\\ Old\\ Persian\\ and\\ also\\ deciphered\\ \\&ldquo\\;Babylonian\\ Cuneiform\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ to\\ some\\ extend\\ Elamite\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ allegedly\\ stole\\ some\\ of\\ Jules\\ Oppert\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(1825\\-1905\\)\\ and\\ Edward\\ Hincks\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(1792\\-1866\\)\\ ideas\\ about\\ cuneiform\\ decipherment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-In\\ 1835\\ he\\ took\\ on\\ the\\ challenging\\ project\\ of\\ documenting\\ the\\ inscription\\ of\\ Darius\\ I\\ at\\ Behistun\\,\\ Iran\\,\\ which\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ complete\\ until\\ 1850\\;\\ the\\ engraving\\ was\\ extremely\\ difficult\\ to\\ access\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ on\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ a\\ cliff\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ Bisitun\\ monument\\ is\\ a\\ trilingual\\ inscription\\;\\ it\\ has\\ cuneiform\\ inscriptions\\ and\\ relief\\ sculptures\\ of\\ Darius\\ and\\ his\\ attendents\\;\\ The\\ languages\\ on\\ the\\ monument\\ are\\ Elamite\\ cuneiform\\,\\ Babylonian\\ cuneiform\\,\\ and\\ Old\\ Persian\\ cuneiform\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Clay\\ Cylinder\\ of\\ Tiglath\\-Pileser\\ I\\ of\\ Assyria\\ \\(1120\\-1074\\ BC\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ 1857\\,\\ a\\ blind\\ test\\ of\\ cuneiform\\ decipherment\\ was\\ performed\\.\\ Rawlinson\\,\\ Oppert\\ and\\ Hincks\\ all\\ independently\\ deciphered\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ cuneiform\\ writing\\.\\ Their\\ translations\\ were\\ all\\ fairly\\ comparable\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Old\\ Persian\\ looks\\ like\\ cuneiform\\ writing\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ actually\\ developed\\ de\\ novo\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Elamite\\ is\\ an\\ isolate\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ Semitic\\ language\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ history\\ in\\ cuneiform\\ script\\ because\\ there\\ was\\ extensive\\ borrowing\\ from\\ Sumerian\\ or\\ Akkadian\\ languages\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Charles\\ Virolleaud\\ \\(1879\\-1968\\)\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\He\\ deciphered\\ the\\ Ugaritic\\ alphabet\\ within\\ a\\ year\\ of\\ its\\ discovery\\.\\ He\\ assumed\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ not\\ enough\\ signs\\ for\\ the\\ Ugaritic\\ script\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ syllabary\\,\\ so\\ he\\ assumed\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ alphabet\\,\\ and\\ that\\ like\\ of\\ the\\ Egyptian\\ hieroglyphs\\,\\ probably\\ did\\ not\\ record\\ vowel\\ sounds\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-he\\ was\\ an\\ Assyriologist\\ interested\\ in\\ all\\ scripts\\ and\\ languages\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ Levant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ also\\ possessed\\ knowledge\\ of\\ Semitic\\ languages\\ \\(Phoenician\\,\\ Hebrew\\ and\\ Assyriam\\)\\,\\ and\\ had\\ broad\\ familiarity\\ with\\ the\\ material\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ region\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Schaeffer\\ excavated\\ artifacts\\,\\ while\\ Virolleaud\\ deciphered\\ them\\.\\ Virolleaud\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decipherment\\ was\\ possible\\ because\\ he\\ had\\ access\\ to\\ so\\ many\\ texts\\ provided\\ by\\ Schaeffer\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ex\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ tablet\\ that\\ Virolleaud\\ suspected\\ was\\ a\\ letter\\,\\ he\\ found\\ similar\\ inscriptions\\ on\\ an\\ engraved\\ axe\\ from\\ Ugarit\\;\\ he\\ found\\ the\\ same\\ patterns\\ on\\ 2\\ axeheads\\ and\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ letter\\,\\ so\\ he\\ assumed\\ that\\ the\\ letter\\ was\\ authored\\ to\\ whom\\ the\\ axe\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belonged\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Inscription\\ was\\ deciphered\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;axe\\ of\\ \\(the\\)\\ chief\\ of\\ \\(the\\)\\ priests\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ letter\\ was\\ deciphered\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ the\\ chief\\ of\\ the\\ priests\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-From\\ this\\ a\\ model\\ alphabet\\ was\\ made\\ that\\ mimics\\ the\\ alphabetic\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ Phonecian\\ alphabet\\,\\ and\\ our\\ own\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\11\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Table\\ of\\ the\\ Gilgamesh\\ Epic\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-A\\ passage\\ was\\ found\\ that\\ told\\ a\\ story\\ very\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ Great\\ Flood\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ and\\ Noah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ark\\.\\ This\\ ancient\\ tablet\\ containing\\ such\\ a\\ similar\\ story\\ actually\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ faith\\,\\ but\\ key\\ moralistic\\ stories\\ were\\ likely\\ and\\ actively\\ circulated\\ in\\ the\\ Ancient\\ Middle\\ East\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\*Key\\ idea\\ from\\ this\\ lecture\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ \\writing\\<\\/i\\>\\ and\\ \\spoken\\ language\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ Akkadians\\ used\\ Sumerian\\ cuneiform\\ writing\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ distinct\\ language\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Other Cuneiform Scripts"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.692066+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cracking the Code: The Decipherment of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 705, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ \\#10\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\March\\ 11\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Cracking\\ the\\ Code\\:\\ The\\ Decipherment\\ of\\ Maya\\ Hieroglyphic\\ Writing\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Some\\ aspects\\ of\\ Maya\\ script\\ were\\ understood\\ prior\\ to\\ scholars\\ tackling\\ the\\ language\\ because\\ of\\ early\\ documentation\\ by\\ missionaries\\ and\\ colonizers\\.\\ It\\ was\\ not\\ until\\ the1950s\\ when\\ the\\ phonetic\\ components\\ of\\ Mayan\\ script\\ were\\ actually\\ deciphered\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Deciphered\\ and\\ undeciphered\\ scripts\\ in\\ similar\\ regions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mayan\\ Territory\\ corresponds\\ to\\ Mesoamerica\\ or\\ modern\\-day\\ southeastern\\ Mexico\\,\\ Belize\\,\\ Guatemala\\,\\ and\\ Honduras\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\John\\ Lloyd\\ Stevens\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(1805\\-1872\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Main\\ \\&ldquo\\;discoverer\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ West\\ of\\ Mayan\\ ruins\\ \\(1850s\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-American\\ lawyer\\,\\ diplomat\\ and\\ travel\\ writer\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ really\\ popular\\ travel\\ narratives\\ about\\ his\\ travels\\ in\\ Yucatan\\ peninsula\\ and\\ Honduras\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ documenter\\ of\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;lost\\&rdquo\\;\\ civilizations\\.\\ He\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ an\\ architect\\ and\\ artist\\ \\(Frederick\\ Catherwood\\)\\ friend\\ who\\ helped\\ with\\ his\\ scientific\\-like\\ documentation\\ of\\ these\\ civilizations\\ and\\ their\\ ruins\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-He\\ wrote\\ the\\ \\Incidents\\ of\\ Travel\\ in\\ Central\\ America\\,\\ Chiapas\\,\\ and\\ Yucatan\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(1841\\)\\ and\\ \\Incidents\\ of\\ Travel\\ in\\ Yucatan\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(1843\\)\\,\\ which\\ were\\ two\\ long\\ and\\ well\\-illustrated\\ reports\\ of\\ his\\ travels\\ through\\ Mexico\\,\\ Guatemala\\,\\ and\\ Honduras\\ in\\ 1849\\-1841\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-These\\ areas\\ had\\ been\\ under\\ colonial\\ rule\\ by\\ Spain\\ for\\ the\\ past\\ 300\\ years\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-These\\ travel\\ logs\\ reflect\\ a\\ certain\\ amount\\ of\\ romanticism\\ about\\ reporting\\ the\\ ruins\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Alfred\\ Maudslay\\:\\ \\(1850\\-1931\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Documented\\ Maya\\ monuments\\ in\\ paper\\ molds\\ and\\ casts\\ and\\ large\\-format\\ photographs\\ that\\ eventually\\ provided\\ the\\ crucial\\ \\corpus\\ \\<\\/i\\>for\\ decipherment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Took\\ good\\ photographs\\ of\\ hieroglyphic\\ inscriptions\\ that\\ have\\ since\\ been\\ lost\\ and\\ the\\ only\\ record\\ of\\ these\\ artifacts\\ are\\ his\\ photographs\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*One\\ of\\ the\\ tremendous\\ challenges\\ to\\ recording\\ these\\ inscriptions\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ deteriorated\\ over\\ time\\ making\\ them\\ hard\\ to\\ draw\\ or\\ record\\.\\ Some\\ have\\ been\\ exposed\\ to\\ elements\\ for\\ over\\ 1000\\ years\\ and\\ since\\ the1950s\\ to\\ acid\\ rain\\.\\ The\\ ruins\\ are\\ susceptible\\ to\\ erosion\\ and\\ deterioration\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ limestone\\ monuments\\.\\ Therefore\\ we\\ really\\ rely\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ inscriptions\\ and\\ recordings\\ taken\\ by\\ earlier\\ archaeologists\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Copan\\-\\<\\/b\\>\\ Barbara\\ Fash\\ and\\ William\\ Fash\\ \\(corpus\\ of\\ hieroglyphic\\ Maya\\/\\ working\\ to\\ make\\ line\\ drawings\\ and\\ recordings\\ of\\ glyphs\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ deciphered\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Copan\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ Altar\\ Q\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ Q\\ refers\\ to\\ order\\ that\\ the\\ monument\\ was\\ found\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ K\\&rsquo\\;inich\\ Yax\\ K\\&rsquo\\;uk\\ Mo\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(a\\ person\\/\\ Dynastic\\ founder\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Holding\\ in\\ his\\ left\\ had\\ a\\ fiery\\ torch\\ \\(tied\\ into\\ notions\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ urbanization\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ To\\ be\\ a\\ ruler\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ you\\ needed\\ to\\ have\\ connections\\ to\\ other\\ regions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ lineal\\ king\\ in\\ the\\ dynastic\\ line\\;\\ the\\ altar\\ wraps\\ around\\ the\\ monument\\ and\\ depicts\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ kings\\ that\\ covers\\ 340\\ years\\ of\\ dynasty\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-two\\ glyphs\\ in\\ between\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ date\\ \\(6\\ caban\\ 10\\ mol\\)\\ this\\ is\\ accession\\ of\\ the\\ king\\ in\\ 763\\ AD\\;\\ we\\ know\\ this\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ Mayan\\ calendars\\;\\ they\\ were\\ extremely\\ precise\\ and\\ obsessed\\ with\\ their\\ recordings\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Early\\ History\\ of\\ Decipherment\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ When\\ the\\ subject\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ crossed\\-torches\\ house\\ and\\ receives\\ the\\ K\\&rsquo\\;awiil\\ \\(a\\ sign\\ of\\ power\\)\\ undergoes\\ a\\ name\\ change\\ to\\ signify\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ power\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 152\\ days\\ later\\ they\\ rest\\ legs\\ and\\ arrive\\ at\\ Copan\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 340\\ years\\ later\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Distribution\\ of\\ Mayan\\ Language\\ Families\\ in\\ the\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ are\\ broad\\ belts\\ of\\ closely\\ related\\ Cholan\\ and\\ Yucatecan\\ languages\\ across\\ the\\ Lowlands\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-This\\ distribution\\ first\\ suggested\\ that\\ these\\ were\\ the\\ languages\\ recorded\\ in\\ the\\ hieroglyphs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ is\\ a\\ rich\\ density\\ of\\ different\\ Mayan\\ languages\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ sounds\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ reconstructed\\ as\\ those\\ recorded\\ on\\ the\\ hieroglyphs\\ are\\ partially\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ analyzing\\ the\\ multitude\\ of\\ descendent\\ languages\\ now\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Apostolic\\ Twelve\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>were\\ the\\ first\\ Franciscan\\ missionaries\\ arriving\\ in\\ 1524\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ documentation\\ of\\ the\\ hieroglyphs\\ and\\ languages\\ began\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ by\\ Franciscan\\ missionaries\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Diego\\ de\\ Landa\\:\\ \\(1524\\-1579\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-He\\ wrote\\ the\\ \\Relacion\\ de\\ las\\ Cosas\\ de\\ Yucatan\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(Relation\\ of\\ the\\ Things\\ of\\ Yucatan\\)\\ in\\ 1565\\.\\ It\\ was\\ an\\ invaluable\\ survey\\ of\\ Maya\\ culture\\ and\\ contained\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Maya\\ including\\ their\\ calendar\\ and\\ their\\ culture\\.\\ We\\ rely\\ on\\ this\\ record\\ for\\ much\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ their\\ system\\ of\\ time\\ keeping\\ and\\ culture\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-His\\ manuscript\\ became\\ lost\\ and\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rediscovered\\ until\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Part\\ of\\ his\\ writings\\ included\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;alphabet\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Maya\\ signs\\ and\\ associated\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ Roman\\ alphabet\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-it\\ was\\ discounted\\ for\\ a\\ while\\ because\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\ and\\ they\\ assumed\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ Spanish\\ fabrication\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Abbe\\ Charles\\-Etienne\\ Brasseur\\ de\\ Bourbourg\\:\\ \\(1814\\-1874\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ was\\ a\\ widely\\-traveled\\ cleric\\ who\\ served\\ stints\\ as\\ a\\ parish\\ priest\\ in\\ Canada\\,\\ Mexico\\,\\ and\\ Guatemala\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-He\\ loved\\ books\\ and\\ helped\\ to\\ rediscover\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ great\\ manscripts\\ upon\\ which\\ current\\ Mayanist\\ research\\ depends\\,\\ including\\ Diego\\ de\\ Landa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Relacion\\ de\\ las\\ Cosas\\ de\\ Yucatan\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(in\\ an\\ anonymous\\ copy\\ dating\\ to\\ 1661\\)\\,\\ the\\ Quiche\\ Maya\\ \\Popol\\ Vuh\\,\\ \\<\\/i\\>and\\ the\\ famous\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ \\Motul\\ Dictionary\\ \\<\\/i\\>of\\ Yucatec\\ Maya\\ \\(This\\ was\\ a\\ small\\ dictionary\\ that\\ was\\ used\\ by\\ missionaries\\ in\\ the\\ field\\.\\ It\\ had\\ basic\\ vocabulary\\ and\\ primers\\ to\\ help\\ with\\ their\\ missionary\\ work\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Yuri\\ Knorosov\\:\\ \\(1922\\-1999\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Began\\ the\\ decipherment\\ of\\ the\\ Maya\\ writing\\ in\\ 1952\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-He\\ was\\ Russian\\ and\\ an\\ outsider\\ to\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ academia\\ like\\ Vodrillieaud\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ was\\ working\\ in\\ Russian\\ during\\ the1950s\\ so\\ he\\ was\\ working\\ behind\\ the\\ Iron\\ Curtain\\ and\\ had\\ no\\ contact\\ with\\ other\\ Mayanists\\ in\\ Europe\\ or\\ America\\.\\ Therefore\\ he\\ worked\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ dogma\\ within\\ the\\ field\\ and\\ could\\ pursue\\ his\\ own\\ leads\\ and\\ hypotheses\\ without\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ any\\ predetermined\\ conceptions\\ of\\ decipherment\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Because\\ of\\ his\\ placement\\ outside\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ Academia\\,\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ scholar\\ to\\ take\\ the\\ De\\ Landa\\ manuscript\\ seriously\\.\\ Up\\ to\\ this\\ point\\ no\\ one\\ could\\ apply\\ the\\ Roman\\ letter\\ equivalents\\ in\\ a\\ straightforward\\ manner\\ an\\ alphabet\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ make\\ sense\\.\\ Therefore\\ they\\ dismissed\\ the\\ alphabet\\ as\\ a\\ fabrication\\ of\\ Spanish\\ colonialists\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Knorosov\\ made\\ several\\ key\\ observations\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ He\\ noted\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ many\\,\\ many\\ different\\ signs\\ on\\ books\\ and\\ monuments\\,\\ which\\ lead\\ him\\ to\\ conclude\\ that\\ he\\ alphabet\\ in\\ De\\ Landa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manuscript\\ represented\\ only\\ a\\ very\\ small\\ sample\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Also\\ 6\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ AD\\ monuments\\ were\\ compared\\ to\\ signs\\ written\\ much\\ later\\ \\(small\\ sampling\\ of\\ overall\\ set\\ of\\ signs\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-600\\-650\\ signs\\ in\\ Mayan\\ script\\ at\\ any\\ one\\ time\\ \\(total\\ catalogue\\ is\\ over1000\\ signs\\)\\;\\ the\\ signs\\ have\\ definitely\\ evolved\\ over\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ are\\ hundreds\\ of\\ different\\ signs\\ in\\ the\\ books\\ and\\ on\\ monuments\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ too\\ many\\ for\\ an\\ alphabet\\ \\(typical\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;mixed\\&rdquo\\;\\ scripts\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ Many\\ signs\\ are\\ given\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ \\(eg\\.\\ 2\\ signs\\ given\\ for\\ b\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ common\\ feature\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;mixed\\ scripts\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ allographs\\/allophones\\ have\\ same\\ sound\\ but\\ different\\ shapes\\,\\ which\\ indicated\\ that\\ the\\ hieroglyphs\\ were\\ not\\ a\\ straightforward\\ alphabet\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ Other\\ signs\\ are\\ given\\ both\\ a\\ consonant\\ and\\ a\\ vowel\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Ca\\,\\ ka\\,\\ cu\\,\\ ku\\,\\ ti\\)\\,\\ suggesting\\ a\\ syllabary\\,\\ they\\ were\\ hiding\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ simply\\ an\\ alphabet\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-these\\ insights\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\A\\ Turkey\\ in\\ the\\ Madrid\\ Codex\\ \\(\\<\\/b\\>turkey\\ in\\ a\\ noose\\ on\\ a\\ tree\\\\)\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Following\\ Leon\\ de\\ Rosny\\,\\ Knorosov\\ noted\\ Landa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\ku\\<\\/i\\>\\ sign\\ in\\ an\\ association\\ with\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ a\\ turkey\\ in\\ the\\ Madrid\\ Codex\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Since\\ \\kutz\\ \\<\\/i\\>means\\ turkey\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ Mayan\\ languages\\,\\ Knorosov\\ decided\\ to\\ test\\ a\\ reading\\ to\\ \\tz\\(u\\)\\<\\/i\\>\\ for\\ the\\ second\\ sigh\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-kutz\\ \\(turkey\\)\\ and\\ proved\\ that\\ ku\\ sign\\ as\\ predicted\\ by\\ Landa\\ was\\ corrected\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ second\\ sign\\ stood\\ for\\ tzu\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Important\\ conventions\\ of\\ Mayan\\ Hieroglyphs\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-read\\ in\\ a\\ double\\ column\\ format\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Verbs\\ are\\ often\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ position\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dog\\ in\\ the\\ Dresden\\ Codex\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Every\\ time\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ dog\\ in\\ the\\ Dresden\\ Codex\\ it\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ two\\ signs\\,\\ including\\ the\\ \\tz\\(u\\)\\<\\/i\\>\\ sign\\,\\ which\\ was\\ always\\ followed\\ by\\ De\\ Landa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\l\\(u\\)\\ \\<\\/i\\>sign\\,\\ one\\ Yucatec\\ Maya\\ word\\ for\\ dog\\ is\\ \\tzul\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-One\\ academic\\ proposed\\ that\\ the\\ signs\\ were\\ pictorial\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ signs\\ were\\ abstracted\\ form\\ for\\ ribs\\ like\\ they\\ were\\ hungry\\,\\ and\\ lu\\ showed\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ dogs\\ were\\ given\\ as\\ a\\ sacrifice\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ plausible\\ phonetic\\ explanation\\ for\\ this\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-lu\\ and\\ ku\\ turn\\ up\\ in\\ one\\ more\\ context\\;\\ we\\ know\\ from\\ the\\ calendar\\ that\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Phonetic\\ Spelling\\ of\\ Eleven\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Knorosov\\ showed\\ that\\ Landa\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\l\\(u\\)\\ \\<\\/i\\>and\\ \\ku\\<\\/i\\>\\ appeared\\ together\\ in\\ the\\ spelling\\ lu\\-ku\\ where\\ the\\ context\\ requires\\ the\\ Maya\\ world\\ \\buluk\\<\\/i\\>\\ or\\ eleven\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ were\\ political\\ reasons\\ to\\ discount\\ the\\ theory\\ coming\\ from\\ behind\\ the\\ Iron\\ Curtain\\ from\\ Knorosov\\;\\ students\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ even\\ hear\\ about\\ \\(professors\\ road\\-blocked\\ it\\ in\\ Europe\\ and\\ America\\)\\&hellip\\;except\\ for\\ David\\ H\\.\\ Kelley\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\David\\ H\\.\\ Kelley\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-First\\ American\\ scholar\\ to\\ support\\ and\\ extend\\ Knorosov\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decipherment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Recurring\\ glyph\\ sequences\\ at\\ Chichen\\ Itza\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Ka\\-ka\\-wa\\ \\(kakaw\\)\\=chocolate\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ hieroglyphs\\ were\\ a\\ complex\\ system\\.\\ Scribes\\ could\\ write\\ the\\ same\\ words\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ Maya\\ writing\\ employed\\ logographs\\ \\(word\\ signs\\)\\ that\\ carried\\ both\\ sound\\ and\\ meaning\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ complements\\ and\\ phonetic\\ spellings\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Early\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ namesake\\;\\ common\\ feature\\ of\\ Mayan\\ writing\\,\\ there\\ are\\ glyph\\ substitutions\\ that\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ value\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Stuart\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-vastly\\ enlarged\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ contexts\\ of\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-pictographically\\ transparent\\ human\\ face\\ on\\ a\\ shield\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Pacal\\ is\\ the\\ entire\\ word\\ for\\ shield\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-logograph\\ for\\ mountain\\,\\ very\\ old\\ sign\\ \\(1000\\ years\\ old\\)\\ and\\ it\\ became\\ stylized\\ over\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Logographs\\,\\ complements\\,\\ and\\ phonetic\\ spellings\\ \\(fill\\ space\\ and\\ make\\ harmonious\\ depictions\\)\\ helps\\ us\\ with\\ the\\ decipherment\\ of\\ the\\ spoken\\ langage\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-similar\\ to\\ Egyptian\\ hieroglyphs\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ redundant\\ and\\ phonetic\\ sounds\\,\\ these\\ ultimately\\ help\\ with\\ the\\ decipherment\\ of\\ other\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "Cracking the Code: The Decipherment of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.712506+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Terms to Retain: 6-12", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 706, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lecture\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sola\\ fide\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\justification\\ by\\ faith\\ alone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Do\\ you\\ need\\ works\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ \\=\\ Augustianism\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;sola\\ fide\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ go\\ this\\ root\\ too\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ far\\,\\ then\\ no\\ reason\\ to\\ act\\ good\\,\\ lawlessness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ where\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pre\\-destination\\ comes\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\sola\\ scriptura\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\doctrine\\ by\\ scripture\\ alone\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ i\\.e\\.\\ w\\/o\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rejects\\ allegorical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ speaks\\ for\\ itself\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doesn\\'t\\ see\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ line\\ of\\ interpreters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ sees\\ truth\\ in\\ Bible\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ feels\\ everyone\\ else\\ should\\ agree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Leader\\ of\\ the\\ Reformation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1517\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\German\\ monk\\,\\ 1483\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 18\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ February\\ 1546\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ religious\\ reform\\ movement\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ spread\\ like\\ none\\ before\\ \\(printing\\;\\ protection\\ by\\ German\\ princes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spoke\\ out\\ and\\ published\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ practices\\ of\\ selling\\ indulgences\\,\\ practice\\ by\\ Catholic\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ did\\ not\\ mean\\ to\\ make\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ permanent\\ schism\\,\\ simply\\ wanted\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ his\\ work\\ published\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ masses\\,\\ printing\\ press\\,\\ and\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ tensions\\ just\\ right\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Zwingli\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ leader\\,\\ believed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Eucharist\\ was\\ symbolic\\,\\ key\\ difference\\ with\\ Luther\\ and\\ Calvin\\ on\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\January\\ 1484\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 11\\ October\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1531\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Leader\\ of\\ Reformation\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Switzerland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Clashed\\ with\\ the\\ radical\\ wing\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Reformation\\,\\ the\\ Anabaptists\\,\\ which\\ resulted\\ in\\ their\\ persecution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eucharist\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Holy\\ Communion\\,\\ Lord\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Supper\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Eucharist\\,\\ most\\ irreconcilable\\ differences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ church\\ believes\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\ of\\ Christ\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\transubstantiation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ that\\ uses\\ Aristotelian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notion\\ of\\ matter\\ and\\ form\\ so\\ that\\ you\\ have\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\ so\\ that\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ substance\\ is\\ transformed\\ into\\ actual\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Real\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appears\\ like\\ bread\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wine\\,\\ but\\ actually\\ Jesus\\'\\ blood\\ and\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Majority\\ of\\ faithful\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ took\\ it\\ once\\ a\\ year\\ back\\ then\\,\\ at\\ Easter\\ after\\ confession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Luther\\ \\(consubstantiation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ have\\ bread\\ and\\ wine\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesus\\'\\ body\\ and\\ blood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Calvin\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Virtual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presence\\,\\ symbolic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bread\\ and\\ wine\\,\\ spiritual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Zwingli\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Symbolic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Abuses\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ church\\ practicing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ abuses\\ concerning\\ the\\ selling\\ of\\ indulgences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Abuse\\ in\\ late\\ medieval\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ period\\ when\\ these\\ things\\ were\\ sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ abuse\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ no\\ confession\\ or\\ contrition\\ cycle\\ preparing\\ people\\ to\\ buy\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indulgences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Indulgences\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\the\\ full\\ or\\ partial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ remission\\ of\\ temporal\\ punishment\\ due\\ for\\ sins\\ which\\ have\\ already\\ been\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forgiven\\.\\ The\\ indulgence\\ is\\ granted\\ by\\ the\\ church\\ after\\ the\\ sinner\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ confessed\\ and\\ received\\ absolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ Church\\ sold\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ willing\\ buyers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Were\\ abusing\\ them\\,\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ requiring\\ people\\ go\\ through\\ confession\\ or\\ contrition\\ cycle\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ Luther\\ published\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ work\\ against\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ Protestant\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catechism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Official\\ teachings\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholic\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magisterial\\ Reformations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impose\\ a\\ catechism\\ to\\ direct\\ the\\ faithful\\ in\\ interpreting\\ Bible\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrine\\;\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ teaching\\ philosophy\\ in\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\magisterial\\ vs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ radical\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magisterial\\ Reformations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impose\\ a\\ catechism\\ to\\ direct\\ the\\ faithful\\ in\\ interpreting\\ Bible\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrine\\;\\ and\\ rely\\ on\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ teaching\\ philosophy\\ in\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vs\\ radical\\ Reformers\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reject\\ authority\\ of\\ Church\\ fathers\\,\\ have\\ little\\ interest\\ in\\ theology\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ persecuted\\ along\\ everywhere\\ in\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Anabaptists\\ example\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ go\\ to\\ America\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Lecture\\ 9\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\De\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolutionibus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1543\\)\\:\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\ many\\ epicycles\\,\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Elegance\\ of\\ explanation\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stations\\ and\\ retrogradiations\\,\\ order\\ of\\ planets\\,\\ no\\ motion\\ of\\ fixed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Follows\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ptolemy\\'s\\ Almagest\\;\\ updated\\ data\\,\\ not\\ better\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Model\\ proposed\\ by\\ Copernicus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ put\\ sun\\ at\\ center\\ and\\ earth\\ rotating\\ around\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Went\\ against\\ Church\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teaching\\ of\\ the\\ day\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Ptolemaic\\ worldview\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ universe\\ is\\ the\\ superseded\\ theory\\ that\\ the\\ Earth\\ is\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\ and\\ other\\ objects\\ go\\ around\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ptolemy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ptolemy\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Almagest\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(2nd\\ C\\ CE\\)\\ relying\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observations\\ dating\\ back\\ to\\ Babylonians\\ \\(8th\\-4th\\ et\\ BCE\\)\\ and\\ his\\ own\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presents\\ a\\ geocentric\\ system\\ featuring\\ circular\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ planets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adjusted\\ with\\ epicycles\\ and\\ equants\\;\\ great\\ predictive\\ accuracy\\,\\ but\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ features\\ that\\ don\\'t\\ aren\\'t\\ easy\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ physically\\ \\[also\\ wants\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ treatise\\ on\\ astrology\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Almagest\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ published\\ by\\ Ptolemy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ established\\ geocentric\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ hundreds\\ of\\ years\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Epicycle\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Epicycles\\:\\ idea\\ that\\ planet\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ going\\ around\\ a\\ circle\\,\\ but\\ actually\\ around\\ an\\ outer\\ circle\\ that\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ traveling\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ make\\ much\\ sense\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ does\\ make\\ an\\ elliptical\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matches\\ phenomenon\\ at\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cost\\ of\\ being\\ physically\\ plausible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ Ptolemaic\\ system\\,\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planets\\ are\\ assumed\\ to\\ move\\ in\\ a\\ small\\ circle\\,\\ called\\ an\\ epicycle\\,\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ turn\\ moves\\ along\\ a\\ larger\\ circle\\ called\\ a\\ deferent\\.\\ Both\\ circles\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rotate\\ eastward\\ and\\ are\\ roughly\\ parallel\\ to\\ the\\ plane\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\'s\\ orbit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(ecliptic\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\stations\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ retrogradations\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Occur\\ when\\ planets\\ appear\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pause\\,\\ then\\ briefly\\ reverse\\ their\\ motion\\ against\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ zodiac\\.\\ Ptolemy\\ understood\\ these\\ terms\\ to\\ apply\\ to\\ Mercury\\ and\\ Venus\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ well\\ as\\ the\\ outer\\ planets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\calendar\\ reform\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1582\\,\\ Gregorian\\ calendar\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ chopped\\ off\\ Oct\\.\\ 5\\ through\\ 14\\ in\\ countries\\ that\\ adopted\\ Gregorian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ calendar\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spain\\,\\ Italy\\,\\ Portugal\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Poland\\,\\ Netherlands\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Took\\ British\\ 200\\ years\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ till\\ 1752\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\'s\\ why\\ letters\\ during\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ period\\ have\\ 2\\ dates\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mar\\ 4\\/Mar\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ did\\ this\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Osiander\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\German\\ \\ Lutheran\\ theologian\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Wrote\\ \\ a\\ fictionalist\\ preface\\ to\\ Copernican\\'s\\ \\De\\ Rev\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\fictionalism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(also\\ instrumentalism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\the\\ view\\ that\\ concepts\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theories\\ are\\ useful\\ instruments\\ whose\\ worth\\ is\\ measured\\ not\\ by\\ whether\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ concepts\\ and\\ theories\\ are\\ true\\ or\\ false\\ \\(or\\ correctly\\ depict\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reality\\)\\,\\ but\\ by\\ how\\ effective\\ they\\ are\\ in\\ explaining\\ and\\ predicting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Realism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\view\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ described\\ by\\ science\\ is\\ the\\ real\\ world\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\,\\ independent\\ of\\ what\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ might\\ take\\ it\\ to\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\stellar\\ parallax\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ apparent\\ displacement\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difference\\ of\\ orientation\\ of\\ an\\ object\\ viewed\\ along\\ two\\ different\\ lines\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ sight\\,\\ and\\ is\\ measured\\ by\\ the\\ angle\\ or\\ semi\\-angle\\ of\\ inclination\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ those\\ two\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ saw\\ no\\ parallax\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ observer\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(and\\ observation\\)\\ of\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ conclusion\\&hellip\\;sun\\ doesn\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ move\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ possible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explanation\\ \\-\\ stars\\ very\\ far\\ away\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Infinite\\ universe\\!\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\fixed\\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\De\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolutionibus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1543\\)\\:\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ motion\\ of\\ fixed\\ stars\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tycho\\ Brahe\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\'\\ explanation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stations\\ and\\ retrogradations\\ \\+\\ Aristotelian\\ physics\\ based\\ on\\ stationary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stationary\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ he\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planets\\ going\\ around\\ the\\ sun\\ as\\ the\\ sun\\ goes\\ around\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ buying\\ into\\ the\\ old\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ physics\\,\\ but\\ liked\\ Copernicus\\'\\ explanation\\ of\\ stations\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ retrogredations\\ as\\ an\\ effect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tycho\\ is\\ credited\\ with\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ most\\ accurate\\ astronomical\\ observations\\ of\\ his\\ time\\,\\ and\\ the\\ data\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ used\\ by\\ his\\ assistant\\ Kepler\\ to\\ derive\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ planetary\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geoheliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Tycho\\ believed\\ in\\ geocentrism\\ because\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ held\\ the\\ Earth\\ was\\ just\\ too\\ sluggish\\ to\\ be\\ continually\\ in\\ motion\\ and\\ also\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ believed\\ that\\ if\\ the\\ Earth\\ orbited\\ the\\ Sun\\ annually\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observable\\ stellar\\ parallax\\ over\\ any\\ period\\ of\\ six\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sun\\ annually\\ circles\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ central\\ Earth\\ \\(regarded\\ as\\ essentially\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ planets\\)\\,\\ while\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ five\\ planets\\ orbit\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\ \\[27\\]\\ In\\ Tycho\\'s\\ model\\ the\\ Earth\\ does\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rotate\\ daily\\,\\ as\\ Heraclides\\ claimed\\,\\ but\\ is\\ static\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Lecture\\ 10\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prutenic\\ tables\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(astronomical\\ tables\\)\\ by\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astronomer\\ Erasmus\\ Reinhold\\ published\\ in\\ 1551\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Based\\ on\\ Copernican\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ Rev\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Through\\ these\\ tables\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Copernicus\\'s\\ reputation\\ established\\ as\\ a\\ skilled\\ mathematician\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ astronomer\\ on\\ par\\ with\\ Ptolemy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\(pub\\'d\\ in\\ 1584\\)\\ uses\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ support\\ Cop\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wants\\ to\\ re\\-interpret\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ support\\ Copernicans\\,\\ a\\ Catholic\\ official\\ who\\ supported\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tolosani\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\(mss\\,\\ 1544\\)\\:\\ opposed\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ Catholic\\,\\ even\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Trent\\,\\ who\\ has\\ serious\\ misgivings\\ about\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opposite\\ of\\ Diego\\ de\\ Zuniga\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Telescope\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\,\\ while\\ not\\ having\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ invented\\ the\\ telescope\\,\\ greatly\\ improved\\ upon\\ the\\ design\\,\\ enhancing\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ magnification\\ to\\ 15\\-20x\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Really\\ increases\\ information\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ had\\ about\\ heavens\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Telescopic\\ evidence\\ \\(1610\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ moons\\ of\\ Jupiter\\,\\ sunspots\\,\\ mountains\\ on\\ moon\\,\\ phases\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ contradict\\ Aristotle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ remove\\ objections\\ to\\ Copernicus\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ prove\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\phases\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ first\\ observed\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ telescope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\gibbous\\ phase\\ \\(half\\ full\\)\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Venus\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ Ptolemaic\\ system\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ explained\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Tycho\\'s\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ observe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Venus\\ going\\ through\\ a\\ full\\ set\\ of\\ phases\\,\\ something\\ prohibited\\ by\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Ptolemaic\\ system\\ \\(which\\ would\\ never\\ allow\\ Venus\\ to\\ be\\ fully\\ lit\\ from\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perspective\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\ or\\ more\\ than\\ semi\\-circular\\)\\.\\ This\\ observation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ essentially\\ ruled\\ out\\ the\\ Ptolemaic\\ system\\,\\ and\\ was\\ compatible\\ only\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Copernican\\ system\\ and\\ the\\ Tychonic\\ system\\ and\\ other\\ geoheliocentric\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ models\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Capellan\\ and\\ Riccioli\\'s\\ extended\\ Capellan\\ model\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\mountains\\ on\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moon\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Again\\,\\ important\\ observation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Showed\\ that\\ other\\ planets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ celestial\\ bodies\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ could\\ therefore\\ be\\ used\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ support\\ heliocentric\\ argument\\ as\\ evidence\\ of\\ how\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difference\\ between\\ sub\\ and\\ supra\\ lunar\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ the\\ planets\\ are\\ alike\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ look\\ like\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ said\\ this\\ is\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Two\\ New\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sunspots\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotelianism\\ undermined\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ at\\ the\\ margins\\ \\(imperfection\\ of\\ heavenly\\ bodies\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Again\\,\\ showed\\ sub\\ and\\ supra\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lunar\\ worlds\\ are\\ the\\ same\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotelians\\ charged\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ were\\ simply\\ planets\\ passing\\ front\\ of\\ telescope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Council\\ of\\ Trent\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>1545\\-63\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ individual\\ interpretation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Scripture\\;\\ no\\ contradicting\\ agreement\\ of\\ Church\\ Fathers\\ on\\ matters\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Want\\ to\\ follow\\ tradition\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ Fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Range\\ of\\ interpretations\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ closed\\ set\\ of\\ allowable\\ interpretations\\ if\\ you\\ follow\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Don\\'t\\ want\\ individuals\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ the\\ Bible\\ or\\ interpreting\\ it\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ that\\ is\\ job\\ of\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Censorship\\:\\ pre\\-publication\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ post\\-publication\\ \\(index\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\index\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forbidden\\ books\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>first\\ version\\ \\(the\\ Pauline\\ Index\\)\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ promulgated\\ by\\ Pope\\ Paul\\ IV\\ in\\ 1559\\;\\ and\\ a\\ revised\\ and\\ somewhat\\ relaxed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ form\\ \\(the\\ Tridentine\\ Index\\)\\ was\\ authorized\\ at\\ the\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\.\\ The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ promulgation\\ of\\ the\\ Index\\ marked\\ the\\ \\"\\;turning\\-point\\ in\\ the\\ freedom\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ enquiry\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ Catholic\\ world\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ avowed\\ aim\\ of\\ the\\ list\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ faith\\ and\\ morals\\ of\\ the\\ faithful\\ by\\ preventing\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ of\\ immoral\\ books\\ or\\ works\\ containing\\ theological\\ errors\\,\\ although\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ also\\ contained\\ scientific\\ works\\ by\\ leading\\ astronomers\\ such\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Johannes\\ Kepler\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\pigeonists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(Ludovico\\ delle\\ Colombe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ enemies\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotelian\\ university\\ professors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Colombe\\ had\\ allies\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Florence\\,\\ in\\ particular\\ the\\ main\\ mass\\ media\\ of\\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Colombe\\ fires\\ up\\ his\\ priest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ friends\\ and\\ they\\ attack\\ Copernican\\ theory\\ in\\ their\\ sermons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ catholic\\ response\\ until\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ dispute\\ within\\ Catholic\\ universities\\ spills\\ over\\ to\\ public\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ preaching\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ Dominican\\ preachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mentions\\ Bruno\\,\\ saying\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ might\\ be\\ similar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Lecture\\ 11\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Principle\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accommodation\\ \\-\\ Galileo\\ cites\\ this\\ in\\ Letter\\ to\\ Gran\\ Duchess\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\'s\\ explanation\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ why\\ the\\ Bible\\ did\\ not\\ speak\\ literally\\ to\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ the\\ heavens\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ other\\ natural\\ phenomena\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accommodating\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ audience\\,\\ targeted\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ dumbed\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Message\\ is\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unlearned\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ reveal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ aspects\\ of\\ himself\\ to\\ mankind\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ mankind\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understand\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\scandal\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ \\-\\ Galileo\\ warns\\ against\\ this\\ in\\ his\\ Letter\\ to\\ Gran\\ Duchess\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Risk\\ of\\ scandal\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\:\\ avoid\\ deciding\\ on\\ a\\ scientific\\ issue\\ which\\ might\\ be\\ proven\\ later\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(cites\\ Augustine\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Don\\'t\\ pronounce\\ yourself\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prematurely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ something\\ could\\ one\\ day\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ proven\\ true\\,\\ shouldn\\'t\\ interpret\\ Bible\\ as\\ ruling\\ it\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\ doesn\\'t\\ come\\ out\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quite\\ as\\ explicitly\\ as\\ Galileo\\ would\\ have\\ liked\\,\\ so\\ he\\ kind\\ of\\ fleshes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ kind\\ of\\ warning\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ here\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ they\\ cannot\\ prove\\ it\\ is\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bellarmine\\ responds\\ to\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ saying\\ that\\ Galileo\\ cannot\\ prove\\ heliocentrism\\,\\ not\\ even\\ the\\ prospect\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ scientifically\\ demonstrated\\ truth\\ in\\ his\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ bother\\ re\\-interpreting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ it\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ proven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\condemnation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1616\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1616\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ condemnation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Copernicus\\'\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probably\\ caused\\ by\\ Galileo\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opponents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Dominican\\ preachers\\ rile\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ up\\ against\\ Galileo\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ heretic\\,\\ aligned\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bruno\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ tarnish\\ his\\ reputation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probably\\ a\\ plot\\ to\\ get\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ and\\ speak\\ concerning\\ this\\ possible\\ conflict\\ with\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ does\\ speak\\ out\\,\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ form\\ of\\ an\\ unpublished\\ letter\\ to\\ a\\ lady\\ of\\ the\\ court\\ of\\ Medici\\,\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prudent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\unsigned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ injunction\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ 1616\\ \\(vague\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ Galileo\\)\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ the\\ file\\ an\\ unsigned\\ injunction\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Gal\\ may\\ not\\ discuss\\ heliocentrism\\ in\\ any\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unsigned\\ injunction\\ played\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ key\\ role\\ in\\ trial\\,\\ b\\/c\\ clergy\\ argued\\ that\\ Galileo\\ had\\ known\\ he\\ wasn\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ supposed\\ to\\ discuss\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ harsher\\ injunction\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ saying\\ that\\ in\\ presence\\ of\\ clerics\\,\\ Bellarmine\\ warned\\ Galileo\\ to\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teach\\,\\ defend\\,\\ hold\\,\\ or\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ talk\\ about\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ even\\ as\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probably\\ just\\ on\\ file\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Vatican\\ in\\ case\\ Galileo\\ ever\\ got\\ out\\ of\\ control\\;\\ but\\ after\\ a\\ somewhat\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decent\\ talk\\ with\\ Bellarmine\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ got\\ a\\ signed\\ certificate\\,\\ never\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bellarmine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\4\\ October\\ 1542\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Montepulciano\\,\\ Siena\\,\\ Italy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 17\\ September\\ 1621\\,\\ Rome\\)\\ was\\ an\\ Italian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesuit\\ and\\ a\\ Cardinal\\ of\\ the\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ Church\\.\\ He\\ participated\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\'s\\ proceedings\\ against\\ Giordano\\ Bruno\\ \\(sentencing\\ him\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ be\\ burned\\ alive\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ square\\)\\ and\\ Galileo\\ Galilei\\ \\(who\\ escaped\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ same\\ fate\\,\\ with\\ eleven\\ years\\'\\ house\\ imprisonment\\)\\.\\ He\\ was\\ canonized\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 1930\\ and\\ is\\ to\\ Roman\\ Catholics\\ both\\ a\\ \\"\\;\\ saint\\ \\"\\;\\ and\\ a\\ Doctor\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ Church\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Really\\ the\\ first\\ one\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ start\\ enforcing\\ edicts\\ of\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Above\\ all\\ felt\\ that\\ Church\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ retained\\ right\\ to\\ interpret\\ Scripture\\,\\ and\\ all\\ others\\ should\\ refrain\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ certificate\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ goes\\ to\\ Bellarmine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ gets\\ certificate\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ Cardinal\\ Bellarmine\\ have\\ heard\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ slander\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ done\\ anything\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ condemned\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ does\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ abjure\\,\\ just\\ cannot\\ hold\\ or\\ defend\\ Copernicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\certificate\\ to\\ Galileo\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ may\\ discuss\\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Maffeo\\ Barberini\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\ Pope\\ Urban\\ VIII\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\election\\ of\\ Cardinal\\ Maffeo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Barberini\\ to\\ the\\ papal\\ throne\\ in\\ 1623\\,\\ as\\ Pope\\ Urban\\ VIII\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\OK\\ to\\ discuss\\ Cop\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hypothesis\\ though\\ human\\ reason\\ too\\ weak\\ to\\ know\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ felt\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ personal\\ repertoire\\ with\\ the\\ Pope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ feels\\ ridiculed\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ thoughts\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ through\\ mouthpiece\\ of\\ Simplico\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogo\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Feels\\ personally\\ attacked\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ starts\\ a\\ proceeding\\ in\\ inquiry\\ of\\ Galileo\\'s\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Censorship\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Index\\ of\\ Forbidden\\ Books\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholic\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Censorship\\:\\ pre\\-publication\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ post\\-publication\\ \\(index\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Abjuration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\solemn\\ repudiation\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ abandonment\\,\\ or\\ renunciation\\ by\\ or\\ upon\\ oath\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ did\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerningheliocentrism\\ and\\ teachings\\ of\\ Copernicus\\ at\\ end\\ ot\\ trial\\ when\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ is\\ found\\ guilty\\ of\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\vehement\\ suspicion\\ of\\ heresy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Dialogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dialogue\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Concerning\\ the\\ Two\\ Chief\\ Worlds\\ Systems\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1632\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\refutes\\ objections\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ vertical\\ fall\\ and\\ projectile\\ motion\\ are\\ relative\\ to\\ frame\\ of\\ reference\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Claims\\ to\\ prove\\ motion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ earth\\ from\\ tides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Granted\\ permission\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ publish\\ \\(friend\\ Ciampoli\\ helps\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Publication\\ immediately\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ causes\\ a\\ scandal\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\See\\ preface\\ and\\ ending\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ feels\\ ridiculed\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ thoughts\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ through\\ mouthpiece\\ of\\ Simplico\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Feels\\ personally\\ attacked\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ starts\\ a\\ proceeding\\ in\\ inquiry\\ of\\ Galileo\\'s\\ behavior\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Medici\\ tried\\ to\\ plead\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\,\\ saying\\ he\\ was\\ too\\ old\\,\\ couldn\\'t\\ travel\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ make\\ him\\ come\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ is\\ saying\\ there\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nothing\\ wrong\\ with\\ these\\ hypotheses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trial\\ turns\\ around\\ whether\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ disobeyed\\ Church\\ decrees\\ of\\ 1616\\,\\ by\\ presenting\\ heliocentrism\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ than\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Two\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ New\\ Sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Holland\\,\\ 1638\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basically\\ a\\ scientific\\ book\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doesn\\'t\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ Bible\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ Science\\,\\ he\\ feels\\ he\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ good\\ grounds\\,\\ so\\ how\\ do\\ you\\ support\\ Copernicanism\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ this\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ has\\ a\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ moons\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Jupiter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stuff\\ on\\ sunspots\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mountains\\ on\\ moon\\,\\ evidence\\ of\\ how\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ difference\\ between\\ sub\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ supra\\ lunar\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ the\\ planets\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alike\\,\\ look\\ like\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Main\\ arguments\\ left\\ to\\ try\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ undermine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ don\\'t\\ feel\\ movement\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ earth\\,\\ so\\ doesn\\'t\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ talks\\ about\\ how\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perception\\ of\\ motion\\ is\\ relevant\\ to\\ frame\\ of\\ reference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ test\\ post\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cliff\\ and\\ I\\ will\\ start\\ blogging\\ this\\ course\\ this\\ week\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 93, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.763707+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Study Questions 17 - Beau", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 708, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\\\ 17\\.\\ In\\ his\\ preface\\ to\\ The\\ Wizard\\ of\\ Oz\\,\\ L\\.\\ Frank\\ Baum\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;horrible\\ and\\ blood\\-curdling\\ incident\\ devised\\ by\\ \\[authors\\ of\\ fairy\\ tales\\]\\ to\\ point\\ a\\ fearsome\\ moral\\ to\\ each\\ tale\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Discuss\\ two\\ such\\ incidents\\ in\\ fairy\\ tales\\ and\\ show\\ how\\ they\\ point\\ a\\ moral\\,\\ or\\ fail\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ \\(BEAU\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nUgly\\ Duckling\\ \\-\\ HCA\\ \\-\\ This\\ story\\ has\\ a\\ strange\\ moral\\/intended\\ moral\\,\\ as\\ HCA\\ attempts\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ get\\ what\\ you\\ want\\.\\ He\\ praises\\ piety\\ and\\ inaction\\,\\ as\\ the\\ ugly\\ duckling\\ does\\ nothing\\ to\\ improve\\ his\\ life\\.\\ This\\ implies\\ that\\ suffering\\ is\\ good\\,\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ one\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ be\\ patient\\ and\\ good\\ things\\ will\\ happen\\.\\ He\\ denounces\\ vanity\\ and\\ pride\\ by\\ making\\ the\\ ugly\\ duckling\\ humble\\ when\\ its\\ ugly\\ and\\ when\\ its\\ a\\ beautiful\\ swan\\.\\ In\\ this\\ story\\,\\ everything\\ is\\ fated\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ that\\ the\\ individual\\ can\\ do\\ to\\ affect\\ his\\ life\\ \\-\\ dangerous\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ subtle\\ racial\\ undertones\\ in\\ this\\ story\\,\\ where\\ white\\ is\\ good\\/desired\\/beautiful\\ and\\ black\\/not\\-white\\ is\\ lowly\\/ugly\\/degrading\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Little\\ Match\\ Girl\\ \\-\\ HCA\\ \\-\\ This\\ story\\ also\\ strongly\\ encourages\\ piety\\ and\\ suffering\\.\\ By\\ submitting\\ oneself\\ and\\ not\\ aspiring\\ for\\ a\\ better\\ life\\,\\ one\\ will\\ be\\ rewarded\\.\\ The\\ match\\ girl\\ freezes\\ death\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ pretty\\ gruesome\\ way\\ to\\ die\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fairy\\ tale\\.\\ \\;\\ Her\\ death\\ can\\ been\\ seen\\ as\\ salvation\\,\\ since\\ she\\ no\\ longer\\ has\\ to\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ terrible\\ situation\\ that\\ was\\ her\\ life\\.\\ However\\,\\ she\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ able\\ to\\ persevere\\ through\\ the\\ difficult\\ times\\,\\ showing\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ times\\ when\\ even\\ your\\ best\\ effort\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\ enough\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm Study Questions 17 - Beau"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.773636+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Questions 7, 15, 16", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 709, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:197620629\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1666990740\\ 1502014758\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:243344446\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1680720674\\ 984073\\ 1639433\\ 1770505\\ 984073\\ 1639433\\ 1770505\\ 984073\\ 1639433\\ 1770505\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\7\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Choose\\ two\\ scenes\\ of\\ reading\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ storytelling\\,\\ or\\ writing\\ in\\ books\\ we\\ have\\ read\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ significance\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Class\\ started\\ out\\ with\\ oral\\ stories\\,\\ folklore\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ can\\ discuss\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ storytelling\\ around\\ the\\ fire\\,\\ keeping\\ the\\ stories\\ alive\\,\\ this\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;verbal\\ pornography\\&rdquo\\;\\ very\\ graphic\\,\\ violent\\ stories\\,\\ not\\ really\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ stories\\;\\ contained\\ some\\ moral\\;\\ when\\ told\\ around\\ the\\ fire\\,\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ different\\ versions\\ of\\ each\\ story\\;\\ storytelling\\ important\\ to\\ every\\ culture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Peter\\ Pan\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ Wendy\\ is\\ taken\\ for\\ her\\ storytelling\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ to\\ be\\ their\\ mother\\;\\ in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ storytelling\\ is\\ a\\ characteristic\\ of\\ parenting\\,\\ or\\ mothers\\,\\ and\\ is\\ something\\ good\\ mothers\\ do\\ for\\ their\\ children\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Also\\,\\ Wendy\\ starts\\ telling\\ stories\\ about\\ their\\ mothers\\ during\\ their\\ stay\\ in\\ Neverland\\ and\\ so\\ this\\ also\\ connects\\ story\\-telling\\ with\\ parents\\;\\ every\\ generation\\ of\\ girls\\ in\\ Wendy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ family\\ then\\ go\\ with\\ Peter\\ back\\ to\\ Neverland\\ for\\ some\\ time\\ every\\ spring\\ \\(except\\ when\\ he\\ forgets\\)\\ and\\ tells\\ him\\ stories\\ about\\ himself\\,\\ the\\ eternal\\ child\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ this\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ their\\ being\\ his\\ mother\\ \\(they\\ also\\ clean\\ for\\ him\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Flowers\\ in\\ The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ flowers\\ that\\ speak\\ poetry\\ posing\\ alternate\\ possibilities\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Tiger\\ Lily\\ it\\ tells\\ a\\ horrific\\ story\\ coming\\ from\\ a\\ beautiful\\ flower\\,\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ embodiment\\ here\\ of\\ both\\ horror\\ \\&\\;\\ beauty\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ morning\\ glory\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\ of\\ a\\ beautiful\\ woman\\ waiting\\ for\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ come\\,\\ although\\ the\\ reason\\ is\\ not\\ clear\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ daisy\\ and\\ they\\ hyacinths\\ tell\\ beautiful\\ stories\\,\\ but\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ sad\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ stories\\ make\\ Gerda\\ very\\ sad\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Even\\ the\\ buttercup\\,\\ which\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\ full\\ of\\ gold\\ and\\ beauty\\,\\ makes\\ Gerda\\ sad\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ grandmother\\ and\\ she\\ realizes\\ that\\ her\\ own\\ grandmother\\ must\\ be\\ missing\\ her\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ are\\ all\\ sad\\ stories\\ coming\\ from\\ such\\ beautiful\\ flowers\\ which\\ previously\\ had\\ brought\\ Gerda\\ so\\ much\\ joy\\,\\ and\\ she\\ had\\ loved\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ hearing\\ their\\ stories\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ she\\ must\\ leave\\ and\\ she\\ runs\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ garden\\ and\\ continues\\ on\\ her\\ way\\ to\\ find\\ Kai\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ flowers\\&rsquo\\;\\ stories\\ emphasize\\ a\\ key\\ element\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\:\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ beauty\\ and\\ horror\\ can\\ be\\ intertwined\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ a\\ parallel\\ to\\ these\\ flowers\\ in\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ very\\ beautiful\\ and\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ attract\\ Kai\\ with\\ her\\ beauty\\,\\ but\\ she\\ is\\ very\\ evil\\,\\ cold\\,\\ and\\ deadly\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ he\\ stays\\ with\\ her\\ too\\ long\\,\\ his\\ heart\\ will\\ turn\\ to\\ ice\\ and\\ he\\ will\\ die\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>These\\ flowers\\ present\\ a\\ similar\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ seemingly\\ very\\ nice\\ witch\\:\\ there\\ are\\ not\\ all\\ good\\ intentions\\ here\\ and\\ she\\ intends\\ to\\ keep\\ Gerda\\ forever\\ because\\ she\\ has\\ always\\ wanted\\ a\\ girl\\ and\\ is\\ not\\ actually\\ going\\ to\\ help\\ Gerda\\ find\\ her\\ way\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\15\\ Set\\ in\\ Mumbai\\,\\ Slumdog\\ Millionaire\\ suggests\\ in\\ its\\ title\\ the\\ rags\\-to\\-riches\\ theme\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ other\\ fairy\\-tale\\ subtexts\\ manifest\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ film\\ or\\ novel\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:243344446\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1680720674\\ 984073\\ 1639433\\ 1770505\\ 984073\\ 1639433\\ 1770505\\ 984073\\ 1639433\\ 1770505\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:910772462\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-2099379508\\ 375447094\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Generally\\-\\ children\\ losing\\ their\\ parents\\ and\\ having\\ loss\\ of\\ innocence\\ is\\ a\\ general\\ theme\\ in\\ both\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Maman\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ child\\ beggars\\ resembles\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Hansel\\ \\&\\;\\ Gretel\\;\\ Maman\\ and\\ the\\ witch\\ draw\\ the\\ children\\ in\\ with\\ food\\ and\\ cokes\\ \\(gingerbread\\/edible\\ house\\ with\\ candy\\)\\ and\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ getting\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ slums\\ by\\ singing\\,\\ but\\ really\\ they\\ just\\ want\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ witch\\ just\\ wants\\ to\\ feed\\ the\\ kids\\ to\\ fatten\\ them\\ up\\ to\\ eat\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Little\\ Match\\ Girl\\-\\ she\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ shoes\\ in\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ scenes\\ of\\ his\\ childhood\\,\\ neither\\ does\\ he\\;\\ the\\ scene\\ in\\ which\\ Latika\\ is\\ standing\\ outside\\ in\\ the\\ rain\\ is\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ the\\ little\\ match\\ girl\\ sitting\\ outside\\ in\\ the\\ snow\\ longing\\ for\\ warmth\\;\\ this\\ longing\\ for\\ more\\/family\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ both\\ \\(although\\ in\\ India\\,\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ much\\ longing\\ for\\ warmth\\ but\\ rather\\ love\\ and\\ dry\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Red\\ Shoes\\-\\ shoes\\ are\\ a\\ temptation\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ mobility\\,\\ although\\ in\\ Slumdog\\,\\ the\\ shoes\\ are\\ not\\ a\\ downfall\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ mobility\\,\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ living\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Fairy\\-tale\\ type\\ love\\-\\ found\\ one\\ princess\\ and\\ keeps\\ chasing\\ her\\;\\ above\\ the\\ world\\ love\\;\\ this\\ is\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ because\\ Gerda\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>searches\\ everywhere\\ to\\ find\\ Kai\\,\\ even\\ goes\\ to\\ asking\\ every\\ random\\ person\\ if\\ they\\ have\\ seen\\ her\\ like\\ Gerda\\ asking\\ in\\ the\\ castle\\ for\\ Kai\\;\\ this\\ long\\ treacherous\\ journey\\ that\\ a\\ child\\ endures\\ for\\ the\\ love\\/friend\\ in\\ life\\;\\ a\\ child\\ taking\\ on\\ a\\ long\\ adventure\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ lost\\ a\\ loved\\ one\\;\\ Jamal\\ is\\ never\\ going\\ to\\ give\\ up\\ hope\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ find\\ Latika\\,\\ and\\ he\\ will\\ find\\ her\\ somehow\\ in\\ the\\ end\\,\\ he\\ never\\ loses\\ the\\ child\\-like\\ innocence\\ and\\ belief\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ find\\ her\\ \\(even\\ though\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ movie\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ adolescent\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;16\\.\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Dear\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dear\\!\\ How\\ queer\\ everything\\ is\\ today\\!\\ And\\ yesterday\\ things\\ went\\ on\\ just\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ usual\\.\\ I\\ wonder\\ if\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ changed\\ in\\ the\\ night\\?\\ Let\\ me\\ think\\:\\ \\was\\<\\/i\\>\\ I\\ the\\ same\\ when\\ I\\ got\\ up\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ morning\\?\\ I\\ almost\\ think\\ I\\ can\\ remember\\ feeling\\ a\\ little\\ different\\.\\ But\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ not\\ the\\ same\\,\\ the\\ next\\ question\\ is\\ \\&lsquo\\;Who\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ am\\ I\\?\\&rsquo\\;\\ Ah\\,\\ \\that\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/i\\>\\ the\\ great\\ puzzle\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Using\\ this\\ passage\\ as\\ your\\ point\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ departure\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ how\\ identity\\ is\\ an\\ unstable\\ category\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ \\Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nonsensical\\ events\\ and\\ an\\ inability\\ to\\ speak\\ without\\ nonsense\\ create\\ a\\ crisis\\ of\\ identity\\ in\\ \\\\Alice\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ when\\ she\\ is\\ in\\ Wonderland\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ is\\ very\\ concerned\\ about\\ the\\ possibility\\ of\\ not\\ being\\ herself\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ how\\ she\\ measures\\ herself\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>When\\ she\\ begins\\ to\\ doubt\\ that\\ she\\ could\\ possibly\\ be\\ herself\\,\\ she\\ first\\ looks\\ at\\ her\\ hair\\ \\(representative\\ of\\ her\\ outer\\ appearance\\)\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ who\\ she\\ is\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ decides\\ that\\ she\\ still\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ hair\\,\\ so\\ she\\ must\\ be\\ herself\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ then\\ begins\\ to\\ recite\\ lessons\\ because\\ she\\ thinks\\ of\\ herself\\ as\\ clever\\,\\ so\\ if\\ she\\ can\\ still\\ remember\\ her\\ lessons\\,\\ she\\ must\\ definitely\\ be\\ herself\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ cannot\\ however\\ say\\ her\\ lessons\\ correctly\\,\\ and\\ this\\ causes\\ her\\ to\\ seriously\\ doubt\\ herself\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ decides\\ that\\ if\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ herself\\,\\ she\\ must\\ be\\ Mabel\\ because\\ Mabel\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ clever\\,\\ and\\ so\\ since\\ she\\ is\\ saying\\ nonsense\\ instead\\ of\\ her\\ proper\\ lessons\\,\\ she\\ must\\ instead\\ be\\ Mabel\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>This\\ passages\\ suggests\\ that\\ identity\\ is\\ a\\ characteristic\\ determined\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ part\\ by\\ outside\\ factors\\ rather\\ than\\ from\\ a\\ person\\ him\\/herself\\;\\ because\\ things\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;queer\\&rdquo\\;\\ today\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Things\\ acting\\ strangely\\ around\\ her\\,\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ she\\ expects\\ them\\ to\\ act\\ means\\ that\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ something\\ wrong\\ with\\ her\\,\\ and\\ \\\\Alice\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ assumes\\ that\\ this\\ means\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ not\\ herself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Altogether\\,\\ \\Alice\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ appears\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ concerned\\ with\\ what\\ to\\ call\\ herself\\ \\(whether\\ \\Alice\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ or\\ \\\\Ada\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ or\\ Mabel\\ than\\ with\\ who\\ she\\ really\\ is\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ things\\ she\\ considers\\ are\\ her\\ ability\\ to\\ recite\\ and\\ her\\ outward\\ appearance\\,\\ which\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ most\\ fundamental\\ aspects\\ of\\ a\\ person\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ concern\\ for\\ a\\ loss\\ o\\ identity\\ is\\ also\\ brought\\ up\\ when\\ \\\\Alice\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ shrinking\\ away\\ altogether\\ when\\ she\\ drinks\\ the\\ draught\\ or\\ takes\\ a\\ bite\\ from\\ the\\ mushroom\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm Questions 7, 15, 16"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.793175+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Questions #15 and #18--Daphne Grayson", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 710, "html": "\\15\\.\\ Set\\ in\\ Mumbai\\,\\ Slumdog\\ Millionaire\\ suggests\\ in\\ its\\ title\\ the\\ rags\\-to\\-riches\\ theme\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ other\\ fairy\\-tale\\ subtexts\\ manifest\\ themselves\\ in\\ the\\ film\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ novel\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Adults\\ vs\\.\\ Children\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Set\\ upon\\ a\\ familiar\\ premise\\:\\ two\\ children\\ \\(Jamal\\ and\\ Samil\\-\\-brothers\\)\\ on\\ their\\ own\\,\\ lacking\\ parents\\ or\\ guardians\\.\\ \\(Father\\ absent\\,\\ mother\\ murdered\\ early\\ in\\ film\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ We\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ countless\\ fairytales\\:\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\;\\ Little\\ Match\\ Girl\\;\\ Cinderella\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Lack\\ of\\ adult\\ supervision\\ allows\\ for\\ a\\ greater\\ level\\ of\\ agency\\ of\\ the\\ child\\.\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Kids\\ must\\ fend\\ for\\ themselves\\,\\ begging\\ etc\\.\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Found\\ and\\ taken\\ in\\ by\\ gangsters\\ who\\ train\\ street\\ kids\\ to\\ beg\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Adults\\ who\\ present\\ themselves\\ as\\ friendly\\/good\\ or\\ appear\\ beautiful\\ \\(Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\-\\-witch\\,\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\-\\-wolf\\)\\ but\\ are\\ actually\\ evil\\.\\ \\;\\ \\&ndash\\;The\\ gangsters\\ end\\ up\\ blinding\\ some\\ children\\ so\\ they\\ will\\ make\\ more\\ money\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reinforces\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ lost\\ in\\ adulthood\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\ suggests\\ that\\ children\\ should\\ not\\ always\\ trust\\ adults\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Quest\\/Search\\ for\\ the\\ true\\ love\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ common\\ theme\\ in\\ fairy\\ tales\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Jamal\\ spends\\ the\\ whole\\ movie\\ trying\\ to\\ reunite\\ with\\ Latika\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ whole\\ reason\\ he\\ goes\\ on\\ the\\ Millionaire\\ show\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Also\\ present\\ in\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ \\(her\\ sacrifices\\ for\\ the\\ Prince\\)\\,\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ \\(Greta\\&rsquo\\;s\\ search\\ for\\ Kay\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\18\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&lsquo\\;Oh\\,\\ good\\!\\&rsquo\\;\\ said\\ Wilbur\\.\\ \\;\\ \\&lsquo\\;I\\ knew\\ you\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ forsake\\ me\\ just\\ when\\ I\\ need\\ you\\ most\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ All\\ that\\ day\\ Wilbur\\ stayed\\ inside\\,\\ taking\\ life\\ easy\\ in\\ the\\ straw\\.\\ \\;\\ Charlotte\\ rested\\ and\\ ate\\ a\\ grasshopper\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\ knew\\ that\\ she\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ help\\ Wilbur\\ much\\ longer\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ she\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ drop\\ everything\\ and\\ build\\ the\\ beautiful\\ little\\ sac\\ that\\ would\\ hold\\ her\\ eggs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nIdentify\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ passage\\ above\\ that\\ reflect\\ larger\\ themes\\ in\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBeauty\\ and\\ Horror\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Typically\\,\\ childhood\\ literature\\ provides\\ us\\ with\\ examples\\ of\\ beautiful\\ evil\\.\\ \\;\\ That\\ is\\,\\ evil\\ characters\\ who\\ appear\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\(The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ this\\ theme\\ is\\ turned\\ on\\ itself\\.\\ \\;\\ Animals\\ typically\\ viewed\\ as\\ gross\\ or\\ scary\\ are\\ portrayed\\ as\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Wilbur\\,\\ a\\ pig\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;terrific\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;radiant\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\ \\;\\ Charlotte\\,\\ a\\ spider\\,\\ is\\ the\\ heroine\\ and\\ she\\ is\\ depicted\\ as\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ sac\\ of\\ spider\\ eggs\\ \\(repulsive\\ to\\ some\\)\\ is\\ presented\\ as\\ beautiful\\.\\ \\;\\ Eating\\ a\\ grasshopper\\ is\\ normal\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Overall\\ theme\\ of\\ friendship\\ and\\ loyalty\\ breaking\\ boundaries\\.\\\\\r\\\nMortality\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Charlotte\\ and\\ Wilbur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friendship\\ is\\ inextricably\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ imminent\\ threat\\ of\\ death\\ for\\ Wilbur\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Wilbur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ anxiety\\ and\\ fears\\ about\\ death\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ calm\\ acceptance\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ impending\\ death\\.\\ The\\ anti\\-climactic\\ nature\\ of\\ her\\ death\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ upside\\:\\ renewal\\ of\\ life\\ thru\\ the\\ egg\\ sac\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Power\\ of\\ Words\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ save\\ Wilbur\\.\\ \\;\\ Words\\ as\\ a\\ powerful\\ tool\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Resonates\\ with\\ the\\ child\\ reading\\ the\\ book\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ same\\ way\\,\\ White\\&rsquo\\;s\\ words\\ transform\\ the\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinion\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ horror\\ and\\ our\\ perceptions\\ of\\ pigs\\ and\\ spiders\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Questions #15 and #18--Daphne Grayson"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.803954+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Questions 8, 13 - Beau", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 711, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\8\\ \\;\\ Choose\\ two\\ works\\ covered\\ in\\ class\\ so\\ far\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ relation\\ in\\ each\\ between\\ motherhood\\ and\\ storytelling\\.\\ \\;\\ How\\ are\\ questions\\ of\\ generation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ biological\\ and\\ literary\\-creative\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ explored\\ in\\ the\\ stories\\ literature\\ we\\ have\\ encountered\\?\\ \\(BEAU\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\nPeter\\ \\&\\;\\ Wendy\\ \\-\\ Chapter\\ XI\\ \\&\\;\\ XVII\\ \\-\\ This\\ story\\ is\\ perfect\\ for\\ this\\ question\\ since\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ theme\\.\\ The\\ dichotomy\\ of\\ the\\ biological\\ and\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ is\\ also\\ explored\\ through\\ Wendy\\,\\ who\\ serves\\ as\\ both\\ roles\\.\\ She\\ is\\ the\\ metaphorical\\,\\ appointed\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\ in\\ Neverland\\ and\\ later\\ on\\ she\\ is\\ the\\ biological\\ mother\\ to\\ Jane\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nWendy\\ as\\ the\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ of\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\;\\ Wendy\\ rarely\\ goes\\ above\\ ground\\ b\\/c\\ she\\ is\\ busy\\ cooking\\/darning\\ socks\\/sewing\\;\\ much\\ of\\ this\\ time\\ is\\ spent\\ doing\\ pretend\\ household\\ duties\\,\\ but\\ it\\ takes\\ up\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ her\\ time\\ nonetheless\\;\\ Wendy\\ tells\\ the\\ boys\\ a\\ good\\ night\\ story\\ most\\ nights\\ before\\ they\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\;\\ the\\ night\\ of\\ their\\ kidnapping\\ she\\ tells\\ them\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ her\\,\\ John\\ and\\ Michael\\;\\ Peter\\ hates\\ this\\ story\\ but\\ all\\ the\\ boys\\ love\\ it\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ tale\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Darling\\ children\\ came\\ to\\ Neverland\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ and\\ then\\ returned\\ home\\ to\\ their\\ welcoming\\ parents\\;\\ this\\ story\\ leads\\ to\\ John\\,\\ Michael\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ Lost\\ Boys\\ wanting\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ Darling\\ home\\\\\r\\\nWendy\\ grows\\ up\\ and\\ becomes\\ a\\ real\\ mother\\;\\ she\\ tells\\ her\\ daughter\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ when\\ she\\ was\\ in\\ Neverland\\ as\\ a\\ child\\;\\ Jane\\,\\ the\\ daughter\\,\\ has\\ to\\ reassure\\ Wendy\\ that\\ her\\ childhood\\ stories\\ were\\ true\\,\\ that\\ she\\ actually\\ could\\ fly\\,\\ etc\\.\\;\\ Wendy\\ has\\ these\\ storytelling\\ sessions\\ before\\ Jane\\ goes\\ to\\ sleep\\;\\ by\\ teaching\\ Jane\\ about\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ and\\ Neverland\\,\\ Wendy\\ indirectly\\ creates\\ the\\ possibility\\ for\\ Jane\\ to\\ fly\\ away\\ with\\ Peter\\;\\ this\\ cyclical\\ relationship\\ continues\\ for\\ generations\\,\\ as\\ Jane\\ tells\\ her\\ daughter\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ Jane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ daughter\\ leaves\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCharlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ \\-\\ Chapter\\ 8\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\ serves\\ as\\ the\\ literary\\/metaphorical\\ mother\\ to\\ Wilbur\\ in\\ this\\ novel\\.\\ Fern\\ also\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ metaphorical\\ mother\\ to\\ Wilbur\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ storytelling\\ theme\\ linked\\ with\\ Fern\\ so\\ this\\ answer\\ should\\ focus\\ on\\ Charlotte\\.\\ Wilbur\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biological\\ mother\\ is\\ never\\ mentioned\\.\\ After\\ Templeton\\ brings\\ Charlotte\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;radiant\\&rdquo\\;\\ cut\\-out\\ from\\ the\\ soap\\ flake\\ box\\,\\ Wilbur\\ asks\\ Charlotte\\ to\\ tell\\ him\\ a\\ bed\\-time\\ story\\.\\ Charlotte\\ tells\\ Wilbur\\ 2\\ stories\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cousin\\ catches\\ a\\ fish\\ in\\ her\\ web\\;\\ struggles\\ for\\ hours\\ to\\ wrangle\\ it\\ in\\;\\ eventually\\ succeeds\\ 2\\)\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ other\\ cousin\\ is\\ an\\ aeronaut\\,\\ who\\ can\\ lay\\ on\\ her\\ back\\,\\ shoot\\ a\\ web\\-balloon\\ into\\ the\\ air\\,\\ and\\ then\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ fly\\/float\\ away\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\3\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bump\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;ETERNITY\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Castle\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Terrific\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ single\\ words\\ used\\ to\\ work\\ \\&ldquo\\;magic\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ literature\\,\\ each\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ way\\.\\ \\;\\ Describe\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ two\\ of\\ those\\ words\\ are\\ invoked\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ importance\\ in\\ each\\ text\\.\\ \\(BEAU\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nPersonally\\,\\ given\\ this\\ question\\ I\\ would\\ answer\\ by\\ using\\ Terrific\\ and\\ Eternity\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nTerrific\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ \\(EB\\ White\\)\\ \\-\\ Charlotte\\ writes\\ Terrific\\ in\\ her\\ web\\,\\ leading\\ to\\ the\\ self\\-fulfilling\\ prophecy\\ of\\ Wilbur\\ becomes\\ terrific\\.\\ People\\ are\\ inspired\\ by\\ the\\ web\\,\\ which\\ they\\ attribute\\ entirely\\ to\\ Wilbur\\ \\-\\ his\\ life\\ is\\ saved\\ and\\ people\\ are\\ infatuated\\ with\\ this\\ terrific\\ pig\\.\\ This\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ John\\ Austin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ Performativity\\,\\ where\\ certain\\ words\\ actually\\ change\\ reality\\.\\ Once\\ Charlotte\\ spells\\ out\\ terrific\\,\\ Wilbur\\ becomes\\ terrific\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ and\\ he\\ acknowledges\\ himself\\ as\\ terrific\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nBump\\ \\-\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ \\(Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\)\\ \\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Something\\ went\\ BUMP\\!\\ and\\ that\\ made\\ us\\ jump\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ as\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;bump\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ this\\ story\\.\\ As\\ far\\ as\\ I\\ can\\ tell\\,\\ bump\\ signifies\\ the\\ exciting\\/surprising\\ entrance\\ of\\ the\\ Cat\\ into\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ children\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nEternity\\ \\-\\ The\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ \\(HCA\\)\\ \\-\\ Eternity\\ is\\ what\\ Kai\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ spell\\ with\\ the\\ pieces\\ of\\ ice\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ freed\\ from\\ the\\ snow\\ queen\\.\\ He\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ spell\\ this\\ out\\,\\ but\\ once\\ Gerda\\ arrives\\ and\\ saves\\ him\\ with\\ her\\ love\\,\\ the\\ ice\\ shards\\ start\\ dancing\\ around\\ with\\ Gerda\\ and\\ Kai\\.\\ The\\ ice\\ shards\\ get\\ tired\\ of\\ dancing\\ and\\ fall\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ to\\ spell\\ out\\ \\&ldquo\\;eternity\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Kai\\ had\\ been\\ freed\\ by\\ Gerda\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\,\\ but\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ were\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ stop\\ this\\,\\ she\\ would\\ be\\ obliged\\ to\\ led\\ him\\ go\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ironic\\ that\\ the\\ word\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ spell\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;eternity\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ since\\ he\\ will\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ stay\\ with\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ forever\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ unable\\ to\\ spell\\ it\\ out\\.\\\\\r\\\nCastle\\ \\-\\ Atonement\\ \\-\\ I\\ assume\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ refering\\ to\\ this\\ quote\\ from\\ Atonement\\ that\\ the\\ Prof\\ mentioned\\ in\\ lecture\\.\\ If\\ so\\,\\ this\\ is\\ referring\\ essentially\\ to\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ Vivacity\\,\\ where\\ the\\ vivid\\ description\\ of\\ an\\ image\\ will\\ paint\\ a\\ clear\\ picture\\ in\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;By\\ means\\ of\\ inking\\ symbols\\ onto\\ a\\ page\\,\\ she\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ sent\\ thoughts\\ and\\ feelings\\ from\\ her\\ mind\\ to\\ her\\ reader\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ was\\ a\\ magical\\ process\\,\\ so\\ commonplace\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ stopped\\ to\\ wonder\\ at\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ Reading\\ a\\ sentence\\ and\\ understanding\\ it\\ were\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ You\\ saw\\ the\\ word\\ castle\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ there\\,\\ seen\\ from\\ some\\ distance\\,\\ with\\ woods\\ in\\ high\\ summer\\ spread\\ before\\ it\\,\\ the\\ air\\ bluish\\ and\\ soft\\ with\\ smoke\\ rising\\ from\\ the\\ blacksmith\\&rsquo\\;s\\ forge\\,\\ and\\ a\\ cobbled\\ road\\ twisting\\ away\\ into\\ the\\ green\\ shade\\&hellip\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Questions 8, 13 - Beau"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.815161+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Question 4, 22 - Meaghan", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 712, "html": "\\4\\ Contrast\\ Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ briefly\\ with\\ Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\ and\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ know\\ of\\ the\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ books\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ kinds\\ of\\ strategies\\ does\\ Seuss\\ use\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curiosity\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ read\\ words\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ get\\ children\\ started\\ on\\ reading\\?\\ \\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ Books\\,\\ Sally\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Popular\\ basal\\ readers\\ written\\ by\\ Dr\\.\\ William\\ S\\.\\ Gray\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Used\\ to\\ teach\\ children\\ to\\ read\\ from\\ the\\ 1930\\ through\\ the\\ 1970s\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ books\\ relied\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\ language\\ approach\\ to\\ reading\\ and\\ repetition\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ex\\ phrase\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oh\\,\\ see\\.\\ Oh\\,\\ see\\ Jane\\.\\ Funny\\,\\ funny\\ Jane\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Dr\\.\\ Suess\\-produced\\ counter\\ narrative\\-Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Inane\\ repetition\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Potent\\ cocktail\\ of\\ desires\\ and\\ fears\\ of\\ every\\ child\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Disciplined\\ vocabulary\\-348\\ words\\-cant\\ go\\ beyond\\&hellip\\;\\ stay\\ within\\ limits\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 236\\ words\\ within\\ vocabulary\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\ syllable\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.5\\ yrs\\ to\\ write\\ \\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;being\\ lost\\ with\\ a\\ witch\\ in\\ a\\ tunnel\\ of\\ love\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ versus\\ Goodnight\\ Moon\\-\\ 1\\ morning\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Anarchy\\ and\\ discipline\\ \\&ndash\\;bound\\ to\\ eachother\\-linked\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Bump\\ throws\\ switch\\-child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\?\\ Or\\ choreographed\\ by\\ adults\\?\\ \\\\\r\\\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Introduce\\ child\\ to\\ reading\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Included\\ alphabet\\,\\ vowels\\,\\ consonants\\,\\ double\\ letters\\ and\\ syllabariums\\ of\\ two\\ letters\\ to\\ six\\ letter\\ syllables\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Contained\\ religious\\ maxims\\,\\ woodcuts\\,\\ alphabetical\\ assistants\\,\\ acronyms\\,\\ catechisms\\ and\\ moral\\ lessons\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Themes\\ of\\ discipline\\ and\\ punishment\\\\\r\\\nRudolf\\ Flesher\\,\\ Why\\ Johnny\\ Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ Read\\ \\(1955\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\&ldquo\\;Those\\ horrible\\,\\ stupid\\,\\ emasculated\\,\\ pointless\\,\\ tasteless\\ little\\ readers\\,\\ the\\ stuff\\ and\\ guff\\ about\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ or\\ Alice\\ and\\ Jerry\\ visiting\\ the\\ farm\\ and\\ having\\ birthday\\ parties\\ and\\ seeing\\ animals\\ in\\ the\\ zoo\\ and\\ going\\ through\\ dozens\\ and\\ dozens\\ of\\ totally\\ unexciting\\ middle\\-class\\,\\ middle\\-income\\,\\ middle\\-I\\.Q\\.\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activities\\ that\\ offer\\ opportunities\\ for\\ reading\\ \\&lsquo\\;Look\\,\\ look\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;Yes\\,\\ yes\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;Come\\,\\ come\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;See\\ the\\ funny\\,\\ funny\\ animal\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\22\\ Explain\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ airplane\\ and\\ the\\ dough\\ in\\ Maurice\\ Sendak\\&rsquo\\;s\\ In\\ the\\ Night\\ Kitchen\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ remember\\ being\\ terrified\\ of\\ death\\ as\\ a\\ child\\.\\ \\;\\ I\\ think\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ children\\ are\\,\\ but\\ I\\ was\\ scared\\ because\\ I\\ heard\\ talk\\ of\\ it\\ all\\ around\\ me\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\;\\ Certainly\\ my\\ parents\\ were\\ afraid\\ I\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ survive\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Maurice\\ Sendak\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ was\\ terribly\\ afraid\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ hell\\,\\ you\\ see\\,\\ and\\ I\\ was\\ afraid\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ sleep\\ in\\ case\\ I\\ burnt\\ up\\.\\ \\;\\ I\\ suppose\\,\\ you\\ know\\,\\ I\\ was\\ brought\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ old\\ way\\ of\\ hell\\-fire\\ and\\ all\\ that\\,\\ and\\ being\\ a\\ very\\ imaginative\\ child\\ I\\ was\\ terrified\\ of\\ going\\ to\\ sleep\\.\\ \\;\\ I\\ tried\\ not\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\ and\\ used\\ to\\ get\\ hysterical\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Maude\\ Bains\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ I\\ used\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ bed\\ early\\.\\ \\;\\ Sometimes\\,\\ when\\ I\\ had\\ put\\ out\\ my\\ candle\\,\\ my\\ eyes\\ would\\ close\\ so\\ quickly\\ that\\ I\\ had\\ no\\ even\\ time\\ to\\ say\\ to\\ myself\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ falling\\ asleep\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ And\\ half\\ an\\ hour\\ later\\ the\\ thought\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ time\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ sleep\\ would\\ awaken\\ me\\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\.\\ \\;\\ My\\ sight\\ would\\ return\\ and\\ I\\ would\\ be\\ astonished\\ to\\ find\\ myself\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ darkness\\,\\ pleasant\\ and\\ restful\\ enough\\ for\\ my\\ eyes\\,\\ but\\ even\\ more\\ perhaps\\ for\\ my\\ mind\\,\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ appeared\\ incomprehensible\\,\\ without\\ a\\ cause\\,\\ something\\ dark\\ indeed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Marcel\\ Proust\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ bedroom\\ became\\ the\\ fixed\\ point\\ on\\ which\\ my\\ melancholy\\ and\\ anxious\\ thoughts\\ were\\ centered\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Margaret\\ Atwood\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ Airplane\\ becomes\\ a\\ vehicle\\ of\\ escape\\ that\\ allows\\ Mickey\\ to\\ take\\ control\\ and\\ conquer\\ this\\ fear\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Question 4, 22 - Meaghan"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.826466+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Question 7, 23 - Becky", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 713, "html": "\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\7\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Choose\\ two\\ scenes\\ of\\ reading\\,\\ storytelling\\,\\ or\\ writing\\ in\\ books\\ we\\ have\\ read\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ significance\\.\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Here\\ are\\ 3\\ examples\\ of\\ scenes\\ with\\ outlined\\ answers\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Peter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Wendy\\:\\ Wendy\\ telling\\ bedtime\\ stories\\ to\\ the\\ Lost\\ Boys\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Solidifies\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ her\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;mother\\&rdquo\\;\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ boys\\ look\\ up\\ to\\ her\\ like\\ their\\ own\\ mothers\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\She\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ tells\\ stories\\,\\ shows\\ her\\ knowledge\\,\\ makes\\ her\\ seem\\ older\\ and\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ experienced\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Wendy\\ appropriate\\ as\\ a\\ mother\\ to\\ these\\ boys\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Facilitates\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ maturity\\ process\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ telling\\ these\\ stories\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ makes\\ Wendy\\ \\&ldquo\\;grow\\ up\\&rdquo\\;\\ more\\ quickly\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\As\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Wendy\\ tells\\ the\\ stories\\ and\\ experiences\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;adventures\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ Peter\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Boys\\,\\ she\\ matures\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Subtly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reminds\\ the\\ Boys\\ of\\ life\\ away\\ from\\ Neverland\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Tells\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stories\\ from\\ home\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Talks\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ her\\ brothers\\ about\\ their\\ parents\\,\\ testing\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ remember\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ writing\\ exam\\ questions\\ on\\ the\\ slates\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ color\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\?\\ Describe\\ Father\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laugh\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Peter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Wendy\\:\\ Wendy\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ and\\ Neverland\\ to\\ her\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ daughter\\/granddaughters\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Continues\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ legend\\:\\ makes\\ Peter\\ return\\ for\\ future\\ generations\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\As\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ long\\ as\\ children\\ believe\\,\\ Peter\\ will\\ come\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ long\\ as\\ children\\ are\\ gay\\ and\\ innocent\\ and\\ heartless\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Wendy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ retelling\\ of\\ the\\ legend\\,\\ would\\ Neverland\\ still\\ \\&ldquo\\;exist\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\This\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ form\\ of\\ storytelling\\ mirrors\\ that\\ of\\ cultures\\ over\\ time\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Legends\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ passed\\ on\\ as\\ a\\ method\\ of\\ preservation\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ method\\ of\\ storytelling\\ as\\ relationship\\ bonding\\ between\\ mother\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ daughter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ young\\ mermaid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\(it\\ never\\ says\\ Ariel\\ in\\ the\\ story\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ older\\ sisters\\ tell\\ her\\ stories\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ above\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\These\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stories\\ fuel\\ her\\ desire\\ to\\ venture\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ world\\,\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ vivid\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ sea\\,\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ desire\\/be\\ less\\ mystified\\ about\\ her\\ birthday\\ rite\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ passage\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ parallel\\ of\\ storytelling\\ and\\ the\\ curiosity\\ of\\ the\\ unknown\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stories\\ enhance\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stories\\ from\\ her\\ sisters\\ eventually\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\&rsquo\\;s\\ demise\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ desire\\ to\\ experience\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\,\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ never\\ have\\ fallen\\ in\\ love\\/made\\ a\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ sea\\ witch\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lost\\ her\\ tongue\\/would\\ not\\ have\\ had\\ to\\ watch\\ her\\ love\\ marry\\ another\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ girl\\/she\\ would\\ have\\ secured\\ her\\ immortal\\ soul\\ and\\ still\\ live\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\As\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ storytelling\\,\\ the\\ little\\ mermaid\\ is\\ sentenced\\ to\\ a\\ life\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;daughter\\ of\\ the\\ air\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(at\\ least\\ for\\ 300\\ years\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\In\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\,\\ unlike\\ in\\ other\\ stories\\,\\ the\\ storytelling\\ is\\ actually\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ the\\ tragedy\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\23\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Discuss\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ supervision\\,\\ policing\\,\\ and\\ monitoring\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ philosophers\\ or\\ historians\\ of\\ childhood\\ read\\ this\\ term\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\John\\ Locke\\:\\ \\Some\\ Thoughts\\ Concerning\\ Education\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\\\(overview\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ Theory\\ of\\ Mind\\:\\ The\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tabula\\ rasa\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ blank\\ slate\\,\\ does\\ not\\ contain\\ any\\ previous\\ knowledge\\ or\\ innate\\ ideas\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ educate\\ the\\ mind\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ healthy\\ body\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ formation\\ of\\ a\\ virtuous\\ character\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ choice\\ of\\ an\\ appropriate\\ academic\\ curriculum\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Major\\ claims\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ education\\ makes\\ the\\ man\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ \\&ldquo\\;empty\\ mind\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ filled\\ by\\ experience\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ \\&ldquo\\;association\\ of\\ ideas\\&rdquo\\;\\ made\\ when\\ younger\\ are\\ more\\ significant\\ than\\ those\\ made\\ later\\ in\\ life\\,\\ as\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ the\\ self\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ \\&ldquo\\;sound\\ mind\\ in\\ a\\ sound\\ body\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Locke\\ and\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ supervision\\/parenting\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parents\\ should\\ watch\\ over\\ their\\ children\\ closely\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ discover\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;aptitudes\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parents\\ should\\ nurture\\ their\\ own\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interests\\ rather\\ than\\ force\\ them\\ to\\ pursue\\ activities\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Carefully\\ nurture\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ \\&ldquo\\;habits\\&rdquo\\;\\ before\\ pursuing\\ their\\ academic\\ education\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Locke\\ was\\ a\\ trained\\ physician\\,\\ makes\\ sense\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ point\\ out\\ a\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ physical\\ needs\\ first\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>This\\ idea\\ is\\ very\\ pervasive\\ even\\ today\\:\\ many\\ people\\ still\\ support\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ nutrition\\ and\\ sleep\\ for\\ children\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Children\\ should\\ be\\ exposed\\ to\\ harsh\\ environments\\ when\\ young\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prepare\\ them\\ for\\ later\\ life\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ be\\ exposed\\ to\\ cold\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prepare\\ them\\ for\\ winter\\)\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\&ldquo\\;bodies\\ will\\ endure\\ anything\\ that\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\ they\\ are\\ accustomed\\ to\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Much\\ specific\\ advice\\ given\\ for\\ situations\\ \\(keep\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feet\\ wet\\,\\ bed\\ linens\\,\\ sleeping\\ regimens\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parents\\ should\\ address\\ children\\ as\\ reasonable\\ beings\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ should\\ attempt\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;habit\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ think\\ rationally\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Habit\\ \\>\\ rule\\:\\ children\\ should\\ internalize\\ the\\ habit\\ of\\ thinking\\ rationally\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ memorizing\\ an\\ arbitrary\\ list\\ of\\ rules\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Rewards\\ and\\ punishments\\ \\(such\\ as\\ sweets\\ or\\ beatings\\)\\ turn\\ children\\ into\\ sensualists\\ rather\\ than\\ rationalists\\ \\(bad\\)\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ children\\ should\\ value\\ reason\\ over\\ passion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Locke\\ wants\\ children\\ to\\ become\\ adults\\ as\\ quickly\\ as\\ possible\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ the\\ parents\\&rsquo\\;\\ duty\\ to\\ teach\\ their\\ children\\ to\\ become\\ rational\\ adults\\;\\ it\\ is\\ their\\ duty\\ to\\ educate\\ their\\ children\\ and\\ teach\\ them\\ to\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ rational\\ manner\\ \\consistently\\<\\/i\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parents\\ and\\ teachers\\ must\\ teach\\ children\\ how\\ to\\ learn\\ and\\ to\\ enjoy\\ learning\\ first\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Children\\ should\\ first\\ be\\ taught\\ to\\ write\\ and\\ speak\\ fluently\\ in\\ their\\ native\\ language\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ education\\ Locke\\ advises\\ contains\\ not\\ only\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ sciences\\ but\\ also\\ practical\\ professional\\ training\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Question 7, 23 - Becky"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.845213+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Questions 1, 3 - Molly", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 714, "html": "\\\\\\ 1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Choose\\ 3\\ variants\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ explain\\ how\\ each\\ version\\ reflects\\ a\\ different\\ historical\\ or\\ cultural\\ moment\\ in\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ fairy\\ tales\\.\\ \\(MOLLY\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Source\\:\\ \\The\\ Classic\\ Fairy\\ Tales\\<\\/i\\>\\ edited\\ by\\ Maria\\ Tatar\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Oral\\ tale\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ \\\tStory\\ of\\ Grandmother\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(told\\ in\\ 1885\\)\\ \\(Tatar\\ 10\\-11\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Fairy\\ tales\\ used\\ \\\tto\\ have\\ their\\ roots\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;peasant\\ culture\\ relatively\\ \\\tuninhibited\\ in\\ its\\ expressive\\ energy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 3\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ were\\ told\\ \\\torally\\ by\\ peasant\\ laborers\\ and\\ workers\\ to\\ pass\\ the\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\They\\ were\\ typically\\ \\&ldquo\\;fast\\-paced\\ narratives\\ with\\ heavy\\ doses\\ of\\ burlesque\\ comedy\\,\\ melodramatic\\ action\\,\\ scatological\\ humor\\,\\ and\\ free\\-wheeling\\ violence\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 3\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ oral\\ tale\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Story\\ of\\ Grandmother\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ collected\\ by\\ French\\ folklorist\\ Paul\\ Delarue\\ in\\ 1885\\,\\ is\\ just\\ one\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ fairy\\ tale\\ in\\ this\\ oral\\ tradition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\This\\ version\\ of\\ \\\tthe\\ tale\\ reflects\\ the\\ ribaldry\\ and\\ coarseness\\ of\\ such\\ peasant\\ \\\tculture\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ girl\\ \\(who\\ is\\ not\\ called\\ Little\\ Red\\ Riding\\ Hood\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ such\\ red\\ riding\\ wear\\)\\ ends\\ up\\ drinking\\ the\\ blood\\ and\\ eating\\ the\\ flesh\\ of\\ her\\ grandmother\\ at\\ the\\ urging\\ of\\ the\\ wolf\\ \\(disguised\\ as\\ the\\ grandmother\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cat\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ calls\\ her\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;slut\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ doing\\ so\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ girl\\ \\\tperforms\\ a\\ striptease\\ for\\ the\\ wolf\\ at\\ his\\ command\\,\\ throwing\\ her\\ \\\tclothes\\ into\\ the\\ fire\\ one\\ by\\ one\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\But\\ the\\ girl\\ is\\ devious\\:\\ she\\ tricks\\ the\\ wolf\\ into\\ letting\\ her\\ go\\ by\\ saying\\ she\\ needs\\ to\\ relieve\\ herself\\,\\ and\\ she\\ runs\\ away\\,\\ fooling\\ the\\ wolf\\ and\\ escaping\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Little\\ Red\\ \\\tRiding\\ Hood\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Charles\\ Perrault\\ \\(1697\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Perrault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ LRRH\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ this\\ peasant\\ tradition\\.\\ Perrault\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ cleaned\\ up\\ LRRH\\ for\\ French\\ society\\ in\\ his\\ time\\,\\ eliminating\\ vulgarities\\ and\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ mainstream\\ citizens\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Gone\\ are\\ the\\ references\\ to\\ bodily\\ functions\\,\\ the\\ racy\\ double\\ entendres\\,\\ and\\ the\\ gaps\\ in\\ narrative\\ logic\\.\\ As\\ Delarue\\ points\\ out\\,\\ Perrault\\ removed\\ those\\ elements\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ shocked\\ the\\ society\\ of\\ his\\ epoch\\ with\\ their\\ cruelty\\ \\(the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ devouring\\ of\\ the\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flesh\\ and\\ blood\\)\\,\\ their\\ inanity\\ \\(the\\ choice\\ between\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ needles\\ and\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ pins\\)\\,\\ or\\ their\\ \\&lsquo\\;impropriety\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ question\\ about\\ her\\ grandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hairy\\ body\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Tatar\\ 4\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\LRRH\\ is\\ also\\ \\\tchanged\\ from\\ a\\ trickster\\ to\\ a\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ girl\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\And\\ Perrault\\ \\\timplicitly\\ and\\ explicitly\\ teaches\\ lessons\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ readers\\ \\\tthrough\\ his\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Analysis\\ of\\ the\\ \\\ttext\\ of\\ the\\ tale\\ \\(Tatar\\ 11\\-13\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Perrault\\ makes\\ \\\tLRRH\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;prettiest\\ you\\ can\\ imagine\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ adored\\ by\\ all\\,\\ \\\tplaying\\ up\\ her\\ idyllic\\ beauty\\ and\\ innocence\\ \\(11\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Gives\\ LRRH\\ her\\ \\\tname\\ and\\ trademark\\ red\\ riding\\ hood\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Inserts\\ implicit\\ lesson\\ as\\ he\\ writes\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ poor\\ child\\,\\ who\\ did\\ not\\ know\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ dangerous\\ to\\ stop\\ and\\ listen\\ to\\ wolves\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\LRRH\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\texclamations\\ are\\ lacking\\ the\\ improper\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ \\\tgrandmother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hairy\\ body\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Normative\\ words\\ \\\tare\\ placed\\ on\\ the\\ wolf\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wicked\\ wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(13\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ explicit\\ \\\tmoral\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;From\\ this\\ story\\ one\\ learns\\ that\\ children\\&hellip\\;\\ \\\tare\\ wrong\\ to\\ listen\\ to\\ just\\ anyone\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(13\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Little\\ \\\tGirl\\ and\\ the\\ Wolf\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ James\\ Thurber\\ \\(1940\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Thurber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\\tstory\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ is\\ a\\ relatively\\ recent\\ version\\ of\\ LRRH\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Reflecting\\,\\ \\\tperhaps\\,\\ a\\ reaction\\ against\\ the\\ moralizing\\,\\ heavy\\-handed\\ \\\tnarratives\\ of\\ past\\ fairy\\ tales\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ riffs\\ on\\ the\\ \\\tridiculousness\\ of\\ the\\ premise\\ of\\ LRRH\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;Even\\ in\\ a\\ nightcap\\ a\\ wolf\\ does\\ not\\ look\\ any\\ more\\ like\\ your\\ grandmother\\ than\\ the\\ Metro\\-Goldwyn\\ lion\\ looks\\ like\\ Calvin\\ Coolidge\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ parodies\\ \\\tPerrault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moralistic\\ tone\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\With\\ the\\ \\\texplicit\\ moral\\ at\\ the\\ end\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ fool\\ little\\ \\\tgirls\\ nowadays\\ as\\ it\\ used\\ to\\ be\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\And\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ \\\tit\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ ribaldry\\ of\\ the\\ peasant\\ tale\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\It\\ turns\\ the\\ \\\tlittle\\ girl\\ \\(who\\,\\ interestingly\\,\\ like\\ the\\ oral\\ tale\\ is\\ not\\ called\\ \\\tLRRH\\)\\ back\\ into\\ a\\ trickster\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\\tviolent\\ one\\ at\\ that\\&mdash\\;she\\ \\&ldquo\\;took\\ an\\ automatic\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ \\\tbasket\\ and\\ shot\\ the\\ wolf\\ dead\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\With\\ its\\ irreverent\\ violence\\,\\ Thurber\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tale\\ is\\ almost\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ vulgar\\ and\\ entertaining\\ peasant\\ tale\\,\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ the\\ moralizing\\ and\\ patronizing\\ Perraultian\\ version\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Discuss\\ how\\ Elaine\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ on\\ vivacity\\ might\\ help\\ explain\\ what\\ happens\\ to\\ us\\ mentally\\ when\\ we\\ read\\ the\\ passage\\ below\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ might\\ be\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ description\\,\\ on\\ a\\ second\\ reading\\,\\ once\\ we\\ are\\ aware\\ that\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ affiliated\\ with\\ evil\\?\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&ldquo\\;A\\ few\\ snowflakes\\ were\\ still\\ falling\\ outside\\,\\ and\\ one\\ of\\ them\\&mdash\\;the\\ largest\\ of\\ all\\&mdash\\;landed\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ flowerboxes\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ snowflake\\ grew\\ and\\ grew\\ until\\ suddenly\\ it\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ woman\\ wearing\\ a\\ dress\\ made\\ of\\ white\\ gossamer\\ so\\ fine\\ and\\ sheer\\ that\\ it\\ looked\\ like\\ millions\\ of\\ sparkling\\ snowflakes\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\ was\\ both\\ beautiful\\ and\\ elegant\\ but\\ made\\ of\\ ice\\,\\ dazzling\\,\\ sparkling\\ ice\\.\\ \\;\\ And\\ yet\\ she\\ was\\ alive\\.\\ \\;\\ Her\\ eyes\\ glittered\\ like\\ two\\ bright\\ stars\\,\\ but\\ there\\ was\\ nothing\\ peaceful\\ or\\ calm\\ about\\ them\\.\\ \\;\\ She\\ nodded\\ toward\\ the\\ window\\ and\\ beckoned\\ with\\ her\\ hand\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ \\(MOLLY\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ passage\\ from\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ ties\\ into\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notions\\ of\\ the\\ instructional\\ character\\ of\\ literature\\,\\ and\\ specifically\\ narratives\\.\\ Scarry\\ asserts\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ for\\ the\\ verbal\\ arts\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ vivacity\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ world\\,\\ they\\ must\\ somehow\\ imitate\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ real\\ life\\ perceptions\\(this\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;givenness\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ While\\ daydreaming\\ takes\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ volition\\ on\\ our\\ part\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ details\\ clearly\\ and\\ create\\ realistic\\ imagined\\ perceptions\\,\\ good\\ narratives\\ take\\ the\\ reigns\\ and\\ provide\\ instructions\\ for\\ us\\ that\\ imitate\\ the\\ persistence\\ of\\ real\\ perceptions\\.\\ Page\\ 21\\ of\\ the\\ article\\ gives\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ this\\.\\ The\\ author\\ writes\\ the\\ narrative\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ almost\\ insert\\ little\\ directions\\ into\\ it\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ the\\ writing\\ naturally\\ directs\\ your\\ attention\\ to\\ different\\ things\\.\\ This\\ all\\ makes\\ us\\ feel\\ as\\ if\\ we\\ \\receive\\ \\<\\/i\\>objects\\,\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ there\\ for\\ the\\ taking\\.\\ To\\ create\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ kinetic\\ occlusion\\ is\\ also\\ used\\ by\\ authors\\ as\\ this\\ can\\ create\\ sense\\ of\\ solidity\\(which\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ understood\\ as\\ real\\ by\\ reading\\ audiences\\)\\.\\ Kinetic\\ occlusion\\ is\\ achieved\\ when\\ one\\ object\\ moves\\ past\\ another\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ momentary\\ obstruction\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ solidity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ reading\\ this\\ passage\\ from\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ instructional\\ nature\\ of\\ narratives\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ quite\\ clearly\\.\\ Readers\\ are\\ brought\\ from\\ one\\ image\\ to\\ the\\ next\\ quite\\ easily\\,\\ eventually\\ focusing\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\ Instructions\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ sprinkled\\ throughout\\ this\\ short\\ passage\\,\\ directing\\ the\\ eyes\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ picture\\ out\\ the\\ window\\ of\\ snow\\ falling\\,\\ to\\ focusing\\ on\\ a\\ single\\ snow\\ flake\\ falling\\ on\\ a\\ flower\\ box\\,\\ to\\ watching\\ it\\ grow\\ larger\\ and\\ larger\\,\\ to\\ observing\\ the\\ woman\\ and\\ her\\ fine\\ dress\\,\\ to\\ seeing\\ her\\ bright\\ eyes\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ to\\ her\\ whole\\ body\\,\\ beckoning\\ Kay\\.\\ The\\ reader\\ gets\\ a\\ pretty\\ clear\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\ through\\ the\\ directions\\ given\\ by\\ the\\ narrative\\,\\ creating\\ a\\ scene\\ that\\ is\\ very\\ vivid\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ much\\ like\\ real\\ perception\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ kinetic\\ occlusion\\ and\\ solidity\\ also\\ comes\\ into\\ play\\ here\\,\\ though\\ in\\ a\\ somewhat\\ different\\ way\\ than\\ is\\ shown\\ in\\ Scarry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ examples\\.\\ When\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;largest\\ of\\ all\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ snowflakes\\ falls\\ and\\ lands\\ on\\ the\\ edge\\ of\\ the\\ flower\\ box\\,\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ solidity\\ is\\ created\\ as\\ one\\ object\\ lands\\ and\\ rests\\ on\\ another\\.\\ This\\ only\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ vivacity\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ easiest\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ imagine\\ things\\ are\\ a\\ bit\\ hazy\\ or\\ transparent\\,\\ which\\ is\\ played\\ upon\\ by\\ Andersen\\ in\\ his\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ dress\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;white\\ gossamer\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Knowing\\ that\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ affiliated\\ with\\ evil\\ changes\\ this\\ all\\ slightly\\.\\ The\\ directing\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\ could\\ become\\ a\\ bit\\ more\\ apparent\\ with\\ this\\ knowledge\\,\\ making\\ the\\ reader\\ to\\ feel\\ entranced\\ by\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ as\\ if\\ she\\ has\\ a\\ powerful\\ grip\\ on\\ Kay\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ instructive\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ mimics\\ this\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ something\\ beautiful\\,\\ but\\ there\\ is\\ something\\ sinister\\ in\\ this\\ transfixion\\ when\\ you\\ know\\ the\\ figure\\ is\\ evil\\.\\ This\\ is\\ especially\\ apparent\\ when\\ the\\ author\\ focuses\\ the\\ reader\\ in\\ on\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ Queen\\ which\\ was\\ neither\\ peaceful\\ nor\\ calm\\.\\ The\\ whole\\ sense\\ of\\ beauty\\ itself\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ being\\ described\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ second\\ nature\\ once\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ is\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ evil\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ the\\ last\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ Snow\\ Queen\\ beckoning\\ Kay\\ with\\ her\\ hand\\ becomes\\ sinister\\ as\\ well\\,\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ she\\ has\\ evil\\ intentions\\ in\\ transfixing\\ Kay\\ and\\ beckoning\\ him\\ to\\ come\\ with\\ her\\.\\ Overall\\,\\ the\\ first\\ reading\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ elicits\\ a\\ focus\\ on\\ beauty\\,\\ with\\ distinct\\,\\ vivid\\ images\\ of\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ as\\ fostered\\ through\\ a\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ methods\\ described\\ by\\ Scarry\\,\\ while\\ the\\ second\\ adds\\ another\\ layer\\ of\\ understanding\\ to\\ this\\ direction\\,\\ making\\ the\\ reader\\ feel\\ more\\ controlled\\ and\\ also\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ evil\\ lying\\ behind\\ the\\ beauty\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Questions 1, 3 - Molly"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.862344+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Question 5, 9 - Tessa", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 715, "html": "\\\\\\ \\;\\ 5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Foucault\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ modern\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;born\\ of\\ regulations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\ Trace\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ this\\ concept\\ to\\ John\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\ and\\ discuss\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(TESSA\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\John\\ Locke\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ English\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;Century\\ Philosopher\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ defining\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\ though\\ \\&ldquo\\;consciousness\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ maintained\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ born\\ without\\ innate\\ ideas\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;tabula\\ rasa\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ and\\ were\\ therefore\\ able\\ to\\ author\\ their\\ own\\ souls\\ and\\ identities\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Michel\\ Foucault\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ French\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\ philosopher\\,\\ best\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ critic\\ of\\ social\\ institutions\\ \\(in\\ \\;\\Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\ \\;\\<\\/i\\>\\the\\ social\\ institutions\\ are\\ really\\ the\\ legal\\ and\\ penal\\ systems\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ extension\\ we\\ could\\ consider\\ education\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ institution\\ which\\ ties\\ in\\ to\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ \\;\\Some\\ Thoughts\\ Concerning\\ Education\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ John\\ Locke\\ outlines\\ detailed\\ instructions\\ for\\ parents\\ which\\ he\\ judges\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ for\\ the\\ breeding\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ gentleman\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ While\\ his\\ guidelines\\ touch\\ on\\ everything\\ from\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ fruit\\,\\ to\\ the\\ passing\\ of\\ stools\\ and\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ learning\\ to\\ swim\\,\\ they\\ focus\\ most\\ decidedly\\ on\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Locke\\ believes\\ that\\ man\\ is\\ born\\ without\\ innate\\ ideas\\.\\ His\\ notion\\ of\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\tabula\\ rasa\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\;not\\ only\\ implies\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ but\\ also\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ author\\ their\\ own\\ identity\\ and\\ ultimately\\ craft\\ their\\ own\\ soul\\.\\ Michel\\ Foucault\\ believed\\ that\\ modern\\ man\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;born\\ of\\ regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ in\\ his\\ work\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\;Foucault\\ examines\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ discipline\\ from\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;gloomy\\ festival\\ of\\ punishment\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;an\\ age\\ of\\ sobriety\\&rdquo\\;\\ defined\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ morality\\ concerning\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ punishing\\.\\ He\\ illuminates\\ this\\ transition\\ with\\ the\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ a\\ brutal\\ public\\ execution\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\ with\\ a\\ stale\\ and\\ tempered\\ prison\\ schedule\\ from\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\;\\Foucault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ was\\ no\\ doubt\\ inspired\\ by\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ earlier\\ writings\\.\\ The\\ former\\ bases\\ his\\ analysis\\ of\\ punishment\\ on\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ philosophy\\ of\\ the\\ self\\-determined\\ soul\\ and\\ argues\\ that\\ as\\ punishment\\ evolved\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\/early\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;centuries\\ punishment\\ was\\ redirected\\ from\\ addressing\\ the\\ body\\ to\\ confronting\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ This\\ process\\ coincided\\ with\\ changes\\ in\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\,\\ which\\ in\\ the\\ mid\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ menacing\\ works\\ of\\ earlier\\ times\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\;\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\A\\ Token\\ for\\ Children\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\\\,\\ and\\ focused\\ instead\\ on\\ moral\\ virtue\\.\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ establishes\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ discipline\\ on\\ which\\ Foucault\\ builds\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;As\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ lies\\ chiefly\\ in\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ endure\\ hardships\\,\\ so\\ also\\ does\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Link\\ to\\ Bettelheim\\ who\\ thinks\\ that\\ exposing\\ children\\ to\\ violence\\ through\\ literature\\ is\\ cathartic\\ and\\ character\\-building\\,\\ that\\ it\\ teaches\\ them\\ to\\ cope\\ later\\ in\\ life\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Great\\ mistake\\ parent\\&rsquo\\;s\\ make\\ with\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mind\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ mind\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ made\\ obedient\\ to\\ discipline\\,\\ and\\ pliant\\ to\\ reason\\,\\ when\\ at\\ first\\ it\\ was\\ most\\ tender\\,\\ most\\ easy\\ to\\ be\\ bowed\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\:\\ Should\\ the\\ Darling\\&rsquo\\;s\\ have\\ coddled\\ their\\ children\\ less\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ used\\ to\\ submit\\ his\\ will\\ to\\ the\\ reason\\ of\\ others\\,\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ young\\,\\ will\\ scarce\\ hearken\\ or\\ submit\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ reason\\,\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ of\\ an\\ age\\ to\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Worth\\ noting\\ that\\ in\\ discussing\\ discipline\\ in\\ education\\ Locke\\ was\\ not\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ physical\\ punishment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;The\\ usual\\ lazy\\ and\\ short\\ way\\ \\(of\\ disciplining\\ the\\ child\\)\\ by\\ chastisement\\ and\\ the\\ rod\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ instrument\\ of\\ government\\ that\\ tutors\\ generally\\ know\\ or\\ ever\\ think\\ of\\,\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ unfit\\ of\\ any\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ education\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Foucault\\ views\\ punishment\\ as\\ a\\ complex\\ social\\ function\\ that\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ cultural\\ values\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ born\\ of\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ social\\ institutions\\ on\\ our\\ development\\ of\\ self\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;for\\ example\\ how\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ punishment\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ early\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ \\;century\\:\\ \\;\\ criminals\\ guilty\\ of\\ egregious\\ crimes\\ endured\\ public\\ humiliation\\ and\\ \\;\\ bodily\\ torture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>use\\ of\\ public\\ torture\\ as\\ spectacle\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ criminals\\ effected\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ including\\ children\\ \\(recall\\ that\\ Andersen\\ watched\\ an\\ execution\\ as\\ a\\ school\\ boy\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Children\\ grew\\ up\\ acutely\\ aware\\ moral\\ decay\\ and\\ crime\\ corresponded\\ to\\ an\\ equally\\ savage\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ body\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ target\\ of\\ torture\\ and\\ the\\ entire\\ community\\ witnessed\\ the\\ punishment\\ exacted\\ in\\ real\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Spectacles\\ of\\ persecution\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ instruction\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ living\\ lesson\\ in\\ the\\ museum\\ of\\ order\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ public\\ execution\\ started\\ to\\ lose\\ its\\ effectiveness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ new\\ era\\ of\\ punishment\\ emerged\\-\\ a\\ regime\\ of\\ \\;\\atonement\\<\\/i\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;the\\ gloomy\\ festival\\ of\\ punishment\\ was\\ dying\\ out\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Punishment\\ became\\ more\\ hidden\\ and\\,\\ hence\\,\\ more\\ abstract\\ from\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Moral\\ and\\ religious\\ rectification\\ played\\ a\\ bigger\\ role\\ in\\ reforming\\ criminals\\ \\(think\\ of\\ the\\ connection\\ to\\ Locke\\ here\\,\\ the\\ primacy\\ of\\ discipline\\ and\\ morality\\ and\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Notion\\ of\\ soul\\ and\\ cure\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>The\\ publicity\\ associated\\ with\\ crime\\ became\\ the\\ trial\\ and\\ sentence\\ not\\ the\\ punishment\\ itself\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ age\\ of\\ sobriety\\ in\\ punishment\\ instead\\ focused\\ on\\ positively\\ reforming\\ the\\ criminal\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ soul\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;discipline\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ both\\ enlightenment\\ \\(Locke\\)\\ and\\ post\\-modern\\ \\(Foucault\\)\\ philosophy\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ pivotal\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(FOR\\ FULL\\ DISCLOSURE\\:\\ this\\ section\\ is\\ an\\ edited\\ version\\ of\\ an\\ essay\\ that\\ I\\ read\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ Logan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ study\\ guides\\ but\\ I\\ thought\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ clear\\ and\\ comprehensive\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ disciplinary\\ edge\\ to\\ children\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ literature\\ illuminates\\ society\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ outlook\\ on\\ deviance\\ and\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Hans\\ Christian\\ Andersen\\,\\ who\\ witnessed\\ public\\ executions\\ as\\ a\\ child\\,\\ utilized\\ both\\ models\\ of\\ punishment\\ that\\ Foucault\\ examines\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>In\\ his\\ fairy\\ tale\\,\\ \\;\\The\\ Little\\ Red\\ Shoes\\<\\/i\\>\\\\.\\ Andersen\\ uses\\ Karen\\<\\/span\\>\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ vain\\ love\\ of\\ her\\ red\\ shows\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ sinful\\ pride\\.\\ Her\\ public\\ punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ of\\ mortification\\ and\\ humiliation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ belongs\\ in\\ the\\ old\\ realm\\ of\\ physical\\ castigation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>While\\ Karen\\ pays\\ dearly\\ for\\ her\\ little\\ red\\ shoes\\,\\ her\\ example\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ strike\\ a\\ cord\\ with\\ the\\ docile\\,\\ obedient\\ child\\ reading\\ the\\ story\\.\\ Seeing\\ Karen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ downfall\\,\\ the\\ child\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ drawn\\ to\\ the\\ later\\ model\\ of\\ punishment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ self\\ regulation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Andersen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ dual\\ perspective\\ on\\ punishment\\ and\\ his\\ deliberate\\ use\\ on\\ punishment\\ to\\ teach\\ a\\ moral\\ lesson\\ show\\ an\\ evolution\\ in\\ disciplinary\\ messages\\ within\\ children\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ literature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ similar\\ lesson\\ is\\ taught\\ in\\ the\\ Brothers\\ Grimm\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\ and\\ Hans\\ Christian\\ Andersen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ The\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\.\\ In\\ both\\ fairy\\ tales\\,\\ children\\ suffer\\ public\\ humiliation\\ but\\ triumph\\ by\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ their\\ journey\\.\\ Hansel\\ and\\ Gretel\\ face\\ abandonment\\ by\\ the\\ parents\\.\\ The\\ Little\\ Mermaid\\ enters\\ the\\ human\\ world\\ an\\ enchanting\\ girl\\ but\\ also\\ a\\ mute\\.\\ Their\\ struggles\\ to\\ overcome\\ these\\ \\&ldquo\\;punishments\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ their\\ ultimate\\ triumphs\\ demonstrate\\ the\\ disciplinary\\ edge\\ of\\ Children\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ literature\\.\\ Notably\\,\\ the\\ Brothers\\ Grimm\\ were\\ written\\ well\\ before\\ Andersen\\\\?\\<\\/span\\>s\\ work\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Conclusion\\:\\ Consider\\ concluding\\ on\\ the\\ note\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;curiosity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Locke\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Curiosity\\ in\\ children\\ is\\ but\\ an\\ appetite\\ after\\ knowledge\\ and\\ therefore\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ encouraged\\ in\\ them\\,\\ not\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ good\\ sign\\,\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ great\\ instrument\\ nature\\ has\\ provided\\ to\\ remove\\ that\\ ignorance\\ they\\ were\\ born\\ with\\ and\\ which\\,\\ without\\ this\\ busy\\ inquisitiveness\\,\\ will\\ make\\ them\\ dull\\ and\\ useless\\ creatures\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Foucault\\:\\ consider\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ Foucault\\ believes\\ mold\\ the\\ self\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\:\\ think\\ of\\ everything\\ from\\ Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ to\\ Peter\\ and\\ Wendy\\ and\\ Pan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Labyrinth\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;all\\ the\\ journey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ children\\ take\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ curiosity\\.\\ How\\ does\\ this\\ relate\\ to\\ discipline\\?\\ Are\\ they\\ authoring\\ their\\ own\\ souls\\,\\ as\\ Locke\\ might\\ suggest\\,\\ by\\ indulging\\ their\\ curiosity\\ or\\ are\\ they\\ breaking\\ free\\ from\\ Foucault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;regulations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ 9\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ cited\\ by\\ Noam\\ Chomsky\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ nonsense\\.\\ \\;\\ Cite\\ two\\ instances\\ of\\ nonsense\\ in\\ Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ and\\ explain\\ their\\ function\\.\\ \\(TESSA\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\ \\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Noam\\ Chomsky\\,\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Syntactic\\ Structures\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ writes\\ perhaps\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ nonsense\\ sentences\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ From\\ a\\ linguistic\\ point\\ of\\ view\\,\\ this\\ sentence\\ is\\ syntactically\\ correct\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;green\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ two\\ adjectives\\ that\\ describe\\ the\\ subject\\ \\&ldquo\\;ideas\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ verb\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;sleep\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;furiously\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ adverb\\ modifying\\ the\\ verb\\.\\ While\\ the\\ syntax\\ is\\ correct\\,\\ the\\ sentence\\ is\\ utterly\\ ungrammatical\\ because\\ the\\ semantics\\ are\\ completely\\ not\\ interpretable\\.\\ The\\ sentence\\ is\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Nonsense\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\ \\(or\\ arguably\\ perhaps\\ has\\ meaning\\ through\\ its\\ lack\\ of\\ meaning\\)\\.\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\ defines\\ nonsense\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ the\\ richness\\ of\\ imagination\\ in\\ its\\ lawless\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Indeed\\,\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ understand\\ \\&ldquo\\;nonsense\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ Lewis\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ there\\ are\\ countless\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ type\\ of\\ nonsense\\.\\ Perhaps\\ Carroll\\,\\ in\\ writing\\ this\\ novel\\,\\ did\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ child\\ good\\-sense\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ was\\ compelled\\ to\\ present\\ nonsense\\ to\\ these\\ child\\ readers\\.\\ Nonsense\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ quite\\ contradictory\\ and\\ arbitrary\\.\\ Carroll\\ did\\ not\\ create\\ nonsense\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ purely\\ to\\ entertain\\;\\ instead\\,\\ perhaps\\ he\\ uses\\ the\\ nonsense\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ readers\\ find\\ deeper\\ levels\\ of\\ sense\\ within\\ the\\ text\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ excess\\ of\\ meaning\\ \\(with\\ various\\ allegories\\ imposing\\ a\\ heavy\\-handed\\ meaning\\ on\\ the\\ reader\\)\\,\\ while\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ seems\\ to\\ resist\\ meaning\\ in\\ its\\ disconnect\\ and\\ pure\\ absurdity\\.\\ Alice\\,\\ at\\ one\\ point\\,\\ even\\ comments\\ on\\ nonsensical\\ nature\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ I\\ had\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ my\\ own\\,\\ everything\\ would\\ be\\ nonsense\\.\\ Nothing\\ would\\ be\\ what\\ it\\ is\\,\\ because\\ everything\\ would\\ be\\ what\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ And\\ contrary\\ wise\\,\\ what\\ is\\,\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\.\\ And\\ what\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\,\\ it\\ would\\.\\ You\\ see\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Looking\\ specifically\\ at\\ the\\ text\\,\\ in\\ chapter\\ two\\ of\\ \\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ The\\ Pool\\ of\\ Tears\\,\\ Alice\\ at\\ a\\ loss\\ for\\ who\\ she\\ is\\ any\\ longer\\,\\ confused\\ by\\ what\\ she\\ knows\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\.\\ She\\ says\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\[\\I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ I\\ cant\\ be\\ Mabel\\,\\ for\\ I\\ know\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ things\\,\\ and\\ she\\ oh\\,\\ she\\ knows\\ such\\ a\\ very\\ little\\!\\ Besides\\,\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ she\\,\\ and\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ I\\,\\ and\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\,\\ how\\ puzzling\\ it\\ all\\ is\\!\\]\\ I\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ try\\ if\\ I\\ know\\ all\\ the\\ things\\ I\\ used\\ to\\ know\\.\\ Let\\ me\\ see\\:\\ four\\ times\\ five\\ is\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ for\\ times\\ six\\ is\\ thirteen\\,\\ and\\ four\\ times\\ seven\\ is\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\!\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ get\\ to\\ twenty\\ at\\ that\\ rate\\.\\ \\(p\\.16\\)\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Martin\\ Gardner\\,\\ in\\ \\The\\ Annotated\\ Alice\\,\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ suggests\\ that\\ Alice\\ will\\ never\\ reach\\ 20\\ because\\ the\\ traditional\\ multiplication\\ table\\ stops\\ with\\ multiples\\ of\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ system\\ Alice\\ is\\ using\\,\\ 4\\ times\\ 12\\ will\\ be\\ 19\\.\\ While\\ this\\ point\\ is\\ valid\\,\\ the\\ entirety\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ is\\ still\\ completely\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Clearly\\ her\\ math\\ skills\\ are\\ incorrect\\,\\ and\\ she\\ continues\\ to\\ mess\\ up\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ geography\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ paragraph\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Paris\\ is\\ the\\ capital\\ of\\ Rome\\&mdash\\;No\\!\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ wrong\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Alice\\ is\\ clearly\\ speaking\\ nonsense\\ in\\ this\\ paragraph\\,\\ yet\\ she\\ expresses\\ her\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ For\\ Alice\\,\\ this\\ functions\\ to\\ make\\ things\\ more\\ curious\\,\\ confusing\\,\\ and\\ nonsensical\\.\\ Math\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ what\\ she\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\,\\ as\\ she\\ botches\\ her\\ multiplication\\.\\ In\\ Wonderland\\,\\ Alice\\ cannot\\ fit\\ her\\ experiences\\ into\\ a\\ logical\\ framework\\ that\\ she\\ can\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\;\\ instead\\,\\ countless\\ desires\\ to\\ do\\ so\\ are\\ frustrated\\ by\\ Wonderland\\.\\ Carroll\\ shares\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ understanding\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ expressing\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ exist\\ not\\ only\\ for\\ Alice\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Life\\ can\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ be\\ utterly\\ senseless\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Another\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ nonsense\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ chapter\\ ten\\ of\\ \\Alice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Adventures\\ in\\ Wonderland\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\ The\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\.\\ The\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ Gryphon\\,\\ after\\ demonstrating\\ to\\ Alice\\ the\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\,\\ ask\\ her\\ enthusiastically\\ about\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ adventures\\ from\\ that\\ day\\.\\ Alice\\,\\ when\\ asked\\ by\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ to\\ sing\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ sluggard\\<\\/i\\>\\\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ begins\\ to\\ sing\\ a\\ completely\\ nonsensical\\ verse\\ \\(as\\ the\\ Lobster\\-Quadrille\\ was\\ stuck\\ in\\ her\\ head\\)\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Lobster\\:\\ I\\ heard\\ him\\ declare\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&lsquo\\;You\\ have\\ baked\\ me\\ too\\ brown\\,\\ I\\ must\\ sugar\\ my\\ hair\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ duck\\ with\\ his\\ eyelids\\,\\ so\\ he\\ with\\ his\\ nose\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Trims\\ his\\ belt\\ and\\ his\\ buttons\\,\\ and\\ turns\\ out\\ his\\ toes\\&hellip\\;\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\(p\\.82\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ both\\ the\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ nonsense\\ in\\ her\\ words\\,\\ Alice\\,\\ in\\ despair\\,\\ wonders\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;anything\\ would\\ \\ever\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ happen\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ way\\ again\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ nonsense\\ functions\\ for\\ both\\ the\\ reader\\ and\\ for\\ Alice\\.\\ For\\ Alice\\,\\ her\\ words\\ and\\ actions\\ in\\ this\\ scene\\ only\\ add\\ to\\ her\\ own\\ confusion\\.\\ It\\ is\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ curious\\(er\\!\\)\\ for\\ Alice\\,\\ and\\ she\\ has\\ become\\ frustrated\\ by\\ these\\ puzzles\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ encountering\\.\\ She\\ cries\\,\\ wondering\\ if\\ things\\ will\\ ever\\ make\\ sense\\ again\\.\\ On\\ a\\ quite\\ different\\ note\\,\\ again\\,\\ this\\ nonsense\\ perhaps\\ functions\\ to\\ speak\\ about\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ Carroll\\ may\\ be\\ pointing\\ out\\ that\\ life\\ has\\ no\\ clear\\ path\\ or\\ solution\\,\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ oftentimes\\ serve\\ to\\ frustrate\\/disturb\\ our\\ expectations\\.\\ Despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Alice\\ thought\\ this\\ song\\ she\\ sang\\ to\\ be\\ familiar\\,\\ she\\ sang\\ a\\ new\\,\\ nonsensical\\,\\ and\\ absurd\\ verse\\.\\ Even\\ when\\ people\\ encounter\\ familiar\\ and\\ explainable\\ troubles\\ and\\ tribulations\\,\\ life\\ can\\ alter\\ these\\ seemingly\\ understood\\ factors\\;\\ life\\ can\\,\\ at\\ times\\,\\ be\\ completely\\ illogical\\ and\\ confusing\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\*EXTRA\\ THOUGHT\\*Looking\\ specifically\\ at\\ lines\\ of\\ particular\\ language\\ in\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\,\\ it\\ is\\ interesting\\ how\\ he\\ plays\\ on\\ multiple\\ meanings\\ of\\ words\\,\\ or\\ uses\\ puns\\,\\ to\\ bring\\ deeper\\ meaning\\ to\\ those\\ words\\ throughout\\ the\\ text\\.\\ Alice\\ often\\ exclaims\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Curious\\ and\\ curiouser\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ Her\\ language\\ echoes\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ her\\ experiences\\,\\ as\\ both\\ expand\\ beyond\\ the\\ ordinary\\ convention\\.\\ Nonsense\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ endless\\ possibilities\\ associated\\ with\\ nonsense\\,\\ are\\ expressed\\ through\\ Carroll\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manipulation\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ thus\\.\\*\\*\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ to\\ note\\ how\\ Lewis\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ nonsense\\ to\\ communicate\\ very\\ important\\ concepts\\ about\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ Just\\ as\\ Alice\\ is\\ oftentimes\\ frustrated\\ by\\ this\\ nonsense\\ and\\ cannot\\ seem\\ to\\ grasp\\ it\\,\\ humans\\ are\\ often\\ frustrated\\ and\\ unable\\ to\\ grasp\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ seemingly\\ senseless\\ happenings\\ in\\ life\\.\\ Perhaps\\,\\ Alice\\ concluded\\ everything\\ she\\ had\\ encountered\\ in\\ Wonderland\\ properly\\ at\\ one\\ point\\ when\\ she\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ atom\\ of\\ meaning\\ in\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Wonderland\\ may\\ resist\\ meaning\\,\\ or\\ it\\ may\\ function\\ to\\ bring\\ about\\ even\\ greater\\ and\\ more\\ impressionable\\ messages\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\OUTLINE\\:\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\I\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Intro\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Noam\\ Chomsky\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Colorless\\ green\\ ideas\\ sleep\\ furiously\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Correct\\ syntax\\;\\ ungrammatical\\ semantics\\:\\ this\\ sentence\\ cannot\\ be\\ interpreted\\/understood\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Immanuel\\ Kant\\ defines\\ nonsense\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ the\\ richness\\ of\\ imagination\\ in\\ its\\ lawless\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\II\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Multiplication\\ Table\\,\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ The\\ Pool\\ of\\ Tears\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;Let\\ me\\ see\\:\\ four\\ times\\ five\\ is\\ twelve\\,\\ and\\ for\\ times\\ six\\ is\\ thirteen\\,\\ and\\ four\\ times\\ seven\\ is\\&mdash\\;oh\\ dear\\!\\ I\\ shall\\ never\\ get\\ to\\ twenty\\ at\\ that\\ rate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.16\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Alice\\ is\\ clearly\\ speaking\\ nonsense\\ in\\ this\\ paragraph\\,\\ yet\\ she\\ expresses\\ her\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Alice\\:\\ This\\ makes\\ things\\ more\\ curious\\,\\ confusing\\,\\ and\\ nonsensical\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Reader\\:\\ Carroll\\ shares\\ this\\ lack\\ of\\ understanding\\ with\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ expressing\\ how\\ it\\ can\\ exist\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\ Life\\ can\\ be\\ utterly\\ senseless\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\III\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Song\\ for\\ the\\ Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ Gryphon\\,\\ Chapter\\ 10\\ The\\ Lobster\\ Quadrille\\\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;\\&rsquo\\;Tis\\ the\\ voice\\ of\\ the\\ Lobster\\:\\ I\\ heard\\ him\\ declare\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&lsquo\\;You\\ have\\ baked\\ me\\ too\\ brown\\,\\ I\\ must\\ sugar\\ my\\ hair\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ a\\ duck\\ with\\ his\\ eyelids\\,\\ so\\ he\\ with\\ his\\ nose\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Trims\\ his\\ belt\\ and\\ his\\ buttons\\,\\ and\\ turns\\ out\\ his\\ toes\\&hellip\\;\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\\\(p\\.82\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Mock\\ Turtle\\ and\\ the\\ Gryphon\\ comment\\ on\\ the\\ nonsense\\ in\\ her\\ words\\,\\ and\\ Alice\\,\\ in\\ despair\\,\\ wonders\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;anything\\ would\\ \\ever\\<\\/i\\>\\\\ happen\\ in\\ a\\ natural\\ way\\ again\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Alice\\:\\ understanding\\ now\\ nonsensical\\ everything\\ is\\,\\ esp\\.\\ in\\ Wonderland\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Function\\ for\\ Reader\\:\\ The\\ nonsense\\ perhaps\\ functions\\ to\\ speak\\ about\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ as\\ some\\ things\\ in\\ life\\ we\\ cannot\\ interpret\\ or\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\.\\ Some\\ things\\ we\\ might\\ have\\ thought\\ we\\ understood\\ can\\ change\\ in\\ an\\ instant\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\IV\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Conclusion\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Lewis\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ nonsense\\ to\\ communicate\\ very\\ important\\ concepts\\ about\\ life\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Wonderland\\ may\\ either\\ \\(or\\ both\\?\\)\\&hellip\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Resist\\ meaning\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Bring\\ about\\ even\\ greater\\ and\\ more\\ impressionable\\ messages\\ about\\ life\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\V\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Extra\\ Thoughts\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Steven\\ Pinker\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Time\\ flies\\ like\\ an\\ arrow\\ \\/\\ Fruit\\ lies\\ like\\ a\\ banana\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;we\\ park\\ in\\ driveways\\ and\\ drive\\ on\\ parkways\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\KING\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;IMPORTANT\\,\\ UNIMPORTANT\\,\\ UNIMPORTANT\\,\\ IMPORTANT\\&rdquo\\;\\ meaning\\ has\\ no\\ significance\\;\\ he\\ only\\ cared\\ about\\ what\\ word\\ sounded\\ best\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\*SONG\\ IN\\ CHAPTER\\ 12\\:\\ \\(King\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ piece\\ of\\ evidence\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ heard\\ yet\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ BUT\\ IT\\ IS\\ COMPLETELY\\ RESISTANT\\ TO\\ INTERPRETATION\\:\\ nothing\\ behind\\ the\\ pronouns\\&hellip\\;no\\ context\\&hellip\\;\\.\\ Alice\\ interjects\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ atom\\ of\\ meaning\\ in\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\*\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\They\\ told\\ me\\ you\\ had\\ been\\ to\\ her\\,\\/And\\ mentioned\\ me\\ to\\ him\\:\\/She\\ gave\\ me\\ a\\ good\\ character\\,\\/\\ But\\ said\\ I\\ could\\ not\\ swim\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\&hellip\\;\\.\\.\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Function\\:\\ to\\ show\\ us\\ that\\ Wonderland\\ simply\\ resists\\ meaning\\,\\ and\\ is\\ completely\\ unable\\ to\\ be\\ interpreted\\.\\ We\\ could\\ apply\\ this\\ understanding\\ to\\ life\\&hellip\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Question 5, 9 - Tessa"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.889653+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Questions 4, 6 - Alex", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 716, "html": "\\\\\\ 6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;anamorphic\\ stain\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ Holbein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ The\\ Ambassadors\\ manifest\\ itself\\ in\\ Charlotte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Web\\ or\\ in\\ Goodnight\\ Moon\\?\\ \\;\\ Identify\\ specific\\ textual\\ moments\\ and\\ explain\\ why\\ they\\ might\\ escape\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Ambassadors\\\\\r\\\n\\-Features\\ two\\ men\\ who\\ radiate\\ confidence\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ \\"\\;anamorphic\\ stain\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ a\\ skull\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ skull\\ is\\ a\\ memento\\ mori\\ \\-\\ a\\ reminder\\ of\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ death\\\\\r\\\n\\-Death\\ is\\ omnipresent\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ midst\\ of\\ life\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCharlotte\\'s\\ Web\\\\\r\\\n\\-Though\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ children\\'s\\ story\\,\\ theme\\ of\\ death\\ plays\\ a\\ prominent\\ role\\,\\ even\\ from\\ the\\ very\\ first\\ line\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\"\\;Where\\'s\\ Papa\\ going\\ with\\ that\\ ax\\?\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Death\\ is\\ omnipresent\\,\\ though\\ sometimes\\ unnoticed\\ by\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-Spiderwebs\\ are\\ death\\ traps\\,\\ though\\ Charlotte\\'s\\ web\\ saves\\ Wilbur\\.\\ Webs\\ also\\ produce\\ life\\ \\(egg\\ sacs\\)\\ \\(womb\\/tomb\\ theme\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nGoodnight\\ moon\\\\\r\\\n\\-Though\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ children\\'s\\ story\\,\\ theme\\ of\\ death\\ lies\\ just\\ beneath\\ the\\ surface\\\\\r\\\n\\-Goodnight\\ \\=\\ death\\\\\r\\\n\\-Intricate\\ details\\ hidden\\ from\\ a\\ child\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-No\\ parent\\ in\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ only\\ an\\ \\"\\;old\\ lady\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Time\\ ticks\\ on\\ relentlessly\\ \\(7\\:00\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ 8\\:10\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ room\\ grows\\ darker\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ moon\\ is\\ rising\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ 4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Contrast\\ Dr\\.\\ Seuss\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Cat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ briefly\\ with\\ Puritan\\ reading\\ primers\\ and\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ know\\ of\\ the\\ Dick\\ and\\ Jane\\ books\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ kinds\\ of\\ strategies\\ does\\ Seuss\\ use\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ curiosity\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ read\\ words\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Puritan\\ primers\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\-5\\ syllable\\ words\\\\\r\\\n\\-Biblical\\ quotations\\\\\r\\\n\\-Not\\ intended\\ to\\ delight\\ the\\ child\\,\\ but\\ intended\\ to\\ instruct\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nDick\\ and\\ Jane\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Depicts\\ ordinary\\,\\ \\"\\;middle\\-class\\,\\ middle\\-income\\,\\ middle\\-IQ\\"\\;\\ activities\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCat\\ in\\ the\\ Hat\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Used\\ only\\ 236\\ words\\ so\\ that\\ 5\\-year\\ olds\\ could\\ understand\\\\\r\\\n\\-Most\\ words\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ syllable\\\\\r\\\n\\-Embraces\\ mayhem\\ and\\ uses\\ humor\\ to\\ engage\\ the\\ reader\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\"\\;Something\\ went\\ BUMP\\!\\ \\;\\ How\\ that\\ bump\\ made\\ us\\ jump\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Questions 4, 6 - Alex"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.899143+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Questions #19 & 21", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 717, "html": "\\\\19\\.\\ \\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Peter\\ did\\ not\\ compete\\.\\ \\ For\\ one\\ thing\\ he\\ despised\\ all\\ mothers\\ except\\ Wendy\\,\\ and\\ for\\ another\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ boy\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ who\\ could\\ neither\\ write\\ nor\\ spell\\;\\ not\\ the\\ smallest\\ word\\.\\ \\ He\\ was\\ above\\ all\\ that\\ sort\\ of\\ thing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/em\\>\\\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\nHow\\ is\\ Peter\\ \\&ldquo\\;above\\ all\\ that\\ sort\\ of\\ thing\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ explain\\ why\\ his\\ lack\\ of\\ literacy\\ might\\ be\\ important\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Peter\\ \\=\\ icon\\ of\\ purity\\,\\ innocence\\,\\ vulnerability\\ \\(but\\ also\\ seductive\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Peter\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ that\\ can\\ fly\\ \\(suggests\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ freedom\\)\\,\\ never\\ dies\\ or\\ gets\\ older\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Competing\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ examination\\ questions\\ Wendy\\ set\\ out\\ \\(initially\\ just\\ for\\ Michael\\ and\\ John\\)\\ to\\ help\\ them\\ remember\\ their\\ parents\\.\\ John\\ \\&\\;\\ Michael\\ had\\ started\\ to\\ forget\\ about\\ them\\,\\ so\\ Wendy\\ makes\\ up\\ these\\ exams\\ with\\ questions\\ like\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Which\\ was\\ taller\\,\\ Father\\ or\\ Mother\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ help\\ jog\\ their\\ memory\\.\\ The\\ other\\ kids\\ insisted\\ on\\ joining\\ in\\,\\ too\\,\\ which\\ is\\ why\\ it\\ became\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ competition\\.\\ That\\ Peter\\ refuses\\ to\\ join\\ in\\ on\\ these\\ exams\\ shows\\ his\\ lack\\ of\\ dependence\\ on\\ or\\ desire\\ for\\ parents\\,\\ as\\ if\\ he\\ never\\ had\\ parents\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Also\\,\\ practically\\ god\\-like\\ \\(mix\\ of\\ Pan\\,\\ Hermes\\,\\ Dionysus\\,\\ Adonis\\,\\ Narcissus\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Icarus\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Test\\-taking\\ also\\ another\\ systematic\\ thing\\&mdash\\;Peter\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ any\\ human\\ world\\ system\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;He\\ could\\ eat\\,\\ really\\ eat\\,\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ game\\,\\ but\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ stodge\\ just\\ to\\ be\\ stodgy\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ most\\ children\\ like\\ better\\ than\\ anything\\ else\\;\\ the\\ next\\ best\\ thing\\ being\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(86\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;Make\\-believe\\ was\\ so\\ real\\ to\\ him\\ that\\ during\\ a\\ meal\\ you\\ could\\ see\\ him\\ getting\\ rounder\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(86\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Reading\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ substantiating\\ things\\ or\\ to\\ make\\ something\\ real\\,\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ comprehending\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ and\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ adhering\\ to\\ a\\ system\\ imposed\\ by\\ someone\\ else\\.\\ Peter\\ can\\ do\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ does\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ above\\ the\\ law\\&mdash\\;he\\ lives\\ by\\ his\\ own\\ law\\.\\ If\\ he\\ could\\ read\\ and\\ write\\ and\\ understand\\ a\\ human\\ alphabet\\,\\ then\\ he\\ would\\ implicitly\\ be\\ obeying\\ human\\ laws\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Reading\\,\\ writing\\,\\ spelling\\=\\ all\\ skills\\ that\\ require\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ by\\ someone\\ \\?\\ since\\ Peter\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ things\\,\\ suggests\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ never\\ been\\ taught\\/had\\ to\\ be\\ teached\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-Literacy\\ suggests\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ order\\&mdash\\;would\\ go\\ against\\ Peter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ nonsensical\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\21\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ Discuss\\ myth\\-making\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ read\\ this\\ term\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Claude\\ Levi\\ Strauss\\ \\=\\ bricoleur\\ \\(person\\ who\\ uses\\ bricolage\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;tinkering\\&rdquo\\;\\/cultural\\ myth\\-making\\/\\ rearranging\\ in\\ new\\ combinations\\ \\&\\;\\ cultural\\ contexts\\;\\ characteristic\\ of\\ mythical\\ thought\\ which\\ expresses\\ itself\\ through\\ heterogeneous\\ but\\ limited\\ repertoire\\ of\\ oddments\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ fundamental\\ aspect\\ of\\ human\\ intellectual\\ activity\\,\\ and\\ all\\ societies\\ use\\ it\\ to\\ create\\ their\\ myths\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-example\\:\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ collection\\ of\\ cultural\\ figures\\\\\r\\\n\\-Christian\\ association\\:\\ Simon\\ Peter\\,\\ who\\ stands\\ for\\ both\\ betrayal\\ and\\ faith\\\\\r\\\n\\-Pagan\\ associations\\:\\ Pan\\,\\ who\\ indulges\\ in\\ pastoral\\ delights\\ and\\ is\\ half\\-man\\/half\\-goat\\;\\ Hermes\\,\\ the\\ trickster\\ w\\/\\ the\\ mercurial\\ temperament\\;\\ Dionysus\\,\\ who\\ represents\\ ecstasy\\,\\ inspiration\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ intoxication\\;\\ Adonis\\,\\ who\\ represents\\ beauty\\ \\(Peter\\ arouses\\ erotic\\ fascination\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ girls\\)\\,\\ Narcissus\\,\\ who\\ represents\\ self\\-love\\ and\\ egocentricity\\;\\ and\\ Icarus\\,\\ who\\ flies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Wikipedia\\ on\\ Levi\\-Strauss\\ \\&\\;\\ bricolage\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ structuralist\\ approach\\ to\\ myth\\\\\r\\\nL\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\ sees\\ a\\ basic\\ paradox\\ in\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ myth\\.\\ On\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ mythical\\ stories\\ are\\ fantastic\\ and\\ unpredictable\\:\\ thus\\,\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ myth\\ seems\\ completely\\ arbitrary\\.\\ On\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ myths\\ from\\ different\\ cultures\\ are\\ surprisingly\\ similar\\:\\\\\r\\\nOn\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ it\\ would\\ seem\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ myth\\ anything\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ happen\\.\\ \\[\\&hellip\\;\\]\\ But\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ this\\ apparent\\ arbitrariness\\ is\\ belied\\ by\\ the\\ astounding\\ similarity\\ between\\ myths\\ collected\\ in\\ widely\\ different\\ regions\\.\\ Therefore\\ the\\ problem\\:\\ If\\ the\\ content\\ of\\ myth\\ is\\ contingent\\ \\[i\\.e\\.\\,\\ arbitrary\\]\\,\\ how\\ are\\ we\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ myths\\ throughout\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ so\\ similar\\?\\[7\\]\\\\\r\\\nL\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\ proposed\\ that\\ universal\\ laws\\ must\\ govern\\ mythical\\ thought\\ and\\ resolve\\ this\\ seeming\\ paradox\\,\\ producing\\ similar\\ myths\\ in\\ different\\ cultures\\.\\ Each\\ myth\\ may\\ seem\\ unique\\,\\ but\\ he\\ proposed\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ just\\ one\\ particular\\ instance\\ of\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\ of\\ human\\ thought\\.\\ In\\ studying\\ myth\\,\\ L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\ tries\\ \\"\\;to\\ reduce\\ apparently\\ arbitrary\\ data\\ to\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ order\\,\\ and\\ to\\ attain\\ a\\ level\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ necessity\\ becomes\\ apparent\\,\\ underlying\\ the\\ illusions\\ of\\ liberty\\"\\;\\.\\[8\\]\\\\\r\\\nAccording\\ to\\ L\\é\\;vi\\-Strauss\\,\\ \\"\\;mythical\\ thought\\ always\\ progresses\\ from\\ the\\ awareness\\ of\\ oppositions\\ toward\\ their\\ resolution\\"\\;\\.\\[9\\]\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ myths\\ consist\\ of\\ \\(1\\)\\ elements\\ that\\ oppose\\ or\\ contradict\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ other\\ elements\\ that\\ \\"\\;mediate\\"\\;\\,\\ or\\ resolve\\,\\ those\\ oppositions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(I\\'LL\\ ADD\\ MORE\\ SPECIFICS\\ SOON\\)\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Questions #19 & 21"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.910257+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Question 11 - Julia", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 718, "html": "\\11\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ poster\\ printed\\ below\\ \\(Figure\\ 2\\)\\ for\\ a\\ film\\ called\\ Innocence\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nHow\\ would\\ you\\ \\&ldquo\\;read\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ lettering\\,\\ the\\ setting\\,\\ and\\ the\\ depiction\\ of\\ children\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMany\\ praise\\ the\\ innate\\ innocence\\ of\\ children\\ as\\ youth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ prized\\ possession\\.\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ noun\\ can\\ be\\ defined\\ as\\ a\\ carefree\\ attitude\\,\\ represented\\ in\\ the\\ poster\\ by\\\\\r\\\nthe\\ children\\ playing\\ whimsically\\ with\\ ribbons\\ and\\ a\\ swing\\.\\ The\\ children\\ are\\ not\\\\\r\\\nall\\ engaging\\ with\\ one\\ another\\,\\ which\\ may\\ tie\\ in\\ their\\ innocence\\ to\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\\\\r\\\nself\\ and\\ independence\\ from\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ others\\.\\ The\\ setting\\ is\\ a\\ green\\ park\\\\\r\\\nor\\ a\\ clearing\\,\\ symbolizing\\ that\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ children\\ is\\ natural\\ since\\ they\\\\\r\\\nare\\ playing\\ in\\ nature\\.\\ The\\ rays\\ of\\ sunlight\\ streaming\\ down\\ onto\\ the\\ kids\\ have\\ a\\\\\r\\\nheavenly\\ aspect\\ to\\ them\\,\\ as\\ though\\ the\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actions\\ are\\ being\\ blessed\\ by\\ a\\\\\r\\\nhigher\\ power\\.\\ They\\ are\\ wearing\\ white\\,\\ often\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ purity\\,\\ which\\ is\\ often\\\\\r\\\nassociated\\ with\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ lettering\\ of\\ the\\ title\\ itself\\ is\\\\\r\\\ndetailed\\ and\\ decorated\\,\\ further\\ showing\\ off\\ the\\ attractive\\ power\\ of\\ this\\\\\r\\\nconcept\\.\\ Innocence\\ is\\ an\\ elusive\\ quality\\,\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ often\\ lost\\ too\\ early\\ in\\\\\r\\\nlife\\.\\ The\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ captured\\ forever\\ in\\ a\\ film\\ and\\ its\\ poster\\ reflects\\\\\r\\\nthe\\ attitude\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;innocence\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ adults\\ look\\ back\\ on\\ with\\ fond\\\\\r\\\nmemories\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Question 11 - Julia"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.919743+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Midterm Questions 10 and 20--Brett", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 719, "html": "\\10\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Georges\\ de\\ la\\ Tour\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Education\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ was\\ painted\\ around\\ 1650\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(Figure\\ 1\\)\\ \\;\\ What\\ concepts\\ developed\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ might\\ help\\ you\\ analyze\\ this\\ work\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ general\\,\\ a\\ child\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ sense\\ of\\ wonder\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Joy\\ untouched\\ by\\ sadness\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Energy\\ and\\ exuberance\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Lack\\ of\\ self\\-consciousness\\,\\ fearlessness\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Irreverence\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Trust\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Innocence\\,\\ ignorance\\ of\\ the\\ bad\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ world\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Freedom\\ from\\ responsibility\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Play\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Imagingation\\,\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\-believe\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Beauty\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Education\\ of\\ the\\ Virgin\\&rdquo\\;\\ implies\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ childhood\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ painting\\,\\ the\\ child\\ is\\ being\\ shown\\ a\\ book\\ by\\ an\\ adult\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ child\\ is\\ doused\\ in\\ light\\ \\(she\\ appears\\ slightly\\ angelic\\)\\ representing\\ her\\ innocence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ adult\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ covered\\ in\\ shadow\\,\\ showing\\ both\\ her\\ knowledge\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ bad\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ her\\ tainted\\ view\\ on\\ life\\ itself\\ \\(loss\\ of\\ innocence\\/naivety\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Somber\\ expressions\\ give\\ the\\ impression\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ reading\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ their\\ time\\&mdash\\;the\\ first\\ children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ literature\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\ \\(around\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ this\\ painting\\)\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ all\\ aimed\\ to\\ teach\\ the\\ reader\\ how\\ to\\ live\\ piously\\ and\\ to\\ die\\ piously\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ were\\ written\\ about\\ different\\ deaths\\ of\\ children\\ to\\ teach\\ them\\ piety\\,\\ submissiveness\\,\\ and\\ obedience\\ \\(think\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ of\\ James\\ Janeway\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Token\\ for\\ Children\\,\\ which\\ illustrates\\ the\\ happy\\ deaths\\ of\\ several\\ children\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ With\\ this\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ probable\\ contents\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ the\\ child\\ and\\ adult\\ are\\ reading\\ together\\,\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ why\\ they\\ both\\ appear\\ solemn\\ and\\ not\\ happy\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n20\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Only\\ when\\ Hook\\ was\\ hidden\\ from\\ them\\ did\\ curiosity\\ loosen\\ the\\ limbs\\ of\\ the\\ boys\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ could\\ rush\\ to\\ the\\ ship\\&rsquo\\;s\\ side\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ crocodile\\ climbing\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ they\\ got\\ the\\ strangest\\ surprise\\ of\\ this\\ Night\\ of\\ Nights\\;\\ for\\ it\\ was\\ no\\ crocodile\\ that\\ was\\ coming\\ to\\ their\\ aid\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ was\\ Peter\\.\\\\\r\\\nHe\\ signed\\ to\\ them\\ not\\ to\\ give\\ vent\\ to\\ any\\ cry\\ of\\ admiration\\ that\\ might\\ rouse\\ suspicion\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ he\\ went\\ on\\ ticking\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nExplain\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ this\\ passage\\ for\\ understanding\\ and\\ consolidating\\ Peter\\ Pan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Peter\\ Pan\\&rsquo\\;s\\ identity\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Innocence\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Lack\\ of\\ memory\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ o\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Tragedy\\&mdash\\;he\\ is\\ gay\\ and\\ innocent\\ and\\ heartless\\ \\(he\\ can\\ never\\ love\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ so\\ young\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ fact\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ playing\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ crocodile\\ is\\ interesting\\.\\ \\;\\ After\\ all\\,\\ the\\ crocodile\\ represents\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ mortality\\ for\\ Hook\\ \\(the\\ ticking\\ of\\ the\\ clock\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ time\\ till\\ death\\ notification\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ also\\ represents\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ mortality\\ because\\ he\\ causes\\ everyone\\ to\\ realize\\ they\\ must\\ at\\ some\\ point\\ grow\\ up\\ \\(he\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ boy\\ who\\ never\\ grows\\ up\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\,\\ it\\ is\\ highly\\ arguable\\ to\\ claim\\ that\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ affect\\ on\\ Hook\\ that\\ the\\ crocodile\\ has\\ because\\ they\\ both\\ represent\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ for\\ him\\ \\(albeit\\ Peter\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ universal\\ representation\\ of\\ the\\ crisis\\ of\\ mortality\\ and\\ the\\ crocodile\\ is\\ singular\\ to\\ Hook\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ last\\ sentence\\ \\&ldquo\\;Then\\ he\\ went\\ on\\ ticking\\&rdquo\\;\\ also\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ this\\ issue\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ ticking\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ crocodile\\ that\\ makes\\ it\\ obvious\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ clock\\ counting\\ down\\ to\\ Hook\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\,\\ with\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ \\&ldquo\\;ticking\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ is\\ thus\\ acting\\ as\\ a\\ clock\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ and\\ therefore\\ elucidating\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ his\\ own\\ identity\\ \\(young\\,\\ innocent\\,\\ heartless\\)\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ grown\\ up\\ or\\ must\\ grow\\ up\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Another\\ way\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ passage\\ is\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ actual\\ actions\\ presented\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ passage\\,\\ Peter\\ Pan\\ is\\ saving\\ the\\ other\\ children\\ from\\ the\\ Pirates\\ and\\ death\\ \\(aka\\ the\\ realities\\ of\\ a\\ grown\\ up\\ life\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Peter\\,\\ in\\ a\\ general\\ sense\\,\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ savior\\ of\\ children\\ because\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;rescues\\&rdquo\\;\\ them\\ from\\ growing\\ up\\ by\\ taking\\ them\\ to\\ Neverland\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ this\\ scene\\,\\ by\\ rescuing\\ the\\ lost\\ boys\\ and\\ the\\ Darlings\\,\\ Peter\\ is\\ preventing\\ them\\ from\\ experiencing\\ that\\ understanding\\ which\\ most\\ defines\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ adulthood\\ and\\ childhood\\,\\ death\\,\\ and\\ is\\ therefore\\ acting\\ again\\ as\\ the\\ savior\\ of\\ children\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Midterm Questions 10 and 20--Brett"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.931005+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "A Tale of Two Cities I", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 720, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Novel\\ about\\ violence\\-Dicken\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ sustained\\ meditation\\ on\\ political\\ violence\\ \\(however\\ is\\ also\\ his\\ most\\ conservative\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Novel\\ has\\ a\\ bad\\ reputation\\ among\\ Victorianists\\;\\ they\\ tend\\ not\\ to\\ like\\ it\\ \\(also\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ adaption\\ of\\ a\\ Thomas\\ Carlyle\\ book\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Simplistic\\ historical\\ background\\ and\\ explanations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-it\\ is\\ a\\ novel\\ about\\ historical\\ consciousness\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ trigger\\ a\\ consciousness\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ the\\ past\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Historical\\ consciousness\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-a\\ literal\\ sensation\\;\\ feeling\\ on\\,\\ in\\,\\ across\\ the\\ body\\;\\ it\\ is\\ triggered\\ in\\ the\\ body\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ makes\\ novel\\ great\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-bodily\\ conditions\\ determine\\ our\\ consciousness\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ reverse\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-bodily\\ conditions\\ shape\\ and\\ precede\\ consciousness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-if\\ counsciouness\\ is\\ bodily\\ then\\ historical\\ consciouness\\ must\\ be\\ bodily\\ as\\ well\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dickens\\ 3\\ questions\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\)\\ is\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ history\\ something\\ we\\ literally\\ feel\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\)\\ is\\ our\\ sense\\ of\\ history\\ an\\ actual\\ sense\\ \\(in\\ the\\ physiological\\ meaning\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\)\\ then\\ where\\ on\\ the\\ body\\ is\\ historical\\ consciouness\\ emerge\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-it\\ is\\ located\\ between\\ two\\ bodily\\ sensations\\:\\ horror\\ and\\ terror\\ \\(the\\ tension\\ between\\ them\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-to\\ be\\ historically\\ conscious\\ is\\ to\\ remember\\ pain\\ when\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ you\\ is\\ encouraging\\ you\\ to\\ forget\\ that\\ pain\\ \\(present\\ is\\ anesthetic\\ to\\ past\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-could\\ call\\ the\\ novel\\ A\\ Tale\\ of\\ Two\\ Pains\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Horror\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-to\\ dread\\,\\ to\\ shudder\\,\\ to\\ get\\ gooseflesh\\,\\ to\\ tremble\\,\\ to\\ shiver\\,\\ to\\ feel\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hair\\ stand\\ on\\ end\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-etymologically\\ horror\\ is\\ an\\ epidermal\\ sensation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-his\\ definition\\:\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ overwhelming\\,\\ visceral\\ consciousness\\ of\\ the\\ Otherness\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flesh\\;\\ the\\ shattering\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epidermal\\ amnesia\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-horror\\ is\\ used\\ by\\ those\\ in\\ power\\ against\\ the\\ powerless\\ to\\ keep\\ them\\ powerless\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-not\\ just\\ meant\\ to\\ horrify\\ victim\\,\\ but\\ to\\ horrify\\ the\\ population\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-spectacularize\\ the\\ shattering\\ of\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ to\\ show\\ the\\ public\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-horrorism\\:\\ the\\ weaponization\\ of\\ horror\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-an\\ attempt\\ to\\ turn\\ horror\\ into\\ a\\ tool\\ and\\ photography\\ of\\ political\\ domination\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chapter\\ 1\\ \\&ldquo\\;France\\,\\ less\\ favored\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-horrifying\\ image\\ that\\ he\\ describes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 63\\,\\ courtroom\\ scene\\,\\ hair\\ always\\ standing\\ on\\ end\\ \\(due\\ to\\ horror\\)\\,\\ ruling\\ people\\ always\\ have\\ wigs\\=no\\ horror\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\ some\\ delay\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Terror\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-means\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ powerless\\ retaliate\\ against\\ the\\ horrorists\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-def\\:\\ terror\\,\\ alarm\\,\\ dread\\,\\ fright\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-etymology\\ that\\ Dickens\\ gets\\ is\\ terra\\:\\ the\\ earth\\;\\ land\\;\\ ground\\,\\ soil\\;\\ country\\,\\ region\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-territory\\-\\ sensation\\ of\\ saying\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ land\\ does\\ not\\ belong\\ to\\ you\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ has\\ uncanny\\ connection\\ to\\ earth\\ and\\ fear\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Dickensian\\ \\&lsquo\\;terror\\&rsquo\\;\\:\\ a\\ sudden\\,\\ overwhelming\\,\\ visceral\\ consciousness\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Otherness\\;\\ the\\ shattering\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ terrestrial\\ amnesia\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-terrorism\\:\\ the\\ weaponization\\ of\\ terror\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-shatters\\ the\\ rulers\\ grip\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ land\\,\\ the\\ ground\\ shifts\\ beneath\\ the\\ feet\\ of\\ the\\ powerful\\ so\\ that\\ they\\ get\\ wiped\\ off\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ political\\ vertigo\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Dickens\\ uses\\ natural\\ disaster\\ metaphor\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Horror\\ vs\\.\\ terror\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Dickensian\\ logic\\ of\\ history\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 6\\ \\&ldquo\\;it\\ is\\ likely\\ enough\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-reaction\\ to\\ the\\ man\\ being\\ tortured\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dicken\\&rsquo\\;s\\ problem\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ senses\\ will\\ be\\ overwhelmed\\ by\\ history\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-so\\ Dickens\\ comes\\ up\\ with\\ solution\\ on\\ how\\ to\\ enable\\ them\\ to\\ endure\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ history\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ overwhelm\\ their\\ body\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "A Tale of Two Cities I"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.954131+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Section Notes for Midterm Review ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 721, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Section\\ 3\\.12\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Midterm\\ Review\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Give\\ a\\ sense\\ that\\ we\\ know\\ who\\ is\\ arguing\\ what\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Question\\ 1\\ Reconciling\\ Fiorina\\ and\\ Abromowitz\\ and\\ Saunders\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fiorina\\ sees\\ it\\ as\\ more\\ moderate\\ and\\ not\\ so\\ polarized\\.\\ They\\ use\\ more\\ data\\ from\\ the\\ pew\\ data\\.\\ Fiorina\\ thinks\\ elites\\ are\\ smaller\\.\\ They\\ are\\ elected\\ officials\\ and\\ activists\\.\\ Red\\ and\\ blue\\ states\\ by\\ who\\ won\\ the\\ states\\ including\\ battleground\\ states\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Abromowitz\\ and\\ Saunders\\ use\\ exit\\ polling\\ data\\.\\ Exit\\ polls\\ are\\ only\\ getting\\ people\\ who\\ voted\\ and\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ more\\ unreliable\\ so\\ this\\ is\\ why\\ they\\ are\\ getting\\ different\\ data\\.\\ Active\\ if\\ you\\ participated\\ in\\ two\\ or\\ three\\ campaigns\\.\\ Red\\ and\\ blue\\ states\\ are\\ defined\\ by\\ margin\\ of\\ victory\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Question\\ 2\\ Which\\ argument\\ do\\ you\\ buy\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Fiorina\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ claims\\ that\\ are\\ blue\\ states\\ are\\ the\\ same\\.\\ States\\ with\\ certain\\ margins\\ or\\ victory\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ polarized\\ from\\ one\\ another\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Minimalist\\ School\\-\\ they\\ know\\ what\\ they\\ know\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Collective\\ Rationality\\-\\ American\\ public\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ are\\ rational\\.\\ Public\\ is\\ pretty\\ steady\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ easily\\ indentify\\ why\\ because\\ of\\ causal\\ situations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Moral\\ v\\.\\ Economic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Issues\\-values\\ separation\\.\\ In\\ 08\\ it\\ seems\\ more\\ economically\\ driven\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Average\\ person\\ has\\ a\\ response\\ instability\\.\\ Part\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ question\\.\\ Zeller\\ says\\ it\\ is\\ contingent\\-\\ things\\ that\\ triggered\\&hellip\\;people\\ are\\ naturally\\ ambivalent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\People\\ have\\ low\\ levels\\ of\\ information\\ in\\ foreign\\ policy\\.\\ You\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ have\\ encyclopedia\\ knowledge\\.\\ We\\ are\\ also\\ bad\\ at\\ measuring\\ knowledge\\-\\ we\\ get\\ it\\ wrong\\.\\ People\\ know\\ the\\ most\\ about\\ what\\ is\\ salient\\-\\ political\\ leaders\\.\\ You\\ will\\ know\\ your\\ local\\ people\\ but\\ not\\ Nancy\\ Pelosi\\.\\ People\\ know\\ things\\ where\\ popular\\ culture\\ is\\ involved\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\People\\ like\\ Congress\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\ but\\ they\\ like\\ their\\ own\\.\\ Hardball\\ is\\ ruining\\ America\\.\\ People\\ love\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\.\\ People\\ should\\ get\\ more\\ involved\\ but\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ actually\\ get\\ more\\ involved\\-\\ collective\\ action\\ problem\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ system\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Where\\ do\\ we\\ see\\ tolerance\\ in\\ action\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-people\\ do\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ fire\\ gay\\ teachers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-communists\\ can\\ publicly\\ speak\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sometimes\\ the\\ practice\\ and\\ the\\ theory\\ do\\ not\\ match\\ up\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Self\\-\\ interest\\ drives\\ opinion\\ but\\ not\\ behavior\\.\\ Only\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ directly\\ affected\\ are\\ active\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sociotropic\\ how\\ it\\ benefits\\ the\\ nation\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ It\\ might\\ not\\ be\\ good\\ for\\ me\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\.\\ Cambridge\\ and\\ Manhattan\\ people\\ are\\ wealthy\\ but\\ vote\\ for\\ Democrats\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Core\\ Values\\:\\ religious\\,\\ morals\\,\\ egalitarianism\\,\\ individualism\\,\\ liberty\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gender\\:\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ is\\ because\\ men\\ get\\ more\\ republican\\ not\\ women\\ getting\\ more\\ democratic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;linked\\ fate\\&rdquo\\;\\ how\\ the\\ policy\\ will\\ affect\\ all\\ black\\ people\\ and\\ they\\ vote\\ according\\ to\\ that\\-\\ regardless\\ of\\ their\\ self\\-interest\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Are\\ there\\ gaps\\ in\\ group\\ opinion\\ trends\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Black\\ white\\ division\\ is\\ the\\ biggest\\ one\\.\\ What\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ parallel\\ groups\\?\\ They\\ move\\ together\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ another\\ argument\\ for\\ rationality\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Section Notes for Midterm Review "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.967159+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Last lecture before the Midterm: Gender and Public Opinion", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 722, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 3\\.16\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Nonracial\\ Conservatism\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>modern\\ racism\\ thesis\\ overlooks\\ the\\ politics\\ behind\\ policies\\.\\ New\\ civil\\ rights\\ agenda\\ emphasizes\\ equal\\ outcomes\\,\\ and\\ requires\\ activist\\ government\\.\\ White\\ opposition\\ to\\ \\(liberal\\)\\ racial\\ policies\\ derives\\ from\\ their\\ incompatibility\\ with\\ values\\ of\\ equality\\ and\\ individualism\\,\\ and\\ from\\ anti\\-statist\\ orientations\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Where\\ there\\ is\\ agreement\\ is\\ that\\ group\\ attitudes\\ play\\ some\\ role\\ in\\ explaining\\ white\\ americans\\ policy\\ agreement\\.\\ How\\ would\\ you\\ actually\\ go\\ about\\ identifying\\ when\\ attitudes\\ are\\ modern\\ racists\\ and\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ non\\ racist\\ and\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ group\\ based\\ thinking\\ revives\\ on\\ rational\\ decision\\ making\\ or\\ does\\ it\\ prevent\\ a\\ challenge\\ for\\ American\\ democracy\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Black\\ based\\ thinking\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Very\\ distinctive\\.\\ They\\ are\\ more\\ left\\-leaning\\ than\\ whites\\ and\\ are\\ politically\\ homogenous\\ as\\ a\\ group\\.\\ Democratic\\ voting\\ exceeds\\ democratic\\ party\\ association\\.\\ They\\ are\\ more\\ supportive\\ of\\ social\\ welfare\\ spending\\.\\ All\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ a\\ left\\ economical\\ group\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ tremendous\\ political\\ homogeneity\\ among\\ the\\ group\\-\\ it\\ persists\\ despite\\ growing\\ socio\\ economic\\ heterogeniety\\.\\ 84\\%\\ self\\ identify\\ as\\ Democrats\\.\\ Black\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ has\\ fostered\\ group\\ consciousness\\ and\\ they\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ racial\\ group\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Black\\ church\\ and\\ media\\ advance\\ this\\ strong\\ level\\ of\\ racial\\ group\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ whites\\ we\\ saw\\ social\\ class\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ predicting\\ social\\ welfare\\ opinions\\.\\ Upper\\ income\\ African\\ americans\\ are\\ as\\ supportive\\ as\\ low\\ class\\ blacks\\ for\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\ Higher\\ income\\ blacks\\ are\\ not\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ republican\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ social\\ class\\ it\\ is\\ racial\\ identification\\ that\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\.\\ Their\\ own\\ fate\\ to\\ fate\\ of\\ racial\\ group\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ blacks\\ with\\ a\\ strong\\ identification\\ will\\ favor\\ redrawing\\ re\\-district\\ lines\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ both\\ groups\\ race\\ based\\ perceptions\\ influence\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ The\\ crucial\\ difference\\ in\\ thinking\\ about\\ white\\ and\\ black\\-\\ for\\ whites\\ the\\ racial\\ attitudes\\ involve\\ out\\-group\\ animus\\ and\\ blacks\\ in\\-group\\ biased\\.\\ A\\ common\\ question\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ in\\ group\\ bias\\ also\\ conceals\\ hostility\\ toward\\ out\\ groups\\?\\ Like\\ against\\ whites\\ or\\ other\\ minorities\\?\\ Not\\ many\\ studies\\ of\\ this\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ and\\ have\\ found\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ blacks\\ holding\\ negative\\ opinions\\ about\\ whites\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Caveats\\:\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Difficult\\ to\\ identify\\.\\ Challenges\\ confront\\ analyst\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Social\\ desirability\\ \\<\\/b\\>strong\\ social\\ norms\\ about\\ racial\\ animus\\.\\ People\\ have\\ learned\\ it\\ is\\ socially\\ unacceptable\\ to\\ express\\ racist\\ opinions\\-\\ this\\ is\\ social\\ progress\\ but\\ it\\ makes\\ research\\ harder\\.\\ We\\ may\\ be\\ underestimating\\ racial\\ animus\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Not\\ easy\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ counts\\ as\\ a\\ racial\\ issue\\<\\/b\\>\\ certain\\ issues\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ explicitly\\ stated\\ as\\ race\\ are\\ race\\ to\\ some\\ people\\.\\ Law\\ and\\ order\\/\\ welfare\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ practical\\ consequences\\ is\\ political\\ candidates\\ can\\ make\\ appeals\\ to\\ activate\\ racial\\ attitudes\\ without\\ using\\ racist\\ language\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Policy\\ issues\\ are\\ complex\\ \\<\\/b\\>they\\ contain\\ multiple\\ stimuli\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Very\\ few\\ black\\ or\\ latino\\ respondents\\ included\\ in\\ national\\ surveys\\ \\<\\/b\\>we\\ know\\ more\\ about\\ whites\\ than\\ minority\\ groups\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Conclusions\\ are\\ always\\ a\\ bit\\ tentative\\ but\\ a\\ few\\ things\\ emerge\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Logic\\ underlying\\ political\\ attitudes\\ in\\ group\\ base\\.\\ Race\\ is\\ central\\ component\\ of\\ American\\ political\\ decision\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Deeply\\ influence\\ public\\ opinion\\ in\\ us\\ racial\\ resentment\\ and\\ such\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Yes\\ the\\ absences\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ ideological\\ dimension\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ a\\ total\\ lack\\ of\\ coherence\\.\\ Racial\\ attitudes\\ help\\ shape\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ROOTS\\ OF\\ PUBLIC\\ OPINION\\:\\ GENDER\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Degree\\ on\\ which\\ gender\\ matters\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ Is\\ there\\ a\\ gender\\ gap\\?\\ If\\ so\\ how\\ much\\ and\\ why\\?\\ Do\\ beliefs\\ about\\ gender\\ roles\\ shape\\ public\\ opinion\\?\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Definitions\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Gender\\ Gap\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>refers\\ to\\ differences\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ in\\ political\\ attitudes\\,\\ beliefs\\,\\ values\\,\\ policy\\ preferences\\,\\ issue\\ agendas\\,\\ political\\ party\\ and\\ voting\\\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Evidence\\ has\\ been\\ around\\ since\\ 1950s\\<\\/b\\>\\ women\\ were\\ voting\\ more\\ republican\\ than\\ men\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Johnson\\ Goldwater\\ election\\ during\\ the\\ 60s\\ and\\ 70s\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1976\\ the\\ gap\\ briefly\\ disappeared\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reagan\\ Carter\\ election\\ everyone\\ started\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ around\\ for\\ 50\\ years\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\High\\ water\\ mark\\ in\\ Clinton\\ re\\-election\\ and\\ since\\ the\\ Clinton\\ years\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ has\\ declined\\ to\\ 7\\ percentage\\ points\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ partisan\\ cleavage\\ is\\ a\\ significant\\ political\\ division\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Size\\ of\\ gender\\ gap\\ 14\\ and\\ 7\\ point\\ difference\\ does\\ not\\ rival\\ racial\\ differences\\ which\\ are\\ 30\\,40\\,\\ 50\\ points\\ but\\ the\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ election\\ influences\\.\\ Since\\ 1980\\ women\\ vote\\ at\\ a\\ higher\\ rate\\ than\\ men\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Also\\ evident\\ across\\ demographic\\ groups\\.\\ Married\\ and\\ unmarried\\,\\ college\\ educated\\ and\\ not\\.\\ It\\ is\\ everywhere\\.\\ Bush\\ attracted\\ 50\\ points\\ from\\ whites\\ over\\ 30\\ education\\,\\ suburbs\\.\\ Bush\\ attracted\\ women\\ white\\ 30\\-34\\ married\\ women\\ and\\ college\\ education\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Also\\ evident\\ after\\ election\\ has\\ passed\\.\\ Presidential\\ approval\\ oldest\\ time\\ series\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\ data\\.\\ Partisan\\ gender\\ gap\\ is\\ nearly\\ as\\ large\\ in\\ voting\\ for\\ house\\ and\\ senate\\.\\ House\\ and\\ senate\\ varies\\ more\\ substantially\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Women\\ have\\ been\\ more\\ democratic\\ then\\ men\\ by\\ 10\\ points\\ since\\ 1988\\.\\ In\\ 50s\\ women\\ were\\ more\\ republican\\ but\\ now\\ more\\ D\\.\\ this\\ D\\ tendency\\ is\\ esp\\.\\ pronounced\\ with\\ unmarried\\ and\\ uneducated\\ women\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Partisan\\ differences\\ between\\ genders\\ focuses\\ on\\ use\\ of\\ force\\ issues\\ in\\ fp\\ and\\ militart\\ women\\ are\\ less\\ supportive\\ of\\ defense\\ spending\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ more\\ reliant\\ than\\ men\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ welfare\\ state\\.\\ Men\\ are\\ consistently\\ more\\ conservative\\ than\\ women\\ about\\ size\\ and\\ extent\\ of\\ women\\.\\ Economic\\ issues\\ really\\ drive\\ vote\\ choice\\.\\ Most\\ accounts\\ of\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ on\\ sustaining\\ it\\.\\ As\\ greater\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ had\\ entered\\ the\\ workforce\\ women\\ were\\ becoming\\ more\\ attuned\\ to\\ their\\ political\\ agenda\\ but\\ that\\ explanation\\ has\\ not\\ faired\\ very\\ well\\ when\\ subjected\\ to\\ rigorous\\ testing\\.\\ As\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ feminist\\ values\\ are\\ equally\\ unimportant\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Women\\ today\\ retain\\ the\\ same\\ part\\ ID\\ and\\ voting\\ profile\\ of\\ women\\ 50\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ The\\ d\\ bias\\ was\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ white\\ men\\ to\\ the\\ republican\\ party\\.\\ Between\\ 1952\\ and\\ 2004\\ there\\ was\\ enormous\\ movement\\ from\\ men\\ from\\ R\\ to\\ D\\ party\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ that\\ decline\\ came\\ between\\ 1964\\ and\\ 1968\\ and\\ since\\ then\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ fluctuating\\ between\\ a\\ 5\\ point\\ interval\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Issue\\ opinion\\ differences\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ Gender\\ gap\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ relative\\ salience\\ of\\ different\\ attitudes\\.\\ Women\\ have\\ distaste\\ for\\ military\\ force\\-\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ data\\ comes\\ from\\ 2004\\.\\ Stricter\\ on\\ violence\\-\\ W\\.\\ W\\ respond\\ differently\\ to\\ domestic\\ issues\\.\\ Men\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ than\\ women\\ on\\ most\\ social\\ welfare\\ things\\ you\\ see\\ it\\ on\\ social\\ security\\ and\\ welfare\\ spending\\.\\ The\\ gender\\ gap\\ on\\ these\\ policy\\ items\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ modest\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\On\\ civil\\ rights\\ issues\\ you\\ also\\ see\\ some\\ gender\\ issues\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Gay\\ rights\\ women\\ are\\ more\\ liberal\\ by\\ 10\\ points\\.\\ Gender\\ differences\\ are\\ evident\\ and\\ more\\ pronounced\\ with\\ affirmative\\ action\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Women\\ and\\ men\\ are\\ quite\\ like\\ minded\\ in\\ gender\\ issues\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Abortion\\<\\/b\\>\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ difference\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ Immediate\\ implications\\ is\\ that\\ abortion\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ separates\\ D\\ from\\ R\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Variety\\ of\\ Explanations\\ for\\ gender\\ gap\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Women\\ and\\ men\\ are\\ socialized\\ with\\ norms\\ which\\ make\\ their\\ core\\ values\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>Men\\ competitive\\,\\ aggressive\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Impact\\ of\\ differences\\ in\\ roles\\ in\\ social\\ situations\\ \\<\\/b\\>women\\ responsible\\ for\\ children\\ and\\ dependents\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ to\\ day\\.\\ Caregivers\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ concentrated\\ in\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ jobs\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ turn\\ might\\ shape\\ their\\ political\\ attitudes\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Differential\\ treatment\\ and\\ discrimination\\<\\/b\\>\\ these\\ experiences\\ may\\ influence\\ their\\ political\\ views\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\What\\ is\\ driving\\ the\\ year\\ to\\ year\\ fluctuation\\ since\\ 1988\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\ these\\ differences\\ can\\ be\\ relatively\\ modest\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\ in\\ the\\ aggregate\\ these\\ difference\\ have\\ been\\ quite\\ stable\\ overtime\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Men\\ and\\ women\\ might\\ differ\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ year\\ on\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ issues\\-\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ issue\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ the\\ election\\.\\ Women\\ more\\ than\\ men\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ cultural\\ issues\\ and\\ this\\ has\\ been\\ driving\\ the\\ movement\\ in\\ women\\ partisanship\\.\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\What\\ do\\ women\\ care\\ about\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Women\\ place\\ greater\\ weight\\ on\\ social\\ equality\\ since\\ 1988\\ and\\ less\\ on\\ defense\\ spending\\ which\\ have\\ become\\ more\\ important\\ for\\ men\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Race\\ has\\ become\\ more\\ important\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ the\\ fluctuation\\ is\\ rooted\\ in\\ divergent\\ opinions\\ in\\ the\\ social\\ welfare\\ state\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Summary\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gender\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ influence\\ shaping\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ There\\ is\\ tremendous\\ overlap\\.\\ Gender\\ is\\ also\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ logic\\ underlying\\ opinion\\.\\ Who\\ votes\\ and\\ why\\.\\ To\\ what\\ extent\\ do\\ ordinary\\ Americans\\ meet\\ the\\ ideals\\ of\\ democratic\\ citizen\\.\\ How\\ committed\\ are\\ Americans\\ to\\ core\\ values\\?\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Last lecture before the Midterm: Gender and Public Opinion"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.987059+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Questions 2, 24", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 723, "html": "\\\\2\\.\\ Analyze\\ the\\ passage\\ below\\ from\\ Andersen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ The\\ Red\\ Shoes\\ and\\ connect\\ one\\ aspect\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ one\\ other\\ work\\ read\\ this\\ term\\ \\(primary\\ or\\ secondary\\ literature\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\&ldquo\\;You\\ shall\\ dance\\,\\ dance\\ in\\ your\\ red\\ shoes\\ until\\ you\\ become\\ red\\ and\\ thin\\.\\ \\;\\ Dance\\ till\\ the\\ skin\\ on\\ your\\ face\\ turns\\ yellow\\ and\\ clings\\ to\\ your\\ bones\\ as\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ a\\ skeleton\\.\\ \\;\\ Dance\\ you\\ shall\\ from\\ door\\ to\\ door\\,\\ and\\ when\\ you\\ pass\\ a\\ house\\ where\\ proud\\ and\\ vain\\ people\\ live\\,\\ there\\ you\\ shall\\ knock\\ on\\ the\\ door\\ so\\ they\\ will\\ see\\ you\\ and\\ fear\\ your\\ fate\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\This\\ passage\\ slightly\\ contradicts\\ Michael\\ Foucault\\'s\\ discussion\\ of\\ punishment\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\ Discipline\\ and\\ Punish\\,\\ for\\ Karen\\'s\\ punishment\\ is\\ both\\ corporeal\\ and\\ for\\ public\\ display\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ damning\\ for\\ her\\ soul\\.\\ Foucault\\ argues\\ in\\ his\\ essay\\ that\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ punishment\\ was\\ intended\\ to\\ equal\\ the\\ crime\\ and\\ be\\ put\\ on\\ public\\ display\\,\\ but\\ gradually\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ crime\\ have\\ moved\\ to\\ a\\ hidden\\ and\\ mentally\\ difficult\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\In\\ this\\ case\\ Karen\\'s\\ dancing\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ crossover\\ between\\ Foucault\\'s\\ bodily\\ punishment\\ and\\ punishment\\ of\\ the\\ conscious\\,\\ for\\ dancing\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ painful\\ action\\,\\ yet\\ an\\ eternity\\ of\\ dancing\\ is\\ a\\ devastating\\ fate\\ for\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\;\\ Thus\\,\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ Karen\\'s\\ punishment\\ does\\ fall\\ into\\ Foucault\\'s\\ description\\ of\\ punishment\\ having\\ \\"\\;a\\ slackening\\ hold\\ on\\ the\\ body\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Yet\\,\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ Foucault\\'s\\ argument\\ derives\\ from\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ display\\ of\\ torture\\,\\ which\\ is\\ certainly\\ not\\ the\\ case\\ for\\ Karen\\ who\\ must\\ reveal\\ herself\\ to\\ \\"\\;proud\\ and\\ vain\\ people\\.\\.\\.so\\ they\\ will\\ see\\ \\[her\\]\\ and\\ fear\\ \\[her\\]\\ fate\\"\\;\\.\\ \\;\\ Thus\\,\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\ Karen\\'s\\ punishment\\ remains\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ display\\ of\\ punishment\\.\\ Andersen\\'s\\ description\\ involves\\ both\\ forms\\ of\\ Foucault\\'s\\ idea\\ of\\ punishment\\:\\ both\\ that\\ of\\ public\\ display\\,\\ and\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ soul\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\the\\ repetitive\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ dance\\ implies\\ the\\ inescapable\\ eternity\\ of\\ Karen\\'s\\ punishment\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\24\\.\\ Michel\\ de\\ Certeau\\ proposes\\ one\\ model\\ of\\ reading\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ bricolage\\.\\ \\;\\ Demonstrate\\ how\\ the\\ child\\ reader\\ might\\ operate\\ as\\ bricoleur\\ \\;\\ with\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ texts\\ read\\ this\\ term\\.\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\the\\ term\\ bricoleur\\,\\ defined\\ by\\ Levi\\-Strauss\\,\\ is\\ an\\ author\\ who\\ uses\\ multiple\\ different\\ pieces\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ materials\\ from\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ sources\\ to\\ produce\\ a\\ new\\ and\\ revised\\ version\\ of\\ this\\ information\\ and\\ materials\\.\\ Bricolage\\ literally\\ translates\\ to\\ \\"\\;tinkering\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\the\\ child\\ reader\\ as\\ bricoleur\\ relates\\ to\\ the\\ child\\'s\\ use\\ and\\ aquisition\\ of\\ language\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ reading\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\For\\ a\\ child\\ to\\ act\\ as\\ bricoleur\\ after\\ reading\\ a\\ text\\,\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ different\\ words\\ and\\ materials\\ from\\ the\\ text\\ and\\ use\\ them\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ way\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ language\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\For\\ Alice\\ in\\ Wonderland\\,\\ there\\ is\\ great\\ opportunity\\ for\\ a\\ child\\ to\\ operate\\ as\\ bricoleur\\ due\\ to\\ Carroll\\'s\\ use\\ of\\ words\\.\\ \\;\\ Often\\ Carroll\\ uses\\ homonyms\\ in\\ the\\ conversations\\ between\\ characters\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;axes\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;axis\\"\\;\\,\\ and\\ as\\ such\\ opens\\ the\\ child\\'s\\ mind\\ to\\ the\\ multiple\\ meanings\\ that\\ are\\ possible\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ words\\/things\\.\\ \\;\\ Thusthe\\ child\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ use\\ of\\ language\\ can\\ take\\ similar\\ words\\ that\\ he\\ hears\\ and\\ apply\\ new\\ meanings\\;\\ become\\ a\\ bricoleur\\.\\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\In\\ Charlotte\\'s\\ Web\\,\\ Charlotte\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ bricolage\\ because\\ the\\ words\\ she\\ puts\\ in\\ her\\ web\\ to\\ describe\\ Wilbur\\ are\\ taken\\ from\\ other\\ things\\ that\\ Charlotte\\ sees\\/hears\\ around\\ the\\ farm\\.\\ \\;\\ Hence\\,\\ Charlotte\\'s\\ character\\ reveals\\ to\\ the\\ child\\ how\\ they\\ can\\ take\\ seemingly\\ insignificant\\ things\\ from\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\ and\\ turn\\ them\\ into\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ significance\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>", "course_id": 107, "file_path": "", "desc": "Questions 2, 24"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.997148+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "CAA", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 724, "html": "\\pp\\.\\ 470\\-480\\,\\ 482\\-495\\ in\\ the\\ casebook\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CAA\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Basic\\ Principles\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Controlling\\ 6\\ criteria\\ pollutants\\ \\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Feds\\ established\\ NAAQS\\ \\(national\\ ambient\\ air\\ quality\\ standards\\)\\ for\\ criteria\\ pollutants\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ States\\ decide\\ how\\ the\\ EXISTING\\ SOURCES\\ within\\ their\\ jurisdiction\\ that\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ ambient\\ concentration\\ should\\ be\\ controlled\\ to\\ meet\\ the\\ standards\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ State\\ Implementation\\ Plan\\ \\(SIP\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ state\\ regulations\\ to\\ meet\\ NAAQSs\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Must\\ avoid\\ interfering\\ with\\ other\\ state\\ to\\ achieve\\ compliance\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ If\\ no\\ SIP\\,\\ EPA\\ must\\ prepare\\ a\\ federal\\ implementation\\ plan\\ \\(FIP\\)\\ to\\ ensure\\ standards\\ are\\ met\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Non\\-attainment\\ areas\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Parts\\ of\\ country\\ that\\ continue\\ to\\ exceed\\ the\\ NAAQS\\\\\r\\\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Prevention\\ of\\ significant\\ deterioration\\ \\(PSD\\)\\ program\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Areas\\ that\\ exceed\\ the\\ NAAQS\\\\\r\\\nf\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ New\\ source\\ performance\\ standards\\ \\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Stationary\\ sources\\ of\\ air\\ pollution\\ are\\ set\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Permitting\\ program\\ for\\ new\\ sources\\\\\r\\\ng\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Transportation\\ emissions\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ regulations\\ content\\ of\\ fuels\\ burned\\ by\\ mobile\\ sources\\ and\\ emissions\\ standards\\ of\\ NEW\\ VEHICLES\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ All\\ state\\ authority\\ is\\ preempted\\ by\\ federal\\ law\\ \\(except\\ CA\\ which\\ is\\ more\\ stringent\\)\\\\\r\\\niii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Transportation\\ control\\ plans\\ \\(TCP\\)\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Authority\\ to\\ affect\\ use\\ of\\ motor\\ vehicles\\ by\\ increasing\\ use\\ of\\ mass\\ transit\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\\r\\\nh\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Hazardous\\ air\\ pollutants\\ \\(HAP\\)\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Acute\\ danger\\ to\\ public\\ health\\\\\r\\\nNAAQS\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Establishing\\ NAAQS\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CAA\\ requires\\ EPA\\ to\\ set\\ PRIMARY\\ standards\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ \\&ldquo\\;allowing\\ an\\ adequate\\ margin\\ of\\ safety\\,\\ are\\ requisite\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ public\\ health\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;accurately\\ reflect\\ the\\ latest\\ scientific\\ knowledge\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ PRIMARY\\ standards\\ are\\ to\\ protect\\ the\\ public\\ health\\ \\&ldquo\\;allowing\\ an\\ adequate\\ margin\\ of\\ safety\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ SECONDARY\\ standards\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ protect\\ the\\ public\\ welfare\\ from\\ any\\ known\\ or\\ anticipated\\ adverse\\ effects\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ air\\ pollution\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Demanding\\ regulatory\\ burden\\ if\\ NAAQS\\ revised\\ b\\/c\\ SIPs\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ amended\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ SOx\\,\\ PM\\,\\ CO\\,\\ HC\\,\\ phochemical\\ oxidants\\ and\\ NOx\\,\\ lead\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Concentrations\\ expressed\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ time\\ averages\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Lead\\ Industries\\ Association\\ \\(LIA\\)\\ vs\\.\\ EPA\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Decision\\ established\\ important\\ principles\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CAA\\ requires\\ NAAQS\\ be\\ based\\ on\\ health\\ considerations\\ alone\\ without\\ balancing\\ against\\ costs\\ of\\ changes\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ LIA\\ asserted\\ EPA\\ lacked\\ sufficient\\ evidence\\ to\\ justify\\ setting\\ the\\ lead\\ NAAQS\\ as\\ low\\ as\\ it\\ was\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Argues\\ Congress\\ only\\ intended\\ to\\ protect\\ against\\ effects\\ that\\ are\\ CLEARLY\\ HARMFUL\\ to\\ health\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ standards\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ set\\ too\\ stringently\\ than\\ Congress\\ intended\\\\\r\\\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ argues\\ LIA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interpretation\\ is\\ too\\ limited\\ and\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ precautionary\\ nature\\ of\\ statute\\\\\r\\\ne\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Court\\ agrees\\ with\\ EPA\\ saying\\ that\\ awaiting\\ certainty\\ will\\ allow\\ for\\ only\\ reactive\\ not\\ preventative\\ regulation\\ and\\ more\\ often\\ than\\ not\\,\\ the\\ margin\\ of\\ safety\\ are\\ modest\\ or\\ nonexistent\\ as\\ new\\ evidence\\ reveals\\ adverse\\ health\\ effects\\ at\\ levels\\ once\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ harmless\\\\\r\\\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ NAAQS\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;uniform\\ standards\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ inflexible\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Professor\\ Krier\\ argues\\:\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ To\\ justify\\ uniform\\ standards\\,\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ assume\\ costs\\ of\\ level\\ of\\ pollution\\ and\\ level\\ of\\ control\\ are\\ the\\ SAME\\ across\\ the\\ country\\ but\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ valid\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Argues\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ reason\\ uniform\\ standards\\ were\\ chosen\\ was\\ because\\ regional\\ standards\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ costly\\ to\\ set\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;technology\\ forcing\\ nature\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ standards\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ States\\ progress\\ in\\ meeting\\ NAAQS\\ have\\ varied\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Variable\\ compliance\\ history\\ of\\ nation\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Krier\\ argues\\ we\\ should\\ abandon\\ uniform\\ standards\\ b\\/c\\ too\\ costly\\,\\ many\\ delays\\,\\ and\\ burdens\\ in\\ trying\\ to\\ achieve\\ standards\\ that\\ are\\ impossible\\ and\\ not\\ worthwhile\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\\\\r\\\n5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Revising\\ NAAQs\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ required\\ to\\ review\\/revise\\ standards\\ every\\ 5\\ years\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ EPA\\ appoints\\ Clean\\ Air\\ Scientific\\ Advisory\\ Committee\\ \\(CASAC\\)\\ to\\ review\\ data\\\\\r\\\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reluctant\\ to\\ revise\\ b\\/c\\ huge\\ burden\\\\\r\\\n6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Whitman\\ vs\\.\\ American\\ Trucking\\ Associations\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Whether\\ CAA\\ delegates\\ legislative\\ power\\ to\\ EPA\\\\\r\\\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Attacked\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ health\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;health\\ of\\ the\\ public\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ ways\\ and\\ means\\ of\\ conserving\\ the\\ health\\ of\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ a\\ community\\,\\ as\\ by\\ preventive\\ medicine\\,\\ etc\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Argue\\ many\\ more\\ factors\\ impact\\ public\\ health\\ than\\ air\\ pollution\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Economic\\ cost\\ of\\ implementing\\ stringent\\ standards\\ might\\ produce\\ health\\ losses\\ sufficient\\ to\\ offset\\ the\\ health\\ gains\\ from\\ the\\ standards\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Congress\\ was\\ aware\\ of\\ this\\ and\\ implemented\\ the\\ Air\\ Quality\\ Act\\ of\\ 1967\\\\\r\\\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Anticipated\\ compliance\\ costs\\ could\\ injure\\ public\\ health\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Provided\\ for\\ exigency\\ by\\ having\\ CAA\\ permit\\ EPA\\ to\\ waive\\ the\\ compliance\\ deadline\\ for\\ stationary\\ sources\\ if\\ sufficient\\ controls\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ available\\ or\\ if\\ continued\\ operation\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;essential\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ the\\ public\\ health\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Whether\\ costs\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ setting\\ NAAQS\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": "CAA"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.575244+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Things to Review", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 764, "html": "\\\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\Similarities\\ among\\ relatives\\ \\-\\ covariance\\,\\ correlation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Twin\\ studies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ identical\\ twins\\ may\\ differ\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Artificial\\ selection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Narrow\\ sense\\ heritability\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Phenotypic\\ change\\ with\\ selection\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Heritabilities\\ of\\ threshold\\ traits\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Identifying\\ genes\\ for\\ complex\\ traits\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 93, "file_path": "", "desc": "Things to Review"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.596409+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introducation", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 765, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1043024311\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1831419058\\ \\-1323415720\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Professor\\ is\\ from\\ the\\ History\\ of\\ Science\\ department\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Focus\\ on\\ medicine\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ reality\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ singular\\ moments\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Understanding\\ the\\ social\\ forces\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ themes\\ in\\ this\\ class\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Progressive\\,\\ cataclysmic\\,\\ cyclical\\,\\ or\\ retrogressive\\ histories\\/narratives\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Cyclical\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\(1800s\\)\\ Heroic\\ medicine\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ therapeutic\\ nihilism\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ ethical\\ pharmaceuticals\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ therapeutic\\ rationalism\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ miracle\\ drugs\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ post\\-Vioxx\\ era\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Themes\\ of\\ the\\ Course\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ determinants\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Who\\ gets\\ sick\\?\\ Who\\ gets\\ access\\ to\\ care\\?\\ Who\\ gets\\ better\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Interaction\\ btwn\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ medical\\ system\\,\\ and\\ public\\ health\\.\\ 3\\ circles\\ with\\ overlaps\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ skills\\ that\\ doctors\\ need\\ change\\ from\\ 1900s\\ to\\ now\\ because\\ the\\ leading\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\ have\\ changed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ meanings\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ are\\ the\\ forms\\ of\\ understanding\\ disease\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Stigmatisms\\,\\ racism\\,\\ sexism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ responses\\ to\\ disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ do\\ we\\ establish\\ individual\\,\\ societal\\,\\ responses\\ to\\ disease\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Diseases\\ are\\ very\\ contested\\ subjects\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ definition\\ or\\ contextualization\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Doctor\\,\\ patient\\ roles\\ and\\ interactions\\ have\\ changed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospitals\\.\\ In\\ 1800s\\,\\ patients\\ and\\ doctors\\ never\\ set\\ foot\\ in\\ a\\ hospital\\.\\ Although\\ nowadays\\,\\ most\\ people\\ are\\ born\\ and\\ die\\ in\\ hospitals\\ and\\ doctors\\ require\\ training\\ in\\ hospitals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Public\\ health\\ response\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Syllabus\\ is\\ divided\\ into\\ 4\\ parts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Burden\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ Medical\\ system\\,\\ and\\ Public\\ health\\ \\(technical\\ and\\ social\\ response\\ to\\ disease\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ interaction\\ btwn\\ the\\ 3\\ can\\ change\\ throughout\\ time\\ and\\ for\\ difference\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ overlap\\ expand\\.\\ To\\ see\\ medicine\\ work\\ better\\,\\ public\\ health\\ more\\ effect\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>But\\ sometimes\\,\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\ barely\\ overlaps\\ MS\\ and\\ PH\\,\\ while\\ MS\\ and\\ PH\\ are\\ mostly\\ overlapped\\.\\ Ex\\:\\ tobacco\\ related\\ deaths\\,\\ 1\\ billion\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ we\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ stop\\ people\\ from\\ smoking\\ and\\ to\\ have\\ better\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introducation"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.008243+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Population Genetics", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 725, "html": "\\\\Lecture\\ 13\\ Summary\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\ Population\\ genetics\\ seeks\\ to\\ understand\\ how\\ alleles\\ change\\ frequency\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\over\\ time\\ \\-\\ this\\ is\\ evolution\\ in\\ population\\ genetic\\ terms\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\ The\\ Hardy\\-Weinberg\\ law\\ states\\ that\\ under\\ a\\ certain\\ set\\ of\\ assumptions\\,\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\allele\\ frequencies\\ will\\ be\\ recreated\\ every\\ generation\\ to\\ be\\ equal\\ to\\ those\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\in\\ the\\ previous\\ generation\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\ Inbreeding\\ \\(mating\\ between\\ relatives\\)\\ is\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ random\\ mating\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\.\\ The\\ four\\ forces\\ of\\ evolution\\ \\-\\ mutation\\,\\ migration\\,\\ drift\\,\\ selection\\ \\-\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\change\\ allele\\ frequencies\\.\\ Mutation\\ \\&\\;\\ migration\\ introduce\\ new\\ alleles\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Drift\\ happens\\ primarily\\ in\\ small\\ populations\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ chance\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\effects\\ that\\ occur\\ in\\ finite\\ populations\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\5\\.\\ Selection\\ changes\\ allele\\ frequencies\\ in\\ systematic\\ directions\\ because\\ of\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\differential\\ reproductive\\ success\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 93, "file_path": "", "desc": "Population Genetics"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.019154+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Second Age of Food Globalization", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 726, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ discussed\\ global\\ food\\ trade\\ post\\-Columbus\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\'s\\ Food\\ Event\\ \\-\\-\\ St\\.\\ Patrick\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Day\\\\\r\\\n\\St\\.\\ Patrick\\'s\\ Day\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ indulging\\ in\\ so\\-called\\ Irish\\ foods\\,\\ including\\ Guiness\\,\\ Irish\\ Soda\\ Bread\\,\\ and\\ corned\\ beef\\ and\\ cabbage\\.\\ Corned\\ beef\\ is\\ a\\ North\\ American\\ creation\\,\\ with\\ no\\ roots\\ in\\ Irish\\ cuisine\\.\\ Perhaps\\ because\\ the\\ major\\ motivating\\ factor\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ wave\\ of\\ emigration\\ from\\ Ireland\\ to\\ North\\ America\\ was\\ poverty\\,\\ directly\\ resulting\\ from\\ the\\ Great\\ Potato\\ Famine\\ in\\ Ireland\\,\\ Irish\\ cuisine\\ has\\ never\\ been\\ celebrated\\ extensively\\ in\\ this\\ country\\,\\ besides\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ Irish\\ pubs\\.\\ In\\ an\\ interesting\\ side\\ note\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ noted\\ that\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ first\\ St\\.\\ Patrick\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Day\\ observance\\ in\\ Boston\\ occured\\ in\\ 1761\\,\\ Montreal\\ has\\ the\\ longest\\ tradition\\ of\\ parades\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ \\first\\ age\\ of\\ globalization\\<\\/strong\\>\\ can\\ be\\ characterized\\ by\\ the\\ transportation\\ and\\ transplantation\\ of\\ crops\\ during\\ the\\ Columbian\\ exchange\\.\\ Despite\\ being\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ environmentally\\ significant\\ events\\ in\\ world\\ history\\,\\ scholars\\ can\\'t\\ research\\ the\\ global\\ transfers\\ through\\ documentary\\ evidence\\,\\ they\\ instead\\ use\\ physical\\ transportation\\ evidence\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ Basque\\ of\\ the\\ Iberian\\ Peninsula\\ caught\\ much\\ of\\ their\\ cod\\ in\\ the\\ Atlantic\\ during\\ this\\ period\\,\\ and\\ likely\\ explored\\ beyond\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ Spain\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ find\\ more\\ product\\.\\ Then\\ and\\ today\\,\\ fishing\\ and\\ trading\\ are\\ major\\ components\\ of\\ their\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ salted\\ cod\\ is\\ a\\ culinary\\ mainstay\\ of\\ the\\ peninsula\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Old\\ Word\\-New\\ World\\ Exchange\\<\\/strong\\>\\ radically\\ transformed\\ diets\\ of\\ people\\ around\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Exchanged\\ foods\\ include\\ coffee\\,\\ potatoes\\,\\ tomatoes\\,\\ and\\ squash\\.\\ Potatoes\\ and\\ maize\\ became\\ staple\\ crops\\ for\\ many\\ cultures\\ beyond\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ America\\.\\ The\\ \\potato\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ indigenous\\ to\\ South\\ America\\ and\\ was\\ first\\ domesticated\\ around\\ 6000\\ BCE\\.\\ \\Tomatoes\\<\\/strong\\>\\ and\\ potatoes\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ nightshade\\,\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ Europe\\ originally\\ doubted\\ their\\ safety\\,\\ as\\ they\\ had\\ no\\ advantage\\ of\\ knowing\\ what\\ New\\ World\\ people\\ knew\\ about\\ their\\ value\\.\\ Tomatoes\\ were\\ grown\\ as\\ ornamental\\ plants\\ at\\ first\\,\\ and\\ potatoes\\ were\\ eaten\\ warily\\,\\ but\\ they\\ soon\\ took\\ hold\\ in\\ Europe\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ exchange\\ led\\ to\\ systems\\ of\\ exploitation\\ for\\ the\\ sake\\ of\\ crop\\ cultivation\\,\\ in\\ particular\\ the\\ \\Atlantic\\ Slave\\ Trade\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Another\\ crop\\ that\\ saw\\ global\\ expansion\\ was\\ the\\ \\sweet\\ potato\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Starting\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\,\\ it\\ made\\ its\\ way\\ through\\ trade\\ to\\ Europe\\,\\ China\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ Japan\\ and\\ Oceania\\,\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ ritual\\ food\\ practices\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ \\Kon\\-TIki\\ Expedition\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ Thor\\ Heyendahl\\ popularized\\ and\\ demonstrated\\ diffusion\\ theories\\ about\\ cultural\\ contact\\ in\\ the\\ prehistoric\\ world\\ by\\ captaining\\ a\\ raft\\ across\\ the\\ Pacific\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\While\\ we\\ have\\ mainly\\ been\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ the\\ European\\ powers\\,\\ the\\ \\Ming\\ Dynasty\\<\\/strong\\>\\ in\\ China\\ was\\ becoming\\ a\\ global\\ power\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ right\\ from\\ 1368\\ to\\ 1644\\.\\ China\\ created\\ its\\ own\\ maritime\\ trade\\ routes\\ through\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\ and\\ the\\ Indian\\ Ocean\\,\\ helping\\ to\\ spread\\ capsicum\\,\\ peanuts\\,\\ and\\ other\\ crops\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Second Age of Food Globalization"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.029878+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Big Numbers & Properties of Light", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 727, "html": "\\\\Review\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\ dark\\ matter\\,\\ dark\\ energy\\ universe\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Why\\ the\\ Earth\\ looks\\ flat\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ are\\ short\\;\\ Movie\\:\\ Powers\\ of\\ Ten\\-size\\ of\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Exponential\\ Growth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ phrase\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Properties\\ of\\ light\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ temperature\\ and\\ color\\:\\ demonstrations\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\ quantitative\\ relation\\ for\\ color\\ and\\ temperature\\:\\ Wien\\ Law\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Energy\\ for\\ the\\ Sun\\ is\\ understood\\ through\\ nuclear\\ physics\\ learned\\ on\\ Earth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Universe\\ Composition\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\73\\%\\ Dark\\ Energy\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\23\\%\\ Cold\\,\\ Dark\\ Matter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\4\\%\\ Atoms\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Demonstration\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Put\\ the\\ two\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ oven\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>They\\ look\\ different\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ reflected\\ light\\,\\ not\\ their\\ blackbody\\ emission\\.\\ \\;\\ One\\ is\\ a\\ reddish\\ angular\\ thing\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ a\\ round\\ bluish\\ thing\\.\\ \\;\\ Close\\ the\\ oven\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ oven\\ brings\\ the\\ objects\\ inside\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ temperature\\ as\\ the\\ oven\\ \\(1800\\ degrees\\ F\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\When\\ we\\ remove\\ the\\ objects\\ from\\ the\\ oven\\,\\ they\\ look\\ the\\ same\\ color\\ and\\ brightness\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ blackbody\\ emission\\ that\\ depends\\ ONLY\\ \\;on\\ temperature\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Example\\:\\ \\;light\\ bounding\\ off\\ seats\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ red\\ light\\ bounces\\ off\\ them\\ and\\ other\\ colors\\ absorbed\\ into\\ seat\\ \\(red\\ seats\\ in\\ Science\\ Center\\ C\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Why\\ Does\\ the\\ Earth\\ look\\ flat\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ cases\\ where\\ our\\ size\\ and\\ location\\ give\\ us\\ a\\ misleading\\ idea\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ Universe\\ is\\ constructed\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ are\\ small\\,\\ not\\ just\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ Universe\\,\\ but\\ even\\ compared\\ to\\ something\\ really\\ small\\ in\\ the\\ Universe\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ person\\ is\\ 10\\^\\(\\-7\\)\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\How\\ Far\\ Away\\ is\\ the\\ horizon\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ horizon\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ distant\\ point\\ you\\ can\\ see\\-\\-it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ your\\ \\&ldquo\\;line\\ of\\ sight\\&rdquo\\;\\ just\\ skims\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ your\\ line\\ of\\ sight\\ is\\ tangent\\ to\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\-\\-\\ that\\ means\\ it\\ is\\ perpendicular\\ to\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ radius\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\ triangle\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(R\\ \\+\\ h\\)\\^2\\ \\=\\ d\\^2\\+\\ R\\^2\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\d\\ is\\ the\\ distance\\ to\\ the\\ horizon\\\\\r\\\nR\\ is\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ your\\ planet\\\\\r\\\nh\\ is\\ your\\ height\\\\\r\\\n\\(R\\ \\+\\ h\\)\\ is\\ the\\ hypotenuse\\ of\\ a\\ right\\ triangle\\ where\\ the\\ sides\\ are\\ d\\ and\\ R\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lunar\\ Eclipse\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\moon\\ moves\\ into\\ the\\ \\(round\\)\\ shadow\\ of\\ the\\ circular\\ Earth\\&mdash\\;sea\\ Aristotle\\ \\&ldquo\\;evidence\\ of\\ the\\ senses\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Exponential\\ Notation\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ a\\ compact\\ way\\ to\\ represent\\ large\\ numbers\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ zeros\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10tothe\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ name\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ pre\\-\\\\\r\\\n1\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^0\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ one\\\\\r\\\n10\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^1\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ ten\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(deka\\-\\)\\(da\\)\\\\\r\\\n100\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^2\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ hundred\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ hecto\\-\\ h\\\\\r\\\n1000\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 3\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^3\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ thousand\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ kilo\\-\\ k\\\\\r\\\n1000000\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 6\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^6\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ million\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ mega\\-\\ M\\\\\r\\\n1000000000\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 9\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^9\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ billion\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ giga\\-\\ G\\\\\r\\\n1000000000000\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 12\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^12\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ trillion\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ tera\\-\\ T\\\\\r\\\n1000000000000000\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 15\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^15\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ quadrillion\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ peta\\-\\ P\\\\\r\\\n1000000000000000000\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ 18\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^18\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ quintillion\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ eka\\-\\ E\\\\\r\\\n1000000000000000000000\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 21\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^21\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ sextillion\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ zeta\\-\\ Z\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 24\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^24\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ septillion\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ yotta\\-\\ Y\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Accuracy\\ versus\\ Precision\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Accuracy\\ indicates\\ proximity\\ to\\ the\\ true\\ value\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Precision\\ to\\ the\\ repeatability\\ or\\ reproducibility\\ of\\ the\\ measurement\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\EXAMPLES\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\High\\ Accuracy\\:\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\ correct\\ value\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Low\\ Accuracy\\:\\ centered\\ on\\ an\\ incorrect\\ value\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\High\\ Precision\\:\\ small\\ scatter\\,\\ repeatable\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Low\\ Precision\\:\\ large\\ scatter\\,\\ variable\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Big Numbers & Properties of Light"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.042376+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Messages from Starlight", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 728, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\REVIEW\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Properties\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ light\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ temperature\\ and\\ color\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\A\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quantitative\\ relation\\ for\\ color\\ and\\ temperature\\:\\ Wien\\ Law\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Light\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beyond\\ the\\ visible\\:\\ infrared\\ and\\ ultraviolet\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Light\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transports\\ energy\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\APOD\\ \\(Astronomical\\ Picture\\ of\\ the\\ Day\\)\\:\\ how\\ to\\ represent\\ as\\ images\\,\\ the\\ astronomical\\ information\\&hellip\\;something\\ to\\ think\\ about\\;\\ somebody\\ has\\ chosen\\ to\\ make\\ X\\-rays\\ blue\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\ is\\ not\\ constructed\\ to\\ human\\ scale\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ large\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ small\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ plausible\\ candidate\\ for\\ the\\ dark\\ matter\\ is\\ a\\ subatomic\\ particle\\ \\(not\\ yet\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ discovered\\!\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ a\\ strong\\ connection\\ between\\ the\\ smallest\\ things\\ \\(\\~10\\^\\ \\-15m\\)\\ and\\ the\\ largest\\ ones\\ \\(10\\^25\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Picture\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Geneva\\:\\ The\\ Large\\ Hadron\\ Collider\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ tool\\ for\\ probing\\ the\\ smallest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scales\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Collides\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ protons\\ \\(parts\\ of\\ hydrogen\\ atoms\\)\\ with\\ anti\\-protons\\.\\ \\;By\\ studying\\ the\\ interactions\\ on\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ short\\ scales\\,\\ may\\ find\\ out\\ about\\ particles\\ that\\ constitute\\ dark\\ matter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Machine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ helps\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ conditions\\ similar\\ to\\ those\\ that\\ prevailed\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ Good\\ Rule\\ for\\ Accuracy\\ and\\ Precision\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pretend\\ to\\ know\\ more\\ than\\ you\\ really\\ do\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Your\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ answer\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ digits\\ than\\ the\\ number\\ you\\ know\\ least\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ well\\!\\ \\;That\\ gives\\ a\\ false\\ air\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ precision\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Federal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Debt\\:\\ 10\\ T\\ \\(Terabucks\\)\\ \\=\\ 10\\^13\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Population\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Per\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ person\\ \\=\\ 10\\^13\\/3x10\\^8\\ \\~\\ \\$3\\ x\\ 10\\^4\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Astronomer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Units\\:\\ The\\ Light\\ Year\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\C\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ speed\\ of\\ light\\ \\=\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\ m\\/s\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Light\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Year\\ \\=\\ distance\\ that\\ light\\ travels\\ in\\ one\\ year\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Distance\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\ speed\\ \\(m\\/s\\)\\ x\\ time\\ \\(s\\)\\ \\=\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\ m\\/s\\ x\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^7\\ s\\ \\=\\ 9\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(8\\ \\+\\ 7\\)\\ \\~\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 10\\^16\\ m\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Converting\\ Units\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\How\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ many\\ years\\ in\\ 10\\^9\\ sec\\?\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\You\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;seconds\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ you\\ want\\ \\&ldquo\\;years\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ multiply\\ or\\ divide\\ by\\ 1\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ form\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ seconds\\ in\\ a\\ year\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ 1\\ year\\ \\~\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^7\\ seconds\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Multiply\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ divide\\?\\ \\;You\\ want\\ to\\ \\cancel\\<\\/i\\>\\ out\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;seconds\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ \\(in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ case\\)\\ divide\\ by\\ 1\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^7\\ \\&ldquo\\;seconds\\/year\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\10\\^9\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\[sec\\]\\ \\/\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^7\\ \\[sec\\/year\\]\\ \\~\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^1\\ \\[year\\]\\ \\=\\ 30\\ years\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Black\\ Body\\ Emission\\ \\=\\ the\\ incandescent\\ glow\\ from\\ a\\ solid\\ object\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Ex\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lava\\,\\ rock\\ hot\\ enough\\ to\\ glow\\ \\-\\ liquid\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Blowtorch\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ iron\\ bar\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ red\\ glow\\,\\ orange\\,\\ then\\ bright\\ white\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Need\\ a\\ quantitative\\ way\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;color\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ lengths\\ for\\ visible\\ are\\ too\\ small\\ to\\ measure\\ directly\\,\\ but\\ we\\ will\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ delicate\\ method\\ next\\ week\\ that\\ uses\\ wave\\ nature\\ of\\ light\\ to\\ measure\\ visible\\ wavelengths\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Wavelength\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ light\\ \\=\\ \\&lambda\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Blue\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ light\\ \\~\\ 400\\ nm\\ \\~\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-7\\)\\ meter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Green\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ light\\ \\~\\ 500\\ nm\\ \\~\\ 5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-7\\)\\ meter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Red\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ light\\ \\~\\ 600\\ nm\\ \\~\\ 6\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-7\\)\\ meter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lamp\\,\\ as\\ temperature\\ goes\\ up\\,\\ glow\\ becomes\\ brighter\\,\\ to\\ white\\ and\\ yellow\\ and\\ more\\ brighter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Temperature\\ Scales\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Fahrenheit\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ invented\\ in\\ Germany\\,\\ used\\ in\\ USA\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\0\\ F\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\~\\ freezing\\ salt\\ water\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\100\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ F\\ \\~\\ body\\ temperature\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Glowing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ over\\ on\\ Tuesday\\ \\~\\ 2000\\ F\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Celsius\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Used\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\0\\ C\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\~\\ freezing\\ fresh\\ water\\ \\(32\\ F\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\100\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ C\\ \\~\\ boiling\\ water\\ \\(212\\ F\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\So\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 212\\ \\-\\ 32\\ \\=\\ 180\\ F\\ corresponds\\ to\\ 100\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 0\\ \\=\\ 100\\ C\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\F\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1\\.8C\\ \\+\\ 32\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ C\\ \\=\\ \\(F\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 32\\)\\ \\/\\ 1\\.8\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\(For\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ C\\ \\~\\ 10\\,\\ F\\ \\~\\ 2C\\ \\+\\ 30\\,\\ so\\ 10\\ C\\ \\~\\ 50\\ F\\,\\ 20\\ C\\ \\~\\ 70\\ F\\,\\ 30\\ C\\ \\~\\ 90\\ F\\,\\ \\-10\\ C\\ \\~\\ 10\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ F\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Glowing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ oven\\ \\~\\ C\\ \\=\\ \\(2000\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 32\\)\\ \\/\\ 1\\.8\\ \\~\\ 1100\\ C\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Kelvin\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Like\\ Celsius\\,\\ but\\ starting\\ at\\ absolute\\ zero\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\(\\-273\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ C\\!\\)\\ Used\\ in\\ the\\ Universe\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\K\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ C\\ \\+\\ 273\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\ \\~\\ 5800\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ K\\,\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\ 000\\ F\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Glowing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ oven\\ \\~\\ 1100\\ \\+\\ 273\\ \\=\\ 1400\\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Kelvin\\ scale\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ use\\ the\\ most\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ need\\ a\\ quantitative\\ statement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ equation\\ that\\ connects\\ temperature\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ peak\\ wavelength\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\T\\ \\&uarr\\;\\ \\&lambda\\;\\&darr\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\T\\ x\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\ constant\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\ constant\\ \\/\\ T\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\ wavelength\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ object\\ emits\\ the\\ most\\ energy\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\Temperature\\ and\\ Color\\:\\ Wien\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\For\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ incandescent\\ object\\,\\ the\\ color\\ \\(wavelength\\ of\\ maximum\\ light\\ emission\\,\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ max\\ \\[m\\]\\)\\ depends\\ only\\ on\\ the\\ temperature\\ \\[K\\]\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ \\=\\ \\(2\\.9\\ x\\ 10\\^\\ \\-3\\)\\ \\/\\ T\\ measured\\ in\\ K\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ m\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Sun\\:\\ T\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\ 5800\\ K\\,\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ \\=\\ \\(2\\.9\\ x\\ 10\\^\\ \\-3\\)\\ \\/\\ \\(5\\.8\\ x\\ 10\\^3\\)\\ \\=\\ 0\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\ \\^\\ \\-6\\ \\=\\ 5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-7\\ \\=\\ 500\\ nm\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;Measurements\\ to\\ describe\\ stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\1\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Angstrom\\ \\=\\ 10\\^\\(\\-10\\)\\ meter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\1\\ nm\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 10\\^\\(\\-9\\)\\ meter\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Red\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ long\\ wavelength\\ \\~\\ 600\\ nm\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Blue\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ short\\ wavelength\\ \\~\\ 400\\ nm\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\=\\ \\(3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-3\\)\\ \\/\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;Demonstration\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\There\\ is\\ a\\ camera\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ working\\ at\\ wavelength\\ in\\ the\\ infrared\\ \\(beyond\\ where\\ our\\ eyes\\ work\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ higher\\ the\\ temperature\\ of\\ an\\ object\\,\\ it\\ will\\ appear\\ brighter\\ green\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ lower\\ the\\ temperature\\,\\ the\\ object\\ will\\ appear\\ darker\\ and\\ navy\\ blue\\ in\\ color\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Messages from Starlight"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.054988+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Blackbodies, Spectra, and the Quantum World", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 729, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\Review\\\\\r\\\n\\-Light\\ \\beyond\\ the\\ visible\\,\\ Wien\\ Law\\<\\/b\\>\\ connects\\ wavelength\\ with\\ Temperature\\:\\ \\&lambda\\;T\\ \\=\\ a\\ constant\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-Light\\ is\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ energy\\:\\ Electromagnetic\\ energy\\<\\/b\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-Rate\\ at\\ which\\ \\Energy\\<\\/b\\>\\ is\\ emitted\\ from\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ a\\ \\blackbody\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ \\Stefan\\-Boltzmann\\ Law\\&mdash\\;\\<\\/b\\>flux\\ \\=\\ \\&sigma\\;\\ T\\^f\\\\\r\\\n\\-Light\\ acts\\ both\\ as\\ a\\ particle\\ \\(\\photon\\<\\/b\\>\\)\\ and\\ a\\ wave\\\\\r\\\n\\-Spectra\\ act\\ as\\ fingerprints\\&mdash\\;each\\ \\element\\ \\<\\/b\\>is\\ unique\\\\\r\\\n\\-Measuring\\ motion\\ with\\ spectra\\:\\ the\\ \\Doppler\\ effect\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nDoppler\\ Effect\\:\\ a\\ lower\\ pitch\\ sound\\ is\\ heard\\ as\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ going\\ away\\,\\ a\\ higher\\ pitch\\ when\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ nearing\\ you\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ Astronomical\\ setting\\,\\ \\Planetary\\ Nebula\\ IC\\ 418\\\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/i\\>fluorescent\\ gas\\ surrounding\\ a\\ hot\\ star\\ \\(so\\ hot\\ emitting\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ its\\ light\\ in\\ the\\ ultraviolet\\ photons\\,\\ which\\ are\\ traveling\\ into\\ gas\\,\\ photons\\ exciting\\ atoms\\ in\\ gas\\ cloud\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ hot\\ objects\\,\\ Temperature\\ connected\\ to\\ motion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Colors\\ and\\ Wavelengths\\\\\r\\\n\\-Red\\ \\=\\ long\\ wavelength\\ \\~\\ 650\\ nm\\\\\r\\\n\\-Blue\\ \\=\\ short\\ wavelength\\ \\~\\ 400\\ nm\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Demonstration\\ with\\ the\\ Big\\ Light\\ Bulb\\\\\r\\\n\\-vary\\ the\\ power\\ supplied\\\\\r\\\n\\-more\\ energy\\ every\\ second\\ going\\ in\\&mdash\\;wire\\ gets\\ hotter\\ to\\ emit\\ it\\ all\\\\\r\\\n\\-temperature\\ increases\\.\\ Note\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ color\\ \\(grating\\,\\ eye\\ thing\\)\\ as\\ temp\\ increases\\,\\ green\\ gets\\ brighter\\ and\\ then\\ blue\\ gets\\ brighter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Light\\ Beyond\\ the\\ Visible\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-infrared\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ longer\\ wavelengths\\ from\\ cooler\\ objects\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-ultraviolet\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ shorter\\ wavelengths\\ from\\ hotter\\ objects\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Also\\,\\ radio\\ waves\\ \\(very\\ long\\ wavelengths\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-X\\-rays\\ and\\ gamma\\ \\(\\&gamma\\;\\)\\-rays\\ \\(very\\ short\\ wavelengths\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bull\\ Terrier\\ Absorbing\\ IR\\ from\\ Wood\\ Stove\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\T\\ \\~\\ 400\\ F\\ \\~\\ 200\\ C\\ \\~\\ 500\\ K\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&lambda\\;\\-max\\ \\~\\ 3000\\ \\/\\ T\\ \\&mu\\;m\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&lambda\\;\\-max\\ \\~\\ 6\\ microns\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Solar\\ constant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-flux\\ received\\ from\\ the\\ sun\\ here\\ at\\ earth\\ \\[\\ watt\\/meter\\²\\;\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ \\~1400\\ watt\\/meter\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Includes\\ visible\\,\\ UV\\,\\ and\\ IR\\ \\(about\\ half\\ reaches\\ the\\ ground\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Big\\ enough\\ to\\ make\\ solar\\ power\\ \\(almost\\)\\ practical\\ for\\ hot\\ water\\ heaters\\,\\ direct\\ conversion\\ of\\ solar\\ energy\\ to\\ electricity\\ \\(see\\ op\\-ed\\ in\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ NY\\ TIMES\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;Blackbodies\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-not\\ exactly\\ black\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-objects\\ that\\ absorb\\ and\\ emit\\ at\\ all\\ wavelengths\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Wien\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ \\=\\ \\(2\\.9\\ x\\ 10\\^\\ \\-3\\)\\ \\/\\ T\\ measured\\ in\\ K\\ m\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-for\\ room\\ temperature\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ IR\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ perfect\\ \\&ldquo\\;absorber\\&rdquo\\;\\ looks\\ like\\ black\\-but\\ it\\ is\\ glowing\\ in\\ IR\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-have\\ to\\ assume\\ light\\ comes\\ in\\ small\\ bundles\\ of\\ energy\\ called\\ photons\\ \\(Max\\ Planck\\ and\\ Einstein\\)\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>beginning\\ of\\ quantum\\ physics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ idea\\ that\\ packages\\ of\\ energy\\ govern\\ the\\ microscopic\\ world\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Introscopy\\ of\\ the\\ Cosmic\\ Microwave\\ Background\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-A\\ really\\ important\\ blackbody\\:\\ The\\ Big\\ Bang\\!\\ At\\ \\~\\ 3K\\,\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ max\\ \\~\\ 1\\ mm\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\{radio\\ wavelengths\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-map\\ of\\ the\\ sky\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ colors\\ for\\ temperature\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ blue\\ is\\ cold\\ points\\,\\ red\\ is\\ hot\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\T\\ \\=\\ 2\\.725\\ K\\ \\+\\/\\-\\ a\\ few\\ parts\\ in\\ 10\\^\\(\\-5\\)\\ \\(0\\.00003\\ K\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hand\\ Crank\\ Generator\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Conservation\\ of\\ Energy\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Breakfast\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>chemical\\ energy\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ muscle\\ power\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>force\\ x\\ distance\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ electrical\\ current\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>heat\\ in\\ filament\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ blackbody\\ flux\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Energy\\ \\<\\/b\\>does\\ not\\ get\\ created\\ or\\ destroyed\\;\\ it\\ just\\ \\changes\\ form\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\MORE\\ UNITS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\Force\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>a\\ push\\ or\\ a\\ pull\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ English\\ unit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ pound\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Metric\\ unit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\Newton\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(accelerate\\ 1\\ kg\\ at\\ 1\\ meter\\/sec\\/sec\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ graviationforce\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\ on\\ a\\ kilogram\\ is\\ \\~\\ 10\\ newtons\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&Delta\\;\\(mv\\)\\ \\=\\ F\\&Delta\\;t\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\Energy\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ work\\;\\ force\\ times\\ a\\ distance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ English\\ unit\\ \\&ndash\\;BTU\\,\\ calorie\\,\\ kiloton\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Metric\\ unit\\&mdash\\;the\\ \\joule\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\(\\ 1\\ newton\\ of\\ force\\ for\\ 1\\ meter\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\Power\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ rate\\ of\\ work\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ English\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ horsepower\\ \\{746\\ watts\\!\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Metric\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\watt\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\{1\\ joule\\/sec\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Surface\\ flux\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-how\\ much\\ energy\\ per\\ second\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ 1\\ m\\²\\;\\ opening\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Flux\\ from\\ a\\ Blackbody\\:\\ \\The\\ Stephan\\-Boltzmann\\ Law\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Power\\ \\[watts\\]\\ \\=\\ Energy\\/sec\\ \\[joules\\/sec\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Power\\ coming\\ out\\ from\\ each\\ sq\\.\\ meter\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ temperature\\ to\\ the\\ fourth\\ power\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Flux\\ \\=\\ Power\\ \\/\\ Area\\ \\[w\\/m\\²\\;\\]\\ \\=\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\=\\ \\{a\\ number\\}\\ x\\ T\\ x\\ T\\ x\\ T\\ x\\ T\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\&sigma\\;\\ \\;Is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Stefan\\-Boltzmann\\ Constant\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&sigma\\;\\=\\ 5\\.67\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-8\\)\\ W\\/\\ \\(m\\^2\\ K\\^4\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Power\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Luminosity\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\=\\ Area\\ x\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\ \\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;R\\²\\;\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\ \\[watt\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-A\\ way\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ sizes\\ of\\ stars\\,\\ even\\ when\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ measure\\ the\\ angle\\ they\\ cover\\.\\ \\;Measure\\ the\\ temperature\\ from\\ the\\ color\\,\\ infer\\ the\\ area\\ and\\ the\\ size\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-sunspot\\ \\=\\ cooler\\ area\\ on\\ the\\ sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sun\\:\\ 3\\.9\\ x\\ 10\\^26\\ watts\\ \\~\\ Yottawatts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Identify\\ elements\\ by\\ their\\ spectra\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ fingerprints\\\\\r\\\n\\-each\\ chemical\\ element\\ has\\ a\\ specific\\ spectrum\\ associated\\ with\\ it\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ identify\\ elements\\ not\\ only\\ on\\ earth\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ space\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Blackbodies, Spectra, and the Quantum World"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.067543+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading Starlight", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 730, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\The\\ spectrum\\ of\\ the\\ sun\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ continuum\\.\\ \\;\\ it\\ is\\ crossed\\ by\\ dark\\ lines\\,\\ which\\ correspond\\ to\\ chemical\\ elements\\ whose\\ spectrum\\ we\\ can\\ look\\ at\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ big\\ idea\\ for\\ today\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Spectra\\ act\\ as\\ fingerprints\\.\\ \\;\\ Each\\ \\element\\<\\/b\\>\\ is\\ unique\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ different\\ spectrum\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Elements\\ \\(like\\ sodium\\)\\ produce\\ emission\\ or\\ absorption\\ lines\\ at\\ very\\ well\\-defined\\ wavelengths\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Gases\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ bright\\ line\\ spectra\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Solids\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ continuous\\ spectra\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\nEnergy\\ from\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ flows\\ through\\ plants\\ to\\ make\\ chemical\\ energy\\,\\ animals\\ use\\ that\\&hellip\\;\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-photons\\ travel\\ out\\ and\\ are\\ absorbed\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ by\\ us\\ by\\ our\\ eyes\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\USING\\ THE\\ Stephan\\-Boltzmann\\ LAW\\\\\r\\\n\\-Flux\\ at\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ 5\\.67\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-8\\)\\ Wm\\^\\(\\-2\\)K\\^\\(\\-4\\)\\ x\\ \\(5800\\ K\\)\\^4\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ 5\\.67\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-8\\)\\ x\\ \\(5\\.8\\)\\^4\\ x\\ \\(10\\^3\\)\\^4\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ 5\\.67\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-8\\)\\ x\\ 1132\\ x\\ 10\\^12\\ Wm\\^\\(\\-2\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ 6416\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(12\\-8\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ 6\\.4\\ x\\ 10\\^7\\ Watts\\/meter\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ 64\\ Megawatts\\/m\\²\\;\\ \\(output\\ of\\ a\\ million\\ guys\\ like\\ John\\ turning\\ the\\ crank\\ on\\ the\\ generator\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Here\\ at\\ the\\ Earth\\ \\~\\ 1400\\ watts\\/m\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\POWER\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;LUMINOSITY\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\=Area\\ x\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\\\\r\\\n\\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;R\\²\\;\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\ \\[watt\\]\\\\\r\\\nPower\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ stars\\,\\ even\\ when\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ measure\\ the\\ angle\\ they\\ cover\\.\\ \\;Measure\\ the\\ temperature\\ from\\ the\\ color\\,\\ infer\\ the\\ area\\ and\\ the\\ size\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-Sun\\:\\ 3\\.90\\ x\\ 10\\^26\\ watt\\ \\~\\ 400\\ Yottawatts\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCOMPARING\\ STARS\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nL\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;luminosity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ power\\ output\\ \\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;R\\²\\;\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\\\\r\\\nL1\\ \\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;\\(R1\\)\\²\\;\\&sigma\\;\\(T1\\)\\^4\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\nL2\\ \\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;\\(R2\\)\\²\\;\\&sigma\\;\\(T2\\)\\^4\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\nL1\\/L2\\ \\=\\ \\(R1\\/R2\\)\\²\\;\\(T1\\/T2\\)\\^4\\\\\r\\\nNow\\,\\ suppose\\ we\\ know\\ T1\\ \\=\\ T2\\ \\(from\\ observations\\ of\\ \\&lambda\\;max\\ and\\ the\\ Wien\\ Law\\:\\ The\\ stars\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ color\\)\\\\\r\\\nThen\\ L1\\/L2\\ \\=\\ \\(R1\\/R2\\)\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\nIf\\ L1\\=10\\,000\\ L2\\ \\(This\\ is\\ about\\ right\\ for\\ Sirius\\\\\r\\\nand\\ its\\ white\\ dwarf\\ companion\\ Sirius\\ B\\)\\\\\r\\\n10\\^4\\ \\=\\ \\(R1\\/R2\\)\\²\\;\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ R1\\ \\=\\ 100\\ R2\\\\\r\\\nEven\\ without\\ seeing\\ the\\ disks\\ of\\ stars\\,\\ we\\ can\\\\\r\\\nlearn\\ about\\ their\\ sizes\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ WIDER\\ RANGE\\ OF\\ TEMPERATURE\\ THAN\\ IN\\ EVERYDAY\\ EXPERIENCE\\\\\r\\\n\\-experiment\\:\\ putting\\ rose\\ into\\ liquid\\ nitrogen\\\\\r\\\n\\-nitrogen\\ as\\ a\\ liquid\\ is\\ boiling\\ in\\ the\\ jug\\ and\\ slowly\\ turning\\ into\\ a\\ gas\\;\\ temperature\\ at\\ which\\ nitrogen\\ this\\ takes\\ place\\ \\(boils\\)\\ is\\ \\-196\\ C\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRANGE\\ OF\\ TEMPERATURES\\\\\r\\\n\\-Really\\ hot\\ water\\:\\ 60\\ C\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\333\\ K\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-A\\ really\\ cold\\ day\\:\\ \\-20\\ C\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\253\\ K\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-Difference\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 80\\ K\\ \\burn\\<\\/span\\>\\ or\\ \\freeze\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Liquid\\ nitrogen\\:\\ \\-196\\ C\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 77\\ K\\ \\(\\-321\\ F\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Difference\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 178\\ K\\\\\r\\\n\\-From\\ liquid\\ nitrogen\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ temperature\\ of\\ a\\ really\\ cold\\ day\\ is\\ twice\\ as\\ afar\\ as\\ from\\ a\\ really\\ cold\\ day\\ up\\ to\\ scalding\\ hot\\ water\\.\\ \\;As\\ with\\ size\\,\\ light\\,\\ time\\,\\ your\\ experience\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ limited\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ natural\\ world\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-makes\\ some\\ of\\ nitrogen\\ boils\\ off\\,\\ heats\\ up\\,\\ in\\ exchange\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ cooling\\ off\\ rose\\ so\\ temperature\\ is\\ near\\ 77\\ K\\ \\(\\-321\\ F\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Rose\\ became\\ extremely\\ brittle\\,\\ shattered\\ against\\ desk\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\TOWER\\ OF\\ POWER\\\\\r\\\n\\-Use\\ a\\ \\diffraction\\ grating\\<\\/b\\>\\ to\\ disperse\\ the\\ light\\\\\r\\\n\\-Note\\ the\\ spectrum\\ of\\ the\\ incandescent\\ lamp\\,\\ tubes\\ of\\ hydrogen\\,\\ helium\\,\\ and\\ neon\\\\\r\\\n\\{Fraunhofer\\ used\\ prisms\\}\\\\\r\\\n\\{Kirchoff\\ \\&\\;\\ Bunsen\\ looked\\ at\\ flames\\ and\\ heated\\ tubes\\}\\\\\r\\\n\\Diffraction\\ phenomena\\ in\\ the\\ Science\\ Center\\ Hallway\\,\\ across\\ from\\ the\\ entrance\\ to\\ Hall\\ C\\!\\)\\ \\;\\-\\<\\/b\\>put\\ sodium\\ into\\ Bunsen\\ burner\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ thin\\ black\\ absorption\\ line\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSODIUM\\ ABSORPTION\\\\\r\\\n\\-Flame\\ in\\ a\\ Bunsen\\ Burner\\,\\ spectrum\\ on\\ a\\ screen\\\\\r\\\n\\-Light\\ that\\ is\\ absorbed\\ is\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\ color\\ as\\ the\\ Na\\ \\(sodium\\)\\ lamp\\,\\ and\\ the\\ color\\ of\\ the\\ flame\\\\\r\\\n\\-Sodium\\ can\\ absorb\\ or\\ emit\\ photons\\ with\\ this\\ energy\\ \\(but\\ not\\ any\\ others\\!\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nINFRARED\\ LIGHT\\\\\r\\\n\\-not\\ completely\\ monochromatic\\,\\ when\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ do\\ it\\ vertically\\,\\ different\\ bands\\\\\r\\\n\\-red\\ seats\\ become\\ brownish\\;\\ blue\\ ceiling\\ looks\\ black\\\\\r\\\n\\-eyes\\ adapt\\ very\\ quickly\\ when\\ we\\ change\\ back\\ to\\ normal\\ light\\\\\r\\\n\\-luminated\\ by\\ just\\ one\\ wavelength\\,\\ just\\ one\\ color\\;\\ when\\ add\\ incandescent\\ light\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ turning\\ the\\ color\\ back\\ on\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\ IS\\ LIGHT\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Bullets\\ or\\ Waves\\?\\ Both\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-Red\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ longer\\ wavelength\\\\\r\\\n\\-Blue\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ short\\ wavelength\\\\\r\\\n\\-Plank\\ \\&\\;\\ Einstein\\ \\(1905\\)\\ imagined\\ light\\ as\\ photons\\ to\\ explain\\\\\r\\\n\\-Length\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wavelength\\;\\ light\\ is\\ a\\ vibration\\ of\\ electricity\\ and\\ magnetism\\\\\r\\\n\\-Construction\\ interference\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ waves\\ add\\ up\\\\\r\\\n\\-Destructive\\ Interference\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ waves\\ cancel\\ out\\ \\(many\\ events\\ that\\ correspond\\ to\\ this\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Wave\\ phenomena\\ \\(\\diffraction\\ and\\ interference\\<\\/b\\>\\)\\ allowTWO\\ SLIT\\ EXPERIMENT\\ AT\\ FRONT\\ OF\\ THE\\ ROOM\\\\\r\\\n\\-Shows\\ the\\ wave\\ nature\\ of\\ light\\:\\ dark\\ and\\ lights\\ bonds\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;interference\\ pattern\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-match\\ and\\ mismatch\\ by\\ \\½\\;\\ a\\ wave\\\\\r\\\n\\-nothing\\ blocking\\ the\\ light\\ beams\\,\\ just\\ that\\ waves\\ are\\ traveling\\ at\\ different\\ numbers\\ of\\ wavelengths\\\\\r\\\n\\-places\\ where\\ waves\\ adding\\ up\\ and\\ places\\ where\\ waves\\ canceling\\ out\\\\\r\\\n\\-geometry\\:\\ distance\\ from\\ slit\\ to\\ screen\\ is\\ \\½\\;\\ a\\ wavelength\\ different\\ between\\ a\\ maximum\\ and\\ a\\ minimum\\.\\ \\;From\\ one\\ maximum\\ to\\ another\\ \\(wavelength\\)\\ to\\ next\\ place\\ where\\ waves\\ adding\\ up\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ distance\\ must\\ be\\ just\\ one\\ wavelength\\ of\\ light\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ location\\ where\\ they\\ coincide\\ to\\ the\\ next\\\\\r\\\n\\-0\\.25\\ mm\\ \\=\\ separation\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ slits\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ different\\ between\\ the\\ slits\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading Starlight"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.079810+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Electrical Forces in the Quantum World", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 731, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\JUST\\ AHEAD\\\\\r\\\n\\-we\\ can\\ measure\\ the\\ \\wavelength\\ \\<\\/b\\>using\\ \\interference\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\<\\/b\\>measuring\\ motion\\ with\\ spectra\\:\\ the\\ \\Doppler\\ effect\\<\\/b\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-wavelengths\\ of\\ hydrogen\\&mdash\\;\\a\\ pattern\\<\\/b\\>\\ and\\ a\\ clue\\ to\\ the\\ subatomic\\ world\\ from\\ the\\ Balmer\\ series\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\"\\;Forces\\ at\\ work\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\electrical\\ attraction\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\(and\\ repulsion\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\Energy\\<\\/b\\>\\ of\\ photons\\ from\\ changes\\ in\\ \\electron\\ orbits\\<\\/b\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\Bohr\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/b\\>\\ crazy\\ idea\\&mdash\\;\\quantized\\ orbits\\<\\/b\\>\\ for\\ the\\ electron\\\\\r\\\n\\-Explains\\ the\\ Balmer\\ series\\ and\\ much\\ more\\\\\r\\\n\\Quantum\\ mechanics\\\\\r\\\n\\-spin\\ \\<\\/b\\>and\\ the\\ 21\\ centimeter\\ line\\ of\\ Hydrogen\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WAVE\\ INTERFERENCE\\\\\r\\\n\\-constructive\\ interference\\:\\ the\\ waves\\ add\\ up\\\\\r\\\n\\-destructive\\ interference\\:\\ the\\ waves\\ cancel\\ out\\\\\r\\\n\\-experiment\\:\\ red\\ and\\ green\\ light\\ going\\ through\\ identical\\ slits\\ \\(\\.25\\ mm\\ apart\\)\\ projected\\ onto\\ screen\\;\\ nothing\\ blocking\\ the\\ way\\ where\\ we\\ see\\ dark\\ spots\\.\\ Bright\\ spots\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ waves\\ have\\ positive\\ sum\\,\\ add\\ up\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\(theta\\)\\ radians\\ \\=\\ A\\/R\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\[m\\/m\\]\\,\\ \\[LY\\]\\ \\/\\ \\[LY\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\<\\;\\-\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>an\\ excellent\\ equation\\\\\r\\\n\\-This\\ is\\ the\\ natural\\ way\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&lambda\\;\\/d\\ \\=\\ \\&theta\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\/D\\ \\=\\ \\&theta\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\;\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ A\\(d\\)\\ \\/\\ R\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ good\\ equation\\ for\\ the\\ two\\ slit\\ experiment\\;\\ \\(A\\ is\\ distance\\ between\\ light\\ maxima\\ and\\ R\\ is\\ the\\ distance\\ between\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ light\\ and\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ projected\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-in\\ class\\:\\ A\\ \\=\\ 2\\.2\\ cm\\ \\=\\ 2\\.2\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-2\\)\\ m\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ d\\ \\=\\ 0\\.25\\ mm\\ \\=\\ 2\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-4\\)\\ m\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ R\\ \\=\\ 6\\.84\\ m\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\;\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ \\[2\\.2\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-2\\)\\]\\ \\[2\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-4\\)\\]\\ \\/\\ \\[6\\.84\\]\\ \\=\\ 8\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-7\\)\\ m\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Precision\\?\\ \\;Depends\\ mostly\\ on\\ A\\ \\(\\+\\ \\/\\ \\-\\ 1\\ mm\\)\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ too\\ good\\\\\r\\\nAccuracy\\?\\ Is\\ the\\ screen\\ perpendicular\\ to\\ the\\ light\\?\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ too\\ good\\ because\\ screen\\ tilted\\\\\r\\\n\\-pattern\\ for\\ red\\ lamp\\ more\\ spread\\ out\\ than\\ pattern\\ for\\ green\\ lamp\\ \\(angle\\ smaller\\,\\ and\\ wavelength\\ smaller\\ \\;The\\ Hydrogen\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Spectrum\\ Balmer\\ Lines\\ \\&ndash\\;measured\\ by\\ \\Å\\;ngstrom\\\\\r\\\n\\H\\&alpha\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 656\\.3\\ nm\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ n\\ \\=\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\H\\&beta\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 486\\.1\\ nm\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ n\\ \\=\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\H\\&gamma\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 434\\.1\\ nm\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ n\\ \\=\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\H\\&delta\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 410\\.1\\ nm\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ n\\ \\=\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nnm\\ \\=\\ 10\\^\\(\\-9\\)\\ m\\;\\ 1\\Å\\;\\ \\=\\ 10\\^\\(\\-10\\)\\ m\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BALMER\\'S\\ FORMULA\\\\\r\\\n\\-n\\ is\\ an\\ interger\\ 3\\,4\\,5\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(3\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ H\\&alpha\\;\\,\\ 4\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ H\\&beta\\;\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\[m\\]\\ \\=\\ 10973936\\ \\(1\\/4\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\/n\\²\\;\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Balmer\\ had\\ no\\ idea\\ what\\ he\\ was\\ doing\\ \\&ndash\\;pure\\ numerology\\,\\ but\\ the\\ formula\\ does\\ fit\\ the\\ data\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\ IS\\ LIGHT\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Bullets\\ or\\ Waves\\?\\ Both\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-Planck\\ \\&\\;\\ Einstein\\ \\(1905\\)\\ imagined\\ light\\ as\\ photons\\ to\\ explain\\ blackbody\\ emission\\ and\\ photoelectric\\ effect\\\\\r\\\n\\-Energy\\ \\=\\ h\\ v\\ \\=\\ hc\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-wavelengths\\ of\\ the\\ Balmer\\ series\\ correspond\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ energy\\ of\\ Hydrogen\\ atoms\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\SPEED\\ OF\\ LIGHT\\\\\r\\\n\\-all\\ colors\\ of\\ light\\ travel\\ at\\ same\\ speed\\,\\ c\\ \\=\\ \\3\\.8\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\<\\/b\\>\\ m\\/s\\ \\(very\\ large\\,\\ but\\ not\\ infinite\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\Electromagnetic\\ \\<\\/b\\>waves\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ worked\\ out\\ by\\ Paxwell\\\\\r\\\n\\-distance\\ \\=\\ speed\\ x\\ time\\;\\ how\\ far\\ in\\ 10\\^\\(\\-9\\)\\ seconds\\?\\ \\(a\\ nanosecond\\)\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\ m\\/s\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-9\\)\\ s\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Distance\\ \\=\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-1\\)\\ \\~\\ 1\\ foot\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-Discovered\\ by\\ astronomical\\ observation\\<\\/b\\>\\ before\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ measured\\ in\\ earthbound\\ experiments\\ \\(Archives\\ 14\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Speed\\ of\\ sound\\ \\~\\ 330\\ m\\/s\\ \\~\\ 1\\ foot\\ in\\ a\\ millisecond\\\\\r\\\n\\-Sound\\ a\\ million\\ times\\ slower\\!\\ Thunder\\ \\&\\;\\ Lightning\\ \\(donder\\ and\\ blitzen\\)\\ 1000\\ ft\\/sec\\,\\ 5000\\ ft\\/5sec\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WAVELENGTH\\ \\&\\;\\ FREQUENCY\\\\\r\\\n\\-Frequency\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ v\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(\\#\\ of\\ waves\\)\\ \\/\\ sec\\\\\r\\\n\\-Wavelength\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ meters\\ \\/\\ wave\\\\\r\\\n\\-Speed\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ c\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ meters\\ \\/\\ second\\\\\r\\\n\\-v\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ c\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-v\\ \\=\\ c\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-v\\ \\=\\ c\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\(green\\)\\ \\=\\ \\(3\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\ m\\/s\\)\\ \\/\\ \\(5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-7\\ m\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-v\\ \\=\\ 6\\ x\\ 10\\^14\\ sec\\-1\\ \\=\\ 6\\ x\\ 1014\\ Hz\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Hertz\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\DOPPLER\\ EFFECT\\\\\r\\\n\\-motion\\ affects\\ the\\ frequency\\ \\(or\\ wavelength\\)\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ light\\ or\\ sound\\ wave\\ is\\ observed\\\\\r\\\n\\-Coming\\ toward\\ you\\ \\&ndash\\;higher\\ pitch\\ \\{shorter\\ wavelength\\,\\ higher\\ frequency\\}\\\\\r\\\n\\-Going\\ away\\ from\\ you\\&mdash\\;lower\\ pitch\\ \\{longer\\ wavelength\\,\\ lower\\ frequency\\}\\\\\r\\\n\\-experiment\\:\\ listening\\ to\\ annoying\\ buzzer\\ sound\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCHANGING\\ PITCH\\ WITH\\ PITCHES\\\\\r\\\n\\-major\\ league\\ fastball\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ v\\ \\=\\ 90\\ mph\\\\\r\\\n\\-C\\(sub\\ s\\)\\ \\=\\ 333\\ m\\/s\\ \\(speed\\ of\\ sound\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\ mph\\ \\=\\ 0\\.447\\ m\\/s\\\\\r\\\n\\-v\\ \\=\\ 40\\ m\\/s\\ of\\ a\\ 90\\ mph\\ fastball\\\\\r\\\n\\-v\\/c\\ \\=\\ 0\\.122\\ \\(exactly\\ ratio\\ of\\ pitch\\ change\\ between\\ a\\ white\\ and\\ a\\ black\\ key\\ on\\ a\\ piano\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\DOPPLER\\ EFFECT\\:\\ THE\\ QUANTITATIVE\\ VERSION\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\&lambda\\;observed\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;emitted\\ \\=\\ 1\\ \\+\\ v\\/c\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-v\\ \\=\\ c\\ \\(\\&lambda\\;observed\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;emitted\\ \\-\\ 1\\)\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\-The\\ \\"\\;emitted\\"\\;\\ value\\ it\\ the\\ value\\ we\\ measure\\ in\\ a\\ stationary\\ laboratory\\ here\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ wavelength\\ you\\'d\\ measure\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ on\\ a\\ distant\\ star\\ or\\ galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ \\"\\;observed\\"\\;\\ value\\ includes\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ source\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-v\\ is\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ the\\ source\\ moving\\ \\(away\\)\\ from\\ us\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-c\\ is\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ the\\ sound\\ or\\ light\\ wave\\ \\(v\\ is\\ negative\\ if\\ the\\ source\\ is\\ approaching\\)\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\-A\\ practical\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ Doppler\\ effect\\:\\ police\\ radar\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ sends\\ out\\ radio\\ waves\\,\\ which\\ bounce\\ of\\ the\\ metal\\ of\\ the\\ car\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ measures\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ wavelength\\ produced\\ by\\ your\\ speed\\ in\\ the\\ reflected\\ waves\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ it\\ computes\\ v\\/c\\ \\(90\\ mph\\ \\=\\ 40\\ m\\/s\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ v\\/c\\ \\~\\ 40\\ \\/\\ \\;\\(3\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\)\\ \\~\\ 10\\-7\\ change\\ in\\ wavelength\\!\\ \\;Can\\ they\\ really\\ work\\ to\\ such\\ precision\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\MEASURE\\ MOTION\\ from\\ the\\ spectrum\\ of\\ galaxies\\:\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ \\Redshift\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-structure\\ of\\ atoms\\\\\r\\\n\\-chemistry\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\\\\r\\\n\\-cosmic\\ expansion\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ Redshift\\:\\ z\\ \\=\\ \\&Delta\\;\\&lambda\\;\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ \\&Delta\\;\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&lambda\\;observed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&lambda\\;emitted\\;\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&lambda\\;emitted\\\\\r\\\n\\-measuring\\ wavelengths\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ detect\\ motion\\ in\\ universe\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ detect\\ masses\\ of\\ stars\\,\\ know\\ that\\ universe\\ is\\ expanding\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Electrical Forces in the Quantum World"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.092015+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cosmic Ages & Nuclear Energy", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 732, "html": "\\ELECTRICAL\\ FORCES\\\\\r\\\n\\-opposites\\ attract\\\\\r\\\n\\-similar\\ charges\\ repel\\\\\r\\\n\\-proton\\ \\(positive\\ charge\\)\\ and\\ neutrons\\ \\(neutral\\ charge\\)\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ nucleus\\;\\ electrons\\(negative\\ charge\\)\\ circle\\ around\\ the\\ nucleus\\ in\\ different\\ orbitals\\\\\r\\\n\\-it\\ takes\\ work\\ to\\ pull\\ protons\\ and\\ electrons\\ apart\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ attracted\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ work\\ required\\ is\\ Energy\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTHE\\ ELECTRON\\ VOLT\\\\\r\\\n\\-an\\ energy\\ unit\\ that\\ is\\ useful\\ when\\ talking\\ about\\ atoms\\ and\\ photons\\\\\r\\\n\\-defined\\ as\\ the\\ energy\\ an\\ electron\\ gets\\ from\\ moving\\ across\\ a\\ voltage\\ difference\\ of\\ 1\\ volt\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\ eV\\ \\=\\ 1\\.60217733\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-19\\)\\ J\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n1\\.5\\ VOLT\\\\\r\\\n\\-each\\ electron\\ gets\\ an\\ energy\\ of\\ 1\\.5\\ eV\\\\\r\\\n\\-Stack\\ 2\\ to\\ get\\ 3\\ eV\\\\\r\\\n\\-heat\\ the\\ filament\\ of\\ a\\ bulb\\\\\r\\\n\\-better\\ to\\ excite\\ emission\\ of\\ quanta\\ ready\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nENERGY\\ OF\\ A\\ GREEN\\ PHOTON\\\\\r\\\nE\\ \\=\\ h\\ v\\ \\=\\ hc\\/\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ \\(6\\.62\\ x\\ 10\\-34\\ \\)\\ \\[J\\-s\\]\\ x\\ \\(3\\ x\\ 108\\)\\ \\[m\\/s\\]\\ \\/\\ \\(5\\ x\\ 10\\-7\\)\\ \\[m\\]\\ \\=\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\-19\\ J\\\\\r\\\nE\\ \\=\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\-19\\ \\[J\\]\\ \\/1\\.6\\ x\\ 10\\-19\\ J\\/eV\\\\\r\\\nE\\ \\~\\ 2\\.5\\ eV\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nh\\ \\=\\ Planck\\&rsquo\\;s\\ constant\\ \\=\\ 6\\.62\\ x\\ 10\\-34\\ J\\-s\\\\\r\\\n\\&nu\\;\\=\\ frequency\\ of\\ the\\ wave\\ \\(\\#\\ of\\ waves\\ per\\ second\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\=\\ 6\\ x\\ 1014\\ Hz\\\\\r\\\nc\\ \\=\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\ \\=\\ 2\\.9979\\ x\\ 108\\ m\\/s\\~3\\ x108\\ m\\/s\\\\\r\\\n\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ wavelength\\ of\\ green\\ light\\ \\~500\\ nm\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ electron\\ volt\\ is\\ a\\ convenient\\ unit\\ for\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ energy\\ of\\ one\\ photon\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTO\\ NOTE\\\\\r\\\n\\-sometimes\\ small\\ particles\\ act\\ like\\ waves\\\\\r\\\n\\-for\\ electrons\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;wavelength\\"\\;\\ depends\\ on\\ energy\\ \\[\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ hc\\/E\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-quantum\\ effects\\ \\-\\ much\\ like\\ diffraction\\,\\ standing\\ waves\\\\\r\\\n\\-Bohr\\'s\\ idea\\:\\ discrete\\ energy\\ states\\ correspond\\ to\\ the\\ electron\\ orbits\\ being\\ an\\ integer\\ \\#\\ of\\ electron\\ wavelengths\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\-electron\\ diffraction\\:\\ particles\\ act\\ like\\ waves\\\\\r\\\n\\-standing\\ waves\\:\\ waves\\ that\\ just\\ fit\\\\\r\\\n\\-NOT\\ all\\ orbits\\ are\\ allowed\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Bohr\\:\\ orbits\\ \\"\\;quantized\\"\\;\\ integer\\ steps\\;\\ must\\ be\\ greater\\ than\\ 2\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBOHR\\\\\r\\\n\\-energy\\ difference\\ between\\ allowed\\ levels\\ n\\ and\\ m\\ accounts\\ correctly\\ for\\ UV\\ and\\ IR\\ lines\\ that\\ your\\ eye\\ cannot\\ see\\.\\ \\;\\ Balmer\\ emission\\ lines\\ are\\ electron\\ jumps\\ from\\ above\\ to\\ level\\ n\\ \\=\\ 2\\,\\ but\\ the\\ full\\ spectrum\\ of\\ Hydrogen\\ is\\ much\\ richer\\.\\\\\r\\\n1\\/\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ R\\(1\\/n\\^2\\ \\-\\ 1\\/m\\^2\\)\\\\\r\\\nBALMER\\\\\r\\\n\\-more\\ to\\ the\\ Hydrogen\\ spectrum\\ than\\ just\\ the\\ visible\\ lines\\ of\\ the\\ Balmer\\ series\\.\\ \\;\\ UV\\ and\\ IR\\ lines\\,\\ too\\,\\ that\\ your\\ eye\\ cannot\\ see\\.\\\\\r\\\n1\\/\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ R\\(1\\/4\\ \\-\\ 1\\/m\\^2\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-R\\ \\=\\ Rydberg\\ constant\\ \\=\\ 1\\.097\\ x\\ 10\\^\\(\\-7\\)\\ m\\ \\^\\(\\-1\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ connects\\ the\\ spectrum\\ to\\ the\\ electric\\ force\\ through\\ quantum\\ physics\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nEMISSION\\ AND\\ ABSORPTION\\\\\r\\\n\\-Photon\\ is\\ emitted\\ when\\ an\\ electron\\ jumps\\ from\\ a\\ higher\\ state\\ to\\ a\\ lower\\ one\\ \\(4\\=\\>\\;2\\,\\ H\\&beta\\;\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Photon\\ is\\ absorbed\\ when\\ its\\ energy\\ goes\\ into\\ changing\\ the\\ orbit\\ of\\ an\\ electron\\\\\r\\\n\\-These\\ jumps\\ are\\ discrete\\,\\ quantized\\-nature\\ is\\ grainy\\ on\\ the\\ smallest\\ scales\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSPIN\\\\\r\\\n\\-subatomic\\ particles\\ \\(like\\ electrons\\)\\ have\\ a\\ quality\\ called\\ \\"\\;spin\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-electrons\\:\\ spin\\ \\=\\ 1\\/2\\ \\,\\ can\\ take\\ two\\ states\\ \\"\\;up\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;down\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Hydrogen\\ atom\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ electron\\ and\\ proton\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ spin\\ OR\\ \\(2\\)\\ electron\\ and\\ proton\\ have\\ opposite\\ spin\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(1\\)\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ higher\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ lower\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOPTICAL\\ AND\\ RADIO\\ WAVES\\\\\r\\\n\\-Infrared\\ 1\\-1000\\ \\&mu\\;m\\:\\ Atmosphere\\ is\\ opaque\\\\\r\\\n\\-Peak\\ of\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blackbody\\ emission\\ \\~\\ 10\\ \\&mu\\;m\\\\\r\\\n\\-IR\\ emission\\ from\\ the\\ Earth\\ is\\ very\\ sensitive\\ to\\ absorption\\ by\\ molecules\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ water\\ vapor\\ and\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Greenhouse\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ higher\\ CO2\\ abundance\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ creates\\ higher\\ surface\\ temperature\\\\\r\\\n\\-Energy\\ production\\ on\\ the\\ Earth\\ C\\ \\+\\ O\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ CO2\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIonization\\:\\ electron\\ set\\ free\\ from\\ the\\ H\\ atom\\;\\ it\\ takes\\ 13\\.6\\ eV\\;\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\<\\;\\ 91\\ nm\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nPAULI\\ EXCLUSION\\ PRINCIPLE\\\\\r\\\n\\-only\\ one\\ particle\\ in\\ each\\ state\\ \\(spin\\ counts\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Hydrogen\\:\\ 1\\ electron\\ in\\ lowest\\ energy\\ state\\ \\(the\\ ground\\ state\\)\\,\\ spinning\\ \\"\\;up\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;down\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Helium\\:\\ 2\\ electrons\\ \\(spin\\ up\\ and\\ spin\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ lowest\\ orbit\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Lithium\\:\\ 3\\ electrons\\ \\(spin\\ up\\ and\\ down\\ in\\ the\\ lowest\\ orbit\\;\\ one\\ more\\ in\\ a\\ higher\\ energy\\ orbit\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\-From\\ previous\\ lectures\\,\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ power\\ emitted\\ at\\ the\\ Sun\\ is\\ 400\\ x\\ 10\\^26\\ watt\\ \\=\\ 400\\ yottawatt\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNEW\\ FORMS\\ OF\\ RADIATION\\ DISCOVERED\\ \\~\\ 1900\\\\\r\\\n\\-Demo\\:\\ energetic\\ particles\\ emitted\\ from\\ a\\ rock\\\\\r\\\n\\-Some\\ are\\ easily\\ stopped\\,\\ but\\ some\\ are\\ very\\ penetrating\\\\\r\\\n\\&alpha\\;\\&minus\\;particles\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ helium\\ nuclei\\\\\r\\\n\\&beta\\;\\&minus\\;particles\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ electrons\\\\\r\\\n\\&gamma\\;\\-rays\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ photons\\\\\r\\\n\\-Radioactivity\\:\\ energetic\\ particles\\ emitted\\ from\\ Uranium\\ and\\ other\\ elements\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nISOTOPES\\:\\ same\\ number\\ or\\ protons\\ \\(same\\ element\\)\\ different\\ number\\ of\\ neutrons\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Cosmic Ages & Nuclear Energy"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.103041+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Fusion and Fission", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 733, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-Geiger\\ and\\ Marsden\\:\\ bombarding\\ a\\ gold\\ foil\\ with\\ alpha\\ particles\\,\\ some\\ of\\ them\\ came\\ bouncing\\ back\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ structure\\ of\\ atoms\\ not\\ jelly\\,\\ but\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\ is\\ contained\\ in\\ the\\ small\\ positively\\ charged\\ nucleus\\ and\\ negative\\ charge\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ region\\ about\\ 100\\,000\\ times\\ bigger\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Nuclei\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ various\\ chemical\\ elements\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ both\\ neutrons\\ and\\ protons\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ proton\\ has\\ an\\ uncharged\\ twin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ neutron\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ He\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 2\\ charged\\ particles\\ \\(protons\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\ neutral\\ particles\\ \\(neutrons\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Isotopes\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ same\\ number\\ of\\ protons\\ \\(same\\ element\\)\\ different\\ number\\ of\\ neutrons\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1H\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\²\\;H\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Deuterium\\ \\[\\&ldquo\\;heavy\\ matter\\&rdquo\\;\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\FORCES\\\\\r\\\n\\-strong\\ force\\:\\ binds\\ the\\ protons\\ and\\ neutrons\\ tin\\ an\\ atomic\\ nucleus\\ \\(neutrons\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ apart\\ because\\ repel\\ each\\ other\\ electrically\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-weak\\ force\\:\\ involved\\ in\\ radioactivity\\ especially\\ when\\ a\\ neutrino\\ involved\\ \\(for\\ example\\,\\ when\\ a\\ neutron\\ decays\\ into\\ a\\ proton\\,\\ electron\\,\\ and\\ neutrino\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Unlike\\ gravity\\ or\\ electromagnetism\\ \\(which\\ operate\\ over\\ big\\ differences\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ G\\ scale\\ of\\ solar\\ system\\,\\ E\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ big\\ compared\\ to\\ atoms\\)\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ short\\ range\\ force\\ and\\ only\\ operates\\ over\\ a\\ distance\\ of\\ \\~10\\^\\(\\-15\\)\\ m\\ \\(the\\ size\\ of\\ a\\ nucleus\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-ordinary\\ densities\\ and\\ temperatures\\ have\\ almost\\ no\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ nucleus\\,\\ just\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bring\\ particles\\ close\\ enough\\ for\\ the\\ strong\\ force\\ to\\ act\\ \\(no\\ cold\\ fusion\\!\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-particle\\ accelerators\\ are\\ places\\ where\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ strong\\ force\\ can\\ be\\ studied\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ whack\\ particles\\ into\\ each\\ other\\ at\\ very\\ high\\ energy\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(A\\ few\\ Tev\\ \\~10\\^6\\ x\\ the\\ energy\\ \\(Mev\\)\\ of\\ Rutherford\\'s\\ alpha\\ particles\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-there\\ is\\ another\\ level\\ of\\ structure\\ to\\ matter\\:\\ the\\ protons\\ and\\ neutrons\\ are\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ three\\ particles\\ whimsically\\ called\\ \\"\\;quarks\\"\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\LARGE\\ HADRON\\ COLLIDER\\\\\r\\\n\\-Hadrons\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ particles\\ that\\ interact\\ at\\ the\\ strong\\ force\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\SUBATOMIC\\ PARTICLES\\ ZOOMING\\ THROUGH\\ THIS\\ ROOM\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;cloud\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ chamber\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ vapor\\ condenses\\ where\\ particles\\ have\\ left\\ a\\ trail\\ of\\ ions\\\\\r\\\n\\-Experiment\\:\\ chamber\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ ethel\\ alcohol\\ and\\ dry\\ ice\\ at\\ bottom\\.\\ \\;Quite\\ cold\\ atmosphere\\ with\\ alcohol\\ at\\ bottom\\.\\ \\;Vapor\\ of\\ alcohol\\ is\\ just\\ about\\ ready\\ to\\ condense\\ and\\ turn\\ into\\ clouds\\.\\ \\;When\\ charged\\ particle\\ goes\\ through\\ this\\ gas\\,\\ it\\ knocks\\ electrons\\ off\\ particles\\ inside\\ the\\ chamber\\ and\\ creates\\ a\\ place\\ where\\ the\\ little\\ cloud\\ of\\ vapor\\ can\\ form\\.\\ \\;Welder\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rod\\ sticking\\ in\\.\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-When\\ we\\ pick\\ up\\ rock\\ from\\ earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crust\\,\\ has\\ very\\ small\\ amount\\ of\\ radioactive\\ material\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\THE\\ SOLAR\\ CONSTANT\\\\\r\\\n\\-people\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ using\\ power\\ of\\ solar\\ energy\\ in\\ some\\ practical\\ way\\\\\r\\\n\\-here\\ at\\ 1\\ AU\\ \\(earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orbit\\)\\,\\ we\\ receive\\ \\~\\ 1400\\ watt\\/m\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;solar\\ constant\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ flux\\ of\\ energy\\ here\\ at\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orbit\\ \\(above\\ the\\ atmosphere\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\(See\\ display\\ near\\ the\\ Greenhouse\\ for\\ solar\\ energy\\ collection\\ \\&ndash\\;energy\\ out\\ \\~3\\%\\ of\\ this\\.\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\&rsquo\\;S\\ THE\\ POWER\\ EMITTED\\ AT\\ THE\\ SUN\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-We\\ know\\ the\\ flux\\ here\\:\\ 1400\\ watt\\/m\\²\\;\\ and\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ distance\\ \\*by\\ bouncing\\ radio\\ waves\\ off\\ planets\\ fro\\ mARicebo\\!\\)\\ of\\ 1\\ A\\\\\r\\\n\\-l500\\ ight\\-seconds\\ to\\ the\\ Sun\\\\\r\\\n1\\.496\\ x\\ 10\\^11\\ m\\\\\r\\\n\\(93\\,000\\,000\\ miles\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-How\\ many\\ square\\ meters\\ in\\ a\\ sphere\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ 1\\ AU\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ L\\ \\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;R\\^2\\ \\[m\\^2\\]\\ x\\ 1400\\ watt\\/m\\^2\\ \\=\\ 400\\ yottawatt\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-things\\ that\\ are\\ radioactively\\ decaying\\\\\r\\\n\\-Meteorites\\ found\\ in\\ Antarctica\\ are\\ better\\ than\\ rocks\\ from\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crust\\ which\\ are\\ being\\ created\\ and\\ destroyed\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-in\\ meteorites\\,\\ formed\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ when\\ the\\ first\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\ solidified\\,\\ theres\\ 40K\\ present\\,\\ but\\ there\\'s\\ no\\ Argon\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ noble\\ gas\\ \\(like\\ Helium\\)\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ combine\\ chemically\\ and\\ bubbles\\ off\\ before\\ the\\ rock\\ forms\\.\\ \\;\\ Every\\ half\\ life\\ \\(1\\.25\\ Gyr\\)\\,\\ half\\ the\\ 40K\\ nuclei\\ decay\\ into\\ 40Ar\\.\\ \\;\\ Today\\ we\\ measure\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ 40Ar\\ and\\ find\\ it\\ is\\ \\~1\\/16\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ 40K\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ 4\\ ticks\\ of\\ this\\ clock\\ \\~\\ 5\\ Gyr\\\\\r\\\n\\-surface\\ of\\ earth\\ has\\ ongoing\\ process\\ of\\ creation\\ and\\ destruction\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ rocks\\ on\\ surface\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ old\\ as\\ the\\ earth\\ itself\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ not\\ good\\ for\\ dating\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\RADIOACTIVITY\\:\\ AN\\ EXPONENTIAL\\ DECAY\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ \\#\\ of\\ decays\\ per\\ second\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ nuclei\\\\\r\\\n\\-there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;half\\-life\\&rdquo\\;\\ associated\\ with\\ each\\ nucleus\\ so\\ that\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ nuclei\\ will\\ \\(on\\ avg\\.\\)\\ decay\\ in\\ that\\ time\\.\\ \\;One\\ element\\ can\\ change\\ into\\ another\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ half\\-life\\ of\\ various\\ nuclei\\ vary\\ over\\ a\\ huge\\ range\\ from\\ a\\ small\\ fraction\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ to\\ billions\\ of\\ years\\\\\r\\\n\\-neutrons\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ proton\\ \\+\\ electron\\ \\+\\ neutrino\\:\\ \\~\\ 1000\\ seconds\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\³\\;H\\ \\(hydrogen\\ 1\\ proton\\,\\ 2\\ neutrons\\)\\ \\=\\ Tritium\\:\\ 12\\ years\\\\\r\\\n\\-40K\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ 40\\ Ar\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.25\\ Gyr\\\\\r\\\n19\\ protons\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>18\\ protons\\\\\r\\\n21\\ neutrons\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;22\\ neutrons\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\-nuclei\\ keep\\ time\\ so\\ well\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ so\\ small\\ \\&\\;\\ environments\\ have\\ no\\ effect\\ on\\ nuclear\\ clocks\\\\\r\\\n\\-sun\\ would\\ only\\ last\\ 1500\\ years\\ if\\ chemical\\ energy\\ were\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ its\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWHAT\\ IS\\ IT\\ LIKE\\ IN\\ THE\\ CENTER\\ OF\\ THE\\ SUN\\\\\r\\\n\\-weight\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ crushing\\ down\\\\\r\\\n\\-gas\\ pressure\\ pushing\\ back\\\\\r\\\n\\-balance\\ \\\\<\\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Equilibrium\\\\\r\\\n\\-pressure\\ comes\\ from\\ a\\ combo\\ of\\ high\\ temperature\\ and\\ high\\ density\\\\\r\\\n\\-Experiment\\:\\ Pumping\\ air\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ can\\.\\ \\;We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ feel\\ pressure\\ because\\ pressure\\ inside\\ \\(lungs\\)\\ is\\ same\\ as\\ pressure\\ outside\\.\\ \\;Steel\\ drum\\ crushed\\ by\\ air\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ because\\ no\\ more\\ pressure\\ inside\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-T\\ \\~\\ 15\\ 000\\ 000\\ K\\\\\r\\\n\\-density\\ \\=\\ \\&rho\\;\\ \\~\\ 100\\ x\\ density\\ of\\ water\\ \\(lead\\ is\\ about\\ 10\\ x\\ density\\ of\\ water\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\&rho\\;\\ \\~\\ 10\\\\\r\\\n\\-high\\ density\\ means\\ high\\ volume\\ of\\ particles\\ around\\ you\\ bumping\\ into\\ each\\ other\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\PROTONS\\ COLLIDE\\ IN\\ THE\\ SUN\\&rsquo\\;S\\ INTERIOR\\\\\r\\\n\\-high\\ temperature\\ means\\ high\\ velocity\\ of\\ the\\ protons\\.\\ \\;\\(Hydrogen\\ is\\ fully\\ ionized\\ under\\ these\\ conditions\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Even\\ though\\ they\\ repel\\ one\\ another\\,\\ some\\ get\\ close\\ enough\\ for\\ nuclear\\ forces\\ to\\ operate\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Thermonuclear\\ reactons\\ \\+\\ \\<\\;\\=\\>\\;\\ \\+\\ \\(protons\\ collide\\ instead\\ of\\ repelling\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\THE\\ SUN\\&rsquo\\;S\\ ENERGY\\\\\r\\\n\\-need\\ to\\ work\\ to\\ high\\ precision\\\\\r\\\n\\-mass\\ of\\ ingredients\\ is\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ product\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ difference\\ shows\\ up\\ as\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n4\\ Hydrogen\\ nuclei\\ \\=\\ 6\\.693\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-27\\ kilogram\\\\\r\\\n1\\ Helium\\ nucleus\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\=\\ 6\\.645\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-27\\ kilogram\\\\\r\\\n0\\.048\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-27\\ kilogram\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ mass\\ missing\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ converted\\ into\\ Energy\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;This\\ mass\\ is\\ converted\\ to\\ energy\\ by\\ Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ formula\\:\\ E\\ \\=\\ mc\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-You\\ get\\ 9\\ x\\ 10\\^16\\ joules\\ for\\ every\\ kilogram\\!\\ \\;Here\\ the\\ mass\\ is\\ 0\\.048\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-27\\ kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\E\\ \\=\\ 0\\.048\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-27\\ kg\\ \\(3\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\ m\\/s\\)\\ \\²\\;\\\\\r\\\nE\\ \\=\\ 4\\.3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-12\\ joule\\\\\r\\\nI\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\s\\ that\\ a\\ lot\\?\\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ 0\\.7\\%\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ ingredients\\.\\ \\;Use\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ energy\\ density\\\\\r\\\n\\-Energy\\ density\\ \\=\\ E\\/M\\ \\=\\ 4\\.3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-12\\ J\\/6\\.6\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-27\\ kg\\ \\=\\ 6\\ x\\ 10\\^14\\ J\\/kg\\\\\r\\\n\\-We\\ computed\\ the\\ Sun\\ needs\\ \\~\\ 10\\^13\\ J\\/kg\\\\\r\\\n\\-This\\ is\\ plenty\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ sun\\ shining\\ for\\ 10\\ Gyr\\ \\(billion\\ years\\)\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-In\\ principle\\,\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ energy\\ change\\ has\\ potential\\ to\\ provide\\ Sun\\ to\\ shine\\ for\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\FUSION\\ AND\\ FISSION\\\\\r\\\n\\-Fusion\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ turn\\ light\\ elements\\ \\(less\\ atomic\\ mass\\ than\\ Iron\\)\\ into\\ heavy\\ ones\\\\\r\\\n\\-Fission\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ split\\ big\\ nuclei\\ \\(elements\\ with\\ greater\\ atomic\\ mass\\ than\\ Iron\\)\\ into\\ smaller\\ parts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\EXPERIMENT\\\\\r\\\n\\-mouse\\ traps\\ with\\ ping\\ pong\\ balls\\ on\\ them\\\\\r\\\n\\-if\\ neutron\\ produces\\ a\\ fission\\,\\ and\\ then\\ neutron\\ escapes\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ another\\ fission\\\\\r\\\n\\-if\\ enough\\ in\\ a\\ confined\\ place\\,\\ one\\ fission\\ can\\ cause\\ another\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Fusion and Fission"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.115733+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Neutrinos and Bombs", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 734, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\NUCLEAR\\ LIFETIME\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-t\\ \\=\\ lifetime\\ \\=\\ Energy\\[joules\\]\\/\\ Luminosity\\ \\[watts\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-t\\ \\=\\ M\\ x\\ \\(E\\/M\\)\\ \\/L\\ \\=M\\ x\\ E\\/L\\ \\=\\ M\\/L\\ x\\ E\\\\\r\\\n\\-t\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\-4\\ E\\ years\\\\\r\\\n\\-t\\=\\ 100\\ billion\\ years\\ if\\ a\\ star\\ could\\ use\\ all\\ its\\ Hydrogen\\,\\ BUT\\&hellip\\;only\\ about\\ 1\\/10\\ of\\ the\\ star\\ participates\\ in\\\\\r\\\nnuclear\\ burning\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-Fusion\\ of\\ Hydrogen\\ to\\ Helium\\ has\\ ample\\\\\r\\\nenergy\\ to\\ power\\ the\\ Sun\\ for\\ billions\\ of\\\\\r\\\nyears\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\THERMONUCLEAR\\ FUSION\\:\\ Detailed\\ Set\\ of\\ Reactions\\\\\r\\\n\\-Step\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1\\:\\ Hydrogen\\ \\+\\ Hydrogen\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\Deuterium\\<\\/span\\>\\+\\ Positron\\ \\+\\ Neutrino\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Weak\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ force\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ deuterium\\\\\r\\\n\\-Step\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 2\\:\\ Deuterium\\ \\+\\ Hydrogen\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Helium\\-3\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\+\\ Photon\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Strong\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ force\\ when\\ hydrogen\\ bumps\\ into\\ deuterium\\ and\\ sticks\\,\\ photon\\ \\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ electromagnetism\\\\\r\\\n\\-Step\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 3\\:\\ Helium\\-3\\ \\+\\ Helium\\-3\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\Helium\\-4\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\+\\ Hydrogen\\ \\+\\ Hydrogen\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-All\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 4\\ forces\\ of\\ nature\\ involved\\ in\\ this\\ story\\,\\ when\\ Helim\\-3\\&rsquo\\;s\\ collide\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ helium\\ 4\\\\\r\\\nNet\\ result\\:\\ 4\\ protons\\ go\\ in\\,\\ 2\\ come\\ out\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ENRICO\\ FERMI\\\\\r\\\n\\-master\\ of\\ both\\ theory\\ and\\ experiment\\\\\r\\\n\\-weak\\ interactions\\ \\&\\;\\ neutrinos\\\\\r\\\n\\-built\\ the\\ first\\ nuclear\\ reactor\\ \\(at\\ UChicago\\)\\ Novel\\ Prize\\ in\\ 1938\\;\\ Came\\ to\\ US\\\\\r\\\n\\-Fermilab\\ \\(also\\ overpass\\ in\\ East\\ Boston\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNEUTRINO\\ \\(v\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-no\\ charge\\\\\r\\\n\\-no\\ strong\\ interaction\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\(Almost\\)\\ No\\ Mass\\ \\(\\<\\;10\\^\\-11\\ mass\\ of\\ a\\ proton\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-very\\ difficult\\ to\\ study\\ because\\ interact\\ so\\ weakly\\ with\\ matter\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ need\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ them\\ to\\ produce\\ any\\ result\\ you\\ can\\ measure\\\\\r\\\n\\-Summary\\:\\ neutrinos\\ are\\ nearly\\ massless\\,\\ chargeless\\ particles\\ that\\ interact\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ weak\\ nuclear\\ force\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-To\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ power\\ the\\ Sun\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nuclear\\ fusion\\ converts\\ Hydrogen\\ to\\ Helium\\ and\\ produces\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\-Matches\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ energy\\ output\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\\\\r\\\n\\-Detailed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ steps\\ worked\\ out\\ by\\ Bethe\\ \\(see\\ Archives\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Prediction\\:\\ there\\ should\\ be\\ neutrinos\\ emitted\\ from\\ the\\ Sun\\'s\\ core\\\\\r\\\n\\-About\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 3\\%\\ of\\ Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emission\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ neutrinos\\,\\ not\\ photons\\\\\r\\\n\\-Arithmetic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\&ndash\\;\\ move\\ at\\ almost\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\;\\ expect\\ 10\\^15\\ per\\ second\\ per\\ m\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHERE\\ ARE\\ THE\\ NEUTRINOS\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Observed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rate\\ \\~\\ 1\\/3\\ predicted\\ rate\\ \\?\\ What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ up\\ with\\ this\\\\\r\\\n\\-Puzzle\\:\\ observed\\ flux\\ of\\ neutrinos\\ is\\ about\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ computed\\ rate\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ luminosity\\ \\+\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ nuclear\\ energy\\ generation\\&hellip\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Something\\ new\\ about\\ neutrino\\&rsquo\\;s\\?\\\r\\\n\\Ve\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Ve\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\ \\ only\\ ones\\ we\\ can\\ detect\\&hellip\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ V\\&mu\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ neutrinos\\ hard\\ to\\ detect\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ V\\&tau\\;\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Answer\\?\\ New\\ Physics\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\URANIUM\\\\\r\\\n\\-19\\ different\\ isotopes\\\\\r\\\n\\-Slow\\ decaying\\ ones\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 238U\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 4\\.5\\ billion\\ years\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 235U\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 700\\ million\\ years\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 234U\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 250\\,000\\ years\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(239U\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 23\\ minutes\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-These\\ elements\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ supernova\\ explosions\\.\\ \\;They\\ have\\ been\\ decaying\\ since\\ then\\.\\ \\;In\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ 238U\\ is\\ common\\,\\ 235U\\ less\\ than\\ 1\\%\\ of\\ natural\\ uranium\\.\\ \\;235U\\ is\\ the\\ type\\ used\\ in\\ reactors\\ and\\ in\\ fission\\ bombs\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;Enrichment\\&rdquo\\;\\ means\\ separating\\ the\\ isotopes\\ to\\ get\\ purer\\ 235U\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-Reactor\\:\\ enrich\\ to\\ about\\ 3\\%\\\\\r\\\n\\-Weapons\\:\\ enrich\\ to\\ almost\\ 100\\%\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCHAIN\\ REACTION\\\\\r\\\n\\-In\\ a\\ \\reactor\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ carefully\\ controlled\\ by\\ absorbing\\ the\\ neutrons\\ \\-\\-\\ 1\\ neutron\\ absorbed\\ for\\ each\\ U\\ fission\\ \\-\\ no\\ growth\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ reactor\\ cannot\\ blow\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ bomb\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-In\\ a\\\\ bomb\\ \\-\\ \\rapid\\ exponential\\ growth\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>in\\ number\\ of\\ reactions\\ if\\ the\\ neutrons\\ are\\ captured\\ and\\ cause\\ more\\ fissions\\ \\-\\ like\\ the\\ bin\\ of\\ mousetraps\\\\\r\\\n\\-Timescale\\ to\\ collide\\ and\\ fission\\ \\~\\ 10\\^\\-8\\ sec\\ \\"\\;shake\\"\\;\\ \\(as\\ in\\ the\\ shake\\ of\\ a\\ lamb\\'s\\ tail\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\ kg\\ \\~\\ 10\\^24\\ nuclei\\ \\~\\ 2\\^80\\ so\\ you\\ need\\ \\~\\ 100\\ generations\\ x\\ 10\\^08\\ s\\ \\~\\ 10\\^\\-6\\ sec\\ to\\ release\\ this\\ energy\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ explosion\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-How\\ much\\ energy\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\ kg\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ 7\\ x\\ 10\\^13\\ Joules\\ \\~\\ 10\\^4\\ tons\\ of\\ TNT\\\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\CRITICAL\\ MASS\\\\\r\\\n\\-Critical\\ \\mass\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ enough\\ fissile\\ material\\ so\\ the\\ neutron\\ has\\ a\\ good\\ chance\\ of\\ being\\ absorbed\\ and\\ producing\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ neutron\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ 235U\\ \\~\\ 50\\ kg\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ 239Pu\\ \\(plutonium\\)\\ \\~\\ 10\\ kg\\\\\r\\\n\\-Not\\ very\\ large\\ amounts\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-Hiroshima\\ bomb\\:\\ 15\\ kilotons\\ of\\ TNT\\ \\~\\ 6\\ x\\ 10\\^13\\ Joules\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\ kiloton\\ \\~\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^12\\ J\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\(Timothy\\ McVeigh\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ryder\\ truck\\ \\~\\ 2\\.5\\ tons\\ of\\ explosive\\,\\ so\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 400\\ trucks\\ worth\\!\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-idea\\ if\\ amount\\ you\\ have\\ is\\ too\\ small\\,\\ then\\ neutrons\\ will\\ escape\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ have\\ enough\\ stuff\\,\\ path\\ of\\ neutrons\\ will\\ involve\\ collisions\\ and\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ self\\ sustaining\\ reaction\\ that\\ will\\ grow\\ in\\ exponential\\ way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Trinity\\ Test\\:\\ 239Pu\\\\\r\\\nHiroshima\\:\\ 235U\\\\\r\\\nNagasaki\\:\\ 239Pu\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\H\\-BOMB\\ DESIGN\\\\\r\\\n\\-want\\ to\\ create\\ conditions\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ fusion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ do\\ that\\ set\\ off\\ on\\ left\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ primary\\ \\(fission\\ bomb\\)\\ with\\ plutonium\\,\\ high\\ explosive\\,\\ and\\ implosion\\ bomb\\ in\\ center\\ then\\ high\\ energy\\ photons\\ move\\ to\\ other\\ side\\ and\\ heat\\ up\\ left\\,\\ increasing\\ its\\ density\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ begins\\ fusion\\\\\r\\\n\\-energy\\ release\\ comes\\ from\\ fusion\\ but\\ fission\\ bomb\\ heats\\ the\\ deuterium\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Neutrinos and Bombs"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.127724+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Big Eyes", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 735, "html": "\\SUPERNOVA\\ EXPLOSIONS\\\\\r\\\n\\-some\\ are\\ thermonuclear\\ and\\ some\\ create\\ heavy\\ elements\\ like\\ Uranium\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\ ARE\\ TELESCOPES\\ FOR\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Collect\\ more\\ light\\\\\r\\\n\\-Resolve\\ finer\\ detail\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\HOW\\ FAR\\ ARE\\ THE\\ STARS\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Needed\\ a\\ new\\ technology\\ to\\ find\\ out\\\\\r\\\n\\-Your\\ eyes\\ cannot\\ detect\\ the\\ annual\\ parallax\\ shift\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ Earth\\ motion\\ around\\ the\\ Sun\\\\\r\\\n\\-This\\ requires\\ higher\\ resolution\\-\\-\\ More\\ precise\\ measurement\\ of\\ angles\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ You\\ must\\ use\\ a\\ telescope\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\STARS\\ ARE\\ DISTANT\\ SUNS\\\\\r\\\n\\-distances\\ first\\ measure\\ in\\ 1800\\'s\\ \\-\\-\\ required\\ measurement\\ of\\ very\\ small\\ angles\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\"\\;parallax\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\ AU\\ subtends\\ 1\\ arcsecond\\ at\\ 1\\ parsec\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\ parsec\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ AU\\ \\-\\ 3\\.2616\\ LY\\\\\r\\\n\\-nearest\\ stars\\ have\\ distances\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ parsec\\ \\~\\ a\\ few\\ light\\ years\\ \\(angle\\ gets\\ smaller\\ as\\ distances\\ get\\ larger\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\PARALLAX\\ \\&\\;\\ DISTANCE\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ parallax\\ angle\\ gets\\ smaller\\ as\\ the\\ distance\\ to\\ a\\ star\\ is\\ larger\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&theta\\;\\ \\=\\ A\\/D\\ here\\ A\\ \\=\\ 1\\ AU\\,\\ D\\ is\\ distance\\ in\\ parsecs\\ and\\ \\&theta\\;\\ is\\ the\\ parallax\\ angle\\ \\(\\ in\\ arcseconds\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\ D\\ \\=\\ A\\/\\&theta\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-D\\ \\[parsec\\]\\ \\=\\ 1\\ \\[AU\\]\\/\\&theta\\;\\ \\[arcsec\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\HOW\\ MUCH\\ FLUX\\ FROM\\ STARS\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Think\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ like\\ the\\ Sun\\ at\\ a\\ typical\\ distance\\ for\\ stars\\ you\\ see\\ \\~10\\ parsec\\ \\(parallax\\ \\~1\\/10\\ arcsec\\)\\\\\r\\\nFstar\\ \\=\\ Lstar\\/4\\&pi\\;\\ Dstar\\^2\\\\\r\\\nFsun\\ \\=\\ Lsun\\/4\\&pi\\;\\ Dsun\\^2\\\\\r\\\nFstar\\/Fsun\\ \\=\\ \\(Lstar\\ \\/\\ Lsun\\)\\ \\(Dsun\\/Dstar\\)\\^2\\\\\r\\\nSuppose\\ Lstar\\ \\=\\ Lsun\\\\\r\\\nDsun\\ \\=\\ 1\\ AU\\;\\ Dstar\\ \\=\\ 10\\ pc\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ AU\\\\\r\\\nFstar\\/Fsun\\ \\=\\ \\(1\\)\\ 1\\/\\(2\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\)2\\ \\=\\ 1\\/\\(4\\ x\\ 10\\^12\\)\\\\\r\\\nFstar\\/Fsun\\ \\=\\ 2\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-13\\\\\r\\\nFun\\/Fstar\\ \\=\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^12\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ Sun\\ provides\\ 4\\ trillion\\ times\\ the\\ flux\\ of\\ a\\ nearby\\ \\(10\\ parsecs\\ away\\)\\ star\\ like\\ the\\ sun\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-This\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ easy\\ number\\ to\\ estimate\\ or\\ to\\ measure\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ stars\\ are\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ daytime\\,\\ but\\ are\\ masked\\ by\\ the\\ Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ light\\ that\\ scatters\\ in\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ atmosphere\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\TELESCOPE\\ OPTICS\\\\\r\\\n\\-Collecting\\ Area\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-stars\\ are\\ faint\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ distant\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\-Flux\\ \\~\\ L\\ \\/\\ D\\^2\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(inverse\\ square\\ law\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Resolution\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\-see\\ detail\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ blur\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-wavelength\\ of\\ light\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\"\\;diffraction\\ limit\\"\\;\\ affected\\ by\\ Earth\\'s\\ atmosphere\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nRESOLUTION\\:\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ see\\ detail\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\(also\\ helps\\ to\\ distinguish\\ faint\\ objects\\ from\\ the\\ glowing\\ sky\\ background\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-In\\ principle\\,\\ resolution\\,\\ the\\ smallest\\ angle\\ you\\ can\\ distinguish\\ in\\ an\\ image\\,\\ is\\ limited\\ by\\ the\\ wave\\ nature\\ of\\ light\\ \\-\\-diffraction\\ \\{DEMO\\ \\-\\ single\\ slit\\ diffraction\\}\\\\\r\\\n\\&theta\\;\\[arc\\ sec\\]\\ \\=\\ 2x10\\^5\\ \\&lambda\\;\\/D\\\\\r\\\n\\-Here\\,\\ D\\ means\\ the\\ diameter\\ of\\ the\\ telescope\\,\\ measured\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ units\\ as\\ the\\ wavelenth\\ \\[m\\]\\ and\\ \\&theta\\;\\ is\\ the\\ resulting\\ angular\\ resolution\\ of\\ the\\ telescope\\ in\\ arc\\ seconds\\ as\\ set\\ by\\ diffraction\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ DIFFRACTION\\ LIMIT\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\DIFFRACTION\\ LIMIT\\ OF\\ THE\\ HUMAN\\ EYE\\\\\r\\\n\\-light\\ enters\\ through\\ your\\ eyes\\'\\ pupil\\\\\r\\\n\\-D\\ \\~\\ 3\\ mm\\ fully\\ dilated\\ \\&\\;\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\~\\ 600\\ nm\\\\\r\\\n\\&theta\\;\\[arc\\ sec\\]\\ \\=\\ 2x10\\^5\\ \\&lambda\\;\\/D\\\\\r\\\n\\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ x\\ 6\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-7\\ \\/\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-3\\\\\r\\\n\\=\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^1\\ \\=\\ 40\\ arc\\ sec\\ \\~1\\ arc\\ minute\\\\\r\\\n\\-A\\ person\\ with\\ good\\ vision\\ can\\ resolve\\ the\\ bars\\ of\\ an\\ E\\ on\\ an\\ eye\\ chart\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ separated\\ by\\ \\~1\\ arc\\ minute\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\*The\\ resolution\\ for\\ big\\ optical\\ telescopes\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ is\\ NOT\\ LIMITED\\ by\\ diffraction\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ limited\\ by\\ the\\ atmosphere\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Big Eyes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.138125+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Astronomers v. the Atmosphere", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 736, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-Atmosphere\\ problem\\ for\\ telescopes\\ caused\\ by\\ homogeneity\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ distorts\\ images\\\\\r\\\n\\-for\\ 1\\ arcsec\\,\\ D\\ is\\ about\\ 10\\ cm\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ if\\ make\\ 100\\ m\\,\\ could\\ be\\ 1\\/100\\ arcsec\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nPARALLAX\\ \\&\\;\\ DISTANCE\\\\\r\\\n\\-Bessel\\ measured\\ the\\ parallax\\ of\\ 61\\ Cygni\\ in\\ 1838\\\\\r\\\n\\-Parallax\\ \\=\\ 0\\"\\;\\.3136\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\ the\\ distance\\ \\(in\\ parsecs\\)\\ is\\ \\\\\r\\\nD\\ \\=\\ 1\\/0\\.3136\\ \\=\\ 3\\.2\\ pc\\ \\~\\ 10\\.4\\ light\\ year\\ \\(modern\\ value\\ \\~\\ 11\\.4\\ LY\\:\\ Bessel\\ was\\ pretty\\ accurate\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Precision\\ of\\ the\\ measurement\\ \\~\\ 0\\"\\;\\.0202\\ \\"\\;we\\ can\\ no\\ longer\\ doubt\\ this\\ parallax\\ is\\ sensible\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTELESCOPE\\ DIAMETER\\ TO\\ GET\\ 1\\"\\;\\ RESOLUTION\\\\\r\\\n\\&theta\\;\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\/D\\\\\r\\\n1\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\(2\\ x10\\^5\\)\\ \\(5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-7\\)\\/\\ D\\\\\r\\\nD\\=\\ 10\\^\\-1\\ meter\\ \\~\\ 4\\ inches\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-A\\ 4\\-inch\\ telescope\\ could\\ resolve\\ 1\\ arc\\ second\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMANY\\ TYPES\\ OF\\ LIGHT\\\\\r\\\n\\-E\\ \\=\\ hc\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ as\\ wavelength\\ gets\\ larger\\,\\ energy\\ decreases\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nObservatories\\ built\\ to\\ observe\\ all\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ spectra\\.\\ \\;\\ Often\\ they\\ get\\ named\\ after\\ somebody\\ \\(NASA\\ especially\\ good\\ at\\ this\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ New\\ satellite\\ observing\\ gamma\\ rays\\ named\\ after\\ Fermi\\ \\(built\\ first\\ nuclear\\ reactor\\,\\ sustained\\ chain\\ reaction\\,\\ worked\\ out\\ theory\\ of\\ chain\\ reaction\\ and\\ named\\ neutrino\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOPTICAL\\ AND\\ RADIO\\ WAVES\\\\\r\\\n\\-Infrared\\ 1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1000\\ \\&mu\\;m\\:\\ Atmosphere\\ is\\ opaque\\\\\r\\\n\\-diagram\\ meant\\ to\\ show\\ what\\ fraction\\ of\\ light\\ coming\\ from\\ astronomical\\ sources\\ makes\\ it\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\\\\r\\\n\\-Peak\\ of\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ blackbody\\ emission\\ \\~\\ 10\\ \\&mu\\;m\\\\\r\\\n\\-IR\\ emission\\ from\\ the\\ Earth\\ is\\ very\\ sensitive\\ to\\ absorption\\ by\\ molecules\\:\\ water\\ vapor\\ and\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;Greenhouse\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ higher\\ CO\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\ abundance\\ creates\\ higher\\ surface\\ temperature\\\\\r\\\n\\-most\\ of\\ places\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ absorption\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ molecules\\ \\(usually\\ water\\ molecules\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fog\\)\\;\\ big\\ window\\ on\\ right\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ exploited\\ since\\ 1920s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ radio\\ emission\\ from\\ the\\ universe\\ \\-concentrate\\ on\\ IR\\;\\ atmosphere\\ is\\ mostly\\ opaque\\,\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ windows\\ with\\ transmission\\\\\r\\\n\\-Earth\\ temperature\\ around\\ 300K\\ and\\ peak\\ of\\ emission\\ is\\ around\\ 300\\ \\&mu\\;m\\,\\ planet\\ emitting\\ at\\ around\\ 10\\ \\&mu\\;m\\\\\r\\\n\\-blanket\\ in\\ the\\ IR\\ that\\ makes\\ it\\ hard\\ for\\ energy\\ to\\ get\\ from\\ surface\\ up\\ to\\ place\\ where\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ emitted\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>surface\\ temp\\ of\\ earth\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ warmer\\ than\\ is\\ \\ \\ CHANGE\\ IN\\ CO2\\ AND\\ CHANGES\\ IN\\ CLIMATE\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;Greenhouse\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ higher\\ CO2\\ abundance\\ increases\\ the\\ insulation\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ atmosphere\\\\\r\\\n\\(Just\\ a\\ metaphor\\-\\-\\ not\\ how\\ a\\ greenhouse\\ works\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-An\\ opaque\\ atmosphere\\ needs\\ a\\ bigger\\ temperature\\ difference\\ to\\ transport\\ the\\ heat\\ from\\ the\\ surface\\ to\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ it\\ radiates\\-\\-\\ like\\ an\\ infrared\\ blanket\\\\\r\\\n\\-That\\ means\\ a\\ higher\\ surface\\ temperature\\\\\r\\\n\\-Energy\\ production\\ on\\ the\\ Earth\\ C\\ \\+\\ O\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ CO2\\\\\r\\\n\\-CO2\\ has\\ been\\ increasing\\ Earth\\ temperature\\ is\\ increasing\\,\\ too\\.\\\\\r\\\nCause\\ \\&\\;\\ effect\\?\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Higher\\ CO2\\ abundance\\ increases\\ the\\ insulation\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\'s\\ atmosphere\\:\\ the\\ energy\\ in\\ balances\\ the\\ energy\\ out\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ more\\ opacity\\ ad\\ bigger\\ the\\ temperature\\ is\\ between\\ those\\ places\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ Earth\\'s\\ temperature\\ is\\ going\\ up\\ \\-\\ by\\ about\\ the\\ amount\\ expected\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ IR\\ caused\\ by\\ CO2\\\\\r\\\n\\-CO2\\ in\\ atmosphere\\ has\\ increased\\ exponentially\\ since\\ 1800\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\-Solar\\ Energy\\ IN\\:\\ \\\\\r\\\nFlux\\ \\~\\ 1\\ \\/\\ D\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\nDvenus\\ \\~\\ 0\\.7\\ Dearth\\\\\r\\\nFlux\\ \\~\\ 2\\ x\\ bigger\\\\\r\\\n\\-IR\\ Energy\\ OUT\\:\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\Flux\\ \\~\\<\\/small\\>\\<\\/big\\>\\\\ \\\\&sigma\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\T\\^4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\Expect\\ T\\ bigger\\ by\\ 2\\^\\(1\\/4\\)\\\\\r\\\nExpect\\ Tvenus\\ \\~\\ 1\\.2\\ x\\ Teart\\\\\r\\\nTearth\\ \\~\\ 300\\ K\\,\\ 1\\.2\\ x\\ 300\\ \\=\\ 360\\\\\r\\\nTvenus\\ \\~\\ 750\\ K\\,\\ C\\)2\\ atmosphere\\ \\(almost\\ all\\ of\\ atmosphere\\!\\)\\\\\r\\\nNo\\ liquid\\ water\\!\\ Hot\\ as\\ fire\\!\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\nTHE\\ ATMOSPHERE\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ atmosphere\\ introduces\\ blurring\\ at\\ the\\ 1\\&rdquo\\;\\ level\\ for\\ optical\\ telescopes\\.\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\-Bigger\\ optical\\ telescopes\\ collect\\ more\\ light\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ make\\ sharper\\ images\\ without\\ special\\ tricks\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nPRINCIPAL\\ SOURCE\\ OF\\ BLURRING\\:\\ HOT\\ AIR\\\\\r\\\n\\-Temperature\\ variations\\ in\\ air\\ both\\ near\\ the\\ telescope\\ and\\ higher\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ create\\ blobs\\ of\\ air\\ that\\ bend\\ light\\ by\\ varying\\ angles\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\"\\;seeing\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Good\\ seeing\\ \\<\\;\\ 1\\"\\;\\;\\ bad\\ seeing\\ \\~\\ 3\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-warm\\ air\\ bends\\ light\\ a\\ little\\ less\\ than\\ cold\\ air\\;\\ in\\ homogeneities\\ in\\ earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ atmosphere\\ very\\ small\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ turn\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ jittering\\ of\\ images\\ due\\ to\\ bits\\ of\\ air\\ going\\ by\\ that\\ have\\ different\\ temperatures\\\\\r\\\n\\-Demo\\:\\ light\\ beam\\ over\\ hot\\ plate\\:\\ Hot\\ plate\\ with\\ a\\ laser\\ next\\ to\\ it\\ shining\\ against\\ the\\ wall\\.\\ \\;\\ Red\\ dot\\ on\\ the\\ wall\\,\\ sending\\ light\\ beam\\ over\\ hot\\ plate\\,\\ red\\ dot\\ jittering\\ around\\.\\ \\;If\\ take\\ hot\\ plate\\ out\\ of\\ way\\,\\ red\\ dot\\ becomes\\ stationary\\/steady\\\\\r\\\n\\-Demo\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;shadows\\&rdquo\\;\\ caused\\ by\\ light\\ path\\ differences\\.\\ \\;\\ Optical\\ set\\ up\\ similar\\ to\\ that\\ astronomers\\ make\\.\\ \\;\\ Tests\\ used\\ to\\ see\\ whether\\ the\\ mirror\\ is\\ exactly\\ spherical\\ \\(if\\ so\\,\\ will\\ all\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ shade\\ of\\ white\\ in\\ the\\ set\\ up\\ \\/\\ apparatus\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Blobs\\ of\\ air\\ going\\ past\\ mirror\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ warmer\\,\\ some\\ cooler\\,\\ introduce\\ differences\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ mirror\\ not\\ all\\ lit\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ \\;\\ Put\\ warm\\ hand\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ mirror\\,\\ breath\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ way\\ of\\ seeing\\ the\\ optical\\ effect\\ \\(effect\\ of\\ light\\)\\ on\\ the\\ temperature\\ differences\\.\\ \\;\\ Cold\\ stuff\\ in\\ beaker\\ \\(ice\\ water\\)\\ and\\ the\\ glass\\,\\ bottle\\ of\\ gas\\ which\\ is\\ denser\\ than\\ nitrogen\\ in\\ air\\ around\\ us\\,\\ into\\ glass\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ pour\\ out\\ of\\ cup\\ \\(invisible\\)\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-differences\\ in\\ density\\ of\\ the\\ air\\ that\\ are\\ causing\\ these\\ problems\\ \\ \\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-bottle\\ of\\ Harvard\\ Ale\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pull\\ cork\\,\\ helium\\ in\\ it\\ that\\ floats\\ of\\ the\\ bottle\\ low\\ density\\ so\\ gloats\\ upward\\;\\ low\\ shadows\\ and\\ wiggliness\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ problems\\ for\\ telescopes\\ looking\\ into\\ the\\ atmosphere\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nNIGHTLY\\ SEEING\\:\\ LAS\\ CAMPANAS\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\-Chile\\ good\\ because\\ dark\\,\\ high\\,\\ dry\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ telescopes\\ are\\ carefully\\ designed\\ to\\ track\\ the\\ temperature\\ of\\ the\\ night\\ time\\ air\\\\\r\\\n\\-about\\ once\\ a\\ minute\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ analyzed\\ and\\ corrections\\ computed\\ to\\ push\\ the\\ mirror\\ more\\ nearly\\ to\\ the\\ correct\\ shape\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ result\\ is\\ exquisite\\ seeing\\ \\&ndash\\;the\\ resolution\\ is\\ limited\\ only\\ by\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nATMOSPHERIC\\ PROBLEMS\\\\\r\\\n\\-there\\ are\\ human\\ beings\\ on\\ the\\ earth\\ that\\ like\\ lights\\ at\\ night\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ so\\ telescopes\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ built\\ over\\ past\\ 100\\ years\\ have\\ had\\ their\\ ability\\ diminish\\ a\\ lot\\ by\\ growth\\ of\\ cities\\ nearby\\\\\r\\\n\\-ex\\:\\ 100\\ inch\\ telescope\\ at\\ mount\\ Wilson\\,\\ great\\ discoveries\\ in\\ 1920\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ now\\ severely\\ limited\\ by\\ light\\ pollution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ near\\ LA\\ \\(25\\,000\\ in\\ 1920\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-lots\\ of\\ different\\ sources\\ of\\ light\\ pollution\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\nLIGHT\\ POLLUTION\\:\\ a\\ brighter\\ sky\\ make\\ astronomy\\ more\\ difficult\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTHEORETICAL\\ DIFFRACTION\\ LIMIT\\ FOR\\ THE\\ RESOLUTION\\ OF\\ A\\ BIG\\ GROUND\\-BASED\\ TELESCOPE\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\\\&theta\\;\\ \\=\\ \\&lambda\\;\\ \\/\\ D\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\&theta\\;\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ x\\ 5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-1\\ \\/\\ 5\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\=\\2\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-2\\ arcsec\\ \\=\\ 0\\.02\\ arcsec\\;\\ this\\ was\\ never\\ achieved\\ until\\ very\\ recently\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ 1\\"\\;\\ resolution\\ is\\ more\\ typical\\<\\/small\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-achieving\\ the\\ diffraction\\ limit\\ for\\ a\\ 2\\.4\\ m\\ aperture\\:\\ Hubble\\ Space\\ Telescope\\ \\(HST\\)\\ is\\ above\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ \\(almost\\ same\\ size\\ as\\ Mt\\.\\ Wilson\\ telescope\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-precise\\,\\ but\\ not\\ accurate\\.\\ \\;\\ When\\ HST\\ was\\ manufactured\\,\\ the\\ mirror\\ was\\ made\\ very\\ precisely\\ to\\ the\\ wrong\\ shape\\.\\ \\;\\ Optics\\ installed\\ in\\ 1993\\ corrected\\ this\\<\\/small\\>\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\"\\;spherical\\ aberration\\"\\;\\ problem\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Astronomers v. the Atmosphere"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.150899+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lives of the Stars", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 737, "html": "\\\\\u00a0MEASURING\\ THE\\ PROPERTIES\\ OF\\ STARS\\\\\n\\-Distance\\\\\n\\-Flux\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Luminosity\\\\\n\\-Temperature\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ size\\\\\n\\-Mass\\ from\\ orbits\\ of\\ binaries\\\\\n\\-Mass\\ and\\ Luminosity\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ lifetimes\\\\\n\\-if\\ you\\ can\\ measure\\ parallax\\,\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ measure\\ the\\ distance\\\\\n\\-if\\ also\\ measure\\ flux\\ \\(how\\ much\\ energy\\ is\\ coming\\ through\\ each\\ square\\ meter\\ at\\ the\\ earth\\ now\\)\\ number\\ very\\ small\\ compared\\ to\\ flux\\ from\\ small\\ because\\ distance\\ is\\ greater\\,\\ but\\ if\\ know\\ distance\\,\\ can\\ compute\\ energy\\ itself\\\\\n\\-gravitational\\ force\\ between\\ stars\\;\\ that\\ many\\ stars\\ are\\ not\\ alone\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ are\\ in\\ binary\\ systems\\.\\ \\\\\nIn\\ a\\ case\\ like\\ that\\,\\ can\\ begin\\ to\\ understand\\ mass\\,\\ how\\ much\\ mass\\ does\\ star\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ orbit\\ to\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ space\\ and\\ time\\ that\\ we\\ measure\\.\\\\\\\nADAPTIVE\\ OPTICS\\\\\n\\-another\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ diffraction\\ limit\\\\\n\\-a\\ laser\\ shot\\ upwards\\,\\ some\\ light\\ bounces\\ back\\,\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ distortion\\ produced\\ by\\ the\\ atmosphere\\,\\ can\\ compensate\\ for\\ that\\.\\\u00a0Laser\\ shoots\\ up\\ to\\ ionosphere\\,\\ where\\ atoms\\ are\\ ionized\\ in\\ earth\\\u2019s\\ atmosphere\\,\\ sodium\\ atoms\\ in\\ upper\\ atmosphere\\ scatter\\ the\\ light\\ back\\.\\\\\n\\-because\\ it\\\u2019s\\ laser\\ light\\,\\ it\\\u2019s\\ essentially\\ perfect\\ when\\ it\\ leaves\\ the\\ telescope\\\\\n\\-you\\ can\\ make\\ image\\ nearly\\ perfect\\\\\n\\-problem\\;\\ as\\ wind\\ blows\\ atmosphere\\ changes\\ every\\ 1\\/100\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ make\\ changes\\ every\\ 1\\/100\\ of\\ a\\ second\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ if\\ successful\\,\\ can\\ get\\ angular\\ resolution\\ limited\\ right\\ now\\ for\\ big\\ telescopes\\ \\ \\\\\\\nOTHER\\ WAY\\ \\=\\ the\\ expensive\\ way\\ \\(satellites\\)\\\\\n\\-achieving\\ the\\ diffraction\\ limit\\ for\\ a\\ 2\\.4\\ m\\ aperture\\:\\ HST\\ is\\ above\\ the\\ atmosphere\\\\\n\\-half\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ shadow\\ of\\ earth\\,\\ half\\ the\\ time\\ in\\ sunlight\\;\\ usually\\ observes\\ during\\ night\\-time\\ half\\ of\\ each\\ orbit\\,\\ each\\ orbit\\ about\\ 90\\ minutes\\\\\n\\-has\\ been\\ running\\ since\\ 1990\\\\\\\nIf\\ you\\ have\\ resolution\\,\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ magnify\\ the\\ image\\ and\\ see\\ what\\'s\\ going\\ on\\.\\\u00a0\\ Example\\ image\\ in\\ class\\ \\-\\ two\\ outer\\ rings\\ and\\ an\\ inner\\ ring\\;\\ blob\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ \\=\\ stuff\\ left\\ over\\ from\\ explosion\\\\\n\\-colors\\ changed\\ to\\ show\\ what\\ different\\ components\\ of\\ the\\ star\\ might\\ be\\;\\ hard\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ it\\ would\\ like\\ if\\ we\\ could\\ see\\ it\\ from\\ the\\ side\\;\\ \\\u201cfalse\\ color\\ tells\\ the\\ truth\\\u201d\\\\\n\\-information\\ from\\ telescope\\ is\\ genuine\\,\\ but\\ how\\ you\\ present\\ it\\ gives\\ you\\ choices\\ and\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ you\\\u2019re\\ seeing\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ may\\ want\\ to\\ go\\ beyond\\ image\\ of\\ what\\ you\\\u2019ve\\ got\\\\\\\nJWST\\:\\ James\\ Webb\\ Space\\ Telescope\\\\\n\\-more\\ than\\ twice\\ as\\ big\\ as\\ Hubble\\,\\ which\\ is\\ kept\\ at\\ room\\ temperature\\ inside\\ \\\u2013\\ kept\\ warm\\ by\\ heaters\\\\\n\\-peak\\ emission\\ in\\ infrared\\ at\\ about\\ 10\\ microns\\ um\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ a\\ lot\\ better\\ if\\ telescope\\ were\\ cold\\ because\\ colder\\ telescope\\,\\ longer\\ wavelength\\ is\\ at\\ peak\\ in\\ the\\ spectrum\\ \\(Wien\\\u2019s\\ law\\)\\ and\\ from\\ Stefan\\ Boltzmann\\\u2019s\\ law\\ \\\u2013\\ amount\\ coming\\ from\\ each\\ wavelength\\ per\\ square\\ meter\\ larger\\\\\n\\-big\\ sun\\ shade\\ whose\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ keep\\ telescope\\ in\\ the\\ shadow\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ so\\ it\\ doesn\\\u2019t\\ get\\ warmed\\ by\\ the\\ sun\\\\\n\\-problem\\:\\ no\\ rocket\\ to\\ send\\ it\\ up\\ in\\\\\n\\-problem\\:\\ mirror\\ to\\ big\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ orbit\\ already\\ spread\\ out\\\\\n\\-Solution\\?\\ Make\\ it\\ operate\\ like\\ a\\ transformer\\ toy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\-Harvard\\ is\\ a\\ partner\\ in\\ a\\ project\\ to\\ build\\ the\\ world\\\u2019s\\ largest\\ telescope\\ \\\u2013\\ the\\ Giant\\ Magellan\\ Telescope\\\\\n\\-They\\ have\\ a\\ good\\ design\\ and\\ are\\ working\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ 7\\ mirrors\\,\\ each\\ 8\\.4\\ meters\\ in\\ diameter\\\\\n\\-about\\ 10\\ times\\ larger\\ aperture\\ than\\ HST\\ means\\ 10\\ times\\ sharper\\ images\\ than\\ HST\\\\\n\\-collecting\\ area\\ is\\ 100\\ times\\ larger\\ than\\ HST\\\\\n\\-combination\\ of\\ better\\ resolution\\ \\&\\;\\ much\\ larger\\ collecting\\ area\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ see\\ clearly\\ and\\ at\\ great\\ distances\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\RADIO\\ TELESCOPES\\\\\n\\-Example\\ is\\ the\\ Arecibo\\ which\\ has\\ a\\ diameter\\ of\\ 300\\ m\\ at\\ 21\\ cm\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\(\\?\\/D\\ \\~100\\\u201d\\)\\\\\n\\-Another\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ Very\\ Large\\ Array\\,\\ which\\ is\\ big\\ enough\\ to\\ resolve\\ an\\ arcsecond\\ at\\ radio\\ wavelengths\\\\\n\\-\\?\\ \\=\\ 10\\ cm\\,\\ \\(10\\^\\-1\\ m\\)\\\\\n\\-\\?\\ \\=\\ 1\\\u201d\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-1\\ \\/\\ D\\\\\nThen\\ D\\ \\~\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-1\\\\\n\\=2\\ x\\ 10\\^4\\\\\n\\=\\ 20\\ km\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\ how\\ big\\ would\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ make\\ radio\\ telescope\\ to\\ get\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ resolution\\ as\\ an\\ optical\\ telescope\\,\\ 1\\ arcsec\\\\\n\\-radio\\ sources\\ un\\-obscured\\ by\\ sun\\ or\\ moon\\ light\\\\\n\\-Radio\\ Frequency\\ Interference\\:\\ the\\ equivalent\\ of\\ light\\ pollution\\.\\\u00a0\\ Examples\\ include\\ microwaves\\ from\\ microwave\\ ovens\\,\\ cell\\ phones\\,\\ garage\\ door\\ opener\\,\\ TV\\,\\ satellites\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\\n\\-Radio\\ telescopes\\ combine\\ signals\\ from\\ many\\ antennas\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ resolution\\ that\\ corresponds\\ to\\ their\\ largest\\ dimensions\\\\\n\\-ex\\:\\ tripod\\ shape\\;\\ extends\\ to\\ 10\\ km\\\\\n\\-the\\ VLB\\ Array\\:\\ dimension\\ set\\ by\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\\\\n\\-could\\ set\\ them\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ Earth\\;\\ combine\\ signals\\ from\\ each\\ to\\ get\\ phenomenal\\ resolution\\\\\n\\-EX\\:\\ medium\\ sized\\ telescope\\ in\\ Hancock\\,\\ NH\\\\\n\\-\\?\\ \\~\\ 3\\ cm\\\\\n\\-D\\ \\~\\ 6000\\ km\\ \\(limited\\ because\\ all\\ points\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ see\\ object\\ simultaneously\\)\\\\\n\\-\\ \\?\\ \\~\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-5\\ \\?\\/D\\ \\[arcsec\\]\\\\\n\\~\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-5\\ x\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-2\\ \\/\\ \\(6\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\)\\\\\n\\~\\ 10\\^\\-3\\ arcsec\\ \\ \\\\\\\nTHE\\ SPECTRA\\ OF\\ STARS\\\\\n\\-stars\\ are\\ classified\\ into\\ spectral\\ types\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ spectral\\ lines\\ that\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ their\\ spectra\\ \\(on\\ photographic\\ plates\\)\\\\\n\\-mostly\\ sensitive\\ to\\ temperature\\\\\n\\-at\\ Harvard\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ whole\\ industry\\ of\\ women\\ who\\ did\\ this\\ scientific\\ work\\ at\\ Harvard\\ College\\ Observatory\\\\\n\\-one\\ thing\\ they\\ did\\ was\\ sorting\\ out\\ stars\\ by\\ their\\ spectra\\;\\ turns\\ out\\ temperature\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ determines\\ it\\\u2019s\\ colors\\ and\\ which\\ atoms\\ do\\ the\\ strongest\\ absorbing\\ in\\ the\\ atmosphere\\,\\ and\\ by\\ studying\\ this\\ the\\ Harvard\\ group\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ classification\\ of\\ stars\\ by\\ their\\ spectra\\;\\ could\\ tell\\ not\\ only\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ bright\\ or\\ dim\\,\\ but\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ hot\\ or\\ cold\\\\\n\\-spectrum\\ depends\\ mostly\\ on\\ the\\ temperature\\ of\\ the\\ star\\\\\n\\-ones\\ hot\\ \\\u2013\\ more\\ blue\\ light\\;\\ ones\\ more\\ cool\\ have\\ a\\ spectrum\\ with\\ more\\ of\\ its\\ light\\ in\\ the\\ red\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ blue\\ \\ \\\\\\\nCOLOR\\ \\&\\;\\ TEMPERATURE\\\\\n\\-photometry\\:\\ measure\\ the\\ flux\\ from\\ a\\ star\\\\\n\\-the\\ color\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ is\\ measured\\ by\\ the\\ ratios\\ of\\ the\\ flux\\ observed\\ through\\ the\\ different\\ standard\\ filters\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ U\\,\\ B\\,\\ and\\ V\\ filters\\ \\(ex\\:\\ filter\\ that\\ lets\\ through\\ blue\\ light\\ \\\u2013\\ if\\ something\\ is\\ hot\\ it\\ emits\\ spectrum\\ with\\ more\\ blue\\ than\\ red\\ light\\,\\ so\\ by\\ comparing\\ amount\\ of\\ blue\\ light\\ through\\ B\\ filter\\ v\\.\\ V\\ filter\\,\\ can\\ tell\\ color\\ and\\ thus\\ temperature\\ of\\ a\\ star\\)\\ \\ \\-these\\ ratios\\ measure\\ the\\ star\\\u2019s\\ surface\\ temperature\\ \\(Wien\\ Law\\)\\\\THE\\ HERTZSPRUNG\\-RUSSELL\\ DIAGRAM\\\\\n\\-Plots\\ Luminosity\\ v\\.\\ Temperature\\ \\(increasing\\ to\\ the\\ left\\)\\\\\n\\-you\\ also\\ need\\ the\\ flux\\ and\\ the\\ parallax\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ luminosity\\\\\n\\-amazing\\ fact\\:\\ stars\\ are\\ not\\ found\\ everywhere\\ in\\ this\\ plot\\\\\n\\-most\\ stars\\ like\\ on\\ the\\ \\\u201cmain\\ sequence\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lives of the Stars"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.163227+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Secret Lives of the Stars", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 738, "html": "\\\\-Lifetimes\\ of\\ stars\\ are\\ short\\ for\\ massive\\ stars\\ \\&\\;\\ long\\ for\\ low\\ mass\\ stars\\\\\r\\\n\\-What\\ happens\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ star\\'s\\ life\\?\\ They\\ swell\\ to\\ become\\ RED\\ GIANTS\\ and\\ then\\.\\.\\.it\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ mass\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\THE\\ VLA\\\\\r\\\n\\-big\\ enough\\ to\\ resolve\\ an\\ arc\\ second\\ at\\ radio\\ wavelenths\\\\\r\\\n\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=10\\ cm\\,\\ \\(10\\^\\-1\\ m\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\&theta\\;\\ \\=\\ 1\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5x10\\^\\-1\\/D\\\\\r\\\nThen\\ D\\ \\~\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-1\\\\\r\\\n\\=\\ 2\\ x10\\^4m\\\\\r\\\n\\=\\ 20\\ Km\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Radio\\ telescopes\\ combine\\ signals\\ from\\ many\\ antennae\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ resolution\\ that\\ corresponds\\ to\\ their\\ largest\\ dimensions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Inverse\\ Square\\ Law\\:\\ \\ \\ Flux\\ \\=\\ Luminosity\\ \\/\\ \\(4\\&pi\\;R\\^2\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Luminosity\\ \\=\\ \\(flux\\)\\ x\\ \\(area\\ of\\ the\\ sphere\\ that\\ has\\ a\\ radius\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ distance\\)\\;\\ measured\\ in\\ Watts\\\\\r\\\n\\-Flux\\,\\ f\\,\\ is\\ in\\ watts\\/m\\^2\\ \\-\\-\\ it\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ distance\\!\\ \\ Corresponds\\ to\\ \\"\\;brightness\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Area\\ in\\ m\\^2\\ is\\ 4\\&pi\\;D\\^2\\,\\ where\\ D\\ is\\ the\\ distance\\ in\\ meters\\\\\r\\\nL\\ \\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;D\\^2\\ f\\ \\[watt\\]\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\H\\-R\\ DIAGRAMS\\\\\r\\\n\\-reveal\\ how\\ stars\\ evolve\\\\\r\\\n\\-stars\\ spend\\ most\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\ on\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\,\\ but\\ can\\ change\\ their\\ location\\ as\\ they\\ age\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-WIDTH\\ of\\ a\\ star\\'s\\ spectral\\ lines\\ show\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ main\\-sequence\\ star\\,\\ giant\\,\\ supergiant\\,\\ or\\ white\\ dwarf\\\\\r\\\n\\-a\\ supergiant\\ star\\ has\\ a\\ low\\-density\\,\\ low\\-pressure\\ atmosphere\\:\\ its\\ spectrum\\ has\\ narrow\\ absorption\\ lines\\\\\r\\\n\\-a\\ main\\-sequence\\ star\\ has\\ a\\ denser\\,\\ higher\\-pressure\\ atmosphere\\:\\ its\\ spectrum\\ has\\ broad\\ absorption\\ lines\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\BINARY\\ STARS\\\\\r\\\n\\-binary\\ stars\\:\\ two\\ stars\\ orbit\\ each\\ other\\\\\r\\\n\\-very\\ common\\ \\-\\ Sun\\ is\\ not\\ typical\\\\\r\\\n\\-some\\ can\\ be\\ resolved\\ into\\ two\\ distinct\\ star\\ images\\ by\\ Earth\\-based\\ telescopes\\\\\r\\\n\\-Each\\ star\\ in\\ a\\ binary\\ orbits\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ system\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ route\\ to\\ finding\\ the\\ MASS\\ of\\ stars\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\MASS\\ FROM\\ BINARIES\\\\\r\\\n\\-Range\\ of\\ observed\\ masses\\:\\ from\\ less\\ than\\ 0\\.1\\ Msun\\ to\\ \\~150\\ Msun\\\\\r\\\n\\-At\\ the\\ low\\ end\\:\\ brown\\ dwarf\\=\\>\\;\\ failed\\ stars\\ that\\ never\\ ignite\\ their\\\\\r\\\nnuclear\\ fuel\\\\\r\\\n\\-At\\ the\\ high\\ end\\:\\ radiation\\ from\\ stars\\ makes\\ them\\ unstable\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ COMPARISON\\ OF\\ STAR\\ SIZES\\\\\r\\\n\\-Red\\ Dwarf\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 0\\.08\\ solar\\ masses\\ \\(lower\\ limit\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Our\\ Sun\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1\\ solar\\ mass\\\\\r\\\n\\-Red\\ Giant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ old\\ stars\\ that\\ evolve\\ from\\ stars\\ of\\ \\<\\;5\\ solar\\ masses\\\\\r\\\n\\-Blue\\-white\\ Giant\\ \\ \\ \\ 150\\ solar\\ masses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-on\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\,\\ mass\\ and\\ luminosity\\ are\\ related\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\MASS\\,\\ LUMINOSITY\\,\\ LIFETIME\\ on\\ the\\ Main\\ Sequence\\\\\r\\\n\\-Lifetime\\ \\=energy\\ supply\\/rate\\ of\\ energy\\ use\\\\\r\\\n\\-Energy\\ supply\\ \\=\\ Mass\\ x\\ \\(Energy\\/Kilogram\\)\\ \\=\\ ME\\\\\r\\\n\\-Energy\\ use\\ \\=\\ Luminosity\\ \\[watt\\]\\ \\=\\ L\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\ t\\ \\=\\ M\\/L\\ x\\ E\\\\\r\\\n\\-From\\ binaries\\,\\ we\\ see\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ relation\\ between\\ Mass\\ and\\\\\r\\\nLuminosity\\:\\ L\\~M\\^3\\.5\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\,\\ t\\~M\\/L\\ \\=\\ M\\/M\\^3\\.5\\=M\\^\\-2\\.5\\=\\ 1\\/M\\^2\\.5\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\;larger\\ the\\ mass\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ short\\ the\\ lifespan\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\COMPARE\\ TO\\ THE\\ SUN\\\\\r\\\n\\-tsun\\=1\\.2\\ x\\ 10\\^10\\ years\\ on\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\,\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ think\\ about\\ a\\ 4\\ Msun\\ star\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-t\\/tsun\\=\\ \\(M\\/Msun\\)\\^\\-2\\.5\\=\\ \\(4\\)\\^\\-2\\.5\\\\\r\\\n\\-4\\^2\\.5\\ \\=\\ 4\\ x\\ 4\\ x\\ 2\\=\\ 32\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\ lifetime\\ of\\ a\\ 4\\ Msunstar\\ is\\ 1\\/32\\ x\\ tsun\\ \\=4\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\ years\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-t\\~\\(M\\/L\\)E\\,\\ where\\ E\\ is\\ energy\\ density\\,\\ not\\ Energy\\\\\r\\\n\\-lifetime\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ hydrogen\\ in\\ the\\ star\\'s\\ core\\ and\\ the\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ hydrogen\\ is\\ consumed\\\\\r\\\n\\-More\\ massive\\ stars\\ have\\ shorter\\ main\\-sequence\\ lifetimes\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Secret Lives of the Stars"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.173090+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aging and Death for Stars", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 739, "html": "\\DRAWN\\ DIAGRAM\\\\\r\\\n\\-massive\\ star\\ of\\ 50\\ solar\\ masses\\ running\\ into\\ barrier\\ of\\ iron\\\\\r\\\n\\-sun\\ \\&lsquo\\;saving\\&rsquo\\;\\ versus\\ big\\ star\\ \\&lsquo\\;live\\ fast\\,\\ die\\ young\\&rsquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-sun\\ supplies\\ as\\ much\\ energy\\ as\\ it\\ emits\\\\\r\\\n\\-white\\ dwarfs\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ an\\ energy\\ source\\,\\ but\\ are\\ very\\ hot\\ when\\ they\\ form\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\EXPERIMENT\\\\\r\\\n\\-pouring\\ hot\\ water\\ into\\ a\\ hot\\ water\\ bottle\\;\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ white\\ in\\ the\\ bottle\\ infrared\\;\\ fill\\ up\\ hot\\ water\\ bottle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ glowing\\ brightly\\,\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ seeing\\ IR\\ emission\\ from\\ hot\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ rubber\\ bag\\\\\r\\\n\\-now\\ it\\ will\\ slowly\\ start\\ to\\ cool\\ off\\\\\r\\\n\\-when\\ star\\ has\\ iron\\ in\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ core\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ fused\\ or\\ fissioned\\ or\\ used\\ in\\ any\\ more\\ nuclear\\ reactions\\ to\\ produce\\ energy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ Sun\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ main\\-sequence\\ star\\ for\\ about\\ 4\\.56\\ billion\\ years\\ and\\ should\\ remain\\ one\\ for\\ about\\ another\\ 7\\ billion\\ years\\.\\ \\ The\\ ashes\\ of\\ hydrogen\\ fusion\\:\\ helium\\\\\r\\\n\\-diagram\\ shows\\ that\\ in\\ center\\:\\ fraction\\ of\\ stuff\\ that\\ is\\ hydrogen\\ is\\ now\\ down\\ to\\ between\\ 25\\ and\\ 50\\%\\,\\ it\\ turned\\ into\\ helium\\,\\ diagram\\ on\\ right\\ shows\\ that\\ amount\\ of\\ helium\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ 50\\%\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-During\\ its\\ main\\-sequence\\ lifetime\\,\\ a\\ star\\ expands\\ a\\ little\\ and\\ increases\\ in\\ luminosity\\ \\(although\\ not\\ by\\ that\\ much\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-As\\ the\\ core\\ runs\\ out\\ of\\ hydrogen\\,\\ a\\ main\\-sequence\\ star\\ becomes\\ a\\ red\\ giant\\;\\ it\\ will\\ turn\\ H\\ into\\ He\\,\\ core\\ of\\ sun\\ will\\ get\\ denser\\,\\ E\\ output\\ will\\ go\\ up\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ over\\ next\\ billion\\ years\\,\\ sun\\ will\\ swell\\ and\\ become\\ a\\ red\\ giant\\ at\\ about\\ 1\\ AU\\ \\(we\\ are\\ 1\\ AU\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ sun\\)\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\ it\\ will\\ cover\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ sky\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-diameter\\ \\=\\ 1\\.4\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ km\\ \\~\\ AU\\/100\\\\\r\\\nAs\\ red\\ giant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ diameter\\ \\=\\ 1\\ AU\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\MAIN\\ SEQUENCE\\ \\?\\ H\\ Fusion\\ in\\ core\\\\\r\\\nWhat\\ happens\\ next\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Stars\\ swell\\ up\\ to\\ become\\ red\\ giants\\\\\r\\\nSun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Luminosity\\ will\\ go\\ up\\ to\\ 2\\,000\\ times\\ its\\ current\\ luminosity\\ and\\ radius\\ will\\ be\\ 100\\ times\\ as\\ big\\\\\r\\\n\\-if\\ on\\ earth\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ seeing\\ small\\ disk\\,\\ whole\\ sky\\ would\\ be\\ filled\\ by\\ Sun\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ will\\ make\\ the\\ Earth\\ very\\ warm\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ how\\ warm\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\ WILL\\ HAPPEN\\ TO\\ THE\\ EARTH\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\&ldquo\\;solar\\ constant\\&rdquo\\;\\ will\\ increase\\ by\\ \\~2000\\ times\\\\\r\\\n\\-equilibrium\\:\\ energy\\ in\\ \\=\\ energy\\ out\\\\\r\\\n\\-for\\ 1\\ sq\\.\\ meter\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ energy\\ in\\ is\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;solar\\ constant\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ energy\\ out\\ is\\ the\\ blackbody\\ radiation\\ of\\ \\&sigma\\;T\\^4\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\,\\ if\\ energy\\ in\\ goes\\ up\\ by\\ 2000\\,\\ T\\ goes\\ up\\ by\\ \\(2000\\)\\^1\\/4\\ \\~\\ 7\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ current\\ T\\ is\\ about\\ 300K\\,\\ so\\ that\\ means\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ Earth\\ will\\ reach\\ 2000\\ K\\:\\ 3\\ times\\ hotter\\ than\\ Hell\\\\\r\\\n\\(Sulfer\\ \\=\\ \\&lsquo\\;brimstone\\&rsquo\\;\\ boils\\ at\\ 718\\ K\\)\\\t\\\t\\\t\\-orbit\\ of\\ earth\\ may\\ expand\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\\\\r\\\nEarth\\ will\\ melt\\ and\\ evaporate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(Experiment\\ update\\:\\ water\\ bottle\\ still\\ glowing\\ after\\ 20\\ minutes\\ have\\ elapsed\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nFUSION\\ OF\\ HELIUM\\ INTO\\ CARBON\\ AND\\ OXYGEN\\ BEGINS\\ AT\\ THE\\ CENTER\\ OF\\ A\\ RED\\ GIANT\\\\\r\\\n\\-stars\\ are\\ nearly\\ perfect\\ recyclers\\\\\r\\\n\\-Helium\\ fusion\\ begins\\ when\\ the\\ central\\ temperature\\ of\\ a\\ red\\ giant\\ reaches\\ about\\ 100\\ million\\ K\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ triple\\ alpha\\ process\\ converts\\ helium\\ to\\ carbon\\ and\\ oxygen\\\\\r\\\n\\-Diagram\\:\\ \\ \\(no\\ thermonuclear\\ reactions\\ in\\ the\\ outer\\ layers\\)\\\\\r\\\n1\\.\\ Main\\ sequence\\ star\\:\\ hydrogen\\-fusing\\ core\\\\\r\\\n2\\.\\ Red\\ Giant\\ star\\:\\ Hydrogen\\-fusing\\ shell\\,\\ Helium\\ core\\,\\ no\\ thermonuclear\\ reactions\\\\\r\\\n3\\.\\ Red\\ Giant\\ star\\ after\\ Helium\\ fusion\\ begins\\:\\ Hydrogen\\ fusing\\ shell\\,\\ Helium\\-fusing\\ core\\\\\r\\\n\\-no\\ simple\\ way\\ of\\ helium\\ to\\ get\\ burned\\ at\\ one\\ additional\\ particle\\ at\\ a\\ time\\;\\ happens\\ 3\\ at\\ a\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ heliums\\ bump\\ into\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ before\\ nuclear\\ can\\ disintegrate\\,\\ a\\ third\\ alpha\\ particle\\ \\(helium\\ nucleus\\)\\ must\\ collide\\ with\\ it\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ rare\\ and\\ unusual\\ conditions\\ required\\ for\\ this\\ to\\ happen\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&ldquo\\;triple\\ alpha\\ process\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ stars\\ skip\\ over\\ synthesis\\ of\\ those\\ light\\ elements\\;\\ thus\\ carbon\\ and\\ oxygen\\ \\(very\\ common\\ in\\ universe\\)\\,\\ beryllium\\,\\ lithium\\,\\ and\\ boron\\ very\\ rare\\ on\\ earth\\ and\\ in\\ universe\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-presence\\ on\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ group\\ of\\ stars\\;\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ which\\ stars\\ are\\ present\\ and\\ absent\\,\\ can\\ actually\\ tell\\ how\\ old\\ the\\ bunch\\ of\\ stars\\ is\\.\\ \\ We\\&rsquo\\;re\\ especially\\ interested\\ in\\ ages\\ of\\ oldest\\ stars\\ in\\ Milky\\ Way\\ because\\ tells\\ us\\ when\\ the\\ galaxy\\ was\\ formed\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ tool\\ for\\ measuring\\ the\\ ages\\ of\\ things\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\CLUSTERS\\\\\r\\\n\\-same\\ age\\,\\ same\\ composition\\,\\ same\\ distance\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ a\\ gang\\ of\\ stars\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ use\\ as\\ a\\ test\\ of\\ evolution\\ picture\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Picture\\:\\ Pleiades\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ age\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ cluster\\ can\\ be\\ estimated\\ by\\ plotting\\ its\\ stars\\ on\\ an\\ H\\-R\\ diagram\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Young\\ clusters\\ and\\ old\\ in\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\\\\r\\\n\\-Star\\ formation\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ distant\\ past\\ \\(M67\\)\\,\\ the\\ recent\\ past\\ \\(Pleiades\\)\\,\\ and\\ is\\ ongoing\\ now\\\\\r\\\n\\-Oldest\\~12\\ Gyr\\\\\r\\\n\\-blue\\ hotter\\;\\ red\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ less\\ hot\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ older\\ because\\ burned\\ out\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\AGE\\ OF\\ CLUSTERS\\\\\r\\\n\\-Based\\ on\\ the\\ turn\\-off\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ H\\-R\\ diagram\\\\\r\\\n\\-oldest\\ clusters\\ in\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ are\\ about\\ 12\\ \\+\\/\\-\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^9\\ years\\ old\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ Sun\\ is\\ a\\ second\\-\\ or\\ third\\-\\ generation\\ star\\ that\\ has\\ inherited\\ its\\ heavy\\ elements\\ from\\ previous\\ generations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\CHEMISTRY\\ OF\\ THE\\ MILKY\\ WAY\\ HAS\\ CHANGED\\\\\r\\\n\\-Young\\ stars\\ are\\ metal\\ rich\\;\\ ancient\\ stars\\ are\\ metal\\ poor\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ metals\\ \\(heavy\\ elements\\)\\ in\\ recent\\ stars\\ were\\ manufactured\\ by\\ thermonuclear\\ reactions\\ in\\ an\\ earlier\\ generation\\ of\\ stars\\ and\\ incorporated\\ into\\ subsequent\\ stellar\\ generations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\SPECTRUM\\ picture\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ spectrum\\ of\\ this\\ Population\\ II\\ star\\ shows\\ absorption\\ lines\\ of\\ H\\ \\(such\\ as\\ H\\-gamma\\ and\\ H\\-delta\\)\\ but\\ only\\ very\\ weak\\ absorption\\ lines\\ of\\ metals\\&hellip\\;such\\ a\\ star\\ is\\ metal\\-poor\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ spectrum\\ of\\ this\\ Population\\ I\\ star\\ has\\ stronger\\ absorption\\ lines\\ of\\ metals\\&hellip\\;such\\ a\\ star\\ is\\ metal\\ rich\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(Experiment\\ update\\:\\ water\\ bottle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ still\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ changed\\ much\\;\\ stays\\ hot\\ a\\ long\\ time\\)\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aging and Death for Stars"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.209521+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 741, "html": "\\EQUILIBRIA\\ IN\\ SOLUTION\\:\\ ACID\\-BASE\\ CONTROL\\ FOR\\ LIFE\\ SYSTEMS\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reactions\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ solution\\/liquid\\ phase\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Water\\ is\\ primary\\ solvent\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Dynamics\\ of\\ proton\\ transfer\\ in\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBonding\\ structure\\ of\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Large\\ permanent\\ dipole\\ moment\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Amphoteric\\:\\ can\\ act\\ as\\ both\\ an\\ acid\\ and\\ a\\ base\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Water\\ can\\ autoionize\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ H2O\\ \\+\\ H20\\ \\&larr\\;\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ H3O\\+\\ \\+\\ OH\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Kw\\ \\=\\ 10\\^\\-14\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\?H\\ \\=\\ \\+80\\.5\\ kJ\\/mol\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\npH\\ \\=\\ \\-log\\[H3O\\+\\]\\\\\r\\\npOH\\ \\=\\ \\-log\\[OH\\-\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBronsted\\-Lowry\\ definitions\\ of\\ acids\\ and\\ bases\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ acids\\:\\ donate\\ protons\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ bases\\:\\ accept\\ protons\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nEquilibria\\ and\\ free\\ energy\\ in\\ acidic\\ solutions\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ HA\\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ H2O\\(l\\)\\ \\&larr\\;\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ A\\-\\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ H3O\\+\\(aq\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Keq\\ \\=\\ Ka\\ \\=\\ \\[H3O\\+\\]\\[A\\-\\]\\/\\[HA\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ka\\ \\&ge\\;\\ 1\\ for\\ strong\\ acids\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Strong\\ acids\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ tendency\\ to\\ dissociate\\ from\\ protons\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Base\\ dissociation\\ constant\\:\\ Kb\\ \\=\\ \\[BH\\+\\]\\[OH\\-\\]\\/\\[B\\(aq\\)\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ka\\*Kb\\ \\=\\ Kw\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNeutralization\\ reactions\\:\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ an\\ acid\\ to\\ a\\ base\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ H3O\\+\\ and\\ OH\\-\\ annihilate\\ in\\ the\\ reaction\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ H3O\\+\\ \\+\\ OH\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ 2H2O\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n3\\ themes\\ of\\ acid\\-base\\ reactions\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ release\\ free\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ Ka\\*Kb\\ \\=\\ Kw\\ means\\ that\\ weak\\ acids\\ have\\ strong\\ conjugate\\ bases\\,\\ and\\ strong\\ acids\\ have\\ weak\\ conjugate\\ bases\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ when\\ an\\ acid\\ and\\ a\\ base\\ are\\ added\\ to\\ solution\\,\\ the\\ tendency\\ to\\ form\\ water\\ is\\ very\\ strong\\ \\(Keq\\ \\=\\ 1\\/Kw\\ \\=\\ 1\\*10\\^14\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSTRONG\\ ACID\\ \\+\\ STRONG\\ BASE\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ strong\\ acid\\ dissociates\\ completely\\ when\\ added\\ to\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ strong\\ base\\ reacts\\ completely\\ to\\ form\\ OH\\-\\ when\\ added\\ to\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ reaction\\ of\\ a\\ strong\\ acid\\ and\\ a\\ strong\\ base\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ stoichiometry\\ problem\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ acid\\ produces\\ a\\ certain\\ number\\ of\\ H3O\\+\\ ions\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ base\\ produces\\ a\\ certain\\ number\\ of\\ OH\\-\\ ions\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ ions\\ annihilate\\ one\\ another\\ to\\ form\\ water\\ until\\ one\\ type\\ of\\ ion\\ runs\\ out\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ type\\ of\\ ion\\ that\\ was\\ in\\ excess\\ determines\\ the\\ final\\ pH\\ of\\ the\\ solution\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSTRONG\\ BASE\\ \\+\\ WEAK\\ ACID\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ acid\\ is\\ weak\\,\\ therefore\\ it\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ dissociate\\ completely\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ equilibrium\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ acid\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ consideration\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ H3O\\+\\ left\\ by\\ the\\ dissociation\\ of\\ the\\ weak\\ acid\\ will\\ react\\ with\\ the\\ OH\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Remarkably\\,\\ the\\ reaction\\ is\\ still\\ very\\ favorable\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ high\\ Keq\\ of\\ the\\ H3O\\+\\ \\+\\ OH\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ 2H2O\\ reaction\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ annihilation\\ reaction\\ essentially\\ takes\\ products\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ acid\\ dissociation\\ reaction\\,\\ so\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ acid\\ dissociates\\ in\\ response\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ concentration\\ of\\ the\\ strong\\ conjugate\\ base\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ determines\\ the\\ final\\ pH\\ of\\ solution\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nbuffer\\ solutions\\:\\ the\\ basic\\ idea\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ build\\ a\\ defense\\ to\\ limit\\ pH\\ changes\\ using\\ a\\ reservoir\\ of\\ weak\\ acid\\ and\\ its\\ conjugate\\ base\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ small\\ degree\\ of\\ acid\\ dissociation\\ provides\\ the\\ means\\ for\\ counteracting\\ an\\ added\\ OH\\-\\ from\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ a\\ base\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ the\\ base\\ would\\ neutralize\\ an\\ added\\ acid\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ weakness\\ of\\ the\\ acid\\ means\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ coexist\\ with\\ its\\ conjugate\\ base\\ in\\ solution\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nbuffer\\ solutions\\:\\ quantitative\\ analysis\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ equation\\ for\\ acid\\-base\\ dissociation\\ is\\ Ka\\ \\=\\ \\[H3O\\+\\]\\[A\\-\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-log\\ Ka\\ \\=\\ \\-log\\[H3O\\+\\]\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ log\\[A\\-\\]\\/\\[HA\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ pKa\\ \\=\\ pH\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ log\\[A\\-\\]\\/\\[HA\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ pH\\ \\=\\ pKa\\ \\+\\ log\\[A\\-\\]\\/\\[HA\\]\\ \\(Henderson\\-Hasselbalch\\ equation\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ this\\ equation\\ allows\\ you\\ to\\ design\\ the\\ pH\\ of\\ a\\ buffered\\ solution\\ by\\ selecting\\ the\\ Ka\\ of\\ the\\ acid\\,\\ then\\ creating\\ the\\ solution\\ from\\ the\\ acid\\ and\\ the\\ salt\\ of\\ its\\ conjugate\\ base\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTITRATION\\ REACTIONS\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBasic\\ titration\\ procedure\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Sequential\\ addition\\ of\\ a\\ base\\ to\\ an\\ acid\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Or\\ sequential\\ addition\\ of\\ an\\ acid\\ to\\ a\\ base\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ known\\ pH\\ of\\ the\\ added\\ acid\\ or\\ base\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ infer\\ the\\ unknown\\ pH\\ of\\ the\\ initial\\ solution\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTitration\\ curves\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Vertical\\ axis\\:\\ pH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Horizontal\\ axis\\:\\ vol\\ added\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSTRONG\\ ACID\\ \\+\\ STRONG\\ BASE\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Initial\\ pH\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ molar\\ concentration\\ of\\ the\\ acid\\ \\(complete\\ dissociation\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Equivalence\\ point\\:\\ when\\ amount\\ of\\ OH\\-\\ added\\ by\\ the\\ base\\ \\=\\ amount\\ of\\ H3O\\+\\ initially\\ in\\ solution\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ OH\\-\\ and\\ H3O\\+\\ cancel\\ each\\ other\\ out\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ pH\\ \\=\\ 7\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWEAK\\ ACID\\ \\+\\ STRONG\\ BASE\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Initial\\ pH\\ solution\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ behavior\\ of\\ the\\ weak\\ acid\\ and\\ its\\ conjugate\\ base\\ in\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Each\\ OH\\-\\ added\\ by\\ the\\ base\\ neutralizes\\ one\\ molecule\\ of\\ a\\ weak\\ monoprotic\\ acid\\ such\\ as\\ CH3COOH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ As\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ conjugate\\ base\\ increases\\,\\ the\\ titration\\ enters\\ a\\ buffer\\ zone\\ where\\ changes\\ in\\ pH\\ are\\ small\\ for\\ additional\\ base\\ added\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ buffer\\ zone\\ is\\ when\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ acid\\ has\\ been\\ neutralized\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ With\\ enough\\ added\\ base\\,\\ reaction\\ leaves\\ the\\ buffer\\ zone\\:\\ at\\ the\\ equivalence\\ point\\,\\ OH\\-\\ added\\ by\\ the\\ base\\ \\=\\ original\\ H3O\\+\\ from\\ dissociation\\ of\\ the\\ acid\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nCASE\\ STUDY\\ 5\\.1\\ CARBONIC\\ ACID\\:\\ THE\\ FOUNDATION\\ OF\\ LIFE\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Chemistry\\ of\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ and\\ water\\ in\\ the\\ oceans\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Hydration\\ rxn\\ of\\ carbon\\ dioxide\\ in\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CO2\\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ H2O\\ \\&larr\\;\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ H2CO3\\(aq\\)\\ \\(carbonic\\ acid\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Energy\\ heavily\\ favors\\ the\\ right\\ side\\ of\\ this\\ equation\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ H2CO3\\ is\\ a\\ polyprotic\\ acid\\,\\ gives\\ up\\ H\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ 2\\ dissociation\\ steps\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOcean\\ carbon\\ chemistry\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Main\\ points\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Carbonic\\ acid\\ is\\ polyprotic\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ ocean\\ contains\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ cations\\ and\\ anions\\ from\\ mineral\\ runoff\\ from\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crust\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ polyprotic\\ nature\\ of\\ carbonic\\ acid\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ka1\\ \\=\\ 9\\ \\*\\ 10\\^\\(\\-7\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ka2\\ \\=\\ 7\\ \\*\\ 10\\^\\(\\-10\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ carbonic\\ acid\\ concentration\\ in\\ seawater\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ partial\\ pressure\\ of\\ atmospheric\\ CO2\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Henry\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\:\\ the\\ concentration\\ of\\ a\\ species\\ in\\ solution\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ partial\\ pressure\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ H2CO3\\(aq\\)\\ \\=\\ KH\\ \\*\\ PCO3\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ KH\\ \\=\\ 3\\ \\*\\ 10\\^\\-2\\ M\\/atm\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHow\\ the\\ dissociation\\ of\\ carbonic\\ acid\\ varies\\ with\\ pH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Low\\ pH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Mostly\\ H2CO3\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Middle\\ pH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Mostly\\ HCO3\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ High\\ pH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Mostly\\ CO32\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nnet\\ reaction\\ that\\ determines\\ pH\\ of\\ the\\ oceans\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ H2CO3\\ \\+\\ H2O\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ HCO3\\-\\ \\+\\ H2O\\+\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CO22\\-\\ \\_\\ H3O\\+\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ HCO3\\-\\ \\+\\ H2O\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Net\\:\\ H2CO3\\ \\+\\ CO32\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ 2HCO3\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ For\\ H2CO3\\ to\\ be\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ acid\\-base\\ equilibrium\\,\\ CO32\\-\\ must\\ be\\ present\\:\\ it\\ acts\\ as\\ a\\ limiting\\ reagent\\ to\\ carbon\\ uptake\\ by\\ the\\ ocean\\ system\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Of\\ the\\ ions\\ from\\ weathering\\ by\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crust\\,\\ the\\ cations\\ carry\\ slightly\\ more\\ positive\\ charge\\ than\\ the\\ anions\\ carry\\ negative\\ charge\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ HCO3\\-\\ and\\ CO32\\-\\ anions\\ from\\ carbonic\\ acid\\ dissociation\\ provide\\ charge\\ balance\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ excess\\ of\\ positive\\ charge\\ from\\ runoff\\ that\\ is\\ balanced\\ by\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ charge\\ equivalent\\ of\\ bicarbonate\\ and\\ carbonate\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ alkalinity\\ of\\ seawater\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCASE\\ STUDY\\ 5\\.2\\:\\ CARBONATE\\ CONTROL\\ IN\\ THE\\ CLIMATE\\ SYSTEM\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ About\\ half\\ the\\ CO2\\ released\\ by\\ fossil\\ fuel\\ combustion\\ is\\ taken\\ up\\ by\\ the\\ oceans\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ pH\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\ is\\ about\\ 8\\.2\\ \\(this\\ reflects\\ basic\\ minerals\\ in\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ crust\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ acid\\-base\\ equilibrium\\ is\\ controlled\\ by\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ HCO3\\-\\ \\+\\ H2O\\ \\&larr\\;\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ CO32\\-\\ \\+\\ H3O\\+\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ka2\\ \\=\\ 7\\ \\*\\ 10\\^\\-10\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ Henderson\\-Hasselbalch\\ equation\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ calculate\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ \\[Co32\\-\\]\\/\\[HCO3\\-\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ pH\\ \\=\\ pKa2\\ \\+\\ log\\[Co32\\-\\]\\/\\[HCO3\\-\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\[Co32\\-\\]\\/\\[HCO3\\-\\]\\ \\=\\ 0\\.1\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nwhile\\ the\\ carbonate\\ anion\\ is\\ a\\ small\\ fraction\\ of\\ the\\ inorganic\\ carbon\\ balance\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\,\\ it\\ plays\\ an\\ essential\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ global\\ carbon\\ exchange\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ weathering\\ of\\ calcium\\ carbonate\\ rock\\,\\ CaCO3\\,\\ by\\ the\\ carbonic\\ acid\\,\\ H2CO3\\,\\ in\\ rainwater\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CaCO3\\ \\+\\ H2CO3\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ Ca2\\+\\ \\+\\ 2HCO3\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CA2\\+\\ \\+\\ CO32\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ CaCO3\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2HCO3\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ CO3\\-\\ \\+\\ H2CO3\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ net\\ rxn\\ is\\ null\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ weathering\\ process\\ of\\ carbonate\\ rocks\\ hy\\ the\\ carbonic\\ acid\\ in\\ rainwater\\ has\\ no\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ respective\\ carbon\\ contents\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\ and\\ atmosphere\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\CASE\\ STUDY\\ 5\\.3\\ THE\\ IMPACT\\ OF\\ SILICATE\\ WEATHERING\\ ON\\ THE\\ CARBONATE\\ CHEMISTRY\\ OF\\ THE\\ OCEANS\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Net\\ reaction\\ of\\ silicate\\ rock\\ weathering\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ CaSiO3\\ \\+\\ H2CO3\\ \\+\\ H2O\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ Si\\(OH\\)4\\ \\+\\ CaCO3\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ One\\ mole\\ of\\ CO2\\ is\\ consumed\\ for\\ each\\ mole\\ of\\ carbonate\\ precipitated\\ to\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Over\\ time\\,\\ this\\ removes\\ CO2\\ from\\ the\\ atmosphere\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Effect\\ on\\ past\\ climate\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 108, "file_path": "", "desc": "CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.223386+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Evolution, Molecular Evolution, & Phylogeny", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 742, "html": "\\\\\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ We\\ represent\\ the\\ relationships\\ among\\ species\\ using\\ phylogenetic\\ trees\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Knowing\\ relationships\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ in\\ evolution\\,\\ forensics\\,\\ epidemiology\\,\\ and\\ many\\ other\\ research\\ areas\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ ideas\\ of\\ phylogenetic\\ inference\\ are\\ simple\\,\\ but\\ several\\ distinct\\ methods\\ are\\ used\\.\\ \\(Distance\\ method\\,\\ parsimony\\ method\\,\\ and\\ statiscal\\ methods\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\.\\ Inferring\\ phylogenies\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ of\\ statistical\\ estimation\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ very\\ important\\ to\\ include\\ a\\ statement\\ of\\ our\\ degree\\ of\\ confidence\\ in\\ a\\ tree\\.\\ \\(Example\\ of\\ HIV\\ in\\ Libya\\.\\)\\ Confidence\\ in\\ a\\ tree\\ is\\ assessed\\ with\\ bootstrap\\ analysis\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bootstrap\\ analysis\\ entails\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Gather\\ more\\ data\\ and\\ check\\ whether\\ the\\ new\\ data\\ give\\ the\\ same\\ tree\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Perform\\ computer\\ simulations\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ true\\ tree\\ is\\ assumed\\ and\\ we\\ ask\\ how\\ often\\ our\\ phylogenetic\\ methods\\ infer\\ the\\ tree\\ correctly\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Generate\\ real\\ biological\\ data\\ in\\ the\\ lab\\ using\\ a\\ fast\\-evolving\\ organisms\\ and\\ a\\ known\\ phylogeny\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Perform\\ a\\ statistical\\ analysis\\ of\\ a\\ given\\ data\\ set\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ strength\\ of\\ support\\ for\\ the\\ inferred\\ tree\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\5\\.\\ Most\\ genes\\ conform\\ to\\ a\\ molecular\\ clock\\,\\ showing\\ a\\ constant\\ rate\\ of\\ change\\ over\\ time\\.\\ Such\\ techniques\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ track\\ migration\\,\\ for\\ example\\.\\ \\(Example\\ of\\ migration\\ of\\ Hawaiian\\ honeycreeper\\ birds\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/font\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 93, "file_path": "", "desc": "Evolution, Molecular Evolution, & Phylogeny"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.232566+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Problem of Indus Writing", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 743, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\March\\ 30\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Problem\\ of\\ Indus\\ Writing\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ uncertain\\ if\\ we\\ are\\ actually\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ actual\\ writing\\ code\\,\\ and\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ undeciphered\\ we\\ still\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ answer\\ this\\ question\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Where\\ and\\ When\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-all\\ of\\ the\\ sites\\ with\\ the\\ Indus\\ Valley\\ script\\ are\\ found\\ in\\ drainage\\ basin\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ River\\ between\\ 2500\\ and\\ 1900\\ BC\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Major\\ sites\\ are\\ Harappa\\ and\\ Mohenjo\\-daro\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Some\\ Indus\\ Valley\\ seals\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ Mesopotamian\\ region\\;\\ this\\ helps\\ us\\ to\\ confirm\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ contact\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ civilizations\\ because\\ of\\ location\\ of\\ Indus\\ seals\\ and\\ similarities\\ in\\ architecture\\.\\ Unfortunately\\ there\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ any\\ biscript\\ artifacts\\ found\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ is\\ a\\ text\\ that\\ references\\ to\\ the\\ traders\\ in\\ the\\ Indus\\ Valley\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Nature\\ of\\ the\\ Script\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ seals\\ with\\ this\\ script\\ on\\ it\\ are\\ actually\\ very\\ small\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-They\\ seals\\ have\\ a\\ standard\\ form\\.\\ They\\ often\\ have\\ an\\ image\\ of\\ an\\ animal\\,\\ cult\\ object\\,\\ and\\ the\\ text\\ on\\ top\\ \\(the\\ text\\ is\\ never\\ very\\ long\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ex\\.\\ Indus\\ Unicorn\\;\\ horned\\ creature\\ in\\ profile\\ found\\ on\\ many\\ seals\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Proto\\-Shiva\\;\\ God\\ or\\ Goddess\\ with\\ animals\\ surrounding\\ it\\ \\(like\\ rhinos\\,\\ elephants\\,\\ and\\ tigers\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-These\\ artifacts\\ are\\ correctly\\ named\\ seals\\ because\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ imprints\\ \\(sealings\\)\\ and\\ the\\ seals\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Few\\ example\\ of\\ Indus\\ signs\\ appearing\\ in\\ other\\ contexts\\,\\ by\\ and\\ large\\ we\\ find\\ the\\ script\\ only\\ on\\ seals\\ and\\ sealings\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Five\\ Pillars\\ of\\ the\\ Decipherment\\ Review\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ Scholars\\ should\\ know\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ There\\ should\\ be\\ a\\ sufficient\\ corpus\\ of\\ works\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ Language\\ should\\ be\\ known\\ or\\ reconstructable\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\.\\ There\\ should\\ be\\ bilingual\\ inscriptions\\ or\\ other\\ clues\\ to\\ word\\ meaning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\5\\.\\ Cultural\\ context\\ of\\ the\\ script\\ should\\ be\\ known\\,\\ including\\ names\\,\\ places\\,\\ historical\\ details\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Problems\\ with\\ Decipherment\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ Script\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ corpus\\ concern\\ for\\ Indus\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ samples\\ are\\ all\\ really\\ short\\ texts\\;\\ we\\ actually\\ have\\ lots\\ of\\ the\\ seals\\ but\\ each\\ individual\\ sample\\ is\\ pretty\\ short\\.\\ Also\\,\\ it\\ is\\ believed\\ that\\ the\\ content\\ is\\ not\\ sufficiently\\ varied\\ and\\ is\\ fairly\\ consistent\\ across\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ artifacts\\ which\\ is\\ problematic\\ for\\ decipherment\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ cultural\\ names\\,\\ places\\,\\ or\\ God\\ names\\ for\\ Indus\\ Civilization\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Language\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ critical\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ pillars\\ because\\ if\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ language\\ then\\ we\\ can\\ not\\ do\\ more\\ than\\ read\\ it\\ aloud\\ and\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ meaningless\\ sounds\\.\\ \\(Consider\\ Etruscan\\,\\ which\\ we\\ can\\ pronounce\\ and\\ read\\ aloud\\ but\\ have\\ no\\ guess\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ meaning\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ descendent\\ or\\ known\\ related\\ languages\\ to\\ the\\ one\\ recorded\\ by\\ the\\ script\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Major\\ Scholars\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ Script\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\S\\.R\\.\\ Rao\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ Indian\\ archaeologist\\ and\\ director\\ of\\ the\\ National\\ Archaeological\\ Survey\\ who\\ published\\ \\The\\ Decipherment\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ Script\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(1982\\)\\,\\ and\\ argued\\ for\\ a\\ small\\ number\\ of\\ signs\\ \\(62\\)\\ and\\ he\\ advocates\\ an\\ alphabetic\\ system\\;\\ he\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ some\\ signs\\ are\\ combinations\\ of\\ two\\ signs\\ to\\ create\\ \\&ldquo\\;ligatures\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Walter\\ Fairservis\\ Jr\\.\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ He\\ excavated\\ at\\ Haraapa\\ and\\ Mohenjo\\-daro\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\-1980s\\ and\\ published\\ \\The\\ Harappan\\ Civilization\\ and\\ its\\ Writing\\:\\ A\\ Model\\ for\\ the\\ Decipherment\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ Script\\<\\/i\\>\\ in\\ 1992\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Asko\\ Parpola\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ leading\\ scholar\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ script\\.\\ Since\\ the\\ 1970s\\ he\\ has\\ documented\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ inscriptions\\ in\\ India\\ and\\ Pakistan\\ and\\ has\\ authored\\ the\\ most\\ commonly\\ accepted\\ sign\\ list\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ script\\ with\\ 400\\-450\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-lots\\ are\\ rare\\ symbols\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ them\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ singletons\\ and\\ only\\ appear\\ once\\ in\\ the\\ archaeological\\ record\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-However\\,\\ at\\ most\\ it\\ would\\ tell\\ us\\ that\\ Indus\\ script\\ is\\ a\\ mixed\\ scripts\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Iravatham\\ Mahadevan\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>India\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ respected\\ Indus\\ scholar\\,\\ he\\ has\\ published\\ corpora\\ of\\ Indus\\ inscriptions\\ and\\ analyses\\ of\\ the\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Picture\\ Biscripts\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ no\\ picture\\ biscripts\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ thus\\ far\\.\\ With\\ picture\\ biscripts\\,\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ easier\\ to\\ decipher\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ picture\\.\\ With\\ the\\ Indus\\ seals\\ however\\,\\ the\\ text\\ is\\ not\\ constrained\\ by\\ the\\ picture\\;\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ association\\ between\\ the\\ picture\\ and\\ the\\ adjacent\\ script\\.\\ This\\ was\\ determined\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ all\\ the\\ seals\\ with\\ similar\\ animals\\ on\\ it\\ \\(ie\\.\\ Tiger\\ or\\ unicorn\\)\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ sometimes\\ no\\ common\\ signs\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Longest\\ Indus\\ Inscription\\ \\<\\/b\\>is\\ only\\ \\(17\\-18\\ signs\\)\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ 1x0\\.95\\ inches\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\All\\ the\\ texts\\ are\\ so\\ short\\ that\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ scripts\\ could\\ be\\ names\\ of\\ individuals\\ or\\ places\\ which\\ makes\\ decipherment\\ very\\ challenging\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Language\\ recorded\\ by\\ the\\ Indus\\ Script\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ is\\ not\\ consensus\\ about\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ Script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\-Indo\\-European\\?\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Punjabi\\,\\ Hindi\\,\\ Marathi\\)\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-Some\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ Indo\\-European\\ moved\\ into\\ this\\ region\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ having\\ originated\\ there\\.\\ They\\ conclude\\ this\\ because\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ There\\ are\\ widely\\ dispersed\\ languages\\ within\\ India\\;\\ when\\ Indo\\-European\\ languages\\ came\\ into\\ the\\ region\\ they\\ could\\ have\\ split\\ up\\ a\\ previously\\ continuous\\ regional\\ language\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ It\\ makes\\ sense\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ languages\\ radiated\\ out\\ of\\ one\\ particular\\ spot\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\Dravidian\\?\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Brahui\\,\\ Telegu\\,\\ Tamil\\)\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\What\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ the\\ Indus\\ Script\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-Reading\\ Order\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-In\\ the\\ 1920\\-1930s\\ the\\ reading\\ order\\ was\\ determined\\ as\\ right\\ to\\ left\\.\\ As\\ we\\ remember\\,\\ the\\ reading\\ order\\ of\\ right\\ to\\ left\\ is\\ the\\ favored\\ reading\\ order\\ in\\ both\\ Phonecian\\ and\\ Egyptian\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Reading\\ order\\ is\\ right\\ to\\ left\\,\\ then\\ down\\,\\ and\\ left\\ to\\ right\\ \\(the\\ text\\ curves\\ around\\ the\\ seal\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ the\\ text\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-Text\\ Segmentation\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\A\\.\\ Repetition\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-This\\ was\\ concluded\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ repetition\\ of\\ signs\\ on\\ large\\ numbers\\ of\\ seals\\ where\\ certain\\ patterns\\ were\\ repeated\\;\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ plausible\\ units\\ \\(potentially\\ semantic\\ units\\ or\\ even\\ words\\)\\ of\\ longer\\ texts\\ were\\ found\\ alone\\ and\\ separate\\ seals\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-This\\ has\\ allowed\\ researchers\\ to\\ generate\\ actual\\ word\\ lists\\ and\\ dictionaries\\ of\\ the\\ Indus\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\B\\.\\ Frequencies\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Tabulate\\ how\\ many\\ times\\ signs\\ appear\\ side\\ by\\ side\\;\\ look\\ at\\ frequencies\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ appear\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ a\\ lot\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ plausible\\ that\\ they\\ must\\ appear\\ together\\ to\\ mean\\ a\\ single\\ word\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Some\\ signs\\ only\\ rarely\\ occur\\ with\\ other\\ signs\\ and\\ this\\ would\\ suggest\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ stand\\ alone\\ semantic\\ units\\ and\\ confirm\\ this\\ by\\ finding\\ the\\ single\\ sign\\ alone\\ on\\ a\\ seal\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Allographs\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Some\\ of\\ the\\ signs\\ \\could\\ potentially\\ be\\ allographs\\<\\/u\\>\\ \\[same\\ value\\ but\\ different\\ sign\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ argued\\ sometimes\\ that\\ these\\ two\\ signs\\ are\\ actually\\ allographs\\,\\ but\\ without\\ knowing\\ what\\ the\\ signs\\ are\\ writing\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ tell\\ what\\ they\\ are\\.\\ The\\ argument\\ for\\ their\\ same\\ meaning\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ convincing\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ constraint\\ or\\ exterior\\ way\\ to\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ things\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ or\\ not\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Compare\\:\\ son\\;\\ sun\\;\\ sin\\;\\ soon\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Some\\ signs\\ are\\ known\\ \\not\\ to\\ be\\ allographs\\<\\/u\\>\\.\\ It\\ was\\ concluded\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ different\\ signs\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ varying\\ frequencies\\.\\ Some\\ occur\\ very\\ frequently\\ while\\ others\\ do\\ not\\.\\ Some\\ are\\ favored\\ over\\ others\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ sign\\ with\\ the\\ three\\ dashes\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ commonly\\ used\\,\\ while\\ the\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ two\\ dashes\\ is\\ the\\ least\\ commonly\\ used\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-this\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ powerful\\ argument\\ than\\ the\\ one\\ previously\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\You\\ can\\ do\\ a\\ lot\\ with\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ has\\ not\\ been\\ deciphered\\ yet\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Could\\ there\\ be\\ grammatical\\ suffixes\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Some\\ of\\ the\\ signs\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ grammatical\\ suffixes\\ because\\ they\\ frequently\\ end\\ the\\ same\\ sequences\\ and\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ combine\\ with\\ another\\ common\\ final\\ sign\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Since\\ they\\ frequently\\ end\\ the\\ same\\ sequences\\ this\\ could\\ mean\\ that\\ maybe\\ it\\ distinguishes\\ between\\ singular\\ vs\\.\\ plural\\;\\ masculine\\ vs\\.\\ feminine\\,\\ or\\ cases\\;\\ but\\ without\\ a\\ language\\ we\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ know\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ marking\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Some\\ experts\\ want\\ to\\ see\\ ligatures\\ \\(combinations\\ of\\ other\\ signs\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Parpola\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Proposal\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Some\\ potential\\ problems\\:\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ signs\\ they\\ are\\ probably\\ logographic\\ or\\ phonetic\\ or\\ syllabic\\,\\ so\\ they\\ would\\ just\\ be\\ sound\\ sign\\ or\\ some\\ conflation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Fairservis\\&rsquo\\;\\ Fishy\\ Readings\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ he\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ signs\\ that\\ look\\ like\\ fish\\ and\\ actually\\ not\\ fish\\ but\\ actually\\ loops\\ of\\ cloth\\ and\\ other\\ little\\ additions\\ change\\ the\\ meaning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Fairservis\\ proposed\\ that\\ the\\ fish\\/cloth\\ loop\\ sign\\ means\\ \\&lsquo\\;pir\\&rsquo\\;\\ which\\ means\\ a\\ chief\\ of\\ ordinary\\ rank\\ and\\ the\\ different\\ additions\\ that\\ are\\ seen\\ to\\ this\\ sign\\ can\\ denote\\ a\\ different\\ rank\\ such\\ as\\ head\\ chief\\,\\ elder\\,\\ or\\ chief\\ priest\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-Parpola\\<\\/b\\>\\ disagrees\\ with\\ this\\ interpretation\\ and\\ believes\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ actually\\ mean\\ fish\\.\\ In\\ Dravidian\\ \\&lsquo\\;fish\\&rsquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;star\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ connoted\\ by\\ the\\ word\\ \\&lsquo\\;miin\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ fish\\ looking\\ sign\\ with\\ star\\ type\\ drawings\\ on\\ it\\ that\\ could\\ potentially\\ be\\ a\\ play\\ on\\ words\\,\\ this\\ could\\ be\\ visual\\ punning\\ with\\ star\\ signs\\ around\\ fish\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-There\\ is\\ also\\ a\\ seal\\ with\\ a\\ fish\\ sign\\ and\\ seven\\ dashes\\ following\\ it\\ which\\ could\\ signifigy\\ \\&lsquo\\;elu\\ miin\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ literally\\ translates\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;seven\\ stars\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ refers\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ursa\\ Major\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;Harappan\\ Problem\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Zvelebil\\ explains\\ the\\ Indus\\ script\\ presents\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ intractable\\ difficulties\\ for\\ the\\ would\\-be\\ decipherment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.\\ Represents\\ an\\ unknown\\ language\\ recorded\\ in\\ an\\ unknown\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ bilingual\\ key\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 3\\.\\ Texts\\ are\\ exceedingly\\ short\\ and\\ probably\\ \\(though\\ not\\ certainly\\)\\ limited\\ in\\ subject\\ matter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 4\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ independently\\ known\\ cultural\\ information\\ about\\ Indus\\ civilization\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Place\\ names\\,\\ personal\\ names\\,\\ deities\\)\\,\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ cultural\\ and\\ chronological\\ remoteness\\ of\\ Indus\\ civilization\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 5\\.\\ Estimates\\ of\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ signs\\ in\\ the\\ Indus\\ script\\ vary\\ from\\ 62\\ \\(Rau\\)\\ through\\ 400\\-450\\ \\(Parpola\\ and\\ Mahadevan\\)\\ to\\ over\\ 600\\ \\(Wells\\)\\ \\[In\\ this\\ last\\ instance\\,\\ over\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ potential\\ signs\\ are\\ actually\\ unique\\ and\\ appear\\ only\\ once\\ in\\ the\\ entire\\ Indus\\ script\\ record\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Problem of Indus Writing"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.248631+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 744, "html": "\\ELECTROCHEMISTRY\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nAny\\ chemical\\ reaction\\ may\\ be\\ expressed\\ as\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reactants\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ products\\ \\+\\ free\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Matter\\ at\\ a\\ high\\ chemical\\ potential\\ seeks\\ the\\ available\\ path\\ to\\ lower\\ energy\\ states\\ \\+\\ release\\ of\\ free\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reaches\\ a\\ lower\\ energy\\ state\\ throuh\\ rearrangement\\ of\\ bonds\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOXIDATION\\-REDUCTION\\ REACTIONS\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ metal\\ immersed\\ in\\ a\\ solution\\ containing\\ ions\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reduction\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ metal\\ ion\\ Mn\\+\\ from\\ solution\\ may\\ collide\\ with\\ the\\ electrode\\ \\(piece\\ of\\ metal\\)\\,\\ gaining\\ electrons\\ from\\ it\\,\\ and\\ me\\ converted\\ into\\ metal\\ atom\\ M\\ \\(now\\ on\\ the\\ electrode\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Oxidation\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ metal\\ ion\\ M\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ electrode\\ may\\ lose\\ n\\ electrons\\ and\\ enter\\ the\\ solution\\ as\\ the\\ ion\\ Mn\\+\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Mnemonic\\:\\ reduction\\ \\=\\ charge\\ becomes\\ more\\ negative\\ because\\ electrons\\ are\\ gained\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Framework\\ of\\ redox\\ reactions\\:\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ electrons\\ are\\ transferred\\ from\\ one\\ species\\ to\\ another\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ oxidant\\,\\ or\\ oxidizing\\ agent\\,\\ takes\\ electrons\\ from\\ the\\ reductant\\,\\ or\\ reducing\\ agent\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Oxidation\\:\\ loss\\ of\\ electrons\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reduction\\:\\ gain\\ of\\ electrons\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Oxidation\\ and\\ reduction\\ are\\ inseparable\\ processes\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTHE\\ GALVANIC\\ OR\\ VOLTAIC\\ CELL\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2\\ electrodes\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ an\\ electrode\\ that\\ releases\\ cations\\ called\\ the\\ anode\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ an\\ electrode\\ that\\ acquires\\ cations\\ called\\ the\\ cathode\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ anode\\ acquires\\ excess\\ negative\\ charge\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ cathode\\ acquires\\ excess\\ positive\\ charge\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ if\\ the\\ anode\\ and\\ cathode\\ are\\ connected\\ by\\ a\\ good\\ conductor\\,\\ the\\ excess\\ electrons\\ leave\\ the\\ anode\\ and\\ travel\\ to\\ the\\ cathode\\ to\\ restore\\ charge\\ balance\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ salt\\ bridge\\ provides\\ ions\\ to\\ solutions\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nhalf\\-cell\\ reactions\\ are\\ conventionally\\ written\\ with\\ the\\ cation\\ on\\ the\\ left\\,\\ even\\ though\\ one\\ of\\ them\\ \\(the\\ less\\ favorable\\ one\\)\\ will\\ go\\ backwards\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\ reaction\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ As\\ electrons\\ flow\\ from\\ the\\ anode\\ to\\ the\\ cathode\\,\\ and\\ the\\ caothode\\ collects\\ cations\\ from\\ solution\\,\\ simultaneously\\ anions\\ move\\ from\\ the\\ salt\\ bridge\\ into\\ the\\ Zn\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ to\\ neutralize\\ the\\ Zn\\+\\+\\ formed\\ at\\ the\\ anode\\ in\\ the\\ oxidation\\ step\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Cations\\ from\\ the\\ KNO3\\ salt\\ bridge\\ migrate\\ into\\ the\\ Cu\\ half\\ cell\\ and\\ neutralize\\ the\\ negative\\ charge\\ of\\ the\\ excess\\ NO3\\-\\ ions\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nelectrons\\ seek\\ any\\ pathway\\ to\\ a\\ lower\\ energy\\ state\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ potential\\ gradient\\ directing\\ electrons\\ from\\ the\\ anode\\ to\\ the\\ cathode\\ through\\ the\\ wire\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ electrical\\ potential\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ half\\-cells\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ cell\\ voltage\\ and\\ has\\ the\\ units\\ Joule\\/Coulomb\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ if\\ we\\ put\\ a\\ voltemeter\\ in\\ the\\ external\\ circuit\\,\\ the\\ reading\\ in\\ volts\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ relative\\ ability\\ of\\ Cu\\ to\\ extract\\ electrons\\ from\\ Zn\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ reduction\\ potential\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ cell\\ potential\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ a\\ tug\\-of\\-war\\ bewteen\\ the\\ anode\\ and\\ the\\ cathode\\ for\\ electrons\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ cell\\ potential\\ is\\ the\\ diffrence\\ bewteen\\ the\\ individual\\ reduction\\ potentials\\ for\\ the\\ half\\-cells\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Each\\ element\\ has\\ a\\ standard\\ reduction\\ potential\\,\\ E\\º\\;\\,\\ at\\ 25\\º\\;C\\,\\ 1\\ molar\\,\\ 1\\ atm\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTHE\\ STANDARD\\ HYDROGEN\\ ELECTRODE\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Many\\ possible\\ combinations\\ of\\ anodes\\ and\\ cathodes\\ could\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ galvanic\\ cell\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ We\\ need\\ a\\ standard\\ way\\ to\\ compare\\ then\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ comparing\\ their\\ reduction\\ potential\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ standard\\ hydrogen\\ electrode\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ potential\\ of\\ this\\ reduction\\ reaction\\ is\\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ 0\\ on\\ the\\ standard\\ scale\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 2H\\+\\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ 2e\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ H2\\ \\(g\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ standard\\ conditions\\ are\\ 1M\\ concentration\\,\\ 298\\ K\\ temp\\,\\ 1\\ atm\\ pressure\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ reaction\\ is\\ done\\ with\\ a\\ platinum\\ catalyst\\ since\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ pure\\ H2\\ electrode\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Standard\\ electrode\\ potentials\\ correlate\\ with\\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ electronegativities\\ across\\ the\\ Periodic\\ Table\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Highly\\ electronegative\\ elements\\ have\\ the\\ greatest\\ reduction\\ potentials\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCompare\\ the\\ copper\\-hydrogen\\ cell\\ and\\ the\\ zinc\\-hydrogen\\ cell\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ calculated\\ cell\\ potential\\ can\\ tell\\ us\\ whether\\ \\?G\\ is\\ greater\\ or\\ less\\ than\\ 0\\ for\\ the\\ cell\\ reaction\\ going\\ forward\\ or\\ backward\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ spontaneous\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ the\\ cell\\ potential\\ for\\ a\\ spontaneous\\ reaction\\ is\\ always\\ positive\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ if\\ the\\ reaction\\ is\\ not\\ spontaneous\\ going\\ in\\ one\\ direction\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ when\\ written\\ backwards\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ electromotive\\ force\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ gravitational\\ force\\ on\\ a\\ hill\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMAXIMUM\\ WORK\\ FROM\\ A\\ CELL\\:\\ GIBBS\\ FREE\\ ENERGY\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ electromotive\\ force\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ calculation\\ of\\ the\\ cell\\ potential\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ But\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ calculate\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ joules\\ released\\ in\\ an\\ electrochemical\\ system\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ number\\ of\\ joules\\ available\\ for\\ work\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ maximum\\ work\\ available\\ resulting\\ from\\ electrons\\ moving\\ \\&ldquo\\;energetically\\ downhill\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ anode\\ to\\ the\\ cathode\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ charge\\ of\\ the\\ electron\\ determines\\ the\\ force\\ on\\ the\\ electron\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ field\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Free\\ energy\\ for\\ work\\ \\=\\ charge\\ of\\ an\\ electron\\ \\*\\ number\\ of\\ electrons\\ \\*\\ electromotive\\ force\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Number\\ of\\ coulombs\\ of\\ charge\\ \\/\\ mol\\ electrons\\ \\=\\ F\\ \\(Faraday\\&rsquo\\;s\\ constant\\)\\ \\=\\ 9\\.6485\\ \\*\\ 10\\^4\\ C\\/mol\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ If\\ we\\ have\\ n\\ mol\\ e\\-\\ traveling\\,\\ the\\ total\\ negative\\ charge\\ \\=\\ \\-nF\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCapacity\\ of\\ the\\ external\\ circuit\\ to\\ do\\ work\\ \\=\\ charge\\ passing\\ between\\ anode\\ and\\ cathode\\ \\*\\ electromotive\\ force\\ \\=\\ \\(Ecell\\)\\(\\-nF\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Maximum\\ amount\\ of\\ work\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ extracted\\ from\\ an\\ electrochemical\\ cell\\ \\=\\ \\?G\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\?G\\ \\=\\ \\-nFEcell\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ link\\ between\\ chemical\\ and\\ electrical\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\-nFE\\º\\;cell\\ \\=\\ \\?G\\º\\;\\ \\=\\ \\-RTlnK\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nE\\º\\;cell\\ \\=\\ \\(RT\\/nF\\)lnK\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nK\\ \\=\\ exp\\[nFE\\º\\;cell\\/RT\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nTHE\\ DEATH\\ OF\\ AN\\ ELECTROCHEMICAL\\ CELL\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Eventually\\,\\ batteries\\ go\\ dead\\ unless\\ recharged\\ \\(the\\ reaction\\ running\\ backward\\,\\ with\\ energy\\ input\\ from\\ an\\ outside\\ source\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ How\\ does\\ this\\ happen\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Normally\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ reduction\\ potentials\\ maintains\\ a\\ downward\\ energy\\ slope\\ for\\ the\\ electrons\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ system\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ equilibrium\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ But\\ as\\ electrons\\ are\\ moved\\,\\ the\\ cell\\ reaches\\ equilibrium\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ voltage\\ potential\\ disappears\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\?G\\ \\=\\ \\?G\\º\\;\\ \\+\\ RTlnQ\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNernst\\ equation\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Ecell\\ \\=\\ E\\º\\;cell\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(RT\\/nF\\)lnQ\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ This\\ relates\\ the\\ instantaneous\\ cell\\ potential\\,\\ E\\,\\ to\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ reaction\\,\\ Q\\\\\r\\\nNON\\-SPONTANEOUS\\ REACTIONS\\:\\ DRIVING\\ THE\\ ELECTROCHEMICAL\\ CELL\\ UPHILL\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Non\\-spontaneous\\ reactions\\ can\\ be\\ driven\\ by\\ applying\\ an\\ external\\ electrical\\ potential\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ external\\ source\\ should\\ have\\ a\\ larger\\ cell\\ potential\\ than\\ the\\ cell\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nELECTROLYSIS\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Breakdown\\ of\\ water\\ into\\ oxygen\\ and\\ hydrogen\\ gases\\ using\\ electricity\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCOMPARISON\\ OF\\ VOLTAIC\\ CELLS\\ AND\\ ELECTROLYTIC\\ CELLS\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nVOLTAIC\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Oxidation\\:\\ A\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ A\\+\\ \\+\\ e\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reduction\\:\\ B\\+\\ \\+\\ e\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ B\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\?G\\ \\<\\;\\ 0\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nELECTROLYTIC\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Oxidation\\:\\ B\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ B\\+\\ \\+\\ e\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reduction\\:\\ A\\+\\ \\+\\ e\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ A\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\+\\ \\+\\ B\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ A\\ \\+\\ B\\+\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSTORAGE\\ OF\\ CHEMICAL\\ ENERGY\\:\\ BATTERIES\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Primary\\ cells\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ reversible\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Secondary\\ cells\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reversible\\ \\(rechargeable\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nFUEL\\ CELLS\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Reduction\\:\\ O2\\ \\(g\\)\\ \\+\\ 2H2O\\ \\(l\\)\\ \\+\\ 4e\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ 4OH\\-\\ \\(aq\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Oxidation\\:\\ 2H2\\ \\(g\\)\\ \\+\\ 4OH\\-\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ 4H2O\\(l\\)\\ \\+\\ 4e\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Net\\:\\ 2H2\\ \\(g\\)\\ \\+\\ O2\\ \\(g\\)\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ 2H2O\\ \\(l\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Water\\ is\\ produced\\ from\\ hydrogen\\ and\\ oxygen\\ gases\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Using\\ the\\ standard\\ electrode\\ potentials\\ from\\ the\\ half\\-reacions\\,\\ we\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ potential\\ for\\ the\\ cell\\ is\\ \\+1\\.23V\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ positive\\ value\\,\\ which\\ means\\ the\\ reaction\\ is\\ spontaneous\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(Should\\ be\\ spontaneous\\,\\ because\\ electrolysis\\ is\\ a\\ reaction\\ that\\ consumes\\ energy\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\,\\ we\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ H2\\ explodes\\ in\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ O2\\.\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ using\\ electrodes\\ that\\ are\\ porous\\ metals\\ and\\ good\\ catalysts\\,\\ we\\ can\\ sustain\\ the\\ half\\-reactions\\ in\\ a\\ cell\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ a\\ flowing\\ supply\\ of\\ gases\\ is\\ needed\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ O2\\ to\\ the\\ cathode\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ H2\\ to\\ the\\ anode\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ electrolyte\\ solution\\ is\\ typically\\ KOH\\,\\ which\\ dissociates\\ into\\ K\\+\\ and\\ OH\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nAdvantages\\ of\\ the\\ fuel\\ cell\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ No\\ harmful\\ emissions\\,\\ only\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ fuel\\ cell\\ can\\ reach\\ efficiencies\\ as\\ high\\ as\\ 75\\%\\ \\(compared\\ to\\ heat\\ engines\\,\\ which\\ reach\\ a\\ maximum\\ efficiency\\ of\\ about\\ 25\\%\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nDisadvantages\\ of\\ the\\ fuel\\ cell\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Needs\\ a\\ constant\\ supply\\ of\\ H2\\ and\\ O2\\ gases\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ These\\ take\\ energy\\ to\\ produce\\ from\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Would\\ like\\ to\\ find\\ a\\ cheap\\ and\\ inexhaustible\\ source\\ of\\ energy\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ photoelectrochemical\\ cell\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCase\\ Study\\ 6\\.1\\ Photosynthesis\\ and\\ Photoelectrochemistry\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ chlorophyll\\ reaction\\ center\\ uses\\ the\\ energy\\ of\\ the\\ solar\\ photon\\ to\\ separate\\ the\\ excited\\ electrons\\ from\\ the\\ electron\\ defficient\\ positive\\ charge\\ across\\ cell\\ membrane\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ net\\ positive\\ charge\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ reduce\\ NADP\\+\\ to\\ NADPH\\ using\\ a\\ proton\\ from\\ the\\ oxidation\\ of\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Chlorophyll\\ absorbs\\ light\\ from\\ the\\ sun\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ electron\\ is\\ transported\\ to\\ NADP\\+\\ and\\ reduces\\ it\\ to\\ NADPH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ NADPH\\ combines\\ with\\ ATP4\\-\\ to\\ provide\\ both\\ the\\ energy\\ and\\ electrons\\ to\\ drive\\ the\\ synthesis\\ of\\ sugars\\ from\\ CO2\\ and\\ H2O\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ relationship\\ between\\ photosynthesis\\ and\\ the\\ generation\\ of\\ primary\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Chlorophyll\\ absorbs\\ energy\\ in\\ the\\ range\\ that\\ covers\\ about\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ the\\ solar\\ photons\\ that\\ reach\\ the\\ Earth\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ A\\ plant\\ absorbs\\ about\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ the\\ photons\\ in\\ this\\ range\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ So\\ about\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ solar\\ energy\\ incident\\ on\\ the\\ plant\\ is\\ available\\ for\\ photosynthesis\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Only\\ \\¼\\;\\ of\\ the\\ absorbed\\ photon\\ energy\\ ends\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ chemical\\ bonds\\ of\\ carbohydrates\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ conversion\\ efficiency\\ from\\ solar\\ photons\\ to\\ the\\ plant\\ is\\ only\\ about\\ 10\\%\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 40\\%\\ of\\ this\\ goes\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ plant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ metabolism\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ so\\ only\\ 6\\%\\ of\\ sunlight\\ energy\\ is\\ stored\\ in\\ the\\ plant\\ product\\ for\\ the\\ food\\ supply\\,\\ biofuels\\,\\ or\\ habitat\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ biofuels\\ not\\ that\\ efficient\\ an\\ energy\\ option\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCase\\ Study\\ 6\\.2\\ Electrochemistry\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Cells\\ can\\ create\\ gradients\\ of\\ charge\\ and\\ concentration\\ on\\ either\\ side\\ of\\ their\\ membranes\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Show\\ an\\ electrochemical\\ model\\ of\\ a\\ cell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ couple\\ chemical\\ bond\\ energy\\ from\\ food\\ to\\ an\\ electrochemical\\ potential\\,\\ E\\º\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Gibbs\\ Free\\ Energy\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ cell\\ potential\\ by\\ the\\ equation\\ \\?G\\º\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\-nFE\\º\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ superscript\\ on\\ E\\º\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\ denotes\\ standard\\ conditions\\ within\\ biological\\ systems\\:\\ pH\\ \\=\\ 7\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ cell\\ controls\\ energy\\ release\\ by\\ passing\\ electrons\\ through\\ the\\ electron\\ transport\\ chain\\ in\\ the\\ mitochondria\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ oxidation\\ of\\ hydrogen\\ provides\\ the\\ chemical\\ energy\\ to\\ sustain\\ the\\ ETC\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ But\\ H2\\ does\\ not\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ cell\\;\\ NADH\\ is\\ the\\ hydrogen\\ source\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ In\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ oxidizing\\ molecules\\ of\\ food\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ NAD\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ 2H\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ 2e\\-\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ NADH\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ H\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ At\\ the\\ mitochondrial\\ inner\\ membrane\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ NADH\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ H\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ NAD\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ 2H\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ 2e\\-\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Final\\ step\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\/2O2\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ 2e\\-\\ \\+\\ 2H\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ H2O\\ \\(l\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Net\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ NADH\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ H\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ 1\\/2\\ O2\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ NAD\\+\\ \\(aq\\)\\ \\+\\ H2O\\ \\(l\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ E\\º\\;\\ overall\\ \\=\\ 1\\.13\\ V\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ For\\ every\\ mole\\ of\\ NADH\\ that\\ enters\\ the\\ redox\\ chain\\,\\ the\\ free\\ energy\\ equivalent\\ of\\ 1\\.13\\ V\\ is\\ available\\:\\ \\?G\\º\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\-nFE\\º\\;\\/\\ \\=\\ \\-\\(2\\ mol\\ e\\-\\/mol\\ NADH\\)\\*\\(96\\.5\\ kJ\\/V\\*mol\\*e\\-\\)\\(1\\.130\\ V\\)\\ \\=\\ \\-218\\ kJ\\/mol\\ NADH\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nCase\\ Study\\ 6\\.3\\ The\\ Role\\ of\\ ATP\\ in\\ Powering\\ Living\\ Organisms\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Virtually\\ all\\ living\\ organisms\\ use\\ the\\ same\\ reaction\\ to\\ power\\ life\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ATP4\\-\\ \\+\\ H2O\\ \\&larr\\;\\ \\&rarr\\;\\ ADP3\\-\\ \\+\\ HPO42\\-\\ \\+\\ H\\+\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\?G\\º\\;\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\=\\ \\-39\\.5\\ kJ\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ large\\ release\\ of\\ energy\\ on\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ chemical\\ reactions\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ large\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ useful\\ on\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ requirements\\ for\\ life\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Why\\ is\\ there\\ a\\ large\\ free\\ energy\\ difference\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Phosphate\\ groups\\ in\\ ATP\\ repel\\ each\\ other\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ negatively\\ charged\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ HPO42\\-\\ product\\ can\\ form\\ 3\\ resonance\\ structures\\ that\\ are\\ low\\ in\\ energy\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nATP\\ breakdown\\ can\\ be\\ coupled\\ with\\ non\\-spontaneous\\ reactions\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Breakdown\\ of\\ glucose\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;the\\ reaction\\ of\\ converting\\ ATP\\ to\\ ADP\\ is\\ slow\\ because\\ of\\ kinetics\\:\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ the\\ right\\ orientation\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ enzyme\\ catalyst\\ that\\ helps\\:\\ hexose\\ kinese\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;Case\\ Study\\ 6\\.4\\ The\\ generation\\ of\\ hydrogen\\ from\\ sunlight\\:\\ inorganic\\ electrophotochemistry\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n3\\ important\\ facts\\ about\\ generating\\ energy\\ on\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ 10\\^20\\ joules\\/year\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Earth\\ receives\\ 10\\,000\\ times\\ the\\ energy\\ from\\ the\\ Sun\\ than\\ humans\\ use\\ for\\ civilization\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ maximum\\ energy\\ conversion\\ efficiency\\ for\\ plant\\ energy\\ is\\ about\\ 6\\%\\,\\ and\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ 3\\%\\ for\\ many\\ plants\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ NADPH\\ or\\ NADH\\ acts\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ H\\ in\\ living\\ systems\\ that\\ reacts\\ with\\ O2\\ to\\ form\\ water\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nEnergy\\ goals\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Discover\\ an\\ inorganic\\,\\ direct\\ route\\ to\\ converting\\ water\\ to\\ H2\\ and\\ O2\\ from\\ sunlight\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Achieve\\ this\\ with\\ low\\-cost\\,\\ nontoxic\\ supplies\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Achieve\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ storing\\ energy\\ in\\ chemical\\ bonds\\ for\\ use\\ when\\ sunlight\\ is\\ not\\ available\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nMatthew\\ Kanan\\ \\+\\ Daniel\\ Nocera\\ at\\ MIT\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Spatially\\ separate\\ the\\ electron\\ fron\\ the\\ positive\\ charge\\ center\\ within\\ an\\ electrolysis\\ cell\\ and\\ then\\ capture\\ the\\ electron\\ and\\ positive\\ charge\\ center\\ with\\ catalysts\\ that\\ execute\\ the\\ water\\ splitting\\ step\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 108, "file_path": "", "desc": "CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.265476+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "First Lecture after Spring Break- Voting Participation ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 745, "html": "\\\\\\ \\;Political\\ Participation\\:\\ Voting\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>Citizens\\ have\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ participation\\ options\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Directly\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Indirectly\\:\\ influence\\ electoral\\ outcomes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Donate\\ time\\ and\\ money\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Protest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Voting\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Trend\\ lines\\ speak\\ to\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ important\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ actually\\ measure\\ voting\\ participation\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Percentage\\ of\\ \\#\\ of\\ ballots\\ cast\\/\\ eligible\\ population\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ask\\ people\\ NES\\ recorded\\ as\\ 70\\%\\ the\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ will\\ lie\\ about\\ voting\\.\\ Over\\ reporting\\ is\\ in\\ part\\ due\\ to\\ memory\\ problems\\ and\\ people\\ who\\ mis\\-report\\ are\\ people\\ who\\ know\\ that\\ others\\ expect\\ them\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ Blacks\\ are\\ 2x\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ over\\ report\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ historical\\ case\\ of\\ voting\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Official\\ stats\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Total\\ ballots\\ cast\\ should\\ include\\ under\\ votes\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ over\\ votes\\.\\ The\\ votes\\ that\\ are\\ counted\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ for\\ the\\ highest\\ office\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ denominator\\ really\\ distinguishes\\ the\\ bottom\\ lines\\.\\ We\\ have\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ to\\ define\\ who\\ is\\ actually\\ eligible\\.\\ Most\\ adults\\ 18\\+\\ are\\ eligible\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ citizen\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Non\\ citizens\\,\\ incapacitated\\,\\ prison\\,\\ felons\\,\\ overseas\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ take\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ into\\ account\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Why\\ is\\ voting\\ so\\ variable\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reveals\\ circumstances\\ about\\ how\\ people\\ choose\\ to\\ vote\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Saw\\ tooth\\ pattern\\ of\\ election\\ to\\ election\\ variability\\.\\ The\\ decline\\ in\\ turnout\\ is\\ typically\\ between\\ 14\\ percentage\\ points\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Low\\ midterm\\ voter\\ turnout\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Voters\\ attach\\ less\\ significance\\ to\\ lower\\-level\\ offices\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Less\\ media\\ attention\\ devoted\\ to\\ lower\\ level\\ races\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Degree\\ of\\ competition\\ between\\ the\\ political\\ parties\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Congressional\\ incumbents\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ strong\\ advantage\\ that\\ they\\ often\\ succeed\\ in\\ discouraging\\ challengers\\-\\ so\\ a\\ lot\\ are\\ uncontested\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>26\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ amendment\\ lowered\\ the\\ voting\\ range\\ to\\ 18\\ making\\ a\\ steep\\ decline\\.\\ It\\ reset\\ the\\ modal\\ levels\\ of\\ participation\\ going\\ forward\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\.\\ Who\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ is\\ taking\\ part\\ in\\ elections\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ persistent\\ complaints\\ is\\ the\\ low\\ rate\\ of\\ voting\\ turnout\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>American\\ elections\\ are\\ the\\ lowest\\ in\\ the\\ democratic\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Registration\\ is\\ cancelled\\ is\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ vote\\ and\\ that\\ varies\\ across\\ states\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ mobile\\ country\\ and\\ every\\ time\\ you\\ move\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ re\\-register\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ Australia\\ voting\\ is\\ compulsory\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ also\\ hold\\ elections\\ on\\ Tuesdays\\,\\ some\\ do\\ it\\ on\\ weekends\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Motor\\ voter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\*\\*\\*Most\\ people\\ vote\\ occasionally\\.\\ There\\ are\\ only\\ 5\\-6\\%\\ who\\ have\\ never\\ voted\\ in\\ their\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Who\\ does\\ vote\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ Social\\:\\ Education\\-individuals\\ with\\ higher\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\ vote\\ more\\ often\\,\\ Income\\-\\ people\\ who\\ vote\\ are\\ more\\ affluent\\ this\\ class\\ bias\\ has\\ been\\ stable\\,\\ Age\\-\\ large\\ proportion\\ of\\ young\\ people\\ pass\\ up\\ their\\ first\\ opportunities\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ Slight\\ decline\\ in\\ the\\ most\\ elderly\\.\\ Only\\ a\\ small\\ proportion\\ under\\ age\\ 25\\ are\\ married\\ and\\ unmarried\\ people\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ politics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Psychological\\:\\ Political\\ interest\\,\\ partisanship\\,\\ civic\\ duty\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ Recruitment\\:\\ mobilization\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Explaining\\ SES\\ and\\ turnout\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-it\\ is\\ a\\ luxury\\ good\\ that\\ high\\ status\\ people\\ can\\ afford\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-those\\ with\\ more\\ education\\ also\\ have\\ more\\ skills\\ both\\ civic\\ and\\ cognitive\\.\\ They\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ follow\\ and\\ have\\ opinions\\ and\\ discuss\\ politics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\-Mobilization\\ efforts\\ often\\ target\\ high\\ SES\\ indi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "First Lecture after Spring Break- Voting Participation "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.280105+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "First Lecture after Spring Break- The Bells", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 746, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 3\\.31\\.09\\ First\\ Lecture\\ after\\ Spring\\ Break\\ The\\ Bells\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\ we\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ discussing\\ a\\ melodrama\\-\\ it\\ is\\ short\\ and\\ sweet\\.\\ It\\ exists\\ between\\ melodrama\\ and\\ psychological\\ realism\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ from\\ a\\ reader\\-history\\ perspective\\.\\ The\\ bells\\ is\\ caught\\ between\\ these\\ divergent\\ logics\\ and\\ soundtracks\\.\\ Melodrama\\ is\\ embodied\\ by\\ this\\ annoying\\ musicality\\ which\\ is\\ punctuating\\ all\\ the\\ action\\.\\ Clash\\ of\\ two\\ soundtracks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mathius\\ is\\ trapped\\ between\\ these\\ two\\ sounds\\.\\ He\\ is\\ trapped\\ between\\ this\\ customary\\ music\\ and\\ interiorized\\ sleigh\\ bells\\.\\ Walter\\ is\\ speaking\\ when\\ Mathias\\ first\\ hears\\ the\\ sleigh\\ bells\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mathius\\ was\\ the\\ role\\ that\\ jetted\\ Henry\\ Irving\\ into\\ stardom\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ actor\\ because\\ of\\ this\\ role\\.\\ Irving\\ was\\ the\\ very\\ first\\ actor\\ to\\ ever\\ be\\ knighted\\-\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ knight\\ celebrities\\.\\ He\\ was\\ more\\ than\\ an\\ actor\\ he\\ was\\ also\\ a\\ great\\ modernizer\\ but\\ he\\ also\\ modernized\\ stage\\ craft\\ including\\ lighting\\ and\\ theatre\\ manager\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ three\\ films\\ of\\ the\\ bells\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Theresa\\ Rebach\\ sucks\\ as\\ a\\ playwright\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ bells\\ all\\ the\\ characters\\ are\\ firmly\\ placed\\ in\\ a\\ melodramatic\\ universe\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ flat\\ characterizations\\ with\\ the\\ glaring\\ exception\\ of\\ Mathius\\.\\ He\\ has\\ rejected\\ the\\ melodramatic\\ world\\ and\\ accepts\\ a\\ whole\\ new\\ world\\-\\ theatrical\\.\\ Freudian\\ slip\\ is\\ when\\ your\\ conscious\\ slips\\ up\\ and\\ prevents\\ you\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ truth\\ so\\ you\\ accidently\\ call\\ your\\ best\\ friend\\ mommy\\.\\ Something\\ Freudian\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ this\\ play\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ bells\\ diverges\\ drastically\\ from\\ this\\ melodramatic\\ condition\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ tension\\ between\\ conscious\\ and\\ unconscious\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ rather\\ a\\ psychological\\ realist\\ schedule\\.\\ He\\ ends\\ up\\ bringing\\ justice\\ to\\ himself\\.\\ He\\ is\\ put\\ on\\ trial\\.\\ His\\ profound\\ aloneness\\.\\ In\\ this\\ play\\ nothing\\ happens\\ between\\ people\\.\\ Nothing\\ happens\\ but\\ stupid\\ conversations\\.\\ All\\ the\\ action\\ happens\\ inside\\ one\\ specific\\ person\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ aloneness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ about\\ reintegrating\\ people\\ into\\ society\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ absorbed\\ into\\ the\\ loving\\ bosom\\.\\ It\\ involves\\ quite\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ angst\\ and\\ pain\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ root\\ of\\ psychological\\ realism\\ is\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ a\\ subject\\ is\\ an\\ illusion\\-\\ it\\ is\\ impossible\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ root\\ of\\ evil\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ seed\\ of\\ goodness\\.\\ Our\\ sense\\ of\\ self\\ instead\\ is\\ revealed\\ to\\ be\\ spect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "First Lecture after Spring Break- The Bells"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.292377+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Han Tomb", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 747, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:1\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262144\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:1\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262144\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:ZH\\-CN\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:478231385\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:367268924\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1015378197\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1632074776\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1167015803\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1042964816\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1476488688\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-992699824\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ table\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\HAA1\\ Professor\\ Eugene\\ Wang\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\March\\ 17\\,\\ 2009\\:\\ Animating\\ the\\ Dead\\:\\ The\\ Mawangdui\\ Tomb\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Moving\\ from\\ art\\ to\\ culture\\/background\\ surrouding\\ art\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Last\\ week\\,\\ talked\\ about\\ role\\ of\\ patron\\ in\\ writing\\ the\\ program\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>This\\ week\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ program\\ gets\\ manifested\\ as\\ subject\\ as\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ iconography\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ subject\\ matter\\ is\\ interpreted\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nasca\\ lines\\:\\ only\\ discovered\\ in\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>This\\ week\\:\\ Mawangdui\\ tomb\\,\\ discovered\\ in\\ 1970s\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>First\\ Emperor\\ of\\ Qin\\ Dynasty\\,\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\ BCE\\,\\ pit\\ with\\ terra\\-cotta\\ army\\.\\ Has\\ site\\ that\\ is\\ well\\-known\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Monument\\ in\\ Southern\\ China\\,\\ \\\\Changsha\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dates\\ to\\ W\\.\\ Han\\ dynasty\\ 202\\ BCE\\-\\ 9CE\\ \\(that\\ overthrew\\ Qin\\ Dynasty\\)\\.\\ Complex\\ of\\ family\\ tombs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ three\\ together\\,\\ father\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Tomb\\ 2\\,\\ Son\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Tomb\\ 3\\,\\ Mother\\,\\ Tomb\\ 1\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Son\\ died\\ in\\ 158\\ BCE\\,\\ wife\\ survived\\ them\\ all\\.\\ When\\ father\\ died\\ \\(prime\\ minister\\ of\\ region\\)\\.\\ When\\ wife\\ died\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ greater\\ prosperity\\,\\ one\\ of\\ wealthiest\\ tombs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Photographs\\ of\\ excavation\\ of\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomb\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(tomb\\ numbering\\ is\\ artificially\\,\\ based\\ on\\ excavation\\)\\.\\ Inside\\ is\\ series\\ of\\ encasements\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ elaborate\\,\\ 2\\ wooden\\,\\ set\\ of\\ 4\\ coffins\\.\\ Inside\\ laid\\ Lady\\ Dai\\ in\\ perfect\\ condition\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Not\\ Egyptian\\ mummy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ body\\ preserved\\ in\\ perfect\\ condition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ mummified\\.\\ Watermelon\\ seed\\ is\\ also\\ preserved\\ in\\ stomach\\.\\ Unheard\\ of\\ in\\ world\\ history\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ talking\\ about\\ body\\ entered\\ in\\ tomb\\ 130\\ BCE\\.\\ Now\\ give\\ it\\ annual\\ physical\\ check\\-up\\.\\ When\\ died\\ around\\ age\\ 50\\,\\ reconstructed\\ bone\\ structure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ found\\ very\\ beautiful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tomb\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ nice\\ structure\\.\\ Layered\\ coffin\\ in\\ center\\,\\ 4\\ chambers\\.\\ Food\\ vessels\\,\\ entertainment\\ items\\ surrounding\\ tomb\\.\\ Height\\ of\\ silk\\ production\\.\\ \\Silk\\ Road\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Wardrobe\\ woman\\ had\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ amazing\\.\\ Transparent\\ garbs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ weights\\ 49\\ g\\.\\ Very\\ delicate\\,\\ transparent\\,\\ another\\ patterned\\ with\\ hand\\ embroidery\\.\\ Painted\\.\\ Stitching\\ with\\ bird\\ patterns\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Toilet\\ boxes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ after\\ died\\,\\ one\\ must\\ still\\ care\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ looks\\.\\ Box\\ within\\ box\\.\\ Also\\ band\\ figures\\&ndash\\;\\ with\\ musicians\\ playing\\ ancient\\ instruments\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ still\\ played\\ today\\.\\ Also\\ dancers\\ figures\\.\\ Hierarchy\\ maintained\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ dancers\\,\\ musicians\\,\\ 2\\ butler\\ figures\\.\\ Make\\ sure\\ household\\ is\\ run\\ properly\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>All\\ figurines\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ female\\.\\ Feminine\\ space\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ except\\ for\\ 2\\ butlers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pit\\ grave\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Wooden\\ encasement\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Set\\ of\\ coffins\\ \\(4\\)\\.\\ Outmost\\ is\\ undecorated\\.\\ Three\\ inside\\ are\\ decorated\\.\\ Number\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 4\\ \\(innermost\\)\\.\\ 2\\-3\\ are\\ most\\ interesting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dark\\ to\\ vermilion\\ red\\,\\ from\\ Yin\\ to\\ Yang\\.\\ She\\ is\\ imbedded\\ in\\ innermost\\ coffin\\,\\ there\\ is\\ banner\\ facing\\ the\\ lady\\.\\ Will\\ spend\\ time\\ on\\ this\\ banner\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Tomb\\ no\\.\\ 1\\ at\\ Mawangdui\\,\\ Xi\\ Zhui\\,\\ or\\ Marquise\\ Lady\\ Dai\\ \\(occupant\\)\\,\\ after\\ 168\\ BCE\\ Han\\ Dynasty\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\T\\-shaped\\ silk\\ painting\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ fei\\-garment\\)\\ draping\\ the\\ innermost\\ coffin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bottom\\:\\ underworld\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Grand\\ One\\;\\ pair\\ of\\ copulating\\ fishes\\;\\ earth\\ gods\\;\\ turtles\\;\\ owls\\ in\\ mourning\\;\\ garment\\ casket\\ with\\ brocade\\ design\\;\\ pair\\ of\\ \\goumang\\<\\/i\\>\\-birds\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>2\\ sets\\ of\\ materials\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ physical\\ objects\\ makes\\ up\\ domestic\\ space\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ inhabited\\,\\ that\\ tomb\\ inhabited\\ well\\-provided\\ with\\ toilet\\ box\\,\\ musicians\\ taking\\ good\\ care\\ of\\ them\\.\\ Represented\\ by\\ real\\ objects\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>On\\ the\\ right\\ is\\ set\\ of\\ paintings\\,\\ existing\\ on\\ 2\\-dimensional\\ space\\,\\ ritual\\ space\\,\\ that\\ shows\\ lady\\ being\\ guided\\ \\(spirit\\)\\ guided\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\ These\\ two\\ sets\\ of\\ objects\\ give\\ tomb\\ a\\ conflicting\\ message\\.\\ 1\\.\\ say\\ old\\ lady\\,\\ please\\ stay\\.\\ 2\\.\\ devotional\\ space\\,\\ please\\ go\\ away\\,\\ there\\ is\\ heaven\\ up\\ there\\.\\ So\\ question\\ is\\:\\ what\\ option\\ do\\ you\\ take\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\ send\\ conflicting\\ messages\\ to\\ occupant\\?\\ Complication\\ of\\ the\\ tomb\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ scholars\\ til\\ now\\ still\\ have\\ conlict\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;The\\ spirit\\ enters\\ the\\ gate\\ of\\ Heaven\\ and\\ the\\ bodily\\ remains\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dichotomy\\.\\ Painting\\ maps\\ out\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Have\\ someone\\ dead\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ must\\ do\\ something\\ to\\ improve\\ situation\\.\\ Understand\\ ancient\\ notion\\ of\\ death\\:\\ your\\ spirit\\ gets\\ scattered\\,\\ a\\ spirit\\ goes\\ up\\,\\ body\\ remains\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>On\\ Banner\\:\\ Lower\\,\\ earth\\,\\ above\\,\\ heaven\\,\\ middle\\:\\ luminous\\ space\\.\\ If\\ compare\\ banner\\ to\\ standard\\ notion\\ of\\ death\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ banner\\ does\\ not\\ conform\\.\\ Painting\\:\\ doing\\ everything\\ possible\\ to\\ prevent\\ separation\\ from\\ happening\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tradition\\:\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ BCE\\:\\ horrifying\\ picture\\ of\\ underworld\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ suck\\ the\\ blood\\ from\\ you\\.\\ Painter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ depiction\\ of\\ underworld\\:\\ not\\ frightening\\,\\ sex\\.\\ Pair\\ of\\ fish\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ yin\\/yang\\,\\ copulating\\.\\ Right\\ between\\ figure\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legs\\,\\ snake\\,\\ slimy\\,\\ going\\ through\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Compare\\ with\\ painting\\ in\\ tomb\\ no\\.\\ 3\\:\\ copulating\\ fish\\ once\\ again\\.\\ Son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banner\\.\\ Need\\ references\\:\\ \\Grand\\ One\\ and\\ Four\\ Seasons\\<\\/i\\>\\ silk\\ painting\\.\\ Who\\ is\\ grand\\ one\\?\\ Diety\\ in\\ Universe\\,\\ generated\\ Yin\\/Yang\\,\\ copulate\\,\\ create\\ universe\\.\\ You\\ have\\ Grand\\ One\\,\\ with\\ four\\ season\\,\\ with\\ yin\\/yang\\,\\ you\\ have\\ natural\\ process\\ of\\ life\\.\\ Also\\,\\ naturally\\,\\ between\\ Grand\\ One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legs\\,\\ something\\ going\\ on\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ holding\\ son\\,\\ Yin\\ and\\ Yang\\ copulation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Snake\\ with\\ fish\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ aspect\\ of\\ Banner\\.\\ Mysterious\\ passage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ man\\ who\\ died\\,\\ revived\\,\\ wind\\ came\\ from\\ north\\,\\ serpent\\ turned\\ into\\ fish\\-creature\\.\\ Guy\\ died\\ and\\ then\\ revived\\.\\ Meaning\\:\\ when\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ serpent\\ turn\\ into\\ fish\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ life\\ is\\ turning\\ around\\.\\ For\\ good\\ reason\\ in\\ Banner\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>State\\ one\\ in\\ banner\\:\\ here\\ is\\ situation\\ of\\ death\\,\\ need\\ to\\ revive\\ death\\ \\(1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ phase\\)\\.\\ Then\\ pair\\ of\\ owls\\ sitting\\ on\\ totem\\.\\ Mystifying\\ riddles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ did\\ it\\ mean\\?\\ The\\ Owl\\ is\\ a\\ bird\\,\\ the\\ bird\\.\\ Owl\\ is\\ night\\ creature\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inhabits\\ nocturnal\\ space\\.\\ In\\ ancient\\ Chinese\\ imagination\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ sun\\ sets\\,\\ go\\ through\\ nocturnal\\ phase\\,\\ emerges\\ in\\ east\\.\\ Sun\\ represented\\ by\\ bird\\,\\ but\\ sun\\ cannot\\ swim\\,\\ so\\ has\\ totem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ carries\\ sun\\ from\\ water\\ region\\,\\ carries\\ to\\ the\\ East\\.\\ Dusk\\ and\\ dawn\\.\\ What\\ it\\ means\\:\\ right\\,\\ nocturnal\\ space\\,\\ first\\ phase\\ of\\ death\\.\\ Not\\ hopeless\\ because\\ life\\ is\\ being\\ created\\,\\ though\\ life\\ has\\ down\\-phase\\,\\ will\\ come\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Cultural\\ comment\\:\\ How\\ to\\ keep\\ healthy\\?\\ 3\\ ways\\ well\\,\\ eat\\ well\\.\\ Has\\ certain\\ died\\,\\ then\\ have\\ exercise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ breathing\\ exercise\\ \\(yoga\\)\\.\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\:\\ healthy\\ sexual\\ activities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tomb\\ no\\.\\ 3\\:\\ teaches\\ breathing\\ exercises\\.\\ Evening\\/morning\\.\\ Important\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ evening\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ breathing\\ moment\\,\\ morning\\,\\ important\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ stale\\ breath\\,\\ inhaling\\ fresh\\ breath\\.\\ These\\ also\\ signify\\ optimal\\ breathing\\ exercises\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ purpose\\:\\ revive\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Another\\ way\\ of\\ revive\\:\\ have\\ good\\ food\\ and\\ wine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thus\\ vessels\\ in\\ middle\\ of\\ banner\\.\\ Then\\ sexual\\ activity\\ \\(fish\\)\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ wrong\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ painting\\ does\\ not\\ suggest\\ woman\\ should\\ have\\ sex\\ in\\ afterlife\\.\\ Yin\\/yang\\ is\\ ancient\\ Chinese\\ notion\\ that\\ yin\\/yang\\ interplay\\ in\\ you\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sexual\\ activity\\ is\\ metaphor\\.\\ Notion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ yin\\/yang\\ out\\ there\\,\\ going\\ through\\ body\\,\\ has\\ interplay\\,\\ then\\ generate\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Breathing\\ exercises\\ helps\\ it\\ happen\\ more\\ easily\\,\\ food\\/drinks\\ to\\ keep\\ oneself\\ healthy\\.\\ Interesting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ compare\\ with\\ counterpart\\ with\\ tomb\\ no\\.3\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ has\\ something\\ curious\\.\\ Scene\\ in\\ lady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomb\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ figures\\ are\\ male\\.\\ In\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomb\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ figures\\ are\\ female\\.\\ Want\\ balance\\ of\\ yin\\/yang\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ make\\ sure\\ interplay\\ will\\ procede\\ and\\ balance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Next\\:\\ after\\ combine\\ yin\\/yang\\ breath\\ to\\ make\\ healthy\\ life\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ important\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ separate\\ again\\:\\ Jade\\ Enclosure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ spirit\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ separate\\.\\ Yin\\/Yang\\ dragon\\ breath\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ visual\\ representing\\ breath\\,\\ dragon\\ breaths\\ coming\\ together\\,\\ sexually\\ charged\\ symbol\\.\\ Yin\\/yang\\ going\\ through\\ enclosure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ life\\ consolidated\\.\\ Once\\ that\\ happens\\,\\ good\\ things\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ life\\ coming\\ into\\ being\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ lady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spirit\\ starts\\ to\\ take\\ form\\.\\ Before\\,\\ just\\ casket\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ there\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ human\\ being\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ spirit\\ scattered\\.\\ Then\\ you\\ get\\ lady\\ coming\\ into\\ human\\ form\\.\\ Paintings\\ end\\ there\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ now\\ keep\\ there\\?\\ But\\ no\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ transitional\\ phase\\,\\ remolded\\ into\\ new\\ being\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ another\\ level\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Get\\ to\\ level\\ of\\ heaven\\.\\ Here\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ banner\\,\\ heaven\\ shown\\ as\\ canopy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ two\\ potters\\ guarding\\ heaven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gate\\.\\ Transform\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ body\\ evaporates\\,\\ sublimated\\ into\\ blissful\\ realm\\ of\\ heaven\\.\\ Heaven\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sun\\ and\\ moon\\,\\ again\\ sexual\\ contention\\.\\ One\\ figure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ former\\ spirit\\ of\\ lady\\ with\\ moon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sun\\ spirit\\ male\\.\\ What\\ is\\ figure\\ in\\ middle\\?\\ Controversial\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ half\\ serpent\\,\\ long\\ hair\\,\\ looks\\ extremely\\ dignified\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ think\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ image\\ of\\ death\\,\\ other\\ theories\\.\\ Heaven\\ is\\ a\\ happy\\ state\\.\\ Yin\\/yang\\ reunited\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Manuscript\\ found\\ in\\ Mawangdui\\ Tomb\\ no\\.\\ 3\\:\\ body\\ and\\ space\\ are\\ two\\ different\\ things\\.\\ In\\ ancient\\ Chinese\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ distinction\\ is\\ not\\ strong\\.\\ Description\\ of\\ cosmos\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sex\\ manual\\ unearthed\\ from\\ tomb\\ no\\.\\ 3\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ teaching\\ how\\ to\\ engage\\ in\\ sexual\\ activity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ has\\ many\\ cosmology\\ terms\\.\\ Psychological\\ text\\ talking\\ about\\ same\\ thing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ more\\ somber\\.\\ Body\\ parts\\ correspond\\ to\\ cosmological\\ features\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Set\\ of\\ nesting\\ coffins\\ from\\ outside\\ in\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>On\\ coffin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ concept\\ of\\ reviving\\ life\\.\\ Turning\\ around\\.\\ Foodboard\\:\\ you\\ see\\ angular\\ figure\\ shooting\\ at\\ another\\ bird\\.\\ Bird\\ is\\ the\\ hero\\ of\\ visual\\ narrative\\.\\ Bird\\ is\\ someone\\ trying\\ to\\ get\\ up\\,\\ on\\ the\\ way\\,\\ face\\ difficulty\\.\\ Food\\ is\\ exhaling\\ in\\ deadly\\ yin\\ breath\\ accumulated\\ in\\ night\\.\\ Archer\\ trying\\ to\\ shoot\\ at\\ it\\,\\ kill\\ the\\ deathly\\ breath\\ \\(represents\\ young\\ potency\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ archer\\)\\.\\ Headboard\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ lady\\ climbing\\ into\\ dark\\ space\\,\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ bird\\-image\\.\\ About\\ how\\ bird\\ gets\\ to\\ the\\ top\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ young\\ needs\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ young\\.\\ Two\\ owls\\ also\\ there\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ banner\\ mark\\ two\\ different\\ moments\\ \\(evening\\ and\\ morning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ need\\ to\\ exercise\\ breathing\\ hard\\)\\.\\ More\\ owls\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ getting\\ close\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\ Person\\ with\\ lute\\,\\ guided\\ by\\ another\\ figure\\ \\(musician\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ celestial\\ bliss\\ starting\\ to\\ appear\\,\\ near\\ morning\\ owl\\.\\ In\\ spring\\,\\ life\\ around\\ the\\ corner\\,\\ unfasten\\ the\\ hair\\,\\ want\\ to\\ get\\ purest\\ of\\ dew\\ in\\ the\\ morning\\,\\ receive\\ essence\\ of\\ heaven\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Energy\\-guiding\\ diagram\\,\\ tomb\\ no\\.\\ 3\\:\\ importance\\ of\\ breathing\\ exercise\\ describing\\ how\\ to\\ do\\ breathing\\ exercise\\.\\ You\\ have\\ diagram\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ energy\\-guiding\\ showing\\ human\\ figures\\ practicing\\ like\\ animals\\-\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ postures\\,\\ to\\ guide\\ energy\\.\\ Oldest\\ gongfu\\ picture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ Chinese\\ terminology\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ describing\\ gongfu\\ postures\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ often\\ use\\ animal\\ imagery\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;eagle\\ coming\\ down\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ also\\ in\\ Chinese\\ sex\\ manuals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ postures\\ use\\ animal\\ terms\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ come\\ together\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Therefore\\ images\\ on\\ coffin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ may\\ well\\ be\\ signifying\\ postures\\ of\\ breathing\\ exercises\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>i\\.e\\.\\ figure\\ squatting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ also\\ a\\ posture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pulling\\ ham\\ pain\\.\\ Sitting\\ and\\ pulling\\ the\\ eight\\ radial\\-chords\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ breathing\\ exercise\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ thus\\ good\\ for\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>At\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ coffin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ heaven\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ amazing\\ things\\ happen\\.\\ All\\ the\\ motifs\\ seem\\ to\\ involve\\ animal\\ engaging\\ a\\ snake\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ that\\ animal\\ kills\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ Young\\ creature\\ comes\\ together\\ with\\ old\\ creature\\.\\ Whole\\ series\\ of\\ images\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bird\\ with\\ fish\\ in\\ beak\\.\\ Only\\ one\\ fish\\ on\\ the\\ top\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ structurally\\,\\ still\\ echoes\\ animal\\-snake\\ motif\\.\\ Animal\\ turns\\ into\\ bird\\ \\(all\\ young\\ creatures\\)\\.\\ Fish\\,\\ snake\\ all\\ belong\\ to\\ underworld\\ \\(water\\ creatures\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Earlier\\ in\\ same\\ region\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\-4\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ BCE\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ animals\\:\\ you\\ have\\ bird\\,\\ engaging\\ a\\ snake\\,\\ snake\\ cluster\\,\\ with\\ bird\\ engaging\\ the\\ snake\\.\\ More\\ images\\:\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ \\China\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\:\\ ancient\\ Mesopotamia\\,\\ \\\\Rome\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\Mexico\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ about\\ same\\ thing\\:\\ sunshine\\ combined\\ with\\ earthly\\ force\\ to\\ generate\\ universal\\ harmony\\.\\ You\\ have\\ bird\\/snake\\,\\ bird\\/snake\\.\\ Very\\ psychologically\\ motivated\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ read\\ report\\:\\ there\\ were\\ patients\\ saying\\ nightmares\\ of\\ bird\\ engaging\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ All\\ about\\ human\\ imagination\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>That\\ explains\\ scene\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ snake\\ turns\\ into\\ fish\\.\\ Then\\ read\\ ancient\\ text\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Zhuanxu\\ died\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ win\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ sky\\,\\ then\\ spring\\ \\(water\\)\\ sky\\ water\\ come\\ together\\,\\ then\\ serpent\\ turns\\ into\\ a\\ fish\\-creature\\.\\ Zhuanxu\\ died\\ and\\ then\\ revived\\.\\ Makes\\ sense\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ once\\ that\\ happens\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ make\\ sure\\ jade\\ enclosure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ concentrate\\ yin\\/yang\\ does\\ not\\ scatter\\ again\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Places\\ Jade\\ everywhere\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ importance\\:\\ symbols\\.\\ Concentrate\\ scattered\\ breath\\,\\ let\\ them\\ come\\ together\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ on\\ left\\ site\\ of\\ picture\\:\\ vermilian\\ brown\\ coffin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ headboard\\,\\ because\\ of\\ combination\\ of\\ yin\\/yang\\.\\ You\\ start\\ to\\ feel\\ high\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ way\\ of\\ visualizing\\ heightened\\ state\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ show\\ young\\ animals\\ climbing\\ mountains\\.\\ Where\\ one\\ can\\ renew\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ launching\\ pad\\ to\\ heaven\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ get\\ there\\,\\ get\\ renewed\\,\\ fly\\ to\\ heaven\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Occurs\\ on\\ the\\ headboard\\ of\\ 2\\-3\\ coffin\\.\\ Final\\ moment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ coffin\\ 4\\:\\ design\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ bird\\-feather\\ pasted\\ on\\ design\\.\\ Now\\ understand\\ why\\ bird\\ in\\ innermost\\ space\\-\\ she\\ wears\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ why\\ geometric\\ pattern\\?\\ Pristine\\ space\\ is\\ made\\ of\\ jade\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\ of\\ heaven\\ is\\ transcendental\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ geometry\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>End\\ with\\ set\\ of\\ questions\\:\\ where\\ is\\ lady\\ dai\\?\\ Why\\ is\\ heaven\\ located\\ in\\ innermost\\ space\\?\\ Why\\ bother\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ body\\,\\ if\\ the\\ deceased\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ sublimated\\ to\\ heaven\\?\\ What\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;art\\&rdquo\\;\\ do\\ to\\ help\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Tomb\\ no\\.\\ 3\\ at\\ Mawangdui\\,\\ Son\\ of\\ Lady\\ Dai\\ \\(occupant\\)\\ 168\\ BCE\\ Han\\ Dyasty\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\T\\-shaped\\ silk\\ painting\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ fei\\ garment\\)\\ with\\ image\\ of\\ tomb\\ occupant\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Grant\\ One\\ and\\ the\\ Four\\ Seasons\\,\\ \\<\\/i\\>silk\\ painting\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 97, "file_path": "", "desc": "Han Tomb"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.322572+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Han Tomb 2", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 748, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:1\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262144\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-format\\:other\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:1\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262144\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:ZH\\-CN\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:815099513\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-560553062\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.75in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ table\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\HAA1\\ Prof\\.\\ Eugene\\ Wang\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pictorial\\ program\\,\\ Visual\\ Language\\,\\ and\\ Symbolic\\ Logic\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Today\\:\\ focused\\ on\\ metrics\\ to\\ think\\ about\\ complex\\ image\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Method\\:\\ in\\ reading\\,\\ 3\\ step\\ analysis\\.\\ 3\\ levels\\ of\\ analysis\\.\\ Gist\\:\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ establish\\ what\\ the\\ painting\\ is\\ about\\.\\ First\\ what\\ is\\ it\\?\\ What\\ is\\ it\\ about\\?\\ Then\\ deeper\\ level\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>You\\ have\\ woman\\-serpent\\ figure\\ \\(woman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ due\\ to\\ long\\ hair\\)\\.\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ step\\:\\ introducing\\ to\\ another\\ female\\ figure\\ with\\ snake\\ wrapped\\ around\\.\\ You\\ need\\ special\\ knowledge\\ of\\ literary\\ sources\\ that\\ figure\\ is\\ based\\.\\ In\\ case\\:\\ Cadmus\\ and\\ Harmonia\\,\\ Evelyn\\ de\\ Morgan\\,\\ 1877\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\&ndash\\;\\ Cadmus\\ married\\ beautiful\\ Harmonia\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>daughter\\ of\\ Venus\\.\\ Hadmus\\ turned\\ into\\ a\\ snake\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ trying\\ to\\ embrace\\ wife\\ in\\ his\\ new\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ her\\ distressed\\ look\\ makes\\ sense\\.\\ Later\\,\\ she\\ too\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ snake\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-\\ disappeared\\ into\\ thin\\ air\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>You\\ need\\ to\\ know\\ greek\\ mythology\\ to\\ understand\\ picture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Practice\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ step\\ analysis\\:\\ see\\ pair\\ of\\ half\\-human\\,\\ half\\-bird\\ wearing\\ white\\ garment\\ in\\ air\\.\\ What\\ are\\ they\\,\\ who\\ are\\ they\\?\\ Duke\\ Mu\\ of\\ Qin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bird\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\,\\ wore\\ white\\ silk\\ with\\ trimmings\\,\\ deity\\ can\\ extend\\ life\\ to\\ individual\\.\\ Descendents\\ may\\ multiply\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Another\\ case\\:\\ bot\\-bellied\\ naked\\ man\\:\\ 3\\ options\\,\\ Ape\\-Strength\\ \\(Yujian\\)\\,\\ Gun\\,\\ or\\ The\\ Grant\\ One\\.\\ Why\\ one\\ fits\\ better\\?\\ Age\\-Strength\\:\\ has\\ human\\ face\\ and\\ bird\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\,\\ wears\\ two\\ green\\ snakes\\ through\\ ears\\,\\ treads\\ on\\ two\\ green\\ snakes\\.\\ Similar\\ figure\\ squatting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ not\\ treading\\ on\\ snakes\\,\\ on\\ sun\\/moon\\.\\ Gun\\:\\ mythical\\ name\\ from\\ fabled\\ fish\\,\\ descent\\ from\\ god\\ Zhuan\\ Xu\\,\\ self\\-renewal\\,\\ large\\ belly\\,\\ good\\ fit\\.\\ The\\ Grand\\ One\\:\\ evidence\\ from\\ tomb\\ no\\.\\ 3\\ son\\,\\ has\\ squatting\\ figure\\,\\ yin\\/yang\\,\\ some\\ type\\ of\\ copulation\\,\\ then\\ has\\ an\\ inscription\\ that\\ identifies\\ the\\ figure\\ as\\ The\\ Grant\\ One\\.\\ Resides\\ in\\ water\\,\\ gives\\ birth\\ to\\ yin\\/yang\\ and\\ four\\ seasons\\,\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Theory\\:\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ analytical\\ theme\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ check\\ the\\ text\\,\\ but\\ when\\ paintings\\ may\\ be\\ illiterate\\,\\ have\\ problem\\,\\ \\Archaeology\\ of\\ Text\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ text\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ as\\ mental\\ image\\ of\\ themselves\\.\\ Can\\ image\\ people\\ first\\ think\\/imagine\\ situation\\ through\\ set\\ of\\ images\\,\\ then\\ ask\\ poets\\ to\\ conjure\\ in\\ writing\\,\\ these\\ are\\ context\\.\\ Images\\ could\\ be\\ conjured\\ first\\,\\ that\\ inspires\\ text\\.\\ What\\ is\\ first\\?\\ Some\\ of\\ text\\ derived\\ from\\ visual\\ matrix\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ three\\ figures\\ are\\ derivative\\ of\\ visual\\.\\ Sense\\ of\\ ascendance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Human\\ image\\ based\\ like\\ squatted\\ figure\\ indicates\\ birth\\.\\ Consistent\\.\\ Back\\ to\\ the\\ complicated\\ issue\\:\\ snake\\ wrapping\\ female\\ figure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Has\\ generated\\ 12\\/13\\ theories\\.\\ 5\\ options\\:\\ Apotheosis\\ of\\ Lady\\ Dai\\,\\ Torch\\-Dragon\\,\\ Nuwa\\,\\ Mother\\ Star\\,\\ Symbol\\ of\\ Immortality\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Apotheosis\\ of\\ Lady\\ Dai\\ \\-\\ problem\\,\\ figure\\ has\\ sublimated\\.\\ Once\\ you\\ die\\,\\ emerge\\ into\\ collective\\ community\\,\\ faceless\\,\\ to\\ ascertain\\ that\\ the\\ figure\\ is\\ apotheosis\\ of\\ individual\\ after\\ death\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hold\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Torch\\-Dragon\\?\\ God\\ with\\ human\\ face\\ and\\ snake\\&rsquo\\;s\\ body\\ that\\ is\\ red\\.\\ Eye\\ is\\ vertical\\,\\ when\\ closes\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ becomes\\ night\\.\\ Source\\ of\\ electricity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ some\\ people\\ say\\ between\\ sun\\/moon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fit\\ too\\ much\\ into\\ scenario\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nuwa\\:\\ primeval\\ goddess\\,\\ divine\\ transformations\\,\\ creatrix\\ of\\ humankind\\,\\ savior\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\,\\ nu\\ \\(woman\\)\\,\\ depicted\\ as\\ human\\ with\\ serpentine\\ lower\\ body\\ entwined\\ with\\ the\\ god\\ Fuxi\\,\\ holding\\ compass\\ or\\ knotted\\ cord\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ compass\\.\\ Most\\ common\\ depiction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ holding\\ the\\ moon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ usually\\ shown\\ with\\ male\\ counterpart\\ with\\ moon\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Mother\\ Star\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ BCE\\ poet\\ asks\\-\\ how\\ did\\ Mother\\ Star\\ get\\ her\\ nin\\ children\\ without\\ a\\ union\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ was\\ looking\\ at\\ picture\\ in\\ a\\ temple\\.\\ Compare\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomb\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ banner\\ has\\ set\\ of\\ nine\\ stars\\.\\ Fitting\\ for\\ poet\\ to\\ question\\.\\ Then\\ asks\\ question\\ corresponding\\ to\\ moon\\ image\\:\\ what\\ is\\ peculiar\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ the\\ Brightness\\ of\\ the\\ Night\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ it\\ to\\ grow\\ once\\ more\\ after\\ its\\ death\\?\\ Of\\ what\\ advantage\\ is\\ it\\ to\\ keep\\ a\\ toad\\ in\\ its\\ belly\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ toad\\ stands\\ for\\ renewal\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Symbol\\ of\\ Immortality\\:\\ from\\ son\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomb\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ instruction\\ on\\ dissipating\\ exercise\\.\\ Perform\\ dragon\\ breathing\\ at\\ dawn\\,\\ longevity\\ forms\\ a\\ triad\\ with\\ the\\ sun\\ and\\ moon\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ you\\ become\\ the\\ blossom\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Prof\\.\\ more\\ inclined\\ toward\\ Mother\\-Star\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ tailor\\-made\\ for\\ particular\\ division\\.\\ Idea\\ that\\ that\\ figure\\ perfectly\\ exemplifies\\ death\\ in\\ ancient\\ China\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ after\\ die\\,\\ after\\ all\\ energy\\ generation\\,\\ gets\\ human\\ form\\,\\ then\\ sublimated\\,\\ then\\ joins\\ ancestral\\ spirit\\.\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ long\\ figure\\ is\\ out\\ there\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ longevity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Visual\\ logic\\ overrides\\ textual\\ specificity\\.\\ Once\\ try\\ to\\ express\\ visual\\ logic\\ in\\ words\\,\\ may\\ end\\ up\\ formulating\\ in\\ different\\ textual\\ options\\.\\ May\\ have\\ textual\\ variation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ essential\\ situation\\ remains\\ the\\ same\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ formulate\\.\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ step\\,\\ also\\ has\\ problems\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Move\\ to\\ the\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ step\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ most\\ difficult\\.\\ Intrinsic\\ meaning\\ or\\ content\\,\\ symbolic\\ values\\.\\ Iconographic\\ interpretation\\,\\ synthetic\\ intuition\\.\\ How\\ do\\ you\\ treat\\ the\\ meaning\\?\\ Follow\\ your\\ gut\\ feeling\\,\\ but\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ basis\\.\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ step\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ events\\ embody\\ what\\ theme\\.\\ In\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ step\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ start\\ from\\ themes\\ and\\ content\\,\\ express\\ even\\ more\\ complicated\\ tendencies\\ of\\ human\\ mind\\.\\ Deep\\-seated\\ instinct\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Demonstrate\\:\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ stage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ compare\\ the\\ two\\,\\ see\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ lot\\ in\\ common\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ has\\ snake\\ wrapped\\ around\\ women\\.\\ Echoing\\ of\\ twin\\ fish\\,\\ echoed\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ for\\ some\\ reason\\,\\ painter\\ decides\\ to\\ go\\ without\\ it\\.\\ Something\\ to\\ be\\ said\\ why\\ leave\\ it\\ out\\.\\ Tomb\\ 3\\ vs\\ tomb\\ 1\\.\\ Division\\ in\\ highlighting\\ nine\\ stars\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ sun\\.\\ How\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ it\\?\\ Does\\ omission\\ of\\ twin\\ fish\\ indicate\\ changing\\ perception\\ of\\ heaven\\?\\ Getting\\ to\\ stage\\ where\\ depiction\\ of\\ heaven\\ less\\ fanciful\\,\\ more\\ logical\\?\\ More\\ local\\ thinking\\ in\\ tomb\\ 1\\?\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ highlighting\\ of\\ eight\\ star\\ with\\ sun\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ do\\ we\\ have\\ increased\\ identify\\ of\\ clan\\?\\ More\\ respect\\ for\\ mother\\,\\ head\\ of\\ family\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Morgan\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ lamentation\\ of\\ killing\\ of\\ a\\ snake\\.\\ Good\\ reason\\ that\\ painter\\ became\\ an\\ anti\\-war\\ activist\\,\\ she\\ worked\\ for\\ the\\ Red\\ Cross\\.\\ Something\\ interesting\\ when\\ compare\\ the\\ two\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ have\\ frontal\\ view\\,\\ head\\ terms\\ three\\ quarters\\.\\ In\\ Chinese\\ case\\,\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ nake\\,\\ you\\ can\\ be\\ frontal\\,\\ but\\ robed\\,\\ turn\\ head\\ away\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ early\\ stage\\,\\ frontal\\ means\\ divinity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ authority\\.\\ Whereas\\ in\\ Lady\\ Dai\\&rsquo\\;s\\ picture\\ in\\ portrait\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ drawn\\ in\\ profile\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ says\\ is\\ early\\ Chinese\\ understanding\\ of\\ humans\\ based\\ on\\ social\\ relations\\.\\ Profile\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ others\\,\\ also\\ see\\ social\\ hierarchy\\.\\ You\\ have\\ human\\ defined\\ with\\ social\\ relations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ to\\ account\\ that\\ snake\\ figure\\ frontal\\,\\ head\\ turned\\ 3\\/4\\?\\ Half\\-human\\ quality\\ with\\ authority\\.\\ Something\\ to\\ be\\ said\\ about\\ \\¾\\;\\ view\\.\\ De\\ Morgan\\:\\ the\\ frontal\\ view\\ and\\ \\¾\\;\\ created\\ dynamic\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>from\\ the\\ nude\\ evokes\\ classical\\ tradition\\.\\ She\\ is\\ descendent\\ of\\ Venus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fitting\\ frontal\\ nude\\.\\ Fact\\ that\\ she\\ turns\\ \\¾\\;\\ indicates\\ shame\\,\\ remorse\\,\\ or\\ some\\ sense\\ of\\ Victorian\\ sensibility\\.\\ Turning\\ of\\ the\\ face\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ part\\ of\\ decorum\\.\\ Things\\ to\\ explore\\ about\\ inner\\ meaning\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Photograph\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Natasha\\ Kinski\\ Richard\\ Avedon\\ \\(1923\\-2004\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ snake\\ is\\ caressing\\ female\\ actress\\.\\ Some\\ things\\ never\\ quite\\ changed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ different\\ intrinsic\\ meaning\\.\\ Chang\\ Yu\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\female\\ nude\\ \\<\\/i\\>1920s\\,\\ long\\ tradition\\ of\\ female\\ nude\\ lying\\ down\\.\\ Not\\ standing\\,\\ verticality\\ vs\\ horizontal\\.\\ To\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\ has\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ meaning\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ground\\ level\\ is\\ animal\\ space\\.\\ Trying\\ to\\ evoke\\ surrealistic\\ movement\\.\\ In\\ 1900\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ our\\ body\\ when\\ lays\\ down\\ horizontally\\,\\ has\\ evocation\\ of\\ anamorphosis\\,\\ biomorphosis\\,\\ body\\ is\\ dissolving\\ into\\ natural\\ environment\\,\\ becomes\\ animal\\-like\\.\\ More\\ blended\\ with\\ physical\\ world\\.\\ Becomes\\ more\\ animal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ emphasis\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ body\\,\\ using\\ female\\-body\\ as\\ a\\ vehicle\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Landmark\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kertesz\\,\\ \\Distortion\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\ Designed\\ to\\ get\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ body\\-\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ dream\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ closed\\ eye\\,\\ figure\\ asleep\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Man\\ Racy\\ \\(1890\\-1976\\)\\ \\Kiki\\ with\\ Afican\\ mask\\.\\ \\<\\/i\\>Body\\ goes\\ now\\,\\ blend\\ into\\ natural\\ environment\\,\\ go\\ up\\ in\\ a\\ dreaming\\ state\\,\\ no\\ more\\ body\\,\\ how\\ body\\ dissolves\\.\\ Photograph\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ too\\ much\\ dreaming\\ quality\\.\\ Want\\ to\\ give\\ sense\\ of\\ passivity\\ of\\ high\\ art\\,\\ showing\\ glamour\\.\\ Much\\ lost\\ in\\ translation\\,\\ body\\ becomes\\ the\\ focus\\ rather\\ than\\ focus\\ on\\ dreaming\\.\\ Story\\ winds\\ up\\ going\\ in\\ circles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ 1981\\-\\ lost\\ the\\ dreaming\\ aspect\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>body\\-cosmos\\ dynamic\\.\\ Becomes\\ solely\\ concentrated\\ on\\ female\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ travel\\ to\\ different\\ culture\\,\\ often\\ message\\ gets\\ lost\\ again\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ restoration\\ of\\ cosmos\\ into\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\Vodou\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Temple\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ in\\ \\\\Haiti\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ African\\ community\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Vodou\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ spirited\\ drum\\,\\ has\\ use\\ of\\ snake\\ image\\.\\ Snake\\ embodies\\ powerful\\ ritual\\ force\\,\\ women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ marrying\\ the\\ snake\\-spirit\\.\\ You\\ see\\ snake\\ taking\\ possession\\ of\\ female\\ body\\.\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ they\\ understand\\ the\\ picture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ about\\ Kinski\\ and\\ snake\\/sensual\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ back\\ to\\ square\\ 1\\,\\ getting\\ to\\ cosmos\\ level\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Familiar\\?\\ Same\\ community\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Phyllis\\ Galembo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ photo\\ looks\\ vaguely\\ familiar\\.\\ Fish\\ becomes\\ mermaid\\,\\ but\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ Some\\ kind\\ of\\ fish\\-human\\ union\\,\\ good\\ things\\ happen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ sublimation\\ going\\ up\\,\\ two\\ snakes\\,\\ \\(dragon\\-breath\\)\\ going\\ up\\.\\ This\\ visual\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ traces\\ further\\ back\\ to\\ earlier\\ Chinese\\ context\\:\\ \\Ascent\\ to\\ Heaven\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\.\\ BCE\\ Changsha\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ logic\\ started\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ underground\\,\\ fish\\,\\ generative\\,\\ then\\ bird\\.\\ Go\\ through\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ dragon\\ as\\ the\\ vehicle\\.\\ Logic\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Photo\\:\\ at\\ first\\,\\ sensuality\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doctor\\ places\\ hand\\ on\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ bosom\\,\\ woman\\ looks\\ thoughtfully\\ \\(romantically\\)\\ at\\ the\\ doctor\\.\\ Then\\ doctor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ chart\\ and\\ situation\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ cancels\\ the\\ sensuality\\.\\ Attention\\ off\\ the\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ what\\ should\\ attention\\ be\\ placed\\?\\ CLOTHES\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Givenchy\\ ad\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/meta\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 97, "file_path": "", "desc": "Han Tomb 2"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.372498+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Participation Beyond Voting ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 750, "html": "\\\\ \\;Who\\ Votes\\?\\ Most\\,\\ at\\ least\\ once\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Psychological\\:\\ there\\ are\\ certain\\ attitudes\\ that\\ are\\ related\\ to\\ political\\ participation\\.\\ Citizens\\ who\\ identify\\ with\\ a\\ party\\,\\ strong\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ We\\ can\\ look\\ first\\ at\\ political\\ interest\\.\\ We\\ can\\ also\\ think\\ about\\ political\\ interest\\ and\\ psychological\\ in\\ individuals\\.\\ Individuals\\ vary\\ substantially\\.\\ As\\ one\\ would\\ expect\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ voting\\ increases\\ in\\ interest\\ in\\ political\\ campaigns\\.\\ We\\ can\\ think\\ about\\ interests\\ in\\ a\\ general\\ sense\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ interest\\ in\\ a\\ specific\\ election\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\People\\ who\\ identify\\ with\\ a\\ political\\ party\\ care\\ about\\ outcomes\\ and\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ vote\\.\\ Strong\\ partisans\\ approach\\ 90\\%\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ good\\ citizen\\ has\\ an\\ obligation\\ to\\ vote\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Extent\\ to\\ which\\ you\\ see\\ elections\\ for\\ responsiveness\\ and\\ social\\ change\\ has\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ you\\ cast\\ a\\ ballot\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Recruitment\\:\\ Mobilization\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Recruitment\\ into\\ politics\\ and\\ political\\ activity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ vote\\ when\\ someone\\ asks\\ them\\ to\\ vote\\ so\\ whether\\ it\\ is\\ phone\\ calls\\,\\ mail\\,\\ door\\ to\\ door\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ responsiveness\\ of\\ mobilization\\ is\\ especially\\ high\\ to\\ newcomers\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ because\\ these\\ groups\\ whether\\ they\\ are\\ young\\ or\\ new\\ citizens\\ face\\ fairly\\ steep\\ participation\\ costs\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ should\\ we\\ care\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ people\\ are\\ voting\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ an\\ explanation\\ for\\ non\\ voting\\ assume\\ that\\ voting\\ is\\ the\\ norm\\,\\ highly\\ valued\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Low\\ turnout\\ rates\\ have\\ not\\ had\\ significant\\ effects\\ on\\ elections\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Elections\\ are\\ a\\ mean\\ for\\ communicating\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ attitudes\\ to\\ the\\ government\\.\\ For\\ most\\ Americans\\ they\\ see\\ it\\ as\\ the\\ only\\ avenue\\ to\\ express\\ needs\\ and\\ wants\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Americans\\ who\\ do\\ respond\\ to\\ sense\\ of\\ civic\\ duty\\,\\ are\\ systematically\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Non\\ voters\\ are\\ poor\\ and\\ less\\ well\\ educated\\.\\ Raises\\ some\\ troubling\\ questions\\ about\\ whose\\ needs\\ are\\ being\\ expressed\\ to\\ government\\.\\ Voting\\ is\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ but\\ those\\ who\\ choose\\ to\\ vote\\ are\\ anything\\ but\\ ordinary\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Political\\ Participation\\:\\ Beyond\\ the\\ Ballot\\ Box\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Not\\ only\\ are\\ there\\ other\\ forms\\ such\\ as\\:\\ campaigning\\ rallies\\,\\ donating\\ money\\,\\ door\\ to\\ door\\.\\ People\\ call\\ and\\ write\\ letters\\ to\\ members\\ of\\ congress\\.\\ People\\ will\\ speak\\ at\\ city\\ council\\ meetings\\ and\\ others\\ will\\ opt\\ out\\ and\\ engage\\ in\\ protest\\.\\ Political\\ activity\\ is\\ quite\\ diverse\\.\\ \\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ we\\ were\\ to\\ just\\ focus\\ on\\ voting\\ we\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ many\\ Americans\\ are\\ very\\ active\\ in\\ politics\\ because\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ Americans\\ are\\ voting\\ but\\ what\\ is\\ true\\ of\\ voting\\ is\\ not\\ true\\ of\\ other\\ things\\.\\ Much\\ smaller\\ proportions\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ demanding\\ and\\ costly\\ forms\\ of\\ political\\ activity\\.\\ In\\ any\\ year\\ \\¼\\;\\ make\\ a\\ contribution\\.\\ 1\\/3\\ try\\ to\\ contact\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ congress\\ 1\\/6\\ will\\ work\\ with\\ others\\ in\\ their\\ neighborhood\\ to\\ solve\\ problems\\.\\ 1\\/20\\ will\\ engage\\ in\\ protest\\ or\\ demonstrations\\.\\ Focusing\\ just\\ on\\ voting\\ we\\ would\\ come\\ away\\ with\\ thinking\\ that\\ we\\ really\\ participated\\.\\ Another\\ thing\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ would\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ is\\ far\\ behind\\ others\\ in\\ participation\\ but\\ if\\ we\\ were\\ at\\ not\\ just\\ voting\\ we\\ realize\\ that\\ lots\\ of\\ Americans\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ participate\\ but\\ relative\\ to\\ other\\ democracies\\ we\\ are\\ substantially\\ more\\ active\\.\\ Voting\\ is\\ very\\ distinctive\\ among\\ all\\ participation\\ acts\\.\\ Voters\\ in\\ the\\ aggregate\\ are\\ more\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ public\\.\\ When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ voting\\,\\ being\\ interested\\ in\\ politics\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ having\\ civic\\ skills\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ voting\\ is\\ different\\ rewards\\ of\\ voting\\ are\\ unique\\=\\ civic\\ gratification\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Three\\ kinds\\ of\\ people\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Nonvoters\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ participate\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Voters\\ only\\ political\\ activity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Voters\\ who\\ engage\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ political\\ activities\\ basically\\ political\\ activists\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Who\\ Participates\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Civic\\ volunterism\\ model\\ and\\ is\\ presented\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ articles\\ in\\ this\\ week\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reading\\.\\ Three\\ broad\\ conditions\\ hold\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ can\\ \\(resources\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Need\\ time\\,\\ money\\ and\\ civic\\ skills\\ \\(ability\\ to\\ lead\\ a\\ meeting\\,\\ persuade\\ people\\,\\ build\\ consensus\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ resources\\ are\\ significant\\ in\\ whose\\ voice\\ is\\ actually\\ heard\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ want\\ to\\ \\(engagement\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Interested\\,\\ informed\\,\\ attentive\\,\\ efficacious\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Individuals\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ participate\\ if\\ they\\ feel\\ that\\ their\\ participation\\ makes\\ a\\ difference\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ also\\ about\\ content\\ and\\ political\\ interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ asked\\ \\(mobilization\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ catalyst\\ is\\ recruitment\\.\\ We\\ know\\ already\\ about\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ political\\ party\\ and\\ candidates\\.\\ Religious\\ institutions\\ are\\ playing\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ getting\\ out\\ the\\ vote\\.\\ Even\\ beyond\\ these\\ organized\\ efforts\\ these\\ policies\\ are\\ taken\\ place\\ outside\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ context\\:\\ relatives\\,\\ friends\\,\\ classmates\\,\\ teammates\\,\\ co\\ workers\\&hellip\\;come\\ to\\ a\\ meeting\\,\\ sign\\ a\\ petition\\,\\ sign\\ a\\ protest\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Appreciating\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ non\\ political\\ institutions\\ in\\ everyday\\ life\\ that\\ get\\ people\\ to\\ participate\\.\\ They\\ operate\\ in\\ direct\\ and\\ indirect\\ ways\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Work\\ based\\ civic\\ skills\\ flow\\ disproportionately\\ in\\ high\\ level\\ positions\\.\\ Church\\ is\\ much\\ less\\ stratified\\ way\\.\\ It\\ is\\ true\\ that\\ you\\ might\\ collect\\ the\\ garbage\\ but\\ you\\ might\\ lead\\ bible\\ study\\ or\\ community\\ service\\.\\ The\\ kind\\ of\\ non\\ political\\ institutions\\ has\\ implications\\ for\\ who\\ participates\\ and\\ how\\ effectively\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Inequality\\ and\\ Participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Process\\ by\\ which\\ people\\ come\\ to\\ take\\ part\\ in\\ politics\\ is\\ really\\ not\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ public\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ The\\ subset\\ of\\ Americans\\ who\\ fully\\ exercise\\ their\\ rights\\ as\\ citizens\\ are\\ highest\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\ and\\ incomes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ political\\ activity\\ is\\ stratified\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ for\\ a\\ very\\ select\\ group\\ of\\ Americans\\.\\ Campaign\\ contributions\\ really\\ only\\ let\\ the\\ affluent\\ get\\ their\\ voice\\ in\\.\\ Even\\ an\\ activity\\ like\\ protest\\ has\\ socio\\ economic\\ stratification\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Men\\ are\\ more\\ politically\\ active\\ than\\ women\\ with\\ the\\ exception\\ of\\ voting\\.\\ It\\ also\\ can\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ levels\\ of\\ difference\\ in\\ political\\ interests\\.\\ Regardless\\ of\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ these\\ group\\ differences\\,\\ policy\\ makers\\ are\\ hearing\\ less\\ from\\ blacks\\ and\\ latinos\\ than\\ whites\\ and\\ women\\ that\\ males\\.\\ These\\ demographic\\ groups\\ have\\ distinctive\\ political\\ opinions\\.\\ When\\ they\\ are\\ active\\ they\\ are\\ concerned\\ with\\ a\\ different\\ set\\ of\\ issues\\ so\\ it\\ makes\\ a\\ difference\\ if\\ these\\ are\\ under\\-represented\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\High\\ SES\\ implications\\ is\\ fairly\\ significant\\.\\ Distinctive\\ in\\ their\\ personal\\ circumstances\\ and\\ priorities\\,\\ what\\ they\\ say\\ when\\ they\\ get\\ involved\\.\\ It\\ is\\ through\\ the\\ medium\\ of\\ political\\ participation\\ that\\ they\\ put\\ on\\ pressure\\ on\\ public\\ officials\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Democratic\\ norm\\ is\\ compromised\\.\\ Public\\ officials\\ hear\\ more\\ from\\ the\\ most\\ advantaged\\ people\\.\\ Nonetheless\\ what\\ public\\ officials\\ hear\\ does\\ influence\\ what\\ they\\ do\\.\\ The\\ failure\\ of\\ many\\ ordinary\\ Americans\\ is\\ cause\\ for\\ concern\\.\\ So\\ long\\ as\\ individuals\\ differ\\ the\\ level\\ playing\\ field\\ is\\ serious\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Participation Beyond Voting "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.389157+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Phaistos Disk", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 751, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\April\\ 1\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\ is\\ dated\\ to\\ approximately\\ 1850\\-1600\\ BC\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ oldest\\ \\&lsquo\\;type\\-set\\&rsquo\\;\\ document\\ known\\.\\ It\\ is\\ 16\\ cm\\ in\\ diameter\\ and\\ about\\ 1\\.9\\ cm\\ thick\\.\\ There\\ are\\ 242\\ characters\\ stamped\\ on\\ it\\,\\ incorporating\\ 42\\ distinct\\ signs\\.\\ The\\ characters\\ are\\ not\\ etched\\ or\\ drawn\\.\\ Also\\ a\\ single\\ stamp\\ was\\ used\\ for\\ each\\ sign\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ again\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ making\\ different\\ stamps\\ each\\ time\\ a\\ sign\\ appeared\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.cs\\.rochester\\.edu\\/\\~nelson\\/courses\\/cryptology\\/phaistos\\_disk\\/phaistos\\_disk2\\_lg\\.gif\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ have\\ been\\ many\\ hypotheses\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\ is\\ actually\\ recording\\.\\ Some\\ have\\ postulated\\ far\\-fetched\\ ideas\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ Bronze\\ Age\\ computer\\ disc\\ or\\ a\\ highly\\ sophisticated\\ calendar\\.\\ Still\\ more\\ think\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ sophisticated\\ game\\ or\\ puzzle\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ original\\ artifact\\ was\\ found\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ Crete\\ and\\ was\\ discovered\\ by\\ \\\\Luigi\\ Pernier\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\ It\\ was\\ found\\ in\\ an\\ underground\\ temple\\ depository\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Luigi\\ Pernier\\ was\\ a\\ well\\-renowned\\ archaeologist\\.\\ He\\ found\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ cache\\ of\\ Linear\\ A\\ tablets\\ and\\ some\\ of\\ Linear\\ B\\.\\ Because\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ well\\-respected\\ archaeologist\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ many\\ people\\ accept\\ his\\ report\\ of\\ the\\ discovery\\.\\ He\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ leader\\ of\\ the\\ First\\ Italian\\ Archaeological\\ Mission\\ to\\ Crete\\,\\ 1900\\-1912\\.\\ He\\ discovered\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ dick\\ on\\ July\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\,\\ 1908\\ in\\ an\\ underground\\ \\&ldquo\\;temple\\ depository\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ Palace\\ of\\ Phaistos\\.\\ He\\ published\\ his\\ find\\ the\\ following\\ year\\ in\\ 1909\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Some\\ people\\ suspect\\ that\\ the\\ disk\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ fraud\\ made\\ by\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ project\\ because\\ no\\ other\\ examples\\ have\\ turned\\ up\\ or\\ the\\ individual\\ stamps\\ used\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ disk\\ have\\ also\\ never\\ been\\ found\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ concerns\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ not\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ legitimate\\ discovery\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Others\\ are\\ convinced\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ real\\ object\\ that\\ is\\ just\\ fairly\\ rare\\ or\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ have\\ come\\ from\\ some\\ other\\ area\\ since\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ small\\ which\\ explains\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ other\\ artifacts\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ script\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Observations\\ of\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Early\\ researchers\\ noted\\ the\\ stamping\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ early\\ European\\ invention\\ of\\ type\\-setting\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-30\\ boxes\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ and\\ 31\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ spiral\\ is\\ not\\ actually\\ perfectly\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\ disk\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-We\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ disk\\ is\\ read\\ by\\ starting\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ and\\ reading\\ inwards\\,\\ at\\ least\\ this\\ is\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ stamped\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Lines\\ were\\ drawn\\ before\\ the\\ stamps\\ were\\ pressed\\ because\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\ the\\ stamp\\ covers\\ the\\ line\\ segmentations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Some\\ signs\\ overlap\\ each\\ other\\ which\\ also\\ helps\\ us\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ stamping\\ order\\ and\\ perhaps\\ even\\ the\\ reading\\ order\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-We\\ also\\ see\\ the\\ same\\ groupings\\ and\\ order\\ of\\ signs\\ that\\ repeat\\ all\\ along\\ the\\ disk\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Overlapping\\ mostly\\ happens\\ from\\ left\\ to\\ right\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Intention\\ is\\ movement\\ right\\ to\\ left\\ and\\ outside\\ to\\ inside\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ are\\ also\\ erasures\\/mistakes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Repetitive\\ text\\ with\\ repeating\\ shield\\ and\\ head\\ often\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ are\\ some\\ marks\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ words\\:\\ maybe\\ canceling\\ the\\ final\\ vowel\\ or\\ indicating\\ something\\ else\\ entirely\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Final\\ sound\\/sign\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ is\\ sometimes\\ carrying\\ a\\ slash\\ mark\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Arthur\\ Evans\\&rsquo\\;\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\ Sign\\ List\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Some\\ signs\\ appear\\ more\\ often\\ than\\ others\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Mohawk\\ man\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ sign\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-He\\ thought\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ 45\\ different\\ signs\\,\\ which\\ suggests\\ a\\ syllabary\\ \\(more\\ complicated\\ than\\ an\\ alphabet\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\ Is\\ it\\ like\\ Cypriotic\\ \\(a\\ syllabary\\)\\ or\\ more\\ complex\\ like\\ Linear\\ B\\ \\(where\\ we\\ have\\ ideographs\\ combined\\ with\\ a\\ syllabary\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Overall\\ Frequency\\ of\\ signs\\ on\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-9\\ symbols\\ occur\\ only\\ once\\,\\ whereas\\ 1\\ sign\\ occurs\\ 19\\ times\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\How\\ many\\ signs\\ would\\ the\\ script\\ have\\ had\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Working\\ with\\ known\\ syllabic\\ scripts\\&mdash\\;particularly\\ Cypriotic\\,\\ Linear\\ A\\ and\\ Linear\\ B\\ syllabaries\\&mdash\\;Mackay\\ \\(1965\\)\\ derived\\ a\\ formula\\ that\\ related\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ total\\/distinct\\ signs\\ in\\ a\\ text\\ sample\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ distinct\\ signs\\ in\\ a\\ script\\.\\ The\\ result\\ for\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ disk\\ was\\ 55\\.28\\ suggesting\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ missing\\ about\\ 10\\-11\\ signs\\,\\ assuming\\ that\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\ is\\ a\\ typical\\ syllabary\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ representative\\ text\\ sample\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Addressing\\ the\\ Cretin\\ Object\\ Hypothesis\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-This\\ is\\ the\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ any\\ other\\ artifacts\\ with\\ this\\ same\\ script\\ in\\ Crete\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ object\\ came\\ from\\ somewhere\\ else\\.\\ This\\ is\\ plausible\\ because\\ the\\ artifact\\ is\\ fairly\\ small\\ and\\ potentially\\ transportable\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-However\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ anything\\ like\\ it\\ from\\ anywhere\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Also\\,\\ some\\ people\\ doubt\\ this\\ argument\\ because\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ object\\ on\\ it\\ or\\ pictographic\\ signs\\ on\\ the\\ disk\\ look\\ like\\ things\\ from\\ Crete\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Examples\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Lycian\\ Rock\\ Tomb\\ looks\\ fairly\\ similar\\ to\\ sign\\ 24\\:\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ Rock\\ Tomb\\ then\\ it\\ could\\ have\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ Levant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Also\\ a\\ Vase\\ from\\ Knossos\\ has\\ a\\ similar\\ circular\\ stamp\\ on\\ it\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ sign\\ \\#12\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Arkalokhori\\ Axe\\ was\\ discovered\\ in\\ a\\ cave\\ in\\ Central\\ Crete\\ by\\ the\\ archaeologist\\ Spyridon\\ Marinatos\\.\\ It\\ has\\ similar\\ signs\\ as\\ seen\\ on\\ the\\ disk\\,\\ but\\ chance\\ could\\ explain\\ these\\ similarities\\ and\\ the\\ spiky\\ haired\\ man\\ always\\ appear\\ with\\ the\\ shield\\ on\\ the\\ disk\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ comparable\\ shield\\ sign\\ found\\ on\\ the\\ axe\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-these\\ are\\ similar\\ but\\ not\\ necessarily\\ identical\\ signs\\;\\ a\\ one\\-to\\-one\\ correlation\\ probably\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Fischer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Comparison\\ of\\ Linear\\ A\\ and\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\ Signs\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-known\\ script\\ transmissions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-po\\ and\\ lo\\ move\\ into\\ becoming\\ Cypriotic\\ signs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Reasonable\\ that\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\ is\\ a\\ syllabary\\ and\\ was\\ written\\ about\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ as\\ Linear\\ A\\:\\ we\\ could\\ be\\ looking\\ at\\ a\\ script\\ transmission\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-But\\,\\ there\\ are\\ definitely\\ philological\\ problems\\ with\\ Fischer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decipherment\\ of\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Greek\\ suffix\\\\ te\\<\\/i\\>\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ Latin\\ suffix\\ \\qe\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ so\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ rare\\ for\\ a\\ language\\ to\\ have\\ both\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\;\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ influence\\ from\\ Greek\\ and\\ Latin\\ scribes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ ultimate\\ conclusion\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ simple\\ not\\ enough\\ corpus\\ or\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ underlying\\ language\\ to\\ really\\ make\\ any\\ definitive\\ decipherments\\ of\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ Disk\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Phaistos Disk"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.401835+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Complex Traits", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 752, "html": "\\Notes\\ will\\ be\\ posted\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ two\\ part\\ lecture\\ is\\ complete\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 93, "file_path": "", "desc": "Complex Traits"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.410565+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lady Audely's Secret ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 753, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 4\\.2\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lady\\ Audley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Secret\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mary\\ Elizabeth\\ Braddon\\ two\\ day\\ discussion\\ about\\ Lady\\ Audley\\ Secret\\ this\\ is\\ one\\ sensation\\ novel\\ this\\ semester\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ best\\ sensation\\ novel\\ ever\\ written\\.\\ The\\ best\\ is\\ The\\ Woman\\ in\\ White\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ sensation\\ novel\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ 1860s\\ and\\ dominated\\.\\ The\\ plots\\ of\\ these\\ novels\\ center\\ on\\ scandal\\,\\ murder\\,\\ elicit\\ sexuality\\,\\ double\\ lives\\,\\ family\\ secrets\\,\\ abduction\\&hellip\\;juicy\\ topics\\.\\ The\\ sudden\\ emergence\\ can\\ be\\ linked\\ directly\\ to\\ the\\ prevalence\\ of\\ scandalous\\ divorce\\ court\\ proceedings\\ in\\ the\\ British\\ newspapers\\ after\\ the\\ year\\ 1857\\ when\\ divorce\\ was\\ legalized\\.\\ Prior\\ to\\ 1857\\ you\\ could\\ only\\ get\\ divorced\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ an\\ aristocrat\\.\\ Divorce\\ cases\\ flooded\\ the\\ courts\\ in\\ the\\ 1860s\\ because\\ there\\ were\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ unhappy\\ couples\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ makes\\ this\\ novel\\ different\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ criminals\\ were\\ largely\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ the\\ cite\\ of\\ their\\ criminal\\ activity\\ was\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ home\\.\\ They\\ were\\ set\\ in\\ the\\ parlor\\,\\ kitchen\\,\\ garden\\.\\ Sensation\\ novels\\ seem\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ dangerous\\ in\\ modern\\ life\\ was\\ within\\ the\\ four\\ walls\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ home\\.\\ The\\ uncanny\\ thrill\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ familiar\\ was\\ defamiliarized\\.\\ The\\ happier\\ the\\ home\\ appeared\\,\\ the\\ more\\ violent\\ and\\ disturbing\\ the\\ subtext\\ was\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Everyone\\ is\\ surveilling\\ each\\ other\\.\\ The\\ home\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ place\\ free\\ from\\ surveillance\\.\\ Parents\\ are\\ watching\\ children\\,\\ children\\ are\\ watching\\ parents\\.\\ Everyone\\ is\\ analyzing\\ everyone\\ very\\ closely\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ policing\\ aspect\\ to\\ it\\.\\ Braddon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ characters\\ are\\ always\\ scrutinizing\\ each\\ other\\.\\ They\\ all\\ distrust\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ appearances\\.\\ Those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ question\\ appearance\\ like\\ Sir\\ Michael\\ become\\ trapped\\.\\ The\\ Lady\\&rsquo\\;s\\ face\\ is\\ a\\ trap\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ will\\ focus\\ our\\ attention\\ on\\ faces\\ and\\ faciality\\.\\ Weird\\ meant\\ sage\\,\\ wise\\,\\ prophetic\\.\\ Charming\\ replaces\\ weird\\.\\ Lady\\ Audley\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ faciality\\.\\ The\\ painting\\ of\\ her\\,\\ the\\ vex\\ of\\ the\\ face\\.\\ Take\\ Braddon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ description\\ of\\ Lucy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ portrait\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ contradiction\\ in\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ this\\ face\\.\\ On\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\ she\\ is\\ pure\\ surface\\ and\\ yet\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ it\\ suggests\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ wicked\\ truth\\ between\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ Her\\ face\\ becomes\\ an\\ emblem\\ of\\ reality\\ and\\ hiddeness\\ and\\ depth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ face\\ has\\ a\\ history\\.\\ Faces\\ looked\\ different\\ and\\ meant\\ different\\ things\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ faces\\ battling\\ for\\ supremacy\\ between\\ her\\ ears\\ and\\ between\\ her\\ forehead\\ and\\ chin\\.\\ Faces\\ have\\ been\\ seen\\ as\\ windows\\ onto\\ someone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soul\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ century\\ the\\ face\\ is\\ an\\ expression\\ between\\ character\\ and\\ personality\\.\\ The\\ face\\ is\\ caught\\ between\\ character\\ and\\ personality\\.\\ Lady\\ Audley\\ is\\ both\\ simulataneously\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ you\\ can\\ purchase\\ your\\ identity\\ then\\ that\\ means\\ that\\ identity\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ essential\\.\\ Talk\\ about\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ character\\ and\\ personality\\.\\ Personality\\ is\\ the\\ impression\\ you\\ make\\ on\\ others\\.\\ It\\ is\\ how\\ you\\ come\\ across\\.\\ Our\\ society\\ has\\ become\\ a\\ personality\\ driven\\ society\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ character\\ based\\ society\\.\\ The\\ fixed\\ versus\\ the\\ mutable\\.\\ Character\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ moral\\ work\\,\\ self\\ knowledge\\.\\ Personality\\ is\\ self\\ expression\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ cosmetics\\ industry\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ corrupt\\ market\\ place\\.\\ Cosmetis\\ were\\ also\\ very\\ dangerous\\ and\\ sometimes\\ toxic\\.\\ There\\ are\\ stories\\ of\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ faces\\ feeling\\ green\\.\\ Cosmetics\\ were\\ also\\ associated\\ with\\ primitive\\ cultures\\ so\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ complicated\\ thing\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ racial\\ component\\ to\\ cosmetics\\ in\\ US\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ racial\\ paranoia\\ surrounding\\ cosmetics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Starting\\ in\\ the\\ 1860s\\ views\\ on\\ cosmetics\\ began\\ to\\ change\\&hellip\\;it\\ became\\ common\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lady\\ Audley\\ is\\ a\\ cosmetic\\ personality\\.\\ She\\ exudes\\ a\\ cosmetics\\ logic\\.\\ She\\ is\\ very\\ aware\\ of\\ a\\ spectator\\ at\\ all\\ times\\.\\ She\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ evade\\ the\\ gaze\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ she\\ is\\ very\\ self\\ conscious\\ about\\ how\\ she\\ appears\\ and\\ she\\ captures\\ the\\ agency\\ of\\ cosmetics\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lady Audely's Secret "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.614370+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Transatlantic Epidemiology", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 766, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1753970746\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-508281020\\ 226508654\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:60\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Epidemics\\ of\\ colonial\\ exchange\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Primarily\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ and\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ extends\\ into\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1492\\,\\ \\\\Columbus\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ Exchange\\ happened\\ btwn\\ Old\\ World\\ and\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>From\\ New\\ World\\ to\\ \\Europe\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ potatoes\\ and\\ corn\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Europe\\ to\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ chocolate\\,\\ tobacco\\,\\ and\\ syphilis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Syphilis\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ disease\\ in\\ 16\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ and\\ demanded\\ new\\ cures\\.\\ Disease\\ of\\ many\\ names\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Colombian\\ exchange\\ is\\ a\\ complex\\ bio\\,\\ social\\ exchange\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>A\\ number\\ of\\ epidemic\\ disease\\,\\ chicken\\ pox\\,\\ mumps\\,\\ measles\\,\\ spread\\ through\\ the\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ and\\ had\\ devastating\\ mortalities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Virgin\\ soil\\ epidemic\\,\\ reason\\ that\\ these\\ epidemics\\ have\\ such\\ a\\ devastating\\ effect\\ on\\ aboriginals\\ was\\ because\\ of\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ immunity\\.\\ \\Crosby\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ account\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Native\\ Americans\\ were\\ immunologically\\ na\\ï\\;ve\\ compared\\ to\\ immunologically\\ sophisticated\\ Europeans\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Problems\\ with\\ this\\ assumes\\ that\\ NAs\\ were\\ disease\\ free\\ before\\ \\\\Columbus\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Disease\\ exchange\\ can\\ happen\\ the\\ other\\ way\\.\\ Assumes\\ inevitability\\ and\\ lack\\ of\\ culpability\\,\\ this\\ way\\ going\\ to\\ happen\\ even\\ if\\ Europeans\\ had\\ good\\ intentions\\,\\ thus\\ they\\ were\\ not\\ to\\ blame\\.\\ Assumes\\ cultural\\ superiority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Also\\ need\\ to\\ realize\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ historical\\ arguments\\ \\(secondary\\ sources\\)\\ and\\ what\\ the\\ colonists\\ thought\\ \\(primary\\ sources\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Need\\ to\\ understand\\ social\\ determinants\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ social\\ meanings\\ of\\ disease\\,\\ and\\ social\\ responses\\ of\\ disease\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Health\\ before\\ \\\\Columbus\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Seemed\\ to\\ be\\ bands\\ of\\ noble\\ savages\\ living\\ in\\ a\\ health\\ free\\ paradise\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>But\\ NAs\\ had\\ urban\\ populations\\.\\ Urbanization\\ of\\ Europeans\\ does\\ not\\ make\\ them\\ superior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Kennewick\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ man\\,\\ \\\\Oregon\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 7500\\ BCE\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Forensic\\ evidence\\ shows\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ had\\ traumatic\\ injuries\\ and\\ chronic\\ infections\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ are\\ evidences\\ of\\ tuberculosis\\,\\ syphilis\\,\\ etc\\ in\\ the\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>But\\ there\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ evidence\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\,\\ measles\\,\\ plague\\,\\ etc\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ reasons\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ diseases\\ need\\ animal\\ carriers\\,\\ but\\ NAs\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ many\\ domesticated\\ animals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Encounters\\ at\\ \\Hispaniola\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>NA\\ population\\ decreased\\ dramatically\\.\\ But\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ determine\\ how\\ much\\ came\\ from\\ disease\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ came\\ from\\ being\\ forced\\ off\\ their\\ land\\ and\\ thus\\ no\\ food\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ biological\\ and\\ social\\ effects\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Epidemics\\ of\\ \\New\\ Spain\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Smallpox\\ came\\ with\\ Cortez\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ \\\\Mexico\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 25\\ mil\\ dropped\\ to\\ 1\\ mil\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Epidemics\\ of\\ \\New\\ France\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>North\\ America\\,\\ \\\\Quebec\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>50\\%\\ of\\ local\\ population\\ died\\ btwn\\ European\\ trips\\.\\ Wherever\\ they\\ settled\\,\\ people\\ died\\ in\\ large\\ numbers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Baptized\\ NAs\\ died\\ more\\ often\\ than\\ unbaptized\\ NAs\\.\\ Troubling\\ problems\\ for\\ European\\&rsquo\\;s\\ religious\\ faith\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Epidemics\\ of\\ the\\ British\\ Colonies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1585\\-1587\\,\\ \\Carolinas\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ epidemics\\ in\\ local\\ tribes\\ devastated\\ their\\ numbers\\,\\ although\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ affect\\ colonists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1605\\-1619\\,\\ \\New\\ England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1633\\-1634\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ plague\\ that\\ killed\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ coastal\\ populations\\.\\ By\\ the\\ time\\ Mayflower\\ arrived\\,\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ more\\ people\\ living\\ in\\ the\\ area\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>When\\ MA\\ bay\\ colony\\ was\\ founded\\,\\ there\\ was\\ an\\ epidemic\\ of\\ small\\ pox\\,\\ 1633\\-4\\,\\ 90\\%\\ mortality\\,\\ at\\ some\\ places\\ 99\\%\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ we\\ and\\ they\\ make\\ sense\\ of\\ these\\ devastating\\ epidemics\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Health\\ of\\ British\\ colonies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1606\\,\\ Pemaquid\\,\\ abandoned\\ after\\ 1\\ yr\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1607\\-24\\,\\ \\\\Jamestown\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\.\\ 60\\%\\ mortality\\ in\\ the\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ yr\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1620\\,\\ \\\\Plymouth\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ high\\ mortality\\ rate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1630\\,\\ MA\\ Bay\\ colony\\.\\ 1000\\ people\\ came\\,\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ yr\\,\\ 200\\ people\\ died\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>So\\ mortality\\ is\\ high\\ for\\ the\\ colonists\\ also\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Transatlantic\\ Epidemiology\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ need\\ to\\ ship\\ slaves\\ to\\ \\America\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ was\\ partly\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ massive\\ depopulation\\ of\\ the\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>10\\%\\ mortality\\ in\\ slave\\ capture\\,\\ 20\\%\\ mortality\\ in\\ the\\ passage\\,\\ 20\\%\\ mortality\\ in\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ yr\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Social\\ Meanings\\ of\\ Disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bodily\\ difference\\ in\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Was\\ there\\ a\\ bodily\\ NA\\ weakness\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>But\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ religious\\ belief\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ came\\ from\\ stock\\ of\\ Adam\\.\\ Their\\ bodies\\ are\\ just\\ like\\ ours\\.\\ Thus\\ differences\\ came\\ from\\ culture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Fluidity\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Appearance\\ of\\ the\\ baby\\ is\\ caused\\ by\\ what\\ the\\ mother\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ during\\ the\\ birth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bodily\\ difference\\ in\\ 21\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Guns\\,\\ Germs\\,\\ and\\ Steel\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ Jared\\ Diamond\\.\\ Inscribing\\ biological\\ difference\\ although\\ there\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ social\\ elements\\ involved\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Political\\ explanations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Spaniards\\ were\\ unmoral\\ in\\ their\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ natives\\.\\ Thus\\ people\\ thought\\ they\\ made\\ the\\ epidemics\\ worse\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ horrible\\ treatments\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Apostasy\\.\\ Effect\\ of\\ massive\\ epidemic\\ on\\ the\\ population\\.\\ Would\\ our\\ worldview\\ sustain\\,\\ would\\ it\\ challenge\\ our\\ theological\\ and\\ existential\\ concepts\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Providence\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>God\\ gave\\ natives\\ plague\\,\\ thus\\ country\\ left\\ is\\ void\\ of\\ inhabitants\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Epidemics\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ divine\\ intervention\\,\\ indicating\\ righteousness\\ of\\ colonization\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>God\\ is\\ pleased\\ with\\ our\\ colonizing\\ because\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ drive\\ us\\ away\\,\\ rather\\ killed\\ off\\ the\\ natives\\ to\\ make\\ room\\ for\\ us\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Humanitarian\\ Assistance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\#\\ of\\ colonists\\ worked\\ hard\\ at\\ nursing\\ Indians\\,\\ at\\ risk\\ of\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Clashes\\ with\\ Providential\\ explanation\\.\\ If\\ they\\ truly\\ believed\\ in\\ providential\\ explanation\\,\\ then\\ why\\ would\\ they\\ nurse\\ the\\ Indians\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ plurality\\ of\\ responses\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Biological\\ Warfare\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>2\\ \\\\Delaware\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ tribesmen\\ that\\ sided\\ with\\ the\\ French\\ were\\ given\\ blankets\\ that\\ were\\ from\\ smallpox\\ wards\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Colonists\\ give\\ smallpox\\ blankets\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ induce\\ plague\\ upon\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Summary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Devastating\\ epidemics\\ both\\ biologically\\ and\\ socially\\ determined\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ meanings\\ of\\ epidemics\\ were\\ plural\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Complex\\,\\ puzzling\\,\\ counterproductive\\ social\\ responses\\ to\\ disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ process\\ of\\ epidemics\\ is\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ those\\ times\\.\\ Even\\ nowadays\\,\\ they\\ still\\ happen\\ with\\ groups\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ isolated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Transatlantic Epidemiology"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.642735+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Native American Healing/North Atlantic Demography", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 767, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1081606824\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1864170714\\ \\-37338618\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Apostasy\\,\\ theological\\ term\\,\\ collapse\\ of\\ a\\ belief\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ historians\\ claimed\\ that\\ epidemics\\ caused\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ Native\\ American\\ belief\\ systems\\.\\ But\\ it\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Persistence\\.\\ How\\ did\\ NA\\ healing\\ practices\\ persist\\ in\\ the\\ epidemics\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ have\\ accounts\\ of\\ NA\\ healing\\ through\\ colonists\\&rsquo\\;\\ observations\\.\\ But\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ distorted\\ view\\ because\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ NA\\ healing\\ text\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>NA\\ healing\\ is\\ an\\ oral\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sweat\\ lodges\\.\\ Still\\ common\\ nowadays\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ healing\\ system\\ that\\ has\\ gone\\ away\\,\\ but\\ one\\ that\\ we\\ only\\ understand\\ fragments\\ of\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ is\\ a\\ therapeutic\\ system\\?\\ How\\ does\\ a\\ society\\ respond\\ to\\ medicine\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ universal\\ about\\ suffering\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ being\\ designated\\ as\\ sick\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sick\\ role\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ certain\\ activities\\ you\\ are\\ exempt\\ from\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ plurality\\ of\\ approaches\\ to\\ healing\\.\\ Self\\ healing\\,\\ asking\\ parents\\,\\ see\\ a\\ doctor\\,\\ see\\ an\\ alternative\\ medicine\\ doctor\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ does\\ a\\ doctor\\ do\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Examine\\,\\ diagnose\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Refers\\ the\\ patient\\&rsquo\\;s\\ symptoms\\ to\\ his\\ knowledge\\ of\\ overall\\ clinical\\ experience\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Reassurance\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ one\\-on\\-one\\ relationship\\ and\\ contact\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ take\\ off\\ our\\ clothes\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ doctors\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ strangers\\.\\ It\\ is\\ actually\\ very\\ strange\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Zia\\ healing\\ ceremony\\ \\(sore\\ throat\\)\\ 1888\\,\\ picture\\ of\\ NA\\ in\\ \\\\New\\ Mexico\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Anthropologists\\ describe\\ what\\ they\\ do\\,\\ but\\ not\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ thinking\\ or\\ believing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Any\\ set\\ of\\ belief\\ system\\ requires\\ patient\\ and\\ healer\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ that\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Theories\\ of\\ disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>3\\ circles\\:\\ Science\\ \\(natural\\)\\,\\ Religion\\ \\(supernatural\\)\\,\\ and\\ Magic\\ \\(human\\ intervention\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Science\\,\\ NAs\\ realize\\ frostbite\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ occurs\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cold\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Religion\\,\\ if\\ you\\ do\\ something\\ taboo\\,\\ then\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ sick\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Magic\\,\\ a\\ healer\\ can\\ put\\ a\\ curse\\ on\\ you\\ to\\ make\\ you\\ sick\\,\\ or\\ make\\ you\\ well\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ theories\\ of\\ disease\\ are\\ not\\ only\\ ones\\ used\\ by\\ NAs\\,\\ also\\ by\\ colonialists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ current\\ society\\,\\ magic\\ or\\ religion\\ theories\\ also\\ occur\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ NA\\ healing\\,\\ boundaries\\ of\\ natural\\ and\\ supernatural\\ are\\ very\\ fluid\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>NA\\ belief\\,\\ body\\ belongs\\ to\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ spirits\\.\\ Try\\ to\\ divine\\ out\\ which\\ spirit\\ is\\ angered\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Very\\ performative\\ process\\,\\ try\\ to\\ drive\\ away\\ bad\\ spirits\\ or\\ lure\\ back\\ good\\ spirits\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sioux\\ therapeutics\\,\\ 1880s\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Try\\ to\\ fit\\ tuberculosis\\ into\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ medical\\ categories\\ and\\ cure\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>TB\\ was\\ spirits\\ that\\ was\\ offended\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ plasticity\\ in\\ these\\ native\\ belief\\ models\\.\\ People\\ can\\ believe\\ in\\ modern\\ medicine\\ and\\ the\\ spirit\\ world\\ effects\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Navajo\\ therapeutics\\,\\ 1930s\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Disease\\ was\\ more\\ because\\ of\\ taboos\\.\\ TB\\ was\\ result\\ of\\ some\\ taboos\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>They\\ have\\ lots\\ of\\ taboos\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>All\\ of\\ these\\ native\\ healing\\ belief\\ systems\\ are\\ rational\\ in\\ accordance\\ to\\ their\\ systems\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lots\\ of\\ variance\\ of\\ healing\\ systems\\ between\\ dif\\ natives\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ shaman\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ colonists\\ interpreted\\ shamanistic\\ behaviors\\ as\\ demonic\\ or\\ harmful\\.\\ Great\\ skepticism\\ of\\ these\\ practice\\,\\ but\\ also\\ profound\\ interest\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Europeans\\ imported\\ NA\\ cures\\ for\\ syphilis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ were\\ some\\ white\\ shamans\\ that\\ claimed\\ or\\ were\\ trained\\ by\\ NA\\ shamans\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Going\\ native\\.\\ Europeans\\ becoming\\ NA\\,\\ they\\ think\\ their\\ belief\\ system\\ is\\ superior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ reading\\ accounts\\ of\\ NA\\ healing\\,\\ hard\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ was\\ actually\\ happening\\ and\\ even\\ harder\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ thought\\ processes\\ behind\\ the\\ healing\\ practices\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Does\\ it\\ work\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>They\\ believe\\ in\\ it\\,\\ so\\ it\\ must\\ work\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Similar\\ to\\ placebo\\ effect\\,\\ but\\ different\\,\\ although\\ may\\ be\\ more\\ powerful\\ because\\ everyone\\ involved\\ \\(patient\\,\\ doctor\\,\\ family\\ members\\)\\ believes\\ in\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Efficacious\\ therapeutics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Cinchona\\,\\ impt\\ for\\ curing\\ malaria\\.\\ Active\\ ingredient\\ is\\ quinine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Coca\\,\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ effective\\.\\ Active\\ ingredient\\ is\\ cocaine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ drugs\\ used\\ in\\ NA\\ therapies\\ had\\ effects\\ immediately\\.\\ Ones\\ that\\ make\\ patients\\ vomit\\,\\ have\\ diarrhea\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Such\\ therapies\\ change\\ understanding\\ of\\ efficacy\\.\\ A\\ doctor\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ give\\ you\\ something\\ that\\ will\\ make\\ you\\ puke\\ in\\ 45\\ mins\\,\\ and\\ then\\ you\\ do\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ powerful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thus\\,\\ form\\ of\\ efficacy\\ is\\ different\\.\\ Not\\ maybe\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ cure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>NAs\\ had\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ medical\\ practices\\.\\ Had\\ minor\\ or\\ major\\ surgical\\ procedures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ know\\ why\\ holes\\ were\\ drilled\\ in\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skulls\\,\\ but\\ people\\ lived\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ after\\ these\\ procedures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>NAs\\ were\\ gifted\\ in\\ wound\\ repair\\ and\\ bone\\ setting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ colonists\\ noticed\\ that\\ NA\\ therapeutics\\ were\\ very\\ effective\\ and\\ were\\ interested\\ in\\ them\\ and\\ used\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Persistence\\ of\\ seeing\\ NA\\ medicines\\ as\\ having\\ special\\ efficacy\\.\\ From\\ Dr\\.\\ Morse\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Indian\\ Root\\ Pills\\ to\\ 2009\\ a\\ healing\\ lodge\\ that\\ used\\ NA\\ therapies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ need\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ robust\\ system\\,\\ with\\ various\\ systems\\ involved\\.\\ They\\ vary\\ across\\ time\\ and\\ space\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Native American Healing/North Atlantic Demography"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.669765+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "North Atlantic Demography/Colonial Medical Theory and Practice", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 768, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:82529360\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:358014470\\ 1695206802\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\North\\ \\ Atlantic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\\\\\ Demography\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rise\\ in\\ population\\ in\\ \\New\\ \\ England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Immigration\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Birth\\ rate\\,\\ fertility\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Life\\ expectancy\\,\\ mortality\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ are\\ measurable\\.\\ Can\\ figure\\ out\\ what\\ families\\ are\\ like\\,\\ and\\ what\\ changed\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Demographic\\ transition\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Birth\\ rate\\,\\ death\\ rate\\,\\ total\\ population\\.\\ These\\ forces\\ influence\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ times\\ of\\ high\\ death\\ rate\\,\\ there\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ high\\ birth\\ rate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ necessary\\ but\\ not\\ sufficient\\ way\\ of\\ understanding\\ a\\ population\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Birth\\ and\\ death\\ in\\ colonial\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Look\\ at\\ tombstones\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Having\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ children\\ over\\ a\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ time\\ is\\ relatively\\ normal\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nowadays\\,\\ to\\ have\\ many\\ children\\ is\\ strange\\ and\\ a\\ bit\\ irresponsible\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Looking\\ at\\ \\#\\ of\\ children\\ per\\ family\\ and\\ tell\\ us\\ a\\ bit\\ about\\ marriage\\ and\\ sexual\\ practices\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Health\\ of\\ the\\ \\British\\ Isles\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bills\\ of\\ Morality\\,\\ started\\ 1662\\,\\ recorded\\ who\\ died\\ and\\ how\\ many\\ died\\ of\\ what\\ cause\\.\\ Although\\ causes\\ of\\ death\\ change\\ over\\ time\\ and\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ distinguish\\ at\\ times\\.\\ Started\\ to\\ record\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ black\\ plague\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Health\\ of\\ British\\ colonies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Faced\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ epidemics\\ death\\ and\\ mortality\\.\\ From\\ the\\ journey\\ to\\ the\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ and\\ while\\ living\\ in\\ there\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ often\\ were\\ there\\ burials\\?\\ How\\ did\\ the\\ people\\ threat\\ babies\\ whose\\ chance\\ of\\ living\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ great\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Diversity\\ of\\ colonial\\ demography\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Common\\ for\\ entire\\ towns\\ in\\ \\England\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ to\\ move\\ over\\ to\\ \\New\\ England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Population\\ of\\ \\New\\ England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ doubled\\ every\\ 27\\ years\\.\\ Birth\\ rates\\ were\\ impt\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\New\\ York\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ had\\ a\\ more\\ diverse\\ population\\.\\ Had\\ a\\ large\\ slave\\ population\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ \\\\Chesapeake\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ colonies\\,\\ immigration\\ was\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ factor\\ in\\ population\\.\\ Many\\ were\\ adventures\\ and\\ treasure\\ seekers\\.\\ Average\\ life\\ expectancy\\ was\\ 20\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ southern\\ colonies\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ maintain\\ a\\ stable\\ population\\ for\\ a\\ while\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ New\\ England\\,\\ life\\ expectancy\\ was\\ better\\ than\\ in\\ \\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Better\\ chances\\ in\\ living\\ longer\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ southern\\ colonies\\,\\ life\\ expectancy\\ was\\ about\\ 10\\ years\\ shorter\\ than\\ in\\ \\New\\ England\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Historical\\ demography\\ helps\\ us\\ understand\\ populations\\ and\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Colonial\\ Medical\\ Theory\\ and\\ Practice\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Marco\\ A\\.\\ Viniegra\\ \\(TF\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Theories\\ of\\ health\\ and\\ disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Therapeutics\\ and\\ practice\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Who\\ were\\ physicians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Flyer\\&rdquo\\;\\ copied\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Conjurer\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ Flyer\\ is\\ a\\ classical\\ body\\ made\\ of\\ elements\\ of\\ air\\,\\ earth\\,\\ water\\,\\ and\\ fire\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ Theories\\ of\\ Health\\ and\\ Disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Humoral\\ Medicines\\,\\ the\\ Four\\ Humors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sanguineus\\,\\ Phlegmaticus\\,\\ Melancholicus\\,\\ Cholericus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Came\\ from\\ Hippocrates\\ \\(Greek\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Describes\\ a\\ fluid\\ body\\,\\ made\\ out\\ of\\ fluids\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Yellow\\ bile\\,\\ blood\\,\\ phlegm\\,\\ and\\ black\\ bile\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Body\\ thought\\ about\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ hot\\,\\ dry\\,\\ moist\\,\\ and\\ cold\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Moist\\ and\\ cold\\ \\=\\ more\\ female\\.\\ Hot\\ and\\ dry\\ \\=\\ more\\ male\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Colonists\\ had\\ this\\ theory\\ in\\ mind\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Had\\ ideas\\ of\\ different\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Male\\,\\ female\\ bodies\\.\\ Protestant\\,\\ Christian\\,\\ Western\\,\\ etc\\,\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Native\\ Americans\\ are\\ dying\\ quickly\\,\\ so\\ they\\ thought\\ that\\ their\\ bodies\\ were\\ less\\ prepared\\ for\\ the\\ civilized\\ life\\ that\\ the\\ colonists\\ were\\ importing\\ from\\ \\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Different\\ amounts\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\ fluids\\ would\\ make\\ up\\ the\\ body\\ differently\\ biologically\\ and\\ psychologically\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Have\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ personality\\ depending\\ on\\ dif\\ types\\ of\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Astrological\\ body\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Daily\\ practices\\ have\\ influence\\ on\\ the\\ composition\\ of\\ fluids\\ and\\ therefore\\ your\\ body\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Your\\ environments\\ will\\ also\\ have\\ an\\ impt\\ influence\\ on\\ your\\ fluids\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thus\\ can\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ stars\\ will\\ also\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ your\\ fluids\\ and\\ your\\ body\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ connection\\ between\\ celestial\\ and\\ biological\\ bodies\\.\\ This\\ idea\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ Greeks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>William\\ Harvey\\ \\(1578\\-1657\\)\\ discovered\\ the\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ circulatory\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thought\\ that\\ would\\ make\\ Hippocratic\\ model\\ less\\ reliable\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ it\\ strengthened\\ the\\ model\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ scientific\\ advances\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ attack\\ the\\ Greek\\ model\\,\\ but\\ actually\\ strengths\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hippocratic\\ model\\ persisted\\ into\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ Started\\ by\\ 200\\ AD\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Only\\ when\\ started\\ laboratory\\ work\\,\\ did\\ Hippocratic\\ model\\ start\\ to\\ fail\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Heroic\\ Medicine\\:\\ an\\ \\\\American\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\School\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Patients\\ are\\ the\\ heroes\\.\\ Doctors\\ will\\ be\\ pushing\\ the\\ natural\\ abilities\\ of\\ the\\ body\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ heal\\ itself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ is\\ stigma\\,\\ because\\ heroic\\ medicine\\ is\\ charged\\ with\\ killing\\ \\\\Washington\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Has\\ reputation\\ of\\ pushing\\ things\\ so\\ far\\,\\ as\\ to\\ kill\\ the\\ patient\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ American\\ development\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Benjamin\\ Rush\\ \\(1745\\-1813\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Father\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ American\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Argued\\ that\\ mental\\ illness\\ caused\\ by\\ interruption\\ of\\ blood\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proper\\ circulation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Practices\\ included\\ bleeding\\,\\ purging\\,\\ cupping\\,\\ emetics\\,\\ and\\ poultices\\ and\\ mustards\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Give\\ patients\\ things\\ to\\ generate\\ complex\\ bodily\\ reactions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Can\\ find\\ these\\ practices\\ fairly\\ recent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1860\\,\\ bloodletting\\ in\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ 1920\\,\\ cupping\\ in\\ \\\\America\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Therapeutic\\ and\\ Practices\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pre\\-physician\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospitals\\,\\ midwifes\\,\\ priest\\ physicians\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Practice\\ was\\ very\\ diverse\\.\\ Most\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ formal\\ training\\ in\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Most\\ physicians\\ learned\\ from\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Learning\\ medicine\\ from\\ school\\ and\\ hospital\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\ fully\\ until\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Range\\ of\\ practitioners\\ was\\ vast\\,\\ many\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ medical\\ school\\ or\\ from\\ a\\ physician\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Have\\ series\\ of\\ organizations\\ that\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ practitioners\\ and\\ force\\ people\\ to\\ recognize\\ only\\ those\\ who\\ went\\ to\\ medical\\ school\\ as\\ physicians\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Royal\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\College\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ of\\ Physicians\\,\\ 1518\\:\\ diagnosis\\,\\ prognosis\\,\\ prescriptions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Royal\\ College\\ of\\ Barber\\-Surgeons\\,\\ 1540\\:\\ teeth\\,\\ bleeding\\,\\ amputations\\,\\ stones\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Royal\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\College\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ of\\ Apothecaries\\,\\ 1617\\:\\ prepare\\ medications\\,\\ getting\\ licensed\\ by\\ college\\ was\\ inconsistent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ colleges\\ wanted\\ to\\ limit\\ \\#\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ could\\ do\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ suppose\\ to\\ do\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Lots\\ of\\ competition\\ btwn\\ dif\\ groups\\ of\\ practitioners\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Quack\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Charter\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ Henrry\\ the\\ VIII\\,\\ 1543\\:\\ everyone\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ domain\\ can\\ practice\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Big\\ cities\\ in\\ \\America\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\,\\ \\Charlestown\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\Philadelphia\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ \\New\\ York\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\,\\ only\\ had\\ few\\ 1000s\\ of\\ inhabitant\\,\\ in\\ these\\ areas\\,\\ laws\\ from\\ \\\\England\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ may\\ apply\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>But\\ in\\ rural\\ areas\\,\\ have\\ people\\ practicing\\ medicine\\ in\\ a\\ much\\ wider\\ variety\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ MA\\ 1620\\-1800\\:\\ 1600\\ doctors\\ practiced\\ medicine\\,\\ of\\ these\\ only\\ 100\\ were\\ immigrants\\ who\\ could\\ have\\ had\\ medical\\ training\\ in\\ \\Europe\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ By\\ time\\ of\\ revolution\\,\\ 3500\\ people\\ called\\ themselves\\ doctors\\,\\ probably\\ 400\\ had\\ formal\\ training\\ and\\ only\\ 200\\ with\\ MDs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Summary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>No\\ institutions\\ or\\ restrictions\\,\\ unregulated\\ marketplace\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Extreme\\ diversity\\ of\\ practitioners\\,\\ little\\ expertise\\ or\\ authority\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Wide\\ range\\ of\\ remedies\\,\\ based\\ on\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ theories\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Treatments\\ produced\\ results\\,\\ according\\ to\\ how\\ efficacy\\ of\\ health\\ and\\ disease\\ are\\ defined\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "North Atlantic Demography/Colonial Medical Theory and Practice"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.705818+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Epidemics, Environments, and Public Health", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 769, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:200870462\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:838505074\\ \\-1729590606\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ are\\ these\\ related\\,\\ in\\ our\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ conception\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Are\\ they\\ related\\?\\ Yes\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Avian\\ flu\\:\\ contemporary\\ manifestation\\ of\\ fear\\ of\\ epidemics\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ globalization\\,\\ ease\\ of\\ getting\\ from\\ place\\ to\\ place\\,\\ greater\\ fear\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Environment\\ \\(place\\)\\ and\\ health\\:\\ example\\ childhood\\ asthma\\ \\(exposure\\ to\\ cockroach\\ antigen\\ etc\\.\\)\\,\\ getting\\ sick\\ from\\ change\\ in\\ seasons\\ \\(dry\\ heat\\ harder\\ on\\ sinuses\\,\\ so\\ inflammation\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Notice\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ using\\ very\\ different\\ terms\\ than\\ colon\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Can\\ trace\\ continuity\\,\\ but\\ also\\ sense\\ of\\ rupture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ very\\ diff\\ view\\ of\\ body\\,\\ how\\ it\\ related\\ to\\ environment\\,\\ than\\ we\\ have\\ today\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Humoralism\\ as\\ way\\ of\\ relating\\ body\\ to\\ environment\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>dry\\+cold\\ \\=\\ fall\\,\\ black\\ bile\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>wet\\+cold\\=water\\,\\ phlegm\\,\\ old\\ age\\,\\ winter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hippocratic\\ tradition\\:\\ relation\\ of\\ body\\ to\\ health\\ through\\ natural\\ and\\ non\\-naturals\\ \\(diet\\,\\ regiment\\,\\ changes\\ in\\ seasons\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Translocation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>anxieties\\ of\\ British\\ bodies\\ of\\ moving\\ to\\ new\\ locations\\,\\ being\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ new\\ diseases\\.\\ putting\\ body\\ at\\ risk\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Notion\\ of\\ NE\\ winter\\,\\ environment\\,\\ causing\\ harm\\ to\\ health\\,\\ even\\ death\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Very\\ powerful\\ relationship\\ of\\ place\\ to\\ disease\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Even\\ though\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ these\\,\\ we\\ can\\ understand\\ where\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ coming\\ from\\,\\ and\\ why\\ this\\ makes\\ sense\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ thinking\\ of\\ relationship\\ between\\ body\\ and\\ environment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bodies\\ and\\ places\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Worried\\ about\\ suitability\\ of\\ British\\ bodies\\ to\\ the\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\British\\ Isles\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ much\\ farther\\ up\\ in\\ latitude\\ than\\ Brit\\ colonies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Britain\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ land\\ of\\ moderate\\ people\\ living\\ in\\ moderate\\ times\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Idea\\ that\\ if\\ adapted\\ to\\ life\\ in\\ warmer\\ colonies\\,\\ would\\ become\\ more\\ like\\ Spanish\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bodies\\ flexible\\,\\ can\\ adapt\\ \\(Kupperman\\ readings\\)\\.\\ Bodily\\ differences\\ not\\ seen\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ racial\\,\\ but\\ adaptive\\ processes\\.\\ Humoral\\ balance\\ gradually\\ adapt\\ to\\ relationship\\ of\\ airs\\,\\ waters\\,\\ places\\ in\\ new\\ location\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Written\\ in\\ contracts\\ of\\ indentured\\ servants\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ could\\ not\\ work\\ much\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ year\\ while\\ body\\ adapting\\ to\\ health\\ of\\ new\\ environment\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;seasoning\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>for\\ us\\,\\ look\\ at\\ things\\ like\\ Circadian\\ rhythm\\.\\ people\\ moving\\ to\\ hotter\\,\\ southern\\ climates\\ sweat\\ more\\,\\ if\\ you\\ measure\\ over\\ weeks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>At\\ same\\ time\\,\\ idea\\ that\\ New\\ World\\ could\\ be\\ healthier\\ than\\ decayed\\,\\ pestilent\\ cities\\ of\\ \\Old\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>People\\ will\\ write\\ back\\ about\\ beauty\\ of\\ new\\ towns\\,\\ describing\\ them\\ in\\ very\\ humoral\\ terms\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Carolina\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 45\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ parallel\\.\\ Idea\\ of\\ \\Carolina\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ as\\ \\\\Eden\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Lots\\ of\\ writing\\ that\\ 45\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ parallel\\ was\\ location\\ of\\ parallel\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Perils\\ of\\ heat\\ and\\ moisture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Epidemics\\,\\ environments\\,\\ and\\ race\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Racial\\ explanation\\ emerges\\ where\\ one\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ before\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Europeans\\ began\\ to\\ bring\\ slaves\\ to\\ work\\ in\\ \\New\\ World\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Part\\ of\\ this\\ comes\\ out\\ of\\ racialized\\ notion\\ that\\ African\\ bodies\\ more\\ suited\\ to\\ this\\ work\\ than\\ British\\ bodies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Economic\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;scientific\\&rdquo\\;\\ rationalizations\\ for\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Malaria\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Some\\ believed\\ was\\ miasmatic\\ disease\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>debate\\ between\\ miasmatists\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ believed\\ illness\\ passed\\ from\\ direct\\ contact\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Adaptation\\ of\\ behavior\\ to\\ accommodate\\ new\\ perceptions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;perceptualism\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ new\\ ideas\\ emerge\\ about\\ this\\ disease\\,\\ people\\ reacted\\ differently\\.\\ First\\,\\ moved\\ away\\ from\\ swamps\\,\\ but\\ then\\ moved\\ back\\,\\ and\\ build\\ larger\\,\\ loftier\\ houses\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Lady\\ Mary\\ Montagu\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ describes\\ her\\ experience\\ in\\ \\\\Istanbul\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ plague\\ but\\ no\\ smallpox\\.\\ Describes\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ vareolation\\,\\ inoculation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Cotton\\ Mather\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>priest\\,\\ supreme\\ religious\\ authority\\ of\\ theocratic\\ state\\.\\ His\\ concerns\\ are\\ concerns\\ of\\ people\\ of\\ \\\\Massachusetts\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1716\\&mdash\\;he\\ wants\\ to\\ see\\ smallpox\\ inoculation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1721\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ HMS\\ Seahorse\\ arrives\\ in\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Someone\\ goes\\ onshore\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Approaches\\ Boylston\\ to\\ try\\ out\\ inoculation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Zabdiel\\ Boylston\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tried\\ inoculation\\ out\\ on\\ his\\ household\\,\\ slaves\\ and\\ son\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Experiment\\ success\\,\\ sets\\ out\\ to\\ inoculate\\ more\\ people\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Douglass\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1\\ of\\ 10\\ physicians\\ in\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ with\\ MD\\ from\\ British\\ university\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;theoatrogenesis\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doctor\\-induced\\ disease\\.\\ Physicians\\ fear\\ this\\ because\\ bad\\ reflection\\ on\\ doctors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>His\\ response\\ to\\ Mather\\ invokes\\ \\\\Providence\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Against\\ will\\ of\\ God\\ because\\ preventative\\ medicine\\ is\\ sinful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tension\\:\\ religious\\ vs\\.\\ secular\\ authority\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ disease\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Boylston\\ collects\\ number\\:\\ 14\\%\\ uninoculated\\ die\\,\\ only\\ of\\ 300\\ inoculated\\ 2\\%\\ die\\.\\ Worst\\ mortality\\ rate\\ from\\ smallpox\\ epidemic\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ had\\ seen\\.\\ To\\ those\\ critical\\ of\\ Mather\\,\\ evidence\\ that\\ his\\ inoculation\\ scheme\\ worsened\\ epidemic\\ by\\ spreading\\ to\\ more\\.\\ To\\ Mather\\ and\\ Boylston\\,\\ deemed\\ success\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Edward\\ Jenner\\ and\\ vaccination\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Late\\ 1700s\\,\\ milkmaids\\ had\\ pox\\ on\\ hands\\,\\ experiments\\ with\\ inoculating\\ cowpox\\ into\\ people\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ birth\\ of\\ vaccination\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Cow\\ Pock\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ satirical\\ painting\\,\\ shows\\ fear\\ of\\ innovative\\ practices\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Epidemics, Environments, and Public Health"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.197424+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 740, "html": "\\EQUILIBRIA\\ AND\\ FREE\\ ENERGY\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ all\\ processes\\,\\ some\\ energy\\ becomes\\ unavailable\\ for\\ doing\\ work\\\\\r\\\n\\(converts\\ to\\ disordered\\ energy\\,\\ or\\ heat\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ universe\\ tends\\ toward\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ maximum\\ entropy\\:\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;heat\\\\\r\\\ndeath\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nDEFINITION\\ OF\\ AN\\ EQUILIBRIUM\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Macroscopic\\ properties\\ of\\ the\\ system\\ are\\ unchanging\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ On\\ the\\ microscopic\\ level\\,\\ changes\\ in\\ one\\ direction\\ are\\\\\r\\\ncounterbalanced\\ by\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ opposite\\ direction\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ State\\ of\\ dynamic\\ balance\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nTHE\\ EQUILIBRIUM\\ CONSTANT\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ reaction\\ quotient\\ Q\\ \\=\\ \\[\\[C\\]\\^c\\[D\\]\\^d\\]\\ \\/\\ \\[\\[A\\]\\^a\\[B\\]\\^b\\]\\ for\\ the\\\\\r\\\nreaction\\ aA\\ \\+\\ bB\\ \\ß\\;\\à\\;\\ cC\\ \\+\\ dD\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Lowercase\\:\\ stoichiometric\\ coefficients\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Uppercase\\:\\ chemicals\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Brackets\\:\\ concentrations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Law\\ of\\ Mass\\ Action\\:\\ at\\ equilibrium\\,\\ Q\\ \\=\\ Keq\\(T\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Keq\\ is\\ only\\\\\r\\\ndependent\\ on\\ temperature\\,\\ not\\ on\\ initial\\ concentrations\\ of\\\\\r\\\nreactants\\ or\\ products\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nAt\\ equilibrium\\ for\\ a\\ specified\\ temperature\\,\\ Keq\\ is\\ the\\ reaction\\\\\r\\\nquotient\\ of\\ the\\ equilibrium\\ concentrations\\ of\\ reactants\\ and\\\\\r\\\nproducts\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ form\\ Kc\\ denotes\\ that\\ K\\ is\\ being\\ calculated\\ from\\\\\r\\\nconcentrations\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nPredicting\\ the\\ direction\\ a\\ reaction\\ will\\ go\\ knowing\\ Keq\\ and\\ the\\\\\r\\\ninitial\\ conditions\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ If\\ Qc\\ \\<\\;\\ Keq\\:\\ proceeds\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ \\(to\\ products\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ If\\ Qc\\ \\>\\;\\ Keq\\:\\ proceeds\\ to\\ the\\ left\\ \\(to\\ reactants\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ If\\ Qc\\ \\=\\ Keq\\:\\ system\\ is\\ already\\ at\\ equilibrium\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nRELATIONSHIP\\ BETWEEN\\ K\\ AND\\ THE\\ CHEMICAL\\ REACTION\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ one\\-to\\-one\\ correspondence\\ between\\ Keq\\ and\\ a\\\\\r\\\nbalanced\\ chemical\\ reaction\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ If\\ the\\ reaction\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ opposite\\ direction\\,\\ Keq\\\\\r\\\nis\\ inverted\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ If\\ a\\ reaction\\ is\\ multiplied\\ by\\ a\\ stoichiometric\\\\\r\\\ncoefficient\\,\\ Keq\\ is\\ raised\\ to\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ coefficient\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ When\\ reactions\\ are\\ summed\\ together\\ to\\ form\\ a\\ net\\ reaction\\,\\\\\r\\\nthe\\ equilibrium\\ constants\\ are\\ multiplied\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nCALCULATING\\ AN\\ EQUILIBRIUM\\ CONSTANT\\ AT\\ A\\ NON\\-STANDARD\\ TEMPERATURE\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\?GT\\ \\=\\ \\-RTlnKT\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ K\\\\\r\\\nT\\ \\=\\ e\\^\\(\\-\\?GT\\/RT\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nCALCULATING\\ KC\\ AND\\ KP\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ K\\\\\r\\\nC\\ \\=\\ \\[C\\]c\\[D\\]d\\/\\[A\\]a\\[B\\]b\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ K\\\\\r\\\nP\\ \\=\\ \\(PCcPDd\\)\\/\\(PAaPBb\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ The\\ concentrations\\ of\\ pure\\ liquids\\ and\\ pure\\ solids\\ are\\ not\\\\\r\\\nincluded\\ in\\ the\\ calculation\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nINTERCONVERSION\\ BEWTEEN\\ KC\\ AND\\ KP\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Kc\\ \\=\\ Kp\\(1\\/RT\\)\\^\\?n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nReaction\\ rates\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Rate\\ left\\ to\\ right\\ \\=\\ k\\ left\\ to\\ right\\ \\[concentrations\\\\\r\\\nreactants\\]\\^stoichiometric\\ coefficients\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nLE\\ CHATELIER\\&rsquo\\;S\\ PRINCIPLE\\ \\(1888\\)\\:\\ when\\ a\\ dynamic\\ equilibrium\\ in\\ a\\\\\r\\\nsystem\\ is\\ upset\\ by\\ a\\ disturbance\\,\\ the\\ system\\ responds\\ in\\ a\\\\\r\\\ndirection\\ that\\ tends\\ to\\ counteract\\ the\\ disturbance\\ and\\,\\ if\\\\\r\\\npossible\\,\\ restore\\ equilibrium\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nReactions\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ temperature\\ and\\ pressure\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Increase\\ temperature\\:\\ endothermic\\ direction\\ is\\ favored\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ The\\ value\\ of\\ Keq\\ changes\\,\\ and\\ this\\ change\\ is\\ more\\ drastic\\\\\r\\\nthe\\ bigger\\ the\\ magnitude\\ of\\ \\?H\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Increase\\ pressure\\:\\ direction\\ that\\ produces\\ fewer\\ molecules\\\\\r\\\nis\\ favored\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Pressure\\ increases\\ only\\ apply\\ to\\ increasing\\ the\\ pressure\\ of\\\\\r\\\nany\\ of\\ the\\ reactant\\ or\\ product\\ chemicals\\,\\ not\\ to\\ increases\\\\\r\\\nin\\ overall\\ pressure\\ of\\ the\\ container\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nQuantitative\\ analysis\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nSteps\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Determine\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ change\\ using\\ Le\\ Chatelier\\&rsquo\\;s\\\\\r\\\nPrinciple\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Set\\ up\\ Q\\ and\\ make\\ a\\ RICE\\ table\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Adjust\\ the\\ concentrations\\/pressures\\ in\\ Q\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Solve\\ the\\ algebraic\\ equation\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nGIBBS\\ FREE\\ ENERGY\\ UNDER\\ NON\\-STANDARD\\ CONDITIONS\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ standard\\ free\\ energy\\ change\\,\\ \\?Go\\,\\ corresponds\\ to\\ the\\ change\\\\\r\\\nwhen\\ reactants\\ and\\ products\\ are\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ In\\ their\\ standard\\ states\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ For\\ solids\\ and\\ liquids\\,\\ pressure\\ at\\ 1\\ bar\\ \\(10\\^5\\ Pa\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ For\\ gases\\,\\ pressure\\ at\\ 1\\ bar\\ and\\ behaving\\ like\\ an\\ ideal\\ gas\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Temperature\\ is\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ definition\\ of\\ standard\\\\\r\\\nstate\\,\\ but\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ and\\ is\\ usually\\ 298K\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\?Go\\ AT\\ TEMPERATURES\\ OTHER\\ THAN\\ 298K\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\?H\\ does\\ not\\ depend\\ much\\ on\\ T\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\?S\\ does\\ not\\ depend\\ much\\ on\\ T\\ \\(S\\ depends\\ very\\ much\\ on\\ T\\,\\ but\\\\\r\\\nthe\\ slope\\ is\\ about\\ constant\\ except\\ when\\ making\\ transitions\\\\\r\\\nbetween\\ states\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ In\\ conclusion\\,\\ \\?Ho298\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(T\\)\\?So298\\ is\\ a\\ pretty\\ good\\\\\r\\\napproximation\\ for\\ \\?GoT\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nAPPLICATION\\ OF\\ GIBBS\\ FREE\\ ENERGY\\ TO\\ THE\\ CONCEPT\\ OF\\ EFFICIENCY\\\\\r\\\nSpontaneous\\ processes\\ are\\ often\\ harnessed\\ to\\ produce\\ useful\\ work\\.\\\\\r\\\nA\\ key\\ objective\\ is\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ work\\ and\\ minimize\\\\\r\\\nwhat\\ is\\ lost\\ to\\ heat\\.\\\\\r\\\nMaximum\\ efficency\\ is\\ obtained\\ under\\ thermodynamically\\ reversible\\\\\r\\\nconditions\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\?G\\ is\\ the\\ maximum\\ amount\\ of\\ energy\\ that\\ can\\ theoretically\\ be\\\\\r\\\nharnessed\\ as\\ work\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nCase\\ Study\\ 4\\.1\\ Global\\ energy\\ use\\:\\ the\\ Haber\\ process\\ for\\ synthesis\\\\\r\\\nof\\ ammonia\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Used\\ to\\ make\\ fixed\\ \\(usable\\)\\ nitrogen\\ for\\ agrigulture\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Uses\\ principlies\\ of\\ equilibrium\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Remove\\ NH3\\ from\\ the\\ reaction\\ mixture\\ \\à\\;\\ equilibrium\\ gets\\\\\r\\\npushed\\ to\\ the\\ right\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Increase\\ pressure\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ side\\ that\\ produces\\ 2\\ moles\\\\\r\\\ninstead\\ of\\ 4\\ moles\\ is\\ favored\\ \\(the\\ right\\ side\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Reduce\\ temperature\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ exothermic\\ direction\\ is\\\\\r\\\nfavored\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nCase\\ Study\\ 4\\.2\\ Production\\ of\\ methanol\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Alternative\\ fuels\\ to\\ reduce\\ fossil\\ fuel\\ demands\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Compressed\\ natural\\ gas\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Disadvantage\\:\\ must\\ be\\ stored\\ at\\ high\\ pressure\\,\\ and\\ the\\\\\r\\\nequipment\\ to\\ do\\ this\\ adds\\ weight\\ to\\ smaller\\ cars\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Methanol\\:\\ CH3OH\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Similar\\ to\\ ethanol\\:\\ C2H5OH\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ stored\\ as\\ a\\ liquid\\\\\r\\\nfuel\\ at\\ 1\\ atm\\ pressure\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Has\\ a\\ lower\\ energy\\ rating\\ than\\ gasoline\\,\\ so\\ requires\\ either\\\\\r\\\na\\ bigger\\ tank\\ or\\ a\\ more\\ efficient\\ car\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Modern\\ methanol\\ plants\\ operate\\ with\\ about\\ 70\\%\\ efficency\\ at\\\\\r\\\n100\\ atm\\ pressture\\ and\\ about\\ 250\\-270oC\\ temp\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\nCase\\ study\\ 4\\.3\\ Modern\\ automobile\\ design\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Desirable\\ features\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Hybrids\\,\\ esp\\.\\ plug\\-in\\,\\ to\\ reduce\\ fuel\\ use\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Cellulosic\\-ethanol\\ or\\ methanol\\ in\\ an\\ E85\\ engine\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Carbon\\ fiber\\ car\\ bodies\\:\\ light\\,\\ but\\ not\\ flimsy\\ \\(withstands\\\\\r\\\ncrash\\ tests\\)\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 108, "file_path": "", "desc": "CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.434155+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Introduction to Quantitative Methods", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 754, "html": "\\What\\ is\\ the\\ field\\ of\\ statistics\\?\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ the\\ science\\ of\\ collecting\\,\\ organizing\\ and\\ interpreting\\ data\\.\\ \\;\\ Statistics\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ science\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ mathematics\\,\\ although\\ it\\ uses\\ many\\ mathematical\\ tools\\ to\\ evaluate\\ scientific\\ evidence\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Almost\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ models\\ used\\ in\\ this\\ course\\ are\\ intuitive\\ \\(left\\ to\\ our\\ own\\ devices\\,\\ we\\ could\\ probably\\ figure\\ them\\ out\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ are\\ 3\\ steps\\ to\\ understanding\\ data\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ Visualization\\ \\-\\ this\\ is\\ done\\ using\\ graphs\\ and\\ numerical\\ summary\\ measures\\ \\(scatterplots\\,\\ box\\ and\\ whisker\\ plots\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Conceptualization\\ \\-\\ understanding\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ data\\ collection\\ will\\ tell\\ you\\ how\\ reliable\\ it\\ is\\.\\ \\;\\ Part\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ understanding\\ experimental\\ design\\ and\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ different\\ designs\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ Analyzation\\ \\-\\ Analysis\\ requires\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ probability\\ theory\\,\\ which\\ computes\\ the\\ likelihood\\ of\\ whether\\ observations\\ are\\ consistent\\ with\\ chance\\ variation\\;\\ it\\ describes\\ the\\ variability\\ in\\ systems\\ under\\ constant\\ conditions\\.\\ \\;\\ Statistical\\ inference\\,\\ the\\ making\\ of\\ decisions\\ based\\ only\\ on\\ partial\\ information\\,\\ provides\\ methods\\ for\\ inferring\\ about\\ a\\ population\\ from\\ information\\ that\\ is\\ obtained\\ from\\ a\\ sample\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Terminology\\ and\\ Concepts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Data\\ \\-\\ numbers\\ with\\ context\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Individuals\\ \\-\\ objects\\ described\\ by\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ data\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Variables\\ \\-\\ any\\ characteristic\\ of\\ an\\ individuals\\;\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ types\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Categorical\\ \\-\\ a\\ limited\\ set\\ of\\ outcomes\\,\\ separated\\ into\\ categories\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ gender\\ \\-\\ male\\ or\\ female\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Quantitative\\ \\-\\ variables\\ that\\ take\\ a\\ numerical\\ value\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ height\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Statistics\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ mislead\\ people\\ \\-\\ statisticians\\ can\\ exclude\\ cases\\ from\\ their\\ data\\,\\ or\\ can\\ frame\\ their\\ data\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ way\\ to\\ ignore\\ certain\\ trends\\ \\;\\(looking\\ at\\ long\\ term\\ vs\\.\\ short\\ term\\ data\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 109, "file_path": "", "desc": "Introduction to Quantitative Methods"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.443173+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Box Plots, Bar Graphs and Histograms, Density Curves", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 755, "html": "\\\\\\Boxplots\\:\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\A\\ boxplot\\ graphically\\ displays\\ several\\ important\\ features\\ of\\ a\\ distribution\\,\\ including\\ the\\ median\\,\\ quartiles\\ and\\ outliers\\.\\ \\;\\ Boxplots\\ are\\ excellent\\ tools\\ \\;\\ for\\ visualizing\\ the\\ location\\ \\(center\\)\\ and\\ variation\\ of\\ quantitative\\ data\\,\\ and\\ are\\ particularly\\ useful\\ for\\ illustrating\\ differences\\ between\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ groups\\ of\\ data\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/tt\\>\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\To\\ construct\\ a\\ boxplot\\:\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\The\\ values\\ of\\ the\\ data\\ are\\ arranged\\ along\\ an\\ axis\\.\\ Draw\\ a\\ box\\ whose\\ ends\\ are\\ the\\ lower\\ and\\ upper\\ quartiles\\,\\ Q1\\ and\\ Q3\\;\\ the\\ length\\ of\\ this\\ box\\ will\\ be\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ interquartile\\ range\\ \\(IQR\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Mark\\ the\\ mediam\\ \\(Q2\\)\\ by\\ a\\ line\\ within\\ the\\ box\\.\\ \\;\\ Any\\ observations\\ greater\\ than\\ Q3\\+1\\.5\\*IQR\\ \\<\\/tt\\>and\\ less\\ than\\ Q1\\+1\\.5\\*IQR\\ \\;are\\ outliers\\,\\ and\\ are\\ drawn\\ separately\\ from\\ the\\ boxplot\\ in\\ the\\ location\\ corresponding\\ to\\ the\\ correct\\ value\\ on\\ the\\ axis\\.\\ \\;\\ Draw\\ lines\\ from\\ the\\ quartiles\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ extreme\\ values\\ that\\ aren\\'t\\ marked\\ as\\ outliers\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\To\\ draw\\ a\\ boxplot\\ in\\ Stata\\,\\ the\\ command\\ is\\ \\[graph\\ box\\ \\(variable\\ name\\)\\,\\ aspectratio\\ \\(4\\)\\]\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Bar\\ Graphs\\ and\\ Histograms\\:\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Bar\\ graphs\\ are\\ used\\ for\\ categorical\\ data\\ while\\ histograms\\ are\\ used\\ for\\ quantitative\\ data\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Bar\\ graphs\\ display\\ the\\ count\\ or\\ percentage\\ of\\ individuals\\ in\\ each\\ category\\ of\\ the\\ categorical\\ data\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Histograms\\ display\\ the\\ count\\ or\\ percentage\\ of\\ individuals\\ within\\ intervals\\ of\\ equal\\ width\\ \\(bins\\ \\-\\ sets\\ of\\ observations\\ grouped\\ along\\ the\\ x\\-axis\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ number\\ of\\ intervals\\ and\\ the\\ interval\\ width\\ are\\ important\\ as\\ they\\ affect\\ how\\ the\\ data\\ is\\ presented\\.\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Boxplots\\ emphasize\\ the\\ center\\ and\\ spread\\ of\\ a\\ distribution\\.\\ \\;\\ Histograms\\ emphasize\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ values\\;\\ values\\ with\\ high\\ rates\\ of\\ occurance\\ are\\ easier\\ to\\ identify\\,\\ but\\ center\\ and\\ spread\\ are\\ not\\ quite\\ as\\ clear\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\To\\ draw\\ a\\ histogram\\ in\\ Stata\\,\\ the\\ command\\ is\\ \\[histogram\\ \\(variable\\)\\,\\ bin\\(20\\)\\ freq\\]\\.\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Shape\\ of\\ distribution\\ with\\ histograms\\ and\\ boxplots\\:\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Left\\ skewed\\ \\-\\ the\\ histogram\\'s\\ tail\\ trails\\ to\\ the\\ left\\;\\ the\\ boxplot\\'s\\ box\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ axis\\ with\\ larger\\ values\\.\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Right\\ skewed\\ \\-\\ the\\ histogram\\'s\\ tail\\ trails\\ to\\ the\\ right\\;\\ the\\ boxplot\\'s\\ box\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ axis\\ with\\ smaller\\ values\\.\\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Symmetric\\ \\-\\ the\\ histogram\\ and\\ the\\ boxplot\\ are\\ roughly\\ symmetric\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Density\\ Curves\\ make\\ it\\ easier\\ to\\ conceputalize\\ a\\ population\\ of\\ values\\ because\\ it\\ uses\\ a\\ smooth\\ curve\\ instead\\ of\\ discrete\\ bins\\ as\\ a\\ histogram\\ does\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ curve\\ is\\ a\\ matematical\\ model\\ for\\ the\\ distribution\\.\\ \\;\\ All\\ of\\ the\\ values\\ of\\ the\\ density\\ curve\\ are\\ positive\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ total\\ area\\ under\\ the\\ density\\ curve\\ is\\ 1\\,\\ and\\ the\\ area\\ under\\ the\\ curve\\ of\\ two\\ x\\ calues\\ gives\\ the\\ relative\\ frequency\\ of\\ values\\ in\\ the\\ population\\ between\\ those\\ x\\ values\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ shapes\\ of\\ density\\ curves\\ follow\\ those\\ of\\ histograms\\.\\ \\;\\ \\If\\ a\\ density\\ curve\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ describe\\ a\\ distribution\\,\\ quartiles\\,\\ measures\\ of\\ center\\,\\ etc\\.\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ using\\ calculus\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Normal\\ distributions\\ are\\ symmetric\\,\\ unimodal\\ \\(there\\ is\\ one\\ maximum\\)\\ and\\ bell\\-shaped\\ \\-\\ they\\ are\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ fit\\ for\\ many\\ data\\ distributions\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/big\\>\\<\\/samp\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 109, "file_path": "", "desc": "Box Plots, Bar Graphs and Histograms, Density Curves"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.453099+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Confidence Intervals, Confidence Intervals for a proportion, p, Margin of Error and Sample Size", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 756, "html": "\\Confidence\\ Intervals\\ \\-\\ the\\ general\\ concept\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ statement\\ of\\ reliability\\ regarding\\ values\\ of\\ population\\ parameters\\ that\\ are\\ estimated\\ from\\ observed\\ sample\\ data\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ general\\ form\\ is\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Point\\ estimate\\ \\(plus\\ or\\ minus\\)\\ margin\\ of\\ error\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\More\\ specifically\\,\\ this\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\:\\ point\\ estimate\\ \\(plus\\ or\\ minus\\)\\ \\;\\(z\\-quartile\\)\\*\\(SD\\ \\;of\\ estimate\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ answer\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ follows\\:\\ \\;\\(Lower\\ confidence\\ limit\\,\\ Upper\\ confidence\\ limit\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Confidence\\ intervals\\ for\\ estimating\\ a\\ population\\ proportion\\ \\(\\p\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\ \\;are\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ sampling\\ distribution\\ of\\ a\\ statistic\\ \\(sample\\ proportion\\,\\ p\\-carot\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ larger\\ the\\ sample\\ size\\ \\n\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ tighter\\ the\\ CI\\,\\ and\\ the\\ more\\ accurate\\ our\\ statement\\ regarding\\ \\p\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\To\\ reduce\\ the\\ margin\\ of\\ error\\,\\ increase\\ the\\ sample\\ size\\,\\ use\\ a\\ lower\\ level\\ of\\ confidence\\ or\\ reduce\\ the\\ SD\\ \\;of\\ the\\ estimate\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Confidence\\ interval\\ methodology\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ sample\\ size\\ needed\\ for\\ a\\ particular\\ confidence\\ interval\\.\\ \\;\\ Steps\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ Identify\\ the\\ desired\\ precision\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ \\;\\ Set\\ the\\ \\'margin\\ of\\ error\\'\\ equal\\ to\\ that\\ precision\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ \\;\\ Solve\\ for\\ \\n\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(always\\ round\\ up\\ to\\ an\\ integer\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Example\\:\\ \\;\\ if\\ we\\ want\\ a\\ 10\\%\\ \\;margin\\ of\\ error\\ with\\ 95\\%\\ confidence\\,\\ and\\ are\\ using\\ a\\ binary\\ population\\,\\ we\\ set\\ the\\ equation\\ as\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\.10\\ \\=\\ 1\\.96\\*\\ \\;sq\\.rt\\.\\ \\(\\p\\<\\/em\\>\\(1\\-\\p\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\)\\/\\n\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\For\\ a\\ conservative\\ estimate\\,\\ set\\ \\p\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\=\\.5\\,\\ thereby\\ maximizing\\ the\\ the\\ numerator\\ in\\ the\\ square\\ root\\.\\ \\;\\ Solve\\ for\\ n\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 109, "file_path": "", "desc": "Confidence Intervals, Confidence Intervals for a proportion, p, Margin of Error and Sample Size"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.463066+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chapter 5 - Air Pollution Control - Draft", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 757, "html": "\\Chapter\\ 5\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Air\\ Pollution\\ Control\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\NEWS\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ EPA\\ proposed\\ national\\ system\\ to\\ monitor\\ GHG\\ emissions\\ \\(laying\\ foundation\\ to\\ control\\ GHG\\ initiative\\)\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Supreme\\ has\\ already\\ decided\\ under\\ EPA\\ vs\\.\\ MA\\ that\\ EPA\\ has\\ authority\\ to\\ regulate\\ GHG\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ giving\\ Congress\\ option\\ to\\ decide\\ program\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\History\\ of\\ CAA\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Automakers\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ meet\\ 51\\ emission\\ standards\\ so\\ states\\ were\\ preempted\\ to\\ regulated\\ cars\\ except\\ for\\ CA\\ \\(b\\/c\\ more\\ stringent\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Problems\\ with\\ initial\\ implementation\\ of\\ CAA\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>EPA\\ is\\ slow\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>CAA\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ what\\ happens\\ if\\ non\\-attainment\\ \\(standards\\ not\\ met\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ big\\ sky\\ country\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ anything\\ to\\ meet\\ standards\\.\\ OCncern\\ that\\ industry\\ would\\ just\\ try\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;spread\\&rdquo\\;\\ pollution\\ around\\ by\\ building\\ in\\ clean\\ areas\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>EPA\\ has\\ to\\ set\\ up\\ regulations\\ for\\ attainment\\ areas\\ \\(to\\ make\\ sure\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ more\\ polluted\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Because\\ act\\ focused\\ on\\ individual\\ control\\ sources\\,\\ monitors\\ in\\ immediate\\ area\\ would\\ detect\\ less\\ pollution\\ in\\ that\\ jurisdiction\\ if\\ taller\\ stacks\\ built\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ increased\\ interboundary\\ problems\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>EPA\\ responded\\ by\\ requiring\\ more\\ stringent\\ controls\\ in\\ non\\-attainment\\ area\\ to\\ incentivize\\ to\\ achieve\\ attainment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Off\\-sets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1977\\ amends\\ CAA\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\ classes\\ of\\ regions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>pristine\\ air\\ quality\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>good\\ air\\ quality\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>industrial\\-grade\\ air\\ quality\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>look\\ at\\ existing\\ air\\ quality\\ and\\ when\\ a\\ source\\ wants\\ to\\ pollute\\,\\ requires\\ permit\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Congress\\ extends\\ attainment\\ deadlines\\ for\\ states\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ban\\ use\\ of\\ taller\\ stacks\\ and\\ requires\\ use\\ of\\ pollution\\ control\\ tech\\ for\\ new\\ soruces\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Problems\\ with\\ CAA\\ after\\ 1977\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>CAA\\ grandfathered\\ in\\ most\\ existing\\ sources\\ \\(with\\ no\\ pollution\\ controls\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hope\\ was\\ old\\ plants\\ would\\ retire\\ but\\ industry\\ tried\\ to\\ keep\\ old\\ plants\\ in\\ operation\\ to\\ avoid\\ building\\ new\\ plants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Industry\\ replaced\\ plants\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;repairing\\&rdquo\\;\\ parts\\ of\\ plant\\ and\\ this\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fall\\ under\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ source\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Consumers\\ would\\ remount\\ fuel\\ tank\\ for\\ leaded\\ gas\\ \\(cheaper\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ poisoning\\ catalyst\\ in\\ cars\\ leading\\ to\\ increased\\ pollution\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Political\\ Changes\\ make\\ 1990\\ CAA\\ amendments\\ possible\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>President\\ Bush\\ promised\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ about\\ acid\\ rain\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bipartisan\\ cooperative\\ efforts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>EDF\\ suggested\\ using\\ emissions\\ trading\\ system\\ to\\ allow\\ companies\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ as\\ cheaply\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Industry\\ not\\ involved\\ in\\ talks\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ v\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Auto\\ industry\\ suggested\\ to\\ Congress\\ less\\ stringent\\ standards\\ and\\ give\\ states\\ option\\ to\\ adopt\\ CA\\ standards\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>13\\ NE\\ states\\ agreed\\ to\\ adopt\\ CA\\ standards\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>stunned\\ auto\\ industry\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Provisions\\ of\\ 1990\\ amendments\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Title\\ IV\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reduce\\ emissions\\ of\\ SO2\\ emissions\\ that\\ cause\\ acid\\ rain\\ \\(implement\\ through\\ emissions\\ trading\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;retiring\\ emissions\\ allowance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ env\\ groups\\ purchase\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>New\\ National\\ permit\\ program\\ \\(Title\\ V\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>State\\ permitting\\ system\\ before\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hard\\ to\\ file\\ citizen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ suits\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Congress\\ tried\\ to\\ sell\\ to\\ industry\\ that\\ this\\ program\\ would\\ make\\ compliance\\ easier\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ look\\ at\\ one\\ place\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Industry\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ enforceable\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ nuances\\ in\\ attainment\\ \\(not\\ binary\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>LA\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ way\\ over\\ standards\\ for\\ ozone\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1990\\ amendments\\ created\\ 5\\ categories\\ of\\ how\\ far\\ out\\ of\\ attainment\\ the\\ area\\ is\\ and\\ required\\ more\\ stringent\\ requirements\\ for\\ new\\ sources\\ \\(offset\\ 1\\.5\\ or\\ 2\\ times\\ the\\ pollution\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Requires\\ demonstrations\\ of\\ progress\\ towards\\ attainment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mandated\\ both\\ cleaner\\ vehicles\\ and\\ cleaner\\ fuels\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ v\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Beefed\\ up\\ HAP\\ program\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;provide\\ ample\\ margin\\ of\\ safety\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>EPA\\ worried\\ b\\/c\\ thought\\ it\\ meant\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ one\\ dies\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ HAP\\ \\=\\ shut\\ down\\ whole\\ industry\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ regulated\\ 6\\ substances\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Congress\\ changed\\ act\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Over\\ 100\\ HAP\\ that\\ EPA\\ was\\ mandated\\ to\\ regulation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Shifted\\ to\\ technology\\ approach\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>MACT\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ control\\ these\\ pollutants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Emissions\\ standards\\ at\\ national\\ level\\ for\\ HAPs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ after\\ MACT\\,\\ it\\ determined\\ most\\ exposed\\ individual\\ suffers\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ in\\ a\\ million\\,\\ EPA\\ must\\ adopt\\ more\\ stringent\\ measures\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ vi\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Structure\\ of\\ CAA\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Table\\ 475\\ in\\ casebook\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Adopted\\ citizen\\ suit\\ provision\\ \\(Section\\ 304\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Citizens\\ can\\ sue\\ EPA\\ or\\ polluter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Section\\ 307\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Judicial\\ review\\ provision\\ of\\ agency\\ actions\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ requires\\ review\\ in\\ DC\\ circuit\\ \\(not\\ in\\ area\\ were\\ permit\\ is\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\New\\ source\\ review\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Industry\\ tried\\ to\\ evade\\ new\\ source\\ review\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ done\\ whenever\\ modifications\\ made\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\NY\\ vs\\.\\ EPA\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ empted\\ projects\\ costing\\ less\\ than\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ replacement\\ value\\ of\\ powerplant\\ \\(rejected\\ by\\ Court\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\EDF\\ vs\\.\\ Duke\\ Energy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ favored\\ EDF\\ arguing\\ that\\ if\\ modification\\ allows\\ plant\\ to\\ run\\ many\\ more\\ hours\\/year\\,\\ it\\ met\\ standards\\ for\\ review\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Mobile\\ Source\\ Controls\\ in\\ 1970\\ CAA\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Congress\\ mandated\\ 90\\%\\ reduction\\ in\\ emissions\\ from\\ mobile\\ source\\ in\\ 5\\ years\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Court\\ orers\\ EPA\\ to\\ grant\\ extension\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ met\\ standards\\ in\\ 10\\ years\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Successful\\ example\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;technology\\ forcing\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\NAAQS\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Primary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ public\\ health\\ protection\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Secondary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ public\\ welfare\\ \\(economic\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Time\\ averaged\\ standards\\ \\(one\\ hour\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prevent\\ short\\ term\\ spikes\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Standards\\ based\\ on\\ particle\\ size\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\EPA\\ must\\ review\\ standards\\ every\\ 5\\ years\\ and\\ states\\ will\\ then\\ have\\ to\\ update\\ SIPs\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Lead\\ Industries\\ vs\\.\\ EPA\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Lead\\ industry\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ regulate\\ lead\\ b\\/c\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ harmful\\ at\\ the\\ level\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ dealing\\ with\\ \\(can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ shown\\ clearly\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Many\\ source\\ of\\ lead\\ exposure\\ \\(paint\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Uniform\\ standards\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Economists\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ like\\ national\\ standards\\ that\\ are\\ uniform\\ \\=\\ suggest\\ regional\\ CBA\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Ensuring\\ citizens\\ that\\ wherever\\ you\\ go\\,\\ your\\ health\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ impaired\\ \\=\\ makes\\ sense\\ to\\ have\\ uniform\\ standard\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Krier\\ argues\\ that\\ b\\/c\\ states\\ have\\ opportunity\\ to\\ have\\ stricter\\ standards\\,\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ sense\\ for\\ national\\ standards\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Non\\-delegation\\ in\\ the\\ Benzene\\ Case\\ \\(too\\ vague\\)\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\DC\\ circuit\\ \\(2\\-1\\ vote\\)\\ holds\\ that\\ CAA\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ violates\\ the\\ non\\-delegation\\ doctrine\\ but\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ mean\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ used\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ that\\ EPA\\ has\\ to\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ an\\ intelligenable\\ principle\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\485\\-486\\ panel\\ decision\\:\\ need\\ more\\ determinant\\ principle\\ \\(not\\ specific\\ enough\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Industry\\ says\\ to\\ do\\ CBA\\ to\\ solve\\ non\\-delegation\\ problem\\ but\\ CAA\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ cost\\ consideration\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\States\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ consider\\ costs\\ when\\ developing\\ SIP\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ makes\\ sense\\ to\\ have\\ health\\ based\\ goal\\ through\\ cost\\-effective\\ way\\ to\\ do\\ so\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Supreme\\ Court\\ upholds\\ no\\ cost\\ considerations\\ when\\ setting\\ NAAQS\\,\\ rejects\\ challenges\\ to\\ CAA\\ \\(non\\-delegation\\ argument\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Industry\\ argues\\ definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ health\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ justice\\ ok\\ with\\ \\risk\\-risk\\ analysis\\<\\/b\\>\\ when\\ CBA\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ considered\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>In\\ addition\\ to\\ direct\\ costs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ look\\ at\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ or\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ level\\ costs\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ access\\ to\\ healthcare\\ if\\ money\\ spent\\ on\\ reducing\\ air\\ pollution\\ but\\ what\\ about\\ indirect\\ benefits\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Is\\ it\\ realistic\\ EPA\\ can\\ no\\ consideration\\ to\\ cost\\?\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\(p490\\ Scalia\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\always\\ will\\ be\\ leakage\\ into\\ decision\\ making\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\not\\ unaware\\ of\\ costs\\ but\\ not\\ formally\\ aware\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Does\\ the\\ CAA\\ give\\ EPA\\ authority\\ to\\ regulate\\ CO2\\?\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\EPA\\ responds\\ to\\ citizen\\ suit\\ which\\ then\\ becomes\\ judicial\\ reviewable\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Mass\\ vs\\.\\ EPA\\ issues\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Are\\ GHG\\ air\\ pollutants\\ under\\ CAA\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\CA\\ regulates\\ GHG\\ emissions\\ from\\ motor\\ vehicles\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Can\\ EPA\\ promulgate\\ emission\\ control\\ regulations\\ that\\ have\\ an\\ effect\\ on\\ fuel\\ economy\\?\\ Supreme\\ court\\ says\\ YES\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\CA\\ Adopts\\ statewide\\ gobal\\ warming\\ solutions\\ act\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Energ\\ Indep\\.\\ And\\ Security\\ Act\\ of\\ 2007\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Increase\\ fuel\\ standards\\ in\\ US\\ \\(Bush\\ signs\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\EPA\\ denies\\ CA\\ CAA\\ waiver\\ to\\ regulate\\ fuel\\ standards\\ \\(b\\/c\\ it\\ deals\\ with\\ global\\ problems\\ not\\ state\\ or\\ regional\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Obama\\ wants\\ EPA\\ to\\ reconsider\\ waiver\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": "Chapter 5 - Air Pollution Control - Draft"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.489156+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Chapter 6 \u2013 Water Pollution and Clean Water Act - March 18th Lecture Notes", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 758, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Water\\ Pollution\\ and\\ Clean\\ Water\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\WEDS\\.\\ MARCH\\ 18\\:\\ \\;Introduction\\ to\\ the\\ Clean\\ Water\\ Act\\ and\\ the\\ Scope\\ of\\ Federal\\ Authority\\ to\\ Regulate\\ Water\\ Pollution\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ is\\ harder\\ to\\ control\\?\\ Water\\ or\\ air\\ pollution\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Isolation\\:\\ harder\\ to\\ control\\ air\\ \\(no\\ clear\\ boundaries\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Background\\ sources\\ of\\ contamination\\:\\ more\\ variation\\ in\\ water\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ different\\ environments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Harder\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ healthy\\ body\\ of\\ water\\ b\\/c\\ characteristics\\ vary\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;History\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Common\\ law\\ and\\ interstate\\ nuisance\\ in\\ early\\ 1900s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Rivers\\ and\\ Harbors\\ Act\\ in\\ 1899\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\1972\\ CWA\\ adopted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Rep\\.\\ Henry\\ Reuss\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Publicize\\ that\\ ppl\\ could\\ recover\\ bounty\\ against\\ polluters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Promulgated\\ fed\\ permit\\ program\\ to\\ insulate\\ against\\ citizen\\ suits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Supreme\\ Court\\ held\\ that\\ fed\\ govt\\ could\\ use\\ Refuse\\ act\\ to\\ regulation\\ polluters\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ not\\ physical\\ block\\ on\\ navigation\\ but\\ could\\ stop\\ navigation\\ in\\ other\\ ways\\ \\(oil\\ on\\ water\\ could\\ be\\ on\\ fire\\ and\\ block\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\US\\ vs\\.\\ Republic\\ Steel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\US\\ vs\\.\\ Standard\\ Oil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Clean\\ Water\\ Act\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\goal\\ 1\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;eliminate\\ discharge\\ into\\ nation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ waters\\ in\\ 13\\ years\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\goal\\ 3\\:\\ discharge\\ of\\ toxics\\ pollutants\\ in\\ toxic\\ amounts\\ be\\ prohibited\\ \\(implies\\ small\\ amounts\\ are\\ ok\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ suggest\\ they\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ serious\\ about\\ 1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;fishable\\ and\\ swimmable\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Section\\ 301\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\No\\ discharge\\ to\\ navigable\\ waters\\ unless\\ meets\\ other\\ provisions\\ of\\ act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Section\\ 402\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ NPDES\\ permit\\,\\ to\\ get\\ permit\\,\\ comply\\ with\\ technology\\ based\\ effluent\\ limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\f\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Section\\ 404\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ permit\\ for\\ discharge\\ of\\ dredged\\ or\\ fill\\ material\\ into\\ navigable\\ waters\\ \\(Corp\\ of\\ Engineers\\)\\;\\ primary\\ way\\ to\\ prevent\\ wetlands\\ from\\ being\\ destroyed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;TMDL\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ total\\ max\\ daily\\ loadings\\,\\ calc\\ total\\ max\\ load\\ of\\ daily\\ discharge\\ and\\ still\\ meet\\ standards\\,\\ and\\ then\\ adjust\\ permits\\ downwards\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ meet\\ standards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\5\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Setting\\ water\\ quality\\ standards\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ step\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Designate\\ what\\ water\\ will\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Based\\ on\\ water\\ quality\\ criteria\\ from\\ EPA\\,\\ states\\ have\\ to\\ adopt\\ own\\ water\\ quality\\ standards\\,\\ subject\\ to\\ EPA\\ review\\ and\\ approval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\6\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Early\\ issues\\ as\\ CWA\\ was\\ being\\ implemented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\EPA\\ should\\ set\\ effluent\\ limitations\\ by\\ facility\\?\\ Industry\\ hope\\ to\\ paralyze\\ EPA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Leave\\ to\\ professional\\ judgment\\ to\\ permit\\ writer\\ to\\ control\\ effluent\\ in\\ interim\\ \\(EPA\\ wont\\ in\\ DuPont\\ vs\\.\\ Train\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\7\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Problems\\ with\\ CWA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Economists\\ criticize\\ inefficiency\\ of\\ uniform\\ tech\\-based\\ effluent\\ limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;prescription\\ for\\ regulatory\\ paralysis\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\no\\ direct\\ fed\\ controls\\ on\\ nonpoint\\ source\\ pollution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\8\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;What\\ is\\ a\\ point\\ source\\?\\ Important\\ b\\/c\\ needs\\ permit\\ under\\ CWA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;any\\ discernible\\ confined\\ and\\ discrete\\ conveyance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\NRDC\\ vs\\.\\ Costle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\EPA\\ wanted\\ to\\ exempt\\ small\\/very\\ numerous\\ point\\ sources\\ from\\ 402\\ permit\\ requirements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\NRDC\\ sued\\ and\\ court\\ ruled\\ against\\ EPA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Storm\\ sewers\\ kept\\ in\\ the\\ CWA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\US\\ vs\\.\\ Plaza\\ Health\\ Lab\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Dispose\\ vials\\ of\\ blood\\ into\\ water\\;\\ appear\\ on\\ beach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;humans\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ point\\ source\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Dams\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ point\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\9\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Definition\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Discharge\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\any\\ addition\\ of\\ pollutant\\ to\\ navigable\\ waters\\ from\\ any\\ point\\ source\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;incidental\\ fallback\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ industry\\ has\\ to\\ prove\\ ONLY\\ incidental\\ fallback\\ from\\ dredging\\ operations\\ \\(falls\\ into\\ channel\\ that\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ drain\\ wetland\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\10\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Water\\ Quality\\ Based\\ Controls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\AK\\ vs\\.\\ OK\\ \\(1992\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\EPA\\ may\\ consider\\ impacts\\ on\\ downstream\\ state\\ water\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\EPA\\ could\\ say\\ that\\ unless\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ discernible\\ change\\ in\\ water\\ quality\\,\\ you\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ automatically\\ say\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ new\\ sources\\&rdquo\\;\\ upstream\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Really\\ up\\ to\\ EPA\\ for\\ interstate\\ water\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Force\\ state\\ to\\ adopt\\ TMDL\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ determine\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ load\\ reduction\\ that\\ much\\ be\\ achieved\\ that\\ is\\ contributing\\ to\\ violation\\,\\ state\\ has\\ to\\ translate\\ into\\ tighter\\ permit\\ limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\11\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Entergy\\ vs\\.\\ Riverkeeper\\ \\(2007\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Can\\ EPA\\ balance\\ costs\\ against\\ benefits\\ in\\ determining\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;best\\ tech\\ available\\ for\\ minimum\\ adverse\\ environmental\\ impact\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ existing\\ cooling\\ water\\ intake\\ structures\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\12\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Coeur\\ Alaska\\ vs\\.\\ SE\\ Alaska\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Canadian\\ company\\ build\\ gold\\ mine\\ in\\ Alaska\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Dump\\ waste\\ in\\ lake\\ as\\ fill\\ water\\ in\\ effort\\ to\\ fill\\ lake\\ for\\ another\\ project\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Argued\\ too\\ expensive\\ to\\ dump\\ properly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Scope\\ of\\ Federal\\ Authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\13\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Both\\ 402\\ and\\ 404\\ apply\\ to\\ discharges\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;navigable\\ waters\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ waters\\ of\\ US\\ including\\ the\\ territorial\\ seas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\14\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;How\\ far\\ does\\ federal\\ jurisdiction\\ extend\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\15\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Riverside\\ Bayview\\ vs\\.\\ US\\ \\(1985\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\property\\ adjacent\\ to\\ navigable\\ body\\ of\\ water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Can\\ Corp\\ of\\ Engineers\\ require\\ 404\\ permit\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ supreme\\ court\\ decision\\ on\\ regulation\\ of\\ wetlands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Why\\ does\\ White\\ say\\ why\\ this\\ covered\\ by\\ CWA\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Adjacent\\ wetlands\\ play\\ a\\ key\\ role\\ in\\ navigable\\ waters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Where\\ does\\ water\\ end\\ and\\ land\\ begin\\?\\ Wetlands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\CWA\\ should\\ be\\ broadly\\ construed\\ b\\/c\\ broad\\ purposed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Page\\ 602\\,\\ navigable\\ as\\ the\\ waters\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ defined\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Congress\\ wanted\\ to\\ repudiate\\ limits\\ placed\\ on\\ EPA\\ by\\ previous\\ water\\ laws\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\,\\ Rivers\\ and\\ Harbors\\ Act\\ which\\ is\\ limited\\ to\\ waters\\ that\\ are\\ truly\\ navigable\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ v\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ circumstances\\ like\\ this\\,\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defer\\ to\\ EPA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ vi\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Functionalist\\ approach\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ goal\\ is\\ to\\ protect\\ integrity\\ of\\ waters\\,\\ only\\ able\\ to\\ achieve\\ if\\ regulate\\ adjacent\\ waters\\ as\\ well\\;\\ not\\ unreasonable\\ to\\ regulate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\16\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Solid\\ Waste\\ Agency\\ vs\\.\\ US\\ Corps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Isolated\\ wetlands\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ constitutionally\\ be\\ regulated\\ by\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Would\\ intrude\\ on\\ state\\ land\\ use\\ regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Corp\\ discovered\\ it\\ was\\ habitat\\ for\\ migratory\\ birds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\CWA\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ extend\\ to\\ ponds\\ \\(\\?\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ section\\ 404\\ permit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\17\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Post\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ SWANCC\\ Litigation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\18\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;John\\ Rapanos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\wants\\ to\\ build\\ homes\\ and\\ hires\\ consultant\\ \\=\\ needs\\ 404\\;\\ fired\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ finds\\ out\\ he\\ is\\ development\\;\\ sends\\ cease\\ and\\ desist\\ order\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\c\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Conviction\\ affirmed\\ by\\ 6\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ circuit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\d\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Judge\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ jail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\e\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Are\\ wetlands\\ adjacent\\ to\\ nonnavigable\\ tributaries\\ of\\ navigable\\ waqters\\ subject\\ to\\ fed\\ regulation\\ under\\ CWA\\?\\ YES\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ b\\/c\\ significant\\ impact\\ if\\ wetlands\\ are\\ filled\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\f\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\What\\ is\\ the\\ holding\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ i\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Government\\ loses\\ for\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ ii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Kennedy\\ concurs\\ in\\ judgment\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ agree\\ with\\ plurality\\ \\(Rapanos\\ should\\ win\\ for\\ now\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Proposes\\ significant\\ nexus\\ test\\ on\\ development\\ of\\ wetlands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Thinks\\ govt\\ will\\ win\\ on\\ remand\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ hard\\ to\\ meet\\ significant\\ nexus\\ test\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iii\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Scalia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ adopts\\ \\&ldquo\\;navigable\\ and\\ facts\\ standard\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ wipe\\ out\\ 404\\ standard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Adjacent\\ channel\\ contains\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;water\\ of\\ the\\ US\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ wetland\\ has\\ a\\ continuous\\ surface\\ connection\\ with\\ that\\ water\\,\\ making\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ determine\\ where\\ water\\ ends\\ and\\ wetland\\ begins\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ waters\\ connected\\ to\\ navigable\\ waters\\ can\\ be\\ regulated\\ under\\ CWA\\ and\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ relatively\\ permanent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ iv\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Roberts\\ \\(616\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ suggested\\ problem\\ could\\ be\\ avoided\\ if\\ court\\ recommended\\ new\\ regulations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\19\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Carabell\\ site\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Spoil\\ berm\\ isolated\\ wetlands\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\20\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Discussion\\:\\ Whose\\ approach\\ represents\\ the\\ current\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ land\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\a\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Count\\ the\\ votes\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\b\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Anything\\ that\\ satisfies\\ plurality\\ and\\ Kennedy\\ or\\ Steven\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ falls\\ under\\ 404\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\21\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Post\\ Rapanos\\ decisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\22\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Take\\ \\&ldquo\\;navigable\\&rdquo\\;\\ out\\ of\\ CWA\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": "Chapter 6 \u2013 Water Pollution and Clean Water Act - March 18th Lecture Notes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.525414+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Industrial Food Part One", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 759, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ introduced\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ industrial\\ food\\ and\\ its\\ main\\ figures\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Isabella\\ Bird\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ a\\ British\\ traveler\\,\\ explorer\\,\\ and\\ writer\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ observed\\ the\\ world\\ through\\ her\\ Victorian\\ sensibilities\\.\\ She\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;Unbeaten\\ tracks\\ in\\ Japan\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 1878\\,\\ and\\ recorded\\ her\\ disgust\\ with\\ Japanese\\ food\\.\\ She\\ could\\ not\\ even\\ believe\\ it\\ was\\ food\\ and\\ advised\\ carrying\\ Liebig\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Extract\\ of\\ Meat\\ on\\ travels\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Liebig\\'s\\ Extract\\ of\\ Meat\\<\\/strong\\>\\ was\\ a\\ product\\ created\\ by\\ Justus\\ von\\ Liebig\\,\\ a\\ German\\ organic\\ chemist\\ who\\ developed\\ a\\ technique\\ in\\ the\\ 1840s\\ for\\ creating\\ extracts\\ of\\ meat\\ without\\ destroying\\ nutritional\\ content\\.\\ He\\ conceived\\ of\\ the\\ product\\ as\\ a\\ concentrated\\ meat\\ substitute\\ for\\ the\\ poor\\,\\ but\\ the\\ process\\ was\\ uneconomical\\,\\ and\\ was\\ first\\ adopted\\ as\\ a\\ pharmaceutical\\ tonic\\.\\ Liebig\\ later\\ teamed\\ up\\ with\\ British\\ businessmen\\ to\\ take\\ advantage\\ of\\ cheap\\ Argentinean\\ cattle\\,\\ and\\ soon\\ became\\ an\\ international\\ brand\\ of\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ with\\ worldwide\\ distribution\\ \\(now\\ called\\ OXO\\)\\.\\ Liebig\\ sold\\ beef\\ extract\\,\\ canned\\ meat\\ products\\,\\ and\\ bouillon\\ cubes\\ and\\ serves\\ as\\ an\\ early\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ transnational\\ corporation\\.\\ One\\ of\\ Liebig\\'s\\ first\\ major\\ clients\\ was\\ the\\ British\\ navy\\.\\ Unsurprisingly\\,\\ Liebig\\ was\\ an\\ advocate\\ for\\ protein\\ as\\ the\\ paramount\\ source\\ of\\ nutrition\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Sylvester\\ Graham\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>unlike\\ Liebig\\,\\ believed\\ that\\ diet\\ could\\ curb\\ carnal\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ created\\ the\\ Graham\\ Diet\\ to\\ promote\\ health\\.\\ Graham\\ believed\\ that\\ bland\\ foods\\,\\ like\\ Graham\\ crackers\\,\\ would\\ reduce\\ carnal\\ appetites\\.\\ \\John\\ Harvey\\ Kellogg\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/strong\\>a\\ Seventh\\ Day\\ Adventist\\ in\\ Michigan\\,\\ developed\\ corn\\ flakes\\ as\\ a\\ device\\ for\\ encouraging\\ vegetarianism\\ and\\ health\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ his\\ memoirs\\,\\ \\Mahatma\\ Gandhi\\ \\<\\/strong\\>wrote\\ of\\ trying\\ beef\\ in\\ his\\ youth\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ British\\.\\ He\\ \\;\\ advocated\\ ahimsa\\,\\ a\\ policy\\ of\\ non\\-violence\\ against\\ humans\\ and\\ animals\\,\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ deep\\ respect\\ and\\ reverence\\ for\\ cattle\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nEmperor\\ Meiji\\,\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ Japan\\ when\\ the\\ country\\ was\\ opening\\ to\\ the\\ West\\,\\ first\\ ate\\ beef\\ in\\ public\\ in\\ 1872\\.\\ Emperors\\ did\\ not\\ traditionally\\ eat\\ in\\ public\\,\\ and\\ after\\ this\\ event\\,\\ the\\ Japanese\\ government\\ repealed\\ laws\\ against\\ the\\ killing\\ of\\ animals\\ which\\ were\\ never\\ really\\ enforced\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\,\\ but\\ originally\\ reflected\\ Buddhist\\ prohibitions\\ against\\ the\\ taking\\ of\\ life\\.\\ Japan\\ saw\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ Western\\ food\\ booms\\ during\\ the\\ \\Meiji\\ Period\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ including\\ the\\ adoption\\ of\\ \\Gyunabe\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ beef\\ hot\\ pot\\.\\ The\\ dish\\ soon\\ \\ became\\ a\\ fashionable\\ symbol\\ of\\ globalization\\ and\\ enlightenment\\,\\ and\\ beef\\ imports\\ from\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ increased\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nAfter\\ long\\ standing\\ trade\\ issues\\ between\\ U\\.S\\ and\\ Japan\\ over\\ beef\\ subsided\\,\\ U\\.S\\ beef\\ finally\\ made\\ major\\ place\\ for\\ itself\\ in\\ Japanese\\ market\\,\\ especially\\ through\\ the\\ fast\\ food\\ industry\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/strong\\>opened\\ in\\ Tokyo\\ in\\ 1971\\ on\\ the\\ Ginza\\.\\ It\\ now\\ has\\ 3598\\ stores\\ in\\ Japan\\ with\\ annual\\ sales\\ of\\ approximately\\ \\$40\\ billion\\.\\ Fujita\\ Den\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ Japan\\,\\ has\\ been\\ quoted\\ as\\ saying\\ that\\ dietary\\ determinism\\ would\\ follow\\ McDonald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ in\\ Japan\\.\\ He\\ proclaimed\\ that\\ eating\\ beef\\ and\\ potatoes\\ would\\ make\\ them\\ look\\ more\\ \\"\\;European\\"\\;\\.\\ \\Mad\\ cow\\ disease\\<\\/strong\\>\\ had\\ a\\ huge\\ impact\\ on\\ Japanese\\ beef\\ imports\\ in\\ 2004\\,\\ and\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ trade\\ embargo\\ on\\ American\\ beef\\ until\\ September\\ 2006\\.\\ Effectively\\,\\ the\\ appetite\\ for\\ beef\\ has\\ become\\ essential\\ for\\ many\\ Japanese\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Professor\\ Bestor\\ also\\ introduced\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\"\\;\\power\\ cuisines\\<\\/strong\\>\\"\\;\\.\\ These\\ cuisines\\ for\\ the\\ powerful\\ are\\ heavy\\ in\\ foodstuffs\\ reserved\\ for\\ the\\ powerful\\,\\ above\\ all\\ meats\\ and\\ elite\\ grains\\.\\ They\\ are\\ eaten\\ by\\ only\\ a\\ small\\ fraction\\ of\\ the\\ population\\,\\ while\\\\\r\\\neveryone\\ else\\,\\ the\\ common\\ people\\,\\ ate\\ diets\\ that\\ were\\ largely\\ carbohydrate\\,\\ lesser\\ grains\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\ Rachel\\ Lauden\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ a\\ contemporary\\ food\\ historian\\ argues\\ that\\ European\\ cuisine\\ bifurcated\\ around\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ Protestant\\ Reformation\\,\\ and\\ Northern\\ European\\ cuisine\\ developed\\ around\\ beef\\,\\ dairy\\,\\ wheat\\,\\ not\\ around\\ Mediterranean\\ humoral\\ systems\\.\\ As\\ the\\ North\\ European\\ nations\\ became\\ dominant\\ in\\ world\\ systems\\,\\ their\\ cuisine\\ spread\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBy\\ the\\ mid\\-19th\\ century\\,\\ the\\ world\\ saw\\ the\\ discoveries\\ of\\ two\\ basic\\ nutritional\\ concepts\\:\\ \\p\\<\\/strong\\>\\rotein\\ and\\ carbohydrates\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>Beef\\ and\\ wheat\\ were\\ argued\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ most\\ beneficial\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ food\\ groups\\;\\ nutrition\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ culprit\\ behind\\ the\\ reification\\ of\\ the\\ power\\ cuisine\\ of\\ Northern\\ European\\ diets\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Industrial Food Part One"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.536164+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Industrial Food Part Two", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 760, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ continued\\ lecturing\\ how\\ power\\<\\/em\\>\\\\ cusines\\ gain\\ their\\ power\\ and\\ spread\\ internationally\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Food\\ Events\\ of\\ the\\ Day\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Passover\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ Jewish\\ religious\\ holiday\\,\\ marking\\ the\\ Jewish\\ Exodus\\ from\\ Egypt\\.\\ To\\ celebrate\\,\\ a\\ seder\\ is\\ held\\ on\\ 1\\ or\\ 2\\ nights\\ in\\ family\\ homes\\ to\\ commeorate\\ the\\ exodus\\ from\\ bondage\\ and\\ slavery\\ in\\ Egypt\\ and\\ the\\ redemption\\ and\\ freedom\\ in\\ the\\ promised\\ land\\.\\ The\\ seder\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ ritualized\\ meal\\,\\ with\\ specific\\ plates\\,\\ rituals\\,\\ and\\ prayers\\ used\\ throughout\\ the\\ night\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Easter\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ religious\\ holiday\\ for\\ Christians\\ \\(and\\ candy\\ manufacturers\\)\\,\\ and\\ has\\ gained\\ connotations\\ of\\ a\\ festive\\ holiday\\ for\\ children\\ within\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ a\\ review\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ returned\\ to\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ for\\ students\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ as\\ they\\ prepare\\ their\\ final\\ papers\\.\\ Key\\ questions\\ include\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ among\\ food\\,\\ cultural\\ meanings\\ of\\ food\\ and\\ the\\ social\\,\\ political\\,\\ and\\ economy\\ contexts\\ in\\ which\\ food\\ is\\ produced\\,\\ distributed\\,\\ marketed\\,\\ and\\ consumer\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Why\\ do\\ cultures\\ assume\\ that\\ their\\ food\\ practices\\ make\\ sense\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Why\\ do\\ outlanders\\ not\\ understand\\ these\\ internal\\ understandings\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;How\\ do\\ anthropologists\\ and\\ other\\ social\\ scientists\\ think\\?\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ think\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;tradition\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\&ldquo\\;Custom\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\ \\&ldquo\\;Common\\ knowledge\\&rdquo\\;\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\r\\\nTo\\ place\\ \\"\\;\\power\\ cuisines\\<\\/strong\\>\\"\\;\\ in\\ context\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ offered\\ three\\ models\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ culinary\\ flows\\.\\ First\\ is\\ \\the\\ Raj\\<\\/strong\\>\\ where\\ a\\ colonial\\ power\\ brings\\ new\\ tastes\\ back\\ home\\,\\ and\\ represents\\ a\\ flow\\ from\\ periphery\\ to\\ core\\.\\ \\The\\ Union\\ Pacific\\<\\/strong\\>\\ is\\ second\\.\\ It\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ global\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\,\\ immigration\\ and\\ diaspora\\ that\\ brings\\ new\\ culinary\\ possibilities\\ to\\ new\\ places\\.\\ It\\ represents\\ an\\ upward\\ percolation\\ within\\ receiving\\ class\\ or\\ caste\\ systems\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ \\the\\ Most\\ Flavored\\ Nation\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ High\\ national\\ status\\ and\\ cultural\\ capital\\ translates\\ into\\ culinary\\ influence\\.\\ This\\ flow\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ soft\\ power\\,\\ and\\ a\\ downward\\ percolation\\ within\\ receiving\\ class\\/caste\\ systems\\.\\ We\\ can\\ see\\ this\\ with\\ sushi\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ world\\ saw\\ several\\ important\\ culinary\\ transformations\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ namely\\ the\\ industrialization\\,\\ scienticization\\,\\ militarization\\,\\ and\\ nationalization\\ of\\ cuisines\\.\\ Michel\\ Foucault\\&rsquo\\;s\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\governmentality\\<\\/strong\\>\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ James\\ Scott\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\thinking\\ like\\ a\\ state\\<\\/strong\\>\\&rdquo\\;\\ both\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ 19th\\ and\\ 20th\\ century\\ development\\ of\\ elaborate\\ technologies\\ of\\ state\\ supervision\\ and\\ manipulation\\ of\\ social\\ and\\ cultural\\ life\\,\\ and\\ its\\ extensions\\ into\\ the\\ microcosms\\ of\\ intimate\\ daily\\ life\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\nProfessor\\ Bestor\\ offered\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ \\Japanese\\ military\\ diets\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Polish\\ and\\ Dutch\\ anthropologist\\ and\\ food\\ historian\\ \\Katarzyna\\ Cwiertka\\<\\/strong\\>\\ documents\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ Japanese\\ military\\ nutritionists\\ developed\\ diets\\ based\\ on\\ Western\\ models\\,\\ including\\ beef\\ curry\\,\\ pasta\\ dishes\\,\\ and\\ various\\ kinds\\ of\\ omelets\\.\\ By\\ introducing\\ military\\ men\\ to\\ these\\ dishes\\,\\ the\\ nutritionists\\ spread\\ a\\ similar\\ diets\\ among\\ urban\\ residents\\ by\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nIn\\ the\\ classic\\ European\\ tradition\\,\\ diet\\ referred\\ to\\ an\\ entire\\ way\\ of\\ life\\,\\ as\\ a\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ regime\\.\\ Later\\,\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\ United\\ States\\,\\ diet\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ mode\\ for\\ assimilating\\ immigrants\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Home\\ Economics\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;In\\ 1862\\,\\ the\\ Morrill\\ Act\\ created\\ a\\ system\\ for\\ land\\-grant\\ universities\\ across\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ These\\ land\\-grant\\ universities\\ were\\ co\\-education\\ and\\ particularly\\ strong\\ in\\ applied\\ fields\\ of\\ knowledge\\,\\ including\\ \\&ldquo\\;domestic\\ science\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;home\\ economics\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nAt\\ this\\ time\\,\\ nutrition\\ as\\ a\\ science\\ was\\ also\\ developing\\,\\ with\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ improving\\ diets\\ through\\ education\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ University\\ of\\ Wisconsin\\ was\\ a\\ particular\\ pioneer\\ in\\ this\\ field\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nThe\\ first\\ American\\ cookbook\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ 1796\\ by\\ Amelia\\ Simmons\\ and\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ Cookery\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ book\\ written\\ by\\ an\\ author\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\.\\ Other\\ cookbooks\\ had\\ been\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\,\\ but\\ were\\ reprints\\ of\\ European\\ editions\\.\\ \\American\\ Cookery\\<\\/strong\\>\\ took\\ into\\ account\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ the\\ U\\.S\\ and\\ Britain\\ culinary\\ habits\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nAnother\\ important\\ guide\\ was\\ \\The\\ Home\\ Servant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Directory\\,\\<\\/strong\\>\\ which\\ was\\ published\\ in\\ Boston\\ in\\ 1827\\ and\\ written\\ by\\ Robert\\ Roberts\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ cookbook\\ written\\ by\\ an\\ African\\-American\\ and\\ described\\ how\\ to\\ run\\ a\\ wealthy\\ white\\ Bostonian\\ household\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\nEarly\\ cookbooks\\ were\\ not\\ written\\ for\\ people\\ who\\ would\\ cook\\ themselves\\.\\ They\\ were\\ meant\\ to\\ uphold\\ domestic\\ and\\ feminine\\ virtues\\ and\\ were\\ highly\\ moral\\ documents\\.\\ The\\ spread\\ of\\ cookbooks\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ valorized\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\ and\\ mother\\ in\\ creating\\ a\\ strong\\ domestic\\ life\\.\\ By\\ the\\ mid\\ to\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ cookbooks\\ had\\ become\\ popular\\ with\\ urban\\,\\ literate\\ women\\.\\ Agrarian\\ societies\\ generally\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ require\\ cookbooks\\,\\ because\\ of\\ more\\ familiarity\\ with\\ the\\ foodstuffs\\ at\\ hand\\.\\ The\\ rise\\ of\\ cookbooks\\ is\\ also\\ related\\ to\\ changes\\ in\\ family\\ structures\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nuclear\\ families\\ became\\ much\\ more\\ common\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ made\\ recipes\\ much\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ passed\\ down\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Industrial Food Part Two"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.546870+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Early Industrial Food Intro", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 761, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\Professor\\ Bestor\\ introduced\\ the\\ beginnings\\ of\\ industrial\\ food\\ techniques\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\'s\\ Food\\ in\\ the\\ News\\ was\\ \\Michelle\\ Obama\\&rsquo\\;s\\ garden\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Her\\ organic\\ garden\\ has\\ garned\\ a\\ huge\\ flurry\\ of\\ news\\ articles\\,\\ and\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ discussion\\ over\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ organic\\ produce\\ and\\ standards\\ for\\ it\\ and\\ government\\ involvement\\ and\\ standardization\\ of\\ organic\\ food\\.\\ The\\ garden\\ also\\ reflects\\ the\\ transformation\\ of\\ American\\ eating\\ habits\\,\\ but\\ reminds\\ us\\ of\\ the\\ continued\\ problem\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;food\\ deserts\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ where\\ the\\ availability\\ of\\ fresh\\ produce\\ is\\ low\\ in\\ certain\\ low\\-income\\ neighborhoods\\ and\\ inner\\ cities\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Industrial\\ food\\<\\/strong\\>\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ is\\ really\\ a\\ continuation\\ of\\ the\\ Columbian\\ Exchange\\ in\\ its\\ processing\\ of\\ food\\ products\\ within\\ the\\ political\\ economy\\ of\\ food\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\.\\ Jack\\ Goody\\,\\ a\\ British\\ anthropologist\\,\\ who\\ looks\\ at\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\ of\\ food\\,\\ has\\ studied\\ the\\ homogenization\\ and\\ standardization\\ of\\ cuisine\\ during\\ this\\ time\\.\\ The\\ Industrial\\ Age\\ saw\\ improved\\ accessibility\\ to\\ better\\ quality\\ foods\\ for\\ urban\\ poor\\.\\ Industrial\\ food\\ was\\ actually\\ healthier\\ for\\ the\\ masses\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ availability\\ and\\ standards\\.\\ Industrial\\ food\\ was\\ stimulated\\ by\\ developments\\ in\\ four\\ domains\\:\\ preservation\\,\\ mechanical\\ processing\\,\\ transporation\\,\\ and\\ sales\\ processes\\.\\ In\\ turn\\,\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ technological\\ processes\\ were\\ stimulated\\ by\\ industrial\\ capitalism\\,\\ and\\ turned\\ generic\\ food\\ into\\ marketed\\ products\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Professor\\ Bestor\\ offered\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ \\biscuits\\.\\ \\<\\/strong\\>In\\ his\\ work\\,\\ Goody\\ discusses\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ dried\\ biscuits\\ into\\ a\\ major\\ British\\ industry\\.\\ Originally\\,\\ artisanal\\ bakeries\\ in\\ ports\\ produced\\ biscuits\\ for\\ naval\\ vessels\\,\\ but\\ then\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ steam\\ power\\ allowed\\ larger\\ scale\\ production\\ and\\ standardization\\ of\\ batches\\.\\ Thanks\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ new\\ technologies\\,\\ local\\ producers\\ become\\ regionally\\ known\\,\\ then\\ nationally\\,\\ by\\ beginning\\ to\\ brand\\ their\\ products\\ and\\ shipping\\ nationally\\ and\\ internationally\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ of\\ these\\ technologies\\,\\ \\industrial\\ canning\\<\\/strong\\>\\,\\ developed\\ in\\ part\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ Napoleonic\\ Wars\\ in\\ Europe\\,\\ which\\ disrupted\\ food\\ supplies\\.\\ Napoleon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ army\\ \\&ldquo\\;marched\\ on\\ its\\ stomach\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ needed\\ a\\ constant\\ supply\\ of\\ food\\,\\ so\\\\\r\\\nNapoleon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\ commissioned\\ new\\ techniques\\,\\ and\\ the\\ modern\\ techniques\\ of\\ mass\\-scale\\ canning\\ thus\\ developed\\ in\\ France\\,\\ all\\ because\\ the\\ first\\ mass\\ conscript\\ army\\ required\\ a\\ massive\\ food\\ supply\\.\\ The\\ 19th\\ century\\ development\\ of\\ different\\ technologies\\ of\\ canning\\ involved\\ both\\ glass\\ and\\ metal\\ containers\\.\\ Even\\ though\\ packaging\\ is\\ a\\ subsidiary\\ spin\\ off\\ of\\ industrial\\ food\\,\\ it\\ is\\ stil\\ very\\ important\\ and\\ would\\ only\\ become\\ more\\ so\\.\\ Canning\\ was\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ repertoire\\ of\\ food\\ preservation\\ along\\ with\\ drying\\,\\ smoking\\,\\ salting\\,\\ and\\ pickling\\,\\ and\\ changed\\ nature\\ of\\ available\\ foods\\,\\ both\\ unprocessed\\ and\\ prepared\\.\\ Such\\ preservative\\ techniques\\ changed\\ notions\\ of\\ seasonality\\ and\\ location\\ and\\ increased\\ alienation\\ of\\ urban\\ consumers\\ form\\ facts\\ of\\ agricultural\\ production\\,\\ which\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\\\ cookbooks\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Thanks\\ to\\ the\\ continued\\ alienation\\ of\\ consumers\\ from\\ raw\\ ingredients\\ and\\ increasing\\ availability\\ of\\ unfamiliar\\ products\\,\\ cookbooks\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ general\\ development\\ of\\ urban\\ middle\\ class\\ lifestyles\\ during\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Another\\ industrial\\ food\\ offered\\ as\\ an\\ example\\ is\\ \\condensed\\ milk\\<\\/strong\\>\\.\\ Gail\\ Borden\\,\\ 1801\\-1874\\,\\ invented\\ the\\ process\\ for\\ creating\\ canned\\ condensed\\ milk\\,\\ a\\ highly\\ sweetened\\,\\ thick\\ dairy\\ product\\.\\ With\\ sixty\\ percent\\ of\\ water\\ removed\\ by\\ evaporation\\,\\ condensed\\ milk\\ stores\\ well\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ field\\ ration\\ for\\ the\\ U\\.S\\ armies\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ Condensed\\ milk\\ also\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ European\\ colonization\\ of\\ tropical\\ lands\\,\\ and\\ became\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ diets\\ of\\ the\\ colonized\\ peoples\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Pasteurization\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\ \\<\\/strong\\>also\\ kept\\ spoiling\\ at\\ bay\\.\\ Louis\\ Pasteur\\ perfected\\ techniques\\ for\\ controlling\\ micro\\-pathogens\\ in\\ fresh\\ food\\ products\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\.\\ The\\ need\\ for\\ this\\ sterilization\\ of\\ products\\ is\\ less\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ inherent\\ dangers\\ of\\ products\\,\\ but\\ of\\ the\\ dangers\\ introduced\\ as\\ scales\\ of\\ production\\,\\ \\;\\ which\\ increase\\ with\\ industrial\\ handling\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\Refrigeration\\ \\<\\/strong\\>appeared\\ in\\ the\\ 1840s\\-1860s\\.\\ The\\ development\\ of\\ refrigeration\\ for\\ transportation\\ enabled\\ long\\ distance\\ shipments\\ of\\ fresh\\ produce\\,\\ milks\\,\\ meats\\,\\ etc\\.\\ In\\ U\\.S\\,\\ the\\ meat\\ packing\\ industry\\ based\\ in\\ Chicago\\,\\ hub\\ of\\ the\\ continental\\ rail\\ system\\,\\ depended\\ largely\\ on\\ natural\\ ice\\ until\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\ development\\ of\\ mechanical\\ ice\\-making\\ technologies\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Early Industrial Food Intro"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.566372+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Stevenson ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 763, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 4\\.9\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Robert\\ Louis\\ Stevenson\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>Viewed\\ as\\ a\\ very\\ talented\\.\\ He\\ has\\ been\\ pegged\\ as\\ an\\ adventure\\ writer\\ for\\ boys\\ because\\ of\\ Treasure\\ Island\\.\\ His\\ horror\\ story\\ is\\ his\\ most\\ widely\\ read\\ text\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ a\\ text\\ about\\ men\\ who\\ are\\ freaked\\ out\\ about\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ secret\\ lives\\.\\ Masking\\ and\\ unmasking\\ the\\ male\\ unconscious\\.\\ They\\ tend\\ to\\ view\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ male\\ homosexual\\ panic\\.\\ There\\ is\\ that\\ element\\ to\\ it\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ a\\ more\\ affirmative\\ text\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ recent\\ years\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ great\\ biographies\\ written\\ about\\ him\\.\\ He\\ lived\\ a\\ very\\ unconventional\\ life\\-\\ very\\ bohemian\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ forward\\ looking\\ thinking\\.\\ These\\ writings\\ were\\ starting\\ to\\ become\\ recognized\\ and\\ put\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ his\\ cannon\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ fog\\ symbolizes\\ his\\ dying\\.\\ There\\ are\\ three\\ great\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ horror\\ stories\\.\\ Frankenstein\\ \\(middle\\ class\\ anxiety\\ fear\\ of\\ manufactured\\ body\\ of\\ labor\\)\\,\\ Dracula\\ \\(aristocrat\\ articulating\\ a\\ middle\\ class\\ anxiety\\)\\,\\ Jekyll\\ and\\ Hyde\\.\\ We\\ all\\ know\\ them\\ and\\ are\\ familiar\\ with\\ them\\.\\ All\\ three\\ are\\ a\\ struggle\\ with\\ a\\ monster\\ figure\\ and\\ are\\ concerned\\ asexual\\ reproduction\\.\\ They\\ are\\ very\\ phobic\\ texts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ anxious\\ text\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ text\\ that\\ turns\\ the\\ mirror\\ of\\ othering\\ onto\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ self\\ itself\\.\\ Mirrors\\ are\\ a\\ big\\ theme\\ in\\ this\\.\\ Self\\ division\\ that\\ middle\\ class\\ subjects\\ engage\\ in\\.\\ They\\ are\\ policing\\ themselves\\.\\ They\\ are\\ constantly\\ surveilling\\ themselves\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ Stevenson\\ is\\ exposing\\ as\\ monsterous\\.\\ This\\ obsession\\ that\\ these\\ bachelor\\ characters\\ have\\ is\\ sexual\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ classes\\ have\\ a\\ sex\\ secret\\.\\ Everything\\ in\\ this\\ text\\ is\\ sexualized\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Stevenson "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.735840+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Medical Education and Licensure", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 770, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:37895959\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1729437080\\ \\-1698148078\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:2\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level6\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:3\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level7\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:3\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level8\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:4\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level9\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:4\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Looking\\ at\\ factors\\ internal\\ to\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ can\\ be\\ narrated\\ as\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ decline\\,\\ but\\ from\\ another\\ perspective\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ different\\ relation\\ between\\ politics\\ and\\ medical\\ knowledge\\,\\ between\\ egalitarian\\ and\\ elitist\\ views\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ defines\\ a\\ professional\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Know\\ of\\ their\\ qualifications\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ are\\ the\\ universal\\ qualifications\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Education\\,\\ licensing\\,\\ member\\ to\\ medical\\ societies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ should\\ we\\ trust\\ physicians\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Medical\\ societies\\ are\\ purely\\ professional\\ regulators\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Licensing\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ regulated\\ by\\ the\\ state\\.\\ Have\\ to\\ pass\\ a\\ state\\ exam\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Medical\\ school\\,\\ an\\ academic\\ regulating\\ quality\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ 3\\ systems\\ existed\\ in\\ the\\ colonial\\ period\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Professionalism\\:\\ the\\ British\\ Model\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Founding\\ of\\ different\\ Royal\\ colleges\\ of\\ practitioners\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Although\\ these\\ colleges\\ had\\ no\\ influence\\ on\\ rural\\ practitioners\\.\\ And\\ even\\ in\\ urban\\ areas\\,\\ were\\ not\\ as\\ influential\\ as\\ people\\ liked\\ to\\ think\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>No\\ med\\ schools\\ in\\ British\\ colonies\\ in\\ 1700s\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Medical\\ Licensure\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1649\\ Licensing\\ Act\\ \\(MA\\)\\,\\ supposedly\\ needed\\ licensing\\,\\ but\\ anyone\\ can\\ still\\ practice\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1760\\ NY\\ Licensure\\ Law\\,\\ physicians\\ can\\ sue\\ patients\\ for\\ bills\\ to\\ be\\ paid\\,\\ but\\ anyone\\ can\\ still\\ practice\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1830\\,\\ 13\\ states\\ required\\ licenses\\.\\ But\\ dubious\\ of\\ how\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ enforced\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1820s\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1850s\\,\\ licensure\\ largely\\ appealed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Jacksonian\\ democracy\\,\\ shift\\ to\\ more\\ egalitarian\\ practices\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Perceived\\ hoarding\\ of\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ by\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ monopolistic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Stripping\\ away\\ licensure\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ obvious\\ anti\\-monopolistic\\ policies\\ in\\ Jacksonian\\ era\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Medical\\ Societies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1781\\,\\ renamed\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ medical\\ society\\ as\\ MA\\ medical\\ society\\,\\ started\\ in\\ 1721\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ longest\\ continuous\\ medical\\ society\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Its\\ mission\\ was\\ to\\ distinguish\\ the\\ true\\ body\\ of\\ physicians\\ that\\ were\\ properly\\ educated\\ from\\ the\\ broader\\ groups\\ of\\ healers\\ that\\ were\\ immorally\\ practicing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Two\\ tiered\\.\\ Fellows\\,\\ exalted\\ physicians\\,\\ and\\ regular\\ members\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Then\\ later\\,\\ the\\ two\\ tier\\ breaks\\ down\\.\\ Started\\ to\\ accept\\ any\\ who\\ can\\ pass\\ the\\ MMS\\ exam\\ as\\ member\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>They\\ insisted\\ on\\ a\\ high\\ bar\\ of\\ quality\\,\\ which\\ lead\\ to\\ a\\ very\\ small\\ membership\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ their\\ influence\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ great\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Medical\\ Education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Apprenticeship\\ B\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Begin\\ at\\ age\\ of\\ 16\\,\\ lasted\\ from\\ 1\\ to\\ 7\\ years\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sometimes\\ had\\ access\\ to\\ books\\.\\ Sometimes\\ got\\ to\\ go\\ on\\ rounds\\ with\\ physicians\\.\\ Employed\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ menial\\ tasks\\,\\ like\\ an\\ assistant\\.\\ Sometimes\\ received\\ anatomical\\ instructions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Dominant\\ mode\\ of\\ medical\\ education\\ in\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>European\\ Schools\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Edinburgh\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ had\\ medical\\ schools\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Few\\ colonial\\ practitioners\\ went\\ to\\ European\\ medical\\ schools\\ and\\ brought\\ the\\ knowledge\\ back\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ \\\\Paris\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ the\\ site\\ for\\ medical\\ education\\.\\ Emphasis\\ on\\ clinical\\ observations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ late\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ German\\ schools\\ became\\ target\\ for\\ colonists\\.\\ emphasis\\ on\\ experimentations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1765\\,\\ John\\ Morgan\\ founded\\ what\\ becomes\\ Penn\\,\\ based\\ on\\ \\\\Edinburgh\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ schools\\.\\ First\\ medical\\ school\\ in\\ colonists\\.\\ Wanted\\ a\\ rigorous\\ curriculum\\,\\ though\\ lacked\\ surgery\\ and\\ pharmacy\\,\\ which\\ was\\ purposely\\ trying\\ to\\ divide\\ the\\ profession\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Due\\ to\\ shortages\\,\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ graded\\ curriculum\\,\\ took\\ the\\ same\\ classes\\ first\\ year\\ and\\ second\\ year\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Pennsylvania\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ was\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ medical\\ school\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ college\\ 1776\\,\\ became\\ \\\\Colombia\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Had\\ more\\ focus\\ on\\ surgery\\.\\ No\\ connection\\ to\\ a\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Harvard\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Medical\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\School\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 1783\\.\\ Formed\\ because\\ of\\ MMS\\,\\ which\\ required\\ there\\ be\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ lectures\\.\\ MGH\\ not\\ founded\\ until\\ 1820\\,\\ so\\ early\\ years\\ students\\ had\\ no\\ connection\\ with\\ a\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Students\\ paid\\ on\\ a\\ lecture\\ basis\\ and\\ professors\\ were\\ paid\\ on\\ a\\ student\\ \\#\\ basis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Antebellum\\ proprietary\\ schools\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1800\\:\\ 3\\ med\\ schools\\.\\ 1830\\:\\ 22\\.\\ 1850\\:\\ 42\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>At\\ this\\ time\\,\\ \\\\Paris\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ had\\ 3\\ med\\ schools\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Med\\ schools\\ were\\ a\\ boom\\ industry\\,\\ profitable\\ industry\\.\\ It\\ was\\ unregulated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Every\\ med\\ school\\ had\\ 3\\ to\\ 7\\ professors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Graduation\\ requirement\\ were\\ few\\ and\\ lax\\.\\ Had\\ to\\ know\\ latin\\.\\ Had\\ to\\ take\\ several\\ sessions\\,\\ of\\ each\\ were\\ 2\\ or\\ 3\\ months\\ long\\.\\ Had\\ to\\ pass\\ a\\ test\\,\\ although\\ if\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ pass\\,\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ pay\\,\\ so\\ incentive\\ for\\ pashing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ was\\ widespread\\ critique\\ of\\ quality\\ of\\ med\\ schools\\ and\\ students\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Race\\ to\\ the\\ bottom\\ as\\ med\\ school\\ competed\\ for\\ number\\ of\\ students\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Anatomy\\ in\\ Education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ability\\ to\\ approach\\ a\\ dead\\ body\\ and\\ engage\\ practice\\ of\\ dissection\\,\\ which\\ violates\\ many\\ taboos\\,\\ reflects\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ privilege\\ of\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Practice\\ of\\ anatomy\\ drew\\ criticism\\ from\\ the\\ community\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Widespread\\ critique\\ of\\ medical\\ students\\ as\\ drunkenly\\ disorderly\\ disrespectful\\ people\\.\\ Part\\ of\\ that\\ came\\ from\\ idea\\ the\\ students\\ would\\ violate\\ local\\ graves\\ to\\ get\\ bodies\\ for\\ dissection\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ schools\\ could\\ get\\ bodies\\ legally\\ through\\ connections\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Dissection\\:\\ the\\ reward\\ of\\ cruely\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Reflect\\ that\\ by\\ 17\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\,\\ many\\ common\\ law\\ practices\\ suggest\\ that\\ many\\ murders\\&rsquo\\;\\ bodies\\ could\\ be\\ sentenced\\ to\\ dissection\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Habeas\\ Corpus\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>For\\ schools\\ that\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ cadavers\\,\\ students\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ get\\ their\\ own\\ cadavers\\ through\\ purchase\\ from\\ black\\ market\\ or\\ to\\ dig\\ some\\ up\\ by\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Anatomy\\ Riots\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Mobs\\ ransack\\ anatomy\\ labs\\ where\\ they\\ discovered\\ bodies\\ of\\ local\\ people\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>NY\\ passes\\ law\\ to\\ prevent\\ practice\\ of\\ removing\\ dead\\ bodies\\ from\\ cemeteries\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ are\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ problems\\ before\\ civil\\ war\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Medical\\ Education\\ Antebellum\\ Reform\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1827\\,\\ New\\ England\\ Medical\\ Societies\\,\\ describes\\ the\\ horrible\\ state\\ of\\ medical\\ education\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1832\\,\\ Daniel\\ Drake\\,\\ Practical\\ Essays\\ on\\ Medical\\ Education\\,\\ introduced\\ graded\\ curriculum\\,\\ his\\ suggestions\\ are\\ taken\\ seriously\\ but\\ not\\ widespread\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1848\\,\\ American\\ Medical\\ Association\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Medical\\ Education\\ Continued\\ Decline\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>42\\ med\\ schools\\ become\\ over\\ 100\\ in\\ 1900s\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Few\\ at\\ college\\ degrees\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>When\\ man\\ failed\\ in\\ everything\\,\\ then\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unfailing\\ city\\ of\\ refuge\\:\\ prof\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Unorthodox\\ \\\\Medical\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\School\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Number\\ of\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ med\\ school\\ established\\,\\ some\\ were\\ better\\ than\\ orthodox\\ medical\\ school\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Thompsonian\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Medical\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\College\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\,\\ \\\\Homeopathy\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Medical\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Colleges\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ medical\\ college\\ for\\ women\\,\\ medical\\ colleges\\ especially\\ for\\ blacks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Late\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\,\\ there\\ are\\ reforms\\.\\ Impact\\ of\\ German\\ form\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Conclusion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Medical\\ colleges\\ were\\ founded\\ to\\ elevate\\ status\\ of\\ profession\\,\\ but\\ proliferation\\ of\\ medical\\ schools\\ actually\\ lowered\\ the\\ status\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Some\\ people\\ became\\ good\\ physicians\\ despite\\ those\\ schools\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Boundary\\ of\\ med\\ in\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\ is\\ porous\\,\\ medical\\ knowledge\\ dispersed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Medical Education and Licensure"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.772675+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Professionalism and Popular Healing", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 771, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:401682210\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-464102908\\ 295727702\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Misnomer\\ to\\ speak\\ of\\ A\\ medical\\ profession\\ in\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Therapeutic\\ changes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ happens\\ to\\ heroic\\ medicine\\?\\ Blood\\ letting\\ rises\\ and\\ falls\\.\\ Wanes\\ out\\ by\\ end\\ of\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\?\\ Rise\\ of\\ science\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Numerical\\ medicine\\,\\ Louis\\ thesis\\.\\ Argued\\ against\\ bloodletting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Use\\ of\\ mercury\\,\\ declines\\ over\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ Because\\ seen\\ as\\ unnatural\\ remedy\\ and\\ therapeutic\\ nihilism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Therapeutic\\ nihilism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Self\\ limit\\ to\\ medicine\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ healing\\ force\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ the\\ body\\ will\\ right\\ itself\\.\\ Heroic\\ medicine\\ pushes\\ body\\ too\\ far\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ heal\\ itself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Oliver\\ Wendell\\ Holmes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sometimes\\ doing\\ nothing\\ can\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ treating\\ the\\ body\\ with\\ noxious\\ substances\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Use\\ of\\ opiates\\ changes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Use\\ of\\ stimulants\\ increases\\,\\ more\\ natural\\ substances\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>If\\ insist\\ too\\ rigidly\\ between\\ regular\\ and\\ irregular\\ medicine\\,\\ then\\ we\\ miss\\ much\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ medicine\\ back\\ then\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ of\\ fluidity\\ between\\ the\\ dif\\ groups\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Domestic\\ Medicine\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Published\\ by\\ Buchan\\.\\ Reprinted\\ 19\\ times\\.\\ Most\\ commonly\\ found\\ book\\ in\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ homes\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ bible\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Tried\\ to\\ remove\\ veil\\ of\\ secrecy\\ around\\ medicine\\.\\ Protects\\ people\\ from\\ quackery\\ and\\ secrecy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Later\\ his\\ book\\ was\\ replaced\\ by\\ Gunn\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\ were\\ these\\ books\\ so\\ popular\\?\\ Allowed\\ people\\ to\\ self\\ practice\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Unorthodox\\ Practitioners\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thomsonianism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Samuel\\ Thompson\\,\\ said\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ fascination\\ with\\ herbs\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ child\\,\\ was\\ apprenticed\\ to\\ an\\ herbalist\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ main\\ cause\\ of\\ health\\ is\\ heat\\.\\ Remedies\\ are\\ natural\\ and\\ herbal\\.\\ No\\ place\\ for\\ blood\\ letting\\ and\\ unnatural\\ remedies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Had\\ genius\\ for\\ marketing\\.\\ Took\\ out\\ patent\\ on\\ his\\ system\\.\\ Sold\\ his\\ system\\ for\\ \\$20\\.\\ Anyone\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ Thomsonian\\ healer\\ if\\ they\\ bought\\ his\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Something\\ nationalistic\\ about\\ his\\ practice\\,\\ he\\ used\\ only\\ local\\ herbs\\.\\ Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ use\\ herbs\\ from\\ \\Europe\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ American\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thomsonian\\ healers\\ occupied\\ this\\ middle\\ zone\\ between\\ well\\ defined\\ sects\\ of\\ medicine\\ and\\ professional\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thought\\ people\\ should\\ avoid\\ the\\ risky\\-ness\\ of\\ medicine\\ practiced\\ by\\ the\\ professional\\ doctors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Politics\\ was\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ arena\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Women\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ patent\\ holders\\,\\ but\\ could\\ purchase\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ use\\ it\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ in\\ Thomsonian\\ were\\ feminists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thomson\\ felt\\ that\\ the\\ market\\ was\\ democratizing\\,\\ because\\ anyone\\ could\\ buy\\ and\\ use\\ his\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ was\\ opposed\\ to\\ apprenticeship\\ and\\ forming\\ medical\\ schools\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ease\\ of\\ forming\\ new\\ system\\ of\\ therapeutics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ is\\ quackery\\?\\ If\\ they\\ believe\\ in\\ it\\,\\ then\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\.\\ If\\ they\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ it\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ definition\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ always\\ apply\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ecletic\\ Medical\\ Colleges\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Mixture\\ of\\ botanic\\ medicines\\ and\\ new\\ science\\ medicines\\.\\ Include\\ a\\ broader\\ range\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Allowed\\ women\\ to\\ attend\\,\\ later\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ practitioners\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ physicians\\,\\ and\\ not\\ always\\ physicians\\ opposed\\ to\\ prof\\ doctors\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Homeopathy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hahneman\\,\\ was\\ disillusioned\\ with\\ medicine\\,\\ thought\\ that\\ his\\ cures\\ were\\ not\\ working\\ on\\ his\\ patients\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ took\\ some\\ cinchona\\,\\ which\\ he\\ realized\\ that\\ the\\ symptoms\\ were\\ similar\\ to\\ small\\ pox\\.\\ Thus\\ developed\\ his\\ law\\ of\\ similars\\,\\ like\\ cures\\ like\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Allopathy\\,\\ regular\\ doctors\\,\\ treated\\ disease\\ with\\ things\\ opposite\\ to\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ dilution\\ medicines\\,\\ he\\ believed\\ that\\ it\\ made\\ it\\ more\\ powerful\\.\\ Sometimes\\ do\\ 1\\:10\\ dilutions\\ 20\\ times\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ small\\ chance\\ that\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ particle\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ system\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ dilution\\,\\ but\\ Hahneman\\ believed\\ that\\ in\\ diluting\\,\\ the\\ essence\\ will\\ be\\ left\\ behind\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\ was\\ an\\ empirical\\ system\\ based\\ on\\ clinical\\ trials\\ of\\ a\\ sort\\.\\ Many\\ medical\\ schools\\ were\\ homeopathic\\ schools\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Unlike\\ Thomsonians\\,\\ homeopathy\\ was\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ professionalizing\\.\\ Sought\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ profession\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Holmes\\ compared\\ homeopathy\\ with\\ supplying\\ ignorant\\ people\\ with\\ a\\ book\\ and\\ a\\ doll\\ supply\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\ And\\ these\\ people\\ can\\ play\\ doctor\\ without\\ having\\ to\\ call\\ the\\ coroner\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Health\\ Reformers\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Therapeutic\\ practices\\,\\ moral\\ doctrines\\,\\ and\\ political\\ movements\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sylvester\\ Graham\\.\\ Gave\\ influential\\ lectures\\ on\\ regimen\\ and\\ health\\.\\ His\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ modern\\ life\\ is\\ too\\ exiting\\ for\\ the\\ body\\,\\ the\\ over\\ exciting\\ makes\\ the\\ book\\ ill\\.\\ Worried\\ about\\ meat\\ eating\\,\\ masturbation\\,\\ and\\ sex\\.\\ Prominent\\ in\\ health\\ food\\ movement\\.\\ Influential\\ on\\ John\\ Kellogg\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>John\\ Kellog\\ conducted\\ surgery\\ and\\ experiments\\.\\ Everyone\\ regards\\ him\\ as\\ a\\ doctor\\.\\ Obsessed\\ with\\ the\\ bowels\\,\\ most\\ diseases\\ come\\ from\\ not\\ relieving\\ themselves\\ well\\ enough\\.\\ Put\\ influence\\ on\\ dietry\\ needs\\.\\ Try\\ to\\ help\\ people\\ have\\ as\\ many\\ bowel\\ movements\\ as\\ possible\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Battle\\ \\ \\ Creek\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ Sanitorium\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Picture\\ of\\ phototherapy\\ department\\.\\ Experiments\\ with\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ therapies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Middle\\ class\\ people\\ would\\ go\\ and\\ stay\\ for\\ weeks\\ at\\ a\\ time\\.\\ Daily\\ exercises\\ part\\ of\\ regimen\\.\\ Have\\ dietary\\ needs\\ tailored\\ to\\ them\\ and\\ went\\ to\\ lectures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Moral\\ perfectionism\\ involved\\ in\\ illness\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ society\\ that\\ comes\\ together\\ around\\ idea\\ of\\ reforming\\ the\\ body\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hydropathy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Water\\ cure\\.\\ Ingest\\ dif\\ types\\ of\\ water\\,\\ have\\ water\\ poured\\ on\\ them\\,\\ soaked\\ and\\ packed\\ and\\ dried\\ out\\,\\ have\\ jets\\ of\\ water\\ squirted\\,\\ water\\ births\\ \\(which\\ are\\ still\\ common\\ today\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Developed\\ by\\ a\\ peasant\\.\\ Thought\\ application\\ of\\ water\\ outside\\ and\\ inside\\ body\\ would\\ heal\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Advocated\\ by\\ Graham\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hydropathy\\ practitioners\\ thought\\ orthodox\\ cures\\ were\\ poison\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Had\\ a\\ dif\\ notion\\ of\\ body\\.\\ Had\\ connection\\ with\\ feminism\\.\\ Argued\\ for\\ contraception\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>None\\ of\\ these\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ cures\\ ever\\ go\\ away\\.\\ But\\ takes\\ different\\ paths\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Electrotherapy\\.\\ Electric\\ flesh\\ brush\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Different\\ therapies\\ that\\ were\\ applied\\ by\\ specialists\\ or\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ market\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Therapeutic\\ Heterodoxy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ plurality\\ of\\ therapeutics\\.\\ No\\ strict\\ boundaries\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Notions\\ of\\ quackery\\ are\\ different\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Professionalism and Popular Healing"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.802163+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Early American Hospitals", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 772, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1823962365\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1878904984\\ 1656267092\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Is\\ there\\ continuity\\ btwn\\ medical\\ profession\\ then\\ and\\ now\\?\\ Or\\ is\\ there\\ a\\ rupture\\ or\\ branching\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospital\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ potent\\ symbol\\ of\\ American\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ modern\\ hospitals\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ reasons\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ hospitals\\,\\ such\\ as\\ research\\,\\ education\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ very\\ public\\ buildings\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ public\\ and\\ civic\\ institution\\ in\\ modern\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ 1800s\\,\\ most\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ a\\ hospital\\ is\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ 1900s\\,\\ only\\ 3\\%\\ or\\ 4\\%\\ has\\ been\\ to\\ a\\ hospital\\.\\ Most\\ physicians\\ have\\ never\\ set\\ foot\\ in\\ a\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ 2000s\\,\\ most\\ people\\ are\\ born\\ and\\ die\\ in\\ hospitals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Early\\ modern\\ \\\\European\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ altar\\,\\ caring\\ for\\ the\\ sick\\ as\\ a\\ Christian\\ charity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Cash\\ transactions\\ were\\ minimal\\,\\ patients\\ pay\\ with\\ grapes\\ and\\ other\\ items\\.\\ Hospitals\\ have\\ wine\\ cellars\\,\\ as\\ kind\\ of\\ treasury\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hospitals\\ in\\ \\New\\ Spain\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>First\\ hospital\\ built\\ in\\ early\\ 1500s\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Fusion\\ btwn\\ religious\\ orders\\ and\\ state\\ responsibility\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hospitals\\ in\\ \\New\\ France\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nuns\\ set\\ up\\ convents\\,\\ that\\ have\\ hospitals\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ it\\,\\ to\\ care\\ for\\ the\\ sick\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Salpetriere\\,\\ Paris\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospital\\ in\\ \\\\Paris\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Had\\ 1000s\\ of\\ patients\\.\\ Ordered\\ by\\ disease\\ categories\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Had\\ observational\\ studies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\German\\ Hospitals\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Experimental\\ rigor\\,\\ connected\\ with\\ a\\ medical\\ university\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Development\\ of\\ pathologies\\ and\\ such\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\British\\ Colonies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1800s\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ 2\\ hospitals\\ in\\ British\\ colonies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Well\\ into\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\,\\ primary\\ health\\ care\\ was\\ almshouses\\.\\ Function\\ was\\ to\\ care\\ primarily\\ for\\ insane\\,\\ crippled\\,\\ orphaned\\,\\ alcoholics\\,\\ syphilitics\\,\\ criminals\\.\\ People\\ who\\ were\\ disabled\\ with\\ no\\ social\\ support\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Heavy\\ stigma\\ with\\ being\\ cared\\ for\\ by\\ almshouses\\.\\ Repository\\ for\\ crippled\\ and\\ depraved\\ members\\ of\\ our\\ society\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Dangerous\\ and\\ messy\\ place\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Certain\\ people\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ worthy\\ poor\\,\\ of\\ poverty\\ that\\ was\\ redeemable\\ and\\ not\\ because\\ of\\ moral\\ failings\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Pennsylvania\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 1752\\.\\ Voluntary\\ hospital\\.\\ Only\\ 1\\ established\\ during\\ the\\ period\\ of\\ British\\ rule\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Voluntary\\ hospital\\,\\ not\\ for\\ profit\\ hospital\\,\\ funding\\ comes\\ from\\ donations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>MGH\\,\\ 1821\\,\\ voluntary\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bullfinch\\ building\\,\\ this\\ form\\ of\\ architecture\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ distinguish\\ it\\ from\\ other\\ prominent\\ civic\\ buildings\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Suggests\\ kinship\\ with\\ other\\ worthy\\ institutions\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ admitted\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ infectious\\ or\\ contagious\\ death\\ \\(referred\\ to\\ pesthouse\\)\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ incurable\\ disease\\ \\(referred\\ to\\ almshouse\\)\\.\\ For\\ people\\ who\\ would\\ only\\ stay\\ there\\ for\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ month\\.\\ Also\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ morally\\ worthy\\,\\ need\\ letter\\ of\\ rec\\ from\\ persons\\ of\\ standing\\.\\ After\\ review\\ by\\ board\\ of\\ trustees\\ can\\ you\\ get\\ admitted\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Floor\\ Plan\\.\\ Communal\\ rooms\\,\\ open\\ ward\\ structure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>More\\ healthy\\ patients\\ would\\ be\\ nurses\\ for\\ other\\ patients\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ they\\ earned\\ their\\ room\\ and\\ board\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\ would\\ people\\ found\\ hospitals\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Elite\\ members\\ of\\ \\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ set\\ foot\\ in\\ the\\ hospitals\\ they\\ built\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ physicians\\ that\\ would\\ treat\\ them\\.\\ Wanted\\ the\\ physicians\\ to\\ be\\ experienced\\ before\\ treating\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Penn\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ had\\ 4\\ wards\\ for\\ women\\,\\ which\\ is\\ separated\\ by\\ labor\\ divisions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospitals\\ wards\\ were\\ very\\ dirty\\ and\\ unstructured\\.\\ Dead\\ bodies\\ may\\ be\\ left\\ there\\ for\\ days\\.\\ Secretions\\ not\\ cleaned\\ everywhere\\.\\ Surgeries\\ would\\ take\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ ward\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Very\\ strict\\ rules\\ in\\ hospitals\\,\\ such\\ as\\ no\\ drink\\ and\\ other\\ moral\\ rules\\.\\ Could\\ be\\ discharged\\ if\\ you\\ break\\ rules\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospital\\ problems\\ that\\ existed\\ in\\ 40s\\ are\\ still\\ prevalent\\ today\\.\\ Such\\ as\\ difficult\\ patients\\,\\ discharging\\ the\\ poor\\ when\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ home\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Residents\\ in\\ the\\ hospitals\\.\\ Live\\ there\\ for\\ a\\ year\\ or\\ two\\.\\ Senior\\ physicians\\ are\\ visiting\\ physicians\\;\\ they\\ come\\ infrequently\\ to\\ do\\ rounds\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Inexperienced\\ doctors\\ running\\ these\\ wards\\.\\ People\\ were\\ wary\\ of\\ them\\,\\ thought\\ younger\\ physicians\\ were\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ experiment\\ on\\ patients\\ and\\ such\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ physicians\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ more\\ autopsies\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ disease\\,\\ but\\ trustees\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ that\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ give\\ the\\ hospital\\ a\\ negative\\ image\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Hospitalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Dangers\\ of\\ hospitals\\,\\ place\\ of\\ ill\\ health\\,\\ could\\ get\\ sick\\ by\\ going\\ there\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospital\\ gangrene\\,\\ 1865\\.\\ Hospital\\ specific\\ diseases\\,\\ which\\ occur\\ today\\ also\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Idea\\ of\\ hospital\\ as\\ a\\ dangerous\\ place\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ long\\ standing\\ problem\\ for\\ hospital\\ managers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Staten\\ \\Island\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 1858\\,\\ citizens\\ burned\\ down\\ the\\ hospital\\.\\ People\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ hospitals\\ in\\ their\\ communities\\ because\\ they\\ deemed\\ it\\ dangerous\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Civil\\ \\\\War\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>More\\ people\\ died\\ of\\ infections\\ from\\ wounds\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ hospitals\\ were\\ deployed\\ during\\ the\\ war\\ and\\ continued\\ to\\ function\\ afterwards\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Florence\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ Nightingale\\.\\ Became\\ a\\ mythical\\ character\\.\\ Her\\ writings\\ became\\ influential\\.\\ Wrote\\ much\\ about\\ proper\\ environment\\ for\\ healing\\,\\ pavilion\\ model\\ of\\ hospitals\\ which\\ emphasizes\\ ventilation\\,\\ light\\,\\ openness\\,\\ attention\\ to\\ hygiene\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nightingale\\ model\\ is\\ imposed\\ in\\ civil\\ war\\ hospitals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Pavilion\\ model\\ holds\\ strong\\,\\ even\\ Brigham\\ \\&\\;\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\&rsquo\\;\\ Hospital\\ in\\ 1913\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Model\\ had\\ dominate\\ effect\\ even\\ into\\ late\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ though\\ not\\ universal\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Children\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Hospital\\,\\ place\\ for\\ acculturation\\ of\\ Irish\\ immigrant\\ children\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Race\\ and\\ the\\ hospital\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thought\\ Irish\\ were\\ a\\ different\\ type\\ of\\ being\\.\\ Wanted\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ a\\ dif\\ building\\ in\\ MGH\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Boston\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\City\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ \\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ created\\ as\\ response\\,\\ de\\ facto\\ becomes\\ a\\ largely\\ Catholic\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ are\\ other\\ specialized\\ hospitals\\ founded\\,\\ which\\ are\\ separated\\ by\\ religion\\ or\\ dif\\ specialties\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Creation\\ of\\ hospitals\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ increase\\ in\\ population\\ by\\ procreation\\ and\\ by\\ immigration\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Subcommunities\\ founding\\ own\\ hospitals\\ as\\ sign\\ of\\ arrival\\ and\\ legitimation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1885\\,\\ there\\ are\\ 154\\ Catholic\\ hospitals\\.\\ But\\ before\\ 1860\\,\\ there\\ were\\ less\\ 100\\ hospitals\\ in\\ the\\ country\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Growth\\ of\\ sectarian\\ hospitals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Provident\\ Hospital\\,\\ \\\\Chicago\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ 1891\\.\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ black\\ founded\\ and\\ blacked\\ owned\\ hospital\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Creating\\ hospitals\\ was\\ a\\ perspective\\ of\\ self\\ worthy\\ of\\ an\\ urban\\ community\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\ is\\ there\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ hospitals\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Demographic\\ change\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ and\\ urbanization\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ internal\\ changes\\ of\\ the\\ profession\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hospital\\ in\\ Urban\\ Life\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>As\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ hospitals\\ as\\ complex\\ social\\ institution\\,\\ speaks\\ to\\ the\\ continuity\\ and\\ the\\ ruptures\\ of\\ the\\ problematics\\ of\\ the\\ hospital\\.\\ These\\ alien\\ institutions\\ of\\ hospitals\\ in\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ c\\ do\\ have\\ a\\ tie\\ to\\ the\\ current\\ hospitals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Early American Hospitals"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.830983+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Mental Health and the Asylum", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 773, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:200870462\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:838505074\\ \\-1729590606\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Problem\\ of\\ mental\\ illness\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ general\\ body\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Theme\\:\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disease\\?\\ How\\ does\\ mental\\ illness\\ fit\\ into\\ this\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Both\\ naturalistic\\,\\ supernatural\\ ways\\ of\\ understanding\\ medical\\ illness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;Mania\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ animal\\ spirits\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Melancholy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ flatulence\\ of\\ spirits\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ are\\ range\\ of\\ human\\ behaviors\\,\\ society\\ selects\\ some\\ and\\ categorizes\\ them\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;deviant\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\ does\\ mental\\ illness\\ bring\\ multiple\\ layers\\ of\\ stigma\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ story\\ about\\ woman\\ with\\ mental\\ illness\\ whom\\ he\\ saw\\ for\\ emergency\\ care\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>physician\\ implicate\\ in\\ set\\ of\\ responsibilities\\&mdash\\;if\\ she\\ hurts\\ herself\\ or\\ others\\,\\ he\\ is\\ responsible\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>concern\\,\\ but\\ as\\ general\\ internist\\ need\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ specialized\\ help\\:\\ consultation\\ to\\ psychiatrist\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>woman\\ refused\\ to\\ see\\ psychiatrist\\.\\ what\\ can\\ one\\ do\\ at\\ this\\ point\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>if\\ feel\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ a\\ risk\\ to\\ others\\ or\\ self\\,\\ security\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>physician\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\ to\\ confine\\,\\ commit\\ a\\ patient\\ \\(with\\ checks\\ and\\ balances\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Significant\\ interaction\\ between\\ disease\\ and\\ the\\ law\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Samuel\\ Coolidge\\,\\ Harvard\\ class\\ of\\ 1738\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>over\\ time\\,\\ reports\\ of\\ erratic\\ behavior\\ accumulated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>freq\\.\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;thoroughly\\ insane\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;distracted\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Test\\ of\\ reading\\ scripture\\ at\\ time\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ if\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ read\\ it\\ properly\\,\\ insane\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Coolidge\\ fails\\ scripture\\ test\\.\\ Vagrant\\,\\ but\\ loosely\\ cared\\ for\\ by\\ community\\ of\\ \\\\Watertown\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Where\\ are\\ the\\ doctors\\ in\\ this\\ story\\?\\?\\ Nowhere\\ to\\ be\\ found\\.\\ No\\ medical\\ treatment\\,\\ no\\ idea\\ of\\ place\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ put\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Community\\ treatment\\ for\\ mentally\\ ill\\,\\ common\\ till\\ early\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Bethelehem\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\,\\ \\\\London\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>known\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bedlam\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>asylum\\ as\\ place\\ of\\ confinement\\,\\ or\\ treatment\\?\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Pennsylvania\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\,\\ asylum\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>People\\ could\\ pay\\ to\\ watch\\ insane\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Like\\ going\\ into\\ a\\ zoo\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Humoral\\ basis\\ of\\ understanding\\ for\\ mental\\ illness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Melancholia\\ \\(black\\ bile\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ still\\ use\\ term\\ melancholy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ restraints\\:\\ manacles\\,\\ straightjackets\\,\\ \\\\Utica\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ crib\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Punishment\\?\\ Or\\ actually\\ therapeutic\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>spread\\-eagle\\ cure\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ restrained\\,\\ naked\\,\\ cold\\ water\\ poured\\ on\\ head\\.\\ in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ heroic\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Phillippe\\ Pinel\\,\\ moral\\ treatment\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>late\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;moral\\ treatment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ change\\ in\\ environment\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ change\\ in\\ mental\\ state\\,\\ produce\\ cure\\ of\\ illness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>careful\\ not\\ to\\ ascribe\\ too\\ much\\ of\\ this\\ liberation\\ philosophy\\ to\\ him\\;\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\,\\ very\\ paternalistic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ enforce\\ very\\ rigid\\ treatment\\ to\\ coerce\\ submission\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\&ldquo\\;moral\\ architecture\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kirkbride\\ hospital\\ \\(PA\\)\\,\\ \\McLean\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ \\(\\\\Belmont\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>hospital\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ designed\\ as\\ specialized\\ institution\\,\\ specialized\\ staff\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>rigorous\\ routine\\,\\ precise\\ calendar\\ of\\ day\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>landscape\\ just\\ as\\ important\\ as\\ building\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>situated\\ outside\\ city\\,\\ but\\ not\\ too\\ far\\,\\ still\\ accessible\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>High\\ but\\ attractive\\ wall\\ bounding\\ asylum\\ \\(idea\\ of\\ containment\\,\\ but\\ also\\ treatment\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bloomingdale\\ Asylum\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>idyllic\\,\\ bucolic\\ place\\ for\\ recover\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>as\\ improve\\,\\ moved\\ to\\ wards\\ with\\ more\\ privileges\\,\\ more\\ liberties\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>State\\ Insane\\ hospital\\,\\ \\\\Worcester\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ \\MA\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1830s\\,\\ 2\\-tiered\\ system\\ developing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Those\\ with\\ money\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ institutions\\ with\\ curative\\ intent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Poor\\ \\\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ jailed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Horace\\ Mann\\ campaigns\\ for\\ public\\ mental\\ asylums\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Samuel\\ Woodward\\ is\\ superintendent\\ of\\ this\\ hospital\\.\\ 60\\%\\ of\\ patients\\ there\\ for\\:\\ ill\\ health\\,\\ intemperance\\,\\ domestic\\ affliction\\,\\ religious\\ excitement\\,\\ masturbation\\,\\ anxiety\\ about\\ loss\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Growth\\ of\\ asylym\\ as\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ structure\\,\\ extends\\ into\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Constant\\ relationship\\ between\\ biological\\,\\ moral\\ and\\ psychological\\ illnesses\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sigmund\\ Freud\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>psychoanalysis\\ comes\\ back\\ in\\ 1950s\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>as\\ troops\\ unable\\ to\\ fight\\ because\\ of\\ psychological\\ trauma\\ \\(WWII\\)\\,\\ psychologists\\ brought\\ in\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ideas\\ gained\\ more\\ prominence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Asylum\\ reform\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nelly\\ Bly\\:\\ pretended\\ to\\ be\\ insane\\ to\\ look\\ inside\\ Blackwell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Island\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ process\\ of\\ hospitalization\\,\\ writes\\ account\\ of\\ conditions\\ under\\ which\\ women\\ are\\ imprisoned\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Mental Health and the Asylum"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.863884+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Racial Medicine", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 774, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:499198938\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:450769856\\ \\-909749660\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Scientific\\ racism\\ and\\ sexism\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ focusing\\ on\\ the\\ antebellum\\ period\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Biological\\ determinism\\,\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ social\\ and\\ economic\\ differences\\ between\\ human\\ groups\\,\\ divided\\ by\\ class\\,\\ race\\,\\ gender\\,\\ or\\ age\\,\\ arise\\ from\\ inherent\\ biological\\ differences\\.\\ Society\\ is\\ an\\ accurate\\ reflection\\ of\\ biology\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Racism\\ did\\ exist\\ in\\ science\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>See\\ patterns\\ of\\ scientific\\ racism\\ increasing\\ in\\ relevance\\ as\\ science\\ improves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Bodies\\,\\ place\\,\\ and\\ race\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Native\\ American\\ bodies\\ were\\ racially\\ inferior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ are\\ distinct\\ bodily\\ differences\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Slavery\\ trade\\,\\ view\\ people\\ as\\ having\\ trade\\ value\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Will\\ describe\\ what\\ therapeutics\\ was\\ like\\ for\\ slaves\\ and\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ scientific\\ racism\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ came\\ about\\ and\\ spread\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Not\\ enough\\ just\\ to\\ say\\ they\\ were\\ racist\\,\\ because\\ racism\\ always\\ existed\\,\\ but\\ why\\ were\\ they\\ racist\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Systematic\\ Racism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Lincoln\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ also\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ white\\ race\\ was\\ superior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ did\\ racism\\ mean\\ at\\ this\\ time\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Health\\ on\\ the\\ \\\\Plantation\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ difficult\\ to\\ get\\ sources\\ from\\ slaves\\ themselves\\ about\\ the\\ therapeutics\\,\\ easier\\ to\\ get\\ sources\\ from\\ physicians\\ that\\ treated\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Suffer\\ from\\ asymmetry\\ of\\ sources\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ is\\ no\\ one\\ therapeutic\\ system\\,\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ systems\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1860\\,\\ there\\ were\\ 4\\ mil\\ slaves\\.\\ Pop\\ of\\ country\\ was\\ 32\\ mil\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ happens\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ an\\ enslaved\\ African\\ American\\ and\\ where\\ would\\ you\\ seek\\ care\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>One\\ is\\ top\\ down\\,\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ one\\ is\\ bottom\\ up\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>One\\ is\\ formal\\ system\\ of\\ medical\\ care\\,\\ slaves\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ investments\\,\\ so\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lot\\ of\\ incentives\\ for\\ owners\\ to\\ look\\ after\\ their\\ slaves\\.\\ Principally\\ based\\ on\\ value\\ of\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Other\\ is\\ local\\ treatment\\,\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ development\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ cultural\\ under\\ slavery\\.\\ There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ autonomous\\ slave\\ healing\\ tradition\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Why\\ would\\ a\\ slave\\ participate\\ in\\ one\\ system\\ versus\\ another\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Slaves\\ would\\ not\\ understand\\ the\\ formal\\ system\\ of\\ medical\\ care\\,\\ thus\\ may\\ not\\ belief\\ in\\ their\\ effectiveness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ idea\\ that\\ slaves\\ received\\ better\\ medical\\ care\\ than\\ poor\\ white\\ men\\ was\\ a\\ defense\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ That\\ the\\ slaves\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ family\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ taken\\ care\\ of\\ well\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Medicalization\\,\\ transforming\\ observed\\ social\\ aspects\\ into\\ biological\\ aspects\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Slavery\\ and\\ Medical\\ Education\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Experimentation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ med\\ schools\\ get\\ cadavers\\ from\\ plantations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Med\\ schools\\ also\\ had\\ deals\\ w\\/\\ plantations\\ that\\ their\\ med\\ fees\\ would\\ be\\ reduced\\ if\\ the\\ students\\ can\\ practice\\ on\\ the\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Slavery\\ and\\ Medical\\ Experimentation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sims\\,\\ father\\ of\\ obstetrician\\,\\ devised\\ novel\\ surgical\\ procedure\\ to\\ cure\\ vaginal\\ vestures\\.\\ He\\ experimented\\ for\\ 4\\ years\\ on\\ his\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>He\\ acknowledges\\ that\\ his\\ discovery\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ un\\-anesthetized\\ suffering\\ of\\ his\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ have\\ to\\ ask\\ ourselves\\,\\ who\\ did\\ we\\ experiment\\ on\\ to\\ develop\\ our\\ current\\ medical\\ practices\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Slave\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Hospital\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Relatively\\ consistent\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ plantation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nurses\\ were\\ older\\ female\\ slaves\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Society\\ was\\ more\\ porous\\ than\\ one\\ would\\ think\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>African\\ American\\ midwifes\\ serviced\\ white\\ patients\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Wide\\ variety\\ of\\ African\\ healing\\ systems\\ and\\ herbalists\\ principles\\ were\\ brought\\ from\\ various\\ African\\ nations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Syncratic\\ fusion\\ of\\ African\\ shamanistic\\ practices\\ with\\ Christian\\ religious\\ practices\\ for\\ healing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ studying\\ African\\ American\\ healing\\,\\ realize\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ practices\\ that\\ convey\\ resistant\\,\\ autonomy\\,\\ and\\ some\\ degrees\\ of\\ power\\ and\\ authority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Health\\ Status\\ of\\ African\\ Americans\\ Under\\ Slavery\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ were\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ common\\ illnesses\\ in\\ slaves\\,\\ which\\ many\\ people\\ thought\\ were\\ biologically\\ based\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ utility\\ of\\ biological\\ determinism\\ explanations\\ lead\\ to\\ their\\ popularity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Infant\\ mortality\\ was\\ 25\\%\\ higher\\ in\\ slaves\\ than\\ whites\\.\\ There\\ were\\ concerns\\ of\\ smothering\\ and\\ crib\\ deaths\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Physicians\\ attributed\\ these\\ deaths\\ often\\ to\\ carelessness\\ and\\ stupidity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>But\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ SIDS\\,\\ sudden\\ infant\\ death\\ syndrome\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ observed\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ common\\ in\\ poverty\\,\\ poor\\ prenatal\\ care\\.\\ These\\ terms\\ are\\ very\\ dif\\ from\\ terms\\ they\\ used\\ back\\ then\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Scientific\\ Racism\\,\\ Monogenism\\ vs\\ Polygenism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Early\\ notions\\ of\\ SR\\ was\\ hinged\\ on\\ understanding\\ of\\ race\\.\\ How\\ do\\ they\\ understand\\ the\\ difference\\ of\\ races\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Monogenism\\,\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ and\\ from\\ Adam\\,\\ but\\ some\\ people\\ degenerated\\ for\\ generations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Polygenism\\,\\ other\\ races\\ were\\ dif\\ species\\,\\ fundamentally\\ biologically\\ distinct\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Primary\\ proponent\\ of\\ polygenism\\.\\ Louis\\ Agassiz\\,\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ biologist\\ in\\ Am\\ in\\ early\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ Considered\\ himself\\ an\\ abolitionist\\.\\ Finds\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ biological\\ determinism\\ so\\ compelling\\,\\ which\\ is\\ based\\ only\\ on\\ his\\ interactions\\ with\\ blacks\\ but\\ not\\ on\\ empirical\\ evidence\\,\\ that\\ he\\ fit\\ them\\ into\\ a\\ scientific\\ mapping\\ of\\ different\\ human\\ species\\.\\ And\\ he\\ ranked\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>that\\ were\\ characteristic\\ of\\ different\\ races\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Craniometry\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Samuel\\ Morton\\,\\ build\\ evidence\\ to\\ support\\ \\Agassiz\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\.\\ Collected\\ skulls\\.\\ He\\ measured\\ the\\ volume\\ of\\ skulls\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Ranked\\ the\\ skulls\\.\\ European\\ skulls\\ had\\ the\\ biggest\\ volumes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Stephen\\ Jay\\ Gould\\ went\\ to\\ Morton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ skulls\\ and\\ remeasured\\ them\\.\\ Noticed\\ that\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unconscious\\ bias\\ that\\ allowed\\ Morton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ measurements\\ to\\ fit\\ his\\ theory\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Josiah\\ Nott\\,\\ published\\ Types\\ of\\ Mankind\\,\\ 1854\\.\\ Representation\\ of\\ bias\\ is\\ extraordinarily\\ obvious\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Brain\\ size\\ and\\ shape\\.\\ Able\\ to\\ obtain\\ specimens\\ and\\ measure\\.\\ Way\\ samples\\ were\\ portrayed\\ ranking\\ that\\ was\\ reflected\\ in\\ biological\\ differences\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>There\\ is\\ a\\ process\\ of\\ hypothesis\\ testing\\ of\\ such\\ theories\\ and\\ then\\ tweaking\\ when\\ the\\ conclusions\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ match\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>These\\ ideas\\ were\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ scientific\\ community\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ Darwinism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Theories\\ were\\ used\\ in\\ post\\ emancipation\\ context\\ where\\ blacks\\ were\\ suffering\\ economic\\ hardships\\ and\\ high\\ mortality\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ Darwinism\\ was\\ used\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ difs\\ in\\ quality\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ mortality\\ btwn\\ black\\ and\\ white\\,\\ and\\ then\\ read\\ that\\ into\\ a\\ biological\\ determinism\\,\\ claimed\\ that\\ slavery\\ was\\ what\\ kept\\ the\\ black\\ race\\ from\\ going\\ from\\ extinction\\ and\\ slowed\\ down\\ the\\ process\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Popular\\ Science\\,\\ 1874\\,\\ thought\\ evolution\\ went\\ from\\ dog\\ to\\ ape\\ to\\ idiot\\ to\\ savage\\ \\(Native\\ American\\)\\ to\\ blacks\\ to\\ whites\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Racialization\\ of\\ Irish\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Emphasizing\\ differences\\ between\\ races\\ as\\ manifest\\ in\\ head\\ shape\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Race\\ and\\ Extinction\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Used\\ Social\\ Darwinism\\ theories\\ as\\ arguments\\ of\\ extinction\\ of\\ inferior\\ Native\\ American\\ race\\ and\\ African\\ American\\ race\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Creation\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ hospitals\\,\\ medical\\ schools\\,\\ medical\\ societies\\,\\ and\\ medical\\ journals\\.\\ Post\\ emancipation\\ was\\ not\\ all\\ suffering\\,\\ there\\ was\\ efforts\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ change\\ things\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Racial Medicine"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.901719+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Gender, Sexism, and Medicine in the Nineteenth Century", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 775, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 2\\ 6\\ 2\\ 5\\ 3\\ 11\\ 2\\ 3\\ 3\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:135\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 27\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:13\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:172577318\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-161684606\\ \\-61861816\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-start\\-at\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\-\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Venetian301\\ Dm\\ BT\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Medicine\\ in\\ public\\ life\\ was\\ expanding\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Parallel\\ exclusion\\ of\\ women\\ from\\ medical\\ profession\\ and\\ formation\\ of\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hospitals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Process\\ of\\ biological\\ determinism\\ plays\\ out\\ similar\\ in\\ sex\\ and\\ race\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sims\\&rsquo\\;\\ portrait\\.\\ With\\ his\\ involuntary\\ research\\ subject\\.\\ This\\ portrait\\ captures\\ good\\ intersection\\ of\\ race\\ and\\ gender\\,\\ with\\ his\\ female\\ black\\ subject\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sex\\ versus\\ gender\\,\\ relating\\ to\\ child\\ birth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Politics\\ and\\ process\\ by\\ which\\ women\\ overcame\\ the\\ barriers\\ to\\ the\\ medical\\ profession\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Role\\ of\\ masculinity\\ of\\ the\\ surgeon\\,\\ how\\ anesthesia\\ undercut\\ some\\ of\\ that\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Gender\\,\\ talking\\ about\\ difs\\ btwn\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ that\\ arise\\ from\\ social\\ roles\\,\\ a\\ culture\\ bound\\ set\\ of\\ practices\\,\\ behaviors\\,\\ and\\ beliefs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sex\\,\\ core\\ innate\\ biological\\ difs\\ btwn\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ about\\ intersex\\ babies\\?\\ Is\\ sex\\ at\\ the\\ chromosome\\ level\\ or\\ anatomical\\ level\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Heuristic\\ definitions\\,\\ but\\ useful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Scientific\\ sexism\\ uses\\ biology\\ to\\ justify\\ gender\\ roles\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Biological\\ expression\\ of\\ gender\\.\\ Breast\\ implants\\,\\ women\\ change\\ their\\ biology\\ to\\ conform\\ to\\ social\\ expectations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Gendered\\ expression\\ of\\ biology\\.\\ Women\\ have\\ roles\\ as\\ mothers\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ bear\\ children\\,\\ clear\\ innate\\ biological\\ dif\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Gender\\ and\\ biology\\ interact\\ in\\ very\\ complicated\\ ways\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Men\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ develop\\ contact\\ lenses\\ diseases\\,\\ because\\ of\\ hygienic\\ reasons\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ more\\ hygienic\\ and\\ thus\\ less\\ often\\ develop\\ such\\ diseases\\.\\ So\\,\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ more\\ hygienic\\ is\\ because\\ of\\ social\\ roles\\?\\ But\\ the\\ diseases\\ are\\ a\\ biological\\ expression\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ Childbirth\\,\\ 1887\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Engraving\\.\\ Shows\\ patterns\\ of\\ childbirth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Women\\ tended\\ to\\ give\\ birth\\ at\\ home\\,\\ surrounded\\ by\\ midwives\\ or\\ family\\ members\\.\\ Use\\ of\\ physicians\\ is\\ minimal\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Movement\\ in\\ mid\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ that\\ physicians\\ become\\ more\\ involved\\ in\\ childbirth\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\#\\ of\\ live\\ births\\ for\\ avg\\ white\\ women\\ is\\ 7\\.\\ Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ count\\ miscarriages\\ or\\ stillborns\\.\\ So\\ childbirth\\ was\\ a\\ continuous\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Not\\ only\\ 1\\ type\\ of\\ women\\.\\ Abortion\\ was\\ not\\ considered\\ illegal\\,\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ you\\ haven\\&rsquo\\;t\\ felt\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ fetus\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1800s\\,\\ avg\\ African\\ American\\ women\\ in\\ slavery\\ would\\ have\\ 10\\ live\\ births\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Childbirth\\ and\\ pregnancy\\ was\\ an\\ impt\\ part\\ of\\ all\\ women\\.\\ There\\ was\\ much\\ anxiety\\ with\\ it\\ too\\,\\ because\\ of\\ high\\ infant\\ mortality\\,\\ and\\ child\\ bed\\ fever\\ where\\ 1\\ women\\ would\\ die\\ every\\ 150\\ births\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Maternal\\ mortality\\ also\\ shaped\\ femininity\\ and\\ womanhood\\.\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ life\\ expectancy\\ was\\ shorter\\ back\\ then\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>If\\ childbirth\\ was\\ so\\ perilous\\,\\ how\\ did\\ women\\ seek\\ care\\?\\ How\\ does\\ it\\ become\\ medicalized\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ med\\ profession\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Medicalization\\ of\\ Childbirth\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ 1860s\\,\\ physicians\\ began\\ exerting\\ claims\\ of\\ superior\\ knowledge\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ better\\ manage\\ the\\ perilousness\\ of\\ childbirth\\.\\ Served\\ mostly\\ higher\\ and\\ elite\\ classes\\.\\ Man\\-midwifery\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Use\\ forceps\\ for\\ birthing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Interventionist\\ methods\\ of\\ childbirth\\ with\\ instruments\\ and\\ medicines\\,\\ opiates\\ and\\ bloodletting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Intrusion\\ into\\ a\\ traditional\\ female\\ sphere\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Violation\\ of\\ sacred\\ space\\ of\\ femininity\\.\\ Some\\ physicians\\ did\\ not\\ feel\\ comfortable\\ examining\\ females\\.\\ Pelvic\\ exams\\ were\\ often\\ awkward\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ involve\\ direct\\ visuals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Male\\ obstetricians\\ had\\ no\\ experience\\ w\\/\\ childbirth\\ or\\ the\\ female\\ pelvis\\ after\\ graduating\\ from\\ med\\ school\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1900\\,\\ only\\ \\½\\;\\ of\\ births\\ are\\ attended\\ by\\ physicians\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Therapeutic\\ change\\ from\\ forceps\\ to\\ C\\-section\\ also\\ involves\\ practicalities\\ of\\ training\\.\\ Easier\\ to\\ train\\ people\\ to\\ do\\ C\\-sections\\ than\\ forceps\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Biological\\ Determinism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Relying\\ difs\\ btwn\\ gender\\ roles\\ to\\ biological\\ reasons\\.\\ These\\ were\\ very\\ old\\ theories\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Humoral\\ theories\\ thought\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ bodies\\ were\\ dif\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Social\\ ideal\\ qualities\\ for\\ women\\ were\\ very\\ segregated\\,\\ moral\\,\\ sensitive\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Thought\\ these\\ qualities\\ have\\ deep\\ biological\\ reasons\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Supported\\ such\\ theories\\ with\\ craniometry\\,\\ women\\ had\\ smaller\\ skulls\\.\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brains\\ were\\ on\\ avg\\ 5\\ ounces\\ lighter\\ than\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Mens\\ were\\ seem\\ as\\ intellectual\\,\\ women\\ emotional\\.\\ Men\\ public\\ sphere\\,\\ women\\ private\\.\\ Men\\ political\\ sphere\\,\\ women\\ moral\\ sphere\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Thought\\ women\\ had\\ dif\\ nervous\\ system\\ than\\ men\\,\\ based\\ on\\ fact\\ that\\ women\\ could\\ give\\ birth\\.\\ Thought\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ relation\\ btwn\\ brain\\ and\\ womb\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Avoidance\\ of\\ childbirth\\ was\\ also\\ seen\\ as\\ perilous\\,\\ cause\\ lots\\ of\\ problems\\ and\\ diseases\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Hysteria\\,\\ came\\ from\\ idea\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;wandering\\ uterus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Rise\\ of\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ colleges\\ and\\ co\\-education\\ questioned\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ role\\ in\\ society\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Dif\\ epidemiology\\ of\\ disease\\ attributed\\ to\\ biological\\ difs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sexism\\ had\\ support\\ from\\ finding\\ in\\ biology\\ gender\\ differences\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Dr\\.\\ Clarke\\ thought\\ women\\ having\\ education\\ caused\\ them\\ to\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ bear\\ children\\ and\\ be\\ responsible\\ to\\ their\\ race\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Great\\ fear\\ of\\ race\\ suicide\\,\\ thought\\ women\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ being\\ responsible\\ to\\ their\\ race\\ by\\ bearing\\ fewer\\ children\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Mercy\\ \\\\Jackson\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&rsquo\\;s\\ response\\ to\\ Clarke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arguments\\.\\ She\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reject\\ the\\ biologically\\ determined\\ difs\\,\\ but\\ just\\ females\\ have\\ their\\ ways\\ of\\ studying\\ and\\ such\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Many\\ hydropathy\\ practitioners\\ argued\\ that\\ fashion\\,\\ can\\ be\\ broadly\\ read\\ as\\ set\\ of\\ societal\\ expectations\\ applied\\ to\\ gender\\,\\ oppress\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ biology\\ systems\\ and\\ limits\\ their\\ abilities\\ much\\ more\\ than\\ any\\ innate\\ difs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Elizabeth\\ Blackwell\\,\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ women\\ to\\ receive\\ medical\\ degree\\ in\\ US\\,\\ other\\ women\\ have\\ received\\ degrees\\ from\\ \\Europe\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1850\\,\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ medical\\ college\\ in\\ \\\\Philadelphia\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>White\\ male\\ students\\ opposed\\ matriculation\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ blacks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Fascination\\ of\\ women\\ as\\ physicians\\ violating\\ certain\\ norms\\ versus\\ emphasizing\\ ideal\\ nurturing\\ type\\ that\\ is\\ suitable\\ to\\ certain\\ specialties\\ of\\ medicine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Debate\\ btwn\\ Blackwell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ certain\\ spheres\\ in\\ medicine\\ that\\ are\\ particularly\\ suitable\\ for\\ women\\ again\\ Jacobi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ view\\ that\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ trained\\ to\\ be\\ excellent\\ physicians\\ and\\ there\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ a\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sphere\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Still\\ see\\ this\\ today\\,\\ some\\ specialties\\ are\\ feminized\\ while\\ others\\ are\\ more\\ masculine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>By\\ 1860\\,\\ 200\\ women\\ doctors\\,\\ by\\ 1900\\ over\\ 7000s\\,\\ but\\ 132\\,000\\ male\\ physicians\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Women\\ physicians\\ were\\ small\\ minority\\ of\\ physicians\\.\\ Even\\ by\\ 1950\\,\\ women\\ make\\ up\\ only\\ 5\\%\\ of\\ graduates\\.\\ By\\ 1980\\,\\ only\\ 23\\%\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Now\\,\\ women\\ make\\ up\\ 50\\%\\,\\ extremely\\ recent\\ phenomenon\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Johns\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Hopkins\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\University\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\ \\ \\School\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ of\\ Medicine\\,\\ 1893\\.\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ class\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ admit\\ women\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1944\\,\\ \\\\Harvard\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Medical\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\School\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ admitted\\ women\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Biological\\ determinism\\ still\\ retains\\ powerful\\ cache\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>We\\ are\\ not\\ looking\\ at\\ whether\\ there\\ are\\ biological\\ differences\\,\\ which\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ obvious\\ ones\\ btwn\\ M\\ and\\ W\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ important\\ to\\ understand\\ what\\ structures\\ permitted\\ and\\ encouraged\\ such\\ thought\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ scientific\\ community\\.\\ How\\ much\\ have\\ we\\ moved\\ past\\ this\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 110, "file_path": "", "desc": "Gender, Sexism, and Medicine in the Nineteenth Century"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.931134+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Locke and Slavery", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 776, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\ZH\\-TW\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\AR\\-SA\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:EN\\-US\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ansi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:PMingLiU\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:Arial\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Locke\\ and\\ Slavery\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\John\\ Locke\\ was\\ an\\ investor\\ in\\ the\\ African\\ slave\\ trade\\ and\\ oversaw\\ colonial\\ matters\\ for\\ the\\ Lord\\ of\\ Shaftesbury\\.\\ He\\ was\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ implicated\\ in\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\ Yet\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ in\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writings\\ about\\ the\\ inferiority\\ of\\ slaves\\,\\ and\\ he\\ wrote\\ with\\ interest\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ about\\ Native\\ Americans\\.\\ Locke\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Locke\\ sets\\ out\\ very\\ specific\\ circumstances\\ in\\ which\\ you\\ can\\ enslave\\ someone\\.\\ In\\ a\\ situation\\ of\\ conquest\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ you\\ can\\ enslave\\ the\\ subdued\\ but\\ not\\ their\\ children\\ or\\ their\\ wives\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ war\\,\\ you\\ can\\ order\\ a\\ soldier\\ to\\ stand\\ before\\ a\\ cannon\\ but\\ you\\ cannot\\ take\\ a\\ farthing\\ of\\ his\\ property\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ according\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ even\\ when\\ you\\ can\\ exercise\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ life\\ and\\ death\\ over\\ someone\\ else\\,\\ you\\ cannot\\ exercise\\ arbitrary\\ power\\ over\\ them\\ for\\ your\\ own\\ pleasure\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ reason\\.\\ On\\ the\\ subjects\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ slaves\\,\\ original\\ sin\\,\\ racial\\ inferiority\\,\\ or\\ moral\\ degradation\\,\\ Locke\\ had\\ nothing\\ to\\ say\\ however\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ Locke\\ saw\\ slaves\\ as\\ equals\\ in\\ the\\ class\\ of\\ men\\,\\ as\\ evidenced\\ by\\ his\\ claim\\ that\\ slaves\\ should\\ be\\ allowed\\ to\\ attend\\ church\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Still\\,\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ slavery\\ constitutes\\,\\ in\\ some\\ sense\\,\\ an\\ immoral\\ evasion\\,\\ as\\ slave\\ labor\\ did\\ not\\ seem\\ to\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ perturb\\ him\\ and\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ try\\ to\\ reconcile\\ the\\ universality\\ of\\ liberty\\ with\\ this\\ institution\\.\\ There\\ seems\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ inconsistency\\ between\\ slavery\\ and\\ natural\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ we\\ all\\ possess\\ reason\\ and\\ with\\ that\\ reason\\ we\\ can\\ come\\ to\\ understand\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creatures\\ and\\ that\\ we\\ operate\\ under\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\.\\ Yet\\ it\\ is\\ worth\\ noting\\ that\\ when\\ Locke\\ wrote\\ about\\ the\\ slave\\ trade\\,\\ it\\ was\\ still\\ fairly\\ small\\.\\ It\\ was\\ really\\ only\\ about\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ revolution\\ that\\ slavery\\ became\\ anomalous\\ and\\ distinct\\ from\\ other\\ labor\\ relations\\ like\\ indentured\\ servitude\\.\\ Locke\\ invokes\\ slavery\\,\\ then\\,\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ subjection\\ to\\ absolute\\,\\ arbitrary\\ power\\,\\ and\\ his\\ discussion\\ of\\ slavery\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ his\\ distinction\\ between\\ political\\ and\\ despotic\\ power\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Locke\\ also\\ draws\\ a\\ distinction\\ between\\ political\\ and\\ paternal\\ power\\ to\\ argue\\ for\\ limited\\ government\\.\\ One\\ common\\ analogy\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ was\\ between\\ the\\ king\\ and\\ the\\ father\\:\\ the\\ people\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ children\\ who\\ never\\ grow\\ up\\,\\ while\\ the\\ family\\ was\\ conceived\\ of\\ as\\ a\\ little\\ monarchy\\.\\ As\\ royal\\ authority\\ rests\\ on\\ the\\ king\\&rsquo\\;s\\ affection\\ for\\ his\\ children\\,\\ obedience\\ to\\ the\\ king\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\ paralleling\\ obedience\\ to\\ a\\ father\\.\\ Locke\\ combats\\ this\\ notion\\ by\\ arguing\\ that\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ political\\ power\\ is\\ consent\\,\\ not\\ nature\\.\\ He\\ also\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ present\\ the\\ family\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ makes\\ it\\ absurd\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ family\\ as\\ a\\ model\\ for\\ the\\ king\\.\\ For\\ Locke\\,\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ father\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ authoritative\\ in\\ a\\ benign\\ sense\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ can\\ be\\ cruel\\,\\ arbitrary\\,\\ abusive\\,\\ even\\ cannibalistic\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ Locke\\ takes\\ away\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ paternal\\ power\\ is\\ benign\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Locke\\ furthers\\ his\\ case\\ that\\ paternal\\ power\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ suitable\\ analogy\\ for\\ royal\\ authority\\ by\\ asserting\\ that\\ paternalism\\ is\\ not\\ done\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ duty\\ but\\ out\\ of\\ prerogative\\.\\ The\\ subjection\\ of\\ the\\ minor\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ places\\ in\\ the\\ father\\ a\\ temporary\\ government\\ that\\ terminates\\ in\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ child\\.\\ The\\ child\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obligation\\ to\\ obey\\ his\\ father\\,\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ ends\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ he\\ reaches\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ majority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Finally\\,\\ Locke\\ argues\\ that\\ what\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ described\\ as\\ paternal\\ power\\ is\\ really\\ parental\\ power\\:\\ both\\ parents\\ provide\\ tutelage\\ and\\ care\\,\\ and\\ children\\ have\\ to\\ honor\\ both\\ parents\\.\\ This\\ argument\\ further\\ illustrates\\ the\\ absurdity\\ of\\ the\\ analogy\\ of\\ the\\ family\\ and\\ the\\ state\\.\\ If\\ the\\ state\\ really\\ mirrored\\ the\\ family\\,\\ for\\ Locke\\,\\ it\\ would\\ have\\ 2\\ heads\\ instead\\ of\\ one\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\But\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ marriage\\ is\\ conditional\\ and\\ by\\ consent\\,\\ Locke\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ make\\ an\\ argument\\ for\\ the\\ patriarchal\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ household\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ the\\ mothers\\ and\\ fathers\\ will\\ inevitably\\ have\\ different\\ wills\\,\\ so\\ the\\ rule\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ placed\\ somewhere\\.\\ It\\ naturally\\ falls\\ to\\ the\\ man\\ as\\ the\\ abler\\ and\\ stronger\\ one\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ household\\.\\ But\\ Locke\\ knew\\ that\\ monogamy\\ and\\ patriarchy\\ were\\ not\\ universal\\,\\ and\\ were\\ at\\ best\\ conventional\\ and\\ utilitarian\\.\\ He\\ could\\ have\\ simply\\ said\\ that\\ his\\ notion\\ of\\ all\\ God\\&rsquo\\;s\\ creatures\\ having\\ reason\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ apply\\ to\\ women\\,\\ and\\ that\\ women\\ are\\ essentially\\ permanent\\ children\\,\\ who\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ made\\ to\\ obey\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ Locke\\ limits\\ the\\ subjection\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ marriage\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ separate\\ or\\ divorce\\,\\ to\\ keep\\ their\\ property\\,\\ and\\ to\\ retain\\ considerable\\ independence\\.\\ They\\ should\\ not\\ be\\ barred\\ from\\ judgment\\,\\ consent\\,\\ or\\ revolution\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Locke\\,\\ no\\ one\\ should\\ be\\ subject\\ to\\ a\\ Hobbesian\\ Leviathan\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\,\\ while\\ Locke\\ evaded\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attempt\\ to\\ reconcile\\ his\\ theory\\ of\\ natural\\ law\\ with\\ that\\ institution\\,\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ evade\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\.\\ Locke\\ knew\\ that\\ the\\ status\\ of\\ women\\ and\\ most\\ men\\ in\\ civil\\ and\\ political\\ society\\ was\\ unequal\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ civil\\ and\\ political\\ rights\\ of\\ propertied\\ men\\.\\ One\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ argue\\ explicitly\\ for\\ excluding\\ all\\ women\\ and\\ most\\ men\\ from\\ civil\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ yet\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ he\\ also\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ say\\ civil\\ society\\ requires\\ equal\\ rights\\,\\ claiming\\ that\\ only\\ certain\\ basic\\ liberties\\ were\\ required\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 100, "file_path": "", "desc": "Locke and Slavery"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.952701+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Easter Island and Rongorongo", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 777, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\April\\ 8\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Easter\\ \\ Island\\<\\/b\\>\\\\ \\(Rapanui\\)\\:\\ Rongorongo\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 25\\-26\\ Boards\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\About\\ the\\ Island\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Pacific\\ Island\\ composite\\ of\\ several\\ volcanic\\ cones\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ relatively\\ gentle\\ topography\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Anakena\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ accessible\\ beach\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-No\\ coral\\ reefs\\,\\ so\\ this\\ has\\ implications\\ for\\ types\\ of\\ sea\\ creatures\\ available\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ water\\ is\\ really\\ cold\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ subtropical\\ \\(27\\ degrees\\ S\\ latitude\\)\\,\\ lack\\ of\\ fish\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Not\\ very\\ large\\:\\ 66\\ square\\ miles\\,\\ 15\\ miles\\ at\\ its\\ maximum\\ length\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-It\\ is\\ extremely\\ remote\\ at1400\\ miles\\ from\\ the\\ nearest\\ island\\,\\ 2500\\ miles\\ to\\ South\\ America\\,\\ which\\ explains\\ its\\ late\\ discovery\\ by\\ Europeans\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ only\\ settled\\ 1000\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ This\\ understandably\\ has\\ implications\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ its\\ history\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Explains\\ delays\\ in\\ colonization\\ and\\ later\\ discovery\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Important\\ visits\\ to\\ Easter\\ Island\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-1722\\ Easter\\ Sunday\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;discovered\\ by\\ Dutch\\ explorer\\ \\Jacob\\ Roggeveen\\<\\/u\\>\\;\\ it\\ was\\ treeless\\ and\\ barren\\ and\\ there\\ were\\ mal\\-nourished\\ people\\ on\\ it\\ \\(approximate\\ population\\:\\ 3000\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-1770\\:\\ Island\\ claimed\\ by\\ Spanish\\ in\\ military\\ ceremony\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;treaty\\ signing\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-1774\\:\\ Captain\\ James\\ Cook\\ lands\\ at\\ Easter\\ Island\\ with\\ a\\ Tahitian\\ guide\\,\\ and\\ Tahitian\\ was\\ close\\ enough\\ to\\ the\\ language\\ so\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ mutual\\ understanding\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-1862\\-1863\\:\\ Two\\ dozen\\ Peruvian\\ slaving\\ ships\\ abducted\\ 1500\\ people\\ \\(about\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ population\\)\\.\\ And\\ then\\ under\\ international\\ pressure\\,\\ they\\ repatriated\\ a\\ dozen\\ captives\\,\\ who\\ introduced\\ a\\ smallpox\\ epidemic\\,\\ so\\ that\\ by\\ 1872\\ only\\ 111\\ islanders\\ were\\ left\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-1869\\-1870\\ Florentin\\ Etienne\\ \\&lsquo\\;Tepano\\&rsquo\\;\\ Jaussen\\,\\ a\\ bishop\\ of\\ Tahiti\\,\\ first\\ calls\\ attention\\ to\\ rongorongo\\ tablets\\,\\ attempting\\ a\\ translation\\ with\\ the\\ assistance\\ of\\ an\\ islander\\ Metoro\\ Tau\\&rsquo\\;a\\ Ure\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-1886\\:\\ William\\ Judah\\ Thompson\\,\\ an\\ American\\ naval\\ officer\\,\\ purchases\\ two\\ tablets\\ and\\ persuades\\ an\\ 83\\-year\\ old\\ man\\,\\ Ure\\ Va\\&rsquo\\;e\\ Iko\\ to\\ \\&lsquo\\;read\\&rsquo\\;\\ them\\ for\\ him\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-1915\\-1920\\:\\ Katherine\\ and\\ Scoresby\\ Routledge\\,\\ two\\ British\\ anthropologists\\ collect\\ myths\\ and\\ ethnographic\\ data\\ on\\ the\\ island\\.\\ By\\ this\\ time\\,\\ rongorongo\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ in\\ use\\ \\(only\\ 24\\-26\\ rongorongo\\ texts\\ survive\\ today\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-1935\\-1969\\:\\ Sebastian\\ Englert\\,\\ a\\ Capuchin\\ priest\\,\\ compiles\\ a\\ small\\ Spanish\\-Rapanui\\ dictionary\\ eventually\\ published\\ in\\ \\La\\ Tierra\\ de\\ Hotu\\ Matu\\&rsquo\\;a\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(1948\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ indigenous\\ populations\\ on\\ Easter\\ Island\\ anymore\\ and\\ the\\ Rapanui\\ language\\ begins\\ to\\ be\\ mixed\\ with\\ Tahitian\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-what\\ did\\ the\\ language\\ look\\ like\\ prior\\ to\\ contact\\ with\\ other\\ Polynesian\\ tablets\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\&lsquo\\;Colonel\\&rsquo\\;\\ James\\ Churchward\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(1888\\-1969\\)\\:\\ Eccentric\\ British\\-born\\ author\\ of\\ \\The\\ Lost\\ Continent\\ of\\ Mu\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(1926\\)\\,\\ which\\ claimed\\ to\\ prove\\ the\\ former\\ existence\\ of\\ a\\ great\\ continent\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ Pacific\\ Ocean\\ \\(now\\ sunken\\)\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ islands\\ and\\ people\\ from\\ modern\\ Polynesia\\ descended\\.\\ He\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ people\\ were\\ always\\ there\\ on\\ the\\ largest\\ continent\\ that\\ disappeared\\ as\\ the\\ water\\ rose\\ or\\ islands\\ sank\\;\\ people\\ went\\ to\\ higher\\ ground\\ as\\ their\\ feet\\ got\\ wet\\.\\ All\\ of\\ the\\ effective\\ cultures\\ can\\ be\\ traced\\ back\\ to\\ Mu\\,\\ and\\ later\\ on\\ he\\ was\\ concerned\\ that\\ South\\ \\ America\\ had\\ an\\ ocean\\ in\\ the\\ Amazon\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Thor\\ Heyerdahl\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(1914\\-2002\\)\\:\\ Norwegian\\ adventurer\\ who\\ sailed\\ a\\ balsa\\ raft\\ from\\ Peru\\ to\\ Polynesia\\ in\\ 1947\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prove\\ his\\ controversial\\ theory\\ that\\ the\\ islands\\ were\\ settled\\ by\\ a\\ white\\ race\\ from\\ South\\ America\\;\\ exiled\\ prince\\ flees\\ to\\ the\\ island\\ and\\ the\\ descendents\\ of\\ his\\ slaves\\ were\\ the\\ short\\-eared\\,\\ and\\ his\\ descendents\\ were\\ long\\-eared\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ \\Easter\\ Island\\:\\ The\\ Mystery\\ Solved\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(1989\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Erich\\ von\\ Daniken\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(1935\\-\\)\\ Swiss\\ originator\\ of\\ the\\ Ancient\\ Astronaut\\ hypothesis\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ extraterrestrials\\ influenced\\ early\\ human\\ cultures\\.\\ With\\ respect\\ to\\ Easter\\ \\ Island\\,\\ he\\ claims\\ that\\ the\\ moai\\ depicted\\ alien\\ benefactors\\,\\ without\\ whom\\ the\\ Polynesians\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ unable\\ to\\ carve\\ and\\ erect\\ such\\ colossal\\ statues\\ \\(\\Chariots\\ of\\ the\\ Gods\\,\\ \\<\\/i\\>1968\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\New\\ Caladonia\\:\\ languages\\ of\\ Polynesia\\ and\\ the\\ Polynesian\\ Expansion\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Individuals\\ in\\ 1500\\ BC\\ people\\ were\\ moving\\ into\\ and\\ colonizing\\ the\\ Pacific\\ \\ Islands\\;\\ it\\ took\\ a\\ fair\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ for\\ civilizations\\ to\\ grow\\ to\\ force\\ movement\\ to\\ other\\ islands\\;\\ by\\ 600\\ BC\\ Samoan\\ and\\ Tongan\\ were\\ inhabited\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Evidence\\ for\\ this\\ comes\\ from\\ \\Lapita\\ Pottery\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(1500\\-500BC\\)\\;\\ pottery\\ features\\ geometric\\ repeated\\ patterns\\;\\ large\\ vessels\\ used\\ for\\ cooking\\ and\\ storing\\ food\\,\\ they\\ were\\ taken\\ aboard\\ vessels\\ to\\ hold\\ seeds\\ or\\ food\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-huge\\ complexity\\ of\\ the\\ patterns\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ found\\ on\\ island\\ after\\ island\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-we\\ can\\ in\\ fact\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ more\\ recent\\ examples\\ are\\ found\\ to\\ the\\ East\\ which\\ suggests\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ colonization\\ of\\ the\\ Pacific\\ islands\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Early\\ sailing\\ vessels\\ of\\ the\\ Polynesian\\ Explorers\\:\\ ethnographic\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ types\\ of\\ boats\\ used\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Father\\ Sebastian\\ Englert\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\(1888\\-1969\\)\\ Born\\ in\\ Bavaria\\ of\\ German\\ parents\\,\\ Englert\\ was\\ a\\ well\\-traveled\\ Capuchin\\ Franciscan\\ friar\\,\\ missionary\\,\\ and\\ linguist\\ who\\ lived\\ on\\ Easter\\ Island\\ from\\ 1935\\ until\\ his\\ death\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ the\\ justly\\ famous\\ \\La\\ Tierra\\ de\\ Hotu\\ Matu\\&rsquo\\;a\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ which\\ was\\ an\\ indepth\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ history\\,\\ customs\\,\\ and\\ language\\ of\\ Easter\\ Island\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Tongan\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ diverse\\ of\\ the\\ languages\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ Samoan\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\They\\ break\\ up\\ the\\ Polynesian\\ languages\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-historical\\ linguistic\\ patterns\\ that\\ fit\\ the\\ island\\ habitats\\;\\ language\\ laboratory\\ with\\ the\\ geographic\\ isolates\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-no\\ mechanism\\ within\\ linguistics\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ correlate\\ what\\ is\\ observed\\ on\\ the\\ islands\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ in\\ the\\ languages\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\From\\ 600\\-800\\ AD\\ it\\ took\\ lots\\ of\\ time\\ to\\ find\\ Easter\\ Island\\ in\\ the\\ vastness\\ of\\ the\\ Pacific\\ \\ Island\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-there\\ are\\ lots\\ of\\ sea\\-birds\\ on\\ Easter\\ Island\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-gigantic\\ biodiversity\\ and\\ they\\ can\\ only\\ fly\\ so\\ far\\ from\\ their\\ homes\\,\\ but\\ if\\ they\\ saw\\ a\\ seabird\\ they\\ knew\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ somewhat\\ close\\ to\\ land\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ Polynesian\\ first\\ discovered\\ Easter\\ \\ Island\\ it\\ was\\ covered\\ with\\ trees\\;\\ rich\\ habitat\\ for\\ seabirds\\ and\\ the\\ surrounding\\ waters\\ were\\ too\\ cool\\ for\\ fish\\ and\\ less\\ than\\ \\¼\\;\\ of\\ the\\ bones\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ garbage\\ heaps\\ were\\ fish\\.\\ The\\ majority\\ of\\ bones\\ were\\ from\\ porpoises\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-there\\ were\\ lots\\ of\\ different\\ trees\\ on\\ the\\ island\\,\\ one\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ palm\\ tree\\ that\\ was\\ perfect\\ for\\ making\\ ocean\\-bound\\ canoes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-rats\\ also\\ were\\ a\\ staple\\ for\\ food\\ on\\ the\\ island\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-trees\\ were\\ cut\\ down\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ for\\ cremation\\ \\(did\\ not\\ inter\\ bodies\\)\\,\\ making\\ canoes\\,\\ shelters\\,\\ and\\ monument\\ building\\,\\ transportation\\,\\ fire\\-building\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Once\\ the\\ trees\\ were\\ gone\\ they\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ canoes\\ to\\ catch\\ porpoises\\.\\ This\\ explains\\ cannibalism\\ because\\ society\\ began\\ to\\ spiral\\ out\\ of\\ control\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-complex\\ botany\\;\\ 17\\ separate\\ tree\\ species\\ and\\ the\\ giant\\ palm\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Built\\ lots\\ of\\ monuments\\ while\\ children\\ were\\ starving\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-affirm\\ local\\ authority\\,\\ provide\\ social\\ stability\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-darkside\\ of\\ unexamined\\ belief\\;\\ the\\ monuments\\ need\\ 3\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ stones\\ gathered\\ from\\ lots\\ of\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ island\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-thought\\ that\\ the\\ statues\\ represent\\ ancestors\\,\\ one\\ type\\ for\\ head\\,\\ body\\,\\ and\\ tall\\ hats\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rano\\ Raraku\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ of\\ the\\ quaries\\;\\ 397\\ moai\\ were\\ abandoned\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-transport\\ roads\\ that\\ are\\ 25\\ feet\\ wide\\,\\ and\\ they\\ diverge\\ in\\ 16\\-17\\ roads\\ that\\ go\\ to\\ different\\ coasts\\ of\\ Easter\\ Island\\ and\\ 97\\ more\\ moai\\ were\\ found\\ abandoned\\ along\\ these\\ highways\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-300\\ stone\\ platforms\\ around\\ the\\ island\\ associated\\ with\\ 393\\ moai\\ were\\ once\\ erected\\ along\\ the\\ coasts\\,\\ all\\ of\\ which\\ until\\ a\\ few\\ decades\\ ago\\ had\\ been\\ intentionally\\ toppled\\ and\\ broken\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Large\\ moai\\ face\\ inwards\\ rather\\ than\\ out\\ at\\ sea\\,\\ they\\ look\\ inward\\ to\\ protect\\ their\\ descendents\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Writing\\ System\\:\\ vanishing\\ of\\ the\\ forests\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-signatures\\ that\\ the\\ Rapanui\\ Chiefs\\ made\\ for\\ the\\ Spanish\\ in\\ 1770\\;\\ some\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ early\\ rongorongo\\;\\ the\\ large\\ picture\\ is\\ a\\ petroglyphs\\ of\\ a\\ sea\\ bird\\,\\ very\\ anthropomorphic\\ representations\\ of\\ the\\ birds\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ Egg\\;\\<\\/b\\>\\ a\\ relief\\ from\\ the\\ Easter\\ Island\\;\\ the\\ birds\\ hold\\ eggs\\ inside\\ wings\\ that\\ look\\ a\\ lot\\ like\\ hands\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Rongorongo\\ did\\ come\\ from\\ the\\ native\\ artistic\\ traditions\\ and\\ a\\ conduit\\ from\\ petroglyphs\\ to\\ the\\ writing\\ system\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\The\\ small\\ Vienna\\ Tablet\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ collected\\ by\\ Wilhelm\\ Geiseler\\;\\ made\\ from\\ South\\ African\\ yellowwood\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ left\\ behind\\ by\\ some\\ explorers\\,\\ script\\ is\\ written\\ in\\ context\\ of\\ the\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\European\\ explorers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Some\\ of\\ the\\ signs\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ sea\\ birds\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Tablet\\:\\ Arukku\\ Kurenga\\<\\/b\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ tablet\\ that\\ Metoro\\ Tau\\&rsquo\\;a\\ Ure\\&rsquo\\;\\ raed\\ to\\ produce\\ the\\ Janssen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ to\\ rongorongo\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-this\\ is\\ a\\ recarved\\ or\\ retouched\\ oar\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-was\\ it\\ intended\\ to\\ invoke\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ palm\\ leaves\\,\\ was\\ it\\ meant\\ to\\ etch\\ into\\ palm\\ leaves\\ \\(not\\ actually\\ proven\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Reading\\ Order\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-the\\ signs\\ are\\ meant\\ to\\ read\\ as\\ the\\ ox\\ plows\\,\\ so\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Short\\ Reimiro\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ ceremonial\\ crescent\\ shaped\\ gorget\\/epaulet\\,\\ was\\ the\\ artifact\\ self\\-referential\\ itself\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ shaped\\ like\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ writing\\ signs\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-double\\-oared\\ paddles\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Long\\ Remiro\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\ crescent\\ shaped\\ and\\ has\\ a\\ Rongorongo\\ text\\ on\\ it\\;\\ tablet\\ of\\ unknown\\ shape\\ and\\ was\\ sold\\ to\\ Rev\\.\\ William\\ Sparrow\\ Simpson\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Parallel\\ Inscriptions\\<\\/b\\>\\ on\\ various\\ rongorongo\\ tablets\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-limited\\ repertoire\\ of\\ what\\ could\\ actually\\ be\\ recorded\\ or\\ context\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Repetition\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-arrow\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ sign\\ may\\ indicate\\ a\\ break\\ in\\ the\\ writing\\ script\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Tablet\\ Mamari\\ \\(\\&lsquo\\;egg\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\:\\ not\\ a\\ straight\\-forward\\ writing\\ script\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ gain\\ from\\ this\\ artifact\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-lots\\ of\\ crescent\\ shaped\\ signs\\ sort\\ of\\ littering\\ the\\ script\\,\\ and\\ he\\ thought\\ that\\ they\\ served\\ a\\ \\mnemonic\\ purpose\\<\\/b\\>\\ and\\ \\breaks\\ it\\ up\\ into\\ boxes\\ \\<\\/b\\>and\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ single\\ lunar\\ calendar\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-man\\ in\\ a\\ hearth\\ on\\ the\\ moon\\,\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ new\\ moon\\ waxing\\ and\\ waning\\,\\ and\\ explains\\ the\\ orientation\\ of\\ the\\ fish\\ pointed\\ upwards\\ and\\ downwards\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-mnemonic\\ system\\ could\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ explanation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Glyph\\-breaker\\,\\ Steven\\ Roger\\ Fischer\\:\\ and\\ how\\ he\\ is\\ infamously\\ known\\ to\\ have\\ deciphered\\ the\\ Phaistos\\ disc\\ and\\ rongorongo\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-pattern\\ of\\ a\\ sign\\ with\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;penis\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ followed\\ by\\ 2\\ other\\ signs\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>triplets\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Delves\\ into\\ how\\ animals\\ or\\ human\\ beings\\ came\\ into\\ the\\ world\\;\\ sun\\ copulates\\ with\\ the\\ moon\\ to\\ make\\ stars\\;\\ turtles\\ copulate\\ with\\ birds\\ to\\ make\\ seabirds\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-his\\ argument\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-idea\\ of\\ it\\ being\\ a\\ mnemonic\\ system\\ is\\ stronger\\ than\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ an\\ undeciphered\\ writing\\ system\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-potentially\\ a\\ lunar\\ calendar\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Imported\\ wooden\\ object\\ that\\ was\\ carved\\ up\\ and\\ down\\ its\\ entire\\ length\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 106, "file_path": "", "desc": "Easter Island and Rongorongo"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.980859+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Microsoft Windows", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 778, "html": "\\WIndows\\ is\\ an\\ excellent\\ operating\\ system\\ and\\ currently\\ still\\ has\\ over\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ the\\ PC\\ \\;market\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Apple\\ is\\ slowly\\ gaining\\ shares\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 111, "file_path": "", "desc": "Microsoft Windows"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.989831+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 12: aftermaths of the Galileo Affair", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 779, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ famously\\ became\\ blind\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Published\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ dialogue\\ in\\ Italian\\,\\ has\\ tremendous\\ power\\,\\ but\\ can\\'t\\ get\\ out\\ of\\ Italy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Translated\\ to\\ Latin\\ in\\ 1635\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ city\\ in\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Published\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\ for\\ international\\ diffusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ will\\ continue\\ to\\ make\\ converts\\ and\\ be\\ effective\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ responding\\ to\\ the\\ standard\\ objections\\ of\\ Copernicanims\\ despite\\ Vatican\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Two\\ New\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ straight\\ physics\\,\\ but\\ still\\ he\\ wasn\\'t\\ supposed\\ to\\ publish\\ anymore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\ admitted\\ guilt\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ one\\ count\\,\\ but\\ never\\ said\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ heretic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Responses\\ to\\ 1616\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ 1633\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gal\\'s\\ Dialogue\\ pub\\'d\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Latin\\ in\\ Strasbourg\\,\\ 1635\\;\\ his\\ Two\\ New\\ Sciences\\ pub\\'d\\ in\\ Leiden\\ in\\ 1638\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gal\\ under\\ house\\ arrest\\ until\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ death\\ in\\ 1642\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ work\\ by\\ Catholics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ continues\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuit\\ astronomers\\ still\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ active\\,\\ but\\ do\\ not\\ address\\ cosmology\\ and\\ conform\\ to\\ Tychonic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cosmology\\ is\\ a\\ separate\\ part\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ astronomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomy\\ is\\ much\\ bigger\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ encompasses\\ all\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnations\\ generate\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opposition\\ and\\ some\\ fear\\ among\\ Catholics\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ French\\ Pascal\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\ respectively\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ was\\ a\\ Copernican\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Success\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ helped\\ spread\\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ much\\ more\\ of\\ a\\ faith\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alone\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ too\\ complains\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemnation\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\'s\\ Catholic\\,\\ but\\ hates\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesuits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ ludicrous\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ condemned\\ by\\ Church\\ b\\/c\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ forbid\\ people\\ from\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\,\\ much\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ spread\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Calvin\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Geneva\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nothing\\ gets\\ published\\ without\\ Calvin\\ or\\ his\\ right\\ hand\\ man\\'s\\ approval\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\local\\ level\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ censorship\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ kind\\ of\\ by\\ local\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ Protestants\\ take\\ up\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\'s\\ argts\\ \\(John\\ Wilkins\\,\\ 1640\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Core\\ values\\ in\\ Bible\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ should\\ interpret\\ according\\ to\\ tradition\\,\\ and\\ then\\ throwaway\\ lines\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ aren\\'t\\ important\\ to\\ message\\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Already\\ a\\ Biblical\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movement\\ among\\ Protestants\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ don\\'t\\ care\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ tradition\\ as\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ care\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ literalism\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ Protestants\\ already\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ non\\-literally\\ the\\ passage\\ about\\ the\\ Heavens\\ stretching\\ out\\ like\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ tent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ saying\\ that\\ we\\ should\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ reading\\ our\\ science\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ will\\ become\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ issue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ few\\ propose\\ a\\ biblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ John\\ Hutchinson\\,\\ Pricipia\\ mosaica\\ 1722\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ to\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\ to\\ get\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Minority\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vast\\ majority\\ of\\ Protestants\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ go\\ with\\ non\\-literal\\ reading\\,\\ like\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ though\\ norm\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestantism\\ is\\ to\\ say\\ you\\ like\\ literalism\\,\\ neither\\ Luther\\ nor\\ Calvin\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ were\\ straight\\ literalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ way\\ of\\ reading\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creationism\\ is\\ as\\ the\\ liberal\\ wing\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conservative\\ \\=\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>flat\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moderate\\ \\=\\ geohelio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Liberal\\ \\=\\ creationism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gradual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ withdrawal\\ of\\ the\\ condemnation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1734\\ monument\\ in\\ Florence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ named\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ body\\ is\\ moved\\ in\\ 1737\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ put\\ a\\ finger\\ of\\ his\\ on\\ display\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1757\\ some\\ Cop\\'n\\ books\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dropped\\ from\\ index\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1822\\ new\\ Cop\\'n\\ books\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1835\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\De\\ Rev\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ dropped\\ from\\ the\\ Index\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Difficult\\ process\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ committing\\ error\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1870\\ publication\\ of\\ archival\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ documents\\ re\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\John\\ Paul\\ II\\:\\ the\\ greatness\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Galileo\\ known\\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\"\\;second\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Galileo\\ Affair\\"\\;\\:\\ historiography\\ in\\ 19th\\ et\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Let\\'s\\ put\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Trial\\ for\\ the\\ Trial\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ moment\\ where\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notion\\ of\\ warfare\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\ got\\ going\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\19th\\ C\\ is\\ when\\ Europe\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Italy\\ unify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\19th\\ C\\ depictions\\ of\\ trial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ context\\ of\\ anti\\-clericalism\\ and\\ anti\\-catholicism\\:\\ Robert\\ Fleury\\ \\(1847\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Painting\\ of\\ Galileo\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prison\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Feeds\\ into\\ black\\ legend\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ him\\ being\\ maltreated\\,\\ of\\ course\\ not\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ was\\ kept\\ in\\ nice\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apartment\\ of\\ Pope\\,\\ never\\ put\\ in\\ dungeon\\ with\\ rats\\ or\\ tortured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;and\\ yet\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moves\\"\\;\\ coined\\ 1816\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Attributed\\ to\\ him\\ in\\ 1816\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ student\\ of\\ Galileo\\,\\ La\\ plas\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Same\\ student\\ who\\ said\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;God\\ is\\ a\\ hypothesis\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ need\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ envisions\\ Galileo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fighting\\ against\\ himself\\ and\\ very\\ reluctantly\\ recanting\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Church\\ and\\ under\\ his\\ breath\\ saying\\ \\"\\;and\\ yet\\ it\\ moves\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1869\\-70\\ Vatican\\ I\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ under\\ Pius\\ IX\\:\\ papal\\ infallibility\\ as\\ dogma\\;\\ refusal\\ of\\ liberal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ positions\\;\\ splintering\\ off\\ of\\ \\"\\;old\\ Catholics\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conservative\\ move\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doctrine\\ of\\ papal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ infallibility\\ becomes\\ dogma\\ of\\ papal\\ infallibility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Splintering\\ off\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;old\\ Catholics\\"\\;\\ who\\ refuse\\ to\\ accept\\ new\\ doctrines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ hostile\\ to\\ Italian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unification\\;\\ Kulturkampf\\ in\\ Germany\\ with\\ anti\\-Catholic\\ laws\\ in\\ place\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1873\\-87\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conflict\\ seen\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inevitable\\:\\ between\\ sci\\ and\\ rel\\ \\(Draper\\)\\,\\ between\\ sci\\ and\\ \\"\\;dogmatic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\"\\;\\ but\\ not\\ religion\\ \\(A\\.D\\.\\ White\\,\\ founder\\ of\\ Cornell\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ away\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ religion\\,\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ save\\ it\\ by\\ eliminating\\ dogmatic\\ theology\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\That\\'s\\ how\\ we\\ will\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harmonious\\ relations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ demo\\ is\\ Galileo\\ being\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ victim\\ of\\ dogmatic\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Apologetic\\ historiography\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(Duhem\\)\\;\\ secular\\ but\\ hostile\\ \\(Arthur\\ Koestler\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Latest\\:\\ Redondi\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Galileo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Heretic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ convincing\\ \\(atomism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\John\\ Paul\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Has\\ tried\\ to\\ be\\ vigilant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ fideism\\ and\\ radical\\ traditionalism\\ \\(Bonaventure\\)\\,\\ and\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalism\\ and\\ ontologism\\ b\\/c\\ they\\ attributed\\ to\\ natural\\ reason\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\ which\\ only\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ faith\\ could\\ confer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ middle\\ way\\,\\ where\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalism\\ is\\ useful\\ but\\ we\\ still\\ need\\ light\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ is\\ one\\ truth\\ if\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpret\\ properly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ need\\ reason\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ wrote\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Nature\\,\\ and\\ he\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ denying\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Historiography\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;Protestantism\\ and\\ science\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Starts\\ ca\\ 1835\\ \\(de\\ Candolle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ how\\ many\\ scientists\\ are\\ Prot\\)\\;\\ Robt\\ Merton\\ \\(1937\\)\\ after\\ Max\\ Weber\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1890s\\)\\:\\ \\"\\;Prot\\ ethic\\"\\;\\ and\\ science\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Special\\ relationship\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ Protestantism\\ and\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Weber\\:\\ Protestantism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ commercialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Merton\\:\\ Protestantism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prot\\ conservatism\\ in\\ 19th\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ too\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Flat\\-earth\\ \\(Rowbotham\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geohelio\\ \\(Missouri\\ synod\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Luth\\'ns\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creationism\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;liberal\\ wing\\"\\;\\ of\\ Bible\\ sci\\ mvt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\:\\ \\ Jesuit\\ astronomy\\;\\ reliquary\\ \\(finger\\!\\)\\;\\ Pope\\ Pius\\ IX\\,\\ Vatican\\ Council\\ I\\ \\ \\(1869\\-70\\)\\;\\ dogma\\ of\\ papal\\ infallibility\\:\\ John\\ Paul\\ II\\;\\ Andrew\\ Dickson\\ White\\;\\ \\ John\\ William\\ Draper\\;\\ Robert\\ Fleury\\;\\ Vatican\\ I\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 12: aftermaths of the Galileo Affair"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.013383+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 13: Rene Descartes (1569-1650) and the mechanical philosophy", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 780, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Contrasted\\ with\\ deism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ god\\ created\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ not\\ involved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ room\\ for\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believe\\ it\\ is\\ greater\\ form\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ God\\ to\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ screw\\ with\\ what\\ he\\ made\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theism\\ is\\ about\\ a\\ god\\ who\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ present\\,\\ imminent\\,\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ power\\ God\\ who\\ can\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ whatever\\ he\\ wants\\ whenever\\ he\\ wants\\,\\ shows\\ power\\ sometimes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Atheist\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Always\\ an\\ insult\\,\\ no\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ runs\\ around\\ saying\\ they\\'re\\ an\\ atheist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Coincides\\ with\\ wars\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ could\\ be\\ Catholic\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Protestant\\,\\ and\\ some\\ start\\ to\\ think\\ if\\ they\\'re\\ neither\\,\\ branding\\ them\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ atheists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Late\\ 16th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ one\\ person\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ atheist\\,\\ but\\ a\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Consequence\\ of\\ wars\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ splitting\\ off\\ of\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Divine\\ Providence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ provides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mostly\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theism\\ and\\ deism\\ comes\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ have\\ a\\ general\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ providence\\,\\ where\\ God\\ has\\ provided\\ a\\ wonderful\\ natural\\ system\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Each\\ animal\\ given\\ what\\ It\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ needs\\ to\\ survive\\,\\ adapt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\deist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Special\\ providence\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Where\\ God\\ intervenes\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generally\\ through\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nudging\\ nature\\ here\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\,\\ using\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ to\\ achieve\\ special\\ providence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theistic\\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ context\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ early\\ 17th\\ et\\ Paris\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Louis\\ XIII\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ counter\\-reformation\\ spirit\\ of\\ reducing\\ protestantism\\ and\\ getting\\ back\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ we\\ were\\ before\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestants\\ down\\ to\\ 5\\%\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ high\\ of\\ 10\\%\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ spate\\ of\\ anti\\-Aris\\'n\\ works\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(outside\\ the\\ university\\)\\,\\ including\\ atomism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ humans\\ know\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nothing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\'s\\ a\\ following\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ non\\-university\\ educated\\ laypeople\\ who\\ are\\ attracted\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fears\\ of\\ rising\\ skepticism\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;atheism\\,\\"\\;\\ libertinism\\ \\(Mersenne\\ claims\\ there\\ are\\ 50\\,000\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ atheists\\ in\\ Paris\\ in\\ 1630\\!\\ \\=\\ fear\\-mongering\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ wants\\ to\\ offer\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ argument\\ to\\ skepticism\\,\\ considers\\ himself\\ a\\ good\\ Catholic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Really\\ becomes\\ a\\ lion\\ after\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ French\\ revolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Independently\\ wealthy\\,\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ much\\ so\\,\\ but\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ a\\ job\\,\\ not\\ a\\ nobleman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Atomism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\World\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ small\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ particles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ seem\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ like\\ an\\ atomist\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ very\\ hostile\\ to\\ the\\ atomists\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ believes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ packed\\ with\\ particles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ try\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ present\\ a\\ new\\ Christian\\ philosophy\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ Protestants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Never\\ marries\\,\\ spends\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ Holland\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Publishes\\ both\\ in\\ French\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Starts\\ out\\ in\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\'\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Discourse\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ Method\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1637\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Arrogant\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ new\\ \\(contrast\\ with\\ Copernicus\\'\\ tone\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ Catholic\\,\\ worried\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ condemnation\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ new\\ method\\:\\ doubt\\ to\\ sweep\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ away\\ received\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rationalism\\:\\ clear\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ distinct\\ ideas\\ convince\\ us\\ of\\ our\\ existence\\,\\ existence\\ of\\ God\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ immutability\\ of\\ divine\\ will\\;\\ but\\ also\\ some\\ acknowledgment\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ empirical\\ observation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\'s\\ not\\ an\\ experimentalist\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ a\\ rationalist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\'s\\ going\\ from\\ first\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ principles\\,\\ considering\\ what\\ kind\\ of\\ rational\\ philosophy\\ we\\ need\\,\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ making\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cartesian\\ coordinates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lot\\ of\\ people\\ felt\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\ was\\ wildly\\ hubristic\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Systematic\\ thinking\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ good\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ excessively\\ sort\\ of\\ controlling\\ in\\ his\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\'\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mechanical\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mechanical\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explains\\ everything\\ as\\ matter\\ in\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ has\\ a\\ scheme\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explains\\ everything\\,\\ but\\ when\\ you\\ look\\ at\\ each\\ particular\\ effect\\,\\ could\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ multiple\\ ways\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ interpreted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eventually\\,\\ to\\ solve\\ this\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ need\\ to\\ test\\ through\\ controlled\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Acknowledges\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ part\\ of\\ figuring\\ it\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ to\\ observe\\ particular\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ effects\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ the\\ laws\\ work\\ individually\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matter\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ extension\\;\\ no\\ secondary\\ qualities\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ color\\,\\ curative\\ virtues\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ antipathies\\ or\\ sympathies\\;\\ no\\ substantial\\ forms\\ that\\ give\\ each\\ item\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;personality\\"\\;\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotelian\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\I\\ think\\,\\ therefore\\ I\\ am\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ first\\ idea\\ I\\ have\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ basically\\ the\\ goodness\\ of\\ God\\ who\\ didn\\'t\\ plan\\ crazy\\ ideas\\ in\\ my\\ mind\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ true\\ ones\\,\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ immediate\\ perception\\ I\\ have\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ human\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ being\\,\\ are\\ the\\ solid\\ grounds\\ from\\ which\\ he\\'s\\ going\\ to\\ build\\ his\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ you\\ argue\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ atheists\\,\\ shouldn\\'t\\ enter\\ into\\ dispute\\,\\ b\\/c\\ universal\\ assent\\ of\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ peoples\\ is\\ sufficient\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ divinity\\ against\\ the\\ affronts\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ atheists\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\'t\\ use\\ common\\ consent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ argument\\ though\\ when\\ he\\ also\\ argues\\ you\\ can\\'t\\ reply\\ on\\ past\\ thought\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ need\\ to\\ build\\ from\\ first\\ principles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ good\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ distinct\\ ideas\\ that\\ I\\ intuit\\ by\\ thinking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matter\\ differentiated\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ its\\ size\\:\\ small\\,\\ medium\\ and\\ large\\ particles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Laws\\ of\\ motion\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conservation\\,\\ inertia\\,\\ and\\ impact\\ \\-\\-\\ reach\\ a\\ priori\\ \\(and\\ often\\ erroneous\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ their\\ particulars\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matter\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ how\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ big\\ it\\ is\\,\\ shape\\ it\\'s\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matter\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ curative\\ virtues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Secondary\\ qualities\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ principally\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ defining\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rejecting\\ Arisotelian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Iron\\ has\\ an\\ attraction\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ magnet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Matter\\ \\+\\ form\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ substantial\\ form\\,\\ form\\ that\\ explains\\ what\\ that\\ thing\\ does\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ is\\ saying\\ no\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ matter\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ properties\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Explains\\ it\\ a\\ classic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;occult\\"\\;\\ or\\ hidden\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Just\\ means\\ hidden\\,\\ can\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ see\\ how\\ it\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Caused\\ by\\ motion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ particles\\ which\\ in\\ passing\\ through\\ pores\\ in\\ magnets\\ and\\ iron\\,\\ drive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ air\\ from\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ and\\ cause\\ them\\ to\\ move\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believes\\ all\\ matter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ traveling\\ in\\ a\\ circular\\ shape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Self\\-regulating\\ system\\ \\-\\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\'s\\ creation\\ of\\ matter\\ and\\ motion\\ would\\ have\\ sufficed\\ to\\ replace\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\'s\\ specific\\ creations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\You\\ shouldn\\'t\\ expect\\ God\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intervene\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Necessitarian\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Necessary\\ laws\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Would\\ be\\ blameworthy\\ of\\ us\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ ask\\ God\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ our\\ needs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Instead\\,\\ he\\ made\\ laws\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ perfect\\ and\\ bring\\ us\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernican\\ cosmology\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Monde\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ left\\ in\\ mss\\,\\ published\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1664\\,\\ vortices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reception\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Cartesianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Exciting\\ alternative\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Aristotle\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ some\\ \\(esp\\ the\\ young\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Objections\\:\\ soul\\-body\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ problem\\;\\ potential\\ for\\ materialism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemned\\ in\\ universities\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ Sorbonne\\ \\(Paris\\ theo\\ fac\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Adopted\\,\\ with\\ adjustments\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 1690s\\ \\(DC\\ seems\\ less\\ radical\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Irony\\ is\\ that\\ Descartes\\ gets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accepted\\ into\\ Paris\\ universities\\ as\\ Newton\\ publishes\\ his\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ will\\ replace\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Universities\\ are\\ followers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rather\\ than\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 13: Rene Descartes (1569-1650) and the mechanical philosophy"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.037067+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 14: English mechanical philosophy and Newton (1642-1727)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 781, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Deism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Self\\-regulating\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ motion\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ law\\ can\\ be\\ reduced\\ to\\ matter\\ and\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ law\\ that\\ governs\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ matter\\ still\\ what\\ we\\ use\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Deistic\\ line\\ is\\ uniquely\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Cartesian\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ laws\\ are\\ unchanging\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ultimately\\ what\\ makes\\ God\\ great\\,\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ doesn\\'t\\ need\\ or\\ want\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intervene\\ in\\ his\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\English\\ reaction\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ DC\\:\\ mech\\ phil\\ with\\ God\\ put\\ back\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Want\\ more\\ God\\ put\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Defending\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ accusations\\ of\\ arrogance\\,\\ of\\ deism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ are\\ all\\ against\\ seeing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\'s\\ handiwork\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ will\\ become\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mascot\\ of\\ French\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Robert\\ Boyle\\ on\\ Descartes\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Often\\ wished\\ that\\ Descartes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ given\\ God\\ more\\ place\\ in\\ his\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\English\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ a\\ different\\ flavor\\,\\ how\\ we\\ see\\ God\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ultimately\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ philosophy\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ argument\\ against\\ atheists\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ are\\ materialists\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ believing\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ just\\ matter\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mechanical\\ philosophy\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\,\\ more\\ pious\\ that\\ Aristotle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ fears\\ of\\ Descartes\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Could\\ lose\\ sight\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Too\\ much\\ arrogance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ philosophy\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ appreciating\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Royal\\ Society\\ founded\\ 1662\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ careful\\ to\\ not\\ talk\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ religion\\ or\\ politics\\ in\\ dangerous\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everyone\\ can\\ agree\\ that\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ great\\ in\\ his\\ Creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ theology\\ unifying\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ not\\ dogmatic\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Robert\\ Hooke\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Micrographia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1665\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vocabulary\\ of\\ awe\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wonder\\ at\\ the\\ contrivance\\ of\\ even\\ the\\ smallest\\ creatures\\ \\(gnat\\)\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ theology\\ \\(John\\ Ray\\,\\ John\\ Derham\\,\\ Boyle\\ lectures\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Harmony\\,\\ complexity\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beauty\\,\\ design\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hallmarks\\ of\\ God\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ handiwork\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\'s\\ physics\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Awe\\ and\\ wonder\\ at\\ the\\ laws\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interpreted\\ in\\ a\\ Cartesian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deistic\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ at\\ all\\ what\\ he\\ wanted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ theories\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ appropriated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Principia\\ \\(1687\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mathematical\\ principles\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Written\\ in\\ Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ widely\\ diffused\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ probably\\ to\\ keep\\ people\\ from\\ reading\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wrote\\ it\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mathematically\\,\\ like\\ Copernicus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\It\\ is\\ not\\ widely\\ read\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ hated\\ controversy\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ did\\ not\\ want\\ his\\ stuff\\ to\\ be\\ argued\\ over\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ waits\\ till\\ he\\ has\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ laws\\,\\ theorems\\,\\ and\\ proofs\\ very\\ tight\\ before\\ he\\ floats\\ it\\ out\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ read\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ people\\ in\\ Latin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ laws\\ of\\ motion\\ \\(inertia\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ F\\=ma\\,\\ action\\ and\\ reaction\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Derives\\ Kepler\\'s\\ 2nd\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 3rd\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gravitational\\ force\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inverse\\ square\\ law\\ \\(Explains\\ elliptical\\ orbits\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\F\\ \\=\\ g\\ \\(m\\<\\/span\\>\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\m\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/r\\<\\/span\\>\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1713\\ 2nd\\ ed\\ with\\ General\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scholium\\ \\(additional\\ remark\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Re\\ gravitation\\ \\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;hypotheses\\ non\\ fingo\\"\\;\\ \\(inscrutability\\)\\;\\ God\\'s\\ dominion\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probably\\ not\\ seeing\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ present\\ in\\ gravitational\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opticks\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1722\\)\\:\\ more\\ speculative\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;subtle\\ fluid\\"\\;\\ \\=\\ ether\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Public\\ Newton\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Copernicus\\ creating\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ controversy\\,\\ being\\ resolved\\ by\\ Newton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ where\\ historiography\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ in\\ mid\\ 20th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ industry\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ now\\ started\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ how\\ he\\ looks\\ different\\ when\\ we\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ manuscript\\ legacy\\ of\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lot\\ of\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Non\\-trivial\\ task\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ treated\\ the\\ material\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ differently\\,\\ presented\\ a\\ public\\ face\\ but\\ had\\ a\\ private\\ opinion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Orally\\,\\ talking\\ to\\ trusted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ friends\\,\\ some\\ things\\ he\\ leaves\\ only\\ in\\ manuscript\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Letters\\ to\\ Bentley\\ \\(for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Boyle\\ lectures\\)\\:\\ gravity\\ not\\ a\\ property\\ of\\ matter\\ \\(avoid\\ materialism\\)\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ need\\ supernatural\\ deity\\ to\\ explain\\ distribution\\ of\\ matter\\ \\+\\ periodic\\ acts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ reformation\\ by\\ God\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ comets\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ can\\'t\\ explain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ everything\\,\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ observe\\ it\\,\\ quantify\\ it\\,\\ mathematize\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bentley\\ consults\\ Newton\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ how\\ to\\ articulate\\ his\\ philosophy\\ as\\ an\\ argument\\ against\\ atheism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tells\\ him\\ not\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gravity\\ is\\ a\\ property\\ of\\ matter\\ \\(too\\ materialist\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ need\\ a\\ supernatural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deity\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ workings\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Distribution\\ of\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ secondary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literaturists\\ call\\ the\\ periodic\\ acts\\ of\\ reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ Newtonian\\ laws\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ applied\\ will\\ eventually\\ wind\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ a\\ readjustment\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ planetary\\ orbits\\ every\\ so\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\:\\ comet\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ come\\ through\\ and\\ re\\-align\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ in\\ semi\\-private\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ statements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Attached\\ to\\ idea\\ though\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ God\\ rewinds\\ the\\ clock\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ through\\ miracles\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ through\\ using\\ comets\\ and\\ natural\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Private\\ manuscripts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ not\\ Orthodox\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Church\\ Councils\\ and\\ Fathers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ take\\ more\\ personal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interaction\\ between\\ you\\ and\\ text\\,\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ yourself\\ easily\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ convinced\\ by\\ the\\ Trinity\\,\\ especially\\ if\\ you\\ add\\ in\\ a\\ little\\ biblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ criticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ careful\\ and\\ sort\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literal\\ reading\\ of\\ parts\\ of\\ Bible\\ that\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ any\\ problems\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Describes\\ how\\ past\\ history\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ worn\\ out\\ certain\\ prophecies\\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ driving\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ human\\ history\\ and\\ makes\\ those\\ prophecies\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ not\\ alone\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ anti\\-Trinitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ 3\\ part\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ views\\ that\\ people\\ like\\ John\\ Locke\\ and\\ others\\ will\\ be\\ interested\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dropping\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Response\\ by\\ Church\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ course\\:\\ not\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ reasonable\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ mysteries\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ is\\ present\\ in\\ multiple\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ways\\,\\ but\\ Newton\\ doesn\\'t\\ mention\\ God\\ in\\ Principia\\ hardly\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Has\\ one\\ passage\\,\\ general\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scholium\\ in\\ 2nd\\ ed\\ where\\ he\\ loosens\\ up\\ a\\ bit\\,\\ talking\\ about\\ God\\'s\\ place\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theological\\ mss\\ \\(private\\)\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Arianism\\ \\(b\\/c\\ Biblical\\ text\\ supporting\\ Trinity\\ is\\ corrupt\\)\\;\\ but\\ accepts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bible\\ as\\ divine\\ message\\:\\ history\\ as\\ fulfillment\\ of\\ biblical\\ prophecies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Alchemy\\:\\ study\\ cohesion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ matter\\ explained\\ by\\ subtle\\ spirit\\ \\(\\=div\\ prov\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\ more\\ about\\ how\\ stuff\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hangs\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condensed\\ theory\\ of\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\,\\ his\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ can\\'t\\ have\\ a\\ materialistic\\ explanation\\ of\\ cohesion\\ of\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ doesn\\'t\\ really\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ try\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ big\\ particles\\ come\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Introduces\\ idea\\ of\\ subtle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ spirit\\,\\ a\\ nonmaterial\\ element\\ to\\ matter\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Placed\\ there\\ by\\ God\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ God\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reception\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Newton\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Few\\ people\\ are\\ reading\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ is\\ where\\ French\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ appropriation\\ of\\ Newton\\ occurs\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ you\\ read\\ a\\ book\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpreting\\ it\\ as\\ you\\ read\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ of\\ time\\ getting\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ author\\ says\\,\\ but\\ also\\ interpreting\\ it\\ to\\ your\\ own\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\As\\ works\\ get\\ translated\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmitted\\,\\ to\\ different\\ culture\\ and\\ audience\\,\\ opportunity\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ appropriation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\French\\ appropriation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Newton\\ by\\ Voltaire\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Voltaire\\ loves\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ is\\ being\\ vulgarized\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ spread\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prevails\\ over\\ DC\\ on\\ shape\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ earth\\ \\(polar\\ expedition\\ 1736\\-7\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appropriation\\ of\\ Newton\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ French\\ Enlightenment\\ as\\ a\\ deist\\ \\(Mme\\ du\\ Chatelet\\,\\ Voltaire\\)\\:\\ Newton\\ lost\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ DC\\ after\\ all\\?\\ \\(Laplace\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Emilie\\ du\\ Chatelet\\ \\(1706\\-49\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Noble\\ woman\\,\\ patron\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lover\\ to\\ Volatire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probably\\ responsible\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ much\\ of\\ Voltaire\\'s\\ French\\ presentation\\ of\\ Newton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Voltaire\\ packages\\ Newton\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Cartesian\\ spirit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ know\\ that\\ Newton\\ may\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ been\\ unorthodox\\,\\ but\\ definitely\\ a\\ committed\\ believer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ was\\ lecture\\ of\\ math\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reportedly\\ lectured\\ to\\ empty\\ lecture\\ halls\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Had\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ oath\\ to\\ take\\ his\\ prized\\ chair\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ got\\ a\\ dispensation\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ math\\ department\\ though\\,\\ didn\\'t\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ conflict\\ of\\ conscious\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chair\\ of\\ math\\ department\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Cambridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ vortices\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Shape\\ of\\ earth\\ in\\ going\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ around\\ this\\ way\\ should\\ be\\ like\\ a\\ lemon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ feels\\ it\\'s\\ more\\ like\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ an\\ orange\\,\\ flatter\\ on\\ ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ expeditions\\ sent\\ out\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ France\\,\\ financed\\ by\\ King\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Amazon\\ trip\\ takes\\ 25\\ years\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ get\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trip\\ to\\ poles\\ confirms\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\ flat\\ at\\ poles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ that\\ sense\\,\\ French\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Newtonians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Failure\\ of\\ Newton\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ appropriation\\ though\\ in\\ removing\\ God\\ from\\ enlightenment\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Happens\\ in\\ England\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 14: English mechanical philosophy and Newton (1642-1727)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.064482+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 15: Blaise Pascal (1623-62) and a religion of the heart", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 782, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ is\\ standing\\ for\\ religion\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ almost\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ anti\\-rationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ biography\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Worldly\\ science\\ phase\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ calculating\\ machine\\;\\ barometer\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decided\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ void\\ with\\ historic\\ vacuum\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\'s\\ triangle\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Combinatorics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Later\\ in\\ life\\,\\ 1651\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ didn\\'t\\ live\\ that\\ long\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\When\\ he\\ died\\,\\ was\\ working\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ proof\\ of\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conversion\\ exp\\ 1654\\ \\+\\ 1655\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miraculous\\ cure\\ of\\ his\\ niece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\To\\ Fermat\\ \\(1660\\)\\:\\ geometry\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ \\"\\;highest\\ exercise\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\"\\;\\ but\\ also\\ so\\ \\"\\;useless\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ I\\ can\\ make\\ little\\ difference\\ between\\ a\\ skilled\\ geometer\\ and\\ an\\ able\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ artisan\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Artisan\\ is\\ much\\ lower\\ down\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ hierarchy\\ in\\ intellectual\\ work\\ than\\ someone\\ using\\ their\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ is\\ saying\\ basically\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ he\\ feels\\ geometry\\ is\\ useless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\'s\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basically\\,\\ Catholicism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ experiences\\ a\\ subgroup\\ within\\ it\\,\\ which\\ is\\ ultimately\\ condemned\\,\\ but\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stamped\\ out\\ completely\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jansenism\\,\\ dev\\'d\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 17th\\ C\\ France\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bishop\\ Jansen\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ausustinus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1640\\)\\:\\ return\\ to\\ rigorism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ response\\ to\\ the\\ pelagianism\\ associated\\ with\\ Jesuit\\ Molina\\ \\(1588\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ never\\ met\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Humans\\ are\\ not\\ possible\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reaching\\ salvation\\ on\\ their\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ need\\ grace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ want\\ human\\ free\\ will\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ yet\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ for\\ the\\ human\\ alone\\ to\\ save\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ag\\.\\ Jesuit\\ casuistry\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(probabilism\\ \\=\\ risk\\ of\\ moral\\ laxity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reemphasize\\ divine\\ gift\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ grace\\ \\(cf\\.\\ Prot\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ not\\ too\\ pelagianist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jansenist\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ line\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ God\\ offers\\ grace\\ to\\ only\\ a\\ few\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ is\\ really\\ important\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ who\\ God\\ decides\\ to\\ give\\ grace\\ too\\,\\ reemphasizing\\ a\\ divine\\ gift\\ of\\ grace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Special\\ kind\\ of\\ grace\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ efficacious\\ grace\\,\\ that\\ only\\ given\\ to\\ a\\ few\\ and\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ turned\\ down\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Back\\ to\\ a\\ predestination\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ line\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ they\\ interact\\ with\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kings\\ always\\ seek\\ direction\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ their\\ spiritual\\ advisors\\,\\ and\\ being\\ confessor\\ to\\ a\\ king\\ is\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ important\\ b\\/c\\ able\\ to\\ tell\\ the\\ king\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ they\\ are\\ acting\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accordance\\ with\\ religious\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuits\\ are\\ traditional\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ successors\\ to\\ king\\,\\ very\\ powerful\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Downside\\,\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ get\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stuck\\ in\\ pretty\\ tight\\ positions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuit\\ laxity\\ aura\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ associated\\ with\\ them\\ by\\ being\\ confessor\\ to\\ king\\ and\\ other\\ positions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ had\\ reputation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ compromising\\ easily\\ to\\ get\\ converts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\probabilism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ laxist\\ view\\ is\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\'s\\ better\\ to\\ hold\\ more\\ lax\\ position\\ and\\ get\\ a\\ convert\\ than\\ have\\ a\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rigid\\ view\\ and\\ not\\ get\\ convert\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jansenist\\ more\\ rigid\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ criticize\\ Jesuits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemnation\\ of\\ 5\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ propositions\\ attributed\\ to\\ Jansen\\ and\\ some\\ retractions\\:\\ no\\ rel\\ schism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pope\\ condemns\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ propositions\\,\\ but\\ then\\ argument\\ becomes\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ the\\ Jansenists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ even\\ hold\\ these\\ positions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Provinciales\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ mock\\ Jesuits\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Became\\ engaged\\ in\\ debates\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerning\\ Jansenism\\,\\ protecting\\ it\\,\\ anonymously\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ has\\ a\\ conversion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ experience\\ in\\ 1654\\,\\ near\\ death\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Following\\ year\\ in\\ 1655\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miraculous\\ cure\\ in\\ his\\ family\\ which\\ further\\ enforced\\ his\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ did\\ not\\ become\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religious\\ cleric\\,\\ continued\\ to\\ do\\ some\\ math\\,\\ said\\ geometry\\ wasn\\'t\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ important\\ anymore\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Re\\ Galileo\\:\\ \\"\\;It\\ will\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ take\\ more\\ than\\ that\\ condemnation\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ the\\ earth\\ keeps\\ still\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ there\\ were\\ consistent\\ observations\\ proving\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ earth\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ goes\\ around\\,\\ all\\ the\\ men\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ put\\ together\\ could\\ not\\ it\\ turning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ themselves\\ turning\\ with\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pensees\\:\\ complex\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmission\\ \\(from\\ the\\ \\"\\;bundles\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Notes\\ for\\ a\\ defense\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Chnity\\ \\(apologetics\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ found\\ bundles\\ in\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ papers\\,\\ poke\\ holes\\ from\\ papers\\ that\\ were\\ sewn\\ together\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Early\\ parts\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wretchedness\\ of\\ man\\ \\+\\ God\\ the\\ redeemer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prophecies\\,\\ miracles\\,\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\ to\\ prove\\ Chnity\\;\\ wager\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Deus\\ absconditus\\ \\(hidden\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\)\\;\\ against\\ nat\\ theo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\18th\\ C\\ reading\\ of\\ Pascal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ chooses\\ the\\ rationalist\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Missing\\ important\\ part\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ thrust\\ for\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Part\\ of\\ him\\ is\\ skepticism\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ such\\ as\\ from\\ Montaigne\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\As\\ Christian\\,\\ paired\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ skepticism\\ is\\ fideism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Faith\\ tells\\ you\\ stuff\\,\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ bedrock\\ of\\ certainty\\,\\ reason\\ can\\'t\\ get\\ you\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ is\\ very\\ hostile\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ argument\\ of\\ design\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ great\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ intricate\\ design\\ of\\ planet\\ and\\ all\\ things\\,\\ the\\ natural\\ theo\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pascal\\ says\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ weak\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ argument\\,\\ a\\ scandal\\ to\\ the\\ church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Says\\ no\\ canonical\\ writer\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ uses\\ nature\\ to\\ prove\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lambastes\\ Descartes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argument\\ with\\ design\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fine\\ to\\ share\\ with\\ believers\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ what\\ power\\ of\\ argument\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ should\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ we\\'re\\ going\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rekindle\\ faith\\ in\\ someone\\ who\\ has\\ lost\\ it\\,\\ to\\ give\\ them\\ only\\ nature\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arguments\\ as\\ proof\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ weak\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ wonder\\ they\\ don\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ believe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scripture\\ says\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ hidden\\ God\\,\\ deus\\ absconditus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ open\\ to\\ our\\ reason\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ God\\ of\\ mystery\\ and\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;\\ I\\ cannot\\ forgive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ his\\ whole\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ he\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ do\\ without\\ God\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>But\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ help\\ allowing\\ him\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ flick\\ of\\ the\\ fingers\\ to\\ set\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ motion\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>After\\ which\\ he\\ had\\ no\\ further\\ use\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\'s\\ weighing\\ reason\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ is\\ not\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracles\\ and\\ prophecies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ wager\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\You\\ can\\ take\\ a\\ bet\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ whether\\ God\\ exists\\ or\\ not\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ get\\ it\\ wrong\\,\\ then\\ you\\ can\\ miss\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ out\\ on\\ an\\ infinite\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ in\\ all\\,\\ it\\'s\\ a\\ good\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ abandoning\\ reason\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ end\\ saying\\ religion\\ is\\ best\\ founded\\ on\\ authority\\ of\\ Scripture\\,\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reception\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Disliked\\ by\\ Voltaire\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ French\\ Enlightenment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Well\\ received\\ by\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mvts\\ \\"\\;of\\ the\\ heart\\"\\;\\:\\ John\\ Wesley\\ \\(Methodism\\,\\ founded\\ 18th\\)\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ German\\ pietism\\,\\ but\\ careful\\ to\\ avoid\\ \\"\\;enthusiasm\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wesley\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ camp\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ religion\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\,\\ along\\ with\\ other\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\German\\ pietism\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ emphasizing\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ God\\,\\ not\\ rationalist\\ argumentation\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bringing\\ in\\ ordinary\\ faithful\\ to\\ more\\ lively\\ direct\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Want\\ to\\ get\\ back\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Lutheran\\ vision\\ of\\ direct\\ contact\\ with\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wariness\\ still\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ established\\ religious\\ circles\\ who\\ are\\ getting\\ to\\ be\\ enthusiastic\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Shakers\\ and\\ Quakers\\ looked\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ down\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Known\\ for\\ experiencing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ visions\\ of\\ God\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ move\\ and\\ speak\\ outside\\ of\\ conventional\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ norms\\,\\ weird\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mainstrean\\ movement\\ towards\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ evangelicalization\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationalization\\ happening\\ in\\ parallel\\ and\\ opposition\\ to\\ each\\ other\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 15: Blaise Pascal (1623-62) and a religion of the heart"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.086805+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 17: Natural Theology", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 783, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ history\\ is\\ ancestor\\ to\\ various\\ life\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geology\\,\\ paleontology\\,\\ life\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ history\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ considered\\ very\\ closely\\ related\\ to\\ human\\ history\\,\\ about\\ investigating\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ descriptive\\ kind\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ in\\ this\\ period\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ long\\-lived\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mainstream\\ religious\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ look\\ at\\ people\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ libraries\\ to\\ see\\ what\\ kinds\\ of\\ book\\ they\\ owned\\ and\\ get\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ were\\ reading\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Have\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ important\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ people\\ with\\ power\\ read\\ people\\ like\\ Rousseau\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Can\\ look\\ at\\ people\\ citing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Publisher\\ wants\\ to\\ make\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ money\\,\\ won\\'t\\ publish\\ something\\ if\\ he\\ has\\ unsold\\ copies\\ from\\ previous\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ edition\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Usually\\ one\\ can\\ count\\ 1000\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ copies\\ of\\ something\\ per\\ edition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pluche\\,\\ French\\ educator\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\13\\ editions\\ in\\ French\\ in\\ 20\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ years\\,\\ practically\\ best\\-seller\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Translation\\ into\\ English\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ big\\ expensive\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ big\\ books\\ could\\ easily\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ months\\ wages\\,\\ not\\ kind\\ of\\ thing\\ that\\ servants\\ or\\ even\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ parents\\ will\\ buy\\ for\\ their\\ kids\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Books\\ are\\ still\\ a\\ luxury\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ although\\ cheap\\ print\\ becoming\\ more\\ widely\\ available\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Literacy\\ much\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ widespread\\ than\\ earlier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ theology\\ has\\ always\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ been\\ associated\\ with\\ English\\,\\ but\\ Pluche\\ is\\ French\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pluche\\ rumored\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jansenist\\,\\ illegal\\ in\\ 18th\\ C\\,\\ denied\\ many\\ positions\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ don\\'t\\ have\\ perfect\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\,\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ et\\ some\\,\\ and\\ have\\ incentive\\ to\\ research\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jansenist\\ twist\\,\\ reason\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ limits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Borrowing\\ mechanistic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ theology\\,\\ but\\ putting\\ teleology\\ back\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ about\\ bad\\ stuff\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ theology\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Destruction\\,\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disasters\\,\\ wars\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Explaining\\ evil\\,\\ Theodicy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pluche\\ does\\ it\\ by\\ saying\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ volcanoes\\ and\\ earthquakes\\ exist\\ to\\ reduce\\ damage\\ caused\\ by\\ fires\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ burn\\ underground\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unintended\\ consequence\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ that\\ is\\ very\\ useful\\ to\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evil\\ seems\\ bad\\,\\ but\\ least\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bad\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ could\\ be\\ given\\ what\\ you\\ need\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ we\\ consider\\ an\\ evil\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ often\\ a\\ true\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ optimistic\\ view\\,\\ just\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sweeping\\ every\\ horrible\\ thing\\ under\\ the\\ rug\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Slightly\\ moral\\ tinge\\ here\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ well\\,\\ cockroaches\\ there\\ to\\ keep\\ your\\ room\\ clean\\,\\ keep\\ you\\ from\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lazy\\,\\ there\\ to\\ cite\\ moral\\ virtues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Specific\\ to\\ Jansenist\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ natural\\ things\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mysteries\\,\\ unreasonable\\ to\\ seek\\ to\\ deepen\\ them\\ or\\ unite\\ them\\ by\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ supposedly\\ of\\ our\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ need\\ to\\ master\\ nature\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ very\\ Baconian\\ theme\\,\\ that\\ God\\ gave\\ Adam\\ dominion\\ over\\ Nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ messed\\ up\\ through\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fall\\,\\ but\\ basically\\ science\\ is\\ about\\ recovering\\ this\\ God\\-given\\ right\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ control\\ and\\ master\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\'re\\ not\\ trying\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understand\\ the\\ deep\\ reason\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ understand\\ physics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ way\\ nature\\ helps\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ us\\ is\\ by\\ teaching\\ us\\ stuff\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Humans\\ must\\ have\\ learned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ to\\ work\\ together\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ bees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ made\\ ants\\ and\\ bees\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teach\\ us\\ to\\ divide\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seeing\\ existence\\ of\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ things\\ teaches\\ us\\ how\\ to\\ use\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ long\\-lived\\ kind\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ maneuver\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Paley\\ will\\ make\\ it\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ particularly\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>long\\ lived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prot\\ \\(William\\ Paley\\)\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ also\\ Catholic\\:\\ Noel\\-Antoine\\ Pluche\\ 1688\\-1761\\ measuring\\ successful\\ books\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ \\#\\ of\\ editions\\;\\ copies\\ in\\ library\\ inventories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Paley\\ 1743\\-1805\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Liberal\\ but\\ orthodox\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Anglican\\ clergyman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kind\\ of\\ enlightened\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ optimistic\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argument\\ from\\ design\\ made\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ posteriori\\,\\ with\\ much\\ supporting\\ detail\\ \\(a\\ form\\ of\\ popular\\ science\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Anthropocentrism\\:\\ for\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ good\\ of\\ man\\,\\ teleology\\;\\ explaining\\ suffering\\,\\ deformities\\,\\ evil\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Small\\ animals\\ breed\\ a\\ lot\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ that\\ they\\ survive\\ \\(rabbits\\)\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ smallest\\ ones\\ can\\ run\\ away\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fast\\ \\(centipedes\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Each\\ animal\\ has\\ way\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ survive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Assumes\\ fixity\\ of\\ species\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ interaction\\ between\\ species\\,\\ but\\ fixity\\ by\\ design\\ for\\ all\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ diversity\\ and\\ variety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Longevity\\:\\ adaptable\\ to\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\;\\ unifies\\ Chns\\ ag\\ atheists\\,\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\"\\;enlightened\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Optimism\\:\\ term\\ coined\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1737\\ by\\ Voltaire\\ to\\ describe\\ Leibniz\\'s\\ notion\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ all\\ possible\\ worlds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Leibniz\\,\\ Theodicy\\ \\-\\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;best\\ of\\ all\\ possible\\ worlds\\"\\;\\ \\(harmony\\ and\\ order\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Coined\\ word\\ optimism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Late\\ 17th\\ C\\,\\ early\\ 18th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Published\\ only\\ 1\\ work\\,\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ his\\ book\\ Theodicy\\ in\\ 1710\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ necessarily\\ a\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theologian\\,\\ b\\/c\\ not\\ into\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ everything\\,\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ abstractedly\\ how\\ God\\ must\\ have\\ made\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ evil\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ suffering\\ are\\ a\\ necessary\\ part\\ of\\ God\\'s\\ principal\\ concern\\ for\\ order\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ diversity\\,\\ etc\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\William\\ Paley\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1743\\-1805\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Liberal\\ but\\ orthodox\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Anglican\\ clergyman\\ \\(\\"\\;cannot\\ afford\\ a\\ conscience\\"\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Debate\\ over\\ whether\\ office\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ holders\\ should\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ sign\\ articles\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Belief\\ in\\ miracles\\,\\ less\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rationally\\ accepted\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Goes\\ along\\ with\\ orthodox\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ line\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ forced\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ but\\ says\\ that\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;cannot\\ afford\\ a\\ conscience\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ wanted\\ his\\ living\\,\\ make\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sure\\ his\\ career\\ went\\ on\\,\\ orthodox\\ part\\ of\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Liberal\\ part\\ of\\ him\\ was\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sympathy\\ with\\ allowing\\ people\\ to\\ jettison\\ certain\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ support\\ enthusiasts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ who\\ are\\ preaching\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\ inspiration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tremendous\\ feeling\\ leading\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ odd\\ behaviors\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quakers\\ who\\ literally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shaking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nat\\ theo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1802\\)\\:\\ from\\ sermons\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 60\\,000\\ copies\\ printed\\ and\\ down\\ to\\ 1902\\ \\(with\\ modifications\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>As\\ popular\\ science\\,\\ after\\ Darwin\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apologetics\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sermons\\ in\\ 1780s\\ and\\ 90s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ in\\ nature\\ and\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ miracles\\ and\\ history\\ of\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Best\\-seller\\,\\ 1\\ edition\\ per\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ year\\ from\\ 1802\\ for\\ 20\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Much\\-revised\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Targets\\ that\\ sort\\ of\\ reader\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ search\\ of\\ self\\-improvement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ eyes\\ of\\ Faith\\ to\\ help\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ you\\ see\\ works\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Proof\\ not\\ a\\ conclusion\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lies\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ chain\\ of\\ reasoning\\,\\ where\\ if\\ one\\ link\\ fails\\,\\ the\\ whole\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ chain\\ fails\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>No\\,\\ God\\ is\\ proven\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ each\\ link\\,\\ the\\ argument\\ is\\ cumulative\\,\\ not\\ building\\ on\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ being\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ made\\ again\\ and\\ again\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Proof\\ in\\ each\\ example\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ complete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Always\\ this\\ resilience\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ quantifying\\,\\ doesn\\'t\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ any\\ conception\\ of\\ risks\\ w\\/\\ using\\ a\\ \\"\\;God\\ of\\ the\\ gaps\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ going\\ there\\,\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ envisioning\\ that\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;argument\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cumulative\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;it\\ is\\ a\\ happy\\ world\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ all\\"\\;\\:\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pleasure\\ plays\\ a\\ real\\ rol\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ein\\ nature\\ for\\ Paley\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ divine\\ plan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ a\\ grim\\ Jansenist\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pessimistic\\ line\\;\\ in\\ contrary\\,\\ pleasure\\ is\\ good\\,\\ keeps\\ world\\ going\\,\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ made\\ it\\ this\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Happy\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Applied\\ to\\ moral\\ and\\ pol\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ realms\\:\\ good\\,\\ stable\\ system\\,\\ despite\\ inequalities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cf\\ Malthus\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Essay\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ population\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1798\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bridgewater\\ treatises\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1833\\-37\\:\\ 13\\ vols\\ by\\ scientists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Attacks\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Voltaire\\ on\\ weaknesses\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ excesses\\,\\ does\\ not\\ convince\\ nonbelievers\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Himself\\ an\\ optimist\\,\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beginning\\ wanted\\ to\\ adopt\\ all\\ these\\ English\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Crucial\\ moment\\ in\\ his\\ tone\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ Elizabeth\\ earthquate\\ in\\ 1755\\ that\\ killed\\ around\\ 30\\,000\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Write\\ \\"\\;All\\ is\\ well\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ refrain\\ of\\ Liebniz\\ and\\ Pluche\\ seems\\ strange\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ saw\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disaster\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Basically\\ mocking\\ Leibniz\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ may\\ well\\ be\\ mocking\\ Antoine\\ Pluche\\ \\(Eric\\ Palmer\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ this\\ story\\,\\ everything\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ goes\\ wrong\\,\\ but\\ conclusion\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ the\\ events\\ form\\ a\\ chain\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ necessary\\ events\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mockin\\ the\\ final\\ causes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ are\\ built\\ around\\ human\\ inventions\\ and\\ needs\\ that\\ come\\ after\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fact\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ridiculous\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ sea\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ made\\ for\\ boats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ that\\ tides\\ are\\ there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ bring\\ boats\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ if\\ it\\'s\\ clear\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ noses\\ were\\ not\\ made\\ for\\ glasses\\,\\ they\\ were\\ made\\ for\\ smelling\\ and\\ there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ been\\ noses\\ since\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Willing\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ final\\ causes\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mocking\\ natural\\ theology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ its\\ crass\\ anthropocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hume\\:\\ cannot\\ reason\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ effects\\ to\\ divine\\ cause\\;\\ argument\\ by\\ analogy\\ w\\/o\\ grounds\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inference\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ can\\ say\\ someone\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ building\\ a\\ house\\ b\\/c\\ we\\'ve\\ seen\\ houses\\ being\\ built\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ we\\'ve\\ never\\ seen\\ anyone\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ build\\ a\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ cannot\\ get\\ from\\ nature\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ we\\ see\\ it\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ foundation\\ for\\ our\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ analogies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ prevent\\ Paley\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ selling\\ very\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Impact\\ on\\ Darwin\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explaining\\ adaptation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 17: Natural Theology"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.112852+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 18: geology", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 784, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\17th\\ C\\ views\\ of\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Age\\ of\\ earth\\ estimates\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ combining\\ Bible\\ w\\/\\ ancient\\ history\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ archbishop\\ Ussher\\:\\ Sun\\ Oct\\ 23\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 4004\\ BC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lot\\ of\\ work\\ being\\ done\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ matching\\ up\\ dates\\ of\\ OT\\ w\\/\\ NT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\As\\ many\\ as\\ 140\\ different\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ estimates\\ about\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Use\\ OT\\ to\\ get\\ you\\ creation\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ then\\ human\\ history\\ to\\ add\\ up\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rational\\ exercise\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ figuring\\ this\\ out\\ that\\ uses\\ astronomy\\,\\ observations\\ from\\ Babylonians\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Canonical\\ line\\:\\ 4004\\ BC\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\,\\ archbishop\\ Ussher\\,\\ even\\ gives\\ it\\ a\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jewish\\ calendar\\ puts\\ us\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 5770\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fossils\\ as\\ jokes\\ of\\ nature\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(16th\\)\\ or\\ effects\\ of\\ Noah\\'s\\ Flood\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Are\\ these\\ animals\\ present\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ earth\\ today\\ and\\ not\\ widely\\ visible\\ b\\/c\\ on\\ remote\\ parts\\ of\\ earth\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\ haven\\'t\\ discovered\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Australia\\,\\ just\\ discovered\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ancient\\ geography\\ obviously\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ limitations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Speculative\\ histories\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\:\\ Wm\\ Whiston\\ \\(New\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ 1696\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Noah\\'s\\ flood\\ caused\\ by\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>collision\\ of\\ a\\ comet\\,\\ breaking\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\'s\\ crust\\ and\\ releasting\\ water\\ beneath\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ liked\\ the\\ theory\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whiston\\ was\\ a\\ Boyle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lecturer\\ in\\ 1707\\ \\(nat\\ theo\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\18th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ new\\ empirical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observations\\:\\ stratigraphy\\,\\ mineralogy\\,\\ fossils\\,\\ eruptions\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earthquakes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Discovery\\ of\\ jaw\\ of\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gigantic\\ fossil\\ in\\ mines\\ near\\ Maastricht\\;\\ Cuvier\\ showed\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ form\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ lizard\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\England\\ has\\ rolling\\ hills\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ calm\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gentle\\ processes\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ erosion\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Uniformitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geologists\\ in\\ other\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ countries\\ with\\ mountains\\ believe\\ more\\ in\\ catastrophism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stratigraphy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Through\\ digging\\,\\ can\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ identify\\ layers\\ of\\ rock\\ and\\ pretty\\ cool\\ new\\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mineralogy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gathering\\ up\\ specimens\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rocks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Paleontology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Collecting\\ of\\ fossils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ of\\ this\\ data\\ feeding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ into\\ couple\\ big\\ schools\\ of\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\'re\\ getting\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ empirical\\ stuff\\ in\\ 18th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lot\\ of\\ basic\\ work\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ collecting\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interesting\\ who\\ is\\ doing\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\British\\ gentry\\ sent\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cool\\ rocks\\,\\ fossils\\,\\ crystals\\,\\ minerals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Neptunism\\ \\(Abraham\\ Werner\\)\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rocks\\ formed\\ by\\ precipitation\\ from\\ water\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ in\\ Flood\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Attributes\\ formation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ features\\ of\\ earth\\ to\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ water\\,\\ esp\\.\\ Noah\\'s\\ flood\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catastrophism\\,\\ short\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ geological\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vulcanism\\:\\ rocks\\ formed\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heat\\ and\\ pressure\\ \\-\\ need\\ longer\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heat\\ and\\ pressures\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ underground\\ fires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chemistry\\ one\\ of\\ those\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sciences\\ that\\ not\\ very\\ well\\ formed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ industrial\\ revolution\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ types\\ experimenting\\ with\\ blazes\\ and\\ effects\\ of\\ heat\\ on\\ metal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Joseph\\ Black\\ is\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Has\\ drawback\\ that\\ it\\ seems\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ require\\ more\\ time\\ if\\ fire\\ is\\ main\\ source\\ or\\ rocks\\ we\\ see\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Georges\\ Buffon\\ \\(Epoques\\ de\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ la\\ nature\\,\\ 1778\\)\\:\\ 6\\ days\\ \\=\\ 6\\ ages\\ of\\ indefinite\\ length\\ \\(earth\\ age\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 75\\,000\\ \\-\\ 3\\ million\\ years\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Notion\\ of\\ change\\ within\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ species\\ \\(improvement\\ or\\ degeneration\\)\\,\\ but\\ no\\ transmutation\\ of\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ 4th\\ volume\\,\\ in\\ 1753\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forced\\ to\\ retract\\ some\\ opinions\\ about\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ order\\ to\\ get\\ book\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ published\\,\\ had\\ to\\ retract\\ speculations\\ already\\ published\\ about\\ age\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1778\\,\\ comes\\ out\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Epoques\\,\\ does\\ a\\ hasty\\ reconciliation\\ job\\ w\\/\\ Scripture\\ \\(says\\ days\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\ mean\\ epochs\\,\\ not\\ actual\\ days\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thinks\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ at\\ least\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 75\\,000\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Based\\ on\\ cooling\\ of\\ iron\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ one\\ had\\,\\ critical\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Whiston\\,\\ arguing\\ that\\ he\\ mistook\\ passage\\ of\\ holy\\ writ\\ for\\ physical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ facts\\,\\ jumped\\ religion\\ and\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ shouldn\\'t\\ use\\ the\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ guide\\ us\\ in\\ explaining\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Actualism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Yes\\ there\\ have\\ been\\ forces\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ earth\\,\\ but\\ sometimes\\ these\\ forces\\ were\\ greater\\,\\ leaves\\ room\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ catastrophes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lyell\\ and\\ early\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ uniformitarianists\\ are\\ stricter\\ though\\,\\ saying\\ that\\ they\\ only\\ want\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forces\\ we\\ see\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ cites\\ Buffon\\ as\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ first\\ people\\ to\\ think\\ seriously\\ about\\ change\\ of\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ have\\ idea\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ species\\ changing\\ into\\ one\\ another\\,\\ not\\ transmutation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\James\\ Hutton\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1726\\-97\\)\\:\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\ \\(1788\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sedimentation\\,\\ elevation\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heat\\ and\\ pressure\\,\\ erosion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;no\\ vestige\\ of\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beginning\\,\\ no\\ prospect\\ of\\ an\\ end\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opposes\\ neptunism\\;\\ instead\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ uplift\\ from\\ heat\\ inside\\ earth\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ depositions\\,\\ in\\ successive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cycles\\ over\\ long\\ periods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ weel\\ received\\:\\ heard\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ read\\,\\ called\\ \\"\\;atheist\\"\\;\\ but\\ further\\ dev\\'d\\ by\\ Charles\\ Lyell\\ among\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Charles\\ Lyell\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Principles\\ of\\ Geology\\ \\(1830\\-33\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Uniformitarianism\\ \\(vs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ catastrophism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ deep\\ past\\ of\\ earth\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fossil\\ record\\ not\\ complete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Professional\\ geology\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;as\\ if\\ Scriptures\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ providential\\ provisions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Change\\ due\\ to\\ processes\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ can\\ see\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Has\\ observed\\ extinct\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ volcanoes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Principles\\ of\\ Geology\\:\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ attempt\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ former\\ changes\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\'s\\ surface\\ by\\ reference\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ causes\\ now\\ in\\ operation\\ \\=\\ deep\\ geological\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Became\\ a\\ friend\\ of\\ Darwin\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ never\\ fully\\ accepted\\ evolution\\ of\\ species\\,\\ instead\\ \\"\\;centers\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\"\\;\\ to\\ explain\\ diversity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\William\\ Buckland\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ his\\ Bridgewater\\ Treatise\\ \\(1836\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ works\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ theology\\,\\ though\\ he\\ considered\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ \\"\\;scriptural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ geologist\\"\\;\\ he\\ ascribes\\ a\\ vast\\ age\\ to\\ the\\ ante\\-diluvial\\ formations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Allows\\ for\\ a\\ huge\\ geological\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ past\\ before\\ diluvial\\ flood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 18: geology"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.132577+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 19: ideas about species and evolution before Darwin", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 785, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stratigraphy\\:\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ layering\\ of\\ rocks\\;\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ oldest\\ layers\\ are\\ beneath\\ the\\ new\\ ones\\;\\ presence\\ of\\ fossils\\ in\\ layers\\ can\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lead\\ to\\ conclusions\\ about\\ faunal\\ succession\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Uniformitarians\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ extreme\\ in\\ 19th\\ C\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ believe\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Causes\\ are\\ from\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gradualism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Takes\\ lot\\ of\\ time\\ to\\ get\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ where\\ we\\ are\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scriptural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ geology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geologists\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ use\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ geology\\ to\\ explicate\\ scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\William\\ Buckland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lyell\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ independently\\ wealthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hutton\\ was\\ not\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ academic\\,\\ wealthy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Buckland\\ trained\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ a\\ minister\\,\\ also\\ worked\\ as\\ professor\\ of\\ geology\\ at\\ Oxford\\,\\ eventually\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ employed\\ by\\ church\\ and\\ did\\ geology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lyell\\ actually\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ trained\\ as\\ a\\ lawyer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ thought\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ might\\ be\\ a\\ doctor\\,\\ then\\ a\\ cleric\\,\\ independently\\ wealthy\\,\\ doesn\\'t\\ really\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hold\\ an\\ academic\\ position\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ scientists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ know\\ who\\ they\\ are\\,\\ look\\ down\\ on\\ those\\ who\\ haven\\'t\\ proven\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Explaining\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ organic\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Traditional\\ chain\\ of\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\18th\\ ct\\ materialism\\:\\ life\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inherent\\ in\\ matter\\?\\ \\(spontaneous\\ generation\\,\\ life\\ force\\ or\\ vitalism\\)\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ La\\ Mettrie\\:\\ man\\ a\\ machine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ scientific\\ understanding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ heredity\\ until\\ attention\\ to\\ Mendel\\ \\(1901\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>tho\\'\\ he\\ pub\\'d\\ his\\ work\\ in\\ 1865\\)\\;\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ breeders\\ have\\ practical\\ exp\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ people\\ think\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ themselves\\ as\\ Christians\\,\\ normally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ reconcile\\ their\\ views\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ see\\ how\\ God\\ acts\\ through\\ laws\\ of\\ physics\\,\\ and\\ see\\ that\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ has\\ acted\\ over\\ time\\ through\\ laws\\ of\\ speciation\\ or\\ evolution\\,\\ etc\\&hellip\\;to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ create\\ the\\ world\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ much\\ dialogue\\ took\\ place\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ scholars\\ internationally\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Translations\\ important\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ oftentimes\\ not\\ faithful\\ to\\ original\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ of\\ planting\\ false\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fossils\\,\\ few\\ great\\ scandals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Louis\\ Agassiz\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ Switzerland\\,\\ specialist\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ glaciers\\,\\ first\\ theorist\\ in\\ ice\\ ages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ against\\ evolution\\,\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ poly\\-genesis\\,\\ multiple\\ generations\\ of\\ human\\ races\\,\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hierarchy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ medieval\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ view\\:\\ the\\ chain\\ or\\ being\\ \\=\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ kinds\\ of\\ beings\\ \\(rocks\\,\\ plants\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ animals\\,\\ humans\\,\\ planets\\,\\ angels\\,\\ God\\)\\,\\ fixed\\ since\\ the\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Great\\ chain\\ of\\ being\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Speculative\\ accounts\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generation\\ by\\ microscopists\\ ca\\ 1700\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ Antoine\\ Leeuwenhoek\\)\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ preformation\\,\\ a\\ miniature\\ adult\\ in\\ each\\ sperm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Epigenisis\\ \\(formation\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ undifferentiated\\ egg\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Aristotle\\ had\\ done\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ experiments\\ of\\ this\\ w\\/\\ chicken\\ eggs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ talking\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ breeders\\,\\ husbandry\\,\\ and\\ scientists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spontaneous\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generation\\ theories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Materialists\\ say\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ matter\\ itself\\ is\\ the\\ material\\ of\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Carl\\ Linnaeus\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1707\\-78\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Systema\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ naturae\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eds\\ 1735\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nat\\ theo\\ themes\\;\\ systematic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nomenclature\\;\\ classification\\ of\\ plants\\ based\\ on\\ stamens\\ and\\ pistils\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ first\\ study\\ of\\ sexual\\ reproduction\\ of\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ real\\ taxonomists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Develops\\ a\\ nomenclature\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ system\\ of\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Started\\ out\\ with\\ firm\\ view\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ fixity\\ of\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\After\\ his\\ own\\ experiments\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ w\\/\\ hybridization\\,\\ loosened\\ up\\ on\\ idea\\ of\\ fixity\\ of\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ in\\ 18th\\ C\\,\\ people\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transplanting\\ plants\\,\\ noticing\\ change\\ in\\ other\\ environments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ see\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ species\\ as\\ a\\ label\\,\\ less\\ as\\ a\\ fixity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Georges\\ Cuvier\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1769\\-1832\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Comparative\\ anatomy\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ paleontology\\:\\ extinctions\\ happened\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ mammoths\\ were\\ not\\ elephants\\)\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ catastrophism\\;\\ implies\\ new\\ acts\\ of\\ creation\\;\\ hostile\\ to\\ Lamarck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Distinguish\\ between\\ asian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ elephants\\ and\\ african\\ elephants\\,\\ and\\ mammoths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Concludes\\ that\\ there\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ been\\ extinctions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Special\\ creation\\ idea\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moments\\ where\\ new\\ species\\ are\\ created\\ in\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ evolutionists\\,\\ feels\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\ are\\ acts\\ of\\ creation\\ if\\ needed\\ to\\ make\\ new\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ feels\\ that\\ fossil\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ record\\ is\\ very\\ spotty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ empirical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disciplines\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Classification\\:\\ Linnaeus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1750\\)\\ \\-\\ species\\ and\\ hybridization\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Paleontology\\:\\ dating\\ fossils\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ strata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Comparative\\ anatomy\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ similarity\\ of\\ organs\\,\\ structures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Georges\\ Cuvier\\ concludes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ some\\ species\\ are\\ extinct\\.\\ Catastrophism\\ and\\ fixity\\ of\\ species\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(implying\\ special\\ creation\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Embryology\\:\\ embryos\\ share\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ features\\ and\\ diversify\\ in\\ stages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jean\\-Bapt\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Lamarck\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Philosophie\\ Zoologique\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1809\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evolution\\ of\\ each\\ species\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ toward\\ greater\\ complexity\\,\\ through\\ striving\\ and\\ inheritance\\ of\\ acquired\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ characteristics\\.\\ \\"\\;escalator\\"\\;\\ model\\ of\\ progress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ to\\ offer\\ a\\ coherent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theory\\ of\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Life\\ force\\ driving\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ complexity\\ \\+\\ inheritance\\ of\\ acquired\\ characteristics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ designed\\ species\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ improve\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ materialist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ endowed\\ matter\\ w\\/\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ force\\,\\ species\\ improving\\ over\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Exists\\ throughout\\ universe\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cause\\ which\\ no\\ one\\ can\\ diminish\\,\\ this\\ life\\ force\\,\\ vital\\ force\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ famously\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mechanisms\\ for\\ this\\ improvement\\ is\\ mechanism\\ of\\ acquired\\ characteristics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ along\\ with\\ use\\ and\\ disuse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Different\\ from\\ Darwinian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evolution\\ in\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ common\\ ancestor\\,\\ multiple\\ species\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ over\\ time\\ improved\\ themselves\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ extinction\\,\\ b\\/c\\ why\\ would\\ animal\\ ever\\ go\\ extinct\\ if\\ they\\ could\\ just\\ keep\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ improving\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ worry\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwin\\ about\\ geographical\\ differences\\ of\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Remarkably\\ long\\ career\\,\\ idea\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ contribution\\ of\\ the\\ experience\\ toward\\ what\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transmitted\\ to\\ offspring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Erasmus\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Acquiring\\ of\\ new\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evolution\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Associated\\ with\\ French\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ radicalism\\,\\ revolution\\,\\ atheism\\ \\-\\ poorly\\ received\\ in\\ Oxford\\ and\\ Cambridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ studied\\ with\\ Robert\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Edward\\ Grant\\,\\ an\\ evolutionist\\ at\\ Edinburgh\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Vestiges\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ Natural\\ History\\ of\\ Creation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1844\\)\\,\\ anonymous\\,\\ by\\ Robert\\ Chambers\\:\\ transmutation\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ part\\ of\\ laws\\ of\\ God\\ \\-\\ a\\ scandal\\ and\\ a\\ sensation\\ \\-\\ widely\\ read\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Published\\ anonymously\\,\\ much\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rapid\\ speculation\\ about\\ who\\ wrote\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Guy\\ named\\ Robert\\ Chambers\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ publisher\\ himself\\,\\ although\\ he\\ didn\\'t\\ publish\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trying\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ broad\\-synthesis\\ of\\ recent\\ work\\ in\\ geology\\ and\\ fossils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trying\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ideas\\ pre\\-ordained\\ by\\ God\\,\\ sort\\ of\\ Newtonian\\ idea\\ that\\ all\\ you\\ needed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ life\\ and\\ laws\\,\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ variety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ want\\ to\\ deny\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\,\\ but\\ says\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ creation\\ through\\ laws\\ rather\\ than\\ special\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\ of\\ each\\ individual\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ can\\ have\\ organic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evolution\\ and\\ the\\ bible\\ w\\/o\\ modifying\\ anything\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ accustomed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ hold\\ sacred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ book\\ caused\\ an\\ uproar\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwin\\ sort\\ of\\ praises\\ it\\ saying\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ removed\\ prejudice\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prepared\\ ground\\ for\\ analogous\\ view\\ but\\ criticized\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ specifics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Embryology\\ also\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Parallel\\ development\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ diff\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Haeckel\\ \\(post\\-Darwin\\)\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ embryos\\ go\\ through\\ forms\\ of\\ earlier\\ evolutionary\\ stages\\,\\ Haeckel\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rejected\\ today\\,\\ though\\ some\\ notion\\ of\\ recapitulation\\ is\\ debated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Robert\\ Grant\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teacher\\ of\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Challenged\\ orthodox\\ views\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Didn\\'t\\ believe\\ in\\ God\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ much\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Taught\\ that\\ one\\ creature\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ could\\ change\\ into\\ another\\,\\ transmutation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Edingborough\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Open\\ to\\ atheism\\,\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ to\\ Anglican\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ establishment\\ at\\ Cambridge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Figures\\ he\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ careful\\ if\\ he\\ is\\ to\\ advance\\ idea\\ of\\ evolution\\,\\ b\\/c\\ associated\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ materialism\\ and\\ atheism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Adam\\ Sedgwick\\ taught\\ geology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Henslow\\ also\\ professor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 19: ideas about species and evolution before Darwin"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.155809+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 20: Charles Darwin (1809-82) & On the Origin of Species (I859)", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 786, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Formation\\ of\\ Darwin\\'s\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\From\\ the\\ landed\\ gentry\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ successful\\ in\\ industry\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mom\\ died\\ at\\ young\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Grandmother\\ Wedgewood\\,\\ rich\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ porcelain\\ maker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Grant\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Smacks\\ of\\ atheism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ materialism\\,\\ but\\ also\\ for\\ Darwin\\ in\\ mid\\-19th\\ C\\ England\\,\\ dangerous\\ to\\ buy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ into\\ evolution\\ of\\ materialist\\ kind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ sees\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chamber\\'s\\ Vestiges\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accused\\ of\\ being\\ atheist\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ materialist\\,\\ still\\ sells\\ well\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ doesn\\'t\\ want\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adjectives\\ attached\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Graduates\\ Cambridge\\,\\ learned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ natural\\ theology\\,\\ evidences\\ of\\ Christianity\\ practically\\ by\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Optimistic\\ view\\,\\ focus\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adaptation\\,\\ knows\\ Paley\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ theoretical\\ synthesis\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ based\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ observations\\ \\(Beagle\\ voyage\\)\\ combined\\ with\\ recent\\ work\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ many\\ fields\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Read\\ Lyell\\,\\ got\\ hint\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Uniformitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Laws\\ that\\ are\\ universal\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ time\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ space\\,\\ that\\ account\\ for\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ witnessed\\ 1835\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earthquake\\ in\\ Chile\\ during\\ his\\ voyage\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Something\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Uniformitarianism\\ accounts\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ areas\\ of\\ current\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ historiographical\\ debate\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Role\\ of\\ Malthus\\ \\(formative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ only\\ providing\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>a\\ vocabulary\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ which\\ to\\ articulate\\ his\\ theory\\ already\\ formed\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Malthus\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Principle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Population\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1798\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ made\\ vivid\\ in\\ the\\ tenements\\ of\\ early\\ 19th\\ C\\ London\\ \\-\\ squalor\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ controversies\\ over\\ poor\\ relief\\,\\ riots\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ in\\ 1842\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Step\\ after\\ Smith\\,\\ much\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pessimist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Food\\ cannot\\ keep\\ up\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ growing\\ pop\\ size\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\How\\ fast\\ did\\ Darwin\\ shed\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religious\\ views\\ and\\ optimistic\\ assessment\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ as\\ apart\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ divine\\ design\\?\\ \\(death\\ of\\ 10\\-year\\-old\\ daughter\\ Annie\\ in\\ 1851\\;\\ wife\\ Emma\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Wedgwood\\ always\\ devout\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\'s\\ scientific\\ method\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ portrays\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ Baconian\\ patient\\ observer\\,\\ but\\ his\\ notebooks\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indicate\\ that\\ we\\ worked\\ from\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ 1844\\:\\ evolution\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ random\\ variation\\ and\\ natural\\ selection\\ of\\ best\\ adapted\\ individuals\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ speciation\\ through\\ branching\\ divergence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\'s\\ study\\ in\\ his\\ house\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ Down\\,\\ 15\\ miles\\ from\\ London\\,\\ moved\\ in\\ 1842\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lived\\ fairly\\ reclusively\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Movie\\ in\\ lecture\\ said\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ death\\ of\\ Annie\\ took\\ away\\ his\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\England\\ at\\ time\\ becoming\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ industrialized\\,\\ machines\\ and\\ man\\ becoming\\ adapted\\ in\\ England\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ manufacturing\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Specialized\\ and\\ strongest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ survived\\ methods\\ of\\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ Darwin\\,\\ nature\\ had\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ efficient\\ workshops\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1853\\,\\ awarded\\ Royal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Society\\'s\\ Royal\\ Medal\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ joined\\ its\\ elite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophical\\ club\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ recluse\\,\\ but\\ still\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ enjoyed\\ being\\ lionized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\ careful\\ to\\ share\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evolutionary\\ views\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Studied\\ pigeons\\ and\\ breeding\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saw\\ extreme\\ variety\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ graphic\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ new\\ species\\ originated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ imaged\\ a\\ tree\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ became\\ well\\ accepted\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fellow\\ of\\ Royal\\ Society\\ upon\\ return\\ to\\ Beagle\\,\\ but\\ then\\ climbed\\ its\\ ranks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Has\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ respectability\\ that\\ he\\ wanted\\ and\\ needed\\ and\\ that\\ none\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientists\\ had\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Alfred\\ Russel\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Wallace\\:\\ simultaneous\\ discovery\\ \\(1858\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Similar\\ theory\\ from\\ similar\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observations\\ in\\ South\\ America\\;\\ Lyell\\,\\ Malthus\\;\\ but\\ competition\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ varieties\\ not\\ individuals\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>From\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lower\\ social\\ class\\,\\ a\\ socialist\\,\\ rejects\\ human\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ went\\ on\\ big\\ trip\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ship\\ caught\\ on\\ fire\\,\\ lost\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sent\\ his\\ work\\ to\\ Darwin\\,\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ read\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ acted\\ fast\\ in\\ 1858\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ the\\ two\\ papers\\ read\\ at\\ Royal\\ Society\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwin\\ then\\ sprung\\ into\\ action\\,\\ published\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Origins\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ next\\ year\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ had\\ 10\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ children\\,\\ 2\\ died\\ in\\ childhood\\,\\ Annie\\ died\\ later\\,\\ 7\\ to\\ adulthood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ species\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1859\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Analogy\\ with\\ artificial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ selection\\ \\(in\\ lieu\\ of\\ theory\\ of\\ heredity\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Optimistic\\ conclusion\\:\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;entangled\\ bank\\"\\;\\;\\ man\\ to\\ be\\ discussed\\ \\"\\;in\\ another\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ place\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Descent\\ of\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1872\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\First\\ edition\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sold\\ out\\ \\(1250\\ copies\\)\\ immediately\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Second\\ ed\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ published\\ few\\ months\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sees\\ species\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ labels\\ of\\ convenience\\,\\ not\\ as\\ hard\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Always\\ tension\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ between\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ Darwin\\ and\\ where\\ he\\ thought\\ God\\ might\\ fit\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ pessimistic\\ you\\ are\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harder\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ see\\ providential\\ beneficence\\ at\\ work\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ you\\ emphasize\\ suffering\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ cruel\\ death\\ of\\ Annie\\ at\\ age\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Inter\\-species\\ competition\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ leads\\ to\\ staggering\\ waste\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pessimistic\\ undertone\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ present\\ in\\ his\\ notebooks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ species\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ does\\ not\\ address\\ human\\ origins\\,\\ strategy\\ on\\ his\\ part\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Problems\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ theory\\ of\\ heredity\\ \\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contemporaries\\ assumed\\ blending\\,\\ but\\ then\\ why\\ is\\ the\\ successful\\ variation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ swamped\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Standard\\ heredity\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ appreciated\\ by\\ breeders\\ is\\ a\\ blending\\ vision\\,\\ but\\ as\\ we\\ know\\,\\ not\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ traits\\ blend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Before\\ Mendelian\\ genetics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ doesn\\'t\\ have\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ answer\\ to\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gaps\\ in\\ fossil\\ records\\;\\ many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ missing\\ links\\ between\\ extinct\\ and\\ current\\ species\\ descended\\ from\\ them\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ problem\\ of\\ human\\ origins\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Problem\\ of\\ missing\\ links\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ many\\ animal\\ species\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ in\\ human\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Age\\ of\\ earth\\ \\-\\ needs\\ lots\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ time\\ for\\ organic\\ evolution\\ and\\ speciation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ needs\\ so\\ much\\ time\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ really\\ rather\\ mind\\-boggling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kelvin\\'s\\ science\\ gives\\ much\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shorter\\ time\\ frame\\ than\\ what\\ Darwin\\ needs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ teleology\\ or\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ superintending\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ little\\ concern\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ biblical\\ interpretation\\ \\(Galileo\\'s\\ principles\\ still\\ hold\\:\\ Bible\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ morals\\ not\\ science\\;\\ principle\\ of\\ accommodation\\;\\ priority\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientifically\\ demonstrated\\ truths\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientist\\,\\ not\\ speculating\\ a\\ whole\\ lot\\,\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\ a\\ scientific\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ interested\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ though\\ in\\ biblical\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thinks\\ Galileo\\'s\\ principles\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ still\\ hold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 20: Charles Darwin (1809-82) & On the Origin of Species (I859)"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.176383+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 21: Reception of Darwin", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 787, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ were\\ division\\ along\\ generational\\ lines\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Huxley\\ to\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\I\\'m\\ sharpening\\ my\\ claws\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ am\\ ready\\ to\\ battle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwinists\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fighting\\ against\\ status\\ quo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Caution\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ projecting\\ current\\ preoccupations\\ onto\\ 19th\\ C\\ debate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wilberforce\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Huxley\\ debate\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Met\\ on\\ June\\ 30\\,\\ 1860\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ meeting\\ of\\ British\\ association\\ of\\ advancement\\ of\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spoke\\ to\\ packed\\ house\\,\\ up\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 700\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Barbed\\ attacks\\ on\\ both\\ sides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wilberforce\\ inquired\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Huxley\\ whether\\ it\\ was\\ on\\ his\\ grandmothers\\ or\\ grandfathers\\ side\\ that\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ descended\\ by\\ an\\ ape\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Huxley\\ replied\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rather\\ be\\ descended\\ from\\ an\\ ape\\ than\\ be\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ used\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ gifts\\ of\\ reason\\ to\\ obscure\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Woman\\ swooned\\,\\ so\\ the\\ myth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ goes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wilberforce\\ and\\ Huxley\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ took\\ stage\\ after\\ hour\\ of\\ long\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reports\\ mixed\\ as\\ to\\ who\\ won\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ audience\\ member\\ said\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Huxley\\ wasn\\'t\\ that\\ great\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ even\\ clear\\ this\\ should\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ cast\\ as\\ debate\\ by\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wilberforce\\ consulted\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientists\\ who\\ objected\\ on\\ scientific\\ grounds\\ to\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Out\\ of\\ debate\\ has\\ arose\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ elaborate\\ myth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ popularizers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ did\\ set\\ up\\ Darwinism\\ as\\ this\\ war\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ernst\\ Haeckel\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ people\\ who\\ thought\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ materialism\\ led\\ to\\ greater\\ need\\ for\\ Christian\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Carefully\\ managed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ appearances\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ face\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ been\\ recognizable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tight\\ association\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Darwin\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ with\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cartoons\\ seem\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ go\\ in\\ two\\ directions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Either\\ God\\ or\\ monkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwinism\\ linked\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ materialism\\ and\\ moral\\ degradation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descent\\ of\\ man\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ published\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Made\\ it\\ seem\\ that\\ man\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moral\\ qualities\\ being\\ degraded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ manifestation\\ of\\ this\\ general\\ concern\\ that\\ evolution\\ was\\ a\\ corrupting\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dangerous\\ concept\\ came\\ form\\ political\\ sphere\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Claimed\\ as\\ support\\ on\\ many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ points\\ of\\ political\\ compass\\,\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\ associated\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ progressivism\\ and\\ radical\\ journals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seen\\ that\\ it\\ could\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ radical\\ cast\\,\\ especialy\\ in\\ 1860s\\ and\\ 70s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Became\\ associated\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Marxism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Just\\ months\\ after\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Origins\\ published\\,\\ liberal\\ Anglicans\\ published\\ book\\ re\\-interpreting\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ some\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ main\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ is\\ a\\ historical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ document\\ produced\\ by\\ men\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ read\\ as\\ such\\,\\ essentially\\ like\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ any\\ other\\ piece\\ of\\ literature\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\While\\ divinely\\ inspired\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ still\\ written\\ by\\ imperfect\\ humans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Goal\\ of\\ Christianity\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ moral\\ life\\,\\ not\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ as\\ source\\ of\\ moral\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lessons\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bible\\ should\\ be\\ read\\ almost\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ moral\\ fable\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Don\\'t\\ look\\ for\\ physical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evidence\\ of\\ flood\\,\\ no\\ need\\ for\\ historical\\ evidence\\ of\\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\22\\,000\\ copies\\ in\\ 2\\ years\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ big\\ uproar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Condemned\\ by\\ clergy\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exalting\\ human\\ reason\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wilberforce\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ played\\ leading\\ role\\ in\\ condemning\\ essays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ and\\ Lyell\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ supported\\ counter\\-letter\\ to\\ condemnation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Talking\\ about\\ incident\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quotes\\ as\\ saying\\ that\\ \\"\\;a\\ bench\\ of\\ bishops\\&hellip\\;is\\ a\\ devil\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ flower\\-garden\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Problems\\ arising\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ Darwinism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ concerns\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ that\\ there\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ little\\ space\\ for\\ fitting\\ in\\ good\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Random\\ variation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ selection\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ aesthetically\\ pleasing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Species\\ not\\ a\\ stable\\ concept\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Variations\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ any\\ good\\ end\\,\\ deleterious\\ in\\ some\\ cases\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ variation\\ random\\,\\ did\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ know\\ how\\ it\\ would\\ turn\\ out\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opponents\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Richard\\ Owen\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Great\\ anatomist\\,\\ vied\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Huxley\\ for\\ best\\ in\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Head\\ of\\ British\\ Natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ history\\ Museum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ for\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ species\\ by\\ a\\ continuously\\ operative\\ creation\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ evidence\\ for\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ selection\\,\\ fair\\ point\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ his\\ book\\ critiquing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwin\\,\\ derivate\\ hypothesis\\,\\ points\\ out\\ missing\\ fossil\\ record\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ suggested\\ sudden\\ mutations\\ or\\ jumps\\ rather\\ than\\ slow\\ adaptations\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Each\\ mutation\\ represents\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ idea\\ of\\ God\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\ thinkable\\ to\\ Darwin\\,\\ not\\ compromise\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ could\\ have\\ really\\ agreed\\ with\\ in\\ any\\ way\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argues\\ there\\ could\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ been\\ reverse\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pre\\-ordained\\ paths\\,\\ can\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ move\\ forward\\ or\\ backwards\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evolution\\ as\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teleological\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Continuous\\ operation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Adam\\ Sedgwick\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geologist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saw\\ no\\ way\\ to\\ reconcile\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ belief\\ in\\ God\\ with\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Emphasis\\ on\\ final\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pointed\\ to\\ sterility\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hybrids\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ God\\ would\\ not\\ allow\\ his\\ plan\\ to\\ be\\ messed\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\'s\\ Descent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ years\\ before\\ publishes\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Huxley\\ wrote\\ evidences\\ of\\ man\\'s\\ place\\ in\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Several\\ archaeological\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ findings\\ of\\ flint\\ spearheads\\ in\\ deep\\ strata\\ which\\ pushed\\ origins\\ of\\ man\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ way\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Goes\\ to\\ length\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ some\\ characteristics\\ unique\\ to\\ man\\ present\\ in\\ other\\ animals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Included\\ emotions\\ and\\ moral\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ instincts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Obviously\\ area\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rife\\ for\\ public\\ images\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saw\\ image\\ of\\ Darwin\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ monkey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Animate\\ vs\\.\\ inanimate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ objects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accusation\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwin\\ abandoned\\ Baconian\\ inductive\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Interesting\\ in\\ seeing\\ how\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ and\\ science\\ related\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Agassiz\\:\\ a\\ physical\\ fact\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ sacred\\ as\\ a\\ moral\\ principle\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ order\\ and\\ importance\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ natural\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Little\\ opposition\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwinism\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ challenged\\ literal\\ interpretation\\ of\\ genesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ official\\ church\\ reaction\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ either\\ Anglican\\ or\\ Catholic\\,\\ against\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\School\\ debates\\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Germany\\ in\\ 1877\\,\\ showdown\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ schools\\ teaching\\ Darwinism\\ in\\ classroom\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Were\\ isolated\\ reports\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ students\\ losing\\ their\\ faith\\ by\\ reading\\ Origins\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Those\\ who\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reconciled\\ Darwinism\\ with\\ their\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ that\\ Darwinism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ actually\\ augments\\ their\\ version\\ of\\ Christianity\\,\\ a\\ productive\\ synthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christian\\ Darwinism\\ used\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ early\\ as\\ 1867\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Great\\ Britain\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Moore\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ be\\ any\\ divine\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpositions\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ b\\/c\\ God\\ cannot\\ interfere\\ with\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Iberrock\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(sp\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ necessary\\ to\\ teleology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ assume\\ that\\ each\\ organism\\ is\\ fired\\ straight\\ at\\ its\\ mark\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ organism\\ eventually\\ this\\ the\\ mark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ it\\ hits\\ the\\ mark\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ result\\ not\\ against\\ teleology\\,\\ but\\ heightens\\ our\\ view\\ of\\ skillfullness\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ which\\ teleology\\ was\\ reached\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Frederick\\ Temple\\,\\ later\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Archbishop\\ of\\ Canterbury\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argued\\ that\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ selection\\ was\\ simply\\ a\\ partial\\ understanding\\ of\\ how\\ matter\\ works\\,\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impressed\\ upon\\ certain\\ particles\\ such\\ inherent\\ powers\\ that\\ over\\ time\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ such\\ living\\ creatures\\ as\\ live\\ at\\ the\\ represent\\ were\\ evolved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Asa\\ Gray\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Huxley\\,\\ looking\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ word\\ to\\ describe\\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chose\\ agnosticism\\ to\\ get\\ at\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ idea\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ not\\ decide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Compromise\\ between\\ atheist\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ who\\ says\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ God\\ and\\ theist\\ who\\ says\\ they\\ know\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\US\\ Debate\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Agassiz\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Studied\\ ice\\-ages\\,\\ opponent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ evolution\\ long\\ before\\ Darwin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Friend\\ of\\ Lyell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ popular\\ figure\\,\\ said\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ physical\\ fact\\ as\\ sacred\\ as\\ moral\\ principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Asa\\ Gray\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Raised\\ Presbyterian\\,\\ little\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religious\\ involvement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Famous\\ botanist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Concluded\\ form\\ his\\ own\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ study\\,\\ the\\ geographic\\ distribution\\ of\\ plants\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Either\\ common\\ origin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Each\\ organism\\ originally\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chose\\ common\\ origin\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fervent\\ Darwinist\\,\\ biggest\\ supporter\\ in\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Continued\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ synthesis\\ of\\ theism\\ and\\ Darwinism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ selection\\ is\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inconsistent\\ with\\ design\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Laws\\ regulating\\ motion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ of\\ Gaps\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Variation\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intervention\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ thought\\ that\\ Grey\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ gone\\ too\\ far\\,\\ that\\ variation\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ intervention\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darwin\\ always\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hypothesis\\ running\\,\\ always\\ testing\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 21: Reception of Darwin"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.201050+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 22: Background to American Creationism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 788, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ exceptional\\ landscape\\ of\\ the\\ US\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\High\\ rates\\ of\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ belief\\ in\\ God\\ \\(ca\\ 87\\%\\)\\ and\\ practice\\ \\(ca\\ 50\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Proliferation\\ and\\ growth\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ new\\ religious\\ groups\\;\\ decline\\ of\\ the\\ mainline\\ denomination\\ \\(esp\\ in\\ 20th\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ct\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ reasons\\ for\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ diversity\\ and\\ dynamism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ in\\ US\\ can\\ move\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ around\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religion\\ plays\\ a\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ important\\ role\\ in\\ social\\ integration\\ in\\ country\\ with\\ unusually\\ high\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ amount\\ of\\ geographic\\ mobility\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Europe\\,\\ much\\ stronger\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sense\\ of\\ geographic\\ rootedness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ important\\ feature\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ establishment\\ in\\ particular\\ is\\ that\\ churches\\ get\\ their\\ money\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ US\\,\\ lot\\ of\\ times\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ splinter\\ movement\\ happens\\,\\ with\\ splinter\\ groups\\ happening\\ all\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evolution\\ one\\ issue\\ where\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ churches\\ will\\ split\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ responses\\ to\\ human\\ evolution\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ late\\ 19th\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ 1875\\ wide\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agreement\\ on\\ transmutation\\ of\\ species\\,\\ though\\ not\\ on\\ the\\ mechanism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(random\\ variation\\ \\+\\ nat\\ sel\\ vs\\ theistic\\ evolution\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Random\\ mutation\\ and\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ selection\\ is\\ hard\\ part\\ to\\ swallow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lots\\ of\\ opinions\\ with\\ room\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ theistic\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religious\\ stand\\:\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ denominations\\ come\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Denominations\\ splinter\\ over\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ how\\ much\\ they\\'re\\ willing\\ to\\ go\\ with\\ theistic\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ denominations\\ take\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ official\\ stand\\ on\\ evolution\\;\\ many\\ split\\ between\\ liberals\\ and\\ conservative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ over\\ attitudes\\ toward\\ evolution\\ and\\ modernism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\,\\ in\\ 1860\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Essays\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Reviews\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\published\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ English\\,\\ 100\\%\\ literate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ society\\,\\ everybody\\ can\\ access\\ these\\ thoughts\\ that\\ Bible\\ is\\ human\\ account\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ a\\ people\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ inspired\\ word\\ of\\ God\\ necessarily\\,\\ certainly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shaped\\ by\\ humans\\,\\ mainly\\ ethical\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\,\\ a\\ fable\\/story\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ help\\ us\\ behave\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Weak\\ on\\ redemption\\ angle\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ is\\ modernist\\ view\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Modernist\\ \\=\\ Bible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understood\\ as\\ work\\ of\\ ethics\\,\\ no\\ literalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theistic\\ evolution\\ taught\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ without\\ difficulty\\ in\\ many\\ universities\\,\\ including\\ religiously\\ affiliated\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ones\\ \\(though\\ two\\ dismissals\\ in\\ the\\ South\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ stance\\:\\ evolution\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ body\\ OK\\;\\ but\\ human\\ soul\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Modernism\\/liberal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religion\\ as\\ ethical\\ system\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ biblical\\ criticism\\ ok\\,\\ evolution\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believers\\,\\ but\\ not\\ much\\ of\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ direct\\ experience\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Einstein\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Established\\ by\\ 1900\\ in\\ 1\\/3\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Prot\\ pulpits\\,\\ few\\ in\\ the\\ South\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Looking\\ ahead\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ 1930s\\:\\ response\\ to\\ modernism\\ in\\ neo\\-orthodoxy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Renewed\\ emphasis\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christology\\,\\ grace\\ and\\ redemption\\:\\ Karl\\ Barth\\,\\ diffused\\ in\\ US\\ by\\ Richard\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Niebuhr\\;\\ Jesus\\ not\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ foundational\\ \\(no\\ biblical\\ inerrancy\\)\\.\\ A\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;wall\\"\\;\\ between\\ theology\\ and\\ science\\;\\ evolution\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Re\\-emphasis\\ on\\ salvation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ story\\ in\\ Protestant\\ line\\,\\ no\\ interest\\ in\\ nat\\ theo\\ or\\ trying\\ to\\ prove\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ different\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ response\\ to\\ modernism\\:\\ fundamentalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Splintered\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evangelicals\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Fundamentals\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1910\\)\\ reject\\ higher\\ criticism\\;\\ but\\ OK\\ with\\ deep\\ time\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\+\\ theistic\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hostile\\ to\\ random\\ variation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-\\ they\\ are\\ guided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hostile\\ to\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ selection\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hostile\\ to\\ slow\\ gradual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ changes\\:\\ instead\\ sudden\\ ones\\,\\ but\\ theistic\\ evolution\\ OK\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evolution\\ n\\ short\\ is\\ coming\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ be\\ recognized\\ as\\ but\\ a\\ new\\ name\\ for\\ \\'creation\\,\\'\\ only\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creative\\ power\\ now\\ works\\ form\\ within\\ instead\\ of\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ old\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conception\\,\\ in\\ an\\ external\\ \\,\\ plastic\\ fashion\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\,\\ however\\,\\ creation\\ none\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ less\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\So\\ really\\ see\\ a\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ leadership\\ movement\\ of\\ evangelical\\ Christianity\\ adopting\\ a\\ much\\ less\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hardcore\\ conservatism\\ in\\ 1910\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creationists\\ have\\ become\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ much\\ more\\ conservative\\ since\\ then\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opposition\\ to\\ evol\\ increased\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ spread\\ of\\ stricter\\ Darwinian\\ theories\\ in\\ textbooks\\ and\\ among\\ elite\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ mandatory\\ high\\ school\\ education\\;\\ rise\\ of\\ new\\ social\\ dislocations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(urbanization\\,\\ WWI\\,\\ eugenics\\&hellip\\;\\)\\;\\ anti\\-evolution\\ laws\\ of\\ 1920s\\ \\(AR\\,\\ MI\\,\\ OK\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ TN\\,\\ FL\\,\\ TX\\,\\ NC\\,\\ LA\\)\\ leading\\ to\\ Scopes\\ trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ religious\\ movements\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dispensational\\ premillennialism\\,\\ holiness\\ movements\\,\\ pentecostalism\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ emphasize\\ biblical\\ inerrancy\\,\\ \\"\\;Bible\\ alone\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;facts\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sense\\ of\\ crisis\\ in\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quarters\\ about\\ modernity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lots\\ of\\ urbanization\\,\\ social\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dislocation\\,\\ WWI\\,\\ eugenics\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ developments\\ that\\ make\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ some\\ groups\\ feel\\ embattled\\,\\ like\\ action\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ to\\ stop\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ slippery\\ slope\\ toward\\ decline\\ of\\ moral\\,\\ social\\,\\ religious\\ values\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evolution\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ source\\ of\\ this\\ slope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 22: Background to American Creationism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.223946+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading: Descartes, Discourse on Method, parts I-IV, and part V 1st four paragraphs", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 789, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Part\\ One\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ think\\ he\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ necessarily\\ smarter\\,\\ following\\ standard\\ philosophical\\ opinion\\ who\\ say\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ there\\ are\\ differences\\ of\\ degree\\ only\\ among\\ accidents\\,\\ but\\ not\\ among\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forms\\ or\\ natures\\ of\\ individuals\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ species\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\ considers\\ himself\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fortunate\\,\\ basically\\ trying\\ to\\ say\\ he\\'s\\ modest\\,\\ but\\ not\\ really\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Takes\\ pleasure\\ in\\ math\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ certainty\\ and\\ evidence\\ of\\ its\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believes\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exam\\ truths\\ and\\ succeed\\,\\ need\\ some\\ extraordinary\\ assistance\\ from\\ heaven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Takes\\ false\\ everything\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ merely\\ probable\\,\\ starting\\ from\\ scratch\\,\\ only\\ known\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\With\\ respect\\ to\\ other\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sciences\\,\\ since\\ they\\ derive\\ their\\ principles\\ from\\ philosophy\\,\\ cannot\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ firm\\ if\\ built\\ on\\ bad\\ foundation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Decided\\ to\\ study\\ anything\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Part\\ Two\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ learning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ draws\\ on\\ false\\ precepts\\,\\ does\\ not\\ draw\\ as\\ near\\ to\\ the\\ truth\\ as\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ simple\\ reasonings\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ naturally\\ by\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ good\\ sense\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerning\\ what\\ he\\ encounters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Plan\\ has\\ never\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ been\\ more\\ than\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ reform\\ own\\ thoughts\\ and\\ to\\ build\\ upon\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ foundation\\ which\\ is\\ completely\\ his\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ want\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reform\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ custom\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ example\\ that\\ persuades\\ us\\ than\\ certain\\ knowledge\\,\\ and\\ for\\ all\\ that\\,\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ majority\\ opinion\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ proof\\ worth\\ anything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Followed\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ following\\ 4\\ rules\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Never\\ accept\\ anything\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ true\\ unless\\ evidently\\ known\\ to\\ be\\ such\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Divide\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difficulties\\ I\\ was\\ examining\\ into\\ as\\ many\\ parts\\ as\\ possible\\ as\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ required\\ to\\ solve\\ them\\ best\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conduct\\ thoughts\\ in\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ orderly\\ fashion\\,\\ starting\\ with\\ simplest\\ and\\ becoming\\ more\\ complex\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Everywhere\\ make\\ enumerations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ so\\ complete\\ and\\ reviews\\ so\\ general\\ that\\ nothing\\ is\\ omitted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Part\\ Three\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Provisional\\ code\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ morals\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Obey\\ laws\\ and\\ customs\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ country\\,\\ firmly\\ holding\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ religion\\ in\\ which\\,\\ by\\ God\\'s\\ grace\\,\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ instructed\\ from\\ childhood\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Observe\\ what\\ people\\ do\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rather\\ than\\ what\\ they\\ say\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Be\\ firm\\ and\\ resolute\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ actions\\,\\ follow\\ with\\ no\\ less\\ constancy\\ the\\ most\\ doubtful\\ opinions\\ once\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ decided\\ upon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Always\\ try\\ to\\ conquer\\ myself\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rather\\ than\\ fortune\\,\\ to\\ change\\ my\\ desires\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thought\\ it\\ advisable\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ review\\ the\\ various\\ occupations\\ that\\ men\\ take\\ up\\ in\\ this\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ has\\ given\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ each\\ of\\ us\\ a\\ certain\\ light\\ by\\ which\\ to\\ distinguish\\ true\\ from\\ false\\,\\ should\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ be\\ content\\ for\\ a\\ single\\ moment\\ with\\ the\\ opinions\\ of\\ others\\,\\ unless\\ I\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ used\\ my\\ own\\ judgment\\ to\\ examine\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Part\\ Four\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ senses\\ can\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ deceiving\\,\\ decided\\ to\\ suppose\\ that\\ nothing\\ was\\ exactly\\ as\\ our\\ senses\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ would\\ have\\ us\\ imagine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Truth\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\I\\ think\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ therefore\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>am\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Could\\ accept\\ it\\ as\\ first\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ principle\\ of\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ things\\ we\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conceive\\ very\\ clearly\\ and\\ very\\ distinctly\\ are\\ all\\ true\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Need\\ God\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ properly\\ examine\\ and\\ use\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ our\\ ideas\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ notions\\ ought\\ to\\ have\\ some\\ foundation\\ in\\ truth\\;\\ for\\ it\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ possible\\ that\\ God\\,\\ who\\ is\\ all\\ perfect\\ and\\ entirely\\ truthful\\,\\ would\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ put\\ them\\ in\\ us\\ without\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Part\\ Five\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Have\\ noticed\\ laws\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ God\\ has\\ established\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ seems\\ that\\ I\\ have\\ discovered\\ several\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ truths\\ more\\ useful\\ and\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ all\\ I\\ had\\ previously\\ learned\\ or\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ even\\ hoped\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Action\\ by\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\ conserves\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ precisely\\ the\\ same\\ action\\ by\\ which\\ he\\ created\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading: Descartes, Discourse on Method, parts I-IV, and part V 1st four paragraphs"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.240111+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading: God and Nature, Lindberg", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 790, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 8\\ \\(except\\ pp\\.\\ 219\\-24\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Johannes\\ Kepler\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\ Cosmologist\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kepler\\ \\(1571\\-1630\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Astronomer\\ and\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ devout\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ devoted\\ to\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ differences\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ essential\\ doctrines\\ separated\\ him\\ from\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ major\\ denominations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ though\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Saw\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interwoven\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ Kepler\\,\\ traditional\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianity\\ remained\\ virtually\\ unaltered\\ by\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ Kepler\\,\\ exclusion\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ sacrament\\,\\ in\\ his\\ terms\\ exclusion\\ from\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ was\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ personal\\ tragedy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Universe\\ remained\\ for\\ him\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conviction\\ that\\ the\\ Creator\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ had\\ used\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ geometry\\ in\\ constructing\\ his\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ saw\\ a\\ universe\\ organized\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ triads\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ universe\\ remained\\ finite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ spherical\\,\\ b\\/c\\ to\\ him\\ the\\ sphere\\ represented\\ an\\ embodiment\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Trinity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ sphere\\ was\\ more\\ than\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ just\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ form\\ that\\ every\\ being\\ that\\ aspires\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perfection\\ assumes\\,\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ do\\ so\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ sciences\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ including\\ optics\\,\\ Kepler\\'s\\ contemplation\\ of\\ nature\\ brought\\ him\\ back\\,\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ just\\ to\\ theism\\,\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ very\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ Gospels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 9\\:\\ \\ Christianity\\ and\\ the\\ Newtonian\\ Worldview\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ in\\ 17th\\ C\\ England\\ transformed\\ both\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ conflict\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ just\\ modified\\ each\\ other\\ capitalism\\ and\\ revolution\\ occurring\\,\\ also\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ affects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Both\\ science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ capable\\ of\\ imposing\\ an\\ order\\,\\ agreement\\ among\\ which\\ version\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ difficult\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Almost\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unwittingly\\,\\ science\\ helped\\ to\\ foster\\ the\\ first\\ generation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectuals\\ among\\ whom\\ could\\ be\\ found\\ a\\ significant\\ number\\ of\\ quite\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ articulate\\ opponents\\ of\\ all\\ forms\\ of\\ traditional\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ 17th\\ C\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Protestant\\ Christianity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ embraced\\ by\\ Newton\\ \\(1642\\-1727\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Social\\ and\\ economic\\ order\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Powerful\\ market\\,\\ commercial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Emerged\\ through\\ English\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Revolution\\,\\ 1640s\\ to\\ 1690s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christianity\\ that\\ spoke\\ most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ directly\\ to\\ wealthy\\ banks\\ and\\ landed\\ gentry\\,\\ with\\ little\\ interference\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ the\\ crown\\,\\ was\\ not\\ rigorous\\ Calvinism\\ of\\ 1630s\\ and\\ 40s\\,\\ but\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ liberal\\ Anglicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cambridge\\ was\\ center\\ of\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\,\\ liberal\\ Anglicans\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ argued\\,\\ proves\\ the\\ reality\\ of\\ that\\ inherent\\,\\ providentially\\ directed\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ harmony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newtonianism\\ shaped\\ all\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 17th\\ C\\ England\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophical\\ materialism\\,\\ was\\ uniformly\\ condemned\\ by\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apologists\\ as\\ \\"\\;atheism\\"\\;\\ and\\ as\\ disruptive\\ to\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Materialists\\ denounced\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Heresies\\ that\\ threatened\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ spiritual\\ realm\\,\\ and\\ hence\\ its\\ priestly\\ overseers\\,\\ threatened\\ the\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ order\\ of\\ society\\ \\-church\\,\\ aristocracy\\,\\ property\\,\\ and\\ privilege\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Major\\ political\\ philosopher\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Revolution\\,\\ Thomas\\ Hobbes\\ \\(1588\\-1679\\)\\,\\ used\\ the\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ and\\ mechanical\\ philosophy\\ to\\ argue\\ that\\ only\\ matter\\ and\\ motion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ govern\\ the\\ operations\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ in\\ that\\ formulation\\ churchmen\\ saw\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ profound\\ threat\\ to\\ social\\ harmony\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ to\\ Christianity\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hobbes\\'\\ French\\ contemporary\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Rene\\ Descartes\\ \\(1596\\-1650\\)\\,\\ was\\ a\\ committed\\ theist\\,\\ but\\ with\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\ that\\ rested\\ on\\ a\\ radical\\ separation\\ of\\ matter\\ and\\ spirit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ himself\\ called\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\ a\\ materialist\\,\\ argued\\ that\\ his\\ science\\ would\\ undermine\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religious\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ and\\ natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophy\\,\\ as\\ interpreted\\ by\\ Newton\\ and\\ his\\ followers\\,\\ offered\\ a\\ model\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ the\\ stable\\,\\ ordered\\,\\ providentially\\ guided\\ universe\\ within\\ which\\ could\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ occur\\ that\\ competition\\ so\\ basic\\ to\\ the\\ operations\\ of\\ the\\ restrained\\,\\ yet\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ relatively\\ free\\,\\ market\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Boyle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Lectures\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ suggested\\ that\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ discoveries\\ in\\ celestial\\ physics\\ would\\ show\\ the\\ cosmic\\ qualities\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ hence\\ would\\ serve\\ the\\ argument\\ from\\ providential\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ design\\ better\\ than\\ the\\ reliance\\ on\\ the\\ \\"\\;general\\ contrivance\\"\\;\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ animals\\ and\\ plants\\ used\\ by\\ John\\ Ray\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ January\\ 1692\\,\\ Newton\\ may\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ suggested\\ Richard\\ Bentley\\ as\\ the\\ first\\ Boyle\\ lecturer\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newton\\ helped\\ Bentley\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adapts\\ his\\ philosophy\\ as\\ underpinning\\ for\\ Bentley\\'s\\ social\\ vision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ early\\ 18th\\,\\ numerous\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ editions\\ and\\ translations\\ of\\ Boyle\\ lectures\\ became\\ major\\ vehicle\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disseminating\\ Newtonian\\ natural\\ philosophy\\ to\\ educated\\ laity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thought\\ spread\\ that\\ religion\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reinforced\\ by\\ science\\ should\\ play\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\ in\\ state\\ policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wealth\\ and\\ power\\ in\\ hands\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ rulers\\ fulfilled\\ the\\ providential\\ design\\,\\ yet\\ all\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ moderation\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ service\\ of\\ a\\ liberal\\ and\\ tolerant\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newtonianism\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Deism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ charge\\ that\\ Newtonian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianity\\ degenerated\\ into\\ theism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\,\\ all\\ evidence\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Newton\\'s\\ own\\ religiosity\\ confirms\\ his\\ theistic\\ and\\ providential\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ his\\ biblical\\ sense\\ of\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Freemasons\\ emerged\\ around\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lodges\\ became\\ places\\ where\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literate\\ and\\ cosmopolitan\\ men\\ could\\ seek\\ a\\ grounding\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ math\\ made\\ simple\\ and\\ participate\\ in\\ the\\ \\"\\;Royal\\ Art\\"\\;\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ architecture\\,\\ with\\ its\\ supposedly\\ ancient\\ wisdom\\ still\\ intact\\,\\ while\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worshiping\\ the\\ new\\ science\\-inspired\\ God\\,\\ the\\ \\"\\;Grand\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Architect\\,\\"\\;\\ as\\ he\\ was\\ called\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\18th\\ C\\ freemason\\ could\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worship\\ Newton\\'s\\ God\\ or\\ nature\\,\\ open\\ to\\ personal\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Voltaire\\,\\ like\\ many\\ European\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectuals\\,\\ became\\ supporters\\ of\\ Newtonian\\ synthesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Assimilation\\ of\\ Newtonian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ into\\ Western\\ thought\\ produced\\ the\\ 1st\\ generation\\ of\\ European\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thinkers\\ for\\ whom\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ proved\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ satisfying\\ than\\ faith\\ in\\ doctrines\\,\\ creeds\\,\\ and\\ clerical\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Opposition\\ to\\ Newtonianism\\ in\\ England\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ 1740s\\,\\ Tory\\,\\ or\\ country\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disaffection\\ led\\ to\\ questioning\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ basic\\ tenets\\ of\\ liberal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Anglicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Throughout\\ 18th\\ C\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ anti\\-Newtonianism\\ among\\ very\\ devout\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ within\\ Cambridge\\ itself\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ reaction\\ set\\ in\\ against\\ the\\ alliance\\ of\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ in\\ 19th\\ C\\ did\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Darwinianism\\ deliver\\ a\\ severe\\ blow\\,\\ not\\ to\\ Christianity\\ as\\ such\\,\\ but\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\-supported\\ and\\ liberal\\ Anglicanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Yet\\ for\\ nearly\\ a\\ century\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beginning\\ in\\ the\\ 1690s\\,\\ Newton\\'s\\ science\\ had\\ provided\\ the\\ intellectual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ foundation\\ for\\ a\\ unique\\ version\\ of\\ European\\ Protestantism\\,\\ one\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ particularly\\ suited\\ to\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ political\\ stability\\ and\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unprecedented\\ degree\\ of\\ religious\\ toleration\\,\\ all\\ within\\ the\\ context\\ of\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rapidly\\ expanding\\ commercial\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ \\ Catholicism\\ and\\ Early\\ Modern\\ Science\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Essential\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ individual\\ Catholic\\ scientist\\,\\ is\\ there\\ evidence\\ that\\ his\\ religious\\ views\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ affected\\ his\\ scientific\\ work\\,\\ in\\ either\\ his\\ preconceptions\\,\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motivation\\,\\ his\\ discoveries\\,\\ or\\ his\\ conclusions\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientists\\ viewed\\ collectively\\,\\ do\\ any\\ tendencies\\ or\\ interpretations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ emerge\\ that\\ are\\ distinctive\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ called\\ a\\ Catholic\\ pattern\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Were\\ Catholic\\ scientists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ helped\\ or\\ hindered\\ by\\ the\\ church\\ in\\ its\\ institutional\\ capacity\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ the\\ many\\ scientists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ belonging\\ to\\ religious\\ orders\\,\\ how\\,\\ if\\ at\\ all\\,\\ did\\ the\\ rules\\ and\\ programs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ their\\ various\\ orders\\ influence\\ their\\ science\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Varieties\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholic\\ Scientific\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\5\\ most\\ important\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientists\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Marin\\ Mersenne\\ \\(1588\\-1648\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Instrumental\\ in\\ rise\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mechanical\\ philosophy\\,\\ with\\ at\\ least\\ initially\\,\\ solely\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ motivation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reduced\\ nature\\ to\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ensemble\\ of\\ phenomena\\ that\\ proceed\\ according\\ to\\ natural\\ law\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ recognizing\\ that\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ natural\\ order\\ is\\ a\\ prerequisite\\ for\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracle\\ that\\ is\\ contrary\\ to\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Concluded\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ problems\\ of\\ science\\ and\\ faith\\ could\\ be\\ worked\\ out\\ by\\ gathering\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opinions\\ of\\ intelligent\\ men\\;\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ vast\\ network\\ of\\ correspondence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\While\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sincere\\ Catholic\\ faith\\,\\ had\\ untypical\\ theological\\ views\\ for\\ the\\ age\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tolerant\\ beyond\\ the\\ norm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rene\\ Descartes\\ \\(1596\\-1650\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Existence\\ of\\ God\\ can\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ demonstrated\\ by\\ both\\ causal\\ and\\ ontological\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gaurantor\\ of\\ right\\ reason\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ of\\ the\\ reliability\\ of\\ clear\\ and\\ distinct\\ ideas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believed\\ that\\ certain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ questions\\ of\\ theology\\ could\\ be\\ answered\\ by\\ reason\\ \\-\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\,\\ the\\ distinction\\ of\\ soul\\ and\\ body\\ \\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>but\\ very\\ much\\ opposed\\ in\\ general\\ to\\ rational\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Would\\ have\\ liked\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eliminate\\ theology\\ altogether\\,\\ unnecessary\\ middle\\ ground\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ and\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Implications\\ of\\ his\\ theory\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ matter\\ were\\ most\\ severe\\ theological\\ objection\\ ot\\ Cartesianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accidentally\\ undermined\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ the\\ Eucharist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pierre\\ Gassendi\\ \\(1592\\-1655\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Like\\ Descartes\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Mersenne\\,\\ opposed\\ to\\ Scholastic\\ philosophy\\ and\\ Aristotelian\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fashioned\\ a\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ atomism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ was\\ useless\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religious\\ purposes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fideism\\,\\ disagreed\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\ in\\ this\\ aspect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Blaise\\ Pascal\\ \\(1623\\-1662\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Realization\\ that\\ authority\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ plays\\ different\\ roles\\ in\\ religion\\ and\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Clear\\ demarcation\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ provinces\\ of\\ reason\\ and\\ faith\\,\\ spurned\\ the\\ very\\ premise\\ of\\ rational\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unlike\\ Descartes\\,\\ Pascal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ did\\ believe\\ that\\ nature\\ expressed\\ the\\ handiwork\\ of\\ the\\ Creator\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nicolaus\\ Steno\\ \\(1638\\-1686\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Proposed\\ that\\ surface\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\ contains\\ the\\ evidence\\ of\\ its\\ own\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nature\\ is\\ almost\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ coauthor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Still\\,\\ things\\ can\\ happen\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contrary\\ to\\ nature\\;\\ not\\ only\\ can\\ God\\ produce\\ supernatural\\ effects\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ even\\ man\\ can\\ effect\\ the\\ unnatural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Failure\\ to\\ find\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ incompatibility\\ between\\ nature\\ and\\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ 5\\ men\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ term\\ \\"\\;Catholic\\ science\\"\\;\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\ whatsoever\\,\\ varied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Odd\\ though\\,\\ b\\/c\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholic\\ in\\ 17th\\ C\\ meant\\ subscription\\ to\\ a\\ creed\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ institution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\True\\ Catholic\\ believed\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ followed\\ ordinances\\ of\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Institutional\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ only\\ criticized\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unwelcome\\ ideas\\,\\ but\\ was\\ uniquely\\ equipped\\ to\\ censor\\ and\\ repress\\ such\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ideas\\ and\\ even\\ to\\ punish\\ their\\ advocates\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Index\\ and\\ Inquisition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Desire\\ at\\ Trent\\ to\\ protect\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ faith\\ from\\ magic\\,\\ anathema\\ to\\ mainstream\\ Catholicism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magic\\ and\\ astrology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forbidden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ choosing\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ watchdog\\ of\\ Aristotelian\\ philosophy\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ of\\ Catholic\\ theology\\,\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ church\\ in\\ 1600\\ was\\ setting\\ course\\ for\\ most\\ of\\ its\\ confrontations\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 17th\\ C\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Galileo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Origins\\ of\\ church\\'s\\ position\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ lay\\ in\\ its\\ war\\ on\\ magic\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Led\\ to\\ rejection\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alchemy\\,\\ chemistry\\,\\ and\\ chemical\\ medicine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Impact\\ of\\ chemical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ persecution\\ led\\ to\\ few\\ Catholics\\ entering\\ field\\ of\\ chemistry\\,\\ with\\ little\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contribution\\ being\\ made\\ by\\ Catholics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ church\\ led\\ campaign\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ Cartesian\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\'\\ theory\\ and\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ irreconcilability\\ with\\ transubstantiation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\May\\ be\\ that\\ most\\ devastating\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ effect\\ of\\ church\\ intervention\\ in\\ science\\ was\\ the\\ dampening\\ of\\ the\\ spirit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ inquiry\\ that\\ had\\ bubbled\\ through\\ Italian\\ thought\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Renaissance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Threat\\ of\\ censorship\\ greater\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ than\\ action\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Religious\\ Orders\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Number\\ of\\ scientists\\ within\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Catholic\\ religious\\ orders\\ is\\ impressive\\,\\ as\\ is\\ the\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Taking\\ vows\\ was\\ no\\ barrier\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ becoming\\ a\\ scientist\\ \\-\\ in\\ many\\ cases\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ scientist\\ indeed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuits\\ were\\ the\\ greatest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientific\\ order\\,\\ Society\\ of\\ Jesus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Keen\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ precision\\ in\\ experimental\\ sciences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appreciation\\ of\\ the\\ value\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ collaboration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Practiced\\ science\\ on\\ a\\ wide\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scale\\,\\ were\\ able\\ investigators\\,\\ made\\ many\\ important\\ discoveries\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ inventions\\,\\ encouraged\\ the\\ involvement\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Very\\ eclectic\\,\\ both\\ earns\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ praise\\ and\\ criticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Lack\\ of\\ any\\ philosophical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ superstructure\\ holding\\ together\\ the\\ facts\\ being\\ presented\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Handicapped\\ by\\ an\\ emblematic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ view\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ sees\\ nature\\ as\\ vast\\ collection\\ of\\ signs\\ and\\ metaphors\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ scientists\\,\\ Galileo\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bacon\\,\\ Descartes\\,\\ and\\ their\\ followers\\ rejected\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ everything\\ in\\ nature\\ carries\\ a\\ hidden\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesuits\\'\\ reluctance\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ commit\\ themselves\\ to\\ any\\ one\\ viewpoint\\ or\\ authority\\ may\\ be\\ related\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ probabilist\\ stance\\ in\\ matters\\ of\\ moral\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Notorious\\ for\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ willingness\\ to\\ condone\\ actions\\ that\\ other\\ orders\\ rejected\\ as\\ sinful\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Probabilism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Position\\ that\\ an\\ action\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ could\\ be\\ deemed\\ moral\\ if\\ at\\ least\\ one\\ respectable\\ authority\\ had\\ judged\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ so\\,\\ even\\ if\\ his\\ opinion\\ was\\ less\\ probable\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ authorities\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ who\\ denied\\ its\\ morality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\This\\ position\\ necessary\\ if\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ missionary\\ work\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ successful\\,\\ mirrored\\ in\\ their\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ writings\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ opinion\\ of\\ every\\ authority\\ given\\ same\\ weight\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Legacy\\ of\\ fictionalism\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesuits\\ inherited\\ from\\ Bellarmine\\ impacted\\ Jesuit\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Non\\-Jesuit\\ Catholic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientists\\ reacted\\ in\\ differing\\ ways\\ to\\ the\\ pronouncements\\ on\\ Galileo\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heliocentrism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Varying\\ reactions\\ showed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ while\\ most\\ Cahtolics\\ genuinely\\ believed\\ that\\ church\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wtwin\\ pillars\\ of\\ the\\ faith\\,\\ they\\ were\\ willing\\ to\\ admit\\ that\\ the\\ church\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ occasionally\\ wrong\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ misguided\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Such\\ a\\ tolerant\\ attitude\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ denied\\ the\\ Jesuits\\;\\ for\\ them\\ the\\ church\\ was\\ never\\ wrong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Society\\ of\\ Jesus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ demonstrated\\ the\\ difficulties\\ that\\ could\\ ensue\\ when\\ religious\\ concerns\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intruded\\ into\\ scientific\\ affairs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 12\\:\\ The\\ \\ Shape\\ and\\ Meaning\\ of\\ Earth\\ History\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Age\\ of\\ earth\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ story\\ of\\ continuous\\ conflict\\ between\\ Christianity\\ and\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ triumphalism\\ against\\ fundamentalist\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Specific\\ episodes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ conflict\\ should\\ be\\ regarded\\ as\\ stories\\ about\\ the\\ interaction\\ of\\ rival\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmologies\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Episodes\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ both\\ sides\\ appealed\\ to\\ some\\ aspect\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ such\\ as\\ origin\\ and\\ history\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ earth\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ support\\ and\\ justify\\ their\\ attempts\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ propagate\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>their\\ own\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ of\\ personal\\ and\\ social\\ life\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ of\\ the\\ conduct\\ appropriate\\ to\\ that\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Few\\ modern\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scholars\\ give\\ religious\\ dimension\\ sincerity\\ in\\ study\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Geocentric\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Middle\\ Ages\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Universe\\ conceived\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ bounded\\ system\\,\\ earth\\ lying\\ immobile\\ at\\ center\\ of\\ an\\ ascending\\ hierarchy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ or\\ ceaselessly\\ revolving\\ celestial\\ spheres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Embodied\\ and\\ expressed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmology\\ that\\ related\\ mankind\\ both\\ to\\ environment\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ transcendence\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ reflected\\,\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ justified\\ as\\ natural\\,\\ an\\ analogous\\ social\\ order\\ of\\ stable\\ hierarchical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cyclic\\ change\\,\\ but\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ eternal\\ as\\ Aristotle\\ had\\ argued\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Stable\\ society\\ wanted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cyclic\\ change\\ with\\ affirmation\\ of\\ finite\\ spatial\\ limits\\ of\\ the\\ cosmos\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ underlying\\ directional\\ pattern\\ of\\ its\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\World\\ had\\ clear\\ beginning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ Creation\\,\\ and\\ God\\'s\\ action\\ would\\ bring\\ it\\ to\\ an\\ equally\\ decisive\\ End\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Based\\ mostly\\ on\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spiritual\\ methods\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\,\\ such\\ as\\ allegory\\ and\\ typology\\,\\ built\\ on\\ a\\ substrate\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ literal\\ historical\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chronicles\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Construction\\ of\\ single\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ narrative\\ received\\ new\\ impetus\\ during\\ Renaissance\\ and\\ Reformation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Humanist\\ scholars\\ provided\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ new\\ wealth\\ of\\ historical\\ information\\ that\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ integrated\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ biblical\\ narrative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Result\\ of\\ scholarly\\ activity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ production\\ of\\ an\\ outline\\ of\\ world\\ history\\ that\\ had\\ pretentions\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ being\\ universal\\ and\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ confined\\ to\\ biblical\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scholarly\\ consensus\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\ not\\ that\\ old\\;\\ disturbed\\ though\\ by\\ Egyptian\\ records\\ of\\ dynasties\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dating\\ back\\ much\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Consensus\\ among\\ scholars\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ documented\\ human\\ history\\ could\\ not\\ be\\ carried\\ back\\ in\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ civilization\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ few\\ thousand\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Natural\\ philosophers\\ also\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worked\\ within\\ taken\\-for\\-granted\\ assumptions\\ of\\ their\\ societies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ only\\ stage\\ for\\ drama\\ of\\ human\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ Models\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Earth\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Within\\ traditional\\ image\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmos\\,\\ origin\\ of\\ earth\\ regarded\\ as\\ an\\ integral\\ aspect\\ of\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ cosmos\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Origin\\ of\\ earth\\ did\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ become\\ an\\ object\\ of\\ inquiry\\ for\\ much\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Even\\ Copernican\\ system\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 17th\\ C\\ didn\\'t\\ challenge\\ origin\\ of\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Descartes\\ \\,\\ in\\ 17th\\ C\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sketched\\ a\\ possible\\ model\\ of\\ a\\ universe\\ without\\ limits\\,\\ possible\\ physical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ history\\ of\\ hypothetical\\ earth\\,\\ suggesting\\ natural\\ explanation\\ for\\ its\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ origin\\ an\\ dmain\\ surface\\ features\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Compatible\\ with\\ traditional\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ history\\ b\\/c\\ left\\ aside\\ question\\ of\\ primal\\ creation\\ of\\ cosmos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thomas\\ Burnet\\,\\ in\\ late\\ 17th\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ early\\ 18th\\ C\\,\\ tried\\ to\\ discover\\ \\"\\;true\\"\\;\\ interpretation\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ biblical\\ records\\ of\\ great\\ physical\\ events\\ of\\ earth\\ history\\ by\\ drawing\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ explanatory\\ principles\\ of\\ Cartesian\\ natural\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ Proliferation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Theories\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Burnet\\'s\\ work\\ was\\ prototype\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ new\\ writing\\ that\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\"\\;theory\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conception\\ of\\ a\\ privileged\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\,\\ dependent\\ on\\ scholarly\\ or\\ philosophical\\ knowledge\\,\\ led\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ total\\ inversion\\ of\\ the\\ traditional\\ task\\ of\\ biblical\\ interpretation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Biblical\\ narrative\\ began\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ receive\\ its\\ true\\ meaning\\ b\\ being\\ fitted\\ into\\ a\\ framework\\ of\\ nonbiblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowledge\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Philosophes\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ during\\ enlightenment\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ France\\,\\ used\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ as\\ means\\ with\\ which\\ to\\ attack\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ orthodoxy\\ and\\ the\\ secular\\ cultural\\ power\\ that\\ it\\ still\\ wielded\\ in\\ many\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Catholic\\ states\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Another\\ line\\ of\\ argument\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ focused\\ on\\ eternity\\ of\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prehuman\\ Earth\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Eventually\\,\\ implicit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ separation\\ of\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ from\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ mankind\\ had\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ profound\\ consequences\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ history\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ documents\\ that\\ warranted\\ new\\ kinds\\ of\\ tools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fossil\\ evidence\\ led\\ many\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ argue\\,\\ and\\ assume\\ implicitly\\,\\ that\\ prehuman\\ earth\\ history\\ must\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reckoned\\ at\\ least\\ in\\ tens\\ or\\ hundreds\\ of\\ thousands\\ of\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ very\\ widespread\\ belief\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ outside\\ small\\ circles\\ of\\ naturalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ biblical\\ criticism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ altered\\ profoundly\\ the\\ traditional\\ concerns\\ of\\ theories\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ search\\ for\\ physical\\ evidence\\ could\\ confirm\\,\\ or\\ undermine\\,\\ literal\\ meaning\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Time\\ scale\\ of\\ earth\\ history\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ became\\ religiously\\ irrelevant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Only\\ religious\\ problem\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ finding\\ some\\ human\\ meaning\\ in\\ those\\ vast\\ spans\\ of\\ prehuman\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ New\\ Science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Geology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geology\\ marked\\ a\\ firm\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rejection\\ of\\ large\\-scale\\ theorizing\\ and\\ a\\ new\\ emphasis\\ on\\ value\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cumulative\\ observation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Emerged\\ in\\ early\\ 19th\\ C\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ strongly\\ bounded\\ field\\ of\\ knowledge\\,\\ conspicuous\\ for\\ what\\ it\\ did\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ contain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sensitive\\ issue\\ of\\ origin\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ mankind\\,\\ and\\,\\ by\\ implication\\,\\ nature\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ as\\ creatures\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\'s\\ image\\,\\ was\\ effectively\\ excluded\\ by\\ the\\ newly\\ drawn\\ boundaries\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ geology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ early\\ 19th\\ C\\,\\ geologists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ opened\\ up\\ with\\ increasing\\ self\\-assurance\\ an\\ astonishing\\ drama\\ of\\ vanished\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worlds\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ inhabited\\ by\\ strange\\,\\ extinct\\ organisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Of\\ course\\,\\ controversy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mosaic\\ Geology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Spiritual\\ or\\ Mosaic\\ geology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ emerged\\,\\ in\\ which\\ cognitive\\ validity\\ of\\ biblical\\ narrative\\ was\\ reasserted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ terms\\ inherited\\ from\\ biblical\\ chronology\\ of\\ 16\\ \\&\\;\\ 17th\\ C\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Maintained\\ view\\ that\\ Genesis\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ rest\\ of\\ Penteuch\\ had\\ been\\ written\\ under\\ divine\\ inspiration\\ by\\ Moses\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ himself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Crucial\\ reaction\\ to\\ social\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ cognitive\\ exclusion\\ of\\ all\\ but\\ self\\-styled\\ experts\\ from\\ an\\ area\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ speculation\\ that\\,\\ in\\ the\\ heyday\\ of\\ theories\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ had\\ been\\ open\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Viewed\\ as\\ marginal\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ by\\ scientific\\ geologists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ geologists\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Lyell\\,\\ agreed\\ that\\ cognitive\\ boundaries\\ of\\ geology\\ needed\\ to\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ maintained\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ exclude\\ Mosaic\\ geology\\ and\\ its\\ practitioners\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\ agreed\\ that\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientific\\ geologies\\ transgressed\\ those\\ boundaries\\,\\ doing\\ science\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disservice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Naturalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Progressionist\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\,\\ slowly\\ transformed\\ into\\ strictly\\ naturalistic\\ image\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earth\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chambers\\'\\ Vestiges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ middle\\ of\\ 19th\\ C\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ frontiers\\ of\\ geology\\ were\\ reopened\\,\\ at\\ both\\ ends\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ scale\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Geologists\\ at\\ last\\ accepted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evidence\\ that\\ human\\ beings\\ must\\ have\\ coexisted\\ with\\ extinct\\ mammals\\ in\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ geologically\\ recent\\ \\(but\\ humanly\\ remote\\)\\ period\\,\\ b\\/c\\ stone\\ implements\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ found\\ in\\ fossils\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ naturalism\\ was\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ itself\\ the\\ cosmology\\ of\\ specific\\ social\\ groups\\,\\ including\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ self\\-consciously\\ professionalizing\\ scientists\\,\\ who\\ used\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wresting\\ cultural\\ power\\ from\\ hands\\ of\\ older\\ social\\ elites\\,\\ particularly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ clergy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ever\\ since\\ rise\\ of\\ geology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ self\\-imposed\\ cognitive\\ limitations\\,\\ tacit\\ embargo\\ on\\ quantitative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ estimates\\ of\\ geological\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quantitative\\ magnitude\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ time\\ scale\\ re\\-opened\\ only\\ after\\ Darwin\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Origin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ hitched\\ his\\ concept\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ selection\\ to\\ a\\ Lyellian\\ concept\\ of\\ geological\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conclusion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ Christians\\ who\\ accepted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ critical\\ methods\\ of\\ interpretation\\ n\\ their\\ understanding\\ and\\ practical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ use\\ of\\ the\\ biblical\\ documents\\,\\ the\\ religious\\ meaning\\ of\\ texts\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Creation\\ narrative\\ remained\\ undisturbed\\ by\\ changing\\ estimates\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quantitative\\ magnitude\\ of\\ earth\\ history\\ or\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ mankind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christian\\ fundamentalism\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ including\\ creationism\\,\\ has\\ become\\ powerful\\ cultural\\ foce\\ in\\ some\\ Western\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ societies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Earth\\ scientists\\ as\\ a\\ social\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ group\\ have\\ collectively\\ chosen\\ the\\ historical\\ option\\ of\\ abandoning\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmological\\ ambitions\\,\\ as\\ most\\ effective\\ route\\ to\\ achievement\\ of\\ more\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ limited\\ cognitive\\ and\\ technical\\ goals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mainstream\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theologians\\ have\\ recognized\\ that\\ the\\ religious\\ meaning\\ of\\ biblical\\ texts\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ to\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ whatever\\ input\\ form\\ a\\ \\"\\;God\\-labeled\\"\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ source\\ may\\ be\\ embodied\\ in\\ the\\ religious\\ insight\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ cultures\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ produced\\ those\\ texts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ \\ Geologists\\ and\\ Interpreters\\ of\\ Genesis\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ C\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Baconian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Compromise\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sir\\ Francis\\ Bancon\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1561\\-1626\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Things\\ and\\ words\\ must\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ carefully\\ distinguished\\,\\ for\\ things\\ themselves\\ cannot\\ speak\\ directly\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Compromise\\ became\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ convention\\:\\ basis\\ of\\ congenial\\ relations\\ between\\ naturalists\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ exegetes\\,\\ and\\ chief\\ sanction\\ for\\ growth\\ in\\ volume\\ and\\ expertise\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ physical\\ research\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Book\\ of\\ God\\'s\\ works\\ is\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;key\\"\\;\\ to\\ the\\ book\\ of\\ God\\'s\\ word\\;\\ students\\ of\\ nature\\ may\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ therefore\\ instruct\\ interpreters\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doctrine\\ of\\ \\"\\;two\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ books\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ \\ Christianity\\ and\\ the\\ Scientific\\ Community\\ in\\ the\\ Age\\ of\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\,\\ specifically\\ Christianity\\,\\ fitted\\ together\\ in\\ close\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ seemingly\\ harmonious\\ relationship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ clergy\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ naturalists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ community\\ of\\ early\\ 19th\\ C\\ also\\ embedded\\ in\\ culture\\ that\\ depended\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christianity\\ both\\ for\\ a\\ rationale\\ of\\ its\\ social\\ usefulness\\ and\\ for\\ direct\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ economic\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Then\\ came\\ Origins\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 1859\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rationalizations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ scientists\\ form\\ an\\ older\\ era\\ could\\ not\\ throw\\ off\\ their\\ theological\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ upbringing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ efforts\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reconcile\\ science\\ and\\ Christianity\\,\\ illogical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Crisis\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1859\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Shortly\\ after\\ Darwinism\\ made\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ its\\ appearance\\,\\ jointed\\ the\\ ongoing\\ streams\\ of\\ social\\ evolution\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ materialism\\ that\\ were\\ already\\ gathering\\ momentum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ converted\\,\\ some\\ went\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ halfway\\,\\ some\\ refused\\ unto\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Idea\\ of\\ a\\ Creator\\ and\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ natural\\ creation\\ made\\ such\\ works\\ as\\ Paley\\'s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Natural\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Theology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ ", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading: God and Nature, Lindberg"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.283460+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading: Newton's Theological Writings", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 791, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7\\ statements\\ on\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religion\\ and\\ philosophy\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ be\\ preserved\\ distinct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Men\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ deprived\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ communion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religion\\ and\\ polity\\ should\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ distinct\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Should\\ forsake\\ devil\\ and\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ works\\,\\ reject\\ false\\ idols\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Short\\ Schem\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ true\\ Religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Religion\\ is\\ partly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fundamental\\ and\\ immutable\\ partly\\ circumstantial\\ and\\ mutable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Of\\ Godliness\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Knowledge\\ and\\ worship\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Thou\\ shall\\ love\\ the\\ Lord\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ thy\\ God\\,\\ and\\ love\\ they\\ neighbor\\ as\\ thy\\ self\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Of\\ Atheism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Profession\\ and\\ idolatry\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ practice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Senseless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Of\\ Idolatry\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ dangerous\\ crime\\ b\\/c\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ apt\\ by\\ authority\\ of\\ Kings\\ and\\ under\\ very\\ specious\\ pretenses\\ to\\ insinuate\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ self\\ into\\ mankind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Of\\ Humanity\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ true\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ is\\ our\\ duty\\ to\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Must\\ love\\ our\\ neighbor\\,\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ righteous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\12\\ articles\\ on\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Father\\ is\\ omniscient\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hath\\ all\\ knowledge\\,\\ gave\\ life\\ to\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Father\\ is\\ immovable\\,\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ worship\\ due\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prayers\\ are\\ most\\ prevalent\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ when\\ directed\\ to\\ the\\ father\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ son\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Three\\ paragraphs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ religion\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ made\\ the\\ world\\,\\ governs\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ religion\\ to\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\True\\ man\\ born\\ of\\ a\\ woman\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ crucified\\ by\\ Jews\\ for\\ teaching\\ the\\ truth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Son\\ of\\ righteousness\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ servant\\ of\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ religion\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Enter\\ into\\ church\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ceremonies\\ of\\ baptism\\ \\&\\;\\ confirmation\\,\\ assemble\\ weekly\\ to\\ worship\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ commemorate\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ religion\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\ made\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ governs\\ it\\ invisibly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ religion\\ to\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Original\\ Letter\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ from\\ Newton\\ to\\ Bentley\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Motions\\ which\\ the\\ planets\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ now\\ have\\ could\\ not\\ spring\\ from\\ any\\ natural\\ cause\\ alone\\ but\\ where\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ impressed\\ by\\ an\\ intelligent\\ Agent\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Comets\\ an\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ more\\ letters\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ adding\\ to\\ and\\ reaffirming\\ the\\ first\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading: Newton's Theological Writings"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.338243+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Bram Stoker and Dracula ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 794, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 4\\.23\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Bram\\ Stoker\\ and\\ Dracula\\:\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ this\\ novel\\ is\\ read\\ to\\ fear\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ you\\ go\\ through\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ scholarship\\ you\\ see\\ each\\ book\\ looks\\ at\\ a\\ different\\ phobia\\.\\ The\\ victorians\\ are\\ defined\\ as\\ reactionary\\ and\\ naro\\ minded\\.\\ The\\ text\\ suppresses\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ women\\.\\ A\\ fear\\ of\\ not\\ only\\ femininity\\ but\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ their\\ reproductivity\\.\\ Another\\ fear\\ is\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ sexuality\\ and\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ the\\ sexual\\ other\\.\\ Fear\\ of\\ the\\ bachelor\\,\\ playboy\\,\\ homosexual\\.\\ Fear\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ confined\\ to\\ the\\ home\\.\\ Also\\ fear\\ of\\ the\\ racial\\ other\\.\\ Dracula\\ is\\ an\\ other\\.\\ He\\ is\\ an\\ immigrant\\.\\ You\\ see\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ the\\ east\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ racial\\ categories\\&hellip\\;fear\\ of\\ the\\ Jew\\.\\ Power\\ structure\\ enrooted\\ in\\ class\\.\\ Expressing\\ a\\ fear\\ of\\ infection\\.\\ Fear\\ of\\ illness\\ especially\\ blood\\ born\\ illness\\.\\ Eroticizes\\ transfusions\\ and\\ drinking\\ of\\ blood\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ the\\ fear\\ of\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Fear\\ of\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\ Fear\\ of\\ the\\ future\\,\\ technology\\,\\ increasingly\\ global\\ market\\ place\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Horror\\ is\\ complicated\\.\\ Horror\\ has\\ the\\ capacity\\ to\\ trigger\\ states\\.\\ Horror\\ can\\ be\\ an\\ intensification\\ of\\ conscious\\.\\ Focus\\ on\\ an\\ ode\\ to\\ modern\\ conscious\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ novel\\ about\\ a\\ dualism\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ present\\.\\ This\\ novel\\ asks\\ us\\ what\\ does\\ the\\ present\\ feel\\ like\\?\\ If\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ it\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ really\\ feel\\ the\\ true\\ present\\.\\ Constantly\\ being\\ placed\\ by\\ a\\ ever\\ new\\ present\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chapter\\ 3\\ Jonathan\\ Barker\\.\\ Here\\ I\\ am\\,\\ sitting\\ at\\ a\\ little\\ oak\\ table\\&hellip\\;this\\ is\\ when\\ he\\ sneaks\\ into\\ the\\ castle\\.\\ There\\ are\\ people\\ lurking\\ in\\ the\\ shadows\\ right\\ behind\\ him\\.\\ Two\\ anti\\-thetical\\ yet\\ conjunctive\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\All\\ of\\ time\\ with\\ blood\\.\\ The\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ blood\\ and\\ time\\ are\\ intertwining\\ concepts\\ in\\ this\\ model\\.\\ So\\ most\\ obviously\\ the\\ past\\ is\\ a\\ vampire\\.\\ History\\ is\\ a\\ vampire\\,\\ a\\ drinker\\ of\\ blood\\.\\ Dracula\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ historian\\.\\ He\\ knows\\ the\\ entire\\ history\\ of\\ Transylvania\\ so\\ he\\ feels\\ every\\ moment\\ as\\ a\\ compellation\\ of\\ numerous\\ past\\ moments\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dracula\\ is\\ incredibly\\ bitter\\.\\ He\\ is\\ condemned\\ to\\ remember\\ anything\\.\\ He\\ can\\ never\\ move\\ on\\.\\ His\\ breath\\ is\\ really\\ bad\\.\\ He\\ is\\ too\\ wise\\ and\\ he\\ has\\ too\\ much\\ life\\ experience\\.\\ He\\ yearns\\ to\\ forget\\ and\\ feel\\ the\\ rush\\ of\\ the\\ future\\ that\\ is\\ why\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ move\\ to\\ the\\ most\\ modern\\ city\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ modernity\\.\\ The\\ past\\ is\\ stretching\\ itself\\ to\\ the\\ future\\.\\ The\\ novel\\ takes\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ struggle\\ of\\ forgetting\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ mortal\\ existences\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\All\\ described\\ sweet\\.\\ The\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ word\\ sweet\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ control\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Nietzche\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;Heraclitus\\&rdquo\\;\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ being\\ just\\ becoming\\.\\ The\\ past\\ feels\\ like\\ the\\ mona\\ lisa\\ eternal\\ and\\ undying\\.\\ The\\ future\\ is\\ sheer\\ flux\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Bram Stoker and Dracula "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.349206+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Suicide and the meaning of Play ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 795, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 4\\.14\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\ we\\ are\\ discussing\\ the\\ suicide\\ Durkheim\\ piece\\.\\ Mainly\\ we\\ are\\ focusing\\ on\\ a\\ concept\\ that\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ Stevenson\\ and\\ Victorian\\ Literature\\.\\ The\\ paradigm\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ portable\\ paradigm\\.\\ You\\ can\\ apply\\ this\\ idea\\ to\\ any\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ text\\ as\\ well\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ is\\ play\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ December\\ 1873\\ Stevenson\\ traveled\\ to\\ monte\\ Carlo\\ and\\ they\\ went\\ there\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ fun\\.\\ Someone\\ blew\\ their\\ brains\\ out\\ right\\ there\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ a\\ game\\.\\ Stevenson\\ left\\ and\\ moved\\ on\\.\\ Now\\ this\\ incident\\ haunted\\ Stevenson\\ for\\ years\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cryptic\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Suicide\\ Club\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ collection\\ of\\ New\\ Arabian\\ Nights\\.\\ For\\ 9\\ years\\ this\\ incident\\ percualted\\ in\\ his\\ mind\\.\\ So\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ back\\ story\\ to\\ this\\ story\\.\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ play\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ Stevenson\\&rsquo\\;s\\ world\\ view\\.\\ Throughout\\ his\\ career\\ Stevenson\\ extolled\\ his\\ virtues\\ of\\ child\\ play\\.\\ Stevenson\\ cultivatd\\ a\\ Bohemian\\ idealist\\.\\ He\\ enver\\ did\\ work\\ other\\ than\\ writing\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ never\\ trained\\ in\\ any\\ profession\\.\\ He\\ like\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ play\\ figure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Stevenson\\ had\\ a\\ sober\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ dark\\ contours\\ of\\ play\\.\\ He\\ understood\\ that\\ play\\ is\\ a\\ deceptively\\ complicated\\ idea\\ and\\ has\\ an\\ ominus\\ aspect\\ of\\ it\\.\\ What\\ does\\ modernity\\ feel\\ like\\ to\\ the\\ Victorians\\?\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ sensation\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ \\in\\<\\/i\\>\\ play\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ entire\\ world\\ is\\ literally\\ in\\ play\\.\\ Victorian\\ England\\ falls\\ into\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>a\\ trap\\ play\\ version\\ of\\ itself\\.\\ Life\\ is\\ moving\\ constantly\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ stable\\ ground\\ which\\ to\\ stand\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Marx\\:\\ All\\ that\\ is\\ solid\\ melts\\ into\\ air\\ that\\ describes\\ modernity\\.\\ The\\ world\\ in\\ play\\ feels\\ like\\ you\\ are\\ tightly\\ squeezed\\ into\\ a\\ tiny\\ little\\ space\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Durkheim\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ suicide\\ describes\\ this\\ peculiar\\ phenomenon\\ that\\ suicide\\ rates\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ increase\\.\\ Why\\ are\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ people\\ committing\\ suicide\\?\\ People\\ have\\ so\\ much\\ freedom\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ end\\ to\\ their\\ desire\\.\\ They\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ satisfied\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Undeserved\\ reputation\\ Victorians\\ have\\ for\\ being\\ un\\-playful\\.\\ Play\\ has\\ become\\ synonymous\\ with\\ existence\\.\\ Victorians\\ were\\ trapped\\ within\\ play\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Seven\\ Logics\\ of\\ Play\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ suicide\\ club\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\ Play\\ as\\ competition\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ life\\ is\\ a\\ contest\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ compete\\ to\\ win\\.\\ There\\ are\\ winners\\ and\\ losers\\.\\ You\\ play\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prevail\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ best\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\ Play\\ as\\ self\\ creation\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>play\\ here\\ is\\ self\\ directed\\ or\\ auto\\ reality\\.\\ One\\ becomes\\ oneself\\ when\\ one\\ plays\\.\\ This\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ leisure\\ and\\ recreational\\ pursuits\\.\\ The\\ Victorians\\ invented\\ an\\ institution\\ of\\ the\\ weekend\\.\\ You\\ become\\ yourself\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ in\\ recreational\\ activities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\ Play\\ as\\ subversion\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>play\\ here\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ disorderly\\ thing\\.\\ Rough\\ housing\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\Play\\ as\\ Paideia\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>becoming\\ a\\ model\\ citizen\\.\\ Something\\ that\\ trains\\ you\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ adult\\.\\ Socializing\\.\\ Play\\ as\\ socialization\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\5\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\Play\\ as\\ Imaginary\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>illusion\\ means\\ in\\ play\\.\\ Intellectual\\ experience\\ of\\ your\\ mind\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\6\\.\\ Play\\ as\\ identity\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>play\\ holds\\ society\\ together\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\7\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\Play\\ as\\ Fate\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>play\\ is\\ not\\ something\\ you\\ do\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ something\\ that\\ happens\\ to\\ you\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Suicide and the meaning of Play "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.359974+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Child of the Jago", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 796, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\English\\ 156\\-\\ 4\\/21\\/09\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Make\\ paper\\ interesting\\ from\\ the\\ get\\ go\\!\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Slum\\-\\ slang\\ term\\ for\\ back\\ room\\,\\ back\\ parlor\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ meant\\ what\\ it\\ did\\ today\\ which\\ is\\ are\\ where\\ poor\\ people\\ live\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ slum\\ narrative\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>products\\ of\\ middle\\-class\\ liberal\\ or\\ reformist\\ guilt\\;\\ meant\\ to\\ inspire\\ more\\ middle\\-class\\ guilt\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>anthropologically\\ informed\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>the\\ tragedy\\ of\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\4\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>women\\ luxuriate\\ in\\ violence\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\(\\&ldquo\\;down\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ Old\\ Jago\\ Street\\ came\\ Sally\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Child of the Jago"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.368815+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tale of Two Cities ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 797, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 3\\.17\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ Tale\\ of\\ two\\ excruciating\\ sensations\\.\\ The\\ guiotinne\\ seems\\ horrible\\ to\\ us\\ but\\ to\\ the\\ inventor\\,\\ it\\ was\\ actually\\ a\\ humane\\ devise\\ because\\ the\\ point\\ was\\ that\\ there\\ was\\ not\\ all\\ this\\ blood\\ and\\ guts\\.\\ It\\ was\\ not\\ to\\ endure\\ pain\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ seems\\ horrible\\ by\\ our\\ standards\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chapter\\ 2\\ Book\\ II\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ grindstone\\.\\ The\\ grindstone\\ stained\\ red\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ the\\ Earth\\ was\\ a\\ grindstone\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ aristocratic\\ regime\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ horror\\ as\\ their\\ counterparts\\ in\\ France\\.\\ The\\ ruling\\ classes\\ in\\ both\\ rip\\ the\\ lower\\ classes\\ apart\\.\\ England\\ has\\ a\\ middle\\ class\\ according\\ to\\ Dickens\\.\\ France\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ The\\ only\\ middle\\ class\\ person\\ is\\ Dr\\.\\ Mannette\\ and\\ of\\ course\\ he\\ is\\ drawn\\ to\\ England\\.\\ Anyone\\ who\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ class\\ has\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ England\\.\\ This\\ is\\ France\\&rsquo\\;s\\ downfall\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ angel\\ in\\ the\\ house\\.\\ An\\ idealized\\ women\\ who\\ gives\\ birth\\ to\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ spirituality\\.\\ Lucie\\ Manette\\ and\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ domesticity\\ is\\ the\\ solution\\.\\ Lucie\\ Manette\\ reawakens\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ all\\ of\\ those\\ people\\ around\\ her\\.\\ She\\ is\\ a\\ nurse\\ for\\ these\\ wounded\\,\\ broken\\ men\\.\\ She\\ re\\-awakens\\ all\\ of\\ their\\ senses\\.\\ She\\ teaches\\ people\\ to\\ feel\\.\\ She\\ functions\\ as\\ a\\ soothing\\ agent\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ pain\\ bearable\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ that\\ you\\ see\\ with\\ Lucie\\ is\\ recall\\.\\ She\\ is\\ this\\ force\\ of\\ recalling\\.\\ She\\ is\\ beautiful\\.\\ She\\ inspires\\ people\\ with\\ her\\ beauty\\.\\ She\\ essentially\\ makes\\ people\\ feel\\ at\\ home\\-\\ at\\ home\\ in\\ history\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lucie\\ rescues\\ three\\ sick\\ men\\.\\ The\\ first\\ is\\ her\\ father\\.\\ She\\ literally\\ recalls\\ him\\ to\\ life\\.\\ He\\ flees\\ from\\ history\\ from\\ post\\ traumatic\\ stress\\ syndrome\\.\\ Her\\ physical\\ body\\ cures\\ him\\.\\ She\\ touches\\ someone\\ and\\ his\\ nerves\\ come\\ back\\ to\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ second\\ one\\ is\\ Jarvis\\ Lorry\\.\\ He\\ is\\ numbed\\ by\\ business\\.\\ Chapter\\ 3\\,\\ Book\\ I\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ him\\ drugged\\ by\\ business\\.\\ He\\ drugs\\ himself\\ with\\ business\\ and\\ he\\ is\\ so\\ numb\\ that\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ feel\\.\\ She\\ goes\\ up\\ to\\ him\\ and\\ they\\ touch\\ and\\ her\\ senses\\ are\\ re\\-awakened\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ third\\ man\\ is\\ Sydney\\ Carton\\ and\\ his\\ drug\\ choice\\ is\\ alcohol\\.\\ He\\ saved\\ Charles\\ Darnay\\ from\\ the\\ trials\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\All\\ three\\ self\\-medicate\\ in\\ a\\ way\\.\\ The\\ pain\\ is\\ still\\ there\\.\\ What\\ happens\\ is\\ that\\ all\\ these\\ men\\ grow\\ strangely\\ alienated\\.\\ Lucy\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ clear\\ their\\ diseases\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ class\\ escape\\ is\\ the\\ house\\ in\\ soho\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Manette\\ is\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ history\\ embodided\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ phantom\\ pain\\.\\ You\\ experience\\ the\\ pain\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ removed\\ from\\ you\\.\\ It\\ is\\ impossible\\ to\\ forget\\ phantom\\ pains\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ bearable\\.\\ Dickens\\ wants\\ us\\ to\\ be\\ haunted\\ by\\ history\\ and\\ unsettled\\ by\\ it\\ but\\ not\\ destroyed\\ by\\ it\\.\\ This\\ novel\\ is\\ about\\ hauntings\\ and\\ lucie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ job\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ home\\.\\ Home\\ is\\ inherently\\ haunted\\.\\ He\\ is\\ obsessed\\ with\\ haunting\\.\\ The\\ word\\ haunt\\ literally\\ means\\ home\\.\\ So\\ homes\\ are\\ haunted\\ and\\ Dickens\\ is\\ very\\ insistent\\ upon\\ this\\.\\ Home\\ is\\ a\\ space\\ of\\ lingering\\ memories\\.\\ The\\ home\\ is\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ we\\ become\\ historians\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ Ghosts\\ are\\ linked\\ to\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Perfect\\ metaphor\\ is\\ a\\ palemsest\\ and\\ at\\ least\\ apply\\ this\\ metaphor\\ to\\ the\\ Victorian\\ life\\.\\ Memory\\ intruding\\ the\\ past\\ into\\ the\\ present\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\ why\\ are\\ the\\ Victorian\\ middle\\ classes\\ so\\ haunted\\?\\ It\\ is\\ partly\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ middleness\\.\\ They\\ exist\\ between\\ the\\ working\\ class\\ and\\ the\\ aristrocracy\\.\\ The\\ middle\\ class\\ fascination\\ with\\ ghosts\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ capitalist\\ psychology\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Scroog\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ capitalist\\.\\ He\\ is\\ haunted\\ by\\ his\\ own\\ capital\\.\\ Ghosts\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\teach\\ you\\ how\\ to\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\.\\ What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ manifestations\\ of\\ middle\\ class\\ haunting\\?\\ The\\ footsteps\\ that\\ Lucie\\ Manette\\ hears\\.\\ Lucie\\ hears\\ the\\ footsteps\\ and\\ her\\ father\\ makes\\ shoes\\ unfeelingly\\.\\ Lucie\\ hears\\ the\\ feet\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tale of Two Cities "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.380069+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tell Me About Your Childhood", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 798, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\So\\,\\ Tell\\ Me\\ about\\ Your\\ Childhood\\ Part\\ I\\ \\(4\\/16\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Criminal\\ behavior\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-the\\ logical\\ extension\\ of\\ poverty\\ and\\ inequity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-people\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ commit\\ crime\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ structurally\\ barred\\ or\\ culturally\\ excluded\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-drastic\\ reduction\\ in\\ crime\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Metaphor\\=taking\\ something\\ and\\ calling\\ it\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ not\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-when\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ the\\ thing\\/idea\\/action\\ is\\ communicated\\ by\\ way\\ of\\ another\\,\\ preferably\\ unrelated\\ thing\\/idea\\/action\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-one\\ feels\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ the\\ thing\\ only\\ through\\ recourse\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ not\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\People\\ are\\ calling\\ the\\ criminal\\ what\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ is\\ not\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ literary\\ language\\,\\ metaphors\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hide\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ metaphors\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ metaphors\\ hide\\ the\\ fact\\ however\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ tricky\\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ will\\ to\\ truth\\&rdquo\\;\\ niche\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\-metaphors\\ are\\ in\\ denial\\ of\\ their\\ metaphorisity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tell Me About Your Childhood"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.389031+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tale of Two Cities and Dickens ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 799, "html": "\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\.12\\.09\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\A\\ Tale\\ of\\ Two\\ Cities\\ by\\ Charles\\ Dickens\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lecture\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ psychologically\\ heavy\\ and\\ we\\ will\\ leave\\ this\\ room\\ disturbed\\.\\ The\\ Tale\\ of\\ Two\\ Cities\\ is\\ about\\ violence\\.\\ Most\\ Victorianists\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ a\\ Tale\\ of\\ Two\\ Cities\\-\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ bad\\ reputation\\.\\ Prof\\.\\ thinks\\ this\\ is\\ unfair\\.\\ It\\ is\\ Dickens\\ most\\ conservative\\ novel\\.\\ It\\ exhibits\\ a\\ simplistic\\ understanding\\ of\\ casual\\ reality\\.\\ Some\\ people\\ also\\ find\\ it\\ disappointing\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ historical\\ model\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ of\\ another\\ Victorian\\ work\\-\\ Thomas\\ Carlisle\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\ on\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\ People\\ think\\ he\\ is\\ being\\ not\\ authentic\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ against\\ Tale\\ of\\ Two\\ Cities\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ novel\\ about\\ history\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ novel\\ about\\ historical\\ consciousness\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ novel\\ that\\ meditates\\ upon\\ the\\ difficulty\\ of\\ experiencing\\ the\\ past\\.\\ So\\ what\\ is\\ historical\\ concsiousness\\?\\ For\\ Dickens\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ literal\\ sensation\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ feeling\\ on\\ and\\ in\\ across\\ the\\ body\\.\\ It\\ is\\ triggered\\ across\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Our\\ bodily\\ conditions\\ of\\ our\\ existence\\ determine\\ our\\ conscious\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ reverse\\.\\ What\\ does\\ that\\ mean\\?\\ Body\\ shape\\ and\\ conceive\\ that\\ conscious\\.\\ Marx\\,\\ Nitetzche\\ and\\ Freud\\ return\\ everything\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ body\\.\\ They\\ understand\\ that\\ sense\\ perception\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ all\\ knowledge\\.\\ If\\ it\\ is\\ bodily\\ then\\ so\\ too\\ must\\ historical\\ consciousness\\.\\ Is\\ our\\ sense\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ actual\\ sense\\ in\\ a\\ physiological\\ sense\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ if\\ so\\ then\\ where\\ on\\ your\\ body\\ is\\ it\\ located\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ tension\\ between\\ two\\ bodily\\ sensations\\:\\ horror\\ and\\ terror\\.\\ It\\ means\\ to\\ remember\\ pain\\ when\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ you\\ is\\ encouraging\\ you\\ to\\ forget\\ that\\ pain\\.\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ refuse\\ the\\ Novocain\\ of\\ the\\ present\\.\\ A\\ tale\\ of\\ two\\ sensations\\/\\ pains\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Horror\\:\\ derives\\ from\\ the\\ Greek\\ verb\\ to\\ dread\\,\\ to\\ shudder\\.\\ Horror\\ then\\ is\\ an\\ epidural\\ sensation\\.\\ His\\ definition\\ Horror\\:\\ when\\ visceral\\ consciousness\\ of\\ the\\ Otherness\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ flesh\\;\\ the\\ shattering\\ of\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ epidermal\\ amnesia\\.\\ Horror\\ is\\ a\\ weapon\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ powerful\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ powerless\\,\\ powerless\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Horrorism\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ weaponization\\ of\\ horror\\.\\ Attempt\\ to\\ turn\\ horror\\ into\\ a\\ tool\\ and\\ philosophy\\ of\\ political\\ domination\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ a\\ bloody\\ book\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ feel\\ the\\ violence\\ that\\ is\\ described\\.\\ The\\ ruling\\ classes\\ of\\ France\\ and\\ England\\ induce\\ horror\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;France\\ less\\ favored\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\&hellip\\;\\.\\&rdquo\\;Chapter\\ 1\\.\\ Page\\ 63\\ courtroom\\ scene\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Terror\\:\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ powerless\\ retaliate\\ against\\ the\\ horrorists\\.\\ They\\ weaponize\\ terror\\-\\ political\\ resistance\\ against\\ horrorism\\.\\ Terra\\ which\\ means\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ land\\,\\ ground\\.\\ A\\ \\&ldquo\\;napron\\&rdquo\\;\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ English\\ word\\ and\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ apron\\.\\ It\\ was\\ easier\\ to\\ say\\ that\\.\\ Language\\ is\\ alive\\ so\\ we\\ accept\\ it\\ changes\\ and\\ grows\\.\\ It\\ is\\ to\\ feel\\ alienated\\ from\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ Dickensian\\ \\&ldquo\\;terror\\&rdquo\\;\\ shattering\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ terrestrial\\ amnesia\\.\\ You\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ It\\ is\\ more\\ the\\ body\\ versus\\ the\\ elements\\.\\ The\\ terrorist\\ wants\\ to\\ shatter\\ the\\ ruler\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ land\\.\\ The\\ ground\\ shifts\\ between\\ your\\ feet\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Natural\\ disaster\\ metaphors\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ French\\ Revolution\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dickensian\\ logic\\ of\\ history\\ is\\ horrorism\\ versus\\ terrorism\\.\\ History\\ is\\ so\\ painful\\ so\\ who\\ the\\ hell\\ wants\\ to\\ experience\\ this\\ again\\.\\ The\\ danger\\ exists\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ turn\\ away\\ from\\ it\\.\\ He\\ comes\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ solution\\.\\ How\\ do\\ we\\ get\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ to\\ endure\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ history\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ overwhelm\\ their\\ bodies\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tale of Two Cities and Dickens "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.400430+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "mouth and nose ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 800, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 3\\.5\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Paper\\ id\\ due\\ the\\ Friday\\ before\\ Spring\\ break\\ and\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ class\\ that\\ Thursday\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ next\\ week\\,\\ we\\ should\\ have\\ some\\ Victorian\\ street\\ credit\\.\\ We\\ need\\ to\\ discuss\\ the\\ five\\ senses\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ prepare\\ our\\ bodies\\.\\ The\\ eye\\ and\\ the\\ ear\\ dominate\\ cultural\\ literary\\ studies\\.\\ We\\ call\\ people\\ readers\\ or\\ an\\ audience\\.\\ We\\ never\\ refer\\ to\\ people\\ as\\ feelers\\ or\\ sniffers\\.\\ It\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ not\\ worthy\\ of\\ being\\ thought\\ about\\.\\ Consumers\\ swallow\\ things\\ whole\\-\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ evaluate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Historically\\ the\\ nose\\ and\\ the\\ tongue\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ least\\ ascetically\\ valued\\.\\ They\\ are\\ considered\\ vulgar\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ because\\ these\\ senses\\ are\\ so\\ closely\\ tied\\ to\\ the\\ body\\-\\ close\\ proximity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Edmund\\ Burke\\ conceives\\ of\\ the\\ beautiful\\ and\\ the\\ sublime\\ almost\\ exclusively\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ the\\ eye\\ and\\ the\\ ear\\.\\ Sweet\\ substances\\ are\\ beautiful\\ and\\ bitter\\ substances\\ are\\ sublime\\.\\ He\\ rejects\\ mouth\\ and\\ noise\\ as\\ crude\\.\\ He\\ even\\ suggests\\ as\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ such\\ thing\\ as\\ a\\ beautiful\\ smell\\.\\ He\\ says\\ at\\ best\\ a\\ smell\\ can\\ be\\ pleasant\\.\\ We\\ use\\ metaphors\\ of\\ sight\\ and\\ hearing\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ like\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ see\\ your\\ point\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Exception\\ is\\ the\\ word\\ taste\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ conundrum\\.\\ We\\ use\\ the\\ word\\ taste\\ as\\ a\\ synonym\\.\\ We\\ talk\\ about\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ taste\\ \\/taste\\ decorated\\ room\\.\\ Why\\ is\\ this\\ culturally\\ valuable\\?\\ Has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ emergence\\ of\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\.\\ The\\ man\\ of\\ taste\\ is\\ someone\\ who\\ has\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ tame\\ the\\ appetites\\ of\\ the\\ consumer\\.\\ You\\ force\\ the\\ mouth\\ to\\ announce\\ its\\ unfortunate\\ affiliation\\ with\\ the\\ stomach\\.\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ with\\ the\\ nose\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ of\\ our\\ goals\\ should\\ be\\ to\\ learn\\ to\\ think\\ outside\\ our\\ eyes\\ and\\ ears\\.\\ Unleash\\ our\\ cognitive\\ power\\ that\\ is\\ led\\ untapped\\.\\ Today\\ we\\ will\\ start\\ with\\ the\\ nose\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Here\\ is\\ the\\ smell\\ profile\\ of\\ Victorian\\ England\\.\\ What\\ does\\ it\\ smell\\ like\\?\\ What\\ is\\ its\\ scent\\ profile\\?\\ It\\ smelled\\ like\\ shit\\.\\ Why\\ was\\ this\\?\\ It\\ was\\ due\\ in\\ part\\ to\\ an\\ explosion\\ in\\ population\\ and\\ increased\\ urbanization\\.\\ London\\ was\\ the\\ largest\\ city\\ that\\ had\\ ever\\ existed\\ on\\ the\\ planet\\ earth\\.\\ They\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ untenable\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ city\\ that\\ large\\.\\ There\\ were\\ a\\ ton\\ of\\ horses\\ in\\ any\\ given\\ city\\.\\ You\\ also\\ had\\ pigs\\,\\ cattle\\,\\ donkeys\\,\\ dogs\\,\\ cats\\,\\ rats\\-\\ whatever\\.\\ 20\\,000\\ tons\\ of\\ horse\\ manure\\ was\\ removed\\.\\ This\\ was\\ scary\\ and\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ disease\\.\\ This\\ was\\ an\\ obsession\\ for\\ the\\ Victorians\\.\\ They\\ had\\ all\\ these\\ great\\ euphemisms\\ for\\ excrement\\.\\ Dust\\ consisted\\ of\\ ashes\\,\\ food\\ waste\\,\\ garbage\\ bits\\.\\ In\\ working\\ class\\ neighborhoods\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ sewage\\ system\\-\\ they\\ had\\ a\\ courtyard\\.\\ Often\\ times\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ valuable\\ things\\ that\\ they\\ owned\\.\\ They\\ could\\ sell\\ it\\ to\\ dust\\ man\\ who\\ would\\ sift\\ through\\ it\\.\\ The\\ poor\\ had\\ the\\ most\\ valuable\\ shit\\.\\ Profession\\ of\\ the\\ pure\\ finder\\ was\\ someone\\ whose\\ job\\ who\\ collected\\ specifically\\ dog\\ shit\\.\\ Smell\\ is\\ so\\ repressed\\ in\\ Victorian\\ Literature\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ book\\ called\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;History\\ of\\ Shit\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ an\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ shit\\ plays\\.\\ He\\ argues\\ is\\ essentially\\ that\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ modernity\\ is\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ taming\\ shit\\.\\ The\\ sense\\ of\\ smell\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ private\\ sphere\\ and\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ sight\\ is\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Engels\\ creates\\ an\\ eye\\ that\\ smells\\ or\\ a\\ nose\\ the\\ sees\\.\\ Essentially\\ the\\ part\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ read\\ is\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ working\\ class\\ slums\\ are\\ nasty\\.\\ Working\\ class\\ Manchester\\ is\\ a\\ toilet\\.\\ He\\ describes\\ the\\ river\\ as\\ an\\ enormous\\ sewer\\.\\ The\\ river\\ oozes\\.\\ It\\ was\\ an\\ environmental\\ catastrophe\\.\\ Environmentalism\\ was\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ Victorians\\.\\ Engels\\ is\\ exposing\\ to\\ view\\ in\\ this\\ passage\\ the\\ repressed\\ smell\\ of\\ capitalism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bracebridge\\ Hemming\\ has\\ a\\ section\\ on\\ prostitution\\ in\\ London\\.\\ 370\\,000\\ prostitutes\\.\\ It\\ was\\ the\\ fourth\\ most\\ popular\\ profession\\ for\\ females\\.\\ These\\ were\\ everyday\\ regular\\ women\\.\\ This\\ was\\ 2\\.3\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\ Prostitute\\ was\\ define\\ as\\ anyone\\ who\\ had\\ sex\\ outside\\ of\\ marriage\\.\\ Just\\ like\\ Engels\\,\\ Hemming\\ sees\\ the\\ city\\ as\\ the\\ body\\ as\\ well\\.\\ He\\ sees\\ East\\ London\\ as\\ an\\ enormous\\ vagina\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "mouth and nose "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.413104+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Melodrama", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 801, "html": "\\\\ \\;LECTURE\\ 5\\ 2\\-12\\-09\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Melodrama\\:\\ It\\ does\\ not\\ suck\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ you\\ think\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Why\\ people\\ hate\\ melodrama\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ bad\\ acting\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ artlessness\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ shameless\\ emotional\\ manipulation\\-\\ unsophisticated\\ audience\\ susceptible\\ to\\ fear\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\4\\.\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ morally\\ simplistic\\ and\\ politically\\ paranoid\\ view\\ that\\ we\\ associate\\ with\\ melodrama\\ but\\ that\\ world\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ vulnerable\\ victims\\ mostly\\ women\\ and\\ those\\ who\\ will\\ rescue\\ men\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\5\\.\\ sincerity\\ that\\ is\\ so\\ successive\\ that\\ becomes\\ hilarity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\6\\.\\ low\\ grade\\ hysteria\\ associated\\ with\\ extreme\\ emotionalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\7\\.\\ overuse\\ of\\ phsysicality\\ and\\ bodily\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\8\\.\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ sophisticated\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\9\\.\\ inability\\ to\\ question\\ themselves\\ or\\ to\\ escape\\ from\\ their\\ own\\ formulas\\ or\\ conventions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\to\\ dismiss\\ melodrama\\ is\\ to\\ dismiss\\ the\\ victorians\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Black\\ Eyed\\ Susan\\ by\\ Douglas\\ Gerald\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\By\\ the\\ 1870s\\ melodrama\\ had\\ pretty\\ much\\ had\\ its\\ course\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hilarious\\ review\\ of\\ melodrama\\ written\\ by\\ shah\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\.\\ Gothic\\ melodrama\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\.\\ Nautical\\ melodrama\\ at\\ its\\ best\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Thomas\\ Cook\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Really\\ bad\\ reputation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Viewed\\ as\\ the\\ most\\ reactionary\\ and\\ counter\\ revolutionary\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ sailor\\ viewed\\ as\\ patriotic\\ selfless\\ obedient\\ working\\ class\\ subject\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Historically\\ revisionist\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sailors\\ are\\ portrayed\\ as\\ happy\\ and\\ loved\\ being\\ there\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\¼\\;\\ were\\ actually\\ there\\ by\\ choice\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&ldquo\\;press\\ gang\\&rdquo\\;\\ working\\ class\\ loathed\\ press\\ gangs\\.\\ Press\\ gangs\\ literally\\ could\\ not\\ operate\\ for\\ their\\ own\\ safety\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\It\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ written\\ text\\ and\\ what\\ melodrama\\ is\\ a\\ performative\\ space\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ interactive\\ event\\ between\\ an\\ audience\\ and\\ actors\\ and\\ the\\ playwright\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ was\\ a\\ noisy\\ place\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Incredibly\\ inebriated\\,\\ food\\ and\\ food\\ fights\\,\\ riots\\,\\ prostitutes\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Melodrama\\ was\\ a\\ mirror\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ could\\ seize\\ control\\ over\\ their\\ own\\ representations\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\3\\.\\ Domestic\\ melodrama\\ tended\\ to\\ be\\ about\\ family\\ strife\\ and\\ marital\\ problems\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Emerges\\ in\\ 1737\\ passed\\ in\\ an\\ act\\ that\\ said\\ you\\ cannot\\ perform\\ stage\\ speech\\ on\\ stage\\ unless\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ license\\.\\ If\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ language\\-\\ how\\ can\\ you\\ have\\ theatre\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lecture\\ 2\\-19\\-09\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Elliptical\\ gaps\\ in\\ Wuthering\\ Heights\\ resist\\ easy\\ assimilation\\.\\ They\\ are\\ mysterious\\,\\ frustrating\\ and\\ illogical\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ellipses\\ Questions\\ never\\ answered\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Who\\ the\\ hell\\ is\\ Heathcliff\\?\\ The\\ question\\ of\\ his\\ idenity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Who\\ are\\ his\\ parents\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Where\\ did\\ he\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ did\\ Heathcliff\\ and\\ Cathy\\ become\\ so\\ intimate\\.\\ They\\ are\\ soul\\ mates\\ and\\ it\\ happens\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ few\\ days\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Where\\ did\\ Heathcliff\\ go\\ after\\ his\\ three\\ year\\ absence\\ and\\ how\\ did\\ he\\ become\\ wealthy\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heathcliff\\ is\\ an\\ anti\\-social\\,\\ negate\\ energy\\.\\ He\\ is\\ aligned\\ with\\ the\\ forces\\ of\\ play\\.\\ Animalistic\\ child\\ play\\ and\\ the\\ play\\ becomes\\ eroticized\\ with\\ Cathy\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ mutual\\ seduction\\.\\ Through\\ play\\ is\\ gambling\\ expertise\\ he\\ acquires\\ Wuthering\\ heights\\.\\ He\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ worker\\ but\\ a\\ player\\.\\ Bronte\\ thinks\\ of\\ Heathcliff\\ as\\ an\\ ethical\\ force\\.\\ He\\ is\\ a\\ sociopath\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Heathcliff\\ is\\ sacred\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Parsonage\\ where\\ the\\ Bronte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lived\\.\\ Graveyard\\ right\\ out\\ her\\ window\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Baty\\ writes\\ that\\ all\\ wreligious\\ experience\\ is\\ an\\ attempt\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ an\\ animal\\ state\\.\\ He\\ defines\\ animality\\ as\\ a\\ cosmic\\ oneness\\-\\ an\\ inimate\\ experience\\.\\ Continuity\\ with\\ everything\\ around\\ you\\.\\ Being\\ an\\ animal\\ is\\ like\\ water\\ in\\ water\\.\\ You\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ say\\ look\\ at\\ that\\ water\\ and\\ then\\ that\\ water\\.\\ It\\ is\\ intimate\\ and\\ violent\\.\\ One\\ wave\\ of\\ the\\ ocean\\ crashes\\ over\\ another\\ wave\\ and\\ they\\ become\\ one\\.\\ One\\ animal\\ devours\\ another\\=\\ cosmic\\ oneness\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ past\\ or\\ future\\-\\ it\\ is\\ nothing\\ but\\ pure\\ now\\.\\ Religion\\ to\\ re\\-achieve\\.\\ The\\ entire\\ world\\ has\\ transformed\\ into\\ things\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thingafied\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Whenever\\ you\\ create\\ an\\ object\\,\\ you\\ create\\ a\\ self\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ object\\ was\\ the\\ tool\\.\\ Caveman\\ plucks\\ rock\\ turns\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ tool\\ and\\ controls\\ it\\.\\ He\\ then\\ creates\\ time\\.\\ Tools\\ create\\ time\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ an\\ end\\-\\ so\\ if\\ you\\ pluck\\ something\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hwo\\ does\\ religion\\ return\\ you\\ to\\ the\\ now\\?\\ At\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ religion\\ lies\\ sacrifice\\.\\ Sacrifice\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ Baty\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\.\\ Sacrifice\\ is\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ everything\\.\\ To\\ make\\ sacred\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>He\\ also\\ argues\\ that\\ our\\ society\\ is\\ so\\ productive\\ that\\ whenever\\ something\\ is\\ productive\\ we\\ think\\ it\\ is\\ valuable\\.\\ If\\ you\\ think\\ about\\ it\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ we\\ value\\ most\\ are\\ things\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ lost\\.\\ We\\ should\\ think\\ about\\ value\\ in\\ non\\ productive\\ terms\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Diamond\\ ring\\=\\ the\\ more\\ money\\ you\\ waste\\,\\ the\\ more\\ value\\ it\\ brings\\.\\ If\\ you\\ gave\\ someone\\ a\\ toaster\\-\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ productive\\ but\\ not\\ valuable\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Humans\\ engage\\ in\\ sex\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ valuable\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ reproducing\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Holding\\ the\\ Olympics\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ú\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bronte\\ is\\ doing\\ a\\ very\\ similar\\ thing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chapter\\ 9\\ pg\\ 85\\ most\\ famous\\ paragraph\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cathy\\ describing\\ her\\ connection\\ to\\ Heathcliff\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ cannot\\ express\\ it\\ but\\ surely\\ everyone\\ has\\ a\\ notion\\&hellip\\;\\.Nelly\\ I\\ am\\ Heathcliff\\.\\ He\\ is\\ always\\,\\ always\\ in\\ my\\ mind\\.\\ So\\ do\\ not\\ talk\\ of\\ our\\ separation\\ again\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Emily\\ Bronte\\ and\\ Baty\\ are\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ soul\\ buddies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ shatters\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ Heathcliff\\ and\\ cathy\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>It\\ is\\ things\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pg\\.\\ 59\\ Heathcliff\\ is\\ describing\\ to\\ Nelly\\ what\\ happened\\.\\ They\\ turn\\ the\\ dog\\ into\\ a\\ thing\\ and\\ a\\ world\\ of\\ totally\\ alienation\\.\\ The\\ whole\\ novel\\ is\\ his\\ attempt\\ to\\ regain\\ Cathy\\.\\ To\\ regain\\ the\\ sacred\\.\\ He\\ accumulates\\ property\\,\\ money\\,\\ people\\-\\ all\\ of\\ them\\ are\\ his\\ victims\\.\\ He\\ wants\\ to\\ see\\ them\\ all\\ lose\\ their\\ value\\-\\ he\\ wants\\ to\\ see\\ them\\ all\\ destroyed\\.\\ For\\ a\\ fleeting\\ moment\\ he\\ can\\ reconnect\\.\\ Accumulating\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ victims\\ because\\ he\\ is\\ addicted\\ to\\ this\\ sacred\\ transformation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sex\\ scene\\ moment\\.\\ Cathy\\ is\\ dying\\ and\\ pregnant\\.\\ He\\ is\\ banned\\ from\\ the\\ estate\\.\\ We\\ experience\\ eroticism\\ through\\ the\\ lens\\ of\\ the\\ least\\ erotic\\ person\\=\\ Nelly\\.\\ They\\ are\\ literally\\ ripping\\ each\\ other\\ apart\\.\\ She\\ goes\\ out\\ into\\ the\\ rain\\=\\ hysteria\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ also\\ they\\ are\\ one\\ with\\ the\\ water\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Think\\ about\\ it\\ from\\ a\\ meta\\-novel\\ perspective\\.\\ Heathcliff\\ represents\\ Bronte\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imagination\\ in\\ the\\ writing\\ process\\ whereas\\ Nelly\\ represents\\ the\\ socially\\ productive\\ impulse\\ as\\ a\\ writer\\.\\ Battle\\ within\\ the\\ author\\ between\\ writing\\ and\\ professional\\.\\ The\\ novel\\ struggles\\ from\\ within\\.\\ Those\\ ellipses\\ are\\ refusals\\ within\\ the\\ novel\\ to\\ surrender\\ to\\ narrative\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Lecture\\ 2\\-26\\-09\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Poetic\\ form\\:\\ the\\ Dramatic\\ Monologue\\=\\ Alfred\\ Teneson\\ and\\ Robert\\ Browning\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ Dramatic\\ Monologue\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Somewhere\\ between\\ speech\\ and\\ song\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Has\\ a\\ speaker\\ who\\ is\\ either\\ fictional\\ or\\ historical\\ and\\ is\\ clearly\\ not\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ poet\\.\\ Speaker\\ addresses\\ a\\ silent\\ auditor\\ in\\ an\\ identifiable\\ context\\.\\ Really\\ a\\ monologue\\ excerpted\\ from\\ a\\ play\\ that\\ was\\ never\\ actually\\ written\\.\\ A\\ piece\\ of\\ something\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ actually\\ exist\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\.\\ Speaker\\ is\\ a\\ misfit\\,\\ rogue\\,\\ true\\ villain\\,\\ emotional\\ wreck\\,\\ pathetic\\.\\ Confessional\\ in\\ its\\ nature\\ but\\ also\\ slippery\\ and\\ untrustworthy\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>4\\.\\ Result\\ of\\ speaker\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fucked\\-up\\-ed\\-ness\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ lacks\\ authority\\.\\ Speaker\\ is\\ partial\\ in\\ sense\\ of\\ being\\ incomplete\\ and\\ partial\\ in\\ sense\\ of\\ being\\ biased\\ in\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ perception\\ of\\ world\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>5\\.\\ We\\ are\\ asked\\ to\\ judge\\ the\\ speaker\\ and\\ assess\\ the\\ way\\ each\\ line\\.\\ One\\&rsquo\\;s\\ self\\ in\\ grappling\\ with\\ the\\ speaker\\.\\ They\\ do\\ not\\ contain\\ any\\ wisdom\\ or\\ insight\\.\\ They\\ are\\ spurs\\ to\\ being\\ wise\\ or\\ insightful\\.\\ Metaphor\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rosary\\ Beads\\ Villian\\ Style\\&rdquo\\;\\ you\\ use\\ them\\ to\\ trigger\\ thoughts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Where\\ did\\ it\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Theory\\ 1\\:\\ inspired\\ by\\ an\\ essay\\ that\\ John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\ wrote\\ in\\ 1883\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ is\\ Poetry\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ Difference\\ between\\ eloquent\\ language\\ and\\ poetic\\ language\\.\\ Eloquence\\ is\\ heard\\ and\\ poetry\\ is\\ overheard\\.\\ Real\\ target\\ is\\ British\\ romanticism\\ and\\ preceding\\ generation\\ of\\ romantic\\ poets\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Wordsworth\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ targets\\ of\\ Browning\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reaction\\ against\\ romantic\\ idealization\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cult\\ of\\ the\\ Poet\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>According\\ to\\ Harold\\ Bloom\\ the\\ romantic\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subjectivity\\ becomes\\ the\\ prevalent\\ subject\\ of\\ poetry\\.\\ Setting\\ of\\ poetry\\ is\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ the\\ poet\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Romantic\\ poetry\\ interested\\ in\\ passivity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ does\\ Browning\\ counteract\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Transforms\\ poetic\\ voice\\ from\\ hyper\\-sensitive\\ reader\\ to\\ pathological\\ mis\\-reader\\-\\ become\\ passionate\\ in\\ a\\ more\\ crazy\\ life\\ sense\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Turns\\ romantic\\ passion\\ on\\ its\\ head\\-\\ becomes\\ insanity\\.\\ Passion\\ becomes\\ madness\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hands\\ poetic\\ authority\\ to\\ the\\ reader\\,\\ you\\ are\\ the\\ maker\\ of\\ meaning\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Strange\\ Fits\\ of\\ Passion\\ I\\ have\\ known\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Romantic\\ passion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lucy\\ functions\\ as\\ a\\ trigger\\ for\\ these\\ profound\\ thoughts\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ homicidal\\ undercurrent\\ to\\ love\\-\\ devour\\ the\\ other\\.\\ The\\ person\\&rsquo\\;s\\ distance\\ from\\ you\\ is\\ so\\ painful\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 74\\ revisiting\\ of\\ strange\\ fits\\ of\\ passion\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Fragment\\:\\ a\\ poem\\ that\\ has\\ the\\ title\\ fragments\\.\\ You\\ just\\ sort\\ of\\ wrote\\ a\\ little\\ piece\\ of\\ a\\ poem\\ so\\ it\\ has\\ an\\ existence\\ beyond\\ the\\ page\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Triggers\\ sublimity\\-\\ goes\\ on\\ forever\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dramatic\\ monologue\\ undermines\\ sublimity\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Browning\\ \\&ldquo\\;My\\ Last\\ Duchess\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fragment\\ spoken\\ by\\ Duke\\ Ferraro\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Women\\ turned\\ into\\ objects\\ like\\ trophies\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Written\\ in\\ heroic\\ couplets\\-\\ irony\\ being\\ he\\ is\\ anything\\ but\\ heroic\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Melodrama"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.436278+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Confessions of a Thug ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 802, "html": "\\\\ \\;LECTURE\\ 3\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\2\\/5\\/09\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Thought\\ Paper\\:\\ an\\ essay\\.\\ 1\\ page\\ single\\ spaced\\ essay\\.\\ Not\\ fully\\ developed\\ argument\\-\\ play\\ with\\ an\\ idea\\.\\ Just\\ test\\ ideas\\ out\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Focus\\ on\\ a\\ moment\\,\\ passage\\,\\ scene\\,\\ word\\ usage\\ here\\ and\\ there\\ and\\ unpack\\ it\\.\\ Do\\ a\\ little\\ close\\ reading\\.\\ Sometimes\\ look\\ at\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ peripheral\\-\\ side\\ issue\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Draw\\ unexpected\\ connections\\ between\\ texts\\.\\ Uncanny\\ parallels\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\.\\ Draw\\ connections\\ between\\ texts\\ and\\ texts\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ course\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>4\\.\\ Apply\\ your\\ favorite\\ critical\\/\\ theoretical\\ paradigm\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>5\\.\\ Approach\\ it\\ from\\ a\\ practical\\ perspective\\.\\ Test\\ out\\ what\\ might\\ become\\ one\\ of\\ your\\ longer\\ papers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Confessions\\ of\\ a\\ Thug\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Two\\ rival\\ schools\\ of\\ interpretation\\ about\\ this\\ book\\.\\ Obsessed\\ with\\ relationship\\ between\\ Amir\\ and\\ police\\ official\\.\\ Conflict\\ between\\ narrator\\ and\\ official\\ recorder\\.\\ Both\\ agree\\ that\\ the\\ relationship\\ is\\ an\\ allegory\\ for\\ imperialism\\ India\\:\\ Great\\ Britain\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>First\\ school\\:\\ Amir\\ is\\ India\\,\\ police\\ officer\\ is\\ Britain\\.\\ Sees\\ novel\\ as\\ racist\\ propaganda\\ used\\ to\\ convince\\ British\\ that\\ imperial\\ project\\ needed\\ to\\ go\\ on\\.\\ India\\ is\\ symbolized\\ as\\ a\\ violent\\ sociopath\\ killing\\ 719\\ people\\.\\ Though\\ this\\ sociopath\\ is\\ charming\\ and\\ appealing\\-\\ that\\ person\\ is\\ dangerously\\ charming\\ and\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ contained\\ and\\ arrested\\.\\ Britain\\ is\\ represented\\ by\\ a\\ silent\\ and\\ non\\-coercive\\ person\\.\\ He\\ is\\ hands\\ on\\ as\\ an\\ imperialist\\.\\ He\\ is\\ detached\\.\\ Shriveling\\ eye\\ of\\ civilization\\.\\ Amir\\ is\\ a\\ window\\ onto\\ the\\ dark\\ heart\\ of\\ Indian\\ others\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Second\\ school\\:\\ anti\\-imperialist\\ novel\\.\\ Reader\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ indentify\\ with\\ Amir\\.\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ hero\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\.\\ Taylor\\ is\\ collapsing\\ binary\\ between\\ western\\ self\\ and\\ eastern\\ other\\ creating\\ a\\ parallelism\\ between\\ self\\ and\\ other\\.\\ Taylor\\ creates\\ uncanny\\ British\\ temperament\\.\\ Indian\\ mimic\\ of\\ British\\ hero\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ literature\\.\\ Taylor\\ is\\ undermining\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ white\\ supremacy\\.\\ Biographical\\ evidence\\ that\\ Taylor\\ was\\ anti\\-imperial\\ and\\ he\\ was\\ married\\ to\\ a\\ mixed\\ race\\ woman\\ in\\ India\\ she\\ was\\ half\\ Indian\\ and\\ half\\ English\\.\\ Cited\\ as\\ special\\ connection\\ to\\ Indian\\ people\\.\\ He\\ also\\ later\\ wrote\\ a\\ novel\\ that\\ was\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ the\\ mutiny\\ of\\ 1857\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ little\\ traces\\ of\\ sympathy\\ of\\ Indian\\ mutiny\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Problems\\ with\\ both\\ of\\ these\\ approaches\\.\\ First\\ one\\ sees\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ black\\ and\\ white\\.\\ Empire\\ good\\ thugs\\ bad\\.\\ Simplistic\\.\\ Problem\\ with\\ second\\ school\\ suggests\\ that\\ all\\ hell\\ breaks\\ loose\\ when\\ you\\ critique\\ something\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Third\\ approach\\ says\\ that\\ Taylor\\ is\\ ambivalent\\ toward\\ thug\\ life\\.\\ Ambivalence\\ is\\ overrated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Taylor\\ has\\ a\\ real\\ agenda\\ here\\.\\ He\\ is\\ insistent\\ about\\ loudly\\ interjecting\\ himself\\ into\\ public\\ eye\\.\\ Is\\ this\\ a\\ pro\\ or\\ anti\\&hellip\\;it\\ is\\ both\\ not\\ in\\ an\\ ambivalent\\ way\\.\\ What\\ Taylor\\ does\\ is\\ sees\\ imperialism\\ as\\ disease\\ which\\ India\\ suffers\\ but\\ imperialism\\ is\\ the\\ cure\\.\\ Problem\\ and\\ solution\\.\\ Need\\ reformist\\ imperialism\\ to\\ reform\\ it\\.\\ This\\ is\\ like\\ during\\ our\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ should\\ read\\ this\\ novel\\ thinking\\ about\\ Amir\\ as\\ a\\ mirror\\.\\ Taylor\\ is\\ aware\\ of\\ word\\ play\\.\\ I\\ will\\ rescue\\ you\\ from\\ me\\.\\ Imperialist\\ is\\ both\\ villain\\ and\\ hero\\ just\\ like\\ Amir\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Today\\ example\\:\\ the\\ same\\ logic\\ played\\ itself\\ out\\ in\\ 2002\\ with\\ War\\ in\\ Afghanistan\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\NOVEL\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ways\\ in\\ which\\ Taylor\\ creates\\ the\\ mirror\\.\\ Reader\\ looks\\ across\\ at\\ Amir\\ instead\\ of\\ down\\.\\ Defining\\ himself\\ with\\ his\\ own\\ country\\.\\ He\\ is\\ basically\\ a\\ tourist\\ through\\ India\\.\\ Taylor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ autobiography\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Story\\ of\\ My\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\ describes\\ himself\\ as\\ a\\ sentimental\\ patriarch\\.\\ The\\ British\\ who\\ were\\ fueling\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ thugging\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\HOW\\ THEY\\ WERE\\ RESPONSIBLE\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Created\\ as\\ thugs\\ out\\ of\\ desperation\\-\\ demographic\\ upheaval\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>2\\.\\ Just\\ how\\ it\\ is\\.\\ Racial\\ supremacy\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\.\\ Expanding\\ territory\\ of\\ thugs\\ by\\ taking\\ over\\ old\\ territories\\.\\ Spread\\ like\\ a\\ cancer\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ British\\ took\\ over\\ in\\ 1757\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cheap\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ security\\.\\ Set\\ up\\ elaborate\\ inns\\ with\\ guards\\.\\ It\\ was\\ quite\\ a\\ pleasant\\ paternalistic\\ system\\ to\\ protect\\ travelers\\.\\ British\\ let\\ these\\ inns\\ collapse\\ so\\ the\\ roads\\ became\\ more\\ dangerous\\ to\\ travel\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\PARALELLS\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Both\\ the\\ thug\\ and\\ the\\ imperialist\\ viewed\\ themselves\\ as\\ morally\\ and\\ culturally\\ superior\\ to\\ the\\ Indian\\ Hindu\\ population\\.\\ Both\\ justify\\ exploitation\\ on\\ religious\\ and\\ economic\\ grounds\\.\\ Amir\\ is\\ Muslim\\.\\ Acquire\\ wealth\\ and\\ spread\\ religion\\.\\ Both\\ are\\ outnumbered\\ in\\ the\\ nation\\.\\ Amir\\ is\\ a\\ foreigner\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ British\\ are\\.\\ Amir\\ looks\\ like\\ a\\ gentleman\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chapter\\ 25\\ near\\ the\\ beginning\\ description\\ of\\ Amir\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Agoraphobia\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Amir\\ and\\ thugs\\ bring\\ justice\\ to\\ India\\ and\\ congratulate\\ themselves\\ as\\ people\\ punishing\\ bad\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Victorian\\ reader\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ unsettled\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ all\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ imperialism\\.\\ Imperialism\\ is\\ disease\\ and\\ cure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>", "course_id": 99, "file_path": "", "desc": "Confessions of a Thug "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.453094+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Contacting Congress ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 803, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Lecture\\ 4\\.27\\.09\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-StartFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\Emily\\ Hickey\\ Lecture\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\CALL\\ AND\\ RESPONSE\\:\\ Congressional\\ Communication\\ and\\ Citizen\\ Contact\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Congressional\\ research\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ and\\ communication\\ has\\ changed\\ since\\ then\\.\\ Has\\ this\\ changed\\ anything\\?\\ How\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ congress\\ using\\ this\\ technology\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Representation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Doing\\ what\\ the\\ voters\\ want\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ do\\ reps\\ know\\ what\\ their\\ voters\\ want\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Communication\\ with\\ congress\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\/3\\-1\\/4\\ population\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>modern\\ technology\\ makes\\ it\\ easier\\,\\ faster\\,\\ cheaper\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>100\\ million\\ emails\\ sent\\ to\\ the\\ House\\ in\\ 2004\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Who\\ are\\ the\\ people\\ getting\\ in\\ touch\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>43\\%\\ report\\ contacting\\ members\\ of\\ congress\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>older\\ white\\ men\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ contact\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>some\\ members\\ of\\ congress\\ do\\ not\\ email\\ back\\ or\\ interns\\ answer\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>education\\ is\\ certainly\\ a\\ big\\ factor\\ here\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>interest\\ in\\ politics\\ 43\\%\\ point\\ bump\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>people\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ hear\\ from\\ older\\,\\ better\\ educated\\,\\ more\\ interested\\ people\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Contact\\ and\\ Approval\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Fall\\ 2008\\ when\\ people\\ really\\ hated\\ congress\\ to\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ depressant\\ effect\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ do\\ we\\ make\\ of\\ all\\ this\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ should\\ you\\ do\\ that\\ you\\ will\\ increase\\ your\\ congress\\ member\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ you\\ want\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ skeptical\\ of\\ mass\\ emails\\ from\\ interest\\ groups\\ they\\ believe\\ that\\ those\\ are\\ created\\ by\\ robots\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Members\\ of\\ congress\\ want\\ their\\ constituents\\ to\\ know\\ what\\ they\\ are\\ doing\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ do\\ members\\ of\\ congress\\ do\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ secure\\ their\\ seat\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Advertising\\:\\ building\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ name\\ recognition\\-\\ people\\ like\\ what\\ they\\ know\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Credit\\ claiming\\-\\ showing\\ up\\ places\\.\\ Deliver\\ a\\ tangible\\ benefit\\ to\\ the\\ district\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Position\\ taking\\-\\ biggest\\ part\\.\\ Roll\\ call\\ votes\\.\\ Sponsoring\\ bills\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Explaining\\-\\ things\\ do\\ not\\ always\\ go\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ congress\\ wants\\ them\\ to\\ so\\ they\\ have\\ to\\ explain\\ their\\ behavior\\ to\\ their\\ constituents\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ most\\ vague\\ behavior\\ is\\ from\\ William\\ Bianco\\.\\ Member\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ make\\ good\\ choices\\ and\\ build\\ trust\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ Tools\\ do\\ they\\ have\\?\\ 56\\ house\\,\\ 61\\ senate\\ \\=\\ avg\\ age\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Personal\\ appearances\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Tele\\-town\\ halls\\-\\ they\\ will\\ call\\ you\\ once\\ a\\ week\\ before\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ will\\ call\\ you\\ a\\ week\\ later\\ where\\ congress\\ can\\ take\\ questions\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Frank\\-\\ first\\ class\\ stamp\\ with\\ signatures\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Websites\\-\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ them\\ work\\ exactly\\ the\\ same\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Electronic\\ newsletters\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Twitter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ tube\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Podcasting\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Franking\\ Files\\ of\\ 55\\ newsletters\\ in\\ 2008\\ jan\\-july\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ do\\ not\\ mention\\ pork\\ barrel\\ projects\\ a\\ lot\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Only\\ half\\ mention\\ bill\\ sponsorship\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>They\\ are\\ usually\\ really\\ vague\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Advertising\\:\\ Ed\\ Royce\\ from\\ California\\ with\\ a\\ girl\\ who\\ wins\\ an\\ art\\ competition\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Credit\\ Claiming\\-\\ Jim\\ Moran\\ from\\ Virginia\\ paying\\ off\\ and\\ soon\\ there\\ will\\ be\\ rail\\ service\\ to\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Building\\ trust\\:\\ big\\ oil\\ not\\ neutral\\ language\\.\\ Tom\\ Feeney\\ of\\ Florida\\ wanting\\ to\\ know\\ about\\ gas\\ prices\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Members\\ of\\ congress\\ are\\ going\\ beyond\\ email\\ and\\ web\\ pages\\.\\ Hard\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ participate\\ where\\ the\\ people\\ are\\.\\ Youtube\\ offering\\ special\\ congress\\ page\\.\\ Now\\ they\\ can\\ twitter\\ but\\ just\\ a\\ 140\\ character\\ limit\\.\\ 70\\ members\\ on\\ congress\\ on\\ are\\ twitter\\ feeds\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Twitt\\ on\\ obama\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ big\\ speech\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Are\\ these\\ technologies\\ going\\ to\\ help\\ even\\ out\\ equality\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>People\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ the\\ issues\\ that\\ really\\ matter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>More\\ republicans\\ twitter\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ also\\ in\\ on\\ new\\ technology\\ probably\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ there\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ the\\ Democrats\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Is\\ more\\ always\\ better\\-\\ BIG\\ QUESTION\\?\\?\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ one\\ really\\ knows\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-EndFragment\\-\\-\\>\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "Contacting Congress "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.470084+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Concluding Lecture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 804, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\More\\ on\\ the\\ spectrum\\ of\\ positions\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conflict\\ incited\\ by\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ camp\\:\\ sciene\\ and\\ religion\\ concern\\ the\\ same\\ questions\\ and\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ offers\\ the\\ only\\ good\\ answers\\ \\(scientism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Dawkins\\ and\\ \\"\\;new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ atheism\\.\\"\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believes\\ lot\\ of\\ evil\\ things\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ happened\\ b\\.c\\ of\\ religion\\,\\ wants\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Professor\\ for\\ Public\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Understanding\\ of\\ Science\\,\\ ermitus\\,\\ Oxford\\ University\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Specialist\\ in\\ ethology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(study\\ of\\ animal\\ behavior\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ sayin\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\ doesn\\'t\\ owe\\ us\\ meaning\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\E\\.O\\.\\ Wilson\\ and\\ sociobology\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\+\\ evolutionary\\ psychology\\ \\(most\\ recently\\ advocates\\ extending\\ a\\ \\"\\;hand\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ friendship\\"\\;\\ to\\ religion\\,\\ but\\ risk\\ of\\ conflating\\ is\\ \\'with\\ ought\\'\\ \\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ naturalistic\\ fallacy\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Professor\\ of\\ entomology\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Emeritus\\,\\ OEB\\,\\ Harvard\\,\\ specialist\\ of\\ ants\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Uses\\ science\\ to\\ explain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ areas\\ of\\ human\\ culture\\ usually\\ studied\\ by\\ hum\\ and\\ soc\\ sci\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sociobiology\\:\\ A\\ new\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ synthesis\\ \\(1975\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scientism\\ is\\ idea\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ is\\ best\\ form\\ of\\ legitimation\\ of\\ everything\\,\\ doesn\\'t\\ allow\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ other\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Term\\ sociobiology\\ coined\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 1948\\,\\ didn\\'t\\ get\\ much\\ play\\ as\\ a\\ term\\ though\\ until\\ Wilson\\'s\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wilson\\ raised\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conservative\\ Christian\\,\\ but\\ hasn\\'t\\ cut\\ himself\\ off\\ completely\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believes\\ science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ are\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ potent\\ forces\\ on\\ Earth\\ and\\ they\\ should\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ come\\ together\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Separating\\ the\\ spheres\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ science\\ and\\ religion\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Stephen\\ Jay\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Gould\\ and\\ NOMA\\:\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\ are\\ non\\-overlapping\\ magisteria\\ \\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ address\\ different\\ and\\ complementary\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magisteria\\ of\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ covers\\ empirical\\ realm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Magisteria\\ of\\ religion\\ over\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ morals\\ and\\ ethics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Argues\\ these\\ two\\ do\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ overlap\\,\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ cover\\ everything\\,\\ some\\ left\\ over\\,\\ such\\ as\\ art\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Catholic\\ position\\:\\ human\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ soul\\ infused\\ by\\ God\\;\\ evol\\ of\\ body\\ is\\ fine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Why\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ creationism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 20th\\ C\\ US\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ factors\\ explaining\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rsie\\ of\\ creationism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Radical\\ Reformation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movements\\:\\ little\\ interest\\ in\\ tradition\\,\\ in\\ previous\\ solutions\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ questions\\ of\\ interpretation\\,\\ divorced\\ from\\ scholarly\\ work\\ in\\ theology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ stark\\ either\\/or\\ calculus\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ deviating\\ from\\ literalism\\ risks\\ a\\ \\"\\;slippery\\ slope\\"\\;\\ which\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cannot\\ but\\ end\\ in\\ rejection\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ as\\ inspired\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ sole\\ guard\\ against\\ immorality\\,\\ the\\ sole\\ avenue\\ to\\ salvation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\A\\ rapidly\\ changing\\ social\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ context\\:\\ urbanization\\,\\ immigration\\,\\ world\\ wars\\ creating\\ sense\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ alienation\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fear\\ of\\ scientism\\:\\ science\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pays\\ inadequate\\ attention\\ to\\ moral\\ questions\\ it\\ raises\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ eugenics\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ is\\ dangerous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theistic\\ evolution\\ has\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ accept\\ what\\ scientific\\ evidence\\ is\\ producing\\ and\\ incorporate\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Entropic\\ effect\\:\\ theistic\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evolution\\ with\\ bit\\ of\\ cosmology\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\View\\ of\\ teleology\\ that\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ university\\ happened\\ for\\ life\\:\\ strong\\ entropic\\ principle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Weak\\:\\ just\\ a\\ byproduct\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ made\\ life\\ possible\\,\\ defusing\\ the\\ teleology\\ of\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Considering\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ whole\\ course\\ \\-\\ 3\\ attitudes\\ towards\\ reason\\ and\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ truth\\ \\-\\ reason\\ free\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ optimism\\ that\\ reason\\ will\\ not\\ contradict\\ faith\\.\\ Aquinas\\,\\ Galileo\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Descartes\\,\\ English\\ nat\\ theo\\ \\-\\ Newton\\,\\ Paley\\;\\ Spinoza\\ and\\ Einstein\\,\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ whom\\ faith\\ is\\ faith\\ in\\ God\\ of\\ reason\\ and\\ nat\\ law\\;\\ theistic\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Faith\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ seeing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ world\\ that\\ can\\ encompass\\ what\\ reason\\ teaches\\,\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ grounded\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ truth\\ \\-\\ reason\\ guided\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ faith\\;\\ pessimism\\ about\\ capacities\\ or\\ reliability\\ of\\ reason\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Augustine\\,\\ Bonaventure\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Bellarmine\\,\\ Pascal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creationism\\ \\-\\ in\\ rejecting\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ assumptions\\ of\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Two\\ truths\\ \\(dualism\\)\\ \\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Science\\ and\\ religion\\ are\\ about\\ different\\ questions\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ interact\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Siger\\ of\\ Frabant\\,\\ Galileo\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(to\\ some\\ extent\\)\\,\\ Lyell\\,\\ Darwin\\,\\ Huxley\\,\\ many\\ modernist\\/liberal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theologians\\,\\ neo\\-orthodox\\ theology\\,\\ Gould\\'s\\ NOMA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Science\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ are\\ both\\ powerful\\ forces\\ in\\ US\\ today\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Difficulties\\ for\\ a\\ favorable\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interaction\\ caused\\ by\\ using\\ science\\ as\\ benchmark\\ for\\ social\\ and\\ moral\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ issues\\ \\(scientism\\)\\;\\ by\\ insisting\\ on\\ biblical\\ literalism\\ and\\ denying\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ autonomy\\ of\\ scientific\\ inquiry\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Challenges\\ for\\ science\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disentangling\\ final\\ from\\ efficient\\ causes\\ \\(normative\\ from\\ descriptive\\)\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ religion\\ of\\ adapting\\ to\\ continuing\\ changes\\ in\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\;\\ for\\ everyone\\ of\\ forming\\ a\\ polity\\ spanning\\ great\\ diversity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ opinion\\ and\\ making\\ decisions\\ based\\ on\\ a\\ full\\ range\\ of\\ considerations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(moral\\,\\ social\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ scientific\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Concluding Lecture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.485718+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Physics and Religion in the 20th", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 805, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\5\\ principles\\ of\\ Fundamentalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Inspiration\\ and\\ inerrancy\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scripture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Virgin\\ birth\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Christ\\'s\\ death\\ as\\ atonement\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ human\\ sin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bodily\\ resurrection\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Historical\\ reality\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christ\\'s\\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Time\\ line\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ strict\\ literalism\\/flood\\ geology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7th\\ day\\ adventists\\ \\(founded\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ US\\ in\\ 1863\\)\\ are\\ among\\ those\\ taking\\ a\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>strict\\ creationist\\ line\\ before\\ 1920s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gap\\ Theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Accepts\\ an\\ old\\ earth\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ building\\ in\\ indefinite\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ between\\ Genesis\\ I\\ and\\ Genesis\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Time\\ between\\ deep\\ earth\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 6\\ days\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ID\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ it\\'s\\ theistic\\ evolution\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ then\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ adopt\\ widely\\ shared\\ consensus\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ community\\ and\\ change\\ with\\ that\\ consensus\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opinion\\ of\\ Professor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;irreducible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ complexity\\"\\;\\ \\(Michael\\ Behe\\)\\ might\\ not\\ allow\\ for\\ possibility\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scientific\\ explanation\\ of\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ complex\\ form\\ from\\ gradual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ changes\\;\\ \\"\\;God\\ of\\ the\\ gaps\\"\\;\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Used\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ eye\\,\\ now\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ talks\\ about\\ flagellum\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Alternatives\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ pattern\\ of\\ conflict\\:\\ beyond\\ the\\ \\"\\;inerrant\\ Bible\\ or\\ nothing\\"\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ choice\\;\\ avoid\\ science\\ overextending\\ itself\\ \\(principle\\ of\\ humility\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Newtonian\\ physics\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ superseded\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Special\\ and\\ general\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ relatively\\ \\(Einstein\\,\\ 1905\\ and\\ 1919\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quantum\\ mechanics\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wave\\-particle\\ duality\\;\\ indeterminacy\\ \\(Bohr\\'s\\ atom\\,\\ Heisenberg\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ uncertainty\\ principle\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Big\\ Bang\\ theory\\ of\\ origins\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ vs\\ steady\\-state\\ theory\\ \\(1960s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Einstein\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\:\\ unusually\\ explicit\\ in\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Einstein\\ is\\ hostile\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ established\\ religions\\,\\ feels\\ we\\ shouldn\\'t\\ be\\ trapped\\ in\\ certain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ denominations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Good\\ source\\:\\ Max\\ Jammer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Einstein\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Religion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1999\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Indiff\\ to\\ rel\\ denominations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(incl\\.\\ Judaism\\)\\;\\ but\\ hostile\\ to\\ atheism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cosmic\\ religious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sensibility\\:\\ harmony\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\;\\ Spinoza\\'s\\ God\\;\\ static\\ universe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(requires\\ cosmological\\ constant\\)\\ but\\ accepts\\ idea\\ of\\ expanding\\ universe\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ refuses\\ quantum\\ indeterminacy\\:\\ \\"\\;God\\ does\\ not\\ play\\ dice\\"\\;\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ searches\\ for\\ a\\ unified\\ field\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\=\\ very\\ liberal\\ theo\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rejection\\ of\\ personal\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Believes\\ in\\ Spinoza\\'s\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ who\\ reveals\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ orderly\\ harmony\\ of\\ what\\ exists\\,\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ who\\ concerns\\ himself\\ with\\ fates\\ and\\ actions\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Mixed\\ reception\\;\\ relativity\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conflated\\ with\\ relativism\\;\\ too\\ liberal\\;\\ appeals\\ to\\ Paul\\ Tillich\\ \\(liberal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Prot\\ theologian\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Relativity\\ interpreted\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ some\\ as\\ moral\\ relativism\\,\\ which\\ means\\ atheism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ is\\ against\\ atheism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ though\\,\\ feels\\ they\\ blind\\ themselves\\ to\\ beautify\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Could\\ also\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ having\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ very\\ liberal\\ theology\\,\\ possibly\\ agnostic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ dev\\'ts\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sci\\-rel\\ relations\\ in\\ 1930s\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\QM\\ indeterminacy\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;doorway\\ of\\ religion\\"\\;\\ \\(Arthur\\ Eddington\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Bohr\\ and\\ Schrodinger\\ interested\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Eastern\\ religions\\;\\ Bohr\\ used\\ the\\ wave\\-particle\\ complementarity\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ describe\\ the\\ relations\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Heisenberg\\ lauded\\ quantum\\ indeterminacy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ restoring\\ humility\\ in\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quaker\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Relations\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ discoveries\\ in\\ physics\\ have\\ undergone\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appreciation\\ of\\ physical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ carries\\ understanding\\ of\\ transcending\\ feeling\\ over\\ measurements\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ new\\ open\\-mindedness\\ made\\ possible\\ by\\ quantum\\ mechanics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ \\(Einstein\\,\\ C\\.A\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Coulson\\)\\ warn\\ ag\\.\\ \\"\\;God\\ of\\ the\\ gaps\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Warns\\ that\\ the\\ gap\\ keeps\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shrinking\\,\\ not\\ a\\ solution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Neo\\-orthodoxy\\:\\ keep\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Revelatoin\\;\\ \\"\\;wall\\ with\\ sci\\"\\;\\ \\(Karl\\ Barth\\)\\ \\=\\ another\\ reaction\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ modernism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ current\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ perspectives\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Big\\ Bang\\ \\(Hubble\\:\\ expanding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\,\\ 1927\\,\\ then\\ cosmic\\ background\\ radiation\\,\\ 1960s\\)\\:\\ a\\ moment\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;creation\\"\\;\\ \\(including\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Big\\ Bang\\ theories\\ were\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ developed\\ from\\ Einstein\\'s\\ general\\ relativity\\ and\\ Hubble\\'s\\ observations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ indicating\\ an\\ expanding\\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ became\\ widely\\ accepted\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ 1964\\ observations\\ of\\ cosmic\\ background\\ radiation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Big\\ bang\\ theory\\ does\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ explain\\ the\\ initial\\ condition\\ but\\ describes\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\ since\\ that\\ first\\ instant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Einstein\\ called\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ cosmological\\ constant\\ his\\ biggest\\ blunder\\ and\\ abandoned\\ it\\ after\\ Hubble\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ observations\\ of\\ other\\ galaxies\\ in\\ 1927\\ led\\ to\\ theory\\ of\\ an\\ expanding\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ universe\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Einstein\\ has\\ expectations\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\'s\\ willing\\ to\\ adjust\\ based\\ on\\ empirical\\ input\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Einstein\\ does\\ not\\ accept\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ quantum\\-mechanical\\ understandings\\ of\\ the\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Convinced\\ that\\ there\\ must\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ be\\ deterministic\\ explanation\\ for\\ effects\\ we\\ determine\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\-deterministic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Just\\ a\\ failing\\ of\\ ours\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ understanding\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Anthropic\\ principle\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ John\\ Barrow\\ and\\ Frank\\ Tipler\\)\\:\\ a\\ universe\\ that\\ makes\\ life\\ is\\ special\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(strong\\)\\;\\ b\\/c\\ we\\ exist\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ universe\\ that\\ can\\ support\\ life\\ \\(weak\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ version\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Strong\\ antropic\\ principle\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ to\\ say\\ the\\ universe\\ must\\ have\\ been\\ designed\\ to\\ make\\ life\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Weak\\ principle\\ is\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\'re\\ alive\\,\\ we\\'re\\ looking\\ at\\ how\\ a\\ universe\\ supports\\ life\\,\\ we\\ can\\ talk\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ how\\ we\\ got\\ there\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Either\\ way\\,\\ about\\ talking\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ about\\ the\\ odds\\ of\\ a\\ universe\\ that\\ makes\\ life\\ happen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Obviously\\ not\\ very\\ high\\,\\ so\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ a\\ special\\ world\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Way\\ of\\ phrasing\\ it\\,\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evasive\\ about\\ own\\ religious\\ views\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ sort\\ of\\ way\\ of\\ seeing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teleology\\ in\\ the\\ big\\ picture\\ of\\ universe\\ as\\ we\\ think\\ of\\ it\\ now\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Emergence\\/process\\ theo\\:\\ God\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ the\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ is\\ an\\ ongoing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ process\\,\\ is\\ happening\\ through\\ creation\\ of\\ laws\\,\\ creation\\ of\\ the\\ beings\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ so\\ forth\\ that\\ are\\ produced\\ from\\ these\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Watching\\ God\\ unfold\\ in\\ this\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hawking\\ says\\ that\\ possible\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ responsible\\,\\ but\\ misleading\\ to\\ call\\ that\\ God\\,\\ b\\/c\\ not\\ on\\ such\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ personal\\ level\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cosmic\\ radiation\\ is\\ rays\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ various\\ particles\\ that\\ were\\ triggered\\ by\\ things\\ in\\ deep\\ past\\,\\ how\\ we\\'re\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ refining\\ our\\ current\\ picture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Physics and Religion in the 20th"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.504206+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Creationism and Creation Science since 1920s", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 806, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Historical\\ Review\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Early\\ peak\\ in\\ national\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ awareness\\ of\\ Creationism\\/creation\\ science\\ in\\ 1920s\\ with\\ Scopes\\ Trial\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Through\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ national\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ profile\\ of\\ Creationism\\/Creation\\ Science\\ declines\\:\\ perceived\\ by\\ elite\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ educated\\ public\\ as\\ a\\ dead\\ issue\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ revival\\ since\\ 1960s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ science\\ movement\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ particularly\\ American\\ phenomenon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ early\\ part\\ of\\ 20th\\ C\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 19th\\,\\ Darwinism\\ wasn\\'t\\ entirely\\ accepted\\ as\\ mechanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\But\\ with\\ rise\\ of\\ genetics\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 20th\\ C\\ and\\ heredity\\,\\ science\\ is\\ coalescing\\ around\\ evolution\\,\\ becoming\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ resistant\\ to\\ alternate\\ mechanisms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Major\\ Themes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Shaping\\ American\\ Creationism\\ since\\ the\\ 1920s\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Literal\\ Biblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(usually\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fundamentalist\\ Protestants\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Legal\\ history\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Creationists\\'\\ \\(mis\\)appropriation\\ of\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ going\\ away\\ \\-\\ widespread\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ belief\\ in\\ creationism\\ in\\ US\\ \\(2005\\:\\ \\~40\\%\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Scopes\\ Trial\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\TN\\ anti\\-evolution\\ law\\ passed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 1925\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\On\\ one\\ side\\,\\ fundamentalist\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Christian\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Crusade\\ around\\ 1910\\ w\\/\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Fundamentals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\William\\ Jennings\\ Bryan\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ prosecutor\\ in\\ case\\,\\ big\\ leaders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ factors\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Teaching\\ of\\ evolution\\ leads\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ atheism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sees\\ eugenics\\,\\ based\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evolution\\,\\ as\\ related\\ to\\ German\\ militarism\\,\\ excuse\\ to\\ let\\ go\\ and\\ act\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ immorally\\ towards\\ fellow\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Majoritarian\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\People\\ who\\ pay\\ for\\ public\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ schools\\ have\\ a\\ right\\ to\\ determine\\ what\\ their\\ children\\ are\\ to\\ learn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scopes\\ Trial\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\ principles\\ motivating\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Free\\ speech\\,\\ coming\\ out\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ WWI\\ background\\ that\\ real\\ concern\\ with\\ some\\ laws\\ being\\ passed\\ during\\ war\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ restricted\\ freedom\\ of\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Element\\ of\\ cultural\\ tension\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fundamentalist\\ seen\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ elite\\ as\\ uneducated\\,\\ backward\\ rural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scopes\\ convicted\\,\\ but\\ later\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ overturned\\ on\\ technical\\ grounds\\ at\\ state\\ level\\,\\ never\\ went\\ to\\ Supreme\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Court\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Show\\ trial\\:\\ John\\ Scopes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ recruited\\ by\\ ACLU\\;\\ Darrow\\ and\\ Bryan\\ famous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Although\\ the\\ law\\ was\\ upheld\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ trial\\ seen\\ by\\ many\\ as\\ embarrassing\\ to\\ TN\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Inherit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Wind\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(play\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ movie\\,\\ 1950s\\-60s\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\-age\\,\\ Held\\ by\\ William\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jennings\\ Bryan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gap\\ theory\\,\\ Harry\\ Rimmer\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(1890\\-1952\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Publications\\ made\\ that\\ would\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ only\\ be\\ distributed\\ and\\ read\\ in\\ that\\ sub\\-culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ of\\ groups\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ supporting\\ ideology\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Day\\-Age\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Allows\\ for\\ older\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Doesn\\'t\\ insist\\ on\\ literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reading\\ of\\ Genesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Does\\ insist\\ that\\ humans\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\ created\\,\\ not\\ descended\\ from\\ other\\ creatures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\William\\ Jennings\\ Bryan\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ascribed\\ to\\ this\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Assigns\\ each\\ day\\ an\\ eon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gap\\ or\\ Ruin\\ \\&\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Restoration\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Harry\\ Rimmer\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prize\\-fighter\\,\\ some\\ time\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ med\\ school\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\One\\ of\\ first\\ to\\ try\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ take\\ on\\ trappings\\ of\\ scientist\\ in\\ promotions\\ of\\ creation\\ science\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Perhaps\\ multiple\\ cataclysms\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ creation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Flood\\ Geology\\ or\\ Creation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\George\\-McCready\\ Price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Most\\ conservative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Insists\\ on\\ literal\\ reading\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ Genesis\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Creation\\ of\\ entire\\ universe\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ happened\\ in\\ 6\\ days\\,\\ no\\ old\\ earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ geological\\ evidence\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ a\\ consequence\\ of\\ Noah\\'s\\ Flood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Flood\\ Geology\\,\\ Publicized\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ George\\ McCready\\ Price\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ New\\ Geology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1923\\)\\,\\ 15\\,000\\ copies\\;\\ and\\ John\\ C\\.\\ Whitcomb\\ Jr\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ Henry\\ Morris\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Genesis\\ Flood\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\(1961\\)\\,\\ 200\\,000\\ copies\\ over\\ 25\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intelligent\\ Design\\,\\ Michael\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ J\\.\\ Behe\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Darwin\\'s\\ Black\\ Box\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1996\\)\\.\\ Key\\ idea\\:\\ irreducible\\ complexity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Legal\\ History\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ 1960s\\,\\ strategies\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ CS\\ proponents\\ shaped\\ by\\ legal\\ challenges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\CS\\ proponents\\ exploit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ diversity\\ of\\ state\\/local\\ school\\ boards\\ to\\ pass\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Recent\\ laws\\ have\\ tended\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ require\\ teaching\\ CS\\ alongside\\ evolutionary\\ theory\\:\\ \\"\\;teach\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ controversy\\"\\;\\ strategy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\These\\ laws\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ struck\\ down\\ by\\ courts\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Most\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ recently\\:\\ Kitzmiller\\ v\\.\\ Dover\\ Area\\ School\\ District\\ \\(2005\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scopes\\ vs\\ Tennessee\\ \\(1925\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Epperson\\ v\\.\\ Arkansas\\ \\(1968\\)\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ first\\ creationism\\ trial\\ to\\ reach\\ Supreme\\ Court\\.\\ Forbidding\\ teaching\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evolution\\ vioaltes\\ religious\\ estbalishment\\ clasue\\ of\\ 1st\\ Amendment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\McLean\\ v\\.\\ Arkansas\\ \\(1981\\)\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Stephen\\ J\\.\\ Gould\\ testified\\.\\ \\"\\;balanced\\ treatment\\/equal\\ time\\"\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ laws\\ violate\\ establishment\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ruled\\ illegal\\ b\\/c\\ attempt\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ establish\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Institute\\ for\\ Creation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Research\\ v\\.\\ Honig\\ \\(1992\\)\\:\\ ICR\\ sued\\ for\\ right\\ to\\ grant\\ graduate\\ degrees\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Won\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kitzmiller\\ v\\.\\ Dover\\ Area\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ School\\ District\\ \\(2005\\)\\.\\ Teaching\\ intelligent\\ design\\ violates\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ establishment\\ clause\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;Science\\"\\;\\ in\\ Creation\\ Science\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cultural\\ and\\ social\\ markers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ science\\ \\(degrees\\,\\ peer\\ review\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intellectually\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ philosophically\\,\\ what\\ is\\ science\\?\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Proponents\\ claim\\ evolution\\ \\"\\;just\\ a\\ theory\\,\\"\\;\\ and\\ that\\ CS\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ ID\\ are\\ just\\ as\\ scientific\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Central\\ issue\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ methodological\\ naturalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "American Creationism and Creation Science since 1920s"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.523038+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Death of Stars", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 807, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Brief\\ Recap\\:\\ The\\ lifetime\\ and\\ fate\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ is\\ linked\\ to\\ its\\ mass\\.\\ \\;Red\\ Giants\\ are\\ powered\\ by\\ Helium\\ fusion\\.\\ \\;Clusters\\ test\\ stellar\\ evolution\\ and\\ determine\\ ages\\ \\~\\ 12\\ Gyr\\ for\\ our\\ galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Red\\ Giants\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ burning\\ Hydrogen\\ and\\ Helium\\,\\ take\\ the\\ ashes\\ of\\ Hydrogen\\ burning\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ Helium\\,\\ and\\ burn\\ it\\ into\\ Carbon\\.\\ \\;The\\ intermediate\\ elements\\ in\\ this\\ reaction\\ get\\ skipped\\ over\\.\\ \\;Helium\\,\\ which\\ has\\ 4\\ particles\\ in\\ it\\,\\ is\\ used\\.\\ \\;Elements\\ with\\ 5\\,\\ 6\\,\\ 7\\,\\ 8\\,\\ 9\\,\\ and\\ 10\\ particles\\ in\\ their\\ nuclei\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ quite\\ rare\\ because\\ when\\ stars\\ generate\\ energy\\ they\\ skip\\ over\\ this\\ step\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ Carbon\\ and\\ Helium\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ but\\ very\\ little\\ of\\ the\\ light\\ elements\\ in\\ between\\,\\ like\\ Lithium\\,\\ Boron\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Abundances\\ of\\ these\\ elements\\ reflect\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ stars\\ generate\\ energy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Massive\\ stars\\ generate\\ more\\ energy\\ and\\ use\\ up\\ their\\ fuels\\ a\\ lot\\ faster\\ than\\ stars\\ like\\ the\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Chemistry\\ of\\ stars\\ depends\\ on\\ properties\\ of\\ nuclei\\ and\\ the\\ properties\\ of\\ nuclear\\ burning\\ in\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Low\\ mass\\ stars\\ become\\ white\\ dwarfs\\,\\ held\\ up\\ by\\ quantum\\ mechanics\\.\\ \\;\\(They\\ do\\ not\\ explode\\ unless\\ provoked\\ by\\ a\\ neighbor\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-White\\ dwarfs\\:\\ stars\\ not\\ held\\ up\\ by\\ high\\ temperature\\ gas\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\,\\ but\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ you\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ can\\ cram\\ all\\ particles\\ into\\ the\\ lowest\\ energy\\ state\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Massive\\ stars\\ fuse\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ iron\\,\\ then\\ collapse\\ and\\ bounce\\ to\\ become\\ supernova\\ explosions\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Iron\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ tightly\\ bound\\ element\\.\\ \\;It\\ \\&ldquo\\;costs\\&rdquo\\;\\ energy\\ to\\ create\\ fusion\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ energy\\ for\\ supernovae\\ in\\ massive\\ stars\\ come\\ from\\ gravitational\\ collapse\\ to\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BIG\\ IDEAS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-We\\ live\\ a\\ short\\ time\\,\\ so\\ stars\\ seem\\ permanent\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ not\\:\\ 10\\^2\\ years\\ for\\ us\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ 10\\^10\\ years\\ for\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Stars\\ stave\\ off\\ the\\ inevitable\\ collapse\\ \\(due\\ to\\ gravity\\)\\ by\\ producing\\ energy\\,\\ but\\ the\\ inevitable\\ always\\ occurs\\:\\ gravity\\ always\\ wins\\.\\ \\\\ß\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Story\\ of\\ stellar\\ evolution\\ in\\ a\\ nutshell\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ death\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ results\\ in\\ the\\ creation\\ and\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ new\\ elements\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Over\\ time\\,\\ the\\ universe\\ has\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ grow\\ richer\\ in\\ the\\ elements\\ that\\ make\\ up\\ planets\\ \\(and\\ people\\)\\,\\ like\\ calcium\\ in\\ bones\\,\\ mercury\\ in\\ fillings\\ of\\ teeth\\,\\ oxygen\\ we\\ breath\\ \\\\ß\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ all\\ got\\ synthesized\\ in\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\STAGES\\ OF\\ THE\\ SUN\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-As\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ core\\ runs\\ out\\ of\\ hydrogen\\,\\ a\\ main\\-sequence\\ star\\ becomes\\ a\\ red\\ giant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sun\\ as\\ a\\ main\\-sequence\\ star\\ \\(diameter\\ \\=\\ 1\\.4\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ km\\ \\~\\ 1\\/100\\ AU\\)\\ versus\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ Sun\\ as\\ a\\ red\\ giant\\ \\(diameter\\ \\=\\ 1\\ AU\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ will\\ be\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ big\\ as\\ the\\ orbit\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\.\\ \\;It\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ will\\ take\\ up\\ the\\ whole\\ sky\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Energy\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generation\\ goes\\ by\\ peculiar\\ set\\ of\\ reactions\\ in\\ which\\ 3\\ Helium\\ nuclei\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ combine\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ Carbon\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Because\\ stars\\ of\\ different\\ mass\\ burn\\ up\\ at\\ different\\ rates\\,\\ if\\ have\\ a\\ cluster\\ of\\ stars\\ where\\ all\\ start\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ can\\ tell\\ how\\ old\\ the\\ cluster\\ is\\ by\\ seeing\\ which\\ stars\\ are\\ red\\ giants\\,\\ which\\ are\\ main\\-sequence\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ time\\ goes\\ by\\,\\ clusters\\ of\\ stars\\ that\\ are\\ present\\ on\\ main\\ sequence\\ become\\ of\\ lower\\ and\\ lower\\ mass\\.\\ \\;Turn\\ off\\ point\\ for\\ M67\\ is\\ about\\ 10\\ billion\\ years\\.\\ \\;Some\\ have\\ become\\ red\\ giants\\.\\ \\;There\\ are\\ such\\ young\\ stars\\ in\\ clusters\\ on\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ stars\\ currently\\ must\\ be\\ forming\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\H\\-R\\ DIAGRAM\\ for\\ an\\ OLD\\ CLUSTER\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-there\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ the\\ main\\-sequence\\ observed\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-there\\ are\\ some\\ red\\ giants\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-important\\ point\\:\\ there\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ any\\ stars\\ on\\ upper\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ means\\ all\\ those\\ stars\\ have\\ had\\ enough\\ time\\ to\\ use\\ up\\ their\\ fuel\\ and\\ becomes\\ red\\ giants\\.\\ \\;Turnoff\\ points\\ corresponds\\ to\\ stars\\ around\\ 1\\ solar\\ mass\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\-Main\\ Idea\\:\\ as\\ a\\ cluster\\ ages\\,\\ the\\ main\\ sequence\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;eaten\\ away\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ upper\\ left\\ as\\ stars\\ of\\ progressively\\ smaller\\ mass\\ evolve\\ into\\ red\\ giants\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-by\\ studying\\ what\\ kinds\\ of\\ stars\\ are\\ present\\ in\\ clusters\\,\\ can\\ tell\\ how\\ old\\ they\\ are\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\AGES\\ OF\\ CLUSTERS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Based\\ on\\ the\\ turn\\-off\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ H\\-R\\ Diagram\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Oldest\\ clusters\\ in\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ are\\ about\\ 12\\ \\+\\/\\-\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^9\\ years\\ old\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ Sun\\ is\\ a\\ second\\-\\ or\\ third\\-\\ generation\\ star\\ that\\ has\\ inherited\\ its\\ heavy\\ elements\\ from\\ previous\\ generations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\THE\\ CHEMISTY\\ OF\\ THE\\ MILKY\\ WAY\\ HAS\\ CHANGED\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Young\\ stars\\ are\\ metal\\ rich\\;\\ ancient\\ stars\\ are\\ metal\\ poor\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ metals\\ \\(heavy\\ elements\\)\\ in\\ recent\\ stars\\ were\\ manufactured\\ by\\ thermonuclear\\ in\\ an\\ earlier\\ generation\\ of\\ stars\\ and\\ incorporated\\ into\\ subsequent\\ stellar\\ generations\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ spectrum\\ of\\ this\\ Population\\ II\\ star\\ \\(diagram\\,\\ top\\ absorption\\ line\\)\\ shows\\ absorption\\ lines\\ of\\ hydrogen\\ \\(such\\ as\\ H\\&gamma\\;\\ and\\ H\\&delta\\;\\)\\ but\\ only\\ very\\ weak\\ absorption\\ lines\\ of\\ metals\\&hellip\\;such\\ a\\ stat\\ is\\ metal\\-poor\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ spectrum\\ of\\ this\\ Population\\ I\\ star\\ has\\ stronger\\ absorption\\ lines\\ of\\ metals\\&hellip\\;such\\ a\\ star\\ is\\ metal\\-rich\\.\\ \\;\\[see\\ diagrams\\ in\\ slides\\ for\\ spectra\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\PLOT\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ chemical\\ abundances\\ of\\ the\\ elements\\ in\\ our\\ Galaxy\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ microscopic\\ properties\\ of\\ nuclei\\ AD\\ on\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ energy\\ generation\\ in\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-show\\ that\\ for\\ elements\\ of\\ different\\ atomic\\ numbers\\,\\ starting\\ with\\ Hydrogen\\ and\\ Helium\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-plotted\\ on\\ Y\\-axis\\ \\(scale\\ is\\ a\\ factor\\ of\\ 10\\^9\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ exponential\\)\\ is\\ abundance\\ \\(how\\ many\\ of\\ those\\ atoms\\ there\\ are\\ in\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;scoop\\&rsquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ galaxy\\)\\ versus\\ X\\-axis\\ which\\ is\\ atomic\\ number\\.\\ \\;There\\ are\\ less\\ of\\ the\\ heavier\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-peak\\ at\\ Iron\\,\\ which\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ abundant\\ than\\ elements\\ like\\ copper\\,\\ titanium\\,\\ and\\ other\\ lighter\\ elements\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-as\\ go\\ to\\ lighter\\ and\\ lighter\\ elements\\,\\ like\\ carbon\\,\\ oxygen\\,\\ and\\ nitrogen\\,\\ those\\ are\\ quite\\ abundant\\.\\ \\;But\\ jumps\\ down\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ lithium\\,\\ beryllium\\,\\ and\\ boron\\,\\ are\\ rare\\.\\ \\;Reason\\ is\\ stars\\ skip\\ over\\ making\\ these\\ elements\\ when\\ producing\\ carbon\\ and\\ fuel\\ for\\ burning\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Iron\\ very\\ abundant\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ stable\\ nucleus\\.\\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ endpoint\\ of\\ nuclear\\ fusion\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Elements\\ present\\ in\\ the\\ earth\\ have\\ their\\ origins\\ in\\ the\\ stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\ HAPPENS\\ NEXT\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-It\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ star\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Low\\ mass\\ stars\\ \\(like\\ the\\ Sun\\)\\ become\\ degenerate\\ in\\ their\\ cores\\ before\\ they\\ ignite\\ carbon\\ \\&\\;\\ oxygen\\.\\ \\;They\\ get\\ stuck\\.\\ Becomes\\ very\\ dense\\ in\\ center\\,\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ put\\ all\\ mass\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ due\\ to\\ energy\\ state\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-High\\ mass\\ stars\\ \\(M\\ \\>\\;\\ 8\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\ go\\ on\\ to\\ fuse\\ carbon\\ into\\ silicon\\ and\\ \\(eventually\\)\\ iron\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-a\\ low\\ mass\\ stars\\ puffs\\ off\\ its\\ atmosphere\\ to\\ become\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;planetary\\ nebula\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Sun\\ prediction\\:\\ will\\ be\\ held\\ together\\ by\\ degeneracy\\ pressure\\,\\ and\\ then\\ puff\\ off\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ transition\\ stage\\ where\\ center\\ of\\ star\\ is\\ hot\\ and\\ becomes\\ degenerate\\,\\ whereas\\ outer\\ parts\\ of\\ star\\ ejected\\ gently\\.\\ \\;And\\ energy\\ from\\ the\\ star\\ ionizes\\ the\\ gas\\ and\\ excites\\ it\\ so\\ it\\ glows\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\H\\-R\\ DIAGRAM\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Luminosity\\ on\\ Y\\-axis\\,\\ Surface\\ Temperature\\ on\\ X\\-axis\\ \\(increasing\\ to\\ the\\ left\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-after\\ being\\ red\\ giants\\,\\ the\\ cores\\ of\\ the\\ stars\\ get\\ hot\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ move\\ to\\ the\\ left\\)\\,\\ luminosity\\ stays\\ the\\ same\\,\\ and\\ then\\ something\\ happens\\ where\\ they\\ cool\\ off\\ \\(Luminosity\\ and\\ Surface\\ temp\\ decrease\\)\\,\\ just\\ cooling\\ off\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ generate\\ any\\ energy\\ in\\ core\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ become\\ white\\ dwarfs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-These\\ evolutionary\\ tracks\\ follow\\ three\\ different\\ giant\\ stars\\ as\\ they\\ eject\\ planetary\\ nebulae\\ and\\ become\\ white\\ dwarf\\ stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\DEGENERACY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Pauli\\:\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ force\\ two\\ particles\\ into\\ the\\ same\\ state\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Electron\\ Degeneracy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-these\\ electrons\\ have\\ energy\\ \\(even\\ if\\ T\\ \\=\\ 0\\)\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ degeneracy\\ pressure\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-zero\\ energy\\ at\\ first\\ level\\ and\\ above\\ in\\ each\\ level\\ electrons\\ have\\ high\\ energy\\ but\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ into\\ lowest\\ state\\ because\\ density\\ too\\ high\\.\\ \\;Even\\ if\\ star\\ cools\\ off\\,\\ electrons\\ have\\ high\\ energy\\ and\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ go\\ to\\ lower\\ state\\ and\\ that\\ means\\ they\\ have\\ pressure\\ and\\ hold\\ up\\ the\\ star\\ against\\ gravity\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ supports\\ white\\ dwarfs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-For\\ low\\ mass\\ stars\\ \\(M\\ \\<\\;\\ 8\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\,\\ get\\ pressure\\ without\\ temperature\\!\\ \\;The\\ star\\ ends\\ up\\ as\\ a\\ hot\\ lump\\ of\\ carbon\\ and\\ oxygen\\:\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\.\\ \\;Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ generate\\ energy\\,\\ but\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ collapse\\ either\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-A\\ white\\ dwarf\\ resembles\\ a\\ crystal\\ more\\ than\\ a\\ gas\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Picture\\ of\\ Planetary\\ Nebula\\:\\ the\\ central\\ star\\ \\(purple\\ in\\ image\\ and\\ bright\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;on\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ becoming\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Yet\\ another\\ Planetary\\ Nebula\\:\\ In\\ about\\ 50\\,000\\ years\\,\\ the\\ gas\\ disperses\\,\\ leaving\\ behind\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\.\\ \\;In\\ about\\ 50\\,000\\ gas\\ moves\\ out\\ and\\ leaves\\ behind\\ little\\ nugget\\ of\\ the\\ burned\\ out\\ star\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHITE\\ DWARF\\ CHARACTERISTICS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ burned\\-out\\ core\\ of\\ a\\ low\\-mass\\ star\\ cools\\ and\\ contracts\\ until\\ it\\ becomes\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Sirius\\ B\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ known\\ burned\\ out\\ stars\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-no\\ further\\ nuclear\\ reactions\\ take\\ place\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-it\\ becomes\\ a\\ degenerate\\,\\ dense\\ sphere\\ about\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\:\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-It\\ glows\\ from\\ thermal\\ radiation\\;\\ as\\ the\\ star\\ cools\\,\\ it\\ dims\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-this\\ is\\ how\\ the\\ Sun\\ will\\ end\\ not\\ with\\ a\\ bang\\,\\ but\\ with\\ a\\ whimper\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\MASS\\ AND\\ RADIUS\\ FOR\\ A\\ WHITE\\ DWARF\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-degenerate\\ matter\\ behaves\\ ina\\ very\\ odd\\ way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Graph\\ of\\ Y\\-axis\\ \\(white\\ dwarf\\ radius\\)\\ v\\.\\ X\\-axis\\ \\(white\\ dwarf\\ mass\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-this\\ is\\ really\\ weird\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ you\\ take\\ matter\\ away\\ from\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\,\\ the\\ star\\ gets\\ bigger\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-this\\ is\\ even\\ weirder\\,\\ what\\ happens\\ if\\ you\\ put\\ more\\ mass\\ on\\ a\\ 1\\.4\\ solar\\ mass\\ white\\ dwarf\\?\\ \\;Place\\ where\\ radius\\ goes\\ to\\ 0\\.\\ \\;What\\ does\\ this\\ mean\\?\\ \\;Something\\ has\\ to\\ happen\\.\\ \\;Can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ held\\ up\\ by\\ electron\\ degeneracy\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Upper\\ mass\\ limit\\ to\\ the\\ white\\ dwarfs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-white\\ dwarf\\ density\\ \\~\\ 10\\^9\\ kg\\/m\\^3\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\~1\\ ton\\/cm\\^3\\ \\(1\\ hippo\\ mass\\/teaspoon\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\~mass\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ \\/\\ volume\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\ ages\\,\\ its\\ radius\\ stays\\ the\\ same\\ but\\ its\\ luminosity\\ and\\ surface\\ temperature\\ decrease\\.\\ \\;Its\\ evolutionary\\ track\\ moves\\ down\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ right\\ on\\ the\\ H\\-R\\ diagram\\.\\ \\;It\\ JUST\\ cools\\ off\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\DEMONSTRATION\\ \\/\\ WHY\\ IS\\ A\\ WHITE\\ DWARF\\ LIKE\\ A\\ HOT\\ WATER\\ BOTTLE\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-hot\\ water\\ bottle\\ viewed\\ with\\ an\\ infrared\\ camera\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-white\\ dwarf\\ has\\ no\\ energy\\ source\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ just\\ cools\\ off\\ over\\ time\\ \\(like\\ a\\ hot\\ water\\ bottle\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-the\\ oldest\\ white\\ dwarfs\\ are\\ the\\ coolest\\ and\\ dimmest\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ appear\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ cooling\\ for\\ about\\ 12\\ Gyr\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Our\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\ must\\ be\\ that\\ old\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-IDEA\\:\\ by\\ understanding\\ how\\ stars\\ age\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ can\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ the\\ universe\\ has\\ aged\\ since\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ galaxies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-White\\ Dwarfs\\ in\\ a\\ globular\\ cluster\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Age\\ of\\ the\\ white\\ dwarfs\\ judged\\ from\\ their\\ cooling\\ to\\ be\\ 12\\-13\\ Gyr\\.\\ \\;This\\ agrees\\ with\\ the\\ large\\ age\\ inferred\\ from\\ the\\ H\\-R\\ diagram\\ for\\ this\\ globular\\ cluster\\.\\ \\;It\\ is\\ probably\\ more\\ reliable\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ simpler\\ physics\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Most\\ stars\\ are\\ binary\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Can\\ have\\ two\\ stars\\ in\\ a\\ binary\\ system\\ where\\ one\\ is\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\ \\(C\\,\\ O\\)\\ and\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ not\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-1\\.4solar\\ masses\\ \\=\\ Chandraskhar\\ Mass\\ \\(electron\\-degenerate\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Type\\ Ia\\ supernovae\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ takes\\ place\\ about\\ once\\ per\\ century\\;\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ one\\ seen\\ in\\ Milky\\ Way\\ since\\ 1572\\ \\(Tycho\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Luminosity\\ \\~\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^9\\ Suns\\ \\~\\ 1\\ SNIa\\ explosion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-SN\\ Ia\\ Light\\ curves\\:\\ Powered\\ by\\ radioactive\\ isotopes\\ \\(56Ni\\ formed\\ in\\ explosion\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-isotope\\ of\\ Nickel\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ produced\\ under\\ the\\ condition\\ of\\ these\\ explosion\\ that\\ decays\\ into\\ cobalt\\ \\(about\\ 7\\ days\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ half\\ life\\)\\ which\\ decays\\ into\\ Iron\\ \\(takes\\ about\\ 70\\ days\\)\\.\\ \\;For\\ about\\ a\\ week\\ or\\ so\\,\\ energy\\ that\\ makes\\ the\\ supernova\\ shine\\ so\\ brightly\\ is\\ radioactive\\ decay\\ of\\ Nickel\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-In\\ the\\ last\\ stage\\ of\\ its\\ likfe\\,\\ a\\ high\\-mass\\ star\\ has\\ an\\ iron\\-rich\\ core\\ surrounded\\ by\\ concentric\\ shells\\ with\\ the\\ ashes\\ of\\ previous\\ fusion\\ stages\\.\\ \\;Thermonuclear\\ reactions\\ stop\\ with\\ iron\\ because\\ the\\ forming\\ elements\\ heavier\\ than\\ iron\\ requires\\ an\\ input\\ of\\ energy\\ rather\\ than\\ causing\\ energy\\ to\\ be\\ released\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\ HAPPENS\\ WHEN\\ THE\\ ENERGY\\ SUPPLY\\ RUNS\\ OUT\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ star\\ has\\ very\\ large\\ energy\\ losses\\ from\\ the\\ surface\\ \\&\\;\\ directly\\ from\\ the\\ core\\ as\\ neutrinos\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Not\\ a\\ stable\\ situation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ having\\ a\\ credit\\ card\\ and\\ no\\ income\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ star\\ collapse\\ due\\ to\\ Gravity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Energy\\ is\\ released\\:\\ Energy\\ density\\ \\(weird\\ E\\)\\ \\=\\ GM\\/R\\ \\=\\ \\(something\\)\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-So\\,\\ the\\ smaller\\ the\\ remnant\\ \\(R\\ \\)\\,\\ the\\ more\\ energy\\ released\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\HOW\\ FAR\\ DOES\\ THE\\ CORE\\ OF\\ THE\\ STAR\\ FALL\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ matter\\ that\\ is\\ even\\ dense\\ than\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-neutron\\ star\\ \\&ndash\\;as\\ dense\\ as\\ an\\ atomic\\ nucleus\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Protons\\ and\\ electrons\\ squished\\ together\\ to\\ make\\ neutrons\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Star\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ neutron\\ degeneracy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-R\\ is\\ very\\ small\\ \\~\\ 10\\ km\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Energy\\ density\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ large\\ \\~\\ 10\\^15\\ j\\/kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-get\\ more\\ energy\\ out\\ by\\ dropping\\ something\\ onto\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\ than\\ by\\ nuclear\\ fusion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-bigger\\ than\\ nuclear\\ energy\\ released\\ in\\ hydrogen\\ fusion\\ \\(Energy\\ density\\ \\~\\ 6\\ x\\ 10\\^14\\ j\\/kg\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\DEMONSTRATION\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-How\\ does\\ a\\ collapse\\ produce\\ an\\ explosion\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ core\\ of\\ a\\ collapsing\\ star\\ bounces\\ as\\ it\\ reaches\\ neutron\\ star\\ density\\,\\ pushing\\ off\\ the\\ outer\\ payers\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Demo\\:\\ a\\ bounce\\ and\\ rebound\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-pressure\\ wave\\:\\ small\\ ball\\ on\\ basketball\\,\\ dropped\\,\\ and\\ both\\ hit\\ the\\ ground\\ and\\ small\\ ball\\ pushed\\ out\\ and\\ projected\\ by\\ basketball\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Death of Stars"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.297195+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading: Pascal, Pensees", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 792, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Section\\ 1\\:\\ 7\\,\\ 8\\,\\ 14\\-17\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7\\,\\ Greatness\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cause\\ of\\ the\\ effects\\ marks\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ man\\'s\\ greatness\\,\\ in\\ having\\ derived\\ so\\ fine\\ an\\ order\\ from\\ concupiscence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Know\\ the\\ truth\\ not\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ through\\ reason\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Those\\ to\\ whom\\ God\\ has\\ given\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ by\\ intuition\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\ are\\ very\\ fortunate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Man\\'s\\ greatness\\ lies\\ in\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ knowing\\ himself\\ to\\ be\\ wretched\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\8\\,\\ Oppositions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Man\\ is\\ naturally\\ credulous\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ incredulous\\,\\ fearful\\,\\ bold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ is\\ nature\\,\\ why\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ custom\\ not\\ natural\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Man\\ can\\ be\\ viewed\\ in\\ two\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ways\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\According\\ to\\ his\\ end\\,\\ he\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ great\\ and\\ incomparable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ other\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ masses\\,\\ such\\ as\\ dogs\\,\\ is\\ that\\ man\\ is\\ abject\\ and\\ vile\\,\\ seen\\ by\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dislike\\ of\\ strangers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Two\\ things\\ teach\\ man\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ his\\ whole\\ nature\\:\\ instinct\\ and\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Occupations\\,\\ Thoughts\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ is\\ one\\,\\ all\\ is\\ diverse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ person\\ has\\ any\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ certainty\\,\\ apart\\ from\\ faith\\,\\ of\\ anything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Open\\ warfare\\ in\\ which\\ each\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ person\\ must\\ take\\ part\\ and\\ side\\ either\\ with\\ dogmatism\\ or\\ skepticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cannot\\ be\\ a\\ skeptic\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stifling\\ nature\\;\\ you\\ cannot\\ be\\ a\\ dogmatist\\ without\\ repudiating\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Listen\\ to\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\2\\ truths\\ of\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Man\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ creation\\ or\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ grace\\ is\\ raised\\ above\\ all\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ corruption\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ sin\\,\\ he\\ is\\ fallen\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ state\\ and\\ made\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ beasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\14\\,\\ Submission\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ use\\ of\\ Reason\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ way\\ of\\ God\\ is\\ to\\ implant\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ into\\ minds\\ through\\ reason\\ and\\ into\\ hearts\\ through\\ grace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ we\\ submit\\ everything\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\,\\ our\\ religion\\ will\\ have\\ nothing\\ mysterious\\ and\\ supernatural\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ we\\ offend\\ the\\ principles\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ reason\\,\\ our\\ religion\\ will\\ be\\ absurd\\ and\\ ridiculous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Piety\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ superstition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jesus\\ committed\\ miracles\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ against\\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\'s\\ final\\ step\\ is\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ recognize\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ infinity\\ of\\ things\\ beyond\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\15\\,\\ Excellence\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ this\\ way\\ of\\ Proving\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ know\\ God\\ only\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Jesus\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Seeing\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ did\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ not\\ know\\ him\\ through\\ wisdom\\,\\ it\\ pleased\\ God\\ to\\ save\\,\\ through\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ foolishness\\ of\\ preaching\\,\\ those\\ who\\ believe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ they\\ have\\ found\\ through\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ curiosity\\,\\ they\\ have\\ lost\\ through\\ their\\ pride\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ better\\ one\\ is\\,\\ the\\ worse\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ one\\ becomes\\,\\ if\\ one\\ ascribed\\ this\\ goodness\\ to\\ oneself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\16\\,Transition\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ form\\ the\\ Knowledge\\ of\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ contrary\\ religions\\,\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ them\\ false\\ but\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Man\\ is\\ finite\\,\\ God\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ infinite\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Naturally\\ believe\\ we\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ capable\\ of\\ reaching\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ things\\ than\\ of\\ embracing\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ circumference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ condition\\:\\ we\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ something\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Do\\ not\\ seek\\ certainty\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stability\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reason\\ always\\ deceived\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ eternity\\ of\\ things\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ themselves\\ or\\ in\\ God\\ must\\ always\\ astonish\\ our\\ brief\\ duration\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ we\\ are\\ simple\\,\\ material\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ can\\ know\\ nothing\\ at\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ way\\ the\\ spirit\\ is\\ united\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ the\\ body\\ cannot\\ be\\ understood\\ by\\ man\\,\\ and\\ yet\\ it\\ is\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\17\\,\\ Nature\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Corrupt\\ \\[and\\]\\ Falsity\\ of\\ Other\\ Religions\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ religions\\ have\\ no\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ witnesses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ have\\ seen\\ the\\ thing\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ they\\ have\\ not\\ seen\\ the\\ cause\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Explains\\ differences\\ between\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Mahomet\\ and\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\For\\ a\\ religion\\ to\\ be\\ true\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ it\\ must\\ have\\ known\\ our\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ religions\\,\\ such\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ heathen\\ ones\\,\\ are\\ more\\ popular\\,\\ for\\ they\\ are\\ wholly\\ external\\,\\ but\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ not\\ for\\ clever\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Section\\ 2\\:\\ 30\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 31\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Miracles\\ 1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Theologians\\ say\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracles\\ are\\ either\\ supernatural\\ in\\ substance\\,\\ or\\ supernatural\\ in\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ manner\\ of\\ their\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Quoad\\ subjectum\\,\\ quoad\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ordinem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\True\\ miracles\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ performed\\ by\\ anyone\\,\\ Catholic\\ or\\ heretic\\,\\ holy\\ or\\ wicked\\,\\ to\\ confirm\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ error\\,\\ b\\/c\\ God\\ would\\ be\\ giving\\ his\\ stamp\\ of\\ his\\ approbation\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ affirmation\\ on\\ that\\ error\\ in\\ the\\ fashion\\ of\\ a\\ false\\ witness\\,\\ or\\,\\ rather\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ false\\ judge\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>This\\ is\\ certain\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ constant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Miracles\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Miracles\\ set\\ apart\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ doctrine\\,\\ and\\ doctrine\\ sets\\ apart\\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\True\\ disciples\\;\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Israelite\\ indeed\\;\\ free\\ indeed\\;\\ true\\ bread\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\If\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ false\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracles\\,\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ certainty\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\No\\ human\\ certainty\\,\\ only\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Prophecy\\ is\\ not\\ called\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Miracles\\ and\\ truth\\ are\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ necessary\\,\\ because\\ we\\ must\\ convince\\ the\\ whole\\ man\\,\\ in\\ body\\ and\\ in\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ church\\ has\\ three\\ kinds\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ enemies\\:\\ the\\ Jews\\,\\ the\\ heretics\\,\\ and\\ the\\ bad\\ Christians\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\They\\ are\\ all\\ without\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ miracles\\,\\ try\\ to\\ evade\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Section\\ 3\\:\\ 37\\-41\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(Misc\\.\\ Thoughts\\ 5\\-9\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nature\\ acts\\ by\\ progress\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ back\\ and\\ forth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ mercy\\ invites\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ repentance\\;\\ let\\ us\\ do\\ penance\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ by\\ chance\\ he\\ will\\ have\\ pity\\ on\\ us\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ pleasure\\ of\\ great\\ men\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ happy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nature\\ seems\\ to\\ have\\ done\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ by\\ her\\ two\\ infinites\\,\\ natural\\ and\\ moral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ are\\ not\\ satisfied\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ life\\ we\\ have\\ in\\ ourselves\\ and\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ beings\\,\\ labor\\ constantly\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ embellish\\ and\\ preserve\\ this\\ imaginary\\ being\\,\\ and\\ neglect\\ the\\ real\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Just\\ as\\ we\\ corrupt\\ our\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ minds\\,\\ we\\ corrupt\\ our\\ feelings\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\What\\ shall\\ it\\ profit\\ a\\ man\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ he\\ gains\\ the\\ whole\\ world\\ and\\ loses\\ his\\ own\\ soul\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Section\\ 4\\:\\ 45\\-47\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ 53\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\45\\,\\ Discourse\\ on\\ the\\ Machine\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ soul\\ is\\ cast\\ into\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ body\\,\\ where\\ it\\ finds\\ number\\,\\ time\\,\\ dimensions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\God\\'s\\ justice\\ must\\ be\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ vast\\ as\\ his\\ mercy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Custom\\ is\\ our\\ nature\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ single\\ knowledge\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ contrary\\ to\\ common\\ sense\\ and\\ human\\ nature\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ one\\ to\\ have\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ existed\\ always\\ among\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\46\\,\\ A\\ letter\\ to\\ Further\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Search\\ for\\ God\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\We\\ must\\ learn\\ about\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Nothing\\ is\\ so\\ important\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ man\\ as\\ his\\ own\\ state\\;\\ nothing\\ is\\ so\\ terrifying\\ to\\ him\\ as\\ eternity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\47\\,\\ Preface\\ to\\ the\\ Second\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Part\\,\\ Around\\ Corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Recognize\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ religion\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ obscurity\\ of\\ religion\\,\\ in\\ the\\ little\\ illumination\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ we\\ have\\ of\\ it\\,\\ in\\ our\\ indifference\\ to\\ understand\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ eternal\\ being\\ exists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ always\\ if\\ he\\ exists\\ once\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Two\\ truths\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ God\\ of\\ whom\\ men\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ capable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ corruption\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ their\\ nature\\ that\\ makes\\ them\\ unworthy\\ of\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Without\\ Jesus\\ Christ\\,\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ world\\ would\\ not\\ exist\\,\\ for\\ it\\ would\\ either\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ destroyed\\ or\\ be\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ kind\\ of\\ hell\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ true\\ religion\\ must\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ teach\\ greatness\\ and\\ wretchedness\\,\\ lead\\ to\\ self\\-esteem\\ and\\ self\\-contempt\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ love\\ and\\ to\\ hate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Section\\ 5\\:\\ 62\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pages\\ 265\\-266\\ \\[Unregistered\\ Fragments\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Men\\ often\\ take\\ their\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ imagination\\ for\\ their\\ heart\\,\\ believe\\ they\\ are\\ converted\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ they\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ think\\ of\\ being\\ converted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading: Pascal, Pensees"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.553179+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Force and Motion on the Earth and in the Universe", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 809, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\MASS\\ IS\\ DENSITY\\\\\r\\\nFor\\ high\\ mass\\ stars\\:\\ Red\\ giant\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ iron\\ core\\ collapses\\ to\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\ or\\ black\\ hole\\\\\r\\\nFor\\ low\\ mass\\ stars\\ \\(\\<\\;\\ 8\\ Msun\\)\\:\\ Red\\ giant\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ carbon\\/oxygen\\ white\\ dwarf\\\\\r\\\nNo\\ explosion\\ \\(unless\\ the\\ white\\ dwarf\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ binary\\ system\\ and\\ grows\\ to\\ almost\\ 1\\.4\\ Msun\\,\\ when\\ the\\ carbon\\ ignites\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ 1933\\,\\ Fritz\\ Zwicky\\ speculated\\ that\\ supernovae\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ collapse\\ of\\ a\\ star\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWhen\\ \\'testing\\ the\\ picture\\'\\ for\\ SN1987A\\,\\ where\\ is\\ the\\ neutron\\ star\\ in\\ SN1987A\\?\\ \\;\\ Hard\\ to\\ find\\,\\ but\\ we\\ do\\ see\\ a\\ spinning\\ neutron\\ star\\ in\\ the\\ Crab\\ Nebula\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ neutron\\ stars\\ in\\ other\\ supernova\\ remnants\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\.\\ \\;\\ These\\ are\\ detected\\ as\\ radio\\ pulsars\\ and\\ as\\ X\\-ray\\ sources\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ study\\ of\\ supernova\\ remnants\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ mix\\ of\\ history\\ and\\ current\\ astrophysics\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ Cassiopeia\\ A\\ is\\ a\\ remnant\\ of\\ a\\ massive\\ star\\ in\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ \\~\\ 1660\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThermonuclear\\ supernovae\\ come\\ from\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\ in\\ a\\ binary\\ system\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nType\\ Ia\\ supernova\\\\\r\\\n\\-Luminosity\\ \\~\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^9\\ Suns\\\\\r\\\n\\-Uniformity\\ makes\\ them\\ excellent\\ distance\\ indicators\\\\\r\\\n\\-There\\ is\\ about\\ one\\ supernova\\ IA\\ explosion\\ per\\ century\\\\\r\\\n\\-Some\\ supernova\\ Ia\\ are\\ in\\ galaxies\\ with\\ no\\ massive\\ stars\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ must\\ come\\ from\\ low\\ mass\\ stars\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ beginning\\ of\\ science\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ \\(1500\\'s\\ through\\ 1600\\'s\\)\\ were\\ when\\ the\\ first\\ applications\\ to\\ planets\\ occurred\\ by\\ Copernicus\\,\\ Tycho\\,\\ Kepler\\,\\ and\\ Newton\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ mud\\ nor\\ friction\\ in\\ planetary\\ motions\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ laws\\ of\\ physics\\ discovered\\ on\\ Earth\\ apply\\ in\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\,\\ for\\ other\\ stars\\,\\ galaxies\\,\\ and\\ the\\ universe\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\;\\ Motion\\ reveals\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ invisible\\ matter\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWe\\ detect\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ mass\\ by\\ its\\ effects\\ on\\ visible\\ objects\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ can\\ detect\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ invisible\\ objects\\,\\ such\\ as\\ planets\\,\\ low\\-mass\\ stars\\,\\ and\\ importantly\\ black\\ holes\\ and\\ dark\\ matter\\,\\ this\\ way\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\-Use\\ observed\\ accelerations\\ to\\ deduce\\ force\\ \\(Newton\\'s\\ Laws\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Gravitational\\ force\\ depends\\ on\\ mass\\ and\\ distance\\ \\(Newton\\'s\\ Gravity\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Measure\\ mass\\ in\\ the\\ Universe\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Earth\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Sun\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Binary\\ Stars\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ mass\\-luminosity\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\{black\\ holes\\}\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Galaxies\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ galaxy\\ masses\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\{dark\\ matter\\}\\\\\r\\\n\\-Einstein\\'s\\ Gravity\\ \\(mass\\ curves\\ space\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ gravitational\\ lenses\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ geometry\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNEWTON\\'S\\ FIRST\\ LAW\\:\\ Objects\\ keep\\ moving\\ unless\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ force\\\\\r\\\nDefinitions\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\-position\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ x\\ \\;\\ \\[meters\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-speed\\:\\ change\\ in\\ position\\ per\\ second\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ v\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\[meters\\/second\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\{Velocity\\ includes\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ motion\\.\\ \\;\\ Moving\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ at\\ a\\ constant\\ speed\\ will\\ yield\\ a\\ changing\\ velocity\\}\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-acceleration\\:\\ change\\ in\\ velocity\\ per\\ second\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ a\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\[meters\\/second\\/second\\]\\\\\r\\\nGalileo\\ said\\ that\\ a\\ \\"\\;state\\ of\\ motion\\ is\\ just\\ as\\ \\'natural\\'\\ as\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ rest\\.\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNEWTON\\'S\\ SECOND\\ LAW\\:\\ A\\ force\\ produces\\ an\\ acceleration\\ that\\'s\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ force\\ and\\ inversely\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\.\\\\\r\\\nacceleration\\ \\=\\ force\\/mass\\\\\r\\\na\\ \\[m\\/s\\^2\\]\\ \\;\\ \\=\\ \\;\\ F\\ \\[n\\]\\ \\/\\ m\\ \\[kg\\]\\\\\r\\\nF\\ \\=\\ ma\\\\\r\\\nForce\\ is\\ measured\\ in\\ newtons\\,\\ mass\\ in\\ kilograms\\,\\ and\\ acceleration\\ in\\ meters\\ per\\ second\\ per\\ second\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nDEMONSTRATION\\\\\r\\\n\\-measure\\ the\\ distance\\ covered\\ by\\ a\\ falling\\ apple\\\\\r\\\nd\\ \\=\\ 0\\.5\\ at\\^2\\\\\r\\\nOn\\ earth\\ a\\ \\=\\ g\\ \\(force\\ of\\ gravity\\)\\ \\~\\ 10\\ m\\/s\\^2\\\\\r\\\nso\\ g\\ \\=\\ 2d\\/t\\^2\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\-Gravitational\\ force\\ \\=\\ g\\\\\r\\\n\\-weight\\ \\=\\ gravitational\\ force\\ of\\ an\\ object\\\\\r\\\n\\-scale\\ \\=\\ a\\ device\\ that\\ measure\\ weight\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ applies\\ a\\ force\\ that\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ gravitational\\ force\\ in\\ the\\ opposite\\ direction\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ force\\ of\\ gravity\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ weight\\,\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\.\\ \\;\\ F\\ \\=\\ gm\\ \\;\\ here\\ on\\ Earth\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Force and Motion on the Earth and in the Universe"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.586165+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Gravity and Energy", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 812, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Kepler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ harmonic\\ law\\ is\\ completely\\ explained\\ by\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gravity\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ plot\\ of\\ orbital\\ speed\\ vs\\.\\ distance\\ \\&ldquo\\;rotation\\ curve\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ clue\\ to\\ the\\ way\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\.\\ \\;In\\ case\\ of\\ solar\\ system\\,\\ almost\\ all\\ of\\ mass\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ center\\.\\ \\;But\\ for\\ solar\\ system\\ where\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\ through\\ galaxy\\,\\ can\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\ by\\ looking\\ at\\ plot\\ of\\ orbital\\ speed\\ vs\\.\\ distance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Once\\ you\\ know\\ \\&ldquo\\;G\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ masses\\ from\\ the\\ accelerations\\ they\\ produce\\.\\ \\;Stars\\ \\&\\;\\ Planets\\.\\ \\;Galaxies\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Gravitational\\ energy\\ can\\ be\\ converted\\ to\\ motion\\ or\\ to\\ heart\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ energy\\ from\\ gravity\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Theory\\:\\ needed\\ when\\ the\\ energy\\ of\\ gravitation\\ is\\ near\\ mc\\²\\;\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BIG\\ IDEAS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ use\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Laws\\ over\\ a\\ huge\\ range\\ of\\ phenomena\\,\\ from\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\ to\\ the\\ orbits\\ of\\ stars\\ in\\ galaxies\\.\\ \\;They\\ work\\ exceedingly\\ well\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Einstein\\ was\\ concerned\\ with\\ the\\ conceptual\\ basis\\ of\\ gravity\\.\\ \\;He\\ developed\\ a\\ geometric\\ picture\\ that\\ agrees\\ with\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ when\\ gravity\\ is\\ weak\\,\\ but\\ has\\ new\\ features\\.\\ \\;General\\ Relativity\\ has\\ passed\\ all\\ the\\ experimental\\ tests\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ subjected\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ gravity\\ that\\ underpins\\ our\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\:\\ cosmology\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\PREDICTED\\ ACCELERATION\\ OF\\ THE\\ MOON\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\ \\=\\ 2\\.76\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-4\\ g\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\ \\=\\ 2\\.7\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-3\\ m\\/s\\^2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Actual\\ acceleration\\ of\\ the\\ Moon\\ from\\ the\\ donut\\ theorem\\ \\(see\\ lecture\\ 18\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\ \\=\\ 2\\.7\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-3\\ m\\/s\\^2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ demonstrates\\ a\\ quantitative\\ agreement\\ between\\ a\\ prediction\\ and\\ the\\ observations\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\MOON\\ AFFECTS\\ THE\\ TIDES\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\ of\\ Gravitation\\ explains\\ how\\ the\\ Moon\\ \\(and\\ the\\ Sun\\)\\ produce\\ tides\\ on\\ the\\ Earth\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ difference\\ in\\ gravitational\\ pull\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\ nearest\\ the\\ moon\\ and\\ the\\ side\\ farthest\\ from\\ the\\ moon\\ produces\\ two\\ high\\ tides\\ each\\ day\\.\\ \\;The\\ orbital\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\ shifts\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ high\\ and\\ low\\ tides\\ by\\ about\\ 50\\ minutes\\ per\\ day\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ time\\ between\\ two\\ passages\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\ across\\ the\\ sky\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ law\\ of\\ gravitation\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ Newton\\'s\\ Principia\\ Matematica\\,\\ written\\ c\\.\\ 1687\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\These\\ ideas\\ worked\\ out\\ by\\ Newton\\,\\ but\\ the\\ first\\ earth\\ satellites\\ were\\ launched\\ in\\ 1957\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\One\\ Key\\ Fact\\:\\ Inner\\ planets\\ move\\ the\\ fastest\\.\\ \\;Kepler\\ literally\\ looked\\ for\\ harmony\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ in\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ planets\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\KEPLER\\&rsquo\\;S\\ 3rd\\ LAW\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\K1\\:\\ ellipses\\ with\\ the\\ Sun\\ at\\ one\\ focus\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\K2\\:\\ equal\\ areas\\ in\\ equal\\ times\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\K3\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(Period\\)\\²\\;\\/\\(Orbit\\ size\\)\\³\\;\\ is\\ constant\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Planet\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\P\\<\\/b\\>eriod\\[y\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\A\\<\\/b\\>\\[AU\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\P\\<\\/b\\>\\²\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\A\\<\\/b\\>\\³\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\P\\<\\/b\\>\\²\\;\\/\\\\ A\\<\\/b\\>\\³\\;\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mercury\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.24\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.39\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.06\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.06\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Venus\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.61\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.72\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.37\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 0\\.37\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Earth\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mars\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.88\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.52\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 3\\.53\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 3\\.51\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Jupiter\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 11\\.86\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 5\\.20\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 140\\.7\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 140\\.6\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Saturn\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 29\\.46\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 9\\.54\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 867\\.9\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 868\\.3\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\.00\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ reason\\ why\\ all\\ the\\ planets\\ of\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\ obey\\ this\\ law\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ all\\ orbiting\\ the\\ same\\ object\\:\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\ \\;The\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ is\\ so\\ much\\ bigger\\ than\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ planets\\ that\\ the\\ result\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ all\\ lay\\ on\\ this\\ same\\ straight\\ line\\.\\ \\;Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Laws\\ show\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ exactly\\ what\\ you\\ should\\ expect\\ if\\ the\\ force\\ drops\\ off\\ like\\ 1\\/R\\²\\;\\.\\ \\;Newton\\ gives\\ a\\ physical\\ reason\\ where\\ Kepler\\ had\\ a\\ marvelous\\ numerical\\ fact\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Does\\ this\\ remind\\ you\\ of\\ Balmer\\ \\&\\;\\ Bohr\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\ claimed\\ that\\ Kepler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ third\\ law\\ not\\ just\\ for\\ this\\ solar\\ system\\.\\ \\;Gravitation\\ is\\ universal\\.\\ \\;It\\ works\\ for\\ new\\ objects\\ like\\ comets\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ORBITS\\ IN\\ THE\\ SOLAR\\ SYSTEM\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ an\\ object\\ with\\ mass\\ m\\ is\\ orbiting\\ the\\ Sun\\ with\\ velocity\\ v\\ at\\ distance\\ R\\,\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ a\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;\\/R\\ \\(donut\\ theorem\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ F\\ \\=\\ ma\\ \\-\\ mv\\²\\;\\/R\\ \\=\\ GMm\\/R\\²\\;\\ \\(Newton\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\As\\ usual\\,\\ the\\ m\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cancel\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>v\\²\\;\\/R\\ \\=\\ GM\\/R\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\M\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Planets\\ have\\ different\\ R\\ and\\ different\\ v\\,\\ but\\ they\\ all\\ give\\ the\\ same\\ value\\ of\\ M\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Speeds\\ of\\ Planets\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\M\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/b\\>\\;\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;R\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ all\\ planets\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\P\\ \\=\\ 2\\&pi\\;R\\/v\\ \\(size\\ of\\ the\\ orbit\\ \\/\\ velocity\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\ \\=\\ 2\\&pi\\;RP\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ 4\\&pi\\;\\²\\;R\\²\\;\\/P\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\A\\ \\=\\ R\\ \\(A\\:\\ \\&lsquo\\;semimajor\\ axis\\&rsquo\\;\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ \\(4\\&pi\\;\\²\\;A\\²\\;\\)A\\/P\\²\\;G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ \\(4\\&pi\\;\\²\\;\\/G\\)\\ A\\^3\\/P\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\/\\(4\\&pi\\;\\²\\;\\/G\\)\\ \\=\\ A\\^3\\/P\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ all\\ the\\ mass\\ is\\ at\\ the\\ center\\,\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\ the\\ \\rotation\\ curve\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\ \\;The\\ speed\\ and\\ the\\ size\\ of\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ orbits\\ gives\\ the\\ mass\\.\\ \\;This\\ does\\ not\\ depend\\ on\\ seeing\\ mass\\ \\(remember\\)\\.\\ \\;If\\ the\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\ differently\\,\\ the\\ rotation\\ curve\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\;\\(Here\\:\\ all\\ at\\ the\\ center\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\²\\;R\\ is\\ constant\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\ \\~\\ 1\\/\\(R\\)\\^\\½\\;\\,\\ As\\ R\\ gets\\ big\\,\\ v\\ gets\\ small\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Ok\\.\\ \\;But\\ what\\ is\\ G\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\F\\ \\=\\ Gm1m2\\/R\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\G\\ tells\\ the\\ force\\ between\\ two\\ 1\\ kg\\ masses\\ 1\\ meter\\ apart\\.\\ \\;Delicate\\ measurement\\ shows\\ that\\ G\\ \\=\\ 6\\.67\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-11\\ nm\\²\\;\\/kg\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Paradox\\:\\ gravity\\ is\\ the\\ weakest\\ force\\ but\\ it\\ dominates\\ the\\ large\\-scale\\ world\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Why\\ is\\ the\\ earth\\ round\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Why\\ do\\ we\\ orbit\\ the\\ Sun\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ What\\ determines\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ stars\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ What\\ determines\\ the\\ shape\\ and\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\MASS\\ OF\\ THE\\ SUN\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;R\\/G\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ v\\ \\=\\ 2\\&pi\\;R\\/P\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ \\(4\\&pi\\;\\²\\;\\/G\\)\\ R\\^3\\/P\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\ AU\\ \\[astronomical\\ unit\\]\\ \\=\\ 1\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^11\\ \\[m\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\ Year\\ \\=\\ P\\ \\=\\ 3\\.15\\ x\\ 10\\^7\\ \\[seconds\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\G\\ \\=\\ 6\\.67\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-11\\ \\[mks\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Msun\\ \\=\\ 1\\.989\\ x\\ 10\\^30\\ kg\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Gravity and Energy"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.601394+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Strong Gravity", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 813, "html": "\\Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Theory\\:\\ When\\ the\\ energy\\ from\\ gravitation\\ E\\/m\\ is\\ near\\ c\\²\\;\\ you\\ need\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;geometric\\&rdquo\\;\\ theory\\ of\\ gravitation\\:\\ General\\ Relativity\\.\\ \\;\\ Differences\\ from\\ Newton\\'s\\ gravity\\ are\\ small\\ for\\ E\\/m\\ that\\ is\\ small\\ \\(as\\ in\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\)\\,\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ tested\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Theory\\ of\\ General\\ Relativity\\ passes\\ all\\ these\\ tests\\,\\ and\\ predicts\\ some\\ new\\ phenomena\\,\\ namely\\ gravitational\\ waves\\ and\\ black\\ holes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BIG\\ IDEAS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\General\\ Relativity\\ \\(GR\\)\\ is\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ gravity\\ that\\ underpins\\ our\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\:\\ cosmology\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Laboratory\\ tests\\ are\\ very\\ difficult\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Universe\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ place\\ where\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ ideas\\ are\\ confronted\\ with\\ measurement\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ evidence\\ for\\ astronomical\\ black\\ holes\\ is\\ strong\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ \\(yet\\)\\ test\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ GR\\.\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ scientific\\ frontier\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\SPEED\\ OF\\ A\\ STAR\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Periodic\\ shifts\\ in\\ the\\ Doppler\\ velocity\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ \\(measured\\ from\\ spectrum\\ lines\\ in\\ the\\ star\\)\\ serve\\ as\\ evidence\\ for\\ unseen\\ companions\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ this\\ case\\ \\(looking\\ at\\ chart\\ from\\ class\\)\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ mass\\ if\\ 0\\.5\\ Mjupiter\\ and\\ the\\ distance\\ \\(which\\ comes\\ from\\ speed\\ and\\ times\\ it\\ takes\\ for\\ object\\ to\\ complete\\ one\\ period\\)\\ from\\ the\\ star\\ is\\ 0\\.05\\ AU\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Much\\ closer\\ to\\ its\\ star\\ than\\ Mercury\\ is\\ to\\ our\\ Sun\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Now\\ there\\ are\\ 178\\ known\\ systems\\ with\\ stars\\ with\\ planets\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\;Few\\ of\\ these\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;visible\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;their\\ presence\\ is\\ inferred\\ from\\ the\\ small\\ velocity\\ shifts\\ they\\ induce\\ in\\ the\\ stars\\ they\\ orbit\\.\\ \\;Some\\ are\\ known\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;transits\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;Kepler\\ will\\ find\\ many\\ more\\.\\ \\;Most\\ detected\\ by\\ motion\\ are\\ massive\\ and\\ close\\ \\(a\\ selection\\ effect\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ENERGY\\ FROM\\ GRAVITY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Energy\\ \\=\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Force\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ x\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Distance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\[Joules\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\[Newton\\]\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\[meter\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Gravitational\\ force\\ on\\ 1\\ kilogram\\ on\\ Earth\\ \\~\\ 10\\ newtons\\,\\ so\\ lifting\\ 1\\ kilogram\\ 5\\ meters\\ takes\\ 50\\ joules\\,\\ dropping\\ it\\ releases\\ 50\\ joules\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Conservation\\ of\\ Energy\\:\\ Energy\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ get\\ created\\ or\\ destroyed\\,\\ it\\ just\\ changes\\ form\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Lots\\ of\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-muscle\\ power\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ electrical\\ power\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ light\\ \\(crank\\ generator\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-4H\\ \\;\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ 1\\ He\\ \\+\\ \\{\\&Delta\\;mc\\²\\;\\}\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Here\\,\\ gravitational\\ potential\\ energy\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ kinetic\\ energy\\ \\(comets\\ falling\\ on\\ the\\ Sun\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-E\\ \\=\\ force\\ x\\ distance\\ \\=\\ \\(mg\\)\\ x\\ d\\ \\=\\ mgd\\ \\&ldquo\\;Potential\\ Energy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Converting\\ this\\ into\\ motion\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-We\\ also\\ know\\ when\\ you\\ drop\\ something\\ on\\ Earth\\,\\ it\\ accelerates\\ so\\ that\\ v\\ \\=\\ gt\\ and\\ it\\ covers\\ a\\ distance\\ d\\ \\=\\ \\½\\;\\ gt\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-So\\,\\ t\\ \\=\\ \\(2d\\/g\\)\\^\\½\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Then\\ v\\ \\=\\ gt\\ \\=\\ g\\ \\(2d\\/g\\)\\^\\½\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-v\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ g\\²\\;\\ \\(2d\\/g\\)\\ \\=\\ 2gd\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\SUMMING\\ IT\\ UP\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\E\\ \\=\\ \\(mg\\)\\ x\\ d\\ \\=\\ mgd\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;Potential\\ Energy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ g\\²\\;\\ \\(2d\\/g\\)\\ \\=\\ 2gd\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\mv\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ 2mgd\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\½\\;\\ mv\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ mgd\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\"\\;Kinetic\\ Energy\\"\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ you\\ drop\\ something\\,\\ the\\ potential\\ energy\\ gets\\ turned\\ into\\ kinetic\\ energy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\CONSERVATION\\ OF\\ ENERGY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gravitational\\ potential\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Force\\ x\\ distance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(GMm\\/R\\²\\;\\)\\ x\\ R\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(should\\ integrate\\!\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\E\\ \\=\\ \\-GMm\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\E\\/m\\ \\=\\ \\(energy\\ per\\ kilogram\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(energy\\ per\\ kilogram\\)\\ \\=\\ GM\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ the\\ energy\\ released\\ when\\ you\\ let\\ 1\\ kg\\ fall\\ onto\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ a\\ star\\ with\\ mass\\ M\\ and\\ radius\\ R\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ you\\ have\\ enough\\ kinetic\\ energy\\,\\ you\\ can\\ \\&ldquo\\;escape\\ from\\ a\\ planet\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\½\\;\\ mv\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ GMm\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\ \\=\\ \\(2GM\\/R\\)\\^\\½\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Escape\\ velocity\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Vescape\\ \\~\\ 10\\ km\\/s\\ from\\ Earth\\ \\(rockets\\!\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Sun\\ has\\ 10\\^6\\ Mearth\\ and\\ Rsun\\ \\~\\ 10\\²\\;\\ Rearth\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\ Vescape\\ is\\ bigger\\ by\\ \\(10\\^4\\)\\^\\½\\;\\ \\~\\ 100\\ x\\ Vescape\\ \\~\\ 1000\\ km\\/s\\ from\\ Sun\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\ESCAPE\\ VELOCITY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\When\\ an\\ object\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;escape\\ velocity\\&rdquo\\;\\ it\\ has\\ enough\\ kinetic\\ energy\\ to\\ move\\ any\\ distance\\ you\\ care\\ to\\ name\\ from\\ the\\ place\\ it\\ stars\\.\\ \\;Gravity\\ cannot\\ keep\\ it\\ in\\ a\\ bound\\ orbit\\ because\\ F\\ \\~\\ 1\\/R\\²\\;\\,\\ and\\ the\\ object\\ starts\\ out\\ with\\ a\\ big\\ enough\\ v\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ a\\ very\\ large\\ R\\.\\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ little\\ like\\ ionization\\ in\\ that\\ when\\ an\\ electron\\ gets\\ enough\\ energy\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ retained\\ in\\ a\\ bound\\ orbit\\.\\ \\;But\\ what\\ if\\ Vescape\\ \\=\\ c\\,\\ the\\ cosmic\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\?\\ \\;The\\ light\\ would\\ get\\ red\\ shifted\\,\\ would\\ not\\ make\\ any\\ progress\\,\\ and\\ would\\ lose\\ all\\ energy\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ out\\.\\ \\;The\\ escape\\ velocity\\ from\\ the\\ boundary\\ inside\\ and\\ outside\\ a\\ black\\ hole\\ is\\ the\\ escape\\ velocity\\ of\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\GRAVITATIONAL\\ ENERGY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Chemistry\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ E\\/M\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 1\\ eV\\/atom\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;10\\^7\\ J\\/kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Nuclear\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ E\\/M\\ \\;\\ \\~0\\.007c\\²\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;10\\^15\\ J\\/kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gravitation\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;E\\/M\\ \\=\\ GM\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Earth\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ E\\/M\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^8\\ J\\/kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Sun\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ E\\/M\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 10\\^11\\ J\\/kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Neutron\\ Star\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;E\\/M\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\;10\\^16\\ J\\/kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Black\\ Hole\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ E\\/M\\ \\;\\ \\~\\ 0\\.1c\\²\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\~10\\^16\\ J\\/kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ energy\\ from\\ a\\ black\\ hole\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ energy\\ we\\ get\\ from\\ nuclear\\ fusion\\.\\ \\;\\ Black\\ holes\\ are\\ power\\ sources\\ for\\ astronomical\\ objects\\.\\ \\;\\ Black\\ Holes\\ are\\ often\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ centers\\ of\\ galaxies\\.\\ \\;\\ Matter\\ falls\\ in\\ and\\ it\\ produces\\ so\\ much\\ energy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\EINSTEIN\\&rsquo\\;S\\ GENERAL\\ RELATIVITY\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ theory\\ of\\ gravity\\ from\\ 1916\\.\\ \\;Forms\\ the\\ basis\\ for\\ understanding\\ the\\ strong\\ gravity\\ of\\ neutron\\ stars\\,\\ black\\ holes\\:\\ E\\/m\\ \\~\\ c\\²\\;\\.\\ \\;Basis\\ for\\ understanding\\ cosmic\\ gravity\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\;A\\ geometrical\\ theory\\:\\ matter\\ curves\\ space\\,\\ objects\\ move\\ through\\ a\\ curved\\ space\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ idea\\ passes\\ every\\ experimental\\ tests\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ done\\ on\\ earth\\,\\ in\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\,\\ and\\ in\\ close\\ binary\\ systems\\.\\ \\;It\\ is\\ harder\\ to\\ test\\ on\\ a\\ cosmic\\ scale\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ with\\ Newton\\,\\ we\\ assume\\ it\\ works\\ and\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ results\\:\\ dark\\ matter\\ and\\ dark\\ energy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Matches\\ Newton\\ for\\ weak\\ gravity\\,\\ but\\ predicts\\ some\\ additional\\ effects\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-a\\ little\\ stronger\\ gravity\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-bending\\ of\\ light\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-gravitational\\ redshifts\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-gravitational\\ waves\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-pressure\\ \\(\\+\\/\\-\\)\\ acts\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ gravitation\\ \\(neutron\\ stars\\ \\&\\;\\ cosmic\\ acceleration\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Equivalence\\ Principle\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>No\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ physics\\ of\\ gravity\\ and\\ the\\ physics\\ of\\ accelerating\\ objects\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Though\\ experiments\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>Freely\\ falling\\ object\\ exactly\\ equivalent\\ to\\ no\\ gravity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ feel\\ weightlessness\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\DEMONSTRATION\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Hang\\ Barney\\ stuffed\\ animal\\ from\\ the\\ lift\\ and\\ send\\ lift\\ upward\\ until\\ plate\\ on\\ chest\\ lines\\ up\\ with\\ laser\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Shoot\\ ball\\ from\\ gun\\,\\ hit\\ Barney\\ on\\ the\\ chest\\.\\ \\;When\\ ball\\ is\\ released\\,\\ electromagnet\\ holding\\ Barney\\ up\\ will\\ turn\\ off\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Gun\\ shoots\\ ball\\ and\\ Barney\\ drops\\,\\ ball\\ hits\\ Barney\\ after\\ he\\ fell\\ about\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ distance\\ to\\ the\\ ground\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\THE\\ BARNEY\\ SETUP\\:\\ How\\ far\\ does\\ light\\ fall\\ while\\ crossing\\ the\\ room\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Elevator\\ view\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\d\\ \\~\\ at\\²\\;\\ \\(\\ \\½\\;\\ not\\ quite\\ right\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\t\\ \\=\\ 10\\ meters\\/c\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\t\\ \\~\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-8\\ sec\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\d\\ \\~\\ \\(10\\ m\\/s\\²\\;\\)\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-15\\ s\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\d\\ \\~\\ 10\\^\\-14\\ m\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(proton\\ size\\ \\~\\ 10\\^\\-15\\ m\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ curved\\ space\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ mystery\\ why\\ the\\ inertial\\ mass\\ and\\ the\\ gravitational\\ mass\\ are\\ the\\ same\\.\\ GM\\m\\<\\/s\\>\\/R\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ \\m\\<\\/s\\>a\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\GEOMETRY\\ OF\\ CURVED\\ SPACE\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Geometry\\ of\\ Flat\\ Space\\:\\ 1\\.\\ parallel\\ lines\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ meet\\;\\ 2\\.\\ angles\\ inside\\ a\\ triangle\\ \\=\\ 180\\º\\;\\,\\ 3\\.\\ C\\ \\=\\ 2\\&pi\\;R\\.\\ \\;These\\ \\&ldquo\\;obvious\\&rdquo\\;\\ properties\\ of\\ geometry\\ are\\ NOT\\ true\\ in\\ curved\\ space\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Strong Gravity"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.616283+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Black Holes in the Milky Way", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 814, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ General\\ Relativity\\ passes\\ all\\ observational\\ tests\\,\\ and\\ predicts\\ some\\ new\\ phenomena\\:\\ gravitational\\ waves\\ and\\ black\\ holes\\.\\ \\;These\\ predictions\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ tested\\ by\\ astronomical\\ observations\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Sun\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ stars\\ we\\ call\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\.\\ \\;We\\ are\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ a\\ flattened\\ disk\\ of\\ stars\\.\\ \\;At\\ the\\ center\\ lies\\ a\\ dense\\ mass\\ concentration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ 10\\^6\\ solar\\ mass\\ black\\ hole\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\General\\ Relativity\\ was\\ not\\ invented\\ to\\ explain\\ puzzling\\ observations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ it\\ came\\ from\\ Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ for\\ a\\ satisfactory\\ conceptual\\ explanation\\ of\\ gravity\\.\\ \\;Tests\\ of\\ General\\ Relativity\\ have\\ mostly\\ been\\ in\\ the\\ astronomical\\ realm\\,\\ not\\ the\\ laboratory\\ because\\ gravity\\ is\\ so\\ weak\\.\\ \\;Black\\ holes\\ are\\ very\\ strange\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\ challenge\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ gravity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1\\/R\\²\\;\\ but\\ what\\ happens\\ as\\ R\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ 0\\?\\ Singularity\\!\\ \\;Astronomical\\ observations\\ have\\ produced\\ a\\ solid\\ \\(but\\ circumstantial\\)\\ case\\ for\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ black\\ holes\\ both\\ in\\ binary\\ stars\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ our\\ Galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Barney\\ Demonstration\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\No\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ the\\ ball\\ bearing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ it\\ fell\\ the\\ same\\ distance\\ as\\ Barney\\ in\\ the\\ time\\ it\\ took\\ to\\ cross\\ the\\ room\\.\\ \\;Everything\\ accelerates\\ downward\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ rate\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gravity\\ Bends\\ Light\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-light\\ travels\\ in\\ straight\\ lines\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-gravity\\ bends\\ space\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-In\\ curved\\ space\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ mystery\\ why\\ the\\ inertial\\ mass\\ and\\ the\\ gravitational\\ mass\\ are\\ the\\ same\\.\\ \\;GMm\\/R\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ ma\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Geometry\\ of\\ Curved\\ Space\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Triangle\\ adds\\ up\\ to\\ 270\\ degrees\\ \\(3\\ 90\\ degree\\ angles\\)\\,\\ not\\ 180\\ degrees\\ like\\ in\\ flat\\ space\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-in\\ flat\\ space\\ C\\ \\=\\ 2\\&pi\\;R\\,\\ but\\ in\\ curved\\ space\\,\\ circumference\\ is\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1916\\ Predictions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Precession\\ of\\ Mercury\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Einstein\\ looked\\ at\\ orbit\\ of\\ Mercury\\,\\ it\\ has\\ precession\\ which\\ means\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ little\\ bit\\ elliptical\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Light\\ bending\\ by\\ Sun\\ \\(and\\ other\\ massive\\ objects\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Gravitational\\ Redshift\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Gravitational\\ Waves\\ \\(not\\ in\\ 1916\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mercury\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Orbit\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ picture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ little\\ stronger\\ at\\ small\\ R\\:\\ as\\ you\\ get\\ closer\\ to\\ Sun\\,\\ forces\\ get\\ slightly\\ stronger\\ and\\ orbit\\ will\\ make\\ kind\\ of\\ a\\ spirograph\\ pattern\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-versus\\ 1\\/R\\²\\;\\:\\ orbit\\ will\\ stay\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ direction\\ in\\ space\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Precession\\ of\\ Mercury\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Predicted\\ amount\\:\\ 5556\\ arc\\ sec\\/century\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Observed\\ amount\\:\\ 5599\\ arc\\ sec\\/century\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Discrepancy\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 43\\ arc\\ sec\\/century\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Newtonian\\ explanations\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Hidden\\ planet\\?\\ Vulcan\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Einstein\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gravity\\ slightly\\ stronger\\ when\\ Mercury\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ Sun\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;palpitations\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Result\\ of\\ Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ calculation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 43\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\/\\ century\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bending\\ of\\ light\\ near\\ the\\ Sun\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Predicted\\ amount\\ \\~\\ 1\\.75\\ arcseconds\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Need\\ an\\ eclipse\\!\\ 1914\\ in\\ Crimea\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ related\\ effect\\ that\\ Einstien\\ did\\ not\\ calculate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Time\\ Delay\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Computer\\ and\\ measured\\ \\(using\\ radar\\)\\ by\\ Irwin\\ Shapiro\\,\\ who\\ is\\ on\\ \\;the\\ Harvard\\ \\;faculty\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gravitational\\ Waves\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Predicted\\ by\\ General\\ Relativity\\.\\ \\;They\\ carry\\ energy\\ from\\ accelerating\\ masses\\.\\ \\;Analog\\ to\\ light\\ waves\\ are\\ emitted\\ by\\ accelerating\\ electrical\\ charges\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Binary\\ Pulsar\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ Spinning\\ neutron\\ star\\ in\\ orbit\\ around\\ an\\ ordinary\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ fantastically\\ accurate\\ clock\\.\\ \\;The\\ period\\ is\\ 7\\.751939106\\ hr\\.\\ \\;The\\ orbital\\ velocity\\ at\\ closest\\ approach\\ is\\ 450\\ km\\/sec\\.\\ \\;The\\ period\\ is\\ changing\\ by\\ 0\\.0000765\\ seconds\\/year\\.\\ \\;This\\ is\\ attributed\\ to\\ gravitational\\ waves\\ taking\\ energy\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ system\\.\\ \\;It\\ will\\ merge\\ in\\ 300\\ million\\ years\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Taylor\\-Hulse\\ Nobel\\ Prize\\ in\\ 93\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Early\\ data\\ on\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ orbital\\ period\\ for\\ the\\ pulas\\ in\\ a\\ binary\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ period\\ is\\ getting\\ shorter\\,\\ the\\ orbit\\ is\\ shrinking\\,\\ energy\\ is\\ being\\ carried\\ away\\ by\\ gravitational\\ waves\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gravitational\\ radiation\\ is\\ real\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Evidence\\ for\\ Gravitational\\ Waves\\ carrying\\ energy\\ away\\ from\\ binary\\ pulsar\\.\\ \\;The\\ period\\ of\\ the\\ orbit\\ is\\ getting\\ shorter\\ by\\ exactly\\ the\\ amount\\ predicted\\ by\\ General\\ Relativity\\.\\ \\;Quantitative\\ agreement\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\;ring\\ of\\ truth\\.\\ \\;A\\ totally\\ new\\ phenomenon\\ predicted\\ by\\ General\\ Relativity\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Gravity\\ waves\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Accelerating\\ matter\\ gives\\ off\\ gravitational\\ radiation\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Ripples\\ in\\ the\\ fabric\\ of\\ space\\-time\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Travel\\ at\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Carry\\ energy\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Could\\ be\\ detected\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ LIGO\\ has\\ been\\ built\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\ Nothing\\ yet\\,\\ but\\ the\\ sensitivity\\ is\\ improving\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ something\\ will\\ be\\ seen\\ soon\\.\\ \\;LIGO\\ West\\ located\\ in\\ Hanford\\,\\ Washington\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ desert\\.\\ \\;LIGO\\ East\\ in\\ Lingston\\,\\ Louisiana\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Schwarschild\\ showed\\ how\\ to\\ solve\\ Einstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ equations\\ of\\ General\\ Relativity\\ for\\ a\\ spherical\\ star\\.\\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ particular\\ radius\\.\\ \\;R\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/c\\²\\;\\ that\\ shows\\ up\\ in\\ this\\ solution\\.\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Schwarzschild\\ Radius\\&rdquo\\;\\ Boundary\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ hole\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Black Holes in the Milky Way"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.628862+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Black Holes, Dark Matter, and Cosmic Expansion", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 815, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\BIG\\ IDEAS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ see\\ binary\\ stars\\ where\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ pair\\ is\\ very\\ compact\\ and\\ too\\ massive\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ these\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ cases\\ for\\ black\\ holes\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ can\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\ in\\ the\\ Universe\\ from\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ motions\\ of\\ gars\\ and\\ stars\\.\\ Start\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ galaxy\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ rotation\\ curve\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ shows\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\ differently\\ from\\ the\\ light\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ must\\ be\\ dark\\ matter\\ that\\ hass\\ mass\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ emit\\ light\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ is\\ it\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\ is\\ real\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ can\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ read\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ cosmic\\ expansion\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ reason\\ gravity\\ can\\ be\\ so\\ strong\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ so\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ black\\ hole\\.\\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ black\\ because\\ light\\ can\\ go\\ in\\,\\ but\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ out\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ if\\ Vescape\\ \\=\\ c\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Vescape\\ \\=\\ \\(2GM\\/R\\)\\^1\\/2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\^2\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rs\\ \\[Schwarzschild\\ radius\\]\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/C\\^2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Inside\\ the\\ radius\\,\\ the\\ escape\\ velocity\\ is\\ as\\ big\\ as\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\.\\ \\;\\ Nothing\\ can\\ escape\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ the\\ Schwazschild\\ radius\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-For\\ 1\\ solar\\ mass\\,\\ Rs\\ \\~\\ 3\\ km\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-For\\ mass\\ M\\ \\(in\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\,\\ Rs\\ \\~\\ 3\\ M\\ kmSchwarzschild\\ Radius\\ \\=\\ Event\\ Horizon\\.\\ \\;Things\\ go\\ in\\,\\ nothing\\ can\\ come\\ out\\,\\ not\\ even\\ light\\.\\ \\;It\\ is\\ perfectly\\ black\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BLACK\\ HOLE\\ BLUEPRINT\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mass\\ is\\ \\(almost\\)\\ all\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\;It\\ has\\ a\\ horizon\\ and\\ a\\ Scwarzchild\\ radius\\.\\ \\;The\\ singularity\\ is\\ hidden\\ inside\\ the\\ horizon\\ \\(no\\ \\&ldquo\\;naked\\ singularities\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\;Means\\ singularity\\ is\\ hidden\\ from\\ our\\ view\\ inside\\ the\\ horizon\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ General\\ Relativity\\,\\ internal\\ pressure\\ counts\\ as\\ a\\ \\source\\<\\/i\\>\\ of\\ gravitation\\.\\ \\;This\\ leads\\ to\\ an\\ upper\\ mass\\ limit\\ for\\ neutron\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\An\\ upper\\ limit\\ mass\\ limit\\ for\\ neutron\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Neutron\\ Star\\ \\(1\\ solar\\ mass\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Neutron\\ Star\\ \\(2\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\ \\;\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Black\\ Hole\\ \\(\\~\\ 3\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Energy\\ in\\ a\\ black\\ hole\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ stuff\\ getting\\ sucked\\ into\\ it\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Black\\ holes\\ are\\ a\\ very\\ powerful\\ source\\ of\\ energy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\X\\ ray\\ sources\\ are\\ objects\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ neutron\\ stars\\ or\\ black\\ holes\\ in\\ object\\ around\\ another\\ object\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Internal\\ pressure\\ counts\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ gravity\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\ if\\ in\\ a\\ binary\\,\\ get\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\ M\\ \\(what\\ we\\ can\\ see\\)\\ \\+\\ \\[P\\]\\ \\(can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Effect\\ of\\ Black\\ Hole\\ on\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ neighborhood\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bending\\ of\\ light\\ \\(lensing\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ has\\ not\\ \\(yet\\)\\ been\\ seen\\ though\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ we\\ detect\\ them\\?\\ \\;Detect\\ presence\\ of\\ black\\ holes\\ in\\ binaries\\ from\\ the\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ orbit\\ of\\ the\\ visible\\ star\\:\\ M\\ \\+\\ \\[M\\]\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ \\[M\\]\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ 3\\ solar\\ masses\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ probably\\ a\\ black\\ hole\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ massive\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ can\\ we\\ find\\ these\\ objects\\?\\ \\;\\ Binaries\\ with\\ mass\\ being\\ transferred\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ X\\-ray\\ emission\\ from\\ gas\\ shirling\\ around\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ into\\ the\\ black\\ hole\\'s\\ event\\ horizon\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ X\\-ray\\ emission\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ accretion\\ disk\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ gas\\ is\\ in\\ orbit\\ around\\ the\\ black\\ hole\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inner\\ orbits\\ are\\ the\\ fastest\\ \\(just\\ like\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\)V\\²\\;R\\/G\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ fast\\ moving\\ gas\\ rubs\\ on\\ less\\ rapidly\\ rotating\\ gas\\ and\\ friction\\ heats\\ the\\ accretion\\ disk\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ gets\\ very\\ hot\\ and\\ emits\\ X\\-rays\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Orbits\\ around\\ black\\ holes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rsch\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/c\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\&hellip\\;what\\ is\\ the\\ orbital\\ speed\\ at\\ 5\\ Rsch\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;\\ \\(5\\ x\\ 2GM\\ \\/\\ c\\²\\;\\)\\ \\/\\ G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\²\\;\\/10\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\/s\\ \\~\\ V\\/3\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ orbital\\ speed\\ is\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cygnus\\ X\\-1\\:\\ HDE\\ 226868\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\5\\.6\\ day\\ period\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 30Msun\\ \\+\\ \\[7\\ Msun\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ can\\ derive\\ the\\ masses\\ of\\ unseen\\ objects\\ from\\ the\\ motions\\ they\\ produce\\ in\\ visible\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Looking\\ into\\ the\\ Galactic\\ Center\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Dust\\ obscures\\ visible\\ light\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ not\\ Infrared\\ and\\ radio\\ emission\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Bright\\ stars\\ at\\ the\\ Galactic\\ Center\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ infrared\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ seen\\ better\\ with\\ adaptive\\ optics\\ that\\ remove\\ blurring\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ atmosphere\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Motions\\ of\\ those\\ stars\\ provide\\ information\\ for\\ a\\ mass\\ estimate\\ of\\ the\\ very\\ center\\ of\\ our\\ galaxy\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\;stars\\ are\\ moving\\ 1400\\ km\\/sec\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-M\\ \\~\\ v\\²\\;R\\,\\ M\\ \\~\\ few\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ Msun\\,\\ size\\ \\~\\ 45\\ AU\\,\\ very\\ dense\\!\\ \\;Massive\\ black\\ hole\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Motions\\ of\\ individuals\\ stars\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ reveal\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ massive\\ \\(4\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ solar\\ mass\\)\\ object\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ smaller\\ than\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Black\\ Hole\\ at\\ the\\ Galactic\\ Center\\.\\ \\;\\~\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ Msun\\ in\\ a\\ region\\ that\\ is\\ \\~\\ 100\\ AU\\ across\\ \\(Rs\\ is\\ much\\ smaller\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 107\\ km\\ \\~\\ 0\\.1\\ AU\\ at\\ 8\\ kpc\\ \\~\\ 10\\^\\-5\\ arcsec\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Where\\ are\\ we\\ in\\ the\\ galaxy\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dust\\ makes\\ it\\ hard\\ to\\ tell\\.\\ \\;We\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ distant\\ objects\\ that\\ are\\ distributed\\ around\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Galaxy\\.\\ \\ \\;Use\\ globular\\ clusters\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ our\\ stellar\\ system\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1920s\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Harlow\\ Shapley\\ \\(1885\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1972\\)\\ did\\ this\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Distance\\ to\\ the\\ Center\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Shapley\\:\\ use\\ globular\\ clusters\\.\\ \\;They\\ are\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ plan\\ of\\ the\\ galaxy\\ \\(not\\ blocked\\ by\\ dust\\)\\.\\ \\;They\\ contain\\ \\&ldquo\\;RR\\ Lyrae\\ stars\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;Variable\\ stars\\ \\~\\ 1\\ days\\ period\\,\\ 10\\²\\;\\ Lsun\\.\\ \\;Measure\\ apparent\\ brightness\\ and\\ inverse\\ square\\ law\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ distance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Globular\\ clusters\\ contain\\ about\\ 10\\^5\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-RR\\ Lyrae\\ \\~\\ same\\ intrinsice\\ brightness\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-So\\,\\ apparent\\ brightness\\ gives\\ the\\ distance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ speed\\ around\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\~\\ 220\\ km\\/s\\ \\(last\\ year\\&rsquo\\;s\\ number\\)\\ up\\ to\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\~250\\ km\\/s\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Distance\\ to\\ galactic\\ center\\ \\~\\ 8\\ kpc\\ \\(last\\ year\\&rsquo\\;s\\ number\\)\\ up\\ to\\ 8\\.5\\ kpc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-It\\ takes\\ 200\\ million\\ years\\ to\\ make\\ one\\ orbit\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ is\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ our\\ galaxy\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;R\\/G\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-Same\\ equation\\ as\\ for\\ finding\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ from\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orbit\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\ \\=\\ 250\\ km\\.s\\ \\=\\ 2\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ m\\/s\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\R\\ \\=\\ 8\\.5\\ kpc\\ \\=\\ 8\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^3\\ pc\\ x\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^16\\ m\\/pc\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\G\\ \\=\\ 7\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-11\\ mks\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ \\(6\\.25\\ x\\ 10\\^10\\)\\ x\\ \\(25\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^19\\)\\ \\/\\ \\(7\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-11\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^41\\ kg\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Msun\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^30\\ kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\~\\ 10\\^11\\ Msun\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ mass\\ of\\ our\\ galaxy\\ is\\ 100\\ billion\\ times\\ bigger\\ than\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Sun\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ rotation\\ curve\\ for\\ the\\ Galaxy\\ is\\ nearly\\ flat\\ in\\ the\\ neighborhood\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ and\\ much\\ farther\\ out\\.\\ \\;If\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\ in\\ the\\ Galaxy\\ were\\ inside\\ the\\ Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orbit\\ \\(M\\ \\(\\ R\\)\\ \\~\\ constant\\)\\ the\\ rotation\\ curve\\ would\\ be\\ declining\\ as\\ you\\ go\\ farther\\ out\\.\\ \\;\\ That\\'s\\ not\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ though\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\(R\\)\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ V\\²\\;\\ doesn\\'t\\ change\\ with\\ R\\,\\ M\\(R\\)\\ \\~\\ \\;R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Go\\ twice\\ as\\ far\\ out\\,\\ then\\ there\\'s\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ mass\\ inside\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Black Holes, Dark Matter, and Cosmic Expansion"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.642180+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Black Holes, Dark Matter, and Cosmic Expansion", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 816, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\BIG\\ IDEAS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ see\\ binary\\ stars\\ where\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ pair\\ is\\ very\\ compact\\ and\\ too\\ massive\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ these\\ are\\ the\\ best\\ cases\\ for\\ black\\ holes\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ can\\ figure\\ out\\ how\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\ in\\ the\\ Universe\\ from\\ looking\\ at\\ the\\ motions\\ of\\ gars\\ and\\ stars\\.\\ Start\\ in\\ our\\ own\\ galaxy\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ rotation\\ curve\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ shows\\ mass\\ is\\ distributed\\ differently\\ from\\ the\\ light\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ must\\ be\\ dark\\ matter\\ that\\ hass\\ mass\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ emit\\ light\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\ is\\ it\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\ is\\ real\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ can\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ read\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ cosmic\\ expansion\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ reason\\ gravity\\ can\\ be\\ so\\ strong\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ so\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ black\\ hole\\.\\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ black\\ because\\ light\\ can\\ go\\ in\\,\\ but\\ it\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ out\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ if\\ Vescape\\ \\=\\ c\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Vescape\\ \\=\\ \\(2GM\\/R\\)\\^1\\/2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\^2\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rs\\ \\[Schwarzschild\\ radius\\]\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/C\\^2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Inside\\ the\\ radius\\,\\ the\\ escape\\ velocity\\ is\\ as\\ big\\ as\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\.\\ \\;\\ Nothing\\ can\\ escape\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ is\\ the\\ Schwazschild\\ radius\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-For\\ 1\\ solar\\ mass\\,\\ Rs\\ \\~\\ 3\\ km\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-For\\ mass\\ M\\ \\(in\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\,\\ Rs\\ \\~\\ 3\\ M\\ kmSchwarzschild\\ Radius\\ \\=\\ Event\\ Horizon\\.\\ \\;Things\\ go\\ in\\,\\ nothing\\ can\\ come\\ out\\,\\ not\\ even\\ light\\.\\ \\;It\\ is\\ perfectly\\ black\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BLACK\\ HOLE\\ BLUEPRINT\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Mass\\ is\\ \\(almost\\)\\ all\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ do\\.\\ \\;It\\ has\\ a\\ horizon\\ and\\ a\\ Scwarzchild\\ radius\\.\\ \\;The\\ singularity\\ is\\ hidden\\ inside\\ the\\ horizon\\ \\(no\\ \\&ldquo\\;naked\\ singularities\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ \\;Means\\ singularity\\ is\\ hidden\\ from\\ our\\ view\\ inside\\ the\\ horizon\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ General\\ Relativity\\,\\ internal\\ pressure\\ counts\\ as\\ a\\ \\source\\<\\/i\\>\\ of\\ gravitation\\.\\ \\;This\\ leads\\ to\\ an\\ upper\\ mass\\ limit\\ for\\ neutron\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\An\\ upper\\ limit\\ mass\\ limit\\ for\\ neutron\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Neutron\\ Star\\ \\(1\\ solar\\ mass\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Neutron\\ Star\\ \\(2\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\ \\;\\&hellip\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Black\\ Hole\\ \\(\\~\\ 3\\ solar\\ masses\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Energy\\ in\\ a\\ black\\ hole\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ stuff\\ getting\\ sucked\\ into\\ it\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Black\\ holes\\ are\\ a\\ very\\ powerful\\ source\\ of\\ energy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\X\\ ray\\ sources\\ are\\ objects\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ neutron\\ stars\\ or\\ black\\ holes\\ in\\ object\\ around\\ another\\ object\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Internal\\ pressure\\ counts\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ gravity\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\ if\\ in\\ a\\ binary\\,\\ get\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ masses\\ M\\ \\(what\\ we\\ can\\ see\\)\\ \\+\\ \\[P\\]\\ \\(can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Effect\\ of\\ Black\\ Hole\\ on\\ the\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ neighborhood\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ bending\\ of\\ light\\ \\(lensing\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ has\\ not\\ \\(yet\\)\\ been\\ seen\\ though\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ we\\ detect\\ them\\?\\ \\;Detect\\ presence\\ of\\ black\\ holes\\ in\\ binaries\\ from\\ the\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ orbit\\ of\\ the\\ visible\\ star\\:\\ M\\ \\+\\ \\[M\\]\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ \\[M\\]\\ \\;\\>\\;\\ 3\\ solar\\ masses\\,\\ then\\ it\\ is\\ probably\\ a\\ black\\ hole\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ too\\ massive\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\How\\ can\\ we\\ find\\ these\\ objects\\?\\ \\;\\ Binaries\\ with\\ mass\\ being\\ transferred\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ X\\-ray\\ emission\\ from\\ gas\\ shirling\\ around\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ into\\ the\\ black\\ hole\\'s\\ event\\ horizon\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ X\\-ray\\ emission\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ accretion\\ disk\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\This\\ gas\\ is\\ in\\ orbit\\ around\\ the\\ black\\ hole\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inner\\ orbits\\ are\\ the\\ fastest\\ \\(just\\ like\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\)V\\²\\;R\\/G\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ fast\\ moving\\ gas\\ rubs\\ on\\ less\\ rapidly\\ rotating\\ gas\\ and\\ friction\\ heats\\ the\\ accretion\\ disk\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ gets\\ very\\ hot\\ and\\ emits\\ X\\-rays\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Orbits\\ around\\ black\\ holes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rsch\\ \\=\\ 2GM\\/c\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\&hellip\\;what\\ is\\ the\\ orbital\\ speed\\ at\\ 5\\ Rsch\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;\\ \\(5\\ x\\ 2GM\\ \\/\\ c\\²\\;\\)\\ \\/\\ G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\²\\;\\/10\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\c\\/s\\ \\~\\ V\\/3\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ orbital\\ speed\\ is\\ 1\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cygnus\\ X\\-1\\:\\ HDE\\ 226868\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\5\\.6\\ day\\ period\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 30Msun\\ \\+\\ \\[7\\ Msun\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\We\\ can\\ derive\\ the\\ masses\\ of\\ unseen\\ objects\\ from\\ the\\ motions\\ they\\ produce\\ in\\ visible\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Looking\\ into\\ the\\ Galactic\\ Center\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Dust\\ obscures\\ visible\\ light\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ not\\ Infrared\\ and\\ radio\\ emission\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Bright\\ stars\\ at\\ the\\ Galactic\\ Center\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ infrared\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ seen\\ better\\ with\\ adaptive\\ optics\\ that\\ remove\\ blurring\\ effects\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ atmosphere\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Motions\\ of\\ those\\ stars\\ provide\\ information\\ for\\ a\\ mass\\ estimate\\ of\\ the\\ very\\ center\\ of\\ our\\ galaxy\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\;stars\\ are\\ moving\\ 1400\\ km\\/sec\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-M\\ \\~\\ v\\²\\;R\\,\\ M\\ \\~\\ few\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ Msun\\,\\ size\\ \\~\\ 45\\ AU\\,\\ very\\ dense\\!\\ \\;Massive\\ black\\ hole\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Motions\\ of\\ individuals\\ stars\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ reveal\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ massive\\ \\(4\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ solar\\ mass\\)\\ object\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ smaller\\ than\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ Black\\ Hole\\ at\\ the\\ Galactic\\ Center\\.\\ \\;\\~\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ Msun\\ in\\ a\\ region\\ that\\ is\\ \\~\\ 100\\ AU\\ across\\ \\(Rs\\ is\\ much\\ smaller\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 107\\ km\\ \\~\\ 0\\.1\\ AU\\ at\\ 8\\ kpc\\ \\~\\ 10\\^\\-5\\ arcsec\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Where\\ are\\ we\\ in\\ the\\ galaxy\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Dust\\ makes\\ it\\ hard\\ to\\ tell\\.\\ \\;We\\ need\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ distant\\ objects\\ that\\ are\\ distributed\\ around\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Galaxy\\.\\ \\ \\;Use\\ globular\\ clusters\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ our\\ stellar\\ system\\ \\(c\\.\\ 1920s\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Harlow\\ Shapley\\ \\(1885\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 1972\\)\\ did\\ this\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Distance\\ to\\ the\\ Center\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Shapley\\:\\ use\\ globular\\ clusters\\.\\ \\;They\\ are\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ plan\\ of\\ the\\ galaxy\\ \\(not\\ blocked\\ by\\ dust\\)\\.\\ \\;They\\ contain\\ \\&ldquo\\;RR\\ Lyrae\\ stars\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;Variable\\ stars\\ \\~\\ 1\\ days\\ period\\,\\ 10\\²\\;\\ Lsun\\.\\ \\;Measure\\ apparent\\ brightness\\ and\\ inverse\\ square\\ law\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ distance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Globular\\ clusters\\ contain\\ about\\ 10\\^5\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-RR\\ Lyrae\\ \\~\\ same\\ intrinsice\\ brightness\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-So\\,\\ apparent\\ brightness\\ gives\\ the\\ distance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ speed\\ around\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\~\\ 220\\ km\\/s\\ \\(last\\ year\\&rsquo\\;s\\ number\\)\\ up\\ to\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\~250\\ km\\/s\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Distance\\ to\\ galactic\\ center\\ \\~\\ 8\\ kpc\\ \\(last\\ year\\&rsquo\\;s\\ number\\)\\ up\\ to\\ 8\\.5\\ kpc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-It\\ takes\\ 200\\ million\\ years\\ to\\ make\\ one\\ orbit\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\ is\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ our\\ galaxy\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;R\\/G\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-Same\\ equation\\ as\\ for\\ finding\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ from\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orbit\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\v\\ \\=\\ 250\\ km\\.s\\ \\=\\ 2\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^5\\ m\\/s\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\R\\ \\=\\ 8\\.5\\ kpc\\ \\=\\ 8\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^3\\ pc\\ x\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^16\\ m\\/pc\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\G\\ \\=\\ 7\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-11\\ mks\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ \\(6\\.25\\ x\\ 10\\^10\\)\\ x\\ \\(25\\.5\\ x\\ 10\\^19\\)\\ \\/\\ \\(7\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-11\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^41\\ kg\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Msun\\ \\=\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^30\\ kg\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\ \\~\\ 10\\^11\\ Msun\\ \\;\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ mass\\ of\\ our\\ galaxy\\ is\\ 100\\ billion\\ times\\ bigger\\ than\\ the\\ mass\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Sun\\ is\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ rotation\\ curve\\ for\\ the\\ Galaxy\\ is\\ nearly\\ flat\\ in\\ the\\ neighborhood\\ of\\ the\\ Sun\\ and\\ much\\ farther\\ out\\.\\ \\;If\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\ in\\ the\\ Galaxy\\ were\\ inside\\ the\\ Sun\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orbit\\ \\(M\\ \\(\\ R\\)\\ \\~\\ constant\\)\\ the\\ rotation\\ curve\\ would\\ be\\ declining\\ as\\ you\\ go\\ farther\\ out\\.\\ \\;\\ That\\'s\\ not\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ though\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\(R\\)\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ V\\²\\;\\ doesn\\'t\\ change\\ with\\ R\\,\\ M\\(R\\)\\ \\~\\ \\;R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Go\\ twice\\ as\\ far\\ out\\,\\ then\\ there\\'s\\ twice\\ as\\ much\\ mass\\ inside\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Black Holes, Dark Matter, and Cosmic Expansion"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.655373+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cosmic Expansion", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 817, "html": "\\OUTLINE\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Mass\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ evidence\\ for\\ dark\\ matter\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-How\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ distances\\ to\\ other\\ galaxies\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Cosmic\\ expansion\\ from\\ redshifts\\:\\ Hubble\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\ \\&\\;\\ cosmic\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-use\\ length\\ of\\ redshift\\ to\\ measure\\ distance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Using\\ the\\ Hubble\\ Law\\ to\\ map\\ the\\ Universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Gravity\\ makes\\ matter\\ clump\\ together\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\BIG\\ IDEAS\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ rotation\\ curve\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ and\\ other\\ galaxies\\ shows\\ there\\ must\\ be\\ dark\\ matter\\ that\\ has\\ mass\\,\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ emit\\ light\\.\\ \\;What\\ is\\ it\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ expansion\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\ is\\ real\\.\\ \\;We\\ can\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ read\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ cosmic\\ expansion\\.\\ \\;The\\ past\\ was\\ hot\\ and\\ smooth\\;\\ the\\ present\\ is\\ cold\\ and\\ clumpy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\There\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ big\\ surprise\\.\\ \\;Gravity\\ predicts\\ a\\ slowing\\ universe\\.\\ \\;We\\ have\\ found\\ an\\ accelerating\\ universe\\.\\ \\;This\\ must\\ be\\ done\\ to\\ something\\:\\ dark\\ energy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Detect\\ the\\ Presence\\ of\\ Black\\ Holes\\ in\\ binaries\\ from\\ the\\ analysis\\ of\\ the\\ orbit\\ of\\ the\\ visible\\ star\\:\\ M\\ \\+\\ \\[M\\]\\ \\=\\ V\\^2R\\/G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Derive\\ the\\ masses\\ of\\ unseen\\ objects\\ by\\ measuring\\ the\\ radial\\ velocity\\ of\\ the\\ visible\\ stars\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\By\\ observing\\ in\\ the\\ Infrared\\,\\ can\\ see\\ to\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ galaxy\\.\\ \\;Infrared\\ Map\\ of\\ the\\ Sky\\.\\ \\;2MASS\\ Survery\\.\\ \\;\\&lambda\\;\\ \\=\\ 2\\ microns\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Our\\ sun\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ spiral\\ galaxy\\.\\ \\;When\\ look\\ towards\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\.\\ \\;Globular\\ clusters\\ distributed\\ around\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ galaxy\\.\\ \\;80\\,000\\ light\\ years\\ is\\ about\\ the\\ width\\ of\\ the\\ disk\\ of\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ Galaxy\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Recent\\ work\\ by\\ Mark\\ Reid\\ \\(still\\ in\\ process\\ of\\ measuring\\ the\\ motions\\ of\\ the\\ galaxy\\)\\ at\\ the\\ Harvard\\-Smithsonian\\ Center\\ for\\ Astrophysics\\.\\ \\;Milky\\ Way\\ is\\ spinning\\ faster\\ than\\ previously\\ though\\.\\ \\;M\\ \\~\\ V\\²\\;R\\,\\ so\\ the\\ mass\\ is\\ higher\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ textbook\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Galaxy\\ has\\ a\\ bluge\\,\\ disk\\.\\ \\;As\\ you\\ go\\ out\\,\\ light\\ increases\\ fast\\ and\\ then\\ plateaus\\.\\ \\;Mass\\ just\\ keeps\\ going\\ up\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\,\\ all\\ the\\ mass\\ is\\ concentrated\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ and\\ the\\ rotation\\ curve\\ shows\\ a\\ smaller\\ orbital\\ velocity\\ as\\ you\\ go\\ out\\ beyoung\\ the\\ Sun\\.\\ \\;Kepler\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\ expresses\\ the\\ same\\ idea\\ in\\ a\\ slightly\\ different\\ language\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\M\\(\\ R\\)\\ \\(mass\\ inside\\ radius\\ R\\)\\ \\=\\ V\\²\\;R\\ \\/\\ G\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\If\\ V\\ is\\ constant\\,\\ M\\ \\(\\ R\\)\\ keeps\\ growing\\.\\ \\;Therefore\\ you\\ get\\ more\\ mass\\ as\\ you\\ get\\ farther\\ out\\.\\ \\;But\\,\\ the\\ light\\ begins\\ to\\ fade\\ as\\ you\\ go\\ further\\ out\\.\\ \\;So\\ this\\ mass\\ doe\\ not\\ emit\\ light\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ dark\\ matter\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WHAT\\ IS\\ DARK\\ MATTER\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Could\\ it\\ be\\ dim\\ stars\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\L\\ \\~\\ M\\^3\\.5\\,\\ so\\ M\\/L\\ \\~\\ M\\^\\-2\\.5\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Low\\ mass\\ stars\\ have\\ a\\ high\\ ratio\\ of\\ mass\\ to\\ light\\.\\ \\;Are\\ they\\ dark\\ matter\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\MACHOs\\:\\ Massive\\ Astrophysical\\ Condensed\\ Halo\\ Objects\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\ Look\\ for\\ gravitational\\ lensing\\.\\ \\;We\\ see\\ some\\ effects\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Invisible\\&rdquo\\;\\ matter\\,\\ but\\ not\\ enough\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ mass\\ in\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\;there\\ must\\ be\\ something\\ else\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\WIMPs\\:\\ Weakly\\ Interactive\\ Massive\\ Particles\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\COSMOLOGY\\:\\ The\\ Science\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ Expanding\\ Universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ Hot\\ Big\\ Bang\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Helium\\ from\\ the\\ freezing\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-A\\ Dark\\ Matter\\/Dark\\ Energy\\ Universe\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Edwin\\ Hubble\\ showed\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ whole\\ universe\\.\\ \\;He\\ looked\\ the\\ Andromeda\\ Nebula\\,\\ the\\ most\\ distant\\ you\\ can\\ see\\ without\\ a\\ telescope\\,\\ that\\ Henrietta\\ Levitt\\ looked\\ at\\.\\ \\;He\\ took\\ photographs\\ with\\ 100\\ inch\\ telescope\\ and\\ found\\ variable\\ stars\\ in\\ the\\ andromeda\\ nebula\\.\\ \\;Showed\\ they\\ were\\ like\\ ones\\ previously\\ seen\\,\\ but\\ a\\ lot\\ dimmer\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ farther\\ away\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Cepheid\\ Variable\\ stars\\:\\ \\~\\ 1\\/10\\^6\\ times\\ as\\ bright\\ as\\ in\\ our\\ galaxy\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;Found\\ that\\ these\\ stars\\ were\\ 1\\,000\\ times\\ further\\ away\\ than\\ distant\\ stars\\ in\\ our\\ galaxy\\.\\ \\;Measured\\ in\\ megaparsecs\\ instead\\ of\\ kiloparsecs\\.\\ \\;Hubble\\ used\\ the\\ apparent\\ brightness\\ of\\ stars\\ in\\ galaxies\\ to\\ judge\\ their\\ distances\\.\\ \\;\\(see\\ Archives\\ 51\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Light\\ from\\ a\\ galaxy\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ the\\ light\\ from\\ the\\ stars\\ that\\ are\\ in\\ it\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\To\\ measure\\ motion\\ from\\ the\\ spectrum\\:\\ the\\ Redshuft\\ \\&ldquo\\;z\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\1\\ \\+\\ z\\ \\=\\ \\&lambda\\;obs\\ \\/\\ \\&lambda\\;rest\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\(so\\ for\\ z\\ \\=\\ 1\\)\\,\\ \\&lambda\\;obs\\ \\=\\ 2\\&lambda\\;rest\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\(See\\ Archives\\ 52\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Basic\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ wavelength\\ which\\ we\\ observe\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ wavelength\\ that\\ is\\ emitted\\.\\ \\;The\\ wavelength\\ is\\ shifted\\ to\\ longer\\ wavelengths\\ if\\ its\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ us\\ and\\ shorter\\ wavelengths\\ \\(blue\\ shift\\)\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ moving\\ towards\\ us\\.\\ \\;The\\ velocity\\ that\\ corresponds\\ to\\ z\\ at\\ small\\ velocities\\ is\\ just\\ c\\,\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\In\\ Hubble\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ 1929\\ Hubble\\ diagram\\,\\ the\\ redshift\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ distance\\.\\ \\;As\\ you\\ go\\ to\\ bigger\\ distances\\,\\ you\\ see\\ bigger\\ velocities\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Type\\ Ia\\ supernova\\:\\ a\\ white\\ dwarf\\ at\\ the\\ Chandrasekhar\\ Mass\\ \\(1\\.4\\ Msun\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Exploding\\ stars\\ \\~\\ 4\\ x\\ 10\\^9\\ Suns\\ \\(another\\ factor\\ of\\ 10\\^6\\ in\\ brightness\\,\\ another\\ factor\\ of\\ 1\\,000\\ in\\ distance\\ over\\ Cepheids\\)\\.\\ \\;From\\ Megaparsecs\\ to\\ gigaparsecs\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\A\\ 2\\-D\\ Demonstration\\ of\\ a\\ surface\\ that\\ gets\\ bigger\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Watch\\ the\\ increasing\\ separation\\ of\\ the\\ points\\:\\ Nearby\\ dots\\ move\\ away\\ slowly\\,\\ distant\\ ones\\ more\\ rapidaly\\,\\ shapes\\ stay\\ the\\ same\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ just\\ like\\ Hubble\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Blowing\\ up\\ balloon\\.\\ \\;As\\ time\\ goes\\ by\\,\\ balloon\\ gets\\ bigger\\.\\ \\;Putting\\ cards\\ onto\\ balloon\\ that\\ represent\\ galaxies\\.\\ \\;As\\ it\\ gets\\ bigger\\,\\ distance\\ between\\ any\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ dots\\ is\\ getting\\ bigger\\.\\ \\;All\\ objects\\ will\\ see\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ namely\\ other\\ objects\\ moving\\ away\\ from\\ it\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Hubble\\ law\\ describes\\ the\\ continuing\\ expansion\\ of\\ space\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ homogenous\\ and\\ isotropic\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ universe\\ does\\ not\\ necessarily\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ homogenous\\ and\\ isotropic\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Homogenous\\:\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ properties\\ everywhere\\ you\\ look\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Isotropic\\:\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ properties\\ in\\ all\\ directions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\But\\,\\ if\\ have\\ situation\\ both\\ homogeneous\\ and\\ isotropic\\,\\ then\\ will\\ expand\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Cosmic Expansion"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.667766+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 818, "html": "\\\\"\\;THOMASINA\\:\\ Oh\\.\\.\\.yes\\.\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ equations\\ go\\ forwards\\ and\\ backwards\\,\\ the\\ do\\ not\\ care\\ which\\ way\\.\\ But\\ the\\ heat\\ equation\\ cares\\ very\\ much\\,\\ it\\ goes\\ only\\ one\\ way\\.\\ That\\ is\\ the\\ reason\\ Mr\\ Noakes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ engine\\ cannot\\ give\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ drive\\ Mr\\.\\ Noakes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ engine\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\-\\ Tom\\ Stoppard\\,\\ Arcadia\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\History\\ of\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ energy\\ as\\ a\\ scientific\\ concept\\.\\ \\;\\ 1842\\:\\ Julius\\ Robert\\ Mayer\\ published\\ the\\ first\\ formulation\\ of\\ a\\ law\\ of\\ conservation\\ of\\ energy\\.\\ \\;\\ James\\ Prescott\\ Joule\\ demonstrated\\ the\\ conversion\\ of\\ mechanical\\ energy\\ to\\ thermal\\ energy\\ by\\ lowering\\ weights\\ that\\ powered\\ a\\ wheel\\ in\\ a\\ container\\ of\\ water\\,\\ increasing\\ the\\ temperature\\ of\\ the\\ water\\ by\\ adding\\ kinetic\\ energy\\.\\ \\;\\ 1850\\:\\ Rudolf\\ Clausius\\ proved\\ that\\ the\\ efficiency\\ of\\ a\\ Carnot\\ engine\\ depended\\ on\\ the\\ temperatures\\ of\\ the\\ hotter\\ and\\ cooler\\ chambers\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ also\\ stated\\ the\\ second\\ law\\ of\\ thermodynamics\\:\\ entropy\\ \\(disorder\\)\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ is\\ increasing\\.\\ \\;\\ Heat\\ is\\ a\\ unique\\ kind\\ of\\ energy\\,\\ in\\ being\\ the\\ most\\ disordered\\:\\ all\\ other\\ types\\ of\\ energy\\ can\\ be\\ completely\\ converted\\ to\\ heat\\,\\ but\\ heat\\ can\\ only\\ be\\ converted\\ back\\ with\\ partial\\ efficency\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Isaac\\ Newton\\ formulated\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ force\\,\\ mass\\,\\ and\\ acceleration\\.\\ \\;\\ First\\ law\\ of\\ motion\\:\\ every\\ body\\ persists\\ in\\ its\\ state\\ of\\ rest\\ or\\ uniform\\ motion\\ in\\ a\\ straight\\ line\\ unless\\ it\\ is\\ compelled\\ to\\ change\\ that\\ state\\ by\\ forces\\ impressed\\ upon\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ Second\\ law\\ of\\ motion\\:\\ the\\ acceleration\\ of\\ a\\ body\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ force\\,\\ F\\,\\ applied\\ to\\ that\\ body\\,\\ by\\ a\\ proportionality\\ constant\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\.\\ \\;\\ F\\ \\=\\ m\\*a\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Conservation\\ of\\ energy\\,\\ ideal\\:\\ Total\\ energy\\ \\=\\ kinetic\\ energy\\ \\+\\ potential\\ energy\\,\\ and\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ change\\;\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ being\\ converted\\ between\\ these\\ forms\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ this\\ model\\ assumes\\ a\\ frictionless\\ environment\\.\\ \\;\\ Where\\ there\\ is\\ friction\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ energy\\ is\\ converted\\ to\\ heat\\ and\\ can\\'t\\ be\\ taken\\ back\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\,\\ TE\\ \\=\\ KE\\ \\+\\ PE\\ \\+\\ Utherm\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Microscopic\\ and\\ macroscopic\\ energy\\:\\ microscopic\\ energy\\ is\\ thermal\\ energy\\,\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ particles\\.\\ \\;\\ Macroscopic\\ energy\\ is\\ mechanical\\,\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ large\\ objects\\ and\\ interactions\\ with\\ gravitational\\ fields\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Potential\\ energy\\ surface\\,\\ or\\ reaction\\ coordinate\\:\\ a\\ useful\\ graph\\ showing\\ potential\\ energy\\ along\\ the\\ y\\ axis\\ and\\ progress\\ along\\ some\\ process\\ \\(such\\ as\\ a\\ chemical\\ reaction\\)\\ along\\ the\\ x\\ axis\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Electromagnetic\\ radiation\\ has\\ a\\ structure\\ of\\ oscillating\\ orthogonal\\ electric\\ and\\ magnetic\\ fields\\ that\\ are\\ perpendicular\\ to\\ the\\ direction\\ of\\ propagation\\ of\\ the\\ wave\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ wavelength\\ \\(the\\ distance\\ from\\ peak\\ to\\ peak\\ along\\ the\\ wave\\)\\ or\\ frequency\\ \\(the\\ number\\ of\\ peaks\\ that\\ pass\\ a\\ fixed\\ point\\ per\\ second\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ speed\\ of\\ all\\ EM\\ radiation\\ is\\ the\\ same\\:\\ c\\ \\=\\ 3\\ \\*\\ 10\\^8\\ m\\/s\\.\\ c\\ \\=\\ \\(wavelength\\)\\(frequency\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Blackbody\\ radiation\\:\\ radiation\\ emitted\\ from\\ a\\ solid\\ surface\\ at\\ a\\ given\\ temperature\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ blackbody\\ radiation\\ curve\\ at\\ a\\ given\\ temperature\\ plots\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ radiation\\ given\\ off\\ at\\ each\\ wavelength\\.\\ \\;\\ As\\ temperature\\ increases\\,\\ total\\ energy\\ \\(the\\ area\\ under\\ the\\ curve\\)\\ increases\\,\\ and\\ the\\ peak\\ wavelength\\ \\(x\\ under\\ the\\ maximum\\ of\\ the\\ curve\\)\\ gets\\ shorter\\.\\ \\;\\ Wein\\'s\\ Law\\,\\ \\(peak\\ wavelength\\)\\(T\\)\\ \\=\\ 2\\.9\\ \\*\\ 10\\^\\-3\\ m\\*K\\,\\ enables\\ you\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ peak\\ wavelength\\ of\\ the\\ curve\\ at\\ a\\ given\\ temperature\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Stefan\\-Boltzmann\\ Law\\,\\ \\(Energy\\/time\\)\\ \\=\\ \\(Surface\\ area\\ of\\ body\\)\\(Stefan\\-Boltzmann\\ constant\\)\\(T\\^4\\)\\,\\ enables\\ you\\ to\\ find\\ the\\ heat\\ flow\\ at\\ any\\ given\\ temperature\\,\\ which\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ T\\^4\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Power\\ is\\ energy\\/time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Global\\ energy\\ demand\\:\\ population\\ and\\ energy\\ demand\\ have\\ increased\\ exponentially\\ over\\ human\\ history\\,\\ particularly\\ after\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\.\\ \\;\\ Need\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ solutions\\ for\\ this\\.\\ \\;\\ Coal\\ reserves\\ are\\ pretty\\ much\\ unlimited\\ for\\ the\\ forseeable\\ future\\,\\ but\\ burning\\ coal\\ raises\\ the\\ problem\\ or\\ carbon\\ emissions\\.\\ \\;\\ Fortunately\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ energy\\ received\\ by\\ the\\ Earth\\ from\\ the\\ Sun\\ is\\ still\\ orders\\ of\\ magnitude\\ greater\\ than\\ what\\ civilization\\ uses\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 108, "file_path": "", "desc": "CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.680738+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 819, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:539048599\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:31472752\\ 67698709\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:alpha\\-upper\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:680082027\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1381384810\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:885339229\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:185341118\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:988635160\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1528394648\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1069572964\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1779074166\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1286042250\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-972416310\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1673292556\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-1227736874\\ 67698703\\ 67698709\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:alpha\\-upper\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1690914420\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-380621146\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:49\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:85\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2128231760\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-293976326\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Environmental\\ law\\:\\ A\\ Structural\\ Overview\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\pp\\.\\ 62\\-87\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Common\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\\\:\\ seeks\\ to\\ protect\\ people\\ and\\ property\\ from\\ harm\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ others\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Environmental\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\\\:\\ outgrowth\\ of\\ common\\ law\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\A\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Sources\\ of\\ Environmental\\ Law\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Environmental\\ law\\:\\ synthesis\\ of\\ pre\\-environmental\\ era\\ common\\ law\\ rules\\,\\ principles\\ from\\ other\\ areas\\ of\\ law\\,\\ and\\ post\\-environmental\\ era\\ statutes\\ which\\ are\\ lightly\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ concepts\\ derived\\ from\\ ecology\\ and\\ other\\ areas\\ of\\ science\\,\\ economics\\,\\ and\\ ethics\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Or\\:\\ radical\\,\\ because\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ seeks\\ to\\ protect\\ natural\\ systems\\ and\\ future\\ generations\\ that\\ traditionally\\ are\\ not\\ recognized\\ as\\ having\\ legal\\ personalities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Evolved\\ into\\ an\\ essential\\ element\\ of\\ a\\ mature\\ legal\\ system\\ in\\ a\\ democratic\\ society\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Cannot\\ be\\ reduced\\ to\\ a\\ simple\\ set\\ of\\ decision\\ rules\\ that\\ can\\ dictate\\ how\\ policy\\ makers\\ should\\ act\\ in\\ the\\ face\\ of\\ uncertainty\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Is\\ a\\ complex\\ combination\\ of\\ common\\ law\\,\\ legislation\\,\\ regulations\\,\\ and\\ international\\ agreements\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Regulatory\\ legislation\\ is\\ becoming\\ more\\ dominant\\,\\ but\\ common\\ law\\ roots\\ of\\ environmental\\ law\\ still\\ important\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Common\\ law\\ articulates\\ foundational\\ principles\\ that\\ shaped\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ regulatory\\ programs\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Retains\\ vitality\\ as\\ a\\ safety\\ net\\ when\\ unregulated\\ activities\\ cause\\ environmental\\ harm\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Retains\\ influence\\ on\\ courts\\ reviewing\\ environmental\\ regulations\\ and\\ efforts\\ to\\ enforce\\ compliance\\ with\\ them\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Common\\ law\\ roots\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Prior\\ to\\ env\\ legislation\\ in\\ 1970s\\,\\ common\\ law\\ was\\ the\\ primary\\ vehicle\\ for\\ responding\\ to\\ environmental\\ problems\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\It\\ relied\\ largely\\ on\\ nuisance\\ law\\ doctrines\\ to\\ resolve\\ env\\ controversies\\,\\ although\\ physical\\ invasion\\ of\\ property\\ could\\ be\\ addressed\\ as\\ trespass\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Nuisance\\ law\\:\\ designed\\ to\\ protect\\ against\\ invasions\\ of\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ use\\ and\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ land\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Trespass\\:\\ protects\\ against\\ invasions\\ of\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ exclusive\\ possession\\ of\\ land\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Early\\ common\\ law\\ of\\ nuisance\\ held\\ actors\\ strictly\\ liable\\ when\\ their\\ actions\\ interfered\\ with\\ property\\ rights\\ held\\ by\\ others\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\As\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\ intensified\\ env\\ conflicts\\,\\ the\\ common\\ law\\ more\\ frequently\\ employed\\ balancing\\ approaches\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Considered\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ intereference\\ with\\ property\\ rights\\,\\ but\\ also\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ nature\\ and\\ utility\\ of\\ the\\ conduct\\ that\\ generated\\ the\\ interference\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\A\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Private\\ Nuisance\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\These\\ actions\\ focus\\ on\\ invasions\\ of\\ interests\\ in\\ the\\ private\\ use\\ and\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ land\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\This\\ liability\\ requires\\ a\\ showing\\ of\\ significant\\ harm\\ \\(unlike\\ intentional\\ trespass\\,\\ where\\ liability\\ attaches\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ showing\\ of\\ harm\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Problem\\:\\ how\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ level\\ of\\ harm\\ or\\ risk\\ that\\ requires\\ compensation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\An\\ influential\\ early\\ case\\ in\\ development\\ of\\ nuisance\\ law\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Decision\\ involving\\ pig\\ sty\\ built\\ adjacent\\ to\\ William\\ Aldred\\&rsquo\\;s\\ property\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Stench\\ interfered\\ with\\ his\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ his\\ property\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Early\\ nuisance\\ law\\ had\\ a\\ zoning\\ function\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\As\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\ progressed\\,\\ env\\ insults\\ became\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ avoid\\ simply\\ by\\ relocations\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Case\\:\\ 1858\\ decision\\ of\\ Court\\ of\\ Common\\ Pleas\\ in\\ Hole\\ v\\.\\ Barlow\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Fears\\ that\\ nuisance\\ actions\\ could\\ bring\\ industry\\ to\\ a\\ halt\\ in\\ England\\&rsquo\\;s\\ manufacturing\\ towns\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Court\\ refused\\ to\\ hold\\ a\\ brickmaking\\ operation\\ liable\\ as\\ a\\ private\\ nuisance\\ despite\\ the\\ pollution\\ it\\ produced\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Case\\:\\ 1862\\ decision\\ in\\ Bamford\\ v\\.\\ Turnley\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Returned\\ to\\ the\\ strict\\ liability\\ premise\\ that\\ private\\ property\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ cause\\ harm\\ to\\ another\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Court\\ rejected\\ the\\ defendant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ that\\ operation\\ of\\ the\\ brick\\ kiln\\ was\\ justified\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ convenience\\ for\\ the\\ defendant\\ \\(what\\ a\\ defense\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\J\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\As\\ industrialization\\ changed\\ urban\\ conditions\\,\\ courts\\ expected\\ individuals\\ to\\ become\\ more\\ tolerant\\ of\\ discomfort\\ produced\\ by\\ industrial\\ activity\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Standards\\ of\\ substantial\\ interference\\ and\\ reasonableness\\ could\\ vary\\ with\\ the\\ location\\ and\\ circumstances\\ of\\ pollution\\,\\ so\\ nuisance\\ law\\ became\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ zoning\\ device\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Case\\:\\ 1865\\ decision\\ in\\ St\\.\\ Helens\\ Smelting\\ Co\\.\\ v\\.\\ Tipping\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Owner\\ of\\ a\\ large\\ estate\\ 1\\ \\½\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>miles\\ from\\ a\\ copper\\ smelter\\ alleged\\ that\\ the\\ smelters\\ emissions\\ had\\ damaged\\ his\\ trees\\,\\ crops\\ and\\ animals\\ and\\ caused\\ him\\ substantial\\ discomfort\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Court\\ rejected\\ the\\ company\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ that\\ smelting\\ may\\ be\\ carried\\ on\\ with\\ impunity\\ if\\ the\\ smelter\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ suitable\\ location\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\American\\ courts\\ followed\\ the\\ English\\ Common\\ Law\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rejection\\ of\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ activities\\ causing\\ substantial\\ harm\\ can\\ be\\ tolerated\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ conducted\\ in\\ a\\ lawful\\ and\\ convenient\\ place\\ \\(as\\ reflected\\ in\\ Hole\\ v\\.\\ Barlow\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Susquehanna\\ Fertilizer\\ Case\\:\\ pp\\.66\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Maryland\\&rsquo\\;s\\ higher\\ court\\ upheld\\(\\+\\)\\ a\\ judgment\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>that\\ noxious\\ vapors\\ from\\ a\\ large\\ fertilizer\\ factory\\ that\\ damaged\\ the\\ health\\ and\\ property\\ of\\ a\\ neighboring\\ family\\ were\\ actionable\\ as\\ a\\ nuisance\\,\\ even\\ though\\ several\\ other\\ fertilizer\\ plants\\ were\\ located\\ in\\ the\\ area\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\If\\ they\\ could\\ afford\\ to\\ compensate\\ their\\ victims\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ courts\\ did\\ not\\ issue\\ injunctions\\ to\\ shut\\ down\\ nuisances\\ caused\\ by\\ economically\\ important\\ activities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\In\\ determining\\ what\\ relief\\ to\\ award\\,\\ American\\ courts\\ were\\ inclined\\ to\\ balance\\ environmental\\ damage\\ against\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ polluting\\ activities\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Effort\\ to\\ promote\\ industrial\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Many\\ courts\\ were\\ reluctant\\ to\\ award\\ injunctions\\ against\\ private\\ nuisances\\ if\\ they\\ involved\\ activities\\ that\\ had\\ considerable\\ economic\\ value\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Factors\\ that\\ diminish\\ the\\ practical\\ value\\ of\\ nuisance\\ law\\:\\ pp\\.\\ 69\\-70\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Depreciation\\ of\\ property\\ values\\ can\\ constitute\\ an\\ actionable\\ interference\\ with\\ the\\ use\\ and\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ property\\ when\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ shown\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ normal\\ consequence\\ of\\ a\\ defendant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conduct\\ \\(pp\\.71\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Madison\\ v\\.\\ Ducktown\\ Sulphur\\,\\ Copper\\ \\&\\;\\ Iron\\ Co\\.\\ \\(1904\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pp\\.\\ 67\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Charging\\ that\\ the\\ smelters\\ were\\ private\\ nuisances\\,\\ nearby\\ landowners\\ filed\\ three\\ lawsuits\\ against\\ the\\ companies\\ seeking\\ damages\\ and\\ an\\ injunction\\ to\\ stop\\ pollution\\ from\\ the\\ smelters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\At\\ that\\ time\\,\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ pollution\\ controls\\,\\ so\\ for\\ miles\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ harm\\ to\\ the\\ env\\ around\\ smelter\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Court\\ decision\\:\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ poor\\ and\\ your\\ property\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ worth\\ much\\,\\ then\\ the\\ private\\ company\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ destroy\\ it\\&hellip\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\The\\ companies\\ are\\ worth\\ a\\ lot\\,\\ and\\ the\\ private\\ lands\\ not\\ that\\ much\\,\\ so\\ the\\ companies\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ sacrificed\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ damages\\ to\\ small\\ private\\ lands\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Harmonizing\\ Conflicting\\ Interests\\:\\ To\\ Balance\\ or\\ Not\\ to\\ Balance\\ in\\ Fashioning\\ Remedies\\ for\\ Nuisances\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\EN\\-US\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeOther\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeAsian\\>\\\r\\\n\\X\\-NONE\\<\\/w\\:LidThemeComplexScript\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/m\\:mathPr\\>\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Cambria\\ Math\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 4\\ 5\\ 3\\ 5\\ 4\\ 6\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:roman\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1107304683\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 15\\ 5\\ 2\\ 2\\ 2\\ 4\\ 3\\ 2\\ 4\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:swiss\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:\\-1610611985\\ 1073750139\\ 0\\ 0\\ 159\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraph\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraph\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\np\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ li\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\,\\ div\\.MsoListParagraphCxSpLast\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-priority\\:34\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-unhide\\:no\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-add\\-space\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoChpDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-default\\-props\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-bidi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-bidi\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\.MsoPapDefault\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-type\\:export\\-only\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:11685877\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-266294566\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\ 67698703\\ 67698713\\ 67698715\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:103614979\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1761103040\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l1\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:197396314\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1728979700\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l2\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:263609564\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1780235748\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l3\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:85\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:976880359\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-320716262\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:85\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l4\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:121\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1164470098\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:\\-354645570\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l5\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:2\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1359349727\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:707314498\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l6\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:1\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1802306276\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:856867890\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:85\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:121\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\:level3\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:157\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l7\\:level4\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:193\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:1946427698\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1522587152\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l8\\:level2\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:o\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Courier\\ New\\\"\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l9\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2009088877\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:1894308716\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l9\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:none\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:85\\.5pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-priority\\:99\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-qformat\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-top\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-right\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-left\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nline\\-height\\:115\\%\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:11\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\,\\\"sans\\-serif\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ascii\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-font\\-family\\:Calibri\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-hansi\\-theme\\-font\\:minor\\-latin\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Water\\ Pollution\\ Control\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\pp\\.\\ 590\\-616\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\B\\.\\ Statutory\\ Authorities\\ for\\ Protecting\\ Water\\ Quality\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\What\\ is\\ harder\\ to\\ control\\,\\ water\\ or\\ air\\ pollution\\?\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Isolation\\:\\ harder\\ to\\ control\\ air\\ \\(no\\ clear\\ boundaries\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Background\\ sources\\ of\\ contamination\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ variation\\ in\\ water\\ because\\ of\\ different\\ environments\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Harder\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ is\\ a\\ healthy\\ body\\ of\\ water\\ because\\ characteristics\\ vary\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\1\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Water\\ Pollution\\ Control\\:\\ A\\ Historical\\ Perspective\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Early\\ 1900s\\:\\ common\\ law\\ and\\ interstate\\ nuisance\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\e\\.g\\.\\ Missouri\\ v\\.\\ Illinois\\ \\(1906\\)\\,\\ New\\ York\\ v\\.\\ New\\ Jersey\\ \\(1921\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Rivers\\ and\\ Harbors\\ Act\\ \\(1899\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Barred\\ unpermitted\\ discharges\\ of\\ refuse\\ into\\ navigable\\ waters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Aim\\:\\ not\\ water\\ quality\\,\\ but\\ to\\ prevent\\ interferences\\ with\\ navigation\\ which\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ American\\ commerce\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Chlorination\\ of\\ drinking\\ water\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ typhoid\\ outbreaks\\ eliminated\\ by\\ 1930\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Public\\ concern\\ shifted\\ to\\ recreation\\ and\\ aquatic\\ life\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\After\\ WWII\\,\\ industrial\\ activity\\ increased\\,\\ pollution\\ increased\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Water\\ Quality\\ Act\\ \\(1948\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Federal\\ Water\\ Pollution\\ Control\\ Act\\ \\(1956\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Water\\ Quality\\ Act\\ \\(1965\\)\\:\\ new\\ agency\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Federal\\ Water\\ Pollution\\ Control\\ Administration\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\By\\ 1972\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ Federal\\ water\\ pollution\\ program\\&hellip\\;has\\ been\\ inadequate\\ in\\ every\\ vital\\ aspect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Federal\\ Water\\ Pollution\\ Control\\ Act\\ \\(1972\\)\\ \\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Based\\ on\\ Rivers\\ and\\ Harbors\\ Act\\ \\(1899\\)\\ \\(the\\ Refuse\\ Act\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\e\\.g\\.\\ U\\.S\\.\\ v\\.\\ Republic\\ Steel\\ Corp\\.\\ \\(1960\\)\\,\\ U\\.S\\.\\ v\\.\\ Standard\\ Oil\\ Co\\.\\ \\(1966\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Supreme\\ Court\\ held\\ that\\ federal\\ government\\ could\\ use\\ Refuse\\ Act\\ to\\ regulate\\ polluters\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Congressman\\ Henry\\ Reuss\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Lead\\ to\\ demand\\ among\\ dischargers\\ for\\ some\\ form\\ of\\ permit\\ program\\ to\\ protect\\ them\\ from\\ lawsuits\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\2\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Statutory\\ Authorities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ pp\\.592\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Federal\\ Water\\ Pollution\\ Control\\ Act\\ Amendments\\,\\ FWPCA\\ \\=\\ Clean\\ Water\\ Act\\,\\ CWA\\ \\(1972\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\3\\ important\\ areas\\:\\ \\(to\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;fishable\\ and\\ swimmable\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Mandated\\ the\\ imposition\\ of\\ technology\\-based\\ discharge\\ limits\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;facilitate\\ enforcement\\ by\\ making\\ it\\ unnecessary\\ to\\ work\\ backward\\ from\\ an\\ overpolluted\\ body\\ of\\ water\\ to\\ determine\\ which\\ point\\ sources\\ are\\ responsible\\ and\\ which\\ must\\ be\\ abated\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Imposed\\ a\\ nationwide\\ permit\\ system\\ on\\ point\\ source\\ dischargers\\ while\\ retaining\\ the\\ previously\\ required\\ water\\ quality\\ standards\\.\\ \\(suggests\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ serious\\ about\\ the\\ previous\\ point\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Expanded\\ the\\ federal\\ role\\ in\\ financing\\ construction\\ of\\ municipal\\ treatment\\ facilities\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Ocean\\ Dumping\\ Act\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(1972\\)\\ \\=\\ Marine\\ Protection\\,\\ Research\\,\\ and\\ Sanctuaries\\ Act\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Prohibits\\ all\\ dumping\\ of\\ wastes\\ in\\ the\\ ocean\\ except\\ where\\ permits\\ are\\ issued\\ by\\ EPA\\ or\\ by\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Army\\ Corps\\ of\\ Engineers\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Coastal\\ Zone\\ Management\\ Act\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Requires\\ certification\\ that\\ activities\\ affecting\\ land\\ or\\ water\\ use\\ in\\ a\\ coastal\\ zone\\ conform\\ to\\ such\\ plans\\ before\\ federal\\ permits\\ can\\ be\\ issued\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Safe\\ Drinking\\ Water\\ Act\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Regulated\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ drinking\\ water\\ supplied\\ by\\ public\\ water\\ systems\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\RCRA\\ and\\ CERCLA\\:\\ very\\ relevant\\ for\\ groundwater\\ protection\\ and\\ remediation\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Oil\\ Pollution\\ Act\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Makes\\ owners\\ of\\ vessels\\ discharging\\ oil\\ liable\\ for\\ costs\\ of\\ cleanup\\,\\ establishes\\ a\\ fund\\ to\\ pay\\ response\\ costs\\,\\ and\\ imposes\\ minimum\\ design\\ standards\\ to\\ prevent\\ spills\\ by\\ vessels\\ operating\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ waters\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\3\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\The\\ Structure\\ of\\ the\\ Clean\\ Water\\ Act\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Major\\ provisions\\ of\\ the\\ CWA\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pp\\.594\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\*Sec\\.\\ 301\\:\\ no\\ discharge\\ to\\ navigable\\ waters\\ unless\\ it\\ meets\\ other\\ provisions\\ of\\ act\\,\\ through\\ permit\\ in\\ Sec\\.\\ 402\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Sec\\.\\ 402\\:\\ permit\\ program\\ NPDES\\ \\(national\\ pollution\\ discharge\\ elimination\\ system\\)\\.\\ To\\ get\\ the\\ permit\\,\\ need\\ to\\ comply\\ with\\ technology\\ based\\ effluent\\ limits\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Sec\\.\\ 404\\:\\ permit\\ from\\ Army\\ Corps\\ of\\ Engineers\\ and\\ EPA\\ for\\ the\\ discharge\\ of\\ dredged\\ or\\ fill\\ material\\ into\\ navigable\\ waters\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ primary\\ way\\ to\\ prevent\\ wetlands\\ from\\ being\\ destroyed\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\TMDL\\ \\(total\\ maximum\\ daily\\ load\\)\\:\\ max\\ still\\ needs\\ to\\ meet\\ standards\\,\\ then\\ adjust\\ permits\\ downwards\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ meet\\ standards\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\System\\ of\\ ambient\\ water\\ quality\\ standards\\ that\\ Congress\\ had\\ initiated\\ in\\ the\\ 1965\\ Act\\ was\\ retained\\ primarily\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ backup\\ when\\ effluent\\ limitations\\ proved\\ insufficient\\ to\\ protect\\ water\\ quality\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Nonpoint\\ sources\\ are\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ permit\\ requirements\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Setting\\ water\\ quality\\ standards\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Designate\\ what\\ the\\ water\\ will\\ be\\ used\\ for\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Based\\ on\\ water\\ quality\\ criteria\\ from\\ EPA\\,\\ states\\ have\\ to\\ adopt\\ own\\ water\\ quality\\ standards\\,\\ subject\\ to\\ EPA\\ review\\ and\\ approval\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Early\\ issues\\ with\\ implementation\\:\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Should\\ EPA\\ set\\ effluent\\ limitations\\ by\\ facility\\?\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ industry\\ hoped\\ to\\ paralyze\\ EPA\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Leave\\ to\\ professional\\ judgment\\ to\\ permit\\ writer\\ to\\ control\\ effluent\\ in\\ interim\\ \\(EPA\\ wont\\ in\\ DuPont\\ v\\.\\ Train\\)\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Economists\\ criticize\\ that\\ goals\\ are\\ too\\ idealistic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ expensive\\ and\\ infeasible\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;prescription\\ for\\ regulatory\\ paralysis\\&rdquo\\;\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\Distinction\\ between\\ water\\ quality\\ standards\\ and\\ effluent\\ limitations\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pp\\.598\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ considerations\\ of\\ economic\\ efficiency\\ vs\\.\\ equity\\ concerns\\.\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\"\\;VALENTINE\\:\\ Listen\\&mdash\\;you\\ know\\ your\\ tea\\'s\\ getting\\ cold\\.\\\\\r\\\nHANNAH\\:\\ I\\ like\\ it\\ cold\\.\\\\\r\\\nVALENTINE\\:\\ I\\'m\\ telling\\ you\\ something\\.\\ \\;\\ Your\\ tea\\ gets\\ cold\\ by\\ itself\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ get\\ hot\\ by\\ itself\\.\\ \\;\\ Do\\ you\\ think\\ that\\'s\\ odd\\?\\\\\r\\\nHANNAH\\:\\ No\\.\\\\\r\\\nVALENTINE\\:\\ Well\\,\\ it\\ is\\ odd\\.\\ \\;\\ Heat\\ goes\\ to\\ cold\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\'s\\ a\\ one\\-way\\ street\\.\\ \\;\\ Your\\ tea\\ will\\ end\\ up\\ at\\ room\\ temperature\\.\\ \\;\\ What\\'s\\ happening\\ to\\ your\\ tea\\ is\\ happening\\ to\\ everything\\ everywhere\\.\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Tom\\ Stoppard\\,\\ Arcadia\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nChapter\\ 1\\ talked\\ about\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ energy\\ in\\ an\\ isolated\\ system\\;\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ talks\\ about\\ energy\\ in\\ systems\\ that\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ exchanging\\ energy\\ with\\ their\\ surroundings\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ model\\ designates\\ \\(arbitrarily\\)\\ some\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ system\\,\\ and\\ the\\ rest\\ outside\\ that\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ surroundings\\.\\ \\;\\ By\\ convention\\,\\ we\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ surroundings\\ do\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ system\\ \\(or\\,\\ work\\ is\\ positive\\)\\ if\\ the\\ piston\\ compresses\\ gas\\ in\\,\\ and\\ the\\ system\\ does\\ work\\ on\\ the\\ surroundings\\ \\(or\\,\\ work\\ is\\ negative\\)\\ if\\ the\\ system\\ expands\\ and\\ the\\ piston\\ is\\ pushed\\ out\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ convention\\ for\\ thermal\\ interaction\\ between\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ surroundings\\ works\\ analogously\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nDefinition\\ of\\ terms\\:\\ thermal\\ energy\\,\\ heat\\,\\ and\\ temperature\\.\\ \\;\\ Temperature\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ variable\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ its\\ present\\ state\\ is\\ not\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ path\\ taken\\ to\\ get\\ there\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ thermal\\ energy\\ per\\ molecule\\ of\\ a\\ system\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ temperature\\ difference\\ between\\ two\\ systems\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ the\\ transfer\\ of\\ thermal\\ energy\\ \\(heat\\)\\ to\\ happen\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ internal\\/thermal\\ energy\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ total\\ amount\\ of\\ energy\\ carried\\ in\\ a\\ substance\\,\\ not\\ the\\ amount\\ per\\ molecule\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\ if\\ you\\ had\\ twice\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ the\\ substance\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ temperature\\,\\ the\\ thermal\\ energy\\ would\\ double\\.\\ \\;\\ Heat\\ only\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ thermal\\ energy\\ transfered\\ between\\ two\\ energies\\;\\ a\\ body\\ therefore\\ cannot\\ \\"\\;have\\"\\;\\ heat\\,\\ and\\ it\\ describes\\ a\\ dynamic\\ process\\,\\ not\\ a\\ state\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ addition\\ to\\ thermal\\ energy\\,\\ substances\\ also\\ have\\ chemical\\ energy\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ energy\\ contained\\ in\\ the\\ bonds\\ between\\ their\\ valence\\ electrons\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ also\\ have\\ nuclear\\ energy\\,\\ though\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ covered\\ as\\ much\\ in\\ this\\ course\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOn\\ the\\ microscopic\\ scale\\,\\ Usyst\\ \\=\\ Utherm\\ \\+\\ Uchem\\ \\(\\+Unuclear\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nFirst\\ law\\ of\\ thermodynamics\\:\\ change\\ in\\ Usyst\\ \\=\\ q\\ \\(heat\\)\\ \\+\\ w\\ \\(work\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nA\\ bomb\\ calorimeter\\ is\\ a\\ tool\\ consisting\\ of\\ a\\ thick\\-walled\\ reaction\\ chamber\\,\\ a\\ reservoir\\ of\\ water\\,\\ and\\ an\\ insulating\\ outer\\ wall\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ calculate\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ energy\\ released\\ in\\ a\\ reaction\\ by\\ activating\\ the\\ reaction\\ under\\ conditions\\ of\\ near\\-constant\\ volume\\,\\ conducting\\ the\\ heat\\ from\\ the\\ reaction\\ out\\ to\\ the\\ water\\,\\ and\\ measuring\\ the\\ temperature\\ of\\ the\\ water\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ translate\\ a\\ temperature\\ change\\ into\\ a\\ heat\\ value\\,\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ use\\ heat\\ capacities\\:\\ change\\ in\\ q\\ \\=\\ mc\\(change\\ in\\ T\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHowever\\,\\ for\\ most\\ real\\-world\\ applications\\,\\ we\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ reactions\\ that\\ take\\ place\\ at\\ constant\\ pressure\\.\\ \\;\\ not\\ constant\\ volume\\.\\ \\;\\ At\\ constant\\ pressure\\,\\ where\\ the\\ system\\ is\\ allowed\\ to\\ do\\ some\\ work\\ on\\ its\\ surroundings\\,\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ reaction\\ will\\ be\\ less\\ than\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ reaction\\ at\\ constant\\ volume\\.\\ \\;\\ We\\ define\\ a\\ new\\ variable\\,\\ enthalpy\\,\\ delta\\ H\\,\\ to\\ signify\\ the\\ heat\\ of\\ reaction\\ at\\ constant\\ pressure\\.\\ \\;\\ delta\\ H\\ \\=\\ q\\ at\\ constant\\ pressure\\ \\=\\ delta\\ U\\ \\+\\ p\\ delta\\ V\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ equation\\ is\\ often\\ stated\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ delta\\ U\\ \\=\\ delta\\ H\\ \\-\\ p\\ delta\\ V\\,\\ where\\ delta\\ U\\ \\=\\ change\\ in\\ thermal\\ energy\\,\\ delta\\ H\\ \\=\\ change\\ in\\ heat\\ under\\ constant\\ pressure\\ conditions\\,\\ and\\ p\\ delta\\ V\\ \\=\\ work\\ done\\ under\\ constant\\ pressure\\ conditions\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWe\\ can\\ also\\ define\\ standard\\ enthalpies\\ of\\ formation\\ of\\ different\\ substances\\,\\ taking\\ elements\\ in\\ their\\ natural\\ form\\ \\(monatomic\\ or\\ diatomic\\)\\ as\\ the\\ 0\\ point\\.\\ \\;\\ Enthalpies\\ of\\ formation\\ can\\ be\\ positive\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ energy\\ must\\ be\\ added\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ bonds\\,\\ or\\ negative\\,\\ meaning\\ that\\ the\\ formation\\ of\\ bonds\\ releases\\ energy\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ enthaply\\ of\\ the\\ reaction\\ is\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ enthalpies\\ of\\ the\\ products\\ minus\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ enthalpies\\ of\\ the\\ reactants\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ reaction\\ is\\ thermodynamically\\ allowed\\ if\\ this\\ value\\ is\\ below\\ 0\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHess\\'s\\ Law\\:\\ If\\ a\\ process\\ occurs\\ in\\ steps\\,\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ steps\\ are\\ hypothetical\\,\\ then\\ the\\ enthalpy\\ change\\ for\\ the\\ overall\\ process\\ is\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ enthalpy\\ changes\\ for\\ the\\ individual\\ steps\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIsochoric\\ processes\\ take\\ place\\ when\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ change\\ of\\ pressure\\ in\\ the\\ system\\,\\ but\\ the\\ volume\\ does\\ not\\ change\\.\\ \\;\\ Since\\ work\\ is\\ force\\ \\*\\ displacement\\,\\ work\\ \\=\\ 0\\ here\\.\\ \\;\\ Isobaric\\ processes\\ take\\ place\\ under\\ constant\\ pressure\\.\\ \\;\\ Isothermal\\ processes\\ take\\ place\\ under\\ constant\\ temperature\\.\\ \\;\\ To\\ isochorically\\ decrease\\ the\\ pressure\\ in\\ a\\ system\\,\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ cool\\ it\\ \\(remove\\ thermal\\ energy\\ while\\ holding\\ volume\\ constant\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ pressure\\-volume\\ graph\\ is\\ a\\ plot\\ with\\ volume\\ on\\ the\\ x\\ axis\\ and\\ pressure\\ on\\ the\\ y\\ axis\\.\\ \\;\\ Thermochemical\\ proceses\\ can\\ be\\ modeled\\ as\\ pathways\\ on\\ the\\ grid\\.\\ \\;\\ since\\ work\\ \\=\\ pressure\\ \\*\\ change\\ in\\ volume\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ work\\ done\\ in\\ any\\ step\\ is\\ the\\ area\\ under\\ the\\ pathway\\ on\\ the\\ P\\-V\\ diagram\\.\\ \\;\\ For\\ an\\ isothermal\\ process\\,\\ we\\ use\\ the\\ perfect\\ gas\\ law\\ \\(pV\\ \\=\\ nRT\\)\\ and\\ know\\ that\\ if\\ T\\ doesn\\'t\\ change\\,\\ the\\ product\\ p\\ \\*\\ V\\ is\\ constant\\ throughout\\ the\\ process\\.\\ \\;\\ Therefore\\,\\ p1V1\\ \\=\\ p2V2\\.\\ \\;\\ Work\\ is\\ the\\ integral\\ under\\ the\\ curve\\,\\ so\\ w\\ \\=\\ \\-nRTln\\(Vf\\/Vi\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ In\\ adiabatic\\ processes\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ heat\\ transfer\\,\\ so\\ q\\ \\=\\ 0\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWhen\\ you\\ go\\ from\\ one\\ temperature\\ to\\ another\\ along\\ an\\ adiabatic\\ path\\,\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ ways\\ to\\ do\\ it\\&mdash\\;at\\ constant\\ volume\\ and\\ at\\ constant\\ pressure\\.\\ \\;\\ q\\ \\=\\ n\\(cv\\)\\(delta\\ T\\)\\ at\\ constant\\ volume\\,\\ and\\ q\\ \\=\\ n\\(cp\\)\\(delta\\ T\\)\\ at\\ constant\\ pressure\\.\\ \\;\\ Gases\\ have\\ these\\ two\\ molar\\ specific\\ heat\\ values\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ for\\ a\\ monatomic\\,\\ perfect\\ gas\\,\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ assumed\\ that\\ delta\\ Utherm\\ \\=\\ ncv\\(delta\\ T\\)\\,\\ even\\ when\\ the\\ process\\ does\\ not\\ occur\\ at\\ constant\\ volume\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nOne\\ application\\ of\\ P\\-V\\ diagrams\\ and\\ the\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ thermochemical\\ pathways\\ is\\ to\\ calculate\\ the\\ efficiency\\ of\\ an\\ engine\\ cycle\\.\\ \\;\\ Efficiency\\ is\\ defined\\ as\\ \\(work\\ produced\\)\\/\\(heat\\ put\\ in\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHow\\ do\\ you\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ enthalpy\\ change\\ that\\ comes\\ with\\ a\\ state\\ change\\?\\ \\;\\ When\\ molecules\\ of\\ liquid\\ are\\ moving\\ at\\ high\\ velocity\\,\\ the\\ fastest\\ ones\\ can\\ transition\\ to\\ the\\ gas\\ state\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ enthaply\\ of\\ vaporization\\ is\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ heat\\ that\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ added\\ to\\ transition\\ some\\ amount\\ of\\ a\\ substance\\ from\\ liquid\\ to\\ gas\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ enthalpy\\ of\\ fusion\\ is\\ the\\ enthalpy\\ needed\\ to\\ melt\\ a\\ substance\\.\\ \\;\\ During\\ the\\ time\\ that\\ bonds\\ are\\ being\\ broken\\,\\ the\\ temperature\\ stops\\ increasing\\ because\\ the\\ energy\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ transition\\ and\\ not\\ to\\ the\\ temperature\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nInverse\\ square\\ law\\:\\ energy\\ recieved\\ decreases\\ as\\ 1\\/\\(the\\ square\\ of\\ the\\ distance\\ from\\ the\\ energy\\ source\\)\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSubstances\\ can\\ absorb\\ or\\ reflect\\ light\\.\\ \\;\\ When\\ white\\ light\\ is\\ passed\\ through\\ a\\ substance\\ that\\ absorbs\\ some\\ wavelengths\\,\\ the\\ complementary\\ color\\ is\\ the\\ light\\ that\\ energes\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ spectum\\ with\\ high\\ absorbence\\ is\\ the\\ part\\ that\\ gets\\ removed\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ energy\\ that\\ is\\ absorbed\\ warms\\ up\\ the\\ medium\\&mdash\\;because\\ of\\ conservation\\ of\\ energy\\,\\ we\\ know\\ that\\ it\\ cannot\\ be\\ lost\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nWhat\\ are\\ the\\ patterns\\ of\\ energy\\ flow\\ in\\ the\\ global\\ climate\\ system\\?\\ \\;\\ 3800\\ ZJ\\ per\\ year\\ are\\ absorbed\\ by\\ the\\ climate\\ system\\ \\(what\\ is\\ not\\ reflected\\ off\\ into\\ space\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Earth\\ emits\\ this\\ amount\\ as\\ infrared\\ radation\\ to\\ space\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ doesn\\'t\\ continually\\ get\\ hotter\\.\\ \\;\\ Clouds\\ and\\ atmosphere\\ abosrb\\ and\\ radiate\\ back\\ about\\ 1300\\ ZJ\\.\\ \\;\\ 2500\\ ZJ\\ that\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ land\\ and\\ ocean\\ includes\\ 1200\\ ZJ\\ used\\ to\\ make\\ water\\ vapor\\ that\\ rises\\,\\ bringing\\ 400\\ ZJ\\ of\\ kinetic\\ energy\\ into\\ the\\ atmosphere\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ added\\ heat\\ in\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ is\\ also\\ radiated\\ back\\ into\\ space\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nEarth\\'s\\ surface\\ radiates\\ approximately\\ like\\ a\\ blackbody\\ surface\\ at\\ 290K\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ absorption\\ of\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ energy\\ by\\ H2O\\ and\\ CO2\\ in\\ the\\ atmosphere\\ prevents\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ radiation\\ from\\ getting\\ out\\.\\ \\;\\ So\\ some\\ radiation\\ is\\ sent\\ back\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ Earth\\'s\\ surface\\,\\ and\\ then\\ might\\ go\\ through\\ a\\ few\\ more\\ cycles\\ before\\ being\\ radiated\\ out\\ into\\ space\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ rate\\ at\\ which\\ this\\ happens\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ infrared\\-absorbing\\ gases\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ atmosphere\\.\\ \\;\\ About\\ 5200\\ ZJ\\/year\\ are\\ radiated\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ Earth\\'s\\ surface\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ atmospheric\\ CO2\\ increases\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ more\\ difficult\\ to\\ maintain\\ a\\ balance\\ between\\ energy\\ leaving\\ and\\ energy\\ entering\\ the\\ climate\\ system\\;\\ the\\ Earth\\ will\\ heat\\ up\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ IPCC\\ issues\\ a\\ report\\ every\\ 6\\ years\\ focusing\\ on\\:\\ the\\ scientific\\ foundation\\ underpinning\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ climate\\ change\\,\\ the\\ impacts\\ of\\ human\\-induced\\ climate\\ change\\,\\ and\\ options\\ for\\ mitigating\\ and\\ adapting\\ to\\ climate\\ change\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ IPCC\\ Fourth\\ Assessment\\ Report\\,\\ released\\ in\\ 2007\\,\\ won\\ the\\ 2007\\ Nobel\\ Peace\\ Prize\\ along\\ with\\ Al\\ Gore\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ included\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ models\\ predicting\\ increases\\ in\\ global\\ temperature\\.\\ \\;\\ Global\\ average\\ temperatures\\ have\\ increased\\ nearly\\ 1\\º\\;C\\ from\\ 1970\\-2005\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ major\\ impacts\\ of\\ climate\\ change\\ are\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ sea\\ levels\\ that\\ could\\ affect\\ whether\\ coastal\\ cities\\ stay\\ above\\ water\\,\\ and\\ weather\\ patterns\\ that\\ could\\ affect\\ ecosystems\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 108, "file_path": "", "desc": "CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.779106+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 822, "html": "\\\\"\\;THOMASINA\\:\\ When\\ you\\ stir\\ your\\ rice\\ pudding\\,\\ Septimus\\,\\ the\\ spoonful\\ of\\ jam\\ spreads\\ itself\\ round\\ making\\ red\\ trails\\ like\\ the\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ meteor\\ in\\ my\\ astronomical\\ atlas\\.\\ But\\ if\\ you\\ stir\\ backward\\,\\ the\\ jam\\ will\\ not\\ come\\ together\\ again\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ the\\ pudding\\ does\\ not\\ notice\\ and\\ continues\\ to\\ turn\\ pink\\ just\\ as\\ before\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ think\\ this\\ is\\ odd\\?\\\\\r\\\nSEPTIMUS\\:\\ No\\.\\\\\r\\\nTHOMASINA\\:\\ Well\\,\\ I\\ do\\.\\ You\\ cannot\\ stir\\ things\\ apart\\.\\"\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ Tom\\ Stoppard\\,\\ Arcadia\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nNature\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ spontaneous\\ processes\\.\\ \\;\\ However\\,\\ spontaneous\\ processes\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ driven\\ toward\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ lower\\ energy\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ are\\ either\\ driven\\ toward\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ lower\\ energy\\,\\ or\\ one\\ of\\ higher\\ disorder\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ concept\\ of\\ Gibbs\\ Free\\ Energy\\,\\ which\\ combines\\ enthalpy\\ and\\ entropy\\,\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ predict\\ which\\ tendency\\ will\\ dominate\\ and\\ determine\\ whether\\ the\\ reaction\\ can\\ go\\ forward\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nIn\\ some\\ cases\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ biology\\,\\ highly\\ ordered\\ and\\ non\\-spontaneous\\ things\\ occur\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ can\\ happen\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ coupled\\ to\\ a\\ spontaneous\\ reaction\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ breakdown\\ of\\ ATP\\ in\\ cells\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nHow\\ can\\ we\\ determine\\ the\\ probability\\ of\\ an\\ arrangement\\ at\\ the\\ molecular\\ level\\?\\ \\;\\ Thought\\ experiment\\:\\ calculating\\ probabilities\\ for\\ n\\ molecules\\ distributed\\ between\\ two\\ chambers\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ probability\\ distribution\\ decreases\\ in\\ spread\\ as\\ n\\ increases\\.\\ \\;\\ For\\ a\\ large\\ n\\,\\ the\\ probability\\ is\\ almost\\ 1\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ distributed\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ evenly\\ and\\ randomly\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ chambers\\.\\ \\;\\ For\\ similar\\ reasons\\,\\ if\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ \\"\\;hot\\"\\;\\ molecules\\ starts\\ on\\ one\\ side\\ and\\ \\"\\;cold\\"\\;\\ molecules\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ and\\ a\\ valve\\ is\\ opened\\,\\ the\\ greatest\\ probability\\ outcome\\ by\\ far\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ will\\ mix\\ until\\ the\\ chambers\\ are\\ of\\ equal\\ temperature\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ heat\\ tends\\ to\\ flow\\ from\\ hotter\\ objects\\ to\\ colder\\ objects\\,\\ not\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nDefinition\\ of\\ probability\\ \\(outcome\\ of\\ interest\\)\\/\\(all\\ possible\\ outcomes\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ P\\ will\\ take\\ values\\ between\\ 0\\ and\\ 1\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nGoing\\ toward\\ a\\ state\\ of\\ higher\\ disorder\\ can\\ alternatively\\ be\\ stated\\ as\\ moving\\ toward\\ outcomes\\ with\\ a\\ higher\\ probability\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThe\\ concept\\ of\\ entropy\\ is\\ denoted\\ by\\ S\\,\\ and\\ like\\ U\\ \\(internal\\ energy\\)\\ and\\ H\\ \\(enthalpy\\)\\,\\ S\\ is\\ a\\ state\\ function\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ unique\\ value\\ of\\ S\\ for\\ a\\ system\\ with\\ a\\ specified\\ temperature\\,\\ pressure\\,\\ and\\ composition\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ entropy\\ change\\,\\ delta\\ S\\,\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ in\\ entropy\\ between\\ two\\ states\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ path\\-independent\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nBoltzmann\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ an\\ expression\\ for\\ entropy\\ on\\ a\\ microscopic\\ level\\.\\ \\;\\ Microscopic\\ energy\\ levels\\ are\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ states\\,\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ energy\\ increments\\ can\\ be\\ distributed\\ among\\ them\\ is\\ called\\ a\\ microstate\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ more\\ microstates\\ a\\ system\\ possesses\\,\\ the\\ greater\\ the\\ possibilities\\ for\\ the\\ particles\\ in\\ that\\ system\\,\\ so\\ the\\ higher\\ the\\ disorder\\,\\ or\\ entropy\\.\\ \\;\\ S\\ \\=\\ k\\ log\\ W\\,\\ where\\ k\\ is\\ the\\ Boltzmann\\ constant\\ and\\ W\\ is\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ microstates\\ that\\ the\\ system\\ has\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nQualitative\\ prediction\\ of\\ entropy\\ in\\ a\\ system\\:\\ entropy\\ increases\\ when\\ volume\\ increases\\,\\ number\\ of\\ moles\\ increases\\,\\ temperature\\ increases\\,\\ or\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ change\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ disordered\\ state\\.\\ \\;\\ Positive\\ changes\\ in\\ entropy\\ indicate\\ that\\ the\\ reaction\\ is\\ entropically\\ favorable\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nQuantitative\\ calculation\\ of\\ delta\\ S\\ for\\ a\\ system\\:\\ delta\\ S\\ \\=\\ q\\(reversible\\)\\/T\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nSecond\\ Law\\ of\\ Thermodynamics\\:\\ whenever\\ a\\ spontaneous\\ event\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ the\\ total\\ entropy\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ must\\ increase\\.\\ \\;\\ Another\\ variable\\,\\ Gibbs\\ Free\\ Energy\\,\\ is\\ created\\ to\\ express\\ this\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ equivalent\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ for\\ any\\ spontaneous\\ reaction\\,\\ Gibbs\\ free\\ energy\\ decreases\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nThird\\ Law\\ of\\ Thermodynamics\\:\\ quantitative\\ existence\\ of\\ an\\ absolute\\ entropy\\ scale\\.\\ \\;\\ At\\ absolute\\ zero\\,\\ the\\ entropy\\ of\\ a\\ perfectly\\ ordered\\ pure\\ crystalline\\ solid\\ is\\ 0\\.\\ \\;\\ Therefore\\,\\ we\\ can\\ have\\ standard\\ molar\\ entropies\\ tabulated\\ at\\ 298K\\ and\\ 1\\ atm\\ for\\ various\\ compounds\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\ndelta\\ G\\ \\=\\ delta\\ H\\ \\-\\ T\\ \\*\\ delta\\ S\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nKnowing\\ the\\ standard\\ entropy\\ and\\ enthalpy\\ changes\\,\\ you\\ can\\ then\\ calculate\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ Gibbs\\ free\\ energy\\ for\\ a\\ reaction\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 108, "file_path": "", "desc": "CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.789669+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 823, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Environmental\\ problems\\ and\\ values\\ and\\ the\\ rationale\\ for\\ collective\\ action\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 16\\-23\\ Environmental\\ Justice\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 30\\-38\\ CBA\\ and\\ Valuation\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\CBA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Valuing\\ ecosystems\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Challenges\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ignorance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Institutional\\ inadequacy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Our\\ laws\\ were\\ not\\ designed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ these\\ services\\ in\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ services\\ themselves\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ have\\ no\\ market\\ value\\ \\-\\ need\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ functional\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ linkages\\ between\\ the\\ different\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ environment\\ and\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ valuable\\ services\\ \\(right\\ now\\ no\\ direct\\ price\\ mechanisms\\ to\\ signal\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ scarcity\\ and\\ degradation\\ of\\ these\\ public\\ goods\\ until\\ they\\ fail\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 49\\-59\\ Common\\ Pool\\ Resources\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tragedy\\ of\\ the\\ Commons\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pro\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Herd\\ growth\\ \\-\\ many\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ drilling\\ technology\\ \\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ minimizes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Inupiat\\ Eskimos\\ \\-\\ own\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ North\\ Slope\\ \\-\\ economic\\ benefits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\National\\ security\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ advantages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Opp\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Forecast\\ more\\ impact\\:\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ water\\,\\ tundra\\,\\ caribou\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Caribou\\ follow\\ cyclical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ increase\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Native\\ Americans\\ \\-\\ survival\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ ancient\\ culture\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Sarah\\ James\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Invest\\ in\\ renewable\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ sustainable\\ energy\\ sources\\,\\ R\\&\\;D\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Instead\\ of\\ drilling\\ \\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ fuel\\ efficiency\\ e\\.g\\.\\ nationwide\\ electricity\\ grid\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Other\\ smaller\\,\\ potentially\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ more\\ efficient\\ producers\\ of\\ power\\,\\ renewable\\ energy\\ provision\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Public\\ accounting\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ greenhouse\\ gases\\ production\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.801682+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 824, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Pg\\.\\ 62\\ Nuisance\\ Law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Designed\\ to\\ protect\\ against\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ invasions\\ of\\ interests\\ and\\ enjoyment\\ of\\ land\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Since\\ the\\ industrial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ revolution\\,\\ not\\ just\\ protecting\\ against\\ the\\ interference\\ of\\ property\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rights\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ nature\\ and\\ utility\\ of\\ the\\ conduct\\ that\\ generated\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interference\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\"\\;sic\\ utere\\"\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ principle\\ \\-\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ has\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ use\\ their\\ property\\ in\\ a\\ manner\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ causes\\ harm\\ to\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Messy\\ if\\ involves\\ many\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stakeholders\\ and\\ diverse\\ pollutant\\ sources\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 65\\ Private\\ Nuisance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pg\\.\\ 67\\ Madison\\ v\\.\\ Ducktown\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Sulphur\\,\\ Copper\\ \\&\\;\\ Iron\\ Co\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Crops\\ and\\ timber\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>v\\.\\ smokes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pg\\.\\ 71\\ Use\\ of\\ \\"\\;trespasss\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ law\\"\\;\\ by\\ deposits\\ of\\ airborne\\ pollutants\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pg\\.\\ 71\\-2\\:\\ Foreseeablity\\ \\-\\>\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ if\\ not\\ foresseable\\,\\ then\\ cannot\\ be\\ held\\ liable\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tension\\ between\\ strict\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ liability\\ and\\ balancing\\ persisted\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ balancing\\ approach\\ \\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ considers\\ the\\ comparative\\ damage\\ between\\ polluters\\ and\\ victims\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Second\\ Restatement\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ definition\\ of\\ unreasonableness\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fairness\\ and\\ Moral\\ outrage\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Balance\\ the\\ social\\ value\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ polluting\\ activity\\ against\\ the\\ damage\\ it\\ caused\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Intentional\\ invasion\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unreasonable\\ if\\ either\\ the\\ gravity\\ of\\ harm\\ outweighs\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ actor\\'s\\ conduct\\ or\\ polluting\\ activity\\ OR\\ the\\ harm\\ caused\\ by\\ the\\ conduct\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ is\\ serious\\ and\\ the\\ financial\\ burden\\ of\\ compensating\\ for\\ this\\ and\\ similar\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ harm\\ to\\ others\\ would\\ not\\ make\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ the\\ conduct\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ feasible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Feasibility\\ and\\ risk\\-benefit\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ balancing\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Risk\\-benefit\\ calculus\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reasonableness\\ with\\ an\\ alternative\\ test\\ focusing\\ on\\ financial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ feasibility\\ of\\ damages\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 76\\ Public\\ Nuisance\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\An\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\un\\<\\/span\\>\\reasonable\\ interference\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ right\\ common\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ public\\ \\(pg\\.75\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Whether\\ the\\ interference\\ is\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unreasonable\\ \\-\\ need\\ to\\ consider\\ whether\\ it\\ causes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Significant\\ interference\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ public\\ health\\,\\ safety\\,\\ comfort\\ or\\ convenience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Illegal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Of\\ continuing\\ nature\\ or\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ produced\\ a\\ long\\-lasting\\ effect\\ on\\ the\\ public\\ right\\ that\\ the\\ actor\\ has\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ reason\\ to\\ know\\ will\\ be\\ significant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Typically\\ target\\ non\\-resident\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(or\\ out\\-of\\-state\\)\\ polluters\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pg\\.\\ 78\\-80\\ Chicago\\,\\ IL\\ vs\\.\\ St\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Louis\\,\\ MO\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Insufficient\\ scientific\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ evidence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\St\\.\\ Louis\\ need\\ to\\ take\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ preventive\\ measures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pg\\.\\ 81\\ Illinois\\ vs\\.\\ Wisconsin\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Divert\\ too\\ much\\ water\\ caused\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ changes\\ in\\ lake\\ water\\ levels\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wisconsin\\ was\\ entitled\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ equitable\\ relief\\,\\ injunction\\ against\\ Chicago\\ to\\ build\\ sewage\\ treatment\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ plants\\ to\\ reduce\\ its\\ need\\ to\\ divert\\ water\\ from\\ Lake\\ Michigan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pg\\.\\ 81\\ New\\ Jersey\\ vs\\.\\ New\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ York\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\New\\ York\\ failed\\ to\\ prove\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ there\\ were\\ visible\\ suspended\\ particles\\ or\\ ordors\\ against\\ NJ\\ sewage\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ wastes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Rise\\ of\\ the\\ Regulatory\\ State\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1912\\:\\ Esch\\-Hughes\\ Act\\ of\\ 1912\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-\\ Phossy\\ jaw\\ \\-\\>\\ federal\\ excise\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1950s\\:\\ federal\\ assistance\\ \\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ grants\\,\\ fundings\\ \\-\\ let\\ states\\ to\\ regulate\\ on\\ their\\ own\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1963\\ onwards\\ \\-\\>\\ Federal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Regulations\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1963\\:\\ Clean\\ Air\\ Act\\ \\(amended\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ 1970s\\ etc\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\CHRONOLOGY\\ \\-\\ see\\ Pg\\.\\ 91\\-95\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1967\\:\\ banned\\ DDT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1964\\:\\ Wilderness\\ Act\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1970\\:\\ NEPA\\ \\(National\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Environmental\\ Policy\\ Act\\)\\ \\-\\ required\\ federal\\ agencies\\ to\\ take\\ into\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ account\\ environmental\\ concerns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1970s\\-80s\\:\\ rise\\ of\\ federal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ legislation\\ infrastructure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Approaches\\ to\\ Regulation\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Privatization\\ works\\ better\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ protecting\\ resources\\ such\\ as\\ land\\ than\\ air\\/water\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Informal\\,\\ community\\-based\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ controls\\ work\\ well\\ with\\ small\\ area\\ and\\ strong\\ community\\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Kip\\ Viscusi\\ \\-\\ four\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ institutional\\ mechanism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(Table\\ on\\ Pg\\.\\ 118\\ \\-\\ Figure\\ 2\\.3\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Market\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Government\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ regulations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Liability\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Social\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ insurance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Choosing\\ the\\ proper\\ mix\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ liability\\ and\\ regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Relative\\ knowledge\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ private\\ parties\\ and\\ the\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Capacity\\ of\\ private\\ parties\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ provide\\ compensation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chance\\ that\\ some\\ private\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ parties\\ will\\ escape\\ suit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Relative\\ administrative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ costs\\ of\\ the\\ tort\\ system\\ and\\ of\\ direct\\ regulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Example\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Oil\\ Spills\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ Oil\\ Pollution\\ Act\\ 1990\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Provisions\\ \\-\\ See\\ Pg\\.\\ 124\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.993893+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "These Are All the Lecture Notes Combined in One File", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 839, "html": "\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\.2\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Measuring\\ Public\\ Opinion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Popular\\ president\\ can\\ persuade\\ public\\ opinion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Be\\ intelligent\\ consumers\\ of\\ polling\\ data\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\In\\ the\\ Beginning\\ 1890s\\-1930s\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cstraw\\ polls\\\u201d\\ refers\\ to\\ any\\ assessment\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ Unofficial\\ canvas\\ of\\ an\\ electorate\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\.\\ Cut\\-out\\ ballot\\ in\\ a\\ newspaper\\ or\\ magazine\\.\\ Reader\\ would\\ mail\\ it\\ back\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\.\\ Personal\\ canvas\\ take\\ ballots\\ to\\ crowded\\ locations\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 3\\.\\ Send\\ ballots\\ by\\ mail\\ to\\ a\\ specified\\ list\\ of\\ people\\.\\ Ask\\ they\\ send\\ them\\ back\\ by\\ return\\ mail\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Therefore\\ the\\ results\\ were\\ highly\\ susceptible\\ to\\ mobilization\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Ex\\.\\ 1920\\ Prohibition\\ Delaware\\ poll\\ by\\ Pier\\ Duvault\\ 98\\%\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ repeal\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ not\\ accurate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Notoriously\\ unreliable\\ but\\ they\\ remained\\ enormously\\ popular\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ until\\ 1936\\ presidential\\ election\\ did\\ the\\ straw\\ poll\\ ends\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1930s\\ Literary\\ Digest\\ much\\ of\\ success\\ to\\ magazine\\ was\\ due\\ to\\ straw\\ polls\\.\\ 1936\\ did\\ not\\ predict\\ president\\ right\\ by\\ almost\\ 20\\%\\ so\\ credibility\\ was\\ shattered\\ and\\ less\\ than\\ a\\ year\\ went\\ bankrupt\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Problem\\ was\\ the\\ makeup\\ of\\ the\\ sample\\.\\ Problem\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ an\\ upper\\ middle\\ class\\ group\\ that\\ was\\ primarily\\ republican\\ 1936\\=\\ depression\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1936\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Gallup\\,\\ Roper\\,\\ Crosseley\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Gallup\\ used\\ in\\ person\\ interviews\\ and\\ employed\\ quotas\\ so\\ it\\ looked\\ demographically\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ population\\.\\ He\\ predicted\\ 1936\\ winner\\ right\\ to\\ become\\ nation\\\u2019s\\ preeminent\\ pollster\\.\\ He\\ was\\ a\\ true\\ believer\\ in\\ polls\\.\\ Accurate\\ gage\\ of\\ public\\ sentiment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Early\\ critics\\ was\\ a\\ political\\ scientist\\ Lindsay\\ Rogers\\.\\ Foolish\\ to\\ dismiss\\ them\\ out\\ of\\ hand\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Major\\ Factors\\ Affecting\\ Poll\\ Results\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\.\\ Selecting\\ Sample\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ public\\ opinion\\ polls\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ samples\\.\\ Possible\\ to\\ study\\ public\\ opinion\\ by\\ interviewing\\ few\\ people\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1948\\ probability\\ sampling\\ attempts\\ to\\ select\\ respondents\\ so\\ that\\ every\\ adult\\ American\\ has\\ an\\ equal\\ chance\\ of\\ being\\ selected\\ to\\ an\\ interview\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ place\\ where\\ all\\ adult\\ Americans\\ are\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ is\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ key\\ to\\ generate\\ a\\ random\\ sample\\.\\ Excludes\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ homeless\\,\\ live\\ in\\ dorm\\,\\ military\\ but\\ it\\ gets\\ us\\ close\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Non\\-response\\ rate\\ matters\\ if\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ unwilling\\ to\\ participate\\ if\\ they\\ differ\\ in\\ their\\ opinions\\ from\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ participate\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Success\\ is\\ uneven\\ and\\ failures\\ can\\ be\\ very\\ high\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ population\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ How\\ was\\ the\\ sample\\ selected\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ What\\ was\\ the\\ response\\ rate\\?\\ Did\\ we\\ get\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ we\\ wanted\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\.\\ Constructing\\ Questionaire\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Question\\ wording\\ is\\ the\\ greatest\\ source\\ of\\ bias\\ following\\ question\\ order\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Questions\\ of\\ about\\ policy\\ have\\ even\\ a\\ greater\\ range\\ of\\ word\\ options\\.\\ \\\u201cwelfare\\\u201d\\ or\\ \\\u201cprograms\\ of\\ the\\ poor\\\u201d\\ \\\u201csend\\ troops\\\u201d\\ or\\ \\\u201ccontribute\\ troops\\\u201d\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ choices\\ could\\ have\\ impact\\ on\\ results\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Example\\:\\ Budget\\ Surplus\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Should\\ money\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ tax\\ cut\\ or\\ new\\ gov\\.\\ program\\?\\ 68\\ tax\\ cut\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Should\\ money\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ tax\\ cut\\ or\\ education\\,\\ environment\\,\\ healthcare\\?\\ 22\\ tax\\ cut\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Writing\\ a\\ clear\\,\\ unbiased\\ question\\ is\\ important\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Multiple\\ stimuli\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Presentation\\ of\\ balanced\\ vs\\.\\ unbalanced\\ argument\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ favor\\ death\\ penalty\\?\\ Only\\ one\\ side\\ is\\ represented\\.\\ If\\ question\\ is\\ balanced\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ more\\ even\\ distribution\\ of\\ opinion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Absence\\ of\\ Filter\\ Questions\\ this\\ signals\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ okay\\ to\\ not\\ have\\ an\\ opinion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Question\\-Order\\ Effects\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Example\\:\\ abortion\\ issue\\.\\ Asking\\ a\\ specific\\ question\\ before\\ general\\ support\\\u2026the\\ general\\ support\\ drops\\ 10\\-15\\ points\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Draw\\ on\\ a\\ trend\\ line\\.\\ That\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ question\\ being\\ asked\\ from\\ year\\ to\\ year\\.\\ How\\ do\\ those\\ results\\ look\\ at\\ an\\ earlier\\ set\\ of\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Method\\ of\\ conducting\\ interview\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dynamics\\ that\\ occur\\ in\\ interview\\ can\\ have\\ effects\\ on\\ polls\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Conducted\\ through\\ mail\\,\\ over\\ the\\ phone\\,\\ in\\ person\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mail\\ surveys\\ are\\ self\\ select\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ biased\\.\\ There\\ is\\ almost\\ no\\ point\\ in\\ doing\\ mail\\ surveys\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Social\\ pressure\\ may\\ lead\\ to\\ bias\\ in\\ survey\\ responses\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Politicians\\ know\\ that\\ they\\ should\\ not\\ trust\\ mailed\\ opinion\\.\\ Letters\\ to\\ politicians\\ are\\ meaningless\\ because\\ people\\ self\\-select\\ to\\ do\\ this\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Push\\-pulls\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Consider\\ multiple\\ questions\\,\\ not\\ just\\ one\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Public\\ opinion\\ on\\ a\\ given\\ topic\\ cannot\\ be\\ understood\\ by\\ just\\ one\\ question\\ on\\ a\\ topic\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Lecture\\ 2\\/9\\/09\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Most\\ Americans\\ choose\\ to\\ be\\ low\\-involvement\\ political\\ spectators\\.\\ Two\\ extremes\\:\\ the\\ activists\\ and\\ the\\ uninformed\\.\\ Complicated\\ political\\ matters\\ are\\ ignored\\.\\ Even\\ the\\ best\\ known\\ cabinet\\ members\\ are\\ totally\\ anonymous\\ to\\ most\\ Americans\\.\\ The\\ decision\\ to\\ follow\\ politics\\ is\\ easier\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ tried\\ to\\ learn\\ about\\ the\\ political\\ world\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ \\\u201cMinimalist\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Minimal\\ level\\ of\\ attention\\ and\\ information\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Major\\ gaps\\ in\\ their\\ knowledge\\ of\\ world\\ leaders\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Lack\\ in\\ understanding\\ partisan\\ labels\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Suggest\\ a\\ level\\ of\\ public\\ ignorance\\ which\\ is\\ shocking\\.\\ Major\\ gaps\\ in\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ system\\.\\ What\\ does\\ this\\ mean\\?\\ What\\ conclusions\\ can\\ we\\ draw\\ about\\ the\\ competence\\ of\\ ordinary\\ people\\ as\\ Democratic\\ citizens\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ One\\ concern\\ is\\ the\\ policy\\ preferences\\ of\\ the\\ informed\\ differ\\ substantially\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ 20\\%\\ of\\ population\\ is\\ high\\ information\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ liberal\\ on\\ abortion\\,\\ gun\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ 40\\%\\ in\\ low\\ information\\ column\\ more\\ liberal\\ on\\ health\\ insurance\\ but\\ less\\ on\\ gun\\ control\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ elected\\ officials\\ respond\\ to\\ those\\ who\\ make\\ their\\ views\\ known\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Polls\\ are\\ constructed\\ that\\ citizens\\ are\\ informed\\ about\\ the\\ issues\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ discussing\\.\\ They\\ include\\ questions\\ on\\ topics\\ that\\ people\\ know\\ very\\ little\\ about\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ 1975\\ public\\ affairs\\ act\\ is\\ totally\\ fictional\\.\\ The\\ very\\ act\\ of\\ polling\\ can\\ create\\ opinions\\ that\\ might\\ not\\ be\\ evident\\.\\ The\\ less\\ she\\ knows\\ the\\ less\\ she\\ cares\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Minimal\\ stability\\ of\\ political\\ preferences\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ The\\ low\\ level\\ of\\ political\\ information\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ part\\ of\\ what\\ they\\ have\\ in\\ mind\\.\\ Unstable\\ and\\ unpredictable\\ nature\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\ itself\\.\\ Big\\ difference\\ between\\ an\\ opinion\\ and\\ just\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ a\\ poll\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Panel\\ survey\\:\\ change\\ their\\ position\\ over\\ a\\ relatively\\ short\\ period\\ of\\ time\\.\\ Switching\\ represents\\ no\\ true\\ change\\ in\\ attitudes\\ but\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ response\\ error\\.\\ Issues\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ too\\ distant\\ or\\ too\\ abstract\\.\\ More\\ salient\\ moral\\ issues\\ you\\ tend\\ to\\ see\\ more\\ attitude\\ stability\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Scholarly\\ disagreements\\ on\\ just\\ how\\ much\\ Americans\\ deviate\\ from\\ the\\ democratic\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Perspective\\ \\#1\\ \\\u201cNon\\ attitudes\\\u201d\\ People\\ who\\ change\\ positions\\ over\\ time\\ in\\ fact\\ have\\ no\\ opinions\\.\\ If\\ this\\ is\\ correct\\,\\ metaphor\\ of\\ a\\ coin\\ toss\\.\\ Even\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ consistent\\ responses\\ are\\ actually\\ still\\ random\\ and\\ stable\\ of\\ by\\ chance\\.\\ Phil\\ Converse\\ said\\ less\\ than\\ 20\\%\\ had\\ meaningful\\ opinions\\ on\\ a\\ survey\\ question\\.\\ The\\ implications\\ for\\ democracy\\ are\\ also\\ disturbing\\.\\ They\\ lack\\ information\\ to\\ create\\ opinions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Perspective\\ \\#2\\ \\\u201ccontingent\\ attitudes\\\u201d\\ people\\ hold\\ multiple\\,\\ conflicting\\ values\\ and\\ beliefs\\.\\ Instability\\ is\\ inevitable\\.\\ Most\\ people\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ giving\\ the\\ liberal\\ or\\ conservative\\ response\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ opinions\\ that\\ are\\ expressed\\ are\\ meaningful\\ to\\ the\\ proponent\\.\\ But\\ it\\ might\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ unstable\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Minimal\\ mastery\\ of\\ abstract\\ political\\ concepts\\,\\ such\\ as\\ liberalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Lack\\ of\\ consistency\\.\\ Here\\ we\\ are\\ talking\\ about\\ positions\\ on\\ multiple\\ issues\\.\\ When\\ a\\ person\\ expresses\\ viewpoints\\ on\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ political\\ subject\\ we\\ think\\ they\\ will\\ be\\ connected\\ in\\ some\\ way\\.\\ One\\ expectation\\ is\\ that\\ opinions\\ are\\ connected\\ by\\ their\\ logical\\ consistency\\.\\ Sometimes\\ they\\ look\\ like\\ unconnected\\ preferences\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Ideological\\ Thinking\\-\\ set\\ up\\ beliefs\\ or\\ principles\\ about\\ politics\\ and\\ government\\.\\ Ideology\\ is\\ clearly\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ politics\\,\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ entirely\\ clear\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ ordinary\\ Americans\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\/3\\ to\\ \\\u00bc\\ Americans\\ decline\\ to\\ identify\\ themselves\\ as\\ conservative\\ or\\ liberal\\=\\ there\\ are\\ a\\ significant\\ amount\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ are\\ cut\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ conversation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Does\\ political\\ ideology\\ actually\\ do\\ anything\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Analysis\\ is\\ centered\\ on\\ two\\ kinds\\ of\\ evidence\\.\\ Extent\\ that\\ is\\ called\\ ideological\\ thinking\\.\\ Concepts\\ in\\ discussing\\ politics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Few\\ Americans\\ are\\ consistent\\ in\\ their\\ ideology\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ obvious\\ that\\ these\\ political\\ ideologies\\ do\\ anything\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Possible\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ unsophisticated\\ in\\ their\\ verbal\\ reaction\\ but\\ they\\ not\\ be\\ skilled\\ at\\ articulating\\ that\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ For\\ a\\ pair\\ of\\ issues\\,\\ people\\ will\\ be\\ consistent\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ ideologically\\ closely\\ related\\.\\ Degree\\ of\\ consistency\\ varies\\ with\\ level\\ of\\ education\\.\\ The\\ more\\ education\\,\\ the\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ consistent\\ in\\ their\\ views\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ engage\\ in\\ ideological\\ thinking\\ in\\ political\\ and\\ media\\ elites\\.\\ 1\\/3\\-1\\/2\\ liberal\\ vs\\.\\ conservative\\ is\\ nothing\\ more\\ than\\ confusion\\.\\ So\\ few\\ people\\ use\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ guide\\ to\\ understanding\\ politics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ debate\\ about\\ how\\ serious\\ the\\ problem\\ really\\ is\\.\\ Necessary\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ language\\ of\\ politics\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ practiced\\ by\\ political\\ elites\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Lecture\\ 2\\/11\\/09\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\How\\ We\\ Put\\ Our\\ Ideas\\ Together\\:\\ Heuristics\\ and\\ the\\ Wisdom\\ of\\ Crowds\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Why\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ so\\ many\\ Americans\\ choose\\ to\\ spend\\ minimal\\ effort\\ engaging\\ in\\ political\\ affairs\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u201cRational\\ Ignorance\\\u201d\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u201cAn\\ Economic\\ Theory\\ of\\ Democracy\\\u201d\\ Downs\\ argues\\ that\\ each\\ citizen\\ has\\ no\\ chance\\ in\\ swinging\\ an\\ election\\ outcome\\.\\ Voters\\ have\\ to\\ consider\\ costs\\ of\\ gathering\\ enough\\ information\\.\\ Each\\ voter\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ be\\ wrong\\ on\\ candidate\\ choice\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Cost\\-Benefit\\=\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ value\\ in\\ being\\ well\\-informed\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Do\\ citizens\\ really\\ need\\ quiz\\ show\\ knowledge\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ politics\\?\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\.\\ Even\\ an\\ uninformed\\ citizen\\ can\\ receive\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ coherence\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\.\\ People\\ use\\ heuristics\\ to\\ make\\ political\\ judgments\\ from\\ hues\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\.\\ \\Collective\\ opinion\\ can\\ actually\\ convey\\ real\\ and\\ true\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ public\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Massive\\ instability\\ overtime\\=\\ most\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ true\\ attitudes\\ about\\ issues\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Individual\\ level\\ random\\ implies\\ that\\ errors\\ cancel\\ out\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Page\\ and\\ Shapiro\\-\\ cancel\\ out\\ over\\ a\\ large\\ sample\\ so\\ that\\ a\\ poll\\ shows\\ true\\ and\\ long\\ term\\ preferences\\ of\\ many\\ citizens\\.\\ Errors\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ random\\ will\\ cancel\\ out\\.\\ Simply\\ the\\ mathematics\\ of\\ aggregation\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\1\\.\\ Collective\\ opinion\\ is\\ generally\\ stable\\ but\\ not\\ perfectly\\ stable\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\2\\.\\ The\\ moves\\ seems\\ to\\ happen\\ for\\ identifiable\\ and\\ sensible\\ reasons\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>Support\\ for\\ defense\\ spending\\ has\\ increased\\ in\\ international\\ tensions\\.\\ Much\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ transmitted\\ by\\ the\\ mass\\ media\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ largest\\ opinion\\ change\\ bears\\ on\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ women\\.\\ During\\ the\\ great\\ depression\\ there\\ was\\ movement\\ in\\ many\\ states\\ that\\ would\\ ban\\ married\\ women\\ from\\ working\\.\\ 1936\\-1938\\=\\ decreasing\\ birth\\ rates\\\u2026these\\ things\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ sensible\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Crime\\ and\\ criminal\\ punishment\\.\\ Decline\\ in\\ support\\ in\\ collective\\ opinion\\ support\\ for\\ capital\\ punishment\\ in\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\ coincides\\ with\\ people\\ not\\ getting\\ fair\\ trials\\ and\\ that\\ ppl\\ felt\\ safe\\ in\\ their\\ homes\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Defense\\ spending\\ tracks\\ closely\\ with\\ international\\ threats\\ and\\ conflicts\\.\\ Clearly\\ that\\ public\\ opinion\\ is\\ moving\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ follow\\ events\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Argue\\ that\\ these\\ kinds\\ of\\ trends\\ show\\ a\\ rational\\ public\\ whose\\ policy\\ preferences\\ are\\ intelligible\\ and\\ consistent\\ with\\ their\\ values\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Assuming\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ lying\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Assuming\\ that\\ the\\ errors\\ are\\ systematic\\.\\ They\\ are\\ assuming\\ that\\ the\\ mistakes\\ are\\ scattered\\ among\\ all\\ different\\ people\\.\\ You\\ can\\ never\\ really\\ figure\\ out\\ if\\ this\\ is\\ correct\\.\\ Assuming\\ that\\ everyone\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ information\\ environment\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Simple\\ Guides\\ to\\ \\\u201cGood\\ Decisions\\\u201d\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\For\\ many\\ common\\ political\\ tasks\\,\\ competence\\ really\\ doesn\\\u2019t\\ require\\ a\\ whole\\ lot\\ of\\ information\\.\\ Little\\ competence\\ can\\ be\\ learned\\ from\\ other\\ people\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Samuel\\ Popkin\\:\\ making\\ do\\ without\\ systematic\\ research\\.\\ You\\ just\\ need\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ simple\\ facts\\.\\ You\\ can\\ even\\ use\\ your\\ neighbor\\ or\\ family\\ member\\ same\\ choices\\ as\\ they\\ would\\ if\\ they\\ had\\ the\\ whole\\ set\\ of\\ facts\\.\\ Follow\\ lead\\ of\\ group\\ or\\ individual\\ that\\ they\\ believe\\ have\\ their\\ best\\ interest\\ at\\ heart\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Advocates\\ of\\ this\\ position\\ have\\ identified\\ many\\ kinds\\ of\\ political\\ heuristics\\.\\ Party\\ ID\\ is\\ the\\ classic\\ predictor\\ of\\ vote\\ choice\\.\\ Leads\\ voters\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ right\\ candidate\\ choice\\.\\ Also\\ might\\ use\\:\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Demographics\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Performance\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Personal\\ character\\:\\ such\\ as\\ cheating\\ on\\ terminally\\ ill\\ wife\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Endorsements\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Also\\ use\\ interest\\ group\\ leaders\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ citizens\\ cannot\\ be\\ well\\-informed\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Proponents\\ of\\ this\\ argument\\ think\\ that\\ people\\ make\\ good\\ decisions\\ with\\ low\\ information\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ To\\ what\\ extent\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ that\\ a\\ compelling\\ case\\ has\\ been\\ made\\ for\\ a\\ politically\\ competent\\ national\\ republic\\?\\ Do\\ individual\\ errors\\ rash\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ aggregate\\?\\ Are\\ these\\ errors\\ actually\\ random\\ or\\ is\\ it\\ possible\\ that\\ people\\ are\\ getting\\ something\\ wrong\\?\\ Where\\ are\\ most\\ people\\ getting\\ their\\ information\\?\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\-18\\-98\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Democratic\\ Values\\ and\\ Stability\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Values\\=\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Trust\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ a\\ democratic\\ government\\ to\\ maintain\\ minimal\\ trust\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Levels\\ of\\ trust\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ affect\\ the\\ leadership\\ strategies\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ When\\ trust\\ is\\ low\\ leaders\\ may\\ find\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\ meet\\ existing\\ commitments\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ To\\ measure\\ trust\\ researchers\\ have\\ used\\ the\\ following\\ three\\ questions\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\1\\.\\ How\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ do\\ you\\ think\\ you\\ can\\ trust\\ the\\ government\\ in\\ Washington\\ to\\ do\\ what\\ is\\ right\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\2\\.\\ Do\\ you\\ think\\ the\\ government\\ waste\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\3\\.\\ Would\\ you\\ say\\ the\\ government\\ is\\ pretty\\ much\\ run\\ by\\ a\\ few\\ big\\ interests\\ looking\\ out\\ for\\ themselves\\ or\\ that\\ is\\ run\\ for\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ people\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Public\\ trust\\ has\\ declined\\ significantly\\.\\ Since\\ 1992\\,\\ slightly\\ increasing\\ but\\ not\\ at\\ the\\ point\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ and\\ 60s\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ that\\ explain\\ trust\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\Reality\\ \\<\\/b\\>with\\ things\\ such\\ as\\ Vietnam\\ War\\,\\ Watergate\\,\\ Iran\\-Contra\\ and\\ Bush\\ Tax\\ Pledge\\.\\ Between\\ 1972\\-197\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ dramatic\\ decline\\ because\\ of\\ Watergate\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\Personal\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ President\\ \\<\\/b\\>some\\ declines\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ Clinton\\ administration\\ from\\ White\\ Water\\ to\\ firing\\ entire\\ staff\\,\\ marital\\ infidelities\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\State\\ of\\ the\\ Economy\\ \\<\\/b\\>assessments\\ of\\ government\\ economic\\ performance\\ and\\ this\\ was\\ a\\ problem\\ with\\ Carter\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\Partisan\\ Bias\\ \\<\\/b\\>pattern\\ that\\ is\\ common\\ is\\ that\\ survey\\ respondents\\ express\\ greater\\ trust\\ when\\ their\\ party\\ is\\ in\\ power\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\People\\\u2019s\\ demographics\\ \\<\\/b\\>only\\ small\\ affect\\.\\ There\\ are\\ some\\ modest\\ differences\\ across\\ levels\\ of\\ education\\.\\ Most\\ notable\\ trust\\ gap\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ racial\\ differences\\.\\ Blacks\\ have\\ lower\\ levels\\ in\\ trust\\ most\\ years\\ the\\ only\\ exception\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ Rights\\ Era\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\Messages\\ received\\ by\\ media\\ political\\ environment\\ \\<\\/b\\>change\\ in\\ role\\ of\\ media\\ from\\ just\\ presenting\\ the\\ news\\ to\\ more\\ interpretative\\ news\\.\\ Highly\\ negative\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ Television\\ journalism\\ is\\ particularly\\ prone\\ to\\ this\\ cynicism\\.\\ People\\ who\\ rely\\ on\\ television\\ are\\ more\\ distrustful\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ rely\\ on\\ newspapers\\.\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Confidence\\ in\\ Institutions\\\u2026people\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ in\\ individuals\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ fewer\\ than\\ 10\\%\\ has\\ trust\\ in\\ congress\\.\\ Of\\ the\\ three\\ branches\\ of\\ government\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ that\\ enjoys\\ the\\ most\\ confidence\\ until\\ 2000\\ in\\ the\\ intervention\\ in\\ Bush\\ v\\.\\ Gore\\.\\ The\\ levels\\ are\\ much\\ lower\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Hibbing\\ and\\ Thiess\\ Morse\\ \\<\\/b\\>congress\\ is\\ the\\ enemy\\ of\\ public\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ public\\.\\ It\\ is\\ all\\ there\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ open\\ for\\ citizens\\ to\\ evaluate\\.\\ Hierachial\\ structure\\ allows\\ the\\ executive\\ branch\\ to\\ put\\ out\\ unified\\ stand\\.\\ When\\ people\\ see\\ democratic\\ processes\\ in\\ action\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ it\\ very\\ much\\.\\ Americans\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ large\\ desire\\ to\\ play\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ themselves\\.\\ Americans\\ would\\ like\\ a\\ government\\ run\\ by\\ experts\\ who\\ are\\ selflessly\\ devoted\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ good\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Low\\ trust\\ implications\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>lead\\ to\\ poor\\ evaluation\\ of\\ presidential\\ performance\\ thus\\ making\\ it\\ more\\ challenging\\ for\\ political\\ leaders\\ to\\ govern\\.\\ The\\ decline\\ in\\ political\\ trust\\ is\\ one\\ factor\\ contributing\\ to\\ low\\ voter\\ turnouts\\.\\ Another\\ consequence\\ is\\ the\\ people\\ engage\\ in\\ quick\\ fixes\\ to\\ problems\\.\\ People\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ vote\\ for\\ a\\ challenger\\ than\\ the\\ incumbent\\.\\ Decline\\ in\\ public\\ trust\\ has\\ contributed\\ to\\ increase\\ is\\ conservative\\ policies\\ adopted\\ by\\ the\\ government\\.\\ These\\ are\\ serious\\ consequences\\ but\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ affect\\ government\\ stability\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Confidence\\ in\\ Efficacy\\\\-\\ people\\ engaging\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ process\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\The\\ belief\\ that\\ one\\ can\\ actually\\ influence\\ the\\ political\\ process\\ and\\ that\\ one\\\u2019s\\ input\\ actually\\ counts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Measured\\ through\\ agree\\/disagree\\ questions\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Contacting\\ elected\\ officials\\,\\ participating\\ in\\ campaigns\\,\\ trying\\ to\\ organize\\.\\ It\\ should\\ come\\ as\\ no\\ surprise\\ that\\ efficacy\\ and\\ trust\\ are\\ related\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ perfecto\\ correlation\\ and\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ obvious\\ through\\ the\\ aggregate\\ overtime\\ pattern\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Low\\-trust\\,\\ high\\ efficacy\\ voted\\ for\\ the\\ third\\ party\\ candidate\\ Ross\\ Perro\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Richard\\ Shingles\\ found\\ that\\ this\\ combination\\ overcomes\\ disadvantages\\ of\\ low\\-income\\ and\\ low\\ education\\ which\\ is\\ important\\ antecedent\\ among\\ African\\ Americans\\.\\ He\\ only\\ examined\\ conventional\\ political\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Relationship\\ between\\ unconventional\\ behavior\\ support\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ non\\ traditional\\ forms\\ of\\ political\\ influence\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0Tolerance\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ One\\ solution\\ to\\ this\\ challenge\\ was\\ to\\ build\\ protection\\ from\\ those\\ on\\ the\\ inside\\ who\\ have\\ political\\ power\\.\\ Democratic\\ values\\ thinking\\ of\\ procedural\\ norms\\.\\ These\\ norms\\ are\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ the\\ game\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\Bill\\ of\\ Rights\\ \\<\\/b\\>freedom\\ of\\ expression\\\u2026\\.etc\\.\\ If\\ people\\ are\\ not\\ allowed\\ to\\ express\\ dissenting\\ opinions\\ then\\ they\\ cant\\ hold\\ government\\ accountable\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\Majority\\ Rule\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ \\Minority\\ Rules\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Public\\ support\\ for\\ democratic\\ rights\\ is\\ less\\ than\\ ideal\\.\\ There\\ is\\ less\\ enthusiasm\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ protest\\ and\\ demonstrations\\.\\ There\\ has\\ been\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ free\\ speech\\.\\ In\\ most\\ cases\\ these\\ reflect\\ improvements\\ from\\ earlier\\ periods\\.\\ Numerous\\ studies\\ document\\ this\\ shift\\ in\\ attitudes\\ during\\ 50s\\ and\\ 70s\\.\\ Find\\ relationship\\ between\\ increased\\ tolerance\\ and\\ increased\\ level\\ of\\ education\\.\\ The\\ increases\\ in\\ tolerance\\ is\\ greatest\\ among\\ gays\\ and\\ lesbians\\.\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ not\\ to\\ over\\ interpret\\ the\\ results\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ mass\\ attitudes\\ and\\ attitudes\\ of\\ political\\ elite\\ differ\\ markedly\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Theory\\ of\\ democratic\\ elitism\\-\\ strong\\ version\\ of\\ this\\ position\\ is\\ that\\ citizens\\ do\\ not\\ take\\ a\\ strong\\ involvement\\ with\\ democratic\\ behavior\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Great\\ deal\\ of\\ diversity\\ among\\ groups\\ that\\ Americans\\ like\\ the\\ least\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ demand\\ for\\ political\\ oppression\\ for\\ any\\ group\\.\\ \\\u201cPluralistic\\ intolerance\\\u201d\\ may\\ be\\ a\\ real\\ barrier\\ against\\ political\\ repression\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Lecture\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\February\\ 23\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Macro\\ Level\\ Public\\ Opinion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Major\\ public\\ policy\\ domains\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Economy\\ and\\ social\\ welfare\\:\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ government\\ efforts\\ to\\ address\\ economic\\ inequality\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Civil\\ rights\\:\\ the\\ quest\\ for\\ equality\\ under\\ the\\ law\\,\\ including\\ group\\-targeted\\ programs\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Social\\ issues\\:\\ the\\ moral\\ and\\ political\\ status\\ of\\ different\\ lifestyles\\ and\\ value\\ systems\\ \\(ex\\ abortion\\,\\ prayer\\ in\\ schools\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Foreign\\ policy\\:\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ role\\ abroad\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Economic\\ and\\ social\\ welfare\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Despite\\ political\\ rhetoric\\ and\\ electoral\\ swings\\,\\ public\\ opinion\\ on\\ social\\ welfare\\ broadly\\ supportive\\ of\\ government\\ role\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ American\\ public\\ as\\ ideologically\\ conservative\\,\\ operationally\\ liberal\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Public\\ opinion\\ often\\ leads\\ government\\ action\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ E\\.g\\.\\ Social\\ Security\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ E\\.g\\.\\ collective\\ bargaining\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ New\\ Deal\\ to\\ present\\ the\\ public\\ has\\ been\\ receptive\\ to\\ using\\ government\\ programs\\ to\\ achieve\\ welfare\\ programs\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Trends\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Nearly\\ a\\ third\\ think\\ it\\\u2019s\\ the\\ government\\\u2019s\\ job\\ to\\ guarantee\\ a\\ certain\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ People\\ support\\ spending\\ on\\ social\\ welfare\\ programs\\,\\ such\\ as\\ deserving\\ poor\\,\\ but\\ people\\ see\\ people\\ on\\ welfare\\ as\\ living\\ and\\ able\\ to\\ work\\ but\\ unwilling\\ and\\ therefore\\ don\\\u2019t\\ support\\ welfare\\ programs\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Country\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ is\\ generally\\ supportive\\ of\\ social\\ welfare\\ programs\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Heath\\ insurance\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ History\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\ being\\ ahead\\ of\\ public\\ policy\\ in\\ this\\ domain\\ \\(since\\ 1930s\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Case\\ of\\ Medicare\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Belief\\ in\\ medical\\ care\\ as\\ a\\ \\\u201cright\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Public\\ support\\ for\\ blended\\ public\\-private\\ system\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Subsidies\\ to\\ purchase\\ private\\ insurance\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Government\\ as\\ provider\\ of\\ last\\ resort\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Graph\\:\\ Last\\ couple\\ of\\ years\\ there\\ is\\ growing\\ support\\ for\\ government\\ provision\\ of\\ health\\ insurance\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Taxes\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Taxes\\ generally\\ unpopular\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rarely\\ more\\ than\\ 2\\-3\\%\\ believe\\ taxes\\ \\\u201ctoo\\ low\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reports\\ that\\ taxes\\ are\\ \\\u201cabout\\ right\\\u201d\\ increase\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Graph\\:\\ clearly\\ a\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ fairly\\ consistently\\ believe\\ that\\ taxes\\ are\\ too\\ high\\;\\ people\\ want\\ public\\ services\\,\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ wants\\ to\\ pay\\ for\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Civil\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Broad\\ consensus\\ over\\ rejection\\ of\\ white\\ supremacist\\ ideology\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Broad\\ consensus\\ regarding\\ support\\ for\\ civil\\ rights\\ ideals\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ norm\\ of\\ equality\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Limited\\ to\\ little\\ support\\ for\\ government\\ action\\ to\\ realize\\ civil\\ rights\\ ideals\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ By\\ 1994\\,\\ only\\ 12\\%\\ agreed\\ that\\ blacks\\ have\\ less\\ intelligence\\,\\ compared\\ to\\ majority\\ in\\ 1930s\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Graph\\:\\ more\\ support\\ for\\ principle\\ of\\ civil\\ equality\\;\\ almost\\ unanimity\\ when\\ expressing\\ support\\ for\\ same\\ schools\\,\\ moving\\ towards\\ unanimity\\ for\\ preferred\\ housing\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Although\\ support\\ for\\ principles\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ there\\\u2019s\\ a\\ huge\\ implementation\\ gap\\ \\(less\\ support\\ integration\\ of\\ policies\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Public\\ is\\ more\\ supportive\\ of\\ civil\\ rights\\ goals\\,\\ but\\ not\\ their\\ implementation\\ through\\ policies\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Affirmative\\ action\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ contentious\\ civil\\ rights\\ issue\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Degree\\ of\\ white\\ opposition\\ depends\\ on\\ question\\ wording\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Support\\:\\ \\\u201cpast\\ discrimination\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Oppose\\:\\ \\\u201cpreferences\\\u201d\\ or\\ \\\u201creverse\\ discrimination\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Social\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Social\\ issues\\ emerged\\ as\\ politically\\ salient\\ beginning\\ in\\ 1960s\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ At\\ core\\,\\ conflict\\ is\\ between\\ forces\\ of\\ social\\ change\\ and\\ forces\\ committed\\ to\\ maintenance\\ of\\ \\\u201ctraditional\\ moral\\ values\\.\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Collective\\ opinion\\ on\\ social\\ issues\\ tends\\ toward\\ conservatism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ On\\ social\\ issues\\,\\ the\\ public\\ is\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ conservative\\ than\\ liberal\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Fairly\\ strong\\ support\\ for\\ prayer\\ in\\ public\\ schools\\ \\(70\\%\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Creationism\\ is\\ preferred\\ over\\ established\\ science\\ to\\ be\\ taught\\ concerning\\ evolutionism\\ in\\ schools\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Social\\ issues\\:\\ law\\ and\\ order\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Conservative\\ trend\\ on\\ social\\ issues\\ evident\\ in\\ attitudes\\ about\\ criminal\\ justice\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Support\\ for\\ death\\ penalty\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Support\\ for\\ mandatory\\ sentencing\\ laws\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Belief\\ that\\ courts\\ are\\ not\\ harsh\\ enough\\ on\\ criminals\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Above\\ and\\ support\\ for\\ death\\ penalty\\ roughly\\ tracked\\ the\\ rate\\ of\\ violent\\ crime\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Weak\\ relationship\\ between\\ opinion\\ and\\ rates\\ of\\ violent\\ crime\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Abortion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Evidence\\ of\\ ambivalence\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\ \\(oppose\\ abortion\\ on\\ moral\\ grounds\\ but\\ support\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ choose\\ in\\ public\\ policy\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Moral\\ reservations\\ about\\ abortion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Willingness\\ to\\ bracket\\ moral\\ issues\\ in\\ public\\ policy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Public\\ rejects\\ polar\\ positions\\ taken\\ by\\ activists\\ on\\ either\\ side\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Graph\\:\\ only\\ a\\ minority\\ of\\ Americans\\ are\\ at\\ either\\ of\\ the\\ poles\\;\\ majority\\ say\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ legal\\ but\\ under\\ certain\\ circumstances\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Foreign\\ policy\\ opinion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Prior\\ to\\ WWII\\ prevailing\\ foreign\\ policy\\ sentiment\\ was\\ isolationist\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Since\\ WWII\\,\\ emphasis\\ has\\ been\\ on\\ multilateral\\ engagement\\,\\ though\\ commitment\\ waxes\\ and\\ wanes\\ with\\ events\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Graphs\\:\\ generally\\ favorable\\ opinions\\ of\\ the\\ UN\\ as\\ an\\ institution\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ position\\ of\\ whether\\ US\\ should\\ maintain\\ a\\ UN\\ membership\\ \\(however\\,\\ decline\\ in\\ favorability\\ starting\\ in\\ late\\ 80s\\)\\;\\ people\\ believe\\ Iraq\\ war\\ was\\ a\\ mistake\\ \\(opinion\\ is\\ also\\ very\\ sensitive\\ to\\ news\\ that\\ is\\ coming\\ out\\ about\\ Iraq\\)\\Lecture\\ 2\\-25\\-09\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\U\\.S\\.\\ is\\ a\\ nation\\ that\\ is\\ divided\\.\\ Epic\\ battle\\ between\\ conflicting\\ world\\ views\\.\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ the\\ division\\?\\ A\\ culture\\ war\\:\\ issues\\ such\\ as\\ abortion\\,\\ gay\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Schama\\ 2004\\ quote\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\We\\ set\\ aside\\ economic\\ issues\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ politics\\.\\ Rich\\ states\\ are\\ blue\\ states\\ and\\ poor\\ states\\ are\\ red\\ states\\.\\ Red\\ states\\ \\\u201cJesus\\ Land\\\u201d\\ Blue\\ states\\ as\\ the\\ \\\u201cUnited\\ States\\ of\\ Canada\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Real\\ story\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ complete\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Polarization\\ Claim\\ \\#1\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Opinion\\ Radicalization\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Americans\\ hold\\ extreme\\ views\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Very\\ little\\ change\\ in\\ the\\ distribution\\ of\\ American\\ ideological\\ identification\\ in\\ the\\ past\\ 30\\ years\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Should\\ we\\ trust\\ ideological\\ data\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ place\\ themselves\\ on\\ this\\ spectrum\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ There\\ is\\ still\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ consistent\\ in\\ how\\ they\\ express\\ views\\ on\\ certain\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Scholars\\ have\\ aggregated\\ as\\ many\\ questions\\ as\\ possible\\ to\\ create\\ scales\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ \\Overall\\ size\\ of\\ government\\<\\/b\\>\\,\\ government\\ spending\\,\\ social\\ security\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ unemployement\\ insurance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ \\Moral\\ \\<\\/b\\>gay\\ rights\\,\\ abortion\\,\\ women\\\u2019s\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ We\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ see\\ if\\ preferences\\ are\\ unimodal\\ or\\ bimodal\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ No\\ example\\ that\\ Americans\\ are\\ polarized\\ on\\ economic\\ issues\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ On\\ moral\\ issues\\ there\\ is\\ significantly\\ more\\ heterogeneity\\.\\ Americans\\ are\\ divided\\ into\\ two\\ value\\ camps\\.\\ There\\ are\\ few\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ and\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ extremes\\.\\ When\\ abortion\\ is\\ removed\\ it\\ looks\\ much\\ more\\ unimodal\\ as\\ it\\ does\\ for\\ economic\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\.\\ orthodox\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\.\\ Progressive\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ general\\ Americans\\ are\\ centristst\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Ideological\\ moderists\\ and\\ when\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ specific\\ issues\\,\\ they\\ ground\\ themselves\\ esp\\.\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Another\\ way\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ sort\\ by\\ region\\.\\ When\\ you\\ compare\\ red\\ and\\ blue\\ states\\ it\\ reveals\\ statistically\\ significant\\ but\\ very\\ moderate\\ differences\\.\\ Blue\\ regions\\ are\\ slightly\\ more\\ liberal\\ on\\ economic\\.\\ On\\ moral\\ issues\\ distribution\\ for\\ blue\\ states\\ is\\ slightly\\ to\\ the\\ left\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Obama\\\u2019s\\ 2004\\ Speech\\ to\\ Democratic\\ National\\ Convetion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ There\\ is\\ not\\ strong\\ evidence\\ of\\ polarization\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ even\\ when\\ comparing\\ states\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ But\\ what\\ about\\ comparing\\ subgroups\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Economic\\ and\\ Moral\\ Issues\\ across\\ social\\ divides\\:\\ urban\\ and\\ rural\\,\\ protestant\\ and\\ non\\,\\ income\\ groups\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Rural\\ votes\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ in\\ both\\ areas\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Wealthy\\ more\\ ec\\ conservative\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ weak\\.\\ Differences\\ are\\ quite\\ small\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Weak\\ between\\ income\\ and\\ moral\\ issues\\ which\\ low\\=\\ more\\ conservative\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Protestants\\ and\\ regular\\ church\\ goers\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\.\\ The\\ Religious\\ divide\\ is\\ perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ substantial\\ one\\.\\ Esp\\.\\ looking\\ at\\ evangelical\\ protestants\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ FACT\\:\\ moderates\\ make\\ up\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ population\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ FACT\\:\\ Americans\\ are\\ centrist\\ except\\ of\\ abortion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ FACT\\:\\ modest\\ policy\\ differences\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Claim\\ \\#2\\:\\ Moral\\ Value\\ Voters\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ key\\ claim\\ here\\.\\ Americans\\ are\\ deeply\\ divided\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ big\\ influence\\ on\\ political\\ thinking\\ according\\ to\\ culture\\ wars\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Economic\\ issues\\ have\\ much\\ more\\ weight\\ than\\ moral\\ issues\\.\\ Economic\\ policy\\ preferences\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ important\\ in\\ accounting\\ for\\ voting\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\FACT\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ Compared\\ with\\ moral\\ issues\\,\\ economic\\ issues\\ are\\ twice\\ as\\ important\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ There\\ are\\ some\\ subgroups\\:\\ low\\ income\\ americans\\ think\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ moral\\.\\ Moral\\ issues\\ are\\ thought\\ to\\ dom\\ in\\ red\\ states\\ and\\ with\\ frequent\\ church\\ goers\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ But\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ moral\\ issues\\ does\\ not\\ vary\\ across\\ social\\ groups\\.\\ All\\ of\\ them\\ place\\ much\\ more\\ emphasis\\ on\\ economic\\ than\\ moral\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\FACT\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>Those\\ who\\ sense\\ a\\ culture\\ war\\ have\\ found\\ the\\ trend\\ that\\ moral\\ issues\\ have\\ become\\ increasingly\\ important\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ thirty\\ decades\\.\\ But\\ they\\ have\\ not\\ supplanted\\ economic\\ issues\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Claim\\ \\#3\\:\\ Red\\-Blue\\ Divide\\ is\\ a\\ Moral\\ Divide\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mattingly\\ 2000\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\FACT\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>there\\ is\\ a\\ noticeable\\ divide\\ on\\ moral\\ issues\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ larger\\ than\\ the\\ divide\\ on\\ economic\\ issues\\.\\ Red\\ state\\ are\\ red\\ because\\ of\\ moral\\ issues\\ and\\ these\\ people\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ on\\ economic\\ issues\\ and\\ this\\ has\\ twice\\ the\\ weight\\ on\\ voter\\\u2019s\\ mind\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\FACT\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>greater\\ ec\\ conservatism\\ that\\ separates\\ blue\\ and\\ red\\ states\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Claim\\ \\#4\\ Poor\\ State\\:\\ Red\\ State\\,\\ Poor\\ Voter\\ Red\\ Voter\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Democrats\\ win\\ rich\\ people\\.\\ Support\\ for\\ democrats\\ in\\ richer\\ states\\ has\\ led\\ people\\ to\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ typical\\ democrat\\ is\\ upper\\ city\\ and\\ republican\\ is\\ rural\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ NO\\,\\ NO\\,\\ NO\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Carlson\\ and\\ others\\ are\\ half\\ right\\.\\ Democrats\\ do\\ tend\\ to\\ win\\ rich\\ states\\.\\ Since\\ 1976\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ steady\\ trend\\ for\\ rich\\ states\\ to\\ vote\\ blue\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ rest\\ of\\ Carlson\\\u2019s\\ story\\ is\\ wrong\\.\\ Traditional\\ rich\\-poor\\ divide\\ remains\\.\\ Rich\\ voters\\ have\\ remained\\ statistically\\ more\\ republican\\ at\\ least\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ case\\ in\\ poor\\ states\\.\\ Rich\\ people\\ in\\ rich\\ states\\ are\\ more\\ liberal\\ in\\ rich\\ people\\ in\\ poor\\ states\\ so\\ there\\ is\\ more\\ democratic\\ voting\\ of\\ rich\\ people\\ in\\ rich\\ states\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Income\\ has\\ no\\ correlation\\ in\\ vote\\ preference\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\ difference\\ between\\ poor\\ and\\ rich\\ in\\ voting\\ in\\ these\\ rich\\ states\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ FACT\\:\\ rich\\ conservatives\\ as\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ poor\\ states\\ are\\ red\\ states\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ FACT\\:\\ Rich\\ voters\\ in\\ rich\\ states\\ increasingly\\ vote\\ democratic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Culture\\ war\\ is\\ actually\\ limited\\ to\\ high\\ end\\ of\\ income\\ spectrum\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ low\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Purple\\ America\\ Map\\ created\\ by\\ Robert\\ Vanderbay\\ who\\ is\\ a\\ political\\ scientist\\ at\\ Princeton\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\That\\ said\\\u2026\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ kinds\\ of\\ polarization\\ do\\ exist\\.\\ The\\ general\\ public\\ itself\\ is\\ not\\ polarized\\.\\ The\\ two\\ major\\ political\\ parties\\ are\\ growing\\ polarized\\.\\ The\\ two\\ parties\\ are\\ far\\ apart\\ on\\ issues\\ are\\ never\\ before\\.\\ Never\\ has\\ politics\\ been\\ more\\ European\\ \\(George\\ Will\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Getting\\ more\\ cohesive\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Now\\ more\\ than\\ ever\\ they\\ disagree\\ on\\ everything\\ more\\ than\\ ever\\.\\ That\\ is\\ how\\ deep\\ partisan\\ polarization\\ has\\ extended\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Growing\\ religious\\ divide\\ between\\ the\\ parties\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Party\\ ID\\ now\\ is\\ an\\ even\\ stronger\\ predictor\\ of\\ vote\\ choice\\.\\ Partisans\\ are\\ sorting\\ themselves\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ really\\ heighten\\ their\\ difference\\.\\ Partisan\\ polarization\\ and\\ culture\\ war\\ on\\ the\\ public\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ although\\ they\\ are\\ often\\ conflated\\.\\ Democrats\\ and\\ Republicans\\ share\\ less\\ and\\ less\\ common\\ ground\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Why\\ does\\ any\\ of\\ this\\ matter\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ stakes\\ involved\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Damaging\\ to\\ American\\ democracy\\.\\ Negative\\ perspective\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sharp\\ increase\\ in\\ uncivil\\ speech\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\ of\\ the\\ House\\.\\ Americans\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ political\\ confrontation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Moderate\\ voters\\ become\\ disgusted\\ by\\ this\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Diana\\ Mutts\\:\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ like\\ the\\ style\\ in\\ which\\ disagreement\\ is\\ expressed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Still\\ more\\ consequences\\ in\\ the\\ ways\\ the\\ media\\ characterizes\\ the\\ system\\ and\\ this\\ might\\ reduce\\ participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Could\\ also\\ influence\\ what\\ actually\\ happens\\ in\\ politics\\.\\ Persuading\\ swing\\ voters\\ and\\ moderates\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ is\\ POSITIVE\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Could\\ indirectly\\ enhance\\ policy\\ representation\\ in\\ political\\ process\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Ordinary\\ citizens\\ are\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ distinguish\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\-2\\-09\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Political\\ Socialization\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Where\\ do\\ these\\ opinions\\ come\\ from\\?\\ Process\\ by\\ which\\ we\\ all\\ learn\\ about\\ politics\\ and\\ develop\\ political\\ opinions\\.\\ Molding\\ the\\ person\\ to\\ fit\\ the\\ community\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ lives\\.\\ Socialization\\ to\\ maintence\\ of\\ democratic\\ system\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Education\\ about\\ one\\\u2019s\\ political\\ development\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Focused\\ on\\ children\\.\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ sources\\ of\\ people\\\u2019s\\ political\\ opinions\\.\\ Function\\ of\\ communication\\ and\\ receptivity\\ and\\ parents\\ score\\ high\\ on\\ both\\ of\\ those\\ dimensions\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ bonds\\ that\\ are\\ as\\ strong\\ as\\ parent\\-child\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Family\\-\\ most\\ important\\ source\\ of\\ early\\ political\\ attitudes\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Peers\\-differ\\ in\\ points\\ of\\ life\\ cycle\\ where\\ influence\\ is\\ greatest\\.\\ Peers\\ affect\\ adolescents\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Education\\ system\\-\\ formal\\ schooling\\ instill\\ forms\\ of\\ political\\ behavior\\ in\\ students\\.\\ College\\ has\\ a\\ liberalizing\\ effect\\.\\ College\\ seniors\\ are\\ more\\ liberal\\ than\\ college\\ freshman\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ faculty\\,\\ greater\\ personal\\ network\\ and\\ greater\\ media\\ sources\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Events\\-\\ leave\\ lasting\\ imprint\\ on\\ the\\ young\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Sears\\ and\\ Valentino\\:\\ adolescents\\ make\\ significant\\ socialization\\ gains\\ as\\ the\\ consequence\\ of\\ exposure\\ to\\ presidential\\ campaigns\\.\\ Does\\ not\\ occur\\ in\\ a\\ vacuum\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Direct\\ learning\\:\\ occur\\ through\\ experiences\\ example\\ interaction\\ with\\ the\\ police\\,\\ learn\\ through\\ parents\\ or\\ peers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Socialization\\ to\\ Citizenship\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Child\\\u2019s\\ first\\ view\\ shows\\ leaders\\ as\\ powerful\\,\\ trustworthy\\ and\\ benevolent\\.\\ Pre\\-schoolers\\ frequently\\ confuse\\ religious\\ and\\ political\\ authority\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Minority\\ kids\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ see\\ authority\\ figures\\ as\\ benevolent\\.\\ Racial\\ and\\ class\\ differences\\ exist\\ at\\ all\\ grade\\ levels\\ and\\ widen\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Young\\ adults\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ trusting\\ of\\ government\\ at\\ any\\ age\\ at\\ any\\ time\\.\\ In\\ Watergate\\ though\\ young\\ people\\ were\\ the\\ least\\ trusting\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ one\\ exception\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Personalized\\ view\\ of\\ government\\.\\ It\\ means\\ the\\ President\\ or\\ the\\ police\\ officer\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Citizen\\ role\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Obedience\\ \\\u201cgood\\ citizen\\ obeys\\ the\\ law\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Good\\ citizen\\ now\\ is\\ someone\\ who\\ votes\\ and\\ gets\\ others\\ to\\ vote\\ and\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ criticize\\ the\\ government\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Child\\ goes\\ from\\ complete\\ ignorance\\ to\\ rough\\ awareness\\ of\\ the\\ adult\\ political\\ world\\.\\ Levels\\ of\\ political\\ efficacy\\ are\\ reached\\ by\\ high\\ school\\.\\ The\\ government\\ can\\ actually\\ be\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ voting\\ process\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Working\\ class\\ children\\ and\\ black\\ children\\ see\\ themselves\\ as\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ like\\ authority\\ and\\ are\\ less\\ trusting\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Socialization\\ to\\ Politics\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Moderate\\ between\\ parents\\ and\\ children\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ uncommon\\ to\\ hold\\ radically\\ different\\ views\\.\\ Most\\ people\\ share\\ the\\ same\\ party\\.\\ Normally\\ more\\ than\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ the\\ electorate\\ identify\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ political\\ party\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Emerging\\ evidence\\ that\\ parents\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ successful\\ as\\ they\\ used\\ to\\ be\\.\\ In\\ 1988\\ 72\\%\\ with\\ republican\\ parents\\ adopted\\ this\\ now\\ it\\ is\\ down\\ to\\ 56\\%\\.\\ Likely\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ conflict\\ and\\ will\\ result\\ in\\ claiming\\ Independent\\.\\ Party\\ ID\\ is\\ passed\\ most\\ successfully\\ from\\ parent\\ to\\ child\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Why\\ is\\ this\\ most\\ successful\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ For\\ most\\ people\\ party\\ ID\\ helps\\ parents\\.\\ As\\ a\\ consequence\\ it\\ is\\ chronically\\ salient\\.\\ Most\\ kids\\ are\\ aware\\ of\\ what\\ party\\ ID\\ is\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Impossible\\ to\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\ without\\ talking\\ about\\ the\\ study\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ parent\\-\\ child\\ socialization\\ study\\ done\\ by\\ Jennings\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ High\\ school\\ seniors\\ and\\ parents\\ that\\ began\\ in\\ 1965\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ subsequently\\ followed\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ longitudinal\\ study\\.\\ Allowed\\ research\\ to\\ examine\\ how\\ political\\ attitudes\\ evolve\\ over\\ a\\ life\\ course\\.\\ Provided\\ a\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ picture\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ a\\ later\\ snapshot\\.\\ Allowed\\ direct\\ comparison\\ of\\ a\\ younger\\ to\\ older\\ group\\ dealing\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ events\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\FINDINGS\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Only\\ moderate\\ transmission\\ of\\ political\\ issues\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Substantial\\ transmission\\ of\\ party\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Low\\ level\\ of\\ transmission\\ of\\ cynicism\\ because\\ younger\\ generation\\ is\\ more\\ trusting\\ of\\ government\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Learning\\ in\\ Adulthood\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ As\\ life\\ experiences\\ change\\ so\\ do\\ political\\ outlooks\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Level\\ of\\ trust\\ declines\\ substantially\\.\\ By\\ third\\ wave\\ of\\ interviews\\ trust\\ among\\ the\\ young\\ dropped\\ still\\ further\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Three\\ important\\ dynamics\\ in\\ adulthood\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\.\\ \\Generation\\ Effects\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ generations\\ or\\ birth\\ cohorts\\ may\\ differ\\ politically\\ in\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ experiences\\ that\\ are\\ onset\\ in\\ adulthood\\.\\ Opinions\\ of\\ entire\\ generation\\ of\\ people\\ can\\ be\\ affected\\ from\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 17\\-26\\.\\ Vietnam\\ Era\\ or\\ the\\ Great\\ Depression\\ of\\ 1930s\\ are\\ defining\\ unique\\ generations\\.\\ 1960s\\ has\\ been\\ the\\ focus\\ of\\ considerable\\ amount\\ of\\ study\\ and\\ is\\ more\\ supportive\\ of\\ government\\ involvement\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ distinctive\\ among\\ the\\ age\\ group\\ through\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ their\\ life\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\.\\ \\Lifestyle\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ change\\ as\\ they\\ grow\\ older\\.\\ When\\ people\\ get\\ more\\ politically\\ conservative\\ as\\ they\\ grow\\ older\\.\\ Each\\ new\\ generation\\ is\\ new\\ liberal\\ on\\ average\\ but\\ drifts\\ to\\ conservative\\ with\\ age\\.\\ Pull\\ toward\\ political\\ center\\ as\\ one\\ moves\\ through\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ While\\ learning\\ continues\\ through\\ life\\ reevaluation\\ is\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ happen\\ later\\ in\\ life\\.\\ Attachments\\ grow\\ stronger\\ over\\ time\\ rather\\ than\\ weaker\\.\\ Cannot\\ find\\ an\\ independent\\ in\\ a\\ nursing\\ home\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 3\\.\\ \\Period\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ time\\ dependent\\ effects\\ are\\ period\\ effects\\.\\ Period\\ effects\\ are\\ a\\ common\\ influence\\ at\\ all\\ ages\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ cycle\\.\\ Everyone\\ moves\\ in\\ tandum\\ to\\ the\\ ethos\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ 9\\/11\\ attacks\\ one\\ effect\\ of\\ attacks\\.\\ Short\\ term\\ changes\\ in\\ macro\\-level\\ opinion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Persistence\\ in\\ Adulthood\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Persistence\\ and\\ stability\\ in\\ adult\\ political\\ life\\.\\ One\\\u2019s\\ relative\\ position\\ to\\ one\\\u2019s\\ peers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\.\\ Poltical\\ attitudes\\ are\\ malleable\\ through\\ the\\ impressionable\\ years\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\.\\ After\\ the\\ impressionable\\ years\\ stability\\ increases\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Three\\ long\\ term\\ panel\\ surveys\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\1\\.\\ Benneton\\ College\\ Study\\:\\ young\\ women\\ from\\ conservative\\ homes\\ entered\\ this\\ college\\ with\\ a\\ liberal\\ faculty\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\2\\.\\ Terman\\ Gifted\\ Children\\ span\\ of\\ 37\\ years\\.\\ 65\\%\\ had\\ the\\ same\\ part\\ preference\\.\\ 54\\%\\ had\\ same\\ poltical\\ ideology\\.\\ Suffer\\ from\\ using\\ highly\\ unusual\\ samples\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\3\\.\\ Jennings\\ spans\\ 32\\ years\\.\\ Parental\\ group\\ highly\\ stable\\ of\\ political\\ attitudes\\ over\\ time\\ 75\\%\\ hold\\ same\\ party\\.\\ 17\\-25\\ numbers\\ shifted\\ mostly\\ to\\ independent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\SUMMARY\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Major\\ gap\\ we\\ know\\ very\\ little\\ in\\ how\\ the\\ process\\ actually\\ works\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\ Most\\ socialization\\ focuses\\ on\\ political\\ opinions\\ and\\ party\\ ID\\ how\\ these\\ actually\\ inspire\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\.4\\.09\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Guest\\ Lecture\\:\\ Civic\\ Education\\ and\\ Political\\ Participation\\ \\(\\<\\/b\\>Jenifer\\ Bachner\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Why\\ Civic\\ Education\\ Matters\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ TJ\\:\\ Public\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ well\\-informed\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Madison\\:\\ well\\ informed\\ government\\ gives\\ legitimacy\\ to\\ the\\ governmet\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\What\\ are\\ other\\ ways\\ people\\ can\\ learn\\ about\\ politics\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Parents\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Can\\ serve\\ as\\ role\\ models\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Explicitly\\ teach\\ their\\ children\\ about\\ politics\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Major\\ Events\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Presidential\\ elections\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Scandals\\ can\\ have\\ political\\ socialization\\ like\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ Watergate\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Politically\\ competitive\\ area\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mass\\ Media\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ West\\ Wing\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\We\\ should\\ not\\ study\\ these\\ things\\ individually\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\When\\ people\\ measure\\ effects\\ of\\ civil\\ education\\ they\\ use\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\1\\.\\ Political\\ knowledge\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\2\\.\\ Political\\ Participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Authors\\ looked\\ at\\ affect\\ of\\ kids\\ voting\\ curriculum\\.\\ Students\\ are\\ highly\\ encouraged\\ to\\ attend\\ polls\\ or\\ go\\ with\\ their\\ parents\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Studying\\ certain\\ curriculums\\.\\ These\\ places\\ are\\ interested\\ in\\ civics\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Key\\ independent\\ variable\\ is\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ civics\\ courses\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jennings\\ found\\ that\\ number\\ of\\ civics\\ courses\\ was\\ not\\ significant\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ How\\ can\\ this\\ be\\?\\ All\\ 50\\ states\\ require\\ that\\ this\\ be\\ taught\\ in\\ social\\ studies\\ or\\ as\\ its\\ own\\ course\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Civil\\ skills\\ are\\ critical\\ determinants\\ of\\ participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Problems\\ with\\ data\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Data\\ is\\ outdated\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Poor\\ measures\\ of\\ participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Exclusion\\ of\\ interactive\\ effects\\-\\ Under\\ what\\ conditions\\ does\\ civic\\ education\\ really\\ matter\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Address\\ problems\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Longitudinal\\ data\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Measuring\\ through\\ voting\\ and\\ being\\ registered\\ to\\ vote\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Three\\ tests\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\.\\ Is\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ civics\\ courses\\ associated\\ with\\ participation\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\.\\ Do\\ civics\\ courses\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ effect\\ on\\ participation\\ when\\ parent\\ politicization\\ is\\ low\\ \\(versus\\ high\\)\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 3\\.\\ Do\\ civics\\ courses\\ have\\ a\\ greater\\ effect\\ on\\ participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\30\\%\\ of\\ students\\ did\\ not\\ take\\ an\\ American\\ Government\\ course\\.\\ Most\\ students\\ took\\ a\\ semester\\ of\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Parental\\ interaction\\ has\\ a\\ strong\\ effect\\.\\ Parents\\ crowd\\ out\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ civics\\ because\\ you\\ are\\ living\\ at\\ home\\ with\\ their\\ parents\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\.9\\.09\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\The\\ \\\u201cMinimalist\\\u201d\\ American\\ Public\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\-high\\ response\\ instability\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\-we\\ need\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ the\\ logic\\ that\\ citizens\\ are\\ using\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\ROOTS\\ OF\\ PUBLIC\\ OPINION\\:\\ SELF\\ INTEREST\\ AND\\ VALUES\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Are\\ they\\ capable\\ of\\ holding\\ reasoned\\,\\ complex\\ reasons\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Do\\ people\\ support\\ those\\ policies\\ that\\ promote\\ their\\ own\\ private\\ gain\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Is\\ it\\ possible\\ that\\ policy\\ preferences\\ rise\\ with\\ little\\ connection\\ to\\ self\\ interest\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Self\\-\\ Interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u201cRational\\\u201d\\ decisions\\ making\\.\\ People\\ try\\ to\\ maximize\\ utility\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Goals\\ are\\ on\\ material\\ well\\-being\\ of\\ their\\ private\\ lives\\.\\ People\\ are\\ always\\ looking\\ out\\ for\\ number\\ one\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Measuring\\ Self\\ Interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Want\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ relate\\ direct\\ personal\\ impact\\ but\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ indirect\\ measures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Demographic\\ variables\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ The\\ urban\\ poor\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ job\\ programs\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Uninsured\\ adults\\ who\\ are\\ under\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ 65\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ universal\\ health\\ insurance\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Homeowners\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ benefit\\ from\\ home\\ owner\\ mortgage\\ cuts\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Class\\ lines\\ are\\ pretty\\ modest\\ but\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ pronounced\\ as\\ you\\ expect\\,\\ they\\ do\\ in\\ fact\\ exists\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ A\\ STUDY\\ FOUND\\ THAT\\ 75\\%\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ on\\ welfare\\ wanted\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ spending\\ on\\ welfare\\ than\\ 32\\%\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ not\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Self\\-Interest\\ Beyond\\ Economic\\ Policy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Policies\\ also\\ distribute\\ non\\ economic\\ cost\\ and\\ benefit\\.\\ For\\ example\\ smokers\\ and\\ gun\\ owners\\ have\\ views\\ on\\ policy\\.\\ Citizens\\ hold\\ opinions\\ on\\ issues\\ where\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ personal\\ stake\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Even\\ on\\ issues\\ with\\ probable\\ impact\\,\\ self\\-\\ interest\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ only\\ considerations\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Studies\\ of\\ opinion\\ about\\ busing\\ show\\ that\\ the\\ greatest\\ opposition\\ come\\ from\\ racial\\ attitudes\\ than\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ you\\ have\\ school\\ aged\\ children\\.\\ Young\\ adults\\ of\\ draft\\ age\\ are\\ not\\ the\\ ones\\ opposing\\ a\\ military\\ draft\\.\\ The\\ poll\\ of\\ self\\ interest\\ is\\ not\\ universal\\.\\ Individuals\\ have\\ trends\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ purely\\ self\\ interest\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ One\\ good\\ example\\ is\\ how\\ citizens\\ rate\\ presidential\\ performance\\.\\ It\\ is\\ common\\ knowledge\\ that\\ the\\ president\\\u2019s\\ approval\\ ratings\\ that\\ the\\ president\\\u2019s\\ approval\\ ratings\\ affect\\ those\\ tendencies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ It\\ is\\ thought\\ that\\ Presidential\\ approval\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ person\\\u2019s\\ pocket\\ book\\ but\\ actually\\ people\\\u2019s\\ personal\\ gains\\ or\\ losses\\ do\\ not\\ play\\ this\\ role\\.\\ People\\ reward\\ or\\ punish\\ the\\ president\\ on\\ their\\ perceptions\\ of\\ the\\ overall\\ state\\.\\ Those\\ type\\ of\\ responses\\ are\\ called\\ sociotropic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Social\\ Security\\ Experiment\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u201cNo\\ Prime\\\u201d\\ read\\ the\\ introduction\\ and\\ consider\\ how\\ the\\ policy\\ changes\\ would\\ affect\\ them\\ personally\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Researchers\\ compared\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ under\\ 60\\ and\\ 60\\ and\\ over\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ if\\ self\\ interest\\ is\\ at\\ work\\ than\\ the\\ older\\ people\\ would\\ want\\ to\\ raise\\ taxes\\ to\\ people\\ who\\ were\\ currently\\ working\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ pattern\\ you\\ see\\.\\ But\\ then\\ in\\ the\\ sociotropic\\ prime\\ you\\ see\\ the\\ opinion\\ varies\\ little\\ by\\ age\\.\\ You\\ now\\ have\\ a\\ clear\\ majority\\ of\\ people\\ raising\\ taxes\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ solution\\.\\ The\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ depends\\ on\\ how\\ the\\ issue\\ is\\ framed\\.\\ Self\\-interest\\ does\\ not\\ always\\ rule\\ the\\ day\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Beyond\\ Self\\ Interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Values\\ are\\ general\\ and\\ enduring\\ beliefs\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ should\\ work\\.\\ They\\ are\\ arrived\\ at\\ before\\ future\\ calculation\\ of\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ potential\\ range\\ of\\ values\\ is\\ vast\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Egalitarianism\\ \\(all\\ citizens\\ should\\ have\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ achieve\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Our\\ society\\ should\\ do\\ whatever\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ everyone\\ has\\ equal\\ opportunity\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ People\\ should\\ be\\ treated\\ more\\ equally\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ We\\ do\\ not\\ give\\ people\\ an\\ equal\\ chance\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ The\\ strength\\ of\\ support\\ is\\ overwhelming\\.\\ 89\\%\\ of\\ people\\ agree\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ statement\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ More\\ likely\\ to\\ support\\ poverty\\ programs\\,\\ health\\ and\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ More\\ likely\\ to\\ support\\ health\\ and\\ well\\ being\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Strong\\ effect\\ on\\ support\\ for\\ gay\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ explanation\\ for\\ the\\ racial\\ divide\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ There\\ are\\ enormous\\ differences\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\.\\ These\\ racial\\ differences\\ have\\ been\\ linked\\ to\\ social\\ welfare\\ differences\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0and\\ Individualism\\ \\(pull\\ yourself\\ up\\ by\\ your\\ boot\\ straps\\)\\ are\\ two\\ important\\ values\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ An\\ person\\ who\\ is\\ willing\\ to\\ work\\ hard\\ has\\ a\\ a\\ chance\\ of\\ succeeding\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Only\\ have\\ yourself\\ to\\ blame\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Clearly\\ emphasize\\ personal\\ effort\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Has\\ effects\\ only\\ in\\ few\\ policy\\ areas\\.\\ Individuals\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ oppose\\ welfare\\ spending\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Political\\ decisions\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ congruence\\ with\\ long\\ standing\\ values\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ their\\ current\\ economic\\ needs\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Values\\ are\\ abstract\\ concepts\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ difficult\\ to\\ measure\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Value\\ orientations\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ People\\ have\\ strong\\ value\\ commitments\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ value\\ but\\ liberty\\/equality\\ is\\ near\\ the\\ top\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ People\\ can\\ translate\\ values\\ to\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ What\\ else\\ do\\ we\\ know\\ about\\ values\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Moral\\ traditionalism\\ based\\ on\\ tradition\\,\\ family\\ and\\ social\\ organization\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ 2\\ parent\\ families\\ and\\ are\\ opposed\\ to\\ changing\\ family\\ norms\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Religious\\ Values\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ importance\\ of\\ values\\ derived\\ by\\ religious\\ commitments\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\/3\\ of\\ Americans\\ are\\ members\\ of\\ churches\\ and\\ are\\ frequent\\ church\\ goers\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\CONCLUSION\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Public\\ opinion\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ several\\ factors\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Self\\ interest\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sociotropic\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Personal\\ feelings\\ about\\ core\\ values\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\All\\ of\\ this\\ revives\\ an\\ image\\ as\\ citizens\\ as\\ more\\ sophisticated\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\.11\\.09\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Roots\\ of\\ Public\\ Opinion\\:\\ Racial\\ Attitudes\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\The\\ discussion\\ is\\ quite\\ polarized\\.\\ Today\\ our\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ documenting\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ group\\ based\\ thinking\\ influences\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ drives\\ politics\\ and\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Assessing\\ Role\\ of\\ Race\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Are\\ there\\ black\\/\\ white\\ differences\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Do\\ race\\-based\\ perceptions\\ influence\\ white\\ policy\\ preferences\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Looking\\ at\\ white\\ dominance\\ is\\ easy\\ but\\ also\\ clearly\\ the\\ opinions\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\ have\\ political\\ significance\\ in\\ a\\ democracy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Do\\ race\\-based\\ perceptions\\ influence\\ black\\ policy\\ preferences\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Preliminaries\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ discussion\\ is\\ premised\\ on\\ race\\ and\\ ethnicity\\ not\\ being\\ a\\ biological\\ concept\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ concept\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ largest\\ non\\ white\\ group\\ is\\ Latinos\\ as\\ of\\ 2000\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Blacks\\ are\\ 12\\%\\ of\\ the\\ population\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 4\\%\\ Asian\\ Americans\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Difference\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ profound\\ political\\ division\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ is\\ between\\ blacks\\ and\\ whites\\ could\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ 35\\-50\\ percent\\ points\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Racial\\ and\\ non\\ racial\\ issues\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Partisanship\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Core\\ values\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\All\\ of\\ these\\ disparities\\ have\\ existed\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Racial\\ Policy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Up\\ until\\ the\\ 1970s\\ the\\ American\\ racial\\ politics\\ was\\ narrowly\\ centered\\ on\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ segregation\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1964\\ asked\\ is\\ favor\\ of\\ segregation\\ 27\\%\\ of\\ white\\ were\\ supportive\\ of\\ complete\\ desegregation\\ 73\\%\\ blacks\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1978\\ support\\ among\\ whites\\ for\\ segregation\\ dropped\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ a\\ sharp\\ divide\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Affirmative\\ action\\ is\\ especially\\ unpopular\\ among\\ whites\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Depends\\ on\\ question\\ wording\\.\\ Esp\\.\\ sensitive\\ to\\ policy\\ wording\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ These\\ opinion\\ gaps\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ preceptions\\ of\\ still\\ discrimination\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 68\\%\\ of\\ blacks\\ think\\ that\\ racism\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ major\\ problem\\ in\\ society\\ compared\\ to\\ 38\\%\\ whites\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\in\\ short\\ blacks\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ whites\\ to\\ see\\ discrimination\\ as\\ an\\ everyday\\ occurrence\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ factors\\ driving\\ the\\ racial\\ divide\\ in\\ support\\ for\\ some\\ of\\ these\\ remedies\\.\\ Blacks\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ ones\\ to\\ takes\\ the\\ liberal\\ position\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\The\\ most\\ substantial\\ black\\ white\\ differences\\ emerge\\ over\\ domestic\\ spending\\ issues\\ and\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ government\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Too\\ little\\ spending\\ on\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Blacks\\ are\\ more\\ liberal\\ than\\ whites\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ clear\\ bi\\-racial\\ majority\\.\\ They\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ side\\ but\\ are\\ more\\ liberal\\ and\\ more\\ progressive\\.\\ This\\ changes\\ when\\ you\\ are\\ looking\\ at\\ welfare\\ and\\ spending\\ on\\ cities\\ where\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ racial\\ divide\\ is\\ really\\ pronounced\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Blacks\\ think\\ too\\ much\\ money\\ is\\ being\\ spent\\ on\\ defense\\ and\\ too\\ little\\ money\\ on\\ foreign\\ aid\\.\\ 74\\%\\ blacks\\ think\\ that\\ war\\ is\\ not\\ worth\\ fighting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Racial\\ divide\\ in\\ the\\ vote\\ and\\ party\\ participation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 84\\%\\ of\\ blacks\\ are\\ Democrats\\.\\ More\\ likely\\ to\\ identify\\ as\\ independents\\ than\\ republicans\\.\\ There\\ are\\ only\\ 5\\%\\ republicans\\.\\ They\\ usually\\ vote\\ democratic\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ whites\\ are\\ fairly\\ evenly\\ divided\\ between\\ R\\ and\\ D\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Kinder\\ and\\ Winter\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Consider\\ explanations\\ for\\ racial\\ divide\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Complex\\ picture\\ of\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ core\\ values\\ or\\ by\\ explicit\\ group\\ based\\ values\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Group\\ attitudes\\ are\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ explaining\\ the\\ black\\ white\\ difference\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\How\\ important\\ is\\ group\\-based\\ thinking\\ among\\ white\\ americans\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Modern\\ racism\\ thesis\\<\\/b\\>\\:\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ brand\\ new\\ racism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ argument\\ says\\ during\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\ old\\ fashion\\ racism\\ has\\ declined\\ like\\ the\\ belief\\ of\\ inferiority\\ of\\ blacks\\-\\ biologically\\.\\ But\\ americans\\ today\\ are\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ endorse\\ old\\ fashioned\\ racism\\.\\ But\\ while\\ old\\ fashion\\ racism\\ has\\ decreased\\,\\ scholars\\ contend\\ a\\ new\\ form\\ of\\ racisl\\ prejudice\\ has\\ formed\\.\\ This\\ is\\ matters\\ of\\ moral\\ character\\ and\\ traditions\\ of\\ individualism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Discrimination\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ issue\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Blacks\\ are\\ too\\ lazy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ They\\ have\\ received\\ unearned\\ things\\ form\\ government\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Racial\\ resentment\\-\\ Don\\ Kinder\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Instead\\ of\\ blaming\\ biological\\ factors\\ it\\ blames\\ lack\\ of\\ work\\ ethic\\ for\\ continued\\ inequalities\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Feeling\\ that\\ blacks\\ should\\ be\\ grateful\\ for\\ government\\ actions\\ on\\ their\\ behalf\\ after\\ civil\\ rights\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Measuring\\ Racial\\ Resentment\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Denial\\ of\\ continuing\\ racial\\ discrimination\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Blacks\\ should\\ work\\ harder\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Excessive\\ demands\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Undeserved\\ advantage\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ These\\ items\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ appropriate\\ way\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ concept\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ white\\ Americans\\ who\\ demonstrate\\ racial\\ resentment\\ when\\ asked\\ these\\ questions\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ Irish\\,\\ Italian\\,\\ Jewish\\ overcame\\ prejudice\\ 77\\%\\ whites\\ say\\ blacks\\ should\\ rise\\ like\\ these\\ groups\\ did\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ 59\\%\\ believe\\ blacks\\ should\\ try\\ harder\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\ disagree\\ with\\ blacks\\ getting\\ less\\ than\\ they\\ deserve\\ 55\\%\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ strong\\ influence\\ on\\ policy\\ issues\\ dealing\\ with\\ race\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ White\\ citizens\\ who\\ are\\ more\\ racially\\ resentful\\ are\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ oppose\\ racial\\ resentment\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ blacks\\ score\\ high\\ on\\ these\\ questions\\ 47\\%\\ of\\ blacks\\ agree\\ with\\ irish\\,\\ Italian\\ question\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ White\\ americans\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ than\\ blacks\\ to\\ think\\ of\\ affirmative\\ action\\ as\\ special\\ favors\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ counter\\ balance\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ power\\ of\\ racial\\ prejudice\\ to\\ shape\\ policies\\ goes\\ beyond\\.\\ Racial\\ resentment\\ can\\ predict\\ race\\ neutral\\ policies\\ like\\ gov\\.\\ assistance\\ to\\ help\\ poor\\ people\\.\\ Whites\\ who\\ score\\ high\\ on\\ racial\\ resentment\\ also\\ do\\ not\\ really\\ support\\ food\\ stamps\\ and\\ welfare\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ class\\ is\\ linked\\ with\\ black\\ americans\\.\\ Welfare\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ policy\\.\\ Gillins\\ argues\\ that\\ welfare\\ is\\ a\\ classic\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ policy\\ that\\ became\\ racially\\ coded\\.\\ Opposition\\ of\\ welfare\\ stems\\ from\\ racial\\ attitudes\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Movement\\ of\\ southern\\ whites\\ into\\ the\\ republican\\ party\\ after\\ the\\ Reagan\\ era\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ If\\ it\\ were\\ not\\ due\\ to\\ racial\\ resentment\\ then\\ Obama\\ would\\ have\\ had\\ 6\\ more\\ points\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Nonracial\\ conservatism\\ political\\ values\\ are\\ more\\ important\\ influences\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Modern\\ racism\\ overlooks\\ the\\ politics\\ behind\\ the\\ policies\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Kinder\\ arguments\\ about\\ racial\\ resentment\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ the\\ sole\\ reason\\ but\\ they\\ feel\\ strongly\\ that\\ it\\ predicts\\ white\\ policy\\ attitudes\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ agenda\\ of\\ the\\ civil\\ rights\\ movement\\ has\\ changed\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Americans\\ don\\\u2019t\\ want\\ government\\ intrusion\\ regardless\\ of\\ the\\ target\\ group\\.\\ Prevent\\ whites\\ from\\ translating\\ an\\ abstract\\ commitment\\ for\\ racial\\ equality\\.\\ Modern\\ racism\\ mistaken\\ liberal\\ form\\ of\\ remedies\\ with\\ far\\ less\\ controversial\\ stance\\.\\ Point\\ to\\ examples\\ of\\ the\\ disconnect\\ of\\ affirmative\\ action\\ for\\ women\\ and\\ minority\\ groups\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ reasons\\ for\\ these\\ gaps\\.\\ People\\ might\\ not\\ be\\ looking\\ at\\ race\\.\\ Why\\ is\\ this\\ hard\\ to\\ measure\\?\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ people\\ word\\ the\\ questions\\.\\ When\\ we\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ measure\\ racial\\ differences\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ other\\ issues\\?\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Lecture\\ 3\\.16\\.09\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Nonracial\\ Conservatism\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>modern\\ racism\\ thesis\\ overlooks\\ the\\ politics\\ behind\\ policies\\.\\ New\\ civil\\ rights\\ agenda\\ emphasizes\\ equal\\ outcomes\\,\\ and\\ requires\\ activist\\ government\\.\\ White\\ opposition\\ to\\ \\(liberal\\)\\ racial\\ policies\\ derives\\ from\\ their\\ incompatibility\\ with\\ values\\ of\\ equality\\ and\\ individualism\\,\\ and\\ from\\ anti\\-statist\\ orientations\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Where\\ there\\ is\\ agreement\\ is\\ that\\ group\\ attitudes\\ play\\ some\\ role\\ in\\ explaining\\ white\\ americans\\ policy\\ agreement\\.\\ How\\ would\\ you\\ actually\\ go\\ about\\ identifying\\ when\\ attitudes\\ are\\ modern\\ racists\\ and\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ non\\ racist\\ and\\ the\\ extent\\ to\\ which\\ group\\ based\\ thinking\\ revives\\ on\\ rational\\ decision\\ making\\ or\\ does\\ it\\ prevent\\ a\\ challenge\\ for\\ American\\ democracy\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Black\\ based\\ thinking\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Very\\ distinctive\\.\\ They\\ are\\ more\\ left\\-leaning\\ than\\ whites\\ and\\ are\\ politically\\ homogenous\\ as\\ a\\ group\\.\\ Democratic\\ voting\\ exceeds\\ democratic\\ party\\ association\\.\\ They\\ are\\ more\\ supportive\\ of\\ social\\ welfare\\ spending\\.\\ All\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ a\\ left\\ economical\\ group\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ tremendous\\ political\\ homogeneity\\ among\\ the\\ group\\-\\ it\\ persists\\ despite\\ growing\\ socio\\ economic\\ heterogeniety\\.\\ 84\\%\\ self\\ identify\\ as\\ Democrats\\.\\ Black\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ has\\ fostered\\ group\\ consciousness\\ and\\ they\\ think\\ about\\ the\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ racial\\ group\\ rather\\ than\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\.\\ Black\\ church\\ and\\ media\\ advance\\ this\\ strong\\ level\\ of\\ racial\\ group\\ consciousness\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\For\\ whites\\ we\\ saw\\ social\\ class\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ predicting\\ social\\ welfare\\ opinions\\.\\ Upper\\ income\\ African\\ americans\\ are\\ as\\ supportive\\ as\\ low\\ class\\ blacks\\ for\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\ Higher\\ income\\ blacks\\ are\\ not\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ republican\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\ social\\ class\\ it\\ is\\ racial\\ identification\\ that\\ have\\ an\\ impact\\.\\ Their\\ own\\ fate\\ to\\ fate\\ of\\ racial\\ group\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ blacks\\ with\\ a\\ strong\\ identification\\ will\\ favor\\ redrawing\\ re\\-district\\ lines\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\For\\ both\\ groups\\ race\\ based\\ perceptions\\ influence\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ The\\ crucial\\ difference\\ in\\ thinking\\ about\\ white\\ and\\ black\\-\\ for\\ whites\\ the\\ racial\\ attitudes\\ involve\\ out\\-group\\ animus\\ and\\ blacks\\ in\\-group\\ biased\\.\\ A\\ common\\ question\\ is\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ in\\ group\\ bias\\ also\\ conceals\\ hostility\\ toward\\ out\\ groups\\?\\ Like\\ against\\ whites\\ or\\ other\\ minorities\\?\\ Not\\ many\\ studies\\ of\\ this\\ but\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ and\\ have\\ found\\ no\\ evidence\\ of\\ blacks\\ holding\\ negative\\ opinions\\ about\\ whites\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Caveats\\:\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Difficult\\ to\\ identify\\.\\ Challenges\\ confront\\ analyst\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Social\\ desirability\\ \\<\\/b\\>strong\\ social\\ norms\\ about\\ racial\\ animus\\.\\ People\\ have\\ learned\\ it\\ is\\ socially\\ unacceptable\\ to\\ express\\ racist\\ opinions\\-\\ this\\ is\\ social\\ progress\\ but\\ it\\ makes\\ research\\ harder\\.\\ We\\ may\\ be\\ underestimating\\ racial\\ animus\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Not\\ easy\\ to\\ define\\ what\\ counts\\ as\\ a\\ racial\\ issue\\<\\/b\\>\\ certain\\ issues\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ explicitly\\ stated\\ as\\ race\\ are\\ race\\ to\\ some\\ people\\.\\ Law\\ and\\ order\\/\\ welfare\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ practical\\ consequences\\ is\\ political\\ candidates\\ can\\ make\\ appeals\\ to\\ activate\\ racial\\ attitudes\\ without\\ using\\ racist\\ language\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Policy\\ issues\\ are\\ complex\\ \\<\\/b\\>they\\ contain\\ multiple\\ stimuli\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Very\\ few\\ black\\ or\\ latino\\ respondents\\ included\\ in\\ national\\ surveys\\ \\<\\/b\\>we\\ know\\ more\\ about\\ whites\\ than\\ minority\\ groups\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ public\\ opinion\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Conclusions\\ are\\ always\\ a\\ bit\\ tentative\\ but\\ a\\ few\\ things\\ emerge\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Logic\\ underlying\\ political\\ attitudes\\ in\\ group\\ base\\.\\ Race\\ is\\ central\\ component\\ of\\ American\\ political\\ decision\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Deeply\\ influence\\ public\\ opinion\\ in\\ us\\ racial\\ resentment\\ and\\ such\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Yes\\ the\\ absences\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ ideological\\ dimension\\ does\\ not\\ mean\\ a\\ total\\ lack\\ of\\ coherence\\.\\ Racial\\ attitudes\\ help\\ shape\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\ROOTS\\ OF\\ PUBLIC\\ OPINION\\:\\ GENDER\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Degree\\ on\\ which\\ gender\\ matters\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\.\\ Is\\ there\\ a\\ gender\\ gap\\?\\ If\\ so\\ how\\ much\\ and\\ why\\?\\ Do\\ beliefs\\ about\\ gender\\ roles\\ shape\\ public\\ opinion\\?\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Definitions\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Gender\\ Gap\\:\\ \\<\\/b\\>refers\\ to\\ differences\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ in\\ political\\ attitudes\\,\\ beliefs\\,\\ values\\,\\ policy\\ preferences\\,\\ issue\\ agendas\\,\\ political\\ party\\ and\\ voting\\\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Evidence\\ has\\ been\\ around\\ since\\ 1950s\\<\\/b\\>\\ women\\ were\\ voting\\ more\\ republican\\ than\\ men\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Johnson\\ Goldwater\\ election\\ during\\ the\\ 60s\\ and\\ 70s\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\1976\\ the\\ gap\\ briefly\\ disappeared\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Reagan\\ Carter\\ election\\ everyone\\ started\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ around\\ for\\ 50\\ years\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\High\\ water\\ mark\\ in\\ Clinton\\ re\\-election\\ and\\ since\\ the\\ Clinton\\ years\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ has\\ declined\\ to\\ 7\\ percentage\\ points\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\The\\ partisan\\ cleavage\\ is\\ a\\ significant\\ political\\ division\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Size\\ of\\ gender\\ gap\\ 14\\ and\\ 7\\ point\\ difference\\ does\\ not\\ rival\\ racial\\ differences\\ which\\ are\\ 30\\,40\\,\\ 50\\ points\\ but\\ the\\ difference\\ is\\ that\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ election\\ influences\\.\\ Since\\ 1980\\ women\\ vote\\ at\\ a\\ higher\\ rate\\ than\\ men\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Also\\ evident\\ across\\ demographic\\ groups\\.\\ Married\\ and\\ unmarried\\,\\ college\\ educated\\ and\\ not\\.\\ It\\ is\\ everywhere\\.\\ Bush\\ attracted\\ 50\\ points\\ from\\ whites\\ over\\ 30\\ education\\,\\ suburbs\\.\\ Bush\\ attracted\\ women\\ white\\ 30\\-34\\ married\\ women\\ and\\ college\\ education\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Also\\ evident\\ after\\ election\\ has\\ passed\\.\\ Presidential\\ approval\\ oldest\\ time\\ series\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\ data\\.\\ Partisan\\ gender\\ gap\\ is\\ nearly\\ as\\ large\\ in\\ voting\\ for\\ house\\ and\\ senate\\.\\ House\\ and\\ senate\\ varies\\ more\\ substantially\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Women\\ have\\ been\\ more\\ democratic\\ then\\ men\\ by\\ 10\\ points\\ since\\ 1988\\.\\ In\\ 50s\\ women\\ were\\ more\\ republican\\ but\\ now\\ more\\ D\\.\\ this\\ D\\ tendency\\ is\\ esp\\.\\ pronounced\\ with\\ unmarried\\ and\\ uneducated\\ women\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Partisan\\ differences\\ between\\ genders\\ focuses\\ on\\ use\\ of\\ force\\ issues\\ in\\ fp\\ and\\ militart\\ women\\ are\\ less\\ supportive\\ of\\ defense\\ spending\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ more\\ reliant\\ than\\ men\\ on\\ the\\ social\\ welfare\\ state\\.\\ Men\\ are\\ consistently\\ more\\ conservative\\ than\\ women\\ about\\ size\\ and\\ extent\\ of\\ women\\.\\ Economic\\ issues\\ really\\ drive\\ vote\\ choice\\.\\ Most\\ accounts\\ of\\ the\\ gender\\ gap\\ play\\ a\\ role\\ on\\ sustaining\\ it\\.\\ As\\ greater\\ number\\ of\\ women\\ had\\ entered\\ the\\ workforce\\ women\\ were\\ becoming\\ more\\ attuned\\ to\\ their\\ political\\ agenda\\ but\\ that\\ explanation\\ has\\ not\\ faired\\ very\\ well\\ when\\ subjected\\ to\\ rigorous\\ testing\\.\\ As\\ it\\ turns\\ out\\ feminist\\ values\\ are\\ equally\\ unimportant\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Women\\ today\\ retain\\ the\\ same\\ part\\ ID\\ and\\ voting\\ profile\\ of\\ women\\ 50\\ years\\ ago\\.\\ The\\ d\\ bias\\ was\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ movement\\ of\\ white\\ men\\ to\\ the\\ republican\\ party\\.\\ Between\\ 1952\\ and\\ 2004\\ there\\ was\\ enormous\\ movement\\ from\\ men\\ from\\ R\\ to\\ D\\ party\\.\\ Most\\ of\\ that\\ decline\\ came\\ between\\ 1964\\ and\\ 1968\\ and\\ since\\ then\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ fluctuating\\ between\\ a\\ 5\\ point\\ interval\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Issue\\ opinion\\ differences\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ Gender\\ gap\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ relative\\ salience\\ of\\ different\\ attitudes\\.\\ Women\\ have\\ distaste\\ for\\ military\\ force\\-\\ all\\ of\\ this\\ data\\ comes\\ from\\ 2004\\.\\ Stricter\\ on\\ violence\\-\\ W\\.\\ W\\ respond\\ differently\\ to\\ domestic\\ issues\\.\\ Men\\ are\\ more\\ conservative\\ than\\ women\\ on\\ most\\ social\\ welfare\\ things\\ you\\ see\\ it\\ on\\ social\\ security\\ and\\ welfare\\ spending\\.\\ The\\ gender\\ gap\\ on\\ these\\ policy\\ items\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ modest\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\On\\ civil\\ rights\\ issues\\ you\\ also\\ see\\ some\\ gender\\ issues\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Gay\\ rights\\ women\\ are\\ more\\ liberal\\ by\\ 10\\ points\\.\\ Gender\\ differences\\ are\\ evident\\ and\\ more\\ pronounced\\ with\\ affirmative\\ action\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\Women\\ and\\ men\\ are\\ quite\\ like\\ minded\\ in\\ gender\\ issues\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Abortion\\<\\/b\\>\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ difference\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ Immediate\\ implications\\ is\\ that\\ abortion\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ separates\\ D\\ from\\ R\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\Variety\\ of\\ Explanations\\ for\\ gender\\ gap\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Women\\ and\\ men\\ are\\ socialized\\ with\\ norms\\ which\\ make\\ their\\ core\\ values\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>Men\\ competitive\\,\\ aggressive\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Impact\\ of\\ differences\\ in\\ roles\\ in\\ social\\ situations\\ \\<\\/b\\>women\\ responsible\\ for\\ children\\ and\\ dependents\\ on\\ a\\ day\\ to\\ day\\.\\ Caregivers\\.\\ Women\\ are\\ concentrated\\ in\\ certain\\ kinds\\ of\\ jobs\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ turn\\ might\\ shape\\ their\\ political\\ attitudes\\.\\ \\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Differential\\ treatment\\ and\\ discrimination\\<\\/b\\>\\ these\\ experiences\\ may\\ influence\\ their\\ political\\ views\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\What\\ is\\ driving\\ the\\ year\\ to\\ year\\ fluctuation\\ since\\ 1988\\?\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\1\\.\\ these\\ differences\\ can\\ be\\ relatively\\ modest\\.\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\\2\\.\\ in\\ the\\ aggregate\\ thes", "course_id": 96, "file_path": "", "desc": "These Are All the Lecture Notes Combined in One File"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:55.058219+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Final Study Guide", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 840, "html": "\\\\\\\\\nChapter\\ 4\\,\\ \\\u201cMusic\\ and\\ Migration\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\nMain\\ points\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ travels\\ easily\\ with\\ migrating\\ communities\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ portable\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ transmitted\\ orally\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ musical\\ styles\\ are\\ maintained\\ when\\ groups\\ migrate\\;\\ others\\ are\\ transformed\\ or\\ discarded\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Musicmaking\\ can\\ embody\\ and\\ reenact\\ the\\ migration\\ process\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ commemorate\\ the\\ homeland\\ left\\ behind\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nIntroduction\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ is\\ closely\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ migration\\ process\\ because\\\u2026\\\\\no\\ Music\\ is\\ portable\\.\\ When\\ people\\ are\\ forced\\ to\\ migrate\\,\\ songs\\,\\ dances\\,\\ and\\ memories\\ of\\ their\\ musical\\ life\\ may\\ be\\ among\\ their\\ few\\ surviving\\ possessions\\\\\no\\ In\\ recent\\ years\\,\\ modern\\ transportation\\ has\\ allowed\\ mass\\ movements\\ to\\ occur\\ more\\ quickly\\\\\no\\ Recorded\\ music\\ from\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ changing\\ technologies\\ have\\ reinforced\\ musical\\ transmission\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Immigrant\\ communities\\ are\\ often\\ called\\ \\\u201cdiaspora\\ communities\\\u201d\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Improved\\ communications\\ and\\ opportunities\\ for\\ travel\\ have\\ allowed\\ travel\\ between\\ new\\ home\\ and\\ ancestral\\ homeland\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ People\\ move\\ for\\ different\\ reasons\\ and\\ settle\\ for\\ varying\\ lengths\\ of\\ time\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Forced\\ migration\\ \\(happens\\ more\\)\\ and\\ voluntary\\ migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ other\\ factors\\,\\ not\\ just\\ forced\\/voluntary\\,\\ can\\ affect\\ the\\ sound\\,\\ setting\\,\\ and\\ significance\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nVoluntary\\ Migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ By\\ choice\\ motivated\\ by\\ an\\ attraction\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ locale\\\\\no\\ Many\\ to\\ North\\ America\\ for\\ religious\\ and\\ economic\\ opportunities\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 17th\\ century\\ British\\ migrants\\ brought\\ ballads\\ to\\ Virginia\\ and\\ Kentucky\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Oral\\ transmission\\ \\(from\\ person\\ to\\ person\\)\\ vs\\.\\ written\\ transmission\\ \\(through\\ song\\ texts\\)\\\\\no\\ They\\ often\\ overlap\\ e\\.g\\.\\ Chinese\\ folk\\ songs\\ in\\ which\\ oral\\ transmission\\ is\\ supported\\ by\\ songbooks\\ containing\\ the\\ texts\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Chinese\\ Migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Voluntary\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Began\\ around\\ 1850\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ attraction\\,\\ or\\ \\\u201cpull\\,\\\u201d\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\\\\no\\ First\\ wave\\ of\\ immigrants\\ were\\ attracted\\ by\\ the\\ California\\ gold\\ rush\\\\\no\\ 1860s\\,\\ to\\ help\\ construct\\ transcontinental\\ railroad\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Also\\ \\\u201cpush\\\u201d\\ factors\\ that\\ drove\\ them\\ away\\ of\\ their\\ homeland\\\u2026\\\\\no\\ Political\\ anarchy\\,\\ famine\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ crisis\\ in\\ mid\\-nineteenth\\ century\\ China\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Lots\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ intolerance\\.\\ Only\\ in\\ 1960s\\,\\ were\\ restrictions\\ eased\\ through\\ the\\ Refugee\\ Relief\\ Acts\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ immigrants\\ considered\\ themselves\\ temporary\\ sojourners\\\u2026\\ most\\ were\\ motivated\\ by\\ economic\\ gain\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ return\\ home\\ rich\\\\\no\\ Thus\\,\\ they\\ were\\ strongly\\ motivated\\ to\\ maintain\\ the\\ cultural\\ traditions\\ of\\ the\\ homeland\\\\\no\\ However\\,\\ many\\ spent\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ their\\ lives\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ LG41\\,\\ \\\u201cUncle\\ Ng\\ Comes\\ to\\ the\\ Gold\\ Mountain\\\u201d\\\u2026\\ relives\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ Chinese\\ migration\\ process\\\\\no\\ Belongs\\ to\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ compositions\\ called\\ muyu\\,\\ transmitted\\ both\\ orally\\ and\\ in\\ written\\ traiditon\\\\\no\\ Uncle\\ Ng\\ continued\\ to\\ sing\\ of\\ his\\ dream\\ of\\ becoming\\ rich\\ and\\ making\\ enough\\ money\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Taishan\\\\\no\\ He\\ maintained\\ the\\ longtime\\ tradition\\ of\\ immigrant\\ Taishanese\\ who\\ felt\\ responsible\\ to\\ their\\ homeland\\ and\\ their\\ relatives\\\\\no\\ Muyu\\ sung\\ by\\ men\\ or\\ women\\,\\ public\\ and\\ private\\\\\no\\ Provides\\ insights\\ into\\ both\\ the\\ attraction\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ the\\ difficult\\ circumstances\\ at\\ home\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ his\\ migration\\\\\no\\ Transmits\\ valuable\\ info\\ about\\ modern\\ process\\ of\\ immigration\\.\\ Also\\ conveys\\ ideas\\ about\\ immigration\\ that\\ reflect\\ the\\ older\\ goal\\ of\\ the\\ sojourner\\ who\\ wishes\\ to\\ return\\ home\\ rich\\\\\no\\ Often\\ adds\\ vocables\\ to\\ the\\ text\\ when\\ performing\\ muyu\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ Arab\\ Migration\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Began\\ as\\ voluntary\\,\\ then\\ at\\ some\\ later\\ point\\ included\\ some\\ forced\\ migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Immigrants\\ from\\ Greater\\ Syria\\ discovered\\ an\\ \\\u201centrepreneurial\\ Eden\\\u201d\\ in\\ American\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1870s\\\\\no\\ Economic\\ downturn\\ caused\\ by\\ opening\\ of\\ Suez\\ Canal\\ in\\ 1869\\,\\ and\\ the\\ breakup\\ of\\ the\\ Ottoman\\ empire\\ in\\ 1917\\ were\\ the\\ final\\ precipitating\\ events\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2nd\\ wave\\ of\\ immigrants\\ included\\ some\\ who\\ were\\ forced\\ after\\ being\\ dislocated\\ by\\ the\\ Arab\\-Israeli\\ conflict\\ in\\ 1948\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cChain\\ migration\\\u201d\\\u2026\\ individuals\\ sent\\ for\\ other\\ family\\ members\\ and\\ friends\\\u2026\\ contributed\\ to\\ formation\\ of\\ large\\ Arab\\ American\\ communities\\ in\\ Detroit\\ and\\ New\\ York\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Constant\\ flow\\ of\\ people\\ until\\ 1924\\ kept\\ connections\\ with\\ homeland\\ alive\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Importing\\ and\\ publishing\\ recordings\\ \\\u00e0\\ musical\\ styles\\ traveled\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ from\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ homeland\\ \\\u2013\\ Syria\\,\\ Lebanon\\,\\ Egypt\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Lebanese\\ singer\\ Hanan\\ Harouni\\ settled\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ mid\\-1940s\\\u2026\\ she\\ brought\\ the\\ vocal\\ quality\\ and\\ ornaments\\ typical\\ of\\ Lebanese\\ traditional\\ music\\ to\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\\\\no\\ LG42\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Accompanied\\ by\\ mostly\\ immigrants\\,\\ including\\ Arab\\ Muslim\\,\\ Christian\\,\\ Iraqi\\-born\\ Jewish\\ musicians\\\u2026\\ shows\\ the\\ various\\ national\\ and\\ religious\\ backgrounds\\ in\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ Arab\\ music\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Song\\ called\\ mawwal\\\u2026\\ traditional\\ Arab\\ form\\ that\\ alternates\\ sections\\ of\\ free\\ and\\ regular\\ rhythms\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Set\\ in\\ Arab\\ mode\\,\\ huzam\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Is\\ colloquial\\ in\\ language\\ and\\ content\\,\\ commenting\\ on\\ the\\ pain\\ of\\ migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Accompanied\\ by\\ Arab\\ lute\\ and\\ zither\\ \\\u2013\\ \\\u2018ud\\ and\\ qanum\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Live\\ concerts\\ of\\ Arab\\ music\\ featuring\\ famous\\ musicians\\ from\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ are\\ often\\ mounted\\ e\\.g\\.\\ famous\\ Lebanese\\ singer\\ Fairuz\\ at\\ the\\ Garden\\ Arena\\ of\\ the\\ MGM\\ Grand\\ in\\ Vegas\\\\\no\\ Fairuz\\ has\\ long\\ represented\\ Lebanon\\ and\\ the\\ Middle\\ East\\ through\\ her\\ musical\\ performances\\\\\no\\ In\\ her\\ Vegas\\ concert\\,\\ she\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ an\\ ensemble\\ that\\ included\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ instruments\\ and\\ Western\\ instruments\\.\\ Such\\ an\\ event\\ reconnects\\ the\\ Lebanese\\ and\\ other\\ Arab\\ Americans\\ with\\ their\\ Middle\\ Eastern\\ homelands\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nForced\\ migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Set\\ into\\ motion\\ by\\ \\\u201cpush\\\u201d\\ factors\\ beyond\\ individual\\ or\\ community\\ control\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Often\\ result\\ from\\ violent\\ or\\ disastrous\\ events\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ African\\ Forced\\ Migrations\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Conquest\\ and\\ slavery\\ continue\\ to\\ reverberate\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ American\\ life\\ and\\ musical\\ styles\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ From\\ 1619\\ when\\ the\\ first\\ ship\\ carrying\\ African\\ slaves\\ arrived\\ in\\ Jamestown\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ musical\\ repertories\\ show\\ traces\\ of\\ the\\ painful\\ experiences\\ during\\ the\\ slave\\ era\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ influential\\ is\\ the\\ black\\ spiritual\\\u2026\\\\\no\\ The\\ musical\\ expression\\ of\\ slaves\\ converted\\ to\\ New\\ World\\ Christianity\\ from\\ 18th\\ century\\ to\\ early\\ 19th\\ century\\\\\no\\ Most\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\ of\\ these\\ songs\\ dates\\ from\\ the\\ period\\ around\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\\\\no\\ 1868\\,\\ first\\ collection\\ of\\ spirituals\\ edited\\ by\\ William\\ Francis\\ Allen\\,\\ was\\ published\\\u2026\\ preserved\\ and\\ romanticized\\ the\\ memory\\ of\\ the\\ slaves\\\u2019\\ music\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ written\\ notation\\ alone\\ could\\ not\\,\\ however\\,\\ show\\ the\\ distinctive\\ vocal\\ style\\ or\\ subtle\\ variations\\ in\\ intonation\\ and\\ pitch\\ of\\ the\\ oral\\ renditions\\\\\no\\ Some\\ spirituals\\ might\\ have\\ been\\ sung\\ in\\ a\\ heterophonic\\ texture\\ or\\ with\\ a\\ soloist\\ and\\ chorus\\ alternating\\ \\(\\\u201ccall\\-and\\-response\\\u201d\\)\\\\\no\\ Transmitted\\ through\\ oral\\ tradition\\ with\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ improvisation\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ By\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ spiritual\\ was\\ transmitted\\ in\\ many\\ different\\ contexts\\ and\\ in\\ contrasting\\ musical\\ styles\\ e\\.g\\.\\ LG43\\ Nobody\\ Knows\\\\\no\\ 1st\\ example\\ by\\ Huddle\\ Ledbetter\\.\\ Recorded\\ while\\ in\\ jail\\.\\\\\no\\ 2nd\\ example\\ by\\ Paul\\ Robeson\\,\\ who\\ attended\\ Rutgers\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ JD\\ from\\ Columbia\\.\\ Recorded\\ in\\ a\\ concert\\ hall\\.\\ His\\ version\\ provides\\ great\\ contrast\\ in\\ temp\\,\\ rhythm\\ and\\ vocal\\ style\\ to\\ Ledbetter\\\u2019s\\,\\ showing\\ the\\ dramatically\\ different\\ channels\\ of\\ transmission\\ for\\ the\\ same\\ song\\ within\\ the\\ African\\ American\\ community\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ both\\ versions\\ give\\ expression\\ to\\ a\\ shared\\ heritage\\ of\\ suffering\\ stemming\\ from\\ slavery\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ strong\\ influence\\ of\\ Christian\\ belief\\.\\\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Vietnamese\\ Migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Forced\\ migration\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ French\\ control\\ of\\ Vietnam\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ declaration\\ of\\ independence\\ by\\ Ho\\ Chi\\ Minh\\ in\\ 1945\\ and\\ the\\ subsequent\\ fighting\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ defeat\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ and\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ Vietnam\\ in\\ 1954\\\u2026\\ North\\ and\\ South\\ divided\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Vietnam\\ war\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ U\\.S\\.\\ involvement\\ ended\\ by\\ the\\ 1973\\ peace\\ talks\\ in\\ Paris\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1975\\ Saigon\\,\\ capital\\ of\\ South\\ Vietnam\\,\\ fell\\ to\\ the\\ North\\,\\ 200\\,000\\ South\\ Vietnamese\\ sough\\ refuge\\ in\\ U\\.S\\.\\ and\\ other\\ countries\\\u2026\\ soon\\ afterward\\,\\ Vietnam\\ reunited\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Between\\ 1978\\ and\\ 1985\\,\\ \\\u00bd\\ million\\ left\\ Vietnan\\,\\ by\\ mid\\-1990s\\,\\ up\\ to\\ 1\\.3\\ million\\,\\ 70\\%\\ of\\ whom\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\\\\no\\ The\\ rich\\ \\\u00e0\\ Orange\\ County\\,\\ Washington\\ DV\\,\\ NYC\\,\\ east\\ coast\\ of\\ NJ\\\\\no\\ 2nd\\ wave\\ of\\ less\\ educated\\ \\\u00e0\\ New\\ Orleans\\ and\\ Houston\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Preservation\\ of\\ traditions\\\\\no\\ Vietnamese\\ is\\ still\\ widely\\ spoken\\ by\\ them\\\\\no\\ Many\\ maintain\\ their\\ Buddhist\\ religion\\ ad\\ make\\ an\\ effort\\ to\\ observe\\ Tet\\\\\no\\ Since\\ mid\\-1980s\\,\\ Vietnamese\\ diaspora\\ communities\\ in\\ large\\ urban\\ centers\\ have\\ hosted\\ large\\ popular\\ musical\\ events\\ called\\ da\\ vu\\\\\no\\ Traditional\\ music\\ is\\ performed\\ by\\ residents\\ who\\ maintain\\ the\\ music\\ traditions\\ and\\ instruments\\ of\\ homeland\\\\\no\\ The\\ Perfume\\ Traditional\\ Ensemble\\ from\\ Hue\\ toured\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ for\\ 2\\ weeks\\ in\\ 1995\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ LG44\\ type\\ of\\ chamber\\ music\\ Ca\\ Hue\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Text\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ mythological\\ princess\\ who\\ sacrifices\\ personal\\ gain\\ for\\ her\\ country\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Traditional\\ instrument\\ heard\\:\\ dan\\ bau\\\u2026\\ single\\ string\\,\\ resonating\\ chamber\\,\\ and\\ a\\ small\\ bamboo\\ shaft\\\u2026\\ plucked\\\\\n\\#\\ It\\ has\\ been\\ said\\ the\\ instrument\\ can\\ render\\ all\\ possible\\ sounds\\\\\n\\#\\ LG45\\,\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ solo\\ electrically\\ amplified\\ dan\\ bau\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Refugees\\ were\\ traumatized\\ both\\ by\\ their\\ escape\\ from\\ Vietnam\\ and\\ their\\ enforced\\ stay\\ in\\ refugee\\ camps\\ in\\ Hong\\ Kong\\ and\\ Philippines\\\u2026\\ surprisingly\\,\\ there\\ many\\ different\\ styles\\ of\\ music\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\,\\ including\\ Buddhist\\ chant\\,\\ Vietnamese\\ folk\\ and\\ chamber\\,\\ and\\ Western\\ popular\\ and\\ classical\\ music\\\\\no\\ Thus\\,\\ musical\\ style\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ only\\ factor\\ that\\ determined\\ music\\\u2019s\\ identity\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\,\\ boundaries\\ between\\ formerly\\ distinctive\\ musical\\ categories\\ were\\ blurring\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ People\\ in\\ refugee\\ camps\\ sang\\ mainly\\ sad\\ songs\\ and\\ love\\ songs\\\\\no\\ Love\\ songs\\ and\\ sad\\ songs\\ nostalgic\\ for\\ pre\\-1975\\ Vietnam\\ were\\ banned\\ by\\ the\\ Communist\\ regime\\ when\\ it\\ reunified\\ in\\ 1975\\\\\no\\ Thus\\ the\\ singing\\ of\\ these\\ songs\\ were\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ political\\ ideology\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ camps\\ was\\ that\\ of\\ compose\\ Pham\\ Duy\\\u2026\\ his\\ songs\\ written\\ before\\ 1975\\ represent\\ about\\ 90\\%\\ of\\ internationally\\ distributed\\ Vietnamese\\ recordings\\ outside\\ Vietnam\\\\\no\\ Most\\ of\\ songs\\ are\\ patriotic\\ songs\\.\\ These\\ songs\\ have\\ been\\ banned\\ in\\ Vietnam\\ since\\ 1975\\.\\\\\no\\ Pham\\ Duy\\\u2019s\\ National\\ Road\\ song\\ cycle\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Tells\\ of\\ a\\ traveler\\\u2019s\\ journey\\ through\\ Vietnam\\ from\\ north\\ to\\ south\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Celebrates\\ the\\ cultural\\ diversity\\ and\\ regional\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ country\\ and\\ trace\\ aspects\\ of\\ its\\ history\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Has\\ both\\ Vietnamese\\ and\\ Western\\ elements\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Influenced\\ by\\ tan\\ nhac\\,\\ a\\ style\\ that\\ combined\\ Western\\ instruments\\ and\\ Vietnamese\\ instruments\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ of\\ the\\ songs\\ draw\\ on\\ traditional\\ melodies\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Consists\\ of\\ 19\\ songs\\ grouped\\ in\\ 3\\ sections\\\u2026\\ north\\,\\ central\\,\\ and\\ south\\ Vietnam\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ National\\ Road\\ by\\ Pham\\ Duy\\:\\ LG46\\ \\+\\ 47\\\\\no\\ Sound\\ p\\.\\ 205\\-7\\\\\no\\ Setting\\ p\\.\\ 210\\-11\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Tet\\ celebrations\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Synthesized\\ songs\\ \\\u00e0\\ CD\\ distributions\\,\\ worldwide\\ distributions\\\\\no\\ Significance\\ p\\.\\ 211\\-12\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powerful\\ significance\\ for\\ composer\\ and\\ evokes\\ deep\\ response\\ from\\ diaspora\\ Vietnamese\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ performed\\ openly\\ in\\ Vietnam\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pham\\ Duy\\ has\\ used\\ music\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ political\\ resistance\\ since\\ the\\ 1940s\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ National\\ Road\\ survives\\ only\\ abroad\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ musical\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ deep\\ divide\\ between\\ Vietnamese\\ at\\ home\\ and\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ diaspora\\\\\\\\\nConclusion\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Musical\\ process\\ of\\ the\\ traveler\\ through\\ Vietnam\\ evokes\\ memories\\ of\\ the\\ sounds\\ and\\ sights\\ of\\ different\\ regions\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Every\\ time\\ The\\ National\\ Road\\ is\\ performed\\,\\ it\\ reenacts\\ the\\ composer\\\u2019s\\ journey\\ through\\ Vietnam\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Has\\ become\\ an\\ ironic\\ symbol\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ forced\\ migration\\ and\\ dispersal\\ shared\\ by\\ the\\ Vietnamese\\ community\\ abroad\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ We\\ hear\\ the\\ texts\\ and\\ sounds\\ of\\ Vietnamese\\ music\\ transformed\\ within\\ changing\\ settings\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Although\\ musical\\ sound\\ continues\\ to\\ change\\ and\\ is\\ adaptable\\,\\ it\\ still\\ carries\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ meaning\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ transmitted\\ through\\ oral\\ and\\ written\\ tradition\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ National\\ Road\\ embeds\\ traces\\ of\\ Western\\ influence\\ in\\ Southeast\\ Asia\\ and\\ the\\ continuation\\ of\\ traditional\\ Vietnamese\\ values\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ general\\,\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ all\\ the\\ case\\ studies\\,\\ the\\ experience\\ of\\ migration\\ never\\ entirely\\ recedes\\ for\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ experienced\\ it\\,\\ as\\ push\\ and\\ pull\\ factors\\ continue\\ to\\ exercise\\ their\\ power\\ long\\ after\\ the\\ initial\\ period\\ of\\ displacement\\\u2026\\\\\n\\*\\ \\\u2026\\ an\\ ongoing\\ dialogue\\ with\\ the\\ new\\ local\\ and\\ global\\ networks\\ of\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ now\\ apart\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Musical\\ transmission\\ plays\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\,\\ providing\\ stabilizing\\ factors\\ that\\ can\\ at\\ once\\ ground\\ individual\\ and\\ community\\ experience\\ within\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ familiar\\ and\\ provide\\ a\\ channel\\ for\\ adaptation\\ to\\ new\\ settings\\ and\\ challenges\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\,\\ \\\u201cMusic\\,\\ Mobility\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Global\\ Marketplace\\,\\\u201d\\ pp\\.\\ 285\\-299\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\Case\\ Study\\:\\ Traveling\\ the\\ Silk\\ Road\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\The\\ \\\tsilk\\ road\\ extended\\ from\\ Japan\\ to\\ Italy\\,\\ winding\\ its\\ way\\ across\\ China\\ \\\tand\\ Inner\\ Asia\\,\\ where\\ it\\ divided\\ into\\ several\\ routes\\,\\ terminating\\ in\\ \\\tVenice\\ and\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Look\\ \\\tat\\ double\\ page\\ 286\\-287\\ for\\ detailed\\ timeline\\ of\\ silk\\ road\\.\\ Main\\ \\\tpoints\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\First\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\2nd\\ \\\tcentury\\ BC\\:\\ Chinese\\ envoy\\ journeys\\ into\\ Inner\\ Asia\\ in\\ search\\ of\\ \\\thorses\\ and\\ allies\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\1st\\ \\\tcentury\\ BC\\:\\ Silk\\ reaches\\ Rome\\:\\ Beginning\\ of\\ trade\\ between\\ China\\ \\\tand\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Second\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Crusades\\ \\\tand\\ Marco\\ Polo\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Third\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Industrialization\\ \\\tof\\ silk\\ production\\.\\ Europeans\\ become\\ independent\\ of\\ Oriental\\ \\\tcultures\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Modern\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Suez\\ \\\tCanal\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Queen\\ \\\tVictoria\\ declared\\ Empress\\ of\\ India\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Yo\\-Yo\\ \\\tMa\\ founds\\ \\\u201cSilk\\ Road\\ Project\\\u201d\\ \\\u2013\\ music\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\The\\ Silk\\ Road\\\u2019s\\ New\\ Setting\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Jan\\.\\ 26th\\,\\ 2002\\ \\\u2013\\ \\\t36th\\ annual\\ Smithsonian\\ Folklife\\ Festival\\ in\\ D\\.C\\.\\ \\\u201cThe\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\:\\ Connecting\\ Cultures\\,\\ Creating\\ Trust\\\u201d\\ \\?\\ \\\t1\\.3\\ million\\ people\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Although\\ original\\ Silk\\ Road\\ \\=\\ \\\tcross\\-cultural\\ contact\\,\\ 21st\\ century\\ reanactment\\ \\\tconceived\\ by\\ one\\ man\\:\\ Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ \\(launched\\ project\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\:\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Born\\ to\\ Chinese\\ parents\\ in\\ \\\tParis\\,\\ 1955\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\crosses\\ frequently\\ and\\ \\\tdeliberately\\ between\\ soundscapes\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\graduated\\ from\\ Harvard\\ 1976\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Hush\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(1992\\)\\ listed\\ as\\ \\\tTop\\ Classical\\ Crossover\\ Album\\ in\\ Billboards\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\15\\ Grammy\\ awards\\ for\\ \\Soul\\ of\\ \\\tThe\\ Tango\\ \\<\\/i\\>\\(album\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\collaborated\\ with\\ Cuban\\ and\\ \\\tBrazilian\\ musicians\\:\\ \\Obrigado\\ Brazil\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Instruments\\ in\\ Silk\\ Road\\ \\\tProject\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\quanun\\<\\/i\\>\\:\\ originated\\ in\\ \\\tArab\\ Middle\\ East\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ud\\<\\/i\\>\\:\\ ancestor\\ of\\ European\\ \\\tlute\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Connecting\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Sounds\\ and\\ Significances\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\1998\\,\\ beginning\\ of\\ project\\,\\ 2\\ \\\tgoals\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\present\\ music\\ and\\ musicians\\ \\\tfrom\\ cultures\\ along\\ the\\ ancient\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\commission\\ new\\ music\\ from\\ \\\tcomposers\\ from\\ these\\ regions\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Began\\ as\\ global\\ musical\\ \\\tinitiative\\,\\ but\\ draws\\ heavily\\ on\\ subcultural\\/intercultural\\ musical\\ \\\tresources\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Multiple\\ aspects\\ of\\ project\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Sponsoring\\ concert\\ tours\\ by\\ \\\ttraditional\\ musicians\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Producing\\ recordings\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Collaborating\\ with\\ institutions\\ \\\t\\(eg\\.\\ Smithsonian\\)\\ to\\ produce\\ festivals\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Team\\ of\\ scholars\\ \\\t\\(ethnomusicologists\\)\\ provides\\ necessary\\ expertise\\ in\\ musical\\ and\\ \\\tcultural\\ content\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Global\\ corporate\\ sponsors\\ \\?\\ \\\tfinancial\\ resources\\ for\\ project\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Main\\ funder\\:\\ Aga\\ Khan\\ Trust\\ for\\ \\\tCulture\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Challenge\\:\\ insuring\\ historical\\ \\\tand\\ cultural\\ accuracy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Editors\\ believe\\ they\\ achieved\\ \\\tthis\\ by\\ concentrating\\ on\\ central\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ Northern\\ Silk\\ Road\\ \\\tas\\ a\\ coherent\\ musical\\ realm\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Important\\ artist\\ featured\\ on\\ the\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\ Project\\ CD\\:\\ Wu\\ Man\\ \\(she\\\u2019s\\ actually\\ a\\ woman\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Virtuoso\\ player\\ of\\ Chinese\\ \\\tplucked\\ lute\\:\\ \\pipa\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pipa\\<\\/i\\>\\ derived\\ from\\ \\\tCentral\\ Asia\\ lutes\\ that\\ traveled\\ to\\ China\\ on\\ Silk\\ Road\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Has\\ collaborated\\ with\\ many\\ \\\tartists\\ in\\ the\\ US\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Brian\\ Eno\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Kronos\\ Quartet\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\New\\ York\\ Philharmonic\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Tan\\ Dun\\ \\(composer\\ for\\ \\\t\\Crouching\\ Tiger\\,\\ Hidden\\ Dragon\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\On\\ Silk\\ Road\\ Recording\\ \\(\\The\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\:\\ A\\ Musical\\ Caravan\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\ \\?\\ \\\tplaying\\ 19th\\ century\\ Chinese\\ instrumental\\ piece\\ \\(\\High\\ \\\tLittle\\ Moon\\<\\/i\\>\\)\\ LG57\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ \\(artistic\\ director\\)\\ \\\tinvited\\ 58\\ composers\\ and\\ musicians\\ to\\ attend\\ 9\\-day\\ workshop\\ at\\ \\\tTanglewood\\ Music\\ Center\\ to\\ rehearse\\ new\\ works\\ commissioned\\ by\\ the\\ \\\tproject\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Project\\ hosted\\ forums\\ for\\ \\\tEuropeans\\ musicians\\ to\\ ensure\\ non\\-Western\\ music\\ be\\ represented\\ in\\ \\\tmanner\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ exoticize\\ or\\ essentialize\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\August\\ 2001\\:\\ 24\\ musicians\\ meet\\ \\\tin\\ New\\ York\\ City\\ and\\ produce\\ \\Silk\\ Road\\ Ensemble\\:\\ When\\ Strangers\\ \\\tMeet\\<\\/i\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Instruments\\:\\ \\(among\\ others\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\cello\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\pipa\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\sheng\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(Chinese\\ mouth\\ \\\torgan\\ made\\ of\\ bamboo\\ pipes\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Ethical\\ Considerations\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Ethnomusicology\\ started\\ with\\ \\\tEuropean\\ colonization\\ of\\ Africa\\ and\\ Asia\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\deals\\ with\\ relationship\\ between\\ \\\tmusicians\\ and\\ broader\\ public\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Yo\\-Yo\\ Ma\\ claims\\ better\\ \\\tunderstanding\\ of\\ alien\\,\\ seemingly\\ impenetrable\\ of\\ even\\ uncivilized\\ \\\tcultures\\ is\\ first\\ achieved\\ by\\ listening\\ to\\ their\\ music\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Scholars\\ collaborate\\ with\\ \\\tresearch\\ associates\\ and\\ musicians\\ to\\ ensure\\ traditions\\ are\\ conserved\\ \\\tand\\ represented\\ in\\ manner\\ consistent\\ with\\ desires\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ \\\ttransmit\\ them\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\Conclusion\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Musical\\ mobility\\ \\(radio\\,\\ CD\\,\\ \\\tinternet\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ is\\ good\\ for\\ discovering\\ new\\ worlds\\,\\ but\\ this\\ implies\\ \\\ta\\ translation\\ and\\ modification\\ of\\ sound\\ through\\ different\\ \\\tinterpretations\\ \\?\\ \\\tnot\\ always\\ true\\ to\\ original\\ music\\ in\\ original\\ culture\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\Ex\\:\\ Hawaiian\\ music\\,\\ \\gamelan\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ \\\tSilk\\ Road\\ Project\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Because\\ of\\ this\\,\\ ethnomusicology\\ \\\tdetermines\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ original\\ culture\\ should\\ remain\\ in\\ new\\ \\\tinterpretation\\,\\ and\\ how\\ much\\ can\\ change\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\,\\ \\\u201cMusic\\,\\ Mobility\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Global\\ Marketplace\\\u201d\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\nMain\\ points\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\,\\ and\\ important\\ signifier\\ of\\ place\\,\\ helps\\ sustain\\ and\\ enhance\\ travel\\ and\\ tourism\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ New\\ technologies\\ and\\ performance\\ venues\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ new\\ musical\\ vocabularies\\ and\\ hybrid\\ musical\\ styles\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Economic\\ and\\ political\\ forces\\ shape\\ the\\ transmission\\ of\\ music\\\\\\\nIntroduction\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Exploration\\ of\\ music\\\u2019s\\ increasing\\ mobility\\ through\\ the\\ global\\ pathways\\ that\\ have\\ emerged\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ and\\ 21st\\ century\\ \\\u2013\\ travel\\,\\ tourism\\,\\ concert\\ tours\\,\\ festivals\\,\\ and\\ new\\ technologies\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Over\\ the\\ last\\ 100\\ years\\,\\ new\\ settings\\ for\\ musical\\ performance\\ have\\ opened\\ new\\ channels\\ of\\ musical\\ transmission\\ \\\u2013\\ recordings\\,\\ broadcasts\\,\\ festivals\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\\no\\ E\\.g\\.\\ American\\ Exposition\\ in\\ 1853\\ displaced\\ live\\ Native\\ Americans\\,\\ entertainment\\,\\ and\\ public\\ education\\\\\no\\ Later\\ exhibitions\\ reproduced\\ native\\ villages\\ and\\ scenes\\ from\\ daily\\ life\\,\\ including\\ musical\\ performances\\.\\\\\no\\ Many\\ early\\ fairs\\ and\\ festivals\\ presented\\ \\\u201cexotic\\ traditions\\\u201d\\\\\no\\ Other\\ presentations\\ adopted\\ an\\ all\\-seeing\\ approach\\:\\ the\\ viewer\\ watched\\ from\\ a\\ distance\\\\\no\\ The\\ juxtaposition\\ of\\ music\\ traditions\\ within\\ the\\ same\\ setting\\ resulted\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ music\\ to\\ new\\ audiences\\,\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ exchange\\ between\\ musicians\\ who\\ would\\ not\\ have\\ otherwise\\ interacted\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Frameworks\\ that\\ scholars\\ have\\ proposed\\ for\\ examining\\ the\\ forces\\ that\\ influence\\ present\\-day\\ musical\\ production\\,\\ performance\\,\\ and\\ reception\\.\\ One\\ approach\\ is\\ called\\ \\\u201cmicromusics\\\u201d\\\u2026\\ 3\\ levels\\\u2026\\\\\no\\ Subculture\\:\\ local\\,\\ personal\\,\\ familial\\,\\ occupational\\,\\ and\\ community\\ networks\\\\\no\\ Superculture\\:\\ overarching\\ sphere\\ of\\ musical\\ interaction\\,\\ which\\ is\\ shaped\\ by\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ national\\ and\\ global\\ economy\\\\\no\\ Interculture\\:\\ subcultures\\ influence\\ each\\ other\\ through\\ economic\\ or\\ commercial\\ connections\\,\\ proximity\\,\\ or\\ affinity\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nTravel\\ and\\ Tourism\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rapidly\\ changing\\ technologies\\ have\\ revolutionized\\ recreational\\ travel\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ plays\\ a\\ vital\\ role\\ to\\ draw\\ tourists\\\u2026\\ powerful\\ associations\\ with\\ a\\ particular\\ locale\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ signify\\ the\\ destination\\ in\\ advertisements\\,\\ to\\ sell\\ the\\ site\\ to\\ potential\\ visitors\\,\\ and\\ to\\ enhance\\ the\\ tourist\\\u2019s\\ stay\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ musical\\ performances\\ presented\\ to\\ tourists\\ have\\ been\\ designed\\ both\\ to\\ entertain\\ and\\ to\\ shape\\ their\\ perceptions\\ of\\ the\\ place\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ Transmitting\\ the\\ Hawaiian\\ Sound\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Distinctive\\ sounds\\ of\\ steel\\ guitar\\ and\\ ukulele\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ hula\\ dance\\ became\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Pacific\\ tourist\\ trade\\ early\\ on\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ By\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ these\\ sounds\\ \\+\\ sights\\ came\\ to\\ signify\\ Hawaii\\ whenever\\ and\\ wherever\\ one\\ encountered\\ them\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ of\\ foremost\\ performers\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ global\\ marketing\\ of\\ Hawaiian\\ music\\ were\\ not\\ born\\ in\\ the\\ islands\\ and\\ spent\\ most\\ of\\ adult\\ lives\\ abroad\\ \\(Moe\\ family\\)\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ After\\ WWII\\\u2026\\ Moe\\ family\\ left\\ due\\ to\\ economic\\ pressure\\,\\ came\\ back\\ in\\ 1962\\ after\\ erforming\\ in\\ London\\,\\ well\\-known\\ in\\ Asia\\ and\\ Europe\\.\\\\\no\\ LG54\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ song\\ by\\ Moe\\ family\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1920s\\,\\ 1930s\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ ukulele\\ craze\\ that\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ steel\\ guitar\\ \\+\\ ukulele\\.\\ Further\\ revived\\ through\\ LP\\ recordings\\ in\\ 1950s\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1970s\\ resurgence\\ of\\ interest\\ in\\ the\\ indigenous\\ music\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Former\\ residents\\ living\\ abroad\\ have\\ continued\\ to\\ practice\\ these\\ traditions\\,\\ transmitting\\ them\\ to\\ other\\ places\\ \\\u2013\\ hula\\ schools\\ in\\ US\\,\\ Canada\\,\\ Holland\\,\\ Mexico\\,\\ Japan\\\u2026\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Extremely\\ popular\\ among\\ young\\ Japanese\\ women\\.\\ 1960s\\,\\ Japanese\\ bands\\ began\\ to\\ form\\.\\ Today\\,\\ there\\ are\\ 20\\,000\\ \\\u2013\\ 30\\,000\\ hula\\ students\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Hula\\ workshop\\ in\\ Indianapolis\\.\\ Hula\\ taught\\ in\\ Texas\\.\\ \\(It\\\u2019s\\ everywhere\\,\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ Hawaii\\)\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Wide\\ array\\ of\\ international\\ Hawaiian\\ music\\ testifies\\ to\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ tourism\\ on\\ music\\.\\ Demonstrates\\ that\\ transmission\\ processes\\ initially\\ spurred\\ by\\ fleeting\\ contacts\\ and\\ economic\\ gain\\ can\\ spark\\ deep\\ involvement\\ and\\ innovative\\ musical\\ activity\\ that\\ became\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ peoples\\\u2019\\ everyday\\ lives\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ New\\ soundscapes\\ sometimes\\ emerge\\ from\\ unexpected\\ contacts\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nIntercultural\\ transmission\\ and\\ boundary\\ crossing\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ New\\ Music\\ for\\ the\\ Balinese\\ Gamelan\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Worldwide\\ spread\\ of\\ gamelan\\ supported\\ by\\ the\\ desire\\ of\\ the\\ Indonesian\\ government\\ to\\ represent\\ the\\ country\\\u2019s\\ music\\ traditions\\ abroad\\ and\\ the\\ interest\\ of\\ Western\\ composers\\ interested\\ in\\ its\\ sound\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ gong\\ kebyar\\ style\\ was\\ performed\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ gamelan\\ that\\ replaced\\ many\\ older\\ ones\\ \\\\\no\\ These\\ new\\ gamelans\\ began\\ to\\ attract\\ attention\\ abroad\\\\\no\\ Reputation\\ was\\ established\\ in\\ part\\ through\\ distribution\\ of\\ recordings\\ issued\\ in\\ 1928\\ by\\ Odeon\\ and\\ Beka\\,\\ a\\ project\\ facilitated\\ by\\ Spies\\.\\\\\no\\ Along\\ with\\ these\\ recordings\\,\\ numerous\\ travelers\\ wrote\\ about\\ Bali\\,\\ and\\ Balinese\\ dancers\\ and\\ musicians\\ performed\\ to\\ great\\ acclaim\\ in\\ Paris\\ in\\ 1931\\.\\\\\no\\ Bali\\ quickly\\ became\\ a\\ chic\\ tourist\\ spot\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ One\\ gamelan\\ gong\\ kebyar\\ ensemble\\ became\\ famous\\ locally\\ and\\ internationally\\,\\ performing\\ in\\ this\\ new\\,\\ touristic\\ context\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Following\\ Indonesian\\ independence\\ in\\ 1945\\,\\ Balinese\\ culture\\ was\\ pushed\\ to\\ the\\ fore\\ as\\ an\\ international\\ symbol\\ of\\ Indonesia\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1960s\\,\\ two\\ government\\-sponsored\\ schools\\ for\\ music\\,\\ dance\\,\\ and\\ arts\\ were\\ established\\ in\\ Bali\\\\\no\\ Served\\ to\\ perpetuate\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ local\\ musical\\ styles\\,\\ became\\ sites\\ for\\ innovative\\ composition\\,\\ and\\ provided\\ an\\ institutional\\ setting\\ for\\ global\\ transmission\\ of\\ Balinese\\ music\\\\\no\\ The\\ music\\ continues\\ to\\ be\\ multidimensional\\ and\\ embodies\\ the\\ contradictions\\,\\ continuities\\,\\ and\\ instability\\ of\\ 10th\\ century\\ Balinese\\ history\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Well\\-known\\ Balinese\\ composer\\ I\\ Nyoman\\ Windha\\\\\no\\ LG55\\,\\ LG56\\ pp\\.\\ 273\\-5\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ American\\ gamelan\\,\\ composer\\:\\ Ziporyn\\\\\n\\#\\ The\\ use\\ saxophone\\ quartet\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Exchange\\ between\\ Balinese\\ and\\ American\\ music\\ systems\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nMusic\\ as\\ Art\\ and\\ Commodity\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ many\\ settings\\,\\ music\\ is\\ both\\ an\\ artistic\\ expression\\ and\\ a\\ commodity\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ expression\\ that\\ gives\\ voice\\ to\\ human\\ emotions\\ and\\ aspirations\\ and\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ promote\\ social\\ and\\ political\\ causes\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ has\\ often\\ been\\ created\\ and\\ marketed\\ for\\ economic\\ advantage\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ legal\\ disputes\\ can\\ arise\\ from\\ this\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ is\\ also\\ used\\ to\\ sell\\ other\\ product\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ advertising\\,\\ music\\ is\\ not\\ only\\ used\\ to\\ accompany\\ visual\\ images\\,\\ but\\ also\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ metaphors\\\\\\\\\nMusic\\ and\\ Dance\\ Chapter\\ 7\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\nMain\\ Points\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ transforms\\ a\\ basic\\ rhythm\\ into\\ a\\ distinctive\\ set\\ of\\ physical\\ movements\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ invites\\ anyone\\ to\\ participate\\ who\\ can\\ master\\ its\\ basic\\ movements\\,\\ whatever\\ their\\ cultural\\ background\\,\\ social\\ experience\\,\\ or\\ musical\\ expertise\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ accommodates\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ meaning\\ from\\ recreational\\ to\\ political\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ illustrates\\ different\\ views\\ of\\ gender\\ and\\ sexuality\\ in\\ different\\ societies\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nIntroduction\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ transforms\\ the\\ most\\ basic\\ physical\\ unit\\ \\(pulse\\)\\ into\\ rhythmic\\ patterns\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ and\\ heard\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ relationship\\ of\\ movement\\ and\\ music\\ varies\\ widely\\ among\\ music\\ traditions\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ plays\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ communicating\\ a\\ wide\\ range\\ of\\ emotions\\ \\(eg\\.\\ Replicates\\ stories\\ and\\ familiar\\ scene\\ from\\ lit\\.\\ and\\ mythology\\)\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Makes\\ a\\ statement\\ about\\ the\\ time\\,\\ the\\ place\\ and\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ performing\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Choreographical\\ approaches\\-\\ description\\ of\\ style\\ and\\ steps\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Contextual\\ approach\\-\\ stresses\\ what\\ dance\\ tells\\ us\\ about\\ society\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nHearing\\ and\\ feeling\\ the\\ Dance\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ is\\ a\\ medium\\ for\\ intense\\ competition\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ empower\\ both\\ individuals\\ and\\ groups\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Duple\\ and\\ quadruple\\ beats\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ easy\\ to\\ match\\ these\\ musical\\ patterns\\ to\\ movements\\ of\\ feet\\.\\ \\(Waltz\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ 3\\ beat\\ pattern\\)\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ Study\\:\\ Moving\\ through\\ time\\ and\\ space\\ with\\ Bhangra\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bhangra\\ is\\ a\\ tradition\\ associated\\ with\\ South\\ Asian\\ diaspora\\ communities\\ in\\ Great\\ Britain\\ and\\ North\\ America\\.\\ It\\ is\\ an\\ accessible\\ dance\\ style\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Quadruple\\ meter\\ and\\ strong\\ rhythm\\ emphasized\\ throughout\\ by\\ percussion\\ instruments\\ and\\ vocal\\ accents\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Historical\\ roots\\ in\\ the\\ Punjab\\ region\\ of\\ South\\ Asia\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Played\\ at\\ events\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ harvest\\ festival\\ \\(baisakhi\\)\\ in\\ Punjab\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Usually\\ men\\ perform\\.\\ The\\ related\\ dance\\ that\\ women\\ perform\\ is\\ the\\ Giddha\\,\\ which\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ hand\\ claps\\ rather\\ than\\ drum\\ beats\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dhol\\:\\ two\\ headed\\ drum\\ that\\ is\\ beaten\\ with\\ the\\ curve\\ stick\\.\\ The\\ beat\\ of\\ the\\ dhol\\ represents\\ festivity\\ and\\ is\\ only\\ played\\ by\\ a\\ man\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jhummar\\-\\ traditional\\ beat\\.\\ People\\ danced\\ all\\ night\\ during\\ the\\ rainy\\ season\\ along\\ the\\ river\\ baks\\ and\\ for\\ Sufi\\ rituals\\ it\\ was\\ incorporated\\ into\\ the\\ Bhangra\\ repertory\\ only\\ after\\ Indian\\ Independence\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jhummar\\ is\\ now\\ a\\ common\\ Bhangra\\ motion\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Listening\\ guide\\ 59\\ \\(Jhummar\\)\\ shows\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ heard\\ with\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ instruments\\ like\\ the\\ monochord\\,\\\u00a0\\ a\\ double\\ flute\\,\\ and\\ an\\ idiophone\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bhangra\\ would\\ have\\ remained\\ a\\ harvest\\ tradition\\ in\\ India\\-\\ but\\ Punjabi\\\u2019s\\ migrated\\ in\\ large\\ numbers\\,\\ and\\ most\\ were\\ of\\ the\\ Sikh\\ religion\\.\\ Now\\ bhangra\\ is\\ performed\\ at\\ weddings\\ and\\ celebrations\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bhangra\\ become\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ the\\ South\\ Asian\\ youth\\ to\\ affirm\\ their\\ identity\\ in\\ a\\ positive\\ way\\ within\\ a\\ hostile\\ and\\ exclusionary\\ British\\ culture\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Commercial\\ recording\\ of\\ Bhangra\\ combining\\ traditional\\ Bhangra\\ with\\ urban\\ black\\ music\\ and\\ modern\\ technology\\.\\ It\\ had\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ culture\\ and\\ society\\ in\\ Great\\ Britain\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Grew\\ and\\ expanded\\ to\\ Africa\\,\\ America\\.\\ Now\\ many\\ college\\ campuses\\ have\\ intercollegiate\\ dance\\ competitions\\.\\ The\\ new\\ updated\\,\\ technologically\\ sophisticated\\ form\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ for\\ students\\ to\\ construct\\ their\\ own\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ their\\ parents\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sound\\ of\\ Bhangra\\ music\\ is\\ now\\ combined\\ with\\ modern\\ urban\\ dance\\ styles\\,\\ but\\ the\\ text\\ sheds\\ light\\ on\\ conflicting\\ currents\\ of\\ tradition\\ and\\ innovation\\ within\\ South\\ Asian\\ communities\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ South\\ Asian\\ notion\\ of\\ clear\\ gender\\ roles\\ \\\u2013\\ separate\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ team\\ at\\ competition\\ where\\ traditional\\ Indian\\ dress\\ is\\ worn\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bhangra\\ often\\ mixed\\ with\\ hip\\-hop\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ Polka\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Originated\\ in\\ central\\ Europe\\ among\\ the\\ Czech\\ speaking\\ people\\ of\\ Bohemia\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powerful\\ but\\ flexible\\ symbol\\ of\\ national\\ and\\ ethnic\\ identity\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ It\\ gets\\ it\\ name\\ from\\ the\\ Czech\\ word\\ for\\ \\\u201chalf\\\u201d\\ which\\ represents\\ the\\ signature\\ step\\.\\ It\\ could\\ also\\ derive\\ its\\ name\\ from\\ \\\u201cpolska\\\u201d\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ Czech\\ term\\ for\\ a\\ Polish\\ girl\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Performed\\ in\\ duple\\ meter\\,\\ by\\ couples\\ and\\ cultivated\\ in\\ urban\\ ballrooms\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Became\\ popular\\ throughout\\ Europe\\,\\ India\\,\\ and\\ made\\ it\\\u2019s\\ way\\ to\\ Mexico\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ It\\ had\\ a\\ major\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ musical\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ Midwest\\ because\\ immigrants\\ brought\\ Polka\\ music\\ and\\ dance\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ WWI\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ accordian\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ Polka\\ whenever\\ and\\ wherever\\ the\\ dance\\ was\\ performed\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Brass\\ bands\\ supplemented\\ by\\ an\\ accordian\\ usually\\ accompanied\\ the\\ polka\\;\\ lower\\ brass\\ instruments\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ sousaphone\\ emphasize\\ strong\\ duple\\ meter\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Listening\\ guide\\ 61\\:\\ Beer\\ barrel\\ polka\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Beer\\ barrel\\ polka\\ was\\ famous\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ appearance\\ on\\ jukeboxes\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ This\\ brought\\ the\\ polka\\ to\\ working\\ class\\ people\\ of\\ a\\ wide\\ variety\\ of\\ ethnic\\ backgrounds\\;\\ they\\ also\\ reinforced\\ the\\ popularity\\ of\\ the\\ polka\\ among\\ Mexican\\ Americans\\,\\ who\\ since\\ the\\ 19th\\ century\\ had\\ danced\\ the\\ polka\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Longoria\\-\\ performer\\ of\\ Beer\\ Barrel\\-\\ professional\\ musician\\-\\ gave\\ his\\ accordian\\ a\\ distinctive\\ sound\\ \\\u201csonido\\ ronco\\\u201d\\ or\\ hoarse\\ sound\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Polkas\\ are\\ performed\\ at\\ weddings\\ and\\ have\\ been\\ played\\ during\\ Roman\\ Catholic\\ mass\\.\\ The\\ polka\\ mass\\ keeps\\ the\\ traditional\\ texts\\,\\ but\\ it\\ adds\\ new\\ texts\\ sung\\ to\\ familiar\\ popular\\ melodies\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ It\\ has\\ had\\ a\\ long\\ life\\,\\ although\\ its\\ popularity\\ has\\ reduced\\ in\\ recent\\ years\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ contrast\\ with\\ Bhangra\\,\\ is\\ has\\ not\\ crossed\\ over\\ into\\ the\\ mass\\ youth\\ market\\,\\ nor\\ has\\ it\\ transformed\\ its\\ musical\\ style\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ study\\:\\ The\\ Tango\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Group\\ of\\ closely\\ related\\ soundscapes\\ that\\ share\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ sound\\ and\\ meaning\\ while\\ retaining\\ their\\ individual\\ settings\\ and\\ historical\\ framework\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Early\\ tango\\ emerged\\ in\\ Argentina\\ with\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ the\\ Bandeon\\,\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ button\\ accordion\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ main\\ musical\\ style\\ and\\ choreography\\ is\\ the\\ myth\\ and\\ the\\ exaggerated\\ postures\\ of\\ the\\ \\\u201ccompadrito\\\u201d\\ \\(a\\ man\\ who\\ has\\ come\\ to\\ less\\)\\,\\ a\\ typle\\ of\\ urban\\ gaucho\\,\\ both\\ lover\\ and\\ pimp\\,\\ dressed\\ in\\ a\\ tight\\ black\\ suit\\ and\\ high\\-heeled\\ shoes\\.\\ The\\ interaction\\ between\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ dancers\\ is\\ distinctive\\:\\ the\\ man\\ moves\\ forward\\,\\ dominating\\ the\\ woman\\ so\\ that\\ she\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ retreat\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sounds\\:\\ Quadruple\\ meter\\,\\ strongly\\ emphasized\\ in\\ the\\ bass\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Strong\\ quadruple\\ beat\\ is\\ often\\ embellished\\ in\\ the\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\ with\\ a\\ long\\-short\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ a\\ long\\ beat\\ followed\\ by\\ one\\ that\\ is\\ half\\ its\\ duration\\.\\ \\\u201charbanera\\\u201d\\ rhythm\\,\\ after\\ the\\ Cuban\\ rhythm\\ from\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ derived\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Circular\\ dance\\ that\\ moves\\ counterclockwise\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ steps\\ include\\ the\\ fan\\-\\ female\\ partner\\ is\\ swung\\ out\\ to\\ one\\ side\\ by\\ the\\ male\\.\\ This\\ often\\ used\\ in\\ Latin\\ dances\\ like\\ the\\ Chacha\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ La\\ Cumparsita\\ \\(listening\\ guide\\ 62\\)\\-\\ classic\\ tango\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Tango\\ has\\ now\\ moved\\ from\\ the\\ feet\\ to\\ the\\ mouth\\-\\ and\\ now\\ tango\\ music\\ was\\ sung\\.\\ Tango\\ music\\ was\\ depressing\\ and\\ melancholy\\,\\ which\\ reflected\\ the\\ difficult\\ socioeconomic\\ conditions\\ from\\ which\\ the\\ tango\\ emerged\\.\\ Unlike\\ the\\ instrumental\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ dance\\,\\ which\\ maintains\\ a\\ constant\\ temp\\,\\ the\\ sung\\ tango\\ is\\ more\\ irregular\\,\\ slowing\\ down\\ and\\ speeding\\ up\\ for\\ dramatic\\ purposes\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ singer\\ slows\\ down\\ and\\ speeds\\ up\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ words\\-\\ lyrics\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ express\\ views\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ life\\ in\\ highly\\ pessimistic\\,\\ fatalistic\\ and\\ often\\ pathologically\\ dramatic\\ terms\\ in\\ la\\ cumparsita\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Setting\\:\\ Early\\ home\\ of\\ the\\ tango\\ was\\ the\\ caf\\\u00e9\\ and\\ bordellos\\ of\\ the\\ slums\\ of\\ Buenos\\ aires\\.\\ Tango\\ lyrics\\ drew\\ on\\ the\\ lower\\ class\\ dialect\\ of\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Organs\\ grinders\\ also\\ played\\ tango\\ throughout\\ the\\ streets\\ of\\ the\\ arrabal\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ the\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ slums\\,\\ it\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ poverty\\,\\ low\\ social\\ class\\ and\\ ill\\ repute\\ in\\ Argentina\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Moved\\ to\\ Paris\\,\\ and\\ the\\ tango\\ slowly\\ began\\ to\\ be\\ connected\\ to\\ the\\ elite\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Setting\\ and\\ association\\ with\\ poverty\\,\\ nationalism\\,\\ and\\ cosmopolitanism\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Use\\ of\\ instruments\\ like\\ violin\\,\\ piano\\ and\\ bandoneon\\ in\\ Adios\\ Nonino\\ shows\\ complex\\ orchestration\\ and\\ colorful\\ instrumetation\\ techniques\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Tango\\ began\\ to\\ appeal\\ to\\ a\\ new\\ audience\\ and\\ became\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ rapidly\\ growing\\ middle\\-class\\ ballroom\\ culture\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ International\\ style\\ is\\ simpler\\ than\\ the\\ Argentinean\\ tango\\,\\ and\\ is\\ highly\\ choreographed\\ for\\ competitions\\.\\ American\\ style\\ is\\ a\\ social\\ dance\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ competitions\\ as\\ well\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Significance\\:\\ Significance\\ of\\ the\\ tango\\,\\ given\\ its\\ roots\\ in\\ Buenos\\ Aires\\ slums\\ and\\ its\\ heavy\\ sexual\\ overtones\\,\\ remains\\ in\\ dispute\\ in\\ Argentina\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dance\\ of\\ lust\\ and\\ anger\\,\\ with\\ themes\\ of\\ sexuality\\ and\\ male\\ dominance\\ are\\ embedded\\ in\\ the\\ dance\\.\\ Aggressive\\ body\\ posture\\ shows\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ masculine\\ dominance\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nConclusion\\\\\nBhangra\\ and\\ Polka\\ migrated\\ with\\ their\\ communities\\ of\\ origin\\,\\ however\\ Tango\\ migrated\\ due\\ to\\ channels\\ of\\ technology\\ and\\ travel\\.\\ All\\ three\\ dances\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ in\\ politics\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ artistic\\ marketplace\\.\\ They\\ have\\ all\\ been\\ receptive\\ to\\ innovation\\ and\\ have\\ taken\\ on\\ new\\ meanings\\.\\\\\\\nMusic\\ and\\ Politics\\ Chapter\\ 9\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\\\nMain\\ Points\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ is\\ frequently\\ used\\ for\\ symbolic\\ communication\\ in\\ political\\ contexts\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ can\\ convey\\ official\\ ideologies\\,\\ as\\ in\\ national\\ anthems\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ can\\ convey\\ what\\ cannot\\ be\\ spoken\\ publicly\\,\\ giving\\ voice\\ to\\ political\\ resistance\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nIntro\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ displays\\ of\\ political\\ power\\,\\ conveying\\ national\\ identity\\ and\\ official\\ ideologies\\ through\\ symbolic\\ acts\\ \\(singing\\ a\\ national\\ anthem\\)\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Open\\ musical\\ displays\\ of\\ power\\,\\ public\\ transcripts\\,\\ affirm\\ an\\ existing\\ power\\ structure\\;\\ Hidden\\ transcripts\\ describe\\ musical\\ performances\\ and\\ repertories\\ that\\ embed\\ messages\\ through\\ metaphorical\\ or\\ coded\\ terms\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nMusics\\ of\\ Power\\ and\\ Resistance\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Because\\ of\\ its\\ ability\\ to\\ communicate\\ in\\ subtle\\ ways\\,\\ music\\ has\\ historically\\ been\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ assert\\ power\\ and\\ also\\ to\\ give\\ voice\\ to\\ overlooked\\ groups\\ or\\ suppressed\\ issues\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Musical\\ styles\\ are\\ really\\ flexible\\;\\ they\\ can\\ begin\\ within\\ a\\ soundscape\\ as\\ an\\ emblem\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ and\\ then\\ move\\ to\\ broader\\ audiences\\ as\\ vehicles\\ of\\ pop\\ entertainment\\.\\ Ex\\-\\ African\\ American\\ hip\\ hop\\ is\\ example\\ of\\ flexibility\\-\\ began\\ as\\ hidden\\ transcript\\ of\\ urban\\ black\\ resistance\\ to\\ oppressive\\ institutions\\;\\ still\\ remains\\ an\\ important\\ medium\\ of\\ political\\ expression\\ while\\ becoming\\ entertainment\\ for\\ a\\ broader\\ audience\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ traditions\\ contain\\ aspects\\ of\\ both\\ resistance\\ and\\ conciliation\\;\\ contradictory\\ tendencies\\ are\\ shown\\ through\\ the\\ Shoshone\\ powwow\\ music\\ \\(explained\\ later\\)\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ Study\\:\\ The\\ Birth\\ of\\ a\\ National\\ Anthem\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Music\\ can\\ challenge\\ inequitable\\ power\\ relations\\.\\ Ex\\-\\ South\\ African\\ song\\ Nkosi\\ Sikelel\\\u2019\\ iAfrika\\ \\(\\\u201cLord\\,\\ Bless\\ Africa\\\u201d\\)\\ LISTENING\\ GUIDE\\ 70\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Originated\\ as\\ Christian\\ hymn\\ then\\ quickly\\ transformed\\ into\\ a\\ musical\\ emblem\\ of\\ political\\ resistance\\ and\\ was\\ made\\ into\\ official\\ national\\ anthem\\ in\\ 1990s\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Inspired\\ resistance\\ against\\ apartheid\\ \\(\\\u201cseparation\\\u201d\\)\\,\\ the\\ official\\ laws\\ of\\ racial\\ segregation\\ enforced\\ in\\ South\\ African\\ and\\ became\\ an\\ international\\ symbol\\ of\\ victory\\ in\\ the\\ fight\\ for\\ racial\\ equality\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Story\\ of\\ this\\ anthem\\ begins\\ with\\ Enoch\\ Mankayi\\ Sontonga\\,\\ who\\ composed\\ this\\ song\\ and\\ performed\\ it\\ at\\ the\\ ordination\\ of\\ a\\ minister\\.\\ He\\ composed\\ only\\ the\\ melody\\,\\ first\\ verse\\,\\ and\\ chorus\\.\\ 7\\ more\\ verses\\ were\\ added\\ by\\ South\\ African\\ Poet\\,\\ S\\.E\\.K\\.\\ Mqhayi\\.\\ The\\ text\\ is\\ sung\\ in\\ different\\ languages\\ and\\ varied\\ by\\ singers\\ during\\ performances\\.\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ standard\\ version\\ of\\ standard\\ translation\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ internal\\ repetition\\ within\\ the\\ melody\\ and\\ rhythm\\ of\\ the\\ 5\\ phrases\\ of\\ the\\ song\\\u2019s\\ refrain\\,\\ which\\ is\\ characteristic\\ of\\ indigenous\\ South\\ African\\ Melodies\\ \\(short\\,\\ repeated\\ segments\\ termed\\ iterative\\ forms\\)\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Strophic\\ structure\\;\\ usually\\ includes\\ call\\ and\\ response\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Song\\ influenced\\ by\\ western\\ music\\ and\\ harmony\\ introduced\\ by\\ Western\\ missionaries\\ and\\ choral\\ groups\\.\\ Terms\\ derived\\ from\\ English\\ for\\ the\\ four\\ voice\\ parts\\ in\\ Western\\ harmony\\ was\\ adopted\\ by\\ South\\ Americans\\:\\ bes\\ \\(bass\\)\\,\\ thena\\ \\(tenor\\)\\,\\ altha\\ \\(alto\\)\\,\\ and\\ fast\\ pathi\\ \\(soprano\\)\\.\\ Homophonic\\ texture\\ reflects\\ strong\\ western\\ influence\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Anthem\\ became\\ focus\\ of\\ controversy\\ and\\ target\\ of\\ repression\\,\\ banned\\ by\\ the\\ South\\ African\\ government\\ as\\ subversive\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ After\\ apartheid\\ and\\ Nelson\\ Mandela\\ assuming\\ South\\ African\\ presidency\\,\\ this\\ anthem\\,\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ original\\ anthem\\,\\ The\\ Call\\ of\\ South\\ Africa\\,\\ were\\ both\\ used\\ as\\ dual\\ national\\ anthems\\,\\ reflecting\\ the\\ first\\ step\\ towards\\ reconciliation\\ after\\ a\\ divided\\ history\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ However\\,\\ use\\ of\\ two\\ anthems\\ was\\ awkward\\,\\ so\\ the\\ government\\ composed\\ a\\ single\\,\\ composite\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\ New\\ anthem\\ consists\\ of\\ four\\ verses\\ in\\ four\\ different\\ languages\\.\\ New\\ anthem\\ has\\ also\\ met\\ controversy\\ and\\ protest\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Over\\ the\\ years\\,\\ Nkosi\\ Sikelel\\\u2019\\ iAfrika\\ has\\ continued\\ to\\ have\\ multiple\\ layers\\ of\\ meaning\\-\\ Christian\\ hymn\\,\\ a\\ song\\ of\\ resistance\\,\\ and\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ national\\ anthem\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Look\\ at\\ LG\\ 70\\ for\\ what\\ to\\ listen\\ for\\.\\ LG\\ 71\\ is\\ the\\ fusion\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ songs\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ Study\\:\\ Reggae\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ During\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ another\\ African\\ leader\\ captured\\ the\\ imagination\\ of\\ the\\ people\\ of\\ color\\ in\\ North\\ American\\ and\\ the\\ Caribbean\\-\\ Ethiopia\\\u2019s\\ Ras\\ Tafari\\,\\ who\\ assumed\\ the\\ throne\\ as\\ Emperor\\ Haile\\ Selassie\\ in\\ 1930\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Ethiopia\\\u2019s\\ successful\\ fight\\ for\\ independence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ courage\\ of\\ its\\ emperor\\ when\\ its\\ autonomy\\ was\\ challenged\\ by\\ the\\ Italian\\ invasion\\ in\\ 1935\\,\\ provided\\ a\\ symbol\\ for\\ Rastafarian\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ movement\\ that\\ became\\ closely\\ associated\\ with\\ reggae\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ Rastafarian\\ movement\\ had\\ roots\\ in\\ Marcus\\ Garvey\\\u2019s\\ \\\u201cBack\\ to\\ Africa\\\u201d\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ sought\\ to\\ reclaim\\ black\\ pride\\ through\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ Africa\\.\\ After\\ being\\ deported\\ to\\ Jamaica\\,\\ he\\ and\\ others\\ predicted\\ that\\ the\\ crowning\\ of\\ a\\ black\\ king\\ in\\ Africa\\ would\\ presage\\ deliverance\\ for\\ all\\ black\\ people\\,\\ pointing\\ to\\ passages\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\ that\\ forecast\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ the\\ Lion\\ of\\ Judah\\ \\(people\\ thought\\ Ras\\ Tafari\\ was\\ this\\ Lion\\)\\.\\ They\\ believed\\ his\\ accession\\ brought\\ the\\ downfall\\ of\\ white\\ colonial\\ powers\\ \\(\\\u201cBabylon\\\u201d\\)\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ West\\ Indies\\,\\ Ethiopians\\ and\\ Rastafarians\\ were\\ formed\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ new\\ emperor\\.\\ Rastafarianism\\ developed\\ rituals\\ and\\ symbols\\,\\ inventing\\ new\\ traditions\\.\\ Their\\ symbols\\ are\\ green\\,\\ yellow\\,\\ and\\ red\\ like\\ the\\ Ethiopian\\ flag\\,\\ dreadlock\\ hairstyles\\,\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ mind\\-altering\\ substances\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ First\\,\\ no\\ single\\ musical\\ style\\.\\ Several\\ Jamaican\\ musics\\ influenced\\ styles\\,\\ which\\ were\\ also\\ influenced\\ from\\ styles\\ like\\ jazz\\ and\\ R\\&\\;B\\ from\\ outside\\ Jamaica\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ groups\\ like\\ Toots\\ and\\ the\\ Maytals\\ were\\ playing\\ a\\ predecessor\\ of\\ reggae\\ \\(ska\\)\\,\\ based\\ on\\ an\\ indigenous\\ Jamaican\\ rhythm\\ that\\ emphasized\\ the\\ off\\-beats\\ in\\ a\\ quadruple\\ rhythmic\\ pattern\\.\\ Ska\\ was\\ followed\\ by\\ rock\\ steady\\,\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ much\\ slower\\ tempo\\,\\ anchored\\ by\\ a\\ drum\\ and\\ bass\\ line\\.\\ Its\\ texts\\ discussed\\ freedom\\ and\\ equality\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Then\\ reggae\\ came\\ on\\ the\\ scene\\,\\ being\\ described\\ as\\ \\\u201ccomin\\\u2019\\ from\\ the\\ people\\,\\ an\\ everyday\\ thing\\,\\ meaning\\ regular\\,\\ majority\\,\\ poverty\\,\\ suffering\\,\\ ghetto\\\u201d\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Peter\\ Tosh\\,\\ who\\ helped\\ develop\\ reggae\\\u2019s\\ musical\\ and\\ political\\ profile\\,\\ protested\\ inequality\\ through\\ political\\ action\\ and\\ performances\\.\\ Famous\\ protest\\ music\\ includes\\ Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\ \\(Look\\ over\\ LG\\ 72\\)\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rhythm\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ Rastafarian\\ reggae\\ tradition\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ metaphor\\ for\\ resistance\\ in\\ lyrics\\.\\ Riddim\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ \\\u201crhythm\\\u201d\\,\\ where\\ its\\ meaning\\ includes\\ the\\ main\\ beat\\,\\ emphasis\\ on\\ second\\ and\\ fourth\\ off\\ beats\\,\\ tempo\\,\\ relationship\\ between\\ bass\\ and\\ rhythm\\ instruments\\,\\ and\\ repeating\\ patterns\\ formed\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Get\\ Up\\,\\ Stand\\ Up\\ has\\ strong\\,\\ regular\\ pulse\\ of\\ twos\\ and\\ fours\\,\\ crosscut\\ by\\ syncopated\\ counter\\-rhythms\\.\\ Rastafarian\\ beliefs\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ address\\ the\\ political\\ situation\\.\\ Electronic\\ organ\\ heard\\ is\\ innovative\\ \\(very\\ popular\\ in\\ rock\\ and\\ reggae\\)\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bob\\ Marley\\-\\ HUGE\\!\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Early\\ reggae\\-\\ \\\u201croots\\ reggae\\\u201d\\.\\ New\\ reggae\\ styles\\ include\\ synthesizers\\ providing\\ beats\\ and\\ texts\\ focusing\\ more\\ on\\ relationships\\ than\\ Rastafarianism\\.\\ \\\u201cDub\\\u201d\\ style\\ remixes\\ and\\ alters\\ recordings\\ as\\ a\\ backdrop\\ for\\ improvised\\ vocal\\ solos\\ with\\ political\\ texts\\.\\ \\\u201cRagamuffin\\\u201d\\ style\\ dominated\\ by\\ sounds\\ produced\\ digitally\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reggae\\ entered\\ mass\\ culture\\ through\\ cult\\ music\\ and\\ commercial\\ music\\ \\(think\\ Sublime\\)\\.\\ Has\\ mixed\\ with\\ other\\ soundscapes\\ like\\ Bhangra\\.\\ Reggaeton\\ emerged\\ as\\ a\\ dance\\ style\\ music\\ in\\ Puerto\\ Rico\\,\\ which\\ uses\\ Spanish\\ rap\\ with\\ dancehall\\ reggae\\,\\ and\\ deals\\ with\\ drugs\\,\\ crime\\,\\ and\\ sex\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reggae\\,\\ besides\\ signifying\\ resistance\\ to\\ social\\,\\ racial\\ and\\ economic\\ inequities\\,\\ also\\ has\\ many\\ love\\ songs\\.\\ Many\\ surface\\ qualities\\ of\\ reggae\\ have\\ been\\ adopted\\ by\\ white\\ musicians\\ \\(Paul\\ McCartney\\,\\ Eric\\ Clapton\\)\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ more\\ commercial\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nCase\\ Study\\:\\ The\\ Shoshone\\ Powwow\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Unlike\\ other\\ traditions\\ that\\ have\\ traveled\\,\\ Native\\ American\\ musics\\ have\\ stayed\\ in\\ North\\ America\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ They\\\u2019re\\ very\\ dispersed\\ because\\ pf\\ the\\ US\\ and\\ Canadian\\ expansion\\ and\\ policies\\,\\ driving\\ them\\ to\\ different\\ places\\.\\ The\\ Shoshones\\ had\\ to\\ abandon\\ their\\ traditional\\ pattern\\ of\\ hunting\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ US\\ pressures\\ of\\ expansion\\ and\\ urbanization\\.\\ Life\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ discrimination\\ and\\ poverty\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Male\\ and\\ female\\ roles\\ have\\ changed\\ over\\ the\\ years\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nThe\\ Setting\\ of\\ Shoshone\\ Indian\\ Days\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powwow\\-\\ first\\ held\\ in\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\,\\ referred\\ to\\ \\\u201creligious\\ practitioners\\\u201d\\ and\\ healing\\ ceremonies\\ \\(first\\ called\\ \\\u201cpawwaw\\\u201d\\)\\ Powwow\\ made\\ its\\ way\\ into\\ English\\ and\\ is\\ applied\\ to\\ any\\ type\\ of\\ gathering\\.\\ First\\ began\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ Indianness\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powwows\\ are\\ mounted\\ all\\ over\\ North\\ American\\,\\ mainly\\ during\\ the\\ summer\\ months\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Eastern\\ Shoshone\\ festival\\ is\\ held\\ on\\ a\\ warm\\ summer\\ weekend\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\\u201cpowwow\\ circuit\\\u201d\\ that\\ draws\\ participants\\ from\\ all\\ over\\.\\ Held\\ on\\ the\\ Wind\\ River\\ Reservation\\ in\\ town\\ of\\ Fort\\ Washakie\\,\\ center\\ of\\ Shoshone\\ tribal\\ life\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Circular\\ wooden\\ arbor\\ is\\ focus\\ of\\ powwow\\ activities\\.\\ Spectators\\ sit\\ under\\ the\\ shelter\\ of\\ the\\ arbor\\ on\\ wooden\\ bleachers\\ or\\ folding\\ chairs\\.\\ Large\\ space\\ in\\ center\\ is\\ planted\\ with\\ grass\\ and\\ is\\ reserved\\ for\\ dancers\\.\\ There\\\u2019s\\ a\\ large\\ pole\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ with\\ no\\ ritual\\ significance\\,\\ but\\ it\\ supports\\ speakers\\ to\\ broadcast\\ the\\ narration\\ by\\ the\\ master\\ of\\ ceremonies\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ drum\\ groups\\ that\\ accompany\\ dancing\\.\\ There\\ are\\ refreshment\\ stands\\ and\\ small\\ shops\\ around\\ the\\ arbor\\.\\ Tipis\\ house\\ those\\ who\\ stay\\ there\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ days\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ At\\ night\\,\\ dance\\ competitions\\ are\\ held\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Modern\\ intertribal\\ powwow\\ has\\ several\\ drum\\ groups\\ that\\ take\\ turns\\.\\ Each\\ group\\ sets\\ up\\ bass\\ drum\\ under\\ a\\ different\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ arbor\\,\\ and\\ 4\\-6\\ drummers\\ gather\\ in\\ a\\ circle\\ around\\ the\\ large\\ drum\\.\\ Most\\ participants\\ are\\ Native\\ American\\,\\ but\\ some\\ are\\ of\\ other\\ backgrounds\\.\\ Although\\ drummers\\ are\\ predominantly\\ male\\,\\ some\\ are\\ female\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ all\\-female\\ drum\\ groups\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Indian\\ Days\\ celebrations\\=\\ people\\ camp\\ out\\,\\ socialize\\,\\ play\\ games\\-\\ emphasizes\\ Native\\ American\\ cultural\\ values\\ of\\ generosity\\ and\\ public\\ honoring\\.\\ Evenings\\ of\\ Indian\\ Days\\ are\\ given\\ over\\ to\\ powwows\\,\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ tons\\ of\\ dance\\ competitions\\.\\ Competitions\\ play\\ an\\ important\\ role\\-\\ the\\ youngest\\ dancers\\ compete\\ for\\ cash\\.\\ Dance\\ and\\ music\\ competitions\\ are\\ critical\\ to\\ powwow\\\u2019s\\ success\\,\\ and\\ prizes\\ can\\ be\\ baller\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powwow\\ dances\\ contain\\:\\ 1\\)\\ competitive\\ dances\\ performed\\ by\\ registered\\ participants\\ in\\ full\\ regalia\\;\\ 2\\)\\ special\\ dances\\ for\\ public\\ entertainment\\ and\\ display\\ \\(\\\u201choop\\ dances\\\u201d\\)\\;\\ 3\\)\\ intertribal\\ dances\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ attendees\\.\\ \\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ dancers\\ progress\\ clockwise\\ around\\ the\\ arbor\\,\\ marking\\ the\\ tempo\\ of\\ the\\ drum\\ with\\ step\\ patterns\\ that\\ carry\\ hidden\\ meanings\\.\\ Has\\ traditional\\ \\(old\\ choreography\\)\\ or\\ fancy\\ styles\\ \\(free\\ form\\,\\ faster\\ tempo\\)\\.\\ Fancy\\ dances\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ popular\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Main\\ competitive\\ dances\\ are\\ the\\ Traditional\\ and\\ Fancy\\ War\\ Dances\\ for\\ men\\.\\ Fancy\\ War\\ dance\\ has\\ added\\ spins\\ and\\ twirls\\.\\ In\\ traditional\\,\\ men\\ wear\\ small\\ feathered\\ bustle\\ with\\ eagle\\ feathers\\ and\\ breastplate\\.\\ For\\ Fancy\\,\\ they\\ wear\\ two\\ large\\ bustles\\ with\\ feathers\\ and\\ ribbons\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Women\\ have\\ Traditional\\ or\\ Fancy\\ Shawl\\ Dance\\,\\ a\\ circular\\ dance\\ wearing\\ basic\\ dress\\,\\ moccasins\\,\\ and\\ leggings\\ with\\ a\\ shawl\\ if\\ Traditional\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Emcee\\ offers\\ commentary\\ on\\ performances\\ and\\ political\\ issues\\,\\ giving\\ speeches\\ on\\ historical\\ subjects\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ past\\ injustices\\ and\\ calling\\ for\\ equal\\ rights\\ and\\ opportunities\\ for\\ them\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nThe\\ Flag\\ Song\\\u2019s\\ Sound\\ and\\ Significance\\:\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powwow\\ begins\\ with\\ Flag\\ Entry\\,\\ procession\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ contestants\\ in\\ regalia\\,\\ who\\ dance\\ single\\ file\\ around\\ the\\ area\\,\\ then\\ they\\ present\\ the\\ colors\\ and\\ flags\\.\\ This\\ flag\\ presentation\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ the\\ Flag\\ Song\\,\\ signaled\\ by\\ a\\ slow\\ drum\\ rhythm\\.\\ Participants\\ remove\\ their\\ hats\\ and\\ stand\\ during\\ this\\ performance\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Transmission\\ of\\ songs\\ from\\ one\\ community\\ to\\ another\\ is\\ quite\\ common\\ as\\ powwows\\ incorporate\\ the\\ musics\\ of\\ many\\ tribes\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Flag\\ Song\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ slow\\,\\ deliberate\\ tempo\\ punctuated\\ by\\ the\\ drum\\ on\\ every\\ other\\ beat\\.\\ A\\ series\\ of\\ drumbeats\\ \\\u201chonor\\ beats\\\u201d\\ gives\\ a\\ clue\\ to\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ drum\\ sound\\.\\ A\\ sliding\\ drum\\ and\\ voice\\ flourish\\ is\\ heard\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ this\\ flag\\ song\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ ululation\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Helene\\ Furlong\\ sings\\ an\\ octave\\ above\\ her\\ brother\\,\\ entering\\ after\\ him\\ and\\ \\\u201cseconding\\\u201d\\ his\\ vocal\\ line\\.\\ The\\ text\\ consists\\ of\\ vocables\\ mainly\\ set\\ in\\ syllabic\\ style\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ high\\,\\ tense\\ vocal\\ quality\\ allows\\ male\\ singers\\ to\\ sing\\ clearly\\ for\\ long\\ hours\\.\\ Northern\\ singers\\ also\\ place\\ their\\ vocables\\ between\\ drumbeats\\ \\\u201csinging\\ off\\ the\\ beat\\\u201d\\ to\\ make\\ their\\ voices\\ more\\ audible\\.\\ LG\\ 73\\ has\\ more\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ Shoshone\\ repertory\\ contains\\ many\\ Flag\\ Songs\\ for\\ the\\ presentation\\ of\\ the\\ Colors\\,\\ conveying\\ several\\ different\\ political\\ messages\\;\\ most\\ important\\,\\ they\\ honor\\ particular\\ people\\ and\\ events\\,\\ or\\ offer\\ formal\\ respect\\ for\\ the\\ flag\\,\\ country\\,\\ and\\ veterans\\.\\ It\\ has\\ great\\ significance\\ for\\ Native\\ American\\ veterans\\ of\\ armed\\ services\\,\\ who\\ compose\\ new\\ Flag\\ Songs\\ to\\ commemorate\\ the\\ conflicts\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ have\\ served\\.\\ LG\\ 74\\ song\\ intended\\ to\\ be\\ sung\\ during\\ the\\ Grand\\ Entry\\,\\ honoring\\ tribe\\ members\\ recently\\ returned\\.\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nHonoring\\ Warriors\\ in\\ Song\\:\\ The\\ War\\ Dance\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ War\\ Dance\\ songs\\ make\\ overt\\ political\\ statement\\,\\ since\\ they\\ were\\ once\\ performed\\ for\\ armed\\ conflict\\.\\ Present\\-day\\ War\\ dances\\ mimic\\ traditional\\ fighting\\ movements\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ You\\ can\\ hear\\ how\\ customary\\ gender\\ roles\\ shape\\ performance\\ style\\;\\ women\\ traditionally\\ enter\\ after\\ the\\ opening\\ section\\ and\\ then\\ sing\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ through\\.\\ The\\ male\\ vocal\\ style\\ alternates\\ loud\\ and\\ soft\\ pulses\\ on\\ an\\ unbroken\\ tone\\.\\ The\\ song\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ decisive\\ final\\ drumbeat\\.\\ War\\ Dance\\ also\\ connected\\ to\\ nature\\ \\(like\\ how\\ a\\ chicken\\ would\\ dance\\.\\.\\?\\)\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ War\\ Dance\\ Song\\ is\\ centerpiece\\ of\\ powwow\\,\\ sung\\ and\\ drummed\\ during\\ both\\ traditional\\ war\\ Dances\\ and\\ the\\ Fancy\\ ones\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ LG\\ 74\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\\\\\\nThe\\ Changing\\ Settings\\ of\\ Powwow\\ Music\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powwow\\ has\\ shifted\\ to\\ new\\ settings\\ like\\ rodeos\\ and\\ football\\ half\\-time\\ shows\\.\\ New\\ audiences\\ as\\ well\\.\\ American\\ Indian\\ Dance\\ Theatre\\ performs\\ traditional\\ and\\ new\\ choreography\\.\\\\\n\\\u2022\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Powwow\\ provides\\ opportunity\\ for\\ socializing\\ and\\ celebrating\\ Native\\ American\\ identity\\,\\ it\\ also\\ reaffirms\\ the\\ vitality\\ and\\ political\\ strength\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ The\\ powwow\\ transmits\\ and\\ affirms\\ Native\\ American\\ power\\ both\\ inside\\ and\\ outside\\ the\\ immediate\\ setting\\.\\ This\\ is\\ evident\\ in\\ the\\ clear\\ division\\ between\\ intertribal\\ and\\ contest\\ dances\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ emcee\\ who\\ speaks\\ to\\ insiders\\ and\\ also\\ translates\\ for\\ insiders\\.\\\\\\\\\n\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 113, "file_path": "", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.563799+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Moon & Earth in Newton's World", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 810, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Laws\\ of\\ Motion\\\\\r\\\n1\\>\\;\\ Inertia\\\\\r\\\n2\\>\\;\\ F\\ \\=\\ ma\\\\\r\\\n3\\>\\;\\ action\\/reaction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Law\\ of\\ Gravitation\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ same\\ force\\ that\\ accelerates\\ an\\ apple\\ at\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\ keeps\\ the\\ Moon\\ in\\ it\\ orbit\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Inverse\\ square\\ law\\ that\\ tells\\ you\\ what\\ the\\ force\\ is\\ between\\ masses\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Purpose\\\\\r\\\n\\-Mass\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ extremely\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ universe\\.\\ \\;The\\ fates\\ of\\ stars\\ depend\\ on\\ their\\ masses\\.\\ \\;Also\\ determines\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\MASS\\\\\r\\\n\\-we\\ detect\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ mass\\ by\\ its\\ effects\\ on\\ visible\\ objects\\\\\r\\\n\\-we\\ can\\ detect\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ invisible\\ objects\\ this\\ way\\ by\\ gravitational\\ tug\\ and\\ their\\ effects\\ on\\ planets\\,\\ low\\-mass\\ stars\\,\\ black\\ holes\\,\\ and\\ dark\\ matter\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Demonstration\\\\\r\\\n\\-air\\ track\\,\\ no\\ friction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ measure\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ an\\ object\\.\\ \\;Saw\\ that\\ change\\ in\\ position\\ could\\ be\\ expressed\\ as\\ velocity\\ \\(how\\ far\\ you\\ travel\\ in\\ a\\ given\\ moment\\)\\.\\ \\;Velocity\\ has\\ a\\ certain\\ sign\\ \\(\\+\\ or\\ \\-\\)\\ and\\ on\\ air\\ track\\ the\\ cart\\ is\\ going\\ at\\ a\\ constant\\ rate\\ because\\ no\\ force\\ acting\\ on\\ it\\,\\ but\\ when\\ it\\ hits\\ wall\\ at\\ end\\ of\\ track\\,\\ it\\ reverses\\ direction\\ with\\ nearly\\ the\\ same\\ speed\\.\\ \\;Acceleration\\ is\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ velocity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ line\\ is\\ horizontal\\ and\\ slope\\ is\\ zero\\,\\ and\\ only\\ changes\\ \\+\\ to\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ or\\ vice\\ versa\\ when\\ car\\ hits\\ the\\ wall\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Law\\:\\ an\\ object\\ at\\ rest\\ stays\\ at\\ rest\\,\\ an\\ object\\ in\\ motion\\ stays\\ in\\ motion\\\\\r\\\n\\-real\\ world\\ has\\ friction\\,\\ air\\ that\\ is\\ affecting\\ motion\\ of\\ things\\ \\(second\\ part\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-demonstration\\ continued\\ \\-\\ tilt\\ the\\ track\\ now\\ so\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ constant\\ force\\,\\ causing\\ the\\ cart\\ to\\ accelerate\\ at\\ a\\ constant\\ rate\\,\\ which\\ means\\ the\\ velocity\\ increases\\ with\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 2\\nd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Law\\:\\ a\\ force\\ produces\\ an\\ acceleration\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ force\\ and\\ inversely\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\\\\r\\\n\\-acceleration\\ \\=\\ force\\ \\/\\ mass\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;a\\ \\[m\\/s\\²\\;\\]\\ \\=\\ F\\ \\[n\\]\\ \\/\\ m\\ \\[kg\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-\\ \\;F\\ \\=\\ ma\\\\\r\\\n\\-Force\\ is\\ measured\\ in\\ Newtons\\ \\[m\\ \\/\\ \\(s\\²\\;\\ kg\\)\\]\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Distance\\ covered\\ by\\ a\\ falling\\ apple\\\\\r\\\n\\-d\\ \\=\\ \\½\\;\\ at\\²\\;\\ \\(for\\ object\\ falling\\ at\\ a\\ constant\\ rate\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-On\\ earth\\,\\ a\\ \\=\\ g\\\\\r\\\n\\-d\\ \\=\\ \\½\\;\\ at\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-g\\ \\=\\ 2d\\ \\/\\ t\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\nApple\\ example\\\\\r\\\n\\-a\\ \\=\\ 2d\\ \\/\\ t\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-d\\ \\=\\ 5\\.69\\ m\\\\\r\\\n\\-measure\\ t\\,\\ t\\ \\=\\ 1\\.086\\ seconds\\\\\r\\\n\\-solve\\ for\\ a\\,\\ a\\ \\=\\ 2\\(5\\.69\\)\\ \\/\\ \\(1\\.086\\)\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ 9\\.65\\ m\\/s\\²\\;\\ \\~\\ 10\\ m\\/s\\²\\;\\ \\=\\ g\\\\\r\\\nin\\ reality\\,\\ g\\ is\\ closer\\ to\\ 9\\.8\\ m\\/s\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Demonstration\\\\\r\\\n\\-spinning\\ bagel\\ around\\ head\\\\\r\\\n\\-force\\ is\\ always\\ to\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ circle\\ around\\ the\\ string\\;\\ along\\ the\\ radius\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ force\\ is\\ always\\ inward\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ moon\\ is\\ in\\ its\\ orbit\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ friction\\,\\ but\\ what\\ is\\ the\\ force\\?\\ \\;What\\ is\\ the\\ acceleration\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Here\\ on\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\ all\\ objects\\ accelerate\\ downward\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ rate\\\\\r\\\n\\-a\\ \\=\\ F\\/m\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ is\\ the\\ force\\ of\\ gravity\\ on\\ the\\ object\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ we\\ call\\ that\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;weight\\&rsquo\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ force\\ of\\ gravity\\ on\\ an\\ object\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ its\\ mass\\ F\\ \\=\\ gm\\\\\r\\\n\\-g\\:\\ how\\ many\\ newtons\\ per\\ kilogram\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\,\\ a\\ \\=\\ F\\/m\\ \\=\\ gm\\/m\\ \\=\\ g\\ \\[m\\/s\\²\\;\\]\\\\\r\\\n\\-Force\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ acceleration\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ ratio\\ of\\ the\\ force\\ to\\ the\\ mass\\.\\ \\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-This\\ is\\ true\\ for\\ pennies\\ and\\ feathers\\ \\(except\\ for\\ the\\ air\\)\\,\\ for\\ apples\\ and\\ elephants\\!\\\\\r\\\n\\-g\\ \\(the\\ acceleration\\ here\\ at\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\)\\ is\\ about\\ 10\\ m\\/s\\²\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ gravitational\\ force\\ on\\ objects\\ here\\ at\\ the\\ Earth\\'s\\ surface\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ their\\ mass\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-F\\ \\=\\ gm\\ \\~\\(\\ 10\\ \\[n\\/kg\\]\\)\\ x\\ m\\ \\[kg\\]\\\\\r\\\nWe\\ call\\ that\\ force\\ \\&ldquo\\;weight\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ acceleration\\ that\\ force\\ produces\\ is\\ a\\ \\=\\ F\\/m\\ \\=\\ gm\\/m\\ \\=\\ g\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ all\\ objects\\,\\ whether\\ their\\ mass\\ is\\ large\\ or\\ small\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ Donut\\ Theorem\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\ \\=\\ \\&Delta\\;v\\ \\/\\ \\&Delta\\;t\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&Delta\\;v\\ \\~\\ v\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\&Delta\\;t\\ \\~\\ R\\ \\/\\ v\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\So\\&hellip\\;\\ a\\ \\=\\ v\\ \\/\\ \\(R\\/v\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\a\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;\\/R\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-The\\ change\\ in\\ velocity\\ is\\ twice\\ the\\ velocity\\ and\\ time\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ go\\ around\\ the\\ circle\\ is\\ the\\ radius\\ divided\\ by\\ the\\ speed\\ at\\ which\\ the\\ object\\ is\\ moving\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-Acceleration\\ is\\ change\\ in\\ velocity\\ divided\\ by\\ change\\ in\\ time\\.\\\\\r\\\n\\-Now\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ acceleration\\ of\\ moon\\ around\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ we\\ can\\ compute\\ the\\ acceleration\\ the\\ Moon\\ has\\ in\\ its\\ arobit\\ around\\ the\\ Earth\\\\\r\\\n\\-1\\ orbit\\ per\\ Moonth\\ \\(month\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-R\\ \\=\\ distance\\ to\\ the\\ moon\\\\\r\\\n\\-v\\ \\=\\ 2\\&pi\\;R\\/t\\\\\r\\\n\\-t\\ \\=\\ 1\\ month\\ \\=\\ 2\\.36\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ sec\\\\\r\\\n\\-R\\ \\=\\ 384\\,\\ 000\\ km\\ \\=\\ 3\\.84\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\ m\\\\\r\\\n\\-v\\ \\=\\ 1\\.022\\ x\\ 10\\^3\\ m\\/s\\\\\r\\\n\\-a\\ \\=\\ v\\²\\;\\/R\\ \\=\\ \\(1\\.022\\ x\\ 10\\^3\\)\\²\\;\\ \\/\\ 3\\.84\\ x\\ 10\\^8\\\\\r\\\n\\-a\\ \\=\\ 2\\.72\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-3\\ m\\/s\\²\\;\\ \\(small\\!\\)\\ \\\\<\\;\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\ acceleration\\ the\\ Moon\\ has\\ in\\ its\\ orbit\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Great\\ Idea\\\\\r\\\n\\-the\\ gravitational\\ force\\ between\\ two\\ objects\\ is\\ proportional\\ to\\ their\\ masses\\,\\ and\\ decreases\\ inversely\\ as\\ the\\ square\\ of\\ the\\ distance\\ between\\ them\\\\\r\\\n\\-F\\ \\=\\ G\\ m1\\ m2\\ \\/\\ R\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-Force\\ \\=\\ \\(some\\ number\\)\\ \\(mass\\ object\\ 1\\)\\ \\(mass\\ object\\ 2\\)\\ \\/\\ \\(distance\\)\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-gravity\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ weak\\ force\\,\\ but\\ dominates\\ the\\ universe\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ long\\ range\\\\\r\\\n\\-They\\ both\\ feel\\ the\\ same\\ force\\ tugging\\ on\\ them\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ M1\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ F\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\<\\;\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\ M2\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\;\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\ R\\ \\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ gravitational\\ force\\ depends\\ inversely\\ on\\ the\\ square\\ of\\ the\\ distance\\:\\ F\\ \\~\\ 1\\/R\\²\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ acceleration\\ of\\ the\\ Moon\\ due\\ to\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gravitation\\?\\\\\r\\\n\\-Compare\\ the\\ acceleration\\ of\\ an\\ apple\\ at\\ the\\ Earth\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\ with\\ the\\ moon\\ in\\ its\\ orbit\\\\\r\\\n\\-Use\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ second\\ law\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ a\\ \\=\\ F\\/m\\\\\r\\\n\\-And\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ law\\ of\\ gravitation\\:\\\\\r\\\nF1\\ \\=\\ G\\ Mearth\\ Mapple\\ \\/\\ Rearth\\²\\;\\ \\;\\ \\(force\\ on\\ apple\\ at\\ center\\ of\\ earth\\)\\\\\r\\\nF2\\ \\=\\ G\\ Mearth\\ Mmoon\\ \\/\\ Rearth\\-moon\\²\\;\\ \\(force\\ on\\ moon\\ at\\ center\\ of\\ earth\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-So\\,\\\\\r\\\n\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\=\\ F1\\/m\\ \\=\\ G\\ Mearth\\ \\/\\ Rearth\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\a\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\=\\ F2\\/m\\ \\=\\ G\\ Mearth\\ \\/\\ Rearth\\-moon\\²\\;\\\\\r\\\n\\-And\\ then\\,\\\\\r\\\n\\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\/\\ \\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\=Rearth\\²\\;\\ \\/\\ Rearth\\-moon\\²\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\=\\ \\a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Rearth\\²\\;\\ \\/\\ Rearth\\-moon\\²\\;\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ The\\ acceleration\\ at\\ the\\ Moon\\ should\\ be\\ smaller\\ by\\ the\\ inverse\\ square\\ of\\ the\\ distance\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ agreement\\ between\\ the\\ prediction\\ of\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inverse\\ square\\ law\\ for\\ gravity\\ and\\ the\\ observed\\ motion\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\ shows\\ this\\ idea\\ is\\ powerful\\ and\\ useful\\.\\ \\;In\\ physical\\ science\\,\\ powerful\\ and\\ useful\\ ideas\\ that\\ fit\\ the\\ facts\\ are\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;laws\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;theories\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Theory\\ of\\ Gravity\\:\\ Newton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Laws\\ of\\ Gravity\\ and\\ Laws\\ of\\ Motion\\ explain\\ the\\ Moon\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orbit\\ and\\ much\\ more\\!\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\An\\ 18\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ couplet\\ written\\ by\\ Alexander\\ Pope\\ gives\\ a\\ clue\\ to\\ the\\ awe\\ with\\ which\\ his\\ contemporaries\\ regarded\\ Sir\\ Isaac\\ Newton\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ Nature\\ and\\ Nature\\&rsquo\\;s\\ laws\\ lay\\ hid\\ in\\ night\\:\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ God\\ said\\,\\ Let\\ Newton\\ be\\!\\ And\\ all\\ was\\ light\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\'s\\ 3\\rd\\<\\/sup\\>\\ Law\\:\\ Action\\ \\/\\ Reaction\\\\\r\\\n\\-equal\\ and\\ opposite\\ forces\\\\\r\\\n\\-rocket\\ exhaust\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ push\\ on\\ anything\\!\\ \\;The\\ propulsion\\ comes\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\ of\\ ejection\\.\\ \\;What\\ matters\\ is\\ how\\ it\\ pushes\\ on\\ the\\ nozzle\\ of\\ the\\ rockets\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\ it\\ is\\ ejected\\\\\r\\\n\\-shuttle\\ launched\\,\\ liquid\\ fuel\\ being\\ burned\\,\\ gas\\ rushes\\ out\\ the\\ back\\ and\\ shuttle\\ is\\ pushed\\ the\\ other\\ way\\,\\ \\;has\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ where\\ stuff\\ ends\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ moment\\ the\\ stuff\\ is\\ ejected\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\-Space\\:\\ zero\\ weight\\,\\ but\\ NOT\\ zero\\ gravity\\\\\r\\\n\\-when\\ in\\ shuttle\\ in\\ space\\,\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Newton\\\\\r\\\n\\-object\\ stays\\ in\\ constant\\ motion\\ unless\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ outside\\ force\\\\\r\\\n\\-constant\\ motion\\ sideways\\ \\+\\ constant\\ acceleration\\ downward\\ \\\\-\\-\\>\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ parabola\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Moon & Earth in Newton's World"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.541147+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Testing the Picture", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 808, "html": "\\\\-Low\\ mass\\ stars\\ become\\ white\\ dwarfs\\,\\ held\\ up\\ by\\ quantum\\ mechanics\\!\\ \\(They\\ do\\ not\\ explode\\ unless\\ provoked\\ by\\ a\\ neighbor\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Massive\\ stars\\ fuse\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ iron\\,\\ then\\ collapse\\ and\\ bounce\\ to\\ become\\ supernova\\ explosions\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ energy\\ for\\ supernovae\\ in\\ massive\\ stars\\ comes\\ from\\ gravitational\\ collapse\\ to\\ a\\ neutron\\ star\\\\\r\\\n\\-A\\ spinning\\ neutron\\ star\\ can\\ appear\\ as\\ a\\ pulsar\\\\\r\\\n\\-Testing\\ the\\ model\\ for\\ massive\\ star\\ explosions\\-\\-SN\\ 1987A\\:\\ massive\\ star\\,\\ core\\ collapse\\ with\\ neutrino\\ emission\\,\\ shock\\ wave\\ explodes\\ the\\ star\\,\\ star\\ glows\\ due\\ to\\ radioactive\\ energy\\ input\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\CRAB\\ \\;PULSAR\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Very\\ fast\\ \\~30\\ turns\\/second\\\\\r\\\n\\-Gradually\\ slowing\\ down\\\\\r\\\n\\-Energy\\ from\\ the\\ neutron\\ star\\ powers\\ the\\ Crab\\ Nebula\\ \\(900\\ years\\ old\\ and\\ still\\ shining\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Emission\\ includes\\ synchrotron\\ emission\\:\\ particles\\ near\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ light\\ in\\ a\\ magnetic\\ field\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\TESTING\\ THE\\ PICTURE\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Massive\\ star\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ energy\\ generation\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Core\\ collapse\\ with\\ neutrino\\ emission\\:\\ Neutrinos\\ carry\\ away\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ energy\\ \\(99\\%\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Shock\\ wave\\ explodes\\ the\\ star\\ \\(Energy\\ of\\ motion\\ \\~1\\%\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Star\\ glows\\ brightly\\ due\\ to\\ radioactive\\ energy\\ input\\ from\\ newly\\ synthesized\\ isotopes\\ \\(\\~1\\/10\\%\\ of\\ the\\ energy\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\SN\\ 1987A\\ FROM\\ A\\ MASSIVE\\ STAR\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Position\\ agrees\\ with\\ catalog\\ star\\ Sanduleak\\ \\-69\\ 202\\\\\r\\\n\\-We\\ know\\ the\\ luminosity\\ and\\ temperature\\ of\\ that\\ star\\ \\=\\>\\;\\ can\\ put\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ H\\-R\\ diagram\\\\\r\\\n\\-The\\ location\\ of\\ Sk\\ \\-69\\ 202\\ in\\ the\\ HR\\ diagram\\ corresponds\\ to\\ a\\ 20\\ solar\\ mass\\ star\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\PROPERTIES\\ OF\\ Sk\\ \\-69\\ 202\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Luminosity\\ \\~\\ 10\\^5\\ Lsun\\\\\r\\\n\\-Temperature\\ \\~\\ 15\\ 000\\ K\\\\\r\\\n\\-Radius\\ \\~\\ 40\\ Rsun\\\\\r\\\n\\-About\\ 6\\ Msun\\ \\(solar\\ masses\\)\\ in\\ the\\ core\\ \\(He\\ and\\ beyond\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\-Main\\ sequence\\ mass\\ \\~20\\ Msun\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\EXPANSION\\ OF\\ SUPERNOVA\\ RINGS\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Outer\\ ring\\ at\\ edge\\ of\\ swetp\\-up\\ gas\\ from\\ earlier\\ mass\\ loss\\ \\(wider\\ than\\ inner\\ ring\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Inner\\ ring\\ of\\ swept\\-up\\ red\\-supergiant\\ gas\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\-At\\ center\\ of\\ cylindrical\\ like\\ formation\\ is\\ the\\ supernova\\ remnant\\.\\ \\;\\ A\\ dark\\,\\ invisible\\ outer\\ portion\\ surrounds\\ the\\ bright\\ inner\\ region\\ lit\\ by\\ radioactive\\ decay\\.\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "Testing the Picture"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.835692+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 22 (5/1/08)- The Self", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 399, "html": "\\There\\ are\\ two\\ extreme\\ views\\ of\\ the\\ self\\:\\ the\\ romantic\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ authentic\\ self\\,\\ and\\ Erving\\ Goffman\\'s\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ self\\ as\\ an\\ actor\\ from\\ his\\ book\\ \\The\\ Presentation\\ of\\ Self\\ in\\ Everyday\\ Life\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\ The\\ first\\ view\\ is\\ the\\ common\\ sense\\ view\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ \\\"true\\ self\\\"\\ and\\ we\\ change\\ a\\ small\\ bit\\ given\\ the\\ social\\ circumstances\\.\\ The\\ second\\ view\\ says\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ \\\"social\\ masks\\\"\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ down\\,\\ that\\ is\\ we\\ act\\ so\\ different\\ in\\ different\\ situations\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\\"true\\ self\\\"\\ just\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ \\\"selfs\\\"\\ that\\ we\\ present\\ to\\ others\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\How\\ do\\ we\\ present\\ ourselves\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ present\\ ourselves\\ as\\ \\beneficent\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\effective\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>This\\ is\\ predicted\\ from\\ the\\ model\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ and\\ dominance\\ hierarchies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ motive\\ to\\ present\\ ourselves\\ as\\ \\beneficent\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ directly\\ derivable\\ from\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\.\\ Given\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ reciprocal\\ altruism\\ as\\ presented\\ in\\ previous\\ lectures\\,\\ the\\ most\\ effective\\ strategies\\ \\(indeed\\ the\\ only\\ ones\\ that\\ are\\ evolutionarily\\ stable\\)\\ involve\\ helping\\ altruists\\ and\\ punishing\\ cheaters\\.\\ The\\ famous\\ Tit\\-for\\-Tat\\ strategy\\ \\(which\\ won\\ Axelrod\\'s\\ and\\ Hamilton\\'s\\ famous\\ computer\\ tournament\\,\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/The\\_Evolution\\_of\\_Cooperation\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\,\\ does\\ exactly\\ that\\,\\ cooperates\\ with\\ cooperators\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ with\\ those\\ that\\ do\\ not\\ cooperate\\.\\ Therefore\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ generate\\ altruism\\ from\\ others\\,\\ one\\ must\\ seem\\ likely\\ to\\ cooperate\\ or\\ have\\ a\\ reputation\\ for\\ cooperation\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ people\\ present\\ themselves\\ as\\ beneficent\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ motive\\ for\\ presenting\\ oneself\\ as\\ \\effective\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ two\\-fold\\,\\ and\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ dominance\\ hierarchies\\ and\\ reciprocal\\ relationships\\.\\ In\\ terms\\ of\\ dominance\\,\\ one\\ wants\\ to\\ appear\\ effective\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ taken\\ advantage\\ of\\,\\ and\\ will\\ be\\ high\\ in\\ the\\ hierarchies\\ \\(this\\ is\\ effective\\ as\\ \\\"I\\ can\\ hurt\\ you\\\"\\)\\.\\ As\\ far\\ as\\ for\\ reciprocity\\,\\ people\\ only\\ want\\ to\\ cooperate\\ with\\ someone\\ who\\ has\\ something\\ to\\ provide\\,\\ and\\ so\\ one\\ wants\\ to\\ appear\\ effective\\ \\(this\\ is\\ effective\\ as\\ \\\"I\\ can\\ help\\ you\\\"\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ psychology\\ of\\ dominance\\ is\\ predicated\\ upon\\ bluffing\\.\\ Usually\\ in\\ confrontations\\ that\\ decide\\ dominance\\ hierarchies\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ actual\\ fighting\\,\\ aggression\\ amongst\\ animals\\ is\\ often\\ nonlethal\\,\\ and\\ full\\ of\\ bluffing\\,\\ displays\\,\\ and\\ retreat\\.\\ This\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ invoking\\ group\\ selection\\ and\\ attributing\\ this\\ to\\ being\\ \\\"for\\ the\\ good\\ of\\ the\\ species\\.\\\"\\ As\\ we\\ have\\ seen\\ in\\ previous\\ lectures\\,\\ however\\,\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ very\\ good\\ explanation\\.\\ The\\ current\\ theory\\ holds\\ that\\ essentially\\ this\\ benefits\\ each\\ individual\\ by\\ preventing\\ them\\ from\\ being\\ unnecessarily\\ harmed\\.\\ Essentially\\ both\\ animals\\ calculate\\ who\\ will\\ win\\ the\\ fight\\ through\\ the\\ displays\\,\\ and\\ then\\ \\\"decide\\\"\\ not\\ to\\ fight\\ and\\ the\\ perceived\\ loser\\ concedes\\ to\\ the\\ perceived\\ winner\\.\\ \\ These\\ confrontations\\ determine\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ dominant\\ organism\\,\\ resulting\\ in\\ \\\"alpha\\ males\\\"\\ and\\ pecking\\ orders\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ differences\\ in\\ fitness\\ outcomes\\ depending\\ on\\ where\\ one\\ falls\\ in\\ the\\ dominance\\ hierarchy\\,\\ with\\ those\\ higher\\ in\\ the\\ hierarchy\\ benefitting\\,\\ so\\ everyone\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ hierarchy\\.\\ Every\\ organism\\ strives\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ alpha\\ organism\\ because\\ they\\ alpha\\ female\\ gets\\ more\\ food\\,\\ and\\ any\\ other\\ resources\\ that\\ help\\ her\\ offspring\\,\\ and\\ the\\ alpha\\ male\\ gets\\ not\\ just\\ more\\ food\\,\\ but\\ more\\ females\\ as\\ well\\(the\\ reason\\ there\\ is\\ this\\ asymmetry\\ and\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ say\\ that\\ females\\ get\\ more\\ males\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ asymmetry\\ due\\ to\\ investment\\ in\\ which\\ \\\"males\\ compete\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"females\\ choose\\\"\\)\\.\\ In\\ confrontations\\ the\\ two\\ organisms\\ give\\ exaggerated\\ advertisements\\ of\\ size\\ and\\ strength\\,\\ such\\ as\\ ruffs\\,\\ balloons\\,\\ manes\\,\\ bristling\\,\\ rearing\\,\\ bellowing\\,\\ puffing\\ out\\ of\\ fur\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\(think\\ of\\ two\\ guys\\ puffing\\ out\\ their\\ chests\\,\\ yelling\\,\\ spitting\\,\\ and\\ just\\ trying\\ to\\ look\\ big\\ and\\ tough\\ when\\ they\\ are\\ about\\ to\\ fight\\)\\.\\ These\\ behaviors\\ are\\ how\\ it\\ is\\ decided\\ who\\ will\\ \\\"win\\\"\\ the\\ fight\\ and\\ they\\ often\\ determine\\ the\\ dominance\\ hierarchy\\ \\(this\\ probably\\ also\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ \\\"Napolean\\ complex\\\"\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Are\\ there\\ dominance\\ displays\\ in\\ humans\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Throughout\\ the\\ anthropological\\ literature\\ high\\ ranking\\ men\\ more\\ often\\ get\\ their\\ way\\,\\ and\\ have\\ more\\ wives\\,\\ lovers\\,\\ and\\ affairs\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ known\\ what\\ the\\ impact\\ is\\ for\\ high\\-ranking\\ women\\ \\(and\\ this\\ should\\ not\\ vary\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ male\\ reproductive\\ success\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ variable\\ than\\ women\\'s\\)\\.\\ In\\ many\\ societies\\ the\\ alpha\\ male\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\\"big\\ man\\\"\\ and\\ we\\ still\\ observe\\ effects\\ of\\ height\\ on\\ salary\\ and\\ political\\ power\\,\\ with\\ an\\ average\\ income\\ gain\\ of\\ \\$600\\/year\\ per\\ inch\\,\\ and\\ with\\ 80\\%\\ of\\ the\\ taller\\ candidates\\ winning\\ the\\ presidential\\ election\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ over\\ the\\ last\\ century\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Psychology\\ of\\ status\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Status\\<\\/em\\>\\ is\\ the\\ public\\ knowledge\\ that\\ you\\ possess\\ assets\\ that\\ allow\\ you\\ to\\ help\\ others\\ such\\ as\\ beauty\\,\\ irreplaceable\\ talent\\ and\\ expertise\\,\\ knowing\\ powerful\\ people\\,\\ and\\ wealth\\.\\ Status\\ is\\ relative\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ gauged\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ others\\ in\\ one\\'s\\ social\\ environment\\.\\ In\\ animals\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ physical\\ advertisements\\ of\\ status\\.\\ Zahavi\\'s\\ handicap\\ principle\\ in\\ biology\\ states\\ that\\ often\\ a\\ \\[male\\]\\ physical\\ trait\\ can\\ be\\ beneficial\\ specifically\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ costly\\;\\ the\\ peacock\\'s\\ tail\\ is\\ the\\ classic\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ \\(\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Handicap\\_principle\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\ Essentially\\ the\\ idea\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ costly\\ signals\\ are\\ a\\ sign\\ that\\ \\\"I\\ am\\ so\\ healthy\\ and\\ robust\\ that\\ I\\ can\\ afford\\ this\\ costly\\ thing\\,\\\"\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ peacock\\'s\\ tail\\ which\\ is\\ an\\ obvious\\ handicap\\ for\\ flying\\ and\\ movement\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Humans\\ behave\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ way\\ with\\ flagrant\\ displays\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\ Humans\\ always\\ find\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ \\(like\\ Hummers\\ and\\ diamonds\\)\\ attractive\\.\\ This\\ is\\ true\\ in\\ hunter\\-gatherer\\ societies\\ as\\ well\\ in\\ which\\ one\\ group\\ or\\ individual\\ would\\ try\\ to\\ out\\-do\\ the\\ other\\ in\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ could\\ consume\\ or\\ even\\ destroy\\ \\(think\\ of\\ lighting\\ a\\ cigar\\ with\\ a\\ \\$100\\ bill\\)\\,\\ to\\ show\\ just\\ how\\ much\\ they\\ could\\ create\\ or\\ provide\\.\\ This\\ results\\ in\\ conspicuous\\ leisure\\ and\\ conspicuous\\ waste\\ because\\ these\\ show\\ that\\ one\\ is\\ so\\ wealthy\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ throw\\ away\\ their\\ stuff\\.\\ Our\\ shows\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ and\\ obcene\\ wealth\\ displays\\ are\\ a\\ human\\ social\\ equivalent\\ of\\ the\\ peacock\\'s\\ tail\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Interestingly\\,\\ people\\ do\\ not\\ use\\ these\\ flagrant\\ displays\\ as\\ often\\ any\\ more\\ because\\ these\\ status\\ symbols\\ have\\ become\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ copy\\ \\(with\\ Folex\\'s\\ and\\ cubic\\ zirconiums\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\.\\ Now\\ to\\ replace\\ these\\ status\\ symbols\\,\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ so\\ easy\\ to\\ fake\\,\\ we\\ have\\ fashion\\ to\\ replace\\ them\\ \\(although\\ there\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ fashion\\,\\ it\\ cycles\\ WAY\\ more\\ rapidly\\ than\\ it\\ used\\ to\\)\\.\\ Quentin\\ Bell\\ articulated\\ this\\ concept\\ of\\ the\\ psychology\\ of\\ fashion\\.\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ general\\ rules\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Try\\ to\\ look\\ like\\ those\\ above\\ you\\ in\\ the\\ dominance\\ hierarchy\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\If\\ you\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ top\\,\\ try\\ to\\ look\\ different\\ from\\ those\\ beneath\\ you\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\These\\ two\\ principles\\ explain\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ fashion\\ trends\\,\\ namely\\ how\\ those\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ create\\ new\\ trends\\,\\ those\\ below\\ them\\ copy\\ them\\,\\ so\\ the\\ ones\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ have\\ to\\ create\\ new\\ trends\\,\\ and\\ those\\ below\\ copy\\ them\\,\\ ad\\ infinitum\\.\\ Bell\\ also\\ noted\\ that\\ this\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ taking\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ psychology\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ outrage\\,\\ namely\\ \\\"I\\'m\\ so\\ talented\\,\\ wealthy\\,\\ popular\\,\\ or\\ connected\\ that\\ I\\ can\\ afford\\ to\\ offend\\ you\\\"\\ \\(think\\ Dennis\\ Rodman\\ and\\ Scientology\\)\\.\\ This\\ helps\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ psychology\\ of\\ \\\"hip\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"cool\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ all\\ use\\ fashion\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ show\\ others\\ our\\ worthwhileness\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ being\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ dominance\\ hierarchies\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ as\\ beneficent\\ and\\ effective\\ as\\ they\\ pretend\\ to\\ be\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\If\\ everyone\\ was\\ as\\ independent\\ and\\ in\\ control\\ as\\ they\\ act\\,\\ we\\ would\\ not\\ see\\ massive\\ obedience\\ behaviors\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Milgram\\ studies\\,\\ outlined\\ last\\ lecture\\.\\ Another\\ finding\\ that\\ shows\\ why\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ independent\\ as\\ we\\ think\\ is\\ Solomon\\ Asch\\'s\\ classic\\ study\\ on\\ conformity\\,\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ will\\ actually\\ lie\\ about\\ very\\ simple\\ perception\\ to\\ fit\\ in\\ with\\ the\\ group\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Asch\\_conformity\\_experiments\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ There\\ are\\ also\\ incredible\\ bystander\\ effects\\ of\\ apathy\\ such\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Kitty\\ Genovese\\ case\\.\\ This\\ was\\ a\\ woman\\ in\\ NY\\ city\\ that\\ was\\ killed\\ in\\ plain\\ view\\ of\\ many\\ people\\ looking\\ out\\ their\\ windows\\,\\ and\\ no\\ one\\ called\\ the\\ cops\\.\\ This\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ \\diffusion\\ of\\ responsibility\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ someone\\ else\\ will\\ fix\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ a\\ paradoxical\\ effect\\ in\\ which\\,\\ often\\,\\ the\\ more\\ people\\ that\\ witness\\ some\\ terrible\\ event\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ fix\\,\\ the\\ less\\ likely\\ any\\ one\\ is\\ to\\ take\\ any\\ steps\\ to\\ fix\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Diffusion\\_of\\_responsibility\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Attribution\\ Theory\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ social\\ psychology\\.\\ According\\ to\\ attribution\\ theory\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ possible\\ causes\\ of\\ any\\ action\\,\\ the\\ person\\,\\ or\\ the\\ situation\\.\\ People\\ commit\\ what\\ is\\ called\\ \\the\\ fundamental\\ attribution\\ error\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ are\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ attribute\\ others\\'\\ behavior\\ to\\ fundamental\\ personality\\ characteristics\\ \\(especially\\ people\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ their\\ friends\\)\\,\\ and\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ attribute\\ their\\ own\\ behavior\\ to\\ situational\\ characteristics\\.\\ There\\ was\\ a\\ study\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ were\\ randomly\\ assigned\\ to\\ two\\ groups\\ of\\ \\\"managers\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"clerks\\,\\\"\\ and\\ then\\ people\\ \\(even\\ though\\ they\\ knew\\ these\\ were\\ random\\ assignments\\)\\ said\\ that\\ the\\ managers\\,\\ as\\ individuals\\,\\ were\\ more\\ assertive\\,\\ supportive\\,\\ and\\ had\\ better\\ leadership\\ skills\\,\\ and\\ higher\\ IQs\\ \\(even\\ though\\ these\\ were\\ just\\ artifacts\\ of\\ the\\ situation\\)\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ bizarre\\ phenomenon\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ often\\ mistake\\ actors\\ for\\ being\\ the\\ characters\\ that\\ they\\ play\\,\\ because\\ we\\ attribute\\ situational\\ factors\\ as\\ being\\ personality\\ factors\\.\\ People\\ essentially\\ believe\\ that\\ \\\"I\\ am\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ situation\\,\\\"\\ while\\ \\\"he\\ is\\ controlled\\ by\\ his\\ personality\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ problem\\ of\\ lying\\ and\\ the\\ solution\\ of\\ self\\-deception\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ very\\ difficult\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ liar\\ because\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\It\\ is\\ anxiety\\ provoking\\ \\(this\\ is\\ actually\\ what\\ lie\\-detector\\ tests\\ look\\ for\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Reality\\ is\\ consistent\\,\\ and\\ so\\ liars\\ must\\ have\\ very\\ good\\ memories\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Lie\\ detectors\\ try\\ and\\ detect\\ autonomic\\ signs\\ of\\ stress\\,\\ but\\ we\\ are\\ all\\ excellent\\ intuitive\\ lie\\ detectors\\ as\\ well\\.\\ This\\ is\\ due\\ to\\ an\\ arms\\ race\\ of\\ deception\\,\\ and\\ deception\\ detection\\,\\ and\\ humans\\ are\\ amazing\\ lie\\ detectors\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ getting\\ people\\ to\\ believe\\ you\\ when\\ you\\ say\\ how\\ amazingly\\ tough\\,\\ smart\\,\\ and\\ awesome\\ that\\ you\\ are\\,\\ when\\ in\\ some\\ sense\\ we\\ are\\ lying\\ about\\ these\\ things\\ to\\ bolster\\ our\\ reputations\\ is\\ \\self\\-deception\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Trivers\\,\\ in\\ yet\\ another\\ amazing\\ insight\\,\\ basically\\ observed\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ want\\ others\\ to\\ believe\\ our\\ lies\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ good\\ lie\\ detectors\\,\\ then\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ is\\ to\\ believe\\ the\\ lies\\ ourselves\\.\\ He\\ predicted\\ that\\ one\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ believes\\ that\\ the\\ self\\ is\\ indeed\\ extremely\\ beneficent\\ and\\ effective\\,\\ while\\ another\\ unconscious\\ part\\ registers\\ the\\ truth\\ of\\ exactly\\ how\\ beneficent\\ and\\ effective\\ one\\ actually\\ is\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ converging\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ theory\\ of\\ self\\ deception\\,\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ coming\\ from\\ neuropathology\\ patients\\.\\ In\\ split\\ brain\\ patients\\ the\\ two\\ hemispheres\\ are\\ disconnected\\,\\ and\\ so\\ if\\ the\\ non\\-linguistic\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ causes\\ the\\ behavior\\,\\ but\\ then\\ we\\ ask\\ people\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ they\\ did\\ something\\,\\ we\\ can\\ actually\\ catch\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ confabulation\\.\\ The\\ experimenter\\ shows\\ a\\ patient\\ two\\ different\\ pictures\\ in\\ the\\ two\\ hemispheres\\,\\ and\\ then\\ asks\\ to\\ pick\\ out\\ objects\\ that\\ go\\ with\\ the\\ scenes\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ linguistic\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ only\\ aware\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ pictures\\.\\ In\\ the\\ following\\ picture\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ he\\ picks\\ the\\ shovel\\ because\\ it\\ goes\\ with\\ the\\ snow\\ scene\\ but\\ when\\ asked\\,\\ \\\"Paul\\,\\ why\\ did\\ you\\ do\\ that\\,\\\"\\ the\\ patient\\ \\tells\\ a\\ story\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ behavior\\ consistent\\ after\\ the\\ fact\\,\\<\\/em\\>\\ saying\\ \\\"oh\\,\\ that\\'s\\ easy\\.\\ The\\ chicken\\ claw\\ goes\\ with\\ the\\ chicken\\ and\\ you\\ need\\ a\\ shovel\\ to\\ clean\\ out\\ the\\ chicken\\ shed\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\\These\\ kinds\\ of\\ findings\\ permeate\\ the\\ neuropathology\\ literature\\.\\ For\\ example\\ experimenters\\ can\\ give\\ the\\ right\\ hemisphere\\ a\\ command\\,\\ like\\ \\\"WALK\\,\\\"\\ then\\ ask\\ them\\ why\\ they\\ are\\ walking\\ and\\ they\\ will\\ say\\ something\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"to\\ get\\ a\\ coke\\,\\\"\\ which\\ is\\ patently\\ false\\.\\ There\\ have\\ been\\ studies\\ as\\ well\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ is\\ stimulated\\ which\\ makes\\ someone\\ laugh\\,\\ and\\ after\\ they\\ are\\ asked\\ why\\ they\\ laughed\\ \\(where\\ there\\ was\\ no\\ exogenous\\ reason\\)\\ they\\ will\\ say\\ things\\ like\\,\\ \\\"oh\\,\\ you\\ guys\\ are\\ so\\ funny\\ just\\ standing\\ around\\ like\\ that\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"you\\ guys\\ come\\ up\\ and\\ test\\ us\\ every\\ month\\.\\ What\\ a\\ way\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ living\\!\\\"\\ These\\ are\\ patently\\ false\\ confabulations\\,\\ and\\ a\\ striking\\ demonstration\\ of\\ self\\-deception\\ in\\ action\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\People\\ will\\ generally\\ rate\\ themselves\\ as\\ better\\ than\\ average\\ at\\ any\\ characteristic\\ they\\ consider\\ important\\ \\(but\\ it\\ is\\ obviously\\ statistically\\ impossible\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ half\\ of\\ people\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ than\\ average\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\Lake\\ Wobegon\\ Effect\\<\\/em\\>\\ from\\ a\\ quote\\ from\\ Garrison\\ Keilor\\'s\\ novel\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ name\\,\\ \\\"where\\ the\\ women\\ are\\ strong\\,\\ the\\ men\\ are\\ good\\ looking\\,\\ and\\ all\\ the\\ children\\ are\\ above\\ average\\.\\\"\\ The\\ usual\\ findings\\ of\\ self\\ ratings\\ is\\ that\\ 60\\-70\\%\\ \\ of\\ people\\ will\\ say\\ they\\ are\\ above\\ average\\,\\ and\\ 25\\%\\ will\\ say\\ they\\ are\\ below\\ average\\-\\-again\\ this\\ is\\ statistically\\ impossible\\!\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ have\\ many\\ self\\-serving\\ biases\\,\\ and\\ the\\ literature\\ goes\\ on\\ and\\ on\\ here\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ gives\\ a\\ couple\\ more\\ examples\\ of\\ experiments\\ with\\ rigged\\ games\\ where\\ people\\ will\\ say\\ their\\ successes\\ are\\ due\\ to\\ skill\\,\\ while\\ their\\ failures\\ are\\ due\\ to\\ luck\\.\\ People\\ will\\ derogate\\ or\\ blame\\ the\\ victim\\,\\ if\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ perpetrator\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ interesting\\ twist\\ here\\ that\\ people\\ suffering\\ from\\ depression\\ are\\ actually\\ more\\ accurate\\ at\\ rating\\ themselves\\ than\\ other\\ people\\.\\ This\\ has\\ been\\ taken\\ as\\ evidence\\ that\\ depression\\ is\\ adaptive\\ \\(especially\\ post\\-partum\\ depression\\)\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ helps\\ us\\ structure\\ or\\ restructure\\ our\\ lives\\ according\\ to\\ much\\ more\\ realistic\\ perceptions\\ of\\ ourselves\\.\\ There\\ is\\ an\\ interesting\\ discussion\\ here\\ with\\ articles\\ under\\ the\\ heading\\ Evolutionary\\ Psychological\\ Hypothesis\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Postpartum\\_depression\\\r\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cognitive\\ Dissonance\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Leon\\ Festinger\\ created\\ this\\ theory\\ that\\ states\\ that\\ when\\ people\\ hold\\ inconsistent\\ beliefs\\,\\ it\\ causes\\ an\\ unpleasant\\ mental\\ state\\,\\ that\\ he\\ called\\ cognitive\\ dissonance\\.\\ People\\ will\\ actively\\ change\\ attitudes\\,\\ decisions\\,\\ etc\\.\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reduce\\ dissonance\\ and\\ create\\ consistency\\ in\\ beliefs\\,\\ attitudes\\,\\ and\\ behaviors\\.\\ There\\ is\\ substantial\\ evidence\\ for\\ dissonance\\ reduction\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\People\\ will\\ believe\\ their\\ own\\ lies\\,\\ and\\ convince\\ themselves\\ they\\ enjoy\\ something\\ more\\ if\\ they\\ receive\\ less\\ of\\ a\\ benefit\\ for\\ doing\\ it\\.\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ whole\\ research\\ here\\,\\ so\\ you\\ can\\ go\\ to\\ this\\ website\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Cognitive\\_dissonance\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ and\\ look\\ under\\ Induced\\ Compliance\\ Studies\\ for\\ more\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\In\\ cases\\ where\\ people\\ resist\\ temptation\\ they\\ will\\ rate\\ something\\ higher\\ when\\ the\\ punishment\\ is\\ higher\\,\\ than\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ lower\\ \\(because\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ do\\ it\\,\\ and\\ they\\ probably\\ could\\ have\\,\\ therefore\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ other\\ reason\\ not\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ if\\ the\\ punishment\\ is\\ higher\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Initiations\\ and\\ hazing\\ cause\\ people\\ to\\ value\\ a\\ group\\ more\\.\\ The\\ more\\ intense\\ the\\ hazing\\ the\\ higher\\ someone\\ will\\ rate\\ the\\ group\\.\\ Festinger\\ replicated\\ hazing\\ by\\ making\\ people\\ read\\ a\\ racy\\ passage\\ to\\ join\\ a\\ discussion\\ group\\ \\(this\\ was\\ in\\ the\\ prude\\ 1950s\\)\\,\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ racier\\ the\\ passage\\,\\ the\\ higher\\ they\\ rated\\ the\\ discussion\\ group\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\The\\ general\\ trend\\ here\\ is\\ that\\ when\\ people\\ act\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ is\\ irrational\\ \\(such\\ as\\ undergoing\\ tough\\ hazing\\ for\\ a\\ dumb\\ group\\ membership\\)\\ they\\ will\\ deceive\\ themselves\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ rational\\ \\(such\\ as\\ by\\ valuing\\ the\\ group\\ more\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Cognitive\\ dissonance\\ meets\\ Trivers\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Cognitive\\ dissonance\\ is\\ now\\ thought\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ wrong\\ interpretation\\ of\\ these\\ data\\.\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ logical\\ inconsistency\\ per\\ se\\ that\\ causes\\ these\\ effects\\,\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ examples\\ where\\ people\\ will\\ tolerate\\ such\\ inconsistency\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ ways\\ to\\ reduce\\ the\\ logical\\ inconsistency\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\\"I\\ had\\ to\\ pick\\ one\\ of\\ them\\,\\ so\\ I\\ picked\\ at\\ random\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"I\\ was\\ pressured\\ into\\ lying\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"I\\ was\\ too\\ scared\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ toy\\,\\\"\\ or\\ \\\"I\\ was\\ pressured\\ into\\ doing\\ something\\ stupid\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ real\\ explanation\\ here\\ lies\\ in\\ Trivers\\'\\ theory\\ above\\ of\\ self\\ deception\\.\\ If\\ one\\ analyzes\\ these\\ explanations\\ we\\ see\\ they\\ follow\\ Trivers\\'\\ predictions\\.\\ All\\ of\\ these\\ situations\\ make\\ people\\ look\\ weak\\,\\ dishonest\\,\\ stupid\\,\\ and\\ easy\\ to\\ manipuate\\.\\ People\\ deceive\\ themselves\\ to\\ improve\\ their\\ \\self\\-presentation\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ not\\ to\\ improve\\ logical\\ consistency\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\The\\ tradgedy\\ of\\ self\\-deception\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\It\\ is\\ often\\ hard\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ ourselves\\ and\\ our\\ motives\\ honestly\\,\\ which\\ is\\ often\\ why\\ people\\ talk\\ past\\ each\\ other\\ in\\ debates\\.\\ We\\ should\\ try\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ honest\\ with\\ ourselves\\,\\ and\\ realize\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ biased\\ and\\ our\\ perceptions\\ are\\ flawed\\,\\ not\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ wrong\\,\\ but\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ something\\ constructive\\ to\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ when\\ interacting\\ with\\ others\\.\\ Robert\\ Trivers\\ offers\\ the\\ following\\ quote\\,\\ which\\ is\\ quite\\ insightful\\:\\\r\\\\\r\\\\\"Consider\\ an\\ argument\\ between\\ two\\ closely\\ bound\\ people\\,\\ say\\,\\ husband\\ and\\ wife\\.\\ Both\\ parties\\ believe\\ that\\ one\\ is\\ an\\ altruist\\ of\\ long\\ standing\\,\\ relatively\\ pure\\ in\\ motive\\,\\ and\\ much\\ abused\\,\\ while\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ selfishness\\ spread\\ over\\ hundreds\\ of\\ incidents\\.\\ They\\ only\\ disagree\\ over\\ who\\ is\\ altruistic\\ and\\ who\\ selfish\\.\\ It\\ is\\ noteworthy\\ that\\ the\\ argument\\ may\\ appear\\ to\\ burst\\ forth\\ spontaneously\\,\\ with\\ little\\ or\\ no\\ preview\\,\\ yet\\ as\\ it\\ rolls\\ along\\,\\ two\\ whole\\ landscapes\\ of\\ information\\ processing\\ appear\\ to\\ lie\\ already\\ organized\\,\\ waiting\\ only\\ for\\ the\\ lightning\\ of\\ anger\\ to\\ show\\ themselves\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\We\\ all\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ aware\\ that\\ perhaps\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ as\\ good\\,\\ honest\\,\\ effective\\,\\ and\\ well\\-intentioned\\ as\\ we\\ believe\\,\\ and\\ this\\ can\\ be\\ really\\ humbling\\ and\\ should\\ be\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\ in\\ arguments\\ and\\ disagreements\\.\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ closes\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ noting\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ wisdom\\ in\\ realizing\\ how\\ much\\ we\\ deceive\\ ourselves\\,\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ even\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ trusted\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\I\\ just\\ want\\ to\\ add\\ one\\ last\\ point\\ here\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ certainty\\ that\\ we\\ often\\ get\\ feels\\ as\\ though\\ it\\ comes\\ from\\ higher\\ reasoning\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ \\\"I\\ have\\ thought\\ through\\ the\\ problem\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ logical\\ answer\\,\\ therefore\\ I\\ am\\ certain\\\"\\)\\,\\ but\\ data\\ is\\ accumulating\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ actually\\ an\\ emotional\\ reaction\\ that\\ is\\ separate\\ from\\ the\\ actual\\ reasoning\\ circuits\\.\\ This\\ is\\ analogous\\ to\\ how\\ we\\ think\\ pain\\ is\\ felt\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ regions\\ of\\ the\\ brain\\ as\\ normal\\ sensory\\ perceptions\\ of\\ touch\\,\\ but\\ is\\ actually\\ its\\ own\\ perception\\ that\\ merely\\ interacts\\ with\\ the\\ somatosensory\\ cortex\\.\\ Hopefully\\ this\\ will\\ give\\ you\\ pause\\ next\\ time\\ you\\ are\\ arguing\\ with\\ someone\\ and\\ feel\\ \\\"certain\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ right\\,\\\"\\ just\\ realize\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ rational\\ reaction\\ exactly\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ an\\ emotional\\ reaction\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 22 (5/1/08)- The Self"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.840628+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Big Bang Really Happened!", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 827, "html": "\\\\\n\\<\\/p\\>PLAN\\\n\\-Using\\ the\\ Hubble\\ Law\\ to\\ map\\ the\\ expanding\\ universe\\.\\\n\\-Gravity\\ makes\\ matter\\ clump\\ together\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ universe\\ is\\ expanding\\.\\\u00a0The\\ places\\ that\\ are\\ dense\\ and\\ getting\\ denser\\.\\\u00a0The\\ structure\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ gravity\\ acting\\ in\\ an\\ expanding\\ universe\\.\\\n\\-The\\ Universe\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ the\\ faded\\ glow\\ of\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\.\\\n\\-Helium\\ formed\\ in\\ the\\ hot\\ Big\\ Bang\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nBIG\\ IDEAS\\\n\\-We\\ can\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ past\\ and\\ read\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ cosmic\\ expansion\\.\\\u00a0The\\ past\\ was\\ hot\\ and\\ smooth\\;\\ the\\ present\\ is\\ cold\\ and\\ clumpy\\.\\\n\\-These\\ are\\ relics\\ of\\ that\\ \\\u201cvanished\\ brilliance\\ of\\ the\\ origins\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\u201d\\\u00a0This\\ is\\ not\\ mythology\\;\\ cosmology\\ is\\ becoming\\ a\\ real\\ science\\ with\\ accurate\\ measurement\\ and\\ quantitative\\ tests\\ of\\ ideas\\ against\\ the\\ data\\.\\\n\\-Computer\\ simulations\\ even\\ provide\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\\u201cexperiment\\\u201d\\ where\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ different\\ properties\\ for\\ the\\ Universe\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nTHREE\\ PILLARS\\ OF\\ THE\\ BIG\\ BANG\\\n1\\.\\ Cosmic\\ Expansion\\\n2\\.\\ The\\ Cosmic\\ Microwave\\ Background\\\n3\\.\\ Helium\\ Synthesis\\ in\\ the\\ Hot\\ Big\\ Bang\\\n\\\u00a0\\\n\\I\\.\\ Cosmic\\ Expansion\\ \\<\\/b\\>\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nThe\\ Universe\\ is\\ homogenous\\ and\\ isotropic\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nGRAPH\\\n\\-Y\\ axis\\:\\ velocity\\ \\[km\\/s\\]\\\n\\-X\\-axis\\:\\ distance\\ \\[mega\\ parsecs\\]\\\n\\-Slope\\:\\ has\\ units\\ of\\ km\\/s\\ \\/\\ Mpc\\\n\\-slope\\ is\\ something\\ related\\ to\\ time\\ because\\ distances\\ cancel\\ out\\.\\\n\\-Equation\\ that\\ describes\\ line\\:\\ V\\ \\=\\ H\\ D\\ \\{b\\=0\\}\\\n\\-V\\ \\[km\\/s\\]\\ \\=\\ H\\ \\[km\\/s\\/Mpc\\]\\ x\\ D\\ \\[Mpc\\}\\\n\\-H\\ is\\ the\\ Hubble\\ Constant\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ tells\\ us\\ what\\ fraction\\ of\\ the\\ distance\\ the\\ Universe\\ stretches\\ out\\ at\\ each\\ second\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nCOMPUTING\\ THE\\ COSMIC\\ AGE\\\n\\-V\\ \\=\\ H\\ x\\ D\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ that\\\u2019s\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ recession\\\n\\-t\\ \\=\\ Distance\\/Speed\\ \\=\\ D\\/\\(H\\ x\\ D\\)\\\n\\-t\\ \\=\\ 1\\/H\\\n\\-Need\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ units\\ right\\ \\(km\\/sec\\/Mpc\\)\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ 1\\/sec\\\n\\-1\\ Mpc\\ \\=\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^22\\ m\\\n\\-t\\ in\\ seconds\\\n\\-1\\ year\\ is\\ \\~\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^7\\ sec\\\n\\-See\\ Endnote\\ 2\\ to\\ Chapter\\ 6\\ in\\ \\The\\ Expanding\\ Universe\\<\\/i\\>\\ for\\ calculation\\ process\\\n\\-From\\ expansion\\:\\ t\\ \\=\\ 14\\ Giga\\ years\\ for\\ a\\ Hubble\\ constant\\ of\\ 70\\ \\(H\\/70\\ \\[km\\/s\\/Mpc\\]\\)\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nOther\\ ages\\ we\\ have\\ talked\\ about\\:\\\n\\-Radioactivities\\ in\\ the\\ solar\\ system\\ \\~\\ 5\\ Gyr\\\n\\-Ages\\ of\\ the\\ globular\\ cluster\\ stars\\ \\~\\ 12\\ Gyr\\\n\\-Ages\\ of\\ the\\ oldest\\ white\\ dwarfs\\ in\\ the\\ Milky\\ Way\\ disk\\ \\~\\ 10\\ Gyr\\\n\\-1\\ Giga\\ year\\ \\=\\ 1\\ billion\\ years\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nHISTORIC\\ COSMIC\\ EVENTS\\\n\\-Oldest\\ stars\\ in\\ the\\ galaxy\\ \\~\\ 13\\ Gyr\\ ago\\\n\\-Oldest\\ stars\\ in\\ the\\ galaxy\\\u2019s\\ disk\\ \\~\\ 10\\ Gyr\\\n\\-Sun\\ formed\\ \\~\\ 5\\ Gyr\\ ago\\\n\\-First\\ multi\\-celled\\ life\\ on\\ Earth\\ \\~\\ 1\\ Gyr\\ ago\\\n\\-End\\ of\\ the\\ Dinosaurs\\ \\~\\ 65\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ years\\ ago\\\n\\-First\\ Hominids\\ \\~\\ 2\\ x\\ 10\\^6\\ years\\ ago\\\n\\-Beginning\\ of\\ civilization\\ \\~\\ 10\\,000\\ years\\ ago\\\n\\-Harvard\\ College\\ Founded\\ \\~\\ 350\\ years\\ ago\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nStarting\\ in\\ 1920\\,\\ the\\ Hubble\\ Constant\\ value\\ has\\ decreased\\ substantially\\.\\\nIn\\ 1929\\,\\ scientists\\ believed\\ the\\ Hubble\\ Constant\\ to\\ be\\ 500\\ km\\/sec\\,\\ t\\ \\~\\ 2\\ Gyr\\.\\\u00a0This\\ value\\ for\\ the\\ constant\\ conflicts\\ with\\ the\\ ages\\ of\\ elements\\,\\ stars\\,\\ and\\ other\\ astronomical\\ objects\\.\\\u00a0The\\ value\\ we\\\u2019ve\\ come\\ to\\ now\\ is\\ very\\ far\\ from\\ the\\ value\\ in\\ the\\ 1920\\\u2019s\\ and\\ the\\ estimate\\ of\\ the\\ uncertainty\\ was\\ always\\ wrong\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ high\\ precision\\,\\ low\\ accuracy\\.\\\u00a0Even\\ in\\ 1929\\,\\ people\\ knew\\ that\\ that\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ certain\\ elements\\ was\\ greater\\ than\\ 2\\ Gyr\\ due\\ to\\ geological\\ aging\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nLooking\\ at\\ the\\ Hubble\\ Diagram\\ for\\ Type\\ Ia\\ supernovae\\,\\ we\\ can\\ use\\ the\\ redshift\\ to\\ measure\\ the\\ distance\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ find\\ out\\ which\\ galaxies\\ are\\ near\\ and\\ which\\ are\\ far\\ away\\.\\\u00a0\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nVisible\\ Matter\\ is\\ lumpy\\ on\\ scales\\ up\\ to\\ about\\ 100\\ Mpc\\.\\\u00a0Diagram\\ shows\\ us\\ that\\ universe\\ is\\ not\\ homogenous\\ \\(namely\\ in\\ spread\\ of\\ galaxies\\)\\ within\\ 100\\ Mpc\\.\\\u00a0It\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ same\\ everywhere\\.\\\u00a0There\\ are\\ places\\ of\\ high\\ and\\ low\\ density\\.\\\u00a0There\\ are\\ about\\ 2\\ million\\ galaxies\\ that\\ have\\ been\\ measured\\.\\\nA\\ theoretical\\ calculation\\ of\\ dark\\ matter\\ can\\ be\\ compared\\ with\\ the\\ observed\\ clumping\\ of\\ matter\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nUsing\\ a\\ computer\\ as\\ a\\ laboratory\\ for\\ the\\ Universe\\.\\\n\\-Models\\ based\\ on\\ dark\\ energy\\ and\\ cold\\ dark\\ matter\\ agree\\ with\\ large\\-scale\\ structure\\.\\\na\\.\\ \\[\\?m\\ \\=\\ 0\\.3\\,\\ \\?\\\nlambda\\ \\=\\ 0\\.7\\]\\ \\ \\ \\ In\\ a\\ flat\\ universe\\ with\\ dark\\ energy\\:\\ matter\\ is\\ coalesced\\ along\\ filaments\\ separated\\ by\\ large\\ voids\\.\\\nb\\.\\ \\[\\?m\\ \\=\\ 0\\.3\\,\\ \\?lambda\\ \\=\\ 0\\]\\ In\\ an\\ open\\ universe\\ without\\ dark\\ energy\\:\\ similar\\ structure\\ would\\ appear\\ in\\ an\\ open\\,\\ matter\\-dominated\\ universe\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ matter\\ density\\ as\\ our\\ own\\.\\\nc\\.\\ \\[\\?m\\ \\=\\ 1\\.0\\,\\ \\?lambda\\ \\=\\ 0\\]\\ In\\ a\\ flat\\ universe\\ without\\ dark\\ energy\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ in\\ a\\ matter\\-dominated\\ universe\\ with\\ enough\\ matter\\ density\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ universe\\ flat\\)\\:\\ voids\\ would\\ be\\ smaller\\ than\\ we\\ observe\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\n\\?\\:\\ A\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ cosmic\\ density\\\n\\?matter\\ \\(\\?m\\)\\:\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ matter\\ density\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nUsing\\ a\\ computer\\ to\\ construct\\ galaxies\\,\\ we\\ can\\ keep\\ track\\ of\\ the\\ dark\\ matter\\ \\(which\\ has\\ the\\ mass\\)\\ and\\ the\\ hydrogen\\ gas\\ that\\ forms\\ stars\\ and\\ produces\\ light\\.\\\nThis\\ is\\ a\\ fast\\-developing\\ subject\\ because\\ the\\ computers\\ are\\ getting\\ better\\,\\ and\\ smart\\ people\\ are\\ working\\ hard\\ to\\ make\\ software\\ work\\ better\\.\\\u00a0The\\ results\\ are\\ encouraging\\;\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ you\\ can\\ get\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ realistic\\ galaxies\\ from\\ these\\ experiments\\.\\\u00a0This\\ is\\ a\\ frontier\\ of\\ comparing\\ the\\ simple\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ underlying\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ is\\ dark\\ matter\\ with\\ observations\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nII\\.\\ The\\ Cosmic\\ Microwave\\ Background\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nTHE\\ HOT\\ BIG\\ BANG\\\n\\-Not\\ so\\ hot\\ today\\,\\ but\\ much\\ hotter\\ when\\ the\\ Universe\\ was\\ young\\\n\\-Measure\\ the\\ temperature\\ from\\ the\\ spectrum\\ of\\ the\\ photons\\:\\ a\\ black\\ body\\\n\\-Both\\ the\\ measurement\\ of\\ the\\ total\\ mass\\ density\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ fraction\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ than\\ can\\ be\\ ordinary\\ matter\\ depend\\ on\\ measurements\\ of\\ the\\ photons\\ of\\ the\\ cosmic\\ microwave\\ background\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nThe\\ redshifts\\ that\\ we\\ see\\ from\\ distant\\ galaxies\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ this\\ expansion\\,\\ not\\ by\\ motions\\ of\\ galaxies\\ through\\ space\\.\\\u00a0The\\ reshift\\ of\\ a\\ distant\\ galaxy\\ is\\ a\\ measure\\ of\\ the\\ scale\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ the\\ galaxy\\ emitted\\ its\\ light\\.\\\u00a0Photons\\ from\\ distant\\ objects\\ arrive\\ with\\ longer\\ wavelengths\\ and\\ lower\\ energies\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nAs\\ time\\ goes\\ by\\,\\ the\\ Universe\\ expands\\,\\ so\\ the\\ density\\ of\\ photons\\ goes\\ down\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\\u00a0And\\,\\ for\\ photons\\,\\ the\\ wavelength\\,\\ energy\\,\\ and\\ color\\ also\\ change\\\n\\?radiation\\ \\~\\ \\(1\\+z\\)\\^4\\,\\ where\\ \\?\\ is\\ the\\ greek\\ letter\\ rho\\\nAt\\ z\\ \\~\\ 1000\\,\\ up\\ by\\ 10\\^12\\\nEventually\\,\\ you\\\u2019ll\\ get\\ back\\ to\\ an\\ era\\ when\\ the\\ energy\\ in\\ photons\\ was\\ Bigger\\ than\\ the\\ energy\\ in\\ matter\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nGeorge\\ Gamow\\\n\\-1948\\ \\\u2013\\ cooking\\ of\\ elements\\ in\\ a\\ hot\\ Big\\ Bang\\\n\\-Predicted\\ there\\ might\\ be\\ blackbody\\ radiation\\ left\\ over\\ \\\u2013\\ a\\ few\\ degrees\\ above\\ absolute\\ zero\\\n\\-This\\ \\\"cooking\\\"\\ did\\ not\\ quite\\ work\\.\\\u00a0\\ Today\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ lightest\\ elements\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\,\\ but\\ elements\\ heavier\\ than\\ lithium\\ have\\ their\\ origin\\ in\\ nuclear\\ reactions\\ in\\ stars\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\n1964\\ \\\u2013\\ Peebles\\ \\&\\;\\ Dicke\\ at\\ Princeton\\ independently\\ predicted\\ left\\-over\\ radiation\\ from\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\ \\\u201cas\\ low\\ as\\ 3\\.5\\ K\\.\\\u201d\\\nDicke\\ had\\ worked\\ on\\ radar\\ in\\ WW\\ II\\,\\ started\\ to\\ build\\ equipment\\ to\\ measure\\ this\\ photon\\ background\\.\\\nWien\\ Law\\:\\\n\\?\\ \\=\\ 3\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-3\\ \\/\\ T\\ \\[m\\-K\\]\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ peak\\ around\\ 1\\ mm\\\n\\(Atmosphere\\ is\\ opaque\\ here\\,\\ space\\ is\\ the\\ place\\)\\\u00a0Practical\\ to\\ work\\ at\\ \\?\\ \\~\\ a\\ few\\ centimeters\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\n\\-Photons\\ from\\ all\\ directions\\.\\\n\\-As\\ if\\ the\\ sky\\ were\\ glowing\\ with\\ a\\ temperature\\ of\\ \\~\\ 3\\ K\\\n\\-550\\ million\\ photons\\ \\/\\ m\\^3\\ \\(compare\\ to\\ \\<\\;6\\ atoms\\ per\\ m\\^3\\)\\\n\\-Lots\\ of\\ photons\\,\\ but\\ not\\ too\\ much\\ energy\\ in\\ each\\\u00a0\\\n", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Big Bang Really Happened!"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.853302+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Evolving Universe: Adding up the Parts", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 828, "html": "\\\\\n\\<\\/p\\>PLAN\\\n\\-Photons\\ in\\ the\\ Universe\\.\\\u00a0The\\ cosmic\\ microwave\\ background\\.\\\n\\-The\\ Hot\\ Big\\ Bang\\.\\\n\\-Helium\\ synthesis\\ in\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\ \\\u2013\\ the\\ dark\\ matter\\ cannot\\ be\\ ordinary\\ matter\\ made\\ of\\ neutrons\\ and\\ protons\\\n\\-The\\ gravitating\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\ is\\ mostly\\ dark\\\n\\-A\\ language\\ for\\ discussing\\ the\\ \\(many\\)\\ contributions\\ to\\ the\\ Universe\\ \\\u2013\\ \\(Omega\\)\\\n\\-The\\ geometry\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ \\\u2013\\ from\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ blobs\\ in\\ the\\ microwave\\ background\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nBIG\\ IDEAS\\\nThe\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ hot\\ big\\ bang\\ simmered\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ before\\ its\\ discovery\\ in\\ 1965\\.\\\nIf\\ you\\ take\\ the\\ microwave\\ background\\ and\\ our\\ understanding\\ of\\ nuclear\\ physics\\,\\ it\\ leads\\ to\\ important\\ consequences\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ dark\\ matter\\.\\\nMeasurements\\ of\\ the\\ CMB\\ \\(cosmic\\ microwave\\ background\\)\\ have\\ improved\\ very\\ rapidly\\ due\\ to\\ technical\\ advances\\ on\\ the\\ ground\\ and\\ in\\ space\\.\\\nEven\\ before\\ 1998\\,\\ when\\ cosmic\\ acceleration\\ was\\ discovered\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ suspicion\\ that\\ the\\ Universe\\ might\\ have\\ more\\ parts\\ than\\ we\\ knew\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nContinuing\\ the\\ 3\\ Pillars\\ of\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nI\\.\\ Cosmic\\ Expansion\\\nII\\.\\ The\\ Cosmic\\ Microwave\\ Background\\\n\\-Photons\\ from\\ all\\ directions\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nCosmic\\ Microwave\\ Background\\ \\\u2013\\ nearly\\ isotropic\\\nThere\\ are\\ variations\\ on\\ the\\ sky\\ at\\ a\\ big\\ scale\\\n\\-The\\ Milky\\ Way\\ is\\ moving\\ through\\ the\\ CMB\\ at\\ 371\\ km\\/s\\\n\\-change\\ in\\ microwave\\ background\\ to\\ due\\ to\\ our\\ motion\\.\\\u00a0To\\ calculate\\ this\\ change\\ use\\ the\\ COBE\\ spacecraft\\.\\\u00a0Atmosphere\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ opaque\\ at\\ wavelengths\\ of\\ about\\ 1\\ mm\\.\\\u00a0\\\nCOBE\\ \\(a\\ satellite\\)\\ DATA\\\n\\-the\\ maps\\ of\\ the\\ sky\\ differ\\ by\\ the\\ way\\ temperature\\ is\\ encoded\\.\\\u00a0The\\ top\\ show\\ CMB\\ is\\ nearly\\ isotropic\\ \\(all\\ orange\\)\\,\\ the\\ middle\\ shows\\ the\\ motion\\ of\\ our\\ galaxy\\ through\\ the\\ universe\\ \\(blue\\ to\\ yellow\\,\\ like\\ yin\\ and\\ yang\\)\\,\\ the\\ bottom\\ shows\\ the\\ fluctuations\\ in\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\ that\\ lead\\ to\\ cosmic\\ structure\\ \\(red\\ across\\ center\\,\\ mix\\ of\\ other\\ colors\\ elsewhere\\)\\\n\\-places\\ with\\ low\\ density\\ lose\\ out\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nBLACKBODY\\ OVEN\\\n\\-The\\ Spectrum\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ the\\ temperature\\ alone\\.\\\n\\-The\\ photons\\ and\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ the\\ oven\\ are\\ all\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ temperature\\.\\\n\\-Something\\ very\\ similar\\ happened\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ Universe\\.\\\u00a0Glow\\ from\\ the\\ big\\ bang\\ is\\ like\\ the\\ experiment\\.\\\u00a0It\\ is\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ being\\ opaque\\ at\\ an\\ early\\ time\\.\\\u00a0The\\ universe\\ is\\ mostly\\ transparent\\ now\\ because\\ photons\\ not\\ bumping\\ into\\ the\\ matter\\,\\ but\\ back\\ then\\ it\\ was\\ opaque\\ and\\ matter\\ and\\ radiation\\ were\\ coupled\\ together\\ when\\ the\\ universe\\ was\\ hot\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\n\\-Spectrum\\ of\\ the\\ CMB\\ \\\u2013\\ a\\ 2\\.725\\ K\\ Blackbody\\ fits\\ like\\ a\\ glove\\ \\(not\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ many\\ faint\\ objects\\ in\\ the\\ distance\\)\\\n\\-Microwave\\ Background\\ radiation\\ is\\ a\\ blackbody\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nWe\\ can\\ see\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ cosmic\\ fog\\ bank\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ recombination\\ \\~\\ 300\\,000\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\.\\\nBefore\\ Recombination\\ \\(time\\ when\\ protons\\ and\\ electrons\\ combined\\ to\\ form\\ atoms\\)\\:\\\n\\-Temperatures\\ were\\ so\\ high\\ that\\ electrons\\ and\\ protons\\ could\\ not\\ combine\\ to\\ form\\ hydrogen\\ atoms\\.\\\n\\-The\\ universe\\ was\\ opaque\\:\\ Photons\\ underwent\\ frequent\\ collisions\\ with\\ electrons\\.\\\n\\-Matter\\ and\\ radiation\\ were\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ temperature\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nWhen\\ the\\ temperature\\ of\\ the\\ radiation\\ fell\\ below\\ 3\\,000\\ K\\,\\ protons\\ and\\ electrons\\ combined\\ to\\ form\\ hydrogen\\ atoms\\ and\\ the\\ universe\\ became\\ transparent\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nIII\\.\\ Helium\\ Synthesis\\ in\\ the\\ Hot\\ Big\\ Bang\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nWhat\\ would\\ happen\\ in\\ a\\ hot\\ universe\\?\\\n\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ z\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ T\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ t\\\n\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\(reshift\\)\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\(temperature\\)\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\(time\\)\\\n\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 3\\ K\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 14\\,000\\,000\\ years\\\nAtoms\\ assemble\\ \\\u201cera\\ of\\ recombination\\\u201d\\\n\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1000\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 3000\\ K\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 300\\,000\\ years\\\nNuclei\\ freeze\\ \\\u201cera\\ of\\ nucleosynthesis\\\u201d\\\n\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 100\\,000\\,000\\ K\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1000\\ sec\\\nNeutrons\\ \\&\\;\\ protons\\ come\\ out\\ of\\ balance\\ \\(neutrinos\\ free\\)\\\n\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 6\\ x\\ 10\\^9\\ K\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 2\\ sec\\\n\\\u201cinflation\\\u201d\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 10\\^\\-32\\ sec\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nOrdinary\\ matter\\ is\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ neutrons\\ and\\ protons\\.\\\u00a0The\\ neutron\\ is\\ slightly\\ more\\ massive\\ than\\ the\\ proton\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ unstable\\ \\(there\\ is\\ a\\ half\\ life\\ for\\ the\\ neutrons\\ which\\ is\\ about\\ 1\\,000\\ seconds\\)\\.\\\u00a0When\\ the\\ universe\\ was\\ hot\\ enough\\ \\(first\\ 2\\ seconds\\)\\ this\\ difference\\ in\\ mass\\ made\\ no\\ difference\\.\\\u00a0The\\ energy\\ difference\\ between\\ neutrons\\ and\\ protons\\ was\\ minute\\ and\\ made\\ no\\ difference\\.\\\u00a0But\\,\\ as\\ time\\ goes\\ by\\ and\\ the\\ temperature\\ goes\\ down\\,\\ we\\ expect\\ that\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ neutrons\\ will\\ get\\ smaller\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ protons\\.\\\u00a0If\\ we\\ take\\ this\\ idea\\ seriously\\,\\ neutrons\\ turn\\ into\\ proton\\ as\\ it\\ cools\\,\\ but\\ protons\\ do\\ not\\ turn\\ into\\ neutrons\\ because\\ the\\ temperature\\ is\\ too\\ law\\.\\\u00a0End\\ up\\ with\\ fewer\\ neutrons\\ than\\ protons\\ and\\ in\\ fact\\ when\\ temperature\\ gets\\ down\\ to\\ 10\\ billion\\ degrees\\,\\ you\\ will\\ have\\ a\\ 3\\:1\\ ration\\ of\\ protons\\:neutrons\\.\\\u00a0Instead\\ of\\ being\\ just\\ individual\\ particles\\,\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ once\\ radiation\\ is\\ cool\\ enough\\,\\ to\\ form\\ nuclei\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ deuterium\\.\\\u00a0At\\ about\\ 3\\ minutes\\ or\\ so\\ after\\ the\\ Big\\ Bang\\ when\\ temperature\\ is\\ below\\ a\\ billion\\ degrees\\,\\ protons\\ and\\ neutrons\\ form\\ into\\ nuclei\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ being\\ free\\.\\\nTwo\\ deuteriums\\ can\\ join\\ together\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ tritium\\ or\\ Helium\\ 3\\.\\\u00a0A\\ proton\\ and\\ a\\ tritium\\ can\\ join\\ together\\ to\\ form\\ the\\ element\\ Helium\\.\\\nAt\\ the\\ time\\ when\\ this\\ pairing\\ up\\ takes\\ place\\,\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ neutrons\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ protons\\ is\\ about\\ 1\\:6\\.\\\u00a0The\\ neutrons\\ all\\ get\\ formed\\ into\\ more\\ complicated\\ things\\,\\ as\\ mentioned\\ above\\,\\ including\\ Helium\\.\\\u00a0We\\ expect\\ to\\ then\\ find\\ 1\\ helium\\ atom\\ for\\ every\\ 10\\ hydrogen\\ atoms\\,\\ or\\ by\\ mass\\ \\~\\ 25\\%\\ He\\,\\ 75\\%\\ H\\.\\\u00a0This\\ is\\ actually\\ what\\ we\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ stars\\.\\\u00a0Even\\ the\\ oldest\\ stars\\ which\\ have\\ very\\ little\\ iron\\ and\\ oxygen\\ \\(the\\ things\\ which\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ stars\\)\\,\\ already\\ have\\ lots\\ of\\ Helium\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\n\\\\Oldest\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ stars\\ have\\ lot\\ of\\ Helium\\.\\ \\(not\\ just\\ Hydrogen\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Helium\\ in\\ stars\\,\\ unlike\\ C\\,\\ O\\,\\ Fe\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\\u00a0Helium\\ made\\ in\\ the\\ big\\ bang\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\2\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Quantitative\\ agreement\\ of\\ prediction\\ with\\ observation\\.\\\u00a025\\%\\ Helium\\ \\(by\\ mass\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Deuterium\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ left\\ over\\ depends\\ on\\ density\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ Helium\\ production\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\u00a0\\\nThe\\ amount\\ of\\ light\\ elements\\ \\(like\\ Lithium\\ or\\ 2H\\)\\ left\\ over\\ after\\ Helium\\ freezes\\ out\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ density\\ \\\u2013\\ if\\ the\\ density\\ is\\ high\\,\\ all\\ the\\ deuterium\\ gets\\ made\\ into\\ heavier\\ elements\\.\\\u00a0The\\ observed\\ amount\\ of\\ deuterium\\ is\\ consistent\\ with\\ only\\ about\\ 4\\%\\ of\\ the\\ Universe\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ baryons\\ \\(protons\\ and\\ neutrons\\)\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\n\\-\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\?\\ \\=\\ 3H\\\u00b2\\/8\\?G\\ \\<\\;\\=\\ the\\ critical\\ density\\\nFor\\ H\\ \\~\\ 75\\ km\\/sec\\/Mpc\\,\\ \\(\\~2\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-18\\ \\/\\ s\\)\\\n\\?c\\ \\~\\ 1\\ x\\ 10\\^\\-26\\ kg\\/m\\\u00b3\\ \\=\\ A\\ few\\ Hydrogen\\ atoms\\ per\\ m\\\u00b3\\\nIf\\ \\\u201cmatter\\\u201d\\ were\\ the\\ only\\ constituent\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\,\\ that\\ would\\ decide\\ the\\ future\\ of\\ cosmic\\ expansion\\ \\(not\\ so\\)\\.\\\u00a0Even\\ so\\,\\ the\\ critical\\ density\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ idea\\.\\\u00a0Einstein\\ tells\\ us\\ you\\ have\\ \\\u201cflat\\ space\\\u201d\\ when\\ mass\\ \\(and\\ energy\\)\\ density\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ is\\ equal\\ to\\ the\\ critical\\ density\\.\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nOmega\\ \\=\\\u00a0\\ density\\ \\/\\ the\\ critical\\ density\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nThe\\ Hot\\ Big\\ Bang\\\n\\-\\-not\\ so\\ hot\\ today\\ but\\ much\\ hotter\\ when\\ the\\ Universe\\ was\\ young\\\n\\-measure\\ the\\ temperature\\ from\\ the\\ spectrum\\ of\\ the\\ photons\\:\\ a\\ blackbody\\\n\\-Both\\ the\\ measurement\\ of\\ \\?total\\ and\\ of\\ \\\u00a0\\?baryon\\ depend\\ on\\ measurements\\ of\\ the\\ photons\\ of\\ the\\ cosmic\\ microwave\\ background\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nMATTER\\ \\(and\\ ENERGY\\)\\ in\\ the\\ UNIVERSE\\\nOmega\\(matter\\)\\ \\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ cosmic\\ clustering\\ \\\u2013\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ both\\ baryons\\ \\(neutrons\\ \\&\\;\\ protons\\)\\ and\\ dark\\ matter\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ baryons\\.\\\nOmega\\(matter\\)\\ \\=\\ Omega\\(baryon\\)\\\u00a0\\+\\\u00a0\\ Omega\\(dark\\ matter\\)\\ \\=\\ 0\\.3\\,\\ where\\ Omega\\(dark\\ matter\\)\\ \\=\\ 0\\.23\\ and\\ Omega\\(baryon\\)\\ \\=\\ 0\\.04\\\nOmega\\(lambda\\)\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ from\\ supernova\\ measurements\\\nOmega\\(total\\)\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ from\\ comic\\ geometry\\(CMB\\)\\\n\\\u00a0\\\nOmega\\(dark\\ matter\\)\\ comes\\ from\\ cosmic\\ clustering\\.\\\u00a0\\ Omega\\(baryon\\)\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ big\\ bang\\ nucleosynthesis\\.\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ of\\ the\\ clustered\\ matter\\ cannot\\ be\\ neutrons\\ and\\ protons\\ \\-\\-\\>\\;\\ leading\\ candidate\\ is\\ some\\ kind\\ of\\ weakly\\ interacting\\ massive\\ particle\\:\\ WIMP\\.\\\nDark\\ matter\\ is\\ a\\ WIMP\\ \\(but\\ not\\ the\\ neutrino\\ because\\ its\\ mass\\ is\\ too\\ small\\)\\\n", "course_id": 101, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Evolving Universe: Adding up the Parts"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.879697+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "videos and research", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 829, "html": "\\\\\u00a0\\\\\n\\<\\;object\\ width\\=\\\"1001\\\"\\ height\\=\\\"667\\\"\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"movie\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"\\http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/jingswfplayer\\.swf\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"quality\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"high\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"bgcolor\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"\\#FFFFFF\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"flashVars\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"thumb\\=\\http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/FirstFrame\\.jpg\\&\\;containerwidth\\=1001\\&\\;containerheight\\=667\\&\\;loaderstyle\\=jing\\&\\;content\\=http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/00000002\\.swf\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"allowFullScreen\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"true\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"scale\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"showall\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"allowScriptAccess\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"always\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;param\\ name\\=\\\"base\\\"\\ value\\=\\\"\\http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/param\\>\\;\\ \\\u00a0\\<\\;embed\\ src\\=\\\"\\http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/jingswfplayer\\.swf\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ quality\\=\\\"high\\\"\\ bgcolor\\=\\\"\\#FFFFFF\\\"\\ width\\=\\\"1001\\\"\\ height\\=\\\"667\\\"\\ type\\=\\\"application\\/x\\-shockwave\\-flash\\\"\\ allowScriptAccess\\=\\\"always\\\"\\ flashVars\\=\\\"thumb\\=\\http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/FirstFrame\\.jpg\\&\\;containerwidth\\=1001\\&\\;containerheight\\=667\\&\\;loaderstyle\\=jing\\&\\;content\\=http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/00000002\\.swf\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ allowFullScreen\\=\\\"true\\\"\\ base\\=\\\"\\http\\:\\/\\/content\\.screencast\\.com\\/users\\/Professor\\_Bananas\\/folders\\/Jing\\/media\\/627c7b21\\-8124\\-4486\\-a3b0\\-8d27c374bc01\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\\"\\ scale\\=\\\"showall\\\"\\>\\;\\<\\;\\/embed\\>\\;\\ \\<\\;\\/object\\>\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 112, "file_path": "", "desc": "videos and research"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.889650+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Simulation of the Trial of Galileo", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 830, "html": "\\\n\\Simulation\\ of\\ the\\ Trial\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Friday\\,\\ March\\ 6\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Galileo\\ defends\\ Copernicanism\\ against\\ Aristotelians\\ and\\ Tychonists\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Copernican\\ viewpoint\\ \\(heliocentric\\ system\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Earth\\ is\\ not\\ fixed\\ in\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Four\\ reasons\\ why\\ this\\ model\\ is\\ the\\ best\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Simple\\ model\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Geocentric\\ model\\ requires\\ epicycles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Phases\\ of\\ Venus\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Full\\ phase\\ of\\ Venus\\ is\\ only\\ possible\\ if\\ Venus\\ orbits\\ around\\ the\\ Sun\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jupiter\\\u2019s\\ moons\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mountains\\ on\\ the\\ moon\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ a\\ perfect\\ sphere\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Tidal\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rotation\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Water\\ in\\ a\\ spinning\\ bowl\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rebuttal\\ arguments\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sunspots\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Relative\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Model\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pigeonists\\ and\\ Aristotelians\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Five\\ contentions\\ \\(geocentric\\ system\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Nature\\ of\\ elements\\ \\(water\\,\\ air\\,\\ earth\\,\\ fire\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sun\\ must\\ rise\\ above\\ our\\ earth\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Copernican\\ system\\ still\\ rests\\ its\\ theory\\ on\\ epicycles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Accurate\\ predictions\\ of\\ planetary\\ movement\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Holy\\ Scripture\\ supports\\ a\\ stationary\\ earth\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Cannot\\ fully\\ understand\\ the\\ workings\\ of\\ the\\ system\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rebuttal\\ arguments\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Spinning\\ earth\\ \\(no\\ strings\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Tidal\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Tychonic\\ System\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Earth\\ is\\ fixed\\ at\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ universe\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Phases\\ of\\ the\\ moon\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Aristotelian\\ physics\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rebuttal\\ arguments\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Comprehension\\ of\\ God\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Empirical\\ evidence\\ is\\ strongest\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Galileo\\ vs\\.\\ Bellarmine\\ and\\ the\\ Papal\\ Investigation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Galileo\\\u2019s\\ View\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Four\\ reasons\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Principle\\ of\\ accommodation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Parts\\ of\\ scripture\\ aren\\\u2019t\\ necessarily\\ written\\ to\\ explain\\ physical\\ phenomena\\,\\ but\\ to\\ help\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ understand\\ the\\ Scripture\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Passages\\ do\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ interpreted\\ literally\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Scripture\\ and\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ world\\ is\\ God\\\u2019s\\ creation\\ so\\ we\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ interpret\\ nature\\ to\\ help\\ us\\ understand\\ the\\ more\\ complicated\\ passages\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00fa\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Start\\ from\\ Nature\\ on\\ the\\ matters\\ of\\ physics\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Risk\\ of\\ scandal\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Church\\ Fathers\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ authority\\ on\\ matters\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rebuttal\\ arguments\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Heliocentrism\\ is\\ a\\ hypothesis\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Word\\ of\\ God\\ and\\ the\\ Book\\ of\\ Nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Signed\\ document\\ from\\ Bellarmine\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bellarmine\\\u2019s\\ View\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Church\\ Fathers\\ have\\ authority\\ on\\ all\\ matters\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Individual\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ not\\ allowed\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Council\\ of\\ Trent\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Heliocentrism\\ is\\ not\\ proven\\ nor\\ provable\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Predictions\\ are\\ just\\ predictions\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pope\\ and\\ the\\ Inquisition\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Galileo\\ is\\ insulting\\ the\\ Pope\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Interpreting\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ heretical\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Violating\\ the\\ injunction\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Text\\ is\\ supporting\\ the\\ Copernican\\ system\\ as\\ a\\ true\\ model\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Simulation of the Trial of Galileo"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.900172+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Aftermaths of the Galileo Affair \u2013 Historical and Historiographical", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 831, "html": "\\\\\u00a0Aftermaths\\ of\\ the\\ Galileo\\ Affair\\ \\\u2013\\ Historical\\ and\\ Historiographical\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ March\\ 9\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Seventeenth\\ Century\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Classical\\ astronomy\\ does\\ not\\ come\\ to\\ a\\ standstill\\ after\\ the\\ trial\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jesuits\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ Tychonic\\ and\\ embrace\\ the\\ geoheliocentric\\ system\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Do\\ not\\ discuss\\ cosmology\\ and\\ teach\\ geoheliocentricism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Cosmology\\ is\\ the\\ arrangement\\ of\\ the\\ planets\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Pascal\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cFaith\\ alone\\\u201d\\ person\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Complains\\ about\\ the\\ condemnation\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cYou\\ can\\\u2019t\\ forbid\\ people\\ from\\ thinking\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Certain\\ Catholics\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ push\\ back\\ against\\ the\\ Condemnations\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Protestant\\ Response\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Protestants\\ don\\\u2019t\\ have\\ a\\ central\\ entity\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Censorship\\ requires\\ permission\\ at\\ a\\ local\\ level\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Amsterdam\\ is\\ an\\ exception\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Speech\\ and\\ press\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ controlled\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Some\\ Protestants\\ took\\ up\\ Copernicus\\\u2019s\\ arguments\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Wilkins\\ take\\ a\\ more\\ historical\\ line\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Distinction\\ between\\ core\\ values\\ and\\ lines\\ that\\ don\\\u2019t\\ need\\ to\\ respect\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Lutherans\\ and\\ Calvinists\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Literal\\ more\\ than\\ traditional\\ interpretation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Conservative\\ Wing\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Flat\\ Earth\\ \\(Heavens\\ are\\ stretched\\ like\\ a\\ tent\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Zetetic\\ astronomy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Middle\\ Wing\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Geoheliocentricism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Liberal\\ Wing\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Copernicus\\ and\\ creation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Florence\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1734\\ \\\u2013\\ Statue\\ is\\ constructed\\ to\\ honor\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1737\\ \\\u2013\\ Galileo\\ is\\ dug\\ up\\ and\\ one\\ finger\\ is\\ saved\\ in\\ a\\ reliquary\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Second\\ Galileo\\ Affair\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Put\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ on\\ trial\\ for\\ the\\ trial\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Church\\ published\\ many\\ documents\\ \\(1870\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\John\\ Paul\\ II\\,\\ Encyclical\\ letter\\ \\\u201cFides\\ et\\ Ratio\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Since\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ the\\ last\\ \\(nineteenth\\)\\ century\\\u2026\\ the\\ Magisterium\\ of\\ the\\ Church\\ was\\ obliged\\ to\\ be\\ vigilant\\ lest\\ these\\ modern\\ philosophies\\ developed\\ in\\ ways\\ which\\ were\\ themselves\\ erroneous\\ and\\ negative\\.\\ The\\ censures\\ were\\ developed\\ even\\-handedly\\:\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ against\\ fideism\\ and\\ radical\\ traditionalism\\,\\ for\\ their\\ distrust\\ of\\ reason\\\u2019s\\ natural\\ capacities\\,\\ and\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\,\\ against\\ rationalism\\ and\\ ontologism\\ because\\ they\\ attributed\\ to\\ natural\\ reason\\ a\\ knowledge\\ which\\ only\\ the\\ light\\ of\\ faith\\ could\\ confer\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ It\\ is\\ my\\ task\\ to\\ state\\ principles\\ and\\ criteria\\ which\\ in\\ my\\ judgment\\ are\\ necessary\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ restore\\ a\\ harmonious\\ and\\ creative\\ relationship\\ between\\ theology\\ and\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Joseph\\ Nicolas\\ Robert\\ Fleury\\ \\(1797\\-1890\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Grandiose\\ and\\ allegorical\\ morally\\ uplifting\\ scenes\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Galileo\\ in\\ prison\\,\\ heliocentric\\ pattern\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pope\\ is\\ wary\\ of\\ a\\ scandal\\ with\\ the\\ Church\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ want\\ to\\ make\\ Galileo\\ a\\ martyr\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Galileo\\ before\\ the\\ Holy\\ Office\\ \\(1847\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cAnd\\ yet\\ it\\ moves\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Anti\\-Catholic\\ depictions\\ of\\ the\\ trial\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Warfare\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ dogmatic\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Special\\ relationship\\ between\\ Protestantism\\ and\\ science\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Aftermaths of the Galileo Affair \u2013 Historical and Historiographical"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.910695+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Descartes and Cartesianism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 832, "html": "\\Descartes\\ and\\ Cartesianism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ March\\ 16\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\The\\ context\\ of\\ early\\ 17th\\ century\\ Paris\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Descartes\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ French\\ but\\ spends\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ in\\ Holland\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mercenary\\ in\\ the\\ Thirty\\ Years\\ War\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Publishes\\ both\\ in\\ French\\ and\\ Latin\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Spate\\ of\\ anti\\-Aristotelian\\ works\\ \\(outside\\ university\\)\\,\\ atomism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Following\\ of\\ non\\-university\\ members\\ that\\ are\\ attracted\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ philosophies\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Aristotle\\ was\\ a\\ pagan\\,\\ Christianized\\ by\\ Aquinas\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Atomist\\ hypothesis\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Atomism\\ was\\ made\\ famous\\ by\\ Lucretius\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Idea\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ made\\ of\\ small\\ particles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Particles\\ bump\\ into\\ each\\ other\\ randomly\\ to\\ make\\ things\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Random\\ interaction\\ accounts\\ for\\ the\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Gassendi\\ Christianized\\ atomism\\ because\\ God\\ is\\ shaping\\ how\\ the\\ atoms\\ are\\ interacting\\ with\\ each\\ other\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Alternatives\\ to\\ Aristotle\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Descartes\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ seem\\ like\\ an\\ atomist\\,\\ but\\ he\\ is\\ very\\ hostile\\ to\\ the\\ atomists\\ because\\ Descartes\\ believes\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ packed\\ with\\ particles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Attempt\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ new\\ Christian\\ philosophy\\ and\\ physics\\ to\\ answer\\ to\\ the\\ skeptics\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Fears\\ of\\ rising\\ skepticism\\,\\ \\\u201catheism\\,\\\u201d\\ libertinism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mersenne\\ claims\\ there\\ are\\ 50\\,000\\ atheists\\ in\\ Paris\\ in\\ 1630\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Skepticism\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ only\\ sure\\ thing\\ you\\ know\\ is\\ that\\ you\\ know\\ nothing\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Human\\ reason\\ can\\ known\\ nothing\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Skepticism\\ may\\ be\\ seen\\ as\\ good\\ for\\ fideism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reason\\ was\\ tightly\\ interconnected\\ with\\ proving\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Make\\ sure\\ we\\ stop\\ the\\ trend\\ of\\ doubt\\ in\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Descartes\\\u2019\\ \\Discourse\\ on\\ Method\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(1637\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Attempt\\ to\\ provide\\ the\\ Catholic\\ Church\\ a\\ means\\ to\\ combat\\ skeptics\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Written\\ in\\ French\\ for\\ a\\ common\\ audience\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Arrogant\\ confidence\\ in\\ the\\ new\\ \\(contrast\\ with\\ Copernicus\\\u2019\\ tone\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ A\\ Catholic\\,\\ worried\\ about\\ the\\ condemnation\\ of\\ Galileo\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ A\\ new\\ method\\:\\ doubt\\ to\\ sweep\\ away\\ received\\ opinion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Use\\ doubt\\ as\\ a\\ foundation\\ to\\ truth\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rationalism\\:\\ clear\\ and\\ distinct\\ ideas\\ convince\\ us\\ of\\ our\\ existence\\,\\ existence\\ of\\ God\\,\\ immutability\\ of\\ divine\\ will\\;\\ but\\ also\\ some\\ acknowledgement\\ of\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ empirical\\ observation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Three\\ Principles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ I\\ think\\,\\ therefore\\ I\\ am\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Awareness\\ of\\ your\\ own\\ thoughts\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ undoubtable\\ experience\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ God\\ exists\\ and\\ God\\ is\\ good\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Descartes\\\u2019\\ mechanical\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mechanical\\ philosophy\\ explains\\ everything\\ as\\ matter\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Blueprint\\ for\\ how\\ to\\ explain\\ everything\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Different\\ solar\\ systems\\ as\\ vortices\\ with\\ a\\ comet\\ moving\\ between\\ them\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Matter\\ is\\ defined\\ by\\ its\\ extension\\ only\\;\\ no\\ secondary\\ qualities\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Secondary\\ qualities\\ do\\ not\\ define\\ matter\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reject\\ many\\ ways\\ Aristotelians\\ explained\\ things\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Iron\\ has\\ natural\\ affinity\\ to\\ magnets\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Magnetism\\ is\\ the\\ classic\\ occult\\ property\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\ substantial\\ forms\\ that\\ give\\ each\\ item\\ its\\ personality\\ according\\ to\\ Aristotelian\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Matter\\ does\\ not\\ have\\ personality\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Matter\\ differentiated\\ by\\ its\\ size\\:\\ small\\,\\ medium\\,\\ and\\ large\\ particles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Laws\\ of\\ motion\\:\\ conservation\\,\\ inertia\\,\\ and\\ impact\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reached\\ a\\ priori\\ \\(and\\ often\\ erroneous\\ in\\ their\\ particulars\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Self\\-regulating\\ system\\ \\\u2013\\ God\\\u2019s\\ creation\\ of\\ matter\\ and\\ motion\\ would\\ have\\ sufficed\\ to\\ replace\\ all\\ God\\\u2019s\\ specific\\ creations\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ God\\ only\\ had\\ to\\ make\\ chaos\\ and\\ the\\ laws\\ and\\ the\\ world\\ would\\ have\\ come\\ around\\ the\\ way\\ it\\ is\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Does\\ not\\ even\\ need\\ special\\ creation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cWithout\\ belittling\\ the\\ miracle\\ of\\ creation\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Copernican\\ cosmology\\:\\ \\Le\\ Monde\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ published\\ in\\ 1664\\,\\ vortices\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Reception\\ of\\ Cartesianism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Exciting\\ alternative\\ to\\ Aristotle\\ in\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ some\\ \\(the\\ young\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Christian\\ Huyghens\\ said\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ tremendously\\ exciting\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Objections\\:\\ soul\\-body\\ problem\\;\\ potential\\ for\\ materialism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Descartes\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ body\\ interacts\\ with\\ soul\\ through\\ the\\ pineal\\ gland\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Condemned\\ in\\ universities\\,\\ by\\ Sorbonne\\ \\(Paris\\ theo\\ fac\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Universities\\ were\\ hostile\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ new\\ and\\ opposed\\ to\\ traditional\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dangerous\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Conclusions\\ that\\ were\\ in\\ conflict\\ with\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Adopted\\,\\ with\\ adjustments\\,\\ in\\ 1690s\\ \\(DC\\ seems\\ less\\ radical\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Terms\\ to\\ Retain\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Skepticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pyrrhonism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Libertinism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rationalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ A\\ posteriori\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ We\\ all\\ have\\ an\\ idea\\ of\\ infinite\\ substance\\;\\ that\\ idea\\ must\\ have\\ a\\ cause\\ \\=\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ A\\ priori\\ truths\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ God\\ carries\\ to\\ perfection\\ all\\ the\\ qualities\\,\\ but\\ existence\\ is\\ necessarily\\ part\\ of\\ being\\ perfect\\;\\ therefore\\ God\\ exists\\ \\(ontological\\ proof\\,\\ attributed\\ to\\ Anselm\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mechanical\\ philosophy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Matter\\ in\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Conservation\\ of\\ matter\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Conservation\\ of\\ motion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Vortices\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Descartes and Cartesianism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.922167+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Blaise Pascal - A Religion of the Heart", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 833, "html": "\\Blaise\\ Pascal\\ \\\u2013\\ A\\ Religion\\ of\\ the\\ Heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ March\\ 30\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Wednesday\\ Lecture\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rationalization\\ of\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Religion\\ of\\ the\\ Heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Anti\\-rationalist\\ approach\\ to\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\ was\\ a\\ scientist\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Experimental\\ angle\\ to\\ Pascal\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Number\\ of\\ publications\\ in\\ the\\ sciences\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pens\\\u00e9es\\ was\\ his\\ crowning\\ achievement\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Pascal\\\u2019s\\ Biography\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Home\\ schooled\\ by\\ his\\ widowed\\ father\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Father\\ abandoned\\ his\\ post\\ to\\ educate\\ his\\ children\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Atmosphere\\ of\\ competitiveness\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Demonstrated\\ the\\ mystic\\ hexagon\\ as\\ an\\ adolescence\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reports\\ of\\ Descartes\\\u2019\\\u2019\\ reactions\\,\\ dismissing\\ Pascal\\ as\\ prodigy\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\\u2019s\\ calculating\\ machine\\,\\ invented\\ in\\ 1645\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\\u2019s\\ historic\\ barometer\\ experiment\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Disproving\\ Descartes\\\u2019\\ theory\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\\u2019s\\ interpretation\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ void\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Measuring\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ air\\ \\(modern\\ interpretation\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\\u2019s\\ Triangle\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Treatise\\ on\\ combinatorics\\,\\ 1651\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ What\\ is\\ his\\ interaction\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Critical\\ of\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ reason\\ in\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Private\\ letter\\ to\\ Fermat\\ in\\ 1660\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Geometry\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ useless\\ in\\ determining\\ the\\ difference\\ from\\ an\\ artisan\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\\u2019s\\ religious\\ experience\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Jansenism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jasnsen\\ was\\ a\\ Flemish\\ bishop\\ who\\ died\\ in\\ 1668\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Wrote\\ a\\ book\\ called\\ \\Augustinus\\<\\/u\\>\\,\\ hoping\\ to\\ revive\\ Augustinianism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Trent\\,\\ as\\ a\\ response\\ to\\ Protestantism\\,\\ insists\\ on\\ human\\ free\\ will\\,\\ but\\ Catholics\\ and\\ Protestants\\ have\\ always\\ been\\ against\\ Pelagianism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Humans\\ can\\ never\\ save\\ themselves\\ because\\ they\\ have\\ suffered\\ the\\ fall\\ and\\ can\\\u2019t\\ be\\ cleansed\\ of\\ primordial\\ sin\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Grace\\,\\ a\\ gift\\ from\\ God\\,\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ salvation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jesuit\\ position\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ human\\ free\\ will\\ aspect\\ and\\ humans\\ must\\ accept\\ the\\ grace\\ given\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ be\\ saved\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Position\\ is\\ too\\ lenient\\ for\\ the\\ Jansenists\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jansenists\\ argue\\ that\\ God\\ only\\ gives\\ graces\\ to\\ a\\ select\\ few\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reemphasizes\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ grace\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ First\\ split\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ issue\\ of\\ free\\ will\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Confessors\\ to\\ the\\ King\\ tell\\ him\\ whether\\ what\\ he\\ is\\ doing\\ is\\ religiously\\ acceptable\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jesuits\\ held\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ confessor\\ to\\ the\\ French\\ King\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Louis\\ XIII\\ and\\ France\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ allied\\ with\\ the\\ German\\ princes\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jansenists\\ complain\\ about\\ the\\ compromising\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ Jesuits\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jesuits\\ have\\ a\\ philosophical\\ science\\ called\\ casuistry\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Probabilism\\ determines\\ the\\ risk\\ of\\ moral\\ laxity\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ If\\ you\\ can\\ find\\ one\\ authority\\ that\\ can\\ viably\\ used\\ to\\ support\\ the\\ position\\ you\\ take\\,\\ that\\ is\\ good\\ enough\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ It\\ is\\ viable\\ to\\ follow\\ an\\ action\\ if\\ there\\ is\\ one\\ reasonable\\ argument\\ even\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ more\\ arguments\\ for\\ other\\ position\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jesuits\\ have\\ a\\ reputation\\ in\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ for\\ compromising\\ easily\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jansenists\\ complain\\ about\\ casuistry\\ and\\ probabilism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Five\\ propositions\\ attributed\\ to\\ the\\ Jansenists\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Do\\ the\\ Jansenists\\ actually\\ hold\\ these\\ propositions\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\\u2019s\\ \\Provinciales\\ \\<\\/i\\>mock\\ the\\ Jesuits\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\ has\\ a\\ conversion\\ experience\\ in\\ 1654\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\\u2019s\\ sister\\ was\\ cured\\ of\\ an\\ eye\\ disease\\ in\\ 1655\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Never\\ became\\ a\\ religious\\ cleric\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Pens\\\u00e9es\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Skepticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\ pairs\\ skepticism\\ with\\ fideism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Against\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ great\\ because\\ of\\ design\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ There\\ is\\ no\\ void\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ God\\ \\(caricature\\ of\\ Descartes\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Argument\\ from\\ design\\ is\\ weak\\ to\\ rekindle\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\ believes\\ that\\ God\\ is\\ a\\ hidden\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ ways\\ of\\ persuading\\ people\\ of\\ the\\ truths\\ of\\ our\\ religion\\:\\ one\\ by\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ the\\ other\\ by\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ the\\ person\\ speaking\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pascal\\ on\\ the\\ belief\\ in\\ miracles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ It\\ is\\ not\\ unreasonable\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ miracles\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reason\\ cannot\\ persuade\\ us\\ not\\ to\\ follow\\ our\\ heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Religion\\ is\\ best\\ founded\\ on\\ the\\ authority\\ of\\ scripture\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ God\\ is\\ best\\ viewed\\ from\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Personal\\ conversion\\ experience\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Reception\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Disliked\\ by\\ Voltaire\\ and\\ French\\ Enlightenment\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Well\\-received\\ by\\ religious\\ movements\\ \\\u201cof\\ the\\ heart\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ John\\ Wesley\\ \\(Methodism\\,\\ founded\\ in\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ German\\ pietism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Careful\\ to\\ avoid\\ \\\u201centhusiasm\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Blaise Pascal - A Religion of the Heart"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.933181+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Making Christianity Reasonable", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 834, "html": "\\Making\\ Christianity\\ Reasonable\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 1\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Final\\ Paper\\ Proposal\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Statement\\ of\\ topic\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\-2\\ pages\\ in\\ length\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 1\\-2\\ primary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 4\\-6\\ secondary\\ sources\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Due\\ Monday\\,\\ April\\ 6\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Rationalization\\ of\\ Religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Parallel\\ to\\ the\\ religion\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reaction\\ against\\ the\\ rationalization\\ movement\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Long\\,\\ slow\\ movement\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Before\\ the\\ 16th\\ century\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 18th\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Individuals\\ who\\ are\\ not\\ well\\ received\\ and\\ controversial\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Grows\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ more\\ broadly\\ defined\\ movement\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Crisis\\ in\\ European\\ consciousness\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pre\\-Enlightenment\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Enlightenment\\ figures\\ thought\\ Enlightenment\\ was\\ good\\ for\\ them\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Thomas\\ Paine\\,\\ Age\\ of\\ Reason\\ \\(1793\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cI\\ believe\\ in\\ one\\ God\\ and\\ no\\ more\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cI\\ hope\\ for\\ happiness\\ beyond\\ this\\ life\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cI\\ believe\\ that\\ religious\\ duties\\ consist\\ in\\ doing\\ justice\\,\\ loving\\ mercy\\ and\\ endeavoring\\ to\\ make\\ our\\ fellow\\ creatures\\ happy\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rationalist\\ position\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cI\\ do\\ not\\ believe\\ in\\ the\\ creed\\ professed\\ by\\ the\\ Jewish\\ curch\\,\\ by\\ the\\ Roman\\ church\\,\\ by\\ the\\ Greek\\ church\\,\\ by\\ the\\ Turkish\\ church\\,\\ by\\ the\\ Protestant\\ church\\,\\ not\\ by\\ any\\ church\\ that\\ I\\ know\\ of\\\u2026\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cMy\\ own\\ mind\\ is\\ my\\ own\\ church\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Secularization\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Religion\\ plays\\ a\\ much\\ lesser\\ role\\ in\\ people\\\u2019s\\ lives\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Church\\ has\\ less\\ control\\ over\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Politics\\ and\\ the\\ state\\ are\\ taking\\ over\\ education\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ People\\ give\\ less\\ to\\ the\\ church\\ in\\ their\\ wills\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Fewer\\ religious\\ books\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Less\\ turning\\ toward\\ the\\ institution\\ to\\ express\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Religion\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ personal\\ experience\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rational\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ God\\ is\\ great\\ because\\ law\\-abiding\\ rather\\ than\\ arbitrary\\,\\ mysterious\\,\\ hidden\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rejection\\ of\\ mysteries\\ of\\ Christianity\\ that\\ seemed\\ unreasonable\\ and\\ unfair\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Natural\\ religion\\ found\\ in\\ everyone\\:\\ basic\\ tenets\\ of\\ morality\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Natural\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Subset\\ of\\ rational\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Every\\ person\\ has\\ a\\ conscience\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Share\\ a\\ fundamental\\ set\\ of\\ ethical\\ beliefs\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Doctrinal\\ disputes\\ and\\ toleration\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ What\\ is\\ worth\\ arguing\\ about\\ as\\ a\\ Christian\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Protestant\\ notion\\ of\\ \\\u201cadiaphora\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Things\\ indifferent\\ and\\ not\\ worth\\ arguing\\ about\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Certain\\ things\\ that\\ are\\ essential\\ to\\ salvation\\ but\\ other\\ things\\ have\\ minimal\\ significance\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Orthodox\\ Calvinist\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Arminian\\ as\\ a\\ Pelagian\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Interpretation\\ by\\ others\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Arminians\\ lose\\ but\\ Arminianism\\ does\\ enter\\ the\\ non\\-mainline\\ movements\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Christianity\\ made\\ reasonable\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ John\\ Locke\\,\\ \\The\\ reasonableness\\ of\\ Christianity\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Jesus\\ is\\ the\\ messiah\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Revelation\\ is\\ useful\\ to\\ spread\\ reasonable\\ beliefs\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ We\\ need\\ toleration\\ within\\ a\\ certain\\ range\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ We\\ need\\ toleration\\ for\\ political\\ stability\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Limits\\ to\\ toleration\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\ Catholicism\\ and\\ atheism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ John\\ Toland\\,\\ \\Christianity\\ not\\ Mysterious\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Adds\\ anticlericalism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ Church\\ has\\ spread\\ lies\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Born\\ Irish\\ and\\ Catholic\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Converted\\ to\\ Protestant\\ around\\ age\\ 16\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Lived\\ in\\ England\\ after\\ outcry\\ over\\ his\\ book\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sharply\\ argued\\ anti\\-clerical\\ work\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Rational\\ ethics\\ as\\ distinct\\ from\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Baruch\\ Spinoza\\ \\(1632\\-1677\\)\\,\\ \\Tractatus\\ theologico\\-politicus\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(1670\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Born\\ a\\ Jew\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ ordinary\\ Jew\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Judaism\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ ingrown\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Ethics\\<\\/i\\>\\ published\\ posthumously\\:\\ libertas\\ philosophandi\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bible\\ as\\ shortcut\\ to\\ ethics\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Study\\ the\\ Bible\\ as\\ a\\ record\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ people\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ an\\ atheist\\,\\ often\\ called\\ a\\ pantheist\\:\\ \\\u201cdues\\ sive\\ natura\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Another\\ factor\\:\\ awareness\\ of\\ peoples\\ without\\ Revelation\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ New\\ World\\,\\ Asia\\ \\\u2013\\ morality\\ without\\ Revelation\\ is\\ possible\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ refutations\\;\\ TPT\\ banned\\,\\ but\\ Pierre\\ Bayle\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Spinoza\\ as\\ virtuous\\ atheist\\ vs\\.\\ bad\\ OT\\ behavior\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Individual\\ choice\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Everyone\\ using\\ reason\\ can\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ faith\\ they\\ are\\ most\\ convinced\\ by\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Spinozist\\ is\\ the\\ coolest\\ insult\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Spinoza\\ doesn\\\u2019t\\ think\\ he\\ is\\ an\\ atheist\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Biblical\\ criticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Richard\\ Simon\\:\\ contradictions\\ within\\ Bible\\ \\(not\\ new\\)\\,\\ supposedly\\ to\\ support\\ Catholic\\ tradition\\ vs\\ Protestant\\,\\ but\\ to\\ delve\\ into\\ authorship\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Modern\\ positions\\:\\ Bible\\ is\\ divine\\ message\\,\\ in\\ human\\ writing\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Natural\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rational\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Biblical\\ criticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ John\\ Locke\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Deism\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Spinoza\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Virtuous\\ atheist\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Richard\\ Simon\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Making Christianity Reasonable"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.944829+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lyell and Geology", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 835, "html": "\\\\\u00a0Lyell\\ and\\ Geology\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 8\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\17th\\ century\\ views\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Age\\ of\\ earth\\ estimates\\ from\\ combining\\ Bible\\ with\\ ancient\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Archbishop\\ Ussher\\:\\ Sun\\ Oct\\ 23\\,\\ 4004BC\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Fossils\\ as\\ jokes\\ of\\ nature\\ \\(16th\\)\\ or\\ effect\\ of\\ Noah\\\u2019s\\ Flood\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Speculative\\ histories\\ of\\ earth\\:\\ Wm\\ Whiston\\ \\(\\New\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ 1696\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 140\\ different\\ estimates\\ about\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Rational\\ exercise\\ in\\ figuring\\ this\\ out\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Protestant\\ line\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ Archbishop\\ Ussher\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Everyone\\ believes\\ humans\\ were\\ created\\ in\\ a\\ biblical\\ timeframe\\ but\\ Earth\\ has\\ a\\ history\\ that\\ was\\ before\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ humans\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Fossils\\ are\\ jokes\\ of\\ nature\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dominant\\ view\\ in\\ the\\ seventeenth\\ century\\ is\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ remains\\ of\\ organic\\ beings\\ \\(Noah\\\u2019s\\ flood\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Running\\ with\\ limitations\\ of\\ ancient\\ history\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Extant\\ or\\ extinct\\ species\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ William\\ Whiston\\\u2019s\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ a\\ comet\\ crashed\\ into\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ causing\\ a\\ flood\\ explaining\\ Noah\\\u2019s\\ Flood\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Noah\\\u2019s\\ Flood\\ is\\ report\\ of\\ something\\ that\\ really\\ happened\\ but\\ a\\ catastrophic\\ natural\\ event\\ not\\ a\\ supernatural\\ event\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Noah\\\u2019s\\ flood\\ caused\\ by\\ collision\\ of\\ a\\ comet\\,\\ breaking\\ the\\ earth\\\u2019s\\ crust\\ and\\ releasing\\ water\\ beneath\\ it\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Newton\\ liked\\ the\\ theory\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Whiston\\ was\\ well\\-received\\ and\\ a\\ Boyle\\ lecturer\\ in\\ 1707\\ \\(nat\\ theo\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Athanasus\\ Kircher\\,\\ 1664\\ \\\u2013\\ many\\ unusual\\ views\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Eruption\\ of\\ Vesuvius\\ over\\ gulf\\ of\\ Naples\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Eruptions\\ with\\ fatalities\\ in\\ 1732\\,\\ 1770\\,\\ 1783\\,\\ 1796\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\18th\\ century\\ views\\ of\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ new\\ empirical\\ observations\\:\\ stratigraphy\\,\\ mineralogy\\,\\ fossils\\;\\ eruptions\\ and\\ earthquakes\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Neptunism\\ \\(Abraham\\ Werner\\)\\:\\ rocks\\ formed\\ by\\ precipitation\\ from\\ water\\,\\ e\\.g\\.\\ in\\ Flood\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ More\\ generally\\ Neptunism\\ in\\ 18th\\ century\\ attributes\\ formation\\ of\\ features\\ of\\ earth\\ to\\ the\\ action\\ of\\ water\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Catastrophism\\,\\ short\\ geological\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ England\\ tends\\ to\\ argue\\ for\\ the\\ calm\\ view\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Stratigraphy\\ \\\u2013\\ aided\\ by\\ mining\\ and\\ digging\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mineralogy\\ \\\u2013\\ gathering\\ specimens\\ of\\ rocks\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Paleontology\\ \\\u2013\\ collection\\ of\\ fossils\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Vulcanism\\:\\ rocks\\ formed\\ by\\ heat\\ and\\ pressure\\ \\\u2013\\ need\\ longer\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Chemistry\\ is\\ a\\ science\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ very\\ well\\ formed\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Joseph\\ Black\\ has\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ time\\ is\\ needed\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Dominant\\ theory\\ is\\ Neptunism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Single\\ giant\\ flood\\ would\\ account\\ for\\ all\\ the\\ fossils\\ and\\ formation\\ of\\ rocks\\ through\\ sedimentation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Multiple\\ floods\\ could\\ have\\ taken\\ place\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Georges\\ Buffon\\,\\ 1707\\-88\\,\\ Epoques\\ de\\ la\\ nature\\ \\(1778\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 6\\ ages\\ of\\ indefinite\\ length\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ First\\ \\\u201cday\\-age\\\u201d\\ interpretation\\ of\\ Genesis\\ total\\ age\\ of\\ earth\\ at\\ least\\ 75000\\ years\\ \\(cooling\\ of\\ iron\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Notion\\ of\\ change\\ within\\ species\\ \\(improvement\\ or\\ degeneration\\)\\,\\ but\\ no\\ transmutation\\ of\\ species\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ We\\ shouldn\\\u2019t\\ use\\ the\\ Bible\\ to\\ guide\\ us\\ in\\ explaining\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\;\\ instead\\,\\ use\\ chemistry\\ and\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ cooling\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Uniformitarianism\\:\\ \\\u201c\\\u2026operations\\ uniformly\\ repeated\\,\\ motions\\ which\\ succeed\\ one\\ another\\ without\\ interruption\\ are\\ the\\ causes\\ which\\ alone\\ ought\\ to\\ bear\\ the\\ foundation\\ of\\ our\\ reasoning\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwin\\ cites\\ Buffon\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ scientists\\ who\\ suggest\\ change\\ in\\ species\\,\\ but\\ not\\ change\\ from\\ one\\ species\\ to\\ another\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\James\\ Hutton\\ \\(1726\\-97\\)\\:\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\ \\(1788\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Sedimentation\\,\\ elevation\\ by\\ heat\\ \\&\\;\\ pressure\\,\\ erosion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Reflection\\ to\\ English\\ landscape\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u00a0\\\u201cNo\\ vestige\\ of\\ a\\ beginning\\,\\ no\\ prospect\\ of\\ an\\ end\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Indefinite\\ span\\ of\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Eternity\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ on\\ different\\ grounds\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ Aristotelian\\ point\\ of\\ view\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Book\\ is\\ not\\ well\\-received\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Accused\\ of\\ uproarious\\ reception\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ well\\-written\\ and\\ difficult\\ to\\ read\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Defended\\ by\\ John\\ Playfair\\,\\ a\\ natural\\ theologian\\ and\\ minister\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Repackages\\ Hutton\\\u2019s\\ theory\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ in\\ more\\ readable\\ form\\ and\\ also\\ sugar\\-coating\\ the\\ pill\\ by\\ reminding\\ everyone\\ that\\ creation\\ of\\ humankind\\ on\\ a\\ biblical\\ scale\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Move\\ that\\ smoothes\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ reception\\ of\\ geological\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Charles\\ Lyell\\:\\ Principles\\ of\\ Geology\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ The\\ uniformitarianism\\ person\\ \\(vs\\.\\ catastrophism\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Observed\\ extinct\\ volcanoes\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Need\\ deep\\ past\\ of\\ earth\\,\\ fossil\\ record\\ not\\ complete\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Professional\\ geology\\:\\ \\\u201cas\\ if\\ Scriptures\\ did\\ not\\ exist\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ William\\ Buckland\\,\\ in\\ his\\ Bridgewater\\ Treatise\\ \\(1836\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lyell and Geology"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.955494+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Darwin and On the Origin of Species", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 836, "html": "\\\\\u00a0Darwin\\ and\\ \\On\\ the\\ Origin\\ of\\ Species\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ April\\ 13\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Charles\\ Darwin\\ Background\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Family\\ of\\ British\\ landed\\ gentry\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Transitioning\\ to\\ wealth\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mother\\ died\\ when\\ he\\ was\\ 8\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Boarding\\ school\\ called\\ Dismal\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Exposed\\ to\\ Robert\\ Grant\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ All\\ life\\ comes\\ from\\ sponges\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Materialist\\ notion\\ that\\ life\\ is\\ generated\\ from\\ vital\\ forces\\ in\\ matter\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Influenced\\ by\\ French\\ though\\ and\\ atheism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Obsessed\\ with\\ adaptation\\ and\\ optimism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Uniformitarianism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ All\\ geological\\ phenomenon\\ are\\ generated\\ from\\ past\\ experiences\\ that\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ what\\ we\\ see\\ today\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Laws\\ that\\ are\\ universal\\ in\\ time\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ space\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwin\\ witnessed\\ an\\ earthquake\\ in\\ Chile\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwin\\ collects\\ on\\ the\\ Beagle\\ and\\ consult\\ with\\ experts\\ in\\ England\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ On\\ the\\ Beagle\\,\\ mainstream\\ piety\\ is\\ the\\ norm\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Malthus\\\u2019s\\ Principle\\ of\\ Population\\ \\(1798\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Struggle\\ for\\ life\\ and\\ survival\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Controversies\\ over\\ poor\\ relief\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Riots\\ in\\ England\\ \\(1842\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Debate\\ over\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ Malthus\\ in\\ Darwin\\\u2019s\\ thinking\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Formative\\ or\\ only\\ providing\\ a\\ vocabulary\\ in\\ which\\ to\\ articulate\\ his\\ theory\\ already\\ formed\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Pressure\\ over\\ resources\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Social\\ Darwinism\\ exists\\ prior\\ to\\ Darwin\\ and\\ exists\\ as\\ a\\ label\\ afterwards\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Down\\ House\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwin\\\u2019s\\ study\\ in\\ his\\ house\\ 15\\ miles\\ from\\ London\\,\\ where\\ he\\ moved\\ in\\ 1842\\ to\\ avoid\\ labor\\ riots\\ in\\ London\\;\\ he\\ lived\\ reclusively\\ after\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Alfred\\ Russel\\ Wallace\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Similar\\ theory\\ from\\ similar\\ observations\\ in\\ South\\ America\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Lyell\\,\\ Malthus\\;\\ but\\ competition\\ between\\ varieties\\ not\\ individuals\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ From\\ a\\ lower\\ social\\ class\\,\\ a\\ socialist\\,\\ rejects\\ human\\ evolution\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\On\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ species\\ by\\ means\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\ \\(1859\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Analogy\\ with\\ artificial\\ selection\\ \\(in\\ lieu\\ of\\ theory\\ of\\ heredity\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Optimistic\\ conclusion\\:\\ the\\ \\\u201centangled\\ bank\\\u201d\\;\\ man\\ to\\ be\\ discussed\\ \\\u201cin\\ another\\ place\\\u201d\\ \\\u2013\\ \\The\\ Descent\\ of\\ Man\\<\\/i\\>\\ 1872\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Problems\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\ theory\\ of\\ heredity\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Contemporaries\\ assumed\\ blending\\,\\ but\\ then\\ why\\ is\\ the\\ successful\\ variation\\ not\\ swamped\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Gaps\\ in\\ fossil\\ records\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Many\\ missing\\ links\\ between\\ extinct\\ and\\ current\\ species\\ descended\\ from\\ them\\;\\ problem\\ of\\ human\\ origins\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Age\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Needs\\ lots\\ of\\ time\\ for\\ organic\\ evolution\\ and\\ speciation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\ teleology\\ or\\ need\\ for\\ a\\ superintending\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Little\\ concern\\ about\\ biblical\\ interpretation\\ \\(Galileo\\\u2019s\\ principles\\ still\\ hold\\:\\ Bible\\ about\\ morals\\ not\\ science\\;\\ principle\\ of\\ accommodation\\;\\ priority\\ of\\ scientifically\\ demonstrated\\ truths\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Terms\\ to\\ retain\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Beagle\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Galapagos\\ islands\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Biogeographical\\ distribution\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Artificial\\ selection\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Natural\\ selection\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Variation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mutation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Species\\ and\\ speciation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Malthus\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Spencer\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ A\\.R\\.\\ Wallace\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Darwin and On the Origin of Species"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.965086+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "The Reception of Darwin in 19th-Century Britain", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 837, "html": "\\\\\u00a0The\\ Reception\\ of\\ Darwin\\ in\\ 19th\\-Century\\ Britain\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Wednesday\\,\\ April\\ 15\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Initial\\ Response\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Very\\ few\\ people\\ liked\\ his\\ book\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Scientific\\ and\\ philosophical\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Origin\\ of\\ Species\\<\\/i\\>\\ became\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ public\\ debate\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Books\\ written\\ about\\ Darwin\\\u2019s\\ book\\ reached\\ a\\ larger\\ audience\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Elite\\ reception\\ and\\ the\\ popular\\ reception\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Myth\\ of\\ War\\ between\\ Darwinism\\ and\\ the\\ Religious\\ Establishment\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Thomas\\ Henry\\ Huxley\\ wrote\\,\\ \\\u201cI\\ am\\ sharpening\\ my\\ claws\\.\\.\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Divisions\\ within\\ both\\ the\\ clergy\\ and\\ scientific\\ community\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Defensiveness\\ in\\ the\\ context\\ contributed\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ war\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Huxley\\ and\\ Wilberforce\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Wilberforce\\ was\\ a\\ formidable\\ figure\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Met\\ in\\ 1930\\ to\\ discuss\\ evolution\\ and\\ Darwin\\\u2019s\\ new\\ theory\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Wilberforce\\ asked\\ Huxley\\ which\\ side\\ descended\\ from\\ an\\ ape\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Huxley\\ wins\\ the\\ debate\\ and\\ new\\ science\\ wins\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ a\\ debate\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Myth\\ that\\ continues\\ into\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Shifted\\ the\\ debate\\ from\\ a\\ scientific\\ debate\\ to\\ one\\ with\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Popularization\\ during\\ the\\ late\\ 19th\\ century\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwinism\\ spread\\ faster\\ in\\ countries\\ that\\ had\\ higher\\ literacy\\ rates\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Popularizes\\ set\\ up\\ Darwinism\\ as\\ a\\ war\\ between\\ science\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Images\\ and\\ cartoons\\ tied\\ Darwin\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ and\\ theory\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwin\\ as\\ God\\ or\\ Darwin\\ as\\ monkey\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Bible\\:\\ Three\\ main\\ points\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Historical\\ document\\ produced\\ by\\ men\\ that\\ should\\ be\\ read\\ as\\ such\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Goal\\ of\\ Christianity\\ is\\ moral\\ life\\,\\ not\\ salvation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Bible\\ should\\ be\\ read\\ almost\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ moral\\ fable\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Problems\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Species\\ were\\ not\\ a\\ stable\\ concept\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Little\\ space\\ of\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ aesthetically\\ pleasing\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Variations\\ that\\ were\\ not\\ to\\ any\\ good\\ end\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ If\\ variation\\ is\\ random\\,\\ did\\ God\\ know\\ how\\ it\\ would\\ turn\\ out\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Richard\\ Owen\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Great\\ anatomist\\,\\ vied\\ with\\ Huxley\\ for\\ best\\ in\\ England\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Head\\ of\\ British\\ Natural\\ history\\ Museum\\\\\nArgued\\ for\\ origin\\ of\\ species\\ by\\ a\\ continuously\\ operative\\ creation\\ law\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\ evidence\\ for\\ natural\\ selection\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Derivate\\ hypothesis\\,\\ points\\ out\\ missing\\ fossil\\ record\\ and\\ suggested\\ sudden\\ mutations\\ or\\ jumps\\ rather\\ than\\ slow\\ adaptations\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Argued\\ for\\ reverse\\ evolution\\ \\(example\\ of\\ the\\ horse\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Place\\ of\\ Man\\ in\\ Nature\\ and\\ Creation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Uncomfortable\\ questions\\ that\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwin\\ did\\ not\\ publish\\ until\\ public\\ outcries\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ the\\ years\\ before\\ he\\ publishes\\ \\The\\ Descent\\ of\\ Man\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ several\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ compelled\\ him\\ to\\ publish\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Showed\\ that\\ characteristics\\ previously\\ thought\\ unique\\ to\\ mankind\\ are\\ actually\\ found\\ in\\ animals\\ \\(emotions\\ and\\ communication\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Not\\ even\\ his\\ strongest\\ supporters\\ were\\ comfortable\\ in\\ his\\ arguments\\ for\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ man\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ No\\ official\\ church\\ reaction\\ against\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Christian\\ Darwinists\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Darwinism\\ or\\ evolution\\ enhances\\ their\\ understanding\\ of\\ Christianity\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Term\\ itself\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ early\\ at\\ 1867\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ In\\ Great\\ Britain\\,\\ Christian\\ Darwinists\\ found\\ not\\ contradiction\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\Ethics\\ of\\ Evolution\\,\\ Christianity\\ and\\ Evolution\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Issue\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ it\\ from\\ the\\ right\\ angle\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Viewed\\ from\\ a\\ religious\\ perspective\\,\\ species\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ design\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Agnosticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Position\\ of\\ compromise\\ associated\\ with\\ Huxley\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Evolution\\ cannot\\ prove\\ or\\ disprove\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Agnosticism\\ is\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ avoiding\\ skepticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\US\\ Debate\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Agassiz\\:\\ opponent\\ of\\ evolution\\ long\\ before\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Asa\\ Gray\\:\\ proponent\\ of\\ common\\ origin\\ and\\ Darwin\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Believed\\ in\\ a\\ synthesis\\ of\\ theism\\ and\\ Darwinism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "The Reception of Darwin in 19th-Century Britain"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.976012+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Physics and Religion in the 20th Century", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 838, "html": "\\\\\u00a0Physics\\ and\\ Religion\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ Century\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\The\\ Religious\\ Sensibility\\ of\\ Albert\\ Einstein\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Monday\\,\\ April\\ 27\\,\\ 2009\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Fundamentals\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Laid\\ out\\ by\\ General\\ Assembly\\ of\\ the\\ Presbyterian\\ church\\ in\\ 1910\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Inspiration\\ and\\ inerrancy\\ of\\ Scripture\\ virgin\\ birth\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Death\\ as\\ atonement\\ for\\ human\\ sin\\ bodily\\ resurrection\\ of\\ Christ\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Historical\\ reality\\ of\\ Christ\\\u2019s\\ miracles\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Variety\\ of\\ principles\\ that\\ seem\\ most\\ important\\ to\\ fundamentalists\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Anti\\-evolution\\ stances\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ seem\\ more\\ important\\ since\\ 1910\\ because\\ evolution\\ is\\ blamed\\ for\\ the\\ spread\\ of\\ atheism\\ and\\ other\\ evils\\ associated\\ with\\ modernity\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Question\\ Responses\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Intelligent\\ design\\ argument\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Scientific\\ argument\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Falsification\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Science\\ advances\\ by\\ making\\ hypotheses\\ and\\ making\\ them\\ falsifiable\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Timeline\\ of\\ Strict\\ Literalism\\ \\(Floor\\ Geology\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ 7th\\-day\\ Adventists\\ \\(founded\\ in\\ US\\ in\\ 1863\\)\\ are\\ among\\ those\\ taking\\ a\\ strict\\ creationist\\ line\\ before\\ the\\ 1920s\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ George\\ McReady\\ Price\\,\\ \\The\\ New\\ Geology\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ 1923\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Price\\ was\\ raised\\ as\\ 7th\\-day\\ adventist\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Flood\\ geology\\ was\\ spread\\ more\\ widely\\ and\\ with\\ more\\ reference\\ to\\ science\\ in\\ Morris\\ and\\ Whitcomb\\,\\ \\Genesis\\ Flood\\<\\/i\\>\\ \\(1961\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Diversity\\ of\\ Arguments\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Fundamentalist\\ Flat\\ Earthers\\ and\\ Geocentrists\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Wide\\ variety\\ of\\ options\\ on\\ the\\ creationist\\ side\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Intelligent\\ Design\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ If\\ theistic\\ evolution\\,\\ then\\ it\\ needs\\ to\\ adopt\\ widely\\ shared\\ consensus\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ community\\ and\\ change\\ with\\ that\\ consensus\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Irreducible\\ complexity\\ \\(Michael\\ Behe\\)\\ might\\ not\\ allow\\ for\\ possibility\\ of\\ scientific\\ explanation\\ of\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ complex\\ form\\ from\\ gradual\\ changes\\;\\ \\\u201cGod\\ of\\ the\\ gaps\\\u201d\\ problem\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Wherever\\ there\\ isn\\\u2019t\\ a\\ strong\\ scientific\\ explanation\\,\\ God\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ phenomenon\\,\\ until\\ scientific\\ understanding\\ changes\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Four\\ Creationist\\ Theories\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Intelligent\\ design\\ \\(ID\\)\\ is\\ the\\ fourth\\ creationist\\ theory\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Adopt\\ the\\ Galilean\\ principle\\ of\\ scientifically\\ demonstrated\\ truth\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Henry\\ Morris\\ \\(1946\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cIf\\ the\\ Bible\\ is\\ \\\u2018God\\-given\\\u2026\\ it\\ is\\ unthinkable\\ that\\ it\\ should\\ contain\\ scientific\\ mistakes\\;\\ either\\ it\\ is\\ scientifically\\ accurate\\ whenever\\ it\\ happens\\ to\\ touch\\ some\\ phase\\ of\\ science\\,\\ or\\ it\\ is\\ purely\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\ and\\ no\\ better\\ than\\ any\\ other\\ book\\ on\\ ethics\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Numbers\\,\\ \\The\\ Creationists\\<\\/i\\>\\,\\ p\\.\\ 219\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Aren\\\u2019t\\ there\\ interpretive\\ positions\\ between\\ the\\ Bible\\ as\\ \\\u201cscientifically\\ accurate\\\u201d\\ and\\ the\\ \\\u201cBible\\ as\\ book\\ of\\ ethics\\\u201d\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Most\\ creationists\\ tacitly\\ apply\\ these\\ principles\\ too\\ for\\ some\\ biblical\\ verses\\ unless\\ they\\ favor\\ flat\\-earth\\ and\\ geocentrism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Physics\\ and\\ Religion\\ in\\ the\\ 20th\\ Century\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Mutually\\ inspiring\\ relationship\\,\\ not\\ in\\ conflict\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Einstein\\\u2019s\\ Background\\ and\\ Cosmic\\ Sensibility\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Born\\ in\\ Germany\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ College\\ in\\ Switzerland\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Doctorate\\ in\\ the\\ University\\ of\\ Zurich\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Patent\\ officer\\ in\\ Barron\\ and\\ wrote\\ the\\ four\\ papers\\ that\\ propelled\\ him\\ into\\ world\\ fame\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Relativity\\ confirmed\\ experimentally\\ \\(1919\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Confirmed\\ what\\ Einstein\\ predicted\\,\\ that\\ their\\ distance\\ would\\ be\\ different\\ during\\ the\\ day\\ and\\ the\\ night\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Einstein\\ feels\\ like\\ he\\ understood\\ how\\ the\\ world\\ worked\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ World\\ is\\ arranged\\ by\\ obeying\\ certain\\ mathematical\\ laws\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\o\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Foundation\\ of\\ his\\ faith\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Cardinal\\ O\\\u2019Connell\\ of\\ Boston\\ warned\\ that\\ relativity\\ was\\ a\\ \\\u201cbefogged\\ speculation\\ producing\\ universal\\ doubt\\ about\\ God\\ and\\ His\\ creation\\ cloaking\\ the\\ ghastly\\ apparition\\ of\\ atheism\\.\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Spectrum\\ of\\ 20th\\-century\\ Position\\ on\\ Science\\ and\\ Religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Atheism\\-materialism\\-scientism\\:\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Agnosticism\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Modernist\\/liberal\\ theology\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Neo\\-orthodoxy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Einstein\\ on\\ Science\\ and\\ Religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Even\\ though\\ the\\ realms\\ of\\ religion\\ and\\ science\\ in\\ themselves\\ are\\ clearly\\ marked\\ off\\ from\\ each\\ other\\,\\ there\\ are\\ strong\\ reciprocal\\ relationships\\ and\\ dependencies\\\u2026\\ \\(section\\ reading\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Heisenberg\\\u2019s\\ Uncertainty\\ Principle\\ \\(1927\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ One\\ cannot\\ determine\\ both\\ the\\ position\\ and\\ the\\ momentum\\ of\\ a\\ particle\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Is\\ indeterminacy\\ an\\ artifact\\ of\\ our\\ poor\\ methods\\ or\\ measurement\\ \\(Einstein\\ \\\u2013\\ God\\ does\\ not\\ place\\ dice\\)\\ or\\ a\\ fact\\ of\\ nature\\ \\(Bohr\\ \\\u2013\\ we\\ cannot\\ tell\\ God\\ how\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ world\\)\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Einstein\\:\\ To\\ believe\\ quantum\\ mechanics\\ is\\ logically\\ possible\\ without\\ contradiction\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ very\\ contrary\\ to\\ my\\ scientific\\ instinct\\ that\\ I\\ cannot\\ forgo\\ the\\ search\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ complete\\ conception\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Arthur\\ Eddington\\ \\(1882\\-1944\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Science\\ as\\ a\\ doorway\\ to\\ religion\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Charles\\ Alfred\\ Coulson\\ \\(1910\\-74\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ \\\u201cThere\\ is\\ no\\ \\\u2018God\\ of\\ the\\ gaps\\\u2019\\ to\\ take\\ over\\ at\\ those\\ strategic\\ places\\ where\\ science\\ fails\\;\\ and\\ the\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ gaps\\ of\\ this\\ sort\\ have\\ the\\ unpreventable\\ habit\\ of\\ shrinking\\\u2026\\ Either\\ God\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ nature\\ with\\ no\\ gaps\\,\\ or\\ he\\\u2019s\\ not\\ there\\ at\\ all\\.\\\u201d\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Big\\ Bang\\ Theories\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Developed\\ from\\ Einstein\\\u2019s\\ general\\ relativity\\ and\\ Hubble\\\u2019s\\ observations\\ indicating\\ an\\ expanding\\ universe\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Accepted\\ after\\ 1964\\ observations\\ of\\ cosmic\\ background\\ radiation\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Big\\ bang\\ theory\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ the\\ initial\\ condition\\ but\\ describes\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ universe\\ since\\ that\\ first\\ instant\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Tipler\\ and\\ Barrow\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Stronger\\ principle\\:\\ Universe\\ must\\ be\\ designed\\ to\\ produce\\ life\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Weaker\\ principle\\:\\ Because\\ we\\ are\\ alive\\,\\ we\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ universe\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00a0\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\Terms\\ to\\ Retain\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Einstein\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Cosmic\\ religious\\ feeling\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Personal\\ God\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ God\\ of\\ the\\ Gaps\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Anthropic\\ Principle\\<\\/p\\>\\\n\\\\\u00b7\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\\u00a0\\ Quantum\\ indeterminacy\\<\\/p\\>\\\n", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Physics and Religion in the 20th Century"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.756842+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 18 (4/17/08)- Love and Sex", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 395, "html": "\\Love\\ and\\ sex\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ touchy\\ topic\\ historically\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ immense\\ importance\\,\\ and\\ strong\\ emotions\\,\\ which\\ are\\ overlaid\\ on\\ a\\ system\\ that\\ is\\ fraught\\ with\\ conflict\\,\\ which\\ seems\\ to\\ exist\\ between\\ any\\ logical\\ arrangement\\ of\\ individuals\\,\\ mate\\-mate\\,\\ male\\-male\\,\\ female\\-female\\,\\ cross\\-generational\\,\\ etc\\.\\ This\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ remarkable\\ complexity\\ of\\ sexual\\ strategies\\ from\\ an\\ ultimate\\ level\\ perspective\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Up\\ to\\ this\\ point\\ we\\ have\\ illustrated\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ scenarios\\ which\\ breed\\ conflict\\,\\ such\\ as\\ offspring\\-parent\\ conflict\\,\\ and\\ you\\ may\\ notice\\ this\\ happens\\ whenever\\ two\\ individual\\'s\\ interests\\ \\(this\\ while\\ discussion\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ ultimate\\ level\\ of\\ causation\\,\\ so\\ I\\ am\\ speaking\\ of\\ genetic\\ interests\\)\\ do\\ not\\ line\\ up\\ with\\ each\\ other\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ asymmetry\\ in\\ the\\ \\\"desires\\\"\\ of\\ each\\ person\\.\\ This\\ type\\ of\\ evolutionary\\ pressure\\ for\\ conflict\\ stemming\\ from\\ competing\\ genetic\\ goals\\ is\\ more\\ true\\ in\\ love\\,\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ relationships\\ than\\ in\\ any\\ other\\ domain\\.\\ In\\ some\\ sense\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ two\\ lovers\\ are\\ lined\\ up\\ as\\ they\\ will\\ presumably\\ have\\ a\\ child\\ that\\ carries\\ 50\\%\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ their\\ genes\\.\\ This\\ tends\\ to\\ cause\\ people\\ in\\ relationships\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ other\\ person\\'s\\ interests\\ and\\ the\\ child\\'s\\ interests\\ as\\ their\\ own\\ interests\\,\\ and\\ is\\ the\\ foundation\\ for\\ the\\ open\\ sharing\\ of\\ resources\\ in\\ relationships\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ is\\ also\\ conflict\\ because\\ the\\ partner\\'s\\ interests\\ do\\ not\\ line\\ up\\ entirely\\,\\ and\\ may\\ not\\ actually\\ line\\ up\\ at\\ all\\.\\ As\\ soon\\ as\\ two\\ sexes\\ evolved\\ with\\ any\\ asymmetry\\ they\\ naturally\\ tended\\ to\\ evolve\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\,\\ with\\ each\\ sex\\ specializing\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ The\\ female\\ of\\ the\\ species\\ invests\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ nutrition\\ and\\ time\\ into\\ a\\ few\\ reproductive\\ units\\ \\(eggs\\)\\ with\\ all\\ the\\ biochemical\\ machinery\\ that\\ the\\ infant\\ will\\ need\\.\\ These\\ are\\ therefore\\ quite\\ \\\"expensive\\\"\\ biologically\\ speaking\\.\\ Males\\ are\\ the\\ sex\\ that\\ invest\\ almost\\ nothing\\ \\(but\\ DNA\\)\\ in\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ reproductive\\ units\\ \\(sperm\\)\\.\\ These\\ are\\ \\\"cheap\\\"\\ biologically\\ speaking\\.\\ The\\ relative\\ costs\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ reproductive\\ units\\,\\ dictates\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ the\\ genders\\'\\ desired\\ sexual\\ behaviors\\.\\ Males\\ tend\\ to\\ have\\ to\\ compete\\ for\\ the\\ \\\"opportunity\\\"\\ to\\ mate\\,\\ and\\ prefer\\ to\\ mate\\ early\\ and\\ often\\,\\ because\\ this\\ is\\ cheap\\ for\\ them\\.\\ Females\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ selective\\ sex\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ the\\ bigger\\ investors\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ especially\\ true\\ in\\ female\\ mammals\\,\\ which\\ actually\\ carry\\ the\\ infant\\ inside\\ their\\ bodies\\ for\\ 9\\ months\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\ the\\ initial\\ asymmetry\\,\\ in\\ which\\ females\\ just\\ invested\\ more\\ in\\ an\\ egg\\,\\ has\\ been\\ greatly\\ exagerrated\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ where\\ in\\ mammals\\ the\\ female\\ actually\\ carries\\ the\\ baby\\ inside\\ her\\ body\\ and\\ then\\ nurses\\ the\\ infant\\ once\\ it\\ is\\ born\\.\\ This\\ gives\\ the\\ male\\ more\\ time\\ to\\ desert\\ the\\ relationship\\,\\ leaving\\ the\\ woman\\ with\\ the\\ baby\\.\\ He\\ gets\\ a\\ \\\"free\\\"\\ child\\ evolutionarily\\ speaking\\,\\ and\\ she\\ gets\\ stuck\\ with\\ raising\\ a\\ child\\ on\\ her\\ own\\.\\ This\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ selection\\ pressure\\ for\\ men\\ then\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ many\\ partners\\,\\ and\\ very\\ early\\ in\\ the\\ relationship\\,\\ while\\ women\\ want\\ to\\ wait\\ until\\ they\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ will\\ stick\\ around\\ and\\ help\\ raise\\ the\\ child\\.\\ This\\ is\\ just\\ a\\ first\\ approximation\\ of\\ course\\,\\ because\\ while\\ this\\ predicts\\ men\\ should\\ cheat\\ more\\,\\ and\\ more\\ easily\\,\\ it\\ also\\ predicts\\ that\\ women\\ will\\ cheat\\ but\\ for\\ different\\ reasons\\.\\ Women\\ tend\\ to\\ look\\ for\\ men\\ that\\ both\\ have\\ good\\ genes\\ \\(as\\ assessed\\ by\\ attractiveness\\,\\ wealth\\,\\ power\\,\\ and\\ intelligence\\)\\,\\ and\\ are\\ willing\\ to\\ invest\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ for\\ them\\ is\\ that\\ usually\\ the\\ most\\ desirable\\ mates\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ pin\\ down\\,\\ so\\ they\\ must\\ pick\\ an\\ investing\\ mate\\ instead\\ of\\ their\\ 1st\\ choice\\.\\ This\\ would\\ then\\ be\\ a\\ scenario\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ woman\\ could\\ cheat\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ good\\ genes\\ from\\ an\\ attractive\\ or\\ powerful\\ male\\,\\ but\\ be\\ married\\ to\\ an\\ investing\\ male\\.\\ Men\\ of\\ course\\ want\\ to\\ avoid\\ this\\ cuckolding\\ fate\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ essentially\\ an\\ evolutionary\\ worst\\ case\\ scenario\\,\\ and\\ so\\ they\\ mate\\-guard\\,\\ and\\ this\\ whole\\ situation\\ just\\ goes\\ on\\ and\\ on\\.\\ We\\ can\\ see\\ how\\ subtle\\ differences\\ in\\ investment\\ can\\ misalign\\ two\\ individuals\\'\\ interests\\ enought\\ to\\ create\\ conflict\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ this\\ half\\-aligned\\ interests\\/half\\-opposing\\ interests\\ that\\ sets\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ stage\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ complexities\\ of\\ love\\ to\\ evolve\\.\\ This\\ is\\ of\\ course\\ a\\ vast\\ oversimplification\\,\\ and\\ for\\ more\\ information\\ on\\ this\\ intriguing\\ topic\\ I\\ recommend\\ reading\\ David\\ Buss\\,\\ especially\\ \\The\\ Evolution\\ of\\ Desire\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ a\\ link\\ to\\ his\\ lab\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/homepage\\.psy\\.utexas\\.edu\\/homepage\\/Group\\/BussLAB\\/david\\_home\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Psychology\\ of\\ love\\ and\\ sex\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ three\\ main\\ emotional\\ drives\\ governing\\ human\\ sexuality\\,\\ all\\ governing\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ sexuality\\.\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Lust\\ or\\ sexual\\ desire\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Romantic\\ love\\ \\(infatuation\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Companionate\\ love\\ which\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ long\\ term\\ commitment\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Helen\\ Fischer\\ has\\ argued\\ that\\ love\\ is\\ an\\ adaptation\\ \\(using\\ paradoxical\\ tactics\\)\\ for\\ child\\ rearing\\.\\ She\\ makes\\ her\\ point\\ in\\ a\\ very\\ approachable\\ book\\ that\\ I\\ recommend\\ called\\ \\Why\\ We\\ Love\\.\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Conflicts\\ in\\ love\\ and\\ sex\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sex\\ is\\ pretty\\ much\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ single\\ evolutionary\\ behavior\\ that\\ an\\ organism\\ engages\\ in\\,\\ so\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ no\\ wonder\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ conflict\\ here\\.\\ Organisms\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ selective\\ in\\ whom\\ they\\ mate\\ with\\,\\ and\\ often\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ prove\\ one\\'s\\ value\\ as\\ a\\ mating\\ partner\\ is\\ through\\ conflict\\ and\\ violence\\.\\ There\\ are\\ therefore\\ two\\ major\\ sources\\ of\\ conflict\\ here\\,\\ the\\ first\\ being\\ between\\ males\\ competing\\ for\\ mates\\.\\ The\\ second\\ major\\ source\\ of\\ conflict\\ is\\ female\\ choice\\,\\ with\\ all\\ males\\ wanting\\ to\\ be\\ \\\"chosen\\\"\\ and\\ females\\ only\\ wanting\\ to\\ choose\\ the\\ \\\"best\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Why\\ two\\ sexes\\ \\?\\\r\\\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ a\\ huge\\ problem\\ in\\ theoretical\\ biology\\ with\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ work\\ and\\ some\\ great\\ explanations\\.\\ Without\\ going\\ into\\ it\\,\\ we\\ just\\ assume\\ here\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ good\\ reason\\ for\\ two\\ sexes\\,\\ and\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ you\\ make\\ this\\ distinction\\ the\\ two\\ sexes\\ will\\ tend\\ to\\ evolve\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\,\\ with\\ each\\ sex\\ specializing\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ This\\ is\\ discussed\\ at\\ length\\ above\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ asymmetry\\ is\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ sexually\\ dimorphic\\ behaviors\\ \\(behaviors\\ unique\\ to\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ sexes\\)\\.\\ A\\ single\\ male\\ can\\ fertilize\\ several\\ females\\,\\ and\\ many\\ males\\ can\\ go\\ mateless\\,\\ with\\ all\\ females\\ being\\ mated\\.\\ This\\ has\\ many\\ consequences\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ high\\ variance\\ in\\ male\\ reproductive\\ success\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ cause\\ of\\ male\\-male\\ competition\\.\\ This\\ competition\\ can\\ take\\ many\\ forms\\ including\\ fighting\\,\\ resource\\ gathering\\,\\ and\\ beauty\\ contests\\.\\ Interestingly\\ enough\\,\\ humans\\ seem\\ to\\ display\\ all\\ of\\ these\\.\\ Male\\ reproductive\\ success\\ depends\\ upon\\ \\how\\ many\\<\\/em\\>\\ females\\ he\\ mates\\ with\\,\\ whereas\\ a\\ female\\'s\\ depends\\ upon\\ the\\ \\quality\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ male\\ mates\\ she\\ chooses\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ males\\ are\\ promiscuous\\,\\ and\\ females\\ are\\ choosy\\ \\(sound\\ familiar\\?\\)\\,\\ and\\ this\\ is\\ true\\ in\\ almost\\ all\\ sexually\\ reproducing\\ species\\.\\ Here\\ the\\ exception\\ proves\\ the\\ rule\\ that\\ \\\"the\\ greater\\ investing\\ sex\\ is\\ the\\ choosier\\ and\\ therefore\\ less\\ promiscuous\\ sex\\.\\\"\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ species\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ male\\ invests\\ more\\,\\ and\\ in\\ these\\ species\\,\\ the\\ males\\ act\\ as\\ females\\ do\\ in\\ other\\ species\\,\\ they\\ are\\ choosy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ females\\ compete\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Human\\ emotions\\ and\\ Darwinian\\ Sexual\\ Selection\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ biologically\\ significant\\ human\\ sexual\\ behaviors\\.\\ The\\ following\\ properties\\ must\\ first\\ be\\ understood\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ behaviors\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ minimal\\ parental\\ investment\\ must\\ first\\ be\\ considered\\.\\ For\\ women\\ this\\ is\\ 9\\ months\\ of\\ pregnancy\\,\\ 30\\ pounds\\ of\\ nutrients\\,\\ and\\ 2\\-4\\ years\\ of\\ nursing\\.\\ For\\ men\\ this\\ is\\ 5\\ minutes\\ of\\ sex\\ and\\ a\\ few\\ sperm\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ men\\ as\\ the\\ lesser\\ investing\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ we\\ see\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ related\\ anatomical\\ products\\ of\\ this\\:\\ males\\ are\\ bigger\\ to\\ fight\\ with\\ each\\ other\\,\\ they\\ hit\\ puberty\\ later\\ \\(for\\ more\\ extensive\\ preparation\\ to\\ compete\\)\\,\\ and\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ shorter\\ lifespan\\ because\\ they\\ sacrifice\\ longevity\\ for\\ virility\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ typical\\ parental\\ investment\\ must\\ also\\ be\\ considered\\.\\ Human\\ males\\ typically\\ feed\\,\\ protect\\,\\ and\\ teach\\ offspring\\,\\ which\\ is\\ highly\\ unusual\\ for\\ mammals\\,\\ and\\ is\\ most\\ likely\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ human\\ infants\\'\\ long\\ dependent\\ childhood\\.\\ Kids\\ show\\ increased\\ levels\\ of\\ survival\\ with\\ male\\ investment\\.\\ This\\ predicts\\ that\\ both\\ sexes\\ should\\ compete\\,\\ but\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\:\\ Males\\ compete\\ for\\ fertile\\ and\\ willing\\ women\\,\\ and\\ women\\ compete\\ for\\ resource\\-laden\\,\\ and\\ willing\\-to\\-invest\\ males\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ women\\ are\\ \\\"sex\\ objects\\\"\\ and\\ males\\ are\\ \\\"success\\ objects\\.\\\"\\ This\\ is\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ only\\ a\\ first\\ approximation\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Human\\ females\\ also\\ conceal\\ fertilization\\ \\(they\\ do\\ not\\ go\\ into\\ estruous\\)\\,\\ and\\ humans\\ are\\ highly\\ social\\ which\\ just\\ lays\\ another\\ level\\ of\\ complexity\\ into\\ this\\ already\\ complex\\ system\\.\\ This\\ leads\\ to\\ uncertainty\\ of\\ paternity\\,\\ with\\ cuckoldry\\ \\(or\\ raising\\ another\\ male\\'s\\ child\\)\\ as\\ the\\ worst\\ case\\ scenario\\ for\\ a\\ male\\.\\ This\\ explains\\ female\\ cheating\\,\\ that\\ they\\ can\\ get\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ both\\ worlds\\,\\ a\\ faithful\\,\\ investing\\ mate\\ to\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ the\\ kids\\,\\ and\\ the\\ best\\ genes\\ from\\ a\\ non\\-investing\\ mate\\.\\ These\\ tend\\ not\\ to\\ co\\-occur\\,\\ the\\ most\\ attractive\\ males\\ tend\\ not\\ to\\ stick\\ around\\ monogamously\\,\\ and\\ so\\ often\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ best\\ genes\\ and\\ investment\\ is\\ by\\ cheating\\ on\\ an\\ investing\\ partner\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ evidence\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\All\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ is\\ merely\\ theoretical\\,\\ and\\ here\\ we\\ will\\ look\\ for\\ evidence\\ of\\ these\\ characteristics\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ I\\ mention\\ this\\ again\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ often\\ a\\ major\\ sticking\\ point\\ in\\ this\\ discussion\\,\\ these\\ are\\ all\\ ultimate\\ level\\ explanations\\,\\ and\\ MUST\\ NOT\\ be\\ mistaken\\ for\\ proximate\\ explanations\\.\\ People\\ do\\ not\\ cheat\\ to\\ get\\ better\\ genes\\,\\ they\\ cheat\\ becuase\\ of\\ sexual\\ desire\\,\\ and\\ emotional\\ drives\\,\\ but\\ the\\ reason\\ that\\ desire\\ and\\ those\\ drives\\ exist\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ one\\ can\\ get\\ their\\ genes\\ into\\ the\\ next\\ generation\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\For\\ the\\ first\\ prediction\\,\\ that\\ men\\ should\\ be\\ more\\ interested\\ in\\ numerous\\ partners\\ than\\ women\\,\\ there\\ is\\ extensive\\ evidence\\ \\(all\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ do\\ to\\ research\\ this\\ is\\ go\\ to\\ your\\ nearest\\ bar\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ almost\\ so\\ obvious\\ that\\ survey\\ evidence\\ seems\\ artificial\\,\\ like\\ \\\"yea\\ who\\ cares\\?\\\"\\ but\\ in\\ science\\ everything\\ \\(even\\ obvious\\ stuff\\)\\ must\\ be\\ empirically\\ verified\\.\\ While\\ not\\ all\\ women\\ are\\ monogamous\\,\\ and\\ not\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ polygamous\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ serious\\ asymmetry\\ in\\ this\\ direction\\.\\ Both\\ sexes\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ seeking\\ long\\ term\\ relationships\\,\\ but\\ only\\ men\\ seemed\\ to\\ be\\ seeking\\ short\\-term\\ relationships\\.\\ David\\ Buss\\ has\\ researched\\ this\\ with\\ much\\ survey\\ data\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ following\\ questions\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\How\\ strongly\\ are\\ you\\ seeking\\ a\\ spouse\\?\\ Men\\=\\ very\\ strongly\\,\\ Women\\=very\\ strongly\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\How\\ strongly\\ are\\ you\\ seeking\\ a\\ one\\-night\\ stand\\?\\ Men\\=very\\ strongly\\,\\ Women\\=not\\ very\\ strongly\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\How\\ many\\ sexual\\ partners\\ would\\ you\\ like\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ month\\/\\ next\\ two\\ years\\/\\ lifetime\\?\\\"\\ Women\\ respond\\ \\.8\\,\\ 1\\,\\ and\\ 4\\-5\\ respectively\\.\\ Men\\ respond\\ 2\\,\\ 8\\,\\ and\\ 18\\ respectively\\.\\ This\\ is\\ just\\ an\\ average\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\How\\ long\\ would\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ know\\ a\\ desirable\\ person\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ bed\\ with\\ them\\?\\ Women\\=\\ yes\\-1\\ year\\,\\ neutral\\/maybe\\=\\ 6\\ months\\,\\ and\\ definitely\\ not\\=1\\ week\\.\\ Men\\=\\ yes\\-1\\ week\\,\\ definitely\\ not\\-no\\ lower\\ limit\\ here\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\In\\ a\\ now\\ classic\\ experiment\\ Hatfield\\ and\\ Clark\\ sent\\ out\\ undergraduate\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ researchers\\ to\\ go\\ proposition\\ random\\ students\\ around\\ campus\\.\\ They\\ went\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ random\\ person\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ sex\\ and\\ said\\ \\\"I\\ have\\ been\\ noticing\\ you\\ around\\ campus\\.\\ I\\ find\\ you\\ very\\ attractive\\\"\\ and\\ then\\ asked\\ one\\ of\\ three\\ questions\\:\\ 1\\)\\ Would\\ you\\ go\\ out\\ with\\ me\\ tonight\\?\\,\\ 2\\)Would\\ you\\ come\\ over\\ to\\ my\\ apartment\\ tonight\\?\\,\\ or\\ 3\\)Would\\ you\\ go\\ to\\ bed\\ with\\ me\\ tonight\\?\\.\\ For\\ the\\ women\\ 56\\%\\ said\\ yes\\ to\\ the\\ date\\,\\ 6\\%\\ said\\ yes\\ to\\ the\\ apartment\\,\\ and\\ 0\\%\\ said\\ yes\\ to\\ the\\ sex\\.\\ For\\ the\\ men\\ 50\\%\\ said\\ yes\\ to\\ the\\ date\\,\\ 69\\%\\ said\\ yes\\ to\\ the\\ apartment\\,\\ and\\ 75\\%\\ said\\ yes\\ to\\ the\\ sex\\.\\ The\\ men\\ that\\ did\\ not\\ say\\ yes\\ to\\ sex\\,\\ almost\\ invariably\\ said\\ something\\ like\\ \\\"I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ but\\ my\\ fiancee\\ is\\ coming\\ in\\ tonight\\.\\\"\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Male\\ and\\ female\\ sexuality\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ variability\\ in\\ female\\ sexuality\\ than\\ in\\ male\\ sexuality\\ \\(again\\,\\ duh\\!\\)\\.\\ Much\\ more\\ variability\\ across\\ the\\ female\\ life\\ span\\ than\\ for\\ males\\,\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ a\\ much\\ greater\\ complexity\\ in\\ decision\\ patterns\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ weighing\\ attractiveness\\,\\ decision\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\,\\ choice\\ of\\ partner\\,\\ etc\\.\\ There\\ are\\ extensive\\ cross\\-cultural\\ similarities\\ in\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ sexual\\ desires\\ and\\ behaviors\\.\\ Cross\\-culturally\\ female\\ sexuality\\ is\\ considered\\ as\\ a\\ precious\\ commodity\\ which\\ men\\ trade\\ for\\,\\ exchange\\ for\\,\\ commit\\ for\\,\\ lie\\ for\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Men\\ will\\ woo\\ more\\,\\ proposition\\ more\\,\\ seduce\\ more\\,\\ use\\ love\\ magic\\ more\\,\\ give\\ gifts\\ in\\ trade\\ for\\ sex\\,\\ pay\\ brideprices\\ for\\,\\ hire\\ prostitutes\\,\\ buy\\ pornography\\,\\ rape\\,\\ etc\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\So\\,\\ then\\ what\\ does\\ a\\ man\\ want\\?\\ Freud\\ proposed\\ a\\ hydraulic\\ drive\\ \\(psychological\\ energy\\)\\ reduction\\ theory\\,\\ as\\ though\\ men\\ are\\ letting\\ off\\ some\\ pressure\\.\\ According\\ to\\ Darwinism\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ would\\ be\\ hyper\\-promiscuity\\,\\ or\\ harems\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ that\\ men\\ want\\ hyper\\-polygyny\\:\\ despots\\ who\\ could\\ historically\\,\\ typically\\ have\\ had\\ harems\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ robust\\ historical\\,\\ and\\ cross\\-cultural\\ fact\\.\\ There\\ is\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ an\\ interaction\\ effect\\ of\\ environments\\ among\\ people\\'s\\ desires\\ and\\ behavior\\,\\ as\\ behavior\\ depends\\ not\\ just\\ upon\\ desires\\,\\ but\\ on\\ context\\ as\\ well\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ opportunities\\ and\\ costs\\.\\ It\\ seems\\ that\\ emotions\\ typical\\ to\\ each\\ sex\\ are\\ masked\\ by\\ a\\ need\\ to\\ compromise\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ sex\\.\\ This\\ is\\ most\\ easily\\ illustrated\\ in\\ comparing\\ homosexual\\ and\\ heterosexual\\ populations\\.\\ A\\ survey\\ of\\ homosexual\\ sexual\\ behavior\\ in\\ San\\ Francisco\\ in\\ the\\ 1970s\\ yielded\\ a\\ striking\\ example\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ sexes\\ want\\.\\ Of\\ male\\ homosexuals\\,\\ 28\\%\\ had\\ more\\ than\\ 1000\\ sexual\\ partners\\,\\ and\\ 75\\%\\ had\\ more\\ than\\ 100\\ sexual\\ partners\\.\\ Of\\ female\\ homosexuals\\,\\ 0\\%\\ had\\ more\\ than\\ 1000\\ sexual\\ partners\\,\\ and\\ only\\ 2\\%\\ had\\ more\\ than\\ 100\\ partners\\.\\ This\\ seems\\ to\\ show\\ definitively\\ what\\ males\\ want\\ and\\ what\\ females\\ want\\.\\ Here\\ where\\ one\\ sex\\'s\\ desires\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ to\\ compromise\\ due\\ to\\ the\\ other\\'s\\,\\ men\\ have\\ ridiculous\\ amounts\\ of\\ sex\\,\\ and\\ women\\ have\\ incredibly\\ close\\ relationships\\,\\ without\\ as\\ much\\ sex\\.\\ It\\ is\\ also\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ male\\ homosexuals\\ place\\ a\\ lot\\ more\\ value\\ on\\ beauty\\,\\ youth\\,\\ and\\ pornography\\.\\ Men\\ want\\ lots\\ of\\ sex\\ with\\ lots\\ of\\ partners\\,\\ and\\ women\\ want\\ less\\ sex\\ with\\ committed\\ partners\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Short\\-term\\ vs\\.\\ long\\-term\\ strategies\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\According\\ to\\ theory\\,\\ males\\ and\\ females\\ should\\ both\\ have\\ short\\-term\\ and\\ long\\-term\\ mating\\ behaviors\\,\\ but\\ they\\ should\\ differ\\ greatly\\ in\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ in\\ both\\ of\\ these\\.\\ Men\\ should\\ be\\ looking\\ for\\ clues\\ of\\ fertility\\ \\(beauty\\)\\ and\\ willingness\\.\\ While\\ women\\ should\\ be\\ looking\\ for\\ good\\ genes\\ \\(beauty\\ and\\ money\\)\\.\\ For\\ long\\-term\\ mating\\ desirability\\ men\\ should\\ be\\ looking\\ for\\ youth\\,\\ faithfulness\\,\\ and\\ fertility\\,\\ and\\ females\\ should\\ be\\ looking\\ for\\ ability\\ and\\ willingness\\ to\\ invest\\,\\ stability\\,\\ and\\ fertility\\.\\ These\\ are\\ predictions\\ from\\ evolutionary\\ theory\\,\\ and\\ I\\ am\\ completely\\ glossing\\ over\\ where\\ these\\ were\\ derived\\ from\\,\\ if\\ you\\ would\\ like\\ more\\ information\\ the\\ two\\ main\\ resources\\ are\\ David\\ Buss\\ and\\ Donald\\ Symons\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\David\\ Buss\\ did\\ a\\ survey\\ study\\ in\\ 37\\ countries\\ and\\ here\\ is\\ what\\ he\\ found\\.\\ The\\ first\\ two\\ traits\\ for\\ \\both\\ sexes\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ desirability\\ were\\ intelligence\\ and\\ kindness\\.\\ Notice\\ that\\ the\\ sexes\\ are\\ the\\ same\\ for\\ most\\ desirable\\ trait\\ \\#1\\ and\\ \\#2\\.\\ There\\ are\\ certain\\ traits\\ however\\ that\\ differed\\,\\ females\\ looked\\ much\\ more\\ for\\ earning\\ capacity\\,\\ and\\ emotional\\ stability\\,\\ and\\ males\\ looked\\ much\\ more\\ for\\ youth\\ and\\ looks\\.\\ It\\ must\\ be\\ emphasized\\ that\\ these\\ were\\ all\\ important\\ to\\ both\\ men\\ and\\ women\\,\\ it\\ is\\ just\\ that\\,\\ women\\ preferred\\ some\\ things\\ more\\ than\\ men\\,\\ and\\ vice\\ versa\\.\\ This\\ is\\ confirmed\\ by\\ what\\ people\\ list\\ as\\ important\\ in\\ personal\\ ads\\ as\\ well\\.\\ There\\ are\\ alternative\\ interpretations\\ for\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ data\\ as\\ well\\,\\ such\\ as\\ that\\ \\\"men\\ are\\ the\\ ones\\ in\\ societies\\ who\\ earn\\ money\\ therefore\\ that\\ is\\ obviously\\ what\\ women\\ look\\ for\\.\\\"\\ Buss\\ controlled\\ for\\ this\\ by\\ checking\\ what\\ wealthy\\ women\\ wanted\\,\\ and\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ desire\\ wealth\\ even\\ more\\ so\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ less\\ so\\,\\ discounting\\ the\\ interpretation\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ product\\ of\\ a\\ power\\ differential\\ between\\ men\\ and\\ women\\.\\ \\ There\\ is\\ extensive\\ cultural\\ evidence\\ for\\ this\\ as\\ well\\,\\ like\\ personal\\ ads\\,\\ marriage\\ statistics\\,\\ and\\ pop\\-culture\\,\\ like\\ Anna\\ Nicole\\ Smith\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Beauty\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\What\\ do\\ we\\ mean\\ when\\ we\\ talk\\ about\\ physical\\ attractiveness\\?\\ Traits\\ that\\ are\\ found\\ attractive\\ correspond\\ to\\ traits\\ that\\ reflect\\ health\\,\\ good\\ genes\\,\\ and\\ fertility\\.\\ In\\ both\\ sexes\\ people\\ find\\ the\\ following\\ traits\\ attractive\\:\\ good\\ skin\\,\\ symmetry\\,\\ healthy\\/shiny\\ hair\\,\\ absence\\ of\\ deformities\\,\\ good\\ teeth\\,\\ general\\ health\\,\\ and\\ features\\ of\\ average\\ size\\ and\\ shape\\.\\ The\\ reason\\ that\\ all\\ of\\ these\\ features\\ are\\ attractive\\ is\\ because\\ they\\ all\\ correspond\\ to\\ biological\\ fitness\\,\\ and\\ those\\ are\\ just\\ the\\ genes\\ we\\ want\\ our\\ children\\ to\\ have\\,\\ for\\ example\\ men\\ find\\ a\\ waist\\:hip\\ ratio\\ of\\ about\\ 70\\%\\ most\\ attractive\\,\\ and\\ this\\ has\\ been\\ positively\\ correlated\\ with\\ women\\'s\\ reproductive\\ capacity\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ attractiveness\\ can\\ form\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ positive\\ feedback\\ loop\\,\\ through\\ sexual\\ selection\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ features\\ that\\ are\\ attractive\\ tend\\ to\\ attract\\ mates\\ that\\ like\\ them\\,\\ and\\ then\\ these\\ people\\ have\\ kids\\ with\\ both\\ the\\ traits\\ and\\ the\\ desires\\ for\\ the\\ traits\\,\\ this\\ is\\ how\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ the\\ peacock\\ evolved\\ its\\ tail\\,\\ and\\ how\\ many\\ ridiculous\\ non\\-adaptive\\ traits\\ \\(from\\ a\\ survival\\ perspective\\ anyways\\)\\ evolve\\.\\ If\\ we\\ find\\ people\\ attractive\\,\\ we\\ tend\\ to\\ judge\\ them\\ as\\ being\\ smarter\\,\\ kinder\\,\\ more\\ honest\\,\\ stronger\\,\\ more\\ nurturant\\ and\\ sensitive\\,\\ and\\ more\\ sociable\\ and\\ outgoing\\.\\ Attractive\\ people\\ have\\ been\\ shown\\ to\\ have\\ better\\ life\\ outcomes\\,\\ and\\ mothers\\ are\\ more\\ affectionate\\ with\\ and\\ less\\ likely\\ to\\ abuse\\ attractive\\ children\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Many\\ have\\ argued\\ that\\ beauty\\ is\\ a\\ myth\\ of\\ western\\ culture\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ perpetuated\\ to\\ oppress\\ women\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ substantial\\ evidence\\ for\\ universals\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ found\\ attractive\\,\\ despite\\ some\\ individual\\ variation\\.\\ However\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ cross\\-cultural\\ evidence\\ for\\ norms\\ of\\ attractiveness\\,\\ and\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ is\\ cultural\\ variation\\ of\\ what\\ is\\ beautiful\\,\\ most\\ people\\ within\\ a\\ culture\\ agree\\ who\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ beautiful\\,\\ and\\ even\\ people\\ from\\ different\\ cultures\\ will\\ agree\\ with\\ these\\ assessments\\.\\ Infants\\ prefer\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ attractive\\ faces\\ longer\\,\\ and\\ there\\ is\\ almost\\ universal\\ agreement\\ among\\ children\\ about\\ who\\ is\\ prettier\\ amongst\\ their\\ peers\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 18 (4/17/08)- Love and Sex"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.318472+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Reading: Summer for the Gods: the Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate over Science and Religion, Chapters 2, 3, 6, 7, 9", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 793, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Government\\ by\\ the\\ \\ People\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fossil\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ discoveries\\ provided\\ persuasive\\ new\\ evidence\\ for\\ human\\ evolution\\,\\ provoked\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ response\\ from\\ antievolutionists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Many\\ challenged\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ validity\\ of\\ fossils\\,\\ creationists\\ from\\ Bryan\\ to\\ Price\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tone\\ reflected\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ newfound\\ militancy\\ that\\ characterized\\ the\\ conservative\\ Christian\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\'fundamentalists\\'\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Tolerance\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ disappeared\\ during\\ and\\ after\\ WWI\\,\\ as\\ fundamentalist\\ movement\\ coalesced\\ out\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ various\\ conservative\\ Christian\\ tradition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Dispensational\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pre\\-millenialists\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Baptist\\ leaders\\,\\ Dixon\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Torrey\\,\\ Scofield\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rigid\\ biblical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\ that\\ dived\\ history\\ to\\ accommodate\\ Christ\\'s\\ future\\ coming\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conservative\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ theologians\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\5\\-point\\ declaration\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ would\\ become\\ tenets\\ of\\ fundamentalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Absolute\\ accuracy\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ divine\\ inspiration\\ of\\ scripture\\,\\ virgin\\ birth\\ of\\ Christ\\,\\ salvation\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ solely\\ through\\ Christ\\'s\\ sacrifice\\,\\ bodily\\ resurrection\\ of\\ Christ\\ and\\ his\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ followers\\,\\ authenticity\\ of\\ biblical\\ miracles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Inclined\\ towards\\ literal\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretation\\ of\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Holiness\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Grew\\ out\\ of\\ Methodism\\,\\ clung\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ Bible\\ as\\ true\\,\\ but\\ stressed\\ personal\\ piety\\ and\\ Chrsitian\\ serice\\ over\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intellectual\\ issues\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Penticostalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Built\\ on\\ solid\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ premillennialist\\ and\\ holiness\\ foundations\\,\\ but\\ set\\ them\\ rolling\\ by\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ emphasizing\\ the\\ miraculous\\ work\\ of\\ the\\ Holy\\ Spirit\\ in\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ individual\\ believers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bryan\\ not\\ any\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ these\\ in\\ particular\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Culprit\\,\\ they\\ all\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ agreed\\,\\ was\\ theological\\ liberalism\\ known\\ as\\ \\"\\;modernism\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Conceded\\ human\\ authorship\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ethical\\ teachings\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ individual\\ teachings\\ more\\ important\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\WWI\\ played\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ critical\\ role\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Modernists\\ wanted\\ American\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ intervention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bryan\\,\\ pacifist\\,\\ against\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Used\\ German\\ eugenics\\,\\ with\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ basis\\ in\\ \\'survival\\ of\\ fittest\\'\\ and\\ what\\ many\\ felt\\ to\\ be\\ evolution\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ rouse\\ public\\ opinion\\ against\\ evolutionary\\ thought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cultural\\ crisis\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ conservative\\ Christians\\,\\ strong\\ response\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fundamentalism\\ began\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ response\\ to\\ theological\\ developments\\ within\\ Protestant\\ church\\ rather\\ than\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ political\\ or\\ educational\\ developments\\ within\\ American\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bryan\\ led\\ a\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ crusade\\ against\\ teaching\\ of\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Represented\\ the\\ Common\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Left\\ position\\ of\\ Secretary\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ of\\ State\\ under\\ Wilson\\ b\\/c\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ believe\\ in\\ war\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Supported\\ reform\\,\\ appealed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ majoritarianism\\,\\ sprang\\ from\\ his\\ Christian\\ convictions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Denounced\\ Darwinism\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dangerous\\,\\ unscientific\\ and\\ unconvincing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Led\\ campaign\\ for\\ restrictive\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ legislation\\ against\\ teaching\\ evolution\\ in\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Felt\\ that\\ since\\ majority\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ taxpayers\\ didn\\'t\\ support\\ evolution\\,\\ no\\ reason\\ it\\ should\\ be\\ taught\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ school\\ at\\ whim\\ of\\ some\\ scientists\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\He\\ wanted\\ political\\ reform\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ found\\ it\\ in\\ Tennessee\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sufficiently\\ diverse\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ population\\ to\\ raise\\ tensions\\ needed\\,\\ antievolutionism\\ promised\\ a\\ return\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ normalcy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Legislation\\ passed\\ House\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ very\\ quickly\\,\\ moved\\ on\\ to\\ Senate\\,\\ got\\ lot\\ of\\ national\\ attention\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Passed\\ Senate\\,\\ not\\ vetoed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ by\\ Governor\\ Peay\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ In\\ \\ Defense\\ of\\ Individual\\ Liberty\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wary\\ changed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ everything\\ about\\ personal\\ liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Largely\\ oblivious\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ civil\\ liberties\\ considerations\\ before\\ the\\ war\\,\\ the\\ wartime\\ crisis\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forced\\ them\\ to\\ abandon\\ their\\ faith\\ in\\ the\\ inevitability\\ of\\ social\\ progress\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ their\\ majoritarian\\ view\\ of\\ democracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\National\\ Civil\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Liberties\\ Bureau\\ became\\ American\\ Civil\\ Liberties\\ Union\\,\\ wanted\\ to\\ serve\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ labor\\,\\ including\\ public\\ school\\ teachers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Set\\ stage\\ for\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Scopes\\ Trial\\ and\\ role\\ of\\ ACLU\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ran\\ by\\ liberal\\ intellectuals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Commitment\\ to\\ direct\\ action\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ behalf\\ of\\ free\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darrow\\ most\\ famous\\,\\ some\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ would\\ say\\ infamous\\,\\ trial\\ lawyer\\ in\\ America\\ by\\ 1920s\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Delighted\\ in\\ challenging\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ traditional\\ concepts\\ of\\ morality\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Appealed\\ to\\ science\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>as\\ an\\ objective\\ arbitrator\\ of\\ truth\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ but\\ would\\ only\\ support\\ scientific\\ evidence\\ that\\ supported\\ his\\ arguments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Neither\\ Scopes\\ in\\ particular\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ nor\\ free\\ speech\\ in\\ general\\ mattered\\ much\\ to\\ Darrow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Focused\\ on\\ academic\\ freedom\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ related\\ to\\ free\\ speech\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\American\\ approach\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ education\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ de\\ factor\\ establishment\\ of\\ Christianity\\ within\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ American\\ public\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Drive\\ by\\ ACLU\\ to\\ free\\ the\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ American\\ academy\\ from\\ outside\\ political\\ and\\ religious\\ influences\\ began\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ with\\ higher\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ACLU\\ opposed\\ enactment\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ antievolution\\ statue\\ on\\ May\\ 4\\ w\\/\\ press\\ release\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ \\ Preliminary\\ Rounds\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Friday\\,\\ July\\ 10\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ trial\\ began\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Judge\\ Raulson\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ arrived\\ with\\ family\\ carrying\\ Bible\\ and\\ a\\ statute\\ book\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darrow\\ referred\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ as\\ \\"\\;colonel\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Bryan\\ had\\ popular\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ support\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darrow\\ had\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ settle\\ for\\ jurors\\ who\\ claimed\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ open\\ mind\\,\\ their\\ names\\ drew\\ from\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hats\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\All\\ of\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ veniremen\\ had\\ a\\ marked\\ fundamentalist\\ tilt\\,\\ all\\ church\\ members\\,\\ nothing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ negative\\ about\\ Bible\\ nor\\ positive\\ about\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Chief\\ prosecutor\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ was\\ Tom\\ Stewart\\,\\ southern\\ politican\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Not\\ a\\ fundamentalist\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ questioned\\ wisdom\\ of\\ antievolution\\ law\\,\\ but\\ took\\ pride\\ in\\ southern\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ culture\\,\\ including\\ Protestantism\\,\\ wholeheartedly\\ defended\\ legislature\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ constitutional\\ authority\\ to\\ adopt\\ the\\ challenged\\ statue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darrow\\'s\\ stance\\:\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ statute\\ was\\ illegal\\ b\\/c\\ it\\ established\\ a\\ particular\\ religious\\ viewpoint\\ in\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ public\\ schools\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Expressed\\ liberal\\ skeptic\\'s\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ view\\ of\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Trial\\ went\\ on\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ high\\ tension\\ at\\ many\\ points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ The\\ \\ Trial\\ of\\ the\\ Century\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Wednesday\\ very\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ hot\\,\\ people\\ very\\ hot\\,\\ some\\ couldn\\'t\\ handle\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Witnesses\\ said\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ that\\ Scopes\\ had\\ taught\\ evolution\\,\\ and\\ that\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ he\\ had\\ violated\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ state\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Also\\,\\ Scopes\\ knew\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ was\\ breaking\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Rather\\ than\\ deny\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ what\\ Scopes\\ had\\ done\\,\\ defense\\ sought\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ his\\ actions\\ did\\ not\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ violate\\ the\\ law\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Evolution\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ presented\\ as\\ succinct\\ theory\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ compromised\\ with\\ Christianity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darrow\\ tried\\ to\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ suppress\\ court\\ prayer\\,\\ evoked\\ strong\\ negative\\ reactions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darrow\\ put\\ Bryan\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ on\\ the\\ stand\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Questioned\\ him\\ as\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ a\\ hostile\\ witness\\,\\ peppering\\ him\\ with\\ queries\\ and\\ giving\\ him\\ little\\ chance\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ for\\ explanation\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\His\\ affirmations\\ undercut\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ appeal\\ of\\ fundamentalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Ended\\ with\\ them\\ standing\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ shaking\\ their\\ fists\\ at\\ one\\ another\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Darrow\\'s\\ supporters\\ rushed\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ forward\\ to\\ congratulate\\ their\\ hero\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Jury\\ returned\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ verdict\\ in\\ 9\\ minutes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Chapter\\ 9\\:\\ \\ Retelling\\ the\\ Tale\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Modern\\ Scopes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ legend\\ emerged\\ during\\ 30\\ year\\ period\\ with\\ popular\\ works\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Popular\\ notion\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ growing\\ \\"\\;prestige\\ of\\ science\\"\\;\\ sapping\\ the\\ \\"\\;spiritual\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ dynamic\\"\\;\\ of\\ modern\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Over\\-simplified\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ pictures\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Some\\ showed\\ Bryan\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ as\\ having\\ been\\ embarrassed\\ on\\ the\\ stand\\,\\ defeat\\ for\\ fundamentalism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ generally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Author\\ by\\ name\\ of\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Allen\\ portrayed\\ Scopes\\ trial\\ as\\ a\\ decisive\\ defeat\\ for\\ old\\-time\\ religion\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ focusing\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ attention\\ on\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ teaching\\ evolution\\,\\ the\\ Scopes\\ trial\\ encouraged\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ both\\ sides\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fundamentalists\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ continued\\ to\\ complain\\ about\\ Darwinism\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ even\\ if\\ they\\ stopped\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ crusading\\ against\\ teaching\\ evolution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fundamentalism\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ did\\ not\\ die\\,\\ just\\ got\\ more\\ press\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Scopes\\ trial\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ helped\\ push\\ fundamentalists\\ out\\ of\\ mainstream\\ American\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ allowed\\ separatist\\ elements\\ and\\ institutions\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ lasting\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ powerful\\ to\\ originate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Play\\,\\ and\\ later\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ movie\\,\\ made\\ that\\ distorted\\ much\\,\\ made\\ it\\ sensationalist\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\In\\ 1930s\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Frederick\\ Lewis\\ Allen\\ presented\\ Scopes\\ trial\\ as\\ a\\ critical\\ watershed\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ after\\ which\\ the\\ \\"\\;slow\\ drift\\ away\\ from\\ Fundamentalism\\ certainly\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ continued\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\By\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ antievolutionism\\ appeared\\ to\\ have\\ safely\\ run\\ its\\ course\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\While\\ secular\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ interpretations\\ contemplated\\ triumph\\ of\\ reason\\,\\ antievolutionism\\ continued\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ to\\ build\\ within\\ America\\'s\\ growing\\ conservative\\ Christian\\ subculture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ol\\>", "course_id": 91, "file_path": "", "desc": "Reading: Summer for the Gods: the Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate over Science and Religion, Chapters 2, 3, 6, 7, 9"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.345285+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Sabine Women 1", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 749, "html": "\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\\\<\\/o\\:smarttagtype\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Normal\\<\\/w\\:View\\>\\\r\\\n\\0\\<\\/w\\:Zoom\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:SaveIfXMLInvalid\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:IgnoreMixedContent\\>\\\r\\\n\\false\\<\\/w\\:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:Compatibility\\>\\\r\\\n\\MicrosoftInternetExplorer4\\<\\/w\\:BrowserLevel\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:WordDocument\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 9\\]\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\/w\\:LatentStyles\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/xml\\>\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!mso\\]\\>\\\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\nst1\\\\\\:\\*\\{behavior\\:url\\(\\#ieooui\\)\\ \\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\-\\-\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Font\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:Wingdings\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:5\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:2\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:0\\ 268435456\\ 0\\ 0\\ \\-2147483648\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-alt\\:\\?\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@font\\-face\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"\\\\\\@SimSun\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tpanose\\-1\\:2\\ 1\\ 6\\ 0\\ 3\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-charset\\:134\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-generic\\-font\\-family\\:auto\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-pitch\\:variable\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-font\\-signature\\:3\\ 135135232\\ 16\\ 0\\ 262145\\ 0\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ p\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ li\\.MsoNormal\\,\\ div\\.MsoNormal\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-size\\:12\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-fareast\\-font\\-family\\:SimSun\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@page\\ Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{size\\:8\\.5in\\ 11\\.0in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\:1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\ 1\\.0in\\ 1\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-header\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-footer\\-margin\\:\\.5in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-paper\\-source\\:0\\;\\}\\\r\\\ndiv\\.Section1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{page\\:Section1\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\ \\/\\*\\ List\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\n\\ \\@list\\ l0\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-list\\-id\\:2096975446\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-type\\:hybrid\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-list\\-template\\-ids\\:339664818\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\ 67698689\\ 67698691\\ 67698693\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\@list\\ l0\\:level1\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{mso\\-level\\-number\\-format\\:bullet\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-text\\:\\?\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-tab\\-stop\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmso\\-level\\-number\\-position\\:left\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tmargin\\-left\\:\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\ttext\\-indent\\:\\-\\.25in\\;\\\r\\\n\\\tfont\\-family\\:Symbol\\;\\}\\\r\\\nol\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\nul\\\r\\\n\\\t\\{margin\\-bottom\\:0in\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ gte\\ mso\\ 10\\]\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\/\\*\\ Style\\ Definitions\\ \\*\\/\\\r\\\ntable\\.MsoNormalTable\\\r\\\n\\{mso\\-style\\-name\\:\\\"Table\\ Normal\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-rowband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-tstyle\\-colband\\-size\\:0\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-noshow\\:yes\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-style\\-parent\\:\\\"\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-padding\\-alt\\:0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\ 0in\\ 5\\.4pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\:0in\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-para\\-margin\\-bottom\\:\\.0001pt\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-pagination\\:widow\\-orphan\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-size\\:10\\.0pt\\;\\\r\\\nfont\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-ansi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-fareast\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\\r\\\nmso\\-bidi\\-language\\:\\#0400\\;\\}\\\r\\\n\\<\\/style\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\!\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\r\\\n\\March\\ 31\\:\\ The\\ Revolution\\ Embodied\\:\\ Jacques\\-Louis\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Sabine\\ Women\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Art\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ moving\\ toward\\ how\\ art\\ is\\ embodied\\ within\\ surroundings\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>What\\ does\\ viewing\\ experience\\ do\\?\\ Effect\\ those\\ who\\ participate\\ in\\ viewing\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sabine\\ Women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ deliberateness\\ of\\ artist\\ in\\ portraying\\ message\\.\\ Novel\\ mode\\ of\\ display\\ which\\ foregrounded\\ issue\\ of\\ how\\ painting\\ should\\ be\\ viewed\\ rather\\ than\\ just\\ how\\ presented\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Viewership\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ meaning\\ of\\ art\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ deliberateness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ specific\\ context\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ subject\\ matter\\ derived\\ antiquity\\ is\\ barely\\ disguised\\ reference\\ to\\ politics\\ of\\ time\\.\\ Mode\\ of\\ display\\ makes\\ this\\ easier\\.\\ Important\\:\\ event\\ in\\ question\\ \\(political\\)\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ war\\,\\ but\\ a\\ revolution\\.\\ Unique\\ aesthetic\\ challenge\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ how\\ to\\ represent\\ something\\ never\\ represented\\ before\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Never\\ had\\ a\\ revolution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ profoundly\\ transformative\\ political\\ event\\-\\ social\\/symbolic\\ basis\\ of\\ society\\ introducing\\ new\\ political\\/social\\ institutions\\.\\ Artist\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ had\\ no\\ available\\ tradition\\ to\\ draw\\,\\ needed\\ to\\ invent\\ new\\ tools\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Second\\ important\\:\\ volubility\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>1789\\-1799\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 10\\ years\\,\\ political\\ change\\ fast\\,\\ major\\ problem\\ for\\ artist\\ because\\ of\\ relative\\ slowness\\ of\\ artistic\\ production\\.\\ Either\\ run\\ out\\ of\\ time\\ or\\ meaning\\ of\\ event\\ changed\\ in\\ the\\ process\\.\\ Contingency\\ of\\ political\\ situation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ took\\ 4\\ years\\ to\\ create\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sabine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Focus\\ on\\ political\\/social\\ context\\ made\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ previous\\ works\\ of\\ Sabine\\.\\ Try\\ to\\ understand\\ relationship\\ between\\ viewer\\,\\ and\\ body\\,\\ in\\/out\\ of\\ body\\ in\\ its\\ role\\ of\\ defining\\ work\\,\\ and\\ political\\ dimensions\\.\\ Use\\ work\\ to\\ address\\ problem\\ of\\ viewer\\ and\\ methodological\\ problem\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ different\\ notions\\ of\\ viewership\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 2\\ distinct\\ viewers\\:\\ viewer\\ as\\ individual\\,\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ body\\ \\(audience\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Depicted\\ intervention\\ of\\ Sabine\\ Women\\ who\\ through\\ them\\ against\\ men\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ in\\ name\\ of\\ family\\ ties\\ to\\ stop\\.\\ They\\ were\\ abducted\\ by\\ Romans\\ \\(women\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ due\\ to\\ shortage\\ of\\ women\\,\\ attacked\\ Sabines\\ to\\ get\\ daughters\\.\\ Took\\ some\\ time\\ to\\ react\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ but\\ too\\ late\\-\\ daughters\\ had\\ married\\,\\ had\\ children\\ with\\ abductors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ so\\ women\\ jumped\\ in\\ to\\ stop\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ otherwise\\ hurt\\ family\\ ties\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Last\\ phase\\ of\\ revolution\\ made\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ after\\ end\\ of\\ Terror\\.\\ Measures\\ of\\ extreme\\ violence\\ used\\ during\\ Terror\\,\\ measures\\ adopted\\ to\\ maintain\\ order\\,\\ and\\ keep\\ elites\\ in\\ power\\.\\ Terror\\ ended\\ but\\ violence\\ did\\ not\\.\\ Political\\ struggles\\ after\\ terror\\.\\ Sabine\\ women\\ engaged\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ aesthetically\\ through\\ their\\ language\\.\\ How\\ to\\ establish\\ revolution\\?\\ David\\-\\ issue\\ of\\ personal\\ relevance\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ was\\ key\\ figure\\ in\\ Revolution\\.\\ Joined\\ caused\\ as\\ artist\\ and\\ prominent\\ revolutionary\\,\\ followed\\ Jacquemans\\?\\ In\\ ascent\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Jacquemens\\ pushed\\ for\\ executed\\ by\\ King\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ beheaded\\.\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ Marat\\ at\\ His\\ Last\\ Breath\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ 1793\\.\\ Revolution\\ seen\\ as\\ destructive\\,\\ marks\\ revolutionary\\ icon\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Refers\\ to\\ event\\:\\ Marat\\ as\\ journalist\\ was\\ killed\\ by\\ politically\\ motivated\\ woman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ killed\\ him\\,\\ had\\ skin\\ disease\\,\\ had\\ to\\ remain\\ in\\ bathtub\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ subject\\ of\\ many\\ images\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ gives\\ political\\ meaning\\.\\ Compared\\ to\\ Death\\ of\\ the\\ Patriot\\ Jean\\-paul\\ Marat\\,\\ anonymous\\.\\ David\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ wanted\\ to\\ approve\\ death\\ of\\ King\\ by\\ showing\\ King\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oppression\\ of\\ people\\.\\ Elimination\\ of\\ any\\ accidental\\ of\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ only\\ those\\ left\\,\\ death\\ lotion\\,\\ pen\\.\\ Cropped\\ bathtub\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ like\\ deathbed\\,\\ tilted\\ face\\ towards\\ viewer\\,\\ \\-\\ empathetic\\ address\\ with\\ viewer\\.\\ Asking\\ you\\ to\\ react\\ to\\ his\\ death\\ through\\ way\\ presented\\.\\ Through\\ abstraction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ transformed\\ body\\ of\\ sickly\\ body\\ of\\ man\\ into\\ revolutionary\\ icon\\.\\ Marat\\ embodied\\ principles\\ of\\ people\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ drive\\ message\\ home\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ exhibited\\ not\\ in\\ Salon\\ but\\ in\\ special\\ exhibition\\ at\\ Louvre\\ devoted\\ only\\ to\\ painting\\.\\ David\\ had\\ aesthetic\\ and\\ political\\ effect\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ justified\\ Jacqueman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Terror\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>David\\ intimately\\ involved\\ with\\ Terror\\.\\ End\\ of\\ Terror\\ was\\ debacle\\ for\\ David\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ barely\\ escaped\\ guillotine\\,\\ emerged\\ very\\ haunted\\ by\\ the\\ ghost\\ of\\ own\\ past\\.\\ For\\ artistic\\ involvement\\ with\\ Terror\\-\\ \\&ldquo\\;painter\\ of\\ blood\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Nicolas\\ Taunay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Guillotine\\ c\\.\\ 1795\\.\\ Mocked\\ Terror\\.\\ Above\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ figure\\ of\\ David\\,\\ painter\\ in\\ his\\ bonnet\\,\\ easel\\ overhead\\ presiding\\ over\\ spectacle\\ of\\ massacre\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Sabine\\ Women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ to\\ re\\-establish\\ reputation\\ of\\ David\\,\\ and\\ disassociate\\ himself\\ with\\ Terror\\.\\ 1\\.\\ Thematic\\ on\\ antiquity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ politics\\ in\\ disguise\\ 2\\.\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ new\\ 3\\.\\ mode\\ of\\ display\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Return\\ to\\ antiquity\\:\\ regression\\,\\ because\\ during\\ revolution\\,\\ one\\ of\\ aesthetic\\ advantages\\ was\\ that\\ it\\ erased\\ past\\,\\ recreate\\ contemporary\\ movement\\,\\ main\\ figures\\ as\\ history\\ painting\\.\\ Marat\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ good\\ example\\.\\ National\\ hero\\.\\ With\\ Sabines\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ returning\\ to\\ more\\ traditional\\ understanding\\ of\\ history\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reserved\\ for\\ representation\\ of\\ history\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ coming\\ back\\ to\\ kind\\ of\\ painting\\ that\\ made\\ him\\ famous\\ before\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Oath\\ of\\ Horatii\\,\\ Brutus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ 1785\\,\\ 1789\\ \\(respectively\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Oath\\ of\\ Horatii\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ oath\\-taking\\ by\\ three\\ young\\ Horatii\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ received\\ by\\ father\\ \\(Romans\\)\\,\\ paternal\\ function\\,\\ embodiment\\ of\\ civic\\ authority\\.\\ Image\\ of\\ civic\\ commitment\\,\\ conveyed\\ by\\ peculiar\\ language\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ appreciated\\ by\\ contemporaries\\,\\ illuminary\\ qualities\\.\\ Had\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ way\\ David\\ painted\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ models\\ in\\ studio\\.\\ With\\ use\\ of\\ body\\,\\ used\\ gender\\ to\\ convey\\ different\\ sets\\ of\\ meanings\\-\\ men\\ conveyed\\ resolve\\.\\ Women\\ represented\\ emotional\\ reaction\\ to\\ what\\ inevitably\\ will\\ be\\ violence\\.\\ Gender\\ difference\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Brutus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ emotional\\ conflict\\ staged\\ in\\ family\\ drama\\.\\ Brutus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ austere\\ leader\\ of\\ Roman\\ republic\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tried\\ to\\ portray\\ by\\ ordering\\ execution\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Brutus\\.\\ Shows\\ emotional\\ reaction\\ to\\ beheading\\.\\ Mother\\ with\\ two\\ children\\ separated\\ by\\ column\\,\\ rift\\,\\ spatial\\ tension\\,\\ unresolved\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ paternal\\ vs\\ maternal\\ affect\\ left\\ unresolved\\.\\ Painting\\ leaves\\ question\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ moral\\ dilemma\\ without\\ providing\\ answer\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>David\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Sabines\\:\\ women\\ reintroduced\\ in\\ male\\ stoic\\ virtue\\ represented\\ by\\ Marat\\.\\ Sabines\\ marked\\ departure\\ of\\ revolutionary\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ focused\\ on\\ male\\ body\\.\\ Sabines\\ returned\\ women\\ into\\ play\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ reintroduced\\ role\\ of\\ gender\\ as\\ mechanism\\ through\\ which\\ toher\\ meanings\\ can\\ be\\ conveyed\\.\\ Does\\ so\\ differnently\\ from\\ before\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ tension\\ more\\ explicit\\,\\ roles\\ of\\ men\\ and\\ women\\ more\\ clear\\.\\ Represents\\ different\\ functions\\,\\ also\\ means\\ different\\ things\\.\\ Tension\\ conveyed\\ in\\ composition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ unravels\\ laterally\\ across\\ campus\\.\\ Women\\ forms\\ arresting\\ role\\ of\\ being\\ composed\\ into\\ peculiar\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ earlier\\ form\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ shown\\ to\\ happen\\ in\\ same\\ level\\ as\\ men\\,\\ people\\ mingled\\ with\\ each\\ other\\.\\ Final\\:\\ women\\ arranged\\ in\\ circular\\ arrangement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ages\\ marking\\ stages\\ of\\ process\\.\\ Arrangement\\ represents\\ \\allegory\\.\\ \\<\\/b\\>Represents\\ something\\ other\\ than\\ what\\ it\\ seems\\.\\ Women\\ represents\\ process\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ revolutionary\\ process\\.\\ By\\ using\\ women\\ as\\ allegories\\,\\ David\\ is\\ diverging\\ not\\ so\\ far\\ from\\ revolutionary\\ art\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prior\\ examples\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\Liberty\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Nanine\\ Vallain\\,\\ 1793\\-4\\.\\ Women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ personification\\ of\\ abstract\\ notions\\.\\ Men\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ represents\\ physical\\/public\\ personas\\.\\ Painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ represents\\ ideal\\ of\\ libery\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Regenerated\\ man\\,\\ Jacques\\-lousis\\ Peree\\,\\ 1795\\ engraving\\.\\ Stands\\ for\\ concept\\ of\\ regeneration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\\\France\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ undergoing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ also\\ embodies\\ that\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ has\\ pickax\\ in\\ hand\\ as\\ destroyer\\ of\\ old\\ system\\,\\ tramping\\ on\\ emblems\\ of\\ old\\ regime\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>symbol\\ of\\ monarchy\\.\\ Clergy\\ struck\\ by\\ lightning\\-\\ holding\\ declaration\\ in\\ hand\\.\\ Distinction\\ between\\ women\\ \\(abstract\\ values\\)\\,\\ men\\ embodied\\ subjectivity\\ similar\\ to\\ Sabine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Composed\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ readable\\ as\\ someone\\ other\\ than\\ herself\\.\\ French\\ republic\\.\\ Official\\ emblems\\ of\\ \\\\French\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\Republic\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\ Women\\ assigned\\ important\\ allegorical\\ role\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ aesthetic\\ prominence\\ of\\ men\\ prominent\\.\\ Men\\ stealing\\ the\\ show\\.\\ This\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ way\\ they\\ announce\\ themselves\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>above\\ all\\ with\\ their\\ nudity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ hugely\\ controversial\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ David\\ introduced\\ in\\ painting\\,\\ emphasized\\ in\\ brochure\\ published\\ for\\ paintings\\-\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\heroic\\ nudity\\<\\/b\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ similar\\ to\\ customs\\ of\\ antiquity\\.\\ Nudity\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ God\\/men\\ in\\ general\\.\\ Not\\ first\\ time\\ where\\ David\\ considered\\ using\\ heroic\\ nudity\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Unfinished\\ painting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ huge\\,\\ remains\\ unfinished\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>The\\ \\\\French\\<\\/st1\\:placename\\>\\ \\ \\Republic\\<\\/st1\\:placetype\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Louis\\ Garneray\\,\\ c\\.\\ 1794\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Deputies\\ of\\ third\\ estate\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ found\\ themselves\\ on\\ empty\\ tennis\\ court\\,\\ took\\ oath\\.\\ Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\,\\ David\\ 1791\\ Painted\\ sketch\\ and\\ drawing\\.\\ Had\\ worked\\ on\\ it\\ for\\ years\\.\\ Never\\ finished\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ because\\ some\\ heroes\\ became\\ discredited\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ traitors\\,\\ influenced\\ by\\ Terror\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ nudity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ combines\\ hugely\\ realist\\ head\\ with\\ naked\\ body\\ \\+\\ genitals\\.\\ Not\\ just\\ study\\ of\\ body\\.\\ Exhibited\\ finished\\ work\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ all\\ deputies\\ fully\\ dressed\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>In\\ Sabine\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ returns\\ to\\ heroic\\ language\\ of\\ Tennis\\ Court\\ Oath\\,\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ similarities\\ in\\ body\\ pose\\.\\ Notice\\ that\\ mode\\ of\\ representation\\ of\\ male\\ body\\ different\\ than\\ anything\\ David\\ did\\ before\\.\\ Not\\ only\\ heroic\\ male\\ body\\ but\\ also\\ beautiful\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Painting\\ as\\ objects\\ to\\ be\\ seen\\,\\ memorial\\ quality\\ to\\ their\\ bodies\\,\\ eros\\ tone\\ to\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ buttocks\\!\\ David\\ repainted\\ so\\ sheath\\ moved\\ to\\ cover\\ genitals\\.\\ Different\\ definition\\ of\\ male\\ body\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ combine\\ memorial\\,\\ static\\,\\ and\\ passive\\.\\ They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ doing\\ anything\\.\\ Brominus\\ forever\\ throwing\\ javelin\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ never\\ will\\ throw\\ it\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Formulation\\ of\\ alternative\\ ideal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ political\\ and\\ ideal\\ but\\ also\\ subjective\\.\\ Image\\ one\\ can\\ aspire\\ to\\.\\ Mode\\ of\\ exhibition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ arranged\\ to\\ make\\ clear\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Independent\\ exhibition\\ only\\ containing\\ David\\&rsquo\\;s\\ paintings\\.\\ He\\ put\\ pivoting\\ mirror\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Man\\ standing\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\ mirror\\,\\ fashion\\ plate\\ from\\ late\\ 1790s\\.\\ Symptom\\ of\\ growing\\ interesting\\ body\\.\\ Body\\ became\\ instrument\\ in\\ which\\ people\\ tried\\ to\\ situate\\ themselves\\ in\\ society\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>A\\ promenade\\ in\\ the\\ Palais\\ Royal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Philibert\\-Louis\\ Debucourt\\,\\ 1792\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Importance\\ of\\ body\\ in\\ social\\ times\\.\\ David\\ tried\\ to\\ connect\\ painting\\ to\\ fashionable\\ accessory\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ using\\ body\\ as\\ mode\\ of\\ self\\-identification\\.\\ In\\ fashion\\ practices\\,\\ nudity\\ debated\\ issue\\,\\ but\\ linked\\ to\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fashion\\ practices\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Portrait\\ of\\ Madame\\ d\\&rsquo\\;Arjuzon\\ \\(nee\\ Pascalie\\ Hosten\\)\\,\\ Rene\\ Theodore\\ Berthon\\,\\ 1801\\ \\(Salon\\)\\.\\ Transparent\\ material\\,\\ can\\ see\\ body\\ underneath\\.\\ Laughed\\ at\\,\\ considerable\\ anxiety\\ in\\ fashion\\ of\\ women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ decency\\ of\\ women\\.\\ Interesting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ nudity\\ comes\\ up\\ in\\ painting\\,\\ but\\ as\\ attribute\\ of\\ \\men\\<\\/b\\>\\.\\ Convincincary\\ gesture\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ men\\ displaced\\ a\\ bit\\ by\\ women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fashion\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ at\\ center\\ of\\ painting\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Come\\ back\\ to\\ mirror\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ device\\ of\\ mirror\\ used\\ by\\ David\\ to\\ engage\\ with\\ bodily\\-obsessed\\ society\\,\\ by\\ people\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ look\\ at\\ themselves\\,\\ forget\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Parisian\\ Tea\\ Party\\,\\ Adrien\\ Godefroy\\ after\\ Fulcran\\-Jean\\ Harriet\\,\\ 1801\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>David\\ wanted\\ to\\ harness\\ pleasure\\ of\\ looking\\ at\\ bodies\\,\\ to\\ situate\\ people\\ in\\ revolution\\ by\\ attaching\\ them\\ to\\ their\\ bodies\\.\\ Placing\\ the\\ mirrors\\ in\\ exhibition\\,\\ David\\ wanted\\ to\\ draw\\ viewers\\ closer\\ to\\ revolution\\,\\ bring\\ body\\ closer\\ to\\ paintings\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Reflection\\ of\\ bodies\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ obsession\\ on\\ body\\ reflected\\ on\\ paintings\\.\\ Mirrors\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inscribe\\ people\\ in\\ history\\,\\ give\\ them\\ identity\\ through\\ the\\ body\\.\\ Exhibitions\\ were\\ private\\.\\ Money\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ establishing\\ an\\ alternative\\ space\\.\\ Work\\ of\\ art\\ used\\ to\\ negotiate\\ relationship\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ private\\ and\\ public\\ space\\ at\\ same\\ time\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Last\\ issue\\:\\ question\\ of\\ gender\\ and\\ how\\ figured\\?\\ How\\ did\\ interesting\\ division\\ of\\ women\\ in\\ public\\ role\\ and\\ man\\ as\\ public\\ signifiers\\ of\\ beauty\\ and\\ erotic\\ pleasure\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ whether\\ david\\ was\\ affected\\ by\\ gender\\ message\\,\\ but\\ do\\ have\\ documents\\ on\\ how\\ painting\\ was\\ looked\\ at\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>Men\\ and\\ Women\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ both\\ looked\\ up\\ close\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ presense\\ of\\ mirrors\\ gave\\ them\\ impetus\\ to\\ look\\ close\\.\\ Different\\ reactions\\.\\ Man\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ dressed\\ as\\ dandy\\,\\ aestheticize\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ women\\ also\\ looked\\ up\\ close\\,\\ but\\ with\\ fans\\ with\\ magnifying\\ glass\\ built\\ in\\.\\ you\\ have\\ gender\\ division\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fashion\\ plates\\ with\\ fan\\.\\ M\\.\\ Frivole\\:\\ visitor\\ to\\ the\\ Sabines\\ exhibition\\,\\ Parisian\\ Costumes\\:\\ capote\\ anglaise\\,\\ fashion\\ plate\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[if\\ \\!supportLists\\]\\-\\-\\>\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\!\\-\\-\\[endif\\]\\-\\-\\>How\\ David\\ engages\\ viewer\\ through\\ mode\\ of\\ display\\ to\\ orchestrate\\ intimate\\ rapor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ stage\\ dialogue\\ between\\ idealized\\ painted\\ bodies\\ and\\ viewers\\ of\\ exhibition\\.\\ Political\\/aesthetic\\/social\\ effect\\-\\ creating\\ ground\\ for\\ people\\ to\\ negotiate\\ meaning\\ of\\ revolution\\,\\ negotiate\\ identity\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 97, "file_path": "", "desc": "Sabine Women 1"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:53.557449+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Tsukiji Market", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 762, "html": "\\\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\,\\ Professor\\ Bestor\\ introduced\\ the\\ topic\\ of\\ Tsukiji\\,\\ the\\ fish\\ market\\ in\\ Tokyo\\,\\ and\\ subject\\ of\\ his\\ book\\.\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\Tsukiji\\ Marke\\<\\/strong\\>\\t\\<\\/strong\\>\\ \\(60\\ Minutes\\ Segment\\)\\ \\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Bluefin\\ tuna\\ usually\\ arrives\\ in\\ Narita\\ Airport\\ within\\ 24\\ hours\\ after\\ being\\ caught\\.\\ It\\ is\\ delivered\\ in\\ ice\\ to\\ Tsukiji\\ where\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ top\\ chefs\\ get\\ their\\ fish\\.\\ The\\ market\\ does\\ approximately\\ four\\ billion\\ dollars\\ a\\ year\\ worth\\ of\\ business\\,\\ and\\ essentially\\ sets\\ the\\ world\\'s\\ fish\\ prices\\ here\\,\\ leading\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Wall\\ Street\\ of\\ fish\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Quality\\ is\\ exceedingly\\ important\\.\\ \\"\\;Tough\\"\\;\\ customers\\ look\\ for\\ fat\\ content\\,\\ size\\ and\\ other\\ factors\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ worth\\ of\\ the\\ fish\\ caught\\ off\\ of\\ the\\ coasts\\ of\\ Japan\\,\\ Maine\\,\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\ Sea\\,\\ and\\ Spain\\.\\ Bluefin\\ tuna\\ has\\ provided\\ food\\ for\\ Sardinia\\ for\\ ages\\,\\ but\\ fishing\\ has\\ become\\ more\\ corporate\\,\\ and\\ now\\ uses\\ high\\ tech\\ techniques\\ along\\ with\\ spotter\\ planes\\.\\ Ninety\\ percent\\ of\\ the\\ fish\\ caught\\ in\\ Sardinia\\ go\\ to\\ Japan\\,\\ about\\ half\\ a\\ million\\ tons\\ a\\ year\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Tsukiji\\ itself\\ is\\ a\\ massive\\ industrial\\ marketplace\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ industrial\\ Tokyo\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ seven\\ seafood\\ auction\\ houses\\.\\ Purchases\\ are\\ made\\ through\\ daily\\ sales\\ by\\ auction\\ or\\ by\\ negotiation\\ by\\ licensed\\ buyers\\.\\ Tsukiji\\ is\\ the\\ largest\\ seafood\\ market\\ in\\ the\\ world\\,\\ and\\ classifies\\ over\\ 400\\ major\\ categories\\ of\\ seafood\\.\\ Its\\ auctions\\ have\\ a\\ specific\\ code\\,\\ using\\ hand\\ signals\\ to\\ place\\ bids\\.\\ Different\\ commodity\\ categories\\ subject\\ to\\ different\\ auction\\ regimes\\,\\ including\\ rising\\ bid\\,\\ falling\\ bid\\,\\ and\\ sealed\\ bid\\.\\ The\\ market\\ sees\\ over\\ 100\\ distinct\\ auctions\\ a\\ day\\.\\ The\\ market\\ is\\ currently\\ being\\ rebuilt\\,\\ because\\ Tokyo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ government\\,\\ which\\ owns\\ the\\ marketplace\\,\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ move\\ it\\ away\\ from\\ downtown\\ Tokyo\\,\\ where\\ land\\ is\\ incredibly\\ expensive\\.\\ \\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\The\\ inextricable\\ links\\ between\\ seafood\\ and\\ Japanese\\ cuisine\\ can\\ be\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ systems\\ analysis\\ created\\ by\\ sociologist\\ Immanuel\\ Wallerstein\\.\\ In\\ Wallerstein\\'s\\ system\\,\\ the\\ core\\ and\\ peripheries\\ of\\ an\\ expanding\\ world\\ are\\ a\\ economic\\ system\\,\\ and\\ are\\ linked\\ with\\ increasing\\ complexity\\ in\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ political\\/social\\/cultural\\ mutual\\ dependence\\ or\\ integration\\.\\ This\\ concept\\ has\\ also\\ been\\ called\\ the\\ \\global\\ flow\\<\\/strong\\>\\ by\\ Arjun\\ Appadurai\\,\\ another\\ social\\ scientist\\.\\ The\\ \\globals\\ flows\\<\\/strong\\>\\ are\\ multi\\-dimensional\\ flows\\ of\\ influence\\,\\ that\\ are\\,\\ at\\ any\\ given\\ time\\,\\ simultaneously\\ emanating\\ and\\ rebounding\\ from\\ various\\ places\\ and\\ operating\\ along\\ different\\ dimensions\\ or\\ scapes\\.\\ \\\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 104, "file_path": "", "desc": "Tsukiji Market"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:54.818023+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 825, "html": "\\\\ \\;\\Pg\\.\\ 168\\-174\\ \\Reserve\\ Mining\\ Company\\ v\\.\\ EPA\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\(1975\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ district\\ court\\ found\\ that\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ both\\ air\\ and\\ water\\ discharges\\ were\\ \\"\\;substantially\\ endangering\\"\\;\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ the\\ surrounding\\ population\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ inconclusiveness\\ of\\ evidence\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ concerning\\ their\\ effects\\ on\\ human\\ health\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reserve\\ given\\ a\\ reasonable\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\"\\;opportunity\\"\\;\\ and\\ reasonable\\ \\"\\;time\\"\\;\\ to\\ construct\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ facilities\\ to\\ accomplish\\ an\\ abatement\\ of\\ its\\ pollution\\ of\\ air\\ and\\ water\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ and\\ the\\ health\\ risk\\ created\\ thereby\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Pg\\.\\ 177\\-182\\ \\Ethyl\\ Corp\\ v\\.\\ EPA\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(1976\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Differences\\ with\\ the\\ Reserve\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ case\\ \\(Pg\\.\\ 177\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Required\\ reductions\\ in\\ lead\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ additives\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;automotive\\ emissions\\ caused\\ by\\ lead\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ gasoline\\ present\\ a\\ \\'significant\\ risk\\ of\\ harm\\'\\ to\\ pubic\\ health\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\Risk\\-Benefit\\ Balancing\\ Approaches\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Pg\\.\\ 232\\+\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\EPA\\,\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Asbestos\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1989\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\TSCA\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Section\\ 6\\ of\\ TSCA\\ authorizes\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ EPA\\ to\\ promulgate\\ a\\ rule\\ prohibiting\\ or\\ limiting\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\ a\\ chemical\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ substance\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ manufactured\\,\\ processed\\,\\ or\\ distributed\\ in\\ commerce\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ in\\ the\\ US\\ if\\ EPA\\ finds\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ reasonable\\ to\\ conclude\\ that\\ these\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ activities\\ or\\ any\\ combination\\ thereof\\,\\ presents\\ or\\ will\\ present\\,\\ an\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ unreasonable\\ risk\\ of\\ injury\\ to\\ human\\ health\\ or\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ asbestos\\ industry\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ challenged\\ the\\ EPA\\ \\(Corrosion\\ Proof\\ Fittings\\ v\\.\\ EPA\\)\\ \\'91\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Least\\ Burdensome\\ and\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ Reasonable\\ \\(Pg\\.\\ 236\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\The\\ EPA\\ calculations\\ e\\.g\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ discounting\\ \\(pg\\.\\ 237\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Discounting\\ Lives\\ \\(Pg\\.\\ 243\\)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\-\\ the\\ debate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Discount\\ rate\\ \\(Pg\\.\\ 244\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Reasonable\\ basis\\ \\(pg\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 238\\-239\\)\\ \\-\\ concerns\\ of\\ substitutes\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Non\\-quantified\\ benefits\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(pg\\.\\ 245\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Risks\\ of\\ substitutes\\ \\(Pg\\.\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ 245\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Unreasonable\\ risk\\ of\\ injury\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\(pg\\.\\ 241\\-2\\)\\\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 95, "file_path": "", "desc": ""}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:52.018324+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Cognitive Dissonance", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 674, "html": "\\\\ \\;Festinger\\,\\ Reicken\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ Schacter\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\ did\\ these\\ people\\ stick\\ with\\ this\\ idea\\ of\\ aliens\\ \\+\\ floods\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ Belief\\ is\\ enhanced\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ contradictory\\ evidence\\ when\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Belief\\ is\\ held\\ with\\ deep\\ conviction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Person\\ has\\ acted\\ publicly\\ on\\ belief\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Belief\\ is\\ vulnerable\\ to\\ disproof\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Undeniable\\ disproof\\ occurs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Individual\\ believer\\ has\\ social\\ support\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Cognitive\\ Dissonance\\ Theory\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Not\\ just\\ \\dissonant\\ cognition\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>A\\ counter\\ intuitive\\ theory\\ about\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ attitude\\ and\\ action\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>We\\ think\\ of\\ our\\ choices\\ as\\ being\\ caused\\ by\\ our\\ attitudes\\ and\\ preferences\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>But\\ sometimes\\ \\our\\ attitudes\\ and\\ preferences\\ are\\ caused\\ by\\ our\\ choices\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Which\\ may\\ then\\ go\\ on\\ to\\ shape\\ the\\ future\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sometimes\\ instead\\ of\\ attitutdes\\ cause\\ actions\\,\\ actions\\ cause\\ attitudes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Once\\ attitudes\\ have\\ been\\ changed\\ by\\ the\\ things\\ we\\ have\\ done\\,\\ the\\ attitudes\\ can\\ go\\ one\\ to\\ cause\\ new\\ behaviors\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Dissonance\\ Equation\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dissonance\\ of\\ a\\ \\Choice\\<\\/i\\>\\ or\\ \\Action\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\(\\#\\ of\\ dissonant\\ elements\\)\\ \\/\\ \\(\\#\\ consonant\\ elements\\)\\ \\=\\ tension\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ to\\ relieve\\ the\\ tension\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Minimize\\ dissonant\\ elements\\ or\\ maximize\\ consonant\\ elements\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Smoking\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dissonant\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ health\\ danger\\,\\ again\\,\\ social\\ disapproval\\,\\ early\\ death\\,\\ danger\\ to\\ children\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Consonant\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ I\\ smoke\\,\\ I\\ like\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ addicted\\,\\ committed\\ to\\ it\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Hard\\ to\\ minimize\\ dissonant\\,\\ so\\ maximize\\ consonant\\ by\\ saying\\ you\\ LOVE\\ smoking\\,\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ ease\\ tension\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bringing\\ attitude\\ inline\\ with\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Knox\\ \\&\\;\\ Inkster\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ post\\ decision\\ dissonance\\ at\\ post\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Pre\\-bet\\ Group\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 3\\.4\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Post\\-bet\\ Group\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ 4\\.5\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>You\\ bring\\ your\\ attitude\\ inline\\ with\\ what\\ you\\ have\\ done\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Induced\\ Compliance\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Festinger\\ \\&\\;\\ Carlsmith\\ \\(cognitive\\ consequence\\ of\\ forced\\ compliance\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>How\\ enjoyable\\ were\\ the\\ tasks\\ \\(\\-5\\ to\\ \\+5\\)\\?\\ Ask\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ the\\ lying\\ to\\ the\\ new\\ person\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Control\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ said\\ not\\ fun\\ \\(negative\\ range\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\$1\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ fun\\ \\(positive\\ range\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\$20\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ said\\ eh\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ fun\\ \\(negative\\ range\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Why\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>When\\ ask\\ to\\ lie\\ to\\ another\\ person\\ and\\ get\\ paid\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\,\\ not\\ lying\\ person\\ but\\ getting\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ money\\ so\\ will\\ be\\ honesty\\ say\\ lied\\ because\\ got\\ 20\\ bucks\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ group\\ that\\ only\\ got\\ a\\ dollar\\ have\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ they\\ lied\\ for\\ a\\ buck\\,\\ cheaply\\ corruptible\\ person\\ unless\\ they\\ were\\ telling\\ the\\ truth\\,\\ said\\ liked\\ it\\ better\\ to\\ reduce\\ dissonance\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Say\\ that\\ all\\ humans\\ will\\ not\\ follow\\ the\\ reward\\ behavior\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Effort\\ Justification\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lawrence\\ \\&\\;\\ Festinger\\ \\(deterrents\\ and\\ reinforcement\\:\\ the\\ psychology\\ of\\ insufficient\\ reward\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Based\\ on\\ the\\ partial\\ reinforcement\\ extinction\\ effect\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Change\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ the\\ reward\\ box\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Make\\ rat\\ work\\ harder\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Bigger\\ effect\\ of\\ partial\\ reinforcement\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Ways\\ to\\ reward\\ rat\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cheese\\ every\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Cheese\\ sometimes\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Extinction\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ were\\ fully\\ reinforced\\ will\\ take\\ longer\\ to\\ stop\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ box\\ versus\\ those\\ who\\ were\\ partially\\ conditioned\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Results\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ got\\ cheese\\ sometimes\\,\\ persisted\\ longer\\ in\\ going\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ box\\ to\\ get\\ the\\ cheese\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ rats\\ who\\ sometimes\\ got\\ cheese\\ may\\ associate\\ the\\ walk\\ with\\ something\\ relaxing\\ and\\ pleasant\\,\\ not\\ just\\ in\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ cheese\\,\\ harder\\ you\\ make\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ rat\\,\\ longer\\ will\\ persist\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Eventually\\ raised\\ end\\ of\\ box\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ cheese\\,\\ extinction\\ period\\ is\\ even\\ longer\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Aroson\\ \\&\\;\\ Mills\\ \\(the\\ effect\\ of\\ severity\\ of\\ initiation\\ on\\ liking\\ for\\ a\\ group\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mild\\ or\\ Severe\\ initiation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Reading\\ ordinary\\ vs\\.\\ Obscene\\ words\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Actual\\ group\\ discussion\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ initiation\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ low\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mild\\ Initiation\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ low\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Severe\\ Initiation\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ high\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Commitment\\ devices\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sororities\\/\\ Frats\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>College\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Academies\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Insufficient\\ Deterrence\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Aromson\\ \\&\\;\\ Carlsmith\\ \\(effect\\ of\\ the\\ severity\\ of\\ threat\\ of\\ the\\ devaluation\\ of\\ forbidden\\ behavior\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ Temptation\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ high\\ attraction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Severe\\ Threat\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ high\\ attraction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Mild\\ Threat\\ \\\\à\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\ low\\ attraction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Brehm\\ \\(post\\ descision\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ desirability\\ of\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ had\\ a\\ choice\\&hellip\\;\\ attitutional\\ spreading\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ they\\ choice\\ is\\ ranked\\ higher\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Chose\\ this\\ thing\\,\\ LOVE\\ IT\\,\\ think\\ its\\ even\\ better\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ they\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ choose\\ they\\ rate\\ lower\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Those\\ who\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ choice\\&hellip\\;\\ cross\\ over\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>One\\ originally\\ ranked\\ higher\\,\\ now\\ rank\\ lower\\ and\\ vice\\-versa\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Forced\\ to\\ take\\ one\\ originally\\ liked\\ less\\,\\ now\\ like\\ it\\ more\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Spreading\\<\\/i\\>\\ of\\ alternative\\ following\\ choice\\ \\(dissonance\\ effect\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\Reversal\\<\\/i\\>\\ of\\ alternative\\ following\\ forced\\ choice\\ \\(reactance\\ effect\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Dislike\\ for\\ the\\ non\\ chosen\\ alternatives\\ gave\\ rise\\ to\\ Brehm\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\Psychological\\ Resonance\\ Theory\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\Self\\ Relevance\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Comer\\ \\&\\;\\ Laird\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Expectation\\ delivered\\ to\\ all\\ participants\\ followed\\ by\\ time\\ to\\ think\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Strategies\\ measured\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>High\\ self\\ esteem\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Lower\\ self\\ esteen\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Positive\\ attitude\\ toward\\ act\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Choice\\ to\\ suffer\\ measured\\:\\ eat\\ worm\\ or\\ estimate\\ mass\\ of\\ weights\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Many\\ people\\ chose\\ to\\ eat\\ worm\\,\\ may\\ more\\ than\\ without\\ the\\ prior\\ expectation\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Sitting\\ around\\ waiting\\ to\\ eat\\ worm\\,\\ so\\ now\\ rationalize\\ why\\ they\\ would\\ eat\\ a\\ worm\\,\\ build\\ up\\ justification\\ in\\ their\\ mind\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>The\\ extremes\\ would\\ be\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ eat\\ worm\\ than\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\§\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ just\\ what\\ you\\ hjave\\ done\\ that\\ changes\\ attitude\\,\\ its\\ your\\ mind\\ and\\ justification\\ of\\ doing\\ something\\ will\\ effect\\ hat\\ you\\ do\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Is\\ cognitive\\ dissonance\\ rationalization\\?\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Lieberman\\ et\\ al\\.\\ \\(do\\ amnesics\\ exhibit\\ cognitive\\ dissonance\\ reduction\\?\\:\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ explicit\\ memory\\ and\\ attention\\ \\;\\ in\\ attitude\\ change\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Patients\\ rate\\ posters\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Patients\\ select\\ of\\ reject\\ posters\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Patients\\ rate\\ posters\\ again\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>No\\ memory\\ of\\ which\\ were\\ originally\\ selected\\ or\\ rejected\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Example\\&hellip\\;\\ Decisions\\ and\\ Revisions\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\o\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Photo\\ students\\ and\\ their\\ pics\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ love\\ the\\ one\\ you\\ get\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\Summary\\&hellip\\;\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\\\·\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\\\n\\\\ \\;\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 105, "file_path": "", "desc": "Cognitive Dissonance"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Human Relations- Leadership", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 566, "html": "\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Leadership\\ is\\ about\\ making\\ emotional\\ connections\\ to\\ motivate\\ and\\ inspire\\ people\\,\\ and\\ our\\ effectiveness\\ at\\ doing\\ this\\ has\\ strong\\ cultural\\ overtones\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ We\\ know\\ from\\ research\\ that\\ people\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ expectations\\ of\\ how\\ leaders\\ should\\ behave\\ vary\\ across\\ countries\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ But\\ we\\ need\\ more\\ research\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ universal\\ about\\ leadership\\ and\\ what\\ is\\ culturally\\ specific\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ Linda\\ A\\.\\ Hill\\,\\ Professor\\ of\\ Business\\ Administration\\ at\\ HBS\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Andrea\\ Jung\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ November\\ 1999\\ Andrea\\ Jung\\ became\\ CEO\\ of\\ Avon\\ Products\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ 2005\\,\\ the\\ business\\ faced\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ criticism\\ when\\ it\\ failed\\ to\\ meet\\ its\\ second\\ quarter\\ 2005\\ earnings\\ and\\ analysts\\ downgraded\\ future\\ projections\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ After\\ having\\ experienced\\ five\\ years\\ of\\ double\\-digit\\ growth\\,\\ the\\ company\\'s\\ revenue\\ growth\\ slowed\\ to\\ 5\\%\\,\\ stock\\ prices\\ dropped\\ drastically\\ and\\ earnings\\ went\\ flat\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ lead\\ to\\ huge\\ negative\\ critiques\\ of\\ the\\ company\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ management\\,\\ including\\ Andrea\\&\\#160\\;Jung\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ At\\ this\\ point\\,\\ Andrea\\ Jung\\ had\\ to\\ restructure\\ strategy\\ and\\ management\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ rejuvenate\\ the\\ business\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Avon\\<\\/strong\\>\\:\\&\\#160\\;\\ Avon\\,\\ the\\ company\\ for\\ women\\,\\ is\\ a\\ leading\\ global\\ beauty\\ company\\,\\ with\\ over\\ \\$10\\ billion\\ in\\ annual\\ revenue\\.\\ As\\ the\\ world\\'s\\ largest\\ direct\\ seller\\,\\ Avon\\ markets\\ to\\ women\\ in\\ more\\ than\\ 100\\ countries\\ through\\ over\\ 5\\.5\\ million\\ independent\\ Avon\\ Sales\\ Representatives\\.\\ Avon\\'s\\ product\\ line\\ includes\\ beauty\\ products\\,\\ fashion\\ jewelry\\ and\\ apparel\\,\\ and\\ features\\ such\\ well\\-recognized\\ brand\\ names\\ as\\ \\Avon\\ Color\\,\\ Anew\\,\\ Skin\\-So\\-Soft\\,\\ Advance\\ Techniques\\,\\ Avon\\ Naturals\\ and\\ Mark\\.\\<\\/i\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\What\\ did\\ she\\ do\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nMs\\.\\ Jung\\ cut\\ out\\ eight\\ levels\\ of\\ management\\ and\\ cut\\ costs\\ by\\ \\$300\\ million\\.\\ She\\ then\\ decided\\ to\\ reinvest\\ savings\\ and\\ reignite\\ growth\\ through\\ entering\\ the\\ Chinese\\ market\\ and\\ expanding\\ advertising\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ years\\,\\ Avon\\ was\\ back\\ on\\ track\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/br\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\What\\ makes\\ a\\ leader\\ effective\\?\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAndrea\\ Jung\\ is\\ recognized\\ as\\ an\\ extra\\-ordinary\\ leader\\ in\\ the\\ business\\ world\\.\\ In\\ 2001\\ she\\ was\\ named\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ 30\\ most\\ powerful\\ women\\ in\\ America\\ by\\ \\'Ladies\\ Home\\&\\#160\\;Journal\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Andrea\\&\\#160\\;Jung\\ managed\\ a\\ network\\ of\\ 5\\.5\\ million\\ people\\ in\\ Avon\\,\\ most\\ of\\ whom\\ were\\ independent\\ sales\\ representatives\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Various\\ Characteristics\\ of\\ a\\ Leader\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Warm\\ Heart\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ ability\\ to\\ motivate\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ encouragement\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ sensitivity\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ pride\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ sense\\ of\\ community\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ trust\\ \\(both\\ ways\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ creating\\ ambition\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153cold\\ mind\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ smart\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\-\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ good\\ planning\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nGenerally\\,\\ the\\ best\\ leaders\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153join\\ a\\ warm\\ heart\\ and\\ a\\ cold\\ mind\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ Hazeltine\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThus\\,\\ the\\ most\\ effective\\ leadership\\ qualities\\ depends\\ both\\ on\\ the\\ situation\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ people\\ involved\\ because\\ different\\ people\\ respond\\ to\\ different\\ things\\/motivations\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ was\\ depicted\\ in\\ the\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u02dcCoach\\ K\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ case\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ demonstrated\\ that\\ Coach\\ K\\ and\\ Bobby\\ Knight\\ are\\ both\\ effective\\ leaders\\ who\\ use\\ polar\\ tactics\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAndrea\\ Jung\\ stated\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ successful\\ leader\\ today\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ courage\\ and\\ a\\ combination\\ of\\ good\\ facts\\ and\\ good\\ instinct\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ have\\ conviction\\,\\ because\\ you\\ cannot\\ be\\ a\\ leader\\ without\\ conviction\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\.\\ In\\ her\\ case\\,\\ being\\ a\\ successful\\ leader\\ required\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ re\\-invention\\ of\\ the\\ company\\,\\ but\\ of\\ herself\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Her\\ leadership\\ required\\ her\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ fellow\\&\\#160\\;CEO\\'s\\ advice\\ and\\ \\\"pretend\\ she\\ was\\ fired\\ and\\ got\\ brought\\ back\\ anew\\\"\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;Andrea\\ Jung\\ had\\ to\\ let\\ go\\ of\\ all\\ of\\ her\\ work\\ for\\ the\\ past\\ five\\ years\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ re\\-invent\\ herself\\ and\\ bring\\ a\\ fresh\\ leadership\\ strategy\\ to\\ the\\ table\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Some\\ Approaches\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Leader\\ in\\ Control\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThis\\ approach\\ is\\ one\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ single\\ boss\\ takes\\ complete\\ control\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ successful\\ in\\ all\\ situations\\ and\\ highly\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ individuals\\ involved\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ For\\ example\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153managing\\ Brown\\ students\\ is\\ like\\ herding\\ cats\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201c\\ Professor\\ Hazeltine\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Scientific\\ Management\\:\\ The\\ Manager\\ plans\\,\\ the\\ worker\\ performs\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThis\\ approach\\ was\\ studied\\ by\\ Frederick\\ Winslow\\ Taylor\\-\\ an\\ engineer\\ who\\ approaches\\ management\\ as\\ an\\ engineering\\ problem\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ A\\ strong\\ component\\ of\\ this\\ approach\\ is\\ motivation\\ through\\ salary\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Human\\ Relations\\:\\ Personal\\ Interaction\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPersonal\\ interaction\\ between\\ supervisor\\ and\\ workers\\ changes\\ productivity\\ to\\ a\\ high\\ degree\\,\\ as\\ proven\\ by\\ the\\ \\Hawthorne\\ Experiments\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Contingency\\:\\ Effective\\ leadership\\ style\\ depends\\ on\\ situation\\ and\\ people\\ involved\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThe\\ contingency\\ approach\\ is\\ doing\\ simply\\ what\\ you\\ think\\ best\\ and\\ recognizing\\ that\\ the\\ best\\ style\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ people\\ involved\\ and\\ the\\ particular\\ problem\\ at\\ hand\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ In\\ this\\ case\\,\\ management\\ is\\ sensitive\\ to\\ each\\ person\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Ideas\\ about\\ Leadership\\<\\/u\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ Leader\\ should\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHave\\ and\\ communicate\\ a\\ vision\\;\\ set\\ priorities\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHer\\ Vision\\:\\ to\\ make\\ women\\ in\\ 3rd\\ world\\ countries\\ better\\ off\\ by\\ giving\\ them\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ have\\ their\\ own\\ business\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ vision\\ was\\ integrated\\ into\\ Avon\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ business\\ model\\ and\\ carefully\\ reinforced\\ through\\ policy\\ and\\ action\\.\\ This\\ was\\ integrated\\ into\\ the\\ 2000\\ vision\\ statement\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153The\\ Company\\ for\\ Women\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\A\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ implementation\\ of\\ this\\ vision\\ was\\ to\\ enable\\ sales\\ representatives\\ to\\ become\\ economically\\ self\\ sufficient\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Andrea\\ Jung\\ implemented\\ this\\ through\\ providing\\ loans\\ to\\ sales\\ reps\\ for\\ start\\-\\ up\\ inventory\\,\\ investing\\ \\$450\\ million\\ in\\ breast\\ cancer\\ education\\ and\\ research\\ and\\ launching\\ a\\ campaign\\ against\\ domestic\\ violence\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Develop\\ a\\ culture\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThe\\ development\\ of\\ a\\ culture\\ was\\ reflected\\ in\\ the\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Nantucket\\ Nectars\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ case\\ and\\ lecture\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ shown\\ that\\ Tom\\ First\\ and\\ his\\ partner\\,\\ Tom\\,\\ created\\ an\\ energetic\\,\\ determined\\ and\\ informal\\ culture\\ for\\ their\\ company\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ company\\'s\\ culture\\ generally\\ reflects\\ the\\ attitudes\\ and\\ characteristics\\ of\\ the\\ leader\\(s\\)\\ in\\ charge\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCreate\\ a\\ style\\ that\\ reflects\\ shared\\ values\\ and\\ beliefs\\ \\<\\/strong\\>\\(Robert\\ S\\.\\ Kaplan\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153The\\ Tests\\ of\\ a\\ Leader\\:\\ What\\ to\\ Ask\\ the\\ Person\\ in\\ the\\ Mirror\\,\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ Harvard\\ Business\\ Review\\,\\ January\\ 2007\\,\\ pp\\ 86\\-95\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Structure\\ a\\ clear\\ process\\-\\ make\\ a\\ detailed\\ plan\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFor\\ Andrea\\ Jung\\,\\ the\\ plan\\ included\\ making\\ new\\ products\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ was\\ structured\\ into\\ four\\ steps\\:\\ design\\,\\ research\\,\\ finding\\ suppliers\\ and\\ advertisement\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ It\\ is\\ important\\ that\\ all\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ know\\ and\\ understand\\ the\\ plan\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Select\\,\\ develop\\ and\\ protect\\ his\\/her\\ people\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nMonitor\\-\\ know\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ and\\ correct\\ problems\\<\\/strong\\>\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThis\\ requires\\ direct\\ involvement\\ in\\ the\\ business\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ can\\ be\\ done\\ through\\ personal\\ relationships\\ with\\ employees\\ or\\ through\\ decentralization\\/\\ the\\ division\\ of\\ labor\\ in\\ which\\ each\\ manager\\ can\\ know\\ what\\'s\\ going\\ on\\ and\\ report\\ back\\ to\\ higher\\ authority\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153We\\ know\\ that\\ the\\ increasing\\ diversity\\ within\\ business\\ organizations\\ and\\ the\\ growing\\ interdependence\\ of\\ players\\-\\ from\\ business\\ partners\\ to\\ NGOs\\-\\ within\\ a\\ business\\ ecosystem\\ mean\\ that\\ leaders\\ need\\ to\\ adopt\\ a\\ more\\ inclusive\\,\\ collaborative\\ style\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ It\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ also\\ becoming\\ clear\\ that\\ today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ complex\\ environment\\ often\\ demands\\ a\\ team\\ approach\\ to\\ problem\\ solving\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ This\\ requires\\ a\\ leader\\ who\\,\\ among\\ other\\ things\\,\\ is\\ comfortable\\ sharing\\ power\\ and\\ generous\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\,\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ see\\ extraordinary\\ potential\\ in\\ ordinary\\ people\\,\\ and\\ can\\ make\\ decisions\\ with\\ a\\ balance\\ of\\ idealism\\ and\\ pragmatism\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ There\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ a\\ term\\ I\\ use\\ to\\ describe\\ this\\ leadership\\ model\\:\\ leading\\ from\\ behind\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\-\\ Linda\\ A\\.\\ Hill\\,\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Leadership\\ and\\ Strategy\\:\\ Where\\ Will\\ WE\\ find\\ Tomorrow\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Leaders\\,\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ Harvard\\ Business\\ Review\\,\\ January\\ 2008\\,\\ pp\\ 125\\-6\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u0153Trees\\ have\\ been\\ an\\ essential\\ part\\ of\\ my\\ life\\ and\\ have\\ provided\\ me\\ with\\ many\\ lessons\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ Trees\\ are\\ living\\ symbols\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ hope\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ A\\ tree\\ has\\ roots\\ in\\ the\\ soil\\ yet\\ reaches\\ to\\ the\\ sky\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ It\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ aspire\\ we\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ grounded\\,\\ and\\ that\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ high\\ we\\ go\\ it\\ is\\ from\\ our\\ roots\\ that\\ we\\ draw\\ sustenance\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ reminder\\ to\\ all\\ of\\ us\\ who\\ have\\ had\\ success\\ that\\ we\\ cannot\\ forget\\ where\\ we\\ came\\ from\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ It\\ signifies\\ that\\ no\\ matter\\ how\\ powerful\\ we\\ become\\ in\\ government\\ or\\ how\\ many\\ awards\\ we\\ receive\\,\\ our\\ power\\ and\\ strength\\ and\\ our\\ ability\\ to\\ reach\\ our\\ goals\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ people\\,\\ those\\ whose\\ work\\ remains\\ unseen\\,\\ who\\ are\\ the\\ soil\\ out\\ of\\ which\\ we\\ grow\\,\\ the\\ shoulders\\ on\\ which\\ we\\ stand\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u009d\\ \\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u201cWangari\\ Maathai\\,\\ Unbowed\\ \\(New\\ York\\:\\ Alfred\\ A\\.\\ Knopf\\,\\ 2006\\)\\,\\ page\\ 293\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Human Relations- Leadership"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Human Relations- Overview", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 557, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\TechnoServe\\ is\\ a\\ non\\-profit\\ organization\\ that\\ assists\\ rural\\ people\\ in\\ the\\ Third\\ World\\.\\ To\\ find\\ out\\ more\\ about\\ TechnoServe\\,\\ visit\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/www\\.technoserve\\.org\\/\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Today\\ we\\ had\\ a\\ speaker\\&\\#160\\;from\\ TechnoServe\\-\\ a\\ Brown\\ graduate\\ from\\ 1996\\.\\ After\\ graduation\\,\\ he\\ lived\\ and\\ worked\\ in\\ Peru\\ for\\ a\\ year\\ with\\ TechnoServe\\ and\\ then\\ followed\\ up\\ with\\ another\\ year\\ in\\ Central\\ America\\ and\\ Africa\\.\\&\\#160\\;He\\ is\\ currently\\ a\\ board\\ member\\ of\\ TechnoServe\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\The\\ TechnoServe\\ model\\ is\\ to\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Select\\ a\\ country\\ and\\ an\\ industry\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Determine\\ the\\ approach\\ to\\ createing\\ the\\ business\\-\\ how\\ to\\ get\\ in\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\3\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Find\\ and\\ hire\\ a\\ business\\ advisor\\ to\\ manage\\ project\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\4\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Identify\\ an\\ entrepreneur\\,\\ one\\ at\\ first\\,\\ then\\ others\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\5\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Support\\ these\\ entrepreneurs\\:\\ funding\\,\\ technology\\,\\ marketing\\,\\ staffing\\,\\ expansion\\ etc\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\6\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Exit\\-\\ includes\\ both\\ advisory\\ and\\ financial\\ issues\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Today\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ focus\\ was\\ largely\\ on\\ TechnoServe\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ Miranda\\ Caju\\ Project\\-\\ a\\ cashew\\ process\\ plant\\ operated\\ mainly\\ by\\ Antonio\\ Miranda\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Corporate\\ Culture\\ and\\ Management\\ Change\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Corporate\\ Culture\\ is\\ a\\ pattern\\ of\\ practices\\,\\ values\\,\\ beliefs\\ and\\ expectations\\,\\ shared\\ by\\ the\\ organization\\,\\ which\\ produces\\ norms\\ powerfully\\ shaping\\ the\\ behavior\\ of\\ individuals\\ in\\ the\\ organization\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ \\TechnoServe\\ team\\<\\/a\\>\\ consists\\ of\\ staff\\ and\\ volunteer\\ consultants\\.\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\The\\ TechnoServe\\ approach\\ to\\ creating\\ sustained\\ change\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Village\\-based\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Champion\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Promoting\\ Ownership\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Technical\\ support\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ TechnoServe\\ business\\ strategy\\ is\\ work\\ with\\ an\\ individual\\ person\\ and\\ give\\ them\\ as\\ much\\ support\\ as\\ they\\ can\\ \\(vs\\.\\ working\\ with\\ a\\ whole\\ group\\ of\\ people\\)\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ An\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ Mr\\.\\ Antonio\\ Miranda\\.\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ this\\ strategy\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ ownership\\ of\\ the\\ project\\ and\\ instill\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ responsibility\\,\\ commitment\\ and\\ investment\\ in\\ the\\ person\\ whom\\ they\\ support\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Potential\\ problems\\ with\\ the\\ TechnoServe\\ approach\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;The\\ work\\ that\\ is\\ done\\ in\\ Mozambique\\ is\\ labor\\-intensive\\.\\&\\#160\\;In\\ a\\ socialist\\ program\\,\\ the\\ average\\ worker\\ is\\ concerned\\ with\\ just\\ getting\\ by\\.\\ Part\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ to\\ change\\ this\\ is\\ to\\ provide\\ incentives\\ through\\ productivity\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ socialist\\ condition\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ hope\\ in\\ providing\\ these\\ incentives\\ is\\ that\\ productivity\\ and\\ success\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ greater\\ ambition\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\For\\ example\\,\\ someone\\ who\\ does\\ not\\ see\\ the\\ end\\ game\\ may\\ not\\ care\\ about\\ their\\ stage\\ of\\ production\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ idea\\ is\\ to\\ motivate\\ each\\ separate\\ step\\ on\\ the\\ chain\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ increase\\ overall\\ productivity\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\&\\#160\\;Long\\ term\\ problem\\:\\ as\\ the\\ standard\\ of\\ living\\ increases\\,\\ costs\\ such\\ as\\ labor\\ will\\ also\\ increase\\.\\&\\#160\\;This\\ is\\ dependent\\ on\\ the\\ price\\ and\\ demand\\ of\\ the\\ end\\ market\\ in\\ the\\ future\\,\\ which\\ is\\ unpredictable\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Human\\ Relations\\-\\ Overview\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Two\\ perspectives\\:\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\a\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ 1\\.\\ \\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\ What\\ motivates\\ a\\ worker\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Some\\ key\\ motivators\\ that\\ were\\ pointed\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ volunteer\\ of\\ TechnoServe\\ are\\:\\ acquiring\\ a\\ different\\ perspective\\,\\ experience\\ \\(both\\ professional\\ and\\ personal\\)\\,\\ personal\\ growth\\,\\ having\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ gain\\ responsibility\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\ and\\ gaining\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ accomplishment\\ and\\ self\\ worth\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\b\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ 2\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>What\\ the\\ manager\\ does\\-\\ the\\ ways\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ manager\\ acts\\ and\\ interacts\\ with\\ his\\ employees\\ can\\ motivate\\ or\\ de\\-motivate\\ employees\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Some\\ Ideas\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Maslow\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ Hierarchy\\ of\\ Needs\\<\\/a\\>\\-\\ Maslow\\ sets\\ up\\ a\\ hierarchy\\ of\\ five\\ basic\\ human\\ needs\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\1\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>1\\.\\ Basic\\ Physiological\\ needs\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\2\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ 2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>Safety\\ and\\ Security\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\3\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>3\\.\\ Belongingness\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\4\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>4\\.\\ Recognition\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\5\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>5\\.\\ Fulfillment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\talkingtails\\.files\\.wordpress\\.com\\/2007\\/07\\/800px\\-maslows\\_hierarchy\\_of\\_needssvg\\.png\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\IncrSatisfying\\ these\\ needs\\ will\\ increase\\ worker\\'s\\ well\\-being\\ and\\ happiness\\ and\\ consequently\\ their\\ productivity\\ and\\ desire\\ to\\ work\\ and\\ give\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ business\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Motivators\\ and\\ de\\-motivators\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Motivators\\ and\\ de\\-motivators\\ are\\ things\\ that\\ either\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ worker\\'s\\ morale\\ and\\ productivity\\.\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Motivators\\;\\ Achievement\\,\\ Recognition\\,\\ Work\\ itself\\,\\ Responsibility\\,\\ Advancement\\,\\ Growth\\,\\ Fear\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\De\\-Motivators\\;\\ things\\ that\\ lower\\ workers\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ morale\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Inflexible\\ rules\\,\\ Work\\ Conditions\\,\\ Status\\,\\ Insensitive\\ supervisor\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Reducing\\ de\\-motivators\\ are\\ not\\ enough\\,\\ you\\ must\\ also\\ have\\ positive\\ reinforcements\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Human Relations- Overview"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Living Homes", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 552, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Context\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Steve\\ started\\ off\\ the\\ lecture\\ by\\ giving\\ us\\ the\\ background\\ of\\ his\\ life\\.\\&\\#160\\;As\\ a\\ child\\,\\ he\\ grew\\ up\\ wanting\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ architect\\.\\&\\#160\\;However\\,\\ he\\ soon\\ found\\ his\\ idol\\,\\ \\James\\ Rouse\\<\\/a\\>\\-\\ the\\ founder\\ of\\ the\\ 1\\st\\<\\/sup\\>\\ and\\ largest\\ affordable\\ housing\\ corporation\\,\\ which\\ led\\ him\\ down\\ a\\ new\\ path\\.\\&\\#160\\;Mr\\.\\ Rouse\\ helped\\ Steve\\ to\\ realize\\ three\\ main\\ things\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\there\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ companies\\ that\\ successfully\\ wed\\ profit\\ and\\ purpose\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\developers\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ are\\ more\\ important\\ than\\ architects\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\That\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ he\\ should\\ become\\ a\\ developer\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\After\\ his\\ time\\ at\\ Brown\\ \\ University\\,\\ Steve\\ did\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ technology\\ work\\,\\ but\\ soon\\ ventured\\ into\\ Living\\ Homes\\.\\&\\#160\\;Steve\\ quickly\\ mentions\\ that\\ the\\ Living\\ Homes\\ customer\\ must\\ care\\ about\\ ecological\\ waste\\,\\ and\\ then\\ ventures\\ to\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ the\\ Living\\ Homes\\ Solution\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\The\\ Living\\ Homes\\ Solution\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Living\\ Homes\\ incorporates\\ factory\\ production\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ yield\\ quicker\\,\\ cheaper\\ and\\ better\\ results\\.\\&\\#160\\;Additionally\\,\\ they\\ let\\ the\\ architects\\ do\\ what\\ they\\ know\\ and\\ do\\ best\\ and\\ then\\ use\\ integrated\\ modules\\ and\\ flexible\\ panels\\ for\\ construction\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ Thus\\,\\ architects\\ have\\ a\\ large\\ degree\\ of\\ individual\\ control\\ and\\ responsibility\\ over\\ certain\\ aspects\\ of\\ construction\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ first\\ home\\ constructed\\ by\\ Living\\ Homes\\ was\\ Steve\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ own\\ home\\ in\\ April\\ 2006\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ home\\ was\\ assembled\\ in\\ one\\ day\\ and\\ took\\ only\\ 3\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ months\\ to\\ finish\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\To\\ see\\ more\\ about\\ Living\\ Homes\\,\\ visit\\:\\ \\www\\.livinghomes\\.net\\/primer\\.html\\;jsessionid\\=957524BA3A4454211479F00D3ECA0C2D\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ benefits\\ of\\ pre\\-fabrication\\ over\\ site\\-build\\ construction\\?\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\a\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>do\\ things\\ in\\ parallel\\ and\\ consequently\\ save\\ time\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\b\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>do\\ not\\ deal\\ with\\ contractors\\ and\\ subsequently\\ delays\\ and\\ the\\ problems\\ that\\ arise\\ from\\ contracting\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\c\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>prefabrication\\ is\\ done\\ indoors\\-\\ in\\ an\\ all\\ weather\\ environment\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\d\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>certain\\ tools\\ are\\ available\\ in\\ the\\ factory\\ that\\ you\\ wouldn\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122t\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ on\\ site\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\e\\)\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>far\\,\\ far\\ less\\ construction\\ waste\\ because\\ measurement\\ is\\ more\\ precise\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ store\\ any\\ extra\\ material\\ to\\ be\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ future\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Living\\ Homes\\ makes\\ their\\ money\\ on\\ the\\ upgrade\\.\\&\\#160\\;However\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ make\\ their\\ money\\ off\\ of\\ people\\ upgrading\\ to\\ more\\ luxurious\\ products\\,\\ but\\ from\\ people\\ using\\ products\\ that\\ will\\ reduce\\ their\\ ecological\\ footprint\\ \\(which\\ are\\ consequently\\ more\\ expensive\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Thus\\,\\ their\\ goal\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ create\\ the\\ smallest\\ ecological\\ footprint\\ as\\ possible\\ \\(because\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ using\\ or\\ buying\\ an\\ old\\/existing\\ home\\)\\,\\ but\\ their\\ focus\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ customers\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122\\ desire\\ for\\ form\\ and\\ functionality\\-\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ home\\ that\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ live\\ in\\ and\\ wedding\\ this\\ with\\ being\\ ecologically\\ friendly\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Living\\ Homes\\ allows\\ you\\ to\\ create\\ your\\ own\\ pre\\-fabricated\\ home\\ online\\,\\ viewing\\ different\\ ecological\\ impact\\ and\\ cost\\ options\\.\\ To\\ try\\ it\\ out\\,\\ go\\ to\\:\\ \\www\\.livinghomes\\.net\\/homesTimberlake\\.html\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Why\\ bother\\?\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Building\\ Impacts\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>known\\ technology\\ and\\ no\\ monetary\\ difference\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Buildings\\ consume\\ more\\ energy\\ \\(39\\%\\)\\ than\\ either\\ cars\\ \\(32\\%\\)\\ or\\ industry\\ \\(29\\%\\)\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>building\\ is\\ responsible\\ for\\ 40\\%\\ CO2\\ emissions\\,\\ 71\\%\\ electricity\\ output\\,\\ 12\\%\\ water\\ use\\ and\\ 65\\%\\ of\\ waste\\ output\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>over\\ 40\\%\\ raw\\ materials\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ are\\ used\\ for\\ construction\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Living\\ Homes\\ environmental\\ goal\\:\\ healthy\\ homes\\ with\\ minimal\\ ecological\\ impact\\ including\\ the\\ areas\\ of\\ zero\\ carbon\\,\\ zero\\ waste\\,\\ zero\\ ignorance\\,\\ zero\\ energy\\,\\ zero\\ water\\ and\\ zero\\ emissions\\.\\&\\#160\\;Zero\\ ignorance\\ entails\\ people\\ being\\ aware\\ and\\ making\\ the\\ effort\\ to\\ live\\ ecologically\\,\\ because\\ without\\ this\\ effort\\ the\\ Living\\ Homes\\ solution\\ would\\ not\\ matter\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Living\\ Homes\\ has\\ not\\ yet\\ achieved\\ all\\ 6\\ areas\\ in\\ one\\ home\\,\\ but\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ areas\\ in\\ some\\ homes\\ and\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ their\\ business\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Note\\:\\ energy\\ is\\ the\\ single\\ most\\ important\\ category\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\.\\&\\#160\\;The\\ lights\\ that\\ the\\ Living\\ Home\\ solution\\ offers\\ are\\ 90\\%\\ more\\ efficient\\ and\\ are\\ both\\ dimmable\\ and\\ do\\ not\\ contain\\ mercury\\.\\&\\#160\\;Energy\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ reduced\\ through\\ insulation\\ and\\ the\\ Living\\ Homes\\ heating\\ system\\ which\\ is\\ primarily\\ solar\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\\LEED\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\(Leadership\\ in\\ Environmental\\ Energy\\ and\\ Design\\)\\<\\/u\\>\\-\\ the\\ green\\ building\\ certification\\ program\\ regulates\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>water\\ efficiency\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>indoor\\ environmental\\ air\\ quality\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>materials\\ and\\ resources\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>energy\\ and\\ atmosphere\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\-\\\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>innovation\\ and\\ design\\ process\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Living\\ Homes\\ has\\ now\\ expanded\\ and\\ is\\ also\\ working\\ on\\ office\\ projects\\ and\\ other\\ similar\\ ventures\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Living Homes"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:49+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Cash Budgeting # 2- Cash Inflows and Outflows ", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 546, "html": "\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Finance\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ Stocks\\ and\\ Bonds\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Two\\ common\\ ways\\ for\\ companies\\ to\\ raise\\ funds\\ to\\ expand\\ \\(even\\ begin\\)\\ are\\ to\\ issue\\ stocks\\ or\\ bonds\\.\\&\\#160\\;Companies\\ with\\ excess\\ cash\\ may\\ buy\\ stocks\\ or\\ bonds\\ to\\ earn\\ money\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Bond\\<\\/strong\\>\\-A\\ bond\\ is\\ a\\ fixed\\ interest\\ financial\\ asset\\ issued\\ by\\ governments\\,\\ companies\\,\\ banks\\,\\ public\\ utilities\\ and\\ other\\ large\\ entities\\.\\ Bonds\\ pay\\ the\\ bearer\\ a\\ fixed\\ amount\\ a\\ specified\\ end\\ date\\.\\ \\(http\\:\\/\\/economics\\.about\\.com\\/cs\\/economicsglossary\\/g\\/bond\\.htm\\)\\ \\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Stock\\<\\/strong\\>\\-supply\\ of\\ goods\\ kept\\ on\\ hand\\ by\\ a\\ supplier\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ sold\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ raise\\ money\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Company\\ Needs\\ \\(\\$\\)\\<\\/strong\\>\\-\\ in\\ regards\\ to\\ the\\ Old\\ Barrel\\ Company\\ as\\&\\#160\\;\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ previous\\ lecture\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Retained\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ earnings\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Borrow\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ money\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ \\$700\\,000\\)\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Bonds\\=\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\$1000\\ in\\ I\\ Owe\\ Yous\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Sold\\ by\\ banks\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Pay\\ interest\\ i\\.e\\.\\ 7\\%\\ to\\ holder\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Maturity\\ date\\ i\\.e\\.\\ 10\\ years\\-\\ every\\ year\\ for\\ 10\\ years\\ you\\ receive\\ \\$70\\ and\\ then\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ maturation\\ you\\ get\\ the\\ original\\ payment\\ of\\ \\$1000\\ back\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\Sell\\ equity\\-\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ownership\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Company\\ can\\ pay\\ stockholders\\ dividends\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\Balance\\ Sheet\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ balance\\ sheet\\ lists\\ what\\ the\\ company\\ owns\\ and\\ what\\ it\\ owes\\ \\(assets\\ and\\ liabilities\\)\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\The\\ information\\ from\\ the\\ balance\\ sheet\\ is\\ deduced\\ from\\ the\\ company\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ transactions\\.\\&\\#160\\;A\\ record\\ of\\ Old\\ Barrel\\ Company\\\u00e2\\\u20ac\\\u2122s\\ transactions\\ is\\ as\\ follows\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Transactions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1\\-Jan\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Company\\ \\ \\ organized\\,\\ received\\ \\$700\\,000\\ from\\ stockholders\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\3\\-Jan\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\ompany\\ \\ \\ borrows\\ \\$3\\,400\\,000\\ from\\ bank\\ for\\ 34\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\10\\-Jan\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Company\\ \\ \\ buys\\ trucks\\,\\ warehouse\\,\\ stores\\ etc\\.\\ for\\ \\$7\\,000\\,000\\ and\\ agrees\\ to\\ pay\\ within\\ 1\\ \\ \\ month\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\5\\-Feb\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Company\\ \\ \\ pays\\ cash\\ for\\ bill\\ for\\ above\\ purcahse\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\7\\-Feb\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Company\\ \\ \\ pays\\ \\$300\\,000\\ for\\ wine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\14\\-Feb\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Company\\ \\ \\ receives\\ \\$200\\,000\\ for\\ 1\\/2\\ wine\\ inventory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\21\\-Feb\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Company\\ \\ \\ sells\\ remaining\\ wine\\ inventory\\ for\\ \\$250\\,000\\ to\\ be\\ paid\\ in\\ 3\\ months\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\20\\-May\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\company\\ \\ \\ receives\\ \\$250\\,000\\ for\\ above\\ sale\\ \\(owners\\ take\\ a\\ break\\ for\\ rest\\ of\\ year\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\30\\-Dec\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Owners\\ \\ \\ declare\\ \\$50\\,000\\ dividend\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\30\\-Dec\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Depreciation\\ \\ \\ of\\ \\$500\\,000\\ on\\ value\\ of\\ fixed\\ assets\\ is\\ recognized\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\From\\ this\\,\\ we\\ can\\ construct\\ the\\ balance\\ sheet\\:\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Balance\\ \\ \\ Sheet\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Assets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\1\\-Jan\\-06\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\31\\-Dec\\-06\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Current\\ \\ \\ Assets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Cash\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$250\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$50\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Receivables\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$950\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$1\\,450\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Inventories\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$12\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$13\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Fixed\\ \\ \\ Assets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gross\\ Fixed\\ Assets\\ minus\\ \\ \\ Accumulative\\ Depreciation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$7\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$7\\,800\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Net\\ Fixed\\ Assets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\-\\$4\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\-\\$4\\,500\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Total\\ \\ \\ Assets\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\$3\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\$3\\,300\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$16\\,200\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$17\\,800\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Liabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Current\\ \\ \\ Liabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Payables\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$400\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$1\\,200\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Long\\ Term\\ \\ \\ Liabilities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Long\\ Term\\ Debt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$2\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$1\\,900\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Owner\\'s\\ Equity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Retained\\ Earnings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$9\\,800\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$10\\,700\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Common\\ Stock\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\$4\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\$4\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Total\\ \\ \\ Liabilities\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$16\\,200\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$17\\,800\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\Old\\ Barrel\\ Company\\ would\\ also\\ make\\ an\\ \\income\\ statement\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/strong\\>The\\ income\\ statement\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ show\\ how\\ the\\ wealth\\ of\\ the\\ company\\ has\\ changed\\ during\\ a\\ certain\\ period\\.\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\Income\\ \\ \\ Statement\\,\\ Year\\ Ending\\ December\\ 31\\,2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/b\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Sales\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$8\\,500\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\minus\\ \\ \\ Cost\\ of\\ Goods\\ Sold\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\-\\$5\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Gross\\ \\ \\ Margin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$3\\,500\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\minus\\ \\ \\ S\\&\\;A\\ Expenses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\-\\$975\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\minus\\ \\ \\ Interest\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\-\\$25\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\minus\\ \\ \\ Allowance\\ for\\ Depreciation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\-\\$500\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Profit\\ \\ \\ Before\\ Taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$2\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\minus\\ \\ \\ Taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\-\\$1\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/u\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\Profit\\ \\ \\ After\\ Taxes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\\$1\\,000\\,000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/td\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tr\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\ \\ \\ \\<\\/tbody\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\<\\/table\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/div\\>\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\&\\#160\\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 84, "file_path": "", "desc": "Cash Budgeting # 2- Cash Inflows and Outflows "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 59", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 612, "html": "\\Rule\\ 59\\:\\ New\\ Trials\\;\\ Amendments\\ of\\ Judgments\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n59\\(a\\)\\:\\ new\\ trial\\ can\\ be\\ granted\\ for\\ any\\ reason\\ a\\ court\\ has\\ ever\\ granted\\ a\\ new\\ trial\\ before\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n59\\(b\\)\\:\\ motion\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ trial\\ must\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;served\\ not\\ later\\ than\\ 10\\ days\\ after\\ the\\ entry\\ of\\ judgment\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ date\\ of\\ entry\\ of\\ judgment\\ determines\\ the\\ time\\ within\\ which\\ most\\ post\\-trial\\ motions\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ NB\\:\\ no\\ earlier\\ motion\\ necessary\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n59\\(c\\)\\:\\ Can\\ serve\\ affidavits\\,\\ if\\ the\\ motion\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ them\\,\\ up\\ to\\ 10\\ days\\ after\\ the\\ verdict\\ comes\\ in\\,\\ unless\\ the\\ parties\\ stipulate\\ 20\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n59\\(d\\)\\:\\ court\\ can\\ order\\ a\\ new\\ trial\\ on\\ its\\ own\\,\\ without\\ a\\ motion\\,\\ but\\ it\\ must\\ give\\ the\\ parties\\ notice\\ \\&\\;\\ opportunity\\ to\\ be\\ heard\\ and\\ it\\ must\\ stipulate\\ the\\ reason\\ for\\ the\\ new\\ trial\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ When\\ deciding\\ a\\ new\\ trial\\ motion\\,\\ judge\\ may\\ consider\\ the\\ credibility\\ of\\ witnesses\\&mdash\\;sort\\ of\\ an\\ independent\\ assessor\\ of\\ the\\ evidence\\.\\ If\\ judge\\ thinks\\ the\\ trial\\ was\\ fine\\ but\\ the\\ verdict\\ was\\ seriously\\ erroneous\\ he\\ can\\ order\\ a\\ new\\ trial\\.\\ If\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ new\\ trial\\ ordered\\,\\ that\\ means\\ the\\ judge\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ enter\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;final\\ decision\\&rdquo\\;\\ so\\ the\\ parties\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ appeal\\ until\\ the\\ second\\ trial\\ is\\ over\\ \\&\\;\\ a\\ final\\ decision\\ is\\ entered\\.\\ can\\ grant\\ a\\ \\;\\ new\\ trial\\ for\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ reasons\\ that\\ new\\ trials\\ have\\ ever\\ been\\ granted\\ before\\.\\ \\(ex\\:\\ procedural\\ error\\,\\ erroneous\\ instructions\\,\\ jury\\ misconduct\\,\\ atty\\ misbehavior\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nJudge\\ can\\ also\\ grant\\ it\\ if\\ verdict\\ was\\ against\\ the\\ weight\\ of\\ the\\ evidence\\.\\ This\\ allows\\ the\\ judge\\ to\\ weigh\\ the\\ evidence\\.\\ Is\\ this\\ a\\ violation\\ of\\ the\\ 7th\\ A\\?\\ No\\,\\ this\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ taking\\ the\\ case\\ from\\ the\\ jury\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ giving\\ it\\ to\\ another\\ jury\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 59"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 56", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 611, "html": "\\Rule\\ 56\\:\\ Summary\\ Judgment\\ \\(entry\\ of\\ judgment\\ by\\ the\\ court\\ w\\/o\\ trial\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\(a\\)\\:\\ if\\ P\\ wants\\ it\\,\\ he\\ must\\ motion\\ for\\ summary\\ judgment\\ within\\ 20\\ days\\ after\\ the\\ claim\\ is\\ filed\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\(b\\)\\ D\\ may\\ move\\ with\\ or\\ without\\ supporting\\ affidavits\\ for\\ summary\\ judgment\\ at\\ any\\ time\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\ \\(c\\)\\:\\ Summary\\ judgment\\ is\\ granted\\ if\\ \\(1\\)\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ genuine\\ issue\\ as\\ to\\ any\\ material\\ fact\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(if\\ there\\ is\\ nothing\\ for\\ a\\ jury\\ to\\ do\\ because\\ the\\ only\\ issues\\ that\\ remain\\ are\\ issues\\ of\\ law\\)\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ the\\ moving\\ party\\ is\\ entitled\\ to\\ judgment\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ law\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ If\\ P\\ is\\ moving\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ win\\,\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ produce\\ evidence\\ on\\ every\\ factual\\ connection\\ on\\ which\\ he\\ bears\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\ at\\ trial\\ so\\ that\\ no\\ reasonable\\ jury\\ could\\ find\\ against\\ him\\.\\ This\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ all\\ the\\ evidence\\:\\ pleadings\\,\\ interrogatories\\,\\ depositions\\,\\ affidavits\\.\\ If\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ prove\\ A\\,\\ B\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ C\\ to\\ prevail\\,\\ he\\ must\\ show\\ indisputably\\ that\\ A\\,\\ B\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ C\\ all\\ happened\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ D\\ is\\ moving\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ win\\,\\ he\\ only\\ needs\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ either\\ A\\,\\ B\\,\\ or\\ C\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ happen\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(2\\)\\ \\+\\,\\ moving\\ party\\ must\\ have\\ the\\ law\\ on\\ his\\ side\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\ \\(c\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ \\(d\\)\\:\\ Summary\\ judgment\\ can\\ resolve\\ some\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ case\\&mdash\\;it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ treat\\ the\\ entire\\ case\\ at\\ once\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\ \\(c\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ \\(e\\)\\:\\ motion\\ for\\ summary\\ judgment\\ may\\ be\\ supported\\ by\\ affidavits\\,\\ depositions\\,\\ answers\\ to\\ interrogatories\\,\\ admissions\\,\\ and\\ admissible\\ documents\\.\\ These\\ docs\\ are\\ not\\ always\\ admissible\\ at\\ trial\\,\\ but\\ they\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ the\\ party\\ has\\ access\\ to\\ admissible\\ evidence\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\(e\\)\\:\\ In\\ opposing\\ motion\\ for\\ summary\\ judgment\\,\\ party\\ shall\\ \\&ldquo\\;set\\ forth\\ such\\ facts\\ as\\ would\\ be\\ admissible\\ in\\ evidence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Party\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ rely\\ on\\ allegations\\ or\\ denials\\ of\\ his\\ pleading\\;\\ he\\ must\\ set\\ forth\\ specific\\ facts\\ showing\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ genuine\\ issue\\ for\\ trial\\.\\ If\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ respond\\,\\ mover\\ wins\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBurden\\ is\\ to\\ show\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ legally\\ competent\\ evidence\\ upon\\ which\\ a\\ jury\\ could\\ resolve\\ the\\ factual\\ issues\\ in\\ his\\ favor\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\(f\\)\\:\\ Party\\ opposing\\ motion\\ can\\ ask\\ for\\ relief\\ under\\ 56\\(f\\)\\,\\ which\\ allows\\ the\\ court\\ to\\ grant\\ continuances\\ to\\ allow\\ party\\ to\\ do\\ more\\ disco\\ \\&\\;\\ further\\ develop\\ his\\ case\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\(g\\)\\:\\ affidavits\\ in\\ bad\\ faith\\ can\\ be\\ sanctioned\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNote\\:\\ difference\\ between\\ 12\\(b\\)\\(6\\)\\,\\ failure\\ to\\ state\\ a\\ claim\\,\\ and\\ 56\\,\\ summary\\ judgment\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(b\\)\\(6\\)\\:\\ only\\ concerned\\ with\\ whether\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ complaint\\ states\\ a\\ legally\\ sufficient\\ claim\\ \\(assuming\\ all\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ facts\\ can\\ be\\ proven\\)\\.\\ Does\\ P\\ have\\ a\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\n56\\:\\ Can\\ P\\ prove\\ all\\ elements\\ of\\ her\\ action\\?\\ If\\ there\\ are\\ no\\ disputed\\ issues\\ of\\ material\\ fact\\ to\\ be\\ tried\\,\\ case\\ is\\ dismissed\\ \\(56\\(c\\)\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAdickes\\ v\\.\\ Kress\\&mdash\\;if\\ moving\\ party\\ is\\ D\\ \\(when\\ nonmoving\\ party\\ is\\ P\\,\\ who\\ bears\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\)\\,\\ the\\ moving\\ party\\ can\\ present\\ affirmative\\ evidence\\ that\\ negates\\ an\\ essential\\ element\\ of\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCelotex\\ Corp\\ v\\.\\ Catrett\\&mdash\\;if\\ moving\\ party\\ is\\ D\\,\\ D\\ can\\ either\\ do\\ what\\ Adickes\\ says\\ or\\ demonstrate\\ to\\ the\\ court\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ evidence\\ is\\ insufficient\\ to\\ establish\\ an\\ essential\\ element\\ of\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\:\\ D\\ can\\ affirmatively\\ show\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ evidence\\ in\\ the\\ record\\,\\ and\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ produce\\ evidence\\ that\\ negates\\.\\ P\\ may\\ have\\ to\\ produce\\ evidence\\ that\\ is\\ admissible\\ or\\ will\\ lead\\ to\\ admissible\\ evidence\\.\\ \\(This\\ makes\\ summary\\ judgments\\ easier\\ to\\ win\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 56"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Ultimate Study Justice Study Guide", "tags": ["justice", "harvard", "study-guide"], "text": null, "id": 112, "html": "\\\\\\Ultimate\\ Study\\ Justice\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c11\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c10\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}\\.c8\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c12\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c9\\{text\\-align\\:right\\}\\.c5\\{text\\-align\\:justify\\}\\.c4\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\ FOR\\ MORAL\\ REASONING\\ 22\\:\\ JUSTICE\\ FALL\\ 2005\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\/10\\/2006\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VERSION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Editor\\:\\ Edward\\ Thai\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributors\\:\\ Camilo\\ Becdach\\,\\ Jeff\\ E\\.\\ Biddle\\ Jr\\.\\,\\ Rachel\\ Flynn\\,\\ Drew\\ Heckathorn\\,\\ Richard\\ Hsu\\,\\ Josh\\ Kipnees\\,\\ Kalaya\\ Kokereke\\,\\ Kendall\\ Kulper\\,\\ Tim\\ Lee\\,\\ Ben\\ Milder\\,\\ Lauren\\ Nikodemos\\,\\ Tanuj\\ Parikh\\,\\ Jen\\ Raymond\\,\\ June\\ Sangarlangkarn\\,\\ Crystal\\ Schuil\\,\\ David\\ Staudt\\,\\ K\\.\\ Sloan\\ Strike\\,\\ Anushka\\ Sunder\\,\\ Bushra\\ Taha\\,\\ Edward\\ Thai\\,\\ Shaina\\ Trotta\\,\\ Ximena\\ Vengoechea\\,\\ Winnie\\ Yeung\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Distribution\\ of\\ this\\ packet\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ editor\\ and\\ contributors\\ is\\ strictly\\ prohibited\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TABLE\\ OF\\ CONTENTS\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;NS\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ not\\ submitted\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Table\\ of\\ Contents\\ 1\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Notes\\ 3\\-66\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Section\\ Notes\\ 67\\-109\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Introduction\\ 67\\ Libertarianism\\ 68\\ Kant\\ 70\\ Kant\\ \\(additional\\)\\ 78\\ Rawls\\ 82\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ 93\\ Aristotle\\ 96\\ Ability\\,\\ Disability\\,\\ and\\ Discrimination\\ 103\\ Communitarianism\\ 104\\ Liberalism\\ 108\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reading\\ Notes\\ 110\\-183\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ II\\ \\(Utilitarianism\\)\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\,\\ Introduction\\ to\\ the\\ Principles\\ of\\ Morals\\ and\\ Legislation\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\ and\\ 4\\ 110\\ John\\ Stuart\\ Mill\\,\\ Utilitarianism\\ 111\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ III\\ \\(Libertarianism\\)\\ Milton\\ and\\ Rose\\ Friedman\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Created\\ Equal\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Free\\ to\\ Choose\\,\\ A\\ Personal\\ Statement\\ 112\\ Robert\\ Nozick\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Distributive\\ Justice\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Anarchy\\,\\ State\\,\\ and\\ Utopia\\ 114\\ Friedrich\\ Hayek\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Equality\\,\\ Value\\,\\ and\\ Merit\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Constitution\\ of\\ Liberty\\ 115\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ IV\\ \\(Locke\\ and\\ Property\\ Rights\\)\\ John\\ Locke\\,\\ Second\\ Treatise\\ of\\ Government\\,\\ Ch\\.\\ 1\\-5\\,\\ 7\\-11\\,\\ 18\\-19\\ 116\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ V\\ \\(Markets\\ and\\ Morals\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Surrogate\\ Motherhood\\,\\ Military\\ Service\\,\\ Body\\ Parts\\)\\ Guido\\ Calabresi\\ and\\ Philip\\ Bobbit\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Tragic\\ Dilemma\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Tragic\\ Choices\\ 121\\ James\\ McPherson\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Fire\\ in\\ the\\ Rear\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Battle\\ Cry\\ of\\ Freedom\\:\\ The\\ Civil\\ War\\ Era\\ 122\\ Superior\\ Court\\ of\\ New\\ Jersey\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ Matter\\ of\\ Baby\\ \\&lsquo\\;M\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ 123\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ of\\ New\\ Jersey\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ Matter\\ of\\ Baby\\ \\&lsquo\\;M\\&rsquo\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\ 125\\ Elizabeth\\ Anderson\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Is\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Labor\\ a\\ Commodity\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ Philosophy\\ and\\ Public\\ Affairs\\ 126\\ Andrew\\ Kimbrell\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Transplanting\\ Profits\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Human\\ Body\\ Shop\\ 128\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ VI\\ \\(Kant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Freedom\\ as\\ Autonomy\\)\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ Grounding\\ for\\ the\\ Metaphysics\\ of\\ Morals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ I\\ 129\\ Chapter\\ II\\ 130\\ Chapter\\ III\\ 132\\ Supplement\\:\\ On\\ a\\ Supposed\\ Right\\ to\\ Lie\\ 133\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Theory\\ and\\ Practice\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Perpetual\\ Peace\\ and\\ Other\\ Essays\\ 134\\ Immanuel\\ Kant\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Duties\\ Towards\\ the\\ Body\\ in\\ Respect\\ of\\ Sexual\\ Impulse\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Lectures\\ on\\ Ethics\\ 135\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ VII\\ \\(Rawls\\:\\ Justice\\ as\\ Fairness\\)\\ John\\ Rawls\\,\\ A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sections\\ 1\\-6\\ 136\\ Sections\\ 11\\-14\\ 138\\ Sections\\ 17\\,\\ 20\\,\\ 22\\,\\ 24\\-5\\,\\ 40\\ 141\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ VIII\\ \\(Distributive\\ Justice\\:\\ Equality\\,\\ Entitlement\\,\\ Merit\\)\\ John\\ Rawls\\,\\ A\\ Theory\\ of\\ Justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sections\\ 41\\,\\ 47\\-8\\ 143\\ Sections\\ 68\\,\\ 79\\,\\ 84\\-87\\ NS\\ Robert\\ Nozick\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Natural\\ Assets\\ and\\ Arbitrariness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Anarchy\\,\\ State\\,\\ and\\ Utopia\\ 145\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ IX\\ \\(Affirmative\\ Action\\:\\ Reverse\\ Discrimination\\?\\)\\ Richard\\ Bernstein\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Racial\\ Discrimination\\ or\\ Righting\\ Past\\ Wrongs\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\ 147\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Court\\ of\\ Appeals\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Cheryl\\ J\\.\\ Hopwood\\ v\\.\\ State\\ of\\ Texas\\&rdquo\\;\\ 148\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ of\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Grutter\\ v\\.\\ Bollinger\\&rdquo\\;\\ 149\\ Ronald\\ Dworkin\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Bakke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Case\\:\\ Are\\ Quotas\\ Unfair\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ A\\ Matter\\ of\\ Principle\\ 151\\ Michael\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Case\\ of\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\ 152\\ Jefferson\\ Morley\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Double\\ Reverse\\ Discrimination\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ New\\ Republic\\ 154\\ Michael\\ Brus\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Proxy\\ War\\&rdquo\\;\\ MSN\\ Slate\\ Magazine\\ 155\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ X\\ \\(Aristotle\\:\\ Justice\\ and\\ Virtue\\)\\ Aristotle\\,\\ Nichomachean\\ Ethics\\,\\ Books\\ II\\ and\\ X\\ 156\\ Aristotle\\,\\ The\\ Politics\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Book\\ I\\ 158\\ Book\\ III\\ 161\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ XI\\ \\(Ability\\,\\ Disability\\,\\ and\\ Discrimination\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Cheerleaders\\ and\\ Casey\\ Martin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Golf\\ Cart\\)\\ Sue\\ Ann\\ Pressley\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ \\&lsquo\\;Safety\\&rsquo\\;\\ Blitz\\&rdquo\\;\\ Washington\\ Post\\ 162\\ Bob\\ Ryan\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sorry\\,\\ Free\\ Rides\\ Not\\ Right\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Boston\\ Globe\\ 163\\ Tom\\ Kite\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Keep\\ the\\ PGA\\ on\\ Foot\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ New\\ York\\ Times\\ 164\\ Supreme\\ Court\\ of\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;PGA\\ Tour\\,\\ Inc\\.\\,\\ Petitioner\\ v\\.\\ Casey\\ Martin\\&rdquo\\;\\ 165\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ XII\\ \\(Justice\\,\\ Community\\,\\ and\\ Membership\\)\\ Alasdair\\ MacIntyre\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Virtues\\,\\ the\\ Unity\\ of\\ a\\ Human\\ Life\\ and\\ the\\ Concept\\ of\\ a\\ Tradition\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ After\\ Virtue\\ 166\\ Michael\\ Sandel\\,\\ Liberalism\\ and\\ the\\ Limits\\ of\\ Justice\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 1\\-24\\,\\ 175\\-183\\ 168\\ Michael\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Morality\\ and\\ the\\ Liberal\\ Ideal\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ New\\ Republic\\ 170\\ Michael\\ Walzer\\,\\ Spheres\\ of\\ Justice\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 6\\-10\\,\\ 86\\-91\\,\\ 312\\-314\\ 171\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ XIII\\ \\(Liberalism\\:\\ Political\\ or\\ Philosophical\\?\\)\\ John\\ Rawls\\,\\ Political\\ Liberalism\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 3\\-15\\,\\ 29\\-35\\,\\ 144\\-158\\ 172\\ Michael\\ Sandel\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Political\\ Liberalism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Harvard\\ Law\\ Review\\ 175\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Week\\ XIV\\ \\(Moral\\ Argument\\ and\\ Liberal\\ Toleration\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Same\\-Sex\\ Marriage\\,\\ For\\ and\\ Against\\)\\ Michael\\ Kinsley\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Abolish\\ Marriage\\&rdquo\\;\\ Washington\\ Post\\ 178\\ John\\ Finnis\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Law\\,\\ Morality\\,\\ and\\ \\&lsquo\\;Sexual\\ Orientation\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Notre\\ Dame\\ Law\\ Review\\ 179\\ Stephen\\ Macedo\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Homosexuality\\ and\\ the\\ Conservative\\ Mind\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Georgetown\\ Law\\ Journal\\ 181\\ Robin\\ West\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Universalism\\,\\ Liberal\\ Theory\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Problem\\ of\\ Gay\\ Marriage\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ FSU\\ Law\\ Review\\ 182\\ Supreme\\ Judicial\\ Court\\ of\\ Massachusetts\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Hillary\\ Goodridge\\ \\&\\;\\ others\\ vs\\.\\ Department\\ of\\ Public\\ Health\\&rdquo\\;\\ 183\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\,\\ Week\\ I\\ Day\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\:\\ Lecture\\ 01\\,\\ Monday\\,\\ September\\ 19\\,\\ 2005\\ Author\\:\\ Professor\\ Sandel\\ Contributor\\:\\ Richard\\ Hsu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trolley\\ car\\ story\\:\\ You\\&\\#39\\;re\\ driving\\ a\\ trolley\\ car\\ going\\ down\\ a\\ track\\ that\\ splits\\ into\\ two\\ separate\\ tracks\\.\\ On\\ the\\ track\\ you\\&\\#39\\;re\\ going\\,\\ there\\ are\\ five\\ oblivious\\ workers\\.\\ The\\ other\\ track\\ has\\ only\\ one\\ person\\.\\ What\\ would\\ you\\ do\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ would\\ turn\\ and\\ why\\?\\ \\"\\;It\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ be\\ right\\ to\\ kill\\ five\\ people\\ instead\\ of\\ only\\ one\\.\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;Less\\ people\\ would\\ die\\ if\\ you\\ turn\\ and\\ kill\\ only\\ one\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ wouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ turn\\ and\\ why\\?\\ \\"\\;We\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ decide\\ who\\ should\\ die\\.\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;Somehow\\ when\\ I\\ turn\\,\\ I\\&\\#39\\;m\\ somehow\\ more\\ responsible\\ for\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ one\\ than\\ if\\ I\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ do\\ anything\\ and\\ killed\\ the\\ five\\ \\(by\\ accident\\)\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Change\\ the\\ scenario\\:\\ You\\&\\#39\\;re\\ an\\ onlooker\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\ scene\\,\\ standing\\ on\\ a\\ bridge\\.\\ Next\\ to\\ you\\,\\ leaning\\ over\\ the\\ bridge\\,\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ fat\\ man\\.\\ You\\ could\\ easily\\ shove\\ him\\,\\ fall\\ onto\\ the\\ tracks\\ and\\ stop\\ the\\ trolley\\ car\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Who\\ wouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ shove\\ and\\ why\\?\\ \\"\\;A\\ choice\\ would\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ involve\\ an\\ otherwise\\ uninvolved\\ fat\\ man\\.\\"\\;\\ \\"\\;You\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ have\\ control\\ over\\ the\\ trolley\\ cart\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ scenario\\,\\ but\\ you\\ do\\ have\\ control\\ over\\ pushing\\ the\\ man\\ \\-\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ conscious\\ act\\ of\\ murder\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;But\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ it\\ all\\ the\\ same\\?\\ You\\&\\#39\\;re\\ consciously\\ turning\\ the\\ trolley\\ car\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Now\\ suppose\\ the\\ fat\\ man\\ was\\ standing\\ on\\ a\\ trap\\ door\\ that\\ you\\ could\\ open\\ by\\ turning\\ a\\ steering\\ wheel\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Doctor\\ story\\:\\ Six\\ patients\\ come\\ to\\ you\\,\\ a\\ doctor\\,\\ with\\ severe\\ injuries\\ from\\ a\\ horrible\\ trolley\\ car\\ wreck\\.\\ You\\ could\\ attend\\ to\\ five\\,\\ save\\ them\\ and\\ let\\ one\\ die\\ or\\ you\\ could\\ attend\\ to\\ the\\ one\\,\\ save\\ him\\ and\\ let\\ the\\ five\\ die\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nearly\\ everyone\\ would\\ save\\ the\\ five\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Change\\ the\\ scenario\\:\\ Now\\ there\\ are\\ five\\ patients\\ who\\ all\\ need\\ different\\ organs\\.\\ You\\ have\\ no\\ organ\\ donors\\,\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ next\\ room\\,\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ healthy\\ guy\\ who\\ came\\ in\\ for\\ a\\ checkup\\.\\.\\.he\\&\\#39\\;s\\ taking\\ a\\ nap\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.\\.you\\ could\\ sacrifice\\ the\\ one\\ healthy\\ person\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ five\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ one\\ would\\ do\\ it\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alternate\\ idea\\:\\ take\\ the\\ first\\ sick\\ person\\ who\\ dies\\ and\\ use\\ his\\ organs\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ other\\ four\\.\\.\\.\\.but\\ that\\ would\\ \\"\\;wreck\\ the\\ philosophical\\ point\\!\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ began\\,\\ in\\ each\\ case\\,\\ with\\ a\\ story\\.\\ People\\ gave\\ their\\ reactions\\,\\ and\\ then\\ gave\\ their\\ reasons\\.\\ In\\ giving\\ the\\ reasons\\,\\ people\\ articulated\\ their\\ underlying\\ principles\\.\\ We\\ then\\ confronted\\ a\\ new\\ case\\ that\\ challenged\\ our\\ principles\\ in\\ some\\ way\\.\\ We\\ felt\\ the\\ pressure\\ to\\ align\\ our\\ principles\\ with\\ both\\ cases\\.\\ Movement\\ back\\ and\\ forth\\ between\\ cases\\ and\\ principles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ point\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ substance\\ of\\ our\\ arguments\\ \\-\\ moral\\ principles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consequentialist\\ moral\\ reasoning\\ \\-\\ The\\ right\\/moral\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\ depends\\ on\\ the\\ consequences\\ of\\ your\\ actions\\.\\ It\\ locates\\ morality\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ that\\ would\\ result\\ from\\ the\\ thing\\ you\\ do\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarianism\\ \\(invented\\ by\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\)\\ \\-\\ The\\ most\\ popular\\ form\\ of\\ consequentialist\\ moral\\ reasoning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ in\\ the\\ changed\\ scenarios\\,\\ people\\ began\\ to\\ hesitate\\ about\\ the\\ consequences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Categorical\\ moral\\ reasoning\\ \\-\\ Consequences\\ be\\ they\\ may\\,\\ people\\ had\\ fundamental\\ reservations\\ about\\ these\\ actions\\.\\ It\\ locates\\ morality\\ in\\ absolute\\ moral\\ requirements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kant\\ created\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ form\\ of\\ categorical\\ moral\\ reasoning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Let\\&\\#39\\;s\\ think\\ first\\ about\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ political\\ philosophy\\ \\-\\ what\\ does\\ philosophy\\ have\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ real\\ world\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ answer\\ says\\ that\\ philosophy\\ is\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ values\\/ideals\\ whereas\\ politics\\ is\\ the\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ This\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ relation\\ of\\ philosophy\\ and\\ politics\\ as\\ the\\ external\\ view\\,\\ because\\ it\\ sees\\ philosophers\\ as\\ dreamers\\ \\(heads\\ in\\ the\\ clouds\\)\\.\\ Philosophers\\ can\\ inspire\\ political\\ life\\,\\ but\\ they\\ can\\ never\\ prevail\\ because\\ of\\ the\\ gap\\ between\\ the\\ ideal\\ and\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ second\\ answer\\ says\\ that\\ political\\ life\\ is\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ philosophy\\ to\\ begin\\ with\\.\\ Everything\\ we\\ do\\ presupposes\\ some\\ conviction\\/ideal\\/value\\/principle\\ even\\ though\\ we\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ naturally\\ aware\\ of\\ it\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ internal\\ view\\ because\\ it\\ sees\\ philosophy\\ residing\\ within\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ the\\ city\\.\\ Philosophy\\ dwells\\ among\\ and\\ within\\ us\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ that\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ implicit\\ in\\ our\\ everyday\\ practices\\,\\ political\\ assumptions\\,\\ and\\ conventions\\.\\ Politics\\ and\\ philosophy\\ are\\ cast\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ tension\\ where\\ philosophy\\ takes\\ on\\ a\\ subversive\\ character\\.\\ Politics\\ is\\ about\\ founding\\ and\\ defending\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ laws\\ whereas\\ philosophy\\ is\\ about\\ challenging\\ those\\ laws\\ and\\ those\\ conventions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ arguments\\ we\\ had\\ bring\\ out\\ the\\ internal\\ picture\\ of\\ philosophy\\ in\\ its\\ relation\\ to\\ the\\ world\\.\\ Sandel\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ internal\\ implications\\ of\\ philosophy\\ for\\ this\\ course\\.\\ Why\\ read\\ all\\ the\\ books\\ assigned\\ for\\ this\\ course\\?\\ The\\ answer\\ depends\\ on\\ whether\\ you\\ believe\\ the\\ external\\ or\\ internal\\ view\\.\\ On\\ the\\ external\\ view\\,\\ these\\ books\\ are\\ good\\ because\\ they\\ stand\\ as\\ objects\\ of\\ admiration\\ that\\ reflect\\ another\\ way\\ of\\ life\\.\\ On\\ the\\ internal\\ view\\,\\ we\\ read\\ these\\ texts\\ not\\ just\\ as\\ artifacts\\ in\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ ideas\\,\\ but\\ as\\ episodes\\ in\\ arguments\\ in\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ still\\ engaged\\.\\ These\\ books\\ make\\ claims\\ on\\ us\\ because\\ individually\\ and\\ collectively\\,\\ we\\ live\\ some\\ answer\\ to\\ their\\ questions\\ all\\ the\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ course\\ proceeds\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ internal\\ view\\.\\ Political\\ philosophy\\ is\\ not\\ just\\ a\\ history\\ of\\ ideas\\;\\ it\\ is\\ about\\ self\\-knowledge\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ live\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ This\\ course\\ will\\ engage\\ in\\ several\\ modern\\-day\\ issues\\.\\ Sandel\\ wants\\ to\\ make\\ clear\\ what\\ is\\ at\\ stake\\ in\\ our\\ everyday\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ warning\\ \\-\\ to\\ read\\ these\\ books\\ as\\ an\\ exercise\\ of\\ self\\-knowledge\\ carries\\ personal\\ and\\ political\\ risks\\.\\ These\\ risks\\ spring\\ from\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ philosophy\\ teaches\\ and\\ unsettles\\ us\\ by\\ confronting\\ us\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ already\\ know\\.\\ Irony\\ \\-\\ the\\ difficulty\\ in\\ this\\ course\\ is\\ just\\ that\\ we\\ will\\ be\\ taught\\ what\\ we\\ already\\ know\\.\\ Philosophy\\ takes\\ what\\ we\\ know\\ and\\ makes\\ them\\ strange\\;\\ just\\ like\\ our\\ opening\\ cases\\.\\ Philosophy\\ estranges\\ us\\ from\\ the\\ familiar\\ by\\ inviting\\ and\\ provoking\\ a\\ new\\ way\\ of\\ seeing\\.\\ Once\\ the\\ familiar\\ turns\\ strange\\,\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ never\\ quite\\ the\\ same\\ again\\;\\ self\\-knowledge\\ is\\ like\\ lost\\ innocence\\.\\ It\\ can\\ never\\ be\\ un\\-thought\\ or\\ un\\-known\\.\\ Moral\\ and\\ political\\ philosophy\\ is\\ a\\ story\\ where\\ you\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ know\\ where\\ it\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ lead\\,\\ but\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ story\\ about\\ you\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Politically\\,\\ you\\&\\#39\\;ll\\ become\\ a\\ better\\ and\\ more\\ responsible\\ citizen\\.\\ But\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ partial\\ and\\ misleading\\ promise\\.\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ allow\\ for\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ political\\ philosophy\\ might\\ make\\ you\\ a\\ worse\\ citizen\\,\\ or\\ at\\ least\\ a\\ worse\\ citizen\\ before\\ you\\ become\\ a\\ better\\ one\\.\\ Philosophy\\ is\\ a\\ distancing\\/debilitating\\ activity\\;\\ it\\ distances\\ us\\ from\\ conventions\\,\\ settled\\ assumptions\\,\\ and\\ personal\\ beliefs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ is\\ a\\ characteristic\\ evasion\\:\\ skepticism\\.\\ If\\ no\\ philosophers\\ have\\ solved\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ questions\\ over\\ several\\ hundred\\ years\\,\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ solve\\ them\\?\\ Sandel\\ says\\,\\ yes\\,\\ these\\ questions\\ have\\ been\\ debated\\ for\\ a\\ very\\ long\\ time\\.\\ But\\ the\\ very\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ recurred\\ and\\ persisted\\ makes\\ them\\ inescapable\\,\\ that\\ we\\ live\\ these\\ issues\\ every\\ day\\.\\ Giving\\ up\\ is\\ no\\ solution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ aim\\ of\\ this\\ course\\ is\\ to\\ awaken\\ the\\ restlessness\\ of\\ reason\\ and\\ see\\ where\\ it\\ will\\ lead\\ us\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ Week\\ I\\ Day\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\:\\ Lecture\\ 02\\,\\ Wednesday\\,\\ September\\ 21\\,\\ 2005\\ Author\\:\\ Professor\\ Sandel\\ Contributor\\:\\ Richard\\ Hsu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Previously\\:\\ How\\ to\\ articulate\\ reasons\\/principles\\ behind\\ our\\ line\\ of\\ argument\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consequentialist\\ vs\\.\\ categorical\\ moral\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarianism\\:\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\ \\(18th\\ century\\ English\\ political\\ philosopher\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utility\\:\\ the\\ balance\\ of\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\,\\ happiness\\ over\\ suffering\\;\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\ are\\ governed\\ by\\ two\\ things\\ \\-\\ pain\\ and\\ pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ right\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\ individually\\ or\\ collectively\\,\\ is\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ overall\\ level\\ of\\ \\"\\;happiness\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;The\\ greatest\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Assigned\\ Reading\\]\\ Men\\ lost\\ at\\ sea\\ with\\ no\\ food\\ and\\ no\\ water\\,\\ cabin\\ boy\\ Parker\\ appeared\\ to\\ be\\ dying\\,\\ captain\\ Dudley\\ proposed\\ lottery\\ idea\\ to\\ see\\ who\\ would\\ die\\ to\\ save\\ the\\ others\\ \\(categorical\\ principle\\)\\,\\ Brooks\\ refused\\,\\ Dudley\\ then\\ chose\\ and\\ killed\\ Parker\\,\\ for\\ four\\ days\\ the\\ remaining\\ three\\ fed\\ upon\\ Parker\\ until\\ they\\ were\\ saved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defendants\\ argued\\ on\\ basis\\ of\\ necessity\\;\\ prosecutor\\ argued\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ murder\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Discussion\\]\\ What\\ if\\ Dudley\\ asked\\ Parker\\ for\\ consent\\?\\ Why\\ would\\ consent\\ make\\ a\\ moral\\ difference\\ in\\ this\\ case\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ case\\ also\\ considers\\ precedence\\.\\ Years\\ ago\\,\\ another\\ ship\\ called\\ the\\ Peggy\\ killed\\ a\\ cat\\ and\\ ate\\ the\\ animal\\ for\\ subsistence\\.\\ In\\ the\\ 1800s\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ lottery\\ among\\ the\\ four\\ cabin\\ boys\\ \\-\\ the\\ cook\\ refused\\ to\\ do\\ so\\,\\ but\\ he\\ was\\ told\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ a\\ duty\\ to\\ \\"\\;prepare\\ the\\ meals\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ lottery\\,\\ and\\ the\\ cabin\\ boy\\ lost\\ \\-\\ is\\ it\\ morally\\ defensible\\ then\\?\\ Most\\ people\\ said\\ yes\\;\\ explanation\\ \\-\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ not\\ the\\ act\\ of\\ cannibalism\\ then\\,\\ it\\&\\#39\\;s\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ due\\ process\\.\\.\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Even\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ lottery\\,\\ even\\ if\\ there\\ was\\ consent\\,\\ who\\ thinks\\ it\\ is\\ still\\ wrong\\,\\ and\\ why\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Wrap\\-up\\]\\ Defenses\\:\\ Necessity\\,\\ dire\\ circumstances\\,\\ implicitly\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ numbers\\ matter\\ and\\ the\\ wider\\ effects\\ matter\\ \\(their\\ family\\ at\\ home\\,\\ etc\\)\\;\\ if\\ you\\ try\\ to\\ calculate\\/balance\\ the\\ happiness\\/suffering\\,\\ then\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ ok\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Objections\\:\\ What\\ they\\ did\\ was\\ categorically\\ wrong\\ \\(murder\\ is\\ murder\\)\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ increased\\ their\\ \\"\\;happiness\\.\\"\\;\\ But\\ we\\ still\\ need\\ to\\ investigate\\ why\\ murder\\ is\\ categorically\\ wrong\\.\\ Do\\ people\\ have\\ fundamental\\ rights\\,\\ and\\ where\\ do\\ those\\ rights\\ come\\ from\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\:\\ Why\\ does\\ an\\ agreement\\ to\\ a\\ procedure\\ \\(fair\\ or\\ unfair\\)\\ justify\\ it\\?\\ Idea\\ of\\ consent\\?\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ moral\\ work\\ that\\ a\\ consent\\ does\\?\\ Why\\ does\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ consent\\ make\\ taking\\ the\\ life\\ morally\\ permissible\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\,\\ Week\\ II\\ Day\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\:\\ Lecture\\ 03\\,\\ Monday\\,\\ September\\ 26\\,\\ 2005\\ Author\\:\\ Professor\\ Sandel\\ Contributor\\:\\ Richard\\ Hsu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Notes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Last\\ time\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ used\\ the\\ lifeboat\\ case\\ as\\ a\\ way\\ into\\ the\\ moral\\ principles\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\.\\ At\\ the\\ time\\,\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\ were\\ convicted\\ of\\ murder\\,\\ but\\ a\\ popular\\ sympathy\\ was\\ evoked\\ and\\ reduced\\ their\\ sentence\\ to\\ only\\ 6\\ months\\ of\\ prison\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stephens\\ was\\ an\\ artist\\,\\ and\\ his\\ pictures\\ were\\ published\\ in\\ the\\ Illustrated\\ London\\ News\\.\\ Richard\\ Parker\\ got\\ a\\ memorial\\ tombstone\\,\\ but\\ \\"\\;even\\ after\\ his\\ death\\ his\\ luck\\ did\\ not\\ improve\\"\\;\\.\\.\\.a\\ tree\\ fell\\ on\\ the\\ tombstone\\ and\\ broke\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Reading\\:\\ Jeremy\\ Bentham\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bentham\\ \\(1748\\)\\,\\ at\\ 12\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ law\\ school\\,\\ at\\ 15\\ he\\ went\\ to\\ Oxford\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Very\\ practical\\ man\\ who\\ wanted\\ to\\ use\\ his\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ highest\\ principle\\ of\\ morality\\ \\(personal\\ or\\ political\\)\\ is\\ to\\ maximize\\ the\\ collective\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\,\\ that\\ is\\ utility\\ \\-\\ maximize\\ pleasure\\ over\\ pain\\,\\ the\\ greatest\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ are\\ all\\ governed\\ by\\ pleasure\\ and\\ pain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utility\\ \\-\\ whatever\\ reduces\\ suffering\\ or\\ pain\\,\\ increases\\ pleasure\\ or\\ happiness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ principle\\ is\\ for\\ individuals\\ and\\ the\\ community\\,\\ where\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ utilities\\ of\\ its\\ member\\ individuals\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bentham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ argument\\:\\ The\\ principle\\ of\\ utility\\ cannot\\ be\\ consistently\\ combated\\,\\ that\\ any\\ objections\\ against\\ the\\ principle\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ principle\\ itself\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Applications\\ of\\ Bentham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Utilitarianism\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bentham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ proposal\\:\\ To\\ deal\\ with\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ \\"\\;proper\\ management\\"\\;\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ beggars\\.\\ Create\\ a\\ workhouse\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ these\\ beggars\\ can\\ be\\ employed\\ \\-\\ a\\ clear\\ illustration\\ of\\ Bentham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ logic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beggars\\ are\\ bad\\ because\\ it\\ decreases\\ the\\ general\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Two\\ types\\ of\\ people\\:\\ a\\ tender\\ person\\,\\ in\\ whom\\ beggars\\ create\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ pain\\ \\(sympathy\\)\\;\\ hard\\-\\ hearted\\,\\ in\\ whom\\ beggars\\ create\\ a\\ feeling\\ of\\ pain\\ \\(disgust\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ about\\ beggars\\&\\#39\\;\\ utility\\?\\ Though\\ many\\ beggars\\ would\\ prefer\\ begging\\ than\\ working\\ in\\ a\\ workhouse\\,\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ pains\\ of\\ other\\ people\\ is\\ greater\\ than\\ the\\ pains\\ of\\ the\\ beggars\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&\\#39\\;s\\ a\\ self\\-financing\\ scheme\\:\\ Any\\ person\\/citizen\\ would\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ apprehend\\ the\\ beggar\\ and\\ take\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ workhouse\\.\\ The\\ beggar\\ would\\ have\\ a\\ self\\-liberation\\ account\\ \\(includes\\ food\\,\\ clothing\\,\\ mortgage\\,\\ etc\\.\\)\\ that\\ the\\ beggar\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ work\\ off\\.\\ Each\\ person\\/citizen\\ would\\ be\\ paid\\ 20\\ shillings\\ for\\ their\\ efforts\\ \\(this\\ would\\ go\\ on\\ the\\ beggar\\&\\#39\\;s\\ tab\\)\\.\\ Bentham\\ thought\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ humane\\ way\\ to\\ increase\\ the\\ general\\ welfare\\ without\\ diminishing\\ utility\\ \\(public\\ policy\\-type\\ solution\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ of\\ aggregating\\ costs\\ and\\ benefits\\ is\\ still\\ very\\ influential\\ and\\ applicable\\ today\\ \\(cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\)\\.\\ Placing\\ a\\ value\\ to\\ stand\\ for\\ utility\\ on\\ the\\ costs\\/benefits\\ of\\ various\\ proposals\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recent\\ proposal\\ to\\ increase\\ excise\\ tax\\ on\\ tobacco\\ products\\.\\ Phillips\\-Morris\\ did\\ a\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ on\\ smoking\\ in\\ the\\ Czech\\ Republic\\.\\ Results\\:\\ the\\ government\\ saves\\/gains\\ on\\ every\\ smoking\\-related\\ death\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Negative\\ effects\\:\\ increased\\ health\\ care\\ costs\\,\\ lost\\ income\\ tax\\,\\ absenteeism\\ related\\ costs\\,\\ smoke\\-\\ induced\\ fire\\ costs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Positive\\ effects\\:\\ \\[direct\\]\\ excise\\ tax\\,\\ value\\-added\\ tax\\,\\ corporate\\ income\\ tax\\,\\ customs\\ duty\\;\\ \\[indirect\\]\\ health\\ care\\ savings\\,\\ pensions\\ savings\\,\\ elderly\\ housing\\ savings\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\People\\ can\\ be\\ outraged\\ by\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\.\\.\\.why\\?\\ What\\ about\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ life\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ford\\ Pinto\\ case\\ \\(1970s\\)\\:\\ Very\\ popular\\,\\ but\\ it\\ had\\ one\\ problem\\ \\-\\ the\\ fuel\\ tank\\ could\\ explode\\ while\\ operating\\ the\\ car\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Victims\\ sued\\ Ford\\ \\-\\ Ford\\ apparently\\ had\\ long\\ since\\ known\\ about\\ the\\ problem\\ and\\ had\\ done\\ a\\ cost\\-\\ benefit\\ analysis\\ on\\ whether\\ they\\ should\\ put\\ in\\ a\\ special\\ shield\\ to\\ protect\\ passengers\\ from\\ the\\ exploding\\ fuel\\ tanks\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\$11\\ per\\ part\\ installed\\ in\\ all\\ cars\\ \\(\\$137\\.5\\ million\\)\\ costed\\ more\\ than\\ the\\ expected\\ benefits\\ of\\ the\\ improved\\ safety\\ \\(\\$49\\.5\\ million\\)\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ appalled\\ the\\ jurors\\ and\\ they\\ awarded\\ the\\ victims\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Discussion\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Julie\\:\\ \\$200\\,000\\ doesn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ extra\\ emotional\\ suffering\\ caused\\ by\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ life\\.\\ They\\ were\\ wrong\\ in\\ trying\\ to\\ put\\ any\\ number\\ at\\ all\\ to\\ a\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Voitek\\:\\ You\\ have\\ to\\ allow\\ for\\ inflation\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sandel\\:\\ If\\ we\\ do\\ that\\ for\\ all\\ the\\ components\\ in\\ the\\ equation\\,\\ would\\ that\\ then\\ be\\ the\\ appropriate\\ way\\ to\\ approach\\ this\\ problem\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elizabeth\\:\\ Can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ conflate\\ a\\ monetary\\ value\\ \\(the\\ monetary\\ compensation\\)\\ with\\ a\\ moral\\ value\\ \\(the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ life\\)\\.\\ Needs\\ a\\ different\\ lexicon\\ of\\ reasoning\\ \\-\\ need\\ to\\ use\\ moral\\ logic\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ moral\\ issue\\ of\\ the\\ loss\\ of\\ a\\ life\\;\\ can\\&\\#39\\;t\\ use\\ money\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ controversy\\:\\ The\\ EPA\\ must\\ put\\ a\\ dollar\\ value\\ on\\ a\\ human\\ life\\ when\\ doing\\ analysis\\ on\\ businesses\\ that\\ follow\\ the\\ Clean\\ Air\\ Policy\\ \\-\\ \\$3\\.7\\ million\\.\\ But\\ in\\ good\\ utilitarian\\ fashion\\,\\ they\\ considered\\ the\\ possibility\\ that\\ the\\ figure\\ should\\ change\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ the\\ person\\.\\ Won\\&\\#39\\;t\\ there\\ be\\ a\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ years\\ lost\\ of\\ a\\ young\\ vs\\.\\ old\\ person\\?\\ \\"\\;Senior\\ citizen\\ discount\\"\\;\\ \\-\\ \\$2\\.7\\ million\\ for\\ those\\ over\\ 70\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Discussion\\:\\ objections\\ to\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ objections\\ to\\ utilitarian\\ philosophy\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hard\\ to\\ calculate\\ the\\ full\\ chain\\ of\\ effects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Anna\\:\\ What\\ about\\ the\\ minority\\?\\ The\\ greatest\\ good\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ works\\ for\\ the\\ majority\\,\\ but\\ then\\ there\\ is\\ still\\ a\\ population\\ of\\ people\\ that\\ get\\ shafted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ cabin\\ boy\\ case\\,\\ there\\ may\\ be\\ certain\\ rights\\ that\\ the\\ minority\\ have\\ that\\ shouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ be\\ traded\\ off\\ for\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sandel\\:\\ In\\ ancient\\ Rome\\,\\ Christians\\ were\\ thrown\\ to\\ the\\ lions\\.\\ Christians\\ suffer\\ enormous\\ pain\\,\\ but\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ enormous\\ collective\\ ecstasy\\ of\\ the\\ Romans\\!\\ Surely\\ the\\ deliriousness\\ of\\ the\\ Romans\\ outweigh\\ the\\ excruciating\\ pain\\ of\\ the\\ few\\ Christians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Voitek\\:\\ Romans\\ are\\ justified\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ they\\ paid\\ for\\ their\\ tickets\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Utilitarianism\\ somehow\\ fails\\ to\\ respect\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ the\\ minority\\ even\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ outweighed\\ by\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ the\\ majority\\.\\ Any\\ objections\\ to\\ translating\\ lives\\ into\\ dollar\\ amounts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ calculation\\ of\\ the\\ sums\\ of\\ individual\\ utility\\ may\\ not\\ equal\\ the\\ \\"\\;emergent\\"\\;\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ community\\&\\#39\\;s\\ utility\\.\\ \\(Flu\\ shots\\ \\-\\ people\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ them\\ now\\,\\ but\\ community\\ benefits\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ more\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sandel\\:\\ But\\ isn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ that\\ still\\ cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\?\\ You\\&\\#39\\;re\\ considering\\ the\\ long\\-term\\ benefit\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ objections\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ whether\\ utilitarianism\\ adequately\\ affects\\ individual\\ rights\\ \\(minority\\ rights\\,\\ for\\ example\\)\\.\\ The\\ other\\ deals\\ with\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ aggregating\\ all\\ values\\ and\\ comparing\\ them\\ to\\ translate\\ them\\ into\\ dollar\\ terms\\ \\(Julie\\ and\\ Elizabeth\\ dispute\\ this\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1930s\\:\\ Psychologist\\ tried\\ to\\ address\\ the\\ second\\ issue\\.\\ Tried\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ translate\\ all\\ values\\/goods\\ into\\ a\\ single\\ measure\\.\\ Conducted\\ a\\ survey\\,\\ gave\\ people\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ unpleasant\\ experiences\\ \\-\\ how\\ much\\ would\\ you\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ paid\\ to\\ do\\ a\\ certain\\ thing\\?\\ Eat\\ a\\ 6\\-inch\\ long\\ worm\\?\\ Losing\\ a\\ tooth\\?\\ One\\ toe\\ cut\\ off\\?\\ To\\ live\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ your\\ life\\ on\\ a\\ farm\\ in\\ Kansas\\?\\ To\\ kill\\ a\\ cat\\ with\\ your\\ bare\\ hands\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kansas\\ was\\ the\\ most\\ expensive\\ on\\ the\\ list\\ \\-\\ \\$300\\,000\\ Eating\\ 6\\-inch\\ long\\ worm\\ \\-\\ \\$100\\,000\\ Losing\\ a\\ toe\\ \\-\\ \\$57\\,000\\ Killing\\ a\\ cat\\ \\-\\ \\$10\\,000\\ Losing\\ a\\ tooth\\ \\-\\ \\$4\\,500\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ everything\\ can\\ be\\ measured\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ \\-\\ \\"\\;appetites\\ and\\ desires\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*Does\\ this\\ support\\ Bentham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ idea\\ that\\ all\\ goods\\/values\\ can\\ be\\ captured\\ in\\ a\\ single\\,\\ uniform\\ measure\\?\\ Or\\ does\\ it\\ suggest\\ that\\ such\\ a\\ thing\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\?\\ What\\ does\\ this\\ suggest\\ about\\ the\\ consequentialist\\ theory\\ of\\ morality\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\,\\ Week\\ II\\ Day\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Title\\:\\ Lecture\\ 04\\,\\ Wednesday\\,\\ September\\ 28\\,\\ 2005\\ Author\\:\\ Professor\\ Sandel\\ Contributor\\:\\ Richard\\ Hsu\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Contributor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Last\\ time\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Examined\\ Bentham\\&\\#39\\;s\\ version\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\ Two\\ objections\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(1\\)\\ utilitarianism\\,\\ by\\ concerning\\ itself\\ for\\ greatest\\ good\\ for\\ greatest\\ number\\,\\ fails\\ to\\ adequately\\ respect\\ individual\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\:\\ throwing\\ the\\ Christians\\ to\\ the\\ Romans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Suppose\\ the\\ majority\\ antagonizes\\ a\\ very\\ small\\ minority\\,\\ and\\ the\\ minority\\ loses\\ \\-\\ what\\ then\\ of\\ utilitarianism\\?\\ Well\\,\\ the\\ utilitarian\\ calculus\\ works\\,\\ but\\ is\\ it\\ just\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\:\\ Suppose\\ a\\ suspect\\ had\\ crucial\\ info\\ on\\ an\\ impending\\ terrorist\\ attack\\,\\ but\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ share\\ the\\ information\\.\\ Would\\ it\\ be\\ just\\ to\\ torture\\ the\\ suspect\\ to\\ get\\ info\\ on\\ the\\ terrorist\\ attack\\?\\ Do\\ you\\ torture\\ the\\ suspect\\ for\\ the\\ greater\\ good\\ or\\ do\\ you\\ not\\,\\ saying\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ categorical\\ moral\\ respect\\ for\\ a\\ human\\ life\\?\\ \\(2\\)\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ aggregating\\ values\\ and\\ preferences\\.\\ Two\\ separate\\ versions\\ of\\ this\\ objection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Are\\ all\\ values\\ commensurable\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\EX\\:\\ Cost\\-benefit\\ analysis\\ takes\\ things\\ and\\ values\\ them\\ on\\ a\\ single\\,\\ uniform\\ measure\\.\\ But\\ can\\ certain\\ things\\,\\ like\\ lives\\,\\ be\\ compared\\ in\\ monetary\\ values\\?\\ Some\\ people\\ say\\ no\\,\\ but\\ some\\ say\\ we\\ do\\ this\\ everday\\,\\ in\\ insurance\\ policies\\,\\ government\\ policies\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ list\\ from\\ last\\ time\\ \\(killing\\ a\\ cat\\,\\ losing\\ a\\ tooth\\)\\ may\\ seem\\ absurd\\,\\ questionable\\ at\\ best\\ considering\\ this\\ above\\ objection\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Story\\]\\ Some\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ when\\ Sandel\\ was\\ a\\ grad\\.\\ student\\ at\\ Oxford\\,\\ there\\ were\\ rules\\ at\\ women\\&\\#39\\;s\\ colleges\\ about\\ having\\ overnight\\ guests\\.\\ But\\ these\\ rules\\ were\\ supposedly\\ easily\\ violated\\.\\ The\\ older\\ women\\ at\\ the\\ faculty\\ were\\ opposed\\ to\\ change\\ on\\ conventional\\ moral\\ grounds\\.\\ They\\ then\\ translated\\ their\\ arguments\\ into\\ utilitarian\\ terms\\:\\ guests\\ used\\ up\\ resources\\ like\\ hot\\ water\\,\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ replace\\ mattresses\\ more\\ often\\.\\ Compromise\\:\\ women\\ may\\ have\\ up\\ to\\ three\\ male\\ guests\\ per\\ week\\,\\ provided\\ that\\ they\\ pay\\ 50\\ pence\\ per\\ visit\\ to\\ compensate\\ the\\ college\\.\\ The\\ headline\\ the\\ next\\ morning\\?\\ \\"\\;Saint\\ Ann\\&\\#39\\;s\\ girls\\ 50\\ pence\\ a\\ night\\!\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Can\\ you\\ distinguish\\ higher\\ from\\ lower\\ pleasures\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\ should\\ we\\ weigh\\ all\\ preferences\\ that\\ people\\ have\\ with\\ assessing\\ whether\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ good\\ or\\ bad\\ preferences\\?\\ Shouldn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ we\\ distinguish\\ between\\ higher\\ and\\ lower\\ pleasures\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Part\\ of\\ the\\ appeal\\ of\\ making\\ no\\ qualitative\\ distinctions\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ non\\-\\ judgmental\\ and\\ egalitarian\\.\\ Bentham\\:\\ Everybody\\&\\#39\\;s\\ preferences\\ count\\ regardless\\ of\\ who\\ or\\ what\\ they\\ are\\.\\ All\\ that\\ should\\ differ\\ is\\ the\\ intensity\\ and\\ duration\\ of\\ pleasure\\/pain\\.\\ The\\ quantity\\ of\\ pleasure\\ being\\ equal\\,\\ pushpin\\ is\\ as\\ good\\ as\\ poetry\\.\\ Who\\&\\#39\\;s\\ to\\ say\\ which\\ of\\ these\\ pleasures\\ are\\ higher\\,\\ worthier\\,\\ nobler\\ than\\ others\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 14, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/justice_guide_2006-01-10.pdf", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Uncle Tom's Cabin", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 319, "html": "\\\\\\ Reading\\:\\\r\n\\Uncle\\ Tom\\'s\\ Cabin\\ \\(\\Read\\ with\\ commentary\\ on\\ TheFinalClub\\.org\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\\r\n\\\\We\\ begin\\ today\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lecture\\ with\\ a\\ painting\\ from\\ Jacob\\ Lawrence\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ series\\ devoted\\ to\\ John\\ Brown\\ \\(you\\ can\\ find\\ all\\ 22\\ images\\ \\here\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>One\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ visual\\ themes\\ in\\ \\\\Lawrence\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ series\\ is\\ his\\ depiction\\ of\\ John\\ Brown\\ either\\ as\\ a\\ prophet\\ or\\ as\\ Christ\\ specifically\\.\\ One\\ painting\\ actually\\ depicts\\ Brown\\ hanging\\ from\\ a\\ cross\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ text\\ associated\\ with\\ this\\ painting\\ reads\\,\\ \\\"John\\ Brown\\,\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ had\\ a\\ fanatical\\ belief\\ that\\ he\\ was\\ chosen\\ by\\ God\\ to\\ overthrow\\ black\\ slavery\\ in\\ America\\.\\\"\\<\\/p\\>\\\\(We\\ just\\ have\\ to\\ overlook\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ John\\ Brown\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ actions\\ have\\ absolutely\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ non\\-violent\\,\\ turn\\-the\\-other\\-cheek\\ teachings\\ of\\ Jesus\\,\\ which\\ is\\ what\\ I\\ think\\ is\\ so\\ obnoxious\\ about\\ the\\ messianic\\ image\\ that\\ Brown\\ \\(and\\ Lawrence\\ following\\ him\\)\\ tried\\ to\\ cultivate\\.\\ Did\\ John\\ Brown\\ have\\ a\\ keen\\ sense\\ of\\ right\\ and\\ wrong\\?\\ Yes\\.\\ Was\\ he\\ right\\ about\\ slavery\\?\\ Definitely\\.\\ Was\\ he\\ a\\ radical\\?\\ Absolutely\\.\\ Is\\ he\\ Christ\\-like\\?\\ Not\\ a\\ chance\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Here\\ is\\ image\\ \\#19\\ from\\ Lawrence\\ depicting\\ the\\ Harper\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Ferry\\ raid\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ you\\'re\\ looking\\ at\\ is\\ the\\ thousands\\ of\\ pikes\\ John\\ Brown\\ and\\ his\\ men\\ acquired\\ because\\ he\\ thought\\ slaves\\ might\\ not\\ know\\ how\\ to\\ load\\ rifles\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ image\\ focuses\\ on\\ the\\ pikes\\,\\ and\\ it\\ suggests\\ a\\ military\\ formation\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ an\\ organized\\ and\\ disciplined\\ army\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ mob\\.\\\r\n\\\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\\\Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\We\\ now\\ turn\\ to\\ the\\ little\\ lady\\ who\\ wrote\\ the\\ book\\ that\\ started\\ this\\ big\\ war\\:\\ Harriet\\ Beecher\\ Stowe\\.\\ In\\ 1832\\,\\ Stowe\\ moved\\ to\\ \\\\Cincinnati\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ where\\ her\\ father\\ was\\ president\\ of\\ a\\ seminary\\,\\ and\\ she\\ had\\ first\\-hand\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ \\Underground\\ Railroad\\<\\/a\\>\\ while\\ living\\ near\\ the\\ border\\ of\\ the\\ slave\\ state\\ \\\\Kentucky\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ same\\ year\\,\\ she\\ met\\ Calvin\\ Stowe\\,\\ a\\ professor\\ of\\ Biblical\\ literature\\ whom\\ she\\ would\\ eventually\\ marry\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1849\\,\\ her\\ son\\ dies\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ a\\ spiritual\\ crisis\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Soon\\ thereafter\\,\\ the\\ \\Fugitive\\ Slave\\ Law\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(1850\\)\\ was\\ passed\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ larger\\ compromise\\ that\\ would\\ hold\\ the\\ growing\\ union\\ together\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Full\\ weight\\ of\\ authority\\ to\\ federal\\ government\\ to\\ capture\\ fugitive\\ slaves\\ even\\ after\\ they\\ make\\ it\\ into\\ a\\ \\\\free\\ state\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Stowe\\ cites\\ four\\ factors\\ that\\ influenced\\ her\\ writing\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Cabin\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ The\\ Fugitive\\ Slave\\ Law\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ The\\ death\\ of\\ her\\ son\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ she\\ claimed\\ this\\ experience\\ allowed\\ her\\ to\\ empathize\\ with\\ slaves\\ whose\\ families\\ are\\ systematically\\ torn\\ apart\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ God\\.\\ She\\ claims\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ did\\ not\\ write\\ this\\ novel\\,\\ God\\ did\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ and\\ that\\ while\\ taking\\ the\\ sacrament\\ of\\ communion\\ in\\ church\\ one\\ day\\ she\\ suddenly\\ imagined\\ the\\ death\\ scene\\ of\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\,\\ which\\ was\\ the\\ germ\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ A\\ letter\\ from\\ her\\ sister\\-in\\-law\\ asking\\ Harriet\\ to\\ write\\ something\\ that\\ will\\ reveal\\ to\\ everyone\\ the\\ true\\ wickedness\\ of\\ slavery\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Reviews\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\ were\\ sharply\\ divided\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ was\\ either\\ very\\ good\\ or\\ very\\ bad\\.\\ George\\ Sand\\ called\\ her\\ a\\ saint\\.\\ Emerson\\,\\ George\\ Eliot\\ and\\ Tolstoy\\ were\\ all\\ approving\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Tolstoy\\ implicitly\\ ranked\\ her\\ novel\\ above\\ his\\ own\\ work\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Critical\\ debates\\ have\\ continued\\ to\\ this\\ day\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Is\\ she\\ racist\\?\\ Is\\ this\\ art\\ or\\ propaganda\\?\\ Is\\ she\\ a\\ Calvinist\\ or\\ a\\ feminist\\?\\ \\(This\\ is\\ where\\ James\\ Baldwin\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Everybody\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Protest\\ Novel\\&\\#8221\\;\\ comes\\ in\\,\\ though\\ we\\ should\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ demolition\\ of\\ Stowe\\ \\-\\ not\\ only\\ does\\ he\\ suggest\\ she\\'s\\ racist\\,\\ but\\ he\\ thinks\\ her\\ sentimentality\\ is\\ a\\ false\\ emotion\\,\\ the\\ \\\"mask\\ of\\ cruelty\\\"\\ \\-\\ is\\ connected\\ to\\ his\\ demolition\\ of\\ Richard\\ Wright\\'s\\ \\\\Native\\ Son\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ obsequious\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ is\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ sentimental\\ coin\\ to\\ the\\ modern\\ Angry\\ Black\\ Man\\ \\-\\ both\\ archetypes\\ fail\\ to\\ treat\\ African\\ Americans\\ as\\ fully\\ human\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Stowe\\ was\\ constantly\\ battling\\ against\\ the\\ perception\\ that\\ because\\ the\\ novel\\ is\\ fiction\\ it\\ is\\ simply\\ untrue\\,\\ and\\ she\\ goes\\ out\\ of\\ her\\ way\\ to\\ insist\\ that\\ the\\ novel\\ is\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;mosaic\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ a\\ piecing\\ together\\ of\\ true\\ fragments\\.\\ In\\ 1854\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ partly\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ her\\ critics\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Stowe\\ published\\ \\&\\#8220\\;\\The\\ Key\\ to\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Cabin\\<\\/a\\>\\:\\ The\\ Original\\ Facts\\ and\\ Documents\\ upon\\ Which\\ the\\ Story\\ Was\\ Founded\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ compiled\\ an\\ archive\\ of\\ materials\\ to\\ demonstrate\\ that\\ the\\ novel\\ is\\ essentially\\ factual\\.\\ Eliza\\ Harris\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ was\\ a\\ real\\ person\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Uncle\\ Tom\\ was\\ based\\ on\\ \\Josiah\\ Henson\\<\\/a\\>\\,\\ who\\ wrote\\ a\\ slave\\ autobiography\\.\\ As\\ Professor\\ McCarthy\\ says\\,\\ the\\ novel\\ was\\ \\\"dripping\\\"\\ with\\ genuine\\ historical\\ material\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ takes\\ over\\,\\ and\\ focuses\\ on\\ two\\ prominent\\ aspects\\ of\\ \\Uncle\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Cabin\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ a\\)\\ journalism\\ as\\ literature\\ and\\ b\\)\\ the\\ ambiguously\\ conservative\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ novel\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Journalism\\ as\\ literature\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Stowe\\ was\\ a\\ journalist\\ before\\ writing\\ her\\ novel\\ \\(and\\ she\\ belonged\\ to\\ a\\ group\\ called\\,\\ I\\ kid\\ you\\ not\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;The\\ Semicolon\\ Club\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ we\\ can\\ only\\ hope\\ that\\ the\\ minutes\\ of\\ those\\ meetings\\ have\\ withstood\\ the\\ test\\ of\\ time\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Before\\ \\Uncle\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Cabin\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ published\\ as\\ a\\ novel\\ it\\ was\\ serialized\\ in\\ an\\ abolitionist\\ journal\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Aesthetically\\,\\ the\\ problem\\ with\\ serialized\\ writing\\ is\\ that\\ your\\ novel\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ first\\ draft\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ you\\ can\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ revise\\ earlier\\ chapters\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ later\\ chapters\\ come\\ out\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ is\\ forced\\ to\\ publish\\ a\\ chapter\\ a\\ week\\ and\\ commit\\ to\\ what\\ has\\ already\\ been\\ published\\.\\ However\\,\\ there\\ are\\ benefits\\ to\\ publishing\\ serially\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Stowe\\ developed\\ a\\ keen\\ sense\\ of\\ pacing\\ in\\ the\\ narrative\\.\\ Things\\ move\\ more\\ quickly\\ than\\ we\\ might\\ expect\\,\\ and\\ she\\ opens\\ each\\ chapter\\ with\\ a\\ hook\\ and\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ cliff\\-hanger\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\She\\ also\\ creates\\ unforgettable\\ characters\\.\\ \\(This\\ would\\ rankle\\ Baldwin\\,\\ who\\ thinks\\ she\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ create\\ any\\ characters\\ whatsoever\\ because\\ they\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ two\\-dimensional\\.\\ Whether\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ on\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ side\\ or\\ not\\,\\ and\\ probably\\ \\because\\ \\<\\/em\\>they\\ aren\\'t\\ as\\ convoluted\\ as\\ literary\\ characters\\ should\\ be\\,\\ they\\ really\\ are\\ unforgettable\\.\\ Whether\\ you\\ like\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\ or\\ not\\,\\ it\\'s\\ hard\\ to\\ forget\\ him\\.\\ You\\ might\\ compare\\ this\\ effect\\ to\\ the\\ memorable\\ characters\\ of\\ Charles\\ Dickens\\ \\-\\ another\\ author\\ who\\ was\\ accused\\ of\\ having\\ no\\ genuine\\ characters\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ makes\\ an\\ important\\ political\\ point\\:\\ Stowe\\ wrote\\ this\\ novel\\ partly\\ because\\ novel\\-writing\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ women\\ could\\ engage\\ in\\ public\\ political\\ discourse\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stowe\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ambiguous\\ conservatism\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\Stowe\\ is\\ reluctant\\ to\\ embrace\\ immediate\\ abolition\\ and\\ immediate\\ racial\\ equality\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ she\\ characterized\\ herself\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;reluctant\\ abolitionist\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>She\\ declined\\ to\\ give\\ an\\ address\\ to\\ the\\ American\\ Anti\\-Slavery\\ Society\\ in\\ 1853\\,\\ fearing\\ that\\ Uncle\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ spirituality\\ would\\ get\\ displaced\\ by\\ his\\ activism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Three\\ aspects\\ to\\ Stowe\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Ambiguous\\ Conservatism\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Religious\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\conservatism\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\&\\#8211\\;\\ Stowe\\ is\\ a\\ millenialist\\,\\ but\\ she\\ takes\\ care\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ the\\ End\\ of\\ All\\ Things\\ is\\ still\\ firmly\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ can\\ people\\ do\\?\\ They\\ can\\ \\feel\\<\\/em\\>\\ right\\ in\\ their\\ hearts\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ will\\ the\\ future\\ look\\ like\\?\\ 1\\ answer\\ is\\ colonization\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ ridding\\ the\\ nation\\ of\\ freed\\ slaves\\,\\ the\\ walking\\ symbols\\ of\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ great\\ sin\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stowe\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ nation\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ decline\\ will\\ be\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ gradual\\ redemption\\,\\ partially\\ through\\ colonization\\ and\\ partly\\ through\\ the\\ systematic\\ education\\ and\\ acculturation\\ of\\ freed\\ blacks\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ in\\ opposition\\ to\\ a\\ \\radical\\<\\/em\\>\\ like\\ David\\ Walker\\,\\ who\\ believed\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ an\\ abrupt\\ revolutionary\\ change\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Racial\\ conservatism\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ She\\ engages\\ in\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;romantic\\ racialism\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ which\\ African\\ Americans\\ are\\ innately\\ different\\,\\ but\\ superior\\ rather\\ than\\ inferior\\ \\(\\&\\#8220\\;romantic\\ racialism\\&\\#8221\\;\\ comes\\ from\\ George\\ Fredrickson\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\\\The\\ Black\\ Image\\ in\\ the\\ White\\ Mind\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\ Why\\ is\\ this\\ conservative\\?\\ Because\\ it\\'s\\ an\\ essentialist\\ argument\\ \\-\\ it\\ maintains\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ fundamental\\ differences\\ associated\\ with\\ race\\ rather\\ than\\ realizing\\ that\\ hair\\ and\\ skin\\ are\\ entirely\\ superficial\\)\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aesthetic\\ conservatism\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\-\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ is\\ wrong\\ when\\ he\\ discusses\\ Stowe\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ sentimentalism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Stauffer\\ traces\\ Stowe\\'s\\ sentimentality\\ back\\ to\\ Adam\\ Smith\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Theory\\ of\\ Moral\\ Sentiments\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ whereas\\ \\Baldwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ has\\ a\\ specifically\\ modernist\\ conception\\ of\\ sympathy\\ based\\ on\\ T\\.\\ S\\.\\ Eliot\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\&\\#8220\\;objective\\ correlative\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ Stowe\\ overtly\\ implores\\ us\\ to\\ feel\\.\\ She\\ tells\\ us\\:\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ moment\\ to\\ cry\\.\\ Modernist\\ literature\\ values\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ actions\\,\\ objects\\ or\\ images\\ that\\ automatically\\ evoke\\ certain\\ emotions\\ in\\ and\\ of\\ themselves\\.\\)\\\r\n\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Beyond\\ this\\,\\ Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ Stowe\\ departs\\ from\\ conservatism\\ with\\ her\\ femininity\\.\\ \\ In\\ her\\ moral\\ schematic\\,\\ black\\ women\\ are\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ hierarchy\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Tom\\,\\ after\\ all\\,\\ is\\ feminine\\ in\\ his\\ characteristics\\ despite\\ being\\ physically\\ strong\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>At\\ the\\ bottom\\?\\ White\\ men\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ radical\\ move\\.\\ \\(It\\ largely\\ derives\\ from\\ Stowe\\'s\\ understanding\\ of\\ what\\ morality\\ is\\:\\ it\\'s\\ empathy\\.\\ She\\ accepts\\ stereotypical\\ gender\\ characteristics\\ \\-\\ that\\ men\\ are\\ rational\\ and\\ women\\ are\\ emotional\\ \\-\\ but\\ she\\ proceeds\\ to\\ link\\ emotions\\ \\(and\\ empathy\\ in\\ particular\\)\\ to\\ the\\ moral\\ sensibility\\,\\ whereas\\ the\\ abstract\\ principles\\ that\\ shape\\ masculine\\ ethics\\ are\\ dry\\ and\\ unable\\ to\\ grasp\\ the\\ deepest\\ moral\\ truths\\.\\ This\\ is\\ why\\ she\\ thinks\\ a\\ government\\ would\\ go\\ so\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ pass\\ something\\ like\\ the\\ Fugitive\\ Slave\\ Act\\ \\-\\ because\\,\\ in\\ principle\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ make\\ sense\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ legislators\\ are\\ operating\\ in\\ a\\ vacuum\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ families\\ involved\\ aren\\'t\\ real\\.\\ The\\ purpose\\ of\\ Stowe\\'s\\ novel\\ is\\ to\\ \\make\\ \\<\\/em\\>them\\ real\\ \\-\\ to\\ give\\ feeling\\ to\\ a\\ public\\ that\\ rationalizes\\ slavery\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Uncle Tom's Cabin"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-04-27 18:43:53+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Justice Study Guide", "tags": ["sandel", "justice", "moral-reasoning"], "text": "", "id": 2, "html": "\\\\\\Main\\_Ideas\\_\\-\\_Study\\_Guide\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c12\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c16\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c4\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c8\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-size\\:16pt\\}\\.c3\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c2\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c17\\{margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c14\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ Doing\\ the\\ Right\\ Thing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Queen\\ v\\.\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Is\\ killing\\ for\\ self\\-preservation\\ moral\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ court\\ holds\\ that\\ killing\\ is\\ killing\\,\\ so\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\ are\\ punished\\ for\\ murder\\ \\(sentenced\\ to\\ death\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Public\\ opinion\\ finds\\ that\\ Dudley\\ and\\ Stephens\\ were\\ punished\\ to\\ harshly\\,\\ and\\ the\\ men\\ are\\ pardoned\\ in\\ the\\ end\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Benthamite\\ Utilitarianism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ right\\ thing\\ to\\ do\\ is\\ whatever\\ bring\\ the\\ greatest\\ amount\\ of\\ happiness\\ for\\ the\\ greatest\\ number\\ of\\ people\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Nature\\ has\\ placed\\ mankind\\ under\\ the\\ governance\\ of\\ two\\ sovereign\\ masters\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pain\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\pleasure\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ interest\\ of\\ the\\ community\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ individuals\\ in\\ that\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Objections\\:\\ some\\ pleasures\\ are\\ higher\\ than\\ others\\ \\(think\\ about\\ the\\ pleasure\\ the\\ Romans\\ experience\\ when\\ throwing\\ the\\ Christians\\ to\\ the\\ lions\\)\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ to\\ put\\ everything\\ on\\ the\\ same\\ scale\\ \\(and\\ who\\ is\\ measuring\\?\\)\\,\\ \\&\\;\\ it\\ disregards\\ individual\\ rights\\ \\(think\\ about\\ the\\ Christians\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mill\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Utilitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Agrees\\ with\\ the\\ foundational\\ principle\\ that\\ pleasure\\ and\\ the\\ freedom\\ from\\ pain\\ are\\ the\\ only\\ things\\ desirable\\ as\\ ends\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\BUT\\&hellip\\;argues\\ that\\ some\\ kinds\\ of\\ pleasure\\ are\\ more\\ desirable\\ than\\ others\\ \\(people\\ who\\ have\\ experienced\\ both\\ are\\ judges\\ of\\ which\\ pleasure\\ is\\ higher\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AND\\&hellip\\;argues\\ that\\ utilitarianism\\ does\\ respect\\ individual\\ rights\\ because\\ individuality\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ long\\ term\\ interest\\ of\\ mankind\\.\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ our\\ interests\\ in\\ justice\\ are\\ higher\\ than\\ our\\ interests\\ in\\ expediency\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 2\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Libertarianism\\ \\(Friedmans\\,\\ Nozick\\,\\ Hayek\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\I\\ am\\ free\\ to\\ do\\ as\\ I\\ choose\\ so\\ long\\ as\\ I\\ do\\ not\\ interfere\\ with\\ the\\ liberties\\ of\\ others\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Anti\\-utilitarian\\ theory\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;because\\ individual\\ rights\\ trump\\ utility\\ \\(think\\ about\\ good\\ Samaritan\\ laws\\ as\\ being\\ too\\ utilitarian\\ for\\ the\\ libertarians\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Libertarians\\ also\\ think\\ that\\ utilitarians\\ fail\\ to\\ take\\ seriously\\ the\\ distinction\\ between\\ persons\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minimal\\ state\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ No\\ paternalism\\,\\ no\\ moral\\ legislation\\,\\ no\\ redistribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Nozick\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Offers\\ entitlement\\ theory\\ of\\ distribution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\If\\ there\\ was\\ justice\\ in\\ acquisition\\ and\\ justice\\ in\\ transfer\\,\\ distribution\\ is\\ just\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Patterned\\ distributions\\ are\\ worthless\\ because\\ liberty\\ upsets\\ all\\ patterns\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ own\\ ourselves\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ own\\ our\\ labor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ own\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ our\\ labor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warning\\ about\\ a\\ common\\ pitfall\\:\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ forget\\ that\\ libertarianism\\ does\\ require\\ rectification\\ if\\ everyone\\ is\\ not\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ holdings\\ they\\ possess\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 3\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Locke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Property\\ Rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Implied\\ consent\\ explains\\ how\\ we\\ own\\ our\\ selves\\ but\\ we\\ can\\ still\\ be\\ taxed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ fundamental\\ human\\ rights\\ \\(life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ property\\)\\ that\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ nature\\ and\\ we\\ consent\\ to\\ limited\\ government\\ as\\ a\\ means\\ of\\ preserving\\ these\\ rights\\ and\\ enforcing\\ consequences\\ on\\ those\\ who\\ do\\ not\\ respect\\ those\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Government\\ is\\ constrained\\ because\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ things\\ that\\ we\\ cannot\\ consent\\ to\\ regarding\\ our\\ inalienable\\ rights\\ \\(the\\ taking\\ of\\ our\\ life\\,\\ liberty\\,\\ and\\ property\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Unlike\\ the\\ libertarians\\,\\ Locke\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ a\\ minimal\\ state\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ he\\ only\\ requires\\ a\\ non\\-tyrannical\\ state\\ or\\ one\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ exercise\\ its\\ power\\ arbitrarily\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Non\\-arbitrary\\ taxation\\ is\\ okay\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ with\\ military\\ service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 4\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\APPLICATION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 5\\:\\ Markets\\ \\&\\;\\ Morals\\:\\ Surrogate\\ Motherhood\\,\\ Military\\ Service\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Note\\:\\ these\\ readings\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ studied\\ for\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ thinkers\\ because\\ the\\ exam\\ will\\ not\\ focus\\ specifically\\ on\\ Calabresi\\ or\\ on\\ the\\ Matter\\ of\\ Baby\\ M\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\ use\\ these\\ as\\ examples\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\,\\ however\\,\\ so\\ familiarize\\ yourself\\ with\\ the\\ issues\\ and\\ then\\ test\\ your\\ skills\\ by\\ applying\\ the\\ theory\\ to\\ these\\ hot\\ topics\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Military\\ Service\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Which\\ systems\\ for\\ military\\ service\\ are\\ just\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conscription\\ \\(Below\\ market\\ wage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Conscription\\ w\\/\\ Substitution\\ \\(Regulated\\ Market\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Voluntary\\ \\(Market\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Surrogacy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Is\\ surrogate\\ motherhood\\ just\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Selling\\ child\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Selling\\ body\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Selling\\ service\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 5\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Kant\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Freedom\\ as\\ Autonomy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ be\\ real\\:\\ Kant\\ is\\ complicated\\.\\ \\ \\;Please\\ reference\\ the\\ study\\ guide\\ I\\ sent\\ you\\ on\\ Kant\\ that\\ was\\ made\\ up\\ by\\ a\\ philosophy\\ grad\\ student\\ who\\ has\\ done\\ tons\\ of\\ work\\ with\\ Kant\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Duty\\ vs\\.\\ Inclination\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Freedom\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Autonomous\\ vs\\.\\ Heteronomous\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Categorical\\ vs\\.\\ Hypothetical\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Categorical\\ imperitive\\:\\ Can\\ I\\ will\\ that\\ the\\ principle\\ becomes\\ a\\ universal\\ law\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Formula\\ of\\ humanity\\:\\ Human\\ beings\\ are\\ an\\ end\\ in\\ themselves\\,\\ worthy\\ of\\ respect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Objections\\ to\\ note\\:\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ maxims\\ are\\ hard\\ to\\ pin\\ down\\,\\ Kant\\ is\\ a\\ consequentialist\\ because\\ he\\ asks\\ what\\ would\\ happen\\ if\\ the\\ principle\\ became\\ universal\\,\\ how\\ can\\ I\\ be\\ subservient\\ to\\ a\\ moral\\ law\\ and\\ still\\ free\\,\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ we\\ end\\ up\\ with\\ hundreds\\ of\\ different\\ categorical\\ imperatives\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ individual\\ who\\ uses\\ Kant\\&rsquo\\;s\\ test\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Even\\ with\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ murderer\\ at\\ the\\ door\\,\\ you\\ still\\ cannot\\ lie\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 6\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\ and\\ Chapter\\ 8\\:\\ Rawls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ hypothetical\\ contract\\ we\\ have\\ agreed\\ to\\ is\\ one\\ conceived\\ behind\\ a\\ veil\\ of\\ ignorance\\ because\\ justice\\ as\\ fairness\\ requires\\ that\\ morally\\ arbitrary\\ traits\\ not\\ be\\ rewarded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Behind\\ the\\ hypothetical\\ contract\\ we\\ will\\ on\\ two\\ principles\\ of\\ justice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Equal\\ basic\\ liberties\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Difference\\ principle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inequality\\ will\\ only\\ be\\ tolerated\\ where\\ it\\ disadvantages\\ the\\ least\\ well\\ off\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ hold\\ back\\ the\\ speedy\\,\\ just\\ bring\\ everyone\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ starting\\ line\\ \\(the\\ idea\\ respects\\ the\\ legitimate\\ expectations\\ of\\ the\\ speedy\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Natural\\ Liberty\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advantage\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ efficiency\\ dictates\\ \\(think\\ market\\)\\,\\ and\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ means\\ that\\ careers\\ are\\ open\\ to\\ anyone\\ who\\ is\\ talented\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ hired\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Rawls\\ rejects\\ this\\ because\\ talents\\ are\\ arbitrary\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Liberal\\ Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advantage\\ still\\ means\\ that\\ principle\\ of\\ efficiency\\ dictates\\ \\(think\\ market\\)\\,\\ but\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ means\\ that\\ everyone\\ has\\ a\\ fair\\ opportunity\\ to\\ obtain\\ whatever\\ career\\ they\\ please\\ \\(meritocracy\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Rawls\\ rejects\\ this\\ because\\ effort\\ is\\ dependant\\ upon\\ social\\ class\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ Aristocracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advantage\\ means\\ that\\ inequality\\ must\\ benefit\\ the\\ worst\\ off\\ and\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ means\\ that\\ careers\\ are\\ open\\ to\\ anyone\\ who\\ is\\ talented\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ hired\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Rawls\\ rejects\\ this\\ because\\ talents\\ are\\ arbitrary\\ \\(like\\ with\\ Natural\\ Liberty\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Democratic\\ Equality\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Everyone\\&rsquo\\;s\\ advantage\\ means\\ that\\ inequality\\ must\\ benefit\\ the\\ poor\\ and\\ worst\\ off\\ and\\ open\\ to\\ all\\ means\\ that\\ everyone\\ has\\ a\\ fair\\ opportunity\\ to\\ obtain\\ whatever\\ career\\&rsquo\\;s\\ they\\ please\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-Rawls\\ accepts\\ this\\ principle\\,\\ but\\ please\\ note\\ that\\ this\\ principle\\ still\\ leaves\\ room\\ for\\ a\\ tremendous\\ amount\\ of\\ inequality\\!\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Reflective\\ Equilibrium\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapters\\ 7\\ and\\ 8\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\APPLICATION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\:\\ Affirmative\\ Action\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Reverse\\ Discrimination\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Note\\:\\ these\\ readings\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ studied\\ for\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ thinkers\\ because\\ the\\ exam\\ will\\ not\\ focus\\ specifically\\ on\\ Berstein\\ or\\ on\\ the\\ Hopwod\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\ use\\ these\\ as\\ examples\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\,\\ however\\,\\ so\\ familiarize\\ yourself\\ with\\ the\\ issues\\ and\\ then\\ test\\ your\\ skills\\ by\\ applying\\ the\\ theory\\ to\\ these\\ hot\\ topics\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 9\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 10\\:\\ Aristotle\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Justice\\ and\\ Virtue\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Justice\\ is\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ fit\\,\\ or\\ giving\\ people\\ their\\ due\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Distribution\\ depends\\ upon\\ the\\ thing\\ you\\ are\\ distributing\\,\\ on\\ the\\ telos\\ \\(pupose\\)\\ of\\ the\\ distribution\\,\\ and\\ on\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ the\\ relevant\\ excellence\\ \\(Think\\ flutes\\)\\.\\ Aristotle\\ believes\\ that\\ people\\ should\\ be\\ rewarded\\ as\\ they\\ contribute\\ to\\ the\\ political\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Deontological\\ vs\\.\\ teleological\\ reasoning\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\City\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ City\\ is\\ before\\ all\\ other\\ institutions\\,\\ gives\\ people\\ their\\ function\\ \\(can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ without\\)\\,\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ achieve\\ the\\ most\\ VIRTUE\\ \\(not\\ good\\ necessarily\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ confuse\\ with\\ utilitarianism\\)\\,\\ inescapable\\ social\\ contract\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Man\\ as\\ a\\ political\\ animal\\:\\ the\\ state\\ come\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ individual\\,\\ political\\ association\\ fulfils\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ man\\,\\ gods\\ are\\ above\\ the\\ political\\ system\\,\\ beasts\\ are\\ below\\,\\ man\\ is\\ innately\\ a\\ part\\,\\ animals\\ are\\ created\\ by\\ their\\ surroundings\\,\\ similarly\\ so\\ are\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Citizenship\\-\\ citizens\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ share\\ in\\ office\\ holding\\,\\ their\\ purpose\\ is\\ to\\ serve\\ the\\ safeguarding\\ of\\ their\\ association\\,\\ difference\\ between\\ good\\ man\\ \\(good\\ man\\ regardless\\)\\ and\\ good\\ citizen\\ \\(depends\\ on\\ the\\ constitution\\ of\\ the\\ city\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\)\\.\\ Mechanics\\ and\\ laborers\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ citizens\\ because\\ they\\ basically\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ time\\ to\\ be\\ good\\ citizens\\.\\ Office\\ holding\\ is\\ participation\\ in\\ deliberation\\ of\\ justice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 10\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\APPLICATION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 11\\:\\ Ability\\,\\ Disability\\,\\ and\\ Discrimination\\:\\ Cheerleaders\\ and\\ Golf\\ Carts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Note\\:\\ these\\ readings\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ studied\\ for\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ thinkers\\ because\\ the\\ exam\\ will\\ not\\ focus\\ specifically\\ on\\ Callie\\ Smartt\\ or\\ on\\ Casey\\ Martin\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\ use\\ these\\ as\\ examples\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\,\\ however\\,\\ so\\ familiarize\\ yourself\\ with\\ the\\ issues\\ and\\ then\\ test\\ your\\ skills\\ by\\ applying\\ the\\ theory\\ to\\ these\\ hot\\ topics\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 11\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 12\\ and\\ Chapter\\ 13\\:\\ Communitarianism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Conceive\\ of\\ people\\ as\\ situated\\ selves\\ \\(not\\ voluntarist\\/choosing\\ selves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ have\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Natural\\ duties\\ that\\ are\\ universal\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Voluntary\\ obligations\\ which\\ we\\ take\\ on\\ through\\ consent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Obligations\\ of\\ Solidarity\\/Membership\\ which\\ we\\ acquire\\ through\\ being\\ situated\\ in\\ a\\ particular\\ group\\ or\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Objections\\:\\ Feelings\\ or\\ sentiment\\ cannot\\ replace\\ an\\ objective\\ definition\\ of\\ justice\\ \\(Robert\\ E\\.\\ Lee\\ was\\ WRONG\\)\\,\\ what\\ happens\\ when\\ we\\ have\\ competing\\ solidarities\\,\\ what\\ if\\ my\\ personal\\ narrative\\ reads\\ differently\\ objectively\\ than\\ it\\ does\\ subjectively\\,\\ what\\ happens\\ if\\ my\\ narrative\\ objectively\\ leads\\ to\\ oppression\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\APPLICATION\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 14\\:\\ Morality\\ and\\ Law\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Same\\ Sex\\ Marriage\\,\\ For\\ and\\ Against\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[Note\\:\\ these\\ readings\\ are\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ studied\\ for\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ the\\ thinkers\\ because\\ the\\ exam\\ will\\ not\\ focus\\ specifically\\ on\\ Goodridge\\ or\\ on\\ Macedo\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ can\\ use\\ these\\ as\\ examples\\ on\\ the\\ exam\\,\\ however\\,\\ so\\ familiarize\\ yourself\\ with\\ the\\ issues\\ and\\ then\\ test\\ your\\ skills\\ by\\ applying\\ the\\ theory\\ to\\ these\\ hot\\ topics\\.\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Review\\ Session\\ Notes\\ on\\ Chapter\\ 14\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 1, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Main_Ideas_-_Study_Guide_1.doc", "desc": "A good study guide for Justice"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 38", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 608, "html": "\\Rule\\ 38\\:\\ Trial\\ by\\ Jury\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n38\\(a\\)\\:\\ parties\\ get\\ a\\ jury\\ where\\ the\\ 7th\\ A\\ or\\ a\\ US\\ statute\\ says\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n38\\(b\\)\\:\\ a\\ party\\ can\\ demand\\ a\\ jury\\ trial\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ do\\ it\\ within\\ 10\\ days\\ by\\ filing\\ the\\ pleading\\ with\\ the\\ court\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n38\\(c\\)\\:\\ a\\ party\\ can\\ demand\\ a\\ jury\\ trial\\ for\\ specific\\ elements\\;\\ if\\ the\\ party\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ specify\\,\\ the\\ jury\\ trial\\ goes\\ for\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n38\\(d\\)\\:\\ If\\ nobody\\ demands\\ a\\ trial\\ by\\ jury\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ waived\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n38\\(e\\)\\:\\ admirality\\ \\&\\;\\ maritime\\ madness\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAtlas\\ Roofing\\ v\\.\\ OSHRC\\&mdash\\;No\\ jury\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;public\\ rights\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ if\\ the\\ rights\\ contested\\ are\\ within\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ Section\\ 8\\ or\\ the\\ case\\ is\\ within\\ a\\ regulatory\\ scheme\\ that\\ is\\ administrative\\ \\&\\;\\ incompatible\\ with\\ having\\ a\\ jury\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBeacon\\ Theaters\\&mdash\\;enlarges\\ pro\\-jury\\ bent\\ of\\ Constitution\\.\\ If\\ a\\ legal\\ remedy\\ exists\\,\\ even\\ if\\ the\\ P\\ accidentally\\ brings\\ an\\ equitable\\ claim\\,\\ he\\ gets\\ a\\ jury\\ trial\\ anyway\\.\\ Don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ punish\\ P\\ for\\ his\\ procedural\\ mistake\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nEdmonson\\ v\\.\\ Leesville\\ Concrete\\&mdash\\;neither\\ D\\ nor\\ P\\ can\\ use\\ race\\-based\\ peremptory\\ challenges\\ in\\ civil\\ suits\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 38"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 26", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 607, "html": "\\Rule\\ 26\\:\\ DISCO\\!\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(a\\)\\:\\ mandatory\\ disclosure\\&mdash\\;names\\ \\&\\;\\ addresses\\ of\\ witnesses\\;\\ documents\\ and\\ tangible\\ things\\ relevant\\ to\\ trial\\;\\ computations\\ about\\ damages\\;\\ insurance\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&ldquo\\;all\\ relevant\\ information\\ not\\ limited\\ to\\ issues\\ raised\\ by\\ pleadings\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(a\\)\\(2\\)\\:\\ parties\\ have\\ to\\ disclose\\ list\\ of\\ witnesses\\ before\\ the\\ trial\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(b\\)\\(1\\)\\:\\ scope\\ of\\ discovery\\ \\(disco\\ is\\ broad\\ \\&\\;\\ court\\ can\\ compel\\ it\\)\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;any\\ relevant\\ matter\\ not\\ privileged\\ or\\ otherwise\\ limited\\ by\\ the\\ court\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ limited\\ to\\ issues\\ raised\\ by\\ pleadings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Testimony\\ of\\ experts\\ is\\ within\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ discovery\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(b\\)\\(2\\)\\:\\ proportionality\\ rule\\ \\(limits\\ on\\ disco\\)\\:\\ party\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ disclose\\ \\(i\\)\\ stuff\\ that\\ is\\ duplicative\\ or\\ cumulative\\,\\ \\(ii\\)\\ stuff\\ the\\ other\\ guys\\ can\\ get\\ or\\ had\\ time\\ to\\ get\\ themselves\\,\\ or\\ \\(iii\\)\\ stuff\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ really\\ onerous\\ or\\ expensive\\ to\\ produce\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;undue\\ burden\\ or\\ cost\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\&mdash\\;stuff\\ that\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ disclosing\\ it\\ would\\ outweigh\\ any\\ benefits\\ it\\ could\\ give\\ by\\ being\\ discovered\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(b\\)\\(3\\)\\:\\ work\\ product\\ doctrine\\ protects\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;documents\\ \\&\\;\\ tangible\\ things\\,\\ not\\ facts\\ or\\ information\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;stuff\\ created\\ in\\ preparation\\ for\\ trial\\ \\(not\\ stuff\\ done\\ in\\ the\\ normal\\ course\\ of\\ business\\,\\ like\\ an\\ insurance\\ company\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ preparing\\ for\\ trial\\&mdash\\;need\\ identifiable\\ resolve\\ to\\ litigate\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;documents\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ obtained\\ some\\ other\\ way\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;attorney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ thought\\ process\\&mdash\\;mental\\ impressions\\,\\ conclusions\\,\\ etc\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\:\\ work\\-product\\ is\\ not\\ absolute\\&mdash\\;can\\ be\\ overcome\\ by\\ substantial\\ need\\ or\\ if\\ information\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ found\\ elsewhere\\ without\\ substantial\\ hardship\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(b\\)\\(4\\)\\:\\ party\\ can\\ only\\ seek\\ discovery\\ about\\ non\\-testifying\\ experts\\ that\\ the\\ other\\ party\\ is\\ using\\ under\\ \\&ldquo\\;exceptional\\ circumstances\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(c\\)\\:\\ protective\\ order\\ limiting\\ discovery\\ \\(to\\ protect\\ against\\ annoyance\\,\\ oppression\\,\\ undue\\ burden\\ or\\ expense\\)\\.\\ Judge\\ can\\ oversee\\ \\&\\;\\ restrict\\ discovery\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(e\\)\\:\\ attorney\\ has\\ to\\ honestly\\ answer\\ requests\\ for\\ discovery\\ \\(or\\ else\\)\\.\\ Plus\\ the\\ attorney\\ has\\ a\\ duty\\ to\\ update\\ discovery\\ \\(unlike\\ pleading\\,\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ duty\\)\\.\\ Plus\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ disclose\\ stuff\\ even\\ absent\\ a\\ motion\\ to\\ compel\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n26\\(g\\)\\:\\ Sanctions\\ \\(b\\/c\\ Rule\\ 11\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ apply\\)\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ Attorney\\ has\\ to\\ sign\\ disco\\ requests\\ \\&\\;\\ conduct\\ reasonable\\ inquiry\\.\\ \\(2\\)\\ Disco\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ \\(A\\)\\ consistent\\ with\\ the\\ rules\\ \\&\\;\\ warranted\\ by\\ law\\,\\ \\(B\\)\\ not\\ done\\ for\\ improper\\ purpose\\ \\(harass\\,\\ raise\\ costs\\)\\,\\ \\(C\\)\\ not\\ unreasonable\\ or\\ burdensome\\.\\ \\(3\\)\\ If\\ attorney\\ abuses\\ discovery\\,\\ he\\ can\\ be\\ sanctioned\\ \\(very\\ strong\\ language\\,\\ can\\ impose\\ heavy\\ sanctions\\)\\.\\ Court\\ may\\ shift\\ fees\\ for\\ discovery\\ abuse\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Attorney\\-Client\\ Privilege\\ \\(which\\ is\\ absolute\\ \\&\\;\\ cannot\\ be\\ overcome\\ except\\ for\\ crime\\-tort\\ exception\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ Communication\\ made\\ with\\ expectation\\ of\\ confidentiality\\ \\(2\\)\\ that\\ we\\ protect\\ for\\ certain\\ socially\\ beneficial\\ purposes\\ and\\ \\(3\\)\\ that\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ waived\\ by\\ disclosure\\ to\\ a\\ third\\ party\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBlank\\ v\\.\\ Sullivan\\ Cromwell\\&mdash\\;a\\ whole\\ lot\\ of\\ stuff\\ is\\ relevant\\ \\(scope\\ of\\ this\\ regime\\ is\\ wide\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nWashington\\ State\\ Physicians\\ v\\.\\ Fisions\\&mdash\\;classic\\ abuse\\ of\\ discovery\\ case\\.\\ Fisions\\ has\\ to\\ answer\\ requests\\ in\\ good\\ faith\\,\\ not\\ obfuscating\\ information\\ because\\ of\\ filing\\ systems\\ or\\ generic\\ names\\ of\\ chemicals\\ v\\.\\ brand\\ names\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHickman\\ v\\.\\ Taylor\\&mdash\\;first\\ articulates\\ work\\-product\\ doctrine\\,\\ now\\ in\\ Rule\\ 26\\(b\\)\\(3\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nUpjohn\\ v\\.\\ US\\&mdash\\;attorney\\-client\\ privilege\\ covers\\ all\\ stuff\\ within\\ a\\ corporation\\ because\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ help\\ clients\\ obey\\ the\\ law\\,\\ and\\ covering\\ intracorporation\\ stuff\\ serves\\ this\\ purpose\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 26"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 24", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 606, "html": "\\Rule\\ 24\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(not\\ always\\ a\\ clear\\ distinction\\ between\\ intervention\\ by\\ right\\ \\&\\;\\ permissive\\ intervention\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nMust\\ be\\ timely\\ intervention\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPhrased\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;legal\\ right\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\ 24\\(a\\)\\:\\ Intervention\\ by\\ Right\\\\\r\n\\\r\nParty\\ can\\ intervene\\ \\(if\\ a\\ timely\\ motion\\ is\\ made\\)\\ if\\ \\(1\\)\\ a\\ statute\\ gives\\ him\\ the\\ absolute\\ right\\ to\\ intervene\\ or\\ \\(2\\)\\ he\\ has\\ an\\ interest\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ litigation\\ and\\ disposition\\ of\\ the\\ case\\ may\\ impede\\/impair\\ that\\ interest\\ \\+\\ the\\ interest\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ already\\ adequately\\ represented\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n24\\(a\\)\\(2\\)\\ has\\ three\\ parts\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ claimant\\ has\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;interest\\&rdquo\\;\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ property\\ or\\ transaction\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\ of\\ the\\ action\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ interest\\ may\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;impaired\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;impeded\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ a\\ practical\\ matter\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;adequate\\ representation\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ existing\\ parties\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\ 24\\(b\\)\\:\\ Permissive\\ intervention\\ \\(depends\\ on\\ discretion\\ of\\ trial\\ court\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNon\\ party\\ can\\ intervene\\ if\\ \\(1\\)\\ statute\\ provides\\ conditional\\ intervention\\ or\\ \\(2\\)\\ the\\ party\\ has\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ law\\ or\\ fact\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ the\\ main\\ action\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBustop\\ v\\.\\ Superior\\ Court\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 24"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 14", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 601, "html": "\\Rule\\ 14\\:\\ Impleading\\ \\(3d\\ Party\\)\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ permissive\\\\\r\n\\\r\nScope\\:\\ related\\ claims\\ of\\ derivative\\ liability\\.\\ \\(ex\\:\\ right\\ of\\ contribution\\:\\ a\\ substantive\\ derivative\\ liability\\ that\\ flows\\ between\\ joint\\ tortfeasors\\.\\ One\\ tortfeasor\\ can\\ bring\\ in\\ another\\ claiming\\ that\\ liability\\ is\\ shared\\.\\ Also\\ indemnity\\ \\(duty\\ of\\ second\\ party\\ to\\ recompense\\ first\\ party\\ \\(or\\ another\\ party\\)\\ for\\ harm\\ caused\\ by\\ first\\ party\\,\\ even\\ if\\ second\\ party\\,\\ the\\ payer\\,\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ responsible\\ for\\ harm\\)\\ and\\ express\\ or\\ implied\\ warranty\\ \\(contract\\ to\\ make\\ good\\ performance\\ contracted\\ to\\ party\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ now\\ being\\ held\\ liable\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNote\\:\\ impleader\\ claim\\ is\\ treated\\ like\\ an\\ original\\ suit\\ for\\ pleading\\,\\ service\\,\\ and\\ other\\ purposes\\ \\&\\;\\ must\\ follow\\ Rules\\ 8\\ through\\ 11\\;\\ new\\ D\\ must\\ respond\\ under\\ Rule\\ 12\\ \\(D\\ becomes\\ 3rd\\ party\\ P\\;\\ new\\ D\\ becomes\\ 3rd\\ party\\ D\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n14\\(a\\)\\:\\ D\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ 3rd\\ party\\ P\\ \\;\\ \\&\\;\\ can\\ bring\\ a\\ non\\-party\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ liable\\ to\\ D\\ for\\ all\\/part\\ of\\ orig\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;D\\ \\(3rd\\ party\\ P\\)\\ must\\ serve\\ process\\ within\\ 10\\ days\\ of\\ orig\\ answer\\ \\(for\\ notice\\)\\ or\\ after\\ 10\\ days\\ with\\ permission\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(2\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3rd\\ party\\ D\\ must\\ respond\\ under\\ Rule\\ 12\\ \\&\\;\\ Rule\\ 13\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(3\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ may\\ assert\\ against\\ the\\ 3rd\\ party\\ D\\ any\\ claim\\ arising\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ subject\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ against\\ the\\ 3rd\\ party\\ P\\ \\(orig\\ D\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n14\\(b\\)\\:\\ P\\ can\\ bring\\ in\\ 3rd\\ party\\ D\\ if\\ counterclaimed\\ under\\ Rule\\ 13\\ \\(b\\/c\\ can\\ bring\\ in\\ 3rd\\ parties\\ that\\ have\\ derivative\\ liability\\ for\\ whatever\\ the\\ counterclaim\\ is\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nX\\ sues\\ Y\\.\\ Y\\ sues\\ Z\\.\\ When\\ Y\\ sues\\ Z\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treated\\ as\\ a\\ new\\ suit\\ \\&\\;\\ Y\\ gets\\ all\\ the\\ privileges\\ \\&\\;\\ responsibilities\\ of\\ a\\ plaintiff\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThis\\ is\\ to\\ encourage\\ judicial\\ efficiency\\ and\\ avoid\\ repeated\\ suits\\ \\&\\;\\ inconsistent\\ judgments\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nImpleader\\ \\(1\\)\\ allows\\ related\\ claims\\ only\\ \\(2\\)\\ is\\ permissive\\ \\(3\\)\\ focused\\ on\\ efficiency\\,\\ wants\\ to\\ allow\\ P\\ to\\ shape\\ her\\ own\\ suit\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSee\\ Asahi\\&mdash\\;this\\ is\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ impleader\\\\\r\n\\\r\nZurcher\\ sues\\ Cheng\\ Shin\\,\\ who\\ sues\\ Asahi\\.\\ Zurcher\\ settles\\ claim\\ against\\ CS\\ \\(drops\\ out\\)\\ so\\ only\\ CS\\ \\&\\;\\ Asahi\\ are\\ left\\.\\ Derivative\\ liability\\ claim\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 14"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 12", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 599, "html": "\\Rule\\ 12\\:\\ Defenses\\ \\&\\;\\ Objections\\;\\ Motions\\ for\\ Judgment\\ on\\ the\\ Pleadings\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(a\\)\\:\\ When\\ to\\ present\\ them\\ \\(20\\ days\\,\\ or\\ 40\\ or\\ 60\\,\\ depending\\ on\\ if\\ you\\&rsquo\\;re\\ the\\ US\\ or\\ not\\,\\ and\\ if\\ service\\ was\\ mailed\\ to\\ you\\ or\\ not\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(b\\)\\:\\ all\\ defenses\\/objections\\ are\\ stated\\ except\\ the\\ following\\,\\ which\\ are\\ stated\\ in\\ a\\ motion\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ 12\\(h\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\:\\ lack\\ of\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ subject\\ matter\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ can\\ never\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(2\\)\\:\\ lack\\ of\\ personal\\ jurisdiction\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ can\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(3\\)\\:\\ improper\\ venue\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ can\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(4\\)\\:\\ insufficiency\\ of\\ process\\ \\(process\\ \\=\\ summons\\ \\&\\;\\ complaint\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ can\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(5\\)\\:\\ insufficiency\\ of\\ service\\ of\\ process\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ can\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(6\\)\\:\\ failure\\ to\\ state\\ a\\ claim\\ upon\\ which\\ relief\\ can\\ be\\ granted\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(7\\)\\:\\ failure\\ to\\ join\\ a\\ party\\ under\\ Rule\\ 19\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\nUnder\\ 12\\(b\\)\\(6\\)\\,\\ court\\ assumes\\ the\\ facts\\ \\&\\;\\ says\\,\\ ok\\,\\ even\\ if\\ all\\ these\\ facts\\ are\\ true\\,\\ the\\ P\\ still\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ a\\ claim\\.\\ Ex\\:\\ if\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ is\\ barred\\ by\\ the\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ D\\ should\\ move\\ under\\ 12\\(b\\)\\(6\\)\\ for\\ failure\\ to\\ state\\ a\\ claim\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nD\\ waives\\ right\\ to\\ motion\\ to\\ dismiss\\ for\\ lack\\ of\\ PJ\\ if\\ \\(1\\)\\ D\\ makes\\ any\\ motion\\ making\\ any\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ defenses\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ include\\ a\\ PJ\\ motion\\;\\ or\\ \\(2\\)\\ D\\ neither\\ makes\\ a\\ Rule\\ 12\\ motion\\ nor\\ raises\\ the\\ defense\\ in\\ his\\ answer\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(b\\)\\(2\\)\\:\\ special\\ appearance\\ to\\ move\\ for\\ dismissal\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;lack\\ of\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ the\\ person\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(see\\ Insurance\\ Corp\\ of\\ Ireland\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(c\\)\\:\\ Delinquent\\ 12\\(b\\)\\(6\\)\\ motion\\&mdash\\;after\\ the\\ pleadings\\ are\\ closed\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ that\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ delay\\ the\\ trial\\.\\ If\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ too\\ late\\,\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ motion\\ for\\ summary\\ judgment\\ \\(Rule\\ 56\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(d\\)\\:\\ Court\\ should\\ listen\\ to\\ the\\ Rule\\ 12\\ motions\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(e\\)\\:\\ when\\ the\\ response\\ is\\ super\\ vague\\,\\ the\\ court\\ can\\ ask\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ clear\\.\\ This\\ is\\ rarely\\ used\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(f\\)\\:\\ used\\ to\\ get\\ rid\\ of\\ bothersome\\ or\\ offensive\\ material\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(g\\)\\:\\ consolidate\\ your\\ 12\\(b\\)\\ motions\\ or\\ you\\ waive\\ the\\ ones\\ you\\ can\\ waive\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n12\\(h\\)\\:\\ see\\ above\\ \\(which\\ ones\\ you\\ can\\ waive\\ or\\ not\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAccess\\ Now\\ v\\.\\ Southwest\\ Airlines\\&mdash\\;D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 12\\(b\\)\\(6\\)\\ motion\\ is\\ granted\\ because\\ as\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ law\\,\\ sw\\.com\\ is\\ not\\ covered\\ by\\ ADA\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Evidence: Rule 12"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:45.532562+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Socialism and Social Darwinism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 324, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Readings\\:\\\r\\\\Upton\\ Sinclair\\,\\ The\\ Jungle\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Herbert\\ Spencer\\,\\ \\\"The\\ Proper\\ Sphere\\ of\\ Government\\\"\\ and\\ \\\"On\\ Social\\ Evolution\\\"\\\r\\\\This\\ lecture\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ broad\\ question\\:\\ Why\\ is\\ there\\ no\\ socialism\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ McCarthy\\ begins\\ to\\ answer\\ that\\ question\\ by\\ noting\\ that\\ among\\ the\\ many\\ myths\\ Americans\\ hold\\ about\\ themselves\\,\\ one\\ enduring\\ myth\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ live\\ in\\ a\\ classless\\ society\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>91\\%\\ of\\ Americans\\ identify\\ themselves\\ as\\ middle\\ class\\ and\\ upwardly\\ mobile\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ in\\ reality\\ the\\ middle\\ class\\ is\\ a\\ bit\\ of\\ an\\ endangered\\ species\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Around\\ 1800\\,\\ \\Jefferson\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\ referred\\ to\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ as\\ a\\ \\&\\#8220\\;nation\\ of\\ producers\\&\\#8221\\;\\ enabled\\ by\\ seemingly\\ unlimited\\ amounts\\ of\\ land\\ and\\ relatively\\ scarce\\ labor\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ grand\\ possibilities\\ contributed\\ to\\ his\\ vision\\ of\\ an\\ ideal\\,\\ agrarian\\ society\\ of\\ yeoman\\ farmers\\ in\\ which\\ everyone\\ would\\ have\\ property\\ independence\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Oh\\,\\ how\\ the\\ times\\ had\\ changed\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ means\\ of\\ production\\ became\\ entirely\\ different\\ as\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ progressed\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ location\\ of\\ production\\ moved\\ from\\ the\\ home\\ to\\ the\\ shop\\ and\\ finally\\ \\(by\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\)\\ to\\ the\\ factory\\.\\ \\(And\\ these\\ days\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ distinction\\ of\\ being\\ \\&\\#8220\\;post\\-industrial\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ all\\ of\\ our\\ industrial\\ jobs\\ have\\ been\\ exported\\ to\\ third\\ world\\ countries\\ where\\ labor\\ is\\ much\\ cheaper\\.\\)\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;theory\\ of\\ free\\ labor\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ wage\\ laborers\\ would\\ rise\\ to\\ property\\ owners\\ and\\ establish\\ their\\ independence\\ economically\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Perhaps\\ surprisingly\\,\\ abolitionists\\ obliquely\\ paved\\ the\\ way\\ for\\ industrial\\ capitalism\\ by\\ critiquing\\ slavery\\ via\\ the\\ theory\\ of\\ wage\\ labor\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Enter\\ the\\ Socialists\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\A\\ precursor\\ to\\ the\\ socialist\\ critique\\ that\\ would\\ become\\ prominent\\ in\\ the\\ 19\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ was\\ \\David\\ Ricardo\\&\\#8217\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\#8220\\;labor\\ theory\\ of\\ value\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ contends\\ that\\ labor\\ is\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ all\\ wealth\\,\\ and\\ laborers\\ are\\ entitled\\ to\\ the\\ fruits\\ of\\ their\\ labor\\.\\ \\(There\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ echoes\\ of\\ John\\ Locke\\ here\\,\\ as\\ well\\.\\)\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Karl\\ Marx\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ the\\ Godfather\\ of\\ Communism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ might\\ otherwise\\ be\\ described\\ as\\ the\\ Godfather\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;Historical\\ Materialism\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(though\\ it\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ quite\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ ring\\,\\ does\\ it\\?\\)\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ Nutshell\\ Version\\ of\\ Marxism\\ \\(in\\ case\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ looking\\ for\\ material\\ to\\ spice\\ up\\ your\\ next\\ cocktail\\ party\\)\\:\\ Marx\\ essentially\\ argues\\ that\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\ is\\ the\\ fundamental\\ basis\\ of\\ society\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ person\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideology\\ is\\ determined\\ by\\ her\\ material\\ circumstances\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ if\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ a\\ sharecropper\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ going\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ different\\ outlook\\ on\\ the\\ way\\ society\\ works\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ should\\ work\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ than\\ if\\ you\\ are\\ a\\ landlord\\ or\\ a\\ real\\ estate\\ agent\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Marx\\ believed\\ historical\\ progress\\ occurred\\ through\\ a\\ perennial\\ conflict\\ over\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Over\\ time\\,\\ the\\ contradictions\\ within\\ a\\ capitalist\\ society\\ become\\ increasingly\\ divisive\\:\\ laborers\\ and\\ capitalists\\ are\\ divided\\ against\\ one\\ another\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>For\\ Marx\\,\\ the\\ ultimate\\ historical\\ endpoint\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ world\\-wide\\ worker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ revolution\\ that\\ would\\ seize\\ control\\ of\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\ \\-\\ factories\\,\\ farms\\,\\ etc\\ would\\ be\\ owned\\ and\\ controlled\\ by\\ the\\ people\\ who\\ worked\\ in\\ \\(or\\ on\\)\\ them\\.\\ \\(The\\ \\&\\#8220\\;history\\&\\#8221\\;\\ in\\ \\&\\#8220\\;historical\\ materialism\\&\\#8221\\;\\ is\\ basically\\ an\\ application\\ of\\ Hegel\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ notion\\ that\\ civilization\\ is\\ moving\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ direction\\ towards\\ an\\ ultimate\\ end\\,\\ which\\ contrasts\\ with\\ classical\\ notions\\ that\\ time\\ is\\ fundamentally\\ cyclical\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ Hegel\\ took\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ somewhat\\ vague\\ Absolute\\,\\ Marx\\ solidified\\ into\\ a\\ revolution\\ in\\ which\\ laborers\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ owned\\ what\\ they\\ produced\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\And\\ so\\ we\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ that\\ began\\ the\\ lecture\\:\\ Why\\ did\\ this\\ revolution\\ fail\\ to\\ happen\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1906\\,\\ a\\ German\\ sociologist\\ named\\ \\Werner\\ Sombart\\<\\/a\\>\\ took\\ a\\ whack\\ at\\ this\\ question\\ and\\ published\\ a\\ book\\ that\\ same\\ year\\ called\\ \\[surprise\\!\\]\\ \\Why\\ is\\ there\\ No\\ Socialism\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\\\\\United\\ States\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ \\(1906\\)\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ questions\\ he\\ explores\\:\\ Did\\ the\\ early\\ achievement\\ of\\ political\\ democracy\\ impede\\ class\\ consciousness\\ or\\ render\\ it\\ more\\ galling\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Was\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ feudalism\\ a\\ barrier\\ to\\ the\\ development\\ of\\ divided\\ class\\ ideologies\\,\\ or\\ could\\ it\\ inspire\\ class\\-based\\ thinking\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>If\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ shameless\\ example\\ of\\ capitalism\\,\\ could\\ it\\ ultimately\\ become\\ the\\ most\\ socialist\\?\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>His\\ basic\\ argument\\ is\\ that\\ capitalism\\ breeds\\ socialism\\.\\ \\(And\\ in\\ this\\ sense\\,\\ Sombart\\ is\\ close\\ to\\ the\\ spirit\\ of\\ Marxism\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ the\\ worker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ revolution\\ isn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ going\\ to\\ happen\\ until\\ the\\ entire\\ world\\ has\\ been\\ overrun\\ by\\ capitalism\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ think\\,\\ even\\ today\\,\\ that\\ we\\&\\#8217\\;re\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ stages\\ of\\ capitalism\\,\\ you\\&\\#8217\\;ve\\ got\\ a\\ big\\ surprise\\ coming\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>By\\ this\\ reasoning\\,\\ capitalism\\ has\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ whole\\ lot\\ worse\\ before\\ the\\ socialists\\ will\\ take\\ over\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Place\\ your\\ bets\\,\\ everyone\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Nevertheless\\,\\ McCarthy\\ stresses\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ prominent\\ socialist\\ tendencies\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\ that\\ we\\ shouldn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ overlook\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ conflicts\\ with\\ capitalism\\ were\\ as\\ fierce\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ anywhere\\ else\\.\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ 20\\ years\\ of\\ the\\ 20\\th\\<\\/sup\\>\\ century\\,\\ the\\ Socialist\\ party\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ was\\ as\\ developed\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ anywhere\\ in\\ \\Europe\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ 1912\\,\\ \\Eugene\\ Debs\\<\\/a\\>\\ \\(a\\ socialist\\)\\ garnered\\ 1\\ million\\ votes\\ \\(6\\%\\ of\\ the\\ electorate\\)\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Why\\ did\\ the\\ socialist\\ party\\ fail\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\McCarthy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Top\\ 7\\ reasons\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\ \\-\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ success\\ of\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Capitalism\\ effectively\\ dulls\\ socialist\\ consciousnesses\\ so\\ that\\ class\\ consciousness\\ never\\ fully\\ developed\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Economic\\ rewards\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ higher\\ wages\\,\\ pensions\\,\\ vacation\\ days\\,\\ limited\\ work\\ days\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ were\\ eventually\\ built\\ into\\ the\\ capitalist\\ system\\ to\\ forego\\ disaffection\\ with\\ capitalism\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Also\\,\\ there\\ is\\ higher\\ exposure\\ to\\ goods\\ and\\ services\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ than\\ in\\ other\\,\\ more\\ socialist\\ countries\\,\\ and\\ if\\ you\\ perceive\\ that\\ you\\ are\\ upwardly\\ mobile\\,\\ why\\ buy\\ into\\ an\\ ideology\\ that\\ would\\ destroy\\ the\\ system\\ that\\ might\\ benefit\\ you\\ in\\ the\\ future\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Mobility\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ idea\\ of\\ an\\ enormous\\ frontier\\ and\\ the\\ promise\\ of\\ moving\\ further\\ west\\ spurred\\ aspirations\\ of\\ upward\\ mobility\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Americans\\ were\\ far\\ more\\ mobile\\ in\\ the\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ than\\ Europeans\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ The\\ persistence\\ of\\ republican\\ ideals\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ values\\ of\\ equal\\ citizenship\\ and\\ the\\ independent\\ producer\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ Jeffersonian\\ model\\ endured\\,\\ even\\ after\\ the\\ image\\ of\\ a\\ nation\\ of\\ yeoman\\ farmers\\ was\\ long\\ gone\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Divisions\\ among\\ the\\ labor\\ force\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ workforce\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\US\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ was\\ fractured\\ along\\ many\\ lines\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Rural\\ workers\\ had\\ little\\ in\\ common\\ with\\ urban\\ workers\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ often\\ thousands\\ of\\ miles\\ apart\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Racial\\ divisions\\ among\\ workers\\ never\\ disappeared\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Black\\ workers\\ were\\ often\\ brought\\ in\\ as\\ strike\\-breaking\\ \\&\\#8220\\;scabs\\&\\#8221\\;\\ when\\ white\\ workers\\ went\\ on\\ strike\\,\\ and\\ the\\ allegiance\\ to\\ different\\ ethnicities\\ and\\ nationalities\\ blunted\\ the\\ shared\\ interest\\ of\\ economic\\ inequality\\.\\ \\(I\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ think\\ Professor\\ McCarthy\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ list\\ is\\ ranked\\ in\\ order\\ of\\ importance\\,\\ but\\ if\\ you\\ were\\ to\\ order\\ them\\ yourself\\,\\ as\\ your\\ Intrepid\\ Blogger\\ suggests\\,\\ you\\'d\\ place\\ this\\ one\\ damn\\ near\\ the\\ top\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ fact\\,\\ Upton\\ Sinclair\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ The\\ Jungle\\,\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ its\\ socialist\\ pretensions\\,\\ exploits\\ the\\ racist\\ instincts\\ of\\ his\\ white\\ readers\\ in\\ his\\ depiction\\ of\\ African\\ American\\ scabs\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\5\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ American\\ political\\ culture\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Most\\ white\\ male\\ workers\\ could\\ vote\\,\\ and\\ because\\ a\\ tradition\\ of\\ suffrage\\ predated\\ advanced\\ industrial\\ capitalism\\ it\\ may\\ well\\ have\\ forestalled\\ economic\\ radicalism\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\6\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Widespread\\ repression\\.\\ An\\ array\\ of\\ police\\,\\ troops\\ and\\ court\\ injunctions\\ prevented\\ labor\\ radicals\\ from\\ organizing\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\7\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Internal\\ organizational\\ problems\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Socialist\\ organizers\\ in\\ the\\ \\\\United\\ \\ \\ States\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:country\\-region\\>\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ well\\-trained\\,\\ and\\ they\\ were\\ mocked\\ by\\ socialist\\ leaders\\ from\\ other\\ countries\\,\\ including\\ Trotsky\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Upton\\ Sinclair\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Professor\\ Stauffer\\ shifts\\ focus\\ to\\ \\Upton\\ Sinclair\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\ on\\ Upton\\ Sinclair\\<\\/em\\>\\:\\ He\\ grew\\ up\\ in\\ \\\\Maryland\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:state\\>\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ downward\\ mobility\\.\\ He\\ converted\\ to\\ socialism\\ in\\ 1902\\ and\\ received\\ money\\ to\\ survive\\ by\\ a\\ socialist\\ minister\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\(Stauffer\\ notes\\ that\\ many\\ postbellum\\ ministers\\ turned\\ to\\ socialism\\ as\\ an\\ updated\\ millennialism\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ novel\\ Sinclair\\ wrote\\ before\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\ was\\ \\\\\\Manassas\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ a\\ novel\\ about\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ hero\\ becomes\\ associated\\ with\\ Quaker\\ Abolitionists\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Sinclair\\ argues\\ that\\ abolitionism\\ is\\ an\\ early\\ form\\ of\\ socialism\\,\\ and\\ while\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ is\\ ostensibly\\ about\\ slavery\\,\\ Sinclair\\ views\\ it\\ as\\ primarily\\ a\\ class\\ conflict\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ linked\\ chattel\\ slavery\\ with\\ wage\\ slavery\\ and\\ actually\\ argued\\ that\\ wage\\ slavery\\ was\\ worse\\.\\ \\(Note\\:\\ Upton\\ Sinclair\\ was\\ born\\ in\\ 1878\\ and\\ therefore\\ had\\ the\\ privilege\\ of\\ never\\ having\\ to\\ witness\\ real\\ slavery\\ firsthand\\.\\)\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sinclair\\ paints\\ a\\ somewhat\\ picturesque\\ view\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ provides\\ us\\ with\\ the\\ familiar\\ arguments\\ \\(\\remember\\ Fitzhugh\\,\\ anyone\\?\\<\\/a\\>\\)\\ that\\ the\\ value\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ increases\\ as\\ he\\ gets\\ older\\ and\\ was\\ a\\ prized\\ commodity\\ whereas\\ the\\ laborer\\ and\\ his\\ children\\ are\\ worthless\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ tradition\\ of\\ abolitionism\\ is\\ explicit\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ had\\ \\Uncle\\ Tom\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Cabin\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ mind\\ while\\ writing\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Sinclair\\ wanted\\ to\\ expose\\ readers\\ to\\ the\\ exploitation\\ of\\ workers\\ and\\ convert\\ workers\\ to\\ socialism\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ it\\ helped\\ pass\\ the\\ \\Pure\\ Food\\ and\\ Drug\\ Act\\ of\\ 1906\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Thus\\,\\ instead\\ of\\ changing\\ means\\ of\\ production\\,\\ his\\ book\\ effectively\\ changed\\ the\\ mode\\ of\\ consumption\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\ President\\ Teddy\\ Roosevelt\\ said\\ he\\ would\\ investigate\\ the\\ working\\ conditions\\ in\\ meat\\ packing\\ plants\\,\\ but\\ he\\ never\\ did\\.\\ Of\\ his\\ book\\,\\ Sinclair\\ said\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ aimed\\ at\\ the\\ public\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ heart\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ hit\\ it\\ in\\ the\\ stomach\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ returns\\ to\\ the\\ question\\ that\\ began\\ this\\ lecture\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ Why\\ weren\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ people\\ converted\\ to\\ socialism\\?\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\ begins\\ to\\ answer\\ it\\ from\\ a\\ literary\\ perspective\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ partly\\ involves\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ book\\ itself\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Sinclair\\ writes\\ as\\ a\\ literary\\ naturalist\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Naturalism\\ extends\\ from\\ the\\ French\\ novelist\\ Emile\\ Zola\\,\\ who\\ in\\ 1868\\ encapsulated\\ what\\ naturalist\\ fiction\\ is\\:\\ \\&\\#8220\\;I\\ have\\ chosen\\ people\\ completely\\ dominated\\ by\\ their\\ nerves\\ and\\ blood\\ without\\ free\\ will\\&\\#8230\\;\\ my\\ characters\\ are\\ human\\ animals\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>There\\ is\\ a\\ complete\\ absence\\ of\\ soul\\.\\ My\\ object\\ is\\ first\\ and\\ foremost\\ a\\ scientific\\ one\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\ tenets\\ of\\ Literary\\ Naturalism\\:\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\.\\ Choice\\ gives\\ way\\ to\\ coercion\\.\\ The\\ characters\\ are\\ determined\\ by\\ inexorable\\ laws\\ of\\ Darwinian\\ nature\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\.\\ The\\ rich\\ inner\\ lives\\ of\\ round\\ characters\\ are\\ a\\ luxury\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ they\\ are\\ simply\\ people\\ who\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ reduced\\ to\\ material\\ forces\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\.\\ Naturalism\\ depicts\\ an\\ amoral\\ world\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Morality\\ simply\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ dimension\\ of\\ the\\ narrative\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\.\\ The\\ narrator\\ writes\\ as\\ a\\ scientist\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\5\\.\\ Naturalism\\ reflects\\ Marx\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ famous\\ maxim\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;It\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ consciousness\\ of\\ men\\ that\\ determines\\ their\\ existence\\ but\\ their\\ social\\ existence\\ that\\ determines\\ their\\ consciousness\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\6\\.\\ Naturalism\\ borrows\\ from\\ Social\\ Darwinism\\ in\\ which\\ all\\ of\\ nature\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ including\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ society\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ is\\ a\\ battleground\\,\\ a\\ competition\\ for\\ scarce\\ resources\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\ deviates\\ from\\ the\\ pure\\ naturalism\\ of\\ Zola\\ in\\ one\\ crucial\\ way\\:\\ Jurgis\\,\\ the\\ protagonist\\ of\\ Sinclair\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ novel\\,\\ finds\\ a\\ secular\\ salvation\\ by\\ converting\\ to\\ socialism\\ rather\\ than\\ to\\ Christ\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Herbert\\ Spencer\\\\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/strong\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\Herbert\\ Spencer\\ was\\ the\\ patron\\ saint\\ of\\ Social\\ Darwinism\\,\\ and\\ his\\ ideas\\ actually\\ preceded\\ The\\ Origin\\ of\\ Species\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Darwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\ explicitly\\ says\\ humans\\ are\\ capable\\ of\\ transcending\\ natural\\ selection\\.\\ \\(And\\,\\ I\\ might\\ add\\,\\ at\\ times\\ Spencer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideas\\ seem\\ to\\ bear\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ Lamarck\\ more\\ than\\ \\\\Darwin\\<\\/st1\\:place\\>\\<\\/st1\\:city\\>\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ Spencer\\ stresses\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ traits\\ acquired\\ during\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ lifetime\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>That\\ is\\,\\ part\\ of\\ Lamarck\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ theory\\ is\\ that\\ giraffes\\ have\\ long\\ necks\\ because\\ they\\ were\\ constantly\\ stretching\\ them\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\Some\\ basic\\ features\\ of\\ Spencer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideology\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\1\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ destroys\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ wonder\\ in\\ the\\ world\\<\\/p\\>\\2\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\ takes\\ God\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ world\\,\\ making\\ religion\\ solely\\ a\\ matter\\ of\\ the\\ church\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\3\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ deterministic\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ sees\\ nature\\ as\\ a\\ machine\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\4\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ perfectionistic\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>All\\ of\\ evolution\\ tends\\ toward\\ a\\ perfect\\ end\\.\\\\ \\<\\/o\\:p\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\Sinclair\\ follows\\ Spencer\\ in\\ several\\ aspects\\ of\\ his\\ fiction\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sinclair\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ rich\\ detail\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ and\\ his\\ tendency\\ to\\ document\\ the\\ world\\ and\\ laws\\ of\\ nature\\ owe\\ something\\ to\\ Spencer\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>He\\ differs\\ from\\ Spencer\\ primarily\\ in\\ his\\ vision\\ of\\ what\\ that\\ teleological\\ endpoint\\ would\\ look\\ like\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ end\\ of\\ history\\ for\\ Sinclair\\ is\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ that\\ of\\ Marx\\:\\ it\\ comes\\ with\\ the\\ socialist\\ revolution\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\Stauffer\\ argues\\ that\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ reasons\\ why\\ readers\\ take\\ \\The\\ Jungle\\<\\/em\\>\\ as\\ a\\ consumerist\\ critique\\ is\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ such\\ rich\\ detail\\ in\\ his\\ descriptions\\ of\\ the\\ way\\ food\\ is\\ produced\\,\\ but\\ the\\ socialist\\ vision\\ has\\ no\\ detail\\ whatsoever\\.\\ \\\\ \\<\\/span\\>It\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ still\\ an\\ abstraction\\ nestled\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\(To\\ this\\ I\\ might\\ add\\ something\\ else\\:\\ The\\ Jungle\\ itself\\ is\\ structured\\ as\\ an\\ inevitable\\ teleology\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sinclair\\ painstakingly\\ details\\ the\\ steady\\ decline\\ of\\ a\\ proud\\,\\ loving\\,\\ energetic\\ immigrant\\ like\\ Jurgis\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ until\\ the\\ final\\ few\\ chapters\\ that\\ the\\ hope\\ of\\ socialism\\ is\\ laid\\ out\\ for\\ the\\ reader\\ \\&\\#8211\\;\\ and\\,\\ as\\ Stauffer\\ notes\\,\\ it\\ is\\ never\\ enacted\\ within\\ the\\ novel\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ structure\\ may\\ be\\ something\\ quite\\ basic\\:\\ readers\\ instinctively\\ latch\\ onto\\ the\\ earliest\\ of\\ Sinclair\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ barrage\\ of\\ details\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>The\\ slaughterhouse\\ descriptions\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ few\\ chapters\\ are\\ jarring\\,\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ narrative\\ progresses\\ the\\ relentless\\ pace\\ of\\ destruction\\ has\\ an\\ almost\\ numbing\\ effect\\.\\\\ \\ \\<\\/span\\>Sinclair\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ narratological\\ strategy\\ was\\ to\\ transfer\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ animals\\ onto\\ the\\ treatment\\ of\\ human\\ beings\\,\\ and\\ it\\ partly\\ fails\\ because\\ his\\ description\\ of\\ those\\ animals\\ is\\ so\\ indelibly\\ hammered\\ into\\ the\\ reader\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ consciousness\\.\\)\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 69, "file_path": "", "desc": "Socialism and Social Darwinism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.415697+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Lecture 2 (2/5/08)-Freud and Behaviorism", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 379, "html": "\\A\\ fundamental\\ theme\\ of\\ this\\ class\\ is\\ going\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ scientific\\ approach\\ to\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\.\\ Science\\ is\\ essentially\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ Western\\ philosophy\\,\\ specifically\\ of\\ the\\ philosophy\\ of\\ epistemology\\.\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ knowledge\\,\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;how\\ you\\ know\\ what\\ you\\ know\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\\r\\\\\r\\There\\ are\\ a\\ few\\ important\\ scientific\\ concepts\\ that\\ will\\ be\\ foundational\\ for\\ this\\ class\\:\\ an\\ empirical\\ approach\\ to\\ knowledge\\,\\ falsifiability\\ of\\ ideas\\,\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ have\\ scientific\\ knowledge\\ of\\ something\\ that\\ is\\ not\\ directly\\ observable\\.\\ An\\ \\empirical\\<\\/em\\>\\ approach\\ to\\ knowledge\\ merely\\ says\\ that\\ knowledge\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ external\\ physical\\ world\\ and\\ not\\ from\\ a\\ human\\ or\\ religious\\ authority\\.\\ \\Falsifiability\\<\\/em\\>\\ means\\ that\\ ideas\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ expressed\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ can\\ be\\ evaluated\\ empirically\\ to\\ be\\ either\\ true\\ or\\ false\\.\\ For\\ example\\ the\\ statement\\ that\\ \\\"ghosts\\ exist\\\"\\ is\\ not\\ scientifically\\ verifiable\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ test\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ thought\\ up\\ to\\ prove\\ this\\ is\\ false\\ since\\ all\\ tests\\ finding\\ evidence\\ against\\ ghosts\\ could\\ be\\ explained\\ away\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ they\\ are\\ invisible\\,\\ not\\ made\\ of\\ matter\\,\\ and\\ cannot\\ be\\ detected\\ in\\ any\\ way\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Empirical\\ study\\ of\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ directly\\ observable\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ cognitive\\ science\\,\\ but\\ is\\ not\\ exclusive\\ to\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ cognition\\ in\\ science\\.\\ The\\ way\\ one\\ can\\ study\\ something\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ directly\\ observable\\ is\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ model\\ which\\ makes\\ predictions\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ tested\\.\\ This\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ how\\ quantum\\ mechanics\\ is\\ studied\\ in\\ physics\\ because\\ atoms\\ cannot\\ be\\ observed\\ directly\\.\\ Physicists\\ create\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ what\\ atoms\\ consist\\ of\\,\\ this\\ model\\ generates\\ predictions\\ of\\ what\\ will\\ happen\\ in\\ certain\\ situations\\,\\ and\\ then\\ they\\ smash\\ atoms\\ to\\ test\\ these\\ predictions\\;\\ if\\ multiple\\ predictions\\ hold\\,\\ the\\ model\\ is\\ assumed\\ to\\ be\\ correct\\.\\ This\\ is\\ how\\ modern\\ experimental\\ psychologists\\ probe\\ the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\:\\ one\\ creates\\ a\\ model\\ of\\ how\\ cognition\\ works\\ in\\ some\\ domain\\,\\ this\\ model\\ makes\\ predictions\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ predictions\\ that\\ are\\ falsifiable\\,\\ and\\ therefore\\ tested\\.\\ Furthermore\\ the\\ most\\ helpful\\ research\\ is\\ done\\ on\\ predictions\\ that\\ differentiate\\ different\\ models\\,\\ that\\ is\\ where\\ models\\ make\\ divergent\\ predictions\\ so\\ that\\ a\\ finding\\ can\\ falsify\\ one\\ of\\ them\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ this\\ lecture\\ Dr\\.\\ Pinker\\ discusses\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ two\\ of\\ the\\ biggest\\ psychological\\ theories\\,\\ \\Freudian\\ Psychology\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ \\Behaviorism\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ both\\ what\\ these\\ models\\ said\\ and\\ why\\ they\\ are\\ no\\ longer\\ adhered\\ to\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Freudian\\ Psychology\\:\\ the\\ Psychoanalytic\\ Approach\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Sigmund\\ Freud\\ was\\ a\\ physician\\ who\\ lived\\ around\\ the\\ turn\\ of\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\ \\(1856\\-1939\\)\\.\\ His\\ theory\\ of\\ psychology\\ was\\ created\\ to\\ help\\ him\\ understand\\ neuroses\\ and\\ hysterical\\ disorders\\ \\(where\\ the\\ mind\\ affects\\ the\\ body\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ a\\ leg\\ going\\ numb\\ and\\ immobile\\ out\\ of\\ fear\\ alone\\)\\,\\ and\\ he\\ then\\ expanded\\ this\\ model\\ to\\ explain\\ all\\ of\\ human\\ psychology\\.\\ His\\ most\\ lasting\\ contribution\\ to\\ current\\ psychology\\ was\\ his\\ emphasis\\ on\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ unconscious\\ processing\\,\\ although\\ the\\ way\\ this\\ is\\ conceived\\ of\\ today\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ than\\ Freud\\'s\\ formulation\\.\\ His\\ theory\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ taken\\ seriously\\ in\\ cognitive\\ science\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ scientifically\\ evaluable\\ due\\ to\\ being\\ unfalsifiable\\,\\ but\\ many\\ aspects\\ of\\ it\\ survive\\ in\\ various\\ areas\\ of\\ psychotherapy\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\His\\ theory\\ had\\ a\\ few\\ central\\ concepts\\ that\\ were\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ independent\\ of\\ each\\ other\\,\\ however\\ these\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ integrated\\ in\\ practice\\ by\\ a\\ psychoanalyst\\.\\ The\\ ideas\\ are\\ listed\\ below\\ \\(not\\ in\\ any\\ particular\\ order\\)\\,\\ but\\ I\\ have\\ put\\ them\\ in\\ a\\ list\\ to\\ make\\ them\\ more\\ accessible\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\He\\ introduced\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&\\#8220\\;conservation\\ of\\ energy\\&\\#8221\\;\\ from\\ physics\\ into\\ psychology\\.\\ His\\ concept\\ was\\ based\\ upon\\ an\\ undefined\\ psychical\\ energy\\.\\ This\\ energy\\ was\\ supposedly\\ conserved\\ like\\ physical\\ energy\\ and\\ was\\ merely\\ transferred\\ between\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ this\\ energy\\,\\ like\\ physical\\ energy\\,\\ was\\ harnessed\\ to\\ do\\ work\\-\\-in\\ Freud\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ case\\ a\\ sort\\ of\\ psychological\\ or\\ behavioral\\ work\\.\\ This\\ energy\\ was\\ called\\ the\\ \\libido\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ was\\ oftentimes\\,\\ but\\ not\\ always\\ a\\ sexual\\ drive\\ for\\ Freud\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Freud\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Structural\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\ states\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ essential\\ parts\\ to\\ the\\ psyche\\ that\\ drive\\ behavior\\.\\ The\\ three\\ parts\\ are\\ the\\ \\id\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ \\ego\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ the\\\\ superego\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ id\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ \\primary\\ process\\<\\/em\\>\\ thinking\\,\\ and\\ is\\ driven\\ by\\ the\\ \\pleasure\\ principle\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ pleasure\\ principle\\ \\(and\\ primary\\ process\\ thinking\\)\\ just\\ means\\ that\\ the\\ id\\ seeks\\ instant\\ gratification\\ of\\ all\\ desires\\.\\ It\\ is\\ seen\\ playing\\ a\\ major\\ role\\ in\\ young\\ children\\,\\ adults\\&\\#8217\\;\\ dreams\\,\\ Freudian\\ slips\\,\\ and\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ revealed\\ by\\ psychoanalysis\\.\\ The\\ ego\\ follows\\ the\\ \\reality\\ principle\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ which\\ means\\ that\\ it\\ uses\\ \\secondary\\ process\\<\\/em\\>\\ thinking\\ and\\ delays\\ gratification\\.\\ It\\ uses\\ the\\ libido\\ to\\ control\\ the\\ id\\ and\\ its\\ role\\ is\\ largely\\ balancing\\ out\\ the\\ id\\ and\\ the\\ superego\\.\\ The\\ third\\ component\\ of\\ the\\ structural\\ theory\\ is\\ the\\ superego\\,\\ which\\ is\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ \\morality\\ principle\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ thought\\ of\\ as\\ the\\ conscience\\.\\ This\\ structure\\ is\\ not\\ present\\ at\\ birth\\,\\ but\\ develops\\ as\\ the\\ rules\\ and\\ prohibitions\\ of\\ the\\ parents\\ are\\ internalized\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Freud\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ Topographical\\ Theory\\ of\\ mind\\ states\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ split\\ into\\ three\\ separate\\ parts\\:\\ the\\ \\conscious\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ the\\ \\preconscious\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\unconscious\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ The\\ conscious\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\ is\\ that\\ part\\ of\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ aware\\.\\ The\\ preconscious\\ consists\\ of\\ thoughts\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ currently\\ thinking\\ of\\,\\ but\\ could\\ be\\ brought\\ into\\ consciousness\\ at\\ will\\.\\ The\\ unconscious\\ is\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\ that\\ we\\ are\\ unaware\\ of\\.\\ Unconscious\\ thought\\ processing\\ still\\ plays\\ a\\ large\\ role\\ in\\ cognitive\\ science\\,\\ but\\ is\\ very\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ Freudian\\ unconscious\\.\\ These\\ are\\ only\\ loosely\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ Structural\\ Theory\\ although\\ the\\ id\\ resides\\ in\\ the\\ unconscious\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\Freud\\ also\\ posits\\ a\\ developmental\\ theory\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ of\\ 5\\ distinct\\ stages\\.\\ Each\\ stage\\ has\\ a\\ physical\\ focus\\ \\(the\\ mouth\\,\\ genitals\\,\\ or\\ anus\\)\\ and\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ a\\ theme\\ or\\ conflict\\ that\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ resolved\\.\\ If\\ the\\ theme\\ from\\ one\\ stage\\ is\\ not\\ resolved\\ this\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ dysfunction\\ in\\ adulthood\\.\\ He\\ uses\\ an\\ army\\ metaphor\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ dysfunction\\.\\ It\\ is\\ as\\ if\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ \\&\\#8220\\;army\\&\\#8221\\;\\ of\\ the\\ psyche\\ gets\\ left\\ behind\\ at\\ the\\ stage\\ where\\ the\\ conflict\\ was\\ unresolved\\ \\(this\\ is\\ called\\ \\fixation\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\,\\ and\\ later\\ in\\ life\\ when\\ one\\ is\\ under\\ stress\\,\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ will\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ fixation\\ \\(this\\ is\\ called\\ \\regression\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\.\\ The\\ five\\ stages\\ are\\ listed\\ below\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ list\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\\\Freud\\'s\\ 5\\ developmental\\ stages\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\Stage\\ one\\ is\\ the\\ \\Oral\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(birth\\-18\\ months\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ breast\\-feeding\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ of\\ this\\ stage\\ is\\ dependency\\,\\ and\\ the\\ conflict\\ is\\ weaning\\ or\\ becoming\\ independent\\.\\ If\\ this\\ conflict\\ is\\ not\\ properly\\ resolved\\ by\\ weaning\\ too\\ early\\ the\\ individual\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ become\\ too\\ independent\\,\\ or\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ properly\\ resolved\\ by\\ weaning\\ too\\ late\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ become\\ too\\ dependent\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ second\\ stage\\ is\\ the\\ \\Anal\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(toddlers\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ potty\\-training\\,\\ and\\ is\\ accomplished\\ by\\ the\\ ego\\.\\ The\\ theme\\ is\\ self\\-control\\ and\\ obedience\\,\\ and\\ the\\ major\\ conflict\\ is\\ potty\\-training\\,\\ which\\ represents\\ learning\\ to\\ live\\ by\\ the\\ rules\\ of\\ society\\.\\ If\\ potty\\-training\\ is\\ too\\ early\\ and\\ too\\ tough\\,\\ the\\ conflict\\ is\\ not\\ properly\\ resolved\\ and\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ become\\ extremely\\ orderly\\,\\ stingy\\,\\ and\\ stubborn\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;anal\\-retentive\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\ If\\ it\\ is\\ too\\ late\\ and\\ lackadaisical\\ the\\ person\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ become\\ very\\ sloppy\\ and\\ disorganized\\ or\\ \\&\\#8220\\;anal\\-expulsive\\.\\&\\#8221\\;\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ third\\ stage\\ is\\ the\\ \\Phallic\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(3\\-4\\ years\\ old\\)\\,\\ which\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ the\\ penis\\ \\(or\\ vagina\\,\\ although\\ Freud\\ seems\\ to\\ add\\ women\\ in\\ almost\\ as\\ an\\ afterthought\\,\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ obvious\\ male\\ focus\\)\\,\\ its\\ themes\\ are\\ love\\,\\ sex\\,\\ fear\\,\\ and\\ jealousy\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ themes\\ of\\ romantic\\ relationships\\)\\.\\ The\\ conflict\\ is\\ reconciling\\ the\\ \\Oedipal\\ complex\\<\\/em\\>\\ or\\ desire\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ mother\\ and\\ kill\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ father\\ \\(or\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ women\\ this\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\Electra\\ complex\\ \\<\\/em\\>but\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ added\\ in\\ almost\\ as\\ an\\ afterthought\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\ Freud\\ says\\ little\\ boys\\ are\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ their\\ mothers\\ and\\ therefore\\ want\\ to\\ kill\\ their\\ fathers\\.\\ They\\ fear\\ that\\ the\\ father\\ knows\\ this\\ and\\ thus\\ wants\\ to\\ castrate\\ them\\,\\ which\\ leads\\ to\\ \\castration\\ anxiety\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ To\\ resolve\\ this\\ they\\ identify\\ with\\ and\\ imitate\\ the\\ father\\.\\ If\\ this\\ stage\\ is\\ unresolved\\ it\\ can\\ lead\\ to\\ promiscuous\\ sexuality\\,\\ asexuality\\,\\ or\\ homosexuality\\ for\\ men\\.\\ Women\\ suffer\\ from\\ \\penis\\ envy\\<\\/em\\>\\ in\\ this\\ stage\\,\\ and\\ if\\ they\\ fail\\ to\\ resolve\\ it\\ they\\ show\\ problems\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ flirt\\ with\\ older\\ men\\ and\\ have\\ \\ issues\\ with\\ dominance\\.\\ To\\ resolve\\ this\\ conflict\\ the\\ superego\\ is\\ created\\ to\\ censor\\ the\\ child\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ threatening\\ feelings\\.\\ As\\ a\\ side\\ note\\,\\ modern\\ evolutionary\\ cognitive\\ science\\ would\\ reject\\ this\\ idea\\ and\\ say\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ opposite\\,\\ that\\ children\\ are\\ disgusted\\ by\\ the\\ thought\\ of\\ sex\\ with\\ a\\ family\\ member\\ as\\ an\\ incest\\ avoidance\\ mechanism\\,\\ which\\ is\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Westermarck\\ Effect\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ fourth\\ stage\\ is\\ the\\ \\Latency\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(4\\-puberty\\)\\ in\\ which\\ nothing\\ really\\ happens\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ physical\\ focus\\ and\\ no\\ conflict\\ to\\ be\\ resolved\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\The\\ last\\ stage\\ is\\ the\\ \\Genital\\ stage\\<\\/em\\>\\ at\\ which\\ maturity\\ is\\ reached\\ by\\ sublimating\\ the\\ sexual\\ drive\\ \\(libidinal\\ energy\\)\\ to\\ get\\ it\\ to\\ do\\ work\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\ the\\ energy\\ that\\ comes\\ from\\ the\\ sex\\ drive\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ other\\ purposes\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ol\\>\\\r\\Freud\\ believed\\ that\\ neuroses\\ stem\\ from\\ failing\\ to\\ resolve\\ these\\ conflicts\\ as\\ one\\ matures\\.\\ He\\ posited\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ \\defense\\ mechanisms\\<\\/em\\>\\ by\\ which\\ people\\ deal\\ with\\ stressors\\ in\\ unhealthy\\ ways\\:\\ \\denial\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\repression\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ deny\\ it\\,\\ but\\ don\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ think\\ or\\ talk\\ about\\ it\\)\\,\\ \\reaction\\ formation\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(do\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ what\\ one\\ feels\\,\\ such\\ as\\ gay\\-bashing\\ if\\ one\\ has\\ homoerotic\\ feelings\\)\\,\\ \\projection\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(say\\ that\\ someone\\ else\\ is\\ characterized\\ by\\ one\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ own\\ feelings\\)\\,\\ \\rationalization\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(make\\ up\\ a\\ good\\ reason\\ for\\ something\\ irrational\\)\\,\\ \\displacement\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(attach\\ feelings\\ to\\ something\\ neutral\\ like\\ a\\ sports\\ car\\ instead\\ of\\ a\\ penis\\)\\,\\ \\sublimation\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(use\\ the\\ energy\\ to\\ do\\ something\\ else\\ with\\ it\\,\\ like\\ turn\\ unhealthy\\ sexual\\ feelings\\ into\\ work\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\intellectualization\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(think\\ about\\ something\\ abstractly\\ and\\ intellectually\\ rather\\ than\\ emotionally\\)\\.All\\ of\\ the\\ above\\ processes\\ and\\ mechanisms\\ are\\ probed\\ in\\ psychoanalytic\\ therapy\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ therapist\\ tries\\ to\\ discover\\ hidden\\ desires\\ and\\ problems\\ through\\ looking\\ at\\ what\\ the\\ id\\ is\\ doing\\ in\\ dreams\\,\\ slips\\ of\\ the\\ tongue\\,\\ resistances\\,\\ and\\ free\\ association\\.\\ The\\ conflicts\\ are\\ brought\\ into\\ consciousness\\ where\\ they\\ can\\ then\\ be\\ dealt\\ with\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Critiques\\ of\\ Freud\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\The\\ problem\\ with\\ Freudian\\ psychology\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ unfalsifiable\\ and\\ therefore\\ unscientific\\.\\ One\\ cannot\\ test\\ many\\ of\\ Freud\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideas\\ empirically\\ so\\ they\\ must\\ be\\ taken\\ on\\ faith\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ ideas\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ tested\\ have\\ not\\ fared\\ well\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ a\\ boy\\ is\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ his\\ mother\\ and\\ wants\\ to\\ have\\ sex\\ with\\ her\\ has\\ been\\ rejected\\ and\\ replaced\\ by\\ findings\\ showing\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ the\\ opposite\\,\\ that\\ these\\ incestuous\\ ideas\\ are\\ found\\ to\\ be\\ disgusting\\.\\ Freudians\\ often\\ would\\ explain\\ results\\ like\\ this\\ away\\ by\\ appealing\\ to\\ defense\\ mechanisms\\ \\&\\#8220\\;it\\ is\\ just\\ disgusting\\ because\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ reaction\\ formation\\,\\&\\#8221\\;\\ which\\ then\\ makes\\ the\\ ideas\\ unfalsifiable\\ and\\ thus\\ untestable\\,\\ because\\ one\\ could\\ not\\ design\\ a\\ test\\ to\\ get\\ around\\ these\\ kinds\\ of\\ objections\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ are\\ much\\ better\\ explanations\\ of\\ psychological\\ illness\\ now\\ that\\ are\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ Freud\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ severe\\ mental\\ disorders\\ are\\ highly\\ heritable\\,\\ which\\ means\\ they\\ have\\ a\\ strong\\ genetic\\ component\\ and\\ therefore\\ have\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ a\\ failure\\ to\\ resolve\\ a\\ developmental\\ conflict\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Sigmund\\_Freud\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Behaviorism\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Behaviorism\\ started\\ as\\ a\\ reaction\\ to\\ Freudian\\ psychology\\,\\ and\\ a\\ rejection\\ of\\ all\\ mental\\ processes\\ in\\ a\\ scientific\\ study\\ of\\ psychology\\.\\ Freud\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ ideas\\ were\\ untestable\\ and\\ consisted\\ of\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ dubious\\ mental\\ processes\\,\\ so\\ the\\ behaviorist\\ reaction\\ to\\ this\\ merely\\ denied\\ that\\ mental\\ processes\\ could\\ be\\ an\\ object\\ of\\ scientific\\ study\\.\\ Instead\\ behaviorists\\ thought\\ that\\ psychology\\ should\\ essentially\\ be\\ a\\ study\\ of\\ predicting\\ behavior\\ from\\ environmental\\ inputs\\,\\ without\\ positing\\ what\\ happens\\ in\\ between\\ the\\ input\\ and\\ the\\ behavior\\.\\ So\\ one\\ would\\ not\\ describe\\ behavior\\ using\\ desires\\,\\ beliefs\\,\\ memories\\,\\ or\\ any\\ other\\ strictly\\ mental\\ phenomena\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\In\\ Behaviorism\\ everything\\ is\\ explained\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ conditioning\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ fundamental\\ types\\ of\\ conditioning\\:\\ \\classical\\ conditioning\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\operant\\ conditioning\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ Classical\\ conditioning\\ is\\ conditioning\\ involuntary\\ reflexes\\ \\(such\\ as\\ drooling\\ or\\ flinching\\)\\ to\\ be\\ paired\\ up\\ with\\ new\\ stimuli\\ that\\ would\\ not\\ normally\\ cause\\ the\\ reflex\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ drooling\\ when\\ a\\ light\\ goes\\ on\\ if\\ it\\ has\\ been\\ paired\\ with\\ food\\ previously\\)\\.\\ Operant\\ conditioning\\ is\\ conditioning\\ voluntary\\ behavior\\ \\(such\\ as\\ lever\\ pressing\\)\\.\\ So\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ a\\ pigeon\\ would\\ not\\ normally\\ hit\\ a\\ lever\\ except\\ by\\ accident\\,\\ but\\ through\\ operant\\ conditioning\\ this\\ behavior\\ can\\ be\\ achieved\\ by\\ pairing\\ lever\\ pressing\\ with\\ food\\ or\\ some\\ other\\ reward\\.\\ The\\ behaviorists\\ believed\\ that\\ conditioning\\ could\\ account\\ for\\ all\\ behavior\\ given\\ a\\ few\\ initial\\ \\&\\#8220\\;innate\\ constraints\\&\\#8221\\;\\ such\\ as\\ what\\ counts\\ as\\ a\\ reward\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ food\\,\\ warmth\\,\\ sex\\)\\ or\\ as\\ punishment\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ shocks\\ and\\ loud\\ noises\\)\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\More\\ here\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Behaviorism\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Classical\\ Conditioning\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ also\\ called\\ \\Pavlovian\\ conditioning\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\respondant\\ conditioning\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ or\\ \\conditioned\\ reflexes\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ There\\ are\\ four\\ very\\ important\\ terms\\ in\\ classical\\ conditioning\\:\\ \\unconditioned\\ stimulus\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\unconditioned\\ response\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\conditioned\\ stimulus\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ and\\ \\conditioned\\ response\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ These\\ terms\\ are\\ easy\\ to\\ remember\\ because\\ they\\ describe\\ exactly\\ what\\ they\\ are\\.\\ An\\ unconditioned\\ stimulus\\ is\\ the\\ stimulus\\ that\\ doesn\\&\\#8217\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ conditioned\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ what\\ the\\ reflex\\ naturally\\ responds\\ to\\,\\ for\\ example\\ with\\ Pavlov\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dogs\\ the\\ food\\ is\\ the\\ unconditioned\\ stimulus\\ because\\ no\\ dog\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ conditioned\\ to\\ drool\\ with\\ food\\.\\ The\\ unconditioned\\ response\\ is\\ similarly\\ the\\ response\\ that\\ does\\ not\\ need\\ to\\ be\\ conditioned\\,\\ so\\ the\\ drooling\\ to\\ food\\ is\\ the\\ unconditioned\\ response\\.\\ The\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ is\\ the\\ stimulus\\ that\\ is\\ paired\\ with\\ the\\ unconditioned\\ stimulus\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ will\\ evoke\\ the\\ same\\ response\\ even\\ though\\ it\\ normally\\ would\\ not\\,\\ for\\ example\\ the\\ bell\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ conditioned\\ stimulus\\ for\\ Pavlov\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ dogs\\ because\\ they\\ begin\\ to\\ drool\\ when\\ they\\ hear\\ a\\ bell\\ after\\ conditioning\\,\\ but\\ they\\ would\\ not\\ normally\\ have\\ this\\ response\\.\\ The\\ conditioned\\ response\\ is\\ the\\ unnatural\\ response\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ conditioning\\,\\ so\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ drooling\\ in\\ response\\ to\\ a\\ bell\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Classical\\_conditioning\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Operant\\ Conditioning\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\This\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ classical\\ conditioning\\ with\\ one\\ crucial\\ difference\\,\\ classical\\ conditioning\\ merely\\ exploits\\ reflexive\\ behavior\\,\\ but\\ operant\\ conditioning\\ actually\\ shapes\\ voluntary\\ behavior\\.\\ So\\ classical\\ conditioning\\ could\\ never\\ explain\\ things\\ like\\ lever\\ pressing\\,\\ or\\ maze\\ running\\,\\ or\\ Skinner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ pigeons\\ that\\ he\\ taught\\ to\\ play\\ ping\\ pong\\.\\ There\\ are\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ important\\ terms\\ for\\ operant\\ conditioning\\ listed\\ below\\:\\\r\\\\\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Positive\\ reinforcement\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ reinforcement\\ of\\ behavior\\ through\\ giving\\ a\\ reward\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ give\\ food\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Negative\\ reinforcement\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ reinforcement\\ of\\ behavior\\ by\\ removal\\ of\\ an\\ unpleasant\\ stimuli\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ take\\ away\\ a\\ shock\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Positive\\ Punishment\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ anti\\-reinforcement\\ by\\ applying\\ an\\ unpleasant\\ stimuli\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ give\\ a\\ shock\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Negative\\ Punishment\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ anti\\-reinforcement\\ by\\ removing\\ a\\ reward\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ remove\\ food\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Extinction\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ where\\ a\\ behavior\\ that\\ was\\ conditioned\\ disappears\\ after\\ the\\ reinforcement\\ no\\ longer\\ occurs\\ with\\ the\\ unconditioned\\ stimuli\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Continuous\\<\\/em\\>\\ \\(fixed\\ ratio\\)\\ vs\\.\\ \\Intermittent\\ \\<\\/em\\>\\(variable\\ ratio\\)\\ \\schedules\\<\\/em\\>\\\\ of\\ reinforcement\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ Continual\\ reinforcement\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ behavior\\ is\\ rewarded\\ every\\ single\\ time\\,\\ so\\ every\\ time\\ the\\ dog\\ sits\\ it\\ gets\\ a\\ biscuit\\.\\ Intermittent\\ reinforcement\\ is\\ where\\ only\\ sometimes\\ the\\ behavior\\ is\\ rewarded\\,\\ so\\ the\\ dog\\ only\\ gets\\ a\\ biscuit\\ for\\ sitting\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ Behavior\\ created\\ through\\ intermittent\\ reinforcement\\ takes\\ much\\ longer\\ for\\ extinction\\ to\\ occur\\ after\\ the\\ reinforcement\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ supplied\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Stimulus\\ Generalization\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ tendency\\ of\\ animals\\ to\\ see\\ similar\\ stimuli\\ as\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ conditioned\\ stimuli\\ \\(or\\ at\\ least\\ close\\)\\ and\\ therefore\\ for\\ the\\ novel\\ but\\ similar\\ stimulus\\ to\\ evoke\\ the\\ conditioned\\ behavior\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ behavior\\ is\\ conditioned\\ by\\ a\\ yellow\\ light\\,\\ but\\ can\\ be\\ evoked\\ by\\ a\\ green\\ light\\ as\\ well\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\\t\\\\Stimulus\\ Discrimination\\<\\/em\\>\\-\\ this\\ is\\ when\\ the\\ experimenter\\ trains\\ an\\ animal\\ to\\ react\\ to\\ one\\ stimulus\\ but\\ not\\ another\\ one\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ animal\\ gets\\ food\\ when\\ they\\ hit\\ a\\ lever\\ when\\ the\\ yellow\\ light\\ is\\ on\\,\\ but\\ get\\ shocked\\ when\\ they\\ hit\\ the\\ lever\\ and\\ the\\ green\\ light\\ is\\ on\\,\\ so\\ the\\ animal\\ sees\\ the\\ two\\ lights\\ as\\ different\\)\\.\\<\\/li\\>\\\r\\\\<\\/ul\\>\\\r\\\\http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Operant\\_conditioning\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Critiques\\ of\\ Behaviorism\\<\\/strong\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Behaviorism\\ has\\ also\\ gone\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ Freudian\\ psychology\\ in\\ science\\ for\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ reasons\\.\\ The\\ first\\ and\\ probably\\ most\\ important\\ reason\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ rested\\ upon\\ a\\ foundational\\ assumption\\ of\\ the\\ \\equipotentiality\\<\\/em\\>\\ of\\ learning\\.\\ This\\ means\\ that\\ everything\\ is\\ equally\\ easy\\ to\\ learn\\,\\ and\\ this\\ has\\ been\\ falsified\\ empirically\\.\\ Organisms\\ are\\ set\\ up\\ to\\ learn\\ different\\ things\\ differently\\.\\ The\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ rats\\ pairing\\ two\\ stimuli\\ and\\ two\\ responses\\ is\\ given\\ in\\ the\\ lecture\\.\\ Rats\\ naturally\\ pair\\ nausea\\ with\\ something\\ ingested\\ such\\ as\\ saccharine\\ water\\,\\ and\\ pair\\ a\\ shock\\ with\\ an\\ external\\ event\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ light\\ or\\ sound\\.\\ They\\ will\\ not\\ be\\ conditioned\\ the\\ other\\ way\\ around\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ pairing\\ the\\ nausea\\ with\\ the\\ light\\ and\\ the\\ shock\\ with\\ the\\ saccharine\\ water\\.\\ This\\ shows\\ that\\ equipotentiality\\ is\\ demonstrably\\ false\\,\\ and\\ there\\ are\\ major\\ innate\\ constraints\\ on\\ learning\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ valid\\ to\\ say\\ one\\ learns\\ language\\ just\\ like\\ he\\ or\\ she\\ learns\\ how\\ to\\ ride\\ a\\ bike\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ major\\ problem\\ with\\ behaviorism\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ explain\\ what\\ it\\ attempts\\ to\\ because\\ the\\ theory\\ implicitly\\ uses\\ mental\\ concepts\\ in\\ how\\ stimuli\\ and\\ rewards\\ are\\ processed\\.\\ So\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ in\\ stimulus\\ generalization\\ \\(one\\ of\\ the\\ core\\ pieces\\ of\\ Skinner\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ explanation\\ of\\ language\\ in\\ his\\ book\\ \\Verbal\\ Behavior\\<\\/em\\>\\)\\ it\\ is\\ said\\ that\\ individuals\\ generalize\\ one\\ stimulus\\ set\\ to\\ another\\ \\&\\#8220\\;similar\\&\\#8221\\;\\ one\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ with\\ this\\ analysis\\ is\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ agnostic\\ as\\ to\\ how\\ something\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ something\\ else\\ \\(such\\ as\\ why\\ do\\ we\\ perceive\\ all\\ nouns\\ as\\ belonging\\ to\\ a\\ class\\ and\\ all\\ verbs\\ as\\ belonging\\ to\\ a\\ class\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ problem\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ often\\ nothing\\ physically\\ similar\\ about\\ different\\ stimuli\\,\\ and\\ so\\ the\\ similarity\\ must\\ be\\ abstract\\ and\\ mental\\.\\ The\\ problem\\ is\\ how\\ do\\ we\\ perceive\\ things\\ as\\ similar\\ according\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;common\\ sense\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ Common\\ sense\\ is\\ an\\ inherently\\ mental\\ phenomena\\.\\ The\\ behaviorist\\ explanation\\ uses\\ the\\ phenomena\\ it\\ is\\ trying\\ to\\ explain\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ explanation\\ itself\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ relying\\ on\\ mental\\ phenomena\\ despite\\ explicitly\\ rejecting\\ them\\.\\ This\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ Chomsky\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ critiques\\ of\\ \\Verbal\\ Behavior\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\r\\Another\\ major\\ critique\\ of\\ the\\ behaviorist\\ account\\ of\\ language\\ in\\ particular\\ is\\ that\\ almost\\ every\\ sentence\\ is\\ novel\\,\\ so\\ how\\ could\\ this\\ be\\ reinforced\\.\\ One\\ needs\\ mental\\ processes\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ understand\\ this\\ sentence\\ even\\ though\\ we\\ have\\ never\\ heard\\/read\\ it\\ before\\,\\ behaviorism\\ cannot\\ account\\ for\\ this\\ because\\ we\\ could\\ not\\ have\\ paired\\ a\\ response\\ with\\ a\\ novel\\ stimulus\\ \\(of\\ course\\ behaviorists\\ would\\ object\\ to\\ saying\\ \\&\\#8220\\;understand\\&\\#8221\\;\\ the\\ sentence\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\,\\ but\\ this\\ captures\\ the\\ idea\\ behind\\ the\\ critique\\)\\.\\ Chomsky\\ also\\ created\\ the\\ \\poverty\\ of\\ the\\ stimulus\\ \\<\\/em\\>argument\\ in\\ his\\ critique\\ of\\ Skinner\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ essentially\\ said\\ that\\ children\\ learning\\ language\\ do\\ not\\ have\\ a\\ rich\\ enough\\ stimulus\\ set\\ to\\ create\\ observed\\ language\\ competence\\.\\ No\\ one\\ ever\\ sits\\ down\\ with\\ a\\ child\\ and\\ explains\\ grammar\\,\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ hear\\ enough\\ complete\\ sentences\\ to\\ learn\\ grammar\\ through\\ conditioning\\,\\ and\\ they\\ are\\ usually\\ reinforced\\ indiscriminately\\ even\\ when\\ they\\ make\\ mistakes\\ using\\ language\\ so\\ language\\ competence\\ cannot\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ mere\\ conditioning\\.\\ Here\\ is\\ Chomsky\\'s\\ fatal\\ critique\\ of\\ behaviorism\\,\\ his\\ review\\ of\\ B\\.F\\.\\ Skinner\\'s\\ \\Verbal\\ Behavior\\<\\/em\\>\\,\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/cogprints\\.org\\/1148\\/0\\/chomsky\\.htm\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Behaviorism\\ was\\ a\\ self\\-conscious\\ attempt\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ study\\ of\\ psychology\\ scientific\\,\\ but\\ it\\ lacked\\ a\\ crucial\\ piece\\ of\\ the\\ puzzle\\,\\ namely\\ an\\ understanding\\ of\\ information\\-processing\\ born\\ of\\ the\\ invention\\ of\\ the\\ computer\\.\\ Behaviorists\\ rejected\\ mental\\ concepts\\ as\\ unfalsifiable\\,\\ however\\,\\ although\\ cognitive\\ scientists\\ today\\ would\\ also\\ object\\ to\\ unfalsifiability\\,\\ cognitive\\ modeling\\ coupled\\ with\\ experiments\\ on\\ falsifiable\\ predictions\\ from\\ these\\ models\\ allows\\ mental\\ processes\\ to\\ be\\ studied\\ empirically\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ are\\ not\\ directly\\ observable\\.\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 74, "file_path": "", "desc": "Lecture 2 (2/5/08)-Freud and Behaviorism"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-02 06:06:04.548876+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "First Nights - Final Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "first-nights"], "text": null, "id": 82, "html": "\\\\\\FNs\\_\\-\\_Final\\_Study\\_Guide\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:105\\.6pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c52\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:251\\.8pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:7\\.5pt\\ 7\\.5pt\\ 7\\.5pt\\ 7\\.5pt\\}\\.c14\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:198\\.2pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:7\\.5pt\\ 7\\.5pt\\ 7\\.5pt\\ 7\\.5pt\\}\\.c27\\{vertical\\-align\\:middle\\;width\\:104\\.4pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\;padding\\:0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\ 0\\.8pt\\}\\.c43\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:387pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c17\\{vertical\\-align\\:top\\;width\\:108pt\\;border\\-style\\:solid\\;border\\-color\\:\\#000000\\;border\\-width\\:1pt\\}\\.c34\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:decimal\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c26\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c35\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c37\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c46\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c24\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c36\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-72pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c16\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c42\\{font\\-size\\:8pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c23\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c5\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c51\\{padding\\-left\\:30\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:90pt\\}\\.c6\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-108pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c4\\{height\\:12pt\\;margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c29\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c48\\{color\\:\\#0000af\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\}\\.c20\\{text\\-indent\\:\\-36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c21\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c30\\{padding\\-left\\:33\\.8pt\\;margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c41\\{margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c50\\{color\\:\\#0000af\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c40\\{border\\-collapse\\:collapse\\}\\.c45\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c31\\{margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c9\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c38\\{text\\-indent\\:18pt\\}\\.c32\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c15\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c7\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c19\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c22\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c47\\{color\\:\\#330066\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c44\\{padding\\-left\\:3pt\\}\\.c18\\{padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.c28\\{font\\-size\\:9pt\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c33\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\}\\.c49\\{line\\-height\\:2\\.0\\}\\.c39\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c25\\{height\\:0pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:0pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ score\\ indicating\\ full\\ instrumentation\\.\\ From\\ the\\ autographed\\ score\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ indication\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ any\\ wind\\ instruments\\ save\\ the\\ trumpet\\ solo\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Trumpet\\ Shall\\ Sound\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ There\\ are\\ some\\ scholars\\,\\ however\\,\\ who\\ believe\\ Handel\\ generated\\ wind\\ parts\\ from\\ his\\ score\\ and\\ used\\ oboes\\ and\\ bassoons\\,\\ and\\ even\\ horns\\.\\ Knowing\\ this\\ information\\ would\\ certainly\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ better\\ reconstruct\\ how\\ performances\\ of\\ this\\ piece\\ were\\ intended\\ to\\ sound\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ninth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ From\\ the\\ various\\ reviews\\ provided\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ pretty\\ good\\ idea\\ what\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ninth\\ looked\\ and\\ sounded\\ like\\.\\ We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ the\\ exact\\ disposition\\ of\\ the\\ performing\\ forces\\.\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ \\&ldquo\\;typical\\&rdquo\\;\\ way\\ of\\ arranging\\ an\\ orchestra\\ in\\ nineteenth\\ century\\ Vienna\\.\\ \\ \\;Questions\\ as\\ to\\ whether\\ the\\ orchestra\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ pit\\ or\\ on\\ stage\\ and\\ whether\\ the\\ chorus\\ was\\ in\\ front\\ or\\ behind\\ the\\ performing\\ ensemble\\ remain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Kelly\\,\\ in\\ his\\ book\\,\\ writes\\ that\\ out\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ pieces\\,\\ the\\ premiere\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ most\\ difficult\\ to\\ imagine\\.\\ The\\ definitive\\ score\\ published\\ in\\ 1845\\&mdash\\;fifteen\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\&mdash\\;contains\\,\\ self\\-admittedly\\,\\ numerous\\ revisions\\ and\\ alterations\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ in\\ studying\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ all\\ we\\ have\\ is\\ this\\ updated\\ version\\.\\ Clearly\\,\\ if\\ we\\ were\\ to\\ request\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;missing\\&rdquo\\;\\ piece\\ of\\ historical\\ evidence\\ to\\ give\\ a\\ better\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ performance\\ premiere\\,\\ it\\ would\\ most\\ certainly\\ be\\ the\\ original\\ score\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Unlike\\ the\\ original\\ score\\,\\ which\\ we\\ are\\ fortunate\\ enough\\ to\\ have\\ today\\,\\ the\\ original\\ choreography\\ was\\ not\\ taken\\ down\\,\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ we\\ are\\,\\ without\\ it\\,\\ unable\\ to\\ appreciate\\ the\\ work\\&rsquo\\;s\\ initial\\ conception\\ as\\ a\\ theater\\ piece\\.\\ Since\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ negative\\ reaction\\ was\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ \\&ldquo\\;on\\ stage\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ this\\ would\\ be\\ helpful\\ in\\ gaining\\ a\\ better\\ perspective\\ into\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ Parisians\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#27\\ \\&ldquo\\;Devise\\ a\\ listening\\ quiz\\ for\\ this\\ examination\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vi\\ ricorda\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ important\\ solos\\ by\\ Orfeo\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ Act\\ \\(along\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;Tu\\ se\\ morta\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ very\\ lively\\ aria\\ \\(accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ lute\\&hellip\\;I\\ think\\)\\ that\\ discusses\\ how\\ Orfeo\\ used\\ to\\ be\\ very\\ sad\\ until\\ he\\ met\\ Euridice\\.\\ We\\ know\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ aria\\ because\\ the\\ accompaniment\\ is\\ very\\ lively\\ and\\ because\\ the\\ chorus\\ beckons\\ Orfeo\\ to\\ sing\\ just\\ before\\ this\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ aria\\ occurs\\ in\\ four\\ verses\\ with\\ a\\ ritornello\\ between\\ each\\ verse\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ verses\\ are\\ all\\ sung\\ with\\ the\\ same\\ musical\\ structure\\ or\\ pattern\\ despite\\ differing\\ words\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ line\\ of\\ each\\ verse\\ is\\ sung\\ with\\ descending\\ notes\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ each\\ verse\\ has\\ the\\ same\\ feel\\ and\\ mood\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ritornellos\\ are\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ lively\\ ritornello\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ aria\\ represents\\ the\\ last\\ instance\\ of\\ real\\ regularity\\ and\\ of\\ ritornellos\\ for\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ act\\,\\ since\\ Silvia\\ enters\\ soon\\ after\\ and\\ delivers\\ the\\ bad\\ news\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\2\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pifa\\ \\(Pastoral\\ Symphony\\)\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Serves\\ to\\ divide\\ Part\\ I\\ into\\ two\\ distinct\\ sections\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ only\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ solely\\ instrumental\\ movements\\ in\\ all\\ of\\ Part\\ I\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ name\\ \\&ldquo\\;Pifa\\&rdquo\\;\\ implies\\ a\\ woodwind\\-like\\ sound\\,\\ yet\\ Handel\\ uses\\ only\\ strings\\ to\\ attain\\ this\\ sound\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Very\\ peaceful\\ and\\ slow\\ sounding\\&hellip\\;very\\ pastoral\\ and\\ swaying\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ achieved\\ through\\ string\\ parts\\ moving\\ in\\ parallel\\ and\\ in\\ octaves\\ over\\ a\\ low\\,\\ droning\\ bass\\ with\\ long\\ pedal\\ tones\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ movement\\ can\\ be\\ identified\\ by\\ very\\ distinct\\ and\\ frequent\\ trilling\\ sounds\\ in\\ the\\ string\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\3\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Beginning\\ of\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Movement\\ Coda\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ coda\\ is\\ marked\\ by\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ new\\ material\\ that\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ further\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ theme\\ of\\ this\\ movement\\ and\\ then\\ a\\ repetition\\ of\\ this\\ new\\ material\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ new\\ material\\ consists\\ of\\ three\\ quick\\ notes\\ by\\ the\\ entire\\ orchestra\\ \\(w\\/o\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;violin\\)\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ single\\ note\\ echo\\ in\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;violin\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ repeated\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ same\\ pattern\\ \\(w\\/o\\ echo\\)\\ begins\\ occurring\\ faster\\,\\ but\\ then\\ fizzles\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ overall\\ sound\\ is\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ very\\ triumphant\\ breakout\\ that\\ seems\\ to\\ fail\\,\\ adding\\ an\\ element\\ of\\ sadness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ material\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ coda\\ contrasts\\ heavily\\ with\\ the\\ very\\ slow\\,\\ sad\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\ in\\ general\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\4\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Execution\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Occurs\\ at\\ the\\ very\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ march\\-like\\ music\\ concludes\\ and\\ the\\ first\\ four\\ measures\\ of\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ are\\ played\\ by\\ the\\ clarinet\\ alone\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ interrupted\\ by\\ a\\ loud\\ crash\\ \\(the\\ guillotine\\)\\ played\\ by\\ all\\ instruments\\ and\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ quiet\\ \\&ldquo\\;plinking\\&rdquo\\;\\ sound\\ \\(the\\ head\\ dropping\\)\\ played\\ in\\ the\\ strings\\.\\ \\ \\;Finally\\,\\ a\\ very\\ loud\\ conclusion\\ is\\ played\\ by\\ the\\ entire\\ orchestra\\ and\\ three\\ timpanists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ the\\ goal\\ and\\ conclusion\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ \\&ldquo\\;March\\ to\\ the\\ Scaffold\\&rdquo\\;\\:\\ he\\ is\\ executed\\ for\\ the\\ murder\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\ but\\ not\\ before\\ her\\ memory\\ returns\\ fleetingly\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ occurrence\\ of\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ in\\ the\\ entire\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ scene\\ is\\ arguably\\ the\\ most\\ graphical\\ \\(in\\ terms\\ of\\ music\\ portraying\\ an\\ actual\\ even\\&hellip\\;related\\ to\\ idea\\ of\\ program\\ music\\)\\ in\\ the\\ entire\\ piece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\5\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Sacre\\ du\\ Printemps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ End\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Spring\\ Rounds\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Clip\\ starting\\ at\\ about\\ 3\\:00\\ into\\ the\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ with\\ very\\ pronounced\\ trombone\\ glissandos\\ ends\\ abruptly\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ chirping\\ sound\\ on\\ the\\ piccolo\\.\\ \\ \\;Then\\ begins\\ a\\ transition\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ rapid\\ scurrying\\ sound\\ in\\ the\\ woodwinds\\ that\\ is\\ interrupted\\ a\\ few\\ times\\ by\\ regular\\ accented\\ notes\\ played\\ by\\ almost\\ the\\ entire\\ chorus\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ transition\\ leads\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ slow\\,\\ sing\\-song\\ melody\\ that\\ opens\\ this\\ movement\\,\\ being\\ played\\ by\\ clarinet\\ and\\ flute\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ clip\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ has\\ the\\ very\\ distinct\\ and\\ memorable\\ glissandos\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ this\\ chirping\\ piccolo\\ interruption\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ transition\\ back\\ to\\ a\\ previous\\ melody\\ that\\ closes\\ the\\ movement\\ as\\ it\\ opened\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marie\\ Rambert\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ dancer\\,\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;performance\\ of\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\,\\ who\\ wrote\\ about\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\,\\ and\\ also\\ helped\\ Nijinsky\\ teach\\ the\\ choreography\\ to\\ the\\ dancers\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ pictured\\ on\\ pg\\.289\\ of\\ the\\ textbook\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recitative\\ \\-\\ Recitative\\ is\\ a\\ declamatory\\ style\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\text\\ setting\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ imitate\\ the\\ natural\\ rhythms\\ and\\ cadences\\ of\\ speech\\.\\ It\\ is\\ sung\\ by\\ one\\ person\\ over\\ an\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\ that\\ serves\\ to\\ harmonically\\ support\\ the\\ melody\\ assigned\\ to\\ the\\ text\\.\\ See\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\recitativo\\ accompagnato\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\recitativo\\ secco\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nicholas\\ Roerich\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Designed\\ and\\ painted\\ the\\ sets\\ for\\ the\\ premiere\\ of\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\;\\ well\\-known\\ artist\\ and\\ authority\\ on\\ early\\ Slavic\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Serpent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ an\\ instrument\\ that\\ produces\\ a\\ barbaric\\ sound\\ that\\ was\\ quite\\ appropriate\\ for\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dies\\ Irae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;section\\ of\\ Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\.\\ \\ \\;Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;\\ feelings\\ about\\ the\\ instrument\\ are\\ found\\ on\\ pg\\.\\ 217\\ of\\ the\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harriet\\ Smithson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ popular\\ actress\\ in\\ Paris\\ who\\ caught\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ Berlioz\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ influence\\ and\\ her\\ relationship\\ with\\ Berlioz\\ had\\ a\\ profound\\ affect\\ on\\ the\\ symphony\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ is\\ described\\ on\\ pgs\\.\\ 188\\-89\\ of\\ the\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soprano\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ A\\ female\\ singer\\ with\\ a\\ high\\ voice\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ A\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\register\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ a\\ span\\ of\\ notes\\ within\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ all\\ possible\\ notes\\.\\ Of\\ the\\ four\\ registers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\soprano\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\alto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tenor\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\bass\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ soprano\\ register\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\.\\ \\(See\\ main\\ entry\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\register\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\syncopation\\ \\-\\ when\\ accented\\ notes\\ occur\\ on\\ weak\\ beats\\ instead\\ of\\ strong\\ down\\ beats\\;\\ A\\ special\\ case\\ of\\ syncopation\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\hemiola\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Syncopation\\ occurs\\ in\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Timpani\\ \\-\\ A\\ low\\ percussion\\ instrument\\,\\ a\\ standard\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ orchestra\\.\\ The\\ timpani\\ has\\ an\\ adjustable\\ membrane\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ tuned\\ to\\ different\\ pitches\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuba\\ \\-\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ lowest\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\brass\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;family\\.\\ It\\ is\\ played\\ on\\ the\\ lap\\ of\\ the\\ performer\\ and\\ is\\ an\\ instrument\\ used\\ in\\ both\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\orchestras\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bands\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caroline\\ Unger\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ alto\\ in\\ the\\ premiere\\ of\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\ who\\ was\\ described\\ as\\ large\\ and\\ attractive\\,\\ very\\ outgoing\\,\\ and\\ a\\ fun\\ woman\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ a\\ friend\\ to\\ Henrietta\\ Sontag\\ and\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ have\\ turned\\ Beethoven\\ around\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ see\\ the\\ audience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Kiss\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ A\\ brief\\ section\\ of\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ that\\ is\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ hushed\\ cords\\ as\\ the\\ Sage\\ ritually\\ kisses\\ the\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Woodwinds\\:\\ family\\ of\\ instruments\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ flute\\ and\\ piccolo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fugue\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ is\\ a\\ highly\\ contrapuntal\\ \\(this\\ the\\ relation\\ of\\ note\\ against\\ note\\,\\ which\\ simultaneously\\ interweaves\\ independent\\ lines\\ and\\ melodies\\ as\\ threads\\ of\\ a\\ single\\ musical\\ fabric\\.\\ Contrapuntal\\ textures\\ are\\ by\\ definition\\ polyphonic\\)\\ type\\ of\\ composition\\,\\ where\\ one\\ theme\\ is\\ repeated\\ and\\ elaborated\\ in\\ multiple\\ voices\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ composition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ballets\\ Russes\\:\\ founded\\ by\\ Serge\\ Diahgilev\\,\\ the\\ Russian\\ ballet\\ company\\ that\\ first\\ performed\\ the\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bitonality\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Caronte\\:\\ the\\ boatman\\ of\\ the\\ river\\ in\\ the\\ underworld\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Chorus\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ term\\ refers\\ both\\ to\\ a\\ composition\\ that\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ simultaneous\\ singing\\ of\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ vocal\\ part\\,\\ and\\ the\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ sing\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ music\\ \\(anthem\\,\\ fugue\\,\\ duet\\.\\)\\ Important\\ role\\ in\\ Orfeo\\ and\\ in\\ classical\\ Greek\\ tragedies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Col\\ Legno\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\An\\ unusual\\ technique\\ of\\ playing\\ stringed\\ instruments\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ players\\ turn\\ their\\ bows\\ upside\\ down\\ to\\ strike\\ the\\ strings\\ with\\ the\\ wood\\ rather\\ than\\ with\\ the\\ hair\\,\\ producing\\ a\\ clicking\\ sound\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Danse\\ Sacrale\\:\\ the\\ 5\\-part\\ last\\ movement\\ in\\ The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ when\\ the\\ designated\\ sacrificial\\ victim\\ dances\\ herself\\ to\\ death\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dies\\ Irae\\:\\ last\\ movement\\ of\\ Berlioz\\,\\ funeral\\ chant\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\E\\-flat\\ clarinet\\:\\ used\\ in\\ last\\ movement\\ of\\ Berlioz\\ \\(witches\\ dance\\)\\ to\\ play\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\.\\ Sounds\\ very\\ strange\\ and\\ is\\ usually\\ not\\ used\\ in\\ symphonies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Euridice\\:\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\,\\ who\\ dies\\ tragically\\ during\\ the\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Act\\ due\\ to\\ a\\ snake\\ bite\\,\\ and\\ then\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fishamble\\:\\ the\\ street\\ in\\ Dublin\\ where\\ the\\ Great\\ Music\\ Hall\\ was\\ located\\ and\\ the\\ Messiah\\ first\\ performed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Provide\\ your\\ own\\ informed\\ aesthetic\\ evaluation\\ of\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ Messiah\\:\\ really\\ subjective\\ question\\,\\ so\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ different\\ for\\ each\\ person\\:\\ I\\ thought\\ the\\ Messiah\\ was\\ beautifully\\ constructed\\,\\ and\\ as\\ I\\ was\\ not\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ oratorio\\ style\\,\\ it\\ was\\ interesting\\ to\\ observe\\ a\\ different\\ type\\ of\\ musical\\ performance\\.\\ The\\ music\\ was\\ rich\\ and\\ intricate\\,\\ with\\ surprisingly\\ complicated\\ choruses\\:\\ fugues\\,\\ and\\ anthems\\ that\\ were\\ all\\ very\\ different\\ and\\ complicated\\,\\ which\\ I\\ would\\ imagine\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ difficult\\ for\\ the\\ original\\ performers\\ who\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ as\\ talented\\ as\\ Operatic\\ singers\\.\\ The\\ simplicity\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ powerful\\,\\ succinct\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ music\\:\\ Handel\\ would\\ manipulate\\ small\\ pieces\\ of\\ text\\ creating\\ a\\ wonderful\\ and\\ elaborate\\ musical\\ fabric\\ that\\ flowed\\ effortlessly\\ from\\ piece\\ to\\ piece\\.\\ Some\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ memorable\\ parts\\ of\\ this\\ piece\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;Comfort\\ Ye\\ my\\ People\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ He\\ Shall\\ Purify\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ Trusted\\ in\\ God\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Compare\\ your\\ personal\\ reactions\\ to\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\ with\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\reactions\\ you\\ imagine\\ a\\ listener\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ would\\ have\\ had\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Personal\\ reaction\\ above\\:\\ compared\\ to\\ listener\\ at\\ first\\ performance\\,\\ our\\ experience\\ now\\ would\\ be\\ quite\\ different\\.\\ First\\ of\\ all\\,\\ it\\ was\\ insisted\\ upon\\ that\\ a\\ somber\\ atmosphere\\ be\\ retained\\ to\\ keep\\ the\\ sanctity\\ of\\ Lent\\.\\ Nowadays\\,\\ this\\ music\\ is\\ used\\ also\\ at\\ many\\ Christian\\ occasions\\,\\ but\\ used\\ in\\ a\\ much\\ more\\ celebratory\\ fashion\\.\\ Also\\,\\ the\\ singers\\ now\\ are\\ not\\ just\\ average\\ church\\ choir\\ singers\\,\\ but\\ for\\ the\\ larger\\ performances\\ and\\ recorded\\ versions\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ singers\\ are\\ the\\ most\\ skilled\\ performers\\ in\\ their\\ field\\.\\ It\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ exciting\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\,\\ especially\\ of\\ a\\ composer\\ who\\ was\\ so\\ well\\ known\\ and\\ revered\\ for\\ his\\ musical\\ competence\\ \\(also\\,\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ until\\ that\\ point\\ performed\\ only\\ in\\ larger\\ cities\\ like\\ London\\)\\.\\ The\\ Great\\ Music\\ Hall\\,\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ first\\ performed\\,\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ difficult\\ to\\ get\\ to\\,\\ and\\ cramped\\ once\\ you\\ got\\ inside\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Discuss\\ the\\ performing\\ forces\\,\\ the\\ personnel\\,\\ and\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ of\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;There\\ is\\ plentiful\\ documentation\\ of\\ the\\ preparations\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Gonzaga\\ family\\ before\\ the\\ Orfeo\\ performance\\.\\ The\\ son\\,\\ Francesco\\ Gonzaga\\,\\ was\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ preparation\\ process\\.\\ He\\ wrote\\ to\\ the\\ Grand\\ Duke\\ of\\ Tuscany\\ to\\ borrow\\ a\\ male\\ castrato\\ soprano\\ signer\\ of\\ theirs\\,\\ and\\ followed\\ up\\ on\\ many\\ other\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ performance\\,\\ writing\\ his\\ brother\\ in\\ Pisa\\ quite\\ often\\ for\\ advice\\.\\ Claudio\\ Monteverdi\\,\\ the\\ composer\\,\\ presided\\ over\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ Mantua\\,\\ and\\ his\\ boss\\,\\ the\\ head\\ of\\ the\\ ruling\\ family\\ of\\ Mantua\\,\\ Vincenzo\\ Gonzaga\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ patron\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\.\\ Alessandro\\ Strigio\\ writes\\ words\\ of\\ play\\ Monteverdi\\ sets\\ to\\ music\\,\\ which\\ was\\ first\\ performed\\ for\\ the\\ learned\\ Accademia\\ degli\\ Invaghiti\\.\\ Orfeo\\ was\\ cast\\ w\\/\\ all\\ men\\ \\(therefore\\ the\\ need\\ for\\ the\\ male\\ soprano\\)\\ and\\ a\\ probable\\ cast\\ list\\ has\\ been\\ speculated\\ \\(pg\\ 35\\ of\\ text\\ book\\)\\.\\ Francesco\\ Vianni\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ set\\ painter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Discuss\\ the\\ interaction\\ of\\ instruments\\ and\\ voices\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Orfeo\\,\\ the\\ instrumentation\\ definitely\\ takes\\ a\\ secondary\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ piece\\ compared\\ to\\ the\\ vocals\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ musical\\ is\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\:\\ the\\ music\\ backing\\ up\\ the\\ singers\\ intensified\\ the\\ mood\\ \\(basso\\ continuos\\:\\ depressing\\ lulling\\ sounds\\ underneath\\ the\\ recitatives\\;\\ lively\\ ritornellos\\ for\\ more\\ lighthearted\\ songs\\)\\,\\ and\\ played\\ a\\ very\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ the\\ final\\ acts\\:\\ when\\ Orfeo\\ tries\\ to\\ woo\\ Caronte\\ by\\ his\\ powerful\\ command\\ of\\ music\\,\\ there\\ are\\ complicated\\ and\\ masterful\\ musical\\ interjections\\ amplifying\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ beauty\\ of\\ his\\ voice\\.\\ Also\\,\\ when\\ Apollo\\ is\\ called\\ to\\ or\\ appears\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ certain\\ string\\ music\\ that\\ always\\ appears\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ surprisingly\\ secondary\\ position\\ in\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ninth\\:\\ the\\ music\\ is\\ the\\ build\\-up\\,\\ the\\ crescendo\\ to\\ the\\ ultimate\\ victory\\ of\\ man\\,\\ and\\ human\\ voices\\ in\\ the\\ end\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ celebration\\ of\\ mankind\\,\\ and\\ voices\\ are\\ given\\ the\\ overall\\ importance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berlioz\\,\\ however\\ takes\\ a\\ completely\\ contrary\\ position\\ to\\ this\\ argument\\,\\ and\\ places\\ much\\ higher\\ esteem\\ in\\ his\\ instrumentation\\ than\\ in\\ voices\\,\\ and\\ uses\\ none\\ at\\ all\\ in\\ his\\ symphony\\.\\ This\\ was\\ very\\ common\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\,\\ however\\,\\ as\\ he\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ leading\\ pundits\\ on\\ instrumentation\\ and\\ symphonies\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sacre\\ du\\ Printemps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ often\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\played\\ without\\ ballet\\ accompaniment\\.\\ Visually\\,\\ the\\ ballet\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ seem\\ to\\ mirror\\ each\\ other\\ quite\\ well\\,\\ with\\ sharp\\ awkward\\ sounds\\ and\\ movements\\,\\ rising\\ tensions\\,\\ and\\ the\\ calm\\ of\\ the\\ adoration\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ However\\,\\ because\\ the\\ ballet\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ coincide\\ too\\ much\\ during\\ their\\ productions\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ is\\ now\\ played\\ separately\\,\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ obviously\\ program\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ How\\ do\\ the\\ pastoral\\ and\\ folk\\-like\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\ contribute\\ to\\ their\\ listeners\\&\\#39\\;\\ musical\\ perception\\?\\ You\\ may\\ concentrate\\ on\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ scores\\,\\ but\\ consider\\ all\\ five\\ pieces\\ from\\ this\\ course\\ in\\ your\\ essay\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ pastoral\\ and\\ folk\\-like\\ elements\\ had\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ leading\\ the\\ audience\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ current\\ place\\ and\\ time\\,\\ sometimes\\ giving\\ them\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ something\\ foreign\\ and\\ unknown\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ pastoral\\ scenes\\ in\\ Orfeo\\,\\ where\\ everyone\\ was\\ happy\\ with\\ shepherds\\ and\\ nymphs\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ nothing\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ besides\\ the\\ trials\\ and\\ tribulations\\ of\\ love\\,\\ one\\ could\\ forget\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ complexities\\ and\\ just\\ focus\\ on\\ one\\ main\\ issue\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Messiah\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ traditional\\ and\\ folky\\ elements\\ made\\ the\\ piece\\ sound\\ like\\ something\\ more\\ familiar\\ to\\ them\\:\\ biblical\\ references\\ and\\ religious\\ themes\\ made\\ the\\ piece\\ acceptable\\ during\\ the\\ holy\\,\\ Spartan\\ lent\\ season\\,\\ but\\ it\\ allowed\\ them\\ to\\ escape\\ the\\ seriousness\\ of\\ the\\ times\\ to\\ enjoy\\ beautiful\\ music\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Berlioz\\ and\\ Beethoven\\,\\ the\\ folk\\-like\\ elements\\ are\\ harder\\ to\\ detect\\,\\ and\\ less\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ plot\\ and\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ music\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Stravinsky\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ historical\\ elements\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ escapism\\ to\\ a\\ past\\ time\\,\\ and\\ distanced\\ the\\ listeners\\ from\\ their\\ time\\ \\(1913\\)\\ and\\ place\\ \\(Paris\\)\\.\\ It\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ look\\ and\\ feel\\ foreign\\ and\\ antiquated\\,\\ something\\ that\\ the\\ audience\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ and\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\.\\ The\\ foreign\\ qualities\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ obvious\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#10\\:\\ What\\ were\\ the\\ most\\ controversial\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Essentially\\ the\\ first\\ opera\\ ever\\,\\ the\\ focus\\ on\\ singing\\ and\\ musical\\ accompaniment\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ acting\\,\\ was\\ surely\\ a\\ first\\ for\\ the\\ audience\\ of\\ the\\ premiere\\ performance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Controversy\\ exists\\ today\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ premiere\\ actually\\ ended\\:\\ Orfeo\\ either\\ renounces\\ all\\ women\\,\\ going\\ mad\\,\\ or\\ is\\ saved\\ by\\ his\\ father\\,\\ Apollo\\,\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ prophecy\\,\\ music\\,\\ and\\ the\\ sun\\,\\ who\\ assists\\ him\\ in\\ an\\ ascent\\ to\\ the\\ heaven\\ in\\ order\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ pray\\ for\\ reunion\\ with\\ Euridice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\While\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ the\\ night\\ of\\ the\\ premiere\\ performance\\ were\\ certainly\\ used\\ to\\ religious\\ events\\,\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ they\\ had\\ experienced\\ religious\\ text\\ in\\ such\\ as\\ format\\ as\\ the\\ theater\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ it\\ was\\ further\\ shocking\\ in\\ that\\ although\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ theater\\,\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ actors\\ in\\ the\\ performance\\.\\ Though\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\,\\ as\\ put\\ by\\ Professor\\ Kelly\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\nothing\\ about\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ revolutionary\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ movements\\ is\\ switched\\:\\ Usually\\,\\ the\\ second\\ is\\ slow\\,\\ while\\ the\\ third\\,\\ a\\ minuet\\.\\ Here\\,\\ though\\,\\ the\\ Scherzo\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ the\\ slow\\ movement\\ is\\ the\\ third\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ fourth\\ movement\\ is\\ unusual\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ longer\\ than\\ most\\ fourth\\ movements\\ are\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ considered\\ by\\ some\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ symphony\\ within\\ itself\\,\\ with\\ four\\ little\\ movements\\ ascribing\\ to\\ the\\ typical\\ symphony\\ form\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ the\\ highlight\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ the\\ triumph\\ of\\ mankind\\,\\ the\\ chorus\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ printed\\ program\\ \\(published\\ before\\ the\\ performance\\ and\\ distributed\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ corresponding\\ plot\\ lines\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ a\\ relatively\\ new\\ idea\\,\\ raising\\ questions\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ dependence\\ of\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ on\\ the\\ plot\\.\\ Could\\ the\\ music\\ be\\ interpreted\\ on\\ its\\ own\\?\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Program\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\ versus\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ debate\\ centers\\ around\\ whether\\ music\\ can\\ reasonably\\ and\\ clearly\\ represent\\ physical\\ objects\\,\\ actions\\,\\ sensations\\,\\ and\\ emotions\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ influential\\ and\\ opinionated\\ critic\\ Francois\\-Joseph\\ F\\é\\;tis\\ strongly\\ criticized\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intentions\\ before\\ the\\ concert\\,\\ particularly\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ pictorial\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ this\\ criticism\\ appeared\\ in\\ the\\ papers\\ Berlioz\\ rushed\\ to\\ print\\ another\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ program\\ which\\ included\\ a\\ long\\ footnote\\ responding\\ to\\ that\\ criticism\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ people\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ helps\\ the\\ audience\\ to\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ composer\\ and\\ to\\ enjoy\\ the\\ music\\ with\\ more\\ clarity\\,\\ while\\ others\\ disagree\\ and\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ music\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ stand\\ alone\\.\\ However\\,\\ since\\ Berlioz\\ changed\\ the\\ wording\\ in\\ the\\ program\\ without\\ changing\\ the\\ musical\\ aspects\\,\\ this\\ shows\\ us\\ that\\ the\\ music\\ has\\ an\\ independent\\ existence\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Additionally\\,\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ orchestra\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ in\\ itself\\ is\\ noteworthy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ controversial\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ pieces\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ subject\\ to\\ severe\\ criticisms\\ from\\ the\\ revolutionary\\ style\\ of\\ dancing\\ to\\ the\\ dissonance\\ in\\ music\\,\\ which\\ was\\ largely\\ polytonal\\ and\\ polyphonic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ dancing\\:\\ toes\\ pointed\\ in\\,\\ knees\\ together\\,\\ straight\\ legged\\,\\ repetitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expectations\\ for\\ a\\ pleasant\\ take\\ on\\ springtime\\ were\\ let\\ down\\ when\\ the\\ take\\ on\\ springtime\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ chaotic\\,\\ unihibited\\ growth\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Many\\ who\\ were\\ in\\ attendance\\ at\\ the\\ premiere\\ were\\ prepared\\ for\\ and\\ expecting\\ excitement\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ scandal\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ Diaghilev\\ expected\\ trouble\\,\\ asking\\ the\\ beforehand\\ dancers\\ to\\ persevere\\ to\\ the\\ end\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ what\\ happened\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ as\\ expected\\,\\ halfway\\ through\\ the\\ prelude\\ the\\ noise\\ began\\,\\ not\\ only\\ from\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ opposition\\,\\ but\\ also\\ from\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ supporters\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ uproar\\ continued\\ while\\ Nijinsky\\ shouted\\ cues\\ to\\ the\\ dancers\\ through\\ the\\ deafening\\ noise\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ uproar\\ was\\ reported\\ to\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;degenerated\\ into\\ a\\ free\\-for\\-all\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ between\\ scenes\\ the\\ house\\ lights\\ were\\ turned\\ on\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ could\\ arrest\\ or\\ eject\\ troublemakers\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ indeed\\,\\ at\\ the\\ close\\ of\\ the\\ premier\\ applause\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ shouting\\)\\ did\\ break\\ out\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#11\\:\\ How\\ are\\ instruments\\ used\\ to\\ create\\ expressive\\ effects\\ in\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ basso\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;continuo\\ that\\ carries\\ the\\ recitatives\\ successfully\\ conveys\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ plot\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ chorus\\ further\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ mood\\,\\ singing\\ in\\ homophony\\ during\\ announcements\\ of\\ events\\ of\\ serious\\ nature\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ delivery\\ of\\ the\\ news\\ of\\ Euridice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Ahi\\ caso\\ acerbo\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ specifically\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ specific\\ use\\ of\\ particular\\ instruments\\ to\\ convey\\ different\\ moods\\.\\ Often\\ times\\,\\ the\\ instruments\\ set\\ the\\ mood\\ before\\ the\\ singer\\ even\\ opens\\ his\\ mouth\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fanfare\\ of\\ trumpets\\ at\\ opening\\ of\\ piece\\ to\\ signify\\ arrival\\ of\\ Duke\\ of\\ Mantua\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strings\\ bring\\ to\\ mind\\ scenes\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ netherworld\\,\\ pastoral\\,\\ romantic\\,\\ and\\ generally\\ pleasant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trombones\\ convey\\ the\\ somber\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\,\\ sad\\ and\\ foreboding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ upbeat\\ strings\\ play\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lasciate\\ i\\ monti\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minimum\\ presence\\ of\\ sound\\ after\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Euridice\\ to\\ underscore\\ depression\\ of\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Messiah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ rich\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;word\\ painting\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ technique\\ whereby\\ the\\ composer\\ depicts\\ certain\\ ideas\\ musically\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;crooked\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;straight\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;exalted\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ allow\\ the\\ audience\\ to\\ fully\\ appreciate\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ word\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ repeating\\ ritornellos\\ at\\ the\\ openings\\ and\\ closings\\ of\\ sections\\ brings\\ to\\ mind\\ the\\ moods\\ of\\ particular\\ pieces\\ by\\ allowing\\ the\\ audience\\ to\\ recall\\ where\\ it\\ first\\ appeared\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Granting\\ the\\ soloists\\ the\\ freedom\\ to\\ elaborate\\ and\\ ornament\\ certain\\ words\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;cadenzas\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ also\\ provides\\ the\\ opportunity\\ to\\ emphasize\\ where\\ appropriate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ specific\\ example\\ within\\ the\\ text\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ Part\\ II\\,\\ beginning\\ in\\ minor\\ in\\ a\\ slow\\ tempo\\,\\ rich\\ in\\ dotted\\ rhythms\\,\\ highlighting\\ the\\ somber\\,\\ desperate\\ mood\\ of\\ the\\ corresponding\\ plot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Lastly\\,\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ chorus\\ allows\\ Monteverdi\\ to\\ further\\ expound\\ on\\ the\\ emotion\\ conveyed\\ in\\ the\\ preceding\\ aria\\,\\ heightening\\ the\\ drama\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notwithstanding\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ any\\ obvious\\ story\\-line\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ progression\\ that\\ carries\\ through\\ the\\ movements\\.\\ The\\ piece\\ begins\\ with\\ soft\\,\\ nebulous\\ sounds\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ tiny\\ particles\\,\\ perhaps\\ slowly\\ aggregating\\ into\\ something\\ larger\\.\\ Later\\,\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\,\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ builds\\,\\ highlighted\\ by\\ the\\ storm\\-like\\ sounds\\ of\\ the\\ winds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Beethoven\\ has\\ people\\ actually\\ singing\\,\\ conveying\\ the\\ universal\\,\\ human\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ bass\\ line\\ seems\\ to\\ invoke\\ themes\\ from\\ past\\ movements\\,\\ only\\ to\\ subsequently\\ reject\\ them\\ and\\ choose\\ one\\ of\\ low\\ strings\\,\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ instrumental\\ effects\\,\\ Berlioz\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ pioneer\\,\\ experimenting\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ new\\ techniques\\ and\\ sounds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ piece\\ is\\ a\\ love\\ story\\ gone\\ awry\\,\\ each\\ musical\\ segment\\ expressly\\ conveys\\ the\\ corresponding\\ sentiment\\,\\ written\\ for\\ the\\ audience\\ in\\ an\\ accompanying\\ program\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specific\\ examples\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Third\\ movement\\:\\ Bassoons\\ represent\\ the\\ calling\\ to\\ the\\ lover\\ from\\ shepherds\\,\\ who\\ are\\ eventually\\ answered\\ by\\ the\\ timpani\\,\\ which\\ represent\\ thunder\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ Movement\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ high\\ register\\ oboe\\,\\ strings\\ strike\\ down\\ with\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ their\\ bows\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ eerie\\ effect\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ creepiness\\ of\\ the\\ witches\\&rsquo\\;\\ sabbath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ movement\\:\\ organ\\ sounds\\ to\\ create\\ ecclesiastical\\ effect\\,\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ church\\ bells\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ typical\\ church\\ instrument\\.\\ Berlioz\\ also\\ chooses\\ to\\ use\\ a\\ serpent\\,\\ normally\\ used\\ in\\ church\\ ceremonies\\,\\ to\\ further\\ convey\\ the\\ spooky\\ air\\ of\\ the\\ Dias\\ Irae\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entire\\ orchestra\\ plays\\ a\\ harsh\\ note\\,\\ conveying\\ the\\ drop\\ of\\ the\\ guillotine\\,\\ cutting\\ off\\ his\\ head\\,\\ which\\ rolls\\ away\\,\\ as\\ signified\\ by\\ the\\ drum\\ roll\\ that\\ follows\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ piece\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ bassoon\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\ register\\,\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ other\\ seemingly\\ random\\ instruments\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ total\\ chaos\\ and\\ disharmony\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sounds\\ are\\ generally\\ loud\\ and\\ aggressive\\,\\ conveying\\ the\\ primitiveness\\ of\\ the\\ savages\\ depicted\\ on\\ stage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ The\\ loud\\,\\ repetitive\\ drumming\\,\\ sharp\\ strings\\,\\ and\\ blaring\\ trumpets\\ convey\\ both\\ the\\ savagery\\ and\\ urgency\\ of\\ the\\ ritual\\,\\ as\\ the\\ victim\\ is\\ chosen\\ and\\ forced\\ to\\ dance\\ herself\\ to\\ dance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#15\\:\\ Discuss\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ religious\\ and\\ the\\ spiritual\\ in\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Mythical\\ gods\\ of\\ Ancient\\ Greece\\(Apollo\\,\\ Caronte\\,\\ River\\ Styx\\)\\,\\ passionate\\ love\\ story\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Libretto\\ written\\ by\\ theologian\\ reverend\\ Charles\\ Jennings\\,\\ based\\ on\\ Old\\ Testament\\ of\\ Church\\ of\\ England\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ its\\ religious\\ nature\\ permitted\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ performed\\ during\\ the\\ Lent\\ season\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ ethereal\\ and\\ cosmic\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ opening\\ movement\\ comes\\ to\\ mind\\ Creation\\,\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\.\\ The\\ general\\ theme\\ of\\ brotherhood\\,\\ epitomized\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ calls\\ to\\ mind\\ Judeo\\-Christian\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ witches\\ Sabbath\\,\\ Dies\\ Irae\\ that\\ appears\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ modified\\ version\\ of\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ sung\\ during\\ actual\\ Catholic\\ funeral\\ masses\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Entirely\\ based\\ on\\ conception\\ of\\ primitive\\ religious\\ rituals\\ of\\ ancient\\ Russia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ worship\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ her\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Serge\\ Diaghilev\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Founder\\ of\\ the\\ Ballets\\ Russes\\,\\ Russian\\ ballet\\ company\\,1909\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Commissioned\\ Nijinsky\\ as\\ choreographer\\ for\\ the\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ballets\\ Russes\\ performs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ 1913\\ under\\ his\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Francesco\\ Gonzaga\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Prince\\ and\\ heir\\ to\\ Dukedom\\ of\\ Mantua\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Generous\\ patron\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\ \\-\\-\\ commissioned\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ 1607\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Correspondence\\ between\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ older\\ brother\\,\\ Ferdinando\\,\\ living\\ in\\ Pisa\\,\\ offers\\ much\\ insight\\ into\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ preparations\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ performance\\,\\ a\\ rather\\ hastily\\ put\\ together\\ production\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Estelle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Name\\ of\\ romantic\\ interest\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Inspiration\\ behind\\ muted\\ violin\\ melody\\ of\\ the\\ slow\\ opening\\ movement\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fermata\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Musical\\ symbol\\ that\\ directs\\ performer\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ the\\ note\\ over\\ which\\ it\\ rests\\,\\ though\\ the\\ exact\\ time\\ for\\ which\\ he\\ does\\ so\\ remains\\ at\\ his\\ discretion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Appears\\ frequently\\ throughout\\ score\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gabriel\\ Astruc\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Built\\ the\\ Theatre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\,\\ which\\ opened\\ in\\ April\\ 2\\,\\ 1913\\,\\ host\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Went\\ bankrupt\\ shortly\\ thereafter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homophonic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;musical\\ texture\\ where\\ all\\ voices\\ move\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ are\\ pretty\\ much\\,\\ but\\ not\\ exactly\\,\\ the\\ same\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Homophony\\ provides\\ a\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ melodic\\ interest\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ one\\ voice\\,\\ joined\\ by\\ simultaneous\\,\\ though\\ often\\ subsidiary\\ accompaniment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Jennens\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Wrote\\ the\\ libretto\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Reverend\\ whose\\ religious\\ fervor\\ left\\ him\\ unsatisfied\\ with\\ the\\ music\\ created\\ by\\ Handel\\ to\\ accompany\\ his\\ libretto\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Melisma\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Group\\ of\\ notes\\ or\\ tones\\ sung\\ on\\ one\\ syllable\\ in\\ plainsong\\,\\ stemming\\ from\\ a\\ melody\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pierre\\ Monteux\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Regular\\ conductor\\ for\\ Diaghilev\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Conductor\\ of\\ orchestra\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Conducted\\ at\\ the\\ Boston\\ symphony\\ orchestra\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Known\\ for\\ an\\ astute\\ ear\\,\\ his\\ endless\\ energy\\ to\\ rehearse\\,\\ and\\ his\\ dislike\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Performers\\ unfamiliar\\ with\\ Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ style\\ of\\ music\\ would\\ ask\\ him\\ if\\ they\\ played\\ a\\ wrong\\ note\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ ear\\ was\\ so\\ good\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ assure\\ them\\ that\\ if\\ they\\ ever\\ played\\ a\\ wrong\\ note\\,\\ he\\ would\\ catch\\ them\\ and\\ tell\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Popular\\ themes\\ mainly\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;symphony\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ melisma\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ornamentation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Decoration\\ of\\ a\\ pitch\\ with\\ other\\ pitches\\ which\\ is\\ generally\\ rapid\\ and\\ non\\-metrical\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polyphonic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Description\\ of\\ musical\\ texture\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ lines\\ move\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\ at\\ different\\ times\\,\\ having\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ independent\\ but\\ harmonically\\ related\\ melodic\\ parts\\ sounding\\ together\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Presto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;a\\ direction\\ for\\ a\\ quick\\,\\ lively\\ movement\\ or\\ performance\\;\\ quicker\\ than\\ allegro\\,\\ or\\ any\\ rate\\ of\\ time\\ except\\ prestissimo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quartet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ group\\ of\\ four\\ singers\\ or\\ four\\ instrumentalists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recapitulation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Restatement\\ or\\ reworking\\ of\\ the\\ exposition\\ in\\ the\\ tonic\\,\\ constituting\\ the\\ third\\ and\\ final\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ typical\\ sonata\\ form\\ \\(1\\.\\ exposition\\;\\ 2\\.\\ development\\;\\ 3\\.\\ recapitulation\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ritornello\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;an\\ Italian\\ word\\ that\\ means\\ \\"\\;little\\ return\\,\\"\\;\\ it\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ section\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\instrumental\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;music\\ that\\ returns\\ repeatedly\\ between\\ other\\ contrasting\\ sections\\,\\ setting\\ up\\ an\\ organizational\\ framework\\ for\\ a\\ larger\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\form\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Ritornellos\\ recur\\ between\\ La\\ Musica\\&\\#39\\;s\\ verses\\ in\\ the\\ Prologue\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Every\\ Valley\\ Shall\\ Be\\ Exalted\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Schiller\\,\\ Friedrich\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;German\\ poet\\ wrote\\ the\\ poem\\ Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\,\\ which\\ so\\ moved\\ Beethoven\\ that\\ he\\ made\\ it\\ the\\ chorus\\ in\\ the\\ 4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\ of\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;symphony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sinfonia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\instrumental\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;introduction\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\vocal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;work\\.\\ Unlike\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\overture\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ foreshadow\\ musical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\themes\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Orfeo\\ opens\\ many\\ of\\ its\\ acts\\ with\\ sinfonias\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sontag\\,\\ Henriette\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;beautiful\\ 18\\ year\\ old\\ opera\\ singer\\ who\\ sang\\ soprano\\ solos\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9th\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ had\\ a\\ light\\,\\ brilliant\\ voice\\ and\\ was\\ known\\ for\\ her\\ technical\\ skill\\.\\ \\ \\;Already\\ widely\\ appreciated\\,\\ she\\ achieved\\ \\&ldquo\\;rock\\ star\\&rdquo\\;\\ status\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ later\\.\\ \\ \\;Whenever\\ entrances\\ to\\ the\\ solos\\ are\\ staggered\\,\\ her\\ voice\\ is\\ the\\ last\\ to\\ enter\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;genre\\ of\\ music\\ for\\ orchestra\\ that\\ arose\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\ \\;By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 18\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ the\\ typical\\ symphony\\ had\\ four\\ movements\\:\\ \\ \\;\\(1\\)\\ a\\ fast\\ movement\\ in\\ sonata\\ form\\,\\ \\(2\\)\\ a\\ slow\\ movement\\ with\\ a\\ theme\\ and\\ variations\\,\\ \\(3\\)\\ a\\ minuet\\ or\\ scherzo\\ dance\\ movement\\,\\ and\\ \\(4\\)\\ a\\ lively\\ finale\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ often\\ a\\ rondo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tempo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ speed\\,\\ or\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ the\\ beat\\,\\ of\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trill\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ornamentation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\pitch\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ entails\\ a\\ rapid\\ alternation\\ between\\ the\\ indicated\\ pitch\\ and\\ the\\ pitch\\ above\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Un\\ bal\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ 3\\-part\\ second\\ movement\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\ is\\ constructed\\ in\\ A\\-B\\-A\\ form\\ \\(the\\ second\\ A\\ is\\ only\\ a\\ restatement\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ A\\,\\ not\\ an\\ elaboration\\ or\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ A\\.\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ Un\\ bal\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ program\\ describes\\ the\\ young\\ artist\\ finding\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ swirl\\ of\\ a\\ party\\ as\\ the\\ beloved\\ image\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\ he\\ loves\\ appears\\ before\\ him\\ and\\ troubles\\ his\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\6\\:\\ \\ \\;Describe\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ words\\ \\(or\\ scenario\\,\\ or\\ program\\)\\ and\\ music\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ music\\ in\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ five\\-movement\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ written\\ to\\ express\\ the\\ sentiments\\ brought\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ overtly\\ descriptive\\ program\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ movement\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Reveries\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Passions\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ illustrates\\ that\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ music\\ and\\ film\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ young\\ musician\\,\\ afflicted\\ with\\ what\\ celebrated\\ writer\\ Chateaubriand\\ calls\\ \\&ldquo\\;undirected\\ emotionalism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ sees\\ the\\ woman\\ of\\ his\\ dreams\\ and\\ falls\\ hopelessly\\ in\\ love\\.\\ Each\\ time\\ her\\ image\\ comes\\ into\\ his\\ mind\\,\\ it\\ evokes\\ a\\ musical\\ thought\\ \\[represented\\ by\\ an\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\]\\ that\\ is\\ impassioned\\ in\\ character\\,\\ but\\ also\\ noble\\ and\\ shy\\,\\ as\\ he\\ imagines\\ her\\ to\\ be\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ changes\\ throughout\\ the\\ piece\\ to\\ represent\\ how\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinion\\ of\\ the\\ woman\\ he\\ loves\\ changes\\ in\\ his\\ mind\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\ \\&ldquo\\;March\\ to\\ the\\ Scaffold\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ artist\\ becomes\\ convinced\\ that\\ his\\ love\\ is\\ unrequited\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ takes\\ an\\ overdose\\ of\\ opium\\ that\\ plunges\\ him\\ into\\ a\\ sleep\\ accompanied\\ by\\ horrifying\\ visions\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ dreams\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ killed\\ his\\ beloved\\,\\ has\\ been\\ condemned\\ and\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ scaffold\\,\\ and\\ is\\ witnessing\\ his\\ own\\ execution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ music\\ advances\\ to\\ a\\ march\\ that\\ is\\ somber\\ and\\ savage\\,\\ brilliant\\ and\\ solemn\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ its\\ conclusion\\,\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ returns\\,\\ like\\ a\\ final\\ thought\\ of\\ the\\ beloved\\,\\ cut\\ off\\ by\\ the\\ fatal\\ blow\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ part\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ got\\ the\\ loudest\\ and\\ most\\ positive\\ reaction\\ from\\ the\\ audience\\ at\\ the\\ premiere\\ occurs\\ right\\ when\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ is\\ cut\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ is\\ cut\\ off\\,\\ too\\,\\ by\\ a\\ thump\\ from\\ the\\ percussion\\ that\\ mimics\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\ falling\\ into\\ the\\ basket\\ beneath\\ the\\ guillotine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;At\\ times\\,\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;uses\\ word\\ painting\\ to\\ relate\\ the\\ music\\ and\\ words\\ to\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ song\\ in\\ part\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ev\\&rsquo\\;ry\\ Valley\\ Shall\\ Be\\ Exalted\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ filled\\ with\\ word\\ painting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ singer\\ uses\\ a\\ trill\\ when\\ he\\ sings\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;crooked\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ he\\ sings\\ one\\ unbending\\ note\\ for\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;straight\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ and\\ his\\ voice\\ rises\\ for\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;exalted\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;In\\ \\&ldquo\\;Glory\\ to\\ God\\ in\\ the\\ Highest\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Handel\\ uses\\ high\\ voices\\ and\\ strings\\ to\\ depict\\ the\\ heavenly\\ voices\\ as\\ they\\ cry\\ \\&ldquo\\;Glory\\ to\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ lower\\ voices\\ to\\ depict\\ \\&ldquo\\;peace\\ on\\ earth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;At\\ other\\ times\\ in\\ the\\ libretto\\ \\(text\\ of\\ an\\ opera\\ or\\ oratorio\\)\\,\\ however\\,\\ he\\ does\\ not\\ use\\ word\\ painting\\ at\\ all\\ when\\ he\\ pretty\\ easily\\ could\\ have\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\26\\:\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ the\\ musical\\ lives\\ of\\ Mantua\\ in\\ 1607\\,\\ Dublin\\ in\\ 1742\\,\\ Vienna\\ in\\ 1824\\,\\ Paris\\ in\\ 1830\\,\\ and\\ Paris\\ in\\ 1913\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Musical\\ life\\ of\\ Mantua\\ in\\ 1607\\ \\(Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ few\\ wealthy\\,\\ powerful\\ men\\ dominated\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ royals\\ defined\\ life\\;\\ the\\ 1600s\\ were\\ the\\ golden\\ age\\ of\\ Mantuan\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ the\\ arts\\ reflected\\ the\\ tastes\\ of\\ the\\ royalty\\.\\ \\ \\;Artists\\ in\\ this\\ society\\ had\\ ambiguous\\ status\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ respected\\ for\\ their\\ talent\\,\\ but\\ they\\ were\\ artisans\\ by\\ social\\ status\\,\\ so\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ high\\ up\\ in\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Composers\\ got\\ more\\ respect\\ than\\ musicians\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\ in\\ a\\ city\\ and\\ of\\ its\\ composers\\,\\ more\\ specifically\\,\\ was\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ pride\\ for\\ the\\ royalty\\.\\ \\ \\;Monteverdi\\ was\\ the\\ court\\ composer\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Gonzaga\\ family\\ was\\ a\\ great\\ patron\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ were\\ prohibited\\ from\\ participating\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\,\\ so\\ soprano\\ roles\\ were\\ sung\\ by\\ castrated\\ males\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dublin\\ 1742\\ \\(Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;England\\ dominated\\ the\\ political\\ and\\ economic\\ scene\\ in\\ Dublin\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ British\\ religious\\ influence\\ in\\ Dublin\\ society\\ affected\\ musical\\ life\\ in\\ that\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ oratorios\\ were\\ specifically\\ designed\\ to\\ be\\ substitutes\\ for\\ operas\\,\\ which\\ were\\ outlawed\\ in\\ abstemious\\ Lenten\\ season\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ one\\ of\\ few\\ pieces\\ to\\ be\\ created\\ specifically\\ for\\ the\\ Dublin\\ audience\\,\\ because\\ musical\\ life\\ in\\ Dublin\\ was\\ mostly\\ exported\\ from\\ London\\.\\ \\ \\;Music\\ and\\ charity\\ was\\ closely\\ tied\\ during\\ this\\ period\\,\\ and\\ much\\ of\\ musical\\ life\\ was\\ promoted\\ by\\ charitable\\ institutions\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ sing\\ during\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;Susana\\ Cibber\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ main\\ singers\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ mired\\ in\\ scandal\\ for\\ running\\ off\\ with\\ a\\ man\\ who\\ was\\ not\\ her\\ husband\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vienna\\ 1824\\ \\(Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Vienna\\ was\\ a\\ heavily\\ fortified\\ city\\ stuck\\ in\\ economic\\ decline\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\ laws\\ were\\ repressive\\ in\\ nature\\,\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ the\\ law\\ that\\ forbid\\ audiences\\ from\\ requesting\\ encores\\.\\ \\ \\;Applause\\ at\\ the\\ completion\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ became\\ the\\ outlet\\ for\\ emotions\\ in\\ this\\ regulated\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Musicians\\ struggled\\ for\\ regular\\ employment\\ and\\ often\\ sought\\ secure\\ jobs\\ through\\ the\\ state\\ or\\ through\\ charity\\-sponsored\\ concerts\\.\\ \\ \\;Like\\ they\\ do\\ now\\,\\ musicians\\ did\\ whatever\\ they\\ could\\ with\\ music\\ to\\ earn\\ money\\:\\ \\ \\;performed\\,\\ taught\\,\\ composed\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ play\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ state\\ patronized\\ arts\\,\\ so\\ the\\ politics\\ of\\ the\\ composer\\ had\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ how\\ much\\ work\\ a\\ composer\\ got\\.\\ \\ \\;Aristocratic\\ families\\ patronized\\ personal\\ musicians\\,\\ relegating\\ the\\ musicians\\ to\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ a\\ servant\\ almost\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ perform\\ at\\ this\\ time\\,\\ and\\ individual\\ women\\ achieved\\ significant\\ fame\\.\\ \\ \\;Henriette\\ Sontag\\ was\\ especially\\ popular\\ for\\ her\\ looks\\ and\\ her\\ voice\\,\\ and\\ she\\ inspired\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sontag\\ fever\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paris\\ 1830\\ \\(Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;1830\\ was\\ the\\ birth\\ of\\ the\\ Romantic\\ movement\\,\\ which\\ broke\\ beyond\\ previous\\ boundaries\\ of\\ the\\ arts\\.\\ \\ \\;Romantics\\ searched\\ for\\ a\\ single\\,\\ over\\-powering\\ passion\\,\\ which\\ describes\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ afflicted\\ artist\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Paris\\ attracted\\ artists\\,\\ writers\\,\\ and\\ musicians\\ from\\ all\\ of\\ Europe\\,\\ and\\ the\\ intensity\\ and\\ richness\\ of\\ the\\ city\\&rsquo\\;s\\ artistic\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ 1830s\\ has\\ seldom\\ been\\ rivaled\\ either\\ before\\ or\\ since\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ musical\\ hierarchy\\ was\\ the\\ Academie\\ Royale\\ de\\ Musique\\,\\ and\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ achievement\\ for\\ a\\ composer\\ was\\ to\\ have\\ an\\ opera\\ produced\\ there\\,\\ and\\ for\\ a\\ performer\\ to\\ be\\ regularly\\ employed\\ there\\.\\ \\ \\;Women\\ were\\ prominent\\ in\\ society\\ as\\ leaders\\ of\\ salons\\,\\ singers\\,\\ publishers\\ and\\ authors\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Paris\\ 1913\\ \\(Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\ du\\ Printemps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;Paris\\ in\\ 1913\\ was\\ still\\ a\\ focus\\ of\\ culture\\,\\ style\\,\\ and\\ elegance\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ arts\\ thrived\\,\\ and\\ so\\ did\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;That\\ was\\ the\\ year\\ that\\ the\\ Theatre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\ was\\ built\\ on\\ the\\ Avenue\\ de\\ Montaigne\\,\\ where\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ performed\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ at\\ odds\\ with\\ the\\ Parisian\\ society\\ in\\ which\\ it\\ was\\ performed\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ Russian\\ and\\ reflected\\ different\\ tastes\\ than\\ what\\ the\\ French\\ audience\\ was\\ used\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;Female\\ performers\\ were\\ famous\\ and\\ popular\\ during\\ that\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Academies\\ funded\\ the\\ musical\\ works\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ the\\ Academie\\ Royale\\ de\\ Musique\\ was\\ still\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ fundraisers\\ and\\ promoters\\ of\\ music\\ \\(it\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ during\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ day\\)\\,\\ other\\ similar\\ institutions\\ had\\ risen\\ to\\ its\\ level\\ and\\ become\\ equal\\ competitors\\ during\\ Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\:\\ \\ \\;Discuss\\ the\\ narrative\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ either\\ Berlioz\\ or\\ Stravinsky\\.\\ \\ \\;How\\ does\\ the\\ music\\ tell\\ the\\ story\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ music\\ telling\\ the\\ story\\ is\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ answer\\ to\\ question\\ 6\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ music\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ narrative\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ good\\ example\\ occurs\\ halfway\\ through\\ the\\ first\\ part\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Games\\ of\\ the\\ Rival\\ Tribes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ fast\\ dance\\ with\\ prominent\\,\\ violent\\ percussion\\,\\ tension\\ arises\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ meeting\\ of\\ two\\ different\\ themes\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ is\\ metrically\\ irregular\\ and\\ loud\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ theme\\ was\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ of\\ Abduction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ other\\ is\\ more\\ consonant\\ and\\ Hollywoodesque\\,\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heard\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Games\\ of\\ the\\ Rival\\ Tribes\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ two\\ themes\\ tell\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ plot\\ being\\ played\\ out\\ onstage\\ in\\ which\\ two\\ contrasting\\ groups\\ compete\\ in\\ a\\ tribal\\ war\\-game\\ for\\ men\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ song\\ before\\ \\&ldquo\\;Games\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ritual\\ of\\ Abduction\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ agitated\\,\\ fast\\-moving\\,\\ and\\ short\\-lasting\\,\\ capturing\\ the\\ essence\\ of\\ someone\\ being\\ abducted\\ and\\ taken\\ away\\ to\\ her\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Provide\\ your\\ own\\ informed\\ aesthetic\\ evaluation\\ of\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monteverdi\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fable\\ in\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ i\\.e\\.\\ relationship\\ of\\ heart\\ to\\ mind\\,\\ emotion\\ to\\ reason\\,\\ the\\ inevitable\\ pull\\ of\\ desires\\ against\\ duty\\,\\ passion\\ and\\ persuasion\\,\\ life\\ and\\ death\\,\\ love\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-as\\ Kelly\\ suggests\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ story\\ is\\ always\\ gripping\\,\\ because\\ we\\ are\\ Orpheus\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ as\\ an\\ opera\\:\\ recitative\\ songs\\,\\ balletos\\,\\ arias\\,\\ choruses\\,\\ musical\\ interludes\\,\\ ritornellos\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ composition\\ of\\ the\\ instruments\\:\\ strings\\,\\ recorders\\,\\ trumpets\\ \\(to\\ greet\\ the\\ Duke\\)\\,\\ trombones\\,\\ cornetti\\,\\ basso\\ continuo\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Striggio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ libretti\\,\\ eleven\\-syllable\\ lines\\ used\\ for\\ elevated\\ sentiments\\ \\(as\\ when\\ Orfeo\\ tries\\ to\\ impress\\ Caronte\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Possente\\ spirto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ contrasted\\ with\\ eight\\-syllable\\ lines\\ for\\ lighter\\ songs\\ and\\ moods\\ \\(like\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ song\\ in\\ Act\\ 2\\ when\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ still\\ happy\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-highlight\\ a\\ particular\\ section\\ that\\ is\\ pleasing\\ or\\ nauseating\\;\\ e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ opening\\ balleto\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Possente\\ spirto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ all\\ done\\ this\\ before\\.\\.\\.in\\ Rodney\\&rsquo\\;s\\ section\\ at\\ least\\)\\,\\ the\\ Apollo\\ ending\\ \\(was\\ it\\ perfect\\,\\ or\\ a\\ letdown\\)\\,\\ maybe\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\!\\ Desolation\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ we\\ heard\\ live\\ in\\ class\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ matching\\ of\\ instruments\\ to\\ moods\\ and\\ colors\\ in\\ the\\ opera\\:\\ the\\ reed\\-organ\\ used\\ for\\ underworld\\ characters\\;\\ infernal\\ regal\\;\\ majestic\\ trumpets\\;\\ light\\ strings\\ and\\ cornetti\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-changes\\ in\\ tone\\ when\\ the\\ news\\ of\\ death\\ arrives\\.\\.\\.song\\,\\ dance\\,\\ melody\\ replaced\\ by\\ declamatory\\ recitative\\;\\ and\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ passionate\\,\\ musically\\ and\\ lyrically\\ expressive\\ response\\,\\ with\\ parallel\\ musical\\ and\\ rhetorical\\ structure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Handel\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Handelian\\ Oratorio\\ and\\ its\\ elements\\:\\ no\\ characters\\,\\ centered\\ on\\ sacred\\ subject\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\,\\ Christ\\)\\,\\ substantial\\ role\\ to\\ the\\ chorus\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ opera\\ in\\ recitative\\ then\\ aria\\ structure\\ \\(with\\ some\\ modification\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Charles\\ Jennens\\ choice\\ of\\ text\\ for\\ the\\ libretto\\,\\ and\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ musical\\ interpretation\\ of\\ them\\ \\(including\\ dramatizations\\ of\\ themes\\ or\\ words\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ change\\ to\\ major\\ key\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;light\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ people\\ walk\\ in\\ darkness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ high\\ notes\\ for\\ exalted\\,\\ or\\ mountain\\,\\ or\\ low\\ notes\\ for\\ valley\\,\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ crooked\\ straight\\&rdquo\\;\\ part\\ where\\ the\\ voice\\ bends\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ recitatives\\ and\\ their\\ significance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-all\\ the\\ wonderful\\ chorus\\ types\\:\\ fugues\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;He\\ trusted\\ in\\ God\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Amen\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ with\\ his\\ stripes\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ duets\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;All\\ we\\ like\\ sheep\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ unto\\ us\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;His\\ yoke\\ is\\ easy\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ anthems\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Hallelujah\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;And\\ the\\ glory\\,\\&rdquo\\;and\\ \\&ldquo\\;Worthy\\ is\\ the\\ lamb\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ Kelly\\ particularly\\ likes\\ the\\ anthems\\ and\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Such\\ choruses\\ are\\ easy\\ to\\ follow\\,\\ fun\\ to\\ sing\\,\\ and\\ infinitely\\ varied\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ successive\\ phrases\\ of\\ text\\ interact\\ while\\ maintaining\\ their\\ musical\\ character\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;feel\\ free\\ to\\ agree\\ or\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ to\\ task\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ first\\ part\\ has\\ beautiful\\ music\\ and\\ nothing\\ in\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ compares\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ uneven\\ in\\ that\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ drone\\ in\\ the\\ background\\ created\\ by\\ bagpipes\\,\\ to\\ give\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ a\\ pastoral\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ structure\\ of\\ the\\ symphony\\ as\\ a\\ complete\\ work\\:\\ themes\\,\\ developments\\ and\\ complications\\,\\ resolutions\\,\\ the\\ struggle\\ between\\ dominant\\ and\\ tonic\\ keys\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ the\\ struggle\\ between\\ good\\ and\\ evil\\.\\.\\.the\\ dominant\\ always\\ wins\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-begins\\ in\\ a\\ not\\-quite\\ D\\ minor\\ but\\ ends\\ in\\ a\\ blaze\\ of\\ D\\ major\\ \\(as\\ Kelly\\ points\\ out\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ the\\ piccolo\\ and\\ contrabassoon\\ again\\ entering\\ only\\ in\\ the\\ last\\ movement\\,\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Turkish\\ March\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ finale\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-shift\\ of\\ the\\ emphasis\\ from\\ first\\ movement\\ to\\ the\\ end\\.\\.\\.the\\ advent\\ of\\ the\\ powerful\\ chorus\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ nebulous\\ opening\\,\\ producing\\ doubt\\ about\\ the\\ key\\ \\(major\\ or\\ minor\\?\\)\\,\\ sense\\ of\\ timelessness\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-switching\\ the\\ Scherzo\\ to\\ second\\ movement\\ \\(humorous\\ kettledrum\\ solos\\ and\\ rhythmic\\ tricks\\)\\ and\\ putting\\ the\\ slow\\ movement\\ third\\ \\(lovely\\ variations\\ on\\ two\\ themes\\ in\\ two\\ keys\\.\\.\\.B\\ flat\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ celestial\\ D\\ major\\,\\ toward\\ which\\ the\\ whole\\ symphony\\ is\\ moving\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ final\\ movement\\ as\\ a\\ monument\\:\\ quartet\\ of\\ vocal\\ soloists\\,\\ chorus\\,\\ singing\\ Schiller\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\,\\ with\\ the\\ many\\ variations\\ on\\ the\\ theme\\ done\\ by\\ instruments\\ and\\ singers\\,\\ and\\ finally\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;All\\ men\\ shall\\ be\\ brothers\\&rdquo\\;\\ sentiment\\;\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ it\\ beautiful\\ \\(sniff\\ sniff\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ deny\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ everybody\\ has\\ heard\\ this\\ in\\ some\\ form\\ or\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berlioz\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ Romantic\\ aspects\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ symphony\\:\\ the\\ programmatic\\ aspect\\,\\ scenes\\ from\\ the\\ lover\\&rsquo\\;s\\ troubled\\ life\\ and\\ dreams\\;\\ harmonic\\ boldness\\;\\ inventive\\ orchrestration\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ idee\\ fixe\\,\\ when\\ the\\ young\\ artist\\ sees\\ and\\ falls\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ a\\ woman\\;\\ the\\ repetition\\ of\\ this\\ idee\\ throughout\\ the\\ piece\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ March\\ to\\ the\\ Scaffold\\ and\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ guillotine\\ in\\ the\\ music\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ debate\\ over\\ program\\ music\\ and\\ absolute\\ music\\;\\ the\\ fact\\ is\\,\\ this\\ music\\ stands\\ on\\ its\\ own\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Berlioz\\ uses\\ the\\ orchestra\\ \\&ldquo\\;not\\ as\\ a\\ medium\\ of\\ four\\-\\ or\\ five\\-part\\ writing\\ but\\ as\\ the\\ source\\ of\\ sounds\\,\\ timbres\\,\\ relationships\\,\\ and\\ colors\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ itself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-novel\\ instrumental\\ effects\\:\\ striking\\ violin\\ strings\\ with\\ the\\ wood\\ of\\ the\\ bow\\;\\ sliding\\ notes\\ on\\ flute\\ and\\ horn\\;\\ four\\ kettledrums\\ used\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ third\\ movement\\ to\\ create\\ chords\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ transformation\\ of\\ true\\ emotions\\ from\\ religion\\ and\\ love\\ into\\ a\\ fiendish\\ dance\\ during\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dies\\ irae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;section\\;\\ slow\\ chords\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ movement\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ rapid\\ pace\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;mocking\\ dance\\&rdquo\\;\\ dirge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stravinsky\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Kelly\\&rsquo\\;s\\ text\\ is\\ full\\ of\\ people\\,\\ past\\ and\\ present\\,\\ who\\ think\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ trash\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ brilliant\\ subversion\\ of\\ suggestive\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ title\\:\\ instead\\ of\\ sacred\\,\\ ritual\\ music\\ we\\ have\\ hedonistic\\ chaos\\;\\ and\\ instead\\ of\\ bright\\ and\\ happy\\ spring\\ we\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ awesome\\,\\ frightening\\,\\ post\\-Darwinian\\ spring\\ of\\ rampant\\ unchecked\\ growth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ music\\ is\\ savage\\,\\ repetitive\\,\\ highly\\ complex\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ absolutely\\ beautiful\\ beginning\\ bassoon\\ solo\\ played\\ high\\ above\\ normal\\ register\\ for\\ that\\ instrument\\,\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ subsequent\\ increasing\\ number\\ of\\ melodies\\,\\ rhythms\\,\\ and\\ instruments\\ creating\\ chaos\\;\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\,\\ Stravinsky\\ uses\\ a\\ basic\\ melody\\ and\\ then\\ takes\\ those\\ notes\\ and\\ just\\ flips\\ them\\ around\\ and\\ does\\ different\\ things\\ with\\ them\\ right\\ after\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-melody\\-less\\ music\\,\\ with\\ the\\ shifting\\ pattern\\ of\\ rhythms\\ and\\ that\\ diabolical\\ eight\\ note\\ chord\\ repeated\\ in\\ the\\ strings\\ like\\ a\\ beating\\ drum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Nijinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ballet\\ \\(of\\ course\\,\\ an\\ integral\\ part\\ of\\ this\\ work\\)\\,\\ places\\ in\\ the\\ music\\ seem\\ best\\ explained\\ as\\ stage\\ action\\:\\ the\\ procession\\ of\\ the\\ Sage\\,\\ with\\ the\\ undertone\\ and\\ then\\ the\\ loud\\-as\\-hell\\ tubas\\;\\ the\\ ritual\\ kiss\\ played\\ by\\ that\\ weird\\ sounding\\ harmonic\\ chord\\;\\ choosing\\ the\\ sacrificial\\ victim\\,\\ with\\ the\\ starts\\ and\\ stops\\ of\\ hesitation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ chaos\\ of\\ the\\ unballetic\\ ballet\\;\\ following\\ a\\ beat\\ quite\\ different\\ from\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ music\\;\\ stamping\\ and\\ running\\;\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ counterpoint\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ in\\ the\\ dancing\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ dancing\\ mirrored\\ the\\ music\\ closely\\ in\\ spots\\ instead\\ of\\ contrasting\\ with\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ dissonance\\,\\ complicated\\ rhythms\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ up\\ and\\ down\\ pacing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Compare\\ your\\ personal\\ reactions\\ to\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\ with\\ the\\ reactions\\ you\\ imagine\\ a\\ listener\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ would\\ have\\ had\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Personal\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-lyrical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ story\\ of\\ Orfeo\\ is\\ compelling\\ and\\ applies\\ to\\ all\\ historical\\ periods\\ and\\ all\\ different\\ \\-\\-cultures\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-first\\ encounter\\ with\\ Monteverdi\\,\\ seems\\ very\\ accessible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ stay\\ with\\ you\\ \\(ex\\.\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ song\\ in\\ Act\\ 2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Their\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Everyone\\ was\\ a\\ musician\\ of\\ some\\ sort\\;\\ deeper\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ nuances\\ of\\ the\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Were\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Orfeo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Were\\ familiar\\ with\\ Monteverde\\ and\\ perhaps\\,\\ as\\ they\\ watched\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ were\\ reminded\\ of\\ the\\ madrigals\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ composed\\ and\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Scherzi\\ musicali\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(published\\ every\\ year\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ somewhat\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ they\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;fable\\ in\\ music\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ his\\ solution\\ to\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ how\\ to\\ relate\\ music\\ and\\ poetry\\ in\\ drama\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Not\\ used\\ to\\ the\\ recitative\\ style\\ of\\ singing\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ their\\ first\\ real\\ taste\\ of\\ opera\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\/Differences\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ were\\ attuned\\ to\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ finer\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ performance\\ because\\ they\\ knew\\ the\\ story\\,\\ understood\\ every\\ nuance\\ of\\ the\\ poetry\\,\\ were\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ musical\\ and\\ dramatic\\ experiments\\ that\\ preceded\\ Monteverde\\&rsquo\\;s\\ version\\,\\ and\\ were\\ accustomed\\ to\\ the\\ pastoral\\ setting\\ from\\ the\\ poetry\\ and\\ drama\\ of\\ their\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ were\\ native\\ Italians\\ \\(could\\ detect\\ subtleties\\ in\\ the\\ language\\ that\\ we\\ cannot\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Their\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ courtly\\ entertainment\\,\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;academic\\ experiment\\&rdquo\\;\\ performed\\ for\\ an\\ elite\\ academic\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\Personal\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-associate\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\with\\ Christmas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-kind\\ of\\ long\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Their\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Musical\\ style\\ was\\ nothing\\ new\\;\\ they\\ were\\ familiar\\ with\\ operatic\\ performances\\,\\ which\\ are\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ oratorio\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Knew\\ all\\ the\\ lyrics\\ because\\ they\\ came\\ from\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Unfamiliar\\ because\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ sacred\\ piece\\ that\\ was\\ performed\\ for\\ a\\ paying\\ audience\\ in\\ a\\ public\\ hall\\ \\(the\\ setting\\ of\\ words\\ from\\ Scripture\\ to\\ music\\ was\\ risky\\ for\\ Handel\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Novel\\ because\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\was\\ the\\ first\\ piece\\ performed\\ especially\\ for\\ Dublin\\,\\ not\\ yet\\ presented\\ in\\ London\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-It\\ was\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;exceptionally\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ known\\ type\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Kelly\\ 97\\)\\.\\ Because\\ the\\ audience\\ was\\ very\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ musical\\ style\\ and\\ material\\,\\ it\\ was\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ impressive\\ that\\ Handel\\ managed\\ to\\ impress\\ them\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Why\\/Differences\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Handel\\ was\\ working\\ with\\ Dublin\\ singers\\ of\\ limited\\ abilities\\ \\(he\\ had\\ to\\ tailor\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ for\\ them\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Performing\\ forces\\ in\\ the\\ premiere\\ were\\ a\\ lot\\ smaller\\ than\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ done\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;centuries\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ cultural\\ division\\ between\\ those\\ of\\ Catholic\\ and\\ Protestant\\ faith\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\had\\ clear\\ Anglican\\ origins\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ majority\\ of\\ Ireland\\&rsquo\\;s\\ population\\ was\\ Catholic\\ \\(the\\ audience\\ was\\ the\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ ruling\\ class\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Even\\ if\\ you\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ most\\ people\\ have\\ heard\\ \\(and\\ are\\ familiar\\ with\\)\\ parts\\ of\\ it\\ \\(ex\\.\\ the\\ Hallelujah\\ chorus\\)\\.\\ It\\ has\\ become\\ extremely\\ common\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Putting\\ scripture\\ to\\ words\\ no\\ longer\\ seems\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ controversial\\ \\(at\\ least\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ think\\ so\\?\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personal\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\-First\\ thought\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Oh\\,\\ so\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ where\\ that\\ tune\\ came\\ from\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ I\\ had\\ always\\ known\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ never\\ knew\\ where\\ it\\ came\\ from\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\-I\\ recognized\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ hearing\\ them\\ in\\ movies\\ or\\ as\\ background\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\Their\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h3\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Their\\ notion\\ of\\ symphony\\ was\\ an\\ insignificant\\ piece\\ that\\ was\\ played\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ a\\ concert\\ or\\ during\\ intermission\\.\\ It\\ was\\ unexpected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Used\\ to\\ a\\ typical\\ symphony\\:\\ Beethoven\\ mixes\\ it\\ up\\ by\\ rearranging\\ the\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ movements\\ and\\ shifts\\ the\\ weight\\ from\\ the\\ first\\ movement\\ to\\ the\\ last\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-By\\ 1824\\,\\ Beethoven\\ had\\ become\\ regarded\\ as\\ the\\ world\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greatest\\ composer\\ but\\ in\\ Vienna\\ was\\ more\\ respected\\ than\\ heard\\ \\(was\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ rage\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ his\\ deafness\\ had\\ cut\\ him\\ off\\ from\\ society\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ came\\ primarily\\ to\\ see\\ and\\ honor\\ Beethoven\\ although\\ there\\ were\\ many\\ distinguished\\ performers\\ in\\ the\\ concert\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Reviews\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ performance\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ little\\ under\\-rehearsed\\ and\\ weak\\-sounding\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Kelly\\ 153\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ cheered\\ for\\ the\\ individual\\ movements\\ and\\ also\\ applauded\\ long\\ and\\ loud\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ concert\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Differences\\/Why\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Was\\ performed\\ in\\ a\\ theatre\\ because\\ Vienna\\ had\\ no\\ concert\\ hall\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ was\\ extremely\\ full\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Concert\\ was\\ a\\ triumph\\ for\\ Beethoven\\ \\(both\\ as\\ a\\ composer\\ and\\ a\\ local\\ hero\\)\\ but\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ triumph\\ of\\ musical\\ execution\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Orchestral\\ playing\\ has\\ changed\\ from\\ then\\ to\\ now\\ \\(was\\ rawer\\ and\\ less\\ blended\\)\\ resulting\\ in\\ notable\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;sheer\\ sound\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(modern\\ orchestras\\ are\\ more\\ precise\\ and\\ have\\ a\\ blend\\ and\\ smoothness\\ that\\ is\\ carefully\\ cultivated\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Not\\ only\\ was\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;relatively\\ new\\ and\\ different\\,\\ the\\ musicians\\ were\\ all\\ from\\ different\\ backgrounds\\,\\ with\\ different\\ playing\\ styles\\ \\(adding\\ to\\ the\\ awkward\\-ness\\ of\\ the\\ premiere\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ listeners\\ were\\ more\\ musically\\ attuned\\ than\\ most\\ of\\ us\\ are\\ now\\;\\ more\\ attuned\\ to\\ matters\\ of\\ style\\.\\ They\\ tolerated\\ the\\ problems\\ of\\ the\\ performance\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;see\\ the\\ artistic\\ vision\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\Personal\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ story\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ intuitive\\ to\\ the\\ music\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Their\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h5\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Program\\ was\\ not\\ unusual\\ except\\ that\\ almost\\ all\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ by\\ Berlioz\\,\\ a\\ young\\,\\ contemporary\\,\\ composer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Program\\ provoked\\ debate\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;program\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ music\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Berlioz\\ used\\ the\\ orchestra\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ were\\ unorthodox\\ for\\ the\\ times\\;\\ he\\ used\\ them\\ as\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ sounds\\,\\ timbres\\,\\ relationships\\,\\ and\\ colors\\ that\\ were\\ an\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ itself\\.\\ Created\\ novel\\ instrumental\\ effects\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Curious\\ about\\ the\\ story\\;\\ they\\ had\\ read\\ an\\ advance\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ program\\ and\\ listened\\ for\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Certain\\ aspects\\ were\\ typically\\ Parisian\\:\\ four\\ Parisian\\ bassoons\\,\\ prominent\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ horn\\,\\ and\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ two\\ harps\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Reacted\\ to\\ the\\ concert\\ as\\ whole\\ with\\ \\&ldquo\\;shouts\\ and\\ the\\ stamping\\ of\\ feet\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ They\\ liked\\ the\\ march\\ in\\ particular\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Differences\\/Why\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ 1830\\,\\ Romanticism\\ was\\ sweeping\\ through\\ France\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;marks\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ musical\\ romanticism\\ \\(which\\ was\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ monumental\\ importance\\ to\\ later\\ decades\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ musical\\ world\\ of\\ Paris\\ was\\ highly\\ stratified\\ and\\ Berlioz\\ was\\ able\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ best\\ orchestra\\ available\\,\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ Conservatoire\\,\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ the\\ paramount\\ musical\\ authority\\,\\ conductor\\ Francois\\-Antoine\\ Habeneck\\.\\ \\\\-Their\\ concert\\ halls\\ were\\ much\\ smaller\\,\\ could\\ give\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ chamber\\ music\\.\\ Difference\\ in\\ stringed\\ instruments\\ produced\\ a\\ lighter\\ sound\\ and\\ the\\ brass\\ section\\ was\\ markedly\\ different\\ from\\ what\\ we\\ are\\ used\\ to\\.\\ Berlioz\\ used\\ the\\ ophicleide\\,\\ a\\ keyed\\ instrument\\ that\\ was\\ familiar\\ in\\ Paris\\ and\\ served\\ as\\ the\\ bass\\ of\\ the\\ brass\\ family\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Parisians\\ recognized\\ the\\ serpent\\ \\(last\\ movement\\)\\ and\\ immediately\\ associated\\ it\\ with\\ Sunday\\ Mass\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Berlioz\\ was\\ a\\ rising\\ star\\,\\ a\\ young\\ musician\\ of\\ real\\ stature\\,\\ helped\\ by\\ his\\ winning\\ the\\ Prix\\ de\\ Rome\\.\\&rsquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Berlioz\\ anticipated\\ the\\ technical\\ changes\\ that\\ were\\ soon\\ to\\ come\\ \\(orchestral\\ sound\\ and\\ style\\ was\\ just\\ beginning\\ to\\ grow\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Version\\ performed\\ in\\ 1830\\ has\\ been\\ lost\\,\\ the\\ one\\ we\\ know\\ is\\ the\\ 1845\\ definitive\\ version\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ modified\\ and\\ changed\\ many\\ times\\ by\\ Berlioz\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Le\\ Sacre\\ du\\ Printemps\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h4\\>\\\\Personal\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\even\\ now\\,\\ extremely\\ unorthodox\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Their\\ reaction\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h5\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\It\\ was\\ nothing\\ like\\ the\\ ritual\\ music\\ they\\ knew\\ and\\ had\\ seemingly\\ no\\ connection\\ to\\ spring\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Many\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ members\\ had\\ subscriptions\\ and\\ had\\ seen\\ other\\ radical\\ premieres\\ \\(such\\ as\\ Debussy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Jeux\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ they\\ were\\ prepared\\ for\\,\\ and\\ expected\\,\\ a\\ scandal\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\Les\\ sylphides\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ preceded\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ danced\\ in\\ classical\\ style\\ and\\ contrasted\\ strongly\\ with\\ Nijinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primitive\\ and\\ non\\-refined\\ choreography\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Nijinsky\\ rejected\\ all\\ the\\ basic\\ ballet\\ postures\\ in\\ addition\\ to\\ instructing\\ the\\ dancers\\ to\\ jump\\ on\\ straight\\ legs\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ costumes\\ were\\ unfamiliar\\ and\\ to\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\&rsquo\\;s\\ eyes\\,\\ extremely\\ ugly\\ and\\ garish\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-By\\ the\\ time\\ the\\ first\\ chords\\ had\\ played\\,\\ a\\ semi\\-riot\\ had\\ ensued\\.\\ People\\ both\\ supported\\ and\\ opposing\\ the\\ performance\\ were\\ shouting\\ at\\ each\\ other\\.\\ The\\ noise\\ did\\ pause\\ during\\ the\\ sacrificial\\ dance\\ of\\ Marie\\ Piltz\\;\\ evidently\\ the\\ audience\\ recognized\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ that\\ moment\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-At\\ the\\ close\\ of\\ the\\ ballet\\,\\ there\\ was\\ applause\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ four\\ or\\ five\\ curtain\\ calls\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Everyone\\ there\\ seemed\\ to\\ recognize\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ seeing\\ something\\ primitive\\ and\\ something\\ Russian\\.\\ They\\ all\\ agree\\ that\\ the\\ dancers\\ and\\ musicians\\ did\\ their\\ parts\\ superbly\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Differences\\/Why\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-That\\ particular\\ audience\\ was\\ an\\ extremely\\ fashionably\\ and\\,\\ for\\ the\\ most\\ part\\,\\ elite\\ one\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-They\\ were\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ ballet\\ and\\ many\\ came\\ for\\ the\\ express\\ purpose\\ of\\ seeing\\ Nijinsky\\ dance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Today\\,\\ we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\of\\ Nijinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ day\\,\\ except\\ for\\ the\\ recent\\ reconstruction\\ of\\ it\\ by\\ the\\ Joffrey\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ballet\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\ \\;Discuss\\ the\\ performing\\ forces\\,\\ the\\ personnel\\,\\ and\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ of\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Note\\:\\ Richard\\ suggested\\ that\\ two\\ would\\ be\\ a\\ good\\ number\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ or\\ more\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ detail\\ is\\ sufficient\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\ I\\ checked\\ last\\ year\\&rsquo\\;s\\ exam\\ and\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ ask\\ questions\\ word\\ for\\ word\\ from\\ the\\ study\\ guide\\.\\ \\ \\;You\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ the\\ final\\ asking\\ this\\ question\\ but\\ with\\ a\\ specific\\ piece\\ title\\ in\\ place\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;one\\ or\\ more\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Also\\ my\\ responses\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;adapted\\&rdquo\\;\\ from\\ the\\ original\\ midterm\\ study\\ guide\\ where\\ appropriate\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Performing\\ forces\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ From\\ Prof\\.\\ Kelly\\&rsquo\\;s\\ book\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ performance\\ of\\ an\\ opera\\ by\\ nine\\ singers\\,\\ rather\\ then\\ by\\ two\\ or\\ three\\ times\\ that\\ number\\,\\ suggests\\ a\\ scale\\ appropriate\\ to\\ a\\ narrow\\ room\\ at\\ a\\ court\\ with\\ a\\ limited\\ number\\ of\\ suitable\\ singers\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ instruments\\ were\\ arranged\\ in\\ choirs\\ of\\ similar\\ sounds\\:\\ two\\ choirs\\ of\\ strings\\;\\ a\\ choir\\ of\\ trombones\\ with\\ the\\ upper\\ parts\\ played\\ on\\ cornetti\\;\\ a\\ choir\\ of\\ trumpets\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Such\\ groupings\\ were\\ a\\ tradition\\ in\\ the\\ sixteenth\\-century\\ music\\ and\\ allowed\\ Monteverdi\\ to\\ use\\ characteristic\\ instrumental\\ sounds\\ for\\ places\\ and\\ persons\\:\\ brass\\ for\\ the\\ infernal\\ regions\\,\\ stings\\ for\\ the\\ upper\\ world\\,\\ trumpets\\ for\\ the\\ duke\\ of\\ Mantua\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ ability\\ to\\ play\\ many\\ instruments\\ helped\\ in\\ Orfeo\\ because\\ the\\ cornetti\\ might\\ also\\ play\\ recorders\\;\\ perhaps\\ even\\ a\\ string\\ player\\ or\\ two\\ knew\\ to\\ play\\ trombone\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-There\\ were\\ approximately\\ 20\\ orchestra\\ performers\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ an\\ estimate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personnel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\-Francesco\\ Rasi\\,\\ the\\ noted\\ Mantuan\\ singer\\,\\ poet\\ and\\ composer\\,\\ was\\ Orpheo\\,\\ a\\ bass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Girolamo\\ Bacchini\\,\\ a\\ priest\\ and\\ soprano\\ castrato\\,\\ played\\ euridice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Giovanni\\ Gualberto\\ Magli\\,\\ the\\ soprano\\ castrato\\ discussed\\ in\\ the\\ letters\\ played\\ La\\ Musica\\,\\ Proserpina\\,\\ and\\ perhaps\\ the\\ Messenger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-mention\\ lack\\ of\\ women\\,\\ and\\ reason\\ for\\ it\\ \\(Duke\\ had\\ female\\ singers\\ but\\ it\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ considered\\ appropriate\\ for\\ them\\ to\\ act\\&hellip\\;the\\ fact\\ that\\ castratos\\ were\\ used\\ proves\\ this\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-perhaps\\ also\\ mention\\ Francesco\\ Gonzaga\\ \\(heir\\ to\\ Duke\\ of\\ Mantua\\)\\ for\\ role\\ in\\ assembling\\ performers\\ for\\ first\\ night\\,\\ and\\ his\\ younger\\ brother\\ Ferdinando\\,\\ who\\ helped\\ get\\ Magli\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-mention\\ Monteverdi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ of\\ Performance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\-firstly\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ opera\\ so\\ it\\ has\\ costumes\\ sets\\ and\\ props\\,\\ not\\ present\\ in\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ studied\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-very\\ narrow\\ room\\ in\\ the\\ Duke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Palace\\ at\\ Mantua\\,\\ with\\ sliding\\ panels\\ of\\ painted\\ scenery\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\telai\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ that\\ allowed\\ for\\ instant\\ set\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-painted\\ backdrop\\ curtain\\&mdash\\;there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ changes\\ so\\ perhaps\\ it\\ fit\\ both\\ the\\ above\\ and\\ underworld\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-set\\ designer\\ probably\\ Antonio\\ Maria\\ Viani\\ who\\ was\\ at\\ the\\ court\\ and\\ worked\\ with\\ Mont\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-audience\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ elite\\ Accademia\\ degli\\ Invaghiti\\ and\\ sat\\ in\\ a\\ polygonal\\ or\\ semicircular\\ arrangement\\,\\ perhaps\\ on\\ risers\\ and\\ perhaps\\ with\\ seating\\ in\\ the\\ middle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ In\\ orfeo\\,\\ the\\ instrumental\\ music\\ was\\ played\\ from\\ at\\ least\\ three\\ locations\\:\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ acting\\ area\\ \\(\\ considered\\ normal\\ now\\,\\ this\\ position\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ players\\ was\\ unusual\\ at\\ the\\ time\\)\\,\\ from\\ the\\ front\\ corners\\ of\\ the\\ stage\\ \\(at\\ one\\ point\\ in\\ act\\ 5\\)\\,\\ and\\ behind\\ the\\ stage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Performing\\ Forces\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\-\\ The\\ performance\\ parts\\ left\\ by\\ Handel\\ in\\ his\\ will\\ to\\ the\\ Foundling\\ Hospital\\ give\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ possible\\ instrumentation\\ \\(remember\\ that\\ each\\ is\\ doubled\\ because\\ musicians\\ share\\ a\\ desk\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ first\\ violin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\-second\\ violin\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ viola\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ violancello\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ bassoon\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ oboe\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\ oboe\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\trumpet\\ and\\ kettledrums\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\ soprano\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ alto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ tenor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\ bass\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-The\\ Foundling\\ performances\\ were\\ not\\ the\\ first\\ night\\,\\ however\\,\\ and\\ one\\ cannot\\ be\\ sure\\ of\\ the\\ true\\ instrumentation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-some\\ have\\ suggested\\ that\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ had\\ only\\ strings\\ and\\ trumpets\\ because\\ the\\ score\\ included\\ no\\ oboes\\,\\ bassoons\\ or\\ horns\\,\\ but\\ prof\\.\\ Kelly\\ notes\\ that\\ the\\ string\\ parts\\ are\\ varied\\ and\\ horns\\ and\\ oboes\\ can\\ easily\\ be\\ adapted\\ to\\ fit\\ string\\ parts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-we\\ do\\ know\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ strings\\ and\\ continuo\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ trumpets\\ for\\ sure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Personnel\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Notable\\ vocal\\ performers\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Susanna\\ Maria\\ Cibber\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ of\\ most\\ famous\\ actresses\\ of\\ time\\;\\ In\\ forced\\ retirement\\ b\\/c\\ she\\ ran\\ off\\ with\\ another\\ man\\;\\ Better\\ actress\\ than\\ singer\\,\\ but\\ Handel\\ liked\\ her\\ and\\ so\\ had\\ patience\\ with\\ her\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;He\\ shall\\ feed\\ his\\ flock\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ God\\ be\\ for\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\ transposed\\ to\\ fit\\ her\\ voice\\;\\ Light\\ alto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Christina\\ Maria\\ Avolio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Italian\\ soprano\\;\\ Had\\ sung\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ music\\ before\\;\\ Brought\\ her\\ with\\ him\\ from\\ London\\ to\\ Dublin\\;\\ Did\\ a\\ benefit\\ concert\\ for\\ herself\\ both\\ before\\ and\\ after\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Mrs\\.\\ Maclaine\\ \\(we\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ her\\ first\\ name\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Married\\ to\\ organist\\ that\\ performed\\ in\\ premiere\\;\\ Soprano\\;\\ Didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ perform\\ with\\ Handel\\ anywhere\\ else\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\William\\ Lamb\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Tenor\\;\\ Member\\ of\\ one\\ or\\ both\\ of\\ Dublin\\ Cathedral\\ choirs\\;\\ Sang\\ large\\ part\\ of\\ alto\\ music\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;O\\ thou\\ that\\ tallest\\ good\\ tidings\\ to\\ Zion\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ Handel\\ gave\\ him\\ easier\\ recitative\\ version\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thou\\ shall\\ break\\ them\\ with\\ a\\ rod\\ of\\ iron\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ more\\ difficult\\ aria\\ \\(the\\ way\\ it\\ had\\ been\\ composed\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\-The\\ chorus\\ consisted\\ of\\ cathedral\\ singers\\ from\\ Saint\\ Patrick\\&rsquo\\;s\\ and\\ Christ\\ Church\\ Catherdrals\\ \\(altos\\,\\ basses\\,\\ tenors\\&mdash\\;about\\ 16\\ boys\\ and\\ 8\\ men\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-three\\ solo\\ female\\ vocalists\\ were\\ used\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ additional\\ sopranos\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-little\\ is\\ known\\ about\\ the\\ specific\\ players\\ in\\ the\\ orchestra\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Handel\\ directed\\ the\\ performance\\ form\\ his\\ keyboard\\ and\\ played\\ virtuosic\\ compositions\\ with\\ improvisations\\ between\\ sections\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Look\\ of\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-firstly\\,\\ the\\ performance\\ is\\ an\\ oratorio\\ so\\ elaborate\\ sets\\ and\\ costumes\\ were\\ categorically\\ not\\ present\\.\\ \\ \\;Furthermore\\ they\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ considered\\ inappropriate\\ during\\ the\\ Lent\\ season\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ performance\\ took\\ place\\ at\\ midday\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ evening\\ to\\ save\\ money\\ on\\ lighting\\ and\\ heating\\,\\ probably\\ contributing\\ to\\ a\\ less\\ formal\\ or\\ polished\\ atmosphere\\ than\\ the\\ opera\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-it\\ is\\ unclear\\ what\\ the\\ Great\\ Music\\ Hall\\ in\\ Dublin\\ looked\\ like\\ but\\ an\\ interior\\ engraving\\ from\\ 1794\\ shows\\ that\\ there\\ were\\ two\\ rows\\ of\\ boxes\\ with\\ a\\ slanted\\ parterre\\ \\(central\\ seating\\ area\\)\\,\\ and\\ the\\ hall\\ could\\ hold\\ about\\ 700\\ people\\ \\(about\\ how\\ many\\ attended\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ audience\\ was\\ composed\\ of\\ the\\ very\\ best\\ in\\ Dublin\\ according\\ to\\ Handel\\,\\ although\\ they\\ had\\ to\\ arrive\\ on\\ crowded\\ and\\ narrow\\ Fishamble\\ Street\\ \\(probably\\ there\\ was\\ quite\\ a\\ carriage\\ jam\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ solo\\ performers\\ were\\ probably\\ near\\ the\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ stage\\ \\(along\\ with\\ Handel\\)\\ while\\ the\\ chorus\\ was\\ likely\\ behind\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ orchestra\\ \\&ndash\\;the\\ singers\\ dressed\\ in\\ black\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ interaction\\ of\\ instruments\\ and\\ voices\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Both\\ these\\ pieces\\ are\\ similar\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ vocals\\ are\\ the\\ focus\\ and\\ central\\ attraction\\ for\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ compares\\ to\\ a\\ piece\\ like\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ninth\\ where\\ the\\ vocals\\ emerge\\ as\\ a\\ progression\\ or\\ evolution\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Various\\ types\\ of\\ interaction\\;\\ this\\ piece\\ introduced\\ to\\ the\\ course\\ the\\ differences\\ between\\ recitative\\,\\ aria\\ and\\ chorus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ the\\ recitative\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ musical\\ representation\\ of\\ speech\\,\\ the\\ music\\ serves\\ to\\ harmonically\\ support\\ the\\ melody\\ and\\ is\\ usually\\ basso\\ continuo\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ example\\ of\\ such\\ a\\ recit\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;ahi\\ caso\\ acerbo\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(in\\ Act\\ II\\)\\ where\\ passive\\ background\\ music\\ allows\\ the\\ speaker\\ to\\ convey\\ her\\ urgent\\ message\\ of\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Euridice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-other\\ recits\\ have\\ a\\ more\\ complex\\ relationship\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;tu\\ se\\ morta\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(also\\ in\\ act\\ II\\)\\ where\\ there\\ are\\ moments\\ of\\ dissonance\\ between\\ instrument\\ and\\ voice\\ to\\ underscore\\ the\\ emotional\\ trauma\\ Orfeo\\ faces\\ when\\ his\\ love\\ dies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-In\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ arias\\ the\\ accompanying\\ music\\ is\\ much\\ more\\ likely\\ to\\ include\\ embellishments\\ \\(as\\ are\\ the\\ vocals\\ themselves\\)\\;\\ the\\ focus\\ here\\ is\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ music\\ than\\ the\\ plot\\,\\ which\\ the\\ recits\\ advance\\ \\&ndash\\;the\\ form\\ is\\ also\\ more\\ rigid\\ \\(both\\ accompaniment\\ and\\ vocals\\)\\ than\\ in\\ recits\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ free\\ form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-also\\ ritornellos\\,\\ recurring\\ musical\\ pieces\\,\\ are\\ often\\ interspersed\\ between\\ verses\\ in\\ arias\\ while\\ they\\ are\\ usually\\ absent\\ in\\ recits\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-also\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ arias\\ \\(especially\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vi\\ ricorda\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ are\\ strophic\\ in\\ that\\ each\\ successive\\ verse\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ is\\ sung\\ to\\ same\\ music\\ \\&ndash\\;thus\\ the\\ aria\\ is\\ often\\ playful\\,\\ and\\ repeating\\,\\ or\\ often\\ a\\ freeze\\ frame\\ of\\ the\\ action\\,\\ which\\ the\\ music\\ reflects\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-the\\ chorus\\ generally\\ is\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ aria\\ in\\ its\\ relation\\ to\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Handel\\ also\\ uses\\ recit\\,\\ aria\\ and\\ chorus\\ like\\ Monteverdi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-additionally\\ Handel\\ uses\\ instruments\\ to\\ provide\\ breaks\\ in\\ the\\ on\\-stage\\ \\(and\\ vocal\\)\\ action\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ overture\\ \\(which\\ he\\ calls\\ sinfony\\)\\ and\\ the\\ pifa\\,\\ which\\ Mont\\.\\ Also\\ did\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ recits\\,\\ though\\,\\ are\\ more\\ clearly\\ defined\\ than\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ occasionally\\ uses\\ the\\ recits\\ that\\ are\\ accompanied\\ only\\ by\\ basso\\ continuo\\ instruments\\ \\(which\\ he\\ calls\\ recitative\\ secco\\,\\ or\\ dry\\ recits\\)\\ as\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Behold\\ a\\ virgin\\ shall\\ conceive\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-most\\ of\\ his\\ are\\ recitative\\ accompagnato\\,\\ though\\,\\ where\\ the\\ song\\ is\\ has\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\ \\(such\\ as\\ strings\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ great\\ example\\ of\\ this\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;Comfort\\ Ye\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ vocal\\ embellishments\\ in\\ the\\ piece\\ are\\ complemented\\ with\\ ornamental\\ string\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-Handel\\ also\\ uses\\ aria\\ in\\ a\\ similar\\ manner\\ to\\ Monteverdi\\ with\\ ritornellos\\ and\\ the\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Describe\\ the\\ kinds\\ of\\ evidence\\ available\\ about\\ the\\ premieres\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\,\\ and\\ discuss\\ their\\ relative\\ value\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Memoirs\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\provide\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ factual\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ time\\ period\\,\\ including\\ the\\ people\\,\\ place\\,\\ and\\ music\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\audience\\ members\\ would\\ often\\ write\\ about\\ the\\ performance\\ and\\ their\\ reactions\\ to\\ it\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ eye\\-witness\\ accounts\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ performance\\ looked\\ like\\,\\ sounded\\ like\\,\\ and\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ received\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Letters\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-learn\\ a\\ lot\\ about\\ performance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ especially\\ from\\ the\\ letters\\ Francesco\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Gonzaga\\ sent\\ to\\ Ferdinand\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ talent\\ of\\ the\\ Mantuan\\ singers\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Difficulty\\ in\\ finding\\ a\\ soprano\\ castrato\\,\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ concert\\ went\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Handel\\ also\\ wrote\\ a\\ letter\\ Jennens\\ saying\\ he\\ was\\ pleased\\ with\\ the\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sometimes\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ wrote\\ letters\\ describing\\ premieres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wordbook\\/Program\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Messiah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\wordbook\\ that\\ was\\ sold\\ at\\ the\\ concert\\ has\\ valuable\\ information\\ about\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\the\\ songs\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ words\\ and\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ recitative\\ or\\ aria\\;\\ in\\ one\\ particular\\ copy\\ an\\ audience\\ member\\ penciled\\ in\\ the\\ singers\\&rsquo\\;\\ names\\ next\\ to\\ each\\ song\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Program\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ the\\ story\\ that\\ goes\\ along\\ with\\ each\\ movement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Floorplans\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\help\\ us\\ picture\\ where\\ the\\ performance\\ took\\ place\\,\\ how\\ many\\ were\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\audience\\,\\ etc\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\in\\ some\\ cases\\ the\\ floorplans\\ provide\\ accurate\\ information\\ because\\ the\\ theatre\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\has\\ changed\\ very\\ little\\;\\ however\\,\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ floorplan\\ but\\ no\\ one\\ knows\\ exactly\\ how\\ the\\ theatre\\ looked\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Score\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\provides\\ valuable\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ instruments\\,\\ singers\\,\\ and\\ staging\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Posters\\/Advertisements\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\announced\\ who\\ composed\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ the\\ conductor\\,\\ performers\\,\\ and\\ often\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\information\\ about\\ the\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\ poster\\ also\\ listed\\ the\\ other\\ pieces\\ by\\ Beethoven\\ that\\ would\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\performed\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Messiah\\ poster\\ suggests\\ a\\ packed\\ audience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Newspaper\\ articles\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\information\\ about\\ the\\ general\\ attitude\\ towards\\ the\\ premiere\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dublin\\ Journal\\ wrote\\ about\\ positive\\ reaction\\ from\\ audience\\ after\\ Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Journals\\ in\\ Vienna\\ complimented\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ music\\ but\\ also\\ said\\ that\\ concert\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ better\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Reviews\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\reviewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ personal\\ opinion\\ about\\ piece\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\:\\ reviews\\ describe\\ the\\ theatre\\,\\ choreography\\,\\ costumes\\,\\ noticeable\\ features\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ repetition\\,\\ how\\ the\\ audience\\ reacted\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Problem\\ is\\ that\\ person\\ may\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ at\\ actual\\ premiere\\,\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ at\\ a\\ dress\\ rehearsal\\,\\ and\\ there\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ that\\ much\\ info\\ about\\ the\\ music\\ itself\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Artwork\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\portraits\\ of\\ composers\\ and\\ sometimes\\ performers\\ or\\ other\\ people\\ involved\\ with\\ the\\ performance\\ show\\ the\\ look\\ of\\ the\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\paintings\\ of\\ city\\ and\\/or\\ theatre\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\:\\ sketch\\ of\\ dancers\\ in\\ costume\\ shows\\ how\\ costumes\\ actually\\ looked\\ like\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\6\\.\\ Describe\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ word\\ \\(or\\ scenario\\,\\ or\\ program\\)\\ and\\ music\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Stravinsky\\ emphasized\\ the\\ primitiveness\\ of\\ the\\ Slavic\\ culture\\ with\\ his\\ savage\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\aggressive\\,\\ chaotic\\,\\ and\\ repetitive\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\wanted\\ to\\ portray\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ surge\\ of\\ spring\\&rdquo\\;\\ differently\\ from\\ what\\ people\\ were\\ used\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ almost\\ entirely\\ in\\ duple\\ meter\\ with\\ a\\ clear\\ pulse\\,\\ goes\\ well\\ with\\ the\\ primitive\\ dancing\\ that\\ involves\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ repetition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ritual\\ of\\ Abduction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ more\\ agitated\\,\\ rapid\\ rhythm\\ of\\ eighth\\ notes\\ as\\ the\\ girls\\ are\\ abducted\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Round\\ Dances\\ of\\ Spring\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ slower\\,\\ more\\ reflective\\ music\\ and\\ slower\\ dancing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Game\\ of\\ the\\ Rival\\ Tribes\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ prominent\\,\\ violent\\ percussion\\;\\ a\\ fast\\ dance\\;\\ tribal\\ war\\ game\\ for\\ men\\,\\ in\\ which\\ 2\\ groups\\ compete\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Procession\\ of\\ the\\ Stage\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ crescendo\\ of\\ tubas\\ emphasize\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ this\\ part\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ mystical\\,\\ hushed\\ series\\ of\\ chords\\ as\\ sage\\ ritually\\ kisses\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ music\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ program\\ describes\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ an\\ artist\\ tormented\\ by\\ love\\,\\ which\\ is\\ expressed\\ by\\ the\\ music\\;\\ Berlioz\\ saw\\ his\\ program\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ spoken\\ text\\ of\\ an\\ opera\\,\\ serving\\ to\\ introduce\\ the\\ musical\\ movements\\,\\ whose\\ character\\ and\\ expression\\ it\\ motivates\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-melodic\\ idea\\ that\\ represents\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beloved\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\ reappears\\ throughout\\ the\\ symphony\\ in\\ different\\ forms\\ as\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ perception\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ of\\ the\\ beloved\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ violins\\ and\\ flutes\\,\\ which\\ represent\\ the\\ beloved\\,\\ are\\ soft\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\beautiful\\;\\ the\\ repeated\\ chords\\ played\\ by\\ the\\ low\\ strings\\ represent\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ heart\\ beating\\;\\ he\\ is\\ nervous\\ because\\ he\\ sees\\ this\\ beautiful\\ women\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ and\\ falls\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ solo\\ clarinet\\ with\\ a\\ very\\ quiet\\ horn\\ accompaniment\\;\\ soon\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\strings\\ are\\ also\\ heard\\;\\ haunting\\ music\\ because\\ visions\\ of\\ the\\ beloved\\ keep\\ disturbing\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ peace\\ of\\ mind\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;fight\\&rdquo\\;\\ between\\ the\\ soft\\,\\ sweet\\ melody\\ \\(flute\\ and\\ oboe\\)\\ \\ \\;and\\ louder\\,\\ more\\ powerful\\ counter\\-melody\\ \\(bassoons\\,\\ cellos\\,\\ and\\ basses\\)\\;\\ represents\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ changing\\ thoughts\\ about\\ his\\ beloved\\,\\ from\\ hoping\\ that\\ he\\ will\\ never\\ be\\ lonely\\ again\\ to\\ fearing\\ that\\ she\\ may\\ be\\ deceiving\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ solo\\ clarinet\\ represents\\ the\\ artist\\ having\\ a\\ final\\ thought\\ about\\ his\\ beloved\\;\\ full\\ orchestra\\ plays\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ guillotine\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\-\\ the\\ haunting\\ and\\ disturbing\\ E\\ flat\\ clarinet\\ plays\\ during\\ the\\ devilish\\ dancing\\ at\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ funeral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ How\\ does\\ music\\ contribute\\ to\\ dramatic\\ expression\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;In\\ Orfeo\\,\\ the\\ text\\ imposes\\ a\\ narrative\\ structure\\ on\\ all\\ five\\ acts\\ of\\ the\\ opera\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\When\\ the\\ Messaggiera\\ \\(Sylvia\\)\\ enters\\ \\(P\\.\\ 36\\)\\ the\\ entry\\ is\\ very\\ jarring\\.\\ For\\ the\\ first\\ time\\,\\ a\\ character\\ sings\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stile\\ recitativo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;instead\\ of\\ aria\\ or\\ chorus\\.\\ Her\\ opening\\ note\\ is\\ very\\ high\\ and\\ the\\ style\\ is\\ more\\ angular\\ than\\ what\\ has\\ been\\ sung\\ previously\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ sudden\\ contrast\\ of\\ harpsichord\\ and\\ organ\\ with\\ the\\ chitarrone\\.\\ The\\ speech\\-like\\ recitative\\ of\\ Sylvia\\ is\\ also\\ contrasted\\ with\\ the\\ lilting\\ triple\\ meter\\ of\\ the\\ Shepard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ singing\\ that\\ has\\ just\\ concluded\\.\\ Thus\\ the\\ music\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ dramatic\\ impact\\ of\\ her\\ message\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ passages\\ that\\ follow\\ Sylvia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ entrance\\,\\ Orfeo\\ asks\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ questions\\ to\\ which\\ Sylvia\\ replies\\ \\&ldquo\\;La\\ tua\\ diletta\\ sposa\\ e\\ morta\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ a\\ sequence\\ of\\ descending\\ notes\\.\\ Orfeo\\ responds\\ with\\ the\\ intensely\\ simple\\ statement\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ohime\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ He\\ sings\\ only\\ two\\ notes\\,\\ descending\\ a\\ semitone\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ long\\ and\\ drawn\\ out\\.\\ It\\ is\\ at\\ that\\ moment\\ that\\ Orfeo\\ understands\\ the\\ severity\\ of\\ Sylvia\\&rsquo\\;s\\ message\\ and\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ voices\\ and\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ accompaniment\\ for\\ Orfeo\\ puts\\ his\\ statement\\ in\\ relief\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Messiah\\,\\ there\\ is\\ an\\ absence\\ of\\ a\\ large\\-scale\\ narrative\\ structure\\,\\ but\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ individual\\ arias\\ and\\ choruses\\ often\\ evokes\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ text\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\In\\ the\\ bass\\ recitative\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Thus\\ Saith\\ the\\ Lord\\ of\\ Hosts\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ begins\\ the\\ second\\ section\\ of\\ part\\ one\\,\\ Handel\\ uses\\ recitative\\ accompagnato\\.\\ This\\ recitative\\ demonstrates\\ the\\ great\\ variety\\ of\\ moods\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ depicted\\ very\\ quickly\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ short\\ piece\\.\\ The\\ string\\ accompaniment\\ reflects\\ the\\ general\\ somber\\ mood\\ of\\ the\\ text\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ directly\\ depicts\\ the\\ meaning\\ through\\ word\\ painting\\ \\(such\\ as\\ the\\ reverberations\\ on\\ the\\ word\\ \\&ldquo\\;shake\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\ Thus\\ Handel\\ chooses\\ to\\ represent\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ in\\ a\\ literal\\ manner\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ generally\\ trying\\ to\\ convey\\ the\\ feel\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ through\\ music\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ chorus\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Glory\\ to\\ God\\ in\\ the\\ Highest\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ occurs\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ part\\ one\\,\\ section\\ four\\,\\ the\\ tension\\ and\\ anticipation\\ that\\ has\\ built\\ up\\ through\\ the\\ through\\ the\\ previous\\ four\\ recitatives\\ sung\\ by\\ the\\ soprano\\ finally\\ is\\ released\\ in\\ a\\ chorus\\.\\ The\\ trumpets\\ appear\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ oratorio\\,\\ adding\\ to\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ a\\ holy\\ arrival\\ with\\ their\\ sparkling\\ sound\\.\\ In\\ an\\ illustration\\ of\\ word\\ painting\\,\\ Handel\\ uses\\ the\\ high\\ voices\\ and\\ strings\\ to\\ depict\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;heavenly\\&rdquo\\;\\ voices\\ that\\ sing\\ \\&ldquo\\;Glory\\ to\\ God\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ while\\ the\\ lower\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;earthly\\&rdquo\\;\\ voices\\ sing\\ \\&ldquo\\;peace\\ on\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ trumpets\\ are\\ played\\ without\\ their\\ usual\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;earthly\\&rdquo\\;\\ counterpart\\,\\ the\\ timpani\\,\\ and\\ sound\\ somewhat\\ distant\\,\\ adding\\ emphasis\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ heavenly\\ chorus\\ heard\\ from\\ earth\\.\\ The\\ chorus\\ concludes\\ with\\ the\\ disappearance\\ of\\ the\\ angels\\,\\ as\\ the\\ strings\\ and\\ continuo\\ reach\\ the\\ final\\ cadence\\ alone\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ listener\\ is\\ brought\\ back\\ down\\ to\\ earth\\ in\\ preparation\\ for\\ the\\ more\\ somber\\ tone\\ of\\ the\\ fifth\\ section\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\,\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ sonata\\ form\\ compensates\\ for\\ a\\ lack\\ of\\ text\\ by\\ creating\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;text\\-less\\ narration\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Traditional\\ weaving\\ of\\ text\\ and\\ musical\\ only\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\ with\\ the\\ Schiller\\ Ode\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Ninth\\ is\\ musically\\ hazy\\.\\ There\\ are\\ very\\ quiet\\ opening\\ intervals\\ played\\ by\\ the\\ strings\\,\\ but\\ they\\ re\\ absent\\ any\\ definite\\ rhythm\\.\\ Then\\ out\\ of\\ nothingness\\ there\\ finally\\ appears\\ the\\ main\\ theme\\ of\\ the\\ sonata\\ form\\ played\\ loudly\\ and\\ forcefully\\ by\\ the\\ entire\\ orchestra\\.\\ This\\ gives\\ the\\ listener\\ the\\ impression\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;creation\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;birth\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ as\\ though\\ the\\ musical\\ nebulousness\\ is\\ giving\\ way\\ to\\ musical\\ form\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\,\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;infinite\\ dust\\&rdquo\\;\\ theme\\)\\.\\ Thus\\ although\\ a\\ text\\ is\\ absent\\,\\ the\\ evolution\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ can\\ give\\ rise\\ to\\ strands\\ of\\ a\\ narrative\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ symphony\\,\\ the\\ vocal\\ soloists\\ sing\\ a\\ cadenza\\ on\\ the\\ words\\ \\&ldquo\\;Wherever\\ your\\ gentle\\ wings\\ tarry\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ softly\\ crescendo\\-ing\\,\\ virtuosic\\ phrases\\ of\\ the\\ cadenza\\ echoes\\ the\\ gentle\\ flapping\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;wings\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ The\\ flapping\\ increases\\ in\\ intensity\\,\\ building\\ to\\ the\\ fast\\ section\\ that\\ brings\\ the\\ Symphony\\ to\\ a\\ close\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Since\\ the\\ symphony\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ instrumental\\ drama\\,\\ the\\ score\\ is\\ vital\\ to\\ the\\ progression\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;Specifically\\,\\ the\\ idee\\ fixe\\ \\(which\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ indicate\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\)\\ is\\ the\\ unifying\\ elemnent\\ between\\ the\\ movements\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\ \\;Passions\\:\\ Idee\\ fixe\\ is\\ introduced\\ when\\ the\\ young\\ artist\\ sees\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;beloved\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ and\\ falls\\ hopelessly\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ Ball\\:\\ The\\ idee\\ fixe\\ is\\ heard\\ when\\ the\\ artist\\ sees\\ his\\ beloved\\ in\\ the\\ tumult\\ of\\ a\\ party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ Scene\\ in\\ the\\ Country\\:\\ The\\ artist\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ countryside\\ and\\ reflects\\ upon\\ his\\ isolation\\,\\ but\\ his\\ loneliness\\ is\\ interupted\\ when\\ he\\ begins\\ thinking\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ March\\ of\\ the\\ Scaffold\\:\\ The\\ artist\\ poisons\\ himself\\ with\\ opium\\ and\\ plunges\\ into\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ drug\\-induced\\ dream\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ witnesses\\ his\\ own\\ execution\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idee\\ fixe\\ appears\\ briefly\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ march\\ like\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;last\\ thought\\ of\\ love\\ interrupted\\ by\\ the\\ fatal\\ blow\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ Dream\\ of\\ a\\ Witches\\&rsquo\\;\\ Sabbath\\:\\ Artist\\ sees\\ himself\\ at\\ the\\ sabbath\\ where\\ evil\\,\\ supernatural\\ beings\\ are\\ gathering\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ idee\\ fixe\\ appears\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ in\\ a\\ tainted\\,\\ devilish\\ form\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ \\ \\;Describe\\ the\\ musical\\ scores\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\;\\ what\\ do\\ they\\ tell\\ us\\,\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ tell\\ us\\,\\ about\\ the\\ performance\\ of\\ their\\ music\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ score\\ of\\ Orfeo\\ is\\ important\\ for\\ two\\ reasons\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ believe\\ that\\ score\\ is\\ the\\ original\\ music\\ that\\ was\\ played\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ \\(this\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ piece\\ we\\ study\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ score\\ of\\ the\\ actual\\ music\\ played\\ in\\ first\\ performance\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ notes\\ in\\ the\\ published\\ score\\ \\(1609\\)\\ are\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ past\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ the\\ score\\ tells\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\what\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;happened\\,\\ not\\ what\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\should\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;happen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ score\\ was\\ published\\ two\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ only\\ two\\ performances\\ of\\ Orfeo\\ in\\ 1609\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ the\\ Prince\\ of\\ Mantua\\,\\ Francesco\\ Gonzaga\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ score\\ is\\ like\\ a\\ memory\\ book\\ of\\ who\\ sang\\ and\\ which\\ instruments\\ accompanied\\ the\\ singer\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ score\\ says\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;This\\ ritornello\\ was\\ played\\ from\\ within\\ by\\ a\\ harpsichord\\,\\ two\\ chittaroni\\,\\ and\\ two\\ little\\ French\\-style\\ violins\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ clear\\ and\\ prominent\\ basso\\ continuo\\ that\\ runs\\ through\\ the\\ entire\\ opera\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ score\\ also\\ tells\\ us\\ that\\ Monteverdi\\ did\\ not\\ attach\\ a\\ particular\\ accompaniment\\ to\\ a\\ character\\ but\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ mood\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ritornellos\\ and\\ the\\ entry\\ and\\ exit\\ of\\ characters\\ are\\ indicated\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ clefs\\ and\\ time\\ signature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ tell\\ us\\ many\\ musical\\ indications\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ contain\\ dynamics\\,\\ tempo\\,\\ or\\ the\\ specific\\ notes\\ of\\ the\\ basso\\ continuo\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ meter\\ is\\ actually\\ inaccurate\\ \\(the\\ score\\ says\\ common\\ time\\ throughout\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ also\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ who\\ sang\\ which\\ parts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ score\\ also\\ does\\ not\\ tell\\ us\\ one\\ very\\ important\\ detail\\&mdash\\;the\\ ending\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ the\\ music\\ might\\ indicate\\ that\\ the\\ Apollo\\ ending\\ concluded\\ the\\ performance\\,\\ the\\ wordbook\\ reveals\\ that\\ the\\ Bacchus\\ ending\\ took\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;Prof\\.\\ Kelly\\ asserts\\ that\\ the\\ Apollo\\ ending\\,\\ where\\ Apollo\\ descends\\ from\\ the\\ Heavans\\ to\\ snatch\\ Orfeo\\ and\\ bring\\ him\\ to\\ Euridice\\,\\ makes\\ perfect\\ sense\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ music\\ indicates\\ that\\ a\\ certain\\ piece\\ of\\ music\\ represents\\ the\\ invocation\\ of\\ Apollo\\ \\(in\\ Act\\ III\\)\\ and\\ that\\ peice\\ occurs\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ opera\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ no\\ one\\ will\\ ever\\ know\\ for\\ sure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Overall\\,\\ the\\ survival\\ of\\ the\\ published\\ score\\ of\\ Orfeo\\ is\\ a\\ central\\ reason\\ to\\ why\\ we\\ study\\ this\\ piece\\ because\\ many\\ other\\ pieces\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ do\\ not\\ much\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ important\\ detail\\ concerning\\ the\\ score\\ of\\ Messiah\\ is\\ that\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ know\\ the\\ exact\\ music\\ performed\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ in\\ Dublin\\ in\\ 1742\\.\\ \\ \\;Handel\\ continuously\\ altered\\ the\\ music\\ to\\ satisfy\\ particular\\ singers\\ of\\ the\\ day\\.\\ \\ \\;Handel\\ did\\ dedicate\\ an\\ autographed\\ score\\ to\\ the\\ Foundling\\ Hospital\\ in\\ London\\ but\\ this\\ only\\ a\\ score\\ to\\ which\\ we\\ think\\ was\\ similar\\ to\\ the\\ Dublin\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;At\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\,\\ Handel\\ omitted\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ the\\ difficult\\ arias\\ and\\ substituted\\ these\\ parts\\ with\\ recitatives\\ to\\ accommodate\\ the\\ less\\ talented\\ singers\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ also\\ have\\ wordbook\\ that\\ an\\ audience\\ member\\ wrote\\ the\\ names\\ of\\ singers\\ for\\ each\\ part\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ observe\\ that\\ the\\ ritornello\\ introduced\\ motifs\\,\\ which\\ to\\ be\\ sung\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ vocal\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ instruments\\ are\\ written\\ on\\ the\\ left\\.\\ \\ \\;Handel\\ probably\\ generated\\ wind\\ parts\\ from\\ the\\ score\\ \\(oboes\\,\\ \\;bassoons\\,\\ and\\ horns\\)\\ as\\ siple\\ derivations\\ from\\ the\\ string\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;Oboes\\ are\\ probably\\ used\\ to\\ define\\ the\\ melody\\ in\\ places\\ where\\ the\\ first\\ violins\\ are\\ playing\\ against\\ a\\ harmony\\ of\\ other\\ violins\\.\\ \\;\\ Oboes\\ also\\ double\\ the\\ first\\ and\\ second\\ violins\\ during\\ counterpoint\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\ wrote\\ the\\ score\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ altered\\.\\ \\ \\;Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ his\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;symphony\\ if\\ someone\\ were\\ to\\ alter\\ parts\\ or\\ switch\\ vocal\\ parts\\ around\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Instruments\\ are\\ listed\\ on\\ the\\ left\\:\\ wood\\ winds\\,\\ brass\\,\\ and\\ strings\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ vocals\\ are\\ included\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ tradition\\ of\\ having\\ the\\ basso\\ continuo\\ under\\ the\\ vocals\\ in\\ the\\ score\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ clear\\ indications\\ of\\ tempo\\ \\(\\"\\;moderato\\"\\;\\)\\ and\\ time\\ signature\\ \\(meter\\)\\ \\;is\\ given\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ metronome\\ marks\\ and\\ action\\ direction\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;talk\\ fast\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ stylistic\\ directions\\ such\\ as\\ \\"\\;fermata\\"\\;\\ and\\ \\"\\;ritardando\\"\\;\\ and\\ dynamics\\ are\\ represented\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ is\\ a\\ tension\\ between\\ Major\\ and\\ Minor\\ keys\\ in\\ the\\ score\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ the\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ tell\\ us\\ is\\ how\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ instrumentalists\\ simply\\ fouled\\ up\\ playing\\ during\\ the\\ hard\\ parts\\ and\\ stopped\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ score\\ was\\ unusually\\ difficult\\ especially\\ with\\ only\\ two\\ rehearsals\\.\\ \\ \\;Also\\,\\ the\\ singers\\ already\\ sang\\ the\\ Missa\\ Solemnis\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ symphony\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ score\\ also\\ does\\ not\\ tells\\ us\\ how\\ the\\ singers\\ and\\ the\\ orchestra\\ were\\ to\\ be\\ seated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Although\\ Berlioz\\ changed\\ the\\ relation\\ of\\ the\\ program\\ \\(which\\ was\\ meant\\ to\\ explain\\ the\\ dramatic\\ elements\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;instrumental\\ drama\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ to\\ the\\ symphony\\,\\ he\\ did\\ not\\ change\\ the\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\ the\\ music\\ and\\ score\\ have\\ an\\ independent\\ existence\\.\\ \\ \\;Berlioz\\ is\\ very\\ specific\\ in\\ his\\ directions\\ in\\ the\\ score\\,\\ instructing\\ the\\ kettledrums\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ 3\\<\\/span\\>\\rd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\,\\ and\\ instructing\\ the\\ conductor\\ to\\ repeat\\ certain\\ bars\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ movement\\ several\\ times\\ because\\ they\\ are\\ particularly\\ difficult\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ score\\ also\\ mentions\\ unusual\\ instruments\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ ophicleide\\,\\ a\\ keyed\\ brass\\ instrument\\,\\ and\\ also\\ the\\ serpent\\,\\ an\\ ancient\\ bass\\ instrument\\ made\\ of\\ wood\\ with\\ a\\ snakelike\\ shape\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ timpani\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ include\\ the\\ program\\,\\ which\\ assists\\ with\\ the\\ perception\\ of\\ the\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ program\\ gives\\ background\\ information\\ as\\ to\\ what\\ the\\ recurring\\ idee\\ fixe\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ indicate\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ changed\\ several\\ times\\,\\ and\\ once\\ right\\ before\\ the\\ performance\\ because\\ of\\ controversy\\ over\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;unworthy\\ lover\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ religious\\ consolations\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;From\\ the\\ score\\,\\ we\\ can\\ get\\ a\\ feeling\\ for\\ what\\ the\\ music\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ represent\\ from\\ the\\ titles\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ parts\\ and\\ their\\ subsections\\,\\ the\\ music\\ also\\ shows\\ untraditional\\ tempos\\,\\ keys\\,\\ etc\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ describe\\ the\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ performance\\ which\\ caused\\ as\\ much\\ controversy\\ as\\ the\\ music\\ itself\\:\\ the\\ costumes\\,\\ set\\,\\ and\\ choreography\\.\\ \\ \\;Nijinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ choreography\\ brought\\ many\\ disfigured\\ dancers\\ to\\ the\\ stage\\ performing\\ unsightly\\ poses\\ and\\ motions\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Additionally\\,\\ the\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ tell\\ us\\ the\\ reaction\\ the\\ performance\\ brought\\ about\\ from\\ the\\ about\\ the\\ audience\\ during\\ this\\ performance\\,\\ who\\ were\\ loud\\ and\\ raucous\\,\\ yelling\\ at\\ and\\ hitting\\ each\\ other\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ performance\\ also\\ brought\\ about\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ written\\ commentary\\ in\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ biased\\ reviews\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ Why\\ should\\ we\\ care\\ about\\ premieres\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\ We\\ care\\ about\\ premieres\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ provide\\ us\\ with\\ an\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ historical\\ background\\ of\\ the\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ audience\\ reactions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ how\\ the\\ composer\\ originally\\ interpret\\ the\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ the\\ aims\\ of\\ the\\ composer\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ good\\ way\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ place\\ of\\ music\\ in\\ society\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ can\\ compare\\ premieres\\ with\\ current\\ interpretation\\ of\\ music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#10\\:\\ What\\ were\\ the\\ most\\ controversial\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ What\\ was\\ essentially\\ the\\ first\\ opera\\,\\ the\\ focus\\ on\\ singing\\ and\\ musical\\ accompaniment\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ acting\\,\\ was\\ surely\\ a\\ first\\ for\\ the\\ audience\\ of\\ the\\ premiere\\ performance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Other\\ than\\ that\\,\\ the\\ primary\\ controversy\\ centered\\ around\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ premiere\\ actually\\ ended\\:\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ possibilities\\:\\ Orfeo\\ either\\ renounces\\ all\\ women\\,\\ going\\ mad\\,\\ or\\ his\\ saved\\ by\\ his\\ father\\,\\ Apollo\\,\\ Sun\\ God\\,\\ who\\ assists\\ him\\ in\\ an\\ ascent\\ to\\ the\\ heaven\\ in\\ order\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ prey\\ for\\ reunion\\ with\\ Euridice\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\While\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ the\\ night\\ of\\ the\\ premiere\\ performance\\ were\\ certainly\\ used\\ to\\ religious\\ events\\,\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ they\\ had\\ experienced\\ religious\\ text\\ in\\ such\\ as\\ format\\ as\\ the\\ theater\\.\\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ it\\ was\\ further\\ shocking\\ in\\ that\\ although\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ a\\ theater\\,\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ actors\\ in\\ the\\ performance\\.\\ Though\\ on\\ the\\ whole\\,\\ as\\ put\\ by\\ Professor\\ Kelly\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\nothing\\ about\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ revolutionary\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ order\\ of\\ the\\ second\\ and\\ third\\ movements\\ is\\ switched\\:\\ Usually\\,\\ the\\ second\\ is\\ slow\\,\\ while\\ the\\ third\\,\\ a\\ minuet\\.\\ Though\\,\\ here\\,\\ the\\ Scherzo\\ appears\\ in\\ the\\ second\\,\\ the\\ slow\\ movement\\,\\ in\\ the\\ third\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ focus\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ occurs\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ with\\ the\\ chorus\\ singing\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ than\\ that\\,\\ no\\ serious\\ real\\ controversy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ printed\\ program\\ \\(published\\ before\\ the\\ performance\\ and\\ distributed\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\)\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ corresponding\\ plot\\ lines\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ a\\ relatively\\ new\\ idea\\,\\ raising\\ questions\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ dependence\\ of\\ the\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ on\\ the\\ plot\\.\\ Could\\ the\\ music\\ be\\ interpreted\\ on\\ its\\ own\\?\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Program\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\ versus\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ music\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ core\\ of\\ the\\ debate\\ centers\\ around\\ whether\\ music\\ can\\ reasonable\\ and\\ clearly\\ represent\\ physical\\ objects\\,\\ actions\\,\\ sensations\\,\\ and\\ emotions\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ influential\\ and\\ opinionated\\ critic\\ Francois\\-Joseph\\ F\\é\\;tis\\ strongly\\ criticized\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ intentions\\ before\\ the\\ concert\\,\\ particularly\\ with\\ reference\\ to\\ pictoral\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;After\\ this\\ criticism\\ appeared\\ in\\ the\\ papers\\ Berlioz\\ rushed\\ to\\ print\\ another\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ program\\ which\\ included\\ a\\ long\\ footnote\\ responding\\ to\\ that\\ criticism\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\/\\ \\&ldquo\\;Some\\ people\\ argue\\ that\\ this\\ helps\\ the\\ audience\\ to\\ identify\\ with\\ the\\ composer\\ and\\ to\\ enjoy\\ the\\ music\\ with\\ more\\ clarity\\,\\ while\\ others\\ disagree\\ and\\ think\\ that\\ the\\ music\\ should\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ stand\\ alone\\.\\ However\\,\\ since\\ Berlioz\\ changed\\ the\\ wording\\ in\\ the\\ program\\ without\\ changing\\ the\\ musical\\ aspects\\,\\ this\\ shows\\ us\\ that\\ the\\ music\\ has\\ an\\ independent\\ existence\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Additionally\\,\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ orchestra\\ as\\ an\\ instrument\\ in\\ itself\\ is\\ noteworthy\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Perhaps\\ the\\ most\\ controversial\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ pieces\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ subject\\ to\\ severe\\ criticisms\\ regarding\\ the\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ dancing\\ to\\ the\\ dissonance\\ in\\ sound\\,\\ largely\\ consistent\\ in\\ music\\ of\\ a\\ polytonal\\ quality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ dancing\\:\\ toes\\ pointed\\ in\\,\\ knees\\ together\\,\\ straight\\ legged\\,\\ repetitive\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Expectations\\ for\\ pleasantries\\ of\\ the\\ springtime\\ were\\ met\\ with\\ chaotic\\,\\ ugly\\,\\ abrasion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Many\\ who\\ were\\ in\\ attendance\\ at\\ the\\ premiere\\ were\\ prepared\\ for\\ and\\ expecting\\ excitement\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ scandal\\.\\ \\ \\;Even\\ Diaghilev\\ expected\\ trouble\\,\\ asking\\ the\\ dancers\\ to\\ persevere\\ to\\ the\\ end\\,\\ regardless\\ of\\ what\\ happened\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ as\\ expected\\,\\ halfway\\ through\\ the\\ prelude\\ the\\ noise\\ began\\,\\ not\\ only\\ from\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ opposition\\,\\ but\\ also\\ from\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ supporters\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ uproar\\ continued\\ while\\ Nijinsky\\ shouted\\ cues\\ to\\ the\\ dancers\\ through\\ the\\ deafening\\ noise\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ uproar\\ was\\ reported\\ to\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;degenerated\\ into\\ a\\ free\\-for\\-all\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ between\\ scenes\\ the\\ house\\ lights\\ were\\ turned\\ on\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ police\\ could\\ arrest\\ or\\ eject\\ troublemakers\\.\\ \\ \\;And\\ indeed\\,\\ at\\ the\\ close\\ of\\ the\\ premier\\ applause\\ \\(as\\ well\\ as\\ shouting\\)\\ did\\ break\\ out\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#11\\:\\ How\\ are\\ instruments\\ used\\ to\\ create\\ expressive\\ effects\\ in\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ basso\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;continuo\\ that\\ carries\\ throughout\\ the\\ recitatives\\ lends\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ to\\ the\\ music\\ that\\ is\\ most\\ consistently\\ successful\\ at\\ conveying\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ plot\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ chorus\\ further\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ mood\\,\\ singing\\ in\\ homophony\\ during\\ announcements\\ of\\ events\\ of\\ serious\\ nature\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ delivery\\ of\\ the\\ news\\ of\\ Euridice\\&rsquo\\;s\\ death\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;Ahi\\ caso\\ acerbo\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ specifically\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ specific\\ use\\ of\\ particular\\ instruments\\ to\\ convey\\ different\\ moods\\.\\ Often\\ times\\,\\ the\\ instruments\\ set\\ the\\ mood\\ before\\ the\\ singer\\ even\\ opens\\ his\\ mouth\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Fanfare\\ of\\ trumpets\\ at\\ opening\\ of\\ piece\\ to\\ signify\\ arrival\\ of\\ Duke\\ of\\ Mantua\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Strings\\ bring\\ to\\ mind\\ scenes\\ outside\\ of\\ the\\ netherworld\\,\\ pastoral\\,\\ romantic\\,\\ and\\ generally\\ pleasant\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trombones\\ convey\\ the\\ somber\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ the\\ underworld\\,\\ sad\\ and\\ foreboding\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ upbeat\\ strings\\ play\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;Lasciate\\ i\\ monti\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Minimum\\ presence\\ of\\ sound\\ after\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Euridice\\ to\\ underscore\\ depression\\ of\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lament\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Messiah\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\is\\ rich\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;word\\ painting\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ technique\\ whereby\\ the\\ composer\\ depicts\\ certain\\ ideas\\ musically\\,\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;crooked\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;straight\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;exalted\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ allow\\ the\\ audience\\ to\\ fully\\ appreciate\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ use\\ of\\ ritornellos\\ at\\ the\\ openings\\ and\\ closings\\ of\\ many\\ sections\\ adds\\ to\\ the\\ expression\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ as\\ well\\,\\ bringing\\ to\\ mind\\ the\\ mood\\ particular\\ pieces\\ by\\ allowing\\ the\\ audience\\ to\\ recall\\ where\\ it\\ first\\ appeared\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Granting\\ the\\ soloists\\ the\\ freedom\\ to\\ elaborate\\ and\\ ornament\\ certain\\ words\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;cadenzas\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ also\\ provides\\ the\\ opportunity\\ for\\ emphasize\\ where\\ appropriate\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ specific\\ example\\ within\\ the\\ text\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ Part\\ II\\,\\ beginning\\ in\\ minor\\ in\\ a\\ slow\\ tempo\\,\\ rich\\ in\\ dotted\\ rhythms\\,\\ highlighting\\ the\\ somber\\,\\ desperate\\ mood\\ of\\ the\\ corresponding\\ plot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;Lastly\\,\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ chorus\\ allows\\ Monteverdi\\ to\\ further\\ expound\\ on\\ the\\ emotion\\ conveyed\\ in\\ the\\ preceding\\ aria\\,\\ heightening\\ the\\ drama\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notwithstanding\\ the\\ absence\\ of\\ any\\ obvious\\ story\\-line\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ progression\\ that\\ carries\\ through\\ the\\ movements\\.\\ The\\ piece\\ begins\\ with\\ soft\\,\\ nebulous\\ sounds\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ tiny\\ particles\\,\\ perhaps\\ slowly\\ aggregating\\ into\\ something\\ larger\\.\\ Later\\,\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\,\\ the\\ intensity\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\ builds\\,\\ highlighted\\ by\\ the\\ storm\\-like\\ sounds\\ of\\ the\\ winds\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\For\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Beethoven\\ has\\ people\\ actually\\ singing\\,\\ conveying\\ the\\ universal\\,\\ human\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ bass\\ line\\ seems\\ to\\ invoke\\ themes\\ from\\ past\\ movements\\,\\ only\\ to\\ subsequently\\ reject\\ them\\ and\\ choose\\ one\\ of\\ low\\ strings\\,\\ the\\ theme\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ it\\ comes\\ to\\ instrumental\\ effects\\,\\ Berlioz\\ can\\ be\\ considered\\ a\\ pioneer\\,\\ experimenting\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ new\\ techniques\\ and\\ sounds\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ the\\ piece\\ is\\ a\\ love\\ story\\ gone\\ awry\\,\\ each\\ musical\\ segment\\ expressly\\ conveys\\ the\\ corresponding\\ sentiment\\,\\ written\\ for\\ the\\ audience\\ in\\ an\\ accompanying\\ program\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Specific\\ examples\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Third\\ movement\\:\\ Bassoons\\ represent\\ the\\ calling\\ to\\ the\\ lover\\ from\\ shepherds\\,\\ who\\ are\\ eventually\\ answered\\ by\\ the\\ timpani\\,\\ which\\ represent\\ thunder\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ Movement\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ high\\ register\\ oboe\\,\\ strings\\ strike\\ down\\ with\\ the\\ back\\ of\\ their\\ bows\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ eerie\\ effect\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ creepiness\\ of\\ the\\ witches\\&rsquo\\;\\ sabbath\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Last\\ movement\\:\\ organ\\ sounds\\ to\\ create\\ ecclesiastical\\ effect\\,\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ church\\ bells\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ typical\\ church\\ instrument\\.\\ Berlioz\\ also\\ chooses\\ to\\ use\\ a\\ serpent\\,\\ normally\\ used\\ in\\ church\\ ceremonies\\,\\ to\\ further\\ convey\\ the\\ spooky\\ air\\ of\\ the\\ Dias\\ Irae\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ entire\\ orchestra\\ plays\\ a\\ harsh\\ note\\,\\ conveying\\ the\\ drop\\ of\\ the\\ guillotine\\,\\ cutting\\ off\\ his\\ head\\,\\ which\\ rolls\\ away\\,\\ as\\ signified\\ by\\ the\\ drum\\ roll\\ that\\ follows\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\The\\ piece\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ bassoon\\ in\\ the\\ upper\\ register\\,\\ accompanied\\ by\\ a\\ host\\ of\\ other\\ seemingly\\ random\\ instruments\\,\\ creating\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ total\\ chaos\\ and\\ disharmony\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sounds\\ are\\ generally\\ loud\\ and\\ aggressive\\,\\ conveying\\ the\\ primitiveness\\ of\\ the\\ savages\\ depicted\\ on\\ stage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Example\\:\\ The\\ loud\\,\\ repetitive\\ drumming\\,\\ sharp\\ strings\\,\\ and\\ blaring\\ trumpets\\ convey\\ both\\ the\\ savagery\\ and\\ urgency\\ of\\ the\\ ritual\\,\\ as\\ the\\ victim\\ is\\ chosen\\ and\\ forced\\ to\\ dance\\ herself\\ to\\ dance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\12\\.\\ DISCUSS\\ THE\\ PLACE\\ OF\\ MUSIC\\ AND\\ CONCERTS\\ IN\\ OUR\\ SOCIETY\\ AND\\ IN\\ THOSE\\ OF\\ ONE\\ OR\\ MORE\\ OF\\ THE\\ PIECES\\ WE\\ HAVE\\ STUDIED\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\17th\\-Century\\ Mantua\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Anyone\\ well\\ educated\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ ducal\\ court\\ was\\ a\\ musician\\ of\\ some\\ sort\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Most\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\ of\\ \\"\\;L\\&\\#39\\;Orfeo\\"\\;\\ had\\ some\\ musical\\ ability\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ was\\ a\\ need\\ for\\ professional\\ musicians\\ for\\ receptions\\,\\ feasts\\,\\ entertainments\\,\\ and\\ \\;concerts\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ court\\ was\\ known\\ for\\ its\\ virtuoso\\ singers\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Music\\ like\\ \\"\\;L\\&\\#39\\;Orfeo\\"\\;\\ was\\ written\\ for\\ a\\ particular\\ audience\\:\\ well\\-educated\\ people\\ \\(the\\ \\;Accademia\\)\\ and\\,\\ at\\ least\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\,\\ for\\ men\\.\\ \\;\\ Not\\ everyone\\ had\\ the\\ access\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ today\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(There\\ are\\ no\\ intellectual\\ restrictions\\ on\\ who\\ can\\ go\\ to\\ a\\ concert\\.\\)\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\18th\\-Century\\ Dublin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ city\\ was\\ rich\\ in\\ theater\\,\\ opera\\,\\ and\\ music\\,\\ much\\ of\\ which\\ was\\ imported\\ from\\ England\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ musical\\ life\\ of\\ Dublin\\ was\\ promoted\\ by\\ charitable\\ institutions\\;\\ music\\ and\\ \\;\\ benevolence\\ were\\ symbiotically\\ entwined\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ universal\\ case\\ today\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-\\"\\;Messiah\\"\\;\\ was\\ to\\ serve\\ a\\ charitable\\ purpose\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ people\\ who\\ saw\\ \\"\\;Messiah\\"\\;\\ were\\ Protestant\\ upper\\-class\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ were\\ accustomed\\ to\\ oratorios\\ and\\ were\\ expected\\ to\\ be\\ entertained\\,\\ and\\ felt\\ free\\ to\\ \\"\\;boo\\"\\;\\ if\\ they\\ did\\ not\\ like\\ something\\ \\(There\\ was\\,\\ in\\ essence\\,\\ a\\ more\\ relaxed\\ attitude\\ towards\\ music\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Today\\,\\ when\\ going\\ to\\ a\\ concert\\,\\ people\\ don\\&\\#39\\;t\\ usually\\ \\"\\;boo\\.\\"\\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19th\\-Century\\ Vienna\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Musicians\\ in\\ Vienna\\ did\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ now\\:\\ perform\\,\\ teach\\,\\ compose\\.\\ \\;\\ Today\\,\\ however\\,\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ there\\ are\\ universities\\ and\\ music\\ faculties\\;\\ back\\ then\\,\\ there\\ weren\\&\\#39\\;t\\.\\ \\;\\ Employment\\ as\\ a\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ musician\\ was\\ difficult\\ to\\ get\\.\\ \\;\\ Not\\ as\\ much\\ state\\ support\\ as\\ in\\ 17th\\-century\\ Mantua\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Aristocratic\\ families\\ retained\\ musicians\\;\\ a\\ few\\ had\\ whole\\ orchestras\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Theater\\ and\\ opera\\ severed\\ many\\ purposes\\ in\\ Viennese\\ life\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ theater\\ was\\ the\\ public\\ meeting\\ place\\,\\ a\\ place\\ for\\ businees\\,\\ for\\ fashion\\,\\ for\\ conversation\\,\\ and\\ sometimes\\ for\\ listening\\ to\\ music\\ or\\ the\\ spoken\\ word\\.\\ \\;\\ Theaters\\ were\\ rented\\ for\\ musical\\ purposes\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ although\\ people\\ do\\ dress\\ up\\ to\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ theater\\,\\ only\\ at\\ very\\ special\\ concerts\\ at\\ very\\ posh\\ concert\\ halls\\ do\\ people\\ become\\ a\\ fashion\\ exhibit\\ \\(It\\ is\\,\\ essentially\\,\\ less\\ \\;formal\\.\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ was\\ no\\ concert\\ hall\\ in\\ Vienna\\ in\\ 1824\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ many\\ in\\ our\\ society\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ was\\ no\\ standing\\ orchestra\\ to\\ play\\ concert\\ series\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-More\\ public\\ decorum\\-\\-applause\\ was\\ limited\\,\\ and\\ audiences\\ were\\ forbidden\\ to\\ request\\ encores\\ \\(unlike\\ in\\ Dublin\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ were\\ theaters\\ owned\\ and\\ operated\\ by\\ the\\ government\\,\\ which\\ were\\ in\\ principle\\ the\\ private\\ theaters\\ of\\ the\\ emperor\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Karntnertor\\ Theater\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ these\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ were\\ concert\\ organizations\\ \\(Gesellschaft\\ der\\ Musickfreunde\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ real\\ spice\\ of\\ Viennese\\ musical\\ life\\ was\\ the\\ variety\\ of\\ single\\-event\\ commerical\\ conerts\\,\\ which\\ benefited\\ charities\\,\\ individual\\ musicians\\ who\\ acted\\ as\\ impresarios\\ \\(Academien\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Novelty\\,\\ variety\\,\\ virtuosity\\,\\ exoticism\\ all\\ attracted\\ Viennese\\ audiences\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\19th\\-Century\\ Paris\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Musical\\ world\\ was\\ highly\\ active\\.\\ \\;\\ At\\ the\\ top\\ was\\ the\\ Royal\\ Academy\\ of\\ Music\\:\\ the\\ Opera\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Music\\ was\\ heard\\ in\\ many\\ boulevard\\ theaters\\.\\ \\;\\ There\\ were\\ comedies\\ and\\ burlesques\\ performed\\ there\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-There\\ were\\ several\\ Parisian\\ orchestras\\,\\ thanks\\ to\\ the\\ Conservatoire\\.\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Musical\\ entertainment\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ much\\ more\\ accessible\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ public\\ now\\;\\ it\\ wasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ just\\ for\\ the\\ elite\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20th\\-Century\\ Paris\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Musical\\ institutions\\ from\\ Berlioz\\&\\#39\\;s\\ day\\ were\\ now\\ well\\ entrenched\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ Opera\\ continued\\ its\\ grand\\ tradition\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ Conservatory\\ orchestra\\ was\\ still\\ presenting\\ an\\ important\\ season\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ concert\\ life\\ that\\ it\\ had\\ been\\ in\\ Berlioz\\&\\#39\\;s\\ time\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-The\\ Folies\\ Bergere\\ and\\ the\\ Moulin\\ Rouge\\ were\\ the\\ leading\\ music\\ halls\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\-Music\\ is\\ a\\ big\\ source\\ of\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\;\\ People\\ are\\ touring\\,\\ and\\ different\\ kinds\\ of\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ music\\ are\\ being\\ made\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ music\\ in\\ our\\ society\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ DISCUSS\\ REPETITION\\,\\ VARIATION\\,\\ AND\\ CONTRASTS\\ AS\\ ELEMENTS\\ OF\\ LARGER\\ MUSICAL\\ FORM\\ IN\\ THE\\ PIECES\\ WE\\ HAVE\\ STUDIED\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\&\\#39\\;ORFEO\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-The\\ opening\\ ritornello\\ recurrs\\ throughout\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ serving\\ to\\ unify\\ themes\\.\\\\ \\;\\-The\\ scoring\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ moments\\ in\\ Acts\\ II\\ and\\ IV\\ is\\ similar\\,\\ as\\ are\\ the\\ thematic\\ content\\ \\(the\\ presence\\ and\\ loss\\ of\\ Euridice\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\-Contrast\\ between\\ the\\ recitative\\ and\\ aria\\ forms\\;\\ one\\ is\\ for\\ speaking\\,\\ one\\ is\\ for\\ singing\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MESSIAH\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-Again\\,\\ mention\\ the\\ contrast\\ between\\ recitative\\ and\\ aria\\;\\ also\\,\\ the\\ contrasts\\ between\\ anthem\\ choruses\\,\\ duet\\ choruses\\,\\ etc\\:\\ their\\ functions\\ and\\ purposes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\TH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;SYMPHONY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\-Beethoven\\ certainly\\ does\\ unify\\ his\\ piece\\;\\ particularly\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ when\\ the\\ four\\ principle\\ themes\\ are\\ each\\ re\\-presented\\ and\\ rejected\\ before\\ the\\ Ode\\ is\\ accepted\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\-The\\ disconcerting\\ B\\-flat\\ that\\ we\\ hear\\ throughout\\ the\\ piece\\ is\\ finally\\ let\\ go\\ at\\ the\\ end\\,\\ when\\ the\\ piece\\ moves\\ from\\ a\\ B\\ to\\ an\\ A\\,\\ bypassing\\ the\\ B\\-flat\\.\\\\ \\;\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ theme\\ and\\ variation\\ movement\\ \\(3rd\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\ \\;\\-The\\ ODE\\ theme\\ is\\ varied\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\,\\ coming\\ to\\ us\\ with\\ different\\ vocal\\ accompaniments\\ and\\ in\\ different\\ forms\\:\\ low\\ strings\\,\\ Turkish\\ march\\.\\\\ \\;\\-There\\ is\\ a\\ theme\\ and\\ its\\ variations\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ movement\\ \\(standard\\ Sonata\\ form\\)\\.\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SYMPHONIE\\ FANTASTIQUE\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-Again\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ theme\\ and\\ variation\\ movement\\ \\(3rd\\)\\:\\ Scene\\ aux\\ Champs\\.\\ \\;\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\RITE\\ OF\\ SPRING\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-Themes\\ recurr\\ throughout\\:\\ example\\,\\ one\\ theme\\ from\\ the\\ Ritual\\ of\\ Abductoins\\ recurs\\ in\\ the\\ Games\\ of\\ the\\ Rival\\ Tribes\\,\\ one\\ theme\\ from\\ the\\ Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\ recurs\\ in\\ the\\ \\Round\\ Dances\\ of\\ Spring\\,\\ although\\ the\\ themes\\ are\\ varied\\.\\\\ \\;\\-Contrast\\ between\\ man\\ and\\ woman\\,\\ night\\ and\\ day\\,\\ in\\ each\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\)\\ Describe\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ orchestra\\ from\\ Monteverdi\\ to\\ Stravinsky\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ orchestra\\ in\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ day\\ was\\ small\\ and\\ usually\\ had\\ instrumentation\\ arranged\\ in\\ choirs\\ of\\ similar\\ sounds\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ a\\ traditional\\ style\\ of\\ the\\ sixteenth\\ century\\ music\\ and\\ allowed\\ Monterverdi\\ to\\ use\\ characteristic\\ instrumental\\ sound\\ for\\ places\\ and\\ persons\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orchestra\\,\\ one\\ player\\ may\\ have\\ played\\ three\\ instruments\\.\\ \\ \\;Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orchestra\\ consisted\\ of\\ 20\\ instrumental\\ players\\ and\\ only\\ 9\\ performers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ hall\\ was\\ small\\ \\(chamber\\ opera\\)\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ for\\ a\\ pastoral\\ drama\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ showings\\ were\\ private\\ and\\ for\\ the\\ elite\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;orchestra\\ played\\ many\\ ritornellos\\ like\\ its\\ predecessor\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ was\\ played\\ in\\ a\\ larger\\ room\\,\\ with\\ a\\ larger\\ volunteer\\ orchestra\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ there\\ were\\ no\\ oboes\\,\\ bassoons\\,\\ or\\ horns\\ used\\ in\\ his\\ score\\ \\(but\\ in\\ fact\\ it\\ is\\ thought\\ that\\ an\\ oboe\\ played\\ and\\ possibly\\ a\\ bassoon\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Handel\\ was\\ given\\ credit\\ for\\ using\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ strings\\ and\\ having\\ a\\ remarkable\\ inventiveness\\ in\\ his\\ instrumental\\ writings\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ Chorus\\ much\\ larger\\ then\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ used\\ \\(25\\ men\\ and\\ 16\\ boys\\)\\ and\\ Handel\\ wrote\\ orchestral\\ music\\ that\\ followed\\ the\\ oratories\\ and\\ gave\\ them\\ emphasis\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ appear\\ to\\ be\\ 30\\ instrumentalists\\ who\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ in\\ Dublin\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;presented\\ a\\ new\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ used\\ sonata\\ form\\ in\\ his\\ musical\\ creation\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ would\\ build\\ the\\ piece\\ and\\ experiment\\ and\\ then\\ boom\\,\\ all\\ the\\ instruments\\ would\\ come\\ out\\ and\\ play\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ very\\ loud\\ and\\ overwhelming\\ but\\ in\\ the\\ large\\ hall\\ he\\ used\\ for\\ his\\ performance\\,\\ it\\ was\\ hard\\ to\\ even\\ hear\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ Orchestra\\ was\\ the\\ largest\\ so\\ far\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ playing\\ for\\ a\\ large\\ crowd\\ and\\ had\\ 82\\ orchestral\\ players\\ of\\ which\\ 26\\ were\\ strings\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ players\\ had\\ not\\ practiced\\ enough\\ and\\ the\\ performance\\ was\\ seen\\ a\\ rough\\ sketch\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ that\\ Beethoven\\ had\\ created\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ multiple\\ conductors\\ for\\ this\\ gargantuan\\ orchestra\\ in\\ Karntnertor\\ Theater\\.\\ \\ \\;Basically\\,\\ the\\ orchestra\\ had\\ gone\\ from\\ very\\ small\\ and\\ well\\ trained\\ in\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ day\\ to\\ large\\,\\ loud\\,\\ more\\ instruments\\ and\\ multiples\\ of\\ them\\,\\ and\\ not\\ well\\ practiced\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ less\\ of\\ an\\ emphasis\\ here\\ on\\ the\\ performance\\ and\\ more\\ on\\ the\\ creation\\ by\\ Beethoven\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berlioz\\ used\\ mostly\\ musicians\\ from\\ opera\\ and\\ conservatory\\ orchestras\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ much\\ better\\ practiced\\ and\\ trained\\ then\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ orchestra\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ were\\ also\\ aiming\\ at\\ for\\ a\\ lighter\\ sound\\ and\\ not\\ a\\ huge\\ uproar\\ of\\ instruments\\.\\ \\ \\;Program\\ music\\ was\\ used\\ but\\ had\\ previously\\ been\\ used\\ by\\ Beethoven\\ in\\ his\\ sixth\\ symphony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ score\\ called\\ for\\ a\\ minimum\\ of\\ 30\\ violins\\,\\ 12\\ violas\\,\\ 7\\ cellos\\,\\ and\\ 6\\ double\\ basses\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ were\\ only\\ 17\\ rehearsals\\.\\ \\ \\;Stravinsky\\ wrote\\ very\\ complicated\\ and\\ hard\\ instrumental\\ music\\ to\\ perform\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ very\\ awkward\\ and\\ required\\ the\\ orchestra\\ to\\ work\\ for\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ believe\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ orchestra\\ could\\ not\\ play\\ the\\ high\\ notes\\ so\\ they\\ just\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ play\\ anything\\ at\\ times\\.\\ But\\,\\ the\\ music\\ had\\ transformed\\ over\\ time\\ from\\ a\\ small\\ perfect\\ musical\\ groups\\ to\\ a\\ much\\ larger\\ musical\\ group\\ that\\ had\\ to\\ play\\ complicated\\ and\\ specialized\\ music\\ in\\ much\\ larger\\ halls\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\#15\\:\\ Discuss\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ the\\ religious\\ and\\ the\\ spiritual\\ in\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Mythical\\ gods\\ of\\ Ancient\\ Greece\\(Apollo\\,\\ Caronte\\,\\ River\\ Styx\\)\\,\\ passionate\\ love\\ story\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Libretto\\ written\\ by\\ theologian\\,\\ reverend\\ Charles\\ Jennings\\,\\ based\\ on\\ Old\\ Testament\\ of\\ Church\\ of\\ England\\ \\-\\-\\-\\ it\\ was\\ precisely\\ because\\ of\\ its\\ religious\\ nature\\ that\\ is\\ was\\ permitted\\ to\\ be\\ performed\\ during\\ the\\ Lent\\ season\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ ethereal\\ and\\ cosmic\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ opening\\ movement\\ comes\\ to\\ mind\\ Creation\\,\\ reminiscent\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Testament\\.\\ The\\ genreall\\ theme\\ of\\ brotherhood\\,\\ epitomized\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ calls\\ to\\ mind\\ Judeo\\-Christian\\ values\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ witches\\ Sabbath\\,\\ Dies\\ Irae\\ that\\ appears\\ here\\ is\\ a\\ modified\\ version\\ of\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ sung\\ during\\ actual\\ Catholic\\ funeral\\ masses\\.\\ Also\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ essentially\\ a\\ love\\ story\\,\\ a\\ tale\\ of\\ passion\\ and\\ human\\ emotion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Entirely\\ based\\ on\\ conception\\ of\\ primitive\\ religious\\ rituals\\ of\\ ancient\\ Russia\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ worship\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\ and\\ sacrifices\\ to\\ her\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\16\\.\\ To\\ what\\ extent\\ is\\ music\\ universal\\,\\ and\\ to\\ what\\ extent\\ is\\ it\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ its\\ time\\ and\\ place\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\A\\ performance\\ of\\ music\\ is\\ played\\ for\\ the\\ audience\\ then\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ be\\ performed\\ at\\ a\\ certain\\ time\\ with\\ a\\ certain\\ audience\\ in\\ mind\\ and\\ thus\\,\\ it\\ has\\ a\\ specialized\\ time\\ and\\ place\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Music\\ can\\ be\\ appreciated\\ by\\ anyone\\ at\\ any\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Today\\,\\ we\\ have\\ admirers\\ of\\ all\\ sorts\\ of\\ different\\ music\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ considered\\ timeless\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ musical\\ pieces\\ date\\ back\\ hundreds\\ of\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ popular\\ music\\ of\\ today\\ is\\ radio\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ music\\ caters\\ to\\ societies\\ desires\\ and\\ it\\ changes\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;80s\\ music\\ is\\ not\\ as\\ prevalent\\ as\\ 90s\\ music\\ and\\ today\\&rsquo\\;s\\ music\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ prevalent\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ could\\ suggest\\ either\\ that\\ radio\\ only\\ exposes\\ us\\ to\\ certain\\ things\\ and\\ thus\\ we\\ pick\\ and\\ choose\\ from\\ them\\ or\\ a\\ more\\ rational\\ answer\\,\\ music\\ fits\\ a\\ general\\ population\\ better\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ made\\ with\\ their\\ issues\\,\\ aspiration\\,\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ instrumentation\\ in\\ mind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\,\\ there\\ will\\ always\\ be\\ fans\\ of\\ music\\ of\\ all\\ types\\ and\\ so\\,\\ music\\ is\\ not\\ universal\\ so\\ much\\,\\ but\\ caters\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ background\\ or\\ desire\\ or\\ \\(social\\)\\ identity\\ and\\ so\\ on\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\To\\ what\\ extent\\ is\\ music\\ universal\\,\\ and\\ to\\ what\\ extent\\ is\\ it\\ an\\ expression\\ of\\ its\\ time\\ and\\ place\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\ is\\ always\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ time\\ and\\ place\\,\\ given\\ that\\ musicians\\,\\ performance\\ are\\ inseparable\\ from\\ encompassing\\,\\ specific\\ cultural\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;Music\\ is\\ generally\\ considered\\ cultural\\ as\\ product\\ of\\ language\\,\\ custom\\,\\ nationality\\,\\ geography\\,\\ time\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;As\\ to\\ how\\ much\\ time\\ and\\ place\\ actually\\ inform\\ the\\ work\\ will\\ vary\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Knowledge\\ of\\ these\\ aspects\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ deepens\\ understanding\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(This\\ is\\ why\\ Prof\\.\\ Kelly\\ lectures\\ and\\ writes\\ extensively\\ about\\ the\\ musicians\\,\\ composers\\,\\ critics\\,\\ theatre\\,\\ instruments\\,\\ timeline\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\But\\ various\\ forms\\ of\\ music\\ require\\ different\\ information\\ to\\ render\\ the\\ work\\ sufficiently\\ \\&ldquo\\;accessible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Highly\\ stylized\\,\\ nuanced\\,\\ foreign\\ \\(as\\ in\\ unfamiliar\\)\\ musical\\ forms\\ have\\ less\\ appeal\\ to\\ listeners\\ unacquainted\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\requires\\ translation\\ for\\ non\\-Italian\\ speakers\\,\\ knowledge\\ of\\ myth\\ Orpheus\\ and\\ Eurydice\\,\\ ability\\ to\\ distinguish\\ recitative\\ from\\ aria\\,\\ understand\\ function\\ of\\ chorus\\ within\\ piece\\ but\\ also\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ prior\\ use\\ of\\ chorus\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ stands\\ in\\ contrast\\ to\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ inspired\\ \\(or\\ re\\-inspired\\,\\ perhaps\\)\\ the\\ ongoing\\ critics\\&rsquo\\;\\ conversation\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;absolute\\ music\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ music\\ that\\ requires\\ no\\ context\\,\\ explanation\\ beyond\\ the\\ sound\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;Universal\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\inherent\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;appeal\\ of\\ music\\;\\ music\\ that\\ breaches\\ the\\ conventions\\ of\\ cultural\\ context\\ by\\ not\\ being\\ as\\ unique\\ to\\ context\\ as\\,\\ say\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ particular\\ piece\\ \\(9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ unique\\ in\\ how\\ prolific\\ it\\ is\\,\\ as\\ well\\,\\ which\\ lends\\ additional\\ appropriateness\\ to\\ the\\ term\\ \\&lsquo\\;universal\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ that\\ it\\ has\\ actually\\ spread\\ through\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ only\\ the\\ accessibility\\ makes\\ the\\ piece\\ \\&lsquo\\;universal\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ but\\ by\\ its\\ proliferation\\,\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;has\\ become\\ so\\ widely\\ listened\\ to\\ as\\ to\\ be\\ considered\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ listened\\ to\\ pieces\\ around\\ the\\ globe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Yet\\ even\\ this\\ superlative\\ is\\ shortsighted\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\ widely\\ acclaimed\\ at\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ his\\ popularity\\,\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fame\\ even\\ now\\ is\\ largely\\ confined\\ to\\ the\\ developed\\ world\\ and\\ will\\ ultimately\\ be\\ transient\\.\\ \\ \\;Point\\ by\\ historic\\ reference\\:\\ music\\ has\\ been\\ integral\\ to\\ people\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ millennia\\,\\ but\\ the\\ scope\\ of\\ our\\ current\\ reference\\ frame\\ extends\\ back\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ centuries\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ First\\ Nights\\ course\\ begins\\ in\\ 1607\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ narrows\\ music\\ to\\ classic\\,\\ Western\\ pieces\\,\\ not\\ necessarily\\ inappropriately\\ \\(given\\ our\\ place\\ in\\ Western\\ Hemisphere\\)\\,\\ but\\ notably\\,\\ nevertheless\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ recognize\\ Gregorian\\ chant\\ or\\ African\\ tribal\\ music\\ as\\ readily\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ our\\ cultural\\ context\\ that\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ case\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ these\\ are\\ beyond\\ our\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\ability\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ delve\\ into\\,\\ but\\ even\\ the\\ most\\ ambitious\\ music\\ connoisseurs\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ imagine\\ of\\ discovering\\ all\\ works\\ of\\ all\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ lean\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ most\\ relevant\\.\\ \\ \\;Given\\ our\\ diversity\\ and\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ music\\ even\\ now\\,\\ that\\ means\\ that\\ no\\ one\\ piece\\ of\\ music\\ will\\ be\\ \\&ldquo\\;universal\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ any\\ complete\\ sense\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\How\\ expectation\\ informs\\ receptivity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\How\\ does\\ your\\ knowledge\\ of\\ musical\\ construction\\ affect\\ your\\ appreciation\\?\\ \\(Does\\ analysis\\ destroy\\ beauty\\?\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Foremost\\,\\ any\\ critic\\ must\\ be\\ schooled\\ in\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ music\\ to\\ fully\\ explore\\ the\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Knowledge\\ deepens\\ understanding\\,\\ closer\\ to\\ full\\ comprehension\\ of\\ work\\.\\ \\ \\;Music\\ is\\ sound\\ intended\\ to\\ communicate\\;\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ priori\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;meaningful\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Analogous\\ to\\ literary\\ understanding\\:\\ knowledge\\ of\\ language\\,\\ construction\\,\\ and\\ form\\ requisite\\ for\\ appreciation\\.\\ \\ \\;Experience\\ informs\\ how\\ piece\\ fits\\ into\\ historical\\ context\\,\\ compares\\ to\\ \\(is\\ better\\ than\\ or\\ outdone\\ by\\)\\ other\\ written\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\And\\ perhaps\\ more\\ analogous\\ to\\ photography\\:\\ specific\\ framing\\ techniques\\,\\ quality\\ subtleties\\,\\ color\\/shadow\\,\\ practice\\ of\\ analysis\\:\\ depth\\ beyond\\ immediate\\ aesthetic\\ value\\,\\ and\\ how\\ to\\ decipher\\ where\\ and\\ what\\ the\\ meaning\\ is\\ without\\ explicit\\ text\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Music\\ has\\ inherent\\ aesthetic\\ value\\,\\ but\\ as\\ an\\ art\\ form\\,\\ follows\\ and\\ sometimes\\ rebels\\ against\\ specific\\ guidelines\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ order\\ to\\ fully\\ understand\\ how\\ well\\ the\\ piece\\ achieves\\ this\\ artistic\\ worth\\,\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ considered\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ its\\ genre\\.\\ \\ \\;Knowledge\\ of\\ a\\ given\\ genre\\ \\(and\\ construction\\ of\\ that\\ genre\\)\\ grants\\ listener\\ \\(reader\\,\\ viewer\\)\\ the\\ appropriate\\,\\ important\\ insight\\.\\ Lack\\ of\\ such\\ knowledge\\ severely\\ limits\\ insight\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ the\\ appreciation\\ of\\ given\\ genre\\ remains\\ bland\\ and\\ feint\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\20\\.\\ Discuss\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ elements\\ in\\ each\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ musical\\ premieres\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\all\\ composers\\,\\ organizers\\,\\ chorus\\ leaders\\,\\ etc\\ \\=\\ male\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\:\\ overwhelmingly\\ male\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Possibly\\ no\\ male\\ performers\\ at\\ all\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Euridice\\ played\\ by\\ priest\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\soprano\\ castrato\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Girolamo\\ Bacchini\\,\\ so\\ singers\\ probably\\ all\\ male\\,\\ double\\-harp\\ player\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ female\\ Lucrezia\\ Urbana\\ \\(on\\ Duke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ payroll\\)\\ or\\ male\\ Horatio\\ Mihi\\,\\ said\\ by\\ quoted\\ source\\ Vincenzo\\ Giustiniani\\ to\\ excel\\ at\\ the\\ trill\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Female\\ roles\\ \\=\\ messenger\\ \\(very\\ important\\ role\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ long\\ recitative\\ changes\\ plot\\,\\ tone\\ of\\ opera\\)\\,\\ Euridice\\ \\(surprisingly\\ small\\ role\\,\\ considering\\ it\\ is\\ titled\\ after\\ her\\)\\,\\ Speranza\\ \\(sung\\ by\\ same\\ singer\\ as\\ the\\ Messenger\\)\\,\\ Musica\\ \\(same\\ singer\\ again\\)\\,\\ Proserpina\\ \\(uses\\ her\\ feminine\\ whiles\\ to\\ wheedle\\ Pluto\\ into\\ letting\\ Euridice\\ go\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\:\\ perfomers\\ seem\\ very\\ balanced\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ solo\\ recitatives\\ and\\ arias\\,\\ balanced\\ use\\ of\\ all\\ four\\ parts\\ in\\ the\\ choruses\\,\\ no\\ actual\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ male\\ voice\\ is\\ the\\ first\\ we\\ hear\\,\\ the\\ important\\ breakthrough\\ from\\ instruments\\ to\\ voice\\;\\ after\\ that\\ a\\ more\\ balanced\\ use\\ of\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ voice\\ in\\ solo\\ and\\ chorus\\ \\(men\\ sang\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ alto\\ solos\\)\\;\\ female\\ singers\\ Henriette\\ Sontag\\ \\(especially\\)\\ and\\ Caroline\\ Unger\\ were\\ famous\\ and\\ had\\ important\\ careers\\ later\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fantastic\\ Symphony\\:\\ female\\ figure\\ is\\ a\\ seemingly\\ innocent\\ temptress\\ who\\ is\\ revealed\\,\\ in\\ the\\ end\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ witch\\,\\ male\\ figure\\ \\(\\=protagonist\\)\\&rsquo\\;s\\ weakness\\ is\\ his\\ love\\ for\\ her\\,\\ but\\ he\\ overcomes\\ it\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\:\\ sticks\\ to\\ traditional\\/primitive\\ male\\ female\\ roles\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\only\\ distinct\\ male\\ figure\\ \\=\\ chief\\,\\ bowed\\ down\\ to\\,\\ respected\\,\\ job\\ is\\ to\\ kiss\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ vs\\ only\\ distinct\\ female\\ figure\\ \\=\\ virgin\\ sacrifice\\,\\ job\\ is\\ to\\ dance\\ herself\\ to\\ death\\,\\ men\\ wear\\ bear\\ skins\\ \\(special\\ holy\\?\\ animal\\)\\,\\ fight\\ other\\ tribes\\,\\ chase\\ and\\ catch\\ the\\ women\\,\\ women\\ play\\ games\\,\\ are\\ chased\\ by\\ the\\ men\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\21\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Monteverdi\\:\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ memoirs\\ describing\\ how\\ he\\ ended\\ the\\ piece\\;\\ to\\ clarify\\ the\\ discrepancy\\ that\\ exists\\ today\\ about\\ the\\ ending\\ and\\ enable\\ us\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ clearer\\ understanding\\ of\\ the\\ work\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Handel\\:\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ memoirs\\ describing\\ rehearsals\\;\\ to\\ postulate\\ why\\ he\\ made\\ the\\ changes\\ from\\ his\\ original\\ score\\,\\ we\\ could\\ know\\ which\\ versions\\ were\\ sung\\ originally\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\:\\ Umlauf\\&rsquo\\;s\\ memoirs\\ describing\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ musical\\ intentions\\ and\\ whether\\,\\ as\\ conductor\\,\\ he\\ made\\ certain\\ judgment\\ calls\\ on\\ dynamics\\ and\\ other\\ musical\\ nuances\\ that\\ were\\ different\\ from\\ the\\ then\\ deaf\\ Beethoven\\;\\ to\\ get\\ a\\ better\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ actual\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ at\\ the\\ performance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berlioz\\:\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ original\\ score\\ since\\ he\\ changed\\ much\\ of\\ it\\ after\\ 1830\\;\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ more\\ accurate\\ sense\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ was\\ like\\ to\\ attend\\ this\\ premier\\ and\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ compare\\ it\\ with\\ what\\ we\\ have\\ now\\ to\\ note\\ the\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stravinsky\\:\\ Najinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ original\\ choreography\\ notes\\;\\ to\\ give\\ us\\ an\\ accurate\\ visualization\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ ballet\\ component\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ describes\\ primitive\\ tribes\\ in\\ Russia\\.\\ We\\ learn\\ from\\ the\\ dances\\ \\(since\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ voice\\)\\ what\\ is\\ going\\ on\\,\\ such\\ as\\ playing\\ games\\ with\\ neighboring\\ tribes\\,\\ or\\ choosing\\ a\\ sacrifice\\,\\ or\\ her\\ ritual\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dancing\\ is\\ dancing\\ with\\ a\\ role\\ more\\ like\\ its\\ role\\ in\\ life\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ happy\\ shepherds\\ and\\ forest\\ creatures\\ dance\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ act\\,\\ and\\ the\\ last\\ act\\ features\\ a\\ moresca\\ \\(in\\ one\\ ending\\,\\ anyhow\\)\\ of\\ these\\ same\\ creatures\\,\\ life\\ continuing\\ after\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tragedy\\ is\\ through\\.\\ The\\ dances\\ do\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;describe\\&rdquo\\;\\ anything\\.\\ Here\\ dancing\\ is\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ regular\\ life\\,\\ not\\ a\\ medium\\ of\\ expression\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\.\\ The\\ second\\ act\\,\\ or\\ scherzo\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\ is\\ inspired\\ by\\ dance\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ un\\-danceable\\ at\\ its\\ speed\\.\\ The\\ second\\ movement\\ \\(Un\\ Bal\\)\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\;Symphony\\ Fantastique\\ is\\ a\\ waltz\\,\\ but\\ it\\ too\\ is\\ not\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ danced\\.\\ One\\ might\\ think\\ that\\ music\\ meant\\ to\\ be\\ danced\\ is\\ constrained\\ by\\ the\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ dancers\\,\\ but\\ Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ music\\ is\\,\\ if\\ anything\\,\\ less\\ constrained\\ than\\ the\\ other\\ composers\\&rsquo\\;\\ works\\.\\ Choreography\\ can\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ anything\\.\\ Were\\ a\\ specific\\ type\\ of\\ dancing\\ required\\,\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ waltz\\,\\ then\\ the\\ music\\ would\\ be\\ constrained\\ by\\ the\\ speed\\ at\\ which\\ people\\ can\\ reasonably\\ dance\\,\\ and\\ by\\ the\\ necessity\\ for\\ even\\ tempo\\,\\ and\\ beats\\ in\\ threes\\.\\ But\\ just\\ \\&ldquo\\;dance\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ not\\ necessarily\\ prohibitive\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ It\\ is\\ difficult\\ to\\ say\\ for\\ sure\\ who\\ performed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;during\\ its\\ premiere\\ in\\ Mantua\\,\\ given\\ the\\ privacy\\ of\\ that\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ terms\\ of\\ singing\\,\\ it\\ is\\ generally\\ assumed\\ that\\ well\\-known\\ soloists\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ would\\ have\\ taken\\ part\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ three\\ names\\ given\\ in\\ the\\ text\\ as\\ possible\\ performers\\ are\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Francesco\\ Rasi\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ was\\ probably\\ Orpheus\\,\\ was\\ a\\ singer\\ and\\ poet\\ with\\ a\\ wide\\ reputation\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ studied\\ in\\ Florence\\ and\\ had\\ a\\ very\\ high\\ position\\ for\\ a\\ court\\ musician\\;\\ he\\ may\\ even\\ have\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ palace\\.\\ \\ \\;Apparently\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ adaptable\\ artist\\,\\ who\\ could\\ sing\\ bass\\ or\\ tenor\\ \\(large\\ range\\)\\ and\\ very\\ good\\ diction\\/annunciation\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ also\\ apparently\\ a\\ very\\ handsome\\ man\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Giovanni\\ Gualberto\\ Magli\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ soprano\\ 1\\,\\ played\\ three\\ female\\ roles\\:\\ the\\ personification\\ of\\ Music\\,\\ Proserpina\\,\\ and\\ another\\ female\\ part\\,\\ although\\ no\\ one\\ is\\ quite\\ sure\\ which\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ perhaps\\ Speranza\\ or\\ the\\ messenger\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Girolamo\\ Bacchini\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ priest\\ and\\ soprano\\ castrato\\,\\ he\\ probably\\ played\\ Euridice\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\No\\ women\\ would\\ have\\ performed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ although\\ there\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ many\\ eligible\\ court\\ singers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ important\\ instrumental\\ performers\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\were\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Giulio\\ Cesare\\ Bianchi\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ cornettist\\ who\\ led\\ the\\ wind\\ players\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Lucrezia\\ Urbana\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ singer\\ and\\ harpist\\ from\\ Naples\\ who\\ might\\ have\\ played\\ the\\ harp\\ and\\ performed\\ the\\ harp\\ solo\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Possente\\ spirto\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Urbana\\,\\ if\\ she\\ had\\ taken\\ part\\,\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ only\\ woman\\ performer\\ in\\ this\\ Mantuan\\ version\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Rubini\\ Brothers\\,\\ Giovanni\\ Battista\\ and\\ Orazio\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ established\\ violinists\\ who\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ court\\ for\\ years\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ performing\\ ensemble\\ in\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;would\\ have\\ included\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ important\\ names\\ mentioned\\ above\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Assuming\\ that\\ the\\ chorus\\ is\\ sung\\ by\\ characters\\ on\\ stage\\ and\\ that\\ time\\ is\\ available\\ for\\ changes\\ of\\ costume\\,\\ and\\ arrangement\\ of\\ seven\\ singers\\,\\ with\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ Orfeo\\ and\\ Euridice\\,\\ allows\\ all\\ roles\\ and\\ choral\\ voices\\ to\\ be\\ covered\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;So\\ that\\ means\\ the\\ entire\\ singing\\ cast\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ composed\\ of\\ nine\\ singers\\,\\ while\\ the\\ chorus\\ would\\ have\\ included\\ seven\\ of\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ arrangement\\ probably\\ looked\\ like\\ the\\ following\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Orfeo\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Francesco\\ Rasi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Euridice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Girolamo\\ Bacchini\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Soprano\\ 1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Soprano\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Alto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Tenor\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Tenor\\ 2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Bass\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Bass\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ of\\ the\\ chorus\\ members\\ would\\ also\\ have\\ had\\ multiple\\ solo\\ parts\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ far\\ as\\ the\\ instrumental\\ ensemble\\ is\\ concerned\\,\\ it\\ would\\,\\ again\\,\\ have\\ included\\ the\\ instrumentalists\\ mentioned\\ in\\ question\\ \\#23\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ following\\ instruments\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ performance\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\ gravicembano\\/i\\ \\[gravicembalo\\/i\\]\\2\\ contrabasso\\/i\\ de\\ viola\\10\\ viola\\/e\\ da\\ brazzo\\ \\[braccio\\]\\1\\ arpa\\ doppia\\2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\violino\\/i\\ piccolo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;alla\\ francese\\2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\chitarrone\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/i\\2\\ organo\\/i\\ di\\ legno\\3\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\basso\\/i\\ da\\ gamba\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\4\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trombone\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/i\\1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\regale\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\cornetto\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/i\\1\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\flautino\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;alla\\ vigesima\\ seconda\\1\\ clarino\\3\\ tromba\\/e\\ sordina\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\English\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\harpsichord\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/s\\double\\ bass\\ viol\\/s\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\violin\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/s\\ \\(not\\ modern\\,\\ but\\ not\\ a\\ viol\\ either\\)\\harp\\kit\\/s\\ \\(dancing\\ master\\&\\#39\\;s\\ violin\\)\\arch\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\lute\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ big\\ guitar\\ \\(theorbo\\-like\\)\\small\\ organ\\/s\\ with\\ wooden\\ pipes\\bass\\ viol\\/s\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\trombone\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/s\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\regal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(small\\ organ\\)\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\cornett\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/s\\ \\(a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trumpet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ not\\ a\\ cornet\\)\\sopranino\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\recorder\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\long\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trumpet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ played\\ high\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\trumpet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\/s\\ \\(muted\\,\\ no\\ valves\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ instruments\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ arranged\\ in\\ choirs\\ of\\ similar\\ sounds\\:\\ two\\ choirs\\ of\\ strings\\,\\ a\\ choir\\ of\\ trombones\\ with\\ the\\ upper\\ parts\\ played\\ on\\ the\\ cornetti\\,\\ a\\ choir\\ of\\ trumpets\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ wind\\ players\\ most\\ likely\\ played\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ role\\ and\\ were\\ flexible\\ throughout\\ in\\ taking\\ on\\ multiple\\ personas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\All\\ in\\ all\\,\\ there\\ were\\ 37\\ instruments\\ in\\ the\\ orchestra\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\.\\ Devise\\ a\\ listening\\ quiz\\ for\\ this\\ examination\\:\\ pick\\ five\\ short\\ excerpts\\,\\ one\\ each\\ from\\ the\\ five\\ historical\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\;\\ describe\\ how\\ to\\ find\\ each\\ in\\ its\\ piece\\;\\ and\\ indicate\\ why\\ you\\ have\\ chosen\\ them\\ and\\ how\\ students\\ should\\ identify\\ each\\ excerpt\\ and\\ describe\\ its\\ role\\ and\\ importance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;I\\ won\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ much\\ help\\ to\\ anyone\\ on\\ this\\ one\\.\\ Just\\ pick\\ an\\ excerpt\\ from\\ each\\ that\\ you\\ can\\ bullshit\\ about\\ and\\ proceed\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\28\\.\\ In\\ several\\ pieces\\ in\\ this\\ course\\,\\ music\\ heard\\ earlier\\ is\\ brought\\ back\\ considerably\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ Please\\ discuss\\ reasons\\ why\\ composers\\ choose\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ citing\\ specific\\ examples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Mention\\ something\\ about\\ how\\,\\ from\\ the\\ perspective\\ of\\ a\\ musical\\ novice\\,\\ it\\ is\\ important\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ some\\ continuity\\ within\\ a\\ piece\\.\\ It\\ is\\ nice\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ recognize\\ a\\ certain\\ passage\\,\\ and\\ it\\ intrigues\\ and\\ audience\\ to\\ see\\ such\\ a\\ passage\\ manipulated\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\.\\ I\\ would\\ mention\\ something\\ about\\ how\\ Resonance\\ Frames\\ had\\ no\\ such\\ continuity\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ why\\ it\\ sucked\\ and\\ received\\ only\\ modest\\,\\ polite\\ applause\\ while\\ Professor\\ Kelly\\ got\\ a\\ standing\\ ovation\\.\\ But\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ me\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\.\\ Discuss\\ narrative\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ either\\ Berlioz\\ or\\ Stravinsky\\.\\ How\\ does\\ the\\ music\\ tell\\ the\\ story\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Berlioz\\:\\ very\\ much\\ narrative\\ music\\.\\ The\\ subtitle\\ of\\ this\\ piece\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ life\\ of\\ an\\ artist\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ the\\ separate\\ movements\\ dictate\\ almost\\ exactly\\ different\\ periods\\ in\\ his\\ life\\.\\ It\\ begins\\ with\\ his\\ first\\ meeting\\ with\\ his\\ love\\,\\ represented\\ by\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\,\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ further\\ transported\\ to\\ a\\ dance\\ \\(where\\ the\\ waltz\\ dictates\\ that\\)\\ and\\ we\\ hear\\ the\\ fleeting\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ again\\.\\ The\\ third\\ movement\\ takes\\ place\\ in\\ a\\ field\\,\\ or\\ countryside\\,\\ and\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ again\\ appears\\ but\\ slightly\\ distorted\\.\\ This\\ is\\ when\\ our\\ protagonist\\ finds\\ out\\ that\\ his\\ love\\ really\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ deserve\\ him\\,\\ or\\ love\\ him\\ back\\ the\\ way\\ he\\ would\\ like\\.\\ This\\ effect\\ is\\ achieved\\ by\\ different\\ manipulations\\ of\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\.\\ The\\ last\\ movement\\ changes\\ tone\\ rapidly\\:\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ in\\ a\\ failed\\ attempt\\ to\\ kill\\ himself\\,\\ takes\\ a\\ hefty\\ dose\\ of\\ opium\\ \\(which\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ kill\\ him\\ but\\ causes\\ him\\ to\\ dream\\ wildly\\.\\)\\ He\\ imagines\\ he\\ is\\ being\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ guillotine\\,\\ and\\ in\\ one\\ clear\\ moment\\ before\\ he\\ \\&ldquo\\;dies\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ he\\ thinks\\ again\\ of\\ his\\ beloved\\ and\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ is\\ played\\ in\\ a\\ rising\\ descant\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ sound\\ of\\ the\\ guillotine\\ interrupts\\ the\\ quiescence\\,\\ and\\ you\\ can\\ almost\\ hear\\ his\\ head\\ falling\\ off\\ and\\ rolling\\.\\ The\\ fifth\\ movement\\ is\\ an\\ odd\\,\\ contrived\\ piece\\,\\ where\\ the\\ artist\\ still\\ suffering\\ from\\ his\\ trip\\,\\ believes\\ he\\ is\\ partaking\\ in\\ a\\ witches\\ dance\\ around\\ a\\ cauldron\\.\\ The\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ is\\ played\\ in\\ a\\ stunted\\,\\ awkward\\ way\\ by\\ a\\ e\\-flat\\ clarinet\\,\\ giving\\ it\\ a\\ haunting\\,\\ evil\\ sound\\.\\ Berlioz\\ believed\\ this\\ piece\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ instrumental\\ drama\\,\\ with\\ the\\ orchestral\\ actions\\ playing\\ out\\ the\\ plot\\ and\\ script\\.\\ Berlioz\\ also\\ published\\ a\\ program\\ to\\ be\\ read\\ along\\ with\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ so\\ that\\ the\\ listeners\\ could\\ follow\\ the\\ narrative\\ story\\ more\\ closely\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ piece\\ was\\ later\\ added\\ on\\ to\\ another\\ playlist\\,\\ where\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ is\\ added\\.\\ Berlioz\\,\\ without\\ changing\\ the\\ music\\,\\ changed\\ the\\ narrative\\ ideas\\ and\\ says\\ that\\ the\\ entire\\ piece\\ is\\ an\\ opium\\ dream\\,\\ so\\ it\\ is\\ debatable\\ whether\\ this\\ piece\\ is\\ actually\\ program\\ music\\ or\\ absolute\\ music\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Stravinsky\\:\\ it\\ is\\ much\\ cloudier\\ whether\\ this\\ music\\ is\\ program\\ music\\ or\\ absolute\\ music\\.\\ The\\ music\\ and\\ the\\ ballet\\ were\\ originally\\ not\\ written\\ or\\ choreographed\\ together\\,\\ they\\ would\\ just\\ hopefully\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;end\\ up\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ place\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Originally\\,\\ Stravinsky\\ \\(possibly\\ wanted\\ help\\ in\\ sharing\\ the\\ controversial\\ nature\\ of\\ this\\ opening\\)\\ said\\ very\\ clearly\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ composite\\ work\\,\\ where\\ the\\ music\\ and\\ the\\ ballet\\ were\\ supporting\\ and\\ resonating\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ that\\ Nijinsky\\ was\\ a\\ pleasure\\ to\\ work\\ with\\.\\ However\\,\\ later\\ on\\,\\ he\\ reneged\\ on\\ his\\ previous\\ statements\\,\\ saying\\ how\\ awkward\\ Nijinsky\\ was\\ as\\ a\\ choreographer\\,\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ was\\ thereafter\\ only\\ played\\ without\\ ballet\\ accompaniment\\.\\ Visually\\,\\ the\\ ballet\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ seem\\ to\\ mirror\\ each\\ other\\ quite\\ well\\,\\ with\\ sharp\\ awkward\\ sounds\\ and\\ movements\\,\\ rising\\ tensions\\,\\ and\\ the\\ calm\\ of\\ the\\ adoration\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ However\\,\\ because\\ the\\ ballet\\ and\\ the\\ music\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ coincide\\ too\\ much\\ during\\ their\\ productions\\,\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ music\\ is\\ now\\ played\\ separately\\,\\ it\\ is\\ more\\ obviously\\ program\\ music\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\.\\ How\\ do\\ the\\ pastoral\\ and\\ folk\\-like\\ elements\\ in\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\ contribute\\ to\\ their\\ listeners\\&\\#39\\;\\ musical\\ perception\\?\\ You\\ may\\ concentrate\\ on\\ one\\ or\\ two\\ scores\\,\\ but\\ consider\\ all\\ five\\ pieces\\ from\\ this\\ course\\ in\\ your\\ essay\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;The\\ pastoral\\ and\\ folk\\-like\\ elements\\ had\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ leading\\ the\\ audience\\ away\\ from\\ their\\ current\\ place\\ and\\ time\\,\\ giving\\ the\\ feeling\\ of\\ something\\ foreign\\ and\\ unknown\\.\\ The\\ pastoral\\ scenes\\ in\\ Orfeo\\,\\ where\\ everyone\\ was\\ happy\\ with\\ shepherds\\ and\\ nymphs\\ and\\ their\\ was\\ nothing\\ to\\ worry\\ about\\ besides\\ the\\ trials\\ and\\ tribulations\\ of\\ love\\,\\ one\\ could\\ forget\\ all\\ the\\ other\\ complexities\\ and\\ just\\ focus\\ on\\ one\\ main\\ issue\\.\\ In\\ Messiah\\,\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ traditional\\ and\\ folky\\ elements\\ made\\ the\\ piece\\ actually\\ resound\\ like\\ something\\ more\\ familiar\\ to\\ them\\:\\ the\\ inclusion\\ of\\ biblical\\ references\\ and\\ religious\\ themes\\ made\\ the\\ piece\\ sound\\ like\\ something\\ familiar\\,\\ and\\ acceptable\\ during\\ the\\ holy\\,\\ Spartan\\ lent\\ season\\.\\ In\\ Berlioz\\ and\\ Beethoven\\,\\ the\\ folk\\-like\\ elements\\ are\\ harder\\ to\\ detect\\,\\ and\\ less\\ important\\ to\\ the\\ general\\ plot\\ and\\ direction\\ of\\ the\\ music\\.\\ In\\ Stravinsky\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ historical\\ elements\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ escapism\\,\\ and\\ elongated\\ the\\ listeners\\ from\\ the\\ action\\ happening\\ onstage\\.\\ It\\ was\\ supposed\\ to\\ look\\ and\\ feel\\ foreign\\ and\\ antiquated\\,\\ something\\ that\\ we\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ understand\\.\\ The\\ strange\\ and\\ foreign\\ qualities\\ were\\ supposed\\ to\\ leap\\ out\\ very\\ obviously\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Serge\\ Diaghilev\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Founder\\ of\\ the\\ Ballets\\ Russes\\,\\ Russian\\ ballet\\ company\\,1909\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Commissioned\\ Nijinsky\\ as\\ choreographer\\ for\\ the\\ company\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Ballets\\ Russes\\ performs\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ 1913\\ under\\ his\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Francesco\\ Gonzaga\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Prince\\ and\\ heir\\ to\\ Dukedom\\ of\\ Mantua\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Generous\\ patron\\ of\\ the\\ artis\\ \\-\\-\\ commissioned\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ 1607\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Correspondence\\ between\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ older\\ brother\\,\\ Ferdinando\\,\\ living\\ in\\ Pisa\\,\\ offers\\ much\\ insight\\ into\\ the\\ details\\ of\\ the\\ preparations\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ performance\\,\\ a\\ rather\\ hastily\\ put\\ together\\ production\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Estelle\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Name\\ of\\ romantic\\ interest\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ youth\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Inspiration\\ behind\\ violin\\ melody\\ of\\ the\\ slow\\ movement\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fermata\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Musical\\ symbol\\ that\\ directs\\ performer\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ the\\ note\\ over\\ which\\ it\\ rests\\,\\ though\\ the\\ exact\\ time\\ for\\ which\\ he\\ does\\ so\\ remains\\ at\\ his\\ discretion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Appears\\ frequently\\ throughout\\ score\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gabriel\\ Astruc\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Built\\ the\\ Theatre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\,\\ which\\ opened\\ in\\ April\\ 2\\,\\ 1913\\,\\ host\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Went\\ bankrupt\\ shortly\\ thereafter\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Homophonic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Description\\ of\\ musical\\ texture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\All\\ voices\\ move\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ according\\ to\\ what\\ are\\ essentially\\ the\\ same\\ notes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Homophony\\ provides\\ a\\ means\\ by\\ which\\ melodic\\ interest\\ is\\ focused\\ on\\ one\\ voice\\,\\ joined\\ by\\ simultaneous\\,\\ though\\ often\\ subsidiary\\ accompaniment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Jennens\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Wrote\\ the\\ libretto\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Reverend\\ whose\\ religious\\ fervor\\ left\\ him\\ unsatisfied\\ with\\ the\\ music\\ created\\ by\\ Handel\\ to\\ accompany\\ his\\ libretto\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Melisma\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Group\\ of\\ notes\\ or\\ tones\\ sung\\ on\\ one\\ syllable\\ in\\ plainsong\\,\\ stemming\\ from\\ a\\ melody\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ an\\ example\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pierre\\ Monteux\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Regular\\ conductor\\ for\\ Diaghilev\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Conductor\\ of\\ orchestra\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Conducted\\ at\\ the\\ Boston\\ symphony\\ orchestra\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Known\\ for\\ putting\\ in\\ long\\ hours\\ and\\ his\\ dislike\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\"\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\"\\;\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Popular\\ themes\\ mainly\\ heard\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Example\\ of\\ a\\ melisma\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ornamentation\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Decoration\\ of\\ a\\ pitch\\ with\\ other\\ pitches\\ which\\ is\\ generally\\ rapid\\ and\\ non\\-metrical\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polyphonic\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Description\\ of\\ musical\\ texture\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ lines\\ move\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\ at\\ different\\ times\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\presto\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ very\\ fast\\ tempo\\ \\(tempo\\ \\=\\ the\\ speed\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ music\\,\\ generally\\ understood\\ as\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ the\\ beat\\)\\ Example\\:\\ Stravinsky\\ in\\ his\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ labels\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;jeu\\ du\\ rapt\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ Presto\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\quartet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ four\\ musicians\\ who\\ perform\\ together\\;\\ music\\ made\\ for\\ four\\ singers\\,\\ usually\\,\\ soprano\\,\\ alto\\,\\ tenor\\,\\ and\\ bass\\.\\ \\(couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ an\\ example\\!\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\recapitulation\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ final\\ section\\ of\\ a\\ movement\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\sonata\\ form\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ the\\ material\\ introduced\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\exposition\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;returns\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tonic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;key\\.\\ Example\\:\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ In\\ the\\ first\\ movement\\,\\ the\\ recapitulation\\ has\\ the\\ introductory\\ passage\\ that\\ began\\ the\\ Symphony\\ is\\ played\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\fortissimo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ imbued\\ with\\ a\\ new\\ found\\ strength\\ This\\ time\\,\\ the\\ secondary\\ themes\\ \\(308\\)\\ stay\\ around\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tonic\\ key\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ loud\\ closing\\ passage\\ that\\ ended\\ the\\ exposition\\ also\\ signals\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ recapitulation\\.\\ \\(followed\\ by\\ coda\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ritornello\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ generally\\ a\\ recurring\\ passage\\,\\ often\\ functioning\\ as\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\refrain\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ punctuates\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\vocal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;section\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ full\\ of\\ ritornelli\\,\\ for\\ example\\ one\\ between\\ the\\ verses\\ of\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ aria\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Vi\\ ricorda\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Friedrich\\ Schiller\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ author\\ of\\ the\\ text\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ which\\ Beethoven\\ set\\ to\\ music\\ in\\ his\\ finale\\,\\ or\\ fourth\\ movement\\,\\ of\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sinfonia\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ symphony\\ in\\ Italian\\,\\ also\\ transitional\\ orchestral\\ sections\\ of\\ voiced\\ works\\.\\ Example\\:\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;This\\ opening\\ orchestral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\movement\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;serves\\ as\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\overture\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\oratorio\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ It\\ is\\ in\\ two\\ sections\\,\\ the\\ first\\ in\\ a\\ slow\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tempo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Grave\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\dotted\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\rhythms\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;dominating\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\melodic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\line\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ second\\ much\\ faster\\,\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\fugal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;style\\ with\\ intricate\\ passagework\\ and\\ much\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\imitation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;between\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\instrumental\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;parts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TONIC\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ This\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ note\\ of\\ any\\ given\\ scale\\.\\ The\\ tonic\\ of\\ C\\ Major\\ is\\ C\\.\\ The\\ tonic\\ of\\ e\\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;minor\\ is\\ e\\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ tonic\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ most\\ important\\ note\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\scale\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ exerting\\ a\\ certain\\ aural\\,\\ \\"\\;gravitational\\ pull\\"\\;\\ on\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ notes\\ in\\ the\\ scale\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TURKISH\\ MARCH\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\;\\ The\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;variation\\ of\\ the\\ Ode\\ to\\ Joy\\ in\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\ of\\ Beethovens\\ 9th\\ Symphony\\.\\ Marked\\ in\\ the\\ score\\ by\\ 6\\/8\\ time\\.\\ The\\ ending\\ of\\ this\\ variation\\ is\\ very\\ percussive\\ and\\ triumphant\\ in\\ nature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VIBRATO\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\;\\ When\\ a\\ player\\ varies\\ the\\ flow\\ of\\ air\\ into\\ an\\ instrument\\ to\\ alter\\ the\\ pitch\\ slightly\\.\\ This\\ effect\\ gives\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ fluttering\\ to\\ the\\ sound\\ and\\ it\\ can\\ make\\ the\\ pitch\\ either\\ slightly\\ sharp\\ or\\ slightly\\ flat\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ effect\\ was\\ used\\ by\\ the\\ flutist\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;You\\&rdquo\\;\\ during\\ the\\ fourth\\ movement\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PINK\\ HALF\\ BOOTS\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Estelle\\,\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beloved\\ wore\\ pink\\ half\\ boots\\ when\\ he\\ fell\\ in\\ love\\ with\\ her\\ in\\ his\\ youth\\ \\(12\\ yrs\\.\\ Old\\)\\ he\\ emphasized\\ the\\ boots\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\APOLLO\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ In\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Orfeo\\,\\ the\\ main\\ character\\ Orpheus\\ is\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Apollo\\,\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Music\\ and\\ the\\ God\\ of\\ Balance\\.\\ Several\\ times\\ throughout\\ the\\ opera\\,\\ a\\ certain\\ interlude\\ of\\ music\\ is\\ played\\ signifying\\ Apollos\\ presence\\ when\\ Orpheus\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ need\\ \\(when\\ he\\ charms\\ Carronte\\ to\\ sleep\\,\\ right\\ before\\ Orpheus\\ prayer\\,\\ and\\ a\\ third\\ time\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ play\\)\\.\\ The\\ ending\\ has\\ Apollo\\ come\\ down\\ from\\ the\\ Heavens\\ to\\ rescue\\ his\\ heart\\-broken\\ son\\ on\\ Earth\\ \\(though\\ this\\ ending\\ is\\ not\\ what\\ was\\ printed\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ libretto\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ARIA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ This\\ kind\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\vocal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;composition\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ an\\ \\"\\;air\\,\\"\\;\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ song\\ in\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\opera\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\oratorio\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\recitative\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ musical\\ representation\\ of\\ speech\\.\\ An\\ aria\\ is\\ a\\ self\\-contained\\ piece\\ for\\ a\\ single\\ vocalist\\,\\ often\\ using\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\strophic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;text\\ setting\\,\\ and\\ employing\\ much\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\melodic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ornamentation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ are\\ found\\ in\\ Monteverdi\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Orfeo\\,\\ and\\ Handel\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Messiah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CAROLINE\\ UNGER\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\(1803\\-1877\\)\\ \\ \\;\\"\\;a\\ contralto\\ singer\\ of\\ outstanding\\ merit\\,\\ sang\\ the\\ solo\\ parts\\ at\\ Beethoven\\&\\#39\\;s\\ concerts\\ in\\ 1824\\"\\;\\(\\ footnote\\ \\#4\\,\\ letter\\ 1289\\,\\ p\\.\\ 197\\,\\ Sourcebook\\ 3\\)\\ and\\.\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;Sourcebook\\ 3\\,\\ p\\.\\ 204\\ \\-\\ \\"\\;From\\ Beethoven\\&\\#39\\;s\\ conversation\\ books\\:\\ Schindler\\:\\ \\[speaking\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ soloists\\,\\ Unger\\ and\\ soprano\\ Henriette\\ Sontag\\]\\ \\"\\;\\.\\.\\.Both\\ ladies\\ lack\\ the\\ vocal\\ training\\ necessary\\ to\\ sing\\ such\\ sustained\\ lines\\.\\.\\.\\.You\\ know\\ in\\ any\\ case\\ that\\ Unger\\ is\\ a\\ silly\\ goose\\,\\ full\\ of\\ fun\\ and\\ banter\\ even\\ when\\ and\\ where\\ it\\ is\\ out\\ of\\ place\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fugue\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\ highly\\ contrapuntal\\ type\\ of\\ composition\\,\\ where\\ one\\ theme\\ is\\ repeated\\ and\\ elaborated\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\multiple\\ voices\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ a\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Accent\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\particular\\ stress\\ on\\ a\\ note\\,\\ or\\ the\\ stressed\\ beats\\ in\\ a\\ bar\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Apollo\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ father\\,\\ god\\ of\\ music\\ and\\ balance\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\intervenes\\ twice\\ for\\ Orfeo\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ story\\&mdash\\;first\\ getting\\ him\\ into\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\underworld\\,\\ and\\ then\\ taking\\ him\\ up\\ into\\ heaven\\ at\\ the\\ end\\;\\ there\\ is\\ controversy\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\surrounding\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\deus\\ ex\\ machina\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;appearance\\ of\\ Apollo\\ because\\ the\\ original\\ myth\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\libretto\\ for\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ production\\ both\\ end\\ with\\ frenzied\\ women\\;\\ Kelly\\&rsquo\\;s\\ argument\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ Apollo\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ the\\ plot\\ and\\ his\\ appearance\\ highlights\\ the\\ moral\\ of\\ keeping\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\equilibrium\\ between\\ passion\\ and\\ reason\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Arco\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ performance\\ indication\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\stringed\\ instruments\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ tells\\ the\\ player\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bow\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;rather\\ than\\ plucking\\ the\\ string\\.\\ Literally\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;with\\ a\\ bow\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ used\\ chiefly\\ as\\ a\\ direction\\ to\\ indicate\\ the\\ resumption\\ of\\ bowing\\ after\\ a\\ pizzicato\\ passage\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ plucking\\)\\;\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ cellos\\ and\\ basses\\ constantly\\ alternate\\ between\\ pizzicato\\ and\\ arco\\,\\ giving\\ both\\ abrupt\\ and\\ smooth\\ color\\ to\\ their\\ parts\\;\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ movement\\,\\ the\\ violas\\ and\\ violins\\ also\\ alternate\\;\\ it\\ is\\ prominent\\ in\\ the\\ opening\\ string\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Berlioz\\ piece\\;\\ the\\ strings\\ in\\ Stravinsky\\ also\\ demonstrate\\ use\\ of\\ arco\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Aria\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ kind\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\vocal\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;composition\\,\\ also\\ known\\ as\\ an\\ \\"\\;air\\,\\"\\;\\ serves\\ as\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\song\\ in\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\opera\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\oratorio\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\recitative\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ is\\ a\\ musical\\ representation\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\speech\\.\\ An\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\aria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ a\\ self\\-contained\\ piece\\ for\\ a\\ single\\ vocalist\\,\\ often\\ using\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\strophic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;text\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\setting\\,\\ and\\ employing\\ much\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\melodic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ornamentation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\oratorio\\,\\ Handel\\ basically\\ follows\\ opera\\ conventions\\ of\\ the\\ day\\ and\\ has\\ recitatives\\ before\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arias\\,\\ which\\ are\\ more\\ tuneful\\ and\\ passionate\\;\\ most\\ common\\ type\\ was\\ da\\ capo\\,\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Handel\\ uses\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ of\\ these\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;He\\ is\\ despised\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ trumpet\\ shall\\ sound\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\arias\\ have\\ distinctive\\ musical\\ style\\,\\ are\\ inventive\\,\\ varied\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\characteristic\\;\\ usually\\ arranged\\ as\\ duets\\ between\\ singer\\ and\\ instruments\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ course\\,\\ arias\\ also\\ form\\ a\\ significant\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ arias\\ are\\ emotional\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\moments\\,\\ unlike\\ the\\ usual\\ bland\\ descriptive\\ or\\ plot\\-pushing\\ recitatives\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Astruc\\,\\ Gabriel\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Had\\ the\\ idea\\ to\\ build\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Th\\é\\;\\â\\;tre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elys\\é\\;es\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\He\\ originally\\ wanted\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Champs\\-Elys\\é\\;es\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\but\\ Anti\\-semetism\\ opposition\\ pushed\\ him\\ to\\ the\\ Avenue\\ Montaigne\\.\\ \\ \\;Astruc\\ was\\ responsible\\ for\\ bringing\\ top\\ rank\\ artists\\ to\\ Paris\\ \\(Landowska\\,\\ Caruso\\,\\ Toscanini\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ Metropolitan\\ Opera\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ theatre\\ opened\\ in\\ 1913\\,\\ during\\ one\\ of\\ its\\ first\\ seasons\\,\\ Astruc\\ paid\\ Diaghilev\\ 25\\,000\\/performance\\,\\ this\\ high\\ salary\\ allowed\\ for\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\La\\ Sacre\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\which\\ would\\ later\\ ruin\\ Astruc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ballets\\ Russes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Russian\\ Ballet\\,\\ group\\ comprised\\ of\\ artists\\,\\ designers\\,\\ choreographers\\,\\ dancers\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\composers\\,\\ and\\ performers\\;\\ Diaghilev\\ commissioned\\ scores\\ from\\ the\\ likes\\ of\\ Ravel\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Debussy\\,\\ Strauss\\,\\ and\\ Stravinsky\\,\\ including\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Firebird\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Petrushka\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ Vaslav\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nijinsky\\,\\ legendary\\ dancer\\ and\\ star\\ of\\ group\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\basso\\ continuo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Italian\\ for\\ \\"\\;continuous\\ bass\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ bass\\-line\\ melody\\ provided\\ with\\ all\\ singing\\ parts\\ \\(as\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\;\\ instruments\\ play\\ appropriate\\ chords\\ using\\ the\\ bass\\-line\\ and\\ singer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ parts\\ provided\\ in\\ the\\ score\\ as\\ guides\\;\\ basically\\,\\ the\\ musicians\\ improvise\\ a\\ flexible\\ and\\ supporting\\ part\\ for\\ the\\ singers\\;\\ Monteverdi\\ used\\ lutes\\,\\ harpsichords\\,\\ organ\\,\\ and\\ regal\\ in\\ various\\ combinations\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ change\\ the\\ color\\ of\\ the\\ sound\\,\\ especially\\ for\\ changes\\ of\\ mood\\ and\\ passion\\;\\ also\\,\\ many\\ scholars\\ believe\\ that\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dublin\\ performance\\ may\\ have\\ had\\ bassoons\\ playing\\ a\\ basso\\ continuo\\ part\\ generated\\ from\\ the\\ score\\,\\ although\\ it\\ is\\ certain\\ that\\ the\\ continuo\\ consisted\\ of\\ at\\ least\\ organ\\ and\\ harpsichord\\ \\(see\\ next\\ identification\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bassoon\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ low\\ pitched\\ woodwind\\ instrument\\ with\\ a\\ double\\ reed\\,\\ having\\ a\\ long\\ wooden\\ body\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\attached\\ to\\ a\\ U\\ shaped\\ lateral\\ tube\\ that\\ leads\\ to\\ the\\ mouthpiece\\.\\ The\\ range\\ of\\ this\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\instrument\\ is\\ typically\\ two\\ octaves\\ lower\\ than\\ that\\ of\\ the\\ oboe\\;\\ used\\ in\\ all\\ but\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ it\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\might\\ have\\ played\\ a\\ role\\ as\\ a\\ basso\\ continuo\\ instrument\\ for\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\played\\ by\\ the\\ famous\\ four\\ Parisian\\ bassoon\\ players\\ in\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ symphony\\,\\ and\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\responsible\\ for\\ the\\ famous\\ opening\\ solo\\ section\\ in\\ Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(so\\ high\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\range\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ all\\ but\\ unrecognizable\\ as\\ a\\ bassoon\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bitonality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Use\\ of\\ two\\ keys\\ simultaneously\\.\\ such\\ as\\ a\\ chord\\ consisting\\ of\\ two\\ notes\\-Stravinsky\\ did\\ this\\ when\\ he\\ would\\ have\\ two\\ different\\ types\\ of\\ instruments\\ play\\ two\\ chords\\ in\\ different\\ keys\\,\\ giving\\ it\\ a\\ dissonant\\ sound\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cadence\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ melodic\\ or\\ harmonic\\ configuration\\ that\\ creates\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ repose\\ or\\ resolution\\.\\ Cadences\\ typically\\ occur\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ a\\ phrase\\,\\ period\\ or\\ complete\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carnival\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ period\\ of\\ merrymaking\\ and\\ feasting\\ celebrated\\ just\\ before\\ Lent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Caronte\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Orfeo\\,\\ he\\ is\\ the\\ boatman\\ who\\ refuses\\ to\\ ferry\\ Orfeo\\ across\\ the\\ river\\ Styx\\ and\\ whom\\ Orfeo\\ tried\\ to\\ coax\\ with\\ his\\ singing\\ abilities\\ to\\ take\\ him\\ across\\ \\(in\\ \\&ldquo\\;Possente\\ spirto\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\;\\ the\\ Apollo\\ sinfonia\\ is\\ what\\ puts\\ Caronte\\ to\\ sleep\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\castrato\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ male\\ singer\\ who\\ is\\ castrated\\ before\\ puberty\\ to\\ preserve\\ the\\ high\\ range\\ of\\ his\\ voice\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\used\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chittarrone\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ large\\ lute\\ with\\ several\\ bass\\ strings\\,\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ basso\\ continuo\\ instrument\\.\\ It\\ has\\ a\\ pear\\-shaped\\ body\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chorus\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ term\\ refers\\ both\\ to\\ 1\\)\\ a\\ composition\\ that\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ simultaneous\\ singing\\ of\\ more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\than\\ one\\ vocal\\ part\\,\\ and\\ 2\\)\\ the\\ group\\ of\\ people\\ who\\ sing\\ this\\ kind\\ of\\ music\\.\\ In\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\,\\ there\\ are\\ three\\ basic\\ types\\ of\\ chorus\\:\\ anthem\\,\\ fugue\\,\\ and\\ duet\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chromatic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ string\\ of\\ notes\\ that\\ are\\ half\\ steps\\ apart\\ from\\ each\\ other\\ consisting\\ of\\ consecutive\\ semitones\\ \\(or\\ half\\-note\\ steps\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Smithson\\,\\ Harriet\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\English\\ actress\\ who\\ has\\ a\\ profound\\ effect\\ on\\ literary\\ Paris\\;\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ passion\\ for\\ Smithson\\ served\\ as\\ inspiration\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\romanticism\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ describes\\ the\\ music\\ during\\ the\\ romantic\\ period\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ history\\ \\(1820\\ to\\ 1900\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ term\\ is\\ applied\\ in\\ particular\\ to\\ the\\ works\\ that\\ reflect\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ Romantic\\ movement\\ in\\ literature\\ and\\ the\\ visual\\ arts\\,\\ characterized\\ by\\ emotionally\\ charged\\ subject\\ matter\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ supernatural\\,\\ the\\ exotic\\,\\ nature\\ and\\ human\\ passion\\.\\ \\ \\;Music\\ of\\ this\\ kind\\ is\\ often\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ melody\\,\\ innovative\\ approaches\\ to\\ the\\ standard\\ forms\\,\\ complex\\ harmony\\ and\\ intense\\ emotional\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ compositions\\ are\\ programmatic\\,\\ related\\ to\\ extra\\-musical\\ subject\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;Berlio\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphony\\ fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;reflects\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ of\\ the\\ era\\ in\\ its\\ bold\\ harmony\\,\\ formal\\ innovations\\,\\ unusual\\ orchestral\\ timbres\\,\\ and\\ romantic\\ program\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sequence\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ short\\ musical\\ pattern\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ at\\ successively\\ ascending\\ or\\ descending\\ pitches\\.\\ \\ \\;Examples\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sonata\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ standard\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ Classical\\ and\\ Romantic\\ period\\ and\\ consists\\ of\\ three\\ sections\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ exposition\\ states\\ two\\ contrasting\\ themes\\,\\ the\\ first\\ in\\ the\\ tonic\\ key\\,\\ and\\ the\\ second\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ key\\ from\\ the\\ tonic\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ section\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ cadence\\ in\\ the\\ new\\,\\ non\\-tonic\\ key\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ development\\ follows\\ the\\ exposition\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ composer\\ explores\\ the\\ themes\\ introduced\\ in\\ the\\ exposition\\,\\ re\\-working\\ them\\ through\\ varied\\ melodic\\,\\ harmonic\\,\\ or\\ rhythmic\\ treatment\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ recapitulation\\ re\\-introduces\\ the\\ two\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ exposition\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ now\\ played\\ in\\ the\\ tonic\\ key\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\,\\ the\\ recapitulation\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ coda\\.\\ \\ \\;Example\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ninth\\ Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spring\\ Rounds\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ section\\ of\\ Part\\ One\\ \\(The\\ Fertility\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\)\\ of\\ Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ slow\\,\\ reflective\\ section\\,\\ which\\ thematically\\ and\\ tonally\\ recalls\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ music\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ slow\\,\\ sing\\-song\\ line\\ in\\ the\\ clarinets\\,\\ which\\ will\\ return\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ ot\\ he\\ section\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ a\\ rising\\,\\ ponderous\\ series\\ of\\ the\\ chords\\ forms\\ a\\ rhythmic\\ and\\ harmonic\\ ostinado\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ slightly\\ altered\\ melody\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\&rdquo\\;\\ reappears\\.\\ \\ \\;Another\\ theme\\ from\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\&rdquo\\;\\ then\\ reappears\\ over\\ the\\ ostinato\\.\\ \\ \\;Dynamics\\ increase\\ as\\ more\\ instruments\\ \\(and\\ more\\ dissonant\\ notes\\)\\ are\\ added\\,\\ reaching\\ a\\ high\\ point\\ with\\ glissandos\\ \\(sliding\\ from\\ one\\ note\\ to\\ another\\)\\ in\\ the\\ trombones\\,\\ and\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ percussion\\ instruments\\.\\ \\ \\;An\\ abrupt\\ interruption\\ by\\ the\\ fanfare\\ material\\ of\\ the\\ preceding\\ section\\ leads\\ again\\ to\\ the\\ slow\\ melody\\ in\\ the\\ clarinets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theatre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ theatre\\ opened\\ on\\ April\\ 2nd\\,\\ 1913\\ in\\ Paris\\ on\\ Avenue\\ Montaigne\\,\\ and\\ was\\ conceived\\ and\\ constructed\\ by\\ its\\ manager\\ Gabriel\\ Astruc\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ theatre\\ was\\ criticized\\ by\\ public\\ to\\ have\\ too\\ much\\ foreign\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ designed\\ by\\ a\\ collaboration\\ of\\ architects\\ including\\ Auguste\\ Perret\\ and\\ Henry\\ Van\\ de\\ Velde\\,\\ and\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ theater\\ made\\ of\\ reinforced\\ concrete\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ performances\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ this\\ theater\\ including\\ Diaghilev\\&rsquo\\;s\\ company\\.\\ \\ \\;Astruc\\ paid\\ high\\ sums\\ of\\ money\\ to\\ Diaghilev\\ for\\ the\\ 1913\\ season\\,\\ and\\ Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ first\\ performed\\ in\\ this\\ theater\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\tuba\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ lowest\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ brass\\ family\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ played\\ on\\ the\\ lap\\ of\\ the\\ performer\\ and\\ is\\ an\\ instrument\\ used\\ in\\ both\\ orchestras\\ and\\ bands\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\)\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\:\\ continued\\ theme\\,\\ melody\\,\\ perpetuated\\ throughout\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ music\\ \\(example\\ is\\ Berlioz\\ \\&ldquo\\;Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\&rdquo\\;\\ with\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ melody\\ reappearing\\ when\\ he\\ remembers\\/sees\\ his\\ beloved\\.\\)\\ Usually\\ a\\ metaphore\\ or\\ representation\\ of\\ an\\ idea\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\)\\ Mantua\\:\\ the\\ Italian\\ city\\ in\\ which\\ Monteverdi\\ composed\\ and\\ performed\\ Orfeo\\.\\ Very\\ recognized\\ for\\ its\\ musical\\ patronage\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\)\\ meter\\:\\ organization\\ of\\ the\\ beat\\;\\ number\\ of\\ beats\\ per\\ designated\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ \\(duple\\,\\ triple\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\)\\ Moresca\\:\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ common\\ European\\ dance\\;\\ appears\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ opera\\ and\\ danced\\ by\\ shepherds\\ \\(the\\ alternative\\ ending\\ including\\ Apollo\\,\\ probably\\ was\\ played\\.\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\)\\ Ophicleide\\:\\ a\\ keyed\\ instrument\\;\\ the\\ bass\\ of\\ the\\ brass\\ family\\.\\ Relatively\\ weak\\ sound\\,\\ associated\\ with\\ military\\ bands\\,\\ but\\ the\\ obvious\\ choice\\ for\\ a\\ bass\\ sound\\ in\\ the\\ orchestral\\ brass\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\)\\ Ostinato\\:\\ a\\ repeated\\ melody\\/tune\\;\\ a\\ short\\ musical\\ pattern\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ persistently\\ throughout\\ a\\ section\\ of\\ a\\ composition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Percussion\\:\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ instruments\\ that\\ produce\\ sounds\\ of\\ definite\\ or\\ indefinite\\ pitch\\ when\\ shaken\\ or\\ struck\\,\\ including\\ drums\\,\\ rattles\\,\\ bells\\,\\ gongs\\,\\ and\\ xylophones\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Performance\\ practice\\:\\ Performance\\ practice\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ methods\\ chosen\\ in\\ performing\\ a\\ work\\ of\\ music\\.\\ This\\ may\\ refer\\ to\\ choices\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tempi\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\rhythms\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ instruments\\,\\ number\\ of\\ singers\\,\\ etc\\.\\ Historically\\-informed\\ performance\\ practice\\ is\\ the\\ use\\ of\\ performance\\ practice\\ characteristic\\ of\\ a\\ given\\ period\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ many\\ modern\\ performing\\ groups\\ use\\ early\\ musical\\ instruments\\ \\(or\\ carefully\\ manufactured\\ replicas\\)\\ to\\ perform\\ early\\ music\\ instead\\ of\\ using\\ their\\ modern\\ counterparts\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pifa\\:\\ This\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ unique\\ to\\ Handel\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ is\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\instrumental\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;piece\\ that\\ evokes\\ a\\ pastoral\\ mood\\ and\\ uses\\ many\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pizzicato\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;pinched\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;On\\ A\\ performance\\ indication\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\stringed\\ instruments\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ tells\\ the\\ player\\ to\\ pluck\\ the\\ string\\ with\\ the\\ finger\\ rather\\ than\\ using\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bow\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\arco\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ This\\ plucking\\ may\\ be\\ done\\ with\\ either\\ hand\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\O\\ Thou\\ that\\ tellest\\,\\ played\\ pizzicato\\-\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\not\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;adhering\\ to\\ traditional\\ performance\\ practice\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polyphonic\\:\\ This\\ describes\\ a\\ musical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\texture\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;where\\ the\\ musical\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\lines\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;move\\ in\\ different\\ directions\\ from\\ each\\ other\\ and\\ at\\ different\\ points\\ in\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;Fugues\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ a\\ good\\ example\\ of\\ polyphony\\,\\ but\\ they\\ are\\ by\\ no\\ means\\ the\\ only\\ kind\\ of\\ music\\ to\\ generate\\ this\\ texture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polyrhythm\\:\\ The\\ simultaneous\\ use\\ of\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\rhythmic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;patterns\\ of\\ rhythmic\\ groupings\\.\\ In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;this\\ is\\ done\\ by\\ combining\\ different\\ patterns\\ but\\ notating\\ the\\ parts\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\meter\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Polytonality\\:\\ The\\ simultaneous\\ use\\ of\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ key\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Presto\\:\\ Very\\ quick\\ tempo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prix\\ de\\ Rome\\:\\ a\\ coveted\\ honor\\ that\\ France\\ bestowed\\ upon\\ talented\\ artists\\ \\(painters\\,\\ sculptors\\,\\ architects\\,\\ engravers\\,\\ and\\ composers\\)\\ that\\ Hector\\ Berlioz\\ won\\ at\\ a\\ young\\ age\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ award\\ sent\\ the\\ winners\\ to\\ the\\ Villa\\ Medici\\ in\\ Rome\\ for\\ two\\ years\\ and\\ paid\\ them\\ three\\ thousand\\ francs\\ annually\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ three\\ years\\.\\ \\ \\;Berlioz\\ had\\ submitted\\ a\\ cantata\\ without\\ the\\ great\\ conflagration\\ scene\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ trick\\ the\\ Academie\\ des\\ Beaux\\-Arts\\ into\\ giving\\ him\\ the\\ award\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Program\\ music\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ piece\\ of\\ instrumental\\ music\\,\\ often\\ for\\ orchestra\\,\\ which\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ program\\,\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ extra\\-musical\\ ideas\\.\\ A\\ program\\ may\\ be\\ secret\\,\\ or\\ may\\ be\\ communicated\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ fantastique\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Programs\\ vary\\ in\\ their\\ length\\ and\\ level\\ of\\ detail\\,\\ ranging\\ from\\ lengthy\\ texts\\ to\\ an\\ evocative\\ title\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Quartet\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ piece\\ for\\ four\\ instruments\\ or\\ voices\\.\\ \\ \\;Four\\ performers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Marie\\ Rambert\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ dancer\\ in\\ Stravinsky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ who\\ helped\\ Nijinski\\ teach\\ the\\ choreography\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Francesco\\ Rasi\\:\\ Mantuan\\ singer\\ in\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ played\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ Orfeo\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ a\\ student\\ of\\ Giulio\\ Caccini\\ in\\ Florence\\ and\\ was\\ famous\\ for\\ his\\ excellence\\ in\\ his\\ profession\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recapitulation\\:\\ The\\ third\\ movement\\ to\\ a\\ sonata\\ \\(exposition\\,\\ development\\,\\ recapitulation\\)\\.\\ Most\\ prevalent\\ in\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symph\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recitative\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ style\\ of\\ vocal\\ declamation\\ newly\\ created\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ sixteenth\\ century\\ and\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ seventeenth\\.\\ Its\\ development\\ is\\ connected\\ particularly\\ with\\ composers\\ associated\\ with\\ the\\ Florentine\\ Camerata\\ of\\ the\\ late\\ sixteenth\\ century\\.\\ The\\ aim\\ of\\ these\\ composers\\ was\\ to\\ develop\\ a\\ vocal\\ style\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ music\\ would\\ be\\ governed\\ by\\ the\\ text\\;\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\meter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\melody\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ all\\ flexible\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ reflect\\ the\\ changing\\ ideas\\ and\\ emotions\\ of\\ a\\ character\\ in\\ a\\ dramatic\\ situation\\.\\ This\\ style\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ imitate\\ natural\\,\\ emotionally\\ inflected\\ speech\\.\\ Recitative\\ was\\ ideally\\ suited\\ for\\ the\\ musical\\ expression\\ of\\ dramatic\\ action\\.\\ \\(You\\ will\\ usually\\ not\\ hear\\ a\\ repeated\\ \\"\\;tune\\"\\;\\ in\\ a\\ recitative\\ passage\\,\\ as\\ you\\ might\\ in\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\aria\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ example\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rhythm\\:\\ The\\ rhythm\\ of\\ a\\ passage\\ of\\ music\\ is\\ the\\ pattern\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ timing\\ and\\ duration\\ of\\ musical\\ events\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ rhythm\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\melody\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ to\\ specify\\ the\\ temporal\\ position\\ and\\ length\\ of\\ each\\ note\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ every\\ other\\ note\\.\\ Rhythm\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ paramenter\\ of\\ music\\,\\ so\\ that\\ altering\\ rhythm\\ may\\ profoundly\\ affect\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ a\\ passage\\.\\ Topics\\ related\\ to\\ rhythm\\ are\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ main\\ entries\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\meter\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ the\\ organization\\ of\\ rhythm\\ \\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tempo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ the\\ speed\\ at\\ which\\ a\\ passage\\ of\\ music\\ is\\ performed\\,\\ notation\\ of\\ rhythm\\ \\-\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\duration\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\harmonic\\ rhythm\\ \\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ the\\ temporal\\ patterns\\ of\\ harmonic\\ changes\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Timpani\\:\\ \\ \\;A\\ low\\ percussion\\ instrument\\,\\ a\\ standard\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ orchestra\\.\\ The\\ timpani\\ has\\ an\\ adjustable\\ membrane\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ tuned\\ to\\ different\\ pitches\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sontag\\,\\ Henriette\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Admired\\ for\\ both\\ looks\\ and\\ talent\\,\\ she\\ was\\ 18\\ when\\ she\\ sang\\ the\\ solo\\ soprano\\ part\\ in\\ the\\ May\\ 7\\ premiere\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Symphoy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ Already\\ an\\ opera\\ star\\ in\\ Vienna\\ who\\ inspired\\ \\&ldquo\\;Sontag\\ Fever\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ she\\ was\\ a\\ favorite\\ of\\ Beethoven\\,\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;she\\ went\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ sort\\ of\\ international\\ career\\ that\\ is\\ today\\ characteristic\\ of\\ rock\\ musicians\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(First\\ Nights\\ text\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Soprano\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ 1\\ \\:\\ the\\ highest\\ singing\\ voice\\ of\\ women\\ or\\ boys\\ and\\ formerly\\ of\\ castrati\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\also\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ a\\ person\\ having\\ this\\ voice\\,\\ 2\\ \\:\\ the\\ highest\\ voice\\ part\\ in\\ a\\ 4\\-part\\ chorus\\,\\ 3\\ \\:\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ a\\ family\\ of\\ instruments\\ having\\ the\\ highest\\ range\\ \\ \\;\\(Merriam\\-Webster\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Sopranos\\ were\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ chorus\\ for\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ works\\ that\\ we\\ studied\\,\\ and\\ in\\ all\\ cases\\ except\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ soprano\\ parts\\ were\\ sung\\ by\\ women\\ \\(in\\ Orfeo\\,\\ they\\ were\\ sung\\ by\\ castrati\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;From\\ the\\ website\\:\\ \\ \\;1\\)\\ A\\ female\\ singer\\ with\\ a\\ high\\ voice\\.\\ 2\\)\\ A\\ register\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ a\\ span\\ of\\ notes\\ within\\ the\\ range\\ of\\ all\\ possible\\ notes\\.\\ Of\\ the\\ four\\ registers\\,\\ soprano\\,\\ alto\\,\\ tenor\\,\\ and\\ bass\\,\\ the\\ soprano\\ register\\ is\\ the\\ highest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Bottom\\ of\\ Form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Spring\\ Rounds\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphony\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\symphonies\\ were\\ either\\ used\\ in\\ concerts\\ or\\ operas\\.\\ \\ \\;Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ninth\\ Symphony\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ are\\ both\\ examples\\ of\\ symphonies\\ made\\ for\\ concert\\.\\ \\ \\;Concert\\ symphonies\\ usually\\ have\\ 4\\ movements\\,\\ each\\ of\\ which\\ expresses\\ a\\ different\\ mood\\.\\ \\ \\;Symphonies\\ usually\\ begin\\ loudly\\,\\ although\\ the\\ first\\ loud\\ movement\\ may\\ be\\ preceded\\ by\\ a\\ slow\\ introduction\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ movement\\ is\\ usually\\ slower\\ and\\ more\\ lyrical\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ third\\ movement\\ in\\ often\\ a\\ waltz\\ or\\ minuet\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fourth\\ is\\ typically\\ a\\ lively\\ finale\\ that\\ is\\ lighter\\ and\\ shorter\\ than\\ the\\ opening\\ movement\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ whole\\ thing\\ was\\ usually\\ only\\ about\\ 15\\ minutes\\ long\\,\\ although\\ by\\ the\\ time\\ Beethoven\\ was\\ composing\\ his\\ Ninth\\ Symphony\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;d\\ gotten\\ significantly\\ longer\\.\\ \\(from\\ First\\ Nights\\ text\\)\\ \\ \\;Examples\\ of\\ symphonies\\ in\\ the\\ works\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\ are\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ninth\\ Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ Gandolfi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Resonance\\ Frames\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ From\\ the\\ website\\:\\ A\\ genre\\ of\\ music\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\orchestra\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ arose\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ eighteenth\\ century\\.\\ By\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ eighteenth\\ century\\,\\ the\\ typical\\ symphony\\ had\\ four\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\movements\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ I\\.\\ a\\ fast\\ movement\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\sonata\\ form\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ II\\.\\ a\\ slow\\ movement\\,\\ often\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\theme\\ and\\ variations\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ III\\.\\ a\\ dance\\ movement\\,\\ either\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\minuet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\scherzo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ IV\\.\\ a\\ lively\\ finale\\,\\ often\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\rondo\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bottom\\ of\\ Form\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Syncopation\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ temporary\\ displacement\\ of\\ the\\ regular\\ metrical\\ accent\\ in\\ music\\ caused\\ by\\ stressing\\ the\\ weak\\ beat\\ \\(Merriam\\-Webster\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Syncopation\\ may\\ be\\ created\\ by\\ moving\\ the\\ stress\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ down\\ beat\\ onto\\ another\\ beat\\ in\\ the\\ measure\\.\\ A\\ special\\ case\\ of\\ syncopation\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\hemiola\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Found\\ in\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ninth\\ Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Theatre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ theater\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ premiere\\ of\\ Stravinky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ performed\\.\\ \\ \\;Located\\ in\\ Paris\\,\\ on\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;fashionable\\ and\\ elegant\\&rdquo\\;\\ Avenue\\ Montaigne\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ its\\ creator\\ and\\ manager\\,\\ Gabriel\\ Astruc\\,\\ had\\ originally\\ intended\\ for\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ on\\ the\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\.\\ \\ \\;Astruc\\ was\\ Jewish\\ and\\ had\\ an\\ acrimonious\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ French\\ public\\,\\ partially\\ due\\ to\\ latent\\ anti\\-Semitism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ theater\\ was\\ bold\\,\\ with\\ free\\-floating\\ reinforced\\ concrete\\ balconies\\ that\\ enhanced\\ the\\ acoustics\\ and\\ a\\ modern\\ approach\\ to\\ elegant\\ comfort\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ reviled\\ by\\ some\\ and\\ cherished\\ by\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tempo\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ rate\\ of\\ speed\\ of\\ a\\ musical\\ piece\\ or\\ passage\\ indicated\\ by\\ one\\ of\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ directions\\ \\(as\\ largo\\,\\ presto\\,\\ or\\ allegro\\)\\ and\\ often\\ by\\ an\\ exact\\ metronome\\ marking\\ \\(Merriam\\-Webster\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\From\\ the\\ Website\\:\\ \\ \\;The\\ speed\\ of\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ music\\,\\ generally\\ understood\\ as\\ the\\ frequency\\ of\\ the\\ beat\\.\\ \\(See\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\meter\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ Tempo\\ may\\ be\\ indicated\\ by\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\metronome\\ marking\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ specifies\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ beats\\ per\\ minute\\,\\ or\\ by\\ verbal\\ descriptions\\.\\ Common\\ tempo\\ markings\\,\\ from\\ slow\\ to\\ fast\\,\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\tempo\\ marking\\ \\(It\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\translation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\grave\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\serious\\ \\(very\\ slow\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\largo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\broad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\adagio\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\relaxed\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\andante\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\walking\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\moderato\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\moderate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\allegretto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\slower\\ than\\ allegro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\allegro\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\happy\\ \\(fast\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\vivace\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\lively\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\presto\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\very\\ fast\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\prestissimo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\as\\ fast\\ as\\ possible\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\Changes\\ in\\ speed\\ are\\ signaled\\ by\\ the\\ terms\\ ritardando\\ or\\ rit\\.\\ \\(reduce\\ the\\ tempo\\)\\ and\\ accelerando\\ \\(increase\\ the\\ tempo\\)\\.\\ After\\ a\\ change\\,\\ the\\ direction\\ a\\ tempo\\ tells\\ the\\ performer\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ the\\ original\\ pace\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Timpani\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ set\\ of\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ kettledrums\\ played\\ by\\ one\\ performer\\ in\\ an\\ orchestra\\ or\\ band\\,\\ a\\ low\\ percussion\\ instrument\\,\\ a\\ standard\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ orchestra\\.\\ The\\ timpani\\ has\\ an\\ adjustable\\ membrane\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ tuned\\ to\\ different\\ pitches\\.\\ \\ \\;Notably\\ used\\ in\\ both\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ninth\\ Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tonic\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\This\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ note\\ of\\ any\\ given\\ scale\\.\\ The\\ tonic\\ of\\ C\\ Major\\ is\\ C\\.\\ The\\ tonic\\ of\\ e\\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;minor\\ is\\ e\\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tonic\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ note\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\scale\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ exerting\\ a\\ certain\\ aural\\,\\ \\"\\;gravitational\\ pull\\"\\;\\ on\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ notes\\ in\\ the\\ scale\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Trill\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ornamentation\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\pitch\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ entails\\ a\\ rapid\\ alternation\\ between\\ the\\ indicated\\ pitch\\ and\\ the\\ pitch\\ above\\ it\\.\\ The\\ alternation\\ of\\ two\\ musical\\ tones\\ a\\ diatonic\\ second\\ apart\\ \\-\\-\\ called\\ also\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\shake\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;b\\ \\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\VIBRATO\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ \\:\\ a\\ rapid\\ reiteration\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ tone\\ especially\\ on\\ a\\ percussion\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;Most\\ notably\\ found\\ in\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuba\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ tuba\\&\\#39\\;s\\ range\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lowest\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\brass\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;family\\.\\ Played\\ on\\ performer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lap\\ and\\ is\\ used\\ in\\ both\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\orchestras\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bands\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Unger\\,\\ Caroline\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\friend\\ of\\ Henriette\\ Sontag\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;21\\-year\\-old\\ alto\\ soloist\\ on\\ May\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ the\\ performance\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ninth\\ Symphony\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;generous\\,\\ hearty\\ and\\ outgoing\\ person\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ who\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;less\\ delicate\\ and\\ more\\ down\\-to\\-earth\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ Sontag\\.\\ \\ \\;Never\\ as\\ famous\\ as\\ her\\ friend\\ but\\ had\\ a\\ successful\\ operatic\\ career\\ nonetheless\\.\\ \\ \\;Supposedly\\ turned\\ Beethoven\\ around\\ to\\ see\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vibrato\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\a\\ slightly\\ tremulous\\ effect\\ imparted\\ to\\ vocal\\ or\\ instrumental\\ tone\\ for\\ added\\ warmth\\ and\\ expressiveness\\ by\\ slight\\ and\\ rapid\\ variations\\ in\\ pitch\\.\\ \\ \\;Close\\ to\\ a\\ trill\\,\\ this\\ technique\\ is\\ also\\ notable\\ in\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Woodwinds\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ class\\ of\\ instruments\\ that\\ produce\\ sound\\ when\\ the\\ player\\ blows\\ through\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\reed\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ across\\ an\\ aperture\\.\\ An\\ early\\ woodwind\\ instrument\\ heard\\ in\\ Moneverdi\\&\\#39\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\recorder\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Woodwind\\ instruments\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\symphony\\ orchestra\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;include\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\flute\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\oboe\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ its\\ relative\\ the\\ English\\ horn\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\clarinet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\bassoon\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hodson\\,\\ Millicent\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recently\\ reconstructed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ the\\ Goeffrey\\ Ballet\\;\\ gives\\ us\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;good\\ idea\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ primitive\\ dancing\\ might\\ have\\ looked\\ like\\,\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;the\\ dancers\\ keeping\\ their\\ toes\\ turned\\ in\\ and\\ knees\\ together\\,\\ jumping\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;on\\ straight\\ legs\\,\\ and\\ repeating\\ the\\ same\\ motions\\ over\\ and\\ over\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\impresario\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ manager\\ or\\ conductor\\ of\\ an\\ opera\\ or\\ concert\\ company\\;\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;who\\ this\\ is\\ referring\\ to\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\March\\ to\\ the\\ Scaffold\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fourth\\ movement\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ the\\ artist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;imagines\\ that\\ he\\ has\\ killed\\ his\\ beloved\\ and\\ is\\ marching\\ to\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;own\\ execution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Moke\\,\\ Camille\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;\\ fianc\\é\\;e\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ the\\ premiere\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;the\\ 18\\-year\\-old\\ taught\\ piano\\ where\\ Berlioz\\ taught\\ guitar\\;\\ it\\ was\\ she\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;who\\ told\\ Berlioz\\ that\\ Harriet\\ Smithson\\ was\\ very\\ promiscuous\\,\\ making\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Berlioz\\ angry\\ and\\ possibly\\ provoking\\ him\\ to\\ have\\ the\\ artist\\ change\\ his\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;image\\ of\\ the\\ beloved\\ after\\ thinking\\ that\\ she\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ faithful\\ to\\ him\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Nijinsky\\,\\ Vaslav\\ \\&ndash\\;greatest\\ male\\ dancer\\ of\\ his\\ time\\;\\ famous\\ for\\ his\\ huge\\ leaps\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;choreographed\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ was\\ atypical\\ for\\ it\\ day\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ dancers\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;kept\\ arms\\ at\\ sides\\,\\ feet\\ pointing\\ inwards\\,\\ knees\\ together\\,\\ and\\ jumped\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;on\\ straight\\ legs\\.\\ \\ \\;Repeated\\ the\\ same\\ movements\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\oratorio\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ grand\\ dramatic\\ pieces\\ of\\ music\\ on\\ religious\\ subjects\\,\\ sung\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;in\\ English\\,\\ without\\ scenery\\ or\\ costumes\\,\\ often\\ tells\\ a\\ story\\,\\ meant\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;entertainment\\,\\ not\\ acted\\ out\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\syncopation\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ accented\\ notes\\ occur\\ on\\ the\\ weak\\ beats\\ instead\\ of\\ strong\\ beats\\;\\ I\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ which\\ piece\\ this\\ refers\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Bassoon\\-\\ The\\ bassoon\\ is\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ woodwind\\ section\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ symphony\\ orchestra\\.\\ The\\ bassoon\\ is\\ a\\ large\\ instrument\\ with\\ a\\ low\\ range\\.\\ Because\\ of\\ its\\ great\\ length\\,\\ it\\ is\\ folded\\ in\\ half\\ so\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ be\\ easily\\ managed\\ by\\ the\\ player\\.\\ To\\ produce\\ sound\\,\\ the\\ player\\ blows\\ through\\ a\\ double\\ reed\\ to\\ set\\ a\\ column\\ of\\ air\\ vibrating\\ within\\ the\\ instrument\\&\\#39\\;s\\ conical\\ bore\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ larger\\ and\\ deeper\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ bassoon\\,\\ the\\ contrabassoon\\,\\ appears\\ in\\ Stravinsky\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Carnival\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ first\\ performed\\ in\\ the\\ duke\\&rsquo\\;s\\ palace\\ in\\ Mantua\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ carnival\\ season\\,\\ which\\ preceded\\ Lent\\.\\ \\ \\;Carnival\\ was\\ a\\ party\\ time\\ before\\ Lent\\,\\ when\\ theatrical\\ performance\\ was\\ prohibited\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ production\\ was\\ under\\ pressure\\ to\\ be\\ ready\\ before\\ Lent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chittarrone\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;A\\ lute\\ is\\ a\\ plucked\\ stringed\\ instrument\\ with\\ a\\ pear\\-shaped\\ body\\.\\ The\\ chitarrone\\,\\ a\\ large\\ lute\\ with\\ several\\ bass\\ strings\\,\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ continuo\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ instrument\\ was\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ scenes\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\L\\&rsquo\\;Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;that\\ take\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ earth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Cibber\\,\\ Susannah\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\a\\ soprano\\/light\\ alto\\ soloist\\ in\\ the\\ Dublin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;\\(p\\.81\\ of\\ our\\ text\\ says\\ she\\ is\\ a\\ light\\ alto\\?\\ But\\ the\\ handout\\ says\\ soprano\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\ had\\ triumphed\\ in\\ London\\ but\\ had\\ a\\ reputation\\ of\\ scandal\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ was\\ forced\\ into\\ retirement\\ because\\ she\\ ran\\ off\\ with\\ another\\ man\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ actresses\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Better\\ actress\\ than\\ singer\\,\\ but\\ Handel\\ liked\\ her\\ and\\ so\\ had\\ patience\\ with\\ her\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;He\\ shall\\ feed\\ his\\ flock\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;If\\ God\\ be\\ fore\\ us\\&rdquo\\;\\ written\\ to\\ fit\\ her\\ voice\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Danse\\ des\\ Adolescentes\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ second\\ movement\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Stravinsky\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ curtain\\ goes\\ up\\ and\\ an\\ old\\ woman\\ teaches\\ rituals\\ to\\ young\\ girls\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ 2\\/4\\ duple\\ meter\\,\\ has\\ an\\ E\\-flat\\,\\ strings\\,\\ and\\ 8\\ French\\ horns\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Website\\ stuff\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;This\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ regular\\ sections\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ It\\ is\\ almost\\ entirely\\ in\\ 2\\/4\\ \\(duple\\ meter\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ clear\\ pulse\\ can\\ be\\ felt\\ throughout\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ centers\\ on\\ E\\-flat\\,\\ though\\ Stravinsky\\ complicates\\ things\\ with\\ chromatic\\ notes\\ from\\ other\\ keys\\.\\ The\\ section\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ subsections\\.\\ The\\ first\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ dissonant\\ polychord\\ pounded\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ strings\\ with\\ eight\\ French\\ horn\\ adding\\ unpredictable\\ accents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/a\\>\\Melodic\\ fragments\\ with\\ a\\ narrow\\ range\\ are\\ interjected\\ and\\ subtly\\ varied\\ by\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ instruments\\.\\ This\\ subsection\\ concludes\\ with\\ a\\ climactic\\ crashing\\ sound\\.\\ The\\ second\\ section\\ is\\ softer\\,\\ featuring\\ the\\ four\\-note\\ ostinato\\ over\\ a\\ dissonant\\ background\\ of\\ trills\\.\\ A\\ couple\\ of\\ new\\ themes\\ are\\ introduced\\:\\ one\\ accompanies\\ the\\ entrance\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ girls\\,\\ the\\ other\\ foreshadows\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;Round\\ Dances\\ of\\ Spring\\"\\;\\ section\\.\\ The\\ last\\ section\\ involves\\ a\\ key\\ change\\ and\\ an\\ intensification\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;young\\ girls\\"\\;\\ theme\\ \\(notice\\ how\\ the\\ four\\-note\\ ostinato\\ disappears\\ in\\ this\\ last\\ section\\)\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pifa\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;This\\ is\\ a\\ term\\ unique\\ to\\ Handel\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ is\\ an\\ instrumental\\ piece\\ that\\ evokes\\ a\\ pastoral\\ mood\\ and\\ uses\\ many\\ instruments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rambert\\,\\ Marie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ in\\ the\\ premier\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\ du\\ Printemps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ aided\\ Nijinsky\\ teaching\\ choreography\\.\\ \\ \\;Her\\ photograph\\ appears\\ an\\ p\\.289\\ of\\ First\\ Nights\\ text\\.\\ \\ \\;Supposedly\\ she\\ wrote\\ about\\ her\\ experience\\ of\\ the\\ premier\\,\\ though\\ the\\ actual\\ document\\ does\\ not\\ appear\\ in\\ Kelly\\&rsquo\\;s\\ text\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Recitative\\:\\ a\\ declamatory\\ style\\ of\\ text\\ that\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ mimic\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ natural\\ rhythms\\ and\\ cadences\\ of\\ speech\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Glossary\\,\\ online\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Solo\\ is\\ given\\ melodic\\ line\\,\\ with\\ harmonic\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Recitativo\\ secco\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;dry\\ recitative\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Italian\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recitative\\ style\\ which\\ has\\ minimal\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\,\\ as\\ in\\ only\\ basso\\ continuo\\ under\\ the\\ single\\ vocal\\ line\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Roerich\\,\\ Nicholas\\ \\ \\;\\ \\[Two\\ examples\\ from\\ Messiah\\:\\ Behold\\,\\ a\\ virgin\\ shall\\ conceive\\;\\ Then\\ shall\\ the\\ eyes\\ of\\ the\\ blind\\ be\\ open\\&rsquo\\;d\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Recitativo\\ accompagnato\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;accompanied\\ recitative\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Italian\\)\\ \\ \\;recitative\\ style\\ which\\ a\\ more\\ active\\ instrumental\\ accompaniment\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ basso\\ continuo\\ is\\ accompanied\\ by\\ other\\ instruments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\[Two\\ examples\\ from\\ Messiah\\:\\ And\\ suddenly\\,\\ there\\ was\\ with\\ the\\ angel\\ a\\ multitude\\;\\ For\\ behold\\,\\ darkness\\ shall\\ overcome\\ the\\ earth\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Serpent\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ an\\ ancient\\ bass\\ \\(hybrid\\ woodwind\\,\\ brass\\)\\ instrument\\ made\\ of\\ wood\\ and\\ snakelike\\ in\\ shape\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ last\\ movement\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Berlioz\\ calls\\ for\\ the\\ addition\\ of\\ a\\ serpent\\.\\ \\ \\;Used\\ prolifically\\ in\\ French\\ churches\\,\\ and\\ accompanies\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dies\\ irae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;because\\ of\\ this\\ association\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Kiss\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ formally\\ entitled\\ the\\ Adoration\\ of\\ the\\ Earth\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ brief\\ section\\ in\\ Part\\ I\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\ du\\ Printemps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ brief\\ hushed\\ series\\ of\\ chords\\ while\\ the\\ Sage\\ ritually\\ kisses\\ the\\ earth\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Listening\\ Guide\\,\\ online\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Danse\\ des\\ Adolescentes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\ \\(p\\.\\ 11\\ in\\ score\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Second\\ section\\ of\\ Part\\ 1\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Listening\\ section\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.courses\\.fas\\.harvard\\.edu\\/\\~lab51\\/sacre\\/listening\\_guide\\.html\\#2\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Analysis\\:\\ This\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ regular\\ sections\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ It\\ is\\ almost\\ entirely\\ in\\ 2\\/4\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\duple\\ meter\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ and\\ a\\ clear\\ pulse\\ can\\ be\\ felt\\ throughout\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ music\\ centers\\ on\\ E\\-flat\\,\\ though\\ Stravinsky\\ complicates\\ things\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\chromatic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\notes\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\keys\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ section\\ can\\ be\\ divided\\ into\\ three\\ subsections\\.\\ The\\ first\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\dissonant\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\polychord\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pounded\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\strings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ eight\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\French\\ horn\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;adding\\ unpredictable\\ accents\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Melodic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;fragments\\ with\\ a\\ narrow\\ range\\ are\\ interjected\\ and\\ subtly\\ varied\\ by\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ instruments\\.\\ This\\ subsection\\ concludes\\ with\\ a\\ climactic\\ crashing\\ sound\\.\\ The\\ second\\ section\\ is\\ softer\\,\\ featuring\\ the\\ four\\-note\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ostinato\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;over\\ a\\ dissonant\\ background\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trills\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ A\\ couple\\ of\\ new\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\themes\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ introduced\\:\\ one\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\accompanies\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ entrance\\ of\\ the\\ young\\ girls\\,\\ the\\ other\\ foreshadows\\ the\\ music\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;Round\\ Dances\\ of\\ Spring\\"\\;\\ section\\.\\ The\\ last\\ section\\ involves\\ a\\ key\\ change\\ and\\ an\\ intensification\\ of\\ the\\ \\"\\;young\\ girls\\"\\;\\ theme\\ \\(notice\\ how\\ the\\ four\\-note\\ ostinato\\ disappears\\ in\\ this\\ last\\ section\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Danse\\ sacrale\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sacrificial\\ Dance\\ \\(p\\.\\ 112\\ in\\ score\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ finale\\ of\\ the\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\ where\\ the\\ chosen\\ woman\\,\\ portrayed\\ by\\ Marie\\ Piltz\\ in\\ the\\ premiere\\,\\ dances\\ herself\\ to\\ death\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ final\\ movement\\ is\\ in\\ five\\ main\\ parts\\:\\\\{A\\}\\ begins\\ with\\ accented\\,\\ percussive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\chords\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\dissonant\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ descending\\ three\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\\\note\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;figure\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\violins\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\\\{B\\ \\-\\ 0\\&\\#39\\;32\\"\\;\\}\\ has\\ tense\\ chord\\ repetitions\\ which\\ begin\\ in\\ the\\ lower\\ instruments\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ fast\\ six\\-note\\ descending\\ figure\\ which\\ is\\ exchanged\\ between\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trumpets\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trombones\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Higher\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\strings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ chord\\ repetitions\\ for\\ increased\\ tension\\ and\\ finally\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trills\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ added\\ to\\ the\\ agitation\\.\\\\{A1\\ \\-\\ 1\\&\\#39\\;56\\"\\;\\}\\ is\\ a\\ brief\\ return\\ of\\ the\\ accented\\ chords\\ and\\ three\\-note\\ descending\\ figure\\.\\\\{C\\ \\-\\ 2\\&\\#39\\;25\\"\\;\\}\\ has\\ pounding\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\timpani\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ an\\ accented\\ figure\\ outlining\\ a\\ dissonant\\ interval\\ \\(in\\ this\\ case\\ a\\ tritone\\)\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\brass\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ At\\ about\\ 3\\&\\#39\\;03\\"\\;\\ material\\ from\\ \\{A\\}\\ interjects\\ briefly\\,\\ only\\ to\\ be\\ cut\\ off\\ by\\ increasingly\\ frantic\\ interjections\\ by\\ the\\ brass\\ with\\ short\\ ascending\\ glissandi\\.\\\\{A2\\ \\-\\ 3\\&\\#39\\;33\\"\\;\\}\\ starts\\ in\\ a\\ low\\ register\\ and\\ builds\\ in\\ intensity\\ using\\ a\\ four\\-note\\ ascending\\ figure\\.\\ A\\ fleeting\\ ascending\\ scale\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\flutes\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ piccolos\\ precedes\\ the\\ final\\ death\\ chord\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\development\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ This\\ is\\ the\\ middle\\ section\\ of\\ a\\ movement\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\sonata\\ form\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ contrasting\\ themes\\ presented\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\exposition\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\*\\ \\(below\\)\\ are\\ developed\\ in\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ new\\ and\\ different\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Diaghilev\\,\\ Serge\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ founded\\ the\\ Ballets\\ Russes\\,\\ the\\ troupe\\ that\\ danced\\ in\\ the\\ premiere\\ of\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\.\\ Had\\ previously\\ worked\\ with\\ Nijinsky\\,\\ who\\ choreographed\\ Rite\\ of\\ Spring\\.\\ He\\ and\\ his\\ Ballets\\ Russes\\ presented\\ in\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ what\\ are\\ considered\\ by\\ some\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ creative\\ and\\ influential\\ dance\\ and\\ musical\\ works\\ of\\ all\\ time\\.\\ He\\ had\\ set\\ designs\\ done\\ by\\ artists\\ Picasso\\,\\ Matisse\\,\\ Henri\\ Laurens\\ and\\ many\\ more\\.\\ He\\ had\\ in\\ his\\ troupe\\ the\\ two\\ most\\ famous\\ ballet\\ dancers\\ of\\ all\\ time\\:\\ Nijinsky\\ and\\ Pavlova\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Diaghilev\\ himself\\ was\\ an\\ all\\-around\\ connoisseur\\.\\ Growing\\ up\\ he\\ played\\ piano\\,\\ sang\\,\\ composed\\,\\ painted\\,\\ edited\\ a\\ journal\\.\\ Also\\ a\\ homosexual\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\dies\\ irae\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\day\\ of\\ wrath\\ \\(Latin\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ A\\ piece\\ of\\ chant\\ that\\ was\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ mass\\ for\\ the\\ dead\\ in\\ the\\ Roman\\ catholic\\ liturgy\\.\\ Berlioz\\ parodies\\ this\\ sacred\\ melody\\ in\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\dissonance\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\"\\;notes\\ not\\ sounding\\ well\\ together\\;\\"\\;\\ the\\ antonym\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\consonance\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ term\\ \\"\\;dissonance\\"\\;\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ effect\\ produced\\ by\\ two\\ or\\ more\\ notes\\ sounded\\ together\\ or\\ in\\ immediate\\ succession\\,\\ when\\ the\\ combination\\ is\\ judged\\ to\\ be\\ unstable\\ or\\ unpleasant\\.\\ For\\ further\\ information\\ see\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\consonance\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gonzaga\\,\\ Francesco\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ heir\\ to\\ the\\ dukedom\\ of\\ Mantua\\,\\ originator\\ and\\ driving\\ force\\ behind\\ Orfeo\\.\\ Active\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ Accademia\\ degli\\ Invaghiti\\ \\(Academy\\ of\\ the\\ lovestruck\\?\\)\\,\\ he\\ often\\ planned\\ musical\\ and\\ theatrical\\ performances\\.\\ Series\\ of\\ letters\\ between\\ him\\ and\\ his\\ younger\\ brother\\ Ferdinando\\ provides\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ information\\ we\\ have\\ about\\ the\\ planning\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\,\\ and\\ they\\ show\\ Francesco\\ as\\ an\\ important\\ force\\ for\\ making\\ the\\ performance\\ happen\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\e\\-flat\\ clarinet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ The\\ clarinet\\ is\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\woodwind\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;section\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\symphony\\ orchestra\\.\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ To\\ produce\\ sound\\,\\ the\\ player\\ blows\\ through\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\mouthpiece\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;with\\ a\\ single\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\reed\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ set\\ a\\ column\\ of\\ air\\ vibrating\\ within\\ the\\ instrument\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cylindrical\\ bore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Clarinets\\ are\\ made\\ in\\ several\\ sizes\\,\\ the\\ most\\ common\\ being\\ the\\ B\\ flat\\ clarinet\\.\\ Other\\ kinds\\ that\\ often\\ appear\\ in\\ the\\ orchestra\\ include\\ the\\ A\\ clarinet\\,\\ a\\ larger\\ instrument\\ that\\ is\\ pitched\\ somewhat\\ lower\\,\\ and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\E\\ flat\\ clarinet\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ smaller\\ instrument\\ that\\ is\\ pitched\\ somewhat\\ higher\\.\\ Berlioz\\ calls\\ for\\ an\\ e\\ flat\\ clarinet\\ in\\ the\\ final\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ Fantastic\\ Symphony\\ during\\ the\\ witches\\&rsquo\\;\\ dance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\English\\ horn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ a\\ relative\\ of\\ the\\ oboe\\ with\\ a\\ slightly\\ lower\\ range\\ and\\ darker\\ sound\\ quality\\.\\ The\\ English\\ horn\\ is\\ often\\ included\\ in\\ the\\ orchestra\\ and\\ can\\ be\\ recognized\\ by\\ its\\ distinctive\\ egg\\-shaped\\ bell\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ English\\ horn\\ is\\ pitched\\ in\\ F\\,\\ that\\ is\\,\\ it\\ sounds\\ a\\ fifth\\ lower\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ written\\.\\ \\(See\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\transposing\\ instruments\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berlioz\\ uses\\ the\\ oboe\\ and\\ English\\ horn\\ prominently\\ in\\ the\\ third\\ movement\\ of\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ evoke\\ the\\ mournful\\ sound\\ of\\ shepherds\\&\\#39\\;\\ pipes\\.\\ Listen\\ to\\ a\\ portion\\ of\\ the\\ opening\\ duet\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ instruments\\ in\\ this\\ movement\\.\\ The\\ English\\ horn\\ is\\ the\\ lower\\ instrument\\,\\ the\\ oboe\\ is\\ the\\ higher\\ one\\.\\*\\*\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\listening\\ on\\ the\\ website\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Estelle\\ Fournier\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ born\\ Estelle\\ Debeuf\\,\\ was\\ the\\ infatuation\\ of\\ Berlioz\\ that\\ helped\\ to\\ inspire\\ the\\ Fantastic\\ Symphony\\.\\ His\\ helpless\\ love\\ for\\ Estelle\\ and\\ Shakespearian\\ actress\\ Harriet\\ Smithson\\ combined\\ to\\ create\\ his\\ lovesick\\ character\\ in\\ the\\ Fantastic\\ Symphony\\.\\ In\\ his\\ younger\\ years\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ first\\ attempts\\ at\\ composing\\,\\ he\\ wrote\\ a\\ song\\ called\\ Estelle\\ et\\ Nemorin\\,\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ confesses\\ his\\ sadness\\ at\\ leaving\\ Estelle\\.\\ The\\ melody\\ of\\ this\\ song\\ was\\ to\\ become\\,\\ says\\ Berlioz\\,\\ the\\ melody\\ of\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ of\\ the\\ symphony\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Euridice\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ love\\,\\ who\\ is\\ killed\\ by\\ a\\ snakebite\\ in\\ act\\ 2\\ of\\ Monteverdi\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Orfeo\\.\\ Orfeo\\ goes\\ to\\ the\\ underworld\\ to\\ get\\ her\\ back\\ by\\ serenading\\ Pluto\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\*\\<\\/span\\>\\exposition\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ The\\ opening\\ section\\ of\\ a\\ movement\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\sonata\\ form\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ which\\ two\\ contrasting\\ themes\\ are\\ introduced\\,\\ the\\ first\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tonic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;key\\,\\ the\\ second\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\dominant\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Fugal\\ exposition\\:\\ listening\\ exercise\\ available\\ on\\ the\\ website\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fermata\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;stop\\"\\;\\ \\(Italian\\)\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;A\\ symbol\\ in\\ musical\\ notation\\ that\\ appears\\ over\\ a\\ note\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\rest\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ thereby\\ instructing\\ the\\ performer\\ to\\ extend\\ the\\ duration\\ of\\ that\\ note\\ or\\ rest\\ \\.\\ The\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\ is\\ left\\ to\\ the\\ discretion\\ of\\ the\\ performer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Fishamble\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ street\\ in\\ Dublin\\ on\\ which\\ the\\ Great\\ Music\\ Hall\\ stood\\,\\ where\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ of\\ Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;took\\ place\\.\\ I\\ think\\ Kelly\\ had\\ some\\ recent\\ pictures\\ of\\ Fishamble\\ Street\\ in\\ class\\ one\\ day\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ probably\\ more\\ about\\ it\\ but\\ I\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ find\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\folk\\ melodies\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ they\\ want\\ for\\ this\\ one\\,\\ seems\\ kind\\ of\\ stupid\\.\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ any\\ bullshit\\ here\\ will\\ be\\ fine\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Astruc\\,\\ Gabriel\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ndash\\;\\ handled\\ business\\ matters\\ for\\ Diaghilev\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Ballets\\ Russes\\,\\ conceived\\ and\\ funded\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ Theatre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\,\\ the\\ first\\ theater\\ made\\ of\\ reinforced\\ concrete\\.\\ He\\ was\\ not\\ able\\ to\\ build\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\ itself\\ as\\ he\\ had\\ planned\\,\\ maybe\\ because\\ he\\ was\\ Jewish\\ and\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ very\\ anti\\-Semite\\ attitude\\ around\\.\\ He\\ received\\ further\\ resentment\\ from\\ the\\ public\\ because\\ they\\ felt\\ that\\ he\\ allowed\\ too\\ much\\ foreign\\-influenced\\ music\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Habeneck\\,\\ Fran\\ç\\;ois\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Conducted\\ the\\ first\\ performance\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fantastic\\ Symphony\\.\\ His\\ style\\ of\\ conducting\\ was\\ unique\\ in\\ that\\ he\\ faced\\ the\\ musicians\\ and\\ used\\ a\\ violin\\ bow\\ to\\ keep\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ also\\ notorious\\ for\\ calling\\ out\\ musicians\\ who\\ made\\ mistakes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Identifications\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\\\\\\\\\Polytonality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h2\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\The\\ simultaneous\\ use\\ of\\ more\\ than\\ one\\ key\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Program\\ Music\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\A\\ piece\\ of\\ instrumental\\ music\\,\\ often\\ for\\ orchestra\\,\\ which\\ is\\ associated\\ with\\ a\\ program\\,\\ a\\ set\\ of\\ extra\\-musical\\ ideas\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ program\\ may\\ be\\ secret\\,\\ or\\ may\\ be\\ communicated\\ to\\ the\\ audience\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ Berlioz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Programs\\ vary\\ in\\ their\\ length\\ and\\ level\\ of\\ detail\\,\\ ranging\\ from\\ lengthy\\ texts\\ to\\ an\\ evocative\\ title\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rasi\\,\\ Francesco\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\A\\ Mantuan\\ singer\\,\\ poet\\ and\\ composer\\ who\\ took\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ Orpheus\\ in\\ Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\The\\ rhythm\\ of\\ a\\ passage\\ of\\ music\\ is\\ the\\ pattern\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ timing\\ and\\ duration\\ of\\ musical\\ events\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ rhythm\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\melody\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ to\\ specify\\ the\\ temporal\\ position\\ and\\ length\\ of\\ each\\ note\\ in\\ relation\\ to\\ every\\ other\\ note\\.\\ Rhythm\\ is\\ a\\ fundamental\\ parameter\\ of\\ music\\,\\ so\\ that\\ altering\\ rhythm\\ may\\ profoundly\\ affect\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ a\\ passage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Romanticism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\Of\\ the\\ Romantic\\ period\\ in\\ music\\ history\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1820\\ to\\ 1900\\.\\ The\\ term\\ is\\ applied\\ in\\ particular\\ to\\ works\\ that\\ reflect\\ the\\ influence\\ of\\ the\\ Romantic\\ movement\\ in\\ literature\\ and\\ the\\ visual\\ arts\\,\\ characterized\\ by\\ emotionally\\ charged\\ subject\\ matter\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ supernatural\\,\\ the\\ exotic\\,\\ nature\\ and\\ human\\ passion\\.\\ Music\\ of\\ the\\ Romantic\\ era\\ is\\ often\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ emphasis\\ on\\ melody\\,\\ innovative\\ approaches\\ to\\ standard\\ forms\\,\\ complex\\ harmony\\ and\\ intense\\ emotional\\ expression\\.\\ Many\\ compositions\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\programmatic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ related\\ to\\ extra\\-musical\\ subject\\ matter\\.\\ Berlioz\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Symphony\\ fantastique\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;reflects\\ the\\ aesthetic\\ of\\ the\\ era\\ in\\ its\\ bold\\ harmony\\,\\ formal\\ innovations\\,\\ unusual\\ orchestral\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\timbres\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ Romantic\\ program\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Sequence\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\A\\ short\\ musical\\ pattern\\ that\\ is\\ repeated\\ at\\ successively\\ ascending\\ or\\ descending\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\pitches\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Sonata\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ standard\\ form\\ of\\ the\\ Classical\\ and\\ Romantic\\ period\\ and\\ consists\\ of\\ three\\ sections\\:\\ The\\ exposition\\ states\\ two\\ contrasting\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\themes\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ first\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tonic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;key\\,\\ the\\ second\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ key\\ from\\ the\\ tonic\\.\\ This\\ section\\ ends\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\cadence\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ new\\,\\ non\\-tonic\\ key\\.\\ The\\ development\\ follows\\ the\\ exposition\\.\\ This\\ is\\ where\\ the\\ composer\\ explores\\ the\\ themes\\ introduced\\ in\\ the\\ exposition\\,\\ re\\-working\\ them\\ through\\ varied\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\melodic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\harmonic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\rhythmic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;treatment\\.\\ The\\ recapitulation\\ re\\-introduces\\ the\\ two\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ exposition\\,\\ both\\ of\\ which\\ are\\ now\\ played\\ in\\ the\\ tonic\\ key\\.\\ Often\\,\\ the\\ recapitulation\\ is\\ followed\\ by\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\coda\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Spring\\ Rounds\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Round\\ Dances\\ of\\ Spring\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ a\\ slow\\,\\ reflective\\ section\\,\\ which\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\thematically\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ tonally\\ recalls\\ the\\ \\"\\;Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\.\\"\\;\\ \\[Stravinksky\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sacre\\]\\ The\\ music\\ begins\\ with\\ a\\ slow\\,\\ sing\\-song\\ line\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\clarinets\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ will\\ return\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ section\\.\\ Then\\ a\\ rising\\,\\ ponderous\\ series\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\chords\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;forms\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\rhythmic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\harmonic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ostinato\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ A\\ slightly\\ altered\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\melody\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ the\\ \\"\\;Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\"\\;\\ reappears\\.\\ Another\\ theme\\ from\\ the\\ \\"\\;Dance\\ of\\ the\\ Adolescents\\"\\;\\ then\\ reappears\\ over\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ostinato\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Dynamics\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;increase\\ as\\ more\\ instruments\\ \\(and\\ more\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\dissonant\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;notes\\)\\ are\\ added\\,\\ reaching\\ a\\ high\\ point\\ with\\ glissandos\\ \\(sliding\\ from\\ one\\ note\\ to\\ another\\)\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\trombones\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ the\\ percussion\\ instruments\\.\\ An\\ abrupt\\ interruption\\ by\\ the\\ fanfare\\ material\\ of\\ the\\ preceding\\ section\\ leads\\ again\\ to\\ the\\ slow\\ melody\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\clarinets\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Theatre\\ des\\ Champs\\-Elysees\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\The\\ location\\ of\\ Stravinksy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ premiere\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Le\\ Sacre\\ du\\ Printemps\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;New\\ theatre\\ built\\ in\\ 1913\\ with\\ the\\ intention\\ of\\ being\\ a\\ magnet\\ for\\ persons\\ of\\ style\\.\\ Conceived\\ and\\ constructed\\ by\\ Gabriel\\ Astruc\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\\\\\\\Tonic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\\\\\This\\ refers\\ to\\ the\\ first\\ note\\ of\\ any\\ given\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ tonic\\ of\\ C\\ major\\ is\\ C\\.\\ The\\ tonic\\ of\\ e\\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;minor\\ is\\ e\\<\\/span\\>\\b\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ etc\\.\\ The\\ tonic\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ note\\ in\\ a\\ scale\\,\\ exerting\\ a\\ certain\\ aural\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;gravitational\\ pull\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ notes\\ in\\ the\\ scale\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/td\\>\\<\\/tr\\>\\<\\/tbody\\>\\<\\/table\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Essays\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/h1\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\How\\ does\\ music\\ contribute\\ to\\ dramatic\\ expression\\ in\\ one\\ or\\ more\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Music\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ distinguish\\ between\\ \\&ldquo\\;speaking\\&rdquo\\;\\ discourse\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;singing\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(recitiative\\ and\\ aria\\)\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ the\\ chorus\\ sings\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ah\\!\\ Desolation\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ recitivism\\ is\\ used\\ to\\ depict\\ the\\ change\\ in\\ mood\\ and\\ setting\\.\\ Also\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ specific\\ instruments\\,\\ the\\ strings\\ are\\ used\\ to\\ represent\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ fable\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ A\\ specific\\ instance\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ text\\ contributes\\ to\\ dramatic\\ expression\\ is\\ the\\ entry\\ of\\ the\\ Messenger\\ \\(p\\.36\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ entrance\\ is\\ especially\\ jarring\\ since\\ he\\ comes\\ in\\ just\\ as\\ Orfeo\\ is\\ about\\ to\\ sing\\ in\\ joy\\.\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ upon\\ his\\ arrival\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ dramatic\\ shift\\ in\\ the\\ music\\ and\\ it\\ shifts\\ from\\ aria\\ to\\ recitative\\ with\\ a\\ more\\ irregular\\ meter\\,\\ change\\ in\\ rhythm\\,\\ and\\ drastic\\ jump\\ in\\ melody\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ plot\\ advances\\ through\\ recitatives\\ and\\ singing\\ signals\\ no\\ movement\\ of\\ the\\ plot\\,\\ but\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ character\\.\\ \\ \\;Arioso\\ \\(or\\ accompanied\\ recitative\\)\\ is\\ used\\ for\\ quick\\ changes\\ of\\ emotion\\ or\\ violent\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ sonata\\ form\\ compensates\\ for\\ the\\ lack\\ of\\ text\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ gives\\ the\\ listener\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ psychological\\ progression\\ and\\ as\\ the\\ music\\ gets\\ louder\\ in\\ the\\ development\\ section\\,\\ it\\ increases\\ suspense\\ and\\ builds\\ tension\\,\\ finally\\ reaching\\ a\\ climax\\ signaling\\ that\\ the\\ exploration\\ is\\ over\\ and\\ that\\ a\\ return\\ to\\ full\\,\\ ordered\\ statements\\ of\\ the\\ exposition\\ themes\\ is\\ the\\ next\\ point\\ of\\ order\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ the\\ chaotic\\ prelude\\ in\\ movement\\ IV\\ shows\\ the\\ arrival\\ of\\ violent\\ events\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Within\\ the\\ movements\\,\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ is\\ the\\ crucial\\ dramatic\\ force\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ introduced\\ when\\ the\\ artist\\ first\\ sees\\ his\\ beloved\\ and\\ is\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ representative\\ for\\ her\\ throughout\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ appears\\ briefly\\ at\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ march\\ to\\ the\\ scaffold\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;last\\ thought\\ of\\ love\\ interrupted\\ by\\ the\\ fatal\\ blow\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ During\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Dream\\ of\\ a\\ witches\\&rsquo\\;\\ Sabbath\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ the\\ id\\é\\;e\\ fixe\\ appears\\ for\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ in\\ a\\ spoiled\\ form\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Describe\\ the\\ musical\\ scores\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ we\\ have\\ studied\\;\\ what\\ do\\ they\\ tell\\ us\\,\\ and\\ what\\ they\\ do\\ not\\ tell\\ us\\,\\ about\\ the\\ performance\\ of\\ their\\ music\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Orfeo\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ 1609\\ score\\ includes\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ instruments\\ that\\ Monteverdi\\ prescribed\\ for\\ subsequent\\ performances\\ of\\ the\\ opera\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ also\\ includes\\ both\\ possible\\ lines\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;Possente\\ spirito\\&rdquo\\;\\ for\\ Orfeo\\ to\\ sing\\ because\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ is\\ much\\ simpler\\ than\\ the\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ may\\ show\\ us\\ that\\ these\\ two\\ versions\\ exist\\ because\\ there\\ is\\ the\\ chance\\ that\\ the\\ performer\\ of\\ Orfeo\\ is\\ not\\ skilled\\ enough\\ to\\ sing\\ the\\ ornamented\\ version\\ and\\ Monteverdi\\ wanted\\ to\\ ensure\\ that\\ future\\ performances\\ sounded\\ good\\.\\ The\\ 1609\\ score\\ also\\ contains\\ an\\ alternate\\ ending\\ in\\ which\\ Apollo\\ descends\\ and\\ sets\\ everything\\ right\\ in\\ Orfeo\\&rsquo\\;s\\ world\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Messiah\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;The\\ score\\ contains\\ a\\ piano\\ part\\ but\\ it\\ has\\ nothing\\ to\\ do\\ with\\ the\\ original\\ performance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Messiah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ Instead\\,\\ the\\ score\\ has\\ all\\ surviving\\ versions\\ of\\ every\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Handel\\&rsquo\\;s\\ handwritten\\ score\\ tells\\ us\\ who\\ sings\\ the\\ different\\ songs\\ and\\ it\\ also\\ reveals\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ songs\\ Handel\\ changed\\ into\\ recitatives\\ based\\ on\\ weaknesses\\ of\\ the\\ singers\\.\\ \\ \\;Overall\\,\\ it\\ raises\\ questions\\ of\\ how\\ music\\ represents\\ words\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beethoven\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ score\\ shoed\\ us\\ exactly\\ how\\ Beethoven\\ wanted\\ his\\ music\\ to\\ be\\ played\\.\\ The\\ instruments\\ were\\ all\\ listed\\ on\\ the\\ left\\ and\\ indications\\ of\\ tempo\\ and\\ time\\ were\\ given\\ for\\ the\\ singing\\ sections\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;Beethoven\\ also\\ included\\ stylistic\\ directions\\ such\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;fermata\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;ritardando\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;However\\,\\ this\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ reveal\\ the\\ seating\\ and\\ placement\\ of\\ the\\ performers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Symphonie\\ Fantastique\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ score\\ does\\ not\\ represent\\ the\\ 1830\\ performance\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ manuscript\\ the\\ movements\\ are\\ separate\\ fascicles\\,\\ written\\ at\\ different\\ times\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ papers\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ manuscript\\ also\\ has\\ corrections\\,\\ erasures\\ and\\ additions\\,\\ and\\ so\\ what\\ we\\ now\\ know\\ about\\ the\\ symphony\\ had\\ to\\ be\\ deduced\\ from\\ the\\ materials\\ that\\ survived\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ there\\ are\\ some\\ discrepancies\\,\\ i\\.e\\.\\ the\\ autograph\\ score\\ calls\\ for\\ muted\\ horns\\ at\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ 5\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;movement\\ while\\ the\\ published\\ version\\ does\\ not\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Le\\ Sacre\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ score\\ shows\\ differing\\ tempos\\ but\\ it\\ does\\ not\\ describe\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ performance\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ discussion\\ of\\ the\\ choreography\\ which\\ was\\ crucial\\ to\\ the\\ premiere\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Why\\ should\\ we\\ care\\ about\\ premieres\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Premieres\\ are\\ a\\ direct\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ musical\\,\\ political\\ and\\ cultural\\ times\\ of\\ the\\ pieces\\ in\\ question\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ can\\ tell\\ us\\ about\\ society\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ which\\ types\\ of\\ people\\ attended\\ shows\\,\\ and\\ who\\ artists\\ catered\\ their\\ music\\ to\\.\\ \\ \\;For\\ example\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Orfeo\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ performed\\ explicitly\\ for\\ intellectuals\\,\\ while\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Messiah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&rsquo\\;s\\ privileged\\ audience\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ music\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ charity\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ premiere\\ of\\ Beethoven\\&rsquo\\;s\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ it\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ look\\ into\\ the\\ strict\\ rules\\ of\\ decorum\\ present\\ in\\ Catholic\\ Vienna\\ and\\ it\\ gave\\ us\\ an\\ insight\\ into\\ the\\ educated\\ audiences\\ that\\ frequented\\ performances\\.\\ Premieres\\ are\\ also\\ the\\ best\\ way\\ for\\ us\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ composer\\ intended\\ for\\ the\\ music\\ to\\ be\\ presented\\ and\\ interpreted\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 37, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/FNs_-_Final_Study_Guide.doc", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:50+00:00", "embed_url": "", "name": "Subject Matter Jurisdiction", "tags": [], "text": "", "id": 593, "html": "\\SUBJECT\\ MATTER\\ JURISDICTION\\\\\r\n\\\r\nArticle\\ III\\,\\ \\§\\;\\§\\;1\\,\\ 2\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\[Can\\ be\\ dismissed\\ at\\ any\\ time\\ for\\ lack\\ of\\ SMJ\\:\\ 12\\(h\\)\\(3\\)\\]\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Each\\ type\\ of\\ subject\\ matter\\ jurisdiction\\ has\\ a\\ statutory\\ aspect\\ \\&\\;\\ a\\ constitutional\\ aspect\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ Question\\ Jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Constitutional\\:\\ Article\\ III\\,\\ \\§\\;2\\,\\ Osborn\\ \\[Constitutional\\ grant\\ is\\ broader\\ than\\ statutory\\ grant\\]\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Statutory\\:\\ 28\\ USC\\ \\§\\;1331\\ \\(The\\ district\\ courts\\ shall\\ have\\ original\\ jurisdiction\\ of\\ all\\ civil\\ actions\\ arising\\ under\\ the\\ Constitution\\,\\ laws\\,\\ or\\ treaties\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Need\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Well\\ Pleaded\\ Complaint\\ \\(Mottley\\)\\ and\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Character\\ of\\ Question\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Creation\\ or\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Smith\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Diversity\\ Jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Constitutional\\:\\ Article\\ III\\,\\ \\§\\;2\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Statutory\\:\\ 28\\ USC\\ \\§\\;1332\\,\\ Mas\\ \\(citizenship\\ \\+\\ domicile\\ \\(residency\\ \\+\\ intent\\ to\\ stay\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Supplemental\\ Jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Constitutional\\:\\ Article\\ III\\,\\ \\§\\;2\\ \\(cases\\ or\\ controversy\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Statutory\\:\\ 28\\ USC\\§\\;1367\\,\\ Gibbs\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Removal\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;28\\ USC\\ \\§\\;\\§\\;1441\\,\\ 1446\\ \\(D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Caterpillar\\:\\ not\\ complete\\ preemption\\ \\(federal\\ law\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ preempted\\ everything\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Nuclear\\/Complete\\/Full\\ Preemption\\:\\ some\\ things\\ are\\ so\\ federal\\ \\(ex\\:\\ patents\\,\\ nuclear\\ power\\)\\ that\\ they\\ get\\ you\\ into\\ federal\\ courts\\ automatically\\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Partial\\ preemption\\ does\\ not\\ remove\\ you\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFederal\\ Question\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ the\\ constitutional\\ level\\ is\\ broad\\ \\(federal\\ ingredient\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ statutory\\ level\\ is\\ narrower\\ \\(WPC\\,\\ Character\\ of\\ federal\\ issue\\&rarr\\;creation\\ test\\ \\&\\;\\ Smith\\ test\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nLook\\ for\\ copyright\\ infringement\\,\\ trademark\\ infringement\\,\\ patent\\ infringement\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ claim\\ is\\ invalid\\ on\\ the\\ merits\\,\\ dismissed\\ for\\ failure\\ to\\ state\\ a\\ claim\\ \\(12\\(b\\)\\(6\\)\\)\\,\\ not\\ lack\\ of\\ SMJ\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOsborn\\:\\ the\\ federal\\ courts\\ have\\ the\\ authority\\ to\\ take\\ any\\ question\\ that\\ concerns\\ national\\ bank\\ \\(this\\ is\\ also\\ true\\ for\\ bankruptcy\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ broader\\ than\\ the\\ arising\\ under\\ test\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ anything\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ which\\ the\\ judicial\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ Union\\ is\\ extended\\ by\\ the\\ constitution\\ forms\\ an\\ ingredient\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ case\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ Congress\\ can\\ give\\ the\\ lower\\ federal\\ courts\\ jurisdiction\\ of\\ that\\ case\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nJurisdiction\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ bare\\ possibility\\ of\\ a\\ federal\\ question\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nWell\\ Pleaded\\ Complaint\\ Rule\\\\\r\n\\\r\nMottley\\:\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nWell\\-Pleaded\\ Complaint\\ Rule\\:\\ Cause\\ of\\ action\\ has\\ to\\ arise\\ under\\ Constitution\\ or\\ Federal\\ Law\\,\\ and\\ this\\ federal\\ question\\ must\\ appear\\ in\\ the\\ complaint\\\\\r\n\\\r\nUnder\\ Mottley\\&rsquo\\;s\\ well\\ pleaded\\ complaint\\ rule\\,\\ the\\ court\\,\\ in\\ deciding\\ whether\\ cases\\ arise\\ under\\ federal\\ law\\ for\\ purposes\\ of\\ \\§\\;1331\\,\\ asks\\ whether\\ the\\ P\\ would\\ have\\ to\\ raise\\ the\\ federal\\ issue\\ in\\ a\\ complaint\\ which\\ includes\\ the\\ elements\\ she\\ needs\\ to\\ prove\\ her\\ claim\\,\\ and\\ only\\ those\\ elements\\.\\ If\\ P\\ can\\ avoid\\ stating\\ federal\\ claim\\ in\\ her\\ complaint\\,\\ no\\ arising\\ under\\ jurisdiction\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nWhy\\ have\\ the\\ WPC\\ Rule\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Disciplines\\ the\\ parties\\ \\&\\;\\ protects\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ control\\ over\\ his\\ case\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Allows\\ some\\ certainty\\:\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ we\\ see\\ the\\ complaint\\,\\ we\\ know\\ the\\ court\\ has\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ waiting\\ for\\ affirmative\\ defenses\\ \\(don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ to\\ base\\ jurisdiction\\ on\\ whether\\ something\\ is\\ attached\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Limits\\ the\\ burden\\ on\\ federal\\ courts\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Limit\\ federal\\ jurisdiction\\&rarr\\;narrows\\ scope\\ of\\ \\§\\;1331\\ at\\ statutory\\ level\\\\\r\n\\\r\n5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federalism\\ issue\\:\\ err\\ on\\ the\\ side\\ of\\ deferring\\ to\\ state\\ authority\\ \\&\\;\\ limiting\\ federal\\ authority\\ \\(federal\\ government\\ is\\ a\\ government\\ of\\ enumerated\\ powers\\.\\ In\\ borderline\\ cases\\,\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ defer\\ to\\ the\\ states\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Problems\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ states\\ may\\ adjudicate\\ important\\ federal\\ issues\\ \\(but\\ Congress\\ can\\ pass\\ statutes\\ that\\ confer\\ jurisdiction\\ on\\ certain\\ areas\\)\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ FRCP\\ deemphasizes\\ pleadings\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ it\\ harder\\ to\\ rely\\ on\\ pleading\\ as\\ an\\ effective\\ division\\ that\\ makes\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ cases\\&mdash\\;the\\ standard\\ is\\ not\\ for\\ careful\\ pleading\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ Pleading\\ formality\\ becomes\\ determinative\\ under\\ WPC\\ rule\\,\\ which\\ is\\ the\\ opposite\\ of\\ the\\ goal\\ of\\ FRCP\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Declaratory\\ judgment\\ does\\ not\\ affect\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ an\\ affirmative\\ defense\\)\\&rarr\\;for\\ WPC\\ rule\\,\\ look\\ at\\ would\\-be\\ P\\ \\(which\\ in\\ a\\ declaratory\\ judgment\\ case\\ is\\ the\\ D\\)\\,\\ see\\ Skelly\\ Oil\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCharacter\\ of\\ federal\\ issue\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ law\\ must\\ create\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\ \\(from\\ Holmes\\,\\ American\\ Well\\ Works\\ \\+\\ Article\\ III\\ \\§\\;2\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ law\\ creates\\ substantive\\ right\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ law\\ creates\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ suit\\ arises\\ under\\ the\\ law\\ that\\ creates\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\:\\ This\\ is\\ easy\\ when\\ a\\ federal\\ law\\ creates\\ the\\ substantive\\ right\\ and\\ authorizes\\ Ps\\ to\\ bring\\ suit\\ to\\ enforce\\ this\\ substantive\\ right\\.\\ But\\ when\\ federal\\ law\\ creates\\ the\\ substantive\\ right\\ but\\ does\\ not\\ create\\ a\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ meet\\ the\\ creation\\ test\\ \\(if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ contract\\ dispute\\ about\\ patents\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ state\\ court\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOR\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;The\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\ must\\ meet\\ the\\ Smith\\ test\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ Smith\\,\\ a\\ state\\ law\\ created\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\,\\ but\\ real\\ issue\\ was\\ whether\\ the\\ federal\\ statute\\ that\\ created\\ the\\ bonds\\ at\\ issue\\ was\\ constitutional\\.\\ The\\ question\\ presented\\ was\\ federal\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ order\\ to\\ answer\\ a\\ question\\ that\\ arises\\ under\\ state\\ law\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ address\\ a\\ federal\\ question\\ or\\ a\\ federal\\ statute\\.\\ If\\ the\\ court\\ can\\ avoid\\ addressing\\ a\\ federal\\ question\\ in\\ the\\ suit\\,\\ then\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ federal\\ jurisdiction\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Smith\\ Test\\ applies\\ when\\ federal\\ law\\ does\\ not\\ create\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ sue\\,\\ but\\ the\\ P\\,\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ establish\\ her\\ state\\ law\\ claim\\,\\ must\\ prove\\ a\\ proposition\\ of\\ federal\\ law\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nd\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Embedded\\ federal\\ issue\\ must\\ be\\ substantial\\&mdash\\;P\\ wants\\ to\\ establish\\ her\\ state\\ law\\ claim\\ by\\ reference\\ to\\ a\\ federal\\ law\\,\\ and\\ the\\ federal\\ issue\\ is\\ central\\ to\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ case\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHarms\\ v\\.\\ Eliscu\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCourt\\ applies\\ the\\ Smith\\ test\\:\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ copyright\\ infringement\\ claim\\ \\(which\\ is\\ federally\\ created\\)\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ a\\ contract\\ claim\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ state\\ case\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDiversity\\ Jurisdiction\\:\\ Complete\\ Diversity\\ \\+\\ Amount\\ In\\ Controversy\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPurposes\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ Protect\\ out\\-of\\-state\\ litigants\\ against\\ local\\ prejudice\\.\\ Also\\ to\\ protect\\ rural\\ people\\ from\\ urban\\ prejudice\\ \\(state\\ courts\\ are\\ all\\ over\\,\\ federal\\ courts\\ are\\ mostly\\ in\\ cities\\)\\.\\ \\(2\\)\\ Provide\\ a\\ nationwide\\ system\\ of\\ courts\\ in\\ which\\ important\\ commercial\\ disputes\\ could\\ be\\ adjudicated\\ and\\ a\\ uniform\\ system\\ of\\ law\\ applied\\.\\ Commercial\\ law\\ was\\ almost\\ entire\\ judge\\-made\\ common\\ law\\ which\\ could\\ vary\\ from\\ state\\ to\\ state\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ federal\\ courts\\ were\\ stable\\ \\&\\;\\ uniform\\ \\(but\\ now\\ under\\ Erie\\,\\ federal\\ courts\\ follow\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ sit\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProblems\\ with\\ diversity\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(Dean\\ Kramer\\,\\ p\\ 376\\)\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ diversity\\ cases\\ consume\\ federal\\ judicial\\ resources\\ \\&\\;\\ yet\\ have\\ a\\ weak\\ claim\\ on\\ those\\ resources\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ federal\\ courts\\ bring\\ no\\ special\\ expertise\\ to\\ questions\\ of\\ state\\ law\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ diversity\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ frequently\\ a\\ source\\ of\\ friction\\ between\\ state\\ \\&\\;\\ federal\\ courts\\ \\(sometimes\\ parties\\ file\\ simultaneous\\ suits\\ in\\ federal\\ \\&\\;\\ state\\ courts\\,\\ plus\\ often\\ state\\ \\&\\;\\ fed\\ courts\\ disagree\\)\\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ minimizing\\ frictions\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ court\\ system\\ sis\\ expensive\\ \\&\\;\\ time\\-consuming\\:\\ \\(5\\)\\&rdquo\\;diversity\\ jurisdiction\\ reduces\\ pressure\\ to\\ improve\\ state\\ courts\\;\\ \\(6\\)\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ original\\ justifications\\ no\\ longer\\ exist\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Date\\ for\\ determining\\ diversity\\ is\\ the\\ date\\ of\\ filing\\ suit\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nArguments\\ against\\ diversity\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Divert\\ resources\\ from\\ federal\\ questions\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Creates\\ conflict\\ between\\ state\\ and\\ federal\\ systems\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Removes\\ incentives\\/pressures\\ to\\ reform\\ state\\ courts\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;No\\ real\\ out\\ of\\ state\\ bias\\ to\\ protect\\ against\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Tool\\ to\\ create\\ protection\\ for\\ corporations\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nMas\\ v\\.\\ Perry\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHusband\\ is\\ French\\,\\ landlord\\ is\\ Louisiana\\,\\ wife\\ is\\ Mississippi\\ but\\ all\\ three\\ live\\ in\\ Louisiana\\.\\ Need\\ complete\\ diversity\\ for\\ diversity\\ jurisdiction\\ on\\ each\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;v\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(NY\\ \\&\\;\\ NY\\ v\\.\\ CA\\ \\&\\;\\ CA\\ is\\ ok\\,\\ Strawbridge\\ v\\.\\ Curtiss\\,\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ statutory\\ requirement\\ under\\ \\§\\;1332\\,\\ not\\ a\\ constitutional\\ requirement\\)\\.\\ Court\\ demands\\ complete\\ diversity\\ because\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ the\\ statute\\,\\ and\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ much\\ easier\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ statutory\\ question\\ than\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ make\\ it\\ a\\ constitutional\\ interpretation\\ question\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ burden\\ of\\ pleading\\ citizenship\\ of\\ each\\ party\\ is\\ on\\ the\\ party\\ claiming\\ diversity\\ \\(because\\ default\\ should\\ be\\ state\\ court\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\ issue\\ for\\ the\\ P\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nDefinition\\ of\\ state\\ citizenship\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;US\\ citizenship\\ \\(Dred\\ Scott\\ \\+\\ implicit\\ in\\ Art\\ III\\ \\§\\;2\\ that\\ it\\ must\\ be\\ between\\ US\\ citizens\\ \\&\\;\\ others\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\+\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;State\\ domicile\\ \\(at\\ the\\ moment\\ the\\ suit\\ is\\ filed\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Residency\\ in\\ fact\\ \\(physical\\ presence\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\+\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Intent\\ to\\ remain\\ indefinitely\\ \\(mental\\)\\ \\[need\\ to\\ form\\ an\\ intent\\ to\\ remain\\ indefinitely\\ in\\ a\\ new\\ state\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ lose\\ your\\ citizenship\\ in\\ current\\ state\\]\\.\\ Subjective\\ intent\\ to\\ make\\ state\\ \\&ldquo\\;home\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Corporations\\:\\ can\\ use\\ either\\ nerve\\ center\\ or\\ total\\ activity\\ test\\ to\\ determine\\ the\\ corporation\\&rsquo\\;s\\ principal\\ place\\ of\\ business\\,\\ but\\ a\\ corporation\\ can\\ only\\ have\\ one\\ principal\\ place\\ of\\ business\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAlso\\,\\ Ps\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fake\\ diversity\\ \\(Sam\\ \\(NY\\)\\ says\\ to\\ Taylor\\ \\(DC\\)\\,\\ sue\\ Robert\\ \\(NY\\)\\ for\\ me\\ in\\ diversity\\,\\ this\\ is\\ improper\\ or\\ collusive\\ joinder\\,\\ Kramer\\ v\\.\\ Carribean\\ Mills\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAmount\\ in\\ Controversy\\&rarr\\;necessary\\ in\\ diversity\\ cases\\,\\ not\\ in\\ federal\\ question\\ jurisdiction\\ cases\\:\\ must\\ be\\ at\\ least\\ \\$75\\,000\\.01\\ \\(\\§\\;1332\\(a\\)\\)\\.\\ Sum\\ claimed\\ by\\ P\\ controls\\ unless\\ it\\ appears\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ a\\ legal\\ certainty\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ the\\ claim\\ is\\ really\\ for\\ less\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ the\\ sum\\ of\\ the\\ party\\ with\\ greater\\ valuation\\.\\ \\(St\\.\\ Paul\\ Mercury\\ Indemnity\\ Co\\ v\\.\\ Red\\ Cab\\ Co\\:\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ faith\\ claim\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ AIC\\ requirement\\ controls\\ unless\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ a\\ legal\\ certainty\\ the\\ claim\\ is\\ really\\ for\\ less\\.\\ This\\ applies\\ to\\ the\\ amount\\ in\\ controversy\\,\\ not\\ the\\ amount\\ P\\ actually\\ gets\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ If\\ P\\ wants\\ to\\ be\\ in\\ state\\ court\\,\\ must\\ claim\\ less\\ than\\ \\$75\\,000\\ before\\ D\\ removes\\.\\ If\\ D\\ permissively\\ counterclaims\\ for\\ more\\ than\\ \\$75\\,000\\,\\ probably\\ does\\ not\\ meet\\ AIC\\.\\ If\\ D\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ is\\ compulsory\\,\\ courts\\ are\\ split\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSupplemental\\ Jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThere\\ is\\ a\\ conflict\\ between\\ Rules\\ revolution\\ \\(bring\\ more\\ stuff\\ in\\ to\\ court\\,\\ permissively\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ limits\\ on\\ federal\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(strict\\ rules\\ about\\ what\\ the\\ feds\\ can\\ hear\\)\\&rarr\\;\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ addresses\\ this\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n28\\ USC\\ \\§\\;1367\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(a\\)\\ if\\ district\\ courts\\ have\\ original\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ they\\ also\\ have\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ related\\ claims\\ \\(that\\ become\\ the\\ same\\ case\\ or\\ controversy\\ under\\ Art\\ III\\)\\.\\ This\\ includes\\ joinder\\ or\\ intervention\\ of\\ additional\\ parties\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(b\\)\\ if\\ court\\ has\\ original\\ jurisdiction\\ only\\ because\\ of\\ 28\\ USC\\ \\§\\;\\ 1332\\ \\(diversity\\ jurisdiction\\)\\,\\ courts\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ claims\\ made\\ under\\ Rules\\ 14\\,\\ 19\\,\\ 20\\,\\ 24\\.\\ \\(broad\\ grant\\ of\\ jurisdiction\\ applies\\ to\\ cases\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ original\\ claim\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ federal\\ law\\&rarr\\;if\\ P\\ adds\\ parties\\ that\\ destroy\\ diversity\\,\\ or\\ if\\ those\\ parties\\ intervene\\ by\\ right\\,\\ the\\ case\\ goes\\ back\\ to\\ state\\ court\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ removed\\ or\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(c\\)\\ district\\ courts\\ can\\ decline\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ if\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ the\\ claim\\ raises\\ a\\ novel\\ or\\ complex\\ issue\\ of\\ State\\ law\\,\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(2\\)\\ the\\ claim\\ substantially\\ predominates\\ over\\ the\\ claim\\ or\\ claims\\ over\\ which\\ the\\ district\\ court\\ has\\ original\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(3\\)\\ the\\ district\\ court\\ has\\ dismissed\\ all\\ claims\\ over\\ which\\ it\\ has\\ original\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ or\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(4\\)\\ in\\ exceptional\\ circumstances\\,\\ there\\ are\\ other\\ compelling\\ reasons\\ for\\ declining\\ jurisdiction\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n28\\ USC\\ 1367\\ \\(a\\)\\ \\+\\ \\(b\\)\\ work\\ together\\ to\\ authorize\\ broad\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ claims\\ combined\\ with\\ claims\\ brought\\ under\\ fed\\ question\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ and\\ to\\ authorize\\ a\\ somewhat\\ narrower\\ supp\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ claims\\ combined\\ with\\ state\\-law\\ claims\\ brought\\ under\\ diversity\\ jurisdiction\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ P\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ claims\\ against\\ nondiverse\\ impleaded\\ parties\\ and\\ remain\\ in\\ federal\\ courts\\,\\ but\\ D\\ can\\ sue\\ nondiverse\\ parties\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nD1\\ impleads\\ a\\ nondiverse\\ D2\\ \\(Rule\\ 14\\)\\.\\ But\\ original\\ P\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ bring\\ a\\ state\\ claim\\ against\\ D2\\.\\ D2\\ can\\ bring\\ a\\ new\\ claim\\ against\\ P\\.\\ But\\ when\\ nondiverse\\ D2\\ makes\\ a\\ claim\\ against\\ P\\,\\ and\\ P\\ has\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ compulsory\\ counterclaim\\,\\ the\\ case\\ just\\ gets\\ knocked\\ back\\ into\\ state\\ court\\.\\ \\;\\ Courts\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ P\\ manipulating\\ the\\ case\\,\\ because\\ P\\ got\\ to\\ choose\\ state\\ or\\ federal\\ court\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ diversity\\ cases\\,\\ yes\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;13\\(a\\)\\ compulsory\\ counterclaims\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;13\\(h\\)\\ joinder\\ of\\ additional\\ parties\\ to\\ compulsory\\ counterclaims\\ \\(D1\\ \\(NJ\\)\\ impleads\\ D2\\ \\(NJ\\)\\&mdash\\;that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ok\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;13\\(g\\)\\ cross\\ claims\\.\\ \\(P\\ sues\\ D1\\ \\(OK\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ D2\\ \\(OK\\)\\.\\ D1\\ can\\ cross\\ claim\\ against\\ D2\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;14\\ impleader\\ of\\ 3rd\\ party\\ Ds\\ by\\ and\\ against\\ 3rd\\ party\\ Ps\\ ok\\.\\ 14\\ claims\\ by\\ 3rd\\ party\\ Ds\\ ok\\.\\ BUT\\ Supp\\ J\\ does\\ not\\ cover\\ CLAIMS\\ by\\ ORIGINAL\\ P\\ against\\ 3rd\\ party\\ Ds\\ \\(P\\ sues\\ D1\\ \\(AZ\\)\\.\\ D1\\ impleads\\ D2\\ \\(AZ\\)\\.\\ D1\\ \\&\\;\\ D2\\ can\\ go\\ nuts\\ with\\ claims\\ against\\ each\\ other\\,\\ D2\\ can\\ claim\\ against\\ P\\ but\\ P\\ cannot\\ claim\\ against\\ D2\\ unless\\ it\\ meets\\ SMJ\\ on\\ its\\ own\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Rule\\ 20\\ multiple\\ Ps\\:\\ P1\\ \\(NY\\)\\ \\&\\;\\ P2\\ \\(NY\\)\\ can\\ sue\\ D\\ \\(NJ\\)\\.\\ If\\ P1\\ has\\ \\$100\\,000\\ claim\\ \\&\\;\\ P2\\ only\\ has\\ \\$50\\,000\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ok\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ diversity\\ cases\\,\\ no\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Permissive\\ counterclaims\\ that\\ are\\ not\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ nucleus\\ \\&\\;\\ are\\ not\\ FQ\\.\\ Any\\ claims\\ not\\ arising\\ from\\ common\\ nucleus\\ have\\ to\\ meet\\ SMJ\\ independently\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Maybe\\ Rule\\ 14\\ allows\\ D1\\ to\\ implead\\ D2\\ but\\ court\\ still\\ needs\\ PJ\\ over\\ D2\\ to\\ add\\ him\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;14\\:\\ Claims\\ by\\ original\\ P\\ against\\ an\\ impleaded\\ 3rd\\ party\\ D\\.\\ \\(P\\ \\(GA\\)\\ sues\\ D1\\ \\(OR\\)\\.\\ D1\\ impleads\\ D2\\ \\(GA\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ ok\\ but\\ P\\ cannot\\ claim\\ against\\ D2\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;19\\:\\ D\\ is\\ joined\\ by\\ Rule\\ 19\\,\\ compulsory\\ joinder\\.\\ No\\ claims\\ against\\ this\\ D\\ OR\\ claims\\ by\\ this\\ D\\ are\\ within\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ for\\ a\\ diversity\\ case\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n5\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;20\\:\\ P\\ sues\\ multiple\\ Ds\\ on\\ same\\ t\\ or\\ o\\.\\ P\\ vs\\.\\ D1\\ meets\\ AIC\\ \\&\\;\\ diversity\\;\\ P\\ vs\\.\\ D2\\ meets\\ diversity\\ but\\ not\\ AIC\\.\\ No\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ P\\ vs\\.\\ D2\\.\\ Need\\ diversity\\ \\+\\ AIC\\ for\\ D2\\.\\ BUT\\ if\\ 3rd\\ party\\ is\\ a\\ co\\-P\\ under\\ Rule\\ 20\\,\\ he\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ need\\ to\\ meet\\ diversity\\ or\\ AIC\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n6\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;24\\:\\ Claims\\ by\\ prospective\\ Ps\\ who\\ try\\ to\\ intervene\\ do\\ not\\ get\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(true\\ of\\ intervention\\ by\\ permission\\ or\\ by\\ right\\)\\.\\ P1\\ \\(IL\\)\\ sues\\ D\\ \\(WI\\)\\ in\\ diversity\\.\\ P2\\ \\(WI\\)\\ wants\\ permissive\\ intervention\\ \\(24\\(b\\)\\)\\ because\\ same\\ t\\ or\\ o\\.\\ No\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ over\\ intervention\\,\\ so\\ court\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ let\\ P2\\ intervene\\.\\ This\\ is\\ true\\ even\\ if\\ P2\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ was\\ so\\ closely\\ related\\ that\\ she\\ could\\ in\\ other\\ circumstances\\ intervene\\ by\\ right\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n7\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Summary\\:\\ No\\ Supp\\ J\\ over\\ \\(1\\)\\ claims\\ by\\ P\\ over\\ 3rd\\ party\\ D\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ claims\\ by\\ P\\ against\\ a\\ Rule\\ 19\\ person\\ \\&ldquo\\;joined\\ if\\ feasible\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ claims\\ by\\ P\\ against\\ multiple\\ Ds\\;\\ \\(4\\)\\ claims\\ by\\ would\\-be\\ intervenors\\ who\\ want\\ to\\ enter\\ on\\ the\\ P\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ suit\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\§\\;1367\\(a\\)\\ codifies\\ Gibbs\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Identify\\ an\\ anchor\\ claim\\ over\\ which\\ federal\\ courts\\ have\\ jurisdiction\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Sweep\\ in\\ related\\ claims\\ \\(even\\ state\\ law\\ claims\\)\\(this\\ is\\ like\\ R18\\)\\(if\\ claims\\ are\\ unrelated\\,\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ statutory\\ permission\\ \\(\\§\\;1367\\ says\\ related\\)\\ and\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ constitutional\\ permission\\ \\(not\\ the\\ same\\ \\&ldquo\\;case\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Screen\\ out\\ claims\\ prohibited\\ by\\ \\§\\;1367\\(b\\)\\,\\ when\\ your\\ anchor\\ claim\\ is\\ there\\ on\\ diversity\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\§\\;1367\\(b\\)\\:\\ Restricts\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ in\\ some\\ diversity\\ cases\\.\\ \\;\\ No\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ in\\ claims\\ by\\ plaintiffs\\ against\\ parties\\ added\\ under\\ Rule\\ 14\\,\\ 19\\,\\ 20\\,\\ or\\ 24\\ \\(or\\ joined\\/intervening\\ plaintiffs\\ under\\ 19\\ or\\ 24\\)\\ if\\ exercising\\ SJ\\ would\\ be\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ total\\ diversity\\ \\(\\§\\;1332\\)\\ \\(preserves\\ Kroger\\ doctrine\\,\\ protective\\ of\\ \\&Delta\\;s\\,\\ and\\ screens\\ for\\ Ps\\ trying\\ to\\ evade\\ complete\\ diversity\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;If\\ Kroger\\ came\\ up\\ again\\,\\ this\\ would\\ preclude\\ the\\ suit\\ by\\ \\&Pi\\;\\ against\\ \\&Delta\\;2\\.\\ \\;\\ But\\ if\\ \\&Delta\\;1\\ impleads\\ \\&Delta\\;2\\,\\ \\&Delta\\;2\\ can\\ still\\ sue\\ \\&Pi\\;\\ \\(\\&Delta\\;\\ dragged\\ into\\ suit\\,\\ can\\ air\\ claims\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\no\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Why\\ do\\ we\\ allow\\ FQ\\ claims\\ but\\ not\\ DJ\\ ones\\?\\?\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;DJ\\ cases\\ are\\ decided\\ under\\ state\\ law\\ anyway\\,\\ so\\ making\\ them\\ go\\ to\\ state\\ court\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ big\\ problem\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\&bull\\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;DJ\\ is\\ designed\\ to\\ protect\\ \\&Delta\\;s\\.\\ Without\\ this\\ exception\\,\\ \\&Pi\\;\\ could\\ leave\\ out\\ important\\ \\(but\\ non\\-diverse\\)\\ parties\\,\\ then\\ wait\\ for\\ \\&Delta\\;\\ to\\ implead\\ them\\ \\(Kroger\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHistorical\\ note\\:\\ Supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ ate\\ up\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ following\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ pendent\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(jurisdiction\\ over\\ additional\\ claims\\ brought\\ by\\ same\\ P\\ against\\ same\\ D\\)\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ ancillary\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(jurisdiction\\ over\\ additional\\ claims\\ brought\\ by\\ existing\\ parties\\ other\\ than\\ P\\ \\(usually\\ D\\)\\ or\\ over\\ claims\\ brought\\ by\\ or\\ against\\ additional\\ parties\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\ pendent\\ party\\ jurisdiction\\ \\(jurisdiction\\ over\\ claims\\ brought\\ against\\ additional\\ parties\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nUnited\\ Mine\\ Workers\\ v\\.\\ Gibbs\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThere\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ federal\\ claim\\ first\\.\\ Then\\ the\\ non\\-federal\\ claim\\ must\\ arise\\ \\&ldquo\\;from\\ a\\ common\\ nucleus\\ of\\ operative\\ fact\\&rdquo\\;\\ such\\ that\\ a\\ P\\ \\&ldquo\\;would\\ ordinarily\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ try\\ them\\ in\\ one\\ judicial\\ proceeding\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRemoval\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFederal\\ jurisdiction\\ is\\ intended\\ to\\ protect\\ both\\ parties\\ \\&\\;\\ therefore\\ both\\ parties\\ should\\ have\\ access\\ to\\ it\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nConstitutional\\ authority\\:\\ Article\\ III\\ \\§\\;2\\ \\+\\ Necessary\\ \\&\\;\\ Proper\\\\\r\n\\\r\nStatutory\\ authority\\:\\ \\§\\;1441\\(a\\)\\:\\ any\\ civil\\ action\\ brought\\ in\\ State\\ court\\ of\\ which\\ the\\ district\\ court\\ of\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ have\\ original\\ jurisdiction\\ may\\ be\\ removed\\ by\\ the\\ defendants\\ to\\ the\\ appropriate\\ federal\\ district\\ court\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOnly\\ state\\ court\\ actions\\ that\\ originally\\ could\\ have\\ been\\ filed\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\ may\\ be\\ removed\\ to\\ federal\\ court\\ by\\ the\\ D\\.\\ Note\\:\\ the\\ entire\\ case\\ is\\ removed\\,\\ not\\ just\\ individual\\ claims\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRemoval\\ turns\\ on\\ claims\\ P\\ made\\,\\ not\\ claims\\ P\\ could\\ have\\ made\\ \\(like\\ Gibbs\\&mdash\\;he\\ chose\\ to\\ assert\\ only\\ the\\ state\\ claim\\)\\.\\ This\\ is\\ true\\ unless\\ the\\ true\\ nature\\ of\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ is\\ federal\\ \\&\\;\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ to\\ avoid\\ it\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nLimits\\ on\\ removal\\:\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\§\\;1441\\(b\\)\\:\\ a\\ diversity\\ case\\ is\\ only\\ removable\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;none\\ of\\ the\\ parties\\ in\\ interest\\ properly\\ joined\\ and\\ served\\ as\\ Ds\\ is\\ a\\ citizen\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ which\\ such\\ action\\ is\\ brought\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ If\\ D\\ is\\ sued\\ in\\ his\\ home\\ state\\,\\ he\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remove\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ John\\ Doe\\ Ds\\ turn\\ out\\ to\\ defeat\\ diversity\\,\\ removal\\ or\\ federal\\ jurisdiction\\ can\\ be\\ destroyed\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRemovability\\ is\\ sometimes\\ created\\ during\\ a\\ suit\\ \\&\\;\\ D\\ must\\ remove\\ within\\ 30\\ days\\ \\(\\§\\;1446\\(b\\)\\:\\ if\\ a\\ D\\ drops\\ out\\;\\ if\\ P\\ brings\\ up\\ a\\ federal\\ q\\ in\\ his\\ amended\\ complaint\\.\\ \\(this\\ may\\ be\\ within\\ 30\\ days\\ of\\ D\\ noticing\\ removal\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ it\\ being\\ created\\,\\ Glannon\\ p\\ 129\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ removal\\ based\\ on\\ diversity\\ is\\ created\\ more\\ than\\ 1\\ year\\ after\\ suit\\ starts\\,\\ no\\ removal\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSpecific\\,\\ substantive\\ areas\\ decreed\\ by\\ Congress\\ where\\ there\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ removal\\:\\ RR\\ tort\\ claims\\,\\ etc\\ \\(\\§\\;1445\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAll\\ Ds\\ must\\ agree\\ to\\ remove\\,\\ all\\ Ds\\ must\\ be\\ removable\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\§\\;1447\\(e\\)\\:\\ federal\\ courts\\ can\\ remand\\ to\\ state\\ court\\ if\\ P\\ adds\\ nondiverse\\ D\\ \\(or\\ can\\ refuse\\ amendment\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nP\\ can\\ buy\\ state\\ court\\ by\\ claiming\\ less\\ than\\ \\$75\\,000\\.\\ Then\\ D\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ remove\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRemoval\\ of\\ multiple\\ claims\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Diversity\\:\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ claims\\,\\ one\\ that\\ meets\\ diversity\\ \\&\\;\\ one\\ that\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ the\\ nondiverse\\ claim\\ defeats\\ removal\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ question\\:\\ if\\ there\\ are\\ two\\ claims\\,\\ one\\ is\\ FQ\\ J\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;separate\\ \\&\\;\\ independent\\&rdquo\\;\\ claim\\ over\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ federal\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ D\\ may\\ remove\\ the\\ case\\ \\(1441\\(c\\)\\)\\.\\ Example\\:\\ P\\ \\&\\;\\ D1\\ are\\ both\\ citizens\\ of\\ KY\\.\\ P\\ sues\\ in\\ state\\ court\\ for\\ federal\\ antitrust\\ violation\\.\\ P\\ also\\ sues\\ D1\\ \\&\\;\\ D2\\ for\\ violation\\ of\\ state\\ unfair\\ competition\\ laws\\.\\ Yes\\ removal\\ if\\ the\\ claims\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;separate\\ \\&\\;\\ independent\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Feds\\ can\\ remand\\ all\\ matters\\ in\\ which\\ state\\ law\\ predominates\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\§\\;1446\\ Procedure\\ for\\ Removal\\\\\r\n\\\r\nD\\ must\\ file\\ within\\ 30\\ days\\ of\\ notice\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nP\\ only\\ has\\ 30\\ days\\ after\\ removal\\ to\\ notice\\ problems\\ \\(nonjurisdictional\\ defects\\&mdash\\;can\\ always\\ remand\\ for\\ SMJ\\)\\ with\\ removal\\ \\(1447\\(c\\)\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nD\\ can\\ remove\\ to\\ federal\\ court\\ and\\ then\\ once\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\ say\\,\\ no\\ PJ\\ \\(unless\\ D\\ answers\\ in\\ state\\ court\\ before\\ removal\\ without\\ raising\\ PJ\\ objection\\,\\ then\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ raise\\ PJ\\ objection\\ in\\ state\\ court\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nState\\ court\\ loses\\ control\\ of\\ case\\ automatically\\ AND\\ can\\ do\\ nothing\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ thinks\\ removal\\ is\\ improper\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nD\\ can\\ say\\,\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ might\\ meet\\ AIC\\ even\\ if\\ P\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ state\\ an\\ AIC\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nOnly\\ Ds\\ served\\ need\\ join\\ in\\ removal\\ \\(1446\\(b\\)\\)\\;\\ subsequently\\ served\\ Ds\\ may\\ move\\ to\\ remand\\ to\\ state\\ court\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCaterpillar\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;P\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;master\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ complaint\\:\\ P\\ here\\ chose\\ a\\ state\\ law\\ contract\\ right\\ claim\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ defenses\\ may\\ not\\ be\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ basis\\ for\\ removal\\ \\(including\\ the\\ defense\\ of\\ preemption\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;But\\ there\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;complete\\ preemption\\&rdquo\\;\\ doctrine\\ where\\ the\\ preemptive\\ force\\ of\\ a\\ statute\\ is\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;extraordinary\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;converts\\ an\\ ordinary\\ state\\ common\\ law\\ complaint\\ into\\ one\\ stating\\ a\\ federal\\ claim\\ for\\ purposes\\ of\\ the\\ WPC\\ rule\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\&rarr\\;when\\ P\\ tries\\ to\\ plead\\ a\\ state\\-law\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\ that\\ is\\ completely\\ preempted\\ by\\ federal\\ law\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nErie\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProblems\\ with\\ Swift\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ Erie\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNo\\ federalism\\ problem\\,\\ because\\ if\\ the\\ common\\ law\\ is\\ out\\ there\\,\\ a\\ brooding\\ omnipresence\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ neither\\ state\\ nor\\ federal\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNo\\ separation\\ of\\ powers\\ problem\\,\\ because\\ the\\ courts\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ making\\ the\\ laws\\,\\ they\\ are\\ just\\ finding\\ it\\,\\ plucking\\ it\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ air\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHolmes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ dissent\\ in\\ Black\\ \\&\\;\\ White\\:\\ judge\\ should\\ ask\\ what\\ body\\ has\\ the\\ authority\\ to\\ make\\ rules\\ governing\\ the\\ enforcement\\ of\\ the\\ law\\.\\ The\\ answer\\ is\\ usually\\ the\\ states\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSwift\\ \\(1\\)\\ failed\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ states\\ fall\\ in\\ line\\ with\\ federal\\ decisions\\ \\(2\\)\\ allowed\\ grave\\ discrimination\\ in\\ the\\ administration\\ of\\ justice\\:\\ out\\ of\\ state\\ Ps\\ can\\ choose\\ different\\ rules\\ of\\ substantive\\ law\\ because\\ they\\ can\\ choose\\ federal\\ court\\&mdash\\;it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ being\\ exploited\\ by\\ out\\-of\\-state\\ parties\\ to\\ the\\ detriment\\ of\\ in\\-state\\ parties\\ Black\\ \\&\\;\\ White\\ Taxicab\\ Co\\.\\ \\(3\\)\\ authorized\\ federal\\ judges\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;make\\&rdquo\\;\\ law\\ in\\ areas\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ federal\\ government\\ has\\ no\\ delegated\\ power\\,\\ which\\ is\\ unconstitutional\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSwift\\ \\(1\\)\\ misinterpreted\\ the\\ Judiciary\\ Act\\ \\(2\\)\\ Swift\\ regime\\ was\\ unconstitutional\\ because\\ \\(a\\)\\ federal\\ government\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ have\\ the\\ power\\ to\\ arrogate\\ state\\ law\\ and\\ \\(b\\)\\ federal\\ courts\\ have\\ no\\ ability\\ to\\ make\\ policy\\ decisions\\ about\\ tort\\ law\\,\\ etc\\ \\(3\\)\\ no\\ uniformity\\ followed\\ anyway\\ so\\ Swift\\ was\\ a\\ practical\\ failure\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRDA\\ \\(1789\\)\\ required\\ federal\\ courts\\ to\\ apply\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ several\\ states\\ unless\\ constitution\\,\\ treaties\\,\\ or\\ federal\\ statutes\\ require\\ otherwise\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSwift\\:\\ laws\\ of\\ several\\ states\\ \\=\\ state\\ statutes\\ only\\\\\r\n\\\r\nErie\\:\\ laws\\ of\\ several\\ states\\ \\=\\ state\\ statutes\\ \\+\\ state\\ common\\ law\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFor\\ state\\ claims\\ \\(from\\ same\\ transaction\\ or\\ occurrence\\)\\,\\ added\\ under\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\,\\ federal\\ courts\\ apply\\ \\(and\\ sometimes\\ ascertain\\ \\&\\;\\ apply\\)\\ state\\ common\\ law\\ or\\ statutory\\ law\\ just\\ like\\ Erie\\ for\\ diversity\\ cases\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nErie\\ \\(diversity\\)\\:\\ if\\ no\\ state\\ cases\\ are\\ on\\ point\\,\\ judge\\ can\\ predict\\ what\\ state\\ courts\\ would\\ do\\ OR\\ can\\ certify\\ an\\ issue\\ to\\ state\\ supreme\\ court\\ \\(it\\ goes\\ straight\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ supreme\\ court\\,\\ parties\\ argue\\ it\\,\\ court\\ issues\\ opinion\\,\\ and\\ then\\ parties\\ go\\ back\\ to\\ federal\\ courts\\ armed\\ with\\ that\\ opinion\\.\\ States\\ can\\ refuse\\ to\\ certify\\ it\\ though\\)\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIntermediate\\ appellate\\ courts\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ overrule\\ higher\\ courts\\,\\ but\\ they\\ can\\ suggest\\ changes\\,\\ even\\ though\\ they\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ make\\ changes\\ themselves\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nLower\\ state\\ courts\\ must\\ follow\\ higher\\ state\\ courts\\&rsquo\\;\\ opinions\\,\\ but\\ federal\\ courts\\ have\\ a\\ tiny\\ window\\ to\\ predict\\ that\\ higher\\ state\\ courts\\ may\\ change\\ their\\ mind\\.\\ But\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ expect\\ federal\\ courts\\ to\\ change\\ state\\ law\\&mdash\\;usually\\ federal\\ courts\\ will\\ follow\\ state\\ precedent\\ on\\ the\\ books\\ even\\ when\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ state\\ supreme\\ court\\ would\\ change\\ its\\ opinion\\ soon\\ or\\ ever\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Sometimes\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ more\\ important\\ that\\ a\\ judgment\\ be\\ stable\\ than\\ it\\ be\\ correct\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nErie\\ Breakdown\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ diversity\\ cases\\\\\r\n\\\r\nII\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Minimalist\\ Erie\\:\\ Clearly\\ substance\\ \\(question\\ of\\ law\\ that\\ has\\ an\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\)\\:\\ state\\ law\\ controls\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIII\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Twilight\\ Zone\\ \\(procedure\\/substance\\)\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ Erie\\ to\\ decide\\ what\\ to\\ do\\:\\ discourage\\ forum\\-shopping\\ \\&\\;\\ avoid\\ inequitable\\ administration\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;State\\ law\\ applies\\ if\\ no\\ federal\\ rule\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ practice\\ \\(but\\ no\\ FRCP\\)\\ conflicts\\ with\\ state\\ rule\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Use\\ Byrd\\ \\(balancing\\ test\\)\\.\\ NB\\:\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\ particularly\\ important\\ issues\\,\\ like\\ a\\ jury\\,\\ Byrd\\ is\\ still\\ good\\ law\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hanna\\ I\\:\\ modified\\ outcome\\ determinative\\ test\\:\\ federal\\ practice\\ rules\\ if\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ create\\ substantial\\ differences\\ in\\ \\(1\\)\\ forum\\ shopping\\ \\&\\;\\ \\(2\\)\\ inequitable\\ administration\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIV\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;FRCP\\ exists\\:\\ use\\ it\\!\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hanna\\ II\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ Rule\\ must\\ be\\ valid\\ \\(Sibbach\\,\\ it\\ has\\ to\\ be\\ procedure\\ under\\ REA\\,\\ this\\ may\\ be\\ sketchy\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ Rule\\ must\\ be\\ applicable\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nErie\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nApplies\\ only\\ to\\ diversity\\ cases\\ \\(or\\ supplemental\\ jurisdiction\\ cases\\ with\\ a\\ state\\ law\\ basis\\ for\\ the\\ cause\\ of\\ action\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ the\\ RDA\\ requires\\ the\\ federal\\ courts\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;apply\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ Several\\ States\\&rdquo\\;\\ unless\\ the\\ Constitution\\,\\ treaties\\,\\ or\\ statutes\\ require\\ otherwise\\.\\ Erie\\:\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ Several\\ States\\ \\=\\ state\\ statutes\\ \\+\\ state\\ common\\ law\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\:\\ In\\ diversity\\ cases\\,\\ federal\\ courts\\ must\\ apply\\ the\\ law\\ that\\ would\\ be\\ applied\\ by\\ the\\ courts\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ sit\\.\\ In\\ broad\\ areas\\ where\\ law\\ is\\ mostly\\ judge\\-made\\ \\(contracts\\,\\ torts\\,\\ probate\\,\\ property\\,\\ etc\\)\\ state\\ law\\ reigns\\ supreme\\.\\ \\(use\\ federal\\ law\\ in\\ cases\\ involving\\ federal\\ law\\ or\\ constitutional\\ decisions\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFederal\\ courts\\&rsquo\\;\\ job\\ is\\ to\\ apply\\ the\\ law\\ as\\ announced\\,\\ or\\ as\\ it\\ would\\ be\\ announced\\,\\ by\\ the\\ state\\&rsquo\\;s\\ highest\\ court\\&mdash\\;this\\ gives\\ courts\\ a\\ little\\ flexibility\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFederal\\ court\\ can\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;certify\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ tough\\ issue\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ supreme\\ court\\.\\ The\\ case\\ goes\\ down\\ to\\ the\\ state\\ court\\ \\&\\;\\ goes\\ up\\ though\\ the\\ appellate\\ pipeline\\,\\ then\\ shifts\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ federal\\ court\\ after\\ the\\ state\\ supreme\\ court\\ issues\\ an\\ opinion\\.\\ State\\ courts\\ can\\ refuse\\ to\\ certify\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHistorical\\ Aside\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSubstance\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPre\\ 1938\\:\\ federal\\ law\\ \\(Swift\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1938\\ on\\:\\ state\\ law\\ \\(Erie\\)\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nProcedure\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPre\\ 1938\\:\\ state\\ law\\ \\(conformity\\,\\ pre\\ REA\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1938\\ on\\:\\ federal\\ law\\ \\(REA\\,\\ FRCP\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nYork\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIf\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ state\\ and\\ federal\\ procedures\\ will\\ significantly\\ affect\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ a\\ case\\,\\ follow\\ state\\ law\\.\\ If\\ procedure\\ is\\ outcome\\ determinative\\,\\ state\\ law\\ controls\\.\\ This\\ means\\ pretty\\ much\\ always\\ state\\ law\\ applies\\.\\ This\\ is\\ because\\ the\\ intent\\ of\\ Erie\\ was\\ to\\ make\\ sure\\ there\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ outcome\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ had\\ been\\ tried\\ in\\ State\\ court\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;As\\ to\\ consequences\\ that\\ so\\ intimately\\ affect\\ recovery\\ or\\ nonrecovery\\ a\\ federal\\ court\\ in\\ a\\ diversity\\ case\\ should\\ follow\\ State\\ law\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nYork\\ basically\\ recognizes\\ that\\ the\\ substance\\/procedure\\ bright\\ line\\ is\\ unworkable\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nIn\\ diversity\\ cases\\,\\ outcome\\ in\\ federal\\ court\\ should\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ \\(as\\ far\\ as\\ legal\\ rules\\ determine\\ the\\ outcome\\)\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ tried\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ court\\.\\ If\\ the\\ choice\\ of\\ federal\\ versus\\ state\\ rule\\ \\&ldquo\\;significantly\\ affects\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ a\\ litigation\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ court\\ should\\ apply\\ the\\ state\\ rule\\.\\ Reasoning\\:\\ to\\ prevent\\ diverse\\ parties\\ from\\ gaining\\ unfair\\ advantages\\ simply\\ because\\ they\\ choose\\ federal\\ court\\ \\(want\\ unified\\ outcomes\\ in\\ state\\ cases\\ \\&\\;\\ federal\\ diversity\\ cases\\)\\.\\ In\\ York\\,\\ this\\ meant\\ using\\ the\\ state\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ which\\ barred\\ the\\ claim\\ \\(not\\ the\\ federal\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ which\\ did\\ not\\)\\ even\\ though\\ there\\ was\\ federal\\ authority\\ to\\ make\\ procedural\\ rules\\ \\(from\\ necessary\\ and\\ proper\\)\\.\\ York\\ essentially\\ threatened\\ the\\ existence\\ of\\ the\\ FRCP\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nYork\\ is\\ reaffirmed\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;terrible\\ trio\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ 1949\\ \\(these\\ cases\\ are\\ creating\\ a\\ regime\\ that\\ is\\ very\\ protective\\ of\\ state\\ power\\ \\&\\;\\ is\\ risking\\ the\\ validity\\ of\\ FRCP\\ because\\ procedure\\ is\\ stealth\\ substance\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNo\\ applicable\\ federal\\ rule\\ \\(NB\\:\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ applicable\\ Federal\\ rule\\ governing\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\ \\&\\;\\ choice\\ of\\ law\\)\\&rarr\\;apply\\ state\\ rule\\\\\r\n\\\r\nWoods\\:\\ SCotUS\\ refused\\ the\\ suit\\,\\ relying\\ on\\ Mississippi\\ statute\\ denying\\ access\\ to\\ Mississippi\\ courts\\ to\\ out\\-of\\-state\\ corporations\\ that\\ had\\ not\\ qualified\\ to\\ do\\ business\\ in\\ Mississippi\\\\\r\n\\\r\nCohen\\:\\ a\\ New\\ Jersey\\ statute\\ that\\ placed\\ conditions\\ on\\ a\\ suit\\ \\(P\\ had\\ to\\ post\\ a\\ bond\\ for\\ other\\ side\\&rsquo\\;s\\ atty\\ fees\\ in\\ a\\ shareholder\\ derivative\\ suit\\)\\ is\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;mere\\ procedure\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ must\\ be\\ followed\\ by\\ federal\\ court\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nPotentially\\ applicable\\ federal\\ rule\\\\\r\n\\\r\nRagan\\:\\ Court\\ applied\\ state\\ law\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ clear\\ if\\ the\\ reason\\ they\\ did\\ that\\ was\\ because\\ state\\ law\\ overrode\\ federal\\ law\\ or\\ because\\ FRCP\\ Rule\\ 3\\ \\(which\\ P\\ had\\ relied\\ on\\)\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ apply\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nByrd\\ \\(response\\ to\\ this\\ uh\\-oh\\-for\\-FRCP\\ York\\ trend\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFacts\\:\\ The\\ uniformity\\ flowing\\ from\\ a\\ federal\\ court\\ adopting\\ a\\ state\\ rule\\ of\\ law\\ requiring\\ a\\ judge\\ to\\ determine\\ immunity\\ is\\ outweighed\\ by\\ the\\ federal\\ interest\\ in\\ maintaining\\ the\\ allocation\\ between\\ the\\ judge\\ and\\ jury\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nThe\\ sensitivity\\ of\\ jury\\ rights\\ and\\ their\\ historical\\ importance\\ made\\ this\\ ruling\\ potentially\\ narrow\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ that\\ it\\ applies\\ when\\ a\\ state\\ rule\\ threatens\\ the\\ federal\\ jury\\ right\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ other\\ \\&ldquo\\;procedural\\&rdquo\\;\\ areas\\\\\r\n\\\r\nProblem\\ in\\ finding\\ authority\\ for\\ federal\\/state\\ interests\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAttempt\\ to\\ protect\\ states\\ \\(in\\ light\\ of\\ 100\\ years\\ of\\ mistreatment\\ under\\ Swift\\)\\ and\\ to\\ buttress\\ FRCP\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nRule\\:\\ Relative\\ strengths\\ of\\ state\\ \\&\\;\\ federal\\ interests\\ are\\ weighed\\.\\ This\\ balances\\ outcome\\ determinative\\ ness\\ \\(York\\)\\ v\\.\\ Importance\\ of\\ policy\\.\\ \\;\\ If\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ super\\ important\\ policy\\ \\(like\\ a\\ jury\\ trial\\)\\,\\ let\\ federal\\ rules\\ control\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ courts\\ must\\ honor\\ state\\ courts\\&rsquo\\;\\ definition\\ of\\ state\\ created\\ rights\\ \\&\\;\\ obligations\\.\\ Substantive\\ law\\,\\ feds\\ must\\ follow\\ state\\ courts\\ \\(because\\ the\\ feds\\ have\\ no\\ authority\\ or\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ substantive\\ law\\ of\\ the\\ states\\,\\ like\\ torts\\,\\ contracts\\,\\ etc\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;For\\ procedure\\,\\ Erie\\ does\\ not\\ require\\ federal\\ courts\\ to\\ follow\\ state\\ rules\\.\\ Federal\\ courts\\ should\\ apply\\ the\\ York\\ outcome\\ determinative\\ state\\ law\\ even\\ on\\ procedural\\ issues\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ federal\\ constitutional\\ authority\\ to\\ make\\ federal\\ rules\\.\\ BUT\\ federal\\ courts\\ should\\ consider\\ York\\ outcome\\-determinative\\ test\\ \\(with\\ a\\ goal\\ of\\ uniform\\ outcomes\\ in\\ diversity\\ cases\\)\\ AND\\ federal\\ policies\\ that\\ arise\\ from\\ federal\\ court\\&rsquo\\;s\\ status\\ as\\ an\\ independent\\ judicial\\ system\\ \\(sometimes\\ uniformity\\ of\\ outcome\\ should\\ yield\\ to\\ federal\\ procedure\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ court\\ should\\ defer\\ to\\ state\\ rules\\ in\\ matters\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;form\\ \\&\\;\\ mode\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ But\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ specify\\ what\\ federal\\ policies\\ will\\ outweigh\\ Erie\\/York\\ desire\\ for\\ uniform\\ outcomes\\ for\\ diversity\\ cases\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\ major\\ areas\\ of\\ conflict\\:\\ \\(1\\)\\ judge\\ or\\ jury\\ decides\\ factual\\ issue\\?\\ Follow\\ feds\\.\\ \\(2\\)\\ Unanimous\\ jury\\ verdict\\?\\ Follow\\ feds\\ \\(yes\\ unanimous\\)\\.\\ \\(3\\)\\ Statute\\ of\\ limitations\\?\\ Follow\\ state\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nBut\\ Byrd\\ still\\ threatens\\ FRCP\\\\\r\n\\\r\nByrd\\ still\\ rules\\ where\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ FRCP\\ or\\ federal\\ statute\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHanna\\\\\r\n\\\r\nI\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ practice\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ state\\ rule\\:\\ federal\\ practice\\ \\(usually\\)\\ controls\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ purpose\\ of\\ Erie\\ to\\ decide\\ what\\ to\\ do\\ \\(modified\\ outcome\\ determinative\\ test\\)\\.\\ Whether\\ a\\ federal\\ procedure\\ is\\ outcome\\ determinative\\ must\\ be\\ viewed\\ in\\ light\\ of\\ policies\\ underlying\\ Erie\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Discourage\\ forum\\-shopping\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Avoid\\ inequitable\\ administration\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHere\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ state\\ \\&\\;\\ federal\\ methods\\ of\\ service\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ great\\ as\\ to\\ encourage\\ forum\\-shopping\\,\\ nor\\ is\\ the\\ difference\\ so\\ great\\ as\\ to\\ allow\\ \\&ldquo\\;inequitable\\ administration\\ of\\ laws\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ In\\ Hanna\\ I\\,\\ the\\ court\\ described\\ a\\ situation\\ where\\ it\\ was\\ state\\ law\\ versus\\ federal\\ judicial\\ practice\\,\\ not\\ state\\ law\\ versus\\ FRCP\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nII\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Official\\ FRCP\\ or\\ statute\\ conflicts\\ with\\ state\\ law\\ \\(rule\\,\\ statute\\,\\ or\\ procedure\\)\\:\\ go\\ with\\ feds\\ \\(note\\,\\ this\\ is\\ accepting\\ that\\ FRCP\\ are\\ procedural\\.\\ A\\ party\\ can\\ argue\\ that\\ a\\ rule\\ is\\ substantive\\,\\ but\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tough\\.\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ Rule\\ must\\ be\\ valid\\ \\(do\\ not\\ \\&ldquo\\;abridge\\,\\ enlarge\\,\\ or\\ modify\\ any\\ substantive\\ right\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ see\\ Sibbach\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ Rule\\ must\\ be\\ applicable\\ \\(the\\ courts\\ want\\ to\\ avoid\\ finding\\ a\\ conflict\\:\\ it\\ would\\ rather\\ apply\\ the\\ state\\ provision\\ because\\ no\\ federal\\ law\\ requires\\ it\\ to\\ do\\ otherwise\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\nHanna\\ II\\ gives\\ a\\ heavy\\ presumption\\ of\\ validity\\ to\\ FRCP\\ \\(because\\ of\\ this\\,\\ a\\ federal\\ judicial\\ practice\\ may\\ be\\ substantive\\ under\\ Hanna\\ I\\ where\\ it\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ be\\ if\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ FRCP\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nFour\\ basic\\ types\\ of\\ federal\\ provisions\\ that\\ may\\ conflict\\ with\\ state\\ law\\\\\r\n\\\r\n1\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hanna\\ II\\:\\ Federal\\ constitutional\\ provision\\ may\\ mandate\\ a\\ federal\\ court\\ procedure\\ that\\ differs\\ from\\ state\\ law\\ \\(ex\\:\\ 7th\\ A\\ requires\\ a\\ unanimous\\ verdict\\ when\\ a\\ state\\ law\\ may\\ require\\ a\\ majority\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Supremacy\\ Clause\\ \\(Art\\ VI\\ \\¶\\;\\ 2\\)\\ makes\\ Constitution\\ rule\\ supreme\\ \\(doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ matter\\ if\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ substance\\ or\\ procedure\\,\\ but\\ follow\\ state\\ laws\\ where\\ they\\ have\\ authority\\ to\\ create\\ law\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n2\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hanna\\ II\\:\\ Federal\\ statute\\ governs\\ federal\\ practice\\ but\\ conflicts\\ with\\ state\\ law\\ \\(ex\\:\\ statute\\ that\\ requires\\ federal\\ courts\\ to\\ enforce\\ arbitration\\ agreements\\,\\ even\\ though\\ state\\ courts\\ would\\ not\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Federal\\ statutes\\ are\\ also\\ supreme\\,\\ issue\\ becomes\\,\\ are\\ the\\ statutes\\ valid\\?\\ Hanna\\ says\\ Congress\\ has\\ the\\ constitutional\\ authority\\ to\\ enact\\ statutes\\ governing\\ procedure\\ in\\ federal\\ courts\\ if\\ \\&ldquo\\;while\\ falling\\ in\\ the\\ uncertain\\ area\\ between\\ substance\\ \\&\\;\\ procedure\\,\\ they\\ are\\ rationally\\ capable\\ of\\ being\\ classified\\ as\\ either\\&rdquo\\;\\&rarr\\;\\&rdquo\\;arguably\\ procedural\\&rdquo\\;\\ test\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\:\\ Courts\\ will\\ often\\ say\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ direct\\ conflict\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ go\\ with\\ state\\ law\\ \\(Glannon\\ p\\.\\ 197\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n3\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hanna\\ II\\:\\ Formal\\ FRCP\\ conflicts\\ with\\ state\\ law\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Must\\ be\\ arguably\\ procedural\\,\\ but\\ every\\ FRCP\\ will\\ pass\\ that\\ test\\\\\r\n\\\r\nb\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;So\\ go\\ to\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ REA\\,\\ which\\ is\\ that\\ the\\ rules\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;abridge\\,\\ enlarge\\,\\ or\\ modify\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ substantive\\ right\\ \\(see\\ Sibbach\\)\\.\\ NB\\:\\ no\\ rule\\ has\\ ever\\ been\\ found\\ to\\ do\\ this\\,\\ but\\ the\\ court\\ will\\ construe\\ the\\ FRCP\\ narrowly\\ to\\ avoid\\ finding\\ a\\ conflict\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nc\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\:\\ Courts\\ will\\ often\\ say\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;no\\ direct\\ conflict\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ go\\ with\\ state\\ law\\ \\(Glannon\\ p\\.\\ 197\\)\\.\\ Example\\:\\ state\\ rule\\ says\\ P\\ must\\ prove\\ he\\ is\\ free\\ of\\ negligence\\;\\ FRCP\\ 8\\(c\\)\\ says\\ contributory\\ negligence\\ is\\ an\\ affirmative\\ defense\\.\\ The\\ court\\ says\\ 8\\(c\\)\\ only\\ addresses\\ who\\ must\\ plead\\ contributory\\ negligence\\,\\ not\\ who\\ bears\\ the\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\,\\ so\\ state\\ rule\\ applies\\ as\\ to\\ burden\\ of\\ proof\\ even\\ though\\ the\\ fed\\ rule\\ says\\ who\\ pleads\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n4\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Hanna\\ I\\:\\ Judicial\\ practices\\ which\\ differ\\ from\\ state\\ law\\\\\r\n\\\r\na\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Apply\\ state\\ rule\\ if\\ outcome\\ determinative\\ and\\ if\\ applying\\ federal\\ rule\\ would\\ lead\\ to\\ forum\\ shopping\\ or\\ inequitable\\ administration\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\\\\r\n\\\r\ni\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Inequitable\\ administration\\ of\\ laws\\?\\ if\\ significant\\ difference\\ in\\ litigation\\ opportunity\\\\\r\n\\\r\nii\\.\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;NB\\:\\ Most\\ differences\\ look\\ \\&ldquo\\;inequitable\\&rdquo\\;\\ if\\ viewed\\ retrospectively\\ \\(any\\ inequity\\ can\\ be\\ avoided\\ by\\ careful\\ planning\\)\\.\\ But\\ now\\ the\\ SCOTUS\\ seems\\ to\\ look\\ retrospectively\\ \\(see\\ Walker\\,\\ quoted\\ in\\ Glannon\\,\\ 205\\)\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nAside\\:\\ Two\\ major\\ criticisms\\ of\\ Hanna\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\(1\\)\\ Submerges\\ the\\ federalism\\ debate\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apparent\\ in\\ Erie\\ and\\ York\\,\\ relying\\ on\\ the\\ SOP\\ justification\\ of\\ Sibbach\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Warren\\ relies\\ on\\ argument\\ that\\ FRCP\\ are\\ necessary\\ and\\ proper\\ so\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;enumerated\\ powers\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ fall\\ to\\ states\\.\\ \\(2\\)\\ Logic\\ of\\ Hanna\\ 2\\ relies\\ on\\ the\\ durability\\ of\\ the\\ substance\\/procedure\\ distinction\\ that\\ Sibbach\\ employs\\.\\ \\;\\ Mistretta\\ lays\\ doubt\\ on\\ that\\ line\\.\\ \\;\\ Once\\ substance\\/procedure\\ break\\ down\\ the\\ bracketing\\ off\\ of\\ FRCP\\ from\\ the\\ Hanna\\ 1\\ test\\ has\\ no\\ theoretical\\ justification\\\\\r\n\\\r\nNB\\:\\ Hanna\\ II\\ \\(re\\:\\ FRCP\\)\\ immunizes\\ the\\ FRCP\\ from\\ any\\ challenge\\ \\&\\;\\ grants\\ more\\ power\\ to\\ federal\\ government\\ \\(unlike\\ Byrd\\,\\ which\\ sort\\ of\\ balanced\\ the\\ power\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nExamples\\:\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\,\\ almost\\ always\\ go\\ with\\ the\\ state\\,\\ because\\ it\\ will\\ usually\\ be\\ prime\\ candidate\\ for\\ forum\\ shopping\\.\\ A\\ FRCP\\ changing\\ the\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\ would\\ probably\\ be\\ invalid\\ because\\ it\\ would\\ abridge\\,\\ modify\\,\\ or\\ enlarge\\ a\\ substantive\\ right\\.\\ But\\ a\\ federal\\ statute\\ changing\\ the\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\ would\\ probably\\ be\\ ok\\ because\\ Congress\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ as\\ limited\\ in\\ changing\\ procedure\\ with\\ statutes\\ as\\ the\\ court\\ is\\ in\\ changing\\ procedure\\ with\\ the\\ FRCP\\ under\\ the\\ REA\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ federal\\ statute\\ changing\\ the\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\ would\\ be\\ ok\\ if\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;fell\\ in\\ the\\ uncertain\\ area\\ between\\ substance\\ \\&\\;\\ procedure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ FRCP\\ changing\\ the\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;arguably\\ procedural\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ it\\ must\\ also\\ pass\\ the\\ second\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ REA\\,\\ which\\ says\\ an\\ FRCP\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\&ldquo\\;abridge\\,\\ modify\\,\\ or\\ enlarge\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&\\;\\ the\\ statute\\ of\\ limitations\\ is\\ closely\\ bound\\ up\\ with\\ a\\ substantive\\ right\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nClearfield\\ Trust\\:\\ By\\ the\\ way\\,\\ federal\\ common\\ law\\ exists\\:\\ it\\ is\\ law\\ that\\ concerns\\ certain\\ powers\\ specifically\\ delegated\\ to\\ Congress\\ by\\ the\\ Constitution\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essentially\\ \\&ldquo\\;specialized\\ federal\\ common\\ law\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ applies\\ to\\ enumerated\\ authorities\\ of\\ the\\ US\\.\\ \\(By\\ contrast\\,\\ the\\ fake\\ federal\\ common\\ law\\ in\\ Swift\\ concerned\\ state\\ power\\ to\\ make\\ contracts\\,\\ etc\\.\\ and\\ never\\ mentioned\\ the\\ supremacy\\ clause\\)\\.\\ This\\ federal\\ common\\ law\\ is\\ necessary\\ and\\ interstitial\\ \\(gap\\ filling\\)\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\nLochner\\:\\ courts\\ are\\ using\\ substantive\\ due\\ process\\ to\\ protect\\ corporations\\,\\ so\\ the\\ Progressives\\ are\\ afraid\\ of\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ next\\ thirty\\ years\\.\\ Substantive\\ right\\ of\\ freedom\\ to\\ contract\\ recognized\\ by\\ the\\ Court\\ here\\.\\ \\\\\r\n\\\r\nSubstantive\\ due\\ process\\ stops\\ being\\ a\\ weapon\\ of\\ the\\ conservative\\ corporations\\ when\\ FDR\\&rsquo\\;s\\ people\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ court\\.\\\\\r\n\\\r\nSubstantive\\ DP\\ used\\ to\\ undermine\\ the\\ early\\ regulatory\\ state\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\\\\r\n\\\r\n\\ \\;\\<\\/p\\>", "course_id": 94, "file_path": "", "desc": "Subject Matter Jurisdiction"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-11 21:30:07.190718+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": "\ufeff_______________\r\nL I B R I V O X\r\n\r\n\r\nacoustical liberation of books in the public domain\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nhttp://librivox.org/\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nLibriVox wants all books in the public domain to be available,\r\nfor free, in audio format, on the internet. We ask volunteers to\r\nrecord chapters of books in the public domain in digital format;\r\nall you need is a computer, some free recording software, and\r\nyour own voice! We are a totally volunteer, open source, free\r\ncontent, public domain project. \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nVOLUNTEER\r\n\r\n\r\nWould you like to volunteer? Would you like to read a book in\r\nanother language perhaps? It\ufffds easy to do so. Please visit:\r\nhttp://librivox.org/volunteer-for-librivox/\r\n\r\n\r\nOur lively forum, with people from all around the globe will \r\nquickly answers your questions, and we are looking forward \r\nto welcome you there.\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nMORE BOOKS\r\n\r\n\r\nOur Catalog of about 85 hours of audioworks can be found at: \r\nhttp://librivox.org/librivox-catalogue/\r\n\r\n\r\nIf you want to be updated about new recordings comfortably, \r\nuse our several RSS-feeds. Or use our podcast.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nTHIS TITLE\r\n\r\n\r\nHeart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nLINKS\r\n\r\n\r\nGutenberg e-text: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/113\r\n\r\n\r\nWikipedia - Frances Hodgson Burnett: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Eliza_Hodgson_Burnett\r\nWikipedia - The Secret Garden: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Garden\r\n\r\n\r\nGutenberg e-text: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/219\r\nWikipedia - Joseph Conrad: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Conrad\r\nWikipedia - Heart of Darkness: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_darkness\r\n \r\nRead by Kristin Luoma: http://www.greenkri.com\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nSUMMARY\r\n\r\n\r\nHeart of Darkness\r\nby Joseph Conrad\r\n\r\n\r\nSet in a time of oppressive colonisation, when large areas of the world were still unknown\r\nto Europe, and Africa was literally on maps and minds as a mysterious shadow,\r\nHeart of Darkness famously explores the rituals of civilisation and barbarism,\r\nand the frighteningly fine line between them.\r\n\r\n\r\nWe get the tale through a classic unreliable narrator,\r\nrelating as Marlow, a ship\ufffds captain, tells how he was sent by the Company to retrieve\r\nthe wayward Kurtz, and was shaken to discover the true depths of darkness in that creature\ufffds,\r\nand in his own, soul. \r\nConrad based the work closely on his own terrible experience in the Congo.\r\n\r\n\r\nThis work has been reinterpreted and adapted into many modern forms,\r\n the most well known being the film Apocalypse Now.\r\n(Summary written by Marlo Dianne) \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nCHAPTERS\r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 1 Part 1 - 00:44:10 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 1 Part 2 - 00:47:34 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 2 Part 1 - 00:36:53 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 2 Part 2 - 00:42:35 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 3 Part 1 - 00:30:21 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 3 Part 2 - 00:48:39 \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nLICENSE\r\n\r\n\r\nPlease note that this recording is in the public domain: \r\nhttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/publicdomain/ \r\nThus, you are free to copy, distribute, display, and perform \r\nthe work without restriction.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nPARTNERS\r\n\r\n\r\nOur audio files are hosted by the Internet Archive \r\n(www.archive.org)\r\nMost of our books come from Project Gutenberg \r\n(www.gutenberg.org).\r\nMany thanks to them.", "id": 852, "html": "\\\\\\Untitled\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:11pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c0\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\ I\\ B\\ R\\ I\\ V\\ O\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\acoustical\\ liberation\\ of\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/librivox\\.org\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LibriVox\\ wants\\ all\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\ to\\ be\\ available\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ free\\,\\ in\\ audio\\ format\\,\\ on\\ the\\ internet\\.\\ We\\ ask\\ volunteers\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\record\\ chapters\\ of\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\ in\\ digital\\ format\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\all\\ you\\ need\\ is\\ a\\ computer\\,\\ some\\ free\\ recording\\ software\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\your\\ own\\ voice\\!\\ We\\ are\\ a\\ totally\\ volunteer\\,\\ open\\ source\\,\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\content\\,\\ public\\ domain\\ project\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VOLUNTEER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Would\\ you\\ like\\ to\\ volunteer\\?\\ Would\\ you\\ like\\ to\\ read\\ a\\ book\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\another\\ language\\ perhaps\\?\\ It\\&\\#65533\\;s\\ easy\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Please\\ visit\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/librivox\\.org\\/volunteer\\-for\\-librivox\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ lively\\ forum\\,\\ with\\ people\\ from\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ globe\\ will\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\quickly\\ answers\\ your\\ questions\\,\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ looking\\ forward\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ welcome\\ you\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORE\\ BOOKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ Catalog\\ of\\ about\\ 85\\ hours\\ of\\ audioworks\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/librivox\\.org\\/librivox\\-catalogue\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ updated\\ about\\ new\\ recordings\\ comfortably\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\use\\ our\\ several\\ RSS\\-feeds\\.\\ Or\\ use\\ our\\ podcast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THIS\\ TITLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\ by\\ Joseph\\ Conrad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LINKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gutenberg\\ e\\-text\\:\\ \\ \\;http\\:\\/\\/www\\.gutenberg\\.org\\/etext\\/113\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ Frances\\ Hodgson\\ Burnett\\:\\ \\ \\;http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Frances\\_Eliza\\_Hodgson\\_Burnett\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ The\\ Secret\\ Garden\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/The\\_Secret\\_Garden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gutenberg\\ e\\-text\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.gutenberg\\.org\\/etext\\/219\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ Joseph\\ Conrad\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Joseph\\_Conrad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Heart\\_of\\_darkness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Read\\ by\\ Kristin\\ Luoma\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.greenkri\\.com\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SUMMARY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ Joseph\\ Conrad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Set\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ oppressive\\ colonisation\\,\\ when\\ large\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ were\\ still\\ unknown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ Europe\\,\\ and\\ Africa\\ was\\ literally\\ on\\ maps\\ and\\ minds\\ as\\ a\\ mysterious\\ shadow\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\ famously\\ explores\\ the\\ rituals\\ of\\ civilisation\\ and\\ barbarism\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ the\\ frighteningly\\ fine\\ line\\ between\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ get\\ the\\ tale\\ through\\ a\\ classic\\ unreliable\\ narrator\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\relating\\ as\\ Marlow\\,\\ a\\ ship\\&\\#65533\\;s\\ captain\\,\\ tells\\ how\\ he\\ was\\ sent\\ by\\ the\\ Company\\ to\\ retrieve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ wayward\\ Kurtz\\,\\ and\\ was\\ shaken\\ to\\ discover\\ the\\ true\\ depths\\ of\\ darkness\\ in\\ that\\ creature\\&\\#65533\\;s\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ in\\ his\\ own\\,\\ soul\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conrad\\ based\\ the\\ work\\ closely\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ terrible\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ Congo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ work\\ has\\ been\\ reinterpreted\\ and\\ adapted\\ into\\ many\\ modern\\ forms\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;the\\ most\\ well\\ known\\ being\\ the\\ film\\ Apocalypse\\ Now\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Summary\\ written\\ by\\ Marlo\\ Dianne\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTERS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ Part\\ 1\\ \\-\\ 00\\:44\\:10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ Part\\ 2\\ \\-\\ 00\\:47\\:34\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\ Part\\ 1\\ \\-\\ 00\\:36\\:53\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\ Part\\ 2\\ \\-\\ 00\\:42\\:35\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ Part\\ 1\\ \\-\\ 00\\:30\\:21\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ Part\\ 2\\ \\-\\ 00\\:48\\:39\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LICENSE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Please\\ note\\ that\\ this\\ recording\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/creativecommons\\.org\\/licenses\\/publicdomain\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ you\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ copy\\,\\ distribute\\,\\ display\\,\\ and\\ perform\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ work\\ without\\ restriction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PARTNERS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ audio\\ files\\ are\\ hosted\\ by\\ the\\ Internet\\ Archive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(www\\.archive\\.org\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ our\\ books\\ come\\ from\\ Project\\ Gutenberg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(www\\.gutenberg\\.org\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ thanks\\ to\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad [librivox]1.txt", "desc": null}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.371031+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Mass Culture, the rise of film, and the \u2018haunted\u2019 cinema of the Weimar Republic.", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 433, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Always\\ seeking\\ to\\ connect\\ the\\ material\\ in\\ the\\ course\\ with\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;everyday\\&\\#8217\\;\\ of\\ our\\ current\\ existence\\,\\ Rentschler\\ began\\ his\\ lecture\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\ overview\\ of\\ current\\ mass\\ culture\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Modern\\ society\\ is\\ dominated\\ by\\ the\\ instruments\\ of\\ mass\\ culture\\:\\ national\\ news\\ programs\\,\\ talk\\ shows\\,\\ and\\ the\\ media\\ surrounding\\ professional\\ sporting\\ events\\ operate\\ to\\ produce\\ certain\\ \\&\\#8220\\;mass\\&\\#8221\\;\\ opinions\\ on\\ a\\ variety\\ of\\ topics\\ ranging\\ from\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ should\\ I\\ wear\\ on\\ my\\ first\\ date\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\ to\\ \\&\\#8220\\;What\\ is\\ going\\ on\\ in\\ Iraq\\?\\&\\#8221\\;\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Central\\ to\\ this\\ experience\\ of\\ mass\\ culture\\ is\\ the\\ proliferation\\ and\\ permeation\\ of\\ an\\ array\\ of\\ communication\\ technologies\\ into\\ the\\ everyday\\ lives\\ of\\ many\\ Americans\\.\\ And\\ we\\ are\\ not\\ merely\\ external\\,\\ autonomous\\ observers\\ of\\ these\\ technologies\\;\\ who\\ we\\ are\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ are\\ have\\ come\\ to\\ be\\ defined\\ by\\ them\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Indeed\\,\\ taking\\ an\\ intriguingly\\ \\Deleuzian\\<\\/a\\>\\ stance\\,\\ Rentschler\\ posits\\ that\\ these\\ objects\\,\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ mp3\\ player\\,\\ have\\ become\\ new\\ appendages\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\This\\ notion\\ of\\ mass\\ culture\\ may\\ raise\\ some\\ serious\\ concerns\\ unrelated\\ to\\ the\\ course\\:\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ Self\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ apparatus\\ of\\ media\\ technology\\ on\\ individual\\ action\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ would\\ love\\ to\\ discuss\\ these\\ issues\\ further\\!\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>However\\,\\ Rentschler\\ uses\\ the\\ introduction\\ to\\ mass\\ culture\\ to\\ pose\\ the\\ following\\,\\ course\\-related\\ questions\\:\\ How\\ can\\ we\\ account\\ for\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Cinema\\ and\\ mass\\ culture\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>And\\ how\\ can\\ we\\ account\\ for\\ cinema\\ before\\ Hitler\\,\\ who\\ as\\ you\\ should\\ remember\\,\\ used\\ the\\ technology\\ of\\ cinema\\ to\\ communicate\\ a\\ particular\\ notion\\ of\\ German\\-ness\\ and\\ spectacle\\ to\\ the\\ population\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Invention\\ of\\ Film\\\r\\\\<\\/em\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>Importantly\\,\\ Rentschler\\ argues\\ that\\ film\\ did\\ not\\ arise\\ out\\ of\\ a\\ vacuum\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ represented\\ an\\ extension\\ of\\ the\\ yearnings\\ and\\ ideologies\\ that\\ drove\\ the\\ Industrial\\ Revolution\\,\\ which\\ was\\ grounded\\ in\\ new\\ attempts\\ to\\ make\\ nature\\ pliable\\ and\\ useful\\ to\\ human\\ activity\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Moreover\\,\\ in\\ an\\ increasingly\\ global\\,\\ diasporic\\ society\\,\\ film\\ provided\\ a\\ universal\\ aesthetic\\ language\\,\\ which\\ could\\ be\\ received\\ by\\ masses\\ from\\ any\\ background\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>I\\ found\\ this\\ discussion\\ of\\ film\\ as\\ a\\ technology\\ of\\ control\\ very\\ interesting\\,\\ and\\ curiously\\ absent\\ from\\ contemporary\\ mainstream\\ analysis\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>Rentschler\\ argues\\ that\\ by\\ capturing\\ nature\\ of\\ film\\,\\ film\\-makers\\ were\\ able\\ to\\ exceed\\ the\\ boundaries\\ or\\ mortality\\ and\\ temporality\\.\\&\\#160\\;\\ The\\ inscription\\ of\\ live\\ image\\ on\\ film\\ guaranteed\\ the\\ indefinite\\ extension\\ of\\ their\\ product\\ into\\ the\\ future\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>With\\ cinema\\ Man\\ triumphs\\ over\\ the\\ vicissitudes\\ of\\ nature\\,\\ and\\ I\\ can\\ certainly\\ see\\ why\\ the\\ possibilities\\ of\\ this\\ medium\\ so\\ fascinated\\ the\\ Nazis\\.\\\\&\\#160\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>However\\,\\ before\\ addressing\\ the\\ question\\ of\\ a\\ Nazi\\,\\ aesthetic\\ spectacle\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ explore\\ the\\ fantasy\\-production\\ aspect\\ of\\ film\\ in\\ the\\ era\\ preceding\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ Hitler\\:\\ \\the\\ Weimar\\ Republic\\<\\/a\\>\\.\\\r\\\\\\A\\ Weimar\\ Cinema\\?\\<\\/em\\>\\<\\/p\\>Weimar\\ Cinema\\ emerged\\ around\\ 1920\\,\\ in\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ \\\\<\\/country\\-region\\>Germany\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ unexpected\\ loss\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ I\\.\\ The\\ sheer\\ number\\ of\\ films\\ \\(Rentschler\\ suggests\\ 200\\-500\\/year\\)\\ suggests\\ the\\ degree\\ of\\ fascination\\ surrounding\\ emergent\\ film\\ technologies\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Although\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ great\\ deal\\ of\\ variation\\ in\\ \\\\<\\/city\\>Weimar\\ cinema\\,\\ Rentschler\\ discusses\\ a\\ central\\ motif\\ that\\ spans\\ many\\ of\\ them\\:\\ anxiety\\ about\\ modernity\\ and\\ \\\\<\\/country\\-region\\>\\ Germany\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ entrance\\ into\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>The\\ clips\\ presented\\ in\\ class\\ seem\\ to\\ capture\\ this\\ anxiety\\ quite\\ well\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>Romanticized\\ images\\ of\\ German\\ people\\,\\ places\\,\\ and\\ cultural\\ objects\\ appear\\,\\ yet\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\ acts\\ as\\ mediating\\ device\\ between\\ this\\ ideal\\ depiction\\ and\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ this\\ way\\,\\ Rentschler\\ argues\\ that\\ early\\ Weimar\\ film\\ was\\ \\&\\#8216\\;haunted\\&\\#8217\\;\\ by\\ past\\ ideals\\,\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ staid\\ scenes\\ in\\ Weimar\\ films\\,\\ once\\ the\\ subjects\\ of\\ classic\\ painting\\ and\\ folk\\ art\\,\\ found\\ themselves\\ challenged\\ by\\ the\\ rapid\\ advancement\\ of\\ modern\\ technology\\,\\ as\\ evidenced\\ by\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ the\\ camera\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\Rentschler\\ discusses\\ several\\ examples\\ of\\ this\\ \\&\\#8216\\;haunted\\&\\#8217\\;\\ aesthetic\\,\\ which\\ permeated\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ known\\ Weimar\\ Cinema\\.\\\r\\These\\ include\\ Wiene\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\The\\ Cabinet\\ of\\ Dr\\.\\ Caligari\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ Murnau\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ 1922\\ \\Nasferatu\\<\\/em\\>\\.\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>Amazingly\\,\\ both\\ of\\ these\\ are\\ available\\ on\\ youtube\\:\\\r\\\\Caligari\\:\\ \\http\\:\\/\\/youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=MrNJBbXhvOs\\<\\/a\\>\\\r\\Nasferatu\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/youtube\\.com\\/watch\\?v\\=MEOsb6CRvNU\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/a\\>\\\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/span\\>If\\ you\\ get\\ a\\ chance\\ to\\ watch\\ either\\ or\\ these\\,\\ which\\ I\\ would\\ \\highly\\ recommend\\<\\/em\\>\\\\<\\/span\\>\\,\\ consider\\ the\\ following\\:\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>What\\ is\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ \\&\\#8216\\;monsters\\&\\#8217\\;\\ in\\ these\\ movies\\ and\\ larger\\ German\\ anxieties\\ regarding\\ the\\ modernization\\ of\\ the\\ world\\?\\ \\\\<\\/span\\>What\\ makes\\ these\\ films\\ different\\ from\\ their\\ Hollywood\\ contemporaries\\?\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\r\\\\\r\\\\Next\\ time\\,\\ I\\ will\\ discuss\\ the\\ reaction\\ of\\ \\\\<\\/city\\>Weimar\\ intellectuals\\ to\\ these\\ questions\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ their\\ general\\ response\\ to\\ \\\\<\\/city\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/place\\>Weimar\\ cinema\\.\\\\ \\<\\/span\\>In\\ particular\\,\\ we\\ will\\ look\\ at\\ Siegfried\\ Kracauer\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ \\From\\ Caligari\\ to\\ Hitler\\<\\/em\\>\\ and\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ \\\\<\\/city\\>\\\r\\\\\\<\\/place\\>Weimar\\ cinema\\,\\ the\\ rise\\ of\\ mass\\ culture\\,\\ fascist\\ fantasy\\ production\\ and\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\.\\ Also\\,\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\.\\.\\ NEXT\\ TIME\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/place\\>\\\\\r\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Mass Culture, the rise of film, and the \u2018haunted\u2019 cinema of the Weimar Republic."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-11 21:19:11.884788+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": "\ufeff28. What factors lead to the re-discovery of the sagas in the early modern period? The 19th century? How do these issues shape our perceptions and study of the sagas. \r\nEarly modern publications dealing with Old Norse culture appeared in the 16th century. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda.. In the 19th century, a Viking revival occurred as part of Romanticism. The Viking revival was an increase in popular and scholarly interest in and enthusiasm for the history and culture of the Vikings and other Norsemen of the Viking Age. In 1800\u2019s a rediscovery and fascination with the heroic Germanic past by the elite culture in Scandinavia, as well as in England and Germany. People were fascinated with the past as seen in the sagas as that sagas saw the Vikings. (People in 1800\u2019s fascinated with how people in 1300\u2019s wrote about those in the 1000\u2019s). There was the issue as to who the sagas really belonged to, Iceland or Norway/Sweden. This led people to want to rediscover the sagas and relate them to their own country. Thus, in reading the sagas today, we must keep in mind any later influence that might be found in them.\r\n \r\n29. Discuss several of the principal North American Viking \"hoaxes\" and evaluate the state of our understanding about the Norse enterprise in North America. \r\nSome \u2018hoaxes\u2019 include:\r\n The tower at Newport, RI. Rafn said it was the baptistery of a church built by Norse settlers in the welfth century. Longfellow wrote about it, even though it\u2019s false.\r\n The stone from Kensington, MN was a late 19th century creation. It had a long runic inscription describing a disastrous voyage of exploration undertaken to the area by a group of Swedes and Norwegians from Vinland in 1362. It became known as the Kensington Stone. Some still believe it\u2019s true despite all experts\u2019 denials of it. \r\n The Vinland Map is supposed to be a representation of North America drawn in the early to mid 15th century (50 years before Europeans \u2018discovered\u2019 America. It portrays Vinland. It came to attention in 1957. Still a back-and-forth but most say it is a forgery, probably by Austrian Jesuit priest Father Joseph Fischer in the 1930s.\r\n Norumbega, an area in Boston claimed to be located by a Harvard professor (Eben Norton Horsford). Horsford wrote books about it in late 1800\u2019s. Said to be a Viking city, it appeared on a map in 1524 drawn by Verzano. Then a man in 1568 told the story of Norumbega in England after returning claiming to have walked through it.\r\n L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland is the only place in North America where conclusive evidence points to a Viking presence (and Labrador, Canada).\r\n These hoaxes point to the fact that there is much conjecture about how far Vikings traveled into North America. As stated, solid evidence only exists in L\u2019Anse aux Meadows, however people want to believe that Vikings made it farther. Maybe it is hard to imagine the Vikings, with their explorers\u2019 mentality, every turning around.\r\n\r\n\r\n \r\n30. What is eddic-- as opposed to scaldic-- poetry? What are the technical differences? What are the differences in usage and meanings associated with them? \r\nEddic verse was usually simple, in terms of content, style and meter, dealing largely with mythological or heroic content. Skaldic verse, conversely, was complex, and usually composed as a tribute or homage to a particular Jarl or king. Performance of skaldic poetry was spoken, not sung or chanted. Unlike many other literary forms of the time, much skaldic poetry is attributable to an author (called a skald), and these attributions may be relied on with a reasonable degree of confidence \r\n\r\n\r\nHarald fine-hair: King Harald Fairhair is the king who is credited by later tradition as having unified Norway into one kingdom. According to the sagas, he ruled Norway from approximately 872 to 930. Little is known of the historical Harald. The only contemporary sources mentioning him are the two skaldic poems Haraldskv\u00e6\u00f0i and Glymdr\u00e1pa, by \u00deorbj\u00f6rn Hornklofi. The first poem describes life at Harald's court, mentions that he took a Danish wife, and that he won a victory at Hafrsfjord. The second relates a series of battles Harald has won. He is not mentioned in any contemporary foreign sources. His life was described in several of the Kings' sagas, but the first of these were not written until the end of the 12th century, over 250 years after his death; Harald succeeded on the death of his father Halfdan the black. In 866 he made conquest over many petty kingdoms which could compose Norway.\r\n\r\n\r\nL'Anse aux Meadows: an archaeological site on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Discovered in 1960, it is the site of a Norse village, the only known one in North America outside of Greenland. The site remains the only widely-accepted instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, and is notable for possible connections with the attempted colony of Vinland established by Leif Ericson around 1003, or more broadly with the Norse colonization of the Americas. Archaeologists determined the site is of Norse origin due to definitive similarities between the characteristics of structures and artifacts found at the site and those of Greenlandic and Icelandic sites. Two Icelandic sagas, commonly called the Saga of the Greenlanders and the Saga of Eric the Red, describe the experiences of Norse Greenlanders who discovered and then attempted to settle a land to the west of Greenland, identified as Vinland. The Sagas seem to suggest that the Vinland settlement failed because of conflicts within the Norse community as well as between the Norse and the native people they encountered, the Skr\u00e6lings. While it is not possible to verify that L'Anse aux Meadows is indeed the Vinland of the Sagas, this remains a possibility, and it often is referred to as such in discussions of the site. Some archaeologists believe that the L'Anse aux Meadows site is not Vinland itself, but an exploration base and winter camp for expeditions heading farther south to the real Vinland.\r\n\r\n\r\nFuthark: Runic alphabet used during Viking Age in Scandinavia. Most Runic texts are found on hard surfaces such as rock, wood, and metal. There are two forms of Futhark, Elder Futhark and Younger Futhark. The linear and angular shapes reveal that it was designed to cut short messages easily.\r\n\r\n\r\nSaga: stories about ancient Scandinavian and Germanic history, about early Viking voyages, about migration to Iceland, and of feuds between Icelandic families; written in the Old Norse language, mainly in Iceland; The texts are epic tales in prose, often with stanzas or whole poems in alliterative verse embedded in the text, of heroic deeds of days long gone, tales of worthy men, who were often Vikings, sometimes Pagan, sometimes Christian. The tales are usually realistic, except legendary sagas, sagas of saints, sagas of bishops and translated or recomposed romances. They are sometimes romanticized and fantastic, but always dealing with human beings one can understand.\r\n\r\n\r\nBerserk: A word used in the Icelandic sagas for a stereotypically ferocious warrior. One saga describes them being \u201cas mad as dogs or wolves, they bit into their shields and were as strong as bears or bulls\u201d. Two explanations of their name have been put forward. One derives it from words meaning \u201cbare shirt\u201d, and thus describing someone who fought naked; the other, more likely, origin derives from \u201cbear shirt\u201d, meaning someone who wore a bearskin. There are representations in pre-Viking Scandinavian art of people dressed in a bearskin and carrying weapons, but they probably depict a ritual relating to the \u2018shape-changer\u2019 aspect of Germanic religions rather than a functional warrior. The portrayal of berserk warriors in the sagas probably reflects medieval literary conventions rather than fact. The English adjective for this word means \u201cviolently frenzied\u201d.\r\n\r\n\r\nExcerpt from Egil\u2019s Saga: \u201cWhat people say about shape-changers or those who go into BERSERK fits is this: that as long as they\u2019re in the frenzy they\u2019re so strong that nothing is too much for them, but as soon as they\u2019re out of it they become much weaker than normal. That\u2019s how it was with Kveldulf; as soon as the frenzy left him he felt worn out by the battle he\u2019d been fighting, and grew so weak as a result of it all that he had to take to his bed.\u201d\r\n\r\n\r\nAnother execerpt: \u201cThen Ljot came up with his party and got himself ready for the duel (with Fridgeir)\u2026 As he approached the combat area his BERSERK fit came on and he began howling horribly and biting his shield.\u201d (Egil ends up fighting instead of Fridgeir after insulting Ljot calling him a \u2018maniac\u2019 and a \u2018valkyrie-maddened shield-swallowing villain\u2019. Egil kills him.)\r\n13. What are the approximate dates of the so-called Viking Age? \r\n753 (Raid at Lindesfarn) to 1066 (Defeat at Stamford Bridge). \r\n14. Vikings of which modern Scandinavian country were primarily oriented toward: a. England? b. the Frisian coast? c. Russia? d. Ireland? \r\n1. Think Danelaw \u2013 when major parts of Britain were controlled by Denmark.\r\n2. Norway and Denmark\r\n3. Sweden\r\n4. Norway\r\n \r\n15. Which Norwegian king first brought the country under his consolidated rule, according to literary sources?\r\nHarald Fairhair/Tanglehair was the first king to unite Norway (i.e. Harald\u2019s Saga). His arrival led many nobles to colonize Iceland. \r\nYork \u2013 York is a city in Britain that was raided and captured by Vikings in 866. It served as a major city (like the capital\u2026) during Viking control over Britain. \r\nFreyja \u2013 She is a Norse goddess of love, beauty and fertility. \r\nKensington \u2013 I would assume this is actually asking about the Kensington Rune stone, which was a stone found in Kensington Minnesota by a farmer that had a runic inscription. Some people claim it is evidence for Viking expeditions into the mid-west, but it is thought by pretty much everyone to be a hoax. \r\nAsgard \u2013 the home of the gods. \r\nVarangian guard \u2013 this was the personal bodyguard to the emperor of the byzantine empire that was made up of Scandinavians (called \u201cRus\u201d, but probably mostly Swedish). King Harald made his name/fortune in the Varangian guard. \r\nOdin- If you cant describe Odin at this point, this study guide will not help you \r\nNorns- he Norns (Old Norse: norn, plural: nornir) are a kind of d\u00edsir,[1] numerous female beings who rule the fates of the various races of Norse mythology.\r\nAccording to Snorri Sturluson's interpretation of the V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, the three most important norns, Ur\u00f0r (Urd or Wyrd)(In many cases spelled URD), Ver\u00f0andi (also Verdandi or Verdande) and Skuld come out from a hall standing at the Well of Ur\u00f0r (well of fate) and they draw water from the well and take sand that lies around it, which they pour over the ash Yggdrasill so that its branches will not rot.[2] These norns are described as three powerful maiden giantesses (Jotuns) whose arrival from J\u00f6tunheimr ended the golden age of the gods.[2] They may be the same as the maidens of M\u00f6g\u00ferasir who are described in Vaf\u00fer\u00fa\u00f0nism\u00e1l (see below).[2]\r\nBeside these three norns, there are many other norns who arrive when a person is born in order to determine his or her future.[2] There were both malevolent and benevolent norns, and the former caused all the malevolent and tragic events in the world while the latter were kind and protective goddesses.[2] Recent research has discussed the relation between the myths associated with norns and valkyries, on the one hand, and the actual travelling V\u00f6lvas (sei\u00f0r-workers), on the other hand, in particular, women who visited newborn children in the pre-Christian Norse societies.[3]\r\nBasically, the beings who decide the fate of humans. \r\nAlfred the Great- Alfred the Great (Old English: \u00c6lfr\u0113d; 847 \u2013 October 26, 899), also spelt \u00c6lfred, was king of the southern Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex from 871 to 899. Alfred is noted for his defence of the kingdom against the Danish Vikings, becoming the only English King to be awarded the epithet \"the Great\".[1] Alfred was the first King of the West Saxons to style himself \"King of the English\". Details of his life are described in a work by the Welsh scholar Asser. Alfred was a learned man, and encouraged education and improved his kingdom's law system as well as its military structure. \r\nIbn Fadlan- Ahmad ibn Fadl\u0101n ibn al-Abb\u0101s ibn Ra\u0161\u012bd ibn Hamm\u0101d was a 10th century Arab Muslim writer and traveler who wrote an account of his travels as a member of an embassy of the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad to the king of the Volga Bulgars, \r\nA substantial part of Ibn Fadlan's account is dedicated to the description of a people he called the R\u016bs \u0631\u0648\u0633 or R\u016bsiyyah. Most scholars identify them with the Rus' or Varangians, which would make Ibn Fadlan's account one of the earliest portrayals of Vikings.\r\nThe R\u016bs appear as traders that set up shop on the river banks nearby the Bol\u011far camp. They are described as having bodies, tall as palm-trees, with blond hair and ruddy skin. They are tattooed from \"fingernails to neck\" with dark blue or dark green \"tree patterns\" and other \"figures\" and that all men are armed with an axe and a long knife.\r\nIbn Fadlan describes the Rus as having perfect bodies, with high cheekbones in the face. In contrast to their physical beauty, he describes the hygiene of the R\u016bsiyyah as disgusting (while also noting with some astonishment that they comb their hair every day) and considers them vulgar and unsophisticated. In that, his impressions contradict those of the Persian traveler Ibn Rustah. He also describes in great detail the funeral of one of their chieftains (a ship burial involving human sacrifice). Some scholars believe that it took place in the modern Balymer complex.[1]\r\n25. Our knowledge of the Viking Era depends on a wide array of often disparate sources, ranging from texts to the archaeological record. Review the variety and character of our sources, and assess the strengths and weaknesses of these sources.\r\n\r\n\r\nArchaeological sources are often the most honest, but the least complete. What is found today is what was once a part of the Viking society, but few things have survived the past thousand years, and even less are found by archaeologists. For example, when graves are found, they show what Vikings had and wanted to be buried with, but no explanation as to why they wanted to be buried with this objects. The literature often provides a more complete picture, but also needs to be taken with a grain of salt. The majority of the literature comes from 13th century Iceland, after the acceptance of Christianity and hundreds of years after the actual Viking society existed. (talk about the effect of Christianity on the Viking mythology: Odin is portrayed as a more central god than he actually was, etc)\r\nThe best evidence that we have for Viking culture is the overlap of these two sources. (For example, the archeological find L'Anse aux Meadows and the accounts in the Vinland Sagas.)\r\n\r\n\r\n26. How important is the idea of \"the law\" in the sagas?\r\nLaw was important in the Viking literature, but in a different sense than law is considered in our society. Vikings had allegiances to their family, towns, and chieftains, whom they represented through any means possible, including violence. If someone was wronged, he didn't face a court but rather the vengeance of his family and friends. This a good opportunity to put in a couple of examples from the texts (Egil's saga: Kveldulfr and Skallagrim revenge the death of Kveldulfr's son and Skallagrim's brother, Thorolf.) Egil's saga also gives an example of how Viking ideals of oneself and one's allegiances above any governing body (Kveldulfr and Skallagrim chose not to fight for King Harald and do well because of it). \r\n\r\n\r\n27. How useful are the Icelandic sagas as sources of information for the Viking Age? What are the difficulties?\r\n\r\n\r\nIcelandic sagas are incredibly useful sources of information about the Viking age, though like all sources, the information they contain must be taken with a grain of salt. They are the only nearly contemporary sources of viking mythology and history compiled by Norse peoples (eat it Adam of Bremen and ibn Fadhlan). They provide a wealth of information and direct descriptions found nowhere else. Two examples are the Prose Edda and the Vinland Saga. The first gives the clearest direct description of Viking mythology and history that could be found anywhere. The second chronicles two different accounts of the finding and settling of the New World by vikings (Leif Erikson) hundreds of years before Columbus was born. The saga led to the exhaustive search and eventual discovery of a new world viking archeological sites.\r\nThey do, however, have some pretty serious limitations, the biggest being that they were written, or more accurately, transcribed, hundreds of years after the events 'took place' and were written after the cross over into Christian culture, which almost certainly changed the nature of the lessons and elements of the stories, and possible large parts of their substance.\r\n\r\n\r\nalliteration--Very important part of skaldic poetry, particularly the later, more structured classes (hrynhenda and drottkvaett). Each pair of lines had to have three aliterative words, the first two on the first line and the third starting the second. This is in addititon to the internal rhyme/assonace required of every line in the poem. \r\n\r\n\r\nSnorri Sturluson--Snorri Sturluson[1] (1178 \u00f1 September 23, 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet and politician. He was two-time elected lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He was the author of the Prose Edda, and is often considered the author of Egil's saga for stylistic reasons. Snorri is remarkable for proposing the theory (in the Prose Edda) that mythological gods begin as human war leaders and kings whose funeral sites develop cults.\r\n\r\n\r\nFrey--Son of Njord and sibling of Frejya, he was a member of the Vanir, but lived with the Aesir at Asgard as a part of the peace deal between the two groups of gods. He was associated with agriculture, weather and fertility (especially phallic/male fertility). He's is the owner of the magical ship Skidbladnir, which always had fair wind and could be folded up and put in a pocket, as well as the boar Gullinbursti, both were dwarf made. He also had a magic sword that he gave away to win his wife Gerdr, a giantess. This was the reason why he will lose/lost to Surt in their battle at Ragnarok.\r\nMiddle-earth--a translation of a old-english derivation of Midgardr or 'middle enclosure'. It was the Norse word for the world of the humans, differentiated from worlds above and below and surrounded by a sea home to the Midgard serpent which encirlces all of Midgard. It is unlear whether it also encloses Utgard, land of the giants. It is connected to Asgard, home of the Aesir by the bridge Bifrost. Above are a heaven and the home of the light elves, below is an underworld similar in many repsects to Hades of Greek and Roman mythology. Through the middle of Midgard rises Yggdrasil, the Wolrd Tree that is the center and support of all existence.\r\n\r\n\r\nHedeby--An important trade city in the southern part of the Jutland Peninsula. It flourished from the late 8th to the mid 11th centuries and was used as a starting place for Viking raids to the East and South. Most notably, it had a large wall made of soil, indicating that it was frequently attacked. Cities like Hedeby in what is present-day Denmark had more fertile land than cities on the Scandinavian Peninsula, but was also subject to more attack from people such as the Germans in the South. \r\n\r\n\r\n1. June 8, 793 \u2013 first recorded Viking raid at Lindisfarne, an island off the Northeast coast of England, where there was a Catholic monastery. They were described as \u201cheathen men.\u201d \r\nSeptember 25, 1066 \u2013 Harald Sigurdsson (aka. Hardrada) loses the battle of Stamford Bridge in England. This was the last recorded battle between the Christian world and an organized Viking army. Harald had claimed the English throne and led an army to this end, but he lost in battle against the English King. \r\n2. In 1960, the Ingstads discovered the remnants of a Viking settlement in L\u2019Anse aux Meadows, locating the place based on accounts in the Sagas. Their archaeological evidence proved that the Vikings had landed in Newfoundland and had reached North American 500 years before Columbus. (The Ingstads argue that they found the location of Vinland and that \u201cvin\u201d referred to meadow rather than grapes or wine, but this is not agreed upon). \r\n3. According to the Vinland Sagas, Leif the Lucky (Leif Erickson) named vinland for the valuable grapes that were found there. They gathered a lot of them and loaded them on their boat for transport. \r\nNovgorod (was on midterm) \u2013 This was the place where Rurik reportedly settled in Russia in the 9th century. Rurik was among the Rus, a group from across the sea whom the Slavs reportedly invited to come rule in 862 (according to Russian Primary Chronicle aka. The Chronicle of Past Years). Rurik was the oldest of three brothers who accepted the invitation and he founded the Ryurik dynasty, which ruled in Russian until 1598. Scandinavian-style artifacts from as last as the tenth century have been found near Novgorod, suggesting that this legend may have some validity. \r\nSeeress \u2013 refers a wise woman that can forsee the future. Also known as a Volva, Odin raises one from the dead in the poem Volsupa, and she tells him about the fate of the gods (Ragnorak) \r\nRimur \u2013Icelandic epic poetry written in rimnahaettir (rimur meters). They are characterized by rhymes and alliteration. The earliest are from the 14th century. The rigid structure of these poems allows them to be passed down for a long time without changing.\r\n22. To which genre does King Harald's Saga belong, and by whom, and approximately when, was this text written? \r\nHeimskringla is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1179\u20131242) ca. 1230. Heimskringla is a collection of tales about the Norwegian kings, beginning with the legendary Swedish dynasty of the Ynglingas, followed by accounts of historical Norwegian rulers from Harald Fairhair of the 9th century up to the death of the pretender Eystein Meyla in 1177. \r\nHeimskringla consists of several chapters, each one individually called a saga, which can be literally translated as 'tale'. The Saga of Olaf Haraldsson is the main part. His 15 year long reign takes up about one third of the entire work. \r\nKing Harald\u2019s Saga, part of Heimskringla, narrates his expedition to the East, exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his skaldic accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold Godwinson, the son of Earl Godwin, where he fell at Stamford Bridge in 1066 only a few days before Harold himself fell at the battle of Hastings. This saga is a splendid epic in prose, and is also of particular relevance to the history of England. The first part of the Heimskringla is rooted in Norse mythology; as it advances, fable and fact all curiously intermingle, and it terminates in factual history. \r\nThe value of Heimskringla as a historical source has been estimated in different ways during recent times. The historians of mid-19th century put great trust in the factual truth of Snorri's narrative, as well as other old Norse sagas. In the early 20th century, this trust was largely abandoned with the advent of saga criticism, pioneered by Curt and Lauritz Weibull. These historians pointed out that Snorri's work had been written several centuries after most of the events it describes. Credible source for historical fact. \r\n \r\n23. Who was 'Rollo'? \r\nRollo was the Scandinavian raider who founded the French duchy of Normandy. Rollo (c. 860 \u2013 c. 932), baptised Robert, was the founder and first ruler of the Viking principality in what soon became known as Normandy. \r\nIn 885, Rollo was one of the lesser leaders of the Viking fleet which besieged Paris under Sigfred. In 886, when Sigfred retreated in return for tribute, Rollo stayed behind and was eventually bought off and sent to harry Burgundy. Later, he returned to the Seine with his followers (known as Danes, or Norsemen). He invaded the area of northern France now known as Normandy. \r\nIn 911 Rollo's forces were defeated at the Battle of Chartres by the troops of King Charles the Simple. In the aftermath of the battle, rather than pay Rollo to leave, as was customary, Charles the Simple understood that he could no longer hold back their onslaught, and decided to give Rollo the coastal lands they occupied under the condition that he defend against other raiding Vikings. In the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte (911) with King Charles, Rollo pledged feudal allegiance to the king, changed his name to the Frankish version, and converted to Christianity, probably with the baptismal name Robert. In return, King Charles granted Rollo the lower Seine area (today's upper Normandy) and the titular rulership of Normandy, centred around the city of Rouen. There exists some argument among historians as to whether Rollo was a \"duke\" (dux) or whether his position was equivalent to that of a \"count\" under Charlemagne. \r\nInitially, Rollo stayed true to his word of defending the shores of the Seine river in accordance to the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, but in time he and his followers had very different ideas. Rollo began to divide the land between the Epte and Risle rivers among his chieftains and settled there with a de facto capital in Rouen. With these settlements, Rollo began to further raid other Frankish lands, now from the security of a settled homeland, rather than a mobile fleet. Eventually, however, Rollo's men intermarried with the local women, and became more settled as Frenchmen. At the time of his death, Rollo's expansion of his territory had extended as far west as the Vire River.Sometime around 927, Rollo passed the fief in Normandy to his son, William Longsword. Rollo may have lived for a few years after that, but certainly died before 933. \r\n24. You have just been asked by a new encyclopedia concerned with medieval studies to write the entry under the heading 'Vikings.' You are limited to no more than 300 words and are expected to give equal attention to the activities of the vikings from the different Nordic countries. No bibliographic references are allowed. \r\nGet creative\u2026 if you did the review for the midterm, this question is on that. Google Vikings\u2026 \r\nThor \u2013 \r\nThor is the red-haired and bearded god of thunder in Germanic paganism and its subsets: Norse paganism, Anglo-Saxon paganism and Continental Germanic paganism. \r\nMost surviving stories relating to Germanic paganism either mention Thor or center on Thor's exploits. Thor was a much revered god of the ancient Germanic peoples from at least the earliest surviving written accounts of the indigenous Germanic tribes to over a thousand years later in the late Viking Age. \r\nThor was appealed to for protection on numerous objects found from various Germanic tribes and Miniature replicas of Mjolnir, the weapon of Thor, became a defiant symbol of Norse paganism during the Christianization of Scandinavia. \r\nMjolnir (his hammer), travels in chariot (eddas express that when he his hungry he can roast his goats who pull it), similar to Odin in that the Viking culture praised his violence and war ability (one of favorite significant figures of Norse mythology). \r\nBrattahl\u00edth \u2013 \r\nNormandy \u2013 \r\nNormandy is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. It is situated along the coast of France south of the English Channel between Brittany (to the west) and Picardy (to the east) and comprises territory in northern France and the Channel Islands. \r\nUpper Normandy (Haute-Normandie) consists of the French d\u00e9partements of Seine-Maritime and Eure, and Lower Normandy (Basse-Normandie) of the d\u00e9partements of Orne, Calvados, and Manche. The former province of Normandy comprised present-day Upper and Lower Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the d\u00e9partements of Eure-et-Loir, Mayenne, and Sarthe. \r\nThe name of Normandy is derived from the settlement and conquest of the territory by Vikings (\"Northmen\") from the 9th century, and confirmed by treaty in the 10th century. For a century and a half following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman rulers, but following 1204 the continental territory was ultimately held by France. \r\nRus \u2013 \r\nRus\u2019 are the historic population of the medieval Rus' Khaganate and Kievan Rus' whose name survives in the cognates Russians, Rusyns, and Ruthenians, and who are viewed by the modern Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians as the predecessors of their own peoples. \r\nOne of the earliest written source mentioning the people called Rus in the form of Rhos dates back to year 839 AD in a Royal Frankish chronicle Annales Bertiniani, identified as a Germanic tribe called Swedes by the Frankish authorities. \r\nAccording to the Kievan Rus' Primary Chronicle compiled in about 1113 the Rus were a group of Varangians, Norsemen, who had relocated from Scandinavia first to Northeastern Europe, then to south where they had created the medieval Kievan state. \r\nA substantial part of Ibn Fadlan's account is dedicated to the description of a people he called the R\u016bs or R\u016bsiyyah. Most scholars identify them with the Rus' or Varangians, which would make Ibn Fadlan's account one of the earliest portrayals of Vikings. The R\u016bs appear as traders that set up shop on the river banks nearby the Bol\u011far camp. They are described as having bodies, tall as palm-trees, with blond hair and ruddy skin. They are tattooed from \"fingernails to neck\" with dark blue or dark green \"tree patterns\" and other \"figures\" and that all men are armed with an axe and a long knife. Ibn Fadlan describes the women as having emaciated unattractive angular bodies, lacking any attractive curves with high cheekbones in the face. Ibn Fadlan describes the hygiene of the R\u016bsiyyah as disgusting (while also noting with some astonishment that they comb their hair every day) and considers them vulgar and unsophisticated. \r\nEgil Skallagrimsson \u2013 \r\nEgill Skallagr\u00edmsson[1] (910-c.990)[citation needed] was a Viking skald and the great anti-hero of Icelandic literature. \r\nSeveral accounts tell of him slaughtering as many as 20 or more armed men single-handedly and even dispatching a feared berserker with relative ease. In spite of this, he was considered a healer, and his saga tells of him curing a girl who had been ill for quite some time where all other efforts had proven futile. In some ways he resembled his god Odin: breaking his oaths, killing for trifles, and practicing sorcery. \r\nEgill wrote his first poem at the age of three years. He exhibited berserk behaviour, and this, together with the description of his large and unattractive head, has led to the theory that he might have suffered from Paget's disease. This is corroborated by an archeological find of a head from the Viking era which is likely to be Egill's. \r\nAt the age of seven, Egill was cheated in a game with local boys. Enraged, he went home and procured an axe, and returning to the boys, split the skull of the one who cheated him, to the teeth. After Berg-\u00d6nundr refused to allow Egill to claim his wife \u00c1sger\u00f0r's share of her father's inheritance, he challenged \u00d6nundr to a holmgang. Egill killed B\u00e1r\u00f0r of Atley, one of the king's retainers, thus making an enemy of Queen Gunnhildr, who never forgave him and did everything within her power to take revenge. Gunnhildr ordered her two brothers to kill Egill and Egill's older brother \u00de\u00f3r\u00f3lfr, who had been on good terms with both her and the king before. However, this plan did not go well, as Egill killed the pair when they confronted him. \r\nThat same summer, Harald Fairhair died, and in order to secure his place on the throne, Eirik Bloodaxe killed his two brothers. He then declared Egill an outlaw in Norway. Berg-\u00d6nundr gathered a company of men to capture Egill, but was killed in his attempt to do so. Escaping from Norway, Egill killed R\u00f6gnvaldr Eir\u00edksson and then cursed his parents, setting a horse's head on a pole (n\u00ed\u00f0st\u00f6ng)\r\n40. In which century was Iceland first colonized?\r\nNorse settlers traveled across the Northern Atlantic in the second half of the 9th century. Reasons for migration could be traced to shortage of lands or to escape civil unrest brought about by Harold Fine-Hair. \r\n41. Is there a generic \"heroic biography\"? If so, what are its broad outline?\r\n42. Discuss the idea of magic as it is used in the sagas. \r\nIDs\r\nAsk \u2013 Ask and Embla were the firs two humans created by the Gods. They are mentioned in both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda. In both Edda\u2019s, three gods come upon Ask and Embla and give them gifts. One of the gods is Odin, the other two differ depending on the source. \r\n793 \u2013 Considered the beginning of the Viking Age. June 8th, 793 a group of seafaring Norsemen ransacked a monastery on the island of Lindisfarne off the east coast of England and was considered the first recorded raid of the Viking Age. \r\nLoki \u2013 Offspring of two giants [enemies of Viking gods] became brother of Odin after swearing an oath, allowed Loki into Asgard [heavenly realm of the gods/goddesses] and gained some powers/privileges possessed by Odin and other gods. Loki misused powers [good and evil] and before long became overtaken by bad power, and turned sinister. Was considered a prankster, creating giant problems for the Norse gods and their inhabitants, called \u201cgod of mischief\u201d and \u201cgod of fire\u201d \r\nNjal \u2013 Njal\u2019s saga, or Story of the burning of Njal, one of the most famous Icelandic sagas. Njal\u2019s character is introduced with his close friend Gunnar, Njal is highly regarded for his wisdom and reasoning. \r\nVinland \u2013 Vinland was the name given to a part of North America by Leif Erickkson circa 1001 AD. The island of Vinland was first recorded by Adam of Bremen in one of his books around 1075 AD. \r\n1262-1264 \u2013 during this time, Iceland was not a sovereign nation but was considered part of the outer realm of the Norwegian empire, under the King of Norway. \r\nRamsund- The Ramsund carving is not quite a runestone as it is not carved into a stone, but into a flat rock close to Ramsund, Sweden. It is believed to have been carved around year 1000. It is generally considered an important piece of Norse art in runestone style. \r\nThe Ramsund carving in Sweden depicts 1) how Sigurd is sitting naked in front of the fire preparing the dragon heart, from Fafnir, for his foster-father Regin, who is Fafnir's brother. The heart is not finished yet, and when Sigurd touches it, he burns himself and sticks his finger into his mouth. As he has tasted dragon blood, he starts to understand the birds' song. 2) The birds say that Regin will not keep his promise of reconciliation and will try to kill Sigurd, which causes Sigurd to cut off Regin's head. 3) Regin is dead beside his own head, his smithing tools with which he reforged Sigurd's sword Gram are scattered around him, and 4) Regin's horse is laden with the dragon's treasure. 5) is the previous event when Sigurd killed Fafnir, and 6) shows Otr from the saga's beginning. The writing is ambiguous, but one interpretation of the persons mentioned in the inscription, based on inscriptions on other runestones found nearby, is that Sigri\u00fer (a woman) was the wife of Sigr\u00f6d who has died. Holmgeirr is her father in law. Alrikr, son of Sigri\u00fer, erected another stone for his father, named Spjut, so while Alrikr is the son of Sigri\u00fer, he was not the son of Sigru\u00fer. Alternatively, Holmgeirr is Sigri\u00fer's second husband and Sigr\u00f6d (but not Alrikr) is their son.\r\nThe inspiration for using the legend of Sigurd for the pictorial decoration was probably the close similarity of the names Sigurd (Sigur\u00f0r in Old Norse) and Sigr\u00f6d.[1]. \r\nR. Wagner- Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a 19th century German composer, conductor, theatre director and essayist, primarily known for his operas (or \"music dramas\", as they were later called). Wagner drew largely from Northern European mythology and legend, notably Icelandic sources such as the Poetic Edda, the Volsunga Saga and the German Nibelungenlied.\r\nH.W. Longfellow- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (February 27, 1807 \u2013 March 24, 1882) was an American educator and poet. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy and was one of the five members of the group known as the Fireside Poets. Though much of his work is categorized as lyric poetry, Longfellow experimented with many forms, including hexameter and free verse. Many of the metaphors he used in his poetry as well as subject matter came from legends, mythology, and literature.[83] He was inspired, for example, by Norse mythology for \"The Skeleton in Armor\" and by Finnish legends for The Song of Hiawatha.[84] In fact, Longfellow rarely wrote on current subjects and seemed detached from contemporary American concerns. \r\nDivorce- Women in old Norse culture had a high degree of equality in marriage and could divorce their husbands by declaration. Divorce was considered a private matter to be settled by the individuals involved, and was not viewed as a moral, religious, or societal issue. Divorce laws in Iceland were extremely liberal, and as soon as divorce proceedings began the woman was considered to be independent. \r\nSigurd Fafnir\u2019s Slayer- Reginsm\u00e1l (\"Reginn's sayings\") or Sigur\u00f0arkvi\u00f0a F\u00e1fnisbana II (\"Second Lay of Sigurd F\u00e1fnir's Slayer\") is an Eddic poem, found in the Codex Regius manuscript. The poem is unnamed in the manuscript, where it follows Gr\u00edpissp\u00e1 and precedes F\u00e1fnism\u00e1l, but modern scholars regard it as a separate poem and have assigned it names for convenience.\r\nThe poem, if regarded as a single unit, is disjoint and fragmentary, consisting of stanzas both in lj\u00f3\u00f0ah\u00e1ttr and fornyr\u00f0islag. The first part relates Loki's dealings with Andvari. Interpolated with prose passages, the poem moves on to Sigurd's relationship with Reginn and the advice given to him by Odin. \r\n34. How did 19th-century \u00e9lite culture interpret the Viking Age, and with what results for their contemporary cultural views and production? \r\n????? \r\n35. Summarize the best evidence for the presence of Vikings in North America. What are some of the least credible arguments/evidence?\r\nAs early as the 10th century Norse sailors (often referred to as Vikings) explored and settled areas of the North Atlantic, including the northeastern fringes of North America.\r\nWhile the Norse colony in Greenland lasted for almost 500 years, the continental North American settlements were small and did not develop into permanent colonies. Despite some later voyages, there is little supporting evidence of enduring Norse settlements in North America\r\nAccording to the Icelandic sagas (\"Eirik the Red's Saga\" and the \"Saga of the Greenlanders\"\u2014chapters of the Hauksb\u00f3k and the Flatey Book), the Norse started to explore lands to the west of Greenland only a few years after the Greenland settlements were established. In 985 while sailing from Iceland to Greenland with a migration fleet consisting of 400-700 settlers[5][6] and 25 other ships (14 of which completed the journey), a merchant named Bjarni Herj\u00f3lfsson was blown off course and after three days sailing he sighted land west of the fleet. Bjarni was only interested in finding his father's farm, but he described his discovery to Leif Ericson who explored the area in more detail and planted a small settlement fifteen years later.[5]\r\nThe sagas describe three separate areas discovered during this exploration: Helluland, which means \"land of the flat stones\"; Markland, \"the land of forests\", definitely of interest to settlers in Greenland where there were few trees; and Vinland, which recent linguistic evidence identifies as \"the land of meadows\", found somewhere south of Markland. It was in Vinland that the settlement described in the sagas was planted.\r\nSettlements in continental North America aimed to exploit natural resources such as furs and in particular lumber, which was in short supply in Greenland due to deforestation.[8] It is unclear why the short-term settlements did not become permanent, though it was in part due to hostile relations with the indigenous peoples, referred to as Skr\u00e6lings by the Norse. Nevertheless, it appears that sporadic voyages to Markland for forages, timber, and trade with the locals could have lasted as long as 400 years.[9][10]\r\nEvidence of continuing trips includes the Maine Penny, a Norwegian coin from King Olaf Kyrre's reign (1066-80) found in a Native American archaeological site in the U.S. state of Maine, suggesting an exchange between the Norse and the Native Americans late in or after the 11th century; and an entry in the Icelandic Annals from 1347 which refers to a small Greenlandic vessel with a crew of eighteen that arrived in Iceland while attempting to return to Greenland from Markland with a load of timber.[11] In addition, Norse materials have been excavated in several Inuit communities.\r\nFor some centuries after Christopher Columbus' voyages opened the Americas to large-scale colonization by Europeans, it was unclear whether these stories represented real voyages by the Norse to North America. The sagas were first taken seriously when in 1837 the Danish antiquarian Carl Christian Rafn pointed out the possibility for a Norse settlement in or voyages to North America.\r\nNorth America, by the name Winland, was first mentioned in written sources in a work by Adam of Bremen from approximately 1075. It was not until the 13th and 14th centuries that the most important works about North America and the early Norse activities there, namely the Sagas of Icelanders, were put into writing.\r\nThe question was definitively settled in the 1960s when a Norse settlement was excavated at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland by the archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad and her husband, outdoorsman and author Helge Ingstad. The location of the various lands described in the sagas is still unclear however. Many historians identify Helluland with Baffin Island and Markland with Labrador. The location of Vinland is a thornier question. Most believe that the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement is the Vinland settlement described in the sagas; others argue that the sagas depict Vinland as being warmer than Newfoundland and that it therefore lay farther south. There are still many questions remaining and only new archaeological findings can supply more information.\r\nPurported runestones have been found in North America (e.g. the Kensington Runestone, the Newport Tower, and Heavener Runestone) that are thought by some to be artifacts from further Norse exploration. There is a map depicting North America, \"The Vinland map\", that some believe is related to Norse exploration, though its authenticity is very controversial. \r\n36. Describe the story of the Dragon-Slayer in Northern Europe and summarize the major evidence for its distribution and longevity.\r\nSigurd agrees to kill Fafnir, who has turned himself into a dragon in order to be better able to guard the gold. Sigurd has Regin make him a sword, which he tests by striking the anvil. The sword shatters, so he has Regin make another. This also shatters. Finally, Sigurd has Regin make a sword out of the fragments that had been left to him by Sigmund. The resulting sword, Gram, cuts through the anvil. To kill Fafnir the dragon, Regin advises him to dig a pit, wait for Fafnir to walk over it, and then stab the dragon. Odin, posing as an old man, advises Sigurd to dig trenches also to drain the blood, and to bathe in it after killing the dragon; bathing in Fafnir's blood confers invulnerability. Sigurd does so and kills Fafnir; Sigurd then bathes in the dragon's blood, which touches all of his body except for one of his shoulders where a leaf was stuck. Regin then asked Sigurd to give him Fafnir's heart for himself. Sigurd drinks some of Fafnir's blood and gains the ability to understand the language of birds. Birds advise him to kill Regin, since Regin is plotting Sigurd's death. Sigurd beheads Regin, roasts Fafnir's heart and consumes part of it. This gives him the gift of \"wisdom\" (prophecy).\r\nThe Norwegian royal family claimed descent from Sigurd and the Volsungs. Furthermore, because dragons were seen as symbols of Satan in medieval typologies, the story of Sigurd slaying Fafnir was often depicted in Christian churches in Scandinavia.\r\nThe best-known adaptation of the Sigurd legend is Richard Wagner's cycle of music dramas Der Ring des Nibelungen (written between 1848 and 1874). The Sigurd legend is the basis of Siegfried and contributes the stories of Die Walk\u00fcre and G\u00f6tterd\u00e4mmerung.\r\nWilliam Morris's epic poem Sigurd the Volsung (1870) is a major retelling of the story in English verse.\r\nIn 1884 the French composer Ernest Reyer wrote the lesser-known opera Sigurd, which has the benefit of condensing the story into one evening, with equally stirring music. \r\nQuestions\r\n4. For what ostensible purpose was the Younger (or Prose) Edda composed?\r\nIt was intended as a handbook for skalds who might have forgotten the old Norse mythology, complete with a section discussing the proper kennings to use for every god/goddess.\r\n5. The name of which god is to be explained by the word odr, and to what does it refer?\r\nOdin, referring to \u201cfury\u201d in two contexts \u2013 as inspiration (god of poetry), and as rage (god of war).\r\n6. To what purpose were runic inscriptions used?\r\nThey are an alphabet (\u201cfuthark\u201d), and were used to inscribe names, commemorate the dead on memorial stones, and even on coins. Most runic inscriptions were short, and were not used to write books or literature. Could often be used for magic.\r\nDefinitions: \r\nErik Blodaxe: Nemesis of Egil in Egil\u2019s Saga. King of Norway after Harald Fair-Hair, deposed by King Hakon (Erik\u2019s brother). Wife is Gunhild, \u201cwell versed in the magic arts.\u201d The recipient of Egil\u2019s famous head-ransom poem (p . 128). As King of Norway, had outlawed Egil, who had killed men close to Gunhild.\r\nFreydis: Daughter (illegitimate) of Eirik the Red. Appears in both Vinland sagas, and is a different person in each. In Eirik\u2019s saga, she accompanies her husband Thorvald to Vinland and \u201cdefies\u201d Skraleings (natives) while pregnant. In Greenlander\u2019s Saga, she travels to Vinland with two partners, Finnbogi and Helgi, and murders them in Vinland through treachery.\r\nSnorri: Son of Thorbrand in Vinland Sagas. Accompanies Karlsefni to Greeland (Eirik\u2019s Saga). Fights the Skraelings, his son Thorbrand killed by them.\r\nGudrid: Vinland Sagas. Daughter of Thorbjorn Vifilsson, goes with her parents to Greenland. Assists Sybil, hears her future prophesied. Rescued from shipwreck by Leif Ericksson, marries Thorstein Eiriksson. Goes to Western settlement where Thorstein dies, prophesies her future. Marries Thorfinn Karlsefni, goes to Vinland, gives birth to son Snorri in Vinland. Goes on pilgrimage to Rome.\r\nOddi: Center of learning in Southwest Iceland, where Snorri wrote the Prose Edda. Thought that Edda means \u201cbook of Oddi.\u201d (See introduction to Bellows translation for details if interested, but this is the only important fact).\r\n31. Describe the basic West Norse settlement pattern and discuss how it assists us in assessing the Vinland Sagas.\r\n\r\n\u2022 Basic settlement pattern went from Iceland to Greenland to Vinland (sailed down the northern coast of Canada, periodically stopping and finally settling in L'Anse Aux Meadows) was culture of discovering new lands, Saga mentions this\r\n\u2022 Greenland was settled from 2 directions in the Viking age: from Canada (natives) and from Iceland (Vikings) with Vikings settling in the south/southwest and native people starting in the north and moving south\r\n\u2022 2 cultures meet at Disko Bay and live side by side for some time: signs of trade, commerce, interactions, etc. until violence erupts\r\n\r\n\u2022 until about 40 years ago, only way we knew about Vikings in North America was through the Vinland Sagas\r\n\u2022 Adam of Bremen writes in 1075 that King Sveinn of Denmark mentions Vinland, the grapes that grow there, and self-sown wheat\r\n\u2022 Saga of Erik the Red: seems to be copied from a lost text, in 2 locations\r\n\u2022 Saga of the Greenlanders: was one book in the 13th century\r\n\u2022 these 3 separate testimonials about Vinland aren't the result of borrowing \u2013 they're independent of each other (Halld\u00f3rsen says they're from different parts of Iceland and were originally oral stories)\r\n \u2022 Saga of the Greenlanders: more historical\r\n \u2022 Saga of Erik the Red: praise Gudrid, support canonization\r\n\r\n\u2022 L'Anse Aux Meadows in Newfoundland \u2013 seems to be the main site of a norse settlement, perhaps the one cited in the Vinland Sagas\r\n\u2022 Discovered by the Ingstads who searched for the location using clues from the sagas (geographical features \u2013 rivers etc.)\r\n\u2022 found Scandinavian artifacts and remnants of houses \u2013 Scandinavian artifacts have also been discovered in other areas of North America (most likely were traded from norse to native tribe to another native tribe: found by Penobscot bay in Maine)\r\n\u2022 suggests that part in sagas describing trade with natives was true\r\n\u2022 amounts of time it takes to get to the settlements was also relatively correct\r\n\r\n\u2022 Vinland = grape or wine land\r\n\u2022 however, grapes never grow farther north between northern Maine and New Brunswick \u2013 does this mean there's another norse settlement further south? Possible, but never was found\r\n\u2022 archaeology proved that at least some of what the sagas said was true (a settlement, exploration, trade) unclear how much else is true \u2013 settlements further south, so many violent encounters with the natives, etc\r\n\u2022 since so many versions of the same story were written down/told \u2013 no accident that these were recorded\r\n\u2022 sagas back the idea up that land was important \u2013 timber, grassland\r\n\r\n\r\n32. Viking- During the 20th century, the meaning of the term was expanded to refer not only to the raiders, but also to the entire period; it is now, somewhat confusingly, used as a noun both in the original meaning of raiders, warriors or navigators, and to refer to the Scandinavian population in general. As an adjective, the word is used in expressions like \"Viking age\", \"Viking culture\", \"Viking colony\", etc., generally referring to medieval Scandinavia.\r\n\r\n\r\nIn Old Norse, the word is spelled v\u00edkingr, \"a man from the vik\". Viken was the old name of the region bordering on the Skagerrak, from where the first Norse merchant-warriors originated. The Swedish county bordering on the Skagerrak, which is now called Bohusl\u00e4n, was, prior to the construction of the Bohus fortress, also called Vikland. Vikland was once a part of the Norse district of Viken. Later on, the term, Viking, became synonymous with \"naval expedition\" or \"naval raid\", and a v\u00edking was a member of such expeditions. A second etymology suggested that the term is derived from Old English, w\u00edc, ie. \"trading city\" (cognate to Latin vicus, \"village\"). Etymologists trace the word to Anglo-Frankish writers, who referred to \"v\u00edkingr\" as one who set about to raid and pillage, as in the saga of Egil Skallagrimsson. \r\n\r\n\r\nThe word Viking appears on several rune stones found in Scandinavia. In the Icelanders' sagas, v\u00edking refers to an overseas expedition (Old Norse fara \u00ed v\u00edking \"to go on an expedition\"), and v\u00edkingr, to a seaman or warrior taking part in such an expedition.\r\n\r\n\r\nRelation to Class: Here we see that the word Viking has developed and changed over time. It originally referred during the Viking age to a region from whence the first Norse merchants originated. Then during the Viking Age it came to mean simply individuals engaged in raids. Now, the term has been expanded again to refer to an entire age, civilization and era, despite the fact that many things besides raids in areas besides the region bordering Skagerrak occurred during the Viking Age.\r\n\r\n\r\nEmbla-According to chapter 9 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, the three brothers Vili, V\u00e9, and Odin, are the creators of the first man and woman. The brothers were walking along a beach and found two trees there. They took the wood and from it created the first human beings; Ask and Embla. One of the three gave them the breath of life, the second gave them movement and intelligence, and the third gave them shape, speech, hearing and sight. Further, the three gods gave them clothing and names. Ask and Embla go on to become the progenitors of all humanity and were given a home within the walls of Midgard.\r\n\r\n\r\nThe first meaning of Embla, \"elm tree\", is problematic, and is reached by deriving *Elm-la from *Almil\u014dn and subsequently to almr (\"elm\"). The second suggestion is \"vine\", which is reached through *Ambil\u014d, which may be related to the Greek term \u00e1mpelos, itself meaning \"vine, liana\".[1] The latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories.\r\n\r\n\r\nConnection to the class: they populated the Earth and inhabited Midgard, which is where humans lived in the Norse version of the mythological world. Also-this story has a certain similarity to the story of Adam and Eve, which speaks to the idea of what it meant to write a saga. Essentially, you adopt another story to your own culture, and in this case Odin could replace God and Ask and Embla replace Adam and Eve in the Christian story of creation.\r\n\r\n\r\nWilliam the Conqueror-brought Norman army and his invasion was the last time that England was successfully conquered by a foreign power. He was Duke of Normandy from 1035 and King of England from 1066 to his death. To claim the English crown, William invaded England in 1066, leading an army of Normans to victory over the Anglo-Saxon forces of Harold Godwinson (who died in the conflict) at the Battle of Hastings, and suppressed subsequent English revolts in what has become known as the Norman Conquest.\r\n\r\n\r\nHis reign, which brought Norman culture to England, had an enormous impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages. In addition to political changes, his reign also saw changes to English law, a program of building and fortification, changes to the vocabulary of the English language, and the introduction of continental European feudalism into England.\r\nConnection to the class-the defeat of William Godwinson in 1066 marked the end of the Viking Age as Norman influence began to overtake Anglo-Saxon influence.\r\n\r\n\r\n1397- Denmark, Norway and Sweden agree to unite under Erik VII of Pomerania (Union of Kalmar) ric of Pomerania, as the king who was to rule the three realms, and in 1397 at the Swedish city of Kalmar Eric was solemnly invested with the crown of\r\n\r\n\r\nJune 8, 793 - Viking age: Vikings sack the monastery of Lindisfarne, Northumbria, their first major attack in England. This date is viewed as being the beginning of the Viking Age, as it was the first time a major pillaging strike happened in England. Since a prevalant view of the Vikings was that they pillaged and made this first raid out of normal territory and into England, particularly on a religious site, it was a significant occurrance an began what we now think of usually as the Viking Age.\r\n\r\n\r\nHarold I (ca. 840-933), the first king of Norway, reigned from 860 to 930. He became the ideal for unification at the time of his great-grandson Olaf I Tryggvason and was the first king to rule over a unified Norway. Harold Haarfarer (\"Fairhair\") was a catalyst in his day and place. On the death of his father, Halfdan the Black in 860, Harold succeeded to the sovereignty of several small and somewhat scattered kingdoms which had come into his father's hands through conquest and inheritance. \r\n\r\n\r\nHarold was a man of legends. His mother, Ragnhild, perceived his rise to power from a thorn. The daughter of a neighboring king who Harold loved induced Harold to take a vow not to cut or comb his hair until he was the sole ruler of Norway. Two years later he was justified in trimming it, and henceforth he was known as \"Fairhair\" rather than \"Shockhead.\"\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAs Snorri Sturluson pointed out, Hafrisfjord did not make it possible for Harold to trim his hair with royal ease. Norway was not accustomed to one-man rule. When Harold gained power, he appropriated hereditary estates, and all farmers were taxed. He appointed a jarl in each shire (fylki) to administer law and justice and to collect fines, one-third reserved for the Crown.\r\n\r\n\r\nHarold was the greatest Viking warrior chief of the 9th century. He controlled trade and collected gifts from traders. He confiscated estates but recognized the rights of legislative assemblies. He withdrew support from the Vikings in Northumbria, England, and was the only heathen able to claim kingship of all Norway. Under him the old Viking civilization of the 9th century reached a climax. His ideal for a united Norway became imperishable.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nWhetstone- Thor battles Hrungnir, Thor throws his hammer, Mjollnir, at Hrungnir who throws his whetstone at Thor. Mjollnir shatters Hrungnir's skull after slicing through the whetstone, and a piece of the whetstone lodges itself in Thor's forehead\r\n\r\n\r\n33. Snorri Sturluson (1178 \u2013 September 23, 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet and politician. He was two-time elected lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, where many important decisions regarding Iceland were made. He was the author of the Prose Edda or Younger Edda, which consists of Gylfaginning (\"the fooling of Gylfi\"), a narrative of Norse mythology, the Sk\u00e1ldskaparm\u00e1l, a book of poetic language, and the H\u00e1ttatal, a list of verse forms. \r\n\r\n\r\nMost Norse mythology and information we possess about the Vikings (and the Lord of the Rings!) is based on or related to the Prose Edda, and his works allow us to study the language, mythology, and culture of the Vikings. His works adopt many elements of other ancient stories and cultures into a Norse viewpoint and map and explain the world according to this viewpoint, which was in many ways the point of a saga. \r\n\r\n\r\nAs a historian and mythographer, Snorri is remarkable for proposing the theory (in the Prose Edda) that mythological gods begin as human war leaders and kings whose funeral sites develop cults (see euhemerism). As people call upon the dead war leader as they go to battle, or the dead king as they face tribal hardship, they begin to venerate the figure. Eventually, the king or warrior is remembered only as a god. He also proposed that as tribes defeat others, they explain their victory by proposing that their own gods were in battle with the gods of the others.\r\nAdam of Bremen \u2013 German medieval chronicler during second half of 11th century.\r\nAttached as a missionary to the Church of Bremen. Refers to a statue of Freyr\r\npresent in Uppsala that may have been a cultish symbol. One of his famous books\r\nis Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen.\r\n\r\nEarl Tostig \u2013 (1026 \u2013 September 25, 1066). Anglo-Saxon earl of Northumbria and\r\nbrother of King Harold II of England. In 1065, Tostig was outlawed from his\r\nseat of authority by the English king. Tostig suspected his brother Harold had\r\narranged for his departure so as to remove him from being a threat for the\r\nthrone. This was the origin of the enmity between the Godwinsons. Soon after\r\nexile, Tostig persuade King Harald III Hardrada of Norway to attack England and\r\ngain the throne. After an initial victory, Tostig and Harald lost to King Harold\r\nat Stamford Bridge.\r\n\r\nAlthing \u2013 The national parliament of Iceland situated 45 km east of modern day\r\nReykjaviik was started in 930AD and was the beginning of the Icelandic\r\nCommonwealth. This once a year event was a general assembly where the country\u2019s\r\nmost powerful leaders and later on free men were allowed to attend. It was here\r\nthat legal disputes were settled and justice administered. The center of the\r\nAlthing was the Logberg (Law Rock) \u2013 a rocky outcrop on which the Lawspeaker\r\nread 1/3rd of the laws each year (so in three years, all laws would\u2019ve been\r\ncovered).\r\n\r\nHarald Bluetooth:\r\nChristianized Denmark in the 960s/970s.\r\nThe son of King Gorm the Old.\r\nHe died in 985 or 986 having ruled as King of Denmark from around 958 and king\r\nof Norway for a few years probably around 970.\r\nHe caused the Jelling stones to be erected to honor his parents. The runes on\r\nthe stone say: \"Harald, king, bade these memorials to be made after Gorm, his\r\nfather, and Thyra, his mother. The Harald who won the whole of Denmark and\r\nNorway and turned the Danes to Christianity.\" The stone was carved in the\r\nperiod 960-85. It lies exactly midway between the two largest mounds in\r\nDenmark.\r\nDuring his reign he built ring forts in five strategic locations: Trelleborg on\r\nSj\u00e6lland, Nonnebakken on Fyn, Fyrkat in central Jylland, Aggersborg near\r\nLimfjord, and Trelleborg near the city of Trelleborg in Scania in present-day\r\nSweden. All five fortresses had similar designs: \"perfectly circular with gates\r\nopening to the four corners of the earth, and a courtyard divided into four\r\nareas which held large houses set in a square pattern\u201d. They served as regional\r\ncenters of control, tax collection places, and symbols of Harald\u2019s power.\r\n\r\nwergild:\r\nThe payment of wergild was an important legal mechanism in early Northern\r\nEuropean societies, such as those of the Vikings, and Anglo-Saxons; the other\r\ncommon form of legal reparation at this time was blood revenge. The payment was\r\ntypically made to the family or to the clan. If these payments were not made, or\r\nrefused by the offended party, a blood feud would ensue. The word literally\r\nmeans \"man price\" (wer meaning man as in werewolf).\r\nThe size of the wergild in cases of murder was largely conditional upon the\r\nsocial rank of the victim.\r\nA classic example of a dispute over the wergild of a slave is contained in\r\nIceland's Egil's Saga. (Recall: Egil\u2019s son Thorstein kills the slaves of\r\nSteinar (Onund Sjoni\u2019s son) because they keep leading the sheep to graze on\r\nThorstein\u2019s land. Onund let\u2019s Egil decide the case, and Egil rules in\r\nThorstein\u2019s favor, which upsets Onund.)\r\nIn the Story of Grettir the Strong, chapter 27, The Suit for the Slaying of\r\nThorgils Makson, Thorgeir conveys to court Thorgils Arison's offer of weregild\r\nas atonement for killing Thorgils Makson.\r\n(Old English: \u201cman payment\u201d), in ancient Germanic law, the amount of\r\ncompensation paid by a person committing an offense to the injured party or, in\r\ncase of death, to his family. In certain instances part of the wergild was paid\r\nto the king and to the lord\u2014these having lost, respectively, a subject and a\r\nvassal. The wergild was at first informal but was later regulated by law.\r\n\r\n\r\nQuestions:\r\n\r\n16. How does colonialism factor into the reception of the sagas in the 19th and\r\n20th centuries?\r\nA couple bullet points here.\r\nHerder examined what it means to be a country.\r\n For continuity of history\r\n Work of fol poets most in tune w/national soul\r\n Notion that every nation conatins the center of happiness within itself\r\n Therefore, we identify countries with their history and with their literary\r\ntradition. Thus, the saga help to define countries that were blurry during their\r\ncolonialism when we recreate them in the 19th and 20th Centuries.\r\n So struggle over who owns the sagas, Norway or Iceland. If you own the\r\nsagas you have a great cultural treasure and the right to say you are an\r\nindependent nation under Herder. Literary prominence was needed to gain ticket\r\ninto nationhood (think Odyessy).\r\n\r\nIn 1800\u2019s a rediscovery and fascination with the heroic Germanic past by the\r\nelite culture in Scandinavia, as well as in England and Germany. People were\r\nfascinated with the past as seen in the sagas as that sagas saw the Vikings.\r\n(People in 1800\u2019s fascinated with how people in 1300\u2019s wrote about those in the\r\n1000\u2019s).\r\n\r\nAlso recall how the Germans used the Viking image in WWII (20th Century) as\r\npropaganda as they stormed various countries in Europe (the colonialist\r\nspirit).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n17. Who was the first Christian missionary to Denmark and Sweden, and in what\r\ncentury did he go there?\r\n\r\nRecorded missionary efforts in what is today Denmark started with Willibrord,\r\nApostle to the Frisians, who preached in Schleswig, which at the time was part\r\nof Denmark. All that is recorded is that he went north from Fisia sometime\r\nbetween 710 and 718 during the reign of King Agantyr. Willibrord and his\r\ncompanions had little success: the king was respectful but had no interest in\r\nchanging his beliefs. A century later, Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims and Willerich,\r\nlater Bishop of Bremen, baptized a few persons during their 823 visit to\r\nDenmark. He returned twice to Denmark to prosyletize but without any recorded\r\nsuccess.\r\n In 826, King of Jutland, Harald Klak, was forced to seek asylum with Emperor\r\nLouis I of Germany. Louis I agreed to shelter him as long as he accepted\r\nChristianity. When Harald Klak finally made it back to Denmark, Ansgar, a\r\nGerman monk, accompanied him and oversaw Christianity among the converts.\r\nHowever, Harald Klak was forced out of Denmark for the second time. Instead of\r\nreturning to Germany with him, Ansgar focused his efforts on preaching to the\r\nSwedes. In 831, the Archdiocese of Hamburg was founded and assigned the\r\nresponsibility of proselytizing Scandinavia. Ansgar returned to Denmark in 860\r\nand he built the first Christian chapel in Denmark in Hedeby Schleswig\r\n Ansgar\u2019s mission to the Swedes was initiated in 830 by the invitation of\r\nSwedish king Bjorn at Haugi. Although Ansgar set up a church at Birka, he was\r\nmet with little Swedish interest in coversion\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n18. To what purpose(s) were rune inscriptions used?\r\n\r\nThe earliest runic inscriptions date from around 150 AD, and the alphabet was\r\ngenerally replaced by the Latin alphabet with Christianization by around 700 AD\r\nin central Europe and by around 1100 AD in Scandianvia. However, the use of\r\nrunes persisted for specialized purposes in Scandinavia, longest in rural\r\nSweden until the early twentieth century (used mainly for decoration as runes\r\nin Dalarna and on Runic calendars).\r\n In Norse mythology, the runic alphabet is attested to a divine origin. The poem\r\nHavamal in the Poetic Edda explains that the originator of the runes was the god\r\nOdin via his self sacrifice: \u201cI know that I hung on a windy tree/ nine long\r\nnights,/ wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,/ myself to myself, on that\r\ntree of which no man knows from where/ roots run./ No bread did they give me\r\nnor a drink from a horn,/ downwards I peered;/ I took up the runes,/ screaming\r\nI took them,/ then I fell back from there.\u201d\r\n Historically, runes developed centuries after the Mediterranean alphabets from\r\nwhich they seem to have descended. The angular shapes of the runes are shared\r\nwith most contemporary alphabets of the period used for carving in wood or\r\nstone.\r\n One of the most important purposes of runic inscriptions was for divination.\r\nThe Havamal describes their ability to bring that which is dead back to life.\r\nThe name rune itself, taken to mean \u201csecret, something hidden\u201d, seems to\r\nindicate that knowledge of the runes was originally considered esoteric, or\r\nrestricted to an elite. It was this restricted talent to read/interpret the\r\nmeanings of the runes that set apart those with magical powers from the common\r\nfolk in many of the mythological and heroic stories. The runes often alerted a\r\ncharacter in history with warnings of bad luck or danger when used in\r\ndivination.\r\n Some later runic finds are on monuments (runestones), which often contain\r\nsolemn inscriptions about people who died or performed great deeds. In the\r\n1950s, 600 inscriptions (known as the Bryggen inscriptions) were found in\r\nBergen. These inscriptions were made of wood and bone, often in the shape of\r\nsticks of various sizes, and contained inscriptions of an everyday nature \u2013\r\ni.e., name tags, prayers, personal messages.", "id": 851, "html": "\\\\\\Untitled\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c17\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c1\\{color\\:\\#0000ff\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c0\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:lower\\-latin\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c12\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c6\\{padding\\-top\\:5pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c2\\{color\\:inherit\\;text\\-decoration\\:inherit\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c10\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c15\\{padding\\-bottom\\:12pt\\}\\.c11\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c8\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c5\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c9\\{font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\28\\.\\ What\\ factors\\ lead\\ to\\ the\\ re\\-discovery\\ of\\ the\\ sagas\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ modern\\ period\\?\\ The\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\?\\ How\\ do\\ these\\ issues\\ shape\\ our\\ perceptions\\ and\\ study\\ of\\ the\\ sagas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Early\\ modern\\ publications\\ dealing\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Old\\ Norse\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;culture\\ appeared\\ in\\ the\\ 16th\\ century\\.\\ The\\ pace\\ of\\ publication\\ increased\\ during\\ the\\ 17th\\ century\\ with\\ Latin\\ translations\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Edda\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\,\\ a\\ Viking\\ revival\\ occurred\\ as\\ part\\ of\\ Romanticism\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ Viking\\ revival\\ was\\ an\\ increase\\ in\\ popular\\ and\\ scholarly\\ interest\\ in\\ and\\ enthusiasm\\ for\\ the\\ history\\ and\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vikings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ other\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Norsemen\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Viking\\ Age\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 1800\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ rediscovery\\ and\\ fascination\\ with\\ the\\ heroic\\ Germanic\\ past\\ by\\ the\\ elite\\ culture\\ in\\ Scandinavia\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ England\\ and\\ Germany\\.\\ People\\ were\\ fascinated\\ with\\ the\\ past\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\ as\\ that\\ sagas\\ saw\\ the\\ Vikings\\.\\ \\(People\\ in\\ 1800\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fascinated\\ with\\ how\\ people\\ in\\ 1300\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrote\\ about\\ those\\ in\\ the\\ 1000\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ was\\ the\\ issue\\ as\\ to\\ who\\ the\\ sagas\\ really\\ belonged\\ to\\,\\ Iceland\\ or\\ Norway\\/Sweden\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ led\\ people\\ to\\ want\\ to\\ rediscover\\ the\\ sagas\\ and\\ relate\\ them\\ to\\ their\\ own\\ country\\.\\ \\ \\;Thus\\,\\ in\\ reading\\ the\\ sagas\\ today\\,\\ we\\ must\\ keep\\ in\\ mind\\ any\\ later\\ influence\\ that\\ might\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\29\\.\\ Discuss\\ several\\ of\\ the\\ principal\\ North\\ American\\ Viking\\ \\"\\;hoaxes\\"\\;\\ and\\ evaluate\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ our\\ understanding\\ about\\ the\\ Norse\\ enterprise\\ in\\ North\\ America\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Some\\ \\&lsquo\\;hoaxes\\&rsquo\\;\\ include\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ tower\\ at\\ Newport\\,\\ RI\\.\\ Rafn\\ said\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ baptistery\\ of\\ a\\ church\\ built\\ by\\ Norse\\ settlers\\ in\\ the\\ welfth\\ century\\.\\ Longfellow\\ wrote\\ about\\ it\\,\\ even\\ though\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ false\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ stone\\ from\\ Kensington\\,\\ MN\\ was\\ a\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ creation\\.\\ It\\ had\\ a\\ long\\ runic\\ inscription\\ describing\\ a\\ disastrous\\ voyage\\ of\\ exploration\\ undertaken\\ to\\ the\\ area\\ by\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ Swedes\\ and\\ Norwegians\\ from\\ Vinland\\ in\\ 1362\\.\\ It\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Kensington\\ Stone\\.\\ Some\\ still\\ believe\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ true\\ despite\\ all\\ experts\\&rsquo\\;\\ denials\\ of\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;The\\ Vinland\\ Map\\ is\\ supposed\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ representation\\ of\\ North\\ America\\ drawn\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ to\\ mid\\ 15\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ \\(50\\ years\\ before\\ Europeans\\ \\&lsquo\\;discovered\\&rsquo\\;\\ America\\.\\ It\\ portrays\\ Vinland\\.\\ It\\ came\\ to\\ attention\\ in\\ 1957\\.\\ Still\\ a\\ back\\-and\\-forth\\ but\\ most\\ say\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ forgery\\,\\ probably\\ by\\ Austrian\\ Jesuit\\ priest\\ Father\\ Joseph\\ Fischer\\ in\\ the\\ 1930s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Norumbega\\,\\ an\\ area\\ in\\ Boston\\ claimed\\ to\\ be\\ located\\ by\\ a\\ Harvard\\ professor\\ \\(Eben\\ Norton\\ Horsford\\)\\.\\ Horsford\\ wrote\\ books\\ about\\ it\\ in\\ late\\ 1800\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ Said\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ Viking\\ city\\,\\ it\\ appeared\\ on\\ a\\ map\\ in\\ 1524\\ drawn\\ by\\ Verzano\\.\\ Then\\ a\\ man\\ in\\ 1568\\ told\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Norumbega\\ in\\ England\\ after\\ returning\\ claiming\\ to\\ have\\ walked\\ through\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\,\\ Newfoundland\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ place\\ in\\ North\\ America\\ where\\ conclusive\\ evidence\\ points\\ to\\ a\\ Viking\\ presence\\ \\(and\\ Labrador\\,\\ Canada\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;These\\ hoaxes\\ point\\ to\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ much\\ conjecture\\ about\\ how\\ far\\ Vikings\\ traveled\\ into\\ North\\ America\\.\\ As\\ stated\\,\\ solid\\ evidence\\ only\\ exists\\ in\\ L\\&rsquo\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\,\\ however\\ people\\ want\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ Vikings\\ made\\ it\\ farther\\.\\ Maybe\\ it\\ is\\ hard\\ to\\ imagine\\ the\\ Vikings\\,\\ with\\ their\\ explorers\\&rsquo\\;\\ mentality\\,\\ every\\ turning\\ around\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\30\\.\\ What\\ is\\ eddic\\-\\-\\ as\\ opposed\\ to\\ scaldic\\-\\-\\ poetry\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ technical\\ differences\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ differences\\ in\\ usage\\ and\\ meanings\\ associated\\ with\\ them\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Eddic\\ verse\\ was\\ usually\\ simple\\,\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ content\\,\\ style\\ and\\ meter\\,\\ dealing\\ largely\\ with\\ mythological\\ or\\ heroic\\ content\\.\\ Skaldic\\ verse\\,\\ conversely\\,\\ was\\ complex\\,\\ and\\ usually\\ composed\\ as\\ a\\ tribute\\ or\\ homage\\ to\\ a\\ particular\\ Jarl\\ or\\ king\\.\\ Performance\\ of\\ skaldic\\ poetry\\ was\\ spoken\\,\\ not\\ sung\\ or\\ chanted\\.\\ \\ \\;Unlike\\ many\\ other\\ literary\\ forms\\ of\\ the\\ time\\,\\ much\\ skaldic\\ poetry\\ is\\ attributable\\ to\\ an\\ author\\ \\(called\\ a\\ skald\\)\\,\\ and\\ these\\ attributions\\ may\\ be\\ relied\\ on\\ with\\ a\\ reasonable\\ degree\\ of\\ confidence\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harald\\ fine\\-hair\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;King\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Harald\\ Fairhair\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ the\\ king\\ who\\ is\\ credited\\ by\\ later\\ tradition\\ as\\ having\\ unified\\ Norway\\ into\\ one\\ kingdom\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ sagas\\,\\ he\\ ruled\\ Norway\\ from\\ approximately\\ 872\\ to\\ 930\\.\\ \\ \\;Little\\ is\\ known\\ of\\ the\\ historical\\ Harald\\.\\ The\\ only\\ contemporary\\ sources\\ mentioning\\ him\\ are\\ the\\ two\\ skaldic\\ poems\\ Haraldskv\\æ\\;\\ð\\;i\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Glymdr\\á\\;pa\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\Þ\\;orbj\\ö\\;rn\\ Hornklofi\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ first\\ poem\\ describes\\ life\\ at\\ Harald\\&\\#39\\;s\\ court\\,\\ mentions\\ that\\ he\\ took\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Danish\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wife\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ won\\ a\\ victory\\ at\\ Hafrsfjord\\.\\ The\\ second\\ relates\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ battles\\ Harald\\ has\\ won\\.\\ He\\ is\\ not\\ mentioned\\ in\\ any\\ contemporary\\ foreign\\ sources\\.\\ His\\ life\\ was\\ described\\ in\\ several\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Kings\\&\\#39\\;\\ sagas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ the\\ first\\ of\\ these\\ were\\ not\\ written\\ until\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ 12th\\ century\\,\\ over\\ 250\\ years\\ after\\ his\\ death\\;\\ Harald\\ succeeded\\ on\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ father\\ Halfdan\\ the\\ black\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ 866\\ he\\ made\\ conquest\\ over\\ many\\ petty\\ kingdoms\\ which\\ could\\ compose\\ Norway\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\archaeological\\ site\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;on\\ the\\ northernmost\\ tip\\ of\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Newfoundland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Canadian\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\province\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Newfoundland\\ and\\ Labrador\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Discovered\\ in\\ 1960\\,\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ site\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Norse\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;village\\,\\ the\\ only\\ known\\ one\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\North\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;outside\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Greenland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ site\\ remains\\ the\\ only\\ widely\\-accepted\\ instance\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\pre\\-Columbian\\ trans\\-oceanic\\ contact\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ is\\ notable\\ for\\ possible\\ connections\\ with\\ the\\ attempted\\ colony\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vinland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;established\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Leif\\ Ericson\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;around\\ 1003\\,\\ or\\ more\\ broadly\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Norse\\ colonization\\ of\\ the\\ Americas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Archaeologists\\ determined\\ the\\ site\\ is\\ of\\ Norse\\ origin\\ due\\ to\\ definitive\\ similarities\\ between\\ the\\ characteristics\\ of\\ structures\\ and\\ artifacts\\ found\\ at\\ the\\ site\\ and\\ those\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Greenlandic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Icelandic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sites\\.\\ Two\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Icelandic\\ sagas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ commonly\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Saga\\ of\\ the\\ Greenlanders\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Saga\\ of\\ Eric\\ the\\ Red\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ describe\\ the\\ experiences\\ of\\ Norse\\ Greenlanders\\ who\\ discovered\\ and\\ then\\ attempted\\ to\\ settle\\ a\\ land\\ to\\ the\\ west\\ of\\ Greenland\\,\\ identified\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vinland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ Sagas\\ seem\\ to\\ suggest\\ that\\ the\\ Vinland\\ settlement\\ failed\\ because\\ of\\ conflicts\\ within\\ the\\ Norse\\ community\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ between\\ the\\ Norse\\ and\\ the\\ native\\ people\\ they\\ encountered\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Skr\\æ\\;lings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ possible\\ to\\ verify\\ that\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\ is\\ indeed\\ the\\ Vinland\\ of\\ the\\ Sagas\\,\\ this\\ remains\\ a\\ possibility\\,\\ and\\ it\\ often\\ is\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ such\\ in\\ discussions\\ of\\ the\\ site\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Some\\ archaeologists\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\ site\\ is\\ not\\ Vinland\\ itself\\,\\ but\\ an\\ exploration\\ base\\ and\\ winter\\ camp\\ for\\ expeditions\\ heading\\ farther\\ south\\ to\\ the\\ real\\ Vinland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Futhark\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Runic\\ alphabet\\ used\\ during\\ Viking\\ Age\\ in\\ Scandinavia\\.\\ Most\\ Runic\\ texts\\ are\\ found\\ on\\ hard\\ surfaces\\ such\\ as\\ rock\\,\\ wood\\,\\ and\\ metal\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ are\\ two\\ forms\\ of\\ Futhark\\,\\ Elder\\ Futhark\\ and\\ Younger\\ Futhark\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ linear\\ and\\ angular\\ shapes\\ reveal\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ designed\\ to\\ cut\\ short\\ messages\\ easily\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Saga\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\stories\\ about\\ ancient\\ Scandinavian\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Germanic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;history\\,\\ about\\ early\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Viking\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;voyages\\,\\ about\\ migration\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Iceland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\feuds\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;between\\ Icelandic\\ families\\;\\ written\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Old\\ Norse\\ language\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ mainly\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Iceland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ The\\ texts\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\epic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;tales\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\prose\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ often\\ with\\ stanzas\\ or\\ whole\\ poems\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\alliterative\\ verse\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;embedded\\ in\\ the\\ text\\,\\ of\\ heroic\\ deeds\\ of\\ days\\ long\\ gone\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\tales\\ of\\ worthy\\ men\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ were\\ often\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vikings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ sometimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Pagan\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ sometimes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Christian\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ tales\\ are\\ usually\\ realistic\\,\\ except\\ legendary\\ sagas\\,\\ sagas\\ of\\ saints\\,\\ sagas\\ of\\ bishops\\ and\\ translated\\ or\\ recomposed\\ romances\\.\\ They\\ are\\ sometimes\\ romanticized\\ and\\ fantastic\\,\\ but\\ always\\ dealing\\ with\\ human\\ beings\\ one\\ can\\ understand\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Berserk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ word\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ Icelandic\\ sagas\\ for\\ a\\ stereotypically\\ ferocious\\ warrior\\.\\ One\\ saga\\ describes\\ them\\ being\\ \\&ldquo\\;as\\ mad\\ as\\ dogs\\ or\\ wolves\\,\\ they\\ bit\\ into\\ their\\ shields\\ and\\ were\\ as\\ strong\\ as\\ bears\\ or\\ bulls\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Two\\ explanations\\ of\\ their\\ name\\ have\\ been\\ put\\ forward\\.\\ One\\ derives\\ it\\ from\\ words\\ meaning\\ \\&ldquo\\;bare\\ shirt\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ describing\\ someone\\ who\\ fought\\ naked\\;\\ the\\ other\\,\\ more\\ likely\\,\\ origin\\ derives\\ from\\ \\&ldquo\\;bear\\ shirt\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ meaning\\ someone\\ who\\ wore\\ a\\ bearskin\\.\\ There\\ are\\ representations\\ in\\ pre\\-Viking\\ Scandinavian\\ art\\ of\\ people\\ dressed\\ in\\ a\\ bearskin\\ and\\ carrying\\ weapons\\,\\ but\\ they\\ probably\\ depict\\ a\\ ritual\\ relating\\ to\\ the\\ \\&lsquo\\;shape\\-changer\\&rsquo\\;\\ aspect\\ of\\ Germanic\\ religions\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ functional\\ warrior\\.\\ The\\ portrayal\\ of\\ berserk\\ warriors\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\ probably\\ reflects\\ medieval\\ literary\\ conventions\\ rather\\ than\\ fact\\.\\ The\\ English\\ adjective\\ for\\ this\\ word\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;violently\\ frenzied\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Excerpt\\ from\\ Egil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Saga\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;What\\ people\\ say\\ about\\ shape\\-changers\\ or\\ those\\ who\\ go\\ into\\ BERSERK\\ fits\\ is\\ this\\:\\ that\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ in\\ the\\ frenzy\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ so\\ strong\\ that\\ nothing\\ is\\ too\\ much\\ for\\ them\\,\\ but\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ out\\ of\\ it\\ they\\ become\\ much\\ weaker\\ than\\ normal\\.\\ That\\&rsquo\\;s\\ how\\ it\\ was\\ with\\ Kveldulf\\;\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ the\\ frenzy\\ left\\ him\\ he\\ felt\\ worn\\ out\\ by\\ the\\ battle\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ been\\ fighting\\,\\ and\\ grew\\ so\\ weak\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ it\\ all\\ that\\ he\\ had\\ to\\ take\\ to\\ his\\ bed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Another\\ execerpt\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Then\\ Ljot\\ came\\ up\\ with\\ his\\ party\\ and\\ got\\ himself\\ ready\\ for\\ the\\ duel\\ \\(with\\ Fridgeir\\)\\&hellip\\;\\ As\\ he\\ approached\\ the\\ combat\\ area\\ his\\ BERSERK\\ fit\\ came\\ on\\ and\\ he\\ began\\ howling\\ horribly\\ and\\ biting\\ his\\ shield\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Egil\\ ends\\ up\\ fighting\\ instead\\ of\\ Fridgeir\\ after\\ insulting\\ Ljot\\ calling\\ him\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;maniac\\&rsquo\\;\\ and\\ a\\ \\&lsquo\\;valkyrie\\-maddened\\ shield\\-swallowing\\ villain\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ Egil\\ kills\\ him\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\13\\.\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ approximate\\ dates\\ of\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ Viking\\ Age\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\753\\ \\(Raid\\ at\\ Lindesfarn\\)\\ to\\ 1066\\ \\(Defeat\\ at\\ Stamford\\ Bridge\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\14\\.\\ Vikings\\ of\\ which\\ modern\\ Scandinavian\\ country\\ were\\ primarily\\ oriented\\ toward\\:\\ a\\.\\ England\\?\\ b\\.\\ the\\ Frisian\\ coast\\?\\ c\\.\\ Russia\\?\\ d\\.\\ Ireland\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Think\\ Danelaw\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ when\\ major\\ parts\\ of\\ Britain\\ were\\ controlled\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Denmark\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Norway\\ and\\ Denmark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sweden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Norway\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\15\\.\\ Which\\ Norwegian\\ king\\ first\\ brought\\ the\\ country\\ under\\ his\\ consolidated\\ rule\\,\\ according\\ to\\ literary\\ sources\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harald\\ Fairhair\\/Tanglehair\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ king\\ to\\ unite\\ Norway\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Harald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Saga\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ arrival\\ led\\ many\\ nobles\\ to\\ colonize\\ Iceland\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\York\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ York\\ is\\ a\\ city\\ in\\ Britain\\ that\\ was\\ raided\\ and\\ captured\\ by\\ Vikings\\ in\\ 866\\.\\ It\\ served\\ as\\ a\\ major\\ city\\ \\(like\\ the\\ capital\\&hellip\\;\\)\\ during\\ Viking\\ control\\ over\\ Britain\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Freyja\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ She\\ is\\ a\\ Norse\\ goddess\\ of\\ love\\,\\ beauty\\ and\\ fertility\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Kensington\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ I\\ would\\ assume\\ this\\ is\\ actually\\ asking\\ about\\ the\\ Kensington\\ Rune\\ stone\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ stone\\ found\\ in\\ Kensington\\ Minnesota\\ by\\ a\\ farmer\\ that\\ had\\ a\\ runic\\ inscription\\.\\ \\;\\ Some\\ people\\ claim\\ it\\ is\\ evidence\\ for\\ Viking\\ expeditions\\ into\\ the\\ mid\\-west\\,\\ but\\ it\\ is\\ thought\\ by\\ pretty\\ much\\ everyone\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ hoax\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Asgard\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ home\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Varangian\\ guard\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ this\\ was\\ the\\ personal\\ bodyguard\\ to\\ the\\ emperor\\ of\\ the\\ byzantine\\ empire\\ that\\ was\\ made\\ up\\ of\\ Scandinavians\\ \\(called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Rus\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ but\\ probably\\ mostly\\ Swedish\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ King\\ Harald\\ made\\ his\\ name\\/fortune\\ in\\ the\\ Varangian\\ guard\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Odin\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ If\\ you\\ cant\\ describe\\ Odin\\ at\\ this\\ point\\,\\ this\\ study\\ guide\\ will\\ not\\ help\\ you\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ he\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Norns\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Old\\ Norse\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\norn\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ plural\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\nornir\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ are\\ a\\ kind\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\d\\í\\;sir\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;numerous\\ female\\ beings\\ who\\ rule\\ the\\ fates\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ races\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Norse\\ mythology\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Snorri\\ Sturluson\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\V\\ö\\;lusp\\á\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ three\\ most\\ important\\ norns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ur\\ð\\;r\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(Urd\\ or\\ Wyrd\\)\\(In\\ many\\ cases\\ spelled\\ URD\\)\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ver\\ð\\;andi\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(also\\ Verdandi\\ or\\ Verdande\\)\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Skuld\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;come\\ out\\ from\\ a\\ hall\\ standing\\ at\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Well\\ of\\ Ur\\ð\\;r\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(well\\ of\\ fate\\)\\ and\\ they\\ draw\\ water\\ from\\ the\\ well\\ and\\ take\\ sand\\ that\\ lies\\ around\\ it\\,\\ which\\ they\\ pour\\ over\\ the\\ ash\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Yggdrasill\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;so\\ that\\ its\\ branches\\ will\\ not\\ rot\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;These\\ norns\\ are\\ described\\ as\\ three\\ powerful\\ maiden\\ giantesses\\ \\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Jotuns\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ whose\\ arrival\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\J\\ö\\;tunheimr\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ended\\ the\\ golden\\ age\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;They\\ may\\ be\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ the\\ maidens\\ of\\ M\\ö\\;g\\þ\\;rasir\\ who\\ are\\ described\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vaf\\þ\\;r\\ú\\;\\ð\\;nism\\á\\;l\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(see\\ below\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beside\\ these\\ three\\ norns\\,\\ there\\ are\\ many\\ other\\ norns\\ who\\ arrive\\ when\\ a\\ person\\ is\\ born\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ determine\\ his\\ or\\ her\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;There\\ were\\ both\\ malevolent\\ and\\ benevolent\\ norns\\,\\ and\\ the\\ former\\ caused\\ all\\ the\\ malevolent\\ and\\ tragic\\ events\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ while\\ the\\ latter\\ were\\ kind\\ and\\ protective\\ goddesses\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[2\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Recent\\ research\\ has\\ discussed\\ the\\ relation\\ between\\ the\\ myths\\ associated\\ with\\ norns\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\valkyries\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ on\\ the\\ one\\ hand\\,\\ and\\ the\\ actual\\ travelling\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\V\\ö\\;lvas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\sei\\ð\\;r\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-workers\\)\\,\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\,\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ women\\ who\\ visited\\ newborn\\ children\\ in\\ the\\ pre\\-Christian\\ Norse\\ societies\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[3\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Basically\\,\\ the\\ beings\\ who\\ decide\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ humans\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alfred\\ the\\ Great\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Alfred\\ the\\ Great\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Old\\ English\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Æ\\;lfr\\&\\#275\\;d\\<\\/span\\>\\\\;\\ 847\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ October\\ 26\\,\\ 899\\)\\,\\ also\\ spelt\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Æ\\;lfred\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ king\\ of\\ the\\ southern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Anglo\\-Saxon\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;kingdom\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Wessex\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ 871\\ to\\ 899\\.\\ Alfred\\ is\\ noted\\ for\\ his\\ defence\\ of\\ the\\ kingdom\\ against\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Danish\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vikings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ becoming\\ the\\ only\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\English\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;King\\ to\\ be\\ awarded\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\epithet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;the\\ Great\\"\\;\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Alfred\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\King\\ of\\ the\\ West\\ Saxons\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ style\\ himself\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\King\\ of\\ the\\ English\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\.\\ Details\\ of\\ his\\ life\\ are\\ described\\ in\\ a\\ work\\ by\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Welsh\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;scholar\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Asser\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Alfred\\ was\\ a\\ learned\\ man\\,\\ and\\ encouraged\\ education\\ and\\ improved\\ his\\ kingdom\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\law\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;system\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ its\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\military\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;structure\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ibn\\ Fadlan\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ahmad\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ibn\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Fadl\\&\\#257\\;n\\ ibn\\ al\\-Abb\\&\\#257\\;s\\ ibn\\ Ra\\&scaron\\;\\&\\#299\\;d\\ ibn\\ Hamm\\&\\#257\\;d\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ 10th\\ century\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Arab\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Muslim\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\writer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ traveler\\ who\\ wrote\\ an\\ account\\ of\\ his\\ travels\\ as\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ an\\ embassy\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Abbasid\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Caliph\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Baghdad\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ the\\ king\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Volga\\ Bulgars\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ substantial\\ part\\ of\\ Ibn\\ Fadlan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ account\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ people\\ he\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\R\\&\\#363\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&\\#1585\\;\\&\\#1608\\;\\&\\#1587\\;\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\R\\&\\#363\\;siyyah\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;Most\\ scholars\\ identify\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Rus\\&\\#39\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Varangians\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ would\\ make\\ Ibn\\ Fadlan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ account\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ portrayals\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vikings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ R\\&\\#363\\;s\\ appear\\ as\\ traders\\ that\\ set\\ up\\ shop\\ on\\ the\\ river\\ banks\\ nearby\\ the\\ Bol\\&\\#287\\;ar\\ camp\\.\\ They\\ are\\ described\\ as\\ having\\ bodies\\,\\ tall\\ as\\ palm\\-trees\\,\\ with\\ blond\\ hair\\ and\\ ruddy\\ skin\\.\\ They\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\tattooed\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ \\"\\;fingernails\\ to\\ neck\\"\\;\\ with\\ dark\\ blue\\ or\\ dark\\ green\\ \\"\\;tree\\ patterns\\"\\;\\ and\\ other\\ \\"\\;figures\\"\\;\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ armed\\ with\\ an\\ axe\\ and\\ a\\ long\\ knife\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ibn\\ Fadlan\\ describes\\ the\\ Rus\\ as\\ having\\ perfect\\ bodies\\,\\ with\\ high\\ cheekbones\\ in\\ the\\ face\\.\\ In\\ contrast\\ to\\ their\\ physical\\ beauty\\,\\ he\\ describes\\ the\\ hygiene\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\R\\&\\#363\\;siyyah\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ disgusting\\ \\(while\\ also\\ noting\\ with\\ some\\ astonishment\\ that\\ they\\ comb\\ their\\ hair\\ every\\ day\\)\\ and\\ considers\\ them\\ vulgar\\ and\\ unsophisticated\\.\\ In\\ that\\,\\ his\\ impressions\\ contradict\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ Persian\\ traveler\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ibn\\ Rustah\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ He\\ also\\ describes\\ in\\ great\\ detail\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\the\\ funeral\\ of\\ one\\ of\\ their\\ chieftains\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ship\\ burial\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;involving\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\human\\ sacrifice\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\.\\ Some\\ scholars\\ believe\\ that\\ it\\ took\\ place\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Balymer\\ complex\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\25\\.\\ Our\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ Era\\ depends\\ on\\ a\\ wide\\ array\\ of\\ often\\ disparate\\ sources\\,\\ ranging\\ from\\ texts\\ to\\ the\\ \\;archaeological\\ record\\.\\ Review\\ the\\ variety\\ and\\ character\\ of\\ our\\ sources\\,\\ and\\ assess\\ the\\ strengths\\ and\\ weaknesses\\ \\;of\\ these\\ sources\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Archaeological\\ sources\\ are\\ often\\ the\\ most\\ honest\\,\\ but\\ the\\ least\\ complete\\.\\ What\\ is\\ found\\ today\\ is\\ what\\ was\\ once\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ society\\,\\ but\\ few\\ things\\ have\\ survived\\ the\\ past\\ thousand\\ years\\,\\ and\\ even\\ less\\ are\\ found\\ by\\ archaeologists\\.\\ For\\ example\\,\\ when\\ graves\\ are\\ found\\,\\ they\\ show\\ what\\ Vikings\\ had\\ and\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ buried\\ with\\,\\ but\\ no\\ explanation\\ as\\ to\\ why\\ they\\ wanted\\ to\\ be\\ buried\\ with\\ this\\ objects\\.\\ The\\ literature\\ often\\ provides\\ a\\ more\\ complete\\ picture\\,\\ but\\ also\\ needs\\ to\\ be\\ taken\\ with\\ a\\ grain\\ of\\ salt\\.\\ The\\ majority\\ of\\ the\\ literature\\ comes\\ from\\ 13th\\ century\\ Iceland\\,\\ after\\ the\\ acceptance\\ of\\ Christianity\\ and\\ hundreds\\ of\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ actual\\ Viking\\ society\\ existed\\.\\ \\(talk\\ about\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ Christianity\\ on\\ the\\ Viking\\ mythology\\:\\ Odin\\ is\\ \\;portrayed\\ \\;as\\ a\\ more\\ central\\ god\\ than\\ he\\ actually\\ was\\,\\ etc\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ evidence\\ that\\ we\\ have\\ for\\ Viking\\ culture\\ is\\ the\\ overlap\\ of\\ these\\ two\\ sources\\.\\ \\(For\\ example\\,\\ the\\ archeological\\ find\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\ and\\ the\\ accounts\\ in\\ the\\ Vinland\\ Sagas\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\26\\.\\ How\\ important\\ is\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ \\"\\;the\\ law\\"\\;\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Law\\ was\\ important\\ in\\ the\\ Viking\\ literature\\,\\ but\\ in\\ a\\ different\\ sense\\ than\\ law\\ is\\ considered\\ in\\ our\\ society\\.\\ Vikings\\ had\\ \\;allegiances\\ \\;to\\ their\\ family\\,\\ towns\\,\\ and\\ \\;chieftains\\,\\ whom\\ they\\ represented\\ through\\ any\\ means\\ possible\\,\\ including\\ violence\\.\\ If\\ someone\\ was\\ wronged\\,\\ he\\ didn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ face\\ a\\ court\\ but\\ rather\\ the\\ \\;vengeance\\ \\;of\\ his\\ family\\ and\\ friends\\.\\ This\\ a\\ good\\ opportunity\\ to\\ put\\ in\\ a\\ couple\\ of\\ examples\\ from\\ the\\ texts\\ \\(Egil\\&\\#39\\;s\\ saga\\:\\ Kveldulfr\\ and\\ Skallagrim\\ revenge\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ Kveldulfr\\&\\#39\\;s\\ son\\ and\\ Skallagrim\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brother\\,\\ Thorolf\\.\\)\\ Egil\\&\\#39\\;s\\ saga\\ also\\ gives\\ an\\ example\\ of\\ how\\ Viking\\ ideals\\ of\\ oneself\\ and\\ one\\&\\#39\\;s\\ \\;allegiances\\ \\;above\\ any\\ \\;governing\\ \\;body\\ \\(Kveldulfr\\ and\\ Skallagrim\\ chose\\ not\\ to\\ fight\\ for\\ King\\ Harald\\ and\\ do\\ well\\ because\\ of\\ it\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\27\\.\\ How\\ useful\\ are\\ the\\ Icelandic\\ sagas\\ as\\ sources\\ of\\ information\\ for\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\?\\ What\\ are\\ the\\ difficulties\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Icelandic\\ sagas\\ are\\ incredibly\\ useful\\ sources\\ of\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ Viking\\ age\\,\\ though\\ like\\ all\\ sources\\,\\ the\\ information\\ they\\ contain\\ must\\ be\\ taken\\ with\\ a\\ grain\\ of\\ salt\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ the\\ only\\ nearly\\ contemporary\\ sources\\ of\\ viking\\ mythology\\ and\\ history\\ compiled\\ by\\ Norse\\ peoples\\ \\(eat\\ it\\ Adam\\ of\\ Bremen\\ and\\ ibn\\ Fadhlan\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ provide\\ a\\ wealth\\ of\\ information\\ and\\ direct\\ descriptions\\ found\\ nowhere\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;Two\\ examples\\ are\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\ and\\ the\\ Vinland\\ Saga\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ first\\ gives\\ the\\ clearest\\ direct\\ description\\ of\\ Viking\\ mythology\\ and\\ history\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ found\\ anywhere\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ second\\ chronicles\\ two\\ different\\ accounts\\ of\\ the\\ finding\\ and\\ settling\\ of\\ the\\ New\\ World\\ by\\ vikings\\ \\(Leif\\ Erikson\\)\\ hundreds\\ of\\ years\\ before\\ Columbus\\ was\\ born\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ saga\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ exhaustive\\ search\\ and\\ eventual\\ discovery\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ world\\ viking\\ archeological\\ sites\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ do\\,\\ however\\,\\ have\\ some\\ pretty\\ serious\\ limitations\\,\\ the\\ biggest\\ being\\ that\\ they\\ were\\ written\\,\\ or\\ more\\ accurately\\,\\ transcribed\\,\\ hundreds\\ of\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ events\\ \\&\\#39\\;took\\ place\\&\\#39\\;\\ and\\ were\\ written\\ after\\ the\\ cross\\ over\\ into\\ Christian\\ culture\\,\\ which\\ almost\\ certainly\\ changed\\ the\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ lessons\\ and\\ elements\\ of\\ the\\ stories\\,\\ and\\ possible\\ large\\ parts\\ of\\ their\\ substance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\alliteration\\-\\-Very\\ important\\ part\\ of\\ skaldic\\ poetry\\,\\ particularly\\ the\\ later\\,\\ more\\ structured\\ classes\\ \\(hrynhenda\\ and\\ drottkvaett\\)\\.\\ Each\\ pair\\ of\\ lines\\ had\\ to\\ have\\ three\\ aliterative\\ words\\,\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ on\\ the\\ first\\ line\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ starting\\ the\\ second\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ in\\ addititon\\ to\\ the\\ internal\\ rhyme\\/assonace\\ required\\ of\\ every\\ line\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Snorri\\ Sturluson\\-\\-Snorri\\ Sturluson\\[1\\]\\ \\(1178\\ \\ñ\\;\\ September\\ 23\\,\\ 1241\\)\\ was\\ an\\ Icelandic\\ historian\\,\\ poet\\ and\\ politician\\.\\ He\\ was\\ two\\-time\\ elected\\ lawspeaker\\ at\\ the\\ Icelandic\\ parliament\\,\\ the\\ Althing\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\,\\ and\\ is\\ often\\ considered\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ Egil\\&\\#39\\;s\\ saga\\ for\\ stylistic\\ reasons\\.\\ \\ \\;Snorri\\ is\\ remarkable\\ for\\ proposing\\ the\\ theory\\ \\(in\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\)\\ that\\ mythological\\ gods\\ begin\\ as\\ human\\ war\\ leaders\\ and\\ kings\\ whose\\ funeral\\ sites\\ develop\\ cults\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frey\\-\\-Son\\ of\\ Njord\\ and\\ sibling\\ of\\ Frejya\\,\\ he\\ was\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ the\\ Vanir\\,\\ but\\ lived\\ with\\ the\\ Aesir\\ at\\ Asgard\\ as\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ peace\\ deal\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ groups\\ of\\ gods\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ was\\ associated\\ with\\ agriculture\\,\\ weather\\ and\\ fertility\\ \\(especially\\ phallic\\/male\\ fertility\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&\\#39\\;s\\ is\\ the\\ owner\\ of\\ the\\ magical\\ ship\\ Skidbladnir\\,\\ which\\ always\\ had\\ fair\\ wind\\ and\\ could\\ be\\ folded\\ up\\ and\\ put\\ in\\ a\\ pocket\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ the\\ boar\\ Gullinbursti\\,\\ both\\ were\\ dwarf\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ also\\ had\\ a\\ magic\\ sword\\ that\\ he\\ gave\\ away\\ to\\ win\\ his\\ wife\\ Gerdr\\,\\ a\\ giantess\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ was\\ the\\ reason\\ why\\ he\\ will\\ lose\\/lost\\ to\\ Surt\\ in\\ their\\ battle\\ at\\ Ragnarok\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Middle\\-earth\\-\\-a\\ translation\\ of\\ a\\ old\\-english\\ derivation\\ of\\ Midgardr\\ or\\ \\&\\#39\\;middle\\ enclosure\\&\\#39\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ was\\ the\\ Norse\\ word\\ for\\ the\\ world\\ of\\ the\\ humans\\,\\ differentiated\\ from\\ worlds\\ above\\ and\\ below\\ and\\ surrounded\\ by\\ a\\ sea\\ home\\ to\\ the\\ Midgard\\ serpent\\ which\\ encirlces\\ all\\ of\\ Midgard\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ unlear\\ whether\\ it\\ also\\ encloses\\ Utgard\\,\\ land\\ of\\ the\\ giants\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ is\\ connected\\ to\\ Asgard\\,\\ home\\ of\\ the\\ Aesir\\ by\\ the\\ bridge\\ Bifrost\\.\\ Above\\ are\\ a\\ heaven\\ and\\ the\\ home\\ of\\ the\\ light\\ elves\\,\\ below\\ is\\ an\\ underworld\\ similar\\ in\\ many\\ repsects\\ to\\ Hades\\ of\\ Greek\\ and\\ Roman\\ mythology\\.\\ \\ \\;Through\\ the\\ middle\\ of\\ Midgard\\ rises\\ Yggdrasil\\,\\ the\\ Wolrd\\ Tree\\ that\\ is\\ the\\ center\\ and\\ support\\ of\\ all\\ existence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Hedeby\\-\\-An\\ important\\ trade\\ city\\ in\\ the\\ southern\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Jutland\\ Peninsula\\.\\ It\\ flourished\\ from\\ the\\ late\\ 8th\\ to\\ the\\ mid\\ 11th\\ centuries\\ and\\ was\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ starting\\ place\\ for\\ Viking\\ raids\\ to\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ South\\.\\ Most\\ notably\\,\\ it\\ had\\ a\\ large\\ wall\\ made\\ of\\ soil\\,\\ indicating\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ frequently\\ attacked\\.\\ Cities\\ like\\ Hedeby\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ present\\-day\\ Denmark\\ had\\ more\\ fertile\\ land\\ than\\ cities\\ on\\ the\\ Scandinavian\\ Peninsula\\,\\ but\\ was\\ also\\ subject\\ to\\ more\\ attack\\ from\\ people\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ Germans\\ in\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ June\\ 8\\,\\ 793\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ first\\ recorded\\ Viking\\ raid\\ at\\ Lindisfarne\\,\\ an\\ island\\ off\\ the\\ Northeast\\ coast\\ of\\ England\\,\\ where\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ Catholic\\ monastery\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ were\\ described\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;heathen\\ men\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\September\\ 25\\,\\ 1066\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Harald\\ Sigurdsson\\ \\(aka\\.\\ Hardrada\\)\\ loses\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Stamford\\ Bridge\\ in\\ England\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ last\\ recorded\\ battle\\ between\\ the\\ Christian\\ world\\ and\\ an\\ organized\\ \\;\\ Viking\\ army\\.\\ \\;\\ Harald\\ had\\ claimed\\ the\\ English\\ throne\\ and\\ led\\ an\\ army\\ to\\ this\\ end\\,\\ but\\ he\\ lost\\ in\\ battle\\ against\\ the\\ English\\ King\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ In\\ 1960\\,\\ the\\ Ingstads\\ discovered\\ the\\ remnants\\ of\\ a\\ Viking\\ settlement\\ in\\ L\\&rsquo\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\,\\ locating\\ the\\ place\\ based\\ on\\ accounts\\ in\\ the\\ Sagas\\.\\ \\;\\ Their\\ archaeological\\ evidence\\ proved\\ that\\ the\\ Vikings\\ had\\ landed\\ in\\ Newfoundland\\ and\\ had\\ reached\\ North\\ American\\ 500\\ years\\ before\\ Columbus\\.\\ \\;\\ \\(The\\ Ingstads\\ argue\\ that\\ they\\ found\\ the\\ location\\ of\\ Vinland\\ and\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;vin\\&rdquo\\;\\ referred\\ to\\ meadow\\ rather\\ than\\ grapes\\ or\\ wine\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ not\\ agreed\\ upon\\)\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ According\\ to\\ the\\ Vinland\\ Sagas\\,\\ Leif\\ the\\ Lucky\\ \\(Leif\\ Erickson\\)\\ named\\ vinland\\ for\\ the\\ valuable\\ grapes\\ that\\ were\\ found\\ there\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ gathered\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ them\\ and\\ loaded\\ them\\ on\\ their\\ boat\\ for\\ transport\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Novgorod\\ \\(was\\ on\\ midterm\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ place\\ where\\ Rurik\\ reportedly\\ settled\\ in\\ Russia\\ in\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\;\\ Rurik\\ was\\ among\\ the\\ Rus\\,\\ a\\ group\\ from\\ across\\ the\\ sea\\ whom\\ the\\ Slavs\\ reportedly\\ invited\\ to\\ come\\ rule\\ in\\ 862\\ \\(according\\ to\\ Russian\\ Primary\\ Chronicle\\ aka\\.\\ The\\ Chronicle\\ of\\ Past\\ Years\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Rurik\\ was\\ the\\ oldest\\ of\\ three\\ brothers\\ who\\ accepted\\ the\\ invitation\\ and\\ he\\ founded\\ the\\ Ryurik\\ dynasty\\,\\ which\\ ruled\\ in\\ Russian\\ until\\ 1598\\.\\ \\;\\ Scandinavian\\-style\\ artifacts\\ from\\ as\\ last\\ as\\ the\\ tenth\\ century\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ near\\ Novgorod\\,\\ suggesting\\ that\\ this\\ legend\\ may\\ have\\ some\\ validity\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Seeress\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ refers\\ a\\ wise\\ woman\\ that\\ can\\ forsee\\ the\\ future\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\ known\\ as\\ a\\ Volva\\,\\ Odin\\ raises\\ one\\ from\\ the\\ dead\\ in\\ the\\ poem\\ Volsupa\\,\\ and\\ she\\ tells\\ him\\ about\\ the\\ fate\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ \\(Ragnorak\\)\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rimur\\ \\&ndash\\;Icelandic\\ epic\\ poetry\\ written\\ in\\ rimnahaettir\\ \\(rimur\\ meters\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ They\\ are\\ characterized\\ by\\ rhymes\\ and\\ alliteration\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ earliest\\ are\\ from\\ the\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ \\;\\ The\\ rigid\\ structure\\ of\\ these\\ poems\\ allows\\ them\\ to\\ be\\ passed\\ down\\ for\\ a\\ long\\ time\\ without\\ changing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\22\\.\\ To\\ which\\ genre\\ does\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\King\\ Harald\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Saga\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\belong\\,\\ and\\ by\\ whom\\,\\ and\\ approximately\\ when\\,\\ was\\ this\\ text\\ written\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heimskringla\\ is\\ the\\ best\\ known\\ of\\ the\\ Old\\ Norse\\ kings\\&\\#39\\;\\ sagas\\.\\ It\\ was\\ written\\ in\\ Old\\ Norse\\ in\\ Iceland\\ by\\ the\\ poet\\ and\\ historian\\ Snorri\\ Sturluson\\ \\(1179\\&ndash\\;1242\\)\\ ca\\.\\ 1230\\.\\ \\;\\ Heimskringla\\ is\\ a\\ collection\\ of\\ tales\\ about\\ the\\ Norwegian\\ kings\\,\\ beginning\\ with\\ the\\ legendary\\ Swedish\\ dynasty\\ of\\ the\\ Ynglingas\\,\\ followed\\ by\\ accounts\\ of\\ historical\\ Norwegian\\ rulers\\ from\\ Harald\\ Fairhair\\ of\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ the\\ pretender\\ Eystein\\ Meyla\\ in\\ 1177\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heimskringla\\ consists\\ of\\ several\\ chapters\\,\\ each\\ one\\ individually\\ called\\ a\\ saga\\,\\ which\\ can\\ be\\ literally\\ translated\\ as\\ \\&\\#39\\;tale\\&\\#39\\;\\.\\ The\\ Saga\\ of\\ Olaf\\ Haraldsson\\ is\\ the\\ main\\ part\\.\\ His\\ 15\\ year\\ long\\ reign\\ takes\\ up\\ about\\ one\\ third\\ of\\ the\\ entire\\ work\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\King\\ Harald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Saga\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\part\\ of\\ Heimskringla\\,\\ narrates\\ his\\ expedition\\ to\\ the\\ East\\,\\ exploits\\ in\\ Constantinople\\,\\ Syria\\,\\ and\\ Sicily\\,\\ his\\ skaldic\\ accomplishments\\,\\ and\\ his\\ battles\\ in\\ England\\ against\\ Harold\\ Godwinson\\,\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Earl\\ Godwin\\,\\ where\\ he\\ fell\\ at\\ Stamford\\ Bridge\\ in\\ 1066\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ days\\ before\\ Harold\\ himself\\ fell\\ at\\ the\\ battle\\ of\\ Hastings\\.\\ This\\ saga\\ is\\ a\\ splendid\\ epic\\ in\\ prose\\,\\ and\\ is\\ also\\ of\\ particular\\ relevance\\ to\\ the\\ history\\ of\\ England\\.\\ The\\ first\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Heimskringla\\ is\\ rooted\\ in\\ Norse\\ mythology\\;\\ as\\ it\\ advances\\,\\ fable\\ and\\ fact\\ all\\ curiously\\ intermingle\\,\\ and\\ it\\ terminates\\ in\\ factual\\ history\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ value\\ of\\ Heimskringla\\ as\\ a\\ historical\\ source\\ has\\ been\\ estimated\\ in\\ different\\ ways\\ during\\ recent\\ times\\.\\ The\\ historians\\ of\\ mid\\-19th\\ century\\ put\\ great\\ trust\\ in\\ the\\ factual\\ truth\\ of\\ Snorri\\&\\#39\\;s\\ narrative\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ other\\ old\\ Norse\\ sagas\\.\\ In\\ the\\ early\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ this\\ trust\\ was\\ largely\\ abandoned\\ with\\ the\\ advent\\ of\\ saga\\ criticism\\,\\ pioneered\\ by\\ Curt\\ and\\ Lauritz\\ Weibull\\.\\ These\\ historians\\ pointed\\ out\\ that\\ Snorri\\&\\#39\\;s\\ work\\ had\\ been\\ written\\ several\\ centuries\\ after\\ most\\ of\\ the\\ events\\ it\\ describes\\.\\ \\;\\ Credible\\ source\\ for\\ historical\\ fact\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\23\\.\\ Who\\ was\\ \\&\\#39\\;Rollo\\&\\#39\\;\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rollo\\ was\\ the\\ Scandinavian\\ raider\\ who\\ founded\\ the\\ French\\ duchy\\ of\\ Normandy\\.\\ \\;\\ Rollo\\ \\(c\\.\\ 860\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ c\\.\\ 932\\)\\,\\ baptised\\ Robert\\,\\ was\\ the\\ founder\\ and\\ first\\ ruler\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ principality\\ in\\ what\\ soon\\ became\\ known\\ as\\ Normandy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 885\\,\\ Rollo\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ lesser\\ leaders\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ fleet\\ which\\ besieged\\ Paris\\ under\\ Sigfred\\.\\ In\\ 886\\,\\ when\\ Sigfred\\ retreated\\ in\\ return\\ for\\ tribute\\,\\ Rollo\\ stayed\\ behind\\ and\\ was\\ eventually\\ bought\\ off\\ and\\ sent\\ to\\ harry\\ Burgundy\\.\\ Later\\,\\ he\\ returned\\ to\\ the\\ Seine\\ with\\ his\\ followers\\ \\(known\\ as\\ Danes\\,\\ or\\ Norsemen\\)\\.\\ He\\ invaded\\ the\\ area\\ of\\ northern\\ France\\ now\\ known\\ as\\ Normandy\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 911\\ Rollo\\&\\#39\\;s\\ forces\\ were\\ defeated\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Chartres\\ by\\ the\\ troops\\ of\\ King\\ Charles\\ the\\ Simple\\.\\ In\\ the\\ aftermath\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ pay\\ Rollo\\ to\\ leave\\,\\ as\\ was\\ customary\\,\\ Charles\\ the\\ Simple\\ understood\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ hold\\ back\\ their\\ onslaught\\,\\ and\\ decided\\ to\\ give\\ Rollo\\ the\\ coastal\\ lands\\ they\\ occupied\\ under\\ the\\ condition\\ that\\ he\\ defend\\ against\\ other\\ raiding\\ Vikings\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Saint\\-Clair\\-sur\\-Epte\\ \\(911\\)\\ with\\ King\\ Charles\\,\\ Rollo\\ pledged\\ feudal\\ allegiance\\ to\\ the\\ king\\,\\ changed\\ his\\ name\\ to\\ the\\ Frankish\\ version\\,\\ and\\ converted\\ to\\ Christianity\\,\\ probably\\ with\\ the\\ baptismal\\ name\\ Robert\\.\\ In\\ return\\,\\ King\\ Charles\\ granted\\ Rollo\\ the\\ lower\\ Seine\\ area\\ \\(today\\&\\#39\\;s\\ upper\\ Normandy\\)\\ and\\ the\\ titular\\ rulership\\ of\\ Normandy\\,\\ centred\\ around\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Rouen\\.\\ There\\ exists\\ some\\ argument\\ among\\ historians\\ as\\ to\\ whether\\ Rollo\\ was\\ a\\ \\"\\;duke\\"\\;\\ \\(dux\\)\\ or\\ whether\\ his\\ position\\ was\\ equivalent\\ to\\ that\\ of\\ a\\ \\"\\;count\\"\\;\\ under\\ Charlemagne\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Initially\\,\\ Rollo\\ stayed\\ true\\ to\\ his\\ word\\ of\\ defending\\ the\\ shores\\ of\\ the\\ Seine\\ river\\ in\\ accordance\\ to\\ the\\ Treaty\\ of\\ Saint\\-Clair\\-sur\\-Epte\\,\\ but\\ in\\ time\\ he\\ and\\ his\\ followers\\ had\\ very\\ different\\ ideas\\.\\ Rollo\\ began\\ to\\ divide\\ the\\ land\\ between\\ the\\ Epte\\ and\\ Risle\\ rivers\\ among\\ his\\ chieftains\\ and\\ settled\\ there\\ with\\ a\\ de\\ facto\\ capital\\ in\\ Rouen\\.\\ With\\ these\\ settlements\\,\\ Rollo\\ began\\ to\\ further\\ raid\\ other\\ Frankish\\ lands\\,\\ now\\ from\\ the\\ security\\ of\\ a\\ settled\\ homeland\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ mobile\\ fleet\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ however\\,\\ Rollo\\&\\#39\\;s\\ men\\ intermarried\\ with\\ the\\ local\\ women\\,\\ and\\ became\\ more\\ settled\\ as\\ Frenchmen\\.\\ At\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ his\\ death\\,\\ Rollo\\&\\#39\\;s\\ expansion\\ of\\ his\\ territory\\ had\\ extended\\ as\\ far\\ west\\ as\\ the\\ Vire\\ River\\.Sometime\\ around\\ 927\\,\\ Rollo\\ passed\\ the\\ fief\\ in\\ Normandy\\ to\\ his\\ son\\,\\ William\\ Longsword\\.\\ Rollo\\ may\\ have\\ lived\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ after\\ that\\,\\ but\\ certainly\\ died\\ before\\ 933\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\24\\.\\ You\\ have\\ just\\ been\\ asked\\ by\\ a\\ new\\ encyclopedia\\ concerned\\ with\\ medieval\\ studies\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ entry\\ under\\ the\\ heading\\ \\&\\#39\\;Vikings\\.\\&\\#39\\;\\ You\\ are\\ limited\\ to\\ no\\ more\\ than\\ 300\\ words\\ and\\ are\\ expected\\ to\\ give\\ equal\\ attention\\ to\\ the\\ activities\\ of\\ the\\ vikings\\ from\\ the\\ different\\ Nordic\\ countries\\.\\ No\\ bibliographic\\ references\\ are\\ allowed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Get\\ creative\\&hellip\\;\\ if\\ you\\ did\\ the\\ review\\ for\\ the\\ midterm\\,\\ this\\ question\\ is\\ on\\ that\\.\\ \\;\\ Google\\ Vikings\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thor\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thor\\ is\\ the\\ red\\-haired\\ and\\ bearded\\ god\\ of\\ thunder\\ in\\ Germanic\\ paganism\\ and\\ its\\ subsets\\:\\ Norse\\ paganism\\,\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ paganism\\ and\\ Continental\\ Germanic\\ paganism\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ surviving\\ stories\\ relating\\ to\\ Germanic\\ paganism\\ either\\ mention\\ Thor\\ or\\ center\\ on\\ Thor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ exploits\\.\\ Thor\\ was\\ a\\ much\\ revered\\ god\\ of\\ the\\ ancient\\ Germanic\\ peoples\\ from\\ at\\ least\\ the\\ earliest\\ surviving\\ written\\ accounts\\ of\\ the\\ indigenous\\ Germanic\\ tribes\\ to\\ over\\ a\\ thousand\\ years\\ later\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ Viking\\ Age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thor\\ was\\ appealed\\ to\\ for\\ protection\\ on\\ numerous\\ objects\\ found\\ from\\ various\\ Germanic\\ tribes\\ and\\ Miniature\\ replicas\\ of\\ Mjolnir\\,\\ the\\ weapon\\ of\\ Thor\\,\\ became\\ a\\ defiant\\ symbol\\ of\\ Norse\\ paganism\\ during\\ the\\ Christianization\\ of\\ Scandinavia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mjolnir\\ \\(his\\ hammer\\)\\,\\ travels\\ in\\ chariot\\ \\(eddas\\ express\\ that\\ when\\ he\\ his\\ hungry\\ he\\ can\\ roast\\ his\\ goats\\ who\\ pull\\ it\\)\\,\\ similar\\ to\\ Odin\\ in\\ that\\ the\\ Viking\\ culture\\ praised\\ his\\ violence\\ and\\ war\\ ability\\ \\(one\\ of\\ favorite\\ significant\\ figures\\ of\\ Norse\\ mythology\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Brattahl\\í\\;th\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Normandy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Normandy\\ is\\ a\\ geographical\\ region\\ corresponding\\ to\\ the\\ former\\ Duchy\\ of\\ Normandy\\.\\ It\\ is\\ situated\\ along\\ the\\ coast\\ of\\ France\\ south\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ Channel\\ between\\ Brittany\\ \\(to\\ the\\ west\\)\\ and\\ Picardy\\ \\(to\\ the\\ east\\)\\ and\\ comprises\\ territory\\ in\\ northern\\ France\\ and\\ the\\ Channel\\ Islands\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Upper\\ Normandy\\ \\(Haute\\-Normandie\\)\\ consists\\ of\\ the\\ French\\ d\\é\\;partements\\ of\\ Seine\\-Maritime\\ and\\ Eure\\,\\ and\\ Lower\\ Normandy\\ \\(Basse\\-Normandie\\)\\ of\\ the\\ d\\é\\;partements\\ of\\ Orne\\,\\ Calvados\\,\\ and\\ Manche\\.\\ The\\ former\\ province\\ of\\ Normandy\\ comprised\\ present\\-day\\ Upper\\ and\\ Lower\\ Normandy\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ small\\ areas\\ now\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ d\\é\\;partements\\ of\\ Eure\\-et\\-Loir\\,\\ Mayenne\\,\\ and\\ Sarthe\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ name\\ of\\ Normandy\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ settlement\\ and\\ conquest\\ of\\ the\\ territory\\ by\\ Vikings\\ \\(\\"\\;Northmen\\"\\;\\)\\ from\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\,\\ and\\ confirmed\\ by\\ treaty\\ in\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\.\\ For\\ a\\ century\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ following\\ the\\ Norman\\ Conquest\\ of\\ England\\ in\\ 1066\\,\\ Normandy\\ and\\ England\\ were\\ linked\\ by\\ Norman\\ rulers\\,\\ but\\ following\\ 1204\\ the\\ continental\\ territory\\ was\\ ultimately\\ held\\ by\\ France\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rus\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rus\\&rsquo\\;\\ are\\ the\\ historic\\ population\\ of\\ the\\ medieval\\ Rus\\&\\#39\\;\\ Khaganate\\ and\\ Kievan\\ Rus\\&\\#39\\;\\ whose\\ name\\ survives\\ in\\ the\\ cognates\\ Russians\\,\\ Rusyns\\,\\ and\\ Ruthenians\\,\\ and\\ who\\ are\\ viewed\\ by\\ the\\ modern\\ Belarusians\\,\\ Russians\\,\\ and\\ Ukrainians\\ as\\ the\\ predecessors\\ of\\ their\\ own\\ peoples\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\One\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ written\\ source\\ mentioning\\ the\\ people\\ called\\ Rus\\ in\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ Rhos\\ dates\\ back\\ to\\ year\\ 839\\ AD\\ in\\ a\\ Royal\\ Frankish\\ chronicle\\ Annales\\ Bertiniani\\,\\ identified\\ as\\ a\\ Germanic\\ tribe\\ called\\ Swedes\\ by\\ the\\ Frankish\\ authorities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ the\\ Kievan\\ Rus\\&\\#39\\;\\ Primary\\ Chronicle\\ compiled\\ in\\ about\\ 1113\\ the\\ Rus\\ were\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ Varangians\\,\\ Norsemen\\,\\ who\\ had\\ relocated\\ from\\ Scandinavia\\ first\\ to\\ Northeastern\\ Europe\\,\\ then\\ to\\ south\\ where\\ they\\ had\\ created\\ the\\ medieval\\ Kievan\\ state\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ substantial\\ part\\ of\\ Ibn\\ Fadlan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ account\\ is\\ dedicated\\ to\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ a\\ people\\ he\\ called\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\R\\&\\#363\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;or\\ R\\&\\#363\\;siyyah\\.\\ Most\\ scholars\\ identify\\ them\\ with\\ the\\ Rus\\&\\#39\\;\\ or\\ Varangians\\,\\ which\\ would\\ make\\ Ibn\\ Fadlan\\&\\#39\\;s\\ account\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ earliest\\ portrayals\\ of\\ Vikings\\.\\ The\\ R\\&\\#363\\;s\\ appear\\ as\\ traders\\ that\\ set\\ up\\ shop\\ on\\ the\\ river\\ banks\\ nearby\\ the\\ Bol\\&\\#287\\;ar\\ camp\\.\\ They\\ are\\ described\\ as\\ having\\ bodies\\,\\ tall\\ as\\ palm\\-trees\\,\\ with\\ blond\\ hair\\ and\\ ruddy\\ skin\\.\\ They\\ are\\ tattooed\\ from\\ \\"\\;fingernails\\ to\\ neck\\"\\;\\ with\\ dark\\ blue\\ or\\ dark\\ green\\ \\"\\;tree\\ patterns\\"\\;\\ and\\ other\\ \\"\\;figures\\"\\;\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ men\\ are\\ armed\\ with\\ an\\ axe\\ and\\ a\\ long\\ knife\\.\\ Ibn\\ Fadlan\\ describes\\ the\\ women\\ as\\ having\\ emaciated\\ unattractive\\ angular\\ bodies\\,\\ lacking\\ any\\ attractive\\ curves\\ with\\ high\\ cheekbones\\ in\\ the\\ face\\.\\ Ibn\\ Fadlan\\ describes\\ the\\ hygiene\\ of\\ the\\ R\\&\\#363\\;siyyah\\ as\\ disgusting\\ \\(while\\ also\\ noting\\ with\\ some\\ astonishment\\ that\\ they\\ comb\\ their\\ hair\\ every\\ day\\)\\ and\\ considers\\ them\\ vulgar\\ and\\ unsophisticated\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Egil\\ Skallagrimsson\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Egill\\ Skallagr\\í\\;msson\\[1\\]\\ \\(910\\-c\\.990\\)\\[citation\\ needed\\]\\ was\\ a\\ Viking\\ skald\\ and\\ the\\ great\\ anti\\-hero\\ of\\ Icelandic\\ literature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Several\\ accounts\\ tell\\ of\\ him\\ slaughtering\\ as\\ many\\ as\\ 20\\ or\\ more\\ armed\\ men\\ single\\-handedly\\ and\\ even\\ dispatching\\ a\\ feared\\ berserker\\ with\\ relative\\ ease\\.\\ In\\ spite\\ of\\ this\\,\\ he\\ was\\ considered\\ a\\ healer\\,\\ and\\ his\\ saga\\ tells\\ of\\ him\\ curing\\ a\\ girl\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ ill\\ for\\ quite\\ some\\ time\\ where\\ all\\ other\\ efforts\\ had\\ proven\\ futile\\.\\ In\\ some\\ ways\\ he\\ resembled\\ his\\ god\\ Odin\\:\\ breaking\\ his\\ oaths\\,\\ killing\\ for\\ trifles\\,\\ and\\ practicing\\ sorcery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Egill\\ wrote\\ his\\ first\\ poem\\ at\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ three\\ years\\.\\ He\\ exhibited\\ berserk\\ behaviour\\,\\ and\\ this\\,\\ together\\ with\\ the\\ description\\ of\\ his\\ large\\ and\\ unattractive\\ head\\,\\ has\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ theory\\ that\\ he\\ might\\ have\\ suffered\\ from\\ Paget\\&\\#39\\;s\\ disease\\.\\ This\\ is\\ corroborated\\ by\\ an\\ archeological\\ find\\ of\\ a\\ head\\ from\\ the\\ Viking\\ era\\ which\\ is\\ likely\\ to\\ be\\ Egill\\&\\#39\\;s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ the\\ age\\ of\\ seven\\,\\ Egill\\ was\\ cheated\\ in\\ a\\ game\\ with\\ local\\ boys\\.\\ Enraged\\,\\ he\\ went\\ home\\ and\\ procured\\ an\\ axe\\,\\ and\\ returning\\ to\\ the\\ boys\\,\\ split\\ the\\ skull\\ of\\ the\\ one\\ who\\ cheated\\ him\\,\\ to\\ the\\ teeth\\.\\ After\\ Berg\\-\\Ö\\;nundr\\ refused\\ to\\ allow\\ Egill\\ to\\ claim\\ his\\ wife\\ \\Á\\;sger\\ð\\;r\\&\\#39\\;s\\ share\\ of\\ her\\ father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ inheritance\\,\\ he\\ challenged\\ \\Ö\\;nundr\\ to\\ a\\ holmgang\\.\\ Egill\\ killed\\ B\\á\\;r\\ð\\;r\\ of\\ Atley\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ king\\&\\#39\\;s\\ retainers\\,\\ thus\\ making\\ an\\ enemy\\ of\\ Queen\\ Gunnhildr\\,\\ who\\ never\\ forgave\\ him\\ and\\ did\\ everything\\ within\\ her\\ power\\ to\\ take\\ revenge\\.\\ Gunnhildr\\ ordered\\ her\\ two\\ brothers\\ to\\ kill\\ Egill\\ and\\ Egill\\&\\#39\\;s\\ older\\ brother\\ \\Þ\\;\\ó\\;r\\ó\\;lfr\\,\\ who\\ had\\ been\\ on\\ good\\ terms\\ with\\ both\\ her\\ and\\ the\\ king\\ before\\.\\ However\\,\\ this\\ plan\\ did\\ not\\ go\\ well\\,\\ as\\ Egill\\ killed\\ the\\ pair\\ when\\ they\\ confronted\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\That\\ same\\ summer\\,\\ Harald\\ Fairhair\\ died\\,\\ and\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ secure\\ his\\ place\\ on\\ the\\ throne\\,\\ Eirik\\ Bloodaxe\\ killed\\ his\\ two\\ brothers\\.\\ He\\ then\\ declared\\ Egill\\ an\\ outlaw\\ in\\ Norway\\.\\ Berg\\-\\Ö\\;nundr\\ gathered\\ a\\ company\\ of\\ men\\ to\\ capture\\ Egill\\,\\ but\\ was\\ killed\\ in\\ his\\ attempt\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Escaping\\ from\\ Norway\\,\\ Egill\\ killed\\ R\\ö\\;gnvaldr\\ Eir\\í\\;ksson\\ and\\ then\\ cursed\\ his\\ parents\\,\\ setting\\ a\\ horse\\&\\#39\\;s\\ head\\ on\\ a\\ pole\\ \\(n\\í\\;\\ð\\;st\\ö\\;ng\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\40\\.\\ In\\ which\\ century\\ was\\ Iceland\\ first\\ colonized\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norse\\ settlers\\ traveled\\ across\\ the\\ Northern\\ Atlantic\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 9\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ Reasons\\ for\\ migration\\ could\\ be\\ traced\\ to\\ shortage\\ of\\ lands\\ or\\ to\\ escape\\ civil\\ unrest\\ brought\\ about\\ by\\ Harold\\ Fine\\-Hair\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\41\\.\\ Is\\ there\\ a\\ generic\\ \\"\\;heroic\\ biography\\"\\;\\?\\ If\\ so\\,\\ what\\ are\\ its\\ broad\\ outline\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\42\\.\\ Discuss\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ magic\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ used\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\IDs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ask\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Ask\\ and\\ Embla\\ were\\ the\\ firs\\ two\\ humans\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ Gods\\.\\ They\\ are\\ mentioned\\ in\\ both\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Poetic\\ Edda\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Prose\\ Edda\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ In\\ both\\ Edda\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ three\\ gods\\ come\\ upon\\ Ask\\ and\\ Embla\\ and\\ give\\ them\\ gifts\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\ is\\ Odin\\,\\ the\\ other\\ two\\ differ\\ depending\\ on\\ the\\ source\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\793\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Considered\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\.\\ June\\ 8\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 793\\ a\\ group\\ of\\ seafaring\\ Norsemen\\ ransacked\\ a\\ monastery\\ on\\ the\\ island\\ of\\ Lindisfarne\\ off\\ the\\ east\\ coast\\ of\\ England\\ and\\ was\\ considered\\ the\\ first\\ recorded\\ raid\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Loki\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Offspring\\ of\\ two\\ giants\\ \\[enemies\\ of\\ Viking\\ gods\\]\\ became\\ brother\\ of\\ Odin\\ after\\ swearing\\ an\\ oath\\,\\ allowed\\ Loki\\ into\\ Asgard\\ \\[heavenly\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ gods\\/goddesses\\]\\ \\;\\ and\\ gained\\ some\\ powers\\/privileges\\ possessed\\ by\\ Odin\\ and\\ other\\ gods\\.\\ Loki\\ misused\\ powers\\ \\[good\\ and\\ evil\\]\\ and\\ before\\ long\\ became\\ overtaken\\ by\\ bad\\ power\\,\\ and\\ turned\\ sinister\\.\\ Was\\ considered\\ a\\ prankster\\,\\ creating\\ giant\\ problems\\ for\\ the\\ Norse\\ gods\\ and\\ their\\ inhabitants\\,\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;god\\ of\\ mischief\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;god\\ of\\ fire\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Njal\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Njal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saga\\,\\ or\\ Story\\ of\\ the\\ burning\\ of\\ Njal\\,\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ Icelandic\\ sagas\\.\\ Njal\\&rsquo\\;s\\ character\\ is\\ introduced\\ with\\ his\\ close\\ friend\\ Gunnar\\,\\ Njal\\ is\\ highly\\ regarded\\ for\\ his\\ wisdom\\ and\\ reasoning\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Vinland\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ Vinland\\ was\\ the\\ name\\ given\\ to\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ North\\ America\\ by\\ Leif\\ Erickkson\\ circa\\ 1001\\ AD\\.\\ The\\ island\\ of\\ Vinland\\ was\\ first\\ recorded\\ by\\ Adam\\ of\\ Bremen\\ in\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ books\\ around\\ 1075\\ AD\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1262\\-1264\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\ during\\ this\\ time\\,\\ Iceland\\ was\\ not\\ a\\ sovereign\\ nation\\ but\\ was\\ considered\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ outer\\ realm\\ of\\ the\\ Norwegian\\ empire\\,\\ under\\ the\\ King\\ of\\ Norway\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ramsund\\-\\ The\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Ramsund\\ carving\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ not\\ quite\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\runestone\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;as\\ it\\ is\\ not\\ carved\\ into\\ a\\ stone\\,\\ but\\ into\\ a\\ flat\\ rock\\ close\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ramsund\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sweden\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ is\\ believed\\ to\\ have\\ been\\ carved\\ around\\ year\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\1000\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ is\\ generally\\ considered\\ an\\ important\\ piece\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Norse\\ art\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ runestone\\ style\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Ramsund\\ carving\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sweden\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;depicts\\ 1\\)\\ how\\ Sigurd\\ is\\ sitting\\ naked\\ in\\ front\\ of\\ the\\ fire\\ preparing\\ the\\ dragon\\ heart\\,\\ from\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Fafnir\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ for\\ his\\ foster\\-father\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Regin\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ who\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Fafnir\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ brother\\.\\ The\\ heart\\ is\\ not\\ finished\\ yet\\,\\ and\\ when\\ Sigurd\\ touches\\ it\\,\\ he\\ burns\\ himself\\ and\\ sticks\\ his\\ finger\\ into\\ his\\ mouth\\.\\ As\\ he\\ has\\ tasted\\ dragon\\ blood\\,\\ he\\ starts\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ birds\\&\\#39\\;\\ song\\.\\ 2\\)\\ The\\ birds\\ say\\ that\\ Regin\\ will\\ not\\ keep\\ his\\ promise\\ of\\ reconciliation\\ and\\ will\\ try\\ to\\ kill\\ Sigurd\\,\\ which\\ causes\\ Sigurd\\ to\\ cut\\ off\\ Regin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ head\\.\\ 3\\)\\ Regin\\ is\\ dead\\ beside\\ his\\ own\\ head\\,\\ his\\ smithing\\ tools\\ with\\ which\\ he\\ reforged\\ Sigurd\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sword\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Gram\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;are\\ scattered\\ around\\ him\\,\\ and\\ 4\\)\\ Regin\\&\\#39\\;s\\ horse\\ is\\ laden\\ with\\ the\\ dragon\\&\\#39\\;s\\ treasure\\.\\ 5\\)\\ is\\ the\\ previous\\ event\\ when\\ Sigurd\\ killed\\ Fafnir\\,\\ and\\ 6\\)\\ shows\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Otr\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ the\\ saga\\&\\#39\\;s\\ beginning\\.\\ The\\ writing\\ is\\ ambiguous\\,\\ but\\ one\\ interpretation\\ of\\ the\\ persons\\ mentioned\\ in\\ the\\ inscription\\,\\ based\\ on\\ inscriptions\\ on\\ other\\ runestones\\ found\\ nearby\\,\\ is\\ that\\ Sigri\\þ\\;r\\ \\(a\\ woman\\)\\ was\\ the\\ wife\\ of\\ Sigr\\ö\\;d\\ who\\ has\\ died\\.\\ Holmgeirr\\ is\\ her\\ father\\ in\\ law\\.\\ Alrikr\\,\\ son\\ of\\ Sigri\\þ\\;r\\,\\ erected\\ another\\ stone\\ for\\ his\\ father\\,\\ named\\ Spjut\\,\\ so\\ while\\ Alrikr\\ is\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Sigri\\þ\\;r\\,\\ he\\ was\\ not\\ the\\ son\\ of\\ Sigru\\þ\\;r\\.\\ Alternatively\\,\\ Holmgeirr\\ is\\ Sigri\\þ\\;r\\&\\#39\\;s\\ second\\ husband\\ and\\ Sigr\\ö\\;d\\ \\(but\\ not\\ Alrikr\\)\\ is\\ their\\ son\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ inspiration\\ for\\ using\\ the\\ legend\\ of\\ Sigurd\\ for\\ the\\ pictorial\\ decoration\\ was\\ probably\\ the\\ close\\ similarity\\ of\\ the\\ names\\ Sigurd\\ \\(Sigur\\ð\\;r\\ in\\ Old\\ Norse\\)\\ and\\ Sigr\\ö\\;d\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[1\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\R\\.\\ Wagner\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Wilhelm\\ Richard\\ Wagner\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ German\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\composer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\conductor\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ theatre\\ director\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\essayist\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ primarily\\ known\\ for\\ his\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\operas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(or\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\music\\ dramas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\,\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ later\\ called\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Wagner\\ drew\\ largely\\ from\\ Northern\\ European\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\mythology\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\legend\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ notably\\ Icelandic\\ sources\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Poetic\\ Edda\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Volsunga\\ Saga\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ German\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Nibelungenlied\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\H\\.W\\.\\ Longfellow\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Henry\\ Wadsworth\\ Longfellow\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(February\\ 27\\,\\ 1807\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ March\\ 24\\,\\ 1882\\)\\ was\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\American\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;educator\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\poet\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ also\\ the\\ first\\ American\\ to\\ translate\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Dante\\ Alighieri\\&\\#39\\;s\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Divine\\ Comedy\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ was\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ five\\ members\\ of\\ the\\ group\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Fireside\\ Poets\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Though\\ much\\ of\\ his\\ work\\ is\\ categorized\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\lyric\\ poetry\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Longfellow\\ experimented\\ with\\ many\\ forms\\,\\ including\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\hexameter\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\free\\ verse\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Many\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\metaphors\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;he\\ used\\ in\\ his\\ poetry\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ subject\\ matter\\ came\\ from\\ legends\\,\\ mythology\\,\\ and\\ literature\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[83\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;He\\ was\\ inspired\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Norse\\ mythology\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;for\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Skeleton\\ in\\ Armor\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\ and\\ by\\ Finnish\\ legends\\ for\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Song\\ of\\ Hiawatha\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[84\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;In\\ fact\\,\\ Longfellow\\ rarely\\ wrote\\ on\\ current\\ subjects\\ and\\ seemed\\ detached\\ from\\ contemporary\\ American\\ concerns\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Divorce\\-\\ Women\\ in\\ old\\ Norse\\ culture\\ had\\ a\\ high\\ degree\\ of\\ equality\\ in\\ marriage\\ and\\ could\\ divorce\\ their\\ husbands\\ by\\ declaration\\.\\ Divorce\\ was\\ considered\\ a\\ private\\ matter\\ to\\ be\\ settled\\ by\\ the\\ individuals\\ involved\\,\\ and\\ was\\ not\\ viewed\\ as\\ a\\ moral\\,\\ religious\\,\\ or\\ societal\\ issue\\.\\ \\;\\ Divorce\\ laws\\ in\\ Iceland\\ were\\ extremely\\ liberal\\,\\ and\\ as\\ soon\\ as\\ divorce\\ proceedings\\ began\\ the\\ woman\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ independent\\.\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sigurd\\ Fafnir\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Slayer\\-\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Reginsm\\á\\;l\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Reginn\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ sayings\\"\\;\\)\\ or\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sigur\\ð\\;arkvi\\ð\\;a\\ F\\á\\;fnisbana\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(\\"\\;Second\\ Lay\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sigurd\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\F\\á\\;fnir\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Slayer\\"\\;\\)\\ is\\ an\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Eddic\\ poem\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Codex\\ Regius\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;manuscript\\.\\ The\\ poem\\ is\\ unnamed\\ in\\ the\\ manuscript\\,\\ where\\ it\\ follows\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Gr\\í\\;pissp\\á\\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ precedes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\F\\á\\;fnism\\á\\;l\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ but\\ modern\\ scholars\\ regard\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ separate\\ poem\\ and\\ have\\ assigned\\ it\\ names\\ for\\ convenience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ poem\\,\\ if\\ regarded\\ as\\ a\\ single\\ unit\\,\\ is\\ disjoint\\ and\\ fragmentary\\,\\ consisting\\ of\\ stanzas\\ both\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\lj\\ó\\;\\ð\\;ah\\á\\;ttr\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\fornyr\\ð\\;islag\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ first\\ part\\ relates\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Loki\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ dealings\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Andvari\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Interpolated\\ with\\ prose\\ passages\\,\\ the\\ poem\\ moves\\ on\\ to\\ Sigurd\\&\\#39\\;s\\ relationship\\ with\\ Reginn\\ and\\ the\\ advice\\ given\\ to\\ him\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Odin\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\34\\.\\ How\\ did\\ 19th\\-century\\ \\é\\;lite\\ culture\\ interpret\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\,\\ and\\ with\\ what\\ results\\ for\\ their\\ contemporary\\ cultural\\ views\\ and\\ production\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\?\\?\\?\\?\\?\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\35\\.\\ Summarize\\ the\\ best\\ evidence\\ for\\ the\\ presence\\ of\\ Vikings\\ in\\ North\\ America\\.\\ What\\ are\\ some\\ of\\ the\\ least\\ credible\\ arguments\\/evidence\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ early\\ as\\ the\\ 10th\\ century\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Norse\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sailors\\ \\(often\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vikings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ explored\\ and\\ settled\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\North\\ Atlantic\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ including\\ the\\ northeastern\\ fringes\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\North\\ America\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\While\\ the\\ Norse\\ colony\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Greenland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;lasted\\ for\\ almost\\ 500\\ years\\,\\ the\\ continental\\ North\\ American\\ settlements\\ were\\ small\\ and\\ did\\ not\\ develop\\ into\\ permanent\\ colonies\\.\\ Despite\\ some\\ later\\ voyages\\,\\ there\\ is\\ little\\ supporting\\ evidence\\ of\\ enduring\\ Norse\\ settlements\\ in\\ North\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\According\\ to\\ the\\ Icelandic\\ sagas\\ \\(\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Eirik\\ the\\ Red\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Saga\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\ and\\ the\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Saga\\ of\\ the\\ Greenlanders\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\&mdash\\;chapters\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Hauksb\\ó\\;k\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Flatey\\ Book\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\,\\ the\\ Norse\\ started\\ to\\ explore\\ lands\\ to\\ the\\ west\\ of\\ Greenland\\ only\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ after\\ the\\ Greenland\\ settlements\\ were\\ established\\.\\ In\\ 985\\ while\\ sailing\\ from\\ Iceland\\ to\\ Greenland\\ with\\ a\\ migration\\ fleet\\ consisting\\ of\\ 400\\-700\\ settlers\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[5\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[6\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ 25\\ other\\ ships\\ \\(14\\ of\\ which\\ completed\\ the\\ journey\\)\\,\\ a\\ merchant\\ named\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Bjarni\\ Herj\\ó\\;lfsson\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ blown\\ off\\ course\\ and\\ after\\ three\\ days\\ sailing\\ he\\ sighted\\ land\\ west\\ of\\ the\\ fleet\\.\\ Bjarni\\ was\\ only\\ interested\\ in\\ finding\\ his\\ father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ farm\\,\\ but\\ he\\ described\\ his\\ discovery\\ to\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Leif\\ Ericson\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;who\\ explored\\ the\\ area\\ in\\ more\\ detail\\ and\\ planted\\ a\\ small\\ settlement\\ fifteen\\ years\\ later\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[5\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ sagas\\ describe\\ three\\ separate\\ areas\\ discovered\\ during\\ this\\ exploration\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Helluland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ means\\ \\"\\;land\\ of\\ the\\ flat\\ stones\\"\\;\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Markland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;the\\ land\\ of\\ forests\\"\\;\\,\\ definitely\\ of\\ interest\\ to\\ settlers\\ in\\ Greenland\\ where\\ there\\ were\\ few\\ trees\\;\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Vinland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ recent\\ linguistic\\ evidence\\ identifies\\ as\\ \\"\\;the\\ land\\ of\\ meadows\\"\\;\\,\\ found\\ somewhere\\ south\\ of\\ Markland\\.\\ It\\ was\\ in\\ Vinland\\ that\\ the\\ settlement\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\ was\\ planted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Settlements\\ in\\ continental\\ North\\ America\\ aimed\\ to\\ exploit\\ natural\\ resources\\ such\\ as\\ furs\\ and\\ in\\ particular\\ lumber\\,\\ which\\ was\\ in\\ short\\ supply\\ in\\ Greenland\\ due\\ to\\ deforestation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[8\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;It\\ is\\ unclear\\ why\\ the\\ short\\-term\\ settlements\\ did\\ not\\ become\\ permanent\\,\\ though\\ it\\ was\\ in\\ part\\ due\\ to\\ hostile\\ relations\\ with\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\indigenous\\ peoples\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ referred\\ to\\ as\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Skr\\æ\\;lings\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;by\\ the\\ Norse\\.\\ Nevertheless\\,\\ it\\ appears\\ that\\ sporadic\\ voyages\\ to\\ Markland\\ for\\ forages\\,\\ timber\\,\\ and\\ trade\\ with\\ the\\ locals\\ could\\ have\\ lasted\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ 400\\ years\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[9\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[10\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Evidence\\ of\\ continuing\\ trips\\ includes\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Maine\\ Penny\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ a\\ Norwegian\\ coin\\ from\\ King\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Olaf\\ Kyrre\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ reign\\ \\(1066\\-80\\)\\ found\\ in\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Native\\ American\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;archaeological\\ site\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\ state\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Maine\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ suggesting\\ an\\ exchange\\ between\\ the\\ Norse\\ and\\ the\\ Native\\ Americans\\ late\\ in\\ or\\ after\\ the\\ 11th\\ century\\;\\ and\\ an\\ entry\\ in\\ the\\ Icelandic\\ Annals\\ from\\ 1347\\ which\\ refers\\ to\\ a\\ small\\ Greenlandic\\ vessel\\ with\\ a\\ crew\\ of\\ eighteen\\ that\\ arrived\\ in\\ Iceland\\ while\\ attempting\\ to\\ return\\ to\\ Greenland\\ from\\ Markland\\ with\\ a\\ load\\ of\\ timber\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\[11\\]\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;In\\ addition\\,\\ Norse\\ materials\\ have\\ been\\ excavated\\ in\\ several\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Inuit\\ communities\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\For\\ some\\ centuries\\ after\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Christopher\\ Columbus\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;\\ voyages\\ opened\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Americas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ large\\-scale\\ colonization\\ by\\ Europeans\\,\\ it\\ was\\ unclear\\ whether\\ these\\ stories\\ represented\\ real\\ voyages\\ by\\ the\\ Norse\\ to\\ North\\ America\\.\\ The\\ sagas\\ were\\ first\\ taken\\ seriously\\ when\\ in\\ 1837\\ the\\ Danish\\ antiquarian\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Carl\\ Christian\\ Rafn\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;pointed\\ out\\ the\\ possibility\\ for\\ a\\ Norse\\ settlement\\ in\\ or\\ voyages\\ to\\ North\\ America\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\North\\ America\\,\\ by\\ the\\ name\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Winland\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ first\\ mentioned\\ in\\ written\\ sources\\ in\\ a\\ work\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Adam\\ of\\ Bremen\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;from\\ approximately\\ 1075\\.\\ It\\ was\\ not\\ until\\ the\\ 13th\\ and\\ 14th\\ centuries\\ that\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ works\\ about\\ North\\ America\\ and\\ the\\ early\\ Norse\\ activities\\ there\\,\\ namely\\ the\\ Sagas\\ of\\ Icelanders\\,\\ were\\ put\\ into\\ writing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ question\\ was\\ definitively\\ settled\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ when\\ a\\ Norse\\ settlement\\ was\\ excavated\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Newfoundland\\ by\\ the\\ archaeologist\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Anne\\ Stine\\ Ingstad\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ her\\ husband\\,\\ outdoorsman\\ and\\ author\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Helge\\ Ingstad\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ location\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ lands\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\ is\\ still\\ unclear\\ however\\.\\ Many\\ historians\\ identify\\ Helluland\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Baffin\\ Island\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ Markland\\ with\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Labrador\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ location\\ of\\ Vinland\\ is\\ a\\ thornier\\ question\\.\\ Most\\ believe\\ that\\ the\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ aux\\ Meadows\\ settlement\\ is\\ the\\ Vinland\\ settlement\\ described\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\;\\ others\\ argue\\ that\\ the\\ sagas\\ depict\\ Vinland\\ as\\ being\\ warmer\\ than\\ Newfoundland\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ therefore\\ lay\\ farther\\ south\\.\\ There\\ are\\ still\\ many\\ questions\\ remaining\\ and\\ only\\ new\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\archaeological\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;findings\\ can\\ supply\\ more\\ information\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Purported\\ runestones\\ have\\ been\\ found\\ in\\ North\\ America\\ \\(e\\.g\\.\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Kensington\\ Runestone\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Newport\\ Tower\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Heavener\\ Runestone\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\)\\ that\\ are\\ thought\\ by\\ some\\ to\\ be\\ artifacts\\ from\\ further\\ Norse\\ exploration\\.\\ There\\ is\\ a\\ map\\ depicting\\ North\\ America\\,\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\The\\ Vinland\\ map\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\,\\ that\\ some\\ believe\\ is\\ related\\ to\\ Norse\\ exploration\\,\\ though\\ its\\ authenticity\\ is\\ very\\ controversial\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\36\\.\\ Describe\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ the\\ Dragon\\-Slayer\\ in\\ Northern\\ Europe\\ and\\ summarize\\ the\\ major\\ evidence\\ for\\ its\\ distribution\\ and\\ longevity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sigurd\\ agrees\\ to\\ kill\\ Fafnir\\,\\ who\\ has\\ turned\\ himself\\ into\\ a\\ dragon\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ be\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ guard\\ the\\ gold\\.\\ Sigurd\\ has\\ Regin\\ make\\ him\\ a\\ sword\\,\\ which\\ he\\ tests\\ by\\ striking\\ the\\ anvil\\.\\ The\\ sword\\ shatters\\,\\ so\\ he\\ has\\ Regin\\ make\\ another\\.\\ This\\ also\\ shatters\\.\\ Finally\\,\\ Sigurd\\ has\\ Regin\\ make\\ a\\ sword\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ fragments\\ that\\ had\\ been\\ left\\ to\\ him\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sigmund\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ The\\ resulting\\ sword\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Gram\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ cuts\\ through\\ the\\ anvil\\.\\ To\\ kill\\ Fafnir\\ the\\ dragon\\,\\ Regin\\ advises\\ him\\ to\\ dig\\ a\\ pit\\,\\ wait\\ for\\ Fafnir\\ to\\ walk\\ over\\ it\\,\\ and\\ then\\ stab\\ the\\ dragon\\.\\ Odin\\,\\ posing\\ as\\ an\\ old\\ man\\,\\ advises\\ Sigurd\\ to\\ dig\\ trenches\\ also\\ to\\ drain\\ the\\ blood\\,\\ and\\ to\\ bathe\\ in\\ it\\ after\\ killing\\ the\\ dragon\\;\\ bathing\\ in\\ Fafnir\\&\\#39\\;s\\ blood\\ confers\\ invulnerability\\.\\ Sigurd\\ does\\ so\\ and\\ kills\\ Fafnir\\;\\ Sigurd\\ then\\ bathes\\ in\\ the\\ dragon\\&\\#39\\;s\\ blood\\,\\ which\\ touches\\ all\\ of\\ his\\ body\\ except\\ for\\ one\\ of\\ his\\ shoulders\\ where\\ a\\ leaf\\ was\\ stuck\\.\\ Regin\\ then\\ asked\\ Sigurd\\ to\\ give\\ him\\ Fafnir\\&\\#39\\;s\\ heart\\ for\\ himself\\.\\ Sigurd\\ drinks\\ some\\ of\\ Fafnir\\&\\#39\\;s\\ blood\\ and\\ gains\\ the\\ ability\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\language\\ of\\ birds\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Birds\\ advise\\ him\\ to\\ kill\\ Regin\\,\\ since\\ Regin\\ is\\ plotting\\ Sigurd\\&\\#39\\;s\\ death\\.\\ Sigurd\\ beheads\\ Regin\\,\\ roasts\\ Fafnir\\&\\#39\\;s\\ heart\\ and\\ consumes\\ part\\ of\\ it\\.\\ This\\ gives\\ him\\ the\\ gift\\ of\\ \\"\\;wisdom\\"\\;\\ \\(prophecy\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Norwegian\\ royal\\ family\\ claimed\\ descent\\ from\\ Sigurd\\ and\\ the\\ Volsungs\\.\\ Furthermore\\,\\ because\\ dragons\\ were\\ seen\\ as\\ symbols\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Satan\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ medieval\\ typologies\\,\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Sigurd\\ slaying\\ Fafnir\\ was\\ often\\ depicted\\ in\\ Christian\\ churches\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Scandinavia\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\<\\/a\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\-known\\ adaptation\\ of\\ the\\ Sigurd\\ legend\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Richard\\ Wagner\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ cycle\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\music\\ dramas\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\Der\\ Ring\\ des\\ Nibelungen\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(written\\ between\\ 1848\\ and\\ 1874\\)\\.\\ The\\ Sigurd\\ legend\\ is\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Siegfried\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ contributes\\ the\\ stories\\ of\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Die\\ Walk\\ü\\;re\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\G\\ö\\;tterd\\ä\\;mmerung\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\William\\ Morris\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#39\\;s\\ epic\\ poem\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sigurd\\ the\\ Volsung\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(1870\\)\\ is\\ a\\ major\\ retelling\\ of\\ the\\ story\\ in\\ English\\ verse\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ 1884\\ the\\ French\\ composer\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Ernest\\ Reyer\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;wrote\\ the\\ lesser\\-known\\ opera\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\Sigurd\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ which\\ has\\ the\\ benefit\\ of\\ condensing\\ the\\ story\\ into\\ one\\ evening\\,\\ with\\ equally\\ stirring\\ music\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ For\\ what\\ ostensible\\ purpose\\ was\\ the\\ Younger\\ \\(or\\ Prose\\)\\ Edda\\ composed\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\ was\\ intended\\ as\\ a\\ handbook\\ for\\ skalds\\ who\\ might\\ have\\ forgotten\\ the\\ old\\ Norse\\ mythology\\,\\ complete\\ with\\ a\\ section\\ discussing\\ the\\ proper\\ kennings\\ to\\ use\\ for\\ every\\ god\\/goddess\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ name\\ of\\ which\\ god\\ is\\ to\\ be\\ explained\\ by\\ the\\ word\\ odr\\,\\ and\\ to\\ what\\ does\\ it\\ refer\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Odin\\,\\ referring\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;fury\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ two\\ contexts\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ as\\ inspiration\\ \\(god\\ of\\ poetry\\)\\,\\ and\\ as\\ rage\\ \\(god\\ of\\ war\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\To\\ what\\ purpose\\ were\\ runic\\ inscriptions\\ used\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\They\\ are\\ an\\ alphabet\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;futhark\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ were\\ used\\ to\\ inscribe\\ names\\,\\ commemorate\\ the\\ dead\\ on\\ memorial\\ stones\\,\\ and\\ even\\ on\\ coins\\.\\ Most\\ runic\\ inscriptions\\ were\\ short\\,\\ and\\ were\\ not\\ used\\ to\\ write\\ books\\ or\\ literature\\.\\ Could\\ often\\ be\\ used\\ for\\ magic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Definitions\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Erik\\ Blodaxe\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Nemesis\\ of\\ Egil\\ in\\ Egil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Saga\\.\\ King\\ of\\ Norway\\ after\\ Harald\\ Fair\\-Hair\\,\\ deposed\\ by\\ King\\ Hakon\\ \\(Erik\\&rsquo\\;s\\ brother\\)\\.\\ Wife\\ is\\ Gunhild\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;well\\ versed\\ in\\ the\\ magic\\ arts\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ recipient\\ of\\ Egil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ famous\\ head\\-ransom\\ poem\\ \\(p\\ \\.\\ 128\\)\\.\\ As\\ King\\ of\\ Norway\\,\\ had\\ outlawed\\ Egil\\,\\ who\\ had\\ killed\\ men\\ close\\ to\\ Gunhild\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Freydis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Daughter\\ \\(illegitimate\\)\\ of\\ Eirik\\ the\\ Red\\.\\ Appears\\ in\\ both\\ Vinland\\ sagas\\,\\ and\\ is\\ a\\ different\\ person\\ in\\ each\\.\\ In\\ Eirik\\&rsquo\\;s\\ saga\\,\\ she\\ accompanies\\ her\\ husband\\ Thorvald\\ to\\ Vinland\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;defies\\&rdquo\\;\\ Skraleings\\ \\(natives\\)\\ while\\ pregnant\\.\\ In\\ Greenlander\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Saga\\,\\ she\\ travels\\ to\\ Vinland\\ with\\ two\\ partners\\,\\ Finnbogi\\ \\;\\ and\\ Helgi\\,\\ and\\ murders\\ them\\ in\\ Vinland\\ through\\ treachery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Snorri\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Son\\ of\\ Thorbrand\\ in\\ Vinland\\ Sagas\\.\\ Accompanies\\ Karlsefni\\ to\\ Greeland\\ \\(Eirik\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Saga\\)\\.\\ Fights\\ the\\ Skraelings\\,\\ his\\ son\\ Thorbrand\\ killed\\ by\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gudrid\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Vinland\\ Sagas\\.\\ Daughter\\ of\\ Thorbjorn\\ Vifilsson\\,\\ goes\\ with\\ her\\ parents\\ to\\ Greenland\\.\\ Assists\\ Sybil\\,\\ hears\\ her\\ future\\ prophesied\\.\\ Rescued\\ from\\ shipwreck\\ by\\ Leif\\ Ericksson\\,\\ marries\\ Thorstein\\ Eiriksson\\.\\ Goes\\ to\\ Western\\ settlement\\ where\\ Thorstein\\ dies\\,\\ prophesies\\ her\\ future\\.\\ Marries\\ Thorfinn\\ Karlsefni\\,\\ goes\\ to\\ Vinland\\,\\ gives\\ birth\\ to\\ son\\ Snorri\\ in\\ Vinland\\.\\ Goes\\ on\\ pilgrimage\\ to\\ Rome\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Oddi\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Center\\ of\\ learning\\ in\\ Southwest\\ Iceland\\,\\ where\\ Snorri\\ wrote\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\.\\ Thought\\ that\\ Edda\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;book\\ of\\ Oddi\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(See\\ introduction\\ to\\ Bellows\\ translation\\ for\\ details\\ if\\ interested\\,\\ but\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ important\\ fact\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\31\\.\\ \\;\\ Describe\\ the\\ basic\\ West\\ Norse\\ settlement\\ pattern\\ and\\ discuss\\ how\\ it\\ assists\\ us\\ in\\ assessing\\ the\\ Vinland\\ Sagas\\.\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Basic\\ settlement\\ pattern\\ went\\ from\\ Iceland\\ to\\ Greenland\\ to\\ Vinland\\ \\(sailed\\ down\\ the\\ northern\\ coast\\ of\\ Canada\\,\\ periodically\\ stopping\\ and\\ finally\\ settling\\ in\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ Aux\\ Meadows\\)\\ was\\ culture\\ of\\ discovering\\ new\\ lands\\,\\ Saga\\ mentions\\ this\\\\&bull\\;\\ Greenland\\ was\\ settled\\ from\\ 2\\ directions\\ in\\ the\\ Viking\\ age\\:\\ from\\ Canada\\ \\(natives\\)\\ and\\ from\\ Iceland\\ \\(Vikings\\)\\ with\\ Vikings\\ settling\\ in\\ the\\ south\\/southwest\\ and\\ native\\ people\\ starting\\ in\\ the\\ north\\ and\\ moving\\ south\\\\&bull\\;\\ 2\\ cultures\\ meet\\ at\\ Disko\\ Bay\\ and\\ live\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ for\\ some\\ time\\:\\ signs\\ of\\ trade\\,\\ commerce\\,\\ interactions\\,\\ etc\\.\\ until\\ violence\\ erupts\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ until\\ about\\ 40\\ years\\ ago\\,\\ only\\ way\\ we\\ knew\\ about\\ Vikings\\ in\\ North\\ America\\ was\\ through\\ the\\ Vinland\\ Sagas\\\\&bull\\;\\ Adam\\ of\\ Bremen\\ writes\\ in\\ 1075\\ that\\ King\\ Sveinn\\ of\\ Denmark\\ mentions\\ Vinland\\,\\ the\\ grapes\\ that\\ grow\\ there\\,\\ and\\ self\\-sown\\ wheat\\\\&bull\\;\\ Saga\\ of\\ Erik\\ the\\ Red\\:\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ copied\\ from\\ a\\ lost\\ text\\,\\ in\\ 2\\ locations\\\\&bull\\;\\ Saga\\ of\\ the\\ Greenlanders\\:\\ was\\ one\\ book\\ in\\ the\\ 13th\\ century\\\\&bull\\;\\ these\\ 3\\ separate\\ testimonials\\ about\\ Vinland\\ aren\\&\\#39\\;t\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ borrowing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ independent\\ of\\ each\\ other\\ \\(Halld\\ó\\;rsen\\ says\\ they\\&\\#39\\;re\\ from\\ different\\ parts\\ of\\ Iceland\\ and\\ were\\ originally\\ oral\\ stories\\)\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&bull\\;\\ Saga\\ of\\ the\\ Greenlanders\\:\\ more\\ historical\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\&bull\\;\\ Saga\\ of\\ Erik\\ the\\ Red\\:\\ praise\\ Gudrid\\,\\ support\\ canonization\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ L\\&\\#39\\;Anse\\ Aux\\ Meadows\\ in\\ Newfoundland\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ main\\ site\\ of\\ a\\ norse\\ settlement\\,\\ perhaps\\ the\\ one\\ cited\\ in\\ the\\ Vinland\\ Sagas\\\\&bull\\;\\ Discovered\\ by\\ the\\ Ingstads\\ who\\ searched\\ for\\ the\\ location\\ using\\ clues\\ from\\ the\\ sagas\\ \\(geographical\\ features\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ rivers\\ etc\\.\\)\\\\&bull\\;\\ found\\ Scandinavian\\ artifacts\\ and\\ remnants\\ of\\ houses\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Scandinavian\\ artifacts\\ have\\ also\\ been\\ discovered\\ in\\ other\\ areas\\ of\\ North\\ America\\ \\(most\\ likely\\ were\\ traded\\ from\\ norse\\ to\\ native\\ tribe\\ to\\ another\\ native\\ tribe\\:\\ found\\ by\\ Penobscot\\ bay\\ in\\ Maine\\)\\\\&bull\\;\\ suggests\\ that\\ part\\ in\\ sagas\\ describing\\ trade\\ with\\ natives\\ was\\ true\\\\&bull\\;\\ amounts\\ of\\ time\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ get\\ to\\ the\\ settlements\\ was\\ also\\ relatively\\ correct\\\\\\&bull\\;\\ Vinland\\ \\=\\ grape\\ or\\ wine\\ land\\\\&bull\\;\\ however\\,\\ grapes\\ never\\ grow\\ farther\\ north\\ between\\ northern\\ Maine\\ and\\ New\\ Brunswick\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ does\\ this\\ mean\\ there\\&\\#39\\;s\\ another\\ norse\\ settlement\\ further\\ south\\?\\ \\;\\ Possible\\,\\ but\\ never\\ was\\ found\\\\&bull\\;\\ archaeology\\ proved\\ that\\ at\\ least\\ some\\ of\\ what\\ the\\ sagas\\ said\\ was\\ true\\ \\(a\\ settlement\\,\\ exploration\\,\\ trade\\)\\ unclear\\ how\\ much\\ else\\ is\\ true\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ settlements\\ further\\ south\\,\\ so\\ many\\ violent\\ encounters\\ with\\ the\\ natives\\,\\ etc\\\\&bull\\;\\ since\\ so\\ many\\ versions\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ story\\ were\\ written\\ down\\/told\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ accident\\ that\\ these\\ were\\ recorded\\\\&bull\\;\\ sagas\\ back\\ the\\ idea\\ up\\ that\\ land\\ was\\ important\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ timber\\,\\ grassland\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\32\\.\\ Viking\\-\\ During\\ the\\ 20th\\ century\\,\\ the\\ meaning\\ of\\ the\\ term\\ was\\ expanded\\ to\\ refer\\ not\\ only\\ to\\ the\\ raiders\\,\\ but\\ also\\ to\\ the\\ entire\\ period\\;\\ it\\ is\\ now\\,\\ somewhat\\ confusingly\\,\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ noun\\ both\\ in\\ the\\ original\\ meaning\\ of\\ raiders\\,\\ warriors\\ or\\ navigators\\,\\ and\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ the\\ Scandinavian\\ population\\ in\\ general\\.\\ As\\ an\\ adjective\\,\\ the\\ word\\ is\\ used\\ in\\ expressions\\ like\\ \\"\\;Viking\\ age\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;Viking\\ culture\\"\\;\\,\\ \\"\\;Viking\\ colony\\"\\;\\,\\ etc\\.\\,\\ generally\\ referring\\ to\\ medieval\\ Scandinavia\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ Old\\ Norse\\,\\ the\\ word\\ is\\ spelled\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\v\\í\\;kingr\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/a\\>\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;a\\ man\\ from\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vik\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Viken\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ the\\ old\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ region\\ bordering\\ on\\ the\\ Skagerrak\\,\\ from\\ where\\ the\\ first\\ Norse\\ merchant\\-warriors\\ originated\\.\\ The\\ Swedish\\ county\\ bordering\\ on\\ the\\ Skagerrak\\,\\ which\\ is\\ now\\ called\\ Bohusl\\ä\\;n\\,\\ was\\,\\ prior\\ to\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ the\\ Bohus\\ fortress\\,\\ also\\ called\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vikland\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ Vikland\\ was\\ once\\ a\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ Norse\\ district\\ of\\ Viken\\.\\ Later\\ on\\,\\ the\\ term\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Viking\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;became\\ synonymous\\ with\\ \\"\\;naval\\ expedition\\"\\;\\ or\\ \\"\\;naval\\ raid\\"\\;\\,\\ and\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\v\\í\\;king\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;was\\ a\\ member\\ of\\ such\\ expeditions\\.\\ A\\ second\\ etymology\\ suggested\\ that\\ the\\ term\\ is\\ derived\\ from\\ Old\\ English\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\w\\í\\;c\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;ie\\.\\ \\"\\;trading\\ city\\"\\;\\ \\(cognate\\ to\\ Latin\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\vicus\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\"\\;village\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ \\;\\ Etymologists\\ trace\\ the\\ word\\ to\\ Anglo\\-Frankish\\ writers\\,\\ who\\ referred\\ to\\ \\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\v\\í\\;kingr\\<\\/span\\>\\\\"\\;\\ as\\ one\\ who\\ set\\ about\\ to\\ raid\\ and\\ pillage\\,\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ saga\\ of\\ Egil\\ Skallagrimsson\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ word\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Viking\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;appears\\ on\\ several\\ rune\\ stones\\ found\\ in\\ Scandinavia\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Icelanders\\&\\#39\\;\\ sagas\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\v\\í\\;king\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;refers\\ to\\ an\\ overseas\\ expedition\\ \\(Old\\ Norse\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\fara\\ \\í\\;\\ v\\í\\;king\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\"\\;to\\ go\\ on\\ an\\ expedition\\"\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\v\\í\\;kingr\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;to\\ a\\ seaman\\ or\\ warrior\\ taking\\ part\\ in\\ such\\ an\\ expedition\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Relation\\ to\\ Class\\:\\ Here\\ we\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ word\\ Viking\\ has\\ developed\\ and\\ changed\\ over\\ time\\.\\ \\;\\ It\\ originally\\ referred\\ during\\ the\\ Viking\\ age\\ to\\ a\\ region\\ from\\ whence\\ the\\ first\\ Norse\\ merchants\\ originated\\.\\ \\;\\ Then\\ during\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\ it\\ came\\ to\\ mean\\ simply\\ individuals\\ engaged\\ in\\ raids\\.\\ \\;\\ Now\\,\\ the\\ term\\ has\\ been\\ expanded\\ again\\ to\\ refer\\ to\\ an\\ entire\\ age\\,\\ civilization\\ and\\ era\\,\\ despite\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ many\\ things\\ besides\\ raids\\ in\\ areas\\ besides\\ the\\ region\\ bordering\\ Skagerrak\\ occurred\\ during\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Embla\\-According\\ to\\ chapter\\ 9\\ of\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\ book\\ Gylfaginning\\,\\ the\\ three\\ brothers\\ Vili\\,\\ V\\é\\;\\,\\ and\\ Odin\\,\\ are\\ the\\ creators\\ of\\ the\\ first\\ man\\ and\\ woman\\.\\ The\\ brothers\\ were\\ walking\\ along\\ a\\ beach\\ and\\ found\\ two\\ trees\\ there\\.\\ They\\ took\\ the\\ wood\\ and\\ from\\ it\\ created\\ the\\ first\\ human\\ beings\\;\\ Ask\\ and\\ Embla\\.\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ gave\\ them\\ the\\ breath\\ of\\ life\\,\\ the\\ second\\ gave\\ them\\ movement\\ and\\ intelligence\\,\\ and\\ the\\ third\\ gave\\ them\\ shape\\,\\ speech\\,\\ hearing\\ and\\ sight\\.\\ Further\\,\\ the\\ three\\ gods\\ gave\\ them\\ clothing\\ and\\ names\\.\\ Ask\\ and\\ Embla\\ go\\ on\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ progenitors\\ of\\ all\\ humanity\\ and\\ were\\ given\\ a\\ home\\ within\\ the\\ walls\\ of\\ Midgard\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ first\\ meaning\\ of\\ Embla\\,\\ \\"\\;elm\\ tree\\"\\;\\,\\ is\\ problematic\\,\\ and\\ is\\ reached\\ by\\ deriving\\ \\*Elm\\-la\\ from\\ \\*Almil\\&\\#333\\;n\\ and\\ subsequently\\ to\\ almr\\ \\(\\"\\;elm\\"\\;\\)\\.\\ The\\ second\\ suggestion\\ is\\ \\"\\;vine\\"\\;\\,\\ which\\ is\\ reached\\ through\\ \\*Ambil\\&\\#333\\;\\,\\ which\\ may\\ be\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ Greek\\ term\\ \\á\\;mpelos\\,\\ itself\\ meaning\\ \\"\\;vine\\,\\ liana\\"\\;\\.\\[1\\]\\ The\\ latter\\ etymology\\ has\\ resulted\\ in\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ theories\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Connection\\ to\\ the\\ class\\:\\ they\\ populated\\ the\\ Earth\\ and\\ inhabited\\ Midgard\\,\\ which\\ is\\ where\\ humans\\ lived\\ in\\ the\\ Norse\\ version\\ of\\ the\\ mythological\\ world\\.\\ \\;\\ Also\\-this\\ story\\ has\\ a\\ certain\\ similarity\\ to\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\,\\ which\\ speaks\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ what\\ it\\ meant\\ to\\ write\\ a\\ saga\\.\\ \\;\\ Essentially\\,\\ you\\ adopt\\ another\\ story\\ to\\ your\\ own\\ culture\\,\\ and\\ in\\ this\\ case\\ Odin\\ could\\ replace\\ God\\ and\\ Ask\\ and\\ Embla\\ replace\\ Adam\\ and\\ Eve\\ in\\ the\\ Christian\\ story\\ of\\ creation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\William\\ the\\ Conqueror\\-brought\\ Norman\\ army\\ and\\ his\\ invasion\\ was\\ the\\ last\\ time\\ that\\ England\\ was\\ successfully\\ conquered\\ by\\ a\\ foreign\\ power\\.\\ \\;\\ He\\ was\\ Duke\\ of\\ Normandy\\ from\\ 1035\\ and\\ King\\ of\\ England\\ from\\ 1066\\ to\\ his\\ death\\.\\ \\;\\ To\\ claim\\ the\\ English\\ crown\\,\\ William\\ invaded\\ England\\ in\\ 1066\\,\\ leading\\ an\\ army\\ of\\ Normans\\ to\\ victory\\ over\\ the\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ forces\\ of\\ Harold\\ Godwinson\\ \\(who\\ died\\ in\\ the\\ conflict\\)\\ at\\ the\\ Battle\\ of\\ Hastings\\,\\ and\\ suppressed\\ subsequent\\ English\\ revolts\\ in\\ what\\ has\\ become\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Norman\\ Conquest\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\His\\ reign\\,\\ which\\ brought\\ Norman\\ culture\\ to\\ England\\,\\ had\\ an\\ enormous\\ impact\\ on\\ the\\ subsequent\\ course\\ of\\ England\\ in\\ the\\ Middle\\ Ages\\.\\ In\\ addition\\ to\\ political\\ changes\\,\\ his\\ reign\\ also\\ saw\\ changes\\ to\\ English\\ law\\,\\ a\\ program\\ of\\ building\\ and\\ fortification\\,\\ changes\\ to\\ the\\ vocabulary\\ of\\ the\\ English\\ language\\,\\ and\\ the\\ introduction\\ of\\ continental\\ European\\ feudalism\\ into\\ England\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Connection\\ to\\ the\\ class\\-the\\ defeat\\ of\\ William\\ Godwinson\\ in\\ 1066\\ marked\\ the\\ end\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\ as\\ Norman\\ influence\\ began\\ to\\ overtake\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ influence\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1397\\-\\ Denmark\\,\\ Norway\\ and\\ Sweden\\ agree\\ to\\ unite\\ under\\ Erik\\ VII\\ of\\ Pomerania\\ \\(Union\\ of\\ Kalmar\\)\\ ric\\ of\\ Pomerania\\,\\ as\\ the\\ king\\ who\\ was\\ to\\ rule\\ the\\ three\\ realms\\,\\ and\\ in\\ 1397\\ at\\ the\\ Swedish\\ city\\ of\\ Kalmar\\ Eric\\ was\\ solemnly\\ invested\\ with\\ the\\ crown\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\June\\ 8\\,\\ 793\\ \\-\\ Viking\\ age\\:\\ Vikings\\ sack\\ the\\ monastery\\ of\\ Lindisfarne\\,\\ Northumbria\\,\\ their\\ first\\ major\\ attack\\ in\\ England\\.\\ \\;\\ This\\ date\\ is\\ viewed\\ as\\ being\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\,\\ as\\ it\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ time\\ a\\ major\\ pillaging\\ strike\\ happened\\ in\\ England\\.\\ \\;\\ Since\\ a\\ prevalant\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ Vikings\\ was\\ that\\ they\\ pillaged\\ and\\ made\\ this\\ first\\ raid\\ out\\ of\\ normal\\ territory\\ and\\ into\\ England\\,\\ particularly\\ on\\ a\\ religious\\ site\\,\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ significant\\ occurrance\\ an\\ began\\ what\\ we\\ now\\ think\\ of\\ usually\\ as\\ the\\ Viking\\ Age\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harold\\ I\\ \\(ca\\.\\ 840\\-933\\)\\,\\ the\\ first\\ king\\ of\\ Norway\\,\\ reigned\\ from\\ 860\\ to\\ 930\\.\\ He\\ became\\ the\\ ideal\\ for\\ unification\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ of\\ his\\ great\\-grandson\\ Olaf\\ I\\ Tryggvason\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ king\\ to\\ rule\\ over\\ a\\ unified\\ Norway\\.\\ \\;\\ Harold\\ Haarfarer\\ \\(\\"\\;Fairhair\\"\\;\\)\\ was\\ a\\ catalyst\\ in\\ his\\ day\\ and\\ place\\.\\ On\\ the\\ death\\ of\\ his\\ father\\,\\ Halfdan\\ the\\ Black\\ in\\ 860\\,\\ Harold\\ succeeded\\ to\\ the\\ sovereignty\\ of\\ several\\ small\\ and\\ somewhat\\ scattered\\ kingdoms\\ which\\ had\\ come\\ into\\ his\\ father\\&\\#39\\;s\\ hands\\ through\\ conquest\\ and\\ inheritance\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harold\\ was\\ a\\ man\\ of\\ legends\\.\\ His\\ mother\\,\\ Ragnhild\\,\\ perceived\\ his\\ rise\\ to\\ power\\ from\\ a\\ thorn\\.\\ The\\ daughter\\ of\\ a\\ neighboring\\ king\\ who\\ Harold\\ loved\\ induced\\ Harold\\ to\\ take\\ a\\ vow\\ not\\ to\\ cut\\ or\\ comb\\ his\\ hair\\ until\\ he\\ was\\ the\\ sole\\ ruler\\ of\\ Norway\\.\\ Two\\ years\\ later\\ he\\ was\\ justified\\ in\\ trimming\\ it\\,\\ and\\ henceforth\\ he\\ was\\ known\\ as\\ \\"\\;Fairhair\\"\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ \\"\\;Shockhead\\.\\"\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ Snorri\\ Sturluson\\ pointed\\ out\\,\\ Hafrisfjord\\ did\\ not\\ make\\ it\\ possible\\ for\\ Harold\\ to\\ trim\\ his\\ hair\\ with\\ royal\\ ease\\.\\ Norway\\ was\\ not\\ accustomed\\ to\\ one\\-man\\ rule\\.\\ When\\ Harold\\ gained\\ power\\,\\ he\\ appropriated\\ hereditary\\ estates\\,\\ and\\ all\\ farmers\\ were\\ taxed\\.\\ He\\ appointed\\ a\\ jarl\\ in\\ each\\ shire\\ \\(fylki\\)\\ to\\ administer\\ law\\ and\\ justice\\ and\\ to\\ collect\\ fines\\,\\ one\\-third\\ reserved\\ for\\ the\\ Crown\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Harold\\ was\\ the\\ greatest\\ Viking\\ warrior\\ chief\\ of\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\.\\ He\\ controlled\\ trade\\ and\\ collected\\ gifts\\ from\\ traders\\.\\ He\\ confiscated\\ estates\\ but\\ recognized\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ legislative\\ assemblies\\.\\ He\\ withdrew\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ Vikings\\ in\\ Northumbria\\,\\ England\\,\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ only\\ heathen\\ able\\ to\\ claim\\ kingship\\ of\\ all\\ Norway\\.\\ Under\\ him\\ the\\ old\\ Viking\\ civilization\\ of\\ the\\ 9th\\ century\\ reached\\ a\\ climax\\.\\ His\\ ideal\\ for\\ a\\ united\\ Norway\\ became\\ imperishable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Whetstone\\-\\ Thor\\ battles\\ Hrungnir\\,\\ Thor\\ throws\\ his\\ hammer\\,\\ Mjollnir\\,\\ at\\ Hrungnir\\ who\\ throws\\ his\\ whetstone\\ at\\ Thor\\.\\ \\;\\ Mjollnir\\ shatters\\ Hrungnir\\&\\#39\\;s\\ skull\\ after\\ slicing\\ through\\ the\\ whetstone\\,\\ and\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ the\\ whetstone\\ lodges\\ itself\\ in\\ Thor\\&\\#39\\;s\\ forehead\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\33\\.\\ Snorri\\ Sturluson\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1178\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ September\\ 23\\,\\ 1241\\)\\ was\\ an\\ Icelandic\\ historian\\,\\ poet\\ and\\ politician\\.\\ He\\ was\\ two\\-time\\ elected\\ lawspeaker\\ at\\ the\\ Icelandic\\ parliament\\,\\ the\\ Althing\\,\\ where\\ many\\ important\\ decisions\\ regarding\\ Iceland\\ were\\ made\\.\\ He\\ was\\ the\\ author\\ of\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\ or\\ Younger\\ Edda\\,\\ which\\ consists\\ of\\ Gylfaginning\\ \\(\\"\\;the\\ fooling\\ of\\ Gylfi\\"\\;\\)\\,\\ a\\ narrative\\ of\\ Norse\\ mythology\\,\\ the\\ Sk\\á\\;ldskaparm\\á\\;l\\,\\ a\\ book\\ of\\ poetic\\ language\\,\\ and\\ the\\ H\\á\\;ttatal\\,\\ a\\ list\\ of\\ verse\\ forms\\.\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ Norse\\ mythology\\ and\\ information\\ we\\ possess\\ about\\ the\\ Vikings\\ \\(and\\ the\\ Lord\\ of\\ the\\ Rings\\!\\)\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ or\\ related\\ to\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\,\\ and\\ his\\ works\\ allow\\ us\\ to\\ study\\ the\\ language\\,\\ mythology\\,\\ and\\ culture\\ of\\ the\\ Vikings\\.\\ \\;\\ His\\ works\\ adopt\\ many\\ elements\\ of\\ other\\ ancient\\ stories\\ and\\ cultures\\ into\\ a\\ Norse\\ viewpoint\\ and\\ map\\ and\\ explain\\ the\\ world\\ according\\ to\\ this\\ viewpoint\\,\\ which\\ was\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ a\\ saga\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ historian\\ and\\ mythographer\\,\\ Snorri\\ is\\ remarkable\\ for\\ proposing\\ the\\ theory\\ \\(in\\ the\\ Prose\\ Edda\\)\\ that\\ mythological\\ gods\\ begin\\ as\\ human\\ war\\ leaders\\ and\\ kings\\ whose\\ funeral\\ sites\\ develop\\ cults\\ \\(see\\ euhemerism\\)\\.\\ As\\ people\\ call\\ upon\\ the\\ dead\\ war\\ leader\\ as\\ they\\ go\\ to\\ battle\\,\\ or\\ the\\ dead\\ king\\ as\\ they\\ face\\ tribal\\ hardship\\,\\ they\\ begin\\ to\\ venerate\\ the\\ figure\\.\\ Eventually\\,\\ the\\ king\\ or\\ warrior\\ is\\ remembered\\ only\\ as\\ a\\ god\\.\\ He\\ also\\ proposed\\ that\\ as\\ tribes\\ defeat\\ others\\,\\ they\\ explain\\ their\\ victory\\ by\\ proposing\\ that\\ their\\ own\\ gods\\ were\\ in\\ battle\\ with\\ the\\ gods\\ of\\ the\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Adam\\ of\\ Bremen\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ German\\ medieval\\ chronicler\\ during\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ 11th\\ century\\.\\Attached\\ as\\ a\\ missionary\\ to\\ the\\ Church\\ of\\ Bremen\\.\\ Refers\\ to\\ a\\ statue\\ of\\ Freyr\\present\\ in\\ Uppsala\\ that\\ may\\ have\\ been\\ a\\ cultish\\ symbol\\.\\ One\\ of\\ his\\ famous\\ books\\is\\ \\ \\;Archbishops\\ of\\ Hamburg\\-Bremen\\.\\\\Earl\\ Tostig\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\(1026\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ September\\ 25\\,\\ 1066\\)\\.\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ earl\\ of\\ Northumbria\\ and\\brother\\ of\\ King\\ Harold\\ II\\ of\\ England\\.\\ In\\ 1065\\,\\ Tostig\\ was\\ outlawed\\ from\\ his\\seat\\ of\\ authority\\ by\\ the\\ English\\ king\\.\\ Tostig\\ suspected\\ his\\ brother\\ Harold\\ had\\arranged\\ for\\ his\\ departure\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ remove\\ him\\ from\\ being\\ a\\ threat\\ for\\ the\\throne\\.\\ This\\ was\\ the\\ origin\\ of\\ the\\ enmity\\ between\\ the\\ Godwinsons\\.\\ Soon\\ after\\exile\\,\\ Tostig\\ persuade\\ King\\ Harald\\ III\\ Hardrada\\ of\\ Norway\\ to\\ attack\\ England\\ and\\gain\\ the\\ throne\\.\\ After\\ an\\ initial\\ victory\\,\\ Tostig\\ and\\ Harald\\ lost\\ to\\ King\\ Harold\\at\\ Stamford\\ Bridge\\.\\\\Althing\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ national\\ parliament\\ of\\ Iceland\\ situated\\ 45\\ km\\ east\\ of\\ modern\\ day\\Reykjaviik\\ was\\ started\\ in\\ 930AD\\ and\\ was\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ the\\ Icelandic\\Commonwealth\\.\\ This\\ once\\ a\\ year\\ event\\ was\\ a\\ general\\ assembly\\ where\\ the\\ country\\&rsquo\\;s\\most\\ powerful\\ leaders\\ and\\ later\\ on\\ free\\ men\\ were\\ allowed\\ to\\ attend\\.\\ It\\ was\\ here\\that\\ legal\\ disputes\\ were\\ settled\\ and\\ justice\\ administered\\.\\ The\\ center\\ of\\ the\\Althing\\ was\\ the\\ Logberg\\ \\(Law\\ Rock\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ a\\ rocky\\ outcrop\\ on\\ which\\ the\\ Lawspeaker\\read\\ 1\\/3rd\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ each\\ year\\ \\(so\\ in\\ three\\ years\\,\\ all\\ laws\\ would\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\covered\\)\\.\\\\Harald\\ Bluetooth\\:\\Christianized\\ Denmark\\ in\\ the\\ 960s\\/970s\\.\\The\\ son\\ of\\ King\\ Gorm\\ the\\ Old\\.\\He\\ died\\ in\\ 985\\ or\\ 986\\ having\\ ruled\\ as\\ King\\ of\\ Denmark\\ from\\ around\\ 958\\ and\\ king\\of\\ Norway\\ for\\ a\\ few\\ years\\ probably\\ around\\ 970\\.\\He\\ caused\\ the\\ Jelling\\ stones\\ to\\ be\\ erected\\ to\\ honor\\ his\\ parents\\.\\ The\\ runes\\ on\\the\\ stone\\ say\\:\\ \\"\\;Harald\\,\\ king\\,\\ bade\\ these\\ memorials\\ to\\ be\\ made\\ after\\ Gorm\\,\\ his\\father\\,\\ and\\ Thyra\\,\\ his\\ mother\\.\\ The\\ Harald\\ who\\ won\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ Denmark\\ and\\Norway\\ and\\ turned\\ the\\ Danes\\ to\\ Christianity\\.\\"\\;\\ The\\ stone\\ was\\ carved\\ in\\ the\\period\\ 960\\-85\\.\\ It\\ lies\\ exactly\\ midway\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ largest\\ mounds\\ in\\Denmark\\.\\During\\ his\\ reign\\ he\\ built\\ ring\\ forts\\ in\\ five\\ strategic\\ locations\\:\\ Trelleborg\\ on\\Sj\\æ\\;lland\\,\\ Nonnebakken\\ on\\ Fyn\\,\\ Fyrkat\\ in\\ central\\ Jylland\\,\\ Aggersborg\\ near\\Limfjord\\,\\ and\\ Trelleborg\\ near\\ the\\ city\\ of\\ Trelleborg\\ in\\ Scania\\ in\\ present\\-day\\Sweden\\.\\ All\\ five\\ fortresses\\ had\\ similar\\ designs\\:\\ \\"\\;perfectly\\ circular\\ with\\ gates\\opening\\ to\\ the\\ four\\ corners\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\,\\ and\\ a\\ courtyard\\ divided\\ into\\ four\\areas\\ which\\ held\\ large\\ houses\\ set\\ in\\ a\\ square\\ pattern\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ They\\ served\\ as\\ regional\\centers\\ of\\ control\\,\\ tax\\ collection\\ places\\,\\ and\\ symbols\\ of\\ Harald\\&rsquo\\;s\\ power\\.\\\\wergild\\:\\The\\ payment\\ of\\ wergild\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ legal\\ mechanism\\ in\\ early\\ Northern\\European\\ societies\\,\\ such\\ as\\ those\\ of\\ the\\ Vikings\\,\\ and\\ Anglo\\-Saxons\\;\\ the\\ other\\common\\ form\\ of\\ legal\\ reparation\\ at\\ this\\ time\\ was\\ blood\\ revenge\\.\\ The\\ payment\\ was\\typically\\ made\\ to\\ the\\ family\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ clan\\.\\ If\\ these\\ payments\\ were\\ not\\ made\\,\\ or\\refused\\ by\\ the\\ offended\\ party\\,\\ a\\ blood\\ feud\\ would\\ ensue\\.\\ The\\ word\\ literally\\means\\ \\"\\;man\\ price\\"\\;\\ \\(wer\\ meaning\\ man\\ as\\ in\\ werewolf\\)\\.\\The\\ size\\ of\\ the\\ wergild\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ murder\\ was\\ largely\\ conditional\\ upon\\ the\\social\\ rank\\ of\\ the\\ victim\\.\\A\\ classic\\ example\\ of\\ a\\ dispute\\ over\\ the\\ wergild\\ of\\ a\\ slave\\ is\\ contained\\ in\\Iceland\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Egil\\&\\#39\\;s\\ Saga\\.\\ \\(Recall\\:\\ Egil\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\ Thorstein\\ kills\\ the\\ slaves\\ of\\Steinar\\ \\(Onund\\ Sjoni\\&rsquo\\;s\\ son\\)\\ because\\ they\\ keep\\ leading\\ the\\ sheep\\ to\\ graze\\ on\\Thorstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ land\\.\\ Onund\\ let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Egil\\ decide\\ the\\ case\\,\\ and\\ Egil\\ rules\\ in\\Thorstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favor\\,\\ which\\ upsets\\ Onund\\.\\)\\In\\ the\\ Story\\ of\\ Grettir\\ the\\ Strong\\,\\ chapter\\ 27\\,\\ The\\ Suit\\ for\\ the\\ Slaying\\ of\\Thorgils\\ Makson\\,\\ Thorgeir\\ conveys\\ to\\ court\\ Thorgils\\ Arison\\&\\#39\\;s\\ offer\\ of\\ weregild\\as\\ atonement\\ for\\ killing\\ Thorgils\\ Makson\\.\\\\(Old\\ English\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;man\\ payment\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ in\\ ancient\\ Germanic\\ law\\,\\ the\\ amount\\ of\\compensation\\ paid\\ by\\ a\\ person\\ committing\\ an\\ offense\\ to\\ the\\ injured\\ party\\ or\\,\\ in\\case\\ of\\ death\\,\\ to\\ his\\ family\\.\\ In\\ certain\\ instances\\ part\\ of\\ the\\ wergild\\ was\\ paid\\to\\ the\\ king\\ and\\ to\\ the\\ lord\\&mdash\\;these\\ having\\ lost\\,\\ respectively\\,\\ a\\ subject\\ and\\ a\\vassal\\.\\ The\\ wergild\\ was\\ at\\ first\\ informal\\ but\\ was\\ later\\ regulated\\ by\\ law\\.\\\\\\Questions\\:\\\\16\\.\\ How\\ does\\ colonialism\\ factor\\ into\\ the\\ reception\\ of\\ the\\ sagas\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ and\\20th\\ centuries\\?\\A\\ couple\\ bullet\\ points\\ here\\.\\Herder\\ examined\\ what\\ it\\ means\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ country\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;For\\ continuity\\ of\\ history\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Work\\ of\\ fol\\ poets\\ most\\ in\\ tune\\ w\\/national\\ soul\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Notion\\ that\\ every\\ nation\\ conatins\\ the\\ center\\ of\\ happiness\\ within\\ itself\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Therefore\\,\\ we\\ identify\\ countries\\ with\\ their\\ history\\ and\\ with\\ their\\ literary\\tradition\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ the\\ saga\\ help\\ to\\ define\\ countries\\ that\\ were\\ blurry\\ during\\ their\\colonialism\\ when\\ we\\ recreate\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ 19th\\ and\\ 20th\\ Centuries\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ So\\ struggle\\ over\\ who\\ owns\\ the\\ sagas\\,\\ Norway\\ or\\ Iceland\\.\\ If\\ you\\ own\\ the\\sagas\\ you\\ have\\ a\\ great\\ cultural\\ treasure\\ and\\ the\\ right\\ to\\ say\\ you\\ are\\ an\\independent\\ nation\\ under\\ Herder\\.\\ Literary\\ prominence\\ was\\ needed\\ to\\ gain\\ ticket\\into\\ nationhood\\ \\(think\\ Odyessy\\)\\.\\\\In\\ 1800\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ rediscovery\\ and\\ fascination\\ with\\ the\\ heroic\\ Germanic\\ past\\ by\\ the\\elite\\ culture\\ in\\ Scandinavia\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ England\\ and\\ Germany\\.\\ People\\ were\\fascinated\\ with\\ the\\ past\\ as\\ seen\\ in\\ the\\ sagas\\ as\\ that\\ sagas\\ saw\\ the\\ Vikings\\.\\\\(People\\ in\\ 1800\\&rsquo\\;s\\ fascinated\\ with\\ how\\ people\\ in\\ 1300\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrote\\ about\\ those\\ in\\ the\\1000\\&rsquo\\;s\\)\\.\\\\Also\\ recall\\ how\\ the\\ Germans\\ used\\ the\\ Viking\\ image\\ in\\ WWII\\ \\(20th\\ Century\\)\\ as\\propaganda\\ as\\ they\\ stormed\\ various\\ countries\\ in\\ Europe\\ \\(the\\ colonialist\\spirit\\)\\.\\\\\\\\17\\.\\ Who\\ was\\ the\\ first\\ Christian\\ missionary\\ to\\ Denmark\\ and\\ Sweden\\,\\ and\\ in\\ what\\century\\ did\\ he\\ go\\ there\\?\\\\Recorded\\ missionary\\ efforts\\ in\\ what\\ is\\ today\\ Denmark\\ started\\ with\\ Willibrord\\,\\Apostle\\ to\\ the\\ Frisians\\,\\ who\\ preached\\ in\\ Schleswig\\,\\ which\\ at\\ the\\ time\\ was\\ part\\of\\ Denmark\\.\\ All\\ that\\ is\\ recorded\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ went\\ north\\ from\\ Fisia\\ sometime\\between\\ 710\\ and\\ 718\\ during\\ the\\ reign\\ of\\ King\\ Agantyr\\.\\ Willibrord\\ and\\ his\\companions\\ had\\ little\\ success\\:\\ the\\ king\\ was\\ respectful\\ but\\ had\\ no\\ interest\\ in\\changing\\ his\\ beliefs\\.\\ A\\ century\\ later\\,\\ Ebbo\\,\\ Archbishop\\ of\\ Reims\\ and\\ Willerich\\,\\later\\ Bishop\\ of\\ Bremen\\,\\ baptized\\ a\\ few\\ persons\\ during\\ their\\ 823\\ visit\\ to\\Denmark\\.\\ He\\ returned\\ twice\\ to\\ Denmark\\ to\\ prosyletize\\ but\\ without\\ any\\ recorded\\success\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ 826\\,\\ King\\ of\\ Jutland\\,\\ Harald\\ Klak\\,\\ was\\ forced\\ to\\ seek\\ asylum\\ with\\ Emperor\\Louis\\ I\\ of\\ Germany\\.\\ Louis\\ I\\ agreed\\ to\\ shelter\\ him\\ as\\ long\\ as\\ he\\ accepted\\Christianity\\.\\ When\\ Harald\\ Klak\\ finally\\ made\\ it\\ back\\ to\\ Denmark\\,\\ Ansgar\\,\\ a\\German\\ monk\\,\\ accompanied\\ him\\ and\\ oversaw\\ Christianity\\ among\\ the\\ converts\\.\\However\\,\\ Harald\\ Klak\\ was\\ forced\\ out\\ of\\ Denmark\\ for\\ the\\ second\\ time\\.\\ Instead\\ of\\returning\\ to\\ Germany\\ with\\ him\\,\\ Ansgar\\ focused\\ his\\ efforts\\ on\\ preaching\\ to\\ the\\Swedes\\.\\ In\\ 831\\,\\ the\\ Archdiocese\\ of\\ Hamburg\\ was\\ founded\\ and\\ assigned\\ the\\responsibility\\ of\\ proselytizing\\ Scandinavia\\.\\ Ansgar\\ returned\\ to\\ Denmark\\ in\\ 860\\and\\ he\\ built\\ the\\ first\\ Christian\\ chapel\\ in\\ Denmark\\ in\\ Hedeby\\ Schleswig\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Ansgar\\&rsquo\\;s\\ mission\\ to\\ the\\ Swedes\\ was\\ initiated\\ in\\ 830\\ by\\ the\\ invitation\\ of\\Swedish\\ king\\ Bjorn\\ at\\ Haugi\\.\\ Although\\ Ansgar\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ church\\ at\\ Birka\\,\\ he\\ was\\met\\ with\\ little\\ Swedish\\ interest\\ in\\ coversion\\\\\\\\18\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ To\\ what\\ purpose\\(s\\)\\ were\\ rune\\ inscriptions\\ used\\?\\\\The\\ earliest\\ runic\\ inscriptions\\ date\\ from\\ around\\ 150\\ AD\\,\\ and\\ the\\ alphabet\\ was\\generally\\ replaced\\ by\\ the\\ Latin\\ alphabet\\ with\\ Christianization\\ by\\ around\\ 700\\ AD\\in\\ central\\ Europe\\ and\\ by\\ around\\ 1100\\ AD\\ in\\ Scandianvia\\.\\ However\\,\\ the\\ use\\ of\\runes\\ persisted\\ for\\ specialized\\ purposes\\ in\\ Scandinavia\\,\\ longest\\ in\\ rural\\Sweden\\ until\\ the\\ early\\ twentieth\\ century\\ \\(used\\ mainly\\ for\\ decoration\\ as\\ runes\\in\\ Dalarna\\ and\\ on\\ Runic\\ calendars\\)\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;In\\ Norse\\ mythology\\,\\ the\\ runic\\ alphabet\\ is\\ attested\\ to\\ a\\ divine\\ origin\\.\\ The\\ poem\\Havamal\\ in\\ the\\ Poetic\\ Edda\\ explains\\ that\\ the\\ originator\\ of\\ the\\ runes\\ was\\ the\\ god\\Odin\\ via\\ his\\ self\\ sacrifice\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ know\\ that\\ I\\ hung\\ on\\ a\\ windy\\ tree\\/\\ nine\\ long\\nights\\,\\/\\ wounded\\ with\\ a\\ spear\\,\\ dedicated\\ to\\ Odin\\,\\/\\ myself\\ to\\ myself\\,\\ on\\ that\\tree\\ of\\ which\\ no\\ man\\ knows\\ from\\ where\\/\\ roots\\ run\\.\\/\\ No\\ bread\\ did\\ they\\ give\\ me\\nor\\ a\\ drink\\ from\\ a\\ horn\\,\\/\\ downwards\\ I\\ peered\\;\\/\\ I\\ took\\ up\\ the\\ runes\\,\\/\\ screaming\\I\\ took\\ them\\,\\/\\ then\\ I\\ fell\\ back\\ from\\ there\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Historically\\,\\ runes\\ developed\\ centuries\\ after\\ the\\ Mediterranean\\ alphabets\\ from\\which\\ they\\ seem\\ to\\ have\\ descended\\.\\ The\\ angular\\ shapes\\ of\\ the\\ runes\\ are\\ shared\\with\\ most\\ contemporary\\ alphabets\\ of\\ the\\ period\\ used\\ for\\ carving\\ in\\ wood\\ or\\stone\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;One\\ of\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ purposes\\ of\\ runic\\ inscriptions\\ was\\ for\\ divination\\.\\The\\ Havamal\\ describes\\ their\\ ability\\ to\\ bring\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ dead\\ back\\ to\\ life\\.\\The\\ name\\ rune\\ itself\\,\\ taken\\ to\\ mean\\ \\&ldquo\\;secret\\,\\ something\\ hidden\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ seems\\ to\\indicate\\ that\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ runes\\ was\\ originally\\ considered\\ esoteric\\,\\ or\\restricted\\ to\\ an\\ elite\\.\\ It\\ was\\ this\\ restricted\\ talent\\ to\\ read\\/interpret\\ the\\meanings\\ of\\ the\\ runes\\ that\\ set\\ apart\\ those\\ with\\ magical\\ powers\\ from\\ the\\ common\\folk\\ in\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ mythological\\ and\\ heroic\\ stories\\.\\ The\\ runes\\ often\\ alerted\\ a\\character\\ in\\ history\\ with\\ warnings\\ of\\ bad\\ luck\\ or\\ danger\\ when\\ used\\ in\\divination\\.\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;Some\\ later\\ runic\\ finds\\ are\\ on\\ monuments\\ \\(runestones\\)\\,\\ which\\ often\\ contain\\solemn\\ inscriptions\\ about\\ people\\ who\\ died\\ or\\ performed\\ great\\ deeds\\.\\ In\\ the\\1950s\\,\\ 600\\ inscriptions\\ \\(known\\ as\\ the\\ Bryggen\\ inscriptions\\)\\ were\\ found\\ in\\Bergen\\.\\ These\\ inscriptions\\ were\\ made\\ of\\ wood\\ and\\ bone\\,\\ often\\ in\\ the\\ shape\\ of\\sticks\\ of\\ various\\ sizes\\,\\ and\\ contained\\ inscriptions\\ of\\ an\\ everyday\\ nature\\ \\&ndash\\;\\i\\.e\\.\\,\\ name\\ tags\\,\\ prayers\\,\\ personal\\ messages\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/vStudy_Guide_1106.doc", "desc": null}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-11 21:55:27.248789+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "", "tags": [], "text": "\ufeff_______________\r\nL I B R I V O X\r\n\r\n\r\nacoustical liberation of books in the public domain\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nhttp://librivox.org/\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nLibriVox wants all books in the public domain to be available,\r\nfor free, in audio format, on the internet. We ask volunteers to\r\nrecord chapters of books in the public domain in digital format;\r\nall you need is a computer, some free recording software, and\r\nyour own voice! We are a totally volunteer, open source, free\r\ncontent, public domain project. \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nVOLUNTEER\r\n\r\n\r\nWould you like to volunteer? Would you like to read a book in\r\nanother language perhaps? It\ufffds easy to do so. Please visit:\r\nhttp://librivox.org/volunteer-for-librivox/\r\n\r\n\r\nOur lively forum, with people from all around the globe will \r\nquickly answers your questions, and we are looking forward \r\nto welcome you there.\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nMORE BOOKS\r\n\r\n\r\nOur Catalog of about 85 hours of audioworks can be found at: \r\nhttp://librivox.org/librivox-catalogue/\r\n\r\n\r\nIf you want to be updated about new recordings comfortably, \r\nuse our several RSS-feeds. Or use our podcast.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nTHIS TITLE\r\n\r\n\r\nHeart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nLINKS\r\n\r\n\r\nGutenberg e-text: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/113\r\n\r\n\r\nWikipedia - Frances Hodgson Burnett: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Eliza_Hodgson_Burnett\r\nWikipedia - The Secret Garden: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Garden\r\n\r\n\r\nGutenberg e-text: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/219\r\nWikipedia - Joseph Conrad: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Conrad\r\nWikipedia - Heart of Darkness: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_darkness\r\n \r\nRead by Kristin Luoma: http://www.greenkri.com\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nSUMMARY\r\n\r\n\r\nHeart of Darkness\r\nby Joseph Conrad\r\n\r\n\r\nSet in a time of oppressive colonisation, when large areas of the world were still unknown\r\nto Europe, and Africa was literally on maps and minds as a mysterious shadow,\r\nHeart of Darkness famously explores the rituals of civilisation and barbarism,\r\nand the frighteningly fine line between them.\r\n\r\n\r\nWe get the tale through a classic unreliable narrator,\r\nrelating as Marlow, a ship\ufffds captain, tells how he was sent by the Company to retrieve\r\nthe wayward Kurtz, and was shaken to discover the true depths of darkness in that creature\ufffds,\r\nand in his own, soul. \r\nConrad based the work closely on his own terrible experience in the Congo.\r\n\r\n\r\nThis work has been reinterpreted and adapted into many modern forms,\r\n the most well known being the film Apocalypse Now.\r\n(Summary written by Marlo Dianne) \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nCHAPTERS\r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 1 Part 1 - 00:44:10 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 1 Part 2 - 00:47:34 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 2 Part 1 - 00:36:53 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 2 Part 2 - 00:42:35 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 3 Part 1 - 00:30:21 \r\n\r\n\r\nChapter 3 Part 2 - 00:48:39 \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nLICENSE\r\n\r\n\r\nPlease note that this recording is in the public domain: \r\nhttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/publicdomain/ \r\nThus, you are free to copy, distribute, display, and perform \r\nthe work without restriction.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n__________\r\nPARTNERS\r\n\r\n\r\nOur audio files are hosted by the Internet Archive \r\n(www.archive.org)\r\nMost of our books come from Project Gutenberg \r\n(www.gutenberg.org).\r\nMany thanks to them.", "id": 853, "html": "\\\\\\Untitled\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c1\\{height\\:11pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c0\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\L\\ I\\ B\\ R\\ I\\ V\\ O\\ X\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\acoustical\\ liberation\\ of\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/librivox\\.org\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LibriVox\\ wants\\ all\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\ to\\ be\\ available\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ free\\,\\ in\\ audio\\ format\\,\\ on\\ the\\ internet\\.\\ We\\ ask\\ volunteers\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\record\\ chapters\\ of\\ books\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\ in\\ digital\\ format\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\all\\ you\\ need\\ is\\ a\\ computer\\,\\ some\\ free\\ recording\\ software\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\your\\ own\\ voice\\!\\ We\\ are\\ a\\ totally\\ volunteer\\,\\ open\\ source\\,\\ free\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\content\\,\\ public\\ domain\\ project\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\VOLUNTEER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Would\\ you\\ like\\ to\\ volunteer\\?\\ Would\\ you\\ like\\ to\\ read\\ a\\ book\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\another\\ language\\ perhaps\\?\\ It\\&\\#65533\\;s\\ easy\\ to\\ do\\ so\\.\\ Please\\ visit\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/librivox\\.org\\/volunteer\\-for\\-librivox\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ lively\\ forum\\,\\ with\\ people\\ from\\ all\\ around\\ the\\ globe\\ will\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\quickly\\ answers\\ your\\ questions\\,\\ and\\ we\\ are\\ looking\\ forward\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ welcome\\ you\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\MORE\\ BOOKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ Catalog\\ of\\ about\\ 85\\ hours\\ of\\ audioworks\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ at\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/librivox\\.org\\/librivox\\-catalogue\\/\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\If\\ you\\ want\\ to\\ be\\ updated\\ about\\ new\\ recordings\\ comfortably\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\use\\ our\\ several\\ RSS\\-feeds\\.\\ Or\\ use\\ our\\ podcast\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\THIS\\ TITLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\ by\\ Joseph\\ Conrad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LINKS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gutenberg\\ e\\-text\\:\\ \\ \\;http\\:\\/\\/www\\.gutenberg\\.org\\/etext\\/113\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ Frances\\ Hodgson\\ Burnett\\:\\ \\ \\;http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Frances\\_Eliza\\_Hodgson\\_Burnett\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ The\\ Secret\\ Garden\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/The\\_Secret\\_Garden\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gutenberg\\ e\\-text\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.gutenberg\\.org\\/etext\\/219\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ Joseph\\ Conrad\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Joseph\\_Conrad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wikipedia\\ \\-\\ Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/en\\.wikipedia\\.org\\/wiki\\/Heart\\_of\\_darkness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Read\\ by\\ Kristin\\ Luoma\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.greenkri\\.com\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\SUMMARY\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\by\\ Joseph\\ Conrad\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Set\\ in\\ a\\ time\\ of\\ oppressive\\ colonisation\\,\\ when\\ large\\ areas\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ were\\ still\\ unknown\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ Europe\\,\\ and\\ Africa\\ was\\ literally\\ on\\ maps\\ and\\ minds\\ as\\ a\\ mysterious\\ shadow\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Heart\\ of\\ Darkness\\ famously\\ explores\\ the\\ rituals\\ of\\ civilisation\\ and\\ barbarism\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ the\\ frighteningly\\ fine\\ line\\ between\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\We\\ get\\ the\\ tale\\ through\\ a\\ classic\\ unreliable\\ narrator\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\relating\\ as\\ Marlow\\,\\ a\\ ship\\&\\#65533\\;s\\ captain\\,\\ tells\\ how\\ he\\ was\\ sent\\ by\\ the\\ Company\\ to\\ retrieve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ wayward\\ Kurtz\\,\\ and\\ was\\ shaken\\ to\\ discover\\ the\\ true\\ depths\\ of\\ darkness\\ in\\ that\\ creature\\&\\#65533\\;s\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ in\\ his\\ own\\,\\ soul\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Conrad\\ based\\ the\\ work\\ closely\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ terrible\\ experience\\ in\\ the\\ Congo\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ work\\ has\\ been\\ reinterpreted\\ and\\ adapted\\ into\\ many\\ modern\\ forms\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;the\\ most\\ well\\ known\\ being\\ the\\ film\\ Apocalypse\\ Now\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Summary\\ written\\ by\\ Marlo\\ Dianne\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CHAPTERS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ Part\\ 1\\ \\-\\ 00\\:44\\:10\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\ Part\\ 2\\ \\-\\ 00\\:47\\:34\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\ Part\\ 1\\ \\-\\ 00\\:36\\:53\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\ Part\\ 2\\ \\-\\ 00\\:42\\:35\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ Part\\ 1\\ \\-\\ 00\\:30\\:21\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\ Part\\ 2\\ \\-\\ 00\\:48\\:39\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\LICENSE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Please\\ note\\ that\\ this\\ recording\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ domain\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\http\\:\\/\\/creativecommons\\.org\\/licenses\\/publicdomain\\/\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thus\\,\\ you\\ are\\ free\\ to\\ copy\\,\\ distribute\\,\\ display\\,\\ and\\ perform\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ work\\ without\\ restriction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\PARTNERS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Our\\ audio\\ files\\ are\\ hosted\\ by\\ the\\ Internet\\ Archive\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(www\\.archive\\.org\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ our\\ books\\ come\\ from\\ Project\\ Gutenberg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(www\\.gutenberg\\.org\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Many\\ thanks\\ to\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": null, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad [librivox]2.txt", "desc": null}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-05 19:27:27.717906+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Road to the White House Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "government", "road-to-the-white-house"], "text": null, "id": 109, "html": "\\\\\\Road\\ to\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ Study\\ Guide\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c6\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c2\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c1\\{direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:5pt\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c0\\{font\\-size\\:12pt\\}\\.c3\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:18pt\\}\\.c5\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ROAD\\ TO\\ THE\\ WHITE\\ HOUSE\\ STUDY\\ GUIDE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Wed\\.\\,\\ Sept\\.\\ 17\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Political\\ Science\\ Meets\\ Politics\\:\\ Predicting\\ and\\ Understanding\\ Presidential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elections\\ in\\ the\\ U\\.S\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stephen\\ Wayne\\,\\ The\\ Road\\ to\\ the\\ White\\ House\\ 2008\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 300\\-337\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 9\\:\\ Understanding\\ Presidential\\ Elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Introduction\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ People\\ sure\\ do\\ like\\ to\\ try\\ to\\ predict\\ the\\ outcomes\\ of\\ elections\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Predictions\\ and\\ surveys\\ also\\ provide\\ important\\ information\\ for\\ people\\ running\\ for\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\office\\ or\\ who\\ have\\ been\\ elected\\ so\\ they\\ can\\ know\\ what\\ issues\\ they\\ need\\ to\\ address\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\how\\,\\ helps\\ candidates\\ to\\ target\\ audiences\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Predicting\\ Presidential\\ Elections\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Debate\\ over\\ whether\\ campaigns\\ matter\\ or\\ not\\:\\ Some\\ people\\ argue\\ the\\ campaigns\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\matter\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ environment\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ election\\ occurs\\,\\ other\\ argue\\ preexisting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\political\\ views\\ determine\\ the\\ outcome\\,\\ others\\ argue\\ that\\ campaigns\\ can\\ be\\ decisive\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\especially\\ when\\ the\\ electorate\\ is\\ closely\\ divided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Formal\\ models\\:\\ used\\ to\\ predict\\ elections\\,\\ based\\ on\\ belief\\ that\\ the\\ environment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\conditions\\ the\\ results\\.\\ Identify\\ a\\ few\\ critical\\ variables\\ to\\ make\\ predictions\\.\\ Some\\ use\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\econometric\\ models\\ that\\ heavily\\ weigh\\ factors\\ like\\ GNP\\/GDP\\/inflation\\/unemployment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ predict\\ outcome\\,\\ attempt\\ to\\ predict\\ \\%\\ of\\ popular\\ vote\\ candidates\\ receive\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Voters\\ can\\ vote\\ retrospectively\\ \\(vote\\ for\\ or\\ against\\ an\\ incumbent\\ based\\ on\\ his\\ or\\ his\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\party\\&rsquo\\;s\\ past\\ performance\\)\\ or\\ prospectively\\ \\(no\\ incumbent\\,\\ electorate\\ looks\\ to\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\based\\ on\\ promises\\ and\\ qualifications\\ of\\ candidates\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Other\\ variables\\ used\\ to\\ predict\\ outcome\\:\\ approval\\ ratings\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;electability\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ amount\\ of\\ time\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\candidate\\/party\\ has\\ been\\ in\\ control\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Models\\&rsquo\\;\\ success\\ depends\\ on\\ relevance\\ of\\ measures\\ they\\ use\\ as\\ variables\\,\\ timeframe\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\which\\ they\\ collect\\ data\\,\\ and\\ assumption\\ that\\ the\\ effects\\ of\\ campaigns\\ of\\ the\\ two\\ major\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\candidates\\ will\\ cancel\\ each\\ other\\ out\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Models\\ can\\ be\\ wrong\\ if\\ they\\ misinterpret\\ effects\\ of\\ incumbency\\ \\(ie\\ Clinton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ effect\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gore\\)\\,\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ account\\ for\\ changes\\ in\\ expected\\ voter\\ turnout\\,\\ or\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ anticipate\\ Electoral\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\College\\-motivated\\ strategizing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Public\\ Opinion\\ Polls\\:\\ let\\ people\\ know\\ the\\ electorate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinions\\ and\\ how\\ the\\ electorate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\responds\\ to\\ campaigning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ There\\ have\\ been\\ lots\\ and\\ lots\\ of\\ polls\\ in\\ recent\\ elections\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ 1916\\:\\ first\\ nationwide\\ polls\\:\\ straw\\ polls\\ by\\ the\\ Literary\\ Digest\\,\\ involved\\ mailing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\millions\\ of\\ surveys\\ to\\ people\\ on\\ lists\\ of\\ automobile\\ owners\\ and\\ telephone\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\directories\\,\\ but\\ was\\ wrong\\ in\\ 1936\\ because\\ it\\ only\\ received\\ 2\\ million\\ responses\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\from\\ the\\ 10mill\\ ballots\\ it\\ sent\\ out\\,\\ ballots\\ tabulated\\ as\\ they\\ came\\ in\\ \\(blurred\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\shifts\\ in\\ public\\ opinion\\)\\,\\ and\\ used\\ an\\ unrepresentative\\ sample\\ of\\ the\\ voting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\public\\.\\ Other\\ polls\\ got\\ the\\ 1936\\ prediction\\ right\\ by\\ using\\ smaller\\ samples\\ that\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\more\\ accurately\\ reflected\\ population\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Another\\ big\\ polling\\ error\\ in\\ 1948\\ \\(Dewey\\ v\\.\\ Truman\\)\\,\\ sampling\\ error\\ again\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\pollsters\\ sought\\ to\\ fill\\ demographic\\ quotas\\ but\\ avoided\\ going\\ to\\ certain\\ areas\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\cities\\,\\ and\\ stopped\\ interviewing\\ several\\ weeks\\ before\\ election\\ when\\ many\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\people\\ were\\ still\\ undecided\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Pollsters\\ tried\\ to\\ better\\ predict\\ likely\\ voters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Sources\\ of\\ error\\ in\\ polling\\ today\\:\\ turnout\\ and\\ undecided\\ voters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Television\\ Forecasts\\:\\ continue\\ right\\ to\\ the\\ end\\ until\\ all\\ votes\\ are\\ tabulated\\.\\ News\\ media\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\has\\ four\\ objectives\\:\\ to\\ report\\ the\\ vote\\,\\ to\\ forecast\\ the\\ winners\\,\\ to\\ analyze\\ the\\ returns\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ do\\ so\\ ahead\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ networks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ In\\ 1980s\\,\\ major\\ networks\\ and\\ news\\ services\\ established\\ consortium\\ to\\ pool\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\resources\\ in\\ reporting\\ vote\\ count\\.\\ In\\ 1992\\,\\ they\\ consolidated\\ their\\ data\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\gathering\\ operations\\ and\\ conducted\\ a\\ large\\ exit\\ poll\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Exit\\ polls\\:\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ precincts\\ across\\ the\\ country\\ are\\ randomly\\ selected\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\selection\\ is\\ made\\ within\\ states\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ geographic\\ units\\,\\ size\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\precincts\\,\\ and\\ past\\ voting\\ records\\ are\\ taken\\ into\\ account\\.\\ Lots\\ of\\ pollsters\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\sent\\ out\\ \\(1200\\ or\\ so\\)\\ to\\ poll\\ every\\ fourth\\ or\\ fifth\\ person\\ who\\ leaves\\ voting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\booth\\,\\ they\\ complete\\ short\\ questionnaire\\.\\ Several\\ times\\ a\\ day\\,\\ questionnaire\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\results\\ are\\ collected\\ and\\ tabulated\\.\\ Poll\\ results\\ are\\ made\\ public\\ after\\ most\\ or\\ all\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\election\\ polls\\ in\\ a\\ state\\ have\\ been\\ completed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Criticism\\ that\\ exit\\ polls\\ affect\\ turnout\\ and\\ results\\ in\\ states\\ with\\ polls\\ that\\ are\\ still\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\open\\.\\ Exit\\ polls\\ can\\ also\\ be\\ inaccurate\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ voting\\ irregularities\\ \\(ie\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Florida\\ in\\ 2000\\)\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ certain\\ times\\ of\\ day\\ over\\-representing\\ one\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\candidate\\&rsquo\\;s\\ supporters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Interpreting\\ the\\ Election\\ Results\\:\\ exit\\ polls\\ allow\\ you\\ to\\ connect\\ voting\\ decisions\\ to\\ issue\\ positions\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\perspectives\\,\\ allow\\ you\\ to\\ see\\ patterns\\ among\\ demographic\\ groups\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ allow\\ you\\ to\\ see\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\changes\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ election\\,\\ though\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Models\\ of\\ voting\\ behavior\\:\\ prospective\\,\\ which\\ emphasizes\\ issues\\ and\\ looks\\ to\\ the\\ future\\;\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\retrospective\\,\\ which\\ emphasizes\\ candidates\\/parties\\ and\\ looks\\ to\\ the\\ past\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ To\\ make\\ a\\ prospective\\ judgment\\,\\ voters\\ must\\ have\\ discernible\\ beliefs\\ and\\ opinions\\ of\\ their\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\own\\,\\ must\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ differentiate\\ between\\ candidates\\ based\\ on\\ beliefs\\ and\\ opinions\\,\\ and\\ be\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\able\\ to\\ make\\ a\\ judgment\\ based\\ on\\ which\\ candidate\\/party\\ will\\ cause\\ the\\ result\\ they\\ want\\.\\ To\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\simplify\\ this\\,\\ issues\\ are\\ frequently\\ bundled\\ together\\ by\\ parties\\ and\\ nominees\\ are\\ given\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ideological\\ label\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Retrospective\\:\\ voters\\ believe\\ past\\ is\\ prologue\\ for\\ the\\ future\\.\\ Incumbents\\ get\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\praise\\/blame\\ for\\ past\\ conditions\\.\\ Voters\\ also\\ compare\\ incumbents\\ to\\ challengers\\ to\\ predict\\ if\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ other\\ guy\\ could\\ do\\ better\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Partisanship\\ often\\ affects\\ both\\ prospective\\ and\\ retrospective\\ models\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Increased\\ polarization\\ recently\\ has\\ made\\ the\\ issues\\ less\\ of\\ an\\ independent\\ factor\\ in\\ determining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\election\\ outcomes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Explaining\\ Contemporary\\ Presidential\\ Elections\\:\\ 1952\\-2004\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1952\\-1956\\:\\ The\\ Impact\\ of\\ Personality\\:\\ democrats\\ enjoyed\\ a\\ partisan\\ advantage\\ in\\ congress\\,\\ but\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\lost\\ votes\\ in\\ \\&rsquo\\;52\\ because\\ Republicans\\ seemed\\ better\\ able\\ to\\ fight\\ the\\ commies\\,\\ promote\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\efficiency\\ in\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ and\\ end\\ the\\ Korean\\ War\\.\\ Democrats\\ regained\\ control\\ in\\ 1956\\ of\\ Congress\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\but\\ electorate\\ continued\\ to\\ like\\ Ike\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1960\\-1972\\:\\ The\\ Increasing\\ Importance\\ of\\ Issues\\:\\ non\\-economic\\ social\\ issues\\ played\\ big\\ roles\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\shifting\\ party\\ lines\\ \\(ie\\ Kennedy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Catholicism\\ lost\\ some\\ S\\.\\ Democrats\\,\\ 1964\\:\\ LBJ\\ was\\ seen\\ as\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ peace\\ candidate\\,\\ white\\ S\\.\\ Democrats\\ voted\\ for\\ Goldwater\\ because\\ they\\ opposed\\ civil\\ rights\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\initiatives\\,\\ 1968\\:\\ Vietnam\\ War\\ and\\ civil\\ rights\\ remained\\ huge\\ issues\\ that\\ worked\\ against\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Democrats\\)\\.\\ Decline\\ in\\ intensity\\ of\\ partisanship\\ and\\ growth\\ in\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ independents\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\contributed\\ to\\ issue\\ voting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1976\\-1996\\:\\ The\\ Evaluation\\ of\\ Performance\\:\\ Issue\\ differences\\ narrowed\\ in\\ 1976\\,\\ Gerald\\ Ford\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ Carter\\ focused\\ on\\ trust\\ in\\ gov\\&rsquo\\;t\\ and\\ domestic\\ economic\\ matters\\.\\ Unfavorable\\ assessment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\of\\ Carter\\&rsquo\\;s\\ performance\\ led\\ to\\ Reagan\\ victory\\ in\\ 1980\\.\\ Increases\\ in\\ prosperity\\ benefited\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Reagan\\ in\\ 1984\\,\\ and\\ people\\ believed\\ he\\ had\\ more\\ leadership\\ qualities\\.\\ People\\ in\\ 88\\ voted\\ on\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\belief\\ that\\ Bush\\ would\\ continue\\ the\\ Reagan\\ prosperity\\ more\\ than\\ Dukakis\\ would\\.\\ Partisanship\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\also\\ played\\ a\\ factor\\ in\\ 88\\,\\ with\\ people\\ voting\\ along\\ party\\/ideological\\ lines\\,\\ but\\ with\\ more\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\conservatives\\ turning\\ out\\ than\\ liberals\\.\\ In\\ 92\\,\\ Bush\\ is\\ voted\\ out\\ mainly\\ because\\ of\\ poor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\economic\\ performance\\,\\ Clinton\\ is\\ helped\\ by\\ his\\ Democratic\\ and\\ southern\\ affiliations\\,\\ Clinton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\also\\ won\\ over\\ moderates\\.\\ In\\ 96\\,\\ strong\\ economy\\ helps\\ reelect\\ Clinton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2000\\-2004\\:\\ Party\\ Polarization\\ and\\ Personal\\ Performance\\:\\ Gore\\ decided\\ to\\ focus\\ on\\ future\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\instead\\ of\\ past\\ performance\\ of\\ the\\ Clinton\\ administration\\ to\\ his\\ disadvantage\\.\\ Strong\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\partisanship\\ led\\ to\\ a\\ very\\ close\\ election\\.\\ Third\\ parties\\ had\\ a\\ reduced\\ role\\ \\(although\\ questions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\remain\\ about\\ the\\ Nader\\ effect\\ in\\ Florida\\)\\.\\ 2004\\:\\ electorate\\ was\\ again\\ highly\\ polarized\\,\\ success\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ candidates\\ hinged\\ on\\ maximizing\\ how\\ much\\ of\\ the\\ base\\ turned\\ out\\.\\ Bush\\ also\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\perceived\\ as\\ having\\ strong\\ leadership\\ skills\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pages\\ 322\\-324\\ have\\ charts\\ depicting\\ the\\ split\\ among\\ voters\\ of\\ different\\ demographic\\ groups\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Converting\\ Electoral\\ Choice\\ Into\\ Public\\ Policy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ The\\ President\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Imprecise\\ Mandate\\:\\ for\\ a\\ president\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ mandate\\,\\ he\\ must\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\take\\ clear\\ policy\\ positions\\ and\\ the\\ electorate\\ must\\ vote\\ for\\ them\\ because\\ of\\ these\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\positions\\.\\ If\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ discrepancy\\ between\\ popular\\ and\\ electoral\\ vote\\ or\\ which\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\parties\\ win\\ the\\ presidency\\ versus\\ the\\ Congress\\,\\ then\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ difficult\\ to\\ claim\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mandate\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ unlikely\\ that\\ the\\ electorate\\ agrees\\ with\\ all\\ of\\ a\\ candidate\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\policy\\ positions\\.\\ Elections\\ provide\\ a\\ window\\ of\\ opportunity\\ for\\ candidates\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\get\\ stuff\\ done\\,\\ but\\ rarely\\ provide\\ a\\ mandate\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Party\\ Platforms\\,\\ Campaign\\ Pledges\\,\\ and\\ the\\ New\\ Agenda\\:\\ the\\ party\\ platform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\often\\ does\\ not\\ completely\\ represent\\ candidates\\&rsquo\\;\\ policy\\ views\\.\\ In\\ general\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\though\\,\\ campaign\\ pledges\\ and\\ party\\ platforms\\ are\\ taken\\ seriously\\ by\\ those\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\power\\ and\\ many\\ campaign\\ promises\\ become\\ laws\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Expectations\\ and\\ Performance\\:\\ candidates\\ try\\ to\\ convey\\ aura\\ of\\ leadership\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\campaign\\,\\ voters\\ often\\ become\\ disillusioned\\ when\\ the\\ candidates\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ resemble\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\their\\ campaign\\ aura\\.\\ Presidents\\&rsquo\\;\\ decisions\\ often\\ alienate\\ parts\\ of\\ the\\ coalition\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ elected\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ The\\ Electoral\\ Coalition\\ and\\ Governing\\:\\ Washington\\ outsiders\\ have\\ had\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\electoral\\ advantage\\ since\\ the\\ 1970s\\,\\ but\\ being\\ an\\ outsider\\ makes\\ it\\ difficult\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accomplish\\ things\\ once\\ in\\ office\\.\\ Partisan\\ unity\\ in\\ Congress\\ can\\ give\\ Congress\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\more\\ sway\\ in\\ governing\\ with\\ the\\ president\\.\\ Presidents\\ rely\\ on\\ interest\\ groups\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\win\\,\\ but\\ this\\ restricts\\ what\\ presidents\\ can\\ actually\\ accomplish\\ as\\ they\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\beholden\\ to\\ these\\ groups\\ when\\ elected\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Personality\\ Politics\\ and\\ Presidential\\ Leadership\\:\\ must\\ convert\\ campaign\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\promises\\ into\\ political\\ agenda\\ without\\ enflaming\\ political\\ divisions\\,\\ must\\ make\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\priorities\\ about\\ what\\ they\\ can\\ accomplish\\,\\ must\\ convert\\ electoral\\ coalition\\ into\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\governing\\ coalition\\,\\ presidents\\ must\\ be\\ flexible\\ yet\\ decisive\\,\\ must\\ be\\ sensitive\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\public\\ opinion\\ while\\ trying\\ to\\ mold\\ it\\,\\ and\\ must\\ grow\\ and\\ learn\\ in\\ office\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Campbell\\ and\\ Michael\\ Lewis\\-Beck\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;US\\ Presidential\\ Election\\ Forecasting\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\International\\ Journal\\ of\\ Forecasting\\,\\ vol\\.\\ 24\\,\\ no\\.\\ 2\\,\\ April\\-June\\,\\ 2008\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 181\\-321\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\US\\ Presidential\\ Election\\ Forecasting\\:\\ An\\ Introduction\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ James\\ E\\.\\ Campbell\\ and\\ Michael\\ S\\.\\ Lewis\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Beck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\There\\ are\\ four\\ main\\ methods\\ of\\ election\\ forecasting\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Among\\ academic\\ forecasters\\,\\ statistical\\ models\\ have\\ been\\ the\\ dominant\\ strategy\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\election\\ forecasting\\.\\ Econometric\\ modeling\\ takes\\ into\\ account\\ two\\ main\\ factors\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\incumbent\\ presidential\\ popularity\\ and\\ the\\ health\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\.\\ If\\ done\\ correctly\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\econometric\\ modeling\\ can\\ forecast\\ the\\ winner\\ of\\ election\\ months\\ beforehand\\ and\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\as\\ much\\ accuracy\\ as\\ day\\-before\\ public\\ opinion\\ polls\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Popularly\\,\\ the\\ most\\ well\\ known\\ election\\ forecasts\\ come\\ from\\ public\\ opinion\\ polls\\.\\ Polls\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\however\\,\\ are\\ subject\\ to\\ systematic\\ bias\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ survey\\ methodology\\ used\\.\\ Poll\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\firms\\,\\ such\\ as\\ Gallup\\,\\ must\\ also\\ make\\ decisions\\ about\\ sampling\\,\\ question\\ wording\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\instrumentation\\,\\ and\\ weighting\\,\\ which\\ can\\ also\\ lead\\ to\\ incorrect\\ election\\ forecasts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Political\\ stock\\ markets\\ \\(prediction\\ markets\\)\\ are\\ another\\ method\\ of\\ election\\ forecasting\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ high\\ candidate\\ stock\\ value\\ translates\\ into\\ a\\ higher\\ forecasted\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ presidential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\popular\\ vote\\.\\ Political\\ stock\\ markets\\ tend\\ to\\ be\\ more\\ accurate\\ than\\ public\\ opinion\\ polls\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Expert\\ opinion\\ is\\ another\\ method\\.\\ Experts\\ often\\ offer\\ checklists\\ of\\ conditions\\ \\(or\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;keys\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ to\\ evaluate\\ when\\ forecasting\\ the\\ election\\ winner\\.\\ Depending\\ on\\ the\\ number\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\conditions\\ that\\ favor\\ each\\ party\\,\\ one\\ can\\ predict\\ the\\ winner\\ of\\ an\\ election\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forecasting\\ the\\ Presidential\\ Primary\\ Vote\\:\\ Viability\\,\\ Ideology\\,\\ and\\ Momentum\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Wayne\\ P\\.\\ Steger\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Presidential\\ primary\\ forecasting\\ is\\ difficult\\ because\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ public\\&rsquo\\;s\\ candidate\\ preferences\\ exhibit\\ greater\\ uncertainty\\ and\\ volatility\\ in\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nomination\\ campaigns\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ populations\\ that\\ vote\\ in\\ primaries\\ change\\ as\\ nominating\\ coalitions\\ shift\\,\\ making\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\vote\\ prediction\\ based\\ on\\ demographic\\ characteristics\\ difficult\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ The\\ primary\\ vote\\ is\\ distributed\\ across\\ time\\,\\ so\\ early\\ caucuses\\ and\\ primaries\\ have\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\potential\\ to\\ affect\\ later\\ primaries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ forecasting\\ presidential\\ primaries\\,\\ the\\ viable\\ candidates\\ are\\ those\\ raising\\ money\\,\\ gaining\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\media\\ exposure\\,\\ receiving\\ the\\ backing\\ of\\ party\\ insiders\\,\\ and\\ drawing\\ support\\ in\\ national\\ polls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\before\\ the\\ caucuses\\ and\\ primaries\\ begin\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ models\\ forecasting\\ the\\ primary\\ elections\\ ought\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ consider\\ the\\ pre\\-primary\\ competition\\.\\ Such\\ models\\ provide\\ accurate\\ predictions\\ of\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\primary\\ vote\\ for\\ candidates\\ who\\ lack\\ resources\\ and\\ support\\ before\\ the\\ primaries\\,\\ but\\ are\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\substantially\\ less\\ accurate\\ in\\ predicting\\ the\\ vote\\ shares\\ for\\ the\\ candidates\\ who\\ gain\\ enough\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\money\\,\\ recognition\\,\\ and\\ elite\\ and\\ mass\\ support\\ to\\ be\\ viable\\ contenders\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Ideology\\ is\\ another\\ important\\ predictor\\ in\\ the\\ presidential\\ primaries\\.\\ Models\\ with\\ candidate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ideology\\ indicate\\ that\\ the\\ primary\\ voters\\ have\\ a\\ bias\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ more\\ ideological\\ candidates\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\controlling\\ for\\ the\\ other\\ variables\\ in\\ the\\ models\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Momentum\\ during\\ the\\ primaries\\,\\ especially\\ from\\ the\\ early\\ caucuses\\ and\\ primaries\\,\\ can\\ be\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\powerful\\ predictor\\.\\ Candidates\\ who\\ beat\\ expectations\\ for\\ performance\\ in\\ early\\ caucuses\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\primaries\\ received\\ a\\ surge\\ of\\ positive\\ media\\ coverage\\ and\\ fund\\-raising\\ success\\,\\ and\\ go\\ on\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\receive\\ more\\ votes\\ in\\ later\\ primaries\\.\\ Winning\\ Iowa\\ and\\ New\\ Hampshire\\ can\\ propel\\ a\\ candidate\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ the\\ nomination\\.\\ Models\\ that\\ incorporate\\ momentum\\ effects\\ from\\ IA\\ and\\ NH\\ are\\ better\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\predicting\\ the\\ primary\\ vote\\ shares\\ of\\ both\\ dark\\ horse\\ and\\ top\\ tier\\ candidates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ About\\ Time\\:\\ Forecasting\\ the\\ 2008\\ Presidential\\ Election\\ with\\ the\\ Time\\-For\\-Change\\ Model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Alan\\ I\\.\\ Abramowitz\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ This\\ paper\\ uses\\ an\\ econometric\\ model\\ to\\ predict\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ 2008\\ presidential\\ election\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Model\\:\\ The\\ popular\\ vote\\ for\\ president\\ can\\ be\\ predicted\\ accurately\\ before\\ the\\ national\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\nominating\\ conventions\\ based\\ on\\ three\\ factors\\:\\ the\\ incumbent\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\ rating\\ at\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\mid\\-year\\,\\ the\\ growth\\ rate\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ election\\ year\\,\\ and\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\length\\ of\\ time\\ that\\ the\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\ party\\ has\\ controlled\\ the\\ White\\ House\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Election\\ Forecast\\:\\ Based\\ on\\ President\\ Bush\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\ rating\\ in\\ June\\ of\\ 2007\\,\\ the\\ recent\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\growth\\ rate\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\,\\ and\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ Republican\\ Party\\ will\\ have\\ controlled\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\White\\ House\\ for\\ eight\\ years\\,\\ Abramowitz\\ predicts\\ that\\ the\\ Democrats\\ will\\ win\\ the\\ national\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\popular\\ vote\\ by\\ a\\ comfortable\\ margin\\.\\ He\\ predicts\\ the\\ Republican\\ candidate\\ will\\ win\\ only\\ 43\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\percent\\ of\\ the\\ popular\\ vote\\.\\ Unless\\ the\\ economy\\ grew\\ briskly\\ during\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ quarters\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2008\\ or\\ Bush\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approval\\ rating\\ soared\\,\\ the\\ Republican\\ candidate\\ cannot\\ be\\ expected\\ to\\ win\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ Bottom\\ Line\\:\\ It\\ looks\\ like\\ it\\ will\\ be\\ a\\ decisive\\ victory\\ for\\ the\\ Democrats\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Economy\\ and\\ the\\ Presidential\\ Vote\\:\\ What\\ Leading\\ Indicators\\ Reveal\\ Well\\ in\\ Advance\\ \\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Robert\\ S\\.\\ Erikson\\ and\\ Christopher\\ Wlezien\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ This\\ paper\\ uses\\ an\\ econometric\\ model\\ to\\ prove\\ that\\ cumulative\\ leading\\ indicators\\ measured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\early\\ in\\ the\\ election\\ year\\ actually\\ reveal\\ as\\ much\\ about\\ the\\ final\\ vote\\ as\\ cumulative\\ income\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\growth\\ observed\\ on\\ the\\ eve\\ of\\ the\\ election\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ voters\\ respond\\ at\\ least\\ as\\ much\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\to\\ economic\\ change\\ that\\ is\\ predicted\\ well\\ in\\ advance\\ of\\ elections\\ as\\ to\\ economic\\ surprises\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ are\\ felt\\ during\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ campaign\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Model\\:\\ The\\ econometric\\ model\\ is\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ two\\ variables\\:\\ first\\,\\ the\\ cumulative\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\quarterly\\ growth\\ in\\ leading\\ economic\\ indicators\\ over\\ the\\ course\\ of\\ the\\ sitting\\ president\\&rsquo\\;s\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\term\\,\\ where\\ each\\ quarter\\ is\\ weighted\\ 0\\.9\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ the\\ one\\ that\\ follows\\;\\ and\\ second\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\presidential\\ approval\\.\\ In\\ order\\ to\\ use\\ advance\\ indications\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ economy\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\approval\\ leading\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ election\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ use\\ an\\ index\\ of\\ leading\\ economic\\ indicators\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\ The\\ Results\\:\\ Using\\ the\\ model\\ it\\ seems\\ that\\ cumulative\\ economic\\ forecasts\\ in\\ the\\ winter\\ of\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ election\\ year\\ reveal\\ at\\ least\\ as\\ much\\ information\\ about\\ the\\ election\\ as\\ do\\ early\\ polls\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\asking\\ voters\\ to\\ choose\\ between\\ the\\ eventual\\ candidates\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forecasting\\ Presidential\\ Elections\\:\\ When\\ to\\ Change\\ the\\ Model\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Michael\\ S\\.\\ Lewis\\-Beck\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Tien\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ authors\\&rsquo\\;\\ aim\\ is\\ to\\ address\\ how\\ election\\ forecasting\\ with\\ statistical\\ models\\ \\(econometric\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\models\\)\\ might\\ be\\ improved\\.\\ With\\ these\\ findings\\,\\ the\\ authors\\ question\\ whether\\ their\\ Jobs\\ Model\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\should\\ be\\ changed\\ for\\ the\\ 2008\\ presidential\\ election\\.\\ The\\ authors\\ warn\\ against\\ simple\\ curve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fitting\\ in\\ election\\ forecasting\\ models\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Abramowitz\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Time\\-For\\-Change\\ Model\\ has\\ gotten\\ high\\ quality\\ ratings\\.\\ Why\\?\\ At\\ its\\ core\\ is\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\strong\\ theory\\ \\(The\\ public\\ rewards\\ the\\ incumbent\\ for\\ good\\ times\\ and\\ punishes\\ the\\ incumbent\\ for\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\bad\\ times\\.\\ Punishment\\ increases\\ the\\ longer\\ the\\ incumbent\\ serves\\)\\.\\ Therefore\\,\\ good\\ forecasts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\and\\ good\\ forecasting\\ models\\ are\\ based\\ on\\ good\\ voter\\ behavior\\ theory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ improved\\ Jobs\\ Model\\ uses\\ four\\ variables\\:\\ Incumbent\\ president\\ popularity\\,\\ GNP\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\incumbency\\ advantage\\,\\ and\\ the\\ number\\ of\\ in\\-party\\ terms\\.\\ The\\ improved\\ model\\ forecasts\\ a\\ win\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\for\\ the\\ Democrats\\.\\ The\\ original\\ model\\ also\\ forecasts\\ a\\ Democratic\\ victory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Authors\\&rsquo\\;\\ conclusions\\:\\ Most\\ forecasters\\ tend\\ to\\ tinker\\ with\\ their\\ models\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ improve\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\accuracy\\.\\ The\\ different\\ models\\,\\ and\\ the\\ different\\ tinkering\\,\\ do\\ contribute\\ to\\ measurable\\ quality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\differences\\ among\\ the\\ models\\.\\ In\\ considering\\ the\\ Jobs\\ Model\\,\\ authors\\ Lewis\\-Beck\\ and\\ Tien\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\made\\ alterations\\ that\\ came\\ out\\ of\\ considerable\\ empirical\\ experimentation\\,\\ heavily\\ guided\\ by\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\theoretical\\ considerations\\.\\ They\\ found\\ that\\ the\\ changes\\ improved\\ upon\\ the\\ original\\ model\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\However\\,\\ both\\ the\\ original\\ and\\ improved\\ models\\ predicted\\ a\\ Democratic\\ victory\\ on\\ Election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Day\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Forecasting\\ Non\\-Incumbent\\ Presidential\\ Elections\\:\\ Lessons\\ Learned\\ From\\ the\\ 2000\\ Election\\ \\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Andrew\\ H\\.\\ Sidman\\,\\ Maxwell\\ Mak\\,\\ and\\ Matthew\\ J\\.\\ Lebo\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Authors\\ explore\\ how\\ statistical\\ models\\ should\\ treat\\ elections\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ no\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\president\\ seeking\\ re\\-election\\.\\ They\\ look\\ back\\ at\\ the\\ 2000\\ presidential\\ election\\ to\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\evaluate\\ the\\ utility\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;weighting\\&rdquo\\;\\ candidates\\ in\\ non\\-incumbent\\ elections\\.\\ They\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\find\\ that\\ weighting\\ helps\\ to\\ better\\ predict\\ the\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ 2000\\ presidential\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\election\\ but\\ that\\ it\\ produces\\ a\\ poorer\\ model\\ over\\ a\\ wider\\ set\\ of\\ elections\\.\\ For\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\other\\ non\\-incumbent\\ elections\\,\\ weighting\\ only\\ improves\\ predictions\\ for\\ the\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\election\\.\\ Given\\ that\\ the\\ 2000\\ election\\ was\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ ordinary\\,\\ it\\ is\\ concluded\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\that\\ presidential\\ forecasts\\ are\\ best\\ when\\ they\\ ignore\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\incumbent\\ is\\ running\\.\\ Indeed\\,\\ the\\ 2000\\ election\\ did\\ not\\ follow\\ the\\ forecasting\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\patterns\\ expected\\ by\\ political\\ scientists\\.\\ Thus\\,\\ tailoring\\ models\\ to\\ best\\ predict\\ a\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\once\\-in\\-a\\-century\\ outcome\\ is\\ too\\ high\\ a\\ sacrifice\\ to\\ make\\ when\\ dealing\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\very\\ little\\ empirical\\ evidence\\ that\\ the\\ adaptations\\ are\\ even\\ appropriate\\ for\\ non\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\incumbent\\ elections\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ Terms\\ From\\ These\\ Readings\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Election\\ forecasting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Predicting\\ the\\ winner\\ of\\ a\\ political\\ election\\ by\\ various\\ statistical\\ and\\ non\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\statistical\\ methods\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Statistical\\ models\\ \\(or\\ econometric\\ models\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Mathematical\\ models\\ that\\ predict\\ the\\ winner\\ of\\ an\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\election\\ as\\ a\\ function\\ of\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ economy\\ and\\ the\\ attitude\\ toward\\ the\\ incumbent\\ president\\ or\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\party\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Public\\ opinion\\ polls\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Surveys\\ of\\ random\\ samples\\ representative\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ that\\ indicate\\ public\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\preference\\ for\\ one\\ candidate\\ over\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Prediction\\ markets\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Political\\ stock\\ markets\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ higher\\ candidate\\ stock\\ value\\ forecasts\\ a\\ higher\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\share\\ of\\ the\\ popular\\ vote\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Systematic\\ Bias\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ The\\ tendency\\ of\\ a\\ process\\ to\\ favor\\ a\\ particular\\ outcome\\.\\ Can\\ result\\ when\\ polling\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\procedures\\ do\\ not\\ account\\ for\\ response\\ bias\\,\\ non\\-response\\ bias\\,\\ sample\\ bias\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Weighting\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Refers\\ to\\ the\\ subjective\\ weighting\\ of\\ variables\\ within\\ statistical\\ or\\ econometric\\ models\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\James\\ Campbell\\ and\\ Michael\\ Lewis\\-Beck\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;US\\ Presidential\\ Election\\ Forecasting\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\International\\ Journal\\ of\\ Forecasting\\,\\ vol\\.\\ 24\\,\\ no\\.\\ 2\\,\\ April\\-June\\,\\ 2008\\,\\ pp\\.\\ 237\\-321\\,\\ Articles\\ 7\\-12\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Article\\ 7\\:\\ Forecasting\\ non\\-incumbent\\ presidential\\ elections\\:\\ Lessons\\ learned\\ from\\ the\\ 2000\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ We\\ are\\ faced\\ with\\ a\\ unique\\ situation\\ this\\ year\\ without\\ an\\ incumbent\\ President\\ or\\ Vice\\ President\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\running\\ in\\ the\\ election\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ The\\ experiences\\ of\\ 2000\\ lead\\ to\\ 3\\ major\\ questions\\ about\\ how\\ forecasting\\ models\\ should\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\address\\ non\\-incumbent\\ elections\\ in\\ the\\ future\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Was\\ the\\ 2000\\ election\\ typical\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Should\\ models\\ be\\ updated\\ to\\ account\\ for\\ successor\\ candidates\\,\\ and\\ how\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Do\\ appropriate\\ methods\\ for\\ updating\\ models\\ lead\\ to\\ better\\ election\\ forecasts\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Back\\-casting\\ the\\ 2000\\ Election\\ Results\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Surprising\\ to\\ political\\ scientists\\,\\ who\\ predicted\\ a\\ Gore\\ victory\\ by\\ a\\ landslide\\,\\ was\\ that\\ Gore\\ lost\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\despite\\ having\\ been\\ part\\ of\\ an\\ administration\\ that\\ had\\ overseen\\ 2\\ terms\\ of\\ peace\\ and\\ prosperity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Some\\ people\\ suggest\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ inaccurate\\ to\\ forecast\\ such\\ a\\ comfortable\\ victory\\ for\\ Gore\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\based\\ on\\ success\\ of\\ Clinton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ two\\ terms\\ because\\ Gore\\ was\\ just\\ the\\ VP\\,\\ and\\ not\\ the\\ President\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\therefore\\ not\\ directly\\ responsible\\ in\\ people\\&rsquo\\;s\\ minds\\ for\\ this\\ prosperity\\,\\ especially\\ when\\ he\\ was\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\going\\ around\\ declaring\\ that\\ he\\ would\\ lead\\ people\\ to\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;more\\ prosperous\\ America\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Some\\ people\\ think\\ that\\ forecasters\\ would\\ have\\ more\\ accurately\\ predicted\\ how\\ Clinton\\ would\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\have\\ performed\\ in\\ running\\ again\\,\\ and\\ not\\ Gore\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ By\\ back\\-casting\\,\\ and\\ looking\\ back\\ on\\ what\\ was\\ included\\ in\\ forecasting\\ the\\ 2000\\ election\\,\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\what\\ went\\ wrong\\ in\\ the\\ forecasting\\,\\ we\\ find\\ that\\ the\\ high\\ level\\ of\\ presidential\\ approval\\ before\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\the\\ 2000\\ election\\ was\\ a\\ major\\ factor\\ in\\ throwing\\ off\\ vote\\ projections\\ for\\ Gore\\.\\ This\\ approval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\was\\ attributed\\ to\\ Gore\\,\\ but\\ should\\ technically\\ have\\ been\\ treated\\ as\\ high\\ approval\\ of\\ Clinton\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Should\\ we\\ then\\ manipulate\\ approval\\ numbers\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ as\\ to\\ punish\\ a\\ candidate\\ from\\ the\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\incumbent\\ party\\ who\\ is\\ not\\ the\\ president\\?\\ No\\.\\ The\\ 2000\\ election\\ seems\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ slightly\\ unique\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\case\\ where\\ discounting\\ values\\ of\\ economic\\ growth\\ or\\ presidential\\ approval\\ for\\ successor\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\candidates\\ would\\ help\\ aid\\ forecasting\\.\\ It\\ ultimately\\ harms\\ the\\ forecasting\\ exercise\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ Methods\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Using\\ 72\\ models\\,\\ they\\ identify\\ and\\ test\\ 3\\ concepts\\ that\\ are\\ used\\ in\\ most\\ forecasting\\ models\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Presidential\\ approval\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Objective\\ economic\\ indicators\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\o\\ Subjective\\ economic\\ evaluations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ Their\\ goal\\ was\\ to\\ figure\\ out\\ certain\\ simple\\ weights\\ to\\ assign\\ to\\ successor\\ candidates\\ by\\ which\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\they\\ would\\ receive\\ partial\\ credit\\ for\\ the\\ successes\\ and\\ failures\\ of\\ the\\ incumbent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#9642\\;\\ \\(There\\ is\\ a\\ lot\\ of\\ mathematical\\ information\\ here\\ about\\ how\\ they\\ went\\ about\\ collecting\\ data\\ and\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\compiling\\ results\\.\\.\\.You\\ can\\ read\\ more\\ here\\:\\ http\\:\\/\\/www\\.sciencedirect\\.com\\.ezp\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\prod1\\.hul\\.harvard\\.edu\\/science\\?\\_ob\\=ArticleURL\\&\\;\\_udi\\=B6V92\\-4SCTMTB\\-\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\&\\;\\_user\\=209690\\&\\;\\_coverDate\\=06\\%2F30\\%2F2008\\&\\;\\_rdoc\\=7\\&\\;\\_fmt\\=high\\&\\;\\_orig\\=browse\\&\\;\\_sr\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 47, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Government_1359_Midterm_Study_Guide.pdf", "desc": "Final Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-10 21:59:56.113634+00:00", "embed_url": "https://www.googleapis.com/drive/v2/files/0BxQTQvih3wH9bFItS21iLWt0b0k", "name": "Aggregate Demand Components.pdf", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 849, "html": null, "course_id": 10, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Aggregate Demand Components.pdf", "desc": "Aggregate Demand Components - Helpful Hint "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "American Art and Modernity - Notes 3", "tags": ["harvard", "american-art", "modernity"], "text": null, "id": 59, "html": "\\\\\\HAA172w\\_\\-\\_Class\\_Notes\\_3\\_1\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\\\@import\\ url\\(\\'https\\:\\/\\/themes\\.googleusercontent\\.com\\/fonts\\/css\\?kit\\=wAPX1HepqA24RkYW1AuHYA\\'\\)\\;ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c10\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c14\\{max\\-width\\:432pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 90pt\\ 72pt\\ 90pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c2\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c0\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c17\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:144pt\\}\\.c7\\{font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Calibri\\\"\\}\\.c8\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c13\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c6\\{height\\:12pt\\}\\.c18\\{margin\\-left\\:54pt\\}\\.c19\\{margin\\-left\\:27pt\\}\\.c12\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c4\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c11\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\WEEK\\ 2\\:\\ \\ \\;WAR\\,\\ MEMORY\\,\\ AND\\ THE\\ UNREPRESENTABLE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 3\\:\\ \\ \\;RECONSTRUCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 4\\:\\ \\ \\;RETHINKING\\ THE\\ REAL\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 5\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ GILDED\\ AGE\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 6\\:\\ \\ \\;FORMS\\ OF\\ EXTINCTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 7\\:\\ \\ \\;FLASH\\ AND\\ FLICKER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 8\\ \\:\\ \\ \\;URBAN\\ SPECTACLES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 9\\:\\ \\ \\;THE\\ RISE\\ OF\\ THE\\ MACHINES\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 10\\:\\ \\ \\;EXILES\\ AND\\ COSMOPLITANISM\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 11\\:\\ \\ \\;ACTION\\ \\/\\ ABSTRACTION\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;CHANCE\\ OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ April\\ 24\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fifties\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ I\\ \\(Painting\\ after\\ Abstract\\ Expressionism\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\AEs\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ receive\\ approval\\ o\\ mainstream\\ culture\\ that\\ artists\\ have\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ until\\ later\\ in\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ as\\ widely\\ loved\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ now\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ there\\ wrk\\ was\\,\\ even\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ already\\ beginning\\ 2b\\ incorporated\\ in2\\ design\\ n\\ advertisements\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jackson\\ Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Autumn\\ Rhythm\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Cecil\\ Beaton\\,\\ Fashion\\ photograph\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Vogue\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ March\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\By\\ mid\\ 50s\\,\\ AE\\ being\\ appropriated\\ by\\ US\\ govt\\,\\ used\\ as\\ foreign\\ policy\\ tour\\,\\ as\\ symbol\\ o\\ US\\ freedom\\ n\\ openness\\.\\ \\ \\;Toured\\ throughout\\ EU\\ in\\ 50s\\,\\ used\\ during\\ Cold\\ War\\ as\\ foreign\\ policy\\ tool\\ 2show\\ US\\ artists\\ were\\ able\\ 2express\\ themselves\\ in\\ any\\ way\\ they\\ liked\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\ seen\\ as\\ symbol\\ o\\ freedom\\ rather\\ than\\ necessarily\\ an\\ enactment\\ of\\ freedom\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ acceptance\\ n\\ appreciation\\ \\=\\ serious\\ problem\\ 4form\\ o\\ art\\ making\\ that\\ depended\\ on\\ uncorrupted\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\ defined\\ itself\\ as\\ being\\ outside\\ explicit\\ policical\\ ideologies\\,\\ outside\\ commercial\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2have\\ this\\ photo\\ in\\ Vogue\\ was\\ sort\\ o\\ a\\ problem\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AEs\\ began\\ 2have\\ 2much\\ success\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ artists\\ began\\ 2\\ \\(gasp\\!\\)\\ make\\ money\\.\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\ died\\ in\\ 1957\\ car\\ crash\\ but\\ his\\ pntgs\\ sold\\ really\\ well\\ soon\\ after\\ his\\ death\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\ artists\\ could\\ no\\ longer\\ claim\\ 2b\\ struggling\\ financially\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Every\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ started\\ tossing\\ aside\\ old\\ methods\\ n\\ using\\ AE\\ tactics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\ began\\ 2b\\ seen\\ as\\ academic\\,\\ n\\ thus\\,\\ stale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Yard\\ after\\ yard\\ o\\ AE\\ begins\\ showing\\ up\\ in\\ cities\\.\\ \\ \\;Problematic\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ whole\\ pnt\\ o\\ AE\\ is\\ 2b\\ the\\ outsider\\ art\\ struggling\\ against\\ adversity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\AE\\ highly\\ linked\\ 2doctrine\\ o\\ spontanaeity\\,\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ pnts\\ one\\ can\\ identify\\.\\ \\ \\;Many\\ critics\\ wrkng\\ in\\ 1950s\\ have\\ some\\ tale\\ o\\ some\\ moment\\ at\\ which\\ they\\ realized\\ the\\ heyday\\ o\\ AE\\ was\\ over\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ moment\\:\\ \\ \\;Sandler\\,\\ a\\ critic\\,\\ in\\ 1958\\,\\ was\\ hanging\\ out\\ w\\ other\\ artists\\ n\\,\\ remembering\\ the\\ moment\\,\\ said\\ \\&ldquo\\;yet\\ another\\ artist\\ got\\ up\\,\\ struck\\ anguished\\ pose\\,\\ then\\ said\\,\\ when\\ I\\ pnt\\ I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ know\\ what\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ doing\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;someone\\ in\\ the\\ crowd\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;after\\ 20\\ years\\?\\?\\!\\?\\!\\?\\!\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;he\\ was\\ made\\ a\\ fool\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\N\\ the\\ spontanaeity\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ wear\\ well\\ over\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ an\\ artist\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\,\\ deciding\\ what\\ 2do\\ w\\ ur\\ career\\,\\ what\\ do\\ u\\ do\\ next\\?\\ \\ \\;Where\\ do\\ u\\ go\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ 2get\\ out\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ even\\ if\\ it\\ is\\ stale\\ by\\ now\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2get\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ towering\\ shadow\\ o\\ Pollock\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Hans\\ Namuth\\,\\ Photograph\\ of\\ Pollock\\ working\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Artists\\ developed\\ certain\\ aspects\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ left\\ others\\ behind\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Look\\ at\\ what\\ artists\\ did\\ n\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ o\\ the\\ towering\\ example\\ o\\ AE\\ w\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ all\\ struggling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Right\\ around\\ 1955\\ we\\ see\\ watershed\\ o\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ main\\ paths\\ begin\\ 2\\ b\\ traced\\.\\ \\ \\;Inheritance\\ o\\ AE\\ opening\\ up\\ along\\ the\\ lines\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ bw\\ the\\ 2\\ articles\\ o\\ Clement\\ Greeberg\\ n\\ Harold\\ Rosenberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdgs\\ o\\ AE\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ era\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Full\\ Fathom\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1947\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ about\\ totally\\ different\\ lessons\\ Greenberg\\ n\\ Rosenerg\\ drew\\ form\\ this\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ Both\\ ahd\\ valid\\,\\ but\\ incomplete\\ interpretations\\.\\ \\ \\;Each\\ opened\\ up\\ a\\ path\\ 4following\\ AE\\ 4later\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\:\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ he\\ moved\\ pntg\\ along\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;drive\\ to\\ flatness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;What\\ G\\ saw\\ in\\ Pollock\\:\\ \\ \\;interested\\ in\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ non\\-bounding\\ line\\ that\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ last\\ wk\\,\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ nonbounding\\ lines\\ adheres\\ 2the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\ instead\\ o\\ creating\\ bodies\\ n\\ contours\\ n\\ depths\\ that\\ supposedly\\ exist\\ behindthe\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ ptng\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ Pollock\\ has\\ distributed\\ the\\ marks\\ evenly\\ all\\ the\\ way\\ across\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntgs\\,\\ so\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ any\\ single\\ focus\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\ n\\ thereby\\ set\\ up\\ notions\\ o\\ hierarchy\\ n\\ notions\\ o\\ depth\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\ likes\\ its\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\-overness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Frequently\\ used\\ term\\ 2describe\\ the\\ composition\\ o\\ AE\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ entire\\ pntgs\\ has\\ even\\ distribution\\ o\\ forms\\,\\ which\\ also\\ helps\\ create\\ the\\ impression\\ o\\ flatness\\ that\\ G\\ is\\ interested\\ in\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ all\\ helps\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ seem\\ flat\\,\\ n\\ this\\,\\ this\\ flatness\\,\\ 4\\ G\\,\\ brings\\ pntg\\ in\\ the\\ direction\\ o\\ its\\ ultimate\\ purity\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ flat\\ pntg\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ getting\\ mixed\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ other\\ arts\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interested\\ in\\ medium\\ specificity\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ ea\\ art\\ has\\ 2become\\ \\&ldquo\\;entrenched\\ in\\ its\\ area\\ o\\ competence\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;G\\ interested\\ in\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rejection\\ o\\ tactility\\,\\ narrative\\ \\(2close\\ 2gtheater\\)\\,\\ 3\\-dimensionality\\ \\(2close\\ 2sculpture\\)\\,\\ the\\ essence\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ a\\ flat\\ plane\\,\\ n\\ great\\ modern\\ pntg\\ has\\ 2proclaim\\ n\\ develop\\ its\\ essence\\ as\\ a\\ flat\\ plane\\.\\ \\ \\;4G\\,\\ P\\ leads\\ the\\ way\\ 2the\\ absolute\\ refinement\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;While\\ there\\ is\\ depth\\ suggested\\ here\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ purely\\ optical\\ depth\\,\\ one\\ u\\ can\\ only\\ traverse\\ w\\ ur\\ eye\\ n\\ not\\ ur\\ body\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Keep\\ in\\ mind\\ that\\ G\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reading\\ o\\ Pollock\\ is\\ very\\ reductive\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ about\\ the\\ essence\\ o\\ pntg\\ n\\ avoiding\\ contamination\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ 3\\-D\\ space\\,\\ no\\ narrative\\,\\ just\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4G\\,\\ P\\ \\=\\ cog\\ in\\ great\\ wheel\\ o\\ progress\\ o\\ pntg\\ as\\ it\\ slowly\\ follows\\ its\\ drive\\ 2flatness\\ n\\ becomes\\ a\\ purely\\ flat\\ plane\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\&rsquo\\;s\\ rdg\\ \\=\\ reductive\\ n\\ narrow\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ really\\ influential\\ 4pntrs\\ following\\ P\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ n\\ 60s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Helen\\ Frankethaler\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mountains\\ and\\ Sea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1952\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Color\\ field\\ pntrs\\ Frankenthaler\\ is\\ sometimes\\ called\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ worked\\ in\\ similar\\ way\\ 2P\\,\\ placed\\ her\\ unprimed\\ cnavases\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ wrkng\\ in\\ large\\ scale\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\ had\\ different\\ approach\\ 2way\\ color\\ n\\ canvas\\ interacted\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ invented\\ new\\ process\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;soak\\ stain\\ technique\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ she\\ used\\ not\\ gloppy\\ viscous\\ house\\ pnt\\ that\\ P\\ did\\ but\\ very\\ thinned\\ down\\ oil\\ pnts\\ which\\ she\\&rsquo\\;d\\ pour\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ push\\ around\\ using\\ sponges\\,\\ in2\\ variuos\\ pools\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bc\\ pnt\\ \\=\\ very\\ thinned\\ down\\,\\ it\\ quickly\\ separated\\ in2\\ the\\ unprimed\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;Turpentine\\ halo\\ around\\ the\\ bodies\\ o\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ where\\ mineral\\ pigments\\ have\\ remained\\ in\\ coherent\\ body\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ but\\ the\\ turpentine\\ separates\\ out\\ form\\ them\\,\\ creating\\ angelic\\ halo\\ behind\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ did\\ this\\ as\\ well\\,\\ but\\ F\\ took\\ that\\ aspect\\ o\\ the\\ pnt\\,\\ the\\ soaking\\ in2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ made\\ that\\ the\\ aspect\\ o\\ her\\ pntg\\ that\\ she\\ wanted\\ 2develop\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ color\\ \\=\\ totally\\ continuous\\ w\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\ in\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\,\\ so\\ no\\ longer\\ any\\ distinction\\ bw\\ canvas\\ n\\ pnt\\ in\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\.\\ No\\ distinction\\ bw\\ \\&ldquo\\;medium\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;pnt\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;canvas\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Canvas\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ support\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ becomes\\ the\\ home\\ o\\ the\\ color\\.\\ \\ \\;G\\ was\\ really\\ psyched\\ about\\ this\\ bc\\ P\\ also\\ had\\ amazingly\\ flat\\,\\ optical\\ color\\,\\ but\\ w\\ F\\,\\ color\\ becomes\\ almost\\ entirely\\ ethereal\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\ said\\ about\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ more\\ closely\\ color\\ could\\ b\\ identified\\ w\\ the\\ ground\\,\\ the\\ freer\\ it\\ could\\ b\\ from\\ tactile\\ associations\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Morris\\ Lewis\\ \\=\\ pntr\\ in\\ Washington\\ DC\\.\\ \\ \\;Talked\\ about\\ having\\ a\\ hard\\ time\\ wrkng\\ himself\\ out\\ from\\ under\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\.\\ \\ \\;When\\ he\\ saw\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\,\\ he\\ thought\\ it\\ was\\ a\\ bridge\\ bw\\ P\\ n\\ what\\ was\\ possible\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ following\\ that\\ bridge\\,\\ he\\ made\\ images\\ like\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Morris\\ Louis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Faces\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1959\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\No\\ way\\ 2do\\ anything\\ but\\ sit\\ in\\ stunned\\ silence\\ at\\ the\\ incredible\\ beauty\\ o\\ this\\ pnt\\.g\\ \\ \\;this\\ pntg\\ \\=\\ 11\\&rsquo\\;x7\\.5\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;huge\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lewis\\ moved\\ from\\ oil\\ pnts\\ 2acrylic\\,\\ changing\\ the\\ way\\ pnt\\ interacted\\ w\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ way\\ pnt\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ immediately\\ soak\\ in2\\ the\\ canvas\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ F\\&rsquo\\;s\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ it\\ flooded\\ across\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ soak\\ in\\ as\\ quickly\\,\\ allowing\\ Morris\\ 2control\\ its\\ soaking\\ in2\\ the\\ canvas\\ more\\.\\ \\ \\;Morris\\ would\\ tilt\\ it\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ flow\\ down\\,\\ so\\ u\\ get\\ this\\ river\\ like\\ motion\\ o\\ pnt\\ down\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Canvas\\ ain\\&rsquo\\;t\\ flat\\ on\\ ground\\,\\ but\\ tilted\\ by\\ pntr\\ 2control\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ \\=\\ pnt\\ brush\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ \\(they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;veil\\ series\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ cover\\ lighter\\ colors\\ w\\ darker\\,\\ browner\\ colors\\,\\ n\\ u\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ birghtr\\ colors\\ peeking\\ out\\ from\\ the\\ veil\\ above\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ images\\ have\\ strong\\ architectural\\ structure\\ 2them\\,\\ wqhich\\ dreives\\ from\\ how\\ they\\ emerge\\ out\\ o\\ these\\ divided\\ lines\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ lines\\ that\\ divided\\ it\\ in\\ half\\ r\\ marks\\ made\\ by\\ temporary\\ stretches\\ asttached\\ 2hte\\ back\\ o\\ the\\ ptgs\\ as\\ they\\ were\\ made\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ studio\\ \\=\\ 2small\\ 2make\\ pntgs\\ this\\ big\\,\\ so\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;he\\ did\\ the\\ left\\ side\\,\\ then\\ he\\ did\\ the\\ right\\ side\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ actual\\ size\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ studio\\ is\\ inscribed\\ in2\\ these\\ pntgs\\ in\\ an\\ interesting\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Louis\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Number\\ 99\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ featured\\ multidirectional\\ pouring\\.\\ \\ \\;Tehse\\ pntgs\\ appear\\ as\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ expanding\\ outsward\\,\\ ut\\ they\\ were\\ produced\\ by\\ pouring\\ the\\ paint\\ from\\ the\\ outside\\ toward\\ the\\ center\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Produced\\ an\\ optical\\ experience\\ ot\\ he\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ color\\ n\\ the\\ form\\ was\\ entirely\\ coterminous\\ w\\ the\\ flat\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ distinction\\ bw\\ medium\\ n\\ support\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ have\\ not\\ been\\ very\\ well\\ studied\\ in\\ thepast\\ 20\\/30\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\G\\ has\\ been\\ out\\ o\\ favor\\ over\\ past\\ 30\\ yrs\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ he\\ championed\\ F\\ n\\ Louis\\,\\ their\\ wrk\\ has\\ fallen\\ out\\ o\\ favor\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Prof\\ highly\\ recommends\\ looking\\ at\\ wrks\\ like\\ Louis\\.\\ \\ \\;Their\\ wrk\\ is\\ far\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ G\\&rsquo\\;s\\ reductive\\ reading\\ would\\ suggest\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ images\\ have\\ imptnt\\ connections\\ w\\ later\\ wrk\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\,\\ 70s\\,\\ w\\ environmental\\ art\\,\\ video\\ art\\,\\ that\\ r\\ only\\ now\\ being\\ discovered\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ we\\ move\\ from\\ color\\ field\\ pntg\\ 2\\ the\\ other\\ approach\\ 2AE\\,\\ the\\ other\\ path\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ Rosenberg\\ reading\\ parth\\ n\\ what\\ R\\ thought\\ was\\ imptnt\\ about\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Remember\\ art\\ is\\ artificial\\ n\\ overgeneralized\\,\\ n\\ this\\ is\\ created\\ by\\ the\\ critical\\ apparatus\\ o\\ art\\ history\\ at\\ the\\ moment\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Full\\ Fathom\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenberg\\ \\(Ro\\)\\ interested\\ that\\ P\\ creates\\ new\\ process\\ instead\\ o\\ final\\ otpical\\ product\\.\\ \\ \\;Interested\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ the\\ pntr\\ is\\ collaborating\\ w\\ the\\ materials\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ sees\\ Pollock\\ expanding\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;painting\\ offers\\ its\\ hand\\ 2pantommime\\ n\\ dance\\.\\ \\ \\;Breaking\\ down\\ every\\ distinction\\ bw\\ art\\ n\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ leaves\\ the\\ door\\ open\\ 4cross\\ pollination\\ in\\ the\\ arts\\,\\ n\\ between\\ the\\ different\\ aveneues\\ o\\ art\\ that\\ G\\ was\\ so\\ interested\\ in\\ isolating\\.\\ \\ \\;Ro\\ intesterstesed\\ in\\ cross\\-pollination\\.\\ \\ \\;Interested\\ in\\ art\\ outside\\ the\\ frame\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ material\\ qualiteies\\ o\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ on\\ later\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\ in\\ his\\ rdg\\ is\\ interested\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ wrk\\ as\\ optical\\,\\ but\\ instead\\ on\\ the\\ inescapable\\ gloppy\\ materiality\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ way\\ that\\ it\\ includes\\ all\\ kinds\\ o\\ material\\ n\\ tactile\\ associations\\ on\\ its\\ very\\ surface\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\ also\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ P\\ allows\\ 4a\\ new\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ in\\ particular\\,\\ o\\ something\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ receptive\\ surface\\,\\ almost\\ a\\ photographic\\ or\\ indexical\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ro\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ recedes\\ in2\\ the\\ activities\\ o\\ the\\ world\\ upon\\ it\\,\\ that\\ is\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ movement\\ above\\ the\\ canvas\\ as\\ he\\ wrks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ rest\\ o\\ our\\ class\\ will\\ follow\\ THIS\\ path\\ out\\ o\\ P\\:\\ \\ \\;inclusiveness\\,\\ corss\\-pollination\\ o\\ media\\,\\ 2see\\ what\\ artists\\ interested\\ in\\ TEHSE\\ aspects\\ o\\ AE\\ did\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ n\\ onward\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ra\\ noticed\\ quickly\\ about\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\,\\ seized\\ upon\\ it\\,\\ n\\ made\\ it\\ an\\ aspect\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ imptnce\\ o\\ the\\ canvasas\\ a\\ receptive\\ surface\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\7\\ panel\\ version\\ done\\ in\\ 1951\\.\\ \\ \\;lets\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ pntg\\ as\\ a\\ recording\\ intsturment\\ might\\ be\\ developed\\ further\\ in\\ a\\ wrk\\ like\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ the\\ best\\,\\ purest\\ example\\ o\\ the\\ impurity\\ that\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ suggested\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ consists\\ o\\ 7\\ panels\\ joined\\ 2gether\\,\\ not\\ raw\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ pntd\\ ea\\ panel\\ w\\ white\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;Experimenting\\ w\\ ideas\\ about\\ abstraction\\ n\\ receptivity\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ how\\ this\\ might\\ seem\\ 2b\\ the\\ ideal\\ pntg\\ 4G\\:\\ \\ \\;no\\ pntg\\,\\ just\\ flat\\ surface\\!\\ \\ \\;Yahoo\\!\\ \\ \\;This\\ would\\ be\\ the\\ ultimate\\ in\\ a\\ reductive\\ understanding\\ o\\ pntg\\ post\\-AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\,\\ by\\ refusing\\ 2offer\\ any\\ image\\ or\\ pattern\\ o\\ their\\ own\\,\\ they\\ serve\\ as\\ receptive\\ surfaces\\ 4the\\ world\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ saw\\ these\\ pntgs\\ not\\ as\\ empty\\,\\ but\\ as\\ constantly\\ n\\ shiftingly\\ full\\ w\\ the\\ things\\ that\\ r\\ happening\\ around\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ hyper\\ sensitive\\ 2their\\ own\\ surroundings\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;one\\ could\\ see\\ how\\ many\\ ppl\\ weer\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ based\\ on\\ the\\ shadows\\ cast\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ often\\ exhibited\\ in\\ gallery\\ w\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ work\\,\\ serving\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tiness\\&rdquo\\;\\ 2the\\ other\\ pntgs\\ around\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ pntgs\\ r\\ about\\ absolute\\ vulnerability\\ 2the\\ physical\\ conditions\\ o\\ its\\ own\\ exhibition\\.\\ \\ \\;Proclaims\\ that\\ the\\ fnctn\\ o\\ art\\ is\\ not\\ 2provide\\ its\\ own\\ image\\ o\\ life\\,\\ but\\ 2provide\\ a\\ framing\\ or\\ bracketing\\ fnctn\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ \\=\\ bracketing\\ operation\\ that\\ draws\\ attn\\ 2exterior\\ life\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ pntg\\ totally\\ exposed\\ 2the\\ things\\ going\\ on\\ adjacent\\ 2it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ have\\ had\\ enormous\\ impact\\ on\\ later\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\ \\;artists\\ wrkng\\ in\\ other\\ media\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ this\\,\\ n\\ inthat\\ way\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ non\\-G\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ prominent\\ ppl\\ influenced\\ by\\ these\\ pntgs\\ was\\ a\\ radical\\ experimental\\ composer\\ named\\ John\\ Cage\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\ at\\ Stable\\ Gallery\\ exhibition\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\John\\ Cage\\ preparing\\ a\\ piano\\,\\ before\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ repeated\\ stuck\\ things\\ in2\\ the\\ piano\\ wires\\ in\\ order\\ 2make\\ new\\ sounds\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Cage\\,\\ upon\\ seeing\\ the\\ White\\ pntgs\\,\\ did\\ several\\ things\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Essay\\ 4our\\ rdg\\ said\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ white\\ pntgs\\ \\=\\ airports\\ 4light\\,\\ shadows\\,\\ n\\ particles\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ pntgs\\ inspired\\ him\\ 2\\ do\\ his\\ most\\ famous\\ composition\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;4\\ minutes\\ n\\ 33\\ seconds\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;A\\ musical\\ piece\\ composed\\ byCage\\ which\\ oncsists\\ o\\ a\\ pianist\\ coming\\ on2\\ a\\ stage\\,\\ sistting\\ at\\ the\\ piano\\ 4\\ the\\ duration\\ o\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\ r\\ 3\\ movements\\ in\\ the\\ piece\\,\\ shown\\ by\\ the\\ composer\\ opening\\ n\\ closing\\ the\\ piano\\ cover\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ wrk\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;performed\\ in\\ Woodstock\\,\\ NY\\ 1952\\,\\ in\\ auditorium\\ open\\ at\\ the\\ back\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ ppl\\ found\\ as\\ they\\ listend\\ 2the\\ piece\\,\\ was\\ not\\ that\\ the\\ picee\\ was\\ about\\ silence\\,\\ but\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ about\\ sound\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ the\\ performer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sound\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ambient\\ sounds\\ constantly\\ surrounding\\ them\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ found\\ themselves\\ suddenly\\ intensely\\ aware\\ o\\ the\\ rain\\ alling\\ outside\\,\\ the\\ wind\\ blowing\\ through\\ the\\ trees\\,\\ embarrassedly\\ aware\\ o\\ their\\ own\\ perplexed\\ mutterings\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ this\\,\\ too\\,\\ in\\ the\\ realm\\ o\\ musical\\ composition\\,\\ was\\ a\\ bracketing\\ o\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Using\\ art\\ 2draw\\ attn\\ 2the\\ aspects\\ o\\ life\\ normally\\ missed\\/ignored\\,\\ particularly\\ by\\ artists\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ radical\\ notion\\ o\\ art\\ as\\ something\\ not\\ meant\\ 2depict\\ the\\ world\\,\\ not\\ 2tarnscend\\ it\\,\\ but\\ 2refocus\\ attn\\ on2\\ the\\ existing\\,\\ ignored\\ aspects\\ o\\ everyday\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Final\\ quote\\ from\\ Cage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ alludes\\ 2the\\ fact\\ these\\ pntgs\\ were\\ seen\\ not\\ as\\ withdrawing\\,\\ but\\ as\\ incredibly\\ generous\\,\\ complex\\ baroque\\ pntgs\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ they\\ allowed\\ every\\ tiny\\ variation\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ to\\ b\\ prescribed\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ra\\ became\\ the\\ giver\\ o\\ gifts\\.\\ \\ \\;Gifts\\ r\\ ways\\ o\\ saying\\ yes\\ 2how\\ it\\ is\\,\\ a\\ holiday\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\What\\ happened\\ 2\\ Duchamp\\ n\\ the\\ Fountain\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Another\\ white\\ work\\,\\ we\\ might\\ say\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ example\\ looms\\ larger\\ n\\ larger\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ n\\ 60s\\.\\ \\ \\;in\\ Fountain\\,\\ Duchamp\\ experiemneted\\ w\\ idea\\ that\\ meaning\\ o\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ is\\ altered\\ based\\ on\\ ts\\ meaning\\ n\\ its\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ one\\ room\\,\\ ppl\\ pee\\ in\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ other\\ room\\,\\ ppl\\ gaze\\ w\\ rsepctful\\ wonder\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ suspciition\\ that\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\ granted\\ mng\\ only\\ by\\ their\\ imbeddedness\\ in\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\White\\ Paintings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;proclaim\\ the\\ vultneralbiltiy\\ o\\ the\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;White\\ paintings\\ like\\ Fountain\\ in\\ that\\ Ra\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ convceptual\\ aspects\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ questioning\\ n\\ thinking\\ thru\\ these\\ wrks\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Duchamp\\ in\\ NYC\\ in\\ the\\ 40s\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ divided\\ his\\ time\\ in\\ the\\ 20s\\ n\\ 30s\\ bw\\ Paris\\ n\\ NYC\\,\\ returned\\ 2nyc\\ in\\ 1942\\,\\ where\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ spend\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ his\\ life\\ playing\\ chess\\ n\\ wrkng\\ on\\ art\\ that\\ he\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exhibit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ not\\ directly\\ drawing\\ upon\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ example\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ had\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ indirect\\ influence\\ on\\ Ra\\.\\ \\ \\;Ra\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ see\\ Duchamp\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ until\\ after\\ he\\&rsquo\\;d\\ produced\\ the\\ white\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ Duchamp\\ was\\ imptn\\ 4\\ Ra\\ bc\\ he\\ provided\\ endorsement\\ 4Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ own\\ questioning\\ attitude\\ o\\ art\\ that\\ came\\ b4\\ him\\.\\ \\ \\;Ra\\ had\\ agoodnatured\\ but\\ devastinting\\ iconoclasm\\ as\\ he\\ wrkd\\ thru\\ his\\ predecessors\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legacies\\.\\ \\ \\;Similar\\ 2Duchamp\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ like\\ Duchamp\\ n\\ Fountain\\,\\ bleived\\ the\\ work\\ o\\ art\\ was\\ changed\\ according\\ to\\ its\\ placement\\ n\\ context\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ started\\ erasing\\ his\\ own\\ drawings\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ felt\\ they\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ good\\ enough\\ bc\\ he\\ felt\\ his\\ own\\ drawings\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ 100\\%\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Decided\\ he\\ needed\\ 2get\\ a\\ drawing\\ that\\ was\\ stupendous\\ enough\\ that\\ u\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ imagein\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ erased\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ idolizes\\ De\\ Kooning\\ n\\ Pollock\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ wanted\\ a\\ drawing\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ was\\ good\\ enough\\ 2b\\ missed\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ was\\ given\\ a\\ drawing\\ that\\ was\\ supposedly\\ really\\ hard\\ 2erase\\,\\ done\\ in\\ caryon\\,\\ oil\\ grease\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Willieam\\ de\\ Kooning\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Woman\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1950\\-52\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Took\\ Ra\\ a\\ month\\ n\\ 40\\ erasers\\ 2erase\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ had\\ 2really\\ obeythe\\ drawing\\ beneath\\ in\\ order\\ 2\\ erase\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;2\\ erase\\ a\\ line\\,\\ u\\ have\\ 2\\ reverse\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ line\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;after\\-drawing\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ De\\ Kooning\\ also\\ becomes\\ all\\ the\\ more\\ conspicuous\\ n\\ desirable\\ by\\ the\\ fact\\ it\\ was\\ erased\\.\\ \\ \\;One\\ really\\ wants\\ 2know\\ what\\ it\\ looked\\ like\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ r\\ still\\ ghostly\\ marks\\ on\\ the\\ sheet\\ that\\ stubbornly\\ resisted\\ his\\ attempts\\ 2erase\\ thim\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ process\\ o\\ erasure\\ mirros\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4\\ De\\ Kooning\\,\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ struggling\\ w\\ this\\ body\\ that\\ was\\ always\\ trying\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ n\\ make\\ itself\\ known\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ also\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ critique\\,\\ definitely\\ a\\ change\\ in\\ terms\\ o\\ how\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ is\\ understood\\ after\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;Erasure\\ \\=\\ retraction\\ o\\ the\\ heroic\\,\\ impulsive\\,\\ gesture\\ associated\\ w\\ AE\\ n\\ especially\\ w\\ De\\ Kooning\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ agitation\\ o\\ the\\ AE\\ brushstroke\\ is\\ transferred\\ fro\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ marking\\ 2the\\ act\\ o\\ erasure\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\An\\ expression\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interior\\,\\ authentic\\ self\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ erasure\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\ instead\\ o\\ its\\ proclamation\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ the\\ authentic\\ personality\\ transformed\\ in2\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ anonymity\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ see\\ this\\ in\\ Johns\\ n\\ others\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Move\\ away\\ from\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;\\ unique\\ personal\\ psyche\\ 2an\\ erasure\\ o\\ the\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;s\\ presence\\.\\ \\ \\;Its\\&rsquo\\;\\ about\\ other\\ aspects\\ ot\\ he\\ world\\ besie\\ thearitst\\&rsquo\\;\\ own\\ nteiror\\ self\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ o\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ work\\ explored\\ aspects\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ but\\ removed\\ the\\ element\\ o\\ idnivduality\\ from\\ it\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ interested\\ in\\ exploring\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Red\\ Import\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dirt\\ Painting\\ \\(for\\ John\\ Cage\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Colelction\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Factum\\ I\\ and\\ Factum\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\De\\ Kooning\\,\\ \\"\\;Woman\\ I\\"\\;\\ \\(1950\\-52\\)\\ and\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\"\\;Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\"\\;\\ \\(1953\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\ wanted\\ a\\ drawing\\ good\\ enough\\ to\\ be\\ missed\\,\\ so\\ that\\ he\\ could\\ experiment\\ by\\ erasing\\ it\\.\\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rauschenberg\\ produced\\ the\\ \\"\\;Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\"\\;\\ \\(1953\\)\\ and\\ considered\\ it\\ an\\ absolute\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ that\\ offer\\ both\\ a\\ tribute\\ and\\ a\\ critique\\ of\\ AE\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\ is\\ a\\ tribute\\ since\\ he\\ has\\ to\\ actually\\ follow\\ the\\ original\\ movements\\ of\\ the\\ drawing\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ erase\\ it\\.\\ Becomes\\ more\\ desirable\\ and\\ conspicuous\\ in\\ its\\ absence\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rauschenberg\\&\\#39\\;s\\ process\\ of\\ erasure\\ mirrors\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ painting\\ for\\ De\\ Kooning\\,\\ the\\ struggle\\ with\\ a\\ body\\ attempting\\ to\\ come\\ out\\ and\\ make\\ itself\\ known\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Change\\ of\\ how\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ should\\ be\\ understood\\ after\\ AE\\.\\ The\\ struggle\\ of\\ the\\ AE\\ brushstroke\\ is\\ replaced\\ by\\ the\\ erasure\\.\\ The\\ erasure\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ presence\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ proclamation\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ internal\\ self\\.\\ Paradox\\ of\\ erasure\\ and\\ proclamation\\,\\ present\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Aesthetics\\ of\\ anonymity\\.\\ Erasure\\ of\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ presence\\;\\ the\\ work\\ of\\ art\\ becomes\\ something\\ about\\ other\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ world\\ rather\\ that\\ about\\ the\\ artist\\&\\#39\\;s\\ own\\ heroic\\ individuality\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\"\\;Black\\ painting\\"\\;\\ \\(1951\\,\\ \\"\\;Red\\ import\\"\\;\\ \\(1954\\)\\,\\ \\"\\;Dirt\\ painting\\"\\;\\ \\(1953\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Canvas\\ surface\\ accumulates\\ matter\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ has\\ been\\ gently\\ torn\\ and\\ piled\\ from\\ pieces\\ of\\ paper\\,\\ covered\\ in\\ paint\\ and\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ No\\ gesture\\ that\\ would\\ have\\ been\\ read\\ as\\ such\\ in\\ a\\ AE\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rips\\ and\\ tears\\ of\\ material\\ in\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ Paint\\ hasn\\&\\#39\\;t\\ been\\ applied\\ in\\ an\\ expressive\\ way\\,\\ just\\ to\\ pin\\ and\\ hold\\ the\\ matter\\ to\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Tactile\\ nature\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\ divorced\\ from\\ the\\ autographic\\ gesture\\ AE\\ painters\\ would\\ have\\ given\\ it\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Texture\\ and\\ colour\\ that\\ create\\ a\\ distance\\ material\\ collage\\,\\ not\\ an\\ automatic\\ gesture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Canvas\\ becomes\\ a\\ planting\\ ground\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\"\\;Collection\\"\\;\\ \\(1954\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Combined\\ painting\\,\\ in\\ direct\\ opposition\\ to\\ Greenberg\\ in\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ painting\\ and\\ a\\ sculpture\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\.\\ Hybrid\\ between\\ painting\\ and\\ sculpture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mass\\ reproduced\\ images\\ attached\\ to\\ the\\ surface\\ of\\ the\\ painting\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 12\\:\\ \\ \\;CHANCE\\ OPERATIONS\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ April\\ 26\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fifties\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ II\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\2day\\ we\\ start\\ out\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ white\\ painting\\,\\ finish\\ w\\ his\\ experiments\\ w\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2sday\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ White\\ Paintings\\ logically\\ follow\\ from\\ AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ conception\\ o\\ pntg\\ as\\ receptive\\ surface\\ that\\ captures\\ the\\ actions\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Erased\\ De\\ Kooning\\ Drawing\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1953\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ followed\\ all\\ o\\ De\\ Kooning\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hyperbolic\\ gestures\\,\\ but\\ did\\ so\\ through\\ erasure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Black\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Red\\ Import\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ ca\\.\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Monochrome\\ pntgs\\,\\ like\\ Pollock\\ pntgs\\,\\ show\\ a\\ rich\\,\\ pntrly\\ texture\\,\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\-overness\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ all\\-over\\ composition\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ these\\ r\\ generated\\ thru\\ something\\ that\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ the\\ same\\ as\\ AE\\ gestures\\,\\ not\\ thru\\ a\\ process\\ evoking\\ the\\ deep\\ psychological\\ strata\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ but\\ through\\ the\\ random\\ strata\\ o\\ rags\\ n\\ other\\ pieces\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;junk\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ about\\ all\\ o\\ these\\ wrks\\ as\\ like\\ failed\\ efforts\\ 2reproduce\\ AE\\ I\\ na\\ laboratory\\ setting\\.\\ \\ \\;Seemingly\\ following\\ the\\ rules\\ o\\ AEm\\ but\\ coming\\ up\\ instead\\ w\\ something\\ very\\ different\\,\\ reticent\\,\\ n\\ skeptical\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ psychobiogrpahical\\ earnest\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ o\\ the\\ interior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Think\\ about\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\ as\\ a\\ lab\\ experiment\\ in\\ reproducing\\ or\\ replicating\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Best\\ example\\ o\\ this\\ is\\ a\\ pair\\ o\\ pntgs\\ done\\ in\\ 1957\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Factum\\ I\\ and\\ Factum\\ II\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\An\\ experiment\\ where\\ he\\ literally\\ tried\\ 2pnt\\ the\\ same\\ pntg\\ twice\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ this\\ pntg\\,\\ we\\ have\\ a\\ combination\\ o\\ collage\\ n\\ pntg\\ on\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ both\\ pntgs\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ elements\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ r\\ rushstrokes\\,\\ some\\ newspaper\\ prints\\ n\\ other\\ printed\\ imagery\\ from\\ mass\\-media\\ sources\\.\\ \\ \\;Trees\\,\\ images\\ o\\ Eisenhower\\,\\ printed\\ calendars\\,\\ set\\ o\\ newspaper\\ images\\ o\\ burning\\ bldg\\,\\ a\\ letter\\ T\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ea\\ o\\ these\\ elements\\ done\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ Factum\\ I\\ then\\ replicated\\ in\\ Factum\\ II\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ placed\\ replicated\\ collage\\ images\\ on\\ both\\ canvasses\\,\\ but\\ that\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tried\\ 2replicate\\ the\\ brushstrokes\\ as\\ well\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thye\\ do\\ look\\ like\\ typical\\ AE\\ gestural\\ autographic\\ mark\\ like\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ De\\ Kooning\\,\\ thye\\ look\\ like\\ pure\\ gesture\\,\\ non\\-representational\\,\\ signs\\ o\\ dripping\\ n\\ immediacy\\ n\\ spontanaeity\\,\\ having\\ all\\ the\\ signs\\ o\\ AE\\&rsquo\\;s\\ gestures\\&rsquo\\;\\ unique\\ records\\ o\\ the\\ aritst\\&rsquo\\;s\\ individual\\ psyche\\ n\\ expressive\\ faculties\\ at\\ an\\ ygivenm\\ moent\\,\\ but\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ duplicated\\ in\\ this\\ way\\ calls\\ in2\\ question\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ unique\\ gesture\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\ at\\ any\\ point\\ in\\ time\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ the\\ dripping\\ expressive\\ gesture\\ is\\ no\\ longer\\ the\\ sign\\ o\\ authenticity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ point\\ was\\ 2see\\ what\\ the\\ difference\\ would\\ b\\ bw\\ the\\ emotional\\ content\\ o\\ one\\ pntg\\ against\\ another\\&rsquo\\;s\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ tell\\ the\\ difference\\ bw\\ them\\ after\\ I\\&rsquo\\;d\\ pntd\\ them\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\There\\ is\\,\\ when\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ tehse\\ highly\\ complicated\\ pntgs\\,\\ difference\\.\\ \\ \\;Angle\\ o\\ the\\ images\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exactly\\ correct\\.\\ \\ \\;Color\\ o\\ the\\ paper\\ is\\ different\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Despite\\ attempts\\ 2recreate\\ them\\,\\ they\\ have\\ different\\ angles\\,\\ drip\\ patterns\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ pnt\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ attributable\\ 2differences\\ in\\ RA\\&rsquo\\;s\\ state\\ when\\ he\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ attributable\\ 2chance\\!\\ \\ \\;He\\ tried\\ 2make\\ them\\ equal\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ couldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\,\\ bc\\ they\\ were\\ affected\\ by\\ elements\\ that\\ were\\ outside\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ psychological\\ being\\ rather\\ than\\ inside\\ o\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Repetition\\ is\\ set\\ up\\ in\\ tehse\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ relinquishes\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ the\\ pure\\ gesture\\ can\\ b\\ meek\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ says\\ these\\ images\\ r\\ no\\ different\\ than\\ what\\ u\\ can\\ find\\ in\\ the\\ newspaper\\ n\\ elsewhere\\ in\\ mass\\ image\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ it\\ does\\ preserve\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ uniqueness\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ thing\\ twice\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ gestures\\ r\\ set\\ up\\ as\\ repetitive\\ gestures\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ u\\ have\\ them\\ set\\ up\\ against\\ eo\\,\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ drawn\\ 2compare\\ the\\ details\\ n\\ differences\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\New\\ awareness\\ as\\ well\\ o\\ the\\ possibilities\\ o\\ spontanaeity\\ n\\ change\\,\\ but\\ these\\ pntgs\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ from\\ inside\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ they\\ come\\ from\\ outside\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ time\\ n\\ chance\\ can\\ affect\\ a\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ about\\ authenticity\\ n\\ specificity\\,\\ but\\ not\\ in\\ a\\ traditional\\ way\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ how\\ minor\\ n\\ seemingly\\ chance\\ effects\\ create\\ differences\\ bw\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ r\\ part\\ o\\ essential\\ change\\ in\\ how\\ US\\ art\\ changes\\ how\\ it\\ relates\\ itself\\ 2art\\ outside\\ the\\ US\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ 2the\\ history\\ o\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Shift\\ bw\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\ o\\ art\\ as\\ autonomyous\\ 2one\\ o\\ it\\ being\\ contingent\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\50s\\,\\ 60s\\,\\ 70s\\:\\ \\ \\;notion\\ o\\ contingency\\ o\\ art\\,\\ its\\ absolute\\ dependence\\ on\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ around\\ it\\,\\ becomes\\ foregroudned\\ among\\ Nyc\\ artists\\ n\\ those\\ from\\ elsewhere\\.\\ \\ \\;Authetnticity\\ is\\ generated\\ from\\ art\\&rsquo\\;s\\ contact\\ w\\ the\\ randomness\\ n\\ complexity\\ o\\ the\\ world\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ from\\ the\\ interior\\ doings\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\After\\ Ra\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ this\\ notion\\ o\\ contingency\\,\\ n\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ picking\\ up\\ on\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\,\\ we\\ begin\\ 2see\\ all\\ kinds\\ o\\ artsts\\ doing\\ art\\ characterized\\ by\\ the\\ renunciationo\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ controlling\\ artistic\\ will\\.\\ \\ \\;Artists\\ remove\\ themselves\\ n\\ their\\ personalities\\ from\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ art\\ production\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Second\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ see\\ the\\ incorporation\\ o\\ abject\\ or\\ waste\\ materials\\ coming\\ in2\\ pntg\\,\\ sculpture\\,\\ etc\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Third\\:\\ \\ \\;we\\ being\\ 2see\\ tendency\\ 2grant\\ the\\ viewer\\ a\\ far\\ more\\ active\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ meaning\\ moves\\ from\\ within\\ the\\ pntg\\ 2the\\ outside\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ viewer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Fourth\\:\\ \\ \\;willingness\\ 2allow\\ chance\\ processes\\ n\\ extrinsic\\ factors\\ 2affect\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ new\\ world\\ o\\ art\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ is\\ seen\\ as\\ imprinting\\ itself\\ in\\ every\\ level\\ o\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ art\\,\\ we\\ also\\ see\\ a\\ new\\ level\\ o\\ the\\ representation\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\More\\ on\\ FI\\ n\\ FII\\:\\ \\ \\;how\\ representational\\ images\\ r\\ being\\ handled\\ in\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eisenhower\\ portraits\\,\\ trees\\,\\ burning\\ bldgs\\,\\ etc\\.\\ \\ \\;AE\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ NEVER\\ allowed\\ this\\ imagery\\.\\ \\ \\;Acc\\.\\ 2AE\\ pntrs\\ throughout\\ early\\ 20\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\,\\ the\\ problem\\ w\\ representation\\ was\\ it\\ entailed\\ a\\ loss\\ o\\ immediacy\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ at\\ an\\ image\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ the\\ image\\ points\\ 2something\\ other\\ than\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ takes\\ the\\ viewer\\ away\\ 2somethintg\\/somewhere\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ interesting\\ about\\ FI\\ n\\ FII\\ is\\ that\\ Ra\\,\\ like\\ other\\ artists\\ o\\ the\\ period\\,\\ is\\ trying\\ 2bring\\ images\\ back\\ in2\\ pntg\\,\\ but\\ nevertheless\\ maintaining\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ immediate\\ physical\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Wrk\\ o\\ art\\ shouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ show\\ an\\ experience\\:\\ \\ \\;it\\ should\\ b\\ an\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;Ra\\ wants\\ it\\ 2b\\ immediate\\,\\ physical\\,\\ real\\,\\ present\\,\\ but\\ nonetheless\\ maintain\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ aintiaing\\ reproductions\\ o\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ see\\ Ra\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ this\\ problem\\ n\\ finding\\ ways\\ 2allow\\ the\\ image\\ 2sit\\ in\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ n\\ not\\ lead\\ the\\ viewer\\ away\\ from\\ this\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ Eisenhower\\ having\\ his\\ phtoo\\ taken\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ very\\ material\\ piece\\ o\\ newspaper\\ from\\ the\\ world\\,\\ pasted\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ as\\ a\\ material\\ thing\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Any\\ representational\\ image\\ has\\ a\\ transparency\\ where\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ looking\\ thru\\ it\\ 2somewhere\\ else\\,\\ but\\ it\\ also\\ has\\ a\\ material\\ reality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ra\\ breaking\\ down\\ our\\ tendency\\ 2look\\ thru\\ that\\ image\\ 2somewhere\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ trying\\ 2allow\\ the\\ image\\ 2exist\\ in\\ this\\ new\\ actual\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ suppresses\\ our\\ tendency\\ 2look\\ thru\\ the\\ image\\ 2see\\ Eisenhower\\ himself\\ is\\ by\\ duplicating\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ many\\ images\\ are\\ dupilicated\\ not\\ just\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ canvas\\,\\ but\\ also\\ within\\ each\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\2Eisenhowers\\,\\ 2images\\ o\\ burning\\ bldgs\\,\\ 2trees\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ forces\\ all\\ tehse\\ images\\ 2refer\\ 2\\ eo\\ across\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ ivniting\\ ea\\ one\\ 2b\\ penetrated\\.\\ \\ \\;Our\\ attn\\ goes\\ 2the\\ changes\\ bw\\ the\\ similar\\ images\\ across\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ n\\ not\\ looking\\ at\\ ea\\ one\\ as\\ a\\ kind\\ o\\ individual\\ spatial\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ images\\ are\\ o\\ low\\ quality\\ reproduction\\,\\ which\\ brings\\ ur\\ attn\\ 2the\\ gritty\\,\\ abject\\,\\ wasted\\ quality\\ o\\ the\\ paper\\ on\\ which\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ reproduced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\ 2look\\ at\\ 2\\ of\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;Combine\\&rdquo\\;\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ combines\\ bc\\ they\\ combine\\ pntg\\ n\\ sculpture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Collection\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1954\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Material\\ objects\\ stuck\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\ rather\\ than\\ entries\\ in2\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ spaces\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ all\\ the\\ images\\ in\\ this\\ pntg\\ r\\ collaged\\ directly\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\,\\ n\\ the\\ act\\ o\\ gluing\\ on2\\ the\\ surface\\ is\\ made\\ very\\ overt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Little\\,\\ mass\\-produced\\ images\\,\\ sections\\ o\\ trading\\ cards\\ n\\ cartoons\\,\\ playing\\ cards\\,\\ images\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ n\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ obvious\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ glued\\ there\\ w\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;No\\ attempt\\ 2make\\ the\\ images\\ seem\\ seemlesly\\ incorporated\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ glued\\ on\\,\\ pntd\\ on\\,\\ ripped\\,\\ scattered\\ throughout\\ the\\ pntg\\ like\\ pieces\\ o\\ waste\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Similar\\ 2all\\ the\\ other\\ kidns\\ o\\ globs\\ n\\ viscous\\ pnt\\ matter\\ throughout\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ how\\ entire\\ sheets\\ o\\ coic\\ strips\\ in\\ pntg\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Satellite\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(not\\ on\\ our\\ list\\)\\ have\\ been\\ glued\\ on\\,\\ pntd\\ \\ \\;on\\,\\ pntd\\ over\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ all\\ these\\ pntgs\\,\\ these\\ combines\\,\\ Ra\\ proposes\\ an\\ equivalence\\ bw\\ these\\ images\\ n\\ every\\ other\\ kidn\\ o\\ object\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ attached\\ 2the\\ surface\\ o\\ these\\ canvases\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ image\\ has\\ its\\ own\\ material\\ presence\\ there\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosalind\\ Kraus\\ has\\ called\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ materialized\\ images\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ simply\\ falat\\ fragments\\ o\\ newspaper\\,\\ pieces\\ o\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ entered\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ a\\ pntg\\ 2look\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ wanted\\ it\\ 2look\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ is\\.\\ \\ \\;N\\ I\\ think\\ a\\ picture\\ is\\ more\\ real\\ when\\ it\\ looks\\ like\\ it\\ looks\\ out\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ pntgs\\ rn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ windows\\ in2\\ another\\ world\\:\\ \\ \\;they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ tables\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ immediacy\\ about\\ these\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ take\\ away\\ form\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ sit\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ as\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Thye\\&rsquo\\;re\\ like\\ readymades\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Immediacy\\,\\ open\\ 2the\\ flux\\ othe\\ world\\,\\ its\\ waste\\ products\\ n\\ its\\ beautiful\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Frank\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ published\\ 1958\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ from\\ an\\ imptnt\\ book\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frank\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Remember\\ that\\ tehse\\ images\\ r\\ part\\ o\\ this\\ bk\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Americans\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ \\=\\ swqiss\\ photographer\\,\\ emigrated\\ 2the\\ US\\ in\\ 1947\\.\\ \\ \\;wrkd\\ 4major\\ pictographic\\ periodicals\\ like\\ Life\\ magazine\\.\\ \\ \\;Part\\ o\\ the\\ photojournalist\\ community\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\1955\\-6\\,\\ he\\ took\\ a\\ long\\ road\\ trip\\ thru\\ the\\ US\\,\\ took\\ thousands\\ o\\ photos\\,\\ n\\ collected\\ them\\ in2\\ a\\ set\\ o\\ 83\\ photos\\.\\ \\ \\;Wanted\\ 2\\ publish\\ in\\ a\\ book\\,\\ but\\ no\\ publishers\\ would\\ take\\ them\\.\\ \\ \\;Published\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;in\\ france\\,\\ then\\ in\\ 1959\\ after\\ lots\\ o\\ struggle\\ he\\ got\\ it\\ published\\ here\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ like\\ this\\ were\\ bitterly\\ criticized\\,\\ described\\ as\\ being\\ sick\\,\\ erotic\\,\\ unpatriotic\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;studios\\ inattention\\ to\\ the\\ skills\\ o\\ his\\ craft\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ image\\ seemingly\\ o\\ the\\ person\\ playing\\ an\\ instrument\\,\\ but\\ the\\ human\\ head\\ has\\ been\\ preplaced\\ w\\ a\\ gaping\\,\\ uncanny\\ hole\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Here\\ on\\ the\\ right\\ we\\ have\\ the\\ starlet\\ being\\ rendered\\ blurry\\ n\\ unhappy\\,\\ w\\ only\\ the\\ responsese\\ o\\ the\\ viewer\\ behind\\ her\\.\\ \\ \\;Something\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ goes\\ against\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ photograph\\ as\\ it\\ being\\ able\\ 2capture\\ certain\\ hierarchies\\ o\\ US\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frank\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Elevator\\,\\ Miami\\ Beach\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dorothea\\ Lange\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Migrant\\ Mother\\,\\ NIpoma\\,\\ CA\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1936\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Photojournalism\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ had\\ been\\ characterized\\ by\\ an\\ aesthetic\\ o\\ clarity\\,\\ summation\\,\\ sense\\ in\\ which\\ photojournalist\\ is\\ supposed\\ 2go\\ out\\ n\\ capture\\ revealing\\ moments\\ that\\ synthesize\\ everything\\ going\\ on\\ outside\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ photograph\\ \\=\\ harmonious\\ fine\\ art\\ image\\ here\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Migrant\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\ \\;Image\\ presented\\ in\\ very\\ stable\\ composition\\,\\ parametal\\ stability\\ 2her\\ pose\\.\\ \\ \\;Very\\ much\\ a\\ redo\\ o\\ cenuries\\ n\\ cednturies\\ o\\ Madonna\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ see\\ her\\ baby\\ in\\ her\\ lap\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\She\\&rsquo\\;s\\ inserted\\ in2\\ long\\ history\\ o\\ revealing\\ synthetic\\ compositions\\ n\\ psoes\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ this\\ manageable\\ conceptually\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ image\\ tells\\ us\\ the\\ whole\\ story\\ o\\ the\\ dustbowl\\ n\\ the\\ economic\\ problems\\ o\\ the\\ US\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ like\\ this\\ influenced\\ what\\ was\\ happening\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Life\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\magazine\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ idea\\ o\\ photogjournalism\\ is\\ 2summarize\\,\\ reveal\\,\\ synthesize\\ n\\ allow\\ the\\ viewer\\ 2understand\\ complex\\ situations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ grew\\ 2hate\\ the\\ idea\\ o\\ the\\ single\\ phtogoraph\\ as\\ being\\ so\\ neat\\ n\\ predictable\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ felt\\ that\\ photos\\ n\\ the\\ essays\\ in2\\ which\\ they\\ were\\ palced\\ were\\ 2simple\\,\\ always\\ digesting\\ n\\ saying\\ US\\ was\\ understandable\\,\\ easy\\ 2get\\ thru\\ western\\ compositional\\ ideas\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ wanted\\ 2captuer\\ the\\ elusiveness\\ o\\ the\\ US\\,\\ 2cerate\\ a\\ rapid\\/vernacular\\ vision\\.\\ \\ \\;capturing\\ moments\\ that\\ seemed\\ 2happen\\ in\\ bw\\ other\\ imptnt\\ moments\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\ \\=\\ the\\ birth\\ o\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;snapshot\\&rdquo\\;\\ aesthetic\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ that\\ fine\\ art\\ images\\ can\\ look\\ like\\ unposed\\ snapshots\\ that\\ amateurs\\ might\\ take\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ the\\ waste\\ matter\\ that\\ shows\\ up\\ in\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ were\\ the\\ areas\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ that\\ he\\ felt\\ were\\ most\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Y\\ these\\ images\\ r\\ able\\ 2\\ create\\ this\\ fragmented\\ sense\\ o\\ vsion\\:\\ \\ \\;they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ grainy\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ not\\ perfectly\\ clear\\,\\ beautiful\\,\\ fine\\ art\\ negative\\ prints\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ have\\ sense\\ that\\ these\\ photos\\ have\\ barely\\ been\\ snatched\\ form\\ the\\ darkness\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ tilted\\ off\\ o\\ the\\ perpendicular\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ verticality\\ o\\ these\\ images\\ has\\ been\\ put\\ askew\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ alos\\ have\\ registrations\\ o\\ bodies\\ moving\\ in\\ n\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ photos\\,\\ bodies\\ blocking\\ the\\ view\\,\\ this\\ giving\\ the\\ phtogorpaher\\ a\\ sense\\ o\\ incident\\.\\ \\ \\;Phtoogrpaher\\ not\\ occupying\\ a\\ neutral\\,\\ objective\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ photographer\\ like\\ the\\ participants\\ is\\ encountering\\ a\\ limited\\ view\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ always\\ being\\ blocked\\ n\\ jostled\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ kidns\\ o\\ illegible\\ blurs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Real\\ world\\ in\\ Frank\\&rsquo\\;s\\ images\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ come\\ out\\ in\\ perfect\\ focus\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ about\\ missed\\ opportunities\\,\\ things\\ that\\ arne\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ seen\\.\\ \\ \\;Chance\\ moments\\,\\ missed\\ encounters\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Intro\\ 4this\\ book\\ written\\ by\\ Jack\\ Kerouac\\,\\ key\\ Beat\\ figure\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ all\\ connected\\ 2Beat\\ poetry\\ more\\ broadly\\.\\ \\ \\;Ginsberg\\,\\ Kerouac\\,\\ started\\ including\\ low\\ n\\ vernacular\\ subject\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;Ppl\\ start\\ writing\\ poems\\ about\\ underwear\\ in\\ supermarkets\\,\\ subverting\\ mainstream\\ imagery\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ photos\\,\\ like\\ tehsep\\ oems\\,\\ serve\\ as\\ relatively\\ indifferent\\,\\ receptive\\ surface\\ 2anythign\\ that\\ might\\ come\\ at\\ the\\ mfro\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Removing\\ sense\\ o\\ artist\\ as\\ great\\ expressive\\ creator\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ as\\ recording\\ instrument\\.\\ \\ \\;Passive\\ acceptance\\ o\\ the\\ world\\ around\\ him\\/herself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ also\\ begins\\ 2affect\\ various\\ genres\\ o\\ performance\\ as\\ they\\ develop\\ in\\ nyc\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 50s\\ n\\ early\\ 60s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Full\\ Fathom\\ Five\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Allan\\ Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Yard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\ \\=\\ pntr\\,\\ started\\ in\\ nyc\\ as\\ a2nd\\ generation\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ grown\\ as\\ a\\ pntr\\ under\\ the\\ influence\\ o\\ the\\ AEs\\,\\ finds\\ himself\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\ what\\ 2do\\ w\\ his\\ inheritance\\,\\ how\\ 2b\\ an\\ original\\ artist\\ wo\\ jettisoning\\ everything\\ learned\\ by\\ the\\ AEs\\.\\ \\ \\;Knew\\ about\\ AE\\,\\ articulate\\ about\\ it\\,\\ teaching\\ Art\\ history\\ at\\ Rutgers\\ in\\ the\\ 50s\\,\\ took\\ John\\ Cage\\&rsquo\\;s\\ avant\\ garde\\ compositional\\ course\\ in\\ 1957\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ leads\\ him\\ 2open\\ up\\ his\\ own\\ pntg\\ practices\\ in2\\ new\\ kidns\\ o\\ dimensions\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ very\\ much\\ trying\\ 2take\\ Pollock\\ off\\ o\\ the\\ wall\\ n\\ creating\\ this\\ receptive\\ surface\\ as\\ something\\ that\\ happens\\ in\\ 3d\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ world\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ read\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ legacy\\ o\\ Jackson\\ Pollock\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ Kaprow\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ the\\ expansive\\ legacy\\ o\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ n\\ taking\\ it\\ 2the\\ enxt\\ level\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pollock\\ has\\ made\\ us\\ dazzled\\ by\\ everyday\\ life\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;he\\ goes\\ in2\\ list\\ o\\ the\\ new\\ things\\ that\\ he\\ thinks\\ will\\ become\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ o\\ the\\ future\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;an\\ odor\\ o\\ crushed\\ strawberries\\,\\ letter\\ from\\ friend\\ or\\ billboard\\ seeling\\ draino\\,\\ endless\\ lectures\\,\\ bowler\\ hat\\,\\ all\\ become\\ materials\\ 4this\\ new\\ concrete\\ art\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ doing\\ here\\ is\\ talking\\ about\\ Pollock\\ opening\\ up\\ pntg\\ 2hte\\ world\\,\\ but\\ what\\ he\\ does\\ that\\ Frank\\ n\\ Ra\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ do\\ is\\ 2bring\\ Pollock\\ in2\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ sculpture\\ n\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ 2bring\\ 2literal\\ fruition\\ what\\ he\\ saw\\ as\\ latent\\ in\\ Pollock\\:\\ \\ \\;the\\ notion\\ that\\ P\\ begins\\ this\\ interactive\\,\\ multi\\-sensory\\ kind\\ o\\ artwork\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ developed\\ environments\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ 1958\\ he\\ began\\ creating\\ tehse\\ environments\\,\\ filling\\ a\\ room\\ w\\ tangles\\ o\\ scotch\\ tape\\ n\\ Christmas\\ lights\\,\\ accompanying\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\ w\\ pine\\ sceted\\ deodorant\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Apple\\ Shrine\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Used\\ chicken\\ wire\\,\\ newspaper\\,\\ dangling\\ straw\\,\\ all\\ attempts\\ 2thicken\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ a\\ room\\ w\\ various\\ kinds\\ o\\ matter\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Courtyard\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piled\\ tires\\ in\\ a\\ courtyard\\ o\\ the\\ Martha\\ Jackson\\ gallery\\.\\ \\ \\;Visitors\\ had\\ 2walk\\ from\\ one\\ side\\ o\\ the\\ courtyard\\ 2the\\ other\\ throught\\ the\\ tires\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Challenging\\ physically\\ the\\ viewer\\ thru\\ these\\ wrks\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ optical\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ spaces\\ look\\ like\\&rsquo\\;s\\ P\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\,\\ but\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ tactile\\ spaces\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Viewer\\ forced\\ 2move\\ thru\\ the\\ installations\\ as\\ if\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ feeling\\ their\\ way\\ thru\\ the\\ pntgs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Partipant\\ forced\\ 2engage\\ tactilily\\ w\\ the\\ spaces\\.\\ \\ \\;Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrk\\ becomes\\ 3d\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chicken\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Direct\\ reference\\ 2AE\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Expanded\\ his\\ environemtns\\ 2what\\ he\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;happenings\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ n\\ other\\ artist\\ take\\ 3d\\ idea\\ o\\ tactile\\ pntg\\ n\\ expand\\ it\\ in2\\ 4dimensions\\,\\ bringing\\ element\\ o\\ time\\ in2\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ include\\ all\\ the\\ unpredictable\\ smells\\ o\\ the\\ environment\\,\\ but\\ also\\ have\\ unpredictable\\ events\\ unfolding\\.\\ \\ \\;Events\\ initatied\\ by\\ small\\ groups\\ o\\ perofmrers\\,\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;happeners\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ n\\ they\\ were\\ usually\\ the\\ artists\\&rsquo\\;s\\ friends\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ carry\\ out\\ mundane\\ tasks\\,\\ make\\ noises\\,\\ induce\\ speeches\\,\\ interact\\ w\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ 4audiences\\,\\ these\\ events\\ were\\ unpredictable\\,\\ delightful\\,\\ scary\\,\\ n\\ often\\ the\\ authorities\\ had\\ 2intervene\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Chicken\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ fireman\\ had\\ 2come\\ n\\ put\\ out\\ the\\ fire\\ in\\ the\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ events\\ intended\\ 2create\\ the\\ chance\\ event\\ in\\ time\\ n\\ space\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ a\\ Ra\\ pntg\\ along\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\&rsquo\\;s\\ description\\ o\\ typical\\ experience\\ in\\ a\\ happening\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;tin\\ cans\\ rattle\\,\\ u\\ stand\\ up\\ 2see\\,\\ answer\\ questions\\ from\\ shoe\\ shine\\ boys\\ n\\ old\\ ladies\\,\\ u\\ giggle\\ bc\\ u\\&rsquo\\;r\\ afraid\\,\\ suffering\\ claustrophobia\\,\\ but\\ all\\ the\\ time\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\there\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ getting\\ in2\\ the\\ act\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ become\\ all\\ the\\ rage\\ 1960\\-2\\ in\\ the\\ art\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ provoked\\ associations\\ w\\ theater\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ think\\ about\\ how\\ theater\\ relates\\ 2everyday\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ something\\ very\\ different\\ happening\\ here\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Stage\\ n\\ dramatic\\ theater\\ depends\\ on\\ specific\\ framing\\ devices\\ in\\ order\\ 2shield\\ real\\ space\\ n\\ time\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ regular\\ hteater\\,\\ the\\ stage\\ separated\\ from\\ the\\ audience\\ by\\ a\\ curtain\\.\\ \\ \\;Lighting\\.\\ \\ \\;Platform\\.\\ \\ \\;Beginning\\ n\\ end\\ o\\ performance\\ r\\ clearly\\ demarcated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\KAprow\\ n\\ other\\ happening\\ artists\\ r\\ abolishing\\ the\\ separation\\ o\\ the\\ performance\\ from\\ the\\ audience\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jim\\ Dine\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Smiling\\ Workman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dine\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Car\\ Crash\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Reuben\\ Gallery\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ how\\ artist\\ sits\\ right\\ up\\ next\\ 2the\\ performer\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Spring\\ Happening\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Happenings\\ not\\ generally\\ staged\\ in\\ hteaters\\ but\\ in\\ old\\ lofts\\,\\ basements\\,\\ vacant\\ stores\\,\\ places\\ where\\ very\\ small\\ audiences\\ were\\ crammed\\ 2gether\\,\\ commingled\\ w\\ the\\ event\\ as\\ it\\ unfolded\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ other\\ spaces\\ ensured\\ a\\ tight\\ pact\\ n\\ tactile\\ immediacy\\ among\\ the\\ audience\\ n\\ w\\ the\\ performers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ loosely\\ scripted\\.\\ \\ \\;Everytime\\ they\\ were\\ performed\\ they\\ were\\ different\\.\\ \\ \\;Everytime\\ u\\ wnet\\ 2\\ a\\ happening\\,\\ it\\ was\\ clear\\ u\\ were\\ seening\\ the\\ only\\ way\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ done\\ that\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hard\\ 2tell\\ when\\ happening\\ began\\/ended\\.\\ \\ \\;Kaprow\\ would\\ try\\ 2make\\ it\\ impossible\\ 2determine\\ when\\ the\\ happening\\ started\\/ended\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Was\\ something\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ happening\\,\\ or\\ part\\ o\\ everyday\\ life\\?\\!\\?\\!\\?\\?\\!\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Happenings\\ r\\ \\&ldquo\\;events\\ that\\,\\ put\\ simply\\,\\ happen\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Kaprow\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ what\\ it\\ meant\\ 4somethign\\ just\\ 2happen\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ n\\ early\\ 60s\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\When\\ he\\ says\\ things\\ r\\ just\\ things\\ that\\ happen\\,\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ alluding\\ 2an\\ urgent\\ problem\\ o\\ the\\ time\\,\\ that\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ everyday\\ experience\\ as\\ authetnci\\ everyday\\ experience\\,\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ being\\ surprised\\ by\\ something\\ simply\\ happening\\,\\ is\\ more\\ n\\ more\\ in\\ danger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ see\\ rising\\ understanding\\ o\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ every\\ conceivable\\ event\\ n\\ senseation\\ could\\ b\\ preprogrammed\\ n\\ prepackaged\\ by\\ mass\\ culture\\,\\ advertising\\ industry\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Same\\ yr\\ that\\ happenings\\ r\\ becoming\\ imptnt\\ in\\ nyc\\,\\ Daniel\\ Burston\\ wrote\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Image\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ influential\\ bk\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ argued\\ US\\ events\\ were\\ being\\ replaced\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;pseudo\\ events\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ planned\\ events\\,\\ photo\\ ops\\,\\ that\\ might\\ appear\\ spontaneous\\ but\\ really\\ staged\\ 4later\\ reporting\\ n\\ production\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Against\\ this\\ background\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ othe\\ staged\\ event\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ US\\ was\\ being\\ programmed\\ by\\ photo\\ ops\\ n\\ other\\ BS\\,\\ that\\ happenings\\ gave\\ audiences\\ spontaineous\\ fullness\\ o\\ experience\\ that\\ was\\ slowly\\ being\\ taken\\ from\\ US\\ life\\ in\\ the\\ postwar\\ period\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ 2make\\ audiences\\ feel\\ spontaneity\\?\\ \\ \\;Often\\ u\\ had\\ 2\\ make\\ audience\\ discomfort\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\4example\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Spring\\ Happening\\,\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;1961\\,\\ spectators\\ put\\ in\\ tiny\\ box\\ w\\ little\\ peep\\ holes\\,\\ then\\ the\\ walls\\ moved\\ n\\ the\\ ppl\\ driven\\ out\\ o\\ the\\ space\\ w\\ a\\ power\\ lawnmower\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ comes\\ thru\\ w\\ his\\ power\\ lawnmower\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ common\\.\\ \\ \\;Audience\\ not\\ granted\\ a\\ privelged\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;Often\\ made\\ ucomfortable\\,\\ made\\ 2ifght\\ 4space\\,\\ forced\\ 2stand\\ on\\ boards\\ in\\ shallow\\ water\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ No\\ attempt\\ 2cater\\ 2the\\ uadience\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ 2see\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ fact\\ this\\ was\\ often\\ intentionally\\ frustrated\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frank\\&rsquo\\;s\\ phtogoraphs\\ also\\ frustrate\\ the\\ desire\\ 2see\\ everything\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ was\\ deeply\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ avant\\ garde\\ dramatist\\ Artoud\\&rsquo\\;s\\ notion\\ o\\ cruelty\\.\\ \\ \\;Artoud\\ felt\\ htat\\ drastic\\ measures\\ had\\ 2b\\ taken\\ 2break\\ audiences\\ out\\ o\\ their\\ detached\\ method\\ n\\ habit\\ o\\ absorbing\\ spectacles\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ theater\\ o\\ cruelty\\ forcing\\ the\\ audience\\ 2b\\ present\\ in\\ their\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ audience\\ forced\\ 2participate\\,\\ n\\ this\\ \\=\\ humorous\\ experience\\,\\ but\\ it\\ was\\ just\\ as\\ often\\ slightly\\ uncomfortable\\ n\\ even\\ sadistic\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\George\\ Brecht\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Three\\ Telephone\\ Events\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;POP\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Tuesday\\,\\ May\\ 01\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Pop\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ 1\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Painting\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1951\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\We\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ obswerving\\ the\\ everyday\\ enry\\ intoth\\ e\\ world\\ of\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;We\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ 4Ra\\,\\ extrinsic\\ elements\\ outside\\ the\\ artwork\\ would\\ b\\ able\\ 2enter\\ the\\ artwork\\ in\\ terms\\ of\\ constantly\\ shifting\\ shadows\\ that\\ would\\ land\\ on\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\4happenings\\,\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ breakdowns\\ in\\ spatial\\ n\\ temporal\\ fram\\ that\\ allowed\\ blurring\\ in\\ the\\ happening\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experience\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ when\\ Alan\\ Kaprow\\ wants\\ 2bring\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ in2\\ the\\ artwork\\,\\ he\\ does\\ it\\ by\\ bringing\\ in\\ straps\\ o\\ junk\\,\\ other\\ material\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Creaing\\ self\\-conscious\\ n\\ uncomfortable\\ presence\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ audience\\ who\\ find\\ themselves\\ a\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ also\\ talked\\ about\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ combine\\ pntgs\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Satellite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ how\\ the\\ image\\ operates\\ w\\/in\\ new\\ system\\ that\\ tries\\ 2bring\\ everyday\\ world\\ in2\\ the\\ life\\ o\\ the\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ we\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ images\\,\\ straps\\ o\\ newspaper\\ comic\\ strips\\ along\\ the\\ pntg\\,\\ fnctn\\ like\\ scraps\\ o\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ that\\ have\\ entered\\ on2\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ just\\ like\\ other\\ pieces\\ o\\ junk\\ that\\ might\\ find\\ themselves\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\I\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ not\\ a\\ preresentation\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ materialized\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;I\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ want\\ a\\ picture\\ 2look\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\.\\ \\ \\;I\\ want\\ it\\ 2ook\\ like\\ something\\ it\\ is\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Image\\ normaly\\ understood\\ as\\ regressive\\ form\\,\\ turning\\ it\\ instead\\ in2\\ a\\ piece\\ o\\ matter\\,\\ something\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\the\\ viewer\\&rsquo\\;s\\ space\\ in\\ the\\ museum\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Alan\\ Kaprow\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Spring\\ Happening\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Robert\\ Rauschenberg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Satellite\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1955\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jasper\\ Johsn\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flag\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1954\\-55\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\ trying\\ 2find\\ ways\\ 2make\\ images\\ that\\ have\\ immediacy\\ n\\ irectness\\.\\ \\ \\;Johns\\ n\\ Ra\\ were\\ partners\\,\\ close\\.\\ \\ \\;Lived\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ bldg\\.\\ \\ \\;wrkng\\ thru\\ image\\ problems\\ in\\ different\\ but\\ dovetailing\\ ways\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pntg\\ like\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flag\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;suggests\\ Johns\\ has\\ created\\ a\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Looks\\ like\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ actually\\ picked\\ up\\ a\\ pnt\\ brush\\ 2create\\ this\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ has\\ he\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ this\\ flag\\ a\\ pntd\\ image\\ o\\ a\\ flag\\,\\ or\\ as\\ a\\ flag\\ itself\\?\\ \\ \\;Our\\ rdg\\ goes\\ in2\\ this\\ brain\\ twisting\\ in\\ great\\ detail\\.\\ \\ \\;Imptn\\ 2\\ introduce\\ this\\ oscillation\\.\\ \\ \\;Tries\\ 2create\\ a\\ pntg\\ that\\ is\\ represtnational\\,\\ but\\ has\\ immediacy\\ n\\ presence\\ in\\ the\\ space\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\,\\ like\\ Ra\\,\\ is\\ continuing\\ 2wrk\\ thru\\ the\\ burden\\ o\\ AE\\ in\\ pntg\\ in\\ US\\ art\\ after\\ WWII\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ made\\:\\ \\ \\;Johns\\ does\\ them\\ w\\ \\&ldquo\\;Encaustic\\&rdquo\\;\\ process\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ process\\ o\\ pntg\\ by\\ mixing\\ oil\\ pnt\\ w\\ hot\\ wax\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ randomly\\ discovered\\ this\\ technique\\ on\\ his\\ own\\ in\\ a\\ book\\ at\\ a\\ book\\ store\\ where\\ he\\ was\\ wrkng\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ ne\\ he\\ quickly\\ adopted\\ it\\ 4the\\ commentary\\ it\\ could\\ make\\ on\\ AE\\ n\\ also\\ 4its\\ beauty\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Encaustin\\ means\\ every\\ stroke\\ drives\\ very\\ very\\ wuickly\\,\\ asfast\\ as\\ hot\\ wax\\ congeals\\,\\ so\\ that\\ every\\ stroke\\ u\\ apply\\ 2\\ a\\ vanbas\\ simply\\ lies\\ on\\ top\\ o\\ the\\ strokes\\ beneath\\ it\\ instead\\ o\\ mixing\\ w\\ other\\ pnt\\ on\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ very\\ demanding\\ technique\\,\\ but\\ Johns\\ used\\ it\\ in\\ all\\ o\\ his\\ mid\\-late\\-50s\\ pntgs\\ which\\ r\\ imptnt\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ the\\ pnt\\ remains\\ partially\\ transluscent\\,\\ which\\ is\\ created\\ bc\\ o\\ the\\ wax\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ get\\ hints\\ o\\ the\\ archaeological\\ alyerz\\ below\\ the\\ pnt\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ pntgs\\ in\\ real\\ life\\ r\\ luscious\\ n\\ gorgeous\\,\\ which\\ the\\ encaustic\\ allows\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\White\\ Target\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Green\\ Target\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1958\\,\\ detail\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ newspaper\\ beneath\\ the\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ u\\ get\\ imagery\\ from\\ newspaper\\ collages\\.\\ \\ \\;Cutting\\ newspaper\\ in2\\ long\\ strips\\ that\\ themselves\\ were\\ almost\\ like\\ brushstrokes\\,\\ soaking\\ them\\ in\\ wax\\,\\ then\\ pntg\\ over\\ w\\ encaustic\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ deep\\ layers\\ o\\ archaeological\\ newspaper\\ help\\ create\\ this\\ sense\\ o\\ scrappiness\\ n\\ materiality\\ bc\\ the\\ newspapesr\\ are\\ understood\\&hellip\\;gives\\ u\\ sense\\ o\\ deep\\ media\\ o\\ these\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\&rsquo\\;d\\ these\\ strange\\ unusual\\ marks\\ intersect\\ w\\ the\\ kidn\\ o\\ pntg\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ n\\ w\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ the\\ array\\ o\\ marks\\ that\\ r\\ each\\ preserved\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\,\\ giving\\ u\\ a\\ glimpse\\ o\\ the\\ built\\ up\\ marks\\ that\\ were\\ available\\ 2the\\ viewer\\ as\\ a\\ record\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ activity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Bc\\ the\\ pnt\\ dries\\ so\\ quickly\\,\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ similar\\ fetishization\\ o\\ the\\ gesture\\ where\\ every\\ gesture\\ is\\ preserved\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ sense\\ o\\ rapid\\ spontaneity\\,\\ tho\\,\\ that\\ u\\ get\\ in\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ or\\ Kline\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\,\\ r\\ removed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ get\\ sense\\ o\\ slow\\,\\ methodical\\,\\ obsessive\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Not\\ spontaneous\\ but\\ mechanical\\,\\ careful\\ application\\ o\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ the\\ brushstrokes\\ r\\ short\\ n\\ controlled\\.\\ \\ \\;Short\\,\\ controlled\\,\\ congealed\\ gestures\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Sense\\ o\\ coolness\\.\\ H\\ te\\ pnt\\ has\\ literally\\ florzen\\ on\\ the\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ can\\ think\\ 2\\ o\\ tehse\\ pntgs\\ as\\ kidns\\ o\\ barriers\\ rather\\ than\\ invitation\\ 2the\\ emotional\\ empathy\\ that\\ one\\ should\\ feel\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ an\\ embalming\\ o\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ psychodrama\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Rdg\\ goes\\ in2\\ more\\ detail\\ about\\ this\\,\\ n\\ also\\ about\\ the\\ kind\\ o\\ subject\\ matter\\ that\\ Johns\\ uses\\ in\\ his\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ is\\ it\\ that\\ Johns\\ creates\\ these\\ hybrid\\ image\\ objects\\?\\ \\ \\;These\\ things\\ that\\ r\\ both\\ objects\\ n\\ artworks\\?\\ \\ \\;Much\\ o\\ this\\ stems\\ from\\ the\\ kinds\\ o\\ objects\\ he\\ chooses\\ 2create\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ presented\\ 2\\ the\\ viewer\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ thing\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ key\\ about\\ his\\ choice\\ o\\ subjects\\ is\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ all\\ drawn\\ from\\ culture\\ rather\\ than\\ nature\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ chooses\\ subject\\ matter\\ that\\ exists\\ only\\ as\\ symbol\\ o\\ representation\\ in\\ the\\ first\\ place\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\No\\ natural\\ existence\\ in\\ this\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ represent\\ the\\ \\#7\\ on\\ canvas\\ in\\ the\\ same\\ way\\ u\\ can\\ show\\ the\\ tree\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;These\\ thigns\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ exist\\ in\\ the\\ real\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ exist\\ only\\ as\\ symbols\\,\\ only\\ as\\ they\\ ar\\ represnted\\ inthis\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ he\\ avoids\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ represtnation\\ by\\ represnting\\ symbols\\,\\ not\\ things\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ subject\\ matter\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;whole\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ an\\ entire\\ flag\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ when\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Flag\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ the\\ edge\\ o\\ the\\ pntg\\ is\\ also\\ the\\ edge\\ o\\ the\\ object\\.\\ \\ \\;There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ no\\ background\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ not\\ a\\ pntg\\ o\\ a\\ flag\\ in\\ another\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Rather\\,\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ just\\ like\\ having\\ an\\ actual\\ flag\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ in\\ front\\ o\\ u\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ o\\ his\\ pntgs\\ were\\ done\\ 2scale\\ 2create\\ that\\ sense\\ o\\ immediacy\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ done\\ 2the\\ scale\\ a\\ flag\\ that\\ Johns\\ had\\ seen\\ in\\ his\\ own\\ life\\,\\ so\\ u\\ can\\ read\\ it\\ as\\ a\\ real\\ flag\\,\\ not\\ a\\ representation\\ thereof\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ representation\\ is\\ already\\ flat\\ in\\ itself\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Target\\,\\ flag\\,\\ numbers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ imptnt\\ moment\\ o\\ confusion\\ that\\ allows\\ these\\ pntgs\\ 2b\\ both\\ pntgs\\ n\\ objects\\ is\\ tthat\\ the\\ pntgs\\ can\\ fnctn\\ just\\ as\\ the\\ things\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ representing\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\A\\ picture\\ of\\ a\\ tree\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ b\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ tree\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ swim\\ in\\ the\\ lake\\ in\\ a\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ u\\ can\\ hang\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntg\\ and\\ use\\ it\\ 4the\\ pledge\\ of\\ allegiance\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ can\\ throw\\ darts\\ at\\ his\\ targets\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ same\\ thigns\\ Johns\\ creates\\ r\\ the\\ things\\ he\\ depicts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ saw\\ this\\ b4\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Numbers\\ in\\ Color\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1958\\-9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\There\\&rsquo\\;s\\ represtnation\\ going\\ on\\,\\ an\\ image\\ one\\ looks\\ at\\,\\ but\\ u\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ look\\ beyond\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Bachelor\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1890\\-94\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntg\\ picks\\ up\\ on\\ themes\\ that\\&rsquo\\;d\\ already\\ been\\ quite\\ prominent\\ in\\ US\\ art\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;c\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Drawer\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1957\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ about\\ the\\ ways\\ both\\ images\\ r\\ intereted\\ in\\ a\\ confusion\\ bw\\ reality\\ n\\ representation\\.\\ \\ \\;Johns\\,\\ like\\ Haberle\\,\\ creates\\ pntgs\\ that\\ have\\ a\\ closure\\ or\\ blockage\\ o\\ interior\\ meanings\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ are\\ closed\\,\\ flat\\ things\\ hanging\\ on\\ a\\ wall\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\ interested\\ in\\ mass\\ media\\.\\ \\ \\;His\\ pntgs\\,\\ his\\ ability\\ 2create\\ images\\ that\\ fnctn\\ as\\ both\\ images\\ n\\ objects\\,\\ pick\\ up\\ on\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ happening\\ in\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\John\\ Peto\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Mr\\.\\ Abraham\\ Willsie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Rack\\ Picture\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1879\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Canvas\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1956\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Haberle\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Slate\\:\\ \\ \\;Memoranda\\,\\ Circa\\ 1895\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Johns\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\No\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Piece\\ o\\ wire\\ hanging\\ down\\ w\\ letters\\ \\&ldquo\\;No\\&rdquo\\;\\ attached\\ 2\\ it\\,\\ casting\\ shadow\\ behind\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ n\\ y\\ r\\ the\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ tactics\\ being\\ revived\\ in\\ the\\ 1950s\\?\\ \\ \\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ similar\\ n\\ different\\ about\\ the\\ 2bodies\\ o\\ work\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ key\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Now\\,\\ away\\ from\\ Johns\\,\\ back\\ 2\\ Spring\\ happening\\ n\\ White\\ Target\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\All\\ these\\ artists\\ r\\ trying\\ 2break\\ down\\ the\\ boundaries\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ liberatory\\ blurring\\ had\\ a\\ lot\\ o\\ complications\\,\\ tho\\,\\ n\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hwat\\ the\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ course\\ will\\ look\\ at\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\ had\\ 2do\\ w\\ the\\ problem\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ n\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ This\\ American\\ life\\ that\\ wouldn\\&rsquo\\;t\\&rsquo\\;\\ be\\ allowed\\ in2\\ the\\ artworld\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ everyday\\ that\\ artists\\ like\\ Ra\\ n\\ Kaprow\\ bring\\ in2\\ their\\ work\\ is\\ a\\ random\\,\\ chaotic\\ everyday\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tyructureed\\ n\\ understood\\ as\\ an\\ antidote\\ 2capitalism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\ understood\\ as\\ a\\ field\\ o\\ spontanaeity\\,\\ from\\ freedom\\ n\\ rational\\ promotion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ attempt\\ 2collapse\\ art\\ n\\ life\\,\\ which\\ in\\ every\\ respect\\ was\\ an\\ attempt\\ 2find\\ a\\ space\\ outside\\ o\\ mainstream\\ culture\\,\\ consumer\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ many\\ artists\\ around\\ this\\ time\\ began\\ 2wonder\\ whether\\ or\\ not\\ one\\ could\\ talk\\ about\\ the\\ everyday\\ w\\/o\\ bringing\\ in\\ things\\ like\\ advertisements\\ n\\ billboards\\ n\\ consumer\\ products\\,\\ n\\ others\\ wondered\\ if\\ the\\ everyday\\ hadn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ become\\ totally\\ saturated\\ by\\ consumerism\\ n\\ corporate\\ media\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ is\\ the\\ American\\ everyday\\?\\ \\ \\;How\\ should\\ it\\ appear\\ in\\ art\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ role\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ every\\ day\\ life\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\adslfkjasdlk\\;fjdaslkjf\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\#\\#\\#\\#\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Think\\ about\\ what\\ everyday\\ life\\ looked\\ like\\.\\ \\ \\;A\\ landscape\\ dominated\\ by\\ commercial\\ effects\\,\\ dizzying\\ arrangements\\ o\\ signs\\ n\\ televions\\ n\\ radios\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2walk\\ out\\ o\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ apartment\\ 2confront\\ everyday\\ life\\ wo\\ being\\ confronted\\ by\\ a\\ commercial\\ message\\ in\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ another\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ would\\ happen\\ 2the\\ critical\\ fnctn\\ o\\ art\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ allowed\\ 2expand\\ in2\\ not\\ only\\ the\\ US\\ flag\\ but\\ also\\ advertisements\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kaprow\\,\\ in\\ last\\ wk\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essay\\ on\\ Jackson\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ legacy\\,\\ said\\ artists\\ would\\ b\\ bringing\\ in\\ a\\ billboard\\ seeling\\ draino\\.\\ \\ \\;Would\\ art\\ collapse\\ in2\\ advertising\\?\\ \\ \\;Would\\ commodities\\ become\\ art\\?\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ big\\ question\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ early\\ 60s\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Claes\\ Oldenburg\\ was\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ first\\ 2confront\\ this\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Claes\\ Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Store\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ happenings\\ were\\ famous\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ rented\\ a\\ storefront\\ space\\ n\\ set\\ up\\ a\\ store\\ as\\ an\\ environment\\,\\ as\\ a\\ performance\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ store\\ he\\ sold\\ actual\\ scale\\ versions\\ o\\ the\\ banal\\ commodities\\ that\\ were\\ 4sale\\ around\\ the\\ neighborhood\\.\\ \\ \\;Cigarettes\\,\\ cheeseburgers\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ readymades\\,\\ but\\ were\\ made\\ by\\ hand\\ by\\ him\\ o\\ pntd\\ plaster\\ n\\ soap\\.\\ \\ \\;Stuff\\ u\\ can\\ buy\\ at\\ the\\ store\\.\\ \\ \\;Dresses\\ decpited\\ as\\ if\\ blowing\\ in\\ the\\ wind\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Girl\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Dresses\\,\\ Blowing\\ in\\ the\\ Wind\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\This\\ \\=\\ photo\\ taken\\ by\\ Oldenburg\\ o\\ shop\\ near\\ his\\ own\\ lower\\ East\\ Side\\ NYC\\ store\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Taking\\ things\\ that\\ can\\ b\\ sold\\ on\\ the\\ street\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ the\\ plastered\\,\\ pntd\\ objects\\ that\\ were\\ once\\ dynamnically\\ blowing\\ in\\ the\\ wind\\ but\\ now\\ fossilized\\,\\ relate\\ 2Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;Johns\\ influenced\\ him\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oldenburg\\ creates\\ fossilized\\ store\\ offerd\\ 2passers\\ by\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Kids\\ form\\ the\\ area\\ would\\ sometimes\\ steal\\ things\\ from\\ the\\ store\\,\\ which\\ delighted\\ him\\,\\ thus\\ indicatinghtis\\ was\\ operating\\ like\\ a\\ regular\\ retail\\ establishment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Small\\ Yellow\\ Pie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Store\\ raised\\ uncomfortable\\ questions\\ about\\ whether\\ there\\ was\\ distinction\\ bw\\ art\\ n\\ retail\\ products\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Oldenburg\\ did\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ he\\ could\\ 2make\\ the\\ distinction\\ ambiguous\\ 2say\\ one\\ way\\ or\\ another\\ whether\\ this\\ \\=\\ art\\ piece\\ or\\ retail\\ piece\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ were\\ allusions\\ 2ordinary\\ manufactures\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ hand\\ they\\ were\\ clearly\\ marked\\ as\\ hand\\-made\\,\\ unique\\ art\\ objects\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Oldenburg\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pepsi\\-Cola\\ Sign\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ productiosn\\ were\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ key\\ eventws\\ that\\ stimulated\\ the\\ development\\ o\\ \\&ldquo\\;pop\\ art\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Key\\ element\\ o\\ pop\\ art\\ is\\ its\\ exploration\\ o\\ these\\ boundaries\\ n\\ questions\\ that\\ O\\&rsquo\\;s\\ store\\ raised\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ are\\ the\\ aesthetics\\ o\\ commerce\\ in\\ the\\ US\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ other\\ collapses\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ see\\ in\\ pop\\ art\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Other\\ conflations\\ bw\\ high\\ art\\ n\\ retail\\/commercial\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ store\\ retains\\ its\\ handmade\\,\\ slapdash\\ look\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ happenings\\,\\ in\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ wrk\\,\\ but\\ later\\ pop\\ artists\\ tried\\ 2mix\\ retail\\ n\\ art\\ thru\\ more\\ slick\\ styles\\ having\\ 2do\\ w\\ commercial\\ imagery\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roy\\ Lichtenstein\\ with\\ his\\ Ben\\-Day\\ dot\\ stencil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lichtenstein\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Live\\ Ammo\\ \\(Blang\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lichtenstein\\ had\\ delicate\\ balance\\ bw\\ high\\ art\\ pntg\\ n\\ the\\ process\\ o\\ mechanical\\ production\\ o\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\ derived\\ his\\ images\\ from\\ low\\-brow\\ advertisements\\ n\\ comic\\ books\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ pntd\\ the\\ images\\ carefully\\ by\\ hand\\,\\ but\\ did\\ it\\ thru\\ this\\ stencil\\ 2get\\ \\&ldquo\\;Ben\\-day\\&rdquo\\;\\ dots\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ dots\\ create\\ comic\\ books\\ n\\ chaeap\\ newspaper\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ has\\ a\\ stencil\\ made\\ n\\ takes\\ his\\ pnt\\ brush\\ n\\ manually\\ pnts\\ every\\ dot\\ thru\\ the\\ stencil\\ on2\\ his\\ canvases\\.\\ \\ \\;Overlap\\ o\\ confusion\\ bw\\ the\\ hand\\ made\\ n\\ the\\ machine\\ made\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ \\=\\ most\\ famous\\ artists\\ who\\ conflated\\ the\\ distinctison\\ bw\\ therpodcution\\ o\\ art\\ n\\ production\\ o\\ commodities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\ at\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Factory\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\He\\ appropriated\\ form\\ produtt\\ design\\ n\\ mass\\ media\\ journalism\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Famously\\,\\ he\\ wrkd\\ in\\ a\\ studio\\ he\\ called\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;factory\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;His\\ capbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tomato\\ boxes\\ r\\ his\\ wrks\\,\\ not\\ just\\ campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tamato\\ boxes\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Many\\ other\\ pop\\ artists\\ followed\\ O\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lead\\ in\\ expiermenting\\ w\\ overlaps\\ bw\\ retail\\ n\\ gallery\\ spaces\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ get\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ conflating\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ factory\\ n\\ the\\ studio\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\O\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ conflation\\ bw\\ the\\ space\\ retail\\ n\\ the\\ space\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ gallery\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Often\\ galleries\\ would\\ play\\ along\\ w\\ this\\,\\ n\\ the\\ most\\ famous\\ example\\ is\\ the\\ exhivbition\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ supermarket\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Supermarket\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ exhibition\\ view\\,\\ Bianchini\\ Gallery\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Compelte\\ w\\ aisles\\,\\ placards\\ advertising\\ weekend\\ specials\\.\\ \\ \\;Was\\ this\\ a\\ gallery\\ or\\ a\\ grocery\\ store\\?\\ \\ \\;Tirs\\ tromp\\ l\\&rsquo\\;oeil\\ conflation\\ bw\\ objects\\ n\\ representations\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\ cans\\ r\\ actually\\ soup\\,\\ but\\ u\\ could\\ buy\\ his\\ pntgs\\ there\\ too\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ was\\ art\\?\\ \\ \\;What\\ was\\ groceries\\?\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Not\\ until\\ 1962\\ did\\ pop\\ artists\\ have\\ their\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;major\\ 1\\-person\\ shows\\ n\\ its\\ receptions\\ was\\ picked\\ up\\ by\\ critics\\ at\\ first\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reception\\ o\\ pop\\ art\\ was\\ vicsiously\\ negative\\.\\ \\ \\;Now\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ tame\\ 2us\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ been\\ domesticated\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ it\\ PISSED\\ critics\\ off\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Storm\\ Door\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Superman\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\One\\ review\\ by\\ Alan\\ Solomon\\ in\\ 1963\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;ugly\\ manifestations\\ o\\ the\\ worlst\\ side\\ o\\ our\\ society\\.\\ \\ \\;Instead\\ o\\ rejecting\\ the\\ worst\\ products\\ o\\ our\\ commercial\\ world\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ turned\\ w\\ excitement\\ 2these\\ goods\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ so\\ debasing\\,\\ even\\ tho\\ art\\ falling\\ in2\\ everyday\\ life\\ was\\ appreciated\\,\\ that\\ they\\ hated\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lichtenstein\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sweet\\ Dreams\\ Baby\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\L\\ commented\\ on\\ y\\ this\\ was\\ so\\ hard\\ 2understand\\ at\\ the\\ time\\,\\ whereas\\ Ra\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ w\\ soap\\ n\\ rags\\ was\\ understandable\\ 2these\\ critics\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ only\\ thing\\ everyone\\ hated\\ was\\ commercial\\ art\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hilton\\ Cramer\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;pop\\ art\\ just\\ reconciles\\ us\\ 2\\ a\\ world\\ o\\ vulgarities\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ must\\ b\\ refused\\ if\\ life\\ is\\ 2b\\ defended\\ against\\ the\\ dishonesties\\ o\\ commercial\\ life\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Much\\ o\\ the\\ art\\ these\\ artists\\ were\\ raised\\ on\\ was\\ designed\\ 2protect\\ humanity\\ from\\ control\\ o\\ the\\ commercial\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Mnay\\ concerns\\ surfaced\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\/early\\ 60s\\ about\\ possibility\\ that\\ this\\ wasteland\\ o\\ tv\\ commercials\\ had\\ already\\ infiltrated\\ the\\ psyches\\ o\\ Americans\\,\\ not\\ just\\ their\\ art\\ galleries\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\How\\ much\\ access\\ did\\ commercial\\ culture\\ have\\ 2these\\ last\\ spaces\\ o\\ authenticity\\ in\\ US\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Growth\\ o\\ supermarket\\ shopping\\ was\\ accompanied\\ by\\ \\&ldquo\\;motivation\\ esearch\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ advertising\\ research\\ that\\ looked\\ at\\ y\\ ppl\\ bought\\ what\\ they\\ did\\.\\ \\ \\;Advertising\\ industry\\ using\\ psychoanalytic\\ tactics\\ 2sell\\ products\\ 2US\\ consumers\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Author\\ about\\ this\\ suggested\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;women\\ floated\\ through\\ supermarkets\\ in\\ trancelike\\ state\\,\\ dangerously\\ available\\ to\\ the\\ tricky\\ advertising\\ tactics\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ spector\\ o\\ the\\ commercial\\ colonization\\ o\\ the\\ psyche\\ is\\ just\\ what\\ artists\\ like\\ Warhol\\ r\\ provoking\\ n\\ exploiting\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ fear\\ they\\ see\\ in\\ US\\ culture\\,\\ n\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ addressing\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ addressed\\ this\\ fear\\ by\\ making\\ his\\ pntgs\\ allude\\ 2AE\\,\\ which\\ was\\ a\\ model\\ o\\ the\\ psyche\\.\\ \\ \\;Pop\\ artists\\ making\\ commentary\\ n\\ raising\\ fears\\ about\\ what\\ might\\ b\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ psyche\\ by\\ using\\ AE\\ techniques\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pop\\ art\\,\\ especially\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 1960s\\,\\ \\=\\ vulgarized\\ offshoot\\ o\\ AE\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;concept\\ once\\ evoked\\ by\\ AE\\ pntg\\ had\\ now\\ been\\ occupied\\ by\\ commercial\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lichtenstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\ image\\ here\\ evokes\\ all\\ the\\ impact\\ n\\ immediacy\\ n\\ heroic\\ drama\\ o\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\ like\\ Gottlieb\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ but\\ it\\ locates\\ the\\ source\\ o\\ that\\ power\\ in\\ these\\ lowbrow\\ hyperboles\\ that\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ find\\ in\\ a\\ comic\\ book\\,\\ rather\\ than\\ where\\ Gottlieb\\ would\\ find\\ them\\:\\ \\ \\;in\\ the\\ primitive\\ depths\\ o\\ the\\ pntr\\&rsquo\\;s\\ slef\\-conscious\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ pntg\\ suggests\\ that\\ the\\ authentic\\ primal\\ force\\,\\ the\\ power\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ might\\ be\\ insperable\\ in\\ the\\ 60s\\ from\\ the\\ power\\ o\\ mass\\ entertainment\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ 2kinds\\ o\\ power\\ r\\ being\\ conflated\\ in\\ pop\\ art\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Adolph\\ Gottlieb\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Small\\ Burst\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dance\\ Diagram\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Here\\ is\\ a\\ commentary\\ on\\ the\\ spontaneity\\ o\\ AE\\,\\ n\\ giving\\ spontaneity\\ a\\ new\\ source\\.\\ \\ \\;Notice\\ how\\ Pollocks\\&rsquo\\;\\ dance\\ like\\ motion\\ had\\ offered\\ authenticity\\,\\ contingency\\,\\ full\\-bodied\\ form\\ o\\ expressionism\\.\\ \\ \\;Always\\ changing\\,\\ always\\ autogrphaic\\,\\ working\\ from\\ deep\\ within\\ the\\ psyche\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pre\\-fabricated\\ channels\\ o\\ motion\\ that\\ one\\ needs\\ 2follow\\ in\\ order\\ 2dance\\ ina\\ certain\\ dance\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ suggesting\\ that\\ dance\\ \\=\\ something\\ u\\ can\\ buy\\ n\\ study\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Dance\\ in\\ general\\ is\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ highly\\ codifeied\\ forms\\ o\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Warhol\\ showed\\ these\\ dance\\ diagram\\ pntg\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\ 2make\\ the\\ connection\\ 2Pollock\\ more\\ explicit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Namuth\\ Pollock\\ painting\\,\\ 1950\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Dick\\ Tracy\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\So\\ thinkabout\\ connection\\ 2AE\\ w\\ pop\\.\\ \\ \\;See\\ how\\ savy\\ it\\ was\\ 2conflate\\ references\\ 2mass\\ consumer\\ culture\\ n\\ the\\ psyche\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;this\\ pntg\\ pntd\\ in\\ way\\ that\\ has\\ AE\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Deliberately\\ quality\\ fake\\ AE\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;Drips\\ falling\\ down\\ from\\ the\\ letters\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Gestural\\ pnt\\ handling\\ up\\ here\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ sections\\ at\\ top\\ right\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\All\\ o\\ tehse\\ r\\ signs\\ o\\ the\\ spontaneity\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ come\\ 2associate\\ w\\ AE\\.\\ \\ \\;Text\\ in\\ the\\ speech\\ bubble\\ gives\\ a\\ mystic\\ infeffability\\ thru\\ the\\ rerasures\\ o\\ leters\\ that\\ Warhol\\ has\\ created\\ in\\ the\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ resemble\\ some\\ o\\ the\\ half\\-foremd\\ archetypal\\ symboslthat\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ see\\ in\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ early\\ pntgs\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Mysticism\\.\\ \\ \\;Ineffability\\.\\ \\ \\;Gesture\\.\\ \\ \\;Trance\\-like\\ treatment\\ o\\ pnt\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ 2see\\ this\\ as\\ an\\ AE\\ pntg\\,\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ that\\ mean\\?\\ \\ \\;2read\\ this\\ scubmeld\\ form\\,\\ these\\ images\\ dredged\\ up\\ from\\ the\\ deepest\\ registers\\ o\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ subconscious\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\ he\\ found\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ pre\\-industrial\\ Jungian\\ archetype\\,\\ but\\ Dick\\ Tracy\\ n\\ many\\ other\\ kinds\\ o\\ US\\ classics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TV\\ \\$199\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Notice\\ he\\ draws\\ from\\ Jhons\\ \\&lsquo\\;archetypeal\\ drawing\\ on\\ mass\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;Deep\\ inside\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ pntg\\ is\\ newspapers\\,\\ mass\\ culture\\,\\ not\\ the\\ psyche\\ o\\ the\\ artist\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Coca\\-Cola\\ Bottles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Terms\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Encaustic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Commericial\\ unconscious\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\WEEK\\ 13\\:\\ \\ \\;POP\\ ART\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thursday\\,\\ May\\ 03\\,\\ 2007\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Pop\\:\\ \\ \\;Part\\ 2\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Review\\ sessions\\ for\\ final\\ are\\ on\\ the\\ website\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Back\\ 2\\ pop\\,\\ where\\ we\\ left\\ off\\ on\\ Tuesday\\.\\ \\ \\;Compare\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1938\\ 2Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TV\\ \\$199\\,\\ 1960\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Warhol\\ n\\ others\\ were\\ reinterpreting\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ the\\ collective\\ unconscious\\,\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ deep\\ within\\ the\\ individual\\ psyche\\ was\\ something\\ profoundly\\ deep\\ n\\ human\\,\\ something\\ that\\ Pollock\\ was\\ working\\ thru\\ 2\\.\\ \\ \\;we\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ images\\ n\\ others\\ aluded\\ 2that\\ depth\\ structure\\.\\ \\ \\;Scumbled\\ pnt\\,\\ half\\-visible\\ symbols\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ ultimate\\ joke\\/paradoxical\\ twist\\ is\\ that\\ these\\ symbols\\ aren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ archetypal\\ human\\ structures\\ but\\ instead\\ advertisements\\,\\ messages\\ coming\\ form\\ the\\ outside\\ world\\ o\\ media\\ n\\ meass\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Transfer\\ o\\ the\\ universal\\ archetype\\ o\\ something\\ in\\ the\\ collective\\ unconscious\\ 2something\\ happening\\ in\\ the\\ matrix\\ o\\ the\\ consumption\\ system\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ main\\ points\\ in\\ making\\ this\\ distinction\\ is\\ 2suggest\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ just\\ more\\ shallowness\\ under\\ the\\ superficial\\ layers\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ n\\ that\\ the\\ so\\-called\\ deep\\ psyche\\ is\\ really\\ just\\ inhabited\\ by\\ further\\ flat\\ images\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ practice\\ begs\\ the\\ key\\ question\\ facing\\ all\\ Americans\\ in\\ late\\ 50s\\ n\\ early\\ 60s\\:\\ \\ \\;is\\ our\\ true\\ subconscious\\ inhabited\\ by\\ media\\ images\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Is\\ it\\ the\\ mass\\ media\\ that\\ inhabits\\ the\\ self\\ n\\ regulates\\ tehse\\ desires\\/behaviors\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\These\\ r\\ profound\\ questions\\ about\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ collectivity\\ n\\ universal\\ communication\\ in\\ this\\ early\\ period\\ o\\ media\\ spread\\ n\\ consumption\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 50s\\ early\\ 60s\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ feelings\\ were\\ hard\\ 2determine\\ about\\ this\\,\\ about\\ naything\\,\\ but\\ his\\ wrk\\ itself\\ suggested\\ there\\ isn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ a\\ psychological\\ depth\\ 2human\\ culture\\,\\ but\\ rather\\ a\\ commercial\\ depth\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jackson\\ Pollock\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Birth\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1938\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Andy\\ Warhol\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\TV\\ \\$199\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1960\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Coca\\-Cola\\ Bottles\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\His\\ pntgs\\ in\\ the\\ early\\ 60s\\ suggest\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ US\\ mass\\ consumption\\ n\\ its\\ symbols\\ that\\ knits\\ US\\ life\\ 2gether\\,\\ transcends\\ boundaries\\ bw\\ classes\\ n\\ different\\ types\\ o\\ ppl\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ richest\\ consumers\\ buy\\ the\\ same\\ things\\ as\\ the\\ poorest\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ president\\ drinks\\ a\\ coke\\,\\ the\\ bum\\ on\\ a\\ corner\\ drinks\\ coke\\,\\ all\\ cokes\\ r\\ the\\ same\\,\\ n\\ all\\ cokes\\ are\\ good\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Unity\\ emerging\\ not\\ through\\ shared\\ sruggle\\ or\\ dialectic\\ but\\ thru\\ mass\\ production\\/consumption\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ way\\ 2find\\ universal\\ one\\-ness\\ w\\ all\\ Americans\\ was\\ thru\\ this\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhols\\ images\\ \\=\\ large\\ fields\\ o\\ repetitive\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\200\\ Soup\\ Cans\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ these\\ images\\,\\ Warhols\\&rsquo\\;\\ experiments\\ w\\ the\\ commercial\\ unconscious\\ forces\\ art\\ 2recognize\\ its\\ shared\\ territory\\ w\\ advertising\\.\\ \\ \\;Warhol\\ forcing\\ art\\ 2realize\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ same\\ thing\\ that\\ Coke\\ n\\ Cambpells\\ soup\\ is\\ trying\\ 2do\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ going\\ for\\ the\\ general\\ flattening\\ n\\ unviersalization\\ that\\ comes\\ thru\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ forces\\ the\\ notion\\ o\\ Democratic\\ equality\\ that\\ was\\ pertinent\\ in\\ Cold\\ War\\ period\\ discussions\\ 2recognize\\ its\\ shared\\ territory\\ w\\ mass\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Freedom\\ n\\ democracy\\ o\\ American\\ life\\ as\\ opposed\\ 2that\\ behind\\ the\\ iron\\ curtain\\.\\ \\ \\;Warhol\\ suggesting\\ our\\ democratic\\ equality\\ comes\\ not\\ from\\ our\\ political\\ system\\ but\\ through\\ consumption\\,\\ this\\ leveling\\,\\ universalized\\ consumption\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ some\\ ways\\ we\\ might\\ say\\ these\\ pntgs\\ \\=\\ reality\\ checks\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntgs\\ produce\\ bracing\\ encounter\\ w\\ the\\ new\\ consumerist\\ reality\\ o\\ US\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ this\\ new\\ reality\\ is\\ not\\ reality\\ at\\ all\\,\\ n\\ in\\ some\\ ways\\ his\\ pntgs\\ explore\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ commercial\\ filter\\ o\\ US\\ life\\ that\\ prevents\\ access\\ 2anything\\ beneath\\ or\\ below\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ commercial\\ unconscious\\ Warhol\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ reside\\ deeply\\ within\\ the\\ self\\ but\\ covers\\ over\\ n\\ displaces\\ some\\ kind\\ o\\ collective\\ unconsciosness\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ use\\ o\\ the\\ Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\ can\\ raises\\ questions\\ o\\ interiority\\ n\\ exteriority\\ that\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ talked\\ about\\ all\\ semester\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ reasons\\ that\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ so\\ \\&ldquo\\;uncanny\\&rdquo\\;\\ is\\ that\\ Warhol\\ chooses\\ a\\ specific\\ subject\\ matter\\ 2experiement\\ on\\ the\\ notions\\ o\\ interiority\\ n\\ exteriority\\.\\ \\ \\;Soup\\,\\ old\\ fashioned\\,\\ reassuringly\\ honest\\ n\\ real\\ about\\ Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ yet\\,\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ fails\\ 2voke\\ the\\ homestyle\\ authenticity\\ that\\ these\\ cans\\ o\\ soup\\ might\\ want\\ us\\ 2bleieve\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ the\\ reptetitive\\ pattern\\ conveying\\ abundance\\ is\\ subtly\\ nationalized\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ it\\ resembles\\ an\\ American\\ flag\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ o\\ the\\ cans\\ asks\\ us\\ what\\ the\\ price\\ o\\ that\\ abundance\\ might\\ b\\.\\ \\ \\;what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ nutritional\\ value\\ o\\ this\\ pntg\\?\\ \\ \\;Arrangement\\ o\\ the\\ cans\\ has\\ flat\\,\\ superficial\\ quality\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ like\\ there\\ is\\ really\\ nothing\\ behind\\ or\\ in\\ these\\ cans\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ \\=\\ nutritional\\ play\\ on\\ exteriority\\/interiotity\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Throughout\\ rest\\ o\\ the\\ 60s\\ he\\ experiemneted\\ w\\ ways\\ 2represent\\ the\\ consumer\\ project\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Soup\\ Cans\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(32\\ canvases\\)\\,\\ 1962\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ were\\ set\\ up\\ along\\ shelves\\,\\ as\\ if\\ they\\ were\\ retail\\ products\\.\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ this\\ question\\ o\\ repetition\\ n\\ how\\ repetition\\ prevents\\ the\\ sense\\ o\\ interiotiy\\ o\\ the\\ objects\\ represeneted\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interested\\ in\\ the\\ numbing\\,\\ flattening\\,\\ distancing\\ effect\\ o\\ repetition\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ time\\,\\ tho\\,\\ he\\ began\\ sqitching\\ 2\\ a\\ silkscreen\\ process\\ 2create\\ his\\ wrk\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\&rsquo\\;d\\ silk\\ screen\\ markings\\ on\\ 2\\ Campbell\\&rsquo\\;s\\ soup\\ boxes\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Silk\\ screen\\ technique\\ is\\ wha\\&rsquo\\;ts\\ used\\ 2mass\\ produce\\ T\\-shirts\\.\\ \\ \\;U\\ take\\ image\\,\\ it\\ gets\\ photographically\\ reproduced\\ on2\\ a\\ screen\\ of\\ silk\\,\\ n\\ then\\ pnt\\ forced\\ through\\ the\\ screen\\ w\\ a\\ squeegee\\,\\ which\\ makes\\ marks\\ on\\ the\\ matter\\ below\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Notice\\ that\\ Warhol\\ has\\ borrowed\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ practice\\ o\\ pntg\\ on\\ the\\ floor\\,\\ but\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ made\\ it\\ a\\ commercial\\ procedure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Autogrpahic\\ gesture\\ which\\ was\\ Pollock\\&rsquo\\;s\\ is\\ totally\\ compromised\\,\\ however\\,\\ by\\ the\\ status\\ o\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ silk\\ screen\\ practice\\ as\\ mechanical\\ reproduction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Elvis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Life\\ size\\ image\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ interested\\ in\\ silk\\ screen\\ technique\\ bc\\ it\\ let\\ him\\ get\\ pntrly\\ effects\\,\\ such\\ as\\ smudges\\ n\\ overlaps\\,\\ but\\ he\\ did\\ it\\ through\\ mechanical\\ means\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lichtenstein\\ was\\ also\\ concerned\\ w\\ these\\ issues\\ o\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ abstract\\ expressionist\\ gesture\\ is\\ being\\ put\\ to\\ the\\ test\\ by\\ mechanization\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Jasper\\ Johns\\&rsquo\\;\\ experiments\\ w\\ the\\ gesture\\,\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ experiments\\ wi\\ the\\ gesture\\,\\ n\\ Lcihttenstein\\&rsquo\\;s\\,\\ all\\ experiment\\ w\\ the\\ relationship\\ bw\\ the\\ hand\\ gesture\\ n\\ creativity\\,\\ bw\\ the\\ possibility\\ o\\ creating\\ accidental\\ effects\\ thru\\ the\\ hand\\ n\\ proiducingthose\\ same\\ effects\\ thru\\ mechanical\\ means\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Jackie\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1964\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Warhol\\ also\\ interestedi\\ n\\ the\\ way\\ that\\ chance\\ n\\ randomness\\ comes\\ thru\\ mechanical\\ reproduction\\,\\ n\\ there\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ sesn\\ o\\ profoucned\\ uniqueness\\ that\\ still\\ inhabits\\ his\\ reproduced\\ silk\\ screen\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ make\\ repteated\\ prints\\ o\\ the\\ same\\ image\\,\\ n\\ each\\ of\\ them\\ was\\ in\\ its\\ own\\ way\\ quite\\ unique\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;d\\ handpaint\\ the\\ images\\ before\\ silk\\ screening\\ htem\\.\\ \\ \\;So\\ u\\ see\\ brushstrokes\\ in\\ the\\ blue\\ behind\\ Jackie\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Interesting\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ the\\ image\\ appears\\ against\\ the\\ blue\\ background\\ vs\\.\\ against\\ the\\ white\\ background\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\U\\ can\\ see\\ the\\ changes\\ in\\ the\\ pnt\\ registration\\,\\ giving\\ her\\ slightly\\ different\\ expression\\.\\ \\ \\;Blue\\ image\\ has\\ blob\\ on\\ the\\ right\\,\\ not\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;Which\\ would\\ give\\ Jackie\\ sense\\ she\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ scene\\.\\ \\ \\;She\\ seems\\ more\\ alone\\ in\\ the\\ white\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ very\\ interested\\ in\\ exploring\\ difference\\ w\\/in\\ repettion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Let\\&rsquo\\;s\\ talk\\ about\\ emotional\\ content\\ o\\ these\\ images\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Based\\ on\\ photo\\ taken\\ o\\ Jackie\\ at\\ JFK\\&rsquo\\;s\\ funeral\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ wrks\\ thru\\ test\\ here\\ o\\ the\\ status\\ o\\ portraiture\\.\\ \\ \\;Process\\ o\\ taking\\ this\\ phtoo\\ from\\ its\\ printed\\ source\\,\\ translating\\ it\\ in2\\ a\\ silk\\ screen\\,\\ reproducing\\ it\\ on\\ the\\ canvas\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ decaying\\ from\\ its\\ original\\ sharpness\\,\\ eventually\\ toward\\ total\\ decay\\ beyond\\ recognition\\,\\ but\\ nevertheless\\ the\\ image\\ is\\ effecting\\ in\\ some\\ way\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ paly\\ bw\\ emotional\\ content\\ n\\ distance\\ in\\ reproduction\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ this\\ image\\,\\ he\\ asks\\ how\\ far\\ an\\ image\\ can\\ decay\\ thru\\ its\\ reproduction\\ b4\\ it\\ becomes\\ something\\ else\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Most\\ o\\ his\\ silk\\ screen\\ pntgs\\,\\ especially\\ toward\\ 1963\\-4\\,\\ were\\ testing\\ this\\ relationship\\ bw\\ emotion\\,\\ affect\\,\\ reprodudction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Red\\ Disaster\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Images\\ o\\ an\\ electric\\ chair\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Red\\ Race\\ Riot\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Again\\ n\\ again\\ during\\ these\\ yrs\\ Warhol\\ creates\\ silk\\ screen\\ arrays\\ o\\ difficult\\ subject\\ matter\\,\\ no\\ where\\ does\\ this\\ become\\ more\\ complicated\\ than\\ it\\ does\\ I\\ na\\ sires\\ o\\ his\\ \\&ldquo\\;accident\\ photographs\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Images\\ were\\ really\\ gory\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Ambulance\\ Disaster\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Foot\\ and\\ Tire\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\These\\ images\\ r\\ uconceivably\\ gruesome\\.\\ \\ \\;Man\\ mangled\\ n\\ bent\\ by\\ the\\ rash\\.\\ \\ \\;Irony\\ that\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ in\\ an\\ ambulance\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Warhol\\ when\\ talking\\ about\\ these\\ kinds\\ o\\ pntgs\\:\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;when\\ u\\ see\\ a\\ gruesome\\ picture\\ over\\ n\\ over\\ again\\,\\ it\\ doesn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ really\\ have\\ any\\ effect\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claiming\\ to\\ treat\\ reprition\\ as\\ anaesthesure\\.\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ more\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ exact\\ same\\ thing\\,\\ the\\ more\\ meaning\\ goes\\ away\\,\\ n\\ the\\ better\\ n\\ emptier\\ u\\ feel\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claiming\\ that\\ these\\ images\\ should\\ b\\ easy\\ 2look\\ at\\ bc\\ they\\&rsquo\\;ve\\ been\\ repeated\\,\\ they\\&rsquo\\;re\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ culture\\ where\\ u\\&rsquo\\;re\\ constantly\\ bombarded\\ by\\ horror\\ after\\ horror\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\We\\ might\\ think\\ o\\ the\\ reality\\ represented\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ as\\ hovering\\ bw\\ affect\\ n\\ distance\\,\\ bw\\ emotional\\ content\\ n\\ simply\\ shallow\\/superficial\\ abstraction\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Can\\ the\\ reality\\ represnted\\ in\\ these\\ images\\ actually\\ be\\ terrible\\ enough\\ 2push\\ thru\\ the\\ surface\\ ot\\ he\\ pntg\\,\\ 2break\\ the\\ modern\\ viewer\\ from\\ the\\ aneasthesia\\ o\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\In\\ critics\\,\\ this\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ them\\ ost\\ ast\\ active\\ areas\\ o\\ Warhol\\ scholarship\\.\\ \\ \\;They\\ disagreeo\\ n\\ the\\ effect\\ o\\ these\\ pntgs\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ say\\ the\\ pntd\\ reality\\ is\\ actually\\ terrible\\ enough\\ 2pass\\ thru\\ the\\ image\\&rsquo\\;s\\ surface\\.\\ \\ \\;Othes\\ feel\\ these\\ pntgs\\ r\\ about\\ the\\ loss\\ o\\ our\\ ability\\ 2understand\\ \\/access\\ real\\ emotion\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hal\\ Foster\\ thought\\ pntgs\\ like\\ this\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;like\\ all\\ contemporary\\ life\\ mediated\\ by\\ culture\\,\\ consists\\ o\\ missed\\ encounters\\ w\\ the\\ real\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\&rsquo\\;s\\ referring\\ 2trauma\\ reactions\\ where\\ ppl\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ absorb\\ the\\ event\\ n\\ repeatedly\\ re\\-live\\ superficial\\ aspects\\ o\\ the\\ event\\.\\ \\ \\;Is\\ this\\ what\\ Warhol\\&rsquo\\;s\\ images\\ do\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Timothy\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Harvest\\ of\\ Death\\,\\ Gettysburg\\,\\ PA\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1863\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Similar\\ image\\ actually\\.\\ \\ \\;Think\\ about\\ how\\ US\\ culture\\ in\\ 1963\\ is\\ still\\ wrkng\\ thru\\ difficult\\ relatinships\\ bw\\ trauma\\,\\ affect\\,\\ n\\ reproduction\\ that\\ O\\&rsquo\\;Sullivan\\ was\\ already\\ approaching\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Reason\\ these\\ images\\ so\\ horrific\\ 4ppl\\ was\\ bc\\ this\\ image\\ o\\ death\\ had\\ been\\ reproduced\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ was\\ so\\ wrenching\\ about\\ these\\ images\\ was\\ that\\ the\\ image\\ o\\ death\\ had\\ been\\ removed\\ from\\ the\\ intimate\\,\\ private\\,\\ image\\ o\\ the\\ postmortem\\ death\\,\\ n\\ had\\ been\\ disseminated\\ throughout\\ US\\ culture\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ made\\ the\\ reproduction\\ so\\ hard\\ 2\\ look\\ at\\ in\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\&hellip\\;the\\ opposite\\ was\\ true\\ in\\ Warhol\\,\\ that\\ the\\ images\\ anaestheticized\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\We\\ talked\\ about\\ how\\ pop\\ art\\ helped\\ return\\ the\\ real\\ world\\ 2pntg\\,\\ but\\ that\\ culture\\ itself\\ has\\ a\\ tenuous\\ relationship\\ 2reality\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pop\\ artists\\ look\\ at\\ reality\\&hellip\\;but\\ has\\ it\\ become\\ a\\ series\\ o\\ shallow\\ signs\\ n\\ informational\\ images\\?\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\If\\ pop\\ art\\ is\\ 2b\\ seen\\ as\\ a\\ kidn\\ o\\ realism\\,\\ it\\ has\\ 2b\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ realism\\ like\\ the\\ capitalist\\ realism\\&hellip\\;not\\ realism\\ in\\ the\\ traditional\\ ssense\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Pop\\ artists\\ constantly\\ trying\\ 2confront\\ that\\ consumer\\ culture\\ had\\ changed\\ the\\ nature\\ o\\ reality\\,\\ changed\\ how\\ perception\\ itself\\,\\ so\\ any\\ realism\\ attempting\\ 2cpature\\ it\\ had\\ 2contend\\ that\\ access\\ 2the\\ object\\,\\ 2emotion\\,\\ all\\ the\\ traditional\\ notiosn\\ o\\ objectivity\\ n\\ realism\\,\\ had\\ been\\ rewritten\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenqueist\\ \\=\\ one\\ o\\ the\\ most\\ overtly\\ political\\ pop\\ artists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ began\\ his\\ career\\ as\\ a\\ billboard\\ pntr\\,\\ later\\ became\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;high\\ artist\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ routeinly\\ found\\ himself\\ high\\ above\\ manhattan\\,\\ pressed\\ up\\ against\\ giant\\ billboards\\ he\\ was\\ pntg\\.\\ \\ \\;Salami\\ ads\\.\\ \\ \\;Other\\ consumer\\ products\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\He\\ was\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ his\\ relationship\\ 2the\\ images\\ was\\ strange\\ n\\ different\\ bc\\ o\\ his\\ own\\ proximity\\ 2them\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ images\\ o\\ them\\ were\\ intimagte\\ close\\,\\ but\\ fragmented\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ start\\ an\\ ad\\,\\ but\\ then\\ I\\ see\\ things\\ in\\ weird\\ ways\\.\\ \\ \\;Noses\\ become\\ like\\ maps\\ o\\ Yugoslavia\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;He\\ eventually\\ intuited\\ that\\ this\\ view\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ US\\ wasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ particular\\ 2billboard\\ b\\=pntrs\\ but\\ rather\\ was\\ analogous\\ 2hte\\ position\\ o\\ any\\ consumer\\ in\\ the\\ US\\ during\\ this\\ period\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Ppl\\ constantly\\ confronted\\ by\\ products\\,\\ images\\,\\ n\\ they\\ have\\ relationships\\ 2these\\,\\ but\\ larger\\ system\\ o\\ which\\ tehse\\ images\\ were\\ a\\ part\\ were\\ becoming\\ harder\\ n\\ harder\\ 2grasp\\.\\ \\ \\;Intensity\\,\\ but\\ also\\ confusion\\ n\\ disconnection\\ from\\ a\\ larger\\ whole\\&hellip\\;this\\ \\=\\ Rosenquist\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ he\\ made\\ his\\ pntgs\\ epress\\ this\\ fragmentation\\ n\\ confusion\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ Rosenquist\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\President\\ Elect\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1961\\-62\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenquist\\ interested\\ in\\ the\\ impossibility\\ o\\ grasping\\ the\\ meaning\\ o\\ individual\\ objects\\.\\ \\ \\;Everything\\&rsquo\\;s\\ overlapped\\,\\ hard\\ 2distentangle\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ some\\ o\\ his\\ many\\ pntgs\\ that\\ show\\ pieces\\ n\\ fragments\\ o\\ consumer\\-visual\\ culture\\ n\\ turn\\ them\\ in2\\ large\\ billboards\\ \\(\\?\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;consider\\ the\\ relationship\\ bw\\ these\\ images\\ own\\ perceptual\\ apparaturs\\ n\\ the\\ flood\\ o\\ imagery\\ from\\ the\\ media\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\His\\ most\\ important\\ pntg\\ is\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Rosenquist\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\F\\-111\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1965\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Large\\ mural\\.\\ \\ \\;10\\&rsquo\\;x86\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Wrapped\\ around\\ 4walls\\ o\\ gallery\\ space\\.\\ \\ \\;Crowded\\ around\\ viewers\\ in\\ the\\ space\\ in\\ such\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ ea\\ o\\ the\\ viewers\\ was\\ forced\\ 2take\\ this\\ intense\\ proximity\\ 2the\\ images\\,\\ inability\\ 2take\\ everything\\ in\\ at\\ once\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Lurking\\ behind\\ all\\ the\\ images\\ is\\ the\\ F\\-111\\,\\ US\\&rsquo\\;\\ most\\ advanced\\ figher\\ aircraft\\,\\ n\\ it\\ was\\ ptned\\ 2its\\ actual\\ size\\ in\\ the\\ pntg\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ admitted\\ his\\ turn\\ 2mural\\ pntg\\ was\\ devoted\\ 2\\ n\\ influenced\\ by\\ the\\ Mexian\\ muralists\\.\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Diego\\ Rivera\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Detroit\\ Industry\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ north\\ wall\\,\\ 1932\\-33\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ pulls\\ from\\ his\\ scale\\,\\ n\\ his\\ intermingling\\ o\\ bodies\\ n\\ machines\\,\\ its\\ compositional\\ techniques\\,\\ n\\ its\\ political\\ content\\ n\\ political\\ mode\\ o\\ adderss\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\-111\\ I\\ n1965\\ had\\ yet\\ 2go\\ in2\\ combat\\,\\ n\\ had\\ just\\ had\\ its\\ maiden\\ test\\ flight\\.\\ \\ \\;Serial\\ number\\ on\\ the\\ tail\\ shows\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ pntg\\ the\\ actual\\ test\\ flight\\ bomber\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\What\\ was\\ menacing\\ about\\ the\\ bomber\\ 4Rosenquist\\ was\\ its\\ overt\\ destructive\\ power\\,\\ but\\ also\\ the\\ nearly\\ imperceptible\\ way\\ in\\ which\\ the\\ production\\ o\\ this\\ plane\\ had\\ been\\ insinuated\\ throughout\\ the\\ entire\\ consumer\\ economy\\ in\\ a\\ way\\ that\\ ppl\\ weren\\&rsquo\\;t\\ talking\\ enough\\ about\\ in\\ his\\ view\\.\\ \\ \\;It\\&rsquo\\;d\\ become\\ part\\ o\\ everyday\\ consumer\\ life\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Plane\\ was\\ contributing\\ 2the\\ purchasing\\ power\\ o\\ all\\ the\\ ppl\\ who\\ helped\\ build\\ it\\.\\ \\ \\;Bc\\ huge\\ American\\ corporations\\ were\\ also\\ major\\ defense\\ contractors\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\,\\ ppl\\ were\\ supporting\\ this\\ fire\\ bomber\\ just\\ by\\ buying\\ cars\\ or\\ simple\\ other\\ purchases\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Part\\ o\\ what\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hard\\ 2conceive\\ 4Rosenquist\\ was\\ how\\ military\\ production\\ is\\ inextricable\\ from\\ the\\ general\\ cornucopia\\ o\\ consumer\\ culture\\ in\\ the\\ US\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Eisenhower\\ was\\ already\\ talking\\ in\\ the\\ 1960s\\ about\\ how\\ the\\ military\\ was\\ becoming\\ inseparable\\ from\\ the\\ broader\\ world\\.\\ \\ \\;Military\\ state\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;avg\\.\\ US\\ consumer\\ has\\ already\\ bought\\ these\\ airplanes\\ by\\ paying\\ taxes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;Men\\ have\\ participated\\ in\\ this\\ world\\ whether\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ good\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\This\\ \\=\\ imptnt\\ bc\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;US\\ combat\\ troops\\ had\\ just\\ entered\\ Vietnam\\ at\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Rosenquist\\ interested\\ in\\ intersection\\ bw\\ consumer\\ behavior\\ n\\ US\\ consumption\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ question\\ o\\ potential\\ complicity\\,\\ notion\\ that\\ consumption\\ \\(n\\ the\\ consumption\\ o\\ art\\)\\ is\\ inextricable\\ from\\ larger\\ series\\ o\\ political\\ questions\\ n\\ problems\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\F\\-111\\ assmebled\\ from\\ 51\\ panels\\,\\ ea\\ pntd\\.\\ \\ \\;Some\\ r\\ regular\\ conavs\\.s\\ \\ \\;some\\ r\\ made\\ o\\ aluminum\\.\\ \\ \\;Ea\\ panel\\ comes\\ 2gether\\ in\\ mosaic\\ fashion\\ 2make\\ up\\ the\\ mural\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Portable\\ panels\\ put\\ 2gether\\ 2create\\ this\\ larger\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;Rosenqueist\\ had\\ planned\\ 2sell\\ ea\\ panel\\ individually\\,\\ the\\ idea\\ beingthat\\ ea\\ collector\\ had\\ a\\ single\\ panel\\,\\ n\\ in\\ doing\\ so\\ separated\\ the\\ panel\\ from\\ its\\ larger\\ context\\,\\ so\\ it\\&rsquo\\;d\\ be\\ like\\ an\\ abstract\\ pntg\\ panel\\.\\ \\ \\;But\\ as\\ a\\ collector\\ u\\ know\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ part\\ o\\ larger\\ ensemble\\.\\ \\ \\;Constant\\ reminder\\ 2ea\\ collector\\ that\\ their\\ individual\\ act\\ o\\ consumption\\ is\\ part\\ o\\ a\\ bigger\\ picture\\,\\ a\\ picture\\ that\\ may\\ not\\ b\\ a\\ pretty\\ one\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\One\\ o\\ the\\ great\\ ironies\\ about\\ this\\ pntg\\ is\\ that\\ its\\ panels\\ were\\ ultimately\\ not\\ diserpesed\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ leading\\ pop\\ collectors\\ purchased\\ the\\ entire\\ plane\\,\\ all\\ o\\ the\\ panels\\ together\\,\\ n\\ the\\ whole\\ thing\\ resides\\ in\\ tact\\ in\\ the\\ MOMA\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ when\\ u\\ look\\ at\\ this\\ plane\\ now\\ at\\ MOMA\\,\\ u\\ have\\ 2get\\ back\\ in2\\ the\\ original\\ intent\\ o\\ the\\ image\\ n\\ look\\ at\\ the\\ cracks\\ bw\\ the\\ panels\\.\\ \\ \\;Different\\ abstract\\ sctions\\ o\\ eac\\ part\\ o\\ the\\ plane\\,\\ how\\ Rosenquist\\ was\\ after\\ this\\ illusory\\ nature\\ o\\ consumer\\ society\\,\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ he\\ wanted\\ 2itnroduce\\ 2the\\ world\\,\\ n\\ we\\ still\\ grapple\\ w\\ this\\ today\\.\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Winslow\\ Homer\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sharpshooter\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1862\\-63\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Roy\\ Lichtenstein\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Torpedo\\&hellip\\;Los\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1963\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\In\\ section\\ we\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ compare\\ these\\ pnts\\.\\ \\ \\;Both\\ r\\ dealing\\ directly\\ w\\ things\\ like\\ the\\ intersection\\ o\\ war\\ n\\ vision\\,\\ the\\ intersection\\ o\\ vision\\ n\\ the\\ body\\,\\ relationship\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ 2\\ the\\ artist\\,\\ relatinshi\\ o\\ the\\ body\\ 2he\\ spatial\\ structure\\ o\\ the\\ image\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ section\\,\\ b\\ ready\\ 2think\\ explicitly\\ about\\ how\\ u\\&rsquo\\;d\\ put\\ tehse\\ 2images\\ in2\\ a\\ narrative\\.\\ \\ \\;What\\&rsquo\\;s\\ imilar\\ n\\ different\\ about\\ these\\ images\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 23, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/HAA172w_-_Class_Notes_3_1.doc", "desc": "Note set 3"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.513884+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Propaganda Drone or Dream Machine? Cinema in Nazi Germany and Modern America ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 445, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\Last\\ time\\,\\ we\\ began\\ our\\ discussion\\ of\\ less\\ overtly\\ propagandistic\\ Third\\ Reich\\ cinema\\ with\\ a\\ brief\\ analysis\\ of\\ Luis\\ Trenker\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ complex\\ masterpiece\\ The\\ Emperor\\ of\\ California\\.\\ For\\ the\\ next\\ two\\ posts\\,\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ step\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ usual\\ close\\ analysis\\ of\\ particular\\ Nazi\\ films\\,\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ a\\ more\\ general\\ assessment\\ of\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ cinema\\ in\\ general\\ in\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\.\\ \\ Based\\ on\\ the\\ current\\ set\\ of\\ blog\\ entries\\,\\ it\\ may\\ appear\\ as\\ though\\ every\\ film\\ made\\ under\\ the\\ Nazi\\ regime\\ was\\ either\\ explicitly\\ or\\ implicitly\\ a\\ piece\\ of\\ Nazi\\ propaganda\\.\\ However\\,\\ as\\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ highlights\\ in\\ his\\ book\\,\\ The\\ Ministry\\ of\\ Illusion\\,\\ \\&\\#8220\\;most\\ German\\ films\\ made\\ during\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ were\\ not\\ Nazi\\ films\\&\\#8221\\;\\ \\(Rentschler\\,\\ 10\\)\\.\\ \\ According\\ to\\ Rentschler\\,\\ many\\ of\\ the\\ films\\ in\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\ were\\ sort\\ of\\.\\.\\ non\\-events\\;\\ mediocre\\ musicals\\,\\ and\\ bland\\ features\\.\\ \\ Given\\ these\\ observations\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ to\\ development\\ a\\ more\\ complex\\ understanding\\ of\\ Third\\ Reich\\ films\\,\\ which\\ is\\ capable\\ of\\ locating\\ film\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ relationship\\ to\\ the\\ Nazi\\ reign\\,\\ while\\ avoiding\\ the\\ urge\\ to\\ reduce\\ all\\ films\\ to\\ either\\ purely\\ neutral\\ or\\ purely\\ vehicles\\ for\\ propaganda\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ At\\ the\\ outset\\ of\\ this\\ search\\ for\\ a\\ more\\ nuanced\\ vision\\ of\\ German\\ cinema\\ in\\ the\\ 30s\\ and\\ 40s\\,\\ it\\ is\\ worth\\ asking\\:\\ Given\\ that\\ Goebbels\\,\\ the\\ Nazi\\ minister\\ of\\ propaganda\\,\\ controlled\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ all\\ films\\ made\\ under\\ Hitler\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ regime\\,\\ what\\ function\\ might\\ non\\-ideological\\ films\\ have\\ served\\?\\ There\\ are\\ two\\ primary\\ responses\\ to\\ this\\ question\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ Prestige\\ \\-\\ \\ A\\ central\\ component\\ of\\ the\\ Nazi\\ mystique\\ was\\ its\\ promise\\ and\\ deployment\\ of\\ massive\\ technological\\ modernization\\.\\ \\ This\\ is\\ evident\\ as\\ early\\ as\\ Triumph\\ of\\ the\\ Will\\,\\ where\\ the\\ opening\\ scene\\ features\\ a\\ plane\\ carrying\\ Hitler\\ cruising\\ over\\ rural\\ German\\ countryside\\,\\ suggesting\\ the\\ Nazis\\ would\\ revive\\ \\ traditional\\ German\\ identity\\,\\ but\\ \\(perhaps\\ paradoxically\\)\\ utilize\\ technology\\,\\ both\\ military\\ and\\ cinematic\\,\\ as\\ an\\ essential\\ element\\ of\\ this\\ rebirth\\.\\ \\ In\\ this\\ light\\,\\ it\\ is\\ possible\\ to\\ situate\\ seemingly\\ non\\-ideological\\ films\\ as\\ attempts\\ by\\ the\\ German\\ government\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ advanced\\ level\\ of\\ German\\ culture\\.\\ \\ In\\ fact\\,\\ Goebbels\\ and\\ others\\ often\\ compared\\ and\\ took\\ inspiration\\ from\\ American\\ productions\\ of\\ the\\ time\\.\\ \\ Gl\\&\\#252\\;ckskinder\\ \\(Lucky\\ Kids\\,\\ 1936\\)\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ was\\ a\\ rather\\ animated\\ remake\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ film\\ It\\ Happened\\ One\\ Night\\ \\(1934\\)\\.\\ \\ Thus\\,\\ beautiful\\,\\ seemingly\\ frivolous\\ films\\ played\\ an\\ important\\ role\\ in\\ the\\ maintenance\\ of\\ Nazi\\ legitimacy\\ by\\ showing\\ Germans\\ that\\ Germany\\ could\\ keep\\ up\\ or\\ even\\ excel\\ ahead\\ of\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\\r\\2\\.\\ Distraction\\ \\-\\ A\\ number\\ of\\ intellectuals\\,\\ most\\ notably\\ Sigmund\\ Kracauer\\,\\ have\\ suggested\\ that\\ German\\ film\\ under\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ functioned\\ as\\ a\\ tool\\ of\\ distraction\\ \\-\\-\\ both\\ a\\ pleasant\\ diversion\\ from\\ the\\ sometimes\\ trying\\ material\\ conditions\\ of\\ everyday\\ life\\ in\\ Germany\\ and\\ an\\ insidious\\,\\ if\\ inadvertent\\,\\ mechanism\\ of\\ decentralized\\,\\ social\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ suggests\\ that\\ many\\ films\\ made\\ during\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ were\\ directed\\ at\\ women\\ and\\ children\\,\\ with\\ a\\ large\\ number\\ of\\ these\\ following\\ a\\ similar\\ plot\\ trajectory\\:\\ woman\\ desires\\ too\\ much\\,\\ woman\\ engages\\ in\\ these\\ desires\\,\\ the\\ narrative\\ returns\\ the\\ woman\\ back\\ to\\ her\\ original\\ position\\.\\ \\ We\\ might\\ think\\ of\\ this\\ as\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ insidious\\ propaganda\\.\\ \\ Organization\\ was\\ an\\ essential\\ component\\ of\\ fascist\\ rule\\.\\ \\ All\\ members\\ of\\ society\\ were\\ arrayed\\ around\\ the\\ central\\ Furher\\ figure\\,\\ with\\ various\\ groups\\ having\\ specific\\ roles\\.\\ \\ It\\ could\\ be\\ argued\\ that\\ many\\ fantasy\\ productions\\ of\\ German\\ film\\ under\\ the\\ Third\\ Reich\\ functioned\\ to\\ subtly\\ order\\ women\\ into\\ particular\\ roles\\.\\ \\ However\\,\\ this\\ interpretation\\ might\\ bring\\ us\\ back\\ to\\ the\\ conclusion\\ that\\,\\ by\\ one\\ means\\ or\\ another\\,\\ all\\ German\\ films\\ made\\ under\\ Nazi\\ films\\ were\\ propagandistic\\.\\ \\ Professor\\ Rentschler\\ is\\ adamantly\\ on\\ this\\ point\\:\\ The\\ films\\ of\\ this\\ period\\ were\\ not\\ merely\\ propaganda\\,\\ they\\ were\\ dream\\ machines\\.\\ \\ The\\ narrative\\ tales\\ played\\ out\\ in\\ these\\ movies\\ represent\\ the\\ desires\\,\\ yearnings\\,\\ nightmares\\,\\ and\\ indeed\\,\\ confusions\\ of\\ those\\ bound\\ up\\ in\\ Nazi\\ society\\.\\ \\ At\\ the\\ same\\ time\\,\\ the\\ fantasies\\ projected\\ onscreen\\ surely\\ shaped\\,\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ extent\\ the\\ desires\\ of\\ the\\ audience\\.\\ \\ The\\ important\\ take\\ away\\ point\\ for\\ this\\ analysis\\ is\\ that\\ films\\ made\\ under\\ the\\ Nazis\\ were\\ often\\ aporetic\\,\\ or\\ filled\\ with\\ contradictions\\ that\\ enable\\ alternative\\ readings\\.\\ \\ This\\ suggests\\ that\\,\\ even\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ overt\\ propaganda\\,\\ Nazi\\ control\\ was\\ not\\ absolute\\ and\\ determinative\\,\\ but\\ merely\\ one\\ factor\\ involved\\ in\\ the\\ reception\\ of\\ films\\ by\\ diverse\\ German\\ audiences\\.\\<\\/blockquote\\>\\\r\\\\\\ Before\\ concluding\\ this\\ entry\\,\\ it\\ is\\ essential\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ relationship\\ between\\ this\\ understanding\\ of\\ films\\ made\\ under\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\ and\\ many\\ current\\ structures\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ media\\ landscape\\.\\ \\ Although\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ official\\ American\\ ideology\\,\\ which\\ actively\\ intervenes\\ in\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ the\\ various\\ artifacts\\ of\\ modern\\ society\\,\\ a\\ number\\ of\\ propagandistic\\ messages\\ are\\ conveyed\\ in\\ a\\ virtual\\ state\\ of\\ distraction\\.\\ \\ Although\\ the\\ Mike\\ Ditka\\ hair\\ product\\ ad\\ from\\ a\\ previous\\ post\\ makes\\ this\\ post\\ explicit\\,\\ I\\ find\\ it\\ useful\\ to\\ highlight\\ the\\ disturbingly\\ vast\\ number\\ of\\ ways\\ that\\ certain\\ behaviors\\ and\\ emotional\\ responses\\ are\\ basically\\ coded\\ into\\ American\\ children\\ by\\ their\\ near\\-universal\\ mentor\\:\\ mass\\ media\\.\\ Think\\,\\ for\\ example\\,\\ of\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ \\&\\#8216\\;first\\-person\\ shooter\\&\\#8217\\;\\ video\\ games\\ in\\ naturalizing\\ a\\ certain\\ response\\ to\\ violence\\ and\\ suffering\\ while\\ players\\ are\\ distracted\\ by\\ \\&\\#8216\\;missions\\&\\#8217\\;\\ and\\ \\&\\#8216\\;high\\-scores\\.\\&\\#8217\\;\\ \\ A\\ lighter\\ example\\ can\\ be\\ found\\ in\\ the\\ following\\ ad\\:\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/param\\>\\\\<\\/embed\\>\\<\\/object\\>\\\r\\\\\\ Perhaps\\ this\\ ad\\ is\\ so\\ powerful\\ precisely\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ so\\ light\\-hearted\\.\\ \\ What\\ messages\\ is\\ this\\ ad\\ conveying\\ about\\ American\\ male\\ identity\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\The\\ above\\ examples\\ both\\ play\\ on\\ the\\ notion\\ of\\ media\\-as\\-implicit\\-propaganda\\,\\ however\\ I\\ would\\ like\\ to\\ conclude\\ this\\ post\\ by\\ suggesting\\ a\\ role\\ for\\ the\\ media\\-as\\-distraction\\.\\ \\ It\\ cannot\\ be\\ denied\\ that\\ the\\ media\\ in\\ American\\ plays\\ a\\ role\\ similar\\,\\ yet\\ more\\ expansive\\,\\ than\\ the\\ role\\ of\\ film\\ in\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\.\\ \\ Both\\ mediums\\ are\\ vehicles\\ of\\ dreams\\.\\ Look\\ at\\ the\\ permeation\\ of\\ celebrity\\ news\\ into\\ the\\ American\\ imaginary\\.\\ \\ There\\ is\\ a\\ bizarre\\ dialectic\\ in\\ the\\ American\\ media\\ which\\ fetishizes\\ the\\ innocence\\ of\\ young\\ female\\ pop\\ stars\\,\\ only\\ to\\ relish\\ in\\ the\\ horrible\\ decline\\ \\-\\-\\ the\\ star\\ that\\ fell\\ from\\ grace\\.\\ \\ Not\\ only\\ are\\ these\\ modern\\ American\\ fantasies\\ vacuous\\ \\(to\\ say\\ the\\ least\\)\\,\\ the\\ also\\ serve\\ as\\ vital\\ distractions\\ from\\ ongoing\\ national\\ affairs\\.\\ \\ For\\ evidence\\ of\\ this\\ closing\\ point\\,\\ one\\ need\\ only\\ look\\ back\\ to\\ last\\ summer\\ when\\ Paris\\ Hilton\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ week\\ in\\ jail\\ became\\ the\\ top\\ news\\ item\\ on\\ every\\ channel\\,\\ momentarily\\,\\ yet\\ almost\\ absolutely\\ displacing\\/erasing\\ that\\ little\\ Pop\\ Phenomenon\\ formerly\\ known\\ as\\ the\\ Iraq\\ War\\.\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Propaganda Drone or Dream Machine? Cinema in Nazi Germany and Modern America "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:47.465082+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Quick note on symbols.. ", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 441, "html": "\\\\\r\\\\\\ One\\ of\\ the\\ key\\ aspects\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ Nazi\\ Germany\\ we\\ have\\ been\\ discussing\\ is\\ the\\ culture\\ of\\ ritual\\.\\ \\ By\\ inundating\\ Germans\\ with\\ a\\ system\\ of\\ symbols\\ and\\ festivals\\,\\ the\\ Nazi\\ party\\ bolstered\\ traditional\\ nationalism\\,\\ while\\ promoting\\ the\\ mystical\\ nature\\ of\\ Nazism\\.\\ \\ I\\ thought\\ the\\ following\\ \\video\\<\\/a\\>\\ might\\ be\\ useful\\ in\\ grasping\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ this\\ near\\-religious\\ aspect\\ of\\ fascism\\.\\ As\\ you\\ watch\\ the\\ stream\\ of\\ Nazi\\ flags\\ pour\\ into\\ the\\ assembly\\,\\ it\\&\\#8217\\;s\\ worth\\ asking\\ yourself\\:\\ What\\ is\\ the\\ function\\ of\\ such\\ overt\\ symbolism\\?\\ \\ Can\\ you\\ think\\ of\\ any\\ contemporary\\ examples\\ of\\ these\\ sorts\\ of\\ omnipresent\\ signifiers\\ \\(be\\ they\\ physical\\ or\\ verbal\\)\\?\\ \\ What\\ function\\ do\\ those\\ serve\\?\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 79, "file_path": "", "desc": "Quick note on symbols.. "}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-05-01 06:30:57.481248+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Social Thought in Modern America - Study Guide", "tags": ["harvard", "history", "social-thought"], "text": null, "id": 62, "html": "\\\\\\1661\\_MIDTERM\\_STUDY\\_GUIDE\\.doc\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c20\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.c5\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:circle\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c4\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\;text\\-decoration\\:underline\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.c18\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:square\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c9\\{list\\-style\\-type\\:disc\\;margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c13\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:108pt\\}\\.c14\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Verdana\\\"\\}\\.c7\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:72pt\\}\\.c3\\{padding\\-left\\:0pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c15\\{margin\\-right\\:36pt\\;margin\\-left\\:36pt\\}\\.c1\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:12pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c6\\{font\\-style\\:italic\\}\\.c16\\{text\\-indent\\:36pt\\}\\.c12\\{text\\-align\\:center\\}\\.c19\\{font\\-size\\:10pt\\}\\.c2\\{direction\\:ltr\\}\\.c10\\{text\\-decoration\\:underline\\}\\.c11\\{vertical\\-align\\:super\\}\\.c17\\{margin\\-left\\:18pt\\}\\.c8\\{font\\-weight\\:bold\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:0pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:center\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:16pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:13pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.0\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Times\\ New\\ Roman\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:3pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\September\\ 20\\,\\ 2007\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 2\\:\\ Victorian\\ America\\ and\\ the\\ Challenge\\ of\\ Darwinism\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\David\\ Hollinger\\ and\\ Charles\\ Capper\\:\\ Preface\\ and\\ Introduction\\ to\\ AIT\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charles\\ Pierce\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fixation\\ of\\ Belief\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thomas\\ Haskell\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Responsibility\\,\\ Convention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Role\\ of\\ Ideas\\ in\\ History\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Preface\\ and\\ Introduction\\ \\(Hollinger\\ and\\ Capper\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Most\\ of\\ the\\ selections\\ in\\ AIT\\ are\\ of\\ the\\ genres\\ classically\\ associated\\ with\\ purposive\\ discourse\\:\\ sermon\\,\\ address\\,\\ letter\\,\\ treatise\\,\\ and\\ essay\\.\\ They\\ respond\\ to\\ issues\\ that\\ have\\ \\&ldquo\\;persistently\\ generated\\ extensive\\ intellectual\\ discussion\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Most\\ of\\ these\\ selections\\ concern\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;theoretical\\ basis\\ for\\ religious\\,\\ scientific\\,\\ artistic\\,\\ political\\,\\ social\\,\\ and\\ economic\\ practice\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Hollinger\\ believes\\ that\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ United\\ States\\ is\\ above\\ a\\ polity\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ that\\ the\\ public\\ culture\\ of\\ America\\ has\\ \\&ldquo\\;often\\ been\\ caught\\ up\\ in\\ the\\ distinctive\\ ethos\\ of\\ Protestant\\ Christianity\\&rdquo\\;\\ while\\ modern\\ America\\ has\\ been\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;peculiarly\\ science\\-preoccupied\\ civilization\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(xii\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ writing\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Will\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ 1897\\,\\ William\\ James\\ sought\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;vindicate\\ the\\ individual\\ soul\\&rsquo\\;s\\ right\\ to\\ retain\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ Protestant\\ heritage\\ not\\ actually\\ proven\\ false\\ by\\ the\\ advancement\\ of\\ secular\\ learning\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(3\\)\\.\\ The\\ documents\\ of\\ Part\\ One\\ of\\ AIT\\ display\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;tendency\\,\\ if\\ not\\ a\\ determination\\,\\ to\\ ground\\ arguments\\ in\\ naturalistic\\ and\\ humanistic\\ premises\\&rdquo\\;\\ meaning\\ they\\ seek\\ to\\ ground\\ their\\ arguments\\,\\ even\\ if\\ in\\ support\\ of\\ religious\\ belief\\,\\ in\\ a\\ rational\\,\\ scientific\\,\\ or\\ humanistic\\ authority\\ rather\\ than\\ scriptural\\ or\\ divine\\ authority\\ \\(3\\)\\.\\ Moving\\ on\\ to\\ the\\ Gilded\\ Age\\ thinkers\\,\\ Hollinger\\ believes\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ their\\ hope\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ science\\ might\\ provide\\ a\\ new\\,\\ solid\\ foundation\\ for\\ organizing\\ and\\ governing\\ their\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(4\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fixation\\ of\\ Belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Charles\\ Pierce\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ piece\\,\\ Hollinger\\ argues\\ that\\ Pierce\\ manages\\ to\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ articulate\\ a\\ largely\\ social\\ vision\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ enterprise\\,\\ according\\ to\\ which\\ the\\ community\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ individual\\ knower\\ is\\ the\\ primary\\ agent\\ of\\ cognitive\\ process\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ direct\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ science\\ against\\ not\\ only\\ beliefs\\ about\\ nature\\,\\ but\\ against\\ the\\ entire\\ panorama\\ of\\ inherited\\ beliefs\\,\\ especially\\ and\\ explicitly\\ religious\\ beliefs\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.\\ assert\\ that\\ open\\,\\ honest\\ inquiry\\ is\\ decidedly\\ superior\\ morally\\ to\\ pious\\ loyalty\\ to\\ an\\ inherited\\ faith\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\.\\ argue\\,\\ in\\ what\\ would\\ eventually\\ be\\ recognized\\ as\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;pragmatic\\&rdquo\\;\\ mode\\,\\ that\\ true\\ belief\\ is\\ simply\\ a\\ habit\\ that\\ can\\ remain\\ stable\\,\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;fixed\\ opinion\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(15\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Fixation\\ of\\ Belief\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ Charles\\ Peirce\\ assesses\\ the\\ methods\\ by\\ which\\ people\\ move\\ from\\ states\\ of\\ doubt\\ to\\ states\\ of\\ belief\\,\\ ultimately\\ endorsing\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\.\\ It\\ is\\ historically\\ significant\\ because\\ it\\ casts\\ the\\ Darwinian\\ controversy\\ as\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ question\\ of\\ logic\\&rdquo\\;\\ rather\\ than\\ a\\ question\\ of\\ religious\\ belief\\.\\ In\\ his\\ theory\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ Pierce\\ argues\\,\\ Darwin\\ is\\ merely\\ applying\\ the\\ statistical\\ method\\,\\ which\\ is\\ itself\\ objective\\,\\ to\\ biology\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Pierce\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ explain\\ why\\ we\\ draw\\ certain\\ inferences\\ from\\ certain\\ observations\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ That\\ which\\ determines\\ us\\,\\ from\\ given\\ premises\\,\\ to\\ draw\\ one\\ inference\\ rather\\ than\\ another\\,\\ is\\ some\\ habit\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ whether\\ it\\ be\\ constitutional\\ or\\ aquired\\.\\ \\&hellip\\;an\\ inference\\ is\\ regarded\\ as\\ valid\\ or\\ not\\,\\ without\\ reference\\ to\\ the\\ truth\\ or\\ falsity\\ of\\ its\\ conclusions\\ specially\\,\\ but\\ according\\ as\\ the\\ habit\\ which\\ determines\\ it\\ is\\ such\\ as\\ to\\ produce\\ true\\ conclusions\\ in\\ general\\ or\\ not\\.\\ \\(17\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ habit\\ of\\ mind\\ provides\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;guiding\\ principle\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ inference\\ in\\ which\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;variety\\ of\\ facts\\ are\\ already\\ assumed\\ when\\ the\\ logical\\ question\\ is\\ first\\ asked\\&rdquo\\;\\ such\\ as\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;there\\ are\\ such\\ states\\ of\\ mind\\ as\\ doubt\\ and\\ belief\\&mdash\\;that\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ one\\ to\\ the\\ other\\ is\\ possible\\,\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ thought\\ remaining\\ the\\ same\\,\\ and\\ that\\ this\\ transition\\ is\\ subject\\ to\\ some\\ rules\\ which\\ all\\ minds\\ are\\ alike\\ bound\\ by\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(18\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Pierce\\ believes\\ it\\ is\\ better\\ to\\ believe\\ than\\ to\\ doubt\\ because\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ feelings\\ of\\ believing\\ is\\ a\\ more\\ or\\ less\\ sure\\ indication\\ of\\ there\\ being\\ established\\ in\\ our\\ nature\\ some\\ habit\\ which\\ will\\ determine\\ our\\ actions\\.\\ Doubt\\ never\\ has\\ such\\ effect\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(19\\)\\.\\ However\\,\\ doubt\\,\\ too\\,\\ is\\ important\\ because\\ doubt\\ \\&ldquo\\;stimulates\\ us\\ to\\ action\\ until\\ it\\ is\\ destroyed\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ irritation\\ of\\ doubt\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ immediate\\ motive\\ for\\ the\\ struggle\\ to\\ attain\\ belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(19\\)\\.\\ In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ however\\,\\ Pierce\\ suggests\\ that\\ validity\\ is\\ different\\ from\\ truth\\,\\ in\\ that\\ an\\ objective\\ process\\ may\\ render\\ a\\ belief\\ valid\\,\\ but\\ not\\ true\\:\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ And\\ it\\ is\\ clear\\ that\\ nothing\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ sphere\\ of\\ our\\ knowledge\\ can\\ be\\ our\\ object\\,\\ for\\ nothing\\ which\\ does\\ not\\ affect\\ the\\ mind\\ can\\ be\\ a\\ motive\\ for\\ a\\ mental\\ effort\\.\\ The\\ most\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ maintained\\ is\\,\\ that\\ we\\ seek\\ for\\ a\\ belief\\ that\\ we\\ shall\\ think\\ to\\ be\\ true\\.\\ 19\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pierce\\ then\\ goes\\ on\\ to\\ articulate\\ four\\ methods\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;fixing\\ belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ such\\ that\\ it\\ can\\ withstand\\ a\\ doubt\\ and\\ be\\ acted\\ upon\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;1\\.\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ tenacity\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;2\\.\\ the\\ method\\ of\\ authority\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;3\\.\\ the\\ a\\ priori\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;4\\.\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;method\\ of\\ tenacity\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ one\\ does\\ whatever\\ it\\ takes\\ to\\ shut\\ himself\\ out\\ from\\ all\\ influences\\ that\\ may\\ shake\\ his\\ belief\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ method\\,\\ however\\,\\ can\\ hardly\\ work\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;unless\\ we\\ make\\ ourselves\\ hermits\\,\\ we\\ shall\\ necessarily\\ influence\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ opinions\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ means\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ the\\ problem\\ becomes\\ how\\ to\\ fix\\ belief\\,\\ not\\ in\\ the\\ individual\\ merely\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(the\\ scientific\\ method\\ solves\\ this\\ by\\ providing\\ a\\ standard\\ by\\ which\\ the\\ community\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ can\\ fix\\ belief\\)\\ \\(21\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;method\\ of\\ authority\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ the\\ state\\ creates\\ an\\ institution\\ which\\ shall\\ have\\ for\\ its\\ object\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ keep\\ correct\\ doctrines\\ before\\ the\\ attention\\ of\\ the\\ people\\,\\ to\\ reiterate\\ them\\ perpetually\\,\\ and\\ to\\ teach\\ them\\ to\\ the\\ young\\;\\ having\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ power\\ to\\ prevent\\ contrary\\ doctrines\\ from\\ being\\ taught\\,\\ advocated\\,\\ or\\ expressed\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(21\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ priori\\ method\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ positions\\ are\\ adopted\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;their\\ fundamental\\ propositions\\ seemed\\ \\&lsquo\\;agreeable\\ to\\ reason\\&rsquo\\;\\ for\\ those\\ that\\ come\\ up\\ with\\ the\\ positions\\;\\ in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ the\\ actions\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;natural\\ preferences\\&rdquo\\;\\ are\\ unimpeded\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ hoped\\ that\\ men\\ conversing\\ together\\ will\\ gradually\\ develop\\ beliefs\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;harmony\\ with\\ natural\\ causes\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Pierce\\ likens\\ this\\ to\\ the\\ develop\\ meant\\ of\\ taste\\ in\\ art\\ or\\ food\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Considering\\ these\\ methods\\ inadequate\\ for\\ the\\ task\\ of\\ community\\ belief\\,\\ Pierce\\ calls\\ for\\ a\\ fourth\\ method\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ To\\ satisfy\\ our\\ doubts\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ it\\ is\\ necessary\\ that\\ a\\ method\\ should\\ be\\ found\\ by\\ which\\ our\\ beliefs\\ may\\ be\\ caused\\ by\\ nothing\\ human\\,\\ but\\ by\\ some\\ external\\ permanency\\&mdash\\;by\\ something\\ upon\\ which\\ our\\ thinking\\ has\\ no\\ effect\\.\\ \\(23\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ \\&ldquo\\;scientific\\ method\\&rdquo\\;\\ achieves\\ this\\ because\\,\\ with\\ it\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ test\\ of\\ whether\\ I\\ am\\ truly\\ following\\ the\\ method\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ immediate\\ appeal\\ to\\ my\\ feelings\\ and\\ purposes\\,\\ but\\,\\ on\\ the\\ contrary\\,\\ itself\\ involves\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ the\\ method\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(24\\)\\.\\ The\\ hypothesis\\ of\\ the\\ scientific\\ method\\ is\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ There\\ are\\ real\\ things\\,\\ whose\\ characters\\ are\\ entirely\\ independent\\ of\\ our\\ opinions\\ about\\ them\\;\\ whose\\ realities\\ affect\\ our\\ senses\\ according\\ to\\ regular\\ laws\\,\\ and\\,\\ though\\ our\\ sensations\\ are\\ as\\ different\\ as\\ our\\ relations\\ to\\ the\\ objects\\,\\ yet\\,\\ by\\ taking\\ advantage\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ perception\\,\\ we\\ can\\ ascertain\\ by\\ reasoning\\ how\\ things\\ really\\ are\\,\\ and\\ any\\ man\\,\\ if\\ he\\ have\\ sufficient\\ experience\\ and\\ reason\\ enough\\ about\\ it\\,\\ will\\ be\\ led\\ to\\ the\\ same\\ conclusion\\.\\ \\(23\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pierce\\ goes\\ on\\ place\\ faith\\ in\\ man\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ shed\\ comfortable\\ beliefs\\ with\\ reflection\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ The\\ force\\ of\\ habit\\ will\\ sometimes\\ cause\\ a\\ man\\ to\\ hold\\ on\\ to\\ old\\ beliefs\\,\\ after\\ he\\ is\\ in\\ a\\ condition\\ to\\ see\\ that\\ they\\ have\\ no\\ sound\\ basis\\.\\ But\\ reflection\\ upon\\ the\\ state\\ of\\ the\\ case\\ will\\ overcome\\ these\\ habits\\,\\ and\\ he\\ ought\\ to\\ allow\\ reflection\\ full\\ weight\\.\\ \\(25\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Finally\\,\\ Pierce\\ makes\\ the\\ claim\\ that\\ avoiding\\ the\\ truth\\ is\\ immoral\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ But\\,\\ above\\ all\\,\\ let\\ it\\ be\\ considered\\ that\\ what\\ is\\ more\\ wholesome\\ than\\ any\\ particular\\ belief\\,\\ is\\ integrity\\ of\\ belief\\;\\ and\\ that\\ to\\ avoid\\ looking\\ into\\ the\\ support\\ of\\ any\\ belief\\ from\\ a\\ fear\\ that\\ it\\ may\\ turn\\ out\\ rotten\\ is\\ quite\\ as\\ immoral\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ disadvantageous\\.\\ \\(25\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Responsibility\\,\\ Convention\\,\\ and\\ the\\ Role\\ of\\ Ideas\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(Thomas\\ Haskell\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ In\\ this\\ piece\\,\\ Haskell\\ sets\\ out\\ to\\ explain\\ how\\ various\\ generations\\ can\\ view\\ similar\\ phenomena\\ in\\ very\\ different\\ ways\\ and\\ specifically\\ treats\\ the\\ example\\ of\\ slavery\\ as\\ viewed\\ in\\ modern\\ times\\ and\\ ancient\\ Greek\\ times\\.\\ In\\ his\\ view\\,\\ convention\\ places\\ \\&ldquo\\;unrecognized\\ constraints\\&rdquo\\;\\ on\\ the\\ reason\\ and\\ imagination\\ of\\ men\\.\\ In\\ doing\\ this\\,\\ Haskell\\ joins\\ the\\ project\\ of\\ Quentin\\ Skinner\\ in\\ urging\\ people\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;explore\\ convention\\&rsquo\\;s\\ shadowy\\ domain\\ of\\ unconscious\\ habit\\,\\ presupposition\\,\\ prejudgment\\,\\ and\\ prejudice\\ neither\\ to\\ discredit\\ reason\\,\\ nor\\ to\\ belabor\\ its\\ shortcomings\\,\\ but\\ in\\ hopes\\ of\\ strengthening\\ its\\ claims\\ within\\ a\\ more\\ defensible\\ perimeter\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(281\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ Haskell\\ argues\\ that\\ one\\ must\\ consider\\ that\\ the\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ we\\ know\\ it\\ was\\ foreign\\ to\\ the\\ ancients\\ before\\ passing\\ judgment\\ on\\ their\\ treatment\\ of\\ slavery\\:\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ \\ \\;\\ What\\ is\\ most\\ intriguing\\ about\\ the\\ comparatively\\ short\\ etymological\\ lineage\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsible\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\ \\;is\\ the\\ thought\\ that\\ our\\ conceptions\\ of\\ morality\\ and\\ human\\ agency\\,\\ in\\ which\\ these\\ terms\\ figure\\ so\\ prominently\\ today\\,\\ may\\ be\\ less\\ a\\ timeless\\ feature\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ and\\ more\\ the\\ product\\ of\\ changing\\ historical\\ conditions\\ than\\ is\\ commonly\\ recognized\\.\\ \\(283\\)\\ \\ \\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Haskell\\ identifies\\ \\&ldquo\\;cause\\,\\ intention\\,\\ state\\,\\ and\\ response\\&rdquo\\;\\ as\\ the\\ four\\ elements\\ by\\ which\\ both\\ modern\\ and\\ ancient\\ thinking\\ judged\\ responsibility\\ \\(292\\)\\.\\ The\\ difference\\,\\ then\\,\\ is\\ not\\ so\\ much\\ conceptions\\ of\\ justice\\,\\ as\\ it\\ is\\ conventions\\ of\\ material\\ existence\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Instead\\,\\ the\\ difference\\ lies\\ in\\ their\\ comparative\\ inability\\ to\\ imagine\\ any\\ course\\ of\\ action\\ that\\ would\\ bring\\ about\\ the\\ practical\\ implementation\\ of\\ those\\ ideals\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(295\\)\\.\\ For\\ the\\ ancients\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ not\\ subject\\ to\\ moral\\ judgments\\ because\\ \\&ldquo\\;its\\ existence\\ seemed\\ necessary\\ and\\ its\\ abolition\\ almost\\ literally\\ unthinkable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(294\\)\\.\\ In\\ other\\ words\\,\\ slavery\\ was\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\ evil\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ What\\ has\\ changed\\,\\ then\\,\\ if\\ concepts\\ of\\ justice\\ have\\ not\\,\\ are\\ the\\ technical\\-material\\ constraints\\ that\\ rendered\\ slavery\\ \\&ldquo\\;necessary\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ \\ \\;Just\\ like\\ slavery\\,\\ the\\ technological\\ advances\\ are\\ shifting\\ our\\ the\\ contemporary\\ concept\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ expanding\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;domain\\ of\\ necessity\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ our\\ reach\\ in\\ matters\\ of\\ altruistic\\ intervention\\&mdash\\;no\\ longer\\ are\\ we\\ only\\ able\\ to\\ save\\ those\\ with\\ whom\\ we\\ are\\ in\\ immediate\\ contact\\,\\ but\\ advances\\ in\\ transportation\\ and\\ financial\\ transfer\\ have\\ allowed\\ us\\ to\\ save\\ those\\ who\\ live\\ on\\ the\\ other\\ side\\ of\\ the\\ earth\\.\\ These\\ advances\\ have\\ thus\\ changed\\ convention\\,\\ and\\ we\\ must\\ always\\ take\\ this\\ into\\ account\\ before\\ making\\ historical\\ judgments\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Lecture\\ 3\\ Reading\\ Summaries\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\Norton\\,\\ Whitman\\,\\ and\\ Crane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-noah\\ nathan\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ sure\\ we\\&rsquo\\;re\\ all\\ pretty\\ familiar\\ with\\ the\\ first\\ two\\ at\\ this\\ point\\,\\ but\\ here\\ are\\ summaries\\ anyway\\)\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norton\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;American\\ Political\\ Ideas\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1865\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ Norton\\ was\\ involved\\ in\\ founding\\ the\\ Nation\\ and\\ North\\ American\\ Review\\ during\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ era\\.\\ Obsessed\\ with\\ European\\ art\\ and\\ culture\\,\\ became\\ Harvard\\&rsquo\\;s\\ first\\ art\\ history\\ professor\\.\\ Unlike\\ Whitman\\,\\ Kloppenburg\\ argued\\ that\\ Norton\\ was\\ not\\ so\\ concerned\\ that\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ art\\ reach\\ out\\ to\\ ordinary\\ people\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ he\\ believed\\ that\\ American\\ should\\ embrace\\ medieval\\ and\\ renaissance\\ European\\ art\\.\\ He\\ is\\ the\\ Victorian\\ compared\\ to\\ Whitman\\ the\\ challenger\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Norton\\ argued\\ that\\ American\\ democracy\\ was\\ exceptional\\ because\\ it\\ had\\ a\\ different\\ \\&ldquo\\;essence\\&rdquo\\;\\ than\\ Europe\\ \\-\\ a\\ new\\ set\\ of\\ guiding\\ political\\ principles\\ under\\ which\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;doctrine\\ of\\ privilege\\&rdquo\\;\\ that\\ put\\ the\\ rights\\ of\\ kings\\,\\ nobles\\,\\ and\\ clergy\\ above\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ society\\ was\\ replaced\\ by\\ ideas\\ emphasizing\\ the\\ equality\\ of\\ all\\ men\\.\\ Sovereignty\\ was\\ derived\\ from\\ within\\,\\ from\\ the\\ collective\\ will\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ People\\&rdquo\\;\\.\\ Norton\\ saw\\ the\\ great\\ mass\\ of\\ Americans\\ becoming\\ a\\ second\\ and\\ far\\ more\\ important\\ \\&ldquo\\;controlling\\ agency\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ society\\;\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;extra\\-governmental\\ organization\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ surpassing\\ the\\ government\\ itself\\.\\ In\\ this\\ way\\ for\\ Norton\\ the\\ people\\ formed\\ a\\ moral\\ community\\ held\\ together\\ by\\ a\\ shared\\ moral\\ code\\ or\\ identity\\.\\ Their\\ political\\ behavior\\ was\\ the\\ process\\ through\\ which\\ they\\ put\\ these\\ morals\\ into\\ action\\.\\ Norton\\ believed\\ that\\ this\\ self\\-government\\ could\\ allow\\ American\\ institutions\\ to\\ be\\ perfected\\ and\\ evolve\\ over\\ time\\ with\\ the\\ changing\\ needs\\ of\\ the\\ community\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Writing\\ in\\ 1865\\,\\ Norton\\ expressed\\ a\\ self\\-righteous\\ \\&ldquo\\;confidence\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ perpetual\\ beneficent\\ progress\\ of\\ the\\ principles\\ on\\ which\\ American\\ institutions\\ of\\ government\\ and\\ of\\ society\\ are\\ based\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ despite\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ evils\\&hellip\\;\\ mistakes\\ and\\ defects\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ American\\ life\\ exposed\\ by\\ the\\ recently\\ concluded\\ Civil\\ War\\.\\ He\\ went\\ as\\ far\\ as\\ to\\ claim\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ perfect\\ commonwealth\\ might\\ here\\ become\\ a\\ reality\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ Civil\\ War\\ did\\ not\\ temper\\ Norton\\&rsquo\\;s\\ confidence\\ because\\ he\\ saw\\ the\\ South\\ as\\ fighting\\ against\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ American\\ democracy\\ and\\ not\\ sharing\\ the\\ same\\ moral\\ identity\\ that\\ guided\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ American\\ community\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ can\\ not\\ be\\ repeated\\ too\\ often\\;\\ that\\ this\\ war\\ was\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ ideas\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ South\\ was\\ invested\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ opposite\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ the\\ principles\\ of\\ American\\ democracy\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ particular\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ primary\\ task\\ after\\ the\\ war\\ was\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;secure\\&rdquo\\;\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ Union\\,\\ a\\ civil\\ unity\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ victory\\ gave\\ the\\ North\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ impose\\ its\\ moral\\ order\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ even\\ civilization\\ itself\\ on\\ the\\ South\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ North\\ is\\ civilized\\,\\ the\\ South\\ is\\ uncivilized\\&hellip\\;\\ One\\ must\\ take\\ the\\ likeness\\ of\\ the\\ other\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whitman\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Democratic\\ Vistas\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1867\\,\\ 1871\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ Whitman\\ \\(1819\\ \\-1892\\)\\ was\\ a\\ Vicotrian\\ era\\ poet\\ who\\ aspired\\ to\\ become\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;voice\\ of\\ ordinary\\ Americans\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ wanted\\ art\\ to\\ relate\\ to\\ the\\ average\\ and\\ common\\ man\\,\\ not\\ just\\ the\\ elite\\.\\ To\\ quote\\ Kloppenburg\\,\\ Whitman\\ wanted\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;explode\\ conventions\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;become\\ the\\ singer\\ of\\ the\\ song\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ democratic\\ ethos\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ creating\\ leading\\ a\\ movement\\ for\\ a\\ new\\ American\\ literature\\.\\ His\\ work\\ is\\ said\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ direct\\ challenge\\ to\\ Victorian\\ sensibilities\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Whitman\\ stressed\\ that\\ American\\ exceptionalism\\ lay\\ in\\ the\\ future\\.\\ He\\ believed\\ America\\ was\\ only\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;its\\ birth\\ throes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ The\\ war\\ had\\ given\\ Whitman\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;latent\\&rdquo\\;\\ power\\ in\\ American\\ democracy\\ that\\ could\\ be\\ tapped\\ in\\ the\\ future\\ and\\ allow\\ America\\ to\\ \\&ldquo\\;come\\ to\\ dominate\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Whitman\\ also\\ espoused\\ the\\ greatness\\ of\\ democratic\\ institutions\\ for\\ giving\\ power\\ to\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ binding\\ people\\ into\\ \\&ldquo\\;a\\ brotherhood\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\,\\ but\\ Whitman\\ did\\ not\\ believe\\ America\\ had\\ yet\\ achieved\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;solidarity\\&rdquo\\;\\ necessary\\ to\\ be\\ exceptional\\,\\ because\\ he\\ argued\\ America\\&rsquo\\;s\\ unique\\ political\\ foundations\\ and\\ institutions\\ were\\ not\\ sufficient\\ to\\ make\\ democracy\\ successful\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;I\\ would\\ alarm\\ the\\&hellip\\;\\ reader\\&hellip\\;\\ to\\ the\\ utmost\\ extent\\,\\ against\\ the\\ prevailing\\ delusion\\ that\\ the\\ establishment\\ of\\ free\\ political\\ institutions\\&hellip\\;\\ do\\,\\ of\\ themselves\\,\\ determine\\ and\\ yield\\ to\\ our\\ experiment\\ of\\ democracy\\ the\\ fruitage\\ of\\ success\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ This\\ was\\ because\\ where\\ Norton\\ found\\ a\\ strong\\ moral\\ civic\\ culture\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ American\\ democracy\\,\\ Whitman\\ found\\ \\&ldquo\\;hollowness\\ at\\ heart\\ than\\ at\\ present\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ America\\.\\ He\\ argued\\ that\\ Americans\\ lived\\ \\&ldquo\\;in\\ an\\ atmosphere\\ of\\ hypocrisy\\ throughout\\&hellip\\;\\ saturated\\ in\\ corruption\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ underlying\\ principles\\ of\\ the\\ States\\ are\\ not\\ honestly\\ believed\\ in\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;Our\\ New\\ World\\ democracy\\&hellip\\;\\ is\\,\\ so\\ far\\,\\ an\\ almost\\ complete\\ failure\\ in\\ social\\ aspects\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ etc\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ overcome\\ this\\,\\ Whitman\\ argued\\ that\\ it\\ was\\ necessary\\ for\\ America\\ to\\ abandon\\ its\\ reliance\\ on\\ European\\ traditions\\ in\\ art\\ and\\ literature\\,\\ which\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ had\\ their\\ birth\\ in\\ courts\\&hellip\\;\\ and\\ castle\\ sunshine\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;are\\ poisonous\\ to\\ the\\ idea\\ of\\ the\\ pride\\ and\\ dignity\\ of\\ the\\ common\\ people\\,\\ the\\ life\\ blood\\ of\\ democracy\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ create\\ its\\ own\\ tradition\\ of\\ truly\\ American\\ art\\ and\\ literature\\ \\(especially\\ poetry\\!\\ \\(figures\\)\\)\\.\\ This\\ was\\ necessary\\,\\ Whitman\\ argued\\ because\\ literature\\ and\\ art\\ go\\ \\&ldquo\\;deeper\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ take\\ \\&ldquo\\;hold\\ in\\ men\\&rsquo\\;s\\ hearts\\,\\ emotions\\ and\\ belief\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;together\\&hellip\\;\\ give\\ more\\ compaction\\ and\\ more\\ moral\\ identity\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ America\\ than\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\ its\\ hitherto\\ political\\&hellip\\;\\ experiences\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ American\\ art\\ and\\ literature\\ would\\ not\\ be\\ aimed\\ at\\ an\\ elite\\ but\\ at\\ bringing\\ culture\\ to\\ the\\ common\\ people\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;average\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ and\\ give\\ all\\ Americans\\ a\\ universal\\ set\\ of\\ norms\\ and\\ models\\ for\\ behavior\\ to\\ create\\ a\\ distinctly\\ American\\ personality\\.\\ At\\ the\\ end\\ Whitman\\ argues\\ that\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;all\\-penetrating\\ religiosity\\&rdquo\\;\\ must\\ be\\ at\\ the\\ heart\\ of\\ the\\ new\\ American\\ culture\\,\\ hands\\ out\\ advice\\ to\\ young\\ people\\ who\\ might\\ want\\ to\\ go\\ into\\ politics\\,\\ and\\ warns\\ that\\ women\\ might\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ something\\ \\&ldquo\\;revolutionary\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ entering\\ into\\ politics\\ and\\ asking\\ for\\ suffrage\\&hellip\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Crane\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;An\\ Episode\\ of\\ War\\&rdquo\\;\\ 1899\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ was\\ tied\\ into\\ the\\ broader\\ themes\\ of\\ the\\ shift\\ from\\ romanticism\\ to\\ realism\\ \\(compare\\ to\\ the\\ transitions\\ in\\ Kloppenburg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ the\\ art\\ slide\\ show\\,\\ etc\\)\\.\\ Crane\\,\\ who\\ had\\ come\\ up\\ through\\ poverty\\ as\\ a\\ worker\\ in\\ the\\ Bowery\\ and\\ a\\ baseball\\ player\\,\\ was\\ said\\ to\\ represent\\ a\\ new\\ generation\\ of\\ writers\\ emerging\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ to\\ challenge\\ Victorian\\ romanticism\\.\\ Kloppenburg\\ said\\ Crane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writing\\ represented\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;new\\ American\\ naturalism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ in\\ which\\ his\\ characters\\ were\\ not\\ high\\-minded\\,\\ high\\-society\\ types\\,\\ but\\ dark\\,\\ more\\ realistic\\ portrayals\\ of\\ everyday\\ American\\ life\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ reading\\ should\\ be\\ easily\\ recognizable\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ short\\ story\\ prose\\,\\ etc\\.\\ It\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ a\\ page\\ and\\ a\\ half\\ so\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ quicker\\ to\\ just\\ read\\ it\\ than\\ read\\ this\\.\\ The\\ basic\\ plot\\ is\\:\\ a\\ Civil\\ War\\ lieutenant\\ is\\ distributing\\ coffee\\ among\\ his\\ men\\ when\\ he\\ is\\ suddenly\\ shot\\ in\\ the\\ arm\\.\\ He\\ is\\ stunned\\ by\\ his\\ wound\\ and\\ the\\ men\\ stare\\ at\\ him\\ in\\ awe\\ before\\ helping\\ him\\ sheath\\ his\\ sword\\ and\\ move\\ away\\ from\\ the\\ line\\.\\ He\\ leaves\\ the\\ scene\\ of\\ the\\ battle\\ and\\ moves\\ into\\ the\\ rear\\ with\\ his\\ arm\\ hastily\\ bandaged\\ where\\ he\\ passes\\ a\\ general\\ and\\ artillery\\ companies\\ preparing\\ a\\ barrage\\.\\ He\\ makes\\ his\\ way\\ to\\ a\\ field\\ hospital\\ in\\ an\\ old\\ school\\ house\\ where\\ a\\ doctor\\ amputates\\ his\\ arm\\.\\ He\\ returns\\ home\\ to\\ his\\ sobbing\\ family\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;standing\\ shamefaced\\ amid\\&hellip\\;\\ tears\\&rdquo\\;\\ tries\\ to\\ shrug\\ off\\ the\\ fact\\ he\\&rsquo\\;s\\ missing\\ his\\ arm\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ story\\ is\\ certainly\\ a\\ dark\\,\\ brooding\\,\\ realistic\\ portrayal\\ of\\ the\\ Civil\\ War\\ and\\ each\\ paragraph\\ presents\\ a\\ little\\ vignette\\ into\\ the\\ people\\ and\\ environment\\ of\\ the\\ battlefield\\.\\ Kloppenburg\\ connected\\ the\\ Crane\\ piece\\ back\\ into\\ Whitman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Democratic\\ Vistas\\&rdquo\\;\\ by\\ asking\\ us\\ if\\ we\\ think\\ Crane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ writing\\ is\\ the\\ kind\\ of\\ democratic\\ art\\ Whitman\\ was\\ calling\\ for\\.\\ If\\ you\\ think\\ it\\ is\\,\\ and\\ I\\ guess\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ subjective\\ assessment\\,\\ it\\ might\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ connect\\ Crane\\ back\\ to\\ Whitman\\ if\\ you\\ need\\ to\\ describe\\ the\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ piece\\.\\ It\\ is\\ interesting\\ to\\ note\\ that\\ while\\ this\\ is\\ the\\ most\\ vivid\\ civil\\ war\\ piece\\ of\\ the\\ three\\ \\(James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;Shaw\\ Oration\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ Holmes\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;A\\ Soldier\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Faith\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ and\\ Crane\\&rsquo\\;s\\ most\\ famous\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Red\\ Badge\\ of\\ Courage\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ about\\ the\\ war\\,\\ Crane\\,\\ born\\ in\\ 1871\\,\\ did\\ not\\ have\\ any\\ personal\\ experience\\ with\\ the\\ war\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Sumner\\ and\\ Bellamy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Historical\\ Background\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Gilded\\ Age\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ gilded\\ age\\ was\\ perceived\\ as\\ a\\ period\\ of\\ unrivaled\\ hypocrisy\\,\\ immorality\\ in\\ politics\\ and\\ business\\,\\ and\\ the\\ degradation\\ of\\ democracy\\;\\ though\\ society\\ was\\ glittery\\ on\\ top\\,\\ it\\ was\\ hollow\\ and\\ rotting\\ at\\ its\\ core\\.\\ Perhaps\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ unrealistic\\ hopes\\ after\\ the\\ civil\\ war\\,\\ there\\ was\\ a\\ massive\\ sense\\ of\\ disappointment\\ with\\ the\\ trajectory\\ of\\ American\\ society\\ as\\ rich\\ got\\ richer\\ as\\ poor\\ got\\ poorer\\/northerners\\ let\\ the\\ south\\ go\\ its\\ own\\ way\\,\\ with\\ detrimental\\ results\\ for\\ blacks\\ and\\ poor\\ white\\ farmers\\/the\\ west\\ was\\ pillaged\\ by\\ farmers\\ and\\ the\\ army\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Social\\ Darwinism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ The\\ extrapolation\\ of\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ theory\\ of\\ evolution\\ to\\ the\\ social\\ sphere\\ was\\ an\\ important\\ intellectual\\ development\\ of\\ the\\ Gilded\\ Age\\.\\ A\\ new\\ set\\ of\\ values\\ emerged\\ in\\ this\\ post\\-Civil\\ War\\ period\\,\\ which\\ was\\ characterized\\ by\\ the\\ combination\\ of\\ social\\ Darwinism\\ with\\ the\\ gospel\\ of\\ wealth\\.\\ According\\ to\\ this\\ school\\ of\\ thought\\,\\ survival\\ of\\ the\\ fittest\\ was\\ such\\ that\\ the\\ best\\-qualified\\ people\\ would\\ survive\\ and\\ prosper\\ while\\ everyone\\ else\\ disappeared\\;\\ the\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ process\\ was\\ considered\\ both\\ natural\\ and\\ divinely\\ ordained\\.\\ This\\ was\\,\\ of\\ course\\,\\ a\\ challenge\\ to\\ the\\ democratic\\ ideal\\ that\\ all\\ people\\ are\\ created\\ equal\\ and\\ should\\ participate\\ in\\ rule\\-making\\,\\ which\\ connects\\ to\\ the\\ historical\\ tension\\ between\\ democracy\\ and\\ conservatism\\ \\(taking\\ social\\ Darwinism\\ as\\ a\\ fundamental\\ premise\\ of\\ conservatism\\)\\.\\ \\ \\;Indeed\\,\\ in\\ the\\ 1870s\\ and\\ 80s\\,\\ the\\ priority\\ of\\ traditional\\ democratic\\ ideas\\ was\\ reversed\\:\\ economic\\ goals\\ became\\ the\\ end\\ rather\\ than\\ the\\ means\\ and\\ democracy\\ became\\ conservative\\ because\\ the\\ existing\\ distribution\\ of\\ wealth\\ was\\ taken\\ as\\ a\\ natural\\ process\\ in\\ which\\ human\\ cannot\\ interfere\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sumner\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Sociology\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1881\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;William\\ Graham\\ Sumner\\ attended\\ and\\ taught\\ at\\ Yale\\ in\\ the\\ second\\ half\\ of\\ the\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\.\\ He\\ is\\ famous\\ for\\ translating\\ Darwin\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ideas\\ about\\ natural\\ selection\\ into\\ social\\ theory\\.\\ Sumner\\ considered\\ \\&ldquo\\;fitness\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ be\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ material\\ success\\ or\\ wealth\\;\\ those\\ who\\ did\\ the\\ best\\ economically\\ were\\ at\\ the\\ top\\ of\\ the\\ evolutionary\\ chain\\.\\ Inequality\\ was\\ a\\ way\\ of\\ ordering\\ society\\ according\\ to\\ natural\\ hierarchies\\-\\ he\\ thought\\ that\\ property\\ ownership\\ was\\ a\\ sign\\ of\\ superiority\\ so\\ any\\ attempt\\ to\\ restrict\\ that\\ ownership\\ was\\ to\\ interfere\\ in\\ the\\ cosmic\\ evolutionary\\ experience\\.\\ His\\ vision\\ of\\ society\\ h\\ ad\\ no\\ place\\ for\\ ideals\\ like\\ charity\\ or\\ brotherhood\\&mdash\\;self\\ interest\\ and\\ wealth\\ were\\ the\\ ruling\\ ideas\\.\\ Sumner\\ drew\\ much\\ of\\ his\\ inspiration\\ from\\ Thomas\\ Malthus\\;\\ he\\ thought\\ that\\ the\\ man\\ to\\ land\\ ratio\\ was\\ the\\ determination\\ of\\ everything\\ in\\ social\\ life\\.\\ In\\ fact\\,\\ Sumner\\ eventually\\ abandoned\\ a\\ Darwinian\\ explanation\\ for\\ social\\ life\\ and\\ instead\\ argued\\ that\\ because\\ humans\\ have\\ free\\ choice\\,\\ we\\ are\\ different\\ from\\ other\\ species\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\only\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ man\\/land\\ ratio\\ and\\ economic\\ facts\\ that\\ determine\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ our\\ lives\\.\\ Freedom\\,\\ for\\ Sumner\\,\\ is\\ the\\ state\\ in\\ which\\ man\\ can\\ unabashedly\\ pursue\\ his\\ own\\ self\\-interest\\ without\\ any\\ external\\ intrusion\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Sociology\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\(in\\ AIT\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ essay\\ basically\\ argues\\ the\\ tenets\\ of\\ his\\ philosophy\\ described\\ above\\,\\ but\\ here\\ are\\ some\\ important\\/illustrative\\ quotes\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ law\\ of\\ population\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ combined\\ with\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ diminishing\\ returns\\,\\ constitutes\\ the\\ great\\ underlying\\ condition\\ of\\ society\\&hellip\\;\\ progress\\ is\\ a\\ word\\ which\\ has\\ no\\ meaning\\ save\\ in\\ view\\ of\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ population\\ and\\ the\\ diminishing\\ return\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ quite\\ natural\\ that\\ anyone\\ who\\ fails\\ to\\ understand\\ those\\ laws\\ should\\ fall\\ into\\ doubt\\ which\\ way\\ progress\\ points\\,\\ whether\\ towards\\ wealth\\ or\\ poverty\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(28\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;the\\ only\\ social\\ element\\,\\ however\\,\\ is\\ the\\ competition\\ of\\ life\\,\\ and\\ when\\ society\\ is\\ blamed\\ for\\ the\\ ills\\ which\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ human\\ lot\\,\\ it\\ is\\ only\\ burdening\\ those\\ who\\ have\\ successfully\\ contended\\ those\\ ills\\ with\\ the\\ further\\ task\\ of\\ conquering\\ the\\ same\\ ills\\ over\\ again\\ for\\ somebody\\ else\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(28\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ institutions\\ whose\\ growth\\ constitutes\\ the\\ advance\\ of\\ civilization\\ have\\ their\\ guarantee\\ in\\ the\\ very\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ grew\\ and\\ became\\ established\\&hellip\\;The\\ path\\ of\\ improvement\\ lies\\ forwards\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(29\\)\\ \\(eg\\-\\ institution\\ of\\ private\\ property\\,\\ 29\\-30\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sociology\\&hellip\\;\\ dispels\\ illusions\\ about\\ what\\ society\\ is\\ or\\ may\\ be\\,\\ and\\ gives\\ instead\\ knowledge\\ of\\ facts\\ which\\ are\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ intelligent\\ effort\\ by\\ man\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ his\\ circumstances\\ on\\ earth\\.\\ Sociology\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ which\\ can\\ never\\ accomplish\\ anything\\ more\\ than\\ to\\ enable\\ use\\ to\\ make\\ the\\ best\\ of\\ our\\ situation\\,\\ will\\ never\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ reconcile\\ itself\\ with\\ those\\ philosophies\\ which\\ are\\ trying\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ how\\ we\\ may\\ arrange\\ things\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ satisfy\\ any\\ ideal\\ of\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(29\\)\\ \\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Sociology\\ must\\ exert\\ a\\ most\\ important\\ influence\\ on\\ political\\ economy\\.\\ Political\\ economy\\ is\\ the\\ science\\ which\\ investigates\\ the\\ laws\\ of\\ the\\ material\\ welfare\\ of\\ human\\ societies\\&hellip\\;\\ the\\ essential\\ elements\\ of\\ political\\ economy\\ are\\ only\\ corollaries\\ or\\ special\\ cases\\ of\\ sociological\\ principles\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(30\\-31\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;organization\\ with\\ subordination\\ and\\ discipline\\ is\\ essential\\ in\\ order\\ that\\ the\\ society\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ may\\ win\\ a\\ support\\ from\\ the\\ land\\.\\ In\\ an\\ overpopulated\\ country\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ luxury\\ are\\ presented\\ side\\ by\\ side\\ with\\ the\\ extremes\\ of\\ poverty\\ and\\ distress\\.\\ They\\ are\\ equally\\ the\\ products\\ of\\ an\\ intense\\ social\\ pressure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;we\\ have\\ seen\\ that\\ if\\ we\\ should\\ try\\ by\\ an\\ measures\\ of\\ arbitrary\\ interference\\ and\\ assistance\\ to\\ relieve\\ the\\ victims\\ of\\ social\\ pressure\\ from\\ the\\ calamity\\ of\\ their\\ position\\ we\\ should\\ only\\ offer\\ premiums\\ to\\ folly\\ and\\ vice\\ and\\ extend\\ them\\ further\\&hellip\\;\\ if\\ then\\ it\\ be\\ asked\\ what\\ the\\ wit\\ and\\ effort\\ of\\ man\\ can\\ do\\ to\\ struggle\\ with\\ the\\ problems\\ offered\\ by\\ social\\ pressure\\,\\ the\\ answer\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ can\\ do\\ only\\ what\\ his\\ instinct\\ has\\ correctly\\ and\\ surely\\ led\\ him\\ to\\ do\\ without\\ any\\ artificial\\ social\\ organization\\ of\\ any\\ kind\\&hellip\\;\\ in\\ truth\\,\\ the\\ human\\ race\\ has\\ never\\ done\\ anything\\ else\\ but\\ struggle\\ with\\ the\\ problem\\ of\\ social\\ welfare\\.\\ That\\ struggle\\ constitutes\\ history\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(32\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\As\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ increasing\\ ease\\ of\\ communication\\ and\\ transportation\\,\\ formerly\\ over\\-crowded\\ centers\\ of\\ civilization\\ are\\ becoming\\ less\\ so\\;\\ this\\ spreading\\ out\\ of\\ the\\ population\\ lessens\\ creates\\ the\\ appearance\\ of\\ increasing\\ equality\\ because\\ extremes\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;wealth\\ and\\ poverty\\,\\ culture\\ and\\ brutality\\ will\\ be\\ contracted\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(34\\)\\.\\ But\\,\\ Sumner\\ offers\\ two\\ caveats\\ to\\ this\\ vision\\ of\\ an\\ equalizing\\ society\\.\\ One\\:\\ the\\ less\\ the\\ social\\ pressure\\,\\ the\\ more\\ latitude\\ individuals\\ have\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;ignorance\\,\\ error\\,\\ and\\ folly\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ are\\ \\&ldquo\\;capable\\ of\\ wasting\\ and\\ nullifying\\ all\\ the\\ gains\\ of\\ civilization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(34\\)\\.\\ Two\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ possible\\ that\\ our\\ new\\ civilization\\ may\\ perish\\ by\\ an\\ explosion\\ from\\ within\\.\\ The\\ sentimentalists\\ have\\ been\\ preaching\\ for\\ a\\ century\\ notions\\ of\\ rights\\ and\\ equality\\,\\ of\\ the\\ dignity\\,\\ wisdom\\,\\ and\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ proletariat\\,\\ which\\ have\\ filled\\ the\\ minds\\ of\\ ignorant\\ men\\ with\\ impossible\\ dreams\\&hellip\\;\\ Now\\ the\\ thirst\\ for\\ luxurious\\ enjoyment\\,\\ when\\ brought\\ into\\ connection\\ with\\ the\\ notions\\ of\\ rights\\,\\ of\\ power\\,\\ and\\ of\\ equality\\,\\ and\\ dissociated\\ from\\ notions\\ of\\ industry\\ and\\ economy\\,\\ produces\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ a\\ man\\ is\\ robbed\\ of\\ his\\ rights\\ if\\ he\\ has\\ not\\ everything\\ that\\ he\\ wants\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ deprived\\ of\\ equality\\ if\\ he\\ sees\\ anyone\\ have\\ more\\ than\\ he\\ has\\,\\ and\\ that\\ he\\ is\\ a\\ fool\\ if\\,\\ having\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ the\\ State\\ in\\ his\\ hands\\,\\ he\\ allows\\ this\\ state\\ of\\ things\\ to\\ last\\.\\ Then\\ we\\ have\\ socialism\\,\\ communism\\,\\ and\\ nihilism\\;\\ and\\ the\\ fairest\\ conquests\\ of\\ civilization\\,\\ with\\ all\\ their\\ promise\\ of\\ solid\\ good\\ to\\ man\\,\\ on\\ the\\ sole\\ conditions\\ of\\ virtue\\ and\\ wisdom\\,\\ may\\ be\\ scattered\\ to\\ the\\ winds\\ in\\ a\\ war\\ of\\ classes\\,\\ or\\ trampled\\ underfoot\\ by\\ a\\ mob\\ which\\ can\\ only\\ hate\\ what\\ it\\ cannot\\ enjoy\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(34\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Bellamy\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Looking\\ Backward\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\(1888\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Background\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\In\\ reaction\\ to\\ the\\ cynical\\ view\\ of\\ society\\ presented\\ by\\ authors\\ like\\ Sumner\\,\\ two\\ trends\\ emerged\\.\\ First\\ was\\ philanthropy\\-\\ rich\\ men\\ like\\ Carnegie\\ and\\ Stanford\\ believed\\ that\\ their\\ wealth\\ came\\ from\\ processes\\ outside\\ of\\ their\\ control\\ and\\ that\\ they\\ needed\\ to\\ give\\ back\\ to\\ society\\ however\\ they\\ could\\.\\ Second\\ was\\ the\\ counter\\-trend\\ of\\ reform\\ Darwinism\\.\\ Edward\\ Bellamy\\ was\\ the\\ best\\-known\\ reform\\ Darwinist\\.\\ His\\ book\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Looking\\ Backward\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ was\\ hugely\\ successful\\ and\\ catalyzed\\ the\\ creation\\ of\\ nationalist\\ clubs\\,\\ which\\ later\\ became\\ the\\ prototype\\ for\\ political\\ action\\ movements\\ in\\ the\\ late\\ 1890s\\ and\\ early\\ 1900s\\.\\ His\\ book\\ had\\ huge\\ appeal\\ because\\ it\\ demonstrated\\ what\\ people\\ thought\\ they\\ were\\ missing\\ in\\ late\\ 19\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ America\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Looking\\ Backward\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(I\\ think\\ this\\ will\\ be\\ an\\ easily\\ identifiable\\ one\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ written\\ as\\ a\\ first\\-person\\ narrative\\,\\ but\\ here\\&rsquo\\;s\\ a\\ basic\\ plot\\ summary\\&hellip\\;\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ is\\ a\\ utopian\\ novel\\ that\\ tells\\ the\\ story\\ of\\ Julian\\ West\\,\\ a\\ Boston\\ aristocrat\\ who\\ is\\ hypnotized\\ in\\ 1887\\ and\\ then\\ is\\ discovered\\ in\\ the\\ year\\ 2000\\ by\\ a\\ man\\ named\\ Dr\\.\\ Leete\\.\\ In\\ the\\ Boston\\ of\\ 2000\\,\\ the\\ economy\\ is\\ based\\ on\\ public\\ ownership\\ of\\ capital\\ and\\ the\\ means\\ of\\ production\\,\\ and\\ the\\ government\\ event\\ distributes\\ its\\ revenues\\ among\\ citizens\\.\\ The\\ body\\ of\\ laborers\\ is\\ called\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;industrial\\ army\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ industrial\\ service\\ spans\\ from\\ age\\ 21\\ to\\ 24\\.\\ As\\ Dr\\.\\ Leete\\ explains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;every\\ man\\ for\\ himself\\ in\\ accordance\\ with\\ his\\ natural\\ aptitude\\,\\ the\\ utmost\\ pains\\ being\\ taken\\ to\\ enable\\ him\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ what\\ his\\ natural\\ aptitude\\ really\\ is\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(133\\)\\.\\ Great\\ effort\\ is\\ made\\ to\\ equalize\\ the\\ attraction\\ of\\ all\\ the\\ trades\\.\\ Emphasis\\ is\\ shifted\\ entirely\\ from\\ individualism\\ to\\ the\\ community\\-\\ this\\ is\\ evident\\ from\\ 21\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;century\\ innovations\\ like\\ a\\ common\\ umbrella\\ that\\ replaces\\ individual\\ umbrellas\\ \\(192\\-3\\)\\.\\ As\\ Leete\\ explains\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ solidarity\\ of\\ the\\ race\\ and\\ the\\ brotherhood\\ of\\ man\\,\\ which\\ to\\ you\\ were\\ but\\ fine\\ phrases\\,\\ are\\,\\ to\\ our\\ thinking\\ and\\ feeling\\,\\ ties\\ as\\ real\\ and\\ as\\ vital\\ as\\ physical\\ fraternity\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(179\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\At\\ one\\ point\\,\\ Julian\\ has\\ a\\ nightmare\\ that\\ his\\ awakening\\ in\\ 2000\\ was\\ but\\ a\\ dream\\.\\ Upon\\ return\\ to\\ 1887\\,\\ he\\ sees\\ his\\ world\\ for\\ what\\ it\\ is\\ and\\ tries\\ to\\ convince\\ those\\ around\\ him\\ that\\ society\\ can\\ be\\ bettered\\.\\ They\\ don\\&rsquo\\;t\\ buy\\ it\\,\\ and\\ Julian\\ wakes\\ up\\ from\\ his\\ nightmare\\ and\\ is\\ overjoyed\\ to\\ find\\ that\\ his\\ transportation\\ to\\ the\\ year\\ 2000\\ was\\ indeed\\ real\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\(Note\\:\\ if\\ you\\ want\\ more\\ specifics\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ sparknotes\\ for\\ this\\ book\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\History\\ 1661\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Assignment\\ \\#6\\&mdash\\;midterm\\ study\\ guide\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Frederick\\ Jackson\\ Turner\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Significance\\ of\\ the\\ Frontier\\ in\\ American\\ History\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1893\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chief\\ Joseph\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Chief\\ Joseph\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Own\\ Story\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1897\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\TURNER\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Hugely\\ influential\\ essay\\ presented\\ at\\ Chicago\\ World\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Fair\\ in\\ 1893\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Thesis\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Western\\ frontier\\ experience\\ determined\\ the\\ unique\\ course\\ of\\ American\\ societal\\ development\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Democratic\\ political\\ culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Individualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ institutions\\ \\&ldquo\\;have\\ been\\ compelled\\ to\\ adapt\\ themselves\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ developing\\ primitive\\ frontier\\ conditions\\ into\\ complex\\ social\\ cities\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Recurrence\\ of\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ evolution\\ in\\ each\\ western\\ area\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ like\\ a\\ natural\\ science\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\American\\ frontier\\ vs\\.\\ European\\ frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\American\\ frontier\\ separates\\ free\\ land\\ from\\ developed\\ areas\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\European\\ frontier\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;boundary\\ line\\ running\\ through\\ dense\\ populations\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ promoted\\ melting\\ pot\\ nationality\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Immigrants\\ were\\ \\&ldquo\\;Americanized\\,\\ liberated\\,\\ and\\ fused\\ into\\ a\\ mixed\\ race\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ decreased\\ American\\ dependence\\ on\\ England\\ by\\ expanding\\ American\\ economic\\ system\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Frontier\\ combated\\ sectionalism\\,\\ mediating\\ between\\ regions\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Democratic\\,\\ nonsectional\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;rooted\\ strongly\\ in\\ material\\ prosperity\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\High\\ mobility\\ unsettled\\ local\\ populations\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ promoted\\ democracy\\ in\\ the\\ United\\ States\\ and\\ Europe\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Individualism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Enfranchisement\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Dangers\\ of\\ frontier\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Lax\\ enforcement\\ of\\ government\\ ethics\\,\\ banking\\ corruption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Issues\\ with\\ paper\\ money\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Frontier\\ affected\\ the\\ East\\ and\\ Old\\ World\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Education\\ and\\ religion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Religious\\ denominations\\ compete\\ for\\ influence\\ in\\ the\\ west\\,\\ creating\\ western\\ intellectual\\ and\\ cultural\\ flow\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Intellectual\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;That\\ coarseness\\ and\\ strength\\ combined\\ with\\ acuteness\\ and\\ inquisitiveness\\;\\ that\\ practical\\,\\ inventive\\ turn\\ of\\ mind\\,\\ quick\\ to\\ find\\ expedients\\;\\ that\\ masterful\\ grasp\\ of\\ material\\ things\\,\\ lacking\\ in\\ the\\ artistic\\ but\\ powerful\\ to\\ effect\\ great\\ ends\\;\\ that\\ restless\\,\\ nervous\\ energy\\;\\ that\\ dominant\\ individualism\\,\\ working\\ for\\ good\\ and\\ for\\ evil\\&hellip\\;\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\End\\ of\\ frontier\\ represents\\ end\\ of\\ first\\ period\\ of\\ American\\ history\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\JOSEPH\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ natural\\ rights\\ of\\ man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Idealistic\\ introduction\\,\\ hoping\\ that\\ the\\ harsh\\ truth\\ of\\ Indian\\ mistreatment\\ will\\ be\\ evident\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Demonstrates\\ traditional\\ Nez\\ Perce\\ honor\\,\\ peacefulness\\,\\ belief\\ in\\ the\\ Great\\ Spirit\\ who\\ sees\\ and\\ hears\\ everything\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ white\\ men\\ were\\ few\\ and\\ we\\ were\\ strong\\ we\\ could\\ have\\ killed\\ them\\ off\\,\\ but\\ the\\ Nez\\ Perces\\ wished\\ to\\ live\\ at\\ peace\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\First\\ white\\ men\\ in\\ 1797\\ \\(French\\)\\,\\ then\\ Lewis\\ and\\ Clark\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Initial\\ trust\\ that\\ soon\\ soured\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Conflict\\ in\\ conceptions\\ of\\ land\\:\\ private\\ vs\\.\\ communal\\ property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Nez\\ Perce\\ forced\\ to\\ place\\ markers\\ to\\ delineate\\ land\\;\\ reluctantly\\ conforming\\ to\\ white\\ property\\ practices\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Trend\\ of\\ misrepresentation\\ in\\ treaty\\-making\\;\\ Nez\\ Perces\\ feel\\ cheated\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Breaking\\ point\\ leads\\ to\\ war\\,\\ many\\ battles\\ against\\ larger\\ American\\ armies\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Treaty\\ lands\\ Nez\\ Perces\\ on\\ various\\ reservations\\ unlike\\ original\\ Midwest\\ home\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Criticism\\ of\\ American\\ government\\ bureaucracy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;I\\ can\\ not\\ understand\\ how\\ the\\ Government\\ sends\\ a\\ man\\ out\\ to\\ fight\\ us\\,\\ as\\ it\\ did\\ General\\ Miles\\,\\ and\\ then\\ breaks\\ his\\ word\\.\\ Such\\ a\\ Government\\ has\\ something\\ wrong\\ about\\ it\\.\\ I\\ can\\ not\\ understand\\ why\\ so\\ many\\ chiefs\\ are\\ allowed\\ to\\ talk\\ so\\ mayn\\ different\\ ways\\,\\ and\\ promise\\ so\\ many\\ different\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Good\\ words\\ do\\ not\\ last\\ long\\ until\\ they\\ amount\\ to\\ something\\.\\ Words\\ do\\ not\\ pay\\ for\\ my\\ dead\\ people\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Espouses\\ values\\ that\\ echo\\ U\\.S\\.\\ Constitution\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Treat\\ all\\ men\\ alike\\.\\ Give\\ them\\ all\\ the\\ same\\ law\\.\\ Give\\ them\\ all\\ an\\ even\\ chance\\ to\\ live\\ and\\ grow\\.\\ \\ \\;All\\ men\\ were\\ made\\ the\\ by\\ the\\ same\\ Great\\ Spirit\\ Chief\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\1892\\ Populist\\ Platform\\ \\(2\\ pages\\ in\\ sourcebook\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-want\\ to\\ use\\ silver\\ standard\\ for\\ currency\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-graduated\\ income\\ tax\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-postal\\ savings\\ banks\\ be\\ established\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-government\\ should\\ control\\ modes\\ of\\ transportation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-\\&ldquo\\;land\\.\\.\\.should\\ not\\ be\\ monopolized\\ for\\ speculative\\ purposes\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(151\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-want\\ labor\\ laws\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-pensions\\ for\\ Union\\ soldiers\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-abolition\\ of\\ private\\ standing\\ armies\\ \\(Pinkertons\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-\\-limit\\ office\\ of\\ President\\/VP\\ to\\ one\\ term\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Veblen\\:\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Leisure\\ Class\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;chapters\\ 1\\-4\\,\\ 6\\-7\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 1\\:\\ \\ \\;Introductory\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Defining\\ the\\ term\\ \\&ldquo\\;leisure\\ class\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ then\\ reciting\\ the\\ stages\\ of\\ culture\\ which\\ make\\ a\\ leisure\\ class\\ possible\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ leisure\\ class\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\ compromises\\ the\\ noble\\ and\\ priestly\\ classes\\,\\ together\\ with\\ much\\ of\\ their\\ retinue\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ occupations\\ of\\ the\\ class\\ are\\ correspondingly\\ diversified\\;\\ but\\ they\\ have\\ the\\ common\\ economic\\ characteristic\\ of\\ being\\ non\\-industrial\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;When\\ the\\ community\\ passes\\ from\\ peaceable\\ savagery\\ to\\ a\\ predatory\\ phase\\ of\\ life\\,\\ the\\ conditions\\ of\\ emulation\\ change\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ opportunity\\ and\\ the\\ incentive\\ to\\ emulation\\ increases\\ greatly\\ in\\ scope\\ and\\ urgency\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ activity\\ of\\ men\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ takes\\ on\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ exploit\\;\\ and\\ an\\ invidious\\ comparison\\ of\\ one\\ hunter\\ or\\ warrior\\ with\\ another\\ grows\\ continually\\ easier\\ and\\ more\\ habitual\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Labor\\ acquires\\ a\\ character\\ of\\ irksomeness\\ by\\ virtue\\ of\\ the\\ indignity\\ imputed\\ to\\ it\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(10\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Predation\\ cannot\\ become\\ the\\ habitual\\,\\ \\ \\;conventional\\ resource\\ of\\ any\\ group\\.\\.\\.until\\ industrial\\ methods\\ have\\ been\\ developed\\ to\\ such\\ a\\ degree\\ of\\ efficiency\\ as\\ to\\ leave\\ a\\ margin\\ worth\\ fighting\\ for\\,\\ above\\ the\\ subsistence\\ of\\ those\\ engaged\\ in\\ getting\\ a\\ living\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(12\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 2\\:\\ Pecuniary\\ Emulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Importance\\ of\\ ownership\\ and\\ its\\ many\\ manifestations\\ in\\ culture\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ sequences\\ of\\ cultural\\ evolution\\ the\\ emergence\\ of\\ a\\ leisure\\ class\\ coincides\\ with\\ the\\ beginning\\ of\\ ownership\\.\\ \\ \\;This\\ is\\ necessarily\\ the\\ case\\,\\ for\\ these\\ two\\ institutions\\ result\\ from\\ the\\ same\\ set\\ of\\ economic\\ forces\\.\\ \\ \\;In\\ the\\ inchoate\\ phase\\ of\\ their\\ development\\,\\ they\\ are\\ but\\ different\\ aspects\\ of\\ the\\ same\\ general\\ facts\\ of\\ social\\ structure\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(15\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Where\\ the\\ institution\\ of\\ private\\ property\\ is\\ found\\.\\.\\.\\ the\\ economic\\ process\\ bears\\ the\\ character\\ of\\ a\\ struggle\\ between\\ men\\ for\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ goods\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(15\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ possession\\ of\\ wealth\\ confers\\ honour\\;\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ invidious\\ distinction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Prowess\\ and\\ exploit\\ may\\ still\\ remain\\ the\\ basis\\ award\\ of\\ the\\ highest\\ popular\\ esteem\\,\\ although\\ the\\ possession\\ of\\ wealth\\ has\\ become\\ the\\ basis\\ of\\ commonplace\\ reputability\\ and\\ of\\ a\\ blameless\\ social\\ standing\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ predatory\\ instinct\\ and\\ the\\ consequent\\ approbation\\ of\\ predatory\\ efficiency\\ are\\ deeply\\ ingrained\\ in\\ the\\ habits\\ of\\ thought\\ of\\ those\\ peoples\\ who\\ have\\ passed\\ under\\ the\\ discipline\\ of\\ a\\ protracted\\ predatory\\ culture\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(19\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 3\\:\\ Conspicuous\\ Leisure\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Leisure\\ as\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;booty\\&rdquo\\;\\ prize\\ of\\ the\\ strongest\\ class\\;\\ discusses\\ how\\ manners\\ and\\ decorum\\ become\\ the\\ marks\\ of\\ wealth\\ and\\ honor\\ because\\ of\\ their\\ ties\\ to\\ an\\ ability\\ to\\ be\\ idle\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;For\\ this\\ class\\ also\\ \\[the\\ leisure\\ class\\]\\ the\\ incentive\\ to\\ diligence\\ and\\ thrift\\ is\\ not\\ absent\\;\\ but\\ its\\ action\\ is\\ so\\ greatly\\ qualified\\ by\\ the\\ secondary\\ demands\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ emulation\\,\\ that\\ any\\ inclination\\ in\\ this\\ direction\\ is\\ practically\\ overborne\\ and\\ any\\ incentive\\ to\\ diligence\\ tends\\ to\\ be\\ of\\ no\\ effect\\.\\ \\ \\;The\\ most\\ imperative\\ of\\ these\\ secondary\\ demands\\ of\\ emulation\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ one\\ of\\ the\\ widest\\ scope\\,\\ is\\ the\\ requirement\\ of\\ abstention\\ from\\ productive\\ work\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(24\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.a\\ life\\ of\\ leisure\\ is\\ the\\ readiest\\ and\\ most\\ conclusive\\ evidence\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ strength\\.\\.\\.since\\ application\\ to\\ productive\\ labor\\ is\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ poverty\\ and\\ subjection\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ inconsistent\\ with\\ a\\ reputable\\ standing\\ in\\ the\\ community\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(25\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ it\\ constitutes\\ \\[leisure\\]\\ is\\ non\\-productive\\ consumption\\ of\\ time\\.\\ \\ \\;Time\\ is\\ consumed\\ non\\-productively\\ \\(1\\)\\ from\\ a\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ unworthiness\\ of\\ productive\\ work\\,\\ and\\ \\(2\\)\\ as\\ an\\ evidence\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ ability\\ to\\ afford\\ a\\ life\\ of\\ idleness\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(28\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 4\\:\\ Conspicuous\\ Consumption\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Consumption\\ as\\ another\\ outlet\\ for\\ the\\ predatory\\ nature\\ and\\ proof\\ of\\ pecuniary\\ prowess\\,\\ specifically\\ for\\ women\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Unproductive\\ consumption\\ of\\ goods\\ is\\ honourable\\,\\ primarily\\ as\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ prowess\\ and\\ a\\ prerequisite\\ of\\ human\\ dignity\\;\\ secondarily\\ it\\ becomes\\ substantially\\ honorable\\ in\\ itself\\,\\ especially\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ the\\ more\\ desirable\\ things\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(44\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ consumption\\ of\\ luxuries\\,\\ in\\ the\\ true\\ sense\\,\\ is\\ a\\ consumption\\ directed\\ to\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ the\\ consumer\\ himself\\,\\ and\\ is\\,\\ therefore\\,\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ the\\ master\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(45\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ quasi\\-peaceable\\ gentleman\\ of\\ leisure\\,\\ then\\,\\ not\\ only\\ consumes\\ of\\ the\\ staff\\ of\\ life\\ beyond\\ the\\ minimum\\ required\\ for\\ subsistence\\ and\\ physical\\ efficiency\\,\\ but\\ his\\ consumption\\ also\\ undergoes\\ a\\ specialisation\\ as\\ regards\\ the\\ quality\\ of\\ the\\ goods\\ consumed\\.\\.\\.Since\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ these\\ more\\ excellent\\ goods\\ is\\ an\\ evidence\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ it\\ becomes\\ honorific\\;\\ and\\ conversely\\,\\ the\\ failure\\ to\\ consume\\ in\\ due\\ quantity\\ and\\ quality\\ becomes\\ a\\ mark\\ of\\ inferiority\\ and\\ demerit\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ requirement\\ of\\ vicarious\\ consumption\\ at\\ the\\ hands\\ of\\ the\\ wife\\ continues\\ in\\ force\\ even\\ at\\ a\\ lower\\ point\\ in\\ the\\ pecuniary\\ scale\\ than\\ the\\ requirement\\ of\\ vicarious\\ leisure\\.\\.\\.decency\\ still\\ requires\\ the\\ wife\\ to\\ consume\\ some\\ foods\\ conspicuously\\ for\\ the\\ reputability\\ of\\ the\\ household\\ and\\ its\\ head\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(52\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 6\\:\\ Pecuniary\\ Canons\\ of\\ Taste\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Ordinarily\\ his\\ motive\\ \\[the\\ consumer\\]\\ is\\ a\\ wish\\ to\\ conform\\ to\\ established\\ usage\\,\\ to\\ avoid\\ unfavourable\\ notice\\ and\\ comment\\,\\ to\\ live\\ up\\ to\\ the\\ accepted\\ canons\\ of\\ decency\\ in\\ the\\ kind\\,\\ amount\\ and\\ grade\\ of\\ goods\\ consumed\\,\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ in\\ the\\ decorous\\ employment\\ of\\ his\\ time\\ and\\ effort\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(71\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Under\\ the\\ selective\\ surveillance\\ of\\ the\\ law\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ waste\\ there\\ grows\\ up\\ a\\ code\\ of\\ accredited\\ canons\\ of\\ consumption\\,\\ the\\ effect\\ of\\ which\\ is\\ to\\ hold\\ the\\ consumer\\ up\\ to\\ a\\ standard\\ of\\ expensiveness\\ and\\ wastefulness\\ in\\ his\\ consumption\\ of\\ goods\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(71\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.the\\ canon\\ of\\ honorific\\ expenditure\\ habitually\\ traverses\\ the\\ canons\\ of\\ moral\\ conduct\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(72\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ superior\\ gratification\\ derived\\ from\\ the\\ use\\ and\\ contemplation\\ of\\ costly\\ and\\ supposedly\\ beautiful\\ products\\ is\\,\\ commonly\\,\\ in\\ great\\ measure\\ a\\ gratification\\ of\\ our\\ sense\\ of\\ costliness\\ masquerading\\ under\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ beauty\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(79\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.the\\ utility\\ of\\ these\\ things\\ to\\ the\\ possessor\\ is\\ commonly\\ due\\ less\\ to\\ their\\ intrinsic\\ beauty\\ than\\ to\\ the\\ honour\\ which\\ their\\ possession\\ and\\ consumption\\ confers\\,\\ or\\ to\\ the\\ obloquy\\ which\\ it\\ wards\\ off\\.\\.\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\(79\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Chapter\\ 7\\:\\ Dress\\ as\\ an\\ Expression\\ of\\ Pecuniary\\ Culture\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;\\.\\.\\.but\\ expenditure\\ on\\ dress\\ has\\ this\\ advantage\\ over\\ most\\ other\\ methods\\,\\ that\\ our\\ apparel\\ is\\ always\\ in\\ evidence\\ and\\ affords\\ an\\ indication\\ of\\ our\\ pecuniary\\ standing\\ to\\ all\\ observers\\ at\\ the\\ first\\ glance\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(103\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;It\\ is\\ true\\ of\\ dress\\ in\\ even\\ a\\ higher\\ degree\\ than\\ of\\ most\\ other\\ items\\ of\\ consumption\\,\\ that\\ people\\ will\\ undergo\\ a\\ very\\ considerable\\ degree\\ of\\ privation\\ in\\ the\\ comforts\\ and\\ necessities\\ of\\ life\\ in\\ order\\ to\\ afford\\ what\\ is\\ considered\\ a\\ decent\\ amount\\ of\\ wasteful\\ consumption\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(103\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;So\\ far\\,\\ then\\,\\ we\\ have\\,\\ as\\ the\\ great\\ and\\ dominant\\ norm\\ of\\ dress\\,\\ the\\ broad\\ principle\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ waste\\.\\ \\ \\;Subsidiary\\ to\\ this\\ principle\\,\\ and\\ as\\ a\\ corollary\\ under\\ it\\,\\ we\\ get\\ as\\ a\\ second\\ norm\\ the\\ principle\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ leisure\\.\\.\\.there\\ is\\ a\\ third\\ \\[principle\\]\\ of\\ scarcely\\ less\\ constraining\\ force\\.\\.\\.it\\ \\[dress\\]\\ must\\ at\\ the\\ same\\ time\\ be\\ up\\ to\\ date\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(106\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ homely\\ reason\\ for\\ all\\ this\\ conspicuous\\ leisure\\ and\\ attire\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ women\\ lies\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ they\\ are\\ servants\\ to\\ whom\\,\\ in\\ the\\ differentiation\\ of\\ economic\\ functions\\,\\ has\\ been\\ delegated\\ the\\ office\\ of\\ putting\\ into\\ evidence\\ their\\ master\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ability\\ to\\ pay\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(111\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lecture\\ 9\\:\\ Race\\,\\ Ethnicity\\ and\\ Cosmopolitanism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ DuBois\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ chapters\\ 1\\,\\ 2\\,\\ 3\\,\\ 9\\,\\ 13\\,\\ 14\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Randolph\\ Bourne\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Trans\\-National\\ America\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ AIT\\ 170\\-180\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\W\\.\\ E\\.\\ B\\.\\ Du\\ Bois\\ \\(1868\\-1963\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Great\\ Barrington\\,\\ Fisk\\ \\&\\#39\\;88\\,\\ Harvard\\ \\&\\#39\\;90\\,\\ Berlin\\ \\&\\#39\\;92\\-\\&\\#39\\;94\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Wilberforce\\ \\(Ohio\\)\\,\\ Ph\\.D\\.\\ Harvard\\ \\&\\#39\\;95\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-at\\ Harvard\\,\\ followed\\ James\\ turning\\ to\\ realist\\ Pragmatism\\ and\\ social\\ sciences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;insight\\ lead\\ to\\ reforms\\ that\\ unsettled\\ dogma\\ and\\ opened\\ room\\ to\\ transformation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;social\\ self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-individual\\ self\\ inextricably\\ connected\\ to\\ environment\\ \\(sense\\ of\\ self\\ dependent\\ on\\ perceptions\\ of\\ you\\ from\\ others\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ praised\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ and\\ Atlanta\\ Exposition\\ \\(realistic\\)\\ but\\ b\\/c\\ of\\ own\\ experience\\ teaching\\ in\\ South\\ \\(more\\ prominent\\ awareness\\)\\,\\ less\\ perceptive\\ and\\ changed\\ mind\\ about\\ BTW\\&rsquo\\;s\\ approach\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-at\\ end\\ of\\ 1800s\\,\\ nominal\\ end\\ to\\ slavery\\ but\\ still\\ amendments\\ still\\ rolled\\ back\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;contrast\\ to\\ Booker\\ T\\.\\ Washington\\ \\(slow\\ process\\ to\\ accommodate\\,\\ take\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;crumbs\\,\\ equality\\ is\\ forcing\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-instead\\ DuBois\\:\\ education\\,\\ talented\\ 10\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ positions\\ of\\ leadership\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Coming\\ of\\ John\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(innocent\\ black\\ man\\ unhappy\\ b\\/c\\ he\\ learned\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Invisible\\ Man\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;c\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Souls\\ of\\ Black\\ Folk\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1903\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ fruit\\ of\\ DuBois\\&rsquo\\;s\\ change\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-struggled\\ vs\\.\\ the\\ grain\\ b\\/c\\ so\\ intensely\\ aware\\ of\\ struggle\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-joined\\ NAACP\\ \\(only\\ African\\ American\\ in\\ executive\\ committee\\)\\ to\\ increase\\ circulation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ supported\\ US\\ entry\\ to\\ WWI\\ as\\ opportunity\\ for\\ blacks\\ to\\ fight\\ and\\ b\\/c\\ heroes\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;must\\ want\\ the\\ wants\\ of\\ humanity\\ \\(committed\\ to\\ philosophical\\ sensibility\\)\\ and\\ radicalizing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\*\\*ideas\\ and\\ framing\\ of\\ race\\ relations\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-begins\\ each\\ chapter\\ in\\ TSOBF\\ juxtaposing\\ music\\ and\\ white\\ poetry\\:\\ talents\\ can\\ interact\\ and\\ speak\\ to\\ each\\ other\\ \\(need\\ 2\\ way\\ contribution\\)\\,\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ separate\\ out\\ of\\ black\\ folk\\ song\\ or\\ retreat\\ to\\ white\\ music\\ and\\ culture\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;put\\ on\\ same\\ level\\/plane\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\[direct\\ attack\\ at\\ BTW\\]\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ pple\\.\\ of\\ both\\ backgrounds\\ can\\ recognize\\ value\\ in\\ each\\ other\\ on\\ own\\ terms\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;union\\ of\\ intelligence\\ and\\ sympathy\\ across\\ the\\ color\\-line\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(147\\)\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ forge\\ community\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;problem\\ of\\ the\\ color\\ line\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\=\\ not\\ distinctly\\ American\\ problem\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-could\\ be\\ solved\\ with\\ Freedmen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bureau\\ and\\ the\\ Bank\\:\\ to\\ provide\\ land\\,\\ education\\ \\(agency\\)\\,\\ and\\ suffrage\\ \\(political\\ participation\\)\\ \\ \\;\\[problem\\ w\\/\\ BTW\\ is\\ that\\ he\\ only\\ focused\\ on\\ work\\]\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-need\\ perspective\\ to\\ look\\ from\\ both\\ sides\\ and\\ forge\\ blindness\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ recognize\\ and\\ connect\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ read\\ Hegel\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ coming\\ to\\ self\\-conciousness\\ and\\ double\\ consciousness\\ \\(not\\ unalloyed\\ advantage\\ or\\ disadvantage\\ for\\ blacks\\ or\\ whites\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Hegel\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ encounter\\ between\\ 2\\ individuals\\ where\\ fight\\ to\\ the\\ death\\ and\\ winner\\ survives\\ \\=\\ metaphor\\ for\\ social\\ progress\\ \\(master\\ arrives\\ at\\ self\\-consciousness\\ thru\\ recognition\\ of\\ slave\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ realized\\ freedom\\ \\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-abstract\\ notion\\ of\\ freedom\\ vs\\.\\ true\\ reality\\ blacks\\ are\\ faced\\ with\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-black\\ Americans\\ see\\ though\\ their\\ own\\ eyes\\ behind\\ the\\ veil\\ and\\ the\\ way\\ everyone\\ else\\ sees\\ them\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\:\\ 7\\<\\/span\\>\\th\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;son\\;\\ sophisticated\\ position\\ that\\ no\\ universal\\ freedom\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inconsistency\\ of\\ ideals\\ of\\ America\\ and\\ reality\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;challenges\\ American\\ Univeralist\\ project\\ b\\/c\\ says\\ there\\ are\\ fundamental\\ ideas\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ achieved\\ first\\;\\ however\\,\\ black\\ Americans\\ are\\ in\\ the\\ unique\\ position\\ to\\ achieve\\ that\\ idealism\\ and\\ realize\\ human\\ brotherhood\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-double\\ consciousness\\:\\ black\\ \\&\\;\\ American\\;\\ insights\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;veil\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;caul\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-2\\ worlds\\,\\ 2\\ souls\\,\\ 2\\ thoughts\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\nd\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;sight\\:\\ kind\\ of\\ perspective\\ you\\ cannot\\ otherwise\\ have\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-link\\ b\\/t\\ veil\\ and\\ progress\\ \\(mutual\\ recognition\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ more\\ veils\\,\\ end\\ of\\ historical\\ process\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-2\\ sides\\,\\ must\\ see\\/appreciate\\/sympathize\\ with\\ each\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ position\\:\\ blacks\\ must\\ uplift\\;\\ white\\ must\\ eliminate\\ prejudice\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ can\\&rsquo\\;t\\ just\\ blame\\ social\\ condition\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-institutional\\ changes\\ lacking\\:\\ time\\,\\ resources\\,\\ and\\ infastructure\\ \\(Freedmen\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bureau\\ fails\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ unified\\ plan\\ for\\ freedmen\\,\\ tension\\ with\\ organization\\ and\\ many\\ think\\ hands\\ will\\ never\\ unite\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-different\\ interactions\\:\\ neighborhoods\\,\\ economic\\ relations\\,\\ political\\ relations\\,\\ intellectual\\ contact\\,\\ social\\ contact\\,\\ religious\\ enterprise\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-DuBois\\ offers\\ different\\ view\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ no\\ real\\ villains\\,\\ just\\ tragedy\\ \\(no\\ solution\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-chapter\\ on\\ Sons\\ of\\ Master\\ and\\ Monarch\\:\\ former\\ slave\\ holder\\ and\\ former\\ female\\ slave\\ to\\ juxtapose\\ power\\ and\\ powerless\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;pg\\.\\ 57\\:\\ blunder\\ lay\\ in\\ history\\ of\\ slavery\\ and\\ cannot\\ wish\\ away\\ legacy\\ by\\ demonizing\\ or\\ making\\ hero\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;pg\\ 60\\:\\ deep\\ tragedy\\,\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ failed\\ experiments\\,\\ tragedy\\ of\\ failure\\ re\\-inscripted\\ by\\ white\\ supremacy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-songs\\:\\ faith\\ in\\ ultimate\\ justice\\,\\ freedom\\,\\ hope\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\UNDERSTAND\\ VS\\.\\ JUDGE\\ THE\\ PAST\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Randolph\\ Bourne\\&\\#39\\;s\\ ideal\\ of\\ transnationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-main\\ idea\\:\\ condemns\\ failure\\ of\\ conventional\\ notion\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;melting\\ pot\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ instead\\ mix\\,\\ unite\\,\\ enrich\\ ethnic\\ differences\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;cosmopolitanism\\:\\ more\\ inclusive\\ moral\\,\\ economic\\,\\ political\\ relationship\\ b\\/t\\ individuals\\ of\\ different\\ nations\\&hellip\\;global\\ consciousness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Bourne\\:\\ potential\\ promise\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;trans\\-national\\&rdquo\\;\\ America\\ to\\ move\\ beyond\\ the\\ metaphysical\\ understanding\\ of\\ ethnicity\\ and\\ channel\\ national\\ differences\\ in\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;trans\\-national\\&rdquo\\;\\ democratic\\ experiment\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-Bourne\\&rsquo\\;s\\ ethnic\\ enclave\\ similar\\ to\\ William\\ James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ treatment\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ \\(\\&ldquo\\;On\\ a\\ Certain\\ Blindness\\ in\\ Humans\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;mutual\\ respect\\ for\\ individuals\\ and\\ contribution\\ of\\ unique\\ perspectives\\ to\\ bring\\ to\\ collective\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-new\\ pple\\,\\ education\\,\\ next\\ generation\\,\\ future\\:\\ for\\ him\\,\\ democracy\\ not\\ found\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;magical\\ qualities\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ rather\\ each\\ ethnic\\ group\\ has\\ something\\ unique\\ to\\ bring\\ to\\ democratic\\ experience\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-previous\\:\\ Anglo\\-Saxon\\ arrogance\\,\\ failure\\ of\\ Americanization\\ assimilation\\ \\=\\ \\&ldquo\\;obstacle\\ to\\ social\\ advance\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ uniformity\\ preventing\\ \\&ldquo\\;spiritual\\ country\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ inarticulate\\ federation\\ of\\ cultures\\,\\ disintegration\\ of\\ culture\\ \\(we\\ are\\ all\\ foreign\\ born\\ in\\ a\\ way\\,\\ no\\ real\\ definition\\ of\\ Americanism\\ or\\ purpose\\,\\ still\\ impose\\ on\\ immigrants\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ S\\.\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;instead\\,\\ must\\ allow\\ differences\\ and\\ cultural\\ vitality\\ to\\ foster\\ intelligence\\,\\ social\\ values\\ and\\ \\&ldquo\\;enhancement\\ of\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ w\\/\\ this\\ \\&ldquo\\;trans\\-national\\ expressiveness\\&rdquo\\;\\ integrate\\ \\&\\;\\ strengthen\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-optimistic\\ about\\ future\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Let\\ us\\ work\\ with\\ the\\ forces\\ that\\ are\\ at\\ work\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-\\&ldquo\\;metaphysics\\ in\\ international\\ relations\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ Bourne\\ cuts\\ vs\\.\\ nationalism\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-creative\\ tension\\,\\ hybridized\\ identity\\ allows\\ for\\ autonomy\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ ties\\ Americans\\ and\\ home\\,\\ many\\ allegiances\\:\\ hybridized\\ Americans\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-acknowledge\\ diversity\\ in\\ cosmopolitan\\ project\\ and\\ be\\ American\\ but\\ no\\ need\\ to\\ essentialize\\ metaphysical\\ notion\\ of\\ nationhood\\ \\(like\\ Europe\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-same\\ tension\\ as\\ James\\:\\ different\\ parts\\ coalesce\\ to\\ coherent\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\-cosmopolitanism\\ holds\\ culture\\ together\\ and\\ does\\ not\\ eliminate\\ diversity\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ same\\ w\\/\\ the\\ way\\ James\\ does\\ not\\ subsume\\ individuals\\ to\\ the\\ whole\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&\\#61664\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;both\\ DuBois\\ and\\ Bourne\\ bring\\ intellects\\ blacks\\/whites\\ together\\ \\&ndash\\;\\ something\\ beyond\\ color\\ line\\ veil\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\-though\\ Bourne\\ no\\ mention\\ of\\ race\\,\\ striking\\ issue\\ is\\ uniting\\ and\\ enriching\\ ethnic\\ mix\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Virtue\\,\\ Women\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Suffrage\\ and\\ the\\ feminism\\ of\\ C\\.P\\.Gilman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Context\\<\\/span\\>\\\\:\\ Shift\\ from\\ republican\\ virtue\\ to\\ female\\ virtue\\ influenced\\ by\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\a\\)\\ ethical\\ sensibility\\ seen\\ as\\ natural\\ and\\ present\\ in\\ all\\ human\\ beings\\ but\\ that\\ education\\ is\\ necessary\\ for\\ maturation\\ of\\ the\\ moral\\ sense\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\b\\)\\ transformation\\ of\\ religion\\ to\\ link\\ virtue\\ with\\ emotions\\ and\\ education\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\c\\)\\ rise\\ of\\ sentimental\\ novel\\ where\\ domestic\\ sphere\\ is\\ prized\\ and\\ women\\ are\\ pure\\ victims\\ threatened\\ by\\ male\\ aggressiveness\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\d\\)\\ reevaluation\\ of\\ self\\ interest\\ as\\ a\\ result\\ of\\ changes\\ in\\ philosophy\\,\\ economics\\ \\(Adam\\ Smith\\ has\\ a\\ strong\\ impact\\ showing\\ that\\ pursuit\\ of\\ self\\ interest\\ is\\ not\\ a\\ vice\\ but\\ a\\ virtue\\)\\,\\ and\\ biology\\ into\\ a\\ rational\\ calculation\\ of\\ good\\ and\\ not\\ as\\ unharnessed\\ desires\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Elizabeth\\ Cady\\ Stanton\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ CONCEPTS\\:\\ Conceives\\ suffrage\\ as\\ an\\ individuals\\&rsquo\\;\\ movement\\ for\\ the\\ capacity\\ of\\ lone\\ individual\\ to\\ achieve\\ greatness\\,\\ emphasizes\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;solitude\\ of\\ personal\\ responsibility\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ each\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ \\&ldquo\\;individual\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ equality\\ for\\ women\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ the\\ mind\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ life\\ of\\ politics\\,\\ argues\\ for\\ natural\\ rights\\ of\\ people\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ should\\ have\\ these\\ rights\\ before\\ the\\ law\\,\\ openly\\ critical\\ of\\ Christianity\\,\\ supports\\ birth\\ control\\ and\\ revised\\ divorce\\ laws\\ \\(more\\ radical\\ so\\ not\\ always\\ included\\ by\\ suffrage\\ movement\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Solitude\\ of\\ Self\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ phrases\\:\\ individual\\ \\(happiness\\,\\ development\\)\\,\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ each\\ soldier\\ bears\\ own\\ burden\\,\\ self\\ dependence\\ on\\ every\\ human\\ soul\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ strongest\\ reason\\ for\\ giving\\ a\\ woman\\ all\\ the\\ opportunities\\ for\\ higher\\ education\\&hellip\\;is\\ the\\ solitude\\ and\\ personal\\ responsibility\\ of\\ her\\ own\\ individual\\ life\\.\\ The\\ strongest\\ reason\\ why\\ we\\ ask\\ for\\ woman\\ a\\ voice\\ in\\ the\\ government\\&hellip\\;is\\ because\\ of\\ her\\ birthright\\ to\\ self\\-sovereignty\\;\\ because\\ as\\ an\\ individual\\ she\\ must\\ rely\\ on\\ herself\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(46\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Robbed\\ of\\ her\\ natural\\ rights\\,\\ handicapped\\ by\\ law\\ and\\ custom\\ at\\ every\\ turn\\,\\ yet\\ compelled\\ to\\ fight\\ her\\ won\\ battles\\,\\ and\\ in\\ emergencies\\ in\\ life\\ to\\ fall\\ back\\ on\\ herself\\ for\\ protection\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(47\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Inasmuch\\,\\ then\\,\\ woman\\ shares\\ equally\\ the\\ joys\\ and\\ sorrows\\ of\\ the\\ time\\ and\\ eternity\\,\\ is\\ it\\ not\\ the\\ height\\ of\\ presumption\\ in\\ man\\ to\\ propose\\ to\\ represent\\ her\\ at\\ the\\ ballot\\ box\\ and\\ the\\ throne\\ of\\ grace\\,\\ to\\ do\\ her\\ voting\\ in\\ the\\ state\\,\\ her\\ praying\\ in\\ the\\ church\\,\\ and\\ to\\ assume\\ the\\ position\\ of\\ high\\ priest\\ at\\ the\\ family\\ altar\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(48\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;In\\ talking\\ of\\ education\\,\\ how\\ shallow\\ the\\ argument\\ that\\ each\\ class\\ must\\ be\\ educated\\ for\\ the\\ special\\ work\\ it\\ proposes\\ to\\ do\\,\\ and\\ that\\ all\\ those\\ faculties\\ not\\ needed\\ in\\ this\\ special\\ work\\ must\\ lie\\ dormant\\ and\\ utterly\\ whither\\ for\\ want\\ of\\ use\\,\\ when\\,\\ perhaps\\,\\ these\\ will\\ be\\ the\\ very\\ faculties\\ needed\\ in\\ life\\&rsquo\\;s\\ greatest\\ emergencies\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(49\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ Bible\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\1898\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Shows\\ how\\ current\\ story\\ of\\ Bible\\ places\\ woman\\ as\\ bringing\\ sin\\ and\\ living\\ in\\ dependent\\ bondage\\ to\\ husband\\,\\ challenges\\ why\\ Bible\\ hasn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ been\\ reformed\\ or\\ rewritten\\ as\\ laws\\ have\\,\\ explains\\ problematic\\ of\\ Mary\\ and\\ divine\\ birth\\ for\\ women\\,\\ and\\ questions\\ Jesus\\ as\\ God\\-like\\ and\\ champions\\ him\\ if\\ a\\ real\\ character\\ that\\ espouses\\ ideals\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ followed\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Why\\ is\\ it\\ more\\ ridiculous\\ for\\ women\\ to\\ protest\\ against\\ her\\ present\\ status\\ in\\ the\\ Old\\ and\\ New\\ Testament\\,\\ in\\ the\\ ordinances\\ of\\ discipline\\ of\\ the\\ church\\,\\ than\\ in\\ the\\ statutes\\ of\\ the\\ constitution\\ of\\ the\\ state\\?\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Come\\,\\ come\\,\\ my\\ conservative\\ friend\\,\\ wipe\\ the\\ dew\\ off\\ your\\ spectacles\\,\\ and\\ see\\ that\\ the\\ world\\ is\\ moving\\.\\ Whatever\\ your\\ views\\ may\\ be\\ as\\ to\\ the\\ importance\\ of\\ the\\ proposed\\ work\\,\\ your\\ political\\ and\\ social\\ degradation\\ are\\ but\\ an\\ outgrowth\\ of\\ your\\ status\\ in\\ the\\ Bible\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\)\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Let\\ us\\ remember\\ that\\ all\\ reforms\\ are\\ interdependent\\,\\ and\\ that\\ whatever\\ is\\ done\\ to\\ establish\\ one\\ principle\\ on\\ a\\ solid\\ basis\\,\\ strengthens\\ all\\.\\ Reformers\\ who\\ are\\ always\\ compromising\\,\\ have\\ not\\ yet\\ grasped\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ truth\\ is\\ the\\ only\\ safe\\ ground\\ to\\ stand\\ upon\\.\\ The\\ object\\ of\\ an\\ individual\\ life\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ carry\\ one\\ fragmentary\\ measure\\ in\\ human\\ progress\\,\\ but\\ to\\ utter\\ the\\ highest\\ truth\\ clearly\\ seen\\ in\\ all\\ directions\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ to\\ round\\ out\\ and\\ perfect\\ a\\ well\\ balanced\\ character\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(51\\-2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Charlotte\\ Perkins\\ Gilman\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ CONCEPTS\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;women\\ once\\ forced\\ into\\ relations\\ of\\ dependency\\ by\\ men\\&rdquo\\;\\ ceased\\ to\\ function\\ capably\\ for\\ themselves\\ and\\ depend\\ on\\ sex\\ relation\\ for\\ survival\\,\\ which\\ in\\ turn\\ stunts\\ growth\\ of\\ entire\\ human\\ species\\,\\ humans\\&rsquo\\;\\ mental\\ capacity\\ should\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ construct\\ the\\ social\\ order\\ and\\ that\\&rsquo\\;s\\ what\\ differentiates\\ from\\ animals\\,\\ prioritizes\\ work\\ because\\ equates\\ being\\ able\\ to\\ produce\\ as\\ being\\ human\\,\\ woman\\ defined\\ through\\ her\\ husband\\ and\\ only\\ in\\ heredity\\ is\\ woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ place\\ evened\\ out\\ a\\ bit\\ despite\\ her\\ development\\ through\\ expression\\ and\\ interaction\\ with\\ the\\ world\\ being\\ truncated\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Women\\ and\\ Economics\\,\\ 1898\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ phrases\\:\\ sex\\-action\\,\\ sex\\-development\\,\\ sex\\-attraction\\,\\ sex\\-distinction\\,\\ race\\-preservation\\,\\ absolutely\\ stationary\\ female\\,\\ specialization\\,\\ heredity\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;all\\ tendencies\\ of\\ a\\ living\\ organism\\ are\\ progressive\\ in\\ their\\ development\\&hellip\\;Every\\ quality\\ of\\ every\\ creature\\ is\\ relative\\ to\\ its\\ condition\\,\\ and\\ tends\\ to\\ increase\\ or\\ decrease\\ accordingly\\;\\ and\\ each\\ quality\\ tends\\ to\\ increase\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ its\\ use\\,\\ and\\ to\\ decrease\\ in\\ proportion\\ to\\ its\\ disuse\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(90\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ human\\ female\\ was\\ cut\\ off\\ from\\ the\\ direct\\ action\\ of\\ natural\\ selection\\,\\ that\\ mighty\\ force\\ which\\ heretofore\\ had\\ acted\\ on\\ male\\ and\\ female\\ alike\\ with\\ inexorable\\ and\\ beneficial\\ effect\\,\\ developing\\ strength\\,\\ developing\\ skill\\,\\ developing\\ endurance\\,\\ developing\\ courage\\,\\-\\-in\\ a\\ word\\,\\ developing\\ species\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(91\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;woman\\&rsquo\\;s\\ economic\\ profit\\ comes\\ through\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ sex\\-attraction\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(91\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ in\\ the\\ ever\\-growing\\ human\\ impulse\\ to\\ create\\,\\ the\\ power\\ and\\ will\\ to\\ make\\,\\ to\\ do\\,\\ to\\ express\\ one\\&rsquo\\;s\\ spirit\\ in\\ new\\ forms\\,\\-\\-here\\ she\\ has\\ been\\ utterly\\ debarred\\.\\ She\\ might\\ work\\ as\\ she\\ had\\ worked\\ from\\ the\\ beginning\\,\\-\\-at\\ primitive\\ \\[uncompensated\\]\\ labors\\ of\\ the\\ household\\&hellip\\;Her\\ labor\\ has\\ not\\ only\\ been\\ limited\\ in\\ kind\\,\\ but\\ in\\ degree\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(93\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;But\\ to\\ serve\\ each\\ other\\ more\\ and\\ more\\ widely\\;\\ to\\ live\\ only\\ by\\ such\\ service\\;\\ to\\ develop\\ special\\ functions\\,\\ so\\ that\\ we\\ depend\\ for\\ our\\ living\\ on\\ society\\&rsquo\\;s\\ return\\ for\\ services\\ that\\ can\\ be\\ of\\ no\\ direct\\ use\\ to\\ ourselves\\,\\-\\-this\\ is\\ a\\ civilization\\,\\ our\\ human\\ glory\\,\\ our\\ race\\ distinction\\.\\ All\\ this\\ human\\ progress\\ has\\ been\\ accomplished\\ by\\ men\\&hellip\\;Man\\ is\\ the\\ human\\ creature\\.\\ Woman\\ has\\ been\\ checked\\,\\ starved\\,\\ aborted\\ in\\ human\\ growth\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(95\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Yellow\\ Wallpaper\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ 1892\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Short\\ story\\ told\\ from\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\st\\<\\/span\\>\\\\-person\\ perspective\\ about\\ a\\ woman\\ confined\\ to\\ a\\ bedroom\\ by\\ husband\\,\\ John\\,\\ because\\ of\\ her\\ mental\\ illness\\ \\(auto\\-biographical\\ in\\ many\\ ways\\)\\.\\ She\\ develops\\ a\\ fantastical\\ relationship\\ with\\ the\\ yellow\\ wallpaper\\ in\\ the\\ room\\ where\\ she\\ sees\\ it\\ as\\ double\\-layered\\ and\\ trapping\\ a\\ woman\\ in\\ the\\ layer\\ behind\\.\\ Originally\\ read\\ as\\ a\\ horror\\ story\\ and\\ now\\ a\\ critique\\ on\\ the\\ woman\\ separated\\ from\\ society\\ and\\ her\\ soul\\ trapped\\ within\\ \\(writing\\ as\\ an\\ outlet\\ for\\ escape\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Thorstein\\ Veblen\\,\\ The\\ Theory\\ of\\ the\\ Leisure\\ Class\\,\\ 1899\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\KEY\\ CONCEPTS\\:\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ and\\ conspicuous\\ leisure\\,\\ social\\ and\\ evolutionary\\ economics\\,\\ thinks\\ that\\ woman\\ \\(and\\ clergy\\)\\ used\\ as\\ a\\ symbol\\ of\\ conspicuous\\ consumption\\ who\\ can\\ display\\ her\\ leisure\\ and\\ need\\ not\\ to\\ be\\ involved\\ in\\ economic\\ production\\ \\(similar\\ to\\ Gilman\\)\\,\\ futility\\ of\\ life\\ when\\ not\\ involved\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;sphere\\ of\\ usefulness\\&rdquo\\;\\ of\\ production\\,\\ talk\\ about\\ \\&ldquo\\;New\\ Woman\\&rdquo\\;\\ movement\\,\\ discusses\\ role\\ of\\ education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Key\\ phrases\\:\\ invidiuous\\,\\ pecuniary\\,\\ rituals\\ and\\ education\\ \\(higher\\ learning\\)\\,\\ status\\,\\ subservient\\,\\ habit\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ result\\ of\\ this\\ ceremonial\\ exclusion\\ from\\ productive\\ effort\\ of\\ the\\ vulgar\\ sort\\ is\\ to\\ draft\\ a\\ relatively\\ large\\ share\\ of\\ the\\ energies\\ of\\ the\\ modern\\ feminine\\ and\\ priestly\\ classes\\ into\\ the\\ services\\ of\\ other\\ interests\\ than\\ the\\ self\\-regarding\\ one\\&hellip\\;The\\ effect\\ of\\ a\\ consistent\\ inhibition\\ on\\ industrially\\ useful\\ activity\\ in\\ the\\ case\\ of\\ the\\ leisure\\-class\\ women\\ shows\\ itself\\ in\\ a\\ restless\\ assertion\\ of\\ the\\ impulse\\ to\\ workmanship\\ in\\ other\\ directions\\ that\\ that\\ of\\ business\\ activity\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;the\\ new\\-woman\\ movement\\ marks\\ a\\ reversion\\ to\\ a\\ more\\ generic\\ type\\ of\\ human\\ character\\ or\\ to\\ a\\ less\\ differentiated\\ expression\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\.\\ It\\ is\\ a\\ type\\ of\\ human\\ nature\\ which\\ Is\\ to\\ be\\ characterized\\ as\\ proto\\-anthropoid\\,\\ and\\,\\ as\\ regards\\ the\\ substance\\ if\\ not\\ the\\ form\\ of\\ its\\ dominant\\ traits\\,\\ it\\ belongs\\ to\\ a\\ cultural\\ stage\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ class\\ as\\ possibly\\ sub\\-human\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Richard\\ Beck\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\History\\ 1661\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Study\\ Guide\\:\\ Jane\\ Addams\\ and\\ Walter\\ Rauschenbusch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Jane\\ Addams\\,\\ \\&ldquo\\;Twenty\\ Years\\ at\\ Hull\\-House\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Concepts\\:\\ Theory\\ should\\ be\\ subordinate\\ to\\ \\ \\;practice\\.\\ An\\ abstract\\,\\ dogmatic\\,\\ ideological\\ view\\ of\\ social\\ reform\\ will\\ always\\ fail\\.\\ Instead\\,\\ a\\ reformer\\ must\\ be\\ willing\\ to\\ respond\\ to\\ situations\\ on\\ a\\ case\\-by\\-case\\ basis\\ with\\ experimentation\\ and\\ modification\\.\\ This\\ includes\\ both\\ experiments\\ with\\ practice\\ \\(if\\ residents\\ of\\ Hull\\-House\\ want\\ to\\ do\\ military\\ drill\\,\\ let\\ them\\ do\\ military\\ drill\\)\\ as\\ well\\ as\\ ideas\\ \\(Hull\\-House\\ hosted\\ radical\\ political\\ speakers\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\1\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Influence\\ of\\ Lincoln\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ professor\\ at\\ Oxford\\ described\\ Lincoln\\,\\ who\\ Addams\\ considered\\ to\\ be\\ the\\ greatest\\ American\\,\\ as\\ the\\ man\\ \\&ldquo\\;who\\ was\\ content\\ merely\\ to\\ dig\\ the\\ channels\\ through\\ which\\ the\\ moral\\ life\\ of\\ his\\ countrymen\\ might\\ flow\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(26\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\2\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Snare\\ of\\ Preparation\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Addams\\ tours\\ through\\ Europe\\.\\ She\\ sees\\ the\\ wretchedness\\ of\\ London\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;She\\ also\\ comes\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ college\\ women\\ sacrifice\\ too\\ much\\ of\\ their\\ \\&ldquo\\;active\\,\\ emotional\\&rdquo\\;\\ lives\\ to\\ an\\ obsession\\ with\\ intellect\\ and\\ culture\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;She\\ is\\ baptised\\ into\\ a\\ Presbyterian\\ church\\,\\ though\\ she\\ feels\\ few\\ religious\\ convictions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\3\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\First\\ Days\\ at\\ Hull\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Hull\\ House\\ was\\ built\\ in\\ an\\ environment\\ of\\ little\\ to\\ none\\ initiative\\ on\\ the\\ part\\ of\\ government\\ or\\ the\\ public\\ \\(p\\.\\ 64\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Motto\\ of\\ Hull\\ House\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ provide\\ a\\ center\\ for\\ a\\ higher\\ civic\\ and\\ social\\ life\\;\\ to\\ institute\\ and\\ maintain\\ educational\\ and\\ philanthropic\\ enterprises\\,\\ and\\ to\\ investigate\\ and\\ improve\\ the\\ conditions\\ in\\ the\\ industrial\\ districts\\ of\\ Chicago\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 73\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\4\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Subjective\\ Necessity\\ for\\ Social\\ Sentiments\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Both\\ destitute\\ immigrants\\ and\\ over\\-educated\\ young\\ people\\ can\\ make\\ use\\ of\\ Hull\\ House\\ Civilization\\ must\\ advance\\ as\\ a\\ whole\\,\\ not\\ in\\ parts\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\.\\ Immigrants\\ can\\ become\\ less\\ alienated\\ from\\ American\\ civilization\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\.\\ Educated\\ young\\ people\\ can\\ finally\\ do\\ something\\ with\\ their\\ learning\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\5\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Some\\ Early\\ Undertakings\\ at\\ Hull\\ House\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Hull\\-House\\ faced\\ both\\ external\\ and\\ internal\\ challenges\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Seen\\ as\\ insufficiently\\ religious\\ by\\ citizens\\ of\\ Chicago\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Time\\ is\\ needed\\ for\\ the\\ diverse\\ population\\ of\\ Hull\\-House\\ to\\ develop\\ mutual\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\ \\;interests\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\Think\\ practically\\ and\\ experimentally\\,\\ not\\ dogmatically\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\6\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Problems\\ of\\ Poverty\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Women\\ cannot\\ work\\ AND\\ take\\ care\\ of\\ their\\ children\\.\\ They\\ need\\ help\\ in\\ one\\ area\\ or\\ the\\ other\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\7\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\A\\ Decade\\ of\\ Economic\\ Discussion\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\ Chicago\\ reacted\\ to\\ the\\ Haymarket\\ Riot\\ of\\ 1887\\ by\\ holding\\ a\\ series\\ of\\ public\\ discussions\\.\\ Socialists\\ participated\\ enthusiastically\\ in\\ discussions\\ of\\ economics\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Still\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Socialists\\ are\\ frequently\\ too\\ theoretical\\.\\ They\\ want\\ the\\ church\\ abolished\\,\\ but\\ they\\ forget\\ that\\ the\\ churches\\ provide\\ real\\ help\\ to\\ workers\\ and\\ families\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Even\\ though\\ residents\\ of\\ Hull\\ House\\ hosted\\ radical\\ speakers\\,\\ the\\ goal\\ \\ \\;was\\ inquiry\\,\\ NOT\\ revolt\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ \\ \\;sake\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\8\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Pioneer\\ Legislation\\ in\\ Illinois\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Child\\ labor\\ and\\ worker\\ safety\\ laws\\ began\\ to\\ make\\ people\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ connections\\ between\\ their\\ particular\\ hardships\\ and\\ national\\/international\\ campaigns\\ for\\ workers\\&rsquo\\;\\ rights\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\9\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Socialized\\ Education\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Education\\ of\\ workers\\ has\\ two\\ goals\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;a\\)\\ Practical\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;Even\\ a\\ meager\\ knowledge\\ of\\ English\\ may\\ mean\\ an\\ opportunity\\ to\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;work\\ in\\ a\\ factory\\ versus\\ nonemployment\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 286\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;b\\)\\ Ephemeral\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;To\\ \\ \\;feed\\ the\\ mind\\ of\\ the\\ worker\\,\\ to\\ lift\\ it\\ above\\ the\\ monotony\\ of\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;his\\ task\\,\\ and\\ to\\ connect\\ it\\ with\\ the\\ larger\\ world\\ outside\\ of\\ his\\ immediate\\ \\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;surroundings\\,\\ has\\ always\\ been\\ the\\ object\\ of\\ art\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 284\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walter\\ Rauschenbusch\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Important\\ Concepts\\:\\ The\\ goal\\ of\\ social\\ reform\\ is\\ to\\ arouse\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;moral\\ forces\\ latent\\ in\\ Christian\\ society\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ mobilize\\ them\\ \\&ldquo\\;for\\ the\\ progressive\\ regeneration\\ of\\ social\\ life\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 344\\)\\.\\ Progressive\\ reform\\ is\\ important\\,\\ but\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ only\\ effective\\ if\\ it\\ rests\\ on\\ a\\ foundation\\ \\ \\;of\\ Christian\\ ethics\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Industrial\\ economy\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ to\\ enrich\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ many\\ instead\\ of\\ the\\ few\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 345\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;The\\ Church\\ must\\ relinquish\\ control\\ to\\ a\\ certain\\ degree\\ an\\ focus\\ on\\ \\&ldquo\\;inspiring\\ the\\ social\\ movement\\ with\\ religious\\ faith\\ and\\ daring\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 348\\)\\.\\ It\\ cannot\\ hope\\ to\\ use\\ the\\ social\\ movement\\ for\\ its\\ own\\ benefit\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;If\\ the\\ Church\\ is\\ able\\ to\\ allow\\ religion\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ areas\\ of\\ life\\ that\\ are\\ not\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;controlled\\ solely\\ by\\ the\\ Church\\,\\ it\\ will\\ become\\ possible\\ \\&ldquo\\;that\\ all\\ human\\ life\\ can\\ be\\ filled\\ with\\ divine\\ purpose\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 355\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Ministers\\ must\\ also\\ leave\\ the\\ church\\.\\ They\\ must\\ be\\ non\\-partisan\\,\\ and\\ they\\ must\\ actually\\ meet\\ the\\ poor\\ \\(p\\.\\ 362\\-363\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\To\\ What\\ Ends\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ scientific\\ political\\ economy\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ has\\ taught\\ us\\ to\\ approach\\ economic\\ questions\\ from\\ the\\ point\\ of\\ view\\ of\\ goods\\ and\\ not\\ of\\ man\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 371\\)\\.\\ We\\ should\\ focus\\ as\\ much\\ on\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ wealth\\ as\\ we\\ do\\ on\\ the\\ production\\ of\\ wealth\\,\\ because\\ it\\ is\\ in\\ the\\ consumption\\ of\\ wealth\\ that\\ wealth\\ enters\\ into\\ real\\ lives\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\What\\ Methods\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Church\\ cannot\\ be\\ afraid\\ to\\ enter\\ into\\ politics\\.\\ Issues\\ of\\ public\\ morality\\ are\\ at\\ stake\\.\\ A\\ new\\ temperance\\ movement\\ should\\ be\\ undertaken\\ \\(p\\.\\ 376\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;There\\ must\\ be\\ a\\ cooperation\\ of\\ Church\\ and\\ politics\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ machinery\\ of\\ Church\\ and\\ State\\ must\\ be\\ kept\\ separate\\,\\ but\\ the\\ output\\ of\\ each\\ must\\ mingle\\ with\\ the\\ other\\ to\\ make\\ social\\ life\\ increasingly\\ wholesome\\ and\\ normal\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 380\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ndash\\;Communism\\ is\\ becoming\\ more\\ important\\ in\\ various\\ forms\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Natural\\ resources\\,\\ like\\ coal\\,\\ are\\ gifts\\ from\\ God\\,\\ and\\ thus\\ belong\\ to\\ the\\ people\\,\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;not\\ to\\ a\\ wealthy\\ industrialist\\ \\(p\\.\\ 386\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;Family\\,\\ the\\ most\\ important\\ societal\\ unit\\,\\ is\\ run\\ communistically\\.\\ Schools\\ are\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;run\\ communistically\\ as\\ well\\.\\ So\\ are\\ churches\\ \\(p\\.\\ 390\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\&ldquo\\;Individualism\\ is\\ coming\\ to\\ be\\ an\\ inadequate\\ and\\ antiquated\\ form\\ of\\ social\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;organization\\ which\\ must\\ give\\ place\\ to\\ a\\ higher\\ form\\ of\\ communistic\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;organization\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(p\\.\\ 397\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\&ndash\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\\\&ldquo\\;Socialism\\ is\\ the\\ ultimate\\ and\\ logical\\ outcome\\ of\\ the\\ labor\\ movement\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\(p\\.\\ 408\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;On\\ a\\ Certain\\ Blindness\\ in\\ Human\\ Beings\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ one\\ of\\ two\\ lectures\\ that\\ we\\ read\\ for\\ class\\ that\\ came\\ from\\ a\\ lecture\\ series\\ James\\ gave\\ at\\ Radcliffe\\ called\\ \\&ldquo\\;Talks\\ for\\ Teachers\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ You\\&rsquo\\;ll\\ notice\\ the\\ diction\\ to\\ be\\ a\\ little\\ less\\ scholarly\\ than\\ that\\ found\\ in\\ his\\ other\\ works\\,\\ although\\ not\\ drastically\\ so\\.\\ In\\ these\\ two\\ talks\\,\\ James\\ argues\\ that\\ since\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ completely\\ understand\\ what\\ goes\\ on\\ in\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ head\\,\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ completely\\ understand\\ that\\ person\\.\\ Due\\ to\\ this\\ inability\\ to\\ communicate\\,\\ James\\ argues\\ for\\ understanding\\&mdash\\;meaning\\ we\\ should\\ try\\ our\\ best\\ to\\ understand\\ the\\ circumstances\\ from\\ which\\ someone\\ else\\ comes\\&mdash\\;and\\ also\\ \\&ldquo\\;hands\\ off\\&rdquo\\;\\&mdash\\;meaning\\ that\\ since\\ we\\ can\\ never\\ completely\\ get\\ there\\,\\ we\\ should\\ never\\ presume\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ regulate\\ someone\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ beliefs\\ or\\ actions\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Here\\ are\\ some\\ notes\\/quotes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Our\\ judgments\\ concerning\\ the\\ worth\\ of\\ things\\,\\ big\\ or\\ little\\,\\ depend\\ on\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\feelings\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;the\\ things\\ arouse\\ in\\ us\\.\\ Where\\ we\\ judge\\ a\\ thing\\ to\\ be\\ precious\\ in\\ consequence\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\idea\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ frame\\ of\\ it\\,\\ this\\ is\\ only\\ because\\ the\\ idea\\ is\\ itself\\ associated\\ already\\ with\\ a\\ feeling\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Hands\\ off\\:\\ neither\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ truth\\ nor\\ the\\ whole\\ of\\ good\\ is\\ revealed\\ to\\ any\\ single\\ observer\\,\\ although\\ each\\ observer\\ gains\\ a\\ partial\\ superiority\\ of\\ insight\\ from\\ the\\ peculiar\\ position\\ in\\ which\\ he\\ stands\\&hellip\\;it\\ is\\ enough\\ to\\ ask\\ of\\ each\\ of\\ us\\ that\\ he\\ should\\ be\\ faithful\\ to\\ his\\ own\\ opportunities\\ and\\ make\\ the\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ own\\ blessings\\ without\\ presuming\\ to\\ regulate\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ the\\ vast\\ field\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ Makes\\ a\\ Life\\ Significant\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ the\\ second\\ in\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;Talks\\ for\\ Teachers\\&rdquo\\;\\ series\\.\\ See\\ above\\ for\\ more\\ info\\.\\ Quotes\\/notes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\The\\ first\\ thing\\ to\\ learn\\ in\\ intercourse\\ with\\ others\\ is\\ non\\-interference\\ with\\ their\\ own\\ peculiar\\ ways\\ of\\ being\\ happy\\,\\ provided\\ those\\ ways\\ do\\ not\\ assume\\ to\\ interfere\\ by\\ violence\\ with\\ ours\\.\\ No\\ one\\ has\\ insight\\ into\\ all\\ the\\ ideals\\.\\ NO\\ one\\ should\\ presume\\ to\\ judge\\ them\\ off\\-hand\\.\\ The\\ pretension\\ to\\ dogmatize\\ about\\ them\\ in\\ each\\ other\\ is\\ the\\ root\\ of\\ most\\ human\\ injustices\\ and\\ cruelties\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Instinctively\\,\\ we\\ make\\ a\\ combination\\ pf\\ two\\ things\\ in\\ judging\\ the\\ total\\ significance\\ of\\ a\\ human\\ being\\.\\ We\\ feel\\ it\\ to\\ be\\ some\\ sort\\ of\\ a\\ product\\ \\(if\\ such\\ a\\ product\\ only\\ could\\ be\\ calculated\\)\\ of\\ his\\ inner\\ virtue\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;his\\ outer\\ place\\,\\-\\-neither\\ singly\\ taken\\,\\ but\\ both\\ conjoined\\.\\ If\\ the\\ outer\\ differences\\ had\\ no\\ meaning\\ for\\ life\\,\\ why\\ indeed\\ should\\ all\\ this\\ immense\\ variety\\ of\\ them\\ exist\\.\\ They\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\must\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;be\\ significant\\ elements\\ of\\ this\\ world\\ as\\ well\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\And\\ now\\ we\\ are\\ led\\ to\\ say\\ that\\ such\\ inner\\ meaning\\ can\\ be\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\complete\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\and\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\valid\\ for\\ us\\ also\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;only\\ when\\ the\\ inner\\ joy\\,\\ courage\\,\\ and\\ endurance\\ are\\ joined\\ with\\ an\\ ideal\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ ideals\\ taken\\ by\\ themselves\\ give\\ no\\ reality\\,\\ the\\ virtues\\ by\\ themselves\\ no\\ novelty\\.\\ And\\&hellip\\;the\\ thing\\ of\\ the\\ deepest\\&hellip\\;significance\\ in\\ life\\ does\\ seem\\ to\\ be\\ its\\ character\\ of\\ progress\\,\\ or\\ that\\ strange\\ union\\ of\\ reality\\ with\\ ideal\\ novelty\\ which\\ it\\ continues\\ from\\ one\\ moment\\ to\\ another\\ present\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\So\\ far\\ as\\ this\\ conflict\\ is\\ unhealthy\\ and\\ regrettable\\ \\(labor\\ question\\)\\&hellip\\;the\\ unhealthiness\\ consists\\ solely\\ in\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ one\\ half\\ of\\ our\\ fellow\\-countrymen\\ remain\\ entirely\\ blind\\ to\\ the\\ internal\\ significance\\ of\\ the\\ lives\\ of\\ the\\ other\\ half\\&hellip\\;Each\\,\\ in\\ short\\,\\ ignores\\ the\\ fact\\ that\\ happiness\\ and\\ unhappiness\\ and\\ significance\\ are\\ a\\ vital\\ mystery\\;\\ each\\ pins\\ them\\ absolutely\\ on\\ some\\ ridiculous\\ feature\\ of\\ the\\ external\\ situation\\;\\ and\\ everybody\\ remains\\ outside\\ of\\ everybody\\ else\\&rsquo\\;s\\ sight\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\But\\ with\\ each\\ new\\ ideal\\ that\\ comes\\ into\\ life\\,\\ the\\ chance\\ for\\ a\\ life\\ based\\ on\\ some\\ old\\ ideal\\ will\\ vanish\\;\\ and\\ he\\ would\\ needs\\ be\\ a\\ presumptuous\\ calculater\\ who\\ should\\ with\\ confidence\\ say\\ that\\ the\\ total\\ sum\\ of\\ significances\\ is\\ positively\\ and\\ absolutely\\ greater\\ at\\ any\\ one\\ epoch\\ than\\ at\\ any\\ other\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Moral\\ Philosopher\\ and\\ the\\ Moral\\ Life\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ is\\ Kloppenberg\\&rsquo\\;s\\ favorite\\ essay\\ by\\ James\\ and\\ he\\ quoted\\ twice\\ from\\ it\\ for\\ the\\ final\\ for\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ World\\ of\\ William\\ James\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ I\\&rsquo\\;m\\ just\\ going\\ to\\ write\\ the\\ passages\\ he\\ quoted\\ below\\,\\ but\\ it\\ would\\ probably\\ be\\ good\\ to\\ review\\ this\\ one\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\No\\ such\\ thing\\ possible\\ as\\ an\\ ethical\\ philosophy\\ dogmatically\\ made\\ up\\ in\\ advance\\.\\.\\.in\\ other\\ words\\,\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ no\\ final\\ truth\\ in\\ ethics\\ any\\ more\\ than\\ in\\ physics\\,\\ until\\ the\\ last\\ man\\ has\\ had\\ his\\ experience\\ and\\ said\\ his\\ say\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Multiply\\ the\\ thinkers\\ into\\ a\\ pluralism\\,\\ and\\ we\\ find\\ realized\\ for\\ us\\ in\\ the\\ ethical\\ sphere\\ something\\ like\\ that\\ world\\ which\\ the\\ antique\\ skeptics\\ conceived\\ of\\,\\-\\-in\\ which\\ individual\\ minds\\ are\\ the\\ measure\\ of\\ all\\ things\\,\\ and\\ in\\ which\\ no\\ one\\ \\&lsquo\\;objective\\&rsquo\\;\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ only\\ a\\ multitude\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;subjective\\&rsquo\\;\\ opinions\\,\\ can\\ be\\ found\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Since\\ everything\\ which\\ is\\ demanded\\ is\\ demanded\\ is\\ by\\ that\\ fact\\ a\\ good\\,\\ must\\ not\\ the\\ guiding\\ principle\\ for\\ ethical\\ philosophy\\ be\\ simply\\ to\\ satisfy\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\as\\ many\\ demands\\ as\\ we\\ can\\?\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;That\\ act\\ must\\ be\\ the\\ best\\ act\\ which\\ makes\\ for\\ the\\ best\\ whole\\,\\ in\\ the\\ sense\\ of\\ awakening\\ the\\ least\\ sum\\ of\\ dissatisfactions\\&hellip\\;Invent\\ some\\ manner\\ of\\ realizing\\ year\\ own\\ ideals\\ which\\ will\\ also\\ satisfy\\ the\\ alien\\ demands\\,\\-\\-that\\ and\\ that\\ only\\ is\\ the\\ path\\ of\\ peace\\!\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ presumption\\ in\\ cases\\ of\\ conflict\\ must\\ always\\ be\\ in\\ favor\\ of\\ the\\ conventionally\\ recognized\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\W\\ must\\ conclude\\ that\\ no\\ philosophy\\ of\\ ethics\\ is\\ possible\\ in\\ the\\ old\\-fashionend\\ absolute\\ sense\\ of\\ the\\ term\\.\\ Everywhere\\ the\\ ethical\\ philosopher\\ must\\ wait\\ on\\ facts\\&hellip\\;the\\ highest\\ ethical\\ life\\ consists\\ at\\ all\\ times\\ in\\ the\\ breaking\\ of\\ rules\\ which\\ have\\ grown\\ too\\ narrow\\ for\\ the\\ actual\\ case\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Pragmatism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 2\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;What\\ difference\\ would\\ it\\ practically\\ make\\ to\\ any\\ one\\ if\\ this\\ notion\\ rather\\ than\\ that\\ notion\\ were\\ true\\?\\.\\.\\.Whenever\\ a\\ dispute\\ is\\ serious\\,\\ we\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ able\\ to\\ show\\ some\\ practical\\ difference\\ that\\ must\\ follow\\ from\\ one\\ side\\ or\\ the\\ other\\&rsquo\\;s\\ being\\ right\\.\\.\\.The\\ whole\\ function\\ of\\ philosophy\\ ought\\ to\\ be\\ to\\ find\\ out\\ what\\ definite\\ difference\\ it\\ will\\ make\\ to\\ you\\ and\\ me\\,\\ at\\ definite\\ instants\\ of\\ our\\ life\\,\\ if\\ this\\ world\\ formula\\ or\\ that\\ world\\ formula\\ be\\ the\\ true\\ one\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(think\\ squirrel\\/tree\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ most\\ violent\\ revolutions\\ in\\ an\\ individual\\&rsquo\\;s\\ belief\\ leave\\ most\\ of\\ his\\ old\\ order\\ standings\\&hellip\\;it\\ marries\\ old\\ opinion\\ to\\ new\\ fact\\ so\\ as\\ ever\\ to\\ show\\ a\\ minimum\\ of\\ jolt\\,\\ a\\ maximum\\ of\\ continuity\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\Pragmatism\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ Chapter\\ 6\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Truth\\ happens\\ to\\ an\\ idea\\.\\ It\\ becomes\\ true\\,\\ is\\ made\\ true\\ by\\ events\\.\\ Its\\ verity\\ is\\ in\\ fact\\ an\\ event\\,\\ a\\ process\\:\\ the\\ process\\ namely\\ of\\ its\\ verifying\\ itself\\,\\ its\\ veri\\-fication\\.\\ Its\\ validity\\ is\\ the\\ process\\ of\\ its\\ valid\\-ation\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ \\&lsquo\\;true\\,\\&rsquo\\;\\ to\\ put\\ it\\ very\\ briefly\\,\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ expedient\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ our\\ thinking\\,\\ just\\ as\\ \\&lsquo\\;the\\ right\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ only\\ the\\ expedient\\ in\\ the\\ way\\ of\\ our\\ behaving\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\*\\*Meanwhile\\,\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ live\\ today\\ by\\ what\\ truth\\ we\\ can\\ get\\ today\\ and\\ be\\ ready\\ tomorrow\\ to\\ call\\ it\\ falsehood\\&hellip\\;We\\ live\\ forwards\\ but\\ understand\\ backwards\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Will\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(1897\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;This\\ essay\\ was\\ written\\ early\\ in\\ James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ career\\,\\ almost\\ seven\\ years\\ after\\ he\\ published\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\Principles\\ of\\ Psychology\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ It\\ is\\ to\\ some\\ extent\\ a\\ distilling\\ of\\ his\\ longer\\ attempt\\ to\\ justify\\ religious\\ belief\\ in\\ an\\ age\\ of\\ skepticism\\ that\\ one\\ finds\\ in\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\The\\ Varieties\\ of\\ Religious\\ Experience\\<\\/span\\>\\\\.\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Will\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(which\\ James\\ later\\ would\\ say\\ he\\ wished\\ he\\ had\\ titled\\ the\\ essay\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Right\\ to\\ Believe\\&rdquo\\;\\ instead\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;the\\ will\\&rdquo\\;\\;\\ Dewey\\ makes\\ reference\\ to\\ this\\ later\\ on\\)\\ was\\ James\\&rsquo\\;s\\ attempt\\ to\\ logically\\ explain\\ why\\ human\\ beings\\ hold\\ certain\\ beliefs\\ even\\ though\\ all\\ of\\ the\\ \\&ldquo\\;evidence\\&rdquo\\;\\ surrounding\\ them\\ cannot\\ decisively\\ point\\ them\\ in\\ any\\ direction\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;Here\\ are\\ some\\ notes\\/quotes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\James\\ calls\\ anything\\ that\\ may\\ be\\ proposed\\ to\\ our\\ belief\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;hypothesis\\&rdquo\\;\\ and\\ he\\ argues\\ that\\ there\\ can\\ be\\ live\\ or\\ dead\\ hypotheses\\.\\ A\\ live\\ hypothesis\\ is\\ one\\ that\\ appeals\\ as\\ a\\ real\\ possibility\\ to\\ him\\ to\\ whom\\ it\\&rsquo\\;s\\ proposed\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\The\\ decision\\ between\\ two\\ hypotheses\\ is\\ an\\ option\\.\\ Options\\ may\\ be\\ living\\ or\\ dead\\,\\ forced\\ or\\ avoidable\\,\\ or\\ momentous\\ or\\ trivial\\.\\ An\\ option\\ is\\ genuine\\ only\\ when\\ it\\ is\\ forced\\,\\ living\\ and\\ momentous\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\Live\\ \\=\\ both\\ options\\ must\\ appeal\\ to\\ your\\ belief\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Forced\\ \\=\\ no\\ possibility\\ of\\ not\\ choosing\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\Momentous\\ \\=\\ unique\\ opportunity\\ that\\ cannot\\ be\\ done\\ at\\ any\\ later\\ date\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Does\\ it\\ not\\ seem\\ preposterous\\ on\\ the\\ very\\ face\\ of\\ it\\ to\\ talk\\ of\\ our\\ opinions\\ being\\ modifiable\\ at\\ will\\?\\ Can\\ our\\ will\\ either\\ help\\ or\\ hinder\\ our\\ intellect\\ in\\ its\\ perceptions\\ of\\ truth\\?\\ \\&hellip\\;\\ We\\ can\\ say\\ any\\ of\\ these\\ things\\,\\ but\\ we\\ are\\ absolutely\\ impotent\\ to\\ believe\\ them\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(65\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;Our\\ believe\\ in\\ truth\\ itself\\,\\ for\\ instance\\,\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ truth\\,\\ and\\ that\\ our\\ minds\\ and\\ it\\ are\\ made\\ of\\ reach\\ other\\,\\-\\-what\\ is\\ it\\ but\\ a\\ passionate\\ affirmation\\ of\\ desire\\,\\ in\\ which\\ our\\ social\\ system\\ beacks\\ us\\ up\\?\\ We\\ want\\ to\\ have\\ a\\ truth\\;\\ we\\ want\\ to\\ believe\\ that\\ our\\ experiments\\ and\\ studies\\ and\\ discussions\\ must\\ put\\ us\\ in\\ a\\ continually\\ better\\ and\\ better\\ position\\ towards\\ it\\&hellip\\;but\\ if\\ a\\ pyrrhonistic\\ skeptic\\ asks\\ us\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\how\\ we\\ know\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;all\\ this\\,\\ can\\ our\\ logic\\ find\\ a\\ reply\\?\\ No\\!\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;As\\ a\\ rule\\ we\\ disbelieve\\ all\\ facts\\ and\\ theories\\ for\\ which\\ we\\ have\\ no\\ use\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;The\\ postulate\\ that\\ there\\ is\\ truth\\,\\ and\\ that\\ it\\ is\\ the\\ destiny\\ of\\ our\\ minds\\ to\\ attain\\ it\\,\\ we\\ are\\ deliberately\\ resolving\\ to\\ make\\&hellip\\;But\\ the\\ faith\\ that\\ truth\\ exists\\,\\ and\\ that\\ our\\ minds\\ can\\ find\\ it\\,\\ may\\ be\\ held\\ in\\ two\\ ways\\.\\ We\\ may\\ talk\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\empiricist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;way\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\absolutist\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;way\\ of\\ believing\\ in\\ truth\\.\\ The\\ absolutists\\ in\\ this\\ matter\\ say\\ that\\ we\\ not\\ only\\ can\\ attain\\ to\\ knowing\\ truth\\,\\ but\\ that\\ we\\ can\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\know\\ when\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ have\\ attained\\ to\\ knowing\\ it\\;\\ while\\ the\\ empiricist\\ think\\ think\\ that\\ although\\ we\\ may\\ attain\\ it\\,\\ we\\ cannot\\ infallibly\\ know\\ when\\.\\ To\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\know\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;is\\ one\\ thing\\,\\ and\\ to\\ know\\ for\\ certain\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\that\\<\\/span\\>\\\\ \\;we\\ know\\ is\\ another\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(68\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;but\\ please\\ observe\\,\\ now\\,\\ that\\ when\\ as\\ empiricists\\ we\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ doctrine\\ of\\ objective\\ certitude\\,\\ we\\ do\\ not\\ thereby\\ give\\ up\\ the\\ quest\\ or\\ hop\\ of\\ truth\\ itself\\.\\ We\\ still\\ pin\\ our\\ faith\\ on\\ its\\ existence\\,\\ and\\ still\\ believe\\ that\\ we\\ gain\\ an\\ ever\\ better\\ position\\ towards\\ it\\ by\\ systematically\\ continuing\\ to\\ roll\\ up\\ experience\\ and\\ think\\&hellip\\;it\\ matters\\ not\\ to\\ an\\ empiricist\\ from\\ what\\ quarter\\ an\\ hypothesis\\ may\\ come\\ to\\ him\\:\\ he\\ may\\ have\\ acquired\\ it\\ by\\ fair\\ means\\ or\\ by\\ foul\\;\\ passion\\ may\\ have\\ whispered\\ or\\ accident\\ suggested\\ it\\;\\ but\\ if\\ the\\ total\\ drift\\ of\\ thinking\\ continues\\ to\\ confirm\\ it\\,\\ that\\ is\\ what\\ he\\ means\\ by\\ its\\ being\\ true\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(70\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/li\\>\\<\\/ol\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Lecture\\ 11\\:\\ John\\ Dewey\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Philosophy\\ and\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Philosophy\\,\\ Dewey\\ says\\,\\ has\\ concerned\\ itself\\ with\\ finding\\ some\\ deeper\\ truth\\ than\\ that\\ which\\ is\\ available\\ through\\ empirical\\ methods\\.\\ Philosophy\\&rsquo\\;s\\ claim\\ to\\ uncover\\ the\\ Truth\\ underlies\\ its\\ historical\\ support\\ for\\ conservative\\ social\\ orders\\.\\ Defenders\\ of\\ absolute\\ authority\\ and\\ social\\ hierarchy\\ often\\ appealed\\ to\\ the\\ values\\ and\\ truths\\ supposedly\\ uncovered\\ by\\ philosophy\\ to\\ justify\\ their\\ position\\.\\ However\\,\\ in\\ a\\ democracy\\,\\ philosophy\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\will\\ construe\\ liberty\\ as\\ meaning\\ a\\ universe\\ in\\ which\\ there\\ is\\ real\\ uncertainty\\ and\\ contingency\\,\\ a\\ world\\ which\\ is\\ not\\ all\\ in\\,\\ and\\ never\\ will\\ be\\,\\ a\\ world\\ which\\ in\\ some\\ respect\\ is\\ incomplete\\ and\\ in\\ the\\ making\\,\\ and\\ which\\ in\\ these\\ respects\\ may\\ be\\ made\\ this\\ way\\ or\\ that\\ according\\ as\\ men\\ judge\\,\\ prize\\,\\ love\\ and\\ labor\\.\\ To\\ such\\ a\\ philosophy\\ any\\ notion\\ of\\ a\\ perfect\\ or\\ complete\\ reality\\,\\ finished\\,\\ existing\\ always\\ the\\ same\\ without\\ regard\\ to\\ the\\ vicissitudes\\ of\\ time\\,\\ will\\ be\\ abhorrent\\ \\(207\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\A\\ philosophy\\ guided\\ by\\ the\\ progress\\ of\\ science\\ will\\ always\\ keep\\ the\\ door\\ open\\ for\\ new\\ truths\\.\\ Dewey\\ redefines\\ philosophy\\ as\\ a\\ practice\\ that\\ must\\ be\\ pragmatic\\.\\ It\\ must\\ suggest\\ new\\ responses\\ to\\ new\\ forms\\ of\\ knowledge\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ essay\\ is\\ significant\\ on\\ many\\ fronts\\.\\ It\\ is\\ another\\ articulation\\ of\\ \\&ldquo\\;pragmatism\\,\\&rdquo\\;\\ which\\ we\\ saw\\ earlier\\ in\\ William\\ James\\.\\ Truth\\ is\\ some\\ that\\ is\\ constantly\\ in\\ flux\\.\\ Dewey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ support\\ for\\ philosophical\\ experimentation\\ connects\\ with\\ his\\ idea\\ of\\ experimenting\\ in\\ education\\,\\ of\\ giving\\ full\\ opportunities\\ for\\ the\\ child\\ to\\ develop\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ best\\ way\\ to\\ distinguish\\ a\\ passage\\ from\\ this\\ essay\\ from\\ the\\ rest\\ of\\ Dewey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ essays\\ is\\ to\\ pay\\ attention\\ to\\ any\\ mention\\ of\\ the\\ status\\,\\ purpose\\ or\\ methodology\\ of\\ philosophy\\.\\ Dewey\\ does\\ not\\ explicitly\\ give\\ any\\ hard\\ criterion\\ for\\ evaluating\\ truth\\ \\(whether\\ it\\ \\&ldquo\\;pays\\&rdquo\\;\\ to\\ believe\\ in\\ a\\ certain\\ proposition\\)\\,\\ but\\ he\\ does\\ state\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\[a\\]ll\\ knowledge\\ in\\ short\\ makes\\ a\\ difference\\&rdquo\\;\\,\\ that\\ there\\ are\\ practical\\ effects\\ to\\ believing\\ in\\ certain\\ ideas\\ over\\ others\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ this\\ essay\\,\\ Dewey\\ makes\\ the\\ bold\\ claim\\ that\\ aristocracy\\ and\\ democracy\\ have\\ the\\ same\\ ends\\:\\ the\\ realization\\ of\\ individual\\ personality\\.\\ Dewey\\ debunks\\ the\\ notion\\ that\\ democracy\\ is\\ about\\ unfettered\\ individualism\\;\\ rather\\,\\ it\\ is\\ a\\ \\&ldquo\\;form\\ of\\ moral\\ and\\ spiritual\\ association\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(59\\)\\.\\ The\\ difference\\ democracy\\ and\\ aristocracy\\ \\(and\\ it\\ is\\ an\\ important\\ one\\)\\ is\\ the\\ means\\.\\ Aristocracy\\ wrongly\\ assumes\\ that\\ personality\\ can\\ be\\ imposed\\ from\\ on\\ high\\,\\ that\\ individuals\\ can\\ be\\ given\\ their\\ roles\\.\\ Conversely\\,\\ in\\ democracy\\,\\ each\\ individual\\ is\\ given\\ the\\ freedom\\ to\\ develop\\ his\\ personality\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\&rsquo\\;s\\ idea\\ of\\ democracy\\ is\\ distinct\\ from\\ James\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ Its\\ promise\\ is\\ not\\ an\\ \\&ldquo\\;intellectual\\ republic\\&rdquo\\;\\ where\\ individuals\\ voice\\ their\\ differences\\ in\\ the\\ public\\ sphere\\ while\\ maintaining\\ their\\ irreducible\\ differences\\.\\ Dewey\\ conceives\\ of\\ a\\ more\\ organic\\ relationship\\ between\\ the\\ individual\\ and\\ the\\ polity\\,\\ where\\ a\\ certain\\ melding\\ occurs\\ between\\ the\\ interests\\ of\\ everyone\\.\\ Ward\\ suggested\\ in\\ section\\ that\\ a\\ helpful\\ way\\ of\\ thinking\\ about\\ the\\ difference\\ between\\ the\\ two\\ thinkers\\ is\\ that\\ Dewey\\ is\\ more\\ Hegelian\\ and\\ James\\ is\\ more\\ Kantian\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Intelligence\\ and\\ Morals\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ faults\\ the\\ Greek\\ not\\ for\\ subjecting\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ the\\ state\\,\\ but\\ for\\ subjecting\\ \\ \\;\\&ldquo\\;both\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ individual\\ to\\ an\\ external\\ cosmic\\ order\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(65\\)\\.\\ The\\ idea\\ of\\ a\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\summum\\ bonum\\<\\/span\\>\\\\,\\ or\\ \\&lsquo\\;ultimate\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\,\\ lies\\ at\\ the\\ bottom\\ of\\ a\\ misguided\\ moral\\ philosophy\\.\\ Dewey\\ thinks\\ that\\ the\\ rational\\ sciences\\ can\\ be\\ used\\ to\\ discover\\ what\\ are\\ the\\ uniquely\\ human\\ capacities\\ and\\ desires\\,\\ and\\ to\\ device\\ ways\\ to\\ cultivate\\ and\\ satisfy\\ them\\.\\ While\\ this\\ approach\\ to\\ moral\\ philosophy\\ may\\ take\\ on\\ a\\ utilitarian\\ form\\,\\ Dewey\\ warns\\ against\\ the\\ idea\\ that\\ \\&ldquo\\;\\&lsquo\\;happiness\\&rsquo\\;\\ is\\ any\\ less\\ unique\\ than\\ the\\ individuals\\ who\\ experience\\ it\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(74\\)\\.\\ This\\ approach\\ to\\ morality\\ is\\ that\\ same\\ as\\ his\\ approach\\ to\\ democracy\\,\\ where\\ individual\\ personality\\ is\\ incommensurable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;If\\ the\\ business\\ is\\ not\\ to\\ search\\ for\\ the\\ one\\ separate\\ moral\\ motive\\,\\ it\\ is\\ to\\ converge\\ all\\ the\\ instrumentalities\\ of\\ the\\ social\\ arts\\,\\ of\\ law\\,\\ education\\,\\ economics\\ and\\ political\\ science\\ upon\\ the\\ construction\\ of\\ intelligent\\ methods\\ of\\ improving\\ the\\ common\\ lot\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(74\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ thinks\\ human\\ behavior\\ is\\ best\\ modified\\ by\\ changing\\ the\\ conditions\\ in\\ which\\ they\\ act\\,\\ not\\ dictating\\ new\\ principles\\ for\\ action\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;In\\ the\\ end\\,\\ men\\ do\\ what\\ they\\ can\\ do\\.\\ They\\ refrain\\ from\\ doing\\ what\\ they\\ cannot\\ do\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(74\\)\\.\\ The\\ focus\\ should\\ less\\ be\\ on\\ what\\ is\\ \\&ldquo\\;right\\&rdquo\\;\\ or\\ \\&ldquo\\;wrong\\&rdquo\\;\\ but\\ on\\ how\\ we\\ want\\ people\\ to\\ behave\\,\\ and\\ how\\ we\\ can\\ change\\ the\\ social\\ environment\\ to\\ induce\\ that\\ behavior\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\This\\ essay\\ is\\ another\\ example\\ of\\ the\\ application\\ of\\ pragmatic\\ thought\\,\\ this\\ time\\ to\\ moral\\ philosophy\\ and\\ social\\ policy\\.\\ Dewey\\ agrees\\ with\\ James\\ that\\ sources\\ of\\ good\\ for\\ individuals\\ are\\ pluralistic\\;\\ there\\ is\\ no\\ \\&lsquo\\;ultimate\\ good\\&rsquo\\;\\.\\ Pragmatism\\ allows\\ us\\ to\\ dispense\\ with\\ hard\\ rules\\ and\\ instead\\ judge\\ and\\ bring\\ about\\ different\\ forms\\ of\\ morality\\ by\\ the\\ outcomes\\ we\\ find\\ desirable\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Democratic\\ Conception\\ in\\ Education\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\In\\ spelling\\ out\\ his\\ conception\\ of\\ democratic\\ education\\,\\ he\\ agrees\\ with\\ Plato\\ that\\ education\\ should\\ help\\ train\\ individuals\\ in\\ ways\\ that\\ make\\ them\\ useful\\ to\\ others\\.\\ Education\\ is\\ meant\\ to\\ train\\ our\\ natural\\ aptitudes\\.\\ Yet\\ Dewey\\,\\ once\\ again\\ \\(like\\ he\\ does\\ in\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ Ethics\\ of\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\)\\,\\ faults\\ Plato\\ for\\ assuming\\ that\\ individuals\\ have\\ fixed\\ natures\\ that\\ determine\\ how\\ they\\ should\\ be\\ educated\\.\\ When\\ this\\ is\\ assumed\\,\\ Dewey\\ suggests\\,\\ there\\ is\\ a\\ loss\\ of\\ diversity\\ of\\ human\\ types\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;progress\\ in\\ knowledge\\ has\\ made\\ us\\ aware\\ of\\ the\\ superficiality\\ of\\ Plato\\&rsquo\\;s\\ lumping\\ of\\ individuals\\ and\\ their\\ original\\ powers\\ into\\ a\\ few\\ sharply\\ marked\\-off\\ classes\\;\\ it\\ has\\ taught\\ us\\ that\\ original\\ capacities\\ are\\ indefinitely\\ numerous\\ and\\ variable\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(113\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ also\\ finds\\ wanting\\ the\\ Enlightenment\\ ideal\\ of\\ the\\ infinite\\ perfectibility\\ of\\ the\\ individual\\ according\\ to\\ the\\ ideas\\ of\\ Nature\\.\\ Giving\\ free\\ reign\\ to\\ individual\\ development\\ in\\ Nature\\ was\\ \\&ldquo\\;to\\ negate\\ the\\ very\\ idea\\ of\\ education\\;\\ it\\ was\\ to\\ trust\\ to\\ the\\ accidents\\ of\\ circumstance\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(115\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ Germans\\,\\ in\\ turn\\,\\ sought\\ to\\ educate\\ their\\ citizens\\ so\\ as\\ to\\ ensure\\ a\\ strong\\ state\\.\\ Competent\\,\\ disciplined\\ citizens\\ could\\ defend\\ the\\ state\\.\\ The\\ German\\ \\(i\\.e\\.\\ Hegelian\\)\\ view\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ educational\\ process\\ was\\ taken\\ to\\ be\\ one\\ of\\ disciplinary\\ training\\ rather\\ than\\ personal\\ development\\&hellip\\;\\.The\\ individual\\ in\\ his\\ isolation\\ is\\ nothing\\;\\ only\\ in\\ and\\ through\\ an\\ absorption\\ of\\ the\\ aim\\ and\\ meaning\\ of\\ organized\\ institutions\\ does\\ he\\ attain\\ true\\ personality\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(117\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Dewey\\ sees\\ a\\ tension\\ between\\ a\\ form\\ of\\ education\\ run\\ by\\ the\\ state\\ and\\ the\\ type\\ of\\ open\\,\\ cosmopolitan\\-humanitarian\\ ethos\\ it\\ should\\ try\\ to\\ instill\\ in\\ its\\ citizens\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;The\\ Need\\ of\\ an\\ Industrial\\ Education\\ in\\ an\\ Industrial\\ Democracy\\&rdquo\\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\The\\ quotes\\ speak\\ for\\ themselves\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;such\\ qualities\\ as\\ insistence\\ upon\\ widespread\\ opportunity\\,\\ free\\ exchange\\ of\\ ideas\\ and\\ experiences\\,\\ and\\ extensive\\ realization\\ of\\ the\\ purposes\\ for\\ which\\ hold\\ men\\ together\\,\\ are\\ intellectual\\ and\\ emotional\\ trains\\&hellip\\;\\.And\\ they\\ are\\ traits\\ which\\ do\\ not\\ grow\\ spontaneously\\ on\\ bushes\\.\\ They\\ have\\ to\\ be\\ planted\\ and\\ nurtured\\.\\ They\\ are\\ dependent\\ upon\\ education\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(122\\)\\.\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;To\\ counteract\\ the\\ soulless\\ monotony\\ of\\ machine\\ industry\\,\\ a\\ premium\\ must\\ be\\ put\\ upon\\ initiative\\,\\ intellectual\\ independence\\,\\ and\\ inventiveness\\.\\ Hence\\ schooling\\ must\\ not\\ model\\ itself\\ upon\\ the\\ automatic\\ repetitiousness\\ of\\ machines\\,\\ whether\\ in\\ the\\ name\\ of\\ the\\ false\\ gods\\ of\\ practical\\ skill\\ or\\ of\\ discipline\\.\\ Personal\\ control\\ of\\ power\\,\\ strong\\ discontent\\ with\\ whatever\\ subordinates\\ mental\\ capacity\\ to\\ merely\\ external\\ regulation\\,\\ must\\ be\\ made\\ primary\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(123\\-24\\)\\.\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\Pragmatism\\ and\\ Progressive\\ Reform\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Walter\\ Lippmann\\,\\ Drift\\ and\\ Mastery\\,\\ 1914\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Studied\\ under\\ William\\ James\\ and\\ George\\ Santayana\\ at\\ Harvard\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Lippmann\\&rsquo\\;s\\ influence\\ on\\ Wilson\\,\\ 14\\ Points\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Progressive\\ challenge\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ battle\\ for\\ us\\,\\ in\\ short\\,\\ does\\ not\\ lie\\ against\\ crusted\\ prejudice\\,\\ but\\ against\\ the\\ chaos\\ of\\ a\\ new\\ freedom\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(17\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ Muckraking\\ \\(investigative\\ journalism\\ like\\ that\\ of\\ Lincoln\\ Stephens\\ or\\ Upton\\ Sinclair\\)\\ suggests\\ new\\ attitude\\ in\\ America\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Rise\\ of\\ stocks\\ and\\ trust\\ ownership\\ alters\\ our\\ conception\\ of\\ Private\\ Property\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Stockholding\\ Class\\;\\ \\&ldquo\\;For\\ shareholding\\ in\\ the\\ modern\\ world\\ is\\ not\\ adapted\\ to\\ the\\ exercise\\ of\\ any\\ civilizing\\ passion\\.\\ It\\ is\\ too\\ abstract\\,\\ too\\ scattered\\,\\ too\\ fluctuating\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(48\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Drift\\ signifies\\ an\\ end\\ of\\ certainty\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;We\\ have\\ lost\\ authority\\.\\ We\\ are\\ \\&lsquo\\;emancipated\\&rsquo\\;\\ from\\ an\\ ordered\\ world\\.\\ We\\ drift\\&hellip\\;What\\ nonsense\\ it\\ is\\,\\ then\\,\\ to\\ talk\\ of\\ liberty\\ as\\ if\\ it\\ were\\ a\\ happy\\-go\\-lucky\\ breaking\\ of\\ chains\\.\\ It\\ is\\ with\\ emancipation\\ that\\ real\\ tasks\\ begin\\,\\ and\\ liberty\\ is\\ a\\ searching\\ challenge\\,\\ for\\ it\\ takes\\ away\\ the\\ guardianship\\ of\\ the\\ master\\ and\\ the\\ comfort\\ of\\ the\\ priest\\.\\ The\\ iconoclasts\\ didn\\&rsquo\\;t\\ free\\ us\\.\\ They\\ threw\\ us\\ into\\ the\\ water\\,\\ and\\ now\\ we\\ have\\ to\\ swim\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(111\\-112\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\On\\ James\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ only\\ people\\ who\\ can\\ stomach\\ a\\ pluralistic\\ philosophy\\ are\\ those\\ who\\ in\\ some\\ way\\ or\\ another\\ have\\ grown\\ strong\\ enough\\ to\\ do\\ without\\ an\\ absolute\\ faith\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(115\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;We\\ cannot\\ be\\ absolute\\ pragmatists\\.\\ But\\ we\\ judge\\ by\\ results\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ we\\ can\\,\\ as\\ much\\ as\\ our\\ human\\ limitations\\ allow\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(144\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Mastery\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;this\\ is\\ what\\ mastery\\ means\\:\\ the\\ substitution\\ of\\ conscious\\ intention\\ for\\ unconscious\\ striving\\.\\ Civilization\\,\\ it\\ seems\\ to\\ me\\,\\ is\\ just\\ this\\ constant\\ effort\\ to\\ introduce\\ plan\\ where\\ there\\ has\\ been\\ clash\\,\\ and\\ purpose\\ into\\ the\\ jungles\\ of\\ disordered\\ growth\\.\\ But\\ to\\ shape\\ the\\ world\\ nearer\\ to\\ the\\ heart\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ requires\\ a\\ knowledge\\ of\\ the\\ heart\\&rsquo\\;s\\ desire\\ and\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\ You\\ cannot\\ throw\\ yourself\\ blindly\\ against\\ unknown\\ facts\\ and\\ trust\\ to\\ luck\\ that\\ the\\ result\\ will\\ be\\ satisfactory\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(148\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Science\\ and\\ Democracy\\:\\ \\&ldquo\\;The\\ scientific\\ sprit\\ is\\ the\\ discipline\\ of\\ democracy\\,\\ the\\ escape\\ from\\ drift\\,\\ the\\ outlook\\ of\\ a\\ free\\ man\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(151\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Randolph\\ Bourne\\,\\ Twilight\\ of\\ Idols\\,\\ 1917\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Attacks\\ John\\ Dewey\\ and\\ other\\ pragmatists\\ for\\ their\\ support\\ of\\ World\\ War\\ I\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\Appeals\\ to\\ James\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;Where\\ are\\ the\\ seeds\\ of\\ American\\ promise\\?\\ Man\\ cannot\\ live\\ by\\ politics\\ alone\\,\\ and\\ it\\ is\\ small\\ cheer\\ that\\ our\\ best\\ intellects\\ are\\ caught\\ in\\ the\\ political\\ current\\ and\\ see\\ only\\ the\\ hope\\ that\\ America\\ will\\ find\\ her\\ soul\\ in\\ the\\ remaking\\ of\\ the\\ world\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(AIT\\,\\ 181\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\&ldquo\\;A\\ policy\\ of\\ \\&lsquo\\;win\\ the\\ war\\ first\\&rsquo\\;\\ must\\ be\\,\\ for\\ the\\ radical\\,\\ a\\ policy\\ of\\ intellectual\\ suicide\\.\\&rdquo\\;\\ \\(AIT\\,\\ 184\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 25, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/1661_MIDTERM_STUDY_GUIDE.doc", "desc": "Midterm Study Guide"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-11 22:00:59.122622+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad [librivox].txt", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 854, "html": null, "course_id": 69, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad [librivox]3.txt", "desc": "test"}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-10-11 19:02:58.397072+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Homework 3", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 290, "html": "\\\\\\rfib\\.asm\\<\\/title\\>\\ol\\{margin\\:0\\;padding\\:0\\}\\.c0\\{height\\:11pt\\;direction\\:ltr\\;padding\\-bottom\\:10pt\\}\\.c1\\{max\\-width\\:468pt\\;background\\-color\\:\\#ffffff\\;padding\\:72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\ 72pt\\}\\.title\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:36pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}\\.subtitle\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#666666\\;font\\-style\\:italic\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Georgia\\\"\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}li\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}p\\{color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;margin\\:0\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\}h1\\{padding\\-top\\:24pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:24pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:6pt\\}h2\\{padding\\-top\\:18pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:18pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h3\\{padding\\-top\\:14pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:14pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:4pt\\}h4\\{padding\\-top\\:12pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:12pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h5\\{padding\\-top\\:11pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:11pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}h6\\{padding\\-top\\:10pt\\;line\\-height\\:1\\.15\\;text\\-align\\:left\\;color\\:\\#000000\\;font\\-size\\:10pt\\;font\\-family\\:\\\"Arial\\\"\\;font\\-weight\\:bold\\;padding\\-bottom\\:2pt\\}\\<\\/style\\>\\<\\/head\\>\\\\\\start\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lodd\\ fibcnt\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;jzer\\ done\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;subd\\ CONST1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;stod\\ fibcnt\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lodd\\ ptrData\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ load\\ AC\\ with\\ ptr\\ to\\ data\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;pshi\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ push\\ \\*ptr\\ to\\ stack\\ as\\ arg\\ for\\ fib\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;addd\\ CONST1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;stod\\ ptrData\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;call\\ fib\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ call\\ fib\\(n\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;push\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ push\\ result\\ on\\ stack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lodd\\ ptrRes\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ \\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;popi\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;addd\\ CONST1\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;stod\\ ptrRes\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;jump\\ start\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fibcnt\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;5\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ptrData\\:\\ data\\:\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\ptrRes\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ result\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\data\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;3\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;9\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;18\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;23\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;25\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\result\\:\\ 0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONST1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\CONST0\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;0\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fib\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lodl\\ 1\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ Load\\ func\\ arg\\ into\\ AC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;jzer\\ fib0\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ if\\ AC\\ \\=\\ 0\\ jmp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;subd\\ CONST1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ subtract\\ 1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;jzer\\ fib1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ if\\ AC\\ \\=\\ 0\\ jmp\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;push\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ push\\ arg\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;call\\ fib\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ fib\\(n\\-1\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;push\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ push\\ fib\\(n\\-1\\)\\ result\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lodl\\ 1\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ load\\ arg\\.\\ n\\-1\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;subd\\ CONST1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ sub\\ 1\\.\\ AC\\ \\=\\ n\\-2\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;push\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ push\\ on\\ stack\\ as\\ arg\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;call\\ fib\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ fib\\(n\\-2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;addl\\ 1\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ AC\\ \\=\\ fib\\(n\\-1\\)\\ \\+\\ fib\\(n\\-2\\)\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;insp\\ 3\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ clear\\ stack\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;retn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fib0\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lodd\\ CONST0\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ load\\ 0\\ into\\ AC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;retn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\fib1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;lodd\\ CONST1\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\;\\ load\\ 1\\ into\\ AC\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;retn\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\done\\:\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;halt\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\ \\;\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\\\\\<\\/span\\>\\<\\/p\\>\\<\\/body\\>\\<\\/html\\>", "course_id": 65, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/rfib.asm.txt", "desc": "Fibonacci sequence in assembly.\n\nProgram calculates all 5 sample inputs of fibinacci sequence correctly and stores them. \n\nPlease note that the last result for Fib(25) is 9489 in the output.txt. The real result is 75025. This is intended as there is an overflow of the result. The 16 bit address can only store a value of 65536. If we add the overflow amount of 9489 that is showing in the debugger results, the total is the intended 75025."}, {"uploaded_at": "2012-12-05 21:16:46.333260+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "Syllabus for Sociology 153: Media and the American Mind", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 374, "html": "\\Catalog\\ Number\\:\\ 8867\\\r\\Jason\\ A\\.\\ Kaufman\\\r\\Half\\ course\\ \\(spring\\ term\\)\\.\\ M\\.\\,\\ W\\.\\,\\ \\(F\\.\\)\\,\\ at\\ 1\\.\\.\\ EXAM\\ GROUP\\:\\ 6\\\r\\Explores\\ American\\ society\\ through\\ the\\ lens\\ of\\ its\\ various\\ media\\,\\ including\\ but\\ not\\ restricted\\ to\\ television\\,\\ theatre\\,\\ literature\\,\\ and\\ music\\.\\ Topics\\ include\\ class\\ and\\ cultural\\ consumption\\,\\ the\\ business\\ dynamics\\ of\\ the\\ art\\ world\\,\\ the\\ co\\-optation\\ and\\ subversion\\ of\\ dominant\\ art\\ forms\\,\\ the\\ impact\\ of\\ information\\ networks\\ on\\ social\\ structure\\ and\\ social\\ development\\,\\ and\\ the\\ power\\ of\\ advertising\\ and\\ mass\\ media\\.\\ Designed\\ to\\ be\\ both\\ fun\\ and\\ informative\\.\\ Appropriate\\ for\\ sociology\\ concentrators\\ and\\ non\\-concentrators\\ alike\\.\\\r\\Recent\\ CUE\\ Scores\\ \\(Detailed\\ CUE\\ Results\\)\\:\\\r\\\\ \\ \\ \\ 3\\.8\\ \\(Spring\\ 2006\\-2007\\,\\ Jason\\ Kaufman\\)\\\r\\\\ \\ \\ \\ 3\\.7\\ \\(Fall\\ 2005\\-2006\\,\\ Jason\\ Kaufman\\)\\\r\\\\ \\ \\ \\ 3\\.9\\ \\(Spring\\ 2004\\-2005\\,\\ Jason\\ Kaufman\\)\\\r\\\\ \\ \\ \\ 3\\.47\\ \\(Spring\\ 2002\\-2003\\,\\ Jason\\ Kaufman\\)\\<\\/div\\>", "course_id": 73, "file_path": "", "desc": "Syllabus for Sociology 153: Media and the American Mind"}, {"uploaded_at": "2013-01-09 01:05:15.739643+00:00", "embed_url": null, "name": "new_years_boarding_pass.pdf", "tags": [], "text": null, "id": 855, "html": null, "course_id": 46, "file_path": "/var/www/uploads/new_years_boarding_pass.pdf", "desc": "BOOM BABY"}] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/bin/import_json/run.py b/bin/import_json/run.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b7bb0b --- /dev/null +++ b/bin/import_json/run.py @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python +# -*- coding:utf8 -*- +# Copyright (C) 2012 FinalsClub Foundation +"""Before running add the downloaded docs to this folder: +bin/import_json/downloaded_notes/ + +Run from the django shell with: +import bin.import_json.run +""" + +import json +import os +import shutil +import datetime +import taggit + +from os.path import join, exists, split, isdir + +from django.core.files import File as DjangoFile + +from apps.courses.models import * +from apps.notes.models import * + + +# read json files +with open('bin/import_json/schools.json', 'r') as f: + school_dicts = json.load(f) + +with open('bin/import_json/notes.json', 'r') as f: + note_dicts = json.load(f) + +with open('bin/import_json/courses.json', 'r') as f: + course_dicts = json.load(f) + +print 'Schools found:', len(school_dicts) +print 'Notes found:', len(note_dicts) +print 'Courses found:', len(course_dicts) + + +def fix_file_path(note_dict): + """ + The old file path was an absolute path on the server: + /var/www/uploads/filename.txt + + Look for those files in this folder: + bin/import_json/downloaded_notes + + update the note_dictionary's file_path key with the new spec + """ + path, name = split(note_dict['file_path']) + + # If we have the file, copy it to the new location + new_filename = join('bin/import_json/downloaded_notes', name) + + if exists(new_filename) and name: + note_dict['file_path'] = new_filename + +for note in note_dicts: + fix_file_path(note) + + +# Import from json +print 'updating %i schools' % len(school_dicts) +for school in school_dicts: + s = School(**school) + s.save() + +print 'updating %i courses' % len(course_dicts) +for course in course_dicts: + course['updated_at'] = datetime.datetime.utcnow() + course['created_at'] = datetime.datetime.utcnow() + + # Somc courses have no school_id using arbitrary one for these + if not course['school_id']: + print 'Using arbitrary school_id for course id:', course['id'], '-', course['name'] + course['school_id'] = School.objects.all()[0].id + + c = Course(**course) + c.save() + + +# Import the Notes +print 'updating %i notes' % len(note_dicts) +for note in note_dicts: + + # These keys cannot be pased as keyword arguments + tags = note['tags'] + del note['tags'] + file_path = note['file_path'] + del note['file_path'] + + # replace the string with this value + note['uploaded_at'] = datetime.datetime.utcnow() + + if not note['course_id']: + print 'using arbitrary course id for note_id:', note['id'], '-', note['name'] + note['course_id'] = Course.objects.all()[0].id + + try: + n = Note(**note) + + # double check if the file path exists before trying to open file + if exists(file_path): + with open(file_path) as f: + df = DjangoFile(f) + dir, filename = split(file_path) + print 'copying file', note['id'], ' - ', filename + n.note_file.save(join('imported', filename), df) + + # this is where tags are added + for t in tags: n.tags.add(t) + n.save() + + except (TypeError, ) as error: + print '\nError found in note:', error + print note['name'] + diff --git a/bin/import_json/schools.json b/bin/import_json/schools.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000..703650b --- /dev/null +++ b/bin/import_json/schools.json @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +[{"name": "Massachusetts College of Art and Design", "url": "", "slug": "massachusetts-college-of-art-and-design", "location": null, "facebook_id": 107861392567905, "id": 10}, {"name": "Providence College", "url": "", "slug": "providence-college", "location": null, "facebook_id": 113392035337602, "id": 11}, {"name": "Yale", "url": "", "slug": null, "location": "New Haven, CT", "facebook_id": null, "id": 3}, {"name": "Columbia", "url": "", "slug": null, "location": "New York, NY", "facebook_id": null, "id": 4}, {"name": "MIT", "url": "", "slug": "mit", "location": "Cambridge, Ma", "facebook_id": null, "id": 2}, {"name": "Wentworth Institute of Technology", "url": "", "slug": "wentworth-institute-of-technology", "location": null, "facebook_id": 109552052404730, "id": 15}, {"name": "Northeastern University", "url": "", "slug": "northeastern-university", "location": null, "facebook_id": 105690226130720, "id": 16}, {"name": "Dartmouth College", "url": "", "slug": "dartmouth-college", "location": null, "facebook_id": 108070979213771, "id": 17}, {"name": "Unisul", "url": "", "slug": "unisul", "location": null, "facebook_id": 112327145459550, "id": 18}, {"name": "University of Massachusetts Lowell", "url": "", "slug": "university-of-massachusetts-lowell", "location": null, "facebook_id": 112619552088602, "id": 19}, {"name": "Emerson College", "url": "", "slug": "emerson-college", "location": null, "facebook_id": 109549259062805, "id": 20}, {"name": "Morgan State University", "url": "", "slug": "morgan-state-university", "location": null, "facebook_id": 112383822111231, "id": 22}, {"name": "Harvard College", "url": "", "slug": "harvard", "location": "Cambridge, Ma", "facebook_id": null, "id": 1}, {"name": "Harvard Law School", "url": "http://www.law.harvard.edu/", "slug": "Harvard-Law", "location": "Cambridge, MA", "facebook_id": null, "id": 24}, {"name": "Brown University", "url": "http://www.brown.edu/", "slug": "Brown", "location": "Providence, RI", "facebook_id": null, "id": 23}, {"name": "Boston University", "url": "http://www.bu.edu/", "slug": "boston-university", "location": "Boston, MA", "facebook_id": 20697868961, "id": 14}, {"name": "Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)", "url": "http://www.mit.edu/", "slug": "MIT", "location": "Cambridge, MA", "facebook_id": 126533127390327, "id": 6}, {"name": "Harvard University", "url": "", "slug": "harvard-university", "location": null, "facebook_id": 105930651606, "id": 25}, {"name": "University of Missouri\u2013St. Louis", "url": "", "slug": "university-of-missourist-louis", "location": null, "facebook_id": 107910522571128, "id": 26}, {"name": "Universidad EAFIT", "url": "", "slug": "universidad-eafit", "location": null, "facebook_id": 111787235505000, "id": 27}, {"name": "Lahore University of Management Sciences", "url": "", "slug": "lahore-university-of-management-sciences", "location": null, "facebook_id": 104084079626795, "id": 28}] \ No newline at end of file -- 2.25.1